^^^ ^^^^^^ r>^z^<. ^e-a-
T^.?SJ
c?^ rx:^^-^^
c
■ ' ^' /^'^'zwV
lj)per Canada College
I
^
v¥
il
Digitized by tine Internet Archive
in 2007 witii funding from
IVIicrosoft Corporation
littp://www.arcliive.org/details/elementsofcomparOOIatliuoft
ELEMENTS
COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY
ErIlr'LATHAM, M.A., M.D., F.E.S., Ac,
LA.TC FELLOW OF KlNC's COLLEGE, CAKBEIOGE ; AND LATE PSOIESSOR OF ENGLISH
IS UNIVERSlir COLLEGE, LOSDOS.
LONDON:
WALTON AND MABERLY,
UPPEK GOWER STBEET, AND IVI LANE, PATERNOSTER ROW;
LONGMAN, GKEEN, LONGMAN, EGBERTS, AND GEEEN,
PATERNOSTER ROW.
186-2.
The. RigJU of Trandaiion U Reserved.
HIS IMPERIAL HIGH?rESS
THE PRIXCE LOUIS LUGIEX BOXAPARTE.
E3nyK5T FOB THE ZEAL AS© KFWCIEKCT
WITH WHICH HB HAS COKTKIBUTKD TO OCB KKOWI£II6E OF
BOIfB OP THE XOST IXFOKTAXT 6RASCHE8 OF
COMPAKATITE PHILOLOGY,
AS WKLL AS IS KECOGKITIOS OF MUCH SPECIAL ISrORXATIOX, FRKELY
IXPARTED,
C|e fbHohirag ipagts are fitscriBtb.
Lositox,
June itk, 1862.
PREFACE.
Tbe object of the present work is to lay before the
reader the chief facts and the chief trains of reasoning
in Comparative Philology.
This last tei*m is by no means unexceptionable. It has
the merit, however, of being in general use, and it con-
veys no notions which materially mislead even the most
uncritical. Neither is it, by any means, an easy matter
to supersede it by one which shall be exactly adequate
to the subject. Those which have suggested themselves
to the present writer or to others convey either too
much or too little.
That such a work is wanted is known to every
student. Since the publication of the Mithridates, no
work equally extensive and systematic has appeared :
nor has the Mithridates itself been re-edited with the
proper annotations or additions.
The main mass of facts lies in the details of the lan-
guages themselves. Of these details, the ones which
best suit a general exposition are the actual enu-
meration of the existing forms of speech and the
phenomena connected with their distribution over the
earth's sm-face ; the phenomena of their distribution,
taken by themselves, being of great importance and
interest. In some respects they are ethnological rather
than philological in the strictest sense of the term. They
viii PREFACE.
must, however, be known before even tbe rudiments of
the subject can be studied ; and it is plain that they
must be known in their integrity. Any important
omission would damage the systematic exhibition of
the whole. There is no language which does not illus-
trate some other ; and the least that is required of any
general investigator is that he should know the details
of his subject-matter — not some, but all.
I notice this, because the purely descriptive portion
of the work fills more than six-sevenths of the volume ;
and has the appearance of starving the remainder. A
larger work would have removed this disproportion.
Still, with languages and dialects as numerous as they
are, the preliminary exposition must be accommodated
to the multiplicity of its details. In some cases, no
doubt, space might have been saved. In languages,
however, which are either known from only a single
specimen or are on the verge of extinction I have given
more than I should have done otherwise.
The words which are selected as samples are not
chosen on ci 'priori principles. This means that I have
not assumed that the names of certain parts of the
body, of the sun, moon, &c., are the oldest and most
permanent parts of a language without an approach
to something like a preliminary trial. I have not
assumed beforehand that they are what is sometimes
called words of primary necessity. On the contrary,
I have actually tried by the comparison of allied
languages what words are the most permanent. It is
only, however, where the materials were sufficient that
I could thus pick and choose. In many cases, especially
with the languages of South America, I have been fain
to take what I could find.
I must also add, that the short lists of the present
work are not intended to represent the evidence upon
which the affinities between the languages which they
illustrate is founded. For this they are insufficient. They
PREFACE. ix
are rather meant as simple examples. Still, even as
evidence, they ai'e valid so far as they show likeness.
A few words are enough for this. To predicate difference
a greater number is required. It follows, however,
from the fact of their being the words which are con-
spicuous for their permanence, that, as a general rule,
languages, when taken altogether, are less alike than a
list of selected words makes them.
Failing to find a vocabulary, I have occasionally
given a Paternoster as an illustration ; and here the
couverse is the case. Languages, as a general rule, are
more alike than the comparison of their Paternosters
suggests.
As for the words themselves, I am, for an in-
ordinately large proportion of them, simply under the
guidance of my authorities : indeed, many forms of
speech are known only from a single specimen, often the
contribution of an imperfect investigator. Upon the
whole, however, I have found that they are sufBcient
for the purpose. At any rate, inaccurate specimens
conceal, rather than exaggerate, affinities.
The several groups, or classes, as given in the classifi-
cation of the present volume, so far as they depart from
the ones in general cm-rency, may be divided into three
classes.
1. The first contains those where the minimum
amount of positive evidence is required. Here, the
criticism deals with the real presumptions in favour of
my own view as opposed to those against it. Tliis
means little more than the expression of an opinion
that the current doctrine is, in itself, improbable ; that
the onus prohandi lies with those who assert, rather
than with those who decline to admit, it ; and that, on
the part of those with whom the onus lies, the case
has not been made. It is clear that this is a criticism
of tlie common giounds of assent rather than a matter
of philological fact.
X PREFACE.
2. The second contains those members which have
the probabilities on their side, but which, from want
of data, are susceptible of having their position im-
proved, if not absolutely altered, when our knowledge
increases. The South-American languages especially
belong to this division. There is some evidence in
favour of their being what they are here made ; but
that evidence is sufficient only because it coincides with
the a prioH presumptions.
3. The third class (and this more especially applies
to the speculations on the original extent of the Slavonic
and Lithuanian languages) is not only opposed to
common opinion but has no presumptions in its favour
— except, of course, such as show themselves when the
fact is known, and which are, really, no true presump-
tions at all. It is the intention of the author, if oppor-
tunities permit, to mend the evidence on these points.
The second part, or the part which treats of lan-
guage in general, is short. This arises (as aforesaid)
from the great amount of preliminary detail which
was absolutely necessary. The notice, however, short
as it is, goes at once, to the two main problems, the
origin of inflections and the origin of roots. Of the
ground covered by these questions it only gives a
general view, along with a few suggestions as to the
method by which it is to be explored.
What now follows is the qualification of an expres-
sion which will frequently occur, and one which, without
explanation, may seem to savour of arrogance. I often
allude to what I call the cwrrent opinion ; and I gene-
rally do so to condemn it.
Tiie notice, however, does not mean that all the world
is wrong, and that it is the mission of the present in-
quirer to set it right. Current opinion merely means
the doctrine laid down in partial treatises, popular
works, and other productions, which either fail to give a
sufficiently general view of the subject, or aro taken
PREFACE. XI
from second-hand, or third-hand sources; the doctrine
of laymen, amateurs, and speculators, rather than pro-
fessed philologues, responsible authorities, and cautious
critics. With many of these latter, I unwillingly differ.
Still, wherever I consider myself right, I give every one
else the credit of being so, who, with a first-hand know-
ledge of the subject, has not committed himself to any
of the notions I have objected to.
The same principle is extended to what may be called
discoveries. As a general rule, they belong so tho-
roughly to the domain of common-sense, that, with a
scientific method, they come of themselves, and, so
doing, carry with them but slight claims for bold origin-
ality and the like heroic qualities. Where I am right
in any view not generally received, I am, unless the con-
trary be expressly stated, an independent witness : and,
in claiming this for myself, I award the same merit
(such as it is) to othere. Where the line of inquiry lies
in a right direction, any amount of similar results may
be obtained by independent investigatoi-s ; and that many
good results are actually thus obtained is certain. Philo-
logical papers are spread over such a vast variety of
periodicals, monographs, and different works in different
languages, that the mere search for them is a matter
of time and labour — to which favourable opportunities
must be added. If, then, I pa.ss over many important
observations without special reference to the observer,
I do it without, at all, implying that my own are either
the only or the earliest ones. I often find them in
other writers ; but I have never encouraged the notion
that they were borrowed. A like liberal construction
is what I ask from others. The history of the opinions
connected with any department of knowledge is one
thing ; the investigation of the facts themselves is
anotlier ; and, in proportion as any branch of know-
ledge advances, agreement independent of communica-
tion increases.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTEB. I.
PAGE
Dialects and Languages. — Stages of Languages. — General Distribntion.
— Large, Small, and Medium Areas. — Insular and Continental Distri-
bution.— Obliteration of Intermediate Forms. — Classification by Type
and Definition. — (Jeneral View of Seven Great Divisions. — The Class
Natural 1
CHAPTER II.
Bhot and Burmese Group. — Bhot of Bultistan, Ladak, Tibet Proper, and
Bfitan. — Written and Spoken. — Local Dialects. — Changlo. — Serpa. —
Tak.— Maniak. — Gyarung. — Tochu. — Hor 11
CHAPTER in.
Nepalese and Sikkim Languages. — Gurung and MnrmL — Magar and
Bramhfi. — Chepang. — Hayfi. — Kusunda. — Newar and Pahari. —
Kiranti and Limbu. — Lepclia.-.-Dliimal. — Bodo. — Graro. — Borro. —
Sunwar ........... 19
CHAPTER IV.
Languages of Assam. — Northern Frontier. — Aka, Dofia, and Abor. —
HirL — llishmL — Southern Frontier. — Easia. — Mikir. — Angami. —
Nagas. — Singpho 28
CHAPTER V.
Continuation of the Graro Line. — The Khumia, Old and New Kuki. — The
Continuation of the Naga Line. — Munipur Group. — Koreng, Luhuppa,
Tankhu, Khoibu, &c. — The Karens. — The Burmese Proper . 36
CHAPTER VI.
The Thay, or Siamese, Group. — Its Extent and Direction. — The Siamese
Proper.— The Laos.— The Khamti.— The Ahom.— The Shans.— The
Palaong. — Cultivation of the Siamese Proper 50
xiv CONTENTS.
CHAPTER VII.
PAGE
The Mdn Language of Pegu. — The Kho of Kambojia. — Their original
Continuity , . 56
CHAPTER VIII.
The Andaman Islanders . .58
CHAPTER IX.
Cochin-China, or Annam, and Tonkin 61
CHAPTER X.
China. — Canton, Fokien, and Mandarin Dialects. — Stages. — Are there
any? — Qyami. — Tanguti . 63
CHAPTER XI.
Observations on the preceding Groups. — Brown's Tables. — Affinity be-
tween the Burmese and Tibetan. — Direction of the Chinese. — Nearest
congeners to the Malay. — Indian Affinities of the Mon . . .68
CHAPTER XII.
The Tungtis Class. — Mantshfi and Orotshong. — Orthography of Castren's
Tungfis Grammar 72
CHAPTER XIII.
The Mongol Class. — Mongolian Proper. — Buriat. — Olot. — Aimauk. —
Pelu.— Sok 83
CHAPTER XIV.
The Yeniseians. — Objections to the Name Ostiak. — Castren's Researches.
— Northern Branch. — Inbazk, Denka, and Pumpokolsk Vocabularies of
the Asia PohjfjloUa. — Southern Branch. — The Assan. — Kot. — Castren's
Discovery of a Kot Village. — The Ara Legend. — Kanskoi and Kamas-
sintzi Vocabularies. — The Glosses Kot and Kem. — Speculations as to
the original Extent of the Yeniseian Area . . . . .88
CHAPTER XV.
The Turk Languages. — Import of the Term. — The Uighur. — Tshagatai.
— Uzbek. — Turcoman. — Khirghiz. — Barabinski. — Tshulira. — Teleut.
— Koibal. — Karagas. — Soyony . — Yakut. — Bashk ir. — Kasan. — Nogay.
— ^Meshtsheriak. — Eumuk. — Kuzzilbash. — Cumanian . . .98
CHAPTER XVI.
The Yukahiri 117
CHAPTER XVII.
The Ugrian Class. — Its Importance and Peculiarities. — Gastrin's Re-
tearches. — ^The Samoyed Division 125
CONTENTS. XV
CHAPTER XVin.
FAGK
The Ugrian Class.— The Ostiak, the Vc^, and the Magyar . .138
CHAPTER XIX.
The Volga Fins.— The Mordvin.— The Tsherimis 147
CHAPTER XX.
The Votiak, Permian, and Zirianian 150
CHAPTER XXI.
The Fin Proper. — Division into Tavastrian and Karelian. — The Tver
Dialect.— The Vod.— The Estonian 152
CHAPTER XXII.
The Lap of Norw^ian, Swedish, and Rnssian Lapland . . . 161
CHAPTER XXIII.
The Peninsular Langnages. — Korean. — Japanese and LdchfL — Aino or
Kurilian. — Koriak and Kamskadal 165
CHAPTER XXIV.
(Jeneral Observations on the preceding Languages. — Value of the Class.
— Original Turk, Mantshti, Teniseian, and Ugrian Areas . . .175
CHAPTER XXV.
The Darahi (Denwar) and Kuswar. — The Paksya and Tharu. — The
Kooch 179
CHAPTER XXVI.
The Kol Group.— Its AfiSnities with the M6n 183
CHAPTER XXVIL
The Khond Class. — Khond. — Gadaba and Yerikala. — Savara . . 186
CHAPTER XX^III.
The Ghonds 188
CHAPTER XXIX.
Uraon and Rajamahali 199
CHAPTER XXX.
The Tamul Class. — Telugu or Telinga. — Tamnl Proper. — Malajalim. —
Canarese. — Tulu or Tulava. — Rude Tribes. — Tuda. — Bndugur. —
Irular. — Kohatar 202
CHAPTER XXXI.
The Brahtii 210
xvi CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XXXII.
PAGE
Languages akin to the Hindi. — Its Dialects. — The Punjabi. — The Hindos-
tani. — The Gujerathi.— The Marathi.— The Bengali, &c. — The Uriya . 216
CHAPTER XXXIII.
The Singalese.— The Rodiya. — The Maldivian 232
CHAPTER XXXIV.
The Paropamisan Group. — The Dard Branch. — The Shina. — The Deer and
Tirhai. — ^The Arniya or Kashkari. — The Cohistani or Lughmani and
Pashai.— The Siaposh 236
CHAPTER XXXV.
The Languages of certain migratory Populations of India . . . 245
CHAPTER XXXVI.
The Gipsy 248
CHAPTER XXXVII.
The Kajunah 250
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
The Pushtu, Patau, or Afghan 252
CHAPTER XXXIX.
The Persian. — The Huzvaresh. — The Parsi. — The Modern Persian. — The
Biluch.— The Kurd. —The Buruki 254
CHAPTER XL.
The Iron 264
CHAPTER XLI.
The Armenian 266
CHAPTER XLIL
The Dioscurian Group. — Meaning of the Term. — Georgian Division . 268
CHAPTER XLIII.
The Dioscurian Group. — Lesgian Division 271
CHAPTER XLIV.
The Dioscurian Group. — The Tshetsh Division. — Grammatical Structure
of the Tushi 274
CHAPTER XLV.
The Dioscurian Group.— The Tsherkess, or Circassian, Division . . 279
CONTENTS. xvu
CHAPTER XLVI.
PAGE
The Malay and its more immediate Congeners. — The Tshampa. — Samang.
— Nicobar. — Silong. — Malay of the Malayan Peninsula. — Of Sumatra.
— The Kejang and Lampong. — Of the Malagasi of Madagascar. — Of
the small Islands oflF Sumatra. — From Java to Timor . . . 283
CHAPTER XLYII.
Languages of Borneo, &c., to Ceram ....... 305
CHAPTER XLYIII.
The Languages of the Sulu Archipelago. — Phillipines. — Formosa . . 312
CHAPTER XLIX.
Micronesia. — Tobi. — The Pelew Islands. — The Caroline and lirlarianne (or
Ladrone) Archipelagoes. — The Polynesia ...... 320
CHAPTER L.
The Papua Class. — Guebe, &c. — New Guinea. — New Ireland, &c., to
New Caledonia 329
CHAPTER LI.
The Viti, or Fiji, Group. — Its Relations to the Polynesian and the
Papua 345
CHAPTER LII.
The Australian Group ......... 350
CHAPTER LUX.
Van Dieman's Land, or Tasmania 362
CHAPTER LIV.
Review of the preceding Class.— Its Characteristics, Divisions, and Value.
— The so-called Negritos ........ 372
CHAPTER LV.
Languages of America. — The Eskimo. — The Athabaskan Dialects. — The
Kitunaha. — The Atna. — The Haidah, Chemmesyan, Wakash, and Chi-
nuk ... 384
CHAPTER LVI.
Languages of Oregon and California. — Cayfis, &c. — Lntuami, &c. —
Ehnek. — Weitspek. — Kulanapo. — Copeh. — Pujuni, &c. — Costano, &c.
— Eslen. — Netela. — San Diego, &c. 404
CHAPTER LVII.
Old California 422
h
xviii CONTENTS.
CHAPTER LVIII.
PAOE
Languages of Sonora. — Mexico. — Guatimala. — Honduras. — Nicaragua,
&c 427
CHAPTER LIX.
Sahaptin, Padaca, and Pueblo Languages ...... 439
CHAPTER LX.
Languages between the Athabaskan, the Rocky Mountains, and the At-
lantic.— The Algonkin. — The Sioux. — The Iroquois. — The Catawba,
Woccon, Uche, Natchez, Chetimacha, Adahi, and Attacapa Languages.
— The Pawni, Riccari, and Caddo. — The Languages of Texas . .447
CHAPTER LXI.
Languages of South America. — New Grenada. — The Quichua. — The Ay-
mara. — The Chileno. — The Fuegian 478
CHAPTER LXIL
Languages of the Orinoko, Rio Negro, and Northern Bank of Amazons.
— Yarura, &c. — Baniwa. — Juri. — Maipur. — Carib. — Salivi. —
Warow. — Taruma. — Iquito. — Mayoruna. — Peba. — Ticuna, &c. . . 485
CHAPTER LXIII.
The Moxos, Chiquitos, and Chaco Languages ..... 499
CHAPTER LXIV.
Languages of Brazil. — Guarani. — Other than Guarani. — Botocudo, &c. —
Languages neither Guarani nor Botocudo. — The Timbiras. — The Sa-
buja, &c 507
CHAPTER LXY.
General Remarks on the American Languages ..... 617
CHAPTER LXVI.
The Semitic Languages. — The Phenician and Punic — The Hebrew and
Samaritan. — The Assyrian and Chaldee. — The Syriac. — The ^thiopic
and Amharic. — Gafat. — Arabic. — Hururgi, the Amazig or Berber . 524
CHAPTER LXVn.
The Agau, Agaw, or Agow, and Falasha. — The Gonga Dialects. — The
Kekuafi 542
CHAPTER LXVIIL
The Coptic. — The Bishari. — The Nubian Languages. —The Shilluk,
Denka, &c. — The Mobba and Darrunga. — The Galla Group.— The
Dizzela, Dalla, Shankali or Shangalla 546
CONTENTS. xix
CHAPTER LXIX.
PAGE
The Kaffir Class of Languages .... . . 553
CHAPTER LXX.
The Bonny, Brass Town, Ibo, and Benin Languages. — The Mandingo,
Accra, Krepi, Km, &c. — Remarks on the Mandingo Class. — The Beg-
harmi. — Mandara. — Kanuri. — Hawssa. — Sungai — Kouri. — Yoruba. —
Tapua or Nnfi.— Batta.— Fola, &c.— The Serawulli.— Woloff, &c.—
Hottentot ggy
CHAPTER LXXI.
The Hottentot 593
CHAPTER LXXII.
On the African Languages in General ....... 599
CHAPTER LXXIII.
The Indo- European Languages (so-called).— The Skipitar, Arnaut, or
Albanian ........... 605
CHAPTER LXXIV.
TheSanskrit.—Persepolitan.—Pracrit.— Pali.— Kawi.— Zend . . 608
CHAPTER LXXY.
The Lithuania Division of the Sannatian Class.— The Lett, Lithuanian,
and Prussian ••........, 623
CHAPTER LXXYI.
The Slavonic Division of the Sannatian Class. — The Russian, Servian
and lUyrian. — The Slovak, Tshek, Lnsatian, and Polish.— The Kassub
and Linonian
627
CHAPTER LXXYII.
The Latin and the Languages derived from it.— The Italian. — Spanish.^
Portuguese. — French. — Romance. — Romanyo 632
CHAPTER LXXVni.
The Greek . 651
CHAPTER LXXIX.
The German Class.— The Moes<^thic.— The High and Low (Jerman. —
The Anglo-Saxon and English.— The Frisian.— The Norse, or Scan-
dinavian
658
CHAPTER LXXX.
The Keltic Languages.— British Branch. — Gaelic Branch . . . Q64
b 2
XX CONTENTS.
CHAPTER LXXXI.
PAGK
The Bask, Basque, or Biscayan 676
CHAPTER LXXXII.
General Remarks upon the Indo-European Class 689
PAKT 11.
CHAPTER I.
Language in General. — Stages • 697
CHAPTER II.
On Classes 706
CHAPTER III.
Analytic and Synthetic View of Methods. — Origin of Derivatives and of
Roots. — Of Derived Forms, Voice, &c 713
, CHAPTER IV.
Roots 728
Addenda and Corrigenda • . 753
Index 758
TABULAE VIEW
LANGUAGES AND DIALECTS.
FIRST PRIMARY GROUP.
Tibetan and Burmese.
Tibetan.
Boltistani of Little Tibet — LadakU, Tibetan — written (or older) ; spoken
(or newer) — Butani or Lhopa (divisions chiejly political) — Changlo.
Bhot of Kunawer. Milchan — Theburskud — Sumchfi.
Serpa (details doubtful). Thaksya — Sunwar.
Eastern Bhot (transitional lo Burmese). Takpa — Manyak — Thochn —
Gyami.
Northern Bhot. Hor.
Kepalese.
(a) Gurung — Mnrmi ; (b) Magar — Bramhfi ; (e) Chepang — V&yfi — Ensunda
(Nepalese leading to Northern India) ; (d) Newar — Pahri (do.) ; (e) Eirata —
Limbu (do.); (f) Lepcha (leading to Asam) ; (g) Dhimal — Bodo — Borro —
Garo (leading to Singpho through Jili).
Asam, tL-e'
Dofla, Abor, and Aka. Miri (ore the northern frontier) ; Angami (Xaga, so-
called, on the southern),
Tayung and Mijhu Dialects (languages) of the Mishmi.
(?) Deoria Chutia-
Manipur, d:c.
Easia. Mikir.
Jili (running westward through the Garo) — Singpho — Kakhyen.
Naga Dialects (so-called) minus the Angami (see above) and the Mithan
(Singpho or transitional) — numerous.
Eoreng — Songpu — Lohnppa — North Tankhnl — Ehoibn — ilaring — Eapwi
— Maram — Man ipur.
Kuki and Luncta — Mm — Eami and Kumi — Sak — Shenda — Bhyen.
Rukheng (Arakan) — Burmese Proper.
Sgau — Pwo — Thonng-lhvk.
xxii TABULAR VIEW OP
Siamese.
Ahom — Khamti — Shan— Laos — Siamese Proper — Palaoung.
M6n.
Men of Pegu — Kha— Khong of Kambojia.
Islands.
(?) Andaman.
(?) Camicobar.
Chinese and Cochinchinese.
Anam of CochincMna and Tonkin.
Chinese.
SECOND PEIMAKY GROUP (Turanian).
Tungus — Mongol — Turk.
(?) Yeniseian. 1. Northern Branch of the Sim and the Pit, &c. 2. South-
em Branch — Assan — (extinct) Arini — {extinct) Kot.
(?) Tshuvash.
(?) Yukahiri.
Ugrian.
Samoyed. South-eastern ; Motorian {extinct) — Koibal {do.) — Kamass.
South-western {OstiaJc, improperly so-called) — Northern; Yeniseian — Tawgi
— Yurak.
Ostiak — ^Vogul — Hungarian (Magyar).
Mordvin — Tsherimis — Votiak .
Permian and Zirianian — Karelian — Tavastrian and Quain — Fin — Vod — Es-
tonian— Lief.
Lap.
Peninsula/r.
Korean.
Japanese — L&chH.
Aino of Sagalin — of Kuriles — Kamtshatka.
Gilyak (?) Koriak— Kamtshatkan {leading through the Aleutian to the
Eskimo).
THIRD PRIMARY GROUP.
Indian.
(1.)
Languages teiih the Sanskrit element not sufficiently large to make their otigin
disputed.
Denwar and Darahi— Tharu— Kuswar— Pakhya — Kooch.
IIo (Kol) of Singbhum — Suntal, &c.
LANGUAGES AND DIALECTS. xxiii
Ehond — (Jadaba — Yerukali — Savara (more Kol than the others though
farther South) &c. — leading to Telugu.
Ghond.
Uraon — Bajmahal.
Telinga or Telugu — Tamul — Malayalim — Canarese — Tuda — Bndugar —
Irular — Kohatar — Kodagu or Corgi — Tulava.
Brahui.
Cant languages, and languages of migratory Indian Tribes.
Thug — Bagwan — Taremuki — Korawi — Kamusi — Mang — Nut — Katodi —
Bowri — Guhuri — Gypsy. Khurbat and Daman of Persia ; Ghager, Helebi,
and Nawer of Egypt, &c.
(2.)
WUh a proportion of Sanskrit sufficiently large to maJce their origin dispuied.
Cashmirian — Hindi — Punjabi, &c., and Bengali of Asam — as spoken in
Arakan — Uriya (Udiya)—Gujerati— Catch {leading to Sind) — Sindhi =
Siraiki — Lar — Marathi (Mahratta)— Konkani.
Singalese — Bodiya — Maldire.
Swauti — Shina — Dir — ^Tirhai.
Kashkari (Dard)— Amiya— Kashkari— ChitralL
Kaferistani — Siaposh.
Cohistani — Lughman — Pushai .
( ?) Kajunah.
Persian.
Pushtu Patan, or AfFghan ; eastern and western — Blluch — Persian {general
Zan^iiajre)— dialects of Tajiks out of Persia, Baraki, &c.— Kurd.
(?) Iron.
Dioseurian.
Armenian.
Georgian. Kartulinian— Mingrelian and Imeretian — ^Suanetian— LazistanL
Tushi— Ingiish — Tshetsh.
Kabardinian — Tserkess Proper.
Adige. Abchazi — Tepanta.
Arar— Anzukh— Tsari—Andi, &c.— Dido and Unso— Akush— Kasikumuk
— KuraJi.
FOUKTH PRIMARY GROUP (Oceanic).
Malay, <tc.
Samang of Juru of Kedah.
SQong — Nicobar.
Malay (general language) — Tshamba — Jakun — Atshin — Singkal — ^Pakpafc
Toba and Banjak Batta— Korinchi— Rejang— Lampong (with Javanese ele-
xxiv TABULAR VIEW OP
ments) — Ulu — Lubu (uuhttered) — Nias — Maruwi — Poggi, or Mantawa,
Islands — Enganho (ott%Jw(/)— Sunda — Madura — Sumenap — Javanese — Bali
— Sasak — Bima— Sumbawa — Timbora — Ende — Mangarei (one of the first
langua{/es of the series in which Australian u-ords were observed) — Ombay
(see Mangarei) — Solor — Savu — Roth — Timur — Manatoto — Timorlaut — Kissi
— Baba (Bebber)— Key Doulan— Wokan, &c.
Borneo^— Parts about Labuan — Banjermassin — Kayan of Centre — Northern
districts.
Celebes. Bugis — Mandhar — Macassar — Menadu (dialects numerous) — Gu-
nong-Tellu — Buton— Amboyna — Saparua — Temati — Tidor — Ceram — Halma-
hera or GUolo.
Sulu — Bissayan — Iloco — Cayagan — Tagala — Umiray — Dumagat, &c. —
Bashi.
Formosan = Sideia and Favorlaug.
Micronesia.
Tobi — Pelews — Guaham — Chamor — Dlea — ^Yap — Satawal.
Mille — Tarawan — Fakaafo and Vaitupu.
Polynesia.
Samoan (Navigators' Isle) — Marquesas — Kanaka (Sandwich Isles) — Tonga
— Tahitian — Paumotu — Maori — Easter Island-^ Wahitao — Mayorga — Ticopia
—Cocoa Island — Rotuma.
Papuan.
Guebe — Waigiu — Parts about Port Dorey — Lobo — Utanata — Mairassis —
Triton Bay — Onin — Miriam — Redscar Bay and Dufaure Islands — New Ire-
land and Port Praslin — Bauro and Guadalcanar — Vanikoro — Tanema and
Taneama— MallicoUo — Tanna — Annatom — Erromango— Lifu and Mare —
Baladea — Dauru.
Fiji.
Australian.
Cape York — Massied — Kowrarega and Gudang — Moreton Bay— Sidney
— Muruya — Peel — Bathurst — Mudji — Kamilaroi (Wellington) — Wiradurei —
Lake Macquarie — Witouro — Woddowrong — Koligon — Jhong wborong— Gnu-
rellean — Corio — Coliak — Lake Hindmarsh — Pinegori ne — Dautgart — Lak e
Mundy — Molonglo — Boraiper — Yakkuinban — Aiawong — Parnkalla — Head of
Bight — W. Australia — Port Philip — King George's Sound, &c.
Tasmanian — Eastern, Western, Northern and Southern dialects.
FIFTH PRIMARY GROUP (American).
Aleutian.
Eadiak— Kuskutshewak — Tstu-gatsi —Labrador, Greeulandic — Namollo.
Athahaskan.
Kenay— Kutshin (Loucheux) — Dog-rib, Slave, Beaver, Chepewyan Proper,
Takulli— Tsikanni— SuBsi.
LANGUAGES AND DIALECTS. XXV
Atna — Koltshani — Cgalents.
Tlatskanai — Umkwa — Kwaliokwa.
Naraho — Hfipa — ^Apatsh — Pmalero — Jecorilla.
Oregon.
Kitanaha.
Kolush — Sitkan — Skittegats — Chemmesyan — Faidali — Hailtaa and Hailt-
zuk — Wakash — Chinuk — YTatlala.
Shushwap. Selish — Okanagan — Spokan — Piskwaus — Billechola — Skitsaish
— Skwali — Kowelitsk — Tsihaili — Nsietshawus.
Jakon.
Ealapuya — Willamet (akin to) Molele — Cayus and Wailatpa Qeading to
Sahaptin and Wihinast).
Latuami.
Shasti — {atin to Copeh) Palaik {akin to Wihinart) — Bonak.
California.
Ehnek.
Talewah.
Weitspek — Wishosk and Weiyot.
Copeh — ilag Readings — Upper Sacramento — Cashna — Pnjuni — Secumne —
Tsamak — Talatoi — San Raphael — Tshokoyem (Jukionsme) — Sacramento —
Choweshak — Batemdakai — Yukai — Kulanapo— Khwaklamayu.
Coconoons — Tnlare.
Costano —Santa Clara — Eslen — Roslen — Mntnm — Carmel — Soledad — San
Antonio — San Miguel — San Luis Obispo — Santa Inez — Los Pueblos — Santa
Barbara — San Fernando — Los Angeles.
San Grabriel (Netela). San Juan Capistrano (Kij).
San Luis Rey.
San Di^o, or Di^uho — Cocomaricopas — Yuma — Mohave.
Old California.
Cochimi of San Xavier — San Boigla^ Loretto — Waikur — Ushita? —
Pericu.
SoHora, (L-c.
Pima — Opata— Eudeve — Seres — Hiaqui— Cahita — Tubar— Tarahumara—
Cora.
Otomi — Mahazui.
Mexican.
Huasteca. J[aya — Katchiquel — Quiche or Utlateca — Zutugil or Zacapula—
Atiteca — Chorti — Mam — ^Manche — Popoluca — Tzendal — Lacondona — Ache —
Zapoteca ?
Pirinda — Tarasca.
Totonaca— ilisteca — Mise ?
Lenca. Guajequiro — Opatoro— Intibuca.
Nagranda. Chorotega — Wulwa— Waikna.
xxvi TABULAR VIEW OF
Bavaneric. Bayano.
Cunacuna.
Cholo.
Paduca class.
Wallawalla — Kliketat — Sahaptin — Wihinasht — Shoshoni — Uta — Pa-uta
— Chemuliuevi — Cahuillo — Cumanch.
Algonhin class.
Blackfoot. Arapabo.
Shyenne — Cree — Ojibwa — Nipissing — Old Algonkin — Messisaugi — Ot-
tawa— Knistinaux — Potowattami — Sheshatapush — Skoffi — Montagnards.
Bethuck.
Menomeni — Sack and Fox -Kikkapu — Ilinois — Miami — Wea — Piankeshaw
— Shawni — Micmac — St. John's — Etshemin — Abnaki — Passamaquoddy.
Matik — Massachusetts — Narraganset.
Minsi — Delaware — Lennilenape— Nanticokes — Susquehannok — Mohicans
— Manahok — Powhattan — Pampticough.
Sioux grov/p.
Upsoroka or Crow — Mandan — Assineboin — Yankton — Winehago — Dakota
— Osage — Quappa — Teton— loway — Omahaw — Minetari.
Iroquois growp.
Wyandot — Huron,
Iroquois. Mohawk — Cayuga — Onondago — Seneca — Oneida — Tuscarora —
Nottoway — Hochalaga.
Woccon — Catawba— Cherokee — Chikkasah — Muskogulge — Choctah — Semi-
nole — Uche — Natchez — Chetimacha — Adahi — Attacapa.
Caddo — ^Witshita — Kichai — Hueco — Pawni — Riccaree.
South American.
Muysca or Chibcha — Correguage — Andaqui.
Quichua = Quiteno — Chinchasuya — Cauki — Lamano — Cuzcucano — Calcha-
qui.
Puquina — Yunga — Mochika.
Yamea — Mainas.
Aymara = Lupaca — Pacase — Cancbi — Cana — Colla — CoUagua — Caranca —
Gharca.
Araucanian— Puelche— Fnegian. AlikhtSlip— Tekinica-
On the Orinoco.
Yarura— Betoi — Otomaka.
LANGUAGES AND DIALECTS. xxvu
Chi Rio Negro.
B^Uliwa of Isanna — Barree — Baniwa of the Javita — Baniwa of the Tomo
and Maroa — Uaenambeu or Mauhe — Jui-i— Coretu of Wallace — Coretu of
Balbi.
Maipur.
Maipur — Achagua — Pareni.
Carib.
Wapisiana — Guinau — Maionkong — "Woyawai — 'Wayamera— Macusi — Are -
cuna — Soerikong — Mawakwa — Accaway — Caribisi — Pianoghotto — Tiveri-
ghotto — Atoria and Daurai — Tamanak — Carib — Jaoi — Arawak.
(?)
Salivi — Alacoa and Fiaroa.
Warow.
Tamma.
Jxiripixnna — Iqnito — Xumano ?
Mayoruna — Urarina.
Peba — Yagua — Orej ones.
Ticunas — Zapara — Yamea ?
On the Ucayale.
Fanos.
Head-waters of Beni.
Yttracares.
Between Andes and the Moxos area.
Sapihoconi. Antes.
Moxos.
Movima — Cayuvava — Itonama — Moxos — Canicliana — Chapacura — Paca-
gnara — (North) Itenes {East).
Chiquitos.
Paioconeca {West) — Chiquitos (Central)— Otvike (East) — Zamucn (in direc-
tion of the Chaco).
Chaco.
Mataguaya (in direction of Chiquitos) — Vilela and Lule (in direction of
Aymara) — Mocobi and Toba — Mbaya or Guaycuru — Abiponian.
Brazilian not Guarani.
Bororo. Gnachi — Qoato — Guana (in Matagrosso) . ? — Payagua (in Para-
guay).
On Tocantins.
Garaja — Apinages — Chuntaquiro, or Piro — Cherente and Ghavante — Ca-
raho — Tocantins (in Goyaz) — Timbiras— Ge or Geiko — (in Para and Ma-
ranham) .
Kiriri — Sabuja,
Botocudo — Jupuroca — Mucury — Naknanuk — Maconi — Mongoyoa — Malali —
Maehakali — Patacho — Camacan — Purus — Coroados — Coropos.
xxviii TABULAR VIEW OF LANGUAGES, ETC.
SIXTH PRIMARY GROUP (Afktcan).
Phenician of Phenicia, of Carthage — Samaritan — Hebrew — Aramaic,
Syriac and Chaldee. Gheez — Tigr6 — Amharic — Gafat. Arabic — Hururgi, &c.
Amazig or Berber — Siwah — Tunis — Tripoli — Algiers — Morocco — The Sa-
hara— The Canary Isles (extinct).
Agaw and Falasha.
Gonga — Kaflfa — Woraita — Wolaitsa — Yangaro — Ukuafi.
Memphitic, Sahitic and Bashmuric dialects of the Coptic.
Bishari — Kenzy, N(ib and Dongolawy dialects of the Nubian — Koldagi of
Kordovan. Shabun — Fertit — Shilluk — Denka — Fazoglo or Qamamyl — Tu-
mali and Takeli — Dor — Nyamnam.
Mobba — Darrunga.
Danakil (Afer), Somauli and Galla.
Dizzela — Dalla — Shankali, or Shangalla, of Agaumidr.
Kaffir.
Wanika — Pacomo — Wakambo — Msambara — Msequa — Sohili — Suwael,
or Suwaheli — Makua — Meto — Maravi — Matalan — Kerimane, or Quilimane —
Inhambane dialects — Zulu— Kaffir Proper — Bechuana, Bayeiye {of great Lake)
— Heriro {on Atlantic about Wahoish Bay) — Benguela — Angola and Congo
dialects — Gabdn dialects — Otam {of Old Calahar) and allied dialects.
Bonny — Brass — Ibo — Benin and of Delta of Niger.
Dahomey dialects — Anfue — Widah — Mahi — Acra, or Gha, and Adampi
— Krepee or Kerrapay — Otshi dialects ; Akkim — Akwapim — Akwambu —
Fanti (Fetu) Borom — Amina — Avekvom of Ivory Coast — Kru — Grebo —
Bassa — Dewoi — Sokko — Kissi — Mendi — Vey — Mandingo — Bambarra — Jal-
lunka.
Ligurian, Venetian — Gamic.
SEVENTH PRIMARY GROUP (European).
I. (?)Bask.
II. Indo-European (so-called).
A. Keltic.
B. — 1, Albanian or Skipitar.
2. German.
3. — A. Sarmatian — Sanskrit — Lithuanic— Slavonic.
B.. Latin and Greek, &c.
CHIEF AUTHORITIES
WORKS ALLUDED TO.
Adeluiig — Mitbridates.
Alirens — De Graecse Lingnse Dialectis.
Arago (Jacques Ktienne Victor) — Voyage antoor du Monde.
Baer — Beitrage, &c. , Btissiaii America.
Baibi — Introduction a I'Atlas Ethnologiqne.
Balfour — Transactions of the Asiatic Society of BengaL Languages of
"Wandering Tribes of India.
Barth — Travels in Africa.
Beitrage zur vei^leichenden Sprachforschung auf dem Grebrete der Arischen,
Celtischen, iind Slawischen Sprachen heransg^eben von A. Kuhn und A.
Schleicher, Berlin.
Beke — Transactions of the Philological Society of London. Abyssinian
languages.
Belcher (Sir Edward) — Voyage of the Samarang. Appendix.
Bille (Steen) — Reise urn Jorden i Korvetten Galathee.
Biondelli — Saggio sui Dialetti Gallo-Italiani.
Bleek — De Nominum Generibus Linguarum Africae Australia, Copticae,
Semiticamm aliarumque sexualium. Bonnse, 1851.
Papers in Transactions of the Philological Society of London.
Bonaparte (Prince L. L). — Specimen Lexici Comparativi omnium Lin-
guarum. Europsearum Parabola de Seminatore ex Evangelio Sancti Mathsei in
Ixxii Europaeas Linguas versa. Ganticum Trium Puerorum in eleven Basque
Dialects. Grallician, Sardinian, and other translations of the Gospel, &c.
Brooke (Sir James) — Languages of Borneo.
Brown — ^Transactions of Asiatic Society of Bengal. Languages of Assam,
&c.
Transactions of American Oriental Society. Naga Languages.
XXX CHIEF AUTHORITIES AND
Buchanan — Asiatic Transactions. Languages of Burmese Empire.
Bulletin de la Classe Historico-Philologico de I'Academie Imperial des
Sciences de St. Petersburg.
Burchardt — Travels in Nubia.
Buschman — In Berlin Transactions. Athabaskan, Mexican, Oalifomian,
and Sonera languages.
Caldwell — Grammar of the Dravirian Languages.
Castelnau — Expedition dans les Parties Centrales de rAm^rique du Sud,
&c.
Castrdn — Buriat, Tongus, Samoyed, Yeniseian, Zirianian, Koibal and
Karagas grammars.
Clarke (John) — Specimens of Dialects, short vocabularies, &c., in Africa,
1849.
Crawfurd — Embassy to Ava ; to Siam ; Malay Dictionary ; Indian Archi-
pelago.
C rowther — Yoruba grammar and vocabulary. Edited by Bishop Vidal.
Cunningham — Ladak.
Denham — Narrative of Travels in North Africa. Begharmi and Mandara.
D'Orbigny — L' Homme Americain.
Eyre — Travels in Australia.
Fitzroy (Admiral) — Voyage of the Beagle and Adventure. Appendix by
Darwin.
Forest — Voyage to New Guinea.
Gkibelentz — Die Melanesischen Sprachen. TJeber de Formasanische Sprache,
&c.
Gallatin — In Archaeologia Americana, and Transactions of the American
Ethnological Society.
Gerard — see Lloyd.
Gily — Saggio di Storia Americana, Otomaka, &c.
Guimaraes (J. J. da Silva) — Diccionario da Lingua Geral dos Indies de
Brasil, com di versos vocabularies, Bahia, 1854.
Hahn — Albanesche Studien.
Hale — Philology in the Exploring Expedition of the United States under
Captain Wilkes.
Hodgson (Brian)— Papers in Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
Howse — Transactions of Philological Society of London, Kutani, and other
vocabularies.
Jukes — Voyage of the Fly.
Jiilg — Litteratur de Granmatiken, Lexica und Wdrterversamlongen allers
Spracken der Erde, 1847.
King (Dr. Richard) — Bethuck Vocabulary — MS.
Klaproth — Asia Polyglotta.
Kolle — Bomu Grammar.
Larramendi Diccionario Trilingue del Castellano, Vascuence, y Latina.
1745.
Leach — Vocabularies of the Deer, Tirhai, &c., in the Transactions of the
Afliatic Society of Bengal.
WORKS ALLUDED TO. xxxi
Leake— Travels in the Morea.
Leyden — Asiatic Researches, Indo-Chinese Languages.
Lisiansky — Voyage round the World.
Logan — Papers in Journal of the Indian Archipelago.
Ludwig — The Literature of the American Aboriginal Langnages.
MacgUlivray — Voyage of the Rattlesnake.
lIsTsden — History of Sumatra — Miscellaneous Works.
Michel Franscique — Le Pays Basque, Paris.
Molina — Luis de Neve, Grammatica, Ragionata della Lingua Otomi con un
Yocabulario Spagnuolo, Italiano, Otomi.
Mosbleck — Vocabulaire Oceanien Fran^ais et Fran^ais Oceanien des dia-
lectes x)artes aux Isles Marquises, Sandwich, Grambier, kc
MiiUer, Max — Lectures on the Science of Language. Paper in Transactions
of the British Association for the Advancement of SciencSe.
Newbold — Settlements in the Malayan Peninsula.
Osculati — Explorazione, kc, Zapara.
Petherick — Egypt, Soudan, &c. Nyamnam and Dor.
Pottinger — Travels in Beluchistan.
Baffles (Sir Stamford) — History of Java, Appendix.
Richardson (Dr.) — Expedition in Search of Sir J. Franklin.
Ridley — Transactions of the Philological Society of London. Kamilaroi
Language.
Riis — Elemente des Akwapim Dialects der Odschi Sprache.
Rosen — On the Iron, Lazic, Circassian, and Georgian.
Riippell — Reisen in Kordovan.
Salt — Travels in Abyssinia.
Scherzer (Dr. Earl) — Sprachen der Indianer Central Americas, Wien,
1855.
Schleicher — Handbuch der Lithauischen Sprache.
Schoolcraft — Indian Tribes.
Scouler — Transactions of the Royal Ge<^raphica1 Society. Or^oa and
Hudson's Bay Country Vocabularies, collected by Mr. Tolmie.
Smith (Buckingham)— Grammar of the Heve (Eudeve) language translated
from a Sjtanish MS.
Spinel — Grammatik der Huzvareschen Sprache. Grammatik der Parsi
Sprache.
Squier — Transactions of American Ethnological Society. On Central
America (Spanish Translation, in which alone the vocabularies for the Lenca
dialects are to be found). Monograph of Authors who have written on the
Languages of Central America, &c.
Stewart — Transactions of Asiatic Society of BengaL Naga and other lan-
guages.
Tasmanian Journal of Natural History.
Tattam .Egyptian Grammar — Lexicon .Sgyptiaco-Latinum.
Tolmie — See Scouler.
Turner (Professor) — Report, &c.
xxxii CHIEF AUTHORITIES, ETC.
Tutschek, Lawrence, M.D. — A Grammar of the Galla Language, Munich,
1845.
Wallace — Narrative of Travels on the Amazon.
Williams (Monier) — Sanskrit Grammar.
Wilson (H. H.) — Ariana Antiqua. Papers in Transactions of Asiatic
Society.
Zeitschrift fiir vergleichende Sprachforschung auf dem Gehiete Deutschen,
Griechischen und Lateinischen — Herausgegeben von D. A. Kuhn, Berlin.
EEEATA.
Page 154, line \—for mulwennet read muvreim^t ; for ^igdavas read tiSdavas.
i—for giat read giat ; for Muvvenet read Muw^unet ; for kivi ra6pahiUa read
kiri-ruSppahilla.
&—for mn&dda read niu^da.
ir-for mnassar^ai muossa; for Pairaz^n read Fairaz^ ; for aardana&t rtad
uardonnot.
6 — comma after mnalla.
Page 643, line 22— ^br accuntessin read accuntessin.
23— ^br Enn read K un.
26— /or nascin read nasciu.
28 — for uascin re<id nasciu.
29 — insert comma after s'orienti, and/or ad'adorai read dd'adorai.
Dele (3) The Northern Sardinian.
In Matt. ii. 1, 2, deU (Logudore); substitute comma for fall-point at end of v. 1,
and dele inverted commas in verse 2.
Page 644, line 1— Insert (3) Xortiiem Sardinian.
lu the Tempiese version of Ruth L 1, for Alu read A. In : for giudiei (in two places)
read giadici ; and for cuman daaui read cninandaani.
Matt, ii 1,—for regnana read regnava ; and substitute comma for full-stop at end.
Verse 2 — comma between quellu and ch' ; for nalu read natu ; for Vistula read
vistu la ; and for setter read Stella.
Page 646, insert Galiciau at the head of the version of Matt. n. 1-6.
Matt. ii. 1-6. verse \—for aque read aqui ; comma at end for foil-point
'i—for Xiidios read .vndios ; for su read sua ; for habemos read habemos ; for
cbegada read chegado; and /or adorarlo read adoralo.
^—foT tndas read loUos ; for principes read principes.
5 — -commence Ao cal eles responderon : En Helen, Jfcc.
Page 656, Corsican Greek, verse 12— /br airo atrrous read oirb 8'avTovs.
Page 667, verse \—for traouennou read traouieniiou.
%—for a at end of first line read ar.
Page 668, Terse 3— /or wezen read wezen ; for avalore rtad avalou; for ^vel-se read evel-se ;
for genou read genou.
i—for karantez read kara/itez.
Vannetais verse l—for e-'ma read e-ma.
Z—for que retid gue ; for 6 read e in two places in first line ; in the second,
for Azeet read Azeet ; for quel read gnet ; for vourradiqaeah read vonr-
radigueah ; in the third, /br i read e ; for freh read freh ; for ofc read oe.
^—for o4 read oe ; for carante read curante.
Page 683, Ordinary Biscayan, Na l—for izarrah read izarrak.
14— /or ednrrah read edurrak.
IS — for Gawak read Gauak.
Ochandian, No. \—for obea read obra ; for eisukn read eisnbe.
Marquenese, No. 1— /or aluban read alabaa ; for goztige read gnztjjen.
Page 6&4, 3— /or Junnaren read Jaunaren .
^—for gaiiian read gaflian ; for gustijak read gnztijak.
9r—for guztgak r^aa guztijak.
9- for gustijak read guztijik.
13 and 14— /or lyotza read Izotza.
Guipnacoan Central, No. i—for ganian read gaiiian.
9— /or Jaungoiknaren read Jaungtuknaren.
Guipuscoan (2), No. 5 — for goziok read guziak.
Page 685, Upper Navarre, No. 1— /or guziat read guziak ; for ganetik read gafietik.
^—for oirin read direu.
14— /or etnrrah read ehirrak.
15— /br Gavak read Gaoak ; for egnanak read egtmak.
Labnrtanian, No. \—for gainetek read gHinetik.
Z—for Aingeruiak read Aingeruak.
Z—for Zeruah read Zeruak.
8 — dele and.
9— for iziritu read izpiritu.
10—^ San read Sua.
12— /or Nointzak read Intzak.
14— /or elhurrah read elharrak.
15— /or Ganak read Gauak.
Lower Navarre (Baigorres), No. 1, line \—for zaii. Zari Yanna rtad ixa. Yaona.
'i—for zazi read zazi.
No. &—for Tuzkia read luzkia.
Page 686, Lower Navarre (Baigorres), Na l—for izzarak read izarrak.
13— /or notza read hotza.
14— /or Khairoina read Kharoina.
15 — for Ganak read Gauak.
Lower Navarre (Mixe), No. i—for uu read ur.
9— -for Yinkuain read Yinkuain.
15— /or Ganak read Gauak.
Sooie (French), No. i—for gafiendiren read gafien direu.
6— for argizazia read argizagia.
l—for izarrah read izarrak.
12— /or Thitznk read Ihitzak ; for benedik read benedik*.
13— /or benedik read benedik'.
14 -for eUmrrah read elhiirrak ; for benedik read benedik'.
la— for egumak read egiinak.
Sonle (Spanish), No. 1— /or guziah read guziak.
Page 687, » 4— /or danden nfaidauieo.
12 —for armsoda read ariosada.
Vi—for lyotza read Izotza.
14— /or eiorrah read elorrak.
COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY.
CHAPTER I.
Dialects and Languages. — Stages of Languages. — General Distribution.—
Large, Small, and Medium Areas. — Insular and Continental Distri-
bution.— Obliteration of Intermediate Forms. — Classification by Type
and Definition. — General View of Seren Great DiTisions. — The Class
Natural.
There are slight differences of speech between members
of the same family. Between different villages and
towns they increase, and they become greater still, when
there is a difference of tribe, clan, or nationality. What
this difference consists in varies with the cu'cum-
stance of the case. It may be a difference of words, or
it may be a difference of pronunciation. Let a Scotch-
man, an Irishman, and an Enghshman, utter a series of
sentences, consisting of exactly the same words, and a
difference of some kind or other will be the result — a
difference which some may call a difference of tone,
others, one of accent ; a difference for which the name
may be doubtful ; but, at the same time, a difference
which would make the speeches, if heard at a distance
too great to allow the exact words to be heard, look
like speeches in three different languages.
When differences of this kind reach a certain point,
they constitute dialects ; and when two forms of speech
differ so much as to be mutually unintelligible the result
is two different laTiguages. Such, at least, is the rule in a
B
2 DIALECTS AND LANGUAGES.
rough form. I say in a rough form, because both dialect
and language are vernacular, rather than technical,
terms ; terms, which, in some cases, mean less than in
others ; terms of which no exact definition has been given.
Nor is it recommended. On the contrary, latitude must
be allowed. So much depends upon the nature of the
subject spoken about, and so much on the aptitude of
the individuals speaking, that it is difficult to say when
mutual unintelligibility begins. Two dull men from
different parts of the same country may be puzzled over
an out-of-the-way proposition, where a quick wit, with
a simple question, would make easy work of things.
When we talk of two dialects being either mutually
unintelligible, or the contrary, we should think of this.
The dialect itself is but one point. The speaker gives
us another : the subject under speech the third.
Sooner or later, however, the line of mutual intelligi-
bility is passed, whether for quick ears or slow, whether
for simple questions or complex ones ; and then we have,
under all conditions, a change of language. Many a
language, however, is little more than a dialect, with its
dignity augmented through certain extreme circumstances.
Its alphabet (for instance) may be peculiar. It may
represent a different nationality. Its culture may be
independent. A Dane and a Swede can understand each
other ; but the Danish can no more be called a dialect
of the Swedish, than the Swedish can be called a dialect
of the Danish.
It is safe, however, to consider such forms of speech
as are, in all cases, mutually unintelligible as different
languages ; and it would be scientific to treat each such
language as a philological unit, of which the dialects
and subdialects are the fractions. I say that this would
be scientific ; but I do not say that it would be conve-
nient, or, in all cases, practicable. We cannot, as has
just been stated, call such forms of speech as the Danish
and Swedish dialects : nor yet the Spanish and Portu-
STAGES OF LANGUAGE. 3
guese, nor yet many others. The philological relations
allow, the political relations forbid, us to do so.
The limitation at the other extremity is somewhat
more practicable ; though it is, by no means, without its
complications. That certain forms of speech, which, in
common parlance, are called dialects rather than lan-
guages, are mutually unintelligible, I believe ; though, at
the same time, I am sure that they are rarer than is
supposed. Are these to be called languages ? If so, it
is very possible that there may be more than one lan-
guage in both Italy and Germany ; in both Spain and
France ; possibly in both England and Scotland. How
far this is actually the case is another matter. The
question now under notice is the application of certain
terms to certain cases. It must not be too strict where
the form of speech is new, and the class to "which it
belongs has been but little studied. We may say that
every mutually unintelligible form of speech supplies us
with a fi*esh language ; and, in languages of this kind,
Afiica and the New World abound. They are con-
veniently called languages, because we have never been
in the habit of talking about them as dialects ; in fact,
we have hardly talked about them at all.
If the phenomena of transition create difficulties in
our classification when we look to the geography of our
languages and dialects, still more do they do so when
we take cognizance of them in time. Changes of some
sort are always going on ; and, as long as any language
lasts, such changes affect it — in the course of a single
generation but little, in the course of many genera-
tions, much. The result of this is, that extreme forms
differ notably ; intermediate ones notably or slightly, as
the case may be, i.e. as they approach each other. At
the point of contact, the difference is imperceptible.
The Latin of Ennius, and the Italian of Leopardi, are
the extremes of a loncj chain. So is the English of
the present writer and the Anglo-Saxon of ./Elfric.
b2
4 DISTRIBUTION OF LANGUAGES.
That each gives us a different language is beyond doubt,
but it is also beyond doubt that there lias been no
period in the history of either the Italian or the English
when the speech of the grandson was unintelligible to
the grandfather, and vice versa.
Next to the difference between dialects, languages, and
groups, comes the notice of the general phenomena con-
nected with their distribution over the earth's surface.
They may be studied in any one of the great continents.
They may be studied in the islands of the Indian Ocean
and the Pacific. They repeat themselves. Sometimes
there is a vast area with only a single language cover-
ing it. Sometimes there is a multiplicity of mutually
unintelligible forms of speech within the limits of a
narrow area. We find the illustration of this in poli-
tics. There are large homogeneous kingdoms, like
France. There is a concatenation of petty principalities,
like the German states. Hence, there are areas charac-
terized by uniformity of language spread over a large
surface ; and areas characterized by a multiplicity of
mutually unintelligible forms of speech spread over a
small one. Besides which, there are languages of a
moderate, or medium, area.
Some of these areas are continental, i. e. extend over
vast tracts of continuous land. Sometimes they are
oceanic, or spread over islands, archipelagoes, and chains
of archipelagoes. Between these two there is one im-
portant difference. Languages of a continent touch
each other at their circumferences and may or may not
graduate into each other. Languages of an archipelago
are definitely bounded. We always know where their
circumference is limited. The limit is the sea, and the
sea is mute.
The continental areas lead to another matter for con-
sideration. Why are the small, small ? and the great,
great ?
Whatever may be the extent of the following fact, it
GROUPS. 5
is for certain great districts, an undeniable one. The
present writer may extend it further than others.
Every one, however, recognizes it as a fact of some ex-
tent, greater or less. Particular languages spread and
obliterate intermediate forms, and when these interme-
diate forms are obliterated, languages, originally different,
come in contact. The lines of demarcation then be-
come clear and clean.
At the present moment tliere are three languages
connected with each other indirectly, and that not very
remotely ; but, still, when compared with the inter-
mediate forms, separate, substantive languages — lan-
guages which no one can confound with each other. They
are the French of Paris, the Italian of Florence, the
Castilian of Madrid — three lettered and literary lan-
guages. The provincial forms of all these are both
numerous and well-marked, and at the circumferences of
their several areas they stand in strong contrast to the
central forms. In still stronger contrast do the northern
and southern, the eastern and the w&stern patois stand to
each other, e. g. the Bearnais to the Walloon, the Cala-
brian to the Sardinian, the Murcian to the Gallician —
the Gallician being, though a dialect of Spain, almost as
much Portuguese as Spanish. With differences like
these, it is probable that on the French and Spanish,
and the French and Itahan fi-ontiers there may be
dialects of which the philological position is ambigu-
ous ; dialects which, whilst they gi'aduate towards the
French of Paris in one direction, are intelligible to the
speakers of dialects which graduate in the Castilian and
the Florentine on the other. Such is actually the case.
There is more than one patois of French Savoy which
may pass for a form of the Northern Itahan ; but, on
the other hand, there are many dialects of Northern
Italy which may be called French. Again, there are
forms of the Provengal which are quite as Spanish as
French.
6 CLASSIFICATION.
The line, then, of demarcation is in some cases ob-
scure or faint. Yet the forms of speech are grouped.
This is done by arranging them round some centre, and
calling them French, Italian, or Spanish, as the case
may be. To do this, is to classify according to type.
In this way the dialects of the French, and many other
languages may be classified : indeed, it is to dialects, or
languages that approach them, that the classification by
type best applies. The main languages, however, are
classified by definition, i. e. by such clear and un-
doubted lines of demarcation as separate the English
fi-om the German, the Swedish from the Dutch. Between
these there is no doubtful frontier.
Thougli it cannot be denied that a classification of
languages, according to the extent to which they simply
bear a likeness to each other, is practicable, it may
safely be said that, for all the ordinary classifications, they
go upon likeness, and something more. They go upon
either a real or supposed a^nity. Nor is this difi'er-
ence unimportant. There is, between most languages, a
certain amount of likeness independent of any historical
connection. This means that a certain number of words
in different languages will be, more or less, like each
other, not because two or more tongues have borrowed
and lent, nor yet because one mother-tongue is at the
bottom of the whole, but because the human organism
(by which is meant the mind and the organs of speech
taken together), under certain conditions, acts with a
certain amount of regularity.
Again — languages, between which the relationship or
historical connection may be of the slightest, may re-
semble each other in points of great importance, simply
because they are both in the same stage of growth or
development.
Tiie historical philologue looks upon languages and
dialects, as a genealogist looks upon sons and nephews,
uncles and cousins. If the family likeness coincide
CLASSIFICATION. 7
with any nearness of kimnanship, well and good ; but
it is not necessary that it do so. The grandson may
resemble the grandfather, rather than the father, and first
cousins may be hker each other than brothers and sisters.
If so, he takes the hkeness as he finds it. He takes it
as he finds it ; inasmuch as it is a family tree, rather
than a family pictm-e, with which he deals.
In one important point, however, this comparison
foils. The philologue who looks upon languages from the
historical point of view has, in most cases, to infer the
relationship from the likeness : in this respect resem-
bling the genealogist who is taken, into a picture-gallery
and required to ascertain the degrees of relationship from
the similarity of feature or expression ; assisted in some
respect by the style of painting, the dress of the indivi-
dual, and other adjuncts.
For historical pui-poses the important parts of a lan-
guage are the details ; the details in the way of its
words, glosses, roots, or vocables ; its nouns and verbs ;
its adverbs and pronoims. Where these are common to
two languages, the chances are that the actual relationship
is in proportion to the extent of the community. This
means that 50 per cent, implies a closer afiinity than 40,
40 than 30; and so on. I give these figures chiefly for
the sake of illustration. Of the application of the nu-
merical system in general, I have no great experience —
except (of course) in a rough way. No percentage, how-
ever, is conclusive. To say this, is merely to say that
there are difiierent rates, at which languages alter. If
so — the one which either drops or changes the meaning
of three words per annum will lose its likeness to the
common mother- tongue, sooner than its congener which
drops or changes the same number in a decennium. Per-
centages, then, give presumptions only. When the.se
coincide with the geographical relations they improve.
With these preliminaries, we may lay the map of the
world before us, and mark out seven great areas ; — ^seven
8 CLASSIFICATION.
great areas coinciding with seven long and broad lines of
definite and decided demarcation. Two of these, being
effected by the ocean, rather than by displacement and
obliteration, command less importance than the rest.
They cut-off the New World in the west ; and the islands
of the Indian Ocean and the Pacific in the south. For the
present, then, little need be said about either A merica or
Oeeanica. Neither does Africa require any immediate
notice. Its Peninsular character simplifies its philology.
The other four areas lie in the great central nucleus
of Europe and Asia combined — Europe and Asia — Asia
and Europe. For the purposes of ethnology they form
but a single continent.
The Western division is the one with which we are
most familiar. It is bounded on the south and west by
the Mediterranean, the Atlantic, and the German Ocean ;
on the north, by the line which divides Norway and
Sweden from Lapland and Finland. The Gulf of
Bothnia then follows, dividing Sweden and Finland.
Finland, though deeply indented by both Russia and
Germany, is not left behind us before we reach the
frontier of the Government of Vitepsk, whence our line
is continued along those of Smolensk, Moscow, Vladimir,
Riazan, Orlov, Voronezh, and Don Kosaks (in none
of which any language other than Russian is spoken),
until we reach the sea of Azov ; after which the Black
Sea, tlie Sea of Marmora, and the Greek Archipelago,
lead us to the Mediterranean, with which we started.
This includes Great Britain, France, Spain, Italy, Ger-
many, the valley of the Danube, and Greece — allowance
being made for the Turk and Hungarian, which are
intrusive. All this really means Europe minus Lap-
land, Finland, and those Governments of Russia, in
which Ugrian languages in fragments still continue to
be spoken. The displacements that break up any pos-
sible transitions, which may originally have existed, are
nearly all effected by the encroachment of one language
CLASSIFICATION. 9
— the Russian ; the nearest approach to the original
status being in Yilna ; where the Lithuania come almost
in contact with the Fin.
The great Northern area is, in Russia, conterminous
with the western ; TJgrian being spoken (in fragments,
and on spots hke islands in a Russian Sea) in Curland,
Livonia, Estonia, St. Petei-sburg, Novogorod, Tver, Vo-
logda, Viatka, Nizhni Novogorod, Kazan, Penza, Tam-
bov, Saratov, and Astrakhan. Its southern boundary-
is the northern ridge of Caucasus. Then comes the
Caspian Sea ; then the frontier between the Turks and
the Pei-sians ; then the western and northern boundary
of Tibet ; then the western and northern ones of China.
This gives us the eastern part of European Russia, the
Governments of Caucasus and Orenburg ; Siberia, Mon-
golia, and Mantshuria. The boundary then becomes the
Sea of Okhotsk, and the northern parts of the Pacific up
to Behring's Straits. This means — roughly speaking —
northern Asia, with a large part of Europe.
The chief displacements here have been effected by
the spread of the Turk language ; which on the Ea^t has
done, in the way of the obliteration of possible tran-
sitions, all that has been done by the Russian — all ;
if not more.
The South-eastern area (we unconsciously, but not
inconveniently, adopt the phraseology of the railway
engineer) begins with the northern frontier of China ;
and, as far as China and Tibet are concerned, is conter-
minous with the Northern, until we reach the extremity
of Tibet. It there, (or thereabouts,) crosses the Hima-
layas, so as to include Nepaul, and the Sub-hiraalayan
turais, and, at the head of the Bay of Bengal, takes the
sea as its boundary. After this, the coast (with the ex-
ception of the Malayan Peninsula) leads us round Ava,
Siam, and Cochin-China, to the original stai-ting-point
near Pekin. The displacements here have been effected
by the Chinese and the Tibetan. The area included
10 CLASSIFICATION.
gives Tibet, Nepaul, the Trangangetic Peninsula, Asam,
Siam, Pegu, Cambogia, Cochin-China, and China,
The South-western area contains India, Persia, and
Caucasus ; and the displacing languages here are the
Indian, the Persian, and the Arabian ; the latter -being
treated as African. Whether African or Asiatic, it
covers an enormous area, and has effected corresponding
displacements. The fact of its having done this is all
that is now under notice.
1. The languages of the Western group are all in an
advanced stage of development.
2. The languages of the Northern group are all in a
Tnedium state of development.
3. The languages of the South-eastern group are all
in an early stage of development.
With a view to their stage, the first are called Inflec-
tional, the second Agglutinate, the third Monosyllabic.
There are a few exceptions to this statement. As a
rule, however, it holds good.
To enlarge upon this would be to anticipate. A
notice, however, is by no means superfluous. It helps
to show that the groups are natural. So does the fact
that most of the languages of the first class are what
is called Indo-European ; most of the languages of the
second what is called Turanian.
TIBETAIT, BHOT, AND BURMESE LANGUAGES. 11
CHAPTER II.
Bhot and Burmese Group. — Bhot of Bultistan, Ladak, Tibet Proper, and
Butan. — Written and Spoken. — Local Dialect?. — Changlo. — Serpa. —
Tak. — Maniak . — Gyamng. — Tochu. — Ilor.
Nowhere is it more necessary to remember the difference
between classification by the way of type and glassifica-
tion by the way of definition than it is in the field
upon which we are now entering ; the field upon which
we break ground in regard to the detiiils of our subject.
Roughly speaking, this is that part of Asia which con-
tains Tibet and the Burmese Empire — a large and
irregular tract of country exhibiting great extremes
both in its political and its physical character. What
it is that connects them in the way of Philology we
shall see as we proceed.
If we look on to the predominant languages of this
vast region, and compare only the literary language of
Tibet with the literary language of Ava, nothing is
much easier than to draw clear and definite lines of de-
marcation between them. They are, at least, as diffe-
rent from each other as the Italian of Florence and the
French of Paris. But this is only because the forms
which we compare are extreme ones. The details of
the local dialects give us a very different result. They
give us, instead of neat and clean masses of separable
languages, transitions of various kinds and in numerous
directions ; in other words, they preclude the classifica-
tion by definition, and force us upon classification by
The philological boundaries of Tibet are better
known than the geographical ; in other words, we
know, with the exception of the details of the extreme
12 TIBETAN, BHOT, AND BURMESE LANGUAGES.
east, all the languages with which the Bhot is conter-
minous. At its western extremity it is bounded by the
Cashmirian and the Dard, on the north-west by the
Turk of Chinese Turkestan, on the north-east by the
Mongolian, on the south by the Hindi, the Nepaul forms
of speech, the Dhimal, the Bodo, and the Garo. The
mountains that bound the valley of Asam to the north
are, more or less," Bhot. But of these, more will be said
in the sequel.
The word Bhot, or Bhotiya, meaning a Tibetan, is
the root of the words Butan and Bultistan ; Bultistan
being the Persian for the land of the Bultis, i. e. Little
Tibet.
In Bultistan, the creed is Mahometan, the frontier
Turk and Indian, the blood (apparently) more Paropar-
misan than the language. Of the literature and the
dialects I can say nothing, having seen no written com-
positions from Little Tibet. Neither can I say whether
the alphabet is exclusively Arabic. The dialect, how-
ever, for which we have any specimens, is that of Ladak ;
that of Ladak being that of Tibet in general.
In Ladak, both the creed and literature are Buddhist,
and the blood seems to be as purely Bhot as tlie lan-
guage. The political relations, however, are with British
India and Cashmir, rather than with China ; and it is
only when we reach the Chinese parts of Tibet that
we find the Bhot characteristics at the onaximum.
Here are preserved, in innumerable monasteries, heaps
upon heaps of Buddhist literature, in which translations
from the Sanskrit take an inordinate degree of promi-
nence. The alphabet in which they are written may
date from the second century. It is of Indian origin;
though, in its present state, a well-marked variety.
Between the Tibetan as it is written, and the Tibetan
as it is spoken, it is usual to draw a broad distinction,
inasmuch as the former either actually preserves, or
appears to preserve, a number of letters with which
TIBETAN.
the latter dispenses.
These are
! exhibitec
type.
English.
■VTrilten Tibetan.
Spoken Tibetan.
Man
mi
mi
Head
mgo
go
Hair
skra
kra
Eye
mig
mik
Ear
sa
amch
Tooth
so
so
Blood
khrag
thak
Bone
ruspa
ruko
Hand
kgpa
lango
Foot
r kangpa
kango
Sun
nyima
nyima
Moon
2 lava
dawa
Star
8 karma
karma
Fire
me
me
Water
cbha
cLhu
Stone
rdo
do
Tree
I jonshing
shingdong
One
fifchig
cbik
Two
gnjia
nyi
Three
gsam
sum
Four
5zlii
zliyi
Five
hna
gna
Six
druk
thu
Seven
idim
dan
Eight
6i:gyud
gye
Nine
dga
gak
Ten
6chu
chn
—
thamba
—
13
Butan differs from Tibet Proper, chiefly in being
more open to influences from India. The Butanis call
themselves Lhopa.
Another, and a more extreme form of tlie Eastern
Bhot, is the language of Takyul, or the land of the
Tak, or Takpa, which is the country marked Towang
and Towang Raj in the ordinary maps.
English.
Lhopa.
Takpa.
Man
mi
men
Head
gutoh
gokti
Hair
kya
pu
Eye
mido
melong
Ear
navo
neblap
14
TAKPA, ETC.
English.
Lhopa.
Takpa.
Tooth
Boh
wall
Blood
tliyak
khra
Bone
rutok
Tospa
Hand
lappa
la
Foot
kanglep
leme
Sun
nyim
plang
Moon
dau
leh
Star
kam
karma
Fire
6ii
meh
Water
chhu
chhi
Stone
doh
gorr
Tree
shing
shendong
One
Che
the
Two
nye
UBi.
Three
sum
warn
Four
zhi
pli
Five
gna
liagni
Six
dhu
kro
Seven
dun
nis
Eight
gye
gyet
Nine
gu
duga
Ten
Chatham
paki
Further to the South, in contact with the language of
Nepaul, is spoken the Serpa which seems to be all but
actual Bhot.
English.
Serpa.
English.
Serpa.
Man
mi
Hand
lango
Head
go
Foot
kango
Hair
ta
Sky
nam
Eye
mik
Sun
nimo
Ear
amchuk
Moon
oula
Tooth
so
Star
karma
Blood
thak
Water
chhd
Bone
ruba
Stone
doh.
Beside the Bultistani, Ladaki, Thibetan, and Butani
varieties, there are several local dialects, of which, as may
be supposed, we know but little. In Lower Kunawer
the language is Indian rather than Bhot ; but in Upper
Kunawer there are the Kanet dialects and sub-dialects.
In Rampur, Milchan* is the word for the language in
general of the parts around, so that the Milchan is the
* Probably the Hindu Mlech.
MILCH AX.
15
language of the distiict ; of which the Lubrung (or
Kanam) and the Lidung (or Lippa) are varieties. Mean-
while Theburskud denotes a provincial dialect, such as
that of Sugaum, and others.
English.
Milchan,
Thebnisknd.
Sdmchd.
Man
mi
mi
me
Women
chisml
eshri
esplung
Head
bul
pisha
pisha
Tmigue
le
le
le
Bye
mfk
m6
ml
Ear
kanung
mpung
repong
Foot
bung
bunk
bonkun
Sun
yune
ne
nimok
Moon
gulsung
gulsung
gulsung
Star
skara
karma
karma
One
it
te
it
Two
nish
nlshj
nish
Three
s(im
B(un
hum
Four
pu
pi
pu
Five
gna
gnai
gna
Ten
saf
ch6i
sa
The Infinitives run as follows : —
In Milchan .
. . lonkmih or
lonhmig
— Lippa , .
, . lodenK' or
lodeiit
— Kanam
. . logma
— S6gnum .
. . lopang
— Sumchu .
. . lomma or
loma.
The following language, though Bhot,
graphically and politically to Nepaul
Engiish.
Thaksya.
Man
makai
Bead
ta
Hair
chham
Hand
yayathiu
Eye
mi
Foot
malethin male
Blood
ka
Bone
nati
Ear
hna
Tooth
gyo
Day
sar
Sum,
ghai^gni
Moon
latigna
Star
Bar
h Bhot,
lul.
belongs geo
EngUih.
Tbaksya.
Fire
hme
Water
kya
Tree
ghytmg
One
di
Two
gni
Three
8om
Four
bla
Five
gna
Six
tu
Seven
gnes
Eight
bhre
Nine
ka
Ten
chyu
16
GYARUNG, ETC.
One of the Blitan dialects is known under the name
Changlo. It is spoken in the North-east, apparently
in contact with some of the languages of the Asam
mountaineers.
The Chinese call certain rude tribes in the south-east
of Tibet, and (consequently) to the north-west of their
own frontier, Si/an, a term said to mean Western Bar-
barian.
The area to which this name applies is anything
but well marked. A line drawn from the Koko Nor to
the frontier of Yunnan will pass through it. But the
frontier of Yunnan is a long one. The Thochu, Man-
yak, and Gyarung vocabularies belong to this district ;
all being, inter alia, collected through the exertions of
Mr. Hodgson,
Of these, the Manyak lies to the south, the Gyarung
in the centre, and the Thochu to the north. I have
little hesitation in saying that, though Chinese in
respect to their political relations, and Tibetan in re-
spect to their geography, thes& three forms of speech
are as much Burmese as Bhot.
English.
Changlo.
Gyarung.
Manyak.
Thochu.
Man
songo
tir-mi
ohhoh
nah
Head
sharang
ta-ko
wulli
kapat
Hair
cham
tarni
mui
hompa
Eye
ming
tai-mek
mne
kan
Ear
na
time
napi
nukh
Tooth.
shla
ti-swe
phwih
sweh
Blood
yi
ta-shi
shah
sah
Bone
khang
syarhu
rukhu
ripat
Hand
gadang
tayak
lapcheh
jipah
Foot
bi
tami
lipchheh
jako
Shy
ngam
tu-mon
mah
mahto
Sun
lani
kini
nyima
mun
Moon
murgeng
tsi-le
leh
chhap
Star
mi
tsine
krah
ghada
Fire
ri
ti-mi
sameh
meh
Water
lung
ti-cM
dyah
chah
Stone
shing
rugu
wobi
gholopi
One
thur
kate
tabi
aii
Two
nyik-ching
kanes
nabi
gnari
THE HOR.
English.
Changlo.
Gyanmg.
Manjak.
Thoclm.
Three
sam
kasam
sibi
ksiri
Four
hhi
kadi
rebi
gzari
Fire
nga
kunggno
gnabi
wari
Six
khung
kutok
trubi
khatari
Seren
zum
koshnes
skwibi
staii
Eight
yen
oryet
zibi
khiari
Nine
ga
kanggu
gubi
rgani
Ten
shong, se
sih
chechibi
paduri.
17
The Hor, or Horpa, occupy tbe western pai-t of
Northern Tibet and pai-ts of Chinese Tartar}', or Little
Bokhara, and Dzungaria. They decidedly touch both
the Turk and Mongol areas ; and, as they are nomads
rather than agriculturalists, they are more Tartar in
habit than Tibetan, At the same time, their language
is Bhot ; and so, to a great extent, is their creed. The
major part is Buddhist : though there are some Maho-
metans amongst them — a few within the frontier of
Tibet ; more beyond it. To some of these the Tibetans
apply the name Khachhe ; which is, word for word, the
Chinese Kao-tse. They call themselves, however, /^m 7' ;
and from this, along with a few other facts of less im-
portance, I look upon them as Turks in blood, though
Bhot in language.
English.
Hor.
1%etaii.
Uigur.
Man
Tzih
mi
er, kishi
Head
gho
go
bash
Hair
spu
k»
Eatsh
Eye
mo
mik
knsi
Ear
nyo
amcho
kniak
Tooth
syo
80
tish
Blood
sye
Uak
khan
Bone
rera
nko
snn^uki
Hand
Iha
lango
ilik
Foot
ko
kango
adakhi
Sly
koh
namkh&li
tengri
Sun
gna
nyima
kun
Moon
slikno
dawa
ai
Star
sgre
karma
yuldns
Fire
nmab
me
oot
Water
hrah
chha
saw
Stone
rgame
do
tash
18
THE HOR.
EiigUsli.
Hor.
Tibetan.
Uigur.
Tree
nah
shindong
yikhati
One
ra
chik
Mr
Two
gre
nyi
iH
Three
BU
sum
ntsh
Four
pla
zhyi
tort
Five
gwe
gna
bish
Six
chh.i
thu
alty
Seven
zne
dun
yidi
Fight
rliiee
gye
sekis
Nine
go
guh
toclius
Ten
sga
chuh
on.
The details of tlie Tibetan, where it comes in contact
with the languages of the Paropamisus, are obscure.
They will be noticed in the sequel.
NEPAUL AND SIKKIM. 3 9
CHAPTER III.
Nepalese and Sitkim Languages. — Gomng andMnrmi. — Magu' and Bramhu.
— Chepang. — Hayu. — Kusunda. — Newar and Pahari. — Kiranti and
Limbo. — Lepcha. — Dhimal. — Bodo. — Graro. — Borro.— Sunwar.
It is convenient to speak of the languages of Nepaul and
Sikkim as if they constituted a definite group. It is
convenient to do this, because these countries, with their
peculiar political relations, though Indian in their geo-
graphy, and Tibetan in their ethnology, are neither
exactly Tibetan, nor exactly Indian as a whole ; but
rather a distidct i^er se.
The dialects and sub-dialects of this class are refer-
able to the following groups: — (1), the Gurung ; (2),
Magar ; (3), Chepang ; (4), the Hayti ; (5), the Ku-
sunda ; (6), the Newar ; (7), the Kiranti ; (8), the
Lepcha.
(1). Tlie Magar occupy the lower, the Gurung the
higher levels of the Himalaya ; the Gurung being, hke
the Magars, a military caste ; but (unlike the Magars),
being Buddhist rather than Brahminic ; and, as such,
more Bhot, in respect to their civilization, than Indian.
Some of them are, perhaps, more pagan than Bhot.
They are a rude set ; shepherds rather than agricultu-
ralists ; but little being known of their language. The
Murmi is one of its dialects.
English.
Gomng.
Mnrrai.
Man
mhi
mi
Head
kn
thobo
Bair
moi
kn
Hand
lapta
ya
Foot
bbale
bale
n
O
20
NEPAUL AND SIKKIM.
English.
Gun.ng.
Muitiii.
Eye
mi
mi
Ear
nabe
nape
Bone
nugri
nakhu
Blood
koh
ka
Tooth
sak
Bwa
Day
flini
dini
Sun
dliini
dini
Moon
—
ladima
Star
pira
karchin
Fire
mi
me
Water
kj-ii
kwi
Tree
sindu
dhong
Stone
yuma
yumba
One
kri
grik
Two
ni
gni
Three
song
Bom
Four
pli
bli
Fke
gna
gna
Six
tu
dhu
Seven
nis
nis
Eight
pre
pre
Nine
kuh
kuh
Ten
cliuk
chiwai.
(2). Occupants of the lower levels, and the western
districts, the Magars have been in more than ordinary
contact with the Hindus of the Oude and Kumaon
frontiers. No wonder, then, that the blood and lan-
guage but imperfectly coincide. Many Hindiis are said
to speak Magar, whilst numerous Magars have either
unlearnt their own tongue or speak the Magar along
with it. The creed is imperfectly Brahminic ; the
alphabet Indian ; the tendencies and civilization Indian.
The Bramhti dialect, spoken by a degraded population
of the parts about, is more Magar than aught else.
EnglisL.
Magar.
Braniliu.
Man
bharmi
bal, bar
Head
mitalu
kapa
Hair
chham
syam
Hand
hutpiak
bbit
Foot
mibil
unzik
Bye
mik
mik
Ear
nakyeh
kana
NEPAUL AND SIKKIM.
21
English.
Magar.
Bramhu.
Bone
miryaros
wot
BIcod
hjm
chiwi
Tooth
siak
swa
Day
namsin
dim
Sun
namkhan
nni
Star
bhuga
—
Fire
mhe
mai
Water
di
awa
Tree
sing
«iinma
Stone
thung
kongba
One
kat
de
Two
nis
ni
Three
SODg
sworn
Four
baU
bi
Five
banga
banga.
(3, 4). The Chepang and Vaju, or Hayu, is a broken
and depressed tribe of this district. The Vayu con-
sider themselves a distinct people, fidling into few or no
subdivisions. Their language is said to be unintelligible
to any one else ; and so it seems to be from the speci-
men. They believe that at some remote period they
were a powerful people, though now reduced.
(5). The Kusunda are even more broken up than
the Vayu, with whom they are conterminous.
English.
Chepang.
Tiyd.
Knstinda.
Man
pnrsi
sing-tong
mihyak
—
—
lon-cho
—
Head
tolong
p(i-chhi
cMpi
Hair
men
song
gjai-i
Hand
kntt
got
gipan
Foot
la
le
cban
Eye
mik
mek
chining
Ear
ne
nak-cha
chyau
Bone
rhus
ru
goa
Blood
wi
vi
nyu
Tooth
srek
lu
toho
Day
nyi
nnma
dina
Sun
nyam
nomo
ing
Moon
lahe
cho-lo
jnn
Fire
me
me
ja
Water
ti
ti
tang
Tree
sing, singtak
sing-phung
i
22
THE
NEWAR.
Englisli.
Cliepang.
Vayii.
Kiisuiida.
One
yazho
kolu
goisang
Two
nhizho
nayung
ghigna
Three
sumzho
chuyuDg
daha
Four
ploizho
bining
pinjang
Fire
pumazho
—
pagnangjan;
(6). The Newar belongs to the central valley, or
Nepaul Proper, the most favoured tract of the king-
dom, and the tract where the rudeness of tlie original
paganism is at its Tnimmum ; the creed being partly
Brahminic partly Buddhist. The Pahri, or Pahi, one of
the broken tribes, is Newar ; in other words, the Pahri
is to the Newar as the Bramhti was to the Magar.
Englisli.
Newar.
Palii-;.
Man
mijang
manche
Head
chhong
chhe
Hair
song
son
Hand
pal aha
la
Foot
pali
li
Eye
mikha
migbi
Ear
nhaipong
nhuapuru
Bone
kwe
kusa
Blood
hi
hi
Tooth
wa
wa
Day
nhi
nhinako
Sun
suja
suje
Star
nagu
nung-gni
Fire
mi
mi
Water
laa
lukhu
Tree
sinia
sima
Stone
lohong
longgho
One
chili
chi
Two
ni
ni
Three
son
sung
Fowr
pi
pi
Five
gna
gno
Six
khu
ku
Seven
nhe
nhe
Eight
chya
chya
Nine
gunh
gun
Ten
sanho
gi.
(7). Occupants of the valley of the Arun, and the
district which takes its name from them, the Kirant,
THE KIRATA.
23
Kiranti, or Kiratas, are the most eastern of the tribes
of Nepaul, being conterminous with the Lepchas of
Sikkim. Tlie name is Indian ; so that little is to be
inferred from either its antiquity or the extent of its
application. Whenever there was a population in a
certain relation to the Hindu, the term would apply.
The Kirata under notice, fall into two primary divi-
sions, the Limbu and the Kwombu. The Limbu have
an alphabet : the Kwombu dialects are unwritten.
English.
Kirata.
Limbu.
Man
mana
yapme
—
—
yembocha
Bead
tang
tbagek
Hair
moa
thagi
Hand
chuknphema
huktaphe
Foot
nkhuro
langdapphe
Eye
mak
mik
Ear
naba
nekho
Bone
saiba
sayet
Blood
ha a
makbi
Tooth
kang
hebo
I>ay
len
lendik
Sun
nam
nam
Moon
lara
laTO
Star
sangyen
kesra
Fire
mi
me
Water
chawa
chua
Tree
Bangtang
sing
Stone
lungta
long
One
ektai
thit
Two
hasat
nyetsb
Three
somya
syumsh
Four
laya
lish
Five
gnaya
gnash
Svt
tukya
tnksh
Seven
bhagya
nuksh
Eight
reya
yetsh
Nine
phangyii
phangsh
Ten
kip
thibong.
Until a few months back, the Kiranti language was
in the same predicament with those that have just been
noticed. Perhaps, it was less known. At any rate, it
took no remarkable prominence in the philology of
24
THE KIRATA DIALECTS — LEPCHA
Nepaul. It miglifc consist of a single dialect, or of
many. It was akin to the Limbu and the Limbu
akin to it. Of its other varieties we knew nothing.
A recent paper of Mr. Hodgson now supplies vo-
cabularies for its dialects and sub-dialects ; for
which the following is the suggested classification : —
1. Waling; 2. Yakha ; 3. Chourasya ; 4. Kulung ;
5. Thulung ; 6. Bahing; 7. Lohorong ; 8. Larabich-
hong. These constitute the Waling branch of the
Bontawa group, of which 9. Rtingchhenbiing ; 10.
Chhingtang, are also members. Then come, 1 1 . Cham-
ling, or Kodong ; 12. Nachhereng ; 13. Balati ; 14.
Sangpang ; 15. Dumi; 16. Khahng; 17. Dungmalu.
(8). The Lepcha spoken in Sikkim, is, like the Limbu
dialect of the Kiranti, a written language ; though its
literature is of the scantiest.
English.
Lepclia.
English.
Lepcba.
Man
maro
Fire
mi
—
tagri
Water
ong
Head
athiak
Tree
kung
Hair
achom
Stone
long
Hand
kaliok
One
kat
Foot
dianghok
Two
ryet
Eye
amik
Three
sam
Ear
anyor
Four
phali
Bone
arhet
Five
ph&gnoi
Blood
vi
Six
tarok
Tooth
apho
Seven
kakyok
Day
sakne
Eight
kaken
Sun
sakhak
Nine
kakyot
Moon
dau
Tm
kati.
Star
sahor
Now, all these languages are not only members of
the same great class with the Bhot, but the fact of their
being so is clear and patent upon the most cursory
inspection. No language, however, of a Brahminic or a
Buddhist population, especially if it be on the frontier of
Hindostan, can escape the certain results of contact with
India ; and this shows itself in the vocabulary. The
proportion which these Indian elements bear to the rest,
DHIMAL AND BODO. 25
varies with the hinguage. It may be but small. It
may be moderate. It may be so great as to destroy
the original character of the tongue altogether. In
the follo^v-ing languages, the numerals are Hindu ; and,
thoucrh this is an artificial characteristic, it is a convenient
one. It gives a Hindu aspect to the vocabulary ; and,
as a general rule, where the numerals are Hindu, a very
great proportion of the other words is Hindu also — so
much so, indeed, as to make the position of the lan-
guage, on the first view, equivocal. In some cases it
may really be so. The firet language of our list is, in
the eyes of many, a dialect of the Hindu, containing a
few Bhot fragments, i-ather than a Bhot dialect in what
may be called a metamorphic form.
1. The Kooch of Kooch Behar, as spoken by the
Mahometan and Brahminic sections of the name. The
Pani Kooch, or unconverted Kooch, are beheved to use
a more decidedly Bhot form of speech.
2. The Darahe (or Dahi) and Den war.
3. The Kuswar.
4. The Tharu.
5. The Pakhya.
The populations which speak them are called, by Mr.
Hodorson, to whom all the details are due, the Broken
Tribes. His list contains, besides the preceding, the Che-
pang, the Bhramo, and the Pahri. These, however, are not
only clearly Nepalese, but have been referred to a given
Nepalese language, and subordinated to it as a dialect.
It is the equivocal character of the foregoing languages
that places them in a group by themselves ; a group
which is merely provisional, as further researches will
show.
The Dhimal, avoiding both the open plains and the
mountain heights, occupy the turai between the Konka
and Dhorla, where they are conterminous with the Bodo.
Nor is this all. The two populations are not only
conterminous but intermixed, each inhabiting separate
26
DUIMAL AND BODO.
villages. For all this, there is a notable — I might say
a wide — difference between their languages. It is with
the Hayu, and Kusunda group, or, at least with the
languages to the west, that the Dhimal appears to have
its closest affinities. The Bodo, on the contrary, is all
but one with the Borro of Cachar, besides being closely
allied to the Garo of the Garo Hills, in the north-east of
Bengal.
English.
Phimal.
Bodo.
Garo.
Borro.
Man
waval
hiwa
mande
manse
—
cliang
manshi
—
—
Head
purung
khoro
skho
khoro
Ear
nhatong
khoma
nachil
khama
Eye
mi
mogon
mikian
nigan
Blood
hiki
thoi
anchi
thoi
Bone
hara
begeng
greng
begeng
Tooth
si ton g
hathai
jak
nakhai
Hand
khur
akhai
jatheng
atheng
Foot
khokoi
yapha
sal
san
Sun
bela
shan
jasliki
Latolthi
Star
phuro
hathotklii
wal
wat
Fire
men
wat
cM
doi
Water
chi
doi
—
The Bodo are called by the Hindus, Mekh, or Mlech ;
and they are so called because they pass for impure in-
fidels.
The Borro of Cachar take us into Asam ; and (of
Asam) towards the southern, rather than the northern,
boundary. But the northern boundary is the one that
we must first examine ; remembering that the moun-
tain-range which forms it runs due east fi'om that part
of Btitan which gave us the Changlo and the Takpa
vocabularies.
Of the Sunwar vocabularj'- of Hodgson I am unable
to give the exact locality.
Englisli.
Puuwar.
Englisli.
Suuwar.
Man
mum
Foot
kweli
Head
piya
Eye
michi
Hair
chang
Ear
noplia
Hand
table
Bone
nishe
THE SUNWAR.
27
Englisli.
Son war.
English.
Sunwar.
Blood
nsi
Tliint
ike
Tooth
kryn
His
hareake, mereke
Day
nathi
Out's
go-ainke
Sun
na
Tour's
gai-ainke, inke
Star
sora
Theirs
hari-ainke
Fire
mi
One
ka
Water
pankha
Two
nishi
Tree
rawa
Three
sang
Stone
phunglu
Pour
le
I
go
Five
gno
Thou
gai
Six
ruk
He, she, it
hari
Seven
chani
We
govki
Eight
yoh
Ye
gaivki
Nine
guh
They
harevki
Ten
sashi.
Mine
ake
Of the preceding forms of speech, the Gurung, Magar,
and Kii-anti, seem to be the most Bhot ; whilst the
Newar and Kusmida point the most decidedly towards
India ; the Garo to the Singpho ; and the Lepcha to
the North Asam, class.
28 LANGUAGES
CHAPTER IV.
Languages of Assam. — Northern Frontier. — Aka, Dofla, and Abor. — Miri. —
Mishmi. — Southern Frontier. — Kasia. — Mikir. — Angami. — Nagas. —
Singpho.
Collectively, the Aka, Dofla, Abor, Miri, and Mishmi,
may be called the hill-tribes of the northern boundary
of Asam. They all, with the exception of a few of the
Miris, lie to the north of the Burhamputer, along the banks
of which the displacement and obliteration of transitional
forms of speech have been great. The chief language
of Lower Asam — the valley — is Indian ; the Asamese,
properly so-called, being even more Indian than the
dialects of the broken tribes. It is limited, however,
to the level country ; the mountains of the southern
and the northern boundary being held by aborigines.
But these are separated from each other ; or if con-
tinuous, are only traced in their continuity round the
valley, not across it.
Tlie hills that form the northern boundary of Asam
are occupied by numerous rude tribes known as Aka,
Dofla, and Abor ; all three using dialects of the same
language. That of the Miri is closely allied. Those of
the Taying and Mijhu dialects of the Mishmi are further
removed.
Beginning with the eastern boundary of Tibet, the
order of the numerous hill-tribes of the northern boun-
dary of Asam, of which the languages are known to us
through vocabularies, is as has been given — Aka, Dofla,
Abor, Miri, and Mishmi. The Miri stretch farthest
across the valley, or southwards, while the Mishmi
occupy its eastern extremity ; where there has been a
OF ASAM. 29
paiiiiil displacement — a displacement effected hj the
Ahora and Khamti of tlie Tliay stock, of -whom more
will be said as we proceed.
Eng'ish.
Dofla.
AbOT.
Miri.
Afaa
bangni
amie
ami
Hair
dumuk
dumid
dumid
Head
dompo
duiniKJDg
tupko
Ear
niorung
narung
ierung
Eye
nyuk
aming
amida
Blood
ui
yJ-
yie
Bone
Bolo
along
along
Foot
laga
ale
leppa
Hand
lak
elag
elag
Sun
dani
amng
dainya
Moon
polo
polo
polo
Star
takar
tekar
takar
Fire
ami
emme
nmma
Water
esi
asi
acliye
One
aken
ako
ako
Two
ani
ani
aniko
Three
aam
angom
aamko
Four
apli
api
apiko
Five
ango
pilango
angoko
Six
akple
akye
akengko
Seven
kanag
konange
kinitko
Eight
plagnag
pini
piniko
Nine
kayo
kinide
konangk
Ten
rang
iinge
nyingko.
The Mijhu and Tayung forms of speech are called
dialects of the Mishmi. Perhaps they are so. At the
same time they differ from one another more than the
Aka and Abor, which have been quoted as separate sub-
stantive lanoaiases : —
Fnglisli.
Taytmg.
Mghn.
ilan
nme
ktchong
Head
nikau
kaa
Eye
mollom
mik
Ear
nkruna
ing
Blood
rliwei
vi
Bone
labunglubra
zak
Hand
ptoya
yop
Foot
mgrang
mpla
Sun
ling-ngiag
lemik
30
MISHMI— KASIA— MIKIR.
English.
Taynng.
Mijliu.
Moon
hho
lai
Fire
naming
mai
Water
machi
ti
One
eking
kmo
Two
kaying
kaning
Three
kachong
kacham
Four
kaprei
kambum
Five
mangu
kalei
Six
tharo
katham
Seven
uwg
nun
Eight
elyeni
ngun
Nine
konyong
nyet
Ten
halong
kyep.
The southern range now claims notice. We touched
it when the Garo and Bodo were under notice.
Due east of the Garo country come the Kasia dis-
tricts ; the language of which is less like its iuunediate
neighbour, than its locality suggests.
The MiJdr believe that their ancestors came from
the Jaintia Hills ; but no specimen of the Jaintia
dialects, eo nomine, being known, the value of the belief
is uncertain. Their present occupancies are in North
Cachar, Lower and Central Asam. The "sounds of
their language,'' writes Robinson, " are pure and liquid,"
and the gutturals and strong aspirates are but few.
There is a "slight nasal inflection and an abrupt
cadence." Some of the Mikir are imperfect converts to
Brahminism.
English.
Kasia.
Mikir.
Man
uman
arleng
—
—
penso
Woman
ka kantei
arioso
Head
kakli
iphu
Eye
ka kamat
mek
Ear
ka skor
ino
Nose
ka kamut
inokan
Mouth
ka shintur
ingho
Tooth
ka baniat
isso
Tongue
ade
Hand
ka thallid
ripa
Foot
ka kajat
kengpak
THE ANGAMI.
i;ngl»ith
Kasia.
Uildr.
Sun
ka sngi
ami
Moon
ubanai
cheklo
Star
uklnr
cheklo longsho'
Fire
kading
me
Water
kanm
lang
Stone
man
arlong
Wood
kading
theng
One
nisi
Two
hini
Three
kithom
Four
pliili
Fke
plumga
Six
therok
Sexen
theroski
Eight
neikep
Nine
serkep
Ten
kep.
31
The Angami succeed the Mikir ; rude hill-men, pagan,
and unlettered. Their language seems to fall into
dialects and sub-dialects ; its affinities being such as its
locality suggests. They are more especially, Mikir,
Aka, Dofla, and Abor.
English.
AngamL
Englisb.
Angami.
Man
ma
Fire
mi
Woman
thennma
Water
zn
Head
nchn
Stone
keche
Eye
rnnhi
Wood
si
Ear
uneu
One
PO
Note
unheu
Two
kana
Mouth
ome
Three
se
Tooth
vhn
Four
da
Hand
abijn
Fire
pengn
Foot
nphi-jn
Sijc
shnm
Sly
keruke
Seven
thena
Hay
ja
Eight
thata
Sun
naki
Nine
thekn
Moon
thirr
Ten
kerr.
Star
themn
And now begins a district where classification by
means of definition is impracticable. The Angami, and
Little moons.
32
ITAGA DIALECTS.
the tribes to the east of them, are called Naga ; Naga
being a generic name for the wild tribes of mountains
that bound Asam to the south. It is not, however,
a name founded on their languages, and I doubt if it be
natural. I think that all the Naga dialects might be
grouped as SingpJio without unduly raising the value of
the class so-called.
The earliest notice of the forms of the Naga (from
which I have separated the Angami) is by Brown, the
fullest is to be found in the second volume of Trans-
actions of the American Oriental Society, wliere there
are specimens of no less than ten of their dialects, or
sub-dialects.
English.
Isowgong.
Teiigsa.
Kliari.
Ilatigor.
Man
nyesung
mesung
ami
nyesung
Woman
—
anakti
anudi
tatsii
Head
takolak
tako
te-lim
takolak
Hair
ko
ko
kwa
ko
Eye
tenok
te nyik
te-nik
te-nok
Ear
tenaung
te-lanno
te-nhaun
te-naung
Tooth
tabu
ta-pbu
ta-pba
ta-bu
Hand
tekha
ta-khat
ta-kbet
ta-kha
Foot
tatsung
ta-cbing
ta-cbang
ta-tsung
Shy
mabat
anung
aning
anyang
Sun
annu
tinglu
subih
annu
Moon
yita
luta
leta
jdta
Star
pitinu
lutingting
peti
pitinu
Fire
mi
masi
matsii
mi
Water
tsu
tij
atsii
tsu
Stone
lungziik
lungmango
along
lungziik
Tree
santung
sangtung
sundong
santung
One
katang
kbatu
akhet
—
Two
anna
annat
anne
—
Three
asam
asam
asam
—
Four
pazr
pbale
phali
—
Five
pungu
pbungu
phanga
—
Six
tank
theloic
tarok
—
Seven
tanet
thanyet
tani
—
Eight
te
thesep
sachet
—
Nine
taku
tbaku
taken
—
Ten
tarr
thelu
tarah
—
THE SINGPHO.
33
TnglUti ,
Kamsang, &c.
Jobdra, Sec.
Man
minyan
mi
Woman
dehiek
tananna
Head
kho
khangra
Hair
kacho
kho
Eye
mit
mik
Ear
na
na
Tooth
pa
va
Hand
dak
chak
Foot
da
tsha
Sky
rangtung
rangpham
Sun
san
ranghan
Moon
da
letlu
Star
merik
letsi
Fire
van
van
Water
30
ti
SUme
long
long
One
vanthe
tnta
Two
vanyi
anyi
Three
yanram.
azam
Four
ali
Five
banga
aga
Six
irok
azok
Seven
ingit
annat
Eight
isat
achat
Nine
ikhu
akn
Ten
ichi
banban.
English. Mithan.
Tablnng.
English.
Mithan. Tabloog.
Man mi
sauniak
Wafer
ti
riang
Woman —
chikkho
Stone
ling
yong
Head khang
sang
Tree
pan
peh
Hair kho
min
One
atta
cha
Eye mik
mik
Two
nnyi
ih
Ear na
na
Three
azum lem
Tooth va
pha
Four
ali
peli
Hand chak
yak
Five
aga
nga
Foot tchya
yahlan
Six
arok
vok
Sun ranghon
wanghi
Seven
anath niath, neth
Moon letna
le
Eight
ainel
thuth
Star lethi
cLaha
Nine
aku
ther, thu
Fire ran
ah
Ten
ban
pan.
The Jactung, Malung, and Sima dialects are closely
akin to this.
In a limited sense, Singpho is a convenient name for
a group of dialects, of which (1) the Singpho Proper, (2)
D
34
THE SINGPnO.
the Jili, and (3) the Kakhyen, are known by specimens.
On the north-east it touches the Mishmi, and the intru-
sive Khamti. On the south-east it comes in contact with
certain dialects of the Siamese group ; being itself the
nearest congener not belonging to their class.
The Singpho Proper are Buddhists, with a Shan
alphabet. The Muttuk, Moran, or Moameria, are
Hindu in creed, though of suspicious orthodoxy. Of
their language, eo nomine (unless the Mitlian of the
foregoing table be one), I have seen no specimen. I
find, however, statements to the following effect, viz.
that that of the Khaphok tribe is just intelligible to a
Singpho Proper ; that in the Khanung there is still a
resemblance to the Singpho, but that the language is
no longer mutually intelligible ; and thirdly, that the
Khalang and Nogmun forms of speech are truly
Singpho.
Of the Jili vocabulary (the only one we have) seventy
per cent, is Singpho, twenty-two per cent. Garo, This
gives an indirect connection with the Bhot ; a connection,
however, which is no closer than that with the Burmese.
In short, the Singpho group is eminently transitional,
its value being, in the present state of our knowledge,
uncertain.
English.
Singpho.
JUi.
Kakhyeu.
Man
singpho
nsang
masha
If air
kara
kara
kala
Head
bong
nggum
paong
Ear
na
kana
na
Eye
mi
nju
mi
Blood
sai
tashai
tsan
Bone
nrang
khamrang
—
Foot
lagong
takkhyai
nego
Hand
letta
taphan
letla
Sun
jan
katsan
tsan
Moon
sita
sata
tsata
Star
sigan
sakan
shigan
Fire
wan
tayan
wan
Water
ncin
mchin
entsin
Stone
nlung
talong
long
Tree
phun
ph^Q
phoun
THE SINGPHO. — THE DEORIA CUUTIA.
35
English.
Singpho.
Out
dima
Two
nkhong
TTiree
masum
Four
meli
Five
manga
Six
kru
Seven
sinit
Eight
macat
Nine
tseka
Ten
si
Jili.
Kakhyen.
nge
onkong
mesong
meU
menga
kaoa
senit
matsat
tiekbo
shi.
Of the Deoria Chutia, I only know that the following
is a specimen.
English.
Chutia.
English.
Chutia.
Man
moai
Water
ji
Hair
kin
Stone
yatiri
Head
gubong
Tree
popong
Ear
yaku
One
dugsha
Eye
mnkuti
Two
dukani
Blood
chui
Three
dugda
Bone
pichon
Fvur
dnguchi
Foot
yapasu
Five
dugumua
Hand
otun
Six
duguchu
Sun
sanli
Seven
dugnchi ]
Moon
yah
Eight
duguche
Star
jili
Nine
dugachuba
Fire
nye
Ten,
duguchuba and
dugshe.
It is, probably, Singpho.
1)2
36 THE BURMESE GROUP.
CHAPTER V.
Continuation of the Garo line. — The Khumia, Old and New Kuki. — The
Continuation of the Naga line. — Munipur Group.- — Koreng, Luhuppa,
Tankhu, Khoibu, &c. — The Karens. — The Burmese Proper.
Caucasus itself, with all its accumulation of mutually
unintelligible forms of speech, within a comparatively
small area, is less remarkable for the density of its lan-
guages than the parts now under notice. Whether we
look to the Garo, Kasia, and Mikir areas themselves, or
the parts which immediately underlie them, viz :
Cachar, Sylhet, Tipperah, and Chittagong ; whether
we look to the Naga districts of Asam and the parts
that lie due south of them, or the valley of the Upper
Irawadi and its feeders, we find an accumulation of
actual languages, or possible dialects, such as we rarely
find in the Old World elsewhere.
We may take up our line from either the Garo, Bodo,
Kasia, and Mikir, or from the Nagas. I begin with
the former.
The Khumia occupy the skirts, the Kuld the tops of
the hills. Except so far as the difierence of level may
develope differences in their mode of life, a Kuki is a
Khumia, a Khumia a Kuki. The Kuki, however, are,
as may be expected, the ruder and more truly pagan
tribe ; the creed being, nevertheless, tinctured with
Indian elements.
The Kuki, who about sixty years ago came from the
jungles of Tipperah to settle in Cachar, were, at first,
in the same category with the Nagas, i. e. naked. In
the course of time they ceased to deserve the name.
They not only wear clothes now, but are skilful in the
I
THE BURMESE GROUP. 37
cultivation and weaving of cotton. They are well
clothed and well fed ; on a level with the Angami
Nagas for physical strength and also with the Kasia.
In Cachar they are called the Old Kuki. They fall
into three divisions — the Rhangkul, the Khelma, and
the Betch, the first being the largest. The whole, how-
ever, are under 4000.
The Old Kuki of Cachar have a New Kuki to match.
Both came from the south — both from the ruder parts
of Tipperah and Chittagong. They came, however, as
the name implies, at different times, and, as their lan-
guage suggests, from different districts. The New
Kuki form of speech is not always intelligible to an
Old Kuki. Mr. Stewart saw one of the Khelma tribe
as much puzzled with what a New Kuki was saying to
him as he would have been with a perfect stranger.
On the other hand, the Manipur dialects and the New
Kuki are mutually intelligible. I do not think that
the vocabularies verify this doctrine, either in the way
of likeness or of difference. It may, nevertheless, be
accurate.
3fug is the name by which the native population
of the towns and villages of Arakan is designated .
The Mugs amount to about six-tenths of the whole
population ; one tenth being Burmese, and the remainder
Hindu. The only town of importance is the capital.
Some of the Mug villages lie but just above the level
of the sea ; others are on the sides, others on the tops,
of hills. The early history of Arakan, so far as it may
be dignified by that name, makes it an independent
State, sometimes with Chittagong and Tipperah in sub-
jection to it, sometimes with Chittagong and Tipperah
separate. The island of Ramrl, Cheduba and Sando-
way are parts of Arakan ; Mug in language, British in
politics.
In the hill-country the type is changed, and instead
of the comparatively civilized Mug we get tribes like
38 THE BURMESE GROUP.
the Kuki and Naga. The best known of these
are —
The Tribes of the Koladyn River, -which form a
convenient if not a strictly-natural group. The Ko-
ladyn being the chief river of Arakan, and Arakan
being a British possession, the opportunities for collecting
information have been favourable ; nor have they been
neglected. Of the names of tribes, and of specimens
of language, we have no want ; rather an emharras
de richesse. Buddhism, as a general rule, is partial
and imperfect ; partial as being found in some tribes
only, imperfect as being strongly tinctured with the
original Paganism. And of unmodified Paganism there
is, probably, not a little. The forms of speech fall into
strongly-marked dialects, in some, into separate lan-
guages ; by which I mean that, in some cases, they may
be mutually unintelligible. The government seems to
be patriarchal during a time of peace, ducal during a
time of war ; ducal meaning that a tribe, or a con-
federacy of tribes, may find themselves, for the time,,
under the command of some general chief. The story
of almost every tribe is the same. It came upon its
present locality a few generations back, having originally
dwelt elsewhere ; somewhere northwards, somewhere to
the south, somewhere to the east. It dispossessed cer-
tain earlier occupants. But these earlier occupants may,
in their turn, be found in fragments, consisting of a
single village, or of a few families. The form that the
history, if so it may be called, of these marchings and
countermarchings, of these fusions and amalgamations,
of these encroachments and displacements, assumes, is
deserving of notice.
One of the forms of tribute to a certain con-
queror of one of the branches of the Khyens was
the payment of a certain number of beautiful women ?
To avoid this the beautiful women tattooed themselves,
so as to become ugly. This is why they are tattooed
THE BURMESE GROUP. 39
at the present time. So runs the tale. In reality,
they are tattooed because they are savages. The nar-
rative about the conqueror is their way of explaining
it. In Turner's account of Tibet, the same story
repeats itself, mutatis mutandis. The women of a
certain town were too handsome to be looked at with
impunity ; for, as their virtue was proportionately easy,
the morals of the people suffered. So a sort of sump-
tuary law against an excess of good looks was enacted ;
fi'om the date o^ which to the present time the women,
whenever they go abroad, smear their faces with a
dingy dirty-coloured oil, and so conceal such natural
charms as they might otherwise exhibit.
There is another class of inferences ; for which, how-
ever, learned men in Calcutta and London are chiefly
answerable. Some of the tribes are darker-skinned
than others. The inference is that they have Indian
blood in their veins. They may have this. The fact,
however, should rest upon its proper evidence. I ven-
ture to guess that, in most cases where this darkness of
complexion occurs, the soil will have more to do with it
than any intercourse with the Hindus. There will be
the least of it on the hill-tops, less of it on the hill-sides,
most of it in the swampy bottoms and hot jungles.
At the same time, some Indian influences are actually
at work.
The tribe which, most probably, is in the closest geo-
graphical contact with the Kuki of Chittagong is the
Mru, or Tung Mru, the name being native. It is
also Rukheng. It means in Rukheng, or the language
of Arakan, over and above the particular tribes under
notice, all the hill-men of the surrounding district ; this
being the high country between Arakan and Chittagong.
That the Mru are the same as the Mrung, who deduce
their origin from Tipperah, I have no doubt ; though I
doubt the origin. They were all parts of one and the
same division. At the present moment, the Mi-ii are in
40 THE KAMI, ETC.
low condition ; fallen from their ancient high estate ;
for at one time, a Mrti chief was chosen king of
Arakan ; and when the Rukheng conqueror invaded the
country, the country was Mrti. However, at present,
the Mru are despised. Their number in Arakan
amounts to about 2800. Their present occupancy is
somewhat west of their older one. This was on the
Upper Koladyn ; whence they were expelled by —
The Kami or Kumi. — The Kami or Kumi are them-
selves suffering from encroachments ; gradually being
driven westwards and southwards. They state that
they once dwelt on the hills now held by the Khyens.
What this means, however, is uncertain. The Khyens of a
forthcoming section lie south of the Koladyn on the Yuma
Mountains. If these, then, were the men who displaced
the Kami and Kumi, the Kami and the Kumi them-
selves, when they moved upon the Mru, moved north-
wards. But this need not have been the case. Khyen
is a name given to more populations than one ; and the
very Mrti of the last noticed are sometimes called
Khyen. If so, it may have been from one part of the
Mrti country that the Kami and Kumi moved against
another part. I do not give this as history ; scarcely
as speculation. I only give it as a sample of the com-
plications of the subject. Word for word, I consider
the Kami and Kumi to be neither more nor less than
the name of the Khumia of Chittagong. I also think
that Mrti is Miri. The Kami (Kumi) of British Arakan
amount to 4129 souls.
The Sak or Thak. — The Sak, or Thak, are a small
tribe on the river Nauf.
English.
Mrt.
Komi.
Kanii.
Sak.
Mem
raid
ku-mi
ka-mx
la
Head
16
a-l(i
a-ld
a-khfi
Hair
s'h&m
s'ham
a-s'hdm
kd-mi
Eye
min
me
a-mi
a-mi
Ear
pa-rdm
ka-no
a-ga-n&
a-ka-n&
Tooth
yun
he.
a-fha
a-<Aa-w4
THE KAMI, ETC.
41
English.
Mru.
Kumi.
Kami
Sak.
Mouth
naur
li-boung
a-ma-ka
ang-si
Hand
rut
ka
akd
ta-kfi
Foot
kLouk
khou
a-kho
a-tar
SHn
Pi
p€
a-phfi
mi-lak
Blood
wi
a-thl
a-thi
th^
Bone
a-hot
a-hu
a-hd
a-mra
Sun
ta-nin
ka-ni
ka-ni
sa-mi
Moon
p<i-l&
Mo
M
thsit-U
Star
ki-rek
ka-si
a-shi
thu-gemg-thi
Fire
ma-i
mha-i
ma-i
ba-in
Water
tu-i
tu-i
tu-i
mi(?)
Bird
ta wa
ta-wu
ka-va
wa-si
Fish
dam
ngho
moi
pan-na
Snake
ta-ro-a
p<i-wi
ma-khu-I
ka-p6
Stone
ta-wh3,
Itin-s'houng
ka-lun
ta-lon
Tree
tsing-dung
din-koung
a-kun
pung-pang
Mountain
shung
mo-i
ta-kun
ta-ko
River
an
ka-wu
ka-va
pi -si
Village
kwa
a-yang
Tang
thing
House
kin
6m
in
kyin
^99
diA
diu
du
wa-ti
Horn
aning
ta-ki
at-ta-ki
a-rung
One
loung
ha
ha
s6-war
Two
pre
nhu
ni
nein
Three
shun
turn
ka-tfin
thin
Four
ta-ll
pa-lu
ma-li
pri
Five
ta-ng4
pan
pang-nga
nga
Six
ta-ru
ta-ru
ta-d
khyouk
Seven
ra-nhit
sa-rd
sa-ri
tha-ni
Eight
ri-ydt
ta-ya
ka-y4
a-tseit
Nine
ta-kd
ta-kau
ta-ko
ta-fa
Ten
h&
hau
ha-suh
si-su.
The Heuma or Shenclu. — In 21° 15' N. L. the
Meeykyoung falls into the Koladyu from the east. It,
of course, arises on some higher level, and this higher
level is the watershed between it and the drainage of
the Manipur system. The Shendu is known through a
short vocabulary of Captain Ticket's.
Sylhet and Tipperah are like Asam ; i. e. more or less
Indian. The aboriginal dialects, however, are allied to
each other and to the Burmese.
It may safely be said that all the preceding speci-
mens represent dialects or sub-dialects of a single group ;
42
THE KORENa.
all spoken by rude tribes, and all indigenous to the nortli-
western parts of the Peninsula.
And now we go on from the Nagas. Of the frontier
between the southern members of the group represented
by them and the northern tribes of Munipur I can give
no account. It seems, however, that over and above
the civilized and Buddhist occupants of the capital and
the parts around, the phenomena which we have seen in
the Naga districts repeat themselves. From the southern
slope of the Patkoe range the feeders of the western
branch of the Irawadi cut channels and fertilize valleys,
the occupancies of rude tribes.
That some of the forthcoming samples may represent
dialects rather than separate substantive languages is
probable. If so, as our knowledge increases, the de-
tails will be fewer. This, however, is no more than has
taken place with the philology of Caucasus itself.
The language of this class which more especially leads
to those of the last, is (I think) the Koreng ; so that if
we make the Munipur the centre of our group, the
Koreng is its osculant or transitional member, leading
toward the Naga division.
The following specimens are all taken from a paper
by the Rev. N. Brown in the seventh volume of the
Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, and they
are accompanied by a table giving the percentage of
words common to any of two of them : —
(1-)
English.
Koreng.
Songpu.
Man
cha mai
mai
Head
cha-pi
pi
Hair
ta-tham
Bam
Mouth
cha-mun
mhoang
Tooth
ahu
hu, nai
Eye
mik
mliik
Ear
kon
anhukon
THE KORENG.
43
English.
Koreng.
SoDgpn.
Blood
ta-zyai
zyai
Bone
para
kaiau
Hand
cha-ben
ban
Foot
cha-pi
phai
Shy
tin^em
tingpuk
Sun
ting-naimik
naimhik
Moon
charha
m
Star
chagan
ganchongna
Day
nin
kalban
Fire
cha-mi
mai
Water
ta-dm
dui
Bird
nthikna
nroi
Egg
pabum
nroidoi
Earth
kadi
kandi
Fish
cha-kha
kha
Tree
sing-bang
thing bang
Stone
talo
ntau.
(2.)
English.
Lahappa.
North TankhnL
Man
mi
mil
Head
kni
ak4o
Hair
kosen
8am
Mouth
kbamor
ania
Tooth
ha
aha
Bye
Tnik
amicha
Ear
khana
akhana
Blood
ashi
asii
Bone
arii
ariikan
Hand
pang
akhoi
Foot
phai
akho
Sky
kazing
kazirang
Sun
tsingmik
yimit
Moon
kachang
kacheang
Star
Berva
sapachengia
Hay
ngasnn
masiitom
Fire
mai
mai
Water
tara
aicha
Bird
va
ata
Egg-
harii
hachu
Fish
khai
khi
Stone
ngalung
lunggau
Tree
thingrong
thingbang.
M
THE KORENG.
(3.)
English,
Khoibu.
Maring.
Man
thami
hmi
Head
lu
lu
Hair
sara
sam
Mouth
mur
mur
Tooth
ha
ha
Eye
mit
mit
Ear
khana
nhamil
Blood
hi
hi
Bone
thuru
kru
Hand
khut
hut
Foot
wang
ho
Sky
thangwan
nungthau
Swn
nongmit
nungmit
Moon
tangla
tangla
Star
tikron
sorwa
Bay
nongyang
nunghan
Fire
mai
mai
Water
yui
yui
Bird
watsa
wacha
Egg
wayui
wayui
Fish
thanga
hnga
Stone
thullung
khlung
Tree
hingtong
hinghal.
(4.)
English.
Kapwi.
Maram.
Man
mi
m
Head
lu
a-pi
Hair
sara
tham
Mouth
mamun
ta mathu
Tooth
nga
agha
Eye
mik
mik
Ear
kana
inkon
Blood
thi
a-zyi
Bone
maru
mahu
Hand
kut
van
Foot
ki
phai
Sky
tangban
tinggam
Sun
rimik
tamik
Moon
tha
Iha
Star
insi
chaghantai
Day
tamlai
lanla
Fire
mai
mai
Water
tui
a-thui
THE KOREKG.
English.
KapwL
Maram.
Bird
aroi
Egg
makaioi
aroigham
Fish
nga
khai
St(me
lung
akoi
Tree
tMngkung
ntau.
45
As the table itself, containing as it does some lan-
guages foreign to the present district, "w^ll be required
elsewhere, I satisfy myself by giving the following
extracts from it. The percentage of Munipur words in
the preceding vocabularies is as follows : —
In the Maring 50
Kapwi 41
Khoibu ' . 40
Middle Tankhul . , . . 35
South Tankhul . . . . 33
Luhuppa 31
North Tankhul .... 28
Champhung 28
In the Koreng itself it is T 8.
All dialects giving, in Brown's Tables, more than 25
per cent.y I have classed as Munipur, the classification
being provisional, and, by no means implying that 25
per cent., constitutes a dialect. The great point to
work-out here is the direction of the affinities.
Word for word Koreng seems Karen ; Maring
Maram ; and Mru, Mrung, and Aliri.
But it is not only from the Naga that the Koreng leads.
The Munipur, which has only a percentage of 1 6 with
the Proper Burmese, has one of 15 with the Karen, 15
with the Abor, 16 with the Jill (decidedly Singpho) 21
with the Songphu, 25 with the Maram, and 25 with
the Singpho.
Between the Burmese Proper and the Siamese area
there intervene —
The Karen Dialects. — The Karen tribes are believed
to have great extension in a vertical direction, i. e. from
46
THE KAREK
North to South, being said to extend from 28° to 10**
N. L. If so, some contain Siamese, some Burmese, and
some Chinese subjects. It is the southern section, how-
ever, which is best known ; the languages here having
commanded great and especial attention on the part of
the American missionaries, whose exertions seem to have
been rewarded with unusual success. The Proper Karen
dialects are the Sgau and the Pwo : to which a third
form of speech the Thoung-lhu is closely allied. Limited,
as it is, by the literary Burmese, the Siamese, and the
Mon of Pegu, the Karen division is a natural one, so
far as the dialects that belong to it are known to us at
the present time.
English.
Sgau.
Pwo.
Thoung-lh<L
Man
p6-khwS
psh&'
Ian
Head
' kho'
kbo'
katu
Hair
kho-thu
kho-thu
tu-lu
Eye
me
me
may
Ear
n4
na
nau
Tooth
me
thwa
ta-gna
Mouth
thd-kli6
no
proung
Hand
tshii
tshu<
su
Foot
kho
khan'
khan
Skin
phi
phi
phro
Blood
thwi
tshii thwi
thway
Bone
ghi
ghwi
htsot
Sun
mu
mil
mu
Moon
\&
la
lu
Star
tsh4'
shd'
hsa
Fire
m6'u
• m6'
may
Water
thi
thi
htl
Bird
th6«
th6'
&-wa
Fish
ny&*
y&'
Uta
Snake
gtt
wgu
h'm
Stone
la
Ion
lung
Tree
th6'
then
thing-mu
Mountain
ka-tsil
kho '-Ion
koung
River
thi-klo'
thi-klo
nhrong
Village
tha-wo
ta--wiiQ
dung
House
hi
yen
sam
Egg
di'
di«
de
Horn
kn-nu
n6n-
nung
One
ta
ka du
ta
THE BURMESE PROPER.
47
English.
Sgan.
Pvo.
Thoung-lliu.
Tico
khi
ni
ne
Three
thu
thun
thung
Four
Iwi
U
leet
Five
ye
yei
ngat
Sijc
ghu
ghu
ther
Seven
nwi
nwi
nwot
Eight
gh6 •
gho
that
Nijie
khwi
khwi
koot
Ten
ta-tshi
ka-tshi
tah-si.
The Burmese Proper now finds its place. It is a lite-
raiy language ; and, not only is it this, but it is the
only important one of the group. It has been culti-
vated as such some centuries — it is not safe to say how
many. Perhaps it is six or seven hundred years since
the first composition in Burmese was written. The
alphabet is of Indian origin, and it came in with Budd-
hism and the Pali literature. To this, the ordinary
Burmese has always been subservient ; so that it has
been limited to secular literature. What this is will
appear when we speak of the Siamese ; for the difference
between the literary Siamese and the literary Burmese
is but small. It is a mere difference of degree. The
philological view of the Burmese is, that it was originally
a dialect of the parts about Ummerapura, to which,
after an alphabet had been supplied, it becjime current
over a large district, and was embodied and kept, more
or less, stationary in books. At the same time it was
a dialect of a valley belonging to the broader part of a
river, and, as such, was a dialect of considerable geo-
graphical magnitude in the first instance.
Its literature is purely Buddhist ; and, in this, it differs
fi'om the Munipur form of speech, which, to say nothing
about its being a dialect of a smaller area, was, to a
great extent, Brahminic as well. But its true Buddhist
literature is Pali.
The older notices, and they are scarcely older than the
early volumes of the Asiatic Kesearches, wherein we find
48
THE BURMESE PROPER.
valuable Papers by Buchanan and Ley den, divide it into
four dialects ; the Burmese Proper, the Arakan, the
Tenasserim, and the Yo. This means merely the diffe-
rent ways in which Burmese, as Burmese, was spoken.
It never anticipated such divisions as the present work
has indicated, viz. Khen forms of speech from the Yoma,
or Yo country ; and dialect after dialect from one river,
the Koladyn, along with the several southern forms found
in Tenasserim ; though these are less marked than the
others. T think that it merely meant the variations
which the Burmese, or Avan, eo nomine, as a separate
substantive language, underwent. According to the
view implied in this division, there would have been
one great, and several smaller, languages.
However, the Burmese and Ruklieng (of Arakan),
under this view, are as follows : —
Englisb.
Burmese.
Kukheng.
Man
lu
youkkya
Woman
mairima
mingma
Head
k'haung
gaung
Eye
myitsi
myitsi
Mouth
n'hok
k and wen
Sun
na
ni
Moon
la
la
Star
ke'nekkat
kre
Sky
moh
kaungkan
Fire
mih
mi
Water
re
ri
River
myit
mrik
Sea
I)engle
panle
Stone
kyauk
kyauk
Mountain
toung
toung
One
tit
taik
Two
n'hit
n'haik
Three
thon
thong
Four
le
le
Five
nga
na
Six
k'hyauk
khrauk
Seven
k'how-n'hit
k'hu-naik
Eight
s'hit
s'hit
Nine
ko
ko
Ten
tase
tase.
TREATISE OF SCHLEIERMACHER. 49
Before the Rukheng became Burmese it, doubtless, gave
us the analogues of the Kami, Mru, and Sak, multiplied by
the number of the hills and valleys. With the Yoma this
was stUl more the case ; less so with Tenasserim, where
the Burmese is recent and intrusive and (as such) not to
be found in the aboriginal dialects ; or (if found) found
in a less degree.
One of the opera majm-a in Comparative Philology is
connected with the Burmese — a prize essay of Schleier-
macher's. The question to be investigated was the
effect of writing upon language. Schleiermacher argued
that it was slight ; and, to justify his doctrine, compared
the Burmese which had, according to all opinions, been
written but a few centuries, with the Chinese that had,
according to many opinions, been written for almost as
many millennia. He showed that both were, essentially,
the same ; and he infeired from this that lanomaores
could be kept stationary without writing. The merit of
Schleiermacher's treatise lay in. its inductive character.
It took two facts and compared them. Had the
work been worse than it is (and it is not unworthy of
the great powers of the writer) it would have deserved
the prize simply from this fact. I imagine that the
majority of the candidates worked the question a priori;
but —
" illacrymabiles
Urgentur ignotique, long4 ....
Nocte, carent qnia Tate sacro."
The first I knew of the Burmese was from this
dissertation. I have not seen it quoted, either in
Germany or in England. Nevertheless, from the simple
fact of its inductive character, I look upon it as a
landmark j and that, not only in the philology of these
parts, but in comparative philology altogether.
50 THE THAY LANGUAGES.
CHAPTER VI.
The Thay, or Siamese, Group. — Its Extent and Direction. — The Siamese
Proper.— The Laos.— The Khamti.— The Ahom.— The Shans.— The
Palaong. —Cultivation of the Siamese Proper.
The general name for the group now coming under
notice is either Thay, or Siamese. It is represented by
the literary language of Siani ; so that, being a small
class, it is not very important whether we call it by the
one name or the other. By a small class, I mean one
which falls into few minor groups ; also one in which
the differences of its two extremes are inconsiderable.
In other respects the group is a large one.
The Thay area is remarkable for its inordinate exten-
sion in a vertical direction, i. e. from north to south. A
Thay form of speech is spoken at the north-eastern end
of Upper Asam, in contact with the Mishmi and the
Singpho. This is in N. L. 28°. And a Thay form of
speech is again spoken at the neck of the Malayan
Peninsula, or as far south as N.L. *{°. Meanwhile, the
breadth of this preposterously long strip of language is
inconsiderable. Neither is its continuity demonstrated.
How the Khamti districts meet the Laos, or whether
they meet it at all, no one knows ; the details of the
Singpho dialects and the Chinese of Yunnan being
obscure.
The Thay of the Lower Menam is the ordinary
Siamese ; and it is in Siam where the Thay civiliza-
tion is at its maximum. This is essentially Buddhist.
I know of no Thay tribes that retain their original
paganism. I know of none where Brahminism has
THE THAY LANGUAGES.
51
made progress, and the language been preserved. The
sacred literature of Siam is in the Pali tongue ; the
secular in the native language. It is pre-eminently
metrical ; little beyond the correspondence of ordinary
life being in prose. The songs are in verse, the dramas
in verse, the histories in verse.
The Lau occupy the Upper and Middle Menam, their
political relations being with Siam rather than Burma.
A Lau is a Siamese Shan ; a Shan a Burmese Lau.
Ruder than the Siamese of Bankok, the Lau are not
only lettered Buddhists, but the possessors of a some-
what peculiar alphabet.
English.
Laos.
Siamese
Man
khon
khon
Hair
phom
phom
Head
ho
hoa
Ear
pu
pu
Eye
ta
ta
Blood
lent
lent
Bone
dnk
kadok
Foot
ian
tin
Hand
mil
mtt
Tooth
khiaa
khian
Smu
kangwaa
tawan
Moon
dean
tawan
Star
laa
dau
Fire
fid
fai
Water
iMun
nam
Stone
pin
jan
Tree
ton
ton
One
nung
nung
Two
song
song
Three
taan
sam
Four
A
si
Five
hA
ha
Six
hok
hok
Seven
tset
chet
Eight
pet
pet
Nine
Iran
kau
Ten
dp
sip.
The Khamti of the north-eastern parts of Asam are
rude tribesmen, though not unlettered pagans. Tlieir
E 2
52
THE THAY LANGUAGES.
creed and alphabet are those of the Siamese, They are
intruders, the original population having been akin to
the Singpho. Such, at least, is the inference drawn from
the condition of the Khaphok ; the Khaphok being said
to be not only serfs to the Kharati but serfs who speak
a language which certain Singpho understand. A por-
tion, however, of the Khamti area may also have been
Mishmi.
The Khamti, however, are not the first members of
the Thay family whose language found its way into
Asam. The details of the Ahom conquest are obscure ;
as is the date of it. When it took place, however,
the Ahom, like the present Siamese, were a lettered
nation, with a Buddhist creed and an alphabet like the
Lau. Although, at the present time, there may be
found much Ahom blood among the men who speak
the Indian of Asam, the Ahom dialect itself is nearly
extinct.
The Thay of the Burmese Empire are called Shans ;
the Shans being the occupants of a number of small
States between the Burmese, the Siamese, and the
Chinese frontiers. They are neither pagan nor unlet-
tered ; their creed being Buddhist, their alphabet Lau
or Thay. Of the Shan dialects, eo nomine, I know
but little. I imagine, however; that the following voca-
bularies must represent something like two extreme
forms ; the former being from the Tenasserim frontier,
the latter from the east of Bhamo.
English.
Ahom.
Western Shan.
Eastern Shan.
Khamti.
Man
kun
ktinputrihn
koun
kun
Hair
phrum
khonho
khounho
phom
Head
kha
ho
ko
ho
Ear
pik
M
mahou
pu
Eye
ta
matta
weta
ta
Blood
let
lit
let
lut
Bone
tau
sot
loak
nuk
Foot
tin
ten
tin
tin
Hand
kha
mi
mhi
mu
Tooth
khui
khyo
khio
khui
THE THAY LANGUAGES.
53
L'nglisli.
Ahom.
Western Shan.
Eastern Shan.
EhamI
Sun
ban
kawon
kanwan
wan
Moon
den
len
lean
liin
Star
dau
loung
lao
nau
Fire
fai
hpihn(?)
fai
fai
Water
nam
nan
nam
nam
Stone
fra
mahein
mahin
pin
Tree
tun
ton
toon
tnn
One
ling
nein
neon
niing
Two
sang
htsonng
tsong
song
Three
Ram
htsan
tsam
sam
Four
si
htsi
td
81
Five
ha
ha
ha
ha
Six
mk
hoht
houk
hok
Seven
chit
tsit
tsat
tset
Eight
pet
tet
piet
pet
Nine
kau
kown
kao
kau
Ten
sip
tseit
sib
sip.
The Palaong inhabit the valleys that lie beyond the
first range of mountains to the south-east of Bhamo ;
the mountains themselves being the occupancy of the
Kakhyen — the Kakhyen being decidedly Singpho. To
the south and west lie the Shan : to the east the
obscure frontiers of the northern and north-western por-
tions of the Kambojian and Anamitic areas. The fullest
specimen of the Palaong language, eo nomine, is one
collected by Bishop Bigaudet of the Ava and Pegu
Mission ; upon which there is a short commentary, by
Mr. Logan, with whom I, unwillingly, differ as to its
affinities. I cannot connect it with the language of Co-
chin-China and Kambojia rather than with those of
Siam and Burma ; though it has (as is to be expected
from its locality) decided south-eastern affinities. Mr.
Logan attributes its Shan elements to contact and inter-
mixture ; in my mind, gratuitously.
English. Palaong.
Head kon kho, Shan, d:c.
Ear biok pik, Ahom
Eye metsi —
Foot djeuri tin, Thay
Sun sengee —
Star lao lao, Shan, dke.
54
THE THAY LANGUAGES.
English.
Water
Stone
Tree
One
Two
Th/ree
Fowr
Five
Six
Seven
Nine
Ten
Palaong.
em
mao
tangae
U
phoun
phan
to
phou
ta
tim
kea
nam, Shan
mahin, SJuin
tun, Ahom
hai, Anamitic
ba, Anamitic
bon, Anamitic
nam, Anamitic
sau, Anamitic
bay, Anamitic
tarn', Anamitic
chin', Anamitic
mu'oi, Anamitic.
The extent to whicli the Burmese and the Siamese
lanofuagfes have been cultivated is much the same in
each. Each is the language of a Buddhist population ;
each is embodied in an alphabet of Indian origin ; and
each, as a vehicle of literature, is placed in a disadvan-
tageous position — each being, for every thing except the
most ordinary secular purposes, replaced by the Pali.
From this each has taken a great number of words.
Still there is a native literature in both the Burmese
and the Siamese.
The earliest inscription in the latter language is
referred to the beginning of the thirteenth century ;
the grounds, however, that justify the assumption of
antiquity are not very clear.
The popular poetry is sometimes sung, sometimes recited :
the music of the Siamese being spoken of with higher
praise than that of the Burmese. The chief minstrels
are from Laos, When an entertainment is given, a
priest is invited to the house who recites a short story
or an ode. Hence, a small vernacular literature of a
lyric and romantic character — a very small one. Besides
this, there is an approach to the drama. Except that
the ode appears somewhat worse, and the drama some-
The numerals are apparently borrowed.
THE THAT LANGUAGES. 55
^vbat better, than in Siara, this is the character of the
Burmese literature as well.
Siam itself is, as may be expected, the chief seat of
the Thay stock ; probably the area which contains the
greatest number of Thay individuals ; at any rate that
where the Thay civilization is at its maximum.
Whether the blood be the purest is another question.
It is probable that this is far from being the case. If
the dominant population be of northern origin, there is
every chance that the conquest of the country was made
by a male rather than a mixed population. And even
if it were not so, there is an enormous amount of
Chinese elements superadded to the original basis.
Pallegoix's calculations make the sum-total of the popu-
lation of Siam 6,000,000. Dr. Bowring put-s it at
something between 4,500,000 and 5,000,000. Palle-
goix's elements are as follows : —
Thay 1,900,000
Laos 100,000
Karen, l „_ _^_
^, y . . . o0,000
EJiongs j
Mon 50,000
Kambojians . . . 500,000
Chinese .... 1,500,000
Malays 1,000,000
Like the Burmese, the Siamese have encroached on
their neighbours. There has been, as has been stated, a
Thay conquest of Asam. Kambojia pays tribute to
both Siam and Cochin-China. In the Malay Peninsula,
Ligore, Kedah, Patani, Perak, Kalantan, and Tringanu
are, more or less, directly or indirectly, under Siamese
control.
56 THE MON AND KHO.
CHAPTER VII.
The M6n Language of Pegu. — ^The Kho of Kambojia, — Their Original
Continuity.
Pegu gives us a new language — the Mod ; the name
being native. It is what the inhabitants of the Delta
of the Irawadi call themselves. Their neighbours the
Burmese call them Talieng. The Mon alphabet is of
Pali origin : the Mon literature Buddhist. The Mon
themselves are now British subjects. Before the cession
of Pegu, they belonged to Ava — a fact which has a
bearing on the history of their language. The Burmese
has encroached upon it, and is encroaching ; indeed, I
am told that there are few Mon who do not speak Bur-
laese, some having unlearned their native language.
In the 16 th century the king of Pegu seems to have
been a powerful monarch ; inasmuch as the Thay
histories speak of a Pegu invasion of Siam, and a Pegu
conquest. Whether, however, the leading men in this
event were actual Mon is uncertain. A conquest from
the kingdom of Pegu may have been effected by Bur-
mese.
But little, too, is known of its nearest congener, the
Kho, Kamer, or Chong of Kambojia. Its alphabet is
Pali origin ; its literature Buddhist. It appears (though
the evidence is not conclusive) to fall into more dialects
and sub-dialects than one.
Lying between Siam and Cochin-China, the kingdom
of Kambojia has had the ordinary history of areas simi-
larly situated. When it has been strong it has struck
its own blows — to the right and to the left. When it
THE MON AND KHO.
57
has been weak, it has been stricken on both sides. When
the Portuguese first discovered the country, its power was
at or near its zenith ; and Siam and Cochin-China were,
at best, but its equals. At present they encroach upon
it ; yet, jealous of each other, leave it a modicum of
independence. So that, with the parts to the east of
the Mekhong under Cochin-China, and with the western
side under Siam, there is still a central portion under
the king of Kambojia. The population is about
500,000, of which about 400,000 are of the Kho
family, the rest being Chinese, Cochin-Chinese, Siamese,
Malays, Portuguese, and half-bloods.
English.
Mdn.
Kambojia.
Ka.
Khong.
Man
bani
manus
—
ram
Head
kadap
kabal
tnwi
tos
Eye
mot
panek
mat
mat
Mouth
pan
mat
boar
raneng
Sun
man-tangwe
tangai
tangi
tangi
Moon
man-katok
ke
kot
kang
Star
nong
pakai
patua
sum
Sky
taka
kor
krem
pleng
Fire
kamet
plung
xm
pleu
Water
dat
tak
dak
tak
River
bukbi
tanle
dak -tan i
talle
Sea
taUe
earmot
—
—
Stone
kamok
tamo
t^moe
tamot
Mountain
ta
pnom
manam
nong
One
mne
moe
moe
moe
Two
ba
pir
bur
bar
Three
pai
bai
peh
peh
Four
pol
bnan
puan
pon
Fire
pason
pram
chang
pram
Six
ka-rao
pram-moe
trao
ka-dom
Seven
ka-bok
pram-pil
puh
ka-nul
Fight
ka-cham
pram-bai
tam
ka-ti
Nine
ka-chit
pram-bxian
chin
ka-sar
Ten
cboh
dap
chit
raL
The Carnicobar language is Mon with Malay ele-
ments.
'58 THE ANDAMAN ISLANDERS.
CHAPTER VIII.
The Andaman Islanders.
So mucb has been said about the black skins and
the savage habits of the Mincopie or Andaman is-
landers, that the opinion of many ethnologists has
been in favour of separating them from the populations
of their neighbourhood, and either mixing them up
with the so-called . Negritos, or making a separate class
of them. They are noticed as early as the twelfth
century, i. e. by the two Mahometan travellers of Re-
naudot. These write, that beyond the Nicobar Islands
" lies the sea of Andaman. The people on this coast
eat human flesh quite raw ; their complexion is black,
their hair frizzled, their countenance and eyes fi'ightful ;
their feet are very large, and almost a cubit in length,
and they go quite naked. They have no embarkations ;
if they had, they would devour all the passengers they
could lay hands on.'' Marco Polo writes equally unfavour-
ably— " Andaman is a very large island, not governed
by a king. The inhabitants are idolators, and are a
most brutish and savage race, having heads, eyes, and
teeth resembling those of the canine species. Their
dispositions are cruel, and every person, not being of
their own nation, whom they can lay hands on, they
kill and eat."
A Paper, by Lieutenant ' Colebrooke, is the chief
source of our knowledge concerning the Mincopie, the
author being indebted to his predecessors Major Kyd
and Captain Blair, for some of his facts. He describes
them as plunged in the grossest ignorance and barbarity ;
THE ANDAMAN ISLANDERS.
59
bai'ely acquits them of the charge of cannibalism ; and
unhesitatingly affirms that they are guilty of the
murder of the crews of such vessels as may be wrecked
upon their coast. Does he do this on the strength of
his observation or his reading ?
The late Sir Charles Malcolm, who had had one of
the natives aboard-ship with him, took considerable
pains to dilute the charges that lay against this ill-famed
population, and spoke in strong terms as to the gentle-
ness and docility of the individual with whom he thus
came in contact.
With the last year or two our knowledge of them
has increased, and the extent to which they are Burmese
is likely to be recognized.
English.
Andaman.
Man
kamolan
chamai, Koreng, tkc.
Hair
otti
khota, Sgau.
Bead
tabay
tnwi, Ka.
Eye
jabay
Ear
kwaka
Mouth
moma
boar, Xa.
Arm
pilie
Nose
melli
Finger
momay
Hand
gonie
onie
pang, Lakuppa.
Blood
kotshengolii
Belly
napoi
Teeth
mahoi
Breast
kah
Tongue
talie
Bone
gitongay
ghi, Sgau.
Chin
pitang
Foot
guki
Knee
ingolay
Leg
tshigie
Fire
mona
m^n, Sgau.
Water
migway
may, ThounglAu.
Shy
madamo
Sun
ahay
Moon
tabic
Star
tshelobay
60
THE ANDAMAN ISLANDERS.
English.
Andaman.
Wind
tomjamy
Wood
tanghi
ton = tree, Siamese; thinkung,
House
beaday
Kapwi.
Bird
lohay
tho, Sgau; tawu, iHfjit.
Fish
nabohi
nya, Sgau.
Black
tshigiuga
Cold
tshoma.
COCHIN-CHINA. 61
k
CHAPTER IX.
CocMn-Cliiiia, or Annam, and Tonkin.
The ethnology of Cochin-China is also that of Tonkin ;
the language, manners, and physical conformation of the
occupants of the two countries being the same. The
collective name for them is Anam, or Annam ; whence
•we get the adjectives Anamese or Anamitic, as the name
of the group ; which is a section of the division to which
the Chinese belong. The Tonkinese call the Cochin-Chi-
nese Kuang and Kekuang ; names which are, probably,
the same as Khyen and Kakhyen. The Cochin-Chinese,
on the other hand, call the Tonkinese Kebak.
Tabard, in the preface to the Anamitic Dictionary,
expressly states that the language is spoken bej'ond the
boundaries of both Tonkin, and Cochin-China, and that it
extends into Siam, Kambojia, and Tsampa. If it ex-
tend far into Kambojia, the Kho area must be of the
smallest.
In Kambojia, where we find Buddhism, we find it con-
nected with a knowledge of the Pali language and the
use of an Indian alphabet. The alphabet, however,
in Anam is Chinese ; and it is Chinese which is the
learned language.
English.
Man
mad
Eye
Mouth
Sun
Moon
Star
Qese ; and
it is Chinese
which
Cochin-China.
Cochin-China.
Tonkm.
nga'oi
danon
nguoi
dau
tu
di&a
male
mok
mok
mieng
kaa
kaa
mat-troi
nhet
nit
mat-tran
blang
blang
sac
sao
sao
62
COCHIN-CHINA.
English.
Cocliin-China. Cochin-China.
Tonkin,
Sky
troi bloei
bloei
Fire
lu'a hoa
hoa
Water
nu'oe nak
nak
River
song sou
sou
Sea
Men be
be
Stone
da ta
dia
Mowntain
nui nui
nui
One
mot mot
mot
Two
bai bai
hai
Three
ba teng
t<am
Four
bon bon
bon
Five
nam lang
lam
Six
sau lak
Ink
Seven
bay bai
bai
Eight
tarn' tang
tarn
Niiie
cbin' chin
chim
Ten
mu'oi taap
tap.
The Anam analogues of the Ka and Chong, the rude
tribes of the more impracticable parts, are the tribes of
the Nguon, Moi, Komoi, Kemoi and, Diditsh (all un-
known in detail), who occupy the mountain ranges
between Tonkin and Cochin-China, and Cochin-China and
Kambojia.
CHINA. 63
CHAPTER X
China. — Canton, Fokien, and Mandarin Dialects. — Stagfts. — Are there anyl
— Gyami. — Tanguti.
Of the dialects of the Chinese Proper, as opposed to the
Anamitic of Tonkin, we know but little ; little, at least,
for such a country as China, with its vast area and its
numerous inhabitants. Indeed, if we consider this, it is
a country for which our knowledge of its local dialects
is at a minimum,. Elsewhere we generally know some-
thing of the details of what may be called the fringe ;
i. e. the tract where two countries come in contact with
each other. But China has so thoroughly overlapped all
its neighbouring populations, that knowledge of this
kind is out of the question. Add to this, the fact of its
being, as China, a terru ina)gnita for anything but a
few points on the coast.
Still there are a few weak lights. They chiefly shine
on the south and the west.
The most southern dialect for which we have speci-
mens, is that of the province of Quantong, or Canton —
and next to this, that of Hokien, or Fokien, for which
■we have the elaborate dictionary of Medhurst. Med-
hurst himself was not in China ; but he knew the
Chinese as a resident in Liverpool, who had made it his
business to attend exclusively to the Irish, might know
the Irish Gaehc. He was connected with the Chinese of
the great immigration to the Malayan Peninsula and the
Indian Islands. Of these the majority were fiom the
south.
Medhurst commits himself most explicitly to the
64 CHINESE DIALECTS.
statement that there are forms of even the Canton and
the Fokien dialects which are mutually unintelligible ;
and adds that, in his intercourse with the Chinese emi-
grants of the Indian Archipelago, he has more than
once had occasion to interpret between them. He also
adds that, in the same province, the dilFerence of dialects
is sometimes so great, that people divided by a moun-
tain, a' river, or twenty miles of country, are mutually
unintelligible. That statements of this kind must be
received with caution has already been suggested.
Meanwhile, in the ten divisions of the province of
Fokien, there are as many dialects ; Fokien being one
of the smallest provinces of the empire.
The Fokien is not so provincial a dialect as to re-
main unwritten. On the contrary, the work from
which the preceding observations are drawn, is founded
upon a native publication, the Sip gnoe yimffzz fifteen
sounds, published in 1818, in which not only the pecu-
liarities of the Fokien dialect are given, but the
difference between the reading idiom and the colloquial.
Another work of the same kind is quoted by Adelung
from Bayer, aod, doubtless, there are more of the same
kind. This means that the Fokien, though not the
classical, is one of the written languages of China.
The classical language of China is the Mandarin, it
being in the Mandarin dialect that the business of
the empire is carried on. It is also the language of the
Chinese literature. Whatever may be the antiquity of
this, the antiquity of the oldest specimen of the language
is but moderate. It is, of course, as old as the oldest
copy of the book that contains it, and it is very probable
that it is not much older. At any rate, any antiquity
beyond this that may be claimed for it, should be proved
rather than assumed. Those who believe in the great
age of the earliest Chinese literature, e. g. those who not
only believe that the works of Confucius (for instance)
have come down to us, but that Confucius lived some-
STAGES OF CHINESE. 65
where between the times of Archilochus and u^Ischj'Ius,
reasonably expect that, as the Greek of the days of
Solon differs from the Greek of the reign of King Otho,
the Chinese shall do the same ; not, perhaps, to the
same extent, but still to some extent — to an extent
sufficient to enable us to talk about the stages of the lan-
guage, and to compare the old Chinese with the middle,
and the middle with the modern. Something, too, they
may reasonably expect illustrative of the history and
development of the language ; though, from the fact of
the present Chinese being in an early stage of develop-
ment, not very much. Little, however, of all this will
they actually find. The difference between the Manda-
rin of to-day, and the oldest classical Chinese is (roughly
speaking) the difference of two centuries, rather than
two millenniums — assuming, of course, anything like an
ordinary rate of change.
But is there not in China an amount of unchanging
immobility, in language as in other matters, which we
fail to find elsewhere ? To this I answer that such may
be, or may not be, the case. Let it be proven, and it
is an important fact in the history of mankind. At
present it is enough to state that nothing in the
way of the language of China is older than the oldest
copy which exhibits it, except so far as its antiquity
is supported by better reasons than the supposed an-
tiquity of the author.
Concernincf the dialect out of which the Mandarin
was more especially developed, we may safely say
that it must be sought to the north of the province
of Fokien, and the south of the province of Pecheli.
This means that the group to which it belongs has its
area in the middle of the empire. The extent to which
it is other than southern has already been indicated.
The extent to which it is other than northern, is in-
ferred from the direction in which it has extended
itself. On some points (at least) it is less archaic than
the Canton.
F
66
GYAMI VOCABULARY.
English.
Mandarin.
Cantun
Head
te*u
te'u
Eye
ma
mok
Ear
61
y
Nose
pi
pi
Mouth
ke'u
hou
Tongue
shi
shit
Hand
shea
sheu
Foot
kio
koh
Blood
khiue
hiut
Sun
zhi
yat
Moon
yue
yuet
Star
zing
zing
Fire
kho
ho
Water
shui
shoi
Tree
mu
mok
Stone
eki
shap
One
i
yik
Two
ny
y
Three
zan
zam
Four
EZU
si
Five
ngu
ong
Six
Iti
lok
Seven
tsi
tsat
Eight
pa
pat
Nine
kiea
kou
Ten
ski
shap.
Of the Chinese of the extreme west I only know
the Gyami vocabulary of Hodgson. A vocabulary
of Stralenberg's, headed "Tanguliti who belong to the
Dalai Lama, and have one religion with the Kalmues
and Mungals/' is Bhot.
1.
English.
Gyami.
English.
Gyami.
Man
rin
Two
liangka
Head
thau
Three
sangku
Hand
syu
Four
siku
Foot
chyaa
Five
wuku
Sun
rethau
Six
leuku
Moon
yoliang
Seven
chhiku
Star
singsha
Eight
paku
Fire
akkha
Nine
chyaku
Water
shiu
Ten
iseba.
One
iku
TANGUHTI VOCABULARY.
G7
Znglish.
Tanguliti.
Engrsh.
Tangnbti
Father
pha, abba
Foot
kangwa
Mother
mha, amma
One
dschyk
Brother
pungu
Two
ny.na
Sister
poima
Three
Esaam
Wife
dsgvmse
Four
dscysx
Fire
may
Fire
duga
Water
tzu, loo
Six
umch
Earth
tza
Seven
dhnn
Mountain
la, rhe
Eight
dsqnat
Sun
nara, nima
Nine
dsgu-tomba
Moon
dawa
Ten
dsgyn
Horse
tha
Eleven
dsgu -dschyk
Bog
ky
Twelve
dsgu-ny
Bead
mgho
Twenty
nyr-dschyk
Stream
tza
Thirty
nyr-dsgu-tomba
Wind
long
Forty
dschyack-dsgu
Man (homo)
my
Fifty
duga -dsgu
Eye
myhi
Sixty
dhuin-d^n
Tongue
thgi
Seventy
dsgliat-dsgu
Mouth
cha
Eighty
dsgu-tomba -dsgu
House
tangwa
Ninety
dsgu-dsgli
Iron
tscha, tawar
One Hundred
yreen
Gold
siiT, kinsa
One Thousand
namm.
Silver
mai, insa
F 2.
68
BROWN'S TABLES.
CHAPTER XI.
Observations on the Preceding Groups. — Brown's Tables. — Affinity between
the Burmese and Tibetan. — Direction of the Chinese. — Nearest Con-
geners to the Malay. —Indian Affinities of the Mon.
The first reduction of the languages of the preceding
chapter to anything like system is to be found in the
papers of Buchanan and Leyden in the early numbers
of the Asiatic Transactions. The next landmark is
Brown's vocabularies and table. Of the former we
have already spoken. The latter is as follows : —
<i3
^
3
03
5.
.si
a5
'-3
q3
92
1
. s
1 5
8
8
o
a
3
10
2
3
1
"3
6C
a.
0
CO
1
%
0
a
0
1
a
0
"a
a
0
0
H
0
C
0
60
H
0
.'2
"0
-a
«
0
0
a)
a
5
Khamti . . . .
Siamese . . .
92
0
0 3
6
8
3
10
1
3
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
A'ka
1
0
47 20
17
12
15
15
5
11
3
10
3
8
8
8
5
6
10
8
10
0
A'bor
1
0
47
!20
11
10
18
11
6
15
6
11
5
8
6
8
8
8
10
10
18
0
MishimI . . .
5
3
20
20
10
10
10
13
10
11
0
11
0
3
5
6
8
6
13
10
8
1
Burmese . . .
8
6
17
1110
23
23
26
12
16
8
20
6
11
11
11
10
13
13
16
16
1
Karen
8
8
12
10 10
23
17
21
8
15
10
15
8
12
4
12
8
12
12
10
15
2
Singpho ....
o
3
15
18 10
23
17
70
16
25
10
18
11
11
13
15
13
25
13
20
18
5
Jill
10
10
15
1113
26
21
70
22
16
10
21
13
11
11
18
20
20
13
20
20
3
Garo .....
3
1
5
6 10
12
8
16
22
10
5
6
5
8
5
8
13
11
5
6
6
3
Manipurl . . .
3
3
11
15 11
16
15
25
16
10
21
41
18
25
28
31
28
36
33
40
50
6
Songpu . . . .
1
1
3
6 0
8
10
10
10
5
21
35
50
53
20
23
15
15
13
8
16
6
Kapwl . . . .
0
0
10
1111
20
15
18
21
6
41
35
30
33
20
35
30
40
45
38
40
5
Koreng . . . .
1
1
3
5 0
6
8
11
13
5
18
50
30
41
18
21
20
20
—
10
16
3
Maram . . . .
0
0
8
8, 3
11
12
11
11
8
25
53
33
41
2128
25
20
16
23
26
3
Camphung . .
0
0
8
6l 5
11
4
13
11
5
28
20
20
18
21
40
20
20
16
15
25
3
Luhuppa . . .
0
0
8
8 6 11
12
15
18
8
31
23
35
21
28
40
63
56
36
33
40
6
N. Tangkhnl .
0
0
5
8 8
10
8
13
20
13
28
15
30
20
25
20
63
85
30
31
31
3
C. T&ngkhul .
0
0
6
8' 6
13
12
25
20
11
35
15
40
20
20
20
55
85
41
46
41
1
S. T&ngkhul .
0
0
10
10 13
13
12
13
13
5,
33
13
45
11
16
16
36
30
41
43
43
6
Khoiba ....
0
0
8
10 10
16
10
20
20
s!
40
8
38
10
23
15
33
31
46
43
78
3
Maring ....
0
0
10
18' 8
16
15
18
20
5:50
15
40
15
26
26
40
31
4]
43
78
3
Anamese . . .
5
5
0
O' 1
1
2
5
3
3' 6
6
5
3 3|
3
5
3
1
6
3
3
DIRECTION OF THE CHINESE. 69
Whoever studies it must see that, between the per-
centages of the Anamitic and Siamese on one side, and
those of the remaining forms of speech on the other,
there are the elements of a great chiss. This comprises
the Singpho and the Jill — specially allied to each other.
But it also gives a decided affinity between the Jili and
the Garo, which brings the languages of India and the
extremity of Asam in connection.
The affinities of the Garo with the Tibetan were
indicated by Robinson, and the indication was legiti-
mate ; though it would have been better, perhaps, to
have made them Burmese. At any rate it was good
against Mr. Hodgson's view, which made them Indian
rather than Monosyllabic at all — a view which, with
laudable candour, he after wai-ds rehnquished.
Soon afterwards additional vocabularies, accompanied
with a few short but sound remarks, added the whole
Naga group to this class.
The relations of the Bm-mese, Mon, Siamese, Anamitic,
and Chinese to each other form the basis of more than one
speculation. They bear upon the history of the exten-
sion and development of the Chinese itself They bear
upon the origin and direction of the Thay and Burmese
movements. They bear upon the relations of the Malay
languages to those of the continent. Finally, the
Indian elements of the Mon have commanded atten-
tion.
1. If the nearest congeners of the Chinese be in the
south and east, the lines of conquest and encroachment
on the part of that inordinately-extensive population
must have run north and west. At present the lan-
guages with which the Chinese lies in contact give con-
trasts rather than affinities. With the Mantshu and
Mongol, and even with the Corean, this is notoriously
the case ; and, to a great extent, it is the case with
the Tibetan. On the north and west the Chinese keeps
encroaching at the present moment — at the expense of
70
PEROENTAaES OF BEOWFS TABLES.
the Mantslm and the Mongolian. For the provinces of
Chansi, Pe-tche-li, Chantung, Honan, &;c., — indeed, for
four-fifths of the whole empire, the uniformity of speech
indicates a recent diffusion. In Setshuen and Yunnan the
type changes, probably from that of the true Chinese to
the Tibetan, Thay, and Burmese. In Tonkin and Cochin -
China the language is like but different — like enough to
be the only monosyllabic language which is placed by any
one in the same section with the Chinese, but different
enough to make this position of it a matter of doubt
with many. Putting all this together, the south and
south-eastern provinces of China appear to be the oddest
portions of the present area.
2. Separated as they are, the Mon and Kho are liker
to each other than either is to the interjacent Siamese;
the inference from this being that at one time they were
connected by transitional and intermediate dialects, ab-
original to the lower Menam, but now displaced by the
Siamese of Bankok introduced from the parts to the
northwards.
3. If so, the nearest congener to the Malay of the
Malayan Peninsula is not the present Siamese, but the
language which the present Siamese displaced.
The southern Thay dialects are not only less like the
Mon and Kho than is expected from their locality, but
the northern ones are less like those of the Indo-Bur-
mese frontier and Asam than the geographical contiguity
prepares us to surmise ; since the percentage of words
common to the Khamti and the other dialects of Muni-
pur and Asam is only as follows.
Siamese.
Kliam' L
0
0 per cen*^.
■ttitli th
3 Mar&m.
0
0 „
Camphung.
0
0 ,.
Luliuppa.
0
0 „
North Tankhul.
0
0 „
Central Tfi,ukbul
0
0
Khoibti.
0
0
Mariiig.
INDIAN ELEMENTS IN THE MON.
71
Siamese.
Khaciti.
0
0 per cent.
with the Kapwi.
1
1
Koreng.
1
1
Songpu.
0
1
Aka.
0
1
Abor.
0
3
Sonth Tankhul
1
3
Garo.
3
3
Munipuri.
3
5
Mishimi.
6
8
Burmese.
8
8
Karen.
3
3
Singpho.
10
10
Jill.
I
The further the Thay runs south, the more it stands
in contrast to the languages by which it is bounded.
Those with which it has the most affinities are the
Singpho dialects, and after these the Western Shot. It
seems as if the Menam directed its course. It follows
its stream, displaces the forms of speech by which the
Mon and Kho may reasonably be held to have gradu-
ated into each other, and, having done this, comes in
immediate contact with the Malay, with which it has
fewer affinities than its juxtaposition suggests.' For —
The true Malay affinities are with the Kho and Mon, or
rather with that intermediate variety which the spread of
the Thay abolished. No wonder, then, that its connec-
tion with the languages of the continent .is obscure.
4. A paper of Mr. Mason's, in the Transactions of
the American Oriental Society, exhibits some remarkable
points of likeness between the Mon and certain lan-
guages of India. The fii'st numerals are especially
prominent in this comparison.
Does this justify us in connecting the two forms of
speech ? I doubt it. The question, however, will be
considered when India comes under notice.
72 THE TUNGUS LANGUAGES.
CHAPTER XII.
The Tungds Class. — Mantslifi and Orotshong. — Orthogi-apliy of CastrSn's
Tungus Grammar.
The Tungus area is large in extent, irregular in outline,
and obscure in its relations. On the south it conies in
contact with China and Corea ; on the south-west with
Mongolia. Between Corea and the Amur, it reaches the
sea ; the peninsula, however, of Sagalin and the mouth
of the Amur itself are Kurilian. It crops out again to
the north ; and the shores of the Sea of Okotsk are
the occupancy of the Lamut Tungus to the south and
the Koriaks to the north. There are sporadic Tungus
further on — on the coast of the gulf of Penjinsk, and
even in the peninsula of Kamtchatka. The AJdan, a
feeder of the Lena, is pre-eminently a Tungus river : so
is the Tunguska (as its name indicates), a feeder of the
Yenisey. And this gives us a notion of the magni-
tude of the area in its western and northern prolonga-
tions. Between the Yenisey and the Kolyma it is con-
tinually presenting itself; so that there are Tungtis
in contact with the Koriaks, the Jukahiri, the Jakuts,
and the Samoyeds. There are Tungus on the Wall of
China, and there are Tungus on the shores of the Arctic
Ocean.
The class falls into two divisions — the Mantshii and
the Orotong or Orotshong ; the former giving the Tung4s
of the Amur, the latter the Tungus of the Lena and
Yenisey. The former gives the Tungus of the Chinese
Empire, the Tungus of the Imperial Dynasty, the Tungtis
of a Buddhist literature and Mongol alpliabet, the Tun-
THE TUNGUS LANGUAGES. 73
giis of the civilized section of the name. The latter
belongs to Kussia and Siberia, and, except so far as it
has been cultivated by Europeans, is an unwritten lan-
guage.
The term Orotong is Alantshti ; being applied by the
Mantshurians to such other members of the stock as are
other than Mantshu. The tribes, however, of the Lower
Tunguska apply it to themselves. In its more limited
sense, Tungus itself coincides with Orotong. No one
ever calls a Mantshu a Tungus. A Tungus Gnxinimary
however, is the title of Castren's work on the Orotong
of Irkutsk, and its allied dialects.
In respect to the direction in which the Tungus lan-
guage has spread itself it is safe to say thus much, viz.
that it runs from east to west, and from south to north,
rather than vice versa. There are good grounds for
holding that both the Corean and the Kurilian extended
beyond their present limits ; so that it is likely that the
Mantshus were originally strangers to the Sea of Japan.
The evidence that the Tungus of the Arctic and Sub-
arctic regions is intrusive, is more satisfactory still. Th'"
head-waters of the Amtir, and the parts about Nerts-
hinsk, give a good provisional origin to the Tungus.
The Mantshu alphabet — the alphabet of a language
with a very scanty literature — is a modification of the
Mongol. The Orotshong dialects, however, are given
either in Russian or Italian letters : the Tungus Gram-
mar of Castren being in the latter.
The following are the more important terms connected
with the ethnolog}' and philology of the Tungus : —
Lamut. — This means sea, and it applies to the Tun-
gus of the Sea of Okotsk. The affinities of the Lamut
dialects run in the direction of —
Dauria. — The Daurian Tungus are those of the
Baikal Lake, the Sayanian Mountains, and the circles of
Verkneudinsk and Nertskintsk. It is the dialects and
74 THE TUNGUS LANGUAGES.
sub-dialects of these tribes that are more especially illus-
trated in Castreu's Grammar, which most particularly
gives the dialects of the Urulga and Maniko tribes. Of
the language of
Tshapodzhir Tungtis, we have vocabularies only.
They occupy the banks of the Yenisey, and constitute
the most western division of the stock.
The differences of the Tungtis forms of speech lie
within a narrow compass, and (I believe) coincide with
the geography of the area. Between the Lamut and
the Tshapodzhir there is, apparently, a greater difference
than can be found between any interjacent varieties.
The same applies to the Nertshinsk dialects of the south,
and more northern dialects of the Yakut and Samoyed
districts. In short, the different forms of speech gra-
duate into each other. They also take slight modifica-
tions from the languages of their several frontiers. On
the south, the Mantshu is encroached upon by the
Chinese. In Siberia, it takes in Russian, Mongol, and
Turk words. About the Mantshti of the Kurilian fron-
tier more will be said in the sequel.
The Mongols call the MRntshn either JJzun Dzhurtsh it
or Angga Dzhurtshit ; and this is a word which appears
and reappears under a multiplicity of forms. It is
Tshurtshit, Zhudzhi, Nyudzhi, and Geougen ; the
latter being a name of some, real or apparent, historical
importance. Castren has allowed himself to believe
tliat a population bearing this name in certain of the
Chinese compositions, was as old as the eleventh cen-
tury before our sera. They were barbarians who paid
an insignificant tribute to China. The truly historical
Nyudzhi, however, are the founders of the present
Chinese dynasty, their conquests having been effected
about A.D. 1644 ; and it may be added that a Nyudzhi
vocabulary, taken by Klapoth from a Chinese narrative,
is Mantshij.
\
THE TUNGL'S LANGUAGES.
75
Gastrin found outlying Tsliapodzhirs as far west as
the Obi. In Bronson, a vocabulary of the Giliak lan-
guage, often — I believe, generally — considered to be
Kurilian, is Mantshu.
The Mantshu call —
China
Nikan.
The Mongolians .
Monga.
The Russians
Oros.
Nertshinsk
Ntjttshi,
The Giliak.
Fiaka.
Korea
SoJgo.
Tlie last name is remarkable because the Mantshu
tribes of the Upper Sagalin are called Solon ; and
because there is evidence of other kinds that a portion,
at least, of what is now Mantshuria, was once Korea.
Englisk
Maul&ha.
Tnngds of the Am6r.
Man {homo)
beye
Head
ndzhn
topti
Hair
faniekhe
nnrikta
Eye
yasa
yesa
Ear
shan
syen
Nose
okhoFO
ongokto
Mouth
anga
ommila
Tongue
ilengu
ini
Tooth
Teikhe
ikta
Hand
gala
nyala
Foot
betkhe
adbigi
SutL
shUn
delesa
Moo*
bia
bega
Star
nzhikha
ohikta
Fire
toa
toho
Water
muke
mu
Stone
vekbe
dsholo
One
emu
ma
Two
dzheio
dyul
Three
elan
ehi
Pour
diun
duye
Five
snndzha
tonsa
Six
ningfjim
nyuyu
Seren
nadan
nada
Eight
dzakun
tshapku
Nine
uyun
khuju
Ten
dzfanan
dzh--.
76
THP] TUNGUS LANGUAGES.
The following short tables give a notion of the sub-
dialects of this division : —
English.
Middle Amur.
Moutliof Sangara.
Mantsbu.
Kisi.
Om
amuu
omu
amoa
omu
Two
dyno
dzur
dzhoua
dyul
Three
elan
ela
gilang
ela
Four
diyia
duye
tuye
duye
Five
tonsya
tonga
sundzha
tonsa
Six
nunyun
nyungu
nyunguen
nyungu
Seven
nadan
nada
nadang
nada
Eight
dzabkun
dzhakfo
tsakoi
tshapku
Nine
yogin
huyu
uyen
khuyii
Tea
dzhan
dzhoa
dzhuyen
dzha.
Dialects other than Mantshu.
1.
English.
Nertshinsk.
Yakutsk.
Lamut.
Man (homo)
boie
boye
bye
Bead
deli
dyll
del
Hair
nyurikta
nyuritta
nyurit
Eye
isal
eha
esel
Ear
zin
zen
korot
Nose
ongokta
ongokto
ongata
Mouth
amga
hamun
amga
Tongue
ingni
ingni
ilga
Band
dzlialan
nggala
ngal
Foot
bokdil
halgan
bodan
Sun
shivun
ziguni
nyultan
Moon
biga
bega
bekh
Star
oshikta
haulen
otshikat
Fire
togo
togo
toh
Water
mu
mu
ma
Tree
mo
mo
mo
Stone
dzhalo
dzholo
dzhola
One
omon
fimukon
omin
Two
dzhur
dzhur
dzhur
Three
ilan
elan
elan
Four
dygin
dygin
dugUn
Five
tongna
tonga
tongau
Six
nyungua
nyungun
nyungun
Seven
nadan
nadan
nadan
Eight
dzhapkun
dzapkan
dzbapkan
Nine
yagyn
jagin
uyun
Ten
dzhan
dzhan
men.
THE TUNGUS LANGUAGES.
77
English.
Yeneseu
2.
Tshapodzhir.
L. Tnngnska.
Mangasela.
Man (homo) boya
doyo
boya
boyo
ffead
dil
dyl
dil
dil
Hair
nyivrikta
nyurikta
nuriktah
nyurikta
Eye
osha
esha
ohsah
esha
Ear
shin
shern
syen
shen
Nose
nigsha
oiokota
onoktah
ongokto
Mouth
amga
ainga
amga
ammungah
Hand
hanga
nali
ngala
ngala
Foot
halgar
bodol
khalgan
halgan
Sun
shiggun
dylega
delatsha
delyadzya
Moon
byega
baga
beya
Star
oshikta
oshikta
oshikta
oshikta
Fire
toggo
togo
toggo
togo
Water
ma
mu
mui
mu
Tree
mo
mo
mo
mo
Stone
dishollo
zhyulo
hysha
dzyollo
One
ummukon
omukon
mnkon
ommukon
Two
dzyur
dzhur
dyur
dyur
Three
illun
ilan
ilan
illen
Four
diggin
dygyn
degenn
diggin
Five
tungya
tunga
tonga
tongna
Six
nyungun
nugun
nungnn
nynngun
Seven
nadan
nadan
naddan
naddan
Eight
dzyapkun
dzhamkun
dzhapkul
dzapkun
Nine
yegin
yegin
iyogyin
yogyin
Ten
dzyan
dzhan
dyann
dzhan.
Castren's Tungus Grammar is drawn up in the ordi-
nary Roman alphabet, the author having preferred this
to the Russian. The latter would, indeed, have fitted
the language well, being both more copious than the
Roman, and being already applied to more than one
language of Northern Asia. More than this : one of
Castren's own grammars — that of the Ostiak language
— is Russian in respect to its letters. Nevertheless, the
Tungus orthography is Roman, the grammar itself being
in German.
The introduction of the European alphabets into Rus-
sian Asia is a point which we may advantageously con-
template, inasmuch as the principles by which it has
been regulated are, if not unexceptionable, at least laud-
able.
78 TUKGUS ORTHOGRAPHY.
These alphabets are two : the Russian and the
Roman or Italian. The former is the easier to handle
— the easier by far. By this I mean that, when an
unwritten language has to be written, and the elemen-
tary sounds of that unwritten language are new and
strange, the Russian orthography can be applied with
greater ease than any other in Europe. Of the pre-
viously unwritten languages, the following have, within
the last few years, been embodied by means of the
Russian alphabet : —
1. The Aleutian of the Islands between Kamtskatka
and America.
2. The Iron, or Osset, of Caucasus ; the application
being made by Sjogren.
3. The Ostiak ; the application being made by Cas-
tren. This was in 1849.
4. The Yakut ; the application being made by Mid-
dendorf and Botlinck.
What have been the applications of the Roman alpha-
bet ? — what the principles on which those applications
were made ? To the Fin of Finland it had been applied
from the beginning; Finland having, until 1812, been
Swedish. On the other hand, the Zirianian and the
Permian languages are written in Russian. The Esto-
nian, however, and the Magyar are Roman ; so that, on
the whole, it is not too much to say that the Roman is
the alphabet for the Fin family.
In 1830, the great Danish philologue, Rask, found
his attention dii-ected to the Georgian and Armenian
languages ; each with an alphabet one-third longer than
our own, and each with strange sounds for those alpha-
bets to express. However, they did express them :
having signs or letters to match. These signs Rask
transliterated into Roman ; and that upon a principle
which, though negative rather than positive, is worthy
of imitation as far as it goes. He avoided the expres-
sion of simple sounds by complex combinations. If a
TUNGUS ORTHOGRAPUY. 79
new sound appeared, a new sign was excogitated. It
might be wholly new, it might be an old letter modified.
The former gives us the better and bolder, the latter the
more usual and easier, plan. How^ever, in the proposed
alphabet the Greorgian runs thus : —
a,
e,
h
o,
u,
p>
f,
V,
F.
t,
d,
\>,
k,
§>
fe,
T'
q>
X,
s,
z,
s.
z,
c,
3,
3.
c,
i,
3.
h
\
ii,
1,
m.
n,
r,
1.1.
f, ]>, and k, were sounded as the ph, th, and kh in
ha-pAazard, nu-/Aook, and iu-A7iorn ; the original alpha-
bets having thus compendiously expressed three pairs of
compound sounds. If it were not for this, the combina-
tions of p, t, k, and h would have suflBced. The y was,
nearly or exactly, the Arabic A, a variety of g. The
corresponding variety of k is expressed by q, compared
to the Arabic ;;. Another guttural was expressed by x
(Aiabic •). For two varieties of h, were proposed h
and i) ; for the sibilants s' (sh) ; z' (zh) ; c (is) ; c' (tsh) ;
5 (dz) ; 3 {dzh or the English j). Then, for a pair of
sounds described as approaching dhz, and dhzh, 3 and 3.
The Ai-menian transliteration had the additional si^ns 6,
e, t, and r.
a,
e,
e,
e,
h
0,
u,
P»
b, u or w
V,
F>
t,
d,
h
k,
g.
k,
f or i
X,
s,
z,
1
i,
c,
3,
3.
c,
i
3>
1,
m,
n,
r,
r,
h
h.
Previous to the work in which these two alphabets
were proposed, the author had been engaged on the Lap
of Norwegian Lapland, and had published a grammar
on it, in which the signs 5 and 3 were introduced ; as
well as n for the ng in king, sing, kc.
Though Castren's Ostiak Grammar, published in
1849, is in Russian, his Zirianian Grammar, published
80 NYUTSHI RECORDS.
in 1844, is in Eoman letters; these being those of
Eask, except that for 5 and 3, lie used dz and dz.
The Samoyed was the next sound-system he found
it necessary to investigate. Here there were two
modifications of I, viz., t, \, and {; the sound of the gn
in French words like Boulogne, alonoj with similar modi-
fications of d, t, s, z, and c ; which were written dy, ty,
sy, zy, tshy — there or thereabouts.
Lastly, the Tushi alphabet of Schiefner contains x, h,
^, g, c, c, c, i, s, z, t, p, 1. ^
All this, though exceptionable in many respects, is
better than the system too much in vogue amongst our-
selves of making; combinations.
It has already been stated that there is such a thing
as a Mantshu alphabet, and that it is a modification of
the Mongol. This implies a Mantshii literature. It is
a scanty one ; as may be seen from Klaproth's Mantshu
Chrestomathy. Neither is it ancient. It is possible,
however, that it may be both older and more important
than it seems. A paper,* by Mr. Wylie, of Shanghae,
gives us the following list of Neu-chih translations from
the Chinese, during, or earlier than, the Ming dynasty ;
(1,) History of Pwan-kti ; (2,) History of Confucius;
(3,) Travels of Confucius ; (4,) Domestic Discourses ;
(5,) Discourses of the Wise and Able from the Domestic
Discourses ; (6,) History of Keang Tafe-kung ; (7,) His-
tory of Woo Tzye-seu ; (8,) Narrative of the Display of
Rarities by Eighteen Kingdoms ; (9,) History of Sun
Pin ; (1 0,) Treatise on Carriage Driving ; (11,) History
of Hae Tseen Kung ; (12,) History of Madame Hwang;
(J 3,) National Surnames ; (14,) Ha ta yang {irh kan, —
whatever that may mean.
More interesting, still, is the notice of two Neu-chlh
inscriptions. The first, which from its locality, may be
called the Kln-chow monument, has been seen in situ
by no European. Neither is it copied verbatim et
* Journal of the Royal Society. Vol. xvii. Part 2. 1860.
I
NEUCHIH RECORDS. 81
literatim in China. Still, there is a Chinese work in
which there is a notice of it, and in wliich there is a
translation ; viz. The Choice Selections from Lapidary
Literature. This is the translation of the author whom I
follow of Shlh iniih tseuen hwa, by Chaou Han, and is
dated 1618. It contains the Chinese equivalent of the
Neuchih ; of which the following is the translation iii
English, by Mr. Wylie : — . ,
The local military director and prince of the blood, brother to the emperor
of the Great-Kin dynasty, having enjoyed a season of tranquillity ■within the
boundary of his jurisdiction, was hunting on the south side of Leang HiU.
On coming to Keen-ling (the imperial sepulchre) of the Tang dynasty, finding
the pavilion and side buildings in a state of decay, every yestige of magnifi-
cence having disappeared, he gave orders to the local authorities to assemble
artisans to reixiir and beautify the place. Now having again visited, the
sepulchres, finding the paintings all renewed, and the side galleries completely
restored, he was inexpressibly delighted, and returned after partaking of an
entertainment by the Prefect of Le-yang.
T'een-hwuy, 12th year (a. d. 1134), being the 51st year of the sexagenary
cycle, 11th month, 14th day, Hwang Yung-ke, Territorial Secretary to the
Supreme Council, and Wang Kwei, Secondary Prefect of Yew-chow, members
of the suite, have written this in compliance with the command.
Translation of the preceding inscription.
The heading of the tablet reads ' ' Record of the journey of the military
director and prince of the blood, the emperor's brother."
The author of the Shth mlh tseuen hwa adds the following note ; — name or
surname is mentioned. As the date is 1134, it should be the brother of
Tae-tsung, according to the history of the Kin dynasty. She-tsoo had eleven
sons ; there being eight besides Kang-tsung, Tae-tsoo and Ta^-tsung, it is
uncertain which is the one referred to. We cannot decipher a single word of
this inscription, which is written in the Neu-chih character. This table cor-
roborates what Wang Yuen-mei says : — " When enlightened princes are watch-
ful over their virtue, foreigners are attracted from every region. There is a
translation at the end, in the Chinese character, consisting of one hundred
and five characters, inscribed on the left side, but it is entirely diflFerent.
The engraved inscription is at Keen-ling, on the characterless tablet."
This is not the only notice. How far, however, the
testimonies of the two authors quoted may be inde-
pendent is more than I can say ; but in the Record of
the Metal and Stone Inscnptions of Shense {Kwan-
chung kin sMh fee), dated 1781, the following statement
G
82 NEUCHIH RECORDS.
concerning the inscription in question occurs: — "the first
part is written in the Neu-chih character, the latter part
is a translation written in the ordinary character ; the
heading is in the seal character. At Keen-ling, in ^Kln-
chow."
Of the other inscription, we still want even the pre-
liminary details. There is only a general notice of its
existence.
THE MONGOL LANGUAGES. ^3
CHAPTER XIII.
The Mongol Class. — Mongolian Proper. — Boriat. — Olot. — Armaulc. —
Pelu.— Sok.
The Mongol area is large, but not very irregular ;
neither are its frontiers veiy varied. On the south, it
i inarches with China and Tibet ; on the wast, with the
Turk area ; on the east, with the Mantshu. On the
north, there are the Tungus and the Russian of Siberia
j along with the languages of a few fragmentary abori-
gines. There are two isolated offsets, one in Cabul, and
one on the Yolga. The differences of dialect lie within
a narrow compass. The divisions are (1) the East Mon-
golian, or Mongol Proper ; (2) the Kalka ; (3) the Buriat ;
(4) the Ulut, Olot, or Eleut, or Kalmuk ; (5) the Aimauk.
1. The Mongol was reduced to writing in (about) the
time of Kublai Khan : the alphabet being taken from
the Uighur Turks. The classical composition in this dia-
lect is a Mongol history by Sanang Seetsen. The literary
influences are, at the present time, Chinese and Tibetan.
Buddhism, however, was preceded by Fire-worship and
(apparently) by an imperfect Christianity.
2. The Kalka, in which the chief compositions are
songs, leads from the Mongol Proper to
3. The Buriat ; the Buriats being (like the Orotong
as compared with the Mantshu) Siberian rather than
Chinese. Amongst the Buriats, Buddhism prevails ; the
Buriat Christianity being inchoate, the Buriat Maho-
metanism inconsiderable in amount. As contrasted with
the Mongols Proper, the Buriats are, to a great extent,
G 2
84 THE MONGOL LANGUAGES.
Pagans and in contact with Pagans — except (of course)
so far as they are under the influences of Russia.
In 1831, they numbered 72,000 males and 80,000
females : the present census amounting to about
190,000. They fall into the Buriats beyond, and the
Buriats on this side of, the Baikal. The former are the
Khorin, the Selenga, the Barguzin, the Kudarin, and the
Kudin (in part) tribes ; each with some peculiarities of
dialect. The latter — named after the rivers along which
they lie — are the remainder of the Kudin, the Upper
Lena, the Olkhon, the Ida, the Balagan, the Alari, and
the Tunka divisions ; the latter being, to some extent,
Turk and Samoyed in blood. The Selenga form of speech
is spoken in the greatest purity by the Atagan, Tsongol,
Sartal, and Tabang-gut.
The Buriat of the parts about Nizhni Udinsk, the
Buriat of the extreme west, call —
Themselves Buriat,
The Russians Mangut,
— Tungus Kaldzhak-shin,
— Katshintsi Turks Kat-kum,
— Kot Kotob-kvm,
— River Birus Byr-hu.
The chief difference between the Buriat and the
Kalka seems to be political. Neither is it quite certain
that Castren's divisions between the Buriat of this side
of the Baikal, and the Buriat beyond the Baikal, is
natural.
Tlie Selenga forms of speech approach most closely
to the written or literary language.
English.
Selenga.
Khorin.
Nizhni Uda,
Tunkin.
Man (vir)
ere
ere
ere
ire
Man (homo)
khimg
khung
kung
kung
Head
tologoi
tarkhi
tologoi
tologi
Hair
usu
uhun
uhung
uhung
Eye nyude nyudeng nyideng nyudeng
MONGOL DIALECTS.
85
English.
Selenga.
Khorin.
Nizlmi Uda.
TankiB.
Ear
shikhe
shikheng
shikeng
shikeng
Nose
khamar
khamar
kamar
khamar
Mouth
ama
amang
amang
amang
Tonrjue
kiele
kelen
keleng
kLelengn
Hand
gar
gar
gar
gar
Foot
khul
khol
kiil
kol
Sun
nara
narang
naraDg
narangn
Moon
sara
hara
hara
hara
Star
odo
odon
odoDg
odong
Fire
gal
gal
gal
gal
Water
oso
uhan
uhung
nhungn.
4. The TJlut are the Mongols of Dzungaria ; the
Kaknuks of the Volga being Dzungarian in origin.
5. On each side of a line drawn from Herat to
Cabul, Kes, to the north of the proper Afghan, and to
the south of the Uzbek and Turcoman, frontier, a grreat
range of undulating country, often mountainous, almost
always hilly, well- watered in some parts, bleak and
rough in others. This falls into a western and an
eastern division, with an important watershed between
them. From the west flow the Murghab, the Tejend,
and the Furrarud ; from the east, the Helmuud, tlie
south-eastern feeders of the Oxus, and the north-western
feeders of the Cabul river. The former of these dis-
tricts, lower and less mountainous, is the occupancy
of the Tshehar Airaauk ; the latter that of the Hazara.
Both are noticed in Elphinstone's Caubul : both are
placed in the same category. The only doubt in the
mind of the author is as to the natm-e of the class that
contained them. He hesitates to make them Moncrols.
They generally spoke Persian. A sample of the lan-
guage, since published by Lieut. Leach, settles the doubt
— for the speakers of it, at least ; —
EngUsh.
Aimank.
Kalka.
Head
ekin
tologoi
Ear
tshakin
tsike
Nose
kabr
khamar
Eye
nuddun
nida
86
THE SOK VOCABULARY.
Englisli.
Aimauk.
Kalka.
Tongue
kelan
kold
Hand
ghar
gar
Fire
ghar
gal
Water
ussun
usa
Tree
darakt*
modo
Stone
kuri
tsholo
One
nikka
nege
Two
koyar
khoyin
Three
ghorban
gurba
Four
dorbaa
diirba
Five
tabun
tabu.
There are a few Mongols in Bokhara ; traces, real or
supposed, of some in India ; the same in Persia and
Syria ; the same in parts of Russia and Tartary.
The Soh, or Sokpa, of the northern frontier of Tibet,
and, apparently, the most southern member of the group
is Mongolian.
English.
Sok.
English.
Sok.
Man
khdn
Fire
kwal
Head
tholagwe
Water
usu
Hair
kechige
Stone
chhilo
Hand
kar
Tree
moto
Movih
ama
One
nege
Ear
khikh6
Two
hoyur
Eye
nutu
Three
korba
Tooth
syuchi
Four
tirba
Foot
khoil
Five
thaba
Blood
khoro-gwe
Six
chorka
Bone
yaso
Seven
tolo
Day
wundur
Eight
nema
Sun
nara
Nine
yeso
Moon
Bara
Ten
arba.
The Pelu. — From the Japanese encyclopaedia, known
in China as Kho-khan Zan-zai-tu-khuy, completed a.d.
1713, Klaproth gives a specimen of a Mongol dialect
entitled Pelu ; adding that Pe means north, and lu
means western barbarians. If so, the Pelu are the
north-western barbarians.
• Persian.
THE PELU VOCABULARY.
87
English.
Pehi.
MongoL
Man
kore
ere
Woman
khoton
khatun
Father
kozike
etshige
Mother
koke
eki
Brother
teuge
daga
Girl
oka
okin
Sky
tengri
tangri
Sun
nara
nara
Moon
zara
zara
Star
khuton
odon
Sea
talai
dalai
Juvtr
murun
muran
Water
uzo
uzu.
Word for word, I hold that Pelu is the same as
Paloung, the name of a T'hay population already
noticed, and of one which lay luest of Cochin-China,
and, to some extent, Tiorth as welL
88 THE YENISEIANS.
CHAPTER XIV.
The Yeniseians. — Objections to the name Ostiak. — Castren's Researches. —
Northern Branch. — Inbazk, Denka, and Pumpokolsk vocabularies of the
Asia Polyglotta. — Southern Branch. — The Assan. — Kot. — Castren's Dis-
covery of a Kot Village. — The Ara Legend. — Kanskoi and Kamassintzi
vocabularies. — The Glosses Kot and Kem. — Speculations as to the origi-
nal extent of the Yeniseian area.
This is, perhaps, the most broken-up population in the
world ; so that I shall say nearly all that I know about
it. It is possible that a large proportion of this is
ethnographical, rather than philological ; still, it is so
fragmentary a population that I shall write a few pages,
even though they may be out of place. I shall also add
my speculations as to the original importance of the
class,
Yeniseian was the name proposed by Klaf)roth,
though it is not the term used by Adelung before, nor
that used by Castren after him. It may, possibly,
be exceptionable ; inasmuch as the Yeniseians are, by
no means, the only populations of the Yenisey. On the
other hand, however, the}^ are nearly limited to the
drainage of that river, and they also seem to be the
aboriginal occupants of a great portion of its valley.
They extended as far south as 53° N. L., and as far
north as 67° N. L., at least. Adelung and Castren call
them the Yeniseian Ostiaks. They are, however, widely
different from the true Ostiaks — those of the Obi.
It is to be regretted that Castren has gone back to
the old term, and that when he speaks of the populations
under notice, he calls them Ostiaks of the Yenisey, just
as he calls the Samoyeds of the Ket and Tshulim, Os-
THE YENISEIANS. 89
tiak Samoyeds. In each case, the word is used impro-
perly. Indeed, it is doubtful whether it is the best
term for the Ostiaks Proper, though it is a convenient
one. It is a convenient one, because they have no other
general name at all.
The Turk is the language to which (in the first in-
stance, at least) it belongs ; for it is the Turks who
apply the name. And they apply it to more populations
than one. They apply it to the Ostiaks Proper and
they apply it to the Bashkii's. Whether they have not
applied it elsewhere, and that in unexpected quarters, is
a question from which, for the present, we refrain.
When Castren undertook his second journey, he was
specially instructed to ascertain the ethnological and
philological relations of those "triljes which, dwelling
between the Yenisey on the east, and the Obi on the
west, bore the indefinite name of Ostiak." It is un-
necessary to say that these instructions were can-ied out
with zeal and skUl. The investigation, however, was, at
first, left in the hands of his fellow-ti-aveller Bergstadi,
who passed a part of the year 1846 in the village of
Anzeferova, on the Pit. After a while, however, Gastrin
descended the Yenisey, and, after coming in per-
sonal contact ^vith the tribes of the Sym and parts about
Turukhansk and Inbazk, made himself master of the
language sufiiciently to become' the author of a grammar
and a vocabulary.
Their most northern limit is the country about Man-
gaseia or Turukhansk, in G6° N. L., where their neigh-
bours to the north are the Avamski and Karasin
Samoyeds, to the west the Samoyeds of the Tas, and to
the east the Tungus of the northern Tuncmska river.
Of the exact dialect here spoken there are no specimens.
It seems to be taken for granted that it is the same as
that of the next group.
This appears about 63" N. L., where, in the parts
about Inbazk, the Yelogui falls into the Yenisey from
90 THE YENISEIANS.
the west, and the Bakta from the east. Here the fron-
tagers are again Samoyeds (of the Karakon section)
and Tungiis. An Inbazk vocabulary, eo nomine, is to
be found in the Asia Polyglotta : akin to which is a
shorter one of the Odh (or sable) Ostiaks, who, in 1723,
called themselves Denka. According to Messerschmidt,
they could count no further than five. The Denka were
especially found on a stream called 6dh-Shosh (8able
river), a feeder of the Podkamennaya Tunguska — the
name being apparently of Tungus origin ; for several of
the Tungus tribes call themselves Denka, which means,
in Tungiis, men. Though it is expressly stated that
this name was native, and as there is no sign of the
word under notice having any meaning in any Yeniseian
dialect, it is possible that the blood of the Denka was
Tungus. Be this as it may, the dialect belongs to the
Inbazk division.
In 60° N. L., the Sym and Pit fall into the Yenisey,
much after the manner of the Yelogui and the Bakta ;
the former from the west, the latter from the east. The
banks of each are Yeniseian localities. A little to the
south of the latter lies the village of Anzeferova, the
spot where Bergstadi and Castren made their chief
researches in the Yeniseian. Hence, it must be sup-
posed that it is the Pit and Sym forms of speech that are
most particularly represented in the grammar. The
frontier on the east is Tshapodzhir.; on the west,
Samoyed and Ostiak.
To the south and west, the Ket is a Yeniseian locality,
the dialect of which is represented by the Pumpokolsk
vocabulary of Klaproth, a dialect which, like the last,
is in contact with the Samoyed and Ostiak. The
river Kem, which falls into the Yenisey, a little below
Yeniseisk, bears a Yeniseian name. Of the Yeniseian of
the Ket, as represented by the Pumpokolsk vocabulary,
I think that thus much may be said, viz. that, notwith-
standing certain special aflB.nities with the dialects of the
THE YENISEIANS. 91
next group, it is a northern rather than a southern form
of speech, i. e. that it belongs to the Sym group of
dialects.
About 57° N. L. is the boundary of philological
area ; and we no longer meet what may be called the
proper Siberian populations, like the Saraoyeds, Ostiaks,
and Tungus, but populations whose language is Turk.
In other words, the philological frontier changes ; and,
with it, change the Yeniseian forms of speech. All the
preceding dialects appear in Castren's Grammar, under
the name of Ostiak of the Yenisey. The name that
now presents itself is Kot,
A few Russianized Kot were seen by Castren as far
west as Ansir, Barnaul, and Yelansk. They stated that
they were a remnant of the Baginov Uluss, which mi-
grated from the River Poima. These, he thinks, are the
Yeniseiaus, whom Klaproth calls the Kongroitshe, a name
■which, he also thinks, has originated out of the Tartar
name for Krasnoyarsk, the town where the tribute was
paid. It means, a place with a bell. The Poima is a
feeder of the Ana.
Now, it is on the Ana, along with the Ussolka, that
Klaproth fixes another division of the southern Yeni-
seians, of whose language he gives a specimen, which
differs from the Kot only as one dialect or sub-dialect
differs from another. He calls them the Assan. Cas-
tren sought for them with care and pain. He found
none on the Ussolka ; though he especially visited the
chief or only volost on its drainage. All he found was
Russians, who knew of nothing older than themselves.
Two families were, apparently, of Tungus blood ; but
nothing did either they or any one else know about the
Assan.
Neither was he successful on the Lower Ana. Towards
its head-waters, however, he found an account of some
Kot who had. lived there lately, but who had been
ordered to move to the XJda, where they then lived with
92 THE YENISEIANS.
the Buriat, in a village named Badaranovka, thirty
versts below Nizhni Udinsk. Before they left the Ana,
they spoke Buriat. They amount, now, to eleven tri-
bute-payers, half of whom (the division is difficult)
speak Buriat, half Russian. They call themselves Ko-
tovzy, the name being native, the form Russian. The
Karagas Turks call them Kodeglar. I imagine that
these are the Assau, or nearly so.
At length, he found the Kot, eo nomine and ed lin-
gua. But they were but a fragment. Their original
area was the drainage of the river Kan. There were
Kot settlements near the present villages of Agulskaya
and Korastelia. There were Kot settlements about Ansir,
Yelansk, and the now important town of Barnaul. A
few years ago, seven Kots paid tribute from the neigh-
bourhood of Kansk. The Agul, the Kungus, and the
Ulka were once Kot rivers. There were Kots on the
Mongol frontier, whose language is now that of the
Buriats.
Nevertheless, a few speakers of the Kot language still
exist ; a single village on the Agul being their locality —
their neighbours being Kamass Samoyeds, themselves
more than half Turk.
The Kot of the Agul, being lighter taxed than if
they were passed for Russians, make much of their little
nationality, and keep up their language accordingly.
Five individuals from the settlement were seen by Gas-
trin ; and his Kot Grammar was the result.
The Arini were all but extinct in the middle of last
century. A specimen, however, of their language has
survived. So has the following legend : —
Before they left the main stream of the Yenisey for
their present occupancy in the district of Sayania, and
whilst they called themselves Ara (being called by the
Russians Arinzi), they lived part of the year in one
place, part in another. Their summer residence was an
island in the Yenisey, named, in Russian, the Tates-
THE TENISEIANS. 93
hewki Ostrog. In winter, they joined the Katsha Turks,
and fed their flocks on Mount Kumtige, near the Katsha.
Their tribe was, at fii^st, a large one ; but they fought
against each other, and became weak. While these wars
were going on, a young Ara walked out, and found a
snake. He cut it in two. The head, which still kept
in a little life, went back to the king of the snakes, and
told his tale. So the king of the snakes held a council,
and asked the wise men of Snakeland what was to be
done. It was summer-time, and all the Ara were in
the island. The snakes agreed to do this — they were to
swim across to the opposite bank, and then cry out,
" Boat ! boat ! " So they swam across, and the Ara
heard a cry of " Boat ! " They went with all the boats
they could muster : but, wonderful to relate ! they found
no men on the shore (for they thought that it was one
of their countrymen who had called), but only snakes —
especially young one^. There were more young than
old. They were almost all young ones, and they all
wanted to speak — all at once. But the old king of the
snakes told them to be quiet, and then put as many of
them in the boat as it would hold. Then he made the
old man row them over to the island, one boatful after
another, until they were taken across. Then the king
of the snakes himself got in, and was rowed over by
the old man in like manner with the rest.
As they were rowing, the king of the snakes said to
the old man, " When you get back again to your own
home, remember to strew ashes all round your tent, and
then to drag over them a sail-cloth of two different
colours, and made of two kinds of horse -hair — one
white, the other black." So the old man did as the
king of the snakes had bid him ; and went home, and
took the ashes, and dragged over them a saU-cloth made
of two kinds of horsehair, and went to rest. And he
awoke in the morning, and, behold ! the whole Uluss
was gone, and all the men of the tribe dead. Only the
94
THE YENISEIANS.
old man and his family were spared ; and from him
come all the Ara.
When an Ara dies, his bow and arrows are placed in
his grave, over which his best horse is slaughtered, and
flayed. Tiie skin is then stretched over a pole, set up
on the grave, and the flesh is feasted on. The women,
after their confinements, wash themselves three times
within the first seven days, and then fumigate them-
selves with a herb named irben. The first Mend that
visits them names the child. Their oaths are taken
over a bear's head, of wliich the swearer fixes his teeth
in the nose. When a sentence equivalent to banishment
is pronounced against a culprit, he is placed between a
dog and a reindeer. These are then set free. Whichever
way they run must be taken by the man also, who is no
longer allowed to remain where he was. Even a draught
of water from his old locality is forbidden. So is all
further intercourse with any of his original neighbours.
These remarks apply to the Dzizerti or Yesirti, as well
as the Ara ; the Dzizerti being, like the Ara, an extinct
or amalgamated tribe.
The word Ara is said to mean wasps ; the population
to which it applies being so denominated from their war-
like activity. But it most likely means nothing of the
kind. Word for word, it seems to be Tarang.
English.
Inbazk.
Pumpokolsk.
Assan.
Kot.
Arini.
Man (homo)
ket
kit
hit
ilit
khitt
(vir)'
tshet
ilset
hadkip
hatkit
birkhanyat
Head
tsig
kolka
takai
tagai
kolkya
Hair
tonge
khynga
khingayang
hingayang
khagang
Foot
toigen
aning
pulang
pulang
pil
Eye
des
dat
tesh
tetshagan
tieng
Ear
hokten
klokan
kalogan
utkhonong
Nose
olen
hang
an
ang
arkhui
Mouth
ko
kan
hohui
hohu
bukhom
Tongue
ei
iiygyl
alup
alup
alyap
Sun
i
hikhem
oga
ega
ega
Moon
khip
khep
shui
shui
eshui
Star
koogo
kaken
alak
alagan
ilkhoi
THE TENISEIANS.
95
Xoglisli.
Inbazk.
Pum'pokolsk.
Assan.
Eot.
Arini.
Fire
bok
butsh
hat
khott
khott
Water
nl
ul
ul
nl
kol
River
ses
torn
nl
kem
sat
Hill
kai
kbai
yii
dzhii
kar
Tree
oksa
oksy
atsh
atshshi
knsh-oshtshe
Stone
tshugs
tshys
shish
shish
khez
£99
ong
eg
shnlei
shnlei
ang
Fish
isse
gite
tyg
tig
ilti
God
eis
es
etsh
esh
es
Sl-y
eis
es
etsh
esh
es
House
thu&h
hnkat
hnsh
hnsh
hn
Milk
mamel
den
tengnl
Snow
b^ges
tyg
tik
tik
the
One
khus-em
kbata
hntsha
hntsha
khnsei
Two
un-em
hinneang
iina
inya
kina
Three
dong-em
donga
tongya
tongya
tyonga
Four
zi-em
ziang
sheggiang
tshega
shaya
Five
gag-em
kheilang
geigyan
kega
khaia
Six
ag-am
aggiang
gedndzhiang
kelntfiha
ogga
Seveti
enh-am
onyang
geiliniang
kelina
nnnya
Eight
unem-boisan
- hing-basi-
geiltaniang
kheltonga
kina-mant-
khogen
khaiyang
shan
Nine
khusem-boi-
khuta-yamos
- godzhi-buna-
hntshabnnaga knsa-mant-
san-khogen
khaivang
giang
shan
Ten
khogen
khaiyang
h^^ang
haga
khoa.
I think that, in investigating the extent of the origi-
nal area of the Yeniseians, we may use the words ket
and kemi as instruments ; the first meaning man, the
second Hver.
Let us consider, then, the presence of these forms as a
presumption in favour of Yeniseian blood, and ask how
far they lead us.
(1 .) Kot, ket, k.c. — The Mongol form for the Teleuts is
Teleng-^w^ ; the Teleuts being considered to be Mongols
in blood, though Turk in language.
The Ir-ket are a smaU tribe of fifty-seven tribute-
payers, near Tunka — at present considered as Soiot.
What Castren heard about the Irket was that they had
migi-ated from the river Sikir, and that they had
divided themselves into two divisions. One took to the
level country belonging to the Bucha Gorkhon tribe of
96
THE YENISEIANS.
Buriats. With these they intermarried, probably from
the necessity of their taking a wife out of a tribe dif-
ferent from their own ; they themselves being only a
single tribe.
(2.) Kem. — The twenty-eight Dyon or Yon of the
Tshulim Turks were originally called Tutal, a name which
is now limited to two of these tribes. The people of the
towns call them Uriankhai. The Tutal name, however,
for the Tshulim river is Tshum. I think that, word for
word, this is Tom as well as Kem and Tshem. In the
Pumpokolsk dialect this {torn) is the actual word for
river.
The Alakh and the ^em-tshik form the western
sources of the Yenisey, which is named by the Chinese
and the Mongols Ulu Kem = great river, ulii being a
Mongol term, but kem a Yeniseian one. Here dwell the
Soyon, Soyony, or Sayanzi, the only names, according
to Tshitshatsheff, which are known in these parts ; the
form Soiot being inaccurate. The language and manner
of life of these nomads are partly Mongol, partlj' Turk.
At present they fall into two divisions, one of which
is directly dependent upon China, whereas the other is
under a zaizan, who resides at Urgha. This confirms
tlie doctrine suggested by the word Irhet, viz. that the
Soiot are, more or less, Yeniseian in blood.
I now subjoin the following vocabularies from Stalen-
berg : —
(1.) That of the Kanskoi, of the river Kan, who call
themselves Khotovzi.
English.
One
Two
Three
Fowr
Pwe
Six
Seven
Eif/ht
Nine
Khol ovzi
opp
tzida
naghor
thseta
ssoumbulang
muctu
seigbe
scLidsetae
togus
English.
Kliotovzu
Ten
bud
Eleven
biid-op
Twelve
biid -tzida -
Twenty
tusenn
Thirty
nogb-tuserm
Forty
nogb-opp-tuserm
Fifty
soum-tuserm
Sixty
raouck-tuseiin
Seventy
seig-tuscrm
THE YENISEIANS.
97
Fnglish.
Kliotora.
Eighty
Ninety
togns-thiserm
Hundred
tban
ThoiLsand
byat-tnn
God
nnm
Father
abam
Mother
imam
Brother
aya
Sister
yhaB
Wife
nah
English.
Khntorzi.
Fire
thuy
Water
ai
Earth
dscha
^fountain
bia
Sun
kaya
Moon
kysschtin
Hone
Dnnda
Head
stiba
Man (homo)
hya.
This is Samoyed. Still, the people call themselves
Kotovzi ; as do the existing Kotovzi, who are probably
their descendants, but who speak Buriat.
(2.) That of the Kamacintzi, who call themselves
Kishtim, and live on the River Mana : —
English.
Kamacintzi
English.
Kamacintzi.
One
chnodschse
Sixty
hkelosa-ta
Tico
ynae
Seventy
fakelina-tugu
Three
tonga
Eighty
cheltong-tugt
Four
schagse
Ninety
hwelin-tugu
Five
hkagse
Hundred
duss
Six
hkelnsa
Thousand
liag-dnss
Seren
hkelina
God
esch
Eight
cheltonga
Heaven
urach
Nine
hwelina
King
pats^hai
Ten
haga
Water
nhl
Eleven
haga-chnodschse
Earth
pang
Tadve
haga-inse
Mountain
kgy
Twenty
yn-tnng
Sun
egse
Thirty
tonga -tu
Moon
tzui
Forty
tonga-ta-chnodschie
Wind
japei.
Fifty
hkog-tnga
These are simply Yeniseian.
(3.) A Turk dialect in the Asia Polyglotta head Kan-
gazen, in the few words, wherein it is other than Turk,
is Yeniseian.
H
98 THE TURK DIALECTS.
CHAPTER XV.
The Turk Languages. — Import of the term. — The Uighur. — Tshagatai. —
Uzbek. — Turcoman. — Kirghiz. — Barabinski. — Tshulim. — Teleut. —
Koibal. — Karagas.— Soyony. — Yakut. — Bashkir. — Kazan. — Nogay. —
Meshtsheriak. — Kumuk. — Kuzzilbash.- — Cumanian.
When the word Turlc is used by either the ethnologist
or the philologue, it has so wide a signification that the
Tui'ks of European Turkey form but an inconsiderable
fraction of the great population to which it applies. The
so-called Tartars (or Tatars) of Independent Tartary
are Turks ; so are the Turcomans of the Persian fron-
tier ; so are the occupants of more than one district
named Turkestan ; so are several other populations with
several other names. Even in respect to its literary
development, the Turkish of Constantinople divides its
honours with the Uighur and Tshagatai dialects,
which, at the present time, are, comparatively, incon-
spicuous dialects, but which, in point of priority of cul-
ture, are to be preferred to their congeners of the west.
Turk, then, is a generic name, and the class it applies
to is a large one. Its area is of great magnitude, and
that in every direction, A language intelligible at Bok-
hara is spoken on the very confines of Afiica. A lan-
guage scarcely unintelligible at Constantinople is spoken
at the mouth of the Lena, on the shores of the Arctic
Sea. We have a vocabulary of the Cumanian Turk
once spoken in Hungary. The Uighur Turk is spoken,
at the present moment, on the frontiers of Tibet and
Mongolia.
The Turk area, then, is large, and it is irregular as
well ; and very various indeed are the districts with
THE TURK DIALECTS. 99
which it comes in contact. In the south-east, it touches
Tibet ; in the south, India and Persia. By the Kurd,
Arabic, Syriac, Armenian, and Greek, the Turkish of
Asia Minor is irregularly bounded. It mixes itself with
the languages of Caucasus ; is spoken in contact with
the Russian in the Crimea ; and with the Bulgaiian,
Servian, and Eomaic in European Turkey. The govern-
ment of Caucasus and Astrakan, to the south ; of Viatka
and Perm, to the north ; and of Grodno, to the west,
contain Turks. Orenbercr is Turk in language : so is
Kazan. Tobolsk and Tomsk give us the Turks of
Southern, Yakutsk those of Northern Siberia. Dioscu-
rian, Mongolian, Tungus, and Ugrian forms of speech,
all come in contact with the Turkish.
In some cases, the Turk has been encroached on ;
in othei-s it has encroached. In Hungaiy, it has given
way : indeed, as a general rule, it has given way where
the language with which it has come in contact has been
European. In Siberia, for instance, it yields to the
Russian. Where the language is Ugrian, it encroaches.
It has most especially encroached on the Samoyed. In
consequence of this, the coincidence of Turkish blood
with the Turkish language is anything but close. The
blood is Turk where the language is Hungarian or Sla-
vonic. The language is Turk where the blood is Ugrian or
Mongol.
Notwithstanding the inordinate size of the Turk ai'ea,
the differences which it presents are but slight. As a
general rule, the dialects graduate into each other ; and
I doubt whether even tlie extreme forms — provided that
the conversation be on a simple subject — are mutually
unintelligible.
In respect to the direction in which the Turk lan-
guage has diffused itself, we may safely say that in the
north and west it is intrusive. Except Independent
Tartary and Turkestan, there is no spot where Turkish
is spoken where it cannot be shown to be exotic. The
H 2
100 THE UIGHUR.
claims, however, of Independent and Chinese Turkestan
to be considered as the fountain and origin of the Turk
language has yet to be examined. These, however, are
matters for the ethnologist rather than the philologue.
The name Turk, totidem Uteris, first appears in a.d.
569, when Justin sent an embassy to the Kltan Zemar-
chus, whose residence was near the Ek-tagh ; the words
in italics being Turkish glosses.
Of the Turk of this district, Klaproth gives the
following words, taken from Chinese authorities, who
refers them to the language of the T'uk'iu, i. e. Turks.
English.
T'uk'iii.
Turkish.
Sky
tangri
tangri
House
ui
ui
Helm
t'uk'iu
tekhieh
Hair
shoka
shadzh
Chief
kan
khan
Black
koro
khara
Old
kori
khari
Wolf
furin
buri.
As the source of these samples is China, it is fair to
suppose that they represent a language of the Chinese
frontier, i. e. one of the most Eastern divisions of the
group. It to this that the name Uighur most especially
applies ; the proper Uighur being the population which
most closely came in contact with two of the languages
— the Tibetan and Mongol — which lay to the east of it,"
and approached the third, i. e. the Chinese. This is an
inference from the fact that, at the present time, a tribe
calling itself Ighur speaks Tibetan, and touches the Sok
districts of Mongolia.
The Uighur Turks were the first of their stock to
use an alphabet, and used it betimes, perhaps as early
as the seventh century. The Mantshu alphabet (as has
been stated) came from Mongolia ; and the Mongolian
from the Uighur Turks, the Uighur Turks having taken
it from Syria, under the instructions of the Nestorian
missionaries.
THE UIGHUR. 1 01
It is chiefly in its descendants — the Mongol and the
Mantshu — that this interesting alphabet survives ; since
it was replaced by the Arabic when Mahometanism re-
placed Christianity. Nevertheless, a few samples of it
are extant, viz. (1) the Baktyar Nameh of the Bodleian;
(2, 3) the Miradzh and Tezkirehi Evliyd of the Biblio-
th^que du Roi ; and (4) Kaudatkubilik in Vienna.
None of these, however, except so far as the alphabet is
concerned, are much more than literary ciu-iosities. The
fii-st was written a.d. 1434, the second and third A.D.
1436, the fourth, A.D. 1459. The Miradzh, a history
of the ascension of Mahomet, is a translation from the
Arabic ; the Tezkirehi Evliyd, or Legend of the Saints,
being one from the Persian. The Baktyar Kameh is
either a translation from the same language, or rifac-
ciamento. The Kaudatkuhilik, or Science of Govern-
Tnent, shows a little more onginality — the matter, and
perhaps the composition itself, being older than the MS,,
perhaps as old as A.D. 1069.
The Mogul dynasty was Tshagatai, and the Indian
descendants of the Great Mogul are of Tshagatai blood.
So are many families in Caubul, just as certain families
in England are Norman. The family of Timur was
Tshagatai ; Kokan, or Ferghana, being the district where
the Tshagatai language was most especially cultivated.
The Persian, however, was in immediate contact with it,
and in some of the provinces prevailed over it. Ande-
jan, however, the district of the capital, was so Turk,
that " there was no one," writes Baber, " who did not
understand the Turki tongue." Asfera and Marghiuan
were Persian. The languages acted and reacted on
each other. Persian models were copied by Tshagatai
writers, and Persian works translated by them.
Of the Tshagatai, eo Twmiiie, as spoken at the present
moment, I have seen no specimens. Nor is this strancre.
The language spread itself beyond its own boundaries.
102 THE UIGHUR.
and, having found its way into Persia, Afghanistan, and
India, became Persian, Indian, or Pushtu.
Theoretically, the main differences between the Tsha-
gatai and Uighur are considerable ; and they would be
more so if the existing Uighur works were older. But
they must be the newest of their class. Were they not
all subsequent to the Hegira? subsequent to the intro-
duction of the Arabic alphabet, which must have been
used concurrently with the Uighur, and subsequently to
the predominance of Persian and Arabic models ? The
old Uighur compositions would have been different, they
would have been Christian in creed and Syriac in style.
But none such exist. Yet they must have existed, or
why the alphabet ? Why its extension into Mougolia ?
Uighur, then, as the word has been used, means New
Uighur.
But what if the Uighur alphabet, concurrent with the
Arabic in the newer Uighur literature, were also concur-
rent with the Arabic in the earlier Tshagatai? In such
a case, the works in question may be Tshagatai — for, it
must be remembered, that it is only the alphabet which
makes them Uighur. Their date is that of the Tshaga-
tai dynasty. If so, the division between the two groups
is either artificial or provisional ; in which case Uighur
means the Turk of Chinese Turkestan, Tshagatai the
Turk of Bokhara and Ferghana. However, according
to common parlance, the works already enumerated are
Uighur. A Uighur alphabet makes a Uighur work.
At the same time, it should be added that Davies
(though without quoting his authority) especially states
that during the period immediately subsequent to their
conversion, the Tshagatai made use of the Uighur
alphabet.
The Memoirs of Timur, and the Institutes of Timur,
though translated from a Persian original, are said to be,
in their earliest form, Turkish compositions — the Turk
THE UIGHUR. • 103
dialect being the Tshagatai. These earlier forms, how-
ever, have jet to be discovered. Ulug Beg, about A.D.
]44;(), was a Tshagatai poet, as well as a Tshagatai
patron of astronomy. His age, it should be observed,
is within ten years of that of the Uighur MSS. Then
comes Mir Ali Shir, a poet also, whose works, though
unedited, are extant. Thirdly, comes the Emperor
Baber himself.
The e\-idence of the Arabic alphabet being used con-
currently with the Uighur, is to be found in the MS. of
the Koiidat, where there are interlineary glosses and re-
marks, some in Arabic, some in Persian — aU, however,
in the ordinary alphabet of the Koran, Now, whether
these be as old as the rest of the MS. or not, the reader
who wrote them must have been the reader of a work
in Uighur.
The Uzbek has, to a great extent, replaced the
Tshagatai, if, indeed, the two dialects were notably
different. Khiva is Uzbek. The dominant populations
in Bokhara and Ferghana are Uzbek — the remainder
being Tajik. So it is elsewhere. This means that,
except in the parts about Khiva, there is in the Uzbek
countries, side by side \N-ith the ruling nation, a subor-
dinate population speaking Persian — differing in its
numerical proportion to that which speaks according
to the country. Thus —
In Khiva, the Uzbek is at its maximum.
It preponderates in the parts about Balk.
So it does in Kunduz.
So it does in Huzrut, Imaum, and Khullum.
On the other hand, in Khost, Inderaub, and Taulik-
haun, the Tajik element prevails.
In Meimuna, Andkhu, and Shibbergaun, the second
element, though other than Uzbek, is still Turk, i.e.
Turcoman.
The Turcomans are independent nomads between
104
THE KIRGHIZ.
Bokhara and the Caspian, bounded on the south by
Persia, and on the north by the Uzbeks and Kirghiz.
Whether the Kirghiz can be separated from the
Turcomans and the Uzbeks by any definite line of de-
marcation, is uncertain. The central portions, however,
of their area may be looked upon as the points where
the blood and language most closely coincide : where
foreign elements and foreign contact are at the mini-
mum, and where the type of the group is to be sought.
On the east and nortli the character changes. There
is contact with strange languages ; those languages being
no longer Persian and Tibetan, but the Ugrian and Rus-
sian of Siberia. That the Kirghiz of the northern portion
of their area are intrusive is certain, though it is difficult
to give the exact boundaries of their original occupancy.
The name deserves notice. In Menander's account of
his embassy to the Turk king Dizabulus, whose sove-
reignty seems to have lain in the Tshagatai district, we
find the word Xepx^s — a Kirghiz female slave being one
of the presents. In the Chinese geographers, Kilikiszu
are placed on tlie Yenisey, where the terra is current at
the present time. Finally, I believe that, word for
word, Kirghiz is Tsherkess, i. e. Circassian. The
Kirghiz of Pamer are on the Persian and Uzbek
frontier.
English.
Ui;bek.
Turcoman.
Kirghiz.
Head
' bash
bash
baz
Hair
zatsh
zatsh
tshatsh
Hand
al
kol
kol
Foot
ayak
ayak
ayak
Eye
kyus
kUs
kus
Ear
kulak
klak
kolak
Tooth
tish
dish
tiz
Blood
kan
kan
kan
Day
klindus
kyondos
klindus
Sun
kyonash
koyash
kUn
Moon
ai
ai
ai
Star
yoldos
yoldos
dzhildzhis.
THE BARAMA TURKS. 105
English.
Uzbek.
Turcoman.
Kirgbiz.
Fire
ud
Ot
ut
Water
zu
ZU
za
Tree
agatsh
agatsh
agatsh
Stone
task
tash
tax
One
bir
bir
ber
Two
ike
iki
oH
Three
utsh
utsh
utsh
Four
dyort
durt
iyort
Five
bish
bish
bez
Six
alty
alto
alty
Seven
edi
edi
dzhede
Eight
zigis
zikis
zikes
Nitie
tokas
tokos
tokos
Ten
on
on
on.
The Bafahinski, Baraba, or Barama TuvTcs, between
the Obi and the Irtish, touch the Ostiaks on the north,
and are probably the occupants of an originally Ostiak
area. At any rate, their language is Turk, the soil
Ugrian, their blood, in all probability, mixed. Their
political relations are Russian, and their creed Sha-
manism, or imperfect Christianity rather than Mahome-
tanism.
Like the Barabinski, the so-called Tartars of Tobolsk
are Turks ; occupants of ground originally Ugrian, and
so far as it is not Russian, Ostiak.
The Verkho-Tomski tribes. — Verkho means upper,
and is a Russian word. Hence, the Verkho-Tomski are
the Turks of the Upper Tom, i. e. the Tom above
Kuznetsk.
The Abintsi are a part of them. Their dialect, pro-
bably, graduates into that of
Kuznetz, where the frontier is Mongol and Samoyed.
The Teleut are believed to be Mongols in blood,
though Turk in speech. Below Kuznetsk
The tribes of the Tshulini, though occupants of a
district originally Ugrian, are said to mix Mongol (? Ye-
niseian) words with their vernacular Tm-kish. Their tribes
are called Dyon or Yon.
106 THE TURKISH OF SIBERIA.
The Turkish of the Yenisey, especially in the circle
of the Minusinsk, and in the Sayanian mountains, is
spoken by individuals who seem to have adopted it after
the abandonment, not only of some native language
other than Turk, but after the adoption of some inter-
mediate one, different from both the Turk and the ori-
ginal mother-tongue. Thus, a language which will be
noticed in sequel under the name of Yeniseian, seems to
have been replaced by the Samoyed, the Samoyed itself
having been replaced by the Turk. Phenomena of this
kind make the parts about Minusinsk one of the most
obscure areas in Asia. We may advantageously con-
sider these strata and substrata of languages in detail.
1. There is the Russian — recent in origin, but en-
croaching upon even the Turk.
2. There is the Turk, which has spread itself in the
west, at least, at the expense of the Ugrian, and which,
in its Barabinski, Tobolski, and Tshulim elements, so
far as it is heterogeneous, is Ugrian.
3. There is the Mongol, which on the Tom, and in
the Teleut districts may have preceded the Turk, itself
preceded by something Samoyed or Yeniseian.
4. There is the Ostiak of the Obi — the language
which best represents the Ugrian of the Kirghiz fron-
tier.
5. There is the Samoyed, spoken as far north as the
Arctic Sea, and as far south as the parts about Lake
Ubsa within the Chinese frontier — the Samoyed which,
in some cases, has been replaced by the Mongol, itself
replaced by the Turk.
6. There is the Yeniseian — a language known only
in fragments, but which, in one case at least, has been
replaced by Samoyed.
THE TURKISH OF SIBERIA.
107
English.
Baraba.
Tobolsk.
Tshulim.
Kuznetsk.
Head
liash
pash
bash
bash
Eye
kos
kus
kos
kns
Ear
kalak
kulak
knlak
knlak
Nose
parun
murun
TnonrlTi
lUUUUU
Mouth
anus
agus
aksy
Hair
tshatsh
tsate
tshatsh
tshatsh
Tongue
tu
til
til
Tooth
Hand
tish
khal
tish
tish
kal
kol
Sun
kyosh
knn
knn
kun
Moon
ai
ar
ai
ai
Star
eldar
yoldns
yoldns
tshlitis
Fire
nt
ot
ot
ot
Water
zuu
sn
sn
sn
Tree
agaz
yagats
agats
agatsh
Stone
tash
tash
tash
tash
One
bir
bir
bir
pir
Two
ike
ike
ike
iki
Three
ytsh
itsh
itsh
ntsh
Four
tyort
dort
dyort
dort
Five
bish
bish
besh
bish
Six
alte
alty
alte
alty
Seven
sette
siti
sette
setti
Eight
zogua
aegis
zegus
segys
Nine
togns
togns
togns
togns
Ten
on
on
on
on.
Respecting the Teleuts, it has already been suggested
that though Turk in language, they have generally been
looked upon as Mongols in blood : and it has also been
suggested that, in the way of blood, they may be less
Mongol than Yeniseian. The Mongol name is Teleng-
gut, as has already been stated ; whereas Abulgazi calls
them Uriat, which, word for word, is Urianchai, Yarang,
and the Hke — all apparent derivatives of Ara. At the
time of the Russian conquest they were called White
Kalmuks.
English.
Tdeut.
English.
Telent
Head
Sun
knn
E,je
kns
Moon
ai
Ear
knlak
Star
yiltis
Nose
muran
Fire
ot
Mouth
ous
Water
sn
Hair
tshatsh
Tree
agash
Tongue
tu
Stone
tash.
Hand
kol
108
THE KOIBAL.
Of the language of the Katshintsi Turks, the Kats-
halar, of the Turks of Katsha, although we hear much
about them in the way of history, we have, eo nomine,
but few words ; mere ohiter dicta of Castrfen's. Their
dialect is essentially Koibal or Soiot.
English.
Katsha.
English.
K»tsha.
Woman
ipthi
Saddle
izer
6pthi
Butterfly
irbakai
Wind
aba
Sable
kish.
The Koihals form eight tribes ; in two of which the blood
is Samoyed, in three Yeniseian. In 1847, a few old
people knew a few Samoyed words. From the generation
which preceded them a vocabulary in Samoyed was col-
lected. Even then, the Samoyed was going out fast.
English.
Ktibal.
English.
Koibal.
31an (vir)
ir
Snake
dilan
{homo)
kizi
thilan
er
Tree
agas
Woman
ipthi
Earth
dhir
epthi
thir
Head
bas
Stone
tas
Hair
sas
Hill
tax
Ear
kulak
tag
Eye
karak
River
khem*
Month
axse
Ice
bus
Bone
sok
Village
ai
Blood
kan
One
ben
Hand
kol
Two
ike
Foot
azak
iki
Tooth
tis
Three
us
Tongue
til
us'
Sky
tiger
Four
tort
tSger
Five
])is
Sun
khun
bes
Moon
ai
bis'
Star
dhetes
bes'
theltes
Six
al
Fire
ot
alty
Water
BUS
Seven
dhlte
sug
thite
su
Eight
sigus
Bird
kus
sfigus
^99
numertka
Nivie
togos
numerka
tdgos
Fish
balak
Ten
on.
• Yeni
seian.
THE KARAGAS.
109
The Koibal is stated by Castren to have as dialects,
the Kondakov and the Salbin. Out of the few words
he gives, I pick out a few evidently Turk.
English. Kandokoy.
Salbin.
Hair
shash
TofAh
tish
Beard
sagal
Belly
k&ryn
Star dhettes
thythysh
theltes
thyltesh
Earth dhir
thlr
Rain nangmer
nangmjT
Tree
agasb.
igas, amounting in 1851
to 284 and 259
females, fell into
a. The Kas ;
6. The Sareg Kash ;
c. The Ty^ptei ;
d. The Tyogde ;
e. The Kara Tyogde.
Tliey all, now, speak Turkish,
English. Karagas.
Water sag
Ice tosh
Egg nyumurha
Fish balak
Snale thulan
Hill tag
dag
Stone taish
Village nyon
One bira
Two iM
Three uis
Pour tort-
dort
Five l)eia
Six alt^
Seven thede
Eight sehes
Nine tohos
Ten on.
EiiglUh.
Kara gas. i
Man (rir)
1
er
(homo)
kishi
Woman
epshe
kat
Eye
karak
Ear
kulak
Mouth
akse
Tooth
dish
Tongue
tel
del
Hair
thash
Hand
kol
Foot
but
mood
khan
Beard
sahal
Shy
tere
Sun
kun
Moon
?ai
Star
settes
Fire
ot
Water
sux
110
THE SOIONY.
The Soiony (Tshitshatsheff takes pains to tell us that
this is the right form of the word) are chiefly within
the Chinese frontier. Still some are Russian. Their
original language I hold to be Yeniseian ; yet, now,
they speak Turkish. In Castren, as obiter dicta,
and as illustrations of his Koibal and Karagas vocabu-
lary we have a few Soyony words. They are the tribes
from whom the Sayanian range takes its name. Some
of the Soyony, as here stated, speak Turkish ; others
Buriat ; some, probably, Saraoyed. The basis, however,
seems to be Yeniseian.
English.
Soiony.
English.
Soiony.
Head
pas
Star
theltes
Hair
tiik
Fire
Ot
Tooth
tes
Water
sux
Tongue
tib
sug
Eye
karak
su
Ear
kar
Earth
dhir
Foot
put
thir
Beard
sagal
Stone
tas
Belly
k&ren
Hill
tag
Sun
kar
Ice
tosh
Star
dbeltes
Tree
yas.
The Sayanian tribes, one of which is said to be
named Sokha, lead to the Sokhalar of the Lena and the
Arctic Sea, the Turks of the extreme north, the Turks
who are usually called Yakuts ; but whose native names
must be carefully remembered as Sokhalar — lar being
the sign of the plural number. The Sokhalar, from the
parts about Lake Baikal, are said to have separated
from the Brath (? Buriats), with whom they formerly
made one nation, under a chief named Tarkhantegin ;
the land upon which they intruded themselves having
been Samoyed, Tungtis, and Yukahiri.
The language of the third column of the following
table is from the Asia Polyglotta. It is simply headed
Yeniseian, i. e. Turk of the Yenisey.
THE SOKHALAR OR YAKUT.
Ill
English.
Yakut.
Yeniseian.
Head
baz
bask
Eye
kharakh
karak
Ear
kulgakh
kulak
Nose
murun
burun
Mouth
ayakh
aksy
Tongue
til
tyl
Tooth
tiz
tish
Sun
kun
kon
Moon
ai
ai
Star
znlns
tshiltis
Fire
vot
ot
Water
■wi
su
Hill
taz
tag
One
bir
bir, nagysh
Two
iki
iki
Three
uz
ntsh
Four
tirt
tort
Five
vez
besh
Six
alta
alta
Seven
seta
dzhuti
Eight
agys
segus
Nine
dogya
togos
Ten
on
ongus.
Such are the details of the Turks of Siberia, who are
so far exceptional as to be, to a great extent, Pagans,
rather than Mahometans, and, of course, unlettered.
Since the Russian conquest of Siberia, Christianity has
made some way amongst them. There is, however,
some Mahometanism, and a little Buddhism.
The Tui-ks of the Khanats of Kazan, Astrakan, and
the Crimea now claim notice. They are all intrusive,
i. e. other than aboriginal to the countries where their
language is spoken.
The Bashhirs, chiefly occupants of the Government of
Orenburg, Turk in tongue, are, more or less, Ugrian in
blood. So are, probably,
The Meshtshenaks, who are believed to have immi-
grated from the Oka, in the Mordvin and Tsherimiss
neighbourhood.
112
THE KAZAN, ETC.
English.
Kazan.
Meshtsheriak.
Bashkir.
Nogay.
Head
bash
bash
bash
bash
Hair
tshatsh
tsats
zaz
zatsh
Hand
kol
kul
kol
kol
Eye
kus
kus
kyus
gyos
Ear
kolak
klak
kulak
kulak
Tooth
tyesh
tish
tish
tysh
Tongue
tyel
til
tel
til
Blood
kan
kan
kan
kan
Day
kyun
kun
kyun
giin
Sun
kuyash
kuyash
kun
gyon
Moon
ai
ai
ai
ai
Star
yaldus
yuldus
yuldus
ildis
Fire
Tit
ut
ut
ut
Water
zu
zu
zu
su
Tree
agatsh
agatsh
agatsh
agatsh
Stone
tash
tash
tash
tash
One
ber
ber
ber
bir
Two
ike
ike
ike
iki
Three
utsh
uz
ysh
utsh
Four
diirt
dyort
dort
dort
Five
bish
besh
besh
bish
Six
alty
alty
alty
alty
Seven
yedi
idi
yedi
siti
Eight
zigis
zigis
zigis
zegis
Nine
tokus
togus
togus
togus
Ten
on
on
on
on.
The Kuzzilbash is the Turk of Persia :
English.
Kuzzilbash.
Engh
sh.
Kuzzilbash
Head
bash
Hand
el
Eye
gos
Sv/n
gun
Ear
kulakh
Moon
a
Nose
buruni
Star
yuldus
Mouth
aghis
Fire
oth
Hair
sadzh
Water
su
Tongue
til
Tree
dyadzh
Tooth
dish
Ston
e
dash.
The Basian, Karatshai, and Kumuk that of Caucasus.
English. Kumuk. Karatshai.
Head bash bash
Eye ^os gos
Ear kulakh kulakh
Nose b\irun burun
Mouth aus ul
sadzh
til
dish
Hair
sadzh
Tongue
dil
Tooth
dish
TURK PATER-NOSTERS. 113
English.
Kumak.
Karatshai
Hand
kol
kol
Sun
gun
gun
Moon
al
ai
Star
yoldus
iildus
Fire
ot
ot
Water
ea
sa
Tree
terek
ayadzh
Stone
tash
tash.
Of the following Pater-nosters, all of which are taken
from the Mithridates, the first three represent the lan-
guage of the parts to the north of the Caucasus or to the
east of the Caspian, i. e. the Tartar of Independent
Tartary. The last three, on the other hand, give the
Turkish of Asia Minor. The first of them is from Georgie-
wicz, who, in the sixteenth century, lived thirteen years
in Anatolia as a slave. The second is the Turkish of
Armenia ; the third, like the first, of Anatoha ; its date
being A.D. 16G6 — earlier than the Armenian specimen,
but later than that by Georgiewicz. — De Turcarum Mo-
ribus, Lyons, A.D. 1555. They are given, verbatim et
literatim,, as they stand in Adelung, i. e. they have not
been collated with the originals.
1.
Atha TTzmn, ki kok-ta sen ; evlia ol dnr sennng ad-ung ; kelsen memleket-
ung ; olsun sennng iradat-nngale jer-dahi gng-de ; ver visum gundelik et-
mege-muzi bu-giun ; va vizum jasu-ngisch kail ot-nitegim kail biz juz jasun-
gisleru muze ; dahi koima LDzi visvasije ; killa korta viLd jeman-dan. Amen.
2.
Atba wisom, chy chok-ta sen ; algusch Indur sinung ad-nng ; kelsanm sen-
nng hauluchnng ; belsung sinung archung aley gnr-da uk ackta ; wer wisum
gundalnch otmak chumnsen won -gun; kay wisum jasochni alei wis dacha ka
yelle nin wisnn jasoch lamasin ; dacha koima wisni snna-macha ; ilia garta
wisni geman-dan.
3.
Ya Ata-muz, ki yuksek ghiogh-da sen ; aadin ari olsun ; padashah-lighin
ghelsiin ; boiruklerin itsmish olsun giogh-da, kibi dahi yirda ; her-ghuinaghi
e kmeki-vir bize bu-ghiun ; muzi va burgjleri-mnzi bize bagishla, nitshaki biz
dahi burgjleri-muza baghishleriz ; va bizi sinisha ghiturma ; likin Tarama -
zdiz bizi sali-vir (va kortar va sakla) ; zira-ki senungh-dier padisha-lik, va
kadirlik, va bojuklik, ta gjanid gjavidana. Amin.
I
114
THE CUMANIAN.
Baba-moz hanghe gugte sson ; cliuduss olssum ssenung ; adun gelsson ssen-
ung memlechtun ; olssun ssenung istedgung nycse gugthe, vie gyrde ; echame
gu-mozi hergunon veie bize bu gun ; hem bassa bize borsligo-moze, nycse bizde
baslaruz bortsetiglere-mozi ; hem yedma byzegeheneneme ; de churtule bizy
Jaramasdan. Amen.
5.
Baba-miz ki chioiler-de sin ; senin ad-in mubarek olsun ; senin padischia-
lij-in chielsin ; nikhe cbisi-de boile kher-de senin murad-in olun-sun ; her-
chiun laziru oalaru ekmekhe-mizi bize ver cu chiun ; ve borglari-mizi bisc
baghishla nikhe ki biszde borghila-miza baghishlariz ; ve bizi ighva-den emin
eile ; amma bizi fena-den kurtar.
6.
Bisum Ata-mus ki kiokler-deh sin ; seniing ad-iing mukaddes olsun ; seniing
melait-ung kielsun ; siniing iradet-iiag olsun nitekim kioh-deh dachi jer-deh ;
her kiunki bisiim etmeke miisi wer bise bu kiun ; we-bisiim burdschler-iimi
bise baggisehlek, nitekem bis dachi bisiim burdschliiler-iimiisi baggischlerus ;
ice-bisi tadschrihe adehal etma; lekin sc/ie?'W'-den-bisi nedschat eile; sira
eeniing-diir melcul, we sultanet, we Medschi ta ebed. Amin.
In A.D. 1770 died Yarro, a native of Czarszag, the
last Hungarian who spoke the Gumanian dialect of the
Turk. For this we have the five following Pater-nosters ;
all imperfect.
1.
Bezom Atta-masz, kem-ke kikte. Szelezon szen-ad-on ; .....
dosson szen-kiiklon netze-ger-de, ali-kuk-te; bezom ok nemezne ( ? okne-
mezne) gUt biittor gungon borberge; eli bezou mene-mezne ther-mez-bezgo
ovgyi tengere
2.
Bezen Atta-maz, chen-ze kit-te. Szen liszen sin-ad-on ;
Doson mittigen kenge .... ale-kik-te ; puthuter kingiri ilt bezen
iltne, bezen kutin ; Bezen migni bolsotati bocson
megne tenge nizni. Amen.
3.
Bezon Atta-maz kem-ze kek-te. Szen leszen szen-ad-on ;
mitzi jegen-ger-de, ali kek-te ; bezom akko mozne bergezge pibbiitoor kungiid;
lit bezon mene-mezde utrogergenge ilt mebezde Olyon
angja manya boka tsali botsanigjs tengere. Amen.
4.
Bezam Atta-masz ken-ze kek-te. Szen-lezon szen ad-on ;
Dosiin szen-kiiklon netze ger-de, ali guk-te ; bezamok menemezne ( ? bezam
okmene-mezne) gutba tergunger ( ? gutbater gunger) ; ali -bezam me-mezne
..... tscher-mez-bezga ; kutkor-bezga eniklera-bezda ;
Ovia malna szembersauk bokvesS.te ;.,... tengeri ovia tengeri
tengeri. Amen.
THE TSHUVASH.
11
Bezen Atta-maz ken-ze kik-te. Szen leszen szen ad-on ;
Doson szen kiiklon nicziegen ger-de, ali kek-te ; bezen ako-moze ( ? okne-
mezne) bergezge pitbiitor kiingiJn ; il bez mene-mezne neszem-bezde, jermez-
bezge utrogergenge iltma tscher-mez-bezga ; bezne olgya manga kutkor bezne ;
algya manna szen borszong boka csalli {aliter osalli) bocson igyi tengeie. Amen.
In the Government of Kazan reside as many as
300,000 Tshuvashes, differing from the other Ugrian
populations in their somewhat superior civilization, and
from the so-called Tartare in the fact of their beino"
Christians rather than Mahometans. Respecting their
language much has been written ; some inquirers main-
taining that it is essentially Ugrian upon which a great
deal of Turk has been engrafted ; others that it is Turk
at bottom, but Ugrian in respect to its superadded ele-
ments.
English.
Tshuvash.
Osmanli.
Tsheremia.
Head
poz
bash
boi
Eye
kos
g03
shinsya
Ear
khnlga
khulak
piliksh
Nose
snmsali
bumn
ner
Mouth
znxar
aghis
nshma
Hair
znz
satsh
ip
Tongue
tsbilge
dil
elmye
Tooth
fibil
dish
pnntshal
Hand
alia
el
kit
Sam,
khwel
gynn
ketshe
Moon
oikh
ai
tilsye
Star
Koldar
yildis
shuder
Fire
wot
od
tol
Water
shiva
sa
wut
Tree
evyi
agatsh
pn
Stone
tshol
tash
ku
One
pi»
bir
iktet
Two
ikke
iki
koktot
Three
vise
ntsh
komat
Pour
dwatta
dort
nilit
Five
pilik
besh
Tisit
Si^
alta
ahy
kndnt
Seven
ratshe
yedi
sbrmit
Eifjht
sakar
sekis
kandashe
Nine
tukhon
dokos
indeshe
Ten
wonka
on
la.
I 2
116 THE TSHUVASII.
The Tsliuvash plurals end in -zam or -zem ; the
Osmanli in -lar, or -lev. In Tshuvash op, or ah, in
Osmanli, men = I. The Tshuvash verb substantive is
holah = sum ; the negative, -ast- ; as hazariadip = oro ;
haziarmastaiJ — non oro.
Schubert reckoned the Tshuvash at 370,000 ; a high
number for a Ugrian, or even a Turk, population in
these parts.
The Pater-nosters of the preceding pages were taken
down before the grammatical structure of the dialects
which they represent was studied. As such, they are,
more or less, inaccurate. On the other hand, they are
better samples of the average character of the Pater-
nosters of rude languages than more accurate com-
positions would have been.
They show difference rather than likeness : whilst, on
the other hand, words like those of our vocabularies
show likeness rather than difference. Hence, we get, as
a rough rule, the doctrine that, in the present work,
languages are more like each other than the Pater-nosters
make them, and less like each other than the lists of
words make them.
I
THE YUKAHIRI.
117
CHAPTEE XVI.
The Ynkahiii.
Due east of the Sokhalcor lie the Yukahiri, or Yuka-
giri, who call themselves Andon Domni — Yukahiri being
the Turk, and Atal the Koriak, name. "Their lan-
guage/' writes Klaproth, is " one of the most outlying in
Asia." It is one, too, of which next to nothing is known.
It is, also, a language of a receding fi-ontier. In a.d.
1739 the numbers of the Yukahiri were high. The
tribes of the Omolon, according to Sauer, were called
Tsheltiere ; those of the Alasey, Omoki ; those of the
Anad^T, Tshuvantsi and Kudinsi. A numerous tribe
named Konghini occupied the Kolyma. " Wars,"
writes Prichard, " with the Tshuktshi and Koriaks have
almost exterminated them."
But there must (if the views of the present writer be
correct) have, also, been encroachment from the West —
effected, most probably, by the Sokhalar.
The language is certainly very different from that of
any of the surrounding populations.
English.
Tukahiri.
Koriak.
Yakut
Tnngus.
Head
monoli
lawut
baz
dyU
Eye
angdzha
lalat
kharakh
eha
Ear
golendM
vyilut
knlgakh
zen
Nose
yongyul
enigytam
moron
ongokto
Mouth
angya
zekiangin
ayak
bamon
Hair
manallae
katshngui
az
nyoritt
Tongue
andzhub
giigel
tyl
ingni
Tooth
tody
wannalgyn
tiz
ikta(1)
Hand
tolondzha
myngakatsh
iU
ngala
118
THE YUKAHIRI.
English.
Yukaliiri
Koriak.
Yakut.
Tungus.
Day
bondzhirka
hallo
kun
inangi
Sun
bugonslie
tyketi
kun
ziguni
Moon
kininshe
geilygen
ui
bega
Star
lerungundzhia
lelapitshan
Zulus
haulen
Fire
yenyilo
milugan
wot
togo
Water
ondzhi
mimal
u
mu
Tree
tshal
uttepel
maz
mo
Stone
kaU
giiggon
taz
dzbolo
One
irken
onnon
bir
omukon
Tivo
antaklon
nioktsh
ike
dzhur
Three
yalon
Diyokh
uz
ilyan
Fou/r
yekalon
niyakh
tirt
dygyn
Five
onganlon
myllangin
ves
tongo
Six
malhiyalon
onnanmyllangin
alta
nyungun
Seven
purkion
langin
seta
nadan
EifjJit
malhielekhlon
I) iy ok h - my llan gin
agys
dzhapkun
Nine
khuni-izkeel-
lendzhin
khonnaitshinkin
dogys
yagin
Ten
kuniella
mynegytkin
on
dzhur.
The root malhi, in the Yukahiri numerals for six and
eight, is the malhuh (malguk) r= two of several of the
dialects of North-west America ; and I may add, that,
East of the Lena true American characteristics present
themselves, and that prominently.
In 1850, I published, in my work on the Varieties of
Man, the following tables, one of which gave a certain
number of affinities between the Yeniseian and the
Yukahiri, the other some between the Yeniseian and the
Samoyed. I also expressed the opinion that, on the
strength of these affinities, the three groups might be
thrown into one, and that the name of the class thus
formed may be Hyperborean. "Whether the tables were
sufficient to justify the fonnation of such a class is
another question. They ought to have been fuller.
The Yenisean and the Yukahiri of the Asia Polyglotta,
English, beard Kott, hulup
Inbask, Icidye, hulgung
Pumpokolsk, clcpuk
Assan, cidup, chulp
Arinzi, Icorolep
Yukahiri, hu-gylhe
THE YUKAHIRI.
119
Enffllsh, head
Inhask, tskig
Yukahiri, yok
English, mouth
Pompokolsk, khan
Yukahiri, anya
English, nose
Inbask, olgen, olen
Pnmpokolsk, hang
Assan, ang
Yukahiri, yonyul, iongioula.
English, tongue
Assan, aldp
Kott, aldp
Arinzi, alyap
Yukahiri, andzhub
English, ear
Assan, hdogan, Jclokan
Kott, kalogan
Yukahiri, golondzhi
English, man
Inbask, ^et, hlet
Pumpokolsk, ilset
Kott, hatket
Yukahiri, yadu
English, dog
Inbask, tsip, tip
Yukahiri, tabaha
English, thunder
Arinzi, eshath-yantu
Yukahiri, yendu
English, lightning
Inbask, yakene-hok
Yukahiri, bug-onshe
English, egg
Inbask, onge
Arinzi, ang
Pnmpokolsk, tanyangeeg
Yukahiri, langdzhango
English, leaf
Assan, yepan
Kott, dipang
Yukahiri, yipan
English, eat
Assan, ray all
Yukahiii, lagid
English, yellow
Kott, shuiga
Yukahiri, tshaiatoroU
English, moon
Pumpokolsk, (ui
Arinzi, shui
Yukahiri, kinin-shi.
B.
The Yenisean and the Samoyed of the Asia Polyglotta.
English, arm
Arinzi, khinang
Mangaseia, kannamunnt
English, finger
Inbask, tokan
Pumpokolsk, toh
Tawgi, fyaaka
Yurass, tarka
English, flesh
Arinzi, is
Assan, if, ir-i
Pumpokolsk, rjp
ilangaseia, osa
Turuchansk, odzha
Narym, &c., ue^
Karass, hne^
English, fir-tree
Inbask, ei
Arinzi, aya
Obdorsk, ye
English, egg
Inbask, ong
Arinzi, ang
Pumpokolsk, eg
Tas, iga
120
THE YUKAHIRI.
English, egg
Assan, shulei
Kott, shulei
Motorian, shlok
English, tree
Assan, atsh
Kott, &c., aps/tg
Motorian, &c., cha
English, brother
Assan, pobesh
Koiljal, paMm^younger
English, butter
Assan, Icayah
Motorian, clmyah
English, moon
Assan, shui
Koibal, Jcui
English, sun
Assan, etc., ega
Motorian, haye
English, stone
Inbask, p.jgs, lyes
Pumpokolsk, qys, kit
Assan, shish
Kott, shish
Arinzi, hhes
Motorian, dagia
English, summer
Assan, shega
Kott, chushshega
Arinzi, shei
Motor, claghan
Koibal, taga
English, tbey
Assan,' ^a<m
Arinzi, itang
Motor, tin
English, woman
Inbask,' &yjTO
Arinzi, hyk-hamalte
Obdorsk, pug-utsii
Pustosersk, ^mg-i^a
English, river
Denka, chuge
Pustosersk, yaga
English, great
Assan, pa^a
Arinzi, hirkha
Pustosersk, pirge
English, evening
Inbask, his
Pumpokolsk, bigidin
Assan, pidziga
Yurass, p)aiLsema
Obdorsk, paus-emya
Pustosersk, paus-emye
English, hill
Inbask, &c., chai
Samoyed, syeo, ko
English, bed
Inbask, chodzha
Obdorsk, choba
Tawgi, kufu
English, birch-tree
Inbask, uusya
Assan, uga
Kott, uga
Pustosersk, chu
Tawgi, &c., kuie
Ket, tiue
English, leaf
Yeniseian, yp-an
Pumpokolsk, ejig
Pustosersk, wyba
Obdorsk, wiibe
Yurass, newe
Tomsk, tyaba
Narym, (abe
Kamash, dzhaba
It is clear that, if Gastrin's association of the Sa-
moyed with the Fin be (as it is) right, the Yukahiri and
THE YUKAHIRI. 121
Yeniseian sliould be in the same category, and, as such,
Ugrian also. Does Castren make them so ? The answer
to this question is as follows : —
Of the Yukahiri he says little or nothing any way.
Of the Yeniseian he expressly, states that it is other
than UgHan.
An opinion to this effect and from such a quarter
rendered a re-consideration of the doctrine involved in
the previous classification imperative ; and so sensible
was I of this that, having published a notice of the
tribes under consideration between the publication of
the Lectures on the Altaic family, and the Giximmar of
the Kott and Yeniseian, " in deference to his " (Castren 's)
"opinion, I suspended my judgment until the last-named
work should be published."
When published, as it was soon after, it put the
Yeniseian as it stands in the present work — leaving the
Yukahiri to be dealt with as it best may.
In Sauer's account of Billing's Expedition there is a
list of 2 o 0 Yukahiri words. These, in conjunction with
the list of Imperial Vocabularies, and a Pater-noster
from Witsen's North and East Tartary, constitute the
whole of our data. The greater part of them appears
in the Asia Polyglotta ; in the body of the work by
itself, and in the Atlas in a tabular form, compared or
contrasted with the Koriak, Kamskadale, and Eskimo
languages ; from all of which (as aforesaid) it differs
visibly.
How far is it Samoyed — the Pater-nosters being
compared? The following are the details, clause for
clause,
(1-)
Yukahiri. — Otje mitsje.
Turukhansk Samoyed. — Modi Jescje.
Taxcgi Samoyed. — Mi Jeseme.
Archangel Samoyed. — Mani NisaL
Ostiak. — Jez mi.
Vogul. — ^Mem Jef.
122 THE YUKAHIRI.
(2.)
Tukahiri. — Kandi Kudsjunga.
Turukliansk Samoyed. — Teio na Csonaar.
Tawgi Samoyed. — Neiteio Nuontone.
Archancjd Samoyed, — Huien tamuva Numilembarti tosu.
OstiaJc. — Kundina jejand Nopkon.
Vogul. — Conboge Eterdarum.
(3.)
YuJcahiri. — ^Temlalangh nim totlie.
Turulchansk Samoyed. — Todi nilo torcke csuzuiro.
Tawgi Samoyed. — Ton on nilo tontokui kusiuro.
Archangel Samoyed. — Tadisse pider nim.
Ostiak. — Nuni nip tat.
Fo^itZ.— Naerderoin amut nema.
(4.)
YuTcahiri. — Legate! pugandallanpoh tottlie.
TurukhansJc Samoyed. — Todi naksiaro toretuSu.
Tawgi Samoyed. — Tonon nuontomeiro tondo tuifantu.
Archangel Samoyed. — Pider parowadie tosu.
Ostiak. — Tula nutkotsj tat.
Vogul. — Nerosia soclitos.
(5.)
Yukahiri. — Latiot t'sjemol alkatei, konda koet zjuga (? kundsjunga) je
leviangh.
Turukhansk Samoyed. — Todi agnaara toretusu tone na csonaar i jacsona.
Tawgi Samoyed. — Tonon nianzepsialo tuifano, tondone nuontono mamoru-
tono.
Archangel Samoyed. — Pider gior amgade numilembart, tarem jae.
Ostiak. — Tiit tenel tiit tat nopkon its jots jogodt.
Vogul. — Omut nun gerae tegali eterdarum scinan maanki.
(6.)
Yukahiri. — LUnliangel miltje monidetjelah keyck mitin telaman.
Turukhansk Samoyed. — Modi puieresiudara kirva toratsin mena ereksone,
Tawgi Samoyed. — Mi niliusiame kirvu tozu nanc jele.
Arcliangel Samoyed. — Man jeeltema nan tuda.
Ostiak. — Nai me 'tsjelelemi tallet meko sbek titap.
Vogul. — Candalas tep mi me tiegalgad.
(r.)
Yukahiri. — Jeponkatsj mitin taldelpon mitlapul, mitkondan (? mit kondan)
poniatsjock tannevinol mitlapUl.
Turukhansk Samoyed. — I kai nene noina oteine, tone imodinani kalodie
neine oteoponede.
Tawgi Samoyed. — Kuoje nane mogorene oteine, tondone oniede kuvojefan-
tome naine oteaoponteinianan.
THE YUKAHIRI. 123
Archangel Samoyed. — Ali ona mani isai, tai mano \rangnndar mani mi
manno.
Ostial: — Kvodtsjedi mekosjek kolzja mei, tat mei kvocltsjedi kolzja mei.
Voguh — Julokults me gavorant, txiigali menik julgoli amut tzagaraldin,
(8.)
Yuiahiri. — Je kondo olgonilak mitel olo oimik.
Turukhansk Samoyed. — Iro sirene ta ora basiedo.
TttTJogi Samoyed. — Letancto men koli cakento.
Archangel Samoyed. — Ja merum hanna sa neninde baka.
Osfiak. — Nik jegosjid kvondik mat kekend.
Vogid. — An mengolen jul\agarias.
(9-)
TuL-ahiri. — Kondo moliak mitel kimda annelan.
Tundhayisk Samoyed. — I role sireno kodago clioro.
Taicgi Samoyed. — Si lupto men muzcy logoto.
Archangel Samoyed. — Japtan mane snadera.
Ostiak. — Tat . . . maft losogod.
Vogul. — Toromalt derku mem knl.
(10.)
Tv.kahiri. — Le dot pngundal lenpoh, je tonbank, je tandalov knndejank.
Turuk/iansk Samoyed. — Tone todi tonea naksiaro i nichoro i su ynraaro i
reine.
Tawgi Samoyed. — Tondo tonon noncina nn ontomouro ni chomeon ni timeon
nlecneeno.
Archangel Samoyed. — Tekindapt schin pider parowadea ni booka, wadado,
il iwan.
Oitiak. — Tat tat nndkotsj, omp, UTorganin, tarn nun. Nat.
Vogul. — Tagolodamu negotsko, vaan booter, nemonsoigi nekostatia. Peitse.
Remarks.
1.
Otje is, apparently, the Russian otets, oice. That mitsje is the Turuk-
hansk mxtdi is probable. Compare totlie (thine) with todi, and the probability
increases.
2.
Kandi is the relative pronoun, and, word for word, the Ostiak kundina,
3-4.
Nim is Gterman. Totlii has already been noticed.
5.
Latiot. — What la means is uncertain. Perhaps it should be separated
from tiat, which is totliS = thy. T'sjemol is, perhaps, the Ostiak ienel. In
leviangh, the -ngh is inflexional, probably the sign of a locative case. The
simple form in Billing is levjie.
124 THE YUKAHIRI.
6.
Miltje and mitin are the pronouns of the first person. Mon'ddJelaJi and
telaman = this day and duily. The root is tel; and it api)ears in both the
Sanioyed and Ostiak. It appears, too, with the terminations -ma and -mi.
In Billing, pondscherJca = day, whilst pondscherkoma = to-day, the ma
being rnan.
7-10.
The likeness here seems limited to the roots j)on and tail, in No. 7, as com-
pared with the Oteapo7itei)iia,na.n of the Tawgi,
THE UGRIAN CLASS. 125
CHAPTER XVII.
The TJgrian Class. — Its Importance and Peculiarities. — Castren's Eesearcbes.
• — The Sanioyed Division.
Every language is, in its way, a philological study;
and so is every group of languages. The Ugiian class,
however, is one of pre-eminent importance. It is the
most northern of all : and, in remembering this, we
must also remember that the world is a sphere. It is
like an apple or an orange. Now it is one thing to cut
round an apple in the latitude of its pips : it is another
thing to do so just below its calyx, or just above the
stalk. The one section is a long, the other a short, one.
A language (if such a one existed) that went round the
world at the equator would cover infinitely more gi'ound
than one that encircled one of the Poles. Yet the
number of degrees would be the same. The Malay
tongues are spoken over fewer degrees of latitude than
the XJgiian. How different, however, ls the real length
of their ai'ea. If they were spoken within the Arctic
Circle, they would cover less ground than the Turk.
Now the Ugrian tongues belong to the region where
the degrees of latitude are of the narrowest. Some of
them, indeed, lie to the south — e. g. the Magyar. As
a general rule, however, they are northern.
Again — there are certain parallels which may be
called zones of conquest and encroachment. The extreme
north is unfavorable to the development of mind and
muscle. So are the Tropics. Hence, the nations of
the medium, or temperate, districts are like two-edged
126 THE UGRIAN CLASS.
swords. They cut both ways — encroaching accord-
ingly.
The Ugrian tongues are the tongues of the North, of
the narrow longitudes, and of the unfavoured climates.
They have been inordinately encroached on. Again —
they lie, to a great extent, between Europe and Asia.
The Ugrian area was once continuous. It is now
fragmentary. Many of the Ugrian districts are islands,
with a sea of Slavonism around them. Or we may
change the metaphor, and call them oases. The desert
around them is sometimes Slavonic, sometimes Turk.
The Tungus, the Mongol, and the Turk were philo-
logical classes in the way that the Solidungula con-
stituted a class in Zoology. The difference between the
horse and the ass was all the difference they embraced.
The Ugrian is a class in the way that the Rodentia are
a class. There are many members, and the differences
embraced are the differences between a mouse and an
agouti.
The chief languages of the Ugrian class are the
Ostiak, the Vogul, the Magyar, the Permian, the Votiak,
the Tsherimis, and the Mordwin — all recognized by the
earlier philologues. Then comes the Samoyed, recognized
as Ugrian since the researches of Gastrin. Then the
Yukahiri and the (?) Yeniseian, of which much has al-
ready been said.
The Koriak and its congeners can only be made
Ugrian by raising the value of the class.
In three respects Ugrian philology is easy. A lan-
guage spoken in the centre of Asia has affinities on each
side — north, south, east, and west. A language
spoken on the northern end of the world has affinities
in one direction only — to the south. The affinities of
the Lap are one-sided ; those of the Turk (to borrow an
expression from the geologists) quaquaversal.
Secondly — the boundai-ies of an island or an oasis
are easily marked out. The limits of a tract in the
THE SAMOYED. 127
middle of a continent may easily be indefinite. Now,
many of the Ugrian tongues are absolutely isolated.
Thirdly — the Ugrians have generally been encroached
on. Hence, there is much which, though Russian, Li-
thuanic, German, or Turkish in speech, is Ugrian in
blood ; although the converse is (comparatively speaking)
rarely the case.
There are not ten millions of Ugiians (tested by their
language) in the world. Of these nearly half are in
Hungary ; three-fourths of the remainder being the
Fins of Finland. Assuredly, the Ugrian is a fiagmen-
tary class.
The Ugrians lead not only from Asia to Europe, but
to America as well.
The data for the Ugrian languages are ample. This
is because the nationality of the Finlanders, not discou-
raged by Eussia, has been devoted with more than merely
laudable activity to the study of them. From the days
of Porthan to those of Sjogi-en and Castren, the inves-
tigation of Ugrian ethnology has been pursued with
learning and acumen.
The language * of the present group which is best
known, and which most especially illustrates the word
Fin or Ugrian (for the two terms are nearly synony-
mous), is the Fin of Finland. As a literary language it
is, by no means, unimportant. Neither is it the lan-
guage of a nation destitute of political importance.
Still it is not the right lanoruasre to begin mth. It is
part and parcel of the present work to make an approx-
imate sequence in the way of connection : and the group
of prospective languages which comes nearest to the
preceding is —
The SaTnoyecl : this being a name for a class of
dialects which, within the last ten years, has commanded*
more attention than any class of equal political and lite-
rary unimportance. Yet fifty yeai-s ago they were
known only by name. The Mithridates gives us little
128 THE SAMOYED.
more than a few Pater-nosters. The Asia Polyglotta, by-
means of the Vocabularies of Strahlenberg and Messer-
schmidt, gave us fuller materials. Nor were they neg-
lected. Klaproth, who spared so few that few have
cared to spare him, has got less credit than he deserves
for the amount of arrangement which he introduced
amongst them. Castren has been hard upon his errors;
— perhaps unduly so : but when men deal in hard mea-
sures towards others, hard measures is all they can expect
for themselves. I find no notable and really material dif-
ferences between his divisions and Castren's — no notable
and really material ones. . Some, however, exist ; though
unimportant. As for Castren's own, I take them as I
find them ; seeing plainly that they are made on the
principle of demarcation rather than type ; and (as such)
only provisional. How far they are based upon single
characters rather than upon a multiplicity of characters
in mass, the incomplete state of his Grammar and Dic-
tionary (both of which are posthumous works, with little
or no original matter added by the able editor) prevents
me from ascertaining.
The first fact connected with the 'class is the vast
style of its area both in respect to latitude and longi-
tude. The first Samoyeds are found as far west as the
neighbourhood of Mezen ; the last on the banks of the
Chatunga. Considering, however, their Arctic locality,
this is nothing very extraordinary. The degrees of
latitude in the neighbourhood of the Icy Sea are
narrow. Much more interesting is the extension south-
ward, or the fact of their being found so low as 50°
N.L. within the Chinese frontier. Of these southern
Samoyeds there are two divisions ; one on the upper, or
middle, Obi ; one on the upper, or middle, Yenisey.
• Between the two there is this difference — the Samoyed
area of the Obi is either neai-ly, or wholly, continuous ;
in other words there is a chain of Samoyed localities
which, either nearly or wholly, continues the chain of
THE SAMOYED DIALECTS. 129
dialects from the Barabinski steppe to the mouth of the
river. The Samoyeds, however, of the upper Yenisey
are utterly isolated. They are found on the Yenisey
where it is cut by the Russian and Chinese boundary, and
they are not found again until we approach its mouth.
In many respects these South-eastern Samoyeds (the
simple term Southern is insufficient) are the more impoi--
tant members of the class. In the first place, it is Likely
that they represent the occupants of the original situs
of the family: so that it spread from south to north
rather than from north to south. This, however, is a
matter which requires more consideration than it has
received. Neither is it a doctrine to which the writer
commits himself without reserve and conditions. In the
next place, it is in the south that the Samoyed has been
(what we are scarcely prepared to expect) an encroaching
language.
Who would unlearn liLs own mother-tongue for the
Samoyed ? Not the Turks, not the Mongols, scarcely the
Tungus — though it is possible that certain tribes belong-
ing to some (or all) of these divisions may have done so
to some slight extent. The populations which have most
especially, either by amalgamation or conquest, allowed
their own language to be replaced by the Samoyed are the
Yeniseians of the Kot and Ara divisions. This, however,
we have already seen. On the other hand, the Samoyed,
(in some cases as pure Samoyed, in others as Samoyed
which has superseded the Yeniseian,) is, itself, replaced
by the Turk ; as we saw when speaking of the Koibal
and Karagas, and as we suggested when speaking of the
Tuba and other dialects. Probably, also, certain Tungus
and Buriats are Samoyed in blood though other than
Samoyed in speech. Of the Turk language, however, in
Samoyed mouths, there is no doubt.
Its encroachment is recent. In the Asia Polyglotto,
there are two Vocabularies ; one headed Motorian, re-
presenting the language of the Matar, Matlar, or Matorzi,
K
130 THE NORTHERN SAMOYED.
and one headed Koibal. Both these were collected by
Messerschmidt, in the last century. The Motorian Sa-
moyed, then nearly extinct, is now no longer to be found
— at least eo nomine. The Koibal may possibly be
spoken by a few individuals, StiU, the Koibal of the
Koibal Grammar of Castren is simply Turkish. The
Kamas, the third of Klaproth^s (or Messerschmidt's) Vo-
cabularies, is still spoken ; and Gastrin has given us a
Grammar of it. Still the main language of the division
is Turkish — with the exception of a minimum of
Kot. There Tnay be a Soiot form of the Samoyed;
though this, if it exist, is, probably, Samoyed in the
mouth of Yeniseians. The few words, however, that
we know of the Soiot are Turk. Still the details of
the country within the Chinese fi"ontier are most im-
perfectly known. On the part of the Northern Samoyeds,
the philological encroachment has been less. Still there
have been encroachments. Castren writes that some of
the frontier Ostiaks have learned to speak Samoyed.
Of the Ncrrthern Samoyeds the chief divisions, ac-
cording to Castren, who founds them upon the differ-
ences of dialect, are three ; (1 ), the Yurak ; (2), the
Tawgi ; and f3), the Ostiak.
(i.) The Yurak Samoyeds are those that lie in the
closest contact with the Russians. To them the name
Samoyed was first applied. It is a name which is, by
no means, native. The native name is Kasovo (Hasa-
wayo), or Nyenets r= riian.
The Yurak Samoyeds, or the Samoyeds of Yugoria,
appear on the eastern coast of the White Sea, towards
the mouth of the river Mezene. On the lower course
of the Petshora they are more abundant still. They are
separated from the Russian Laplanders by the White Sea
and by the valley of the Dwina ; for the parts about
Archangel have long been wrested from them and Rus-
sianized.
Between the Petshora and the Ural, the Samoyed is
I
THE NORTHERN SAMOYED. i31
bouoded on the south by the Zirianian area. On the
Obi he comes in contact with the Ostiak ; and that at
the ver}^ mouth of the river. In the parts, however,
about Obdorsk Samoyed is spoken. From the Obi to
tlie Tas all is Yurak Samoyed. On tlie Tas, however,
there is a break ; beyond which the details are obscure.
The Yurak division is generally carried as far east as
the Yenisey. We will here, however, carry it to the Tas.
The Yurak Proper is only one dialect out of five ;
the other four being represented by the (a), Kanin and
Timan ; (&), the Ishim ; (c), the BoLshizemla and
Obdorsk ; (d), and the Kondin, or Kazym, forms of
speech.
(2.) The Tawgi division reaches from the lower Yeni-
sey to the Chatunga ; the tribes which belong to it being
sometimes called the Avam, orAvamski, Samoyeds.
(3.) The Ostiak Samoyeds have the disadvantage of
being described by an inconvenient name. The true
Ostiaks are something else, as has been seen.
Of their dialects, however, in situ, the most northern
is that of the parts about the Tym and Narym ; next
comes that of the river Ket ; thirdly, that of the Tshulim
The Ket forms of speech extend as far as the rivers
Parabel and Tshaja, feeders of the Obi, on the frontier
of the Barabinski steppe. The dialect of the Circle of
Pumpokolsk is also akin to the Ket.
The migrations are represented by the Karasin and
Tas forms of speech ; the former being spoken in the
parts to the north of Turukansk, on the Yenisey, and
the latter by the Tym and Karakon tribes of the Tas ;
tribes that use the reindeer and call themselves Mo-
kase.
In the way of language, the Kamash, Kamas, Kang-
mash, or Kamasintzi (the ^Motorian and Koibal being
extinct), are the only existing representatives of the
Southern Samoyeds. They are Nomads and Shamanist
pagans, on the head-waters of the Kan and Mana.
K 2
132
THE SOUTHERN SAMOYED.
From one division of them Castren got the materials
for liis Grammar.
I have said that between the groups of Klaproth and
Castren there were some differences of detail. Klaproth
lays the Tawgi in the same class with the Yurak ; along
with which he places the Pustosersk, the Obdorsk, the
Mangaseia, and the Turukansk dialects. His second
class contains the Tas, Tomsk, Narym, Ket, Tym, and
Karas forms of speech, along with a sliort specimen of
what he calls the Lak. Finally, a list headed Taigi
(the import of which is not explained), finds place in
the third division, containing the Motorian, the Koibal,
and the Kamash.
Even in Castren the details and value of a fourth
section called (most inconveniently) the Yeniseian, are
obscure. The class itself is small. Its name gives the
locality of its members. They lie between the Ym-ak
and Tawgi divisions on the lower Yenisey.
It is from Castren that all the following specimens
are taken, and it is in the orthography of his Samoyed
Grammar and Dictionary that they are given.
NORTHERN
SAMOYED.
(1-)
Yurak.
English
YuraV.
English,
Yurak,
Man {homo)
nenete
Ear
ha
nienece
nieneca
Beard
inunate
munace
nience'
munac'
nienec'
munabt'
Man (vir)
hasawa
Tonfjue
nami
Head
"aewa
Tooth
tibea
Hair
iiotba
"■obt
tiwe
tea
6abt
tiw
eabt
Hand
"uda
tar
Foot
"ae
tabor
Blood
hfim
Eye
saeu
xeam
SAMOTED DIALECTS.
133
English.
TiHak.
Euglish-
Tnrak.
Blood
horn
Earth
ya
Nose
pmyea
yea
Mouth
na
Hill
sea
Bone
ly
sa
le
Tree
pea
Sim
h4yer
Iron
yesea
haijer
yese
hayar
Fish
halea
Jfoon
yiry
yiry
hale
hale
yirt
2>of7
yandu
Star
numgy
yando
Night
pi
House
h4rad
Egg
s4rna
x&rad
Fire
tu
Water
yi
Stone
pae
Rain
saru
Mountain-range
soty
skm
s6ty
Lalt
to'
The Kondin vociibulary is short. The
following
the chief words
wherein it differs from
the or(]
Yurak :
English.
KonOiii.
Yurak.
Man {vir)
hiiberi
nienece
hiiweri
Eye
haem
saea
Mouth
nang
na'
House
xirad
b&rad
Iron
wese
ytee
Rain,
sata
s&U
Lake
m4ri
lo'
Water
wit
(2.)
Tawgi.
JT
English.
Tairgi
English.
Tawgi.
Man {rir)
knaynma
Hand
yntu
Head
'aevra
Foot
"oai
'aiwua
Nose
pniyea
Hair
*apta
Mouih
na
*&bta
Blood
kam
Eye
saime
Bone
lata
Ear
koa
Sun
kou
Beard
mnndoii^aii
g
Moon
kitad4
Tongue
sieya
Star
fata
Tooth
timi
Night
fing
134
SAMOYED DIALECTS.
English. Tawgi .
English.
Tawgi.
Egg mdnu
Fish
kolu
Fire tui
Dog
b&ng
Stone fala
House
koru'
Earth mou
Water
b6
mamara
Rain
soruang
Tree ik
Lake
turku.
Iron basa
(3.)
Ostiah.
1
English — man (homo)
X.
Tiff,?— sai
Narym — ^kop
Tshwaia — sei
Eet — kum
Nat-2>umpoJcolsk-
-saiji.
Middle Ostialc — krnn
English — hand
Nat-pumiwholsh — kume
Ket — utte
Yetogui — kup
Nat-pumpoholsh-
-utte
Bailcha — kup
Yelogui — ut
Tas— kup.
Tas—wi
English — l\ead
Ballha — ut
Ket—o\\Q
Karassin — ut.
Nat'pumpol-olsk — ul
English — nose
Yelogui — uT
Narym — tob
JBaikha — ul
Ket — toppa
Karassin — ul.
Nat-pumiiolcolsl:-
—toppa
English — heard
Tshwaia—i6\>3.
Nari/m—und
BaikJut — tobe
Yelogui — unde
Tas — tope
Baihha — unde
Karassin — tup.
Karassin — unde
English — hlood
Middle Obi — nmd
Narym— kan
Eet — nmdde.
Tshulim — kam
English — tongue
Nat-pumpokolsh-
— kame
Narym — se
Yelogui - kem
Tshulim—sie.
BaikJm — kem
English — eije
Narym — hai
Tas—hhm
Karassin — kem.
Ket — sai
English — bone
Yelogui — sai
Naiym — li
Baihha — sai
€
>
Nat-pumpokolsk-
-le.
English.
"Upper Obi.
Man {homo)
kum
also Middle Obi.
{vir)
tebii,
also Tshaia.
Hair
opte
SAMOYED DIALECTS.
135
En^ish.
Beard
Eye
Ear
Nose
Moutk
Hand
Foot
Blood
Bone
Sm
Moom
Star
KifjU
Fire
JRirer
Stone
Tree
Hotue
^
SaU
Kngtish — earth
MiddU Obi—in
Ket — |u
Narym — 'cu
Ta.i — s6
Baikha — su
Karatsin — su.
English— Ai72
Naryen — ^ke
Baiiha — -ki
YeUfgui — ki
Karasnn — ke.
English — stone
Narym — p6
Tshvmia — ^pu
Nat-puwq)otold: — pu
Tehgtd — ^pii
Baikha — pft
Tba— pA
English — mn.
Narym — 'eel
Tdoffui, d:c. — tel
TAwaia, dx. — {jeL
Upper ObL
nmde
sd, abo TAaia,
kne, also T^ultM.
pato; Tshaia, pnto ; Mid. 0&^ poL
eang; TshuUm, oang.
ode; Tihuliwif ntd
tdbe; TshMUwij tdln.
kim, al» TthmUm.
fi
td, also T'duaa,
ire, aim TAma.
kasaa^u; TAaia, kesanka.
pa; Middle Obi, pe.
to, ako Tshaia
k^eS, abo Tshulim.
tang ; Tghaioj t4.
pao, alaol^Aaia.
moat
k^ai, also Tihmlim.
aeak; Middle Ofn^ sak.
3.
]&glisb-~«ioo»
Narym — ire
KH—m
TsA^idim — in
Ydogui — ire
Ta» — xiA
Natr^mmp«ikoU:-~^r%
Karatanr—eok.
English — voter
Narym — ikt
ok
English — kouae
Narym — m&t.
English — lake
Battor—ta
Ta»—ta
Karastiit — ta
Middae 06»— to
Ket— to
Upper Obi — \o
Ttftwoia— to
Nat-fvmjioM$t — ^to.
136
SAMOYED DIALECTS.
English-
-rain
Tas—T^h.
Narym—
-huromS
Baikha—
-p&
Baikha-
-sorom3
Karassin
-pft.
Karassii
. — soroma
English—
-fish
Ket — saro
Tas — kuele
Middle OU—soto
Nat-p um'po'kolsk
— kuele
TaJiwaia
— soro
Yelogui-
-kuele.
Nat-2mmpokolsk—
-semi.
English-
-egg
Englist—
-tree
Narym—
-n^bi
Narym—
-po
Ket — n&pi
Tshwaia
— puo
Yelogui-
-eng
Nat-pumpolcoUlc—
-pe
Tas — eng
Yelogui-
-p<i
Karassin — eng.
(?4.)
Yeniseian.
Englisb.
Yeniseiaii,
Chant a.
Baiklia
Man {homo)
ennete'
{vh
)
kasa
Head
abuli
eba
Hair
t6'
td'
Beard
muddute'
Eye
sei
Ear
kd
k6
Nose
fuiya
puiya
Mouth
6'
na'
Tongue
siolo
sioro
Tooth
ti
Hand
ura
uda
Foot
-k
~d
Blood
ki
Bone
Hri
Udi
Sun
kaiya
Moon
ilio
yirie
Star
foreseo
fadesei
Night
fi'
fi
Fire
tu
tu
Water
bi'
bi'
River
yaha
yoha
Sain
sale
sare
Snow
sila
sira
Earth
da
y&
Stone
it
fu
Tree
fe
fe
Home
kamoro
kamodo
Salt
St
si'
Egg
mona
Fish
kale
kare.
SAMOYED DIALECTS.
137
B.
SOUTHERN SAMOTED.
English.
Kamas.
English.
Kamas.
Man {homo)
keiza
Moon
khi
Head
ulu
Star
khinzigai
Hair
adde
Night
phi
Byt
sima
phy
Ear
ka
Fire
'su
Beard
muizen
Rain
snma
Tongue
'sika
Lake
thu
Tooth
thima
Water
bu
Hand
nda
Stone
phi
Foot
uyii
HiU
iiyu
Hill-range
bor
Nose
phiya
Earth
tu
Mouth
ang
Tree
pha
Blood
khem
Iron
batza
Bone
le
Fish
kola
Sun
kuya
Dog
men
The Yurak Samoyeds call \:hevas,^YQsndsawayo = men;
the Tawgi and Yeniseian Samoyeds call them Juraka
and Julaka ; the Samoyeds of the Obi, Koelak, KwalaJc,
and Kivdleng. Meanwhile the Yurak call the Ostiaks
Hahi. It is the Yeniseian Samoyeds who give to the
great river on which they are fixed the name which
nearest approaches its European one. They call it
Yeddosi. The Tawgi call it Yentayea. The Obi
Samoyeds, on the other hand, know it as the Nyandesi,
the Kola {■=river), and the Tyagandes Kola = broad
river.
138 THE OSTIAK
CHAPTER XVIII.
The TJgrian Class.— The Ostiak, the Vogul, and the Magyar,
The Ostiak is the language of the Obi and Irtish on
the drainage of which it is spoken from about 56° to 67°
N.L. I am not aware that it touches any part of the
water-system of the Yenisey ; though certain tribes
belonging to the Samoyed and Yeniseian groups have
improperly been called Ostiak. This inaccuracy, with
which Klaproth and others found it necessary to contend,
is now unimportant. The latest authorities, when they
have not discarded the term altogether, have, in general,
warned the reader of its impropriety. So influential a
writer, however, as Castren still applies the term Yeni-
seian Ostiak to a form of speech which, whatever else it
may be, is certainly different from the dialects under
notice.
These belong, as has just been stated, more especially
to the Obi and the Irtish, where they are bounded on
the south by the Barabinski and Tshulim Turks, on the
west bj'- the Voguls and Zirianians, on the north by the
Samoyeds of the Icy Sea, and on the east by other
Samoyeds, and the Yeniseians of the Ket. In 1838
the number of Ostiaks was about 19,000. Narym,
Surgut, Beresov, and Obdorsk are the towns which lie
most especially on the Ostiak frontier.
The only Grammar of the Ostiak is one by Gastrin,
in which, contrary to his ordinary habit, he has repre-
sented the language in Russian, rather than Italian,
letters — Russian as adapted by Sjogren to the Iron.
The dialect is that of the Irtish j besides which there
THE OSTIAK. 139
are, at least, two others on the Obi, viz : the Surgufe
and the Obdorsk. The former falls into sub-dialects ;
at any rate certain words are quoted as belonging to the
upper Surgut, or the Surgut of the river above, and
others as belonging to the lower Surgut, or the Surgut
of the river below, the city.
That the language of a nation of fishers and foresters
should be uncultivated and unlettered is what we both ex-
pect and find. That it has been largely superseded by the
Barabinski and Tshulim Turk is probable. That cer-
tain Ostiaks of the Samoyed boundary have exchanged
their mother-tongue for that of their frontagers is es-
pecially stated by Castren.
The Ostiaks call the river Obi As.
The As-yakh=^Men of the J..s=xlsicol8e, or 06icolae,
call
The Ostiaks of the Demianka, Tshonto-yakh.
Irtysh, Long-gol-yakh.
other rivers, Nang-wanda-yakh.
Naryra, and the banks of the river Ket, are the
most eastern points of the Ostiak occupancy ; and there
the Ostiaks come in contact with the Samoyeds. Now
the term for man changes here, and is —
In the singular number, kup = homo.
plural hula ^= homines.
Hence the compound Gentile names end differently,
and a Narym Ostiak calls
Himself
The Surgut Ostiaks
— Russians
— Turks in sreneral
DshumAil-kida.
Tangyl-kula.
Ruzhil-kula.
Tiil-kula.
of the Tshulim Tshulim-ku-kula.
— Tungusians . . Guellon-kula.
of the river Obi Koldy.
— Tym Kasukh-k'd.
140
THE VOGUL.
The Asjakh of Surgiit call themselves Naxta-yakh.
the Ostiaks of Narym Nyorwrri'
yakh.
— — Samoyeds Yeryan-yakh.
— — Turks . Katan-yalch.
Russians Rutsh-yakh.
Germans JVimet-yakh.
Word for word, Njorum=^Nary'm,=fen ; and, as a
Ugrian gloss, it is an instrument of criticism. Where
the root n-r-nti and a swampy locality go together, we
have a presumption in favour of either a Ugrian occu-
pancy or a Ugrian neighbourhood.
The Vogul language belongs to the ridge of the Urals
and to its two sides ; being spoken by about 900 indi-
viduals in the Government of Perm, and 5000 in that
of Tobolsk, a few of whom are tillers of the soil, the
majority being fishers and hunters. It is the only
Ugrian language of which we have no Grammar ;
indeed, it is the one which, upon the whole, has com-
manded the least attention. The Vocabularies, however,
are sufficient to show not only that it is truly Ugrian,
but that it belongs to the same class with the one which
now comes under notice.
English.
Ostiaki
Vogul.
Man {vir)
kuim
kom
(homo)
koiet
klas
Head
ngol
pank
Hair
upat
ata
Eye
sem
sham
Ear
pel
bal
Nose
nal
n5I
Mouth
lul
tozh
Tongue
nalim
nelma
Hand
ket
kat
Foot
kur
lat
Swn
syunk
kotal
Moon
tylesh
yankop
Star
koz
kenza
Fire
tyod
taut
THE VOGUL.
English.
OstiaV.
VognL
Water
ying
wit
Tree
yog
yo
Stone
kiw
kn
One
ogy
Two
ketto
Three
kholyni
Four
niil
Fire
net
Six
knt
Seven
labut
Eight
nuul
Nine
yirteng
Ten
iyani
141
The Yoguls hold a cheerless and inhospitable tract of
land bounded by the Zirianians, the Samoyeds, and the
Kondicho, whom Voguls call by the name they give
themselves, viz. Mansi.
In the south part of the Vogul country Christianity
has advanced a little ; feebly and imperfectly, but still a
little. In the north, paganism prevails.
The Voguls call the Irtish . Shap.
Tawda . Tagget.
Konda . Klionda.
How far the Ostiak and Vogul extended southwards
before the encroachment of the Turks is imknown.
Neither is it known whether their extension was easterly
or westerly. The opinion of the closest investigators,
amongst whom may be placed Castren, is in favour of
their having extended tliemselves bodily from the south.
Be this as it may, the Government of Orenburg, though at
present the chief occupancy of the Bashkirs, was origin-
ally Ugrian. More than this, its Ugi'ian elements, though
not exactly either Ostiak or Vogul, were closely akin to
both. In Orenburg, however, no one, at the present
moment, uses the original language. It is spoken
nevertheless. It is spoken elsewhere ; far to the south
and far to the west of its original locality. It is
142 THE MAGYAR.
spoken by more individuals than any Ugrian tongue
whatever ; indeed, by more than all the speakers of all
the Ugrian tongues put together. It is the language of
no less than 4,000,000 Hungarians, the native name of
whom is Magyar.
Magyar, then, is the term by which we denote the
descendants of those Ugrians who, in the tenth century,
cut their way from the ridge of the Ural and the
streams of the Yaik to the rich pastures and fertile
tilths of Hungary, as opposed to the Slavonians,
Rumanyos, and Germans of that kingdom ; and Magyar
is the name of the language as well as the people. The
time when it was introduced into Europe is one of
which the history is too obscure to allow us to give the
exact details of the languages which it displaced. Thus
much, however, is certain, viz. : that it came in contact
with German on the west, with Rumanyo in the east,
and with Slavonic forms of speech on every side ;
besides which there were the dialects which it actually
displaced, the majority of which, I believe to have been
Turkish.
As the first Magyar Christians were converts to the
Latin rather than the Greek Church, their alphabet i?
Roman, so that the historv of their civilization and
literature is that of Poland and Bohemia rather than
Servia and Bulgaria ; indeed, Poland and Hungary are
the two countries where the Latin, from its inordinate
use as the language of law, religion, and learning, has
made the nearest approach to an actual vernacular
without becoming one.
The early works in Magyar were few and far between.
Neither were they important. In a bibliographical list
of all the compositions in Magyar, printed in 1803, the
total number of works referred to the year 1784 (a date
of which the importance will soon appear) amounted to
no more than 29 : the majority of which consisted of
funeral sermons. Amongst the most important ones of
TUE MAGYAR. 143
the list at large were three translations — one of a for-
gotten tragedy of Cronegk's, one of Voltaire's Zaire,
and one of the Cyropccdia.
The year 1784 was the year of the Emperor Joseph's
famous edict by which he attempted to introduce German,
as the language of the Diet, the Law Courts, and all
public offices. It enacted, inter alia, that . within three
years fi'om that time, unless special circumstances could
be adduced which should justify him in allowing a
respite, all the cases in aU the Courts, whether in first
instance or as appeals, were to be conducted in German.
This excited universal consternation. The Diet at
Presburg resolved that the records of its proceedings
should be in Magyar ; and that a committee should
report on the best means of fostering the study of the
native toncme. One of the recommendations of this
Committee was the establishment of a national theatre :
another was the establishment of an academy. Neither
was carried into efiect at the time : both bore fruit in
the sequel.
The languaore of the claims thus enforced was the
Magyar. The language, however, against which the
edict of Joseph was more especially directed was the
Latin ; for it was the Latin, rather than the Magyar,
which had up to then become the language of the laws
and the constitution. And, to a great extent, it was the
Latin, rather than the !Magyar, which was defended.
Still, the ujishot of the national movement was the de-
velopment of the Magyar.
The history of the Magyar literature now becomes
the pei-sonal history of those energetic patriots who
availed themselves of the reaction in its favour : firet
and foremost of whom was Francis Kazinczy. For more
than forty years he laboured at the language. I say the
language rather than the literature, because his literature
was a means rather than an end. It was the language
which he wished to improve. The efforts of the Ger-
144 THE MAGYAR.
mans in the same direction were before his eyes ; and
he claimed for the Magyar the same freedom in dealing
with its elementary terms and making new compounds
out of them as the Germans were indulging in. He
substituted home-made terras for terms of foreign origin.
In a language upon which both the Latin and the German
had so long exercised what he (as a purist) would consider
baleful influence, there was much to be done in this way;
yet Kazinczy was not the reformer that was tempted by
his opportunities. Some went farther than he did. He
was, however, upon the whole successful in his coinage.
For secretary and counsellor he introduced titoknok, and
tanacsnot, from titok, a secret, and tanacs = counsel.
With the words ending in ne the sign of the feminine
gender, he dealt more boldly still. They correspond to
the German forms in -inn, as freundinn = female friend,
to a certain extent only. Baratne, from harat =■ a friend,
meant, up to 1800, not so much friend of the female
gender as a friend's wife. In like manner kiralyne,
from kiraly, a king, meant a king's wife rather than a
queen or female king. Both these words either changed
or enlarged their meaning under the influence of
Kazinczy. There was a word for the Latin virtus
wanted, and there was a competition between Kazinczy
and others as to who was to coin it. There was also
a prize of fifty florins offered for a native equivalent
to spiritus ; another one for universum. These words,
though manufactured rather than grown, have kept
their place better than was to be expected.
At the same time, the quantity of still-born words in
Magyar is very great. No wonder. The births are nu-
merous. In 1845 Dr. Block published a German and
Hunsarian Lexicon. In 1847 a second edition was
wanted, and the whole work had to be recast ; so great had
been the additions to the language within the last two
years. I take this, as Mr. Watts takes it, i. e. as a mea-
sure of the rate at which innovation goes on ; adding
FIN AFFINITIES OP THE MAGYAR.
145
that it is from a paper of Watts' in the Philological
Transactions that the whole of the foregoing notice is
taken.
The following list of the Fin afl^ities of the Magyar
is picked out of the tables of the Asia Polyglotta. By
going to other sources it might be largely increased.
English.
Magyar.
Other Ugrian Languages.
Eye
szem
sem, Ostiak, <fcc.
Belly
has
waz, Fin
Tree
i&
pa, Fin and Permian
Hill
hegy
kumk, Tsherimis
Leaf
lewel
lybet, &c., Ostiak, <tr.
Blood
wer
wyr, ditto
Bad
kar
kurya, Fin
Bread
kenyer
kinda, Tsherimis
Thou
te
ty, &c., Permian, &e.
Ice
jeg
yenk, &c., Ostiak, <frc.
£ff9
mony
mono, Tsherimis, Ac.
Feather
toll
tuul, Vogul, fkc.
Fire
tiiz
tut, Ostiak, dc.
Finger
uij
lui-yoi, ditto
Fish
hal
kul, ditto, dec.
Spriny
tawasz
kaved, Karelian
Foot
lab
lal, Vogul
Goose
Ind
lond, Ostial, <tc. [rin
Grass
pasit
padj,Ostiak ; j>izhe,Mord-
Throat
torok
tun, Ostiak, <kc.
Good
jo
joiTO, Fin
Cock ■
kakas
kikkas, &c., Estonian
Neck
nyak
nangol, Ostiak
Hand
kez
ket, Ostiak, d-e.
House
haz
kat, ditto, d-c.
HeaH
sziv
sem, ditto
Spy
meny
manen, Mordtin
Horn
szarv
saw, &c., Estonian, d-e.
Cold
hideg
itek, Ostiak
Bone
czont
koint. Fin
Head
fo
pa, ditto
Herb
fu
puBB, Ostiak
Slow
lassan
lasy, Vofptl
Live
elet
let, &c., Ostiak, Jce.
Easy
komna
kniua, Vogul
Man (nV)
fery
veres, Zirianian
Mouth
szaj
so. Pin
Night
es
at, Oaiak
Take
elrenni
wain, Vogul
■ 1.
]46
FIN AFFINITIES OF THE MAGYAR.
English.
Magyar.
Other Ugrian Languages
Ear ,
ful"
pel, Ostiak
Horse
lo
lo, Vogul
Rye
ros
oros, ditto
Reed
Teres
vyr, ditto
Sow
vetek
vidit, Mordvin
Sand
humok
yema, Vogul
Sleep
alom
olm, ditto
Surf
gyors
tshuros. Fin
sereny
saray, Ostiak
Black
fakete
puqqete, ditto
Sister
hngom
iggem, ditto
Silver
ezyst
esys, Permian
S(m
fui
pu, Vogul
Sum
nap
nai, Ostiak
Stone
ko
ku, Vogul
Star
tzillag
tisil, Permian
Deep
mely
mil, Ostiak, d;c.
Bead
hallal
kul, ditto
Brink
iszom
asokh, Vogul
Over
felette
palla, Fin
Under
allat
alia, ditto
Water
viz
wisi, ditto
Wind
szel
tyl, Permian
Winter
tel
telli, Ostiak
We
mink
mung, Vogul
Worm
fereg
perk, ditto
nyii
nynk, ditto
Tooth
fog
penk, Ostiak
Tongue
nyelu
Dalem, ditto
One
egy
ogry, Ostiak
Two
ketto
ketto, ditto
Three
harom
korom, Vogul
Four
negy
niil, Ostiak,
Five
ot
net, ditto
Six
hat
kut, ditto
Seven
het
sat, Vogul
EifjU
nyoltz
nuul, Ostiak
Ten
tiz
das, Permian.
The dialects of the Magyar are few and unimportant^
They are said to fall into two divisions, divided by the
Danube.
Note. — The statement made in the previous sheet, that there is no gram-]
mar of the Vogul, requires correction. There is a very recent one, in /lun^
garian.
THE MORDVIN. 147
CHAPTER XIX.
The Volga Fins. — The Mordvin.— The Tsherimis.
Next to the Magyars, and the Finlanders Proper, the
Mordvios are the most numerous of the Ugrians. They
are the most southern members of the family ; the Hun-
garians, as strangers to their present localit} , being laid
out of the account. They are also the most western ;
some being found in the Governments of Tambov and
Penza. For this reason, the Mordvin area takes great
prominence in all speculations as to the original extent of
the [Jgrians in the direction of the Euxine and Poland.
That they have extended further is a matter of history.
That they have extended very onuch further is one of the
most reasonable of ethnological opinions.
They fall into three divisions, the Mokshad, the
Ereari, and the Karatai ; of these, the second has a
name sufficiently like that of one of the Turkoman
tribes, to be, in all possibility, more or less Turk in blood
— though the conjecture rests on only colourable data.
The same applies to the Karatai ; inasmuch as Karatshai
is also a Turk name. The Mokshad give no such com-
plications.
The Mokshad are on the Sura ;
— Karatai near Kazan ;
— El-sari on the Oka.
In the southern part of the Government of Astrakan
some fifty Mordvins constitute an outlying group of (I
believe) recent settlers. So do 340 individuals in the
Crimea.
L 2
148 THE MORDVIN.
The distribution of the others is as follows : —
In Penza . . . 106,025
— Simbirsk . . 98,968
— Saratov. . . 78,010
— Samar . . . 74,910
— Nizhni Novogorod 53,383
— Tambov . . . 48,49]
— Kazan .... 14,867
— Orenlurg . . . 5,200
The name Mordvln is native, and signifies man ; as
it does, not only in other Ugrian languages but in certain
Persian and Indian dialects also.
The Mordvin, so far as it is written (which is very
little), is written in Kussian letters ; the Mordvin
Christianity being that of the Greek Church.
The Mordvins are far more Eussianized than either
the Tsherimis or the Votiaks. Their language, too, is
one of the most outlying members of its stock.
The Mordvin Grammar of Gabelentz is founded upon
a translation of the Gospels ; the alphabet being the ,
Russian. In this the vocalic harmony shows itself but
partially. Whether this be due to the language or the
author, is doubtful. Gabelentz refers to the latter.
The Tsherimis language is spoken by nearly 200,000_
individuals, of which nearly three-fourths are inhabitant
of the Governments of Viatka and Kazan. The dialects
on the two sides of the Volga differ from each other ;]
and, it is probable, that they fall into sub-dialects ; foi
the population is sporadic and fragmentary, and th€
Tsherimis villages stand far apart. The native cultiva-
tion of the language amounts to nothing beyond a feA
songs. The exertions of the missionary have given
Catechism, and a translation of the Gospels — the alpha-
bet being Russian. In Castren's Grammar, however, it
is Roman, and so it is in Wiedemann's German. Therel
is no reason for believing that any notable number of thei
THE TSHERIMIS.
149
speakers of the Tsherimis language are other than Tsher-
imis in blood. The converse, however, is far from being
the case. Both Turks and Russians may be, more or
less, Tsherimis in blood.
As a member of the Ugrian group the Tsherimis is
comparatively isolate. Its nearest congeners, I believe
to be the Ostiak, Yogul, and Magyar.
The Tsherimis falls into two dialects, divided from
each other by the Volga. One has, the other has not,
the vocalic harmony. Such, at least, is the statement of
Wiedemann. Our data, however, are scarcely sufficient to
bear out a negative statement.
EniUsh
Tsherimis,
MordTiD.
Man (nV)
mara
inirda
{homo)
edem
loman
Head
hui
pra
Hair
ip
tsher
Eye
shinsha
syalme
Ear
piliksh
pilye
Nose
ner
smdo
Mouth
ushma
kurgo
Tongue
yolma
kel
Tooth
pU
p&i
Hand
kit
ked
Foot
yal
pilge
Sun
ketshe
tRhr
Moon
tilsye
kOT
Star .
shuder
teslitye
Fire
tul
tol
Water
wiit
wat
Tree
pu
tshnfto
Stone
kii
kav
One
iktet
wait
Two
koktet
kafto
Three
kumut
kolmo
Four
niiit
nUye
Fire
wisit
waze
Six
kudut
kota
Seven
shimit
sisem
Eight
kandashe
kauksa
Nine
indeslie
waiksye
Ten
la
kiimen.
150 THE VOTIAK.
CHAPTER XX.
The Votiak, Permian and Zirianian.
The Votiak is the Ugrian of the Government of Viatka ;
in which the circle of Glasov is the chief Votiak locaUty
— then, those of Malmysh, Yelabuga, and Sarapul. Into
the Yelabuga dialect the Gospel of St. Matthew, into
the Glasov dialect that of St. Mark, has been translated.
Many of the Votiaks speak Turk as well as their own
language ; the Turkish elements being at their maximum
in Yelabuga and their minimum in Glasov. In tlie
library of the Bible Society at Viatka is a translation of
all the Four Gospels, except a part of St. Luke. Though
not without decided Tsherirais elements, the Votiak
affinities are less with the languages that have preceded,
than with those that are about to follow it ; these
being
The Permian and the Zirianian ; the former, the
Ugfian of Perm ; the latter, the Ugrian of Vologda.
They are closely allied dialects of one and the same form
of speech. The Zirianian section falls into four sub-dialects,
three being pretty closely allied to each other, but the
fourth being an outlyer, much mixed up with tl>ej
Samoyed. Nevertheless, somewhat unfortunately for the
philologue, it was in the northern, the outlying, and th<
modified dialect of the Zirianian that the first attempts at
a grammar were made. This was Florov's, published ii
1813, the dialect being the Udorian — i. e. that for the
parts about Udorb'k, Since then, the Gospel of St
THE ZIRIANIAN.
151
Matthew has been translated into the Ustsyssola dialect ;
probably the purest of the four. Yet, even here we
have a great number of Russian words. The other two
forms of speech, allied (as aforesaid) to each other and to
the Ustsyssola, are the Zirianian of the Upper Vytshegda,
and the Zirianian of the Yaren.
English.
Votiak.
Permian.
Ziriauiau.
Man (rir)
kart
aika
weres
(homo)
mura
mort
mort
Head
jor
jor
jor
Hair
jirsi
jors
jorsi
Eye
sin
sin
sin
Ear
pel
pel
I)el
Nose
nyr
nyr
nyr
Mouth
im
im
vooa
Tongue
kyl
kyl
kyv
Tooth
pin
pin
pin
Hand
ki
ki
ki
Foot
pud
kok
kok
Sun
shnnde
shonde
shonde
Moon
toles
tyles
tyles
Star
kesele
kod
kadzil
Fire
tal
by
bi
Water
wu
wa
wa
Tree
pn
pu
pu
Stone
is
is
is
One
odyk
oiyk
ytyp
Two
kik
kyk
kyk
Three
kwin
kwiu
kuim
Four
nU
njnla
njul
Five
•wit
wit
wit
Six
knat
kwet
kwait
Seven.
sisim
sysini
sisim
Eight
kiyamis
kykamys
kekames
Nine
ukmys
okmys
ykmis
Ten
das
das
das.
The Zirianians have long been converted to the Greek
Church ; being, along with the Permians, the first of the
Eastern Ugrians to whom the Gospel was preached.
Their apostle was St. Stephanus.
152 THE FIN PROPER.
CHAPTER XXI.
The Fin Proper.- — ^^Division into Tavastrian and Karelian. — The Tver Dialect.
—The Vod.— The Estonian.
A DISTINCTION, drawn by the native investigators in
Fin philology, now requires notice. Whatever may be
its real value, it is a distinction upon which much stress
is laid. It is that between the Tavastrians and the
Karelians.
The Tavastrians are the Finlanders of the south-west,
especially of the parts about Tavastahus, the Karelians,
those of the interior; the interior meaning those parts
both of the Duchy and of the Government of Olonets
which are drained by the Lakes rather than by the
Baltic. To either the Tavastrian or the Karelian area
belongs the great mass of the Fins of Finland.
But besides these, and besides the Ugrians of Estonia,
of whom more will be said in the sequel, there are
several sporadic populations, lying like islands in the
midst of a Russian population, sometimes forming an
imperfect connection with the Ugrians to the south of |
the Gulf of Finland, and sometimes absolutely detached,
of which the ethnological history has been investigated.
Some of these are recent settlers : others the representa-
tives of an original population which was once Ugrian,
but is now Slavonic. To separate the old from the
new has been one of the objects of the native inquirers.
To separate the Karelian from the Tavastrian has been
another.
Again — the names Fin and Finland are anything but]
THE FIN PROPER. 153
native. The nearest approach to a general name is
Suomelaini (in the plural Suomelaiset) a word wliich
means the men of the fen, morass, or swamp. Word for
word it is the Sabme of the Laps ; a name which will soon
re-appear. Suomelaiset, however, is only an approach to
a general name. The Quains are Kainulaiset, and tlie
Karelians Kirialaiset. A third division is Hamalaiset.
Now the name Yam is prominent in the history of the
early contests between the Slaves and the Ugrians ; as
the name of a separate section of the Suomelaiset — the
Hamalaiset being supposed to coincide with the Tavas-
trians.
Bej'ond the proper Fin districts the language of
Finland is spoken in Norway, where, in the district of
Soloer, on the Glommen, a Fin settlement, from Sweden,
was effected in 1624. The chief Fin parishes are Hof
and Grue ; where the district is called Finskoven or
the Forest of the Fins, and where the settlers amount
to about 2000.
The following populations are all, more or less, spo-
radic, and all held to be recent settlers rather than
aborigines, as well as to be Karelian rather than Tuvas-
trian.
1 . The Auramoiset of the Gtovemment of St, Petersburg
— 30,000 in number.
2. The Savakot to the number of 43,000.
3. Karelians of —
The Government of Arcliangel . 11,228
Novogorod . 27,076
St. Petersburg . 3,660
Tver . . . 84,638
Yaroslav . , 1,283
To wliich add some in Olonets.
The following is the Parable of the Sower, in the Fin
of Tver, contrasted with that of Finland Proper.
154 THE YOD.
Tver.
Ka laksi kulvaa kulvamax ; I kulv?assa mulvv6nnet uvat langettyx <i6da-
vas : i tuldyx linnut ; i giat nokittyx. Miivvenet langettyx kivi ruopahilla
kumbaz/en-pzalla vaga oli mu^dda: i tervax guo novstyx, zen-tax, evldu
muassa suvax : Paivazen novstuS guo kellissuttix, i kuin cvldu uurdunu6t
kuivettyx. Muvvennet langettyx tug'iix i kazvo tug'u i gi'at katto. A muv-
vennet langettyx huvalla muSlla i kazvettyx lizavon-kera, kumbane toi suS^n
kumbane kuuzikummenda, kumbane kolmekflmmenda. Kella ollax korvat
kuulla kuulgax.
Fin.
Katso kylwaja mene kylwiimaan. Ja hanen kylwaissansa, lankesiwat
muutamat tien obeen, ja linnut tuliwat, ja soiwat ne. Muutamamat taas
lankesiwat kiwistohon, kussa ei heilla ollut paljo maata, ja nousiwat peari
paalle, ettei beilla ollut sywaa maata. Mutta koska aijrinko nousi, niin he
poudittin : ja orjantappurat kawiwat ylos, ja tukahuttiwat ne. Muutamat
taas lankesiwat hywaan maahan, ja tekiwat hedelraan, mutuama satakercaisen,
muutama kuudenkymmenen kertaisen, ja muutama kolmenkymmenen kertai-
sen. Jollo on korwat kuulla, se kuulkaan.
The Ugrians of the parts to the south of the proper
Fin area who pass, and that on good grounds, for
aboriginal, are —
1. The Tshud, or Vesp.
2. The Izhor.
3. The Vod.
1. The Tshud or Vesp (15,617) on the bank of the
Onega and Bielozero, speak a dialect which is held to be
Tavastrian, and which they call Liudin Kiele, i. e.
Lingua Ludina.
2. The Izhor (17,800) in the Government of St.
Petersburg, who call themselves Ingrikot or Ingrians.
3. The Vod, who occupy a few villages in the circles
of Yamburg and Oranienbaum, to the number of
15,148, who call themselves Vadjalaine and Vadjalaiset
and whose language is the Ves — tunnet paiattaa
Vaihsi = loquerisne Votice.
What has been written about the division between j
the Karelian and Tavastrian deserves notice, as a feict in]
the history of opinion rather than as a fact in language.
It is one, however, that must needs be known if we wish]
TAVASTRIAN AND KARELIAN. 155
to look at the Fin question from a Fin point of view.
I have doubts, however, whether it is more — doubts
that, coming from an amateur in London, in opposition
to the decided and (I believe) unanimous voice of such
competent judges as the native philologues themselves,
must be taken at the reader's, rather than the writer's,
valuation. I cannot, however, see that the report is
borne out by the evidence ; admitting, at the same time,
that it is very likely that I have not seen the e\ddence
in full. Indeed, it is morally certain that I have not.
Still, I see a generalization of great breadth, and along
with it probable and particular sources of error — one of
which is the love of generalization itself, combined with
the fact that in comparative philology it is over-hastily
indulged. I think that, rautatis mutandis, what the
Fins write about Tavastrians and Karelians has been
written by Englishmen of equal eminence about the
Angles and Saxons ; and, as an Englishman, I am well
aware that nine-tenths of what is so written is wronfj.
It is written by able men, nevertheless. At the present
moment, Ahlqvist's Grammar of Vod is lying before me ;
and it fully veiifies the statement that, even when v.e
have got our results as to the distiibution of the
several Fin forms of speech over the two divisions, they
are, by no means, decided. The Vod, itself, is a Yam,
dialect vjith Karelian elements. The written lanmiafje
itself is more Karelian than is genercdly believed. The
Ugrian of Ingria is, more or less, Vod. Lastly, the
Estonian and A'^esps are less Karelian than the rest. Upon
the recognition of Karelian elements in the literarj- Fin,
great stress is to be laid ; since it is probable that, either
consciously or unconsciously, most inquirers have taken
it as the standard Tavastrian.
Such are the qualifications. As to the characteristics
themselves, they are, to a great extent, arbitrary ; at
any rate, the evidence to any one of them being the
sign of others is wanting. Again — though the details
15G FIN PROPER.
of tlie sporadic Fins are numerous, our information
as to the local dialects of Finland itself — vast as is
its area — are of the scantiest. Lastly, neither the
Karelian nor Tavastrian are extreme forms. They may
graduate into one another less tlian the present "writer
believes them to do.
All this means, that, in the division before us we
have a classification by definition, where, in the pre-
sent state of our knowledge, definition by type is alone
practicable.
The earliest specimens of the Fin language are
referrible to the fifteenth or sixteenth centuries ; amongst
which is a Translation of the Psalms by Agricola,
Bishop of Abo. It is preceded by a short poem in
which the heathen gods and goddesses, in whom a
latent belief, notwithstanding the professed Christianity
of the country, still existed. The list contains more
than twenty names ; the majority of which can be found
at the present time. Indeed from the time of Bishop
Agricola till now, the old Fin mythology has commanded
the attention of able inquirers ; of Ganander and
Porthan, followed by Topelius in the last generation,
and Lonrott and Castren in the present. Topelius col-
lected more especially the poems which bore upon the
history of a particular personage — Wainamoitien ; so
forming what we may call a Wainaraoinen cycle. With
this the Fin lays took form, until, from accretion upon
accretion, the Kalevala was the result. If we look at
this remarkable poem in respect to its parts, it is a
series of rhapsodies. If we look to it as a whole, it
may be dignified by the name of Epic. It is pagan
in respect to its machinery and subject-matter, though
not without decided Christian elements : indeed, towards
the end, the Virgin Mary under the name Marietta,
and Herod appear. It should be added, however, that
this is in a kind of appendix to the work rather than
in the body of the poem itself.
THE ESTONIAN.
157
Whatever may be the age of either the oldest or the
newest portions of the Kalevala, the language is the
Fin of the present day.
The Ugrians who occupy Estonia are in contact with
the Germans and Lets rather than with the Scandina-
vians. For this reason the foreign influences have been
German rather than Swedish. The Estonian alphabet
is Roman, the religion Protestant. At one time, when
all Ingria was Ugrian, the Estonian and Fin populations
must have been in contact.
The Estonians call themselves Rahwa, and their coun-
try Marahwa, or Rahwa Land ; the parts north of the
river Salis beincr their chief area.
In Liefland the Rahwa number
— Estonia
— Vitepsk
— Pskov
— St. Petersburcr
355,2 J 6
252,608
9,936
8,000
7,730
633,490
The Estonian is divided into two main dialects ; one
rith Reval, the other with Dorpat as its centre ; so that
re hear of the Doi-patian and the Revalian forms of
)eech as paramount. I believe, however, that almost
every parish presents some peculiarities, and I am by
10 means sure that the distribution of the numerous
ialects and sub-dialects thus developed coirresponds with
le usual classification.
A love for song and music is exhibited throughout
the Rahwa country ; and of this we may judge by more
lan one collection of songs, legends, charms, nursery
lymes, and the hke. The harp was the instrument —
the harp, or kandel. With this the bards, the exact
analogues of the Gaehc bards of almost our own days,
musical and locomotive, used to wander from place to
158 THE ESTONIAN.
place, as the harvest-home, or the wedding-feast, might
tempt them. The last of them died in 1 813. He had
no fixed residence ; but was known, and welcomed,
whithersoever he chose to roam, as the wanna laulumees,
or the old singer.
Those who apply classical names to modern pheno-
mena describe the Ugrian metres in general as trochaic ;
sometimes being dactylic, but never iambic. This means
that the accent is on the first, third, and fifth syllables,
rather than the second, fourth, and sixth ; a fact which
arises out of the structure of the language.
The common formula is -**, -«, -« -w; sometimes
with -«« instead of -^, more rarely with --, or the
so-called spondee ; e. g.
Toulis rebbust Korge-sare,
Muna walgest Tiittar-sare,
Mufla tumest teised sared.
or,
Kotkad lensid Some -male,
Some-maalta Soksa-male.
Within a certain interval, a certain number of words
must begin either with a vowel, or, if with a consonant,
with the same ; as
Minna sulg ei annud suda
Egga ^arg ei poomud j^eada.
This is the alliteration of the old German metres ;
almost to its minutest details. It is held, however,
to be no more German in origin than the German is
Ugrian.
Archaic words are, in Estonia, as elsewhere, poetical ;
a ffxct which creates trouble and perplexity to modern
commentators ; indeed, many expressions which have
wholly dropped out of the current language are to be
found in the sonss.
FIN AND ESTONIAN.
159
English.
Fin.
Vod.
Eatoniau.
Man (ctV)
mids
mes
mees
{ho
mo)
ingemin
mes
innimene
Head
poja
pa
peja
Hair
iwusa
karw
Eye
silme
silma
silm
Ear
kyrwa
korwa
korw
Nose
njena
nena
ninna
Mouth
sua
sd
sun
Tongue
kieli
c'fiU
keel
Hand
kesi
c'aai
kassi
Foot
jalka
jalka
jalk
Blood
weri
weri
werri
Sun
pbiwa
paiwa
paw
Moon
kou
ka
kuu
Star
togyt
tjecht
Fire
taU
tali
tulli
Water
wesi
wesi
wesi
Tree
plin
p(i
pu
Stone
kiwi
'ciwi
kiwwi
One
yks
iihsi
yks
Two
kaks
kahsi
kaks
Three
kolmi
kolme
kolm
Pour
nelja
nell'a
nelje
Five
wisi
wlsi
wis
Six
kusi
kiisi
kuus
Seven
seitseman
seitsfe'
seitse
Eight
kadeksan
kahets^
kattesa
Nine
ydeksan
iihets^'
uttesa
Ten
kymmemen
'eiimmfi
kuemme.
English.
Karelian
Olonets.
Man {vir)
mizajh
mes
— — {homo)
inegmine
mes
Head
pija
pa
Hair
tukka
tnkka
Eye
silma
silma
Ear
korwa
korwn
Nose
nena
nena
Mouth
shun
sa
Tongue
kijali
keU
Hand
kasi
kasi
Foot
jalja
jalgu
Blood
weri
weri
Sun
paiwane
pewen
Moon
kuudoma
ka
Star
tagti
techte
Fire
tali
tuli
J 60
KARELIAN.
English.
Karelian,
Olonets.
Water
wesi
wesi
Tree
puu
pu
Stone
kiwi
kiwi
One
juksy
. juksi
Two
kaksi
kaksi
Three
kolmje
kolshe
Four
nella
nelli
Five
wiisi
wizhi
Six
kuuzhi
kusi
Seven
zhitsheman
setshemi
Eight
kagekshan
kaesak
Nine
iujekshan
igokse
Ten
kymmen
kiimmene
The Liefs gave its name to Liefland or Livonia.
In Livonia, about twelve individuals still speak the
Lief language.* They are to be found near the mouth
of the river Salis.
In Curland about 2000 use an allied form of speech
— fallino; into an Eastern and a Western dialect.
* Elsewhere, the number of these Liefs is put at twenty-two. The present
number, however, is only twelve.
I
THE LAP. IGJ
CHAPTEK XXII.
The Lap of Norw^an, Swedish, and Russian Lapland.
The last division of the Ugrian stock is, at one and
the same time, the most northern. and the most western.
It is also the one whereof the physical form of the men
who constitute it is the most abnormal, Notwith-
standincr a considerable amount of exacrcreration as to
the shortness of their stature and the slightness of their
frames, the Laplanders are an undersized population ;
and those who enlarge upon the differences between lan-
guage and blood make much of the physical contrast
between the Lap and his well-fed and warm-housed
congeners. They also make much of his nomad habits,
as opposed to the agi-iculture of the cow-keeping Fins.
Yet the Ugrian character of the Lap language has long
been recognized. It was recognized before the word
Ugrian came into vogue ; indeed, one of the first
inklings as to the true nature of the Magyar arose
out of comparisons made with the Lap.
In the way of dialect the Lap language falls into
two primary divisions ; the basis of wliich is, perhaps,
poUtical and religious rather than truly ethnological.
There are the Laps of Russia and the Laps of Scandinavia.
The imperfect Christianity of the Laps of Russia is
that of the Greek Church ; the alphabet applied to their
languages being Russian. They amount in the Govern-
ment of Archangel to 2289.
The Lkps of the Duchy of Finland are Scandinavian
rather than Russian ; or, if not actually Scandinavian,
transitional.
The Scandinavian Laps faU into two divisions — one
containing those of Sweden, the other those of Norway.
H
162 THE LAP.
It is from want of information that I have but little
to say about the former.
The Norwegian Laps are called, by the Norwegians,
Fins ; the Fin of Finland being called a Quain — so that
Finmarken, the great Lap district, is the March of the Fins.
They called themselves Sabme ; but are not displeased
to be called Fins by their neighbours. Between the
Norwegian Lap and the Fin Proper, there is much in-
termarriage ; a little between the Lap and Norwegian.
Their imperfect Christianity is that of the Latin
Church, in its Protestant and Lutheran form. Their
alphabet, in its present form, is an improvement on the
Norwegian. It is an improvement, because the first of
three elaborate Lap Grammars was the work of one of
the first of comparative philologists — Rask. He met
the fact of the Lap system of elementary articulate
sounds being in many respects peculiar, by the bold
application of new and well-adapted letters. These
have been recognized both by Stockfieth and Friis ; by
the former in his Norwegian and Lap Dictionary, by the
latter in his Grammar and Reading-book.
According to Friis, the Lap of Norway falls into two
main dialects, a northern and a southern. The north-
ern, or that of Finmark, falls into the subdialects of th
parishes of
1. Utsjok, Tanen, Varanger, Vestertanen, and Lang-I
§ord.
2. Karasjok, Laxfjord, Porsanger:Qord.
3. Kontokseno, Hammerfest, Lopper, Allen, Skjoervo,]
Karlso, Lyngen.
The southern into those of
1. Vals^orden and Tyfjorden, with the intermediat
parishes.
2. Vessen and Roraas, with the intermediate parishes.!
South of Roraas the Lap area ceases to be continuous.
A few outlying families, however, are to be found in
Hedemarken.
i
THE LAP.
163
That the extension of the Laps to the south was,
at one time, greater than at present is a matter of
history. That the whole of the Scandinavian Peninsula
was originally Lap is a fair inference. The statement
that fragments of a Lap population were to be found on
the very shore of the Baltic at the beginning of the
historical period is, perhaps, exceptionable. Many, how-
ever, of the provincial terms from the parts about Ber-
gen are of decided Lap origin. That some of the Fins
Proper may be Lap in speech is probable. With this
exception the Lap language coincides pretty closely
with the Lap blood.
As a general rule the Russian Lap has fewer details
in the way of inflection and vowel-changes than the
Norwegian and the Swedish. It has in many cases
replaced the final vowel by the Russian liquid. It has,
in one district, Norse, in another Karelian, in another,
Russian glosses. To judge of it in its purity these must
be eliminated. Of the Norse dialects it is the Lap of
the Hill Laps to which it comes nearest. It is divided
into three main dialects.
1. That of Petsingi, Muotki, Patsjoki, Synjel, Nuoto-
sero, Jokostrov, and Balra.
2. That of Semiostrov, Lavosero, Voronesk, Kildin,
Maanselka.
3. That of the Terski Peninsula, on the West of the
White Sea.
English.
Lap.
Man (nV)
olma
(homo)
almaz
Head
oike
Eye
tjalme
Ear
pelje
Nose
njuone
Moulh
nalme
Tonffue
njuoktem
Hand
ket
Foot
juolke
Sun
peiwe
Moon
mano
Star
taste
English.
Lap.
Fire
toUo
Water
tatse
Stone
kedke
One
akt
Two
kwekt
Three
kolm
Four
nelje
Five
wit
Six
kot
Seven
kjeta
Eight
kaktsat
Nine
aktfe
Ten
tokke
M 2
164 THE LAP.
The Lap is usually connected more closely with the
Fin Proper than the present writer connects it. Klaproth,
for instance, throws both into a class headed Germanized
Fins; a class which contains the Magyar, the most
southern of the Ugrian forms of speech, just as the Lap
is the most northern. The languages which this very
unnatural class brings together, are simply certain lan-
guages which have been in contact with the Germans of
either Germany Proper or Scandinavia. The present
place of the Lap, which gives it a sub-order to itself,
is, more or less, subject to correction. It rests upon the
extent to which the Lap is a language of which the
frontier has receded, rather than upon any minute philo-
logical investigation of the structure of the language
itself. As far, however, as the writer has examined
this, it confirms his view. Upon the whole, however,
the displacement of probably transitional forms in the
retrocession of tlie Lap frontier is his chief argument.
I
PENINSULAR GROUP. 165
CHAPTER XXIII.
The Peninsular Langaages. — Korean. — Japanese and Lacho. — Aino or Ku-
rilian. — Eoriak and EamskadaL
For the group that now comes under notice I have sug-
gested the name Peninsular ; inasmuch as the area to
which it belongs stands in strong contrast to those of
the preceding ones ; all of which lay inland, and con-
sisted of large blocks of land. The area, however, under
notice, is essentially maritime ; so much so that it has
but one large mass of inland district, whereas, on the other
hand, it has two (if not three) well-known peninsulas,
and one important archipelago. From this we may
anticipate its chief details. It belongs to the north-east
of Asia, and contains, along with other tracts of minor
importance, Korea, Japan, the Kurile Isles, and Kam-
tshatka.
It is, in respect to its import, a wider class than?, any
one of the last four, — wider than even the Ugrian ; by
which I mean that the difference of its extremes is
greater than the difference between any two Ugrian
forms of speech. It falls, too, into divisions of greater
magnitude — indeed, it is possible that there may be
points of view fi-om which those who contemplate it may
think it should be broken up. Upon the whole, how-
ever, I consider that it is natural.
Upon one condition required to make it so there is
neither doubt nor shadow of doubt — viz. : the extent to
which it is separated by broad and trenchant lines of
demarcation from the other languages of Asia. With
the Ocean on one side, and with languages which have
166 THE KOREAN.
effected such vast displacements as the Chinese and
the Tungtis on the other, anything like ambiguity in
respect to its boundaries is out of the question.
Its nearest approximations, then, are distant — distant,
but important. Nothing is, at one and the same time,
other than monosyllabic and even approximately akin to
the Chinese. The Korean, however, the most southern
continental language of the present group is less distam
from the Chinese than anything else — anything elsi
other than monosyllabic. Indeed, if this affinity wen
all we looked to, the present group would have bee;
taken earlier, i. e. in the place of the Tunglis. Se-
quences, however, of this kind are impracticable.
On the north the affinities are decidedly with the Ian
guages of America — a fact upon which more will be sai
when the philology of the New World comes unde:
notice.
The several members of the group not only stan
clearly and definitely apart from one another, but th
distances between them are considerable — at least in thi
present state of our knowledge. In the present state^J
too, of our knowledge they seem equal — this meanings
that the Japanese is (there or thereabouts) as Kke (or
unlike) the Korean on the one side as the Aino on^
the other. This doctrine, however, will probably b^
modified as our information increases.
Of the Korean I know of no grammar, and only
few vocabularies — the chief of which is Medhurst's
Klaproth's, upon which the greater part of the curren
opinions is founded, is taken partly from Broughton's
Voyage, partly from Witsen, and partly from Chinese
and Japanese sources.
To this, as well as to the remainder of our materials,
much can, doubtless, be added ; since the Korean is a
lettered language, the immediate origin of the alphabet
being obscure.
I
THE JAPANESE.
167
English.
Korean.
English.
Korean.
Eye
nuon
Tru
nan
Head
mati
Stone
tn, UA
Ear
kui
Fish
koki
Nose
ko
One
hodzhon
Mouth
yip
Two
tnpa
Tongue
hie
Three
sai
Tooth
ni
Four
nai
Band
son
Fire
tasha
Foot
pal
Six
ishu
Sun
heng
Serm
iki
Moon
oru
Eight
ita
Star
peru
Nine
yahao
Fire
pol
Ten
ye.
Water
ma
The JajKtnese is purely and exclusively insular ; i. e.
has no concrener on the continent with which it can be
immediately connected, or from which it can be definitely
derived. The Keltic of the British Isles is nearly in
this predicament — nearly, but not quite. It has the
Armorican of Brittany as a congener ; not to mention
the ancient language of Gaul, which has an historical,
though not a present, existence ; whilst the Gaelic of
Ireland and Scotland, though itself strange to conti-
nental Europe, is, still, indirectly connected with it
through the British. There is nothing, however, on the
mainland of Asia which is so near to the Japanese as
the Armorican is to the Gaelic. In no other island is
the isolation (or insulation, as we may call it) so com-
plete. The language of the Luchu islanders is Japanese.
English.
Japanese.
Liich4.
Eye
mi
mi
Head
kaobe
bnsi
Ear
mimi
mimmi
Nose
khaoa
honna
Mouth
kati
Tongue
Bita
steba
Tooth
Uia
kha
Hand
te
ki
Foot
am
shanna
168
THE JAPANESE. — THE AINO.
English.
Japanese.
LdcUtL
Sun
fi
tida
Moon
zuki
gwazi
Star
fosi
fasM
Fire
fi
fi
Water
midz
mizi
Tree
ki
ki
Stone
isi
ishi
Fish
ivo
io
One
fito
tizi
Two
fitak
tazi
Three
miz
mizi
Four
yots
yuzu
Five
izuts
Six
muts
mutsi
Seven
nanats
nanatsi
night
yats
yatsi
Nine
kokonots
kannizi
Ten
tovo
tu.
The small islands between the L6chu group and For-
mosa are in the same category with the Ltichtis them-
selves, i. e. they are Japanese rather than Malay. The
names of them end in -sima (Madzhikosima, &c.) ; sima
meaning island.
In Yesso the Japanese is intrusive ; the original lan-
guage being the Aino, or Kurilian. The Kmilians, or
Aiuo, occupy two localities on the main land and all
the islands between Kamtshatka and Japan, The locali-
ties on the main land have been already mentioned.
One was at the mouth of the Sagalin, one at the
southern extremity of Kamtshatka.
That the Kurilian area, like the Korean, once ex-
tended beyond its present frontier, is likely. The
numerals of tUo Mantshu of the frontier seem to have
taken the Aino ending in /.
English. Aino of Kamtshatka. Tarakai.
Man okkaiyu okkai
(vir) ainuh ainu
(ftomo) guru guru
Eye sik shigi
Head gpa . shaba
YeM.
oikyo
THE AIXO DIALECTS.
169
English.
Aino of KaTiitshutka.
TarakaL
Yeso.
Hair
ruh
nnma
kama
Ear
gsahr
kisara
Nose
ahdum
idu
Mouth
tehar
para
Tongue
aukh
ai
Tooth
imak
nimaki
mimak
Jland
dek
tegi
Foot
kehmma
kima
Blood
kehm
kim
Sun
tsbupu
tshnkf-kamoi
touki
Moon
tsliupu
tshukf
znki
Star
kytta
nodzi
noro
Fire
apeh
nndzhi
abe
Water
peh
raka
Takba
Tree
nyh
nij
Stoyte
poinah
shioma
Egg
nokh
nuka
Fish
tshep
zepf
zizf
One
syhnap
shnepf
senezb
Two
dapk
tup
zozb
Three
raph
repf
rezb
Four
yhnap
inipf
inezb
Five
ahsik
ashiki
asaraniof
Six
ihguahn
yuvambi
yuiwambe
Seven
arnahn
aruvambi
aruambe
Eight
duppyhs
tubisambi
zuyemaiube
Nine
syhnapyhs
shnebishambi
sinesambe
Ten
npyhs
wambi
fambe.
The KamshadaJ, (or Kamtshafkan,) and the Koriak,
are members of the same class, though separated by
Klaproth.
English.
Koriak.
Off Kaiaga.*
Man (rir)
diakotsh
(homo)
nateiian
nutaira
Head
lent
leut
Hair
kytybnir
kitigil
Tongue
ulygyl
yilegit
Mouth
dzhekergen
homagalgen
Ear
wilugi
\relolongen
Eye
leldgi
lalangen
Nose
eyekitsbg
baahgeng
Beard
lelyugi
* This means that part of the coast whicb lies opposite the island of
Karaga, in opposition to the island itself, for which see the following table.
170
THE KORIAK.
English.
Koriak.
Off KarHga
Blood
mulumul
Bone
khattaam
komlathom
Hand
mynnagylgen
mylgalgen
Night
nigonok'
kyhmeu
Sky
khayan
haian
Sun
titkapil
dykupyhsol
Moon
gailgen
yailgat
Star
engen
angehri
Fire
milhemil
milgupil
Water
mimel
mimlipil
Earth
nutelkhan
nutalgan
Tree
uttuut
utut
Hill
gyeigor
knayukhi
River
weiom
woyampyh
Sea
intmg
inu
Egg
ligliguh
Fish
innaen'
annaau
House
rat'
Horn
yinnal'gin'
Dog
atar'
hathan
atan
Milk
nyokin
One
onnen
ahnahn
Two
hyttaka
ytahgau
TItree
ngroka
rohgau
Four
ngraka
ragau
Five
myllanga
millangau.
English.
The Kolyma.
Karaga.
Man (vir)
khuyukutsh
inylakhylsh
(homo)
uiratahula
oshamshahal
Head
lawut
tennakam
Hair
katshugui
lankhshakh
Tooth
wannalgyn
Tongue
giigel
laksha
Mouth
shekiangin
shekshen
Far
wyilut
ilyufi
Eye
lalat
ellifa
Nose
enigytam
enku
Beard
lelu
lilyuf
Blood
muUjomul
mutl'muth
Bone
hatamfa
Hand
myngakatsh
k'onmenkhlan
Night
nekita
tenkiti
Shj
khain
shilkhen
Sun
tykete
shabalkh
THE KORIAK.
Euglisb.
The Kolyma.
Karaga.
Moon
geilygen
shagalkli
Star
lelapitshan
engysh
Fire
milugan
mi'lchamil
Wat^
mimal
iin
Earth
nyntiimyat
Tree
nttepel
ngoft
Hill
nayu
mysankosi
River
waim
gykhi
Sea
ankaTi
nyungen
Egg
lygby
t'higlhifaha
Fish
kokayalgating
tahataha
House
yayanga
shishtshu
Dog
attahan
atapela
khatalaa
Milk
lyukhoi
One
onnon
ingsing
Two
niokhtsh
gnitag
Three
niyokh
gnasog
Four
niyakh
gnasag
Five
myllangin
monlon.
EngUsh.
Beindeer Tshaktshi.
Man (vir]
oyakutsh
(homo)
klaol
Head
lent
Hair
kirtshivi
Tooth
rytlynta
Tongue
^
Mouth
inkigin
Ear
weliulgin
Eye
lilagin
Nose
ekhaekh
Beard
walkalorgiid
Blood
mullamnl
Bone
attitaam
Hand
miDgilgin
Night
Tiikitlya
Sky
eikhi
ying
Sun
titktshit
Moon
geilgin
Star
engerenger
Fire
milgin
Water
mimil
Earth
nutetsh
in
Tree
attaa
Hill
niet
171
172
THE KAMTSHATKAN.
English.
Reindeer Tshuktslii
Hill
khallelegin
River
waem
Sea
angka
Egg
Hgli
Fish
annegui
House
oranga
Horn
ritten
Milk
lukhai
One
ennene
Two
giyakh
Three
guakh
Four
gyrakh
Five
millgin.
The following is the Kamtshatkan of the Middle of
the Peninsula.
English.
Kamtshatkan.
English.
Kamtshatkan.
Head
kobbel
Fish
etshuda
Eye
elled
River
ktig
Ear
ilyud
God
kutkhai
Nose
kayako
Mouth
tskbylda
Sky
kokhal
Hair
tsheron
kollaa
Tooth
Snow
kolaal
Tongue
dydzil
One
dysyk
Hand
tono
Tioo
kaas
Hay
taazh
Three
tsuk
Sun
koatsh
Four
tshaak
Moon
quingan-kuletsh
Five
kiimnak
Star
ezhingin
Six
kylkoak
Eire
pangitsh
Seven
etakhtana
Water
i
Eight
tshonutono
Tree
00
Nine
tslianatana
Stone
kual
Ten
tshemyktagona
Egg
nygagada
To the north of this Kamtshatkan of the Middle dis-
trict is spoken the language of the foiTner, to the south
of it the language of the latter of the following tables :
in the first of which it is to be observed that one of the
vocabularies, though it represents a Kamtshatkan form of
speech, is headed Koriak.
THE KA.MTSHATKAN.
173
Enslish
Koriak of the Tigil.
Kamtshitkan of the TigU
Man (vir)
kymshan
kamzhan
(homo)
tshandzhal
nzlikamzha
kelgola
Head
komptko
ktkhyn
koltsh
Hair
tshelgad
kniba
Eye
leUe
lella
Beard
lael
lanUa
elan
Hand
kh'ketsh
khkatsh
Sky
kysha
keis
God
kuikvnakha
kntkha
Fire
hymlee
brjanmkhitsh
Tree
na
nu
Earth
nntelehan
Bgg
Iflkhatsh
Fish
nishatkin
onnitsh
dentsh
Rirer
kytshme
HiU
enzalkhen
aala
House
kisht
kisha
Snow
J)og
koeha'
lieten
English.
TTkUi.
Saath Kamtshatkan.
Man (vir)
k&ngge
elku
(homo)
khyllgc^hla
nnhkamzha
kulnsanga
Head
hbh&hel
tshysha
kols
Hair
zelgakh
kabiin
Eye
ellath
nannin
Beard
katikan
Blood
mythlung
Bone
kotham
Hand
sotong
sythi
Sty
kokhan
kagal
God
dnsdeakhtshik
knt
Fire
blnmligtsb
Tree
ntha
nada
Earth
b'symth
ma
symmit
Egg
lylida
Fish
entshude
entshndn
174
THE KAMTSHATKAN.
English.
Ukaii.
South Karalshatkau
River
kothhoul-kygh
Hill
pehkugtsh
namud
Dog
kosha
kosha.
I know of nothing that illustrates the grammatical
structure of either the Karatshatkan or the Koriak.
The Kamtshatkan call themselves Itulman ; the
Koriaks call them Kontshala and Numelaha ; the
Kurilians call them Arutarunkar.
GEKERAL OBSERYATIONS. 175
CHAPTER XXIV.
General Observations on the preceding Languages. — Value of the Class. —
Original Turk, Mantshu, Mongol, Yeneseian, and Ugrian Areas.
In taking a review of the group which has just been dealt
with, we cannot but be satisfied with the precision
and definitude of all its boundaries : those of the class
itseli^ taken as a whole, being pre-eminently broad
and clear. Where the Mantshii and the Chinese, the
Mongol and Bhot, the Turk and Bhot, the Turk and
Persian, confront each other, there has been encroach-
ment accompanied by the obliteration of transitional
forms, on both sides — the Mantshu, for instance, press-
ing southward, on the one hand, and the Chinese press-
ing northwards on the other. And so on with the rest.
Where the Turk and Persian cease to confront each
other, the Caspian intervenes with its waters. After
this comes the mountain-range of Caucasus, to the
very feet of which the Turk and Russian have extended
themselves — doubtless at the expense of some language
akin to the Circassian, or, at any rate, more akin to it
than they are themselves. In Europe, all beyond the
Dnieper, at least, though now Russian, was originally
other than Russian ; so that whatever may have been the
affinities of the original languages of the Governments of
Kursk, Penza and the districts nearest the Mordvin area
to the Mordvin and its congeners, aU such transitions as
they may have efiected are annihilated. Again — ^in
Norway and Sweden the present Norwegian and
Swedish are intrusive ; so that whatever came in contact
176 GENERAL OBSERYATIONS.
with the southern area of the Laps is annihilated also.
The remaining boundaries are formed by the Ocean.
Still the distances between the languages of the pre-
sent group and those of the rest of the world, though
great, are, by no means, equal. There are points where-
at there is an approximation. These are the neigh-
bourhood of Behring's Straits ; Korea ; and Lithuania
— in other words, the Koriak is notably American, the
Korean notably Chinese, and the Lithuanic notably
Ugrian. This merely means that there are certain points
about which the encroachment and displacement have
been less than they have been about others.
This applies, in a less degree, to the minor divisions]
which lie between the secondary groups. The Tungtis,}
the Mongol, and the Turk, with their intrusions, have]
effectually obliterated any such congeners as may have
led from one of them to the other. From the small]
amount of difference between their extreme dialects we]
infer that their diffusion has been recent.
The Ugrian, on the other hand, was a large class,!
falling into divisions and sub-divisions, and covering a]
surface which grows wider and wider the more we go]
back. It is now discontinuous ; the result of its dis-
continuity being definitude of boundary. In Hungary]
alone it has been intrusive — we might say protrusive ;]
for the Magyar of Hungary is separated from its nearesfcj
congener by many degrees of latitude, having found its!
way into Hungary not by any gradual extension of thej
Ugrian frontier, but by being bodily projected (so to say)|
into a strange and foreign country. Of pure protrusion '
and projection — protrusion and projection accompanied
with a separation from its congeners — it is one of the
most remarkable examples in ethnographical philology;
and one which should never be either forgotten or over-
looked when we have languages in extraordinary locali-
ties to account for.
Something in the way of an approximation to the
ON THE TURANIAN CLASS. 177
original area of the Tungus, Mongol, and Turk languages
is possible. It is the easiest with the Turk. Tiiere are
many localities where we know that the Turk is not in-
digenous. It never came from Hungary ; nor yet from
Constantinople ; nor yet from the Lower Lena ; notwith-
standing the existence of the Cumanian, the Osmanli,
and the Yakut forms of speech in those districts. It.
scarcely originated on the northern side of the Caucasus
in immediate contact with the Tsherkess ; nor yet in the
Sayanian range, where it is spreading itself at the
present time. It could scarcely have originated in the
immediate contact of either the Tungus or the Mongol,
from which it differs as a language which meets another
from some distant quarter and in an opposite direction.
If the doctrine that it is more L^grian than either Mon-
gol or Tungus be true, it must be a language of western
rather than Eastern Asia.
The area for which the evidence of the Turk being
intrusive is at its niinimuTii, and (changing the ex-
pression) the area for which the evidence of its being
indigenous is at its maxinium, is Independent Tartary.
On the other hand, it is little better than a desert.
Next to this comes Chinese Tartary. This, however,
is unfavourable to its Ugrian and (I may add) its
Yeniseian) affinities.
Next comes the Tshuvash and Tsherimis frontier.
To go in detail through the remainder of the groups
would be to give a theory of the ethnology of Siberia.
The conditions, however, which are required are the
same throughout. Where can we prove intrusion ?
Where is the residuary locality where it cannot be
proved ? When this is obtained, how will it account
for the affinities ? Such is the method. As far as I
have been able to work it, I have been led to place the
Mongol nucleus in the parts about the Hi and the lakes
of its vicinity ; the Tungus on the Upper Anmr, the
Korean somewhat to tlie west of its present area ; and
N
178
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
the Aino to some portion of the districts now occupied
by the Lamut. The Koriak, the Jukahiri, the Yeniseian,
the Samoyed, tlie Vogul, and the Ostiak, I refer, one
and all, to some point considerably to the south of their
present northernmost localities. In this, however, there
is a mixture of ethnological and philological conside-
rations.
The best name for this class, and perhaps the com-
monest, is Turanian : a term which sometimes gives a
larger and sometimes a smaller class than the one which
we are now leaving, for India, Persia, and Caucasus.
THE DARAHI, ETC. 179
CHAPTER XXV.
The Darahi (Denwar) and Kuswar. — The Faksya and Tharu. — The Koocb.
The present section of the class now coming into notice
is artificial. It is ambiguous. It is more than this. It
is only equivocally ambiguous. The languages which it
contains take their present place because they are, to
some extent, both Bhot and Indian. Yet they may be
so much more Bhot than Indian, or so much more
Indian than Bhot, as to require no intermediate classifi-
cation. Again, one of them may be Bhot, one Indian,
and one truly ambiguous. They are so Tamul. What
they really represent is the author's want of knowledge
and leisure.
The class, then, is provisional. Thus much, however,
may be said of its members.
1 . Tliat they ai"e Indian in respect to their numerals,
throughout ; and Indian in a great many other words.
2. That, so far as they are other than Indian, they
are Monosyllabic and Tamul.
The degree to which they are this varies with the lan-
guage ; and it is possible that, in some of them, the ori-
ginal element may be so thoroughly displaced, as to leave
the other bases Monosyllabic and Tamul only in the way
that a knife with a new blade and a new handle is stiJl
the same knife. But, again, the group is artificial,
and the Hindu character of the numerals is, to a great
extent, an arbitrary t«st.
The Darahi and Kuswar are spoken by two broken
tribes (I use Mr. Hodgson's expression) in Nepaul.
N 2
180
THE DARAHI, ETC.
Engrsh.
D.iralii.
Kuswar.
Man
mana»
gokchai cbawai
Head
mnd
kapa
Hair
bar
bar
Eye
anklii
ankhi
Ear
kan
kan
Mouth
muhun
mubu
Tooth
dant
dant
Hand
bat
hath
Foot
god
gor
Blood
ragat
rakti
Bone
had
badh
Sky
sarag
sarang
Day
din
dini
Night
rato
rathi
Sun
gama
suraj
Moon
janba
jun
Star
tirya
tarai
Fire
age
agjii
Water
hate
bani
Earth
mat!
mati
Mountain
dan da
pahar
Stone
pathar
pathar ^_
Bird
chari
chari '^^|
Dog
kukur
kukol V
Pm
anda
dimba ^M
Fish
macbha
jbain ^H
Flou-ei"
phul
phul ■
Horn
sing
sinjek ^M
House
gbar
gbara ^M
River
khola
kosi fl
SnaJce
samp
samp ^^H
Tree
rak
gatch ^H
One
ek
(
Two
dwi
dwi
Three
tin
tin
Four
char
char
Five
panch
panch-
Six
chah
chah
Seven
sat
Eifjht
ath
Nine
nou
Ten
das
The Den war is nearly identical with the Darahi —
differing, however, ioiter alia, in the following words.
THE DARAIII, ETC.
J81
KDg'.ish.
l^ennrar.
Darabi.
J^V9
dimba *
anda
Mother
ambai *
nya
Mountain
pakha *
AxnAn.
Hirer
lari
khola
Rocid
bat*
panya
Stone
donkho
paihar
Tree
gatch*
rak
Water
kyu
pati.
The Pakhja and Thani, like the Darahi and Kuswar,
are Nepalese in respect to their geography.
Endish.
Man
Head
Hair
Eye
Ear
Mouth
Too'.h
Hand
Blood
Bone
Day
Night
Sun
Moon
Fire
Water
Earth
Mountain
Egg
FiA
Flower
Horn
Haute
Biter
Snake
Tree
One
Two
Three
Four
Fire
Six
Pakhya.
manchba
man to
ratra
ankha
kan
makha
data
hatkela
ragat
ha;i
duiso
rati
ghauia
chandramabel
ago
pani
mato
pahor
phul
machba
pbol
sing
ghar
khola
eapa
rakka
jek
doi
tin
char
pack
chhs
Thani.
manhai
mndi
bar
ankk
kan
iankha
data
tar-hatti
lohn
had
dina
rati
randa
cbandraniajun
agi
pani
mati
parbat
anda
macheri
phul
ring
ghar
khola
sapa
gatcfa
yet
dai
tin
char
pacLe
chha
* Agree vith Kuswar.
182
THE DARAHI, ETC.
English.
Pakhya.
Iharu
Seven
eat
sat
Eight
ath
ath
Nine
naa
nau
Ten
das
das.
The Koocb belong to India (and Sikkim ?) rather
than to Nepal ; being occupants of the northern parts
of Ptungpur, Purnea, Dinajpur, and Mymangsing. The
Bodo of their frontier call them Kooch ; the more distant
Bodo of Asam call them Hasa. The Dhimal call them
Kamul, which, word for word, seems to be Dhimal.
For tlie Brahminic Kooch the following is a vocabulary.
For the Kooch, however, who are still the pagan occu-
pants of the more impracticable forests, we have no
specimens.
English.
Koocli.
Enjilisli.
Kooch.
Man (vi/r)
beta clioa
Star
tara
Woman
beti choa
Fire
agni
Son
beta
Water
jal
Daughter
beti
River
nodi
Head
mura
Stone
pathar
Eye
chakhu
Wind
batas
Nose
nak
One
ek
Ear
kan
Two
du
Beard
dadlii
Three
tin
Moidh
mukh
Four
char
Tongue
jivha
Five
panch
Tooth
dant
Six
choi
Hand
hath
Seven
sat
Foot
bhori
Eifjht
ath
Blood
lohu
Nine
nou
Sun
bela
Ten
das.
Moon
chand
The Kooch, whose separation from the Bodo and Dhi-
mal, is philological, rather than ethnological, and which,
even philologically, is, to some extent, artificial, are
bounded on the south by the Bengali area. The
Bengali language, however, is not the nearest congener
of the class to which the Kooch, though an outlying and
equivocal member, belongs.
I
THE KOL DIALECTS.
183
CHAPTER XXVI.
The Korgroup. — Its AflSnities Tvith the Mon.
The dialect, other than Bengali, which, in the way of
geography, is nearest to the most southern language of
the Tibetan, Burmese, or Nepalese group, is that of the
natives of the Rajmahal hills ; but this, for a reason
which Tvnll appear in the sequel, is pretermitted for the
present ; instead of which we notice the Kol dialects of
Ramgurh, Monghir, Chuta Nagpur, Gangj)ur, Sirgujah,
and Sumbhulpur : which fall into divisions and sub-
divisions. Tlie Sontals, indigenous to the parts about
Palaraow, have recently intruded themselves amongst the
Rajraahalis, and, having so done, constitute the most
northern section of the group. Still they are intrusive,
and must be kept separate.
Ho, meaning man, is the true and native name for
the Kol of Kolehan.
The Singbhum Kol is the same as the Sontal except
that some of its forms are somewhat shorter, as ho = hcyrl,
ho = huliO, nioya and turia = mane-gotang, tuHn-
gotang, &c. The same is the case with the Bhuraij and
Mundala dialects. In these, however, the numerals for
7, 8, 9, and 10 are Hindu — sath, ath, nou (noko), and
das {dasgo).
English.
SonUI.
English.
Sontal.
Man
horh
Foot
suptijanga
Head
buho
Blood
myan
Hair
ub
Bone
jang
Eye
met
Sun
singmanal
Ear
lata
Moon
chandu
Hand
thi
Star
ipil ^
184
KOL AND MON.
English.
Sontal.
English.
Sontal.
Fire
sengel
Five
mone-gotang
Water
dah
Six
turin-gotang
One
midh
Seven
lair-gotang
Two
barria
Eight
iral-gotang
Three
apia
Nine
are-gotang
Fowr
ponia
Ten
gel-gotang.
An observation, and an important one, of Mr. Mason's,
respecting the affinities of the Moii of Pegu and the Kol,
requires notice. The first numerals and several other
words in the Mon are also Kol. I cannot, however,
with Mr. Mason, infer from this any affinity between the
Kol and Mon which is, at one and the same time, funda-
mental and direct. What I see is this — the chances of a
considerable influence from the east coast of India upon
Pegu and, perhaps, Cambojia at an early period. The
Mon are called by the Burmese Talieng ; which is, word
for word, Telinga. The number of the monosyllabic
languages, which, in an early stage, had no numerals of
their own beyond five, is considerable. The Mon nu-
merals, then, and tiie otlier words may have come from
India — imported and incorporated. More than this is
not necessary to explain the facts ; which, on other
grounds, will scarcely cover the inference of Mr. Mason.
The eastern coast, however, of India when the words
in question were introduced (and, with them, the name
Talien), must have been Kol rather than Telinga.
i
THE KnOND DIALECT. 18-5
CHAPTER XXVII.
The Khond Class. — Khond. — (Jadaba and Yerikala. — Savara.
The Khonds coine next ; belonging to Orissa rather than
Bengal. The Khond CiiUs liis own country Kui Dina or
Ku Pruti, and that occupied by the Uriyas Sasi Dina. The
word malo is Uriya, and means a Highland. Witliin
the Sircar of Ganjaru (in which the Uriya and Telinga
languages meet) lie the Zemindaries of Gumsiir, Koradah,
Souradali, and Kimidi. Each lias its malo — and the
Kimidi Malo is pre-eminently Sour. It falls into —
1. The Sano Kimidi Malo.
2. The Bodo Kimidi Malo. Observe the word Bodo.
3. The Pariah, or Porolah, Kimidi Malo.
In the Bodo Kimidi Malo the Khond and Sour are
both spoken. The Pariah Kimidi Malo being chiefly (or
exclusively) Sour.
On the south-east and east of the Kimidi Malo lies
the Souradah — which seems to mean the Sour Country ;
though Khond in population.
The smaller divisions of the diTia are called in Khond
hhand = piece, or j^cn*^. The dina is specified by the
name of the chieftain ; thus Rogo Dina or Gune Dina
is the fief (so to say) of Rogo or Guni. The people are
Rogo Millaka, or Dina Millako, i. e. Children of Rogo.
There is no collective name. The following is Khond,
eo nomine ; the numerals being Indian —
English.
Kbond.
Englislk
Klioml.
Man
lokka
Ear
kirru
Bead
tlafvu
MouO,
sudda
Eye
kannnka
Tooth
shami
186
THE KHOND DIALECT.
English.
Hand
Foot
Blood
Bone
Sv/n
Moon
Star
Fire
Stone
Tree
Khond.
kaju
yestamu
rakko
pasu
bela
layadi
sukala
nade
viddi
mranu
English.
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
Six
Fight
Nine
Ten
The following, viz, the Gadaba, belongs, I
the malo of Gaddapur, one of the districts of
English.
Man
Head
Eye
Ear
Mouth
Hand
Foot
Blood
Bone
Sun
Moon
Star
Fire
Gadaba.
English
lokka
Stone
bo
Tree
olio
One
nintiri
Two
turn mo
Three
titti
Four
adugesananu
Five
yignan
Six
vondramgoyi
Seven
singi
Eight
arke
Nine
tsiikka
Ten
sungol
Khond
rondi
jodeka
*tini-gota
*sari
*panchu
*sata
*ata
*iiogatta
*doso.
presume, to
Gum stir : —
Gadaba.
birel
sunabbo
vokati
rendu
mudu
nalugu
ayidu
aru
yedu
yeni-mede
torn-midi
pade.
Of the following I am unable to give the exact lo-
cality.
English.
Ycrukali.
English.
Yerukali.
Man
lokka
Stone
kellu
Head
talayi
Tree
chede
Eye
supan
marom
Ea/r
soyi
One
vondu
Month
vayi
Two
rendu
Tooth
pallam
Three
mume
Hand
ky Kol
Four
nalu
Foot
keru
Five
anju
Blood
regain
Six
ara
Bone
yamaka
Seven
yegu
Sun
berule
EigJd
yethu
Moon
tarra
Nine
ombadu
Star
tsukka
Ten
potliu.
Fire
nerupu Tamil
* The numerals marked tbus are Hindfi.
THE SAVARA.
187
The village is also named Millaka, preceded by the
name of the founder. Thus Diggo Millaka is the village
founded by Diggo. In Uriya it is a gam, = Diggogam,
English.
Sarara.
English.
Savara.
Man
mandra
Fire
togo
Head
aboLumu
River
nayi
Eye
amu
Stone
aregna
Ear
lay
Tree
anebagna
Mouth
amuka
One
aboy
Tooth
ajagna
Tico
bagu
Blood
mijamo
Tftree
yagi
Bone
ajagna
Four
Tonjii
Hand
asi
Five
mollayi
Foot
aji
Six
kudru
Day
tamba
Seven
gBl«i
Sky
agasa
Eight
tamuji
Sun
vuyu
Nine
tinji
Moon
Tonga
Ten
galliji.
Star
tote
The Savara numerals are Kol rather than either
Khond or Tamul, though the Sours are, by no means,
the nearest to the Kol area.
188 THE GIIONDS.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
The Ghonds.
The barest part of the maps of India (and by hare I
mean a district whicli the paucity of names, whether of
villages or natural objects, proclaims to be unexplored)
is a large space named Ghondwana — large and undefined,
the occupancy of a population named Ghond. Word
for word, this is Khond. Nothing, however, in the
way of either affinity or difference between the Khonds
and Ghonds is to be inferred from the similarity.
Neither is a native name. Each is a name which cer-
tain Hindiis apply to certain tribes which they consider
ruder and more barbarous than themselves. Like other
names of the same kind it may denote anything or
nothing in the way of relationship. It may apply to
tribes closely allied ; or it may apply to tribes, toto codo,
different.
The western frontier of the Khonds of the Gumsur
Malo and the frontier of the most eastern Ghonds touch
and run into each other. " At Sarangaddah, the Uriya
quarter is situated between a Khond village to the west,
and a Ghond settlement to the east. In other places
a Khond village aligns with it.
" A few families of the Ghond race have emigi-ated from
Kalahandi and Bastar at various times. Some have set-
tled at Sarangaddah, while others have passed on into the
Goomsur Malo, and penetrated as far to the eastward as
Udyagiri, near the head of the Kiirminghia Pass, where
a colony has established itself They are also met with,
as a few families, at Chachingudah, and Kiritingiah, of
Goomsur, lying between the above points. These emi-
1
THE GHONDS. 189
grations still continue in times of scarcity, but their
nainbers are very trifling. It is in the countries bor-
dering this malo to the west that they are known as a
people. The Patros of the frontier divisions of Lonka-
godah and Bellagodah are of this race, as is also the
Chief of Mohangiri, under Kalahandi, not to mention
in this place other men of influence. The Gonds settled
at Sarangaddah, receive land of the Patro in return for
general service. They intermarry with the families of
their race in Goomsur : they reside at the godah. With
regard to their customs, their mythology differs from
that of the Uriyas or Kondhs. They sacrifice animals,
drink ardent spirits, eat flesh, but eschew that of the
cow : they will not partake of food with any other
class. Their feelings on the question of human sacrifice
are not, as yet, accurately ascertained ; but it is asserted
that they do not perform the rite. The titles amongst
them are Dalbehra and Magi. They esteem them-
selves of great pjurity of race, so that in former days
they considered the approach of a Brahman to their
dwellings as conveying an impurity to the spot ; they
are now, however, somewhat less rigid on this ground.
The Uriyas of the hills, while they regard the Khonds
as a distinct and inferior race, assign to the Ghonds a
common origin with themselves. The tradition received
at Sarangaddah is as follows : —
"A certain raja, named Sobhajoi Singh, being unmar-
ried, and desirous of issue, called to his bed four parties
in succession. Those selected were the daughters of a
washerman, a potter, a distiller of spirits, and a Brah-
man ; and the respective issue was a Doholo or Dolo, a
Kohouro, a Gond, and the Nolo Benso Patro — the proge-
nitors of the four classes now met with in the Malo."*
The details of the Kol fi-ontier are not so well-known.
Neither are those of the districts where the Ghond and
Paper by Lieat. J. P. Fktb. — Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society,
vol. xvii. part 1.
J90
THE GUNDI.
Mahrafcta, the Ghond and Bengali, the Ghond and Telugu,
the Ghond and the Hindi forms of speech come in con-
tact. These, however, are the languages by which it is
bounded.
A short vocabulary by Mr. Manger, of the Ghond, is
to be found in the 1 -iSth number of the Journal of ilie
Asiatic Society, and a longer one in a previous number.
The former gives the language of the parts about Ellich-
poor, where the Mahratta is the language with which
it is most in contact. The latter is from the district of
Seonee ; on or near the Kol frontier. The following
extracts are from Mr. Mangfer's notice of it.
English.
Giindi.
English.
Giindi.
Male
mandsa
Back
mdrchur
Boy
perga
Arms
kayik
Infant
chowa
Thighs
kfirki
Young man
pekur
Navel
mud
Old wMn
sena
Knees
tungru
Woman
maiju
Legs
potri
Girl
pergi
Feet
kal
Young woman
rayah
Water
er
MarHed tooman
lunguriar
Fire
kis
Head
tulla
Tree
murra
Forehead
kuppar
Flower
pdngar
Eyebrows
kunkunda
Firewood
kuttia
Eyelids
mindi
Salt
sowur
Eyes
kunk
Oil
ni
Nose
mussur
Ghee
pdlnl
Ears
kobi
Milk
pai
Cheeks
korir
Butter
nenti
Lips
sewli
Mare
krup
Mouth
tudhi
Cow
miira
Tongue
wunja
Heifer
kuUor
Teeth
pulk
Calf
paia
Chin
towrwa
Bullock
koda
Throat
gdnga
Udder
tokur
Neck
wurrur
Horns
kor
Shoulders
sutta
Buffalo
urmi
Nails
tirris
Horse
perral
Armpit
k&ukli
Wheat
gohuc
Stomach
pir
Bread
gohuc sari
Loins
nunni
Rice
paraik
Entrails
puddu
She goat
peti
i
GUNDI GRAMMAR.
191
EngiisJi.
Gundi.
English.
Gundi
Dog
naie
Between nnddom
Cat
bhoDgal
Behind pija
Wild cat
workar
Above parro
Fowb
kur
Beneath ddi
Cock
gunguri
On account lane
CkidceM
chiwar
Hither hikke
Egg*
mesnk
Thither hnkke
Miet
ulU
Now indeke
Serpents
tanas
When boppor
Fish
mink
Here iga
Tiger
pfilMl
Thus ital atal
WaOt
takana
Daily dink
Sun
witt4na
One undi
Laugh
kow&na
Two rund
Sing
w^rina
Three m^d
Dance
yendana
Four nalo
Speal-
vunkana
Fire saijan
Fight
tarrit4na
Six s&rfin
Beat
Seven (sto
Weep
nrtana
Eight armfir
No
hiUe
Nine urmah
Tes
hinge
Ten padth
Near
kurrun
Twenty wisa
Before
nunne
Fifty pnnnis
Within
rupper
Hundred nur.
Kora
ahorse.
Eorank horses.
Eorana
Eorada
of
a horse.
Eorinkna of horses.
Eorat
J
to
a horse.
Eorankun horses.
EorStu
Eoratsfin
by
akone
EorankK<m byhorta
Nak or nnnna
/
1 Tmiim.
Uiou
Wiir he
Kowa
my
: Niwa
thy
Wunna his
Nakun
me
Nikun
thee
Wfink him
Kaksun
by \
m.e
Niksun
by thee
W6nks6n by him
:,L;k
ue
[ Imat
you ] Wuig they
M .-an
our
iliwat
your * Wuiran their
Makun
u»
Mekun
you j Wurriin them
H&ksun
6y
H»
Miksun
by you j Wuirunsun by ihent.
Tirg
this
Bur
who
\Jdhe,ske,iL
Yensa
of
this
Bona
■whose
Yenk
this
Bonk
whom
Ten 1 him, her, it,
Tkae , them
Yenkstn
hyihia
Bonsun
by whom
192
GUNDI GRAMMAR.
Yirg
Yirran
Yirkun
Yirrlinsun
these
of these
these
by these
Burk
Boran
Bonk
Bonsun
who
of whom
whom
by ivhom
Tunna, his, hers, theirs.
Bore, some one.
Bora, what?
Plural,
Bara, something.
Barauk, what ? ^
Wunka
Wunkunna
Wunki
Wunktur
Wunksi
sx)eak ;
to speak '
speaking I
spoken
having spoken
Nunna wunki
Iinma wunki
Wur wunki
Mar wunki
Imar wunki
Wurg wunki
I speak
thou speakest
he speaks
we speak
ye speak
they speak.
Nunna wnnkundan ^
Irama wunkundi > I was
Wur wunkundur )
^>ea
':!)ig
( Nunna, wunksi howe,
, ttc. < Imma, wunksi howe, &c,
( same for all persons.
Mar wunkundura
Imar wunkundir
Wurg wunkundurg
1
I shall hare spoken.
Nunna wunktan, / spoke.
Imma wunkti
Wiir wunktur
Wunka, speak thou.
Mar wunkt<im
Imar wunktir
Wurs wunktlirg
Wunkar, speak ye.
Nunna wunksi
Imma wunksi
Wur wunksi
Mar wunksi
Imar wunksi
Wurg wunksi
Nunna wunkika
Imma wunkiki
Wur wunkandr
Mar wunkikiira
Imar wunkikir
Wiirg wunkanurg
/ had spoken, ike.
I shall spetk.
GUNDI GRAMMAR. 193
Nunna wunkundan howe ^
Imma ■vmnkundi howe
■Wtir wunkundur howe
Mar wunkundir howe
Wfirg wrmkundfirg howe
IskaU he speahing.
1.
Mowa Dowial budrut purro muddar-warr^ ; Niwa purrol dhnnnat-ma
aie. Niwa rajpat waie. Niwar bichar ital budrit purro mundar atal durtit
purro aud. Mowa pialda sarin neut mak punkiut : unde bahun mar upnfin
reina dherrum kisia-turrum, atal imma mak dherum kisiut, unde makfin
miwa jhara-jherti te niuni watnat unde burrotsun mak pisihat, b4rike
niwa rajpat, imni niwa bul, unni niwa dhurmat mal sudda mund ital
&nd.
In English.
Our Father heaven above inhabitant ; Thy name hallowed be. Thy king-
dom come. Thy will as heaven above is, so earth on be. Our daily bread
to-day to us give : and as we our debtors forgive, so thou to us trespasses for-
give, and us into thy temptations do not throw, and from evil us deliver, for
Ay kingdom and thy power and thy glory established remain, so be it.
2.
1. Kodawund niwa Purmesur nunna andur, nam(inne niw6r Deo bor6
hille audur.
2. Apun lane kit41 penk, bore budde ai jins it41 bndr&te noni dhnrtile,
tmni yet^ mundar, atal miuni kemut imat wurea kal minni kurmat, unde
w(irr<in ramakisnl miuni kem&t ; iden laine laine m^k ^n mundur, unde
dourana pdpun sate chawlin porro s4siut dusta-tona, nati unni punti-lor
purro, wurg admirun bor nowa bairi munda, unde mat awen — men sun
hazaron nakun mink p(indat6rg, onde nowa wunkt^n purro taki-turg, nunna
■wtirrun purro durmi kia tona.
3. Purmesur-da parrol labarlt purro minni yeumit, tin-lainnn papi ainun
wdig m^nwal bor Purmesur-da parrol labarit purro yetanfir,
4. Purmesur-da pidl purriat unde tan sw^f ii^t sarrun pialk bunni b6ta
limpt, unde sub miwa k^m kimpt, at ernlida piSl Purmesur-da pidl mundur,
nd pi^l imma buttiai kam kemut, imma unni niwa pergil unni niwa pergol,
unni niwa rutkawal unni niwa kiinda, unni niwa pownalur run mundfir ; tin
laine Purmesur sarun pialk ne budra unni dherti unni sumd6r unni cheit-
kunne jinsk iwit^ mundatan, awen kitur, nude yerrun pial rum tur, tuilaine
id pi<un Purmes(ir dhurm^t-mal tane kltur,
5. Imma upnon babonna unni awunna sewa kimpt, ten sun niwa yarbiil
durtit purro Purmesar nlkun situr, paral aud.
6. Imma mauwan minni jukmat.
7. Imma pap minni kema.
8. Imma kulwein minni kema.
9. Imma upnon biganun purro labari gohai minni sena.
10. Imma upnon biganun-ta rota lob minni kema. Imma upnon biganun-
na maigu-na lob minni kema, unde wunna rutkawal unde wunna ktinda,
innui wunnal guddal unde butti6-jins, upnon bigan^-na mundar tan purro
lob minni kema.
194 SPECIMENS OF THE GUNDI.
In English.
1. The Lord thy God I am, besides me thy gods not any shall be.
2. To yourselves graven images, any sort of creature such as in heaven and
on earth, and in sea are, such do not make — you their feet do not embrace,
and their obeisance do not perform ; because to me jealousy is, and father's
sins for children on, punishment inflict, grand children and great-grand chil-
dren upon those men who my enemies are, and I from among those a thou-
sand (who) me as a friend take, and my commands according to walk, I on
them my shadows throw.
3. God's name in falsehood do not take, for guilty will be that man who
God's name in falsehood shall take.
4. God's day remember and it holy keep ; six days daily work do, and all
thy labour perform, but seventh day God's day is, that day thou any kind of
work do not make, thou and thy son, and thy daughter, and thy servants,
and thy cattle, and thy stranger (thy) house dwelling ; because God six days
in, heaven, and earth, and sea, and each creature in them existing, them
made, and seventh day rest took, therefore that day God hallowed estab-
lished.
5. Thou thy father's and mother's service perform, therefore thy life, the
land upon, God to thee has given, prolonged may be.
6. Thou a man not kill.
7. Thou adultery not do.
8. Thou theft not do.
9. Thou thy neighbour against false witness not give.
10. Thou thy neighbour's house covet not. Thou thy neighbour's wife covet
not, and his house-servants, and his ox, and his ass, and anything, that thy
neighbour's is it upon covetousness not make.
3.
Sandsumjee-na saka kuy^t, ro Baban,
Sark ask kitur, Sing-Baban hille putt6r,
Yirrun ask kitur, awlte Sing-Baban autarietur.
Aular y^tana Baban punwake.
Taksitun Baban, tunwa pari sumpte kiale
Barike bouke aie penk putta sika.
Hikke Sing-Baban putti-le-ai latur.
Loro askna sowati, sarun mutta.
Awitun, koti annate tulla durissi, "assun inga chawa putti,"
TJd it, ahe kint annate tullat6n durritun,
Unni Sing-Baban purtfir,
Sing-Baban techi urmi sarte michitun,
Unni nai-pila taniga dussitfin,
Unni ittfir, nai-jula wattoni,
Nai-pilla mis3.te ; tank kawM kede kiate tare kittin,
Sing-Baban, urmi ittdn, ke yenk borre minni jerasit,
Na tokar jemat, unni torde pdl ptirsi ten (ihat.
Au sartinge ask whfir setfin, pistur ka satur ?
Sing-Baban gursundfir.
Augrul dnde techi mdra na sarkte nuchitun.
«
I
SPECIMENS OF THE GUNDI. 195
M6rai ittfin Sing-Baban bore jarniut
Natokar jem^t torde pal pirsi ten fih&t,
Agra kubber tallick setun, satur ke pisltir ?
Sing-Baban gursundtir.
Agral techi knan ruppa nuchitun.
TisTO dian hur settin, satur ka pistur ?
Sing-Baban aga tinde gursunddr.
Agr41 tinde tunsi plillia-na surrit pnrro.
Kuchlchi situn, Pfillial ask mandsal wandurg ;
Sing-Baban na arana kinchtttrg.
PuUial mian tras lakt, naur muni afidfir,
Ingi techi yet, Tnnwa rund wot nnni tnnwa pil&nstin niaro irt,
Ehandk tullana tunwa pilanfin thitana
Pillan hotita, pal Sing-Baban uhnud
The kina kina ke, Sing-Baban hfisiar atur.
Undi dian \runna avarl tunwa pilansdn
Milaf kissichisi, unni pilanfln indalat
Immer urpa mundana turrim^t minni
Tisro diafi Sing-Baban itturke, mowa kaia desita
Makun putchial, kor, pheta tuchim
Adungi hattum surde ucchi raimat
Punkatar unni marratur maralur agdol passiturg
Techi wit, wnrg tunwa guttri potri nuchi surritarg
Ud techi tucchit, Sing-Baban tunsi knrsi yetfin
Unni tunwa awarinna kal kurtdr,
Manna munnake dnde dian unde indalatur
Ki nak gullele tucchim ud henhud
Ucchi raimat, Wdrrtir sipahi gullele-warre agdol pussit^
Ud vit ktissi, GfiUele nuchi surritfir.
Ud techi urriwat Sing-Baba sit ;
Sing-Baba tunna tummlir singne gursi latur,
Pittun p(id(ir tunna tummur tan tindfir
The kina ke, Sandsumji niga sube w4tur
Unni Sandsumji nida latur peak bouk wandum ? lour ehat
Penk bouke waiyun ? aga Sing-Baba fimhen kiton
Sing-Baba taksltfir tunna tummur sungue muttur
Wasiaautfir, uddam atur wfirrfir Bummenal
"Wtin Sing-Baba teta latur, Wur tedlir ;
Tunnar^n gussalakt wur Bummenal tingiet6r
Sing-Baba penk techietur.
Sube indalatfir ke imma boni audi ?
Wur ittur ke immer urmifiun unni mfiram^ keat
Unni tnnwa tumman indalatur, hun dain kesi terali
Wur vittar kesi tuttur.
Yen mfinte jins unde punchatite puna attir
Jub Sing-Baba indalatur k^ iwen puche kimpt
Awen sun pflche kial latur, yir bfir 4udfir ]
M6nne urmi wunktun jir Sandsfimje^nfir murri audnr.
o 2
196 SPECIMENS OF THE GUNDI.
Wfirg indalatur, imma bane putti ? Awittlin
Maiga rundidian mungi muttiu*. Bahur mungt muttnr
Awittlin niwa sarfinge ask tuttchi maiga pikkile nuchi angt
Unni igga hille saiur, to murana sarte nuchiclie sit(ir
Awen pficTie kial atQr, Maiga Baban at ?
Muraitiin ke, Maiga rund dian raungi muttur
Awen sarflngi ask agral wosi kliante nuchi si tin
Aga tinde hille saifir. To agrul tunsi kojane bewatun
Sing-Baban ptiche kial aturk^ agral imma behuth I
Wur ittnr id nowa awan puche kimpt
Wtinna awal pfillian pfiche kia latur
Imma bugga punne mati ] Ud it
Mowa surde awe sardnge ask mucMchfe mutta
Nunna techi urri watan, nowa pilan notita
Pfil yen (ihth^n unni hinda htinda bala buttir
Nowa chowanfm tbetSn sube j^nk pdlliana
K^l kdrttir unni tane penk thaira kitflr.
Unni awe sarunge askntin 3,den plillian sitdrg.
Udneti t^l Sing-Baban putt41 atfir
Unni pulli^l ntide penk tbairi mat
Sandsumjee BabS.na id saka S,ud
Bhirri bans-Bhirri-ta saka S,ud.
In English.
Sandsumjee's song hear, 0 Father.
Six wives he took, Sing-Baba not born,
Seventh wife took, by her Sing-Baba was conceived.
Of her pregnancy Father was not informed.
Departed Father, his kinsfolk being assembled together
For this reason to some one it happened to offer a sacrifice to a God.
Hereupon Sing-Baba began to be bom.
Small wife was sleeping, the other six were there.
Said they, grain basket's mouth into^ her head let us introduce in our hou
child is bom.
So said, so done, into mouth her head introduced,
And Sing-Baba was born,
Sing-Baba having taken up, into Buffaloes' stable threw,
And a puppy instead placed.
And said, a puppy is born,
A puppy having brought forth, thence crows to frighten they set her,
Sing-Baba, buffaloes said, that him let none hurt,
Nor blow strike, and into his mouth milk having poured him suckled.
The six wives said, let us go and see him, is he living or dead ]
Sing-Baba was playing.
Thence indeed having taken him into cows' stable threw.
The cows said Sing-Baba let no one hurt
Or blow strike, into his mouth milk pouring him suckled,
Therefore information they sent to seek, is he living or dead ?
SPECIMENS OF THE GUNDL 197
Sing-Baba vras playing.
Thence having taken well into threw.
On the third day having gone to see, is he living or dead ?
Sing-Baba there indeed was playing.
Thence indeed having taken, Tiger's path npon.
They threw him, Tiger's female and male were coming ;
Sing-Baba's cries they heard.
Tigress compassion felt, " my child it is."
Having said so, took him away. Their den came to and their pops from
apart set.
Meat bringing their pnps to feed
Their pnps weaning, with milk Sing-Baba suckled,
So continuing to do, Sing-Baba grew np.
One day his mother her whelps
Together brought, and to whelps began to say
Yourselves among together stay, fight not.
The third day Sing-Baba said, my body is naked
To me a dhoty, dohur, and pugrey give.
She going Bazar road seated remained.
A mnslin-maker and cloth-maker that way came
Having got up ran, they their bundles having thrown away fled,
She having taken up brought Sing-Baba took and put on
And his mother's feet kissed,
Staying staid then one day indeed began to say
That to me a bow give. She again went
Seated remained a sepoy armed with a bow that way came.
She ran having cried out. Bow thrown away, he fled.
She having it came and to Sing-Baba gave;
Sing-Baba big brother little brother together played.
Birds shot big brother little brother to them gave to eat
So continuing to do, Sandsumji home returned with his friends
And Sandsiunji began to say has any one become inspired, let him arise ;
God into one not entered ? Then Sing-Baba inspiration received.
Sing-Baba was coming, Ixg Wother little brother together were
Coming came, in the midst was a brahman
Him Sing-Baba required to get up, he refused ;
Big brother became angry, the brahman eat up
Sing-Baba the image took up.
All began to say, that you, who are you ?
He said that you the Buffaloes and cows ask
And to his little brother said, mother go and call.
He ran and called.
These three species before the punchaite a^embled came.
Then Sing-Baba said that them question,
From them they asked, this one who is he ?
First the buffaloes said this Sandsumjee's son is.
They said, you how understand ? These said
In our house two days staid. How did he remain ?
198 SPECIMENS OF THE GUNDI.
These said thy six wives having taken into our house to kill threw
And there not injured, then cows' house into threw
From these asked, How into your house Baba came ?
The cows said, At our house two days stayed.
These six wives thence having taken into well threw,
There indeed not injured, thence taking I know not where took.
Sing-Baba they questioned that thence you went where ?
He said of my mother ask.
They mother-tigress asked
You where found ? She said
On my road these six wives threw away ;
I having taken brought, my whelps weaning,
Milk him suckled and here there with prey
My young fed. All-understood, tigress'
Feet embraced, and her a God established.
And these six wives to this tigress gave.
That day Sing-Baba illustrious became
And Tigress indeed as a God established became.
Of Sandsumjee Baba this song is.
Of Bhirry bamboo-jungle Bhirri the song is.
Bata for the Gundi are pre-eminently deficient.
THE URAON AND RAJMAHALI. 199
CHAPTER XXIX.
Uraon and Eajmahali.
It has already been stated that, though the Kol dialects,
eo nomine, were the ones which were noticed next to
those of the class represented by the Daralii and Kus-
war, the form of speech, other than Hindu, which lay
in the closest geographical proximity to the Himalayas
was not, eo nornine, Kol.
The notice of it was postponed for the following
reason — its affinities are believed to lie with Khond to
the south, and with the Uraon to the west of the Kol
area rather than with the Kol itself.
Such, at least, is the doctrine expressed in a work
which, from both its merits and its circulation, is likely
to inSuence the opinion of investigators — Mr. Caldwell's
Grammar of the Dravirian Language — JDravirian mean-
ing akin to the Tamul and its immediate congeners.
That the Tamul is a lanomage of the extreme south we
have seen : whereas the lanouasje under notice, though
scarcely one of the extreme north, is a northern one —
northern enough to be spoken along a mountain-range,
the foot of which is washed by the Ganges. Near to
where this river is cut by the 2oth degree of N. L.
stand the Rajmahal Hills : where two forms of speech
are used. One is the ordinary Suntal of certain intru-
sive Kols. The other is an older, and apparently a
native, dialect — which we may call the Rajmahali.
Now, Caldwell has committed himself to the doctrine
that the Rajmahali is more Dravirian than the Kol —
though further from tie centre of the Dravirian area :
200
THE URAOF AND RAJMAHALI.
indeed, he excludes the Kol from the Dravirian class —
or, at any rate, hesitates to admit it.
I treat, then, the Rajmahali as more Khond than Kol
— only, however, provisionally and until further materials
for forming a judgment are supplied.
In the following table the words marked are from the
list in Caldwell's Grammar ; the others from a vocabu-
lary by Major Roberts in the fifth volume of the
Asiatic Researches : —
English.
Bajmabali.
English.
Bajmahali.
Man
*male
Nail
uruk
Head
klik
Hand
•sesu
*kupe
Fingers
angilli
Hair
tuUi
Foot
tshupta
Nose
moi
•kev
Mood
kiss
Arm
tat budahi
*kesu
Sun
*ber
Eye
kun
Moon
*bilpe
Eyebrow
kunmudha
Star
badekah
Ear
kydule
bindeke
*khetway
Fire
tshutsha
Tooth
pul
Water
um
Belly
kutshah
Stone
tshatshar
Bone
*kochal
Tree
mln
kutshul
Fish
min
Each
kukah
Snake
nir.
The following (from Caldwell) is a comparison of the
Rajmahali and Tamul pronouns : —
English.
Kajmahali.
Tamul.
/
en
en, nan
Thou
nin
nin
He, she, it
ath
ata
We
nam
n^m
om*
dm
Ye
nina
nim
They
awar
avar
This
Ih
1
That
&h
&
Here
Irio
inge
There
&no
ange.
The Uraon, compared, by Caldwell, with the Raj-
I
THE URAON AND RAJMAHALI.
201
mahali, is placed by liim in the same category. It is a
lancTiaore of western rather than the northern frontier of
the Kol area, within which it is spoken. It is held,
however, to be intrusive fi"om the parts about Rotasghur
near the junction of the Coylle and Soone. ■
Its position is provisional.
English.
TJrson.
English.
Uraon.
Man
alia
Foot
dappe
Head
kuk, M.
Hand
khekhah
Hair
chutti
Sun
dharmi
Ear
khebda
Moon
chando
Eye
khan
Star
binka
Blood
khens
Fire
chek
Bone
khochal
Water
am.
The words marked with an asterisk are from Caldwell.
202
THE TEiiEGU.
CHAPTER XXX.
The Tamul Class. — Telugu or Telinga. — Tamul Proper.— Malayalim. — Cana-
rese.--Tulu or Tula va.— Rude Tribes.— Tuda.—Budugur.— Irular.—
Eohatar.
The Telugu, or Telinga, is spoken from Chicacole to
Pulicat, and extends westwards as far as tlie eastern
boundary of the Marathi ; being the chief language of
the northern Circars as well as parts of Hyderabad,
Nagpur, and Gondwana,
English.
Telugu.
English.
Telugu.
Man
al
Thou
nivu
Head
tala
He
vadu
Hair
ventruka
She
ame
Ear
chevi
It
adi
Eye
kannu
We
memu
Mouth
noru
Ye
niiru
Tooth
pallu
They
varu
Bone
emika
Mine
nadi
Blood
netturu
Thine
nidi
Egg
gaddu
His
vadidi
Bay
pagalu
Our
ID adi
Night
reyi
Your
midi
Sky
minnu
Their
varidi
Sun
poddu
Om
vokati
Star
chukka
Two
rendu
Fire
hippu
Three
mudu
Water
nillu
Four
nalugu
River
eru
Five
ayidu
Stone
rayi
Six
am
Tree
chettu
Seven
edu
Village
uru
Eight
enimidi
Snake
pamu
Nine
tommidi
I
nenu
Ten,
padi.
i
THE TAMUL.
203
The Tamul succeeds the Telinga about Pulicat, and is
spoken along the coast of Coromandel as far as Cape
Comorin. It then turns north ; but is succeeded in the
parts about Trevandrum by the Malay alim. Inland, it
extends to the Ghauts and Nilgherries. It is spoken,
also, in the north of Ceylon, and by numerous settlers
and emigrants in Pegu, Penang, Singapoi:e, and the
Mauritius.
English.
TamnL
Engiiali.
TamnL
Man
al
I
nan
Bead
talei
Thou
ni
Hair
mayir
He
aran
Ear
kadu
She
aval
Eye
kail
It
ada
Mouth
vayi
We
Tooth
pal
Ye
nir
Bone
elombn
Tha/
avar
Blood
udiram
Mine
enada
^90
mattei
Thine
nnada
Day
pagal
Hit
avanada
Night
ira
Our
nainadu
Sly
Tanam
Your
nmada
Sun
pakalon
Their
avarudu
Moon
tingal
One
onm
Star
Tanmin
Two
iranda
Fire
nemppa
Thru
munru
Water
tanni
Pour
nala
River
am
Fire
anja
Stone
kal
Six
am
Tree
sedi
Seven
ezha
maram
Eight
ettu
Tillage
ir
Nine
ombada
Snake
pamba
Ten
patta.
The Malayalim is the language of the western side
of the coast of Malabar. On its east lies the Canarese ;
on its north the Tulava ; on its south the Tamul. The
Tamul touches it at Trevandrum ; the Tulava and Cana-
rese of Canara about Mangalore. It stretches over
about six degrees of latitude, but only in a narrow stnp
between the Ghauts and the sea. It is the vernacular
204
MALAYALIM.
of Cochin, and the northern and middle parts of Tra-
vancore. It is a separate substantive language, possibly
more akin to the Tamul than its other congeners — but
no Tamul dialect.
English.
MalayaKm.
English.
Malayalim
Man
al
/
guan
Head
tala
Thou
ni
Hair
talamudi
Be
avan
Ear
kada
She
aval
Eye
kanna
It
ada
Mouth
vaya
We
gnangal
Tooth
palla
Ye
ninwal
Bone
ella
They
avara
Blood
chora
Mine
enre
Egg
mutta
Thine
ninre
Bay
pagal
His
avanre
Night
rav
Our
nangade
Sky
manam
Your
ningade
Sun
STirga
Their
avarude
Moon
tingal
One
onna
Star
minjawna
Two
rendu
Fire
tiyya
Three
munnu
Water
vellam
Fow
nala
River
puzha
Five
anja
Stone
kaUa
Six
ara
Tree
chedi
Seven
ezha
maram
Eight
etta
Village
tara
Nine
ombada
desam
Ten
patta.
Snake
pamba
The Canarese touches the Telinsra in the north-east
and the Tamul in the south-east. Mysore is its centrej
It touches the coast between Goa and Mangalore ; where
however, it is intrusive.
English.
Canarese.
English.
Canarese.
Man
alu
Tooth
kallu
Head
tale
Bone
eluvu
Hair
kudala
Blood
netturu
Ear
kivi
Egg
tatti, motti
Eye
kannu
Bay
liagalu
Mouth
bayi
Night
iralu
THE KODUGU, OB CURGI.
205
English.
Canarese.
English.
Canarese.
Sly
bana
They
avam
Sun
hotta
Mine
nannada
Moon
tingaln
Thine
ninnada
Star
chnkki
His
aranu
Fire
benki {Sing.)
Our
nammada
Water
niru
Your
nimmadn
Rirer
hole
Thar
avarada
Stone
kallu
One
ondu
Tree
gida, mara
Two
emda
nUarje
halli, uru
Three
mum
Snale
havu
Four
naDni
I
nann
Fire
ajida
Thou,
ninu
Six
ara
He
avana
Seven
da
She
avala
Eight
enta
It
ada
Aine
omUiatta
We
nam
Ten
batto.
Ye
nivu
In Curgi the language changes, and is, as may be ex-
pected, of so transitional a character, that whilst Ellis
calls it a dialect of the Tulu, Mocrlinfj of Mansfalore
states that it is more allied to the Tamul and Malayalim.
It is called the Kodugu.
The Tulu, itself, is the most northern language of its
class which touches the sea ; and it is essentially a
language of the coast. It has extended further north ;
having been encroached on by the Konkani dialect of
the Marathi, which abounds in Tulu words, apparently
derived from the earlier occupants. It is a language of
not only a small ai*ea but a decreasing one : being
pressed upon by the Canarese. It extends from the
Nileswara on the south, in N.L. 13° 30', where it
touohes the Malayalim to the Bhahavara in N.L. 13°
30, four miles north of Upi, where it is succeeded by
the Konkani, The Grerman missionaries at Mangalore
preach to the upper classes in Canarese, but to the
lower in Tulu.
English.
Kodagn.
Tnln.
Man
manus
al
Head
mande
tare
Hair
oiama
kodala
206
THE KODUGU, OR CURGl.
English.
Kodugu
Tooth
paU
Eye
ane
Ear
kemi
Mouth
bayi
Hand
Foot
Blood
chore
Bone
Day
pagil
Sun
Moon
Star
Fire
Water
nir
Earth
Mountain
River
pole
Stone
Tree
mara
Bird
pakki
Egg
Fish
Flower
Horn
Snake
pamb
I
nan
Thou -
He
She
Jt
We
Ye
They
Mine
There
His
Ours
Yours
Theirs
One
Two
Three
Fowr
Five
Six
Seven
Tulii.
kuli
ane
kebi
bayi
kai
bajji
nettar
elu
polutu
tingalu
daraya
tu
nir
nela
gudde
tude
kalla
mara
pakki
mutte
tetti
min
pu
kombu
parapunu
en
i
aye
aval
av
enklia
inukulu
akulu
ennow
innow
ay anew
enkulanow
inkulanow
akulunow
onji
erad
muji
nala
ayinu
aji
el
THE KODUGU, OR CURGI.
207
English.
Eight
Nine
Ten
Kodngn.
ename
orambo
patto.
The following are, according to CaldweU, the writer
from whose Dravirian Grammar the preceding details
are exclusively taken, the statistics of the above-men-
tioned languages ; one of which, apparently, includes
the Curgi.
1.
Tamul is spoken by
. 10,000,000
2.
Telinga
. 14,000,000
3.
Canarese „
5,000,000
4.
Malay alim „
2,500,000
5.
Tulu
150,000
31,650,000
The previous forms of speech constitute a natural
group — a natural group, and not a very large one.
They all belong to the Dekhan. They are all spoken
by populations more or less Hindu. They are all the
languages of the civilized Indian. Their area is con-
tinuous ; in other words, they are all in contact with
each other, and their frontiei-s join. There is nothing
between the Telinga and the Tamul, the Tamul and the
Canarese, the Tamul and the Malayalim. Their area is
continuous.
The following are from the. Nilgherry Hills. They are
all rude dialects of the Canarese ; of the Canarese rather
than the Tamul ; though not without Tamul elements.
1.
English.
Tuda.
Man
al
Wovftan
knch
ITead
madd
Eye
kann
Ear
kewi
Tooth
parsh
Mouth
bor
Blood
bach
Bone
elf
Engliib.
Tnda.
Foot
kal
Hand
koi
Day
nal
Sun
birsh
Moon
teggal
Star
Fire
nebb
Water
nir
River
pa.
208
THE BUDUGUR, ETC.
English.
Budngur.
English.
Budugiu'.
Man
manija
Star
Woman
hennu
Fire
kichcliu
Head
mande
Water
niru
Eye
kannu
River
holla
Ear
kive
One
vondu
Tooth
hallu
Two
yeradu
Mouth
bai
Three
muru
Blood
netru
Four
nalku
Bone
yellu
Five
eidu
Foot
kalu
Six
am
Hand
kei
Seven
yellu
Day
dina
Eight
yettu
Sun
hottu
Nine
Tombattu
Moon
tiggalu
Ten
hattu.
English.
Irular.
i.
English.
Irular.
Man
manisha
Fii-e
tu, tee
Woman
ponnu
Water
dani
Head
tele
River
palla
Eye
kannu
One
vondu
Ear
kadu
Two
emdu
Tooth
pallu
Three
muru
Mouth
vai
Four
naku
Blood
latta
Five
eindu
Bone
yellambu
Six
aru
Foot
kalu
Seven
yettu
Hand
kei
Eight
yettu
Hay
nala
Nine
vombadu
Sum
poda
Ten
pattu.
Moon
nalavu
English.
Kohatar.
English.
Kohatar.
Man
ale, manija
Moon
tiggule
Woman
pemmage
Water
nire
Head
mande
River
pevi
Eye
kannu
One
vodde
Ear
kive
Two
yede
Tooth
palle
Three
munde
Mouth
vai
Four
nake
Blood
netra
Five
anje
Bone
yelave
Six
are
Foot
kalu
Seven
yeye
Hand
kei
Eight
yette
Hay
nale
Nine
Yorupade
Sun
potte
Ten
patte.
THE CANARESE.
209
There is an old Literary, or High Canarese (as,
indeed, there is an old Literary, or High Tamul, and (?)
Malayalim), with a greater admixture of Sanskrit. It
gives p rather than h, in which several of its modern
congeners agree with it.
English.
Old Canarese.
New Canarese.
Day
pagalu
hagalu
pagil — Tulu
Flower
PUTYU
huwu
puvTu — Tuda
Horn
pandi
handi
pandi — Kodugv.
Name
pesaru
hesara
pudar — Tula
Rirer
pole
hole
pole — Kodugv,
Road
pade
hadi
*
Snake
pavu
hara
pab — Tuda
Tiger
puli
huU
pivri — Tuda
Tooth
pallu
halla
pall — Kodugu.
All the languages of this class may be grouped round
the Canarese. This, says Mr. Reeve, is so like the Telugu
that, in many cases, the change of an initial or inflection
will make a complete correspondence. Still, if many
initials or many inflections are changed, the difference
will amount to a good deal. That the Tulu and Kodugu
of Ctirg are mutually intelligible is beyond doubt, and it
is not unlikely that, for short and simple sentences, the
Tulu and Malayalim may be the same. The same is said
to be the case with the Tamul and Malayalim. In this
(the Malayalim) and the Telinga we have the two ex-
tremes ; one for the north-east, one for the south-east.
210
THE BRAHUI.
CHAPTEK XXXI.
The Brahfii.
The language "whicli now comes under notice lies no|
only beyond the proper Tamul area but beyond the
geographical boundaries of Hindostan. It is a language
of Biluchistan — but not the Bilucli itself. That tli€
Brahui, Brahuihi, or Brahooi, differed from the lani
guage of both the Biluches and the Afghans was knowi
to both Elphinstone and Pottinger ; for both state th^
fact. Both, however, treat the Brahui as Biluches wit!
certain differential characteristics ; neither asking hoT
far some of these may be important enough to make
them other than Biluch. This is because the politica
term Biluchistan has concealed one of the most import
ant and interesting affinities in ethnology.
A short specimen of the Brahui language in Leach'a
Vocabularies commanded the attention of Lassen, who|
after enlarging upon its difference from the Persiar
Biluch, and Pushtu, drew attention to some notabW
similarities between the numerals and those of th^
South Indian dialects. Following up this suggestionj
the present author satisfied himself that the Brahtii
tongue was, in many resjiects, Tamul — an opinion which
others have either recognized or been led to form from
their own researches.
In the country, however, which they now occupy, the
Brahtii consider themselves aboriginal ; the Biluch, ad-
mitting that they are, themselves, of foreign origin. The
rugged and impracticable nature of the Brahtii moun-
tains favours this view.
THE BRAHUI.
211
It is from Leach's notice that the following para-
digms are taken. They consist, however, solely of cer-
tain Brahui forms and their English equivalents —
grammatical terms, such as Case, Number, and the like,
being avoided. They stand in the text of Leach — more,
however, in deference to "old-established usage" than
because the Brahui and Latin grammars are believed to
give parallel forms.
Extract.
To denote abstraction &n is introdaced, as riatdn asit=one from tteo, and
huUan ditar=blood from the hone; ugtat dud'^'icuhes from the heart.
To denote donation, ne or e is added, as ddde ytte=gire to him.
To make a noun the instrament of a circamstance, ene is added, as zagh-
mene = vith a sicord, from zagkm = a sicord; latent =mth a ttict, from lat=
a sticl:
To make a nonn the canse of a circmnstance, dn is added, as tapdn=from
a wound, the original case being tap=a Kound.
To denote inclusion, ti is added to the noon, as sharti=in the city, from
ihar=a city ; jangati laslime = died in battle, from jang=battU.
Position is denoted by adding at to the nonn, as da Lasarat duzare= there
M a thief OH that road, from L-asar = a road, speaking of a road as a whole,
or by adding at as kasarai ptrd araghase= there is an old vm» ok the road,
in the limited sense.
To denote approach or direction, dt is added to the nonn, as T Haidrd-
badai ia if d»«/ icill go to Hydrabad.
Superposition is denoted by the addition of d/ as hvii d = on the horse /
lata likhakh^put on the bed.
Companionship is denoted by the addition of to, to the inflected case of the
pronouns ; as neto bafar^I viU not go with thee, from nt=thou.
A good Man,
sharang^
narina
sharang4
narinagh^
sharangd
narinaui
nharangik
narinaghala
sharang^
narinaie
aharangil
narinaghate
sharang^
narinaghin
sharang^
nari nagh&tiyan.
Di juwan e
that ti good
i)k juwanosite
that is better
D^ kulan juwanosite
that is better than all
Di edan juwan
e
this is belter than
that
D4 kul meetty§
n doolatmand e
He is richer than all the Meers.
I
/
Nan
«e
Ean4
my
NanIL
ours
Kane
me
Kane
us
Eanyin
from me.
Nany^n
from us
P 2
212
THE BRAHUI.
Nl thou
Ka thy
Ne thee
Nyan from thee
Dh, this
Dan^ of this
Dade to this
Dad^n from this
Od or 0 that
Ond, 0/ <Aa<
Ode to that
Od^n /rom that
E or ed that
En^ 0/ t]iat
Ede <o <Aa^
Ed^n from that
Tenat .
Tend,
Tene
Teny&n
Tenpaten
Der
Dinn^
Dere
Deran
I' asitut / am alone
Ni asitus Thou art alone
Od asite Se is alone
r aret
I am
Ni ares
Thou art
Od are
He is
I' asut
I was
Ni asus
Thou wast
Od asak
He was
I' masasut I was heing
Ni masusus Thou wast being
Od masas He was being
V masunut I had been
Ni masunus Thow hadst been
Od mas He had been
Num
ye
Numifc
yours
Nume
you
Numyan
from you
Dafk
these
Dafta
of these
Dafte
to these
Daftya
D
from these
Ofk
those
OfU
of those
Ofte
to those
Oftyn^
from those
Efk
those
EM
of those
Efte
to those
Eftyan
from those
self
of self
to self
from self
among themselves (slpas =
who?
whose ?
whom ?
from whom ?
Nan asitan
We are one
Num asiture
We are one
Dafk asitur
They
are one
Nan aren
TFe(
ire
Num areri
You are
Dafk arer
Tliey
are
Nan asun
We were
Num asure
You
were
Dafk asur
They
were
Nan masasnn
We were being
Num masasure
You
were being
Dafk masasfi
Tliey
were being
Nan masunun
We had bee^i
Num masanure
You had been
Dafk masund
They
had been
men)
THE BRAHUI.
213
r marey
I will now be
Nan marsn
We will now be
Ki mares
Thou wilt now be
Num mareri
Tou will now be
Od marek
He imll now be
Dafk marer
They will now, be
I' marot
I will hereafter be
Nan maron
We will hereafter be
Ki maros
Thou wilt hereafter be
Num marode
Tou will hereafter be
Od maroi
He will hereafter be
Dafk maror
They will hereafter be
Ki mares
Be thou
Num marere
Be you
Od mare
Let him be
Dafk maror
Let them be
Preceded by agar=if.
r masut
If I might be
Nan masnn
If we might be
Xi masns
If thou migktest be Num masude
If you might be
Od masuk
If he might be
Dafk masnr
If they might be
Infnitire or verbal substantive, harrafing.
riiarraffiva
I ask
Nan harraf on
We ask
Ni harraffisa
Thou askest
N\im harrafore
Tou ask
Odharraffik
He asked
Dafk harrafor
They ask
r harraffenut / asked
Nan harraffenun
We asked
Ni harraffenus Thou agkedst
Num harraffenure
Tou asked
Od harraffene He asked
Dafk harraffenur
They asked
V harraffeta
I was asking
Nan harra£fena
We were asking
Ni harraffesa
Thou wast asking
Num harraffere
Tou were asking
Odharraifek
He was asking
Ofk harraffera
They were asking
I' harrafesasut 7 had asked
Nan harrafesasun
We had asked
Ni harrafesasus Thou hadst asked
Num harrafesasure Tou had asked
Od harrafesas He had asked
Dafk harrafesasd
They will ask
I harrafot
I will ask
Nan harrafenun
We will oat
Ni harrafos
Thou wilt ask
Num harrafenure
Tou will ask
Od harrafoji
He wUl ask
Dafk harrofenu
They vnll ask
Harraf
Ask thou
Harrafbo
Ask you
Preceded by agar = if.
r harrafut
If I might ask
Ni harrafus
If thou mightest ask
Od harrafnk
If he might ask
Nan hurrafuna
We might
ask
Num harrafude^
You might
ask
Difk harrafur
They might ask
r harrafiv
I shall have asked
Ni harrafos
Thou shall have asked
Od harrafoi
He shall have asked
Nan harafina
We shall hare asked
Num haiTafere
Tou shall have asked
D^fk harrafenure
They shall have asked
214
THE
BRAHUI.
Ad^
;erbs.
To-day
amfi
On this side
Mudk
To-morrow
pagi
Whence
arak^
Day after to-morrow palme
A bove
burzd.
Darj after that
kfide
Below
shef
Day after that
kfidram^
Instead
jagai
Yesterday
daro
Every day
harde
Day before yesterday mulkhudti
As far as
iskd,
Day before that
ktimulkhudu
Again
pada
Day before that
kudirmulkhud
u Wherever
ar^ngl
Formerly
ewadai
Opposite
moni
Midday
manjan
Enough
bas
Afternoon,
dlgar (tire pare
\ Instead
parae
Midnight
nem shai
Successively
pahnS,d,pahn dati
Now
dka^
Near me
knear, as kanek
After
gadk
When
chi wakt
Here
dade
Yes
hand on
There
ede
No
a ha
Out
peshan
For sake
mat
In
faliti
At first
awal
Beyond
mur
Quickly
zu
As far as
hanilnk
In the evening
begd
Late
madana
Sometimes
asi asi wakt
Near
musti
Slowly
mad^
On all sides
ch^r m^n kundi TJiere
hamengt
On the left side
chapa pd,ran
On the right side
rasta paran
Also
ham
Even so
ha mon
But
gudd.
Besides
baghair
According to
mfijibat
Even so
handoan
Merely
beera
Without
baghar
Where
ar^de
Glossary.
£nglish
Brahtli.
English
Brahiii.
Head
katumb
Face
mon
Hair
pishkou
Son
mar
Beard
rish
Daughter
masid
Mustache
barot
Wife
arwat
Lip
ba
Brother
celum
Eye
khan
Father
bav
Ear
hhaff
Mother
lumma
Tongue
duri
Sister
id
Tooth
dan dan
Woman
zaif
Nose
bamlis
Sun
dey
Foot
nath
Moon (new) nokh
Nail
zil
Star
istar ..
Hand
du
Fire
khakar
Back
baj
Water
dir
THE BRAHUI.
215
Englis^h
Tree
Stone
I
We
Thou
Ye
One
Two
Brahui.
darahbt
khaU
I
nan
ni
nnm
asit
irat
EngUsh
BraliuL
Three
musit
Four
tshar
Five
pandzh
Six
shasli
Seven
haft
Eight
hast
Nine
nu
Ten
dah
Data, for the Brahtii, as for the Gundi, are pre-;
eminently deficient.
21 G LANGUAGES AKIN TO THE HINDI.
CHAPTER XXXII.
Languages akin to the Hindi.— Its Dialects.— The Punjabi. —The Hindostani.
The Gujerathi.— The Marathi.— The Bengali, &c.— The Uriya.
Of the foUowing languages all that need be said at pre-
sent is, that they are akin to the (1 ) Hindi. They are —
(2) The Gujerati, or Gujerathi, of Gujerat.
(3) The Mahratta, or Marathi, of Aurungabad, &c.
(4) Tlie Bengali of the lower Ganges, the valley of
Asam, and parts of Sylhet and Chittagong.
(5) The Uriya of Orissa.
I give these divisions as I find them, adding that,
though convenient, they are, by no means, unexception-
able. In the first place, the difierence between a lan-
guage and a dialect has never been satisfactorily ex-
plained : so that neither term has yet been defined. It |
will be seen, ere long, that there are several other forms \
of Indian speech, of each of which, though we may say
with truth that it is more Hindi, more Bengali, or more]
Marathi than aught else, we cannot say that it is ai
Marathi, a Bengali, or a Hindi dialect. For this reason!
it is inexpedient to give the numbers of individuals by
which each tongue is spoken. And it is also incon-
venient to say whether such and such languages are
mutually unintelligible. It is only certain, that whatever
difference may exist between any two is exaggerated
rather than softened down when they are written. This
is due in a great degree to the difierence between the
alphabets. Though they are all of Sanskrit origin they
differ from each other in detail.
LANGUAGES AKIN TO THE HIND . 217
Of the languages under notice, the Cashmiri the
Gujerati and the Uriya, are spoken not only over the
smallest areas but by the fewest individuals ; the largest
areas being those of the Marathi and Hindi ; the largest
mass of speakers being those of the Bengali language.
It is the BengaH which has the greatest tendency to ex-
tend itself beyond the frontiers of India ; the Bengali of
Asam and Chittagong being the form of speech which is
more especially encroaching upon the Tibetan and Bur-
mese areas.
The languages that lie in the closest geographical con-
tact with the members of the Tamul group are the Maratbi
and Uriya. The affinities of the Cashmirian with the
Dard tongues aie decided.
I guard against the notion that the difference be-
tween the six tongues of the foregoing list is greater
than it really is. A little more Sanskrit or a little
less ; a little more Persian or a little less ; a Telinga
or a Canarese element more or less ; an alphabet of
more or less detail — in these points and the like of
them consist the chief differences of the languages akin
to the HindL
I guard, too, against the notion that the preceding
list is exhaustive. Before Hindostan has been traversed
we shall hear of such sectional and intermediate forms as
the Jutki, the Sindi, the Punjabi, the Haruti, the Mar-
wari, the Konkani, and others ; of all whereof thus much
may be said —
1. That they are allied to each other and to the
Hindi.
2. That they are not akin to the Sanskrit in the
manifest and unequivocal way in which the Sanskrit,
Pah, and Persepohtan are akin to each other.
3. That they are not Tamul or Telinga in the way
that the Canarese, the Khond, &c., are Canarese, Tamul,
and Telinara.
218
THE PUNJABI.
English.
Hindi.
English.
Hindi.
Man
manas
Water
pani
Woman
nari
Fiver
nadi
Head
sar
Stone
pathar
Eye
ankh
Tree
rukh, &c
Ear
kan
Wood
lakri
Nose
nak
One
ek
Moidh
mukh
Two
do
Tooth
dant
Three
tin
Hand
hath
Four
chhar
Foot
pan
Five
paneh
Blood
lohu
Six
chah
Sky
nak
Seven
sat
Sun
suraj
Eight
ath
Moon
chand
Nine
nao
Star
tara
Ten
das.
Fire
ag
In Kumaon and Gurwhal this dialect takes the name
of Khas ; and in Nepaul, (where it is also spoken, eo
nomine) there is another variety of it, the Purbutti.
These are essentially the same with the following :
with Gadi (akin to the Handuri) for the parts between
Gurwhal and Cashmir.
Englisl).
Punjabi.
Gadi.
Man (homo)
manas
•- {vir)
garwali
zanana
Head
muna
Hair
akh
akr
Eye
kan
kan
Ear
nak
nak
Nose
ma
Mouth
dand
dand
Tongue
hath
hath
Tooth
pao
par
Hand
ragat
Foot
amr
Sun
suraj
dera
Moon
chand
chandar
Star
tara
tara
Fire
a«
a«
Water
pane
pane
nai
Stone
patthav
nar
Tree
rnkh
rukh
THE
English.
Tree
One
Two
Three
Pour
Five
Six
Seven
Eight
Xine
Ten
E PUNJABI.
FunjabL
GadL
kath
chiri
ak
do
tare
char
panj
chek
sat
ath
nao
da3.
219
The following, from Leach, gives a rough sketch of the
grammatical character of the Punjabi, eo nomine.
Ghoda
Ghoded^
Ghodenii
Ghodeton
a horse
of a horse
a horse
from a horse
Ghode
Ghodyindii
Ghodyanii
Ghodyinton
horses
of horses
horses
from horses
Ghodi
Ghodidi
Ghudinu
Ghoditon
a mare
of a mare
a mare
from a mare
Ghodiyan
Ghoniyandil
Ghodiyanii
Ghodiyanton
mares
of mares
to mares
frvmmareM
Hach^ ghod4
Hache ghodedil
Hache ghodenii
Hache ghodeton
a good horse
of a good horse
a good horse
from a good horse
Hache ghode
Hachyiln ghodjindA
Hachyan ghodyanA
Hachyiln ghodyanton
goodhanea
of good horse*
good hone*
fromgoodhor*
Main or man /
Med^ or mendsl my
Men& or mainkii me
Asi
tee
our
MS
Medeknlon \ t m^thon
Medethon > or | maithin from me
Mede pason ) ( mendekolon
Asathonsathonl ,^^^
Sathi na-'Athin \ "'
Tiin thou
Ted A, tenda, tonda thy
TenA, tunnu thee
Tethon, tuthon from thee
Tusi, tnsan you
Tuh£ld4, tusad4 your
Tnhannii, tus4nnii you
Tohithon, tus^thon from you
E
IsdJl
Isnu
Iskolon, isthon
(his
of this
tias
from this
E
Inhindft
Inhiknii
Inh& knion, \vihk
these
of theae
these
^aoB. from then
220
THE PUNJABI.
0
that
0
those
Usda
of that
Onhanda
of thos
Usnil
that
Onhanu, onhanii those
Onakulon \
Usthon
from that
Onhathon (
Onha pason )
from thi
A'pe
self
A'pna
of self
A'pni
to self
A'pthon
from sei
V
Kouna
who?
Kisda
whose ?
Kisnii or kanii
Kisthon
from whom f
Kya or kl
what ?
Kisda or kada
of what ?
Kisnii, kanu
what ?
Kisthon, kaithon
from what ?
Main h^n, an
I am,
Asi han, an
we are
Tun hen, en
thou art
Tusi ho, 0
you are
0 hen, en
he is
0 hain, ain
they are
Main haisan, san / was
Asi haisan, ahe
we were
Tun haisen, saen thou wert
Tusi haisao, ahe
you were
0 haist si, aha
he was
0 haisin, sin
they were
Main hund^ s^n / was being
Asi hunde san
we were being
Tun hunda saen thou wert being
Tusi hunde sa, o
you were being
0 hunda si
he was being
0 hunde san
they were being
Main hoyd, san
I had been
Asi hoye san
we had been
Tun hoya s^en
thou hadst been
Tusi hoye sa,o
you had been
0 hoya si
he had been
0 hoye san
they had been
Main howang^
I shall be
Azi howange
we shall be
Tun howenga
thou shall be
Tusi hovoge
you shall be
0 hevega
he shall be
0 ho ange
they shall be
Tun ho, 0
be thou
Tusi hovo, vo
be you
Main howan
I mxiy be
Asi hoviye
we may be
Tiin hoven
thou mayst be
Tusi hovo
you may be
0 hove
he may be
0 howan
they may be
Main hund^n
I had been
Asi hunde
we had been
Tun hundon, hun- thou hadst been
Tusi hunde
you had been
dfi
0 hunda
he had been
0 hunde
they had been
THE PUNJABI.
221
Ism i mMifol hoj^
Ism i fill honewaI4
been
be
tobe
^[ain akhna
Tun akhnain
OaHdai
Main akhj4
Tun ^khyai
TTsakhji
Main SJeh^ s&n
Tun ^2:Ad^ s£len
I speak
thou ^pedkeit
hetpeaJa
I spoke
thou spokest
he spoke
Asi yrAnvan
Tas£l £L{rAde,o
OiU-Meii
Asan akhya
Tns^n akhjsl
In^ ^khya
/ was speaJang Asi a£-Me s^n
thou watt speaking Tosi iUrMe s^,o
he Kos speaking 0 ^-Ade sin
Main ^hdil si / had spoken As^ ^kliyi si
Tun ^kha si thou hadM spoken Tosan akhj4 si
Us ^khya si he had spoken InA akhj& si
Main akkangil
Tun akheng^
0 akh^
I win, speak
thou wilt ^peak
he wUl speak
Tiln ^-A or akh speak thou
Main akh^n
Tun akhen
O&khe
I may speak
thou mayii speak
he may speak
Asi akMnge
Tusi akhoge
0 akhange
Tusi akho
Asi akhiye
TusiiLkho
0 jLkhan
Main^Ad^^khd^ / might speak Asi &JtAde
T&n iirAdo thou mightest speak Ton iJchA&
0 ikhAk he might speak 0 iU:Ade
we speak
you speak
they speak
we spoke
you spoke
they spoke
tee were speaking
you were speaking
they were speaking
wekad spoken
yon had spoken
they had spoken
wewUl speak
yon wiU speak
they wiU speak
speak you
wemay speak
yonwtay ^eak
they may speak
we might ^peak
yon might speak
they might speak
Main kehni an / am telling
Tiln kebni en
0 kehni e
Main ke,ai
TAnkeai
IJsne keai
thou art telling
she is telling
I told
thou toldst
shetdd
Asi kelini &n, we are telling
kehndijan
Tusi kehndiylno yon are telling
0 kehndiyi en, they are telling
kehndijan
Asin keai
Tusan ke,ai
Un^ keai
we told
you told
they told
Main kehndi san / was telling Asi kehndiyjkn tee were tdUng
Tdn kehndi s^n thou wast idling Tusi kehndiy^n yon were idling
0 kehndi si she was idling 0 kehndiyin sin Viey were idling
222
THE I
'UNJABl.
Main keLS. si
I had told
As^n kehS, si
we had told
Tun ken^ si
thou hadst told
Tusan keha si
you had told
Us keha si
she had told
Una keha si
they had told
Main kahangi
I will tell
Asi kahanginyan
we will tell
Tun kaliengi
thou wilt tell
Tusi kahogiyo
you will tell
0 kahegl
she will tell
0 kahanginyan
they will tell
Tiin koh
tell thou
Tusi koho
tell you
Main kah5,n
I may tell
Asi kahyye
we mxiy tell
Tun kahen
thou mayst tell
Tusi kaho
you may tell
0 kahe
she may tell
0 kehan
they may tell
Main kehandi
I might tell
Asi kehndiy^n
we might tell
Tun kehandi
thou mifjhtest tell
Tusi kehndiyo
you might tell
0 kehndl
she might tell
0 kehndiyan
they might tell
In Tirliufc the language is transitional to the Hindi
and Bengali.
Tlie Multani of Multan graduates from the Punjabi to
the Yutki, or vice versa.
The Hindi of the Mahratta frontier is called hy the
Mahrattas, Rangri Basha ; a contemptuous term, such
as barbarous would be in the mouth of a Greek, meaning
a language other than Mahratta. Being a negative term
we can attach no very definite import to it.
The Marwari is the Hindi of Marwar — the chief
dialect of Rajputana. The Bikan^r is another Hindi
dialect ; i. e. it is a dialect of Northern India, which is
not Gujerathi, not Marathi, not Bengali, and not Uriya ;
and which is more Hindi, eo nomine, than aught else.
In Rohilcund the blood is, more or less, Afghan ; so
that Hindi, in its full purity, is not to be found there.
This must be sought in Delhi and Oude.
Bundelcund and Bahar are more Hindi than Bengali ;
though, to some extent, Bengali also. In Bahar, how-
ever, we are within the old Kooch area ; and in Bundel-
cund on the Ghond, and Khond frontier.
The Hindustani, which means the language of Hin-|
dostan in general rather than that of any particular.
THE HINDUSTANI.
223
population, and whicli differs from the Hindi, eo nomine,
much as a King of the French differs from a King of
France, is a language with a Persian, rather than an
Indian, name. As such, it is a general, rather than a
particular, term ; and it was originally applied not by
the Hindus themselves, but by a population on the
Hindu frontier.
The Hindustani is a mixed tongue, scarcely, however, a
Lingua Franca in the way of the Italian of Algiers and
Anatolia. It is essentially Hindi, as may be seen from
both the vocabulary and the paradigms. At the same
time it contains much Persian, and some Arabic which
is wanting in the true vernaculars. Above all, it is the
language of the Mahometan rather than the Brahminic
population of India ; so much so, that in the Grammar
of Mr. Hadley, in which we find either the first or an
early attempt to reduce it to rule, it is called the Moors,
i. e. the Moorish. It is written in the Arabic alphabet,
and not in any alphabet derived from the Sanskrit.
The following details of its Accidence are from the
Professor M. Williams' Grammar, in which the English
alphabet, with certain modifications, is both used and
recommended. The extreme simplicity of the declension
should be noticed, as well as the postpositive character
of the affixes by which the several relations which in
Latin and Greek are rendered by true eases, are ex-
pressed. In mar died, &c., there is no true case at all,
but only an approximation to one : in other words,
there is merely a noun with a preposition — the P/'cposi-
tion itself being a Pos^-position.
Nouns.
Mard
man
Mardki
man's
ke
kf
Mardko
man-to
Mardse
man- from
Mardmen
man-in
Mardne
man-by
mard
men
mard-on-k^
mens'
ke
ki
mard-on-ko
men-to
mard-on-se
men- from
mard-on-men
men-on
mard-on-ne
men-bi/.
224
THE HINDUSTANI.
The oblique cases (or
pronouns are formed in
the adjectives.
rather their equivalents) of the
the same way. So are those of
Verbs.
Main htin
Tdhai
Wuh hai
T am
thou art
he she it is
1.
Ham hain
Tum ho
We hain
we are
ye are
they are
Main thS,
Tfitha
Wuh thg,
I was
thou wast
he, or it was
2.
Masculine.
Ham the
Tum the
We the
we were
ye ivere
they were
Main thi
Tfi tbi
Wuh thi
I was
thou toast
she was
3.
Feminine.
Ham thin
Tum thin
We thin
we were
ye were
they were
Main m&r-fin
til mar-e
wuh mare
4.
/ may strike Ham m&r-en
thou mayest strike Tum mar-o
he may strike We mar-en
5.
Masculine.
I will strike Ham mS,r-en-ge
thou wilt strike Tum mar-o-ge
he will strike We mar-en -ge
we may strike
ye may strike
they may strike
Main mar-fin-gfi,
Tu mdr-e-g^
Wuh mar-e-gS,
we will strike
ye loill strike
they will strike
Feminine.
Main mar-un-gl Ham mar-en-gIn
Tu mar-e-gi Tum mar-o-gin
Wuh mar-e-gi We m^r-en-gln
The participial character of these forms is apparent ;]
the forms in -a and -i being as truly masculine and]
feminine as amatus and amata, amaturus and amaturaA
in Latin. Indeed, if a male, instead of ego amaturus sum,
and a female, instead of ego aniatura sum, said ego ama-l
turus, or ego amatura, we should have a participle with f
the omission of the auxiliar taking the garb of a true
tense. The same is the case with main mdr-td and
mxtin mdrtt.
The equivalent to the infinitive ends in -na ; as
Tndrnd =. to strike zzferire zz rvirreiv.
J
i
THE HLKDUSTANL
225
English.
Hindustan-.
Eng'isli.
HindostanL
Man {homo)
admi
Hand
hath
(nV)
mard
Foot
panw
Woman
raiidl
Sun
Euraj
Head
sir
Moon
chand
Hair
\A\
Star
tara
Eyt
ankh
Day
din
Ear
k&n
Night
rat
Nose
nak
Fire
ag
Mouth
manh
Water
pani
Tongue
jibh
Tree
per
Tooth
dant
Stone
patthar.
The geographical boundaries of the Hindustani are
indefinite ; inasmuch as it is the language of a creed
rather than a locality. It has been placed, however,
next to the Hindi Proper because it is the Hindi Proper
which has the best claim to be looked upon as its
groundwork — the Hindi Proper meaning the Hindi of
Delhi and Oude.
The affinities of the dialects that now come under
notice are so thoroughly reticular (by which I mean
that the connection between them resembles that of the
meshes of a net rather than the links of a chain) that
no arrangement of them can be strictly natural. In
passing, then, from the Hindustani to the Gujer^ti I
consult convenience rather than aught else. On the
south the Gujerati is boimded by the Marathi ; and on
the west by the Marwari dialect of the Hindi. It
probably comes in contact with certain Bhil forms of
speech, though the details upon this point are obscure.
In Cutch it graduates into the Sindhi.
Sir E. Perry expressly states that the Gujei-ati inter-
preters of the Supreme Court can understand the natives
both of Sind and Cutch. At the same time there are
certain dialects of which they can make little or
nothing.
English.
Gnjertti.
English.
Gnjeriti.
Man {JioMo)
jana
Head
mithum
(rir)
manas
Hair
nimalo
Tr<Miiaa
bayadi
Eye
ankh
Q
226
THE HINDUSTANI.
English.
Gujerfiii.
English.
Gujer&ti.
Ear
kaa
Moon
chand
Nose
nah
Star
taro
Mouth
mohodum
Bay
din
Tongue
jubh
Night
rat
Tooth
dant
Fire
a?
Hand
Lath
Water
pani
Foot
pag
Tree
jbada
Stm
suraj
Stone
pattbar.
In the Collectorate of Surat the passage from Gujer£ti
to Marathi begins. In Durhampur and Bundsla, petty
States to the south of the town itself, the Marathi shows
itself. In Penth, still further to the south, though
north of Damaun, the language is "Marathi with nu-
merous Gujerathi words." South of Damaun the
Marathi, eo nomine, and, in unequivocal forms, extends
along the coast of Goa ; and, inland, as far as the Ghond,
Telinga, and Canarese frontiers.
English.
Mahratta.
Man (homo)
maush
(vir)
purush
Woman
baiko
Head
doksheh
Hair
kes
Eye
doleh
Ear
kan
Nose
nakh
Mouth
I'hond
Tongue
jib
Tooth
dant
Hand
hat
English.
Foot
Sun
Moon
Star
Day
Night
Fire
Water
Tree
Stone
Mahratta.
paie
suria
tshundr
tshandani
vuas
vatr
vistfi
panni
dzad
bruksh
duggud.
The limits of the Marathi to the east are obscure.
In Candeish it comes in contact with certain Bhil
dialects, with their congeners. Aurungabad, Berar,
and Poonah are pre-eminently Marathi. Nagpur is
Marathi where it is not Ghond. About Berar the
Marathi, the Canarese, the Telinga and Ghond meet.
In Bejapur and Satpura, Canarese and Marathi villages
alternate with each other. In the parts about Pandarpur
lie the limits of the Canarese to the north.
THE MARATHI. 227
Koughly speaking, the Konkani, a well-marked dialect
of the Marathi, stretches in a naiTOW strip, between the
Ghauts and the sea, from Goa on the north to Mangalore
on the south. The more minute details, as given, on
sound authorities, by Sir Ei-skine, bring the Marathi a
little lower down and caiTj the Tulu a little further
up. At Carwar, about 5 5 miles south of Goa, Konkani
is the vernacular ; but all the inhabitants can speak
Marathi. The limit to the south is a village about
four mUes from (Jdapi near Ctindapur, where the Tulu
begins.
In the Konkani there are differences ; though not
(perhaps) local ones. It is the mother-tongue of the
Shenvi Brahmins in Bombay who pronounce certain
words more fully than others. Thus : —
The Shenvi udah = water = the common udil: ;
vrikih=^ tree = xrikh ;
trin = grass = tan.
For a, the sign of the masculine gender in Hindi and
Marathi, the Konkani gives o — as do the Marwari and
the Gujerati.
The Konkani contains numerous Tulu and Canarese
words.
The Bengali, or the vernacular of Bengal as opposed
to the Hindustani, is spoken by more individuals than
any of its congeners — perhaps, by more than all of them
put together. It is the Bengali, too, which more than
any other dialect of India has encroached upon the area
of the monosyllabic languages of the Bodo, Garo, and
Kasia districts ; upon Asam, Sylhet, and Tipperah.
English.
Bengali.
English.
Bengali.
Man
manushya
chnl
Tooth
danta
Mouth
mukh
Head
mastak
Eye
chhakhynh
Hair
kesh
Ear
karna
Q 2
228
THE BENGALI.
English.
Bengali.
English.
Bengali
Hand
hat
Moon
Chandra
Foot
haa
Star
tara
Blood
rakta
* Fire
agni
Bay
din
Water
pani
Nifjlit
ratri
Stone
prastan
Swn
surjya
Tree
gachh.
English.
2.
Asam. English.
Asam.
Man
manuh
Hay
din
Tooth
dant
NicjU
rati
Head
mur
Sun
beli
Hair
suli
Moon
jun
Mouth
mukh
Star
tora
Eye
soku
Fire
jui
Ear
kan
Water
pani
Hand
hat
Stone
hil
Foot
hhori
Tree
gosh.
Blood
tez
In Ai'akan the three following forms of speech are
current ; all Indian. The Riiinga is used by the Mahome-
tans ; the Rossawn by the Hindus.
English.
Eiiinga.
Rossawn.
Banga S.
Man
manush
munusa
manu
Woman
mialaw
stri
zaylan
Head
mata
mustok
tikgo
Mouth
gab
bodon
totohan
Arm
bahara
baho
palpoung
Hand
hat
osto
hatkan
Leg
ban
podo
torua
Foot
pan
pata
zamkan
Sun
bel
suja
baylli
Moon
sawn
sundra
satkan
Star
tara
nokyotro
tara
Fire
arari
aagani
zi
Water
pannse
dzol
panni
Earth
kul
murtika
mati
Stme
BhU
shil
ha
Wind
ban
pawun
bo
Bain
jorail
bisti
buun
Bird
paik
pukyi
pakya
Fitk
maws
mutsae
mas
Good
gum
gum
hoba
Had
gumnay
gumnay
hobanay
I
THE
URIYA.
English.
RdiDga.
Rossawu.
Banga S.
Great
boddan
danger
domorgo
Little
thaddi
tsato
hurugu
Long
botdean
dingol
dignl
Short
baniek
bati
bate.
229
The Udiya, or Uriya, of Orissa is bounded on the
north by the Bengali, on the south by the Telinga, and
on the west by certain Ghond and Khond dialects. It
is spoken by few individuals and over a small area.
English.
ITriya.
English.
Uriya.
Man {homo)
minipo
Moon
chando
Star
tail
Woman
maikiniya
Fire
niiiS
Head
motha
Water
pan!
Pair
baio
Stone
pothoro
Eye
akhi
Tree
gocbcho
Nose
nSko
One
eko
Mouth
moho
Two
dai
Tooth
dacto
Three
tini
Tongue
jibho
Four
chari
Hand
hato
Five
pancbo
Foot
goro
Six
. cbho
Rlood
lokto
Seven
shato
Day
dino
Eight
atho
Night
rati
Nine
noT
Sun
sorjiyo
Ten
dosho.
With the Uriya we take leave of the languages of
the eastern side of the Peninsula and the languages of
the Khond and Kol frontiers, and pass to the other side
of India.
The Sindhi (of Sind) falls into dialects and sub-
dialects ; the Kutch being treated as one of them.
How this stands to the Gujei'athi has already been
stated. The Siraiki is the dialect of Upper, the Lar of
Lower, Sind : to which may be added a fourth, spoken
in the Desert, as far east as Jessulmer.
English.
Siraiki.
Lar.
if an
maru
murs
Woman
zal
mihri
Head
matho
asi
Hair
war
jhonto
230
THE SINDHI.
English.
Sii-aiki.
Lar.
Hair
choti
Eye
ak
Ear
kan
Hand
hath
kar
chambu
Foot
per
Mouth
wat
Tooth
dand
danda
Tongue
jhibh
Day
dink
Night
rat
Sun
sijj
adit
Moon
chandr
Star
taro
Fire
bar
jando
jeru
Water
pani
sandaro
Tree
wan-per
Stone
rah an
khod
On the south, and south-west, the Sindhi is bounded
by the Biluch and Brahui.
As the Cashmirian (of Cashmir) belongs geographi-
cally to India, I place it in the present division : from
which it leads to the next but one.
English.
Man
Woman
Head
Eye
Ear
Nose
Mouth
Tooth
Hand
Foot
Blood
Sky
Sun
Moon
Star
Fire
Cashmir.
English
manyu
Water
zanana
kalah
Fiver
ach
Stone
kan
Tree
nast
Wood
aso
One
dand
Two
atha
Three
kor
Fowr
rath
Five
nab
Six
aftab
Seven
tzandar
Eight
tarak
Nine
nar
Ten
agan
Caslimii.
ab
pani
kol
kain
kola
znn
ak
zih
trah
tsor
panz
shah
sat
ath
noh
dah.
THE CASHMIRIAN. 231
Such is the vernacular CashmiriaHj or the Cashmirian
of common life : the language of literature and polite
society being Persian — Persian rather than either Cash-
mirian Proper, or Hindi. As far, however, as the
Cashmirian Proper is written at all, it is written by
means of an alphabet of Sanskrit, rather than Arabic,
origin. In creed the Cashmirians are more Mahometan
than Hindu.
232
THE SINGALESE.
CHAPTER XXXIII.
The Singalese. — The Rodiya. — The Maldivian.
The nearest representatives of the aboriginal language of
Ceylon must be sought for in the dialects of the ana-
logues of the Khonds, Ghonds, Kols, Tudas, and tlie
like : and these we expect to find in a rude state in the
more impracticable parts of the island. We expect, too,
to find them in a broken and fragmentary condition.
And such is the case. One population which, on the
strength of its pagan, or semi-pagan barbarity, has eoni-i
manded no little attention on the part of investigators,
bears the name Vaddah, a name which is, more or less,
general, and which is of Hindu origin. Whether, how-
ever, it represents the aborigines of the island, is
uncertain. I know of no monograpli that gives us
the minute details of the Vaddah creed. I learn, how-
ever, from Dr. Rost, who has kindly favoured me with
more than one valuable fact relating to the population
under notice, that their language varies but little fi'om
the common Singalese. If so, however much they
may represent the indigenous blood of Ceylon, they
are no representatives of the aboriginal language, except
so far as fragments of it may be preserved in their
dialect. However, of the Vaddah, eo nomine, I have
seen no specimens.
Still, there is a representative of the primitive tongue
in Ceylon ; and the Rodiyas, a broken and sporadic
population, amounting to (perhaps) a thousand in all,
give it.
THE SINGALESE.
233
English.
Rodiya.
Enslish.
Rodiya.
Man {vir)
gaw&
Hand
dagulu
Woman
gawl
Blood
tala
Head
keradiya
Sun
ilay at teriyaiig^
Hair
kalawali
Moon
hapa teriyang^
Eye
Uwate
Star
h^pangawal
Ear
irawuwS
Fire
dulumii
Nose
galla
Water
nilatu
Mouth
galagewimu
Tree
nhalla
Tojiffue
dagula
Stone
boralawa.
The Singalese Proper is not only more Hindi than
the Tamul, Malayalim, and their congeners, but more
Hindi than most of the dialects of the preceding group.
It is the language of a Buddhist as well as that of a
Brahminic population — the sacred language of the Budd-
hists being Pali rather than Sanskrit.
English.
Singalese.
English.
Singalese.
Man {homo)
manasb7ay&
Blood
rudhiraya
TTimi n A
Hay
Night
dawasa
ratriya
{vir)
purshayA
pirimayi
Sun,
ira
Woman
stri
Moon
handa
gani
Star
tarawa
Head
oluda ?
t&mwaka
isa
Fire
ginna
Hair
isa kesas
gindara
Eye
asa
Water
diya
akhsiya
diyara
net
watura
Ear
kana
Tree
gaha
Nose
nahe
Stone
gala
Mouth
kata
One
ek
Tooth
data
Two
de
Tongue
duva
Three
tan
Hand
ata
Four
hatara
hastlaya
Fire
pas
Foot
patula
Six
ha
pad&ya
Seven
hat
Bone
ashiya
Eight
ata
atiya
Nine
nama
Blood
le
Ten
daba.
The lancruacre of the Maldives and Laccadives is Sin-
galese ; the alphabet Arabic.
234
THE MALDIVE.
English.
Maldive.
Man (homo)
mihung
(mV)
firihenung
Woman
ang-henung
Head
bo— ^oZ
Hair
istari
Hand
aitila
Foot
fiyolu
Tongue
du
Tooth
dai
Nose
nefai
English.
Mouth
Eye
Day
Night
Sun
Moon
Star
Fire
Water
Tree
Maldive.
aga
lo
duas
re
iru
hadu
tari
alifang
feug
The following is a specimen of the language ; it is a
copy of a letter written by the Maldive Malim of a
boat at Columbo to his countrymen at Galle : —
At Galle stopping of the Maldives all to the people, Arab boat the Malim.
The chief's salam ; now at this port are boats Arab boat Finladu boat offering
boat Fadiyaru's boat Ahainma didi's boat mandu house boat bitter-tree-
corner-house boat ; now all people health in remain ; at your port you have
news you must send ; at this port there is news I hereby send ; from Europe
a new governor is come ; England's king is dead ; lacs many strings salams ;
this port's fish we have sold Himiti fish seven tens seven dollars, Male atoZu
fish five twelves seven, Fading fulu weighed fish forty seven ; thus having
sold it stopping for the price ; lacs many strings salams ; this is written here
Thursday on the day. If God permits in fourteen days sailed I shall be ;
desire is to me.
Galigaitibi Diwebing-ge em^me kalungna/7, Arabu od\ Malimi. Kal^gefanu
salamen ; mifahara^jr mirarhugai hurhi odi faharhi Arabu-orfi Finladu od\
wedung orfi Farfiy&ru odi Aham,mS, dldl odi, mandu ge orfi hiti gas darhu ge
od\ ; mifahai-a^r em,me kalung gada weeba tibuwewe ; tiya rarhugai hurhi
kabareng fonuwS,ti ; mirarhugai hurhi kabaru mi fonuwie ; welatung au borfa
sahibeng atuewe ; Wilatu rasge maruwej/jewe ; lanka gina farhu^ saldmen ;
mirarhu mas vik,ki Himiti mas hang diha hai riy^laya^, M41e ato/u mas fas
dofos hataka^f. Fading fu^u kirfi, mas sa^is hataka*/ ; mihidang vik,kaigeng
tibi agimiwewe ; lanka gina farhung salamen ; miliyunl mitangwl bur^sfati
duwahung. Mai kalageru^rsewiyai sauda duwahu aZugadw fur§,nemewe ; hitai
hurbi mewe.
In ordinary English, thus : —
" The Malim of the Arab boat to all the people of the Maldives stopping
at Galle.
The chief's greeting : the boats now at this port are the Arab boat of
Finladu, the offering boats * of Fadiyaru and Ahammadidi, and the boats of
• These are the vessels which bring the annual presents to the Government
of Ceylon.
THE MALDIVK 235
Manduge and Hiti-gas-darhn-ge ; all the people are in good health ; send
what news yon have at your port ; I hereby send what news there is at this
port. A new governor is come from Europe ; the king of Elngland is dead.
Very many greetings. We have sold at this port Himiti fish for seventy -seven
dollars, Maleatolu fish for sixty-seven, and Fadingfulu fish weighed (?) for
forty-seven ; having sold the fish we are waiting for the price. Very many
greetings. This is written on Thursday. If God permits, I shall sail in
fourteen days ; such is my wish."
23 G THE PAROPAMISAN LANGUAGES.
CHAPTER XXXIV.
The Paropamisan Group.— The Dard Branch.— The Shina. — The Deer and
Tirhai. — The Arniya or Kashkari. — The Cohistani or Lughmani and
Pashai. — The Siaposh.
I NOW come to a class for wliich I propose the name
Paropamisan ; its chief area being the parts between
the southern slope of the Hindukush, and either the
main stream of the Indus itself, or that of its feeder, the
Caubul river. To these drainages, however, it is by no
means limited. Some of its members are on the water
systems of the Oxus, some on that of the Yarkend river,
some (perhaps) on that of the Amur. They are all
mountaineers, most of them being independent, and
some being either act.ual Kafirs {i. e. infidels) or im-
perfect converts to Mahometanism. Our knowledge of
them is eminently imperfect.
The language of a Paropamisan is Indian rather
than Persian. If so, the class under notice is tran-
sitionah I repeat, however, the statement, that it is
one concerning which our details are of the scantiest.
If the district over which the languages of this class
are spoken be (as I hold that it is) the country from
which the Hindi elements of the Hindi Proper and its
congeners was introduced, scanty as the details are, they
are important. They are important even if this be not
the case : inasmuch as they belong to Persia rather than
Hindostan in the ordinary geographical and poHtical
sense of the word : and show how little the philological
frontiers and the physical frontiers coincide. TJiis, how-
ever, is no more than what we found to be the case with
the Brahtii.
1
THE PAROPAMISAN LANGUAGES.
237
Again — Cashmir is quite as mucli Paropamisan as it
is Indian in the strict sense of the term.
The dialect spoken dae north of Cashmir, and in
contact with the Bhot of Ladak and Little Tibet is the
Shina, known through a Vocabulary of Captain Cun-
ningham's ; closely akin to which are the Deer and
Tirhai Vocabularies of Leech. These latter are spoken
in, or about, the Valley of Swaut, and may (perhaps)
be called the representatives of the Swauti form of
speech.
English.
Shina-
English.
Shini.
3Ian
masha
Fire
pha
Waman
grin
Water
wahi
Head
sbis
River
sin
Eye
achhi
Stone
bat
Ear
kund
Tree
turn
Nose
noto
Wood
katho
Mouth
anzi
One
ek
Tooth
duni
Two
do
Hand
hath
Three
che
Fool
pa
FofUT
chhar
Blood
lohel
Five
push
Shy
agahi
Six
shah
Sun
snri
Seven
sat
Moon
yan
Eight
ast
Star
taro
Nine
no
Fire
agar
2
Deer.
Ten
dahi.
English.
Tiil»L
Man
mish
Woman
is
Head
shish
Foot
khor
Eye
achhi
achha
Nose
nistru
nasth
Tongue
jib
zhibha
Tooth
dand
danda
Hand
thoho
hast
Lip
dadh
Ear
kan
kan
Bay
dus
das
Water
wahe
va
Milk
shid
dndh
One
yak
ik
238
THE PAROPAMISAN LANGUAGES.
Knglish.
Deer.
Tirhai
Two
do
du
Three
Bhta
tra
Four
chor
tsor
Five
panch
pants
Six
sho
kao
Seven
shat
sat
Eight
pasht
akt
Nine
noh
nao
Ten
das
das.
I would call the sub-section to which these belong
the Darcl group. Captain Cunningham would include
under this the Arniya of Chitral and Gilghit : which is
nearly the Kashkari of Leech. I give, however, less
generality to the word, and would simply call the group
Kashkari.
English.
Amiya.
Kashkari
Man
rag
moashi
Woman
kamri
kumedi
Head
sur
sur
Eye
Ear
ghach
kad
ghach ?
kad
Nose
naskar
naskar
Mouth
diran
Tooth
dond
dond
Hand
hast
Foot
Blood
pang
le
pong
Sky
Sun
asman
Moon
Star
satar
Fire
Water
Fiver
ingar
augr
> sin
ingar
ugh
Stone
Tree
kan
Wood
jin
-
One
i
i
Two
Three
triu
trul
Four
chod
chod
Five
punj
punj
THE PAROPAMISAN LANGUAGES.
239
English.
Amiya.
Kashkari.
Six
chai
chid
Seven
sat
sat
Bight
ansh
ansh
Nine
neahan
nehan
Ten
ash
jash.
The south-western sub-section (which we may call
the Coldstani) is represented by the Lughman and
Pashai of the Cohistan of Caubul.
Englisli.
Logfaman
Pkshai.
Man
adam
panjai
Woman
masi
zaif
Head
shir
sir
Nose
matht
nast
Tongue
jab
jib
Eye
aneh
anch
Ear
kad
kad
Hand
atth
ast
Tooth
dan
dan
Foot
pae
Sun
thor
Moon
mae
mae
Day
lae
dawas
Night
TeU
vyal
Fire
angar
angar
Water
waig
walk
Tree
kati
kadi
Stone
wad
wad
Fith
mach
macch
One
I
f
Two
do
do
Three
te
te
Four
char
char
Fire
panj
panj
Six
khe
she
Seren
that
sat
Eight
akht
ash
Nine
BO
no
Ten
de
de.
The populations hitherto mentioned are, one and all,
Mahometan : though in different degrees. The nearer
they are to Persia the more decided the creed. Some,
however, are such imperfect converts that they are
240 THE PAROPAMISAN LANGUAGES.
denominated by tlieir purer neighbours Half Maho-
metans.
But the tribes which now come under notice are not
even Half Mahometans. They are, in the eyes of the
true believers, actual infidels ; so that Kafir is what they
are called, and Kaferistan is their country.
That the difference of creed exactly coincides with a
difference of dialect is unlikely. Hence, the Kafirs
Proper may graduate into the Cohistanis on one side
and into the Kashkaris on the other. The particular
division for which we have a specimen of the dialect
calls itself Siaposh; its occupancy being the right bank
of the Kuner and the watershed which divides it from
the eastern feeders of the Oxus. According to Dr.
Gardiner* the typical Kafirs, eo nomine, as opposed to
the Half Mussulmen, are —
The Kafirs of Esh, calculated at 15,000
TJshah „ 12,000
27,000
Now, whether Kafir, or half Kafir, this, at least, is
certain of the western tribes ; viz. that the fragments
of their creed are Hindu.
It is also certain that several legends point to India ;
though not exclusively. They point to India on one
side, and to Persia on another.
That they are Franks is believed in some quar-
ters. There is, however, a Cohistani population which
calls itself Purauncheh. It is just on the cards
that this may have given rise to the word Feringizz
Frank. Upon their setting on stools and chairs in pre-
ference to lying-down like the mass of orientals I lay
but little stress. As little do I lay on the fact of their
being notorious wine-bibbers. The grape grows in their
• Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Vol. xxii.
LEGENDS. 241
country, and they know how to convert it into wine.
Under these conditions they may easily indulge in drink,
without being, of necessity, Europeans in blood.
There is a tradition that they are descended from
Alexander the Great.
A small pool, near a place called Door, to the east or
north-east of Bamian, where there is an intrusive popu-
lation of Kalzubi Turks, but where the aborigines are
Therba and Shu Paropamisans, gives us the following
legend.
It is believed to be bottomless. The water is bitter and bituminous,
bubbling up with sulphuretted hydrogen, and surrounded by incrustations of
sulphur. Lambent flames are said to occasionally play over its surface. Near
it is a dark cave, and in this cave are the remains of idols — more than one.
The chief of these represent Moh and his wife, Mab(in, deities whom even
the Mahometans of the district reverence. No one enters the cave with his
shoes on.
Two other caves are dedicated to Sheh, the Destroyer, and Zhei, the God of
Fire. At each new moon the Therba (who reckon by months rather thaa
years) make a fire-offering to Zhei.
Two other caves are dedicated to Hersh and Maul. Small beads of gold
and stone, found in these parts by natives who dig for them, are called Solo-
mon's grains.
Moh created the earth, and his wife Mab(in created the wilderness. From
them sprang the first giant race. They slept alternately for 999 moons
and reigned 450,000 moons. After this period, three sons rebelled, viz.
Sheh, the life-destroyer, Zhei, the fire-god, and Maul, the earth-qnaker ; and,
by their combined efioits, Moh was buried beneath the mountains. Confusion
lasted 5000 moons, after which the three victors retired each to his own
region for 10,000 moons, ilaul was lost in darkness of his own creating,
Sheh fled with his family towards the sun, which so much enraged Zhei, that
he caused fire to spread over the earth ; this was quenched by the spirit of
Mabun, but not till the whole giant race was destroyed, and the earth re-
mained a desert for 3000 moons. Then Hersh and Lethram, originally slaves
of Moh, and great magicians, emerged from the north, and settled in these
mountains. By some Lethram is considered as the incarnate spirit of Mabfin
and the Queen to whom Hersh was vizier. Hersh had three sons, Uz, Muz,
and Alk. These he left in charge of all their families, while with a lai^
»nny he travelled toward the sun in pursuit of Sheh, who was supposed to
be still living. So the three sons of Hersh and their descendants reigned
happily for 18,000 moons, till Khoor (Cyrus?) invaded and conquered the
country, but, after many years' struggle, they expelled the invader, and re-
tuned the name Koorskush (Cyrus killed), now Khirghiz. The descendants of
Hersh continued to reign for 10,000 moona more, till Ehoondroo (Alexandtr ?)
B
242 LEGENDS.
invaded the country ; after which no separate legend of them seems to be
recollected.
In the same district stands the fort of Khornushi, to which you ascend by a
series of steep steps on hands and feet. Then comes a narrow ledge of rock,
from which a ladder of skin ropes, or a basket and windlass, takes the ex-
plorer upwards. At the top, a bason of bubbling brilliant water, hot in the
winter and cold during the summer, always full, and never over-flowing,
gives rise to the following legend — an echo of remarkable clearness, adding to
the mysterious character of the spot.
When Noah was at Mecca, Khor, the chief of the district, went to pay
homage to him ; thereat Noah was well pleased, and promised to grant him
any favour for which he should ask. So Khor asked for water, but the
voice in which he spoke was rough and loud, and his manner coarse. At this
the patriarch was offended. So that instead of blessing the land of Khor he
cursed it, and condemned it to become solid rock, nevertheless he kept his
promise in the matter of the water, and sent his grandson Shur to carry it into
effect. The grandson cried Nu Shu. Echo answered Nu Shu. The sound
Nu Shu reached Mecca. And now Nu Shu is the sound which the water
murmurs, and which Echo still conveys to Mecca; the place retaining the name
of the three parties concerned — Khor, the prince who spoke so rudely ; Noah,
the patriarch who disliked Khor's manners ; and Shu, the grandson who did
the work in opening the basin and calling out the words which Echo delighted
in repeating.
As far as this belief in Alexander goes, the Pare
pamisans are simply in the position of the most westei
of the Bhots ; inasmuch as the same belief prevails in-j
Bultistan or Little Tibet. Indeed, I believe that, at on€
time, the Paropamisan area exteoded further to the east.|
In the collection of ethnographical casts brought home h^
the brothers Schlagintweit, it was remarked by the col-
lectors, and assented to by the present writer, that the™
faces from the extreme east, though the faces of Bhots, ^
were, to a great extent, Persian in form and feature. If
so, there are good grounds for holding that the blood and
the language do not, very closely, coincide ; and that
there is Paropamisan blood in the veins of men and
women whose language is Bhot, and whose creed (in
some cases) is Buddhist. And this is borne out by Br.
Gardner's tables — approximations as they are — wherein
we find the following statistical catalogue, which is, evi-
dently, to a very considerable extent, either inferential or
conjectural.
PAROPAMISANS,
243
Bu, or Bull, calculated at
Kahuz, or Huhi „
Phah, or Phagi „
Aspah „
Kulis „
Muklu „
Maha „
Ka-lesh ^
Ma-lesh and > „
Lesh )
(2.)
Chinese Subjects.
Beh, or Bethel „
Plahi, or Piaaghii „
Bhoti (?)
12,000
12,000
12,000
12,000
12,000
12,000
12,000
12,000
84,000
12,000
12,000
12,000
36,000
In respect to the wine it should be noticed that one
of the poetical, or rhetorical, names of the Paropamisus
points towards the fact of the grape growing there. It
is called in Persia and Cashmir the "Wine-cellar of
Afrasiab.
It should also be added that on the western frontier
"we have the venue of several of Rustam's exploits ;
Rustam being the great hero of Persia.
The Dangri (i. e. Dunger) of Vigne, is Paropamisan.
There are numerous architectural and sculptured re-
mains in the Paropamisan countrj'.
English. Siah Pflsh.* Sanskrit.*
Star tarah tara
Sun sol stixya
Moon
Fire
m&s
agnis
• From Prichard.
R 2
244
PAROPAMISANS.
English.
Sialx P6ah.
Sanskrit.
Rain
wash
varsha
Snow
zuin
himd
Spi-ing
vastink
vassanta
Hot
tapi
tap
Man
naursta
nara
Woman
mashi
mamischi
Ear
kar
karna
Eye
achdn
akschan
Nose
nisd
nasa
Teeth
dint
dante
Finger
agun
anguli
One
ek
eka
Two
du
dui
Three
tre
tri
Fow
chata
cliatur
Five
pich
pancha
Eight
asht
ashtan
Nine
nu
navan
Ten
dosh
dasan. .
The Puraunchehs are mentioned by Elphinstone, who
only knows them as a class of carriers, called Hindki
or Indians. He adds, however, that Baber gave them a
separate language. I have been told that this is still
spoken by a few families.
I
MIGRATORY TRIBES.
245
CHAPTER XXXV.
The Languages of certain migratory Fopniations of India.
There are numerous forms of speech in India, which,
like the Hindustani, belong to certain classes of indi-
viduals rather than to certain districts. They partake,
more or less, of the nature of Cant or Slang. Of many
of them a good account is given by Mr. Balfour.
The following are the Thug numerals.
English.
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
Six
Seven
Eight
Nine
Ten
Eleven
Tvcelve
Thug.
ndanka
sheloke
ndana
poku
mola
shely
pavitm
mungi
tiosa
arataru
ekpuru
habru
Bagwan.
ongad
duke
mk
pboke
bnt
dag
puyater
mung
kone
sola
ekia
jewla.
The Taremuki are wanderinsr tinkers.
English.
Man
Woman
Head
Eye
Nose
Ear
Taremuki.
lokro
chali
mathoe
dolo
nak
kan
English.
Hand
Foot
Water
Stone
Earth
Tree
TaremukL
hath
Png
pani
duggra
mattri
jhar.
The Bhatui are jugglers, posture-makers, and exhibit-
ors of feats of strencrth.
246
MIGRATORY TRIBES.
English.
Bhatui.
Man
mdns
Woman
jo
Hmd
mtindhi
Eye
akhoe
Nose
luk
Ea/t
kiinnu
Hand
hut
le Korawi
are mi
English.
Korawi.
Man
amlun
Woman
punjeri
Fire
nerpu
English.
Bhatdi.
Foot
pae
Fire
ugg
Water
paui
Stone
pathar
Earth
bhui
Tree
jhar.
English.
Korawi.
Stone
kellay
Earth
tirri
Tree
muru.
The Ramusis are men of predatory habits in the
Mahratta country, but Canarese or Telinga in origin.
^English. Ranmsi. English. Ramusi.
Eye
Tooth
Sun
Moon
kunnul
punnul
goanda
phakut
Fire
Water
Stone
dhupa
nidul
ratul.
So are the Mangs who also belong to the Mahratta coun-
try.
English.
Eye
Tooth
Sun
Moon
Mang.
kewrja
chawur
English.
Fire
Water
Stone
Maog.
dhupa
nir
upalla.
There are seven castes oiNuts* or Bazighurs, imperfect j
Mahometans, who dance and juggle in Bengal.
English.
Hindostanee.
Nut.
Nut.
Fire
•ig
ga
kag
Bamboo
bans
suban
nans
Oven
chilum
limchi
nilum
Breath
dum
mudu
num
Remembrance
lad
dai
klml
Beggar
fuqir
rlqlfu
nuqir
House
ghur
nighu
rhur
India
Hindustan
Dusftanuk
Kindustan
Here
idhur
dhuri
bidhur
Captain Richardson, in Asiatic Transactions, vol. viii.
MIGRATORY TRIBES.
247
English.
Hindoetanee.
Nut.
Not
When
jub
buju
nab
Who
kon
onk
ron
Long
himba
balum
kamba
Mouth
mas
sama
nas
Sect of people
nut
tmnu
kut
Age
omr
mam
komr
Saint
pir
ripu
cbir
Fort
qilla
laqeh
mlla
Oppotite
ruburu
bururu
kuburu
Gold
sona
naso
nona
A search
trdash
lashtu
nxila-sh
Disagreement
nmbunao
nanbeh
kunbanao
Heir
waris
ruswa
qnaris.
The Katodi are catechu gatherers in the Mahratta
country.
EngUsk
Katodi.
English.
KatodL
Call
akb
Hawi
mortal
Boiled rice
annj
Tale
11
Hedgehog
ahida
Give
wope
Kite
alav
Turban
8al&
Crab
kirlu
Dog
b6iis
Fowl
kukdai
Boy
son
Iguana
gohar
Girl
Bori
Arrow
chamboti
Crow
hadia
Munjm
nagolia
Man
hodos
Crane
bugad
Woman
hodi«.
To these add the Bowrl s
md GohuH.
English.
Bowri
G«harL
Man
mank.
loe
.gohur
Woman
manoi
sd
gohami
Head
goddo
maihoe
Eye
dolo
ankhi
Nose
nak
nak
Ear
kan
kan
Hand
hatha
hath
Foot
pae
Water
pani
pani
Stone
bhatt
a.
bhatta
Earth
bhoe
jami
Tree
jhar
jharr.
Of the characteristic elements in these forms of speech
some are purely artificial like those in the Nut Vocabu-
lary) ; others of Tamul origin — Tamul meaning, not
only the Tamul proper, but its congeners.
248
THE GIPSY.
CHAPTER XXXVI.
The Gipsy.
Wherever we find a Gipsy who retains any portion of
his original language, no matter where we find him, that
primitive element, be it much or little, is Indian. It
is also Indian of the Hindi, rather than Indian of the
Tamul type. The first of the following short vocabula-
ries of the Gipsy language of different countries, is from
Persia, the next from ^gypt, the last from Norway.
The Gipsies of Persia are known under the names of
Ghurbat (or Khurbat), Goabaz (probably the same word),
Duman, and Kaoli.
(1.)
English.
Khurbat.
Uumau.
Head
sir
murras
Hair
val
khaUuf
Ear
kan
priuk
Eye
akki
jow
Tooth
daudeir
ghi61u
Hand
kustum
dast
Sun
gaham
gahaui
Moon
heiuf
heiuf
Star
astara
astai-a
Fire
ag
ar
Water
pani
how
I
man
man
Thou
to
to
Be
hoi
hui
One
ek
ek
Two
di
di
Three
turrun
sih
Four
tshar
tshar
Five
penj
penj
Six
Bhesh
shesh
Seven
heft
heft
Eight
hest
hest
Nine
na
na
Ten
das
deh.
THE GIPSY.
249
In Egypt they are known as Ghagar, Helebi, and
Ndwer ; the first being the least Arabic of the three.
(•^•)
English.
Ghagar.
HelebL
Nawer.
Head
sir
shirit
ras
kamokhli
Hair
bal
shara
Eye
hanka
hazara
Ear
kirkSwiyeh
wudu
Teeth
dandi
sinnan
sinnam
suvan
Sun
kam
shemR
shems
karzi
karieh
Moon
kano
kamr
mahtaweh
kariz
Star
astra
nejm
Fire
ag
megtundara
ag
Stone
path
hajjar
Tree
kerian
(3.)
misbgareh
kannin.
English.
Gipsy of Norway.
Tater.«
One
gikk
jek
Two
dy
doi
Three
trin
trin
Four
schtar
schtaar
Fire
pansch
pantsch
Six
sink
schoov
Seven
schuh
efta
Eight
okto
ochto
Nine
engya
enja
Ten
ty
desh.
To which add astro zz star, bal :=. hair; si = heart;
sap zz snake ; Romnuino = Gripsy.f
With these specimens for the two extremes we may
easily beHeve that the Gipsy of the interjacent countries
is truly Indian in its basis.
• A variety of the ordinary Gripsy, which, in Norway, is called Fante.
f Sundt. Beretning om Fante elhr Langstrygerfolket.
250
THE KAJUNAH.
CHAPTER XXXVII.
The Kajunah.
In Cunningham's Ladak is a specimen of the language
of Hunz-Nagar, to the north and north-east of the
Chitrali : and in contact with it ; with the Bhot ; with
the Turk of Chinese Turkestan ; and, probably, with
some Mongol form of speech. I cannot, like its collec-
tor, connect it, off-hand, with the Shina and Amiya.
The folio wins: table shows too much difference for this.
English.
Shina.
Arniya.
Kajunah.
Man
musliar
rag
hir, er
Woman
grin
kanm
gus
Head
shis
sur
yetis
Eye
achhi
ghach
ilchin
Ear
kund
kad
iltumal
Nose
noto
naskar
gomoposh
Mouth
anzi
diran
gokhat
Tooth
duni
dond
gume
Hand
hath
hast
gurengga
Foot
pa
pang
goting
Blood
lohel
le
multan
Sky
agahi
asman
ayesh
Sun
sun
sa
Moon
yun
halans
Star
taro
satar
asi
Fire
agar
ingar
phu
phu
Water
wahi
augr
chil
River
sin
sin
sindha
Stone
bat
dhan.
Besides which, the numerals are not only different'
from the Dard dialects, but from those of all other lan-
guages known to me.
THE KAJUNAH.
251
Om
hin
Seven,
talo
Turo
ahas
Eight
altambo
Three
hasko
Nine
hnncho
Four
walto
Ten
tormo
Five
snndo
Twenty
altar
Six
mishando
Jaba=
/ aj».
Horta bai=
if€ are.
Umba
=tkou art
Ma bau^yc
are.
Aiba =
'he U.
fXp^\ft baTi=
ztliry
are.
Meanwhile, the following forms are from the Shina ;
the fii-st being (apparently) Kajunah ; the second Indian ;
the third Bi-ahui.
1.
Be=6c thou, being.
Bilo=to be.
Boje— being.
2.
Mo hos = /a»n.
Tu hcLO=thou art.
A'h liao= he it.
Mo asulus = / tea*.
Tn asaln=(^u vxut.
Ah nsnln^^ vxu.
3.
Be hi3=tre are
Tso hath=yc are.
A'h Mi=they are.
Be asilis=ire vere.
Tso asilit=ye were.
Ze A^h=ihei/ were.
The Kajunah is just more Paropamisan than aught
else. Still, i^rovisioiially (and only provisionally), I
separate it.
252
THE AFGHAN.
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
The Pushtu, Patan, or Afghan.
Afghan and Afghanistan are Persian names. The
native name is Pukhtu in one, Pushtu in another dialect.
English.
Western Pushtu.
Eastern Puklitu
God
khoda
Heaven
asman
Father
plar
Mother
mor
Son
zoe
Daughter
165r
Brother
wror
Sister
khor
Husband
mem
Wife
ourut
khiza
Girl
peghlu
Boy
zunki
huluk
Man
ineru
Head
sur
Nose
puzu
pozu
Nostril
spuzhmgn
spegme
Hair
veshtu
Eyebrow
w66 r(idz66e
wrtize
Eyelashes
bana
Eye
sturgi
lemu
Forehead
wuchwely
wuchwoly
Beard
zhiru
giru
Neck
tsut
tsut
mughzy
Arm
las
Hand
mungol
Nail
nook
Bdly
nos
gera
Back
Bha
THE AFGHAN.
253
En^ialL
Western Pnshtn.
East4sni Pokbtn.
Pleth
ghwushu
ghwnkhe
Bone
hudHky
Blood
vtni
Heart
zira
Ear
gwuzh
ghwng
Mouth
khooln
Tongue
zaba
zhebn
Tooth
gash
ghakh
Foot
psha
khpu
Day
Twadz
Night
shpu
Sun
nmur
nwnr
Moon
spozhmy
Efpc^mi
Star
stori
Fire
or
Water
obu
River
rod
seen
Sea
deria
Tree
wunu
Stone
kane
I
zu
We
TniizTi
mimgii
Thou
tu
Te
tase
One
yo
Two
dwa
Three
dre
Four
tsulor
Five
pinza
Six
Bpuzh
Seven
own
Eight
nti
Nine
nu
Ten
Ins
In India the word Pukhtu becomes Patan.
2o4 THE PERSIAN.
CHAPTER XXXIX.
The Persian.— The Huzvaresh.— TheParsi. — The Modem Persian.— The
Biluch.— The Kurd.- The Buruki.
I BEGIN the notice of the languages of Persia and its
congeners with the following extract from Prichard.
The first appearance of the ancient Medes and Persians, during the sixth
century before our era on the theatre of human affairs, was almost as sudden
as that of the Huns, or Turks, or Mongoles, in a later age. Shortly before
the period when they gained the masteiy of the world, their name seems to
have been unknown to Europe and to Western Asia. The Greeks of the
Homeric age, and while the kingdom of Lydia was growing up in Asia Minor,
appear never to have heard of the Persians ; nor have we any proof that their
existence was known except by the predictions of the Prophets to the ancient
Hebrews. Even in the historical records referring to preceding times, which
the Greeks afterwards found in the east, there is no trace of an ancient
empire, or even of an independent nation, in the countries between the
Tigris and the Indus, dating its existence many generations before Cyrus.
The Assyrian kingdom of Ninus and Semiramis and their successors is said to
have reached to the borders of India. Whence, then, came that great and
powerful race, who suddenly overturned all the dynasties of Asia, subdued
the civilized parts of Africa and of Europe ? Were they one, j)erhaps the
first, of those great swarms, who, from the remote regions of High Asia, have
poured themselves down in different ages to overrun the Eastern world ? or
had they been, as it is generally supposed, the primeval inhabitants of some
region in the vast extent of Iran, who, like the Arabs in later times, after
remaining for ages in quiet obscurity, suddenly emerged, as if moved by some
inward impulse, and like that people became almost universal conquerors ?
Samples of the language of the Sassanian period have
come down to us as inscriptions, as legends on coins, and
as written compositions. As the dynasty reigned from
the third to the seventh century, and as the reigns
of both the earliest and the latest of the kings are illus-
trated by memorials of some kind, the presumption is
against uniformity. So is the fact. There are divisions,
sub-divisions, and cross-divisions in the criticism of the
I
THE PERSIAN. 2o5
Sassanian memorials. The older differ from the newer,
both in respect to the language which they exhibit, and
in respect to the alphabet in which they are embodied.
The notice of the inscriptions comes first. The chief
are from Nakhsi-Riistam, Persepolis, Kirmanshah, and
Hajiabad. They have long commanded the attention
of Orientalists. The chief of the earlier memoirs upon
them was by De Sacy, and it is a memoir to which later
investigatoi-s have added but little. The inscriptions are
neither numerous nor long : neither ai-e they rich in
forms and words. Titles, as in inscriptions in general,
form a large part of them. Of verbs, there is no in-
stance. The alphabet is Semitic ; and, like the other
Semitic alphabets, with the exception of the Ethiopian,
is read from right to left. The alphabet is Semitic, and
lapidary, i. e. it is, comparatively speaking, rectilinear
and angular rather than curvilinear and round.
The older the coin, the more lapidary the character of
the letters of its legend ; a fact upon which Mordtmann
has suggested the following classification; a classification
which gives (1) coins with their legends in the lapidary
alphabet ; (2) coins with their legends in an alphabet
more cursive than lapidary ; (3) coins with their legends
in an alphabet actually (or nearly) cursive. The first
class represents a period from Artaxerxes to Narses, when
the tendency to transition begins. All, or almost all, of
the bilingual inscriptions belong to this period.
The second, of which the tj^ical representatives are
the coins of Varames IV., reaches from Sapor II. to
Chosroes II. : the third fi-om Chosroes II. to the end of
the dynast}'^, and a little beyond it ; a little beyond it
inasmuch as some of the early Caliphs used the Sassa-
nian alphabet in their legends. A series of coins from
Taberistan belongs to this period. That the three classes
graduate into each other is plain.
The same applies to the language, so far as our scanty
data allow us to judge. Mordtmann suggests that the
256 THE PERSIAN".
earliest and the latest legends belong to different lan-
guages ; or rather to the same language in stages suffi-
ciently different to be treated as such. Spiegel, on the
other hand, refers them all to one language.
So much for the inscriptions and coins. It was ne-
cessary to begin with them, because they give us dates,
which the literary compositions, though much more valu-
able as representatives of the language, do not.
The particular dialect that the Sassanian memorials
represent is that of south-western Persia. The extent to
which it is mixed with Semitic elements is in favour of this.
So are the localities of the chief inscriptions ; especially
those of Persepolis and Nakhsi-Rustam. The dynasty I
believe to have been other than Persian ; so that it would
take the language of the capital as it found it. The Se-
mitic alphabet, also, lay near at hand. It was current
in Syria, and Mesopotamia ; not to mention the fact of
its having extended itself to Caubul some generations
before. The use, however, of it was, as far as we
can judge from negative evidence, an innovation — the
legends of the Arsacidan coins having been Greek.
The common name for this form of speech, from the
time of D'Anquetil du Perron until the last ten years,
was Pehlevi. Spiegel, however, in the preface to his
Parsi Grammar, a forerunner of his one upon that of the
Sassanian compositions, has named it Huzvaresh ; and
given fair reasons for doing so. At any rate, the name
Pehlevi is inconvenient.
What Spiegel calls the Parsi is treated by him as
either the actual Huzvaresh, or a near congener of it,
in a newer form, and, as a kind of Huzvaresh of the
early Mahomedan period, i. e. of the time between the
last of the Sassanians and Firdusi who wrote under
Mahmud of Ghuzni. The Parsi compositions are, one
and all, translations from the Huzvaresh. Their alpha-
bet is Huzvaresh. They are without either dates or
names. The translations, however, of two works, the
i
THE PERSIAN DIALECTS. 257
Minokhired, and the Shikand-guTtidni, are held to be
older than that of a third, the Patet Irani. Finally,
the language is held to be transitional to the Huzvaresh
and the modern Persian.
A well-known statement fi-om the Ferheng-i-Jihdngiri
tells us, that when that work was written there were
seven dialects of the Persian language, of which four
were obsolete, and three in use. These seem to have
been literary forms of speech ; or, at any rate, forms
of speech which had been subjected to a certain amount
of cultivation. I imagine that there were written
compositions in all of them, and that they were men-
tioned by the writer just as the Sicilian, the Bolognese,
or the Milanese might be mentioned by an Italian
critic as dialects of the Italian Peninsula. If so, they
were provincial or local forms of speech. If so, they
were forms of speech which were scarcely dialects in
the strictest sense of the word ; inasmuch as literary
influence had, to some extent, acted upon them — such
influences always having an assimilating tendency.
Of these, the four obsolete dialects were the Herevi,
the Segzi, the Zavuli, and the Sogdi, i. e. the dialects of
Herat, Seistan, Zabulistan, and Bokhara — the ancient
Sogdiana. The three in use were the Pehlevi, the
Parsi, and the Deri. Of these names four are not only
geographical, but are visibly so. Parsi is ambiguous.
It may mean either the dialect of the province Fars, or
the dialect of certain books belonging to the Parsis.
Pehlevi is, perhaps, the Huzvaresh — though the iden-
tification is not without its elements of uncertainty.
Deri is a difficult term, being, apparently, word for
word, the same as Deer, Tirhai, &c. If so, it is a
geographical term. If so, however, is it geographical
without being definite? — inasmuch as D-r means no
particular place, but any place with certain phj^sical
characters. It means no more than the word Highland,
s
258 THE PERSIAN DIALECTS.
a word which may apply anywhere where the Lands
are High.
Simply from finding that the vocabularies headed
Der, Tirye, &c., come from Caubul, and the Indian
fi'ontier rather than from the western side of Persia,
I am inclined to make the Deri an Eastern dialect.
Whether it is that of Firdusi is another question ; indeed,
the whole question concerning the seven dialects of the
Ferheng-i-Jihangiri, is rather one of exegesis than one
of proper philology. That a language like the Persian,
which is spoken over a vast area, should fall into dia-
lects and sub-dialects, is no more than what we expect
a priori. We expect, too, a priori, that some of these
should be of sufficient importance to command the
attention of native commentators. That any such
commentator should give us either the whole details,
or an accurate classification, is unlikely. It is only
likely that he will give some extreme or well-marked
forms.
Upon the actual details of the Persian dialects, as at
present spoken, I can give nothing definite. The dialects
of Ghilan, Mazenderan, and Aderbijan, are said to ex-
hibit notable characteristics — indeed the statement may
be found in good books, that Pehlevi is stUl spoken in
certain parts of the last-named province. Whether this
be the case or not, depends upon the meaning attached
to the word. All that can safely be inferred from the
assertion is the existence of some archaic dialect. Upon
the dialects of the towns, and upon those of the country
in general, the literary language, in its cultivated form,
has had great influence ; in other words, the ordinary
language of a great part of Persia approaches it in the
way that the ordinary language of the towns of England
approaches the English.
I
THE BILUCH.
Engliah.
Persian.
English.
Persian.
Man (homo)
admi
Moon
mail
(Wr)
mard
Star
sitara
Woman
zan
Fire
eatash
Head
sar
Water
ab
Hair
mu
Stone
sang
Eye
chashm
Tree
daiakht
Nose
bini
One
yak
Mouth
dahan
TVDO
do
Tooth
dandan
Three
sih
Tongue
zabaa
Four
chahar
Hand
dast
Five
panch
Foot
pa
Six
shash
Blood
khun
Seven
haft
Day
roz
Eight
ha;^t
Night
shab
Nine
nan
Sun
aftab
Ten
Hhh.
259
Of either the Persian eo luyniine, or a luDguage which
diffei'S from the Persian in name i-ather than in structure,
spoken beyond the boundaries of Persia, the most im-
portant are —
1 . The Persian of the Sai*ts of Bokhara, on the
north-east.
English.
Bokhara.
English.
Bokhara.
Head
tser
Sun
aftab
Hair
mui
Moon
mah
Hand
dest
St<ur
sdtara
Foot
pai
Water
ab
Eye
tshesm
Stone
tsenk.
Ear
qush
2. The BQuch of Biluchis
,tAn, on the south-east.
Euglish.
Bilach.
English.
Bihich.
Hair
phut
Thou
than
Eye
tsham
Ye
shumiH
Tongue
zawan
One
yak
Tooth
dathan
Two
do
Nose
phonz
Three
shai
Foot
path
Four
tshyar
Moon (new)
nokh
Fire
pantsh
Fire
as
Six
Water
aph
Seven
hapt
Tree
darashk
Eight
hast
Stone
sing
Xint
na
I
ma
Ten
dah.
We
m^
s 2
260
THE KURD.
3. The Kurd of Kurdistan, falling into the Luristan,
the Felleh, and other dialects.
English.
Kurd.
Englisli.
Kurd.
Man
piaou
Foot
peh
Head
ser
Blood
khum
Eye
tshav
Stm
hatava
Nose
kuppu
Moon
mahang
Ewr
glieh
Star
asteria
Hair
jakatani
Hay
ruzh
Mouth
zar
Night
show
Tooth
didan
Fire
aghir
Tongue
ziman
Water
aw
Beard
rudain
Stone
bird
Hand
dest
Tree
dar.
In the following list (the Zaza is a Kurd dialect from
the north-western frontier) observe the affiK min. It is
the possessive pronoun, upon which more wiU be said
when the American and Kelasnonesian languages come
under notice. In a vocabulary which I took from a
gipsy in England, I found the same incorporation.
English.
Zaza.
English.
Zaza.
Head
sere-mm
Star
sterrai
Eyes
tchime-min
Mountain
khoo
Eyebrows
hnine-min
Sea
abo
Nose
zinje-min
Valley
derei
Moustache
simile-min
Eggs
hoiki
Beard
ardishe-wizw
A fmol
kerghi
Tongue
zoane-min
Welcome
lebexairome
Teeth
dildone-mm
Come
beiri
Ears
gashe-min
Stay
roshd
Fingers
ingishte-mjm
Bread
noan
Arm
pazie-mzw
Water
awe
Legs
hinge-min
Child
katchimo
Father
pre -mm
Virgin
keinima
Mother
mai-min
Orphan
lajekima
Sister
wai-min
Morning
sbaurow
Brother
brai-mm
Tree
dori
The bach
pushtiai-mm
Iron
asin
Hair
pore-mm
Hair
aurish
Cold
serdo
Greyhound
taji
Hot
auroghermo
Pig
khooz
Swn
rojshwesho
Earth
ert
Moon,
hashmd
Fire
adir
THE BARAKI.
f
English.
Zaza.
English.
Zaza.
Stone
see
Mare
mahine
Silver
sem
Grapes
pshkijshi
Strength
kote
A house
k^
Sword
shimshir
Green
kesk
A fox
krevesh
Crimson
soor
Stag
kive
Blade
siah
Partridge
zaraj
White
supeo
Milk
stnt
Sleep
lansTime
Horse
istor
Go
shoori.
261
4. In Affchanistan and elsewhere, there are certain
populations which the Afghans, or whoever may be the
predominant population, separate from themselves, some-
times under the general name of Tadzhik, Deggaun, or
Parsiwan, and sometimes under some specific or particular
denomination. Most (perhaps all) of these use a form
of speech which is essentially Persian. Such is that of
the Barakis, of Afghanistan, a population of which there
are two divisions, one in the province of Lohgad, who
speak Persian eo nomine, and one of the town of Barak,
" who speak," writes Leach, " the language caUed Baraki."
But this is Persian also — i. e. the Persian of Barak,
though not of the purest kind. Possibly it contains
an artificial element ; at any rate, Leach's notice of it
should be known.
It makes the Baraki originally inhabitants of Yemen,
whence they were brought by Mahmud of Ghuzni, when
he invaded India ; the Sultan, pleased with their services,
was " determined to recompense them by giving them in
perpetual grant any part of the country they chose ;
they fixed upon the district of Kanigm-am in the country
of the Waziris, where they settled. There are 2000
femilies of the Rajan Barakis, under Rasul Khan who
receives 2000 rupees a year fi:om Dost Muhammed Khan.
The contingents of both these chiefe amount to .50
horsemen who are enrolled in the Ghulam Khana divi-
sion of the Cabid army. There are also 2000 families
of Barakis at Kaniguram under Shah Malak, who are
independent. The Barakis of this place and of Barak
262
THE BARAKI.
\
alone speak the Barakl language. We receive a warning,
from the study of this vocabulary, not to be hasty in
inferring the origin of a people merely from the construc-
tion of their language ; for it is well known that the
one now instanced was invented by Mir Yu'zu'f, who led
the first Barakis from Yemen into Afghanisthan : his
design was to conceal and separate his few followers from
the mass of Afghans (called by them Kash), who would
no doubt at first look upon the Barakts with jealousy as
intruders. The muleteers of Cabiil, being led by their
profession to traverse wild countries and unsafe roads,
have also invented a vocabulary of passwords."
English.
Baraki.
English.
Baraki.
Head
sar
Village
gram
Nose
neni
House
ner
Eye
tsimi
Egg
wolih
Ear
goi
Milk
pikakh
Tooth
gishi
Fish
mahi
Sun
toavi
One
she
Moon
marwokh
Two
do
Star
stura
Three
ghe
Bay
rosh
Four
tshar
Night
gha
Five
penj
Fire
arong
Six
ksha
Water
wokh
Seven
wo
Stone
gap
Eight
antsli
Tree
darakt
Nine
noh
City
kshar
Ten
das.
How far the dialects of Wokhan, Shugnan, and Roshan,
are Persian rather than Paropamisan, or Paropamisan
rather than Persian, or how far they are transitional to the
two, is a point for which we want data.
Note.
At the risk of appearing unduly speculative and presumptuous, I venture
on the following suggestion, viz. that the true name is Husvadesh rather than
Iluzvaresh. The preliminary remarks of Spiegel (pp. 22-23) supply the
bases of this conjecture. Qu<atremere gives the following translation of a
passage in the Kitab-ul-fihrist — "ies Perses ont aussi un alj^habct Zcwaresh
dont les lettres sciU tantdt li4es, tant6t isolees,'' &c. . This gets rid of the
I
THE BARAKI. 263
initial syllable. It also renders it probable that the r is a derical error for d.
If so, it is simply the language, or alphabet, of Siwdd.
I also surest, on the strength of Mohl's conjecture, that the root of the
yrord Pehlevi^boundari/ OT march, that the term, like the Grerman Marco-
mannic, may be the language of any district which constituted a frontier, so
that there may have been more Pehlens than one. One of these was the
district named Fehleh, which comprised the fire towns of Rei, Ispahan,
Hamadan, ilah-nehavend, and Aderbijan. The authority for this is Ibn
Hauqal, who travelled in Persia in the fifth century of the Hejira. Other
statements (which may be found in Spiegel) confirm this by connecting the
Pehlevi with the vjrhilan dialect.
Geographically, then, the Pehlevi was a dialect of the north-west, the Deri
(which was spoken with great purity in Balkh) being one of the north-east
But it was also used in a chronological sense, and meant (as Spinel remarks)
Old Persian.
The geographical Pehlevi, then, may be one dialect, the chronological or
historical Pehlevi, another. It is this latter which is most especially con-
nected with the Huzvaresh.
264
THE IRON,
CHAPTER XL.
The Iron.
Iron is the native name for a population which is called
by its neighbours Osset : its occupancy being the parts
about the Vladikaukasus, where it is bounded by the
Georgian on the south, and certain Lesgian and Tshetsh
dialects on the north, east, and west. Of all the lan-
guages of Caucasus, it is the one which nearest ap-
proaches the Persian, and (through it) its real or sup-
posed congeners of what is called the Indo-European
class : for which reason it has commanded more than
ordinary attention. It cannot, however, be separated
from the other languages of the great mountain-range
to which it belongs.
English.
Iron.
English.
Iron.
Man
moi
Hand
kukh
Head
ser
Foot
kakh
Eye
tsaste
Blood
thuh
Nose
findzh
Sun
khor
Ear
khuz
Moon
mai
Hair
dzikku
Star
stal
Mouth
dzug
Fire
sing
Tooth
dendag
Water
dun
Tongue
awsag
Stone
dor.
Beard
botso
The nearest congeners of the Iron are the Persian on
the one side and the Armenian on the other, the rela-
tionships on each side being distant ; or, at any rate, less
near than the geographical relations of the three lan-
guages would lead us to expect.
OR OSSET. 265
Among the Persian forms of speech the Iron is nearest
to the Kurd.
Next to the Georgians, the Iron is the population of
Caucasus which is most thoroughly brought under
Russia. Hence, the language, so far as it is written at
all, is written in Russian characters. Such is the case
with the Dictionary of Sjogren ; in which the Russian
alphabet, with the addition of several new signs, is the
medium.
Of Iron dialects there are, at least, two — the or-
dinary Iron and the Dugorian. A third, quoted as
the Tagaui^in, may be one of two things. It may
be a real fresh dialect or it may be another form for
Dugorian.
Of the grammatical structure of the Iron, a short
sketch (of which an abstract is given in the present
writer's Varieties of Man) is published by Rosen.
That the Iron are the descendants of the Alani, who
were, themselves, the descendants of certain Medes, by
whom a district of Caucasus was colonized in the time
of the Achsemenidse, is a doctrine of Klaproth's, which
has met with more approval than it deserves. It rests
on a confusion between the name As {^Osset) as applied
to the Iron by themselves, and the name -As {:=Osset) as
applied to them by some one else.
The similarity of form between Iron and Iran, the
name of a province of Persia, as well as the Sassanian
for Persia in general, is more important. The true ex-
planation, however, of this has yet to be given.
Upon the claims of the Iron to be placed in the same
class with the Latin, Greek, German, Slavonic, and Li-
thuanic, more will be said in the sequel.
266
THE ARMENIAN.
CHAPTER XLI.
The Armenian.
The nearest congeners to the Armenian are the Iron on
the one side, and the Georgian on the other : the rela-
tionships on each side being distant ; or, at any rate, less
near than the geographical relations of the three lan-
guages would lead us to expect.
English.
Armenian.
English.
Armenian
Man {homo)
mart
Tooth
adamn
{vir)
air
Hand
dzyem
Head
klakh
Foot
wot
Hair
hyer
Tongue
tyesu
lav
Heart
zird
maa
Sun
aryev
Eye
agn
Moon
luzin
atsk
Star
azdegh
Nose
untsh
Fire
hur
kit
grag
Mouth
pyeran
Water
tshur
Ear
ungn
Snow
ziun
agantsh
Stone
khar
Beard
morusk
Hill
sar
Fish
tsugn.
Blood
ariyun
There are Armenians beyond the limits of Arme-
nia. There is a colony in Persia near Isfahan, founded
by Shah Abbas, the founder of the Georgian colony in
Khorasan. There are Armenians in India, and many
thousands in Constantinople. In Uu7vpean Russia their
census is as follows : —
THE ARMENIAN. 267
In the Government of Astrakan . . 5,272
Bessarabia . . 2,353
Ekaterinoslav . 14,931
St. Petersburg . 170
Stauropol. . . 9,000
Tauris. . . . 3,960
Kherson . . . 1,990
Total . . . 37,676
But the most important settlement is that of the Mechi-
tarist monks on the Island of St. Lazarus, in Venice.
Here is the centre of the Armenian literature ; with its
library, rich in MSS., some published, some unpublished.
Nine-tenths of the Armenian compositions that appear
in print proceed from this Venetian press. The Arme-
nian literature goes back to the fifth century, and the
Armenian alphabet, which, as far as the relation of signs
to sounds is concerned, is one of the completest in exist-
ence, has, in the form of its letters, deviated from its
prototype (whatever that was) to a great degree. It
affects straight lines and angles, and exhibits a mini-
mum of curves. In the order and names of its letters
it is Greek.
The languages that have more especially encroached
on the Armenian are the Turk and the Persian.
268 THE GEORGIAN.
CHAPTER XLII.
The Dioscurian Group. — Meaning of the Term. — Georgian Division.
So much is said and written about the Caucasian di-
vision of the human species, where the word is used in a
general sense, that, when we come to the mountain-range
of Caucasus itself, and find ourselves in the midst of
details which are truly and strictlj^ Caucasian, we are
constrained to either repudiate the current meaning of
the word, or to use it with a circumlocution, and talk of
Caucasus in the limited, or Caucasus in the geogra-
phical, sense of the word.
We may do this, or we may coin a new term. The
term, here and elsewhere, proposed by the present writer,
is Dioscurian J Dioscurias being the name of one of
those towns of the Caucasian sea-coast which is not
only mentioned by ancient writers, but mentioned with
reference to one of the most remarkable characteristics of
modem, as it also was of ancient, Caucasus. This is the
multiphcity of languages and dialects. The business,
says Pliny, of Dioscurias had to be transacted through
the medium of thirty interpreters. Now, the number
that would be requisite for a similar function in modem
Caucasus, is undoubtedly less, the Turkish being pretty
generally understood, and serving as a kind of lingua
franca. Nevertheless, the actual number of separate
substantive languages, dialects, and sub-dialects, is, still,
considerable, as will be seen when we come to the de-
tails. Meanwhile the leading groups are represented
I
THE GEORGIAN. 269
by the following languages : (1 .) the Georgian ; (2.) the
Lesgian ; (3.) the Tshetsh ; (4.) the Circassian.
The most northern, and at the same time the rudest,
of the Georgian populations, are the descendants of the
Suani, lying inland, at the head- waters of the Zkhenist-
zkhali, Eguri, and Egrisi, between Sukhumkaleh and the
Phasis. They call
Themselves
. Suan.
The Abkhas .
Mibkhaz.
— Kartuelians
Mkaiis.
— Mingrelians
Mimrd:
— Karatshai .
0W8.
— Iron .
. Saiaiar.
The Mingrelians face the Euxine, belonging to the
drainage of the Phasis ; the upper portion of which is
Iriierithi, the land of Imer, or Iber ; word for word,
the ancient Iberia. To the east of Imerethi lies the
watershed of the Phasis and Kui", the occupancy of the
Kaiiuli, KaHueli, or KaHidinians, the Kartueh
form of speech being the Georgian of Tiflis ; the Geor-
gian of the literature and alphabet.
Cruriel is connected, in the way of dialect, with Min-
greha, being, probably, transitional to the speech of that
principahty and
Lazistan, or the country of the Lazi. This extends
along the sea-coast, from the parts about Batum, at
the mouth of the Tsorok, to Rizeh, east of Trebizond —
perhaps further. Inland it extends over the country
between Kars and the Black Sea. Its exact boundaries,
however, are not known.
The Lazi are subject to Turkey, and are Mahometan
in creed. The other Georgians are Christians, accordincr
to the church of Armenia, and subject to Russia. Like
some of the Tsherkess, the Lazi were originally Christian ;
their conversion having been effected about the seventh
270 THE GEORGIAN.
century. Even now, they abstain, to a great extent,
from polygamy.
The Georgian alphabet, which, as far as the relation of
signs to sounds is concerned, is one of the corapletest in
existence, affects, in the form of its letters, curves, and
eschews straight lines and angles. This places it in
strong contrast with the Armenian. Yet it is from the
Armenian that it was, most probably, derived. Indeed,
the ecclesiastical alphabet (for the preceding remarks
apply to the vulgar alphabet only) is evidently of Arme-
nian extraction
J
LESGIAN DIALECTS. 271
CHAPTER XLIII.
The Dioscorian Group. — ^Lesgian Division.
The Caucasians of the Koisu and Terek, rivers which
fall into the Caspian, constitute the Lesgian group ; occu-
pants of Eastern, rather than of Central or Western
Caucasus ; occupants of parts of Daghestan and Tabas-
seran, and conterminous with Shirvan, a province of
Persia. The Georgians call the Lesgians Lekhi, which
is the Greek Ai^ai.
Daghestan, or Leghistan, the country of the Lesgi, is
the ancient Albania ; the country conquered by Pompey.
Lesgian, like Circassian, is no native name ; for the
Lesgians, like the Circassians, have no term which is at
once native and collective. Its details axe to be found
in the hilly country out of which the rivers of Daghes-
tan arise, the actual coast of the Caspian being Turk
and Pereian rather than Lesgian.
In the watershed between the Aksu and Koisu
(Turkish terms) he the Avar and Marulat tribes. Word
for word, Marulat, the plural of Marul, from Mehr a
hUl, is the Gi-eek Mavpakoi. The Marulat tribes are —
Khunsag, Kaseruk, Hidatle, Mukratle, Ansokul, Ka-
rakhle, Gumbet, Arrakan, Burtuna, Anziikh, Tebel,
Tumurga, Akhti, Rutul, Tshari, Belakan.
The Andi and Kabutsh are outlying members of this
group. So are the Dido and Uuso, whose districts lie
as far south as the upper Samur.
The Kasi-kumuk lie to the east of the Koisu, in the
Kara-kaitak district, and in part of Tabasseran.
272
LESGIAN DIALECTS.
The Akush and Kubitsh lie between the Koisu,
the upper Manas, and the Buam ; the Kura in South
Daghestan.
The Lesgians are called
By the Circassians
Hannoatslie.
Tshetsh .
Sueli.
English.
Avar.
Antshukli.
Tshari.
Andi.
Man {homo)
bihardzh
tehi
tshi
{vir)
tshi
babartsb
bahartsh
heka
Head
beter
beter
beker
mier
Hair
sab
sab
sab
zirgi
Eye
beer
beer
kharko
een
in
een
hanka
Nose
khomag
khumug
mushush
mahar
Mouth
kaal
kaal
kaal
kol
Tooth
sibi
sibi
sibi
sol vol
Tongue
maats
maats
maats
mits
Foot
POg
POg
POg
tsheka
Hand
kwer
kwer
kwer
kazhu
Sun
baak
baak
baak
mitli
Moon
moots
moots
moots
horts
Star
zoa
zoa
zabi
za
Fire
tsa
tsa
tsa
tsa
Water
htlim
htlim
khim
tlen
Stone
itso
teb
khezo
hinzo
Tree
guet
tketur
One
zo
zo
hos
zev
Two
kigo
kigo
kona
tshego
Three
shabgo
tavgo
khabgo
khlyobgu
Four
ukgo
ukkgo
ukhgo
boogu
Five
sugo
shogu
shugo
inshtuga
Six
antgo
antlo
ankhgo
ointlgu
Seven
antelgo
antelgo
antelgo
ot'khkhlugn
Eight
mitlgo
mitlgo
mikgo
beitlgu
Nine
itshgo
itsgo
itshgo
hogotshu
Ten
anntsgo
antsgo
anzgo
khotsogu.
English.
Dido.
Akush.
Kasi Kuniuk.
Man {homo)
murgul
viri
(vir) tsekvi
adim
tshu
Head
tkin
bek
bek
Hair
kadi
ash me
tshara
Eye
o/orabi
uhU
ya
Nose
mali
kank
mai
LESGIAN DIALECTS.
273
English.
Dida
Akush.
Kasi Komuk.
Moidh
halra
moll
sum an
Tooth
kitsa
tsolve
kertshi
Tongue
mets
limtsi
Tnaz
Foot
rori
kash
dzan
Hand
retk
kak
koa
Sun
buk
beri
barkh
Moon
butai
baz
bars
Star
tsa
suri
tsuka
Fire
tsi
tea
tsha
Water
htU
shin
tshin
Stone
gal
kaka
tsheru
Tree
gurushed
kaiki
marsh.
Eugtish.
CnralL
English.
CnralL
God
Kysser
Horse
belgan
Man
adam
Dog
byz
Beard
szrall
Sheep
langat
Hand
kill
Finger
tapalar
Belly
sarar
Cow
slavra
Fox
ihi
Wolf
wiUi
Foot
kokar
Mouth
damm.
I know
of no gramma
r of any
Lesgian form
speech
274 THE TSHETSH,
CHAPTER XLIV.
The Diosciirian Group.— The Tehetsh Division.— Grammatical Structure of the
Tushi.
The tribes of the next group occupy the watershed
between the Kuban and the Terek, being an inland and
central population ; a population with affinities in the
way of language which connect it with both its eastern
and its western neighbours.
This population is called by the Russians Tshetshents
by the Turks, Tsherkes, and by the Andi Lesgians, Miz-
dzhedzhi. One of their tribes is named Kisti, the Georgian
name for their area being Kisteti. Guldenstadt has
used this name as a general denomination for the whole
group ; for which he is blamed by Klaproth. The word,
however, has the merit of being pronounceable, which is
scarcely the case with the name of Klaproth 's choice,
Mizdzhedzhi. In the opinion of the present writer,
Tshetsh, the Russian word divested of its non-radical
elements, is the most eligible.
The Galga, Halha, or Ingush tribes of the Tshetsh,
in contact with the Circassians of the Little Kabarda,
are the most western members of the group. They callj
themselves Lamur, or HiUmen.
The second section is called
By themselves . . Arahte.
— the Tshetshents . AHstoyai.
— certain Turk tribes Kara-bulakh.
Tliey occupy part of the valley of the Martan.
THE TSHETSH.
275
The third section is that of the Tshetsh, or Tshet-
shents Proper, in contact with and to the east of the
Arshte.
English.
Tslietsh.
Ingiisli.
Man (homo)
steg
• stag
(r/r)
maile
mairilk
Head
korte
korte
Hair
kazheresh
beshkenesh
Eye
berik
berg
Ear
lerik
lerk
Nose
mara
mirha
Mouih
bagga
yist
Tooth
tsarglsb
tseigish
Tongue
mot
motte
Foot
kok
kog
Hand
knit
knlg
Sun
malkh
malkb
Moon
bot
but
Star
seta
seta
Fin
tze
tie
Water
khi
kbu
Stone
kera
kera
Tree
khie
keie
One
tza
tza
Two
shi
shi
Three
koe
koe
Four
di
di
Fixe
pkbi
pkbi
Six
yalkb
jKlkh
Seven
nor
nor
Eight
bar
bar
Nine
ish
ish
Ten
itt
itt.
The Tushi lie on the upper Alasani, within, or on, the
Greorgian frontier. They are the only members of the
Tshetsh group of whose language we know the gram-
matical structure ; of which the following is a sketch.
The declension of the personal pronouns is as follows.
With a slight modification it is that of the ordinary
substantive as well.
T 2
276
THE TSHETSH.
Singular.
Nominative
Genitive
I.
so
sai
Dative
son
Instructive
as
asa
Affective
AUative
BOX
sogo
Elative
soxi
Comitative
soci
Terminative
Adessive
AUative
sogomci
sogoh
sogredah
Thou.
ho
hai
hon
ah
aha
hex
hogo
hoxi
hoci
hogomci
hogoh
hogredah
He.
0
oxu
oux
oxuin
oxun
ouxna
oxus
oxuse
ouxse
oxux
oxugo
ouxgo
ouxxi
oxxi (?)
oxuci
ouxci
oxci (?)
ouxgomci
ouxgoh
ouxgore
ouxgoredab.
Plural.
Wc.
Ye.
Thou.
Nominative
wai
'txo
su
obi
Genitive
wai
'txai
sai
oxri
Dative
wain
'txon
gan
suna
ais
asi
sux
oxarn
Instructive
wai
a 'txo
oxar
Affective
waix
'txoi
oxarx
AUative
waigo
'txogo
BUgO
oxargo
Illative
wailo
'txolo
sulo
oxarlo
Elative
waixi
'tzoxi
soxi
oxarxi
Comitative
waici
'txoci
suci
oxarci
Adessive
walgoh
'txogoh
sugoh
oxargoh
Inessive (c)
wailoh
'txoloh
suloh
oxarloh
Ablative (c)
waigre
'txogre
Bugre
oxargore
oxardah
oxarlore
Elative (c)
wailre
'txolre
sulre
Convei'sive
waigoih
'txogoih
sugoih
oxargoih.
That some of these forms are no true inflections, but
appended prepositions, is speedily stated in the text
d
THE TSHETSH.
2'
Cardinal.
Orrtinal.
Cardinal.
OrdinaJ.
1. cha
dnihre
8. barl
barloge
2. m
sUge
9. iss
issloge
3. xo
xalge
10. itt
ittloge
i. ahew
dhewloge
11. cha itt
cha-ittli^e
5. pxi
pxi]ge
12. si-itt
si-ittlo£e
6. jetz
jeixloga
19. tqeexq
iqeexdc^
7. worl
worloge
20. tqa
tqalge.
This last word the author of the gi-ammar connects
with the word tqo = also, over again {audi, tvied,
erani) ; as if it were 10 doubled, which it most likely
is. In like manner tqeexc is one from twenty = uti-
deviginti : —
100= pxauztqa = 5x20.
200 = icatatq = 1 0 X 20.
300 = pxiiseatq = 15 X 20,
400 = tquaziq = 20 X 20.
500=tqaTmg pxauztqa = 20x20 +100.
1000 =sac tqauziqa icaiqa = 2x400+200.
The commonest signs of the plural number are -i and
-si. The suflBxes -^le and -bi, the latter of which is
found in Lesgian, is stated to be Georgian in origin.
No i-eason, however, against its being native is given.
In verbs, the simplest form is the imperative. Add to
this -a, and you have the infinitive. The sign of the
conditional is he or h ; that of the conjunctive le or I.
The tenses are —
(1.) Present, formed by adding -a or -u to the root :
i, e. to the imperative fonn, and changing the vowel.
(2.) Imperfect, by adding -r to the present.
(3.) Aorist, formed by the addition of -/ to the
(4.) Perfect ; the formation of which is not expressly
given, but which is said to differ from the present in not
changing the vowel. However, we have the forms acet
=nnd, X£ti= found (perf.) ; xetin = found (siOTist).
From the participle of the perfect is formed the
(5.) Pluperfect by adding -r.
(6.) The future is either the same as the present, or a
modification of it.
278 THE TSHET8H.
I give the names of those moods and tenses as I find
them. The language of the Latin grammar has, pro-
bably, been too closely imitated.
The first and second persons are formed by appending
the pronouns either in the nominative or the instructive
form.
The participle of the present tense is formed in -in ;
as dago = eat, dagu-in = eating.
The participle of the preterite ends in -no ; as xace
= hear, xac-no = heard.
There are auxiliary verbs, and no small amount of
euphonic changes, of which one, more especially, deserves
notice. It is connected with the gender of nouns. When
certain words (adjectives, or the so-called verb substan-
tive,) follow certain substantives, they change their initial.
Thus, hatxleen wa = the prophet is, hatxleensi 6a =
the prophets are, waso wa> = the brother is, wasar 6a
= the brothers are.
The nearest congeners of the Tshetsh are the Lesgians,
and, without unduly raising the value of the group, they
could be thrown in the same division. The same is
probably the case with the populations who use the next
forms of speech.
4
THR CIRCASSIAN. 279
CHAPTER XLV.
The Dioscnrian Gronp. — The Tsherkess, or CircaBsian, Divldoiu
The word Circassian is of Italian origin, and should be
pronounced as if tbe initial C were Tsh — indeed, the
word itself may be written (as it generally is written
by foreign authors) Tsherkess. It is no native term ;
but one applied by the Turks and Russians. The really
native names are Adigd and Absnd ; each denoting a
different division of the population — no name at once
collective and indigenous being known.
The Absnd occupy the sea-coast between Sukhum-kaleh
and the Straits of Yenikale, along with the valleys of
the rivers that descend fi-om the western slope of Cau-
casus. The Georgians call them Mibkhaz, and Abkhazi,
their country being Abkhazeti. This ending in -eti ap-
pears and re-appears. It is the Georgian for -land; so
that Abkhazeti is Abkhaziland. Word for word, Abkhazi
is the Greek and Latin "A^turyoi and AbascL
The Great Abaska-land, or Abkhazeti proper, extends
from the frontier of the Adig^ to MingreUa and the Suan
country — both Georgian. The six tribes of the Little
Abaska-land call themselves Tepanta.
Word for word, A-dig-e is Z^ot, the name under
which the author of the Periplus of the Euxine, written
in the reign of the Emperor Hadrian, speaks of one of
the tribes of the coast. In doing this, he places them
east of their present locality ; which is more inland, and
lies to the north of the axis of Mount Caucasus, on the
drainage of the Kuban.
280
THE CIRCASSIAN
The tribes of which the Adig^ are the representatives,
although now exclusively mountaineers, were, probably,
once spread, more or less, over the plains to the north
of the Caucasus, as well as over the hills and valleys of
the great range itself. No wonder. Both Turks and
Russians have encroached on their area, once larger than
it is at present. More than one map of the fourteenth
century carries a Circassian population from the Straits
of Yenikale to the mouth of the Don, along the whole
eastern coast of the Sea of Azof; and Klaproth believes
that the present Kosaks of these parts are, more or less,
Circassian in blood. Equally strong is the evidence to
a Circassian population in the Crimea. The upper part
of the river Belbek, in the south of that peninsula, is
called Tsherkestus, or the Circassian plain, to this day.
On it stand the remains of the Tsherkes-kyerman, or
Circassian fortress. But this may, possibly, represent
an intrusion.
The Adige dialects are (1.) the Circassian Proper;
(2.) the Besleneyevtsi ; and (3.) the Kabardinian.
English.
Tsherkess.
AbsnS.
Man {homo)
dzug
agn
{vir)
tie
katzha
Head
shha
kah
Hair
shhats
kuakokh
Eye
nne
ullah
Ear
takumah
lemha
Nose
peh
pintsa
Mouth
dzhe
utsha
Tooth
dzeh
pitz
Tongue
bsa
ibz
Foot
tie
shepeh
Hand
ia
meppe
Sun
dgeh
marra
Moon
masah
mis
Star
vhagoh
yetshua
Fire
mapfa
mza
Water
pseh
dzeh
Stone
miweh
kau
Tree
dzig
adzh
THE CIRCASSIAN. 281
Engbsh.
Tsherkesi.
Ahsn6.
Om
ae
seka
Two
ta
nkh-ha
Three
shi
khpa
Four
pUe
pshil]*
Five
tkha
khoba
Six
khi
ziba
Serea
Me
bishba
Eight
SK
akhba
Nine
bgu
ishba
Ten
pshe
zheba.
The languages of Caucasus have no near congeners ;
or, rather, their nearest congeners are remote. This is
the case both on the north and the south side of the
range. The Tsherkess stands as much by itself as the
Armenian ; the Armenian as the Tsherkess. No wonder.
In the first place, the relations of the area are only bi-
lateral ; i. e. there are no frontagers on the Euxine, and
the intrusion has been inordinate.
And it beofan betimes on its northern side. Centuries
before the time of Herodotus the influx of Asiatic tribes
into Europe had set in ; and the level plains to the
north of the Caucasus lay in their way, either as roads
or as halting-places. The result of these movements
was the enormous displacement represented by the term
European Sci/thia. Concurrent with this would be the
obliteration of anything in the shape of a northern
prolongation^of the Tsherkess and its congeners. Nor
would any approach to the original situs be obtained
until we reached the Mordvin frontier. Here we expect
(and find) Caucasian affinities ; but they are (as we expect
them to be) few and faint.
Hence, the apex of the Dioscurian area is what a
botanist would call tnincate; i. e. it terminates ab-
ruptly along its whole northern boundary.
On each side, too, it ends abruptly. This is because
it has the Caspian to the east, and the Black Sea to the
west.
282 THE CIRCASSIAN.
All the languages, however, are, there or thereabouts,
in situ; a condition suggested by the mountainous cha-
racter of the district.
On the south, the Persian, by which the Dioscurian
area is bounded, is an encroaching language. On the
south-east there is the Turk of Asia Minor, and, before
that, there was the Greek. Originally, both the Georgian
and Armenian must have extended much further in this
direction. The ethnographical archaeology, however, of
Asia Minor is obscure.
With such geographical conditions the Dioscurian
tongues seem much more isolated than they really are.
Ugrian elements, however, have long been recognized
in them ; and lately Tibetan — this being what the sihis
and the displacements suggest.
On the other hand, the Persian affinities of the
Iron have long been known ; and it is possible that
they are closer than the present writer makes them.
Bopp has written upon those with the Georgian —
though the conclusion at which he arrives, viz. that the
latter language is what is called Indo-European, is denied
by the present writer. If the Georgian be Indo-Eu-
ropean, so many other tongues must be in the same
category, as to raise the value of the class indefinitely,
and to make it no class at all.
Upon the Persian and Armenian, more will be said
in the sequel.
THE MALAY.
283
CHAPTER XLVI.
The Malay and its more immediate Congeners. — The Tsliampa. — Samang. —
Nicobar. — Silong. — Malay of the Malayan Peninsula. — Of Sumatra. —
The Rejang and Lampong. — Of the Malagas! of Madagascar. — Of the
small Islands off Sumatra. — From Java to Timor.
We now return to the frontier of the Mon of Pegu, the
Kam of Kambojia, and the Thay of Siam. The con-
tinuity, which once existed between the first two, has
been broken by the intrusion of the third. Hence,
the forms of speech belonging to the Malayan Penin-
sula have no longer their nearest congeners with which
they can be compared. This gives them the appearance
of comparative isolation — but only the appearance.
If we treat the Malayan Peninsula as an island, all
the languages of the group now coming under notice are
insular, or, at any rate. Oceanic : with the single excep-
tion of the Tshampa, spoken along a strip of land on
the coast of Kambojia.
English.
Man
Head
Eye
Mouth
Sun
Moon
Star
Tshampa.
orang
ako
mats
chabui
naharai
bnlan
bintang
Engliah.
Sky
Fire
Water
River
Sea
Stone
Tshampa.
langi
apoi
aya
sungai
laut
batao.
Of the Peninsular forms of speech the most northern
for which we have a specimen — Ls the Samang. It is
also the rudest ; the men who speak it being so dark in
respect to then- complexion as to have been classed
among the Negritos.
284
NICOBAR. — SILONQ.
English.
Jurn Samang.
Kedali Samang
Man
teunkal
tumkal
Woman
mabei
badon
Head
kala
kay
Eye
med
med
Nose
muk
muk
Mouth
temut
ban
Tongue
litig
Tooth
lemun
yus
Ear
pol
anting
Hand
tong
chas
Foot
chau
Blood
koad
cheong
Bove
gehe
aieng
Sky
kael
Sun
mitkakok
mitkakok
Moon
bulan
kachik
Star
bintang
Fire
us
us
Water
hoh
bateac
Tree
kuing
chuk.
Then come the languages of the Nieobar Islands —
Nicobar and Carnicobar ; of which all that can be said
is, that they have Malay elements. Their place here is
provisional.
English.
Carnicobar.
Teressa.
Nancowry.
Man (homo)
bayu
dzhubayu
Head
goseh
Hair
kheui
liebok
Eye
olmat
Ear
nang
Nose
^ ehelme
nihang
moah
Mouth
monoi
meno
Hand
genas
Foot
gundron
Blood
mam
vhoa
Sun
huik
Moon
tingset
hahae
khaset.
jn those of the Mergui Archipelago ; e. g. that of Sik
English.
Silong.
English.
Silong.
Man
mesa
Ear
tengah
Head
atak
Tongue
klek
Hair
dutak
Tooth
lepadn
Eye
matat
Hand
langan
I
THE MALAY PROPER. 285
Englsh.
Silong.
English.
Silong.
Foot
kakai
Fire
apoi
Sun
matai-alai
Water
awaen
Moon
biilan
Stone
liatoe
Star
bitaek
Tree
ki.
The Malay Proper, as far as several important points
in its grammar go, is by no means very widely separated
from the languages of the stock to which the Thay
and its congeners belong. As far as the absence of de-
clension and conjugation are concerned, both are in the
same predicament. The Malay denotes gender by the
addition of words meaning fnale or female ; number
by that of terms signif3nng inany ; case by prepositions
— many of which are themselves nouns. The degrees
of adjectives are equally expressed by circumlocutions.
Verbs exhibit, as the equivalent to the signs of tense
and mood, numerous separable and inseparable particles.
Sometimes a singular noun is made plural by simple
reduplication, as orang orang—men.
The phonesis, however, which gives so monosyllabic
a character to the languages of the Continent, changes
its character in the Archipelago. The vowel sounds are
simple. Like those of the consonants, they are clean
and clear as far as they go — which is not fer. The
sounds of the so-called aspirates, /, v, th, dh, sh, zh, are
wanting — though the latter exist as compound sibilants,
tsh and dzh — a phenomenon found elsewhere. The
semivowels and liquids are prominent. So is the nasal
ng (as in king), and the Spanish n. The former is often
initial — which it never is in English. A Malay, for
instance, says ang ; but he can also say nga — the
sound of the ng remaining the same in both cases.
The concurrence of consonants, in the same syllable,
when both are mutes, is avoided — just as it was in the Fin.
The majority of the themes are dissyllabic, with the
accent on the penultimate. All this gives the conditions
of a soft and melodious language, with an easy intona-
tion, and few harsh combinations. At the same time
(as aforesaid) the inflection is at a minimum.
286
THE MALAY PROPER.
I am unable to give the exact locality from which the
Malay Proper was derived. It is believed to have
spread from Menangkabaw in Sumatra ; but Mr. Crau-
frird remarks that the Menangkabaw form of speech,
though truly Malay, was somewhat less so than some of
the dialects of the Peninsula. The difference, however,
between the Malay of commerce spoken with a difference
in a given locality and the true provincial dialects of the
same, has not been sufficiently attended to. The Malay of
commerce is certainly, in many senses, a lingua franca.
In distinction to the proper languages of the islands, it
is spoken in Java, in the Moluccas, in Borneo, in Celebes,
and elsewhere. It does not seem to have altered much
since the time of Pigafetta, who, as a companion of
Magalhaens, collected a Malay vocabulary. Its literature
is scanty, consisting of little more than songs, tales,
and unimportant histories. The language, however, of
all is the same ; and few archaic words occur. There
are no inscriptions, no old manuscripts, no native al-
phabet— the one in use being the Arabic.
Of foreign elements, the Sanskrit, the Arabic, and the
Telinga are the most important. Though rich in little
songs and lyrics, the Malay metres are few and rude :
the poetical element consisting in the idea rather than
in the versification. The language boasts no classic.
English.
Malay.
English.
Malay.
Man {homo)
orang
River
kaU
{vir)
lake laki
sungi
Woman
perampuan
Hill
gunung
Head
kax)kala
bukit
Eye
matu
Sun
mata hari
Nose
idung
Moon
bulan
Mouth
mulut
Star
bintarg
Tooth
gigi
Day
hari
Ear
talinga
Night
malam
Hair
rambut
I
aku
Hand
tangan
Thou
angkau
Foot
kaki
One 0
satu
Land
tanali
Ten
sapulu.
Sea
laut
I
B ATT AS, ETC. 287
But though not a literarj', the Malay is, as aforesaid,
pre-eminently a commercial language. Hence, the de-
tails of the provincial dialects, as spoken by the Orang
Benua, or the Men of the Gounti'y, in the Peninsula,
though very important, are nearly unknown.
One of these is the Jakun.
English.
Jakun.
English.
Jakno.
Head
nlah
Water
yeho
Hair
bnlu-nlah
Earth
bnmi
Hand
kokot
Shine
sbongkor
Hay
trang
Sun
mata-hari
Head
mago
Moon
hantu-jaliat
White
Bleuk
halhnt
hedjeaow
Star
cheoDg.
The gambler seekers, like the Katodi of India, have a
sort of slang of their own.
The occupants of the extreme North of Sumatra are
the Orang Achi, or men of Achin ; a town once fe-mous
and powerful, but now reduced, though still independent
of the Dutch. The political limits of the State are un-
known, or undefined. It is only certain that they have
been contracted. The Dutch have encroached on the
West ; whilst, on the East, small independent States have
been formed — Langkat, Balu China, DUi Sirdang, Batu
Bara, and Asahan. The nearer the town, the greater
the population. Of all the Sumatrans, the Orang Achi, or
Achinese, are the most Ai'ab. I do not mean by this
that their Mahometanism is either purer, or more ex-
elusive than that of the other Malays ; inasmuch as
upon this point I have no accurate information. I
only mean that Aiab manners and Arab modes of
thought are more conspicuous in Achin than else-
where. The amount of Arab blood, in the way of in-
termixture, is probably in proportion to the other Arab
elements.
South of the Orang Achi he the Orang Batta, or
Battas, a population which has commanded more of the
288
BATTAS, ETC.
attention of ethnologists than any other occupants of
Sumatra. This is because they are cannibals ; and can-
nibals of a peculiar kind, under peculiar circumstances.
They are cannibals and yet not Pagans. They are can-
nibals, and yet not without an alphabet. They are
cannibals with either the germ or the fragments of a
literature.
In respect to creed, the Battas are in the same class
with some of the Orang Benua, who have adopted a
certain amount of Hinduism without abandoning their
original pagan creed. The exact proportion of the two
superstitions is not easily ascertained. The Battas, how-
ever, seem to be both more Indian, and more Pagan,
than the Johore tribes.
Englisli.
Atshin.
Singkal Batta.
Pakpak Batta,
Toba Batta.
Banjak Batta.
Man
orang
dyelma
delma
dyolma
atha •
Head
uluy
takal
dagal
ulu
ulu
Hair
ook
buk
boe
obuk
bo
Eye
mata
mata
mata
mata
mata
Nose
idong
igung
ehgu
igung
igong
Mouth bawa
bawa
baba
baba
baba
Tooth
gigoi
eppen
eppe
mgiengi
yeng
Ear
uluyung
tshopping
penggen
prengol
telinga
Neck
takui
gaharong
rau
kukong
lingau
Breast
dakda
tandan
tanden
andora
arop
Ai-m
dzharroe
tangan
tangan
botohon
gau
Hand
tappa dzharroe lappa tangan
Leg
kakie
nehe
paha
ha6-haS
Foot
udzhung, kakie tappa nehe
palan paha
pat
Blood
darra
darro
daroh
moedar
Bird
tshitshim
manu
pedo
pidung
mauo.
Fish
ilkait
ekan
ikan
dekee
ennas
Dog
assiu
biezang
pangeia
bieyang
assu
Hog
bui
babie
babie
babie
Ox
lemau
lembu
lembong
lomon
dzhawie
Sand
annu
grosiele
grassie
horsiek
Stone
batu
batu
batu
batu
batu
Earth
tano
tano
tano
tano
leppel
Fire
apui
apie
apie
apie
ahee
Water
yeyer
leiy
leiy
oek
oee
Sky
kilet
kilat
kilat
porhas
kilat
I
THE KORINCHI.
289
English
Sun
. Atshin.
matoroi
Singkal Batta.
mato arie
Pakpak Batta. Toba Batta. Banjak Batta.
mata harie mata-ni-harie mata bolal
Star
Moon
bintang
boluan
bintang
bulan
bintang
bnlan
battang
bulan
bintaa
bawa
I
olon
aka
kam
aho
rehu
Thou
deku
rona
rene
ho
no
He
We
dzhie
nlnn alan
iya
rita
kama
yebana
hamie
dio
memainam bane
Thy
dzhie dzhie
adiaa
nasieda
One
sa
sada
sara
sada
assa
Two
dawa
duwa
dna
dua
daa
Three
Ho
telu
telu
telu
telu
Four
Five
puet
liman
ampet
limai
ompat
liema
opat
liema
ampe
lima
Six
nam
anam
enam
anam
anam
Seven
Eight
tadzhu
lappan
pitu
walo
pitu
ualok
pita
oala
fitu
walu
Nine
Ten
sekumng
pulu
siwa
sapnia
siwa
sapula
idea
sappula
siwa
fulu.
The Singkal, Pakpak, and Toba of the preceding
tables are dialects of the Batta. The Banjak is spoken
by the aborigines of a small island off the coast, who
must be distinguished from a concurrent population of
settlers from Atshin.
The Malays of Menaiigkahaw occupy the most fa-
voured parts of Sumatra ; viz. the drainage of the
Indrajiri and Lake Sinkara. In one portion of their area
the population is reckoned at 128 to the square mile;
in another at 300, and even 400 ; an estimate which
gives 385,000 for the whole Menangkabaw district.
Continued southward the mountain range of the
Menangkabaw Malays becomes more and more imprac-
ticable ; so that the details of its population are
unknown. It is only known that it is Malay ; and
that it is thinly spread. Wilier makes a separate
division of it, containing the Malays of Sapvlo Biixi
Bandar, and the Malays of Gunong Sungu Pagu.
South of these lies the country of the Koi^nchi,
who differ from the Battas in being Mahometans, and
from the Menangkabaw Malays in using an alphabet of
Indian, rather than Arabic, origin — an alphabet not
u
290
THE KORINCHI.
identical with that of the Battas, though not unlike it
in detail, and evidently of the same general character.
Whether the following list represent a Malay ; a native
Sumatran, dialect, pure and simple ; a native Sumatran
dialect modified by Malay influences ; or, so much Malay
modified in Sumatra, is uncertain. The want of data for
the solution of this question has just been indicated. The
difference of alphabet tends to disconnect it with the
Malay proper.
English.
Korinchi.
English.
Koriuchi.
Head
kapala
Fire
apui
Eyes
mata
Watei-
aiyah
Note
idong
Earth
tana
Teeth
gigi
Swine
jukut
Hand
tangan
Bird
buhong
Blood
darah
Egg
tetur
Day
ari, hari
Fish
ikal
Night
mala
Sun
mata-awi
Dead
mati
Moon
bula
White
putih
Star
binta.
Black
ita
The Southern Sumatran s, so far as they are of pure
blood, are in the same category with the Korinchi ; i. e.
they are Mahometans with alphabets different from
that of the Koran, alphabets suggestive of a prior
connection with India. Of these there are two ; the
Rejang and the Lampong, allied in general character,
yet different in detail ; allied, too, in general character to
the Korinchi and Batta — different, however, in detail.
(1)
English.
Rejang.
English
Bead
ulau
Sun
Eyes
matty
Moon
Nose
iong
Fire
Haxr
bu
Water
Teeth
aypiri
Earth
Hand
tangan
White
Day
bili-beeng
Black
Night
bili-kalemun
Rejang.
matti-bili
bulun
opoay
beole
pita
putiah
melu.
m
THE REJANG AND LAJIPONG.
291
(2.)
English.
Lampong.
Head
uluh
Eyti
mattah
Nose
iong
Hair
buho
Tttth
ipun
Hand
chuln
Day
ranni
English.
Sun
Moon
Fire
Water
Earth
White
Black
Lampong.
mata-ranni
balan
appay
wye
tanah
mandak
mallam.
Night binghi
The Rejang alphabet is used by the Orang Serawi, and
the Orang Palembang ; the latter being only partially
Sumatran. Javanese settlements now become numerous
and important ; and it is Javanese blood with which the
proper Palembang population is largely crossed.
According to Zollinger the Lampong language is no
original tongue, but a mixture of all the languages of its
neighbourhood on a Malay basis. I doubt whether this
be the exact explanation of the fact of its containing a
notable proportion of Sunda, Javanese, and BugLs words,
and but few peculiar ones. It is, probably, more or
less, a transitional form of speech. It is strongly
accented ; words which are totally different from each
other in meaning being distinguished only by either
the quantity of the syllables, or their tone. This makes
it difficult to write in European letters.
We now ask whether analogues of the rudest Orang
Benua are to be found in Sumatra. The answer will be in
the affirmative. That there is something older than the
civilization of the Mahometan Malays is clear. There are
the influences suggested by the Batta, Korinchi, Eejang,
and Lampong alphabets. ACore than this, there are half-
Pagan and half-Indian elements in the creeds of the Battas
themselves. This, however, is scarcely the exact parallel
to the true aboriginal condition of the rudest — the very
rudest — Peninsular tribes. What is there that represents
Sumatra before the advent of the Indians ? There are
two wild populations, one in the northern, one in the
southern parts of the island, unknown to each other, and
probably speaking mutually unintelligible languages.
U 2
292
LUBU AND ULU.
The men of the northern division are known under
the name, which the Battas give them, of Orang Lubu.
They are found up the Mandau river above Siak.
The southern aborigines are the Orang Kubu ; so-
called by the people of Palembang, occupants of the
jungle, rude and naked.
For the former we have specimens in two dialects.
English.
Lubu.
Ulu.
Man
obang
orak
lokiloki
lokloki
Woman
paradusi
pedjussi
Head
kapolo
kopolo
Eye
moto
motto
Nose
hedong
idung
Movih
mnli
montshong
Tooth
gigi
Ear
talingo
leliengo
Hair
abok
ebo
Hand
palakpak
tangan
Foot
palakpak
tapa
Land
tana
Sea
loi
River
batang ao
aiyer
Hill
tandzhong
gunung
Sun
motobi
motori
Moon
bulen
bulet
Star
bintang
bientang
Bay
obi
ari
Night
kalam
mallem
I
oku
oku
You
aka
enko
One
satu
esc
Ten
sapulu
sepuln.
Now follow, for the small islands off Sumatra, the
Maruwi and Nias (closely allied), and the Poggi, or
Mantawi, forms of speech.
English.
Mcun
Head
Bye
Nose
Hair
Maruwi.
Nias.
Poggi.
alia
niha
mantaow
ulu
huhguh
ootai
matta
mata
matah
iahong'
ighu
assak
ihong
bu
bu
all
Whence the name of the people and the islands.
SMALL ISLANDS OFF SUMATRA.
293
Eaglish.
Maniwi.
NiM.
P<«gL
Teeth
mhe^Xi
ifoh
chone
ahin
Hand
anaka
tanga
kavaye
Blood
ndoh
logow
Day
hallal
mancheep
Night
tMUlgi
bongi
geb-geb
White
matti
mate
mataye
Blade
adiog
afufii
mablow
Bead
mntome
aitah
mapacha
Fire
aval
alitah
ovange
Water
wai
idanaa
jojar
Earth
•wa
tanuh
polack
Swine
bacha
baka
bavi
babai
Bird
manno
manok
junah
fohfoh
Egg
antil
ajaloh
agoloh
Pish
nass
ia
eibah
Sun
matta
ballal
mata-laoh-chalu
Moon
bowah
bawa
lago
Star
bantun
onob u'dafi
panyean.
The last of these minor islands is that of Enganho,
on the southern side of the eastern end of Sumatra. It
stands more alone than any of the preceding ones.
Enslish.
Enganbo.
English.
r.nganho.
Man
taka
Water
lewo lewo
Head
oeloe
Stone
bakoebakoe
Hair
boeloe
Sand
hawo hawo
Eye
bakka
Fish
kwan
Ear
kaleha
Bird
w6o weo
Nose
fanoe
I
oe&
Mouth
hanre
liou
bare6
Tooth
kaa
He
bohej
Hand
a&
One
dahei
Finger
gaheho
Tvoo
adoea
Belly
koedei
Three
agoloe
Foot
afo
Four
aopa
Sun
kahaa
Five
alima
MOOH
moena
Sis
akiakia
Day
Uopo
Seven
alimei-adoea
Night
tikodo ilopo
Eight
agoloe
Earth
tehopo
Nine
aopa
Sea
parowa
Ten
tahapoeloe.
Fire
howi howi
294 MADAGASGAR.
Now comes an area which, as a phenomenon in the
distribution and dispersion of languages, is the most re-
markable of all on the earth's surface. As a general rule,
the populations and languages of islands are represented
by those of the nearest continent. With the exception of
Japan, where a continental congener of the Japanese is
wholly wanting, and Iceland, which has taken its language
from Norway rather than from Greenland, this is always
the case. Britain dates from Gaul : the Canaries from
the opposite coast of Africa : Sumatra from the Malayan
Peninsula : Newfoundland from North America.
In conformance with this, Madagascar ought to have
been peopled from Africa, and the Malagasi (or language
of Madagascar) ought to find its nearest congeners on
the coasts of Zanzibar and Mozambique. But it does
not. The Malagasi is, essentially, a Malay language ;
and that it is so has long been known. The learned
Reland knew it two centuries ago.
Whether it were the first language spoken on the
island is another question.
There is no lack of statements to the effect that a
second population, with black skins, crisp hair, and
African features, is to be found in the island. But this
may be found, to some extent at least, in the true
Malay islands of the Indian Archipelago : and, in many
cases where it is not found, it has been invented. I
lay, then, but little stress on it.
Of African elements in the Malagasi none have been
pointed out : though it should be added that few, witli
adequate knowledge, have made a search for them. Of
the language itself, I believe that the dialects and sub-
dialects are few. If so, we have a fact in favour of its
comparatively recent introduction. This, however, is a
point upon which our data are deficient.
The Malagasi grammar is much more complex and
elaborate than the Malay, or (changing the expression)
the Malay is much less elaborate and complex than the
Malagasi. Humboldt has drawn attention to this, and
i
MADAGASCAR.
295
suggested that it is in the Philippine division of the
Malay group that the origin of the Malagasi is to be
sought. Mr. Craufurd has urged this as an argument
against the reality of the affinity. It is, certainly, a
fact which requires explanation — perhaps confirmation.
English.
Malagasi.
English.
HalagasL
Man
ulu
Smne
lambu
Head
luha
Bird
vurong
Eye
maso
Sum
aduli
Nose
urong
Moon
fia
Hair
vulu
maaso-anru
Teeth
nifi
vula
Hand
tango
Star
vinta
Blood
ra
Ont
issa
Day
anru
TlBO
me
Night
halem
Three
tela
Dead
matti
Pour
e&t
White
futi
Five
lime
Black
mainti
Six
ene
Fire
afu
Seeen
fita
Watet-
rann
Eight
▼ala
Earth
tane
Nine
siva
Stone
vatu
Ten
fahi.
The western third of Java is the area of the Sunda
language ; the language of the district which gives its
name to the Sunda Straits. The little that is written
in the Sunda is written in the Javanese alphabet : the
language itself being less cultivated, less ceremonial, and
less studied by Europeans than the Javanese.
The Javanese, closely allied to the Malay Proper, is
the most cultivated of all the tongues of the Archipelago.
It has long been written ; and that in a native alphabet.
At present the creed is Mahometan : yet the alphabet,
along with the literary influences, is other than
Arabic.
The Ngoko, however, or natural vernacular, is used
only between equals in rank. For the purposes of
ceremony there is an artificial form of speech called the
Bhasa Krama. This, with most especial caj*e, avoids
such terms as are not merely vulgar in the ordinary
296
JAVANESE.
acceptation of the word but current in common life;
for which it substitutes paraphrases, archaisms, introduc-
tions from the Kawi, the Malay, and the like. In
epistolary correspondence the ceremonial language is used
even by superiors addressing their inferiors. In books
it is mixed up with the Ngoko.
English.
Sunda.
Ordinary Javanese.
Basd Krima
Man (vir)
mandsa
manfisa
jalmi
lalaki
lanang
jaler
pa-megat
jalma
uwong
tiang
Woman
awewek
wadon
istri
Head
pulu
andas
sirah
sirah
mustaka
mustaka
Eye
mata
mata
maripat
panon
tingal
Ear
cheuli
knping
talingan
karba
Nose
irung
chungua
ru
pangembu
irung
grana
Tooth
untu
untu
waja
Tongue
letah
elat
lidah
Hand
panangan
tangan
astah
Foot
suku
sikil
suka
Sky
langit
langit
akasa
Sun
raetapoek
srengenge
suria
Moon
bulan
wulan
sasi
rembutan
Star
benteung
lintang
Earth
taneu
bumi
buntala
Stone
batu
watu
sela
Water
chai
banui
toya
Fire
seuneu
geni
latu
brama.
The learned language of Java — the analogue of the
Sanskrit in India and the Pali in Ava — is known under
the name of Kawi; a language in which there are
numerous inscriptions and, at least, one long poem — the
Bratayuda founded on the Sanskrit Mahabarata. The
opinion of Sir Stamford Raffles, who first gave pro-
minence to this remarkable dialect, was that the Kawi
JAVANESE.
297
language was Sanskrit modified by the vernacular Ja-
vanese. The opinion of Wilhehn von Humboldt, an
opinion in which Mr. Craufurd agrees, is exactly the
reverse. It makes the Kawi neither more nor less than
archaic Javanese with an inordinate intermixture of
Sanskrit.
The island Madura gives another variety : a variety
felling into two divisions, the Madura Proper and the
Suraenap. The language of Bali is closely allied to the
Javanese. The alphabet is Javanese also. Bali, how-
ever, differs both from Java, and all the other islands
of the Archipelago, in being, at the present moment^
what it was before the extension of Mahometanism to
Sumatra — Braminic and Hindu. The Kawi language in
Bali is what the Arabic — the language of the Koran —
is in Java. Nor is the native literature unimportant.
It is partly Kawi, partly Balinese — just as, in the middle
ages, the literature of Italy was partly Latin, partly
Italian.
English.
Madura.
Man (rtr)
manoea
laki
oreng
Woman
bini
Head
chetak
Eye
mata
Ear
kopeng
Note
elong
Tooth
gigi
Tongue
jila
Hand
tanang
Snmeoap.
lalaki
oreng
bibini
chet^
sirah
mata
socha
kopeng
kuna
elong
gnma
Risi
vaja
jila
elad
tanang
BalL
mandsa
lanang
muani
janma
wong
histri
tanggak
tandas
sirah
mata
pening'alan
kaping
kama
cbiuigali
g»g>
l&yah
elat
tanang
298
8
»
3UMBAWA.
English.
Madura.
Sumennp.
Bali.
Fo^
soko
soko
suko
Sky
lang'it
lang'e
lang'it
ankasa
Sun
ngaieh
are
mata-nai
suria
Moon
bulan
bulan
bulan
sasih
Star
bintang
bintang
bintang
Earth
tana
tana
gumi
bumi
bumi
Stone
bato
batu
batu
Fire
apoi
apoi
api
geni
Water
aing
aing
yeh
toya.
The language of Lombok — the Sasak — belongs to
the same group as the Bali. Lombok, however, is
Mahometan. What the Sasak contains in the way
of literature is unknown.
Sumbawa contains two written and one unwritten form
of speech. The Sionihawa Proper is written in the Bugis
character. So is the Bima. This latter language, how-
ever, has also an alphabet of its own — little known,
embodying next to nothing of a literature and bearing
a general resemblance to those of Celebes and Sumatra.
In Sumbawa the decided Malay character undergoes a
modification and Bugis elements become somewhat
prominent. The Sumbawa, however, and the Bima are
as little Bugis, as they are Malay or Javanese, dialects.
English.
Sasak.
Bima.
Sumbawa.
Man (homo)
kelepe
dho
tau
(vir)
mama
dho-mone-mone
lake-laki
Woman
nina
dho-siwe
perampuan
Head
6tali
tlita
ulu
Eyes
m&ta
m&da
mata
Nose
imng
ilu
ing
Hair
bulu
honggo
welui
Teeth
gigi
woi
isi
BeUy
tian
loko
baboa
Hand
ima
rima
umang
Foot
nai
ede
aje
SUMBAWA.
I^Dgbsh.
Sasak.
Bima.
Snmbava.
Blood
geti
rah
dara
Day
kelelie
mrai
iso
Sim
mota-jel
u liroh
fdnghar
Moon
nian
wnrah
wnlan
Star
bintang
ntara
bintoing
Fire
api
api
api
Water
ai
oi
jerie
Stone
bata
\rada
bata
One
sata
sabaa
sata
Two
doa
lua
doa
Three
tela
toin
tiga
Four
mpat
opat
ampat
Five
lima
lima
lima
Six
nam
ini
anam
Seren
^ta
pida
tfiju
Eight
litfa
w&nt
delapan
Nine
siws
chewi
Rambelan
Tenr
sapuln
fiampnlu
sapuln.
299
The Tinibora (perhaps, the same word as Timor)
known only through a short vocabulary, is one of the
first of languages of the Indian Archipelago in which
Kelaenonesian elements were detected ; several of its
words being Australian.
£nglUh.
Timbora.
English.
Timbora.
Man {homo)
dob
Star
kingkong
{rir)
sia-in
Fire
inaing'ang
Woman
onayit
Water
Tiaino
Head
kokore
Stone
ilah
Eyes
saingfore
One
sina
Note
saisg kome
Two
kalae
Hair
bulu
Three
rub
Teeth
sontong
.Four
kude-in
Belly
Eomore
Fire
kuteliu
Hand
taintu
Six
bata-in
Foot
maimpo
Seven
knmba
Blood
kiro
Eight
koneho
Day
kongkong
Nine
lali
Sun
inkong
Ten
sarene.
Moon
mang'ong
Flores, or Ende, gives, according to Craufiird, no less
than six forms of speech — the Ende, the Mangarei, the
Kio, the Roka, the Konga, and the Galeteng. I only
know the first two through any vocabulary. Like the
300
FLORES.
Timbora, the Mangarei has Australian elements. The
Malay and Bugis words decrease. Neither is the lan-
guage written. We are beyond the influences of Maho-
metanism as a predominant religion. We are (in the
present state of our knowledge) beyond the influences of
India, and its literature.
Englisk
Ende.
English.
Ende.
Man (homo)
dau
Star
dala
(vir)
uli-dau
Fire
api
Woman
ana-dau
Water
wai
Head
ula
Stone
batu
Eye
ana-mata
One
sa
Nose
niju
Two
zua
Hair
fu
Three
telu
Teeth
nihi
Four
wutu
Belly
toka
Five
lima
Hand
lima
Six
lima-a
Foot
wahi
Seven
lima-zua
Blood
raha
Fight
ruabutu
Day
giah
Nine
trasa
Swn
reza
Ten
Babulu.
Moon
0
2-)
English.
Mangarei.
English.
Mangarei.
Man
amunu
Swine
bai
Head
jahe
Bird
olo
Eye
nana
Egg
asowa
mate
Fish
appi
Nose
mini
Moon
uru
Hair
jahe
Star
ipi-berri
Teah
wasi
One
isaku
Hwttd
tana-raga
Two
lolai
Day
usa
Three
lotitu
Night
gamu
Four
lopah
humu
Five
lima
White
buti
Six
daho
Black
metam
Seven
fitu
Fire
atta
Eight
apa
Waiter
ira
Nine
siwa
EaHh
tana
Ten
turu.
The language of Omhay is known through a single
vocabulary. It agrees with the Timbora and Mangarei
SAVU.
301
in the fact of Australian words having been detected
in it.
Rotti, of which the language
fectly, is more Timor than aught
scarcely a dialect of that language
The same applies to the Solor.
is known but imper-
else. It is, however,
English.
Hair
Head
Blood
Neck
Hand
Sun
Moon
Star
Solor.
rata
kotang
me joe
wulin
liman
rarak
wulan
etak
English.
Solor.
Tree
pokang
Fire
apeh
Man {homo)
atadiekan
(vir)
bailikej
Eye
matan
Ear
tiloDg
Tooth
iepang.
The same to the Savu.
English.
Head
Eye
Nose
Hand
Blood
Day
Night
Black
Dead
Fire
Water
Earth
Swine
Fish
Bird
Egg
Sun
Moon
Star
Sam. 0*t diaUet.)
naka
naka-fana
n&h
namanas
mesinokan
mnti
matin
hai
owai
&ta
koloh
tainoh
ekan
nainoh
folnn
fafinomi
SaTn. (ind dimUet.)
kata
kata
matta
namata
ingutTi
wnlaba
wolaba
dupudee
bulla
aee
ailei
voorai
woTadoo
Tare
doleelah
manoo
dolloo
ika
lodo
lodo
WIUTOO
wera
wetn
302
SAVU.
En^h.
Savu. {\tt dialect.)
Savu. (2nd dialed.)
One
aisa
usse
Two
nua
Ihua
Three
tenn
tuUoo
Powr
hah
uppah
Five
lema
lumme
Six
naen
unna
Seven
petu
pedu
Eight
panu
ami
Nine
saioh
saio
Ten
boaisa
singooroo.
For Timor itself, although we have an amount of
specimens of the most prevalent language, we are greatly
in want of details, in the way of dialects. Yet there
are few countries in which such details are more needed.
Timor is the most eastern island of its range — as its name
(which means eastern) implies. This makes it the nearest
point in the ordinary Asiatic world to Australia. If
this fact stood alone, it would be important. Still more
important is it when taken in conjunction with the
Australian elements in the Timbora, the Mangarei, and
the Ombay vocabularies. For every one of them in these,
we may expect two in Timor, i. e. in the languages
which are the analogues to the Jakun in the Malay
Peninsula, or the Ulu and Lobo in Sumatra. Such,
doubtless, exist. What they are has to be learned.
English.
Timur.
Manatoto.
Eotti.
Man
aima
loh
ulu
etobu
hahalohi
Head
ulu
langa
naka
garain
Eyes
mata
matak
mata
Nose
enur
enol
pana
Hair
fuhk
garerun
langa-bulu
Teeth
nehan
nihi
nesi
resiel
Blood
rahan
rahan
dah
Day
loron
lailon
laido-anok
NigJU
halan
hainin
makah-atuk
Dead
matai
matai
mati
White
mutin
rabuti
fulah
Black
maitan
mamaitan
mati
TIMOR.
303
English.
Timur.
Manatoto.
Rofti.
Fire
ahi
amarin
hai
Water
vehi
vehi
owai
Earth
rahi
raia
dahai
Stone
fatuk
hahe
batu
Swine
faM
hati
bafi
Bird
manoh
manoh
man
foheli
hoi
^99
tolon
tailon
tolon
Fish
nahan
basi
ehan
ehak
Sun
loroh
lairon
lailoh
neno
Moon
fulan
ulun
bulak
funan
Star
fetoen
k'fun
atah
dtt
One
eida
nehi
aisa
Two
ma
erua
dua
Three
tolo
etellu
tellu
Fo^ir
haat
ehaat
haa
Five
lema
lema
lema
Six
naen
naen
naen
Seven
lietu
hetu
hetu
Eight
walu
walu
falu
Nine
sioh
sioh
sioh
Ten
sapulu
sapulu
sapulu.
With the following
specimens from the
small islands
east of Timor, I conclude the notice of the
languages of
the present division.
English.
Kissa.
Baha.
Keh Doulan.
Wokan.
Man
mohoni
amenmeni
bunran
lesi
Woman
mavek
wata
wat-waat
kodar
Head
ulu-wakhu
otone
uhu
fuku
Hair
munikon
murutne
morun
kuku
Hand
liman
liman
liman
lima
Foot
ehin
logami
chaa
ebahi
Eyes
makan
makne
matan
mata
Nose
iruni
irinne
mirun
juri
Mouth
miran
norinne
ngoen
fafahi
Ears
kilin
telinne
arun
tahari
Stm
leri
leher
leher
larat
Moon
woUi
voile
huan
fulan
Star
kaleor
tiola
nahr
tawar
Earth
noha
noha
noho
fafa
Fire
ai
Water
oira
iera
"wair
waya.
304
KISSA AND MALAY.
Of these, the Kissa has commanded attention from
the character of its letter-changes when compared with
the Malay.
English.
M.lay.
Kissa.
Stone
batu
wahku
Sea
teBft
kahe
Eye
mata
makan
Dead
mati
maki
Heart
ati
akin
Heavy
brat
werek
Broken
patah
pahki
Ear
telinga
kilin
East
timur
kimur
Hog
babi
wawr
Feather
bubi
wula
Hot
panas
manah
Wrong
sala
hala
Hard
kras
kereh
MUk
susu
huhu
Wash
baso
baha
New
bharu
wohru.
In this prevalence of the sound of h we have a
Polynesian characteristic.
BORNEO. 305
CHAPTER XLVII.
Langnages of Borneo, &c, to Ceiam.
In Timor (for reasons which will appear in the sequel)
it is convenient to finish the present group ; having
done which we go back to the longitude of Java, and
move along the line of the Equator ; in other words, we
begin with a series of languages and dialects, for which
the great island of Borneo is our starting-point.
In Borneo there is no native alphabet ; yet there
are traces in the aboriginal creeds, not only of Indian
influences, but of Mahometan as well.
In Borneo there are numerous foreign elements, which
vary with the district. As a rule, they attach them-
selves to the coast ; but they differ with the different
parts of it. On the west the Malays, on the south-east
the Bugis, on the north the Sulu populations have made
settlements.
All that belongs to the natives is, roughly speaking,
unlettered and pagan. Where they have contracted
decided maritime habits, they are Biajuks, Biajns, or
Bajows ; these tenns being (generally) equivalent to
Orang Laut = the Men of tlve Sea. The rudest among
them have been called Sea Gipsies. Where they are
river boatmen or landsmen they are Dydks ; though
neither term can be taken absolutely. The division,
then, between the two denotes a difference of habits
rather than of blood.
X
306
BORNEO.
The details for Borneo, until lately, were scanty.
Since Labuan, however, has become English, they have
increased. For the remainder of the island, the Dutch
are our chief authorities ; and it is probable (indeed
certain) that the knowledge of what is to be found in
Holland is, on the part of the present writer, very
imperfect.
Dialects for the parts about Labuan from Sir J,
Brooke.
English.
Sangouw.
Biajuk.
Murung.
Kupuas.
Man
ulu
ulu
urun
icho
Head
takulu
kohong
utok
Eyes
mata
mata
mata
Nose
Ingher
urung
Hair
buk
balau
baru
buru
Teeth
ifie
kasingye
kusing
kusing
Hand
tesa
lengye
rongo
renga
Blood
daha
doho
doho
Day
andan
onong
sunit
Night
malem
homoram
kaput
Dead
matty
matei
matoe
motoe
White
pute
bapute
puticb
mitu
toete
brea
Black
menaram
babilem
mahuk
morim
apy
apui
apoi
bakok
danom
danum
bea
tuhasak
Earth
boenoe
petak
potak
tanak
IX
botu
botu
Swim
bawie
DduU
babui
boui
bowi
Bird
burong
burong
burong
Egg
tantelu
tolu
tolu
Fish
lauk
lauk
rouk
uchin
Sim
mata-sou
matan-andau
matan-onong matan-onong
tolan
bulan
buran
pun-allah
bientang
bintong
(2.)
bintong
bintong.
\
English.
Suntah
Sow.
Sibuow. Sakarran. Men.
Millanow. Malo.
Man
dari
dali
orang orang
idek
tooli babaka
Head
ubok
bok
bok bok
fok
bok bok
Hair
obak
bak
pala pala
uho
ulow ulu
Ear
kagit
kagit
pundjn punde
n telinga
linga telinga
Eye
buttok button
mata mata
mata
matta mata
Nose undong indong idong idong singote udong ingar
BORNEO.
307
Euglisb
Suntah.
Sow.
Sibnow.
Sakarran. Men.
Millanow.
Halo.
Mouth
bubbah
bubbah
mulut
mulut munong
bah
baba
Teeth
jipuk
jipun
gigi
gnali nipun
nipun
isi
Tongm
; jurah
jurah
dila
dila jillah
jullah
lela
Hand
tangan
tonga n
lungan
tangan tujoh
agum
tangan
Sly
rangit
longit
langit
langit langit
rangit
suan
$UH
batandu battun unde mata'an
mata'an mattadullow mattalow
matasu
Moon
boran
bnlan
bulan
bulan tukka
bulan
bulan
Star
betang
betang
api undow
bintang futtak
bintang
bintong
Hirer
sungei
sungee
sungee
sungei like
sungei
sungei
Egg
tnro
tulo
tiUo
tuUo tujjoh
tello
telui
^otie
batu
batu
batu batu batow
sanow
batu
Fowl
siok
ok
manuk manuk aal
siow
manuk
Bird
manuk
burong
bukong burong manuk
manuk
burong.
For the central parts of the island.
£nglish.
Kavan.
English.
Kayan.
Man
laki
Foot
kasa
Woman
doh
Sea
kala
Head
kohong
Earth
tana lim
Hair
bok
Sh/
langit
Beard
bulo
Sun
matin -dow
Eye
mata
bulan
Ear
apang
kraning
Nose
urong
Fire
apoi
Mouth
ba
Water
atta
Tongue
jila
Fish
masik
Teeth
knipan
Egg
tilo.
Hand
kama
Celebes, in respect to our knowledge of its philological
details, is more like Sumatra than Borneo ; in other
words, we have a fair amount of data for its numeroas
dialects.
English.
Mandhar.
Macassar.
Bugis.
Manijiomo)
tan
tau
tawu
(vir)
chacho
borani
horoani
Woman
Head
bahini
ul
bahini
uluna
makonrai
ulu
Eyes
mata
matana
mata
Nose
Hair
Teeth
eng'a
welua
isi
inga
rambut
ing'a
welua
isi
Belly
Hand
Foot
Blood
porot
lima
aje
dara
batan
liman
banuge
dara
babua
lima
aji
dara
X 2
308
BORNEO.
Maiidhur.
Macassar.
Bngis.
raatahari
singhar
ma,tamo
wulaD
bulan
wulan
Mnoin
bintoin
bitoin
api
pepe
api
wai
jene
■wtd
tana
hntah
tana
batu
batn
batu
manumanu jang'anjang'an
manumann
ndoh
bayu
iteloh
bale
juku
baleh.
English.
Sun
Moon
Star
Fire
Water
Earth
Stone
Bird
Fish
The Bugis, like the Batta, the Korinchi, the Rejang,
and the Lampong, has an alphabet, which, saving such
exceptions as may be taken from the fact of its being
common to five languages, is a native one, i. e. is neither
decidedly Arabic like the Malay, nor decidedly Indian
like the Javanese. It is Batta, &c. in its general
character — not in its details. It embodies more of a
literature than any of its congeners. I have before
me a Bugis poem, on the hero of a recent war against
the Dutch.
English.
Gunungtellu.
Menadu.
Man (homo)
manusia
to
(vir)
satulai
toama
Woman
tabua
wewone
Head
lunggongo'
ulu
Eyes
mata
waren
Nose
ulingo'
nirung
Hair
woho
wuhuk
Teeth
dang'eta
wahang
Belly
mbong'a
poot
Hand
otoho
leng'an
Blood
duLu
raha
Sun
mutuhari
ndoh
Moon
ulano
lelehon
Star
olipopo
tototian
Fire
tolu
api
Water
teloho
rano
Earth
huta
tana
Stone
batu
watu
Bi/rd
bui-ung
koko
Eyg
putitor
atelu
Fish
tota
pongkor.
CELEBES.
309
The Menadu falls into numerous dialects, and sub-dia-
lects ; though, probably, into no more than several of
its congeners. Its mi nut ice, however, have been given
in detail by A. J. F. Jansen, from whose paper the
following short extract is taken as a specimen of the
amount of variety which obtains in these parts.
Sea Wind Sain
laor reges naran
tasik uran
laur
English
Tonsea
Klabat-atas
Lil-upang
Aris
Negri jharu,
Klabat-baKa
Tondano
Rembokeng
Kakaa
Langowan
Saroinsoig
Tmimshon
Kakaslassing
Touniaririj
Sonder
Romokon
Tounbassian
Touwasang
Tovmpasso
Kttxcanglcoan
Ponosahan
Pa^mng
Ratahan
Bantik
Sangij
Tagvlangdang
Talaur
Hotontalo
Bctango
Parigi
Taheang
Bolong-mongmido intau
Bolong-itang-ota
Kaidipang
Bud tau
Patos tona
Man {homo) Man (vir)
toaw tnama
intouw
tomata
toumata
kawenua
tau
momata
tau
tau
nuran
la-wanan
naro
lour
uran
nuran
tasik
uran
lur
tasik
unner-untasik
laur
taasik
reger
laur
reges
salojon
lur
kakab tukam
reges uran
lolakij
maiinij
mouanij
mahuanen
eseh
balangan
wolangon
wolangon
rawdouw
lauduk
tololai
rorach
langai
Dganemaini
lolakij tlagat
bolango
auhu
augu
tampanao
sompot ujan
sonsam tihiti
■wahe tahiti
pipihi tahiteij
anging tahiti
angin uran
dupoto didih
hibuto huah
uda
tompot ujan
dupota oha
maane
laitgai
asih
pom
ulano
udah.
In Buton and Amboyna, the variation of dialect is
but slight ; increasing in Sa2)arua, Teriiati, and Geram.
310
0
CELEBES.
1
.
English.
Biiton.
English.
Butou.
Man (homo)
tau
Foot
aje
(vir)
tau
Blood
dara
Woman
makonrai
Bay
aso
Head
iilu
Sun
matahari
Eyes
mata
Moon
wulah
Nose
ing'a
Star
bintoing
Hair
welu
Fire
api
Teelh
isi
Water
ayer
Belly
babrea
Stone
batu
Hand
liman
Bird
manuk.
2.
English.
Saparua.
English.
Sapania.
Man (homo)
t6ma-tawu
Star
humane
{vir)
manawau
Fire
hahlilo
Woman
pipin&wa
Water
wa^lo
Head
uruni
Stone
hatao
Eye
maani
One
isahi
Nose
irini
Two
rua
Hair
rhuwon
Three
oru
Tooth
nioni
Four
haan
Belly
tehfini
Five
* rim a
Hand
rimani
Six
noho
Foot
ahini
Seven
hitu
Blood
lalani
Eiffht
vfkra
Day
kai
Nine
siwah
Sun
ria-ma-ano
Ten
dhutdhi.
Moon
hulano
r
\.
1
English.
Ternati.
English.
Ternati
Man (homo)
manusia
Star
fina-binten
(vir)
nonau
Fire
ukut
Woman
fohekeh
Water
aki
Head
dop6Io
Stone
marih
Eyes
tako
One
rimoi
Nose
idung
Two
romo-didi
Hair
rambut
Three
ra-angi
Teeth
gigi
Four
raha
Belly
hoot
Five
roma-toha
Hand
tangan
Six
rara
Foot
kaki
Seven
tomdi
Blood
dara
Eight
tof-kangi
Bay
modiri
Nine
siyu
Sun
m&ta-h&ri
Ten
yagimoi.
Moon
bfilan
TERNATI.
4.
Engliah.
Cemn.
English.
Ceram.
Man (Jiomo)
tau-mata
-Star*
butlung
— {vir)
ese
Fire
putung
Woman
babini
Water
&ke
Eyes
mata
Stone
batu
Nose
irung
One
sembua
Hair
6ta
Two
darfia
Teeth
id
Three
titela
Belly
tiang
Four
ipa
Hand
ttkiar
Five
lima
Foot
lad
Six
n&ig
Blood
din
Seven
pfta
Day
doh
Eight
Vila
Sun
doh
Nine
doh
Moon
bdlaa
Ten
mapnm.
311
Here ends the north-eastern line, from the extremity
of which we return to the parts due north of Borneo, i. e.
the Sulu Archipelago.
312
THE SULU.
CHAPTER XLVIII.
The Languages of the Sulu Archipelago. — Philippines. — Formosa.
Of the dialects of the long island of Palawan, I know
no specimens. They are probably Sulu like the follow-
ing.
English.
Sulu.
English.
Sulu.
Man
ossoog
White
mapote
Bead
00
Black
maitom
Eye
mata
Fire
kalaryu
Ear
taingah
Water
tubig
Nose
ilong
Stone
bato
Hair
bohoc
Bird
manok
Teeth
nipun
Erjg
iklug
Hand
kamot
Fiih
ista
Blood
dugu
Sitn
adalow
Belly
tian
Moon
bulon
Bone
bfikug
Star
bitohon
Foot
siki
Earth
leopah
Day
hadlaou
Black
maitum
Night
gabi
Dead
miatai nab
In Mindanao the Bissayan falls into no less than five
dialects. It changes again in lolo, in Bohol, and in
Samar where it approaches the Tagala. The Capul or
Bissayan of the island of Abac falls into the Inabacnura
dialect of the north, the Inagta of the south, and the
General Language in which our authority Garcia de
Torres preached and administered the sacraments.
The Bissayan of Panaz also falls into sub-dialects —
one of which is the Hiligueina, the other the Haraya.
The Camarinos of the next group is the most
I
THE PHILIPPINE LANGUAGES.
313
Bissayan of the class, and it is probably transitional.
The Tagala is the language of the capital, Manilla.
The Pampanga and the Iloco approach the Tagala. Of
the Pangasinan I only know the name. The Zambali
is a mountaineer, the Maitim a (so-caDed) Negrito, form
of speech.
Euglish.
Bissayan.
Iloco.
Cayasran.
Tagala.
Man
lalaqui
lalaqai
lalaqui
tauo
Hair
boboc
Head
olo
Tooth
ngipin
Tongue
dilah
Eye
mata
Ear
tayinga
Noge
hilaga
Hand
Camay
Blood
dugu
darat
daga
dugu
Bay
adlau
adlau
aggao
arao
Sun
adlao
init
bilac
arao
Moon
bulan
bulan
fnlan
buan
Star
bitofn
Fire
apuy
Wattr
tubig
danum
danum
tubig
Bird
mamuk
tumatayab
mamanu
ibon
Fish
isda
ikan
sira
isda
Milk
gatas
tubigtisoso
gatto
gatas
Tree
X>onosacaha7
kago
kayu
cahuy
Stone
bato
bato
battu
bato
One '
nsa
meysa
tadday
ysa
Two
duha
dna
dua
dalaua
Three
tulo
tallo
talu
tatio
Four
apat
eppat
appa
apat
Five
lima
lima
lima
limo
Six
anum
innem
anam
anim
Seven
pito
pito
pitu
pito
Eight
ualo
ualo
ualn
ualo
Nine
siam
siam
siam
siyam
Ten
napulo
sangapolo
mafulu
iangpono
The following are said to be Negrito forms of speech.
1.
English.
Man
Woman
Ear
Umiray.
laqui
tuvanac
taliuga
St. Mignel.
lacay
bacDs
talinga
St. Matheo.
lacay
bacus
talinga
314<
THE PHILIPPINE LANGUAGES.
English.
Umiray.
St. Miguel.
St. Matheo.
Blood
saquo
dalaa
galaa
Hand
cumot
gumut
gavat
Foot
siquii
tecut
daadaa
Shy
langot
Moon
panuodan
bulan
bulan
Star
butatalaa
bitung
bitung
Fire
gagavas
nayan
nayan
Water
urat
vagut
lau
Stone
batu
batu
batu
Tree
pamutingueo
labat
labat
Bird
manoc
manoc
manoc
Fish
ican
ican
isda
I
yaco
tiyac
heyaco
Thou
icamo
hicamu
hica
That
edu
yiay
We
dicame
hicami
Ye
dicamu
decamu
hicamu
They
ediya
2
sediya
huya.
English.
Duma gat.
English.
Dumagat.
Hair
ipede
Moon
bilande
Eye
mataa(2e
Star
bitone
Ear
sagede
NiglU
alinde
Beard
baangcfe
Sea
dagat
Hand
alemacfe
River
sayogde
Feet
hitiade
Earth
limacc^e
Knee
bolongrf€
Tree
hapoydc
Neck
liog
Forest
cabutanrfe
Sun
pigluntZc
For the BasM islands, the following vocabulary is
taken from E. Belcher's Voyage of the Samarang.
English.
Baahi.
English.
Bashi.
Head
ogho
Moon
bughan
Hair
buoc
Earth
madedah
Eye
mata
Fire
apui
Ewr
titiduan
Water
danom
BeUy
budek
Egg
ocloy
Bone
tughan
Fish
amon
Foot
cocon
Black
mabaghen
Day
arao
Dead
nadiman.
In Formosa we reach the end of the long series of
languages akin to the Malay in this direction ; for to the
FORMOSAN. 315
north of Formosa the Japanese dialects begin. That a
Malay form of speech was spoken in Formosa was kIlo^^^l
to Klaproth. That there were more forms of speech than
one on the island was also known. Whether they
were aU Malay was another question.
Between 1624, and 1661, the Dutch occupied the
island, and attempted not without a partial success, to
introduce Christianity. The result was the data for
what, until lately, was the only Formosan vocabulary
known : one of the Sideia dialect. About twenty
years ago, however, a Favorlang dictionary by Gilbert
Happast, A.D. 1650, was discovered and published.
This gave a second dialect— almost a second lan-
guage.
A MS. discovered at Utrecht, and published by Van-
der Vlis, has supplied a sub-dialect of the Sideia^
which, inter alia, gives a regular letter change between
r and s.
EngUah.
Klaproth's Formosan
Vander Vlis.
Father
nuna
sama
Mother
rena
sena
Water
ralaum
salong
Thunder
mngdimg
smgding
Tree
parannali
pesanach
Foot
rahpal
sapal
Greai
iiaDg
isang
Two
ranka
(so) soa.
It is reasonably suggested by Gabelentz that this is
a specimen of a dialect, elsewhere called Sakam.
The Tachais and Tiloes are apparently dialects, or
sub-dialects of the Favorlang.
Upon the Formosan languages, with the additions
supplied to the original Sideia data by the Favorlang,
we have a valuable monograph by Gabelentz ; the au-
thority for everything contained in the preceding,
notice, which is not found in Klaproth. Its main object
is the fixation of the places of the Formosan in the
Malay class. Gabelentz decides that its affinities are in-
316
FORMOSAF.
definite and miscellaneous, i. e. that it is not so decidedly
Philippine as its geographical relations suggest. From
this work, I take the following tables, which give twenty-
four words out of one hundred and twenty-six. In the
present work they serve a secondary purpose, viz., the
elucidation of the general characters of the affinities
which bind the several languages of the present group
together. With the exception of Guafuim, Chamori,
Yap, Ulea, and Satawal, all the names have already
been met with ; so that, if the reader will remember
that these are names for certain dialects from the
Ladrone and Caroline archipelagoes, he will be suffi-
ciently master of the nomenclature.
English.
Man
Head
Hair
Forehead
Favorlang
bahosa, sjam
oeno
t^u, ratta
tees
Sida
paraigh
vaungo
vaukugh
Tagala
lalaqui
olo
bolo, bohoc
noo
Bissayan
lalaqui
olo
bolbol, bohoc
adtang
Pampango
lalaqui
buntuc
bulbul, icat
canuan
Iloco
lallaqui
olo
Malay
laki
ulu, kepala
rambut, bulu
dahi, batuk
Javanese
tijang djaler
sirah, kepolo
rambot, woeloe
bathok
Bugis
woroane
ulu
weluak
linroh
Dayah
olo hatu&
takolok
bulu, balau
lingkau
Sunda
laki, pamegat
hoeloe, mastaka
boe-oek
taraug, taar
Bali
muwani, lanang
tandas, sirah
Lampong
bakas
hulu
buho
lialta
morah
ulu
obu
GtiaJiam
lahe
oulou
gapoun oulou.
hai
CJiamori
lahi
ulu
gapunulu
Yap
pimohn
elingeng
lalugel
Ulea
in&moan
methackitim
timui
— -
Satawal
mal, mar
roumai, simoie
alerouma, tiraoe
man lia'i
Malagasi
ahy
loha
volo
handrina.
English.
Bye
Nose
Ear
Mouth
Favorlang
macha
not
chiirrina
ranied, sabbaclia
Sida
matta
gongos
tangira
motaus
Tagala
mata
ylong
tayinga
bibig
Bissayan
mata
ylong
talinga
baba
Pampangc
) mata
arung
talinga
asboc
Iloco
mata
—
Malay
mata
idung
talinga
mulut
I
FORMOSAN.
317
English.
Eye
Noge
Ear
Mouth
Javanese
moto
grono, hiroeng
taliengngan
tjangkem, tjotjot
Bwjis
mata
ingok
dachuling
tima
Dayalc
mata
pinding
njama
Saruh,
mata
hiroeng
tjeli, tjepil
soengoet
Bali
mata
knnguh
k aping, kama
bongnt, changkam
Lampong
mata
egong, iong
chiuping
BaUa
mahta
igung
suping
bawa
Gnaham
mata
goni inn
talanha
pashoad
Chamori
mata
gnihin
talanja
pat j ad
Tap
eauteg
bnsemon
ilig
langach
Ulea
matai
wathel
talengel
eol
Satawal
metal, messai
poiti, podi
talinhe
ewai
Malaga^
maso
oranft
sofina
vava.
English.
Tooth
Tonffue
Beard
Neck
Farorlang
sjien
tatsira
ranob
bokkir, arriborri-
bon
Sida
waligh
dadila
taang
Tagala
ngipin
dila
gumi
lyig
Bissayan
ngipun,
salat
dila
sulang, bungnt
liog
Pampango
ipan
dila
baba
batal
Hoco
atingnged
Malay
gigi
Udah
janggut, ramoe
leer, jangga
Javanese
wodjo, hoentoe
Hlat
djenggot
djonggo, goeloe
Bwjis
isi
Ula
jangkok
olong
Dayah
kasinga
djela
djanggut
ujat
Sunda
hoentoe
waos
leetah, ilat
djanggot
beheng
Bali
gigi, untu
lavah, hilat
babong
Lampong
ipon
ma
galah
Batta
ningi
Guaham
nifin
oola
agaga
Chamori
nifin
hnla
atschai
hagaga
Yap
mulech
athaen
nip
lugunag
Ulea
nir
luel
els41
uel
Satawal
ni, gni
loae'i laouel
alouzai, alissel
faloai, ounoagai
Malagasi
nify
tela
YoIom-baTa
tenda, vozona.
English.
Breast
Belly
Arm
Hand
Favorlang
arrabis,
zido
chaan
tea
rima
Sida
avS,u
vauyl
pariaa
rima
Tagala
dibdil.,
soso
tiyan
patay
Camay
Bisgayan
dughati,
soso
tian
butcon
camot, Camay
Pampangt
salo, susu
attian
tacdai
camat, camaao
Iloco
barucuE
g, susu
ima
Malay
clada, susu
prut
tangan
asta, taugan
Javanese
djo<ljo,
soesoe
pedahaarran
iaugngen
hastho, tangngan
English.
Breast
Belly
Arm
Hand
Bugis
aroh, susu
babuwa
lima
Bayah
usok, susu
knai
lenga
lenga
Sunda
dada, soesoe
betteng, lamboet
lengen
lengen, panangan
Bali
niu-niuh
basang, watang
lima, tangan
Lampong
susu-amah
batong
chiulok, chulu
Batta
boldok
tangan
tangan
Ouaham
ha ouf, soussou
touiann
hious
kana'i
Chamori
hauf, susu
tudjan
kanei
kanei
Yap
niierungoren, thi
thi
- thugunem
pach
karovinarine-pagh
Ulea
uwal, thithi
siel
bai
humutel
Satawal
loupai, oupoual,
ti, toussaga'i
sega'i oubouoi
rape lepei
ga leima, pra
nema
Malagasi
tratra
iibo
sandry
t^nana.
English.
Finger
Foot
Heart
Blood
Favorlang
apillo
asiel
totto, tutta
tagga
Sida
kagamos
rahpal, tiltil
tintin
amagh
Tagala
dali
paa
poso
dugo
Bissayan
torlo
teel, siqui
posoposo
dugo
Pampango
1 taliri
bitis
pusu, busal
daya
Iloco
naquem
dara
Malay
jari
kaki, pada
ati
darah
Javanese
derridji
soekoe, podo
batos, hati
rah
Bugis
jari
ajeh
ati
dara
Dayak
tundjuk
pai
atei
daha
Sunda
ramo
soekoe, dampal
djadjantoeng
gettih
Bali
jariji, hanti
chokor, suku
jantung
gateh, rah
Lampong
jari
chiukot
jautung
rah
Batta
djidi muduk
mutter
Ouaham
kalouloud
adin
Chamori
kalulud
adding
haga
Yap
pugelipagh
garovereven
ratta
Ulea
kasthel
petehl
ta
Satawal
attili pai
pera perai
atchapon
Malagasi
rantsan-tslnana
tongotra
fo
ra.
English.
Flesh
Bone
Milk
Skin
Favorlang
U&
oot
tach 0 zido
maram
Sida
wat
toural
hakey
yalidt
Tagala
laman
bot-d
gatas
balat
Bissayan
onor, tayor
tulan
gatas
anit, panit
Pampango laman, bulbul
butul
gatas, sabad
biilat, catal
Iloco
dumsira
Malay
daging
lulaug
susu, ayar-susu
kulit
FORMOSAN.
31
English.
Flesh
Bone
MiXk
SUn
Javanese
dhaging
tosan, baloong
tojo soesoe
koeUt
Bugis
jaka
buku
susa
nli
Dayak
isi
tolang
djohon-tosu
Qpak
Sunda
laoek, daging
toelang
tji-soesoe
koeUt
Bali
hisi, daging
tulang, balung
nyonyo
kolet
Lampong
dagaing
tnlaa
wai-susu
bawa
Batta
Guaham
tolan
Chamori
tschngusTisu
Yap
lengiren
Ulea
fiU
Satavxd
fetougoul
roulou pei
poiuu
Maiagasi
nofo
taolana
ronono
hoditra.
Whether this be the language of the aborigines of
Formosa is doubtful. All that can be said is, that no
sample of any second language is known.
320
TOBI.
CHAPTER XLIX.
Micronesia. — Tobi. — The Pelew islands. — The Caroline and Marianne (or
Ladrone) Archipelagoes. — The Polynesia.
By Micronesia is meant everything between Gilolo and
the Philippines on one side, and the Navigator's Is-
lands, or Samoan Archipelago, on the other. The first
steps in the passage are long ones, and the group is, to
some extent, artificial.
For Tobi, or Lord North's Island, and the Pelew
group ; important as these islands are foi' any investiga-
tion which, like the present, derives Polynesia fi:om
Micronesia, and Micronesia from either the Philippines
or the parts about Tidore and Gilolo, we have but
scanty data.
English.
Tobi.
j!)ngIiB)i.
Tobi.
Man
amare
Moon
mokum
Woman
vaivi
Star
uitsh
Head
metshemum
Fire
yaf
Hair
tshim
Water (fresh)
taru
Beard
kusum
{salt)
tat
Hand
kaimuk
Stone
vas
Foot
petchem
Bird
karum
Bone
tshil
Fish
ika.
Sun
yaro
For the Pelew islands we have the following voca-
bularies, the first of which is from ]\Iarsden, the second
from Keate's account of the islands.
English.
Pelew (1.)
Pelew (3.)
Man
arracat
masaketh
Head
pudeluth
botheluth
Eye
muddath
colsule
Nose
koyum
kiule
Bca/i-d
unwulel
iingelcU
Hand
kurruel
kemark
THE PELEW ISLANDS.
321
English.
Pelew a).
Pelew (2).
Blood
arrasaack
Day
kno:ak
cucuk
Night
kapisongi
kaposingi
Dead
mathe
niathee
WhiU
kalela
keUelu
Black
kaletori
catteftoa
Fire
ngaou
karr
miul
Water
rabn
arral
Earth
kntnm
Stone
path
Bird
kochayu
cockiyu
malk
^99
niese
Fish
nikel
neekel
Sun
kioss
coyoss
Moon
pnyur
pooyer
Star
bedak
bethack
0%e
tang
tong
Two
omng
oroo
Three
othay
othey
Four
awang
oang
Five
aim
aeem
Six
lollom
malong
Seven
awitii
oweth
Eight
ai
tei
Nine
ettea
etew
Ten
truyuk
tricook
magoth
makoth.
Few languages are more important than those of the
small islands hereabouts. They should be compared not
only with the Philippine, but the Formosan — with which
the Pelew has some remarkable coincidences.
The typical languages of Micronesia are the following.
Eni^li.
Gnaham.
Chamari.
Yap.
Man
lahe
laM
pimohn
Woman
Palawan
palaoan
wupin
aga
Head
oulou
ola
elingeng
Hair
gapoun-oolu
gaponnlu
lalugel
Ulea.
Satawal.
mamoan
mal
tabut
raboat
faifid
methackitim ronniai
simoie
timiii
aleroamai
timoi
Y
322
MICRONESIAN LANGUAGES.
English.
Gunham.
Chamori.
Yap.
Ulea.
Satawal.
Eye
mata
mata
eauteg
matai
metal
Nose
gouiinn
guihin
busemun
wathel
poiti
Tooth
nifin
nifin
mulech
nir
ni, gni
Tongue
oula
hula
athaen
luel
laouel
Beard
atshai
rap
elsal
alouzai
Neeh
agaga
hagaga
lugunag
uel
faloui
ounougai
Ear
talanha
talanja
ilig
talengel
talinhe
Mouth
pashoud
patjoud
langach
eol
ewai
Breast
haouf
hauf
niierungoreng
uwal
loupai
—
susu
susu
thithi
thithi
ti
Belly
touiann
tudjan
thugunem
siel
segai oubonoi
Arm
hious
kanei
pach
bai
rape lepei
Hand
kanai
kanei
karovenarenepagh humutel
galeima
pranema
Finger
kalouloud
kalulud
pugehpagh
kasthel
attilipai
Foot
adin
adding
garovereven
pethl
peraperai
Blood
haga
ratta
ta
achapon
Sky
langin
lang
lang
Day
haani
Night
poeni
kainep
ebong
poum
Sun
addau
al
al
ial, alet
Moon
pulan
moram
moram
maram
alig ouling
Star
putiun
tuv
fiss
fiez
amid
mapagahes
tharami
tharami
saronn
ieng manileng
Wind
mangeu
niveng
aang
ianhe
Fain
utjan
nu
uth
oroo
Water
hanoum
kanum
munum
eliimi
ral
Fiver
saddug
lull
eath
■ — -
eatsh
Sea
tassi
tahsi
nao
lao
tati
amourek
Fire
goifi
quafi
eaf
iaf
Smoke
assu
athanenevi
aevi
oath
EaHh
tahno
■WTinau
valli
merolo
Stone
ashou
atju
malang
vas
fahou
Tree
uddunhadju
pan
duel
pelagoullouk
Great
dankulu
poga
eolep
etalai
Little
dikiki
■watich
edigit
emourouraors
Cold
ollum
isaleu
J
Warm
eatho
lass
issa pouers 1
elief 1
I
quaho
igagk
ngang
Thou
hago
1
MILLE AND TARAWAN.
323
The Marianne islands are continued into the Kingsmill
(Tarawan) group, and the Radack and Ralik chains ; our
scanty data for these being due to Mr. Hale, the phUologue
under Captain Wilkes in the United States Exploring
Expedition.
(1.)
English.
Milk.
Engjish.
Ifille.
Man
momam
S^oiu
rnkkah
Head
borrum
Bird
pao
Ear
ladzhilligin
Egg
lip
Eye
middam
Pish
ik
Hand
ban
I
i
Fool
nen
He
ia
Mouth
langwen
One
dzhnon
Nose
bathart
Two
rua
Teeth
nin
Three
tila
Nail
agguk
Fowr
emen
Sm
al
Five
lailpm
Moon
allong
Six
dildzheno
Star
edzhn
Seven
adzheno
Fire
kddzhaik
Eight
dzhurigol
Water (fresh) reniun
Nine
me dzhnon
{salt)
lajet
(2
Ten
•)
dzhnon.
English.
Tarawau.
Eogliah.
tarawaiL
Man
umane
/
ngai
Bead
ata
Thou
nnggoe
Beard
buai
He
tena
Ear
taringa
One
te
Eye
mata
Two
OS
Nose
bairi
Three
teni
Tongue
newe
Four
ft
Sun
tai
Five
nima
Moon
Tnakainga
Six
one
Fire
ai
Seven
ltd
Water (salt) taari
Eight
oanu
Bird
man
Nine
ma
Fish
ika
Ten
tegann
Stme
atip
My house
im
■arh
Thy house
im
-um
His Konue
im
-en
Ovrhouse
im-erro
Their house
im
-derh
Whose house
im-en-wen.
Y 2
324
POLYNESIA.
The following represent the dialect of De Peyster's
Islands : —
English.
Fakaofo.
English.
Fakaofo.
Man
tangata
Mov^th
ngutu
Woman
fafine
Nose
isu
Eye
mata
Tongue
alelo
Ear
talinga
Su/ii
la
Hair
ulu
Moon
masina
Beard
kumikumi
Fire
afi
talafa
Bird
manu
Tooth
nifo
Fish
ika
Foot
vae
Stone
fata
Hand
lima
Tree
lakau.
With the Samoan Archipelago begins Polynesia Pro-
per as opposed to Micronesia.
English.
Marquesas.
Kanaka (of the Sandwich Islands)
Man
enama
kanaka
Head
npoho
poho
Eyes
mata
maka
Nose
ilm
ihu
Mouth
faia
aha
Ear
puaina
pepeiac
Tooth
niho
nino
Tongue
eo
lelo, leo
Back
taa
kua
Beard
kiimikumi
umiumi
Blood
toto
koko
Bone
ivi
iii
Hand
ima
limo
Foot
vae
vae
Bay
a
la
Night
po
po
Swn
aomati
aomati
Moon
mahina
mahina
Star
fetu, hetu
hoku
Earth
henua
henna
Sea
tai
kai
Fire
ahi
ahi
Water
Tai
vai J
Stone
kea '
pohaku ifl
Tree
kaau
laau fl
Bird
mana
manu fl
Fish
ika
1
One
tahi
kahi M
POLYNESIA.
325
English.
Marquesas.
Kanaka (of the Sandwich IslandsX
Two
ua
laa
Three
ton, torn
kola
Four
ha
ha
Five
uma
lima
Six
ono
ono
Seven
hita
hika
Eight
▼an
vain
Nine
iva
iva
Ten
onohna
ninL
c^).
English.
Maori (of New Zealand)
Head
upoho
hnruhurie
makawe
mahunga
whakahipa
Betty
kopu
m^nawa
rai
Back
tuara
Body
tinana
Bone
iwi
Ear
taringa
Eye
kanohi
kara
Mouth
TTiangai
waha
mawhera
English. Maori (of New Zealand).
Nose
Day
Sun
Moon
Star
Stone
Bird
Fiih
iha
ao
mahana
ta
ra
mamaru
komaru
marama
whelu
kamaka
kohalii
toka
nganga
mana
ika
ngohi
USCKLLABSOVS TOCABITLABISS.
(1.)
English.
Rotiuna.
En^iah.
Botuna.
Woman
hani
Eye
matho
Head
thUu
Mouth
nutsu
Ear
thalinga
Blood
toto
Tooth
ala
Sun
asa
Tongue
alele
Day
asa
Foot
afthia
Moon
Irak
Nose
isu
Star
hethu
Beard
kiimkam
Fire
nia.
Hair
ICTU
Water
Tai
326
5
POLYNESIA.
English.
Botuma.
EDgiish.
Botnma.
Water (salt)
sias
Three
(fresh)
tan
Fov/r
hake
Stone
hathu
Five
lima
Bird
manmanu
Six
Egg
kalodhi
Seven
hithu
Fish
la
Fight
valu
One
esea
Nine
ta
Ten
IK)lie
Two
sanghulu
(2.)
English.
Ticopia.
English.
Ticopia.
Man
tanhata
Ear
tarinha
Woman
fefinetapli
Sun
lera
Beard
tarafa
Moon
marama
Mouth
nhutu
Star
fetu
Arm,
lima
Fire
afi
Head
ula
Water
vai
Hair
raulu
Sea
moana
Tooth
nrfo
Fish
ika
Flood
kefo
Milk
vaiu
Tongue
lelo
Egg
fouai
Nose
issu
Bird
manu
Eye
mata
Stone
fatu.
(3.)
English.
Cocos Island.
English.
Cocos Island.
Eyes
matta
Moon
massina
Nose
esou
Star
fittou
Htm-
urug
One
taei
Teeth
nifo
TVBO
loa
Hand
fatinga-lima
Three
tolou
Fire
umu
Fowr
fa
Water
waij
Five
lima
Earth
kiUe
Six
houno
Stone
fattou
Seven
filou
Swine
wacka
Eight
walo
Bird
ufa
Nine
ywou
Fish
ica
Ten
ongefoula.
Sun
la
POLYNESIA.
0*7
327
(4.)
English.
Wahitaho.
English.
Wahitaha
Head
houpoco
Star
ehani
Eye '
matta
One
tahi
Nose
Mhoa
Two
houah
Tongue
houhoho
Three
tohoa
Tooth
niho
Four
fah
Hand
mana
Five
himah
Dead
matte
Six
bono
Swine
boaca
Seven
fetto
Fish
eaton
Eight
vaho
ehika
Nine
hiva
Sun
eha
Ten
onohohon.
Moon
onmati
(5.)
English.
Mayorga.
English.
Mayorga.
Head
hulu
One
tatM
Eye
mata
Two
hna
Nose
yhu
Three
tola
Tongue
loaln
Four
fa
Tooth
nifu
Five
nima
Hand
afi-nema
Six
ono
Dead
matte
Seven
fito
Water
bay
Eight
£ata
Earth
yuta
Nine
giba(?)
Swine
panca
Ten
tongoa-folo.
Egg
tomoa
(6.)
English.
Fanmotn.
English.
Panmotii.
Man
hakoi
Sea
takarari
Woman
erire
Fire
neki
Head
penu
Water
komo
Tongue
mangee
Wind
rohaki
Bone
keingi
Fish
para
Moon
kawake
Tree
mohoki.
Fain
toite
The practice of extending the tahu to words is
Polynesian : e. g., when a chief dies the use of such
terms as are either identical with, or similar to, his
name is forbidden. There is also, in the larger islands,
328 POLYNESIA.
a kind of ceremonial language. That these are artificial
elements is plain. They are elements, however, of whicli
most languages show either the rudiments or the frag-
ments.
In Basque we have a ceremonial conjugation. In
South America there is more than one language where
the women use one word, the men another ; a fact
which has been exaggerated into a pair of languages
(one for each sex), with an explanatory hypothesis to
match.
Bating, however, the facts of this kind, the Polyne-
sian dialects are those wherein the artificial element is
at zero. It is but lately that they have been written at
all : nor were they, before the introduction of the pre-
sent missionary influences, in either direct or indirect
contact with any languages more cultivated than them-
selves. For the phenomena, then, of a thoroughly
natural and spontaneous development they are materials
of pre-eminent value.
NEW GUINEA. 329
CHAPTER L.
The Papua Class.— Gnebe, &c. — New Guinea. — New Ireland, &c., to
New Caledonia.
In making the Malay division end at Cerarn, and the
Papua begin at Guebe, I chiefly consult convenience ;
inasmuch as, along the line of contact, there ai'e notable
signs of transition.
From the small Archipelago, at the north-western
extremity of New Guinea, and from New Guinea itself
the line of Papua languages runs south and south-east,
via New Britaimia, New Hanover, New Ireland, the
Solomon Islands, &c., MaUicollo, Erromango, Tana, Erro-
nan, Annatom, to New Caledonia. The Louisiade Archi-
pelago is also Papua ; as are the islands in Torres
Straits — i. e. they are Papua rather than Australian.
Twenty years ago, the languages of this class were all
but unknown, not one of them having ever been re-
duced to writing, or even learned by an educated Euro-
pean. That no Hollander ever spoke any of the dialects
of the north-western coast of New Guinea cannot in-
deed be asserted unconditionally — though the doctrine
de non appdrentihus, &c., suggests that such was the
case. Nothing, however, of any importance concerning
them was communicated to the world at large. Of the
Tana language, a MS. grammar by Mr. Heath had
been inspected by Dr. Prichai-d, who stated that
the language which it represented differed entirely from
330
GUEBE Al^ WAIGIU.
the Polynesian. It abounded with inflections, and had
a peculiar form by which three persons were spoken
of — a form distinct from the dual, and distinct from
the plural, a form for which the term trinal was sug-
gested.
The little knowledge involved in these fragmentary
facts, created a tendency to put a high ordinal value on
the characteristics of the Papua grammar ; a value in
which there is, probably, a certain amount of exaggera-
tion.
Beginning with the language of the small island oiGue-
he, which lies somewhat nearer to Gilolo than to New
Guinea, we find in the following vocabulary, at least, a
notable difference between it and the Waigiu spoken
immediately under the Equator and within sight of the
mainland of New Guinea itself.
English.
Gneb6.
Waigiu.
Man
syniat
Woman
pine
Head
kouto
kagala
Eye
tarn
'Eyes (?)
tadji
jadjiemouri
Nose
kassugnor
soun
Mouth
kapiour
ganganini
Lips
kapiondjais
Teeth
kapiondji
onalini
''Tongue
mamalo
Ear
kassegna
Cheek
aifoiFo
Beard
ajangout
gangafoni
Hair
kalignouni
Neck
kokor
Belly
siahoro
synani
Arm
kamer
kapiani
Ha/nd
fadlor
konkafeni
Back
kouaneteni
Foot
kourgnai
Shin
kinot
rip
Sun
astouol
'Fire
ap
Sea
tasfi
PORT JDOREY
English.
Gaebd
* Water (fresh)
aer omiaai
*Bird
mani
•Fish
bin
One
pissa
Tioo
pilou
Three
pitoul
Pour
pifiat
Five
pileme
Six
pounnoan
Seven
piffit
Eight
ponal
Nine
pissioa
Ten
otsha
331
Waigin.
The Papuan Proper is chiefly known fi-om the parts
about Port Dorey ; where the first of the following vo-
cabularies was collected by Forrest, as early as A.D.
1774-1776.
English.
Man
Papuan,
sononman
Aiago.
snone
Woman
binn
biene
Head
vrouri
Eye
tadeni
Mouth
graronr
soidon
Tooth
nacoere
Tcmgue
Ear
Hand
ramare
kanik
konef
Am
bramine
Leg
Foot
oizof
oibahene
Blood
liki
Day
Sun
raas
aii
rias
Moon
Sar
Fire
hyck
mak
for
afor
Water
war
ooar
{saU)
warmassm
{sweet)
River
warimassin
warbike
Sea
sorene
Rain
meker
Pish
een
iene
332
PORT DOflEY, ETC.
English.
Papuan.
Arago.
Bird
moorsankeen
man (?)
bourore
Hog
ben
baine
Tree
kaibus
House
rome
rouma
^99
bolor
samoure
Hill
bon
Sand
yean
iene
White
pepoper
Black
pyssin
One
oser
ossa
Two
serou
serou
Three
keor
keor
Fowr
tiak
tiak, fial
Five
rim
rime
Six
onim
oneme
Seven
tik
sik, fik
Eight
war
ouar
Nine
siore
siore
Ten
samfoor
samefouj
Taking the numerals as a test, tlie Archipelago and
the neighbourhood of Port Dorey give a multiplicity
of sub-dialects.
(1.)
English.
Axopin.
Taudia.
Dasen.
One
wosio
nai
joser
Two
woroe-o
roesi
socroe
Three
woro
toeroesi
toroe
Four
woako
attesi
ati
Five
rimo
marasi
rembi
Six
rimo-wosie
marasimge
rimbi-oser
Ten
sagoero
(2.)
oetin
ansa.
English.
Jowei.
Wandamin.
Axfak.
One
re-be
siri
woam
Two
re-doe
mondo
jan
Three
re-oe
toro
kar
Four
re-a
at
tar
Five
brai-a-re
rim
maswar
Six
brai-a-rebe
rimmasiri
kaswar
Ten
brai-a-redoe
rimmafloerat
marswar.
NEW GUINEA.
333
(3.)
Engtiah.
Omar.
Insam.
One
kotim
keteh
toe
Two
redis
roesi
ker
Three
etirom
kori^
iHier
Four
eat
aka
boat
Five
mstia
rima
mer
Six
kolim
keteh
ebetoe
Ten
maptides
boeki, roesi
onger.
English. Karom.
(4.)
Pome.
Mow.
One dik
korii
bo-iri
tata
Two we
koiroe
bo-roe
roeroe
Three gre
toro
bo-toro
oro
Four at
at
bo-ah
ao
Fire mik
rim
rim
rimo
Sijc mak
ona
boiri-kori
rimo-tata
Saren fret
itoe
bor-kori
rferoe
Eig?U ongo
waro
botd-kori
oro
Nine maaiwo
isioe
boa-kori
ao
Ten mesoe
awrah
(5.)
soerat
tOYeiah.
nnimm, to the West
of Amsterdam, and
English. Middlebnrgh.
Ron.
Beak&Meftir.
Ome
mele
joaer
sai
Tvo
aU
noeroe
doei
Three
told
'ngo-kor
kior
Four
fak
&k
fiak
Five
mafoek
lim
lim
Six
Tnafleoene
onim
onim
Seven
ane mele
onemema<»roe
liek
eigit
all
onem^nokor
war
Nine
tolo
onenfak
aew
Ten
feh
(6.)
onemerim
samfor.
EneBah.
Ansoea.
SalawattL
One
koiri
sa
Two
korisi
ItE
Three
todoe
tor
Four
moano
fot
Five
di
rim
Six
wona
onim
Setm
itoe
fiet
Eight
India toro
war
Nine
India ato
si
Ten
hoera
lafa.
334
NEW GUINEA.
The following vocabularies are from the south and
west, being chiefly spoken on the coast.
-English.
Lobo.
TJtatanata.
Man
marrowane
marrowane
Woman
mawinna
Cheeks
wafiwiriongo
awanu
Eyes
matatongo
mame
Hand
nimangouta
toemare
Head
umun
oepauw
Arms
nimango
too
Bach
rasukongo
urimi
Belly
kamborongo
imau
Foot
kaingo
moaw
Hair
monongfuru
oeirie
Mouth
oriengo
irie
Nose
sikacongo
birimboe
NeA
garang
ema
Tongue
kariongo
mare
Teeth
riwotongo
titi
Sun
orak
Water
malar
warini
Rain
komak
komak •
River
walar nabetik
warari napettiki
Bird
manoe
Hog
b6i
oe
Island
nusu
Tree
akajuakar
kai
Bow
amtir6.
Englisli.
Triton Bay
Mairassis.
Onim.
Man
marowana
iohanouw
Head
monongo
nangoewoe
onimpatin
Hair
monongfoero nangoekatoe
ampoewa
Eye
matatongc
• namboetoe
matapatin
Nose
sikaiongo
nambi
wirin
Mouth
oriengo
naros
soeman
Tooth
roewatongo sifa
nifin
Hand
nimangoeta okorwita
Foot
nimin kaki
Sum
orah
ongoerah
rera
Moon
foeran
foeran
poenono
Earth
ena
gengena
gai
Fire
iworo
api
Water
walar
wata
weari.
For the islands of Torres Straits, viz. : the Darnly
THE LOUISIADE ARCHIPELAGO.
335
Islands (Erroob and Maer) and the Murray Islands,
vocabularies in the appendix to Juke's Voyage of the
Fly give somewhat full specimens. The tables in which
they appear show the difference between the South
Papua and the North Australian. It is a difference,
however, which is easily exaggerated; as in the first
seventeen words we find the foUowing coincidences.
English.
Papua.
AuBtralian.
Cheek
Eye
Eyelid
Eyelash
bag
illcap
illcamush
bag
danacap
dammuche
Ear
Nose
gereep
peet
coora
peechi.
The collective name for the Erroob, Maer, and Massied
forms of speech is ^Miriam.
The Redscar Bay, Dufaure Island, and Brumer Island
dialects are known through the vocabularies of the
Rattlesnake, collected by Macgillivray. They are allied
to each other — the latter being very closely allied to
the Duchateau Island of the Calvados, and the Brierly
English.
Erroob.
Sedscar Bay
Man
kaimeer
taa
lammar
Woman
koskeer
mada
ahine
Child
kabeUi
mero
Head
kerim
kwara
Eye
irkeep
mata
Ear
laip
taiya
peU
gereep
Nose
peet
nda
MoiUh
nuga
mao
1
tae
Lips
meet
pipina
Teeth
tirreg
isi
Tonyue
werrut
mala
336
NEW IRELAND.
English.
Erroob.
Redscar Bay.
Hair
moos
hui
Neck
perreg
Hwnd
tag
ima
Foot, or
Leg
taei-tar
gab
Blood
mam
Sky
baz
garewa
Sum
gegger
mahana
Moon
maeb
nowarai
Star
waer
Fire
lira
kaiwa
Water {fresh)
nea
goila
{salt)
goor
arita
Stone
bakeer
weu
Wind
wag
Sea
carrem
Samd
wae
geragera
Tree
igger
I
cai
Mine
cara
Thou
ma
Tov/r
mara
One
netat
ta
Two
naes
rua
' Three
naesa netat
toi
Four
hani
Five
ima.
Here we leave the southern, and returning to the
parts about Waigiti, follow the northern, eastern, or
north-eastern line.
English.
New Ireland.
Port Praslin.
Head
ptiklfik
Ear
pralenhek
palalignai
Eye
matak
mata
Hair
iuk
epiu
Beard
kambissek
katissende
Nose
kambussuk
mbussu
Mouth
lok
mlo
Tooth
insek
ninissai
Tongue
karmea
kermea
Arm
limak
Finger
oulima
lima
Neck
kondaruak
kindurua
Back
taruk
plaru
THE SOLOMON ISLES.
337
English.
New Ireland.
Port Praalin.
Foot
balankeke
pekendi
Sun
kamiss
Moon
kalan
Fire
bia
Water
maluiQ
molum
Sea
bun
Bird
TTianuk
Fish
siss
sis.
Bauro, or San Christoval, along with Guadalcanar,
belonsrs to the Solomon Islands. The Rev. J. Fatteson's
First Attempt in the Bauro Language gives us our ma-
terials, which consist of the Lord's Prayer, two short
prayers, and a catechism concerning the Fall of Man
and his B^demption.
English.
Baura
English.
Baura
Man (homo)
inone
Sly
aro
(Wr)
sai
Moon
hura
Woman
trrao
Water
wai
Hand
rima
House
oma
Day
dangi
Tree
hadai.
English.
Guadalcanal.
English.
Guadalcanar
Man {homo)
inoni
Sit
toom
(riV)
mane
I
inan
Woman
kene
Thou
io
Father
amma
He
ia
Son
gare
Thine
ama
Child
mare
Hilt
ana
Good
siene
One
tai
Bad
tos
Tvo
ama
Die
mai
Three
oru.
Hear
noro
In Vanikoro, three languages are spoken.
English.
Vanikoro.
TanenuL
Taneamu.
Man
lamoka
ranoka
amoaligo
Woman
venune
ranime
vignivi
Beard
fingfime
kole
vingumia
Arm
me
menini
main!
Tooth
ugne
kole
indzhe
Z
338
THE NEW HEBRIDES.
English.
Vanikoro.
Tanema.
Taneamu.
Mouth
ngrenili
Tongue
mea
mia
mimiae
Hair
•wennbadzha
valanbadzha valanbadzha
Back
dienhane
delenana
diene
Leg
kelenili
alenini
aeleda
Moon
mele
Fire
nebie
gnava
iaua
Water
■wire
nira
ero.
The next
two vocabularies are
from the Ne\
Hebrides.
(!■)
Euglisb.
MallicoUo.
English.
MallicoUo.
Man Qiomo)
nebok
Bird
inoero
(vir)
bauemink
Fish
heika
Woman
rambaiuk
One
sikai
rabin
Two
e-ua
Father
aramomau
Three
e-roi
Child
urare
Four
e-vatz
Head
basaine
Five
e-rima
Eye
maitang
Six
su-kai
Far
talingan
Seven
whi-a
Tooth
rebohn
Eight
oroi
warrewuk
Nine
whi-vatz
Nose
noossun
Ten
singeap.
Hair
membnin baitang
(2-)
English.
Tana.
English.
Tana.
Man
aremana
Sea
tasi
Woman
peran
Good
masan
Fatlier
rumune
aumasan
Son
mati
ratntakat
Body
nupuran
Bad
ellaba
Heart
reren
Holy
ekenan
Sun
mere
Great
asori
Moon
maukua
Many
repuk
Bird
mann
Eat
ani
Fish
namu
Speai
mani
Tree
nei
mankeari
Fire
nap
Hear
matareg.
Earth
tana
The Gospel of St. Luke in Annatom was published
in 1852, by the .Kev. J. Geddie ; and in 1853, that
of St, Mark in Sydney. These, along with other
external confluences, have introduced —
ANNATOM.
3:
From (he Greek.
Agelo
angel
Aprofeta
prophet
Areto
bread
Site
wheat
Apeitome
circumcision
Baptizo
baptize.
From, the English.
Sup
sheep
Pigad
Pe9
Flaur
Jlour
Leven
leaven
Jlint
mint
Eu
rue
Waina
wine
Kot
coat
Mune
money
Apalse
palsy.
Wik
wed:
English.
Annatom.
English.
Annatom.
Man
atiini
Day
adiat
Husband
atnmnja
Sun
nages^a
Wife
ehgai
Moon
mahoc
Woman
takata
Star
moijeuw
Head
nepek
God
Atna
Hair
umri idjini
Wind
nimtinjop
Eye
esganimtai
Rain
incopda
Ear
intikgan
Fire
caup
Nose
ingedje
Water
wai
Mouth
nipjineucse
Sea
nnjop
Tongue
namai
Stone
hat
Tooth
nijia
Land
ol)ohtan
Hand
ikma
RocJc
elcau
Finger
nupsikma
HiU
lo-la eduon
Foot
eduon
Dog
kuri
Blood
nnja
Bird
man
Sty
nohatag
Fish
mn.
With the Polynesian and Malayan languages in gene-
ral, the Annatom has, at least, the following words in
common —
English.
Annatom.
Water
wai
wai — Ende
Fire
caup
api — Gu^
Bird
man
mani — Guebi
Tooth
nijin
niM — Endi
Foot
eduai
Idi — Bima
Die
mas
mati — Malay
House
eom
nmah — Javanese
One
ethi
aida — Timor
Two
ero
erua — Manaioto, <tc.
God
Atua
AtuA—Polynesian, d-c.
z 2
ANNATOM.
ADnatom.
eduon
wotang — Sailor
hat
fatu — Timor
atimi
atoni — Timor
jaa
jangjang — Macassar
kuri
kuri — Ticopia
kava
kava — Polynesia.
340
English.
mil
Stone
Man
Hen
Dog
Kava
Words like aktaktai, epto, eropse, esvi, inwai, inpas,
inridjai, imtak, uctyi, imiisjis, intas, eucjeucjaig, injop,
&c., show that the Annatom phonesis is less vocalic than
that of the other islands.
In Erromango there are, at least, two dialects ;
apparently three — the third the common language of
the island at large, or its central districts.
English.
Northern Dialect.
Southern Dialect.
Man (homo)
neteme
yirima
Woman
nasivin
yarevin
Sh,
unpokop
nimpokop
Earth
nemap
dena
Sun
nipminen
umangkam
Moon
itiis
iriis
Star
mose
umse
Sea
t&k
de
HiU
numpur
nnmbawa
Bush
tebutui
undumburui
Plant
denuok
dokmus
God
nobu
uboh
Chief
natd,monok
yarumne
Father
itemin
rimin
Mother
dinemi
ihnin
Word
nam
novul
Fire
nom
nampevang
Breadfruit
nimara
nimal
House
nimo
nima
Fruit
nobuwan-ne
nimil.
English.
Erromango.
English.
Erromango
Man
etemetallam
Younger
brother abmissai
neteme
Son
niteni
Woman
wasiven
Head
numpu
nahivin
Eye
nimmint
Father
etemen
God
Nobu
itemin
Sky
pokop
Mother
dineme
Sun
nitminen
Wife
retopon
Moon
tais
Brother
avongsai
Star
masi
THE LOYALTY ISLEa
341
English.
Erromango.
English.
Erromango.
Wind
mankep
Hill
numpua
Fire
nom
Stone
inerat
Day
kwaras
Bird
menok
dan
Fish
noma
Night
romerok
Tree
nei
Earth
maap
Fruit
nobowane
Sea
tak
Leaf
ankalon
Water
nu
House
nimoa.
For the language of Lifu, a language of the Loyalty
group, we have but few data — viz., A Book for Boys
and Girls ; The Lord's Prayer ; the Creed, Prayers, a
Primer (?), A Book for showing the Rule of God ; a few
words ; and the numerals.
English.
Lifu.
English.
Lifo.
One
chas
Six
chagemen
Two
luete
Seven
luegemen
Three
konite
Eight
konigemen
Four
eketse
Nine
ekegemen
Five
tipi
Ten
laepL
It is closely allied to the
Mare.
English.
Mare.
English.
Mare.
Man {homo)
ngome
Foot
wata
{nr}
chatnhani
mate
Woman
bmenewe
Blood
dra
Father
chacha
God
Mackaze
Mother
ma
Sky
dwe
mani
Swn
da
Son
tei
Moon
jekole
tene
Day
rane
Boy
maichamhane
Night
bane
Child
wakuku
Wind
iengo
Daughter
mochenewe
Fire
iei
Brother
cheluaie
Water
wi
Elder brother
mama
Earth
lawa
Younger brother
achelua
HiU
▼eche
Eye
•waegogo
Stone
ete
Mouth {lip)
tnbenen-gocho
Tree
iene.
Hand
aranine
In New Caledonia, the language of Cape Queen
Charlotte is known under the name of Baladea; for
342
NEW CALEDONIA.
which Gabelentz would substitute the native name
Duaura. A small tract published in Rarotonga, in
1847, gives us the main materials for this dialect; it
consists of passages from the Bible, and either represents
the language imperfectly or the language is inadequate
to the translation. The sounds of /, I, h, and s, are
wanting. Many of the roots are monosyllabic ; many,
apparently, dissyllabic, the concurrence of consonants
being rare. Its proper inflection is of the scantiest. It
uses prefixes as well as suffixes ; suffixes as well as
prefixes.
English.
Baladea.
Man
ngauere
unie
Woman
vio
Father
chicha
Mother
nia
Child
vanikore
Son
niao
Daughter
vanivio
Hair
ngo
Face
kaua'e
Eye
eme
neme
Eaa-
uanea
Mouth
uange
Tongue
nekune
Neck
gouka
Hand
imi
Foot
ve
Blood
inte
Z!ompare(
i with the other
English.
Baladea.
Moon
moe
NigJU
pune
Earth
nu
Land
nonte
Sea
injo
Sheep
mamoe
Man
unie
Eye
neme
Hand
imi
English.
Baladea.
God
Intu
Sky
okua
Sun
ni
Bay
ni
Moon
moe
Star
veo
Night
pune
Fire
dadi
Water
tei
Sea
injo
Tree
ngae
Good
ade
Bad
die
puru
Great
aJ^ae
Many (all)
chapi
Eat
ki
Speak
ni.
mahoc — A nnatom
bune — Mare
ano — Bauro
nonte — Maro
injop — Annaiom
mamoe — Mare
inoni — Bauro
name — Tana
lima — Malay, kc. &c.
NEW CALEDONIA,
343
English.
Baladea.
Blood
Name
Heart
Kingdara
inte
vane
nue
toka
iinja — Annatom
attaTanim — Erromarnjo
mori — Mare
dokn — Mare
House
Clothing
High
uma
kui
toana
oma — Bauro
kukui — Mare
toane — Mare
Live
omoro
amorep — Erromango.
The following numerals are from the southern portion
of the area under notice : —
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
Tupua
toao
booiou
bogo
mabeo
kaveri
Fenua
Galaio
tchika
ioa
too
djiva
djini
Indeni*
t«dja
all
adi
abooai
naroone
Fonofono nenqui
lelou
eve
ouve
idi
Mami
tat
looa
tolou
£a -
]ima
Six
Seren
Eight
Nine
Ten
Tupua
{ kaveri [
\ ajouo ; ,
vio
viro
reve
anharoa
Fenua
Galaio
1 tchoao
timbi
ta
tondjo
nhavi
Indeni
teiamooa
edonma ebonema
napon
ekatoa
Fonofono poolenqm
polelou
I pole
polohone
nokoloa
Mami
ono
fitou
paroa
iva
kadoua.
V.ngliah,
Isleof Pinea.
Yengen.
One
ta
beta
Two
vo
heluk
Three
veti
heyen
Four
ben
pobits
Fire
tahue
nim
Six
nota
pimwet
Seven
nobo
nimweluk
Eight
nobeti
nimweyen
Nine
nobea
nimpobit
Ten
nokaa
jwinduk.
Uea, though one of the Loyalty Islands, is not
altogether like the rest of the Papuan districts. Its
name, even, is foreign ; Uea being the native term for
Wallis's Island. From this, one of its three languages is
• Or Nitendi.
344
UEA, ETC.
stated to have been introduced ; the present speakers
of it being the descendants of settlers of uncertain date.
Of the two other forms of speech, one is from New
Caledonia the other (that of the following specimen)
native.
EngUsb.
Uea.
English.
Uea.
One
pacha
Six
lo-acha,
Two
lo
Seven
Zo-ala
Three
kun
Eight
fo-kunn
Four
thak
Nine
lo-th&k
Five
thabumb
Ten
fe-bennete
In like manner Fotuna, though belonging to the New
Hebrides, is Polynesian, rather than Papuan, in speech ;
the language being more especially akin to that of
Karotonga. Again — in some parts of Fate, or Sand-
wich Island, a Polynesian dialect is spoken. Thirdly,
in Mau, to the north-east of Fate, the people speak the
Maori, i. e. the language of New Zealand.
THE FIJI. 345
CHAPTER LI.
The Viti, or Fiji, Group. — Its Belations to the Polynesian and the Papua.
For reasons which will appear in the sequel, the Fiji or
Viti is given in a chapter by itself.
The Fiji or Viti Archipelago extends from 16° to 2*
S. L. and from l77° to 182° W. L. The islands them-
selves amount to more than 200 : of whicli not less
than 100 are inhabited. Vanua Levu and Viti Levu
are supposed to contain 40,000 individuals each. The
remaining population, spread over the smaller islands,
may amount to 90,000 more. The language, however,
is the same throughout : though dialects and sub-dia-
lects are to be expected. Tlie chief of these are those of
Lakemba, or the Windward Islands, Somosomo, Vewa,
Inbau, and Rewa.
The following list, from Gabelentz, shows the extent
to which its vocabulaiy agrees with the Malay and Poly-
nesian.
English.
Sly
Moon
Clouds
Rain
Storm
Wind
East Wind
Lightning
Flame
Night
RjL
Malay and Polynesian
lagi
p. langi, m. langit
vola
m. bulan
0
p. ao, m. awan
uca
p. asa, m. njan
cava
p. afa, awa
cagi
p. angi, m. an^
tokalaa
p. tokelau
liva
p. uila
udre
p. ura
bogi
p. pongi
346
THE FIJI.
English.
Shade
Earth
Land
Stone
Hill
Bank
Reef
Way
Ashes
Bust
Water
Fresh water
Sea
Man {homo)
(vir)
Father
Mother
Elder brother
Tounyer brother
Son-in-law
King
Lord
Head
Ear
Eye
Nose
M&uih
Beard
Hand
Breast
Belly
Leg
Knee
Heart
Vein
Bone
Blood
Dog
Bat
Bird
Pigeon
Snake
Fish
Lobster
Bvitterfy
Ant
Fly
Fiji.
malumalu
vanua
qele
vatu
bukebuke
taba
cakau
sala
dravu
umea
wai
dranu
wasa
tamata
tagane
tama
tina
tuaka
taci
vugo
sau
tui
ulu
daliga
mata
ucu
gusu
kumi
liga
sucu
kete
yava
dura
loma
ua
sui
dra
koU
beka
manumanu
ruve
gata
ika
urau
bebe
lo
Ian
Mala; or Polynesian.
p. malu
p. fanua, m. benua
p. kele
p. fatu, m. batu
p. puke, m. bukit
p. tafa, tapa, m. tepi
p. hakau
p. hala, ara, m. djal
p. lefu
p. umea
p. wai
p. lanu
p. vasa
p. tangata
p. tane
p. tama
p. tina
p. tuakana
p. tasi
p. hungoni
p. hau
p. tui
p. ulu, m. ulu
p. talinga, m. telinga
p. m. mata
p. isu, m. idong
p. ngutu
p. kumikumi, m. kumis
p. lima
p. m. susu
p. kete
p. avae, wawae
p. tuli, turi
p. uma
p. uaua
p. sivi
m. darah
p. kuli
p. peka
p. manu, m. manuk
p. lupe
p. ngata
p. ika, m. ikaa
p. kura, ula, m. udang
p. pepe
p. lo
p. laugo, m. laugau
THE FIJI.
Engtiah.
1^
Malay or Poljneaan.
Midije
nana
p. naonao
Lome
kntu
p. m. kutu
Tree
kau
p. kan^ m. kaju
Root
waka
p. aka, m. akar
Bark
knU
p. kill, m. kulit
Leaf
drau
p. lau, m. daxm
Fruit
vua
p. fua, t». buah
Banana
Tudi
p. futi
Cocoanut
niu
p. niu, m, nior
mUk
lolo
p. lolo
bola
p. pnlu, bola
Yam
uvi
p. ufi, m. ubi
Cane
gasau
p. kaso, kaho
Sugar-cane
dOTU
p. to, toln, m. tabba
Hedge
ba
p. pa, m. pagar
Canoe
waqa
p. vaka
Mast
vana
p. fana
Rudder
voce
p. fose
SaU
laca
p. la, m. layer
kie
p. kie
Nail
vako
p. fao, m. paka
Comb
sera
p. selo, hero, m. afdr
Bag
taga
p. tanga
Basket
kato
p. kato
Girdle
van
p. fau
Holy
tabu
p. tabu
Soft,
nialn^
p. malve
Tame
lasa
|>. lata
Right
dona
p. tonu
Ready
oti
j>. oti
Ripe
matoa
J), matoa
Easy
mamada
p. mama
Empty .
maca
p. maha
Weak
malumu
p. malu
Little
lailai
J). Uhilabi
New
vou
J), foa
Hot
katakata
p. kasa
Red
kulakola
^. kula, kura
Hear
rogo
p. rongo, longo, m. it
See
sarasan
p. araara
Cry
tagi
p. tanp, m. tangis
Eat
kana
p. kaina, kainga
Drink
unnma
p. inn, m. minom
Bite
kati
j>. kati
Spit
loa
p. loa
Tade
toToIea
p. tofo
Stand
tu
p. ta
348
THE FIJI.
English.
Fiji.
Lie
koto
Come
coa
Go
se
Enter
curu
Creep
dolo
Sleep
moce
Orow
tubu
Die
mate
Know
kila
Enjoy
reki
Possess
rawa
Hold
kiika
Bring
kau
Loose
talu
Bore
coka
Shoot
vana
Turn
wiri
Enclose
bunu
Rub
solo
Sweep
tavi
Cut
sele
koti
tava
vaci
Divide
wase
Dig
kelia
Fall
ta
Peel
voci
Wash
Tuluvulu
One
dua
Two
rua
Three
tolu
Four
va
Five
lima
Six
ono
Seven
vitu
Eight
walu
Nine
ciwa
Ten
tin!
Himd/red
drau
Ini
Malay or Polynesiau.
p. takoto
p. tau
f. se
p. uru, sulu
p. tolo
p. mose, mohe
p. tupu, m. tumbuh
p. mate, m, mati
p. ilo
p. reka
p. rauka, rawa
p. kuku
f. kau
p. tala
p. hoka
p. fana
p. Tiri, vili, m. pili
p. puni
p. holo
p. tafi
p. sele
p. koti
p. tafa, m.
p. fasi
p. vase
p. keli, m. gali
p. ta
p. fohe
p. fulu, pulu
p. taha, tai
p, lua, rua, m. dua
p. tolu, toru
2). fa, wa
p. lima, rima, m. lima
p. ono, m. anam
p. fitu, witu
^. valu, warn
p. iva, hiva
p. tini
p. lau, rau.
. tabang
With the Annatom it has the following amount of
likeness.
THE FIJI.
English.
Eoi
Annatom.
Sun
oga
nagesega
Night
bogi
epeg
Water
■wai
wai
Stone
vatn
hat
Man (homo)
tamata
atimi
(nV)
atagane
atamaig
Father
tama
etmai
Tongue
yame
namai
Name
yadha
idai
Bird
TnaTiumana
man
Dme
rape
nalaapa
Dog
koU
kuri
Bag
kato
cat
Ale
kedhega
asega
Iktrh
buto
aupat
Narrow
warowaro
ehroehro
Right
matau
matai
Left
mawi
mooi
Dry
madha
mese
Deep
nnba, tltoba
oboa
bukete
opouc
Hide
tabo-naka
adahpoi
Turn
saomaka
adnmoij
Open
salia
asalage
Sit
tdko
ateac
Week
tagi
taig
Sleep
modke
nmj^
Drink
Tmnma
Tunni
Die
mate
mas
Two
ma
ero
Who
dkei
di
They
era
an
To.
vei
vai.
349
Upon the grammatical relations of this important
language more will be said in the sequel.
350 AUSTRALIA.
CHAPTER LII.
The Australian Group.
The isolation of the Australian languages has often been
insisted on. Yet they have not only miscellaneous
affinities but three vocabularies (1.) the Ombay ; (2.)
the Mangarei ; and (3.) the Timbora, have, for some
years, been pointed* out as vocabularies from the Malay
area with decided Australian affinities.
The definite line of demarcation which is drawn be-
tween them and the Papuan of New Guinea is im-
peached by the Erroob and Darnly Island vocabularies of
Jukes ; not to mention those of Macgillivray from the
Louisiade Archipelago.
The fact that, notwithstanding the mutual unintelli-
gibility of the majority of the forms of speech of which
we have specimens, combined with the fact of these
being numerous, the languages for the whole of Austra-
lia form but one class, has been urged by Grey, Thred-
keld, the present writer, and others — by all upon inde-
pendent researches. Upon the value, however, of the class,
but little criticism has been expended.
Affinities, especially in respect to grammatical struc-
ture, with the Tamul languages have been indicated by
Norriss. I doubt, however, whether they are the near-
est— indeed, I think that indirect relationship and a
* Appendix to Jukes's Voyage of the Fly by the present writer.
AUSTRALIA.
351
real or apparent partial coincidence in respect to the
stage of their development is all that the comparisons
warrant.
The numerals are on the low level of those of South
America — rarely reaching jive; generally stopping at
three.
Beginning with the north, and more particularly with
the parts about the Gulf of Carpentaria, we have —
(1.)
English.
Cape York.
Massied.
Gudang.
Kowiaregm.
Bead
pada
quiku
Eye
dana
dana
dana
dana
Ear
carusa
c<ira
ewunya
kowra
Nose
pichi
pechi
eye
piti
Mvuth
aiica
anca
angka
guda
Teeth
dang
danga
ampo
danga
Tongue
nay
nay
nntara
nai
Hair
muchi
{of head) yal
eeal
odye
yal
Neck
korka
kercnk
yuro
mndnl
Hand
geta
geta
arta
geta
Sun
inga
gariga
Moon
aikana
kissnri
Star
onbi
titnre
Fish
wapi
wapi
■wawpi
wawpi.
Then,
for the eastern coast —
(2.)
English.
MoretonBay.
Sidney.
Jervis Bay.
MnruTa.
Man
kure
mika
yuen
Woman
dyin
kala
wangen
Head
kabara
hollo
kapan
Hair
cnbboaeu
kitong
tirar
tiaur
Eye
mil
mebarai
ierinn
mabara
Nose
moral
nokoro
nokoro
Mouth
karka
kame
ta
Teeth
dear
yira
ira
yira
Tongue
dalan
dalan
talen
talang
Ear
bidne
knre
kouri
guri
Hand
morrah
damora
maramale
mana
Foot
tona
dana
Sun
baga
gan
ore
bogorin
Moon
galan
gibak
tahouawan
dawara.
52
AUSTRALIA
•
Inland-
—
(3.)
English.
Peel River.
Bathurst.
Wellington.
Mudjt
Man
iure
mauung
gibir
kolir
Woman
inor
balan
inur
Head
biira
balang
budyang
ga
Hair
taikul
gian
uran
Eye
mil
mekalait
mil
mir
Nose
muru
murung
Mouth
ngankai
nandarge
ngan
Teeth
yira
irang
irang
yira
Tongue
tale
talan
talai
Ear ,
bina
benangarei
uta
bina
Hand
ma
miira
mara
Foot
tina
dina
dinaDg
dina
Sun
toni
mamady
irai
murai
Moon
palu
daidyu
kilai.
The Kamilaroi (of which the
are dialects) is spoken over a
and 500 miles, and 50 broad
head-waters of the Hunter river.
Wellington and Mudji
district between 400
: chiefly towards the
(4.)
English.
Man
Native
Head
Eye
Nose
Teeth
Ear
Tongue
Chin
Neck
Foot
Day
Conterminous
English.
Man
Woman
Head
Eyes
Ewrs
Nose
Bone
Kamilaroi.
giwir
mmri
kaoga
ga
mil
muro
yira
binna
tulle
tal
nun
dinna
yarai
with the
English.
Sun
Moon
Star
Fire
Water
Fain
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
Six
Kamilaroi are the
KamilaroL
do
gille
mirri
wi
koUe
yuro
mal
bularr
guliba
bularrbularr
bulaguliba
gulibaguliba.
(5.)
Wiradurei.
gibir
inar
balang
mil
uta
murung
dabal
Witouro.
gole
bagorook
moomyook
mirrook
wingook
kamyook
gooroob
WITOURO, ETC.
353
English.
Wiradurei.
Witouro.
Blood
kuaingi
goortanyook
Teeth
irang
leanyook
Tongue
talain
tallanyook
Hand
miira
munangin
Foot
dlnang
tinnamook
Sun
irai
mini
Moon
menyan
Stan
toortbaram
Fire
win
wing
Water
kaling
moabeet
Earth
takun
dar
Stone
walang
lar
One
wakol
koen moet
Two
boloara
bullait
I
ngatoa
bangeek
Tou
nngintoa
(6.)
l>angen.
English
Lake Hindmarsh.
Lake Mtrndy.
Moloneln.
Head
boropepinack
kotagong
Hand
mannyah
mairoola
Feet
jinnerr
jinygy
Eyes
mer
meerrang
magalite
Note
kar
karbung
noor
Tooth
tnngan
Sun
narwee
thairerong
enrroga
buggarang
mommait
Moon
yarrekudyeah
bamboiirk
cobboton
Star
toura
yeeringminap
ginaga
Fire
wheey
wheein
kanby
wanyup
WaUr
gartyin
barreet
naijjon
allangope
(7.)
Eugliah.
/faongworoDg.
Pinegorine.
Gnnrellean.
Head
morromgnata
poko
tonggognena
Eyes
meringgnata
ma
mer^nena
Nose
kawinggnata
kowo
tandegnena
Foot
gnenonggnata
gena
genongbegnena
Sun
nowan
yourugga
nowwer
Moon
yambuk
yonragknda
torongi
Star
fort
tatta
tortok
Fire
peda
wembe
Water
kordenok.
A A
354
PARNKALLA, ETC.
(8.)
English.
Woddowrong.
Koligon.
Dautgart-
Head
morrokgnetok
morrokgrunok
benianen
Eye
mergnetok
mergnetok
mergnanem
Nose
kanugnetok
konggnetok
Foot
genongnetok
kenonggnetok
Sun
mere
na
derug
Moon
yern
bard bard
barinannen
Star
fotbarun
karartkarart
bommaramorug
Fire
weang
wean
Water
gnobet
kan
(9.)
baret.
English.
Boraiper.
Yakkumban.
A iawong.
Head
poorpai
petpoga
Hand
mannangy
mannourko
Foot
tshinnangy
dtun
Eye
merringy
koUo
Nose
clieengi
roonko
Tooth
leeangy
Dgenko
Sun
nauwingy
yuko
ngankur
Moon
mityah
paitchoway
kakkirrah
Star
tootte
poolle
pille
Fire
■wannappe
wheenje
kabungo
wolpool
koonnea
Water
tarnar
tinbomma
ngookko
konene
I
yetwa
ngappo
Thou
ninwa
nimba
ngtirrti
She
niyala
nin
We
yangewer
innowa
ngenno
Te
nguDO
They
wootto
ngauo
One
keiarpe
neetchar
meiter
Two
poolette
parkooloo
tangkul
Three
jwoleckwia
parkool-netcharii tangku-meiter.
(10.)
English,
Parnkalla.
Head of Bight.
Western Australia.
Head
kakka
karga
katto
Hand
marra
merrer
myrea
Feet
idna
jinna
jeena
Eye
mena
mail
mail
Nose
mudla
miillab
moolya
Tooth
ira
erai
nelgo
Svm
yurno
tshindu
nganga
batta
PARNKALLA, ETC.
355
English.
Pamkalla.
Head of Bight.
Western Anstialia.
Moon
perra
perar
meki
Star
purle
kalga
miljarm
Fire
gadia
kalla
kalla
Water
kapi
gaippe
kano
kaawe
kow\riii
I
ngai
ajjo
nganya
ngatto
janna
bal
Thou
niima
nginnee
She
paima
ngangeel
We
ngarrinyalbo
nganneel
arlingol
Ye
nuralli
narang
They
yardna
balgoon
One
kuma
gomera
kain
Two
kuttara
kooteia
karclura
TJtree
kappo
(11.)
ngarril.
English.
Port PLUip.
English.
Port Philip.
Man
meio
Foot
tenna
Woman
ainmaik
Sky
poulle
Tongue
tatein
Moon
kaker
Head
iouk
Star
poulle
Beard
molda
Sun
tendo
Mouth
ta
Tree
ara
Nose
modla
Fire
alia
Arm
aondo
Water
kawi
Eye
mennha
Sea
kopool
Hair
iouko
Bird
pallo
Ear
ioare
Stone
poure
Tooth
ta
Fish
rouia
Nail
perre
One
mangorat
Finger
malta
Two
pollai.
Hand
malla
(12.)
English.
King George's Sound.
EsgUsh.
King George's Sound
Woman
iok
Tongue
t.alin
Head
kat
tarlin
Hand
mal
Eye
mehal
mar
Nail
piak
Beard
annok
perre
narnak
Foot
kean
Mouth
taa
dien
Arm
marok
teal
Hair
kaat
tchen
tchao
Blood
oop
Tooth
oUog
Sky
marre
orlok
Moon
meok
AA 2
356
6
KAMILAROI.
English.
King George's Sound.
English.
King George's Sounil
^tar
tcMndai
pouai
Sun
kiat
Bird
kierd
Fire
kal
Stone
poie
karl
hoiel
Water
kepe
One
ken
Sea
mamorot
Ttvo
kadien
Tree
tarevelok
Three
taan.
Egg
kirkai
Some (at least) of the Australian languages are named
after the word meaning No ; so that the Kamilaroi, the
Wolaroi, the Wailivun, the Wiralhei^e, and the Pikabul,
take their designations from their negatives ; these being
kamil, wol, wail, wira, and pika, respectively. If this
nomenclature be native it is remarkable. In Italy and
France the same principles prevailed in the twelfth
century. In the early stages, however, of rude lan-
guages it has yet to be discovered beyond the area now
under notice.
The following are paradigms for the Kamilaroi : —
mute, an opossum.
mutedu, an opossum (agent).
mute-ngu, of an opossum.
mute-go, to an opossum.
mute-di, from an opossum.
mtde-dd, in an opossum.
mute-kunda, with an opossum.
ngaia, I.
ngulle, thou or you, and I
ngeatiS, we.
ngai, my.
ngullina, he and I.
ngeane-ngu, of us.
ngaiago, to me.
ngulle-ngu, belonging tc
) ngeane-go, to us.
ngaiadl, from me.
you and me.
ngeane-di, from us.
ngaiada, in me.
ngullina-ngu, belonging ngeane-da, in us.
ngaiaJciinda,
to him and me.
ngeane-kunda, with us
with me.
ngulle-go, to you and me.
ngununda, me.
&c. &c.
inda, thou.
indaU, ye two.
ngindai, ye.
inda-ngu, "1 ^,
or nginnu, J
indale-ngu.
ngindai-ngu,
&c.
inda-go, to thee,
indale-go.
&c.
&c.
nglrma, he, she, or that.
ngdrma, they.
numma or ngubbo, this.
nguruma, that (iste).
ngirma or J ^j^^^ (y,^^
ngutta i ^ '
andi? whol
mlnnlmaf which?
minna or minyal what 1
ngaragedul or ngarage
, another.
kanungo, all.
KAMILAROI. 357
gir bumalnge, did beat to-day.
gir bumalmien, did beat yesterday.
gir hamallen, did beat some days ago.
bumalda, is beating. humaUa, strike.
bumalle, will beat. bumallawd, strike (emphatic and
bumalngari, will beat to-morrow. earnest).
bumalmia, strike (ironical — **ifyou
dare ").
buvfuildat, beat (as ydle inda bumaldendai, beating ; bunudngendai,
bumaldai, if you beat). having beaten; bujtmlmiendai,
bumaUago, to beat. having beaten yesterday ; bumal
lendai, going to beat.
In a systematic and general work like the present,
wherein it is scarcely possible .for the writer to treat
each part of the subject with the care demanded by a
special monograph, I may be excused for giving some
extracts from certain papers, of comparatively distant
dates, bearing upon certain parts of the subject — papers
written when our data were scantier than they are at
present, and papers of which the object was less to prove
certain points, than to prepare the way to the breaking-
down of several arbitrary lines of separation and to draw
attention to the over-valuation of certain isolated
characters.
And first in respect to the affinities between the Aus-
trahan languages taken in mass among themselves.
That the Australian languages are one (at least in the way that the Indo-
European languages are one), is likely from henceforward to be admitted.
Captain Grey's statement upon the subject is to be found in his work upon
Australia. His special proof of the unity of the Australian languages is amongst
the unprinted papers of the Geographical Society. The opinions of Threl-
keld and Teichelmann go the same way. The author's own statements are as
foUows : —
(1.) For the whole round of coast there is, generally speaking, no vocaba-
lary of sufficient length that, in some word or other, does not coincide with
the vocabulary of the nearest point, the language of which is known to us.
If it fail to do this it agrees with some of the remoter dialects. Flinder's
Carpentarian, compared with the two vocabularies of the Endeavour River,
has seventeen words in common. Of these, three (perhaps four) coincide.
Eye, meal, C; meul, E. E.: hair, tnarra, C; morye, R R.: fingers, mingel, C.
mungal bah, E. R. : breast, gummur, C. : coyor, E. E.
358
AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES IN GENERAL.
\
Endeavour River. — Two vocabularies. — Compared with the vocabularies
generally of Port Jackson, and the parts south and east of Port Jackson : —
Eye, meul, E. R. ; milla, Limestone Creek : nose, emiorda, E. R,: morro,
L. C. : ears, mulkah, E. R. ; tnoho, Port Macquarie : hair, morye, E. R. :
mundah, Burra Burra : breast, coyor, E. R. : kowul, Port Jackson : fingers,
munr/al hah, E. R. : maranga, B. B. : elbow, yeerwe, E. R. : yongra, Menero
Downs : nails, holhe, E. R. ; karungion ? P. J. : beard, wollar, E. R. : walv,
Jervis's Bay ; wollak, Port Macquarie, — The number of words submitted to
comparison — twenty two.
Menero Downs (Lhotsky), and Adelaide (G. W. Earl). — Thirteen words
in common, whereof two coincide.
English.
Me aero Downs.
Adelaide.
Hand
morangan
murra
Tongue
talang
taling.
Adelaide (G. W. Earl) and Outf St. Vincent (Voyage de I'Astrolabe).
English. Adelaide, Gulf St. Vincent.
Beard mutta molda
Ear iri ioure
Foot
Hair
Hand
Leg
Nose
Teeth
tinna
yuka
murrah
irako
mula
tial
tenna
iouka
malla
ierko
mudla
ta.
Gulf St., Vincent (Voyage de I'Astrolabe) and King George's Sound (Nind
and Voyage de I'Astrolabe) ; fifty words in common.
English.
Gulf St. Vincent.
King George's Sound.
Wood
kalla
kokol
Mouth
ta
taa
Hair
iouka
tchao
Neck
mannouolt
wolt
Finger
malla
mal
Water
kawe
kepe
Tongue
talein
talen
Foot
tenna
tchen
Stone
poure
pore
Laugh
kanghin
kaoner.
(2.) The vocabularies of distant points
coincide ; out of sixty words in
common we have
eight coincident.
English.
Jervis'a Bay.
Gulf St. Vincent.
Forehead
hole
ioullo
Man
mika
meio
Milk
awanham
ammenhalo
Tongue
talen
talein
AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES IN GENERAL.
359
Jervis's Bay.
Gulf St. Vincent
maramale
malla
amgnaim
amma
monrak
pouillonl
berenou
pere.
English.
Hand
Nipple
Black
Nails
(3.) The most isolated of the vocabularies, e. g. the Carpentarian, if com-
pared with the remaining vocabularies, taken as a whole, has certain words to
be found in different and distant parts of the island.
EngUsh.
Eye
Nose
The following is a notice of certain words coinciding, though taken from
dialects far separated : —
Carpentarian.
Limestone Creek.
mail
milla
hurroo
morro.
Lips
tambana,
Menero Downs
tamande, G. S. V.
Star
jingi,
ditto
tchindai, K. G. S.
Forehead
uUo,
ditto
ioullo, G. S. V.
Beard
yemka,
ditto
;^^ i K. G. S.
\nanga, S
Bite
paiandi.
ditto
badjeen, ditto
Fire
gaadla,
ditto
kaal, ditto
Heart
karlto,
ditto
koort, ditto
Sun
tindo,
ditto
djaat, ditto
Tooth I
Edge S
tia,
ditto
dowal, ditto
Water
kanwe,
ditto
kowwin, ditto
Stone
pore,
ditto
boye, ditto.
(4. ) The extent to which the numerals vary, the extent to which they agree,
and the extent to which this variation and agreement are anything but coin-
cident with geographical proximity or distance, may be seen in the following
table :—
English.
One
Tko
Three
Moreton Bay
kamarah
bulla
mudyan
• Island
karawo
poonlah
madan
Bijenelumbo
warat
ngargark
2-fl
L imbalarajia
erat
ngargark
do.
Terrutong
roka
oryalk
do.
lAmbaptfu
immuta
lawidperra
2+1
Koicrarega
warapune
qnassur
do.
Gudang
epiamana
elabaio
do.
Damley Island
netat
nes
do.
Raff.es Bay
loca
erica
orongarie
Lake Macquarie
wakol
buloara
ngoro
Peel Hirer
peer
pular
purla
360
AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES IN GENERAL.
English.
One
Two
Three
WelliTigton
ngungbai
bula
bula-ngungbai
Corio
koimoil
Jhongworong
kap
Pinegorine
youa
Onurellean
lua
King Oeorge^s Sound,
keyen
cuetrel
murben
Karaula
mal
bular
culeba
Lachlan, Regent Lake
nyoonbi
bulla
bulongonbi
WoUondilly River
medung
puUa
coUuerr.
(5.) In respect to the vocabtdaries, the extent to which the analysis which
applies to the grammar applies to the vocables also may be seen in the fol-
lowing instance. The word hand Bijenelumbo and Limbapyu is birgaJk.
There is also in each language a second form — anbirgalk — wherein the an is
non-radical. So, also, is the alk ; since we find that armpit=zingamb-alk,
shoulder=^mundy-alk, and fingers^mong alk. This brings the Tooi=zhand
to birg. Now this we can find elsewhere by looking for. In the Liverpool
dialect, bir-il=ihand, and at King George's Sound, peer=:nails. The com-
monest T00t=hand in the Australian dialects, is m-r, e.g. : —
Moreton Bay murrah
Karaula
maiTa
Sydney
da-mora
Mudje
mara
Wellington
murra
Liverpool
ta-mura
Corio
Jhongworong
Murrumbidje
Molonglo
Head of Bight
Pamkalla
far-onggnetok
far-okgnata
mur-rugan
mar-rowla
merrer
marra.
AU this differs from th e Port Essington terms. Elbow, however, in the
dialects there spoken=waaj*e &ndforearm=am,'ma-woor; wier, too^palm,
in Kowrarega.
English.
Terrutong
Peel River
Raffles^ Bay
English.
Moreton Island
Peel River
Mudje
Wellington
Liverpool
Bathurat
Boraipar
Lake Hindmarsh
MuiTumbidJe
Molonglo
Pinegorine
Hand
manawiye
ma
maneiya.
Foot
tenang
tina
dina
dinnung
dana
dina
tchin-nang-y
jin-nerr
tjin-nuk
tjin-y-gy
gena
English,
Onurellean
Moreton Bay
Karaula
Lake Macquaric
Jhongworong
Corio
Colack
Bight Head
Pamkalla
Aiawong
K. George's Sound
Gould Island
Foot
gen-ong-begnen-a
chidna
tinna
tina
gnen- ong-gnat-a
gen-ong-gnet-ok
ken-ong-gnet-ok
jinna
idna
dtun
tian
pinyun and pinkan.
English. Hair, beard
Moreton Island yerreng
Bijenelumbo yirka
AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES IN GENERAL.
361
English.
Hair, beard
English.
Tooth
Regent's Lake
00 ran
Moreton Island
tiya
Lake Macquarie
wnrong
Moreton Bay
deer
Goold Island
kiaram
Lalce Macquarie
tina
Wellington
uran
Sydney
yera
Karaula
yerry
Wellington
irang
Sydney
yaren
Murrumbidje
yeeran
Peel River
ierai
Gould Island
eera.
Mvdje
yarai.
English.
Tongue
English.
Eye
Moreton Bay
dalan
Moreton Island
mel
Regent's Lake
talleng
Moreton Bay
miU
Karaula
talley
Gvdang
emeri=eyebrow
Gould Island
taUt
Bijenelumbo
merde^eyelid
Lake Macquarie
talan
Regent's Lalce
mil
Sydney
dalan
Karaula
mil
Peel River
tale
Mudje
mir
K. George's Sound talien.
Corio
mer-gnet-ok
Colack
mer-gnen-ok
English.
Ear
Dautgart
mer-gna-nen
Kowrarega
kowra *
Jkongworong
mer-ing-gna-ta
Sydney
kore
Pinegorine
ma
Liverpool
kure
Gnurellean
mer-e-gnen-a
Lake Macquarie
ngureong
Boraipar
mer-ring-y
Moreton Bay
bidna
Lake Eindmarsh
mer
Karaula
binna
Lake Mundy
meer-rang
Peel River
bine
Murrumbidje
mit
Bathurst
benang-arei
K. George's Sound mial.
Gould Island
pinna.
The main evidence, however, of the fundamental
miity of the Australian languages lies in the wide
diffusion of identical names for objects like foot, eye,
tooth, fire, and the like.
362
TASMANIAN.
CHAPTER LIII.
Van Dieman's Land, or Tasmania.
The earliest vocabulary we have for Van Dieman's
Land is nine words in Cook. Then follows one by La
Billardiere, then one by Allan Cunninghaii^, collected in
1819, then one by Gaimard taken from the mouth of
a Tasmanian woman with an Englishman as an inter-
preter, at King George's Sound, then one by Mr. Geary,
pubhshed by Dr. Lhotsky in the transactions of the
Geographical Society (vol. ix.) ; and lastly one, procured
by R. Brown, representing nearly the same dialect as
that of La Billardiere.
The following, however, from the Tasmanian Jour-
nal of Natural History, contains more than all put to-
gether, and, for practical purposes, all we have. For
which reason it is given in extenso.
English.
East.
West.
South.
North.
Uncertain.
Albatross
tarrina
Arm
altree
gouna howtna
Bad
Badger
publedina
carty _ :
, peindriga
4 probaluthin
\ probylathany
Bandicoot
padina
lennira
Bark
tolin^
Basket
terri
Beach
minna
quenitigna
Beard
( lomongui
canguini
Belly
minlean
cawereeny
< tamongui
( morangui
> mackalenna
Belonging to
patourana
TASMANIAN.
363
English. East. West.
Bird •
Blachman
Blacken
Bleed
Blush wadebeweaima
Boat luirapeny lallaby
{native)
Bone
Boy plereiiny
(««^e) { Jad^nna }
Bread towereela
South.
palewaredia
kenna teewa
pokak
Teewandrick
Kwth.
wagley
pleragenana
larrana
bnngana
badany
Breast
Brother
BMoclcs
Bum
Bush or grass
Cape Grimm
Cat
Cave
Cheek
Chief
Child
Children
Chin camena
Circidar)
Head \
Cloud {white)
(Mack)
Coal
Coal dust
Cockatoo
Cold
Come tepera
Corrohory {t)
Country \
round \
Cottring
Cow
Crackle
Crooked
Crow
Cry
Crystal
Day
backalow
pilree
noperena
martnla
maianneck
pootark
nobittaka
leewoon
pona
roona
VneerUuM.
movta-iMnUa
langnoiri
luiropay
S luiropay
i| picanini
{workalenna
lere-laidene
wo my
looweinna \
pickaninny )
ganemerara tarrabilyie
( wallantanal- )
(inany )
legnnia
cateena
powena
nanapalla
lanena
keeka
loina
Und
targa
heka
loyowibba
pagarat
anaba haouba
conora
loira
eribba
terra gomna
{tenna
ranana
togannera
tanina
364
TASMANIAN VOCABULARIES.
English.
East.
West.
South.
Nortli.
Bay (a)
magra
(to)
waldeapowel
{fine)
lutregala
Dead
1 lowatka, v.
'; lowatka, p.
)
Devil
comtena
patanela
( rargeropper
\ namneberick
[ talba
i
Die
Dive
Dog (native)
loputallow
lowdina
(British)
mooboa
Door
temminoop
Drahe
lamilbena
{wild)
malbena
Dress
legunia
Drink
leguna
Drops of rain
rinadena
Dry
catrebateany
Ear
pelverata
lewlina
towrick
cowanriggs
Earth
gunta
( newinna
( (gibbee)
Eat
meenawa
Eggs
palinna
Elbow
rowella
Emu
rekuna
Evacuate
legana
Evening
Eye
lepena
pollatoola
leemanrick
namericca
Eyelash
leelberrick
Eyebrow
bringden
Face
manrable
Family
Fare
niparani
Father
munlamana
tatana
Feathers
munwaddia
Fetch
Flghi
memana
Finger
Finger (fore
motook
Fire
Fish
Fist
patarola
lopa
i unee ^
\ lopa )
leipa
trew
reannemara
Uncertain,
moogara
mata
bugue6
laina laima
blatheraway
cuegnilia
vaiguioiiagui
coantana
tuwie, dodoni
malqueratopani
laedai
crowdo
( nubere
\ nubamihere
tagarilia
ardoungui
rmgeny
lorildri b^vit
logui
I wighana or
( poper, nvhe
( penunina
\ penungana
TASMAHIAN VOCABULARIES.
365
English.
East.
Flame
Flower
Fly
{Mow)
Flying
pinega
FaUii
leward
Fog
mnna
Foot
langana
Frog
pulbena
' Frost
alta
! Girl
ludineny
\
( cnckana
West.
lola
South,
lopatm
moanga
labittaka
paraka
VHeerUun,
weealeena oelle
labrica Ingna pere
Giveme
Go on
, Go home
i Good
j Googe
Gragg
i Onus tree
I Great
Ground
G%a
Gvn
ludineny
tabelty
naracoopa
robenganna
( mnia ^ \
imanginie | /
tringena mara
tackany
pandorga
haka-tettdga
teannie mare-
doungui
{jackay (?)
tangara
rodidana
comthenana
gnnta
rowenanna
lila
myna or m^ra neena
nala
lola
{wome roonina
poene nimeni
lackrana
longa
Hair
cethana
J palanina or 1
[pareata j"
parba
I keelana
I pelilogtieni
( peliogirigoni
Hand
anamana
rabalga
henimenna
riUa
Havk
pacta
TeegD&ririri
{eagle)
Head
engenana
pathenanaddi pnlbeany
cowenna
awittaka
cockinna
ewncka
Here
lomi
High
HiU
Horse
Hunt
Hut
bai-icutana
neika
weeticita
parwothana
leprena
poopu
; temma ^
; poporook )
mulaga
tama lebirinna
I
Idand
leurewagera
' mena
.manga
meena
1 mana
leareaway
366
TASMANIAN VOCABULARIES.
English. East. West.
Island 1
n„„„„\ i laibrenala
{large) S
Kangaroo \
{male) ^
{female)
{pouch) kigranana
{rat) reprenana
bungana
nannabenana
plerenny
latbanama leea
Kill
King
Knee
Know
Lad
Large
Laugh
Leg
Lie {verb)
Light
Lightning
Lips
Little
Lobster
Long way
or time
Love
Low
Magpie
MaTce
Man
{old)
( canara or \
\ curena /
ludowing
( lowlobengang
I
\ or pebleganana ^
South.
lemmook
lurgu
wanga
( tunapee
I manga-namntga
marinook
North.
lalliga
katenna
nammorgun
manta
penna
Uncertain.
J lathakar
{ leigb lenna
boira tara
manglie
I ragualia
\ rouga rouga
{tunapry
labberie
tenalga
( lagana
< erai
towlangang
tretetea
mogudelia
nuele
relbia
penna (wybra)
loyetea
lewter
pomale
weipa
redpa
Many
spears
Mersey River paranaple
Moon lutand weena
Mosquito
Mother powamena pamena
Mountain truwalla
Mouth youtantalabana canea
Muscles \
{shellfish) )
Mutton {bird) youla laninyua
webba
tagalinga
prennai
liiina weedina
{weenina
mougui
mire,mine-mi '
TASMANIAN VOCABULARIEa
367
English
Naih
Narel
Neri
Night
No
Note
East.
lepera
leware
West.
denia
Nwse
Oak
■ Oar
\Old
, One
'■ Opossum
^Other
Ousters
\ Parrot
', Pdican
Pillow
Pipe
; Plant
I Plenty
I Porcupine
i Porpoise
: Port Sorrel
I Put atcay
Rain
; Sirer
(/argre)
Rkmlet
Sods
.Rope
Round {turn) mabea
^•■n {rerl) moltema
d
I iSeoW
j Scoreheiiitme)
I Scrape (icood)
\sea
i Sea^weed
i&e
lemana
petibela
milabena
taralangana
trewdina
trewmena
warthanina
waddamana
monttunana
panatana
nabowla
mells
emita
i Seal
I Sharpen
Suep
cartela
South.
rorook
pootsa
rowick
( makrie }
t meenamra S
panna
Korth.
rawairiga
Uneertma.
pereloU
lue
leewarry
poobyer, ntu/t
mongui mongni
parmery
puinera
naba
louba or toba
marrock
caracca
mola
lanaba
roere
terre
nanwoon
cardia
menna
milma
paiappa
parragoa
taddiwa
kenweika
mmpa
roorga
(lapree
manga namra
keekawa
talawa
magog
pathana
tagowawinna rengnie
came
penn-meena
neethoba
ilamnnika
irina-nntffn
rouigri
lapey
pemiwaddi n ana mlemena
368
TASMANIAN VOCABULARIES.
English.
Ship
Shoulders
Shout
Sick
Side (one)
Sit
Sit you down
Sky
Sleep
Small
Snake
Snow
Soon
Spear
Stars
{little)
Stone
Stop
Strike
Strong
Sulky
Sim
East,
luiropony
camey
crackenicka
oldiaa
palana
lenigugana
lenicarpeny
neckaproiny
kalipianna
ratairareny
petreanna
Swan
r robigana "1
\ wubia J
Swiftly
Tattoo
Teeth yanna
Tell
They {he, her,
them or that)
Thigh
This
Throw away
Thumb
Thunder
Tiger
Tongue mena
Tree
Two
Waddy
Wake
Walk (tabelty)
West.
cawella
meevenany
loila
nabageena
publee
yannolople
tula
tullana
South.
meena
crackena
roroowu
teeboack
poiranapry
nigga
moorden
longa
crackena
loina
North.
nicka
powranna
raccah (s)
murdunnah
loyna
cocha
Uncertain.
bagny hagny
meenattie
maubia
m^gri mere
medi
I malougna or lo-
( gouan
prenna (v & s)
lonna loine
rogueri toidi
( workalenna
^panubere
catagunya
f woorangitie
L penutita
palere
pegui canan
came
paraway
pegarapaguera
wan
navattn
lowerinna
mamana
mene
toronna
peragui
calabawa boul*
lerga
rocah
runna
lowenruppa
tawie mogor
TASMANIAN VOCABULARIES.
369
English.
East.
Walking
Wallaby
Was
Warm
Water (fresh) legani lerui •
(salt)
Water-bag
White-man
Wind
Wing
Woman
(labia)
(old)
lowlapewanna
Won^ai
Wood
moomara
Te$
Yonder
West.
tablety
mogo
South.
Ymt
weela
North.
( teiriga ^
(tablee )
tanah
moka
nitipa
numeraredia
leewan
lappa
loyoranna
UneertatH.
tolo magara
tara lo cougane
crack ne
{lini mocha
roti
mocha carty
regaa
(labia) lorga lolna (labia) quanipaiarana
watka
I nena )
(ninga /
{qaoiba I
wallisa ^
renave
narapa nina
neenie.
The following, like the extracts of the preceding chap-
ter, are from an earlier paper (indeed from the one which
gave the others), and are inserted upon the same prin-
ciple, and with the same excuse for their incomplete-
ness.
Port Dalrymple and King Georgis Sound (Nind and Astrol. :) — Woand,
barana, P. D. ; bareuk, N. : wood, moumbra, P. D. ; poum, N. ; hair,
hide, P. 3. ; Icaat, N. : thigh, degagla, P. D. ; tawal, N. : kangaroo,
taramei, P. D. ; taamour, N. : lips, mono, P. D. ; mele, K. G. S. : no,
poufie, P. D. ; poualt, poort, K. G. S. : egg, Icomeha, P. D. ; hierhee,
K. G. S. : bone, pnale, P. D. ; nouil, K. G. S. (bone of bird used to suck
up water) N. : skin, kidna, P. D. ; hiao ? K, G. S. : two, kateboueve, P. D. ;
kadjen, K. G. S. (N.). Fifty-six words in common.
Port Dalrymple and Gulf St. Vincent. — Mouth, mma, P. D. ; tamonde,
G. 8. V. (a compound word, since taa is mouth, in K. G. S.) : drink, kS>le,
P. D. ; kawe, G. S. V. : arm, anme, P. D. ; aondo (also shoulder), G. S. V. :
hawk, gan henen kenen, P. D. ; nanno, G. S. V. : hunger, tigate, P. D. ;
takiou, G. S. V. : head, eloura, P. D. ; ioullo, G. S. V. : nose, medouer
(mula), P. D. ; modla, G. S. V. : bird, iola, pallo, G. S. V. : stone, lenn
parenne, P. D. ; pmre ? G. S. V. : foot, dogna, P. D. ; tenna, G. S. V. :
sun, tegoura (also moon), P. D. ; tendo, G. S. V. Seventy words in com-
mon.
B B
370
TASMANIAN.
Port Dalrymple and Jervis's Ba^j. — Wound, barana, P. D. ; Tcaranra,
J. B. : tooth, iaine, P. D. ; ira, J. B. : skin, Tcidna, P. D. ; hagano, J. B. :
foot, dogna, P. D. ; tona (tjenne, tidna, jeetia), J. B. : head, eloura, P. D. ;
hollo, J. B. Fifty-four words in common.
What follows is a notice of some miscellaneous
coincidences between the Van Dieman's Land and the
Australian.
English.
Ears
Tliigh
Stone
Breast
Skin
Bay
Run
Feet
Little
Lip
Egg
Tree
Mouth
Tongue
Tooth
Speak
Leg
Knee
Moon
Nose
HawTc
Hwnger
Laugh
Moon
Day
Fire
Dew
Water
Van Dieman's Land.
cuengilia, 1803
tula, Lh.
j pure, Adel.
> voye, K. G. S.
pienenana, Lh.
kidna, P.D.
megra, Lh.
mella, Lh.
perre, D, C.
bodenevoued, P. D.
mona, P. D.
komeka, P. D.
moumra, P. D.
kamy, Cook,
kane, P. D.
darra, P. J.
gorook, ditto,
tegoura, P. D.
medouer, P. D.
gan henen henen, P.D.
tegate, P. D.
pigne, P. D.
vena, 1835
megra, 1835
une, 1803
manghelena, rain
boue lakade
Australia,
gundugeli, Menero Downs
dara, Menero Downs
lenn parene, P. D.
voyene, Menero Downs
makundo, Teichelman
nangeri, Menero Downs
monri, Menero Downs
birre, generally toe-nail
baddoeen. Grey
tameno {upper Up), ditto. [man
muka, egg, anything round, Teichel-
worra {forest), Teichelman
kame
speaTc )
mouth > Jervis's Bay
cj-y )
lerai
ronga, D. C.
kakirra, Teichelman
\ mudia, ditto
I moolya, Grey
gargyre, ditto
taityo, Teichelman
mengk, Grey
yennadah, P. J.
karmarroo, ditto ■
yong, ditto
menniemoolong
Ineylucka, Muri-ay, P. D.
bado, ditto
lucka, Carpentarian.
Papuan affinities of the Tasmanian.
Feet
Beard
5 perre )
\ perelia {nails) J
kongine
petiran, Carteret Bay
fgangapouni, Waigid
\ yenga, Mallicollo
TASMANIAN. 371
Bird
mouta
manouk, MaUicoUo
Chin
kamnena
gambape, Waigid
Tooth
1 canan
\ iane
( yane
gani, mouth, WaiffiH
insik, teeth, Port Praslin, MaUicoUo
Sand
gnne
coon, yean
Wood
Tree
gui
kaibns, Pap. and MaUicoUo
Ear
koyge
gaaineng, New Caledonia
Mouth
mougui
wangae and mooangoia
Arm
houana, gonna
pingue
^^o-^lS)
boaheigha
Fire
nala
afi, Mepp, nap, MaUicoUo
Knees
j rangalia )
( ronga )
banguiligha
Bead
mata
mackie
No
neudi
nola
Ears
cuegnulia
gnening
Xails
pereloigni
pihingui
Hair
pelilogueni
healing, poun ingue
Teeth
p^ui
penonngha
paou wangne
Fingers
b^nia
hadooheigha
Nose
mongui
mandec, vanding
Sleep
makunya
kingo.
The Tasmanian, with its four dialects, is spoken by
fewer than fifty individuals, occupants of Flinders
Island, to which they have been removed.
B B 2
372 OCEANIC LANGUAGES
CHAPTER LIV.
Review of the preceding Class. — Its Characteristics, Divisions, and Value. —
The so-called Negritos.
The details of a large group being now <ione with we
may take a retrospect of the class at large.
The first thing which commands attention is its thorough
insular or oceanic character ; on the strength of which
those who choose to give it a general name may call it
the Oceanic class. Subordinate to this is the remarkable
distribution of some of its members ; even when treated
as Oceanic. Easter Island is nearer to America, Mada-
gascar nearer to Africa than to Asia. Formosa, on the
other hand, is in the latitude of China and on the verge
of the Japanese waters. The small islands that lie im-
mediately to the North of it end in a compound of sima,
which, in Japanese, means island.
In no one out of the thousand and one islands and
islets in which the preceding dialects are spoken, are
there any clear and undoubted signs of any older popu-
lation than the speakers of the present languages, dialects
and subdialects, in their oldest form. I say clear and
undoubted, because, in some, they have been either inferred
or presumed — it may be on reasonable grounds. The
strongest presumptions (not unaccompanied by evidence)
in favour of anything of this kind are in Formosa.
In one great division of the group {i. e. in Polynesia
Proper) the diffusion has been decidedly recent; this
m GENERAL. 373
being an inference from the great uniformity with which
the language is spoken from the Sandwich Islands to
New Zealand, from Easter Island to Ticopia.
That the line of migration for Micronesia and Polynesia
was round the Papuan area rather than across it was
suggested by Forster. His suggestion, however, has been
but imperfectly recognized, so that some writers have
unconsciously re-discovered it, and others have speculated
from a point of view which they would never have
taken had the investigations of that able man been fami-
liar to them. In blaming others for this neglect the
present writer by no means exculpates himself.
Of the difference between the Oceanic tongues
and those continental forms of speech which lie
nearest to them, in the way of geography, too much has
been made. Of the continental languages those which
are the most monosyllabic, accentuate, and (to Em-opean
ears) cacophonic, (such as the Burmese and the Chinese,)
are those which are the best known in Europe, while,
on the other hand, it is the Malay and the Javanese, with
their soft sounds, their dissyllabic and polysyllabic voca-
bles, and their liquid articulations, which have commanded
the most attention. In the Manillas and Madagascar a
comparatively complex giammar adds to the elements
of contrast.
That the difference is considerable cannot be denied.
The remark, however, upon the extinction of the
nearest congener to the Malay, which was made at the
beginning of our exposition, helps to account for it.
Another series of facts that calls for a few remarks
lies in the domain of the ethnolocHst rather than in that
of the pure philologue — a series of facts suggested by a
term that has been used more than once — viz. Negrito.
That the Papuans, and that the Australians are of that
colour which the name Xegro, as applied to tbe African,
suggests, is well known. As they are not yellow, and
as brown, nuiroon, chocolate, and the like, are by no
374 OCEANIC LANGUAGES
means current terras in Geography, we call them some-
what laxly, and somewhat too generally, J5Zac^s. And Black
let them — largely and generally — be called. The main
fact connected with their colour lies in the real or sup-
posed existence of men and women of the same dark
hue, not only in New Holland and New Guinea, but in
certain islands of the Indian Archipelago. In what
particular islands they are to be found, and what shade
of darkness those that are found actually exhibit, is a
matter upon which it is difficult to obtain precise in-
formation. Twenty or thirty years ago, these indi-
viduals— individuals who may conveniently be called
the Blacks of the Malay area — were ascribed to almost
every island in the Archipelago with the exception of
Java. As the islands, however, have become better
known, the Blacks have become conspicuous from their
non-existence ; the real fact being that in certain localities
certain tribes are, at one and the same time, ruder than
the rest, more pagan than the rest, darker-skinned, and
(in some cases) worse-fed, than the rest. Of the Blacks
of the Philippines (the only group wherein their absolute
non-existence has not been demonstrated) this is (in all
probability) the most that can be said — in other words,
it may safely be stated, that the existence of a variety of
mankind forming a class to which the term Negrito can
either scientifically or conveniently apply is imaginary.
How far the same applies to the Samangs of the main-
land remains to be seen. Of the Andaman islanders,
for the philology of the present group, no cognizance
need be taken. Their affinities are with the Mon and
Burmese.
Now, however unreal this Negrito element in the
Indian Archipelago may be, it is clear that, so long as it
is assumed, it must serve as a basis for a good deal of
hypothetical speculation. In the first place, the lan-
guages which go with it run a great chance of being
separated from their geographical neighbours on ^ prion
IN GENERAL. 376
oTounds. And on a prioi^i grounds this separation has
been imagined. After what has been stated, it is need-
less to add that it has no existence. The Umiray, the
San Matheo, and the Dumagat forms of speech are, eo
nomine, Negrito, and ed lingua akin to the Tagala or
the ordinary Philippine : as may be seen by either the
cm-sory inspection of them supplied by the present work,
or a reference to the fuller vocabulary of Steen Bille's
Voyage of the Galathee, fi-om which (the only authority
for the class) they are taken.
In respect to the relations borne by the Papuan lan-
guages to the Australian, and those borne by the lan-
guages of the two groups (taken together) with the
Malay and Polynesian (in the ordinary sense of the terms),
this same difference of physical conformation (which
is to a great extent real) has had a similar effect in en-
gendering guess-work. The statement that, between
the Black tongues and the Brown or Yellow there is
no affinity, is simply a crudity uttered upon ci prioH
grounds by authorities who ought to have been more
cautious. There are plenty of affinities. What they are
worth is another question. Whatever the Papuan and
Australian languages may be like, or unlike, they are
more like one another than aught else ; they are, also,
more like the Malay and Polynesian, however little or
great that likeness may be. Whether great or small,
however, there is some likeness.
And, in like manner, whether the likeness be little or
much, the Malay languages are liker to the southern
members of the monosyllabic class than to any other
forms of speech. Indian affinities they may have, and
Turanian affinities they may have, but they have only
these so far as they have them through the interjacent
tongues, or else through being in either the same, or a
similar, stage of development. Common sense suggests
this, and observation verifies it.
That the class is a natural one is admitted ; the
376 OCEANIC LANGUAGES
only doubt being whether it be not too large a one. In
other words, it may be a congeries of three or two classes
rather than a single group. The present writer, whilst
he insists upon its being single, admits that it is a class
of a high ordinal value ; what that value is being unde-
termined. It falls into two primary divisions : —
The first contains the Malay, the word being used so
as to include everything from the Siamese frontier to
Formosa on the north and the islands beyond Timor
to the east. In this, the Malagasi and Formosan are
extreme, or aberrant, divisions : the remainder being
grouped round Flores, round Celebes, and round Min-
doro, as centres, and the principle of classification being
that of type rather than definition. The ordinary way
of taking the Malay as a starting-point is inconvenient :
inasmuch as, the Malay is an extreme rather than a
central form of speech.
The second division of the group begins with Lord
North's Island, and ends in the parts between the
Kingsmill group and the Samoan Archipelago, contain-
ing, inter alia, the Ladrones and Carolines, i. e. Micro-
nesia. That the Tobi and Pelew languages (the former
apparently with special allfinities to the TJlea) belong to
this rather than to the Philippines is an inference from
the few data we possess : the Pelew being a very out-
lying language. That the class ends exactly at the
Navigators' Islands is scarcely a safe assertion. That
the Kingsmill (or Tarawan) dialects belong to it, and
that the Samoan does not, is all that is absolutely cer-
tain. It may be added that, in other respects, i. e. ou
ethnological grounds, the group is a natural one. It
is one, however, for which we are greatly in want of
data, I know of no grammar for Micronesia ; and, al-
though it is nearly certain that more is known in Spain
about the Ladrone and CaroHne dialects than is current
amongst philologues, I know of no written compositions
or carefully-constructed vocabularies.
IN GENERAL. 377
With the Navigators' Islands, or the Samoan Archi-
pelago, the tliird class, or that containing Polynesia
Proper, begins : the Nukahivan being more especially
Samoan, and the Hawaian of the Sandwich Islands
being more particularly Nukahivan. Then come the
Society and Friendly Islands, forming the central mass,
from which Paumoto (Dangerous Archipelago), Easter
Island, Rarotonga, the Austral Islands, and New Zea-
land— each in their several directions — seem to have
been peopled ; with Ticopia, Rotuma, Uea, kc, as offsets
in the West. The minute detail of all this has been
carefully investigated by able philologues, missionary- and
lay ; indeed the amount of material collected for Poly-
nesia Proper stands in a favourable contrast to the scanti-
ness of our data for Micronesia.
The ordinal value of the Polynesian class is as low
as that of the Turk ; and, if we allow for the difference
between a wide diffusion over a continent and a wide
diffusion over an ocean, it is with the Turks that the
Poh-nesians must be compared. They have spread both
recently and rapidly. In the Micronesian and Malay
groups there must be some five or six sections, each of
which is of as high an ordinal value as all Polynesia.
On the other hand, it is possible that the oldest island
beyond the Samoan Archipelago has received its popula-
tion from the Navigators' Islands subsequent to the date
of the settlement of the Norwegians in Iceland.
The second grand class may be called Kelenoneaian,
(a term which is preferable on etymological grounds to
Melanesian,) or the class appertaining to the islands
with a dark-skinned population. Of this enough has
been said ah-eady. It falls into two or three primary
di%-isions as the case may be — certainly into the
Papuan and Australian, perhaps into the Papuan, the
AustraUan, and the Tasraanian.
The Polynesians went round Kelenonesia ; and, ac-
cording to many good authorities, the Fijis give us an
378 OCEANIC LANGUAGES
area -where the two streams met. Individually, I think
that the Papuan element in their dialects has been over-
valued. I commit myself, however, to no decided opinion.
The Fiji group was, therefore, dealt with by itself, and
the chief Papuan affinities (taken wholly from Gabelentz)
which its vocabularies exhibited were given somewhat
fully.
Each of the Kelenonesian groups (even if we take in
the Tasmanian as a primary one) is of high ordinal
value, especially when it is compared, or contrasted, with
the Polynesian Proper, to which it stands much in the
same relation as the XJgrian does to the Turk, Mongol, or
Tungus. This is an inference not only from certain ex-
treme forms but from the decided contrasts which certain
languages of islands in close geographical relations to each
other present. That certain phenomena of transition will
occur when the forms of speech from the central parts of
New Guinea become known is what may reasonably be
expected. Still, the extremes will remain as distant
from one another as before ; and so will the chasms in
the interjacent area. As it is, the New Guinea lan-
guages appear to constitute a group equivalent to all the
rest put together ; beyond which the Soloman Islands,
the New Hebrides, the Loyalty Islands, and New Cale-
donia, form three subordinate divisions of a second class,
themselves falling into sections and sub-sections. With
data, however, so scanty as those which we possess, no
arrangements can be other than provisional ; so that it is
only on the principle that truth comes more easily out
of error than out of confusion that the previous classi-
fication has been suggested.
That the grammatical structure of the Papuan lan-
guages has been credited with certain remarkable cha-
racteristics— characteristics of sufficient importance to
be set against a considerable amount of glossarial co-
incidence— has already been stated. I think, however,
that much of their value depends upon their novelty.
m GENERAL. 379
Gabelentz, with whom any investigator must differ with
hesitation, lays manifest stress upon two points — the
quinary character of the Papuan numeration and the
system of pereonal pronouns. But the former is a nega-
tive, rather than a positive, character — all the more so
fiom the fact of the five numerals as far as they go,
being undeniably and admittedly both Malay and Poly-
nesian.
With the personal pronouns the matter is less simple.
They present two phenomena; (I ) the so-called Exclusive
and Inclusive forms, and (2) the so-called Trinal num-
ber.
Of these the Annatom gives a fair example ; where
Ainyak ^ /
Akaijan =yo\i tvo -f- /
Ajumrau = you two — /
Akataij = you three + /
That these are rare ways of speaking cannot be
denied. Few persons in English care to say how many
persons they address, or yet to say whether they are
themselves included in what is said. What, however,
are such expressions as nios otros, vos otros, in Spanish,
and nui aZtri, vui alti-i in Sardinian, but plurals, which
(whatever they may be at the present time) are eocdu-
sive in their origin ? It can scarcely, however, be said
that these are inflections.
And the same applies to the so-called trinal number.
Who ciills vje three, in English, a Number at all, i. e. a
Number in the technical and crrammatical sense of the
word ? Who even calls us two a Dual ? Yet that
the Papuan Trinal is neither more nor less than this is
plain from the following forms in the MaUicoUo : —
Aijumtaij = you three — I
Akaija = you -f- /
Aijama = you — /.
Inau = /
Kliai-im = you
Na-ii = he
Na-miihl i _ ( exdufire
Drivan i -'«'««> [indusiTt
Kha-miihl = you ttco
Na-taroi = you three
Na-tavatz = yoti four
Dra-tin = irc three
Dra-toratz = we four.
380 OCEANIC LANGUAGES
As points, then, of grammar, or, at any rate, as points
of inflection, I submit that the Quinary Numeration,
the Exclusive and Inclusive Pronouns, and the Trinal
Number be eliminated from the consideration of the
Papuan characteristics ; and I add that, even if they
were grammatical they would scarcely be characteristic ;
inasmuch as they may be found elsewhere, and that not
only sporadically, or among the languages of the world
at large, but within the Malay and Polynesian area
itself.
Other points of criticism connect themselves with the
phonesis. The Polynesian languages are pre-eminently
vocalic. They are vocalic if we look to the paucity of sepa-
rate consonantal sounds ; b, d, g, s, and r, being generally
wanting. They are vocalic if we look to the fact of few
or no words ending in a consonant. They are vocalic
if we look to the non-existence of two concurrent conso-
nants in the same syllable.
Now, in all these matters the Papuan tongues present
some contrast. In some of the islands there are conso-
nantal endings ; in some concurrent consonants ; in all
of them more elementary consonants than are to be
found ill any language of Polynesia. Yet they differ
among themselves in the extent to which they are thus
consonantal ; some having many, others but few, words,
where a consonant is final. None are more vocalic
than the most vocalic of the Malay tongues ; and among
the Malay tongues themselves some are more consonantal
than others. Above all, it is not with the Polynesian
that the Papuan tongues are, in the first instance, to be
compared — still less exclusively.
As has already been stated, the ordinal value of the
Polynesian class is nil, or nearly so. The real point of
contact between the Papuan and Non-papuan tongues
lies in the parts about Ceram. From these I think
that New Guinea was peopled at a period anterior toj
the peopling of Micronesia ; at a time when the remotfti
IN GENERAL.
381
cincestors of the Eastern Moluccas were ruder, more un-
dersized, and darker-skinned (for in this sense the term
Negrito may have an ethnological import), than they
are now ; at a time when they were chiefly pagan ; at
a time when the usefiil arts were in their very rudi-
ments ; at a time when the numeration went no fiirther
than the five fingers of a single hand. If so, the Poly-
nesians should give us the extremities of two chains,
rather than any link between them.
The relations of the Papuans to the Australians is
more equivocal. I once suggested, on the strength of
certain New Caledonian affinities, that Tasmania was
peopled by means of a migration that came via the
Papuan islands, i. e. round Australia, rather than across
it ; a doctrine which at present I am prepared neither to
abandon nor assert.
In like manner Australia may have been peopled fi*om
New Guinea, or from Timor : if fi-om Timor, at a period
of greater rudeness and barbarity than even that which
(by hypothesis) prevailed in the Eastern Moluccas when
New Guinea was first occupied. When Australia was
first trod numeration bad not even reached ^ve.
The numerals are preceded by prefixes (as may be
seen in the specimen) throughout the Papuan languages ;
and in comparatively distant localities these prefixes
coincide — e. g. in the Louisiade and New Caledonia.
English
Om
Two
Briefly Island
paihe-tiA
pahi-wo
Cook's New Caledonia
tro-geeaing
tca-Too
La Billardiere's do.
oua-nait
oua-dou
English
Three
Four
Brierly Island
paihe-tvLan
paihe-pak
Cook's New Caledonia
wa-teen
ira-mbaeek
La Billardiere's do.
oua -tgoien
oua-thait
English
Five
Six
Brierly Island
paihe-]im&
paihe-won
Cook's New Caledonia
wa-jmim
ico-nnim-geeek
La Billardiere's do.
oaa-nnaim
ou-naim-guik
382
OCEANIC LANGUAGES
English
Brierly Island
Cook's New Caledonia
La Billardiere's do.
English
Brierly Island
Cook's New Caledonia
La Billardiere's do.
Seven
paAe-pik
wa-nnim-noo
OMa-naim-dou
Nine
paihe-aiwo
wa-nnim-baeek
owa-naim-bait
Eight
paihe-WRQ
toa-nnim-gain
ow-naim-guein
Ten
pai?ie-a.vra,ia,
wa-nnoon-aiuk
OMa-doun-hic.
Traces of this, however, may be found within the Malay-
area.
Another point worth noticing is the following ; a
point best illustrated by certain American languages,
e. g. amongst others by those of the following table : —
(1.)
English.
Mbaya.
Abi|)0iii8n.
Mokobi.
Head
ma-gnilo
ne-maiat
Eye
rti-gecoge
wa-toele
wi-cote
Ear
ma-pagate
Nose
m'-onige
Tongue
no -gueligi
Hair
Ma-modi
Jie-etiguic
ma-ccuta
Hand
ni-baagadi
wa-pakeni
wa-poguena
Foot
wo-gonagi
(2.)
English.
Moxa (1).»
Moxa (3).
Moxa (3).
Head
nw-ciuti
WM-chuti
wM-chiuti
Eye
nti-chi
WM-ki
Ear
wM-cioca
Nose
nw-siri
WM-siri
Tongue
ww-nene
wit-nene
WM-nene
Hand
7m-bore
mw-boupe
wu-bore
Foot
wi-bope
ni-bope.
Here the prefix is the possessive pronoun, so that na-
guilo = my head, &c. ; the capacity of the speaker for
separating the thing possessed fi'om the possessor being,
apparently, so small as to make it almost impossible to
disconnect the noun from its pronoun.
The Papuan and (?) Tasmanian give the same amalga-
mation.
* These are three different dialects.
IN GENERAL. 383
Upon what may be called the Ablative Subject, more
will be said in the sequel.
What follows is an extract from thi-ee very short vo-
cabularies, illustrating the statement, made some chap-
ters back, that the Ornbay, the Hangar ei, and the Tim-
hora, had Kelenonesian aflSnities.
Arm:=iharana, Ombay ; porene. Pine Gorme dialect of Australia.
Hand=:aujuc, Ombay ; hingue, New Caledonia.
Nose^imouni, Ombay ; maninya, mandeg, mandeinne, New Caledonia ;
menu. Tan Dieman's Land, western dialect; mini, Mangerei ; meoun,
muidge, mugui, Macquarie Harbour.
Head=i7»o«7a, Ombay ; moos (=:hair), Damley Islands ; moochi (=hair),
Massied ; immoos (^beard), Damley Islands ; eeta moochi (=:beard),
Massied.
Knee=i««-6ouia, Ombay ; hoichi, hoidkay (^forefinger), Damley Is-
lands.
Leg=iral-a, Ombay ; horag-nata, Jhongworong dialect of the Australian.
Bosom=a7nj', Ombay ; naem, Damley Island.
Tliigli=i/«ja, Ombay ; tinna-mook (^foot), Witouro dialect of Australian.
The root, tin, is very general throughout Australia in the sense of foot.
'Be\\j:=te-I:ap-ana, Ombay ; coopoi (=naTel), Damley Island.
St&is=ipi-berre, Mangarei; bering, hirrong, Sydney.
Hand=tanara5ra, lllangarei ; taintu, Timbora ; tamira, Sydney.
Head=;aAc, Mangarei ; cAow, King George's Sound.
Stars^tjn//l-on(/, Timboro ; chindy. King George's Sound, Australia.
Moon=:man5r'on5r, Timbora ; meuc, King George's Sound.
Sun=i"n5rl-on^, Timbora ; coing, Sydney.
Blood =itero, Timbora ; gnoorong, Cowagary dialect of Australia.
Ke&d=:l:okore, Timbora ; gogorrah, Cowagary.
Fish^ajrpi, Mangarei ; wapi, Damley Island.
Of these affinities nearly all are Austrahan. In
those with the Papuan dialects the parts about Ceram
and Gilolo are the most abundant.
384 NORTH-WESTERN AMERICA.
CHAPTER LV.
Languages of America. — The Eskimo. — The Athabaskan dialects. — The
Kitunaha. — The Atna. — The Haidah, Chemmesyan, Wakaah, and
Chinuk.
The languages of the New World now come under
notice ; languages of which the origin some few years
back was obscure. This was because most of our data
for the ethnology of America were derived from the
Indians of Canada and the United States rather than
from those of the Hudson's Bay Territory and Russian
America. As long as the parts between the Rocky
Mountains and the Pacific were insufficiently explored,
the nearest congeners to the populations of the north-
eastern parts of Asia were insufficiently known. With
the improvements in this respect the mystery has di-
minished— so much so that, even before we leave Asia,
decided affinities between the languages of Siberia and
the languages of the northern coast of the Pacific pre-
sent themselves.
The lines by which America might be peopled from
Asia are three — the first, via Behring's Straits ; the
second, via the Aleutian chain of islands — islands run-
ning from Kamtshatka to the Peninsula of Aliaska ; the
third, via the Kurile islands, from either Korea or the
Peninsula of Sagalin. Of these, though the presumptions
may be in favour of the first, the phenomena in the
present state of our knowledge, favour the second.
For Europe and Asia the Circumpolar forms of speech
THE ESKIMO. 386
belong to different genera, if not to different orders ;
and tbey are comparatively numerous. Above all, tbey
have (every one of them) decided southern aflinities —
so much so as to give them the appearance of being
intrusive. "With the Norwegian and Russian this is
not only the case, but it is known to be so. Of the
Lap and Samoyed the southern origin is less decided.
On each side, however, there are southern affinities.
With the Tungus these southern affinities are more
decided stiU. The nearest approach (after the Lap) to
anything like an original Arctic situs is supplied by the
Yukahiri and Tshuktshi. Yet even here it is only an
approach.
In America, on the other hand, the Arctic region is
mainly covered by dialects of a single language — the
Eskimo ; the intrasion from the south being inconsider-
able. Hence, the Eskimo area is horizontal rather than
vertical ; broad rather than deep ; and running, in its
extension, from east to west rather than from north to
south. The language of Greenland and Labrador is
Eskimo. The language of the eastern extremity of
Asia is Eskimo. The lanomage of the Aleutian islands
is Eskimo. The language of the interjacent regions
is Eskimo also.
So much for the breadth and continuity of the Es-
kimo area.
In respect to its depth, it has its maximum on the
Atlantic, where it reaches the latitude of Newfoundland.
It is on the side of the Atlantic* that the contrast
between the Eskimo and the ordinary Indian of North
America — the Red Indian as he is often called — is most
* It is often nsefal (not to say necessary) to speak thns ; indeed, we most
occasionally write Atlantic and Pacific instead of West and East. This is
because we have occasionally to shift our position. The Eskimos of Green-
land are an Eastern, and the Konaegi of Eadiak a Western, population, only,
when we look at them from Europe. When we begin with the NamoUos of
the Asiatic side of Behring's Straits, and go on with the Aleutians, and the
Konsgi, East becomes West, and rice veitd,
C C
386
NORTH-WESTERN AMERICA.
decided. Hence, as long as the phenomena of transition
which are exhibited on the side of the Pacific were un-
known, the connection between the aborigines with
both the Siberians and the Americans was not only
doubtful, but the line of demarcation which was drawn
between the Eskimo and the Indian was exaggerated.
The Eskimo is the only language common to the two
continents ; and this it is in two ways. The Aleutian
dialects are in situ, and, as such, actually transitional.
But, besides these, there is, in the parts about the
Anadjrr and Tshuktshi Noss, a population of compara-
tively recent origin, occupant of the parts between the
most western of the true Tshuktshi of Behring's
Straits — a population which seems (so to say) to have
been reflected back from America upon Asia. On the
other hand, however, no true Asiatic language is spoken
in any part of America.
The best known of the Aleutian forms of speech,
which probably represent a group of the ordinal value
of all the others put together, is the Unalashkan.
English.
Unalaslika.
Kadiak.
Kuskutsliewak.
Labrador.
Man
tayaho
sh6k
tatshu
inuit
Woman
anhahenak
aganak
Bead
kamhek
naskok
kamikuk
niakko
Hair
imlin
neoet
nuiat
nuiat
Nose
anhozin
kinaga
nikh
kingat
Mouth
ahilrek
kanot
kanik
kannerk
Ear
tutusak
khiune
tshuutuik
suit
Ears
tutasakin
khiudok
sintik
Eye
thak
inhalak
vitatuik
aiiga
Tongue
ahnak
ulue
alianiik
okak
Hand
kbianh
taleha
yagatsliutuik
aggait
Foot
kitok
looga
igut
itigak
Tooth
kiahuzin
hudeit
knutuik
kiutit
Blood
auiak
a(ik
auk
Sky
innyak
keliok
kiilyak
kUlek
Sun
ahhapak
madzak
sekkinek
Moon
tuhedak
yalok
tangek
takkek
Star
Stan
ageke
mittit
ubloriak
Fire
keyhnak
knok
knuik
ikoma
Watei-
tanak
tanak
muek
immek
THE ESKIMO.
38^
Eagiish.
Unalashka.
Kadiak.
Koskutshewak.
Labrador.
Sain
khetak
ketok
River
khehanok
kuik
kvak
kok
Sand
khoohok
kabea
kagnyak
Sea
allaok
imak
immakh-pik
immak
Snow
kannek
annne
kanikh-ohak
karniek
Stone
kuvranak
yamak
tkalhk-uk
Tree
jakak
kobohaktsbalakua
One
atoken
ataadzek
atuachik
attonsck
Two
arlok
azlha
ainak
marruk
Three
kanka
pingasrak
painaivak
pingasat
Pour
sikhLa
stamek
tsbanuk
eittamat
Fire
khaan
talimfk
talemek
taUek
Six
atlin
ahoilime
akhvinok
arranget
Seven
(ikun
malehonien
ainaakhranam
pingasallo
Eight
kankheen
inglulun
pinaiviakhTanam pinaiuik
Nine
sikheen
kulnfihin
chtameakhranam tellimeUa
Ten
atek
kfUen
tamenu^hranam tellimayoktat
It is to the Eskimo of this latter, larger, and more
complex group that the NaTnollo, or Eskimo of the
Asiatic continent belongs.
ED-lish.
Tfhoktshi Kos.
Uouth of the Anad;r.
Head
nashko
nashkok
Hair
nnyak
nuyet
Nose
tatiik
khunggak
Eye
iik
iik
Ear
tsliintak
tshiftukhk
Blood
aakn
anka
Sh,
kiiilah
keilak
Sun
ehekkinak
matsbak
Moon
tankok
irallak
Star
igalgtak
iralikatakh
Fire
annak
eknok
Water
mok
emak
Tree
onakhtsik
nnaktshek
Fi»h
salyuk
ikahliik
River
kuik
kaigiitt
Sand
kannak
kaujak
Snow
anna
anighu
One
attashek
attazhhk
Two
malgok
malgakh
Three
pegayut
pingaya
Four
ishtamat
ishtama
Five
tatlemat
taklima
Ten
kulla
kuUe.
c c 2
388 THE ATHABASKAN GROUP.
Next to the Eskimo comes the great Athabaskan
family, stock, group, or class.
The Athabaskan area touches Hudson's Bay on the
one side, the Pacific on the other.
With the exception of the Eskimo, the Athabaskan
forms of speech are the most northern of the New World.
For the northern Athabaskans (the main body of the
family) the philological details were, until lately, emi-
nently scanty and insufficient. There was, indeed, an
imperfect substitute for them in the statements of several
highly trustworthy authors as to certain tribes which
spoke a language allied to the Chepewyan and as to
others who did not ; — statements which, on the whole,
have been shown to be correct ; statements, however,
which required tlie confirmation of vocabularies. These
have now been procured ; if not to the full extent of all
the details of the family to an extent quite sufficient
for the purposes of the philologue. They show that the
most western branch of the stock, the Chepewyan Pro-
per, or the language of what Dobbs called the Northern
Indians, is closely akin to that of the Dog-ribs, the Hare
(or Slave), and the Beaver Indians, and that the Daho-
dinni, called from their warlike habits the Mauvais
Monde, are but slightly separated from them. Farther
west a change takes place, but not one of much import-
ance. Interpreters are understood with greater diffi-
culty, but still understood.
The Takulli, Nagail, or Chin division falls into no less
than eleven minor sections ; all of which but one end
in this root, viz. -tin.
1. The TsbM-tin, or Talko-^m.
(?) 2. The Tsilko-im or Chilko-^m, perhaps the same
word in a different dialect.
3. The Nasko-im 8. Tlie Natliau-im.
4. The Thetlio-im 9, The Nikozliau-^m.
5. The Tsatsno-^m 10. The Tatshiau-im, and
6. The Nulaau-^m. 11. The Babin Indians.
7. The Ntaauo-^m.
THE ATHABASKAN LANGUAGES. 389
Sir John Richardson has shown, what was before but
suspected, that the Loucheux Indians of Mackenzie
River are Athabaskan ; the Loucheux being a tribe
known under many names — ^under that of the Quar-
rellei-s, imder that of the Squinters, under that of the
Thycothi and Digothi, under that of Kutshin. The
particular tribes of the Kutshin division, occupants of
either the eastern frontier of Russian America, or the
noith-westem parts of the Hudson's Bay territory, are
as follows : —
1 . The Axtez-Jcutshi zz Hard people.
2. The Ts\m-kuts?ii — Water people.
3. The T&tzei-kutshi =. Rampart people ; falling into
foiu" bands.
4. The Teystse-ArufoAi r= People of the shelter.
5. The Vanta-i-M<sAi = People of the lakes.
6. The l^eyetse-Jcutshi zz'PeojAe of the open comitry.
7. The Tlagga-silla =z Little doo:s.
This brings us to the Kenay. A Kenay vocabulary
has long been known. It appears in Lisianisky, tabu-
lated with the Kadiak, Sitkan, and Unalaskan of the
Aleutian Islands. It was supplied by the occupants of
Cook's Inlet. Were these Athabaskan? The present
writer owes to Mr. Isbister the suggestion that they
were Loucheux, and to the same authority he was in-
debted for the use of a very short Loucheux vocabulary.
Having compared this with Lisiansky's, he placed both
languages in the same category — rightly in respect to
the main point, wrongly in respect to a subordinate.
He determined the place of the Loudieux by that of the
Kenay, and made both Kolush. He would now reverse
the process and make both Athabaskan (in the widest
sense of the word), as Sir John Richardson has also
suggested.
For all the languages hitherto mentioned we have
specimens. For some, however, of the populations
whose names appear in the maps, within the Athabaskan
390
THE ATHABASKAN LANGUAGES.
area, we must either rest satisfied with the testimony
of writers or rely on inference. In some cases, too,
we have the same population under dififerent names.
Without, then, giving any minute criticism, I will briefly
state that all the Indians of the Athabaskan area whose
names end in -dinni are Athabaskan ; viz. —
1. The See-issaw-cZmm r= Rising-sun-me7i.
2. The-tsawot-c?mm = Birch-rind-me-n.
3. The Thlingeha-(^mm r= Dog-rib-meTi.
4. The Etsh-tawut-c?mm = Thickwood-TTie^i.
5. The Ambah-tawut-cZm-ni = Mountain-sheep-me?i.
6. The TsiUaw-awdiit-cZmm := Bushwood-meTi'.
Hare-Indians and Strong-bows are also Athabaskan
names. The ITare-Indians are called Kaneho. The
Nehanni and some other populations of less importance
are also, to almost a certainty, Athabaskan.
English.
Kenay.
Kutshin.
Slave.
Dog-rib.
Man
tinna
'tinne
Woman
mokelan
tshekwe
Head
shangge
saykwl
ta
Hair
stseahu
sakwlgah
theoya
Mouth
shnaan
kwarlchi
Teeth
shrikka
saygfi
baighu
Tongue
stsilue
eththadu
Ear
stsllu
settzay
bedzegai
Eye
snasha
sentah
mendi
Hand
shkuna
siulah
mila
Sun
channu
sakh
sah
sa
Moon
nee
thun
sah
tethesa
Star
skin
fwun, them
thiu
Fire
taaze
khun
khun
Water
vilni
to
tti
tu
River
katnu
dessh
Rain
-
dsha
chon
tshon
Day
chaan
tzinna
Night
kaak
hetleghe
Snow
ajjah
jeah
yah, teill
Stone
kaliknike
thai
I
su
si
Thou
nan
nin
Father (my)
stukta
se-tsay
Son {my)
ssi-JA
sc-jay
THE ATHABASKAN LANGUAGES.
391
English. Kenay.
Kntehin.
Slare.
Dog-rib.
One tsflgtan
tila^a
thelgai
*enclai
Tico nutaia
nakhei
olkie
*iiaklia
Thru toluke
thieka
tadette
•ttagha
Four tanke
tanna
tinghi
*ttiiic
Five t^flu
illakonelei
sazelle
*sasfillai
Six kfijtoni
etaente
•ntkettai
Seven kantsehe
tUazadie,
*khosingting
Eight Itakale
etzandie
•etzenting
Nine Ikitsitha
eththleihalai
«khakuU
Te» klajfiii
keaaatai
*hoiiana
The Beaver Indian
is transitional to
the Slave and
the Chepewyan Proper.
The Sikani and Sussi tongues, lying as far south as
the drainage of the Saskatshewan, and as far west as
the Rocky Mountains, are, and have been for some years,
known as Athabaskan.
EngHsh.
Chepewyaa.
TakoDL
Man
diimie
dini
Woman
cheqnois
tsheko
Father
zi'tah (my)
apa
Mother
rinah {my)
unnangcool
Son
ziazaj (my)
eyoze
Daughter
zilengai
eacha
Head
ed thie
bitsa
Hair
tbiegah
oz^a
Far
otso
Fife
nackay
beni
Note
paninsrhis
Tongue
edthu
tsoola
Tooth
goo
ohgoo
Hand
law
la
Feet
cuk
osha
Blood
deU
skai
Home
coeen
knkh
Axe
thynle
shashill
Knife
bess
teish
Shoes
kinchee
keskot
Sun
sail
tsa
Moon
sah.
tsa
Star
sMmn
* The words marked Uma are eitiier a second dialect or a second Toeaba-
lary of the Slate.
392
THE ATHABASKAN LANGUAGES.
English.
Chepevryan.
TakulU.
Fire
counn
kwun
Water
toue
too
Rain
thynnelsee
naoton
Snow
yath
ghies
River
tesse
akokh
Stone
thaih
tse
Meat
bid
utson
Dog
sliengh
tkU
Beaver
zah
tslia
Bear
zass
sus
Great
unshaw
tsho
Cold
edzah
hungkaz
Black
dellzin
dulkuz
Bed
delicouse
dulkun
I
ne
si
Thou
nee
yin
One
slachy
etkhla
Two
naghur
nangkakh
Tliree
taghy
ta
Four
dengky
tingti
Five
sasoulachee
skunlai
Six
alkitachy
ulkitaki
Seven
takalte
Eight
olkideinghy
ulkinggi
Nine
cakinahanothna
lanizi etkhlahkula
Ten
canothna
lanizi.
The Atna at the mouth of the Copper Kiver, the
Koltshani higher up the stream, and the Ugalents
around Mount St. Elias, are all Athabaskan — not, indeed,
so decidedly as the Beaver, the Dog-rib, or the Proper
Chepewyan; but still Athabaskan. They are not Eskimo
though they have Eskimo affinities. They are not
Kolush, though they have Kolush affinities. They are
by no means isolated, and as little are they to be made
into a class by themselves. At the same time, it should
be added that by including these we raise the value of
the class, and we raise it still more when we include
the Kolush.
English.
Eye
ffair
Teeth
Ugalents.
Atna.
Kolstshani.
snyga
tshintagi
stsega
stshjga
g«
nogu
THE ATHABASKAN LANGUAGES.
393
English.
Ugalfnts.
Atna.
Kolstshani.
Nose
sontRhift
sant.shis
Hand
8l»
kun
Head
ttn
sla
Ear
stsega
stsi
Sun
kaketlkh
naai
naaitshete
Moon
kakha
goltsei
sattshetle
Star
tlakhekl
zzhun
son
One
tlkinke
shelkae
ilite
Two
loate
nat^kka
laken
Three
totlkoa
taakei
takei
Four
kalakakya
tiinki
tani
Five
tsoane
altshen
taltshan
Six
tsun
kastaan
kistan
Seven
laatetson
kontsegai
kontshagai
Eight
katetsrm
tkkhladenki
tan
Nine
kutkte
tklakolei
takolei
Ten
takakkh
plazha
natitlya.
The Athabaskan is broadly and definitely separated
from the language of its frontiers in proportion as we
move from the Pacific towards the Atlantic.
The most southern of the Athabaskans Proper are
the Sussis, in north latitude 51° — there or thereabouts.
But they are only the most Southern of the Athabaskans
en masse. There are outlyers of the stock as far south
as the southern parts of Oregon. More than this, there
are Athabaskans in California, New Mexico, and Sonora.
Mr. Hale showed that the Umkwa, Kwaliokwa, and
Tlatskanai dialects of a district so far south as the
mouth of the Columbia, and the upper portion of the
Umkwa, were outlying members of the Athabaskan stock,
which dialects were afterwards shown, by a discovery of
Professor Turner's, to be only ^e^iultimate ramifications ;
inasmuch as in California, New Mexico, Sonora, and
even in Chihuhua, as far south as 30° north latitude,
Athabaskan forms of speech were to be foimd ; viz. the
Navaho, the Jecorilla, the Pinalero, along with the
Apatsh of New Mexico, California, and Sonora. To
these add the Hoopah of California, which is also
Athabaskan.
394
THE ATHABASKAN LANGUAGES.
(1.)
Englisb.
Tlatskanai.
Kwaliokwa.
Umkwa.
Man
khanane
titson
taiitsen
tone
Woman
tseokeia
oat
ekhe
tseake
Bead
khostoma
nin
suga
stsie
si
Hair
khotsosea
soaktlane
suga
stsose
sal a
Ear
khotskhe
khonade
tzige
stsakhai
tzage
Eye
nakhai
nage
Nose
khointsus
dalainstzetze
ziz
Mouth
khokwaitzaale
ta
wunaya
Tongue
khotzotkhltzitzkhltsaha
uotaa
lasom
seqinakal
santkMo
Tooth
khotsiakatatkhltson
koute
uo
cugu
Hand
kholaa
zlaa
sla
zila
Foot
khoakhastlsokai
zkhe
nokatkh
Swn
laose
za
szlakhalaklia
khangze
Moon
taose
igaltzi
Stwr
khatlatzf
Fire
tkhlkane
khong
Water
to
tkho.
(2.)
Engliali.
Man
Woman
Head {my)
Hair {my)
Face {my)
Ear {my)
Eye {my)
Nose {my)
Mouth {my)
Tongue {my)
Tooth {my)
Sky
Navaho.
tennai
estsonnee
A.wtzeetsin
Azttzee
Awnnee
Awtjah
A?<nnah
^Mtcbili
htizzs.\
hut\j60
hurgo
eeyah
Apatsh.
ailee
eetzan
seezee
streenee
scetza
sleeda
sectzee
sheeda
sheed&ie
Pinalero.
payyahnah
etsunni
setzezil
sitzchar
tshindar
chinchi
eah
THE ATHABASKAN LANGUAGES.
395
English.
Navaho.
Apatsh.
Pinalero.
Sun
chokonoi
skeemai
yahehe
Moon
klaihonoi
clanai
ilsonsayed
Star
SODh
suns
ailsonsatyoa
Day
cheen-^0
eeska
NigU
klai-gfo
da
Light
hoascen-gro
skee
Rain
naheltinh
nagostee
Snow
yas
zahs
Hail
neelo
heeloah
Fire
konh
kOQ
Water
tonh
toah
to
Stone
tsai
zeyzay
tshaier
One
tlahee
tahse
Two
nahkee
nahkee
Three
tanh
taa
(3.)
English.
Hoopah.
Jecorilla.
Head
okhek
it-se
Forehead
Aotsintah
pin-nay
Face
Aaanith
Eye
Attanah
pindah
Nose
Auntcha
witehess
Teeth
Aowwa
^ho
Tongue
sastha
ezahte
Ear
Aotcheweh
wickyah
Hair
tsewok
itse
Neck
A«sevatl
tfjckcost
Arm
Aoithlani
KTttse
Hand
Aollah
wtalah.
The Kitunaha, Kutani, Gootanie or Flaibow area is
long rather than broad, and it follows the line of the
Rocky Mountains between 52° and 48° north latitude.
How definitely it is divided by the main ridge from that
of the Blackfoots I am unable to say ; but as a general
rule, the Kutani lie west, the Blackfoots east ; the former
being Indians of New Caledonia and Oregon, the latter
of the Hudson's Bay Territory.
On the west, the Kutani country is bounded by that
of the Shuswap and Selish ; on the north by the Sussi,
Sikanni, and Nagail Athabaskans ; on the south (I
396
THE KUTANI.
think) by some of the XJpsaroka or Crow tribes. All
these relations are remarkable, and so is the geographical
position of the area. It is in a mountain range ; and,
as such, it is a district likely to be an ancient occupancy.
The languages of the frontiers are referable to four
different families — the Athabaskan, the Atna, the Al-
gonkin, and the Sioux ; from all of which the Kutani
differs notably ; though, like all the languages of America,
it has numerous miscellaneous affinities. In respect to
its phonesis it agrees with the North Oregon languages.
The similarity in name to that of the Loucheux, whom
Richardson calls Kutshin, deserves notice.
The Kutani vocabulary of Mr. Hale was obtained
from a Cree Indian, and is not to be depended on. This
being the case it is fortunate that it is not the only spe-
cimen of the language. There is an earlier one of Mr.
Howse's, published in the Transactions of the Philologi-
cal Society. It is as follows ; being given in full as
representing all that is known of the language : —
Englisli.
Kutani.
Englisb.
Kutani.
One
hook cain
This Indian
in nai ah quels
Two
ass
mah kin nic
Three
calle sah
TluU Indian
CO ah quels mah
Four
had sah
kin nic
Five
yea co
These Indians
wai nai ah quels
Six
in ne me sah
mah kin nic nin
Seven
whist taw lah
tie
Eight
waw ah sah
Wldch man ?
cath lah te te calt ?
Nine
ky yie kit to
Which Indians f
cah lah ah quels
Ten
aye to vow
mah kin nic nin
An Indian
ah quels mah kin
tie?
nic
WUiich gun t
call lah tah vow ?
A man
te te calt
Who
cath lah
A woman
balle key
My son
cah mah hat lay
A shoe
cath lend
His son
hot lay is
A yun
tah vow
He is good
sook say
I
cah min
It is good
sook kin nai
Thou
lin coo
He is arrived
swan hah
He
nin CO is
I love him
hones sclah kilt
We {thou and /)
cah min nah lah
He loves me
sclah kilt nai
TEE KUTANI.
397
English.
/ see him
I see his son
He sees me
He steals
I love him
I do not love him
My husband
He is asleep
I am a man
I am a woman
Where f
]Vhere is my gun t
]Vhere ia his gun J
A lake
Hoio much ?
It is cold weather
A tent
My tent
Tfty tent
His tent
Our (thy and my)
tent
Yes
No
Men
Women
Girl [in her teens)
Girls (in their
teens)
Boy
Boys
Little boy
Child
Children
Father (by
sons)
Father (by
daughters)
Mother
Brother, eldest
the
Sutani.
hones ze caught
hones ze canght ah
calttis
ze caught tene
i inney
hones sclah kilt
ney
cah sclah kilt nai
can no claw kin
nah
come ney ney
te te calt ne ne
balle key ne ne
cas kin ?
cass kin cah tah
tow] 1
cass kin tah tow-
Is?
ah CO CO nook
cack sah ?
kis caw tit late
ah caw slah co
hoke
cah ah kit lah
ah kit lah nis
ah kit lah is
cah ah kit lah
nam
ah ah
waw
te te calt nin tie
balle key nin tie
nah oh tit
nah oh tit nin tie
stalt
stalt nin tie
stalt nah nah
cah mo
cah mo nin tie
cah de doo
English.
Brother, youngest
(by brothers)
Brother, youngest
(by sisters)
Sister, eldest
Sister, youngest
Uncle
Aunt
Grandfather
Grandmother
Thy husband
My wife
Thy wife
Son
Daughter
Come here
Go avxty
Take care
Get out of the way
Come in
Go out
Stop
Run
Slowly
Miserly
Beggarly
the cah sons
cah mah
cah tat
I give
Thou gir est
He gives
He gave
I beat
Thou beatest
He beats
Give me
He gave m£
I lore you
He lores
KatanL
cats zah
cah ze ah
cats sous
cah nah nah
cath ah
cah tilt tilt
cah pa])a
cah de de
in claw kin nah nis
cah tilt nah mo
tilt nah mo nis
can nah hot lay or
ah calt
cass win
clan nah
cloon no
ill kilt we in
yon vaw
tie cath ah min
sclah nah ah min
mae kaek
sin naek kin
ah nis cah zin
o per tin
coke CO mae kah
kan
hone silt ah mah tie
sis ney
kin nah mah tie
zey
sclah mah tie zey
cah mah tie cates
hone cah slah tea
kin cah slah leat
kis kilt cone slah
leat
ah mah tie kit
sous
nah mah tie kit
sap pe ney
hone sclah kilt
ney
sclah kilt
Do you love me f kin sclah slap T
398
THE KUTANI.
English.
Kfitani.
English.
Kfitani.
/ hate you
hone cah sclah kilt
Red pine
he mos
ney
Cedar
heats ze natt
Thou hatest
kin cah sclah kilt
Poplar
ac cle mack
He hates
cah sclah kilt
Aspen
ac CO CO zle mack
I speak
hones ah ney
Fire
ah kin ne co co
Thov, speakest
kins ah
Ice
ah CO wheat
He speaks
kates ah
Cliarcoal
ah kits cah kilt
We speak
hones ah nah slah
Ashes
ah CO que me co
Tou speak
talk e tea leat
Kettle
yeats skime
They speak
seals ah
Mat tent
tah lalt ah kit lah
I steal
hone i he ne
nam
I sleep
hone come ney
Head
ac clam
ney
Eyes
ac cack leat
We sleep
hone come ney nah
Nose
ac coun
lah ney
Mouth
ac calt le mah
I die
hones alt hip pe
Chin
ac cah me zin ne
ney
cack
Thou diest
kins alt hip
Checks
ac que ma malt
We die
hone ah o co noak
Hair
ac coke que slam
nah slah ney
Body
ac CO no cack
Give me to eat
he shoe
Arms
ac sglat
Eat
he ken
Legs
ac sack
My gun
cah tah vow
Belly
ac CO womb
Thy gun
tah vow nis
Back
ac cove cah slack
His gun
tah vow is
Side
ac kin no cack
Mountain
ac CO vo cle it
Ears
ac coke co what
Rocky mountain
ac CO vo cle it nook
Animals
yah mo
key
Horse
kilt calt law ah
Snowy mountain
ac CO vo cle it ac
shin
clo
Stallion
cass CO
Road or track
ac que mah nam
Mare
stoitgalt
Large river
cath le man me
Bull
neel seek
took
Cow
sloiike copo
Small river
hah cack
Birds
to coots cah min
Creek
nis cah took
nah
Lwrge lake
will caw ac co co
Blue jay
co quis kay
nook
Crow
coke kin
Small lake
ac CO CO nook nah
Raven
nah nah key
nah
Snakes (rattle-
Rapid
ah cah hop cle it
snake)
wilt le malt
Fall
wheat taw hop cle
Garter snake
ah CO new slam
it
Roots (camass)
hap pey
Shoals
ah coke you coo
Bitter root
nah cam me shou
nook
Tobacco root
mass mass
Channel
hah cath slaw o
Sweet potatoes
ah whis sea
weak
Moose herry
ac CO mo
Wood or trees
ah kits slah in
Straidberry
ac CO CO
THE ATNA, OR SELISH, DIALECTS.
399
Ruglish.
Kutani.
English.
Kntani.
Pipe
couse
Red deer
kilt caw sley
Pipe stem
ac coot lah
Moose deer
snap peco
Axe
ah coot talt
Woolrereen
ats po
Tobacco
yac ket
Wolf
cack kin
Flesh
ah coot lack
Beaver
sin nah
Calf
ah kin co malt
Otter
ah cow oh alt
Tiger
s'vie
Mini
in new yah
Bears of all kinds
cap pe tie
Martin
nac suck
Black or Iroicn
Musquadi
an CO
bears
nip pe CO
Small grey plain
Grizzle bear
kit slaw 0 slaw
wolf
skinkoots.
Rein deer
neats snap pie co
West of the Kutanis and south of the Taknlli Atha-
baskans lie the northernmost members of a great class,
which extends as far south as the Sahaptin fi-ontier. It
has been named by Hale and Gallatin Tsihaili-Selish.
It contains the Shushwap or Atna Proper, Kuttelspelm
(or Pend d'Oreilles), Selish, Spokan (or Kettle FaU),
Okanagan, Skitsuish (or Coeur d'Alene), Piskwaus, Nus-
dalum, Kawitchen, Cathlascou, Skwali, Chechili, (Tsihaili,)
Kwaintl, Kwenaiwtl, (Kowehtsk,) Nsietshawus (or Killa-
muk), and Billechula, spoken at the mouth of Salmon
Kiver ; a language to which a vocabulary from Mac-
kenzie's Travels of the dialect spoken at Friendly
Villasre is referable.
English.
Atna.*
Piskaws.
SkwaU.
Kowelitsk.
Man
kulmukh
skaltiimikko
stumsh
nawetkhlamakJi
Woman
sifmotkhlitshk
sumaem
stkhladai
kawitkhl
Father
katsa
laaus
baa
koma
Mother
kekha
shkni
sokho
kota
Son
sku^a^a
ashkusas
nimuda
numan
Daughter
stifmk&alt
stumkas
nibada
tsunuman
Head
skapkhun
khmnnkum
skhaios
khomut
Hair
khauitun
skhiauktra
skhatso
kuskus
Ear
tkhlauu
taua
kholane
khoolan
Eye
khokukhlostan
fiinatkhlo- }
shomun S
khalom
mos
Nose
spusaks
muksin
makicsin
mukusun
MoiUh
spidutsin
skhumtshin
kamukh
kitnikh
Tongue
tikhwatsk
milik
tkhlalab
tekhntsitkhl
Teeth
khalakhu
khalekha
ts(«nis
ySnis
Hand
lakhaleakst
k&likh
tshalash
lakbaiaka
From Hale, in Gallatin.
400
THE ATNA, OR SELISH, DIALECTS.
Ensilish.
Atna,
Piskaws.
Skwali.
Kowelitsk.
Fingers
lakhaleakst
kaiikh
tshalash
lakhaiaka
Feet
leakliin
stsooliin
tsMshin
tsotkhl
Blood
metikhea
mitkhlkaia
stulikwan
skwaitkhl
House
tshitukh
stuhul
alittkhl
khakh
Axe
tkhlumen
khaweskhan
khamatn
khMstn
Knife
khutkhlakst
mikhamun
snokh
kwakhomwn
Shoes
shitkhltso
skhaiwliin
ialshin
tsittkhlshin
Sky
slkhleakhitt
khttmomtaskhut
tkhltalakun
Sun
skwokwaws
khoshura
tkhlukhatkhl
tkhlokhwaokin
Moon
makhen
suakhaam
stkhlukhwalwrn tklilokhwatkhl
Star
sukoshint
puklipukliaiauit stshishus
kase
Day
pakhiauit
skhwlkhwlt
skhlakhel
skhaiekh
Night
khwtshitshoi
shtsowi
tkhlakh
kwaiekh
Fire
teekwu
shtshiatkwp
hot
moksip
Water
shawitkhlkww
sliauitkhlkwa
kho
kal
Rain
klakstan
stau
skhahwn
swkwM
Snow
makha
shmaa
makho
skhlakhw?/.
Earth
tkhlokalukh
Mmaumit
suatiukhtin
tMm«kh
River
tsuakh
npukwatkwi
stulakwtt
skewitkhlko
Stone
shkhanikh
khittkhlot
tshetkhla
twkalis
Tree
tsighap
shuopt
iamwts
Meat
tshee
skattk
maiats
kos
Dog
skakha
khMkhatk- ^
hltshin S
skobai
kakha
Beaver
skalau
skalau
Bear
shkMmkhaes ' '
(black) ;:
mikhatkhl
Bird
spioM
huhuiui
tkhlitknaalkitm
Fish
shuauwitkhl
nacauitkhlkwa
Great
khaiom
kwMtunt
hekhwo
tuwuikh
Cold
tshwatkhl
shtshilt
tws
tkhlek
White
pewkh
paiakh
khokkhwkh
kskliwokh
Black
kwaiokhwaiil
khwaii
khaimetsh
ksnwkhu
Red
tshiwkhwM
kwil
khaikwitshlzt
uktseakhu
I
ntshatshua
intsha
uisu
Mutsa
Thou
anwwl
inui
duthwe
nitwe
He
wn26wis
tswnil
tsunitkhl
tswne
One
nkho
nkksh
nutsho
ots
Two
siseltt
tkhauMs
sale
sale
Three
ketkhles
katkhles
tkhlikho
katkhle
Four
mos
mush its
mos
mos
Five
tshelikst
tshilikslit
tsilats
tshelatsh
Six
takhamakst
hotshimakst
tsilatsha
takham
Seven
tsliutsitkhlka
shispjtlkh
tsook
tsops
Eight
nkoops
tuwin
takatshe
tshamos
Nine
tMmtkhlin )
wkokaa J
khakhanot
khown
tookLu
Ten
opwkst
6panikst
panutshs
panatsh.
THE ATNA, OR SELISH, DIALECTS.
401
The Tsihaili-Selish languages reach the sea in the parts
opposite Vancouver's Island. Perhaps they touch it to
the north also. Perhaps, too, some of the Takulli forms of
speech still further north do the same. The current
statements, however, are to the effect that to the south
of the parts opposite Sitka and to the north of the
parts opposite Vancouver's Island the two families in
question are separated from the Pacific by a narrow
strip of separate languages. The.se are, beginning from
the north —
1. The Kolush.
2. The Haidah, spoken by the Skittegats, Massets,
Kumshahas, and Kyganie of Queen Charlotte's Islands
and the Prince of Wales' Archipelago.
3. The Chemmesycui, spoken along the sea-coast and
islands in north latitude 5o°;
4. The Hailtsa, containing the dialects of the sea-
coast between Hawkesbury Island and Brough ton's
Archipelago ; also those of the northern part of Van-
couver's Island.
From the Piskwaus, in the preceding group, the tran-
sition, in the opinion of the present writer, who only
attempts a provisional and approximate arrangement,
lies through the Billechula (which he makes Atna) to
the Hailtsa and its congeners of the present group.
English.
Kolush of Sitka.
Skittegats.
Chemmesyan.
Hailtsa.
Man
chakleyh
keeset
tzib
nmims
Woman
shavTOt
kna
unnaach
kanum
Head
ashaggee
hete
Hair
koshahaoo
catts
Ear
kakook
Nose
kaclu
coon
Mouth
kake
Tongue
katnoot
Tooth
kaooh
Hand
kacheen
haiasi
Feet
kahoos
Sun
kakkaan
tzue
kiamak
tkblikshnalit
Moon
tees
kukn
kiumogumaatuk
nusikh
j Star
kootahanaha
kaaldha
pialost
D D
402
THE SITKA, ETC.
English.
Kohish of Sitka.
Skittegata.
Chemmesyan.
Hailtsa.
Home
tasnen5,win
tkwutkhle
mukatee
Axe
tkhlakatstwra
khuestwD
taawish
Day
koondlain
tseicoosah
Fire
haan
tsinoo
tsultila
Water
ieen
huntle
use
waum
Rain
sevva
tuU
waash
yukhwa
Snow
kleyt
tnll hatter
moaks
kwispish
Stone
te
tlaha
loap
Tree
shaak
kyet
kunagun
I
chat
cagen
newyo
nuka
Thou
tingkyah
noone
tsu
He
anhest
qua
One
tlekh
skwansun
kaak
manuik
Two
tech
stung
tupchaat
maluik
Three
nezk
thkoonweelh
gnndh
yukhtuk
Four
taakun
stunsun
tuchaalpuch
mouk
Five
kejetschin
kleith
kuhdhoouis
shiowk
Six
kletuschu
ktonell
coald
ketkhliouk
Seven
tachate nschu
tseekwah
tupooald
matkhlius
Eight
nesket uschu
stansanghah
kundh
yukhtaksimus
Nine
kuschok klathshskwasunha kustamoas
mumiskumea
Ten
tschinkat
klath
kippio
koljushun.
Next come the languages of Quadra's and Vancouver's
Island and a small portion of the opposite continent.
Then the Tshinuk and its congeners.
English.
Nsictshawus.*
Watlala(7V,7M«Mi).
Nutka.
Man
taiilaho
tkhlekala
checkup
Woman
suitkhlats
tkhlkakilak
klootzmah
Father
uluB.
tkhhikhlam
noowexa
Mother
vXua,
waiak
hoomahexa
Son
twnwwon
itshikhan
tanassis checkup
Daughter
txlMDMWMn
wkitkhan
tanassis klootsmah
Head
takhen
kakhstakh
towhatsetel
Hair
tkhlu&khen
MkMshshw
hapscup
Far
twn6
amemtsha
parpee
Eye
taskhatkhl
iakhot
kassee
Nose
tiwakhisMn
imiktshi
neetsa
Mouth
shinuotsins
emekushkhat
ictla-tzul {sing. )
Tongue
tikhitsas
mankhutkonu ma
choop
Teeth
tkhlasawin
tkhlbekatsh
cheechee 1
Hand
tshalds
twrnekshi
kookaniksa I
Fingers
kwkMtsatsha
titmekshi
uc-tza
* Or Killamuk ; a language of the Selish, or Atna, group.
THE NSIETSHAWUS.
403
Englisli.
Nsietshawus.
Watlala {Tskinmi).
K6tica.
Pea
nikheiciois
tumepsh
kliRkin
Blood
skiuo
tkhlkawulkt
atzi-mis
KfUfe
tukhaiotkhl
khawekhe
ehiltayek
Shoes
mj/cinasMtwii
tkaitkhlpa
Sl-if
taskhukhun
koshakh
sieyah
Sun
tataukhtun
katkhlakh
oophelth
Moon
tukioshirtxn
uktkhlttmen
oophelth
Slar
nakhikhiaikhia
tkhlkbekLanama
tartoose
Day
hunuvus
iotshoktigh
nas-chitl
Night
hultul
aiikap
atajai
Fire
tkhlaskhokh
watotkhl
eennuksee
Water
tkhlakhiio
tkhltshokwa
chahak
Rmn
tkhlasilotkhl
ishketkhlti
meetia
Snow
tkblaskhunun
tkhtuka
qneece
Earth
tawekh
welkh
klattmniss
Rirer
nisatintshi
tkhlokbooet
tzac
StoHe
tashunsh
khalamut
maoksee
Tree
tkhlaaskhi
tkamonak
Boochis
Meat
tatse
ipkhalewa
chis-qui-mis
Dog
tsaskhakhea
khotkhot
aemitl
Bearer
tatokhwoso
ikhwakhwa
Bear
tatontshiesho
kanokh
chi-mitz
Bird
ikhlaskhokha
tkalakalabak h
kaenne
Pish
kfiei^pa
Great
tMwtttkh
iakaitkhl
asco
Cold
tatsnwali
tsometigh
ate-quitzi-iuajas
WhiU
tahakhi
tkhop
atit-tzutle
mack
tsawulukiu
tkhlul
Red
tkUakul
tklpal
I
ttntsu
naika
chelle
Thoit
unaike
maik*
SOS
He
tsMnitkhl
iakhka
ahkoo
One
tuheike
ikLt
sahwank
Two
tkhlasale
maknsht
attJa
Three
tshanat
tkhlom
katsa
PoKr
tkhlawos
laket
mooh
Fire
isukhus
kwanan
soochah
Six
teiilukhatshi
takhf/m
noohoo
Seren
tntshoos
suDumaknst
attlepoo
Eight
tnkatehi
ksotken
atlahquelth
Nine
tkhleio
kweos
sawwaukquelth
Ten
tkhlaahantshs
tatkheelikma
hyo.
The class to which the Nutka and its congreners
belong is called the Wakash. The Tlaoquatsh and
Wakash Proper belong to it.
D D 2
404 OREGON AND OALIFORNIAN LANGUAGES.
CHAPTER LVI.
Languages of Oregon and California. — Cayfis, &c. — Lutuami, &c, — Ehnek. —
Weitspek. — Kulanapo. — Copeh. — Pujuni, &c. — Costano, &c. — Eslen. —
Netela. — San Diego, &c.
All the preceding languages belong to the Hudson's
Bay Territory and to British Oregon rather than to
California. Those that follow belong to California
and American Oregon. Though the minute details
of the frontier are not accurately known there seems
to be a notable change in the parts about it. The
nature of this, in a rough, way, may be illustrated
by the following table.
Contrast the two columns. How smoothly the words
on the right run, how harshly sound (when they can be
sounded) those of the left. Not, however, that they
give us the actual sounds of the combination khl, &c.
All that this means is that there is some extraordinaiy
sound to be expressed which neither any existing sign
nor any common combination will represent. In Mr.
Hale's vocabularies it is represented by a special letter.
English.
Selish.
TsHnuk.
Shoshoni.
Man
skaltamekho
tkhlekala
taka
Woman
swrnaam
tkhlakel
kwMM
Boy
skokosea
tklkaskus
natsi
Girl
shautum
tklalekh
naints«ts
Child
aktttlt
etshanuks
wa
Father
htdus
tkhliamiima
&pui
Mother
skdis
tkhlian^a
pia
Wife
makhonakh
iuakbekal
weijui
Son
skokosea
etsokha
natsi
Daughter
stunitshaS;lt
okwukha
nanai
Brother
katshki (elder)
kapkhu
tamye
Sitter
tklkikee
tkhliau
namei.
OREGON AND CALIFORNIAN LANGUAGES. 405
As a general rule the harsher phonesis lies to the
north, the softer to the south, of the Califomian frontier.
That the difference, however, is, by no means, absolute,
may be seen from the following list : —
(1)
English.
Wishosk.
Weiyot.
Boy
ligeritl
knshama
Married
wehowut'l
haqaeh
Head
wntwetl
metwet
Hair
pah'tl
pabt'l
Face
kahtsonetl
snlatek
Beard
tseh'pl
cheh'pl
Body
tah
hit'l
Foot
wehlihl
wellili'tl
Tillage
mohl
katswab'tl
ChieS
kowqueh'tl
kaiowuh
Axe
mahtl
mehtl
Pipe
mahfletl
mahtlel
Wind
rahtegut'l
mktagun
Duck
hahaliU
(2.)
hahahlih.
English.
Diegono.
CadiuL
Leg
cwith'l
To-day
enyat'l
To-morrow
matmyat'l
Bread
meyutl
Ear
hamat'l
smyth'l
Neck
n'yeth'l
Arm
Hand
BeDi
iseth'l
Friend
nyet'l
Feather
sahwitli'L
And the mixture may be seen on the frontier. The
Tshinuk, a harsh tongue, has for its nearest congeners
the Killamuk on one side and the Lutuami (apparently
soft) on the other.
The Gayus, or Molele, group is, apparently, transi-
tional.
406
CAYUS, ETC.
EngUsh.
Cayus.
Willamet.
Man
yfiant
atshanggo
Woman
pintkhlkaiu
pummaike
Father
pintet
sima
Mother
penin
sinni
Son
wai
tawakhai
Daiighier
■wai
tshitapinna
Head
talsh
tamutkhl
Hair
tkhlokomot
amutkhl
Ear
taksh
pokta
Eye
hakamush
kwalakkh
Nose
pitkhloken
unan
Mouth
sumkhaksh
mandi
Tongue
push
mamtshutkhl
Tooth
tenif
puti
Hand
epip
tlakwa
Fingers
epip
alakwa
Feet
tish
puijf
Blood
tiweusli
iii6euu
House
nislit
haiameih(=^re)
Axe
yengthokinsh
khueshtan
Knife
shekt
hekemistah
Shoes
taitkUo
ulumof
Sky
adjalawaia
amiank
Swn
hue wish
ampiun
Moon
katkhltop
utap
Star
tkhlikhlish
atuininank
Day
eweiu
luupimn
Night
ftalp
atitshikim
Fire
tetsh
hammeih
Water
iskkainish
mampuka
Main
tishtkitkhlmiting
ukwii
Snow
poi
nukpeik
Earth
lingsh
hunkhalop
River
lushmi
luantsal
Stone
apit
audi
Tree
lauik
huntawatkhl
Meat
pithuli
umhok
Dog
ndapang
mantal
Beaver
pick a
akaipi
Bear
limeaksh
alotufan
Bird
tianiyiwa
pokalfana
Great
ya(imua
pul
Cold
shunga
p^ngkafiti
White
tkhlaktkhl4ko
komm6u
Black
shkupshkdpu
maieum
Red
lakaitlakaitu •
tshal
LUTUAMI, SHASTI, PALAIK.
407
English
Cajta.
Wilkraet
/
ining
tsbii
Thvu
niki
m^ha
He
nip
kak
One
na
vaan
Two
leplin
keen
Three
matnin
npshin
Powr
piping
taope
Five
tawit
h6wan
Six
noinii
taf
Seven
noilip
pBhinimna
EigJd
noimat
keemHa
Xine
tanauiaisMmshin
wanwaha
Ten
ningitelp
tinifia.
Tlie Lutuami, Skasti, and Palaik are thrown by
Grallatin into three separate classes. They are, 'w-ithout
doubt, mutually unintelligible. Nevertheless they can-
not be very widely separated.
The chief language in contact with the Shasti is the
intrusive Athabaskan of the Umkwa and Tlatskanai
tribes. Hence the nearest languages with which it should
be compared are the Jakon and Kalapuya, fiom which
it is geographically separated. For this reason we do
not expect any great amount of coincidences. We find
some, however.
English.
Lutuami
ShastL
Palnilr.
Jakon.
Man
hishnaisits
awatikoa
yatiu
kalt
Woman
shnaw-ats
taritsi
nmtewitsen
tkhlaks
Father
kauktishap
vail
stmta
Mother
ankompkisup
milatkM
tail
tkhla
Son
yafiitsa
sinmaats
Daughter
lamanitea
Head
nos
niak
lah
tkhlokia
Hair
lak
tiyi
sinittkhlodn (mjt)
Ear
momoutsh
isak
kumnindats
kwoUrwutsa
Eye
lolup
ol
asu
skikisu
Xose
pshish
eri
iami
tusina
Mouth
shum
an
ap
khai
Tongue
pawua
ehena
ipili
titlela
Tooth
tnt
itsaa
itsa
stelieliU
Hand
nap
apka
U
408
LUTUAMI, SHASTI, PALAIK.
English.
Lutuami.
Shasti.
Palaik.
Jakon.
Fingers
kopo
akhasik
il
kwotkhl
Feet
pats
akwes
tsiko
Blood
poits
Ime
ahati
pouts
House
latsrtsh
Mma
tiluts
tsitsaiskia
Axe
lakotsish
aniakidi
shlakotkis
pakhtiu
Knife
wate
atsirai
shatikh
kiai
Shoes
wakshna
atsMkb
kelala
skanaiksealuista
Sky
paishish
wwkwe
MsehelS.
laa
Sun
sapas
tsoare
tsul
pitskom
Moon
wokaukash
apkhteu
tsul
okhon
Star
tshol
tsamikh
tkhlalt
Bay
matiklitsi
Niffht
pshin
apkta
mahektsa
kaehe
Fire
loloks
iiD&
malis
kilita
Water
diiipo
atsa
as
kilo
Rain
kittolshas
litshik
enwaetsa
tkhlakos
Snow
kais
khae
ti
kimit
Earth
kaela
tarak
kela
onitstwh
River
kokai
asurahdua
atswma
haiu
Stone
kotai
itsa
wlishti
kelih
Tree
tsatiaslita
Meat
mishuts
Dog
watsak
hapso
watsakha
tskekh
Beavei'
pum
tawai
pum
kaatsilawa
Bear
tokwuks
haukidai
lokhoa
kotiimamo
Bird
miak
tarar^kh
lauitsa
kukuaia
Fish
alish
Great
moonis
k^mpe
waw§,
haihaiat
Cold
kataks
isikato
Mstse
kwutitwkliMnu
White
palpal
itaiu
tiwitsi
kwakhalt
mack
posposli
epkliotS.rakhe
hakiitshi
kaitsht
Red
taktakali
eakhti
takhlakhe
paLalwt
I
no
Ida
it
kone
Thou
i
mai
piklik^
nikh
He
hot
hina
piklikd
kwoutsi
One
natshik
tshiS.mu
Mmis
khwrn
Two
lapit
hoka
kSki
tsokhwakhwa
Tliree
ntani
hatski
tsfishti
pusuntkhlklia
Fow
wonip
irahaia
hatami
tsuikikliatsokhwakia
Five
tonapni
etsha
molosi
holatklilkha
Six
nakskishwptane tahaia
Seven
tapkisliMpt4ne
hokaikinis
Eight
ndanekishMptane
hatsikiri
Nine
natskaiakish
kirihariki-ikriu
Ten
taunip
etsehewi
hamish
sauitttstu.
LUTUAMI, SHASTI, PALAIK.
409
Neither are there wanting afilnities to the Sahaptin
and Cayus languages — allied to each other. Thus —
Ear=^mumutsh liVLtadnoi^ku-mumuats Falaik=mt(feau» Sahaptin=:^«a2;
Sliasti=^aibA Cayus.
Mouth=^hum Lntmaai^zshum-iaksh Cayfis=AiOT Sahaptin.
T(mgue=paicus Lntuami=:pav:ish Saliaptin==piaA Cajlis.
Tooth=:tiU Lntu&nn=til Sahaptin. •
Foot=.ahce3 Shasti:=ai-A«o Sahaptin.
Blood^ahati Palaik=i-ii-e< Sahaptin.
Fire^loldks Lntnami=iAjifcsAa Sahaptin.
One=natsh{k Lutnami=naJl-« Sahaptin^no Cay^.
Two=lapt Lutnami^/opi/ Sahaptin^ Jt CajHs.
The Lutuami seems somewhat the most Sahaptin of
the three ; and this is what we expect from its geogra-
phical position. It is also, like the Palaik, conterminous
with the Wihinast ; both Palaik and Lutuami, along with
the Shasti, having Shoshoni (for which see the sequel)
affinities.
English.
Nose
Mouth
Ear
Sun
Water
I
Thou
He
One
Shoshoni.
moui=:iami, Palaik.
timpa^shnm, Lutuami.
inana=isak, Shasti.
tava^sapas, Lutuami.
pa:=ampo, Lutuami.
ni=:no, Lutuami.
i=i, Lutuami.
oo=hot, Lutuami.
shimutsi^teA/amMU, Shasti ; umis, Palaik.
The latter of the following vocabularies, which, with
those that follow, belong to California, was taken
from a Seragoin Indian, i. e. from an Indian to whom
it was Tiot the native tongue. We are warned of this
by the collector — the inference being that the Tahlewak
vocabulary is not wholly trustworthy.
English.
Ehnek.
Tahlewah.
Man
ahwunsh
pohlosan'h
Boy
anak'hocha
kerrhn
Girl
yehnipahoitch
kernihl
Indian
ahrah
astowah
Head
akhoutshhoutsh
astinthah
Beard
merruhw
semerrhperrh
410
THE EHNEK, ETC.
English.
Ehnek.
Tahlewah.
Neck
sihn
ichonti
Face
ahve
wetawaluh
Tongue
upri
so'h
Teeth
wu'h
shtf
Foot
fissi
stab
One
issah
titskoh
Two
p,chhok
kitchnik
Three
keurakh
kltchnah
Four
peehs
tshahanik
Five
tirahho
schwallah
Ten
trah
swellah.
The junction of the Rivers Klaraatl and Trinity gives
us the locality for the Weltspek. Its dialects, the
Weiyot and Wishosk, extend far into Humboldt County,
where they are, probably, the prevailing forms of speech,
being used on the Mad River, and the parts about Cape
Mendocino. From the Weitspek they differ much more
than they do from each other.
English.
Weitspek.
English.
Weitspek.
Man
pagehk
Moon
ketnewabr
Woman .
•wintsuk
Star
haugets
Boy
hohksh
Day
tehnep
Girl
wai inuksh
I)arh
ketutski
Head
tegueh
Fire
mets
Hair
leptait]
Water
paha
Ear
spehguh
I
nek
Eye
mylih
Thou
kehl
Nose
metpi
One
spinekoh
Jfouth
mihlutl
Two
uuehr
Tongue
mehprh
Three
naksa
Teeth
merpetl
Four
tohhuniie
Beard
mehpercli
Five
mahrotum
Arm,
m eh shell'
Six
hohtcho
Hand
tsewush
Seven
tchewurr
Foot
metsk6
Eight
k'hehwuh
Blood
happ'l
Nine
kerr
Sun
w&nouahleh
Ten
wert'hlehwerh
Mendocino is the name suggested for the Choweshak,
Batemdaikai, Kulanapo, Yukai, and Khwaklamayu
forms of speech collectively.
1,2. The Choweshak and Batemdaikai are spoken
THE KULAKAPO, ETC.
411
ou Eel River, and in the direction of the southern
branches of the Weitspek group, with which they have
affinities.
3, 4, 5. The Kulanapo is spoken about Clear Lake,
the Yukai on Russian River. These forms of speech,
closely allied to each other, are also allied to the so-
called NoHheiiii Indians of Baer's Beitrdge, &c. —
Noiihern meaning to the north of the settlement of
Ross. The particular tribe, of which we have a vocabu-
lary, called itself Khwakhlamayu.
0-)
English.
KhwaUdamayn.
English.
Khwakhlamayu
Head
khonuno
Moon
kal.tztiii.
Hair
shoka
Star
kaoioi
Eye
iia
Fire
okbo
Ear
ghnip^t
Water
aka
Nose
pla
One
ka
Mouth
aa
Two
koo
Tooth
00
Three
sabo
Tongue
aba
Four
mora
Hand
psha
Five
tysba
Foot
sakki
Six
lara.
Sun
ada
(2
0
£nglUh.
Kulaoapo.
English.
Kulanapa
Man
kaah
Moon
luelab
Woman
dah
Star
oiyahoh
Boy
kahwih
Day
dahmol
Girl
dahhats
Dark
petib
Head
kaiyah *
Fire
k'hoh
Hair
musuh
Water
k'hah
Ear
shimah
I
bah
Eye
ui
Thou
ma
Nose
labahbo
One
k'habb'h
Mouth
katsedeh
Two
kots
Tongue
bal
Three
bomeka
Teeth
yaoh
Four
dol
Beard
kateatsa
Five
lebmab
Arm
tsnah
Six
tsadi
Hand
biyyah
Seven
knlabots
Foot
kahmah
Eight
kokodobl
Blood
bahlaik
Nine
badarolshum
Sun
lab
Ten
hadoratlek.
412
THE COPEH.
The Copeh is spoken at the head of Putos Creek.
How far this will eventually turn out to be a convenient
name for the group, or how far the group itself will be
natural, is uncertain. A vocabulary in Gallatin from
the Upper Sacramento, and one from Mag Readings, in
the south of Shasti county, belong to the group.
English.
Copeh.
Mag Readings.
Upper Sacramento.
Man
pehtluk
winnoke
Woman
muhlteh
dokke
Head
buhk
pok
Hair
tiih
toini
tomoi
Eye
sah
chuti
tumut
Nose
kiunik
tsono
Mouth
koM
kal
Teeth
siih
shi
Bea/rd
ctehsaki
khetcheki
Arm
sahkh
keole
Hand
semh
Rhim
tsemut [fingers)
Foot
mai'h
mat
ktamoso
Blood
sahk
chedik
Sun
sunh
tuku
sas
Wind
toudi
kleyhi
Rain
yohro
luhollo
Snow
yohl
yola
Fire
poh
pau
po
Water
mehm
mem
mem
Earth
kirrh
kosh
About eighty or a hundred miles from its mouth, the
river Sacramento is said to form a division between two
languages, one using momi, the other kik, for vjater.
For the former group we have the (a) Pujuni, (6)
Secumne, and (c) Tsamak specimens of Hale, as also the
Cushna vocabulary, from the coimty Yuba, of School-
craft.
English.
Pujuni.
Seknmne.
Tsamak.
Man
9Tme
mailik
mailik
Woman
kele
kele
kiUe
Child
maidumonai
Daughter
eti
Head
t9ut9(il
tsol
t9ult9t
Hair
oi
ono
oi
THE PUJUNI, ETC.
413
English.
Pnjuni.
Sektunne
Ear
ono
bono
Eye
wat^
U
Nose
heaka
suma
Mouth
molo !
earn
Neck
tokotok
kui
Arm
ma
wah
Hand
t^apai
ma
Fingers
t^ikikap
biti
Leg
pai
podo
Foot
katMp
pu
Toe
tap
biti
House
he
be
Bow
olamni
Arrow
hula
Shoes
solum
Beads
bawut
Shy
hibi
Sun
oko
oko
Day
oko
eki
Night
PO
Fire
?a
sa
Water
momi, mop
mop
River
Idkolok
momdi
Stone
o
0
Tree
t^a
tsa
Grapes
mnti
Deer
wil
knt
Bird
tidt
Fish
pala
Salmon
mai
mai
Name
land
Good
huk
wenne
Bad
t^o?
Old
hawil
New
be
Sweet
snduk
Sour
oho
Hasten
ie«ra
Run
tshel
gewa
Walk
iye
wiye
Smm
pi
Talk
wiwina
enim
Sing
tsol
Dance
paio
One
ti
wikte
Two
teene
pen
Three
shupui
sapoi
Tsamak.
orro
hil
kolat
kalat
tamsult or tamt^at
tcikikup
bimpi
pai
9*
momi
mnnti
kut
huk
maidik
414
THE PUJUNI, ETC.
English.
Pnjnni.
Sekumne.
Four
pehel
tsi
Five
mustic
mauk
Six
tini, 0 (sic)
tini, a (sic)
Seven
tapui
pensi (?) sic
Eight
petshei
tapau C?) sic
Nine
matshum
mutsum
Ten
tshapanaka
aduk
Tsamak.
Hale's vocabulary of the Talatui belongs to the
group for which the name Moquelumne is proposed ; a
Moquelurane Hill and a Moquelumne River being found
within the area over which the languages belonging to
it are spoken. Again, the names of the tribes that
speak them end largely in -mTie, — Chupumne, &c. As
far south as Tnol-umne county the language belongs to
this division ; viz. (1 .) the Mumaltachi ; (2.) the Mul-
lateco ; (3.) the Apangasi ; (4.) the Lapappu ; and (5.)
the Siyante or Typosd bands speak this language.
(1.)
English.
Talatui.
San Raphael.
Man
sawe
lamantiya
Woman
esuu
kulaish
Father
tata
api
Daughter
tele
ai
Head
tikit
molu
Ear
alok
alokh
Eye
wilai
shuta
Nose
uk
hiike
Mouth
hube
laknm
Hand
iku
ak
Foot
subei
koio
Srni
hi
hi
Day
hi umu
hi
Night
ka-wil
walayuta
Fire
wike
waik
Water
kik
kiik
Stone
sawa
lupoii
Bird
lune, ti
kakalis
House
kodja
koitaya
One
kenate
kenai
Two
oyo-ko
oza
TJiree
teli-ko
tula-ka
THE TALATUI, ETC.
415
English.
TalatnL
San Raphael.
Four
oi^u-ko
wiag
Fire
kassa-ko
kenekns
Six
temebo
patirak
Seren
kanikuk
(?) sic
semlawi
Eight
kauinda
wTiisuya
Nine
ooi
umarask
Ten
ekaye
(20
kitsLish.
English.
Tshokoyem.
English.
Tshokoyem.
Man
tai-esse
Star
hittish
Woman
kuleh-esse
Bay
hialuiah
Boy
yokeh {smalt)
Night
ka\rul
Girl
koyah
Fire
wikih
Head
moloh
Water
kihk
Ear
ahlohk
River
polah
Eye
shat
Stone
lepeh
Nose
hnk
I
kahni
Mouth
lapgup
Thou
mih
Tongue
lehntip
He
ikkoh
Tooth
kuht
Tlity
mnkkam
Neck
helekke
All
mukkam
Foot
koyok
Wha
mahnti
Blood
kichawh
Eat
yohlomosili
Shy
lihUTi
Drink
nshn
Sun
hih
Run
hihcliiali
Moon
palulok
See
emh.
The tribes under the supervision of the Mission of
Dolores were five in number; the Ah wastes, the Olhones,
or Costanoe (of the coast), the Romonans, the Tulomos,
and the Altatmos. The vocabulary of which the fol-
lowing is an extract was taken from Pedro Alcantara,
who was a boy when the Mission was founded, A.D.
1776. He was of the Komonan tribe.
English.
Costana
English.
Costana
Man
imhen
Ear
tuOTOS
Woman
ratichma
Eye
rehin
Boy
shinismak
Nose
fis
Girl
kaira
Mouth
werper
Head
<Uc
Tongue
tassek
416
THE COSTANO, ETC.
English.
Costano.
English.
Costano.
Tooth
siit
River
orush
Neck
Ian
Stone
erek
Foot
kolo
I
kahnah
Blood
payan
Thou
mene
Shy
renenie
He
wahche
Sun
islimen
They
nekumsah
Moon
kolma
All
kete
Star
agweh
Who
mate
Day
puhe (light)
Eat
aLmush
Night
moor (dark)
Drink
owahto
Fire
roretaon
Run
akamtoha
Water
sii
See
atempimah
In the north of Mariposa county, and not far south
of the Tuolomne area, the language seems changed, and
the CoconooTis is spoken by some bands on the Mercede
river.
The Tulare, akin to it, is probably conterminous with
the Mohave of the San Bernardin and the Santa Barbara
forms of speech.
English.
Coconoons.
Tulare.
Head
oto
utno
Hair
tolus
cells
Ear
took
took
Nose
thedick
tuneck
Mouth
sammack
shemmak
Tongue
talcotch
talkat
Tooth
talee
talee
Sim
suyou
cop
Moon
offaum
taahmemna
Stm-
tchietas
sahel
Day
hial
tahoh
Fire
sottol
ossel
Water
illeck
ilUck.
For the counties (missions) which touch the sea, we
have, to the south of the Costanos, the following voca-
bularies : —
(i.)
English. Eslen. Ruslcn. Soledad. San Miguel. San Antonio.
Man ejennutek muguyamk mue loai
Woman tamitek latrayamank shurishtne tlene
Father ahay appan nikana tata tele
SANTA BARBARA, ETC.
417
English.
Eslen.
Rusleu.
Soledad.
San Miguel.
San Antonio.
Mother
azia
aan
nikana
apai
epjo
Son
panna
enshinsli
nikioish
paser
Dawjiiter tapana
kaana
nika
paser
Head
tshop
tobuko
traako
Hair
worokh
teasakho
Ears
otsho
tentkhito
tishokolo
Xose
OS
tenento
Eyes
hun
trugento
Mouth
hai
treliko
>i-y
imita
terraj
napalemak
Moon
tomanisaashi
orpetue
i-ishmen
tatsoopai
Day
asatza
ishmen
trokana
Light
jetza
shorto
Xight
tomanis
orpetui
Fire
manamenes
hello
Water
azanax
ziy
tsha
Boic
payunay
laguan
kakheia
Arrow
lottos
teps
tatoyen
Great
pntuki
ishac
katsha
Small
ojask
pishit
Move
nitscha
ka
There
nimetaha
me
One
pek
enjala
himitsa
tohi
kitol
Two
nihaj
ultis
utshe
kngsu
kakishe
Three
julep
kappes
tkapka
tlubahi
klap'hai
Four
jamajus
ultizim
utjit
kesa
kisha
Five
pemajala
hali izu
paruash
oldrato
ultraoh
Six
peguatanoi
hali shakem
iminuksh;
apiaite
painel
Seren
jnla jualanei
kapkamai shakem adnksha
tepa
t'eh
Eight
julep jualanei
ultumai shakem
taitemi
sratel
shaanel
Nine
jamajas jnalaaei
packe
-watso
teditrnp
tetatsoi
Ten
tomoila
tamchajt
matsoso
txapa
tsoek
(2.)
English.
Santa Barbara.
San Lois Obispo.
Sl-y
alapai
tikhis
Sim
alishakna
s'maps
Moon
agoai
tabna
Stan
akehun
k'shihimu
Water
oh
to
House
ahpa
Man
eheye
h'LDaono
Woman
ehnek
tasiyuhl
CkUd
tupneesh
tschoilmono
Stme
kheup
tkhenp
Day
hosiec-ftinni
fchashin
E
E
418
SANTA BARBARA, ETC.
English.
Santa Barbara,
San Luis Obispo.
One
paka
tskhumu
Two
shkoho
eshin
Three
masekh
misha
Four
skumu
paksi
Five
yiti-paka
tiyehui
Six
yiti-shkome
ksuhuasya
Seven
yiti-masekh
kshuamishhe
Fight
malahua
sh'komo
Nine
spa
shumotchi-makhe
Ten
kestko
tuyimili
Eleven
keilu
tihuapa
Ttoelve
masekh -eskumu
takotia
Thirteen
kel-paka
huakshumu
Fourteen
kel-ishko
huaklesin
Fifteen
kel-masekh
huaklmishe
Sixteen
peta
peusi
Lake
eukeke
Sea
skahamihui
t' shnekhan
Mountain
osblomohl
tspu
Bow
aklia
takha
Arrmo
yah
tslehui
Chief
huot
Bad
tsohuis
Earth
iti-kiala-kaipi
River
shtejeje
tslimi
Salt
tipi
tepu
Light
neuk
tina
Night
sulcuhu
teh' khime
Cold
sokhton
Hot
sientseuk
White
ohuokh
Black
akemai
Boor
ekeipe
Body
hekiampium
Father
hokonosh
sapi
Mother
khoninash
tuyu
Brave
akhauishash
Much
tsekhu
Little
tsihuisnin
Head
p'sho
Heart
nokhop
Hand
nupu
Far
p'ta
Friend
tsakhsi
Enemy
tsinayihlmn.
THE NETELA, ETC.
419
(3.)
English.
Netela.
Ky.
Man
yiitB
woroit
Woman
snngwal
tokor
Father
nana
anak
Mother
noyo
aok
Son
nakam
aikok
Daughter
nasnam
aiarok
Head
nuyn
apoam
Ear
nanakuum
anana
Eye
nopalum
atshotshon
Nose
nomaitm
amepin
MmUh
atoDgin
Tongne
anongin
Teeth
noto
atatum
Hand
natakalom
aman
Fingers
watshkat
Feet
nee
Blood
noo
akhain
Boose
niki
kitsh
S»n
temet
tamet
Moon
moil
moar
Star
saol
su5t
Day
teme
oronga
Night
tokmtrt
yanket
Fire
mnghat
tshawot
Water
pal
bar
Rain
kwast
akwakit
Snow
ynit
yoat
Earth
tonanga
Stone
tot
tota
Dog
aghwal
waosi
Bear
hanot
hnnar
Bird
cfaeymat
amasharot
Fish
mn^^ut
k waling
Great
oboloo
yoit
Cold
atsho
White
kwaiknot
arawatai
Blacl
yoMatkhnot
ynpikha
Red
koiakoiet
kwaaokha
I
no
noma
Thou
om
oma
He
wanal
ahe
One
pokn
pnka
Two
wehe
wehe
Three
pahe
pake
£ £ 2
420
THE YUMA DIALECTS.
English.
Netela.
K«.
Four
watsa
watsa
Five
mahar
Six
pawahe
Seven
aghwohuitsh
Eight
weheswatsa
Nine
pehelenga
Ten
wehkun-mahar
The Yuma Indians occupy each side of the Colorado
both above and below its junction with the Gila. They
are also called Cuchans, and are a fierce predatory
nation, encroaching equally on tribes of their own lan-
guage and on aliens.
English.
Cucban.
Cocomaricopa.
Diegnno.
Man
epatsh
apatch
( &,ycutcht
1 epatch
Woman
sinyak
seniact
sun
Indian
metepaie
[ ecoutsucherowo j
Head
•< and >
{ umwelthoocouo )
estar
Hair
eetche
hiletar
Ear
smytM
Nose
hu
Mouth
ah
Tongue
epulche
Tooth
aredoche
Beard
yahboineh
Hand
eesalche
issalis
selh
Foot
emetclislipaslapya
ametche
hamulyay
STcy
ammai
Sun
nyatch
Moon
huthlya
Star
klupwalaie
Snow
halup
Fire
aawoh
house
Water
aha
haache
kha
I
nyat
nyah
He
habritzk
One
sin
sandek
hina
Two
havick
haveka
hawue
Three
hamuk
hamoka
hamuk
Four
chapop
champapa
chapop
Five
scrap
sarap
suap.
THE YUMA DIALECTS.
421
(2.)
English.
Mohave.
Man
ipah
Woman
sinyax
Head
cawawa
Hair
I'mi
Face
ihalimi
Forehead
yamapul
Ear
esmailk
Note
ihn
Eye
idotz
Mouth
ia
Tongue
ipailya
Tooth
ido
Arm
isail
Foot
imilapilap
Blood
niawhut
Shy
amaiiga
Sun
nyatz
English.
Moharc
Moon
hullya
Star
hanrnse
Fire
awa
Water
aha
I
nyatz
Thou
mantz
He
pepa
One
setto
Two
haTika
Three
hamoko
Four
pinepapa
Five
serapa
Six
sinta
Seven
vika
EigJa
moka
Nine
pai
Ten
arapa.
The Cocoraaricopa Indians are joint occupants of
certain villages on the Gila ; the population with which
they are associated being Pima. Alike in other re-
spects, the Pima and Cocomaricopa Indians differ in
language.
422 OLD CALIFORNIA,
CHAPTER LVII.
Old California.
San Diego lies in 32|-° north latitude, a point at
which the philology diverges. I first follow it in the
direction of Old California. It is stated in the Mithri-
dates that the most northern of the Proper Old Cali-
fornian tongues, the Cochimi, is spoken as far north as
33°. If so, the Dieguno maybe Old Californian as well
as New; which I think it is, believing, at the same
time, that Cochimi and Guchan are the same words.
Again, in the following Paternoster the word for sky
=iammi in the Cuchan vocabulary.
Cochimi of San Xavier.
father sky
Pennayu makenamb^ yaa ambayujui miyS, mo ;
7iame men confess and love all
Buhu mombojua tamma gkomend^ hi nogodoflo demuejueg gkajim;
and sky earth favour
Pennaytila bogodofio gkajim, gui hi ambayujup maba yaa keammete decuiny :
mo puegin ;
sky earth
Yaa m blihula mujua ambayup mo dedahijua, amet 6 nd guilugui ei piig-
kajim ;
this day day
Tamada yaa ibo ejueg quiluguiqui pemijich 6 mdu ibo yanno puegifi ;
and man evil
Guihi tamma yaa gambuegjula kepujui ambinyijua pennayala dedaudugijua,
giulugui pagkajim ;
and although and
Guihi yaa tagamuegla hui ambinyijua hi doomo puhuegjua, he doomo
pogonunyim ;
OLD CALIFORNIA. 423
and earth bless eril
Tagamuegjua guihi usimahel keammet e decainyimo, guihi yaa hui ambinyi
yaa gambuegpea pagkaadugnm.
Of recent notices of any of the languages of Old Cali-
fornia, eo noraine, I know none. In the Mithridates
the information is pre-eminently scanty.
According to the only work which I have examined
at first hand, the Nachriclden von der American ischen
Halhinsel Kalifomiien (Mannlieim, 1772 ; in the Mith-
ridides, 1773), the anonymous author of which was a
Jesuit missionary in the middle parts of the peninsula,
the languages of Old California were —
1 . Tlie Wo/ikur, spoken in several dialects.
2. The Utshiti.
3. The Layamon.
4. The Cochiml, north, and
5. The Pericu, at the southern extremity of the
peninsula.
6. A probably new form of speech used by some
tribes visited by Linck.
This is what we leara fixjm what we may call the
Mannheim account ; the way in which the author
expresses himself being not exactly in the form just
exhibited, but to the effect that, besides the Waikur
with its dialects, there were five others.
The Waikur Proper, the language which the author
under notice was most especially engaged on, and which
he says that he knew suflScieutly for his purposes as a
missionary, is the language of the middle part of the
peninsula. How far the Utshiti and Layamon were
dialects of it, how far they were separate substantive
languages, is not very clearly expressed. The writer had
Utshis, and XJtshipujes, and Atschimes in his mission,
"thoroughly distinct tribes — lauter versehiedene Volck-
lein." Nevertheless he always speaks as if the Waikur
tongue was sufficient for his purposes. On the. other
hand, the Utshiti is especially mentioned as a separate
424 OLD CALIFORNIA.
language. Adelung makes it a form of the Waikur ; as
he does the Layamon, and also the Cora and Aripe,
Then there comes a population called Ika, probably the
Picos or Ficos of Bagert, another authority for these
parts. Are these, the sixth population of the Mannheim
account, the unknown tribes visited by Linck ? I think
not. They are mentioned in another part of the book
as knoivn.
To the names already mentioned —
1. Ika, 3. Utshipuje,
2. Utshi, 4. Atschime,
add
5. Paurus, 9. Mitsheriku-tamais,
6. Teak was, 10. Mitsheriku-tearus,
7. Teengtiabebes, 11. Mitsheriku-ruanajeres,
8. Angukwaros,
and you have a list of the tribes with which a mission-
ary for those parts of California where the Waikur
language prevailed, came in contact. Altogether they
gave no more than some 500 individuals, so miserably
scanty was the population.
The occupancies of these lay chiefly within the Co-
chimi area, which reached as far south as the parts
about Loretto in 2 6° north latitude ; the Loretto Ian •
guage being the Layamon. This at least is the in-
ference from the very short table of the Mithridates,
which, however little it may tell us in other respects, at
least informs us that the San Xavier, San Borgia, and
Loretto forms of speech were nearer akin to each other
than to the Waikiu*.
English.
San Xavier.
San Borgia.
Loretto.
Waiknr.
Sky
ambayujub
ambeink
terereka-datemba
Earth
amet
amate-guang
datemba
Fire
usi
ussi
Man
tamma
tama
tamma
ti
Father
kakka
iham
keneda
Son
uisaham
tshanu.
OLD CALIFORNIA.
425
The short compositions of Hervas (given in the Mith-
ridates) show the same.
Waihtr Paternoster, -with the German, InterlinecUionj from the
Mith ridates.
Kepe-ddre tekereka-datembi dai ;
ujiser Vater gebogene Erd du hist ;
ei-ri akatuikd-pu-me ;
dichodas erhennen alle werden;
tshakarrake-pu-me ti tschie ;
loben alle werden Lent und ;
ecihi gracia-ri acume card tekerekadatembi tschie ;
^en gratia o doss haben werden wir gebogene Erd und ;
eiri jebarrakemi ti pu jaupe datemba
dir 0 dose gehorsamen werden Menschen alh heer Erd,
pae ei jebarrakere aena kea;
wie dir gehorsamen droben seynd;
kepecun bu. kepe ken jatupe imtairi ;
Mn««' Speis uns gebe dieser tag;
cate kuitscharake tei tschie kepeciin atacamara
UM rerzehe du und unser Boses ;
pad kuitscharrakere cate tschie cavape atukiara keperujake ;
wie verzehen icir auch die Bases uns than;
catd tikakamb^ tdi tschie ;
tins helfe du und;
cnvTuneri cate ad atoki^ia ;
woUen werden Nickt tcir etwas Bases;
kepe kakunja pe atacara tschie. Amen.
uns be^chutze von Bosen und. Amen.
The compound tekereka-datembizzbent land =. sky z=^
heaven.
To this very periphrastic Paternoster we may add the
following fragments of the Waikur conjugation : —
m ^
' ego ludo
Ei
1 tu ludis
Tat&u
Gatd
ille ludit
Petd
Tac&va .
w>» luditis
(. illi ludunt
Be ^
r ego lusi
Ei
tu lusisti
Tut&u
Cate
■ ainnkiririkeris •
ille lusit
nos lusimut
Pete
vos lusittis
Tuc^va .
^ iUi luterunt.
426
OLD CALIFORNIA.
Amiikirime = ludere.
Amukiri tei=dude.
Amukiri tu=ludite.
Be-ri ^
Ei-ri I
Tut^u-ri
Cate-ri
Pete-ri
Tuc^va-ri .
- amukiririkarikarasr: "
' / wish I had not played
Thou, <i;c.
He, (be.
We, tfcc.
Ye, d'c.
L They, dec.
Of the Pericu, spoken at the south extremity of the
peninsula, I know no specimens.
With this concludes the notice of the languages of
Old California ; languages belonging to the most neg-
lected class in philology ; languages of which our data
are pre-eminently fragmentary ; above all, languages
which (from the probably approaching extinction) are
destined to be but imperfectly known. All that can be
said of them is, that they appear to graduate into each
other, and that, at the neck of the peninsula, they
certainly graduate into those of the mainland. That
they are all Yuvia is probable. What value is im-
pressed upon the class by making them so is another
question.
THE PIMA, ETC.
427
CHAPTER LVIII.
Languages of Sonora. — Mexico. — (Joatimala. — Honduras. —
Nicaragua, &c.
With the neck of the peninsula ; the southern bound-
aiy of California ; the northern boundary of Sonora ;
and the line of contact between the Cocomaricopas and
the Piraa Indians, begins a new division. Upon the
difference between the Pimas and the Cocomaricopas,
there is no want of decided statements. Many notices
of the two populations are accompanied by comparative
vocabularies, in which the difference is manifest — all the
more so from the contrast it supplies to their topogra-
phical contact, and the similarity of their habits. They
" agree in everything but their languages, and in this they
differ " is the common (and true) statement concerning
them.
But though the distinction is real, it must not be
overvalued. At the same time the Piraa class (of unde-
termined value) is a real one.
That it contains the Pima Proper, the Opata, and
the Eudeve, may be seen from the Mithi'idates.
English. •
Pima.
English.
Pima*
Man
huth
Sun
tabs
WamuH
hahri
MooH
mahsa
Indian
huup
Star
non
Head
mouk
Snow
chiah
Hair
ptmuk
Fire
tahi
Ear
ptnahauk
Water
suutik
Nose
tahnk
I
ahan
Mouth
chinits
He
yeutah
Tonyue
neuen
One
yumako
Tooth
ptahan
Two
kuak
Beard
chinyo
Three
vaik
Hand
mahahtk
Foniir
kiik
Foot
tetaght
Fine
pultas.
Skff
ptchuwik
428 THE OPATA, ETC.
In Spanish America the character of our material
changes, and we get Artes rather than vocabularies —
the Artes, concerning which more will be found in the
sequel.
Opata.
Tamo mas tegui&caxMgaa, cacame;
A mo tegua santo ^ ;
A me reino tame macte ;
Hinadeia iguati terepa ania teguiacachiveri ;
Chiama tamo guaco veu tamo mac;
Guatame neavere tamo cai naideni ac^ api tame neavere tomo opagua ;
Gua cai tame taotitudare ;
Cai naideni chiguadu — Apita cachi§,.
That the language of the Papagos, Papagocotam, is
also Pima rests upon good external evidence. Whether
the speech of the Ciris, and population of the island of
Tiburon and the parts opposite, be also Pima, is at
present uncertain.
The Ibequi belongs to the same class — slightly en-
larged.
Hiaqui.
/<om-acliai <e»e-capo catecame;
Che-chevasu yoyorvva;
Itou piepsana em yaorahua ;
Em harepo in buyapo annua amante (ievecapo?) vecapo annua beni
Machuveiiom-buareu yem itom amica-itow ;
Esoc alulutiria ca-aljiton-anecau itepo soc alulutiria ebeni itom veherim
Caitom butia huenacuchi cativiri betana ;
Aman ztom-yeretua.
So, also, the
Tvhar.
/te-caiiar te^ruiuicarichua catemat;
Imit ie^rmuarac milituraba teochiqualac ;
Imit huegmica carinite bacachin-assifaguin ;
Imit avamunarir echu naiSagualac imo cuigan amo nachic iejrmue-caricheri ;
Ite cokuatarit, essemer taniguarit, iabbe ite micam ;
Ite tatacoli ikiri atzomua ikirirain ite bacacbin cale kuegma nafiegua cantem ;
Caisa ite nosam bacatatacoli ;
Bacachin ackiro muetzerac ite.
THE CORA, ETC. 4-29
So, also, the
Tarahumara.
Tami nono, mamd regui gnami gatiki ;
Tami noineruje mu regua ;
Telimea rekijena ;
Tami negnaruje mu jelaliki henna, guetshiki, mapn hatschibe regnega
guami;
Tami nututuge hipeba ;
Tami guecanje tami guikeliki, matame hatschibe r^;u^a tami guecanje pntae
tami guikejameke ;
Ke ta tami satuje ;
Telegatigemeke mechka hul4. Amen.
So, also, the
Cora.
Ta yaoape tapahosk pethebe ;
Cherihaaca eiia teaguarira ;
Ghemealmabeni tahemi (to us) eiia chianaca ;
Gheaqoasteni eiia jevira iye (as) chianacatapoan tup up tapaho& ;
Eii ta hamuit {bread) eu te huima tahetze rej mjeve iMc {to-day) ta taa ;
Hoataaniraca ta xanacan tetup itcahmo tatahoatauni titaxanacante ;
Ta raehre teatcai harobereni xanacat hetze huabachreaca teod tahemi rata-
huaga tehai eu ene.
Che-enhuatahua.
With these end our data, but not our lists of dialects ;
the names Maya, Guazave, Heria, Sieuraba, Xixime,
Topia, Tepeguana, and Acaxee all being, either in
Hervas or elsewhere, applied to the different forms of
speech of Sonora and Sinaloa ; to which may be added
the Tahu, the Pacasca, and the Aca^ca, which is pro-
bably the same word as Acaxee, just as Huimi is the
same as YuTna, and Zaqiie as Hiaqui. Of the Guazave
a particular dialect is named as the Akcmie. Add to
these the Zoe and Huitcole, which are probably the
same as the Huite.
That some of these unrepresented forms of speech be-
long to the same class with the Pima, Hiaqui, &c,, is
430 THE OTOMI.
nearly certain. How many, however, do so is another
question. It may be that all are in the same predica-
ment ; it may be only a few.
These languages lead us to the Mexican Proper ; of
which it is difficult to give the true situs. This is be-
cause it is a pre-eminently intrusive tongue. It is, pro-
bably, spoken beyond its original boundaries in every
direction ; sometimes (as in Central America) in isolated
patches. Again — there are in many of the districts which,
originally, belonged to the Mexican empire, local names
of Mexican origin which are as strange to the spot on
which they appear as the German or Russian names in
Estonia, or Livonia. Thirdly, the ordinary name for
the language — Asteh — seems to be, word for word, the
same as the Maya term Huasteca ; a fact which sug-
gests that the Mexicans were only Asteks in the way
that the English are Britons, i. e. not at all, except
so far as they took possession of a country originally
British. The nearest approach to a true Mexican name,
— a name which, in opposition to Astek, is Mexican in
the way that English is English as opposed to British
— ^is Nahuatl. At any rate, Astek is an inconvenient
synonym for Mexican.
Of all the languages hitherto named, the one to which
the Mexican is nearest allied, is the Tarahumara, through
which it graduates, through the Cora, into the Sonora
tongues, and through them to California, fee, &c.
That the sound expressed by tl is Mexican, may be
seen from even the shortest vocabularies.
More has been written on the Ofomi than any other
language of these parts ; the proper Mexican not ex-
cepted. It was observed by Naxera that it was Tnono-
syllahic rather than polysynthetic, as so many of the
American languages are, with somewhat doubtful pro-
priety, denominated. A Mexican language, with a
Chinese cliaracteristic, could scarcely fail to suggest
THE OTOMI, ETC. 431
comparisons. Hence, the first operation on the Otomi
was to disconnect it from the languages of the New, and
to connect it with those of the Old World. "With his
accustomed caution, Gallatin satisfied himself with stating
what others had said, his own opinion evidently being
that the relation to the Chinese was one of analogy
rather than afiinity.
Doubtless this is the sounder view ; and one con-
firmed by three series of comparisons made elsewhere
by the present writer.
The first shows that the Otomi, as compared with the
monosyllabic languages of Asia, en masse, has several
words in common. But the second quahfies our in-
ferences, by showdng that the Maya, a language more
distant fi-om China than the .Otomi, and by no means
inordiuately monosyllabic in its structure, has, there or
thereabouts, as many. The third forbids any separation
of the Otomi from the other languages of America by
showing that it has the ordinary amount of miscellaneous
affinities.
Hence, in respect to the Chinese, &c., the real question
is not whether it has so many crffinities with the OtoTnif
but whether it has more affinities with the OtoTni than
vAth the Maya or any other American language; a
matter which we must not investigate without remem-
bering that some difierence in favour of the Otomi is to
be expected, inasmuch as two languages with short or
monosyllabic w^ords will, fi-om the very fact of the short-
ness and simpUcity of their constituent elements, have
more words alike than two polysyllabic forms of speecli.
The fact, however, which most afiects the place of
the Otomi language is the quasi-monosyllabic character of
other American languages, e. g. the Athabaskan and the
Attacapa.
Of the Pirinda and Tarasca we have grammatical
sketches, with abstracts of them, by Gallatin. The fol-
lowing are from the Mithridates.
432 THE TARASCA, ETC.
Pirinda.
Cabutumtaki ke exjechori pininte ;
Niboteachatii tucathi nitubuteallu ;
Tantoki hacacovi nitubutea pininte ;
Tarejoki nirihonta manicatii ninujami propininte ;
Boturimegui dammuce tupacovi cbii ;
Exgemundicovi boturichochii, kicatii pracarovi kuentumnndijo boturiclio-
chijo ;
Niantexecliichovi rumkuentuvi innivochochii ;
Moripachitovi cuinenzimo tegui.
Tucatii.
Tarasca Paternoster,
Tata uchS,veri tukire hacahini av^ndaro ;
Santo arikeve tucheveti hacangurikua ;
Wetzin andarenoni tucheveti irecheekua ;
Ukuareve tucheveti wekua iskire avandaro, na humengaca istu umengave ixu
excherendo.
Huehaeveri curinda hanganari pakua intzcutzini yarn ;
Santzin wepovacheras huehaeveri hatzingakuareta, izki huchanac wepochacu-
vanita haca huchaveri hatzingakuaechani ;
Ca hastzin teruhtazema teruniguta perakua himbo ;
Evapentztatzini yaru catzincturita himbo. Isevengua.
Totonaca.
Quintlatcan6 nac tiayan huil ;
Tacollalihuacahuanli b mi raaocxot ;
Niquiminanin 6 mintacacchi
Tacholahuanla o min pahuat
Cholei ix cacnitiet chalchix nac tiayan ;
0 quin chouhcan lacalliya
niquilaixquiuh yanohue ;
Caquilamatzancaniuh quintacallitcan
Chonlei 6 quitnan lamatzancaniyaub
6 quintalac allaniyan ;
Ca ala quilamactaxtoyauh
Nali yojauh naca liyogni
Ghontacholacahuanla.
TJte same, from Hervas.
Kintaccan d nitiayan huill ;
Tacotllali huacahuanla o min pexca maocxot
Camill omintagchi,
Tacholaca huanla ixcacgnitiet ot
skiniau chon cholacan ocnatiayan ;
Alyanohue nikila ixkiu ki lacali chaocan ;
THE MAYA LANGUAGES. 433
Kilamatzancaniau kintacagllitcan
Kintalacatlanian ochonkinan iclamatzan —
Caniau kintalacatlanian ;
NikUamapotaxtou ala nicliyolau
Lacotlanacatalit nikilamapotexto
Lamatzon lacacoltana.
Chontacholacahuanla.
Mixteca Paternoster.
Dzuttmdoo, zo dzicani andihui;*
Naca cuneihuando sasanine ;
Nakisi santoniisini ;
Nacahui nuunaihni saha yocuhui inini dzahoatnaha yocnhui andihui ; *
Dzitandoo yutnaa yntnaa tasinisindo hiutni ;
Dzandooni cuachisindo dzaguatnaha yodzandoondoonhi hindo snhani sin
Hoasi kihui nahani nnciiitandodzondo kuachi ;
Tahui fiahani ndihindo sahanawliaaka dzahua :
Nacahm,
Hervas writes, that the Zapoteca (probably Maya),
Mazateca, Chinanteca, and Mixe were allied. The
Mixe locality is the district around Tehuantepec.
The Maya stands in contrast to the Mexican Proper
(how it comports itself to the less known languages of its
frontier is uncertain), by having a milder phonesis —
such, at least, being the inference from the ordinary
specimens.
The Maya, in the limited, or proper sense of the word,
is the language of Yucatan. It is also the name of a
group ; i. e. it is used as a general, as well as a parti-
cular, term. Mr. Squier, who has done so much for the
class that he ought to be allowed to fix its nomenclature,
suggests the name Tzendal. I believe, however, that this
is simply another form of Chontal ; a name which wiU
re-appear in the sequel. Maya, too, is the older term.
The Maya phonesis, in some of the dialects at least,
is that of the Sahaptin and Shoslioni rather than the
Atna and Tshinuk.
No tongue has more dialects (for they all seem to be
this) which are designated by separate names and (as
such) wear the garb of separate languages than the Maya.
* Possibly the Masya dehmalu.
F F
434. THE MAYA LANGUAGES.
Some may be so. I think, however, that they are
dialects with independent names. The distribution of
them is remarkable. There is a northern section, spoken
in the parts about Tabasco, which in the present state
of our knowledge is isolated. This is —
The Huasteca — word for. word, Astek. The termina-
tion -eca, is Maya. The speculations which arise out
of this similarity of name, as well as those which ai-e
suggested by the prevalence of the termination -eca
in Mexican narratives, form no part of our present in-
quiries.
The Kachiquel is Maya : the Kachiquel being one of
the chief languages of Guatemala.
So is the Quiche, called also the Utlateca.
So is the Zutugil, called also the Zacapula, with
the Atiteca.
So is the Poconchi, or Pocoman.
So is the Chorti.
The Ma'm is, probably, the same. Is Manche another
form of Mam ?
So, perhaps, is the Popoluca.
So is the Tzendal, spoken in Chiapas.
The Lacandona, spoken by some stiU independent
tribes in Vera Paz, is, probably, in the same category
with the Mara. No specimens, however, are known.
The Ache. — Of tliis Fray Francisco Gomez Torque-
mada writes that, " en a quella tierra (Guatemala)
aprendio brevemente la Lengua Ache : que es la de sus
Naturales y muy difficultuosa de aprender, porque le
avia comunicado Dios el don de lenguas, que refiere su
Apostol S. Pablo, y en ella aprovecho algunos aiios."
Is it the same as the Atiteca ?
In the Mithridates is the notice of a Zapoteca
language, but nothing more. Squier suggests that it
may be the Zacapula or Zutugil, — at least his notice
of a work by Fray Luis Cancer runs thus —
1
THE LENCA, ETC.
435
Tarias Gancionles en Verso Zapoteca (Zacapulaf) Bobre los Histerios de
la Beligion, paia el nso de los Keofitos de la Vera Paz.
Vera Paz is the Zapoteca locality as given by Adelong.
The displacement in Honduras, Nicaragua, &zc., has
been great. Hence of the languages other than Maya
little is known ; many of them being extinct.
The Lenca language is represented by four vocabu-
laries from the four Pueblos of Guajiquiro, Opatoro,
Intibuca, and Sirmlaton ; that of the last being shorter
and less complete than the others. They are quite re-
cent, and are to be found only in the Spanish edition of
Mr. Squier's Notes on Central America ; the English
edition being without them.
Honduras,
EngHsh.
Gaajiquiro.
Opatoro.
Intibnca.
Man
taho
ania«lie
WomoM
move
napu
Boy
gtiagna
hna
Head
toro
tohoro
cagaai
Ear
yang
yan
y»ng»€a
Eye
Baing
Baringla
Earing
Note
napee
napseh
nepton
Mouth
ingh
ambeingh
ingori
Tomgw
nafel
navel
napel
Teeth
nagha
neas
nigh
Nedc
ampshala
ampshala
cange
Arm
kenin
kenin
kening
Fingert
lasel
gnalalasel
Foot
gfiagi
quagi
gnaskaring
Blood
nahag
uah
qnch
Sun
gasi
gashi
gaaiii
Star
siri
dri
Fire
uga
'na
3mga
Water
gnaas
nash
gnash
Stone
caa
- caa
tnpan
Tree
m
m
ili
One
ita
ita
itaska
Two
naa
Three
lagna
— ...
Four
aria
Five
taihe
saihe
Six
hme
line
F F 2
436
LANGUAGES OF HONDURAS
English.
Gnajiquiro.
Opatoro.
Intibnca.
Seven
huis-ca
Eight
teef-ca
Nine
kaiai)a
Ten
isis
issis
Nicaragua.
(1-)
English.
Masaya.
Subtiabo.
Man
rahpa
wuho
Woman
rapa-ku
»i-ahseyomo
Boy
sai-ka
w-asome
Girl
sai-kee
Ti-aheoun
Child
chichi
«-aneyame
Father
ana
goo-ha
Mother
autu
goo -mo
Husband
a'mbin
'mhohue
Wife
a'guyu
wuine
Son
sacul-e
n-asomeyamo
Dav^hter
saicul-a
«-asayme
a'cu
edi
goochemo
Head
Hair
tu'su
membe
Face
enu
grote
Forehead
gnitu
goola
Ear
nau
nuhme
Eye
setu
nahte
Nose
ta'co
mungoo
Mouth
dahna
nunsu
Tongue
duhu
greuhe
Tooth
semu
nahe
Foot
naku
graho
Sky
dehmalu
nekupe
Sun
ahea
numbu
Star
ncn
nuete
. Fire
ahku
nafau
Water
eeia
nimbu
esee
esenu
nugo
Stone
I
ic u
saho
Thou
ic-a
sumusheta
He
ic-a
We
hechel-u*
semehmu
Ye
hechel-u*
They
icanu
This
ca-la
_, —
«
* Compare with the Tarascan uchaveri.
AND NICARAGUA.
437
(2.)
English.
Wulwa {Chontai).
English.
Wnlwa (CkoiUai).
Man
aU
Head
tunm
Wonvin
y-aU
Eye
minik-taka
Son
pau-ni-ma
Nose
magni-tuk.
Daughter
pau-co-ma
(3.)
English.
M'aikna {iloskito Coasl).
English.
Waikna {Moskito Coait).
Man
waikna
Head
let
Womm
mairen
Eye
nakro
Son
lupia-waikna
Nose
kamka.
Daughter
lupia-mairen
1
The following is spoken in Costa Rica, between the
river Zent, and the Bocca del Tauro.
EngU=h.
Talemenca.
Englioh.
Talemenca.
Ear
»u-kake
Star
bewue
Eye
»u-wiiaketei
Fire
tslmko
Nose
stt-telmkoto
Water
ditzita
Mouth
wt-'kuwu
One
e-tawa
Tongvie
e^-kupta
Two
ho-ieuM
Tooth
sa-ka
Three .
magna-^aoo
Beard
a^-karku raezili
Four
eke-teiKt
Neck-joint f
tzin
Five
gi-iewa
Arm
«a-fra
Six
si^wo-sie-le
Hand
«a-/ra-fej«-sek
Seven
«»-wo-wora
Finger
/ra -woata
Eight
»-«o-inagiiana
NaU
8a-kraska
Nine
si-wo-sie-tevca
Sun
kanhae
Ten
«a-flat-ka.
Moon
tola
St. Salvador —
English.
Sarane
rie.
Bayano.
Woman
aaich
pmra
Hair
chagaj
?s
saglaga
Nose
vas'e
asagoa
Eyes
siguac
va
ivi4
Mouth
ca
cagttiqui
Teeth
dajA
nngala
Ears
old
ouja
Hand
covare
arcana
Foot
sera
naea
Sun
chnlii
— i—
Moon
data
Stars
behug^
apa
One
quencliiqae
438
VERAGUA.
English.
Savaneiic.
Bayano.
Tivo
poTuar
Three
pavuar
Four
paquevuar
Five
atate
Six
nercua
Seven
cugle
Eight
pavaque
Nine
paquevaque
Ten
ambuc.
arien—
English.
Canacuna.
Darien.
One
quensa-cua
conjungo
Two
vo-cua
poquah
Three
paa-cua
pauquah
Four
paque-cua
pake-quah
Fvoe
atale
eterrali
Six
ner-cua
indricah
Seven
cugle
coogolah
Eight
vau-agua
paukopah
Nine
paque-haguc
pakekopah
Ten
ambegui
anivego.
We now leave the Isthmus in order to take
cognizance of three other groups, which have, ap-
parently, been pretermitted in the preceding notices.
These are the languages akin to the Sahaptin ; the lan-
guages akin to the Shoshoni ; and the languages of
the Pueblo Indians — the groups being, to some extent,
artificial.
SAHAPTIN GROUP. 439
CHAPTER LIX.
Sahaptin, Fadaca, juid Pneblo Languages.
The reason why these languages, with their compara-
tively northern situs, have been left until the very
fiontier of South America is touched, lies in their geo-
graphical relations to the languages of the next division.
As far as it has been practicable, we have, hitherto, kept
to the west of the Rocky Mountains, having begun
with the coast of the Pacific, because it was there that
lay the nearest points of contact between America and
Asia, and we have kept to the west, because, though difier-
ent in its character under difierent circumstances, there
has always been a connection between even such ex-
treme lancmaores as those of Central America and those
of the Arctic Circle. Of course, this does not exclude a
similar connection with the languages on the other side
of the Rocky Mountains. Two chains of affinity, how-
ever, cannot be followed out at the same time. Mean-
while, that to which the preference has been given
is, to say the least, a convenient, as well as a natural,
one. The line, however, of the Rocky Mountains, them-
selves, is, by no means, purely and simply, a line from
north to south. In Utah and New Mexico it takes us
in the direction of the Atlantic.
This turns our attention to the parts about the Great
Salt Lake, and (as the dialects there spoken have defi-
nite and decided affinities which run as far north as the
440
SAHAPTIN GROUP.
River Columbia) to certain districts in Oregon as well.
Here present themselves several dialects referable to
two groups. (1 .) The Sahaptin, and (2.) the Paduca.
(From Dr. Scouler.)
English.
Saliaptin.
Wallawalla.
KJiketat.
Man
nama
winsh
wins
Boy
naswae
tahnutshint
aswan
Woman
aiat
tilahi
aiat
Girl
piteu
tohauat
pitiniks
Wife
swapna
asham
asham
Child
miahs
isht
mianash
Father
pislid
pshit
pshit
Mother
pika
ptsha
ptsha
Head
hushus
tilpi
palka
Arm
atim
kanakas
Eyes
shilhu
atshash
atshash
Nose
nathnu
nathnu
nosnu
Ears
matsaia
matsiu
Mouth
him
em
am
Teeth
tit
tit
.
Hands
spshus
spap
aUa
Feet
ahwa
waha
waha
Legs
wainsh
tama
Sun
wishamtuksh
au
au
Moon
ailhai
ailhai
Stars
witsein
haslu
haslo
Clouds
spalikt
pashst
Rain
wakit
sshhauit
tohtoha
Snow
maka
poi
maka
Ice
tahask
tahauk
toh
Fire
ala
sluksh
sluks
Water
tkush
tshush
tshaosh
Wood
hatsin
slukas
slukuas
Stone
pishwa
pshwa
pshwa
Grovmd
watsash
titsham
titsham
Good
tahr
skeh
shoeah
Bad
kapsbish
milla
tshailwit
Hot
sakas
sahwaih
sahweah
Cold
kenis
kasat
tewisha kasat
Far
waiat
wiat
wiat
Near
keintam
tsiwas
tsa
High
tashti
hwaiam
hweami
Low
ahat
smite
niti
SAHAPTIN GROUP.
441
English.
Saliaptin.
Wallawalla.
Kliketat.
White
naihaih
koik
olash
Black
sunnhsiiiiah
tshimnk
tsimak
Red
sepilp
sutsha
sotsa
Here
kina
tshna
stsUoak
There
koiu
kana
skone
Where r
minnl
minat
mam ?
When?
manal
man ?
man ?
What f
misli J
mish 1
miah ?
Why!
manama ?
mam?
Whof
ishi ?
skia?
skiu ?
Which t
ma?
mam?
How much ?
mas?
milh ?
milh?
So much
kala
kalk
skulk
How far !
miwail ?
maal ?
So far
kewail
kwal
Houj l<mg ?
mahae?
maalh
Too long
kohae
kwalk
This
ki
tshi
tshi
That
job
kwa
skwa
I
8a
sa
sok
You
soi
sa
snik
He, the, it
ipi
ipin
pink
We
nun
nama
nemak
Ye
imA
ena
imak
They
ema
ema
pamak
Togo
kasha
winasha
winasha
To see
hakesha
hoksha
Totay
heisha
nn
na
To talk-
tseksa
sraiwasa
RiTiawasa
To walk
wenasa
winashash
To read
wasasha
wasasha
vasasha
To eat
wipisha
kwatashak
To drink
makosha
matshoshask
To sleep
piniiniVsTin.
pinasha
To wake
waksa
tahsbisask
tahshasha
To love
watanisha
tkehsah
To take
paaka
apalashask
To know
laknasa
ashaknashash
shokoasha
To forget
titolasha
slakshash
To give
inisha
nishamash
To seize
inpisha
shatshash
wanapsha
To be cold
iswaisa
iswaiska
To be sick
komaisa
painshash
painsha
To hunt
tutoliksa
nalaitisas
nistewasa
To lie
mishamisha
tshishkshash
tshii^ka
To steal
pakwasha
pakwashaKh
pakwasha.
442
PADUCA GROUP.
The Paduca forms of South Oregon and Utah seem
to be in situ ; those of New Mexico, Texas, and New-
Leon, &c. being intrusive. In respect to these, I
imagine that a line drawn from the south-eastern corner
of the Utah Lake to the source of the Red or Salt Fork
branch of the River Arkansas, would pass through a
country nearly, if not wholly, Paduca ; a country which
would lie partly in Utah, partly in New Mexico, and
partly in Kansas. It would cross the Rocky Mountains,
or the watershed between the drainages of the Colorado
and the Missouri. It would lie along a high and barren
country. It would have on its west the Navaho, Moqui,
and Apatsh areas ; on its east certain Sioux tribes, the
Arapahos, and the Shyennes. It would begin in
California and end in the parts about Tampico.
a-)
English.
Shosboni.
Wihinasht.
Man
taka
nanS,
Woman
kwuu
moghoni
Head
pampi
tsopigh
Hair
tupia
ikuo
Ea/r
inaka
inako
Eye
pui
pui
Nose
moui
moui
Mouth
timpa
tupa
Tongue
aku
eghu
Teeth
tangwa
tama
Foot
nampa
kuki
Sim
tava
tava
Moon
musbha
musha
Star
putsihwa
patuzuva
Bay
tashuii
tavino
Night
tukwun
tokano
Fire
kuna
koso
Water
pa
pa
Stone
timpi
tipi
Tree
shuwi
I
ni
ni
That
i
i
He
00
00.
PADUCA GROUP.
443
(2.)
English.
Uta.
Comanch.
Man
tooonpayah
tooavishchee
Woman
naijah
wyape«
Sun
tap
taharp
Moon
mahtots
mash
Star
quahlantz
taarch
Boy
ahpats
tooanickpee
Girl
mahmats
wyapeechee
Head
tuts
paaph
Forehead
mattock
Face
kooelp
koTch
Eye
puttyshoe
nachich
Nose
mahvetah
moopee
Mouth
timp
teppa
Teeth
tong
t^hnee
Tongue
aboh
ahako
Chin
hannockqaell
Ear
nink
nahark
Hair
suooh
parpe«
Neck
kolph
toyock
Arm
pooir
mowa
Hand
masseer
mowa
Breast
pay
toko
Foot
namp
nahap
Horse
kahrah
teheyar
Serpent
toeweroe
noheer
Dog
sahreeta
sbardee
Cat
moosah
Fire
coon
koona
Food
oof
Water
pah
(3)
pahar.
English.
Piede (_or Pa-uta).
English.
Piede(orPa-i./a).
Owe
SOOS
Six
navi
Two
weioone
Seven
navikaTah
Three
pioone
Eight
nanneetsooui
Four
wolsooing
Nine
shookootspenkermi
Five
shoomia
Ten
tomshoouu
W
English.
ChemnhaevL
Cahuilla*
Man
tawatz
nahanes
WoTnan
maruqu,
%
nikU
* The affinity between tbe Netela and Kij with the Shoshoni, suggested by
Hale and Grallatin, has been enlarged on by Baschmann. The Cahuillo has
affinities on each side. It is not in situ. At the same time, it is only hy
raising the value of the class, that all may be made Padaca.
444
PADUOA GROUP.
English.
Chemuliuevi.
Caliuillo.
Head
mutacowa
niyuluka
Hair
torpip
piiki
Face
cobanim
nepush
Ear
nancaba
nanocka
Eye
puoui
napush
Nose
muvi
nemu
Mouth
timpouo
netama
Tongue
ago
nenun
Tooth
towwa
metama
Hand
masiwanim
nemohemosh
Foot
nampan
neik
Bone
maiigan
neta
Blood
paipi
neo
Sky
tuup
tuquashanica
Sun
tabaputz
tamit
Moon
meagoropitz
menyil
Star
putsib
chehiam
Fire
cun
cut
Water
pah
pal
One
shuish
supli
Two
waii
mevri
Three
paii
mepai
Four
watchu
mewitchu
Five
manu
nomequadnun
Six
nabai
quadnunsupli
Seven
moquist
quanmunwi
Eight
natch
quanmunpa
Nine
uwip
quanmunwichu
Ten
mashu
nomachumi.
The Kioway is, apparently, more Paduca than aught
else.
English.
Kioway.
English.
Kioway
Man
kiani
Blood
Tim
Woman
mayi
Bone
tonsip
Head
kiaka
Sky
kiacoh
Hair
ooto
Sun
pal
Face
caupa
Moon
pa
Forehead
taupa
Star
tah
Ear
taati
Fire
pia
Eye
taati
Water
ta
Nose
maucon
I
no
Mouth
surol
Thm
am
Tongue
den
He
kin
Tooth
zun
We
kime
Hand
mortay
Ye
tusa
Foot
onsut
They
cuta
THE TESUQUE, ETC.
445
English.
Kioway.
Englisfa.
Kioway.
One
pahco
Six
mosso
Two
gia
Seven
pantsa
Three
pao
Eight
iatsa
Four
iaki
Nine
cohtea
Five
onto
Ten
cokhi.
Tlie comparative civilization of the Pueblo Indians
has always attracted the attention of the phUologue.
UntU lately, however, he had but a minimum amount
of trustworthy information concerning either their habits
or their lancmacfe. He has now a fiiir amount of data
for both.
Of the Pueblo languages two (the Moqui and Zuni)
belong to the drainage of the Rio Colorado, and four
(the Tesuque, the Taoa, the Jemez, and the A coma) to
that of the Rio Grande.
English.
Tesnqne.*
English.
Tesaqne.
Man
sae
Snow
poh
Woman
quie.
Fire
tah
Boy
enouh
Water
poh
Girl
aguuh
Ice
ohyeh
Head
pto
Stone
koh
Hair
po
I
nah
Face
tzae
Thou
oh
Ear
oyez
He
ihih
Eye
tzie
She
ihih
Nose
heu
They
ihnah
Mouth
so
Ye
nahih
Tongue
hae
We {ineluxive)
tahquireh
Tooth
mouaei
{exclusive)
nihyeaboh
Beard
hompo
One
guih
Hand
maho
Two
quihyeh
Foot
anh
Three
pohyeh
Bone
haehnn
Four
ionoah
Blood
uh
Five
pahnouh
Sun
tah
Six
sih
Moon
pho
Seven
chae
Star
ahgoyah
Eight
kuhbeh
Day
tahn
Nine
koaenoah
Night
kuriri
Ten
taheh.
Rain
kuohn
* More Pima than ansht else.
446
ACOMA AND COOHETIMI.
(2.)
English.
Acoma*
Cochetimi.
Eiwomi.
Man
hahtratse
hachthe
hatshthe
Woman
cuhu
coyoni
cuyauwi
Hair
hahtratni
hatre
Head
nushkaine
nashke
Face
howawinni
skeeowa
Eye
hoonaine
shaana
Nose
ouisuine
wieshin
Mouth
ouicani
chiaca
Tongue
watclihuntni
watsMn
One
ishka
isk
Two
kuomi
'tuomi
Three
chami
tshabi
Four
kiana
kiana
Five
tama
taoma
Six
chisa
chisth
Seven
maicana
maichana
Eight
cocomishia
cocumshi
Nine
maeco
maieco
Ten
'tkatz
cahtz.
The Moqui has decided Paduca affinities.
* Perhaps, more Sioux than aught else.
ALGONKIN CLASS. 447
CHAPTER IX
Languages l)etween the Athabaskan, the Rocky Moontains, and the Atlantic.
— The Algonkin. — The Sioox. — The Iroquois. — The Catawba, Woccon,
Uche, Natchez, Chetimacha, Adahi, and Attacapa Languages. — The
Pawni, Biccaii, and Caddo. — The Languages of Texas.
Unlike the Eskimo and the Athabaskan, the Algon-
kin area touches the Ocean on one side only — being
bounded on the west by the Kocky Mountains. Never-
theless, it is of great magnitude, being spoken in Labra-
dor, and in North Carolina ; on the Saskatshewan and
the Potomac ; in both the Canadas, in Nova Scotia,
in New Brunswick, in the Hudson's Bay Country, and
m every one of the United States north of Georgia.
On the north it is boimded by the Athabaskan, the
eastern half of the area whereof it subtends. The whole
question, however, of its magnitude, along with that of
the direction in which it extended itself, can scarcely be
entertained until the main details of the two classes
that succeed it, the Sioux and Iroquois, have been gone
into.
Though the Blackfoot is one of the most recent ad-
ditions to this class ; in other words, though the Black-
foot is one of the languages which were the last to be
recognized as Algonkin, I take it first — the Blackfoot
being in contact with the Kutani and certain forms of
the Athabaskan already named.
448
ALGONKIN CLASS.
(1.)
English.
Blackfoot.
Menomeni.
Man
matape
enaiBniew
Woman
aquie
metamo
Soy
sacomape
ahpayneesha
Girl
aquecouan
kaykaw
Head
otocan
maish
Hair
otocan
maynayminn
Pace
otochris
oshkayshayko
Scarp
c'otokan
menainhquon
Ea/r
otokis
maytahwoc
Eye
•wapespi
maishkayshaick
Nose
mocquisis
maycheosh
Mouth
naoie
maytone
Tongue
natsini
maytainnonniew
Tooth
nogpeki
maypet
Beard
mongasti
maynaytonankkonnuck
Neck
nogquoquini
maykeeekon
Arm
otitis
maynainh
Shoulder
catsiquin
ohpaykeko nainh kum
Bach
okaquin
oppainhquon
Hand
otttis
ohnainkonnon
Finger
inaquiquitsi
ohtainnohaykon
Nail
teotenoquits
meshkanshcon
Breast
oquiquini
ohpaun
Body
stomi
mayeow
Leg
osicsina
maykaut
Foot
ocatsi
mayshait
Bone
osicsi
ohkonne
Blood
apani
mainhkee
Sun
natos
kayshoh
Moon
natoscoucoui
taypainhkayshoh
Star
cacatos
almanlikock
Bay
apinacousli
kayshaykots
Night
coucoui
wahretopaykon
Fire
sti
ishkotawe
Water
ocquie
naypaywe
Stone
sococotosc
ahshen
Tree
mistes
meanshah
Bird
picsi
waishkaynonh
^9
wouaou
wahwon
I
nistoa
naynanh
Thxm
cristoa
kaynanh
He
hume
waynanh
She
hume
aynanli
They
wanonanh
Te
keenwoah
We
kaynanh {inclusire).
oshneeshayak (exclusive).
ALGONKIN LANGUAGES.
449
(2.)
English.
Qjibwa.
Ottawa.
Potowatami.
Head
ne ostegwon
ondip (his)
Hair
mistekiah
nisis {my)
win sis
Ear
ottowng
tawag
Eye
oskingick
tcKkijik
neskesick
Nose
schangguin
tchaje
ottschass
Mouth
oton
t6ne
indoun
Tonffue
otainini
tenanian
Tooth
meput
put
webit
Hand
nenintchen
neninch
Feet
ozia
sit {sing.)
nesit {sing.)
Sun
kisis
kisis
kesis
Moon
tepeki kisis
tipiki kisis
kesis
Star
anang
anang {pi.)
anung
Day
kigik
kijig
Night
tipik
tipik
Fire
ishkoda
ashkote
sen tab
Water
neebi
niplsh
nebee
Stme
ossin
Tree
metik
Fish
kekon
I
neen
neenah
Thou
keen
keen
He
ween
weene
One
paizhik
ningotchau
n'godto
Two
neezhwand
ninjwa
neish
Three
nisswaid
nis;wa
n'swoah
Four
newin
niwin
nnaeon
Five
nalinnn
nanan
n'yawnnn
Six
gotoasso
ningotwaswi
n'godto wattso
Seven
neezhwawsec
ninjwaswi
nouk
Eight
shwawswe
nichwaswi
schwatso
Nine
shongguswe
shang
shocktso
Ten
medoswe
kwetch
(3.)
metato.
English.
Old Algonkin.
Kni.stioaox.
Man
alissinap
Woman
ichweh
esqui
Head
oostikwan
istegwen
Hair
nssis
mistekiab
Eye
ooskirishek
eskisoch
Nose
yash
miskeewon
Tongue
ooton
otoyanee
Teeth
tibit
meepit
Blood
mishweh
mithcoo
Sun
kisis
pesim
G G
450
ALGONKIN LANGUAGES.
Englisli,
Old Algonkin.
Knistinaux.
Moon
debikatikisis
tipiscopesim
Star
alank
attack
Bay
okonogat
kesecow
Night
debikat
tipiscow
Fire
skootay
esquittu
Water
nipi
nepee
Ram
kimiwan
kemeroon
Snow
mispoon
Earth
ackey
askee
Noon
sispin
Stone
assin
assene
Tree
metseeh
J mislick achemusso {wood
L standing upnght)
Bird
piley
■pe&sia
Fish
kikons
kenosee
I
nir
nitha
Thou
kir
kitha
Ee
wir
One
peygik
pauck
Two
ninsh
nishuh
Three
nisswey
nishto
Fowr
neyoo
nayo
Five
nahran
nayahnun
Six
ningootwassoo
negoto ahsik
Seven
ninsbwassoo
toboocop
Eight
nisswassoo
ian^naon
Nine
shangasso
kagatemeta,tut
Ten
metassoo
(4.)
mitatat.
English.
Sheshatapoosh.
Skoffi.
Man
napew
nabouw
Woman
schquow
schow
Head
stoukoaau
oostookoohan
Hair
peeshquahan
teepishquoouhn
Tomjue
tellenee
eelayleenee
Tooth
mepeethex
weeeepich
Hand
teekechee
mestichee
Feet
neeshetch
meshetch
Sky
washeshquaw
walk
Sum,
beshung
beeshoon
Moon
toposhabeshung
teepeeshowbeshum
Star
johokata
woochahaykatak
Day
jeeshekere
jeeshekow
Night
tapishkow
tapishkakow
Fire
schootoo
schkootow
Water
Tiepeee
nepee
Stone
ashenee
ashenee
Tree
mistookooah
meshtooquah.
ALGONKIN LANGUAGES.
451
(5.)
English .
Micmac.
Etchemin.
Abenaki
Man
tchinem
oskitap
seenanbe
Woman
epit
apet
phanien
Head
wnidgik
neneagan
metep
Hair
nepiesitmar
Ear
hadougan
chalkse
netajtakw {my)
Eye
poMOgul
n'siscol
tsesiktt
Nose
ucHckun
niton
kitan
MoiUh
neswone
nedun \my)
Tongue
willenonk
nyllal
mirasu
Teeth
uabidul
nepit
ffand
kpiten
petin
nezetsi {my)
Foot
Mkkitat
n'sit
nesit
Sh/
mooshkoon
tnmoga
kisukn
Sun
nakauget
asptaiasait
kuus
Moon
topanakoushet
kisos
ki.soQs
Star
kmaaokoonich
psaisam
uataue89»
Day
naakok
kisnok
kizeuku
Night
pisTikeeaukli
kizt/kw
Fire
bukteu
sknt
skutai
Water
chabngnan
somaqnone
nabi
Stone
kundau
panapsqa
nimangan naz
Tree
neepeejeesh
apas
abassi
I
nU
nel
Thou
kU
He
negeum
wurt
One
nest
naiget
pezeku
Two
talu
nes
niffl
Three
chicht
niM
nass
Four
new
iew
Five
nan
itftne
bareneshu
Six
achigopt
gamatchine
negudans
Seven
atumoguenok
alohegannak
tanbauans
Eight
sgomolchit
okemulcliine
ntsansek
Nine
pechkunadck
asquenandake
nwriwi
Ten
ptolu
neqdensk
mtara.
(6.)
English.
Minsi.
Nanticot.
llohikan.
Man
lenni
wohacki
neemanaoo
Woman
ochqueu
acqnahiqne
p'ghainoom
Head
wilustican
nnlahammoa (the)
weensis {his)
Hair
weicheken
nee-eesqnat
weghankun
Eye
wichtawah
nucksskeneeqnat
nkeesqnan {his
Nose
wuschginqnal
nickskeen
okewon
Tongue
wichkiwon
neeannow
Mouth
w'doon
huntowey
otonn
G
G 2
452
ALGONKIN LANGUAGES.
English.
Minsi.
Nanticok.
Mohikan,
Tooth
wichput
neeput
wepeeton
Hand
wanachk
nuluutz
oaniskafi
Foot
wichyat
nist
ussutin
Sun
gischuck
aquiquaqueahquak keesogh
Moon
nipahump atupquonihauqut
i nepauhauck
Star
alank
pumioije
anauquanth.
Day
gieschku
nucotucquon
waukaumauw
Night
tpocLeu
toopquow
fpochk
Fire
tendei
nip
stauw
Water
ruby
pa,Tnptuckquah
thocknaun
Stone
achsum
kawscup
thaunaumku
Tree
michtuk
peluicque
(7.)
machtok.
English.
Massachusetts.
Narragansetts.
Man
wosketomp
nnin
Woman
mittamwosses
squaws
Head
puhkuk
uppaquontup
Hair
meesunk
wesheck
Ear
wehtauog
wuttowwug
Eye
wuskesuk
wuskeesuck
Nose
•vfutch
Mouth
nuttoon
wuttone
Tongue
meenannoh
weenat
Tooth
meepit
wepit
Hand
nutcheg
wunnicheke
Foot
wosseet
wussette
Sky
kesak
keesuck
Sun
nepauz
nippawuz
Moon
nepaushat
manepaustat
Star
annogs
anockgus
Day
kesukod
wompau
Night
nukon
tuppaco
Fire
nootai
squtta
Watei-
nippe
nip
Tree
mehtug
mintuck
J
neen
neen
Thm
ken
keen
He
noh
(8.)
ewo.
English. Miami
Iliuois. Sauki.
Shawni.
Man hetaniah
inim neneo
ileni
Woman metamsah
ickoe kwyokih
equiwa
Head indepekoneh
wupip wesM
weelekeh
Hair nelissah
nississah nenossoueh
welathoh
Ear tawakeh
nittagai nektowakye
'my) towakah
ALGONKIN LANGUAGES.
453
English.
Miami.
Iliuois.
Sauki.
Shawni.
Eye
keshekweh
isckengicon
neskishekwih
skisseeqwa
Nose
kekiwaneh
nekkiwanuek
ochali
Mouth
lonenneh
wektoneh
Tongue
wehlaneh
wilei
nennaneveli
weelinwie
Teeth
weepitah
nepitan
weepeetalee (A*»
Hand
oneksah
nich
nepak umetcheh
niligie
Feet
katah
■wissit
nckatcheh (?)
kn^e
Shy
kesheweh
kisik
apemekeh
menquotwe
Sun
kisipol
kejessoah
kesathwa
I tepethaka-
kesathwa
Moon
kesis
tepakeeskejes
Star
alangwa
rangkhoa
anakwakeh
alagwa {pi.)
Bay
wasekhe
kisik
keeshekeh
keeshqna
Night
pikkuntahkewe peckonteig
tapakeh
tepechke
Pin
kohteweh
scotte
eskwatah
scoote
Water
nepeh
nipi
neppi
neppee
Stone
saaneh
asenneh
Tree
mistaakack
toaaane
namateh
meteqneghke (pi.)
I
neelah
nira
iieenah (me)
nelah
Thou
keelah
kira
kelah
He
weelah
onira
■welah.
The Bethuck is the native lancmaore of Newfoundland.
In 1846, the collation of a Bethuck vocabulary enabled
me to state that the language of the extinct, or doubt-
fully extant, aborigines of that island was akin to those
of the ordinary American Indians rather than to the
Eskimo ; further investigation showing that, of the or-
dinary American languages, it was Algonkin rather than
aught else.
A sample of the evidence of this is to be found in the
following table ; a table formed, not upon the coUation
of the whole MS., but only upon the more important
words contained in it.
English, son.
Bethuck, viageraguis.
Cree, equssis.
Ojibbeway, ningwisis
negwis
Ottawa, l-wis.
Micmac, unquece.
Pasamaquoddy, n'kos.
=my sou.
Narragensetts, nummuckiese = my
son.
Delaware, ^iMau=Ius son.
Miami, aJainssima.
ungwissah.
Shawnee, hoisso.
Sack and Fox, nekwessa.
Menomeni, nekeeah.
454
THE BETHUCK
English, girl.
Bethuck, woaseesh.
Cree, squaisis.
Ojibbeway, eJcwaizais.
Ottawa, aquesens.
Old Algonkin, iclcwessen.
Sheshatapoosh, squaslmh.
Passamaquoddy, pehquasis.
Narragansetts, squasese.
Montaug, squasses.
Sack & Fox, sJcivessah.
Cree, awdsis^ child.
Sheshatapoosli, awash = child.
English, mouth.
Bethuck, mamadthun.
Nanticoke, mettoon.
Massachusetts, miUtoori:
Narragansetts, wuttoon.
Penobscott, madoon.
Acadcan, meton.
Micmac, toon.
Abenaki, ootoon,
English, nose.
Bethuck, gheen.
Miami, keouane.
English, teeth.
Bethuck, hocbodza.
Micmac, neebeet.
Abenaki, neebeet.
English, hand.
Bethuck, maemed.
Micmac, paeteen,
Abenaki, mpateen.
English, ear.
Bethuck, mootchiman.
Micmac, mootooween.
Abenaki, nootawee.
English, smoke.
Bethuck, bassdiJc.
Abenaki, ettoodahe.
English, oil.
Bethuck, emet.
Micmac, memaye.
Abenaki, pemmee.
English, Sun.
Bethuck, keiise.
Cree, &c., kisis.
Abenaki, kesus,
Mohican, kesogh.
Delaware, gishukh.
Illinois, kisipol.
Shawnoe, kesathwa.
Sack & Fox, kejessoah.
Menomeni, kaysho.
Passamaquoddy, kisos =moon.
Abenaki, kisus = moon.
Cree, kesec&w = day.
Ojibbeway, kijik=day and light.
Ottawa, kijik=do.
Abenaki, kiseoukou=do.
Delaware, gies?iku = do.
Illinois, hisik = do.
Shawnoe, heeshqua = do.
Sack & Fox, keeshekeh=do.
English, fire.
Bethuck, boobeeshawt.
Cree, esquitti, scoviay.
Ojibbeway, ishkodai, skootae.
Ottawa, asJikote.
Old Algonkin, skootay.
Sheshatapoosh, schootay.
Passamaquoddy, skeet.
Abenaki, skoutai.
Massachusetts, squitta.
Narragansetts, squtta.
English, white.
Bethuck, wobee.
Cree, wabisca.
wapishkawo,
Ojibbeway, wawbishkaw.
wawbizze.
Old Algonkin, wabi.
Sheshatapoosh, wahpou.
Micmac, ouabeg, wabeck.
Mountaineer, toapsiou.
Passamaquoddy, wapiyo.
Abenaki, wanbighenour.
wanbegan.
Massachusetts, wonipi.
Narragansetts, wompesu.
Mohican, waupaaeck.
OP NEWFOUNDLAND.
455
Montaug, tcampayo.
Delaware, ^cape, wapsu, waptit.
Nanticoke, waitppauyu.
Miami, wapelcinggek.
Shawnoe, opee.
Sack k, Fox, wapeskayah.
Menomeni, inaubinh ieewah.
English, black,
Bethuck, mandzey.
Ojibbeway, muhlcudaiwa.
Ottawa, mackateh.
Narragansetts, m&wesu.
MassadiTUietts, mooi.
English, house.
Bethuck, meeooticTc.
Narragansetts, icetu.
English, shoe.
Bethuck, niiostn.
Abenaki, mlcessen.
English, snow.
Bethuck, kaasussabook.
Cree, 8a«6!^M»=hail.
Ojibbeway, saisaigan.
Sheshatapoosb, shashaygan.
English, speak.
Bethuck, ieroothack.
Taculli, yaltuck.
Cree, athemetakcouse.
Wyandot, atakea.
English, yes.
Bethuck, yeathun,
Cree, ahhah.
Fassamaquoddy, netek.
English, no.
Bethuck, neicin.
Cree, namaw.
Ojibbeway, kavnne,
Ottawa, kauween
English, hatchet.
Bethuck, dthoonanyen.
Taculli, thynle.
English, knife.
Bethuck, eeiccuen.
Micmac, uagan.
English, bad.
Bethuck, muddy.
Cree, myaton.
Ojibbeway, monadud.
mudji.
Ottawa, matcke.
Micmac, matoualkr.
MastBxAusetts, matche.
Niirragansetts, matchit.
Mohican, matchit.
Montaug, mattateayah,
Montaug, muttadeeaco.
Delaware, makhtitsu.
Nanticoke, mattik.
Sack & Fox, motchie.
maichatkie.
The Shyeniie language was suspected to be Algonkin
at the publication of i]ie A rchceologia Americana. In a
treaty made between the United States and the Shyenne
Indians in 1825, the names of the chiefe who signed
were either Sioux, or siomifieant in the Sioux langruaore.
It was not unreasonable to consider this as prima -facie
evidence of the Shyenne tongue itself being Sioux.
Nevertheless, there were some decided statements in the
way of external evidence in another direction. There
was the special evidence of a gentleman weU-acquainted
456
THE 8HYENNE
with the fact that the names of the treaty, so significant
in the Sioux language, were only translations from the
proper Shyenne, there having been no Shyenne inter-
preter at the drawing-up of the document. What then
was the true Shyenne ? A vocabulary of Lieut. Abert's
settled this as far as the numerals went. Afterwards a
full vocabulary, collated by Gallatin, gave the contem-
plated result : — " Out of forty-seven Shyenne words for
which we have equivalents in other languages, there are
thirteen which are indubitably Algonkin, and twenty-
five which have affinities more or less remote with some
of the languages of that family."*
English. Arapalio. Other Algonkin Languages.-
Man enanetah enainneew, Menomeni.
Father, my nasonnah nosa\r, Miami.
Mother, my nanah nekeah, 3fenomeni.
Husband, my nash nah, Shyenne.
Son, my naah nah, Shyenne.
nikwi^AaA, Shawnee.
Daughter, my nahtahnah netawnah, Miami.
Brother, my nasisthsah nesawsah, Miami.
Sister, my naecahtaiali nekoshaymank, Menomeni.
Indian enenitah ah wainhukai, Delaware.
Eye mishishi maishkayshaik, Menomeni.
Mouth netti may tone, Menomeni.
Tongue nathun wilano, Delaware.
Tooth veathtah wi pit, Delaware.
Beard vasesanon witonahi, Delaware.
Back nerkorbah pawkawniema, Miami.
Hand machetun olatshi, Shawnee.
Foot nauthauitah ozit, Delaware.
Bone hahunnah ohkonne, Menomeni.
Heart battah maytah, Menomeni.
Blood bahe mainhki, Menomeni.
Sinew anita oh tab, Menomeni.
Flesh wonnunyah weensama, Miami.
Skin tahyatch xais, Delaware.
Town haitan otainahe, Delaioare.
Door tichunwa kwawntame, Miami.
Sun . nishi-ish kayshoh, Menomeni.
Star ahthah allaugwh, Delaware.
* Transactions of the American Ethnological Society, vol. ii. p. cxi. 1848.
AND
ARAPAHO. 4
English.
Arapaha
other Algonkin Langnaf^.
Day
ishi
kishko, Delaware.
Autumn
t-aliniii
tahkoxko, Delaware.
Wind
assissi
kaishxing, Delaware.
Fire
ishshitta
ishkotawi, Menomeni.
Water
nutch
nape, Miami.
Ice
wahhu
mainquoift, Menomeni.
Mountain
ahhi
wahchiwi, Shawnee.
Hot
hastah
ksita, Shawnee.
He
enan
enaw, Miami.
waynanh, Menomeni.
That {in)
hinnali
aynaih, Menomeni.
Who
Tinnatiah
ahwahnay, Menomeni,
No
chinnani
kawn, Menomeni.
Eat
menitisi
mitishin, Menomeni.
Brink
bannah
maynaan, Menomeni.
Kill
nanaiut
o^-nainhaiay, Menomeni
457
Arapaho is the name of a tribe in Kansas ; occu-
pant of a district in immediate contact with the Shyenne
country.
But the Shyennes are no indigencB to Kansas. Nei-
ther are the Arapahos. The so-called Fall Indians, of
whose language we have long had a very short trader's
vocabulary in Umfreville, are named from their occu-
pancy, which is on the Falls of the Saskatshewan. The
Nehethewa, or Crees, of their neighbourhood call them
so. Another name is Big-belly, in French Gros ventre.
This has given rise to some confusion ; Gros-venire being
a name given to the Minetari of the Yellow-stone Kiver,
who belong to the Sioux family. Not so the Gros-
ventres of the Falls. Adelung remarked that some of
their words had an affinity with the Algonkin. Um-
freville's vocabulary was too short for anything but the
most general purposes and the most cautious of sugges-
tions. It was, however, for a long time the only one
known. The next to it, in the order of time, was one
in MS., belonging to Gallatin, but which was seen by Dr.
Pri chard and collated by the present writer. His en-
quii'ies were simply to the effect that the language had cer-
tain miscellaneous affinities. A vocabulary in Schoolcraft
458
THE SIOUX LANGUAGES.
tells us more ; viz. not only that the Arapaho language
is the same as the Fall Indian of Umfreville, but that it
has definite and preponderating affinities with the Shy-
enne, and, through it, with the Algonkin class in gene-
ral, especially jv^ith the Menomeni.
English.
Arapalio.
Shyenne.
Scalp
mithash
metake
Tongue
nathun
vetunno
Tooth
veathtah
veisike
Beard
vasesanon
meatsa
Hand
mahclietun
maharts
Blood
bahe
mahe
Sinew
anita
antikah
Heart
battah
estah
Mouth
nettee
marthe
Girl
issaha
xsa
Husband
nash
nah
Son
naah
nah
Daughter
nahtahnah
nahtcli
One
chassah
nuke
Two
neis
neguth
Three
nas
nahe
Four
yeane
nave
Five
yorthun
noane
Six
nitahter
nahsato
Seven
nisorter
nisoto
Eight
nahsorter
nahnoto
Nine
siautah
soto
Ten
mahtahtah
malitoto.
The Sioux, second in respect to the magnitude of its
area to the Algonkin only, lies west and south, rather
than east or north, and belongs to the prairie States,
rather than to those of the sea-board.
Sioux vocabularies.
(«.)
English.
Mandan.
Crow.
God
mahhopeneta
sakahbocatta
Sun
menakha
a'hhhiza
Moon
esto menakha
minnatatcbe
Stars
h'kaka
ekieu
Rain
h'kalioost
hannab
THE SIOUX LANGUAGES.
459
£nglish.
Mandan.
Crow.
Snow
copcaze
makkonpah (hail)
River
pass&hah
ahesu
Day
hampah
maapah
Night
estogr
oche
Dark
hampaheriskah
chippusheka
Light
edayhush
thieshe
Woman
meha
meyakatte
Wife
moorse
moah
Child
sookhomaha
bakkatte
Girl
sookmeha
meyakatte
Boy
sooknamohk
shakkatte
Head
pan
marsh aa
Legs
doka
buchoope
Eyes
estume
meishta
Movih
ea
ea
Nose
pahoo
buppa
Face
estah
esa
Ears
nakoha
uppa
Hand
onka
buscMe
Fittgers
onkaha
buscbie
Foot
sbee
busche
Hair
hahliee
masbeah
Canoe
menanko
mabesbe
Fii.h
poh
booah
Bear
mahto
dnhpitsa
Wolf
haratta
chata
Dog
mones waroota
biska
Buffalo
ptemday
biflha
Elk
omepah
eitchericazzse
Deer
mahmanacoo
ohha
Beaver
warrappa
biruppe
Shoe
hoompah
boompe
Bow
warraenoopah
bistuheeah
Arroio
mahha
ahnailz
Pipe
ehndka
ompsa
Tobacco
mannasha
hopa
Good
shnsha
itsicka
Bad
k'hecnsh
kubbeek
Hot
dsasosh
abre
Cold
ahineehosb
hootshere
I
me
be
Thou
ne
de
He
e
na
We
noo
bero
They
eonah
mihah
One
mahhannah
amatcat
Tvro
nompah
noomcat
460
THE SIOUX LANGUAGES.
English.
Mandan.
Crow.
Three
namary
namenacat
Fov/r
tohha
shopecat
Five
kakhoo
chihhocat
Six
kemah
ahcamacat
Seven
koopah
sappoah
Eight
tatucka
noompape
Nine
mahpa
ahmuttappe
Ten
perug
perakuk.
(2.)
English.
Yankton.
Winebago.
Dahcota.
Osage.
Man
weechasha
wongahah
weetshahsktah
neka
Woman
weeah
nogahah
weenowkhindgah wako
Father
atcucu
chahchikal
atag
indajah
Mother
hucoo
chahcheekah
eenah
enauah
Son
cheecheeteoo
eeneek
S meetshingkshee ) . . , v
i (my) j weesiimga (my)
Daughter weetachnong
heenuhk'hahhah
meetshoongksbee
Head
pah
nahsuhhah
pah
watatereh
Hair
pah a
pahkee
pauha
Ear
nougkopa
nahchahwahhah
pohe
naughta
Eye
ishtah
ischuhsuhhah
ishta
eghtaugh
Nose
pasoo
pahhah
poaghay
pau
Mouth
e-e-e
eehah
ea
ehaugh
Tongue
chaidzhee
dehzeehah
tshayzhee
Teeth
hee
Hand
napai
nahbeehah
nahmpay
numba
Fingers
Dapchoopai
naap
shake
shagah
Feet
ceeha
seehah
seehah
see (sing.)
Blood
uoai
waheehah
wey
House
teepee
cheehah
tea
t,ia,h
Axe
mahs
on spa (axe)
Knife
meena
mahhee
eesahng
mauah
Shoes
waukootshey [sing.
) hanipa (sing.)
analahah
Sky
mahkheehah
mahkpeea
mahagh
Sun
ooaee
'haunip {day), )
[ weeah (sun) J
• weeahnipayatoc
S haunip (day), weerah
( meah (sun)
Moon
hayaitoowee
(hahnip (night),
\ weehah (sun) '.
weehyayahatoo
( hanip (night), weerah-
I meumboh (san)
Star
weehchahpee
( weehah (sun) i
< kohshkeh (sus- !
( pended) ]
1
• weeweetheestin
1
\ weerah (sun), kohshkeh,
) (susx>ended)
Day
aungpa
hauinpeehah
anipa
hompahe
Night
hahaipee
hiyetoo
bene
Fire
paita
pegdhah
paytah
pajah
Water
meenee
nihah
minee
neah
THE SIOUX LANGUAGES
461
English. Yankton.
Winehago.
Dahcota.
Osage.
Rain
mahajou
neezhuh
magazhoo
neighshee
Snow
wah
wuhhah
tahtey
paa
Earth
mongca
mah'nan
mahkah
monekah
River
vacopa
ohsunwah
watapafl
wauchiscah
Stone
eeyong
eenee
ceang
Tree
chaongeena
nahnan
tschang
Meat
tado
chahhah
tando
tandocah
Bog
saonka
chohnkeehah
shoomendokah
shongah
Beaver chapa
nahapah
tschawjxah
shabah
Bear
wahunkcaiceecha
wauhungkseetshah wasauba
Bird
zeecanoo
wahnigohhah
zitka
Fish
hohnng
hohhah
hoa-ahug
hough
Great
txingkah
grondah
Cold
snee
seeneehee
snee
nabatcha
White
scah
skah
skah
skah
Black
sapah
sebhah
sahpah
saabah
Red
shah
shoosh
shah
shngah
I
neeah
meeah
veca
Thou
ney
neeah
deea
He
neeah
eeah
aar
One
wanche
jnngklhkh
wajitah
minche
Two
nopa
nompiwi
nompah
nombangh
Three
yameenee
tanniwi
yahmani
laubenah
Four
topah
tsh5plwi
topah
tobah
Five
zapta
sahtshkh
zahpate
sattah
Six
shakpai
ahkewe
shakkopl
shapah
Seven
shakoee
shahko
shahkopi
panompah
Eight
shakundohuh
a-oo-ongk
shahundohah
kelatobaugh
Nine
r nuhpeet chee-
( wungkuh
y jungkitshooshkooiii
noptshi wonghah
shankah
Ten
week cheeminuh
•
kahapahnl
(3.)
wiketshimani
krabra.
English.
Omaha.
HinetaTi
Man
noo
mattra
Womati
waoo
meeyai
Father
dadai
tantai
Mother
eehong
fieka
Son
ee jinggai
mooarishai
Daughter
ee jonggai
macath
Head
pah
antoo
Hair
pahee
arra
Ear
neetah
lahockee
Eye
ishtah
ishtah
Nose
pah
apah
Mouth
cehah
ee-ee-eepchappah
462
THE SIOUX LANGUAGES.
English.
Omaha.
Minetari.
Tongue
theysee
neigh jee
Teeth
e-e-e- {sing.)
ee-ee
Hand
nomba
sbantee
Fingers
shagai
shanteeichpoo
Feet
see {sing,)
itsee
Blood
wamee
eehree
House
tee
atee
Axe
mazzapai
wee - eepsailangai
Knife
mahee
matzee
Shoes
opah
Sun
meenacajai
mahpemeenee
Moon
meeombah
ohseamene
Star
meecaai
eekah
Day
ombah
mahpaih
Night
hondai
ohseeus
Fire
paidai
beerais
Water
nee
meenee
Rain
naunshee
harai
Snow
mah
mahpai
Earth
moneeka
amah
River
watishka
angee
Stone
ee-eeh
mee-ee
Tree
herabaimee
beeraiechtoet
Meat
tanoka
cuructschittee
Dog
sheenoota
matshuga
Bear
jabai
meerapa
Beaver
wassabai
lahpeetzee
Bird
washingguh
sa<!anga
Fish
hohoo
boa
Cold
snee
ceereeai
White
ska
hoteechkee
Black
sahbai
shupeesha
Red
jeedai
ishshee
I
mee-ee
He
nee
One
meeachchee
lemoisso
Two
nomba
noopah
Three
rabeenee
namee
Fowr
tooba
topah
Five
satta
cheehoh
Six
shappai
acamai
Seven
painumba
chappo
Eight
hrairabainai
nopuppee
Nine
sbonka
nowassappai
Ten
kraibaira
peeragas.
TUE IROQUOIS LANGUAGES.
463
The Iroquois falls into a northern and a southern
division, separated from one another by a mass of appa-
rently intrusive Algonkin.
(1.)
English.
Mohawk.
Caynga.
Tascarora.
Nottoway.
Man
oonqnich
najina
aineehau
eniha
Woman
ooonhechlien
konh^htie
aitsranychkaneaweah ekening
Head
anoonjee
onowaa
ohtahreh
setarake
Hair
oonooquiss
ononkia
oowaara
howerac
Ear
wahanchta
honta
othnlmeh
suntunke (pi.)
Eye
ookoria
okaghha
ookawreh
ankohaiac (pi.)
Nose
geneuchsa
onyohsia
ohtchynhsay
oteusag
Moidh
wachsacarlunt sishakaent
oskawruhweigli
eskaharant
Tongue
oonachsa
aweanaghsa
auwrmtawsay
darsunke
Tooth
cuhnoojali
onojia
otoatseh
olosag {pL)
Hand
oochsoochta
eshoghtage
ohekneh
nunke
Foot
oochsheeta
oshita (sing.)
Qhseh (sing.)
saseeke
Sun
kelanquaw
kaaghkwa
heetay
abeeta
Moon
kilanquaw
soheghkakaaghkwa heetay
tethrake
Star
cajestuck
ojishonda
otcheesnoohquay
deeshu
Day
wawde
onisrate
anwehneh
antyeke (lime)
Night
aghsonthea
asohe
oosottoo
asunta (time)
Fire
ocheerle
ojista
stire
auteur
Water
oochnecanos
onikanos
auwuh
awwa
Stme
oonoyah
kaskwa
owmniiay
ohhoatakh
Tree
kerlitte
krael
oughruheli
geree
Fiih
keiyunk
otsionda
kohtchyah
kaiunta
I
ni
I
ie
ee
Thou
esse
ise
tsthanwoh
Ht
longwha
aoha
hearooh
One
oohskot
skat
enhche (R. )
ante
Two
tekkinih
tekni
nakte(E.)
dekanee
Three
ohson
segh
ahsnnk (R.)
arsa
Four
kupyayrelih
kei
kuntoh (R.)
hentag
Five
wissk
wis
weesk (R.)
whisk
Six
yahyook
yei
oohyok (R.)
oyag
Seven
chahtakh
jatak
cheohnoh (R.)
ohatag
Eight
soytayhhko
tekro
nakreuh (R.)
dekra
Nine
tihooton
tyohto
nereuh (R.)
deheerunk
Ten
weeaykrleh
waghsea
wahth'sunk (R.)
washa.
464
THE IROQUOIS LANGUAGES.
(2.)
English.
Wyandot.
English.
Wyandot.
Ood
tamaindezue
Fingers
eyingia
Wiched Spirit
deghshurenoh
Nails
ohetta
Man
aingahon
Body
Woman
utehkeh
Belly
undeerentoh
Boy
omaintsentehah
Feet
oclislieetau
Girl
yaweetseutho
Bone
onna
Infant, child
cheahhah
Heart
yootooshaw
Father.
hayesta
Blood
ingoh
Mother
aneheh
Town, village
onhaiy
Wife
azuttunohoh
Warrior
trezue (war)
Son
hoomekaxik (Jds)
Friend
nidanbe (brother)
Daughter
ondequieu
House, hut
nematzezue
Brother
haenyeha (my)
Kettle
yayanetch
Sister
aenyaha
Axe, hatchet
ottoyaye (axe)
An Indian
iomwhen (pi.)
Knife
weneashra
Head
skotau
Canoe, boat
gya
Hair
arochia
Indian shoes
araghshu
Face
aonchia
Bread
datarali
Forehead
ayeutsa
Sky, heaven.
caghroniate
Ear
hoontauh
Sun
yaandeshra
Eye
yochquiendoch
Moon
waughsuntayandeshra
Nose
yaungah
Star
teghshu (pi.)
Mouth
esskauhereeh
Day
ourheuha
Tongue
undauchsheeau
Night
asontey
Tooth
uskoonsheeau (jpl.
Morning
asonravoy
Beard
ochquieroot
Evening
teteinret
NecJe
ohoura
Spring
honeraquey.
Hand
yorreessaw
(3)
English.
Onondago.
Seneca.
Oueida.
Man
etshinak
unguoh
loonkquee
Woman
echro
yehong
acunhaiti
Head
anuwara
oonooen
onoonjee
Hair
onuchquire
onunkaah
onanquis
Ear
ohucta
waunchta (pi.)
ohuntah
Eye
ogaclira
kaka
ohkunlau
( onoo-oohsahonoo-ooh
I sah
Nose
oniochsa
cagonda
Mouth
ixhagachrahuta
wachsagaint
yesaook
Tongue
enachse
wanuchsha
ow-inaughsoo
Tooth
onotschia
kaunujow
onouweelah
Hand
luiages
liashrookta
snusagh
Feet
ochsita
oochsheeta (sing.)
Sky
tioarate
kiunyage
ochsheecht
THE IROQUOIS LANGUAGES.
465
English.
Onondago.
Seneca.
Oneida.
Sun
garachqua
kachqua
escalter
Moon
garachqua
kachgua
konwausontegeak (?)
Star
otschischtenocqua
cajeshanda
yoojistoqna
Day
wochuta
unde
weeneeslaat
Night
achsonta
nehsoha
kawwossonneak
Fire
otschischta
ojishta
ojisthteh
Water
ochnecanos
onekandas
oghnacaano
Stone
onaja
cosgna
Tree
garonta
kaeet
I
I
ee
Thou
his
ees
He
rauh
ahwha
One
skata
skaat
knskat
Two
tekinu
ticknee
teghia
Three
achso
shegh
hasin
Four
gajeri
kaee
cayeli
Five
■wisk
wish
haisse
Six
achiak
yaee
yahiac
Seven
tsoatak
jawdock
tziadac
Eight
tekiro
tikkeugh
tagheto
Nine
watiro
teutough
wadehlo
Ten
wasshe
wushagh
woyehlL
The Woccon and Cataivba are two languages of the
same group, spoken in
North
Carolina ; and they are
the only two languages
of that State,
for which we have
specimens
— both short.
English.
Catawba.*
English.
Catawba.
Man
yabrecha
Feet
hepapeeah
Woman
eeyauh
Blood
eeh
Father
yalunosa
Sotue
sook
Mother
yasca
Axe
pot-tateerawah
Son
koorewa
Knife
seepah
Daughter enewah
Shoe
weedah
Head
iska
Shy
wahpeeh
Hair
gitlung
Sun
nooteeh
Eye
doxu
Moon
weechawanooteeh
Ear
peetooh
Star
wahpeeknee
Nose
eepeesooh
Day
yahbra
Mouth
esomo
Night
weechawa
Tongue
peesoomoseh
Fire
epee
Tooth
heeaup
Water
eyau
Hand
ecksapeeah
Rain
cooksoreh
Finger
eekseeah
Snow
wauh
* Slightly more akin to the Cherokee, and the Uchee, on the one side and
the Sionx dialects on the other, than aught else.
H H
466
5
THE CATAWBA.
English.
Catawba.
English.
Catawha.
Earth
munn
/
derail
River
esauh
Thou
yayah
Stone
eedee
He
ouwah
Tree
yup
One
dupunna
Meal
weedeeyoyundee
Two
naperra
Dog
tauntsee
Three
namunda
Beaver
chaupee
Four
purrepurra
Bear
nomeh
Five
puhte-arra
Bird
koching
Six
dip-karra
Fish
yee
Seven
wassinen
Great
paukteherd
Fight
tubbosa
Cold
chehuhchard
Nine
wunchah
White
saukchuh
Ten
pechuna.
Blade
haukchuh
The old languages of the Carolinas, Georgia, and
Florida were —
1. The Wataree.*
2. The Eeno — Compare this name with the
Texiau Ini ;
3. The Chowah, or Chowan ;
The Congaree ; *
The Nachee — Compare with Natchez ; word
4.
5.
for word
6.
7.
The Yamassee ;
The Coosah — Compare (word for word) with
Coosada, and Coshatta.
In the south lay the Timuacana — of which a few
words beyond the numerals are known.
In West Florida and Alabama, the evidence (I still
follow the Mithridates) of Du Pratz scarcely coincides
with that of the account of Nunez de Vaca. This
runs thus.
In the island of Malhado were spoken languages of
1 . The Caoques ;
2. The Han.
On the coast —
3. The Choruico — Cherokee ?
The name Riccarec, probably, belongs to these parts.
THE CHEROKEE. 467
4. The Doguenes.
5. The Mendica.
6. The Quevenes.
7. The Mariames.
8. The Gualciones.
9. The Ygiiaces.
1 0. The Atayos — ^Adahi ? This seems to have been
a native name — " die sich Atayos Tiennen"
1 1 . The Acubadaos.
] 2. The Quitoles.
13. The Avavares — Avoyelles?
] 4. The Muliacone.
1 5. The Cutalchiche.
1 6. The Susola.
1 7. The Como.
18. The Camole.
Of migrants from the east to the west side of the
Mississippi, the Mithridates gives —
1. The Pacana, conterminous with the Attacapas.
2. The Pascagula ? Muscogulge.
3. The Biluxi ? Apalach.
4. The Appalach ? Apelousa.
The Taensa are stated to be a branch of the Natchez.
The Caouitas are, perhaps, word for word, the Con-
chattas ; also the Coosa, Coosada, Coshatta.
The Stincards are, word for word, the Tancards =
Tuncas = Tunicas.
The CJierokee is spoken, at the present moment, by
more individuals than any other Indian tongue. Many
of the Cherokees have taken up a portion of the Ameri-
can civilization ; cultivate land, hold slaves, and increase
in numbers. The language is also spoken by many
who are other than Cherokee in blood. It is written,
and that in a syllabic alphabet, excogitated by a native
Cherokee, in Africa, named Sequoyah, or Guess. Like the
H H 2
468
THE CHEROKEE.
Vei, however, it is no evidence to the truly indigenous
independent growth of an alphabet. Guess knew the
English alphabet, i. e. he knew that languages could be
reduced to writing, and the principles on which an alpha-
bet could be formed. In this lies the real invention of
an alphabet ; an invention which the present writer
maintains has only been made once.
English.
Cherokee,
Chocktaw.*
Muskogulge (or Creek).
Man
askaya
hottok nokni
istahouanuah
Woman
ageyung
kottok ohyo
hoktie
Mead
askaw
nushkobo
ikah
Sair
gitlung
panshe (his)
isti
Ea/r
gule
hoksibbsh
huchko
Eye
tikata
mishkin
tolltlowah
Nose
koyoungsahli (my)
iMchulo
yopo
Mouth
tsiawli
ishtS
chaknoh
Tongue
gahnohgah
issunldsh
tolasoah
Tooth
tetsinatutawgung (my)
notS
notte (pi.)
Sand
agwoeni (my)
ibbiik (his)
inkke
Feet
tsulahsedane (his)
iy6 (his)
eili (sing.)
Sun
nungdohegah
hashe
hahsie
Moon
nungdohsuflgnoyee
hushmunokaya
halhisie
Star
nawquisi
fichik
k6otso Isonibah
Day
ikah
nittok
nittah
Night
sungnoyee
ninnok
neillhi
Fire
atsilung
linok
totkah
Waier
ahmah
oka
wyvah
Stone
nungyah
.tiillS (metal stone)
1 chatto
Tree
uhduh
itte
Utah
Fish
atsatih
ntinfi
tlakklo
I
ayung
unno
unneh
Thou
ne
chishno
cbameh
He
naski
muh
One
saquoh
achofee
hommaye
Two
talee
tuklo
hokko
Three
tsawi
tuchina
toteheh
Fowr
nunggih
uslita
osteh
Five
hiskee
tablape
chahgkie
Six
soodallih
hanali
ebbah
Seven
gulgwaugih
untuklo
koolobah
Eight
tsunelah
untuchina
chinnabah
Nine
sohonhailah
chokali
ostabah
Ten
uhskohhih
pokoli
pahlen.
* The Chikkasah belongs to this division.
THE UCHEE, ETC.
469
English.
Uchee.*
Natchex.t
Adaihe.
Chetemacha.t
Man
cohwita
tomknhpena
haasing
pautchehase
Wiyman
wauhnehung
tahmahl
quaechxike
kithia
Father
chitung
abishnislia
kewanick
hineghie
Mother
kitchunghaing
kwalneshoo
amanie
bailie
Son
tesunung (my)
akwalnesuta
tallehennie
hicheyahanhase
Baughtertejunxmg (my)
mahnoonoo
quolasinic
hicheyabankithia
Head
ptzeotan
tomne apoo
tochake
kutte
Hair
ptsasong
etene
calatuck
kutteko
Ear
cohchipah
ipok
calat
urahache
Eye
cohchee
oktool
anaica
kane
Nose
cohtemee
shamats
wecoocat
chiche
Mouth
teaishhee
heche
wacatcholak
cha
Tongue
cootincah
itsuk
tenanat
huene
Tooth
tekeing
int
awat {pi.)
hi
Hand
keanthah
ispeshe
secut
Tinachiekaithie
Fingers
coonpah
okinsin (sing.) unache kitset
Beet
tetethah
hatpeshe {sing.)
nocat {sing.)
sauknnthe {sing.)
Blood
wace
itsh
pchack
unipe
Home
habit
coochut
hanan
Axe
ohyaminoo
Knife
eoutchee
pyhewTsh
Shoes
tethah
popatse
Sky
houpoung
nasookta
ganick
kabieketa
Sun
ptso
wah (Jire)
naleen
thiaha
Moon
shafah
kwasip
nachaoat
pantne
Star
ynng
tookul
otat
pacheta
Day
Qckkah
wit
nestach
wacbeta
Night
pahto
toowa
arestenet
timan
Kre
yachtah
wah
nang
teppe
Water
tsach
koon
holcut
ko
Rain
chaah
nasnayobik
ganic
kaya
Snow
stahae
kowa
towat
nactepeche
Earth
ptsah
wihih
caput
nelle
River
tauh
wol
gawichat
koneatiaeshe
Stone
ohk
ekseka
nonche
Tree
yah
tshoo
tanaek
conche
Meat
colahntha
wintse
hosing
kipi
Dog
ptsenah
waskkop
Beaver
sanikkeing
culawa
Bear
ptsaka
tso kohp
solang
hacnneche
Bird
psenna
shankolt
washang
thia
Fish
potshoo
henn
aesat
makche
Great
lehkip
tocat
hatekippe
Cold
tzitakopana
hostalga
kasteke
• Slightly more akin to the Catawba and Cherokee than aught else,
t Slightly more akin to each other and Muskogulge than aught else.
470
THE UCHEE, ETC.
English,
Uchee.
Natcliez.
Adailie.
Clietemacha.
White
quecah
hahap
testaga
mechetineche
Blach
ishpe
tsokokop
hatoua
nappechequineche
Red
tshulhuh
pahkop
pechasat
pinnoneche
I
'te
takehah
hicatuck
ntecheca
Thou
uhkehah
Titietmlii
He
coheetha
akoonikia {this
here) nassicon
hatche
One
sah
witahu
nancas
hongo
Two
nowah
ahwetie
nass
hupau
Three
nokah
nayetie
colle
kahitie
Four
taltlah
ganooetie
tacache
mechechant
Five
chwanhah
shpedee
seppacan
hussa
Six
chtoo
lahono
pacanancus
hatcka
Seven
latchoo
ukwoh
pacaness
micheta
EifjU
peefah
upkutepish
pacalcon
kueta
Nine
'tah'thkah
wedipkatepish
sickinish
knicheta
Ten
'tthklahpee
okwah
neusne
heihitie.
Allied one to another, the Pawni and Riccari are
Caddo languages.
English.
Pawni.
Eiccari.
Wonum
tsapat
sapat
Boy
peeshkee
weenatch
Oirl
tchoraksh
soonahtch
Child
peeron
pera
Head
pakshu
pahgli
Ears
atkaroo
tickokite
Eyes
keereekoo
cheereecoo
Hair
oshu
pahi
Hand
iksheeree
tehonare
Fingers
haspeet
parick
Foot
ashoo
ahgh
God
thouwahat
tewaroohteh
Devil
tsaheekshkakooraiwah
kakewaroohteh
Sun
shakoroo
shakoona
Fire
tateetoo
tekieeht
Moon
pa
wetah
Sta/rs
opeereet
saca
Rain
tatsooroo
tassou
Snow
toosba
tahhau
Day
shakoorooeesliairet
shacona
Night
eeraishnaitee
eenahgt
Light
shusheegat
shakoonah
Da/rTe
eeraisliuaite
tekatistat
Hot
toueetstoo
towarist
Cold
taipeechee
teepse
Yes
nawa
neecoola
No
kakee
kaka
THE PAWNI AND RICCARI.
471
^uglish.
PawnL
Riceail
Bear
koorooksh
keahya
Dog
ashakish
hohtch
Bow
teeragish
nache
Arrow
leekshoo
neeclie
Hut
akkaroo
arare
Canoe
lakohoroo
lahkeehoon
River
kattoosh
sahonnee
I
ta
nanto
One
askoo
aaco
Two
peetkoo
pitco
Three
tonweet
tow wit
Four
shkeetish
tcheetish
Five
sheeooksh
tcheetishoo
Six
sheekshabish
tcbeetishpis
Seven
peetkoosheeshabish
totchapis
Eight
touweetshabish
tochapiswon
Nine
looksbeereewa
totchapisnahhenewon
Ten
looksheeree
nahen
Twenty
petouoo
wetah
Thirty
luksheereevretouoo
sahwee
Hundred
sheekookshtaroo
shontan.
In a country like Texas, where the spread of the popu-
lation from the other portions of the Union has been so
rapid, and where the occupancy is so complete, we are
prepared to expect but a small proportion of aborigines.
And such, upon the whole, is the case. The displacement
of the Indian tribes has been great. Even, however, when
Mexican, Texas was not in the category of the older and
more original portions of Mexico. It was not brought
under the regime of the missionaries.
The notices of Texas in the M IthH dates, taken along
with om- subsequent data, are to the effect that («) the
Caddo, (b) the Adaize or Adahi, (c) the Attalapa, and
{d) the ChoMah are the prevailing languages of Texas ;
to which may be added a few others of minor import-
ance.
The details as to the distribution of the subordinate
forms of speech over these four leading languages are
as follows : —
a. The Nandakoes, Nabadaches, Alich (or Eyish), and
Ini or Tachi are expressly stated to be Caddo ; and, as
472 LANGUAGES OF TEXAS.
it is from the name of the last of these that the word
Texas is derived, we have satisfactory evidence that sojne
members, at least, of the Caddo family are truly and
originally Texian.
h. The Yatassi, Natchitoches, Adai^;^ (or AAoki),
Nacogdoches, and Keyes, belong to the Caddo confede-
racy, but without speaking the Caddo language.
c. The Carancouas, the Attacapas, the Apelusas, the
Mayes, speak dialects of the same language.
d. The Tunicas speak the same language as the Chok-
tahs.
Concerning the philology of the Washas, the Bedies,
the Acossesaws, and the Cances, no statements are made.
It is obvious that the information supplied by the
Mithridates is measured by the extent of our knowledge
of the four languages to which it refers.
Of these, the Choktah, which Adelung calls the Mo-
bilian, is the only one for which the Mithridates itself
supphes, or could supply, specimens ; the other three
being unrepresented by any sample whatever. Hence,
to say that the Tachi was Caddo, that the Yatassi was
Adahi, or that the Carancoua was Attacapa, was to give
an instance, in the way of explanation, of the obscurum
per ohscurius. Since the publication of the Mithri-
dates, however, we have got, as has been seen, samples
of three more — so that our standards of comparison
are improved. They are to be found in a tabulated
form, and in a form convenient for collation and com-
parison, in both of Gallatin's papers. They were all
collected before the annexation of Texas, and they
appear in the papers just referred to as Louisiana, rather
than truly Texian, languages ; being common to the two
areas.
The later the notice of Texas the greater the promi-
nence given to a tribe of which nothing is said in the
Mithridates, viz. the Cumanch. As late as 1844 we
had nothing beyond the numerals and a most scanty
LANGUAGES OP TEXAS. 473
MS. list of words to tell us what the Cumanch language
really was. These, however, were sufficient to show
that its affinities ran northwards, and were with the
Shoshoni.
The tendency of the Mithridates is to give prominence
to the Caddo, Attacapa, and Adahi tongues, and to in-
cline the investigator, when dealing with the other forms
of speech, to ask how fej they are connected with one
of these three. The tendency of the later writers
is to give prominence to the Cumanch, and to suggest
the question : How far is this (or that) form of speech
Cumanch or other than Cumanch ?
Working with the Mithridates, a MS. of Mr. Bol-
laert, and Mr. Kennedy's volume on Texas before me, I
find that the list of Texian Indians, which these authori-
ties jastified me in publishing in 1848, contained (I) Cos-
hattas ; (2) Towiachs, Towakenos, Towecas, and Wacos ;
(3) Lipans or Sipans ; (4?) Aliche or Eyish ; (5) Acosse-
saws ; (6) Navaosos ; (7) Mayes ; (8) Cances ; (9) Tonca-
huas ; (10) Tuhuktukis ; (11) Unataquas or Anadarcos;
(12) Mascovie ; (13) lawanis or lonis ; (14) Wico ?
Waco; (] 5) Avoyelles ; (1 6) Washitas ; (17) Ketchi;
(18) Xaramenes; (19) Caicaches ; (20) Bidias ; (21)
Caddo ; (22) Attacapa ; (23) Adahi — besides the Caran-
kahuas (of which the Cokes are made a branch) classed
with the Attacapa, and not including certain Cherokees,
Choktahs, Chikkasahs, and Sioux.
A Washita vocabulary, which will be referred to in
the sequel, concludes the list of Texian languages known
by specimens.
At present, then, the chief question respecting the
philology of Texas is one of distribution. Given as
centres to certain groups —
1 . The Choktah,
2. The Caddo,
3. Tlie Adahi,
4. The Attakapa,
474
LANGUAaES OF TEXAS.
5. The Cumanch, and
6. The Witshita languages,
how do we arrange the tribes just enumerated ? Two
works help us here : — 1. A letter from the Ex-president
Burnett to Schoolcraft on the Indians of Texas. Date,
1847. 2. A Statistical Notice of the same by Jesse
Stem. Date, 1851.
Stem's statistics run thus : —
Tnbes.
Numbers.
Towacarros lil )
Wacos .
114 [293
KetcMes
38)
Caddos
1611
Andarcos
202 [ 476
loai .
lis)
Tonkaways
1152
Wichitas
100
Lipans
500
Comanches ,
20,000
giving us several of the names that have already ap-
peared ; giving also great prominence to the Cumanches
— numerically at least.
In Mr. Burnett's Letter the term Caddo is prominent;
but whether it denote the Caddo language, or merely
the Caddo confederation, is uncertain. Neither can I
find from the context whether the statements respecting
the Indians of the Caddo connection, for this is what we
must call it at present, are made on the personal autho-
rity of the writer, or whether they are taken, either
directly or indirectly, from the MithHdates. The term
that Burnett used is stock, his statement being that the
Waco, the Tawacani, the Towiash, the Aynic, the San
Pedro Indians, the Nabaduches, and the Nacodocheets are
aU both Texian in origin and Caddo in stock.
His other tribes are —
1 . The Ketchi : a small tribe on Trinity River, hated by
the Cumanches as sorcerers, and, perhaps, the same as —
2. The Hitclii, once a distinct tribe, now assimilated
with their neighbours.
LANGUAGES OP TEXAS.
475
3. The Tonkaways, a separate tribe, of which, how-
ever, the distinctive characters are not stated.
Whatever may be the exact details of the languages,
dialects, and subdialects of Texas, the general outline is
simple.
The Choktah forms of speech are anything but native.
They are of foreign origin and recent introduction. So
are certain Sioux and other dialects spoken within the
Texian area.
The GuTnanch is in the same predicament ; though
not, perhaps, so decidedly. It belongs to the Paduca
class, and its affinities are with the Shoshoni and Wi-
hinast of Oregon.
The Caddo Proper is said to be intrusive, having
been introduced so late as 1819 from the parts between
the Great Eafb and the Natchitoches or Red River. I
hold, however, that some Caddo forms of speech must
be indigenous.
The Witshita is probably one of these ; —
English.
Caddo.
Witshita.
Head
cundo
etskase
Hair
beunno
deodske
Eye
nockkochim
kidahknck
Nose
80l
dutstistoe
Mouth
nowoese
hawkoo
Tongue
ockkotnnna
hutskee
Tooth
ockkodeta
awk
One
whiste
cherche
Two
bit
mitch
Three
dowoh
daab
Four
peaweh
dawquata
Five
dissickka
esqnats
Six
dunkkee
kehass
Seven
bissickka
keopits
Eight
dowsickka
keotope
Nine
pewesickka
shercheke ite
Ten
binnah
skedorash.
obably, also.
the following —
English.
Kichai.
Hneca
Man
caiuquanoquts
todekitz
Woman
chequoike
cahheie
476
LANGUAGES OP TEXAS.
English.
Kichai.
Hueco.
Head
quitatso
atskiestacat
Hair
itscoso
ishkesteatz
Pace
itscot
ichcoh
Ear
atikoroso
ortz
Eye
quideeco
kidik
Nose
chuscarao
tisk
Mouth
hokinnik
ahcok
Tongue
hahtok
hotz
Tooth
athnesho
ahtk
Hand
ichshene
ishk'ti
Foot
usinic
OS
Fire
yecenieto
hatz
Water
kiokoh
kitsah
One
arishco
cheos
Two
chosho
witz
Three
tahwithco
tow
Fov/r
kithnucote
taliqultz
Five
xs'toweo
ishquitz
Six
napitow
kiash
Seven
tsowetate
kiownitz
Eight
naikinukate
kiatou
Nine
taniorokat
choskitte
Ten
x'skani
skittewas.
I conclude with a language which is decidedly Texian
-the Attakapa.
English.
Attakapa.
English.
Attakapa.
Man
iol
Sun
nagg
Woman
nickib
Moon
tegidlesh
Father
shau
Star
ish
Mother
tegn
Bay
iggl
Son
shka
Night
tegg
Daughter
tegu
Fire
cam
Head
ashhat
Water
ak
Hair
taesh
Fain
caucau
Ewr
ann
Snow
aalesat
Eye
uiU
Earth
ne
Nose
idst
River
aconstuchi
Mouth
katt
Stone
wai
Tongue
nedle
Tree
kagg
Tooth
ods
Meat
oged
Hand
uish
Fear
stigne
Finger
nishagg
Bird
tsorlagst
Feet
tippel
Fish
iagghan
Blood
iggt
Great
uishik
House
ank
Cold
tsamps
Sky
tagg
White
cobb
LANGUAGES OF TEXAS.
477
^En^ish.
Attakapa.
English.
AttakapL
Blaeh
iana
Four
taets
Red
oig
Fine
nilt
I
ne
Six
latst
Thou
natt
Seven
paghu
One
hanneck
Eight
tsikniaa
Two
happalst
Nine
tc^huiae
Three
batt
Ten
heissigu.
The Attahapa is one of the pauro-sjllabic languages
of America, by which I mean languages that, if not
monosyllabic after the fashion of the languages of south-
eastern Asia, have the appearance of being so. They
form a remarkable class, but it is doubtful whether they
form a natural one, i. e. whether they are more closely
connected with each other in the other elements of philo-
logical affinity than they are with the tongues not so
characterized.
The Adahi or Adaize (? Yatassi) and the Attakapa
are the two most isolated languages of North America,
each having, however, miscellaneous affinities.
As the languages to the west of the Attakapa have
already been noticed, so those of South America now
come under consideration.
478 LANGUAGES OF SOUTH AMERICA.
CHAPTER LXI.
Languages of South America. — New Grenada.— The Quichua. — The Aymara.
— The Chileno. — The Fuegian.
It may safely be said that there is no part of the
world, of which the Comparative Philology is more un-
certain and obscure than South America. That there
are vast tracts elsewhere, for which our data are scan-
tier, is not denied. Scanty, however, as they may be,
they are, generally, better arranged ; for in South America,
though our materials are by no means deficient, our
classification is at its minimwm. The notices of the
Mithridates were chiefly taken, either at first hand or
through Hervas, from the Jesuit missionaries, whose
communications were all of the same character. They
gave us almost always a Paternoster, occasionally a hymn,
sometimes the numerals, more rarely a full and copious
general vocabulary. They also, for the most part, gave
us a very compendious grammar or A He ; a grammar
or AHe, in which the principles of the ordinary Latin
Grammar of Europe were applied to forms of speech to
which they are wholly unsuited. Besides their inherent
imperfections, these Artes have the additional demerit of
being amongst the scarcest of philological works. They
are, for American books, old ; the majority being of the
LANGUAGES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 479
seventeenth century. They are printed in Lima and other
Transatlantic towns, rather than in Madrid or Lisbon,
Finally, th^ ai'e often in MS. That many of these
were known to Adelung, is shown in ahnost every page
of his great work. Perhaps he knew of most of them.
Nevertheless, as a mere matter of bibliography some
have been noticed, and that for the first time, since his
death. So far, then, as this is the case, they give us new
materials. That the main mass, however, of our fresh
data consists of fresh observations is no more than what
we expect ; no more than the actual fact. Still, com-
pared with what has been done elsewhere, they are few
Whoever goes over the elaborate bibhographical work of
Ludwig may see this. He may see that the number of
languacres for which there are few or no authorities later
than Hervas is inordinately large ; so large, as to con-
vince us that, whether by investigatoi's on the spot or by
enterprizing traveUere, the philology of South America
has been (as compared with that of other countries) greatly
neglected. He will see that, for aU has been done in
recent times, the names of Spix and Martius, Prince
Maximihan of Neuwied, Castelnau, D'Orbigny, Sir
Robert Schomburgh, and Wallace (each in his own
special area), give a monopoly of authority. Where
these wi-iters have either observed or collected, we have
a fairly-illustrated district. Elsewhere there is sad
barrenness.
The parts, then, where the most has been done, are
Brazil (a vast area), the Missions of Moxos and Chiquitos,
along with parts of Peru, British Guiana, and the parts to
the west of the Rio Negro ; more especially the valley of the
Uaj)^. In New Grenada also, of the languages whereof
the information of the Mithndates is of the scantiest, we
have a fail- mass of new details collected by the occupants
of the republic itself. They are, however, from the fact
of their being chiefly published in Bogota, pre-eminently
480 LANGUAGES OF SOUTH AMERICA.
inaccessible. To the present writer at the present time,
the very existence of them is known almost wholly
through Ludwig's notices.
The parts for which our knowledge is most pre-
eminently stationary are, Venezuela, Peru, Chili, the
Argentine Republics, Paraguay, and Patagonia.
Again ; as the organization of the Missions is less
complete amongst the Portuguese than it is (or was)
amongst the Spanish populations of the New World, the
difference between the amount of research bestowed upon
the aborigines of New Grenada, Peru, &c. and those of
Brazil, is considerable.
The details, then, of Portuguese America are more
unsatisfactory than those of Spanish. In those parts of
the continent which belong to England or Spain, or
which have been Dutch, the philology has been left to
accident — so that in respect to them we are in no
better position than we are with the languages of the
Hudson's Bay Territory and the English portion of
Oregon — a worse position than we are in with respect
to those of the United States ; where a partial investi-
gation has been undertaken by the Government. This
means that a list of words has been prepared which is
filled up as new languages present themselves ; a plan
which, whilst it stimulates and directs inquiry, makes
classification a simple matter of inspection.
The natural road from North to South America is by
the way of the Isthmus. At the same time the fact of
the West-India Islands forming a second chain of com-
munication must not be overlooked.
In the present chapter, the plan adopted in North
America will be followed, i. e. the languages to the
west of the Andes will be treated hrst The great
block of land drained by the Orinoco, the Amazons,
and the Rio de la Plata will follow ; and Brazil will
come last.
THE CORREGUAGE AND ANDAQUL
481
There are affinities in both directions. The first line,
however, is the one which is most conveniently taken.
For New Grenada, but few vocabularies are known
to me — the Artes^ &c., referred to by Ludwig, being
difficult of access.
Beginning with the parts to the south of the Choi
and Muysca (now called Chihcha) areas for which a
few words only are known to me, we come to the —
English.
Correguagc.
Andaqoi.
Man
emnid
Woman
dome
Head
aijope
qninaji
Hair
dana
Eye
nancoco
fdli
Ear
cajoroso
snngnajo
Nose
jiniquapai
qaifi
Teeth
cojini
acoga
Foot
coapi
aogm^iaaa
Heart
decocho
Tontfue
sonae
Hand
sacaa
Shy
qaeneme
Sun
ense
eaqni-kebin
Moon
paimia
mitae-kede
Star
manoco
fisona-iTine
Rieer
siacha
jiji
Water
OGO
Earth
cho*
mijinae
Stone
cata
Ego
cuejepi
gnaso.
The title of the earliest grammar of the Peruvian is
Gramatka d arte general de la lengua de los Tndios
del Peru ; nuevamente corapuesto por el Maestor Fray
Domengo de San Thomas de la order de Santa Domengo
en dichos reynos. The precise date of this is A.D. 1560,
In the Dictionary, however, bearing the same date, the
language is called the Lengua Genercd de la PeifUy
Llamada Quichua. The particular tribe with which
this term originated was that of the Quichua on the
Aymara frontier and conterminous with the Collas.
I I
482 THE QUICHUA AND AYMARA.
Of the dialects, the most northern is the Quiteno
of Quito. Then follow, the Chinchasuya, between 11°
and 1 3° S. L. ; the Cauki of certain districts to the
south of Lima ; the Lamano of the parts about Truxillo ;
the Cuzcucano of Cuzco ; and, finally, the Calchaqui of
Tucuman .
The A ymara area has its historical centre in the parts
about the Lake Titicaca, where the famous Peruvian
legislator, Mango Capac, first made his appearance.
The monuments of Tiaguanaco and Carangas belong
to it. So do those numerous tombs containing the
artificially flattened skulls upon which so much has
been written by ethnologists. According to Garcillasso
de la Vega it was the third Inca, Llogue Yupanqui,
who brought the Aymaras under the Quichua dominion.
They lie between 15° and 20° S. L., occupants of the
highest range of the Andes, on both sides. Some of
them belong to the drainage of the La Plata, being
found on the upper part of the Pilcomayo. This
brings them in contact with Chaco tribes ; whilst
in the direction of Bolivia they touch the Cliiquitos.
As a general rule, however, they are surrounded by the
Quichua dialects, by which they have, to all ap-
pearance, being encroached on ; indeed, the capital
Cuzco, Quichuan as it is in many respects, is a town
upon Aymara ground. So is Potosi ; so also a great
portion of the Provinces of Tinto, Arequipa, La Paz,
and Chuquisaca, with considerable parts of Tarapaea
and Atacama.
The Mithridates names the Lupaca as the commonest,
and the Pacase as the most refined of the Aymara
dialects ; amongst which are enumerated the Canchi, the
Cana, ihe Colla, the Collagua, the Caranca, and the
Charca ; this last being conterminous with the Guarani
Chiriguanos.
THE QUICHUA AND AYMARA.
483
English. ■
Qaichna.
Aymara.
Araacaiian.
Man (homo)
nma
hake
che
{vir)
ccari
haento
Woman
huarmi
Head
uma
pegke
lonco
Eye
fiain
naira
nge
Ear
rinri
Xose
cenca
nasa
yu
Tojiffue
kaUu
lagra
gehuon
Hair
chuccha
naccuta
lonco
Hand
maqiii
ampara
CQUgh
FoU
chaqai
cayu
nainon
Sly
hananpacha
hnenu
Earth
allpa
urakke
tae
Sun
inti
inti
antoigk
Moon
qnilla
pagsi
cuyem
Fire
nina
nina
k'tal
Water
nnn
huma
ko
One
yaca
hue
mai
quigne
Two
ycay
paya
epu
Three
qoLnza
kimsa
cula.
Mainas. — The Paternoster.
Papampoa ya-nranso inapake; apurt nen kema muchaiinso-ni ; kema
inapa keyavei ; kema lovanturanso lelinso-ni mompaye inapake; napupon-
tinati isse-ke-nta ; cas-saru-mpoa taveri rosa nanni ketuke ipure ; huchampo-
anta anis uke mompupe campoanta aloyotupe saya-pita amsere campo-anta ;
CO apokesne tentacioneke co anotakeve ; ina-kera ateeke campa kera co loyave
pita.
The exact place of the Puquina of Hervas and the
Mithridates, as well as that of the Yunga (or) Mochika,
is uncertain ; all we have of them being a Paternoster
in each, which runs thus : — ■
Puquina.
Seniki, hanigo pacas conana ascheno pomana ujialii sohanta po capaca
aschano senguta huachunta po hatano callacaso hanta kigori hanigopa casna
ehe cahu cohuacasna hamp. Kaa gamenke ehe hesuma : Senguta camen sen
tanta sen hochahe pampache sumao 'kiguiri sen, senguta huchachas keno
gata hampachanganch cagu : Ama ehe acrosumo huchaguta sen hotonavi
enahata entonana keipina snmau.
Yunga {Mochika).
Muchef, acazloo cuzianqiiic ; Zunkoc licum apmucha ; Fiican fiof zungcu-
zias ; eyipmang zung polengnum mo uzicapuc cuzianguic mun ; Ayoineng
inengo much sollon piicam nof alio molur; Ef kecan nof ixlllis acan mux
efco, xUang museyo much ziomun ; Amus tocum fiof xllamgmuse iz puzereric
Damnum ; Lesnam efcd nof pissin kich.
I I 2
484
FUEGIAN.
Languages
of the Pampas
i
English.
Puclche.
Man
chia
Woman
yamcat
Head
cacaa
Cheek
yacalere
Eyes
yatitco
Ears
yaj;yea;he
Hand
yapaye
Sun
apiucuc
Moon
pioo
Fire
aquacake
Water
yagup
Mountain
atecq
From Tierra del Fuego —
English.
AKkhilip.
Man
ackinish
Head
ofchocka
Nose
nohl
Hair
ayu
Hand
yuccaba
Teeth
cauwash
Eye
telkh
Bmr
teldil
Foot
cutliculcul
Shf
accuba
Day
anoqual
Earth
barbe
Sun
lum
Moon
conakho
Star
conash
Fire
tettal
Water
chauash
One
towquiddow
Two
telkeow
Three
cupeb
English.
Puelche.
Bow
aeke
Arrow
quit
Young
yapelgue
Old
ictza
I, me
kia
He, she
sas
Give me
chutaca
Eat
akenec
Sleep
meplamvim
I will
kemo
I will not
canoa.
Tekeenika.
oha
lukabe
cu shush
oshta
marpo
tuun
della
ufkhea
coeea
howucca
tann
lum
anoco
appernish
poshaky
shamea
ocoale
combabe
mutta.
It is needless to state that the Fuegian has affinities
in one direction only ; and that, there, it is the point
of a pyramid.
YARURA, BETOI, AND OTOMAKA.
485
CHAPTER LXII.
Languages of the Orinoko, Rio Negro, and northern bank of Amazons. —
Yarura, &c. — Baniwa. — Juri. — Maipur. — Carib. — Salivi. — Warow. —
l^mma. — Iqnito. — Mayonma. — Peba. — Ticnna, &c.
We now move towards the head-waters of the Orinoko.
Furthest to the west and north lie the Yarura, Betoi,
and Otomaka.
English.
Yarura.
Betoi.
Otomaka.
Man
pomme
nmasoi
andoa
Woman
ibi, ain
ro
ondoa
Father
aya
Imhi
Mother
aini
maiTiA
Head
X>acch{k
rosaca
Eye
joride
nfoniba
Nose
nappe
jusaca
Tongue
topono
ineca
Hair
keun
rubuca
Hand
icchi
mmcosi
Foot
tao
lemoco
Day
do
nmnila
Sky
ande
tencoca
caga
Earth
dabn
dafiba
poga
Water
TU
ocada
ia
Fire
conde
futu
nna
Sun
do
teo-umasoi
Moon
goppe
teo-ro
Beard
tambe
perega
One
caneame
edojojoi
Tico
noeni
edoi
Three
tarani
ibata
Word for word, Baniwa is, probably, Maniwa,
Maniva, Poignavi, and Guipoignavi of other writers
— especially does it seem to be, word for word, the
486 THE BANIWA, ETC.
Guipoignavi of Humboldt. Now the Baniwa districts
are those through which runs the froDtier between Brazil
and Venezuela. There are also those which give us the
point where the researches of Mr. Wallace from the
South, and of Humboldt from the North, respectively
terminated ; the former having moved upwards from the
Rio Negro, the latter downwards from the Orinoco.
Now as Humboldt names the language for the parts in
question Poignavi, giving two words of it, one of which
{oueni-=z water) coincides with the uni and weni of
Wallace's Banitva, the identification under notice is
legitimate.
There are (at least) three dialects of the Baniwa,
eo nomine — the Baniwa of the river Isanna, the
Baniwa of the Tomo and Maroa rivers, and the Baniwa
of the Javita ; this last being spoken beyond the
boundary, i. e. in Venezuela.
The affinities between the five forms of speech
under notice appear to run just as Mr. Wallace
has arranged his specimens of them, i. e. Tariana,
Baniwa of the Isanna, Barree, Baniwa of the Tomo
and Maroa, and Baniwa of the Javita. Between
the extremes there is a considerable difference : a fact
which should lead us to reflect upon what would be our
opinion if, instead of being preserved, the intermediate
forms had been lost. This would, depend, to a great
extent, upon the way in which these extremes were
represented ; it being certain that, if our specimens
represented tliose parts of the two forms of s})eech
which differed i-ather than those whicli agreed with
each other, we should pronounce them to be separate
languages.
Baniwa (Toma
and
English.
Baniwa (Isanna).
Barree.
Baniwa (Javi(a).
Maroa).
Man
atchinali
henul
henume
catenemuni
Woman
inaru
ineitutu
neyau
thalinafeini
Boy
mapen
hantetchule
irluherlib
mathicoyou
Oirl
mapeni
heineitutchi
neyauferiuni
mathicoyon
THE BANIWA, ETC.
487
Baniwa (Toma and
Eaglish. Baniwa (Isanna).
Barree.
Baniwa (Jayita).
Maroa).
Htad
nhiihidea
nodnsia
nobie
washio
Mouth
nonnma
nonnma
enoma
wanoma
Eye
nuiti
nnita
nofurli
waholisi
Nose
nitnra
nuti
nuyapeu
wasiwi
Teeth
noyeihei
nahei
nasi
wathi
Belly
noshada
nodnllah
paneni
wahmdti
Arm
nozete
nod ana
nann
wacano
Hand
nucapi
nncabi
nappi
wacavi
Fingers
nucapi
nucabi heintibe naphibre
wacavitheani
Toes
nuhipa
nisi heintilje
geiut si sine
watsisiculoasi
Foot
nupepa
nisi
naitsiphabe
wat.sisi
Bone
noapi
nabi
nopuina
warlannku
Blood
nnira
niya
miasi
wathanuma
Sun
camui
camn
namouri
Moon
keri
thekbe
narbita
enoo
Star
iweri
wenadi
uiminari
Fire
tidge
cameni
arsi
catbi
Water
uni
uni
weni
weni.
The Ghiinanos
is nearer to these than to aught else.
£nglisli
Ciiimanos.
English.
Cbimnnos.
Head
DaUa
Sun
somanlu
Eye
nuUata
MOOH
naniu
Noie
intshiaongeu
Earth
tocke
Mouth
noma
Fire
oeje
Toiiffue nehna
Water
uhu
Tooth
nihi
One
apbulla
Hand
gabi
Two
biagma
Foot
noa
Three
mabaagmamacke
The Uaenamheu, or Humming -Bird Indians, lie
beyond the districts personally visited by Mr. Wallace,
''. e. on the Lower Japura. He met, however, with
some of them on the Rio Negro, and obtained some
information concerning them, as well as a vocabulary of
their language. He connects them more especially with
the Coretu and the Jui'i. The point, however, of most
importance concerning this Uaenambeu vocabulary is the
fact of its representing the language of a group of tribes
already known to us — ah'eady known to us under the
name Mauhe.
The Coi'etu lie on the Apaporis, between the Uapes
and the Japura. The Tucauo belong to the same rivers :
488
CORETU, ETC.
the Cobeu to the main stream of the CJapds. The
Oobeu, Tucano, and Coretu, are members of the same
class ; the exact value of it being uncertain. The
Cobeu bore their ears, and enlarge the hole until it will
take in a bottle-cork ; hereby illustrating our remarks
on the word Orejones. The reason for writing Coretu
of Wallace lies in the fact of there being in Balbi
another Coretu vocabulary : which, with the exception
of one word Qiaie — aouezzsun) is not the language of
the vocabularies more especially under notice.
The Juri lie between the lea and the Japura, and
are called, also, Juripixunas =z Black Juri, and Boca-
prietos z= Blackmouths from the custom of tattooing the
parts about the mouth in such a manner as to resemble
the black-mouthed squirrel- monkeys (Callithrix sciureus).
A portion of them has migrated to the Rio Negro, settled
there, and become more or less civilized.
English.
Uaenambeu.
Juri.
Coretu.
Man
achijari
tchoucu
ermeu
Woman
inaru
tcliure
nomi
Boy
maishu
raiute
ingigu
Girl
maishu
nitemi
nomi amanga
Head
eribida
tchokireu
cuilri
MotUh
erinuma
tchoia
diishi
Eye
eridoe
tchoit
yealluh
Nose
nuetacu
youcone
ergilli
Teeth
nuaei
tchatikou
gohpecu
Belly
nucutu
turaeh
tohtono
Arm
eribedo
tchoua
dicah
Hand
erikiapi
tchoupumau
muhu
Fingers
nucapi
tchoupei
muetshu
Toes
nuipamena
tchoupomoru
giapa muetshu
Foot
eriipa
tchouoti
giapa
Bone
nuapi
tchouino
gnueh
Blood
nuiri
echonieri
du
Sim
camui
iye
auoue
Moon
can
noimo
iamimiaga
Star
ibidji
ouca
omoari
Fire
itchipa
u
piuire
Water
una
coora
deco.
That neither Juri nor Juripixunas are native names
will be seen in the sequel.
MAIPUR, ETC.
4S
riie following
is the Coretu of Balhi.
English
Coretu.
English.
Corel u-
Eye
siroho
Foot
namaigo
Head
canmeo
Sun
haie
Xose
liissapo
Moon
haio-pucku
Mouth
hiamolocko
Earth
gaira
Tongue
coahuro
Water
cootabu
Tooth
simahapo
Fire
aegace.
Hand
coholo
The Baniwa of the Tomo and Maroa is more
especially J^faipur ; that of the Isanna Ciirib ; whilst
that of the Javita leads, more especially towards the
languages of Ecuador. Meanwhile, it is generally
recognized that (whether the affinity be great or small)
there has always been one between the Maipur and the
Carib, en Tnasse.
English.
Haipnr.
English.
Maip4i.
G^d
pxirruna
mlnari
River
ueni
Man
cajarrachini
Lake
cavia
Woman
tiniochi
Mountain
japa
Sly
eno
Roclc
chipa
Earth
peni
Tree
aa
Sun
cliie
Head
nuchibuca
Moon
chejapi
Ear
nuachini
Star
urrupu
Eye
nupurichi
Day
pecumi
Nose
nuchirri
Night
jatti
Mouth
nunoinaca
Wind
chipocn
Tooth
nati
aoud
tamana
Tongue
nnare
Rain
tia
Arm
nuana
Fire
catti
Hand
nucapi
Water
neni
Foot
nuchii.
The Achcigua is akin to i
Jiis.
English.
Maipur
A^cbagna.
/
nora or
cana
nnya
Thou
pia —
capi
qiya
He
ia —
he
piya
She
j>>a —
caa
rnya
We
uaya —
cavi
qnaya
Ye
nia —
cani
iya
They
nia —
cani
naya.
490
THE CARIB GROUP.
So is the Pareni. The next twenty vocabularies
belong to the great Carih group.
(In New Grenada.)
English
Guaque.
English.
Gtiaquc.
Bead
jutuye
Tongue
inico
Hair
jutuyari
Hand
ninare
Eye
emuru
Sun
vehi
Ear
janari
Moon
nana
Nose
onari
Star
cliirique
Teeth
yeri
Fire
majoto
Foot
ijupuru
Earth
neno
Bone
yetije
Stone
jefu
Mouth
indare
Egg
ismu.
(In Demerara and Venezuela
)
English.
Wapisiana
English.
Wapisiana.
Head
unniai-aitana
Earth
emu
Eye
ungwawh
en
Fire
tegherre
Nose
ungwiitippa
Water
tuna
Mouth
untaghu
Bow
sumara
Hand
ungwaipanna
Arrow
urreghuri
Foot
unketewi
Dog
arimaragha
Sun
kamo
One
peiteieppa
Moon
keirrh
Two
tiattang
Star
\veri
Three
itikineita.
English.
Waiyamera.
Guin;iu.
Maiongkong.
Woyawai.
Head
ipawa
intshebu
hohuha
igteburi
Eye
yenuru
nawisi
uyenuru
eoru
Nose
yonari
intshe
yoanari
younari
Mouth
tshuaduru
noma
andati
emdare
Hand
yanaroru
inkabe
yamutti
yamore
Foot
kiporu
intshibe
ohutu
horori
Sun
■vveyu
kamuliu
tshi
kamu
Moon
numa
kewari
niina
nuni
Star
serrika
yuwinti
yetika
serego
Earth
nono
kati
nono
rooa
Fire
wata
tsbeke
wato
wetta
Water
tuna
oni
tuni
knishamiuH
Bow
uraha1)eragha
tshimari
-tshebi tsimare-huru klaffa
Arrow
parau
tshimari
tsimarei
woiyu
Dog
okheri
kwashi
tsefete
tsawari
One
tuwine
pareita
toni
tioni
Two
asare
yamike
ake
asako
Three
ware
piampat
yam airtuabii
soroau.
THE CARIB GROUP.
491
English. Caribisi.
Accaway.
Macosi.
Arecuna.
Socrikong.
Head yububo
yubobo
pupei
opuwei
ipei
Eye yenuru
yenam
uyenu
yenuru
itaana
Nose yenetari
yen
uyeuna
uyeuna
akone
Mouth
yubotani
hunta
undek
Hand yennan
yenarru
huyenya
uyena
omamiara
Foot pupu
yubobo
hupu
uta
itoa
Sun wehu
weyeyu
well
wae
Moon nuno
nuno
kapoi
kapui
Star siriko
irema
siriko
serrika
Earth yoporo
ito
nung
nunk
Fire watto
watu
apo
apok
Water tuno
tuna
tuna
tuna
Bow hurapa
ureba
hurapa
urapa
Arrmc purrewa
pnlewa
paian
purrau
Dog keikutshi
piro
arimagha
arimaragha
One owe
tigina
tiwing
tanking
Two oco
asakre
sakene
atsakane
Three orwa
osorwo
etseberanwani
eserewe
English.
Mawakwa.
Fianoghotto.
Ti
•erighotto.
Head
nnkaua
oputpa
Eye
ngnoso
yenei
obeama
Nose
ngndewa
yoanari
Mouth
ngnomiti
yefiri
opota '
Hand
ngnkowa
yenari
Fo<A
nngeopa
putu
npti
Sun
kamu
well
weh
Moon
kirsu
nuna
niano
Star
wisbi
siriko
seriko
Earth
tsUmari
Fire
tshikasi
matto
apoto
Water
wane
tuna
tuna
Bow
thseye
urapa
Arrow
kengye
purau
Dog
keikne
One
apaura
Two
woaraka
Three
tamarsi
English.
Atoiia.
DauTdi.
Head
unruai-etema
waunnbarra
Eye
wawanumte
wauuni
Nose
wauuni
opebe
Mouth
otaghn
otagho
Hand
nnkoai
oke
F<M
unkheti
okheti
Sun
kamoi
tamoi
Moon
k^irrhe
kairra
492
THE CARIB GROUP.
English.
Atoria.
Daurai.
Star
watsieirhe
wonari
Earth
tari
dari
Fire
tegherre
tekeri
Water
tuna
onabo
Bow
parauri
parauri
Arrow
peiiri
werakure
Dos
teni
teni
One
peitaghpa
weitappn
Two
pauiteitegh
peitategh
Three
ipiketaub
hikeitaba.
English.
Tamanak.
Carib.
Jaoi.
Arawak.
Man {homo)
oquiri
lukku
{vir)
nuani cMvacane yon
Woman
aica
hiaru
puti
apouitime
Head
prutpi
upupu
boppe
Eye
januru
enuru
voere
Ear
parani
pana
pannai
Nose
jonnari
enetali
hoenali
Tongue
nuru
nuni
Hair
cipoti
ubarrahu
Hand
janignari
amecu
ukkabuhu
Foot
ptari
ipupu
Sky
capu
cabo
capu
munti
kassaku
Ea/rth
nono
nono
soye
wunnabu
Sun
wey
weyo
haddalli
Moon
nuno
nonna
Fire
wato
uapoto
elelulun
Water
.
tuna
•wuniabu
One
ovin
aunik
tewyn
abba
Two
oco
wecu
tage
biarna
Three
ooroo
wua
terewaid kabbuin.
For these latter dialects our chief authority is Sir R.
Schomburgh, The number of vocabularies as collected by
him during his expeditions into the interior, is eighteen,
none of which, he states, bear a closer affinity to each other
than the French and Italian. This statement, however,
is one which the present writer is not prepared to adopt.
Of these eighteen vocabularies, only one or two have
been published in extenso. From the report, however, of
the British Association for the Advancement of Science,
A.D. 1848, the foregoing short extracts have been taken.
WAROW, SALIVI, AND TARUMA.
493
(!•)
English.
Salivi.
English.
SalirL
Sly
mumeseche
Eye
pacute
Sun
mumeseche cocco
Ear
aicupana
Moon
vexio
Nose
inam
Star
sipodi
Mouth
aaja
Earth
seche
Neck
uncua
Water
cagua
Arm
ichechee
Fire
equssa
Hand
immomo
Man
cocco
Finger
endecce
Woman
gnacu
Belly
teacce
Bird
gnendi
HeaH
omagnaa
Fish
paji
Thigh
icooco
River
ochi
Knee
gnnjui
Lake
iboopu
Leg
injua
Tree
nonhae
Foot
caabapa.
(2.)
English.
Warow.
English.
Warow.
Man
niburfi
Feet
mdmu
Woman
tida
Blood
hotnh
Boy \
Girl
noboto
Sun
Moon
yah
wanehnb
Bead
makwan
Star
keorah
Neck
mahaabey
Rain
naahaa
Eyes
maama
Wind
ahaaka
Nose
mayhecaddy
Fire
ikkonah
Mouth
maroho
Water
he
Hair
maaheo
Earth
hotah
Ear
mahohoko
Sky
nahaamlitii h
Arms
mahaara
Hill
hotaqoay
Hand
maamahoo
Wood
dannah
Fingers
mamalioo
Rock
hoeya
B'yne
malia
Sand
kahemrah
SHn
mahoro
Island
bulohoh
Flesh
matamah
One
hesacha
Back
maahuh
Two
monaraa
Belly
mobunuh
Three
dianamu
Breast
maameyhu
Five
mahabass
Thighs
marolo
Ten
moreycooyt.
Leg
maahah
J.)
■
English.
Taranw.
English.
Tamma.
Head
atta
Hand
aha
Eye
atzi
Fool
appa
Nose
assa
Sun
ooang
MtnUh
memkukanaa
Moon
piwa
491
MUUA.
English.
Tanima.
English.
Taruma.
Star
wingra
Arroto
kupa
Fire
hua
Dog
hi
Water
tza
One
oshe
Earth
toto
Two
tyuwa
Bow
tzeika
Three
ungkehah
(4.)
English.
Mura.
English.
Mura.
Head
abbaih
Foot
aai
Eye
gossa
Sun
hoase
Nose
itauhaing
Moon
cahaiiang
Mouth
abbassah
Earth
mettie
Tongue
abboa
Fire
huaing
Tooth
aithoa
Water
pae.
Hand
uhna
The next three lists from the occupancies bearing
the names at the head of the several columns, re-
present the dialects not of the Juri of Wallace (who
seem to be the true Juripixunas or Blackmouths) but
of the people who apply that name and in whose lan-
guage it is significant.
English.
S. Pedro & Almeida.
S. Pedro.
Man
apiaba
apuava
Woman
cunha
cunha
Head
acang
nhacang
Hair
aba
Java
Eye
ceca
ceca
Ear
namby
namby
Mouth
jurv,
juru
Foot
py
iporong ava
Arm
jyba
juva
Hand
po
ipoha
Shy
ybake
yuTacca
Star
jacytata
chacauma
Fire
tata
tata
Water
yge
yg
Tree
ymyra
vuyra
House
oca
joca
Wind
ybutu
ynutu
Black
pixunauna
sum
One
oyepe
oyepenho
Two
mocoi
moca
Three
mozapyr
mozapu
Almeida.
yg
evatu
oyepe
IQUITO, ETC.
4)95
The Iqidto, akin to the preceding —
Engbsh.
Man
Woman
Head
Eye
Nose
Mouth
Iquita
iconan
icoaan
manaca
panami
cachirica
kain^
English.
Ear
Hand
Foot
Sun
Moon
Water
Iqnito.
quiatoum
yanamaca
quiainoi
janamia
cashi
aqua.
Of the Xumano or Chomano, I only know the fol-
lowinor words.
Eng^Ii.
Sun
Moon
Star
Xamano.
sima
vueta
Tuete.
For the Mayoruna Castelnau has given two voca-
bularies, one representing the language of the converted,
the other that of the unconverted, tribes.
English.
Mavonma (1).
Hayomna (2)
Man
dara
dara
Woman
shirawa
tirahna
Head
moho
macho
Eye
bedo
Nose
deban
dizan
Mouth
ibi
ira
Ear
pabaoan
pahiaran
Hand
macoa
poro
Foot
taca
tahi
Sun
Inii
bari
Moon
onen
houiji
Water
waca
hoaaca.
Mayoruna is a name which occurs in the Mithridates ;
the ilayoruna language being said to belong, with the
Barbudo, Iturale, and Musimo forms of speech, to the
Urarina class.
It is safe to say that the Peha, Yagua, and the Ore-
joTies forms of speech are more closely connected with
each other than any of them is with anything else. The
exact amount of aflSnity is uncertain, though there can
496
PEBA, YAGUA, ETC.
be but little doubt that the tliree languages are mutually
unintelligible. The Aissuari, the Yurumagua, and the
Cahumari languages, mentioned in the Mithridates,
but not represented by any specimen, are likely to
have belonged to this class. It may easily, however,
be imagined that the distribution of unrepresented
languages over classes like those before us is doubtful.
What may probably have been Peba, or Urarina, may,
with nearly equal probability, have been Omagua,
Iquito, or aught else.
As Orejones means large-eared, it must be dealt with
as a common rather than a proper name. If so, it may
occur in more quarters than one ; i. e. whenever ears
are either naturally large or artificially enlarged along
with a language in a neighbourhood where orejo = ear.
The same applies not only to Barhudo, EncaheUado,
(?) Zapara (Xeherro ?), and other names of European,
but to many of even American origin ; as may be seen
by paying attention to the manner in which {inter alia)
certain words ending in -rtiayo, and -agua, present
themselves at long distances fi-om each other — these
words being Guarani,
English.
Oregones.
Peba.
Yagua.
Man
comai
comoley
huano
Woman
erigno
■watoa
huatarunia
Head
huha
raina
firignio
Eye
oi
vinimichi
huirancai
Nose
hoho
vinerro
unirou
Mouth
huai
rito
huicama
Ear
kinoleo
mitiwa
ontisini
Hand
onokui
vinitaily
huijanpana
Foot
etaiboi
vinimotay
moumoumatou
Sun
idoma
wana
ini
Moon
hiutsara
remelane
alemare
Water
ainoe
ain
haha.
Wherever the ticuna poison is used, with a popu-
lation in the neighbourhood which uses the name, Ticuna
Indians may be expected ; and any two groups of such
may be in any degree of relationsliip. One of Cas-
TICUNAS, ETC.
497
telnau's vocabularies gives us a language under this
name. It stands well apart fi-om the ones that have
already been noticed ; but, as the samples are short, we
should remember that Hervas states that the Peba and
Ticuna (also called Xumano) are connected.
English.
Ticnnas.
English.
Ticnnas.
Man
iate
Ear
nachinai
Woman
niai
Hand
tapamai
Head
nahairou
Foot
nacontai
Eye
nehaitai
Sun
iakai
Nose
naran
Moon
tahoaimaika
Mouth
Further s
naha
outh on the :
Water
xontier of th
aaoitchu.
e Quichua \^
have, from a longer list of Osculati's, the following
words for the Zapara.
English.
Zapara.
English.
Zapan.
31 an
taucko
Sun
janockna
Head
anackaka
Star
naricka
Ear
taurike
Moon
cacikaa
Eye
namisia
Fire
anamicukacia
Nose
mihucua
Water
muriccia
Tongue
ririccia
Tree
nackona
Teeth
icar6
Sand
hiocka
Mouth
atuapama
Bird
piscko
Beard
ama
^
ickuqua
Arm
curemasaca
Belly
marama
Hand
hickoma
Foot
hinocka
Day
nuackate
Blood
nnnacke.
Night
nig^iacka
To these parts belongs the following Paternoster of
the—
Yamea.
Neike ahen arrescania abecin ; termd atiahua renamuclia hoe taola ; habecia
nei-nin ; anto nein arresiuma hoe baceiada renua nanca naerra ino popo nin ;
mirletermd pahoinlama neiamiziari aintanei errama ; halayan nei nei huchanla
tirra nei holayan lobua remorezio-nei ; lara hiamnerra nei han hucha-nen ;
tiarre ala ninze harramale nei.
These languages belong to Ecuador ; south of which
is a great gap. Hence the next chapters begin on the
R K
498 ZAPARA, ETC.
eastern Andes at the sources of the Beni and Mamore,
and (crossing the watershed) of the Vermeyo and Pilco-
mayo. The division of these into the languages of
(1.) the Missions, and (2.) the Chaco, is, more or less,
artificial ; as is the secondary division of the Missions
into those of (a) Moxos, and (6) Chiquitos. For the
Peruvian affinities of tliis class the Aymara, from its
being in situ, is more important than the Quichua.
4
THE MISSIONS AND THE CHACO.
499
CHAPTER LXIII.
Tlie Moxoa, Chiquitos, and Chaco Langoages.
In the following list, the first language is in contact
with the Quichua and Ayraara, with which it is, proba-
bly, more closely allied than the present classification
makes it. Here it is treated as transitional to the
Pemvian and the languages of the Missions.
English.
Taracaies.
Man
sufle
Woman
yee
Head
dais
Cheek
pune
Eyes
tanti
Ears
meye
Hand
bana
Sun
puine
Moon
subi
Fire
aima
Water
sama
Mountain
monono
The Sapiboconi has simila
£iiglish.
Sapibocom.
Man (homo)
reanci
Woman
anu
Head
echuja
Eye
etuachuru
Nose
evi
Tongue
eana
Hair
echan
Hand
eme
Foot
ebbachi
English.
Yaracarcs.
Bow
momata
Arrow
tomete
Young
sebebonte
Old
calasone
I, me
se
He, she
laid
Give me
timbncke
Eat
tiai
Sleep
atesi
I mil
cosn
I wUl not
niscnsa.
English.
Day
Shy
Earth
Moon
Fire
Water
One
Two
Three
Sapiboconi.
chine
enacnepana
mechi
bari
cuati
eubi
carata
mitia
caiapa.
K K 2
500
THE MISSIONS AND THE CHACO.
(1
•)
Moxos Languages.
Englisli.
Saraveca.
Englisli.
Saraveca.
Man
echeena
Bow
ecbote
Woman
acunechu
Arrow
maji
Head
noeve
Young
inipia
Cheeh
nunaapa
Old
vuchijari
Eyes
nol
I, me
nato
Ears
nuniije
He, she
echecbe
Hand
aniquaichi
Give me
ich a munazii
Sun
caame
Eat
inucha
Moon
cache
Sleep
itie meia
Fire
tikiai
I will
areaca nojajai
Water
line
I will no
,
maicha nojari.
Mountain
uti
English.
Chapncui'a.
Erglish.
Chapacura.
Man
kiritian
Bow
parami
Woman
yamak«
Arrow
chininie
Head
npachi
Young
isohuem
Cheeh
urutarachi
Old
itaracun
Eyes
tucuche
I, me
huaya
Ewr
taitataichi
He, she
aricau
Hand
umichi
Give me
miapache
Sun
huapirito
Eat
cahuara
Moon
panato
Sleep
huacHa^
Fire
isse
I will
mosichacum
Water
acum
I will no
masicbacurii.
Mountain
pecun
Euglish.
Movima.
Cayuvava.
Man (home)
itlacua
jadsi
Wom,an
cucya
itorene
Head
bacuacTj
a
abaracama
Eye
chora
iyocori
Nose
chini
ebarioho
Tongue
rulcua
ine
Hair
apotacame
Hand
chopa
arue
Foot
zoipoh
aliei
Day
ernes
iriarama
Sky
benra
idah
Earth
llacaml]
u
idatu
Sun
mossi
itoco
Moon
ychcho
yrare
Fire
vee
idore
Water
tomi
ikita
One
pebbi
Two
bbera
Three
kimisa
THE MISSIONS AND THE CHACO.
501
English.
Mosos.
English.
Moxos.
Man {homo)
acciane
Sky
anrmio
Woman
eseno
Earth
moteji
Head
nnciuti
Sun
sacce
Eye
nuchi
Moon
coje
Ear
nicioca
Fire
une
Nose
nusuri
Water
jucu
Tonffue
nunene
One
etona
Hand
nubu
Two
apina
Foot
nibope
Three
mopona.
Day
saccerei
EngUsh.
Itonama.
English.
Itonama.
Man
mno
Bow
hualicAkut
Woman
caneca
Arrow
chere
Head
uchu
Young
tietid
Cheek
papapana
Old
viayachne
Eyes
icachi
I, me
achni
Ear
mocAtodo
He, she
oni
Hand
malaca
Give me
macano
Sun
apache
Eat
ape
Moon
tiacaca
Sleep
conejna
Fire
bari
I will
ichavaneve
Water
huanuve
I will not
huachichTaco
Mountain
iti
English.
Canichana.
English.
Canichana.
Man
enacu
Bow
nlescatop
Womaii
ikegahui
Arrow
ichohuera
Head
eucucu
Young
ecokelege
Cheek
eicokena
Old
enimara
Eyes
eutot
I, me
ojale
Ear
eucomete
He, she
enjale
Hand
eatijle
Give me
sichite
Sun
nicojli
Eat
alema
Moon
nimilacu
Sleep
agaja
Fire
nichucu
I will
haarehoa
Water
nese
I vrill not
nolmacA.
Mountain
comee
English.
Pacagnaia.
English.
Taragaara.
Man
nni
Hand
mupata
Woman
yucha
Sun
vari
Head
mapo
Moon
ocAe
Cheek
tamo
Fire
chii
Eyes
hairo
Water
jene
Ear
paoki ]
Mountain
macliiva
502
THE MISSIONS AND THE CHACO.
English.
Pacaguara.
Eiigiisli.
Pacaguara.
Bow
canati
(rive me
ekiahue
Arrow
pia
Eat
hihue
Young
huakehue
Sleep
ocAahuan
Old
chaita
I will
akekia
/, me
ea
I will no
ojeamakea.
He, she
aa
Euglish.
It6nfes.
English.
It6ufes.
Man
huataki
Bow
pari
Woman
tana
Arrow
kiTO
Head
mahin
Young
iroco
Cheek
buca
Old
ucati
Eyes
to
I, me
miti
Ear
iiiiri
He, she
comari
Hand
uru
Give me
huiti
Sun
mapito
Eat
caore
Moon
panevo
Sleep
upuiira
Fire
iche
I will
imer^
Water
como
I will not
inimere.
Mountain
pico
Chiquitos 2
0
Languages.
English.
Paioconeca.
English.
Paioconeca.
Man
uchanenuve
Bow
tibopo
Woman
esenunuve
Arrow
coriruco
Head
ipe
Yowng
umono
Cheek
ipiki
Old
ectia
Eyes
ihuikis
I, me
neti
Ear
isenoke
He, she
piti
Hand
iruake
Give me
pipanira
Sun
isese
Eat
ninico
Moon
kejerd
Sleep
pimoco
Fire
chaki
I will
nikeniao
Water
ina
I will not
isiiii kinovo
Mountain
iyepe
English.
Chiquito.
Zamucu.
Man {homo)
noneis
nani
Woman
pais
cheke
Head
taanis
yatoitae
Eye
sutos
yede
Ear
uma2>us
Nose
ifias
yucunachu
Tongue
otus
Hair
taanis
Hand
ees
yumanai
THE MISSIONS AND THE CHACO.
503
English.
Chiqnito
Zamncn.
Foot
popez
irie
Day
anenez
dire
Sky
apes
gnieate
Earth
qnos
nap
— —
nnmi
Sun
suus
guiedde
Moon
paas
hetoxei
Fire
tans
yot
Water
peez
pioc
One
chomara
Two
gar
•
Three
gadioc.
Eoglish.
Otuke.
English.
Otuke.
Man
vnani
Bow
revica
Woman
Tuaneti
Arrow
tehna
Head
ikitao
Young
ichaoro
Cheek
irenara
Old
eadi
Eyes
ichaa
I, me
iki chaocho
Ear
ichaparara
He, she
iki choano
Hand
seni
Give me
iynra
Sun
neri
Eat
oaketa
Moon
ari
Sleep
anntake
Fire
rera
IwiU
wia sike
Water
uru
I will not
oraebieacate
Mountain
batari
In 1831 the number of the Cayuvava was 2073, all
of whom were Christians of the Mission of Exaltacion.
Their original locality lay about 12° S. L. where they
were conterminous with the Movima, and Itenes.
In 1830, the number of the Movima was 1238, all
of whom were Christians in the Mission of Santa Anna.
Their original locahty was about li° S. L. where they
were conterminous with {inter alios) the Cayuvava and
the Moxos.
In 1830, the number of the Itonama was, at
The Mission of Magdalena . . . .2831
• San Kamon . . . . 1984
Total . . .4815
All ChrLstian.
At the junction of the Itenes with the Mamor^ the
504 THE MISSIONS AND THE CHACO.
Itenh language is spoken by 1000, or 1200 individuals,
whose name (lyn^s or Ite) is native.
Chiquitos is no native, but a Spanish name ; . the name
which the chief divisions of the group give themselves
being J^agiutianeis = men. It is from them that the
Mission of Chiquitos takes its name, in the centre of
which the Chiquito ^wper is spoken by some 14,000
souls. The language is important now, and was im-
portant originally. At the present time it serves as a
sort of Lingua Franca, being the- form of speech which
numerous other tribes who, without learning Spanish
have unlearned their own language, have adopted. It was
important in the time of Hervas, when it fell into two
dialects, three older ones having previously become ex-
tinct, or nearly so. Of these one was the Manaz ; the
tribes that spoke it being —
The Manzica The Quimomoca
— Yuracareca — Tapacuraca
— Sibacca — Yirituca.
— Cuzica
The existing dialect of the Tao is spoken by —
The Tao The Peguica
— - Boro — Bocca
— Tabiica — Tubaciaca
— Taiiepica — Aruporeca..
— Xuhereca
and part of the Piococo — the Pinoco being the language
of
The Pirioco Proper The Poxisoco
— ■ Quimeca — Motaquica
— Guapaca — Zamaquica
— Quitaxica - — Taumtoca
and part of the Piococo.
The termination -ca is specially stated to be a Chi-
quito plural. It does not, however, follow that every
tribe bearing it was Chiquito. All that is actually!
THE MISSIONS AND THE CHACO.
505
ueedfiil to account for the term is a Chiquito neighbour-
hood in which the name may have originated.
Of the tribes that speak the language known by the
general name of Zamucu, or Samucu (this particular
form of speech being only one out of several) some are
settled in the Missions of San Giovanni, San lago de
Chiquiti, and San Ignacio, while some nin wild in the
more impracticable districts of the forest country around
them — conterminous in some part, at least, of their
fi'ontier wdth the Chiriguanos. Hervas gives us three
main dialects,
1. The Zamucu, in the limited sense of the term,
spoken by the Zamucu Proper, the Satienos, and per-
haps, the Ugaraiios — the testimony as to these last
being doubtful ; since, according to some, they have a
peculiar language of their own.
2. The dialects of the Caipotocado, Tunachas, Imo-
mos, and Timinahas.
3. The Morotoco of the Morotocos Proper, the
Tamoenos, the Cucurates, or Cucutades, the Panonos, and
(perhaps) the Careras and the Ororebates.
Such is the list of Hervas of the Zamucu tribes as they
stood in his time. The names that I find in D'Orbigny
are Zamucu, Morotoco, Potarero, and Guaraneco.
(3.)
Chaco Languages.
English.
Matagnaya.
English.
Matagnaya
Man
inoon
Bow
lachang
Woman
kiteis
Arrow
lotec
Head
litec
Young
magse
Eyes
notelo
Old
chiut
Ears
nokeote
I, me
yam
Band
noqnec
He, she
atachi
Sun
ijnaba
Give me
maletuec
Moon
guela
Eat
tec
Fire
itag
Sleep
nobina
Water
gaag
I vnll not
ykite.
Mountain
lesug
506
THE MISSIONS AND THE CHACO.
Toba Paternoster,
Co-taa adoonata keda piyuem ;
Yaiiateton adenagati ;
Llaca-anac comi abogot ;
Contidi-neco ked^ piguem nacaeno en^ alua ;
Canadena cadimeza naax sinaax ocom uadom
Caditca mantiguema aditi-ogoden emeke comi scauema sitiogodenax
Tacame catino
Calac sanem comi.
English.
Mbaya.
Abiponian.
Mbokobi.
Vilela.
Lule.
Man (Aomo) uneleigua
joale
yoale
nitemoi
pele
(vir)
cualegzac
quima
cumueptito
Woman
igualo
aalo
kisle
vacae
canelma
coenac
lucueptito
Head
naguilo
napanik
icaic
niscone
tocco
Eye
nigecogee
natoele
nicote
toque
zu
Ear
napagate
[gal
maslup
cusp
Nose
nionigo
ncaatagau-
yimic
limic
nus
Tongue
nogueligi
lagra
lekip
lequi
Hair
namodi
neefcequic
na«cuta
caplhe
Hand
nibaagadi
napakena
napoguena
isip
is
ycaelgrat
Foot
nogonagi
■
capiate
ape
elu
Sky
ytitipigime
ipigem
ipiguem
laue
chajenk
Earth
basle
a
Sun
alilega
grabaulai
daazoa
olo
ini
Moon
epenai
grauek
chidaigo
copi
alit
Fire
nuledi
nkaatek
anodek
nie
icue
Water
niogodi
enarap
ebagyac
ma
to
One
uninitegui
ifiiateda
yaguit
alapea
Two
itoata
iftabaea
uke
tamop
Three
dagani
iflabacacaocaini
nipeluei
tamlip.
Of the Chaco languages, the Mataguaya is tlie most
akin to the Chiquitos ; the Vilela and Lule to the
Aymara.
«
•
THE GUARANI, ETC. 507
CHAPTER LXIV.
Languages of BraziL — Guaram. — Other than Goaiani. — Botocndo, &c. — Lan-
guages neither Guarani nor Botocado. — The TSmbiras. — The Sabuja, &c.
The Lingua Gteral, or current Indian of the Empire, is
Guarani ; a language which is not only spoken by many
Portuguese, but one for which several native tribes of
comparatively smaU importance have exchanged their
own. Little, however, will be said about the Guarani,
the general phenomena connected with its remarkable
distribution being commonly known. A form of speech
akin to it is spoken on, or ' even within, the frontier of
Ecuador ; whilst others are spoken on the Rio Negro,
on the lower Amazons, along the coast of the Pacific
as &r as the neighbourhood of Monte Video, in Para-
guay, and by the Chiriguanos and Sirionos on the
frontier of Peru. That the tribes which use this toncnie
are numerous we readily believe : nor are there wanting
long lists of them. The present writer has collected
more than forty. The statement, however, that
such and such populations speak the same language is
one thing; an actual specimen of the language itself
eo nomine, is another. This is often wanting, or, at
any rate, the specimen is a short one. Yet it may consist
of only a single word and stUl have its value. The
chief Guarani languages are —
1. The Omagua.
2, 3, 4. The Tupi, Tupinambi, and Tupinaquin.
5. The Guarani Proper of Paiaguay and the South-
west.
508
THE GUARANI, ETC.
6. The Chiriguano of the South-west on and within
the frontier of Peru.
English.
Guarani.
Tupi.
Man (homo)
aba
aba
(vir)
me
Woman
cugna
cunha
Head
acang
acanga
Eye
tesa
teca
Ea/r
namhy
Nose
te, tu, hu
un
Tongue
cu
apecu
Hair
og
oca
Hand
po
pu
Foot
pi
pi
Day
ara
ara
Sky
ibag
iba<5a
Earth
ibi
ibi
Sun
quarassi
coaracy
Moon
yasi
iacy
Fire
tata
tata
Water
i
i.
Englisli.
Omagaa.
English.
Omagua.
Man (homo)
ava
Sky
ehuatemai ritama
(mr)
mena
Earth
tujuca
Woman
huaina
Sun
huarassi
Head
yacae
Moon
yase
Eye
ssissa zaicama
Fire
tata
Ear
nami
Water
uni
Nose
ti
One
uyepe
Tongue
camuera
Two
mucuica
Hand
pua
Three
iruaca.
Foot
pueta
East of the Murus on the Madera, extending east-
wards still in the direction of the Tapajoz, lie the
Mundrucus.
English.
Mundrucn.
English.
Mundrucn.
Eye
ueta
Foot
worcanaputa
Head
ija
Sun
uasM
Nose
heinampo
Moon
uashiat
Mouth
woropi
Earth
ipu
Tongue
waico
Water
hu
Tooth
womo
Fire
tasha.
Haiid
woipo
I
BRAZILIAN LANGUAGES.
509
I conDect the Mura with the Mundrucu, notwith-
standing its place in a previous chapter. I also make
them both Guarani (raising the value of the class) —
but Guarani with Carib affinities. The following voca-
bularies from Castelnau, e\ddently, represent languages
of the great Guarani class ; though their exact place in
it is uncertain.
EngUsh.
A.piaca.
Cayowa,
Man
conimahe
awa
Woman
cogna
coniah
Head
ai-acana
siakan
Hair
ai-ava
siawon
Eye
ai-re-coara
chercisa
Nose
a-si-gna
chanl
Tooth
ai-ragna
ioway
Tongue
ai-cona
iocalike
Ear
ai-nembia
Hand
ai-pore
Foot
arpia
Sun
quara-ou
Moon
jahi
yaseu
Star
yotete
Fire
tatan
tata
Water
equat-daramau
To the Botodtdo class belong (1.) the Botocudo
Proper, spoken between 18" and 20° S. L. (2.) The
Jupuroca, spoken on the Mucury near the town of
Caravellas, apparently, but not necessarily, falling into
sis sub-divisions. Such at least is the inference from
the statement that the names of the heads of the
several Jupuroca chiefs are (1.) Guiparoca, (2.) Potica,
(3.) Tupi, (4.) Mechmech, (5.) Megwi Megu, (6.) Uroue.
(3.)? Mucury.
(1.)
Mucury.
English.
Man
Botocudo.
onaba
Jupuroca.
Woman
Brother
Hair
Head
jokoanang
kgipack
kerang
giaecana
euqnijacca
carenqueti
enelem
510
BOTOCUDO CLASS.
English.
Botocudo.
Jupuroca.
Mucury.
Eye
ketom
equitongh
Ear
uniaknom
gioni
Tooth
kiiomir
Beard
giakiiot
Blood
comtjaack
Hand
po
impo
impo
Foot
po
impo
impo
Bone
kiock
Belly
conang
Moon
concang-eion
caratuti
New
etran-him
Star
more
Fire
ghompeck
giompequi
jampec
Water
magnar
ninhanga
Tree
tachoou
Egg
bacan-nigcon
Fish
impock
eimpoca
ep
Devil
lantchong
lanchou
One
mekenum
(2.)
English.
Naknanuk.
Euglish.
Naknanuk.
Head
kraine
Tooth
kiijounne
Nose
kujink
Hand (foot)
po.
About the languages of the next class little is said in
the Mithridates ; more in the Travels of Spix and Mar-
tius, and of Prince Maximilian of Neuwied. Balbi throws
them all into a single group, which he calls the Macha-
cari-Camacan. The area of this group is conterminous
with that of the Botocudos ; whilst the author from
whom these vocabularies are taken, commits himself to
the statement that the Machakali bears a decided
similarity to the Botocudo, having both a guttural and
a nasal pronunciation. At any rate the Rio Mucury is
occupied by both the Proper Mucury tribes and the
Machakali, or Machakaris ; though the present writer,
who, without hesitation, treats the Machacari-Camacan
of Balbi and the Botocudo as separate sections of the
same group, considers that the nearest congeners to the
Botocudo are the Mongoyos and Malali.
i
BOTOCUDO CLASS,
611
(1.)
English.
Mongoyos
God
Man
hoiema
Woman
Head
hero
Hair
ke
Eye
kedo
Ear
nikobko
Hand
ninkre
Arm
nikhona
Foot
Beard
nikhran
Blood
kedio
Sun
hoiseu
Fire
diakhkeo
Water
sa
River
Tree
hanoafe
Egg
White
hoai
Black
khokada
Fish
hona
HaconL
MachalnlL
amleto, toupa
toupa
atempeep
idijun
aiento
abation
etation
epotoi
endaen, aen
ideal
ideal
impeoi
aimke
aqnitktain
agnim
niponoi
ingpata
idapata
aqaedhnm
inken
kechiniong
abcaai
coen
chechan
connaan
coanaana
idakeng
abooi
abaai
amnietim
nipitim
crebran
immetan tanmoa
tapagnon
maan
(2.)
English.
God
Man
Woman
Head
Hair
Eye
Ear
Hand
Arm
Beard
Blood
San
Fire
Water
Tree
Egg
WhiU
Blade
Fish
Patacho.
Camacan.
ninilssonm
monactun
cahe
achonn
tot»
inro
epotoi
ining^
angona
inglento
Ineoca
incrou
agnlpeaton
igihia
loghe
eughem
iso
mayon
chion
jaron
sin
mawmipticau
he
petitieng
hai
tomeningna
micai
512
BOTOCUDO CLASS.
English.
Menieng.
Malali.
Head
inro
akea
Eye
imgutu
keto
Nose
inchivo
aseie
Mouth
iniatago
aietoco
Tongue
gnocgno
Tooth
io
aio
Hand
iniru
aiimke
Foot
apao
Sun
chioii
hapem
Earth
e
am
Fire
iaru
couia
Water
sin
keche.
Of the languages neither Guarani nor Botocudo, I
begin with those on the drainage of the Tocantins.
English.
Timhirai'.
English.
Tirabiras.
Head
jora
Sun
puttu
Eye
intho
Moon
putturagh
Nose
ingniakra
Earth
pia
Mouth
sharicoa
Fire
cochto
Tongue
ingnoto
Water
CO
Tooth
itzoa
One
itaputshitti
Hand
ingniucrahy
Two
ipiacruttu
Foot
babalneci-ahuk
Three
ingere.
English.
Ge.
English.
Ge.
Head
grangbla
Sun
chughera
Eye
alepuh
Moon
paang
Nose
aenocopioh
Earth
chgku
Mouth
aingco
Fire
ping
Tongue
aenetta
Water
aeco
Tooth
aijante
One
gumtung
Hand
senaenong
Two
uaeu
Foot
aepahno
Three
balipe.
English.
Car^ja.
Apinages.
Man
abou
iprid
Woman
awkeu
iprom
Head
woara
Hair
woara-day
Eye
wa-a-rouwai
Tooth
wa-a-djou
Tongue
wa-darato
Hand
wa-debo
Foot
wa-ai?
fa
TOCANTINS LANGUAGES.
13
Enslisb
Caraja
Apiuages.
Water
beai
piacom
Fire
eatou
coaconooa
Sun
bore
Moon
burua.
English.
Tocantin?.
Caraho.
Cherente.
Chavaute.
}fan
papay
ambeu
ambei
Woman
mentija
meca-ouare picon
picon
I/ead
iscran
icran
dicran
dicran
Hair
itki
ikei
Eye
into
datoi
datoi
Nose
danescri
danescri
Tooth
ninhloa
itchoua
dagaoi
daguoi
Tongue
gnoto
ioto
Hand
gnoDcra
danicra
dai-iperai
Foot
it-pari
dapra
dapra-canoo.
Water
inko
ko
Fire
couvou
congeu
congeu
Sun
kathoa
put
binden
Moon
badouTTou
ooa
oua.
Eng'isli.
Chuntaquiro.
Engliah.
ChnDtaqniro.
Eye
weari
Sun
katchi
Noite
weiri
Moon
ceri
Tooth
weii
Star
catahiri
Foot
wait!
Water
une.
Spoken in Bahia.
English.
Kiriri.
Sabuyah.
Head
tzambu
zabuk
Eye
po
poh
Xose
nembi
nabitzeh
Mouth
waridga
oriseh
Tongue
nana
nunu
Tooth
dza
zah
Hand
mysa-baanghe
mussoh
Foot
by
puih
Sun
ache
utsheh
Moon
cayacu
gayacu
Day
cayapri
Earth
rada
rattah
Fire
isujiuw
essa
Water
dzu
tzoh
One
bibe
Two
wachana
Three
wachanidikie
L L
514
PURUS, ETC.
Spoken in Rio Janeiro and Minas Geraes,
English.
Head
Eye
Nose
Mouth
Tongue
Tooth
Hand
Foot
Sun
Moon,
Bay
Earth
Fire
Water
One
Tioo
Three
Purus.
n'gue
miri
nhe
jora
tope
dje
core
jupre
ope
petara
bricca
aje
pote
nhama
omi
curiri
prica
Coroato.
Coropo.
gue
pitao
mere
ualim
nhe
shirong
tshore
tshore
tompe
tupe
tshe
shorim
tshopre
tshambrim
kakora
tshambrim
hope
nasceun
petahra
nashe
uasche
bame
pohe
ke
nhaman
teign
scombriuan
nam
tshiri
gringrim
patapakon
patehackon(?)
Spoken in Matagrosso and in the direction of the
Chaco.
English.
Guana.
Englisli.
Guana.
Man
tahanan
Ear
guiaibaino
Woman
zeeno
Hand
no
Head
kom baipoi
Foot
djabawai
Hair
dooti
Sun
katbai
Eye
onguei
Moon
kobaivai
Nose
agueiri
Star
ickerai
Tooth
onhai
Water
bouna.
Tongue
nahainai
English.
Guato.
English.
Guato.
Man
matai
Tongue
chagi
Woman
monnagai
Ear
mavi
Head
dokeu
Hand
ida
Hair
maeu
Foot
apoo
Eye
marei
Fire
mata
Nose
taga
Water
maquen.
Tooth
maqua
English.
Guachi.
English.
Guachi.
Man
chacup
Hair
ioatriz
Woman
outie
Eye
iataya
Head
iotapa
Nose
ianote
PAYAGUA, ETC.
515
English.
Gaaclii.
English.
Guachi.
Tooth
iava
Sun
oes
Tongue
iteche
Moon
oalete
Ear
irtamnete
Star
aate
Hand
iolaimason
Water
euak.
Foot
iacalep
Erglisli.
Bororo.
English.
Bororo.
Eye
itai
Sun
cuerou
Nose
kinamalo
Moon
ari
Mouth
noiri
Star
ikai
Tooth
ita
Fire
toln
Hand
chetara
Water
ikotowai.
Foot
igoolai
English.
Fayagna.
English.
Payagna.
God
haasum
Leg
yehega
Father
iralgwah
Water
waaac
Brother
yagtiwah
Bread
asyah
Child
dfiawat
Bow
sua
Mother
yosawsah
Truth
sahc
Wife
elmhirah
Pretty
laaa
Sister
yagubira
Ugly
thlak
Face
igwetshogra
One
petshaah
Hand
sumahyah
Two
seradi
Foot
sewli
Pour
p^as.
Finger
igutsan
The Guanans of Martius live between the Paraguay
and the SieiTa de Chainez and are stated to be related
to the Cahans, Coahunas, or Men of the Wood, whom
the Guacurus call Cayubabas. To this add that the
Guana vocabulary of Gastelnau is given by Ludwig
to these same Guanans. If so, we may compare it
to the Cayubaba, or Cayuvava, of the mission of
Moxos. Doing this we shall find that the resemblance
is of the slightest, consisting chiefly (perhaps wholly) in
that between
English.
Tongue
Gnann.
na-hanai
CajTibaba.
ine
But what if there are two Cayubabas ?
L L 2
516
THE GUANA.
The following languages belong to Peru and Bolivia
rather than Brazil. The former is spoken on the west
of the Moxos frontier, the latter on the Ucayale.
(1.)
English.
Antes.
English.
Antes.
Eye
nocki
Sun
kisiti
Nose
nogiurimasi
Moon
casiri
Mouth
notseura
Star
impokiro
Tooth
nai
Fire
chichi
Hand
nako
Water
nia.
Foot
nokuti
(2.)
Glosses
English.
Panos.
English.
Panos.
Eys
bouero
Sun
vari
Nose
raiki
Moon
ouche
Mouth
kaishra
Star
ouisti
Tooth
schaita
Fire
chi
Hand
Foot
moique
tarri
Water
umparse.
/
nfiections.
I
evi
I love
evi nai
Thou
mevi
Thou lovest
mevinoui
He
avi
He loves
avinoui
We
novombi
We love
novombinoui
Ye
mivombi
Ye love
mivombinoui
They
avombi
They love
avombinoui
My
mocouna
One
achupe
Our
novombina
Two
raboe.
Their
mitombina
In Paraguay, the Gaarani is the chief native lan-
guage ; the obliteration of other native tongues being
very great.
THE AMERICAN LANGUAGES IN GENERAL 517
CHAPTER LXV.
General Remarks on the American Langaages.
The primary division is that between North and South
America ; the difference between them being partly
real and partly what may be called subjective. It is
real, because the Isthmus of Darien is a narrow neck of
land, and the points of contact between the two penin-
sulas are few ; nor are they notably increased by taking
in the West- Indian Islands as a second passage.
It is subjective (by which I mean that it is referable
to our want of knowledge) through the scantiness of
our materials for Nicaragua, Costarica, Honduras, and
St. Salvador on the one side, and for New Grenada on
the other. There is, then, a true want or deficiency
of investigation, and there is, also, the fact of the
displacement and obliteration of the native tongues
having been great. Nev^ertheless, the coincidences be-
tween the two classes are numerous.
In North America the connection with Asia is de-
cided. Through the Aleutian dialect of the Eskimo,
and the Kamtshatkan, it is direct. Thi'ough the Yuka-
hiri and other tongues it is indirect. That this affinity
was concealed so long as we took the Eskimo in the At-
lantic portion of its area, and compared, or contrasted,
it wdth the Algonkin — itself on its Atlantic side also —
has already been stated ; and it may be added that, even
on the side of the Pacific, it is, by no means, apparent
518 THE AMERICAN LANGUAGES
on a mere cursory and superficial inspection. The Es-
kimo is a definite class, with its maximum of difierence
on the side of the Atlantic. The Athabaskan is also a
definite class when compared with the Algonkin, which
underlies it when we pass the Rocky Mountains. On
the side, however, of the Pacific, the phenomena of
ti'ansition present themselves. The Kenay was not
generally recognized as Athabaskan, until compared with
the Loucheux ; and, as long as the Kenay was unfixed,
the Ugalents and its congeners were unfixed also. As
it is, they form a definite sub-class, with Eskimo affini-
ties on one hand, and Atna affinities on the other ; the
Kolush being truly transitional. The Chesmesyan, the
Hailtsa, the Wakash, and the Chinuk, are connected
through their miscellaneous affinities, and are all
characterized by their harsh phonesis. The Jakon and
Kalapuya lead to the languages of the Sahaptin and
Shoshoni phonesis — among the congeners of which the
sound of tl appears and reappears. In the Mexican,
this becomes prominent ; and in the Maya, to say the
least, has no inordinate prominence.
Between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific, the
Aloronkin, with its intrusive character and wide diflfusion,
has done so much in the way of the displacement and
obliteration of such forms of speech as may have shown
signs of transition that it is the best-marked class on
the continent. Its spread, however, appears to have
been from west to east, and the result of it has told most
on the iragmentary and isolated languages of the Iroquois
family, which it has affected in the way that the Tui'k
and Russian have aflfected the Ugrian. In its ordinal value,
it is, apparently, higher than the Turk, the Mongol, or
the Tungus ; lower than the Fin. Taking it along with
the Athabaskan and its congeners as far as American
Oregon, and with the Eskimo, it probably forms a class
to which the Iroquois, the Sioux, the Catawba, the Uche
(with its congeners), and (perhaps) the Caddo, form a
IN GENERAL. 519
co-ordinate. At any rate, the Athabaskan and Algon-
kin, the Sioux and Iroquois, belong to the same class
with one another, and to different ones when compared
in mass — whatever the value of those classes may be.
The South Oregon languages graduate into the Cali-
fomian, and the Califomian into those of the Paduca
class and those of Sonora ; until we come to the two
great divisions of the Mexican and Maya ; the former
of the greater historical importance, the latter impoi-tant
from the multiplicity of its dialects — dialects which
simulate separate substantive languages.
The Moqui, a Pueblo language, has decided Paduca
affinities.
If the Attakapa seem to be pre-eminently isolated, the
vast displacements which have occurred all around may
account for it. It has, for an American language, a
monosyllabic look. So has the Otomi, which has been
compared with the Chinese. So have some of the
Athabaskan tongues. So have some of the Algonkin, in
certain vocabularies ; their congeners, meanwhile, being
as polysyllabic as the American languages in generaL
This leads to the consideration of certain doctrines con-
cerning what is caUed the general grammatical structure
of the languages of the New World ; in which, we are
told, that they all agree in grammatical, though differing
in glossarial, detail. The term expressive of this general
character is jx>ly synthetic. Wliat is its import ?
It is a fact that in an American sentence the term
denoting the object coalesces with the verb ; so that,
while a Roman delivered the equivalent to I call in the
single word voco, the American can, in a single word,
say / call hiTii, her, or them, as the ease may be.
It is also a fact that there are certain very long
words expressive of what in Europe is expressed by
short ones, and that out of these long words compounds
may be made which are no longer than either of the
single elements. This looks as if each were picked
520 THE AMERICAN LANGUAGES
to pieces, and a part alone taken. There is something
in each (d, fortiori in both) of these processes which
bears out the term polysynthetic. Valeat qvxintura.
The former process is quite as European as American,
and is, to a certain extent, a piece of printer's philology.
In catch 'em, in je Vairae, &c., there is a true incorpo-
ration of the objective pronoun with the verb : which,
in the Norse, Lithuanic, and other languages, has given
us a passive voice developed out of a middle, itself deve-
loped out of the amalgamation of the verb with the
pronoun. In the Magyar this incorporation has com-
manded no little attention.
In respect to the other phenomenon — the phenomenon
of a composition with a decomposition to precede it —
it would be important if proven. The fact, however, of
the decomposition is more than doubtful. It is not out
of the full-formed pair of primary compounds that the
secondary compound is made, but out of the original
parts which existed while they — the apparent primary
compounds — were merely compounds in posse.
Another fact which suggests the term is the incor-
poration of the personal pronoun with the names of cer-
tain parts of the body, as shown in the difficulty there
is in getting an American to say eye or head, &c. purely
and simply. He always says my-eye, your-head, or
something of the kind.* But this is Papuan, not to
say Kurd and Gipsy, as well.
The same criticism applies to the inclusive and ex-
clusive plurals ; which are, by no means, American : nor
even Asiatic. The Spanish nosotros has already been
alluded to.
Still there is polysyntheticism to a certain degree — .
though much of it is of the grammarian's making. Ex*
isting, however, as it does, it may occur in every degr
sen
4
* This may be seen in almost any one of the vocabularies, wherein tlie most
cursory inspection tells us that the parts of the human body nearly always
begin with either the same syllable or the same letter.
4
IN GENERAL. 521
Where the amalgamation is perfect we have such voca-
bularies as the Iroquois aud such paternosters as the
Tarasca. Where it is incomplete we have the show of
a monosyllabic language.
The doctrine, then, that the differences in gi'ammatical
structure are differences of degree rather than of kind,
aud that there is uothinor in one languaore which, either
as a fragment or a rudiment, is not to be found in
another, is contravened by nothing from America.
The languages to which those of America are the nearest
equivalents in the way of development are, by no means,
their nearest congeners in the way of actual affinity.
These are the languages of the Papuan and Australian
areas ; and, to a certain extent, those of Polynesia. The
limited numeration and the concrete view of plurality
are points in which they have a decided likeness ; and
it is scarcely necessary to add that the culture of the two
families is on a like low level.
' In North America the phenomena in the way of dis-
tribution and diffusion which presented themselves in
Asia re-appear ; and in South, there is a re-appearance
of the phenomena of North, America. Small areas
with a multiplicity of mutually unintelligible forms of
speech stand in strong contrast to large ones with a
TiiinimuTn of dicdectual difference. What the Atha-
baskan and the Algonkin are in the one peninsula, the
Quichua, the Carib, and, above all, the Guarani, are in the
other. From the want, however, of details, the direction
of the several movements by which they spread is, for
the most part, undetermined.
With any South American vocabulary of adequate
length, some North American root presents itself — .some,
indeed, from the extreme north, e. g. the Eskimo area.
Now, as borrowing is out of the question (whilst the
words are not of the sort to be independently excogi-
tated by distant speakers), this, along with the phe-
nomena of transition, is the chief philological argument
522 THE AMERICAN LANGUAGES
in favour of the fundamental unity of the two classes.
That the transitions are obscure is, from the scantiness
of our data for the most important points, what we
expect, a priori.
When well within South America — for New Granada
gives us but few materials — however difficult it may be
to give a systematic classification of definitely affiliated
languages, it is much more difficult to find a language
wherein miscellaneous affinities are wanting. The stu-
dent from Peru finds Quichua words in every vocabulary
he lights upon : whilst the student from Brazil finds
Guarani ones. These languages are, certainly, the most
widely spread of any : but the same coincidences —
allowance being made for the difference in the number
of the words compared — occur in all the other tongues ;
even those of which our knowledge is the slightest.
The details of the classification are given in the pre-
liminary table. The ordinal value, however, of the
whole American class requires a brief notice. I doubt*
whether, on the whole, it is higher than that of tlie so-
called Indo-European in its most restricted form, i. e.
in the form to which it is limited in the forthcoming
chapters of the present work.
However, in order that this statement may not pass
for a paradox, it must be remembered that the value of a
class depends not upon the number of the minor divisions
and sub-divisions which it may contain, but upon the
amount of difference between the extremes. If, (the
limits of the English, the Germ.an, the Russian, the
Latin, the French, and their congeners being limited to
areas no larger than tlie county of York,) the remainder
of Europe were filled-up with some scores or hun-
dreds of languages, each as different (and not more
different) from one another as the above-named languages
are among themselves, the value of the class at large
would be the same ; though that of its subordinate
sections would be less. Instead of some three primary
m
IN GENERAL. 523
divisions with a mass of divisions there would be some
scores of genera consisting of either a single species or
of few. There would be, in short, a bundled languages
resembling the Kussian and the German, in their differ-
ence from each other, but not resembling them in being
spoken over large areas. Tested by the diflferenee be-
tween its extreme membei-s (say the Eskimo and the
Fuegian) the American class, in my mind, is one of a
very moderate ordinal value ; for, with a view to the thne
required to effect change, a little consideration tells us
that the period which will modify one form of speech
may just as easily modify a hundred.
524 THE PHENICIAN.
CHAPTER LXVI.
The Semitic Languages. — The Phenician and Punic. — The Hebrew and Sa-
maritan.— The Assyrian and Chaldee. — The Syriac. — The ^thiopic and
Aniharic. — Gafat. — Arabic. — Hururgi, The Amazig or Berber.
The Phenician of Tyre and Sidon and the parts
around is known only by inscriptions ; and as these
are without date the exact state of language which
they indicate is uncertain. They are spread over a
wide tract of country ; a tract which agrees with the
notions suggested by the ordinary historical accounts
of the commercial and colonial relations of those two
cities. They are either rare or non-existent beyond
the range of Mount Taurus, They are rare or non-
existent along tlie eastern parts of Africa. They are nume-
rous in Spain, and they have been found in Sicily and
Malta. Between those which represent Carthage and
tiiose that represent Phenicia the line of demarcation is
partly uncertain, partly conventional. Nevertheless, it
is convenient to separate, so far as it can be done, the
Phenician from the Punic — allied or identical as they
may be.
In the way of language the Phenician inscriptions
are unimportant. In the history of the alphabet they
are of interest. It was from Phenicia that the Greeks
took their letters : the Old Italians theirs ; and from
these two all the alphabets of the West have originated.
Those of the East (in the mind of the present writer)
have, also, a like origin. The j)roof, however, is less patent.
THE PHENICIAN. 525
The Phenician alphabet consisted of signs for the mutes
and liquids. Then comes what are considered signs for
certain breathings, as h and its congeners ; along with
certain semi-vowels and nasals. In the Phenician itself,
and in its immediate eastern descendants, these are
treated as consonants — so that the alphabets under the
ordinary doctrine are alphabets without vowels. If
so, such a word as inUk is written ralh ; the context
being held sufficient to say whether the actual word was
Ttielek, or railik, or rtiuluk, or melik, or Tnilek, or milk,
or melk, or mlik, or mlek, or what not. Meanwhile,
the semi- vow els, in many instances, were vowels also, so
that stul might stand for sul, or syl for sil. In like
manner the sound of what, as a consonant (or rather as
a non-vowel), has been compared with the lene breath-
ing of the Greeks is, in certain cases, represented by
the equivalent of a.
In the Phenician stage, then, of the alphabet all that
can be said of certain letters is that they were occasion-
ally vowels. In the Greek and Latin, however, they be-
came real ones. This is a definite fact. Whatever difficul-
ties we may have in reconciling the powers of certain
letters on the Phenician inscriptions with the doctrine
that they partook so much of the nature of consonants,
and so little of the nature of vowels as to be equivalent
to the lene and aspirate breathings of the Greeks {' and *),
the semi- vowels of the English {y and w), and the na-
sals of the Portuguese (a o), it is beyond all doubt that
in the Greek and Latin they became a, tj, e, and o, all
trace of their consonantal power having been lost at
an early period. This change, however, they underwent
only in their progress w^estward.
They also underwent another — this, too, in their pro-
gress westward. In Phenicia they were written from
right to left ; in Greece and Italy (after a time) from
left to ricrht.
Again — the Phenician alphabet, as far as it is known
526 THE PHENICIAN.
to us, is known to us from inscriptions only. Hence,
it consists of capital letters only, and these in a form
that suits the carver on stone rather than the writer
on paper or parchment.
The Phenician of Carthage is conveniently called Punic,
and, like the Phenician Proper, it is known through in-
scriptions. Unlike the Punic it is known by something
more than inscriptions. In the Little Carthaginian
(Poenulus) of Plautus one of the characters is a Cartha-
ginian, who speaks his own Punic.
On the east the Phenician, in the limited sense of
the term, came in contact with the Galilean, into
which it probably graduated ; as the Galilean itself did
into the Syrian, the dialects of the country beyond
Jordan, and (on the south) the Samaritan. That there
was some difference between the Galilean and the
Hebrew of Jerusalem we learn from the New Testa-
ment : the Galilean being, nevertheless, a Hebrew
dialect ; indeed, between the Phenician and the Hebrew
the difference was political rather than philological. It
is the Hebrew into which the Punic of the Poenulus has
been more especially transliterated.
Concerning the Samaritan, of which the chief original
speakers were of the tribe of Ephraim, we know that
it wanted the Hebrew sound of either sh or th ; so that
Sihboleth, Shibbolet, or Sibboleth, was the Samaritan form
of Shibboleth.
The Samaritan alphabet was older, and more like the
Phenician than the Hebrew. That a copy of the Pen-
tateuch is written in it, that it still exists, and that it
gives some important variations from the Hebrew text,
is well-known, though its age is uncertain. The re-
mainder of the literature consists in a chronicle and
some private letters, written in Arabic with Samaritan
characters. In the neighbourhood of Nablus, fragments
of the Samaritans still exist ; some others, I believe, in
Cairo. It is the Samaritan characters that give the
THE HEBREW. 527
legends of the Maccabean coins. That the blood in
Samaria difi'ers notably from the language, is an infer-
ence from the statement in Ezra, that the men and
women who retmned to Samaiia after the removal of
the population by Nebuchadnezzar, were (amongst
others) Babylonians, Susanites, and Elamites : i. e. Assy-
rians, or Arabs, or Persians, or a mixture.
The Hehrev: of Judea now follows ; the slight differ-
ence between which and the Samaritan is enhanced by
the difference of alphabet.
The fundamental date in our criticism of the Hebrew
language in respect to its history is the second year of
the reign of Darius II., in which were delivered the pro-
phecies of Haggai and Zechariah. Though Malachi, as
the last of the prophets, is generally, and perhaps rightly,
held to foUow these two in time, we have no exact dates
for him. On the other hand, those of Haggai and Zecha-
riah (more or less) are precise. Their compositions cannot
be older, though they may be later. This coincides with
the time of Thucydides, and Aristophanes in Greece, the
culmination of the Attic period. The language of these
is essentially that of the oldest composition in the New
Testament. Such being the case, one of three things is
the inference.
1. That the older writings, in their transcription,
were accommodated to the newer medium, just as was
the case with the older compositions in English, where
we have not only differences of dialect, but differences
of time as well.
2. That the newer writings were written upon the
model of the old, just as Ciceronian Latin is written by
late Italians.
3. That the language actually remained unchanged,
just as, to some extent, and for some time, and as, com-
pared with certain other languages which changed quickly,
the Old Norse of Iceland did. It is unsafe to lay down
any general rule for particular cases of this kind. Each
528 THE HEBREW.
must be tried on its own merits; and it belongs to the
great Biblical and Semitic scholars to investigate the one
under notice. The question of permanence is one which
is, more or less, regulated by circumstances. A language
which resists influences for a century may fail to do so
for a millennium ; or a language, which, with no altera-
tive influences to touch it, may remain unchanged for a
century, may, under conditions unfavourable to its per-
manence, transform itself into something else in a gene-
ration or two.
Haggai, then, and Zechariah are loci standi for the
typical, historical Hebrew of the Jewish Scriptures,
with its massive quadrate alphabet, with Jerusalem as
its local centre, with the tribes of Benjamin and Judah
as its speakers, with Jewish or Hebrew as its name,
and with the middle of the fifth century B.C. as its date.
It covers everything in the Old Testament with the
exception of Ezra and Daniel, and gives us nothing
beyond ; i. e. nothing which exactly coincides with the
standard it exhibits.
From the names of the families or tribes in Ezra,
some of which are named from the localities which they
inhabited before the Captivity, it was the language of
Jerusalem and something more — as is to be expected.
That it did not all go back to Jerusalem we learn from
the subsequent notices of the Jews in various parts of
the Persian Empire, not to mention those of Egypt.
That Hebrew was the name for the language of the
Holy Land at the time of our Saviour's Crucifixion, we
learn from the trilingual inscriptions over the cross — ^in
Greek, in Latin, and in Hebrew : and that the Galilean
was a well-marked dialect of it, we learn fi-om the
answer of the woman to Peter, whose " speech bewrayed
him." — St. Matthew xxvi. 73.
In no part of the world do small differences in the
way of speech appear greater than they do about
Judsea. The ordinal value of the whole Semitic class
THE HEBREW. 529
itself is of the smallest ; but in Judaea and on the
Hebrew frontier everything creates distinctions. To
differences in nationality and religion differences of
alphabet are added ; and, out of all these combined,
come names like Hebrew, Samaritan, and Phenician —
names through which dialects take the guise of languages.
That these complications increase as we proceed we
shall soon find. How the Hebrew comported itself to
the SjT-ian on the north, to the forms of speech on the
Tigris and Euphrates on the east, and to the Arabic on
the south, is a difficult question : for it must be remem-
bered that, over and above the differences of name,
alphabet, and nationality, there was a difference of
time ; the newest Hebrew being older than the oldest
Syriac, and much older than the oldest Arabic.
As far, at least, as name went, the Aramaic of
the time of the kincrs of Judali was recogrnized as
a different language from the Hebrew, both before
the Captivity and afterwards. " Then said Eliakim,
Speak, I pray thee, to thy servants in the Aramaic
language ; for we understand it : and talk not with us
in the Jews' language in the ears of the people that are
on the waU." "Then Rabshakeh stood and cried
with a loud voice in the Jews' language, and spake," &c.
(2 Kings xviii. 26, 28.) Then they cried "in the
Jews' speech unto the people that were on the walls,"
&c. (2 Chron. xxxii. 18.) This applies to an ad-
dress of Eabshakeh, on the part of the King of -4 s-
syria, who, as speaking to Jews, addressed them in their
language — not in his. I do not look, however, upon
this answer as conclusive to the fact that, on all occasions
and under all circumstances, the Syrian was unintel-
ligible to a Jew. All that it tells is, that Eliakim, who
understood Syrian, considered that Rabshakeh, who was
unnecessarily departing from the use of his own mother
tongue, would do well in using, out of two languages,
the one which, besides being his 5wn, was less patently
M M
530 THE HEBREW.
plain to the common people than the one he was using.
A latent wish too, to let Rabshakeh know that he (Eli-
akim) could speak Aramaic is not to be overlooked. All
that Eliakim said to Rabshakeh might be said by a
Dane who spoke Swedish to a Swede unnecessarily talk-
ing Danish, or by a Portuguese to a Spaniard under
similar circumstances. This means, that I do not look
upon the passage as conclusive to the Aramaic and the
Judsean having been mutually unintelligible languages ;
which I think they were not.
In thus calling these two forms of speech Judaic and
AraraaiG I give the original terms of the Jews them-
selves. The Greek, Latin, and ordinary equivalent of
Aramaic is Syrian. Here it applies to the Assyrian,
i. e. the language of the subjects of Sennacherib rather
than those of Benhadad.
In Ezra we find a similar distinction, the date being
the time of Ai'taxerxes ; when the notification that the
re-constitution of Jerusalem was going on, and that it
ought to be stopped, is written in Aramaic ; as were other
documents appertaining to the administration of Judea.
But too much stress must not be laid on this ; inas-
much as a slight difierence between the languages would
be enhanced by the difierence between the alphabets.
In Daniel we get a new term, and it is because this
name is an important one ; an obscure one ; one which,
from its ambiguity, has created no little confusion ; and
one of which the history is mixed up with that of the
Aramaic and Jewish, that the preceding minutioi have
been indulged in. Along with Shadrach, Meshach,
and Abednego, Daniel is brought up under the master
of the eunuchs to be taught "the learning and the
tongue of the Chasdim {Chaldees)." Elsewhere the
Chasdim and Arameans (Chaldees and Syrians or
Assyrians) are associated. Now, it is only in the
latter half of the book of Daniel, and only when the
kingdom of which Babylon was the capital is con-
THE SYRIAC. 531
trasted with that of the Medes and Persians, that CTuls-
dim is a national name. In the earlier chapters, and
when the contrast is between the Babylonians and Jews,
it means astrologer.
The Aramaic that was spoken by Rabshakeh was the
language of J..ssyria rather than Syria. It was also
the language of Nineveh rather than Babylon. The
Aramaic of Ezra and the earlier chapters of Daniel was
also Assyrian rather than Syrian ; but it was the
Assyrian of Babylon rather than Nineveh.
It is from the Assyrian of Babylon that Chaldee, as
a name of the later Hebrew, is taken, and it is from
Nineveh that we get Caldani, as a name of the exist-
ing Christians of the parts about TJrumiah.
Of the true Syriac of Damascus, Emesa, and Edessa,
the literary history begins no earlier than the fourth
century.
It is Christian. It is embodied in an alphabet
which, though it agrees with the Hebrew in the number,
order, and names of its letters, diflers from it in the
form of them : the language itself being in contact with
the Greek and encroached upon by it. If it were
really spoken in Cappadocia it was the most northern
dialect of its class. The Palmyrene, known only by
inscriptions of the third century, is either a peculiar
alphabet or the ordinary alphabet adapted to lapidary
purposes.
In the third century, as now, Irak and Khuzistan
were districts in which the Persian and the Arab popu-
lations came in contact ; and in the third century (and
even eai-lier) the Syrian language was widely current in
both Arsacidan and Sassanian Persia. In his life of
Antony, Plutarch tells as how ilithridates, a cousin of
Moneses, asked for some one who could communicate
^vith him in either Parthian or Syrian. In the seventh
century a Syrian abstract of Aristotle's Dialectic is said
to have been made for Chosroes Nashirvan. More than
M M 2
532 THE SYRIAC.
this, the geographical details of the Semitic tribes of
south-western Persia are known. The particular popula-
tion which occupied Khuzistan and Irak was that of the
Nabatheans ; so-called by both the Arabian and Persian
historians ; though the name has a wide as well as a
limited signification, Masudi writes that Ardeshir Ba-
began besieged a Nabathean king in Sevad. The date,
however, is too early for this to pass as actual history.
Tabari, however, states that "at this present time the
Nabatheans who dwell in Sewad are descended from the
Arameans."
That these Nabatheans were of the rudest is likely
enough ; indeed, it is specially stated that such was tlie
case. Nevertheless, they could mix up their language
with that of the traders, the soldiers, and the common
people as well as more learned men. Meanwhile but a
little beyond them was the alphabet, the literature, and
the civilization of Palmyra — largely Greek; but, at the
same time, Semitic as well. It is to the Palmyrene that
the lapidary Sassanian most closely approaches.
It is not for nothing that I have gone into these
details. With the multiplicity of names and alphabets,
the differences between the languages under notice have
been exaggerated. Let any one who doubts about
their being essentially dialects of a single language pre-
pare himself for the investigation by a due valuation of
the extreme differences between the different dialects of
Germany, France, or Italy. If he come to the conclu-
sion that such an examination proves too much, and
that the result of it is a splitting up of several French,
Italian, and German dialects into so many separate
substantive languages, I have nothing to say against his
conclusion, I have only to ask him to suppose the
Arabic, the Syriac, and Hebrew all written in the same
alphabet, and compared with one another in the same
stage. Unless this be doiie, differences will be exagge-
rated and names will mislead.
I
THE GHEEZ AND TIGRE. 633
If this uniformity be admitted, the conclusion must
give the comparative recent diffusion of the forms of
speech in which it appears — either this or a great indis-
position to change. Of the two alternatives, the former
is the more likely, though I do not press it as the only one.
The direction in which the stream of language moved
is obscure ; all that can be said is, that there are none of
the lanoruaores on the Asiatic side of the Red Sea into
which they graduate. The converse is the case in
Africa. This induces me to leave the Arabic for the
present, and to begin at the other side of the Semitic
area, and, having fii-st considered the extremes, to pro-
ceed to the consideration of the middle ground.
The Glieez ls the language of the earliest .^thiopic
translation of the canonical Scriptures, of more than one
apocryphal portion of them, and of a few writings on
ecclesiastical subjects. It is read, at the present time, in
the churches, in the way that the Latin is read in the
Roman Catholic countries, and the Old Slavonic in
Russia. Its alphabet is syllabic, and the writing runs
from left to right, and not from right to left, as is the
case with the Hebrew, Syriac, and Arabic. The details
of its origin we cannot give, nor name its immediate
prototype.
Of the descendants of the Gheez, the nearest is that
of the present province of Tigrd ; indeed, the Tigre is
generally looked upon as modem Gheez, the Gheez as
ancient Tigv4 — the Tigr^ being a written language ; its
alphabet, the Gheez with modifications. Of its dialects
and sub-dialects we know nothing. The parts about the
ancient city of Axum are the probable localities of these
two varieties of the -^thiopic.
Grondar, on the other hand, and the southern pro-
vinces of Abyssinia, give the Amharic area : the Am-
haric language being spoken at the present time by the
majority of the southern Abyssinians ; and being written
in an alphabet of Gheez origin.
The Gafat lies in contact with the Amharic and Agaw
534
THE GAFAT.
on the north, and the Galla on the south ; by both of
which it has been encroached on — by the former first,
by the latter recently : indeed, the Galla encroachment
is still going on. Bruce has given a specimen of it, so
has Dr. Beke : who remarks that his own vocabulary is
more Amharic than his predecessor's.
English.
Gafat (1).
Gafat (2).
Man {homo)
sabush
sebew
{vir)
People
tab^tish
s§,boach
Woman
^nsit
an set
Boy
busMn
GiH
Head
^skharai
ddmoa
demow
Hair
tsagera
chegur
Eye
yena
ein
Ecvr
ankwagi
ankwagi
Nose
&unfwa
anfu
Mouth
simota
semota
Lip
kanfarish
semota
Tongue
melasish
melasi
Tooth
sinna
Sena
Hand
ts4tan
edzhedzhe
Foot
cMmme
cbama
Bone
damush
atsemo
atsant
Sky
samai
Swn
dzhember
cheber
Moon
chereka
tserakit
Star
kokab
kokeb
Pi/re
esSitsh
satawi
Water
ega
ege
^one
dzhindzish
denguish
Tree
zafi
mazafash
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
Six
Seven
Eight
Nine
Ten
edzhe
helitta
sdsta
arb&tta
h&mista
sMista
seb&tta
semlnta
zat6il&
asser
It is into the Amharic that Dr. Beke believes that the
Gafat is gradually merging. The special Gafat locaUty is
THE GAFAT. 535
a small district in the south of Daraot. It apparently falls
into dialects, or sub-dialects ; since the language of Dr.
Beke's informants varied according to the district from
which it came. Some gave to almost every word the ter-
mination -ish ; others -oa ; others no addition at all. The
former of these affixes is truly Gafat : the latter is Agaw
as well.
The alphabet of the present Arabic is closely akin to
that of the Syriac ; from an early form of which, the
Cufic, it seems to have been derived. But the Arabic of
the Koran is not the oldest language of which we find
memorials in Arabia. Neither dees it give us the only
Arabic dialect. Certain valleys in the south-east abound
in in.scriptions to which the name Himyaritic has been
applied. The alphabet of these is the ^thiopic, which
differs from aU the other Semitic alphabets in being not
only written from right to left, but in being syllabic.
Whether this give us a new language in the strictest
sense of the term is uncertain. It is certain that it
gives as as much of one as is given by the Phenician, or
even the Syriac. At any rate, it gives us a dialect of
the south-east rather than one of the parts about Mecca ;
a dialect of the fourth century, rather than one of t"he
seventh ; and, finally, a dialect which, in its literaiy as-
pect, at least, connects Arabia with .Ethiopia.
In fevour of ^thiopic elements thus introduced upon
the cognate Arabic, the Himyaritic inscriptions only give
us a presumption, Arabic elements, however, in Africa
are important realities. That the present language of
./Egypt, Barbary, and large tracts elsewhere, is Arabic is
well-known. In all these cases, however, the analysis
is, comparatively, easy — the mixture being heterogeneous.
Arabic, however, introdiiced into .Ethiopia would be
like Dutch introduced into England ; in which case it
would, with certain words, be hard to say to which lan-
guage they belonged. Even if the language were, for
aU practical purposes, Dutch, there might still be a basis
in the older tongue.
536
TIGRE, AMHARIC, ETC.
Mutatis mutandis, this applies to several forms of
speech on the Ethiopia frontier — in all of which
analysis is required ; in all of which, amid much which
is Semitic, there is something that is ^thiopic rather
than Arabic. When the Arabic has overlaid two lan-
guages instead of one the analysis becomes more intri-
cate.
The languages of Hurur and Adaiel are of this kind.
English.
Tigr6.
Amharic.
Arkiko.
Hurur.
Adaiel.
Man
saboi
wond
nas
abbok
adma
Woman
saboite
set
eseet
edok
barra
Head
ras '
ras
roos
mooiya
Hair
tsuqure
tsequr
tsequr
Eye
aire(ou)
ain
en
ain
Nose
afintcha
anf
oof
Mouth
af
af
adde
aof
Teeth
sinne
ters
inob
sin
Tongue
melhas
melas
arrat
Ear
izne
djoro
izun
ut'hun
Beard
tchame
tim
dimne
dubnn
Hwnd
eed
eedgekind
Leg
iggere
igger
igger
Foot
tscham^
God
eager
igzer
goeta
alia
Swn
tsai
tsai
tsai
eer
airo
Moon
werhe
tcherka
werhe
werhe
alsa
Star
quokub
kokub
toowee
urtoohta
Fire
howwe
a'sat
essaat
issat
gira
Water
mi
waha
mi
mi
ii
Wind
nef^
nefas
nefas
doof
arhoo
Rain
zinam
zenab
rooboo
River
koUe
bahr
zer
Earth
midre
mider
midur
diche
bare
HUl
amba
amba
dubr
Mountain
tarara
sare
alii
Stone
hemne
dengea
un
daha
Fountain
ain
mintch
ain
Fish
assa
assur
tulum
kullum
Horse
f'raa
feras
fei'as
feras
ferasa
One
adde
and
ante
ahad
»
Two
kiUete
quillet
killi
kout
Three
selaste
sost
selass
sheeste
Fowr
erbahte
arrut
ubah
harrut
Fim
aumishte
aumist
amoos
hammest
Six
sedishte
sedist
soos
sedeest
* Numerals said to be the same as the Danakel.
TIQRE, AMHARIC, ETC.
537
Eoglish.
Tigrf.
Amharic.
Arkika Hnrnr.
AdaieL
Sevtn
shabarte
subhat
sabhn sate
Eight
shtununte
semint theman sut
Nine
tish4t€
zetti
tse
zeythan
Ten
ashur
assin assor assir
Another lanoniage of this kind is the
English.
Gindzhar.
English.
Gindzhar.
Man
radzhU
Leg
kurab
Woman
maira
Foot
kafat kai4i
Boy
dzhenna
Day
mahar
Girl
bint
Night
Uel
Father
§bu
Morning
sobahh
Mother
um
Evening
ashir
Brother
&kha
Earth
w6to
Sister
okht
Water
&lma
Head
ras
Gras8
gesh
Hair
shar
Mountain
g^Uah
Eye
^in
River
hor
Nose
adftn
Good
samnu
Mouth
shamak
Bad
tasal
Neck
raggaba
Black
fiswad
Hand
id
White
4biad
Arm
derah
Red
4hinar.
Of the following, the former is the dialect which
most approaches the Himyaritic ; the latter that of the
island of Sokotra.
English.
Hahati
Sokotnn
Back
dara mothan
tadah
Belly
djof
Cow
bakaret
Donkey
heir
Eyebrow
ahajor
bajhar
Fire
sheewot
sheiwat
Father
heb
Fish
seit
sodah
Frog
dthafzat
God
bal
Hair
shof
fihif
Knee
barak
Milk
ishakhof
hnf
Mouth
warak
Nose
nakhrir
nahir
Red
an far
aafer
Rice
hiraz
arhaz
Sun
heiom
shobum
Star
kabkob
kokab.
538 MODERN SYRIAC
We now return to the Hebrew and Syriae in. the
newer forms. The language of the Talmud, written
in a modification of the Hebrew alphabet, represents
the language of the Jews after the destruction of
Jerusalem. It has largely influenced the Hebrew of
common life in conjunction with other causes ; so much
so that it may be doubted whether this latter be a true
vernacular ; by which I mean, that is it to be compared
with Latin as spoken by a mass of individuals who have
learned it either directly or indirectly through books rather
than with the Italian or Spanish which have developed
themselves freely and spontaneously. In all languages
the continual reference to written works developes an
artificial element. In the modern J ewish this is believed
to be considerable. It is a matter, however, upon which
no one but a learned and critical Jew can speak with
confidence.
The same applies, in a still greater degree, to the
fragmentary Samaritan.
The same, too, to the modern Syriae. It is said to
be spoken by a few individuals in the Lebanon. It
would, perhaps, be better to say that there are some
individuals in the Lebanon who can speak it.
Further north, the evidence of either it or an allied
dialect being a true vernacular improves ; it being spe-
cifically stated that most of the Nestorians, though they
use their own language in intercourse with each otiier,
are able to speak the so-caUed Tartar of the Turks around
them with ease and fluency. Very few, however, have
any tincture of literature ; their MSS. being scarce, and
printed works, up to A.D. 1829, non-existent. In that
year, however, the Gospels were printed from a copy, ob-
tained from Bishop Mar Johannan, through Dr. Wolff,
by the British and Foreign Bible Society. In 1840, the
American missionaries introduced a printing-press ; so
that, over and above some important translations from
the Scriptures, a series of tracts, from the Dairyman's
Daughter to Dr. Watts's hymns, has been published. In
AND HEBREW.
539
thus adapting an ancient language to the spiritual wants
of a poor and illiterate communitj^ of oppressed Chris-
tians, the names Perkins, HaUiday, Grant and Stoddart,
to the preface of whose grammar of the Modem Syrian
the foregoing facts are due, are honourably conspicuous.
The schools of the mission have gradually increased in
number, and in 1853 they amounted to eighty.
We can scarcely consider either the modem Syriac
or the modem Hebrew as a true spontaneous develop-
ment of the old language. Literary influence has en-
gendered an artificial element in them ; and the fact of
every community where either Ls spoken using a second
language has taken them out of conditions under which
true philological growth proceeds. What they do illus-
trate is, the laws by which such forces as the ones just
noticed act — and, in this respect, they deserve all the
attention that has been awarded them.
Even the Arabic is scarcely a language that has been
left to its own natural growth. Except in the ruder
dialects of Arabia itself, of which we know little or
nothing, the Koran has always exercised a conservative
influence ; whilst, in Malta, where there is no Koran,
there is a second language.
English.
Arabic.
Syriac.
Hebrew.
Head
ras
rish
rosh
Hair
saro
shar
sear
Eye
ayn
eyn
ayn
Ear
adzn
adno
ozen
Nose
anph
}iTiat,Tn
aph
Mouth
pham
pham
pi
Tooth
sen
sheno
shen
Tonrjvx
lishan
leshono
lashon
Hand
yad
yad
rad
Foot
rigl
r^o
regel
Sun
shams
shemsbo
shemesh
Star
kaukab
kukbo
kokab'
Day
yawm
yemn
yom
Night
laila
laUo
laila
Fire
anisat
eshotto
esh
Water
ma
mayo
mayim
540
THE AMAZIG OR BERBER GROUP.
Eiiglisli.
Arabic.
Syriac.
Hebrew.
One
akhad
hhad
ehhad
Ttpo
thana
tharin
shanim
Three
thaleth
tholth
shelosh
Four
arbat
arba'
arba'
Five
hliams
hhamesh
hhamesh
Six
sit
sheth
shesh
Seven
sab'
sheba'
sheba
Eight
sam&ra
thmon
shemoneh
Nine
tish
tsha
tesha'
Ten
ashar
'sar
'asar.
The Amazig (or Berber) area is the largest in Africa,
extending from the confines of Egypt to the Atlantic
Ocean. More than this — the Canary Islands, until the
extermination or fiision of their aborigines, were Amazig.
Again — the ancient Mauritanians and Gsetulians
were not only the occupants of the Amazig area, but of
Amazig blood. Of Amazig blood were the native tribes
with which the Greeks of the Cyrenaica came in con-
tact. Of Amazig blood were the native tribes with
which the Phenicians of Utica and Carthage came in
contact. The subjects of Masinissa and Jugurtha occu-
pied localities of which the ancient names are explained
by means of the modem Amazig.
At the present time there are five names for five
divisions of the Amazig populations, and seven names
for the Amazig forms of speech. How far either series
is natural is another question.
(1 .) The Kdbails — who speak the Kabail language,
are the Amazig of the northern part of Algiers rather
than Morocco.
(2.) The Shoimah are the Amazig of Morocco rather
than Algiers. They occupy, however, some of the
central districts of Algiers ; their language being the
Showiah.
(3.) The Shiluk lie to the south of Morocco, their
language being the Shiluk.
(4.) The Berbers belong to the south-eastern parts of
Algiers, to Tunis, to Tripoli, and the corresponding ^
THE AMAZIG OR BERBER GROUP.
541
parts of the Sahara. Their dialects are the Larua and
Zenaitia.
The extent to which the few fragments of the Lance-
rotta and Fuerteventura dialects of the Canary Islands
agree with the Shelluh may be seen from the following
table : —
English.
Canary.
Shellnb.
Barley
temasin
tnmzeeii
Sticks
tezzezes
tezezerat
Palm-tree
taginaste
taginast
Petticoat
tahuyan
tahuyat
Water
ahemon
amen
Priest
faycag
faquair
God
acoran
mkoom
Temple
almogaren
talmc^area
House
tamoyanteen
tigameen
Bog
tawaeen
tamouren
Green fig
archormase
akermuse
Sky
tigot
tigot
Mountain
thener
athraar
Valley
adeyhaman
douwaman.
The Canary Islanders were called Guances, and their
langruacfe the Guanch.
;42
THE AGAW.
CHAPTER LXVII.
The Agau, Agaw, or Agow, and Falasha. — The Gonga dialects. — The Kekuafi.
Agaumidr = Agau-land, and one of the vocabularies
of Dr. Beke, is headed Agau of Agauvnidr : a name
which suggests the notion that one part of the Agau area
was more decidedly Agau than the remainder. And
this seems to have been the case ; since Agaw is either
an Amharic or a Gheez term ; Aghagha being the native
name.
English.
Waag.
Faslaha.
Agaumidr.
Man (homo)
egir
ira
aghi
{mr)
gelua
garwa
ngardzhi
People
yek
aghi
Woman
yehona
yewina
bona
Boy
ashkir
korri
ansai
Girl
yehon-ashkir
korra
ansagha
Head
aur
agher
ngari
Hair
tsabka
aghet
tsitsifi
Eye
yel
iU
el
Ear
keretz
anko
ankwagi
Nose
yassin
komba
san
Mouth
miya
af
kambi
Lip
kifar
kanfer
kanfar
Tooth
erruk
Irku
arkui
Tongtie
lakh
lanah
tsangi
Hand
nen
nan
taf
Foot
tsab
chappi
chafu
lukkokochdm
chammi
Bone
ngas
ngach
ngats
Blood
bir
karbat
beri
Sun
kwora
kuara
awas
Moon
arba
serk
arfa
Star
tsegaloa
chingaroa
])ewa
I
THE AG
lAW.
English.
Waag.
Faslaha.
Agaumidr.
Wind
figia
nefas
Rain
sawa
sua
heri
Fire
Ha
ea
ag
Water
4k.wo
agho
agho
Hill
aroa
debba
kan
Plain
shuwa
wulagha
»-utaghi
Stone
kamga
kringa
karing
Tree
zaf
chafa
satsi
haa
kana
kani
Rivers
wirba
kura
beni
Lake
bahar
bar
One
Iowa
lagha
lagha
Two
linga
linga
langa
Three
shakwa
sighs
shuga
Pour
siza
sigha
shuga
Five
akwa
ankaa
ankaa
Six
walta
wolta
walta
Seven
langata
langatta
langatta
Eight
sohota
saghotta
saghatta
Nine
tsaicha
sessa
sesta
Ten
tsikka
chikka
tsikka.
54.3
The Agaw is bounded on the east, north, and north-
east by the Tigre ; being spoke in the province of
Lasta, and along the banks of the Tacazze. The par-
ticular dialect of the district named Waag is called
Hhamara — which, word for word, seems to be Xafiapa
and Amhara ; the former term being as old as the time
of Agatharchides, who uses the expression Kafidpa Xe^is
for one of the languages of these parts. In the southern
parts of Lasta, the Agaws are genuine mountaineers. In
Waag, and along the Tacazze, the land lies somewhat
lower. As a general rule, however, the Agau districts
lie in the more impracticable parts of Abyssinia, and the
dialects, pi'o tanto, take the appearance of aboriginal
forms of speech. The Agaws of Waag are the Tsherats
Agaws of Bruce.
Gonga is a name found in Ludolf : who places the
tribes to which he applies it in the Bahr-el-Abiad,
about 10" N. L. Dr. Beke has supplied as vocabu-
laries for the forms of speech referable to this class ; (1 .)
544
THE GONGA DIALECTS.
the Kaffa; (2.) the Woraita; (3.) the Wolaitsa; (4.) the
Yangaro. Word for word, I imagine that Yangaro is
Zinzero or Qingero, a name which in the old maps de-
notes one of the most southern provinces of Abyssinia.
To this district belongs Enarea, believed to have been
once a Christian kingdom. Now, however, it is over-
run by the Galla.
The name Gonga is native. In the western parts
of the valley of Bahr-el-Abiad, visited by Dr. Beke,
and named in the native dialect Shinasha, in Agawi,
Tsintsi, in Amharic and Gafat Shinasha, and con-
verted by the Portuguese into Ghinchon, the natives
believe that, before the invasion of the G alias, their
country was both populous and powerful, and their lan-
guage was spoken far, to both the south, and the west.
They also apply the name Gonga to a large tract of
country to the south.
English.
Gonga.
Kafifa.
Woratta.
Yangaro.
Man {homo)
aso
asso
assu
(mr)
lugsho
atuma
gunagfisha
People
asachi
Woman
manlia
machoa
nawase
Boy
lolo
naha
nangoto
Oirl
na
machenat
keredzho
Head
toko
tommo
kommo
Hair
chig
fungilla
kommo (?)
Eye
abo
afi
afo
Ear
wadzho
wamo
aitsa
Nose
sicho
sullia
sidi
Mouth
nono
nona
nona
Lip
lelfo
nono
mitharsa
Tooth
gasso
gasho
acha
Tongue
elbeto
milaso
intsarsa
Hand
kiso
kusha
kushia
Foot
chammi
God
Tiko
Yero
Tsossa
Balamo
Shy
dare
bid&ni
Svm,
aba
abo
awa
&nwa
ainehei
Moon
azicba
agino
agena
kita
gumbehei
Star
keno
kurchihe
tsolentsa
garkamo
THE KEKUAFI.
545
English.
Gouga.
Kaffii.
WorattsL
Tangaro.
Earth
decho
showo
saha
donokamo
a&reni
Wind
dzhongo
agatsa
kocho
Rain
amso
iia
iro
Pin
tamo
kako
tammo
gea
Water
acho
acho
hatsa
akka
Stone
saco
hechechence
shucha
shuha
Tree
mitto
mitto
mitsa
ihho
One
ikko
ikka
itta
is90
Two
gitta
gutta
laha
hep
2^«e
kedxha
kedzha
hej^a
kes
Four
aada
haudda
hoida
achech
Fire
hacha
hacha
huchesa
huch
SU
shirta
shirita
hosapona
isson (?)
Seren
sabata
shebata
lapona
nafan
Eight
seminta
shiminta
hospona
nangiii
Nine
dzheta
jidea
hoddpoDa
i^in
Ten
tacha
ashiri
tama
assir.
Word for word, Kekuaji is Eloikob. Let us see how
this can be. Eloikob is the native name : the name
which certain tribes of the part of Afiica now under
notice give themselves. Their neighbours, the Wakamba,
who lie between them and the coast, and from whom
the term has been taken, change it into Akahi, for the
singular, and Mukabi, for the plural, number. A further
change converts it into Mkuofi, and Wakuaji. The
Eloikob, or Kekuafi, area, lies, then, in contact with that
of the Wakamba
English.
Ukuafi.
Engtidi.
Ukuafi.
Man
ortaba
Bone
orl-oido
Nose
orldongiiana
Hand
engaina
Head
eloginia
Foot
engeja
Hair
orlbabid
Day
engorlon
Face
engomon
Shy
engadambo
Ear
engiok
Sun
engoiion
Eye
engon
Moon
orlaba
Tooth
orlala (?)
Star
orlogirai
Tongue
orlala (?)
Earth
engorlu
Back
orl-gfinim
Bird
enkeni
Beard
osiiirimi
Fish
esingeri.
Blood
osaige
N N
546 THE COPTIC.
CHAPTER LXVIII.
The Coptic. — The Bishari. — The Nubian Languages. — The Shilluk, Denka,
&c. — The Mobba and Darrunga. — The Galla Group. — The Dizzela,
Dalla, Shankali or Shangalla.
The language of ^gypt in its oldest form is that
of the oldest hieroglyphic inscriptions. Upon the
details of the interpretation of the hieroglyphics them-
selves I can form no independent opinion. I can only
remark that the strictest test of a deciphered cypher,
viz, that of enabling the master of it to apply it
according to the rules of its decipherers and to obtain a
result of literal and self-apparent accurac}^, is one which
in the existing transliterations is not come up to. If
otherwise, why have we not a series of old iEgyptia:
texts in the ordinary Coptic alphabet, of which an ordi-
nary Coptic student could judge ?
The language in its newer form is written in ai
alphabet derived from the Greek, and embodies an early
translation of the New Testament, parts of the Old, and
several ecclesiastical compositions. It falls into three dia-
lects : the Sahitic, or Thebaic, of Upper, the Memphitic
of Middle, ^Egypt, and the Bashmuric of the Delta ; all
giving a considerable mixture of Greek words : which,
in the Bashmuric, are the most numerous.
As a true vernacular it is extinct ; at least, though I
have heard of its being still spoken, I have not succeeded
in finding the details of the evidence. Neither would
the mere fact of its being spoken make it a true verna-
If
]
THE COPTIC. 547
cular. It might be spoken merely as any other literary
languaore might be used in conversation. It is the Arabic
that has superseded it ; in the case of which language the
difference, in ^gypt, between the blood and the speech
is considerable.
In structure the Coptic is more simply agglutinate
than the full Semitic tongues, with which it chiefly
agrees in the personal and possessive pronouns. It is
often (perhaps generally) treated as Sub-semitic ; though
in the application of this name ethnographical reasons
have, either consciously or unconsciously, been mixed up
with philological ones. That it is, to some extent, Se-
mitic is true ; but it is inconsistent to make it this to the
exclusion of other lanffuao^es that are more so. It will
be noticed again in the sequel when a language from a
very different quarter — the Basque — comes under notice.
It is the valley of the NUe which gives us Egypt ;
the plateaux and hiUs between the river and the Red
Sea being other than Egj^tian. This is what they
are now. This is what they seem to have been at the
beginning of the historical period. That the Arabic
prevails largely in these districts is well-known : indeed,
in the northern half it prevails exclusively. The blood,
however, is less Arab than the language : while the Ian-
guage itself, as we proceed southwards, becomes other than
Arabic. In the parts about Kosseir, the Bishari, or Beja,
is spoken ; the Bishaii tribes being the conquerors of
the Ababde ; the Ababde being Bishari, and the Bishari
Ababde, with this difference — the Bishari speak their
own language, the Ababde have exchanged it for the
Arabic. Such, at least, is the common statement ; the
presumptions being in favour of it. At the same time
the evidence is capable of improvement. That the
Ababde are other than Arabs is shown by their colour
and by the texture of theh* hair. They may, however,
have been other than Arab, and yet not, necessarily,
Bishari. Tlie presumptions, however, as aforesaid, are in
N N 2
548 THE BISHARI.
favour of the common doctrine. The Ababde lie nearer
to the Nile ; the Bishari to the sea. Both extend into
Nubia ; both into Egypt.
The country about Suakin is the occupancy of the
Adareb, of whose language, eo nomine, I have seen no
specimen. A Suakin vocabulary, however, eo nomine,
is Bishari.
No Bishari compositions are known ; nor is it known
that the Arabic alphabet has been applied to the language
— though the tribes that speak it are, with few or no ex-
ceptions, real or nominal Mahometans. For the Haden-
doa and Hallenga languages, vocabularies, iis nom^inibus,
are wanted. They are spoken between the Mareb and
the Tacazze ; the few words known as Taka or Boje
(? Beja) probably represent them.
In language, as well as in physical form, and in geo-
graphical position, the nearest neighbours to the Bishari
are the Nubians.
Nubia begins where Egypt ends, i. e. at Assuau,
or Syene ; and where Nubia begins a new language
presents itself We may call it Nubian : subject to the
necessity of remembering that the term has a wide and
a restricted sense. There is the name of the class and
there is the name of a special dialect.
The Nubian class falls into two divisions of uncertain
value ; (1.) the Nubian Prajper, (2.) the Koldagi.
The Nubian Proper is spoken along the Nile, from
Egypt to Sennaar ; falling into three dialects, (1.)]
the KeTisy of Kenliz on the north, (2.) the Noub, orj
Nubian, in the limited sense of the word, in the middle
districts, and (3.) the Dongolawy of Dongola. The
Nubians are also called Berbers, Berberins, or Barabbra
a term which, from being applied to the Araazig tribe
has occasionally created confusion. It is the Nubians,
however, to whom it applies with the least impropriety.
One of the numerous languages of Kordovan is named
the Koldagi, and I believe that it is the language of the
THE BISHARI.
549
capital. It is, however, only one form of speech out of
many. Like the Nubian, it is known through vocabu-
laries only. Like the Nubian, it is the language of a
nide and imperfectly Mahometan population. Its Nubian
affinities were pointed out by RiippeU.
English.
Bishari.
Nubian.
KoldagL
Man
otak
itga
kordn
Woman
tataket
ideynga
Head
ogurma
nrka
oar
Hair
tamo
ahigertyga
Eyes
tilyly
mainga
kale
Nose
ogenuf
soringa
hein
Tongue
medabo
Mouth
oyaf
akka
aul
Teeth
tongrek
nyta
gehl
Ear
tongy
okiga
uilge
Beard
hamoi
sameyga
Foot
ragad
oyga
kaddo
Sky
otryk
8ema
San
toyn
mashakka
es
Moon
ondzhim
inatiga
nnndo
Star
vrindzhega
onda
Fire
toneyt
ika
eka
Water
ayam
amanga
otu
Tree
dzhoUaga
saleg
Stone
awey
kagen
One
engaro
werka
Two
molobo
onogha
Three
mehay
toskoga
Four
fadyg
kemiM^
Five
eyyib
didsha
Six
essagonr
gordzhoga
Seven
essarama
kolodga
Eight
essambay
idon(^
Nine
ogamhay
oskoda
Ten
togasenuua
dimaga
To the south of Obeyd, the capital of Kordovan, the
geography is obscure. In Africa, however, we may often
procure specimens of a language where we fail in finding
the place where it is spoken. This is because it is the
land of slavery ; and because residents in any of the
great centres of the traffic may generally find representa-
tives of even very distant languages. The vocabularies
maj' be relied on ; because when a man says that such
550 THE SHABUN, FAZOGLO, ETC.
or such a word means horse, man, and whatever else it
may be, he is to be believed. Their geography, however,
is to be criticized ; because when we hear that such or
such a place lies so many miles west of so and so, the
likelihood of error, both in respect to distance and in
respect to the points of the compass, is considerable.
I find it difficult to say where Kordovan ends and
Sennaar begins. Sennaar, pre-eminently an African —
not to say a Negro — country, is also the occupancy of
the Sheyga Arabs ; and where Arabic is the current
language, the indigenous dialects stand a fair chance of
being neglected. Such is the case with Sennaar. Of
non-Arab vocabularies brought from Sennaar, in the
limited sense of the term, I know none. All I know is
certain vocabularies brought from certain frontier dis-
tricts, which may reasonably be believed to belong to
Sennaar forms of speech. The proportion that the in-
digence bear to the Arabs is unknown. The chief native
population, however, is called Funge. But who has ever
seen a specimen of the Funge, eo nomine ?
That some, however, of the languages spoken to the
south of Obeyd represent the Funge is probable. Of
these we have samples in E-uppell, and others. Thus —
The Shabun is said to be spoken to the south of
both the Kordovan and the Sennaar frontiers. It is
not very closely allied to anything. It is nearest, how-
ever, to the Fertit — the most southern of the languages
of Riippell.
The Shilluk, whose name, from the fact of its appear-
ing elsewhere, I imagine to be Arab rather than native,
lie on the Bahr el Abiad, and, like the Denka, their
frontagers, are Pagans.
The Fazoglo language is the same as the Qamamyl
of Caillaud, and — less like the Shilluk than is the
Denka — apparently belongs to the same class ; that
class being one of small dimensions.
There is an imperfect Mahometanisra in Darfur, tlie
country of the Furian language; of which only one
THE FURIAN, SHILLUK, ETC.
551
lancfuaoje
(probably one out of many) is
known by vo
cabularies
(10
English.
Furian.
TakeU.
Fertit.
Shabun.
Man
duedeh
ead
koshi
le
Head
tobu
aik
kummu
eldah
Eye
kuU
undik
allah
leg
Nose
dormi
endir
alu
nagol
Mouth
udo
engiarr
ammali
keing
Tooth
kaki
nim
ensi
engar
Tongue
dali
auga
timi
denkela
Ear
dUo
hennu
Qtai
neni
Hand
donga
ora
adgianas
nimel
Foot
taroh
dakaak
tibrenu
ongi
Fire
utu
ebe
ouwe
yah
Water
kori
ek
ongou
knaf
Sun
dulle
ani
aloh
kwedyude
Moon
dual
oai*
ibue
eiwah
Star
uri
lain
berabe
robah
Tree
kume
fa
doQZU
yareh
Stone
dete
arnan
(2.)
ekbur
kokoL
English.
ShiUuk.
Denta.
Fazoglo.
Man
ugaila
moed
meloko
Head
uidzh
nam
alio
Eye
uang
nina
are
No3e
ung
oum
kara
Mouth
dok
tok
' anta
Tooth
lek
ledzb
dovidit-ofati
Tongue
leb
leb
halla
Ear
yib
yet
ilai
Hand
kiam
mib
laba
Foot
lustiella
kwen
Fire
maidzl
I
maid
mo
Water
&
fiou
fi
Sun
kiong
akol
mondzo
Moon
goi
fai
dug
Star
kielo
kuol
iso'
Tree
yad
tiem
engoule
Stone
niaxkiddi
kur
bele.
The following are to the south of the Denka and
Shilluk areas.
(3.)
English. Dor. English. Dor.
Man boodoo Hair biddoo
Woman koomara Forehead hickomoo
552
THE MOBBA.
Englis)..
Dor.
English,
Dor.
Eye
komo
Swn
kade
Nose
homogi
Star
kir
Lip
taragi
Water
mini
Beard
betara
Wood
ungor
Foot
umbundo
Fish
gooboo
Fire
fudoo
Bird
umboroam.
Shy
hitero
(4.)
EngUsh.
Nyamnani.
English.
Njamnam.
Man
koombai
Flower
mooma
Bwj
godee
Shield
abrooda
Girl
iimbagadda
Lance
baasoo
Slave
buroo
Trombash ?
gangoo
Chief
mumba kindoo
Knife
sali
Woman
meckeri
Pig
akoroo
Hut
beia
Fire
yaw
Elephant
omburra
Wood
naaki
Buffalo
jari
Pipe
cabunga
Antelope
ombuddi
Tobacco
goondoa
Fowl
kundoo
Come here
moicundoora
Ivory
rinda omburra
Go
mundo.
The Mohba, Maha, or Bora Mdhang is the lan-
guage of Waday Proper, and the chief tongue of Dar-
saleh : being understood by many populations to whom
it is not vernacular. It is known by a few specimens
in the Mithridates, and by a longer vocabulary of Bur-
chard t's. Earth, too, has collected more than two thousand
words of it, along with some phrases and a translation
of the Lord^s Prayer, a part only of which is published.
The tribes who speak it are —
1.
The Kelingen
7.
Kumo.
13.
BUi.
2.
Kajanga.
8.
Jambo.
14.
Bilting.
3.
Malanga.
9.
Abue Gedam.
15.
Ain Gamara
4.
Madaba.
10.
Ogodongda.
16.
Koromboy.
5.
Madala.
11.
Kawak.
17.
Girri.
6.
Kodoyi.
12.
Ashkiting.
18.
Sheferi.
Mararit and Menagon are the names of two tribes
of the Abu Sharib, who are specially stated to speak the
same language — a language in which Barth has collected,
but not published, about 200 words, along with a trans-
THE GALLA CLASS.
553
Lition of the Lord's Prayer. The Tama speak an alhed
dialect. As for the remainder of the group, it is said
to consist of numerous tribes whose dialects differ so
much, that one can scarcely understand the other with-
out recourse to the Mobba. The Mimi are said to
speak a peculiar- language, so are the Kaudard : as also
the Kon^inga, about 17° N. L.
English.
Mobba
English.
MobiMk.
Head
kidjy
Sun
anyk
Hair
sonfa
Moon
ayk
Eye
kapak
Stars
meniet
Nose
kharsonnak
Day
dealka
Cheek
gliambilanak
Night
kosonga
Beard
gamur
Fire
■wossyk
Mouth
kana
Water {rain)
andjy
Teeth
saateni
Stone
kodak
Tongue
adalmek
Mountain
Ear
kozah
Wood
songoa
Neck
bitik
River
bettak
Arm
galma
Bird
abyl
Hand
kara
Fish
bout
Foot
djastongoly
Milk
sila.
Blood
ary
(2
.)
EngUsh.
Dar-rnnga.
English.
Dar-mnga.
Man
kamere
One
kadenda
Woman
mimi
Two
embirr
Eye
khasso
Three
attik
Ear
nesso
Powr
mendih
Hand
tusso
Six
sabotikeda
Foot
itar
Seven
ow
Sun
agning
Eight
sebateis
Water
tta
Nine
atih
Fire
nissiek
Ten
buf.
The Bishari (for it is to them that we must now
return) are succeeded by the most northern members of
the great Gallo. class.
Next to the Caffre and Berber this is the largest of
all the African groups. It is also a complete one ;
at any rate, it faUs into three well-marked divisions :
(1 .) the Danakil ; (2.) the SoTnaulij (3.) the Ilmonno, or
554 THE aALLA CLASS.
Oalla Proper. It has a vast known extent from north
to south. It has a vast unknown extent from east to
west. It has an irregular outline, being deeply indented
by the languages of the Abyssinian class ; or, rather, it,
itself, cuts deeply and irregularly into Abyssinia — for
the Galla tribes have long encroached upon the southern
provinces of that empire ; and much that was once
Semitic is now Galla. Bounded on the north by the
Bishari and Nubian, and on the east by the sea, it is
limited by the Tigrd, Amharic, and other languages in the
north-west. South, however, of the latitude which coin-
cides with the southern boundary of Abyssinia, it ex-
tends indefinitely inland. In the parts about Hurur the
Semitic forms of speech protrude themselves largely and
irregularly. To the south-east it comes in contact with
the northernmost members of the Kaffir family : the
boundary lying near, but not on, the Equator. The
Ukuafi seem to touch it on the interior.
The Galla population is pastoral rather than agricultural,
and African rather than either Negro or Arab in
physiognomy ; i. e. the colour is more brown than black,
the features more prominent than depressed, the hair long
and twisted, rather than woolly. Paganism is still rife
amongst the southern, or pure Galla (or Ilmormo) tribes :
an imperfect Mahometanism is adopted by the Danakil.
Fragments of an early Christianity — Abyssinian in its
origin — are believed to be discoverable. The language
is known both by grammars and vocabularies. It is
unwritten ; i. e. there is no native alphabet, and no appli-
cation of the Arabic.
The Danakil call themselves Afer, and it is not im-
probable that the term Africa comes from them. The
Egyptians may have diffused it. Danakil itself is, like
so many others, a word strange to the language to which
it applies. I cannot but think that, word for word, it
is Dongola, yet the Dongolawy are Nubians. Probably,
some third population gave them both the same name.
THE GALLA CLASS.
555
The Danakil begins between Suakin and Arkiko, and
extends from the Red Sea to the frontiers of Abyssynia.
The Somaull area begins near the straits of Babel-
mandel, and runs southward and inland; Berbera, the
great shive mart being the chief Somauli town : the
Somauli tribes, too, being the occupants of the parts about
the Semitic town of Hurur.
The Galla Proper, or Ilmormo, belong to the interior
rather than the coast, their area being one of great, but
unknown magnitude, with a sinuous outline, and an en-
croaching fi'ontier. Sometimes this encroachment is
effected at the expense of the Danakil : sometimes (per-
haps oftener) at that of the Abyssinians. The former,
for instance, has given way before the Asubu, the latter
before the Edjow, tribes. The kingdoms of Shoa and
Efat are, now, more Galla than Abyssinian. The town
of Ankober is a Galla capital : though mixed in respect
to its population. No tribe in Africa has the discredit
of being ruder and more savage in its warfare than the
Gallas, Their physical appearance is that of the Bishari
rather than the NeOTO.
English.
Galla.
Danakil.
Shiho (about
Man
nama
Woman
rete
Head
mata
ammo
ammc
Eair
refensa
Eye
hedzha
inte
inte
Nose
funyan
san
Ban
Tongue
arraba
Mouth
affan
afa
afa
Teeth
ilkae
budena
ekok
Ear
gura
Beard
arreda
Foot
fana
Sun
addu
aero
aire
Moon
dzhea
alsa
alsa
Star
urdzhe
ettukta
ittnk
Fire
ibiddeh
gira
gera
Water
veshan
leh
le
Tree
mouka
The Arkiko of the town is Amharic.
55G
THE GALLA CLASS.
Englisli.
Galla.
Datiakil.
Shibo (about Arkiko).
Stone
dagga
data
dak
One
toko
inneke
inek
Tioo
lumma
lumma
lamma
Three
sedde
sudde
adda
F(mr
afFur
fere
afur
Five
shur
konoyoie
ken
Six
dzha
lelehe
leh
Seven
turbah
melhene
inelhen
Eight
seddet
bahara
vahr
Nine
suggul
segala
suggai
Ten
kudun
tubban
tummum.
The following are languages, more or less isolated, of
the Abyssinian frontier.
(1-)
English.
Man
Woman
Head
Eyes
Nose
Ear
Teeth
Tongue
Sun
Moon
Star
Water
English.
Man
Woman
Head
Eyes
Nose
Ear
Sim
Moon
Stars
Fire
Stone
English,
Seven
Sun
Sky
Dizzela.
gunza
kwa
illukoma
illikumah
kotuma
tsema
kuusma
kotettuma
woka
bega
bega
iah
Ualia.
kwa
dukka
annasunga
wa
bubuna
ukuna
wah
terah
shunda
tuma
uga
(2.)
(3.)
Shankali.
langitta
oka
English.
Tree
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
Six
Seven
Eight
Nine
Ten
English.
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
Six
Seven
Eight
Nine
Ten
Dizzela.
gea
metama
ambanda
kwokaga
zaacha
mankiis
wata
linyeta
sugguata
sasa
chik'ka.
DaUa.
ilia
bella
sette
salle
bussume
erde
varde
kwon kweda
kwuuntelle
kwuuUakudde.
Agawmidr.
langata, &c. — Agaw
wak^Oalla
THE SHANKALI, OR SUANGALLA.
.57
English.
ShankalL
Agawmidr.
Star
bawa
bewa — Again
Water
sya
ahu — Again
Bain
Cloud
dema
dimna — Agaio
Smoke
tukwa
tikki—Tigre
Clay
tiikwa
dhoke — Galla
Tree
mugha
muka — do.
Shade
gisa
chiso — Gong a
Sprinff
aimnsa
minclia — Afjaio
Market
gabea
gebaia — Galla
Bridle
sagha
lugh warn — A ga m
Whip
jilanda
halinga — do.
Mouth
sima
simota — Gafat
Tooth
knR.sa
gasso — Gonga
Rainy season
china
gana — Galla.
In Salt, the DaJla and Dizzela, like the language
represented by the third vocabulary, are given as Shan-
galla. They are all spoken by Negroes rather than
true Abyssinians.
558 THE KAFFIR CLASS.
CHAPTER LXIX.
The Kaffir Class of Languages.
Within a degree or two of the Equator the Galla and
Ukuafi are succeeded by that large class of languages,
which those who have no dislike to double names call
South African, whilst others, who have no objection to
using a word in a general as well as a particular sense,
call Kaffre or Kaffir ; a word which is both the name
of a class and the "name of a particular division.
On the western coast the languages of this group ap-
pear north of the Equator, and, with the exception of
the Hottentot area, they cover all the intervening space.
Their peculiarities of grammar have been carefully
studied and illustrated.
(1 .) If a new word be introduced into the language of
the Amakosa Kaffres, it takes an inseparable prefix
before it can become naturalized. Priest, for instance,
becomes itm-priest ; Pharisee, tT^n-pharisee. In the
■words ura-iu = person ; i-hashe = horse ; i?i-kosi = cap-
tain ; isi-caca zz servant ; u-sansi =z infant ; um-lamho
=. river ; u-hnso zzface ; aku-iya, = force ; aha-ntuzz
people; ar)ia-zwe =z words ; in-homo = cattle ; inii-tizz
trees, &c., the syllables in Itahcs are wholly foreign
to the root. Adventitious, however, as they are, the
system of prefixing them is general.
(2.) When two words come into certain syntactic
relations, one of them changes its initial letter according
to that of the other, just as if, in English, we said, for
THE KAFFIR CLASS. 559
sunbeam or white Tuan, bunbeam (or sunseam) for
whiteinian (or miteman).
(3.) The prefix, however, is part of the word ;
whence it follows that, for the purposes of determining
the change which one word, in these syntactic relations,
impresses on another, we must look to the initial letter
(or letters) of the prefix rather than to those of the
words to which it is united. A word (no matter how
it begins) takes um as its prefix ; the rule being that
when one word begdns with iim the other begfins with
w. The Kaffre for a man of the people is ura-iu wa-
bantu, whereas a captain of the people is i^i-kosi yor-
bantu.
In this way the System of Prefixes and the System
of Alliteration, in the Amakosa Kafire at least, are con-
nected.
That facts of this kind should tell upon the phrase-
ology of the grammarian is only natural. They give
him his declensions ; for it is clear that according to the
nature of the prefix we may arrange the noims to which
they are united into classes. Doing this, we may talk
of the Classification of Nouns, just as Latin scholars
talk of the Declensions.
Again — the form of the Plural is often determined
by the prefix. Thus, in Bakeli : —
First Declension.
SUfGFLAR. PLCBAL.
a-Tata=oAes< 6i-vata=chests
a-bobi=/ta< hi-hoh\^hats
i-eli=<rc« j«-li=<ree».
Second Declention.
SINGULAB. PLTTRAI,.
di-c'kx=law m-eki=/at?<.
And so on for seven other classes or declensions ; the
number of classes in the Bakeli being nine. In other
languages, however, they are more numerous ; e. g. in
the Herreo they are eighteen.
560
THE KAFFIR CLASS.
The origin of these prefixes is another question. They
are noticed here for the sake of ascertaining their value
as characteristics.
The forms of speech which immediately underlie the
Galla and Ukuafi are the following — belonging to the
inland districts rather than to the coast. On the coast
the language is the Suaheli, Suwaheli, or Sohili, contain-
ing numerous Arabic elements and partaking of the na-
ture of a Lingua Franca.
Englisli.
Wanika.
Wakamba.
Msambara.
SohilL
Man
muta
muntu
mgossi
mtu
Woman
mtsheta
muka
mdere
mtunke
Head
dzitzoa
mutue
mtoe
kitoa
Eye
dzityo .
ido
yisso
dshito
Nose
pula
embola
pum
pua
Tongue
lammi
uimi
uraka
ulimi
Tooth
dzino
ino
zino
' dzliino
Ear
sikiro
idu
gutui
shikio
Hand
mukono
mukono
mukono
makono
Fool
gulu
mudumu
emrondi
gu
Sun
dzua
kua
zua
dzhua
Moon
muesi
moi
muesi
muesi
Star
nioha
nioa
niniesi
niota
Fire
muotto
muagi
muotto
muotto
Water
madyi
mandzi
mazi
madzhi
Stone
dziwe
dziwe
ziwe
dzhiwe
Tree
muLi
mutte
muti
mti
One
emmenga
umue
mosi
emmodsha
Two
embiri
ili
kaidi
embili
Three
tahu
itatu
katatu
tatu
Four
enne
inna
kanna
enne
Five
tyano
idano
kashano
tano
Six
tandaho
dandatu
ententatu
setta
Seven
fungahe
mama
fungate
sabaa
Eight
Dane
muuda
nana
nani
Nine
kenda
kenda
kenda
kenda
Ten
kumi
kumi
kumi
kumu.
The Makua extends, at least, as far as Quilimani.
The Monjti, Muntu, or Makoa, is spoken to the back
of the Mozambik coast ; of which the Maravi of Kolle's
Polyglotta is, perhaps, the most inland dialect. In In-
hambane, where Portuguese influences succeed to Arabic,
LANGUAGES OF THE GABUN, ETC.
5G1
such differences as exist are, probably, political rather
than philological. At any rate, the dialects seem to
graduate into each other. South of Inhambane and
Sofala begins the Kaffraria of the British and Dutch
frontiers with, iis nominibus, the Zulu, the Kaffre
Proper, and the Bechuana as important and well-illus-
trated languages — the last in contact with the Hotten-
tot ; to the north of which the Heriro, a true Kaffir
tongue, appears in the parts about Walwisch Bay. To
this, on the north, succeed the Benguela, the Angola, the
Congo, and, on the Equator, the Rungo, or Orungo, of the
Gabun. For the parts about Corisco Bay, we have
evidence that the language is essentially the same ;
whilst for Fernando Po and the Came'roons we have
abundant details — the languages being the Ediya of
Fernando Po and the Isubu and Dualla (little more than
dialects) of the Cameroons.
At the head waters of the Gabun lie the districts of
the Bakele, estimated by the missionaries at about
100,000 — lighter coloured than the tribes between them
and the sea ; darker than those of the mountains
behind them. Compared (as it is by either the author
or the editor of the grammar) with the Mpoiif/ive of
the Gabun it differs very materially ; the verbal resem-
blances being about one in ten. The present list,
however, makes them more.
English.
Mpongwe.
Bakde.
Man
kadia
makalie
Woman
owanto
miali
Child
onwana
niana
erumbe
ndenbishili
White man
otaDgani
ntasga
Head
e won jo
langaka
Hair
orue
lashoi
Tongue
onleme
lathem
Mouth
ogwana
gwana
Tooth
ilia
dishoa
Eye
intya
dishi
Ear
oroi
gwale
0 0
562
LANGUAGES OF THE GABUN, ETC.
English.
Mpongwe.
Bakele.
Nose
inyoi
dioi
Beard
ilelu
jeli
Blood
ntyina
dikitha
Belly
iwumu
mai
Bone
epa
avesha
Heart
ntyondo
lema
Foot
ntyozyo
dibo
Arm
oga
mbo
Neck
ompele
kinh
Nail
ntyanga
landaka
Milk
ambeningo
manyadibo
House
nago
mbank
mil
nomba
mbeka
Sun
iikombe
dioba
Moonlight
ilanga
mieli
Star
ogegeni
vietcL
Cloud
evindi
avingi
Flower
olonda
tapesha
Tree
erere
jeli
Sand
intya
dishi
Fire
inu
du
Water
aningo
madiba
Wind
ompunga
punga
Eat
nye
dia
Bum
pia
dika
Bite
noma
kiele
Dig
tumba
kwete
Write
tenda
lenda
Fill
jonia
lonisha
Speak
kamba
lubila
Brink
jonga
nata
Bv/n
pula
punda
Die
juwa
shasha
Boil
benla
taka
Kiss
samba
viba.
The following are miscellaneous illustrations of the'
languages on the north-western portion of the Kaffir
area.
{From the Polyglotta Africana.)
English
Man
Woman
Head
Kisama
diala
muhata
mnntue
Songo
diala
mehetu
mutue
Randa
ekiunds
mbant
umodsfa
Luhalo
diyala
muhetu
muntue
LANGUAGES OP THE GABUN, ETC.
563
English
Man
Woman
Head
Basunde
bakala
kento
tn
Nyombe
iyakala
nkelo
nta
Kasange
diala
muketu
motne
Bumhete
balera
okasu
modsae
Babuma
balga
mokas
modsne
Mutsaya
lebalaka
mnkeat
motsne
Ntere
bara
mokas
motsue
Kanyika
mnan amnion
muanumekas
motn
MbaTTiba
balera
okas
otae
Musentando
yakala
kento
ntn.
English
Nose
Eye
Ear
Kisama
dizola
diso
ditae
Songo
diznnu
liso
lita
Runda
mushor
liz
didsh
I/ubalo
lizulo
liso
litne
Basunde
mbombo
odiz
kata
Nyombe
dizulu
liso
kuta
Kasange
dizola
aso
katne
Bumhete
yolo
odisa
ledsae
Bahama
yolo
dsis
dsae
Mutsaya
yul
dsiz
dsni
Ntere
yilo
dsis
dsae
Kanyiha
mnol
diz
dita
Mhamha
yolo
diz
tae
Musentando
luzuna
diza
katn.
English
Mouth
Tooth
Tongue
Kisama
dikana
diso
demi
Songo
ndikanon
lizo
lemi
Runda
mulam
dizea
ardim
Luhalo
likano
lizo
Hmi
Basunde
noa
dinn
ludimi
Nyombe
mono
dieno
ludimi
Kasange
kanaa
lizu
limi
Bumhete
moya
dinn
nkomonyat
Bah/ma
monyna
dsino
lelim
Mutsaya
monyna
dseni
lilim
Ntere
monyna
dsina
limi
Kanyiha
mosuk
din
ludim
Mhamha
onynn
dini
lelemi
Musentando
nna
dbiu
ludimi.
English
Fire
Water
Sun
Kisama
tuwia
menya
de kombi
Songo
tnbia
menya
moanya
Runda
kaah
menyi
ranten
o 0 2
564
LANGUAGES OF THE GABUN, ETC.
Water
mema
nlangu
nlangu
meya
andsa
madsa
xaadsa
madsa
moaz
andsa
maza
To these add the numerals of the Fan,
much is made in Mr, Du Chaillu's work,
to the same class as the rest.
English
Fire
Luhalo
tibia
Basunde
mbazu
Nyombe
mbazu
Kasange
tubia
Bwnibete
mba
Bdbuma
mbaa
Mutsaya
mba
Ntere
mba
Kanyiha
mudil
Mbamha
mba
Musentando
tiwia
English.
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
Fan.
fo
vei
la
ne
tani
English.
Six
Seven
Eight
Nine
Ten
Sun
moanya
muini
tangu
likombi
ntangu
mi ,
mui
tari
munyenyi
nyango
tango.
of which so
They belong
Fan,
sheme
zangoua
modm ouam
iboum ibou
wo6m aboum.
On the Old Calabar the change is somewhat greater.
Still, the so-called Kaffir or South-African characters
have long been recognized in these parts ; and the
nearest congeners of the Otam, Udom, or Old Calabar,
are the Isubu and Dualla.
(Languages with Otam, Isuhu, Bakele, and Nuji,
affinities from the Polyglotta Africana.)
English.
Afu'lu.
Mfut.
Mbe.
Nso
Nose
idsion
nkodiu
etsoei
dzui
Eye
edsi
dsit
ero
ze
Ear
kato
ti
atone
ketor ,
Movth
akuar
ndum
etsou
su
1
Tooth
edsin
dedson
ason
son
J
Tongue
nyuam
derim
inemi
kendemi. M
English.
Murundo.
Undaza.
Ndob.
Tumu.
Nkele.
Konguan
Nose
mofiki
dsolu
dsu
edsu
diodsu
nyuen
Eye
diso
diz
dziet
dzid
dis
nies
Ear
ditoi
eloi
inyu
eyu
ore
atu
Mouth
mombo
madumba num
num
wuana
nyn
Tooth
disonga
dini
min
dzen
disuna
nenyan
Tongue
woena
lelimi
dcmog
demo
lawem
deler.
LANGUAGES OP THE GABUN, ETC.
565
English.
Mbarike.
Tiwi.
Boritsu.
Nose
man
ehinga
geu
Eye
ayip
asie
egi
Ear
aton
ator
ata
Mmiih
ndso
itsoa
onu
Tooth
anyi
inyik
odnn
Tongue
odsia
nomboro
omien.
EngUsh.
Yala.*
English.
Tala.
Man
onuro
Tongue
ugblenye
Woinan
onya
Fire
ola
Head
lefu
Water
yenyi
Hair
ndsirehu
Sun
yeno
Nose
leni
One
osi
Eye
eyi
Two
epa
Ear
woro
Three
eta
Mouth
okono
Four
ene
Tooth
anuro
Five
ema.
Roglish Mouih
Tooth
Tong\
le Nose
Eye
Ear
Bayon ndsu
sonta
lem
dsi
li
eton
Pati nso
nzou
lim
adsi
aU
aton
Kum ndso
son
den
nkontse
tse
ton
Bagha ndsu
aso
alo
atse
all
aton
Balu nsud
nzon
lem
le
le
ntud
Bamon ndsot
nson
alem
edyi
ele
atot
Ngoala atsor
ason
andio
esuye
ndi
atonuri
Momenya ndsue
son
lam
dzoti
Utab
tonti
Papiah nsu
esan
alam
nquerse
arse
tonule
Param ndzue
izon
titep
atsi
eti
eton.
English
Fire
Water
Siwn.
Bayon
mu
ndsib
nyum
Pati
ma
ndsi
nyu
Kum
ma
ndsab
nyam
Bagha
mu
ndsab
no
Balu
mu
nke
ngam
Bamon
mu
nke
nyam
Ngoala
mu
nki
mono
Momenya
mu
ndsob
no
Papiah
mu
nsi
nyam
Param
mo
nzi
minoch.
English.
Ngoten.
Melon.
Nhalemoe.
Nose
dio
dio
do
Eye
dis
dek
deih
Ear
etc
eto
eto
Mouth
nsiol
nsol
nsear
Tooth
esyon
eson
ason
Tongue
egeam
egiem
^em.
•
See pa
«e 588.
566
LANGUAGES OF THE GABUN, ETC.
English.
Ekamlulufii.
Udom.
Mbofon.
Eafen.
Man
manum
manu
manun
nindun
Woman
raanka
manka
manka
nike
Head
esi
esi
esi
idsi
Hair
nnu
nnu
nyu
ndu
Nose
mia
ntanaman
ntanamin
nnui
Eye
amar
lemar
amoramer
ayet
Ear
eton
eton
etun
otun
Tooth
aman
leman
nemen
eyin
Tongue
liliwi
leliwe
neriwe
erib
Sun
no
ndsol
ndon
ndsudsi
Fire
ngon
ngun
ngon
ngun
Water
alap
alap
aneb
ayib.
The languages akin to the Otam have been so
thoroughly recognized as Kaffir, or South African, that
they are given in the present chapter ; though they are,
really, transitional. Of those that next come under
notice all that can be said is that they have, gene-
rally, been associated with their congeners to the north
rather than the south. They have, however, affinities
on either side.
BONNY AND IBO DIALECTS.
567
CHAPTER LXX.
The Bonny, Brass Town, Rw, and Benin languages. — The Mandingo, Accra,
Krepi, Kru, &c. — Remarks on the Mandingo class. — The Begharmi.--
Mandara. — Kannri. — Hawssa. — Sungai. — Konri. — Yoruba. — Tapna or
Nufi — Batta.— Fula, &c.— The Serawulli— Woloff, &c.— Hottentot.
The Okuloma and Udso are Obane (or Bonny), the Aro
and Mbofia, Brass Town (Oro or Ejo), dialects. The
remainder belong to the interior of the Delta of the
Niger ; the Isoama and Isiele being Ibo Proper, or Ibo in
the limited sense of the term. It is a name, however,
which may be given to the whole class.
English.
Okuloma.
Udso.
Arc
Mbofia.
Sobo.
Man
onbo
. owebo
nowoke
nnyoka
osale
WoTnan
ere bo
yorobo
unwai
naame
aye
Head
dsibe
tebe
isi
isi
ahiomi
Hair
name
dime
abosi
ebesd
eto
Nose
nini
nine
imi
imi
onwe
Eye
torn
toro
anya
enya
ero
Ear
bell
beri
nte
nte
esc
Tooth
aka
aka
eze
ezie
ako
Tongue
bele
belo
lie
Ue
ereme
Sun
erua
erei
anyano
enyan
ore
Fire
fene
fene
oko
oko
esale
Water
minqi
beni
mmeli
min
ame.
English.
Egbele.
Biid.
Ulomo.
Isoama.
Isiele.
Man
omoi
okpea
asi
naoke
onyeke
Woman
ogbatso
ogvFoho
asame
ndiom
onyni
Head
usumi
oh ana
qika
isi
isi
Hair
etc
eto
ehu
asi
edsi
Nose
isne
ihae
iso
imi
imi
Eye
eloe
arc
ilogo
anya
enya
Ear
eo
eho
goso
nte
anti
Tooth
ako
ako
ako
eze
esi
568
THE DAHOMEY DIALECTS.
English.
Egbcle.
Bini.
Olomo.
Isoama.
Isiele.
Tongue
olemi
oneme
ore
ile
ile
Sun
ele
ufore
ahoni
anyanu
enyanu
Fire
itari
etare
igesane
oko
oko
Water
ame
ame
ame
mmeli
mmi.
I now come to a group, which, in the present state
of our knowledge, must be treated as the Bhot and
Burma group was treated in Asia. It is a large one in
every respect : large in respect to its geographical area ;
large in respect to the members of which it consists.
It is a complex one as well : inasmuch as it falls into
divisions and sub-divisions. And it is also a wide one ;
i. e. its extremities differ greatly from each other.
Lastly, it is provisional, and, more or less, artificial.
I shall exclude from it the Woloff and some other
tongues on the north. I have excluded from it the Ibo
and some other tongues on the south. Yet, I fail to
find a clear line of demarcation. The class, in short, is
certainly either too large or too small. It stands, how-
ever, as it is, because it is valid as far as it goes ; be-
cause it is convenient ; and, finally, because any miscon-
ception as to its character, any possibility of mistaking
it for a natural instead of an artificial one, has been
guarded against.
Roughly speaking, it extends from the Niger to
the Gambia, and includes the numerous dialects and
subdialects of the Slave, Gold, Ivory, Pepjper, and Grain
Coasts, along with the Mandingo languages. Towards
the interior its extent is uncertain ; whilst, on the coast,
there is a strip of low land not belonging to it : so
that, in tracing it along the Atlantic, we first lose and
then find it again.
At the mouth of the Formosa the Yebu dialect of
the Yoruba touches the sea with the Benin at its back
stretching inland. The main language, however, is that
of Dahomey, spoken (there or thereabouts) from Lagos to
the Volta, and extending far inland, with ^he Anfue, the
THE DAHOMEY DIALECTS.
569
Dahomey Proper, and the Mahi as its chief dialects ;
each with divisions and subdivisions. The numerous
vocabularies headed Fot, Popo, Widah, Atye, Mahi,
and Badagry, fee, belong to this great group.
£nglish.
Widah.
Dahomey.
Mahi.
Man
BxmvL
sunu
nyaneoa
Woman
nyoni
nyonu
iyon
Head
ota
ta
onta
Hair
da
da
oda
Nose
awoti
asti
awote
Eye
nnka
nuku
onutu
Ear
oto
to
otogne
Tooth
adu
ada
ada
Tongue
ede
de
ede
Sun
ohwe
pewesiwo
nque
Fire
ozo
zo
ozo
Water
zi
xi
ezi.
The Accra, InJcra, or, as the natives call it, the Gha
language, is nearly related to the Otshi, being spoken
near Cape Castle ; the Adampi being a dialect of it.
The Ken^apay is spoken in Abiraw, Odaw, Aokugwa,
Abonse, Adukrmn and Apiradi, villages or towns of
Akwapim, other than Otshi ; in which, however, the
Otshi, as the language of the dominant population, is
generally understood.
Date and Kubease, like Abiraw, &c., are Akwapim
villages, whereof the language is other than the Otshi.
It is, also, other than the Kerrapong, Kerrapay, Kerrapi,
or Krepee ; what it is being uncertain.
(1-)
English.
Adampi.
Anfiie.
Man
jvaza.
natsa
Woma'T,
nyoni
lona
Head
eta
ita
Hair
eda
eda
Nose
noti
anati
Eye
onka
anku
570
THE GOLD COAST DIALECTS.
Euglish.
Adampi
Aufue.
Ear
eto
eto
Tooth
adu
adu
Tongue
ade
ade
Sun
ewo
oudo
Fire
ezo
itso
Water
ezi
edsi.
(2.)
English.
Accrah.
Adampi.
Krepee.
God
mah'u
mah'wu
mah'nu
Devil
bo'san
az'za
baiya
Man
bom' ma
nu'mu
u'chu or amiL?
Woman
yo
ye'o
yonno
Boy
baka
jho'qiia
deyve
Girl
ob'bli'o
ya'yo
tubboqua
Infant
abbe'fah'o
jho'qna-borbio
veve'ahja
White man
blofonyo
blofon'o
yovo
Wife
n'yah
ayo
sun'no
Head
echu or echo
ye
tah
Hair
echawe
yebuoh
dah
Eye
emay or hingma
hingmai
unku
Nose
gungo
gugon
watt6
Mouth
narbo
ny'am
nume
Teeth
neoneeng
lun'go
addu
Tongue
lilla
lilla
add a
Ear
toe or toy
toe
etto
Sun
un
pun
awa
Moon
yon'clie'16
u'ranime
wala
Star
ou'rahme
u'ramme dodo'e
rotev'e
Air
koy'ah
koiyo
av'vuvoh
Fire
lah
lah
edjo
Water
noo
Vl^XI.
eche
SJcy
n'wa
e'om
jimma
One
eku'me
kok'ka
dek'kah
Two
en'yo
en'yo
a va
Three
etia
et'ta
atong
Four
edj'wa
adj'way
en'na
Five
en'nu'mo
en'nuo
atton
Six
ek'pah
ek'pah
ad' da
Seven
pah' wo
m'pah'go
addeiT^
Eight
pah' no
pahn'yo
en'yfi
Nine
na'ing
ra
en'yeda
Ten
nu'mah
nu'mah
a* wo.
The Otshi is the language of the Gold Coast ; siicb,
at least, is the name given by the chief authority for
THE AVEKVOM.
571
its grammatical structure — Riis. The numerous vocabu-
laries of Bowdich named Inia belong to this class.
Another general name, (and perhaps) the best, is Fanti.
The Ashanti of Coomasee, the capital, along with
the Coromantin and the Boroom, belongs to this group.
So do the numerous vocabularies of the Mithridates
headed Akkim, Akripon, Fetu, &c.
For the Ivory coast the following vocabulary of the
Avekvoyn is the only one I know.
English.
Avekvom.
other Languages.
Arm
ebo
ubok, EJik.
Blood
erie
eyip, Ejik; eye, Jebu.
Bone
ewi
beu, Fanti.
Box
ebru
brAnh, Grebo.
Canoe
edie
tonh, Grebo.
Chair
fata
bada, Grebo.
Dark
esfaim
esmn, Fanti ; ekim, E^.
Dog
etye
aja, ayga, /s5m.
Door
eshinavi
nsuny, Ejik.
Ear
eshibe
esoa, Fanti.
Fire
eya
ija, Fanti.
Pish
etsi
eja, eya, Fanti.
Fowl
esa
suseo, Mandingo ; edia, Jebu.
Ground-nut
ngeti
nkatye, Fanti.
Hair
emu
ihwi, Fanti.
Honey
ajo
ewo, Fanti; oyi, Jd)u,.
House
eva
ifi, Fanti; ufog, EJik.
Moon
efe
habo, Grebo ; ofiong, ^k.
Mosketo
efo
obong, Fanti.
Oil
inyu
ingo, Fanti.
Rain
efuztuno-sohn
sanjio, Mandingo.
Bainy season
esbi
ojo, rain, Jebu.
Salt
etsa
ta, Grebo.
Sand
esian-na
utan, Ejik.
Sea
etyu
idu, Grebo.
Stone
desi
sia, shia, GrAo.
Thread
jesi
gise, Grebo.
Tooth
enena
nyeng, Mandingo; gne, GvAo.
Water
esonh
nsu, Fanti.
Wife
emise
moso, Mandingo ; mbesia.
Cry
yam
isn, Fanti. [Fanti
Give
nae
nye, Grebo; no, Ejik.
Go
le
olo, Jebu.
KUl
bai
fa, Mamdingo ; pa, Jebu.
572
THE MANDINGO LANGUAGES.
That the Kru languages are either actually Man dingo,
or members of a closely-connected class, is certain. Dr.
Kolle, indeed, separates them. The present writer did
so in 1847 ; the data being, at that time, both insuffi-
cient and imperfectly known to him. Soon, however,
after the publication of his treatise Mr. Dupuis informed
him that he held the two groups to be intimately allied ;
if, indeed, they, really, were two. Dr. Bleek has expressed
himself (and I believe he is the first writer who has done
so in print) to the same effect: — "The Mena " (Man-
dingo) " family which includes the dialects spoken by the
Krumen," &c.
(From the Polyglotta Africana.)
English.
Man
Woman
Head
Hair
Nose
Eye
Ear
Tooth
Tongue
Sun
Fire
Water
Dewoi.
gae
nyero
duru
mi
mera
gire
lo
mire
mia
own
nae
ni
English.
Man
Woman
Head
Hair
Nose
Eye
Ear
Tooth
Tongue
Swti
Fire
Water
Kru.
nyiyu
nyiro
debo
nui
mera
gie
nogu
nye
me
giro
ne
ni
Grebo.
nyebeyu
nyire
lu
pumle
mia
yie
nua
nye
mme
unwe
na
Bassa.
gae
ma
tm
mi
mola
gire
lo
nire
mio
giro
nye
ni.
Gbe.
gandsie
nyiro
duru
mi
mra
girie
dohu
nyire
meo
giro
nasuru
ni.
The Mandingo Proper is the language of the Maho-
metan Blacks of Medina and the Lower Gambia. Being
occasionally written in the Arabic character, it has a
THE MANDINGO LANGUAGES. 573
tincture of cultivation. Though we can scarcely call it
classical, the Mandingo of Medina is the standard dialect
of the group.
If we look to the Polyglotta Afi^icana for the proper
Mandingo forms of speech we find the following thir-
teen : — 1 . Mandingo = Kalbunga, Toronka, Jallunka,
Kankanka ; 2. Bambarra ; 3. Kono ; 4. Vei ; 5. Soso
(Susii, or Soosoo) = Solima and Kisekise ; 6. Tene ;
7. Gbandi ; 8, Landoro ; 9. Mendi'; 10. Gbese ; 11.
Toraa; 12. Mano ; 13. Gio.
The difierences between the Mandingo, Jallunka, and
Bambarra, have always been considered small. The
Kono is an allied form of speech under a new name. The
Vei is more like the Mandingo Proper than its geogra-
phical position suggests.
The Susti, probably, includes the Tene.
In Jallonkadu the language is in contact with the
Fulah of Futa-torro.
In Bambarra, the language is said to be mixed
with the Woloff and Fulah.
In Bambarra, too, it has departed considerably from
the strict Mandingo type, and becomes either a well-
marked dialect, or a fresh language. Between S^o and
Jenn^ (both on the Niger) it is replaced by the Sunghai.
More divergent than the Jallunka and Bambarra,
but, still, visibly Mandingo, the Susu is spoken over a
large unexplored tract at tlie back of Sierra Leone, of
which the best-known tribes are the SuHmas, described
by Major Laing. Bounded on the north by the Fulahs
of Futa-dzhallo, they are Black Pagans, with warlike
dispositions, and commercial aptitudes.
The Kissi lies to the south of the Sulima ; being,
probably, a dialect of the Susu.
Between the Vei district about Cape Mount and the
Kissi country, lies the Mendi.
The Veiy spoken over a small tract of country, extends
674 THE VEI ALPHABET.
from the Gallinas to Cape Mount : extending inland
40 or 50 miles. It seems to be intrusive; and there
is a belief amongst the Vei themselves that they
migrated from the Mani country under the captainship
of two brothers Fabule and Kiatamba. When this took
place is uncertain.
The existence of a native alphabet has given promi-
nence to the Vei language. The first notice of it was
given by Lieut. Forbes, in 1849, who inquired whether
the missionaries of Sierra Leone had ever heard of a
written language amongst the natives of the parts about
Cape Mount. He also showed a MS. which was soon
afterwards in England and in the hands of Mr. Norriss,
who deciphered and translated it. Meanwhile the
missionary committee appointed Mr. Kolle to visit the
country referred to by Lieut. Forbes and to make
inquiries on the spot. This led him into the presence
of a Vei native, named Doalu Bukere, about forty years
old ; who, assisted by five of his friends, invented the
alphabet in question.
Without undervaluing Doalu Bukere's ingenuity, we
must remember that, as a boy, he had learned to read
English, and afterwards, Arabic. When grown-up to be
a man he was all but a regular letter-carrier. His
masters, who were slavers, and traders, despatched him
to distant places as a messenger, and he told Mr. Kolle
that the communication of distant events by means of
the letters he conveyed struck him forcibly. " How is
this, that my master knows everything I have done in
a distant place ? He only looks at the book, and this
tells him all. Such a thing we ought to have, by which
we could speak to each other even though separated by
a great distance."
The Sokko is associated with the Jallonka in the
Miihridates ; and when we remember how scanty
were our data when that great work was composed,
THE SOKKO, ETC. 575
we may readily infer that its affinity is pretty palpable.
It probably belongs to the most eastern division of
the proper Mandingo class ; since it must be looked
for in the district of the Kong Mountains, with their
direction from west to east, and their parallelism with
the coast of the Gulf of Guinea. Whether it lie to
the back of the Grain Coast, where the Kru prevails,
is uncertain. It is more likely to be found to the north
of the Ivory Coast. At any rate Oldendorp, who took
his information fi-om three individuals of three tribes,
states that their country bordered on that of the Amina
— the Amina belonoring to the Fanti class, the Fanti class
of which the Gold Coast is the special occupancy. I
have enlarged upon this, because the extent to which an
undoubted Mandinfjo tongue comes in contact with both
the Fanti and the Kru areas is a point in favour of the
affiliation of the three groups.
I now give a sketch of eleven languages which are
conveniently taken together. They form as natural a
group as circumstances permit ; and are as follows : —
1 . Begharmi, the most eastern of the group.
2. The Mandara.
3. The Kauuri of Bornti.
4. The Hawsa.
5. The Sunghai.
6. The Kouri.
7. The Yoruba.
8. The Tapua or Nufi.
9. The Batta.
10. The Fula.
11. TheTibbu.
Their general order is from east to west ; and the dis-
trict to which they belong reaches from Lake Tshad to
the Niger. It is pre-eminently an inland district. It is
an intertropical one. It is, to a great extent, destitute
of great rivers ; without being a desert. It is sub-
tended by the parts below 9° N. L., or, the terra incog-
576 THE BEGHARMI, ETC.
nita, for tlie northern half of Africa ; from which it
follows that, whether the languages under notice have or
have not affinities on their southern frontiers, such affi-
nities as may exist are unknown. This is much the
same as saying that the further we go south, the further
we recede from Mahometan, and advance into Pagan,
Africa.
So much for its southern limit. On the north it under-
lies the Sahara in respect to its geography, and the
Arab and Amazig areas in respect to its ethnology and
philology — the Arab and Amazig areas both being
Mahometan. It may be added (though the remark is
in anticipation of what will appear as we proceed) that
it is nearly co-extensive with the ground covered by
the Fula conquests.
It is a zone, or band, and, though some of its occu-
pants have comparatively light-coloured skins, it is, as
contrasted with the broader zone to the north, a Black
Band. It has been called Nigritia. It has been called
Sudania. But it is a Black Band only when contrasted
with northern Africa.
All the above-named languages are, in the present state
of our knowledge, separated from each other by definite
lines of demarcation. It may, perhaps, be added that
they are all equi-distant from each other, i. e. the first
on the list is (about) as like or unlike the second as the
second is like or unlike the third. They have all miscel-
laneous affinities ; though the special ones are less than the
geographical relations suggest. At the same time, as far
as they go, it is with the geograpliical relations that
the affinities coincide. Tlie intrusive Fula, with its
wide and irregular distribution, is, perhaps, an exception
to this rule.
To the north of Lake Tshad, along with the Tibbu of
Kanem, the Arabic of the Beni Suliman and otlier tribes,
is spoken; whilst farther to the west lies Darsaleh, Wa-
day, or Borgho, of which notice has already been taken.
THE BEGHARMI, ETC.
577
(1.) The Begharmi is conterminous with theTibbu, the
Bomui, and the Mandara on the north, west, and south,
the details of its eastern frontier being unknown. It
may or may not touch the Mobba and Dar-runga areas.
It is known by vocabularies only, of which Denham's is
the chief.
(2.) The Mandara is the nearest approach we have to
a language of the interior of Africa, being the only one
spoken south of the tenth degree of latitude in any part
of the continent equally central. Indeed, the tenth
degree on each side of the equator bounds the terra
incognita. Towards the eastern and western extremi-
ties of the zone thus described, Bm-ton, Livingstone,
and others have explored ; but for the interior Denhara
and Barth are our only authorities. The Mandara is
one of the languages given in the forthcoming ILst of
the languages of Adamowa, Hamarua, and the parts
around. (See p. 589.)
English.
BeghannL
Mandara.
Man
gaba
geela
Woman
nee
mugsa
gala igirl)
Head
geujo
erey
Eye
kammoo
echey
Teeth
nganah
Mouth
tara
okay
Nose
amo
ukteray
Feet
njanja
Sicn
kaja
Fire
heddoo
Water
mane
yowah
Wind
belee
Wood
clieree
One
keddy
mtagne
Tico
sub
sandah
Three
mattah
kighah
Four
soh
fuddah
Five
mee
elibah
Six
meeka
^quaha
Seven
chilly
^oullay
Eifjht
marta
teesa
Nine
doso
musselman
Ten
dokemy
klaon.
p p
578 '• THE KANURI, ETC.
(3.) It is a current statement that as many as thirty
different tongues are spoken in Bornu. This we get
from a notice by Lucas whose informant was an official
of that country. Seetzen throws a little light upon this ;
his informant having been a negro of Affadeh. The first
language enumerated by him is —
1 . The Mana Birniby, or speech of Bornu itself
2. The Amszigh Mpade, a country six days' journey
northwards.
3. The Mszmn mkalone Kamma, or the speech of a
country seven days east of Affadeh, called by the Arabs
Kalphey.
4. The Amszigh Affadeh.
Towards our knowledge of the other twenty-six, the
following list was obtained by Seetzen from a negro of
Mobba, whom he met at Cairo.
5. The Kajenjah. 6. The Upderrak 7. The Alih.
8. The Mingon. 9. The Mararet 10. The Massalit.
n. The Szongor. 12. The Kuka. 13. The Dadshu.
14. The Bandalah. 15. The Masmajah. 16. The
Njorga. 17. The Demhe. 18. The Malangoe. 19. The
Mime. 20. The Koruhoih. 21. The Qonuh. 22. The
Kahka. 23. The Ouranguk. 24. The Dshellaha.
Of these the Amszigh Mpade may be the Amazigb,
a language of the Sahara rather than Bornti itself In
like manner some of the others may belong to the Bornii
Empire rather than to the district so-called. Of the
Affadeh, however, we have, eo nomine, short specimens.
It is closely akin to the Mana Birniby, the Proper
Bornui, or Kanuri.
The Arabic alphabet has been applied to the Kanuri ;
the data for Norriss's Kanuri Grammar having been a
collection of dialogues from Madame de Genlis's Manuel
de Voyageur, a translation of two chapters of the New
Testament, and the draft of an agreement to be made
with one of the petty kings of the interior of Africa.
These were written at Tripoli, and sent to England by tlie
late Mr. Ricliardson ; there was a similar translation into
THE KANURI, ETC.
579
the Hawsa. The author was an Arab. Kolle's gi-ammar
was framed upon conversations with a native of the pro-
vince of Gazir whom the author found at Sien-a Leone.
Mr. Norriss, enlarging upon the extent to which the
Kanuri differs from the other languages, compares its
structure with that of the Turk dialects. Its roots are
not subject to any modification ; it forms its plural by
adding a syllable, and it has a somewhat full inflection,
consisting wholly of postpositions.
(Bornu dialects.)
EngUsh.
Bude.
Ngodzen.
Dodi.
Man
gemsenen
gemseg
amsey
Woman
game
ama
ama
Head
adatka
ada
ada
Hair
dadsLn
yat
yad
Nose
iskinen
ten
Stan
Eye
dat
da
Ida
Ear
gatanen
aqnt
qoat
Tooth
yanuanen
yanon
nayon
Toncfue
muret
marinyi
Sun
afan
a£a
afa
Pirt
akan
aka
aka
Water
amu
am
aam.
English.
Kannri.
Mania
NgUTU.
Kanem.
Man
koa
kangoa
kangoa
koa
Woman
kamn
kamn
kamn
kamn
Head
kala
kala
kala
kela
Hair
kandali gazi
kanduli
knndali
Nose
kentsa
kindsa
kindsa
kenza
Eye
sim
sim
sim
asim
Ear
sumo
somo
snmo
tsnmo
Tooth
timi
temi
temi
temi
Tongue
telam
telam
tetam
tatam
Sun
kaa
kaa
kan
kengal
Fire
kann
kann
kann
kann
Water
nki
engi
ngi
ngi.
English.
Badnma.
English.
Badnma.
Man
hagoei
Ear
homogu
Woman
nger^m
Tooth
haneni
Head
kodagu
Tonguf
talamdagn
Hair
ndsige
Sun
adsi
Nose
dsenegu
Fire
on
Eye
yelegu
Water
amei.
p p 2
580 • THE KANURI, ETC.
English,
Logone.*
Mobba.*
One
teku
tek
ser^dia
Two
ksde
bar
Three
gaxkir
kungal
Four
gade
asal
Five
sesi
tor
Six
venaxkir
settal
Seven
katul
mindri
Eight
venyade
lya
Nine
disxien
adoi
Ten
xkan
aWk.
(4.) Whatever may be the areas for the (?) twenty-
seven unknown languages of Bornii, they are not on any
of the explored portions of the Hawsa frontier, inasmuch
as the two languages meet. The Hawsa, like the
Bornii, has been written in Arabic characters, whilst
from Schon's grammar we learn the details of its struc-
ture. It gives either the germ or the fragment of a pe-
culiarity, of which more will be said when the Yoruba
comes under notice.
(5.) Roughly speaking, the Sunghai area is bounded
by 1 3° N. L. and the Niger ; the line of demarcation
being a chord and an arc. The line of latitude runs
straight, whilst the river, which meets it at both its
extremities, approaches N, L. 18°. Between these lies
the great mass of the Sunghai area, though not ex-
clusively. On the north it is bounded by the Arabic
and the Amazig, both encroaching languages ; on the
west by the SerawulH (?) and the Bambarra ; on the
East by the Fula and Hawsa ; on the south by the
Kouri of Tombo, Mosi, and Gurma ; the line of de-
marcation here being pre-eminently obscure. All along
the northern frontier there is gi'eat intermixture —
men of Sunghai blood using the Fula, Hawsa (?),
Amazig, Arabic, SerawulH (?), and Mandingo dialects,
and vice versa. G6g6, the ancient capital of a kingdom,
stands in Sunghai ground. Timbuktu, more famous
* For the explanation of these two columns see the appendix.
TUE KOURL
581
still, does the same. To the south of Timbuktu the
Iregenaten Tuariks have intruded far in the direction of
the Kouri frontier ; between whom and the Niger lie
several independent tribes ; amongst whom, it is proba-
ble, that foreign admixture is at the minimum. Their
land, however, is a terra incognita. Of their language
I only know one sample from the extreme west, and
one from the parts about Timbuktu.
(6.) The chief districts of the KouH area are Gurraa,
Tombo, and Mosi. Of these, the former is less Kouri
than the other two ; this is because Gurma is on both
the Sunghai and the Bambarra frontiers, from each of
which there have been pressure and encroachment. Pres-
sure, too, and encroachment have also been effected by
the Fulas. That Gunna is a Sunghai name, as sug-
gested by Barth, is probable. At any rate, it is not
native. The Gurma people call the Hawsa people
Jongoy. The Tombo, like Gurma, has been encroached
upon by the Fulas, so that Mosi is the district which
is most especially Kouri. It is Pagan, and broken up
■ into small principalities. The Bamban-a name for the
M<5si is Moreha. The Mosi themselves caU —
The Fulas .
Chilmigo,
— Sunghai
Marenga,
— Gurma
Bimba,
— Wangara
Taurearga,
— Hawsa
Zangoro,
— Ashantis
Santi.
KoUe calls it the North-Eastem High Soudanian, but
the present writer, in 1855, suggested the name under
notice on the strength of a vocabulary of Mrs. Elil-
ham's, representing the same language with the Tembu
of the Mithridates. In the Polyglotta Afrieana there
is also a Kaure, as well as a Kiamba, Dzhamba, or
Tern specimen.
The members of this group, according to Kolle, are
o82 THE KOURI.
1. Mose ; 2. Dselana ; 3. Guren ; 4. Gurma ; 5. Le-
gba ; 6, Kaure ; 7. Kiamba ; 8. Koama ; 9. Bagba-
lan; 10. Tula; 11, Kasm. Of all of these forms of
speech KoUe gives specimens.
To this we may add the Yngwe, and Dagwhumba
numerals of Bowdich.
In Clarke we get the following additions: — 1. Yaua;
2. Brinni ; 3. Nibulu ; 4. and no less than 4 Tsham-
bas.
Yana is stated to be near Appa and Tshamba. It is,
probably, a transitional dialect, with Inta, Mandingo,
Yoruba, and Ibo affinities.
The Brinni are called a tribe of the Fnla race in the
interior, not far from Umwalum and Tshamba. Bangsa
and Pumpluna are near to Tshamba. This statement as
to the Fula affinity is exceptionable. They are de-
cidedly in the same class with the Nibulu.
Nibulu is simply said to be in the Tshamba country.
When we look to the word Tshamba itself, we learn
that there are three or more places of this name, 1st,
near Igarra, on the river Odu ; 2nd, between Mandingo
and the Kong Mountains ; 3rd, near Corisco Bay at
Nibulu. Now as Tshamba is the word of salutation
at this place, some confusion may have arisen, which
future researches will explain. At any rate, the
combination m6 preceded by k, t, sh, &c., is common.
There is the Tim6u country on the Senegambia, Kimbo,
Tim6u-ctu, Aquim6o, Adampi. In Balbi there is a
Tjem6u or Kassenti, The Tambu of Oldendorp is the
TcZampi of the Gold Coast. Whatever may be the
explanation of all this, it is clear that the word as a
name of the class under consideration is inconvenient.
Whether Kouri (the term proposed by the present wi'iter)
be the best name is another question. It is less am-
biguous than Tshamba ; shorter than Nortli-Eastern High
Sudanian.
The watershed, marked in the map as the Mountains
THE KOURL
583
of Koug, between the rivers which empty themselves into
the Gulf of Guinea (the Volta, &;c.) and the feeders on
the right bank of the Niger, belongs to the Kouri country,
which, in some parts, touches the Niger itself. It lies in
the longitude of Greenwich, and (perhaps) 8 degrees on
each side of it, and in ] 0 N. L, It is certainly a broken
and mountainous country with a pagan population.
The question which now arises touches the accuracy
of the boundary by Kolle, who limits the group under
notice to the forms of speech enumerated by him. I
would add to it, at least, two of his South Afi'ican lan-
guages, the Barba, and the Boko. The Barba he iden-
tifies, from memory, with the Borgu of the Hawsa.
Boko touches Busa on the Koara.
English, head, hair.
Barba, imru, siru.
Mose, zuru.
Legba, nyoro.
Kaure, nyoro.
Rasm, yuru.
Akn, &c., oru.
English, face.
Barba, ipusoa.
Legba, esa.
Kaure, esa.
I Kiamba, esanda.
' Aku, odsu.
I Kambali, lisu.
English, nose.
Barba, nueru.
Mose, nyore.
Guresa, nyor.
English, eye.
Barba, noni.
Mose, nini.
Guresa, nun.
English, ear.
Barba, so.
Boko, zea.
Guresa, tui.
English, mouth.
Barba, no.
Legba, noio.
Koama, ni.
Kasm, ni.
That the Boko and Barba should be Kouri is only
what we expect from their geographical situation.
Is there any other class besides the Kouri for the un-
explored parts between the Kong Mountains and the
Niger ? In other words, do we, when we get the Kouri
class, get a class that completes our ethnographic and
philologic knowledge for these parts? We do. No
unplaced language is likely to be discovered. This is
inferred from the fact of the limits of the Kouri class,
being formed, on all sides, by some known language.
Thus:
1. On the north, it touches, and, perhaps, graduates
into, the Mandingo, Sunghai, and Hawsa.
584
THE KOURI.
2. On the south, it touches the Kru, the Avekvom,
the Inta, the Dahomey, and Yoruba groups of the
Grain, Ivory, Gold, and Slave coasts,
3. On the east it reaches the Hawsa, and
4. On the east, and south-east, the Nufi.
With all of which it has miscellaneous affinities.
If the Kouri has relations to the Mandingo and the
Nufi on one side, it has also relations to the Sunghai of
Timbuktii on the other. Perhaps, it is the language to
which the Sunghai of Timbuktti is most especially like.
The pronoun of the first person singular is ai, or a in
both the Timi)uktli of Kolle, and his Yula and Kasm ;
to say nothing of other definite glossarial likeness.
That the so-called South-African characteristics were
likely to be found in the Kouri is stated in the paper
of April 27, 1855. I now add that ahalozzman.
The name of a Kouri population is nibalu ; probably
=zmen. Should this be shown to be the case, we have
the Kaffir-like plurals in a firesh language.
{Kouri dialects.)
English.
Koama.
Bagbalan.
Man
mbal
bala
Womcm
hal
hala
Read
njTin
nyi
Hair
njdpose
nyupun
Nose
mese
misan
Eye
se
sian
Ear
dera
deral
Tooth
kele
nila
Tongue
mandelem
dendelman
Sun
iya
iwia
Fire
nien
nyin
Water
le
uen.
English.
Kasm.
Yula.
Man
nokio
baro
Woman
kam
kam
Head
yiru
yuru
Hair
iye
yua
Nose
moe
mui
Eye
yi
yibu
Ear
ze
zoa
THE YORUBA.
5
EngUsh.
Kasm.
Ynla.
Tooth
nyal
iyele
Tongue
dendele
dendele
Sun
iya
we
Fire
men
men
Water
na
na.
English.
Kambali.
English.
KuDibali.
Man
wale
Ear
atsuvu
Woman
waha
Tooth
nno
Head
adsin
Tong
ue
anga
Hair
hondsi
Sun
urana
Note
Tunu
Fire
ahina
Eye
lisu
Water
moni.
English.
Mose.
Dzelana.
Goresa.
Gunna.
Man
dawa
do
nedo
odso
Woman
para
pora
pora
wopua
Head
zuru
zoh
zu
yuli
Hair
kodwdo
zuih
su
tiyudi
Nose
nyore
mer
nyuara
ami are
Eye
nine
namp
nun
nomu
Ear
towre
tepar
tui
tuwili
Tooth
nyena
nor
nanbana nyawu
Tongue
zilamd
dselenk
gingelona lamba
Sun
nuende
gmint
wnmbr
oyenu
Fire
bunun
borom
bolam
omu
Water
kom
nyam
nylam
nyima.
English.
LegbJL
Kaore.
Keamba.
Man
abalo
abalo
ebalo
Woman
alo
alo
alo
Head
nyoro
nyopo
kudyo
Hair
nyos
nyos
nyoz
Nose
mire
moro
nnmbon
Eye
esire
esire
esire
Ear
mungbanuro
tingbanu
eligbamu
Tooth
noio
nor
noa
Tongue
isuromule
nsolomere
esuromo
Sun
elim
wea
▼oze
Fire
koko
gmin
nimin
Water
lam
lem
lem.
oiio
(7.) The Yomiba area lies, there or thereabouts, be-
tween 2° and G° W. L., and 6° and 10° N. L., being
bounded by the Bahomey, the Kouri (?), the Nufi, and
the Ibo languages and the sea. The Fula has en-
croached upon it. It has a well-defined boundary, and the
586 THE YORUBA.
language is well defined also : indeed, few African lan-
guages are better capable of being definitely limited. So
is it geographically, so philologically. Its nearest con-
geners are the Kouri, Nufi, and Ibo, and it has miscel-
laneous affinities besides. Until the publication of Crow-
ther's grammar, the author of which, himself a native
of the country, is a clergyman of the Church of Eng-
land, little was known of it beyond a few vocabulary
specimens. It has now been studied with more than
average attention. A paper upon it by D'Avezac in
the Transactions of the E'rench Ethnological Society
enlarged upon the extent to which it was what was
called a Tnonosyllahic language. But are not all lan-
guages, when we get to the roots, something of the
kind ? The real fact is this — without being more mono-
syllabic than many other tongues, the Yoruba is more
easily than many others reducible to its elements. The
best analysis of it is by Bishop Vidal the editor of Crow-
ther's second edition. He enlarges upon the extent to
which it is deficient of inflection. This means that the
relations of time and place are expressed by separate
words. He takes note of the important part played by
accents.
He notes, too, what he calls the Vocalic Euphony.
Let the vowels be separated into two classes, and let o, e,
i, I, u, and u be called open ; whilst o, e, a, and a, are
close. Let the full forms of the pronouns be erne ■=. I,
iwo=.thou, on = he, she, or it. When these precede
verbs like ko, shi, she, shi, ku, or lit, they are mo, o, and
0, i. e. open. Whereas if they precede verbs like kg, fe,
la, or ka, they are close. The same is the case with the
negative particle which is ki, ko, or ko, according to the
vowel of the verb. He indicates either a geim or a
fragment of a like system in the Hawsa.
Another remarkable phenomenon — by means of a
regular system of prefixes we get from a root like sloe =.
sin, the following derivatives : —
THE YORUBA. 587
a. Prefix i, and the root becomes either an infinitive
verb, or something closely akin to it, i. e. if she = do, fe
rzlove, 7no'=:zhno'W, or lorzgo, ise, ife, imo, ilq-=.the act
of doing, loving, &c.
6. A more concrete meaning is given by substituting
a for i. Thus, afe =. a state of loving, alo = a going.
c. Ali gives an inchoative sense ; thus atilozzthe act
of going ; atife-=.the act of loving, considered as not
yet in full exercise, but about to be so.
d. A is, a. negative; hence, a-imozznot knovnTig, or
ignorance.
e. A also denotes an agent; thus, from pej jazz fish,
and konrin ■=. »ing, we get apejja ■=. a fisherman, akonrin
zza singer.
f. Ni = have ; and, as a prefix, implies the posses-
sion of the attribute suggested by the verb. Thus,
idajg— judgment comes nidajo — to possess judgment.
In certain cases in which the vocalic euphony plays a
part, this n becomes I, as it is in the example of the
table.
g. Prefix, where ni is retained, o, and, in other
cases, the initial vowel of the word which it precedes,
and it gives a noun like onidajo — one who judges, or
judge.
Vocabularies headed (1) Ota, (2) Egba, (3) Idsesa,
(4) Yagba, (5) Eki, (6) Dsumu, (7) Oworo, (8) Dsebu,
(9) Ife, (9) Ondo, (10) Dsekiri, in addition to the
Yoruba Proper, are all to be found in Kolle, as sub-
dialects of the Aku : followed by one of the Igala as a
separate dialect — falling, however, into no sub-dialects.
(8.) The Xufi Class. — Mutatis mutandis, the criticism
which applies to Kolle 's North-Eastern High Sudanian,
applies to his Niger-Tshadda, class. It may more con-
veniently be called Nufi, from its chief language.
Additions are to be made to it fiom the pages of the
Folyglotta Africana itself; viz. : —
588
THE NUFI.
1. The Yala, an unclassed language, is Nufi.
2. The Dsuku and Eregba, which Kolle makes South
African, are Nufi.
In the Polyglotta Africana, the Dsuku, along with
the Eregba, forms the third section of the eighth group,
headed Atam Languages ; whilst the first of Part 2
contains South African Languages, distinguished by
an initial inflection. As such, it is separated from 1.
Nupe; 2. Kupa ; 3. Esitako ; 4. Musu ; 5. Goali; 6.
Basa ; 7. Ebe ; 8. Opanda ; 9. Egbira-Hima. To
these, however, the vocabulary connects it, at least, as
much as to any other group.
English.
Appa.
Eregba.
Dsuku.
One
uniieen
unye
atsu
Two
ifa
ifa
apiana
Three
ita
ita
atsala
Pcnur
ini
ini
anyera
Five
itun
itliu
tsoaua
Six
teniieh
itinye
tsindse
Seven
tifa
itafa
atsumpi
Eight
tita
itita
tsuntsa
Nine
tini
itini
tsunyo
Ten
ubo
ubo
atsue.
If we now look back upon the details of these two
classes, we find them to run as follows : —
1. In the Kouri, we have the Kouri of Mrs. Kilham,
the Tembu of Oldendorp, and the Mithridates, the Hio,
Yrgwe, and Dagumba of Bowdich, the Mose, Dselana,
Guren, Gurma, Legba, Kauri, Kiamba, Koama, Bagba-
lan, Barba, and Boko of Kolle ; the Yana, Brinni,
Nibulu, and 4 Tshambas of Clarke.
2. The Nufi contains the forms of speech illustrated
by the following vocabularies : Nupi, Appa, Kupa,
Esitako, Musu, Goali, Basa, Ebe, Opanda, Egbira-Hima,
Ergeba, Dsuku, Tapua (Tappa), Biyanni, Shabbie, Ka-
kanda, Nupaysi.
Apparently, a language of Kolle's, called the Kambali,
is intermediate to the Nufi and the Kouri.
THE BATTA.
589
(9.) The preliminary remarks of Dr. Barth on the
Batta lancruage are as follows : — " The Batta-ntshi is
spoken from Garrua, a place three days E. of Yola, in the
district of Kokorni, as far as Batshama, three days E. of
Hammarua. To this lancniaije beloncj the names of the
two large rivers of Adamawa, Faro, ' the river,' and
Benoe, ' the mother of waters.'
" The other languages are the following : — The Burna-
ntshi, spoken by the Umbmn and in Baia ; the Dama-
ntshi, the language of Bobanjidda ; the Buta-ntshi ; the
Tekar-tshi ; the Muuda-ntshi ; the Fala-ntshi ; the
Marga-ntshi ; the Kilba-ntshi ; the Yangur-tshi ; the
Guda-ntshi, spoken by a very learned people, the Gudu,
living on a plain surrounded by mountains, near Song ;
the Tshamba-ntshi ; the Kotofa-ntshi, spoken by the
Kotofo, whose Lirge river, the Dewo, comes from Kout-
sha and joins the Benue ; the Wera-ntshi ; the Dura-
ntshi ; the Woka-ntshi ; the Toga-ntshi : the Lekam-
tshi ; the Parpar-tshi ; the Kankam-tshi ; the Nyang-
eyare-tshi ; the Musga-ntshi ; the Mandara-ntshi ; the
Gizaga-ntshi ; the Ruma-ntshi ; the Gidar-ntshi ; the
Daba-ntshi ; the Hina-ntshi ; the Matuma-ntslii ; the
Sina-ntshi ; the Momoyee-ntshi ; the Fani-ntshi ; the
Nyega-ntshi ; and finally the Dewa-ntshi ; all these lan-
guages being so widely different from each other, that a
man who knows one of them does not at aU understand
the others."
English.
BaUa.
English.
Batta.
Sun
motshe
Water
be
Heaven
kade
Fire
die
Star
motshe kan
People
manope
Wind
koe
Man
mano
Rain
bole
Woman
metshe
Dry season
p(ia
Mother
Dogi or noi
Jiainy
bolebasi
Father
bagir
Day
motshe
Child, hoy
labai
Ni'jht
motsheken
Davghter
jetshe
Yesterday
zodo
Brother
lab^nno
To-day
fido
Sister
jetshono
To-monvw
taa
Friend
dawai
590
THE "
BATTA.
English.
Batta.
English.
Batta.
Enemy
kawe
Mountain
faratshe
Sultan, Icing
homai
Valley
k&dembe
Slave
keze
River
be-noe, faro
Female slave
kezametshe
River overflowing be-bake
Head
bodashi
Garden
wadi
Eye
hashi
WeU
bfilambe
Nose
ikilo
Tree
kade?
Ear
k^kkilo
Grass ] '
Herbage j
Mouth
bratsM
tsharae
Tooth
nesudabtslie
Small
keng
Tongue
ateazido
Large
baka
Arm
b6ratshe
Far, distant
b6ng
Heart
teleshe
Near
abong
Leg
bora
Good
izedo
Mil1c
pamde
Bad
^zedo
Butter
mare
Warm
tenibo
Ghussuh
lamashe
I hear
h^kkeli
Ohafuli
kakashe
I do not hear
takeli
Rice
hoiyanga
I see
biUe
Baseen
dabtshe
I do not see
tale
Honey
moratshe
I speah
nabawata
Salt
fite
I sleep
bashino
Meat
lue
I eat
nazumu
Fruit
nawa d6kade
Eat, imp.
zuazum, zuengosso
Shirt
{irkute
/ dnnk
nasa
Spear
kube
Brink, imp.
zuaba&a
Sword
songai
I go
nawado
Bow
rie
Go, imp.
joado
Arrow
galbai
I com£
nS^basi
Quiver
k6ssure
Come, imp.
sua
Boat
damagere
Give, imp.
tenigo
Hut, home
finai
Take, imp.
zu^ngura
Nat
kaje
/
hennebo
CooJcing-pot
borashe
Thou
mano
Basket
sbilai
One
hido
Horse
dual
Two
pe
Mare
dometsbi
Three
makin
Ox
nakai
Four
fat
Cow
metshe nakai
Five
tuf
Camel, donJcey
do not exist
Six
toknldaka
Sheep
bag&mre
Seven
tokulape
Goat
bagai
Eight
farfat
Hog
b§,rashe
Nine
t&mbido
Lion
turum
Ten
bu
Fish
rufai
Eleven
bu umbidf hido
Bird
yaro
Twelve
bu 6mbidi pe
A plain
yolde
Thirteen
bu firabidi makin
THE
FULA.
5
English.
Batta.
English.
Batta.
T-xenty
m^nobupe
Eighty
manoba farfat
Ticenty-one
m^nobnpe hido
Ninety
Tnanoba t&mbic
Thirty
manobumakin
One hu
ndred
aru
Forty
manobafat
One thousand debu (Hausa)
Fifty
manobutfif
Forms of Salutation.
Sixty
manobutokuldaka
hokuda yo
Seventy
maonbu tokulape
yalabare bide.
(10.) A few remarks may now be made upon another
language : one of greater political and geographical im-
portance than any of the preceding class ; a language
hitherto uncultivated, but one which is, by no means, un-
likely to develope itself as the medium of an imperfect
native Hterature, nor yet likely to be overlooked by the
missionary and merchant for religious and commercial
purposes. I mean the Fula, Fulah, Felletta, Fellata,
Fulani, Fulanie, Filani, and Filanie tongue. A native
conqueror, scarcely a generation back, named Danfodio,
spread the Fula conquests as far west as Bomu and the
frontier of Waday. He carried them far into the Hawsa,
Yoruba, Sunghai, and Kanuri countries. He was a Ma-
hometan, and, as such, the leader of a popuUxtion strongly
contrasted with the native pagans of the true and typical
Negro conformation. From this the Fula physiognomy
departed, though not always to the same extent. As a
general rule, however, the Fula skin was lighter ; so
much so, that one section has long been known as the
Red Peuls or Fulas.
The chief languasres with which the Fula was at
first compared, were those of the countries into which
it intruded ; the Hawsa, Yoruba, Bomui, kc. It was
not likely to show very decided affinities with these ;
inasmuch as they lay beyond the pale of its proper and
original situs. What this original situs, however, was
is easily investigated. The home of the race seems to
have been the highlands that form the watershed of the
Senegal and Gambia ; so that the languages with which it
originally came in the closest contact were the WolofF
and Mandincro. But as the Mandinffo itself has en-
592 THE SERAWULLI.
croached on the forms of speech in its neighbourhood,
much displacement and obliteration of such intermediate
forms of speech as may have originally existed has been
effected. We do not, then, expect very decided affinities
even here. It is tlie opinion of the present writer, how-
ever, that, whether great or small, they are greater in
tliis direction, than any other ; the Woloff being the
nearest congener, and the nearest approach to a tran-
sitional tongue being the Serawulli. The very scanty
specimens of the Mithridates are enough to suggest this
— these making the Serawulli partly Woloff, partly
Mandingo, partly Fula. If so, the affinities are thus :
Woloff Serawolli
Felup, &c., Serere
Fula
Mand ingo
This, however, is in anticipation of the languages of
another group.
(11.) The Tibbu will be noticed in the Appendix.
The first language of the next class is the Sei^a-
wulli or Seracolet, conterminous with tlie Arabic on the
north, and the Woloff on the west, and spoken over an
extensive, but imperfectly-explored district towards the
pouth- western frontier of the Sahara. Parts of Ludamar,
Galam, Kaarta, and the Bambarra country, are Sera-
wulli. Kolle states that there are six Serawulli tribes,
tlie Gadsaga, the Gidemara, the Hanyaga, tlie Dzafuna,
the Haire, and the Gangari. Their physical form is that
of the Woloff, and Sereres ; their Mahoraetanism equally
imperfect. Their energy and intelligence have been
extolled.
The area given to the Azeriye, Aswarek, or Swaninki,
by Barth, is of considerable size and importance : ex-
tending from the parts about Sangsangdi, which he par-
ticularly says was, originally, an 'Aswarek town, to Wa-
nad, in N. L. 21°. Now this is the most northern spot
where a Negro population is found in situ. The lan-
guage is, of course, in contact with the Arabic and
THE WOLOF, ETC. 593
Amazig, or with the Arabic by which the Amazig has
been replaced, no Negro language being at this degree of
latitude in contact with it. On the south, it is met by
the "Wolof, the Sungai, the Fula, and the Mandingo of
BarabaiTa : possibly by some of the Kouri dialects.
The blood of many a man who speaks Arabic must be
more or less Azeriye.
The great centre of the Aswarek seems to have been
El Hodh; Baghena being the district wherein, at present,
they are most numerous.
The Sereres is spoken about Cape Verd, the Wolof
being spoken all round it. It is isolated, but has
miscellaneous affinities. We have no grammar of it and
but few vocabularies.
The Wolof, or Jolof, is spoken between the Senegal
and the Gambia ; not, however, continuously. It is
interrupted in the parts about Cape Yerd. On the
north it is bounded by the Arabic of Ludamar.
It is the firet true Negro language of the seaside
which is met with on the western coast of Africa.
The States or kingdoms of Walo, Baol, and Kayor
(this last being to the north of the Senegal), are
Wolof Kajaga, or Galam, is pai"tly so.
A grammar by Dard (Crramriiaire Ouloff) is our chief
authority for its structure ; in which the peculiarity
which has attracted most attention is the initial change
of the article. It begins with the consonant of the noun
to which it belongs ; whatever that consonant may be.
Such congeners as the Wolof may have had to the
north have been swept away by the Arabic of the
Moors ; so that on one side, at least, it is an isolated
language. Neither are its other affinities either very
decided or very numerous ; but, on the contrary, few and
miscellaneous. Tliey are greatest, however, with the
languages with which it is conterminous. On the west,
it is cut off by the ocean. In the direction of Cape
Yerd it seems to have encroached.
QQ
594
PAPEL, ETC.
Now comes a group of a miscellaneous, artificial, and
provisional character ; consisting of certain true Negro
languages spoken between the Wolof and Mandingo
areas and the Ocean.
Padsade is the name of a vocabulary in Kolle. taken
from a native of a town called Udadsa three or four
days' journey from the sea.
English.
Padsade.
English.
Padsade.
Man
usia
Ear
kunofe
Woman
udsafe
Tooth
manye
Head
pofa
Tongue
pulema
Hair
pasads
Sun
pudyade
Noae
nyasin
Fire
nukus
Eye
masa
Water
mambea.
The Biafada, akin to it, is spoken on some, but not
on all, of the islands of the Bissago group.
English.
Biafada.
English.
Biafada.
Man
usa
Ear
gunufa
Woman
unali
Tooth
akede
Head
buofa
Tongue
wudema
Haw
gamboei
Sun
wunari
Nose
gandzini
Fire
furu
Eye
agiri
Water
mambia.
The Papel, a representative of a fresh class, lies to
the south of the Cacheo and on one or more of the
Bissago islands.
English.
Papel.
Kanyop.
Man
nyient
nent
Woman
nyas
nat
Head
bene
behen
Hair
oyele
uel
Nose
bihl
biea
Eye
pekil
kikasi, behen
Ear
kebars
kabat
Tooth
pinyi
iromagi
Tongue
perempte
priamd
Sun
ono
buno
Fire
buro
Water
mnnsop
mleg.
THE FELUP, ETC.
595
En^idi.
Sarar.
Bolar.
Man
nyient
nyendz
Woman
nyat
nyadz
Head
bngon
bokoa
Hair
wel
wuel
Nost
biz
biz
Eye
pagas
pekatz
Ear
kewat
kebadz
Tooth
panin
punyi
Tongue
pondiamont
pndemnt
Sun
onnar
onor
Fire
bndaa
mel
Water
budo
meL
The Bulanda, akin to the Papel, &c., is spoken in a
part of the Bissago archipelago and on the continent.
English.
Bulanda.
English.
Bulanda.
Man
njendz
Ear
gelo
Woman
gnin
Tooth
ksit
Head
ko
Tongue
demadn
Hair
wnl
Sun
lehn
Nose
pfuna
Fire
kledsa
Eye
fket
Water
wede.
Three populations are named Bago ; one of which
— that of the Kalum Bago — speaks a dialect of the
Timmani.
English.
Timmani.
Bago.
Landoma.
Man
wandnni
iriquni
oruni
Woman
wTinibom
irani
orani
Head
rabamp
dabomp
dabiunp
Hair
rafon
kofon
kofon
Nose
asot
tasot
tasat
Eye
rafor
dafor
dafor
Ear
alens
aranes
alenas
Tooth
rasek
dasek
dasik
Tongue
ramez
darner
damir
Sun
ret
det
keten
Fire
nant
nants
nents
Water
maitt
n&mun
damnn mants.
The Felups lie along the coast between the Gambia
and the Casamanca.
QQ 2
596
TUE FELUP, ETC.
English.
Felup.
*• English.
Felnp.
Man
aneine
Ear
gano
Woman
aseh
Tooth
finin
Head
fokou
Tongue
furcrop
Hair
wal
Sun
bunah
Nose
enyundo
Fire
sambul
Eye
gizil
Water
momel.
Two other lanwuaofes still stand over for notice ; the
Nalu and the Bagnon, spoken on and to the south of
the Nunez. Of the Sapi, eo nomine, we have no
specimens.
English.
Nalu.
Bagnon.
Man
lamkiele
udigen
Womar
lamfai
udikam
Head
konki
bigof
Hair
mileou
dsegan
Nose
minyeni
nyankin
Eye
nkiet
kegil
Ear
mineau
kind
Movih
misole
bure
Tooth
mfet
harl
Tongue
milembe
buremudz
Sum
miyakat
binek
Fire
met
kuade
Water
nual
mundu.
English.
Wolof.
Serawulli.
Mandingc
Bullom.
Man
gor
yugo
ke
nopugan
Woman
dzhigen
yahare
muso
noma
Head
buob
yime
ku
bol
Nose
bokan
norune
nu
umin
Eye
bot
yare
nya
lifol
Ear
nop
taro
tulo
nni
Mouth
gemei
rake
da
nyen
Tooth
bei
kambe
nyi
idsan
Tongue
lamei
nene
neh
limelim
Sm
dzhagat
kiu
tele
lepal
Fire
sefara
imbe
ta
dyom
Water
ndoh
dsi
dsi
mem.
The system of affinities here is complex. In the
Mandingo class the Gbandi, Landoro, and Mendi, appear
to lead, through the Kissi, the Timmani, and the Bullom,
and through these to the Papel, Felup, Wolof, &c.
TABLE OF AFFINITIES, ETC.
597
The Gbese, Toma, Mano, and Gio lead (as their geo-
graphy suggests) to the Kru forms of speech ; these
leading to the Inta tongues of the Gold Coast, &c.
Lastly, the Maudingo Proper points to the Wolof,
through the Serawulli.
If so, the classification is that of the following map,
table, or diagram : —
Wolof-
Felnp
Serawulli, &c
. I
Mandingo
I
Sus6
I
Mendi
Kissi
I
Timmani
I
Mano and Gio
I
Kru
I
Inta, &c.
Of these the Timmani and Wolof, from the con-
spicuous character of their initial changes, which, in the
latter of the two languages, are well known, have gene-
rally been treated as either isolate or South African.
598
THE HOTTENTOT.
CHAPTER LXXI
The Hottentot.
With the Hottentots, decided philological, coincide with
decided anatomical, differences ; though, with each, there
has been exaggeration. In the Daramara country the
difference between the Hottentot and the Kaffir is at
its minimum.
English.
Bushman.
Korana.
Saldanha Bay.
Hottentot.
Man (homo)
t'kui
t'kohn
quorque
(mr)
t'na
kouh, kauh
Woman
t'aifi
chaisas
ankona
kyviquis
ffead
t'naa
minuong
biqua
Eye
t'saguh
mumh
mu
'Ear
t'no-eingtu
t'naum
naho
nouw
Nose
t'nuhntu
t'geub
tui, zakui
thuke, quoi
Tongue
t'inn
tarn ma
tamme
tamma
Hair
t'uki
t'oukoa
nuqua-an
Hand
t'aa
t'koam
onecoa
omma
Foot
t'ooah
t'keib
coap
itqua, yi
Sky
t'gachuh
homma
Earth
t'kanguh
ho
kamkamma
Sun
t'koara
sorohb
sore
sorre
Moon
tkduk&Tih
t'kaam
toha
Fire
t'jih
t'aib
ei
Water
t'kohaa
t'kamma
ouata
kam
One
t'koay
t'koey
q'kui
Two
t'kuh
t'koam
k'kam
Three
t'norra
k'ouiie.
The sound expressed by t' is what is generally known
as the Hottentot click. It is said to be found in some
of the Bichuana dialects of the Kaffir.
THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES IN GENERAL. 599
CHAPTER LXXII.
On the African Languages in general.
Like Polynesia, Africa is connected with Asia by an
isthmus ; a fact which narrows the range of its philolo-
gical affinities.
Like South America, Africa is separated from its
nearest continent not only by an isthmus but by a
narrow pass of water besides ; a fact which gives two
lines of migration — neither of them either implied or
excluded by the other.
In the way of displacement on the frontier between
Africa and Asia, the movement has been double.
From Arabia there has been an extension northward ;
from Tartary and Persia an extension southwards and
westwards. Add to this that for the whole of northern
Africa we have little but the dialects of the Berber
and Arabic, and the great width of the separation of
the languages on the outcrop becomes evident ; for,
from Nubia and Abyssinia there is little in situ
before we reach Caucasus on the one side and the
Brahui districts of Persia on the other. Let those, how-
ever, who believe that any amount of displacement pro-
duces anything like absolute isolation (i. e. a language
without, at least, miscellaneous affinities,) compare, en
Tna^sse, Beke's Abyssinian and Klaproth's Caucasian vo-
cabularies. Should they put down the coincidences to acci-
dent, let them compare the vocabularies of either series
with something still further apart and they will find a de-
600 THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES
crease. Whether few or many, coincidences are distri-
buted regularly rather than hap-hazard.
The African and Semitic languages are said to be cha-
racterized by a great development of the predicate, the
Indo-European by a great development of the copula.
This means, so far as it means anything, that whilst
certain modes of action, such as the inchoative, fre-
quentative, and the like, are predicative ; others, like
those involving the ideas of certainty, contingency, and
time — those that give us the moods and tenses — are
copular. As a matter of fact this is absolutely erro-
neous : inasmuch as the copula merely denotes agree-
ment or disagreement between the subject and the
predicate, having nothing to do with modes of any kind.
There are few elementary works upon logic, which fail
to tell us this. All, then, that can be said concerning
the difference between a form giving a tense or mood,
and a form giving an inchoative or a causative verb,
is that, though they are both modes, they are modes
belonging to different divisions of the genus ; and this
the grammarian well know-s, or, not knowing, acts upon
it unconsciously ; making words like now and then
adverbs, whilst he makes words like frequently, often,
&c,, no more — ^the one adverbs of time, the other of
manner. Whether he be consistent in drawing so broad
a distinction between mood and tense {vocavi and vo-
carem) on one side, and simple mode, &c. (vocito), on
the other, is a different question.
The expression, then, is exceptionable. How stands
the fact it is meant to convey ? As far as it goes it is
real. It is, however, anything but the fact in its integ-
rity. The dictum applies to other languages besides the
African : indeed, to all in an early stage of their de-
velopment. In other words, forms like vocito, &lc., origi-
nate earlier than forms like vocavi, vocem.
Upon the African character here given to the so-
called Semitic languages, I should find it necessaiy to
I
IN GENERAL. 601
enlarge had there been any definite ciiticism applied to
the question. However, what with mixing up ethno-
logy with philology and looking out for Indo-European
aflSnities in grammar because the Jews and Arabs are
liker to Europeans than to Negroes ; what with treating
an order consisting of a single genus as a large
family or sub-kingdom ; what with the fanciful dicho-
tomy between the Semitic and the Hamitic — what with
these and similar elements of confusion, the main facts,
(viz. those found in the actual examination of the African
languages themselves) have been omitted ; the researches
upon the Berber and Coptic being exceptions. Out of
these has come the term >S'i'.6-semitic ; a term which tells
its own story. More than this — philologues, like Newman
and others, have recognized beyond the pale of the Berber
(or Amazig) Berber (or Amazig) ajQBnities ; the Hawsa
and other languages being what they might (but do not)
call Sub-amazig, or Sub-coptic ; affinities which, in-
directly, extend the Semitic class Still, unless I read
them wrongly, all these observations, however true, seem
to be run one way only, i. e. they make the Hawsa, the
Galla, and their congeners, Asiatic, rather than the
Arabic, &c., African.
Yet the system of initial changes with the conso-
nants and of medial changes with the vowels — characters
which have always been held Semitic — is far commoner
in Africa than it is in Asia, and far more characte-
ristic of many African languages than it is of any
Asiatic ones.
Something of the same kind of single-sightedness
appears in the criticism upon the Kaffir characteristics.
They have been found far beyond the Kaffir area. But
the effect has been to get the Fanti, the Grebo, and
other languages, called Smith, rather than to get the
Kaffir called North, African.
The Semitic and the Kaffir (laying aside the Hot-
tentot) are the two classes for which the lines of demar-
cation have been the strongest. They are, also, those
602 THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES
which I confidently predict that further inquiry will,
more especially, break down. Respecting the other
groups, it need only be added that Africa is the land
which, above all others, requires us to classify by type
rather than definition ; and that, where the divisions are
the clearest, and the isolation the greatest, the evidence of
encroachment and obliteration is, sometimes, historical
as well as inferential. It is pre-eminently historical
with the Fula. It is a most legitimate inference with
the Hottentot. It is historical with the Galla. It is a
legitimate influence with the Berber.
On the direction in which the languages of the
larger groups seems to have extended themselves I
have but little to suggest. The uniformity of speech,
prima facie evidence in favour of recent diffusion,
seems to point in the great Galla class to the Danakil
area as the starting-point. The Berber has, apparently,
moved from east to west ; the Fula from the
high regions between the Senegal and Gambia. The
Hottentot, probably, has its nearest congeners to the
north of the great Kaffir area ; but where does this
end ? The Semitic dialects are, perhaps, Abyssinian in
origin.
The phenomena of distribution are those of Asia and
America, giving large groups, like the Berber and Kaffir,
in contrast with moderate, though rarely with excessively
small, ones. The difficulty, however, in the present state
of our knowledge, of saying where the dialect ends and
where the language begins prevents us from generalizing
here.
The range of type, as well as the multiplicity of
types, is greater in Africa than elsewhere ; by which I
mean that, if we look to single characters alone, there
are more languages in Africa which exhibit strong
single characteristics, than there are in Asia, America,
or Europe. Of the internal changes of the Semitic,
and of the alliterations and prefixes of the Kaffii,
languages, notice has already been taken. The Man-
IN GENERAL. 603
dingo, as far as it is known, is distinguished by the
want of them ; whilst the Timraani and Wolof exhibit
them. The Coptic has long been recognized as pre-
eminently agglutinate. The Galla and Kanuri run
strongly on post-^xes rather than _;>re-fixes. The Yoruba
has been called monosyllabic — which it may be in the
way that some American languages are, i. e. sporadi-
cally.
In respect to the value of the classes, the Semitic and
Berber, on one side, and the KafiBr on the other, may,
each, be held as equivalent to all the others put together.
Of the languages between the Mobba and Yoruba
districts (both inclusive) the affinities are obscure
from the linear character of the district they cover.
To the south lies a teirra incognita; to the north the
intrusive Amazig. Hence, they have, as a general
rule, possible (to say nothing of actual) congeners
on their sides only, and, at the extremities of the
range, only on one side.
In considering their stage of development we must
criticize the African languages from some average series of
examples rather than from either of their extremes, such
as the Semitic languages on one side, and the Hottentot
on the other. Those of central Africa, the Hawsa and
Kanuri for instance, are fair ones to go by. They are,
undoubtedly, on a higher level than the Polynesian, the
Kelanonesian, and the American. They are this, at
lejist, in the greater development of their numeral
system, and, apparently, in many other details besides.
No wonder. Great contact with the civilization of
Europe and South-western Asia has given this as its
result ; in other words, new wants, new ideas, and an
enlarged experience have played their part in Africa as
elsewhere. In favour of any inherent superiority or in-
feriority of the African family African philology supplies
no argument. The common-sense doctrine that the
development of language follows the development of
civihzation, and that the development of civilization is
604 THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES IN GENERAL.
determined by the points of contact between different
populations of different habitudes, is the true rule in all
these matters.
Blood and language, upon a whole, coincide but
slightly. In Northern Africa the difference is pre-emi-
nently great. The Arab blood of the millions who speak
Arabic is at a minimum. With the Berber this is
largely, though to a less degree, the case. The Kaffir,
too, must have encroached inordinately on the language
represented by the Hottentot. Again, the Galla, the
Mandingo, and the Fala are all encroaching languages.
Lastly, with Africa as the land, wherein, of all others,
slavery has been chronic, the intermixture, on that score
only, must be great.
Of the numerous grammatical processes which
(though found sporadically, in their fragments, or in
their rudiments,) are, nevertheless, found in certain
areas with a greater development than elsewhere,
Africa is the country wherein three attain inordinate
prominence, viz : (1 .) internal change of vowels and
accents which goes to the extent of altering even the
syllables of the words in which they occur ; (2.) the
system of initial consonantal changes ; and (3.) the
system of prefixes. The first of these is Semitic,
but not exclusively so. The second is Kaffir, Wolof,
and much else besides. The third is chiefly Kaffir ;
but is found elsewhere. On the habit of the Galla
and Kanuri to prefer post-fixes to prefixes I lay
but little stress. The whole class is, in the main,
agglutinate ; but I lay little stress on this. With tlie
exception of the languages of South-eastern Asia, repre-
sented by the Chinese on one side, and languages like
the Greek, Latin, Sarmatian, and German on the other,
agglutination is the rule rather than the exception all
the world over.
SKIPIT.AR OR ALBANIAN.
G05
CHAPTER LXXIII.
The Indo-European langoages (so-called). — The Skipitar, Arnaat, Of
Albanian.
The class which now comes under notice contains as
primary groups — (1.) the Skipitar ; (2.) the Sarmatian ;
(3.) the Latin and Greek ; (4.) the German ; (5.) the
Keltic ; — the Sarmatian containing the Lithuanic, the
Slavonic, and the Sanskrit.
It is submitted that the Keltic division is of the
ordinal value of all the othere put together ; the Skipitar
of the ordinal value of the rest of the section ; the
German of the value of the Sarmatian and Latin and
(or) Greek.
Oceanica, America, and Afi-ica, touched Asia by either
narrow isthmuses or a strait between two (comparative)
points ; a kind of contact which defined the hues of
their affinities. Europe touches Asia along the whole
long stretch of the Uralian range, not to mention the
minor points of approximation at the Hellespont and the
Crimean Bosphorus. Hence the lines of affinity may
vary, i. e. there may be one for the north, one for the
centre, one for the south. This, however, creates no
difficulty. Omitting the fact of the Ugrian tongues
being, to a great extent, European, the displace-
ments effected by the Russian and Turk have so tho-
roughly obliterated everything that could ever have
been transitional, that the line of demarcation between
606 SKIPITAR OR ALBANIAN.
our present class and our second is both broad and defi-
nite.
The encroachments and obliterations have been great.
They, also, began early. The Herodotean Scythians, or
Skoloti, show this for a part of the area. But it may
also be inferred, for the remainder, by a consideration of
the condition of .' sia Minor at the beginning of the his-
torical period. Over the whole of that peninsula the
presumptions are in favour of a form of speech akin
to the most southern and western of the Dioscurian
group having been originally spoken. Still, there was
intrusion, upon even this, by the languages of Persia, of
Tartary, of Greece, and of the Semitic area. Nor was
it one-sided. There is a fair amount of evidence in
favour of Europe having projected itself eastward as
well as of Asia having projected itself westward.
If we took the whole frontage between the two con-
tinents a case might be made out in favour of the
nearest congenei's of the most western of the Asiatic
languages having been either Slavonic or Lithuanic ; and,
if we took up our line at the end of the notice of the
Mordvins, such might be really the case. The Lithuanic
and Slavonic, however, have such undoubted European
affinities that, even if the conditions were equal, the lan-
guage with which we now begin is the fit one.
This is the SJclpitar, Epirot, Arnaut, or Albanian of
Albania, with a harsh phonesis, and with (^Inter alia) a
post-positional article. It was the language of the ancient
Illyrians (in the Greek sense of the word) ; perhaps the
language of the bulk of the Macedonians ; a language,
perhaps, of the whole of ancient Greece ; and a language
which was almost certainly spoken far to the north,
the east, and the north-east of its present frontiers ; in
other words, it is a language which has receded.
It falls into two main divisions, the Tosk and the
Gheg : is spoken beyond the boundaries of Albania, in
Greece, in Calabria, and in Sicily, doubtless with varia-
SKIPITAR OR ALBANIAN. G07
tions in the way of dialect which have yet to be studied
in detail. It is WTitten by means of the Greek alphabet
adapted to the Skipitar phonesis. Such, at least, is the
common practice. There is, however, a second set of letters
restricted to the town of Elbassan ; which, is, apparently,
more of a cipher than a true alphabet. Hahn considers
that it is of great antiquity ; possibly running back into
the times when the spelling on the coasts of the Adriatic
was Phenician rather than ordinary Greek. In my own
mind it is founded on the Glacrolitic. The national
songs of the Albanians are numerous ; and one poet,
at least, has written classically, i. e. as a man with an
artificially cultivated taste and after Turkish and (at
second-hand) Persian models.
Of the two main dialects it is the Ghegh which lies
on the northern, or Slavonic, the Toski which touches the
southern, or Greek, frontier ; the valley of the Skumbi, or
Stimatza, between Berat and Elbassan, being (there or
thereabouts) the division between the two. In the
Ghegh district the Mirdites are Roman Catholics. Of
the Tosks, the Lyapid and Tshamid tribes are sub-divi-
sions ; among which are numerous Christians of the
Greek Church. The mass, however, of the Skipitar are
Mahometans ; though the use of the Arabic alphabet is
at a minimum.
uOS
THE SANSKRIT.
CHAPTER LXXIV.
The Sanskrit. — Persepolitan. — Pracrit. — Pali. — Kawi. — Zend,
The Sanskrit is the old literary language of India.
Indian, however, as it is in respect to the country in
which it was cultivated, the following short tables are
amply sufficient to prove that its nearest congeners are
the Sarmatian, the Classical, and, to a great extent, the
German tongues of Europe.
They give a selection from its inflections — a selection.
This means that those only are taken which, in form and
name, run on all fours with either the Latin and
Greek or the Lithuanic. By taking the Slavonic, or
even the German, a similar result would have been
obtained.
The Latin and Lithuanic best illustrate the substan-
tives and pronouns ; the Greek (with special reference
to the conjugation in -fii) the verbs.
Singul
Sanskrit.
ar.
Latin.
Plun
Sanskrit.
xl.
Latin.
Nominative
agnis
ignis
agnayaa
ignea
Oenitive
agnes
ignis
agninam
ignium
Dative
agnaye
igni
agnibhyas
ignibus
Accusative
agnim
ignem
agnin
ignes.
Nominative
pitA
pater
pitaraa
patrea
Genitive
pitua
patria
pitfindm
patrum
Dative
pitre
patri
pitfibhyas
patribua
Accusative
pitaram
patrem
pitrln
patrea
Nominative
naus
navia
nlvas
naves
Oenitive
n&Tas
navia
n£v&m
navium
Dative
n&ve
navi
naubhyas
navibus
A ccusative
nkv&m
navein
n£vas
naves.
THE SANSKRIT.
609
Sanskrit. Latin.
Lithuanic.
Sanskrit. Latin. Lit
Nominative aham ego
asz
twam
tn
Genitive mama mei
mano
tava
tui
Dative mahyam mihi
manim
tubhyam tibi
A ccusative mam me
mane
twfim
te
He.
She.
SansVrit.
Lithuanic.
Sanskrit.
Lithuanic
Nominative
sas
szis
s4
szi
Genitive
tasya
tasyds
t6s
Dative
tasmai
tamni
tasyai
Accusative
tam
ta
tarn
ta
Ablative
tasmat
tasyas
tas
Locative
tasmin
tasyam
.
Insiruinental
tena
tami
tay4
ta.
They {Masculine).
t
They (Feminine).
Nominative
te
te
as
tos
Genitive
tesham
t§sam
Dative
tebhya.s
temus
t&bhyas
tomus
A ccusative
tan
tiis
tas
t^
Ablative
tebhyas
tabhyas
Locative
tesha
tus^
t4sn
tose
Instrumental
tais
tais
tabhis
tomis.
Nominative
yas (qui) ^
kas (quis)
Genitive
yasya
kasya
Dative
yasmai
kasmai
Accusative
yam
kam
Ablative
yasm^t
kasm&t
Locative
yasmin
kasmia
Instrumental
yena.
kena.
Creo, d-c.
Singular.
Dual.
Plural.
1. srijami
creo
srijavas
srij^mas
creamus
2. srijasi
creas
srijathas
srijatha
creatis
3. srijati
creat
srijatas
Creem, ti-c.
srijanti
creant.
Singular.
Dual.
Plural.
1. srijeyam
creem
srijeva
srijema
creemus
2. srijes
crees
srijetham
srijeta
creetis
3. srijet
creet
srijetam
Creavi, dkc.
srijeyus
creent.
Compare teitk Greek Aoristus Primus — (augmented).
Singular.
Dual.
Plural.
1. a-srijam
a-srijava
a-srijama
2. a-srijas
a-srijatam
a-srijata
3. a-srijat
a-srijat4m
a-srijan.
R B
ta
tavo
tavim
tare.
610
THE SANSKRIT.
Creavi, d:c.
Compare with Tt-rt
f» and mo-mordi.
Singu
lar.
Dual
Plural,
1. sa-
sarja
sa-sri;
iva sa-srijima
2. sa-
sarjitha
sa-srijathus sa-srija
3. sa-
sarja
sa-sri
latus sa-srijus.
Sanskrit.
Latin.
Lithuanic.
Sanskrit. Latin.
Lithuanic.
1. asmi
sum
esmi
1. syama simus
2. asi
es
esu
2. syata sitis
3. asti
est
esi
3. syus sint
1. smas
sumus
esme
1. asam eram
2. stha
estis
este
2. asis eras
3. santi
sunt
3. dsit erat
1. sydm
sim
1. dsma eramus
2. syas
sis
2. ^sti e7-atis
3. syat
sit
3. asan erant
Compare with
(f)Vfit conji
igated as a verb in
-fll.
1, bhavami fid
huvao
1. bliavamas fuiinus
hivome
2. bhavasi
fitisti buvai
2. bhavata fuistis
buvote
3. bhavati
fuit
buvo
3. bhavanti fuerunt
Upon the whole the Lithuanic is the nearest congener
of the Sanskrit, and, after it, the old Slavonic ; though,
in asserting this, there is a certain amount of assump-
tion. It is assumed not only that the Slavonic
languages (especially in respect to their verbs) had a
fuller inflection than they have now, but that that
inflection delivered reduplicates, verbs in -fj,c, and
(perhaps) augments, which, now, either no longer exist,
or exist only in fragments. With the analogies of the
Latin and Italian, of the Moesogothic and English, &c.,
this is not too much to assume ; indeed, it is what,
either consciously or unconsciously, most philologues,
when they are constrained to compare one language in
a late with another in an early stage, do assume.
The present assumption, however, is subject to the
criticism of professed Slavonic scholars.
In the phonesis, especially with reference to the use
of the sibilants rather than k or g, the Sanskrit is
pre-eminently Slavono-Lithuanic,
THE SANSKRIT. 611
If this be the case the original situs of the Sanskrit
must have been in either approximate or actual contact
with that of the Slavono-Lithuanic ; nor is this a matter
upon which there is much (if any) difference of opinion.
The Sanskrit, however, with its congeners, comes fi-om
India ; the Lithuanic, the Slavonic, the Latin, the Greek,
and the German, fi'om Europe ; and between the areas
of the two groups there is a wide geographical interval.
Has the Sanskrit reached India from Europe, or have
[the Lithuanic, the Slavonic, the Latin, the Greek, and
the German, reached Europe from India ? If historical
evidence be wanting, the a priori presumptions must
I be considered.
I submit that history is silent, and that the presump-
tions are in favour of the smaller class having been
[deduced from the area of the larger rather than vice
\ver8d. If so, the situs of the Sanskrit is on the
[eastern, or south-eastern, frontier of the Lithuanic ; and
[its origin is European.
As I know of no one else who maintains this hypothe-
sis, and as the opposite doctrine of the Asiatic origin of the
so-called Indo-European languages is dominant through-
out all the realms of philology, I must be allowed to ex-
plain what I mean by it. I do not deny the fact, as it is
usually stated, as a fact. It may be one in spite of any
amount of presumptions against it. If sufficient evi-
dence be brought forward in favour of it, I am prepared
to take it as it is given ; just as, upon sufficient evidence,
I would believe that sixes with the dice might be thrown
two, three, four, five, or any number of times running.
The feet may be real ; but it is against the chances.
To assume it, however, when there is nothing but the
chances to go by, is illegitimate.
I may be wrong, however, in asserting the absolute
non-existence of e\-idence ; in other words, in holding
that the presumptions are, really, all we have to go on.
Upon this I am open to con-ection. I can, however, truly
R R 2
612 THE SANSKRIT.
say, that, if there be evidence on the matter, I have failed,
after a careful search, to find it. What I have found in
its stead is a tacit assumption that as the East is the
probable quarter in which either the human species, or
the greater part of our civilization, originated, every-
thing came from it. But surely, in this, there is a con-
fusion between the primary diffusion of mankind over
the world at large and those secondary movements by
which, according to even the ordinary hypothesis, the
Lithuanic &;c. came from Asia into Europe. A mile is
a mile and a league a league from whichever end it is
measured, and it is no further from the Danube to the
Indus than it is from the Indus to the Danube. In
zoology and botany the species is always deduced from
the area of the genus, rather than the genus from the
area of the species ; and this is the rule which I go upon
here. To the actual fact I do not absolutely commit
myself — not, at least, in the present work, which
troubles itself more about methods than results.
The fact of a language being not only projected, so to
say, into another region but entirel}* lost in its own is
anything but unique. There is no English in Germany,
A better example, however, is found in the Magyar of
Hungary ; of which no trace is to be found within
some 700 miles of its present area. Yet the Magyar
is not twelve hundred years old in Europe.
As to the a jprlori presumptions against a language
being introduced from Eastern Europe into Western
India, they are no greater than those which lie against
one being carried from the Jaik tc^ the Danube. No one
derives the Fin tongues from Hungary ; though Hun-
gary is the country in whiqh more than half the indivi-
duals who use a Ugrian language of any kind, dwell.
That this is an important fact is clear "; yet it is nothing
when compared with the weightier ones connected with
its situs. The Magyar stands in contrast with the lan-
guages with which it comes in contact. The languages
THE SANSKRIT. 613
with which it stands in connection are at a distance.
Where they are spoken, they form an order. Where
the Magyar is spoken it forms a species.
The relations of the existing languages of India to
the Sanskrit have but a slight bearing upon the question.
They may, one and all, be her true daughters (though I
maintain that none of them are) without the Sanskrit,
on that account, being indigenous to the soil. Whether
a language introduced from without take sufficient root
to retain its identity for a thousand (or ten thousand)
years, or merely take root enough to modify the original
languages to such an extent as to give them the guise
of its own descendants, is a question of degree.
As slight a bearing upon the question has the anti-
quity of the Indian literature. Those (with whom I
unwillingly difler) who carry it high, only make the
intrusion of the lanmiaore in which it is embodied so
much the earlier.
At the same time these doctrines, as they are com-
monly represented, aire more for than against the
common notion ; in other words, they are not against
it at all. As far as they are relevant they are favour-
able. Their relevancy, however, is only apparent.
Treating, then, the Sanskrit in Asia as (with an allow-
ance for its difference of antiquity) the Magj'ar in
Hungary or the English in England might be treated,
and taking its locality as we find it ; the nature of the
memorials in which it has come down to us, along
with the quastion of their date, locality, and authorship,
presents itself. And here the uncertainty is great.
The few remains that have either date or place are
the best to begin with.
Of the remains of any language belonging to the
same class with the Sanskrit with an approximate
date, the earliest are the cmieiform inscriptions deliver-
ing the edicts of the kings of Persia, ranging fi'om
B.C. 470 to B.C. 370 — there or thereabouts. Of these
G14 THE SANSKRIT.
the following specimen is from the tomb of Darius at
Naksh-i-Rustam, according to the text and translation
of Sir H. Rawlinson : — ■
1 Baga wazarka Auramadz&, hya im
2 dm bumim adS, hya awam asm
3 anam add, hya martiyam add, h
4 ya shydtim add martiyahyS,,
5 hya Ddr(a)yavum khshayathiyam ak
6 nnaush aivam paruwandm khshdyath
7 iyam, aivam paruwandm framata
8 ram
The Great God Ormazd, (he it was) who gave this earth, who gave that
heaven, who gave mankind, who gave life (?) to mankind, who made Darius
King, as well the King of the people, as the lawgiver of the people.
It is the edicts of the Achsemenian kings which this
language more especially embodies. In respect to its
structure it is closely akin to the oldest Sanskrit.
There is no evidence, however, to it having ever been
spoken in India, nor yet in the east of Persia. It is
on the Kurd frontier and in Fars that samples of it
most abound. It is only in inscriptions in the
cuneiform character that it is found. Whether these
give us the oldest compositions, in the class of languages
to which they belong, is uncertain. Most Sanskrit
scholars would say that they do not. It is certain,
however, that tliey are the oldest compositions that bear
a date.
The next in order of time is the language of the
Caubul coins, in an alphabet written, like the Semitic
ones, from right to left ; the latest of which are (so to
say) overlapped by a second series for the same parts in
an alphabet (like the Devanagari) written from left to
right. The vocabulary they exhibit is, of course, of the
scantiest.
Later than the earliest, but earlier than the latest of
the coins, are certain inscriptions bearing the name of
Prlyadasi. We may call them the Priyadasi Edicts.
There are four of them — all with the same text ; the
THE SANSKRIT. 615
most western of which is the famous Kapar-di-giri
inscription from Caubul, the most eastern in Orissa.
One in Ceylon is said to exist, but has yet to be dis-
covered.
All these have dates — the coins, that of the kings
whose approximate superscription they bear, the Priya-
dasi edicts, not only the name of Priyadasi (which would
be but little), but that of one of the Antiochi. Hence,
roughly speaking, we may refer them to the early part
of the dynasty of the Seleucidse.
After these, there are no definite dates until after the
Mahometan conquest.
The conquerors found a literature in a native lan-
guage and a native alphabet — a native literature and a
rich one. As such it was, of course, older than their own
conquest. How much ? The historical portion of this
literature was of the smallest, and in what there was
of it there was but a TniniTnum amount of chronology
and topography. Everything in this way wa.s, to say
the least, indefinite. Still, there were the real dates of
the edicts and the coins, and there were certain names
in certain Indian works which could be connected with
these important landmarks. There was especially the
name of Chandragupta, which was identified with the
Sandracottus mentioned by Justin, and, though the
true dynasty of consecutive Gupta kings with a real
historical coinage lived several centuries later, the
identification has passed muster, and senses as an
instrument of criticism. The process, then, by which
approximate dates are found in Sanskrit is to find some
one mentioned within or near the historical, or Ma-
hometan, period, who is stated to have stood in some
relation to some one else, who stood in some relation
to some third person, who was a contemporary of
Chandragupta, who was Sandi'acottus, whose date is
known.
I give this train of argument — the argument which
616 THE SANSKRIT.
rests upon external, as opposed to internal evidence, and
which, as such, is historical rather than inferential —
as I find it. It has been worked with skill, ingenuity,
and learning. The facts, however, which it deals with
are of the inconclusive kind here indicated.
Similarly inconclusive, though obtained by equal
learning, ingenuity, and skill, are the results got by
inference. In form (or language), in matter, or both,
certain systems of literature, philosophy, or religion not
only differ from each other but differ as older and
newer. As factors in the appreciation of these differences
approximate measures of both the differences themselves,
and the average rate of change are required ; that of the
latter being founded upon a careful induction from the
phenomena presented by languages, religions, and philo-
sophies during periods of change, over the whole world,
sufficiently long and sufficiently diversified to give a
constant. Add to this the avoidance of the confusion
between changes in consecutive time and concurrent
changes (by the neglect of which we may make the
present Islandic older in the way of actual date than
the Danish of the fifteenth century) and a provisional
approximation is the result. That more than this is
claimed by almost every Sanskrit scholar is well-
known.
The difference, however, finds no support on the part of
the present writer ; who simply admits that in Sanskrit
there is something more archaic than something else.
The term archaic is used with a purpose. It means
antiquity ; an ambiguous or equivocal antiquity ; one of
two kinds, as the case may be. It may mean antiquity
in the way that Ohaucer is older than Addison, or it
may mean antiquity in the way that the Icelandic news-
paper of the present week is older than the Copenhagen
Morgenblad of the year 1820. Chronological, serial,
or linear, antiquity is one thing ; developmental, dialec-
tual, or concurrent antiquity is another.
THE SANSKRIT. 617
Still the comparative archaism is a fact. Apply it,
and —
The Sanskrit falls into two divisions —
1. The Yedaic of the Vedas, older in language and
matter than —
2. The Non-vedaic, classical, or ordinary, Sanskrit.
This falls into sub-divisions. There is a Sanskrit drama,
and, just as in Moliere, certain characters talk Gascon or
something else equally provincial and French, so do
certain dramatis personcB of Asia talk a certain amount
of something equally provincial and Indian. These
popukr dialects are called Pracrits.
If we call ever\-thincr that is neither Vedaic nor
classical Sanskrit a Pracrit, a language of, at least,
equal political importance with the Sanskrit itself, the
Pali, is one.
The Pali is the language of Buddhism ; be it that of
the Singalese, of the Burmese, the Siamese, the Mon of
Pegu, the Kambogians, the Tibetans, the Mongols, or
the Mantshus ; the Sanskrit being the language of Brah-
ininism. We may call it a Pracrit, if we will, but we
can scarcely do so if we attach to the term even the
slightest notion of disparagement.
The alphabet of the Sanskrit — Vedaic and Non-
vedaic — is the Devanagari ; no specimen of it being
older than the Mahometan conquest. The later Puranas
which are truly Sanskritic, are, as far as form goes, later
stni. Hence, the triple alternative (if the phrase may
be used) which was suggested when the Hebrew of the
Holy Scriptures was under notice has its application here.
It is merely refeiTed to. It is always repeating itself;
and it will again have an application when we come tQ
Greece.
The Sanskrit, as we have it, has a great number of
words which re-appear in the existing languages of India.
It may be that they are all of Sanskrit origin, and all
borrowed by the modem tongues. It may, also, be that
618 THE SANSKRIT.
they are all Indian, taken up into the Sanskrit. Either
generalization is exceptionable. Each word must be
tried on its own merits.
The Sanskrit has a series of true aspirates (i. e. aspi-
rates like the ph, Jch, and th in hap-hazard, ink-horn,
and nut-hook, rather than false aspirates like the ph and
th in Philip and thin) which are wanting in its Euro-
pean congeners, but which are common in Tibet and the
Himalayas. Did it take these in India, or did its
western congeners lose it in Europe ? I cannot say. I
can only say that the doctrine that the Sanskrit takes
nothing, whilst other languages lose what they may fail
to have in common with it, is illegitimate.
The Sanskrit has a series of cerebral letters common
in Southern India but foreign to Europe. To these
apply the preceding question.
The expositors of the Sanskrit language are the Brah-
mins. The evidence, however, that they are the descend-
ants of the men with whom it was vernacular is defi-
cient. They are known to have kept their blood pretty
pure for a certain number of centuries. They are, how-
ever, presumed to have kept it so for a much longer period,
because the documents for which they are repositories
enjoin that such should be the case. The importance of
this is shown in the question of phonesis. The purity
of the source from which the present stream of Sanskrit
learning flows has never been shown ; and except under
undue assumptions, by which alone the objection may be
rebutted, the facts of the phonesis are against it.
The cultivation of the Sanskrit language is partial.
In poetry with compounds after the fashion of the
Orphic hymns it is rich. It has a code of laws, and
innumerable logographies. The matter of its philoso-
phical works has commanded atteiition whicli it has not
disappointed. Its grammar is a very remarkable phe-
nomenon— so remarkable as to have reflected many of its
merits on the language. There are approaches to the Ian-
THE SANSKRIT.
619
guage of common life in the drama. For real common
life, however, for history and oratory, it gives us nothing.
From what we know of it, it can hardly be realized as
a truly veraacular and generally spoken language.
If this be the case, it has no true vernaculars as its
descendants : indeed, it is only known to us as a language
of either a few dialects or a few stages, with a purely
literary cultivation (and that partial), wnth an im-
perfect claim for being accurately handed down, with a
questionable date, and an uncertain locality.
On the other hand, it gives us a third member to that
dass of languages which, up to the time at which it be-
gan to attract notice, consisted only of the Latin and the
Greek, with, perhaps, the addition of the Moeso-Gothic
— a class wherein true inflection is at its Tnaodmum. ;
this inflection being, in the Sanski'it, exhibited in an
independent and native grammar. To this add its great
political value as the language of Brahrainic India, and
the mystery connected with its localization in Asia is en-
hanced by its real importance ; which is great, but limited.
After a series of exceptions like the preceding, it is
needless to add that the writer is (to say the least)
adverse to the whole system on which the well-known
merits and importance, as currently claimed for the
Sanskrit, are based. That the whole tenor of his
mental habitudes and aptitudes is against them is saying
too much. There is nothing condemned in the preced-
ing remarks which he has not, at one time of his life,
supported. What they are opposed to are his rules of
evidence. The fact may be all that the extreme San-
skrit scholars make it, provided the evidence make it so.
Upon this, as an advocate (to draw an illustration from
the common-sense of the English world at large as
shown in the courts of law) he has no authority to
speak. The facts lie in the Sanskrit language itself of
which he has no more cognizance than is shown in the
foregoing statements. As a judge he has a voice less
620 THE SANSKRIT.
important still. The knowledge of the facts and the
law combined is, a fortiori, beyond him. Still more, a
fortiori (he might say a fortissimo) is the private cog-
nizance of any material data which are not vouchsafed
to him, in common with the least Sanskrit-minded man
in England, by the Sanskrit scholars themselves. His
position is simply that (if he may use the word with-
out presumption) of an intelligent jury-man, who,
knowing that he is no judge, putting a wholesome dis-
trust in the barrister, and ignoiing anything which he
may or may not know aliunde, simply looks to the
evidence ; feeling sufficient confidence in himself to trust
his judgment in determining whether it bear, or do not
bear out, the case. Upon this point, without con-
demning it, or (what is the same thing) only condemn-
ing it provisionally, he pronounces it insufficient for the
present.
As far as he goes beyond this, and, instead of being
satisfied with a merely negative condemnation on the
score of insufficiency, ventures upon an approximation
in the way of anything positive, he is not afraid of com-
mitting himself to the doctrine that, when philologues
make the Vedas 3000 and odd years old, and deduce
the Latin and its congeners from Asia, they are wrong
to, at least, a thousand miles in space, and as many
years in time. Of course, with views of this kind, he
looks upon the Sanskrit as a language towards which,
rather than one from which, we are to argue. We are
to end, rather than begin, with it.
The last congener of the Sanskrit is the Zend, or
the language of the Parsi Scriptures. It is written in
the alphabet of the Sassanian inscriptions in a cursive
form, and with the addition of the Sanskrit system of
vowels. It was discovered in the last century by
D'Anquetil Perron, among the Parsis of Bombay. Older
in form than the Huzvaresh and Parsi, and more decidedly
akin to the Sanskrit, it is written in a newer alphabet,
THE SANSKRIT.
621
and it was discovered in the eleventh hour, and in India.
Tlie notion of its being anything but a genuine hin-
guage (whatever might have been the case in the last
century) finds, at present, but few supporters.
Perhaps, however, certain loose generalizations, con-
cerning what is called the impossibility of forging a lan-
guage have had much to do with the opinions which are
favourable to its antiquity. Fictitious languages, how-
ever, are entirely questions of more or less ; in which the
nature of the subject, the skill of the forger, and the
acumen of the critics are the factors — just as they are
in any other forgery. This, however, is merely a sug-
gestion. I put a com-teous, and otiose belief in the
teaching of the special Zend scholars ; though I know
of no one amongst them who has fairly met the difficulties
involved in the contrast between the j^w^e-Sassanian
structure of the language and Po6/-Sassanian character
of the alphabet, combined with the fact of the additions
to the alphabet being, like the difierentiae of the lan-
guage, Sanskrit from a Sanskrit locality.
In the following table the Kawi is the sacred lan-
guage of Java, which, according to some, is Sanskrit
with a mass of Javanese incorporated ; according to
others, Javanese with so much Sanskrit superadded.
Eiifrlish.
Sanskrit.
Pali.
Kawi.
3Ian
manasba
manat
mannsa
Woman
jana
purfisha
stri
burutsa
itthi
jana
porosia
istri
Bead
varangani
siras
siro
warraggana
mastaka
ket
mastaka
Eye
netra
net
sotia
akshi
akkhi
Nose
nasa
naiiu
Mouth
glirana
mnkham
mnkham
grana
Hair
kesa
kesa
kesa
Teeth
danta
danto
d4nti
Tongue
jivha
jivha
622
THE SANSKRIT.
English.
Sanskrit.
Pali.
Kawi.
Belly
garbha
gerba
udara
tithon
Hand
hasta
hat-tho
asta
Foot
pada
pado
pada
Blood
lohitain
lohitain
.
raktam
rap
sonita
rudhira
ludira
Day
disam
dinam
divasa
mera
Night
ratri
ratti
ratri
kulam
Sun
siirya
suriyo
suria
prabahkara
prabang-kara
Mitya
dthit
raditia
Moon
Chandra
pera-chang
chandra
sitangsu
sitangsu
Star
tara
dara
tara
Fire
agni
ak-khi
agni
Water
jala
khonkha
jalanioli
Stone
sila
sinla
sela.
The following
is Sanskrit from a Chinese grammar.
English.
Chinese.
Sanskrit.
He is
po'-po-ti
bhavati
They two are
po'-po-pa
bhavapa
They are
po'-fan-ti
bhavanti
Thou art
po'-po-sse
bhavasi
You two are
po'-po-po
bhavapa
Yoii, are
po'-pb-ta
bhavatha
I am
po'-po-mi
bhavami
We two are
po'-po-hoa
bhavavak
We are
po'-po-mo
bhavamah
Man
pu-lu-sha
pnrushah
Two men
pu-lu-shao
purushau
Men
pu-lu-.shaso
purushas
Of a man
pu-lu-sha-tsie
purushasya
Of two men
pu-lu-sha-pien
purush&bbyfim
Of men
pu-lu-sha-nan
purush&n&m.
It is called Sanskrit rather than Pali from having a
dual number.
THE LITHUANIC CLASS. 623
CHAPTER LXXV.
The Lithuanic Division of the Sarmatian Class. — The Lett, Lithuanian, and
Prussian.
Lithuanic means the language.s of the group at large;
Lithuanian the Lithuanian Proper or the Lithuanian of
Lithuania.
The Lithuanic falls into three branches : (1 .) the Li-
thuanian Proper, (2.) the Lett, (3.) the Pi^ssian, or (as
the language has been extinct for nearly three centui-ies)
the Old Prussian.
The Lett is spoken in Estonia, Livonia, and Curland,
as well as in some of the neighbouring Governments ;
the Lithuanian in Grodno, Vilna, and Kovno, and parts
of East Prussia. The Prussian is known only through
some Paternosters and a catechism of the sixteenth cen-
tury.
The chief locality for the chief dialect of the Lithu-
anic is Samogitia.
Encroached upon by the Russian, the German, the
Polish, and (perhaps) even the Estonian, the Lithuanian
(with all its high philological importance) is a broken and
fragmentary language, with only one author who has
any pretension to the rank of even a minor classic ; but
with a large mass of simple popular poetry, little of
which is older, in the way of language, than the date of
the first collection. This was made A.D. 1 745. Hence,
there are no stages in the Lithuanian languacres, a cir-
curastance which largely subtracts from their value as a
624 THE LITIIUANIC CLASS.
philological study — which in other respects (especially
from the affinities between the Lithuanic and the Sans-
krit, not to mention others with the Latin and the
Greek) is of the highest. Nor does it make up for this
want of lineal history through either its local dialects or
through its congeners, the Lett and the Prussian. I have
met with the statement that the former of these stands
in the same relation to the Lithuanian that the Italian
does to the Latin — a statement of mischievous inac-
curacy. In some points the Lett forms are the older,
and throughout the languages the difference of develop-
ment is but slight. The same applies to the Prussian :
which is often called the Old Prussian ; and, if we only
compare the modern Brandenburghers with the ancient
Lithuanians, the prefix is a good one. But it is of
doubtful fitness if we look to the structure of the lan-
guage. In some points the Prussian is really the Li-
thuanic with certain old forms : but in others it is a
younger and more advanced language. It has a definite
article, which the other Lithuanian languages, as well as
their Slavonic congeners, want — an article which has
grown, like the article in Greek, out of the demonstra-
tive pronoun.
One language of the Lithuanic class is extinct ; the
population by which it was spoken having been perma-
nently broken-up as early as the thirteenth century.
This bore the name of Jaczwing (Yatshving), Jatwag,
or something similar — according as the spelling of it was
Polish, Russian, German, or Latin.
All that remains of this language is a few proper
names. The external evidence, however, to its having
been Lithuanic is sufficient.
The Lithuanian is written in Roman letters ; and in
an orthography for which the PoHsh has served as a basis.
Unlike most other languages it ignores the principle by
which an Englishman, in order to show that the preced-
ing vowel is short, repeats the consonant wliich follows
THE LITHUANIC CLASS. 625
(as in intted, fl'iiting, &c.), and has no double letters.
It has, on the other hand, an over-abundance of dia-
critical marks in the way of accents, superfixes, and
suffixes. One of these represents a sound which no
lonjrer exists, but which must have existed when the
modiacation was first resorted to. The signs of a and g,
originally represented nasals. At present, they are
sounded as the ordinary e and a. A change, then, of
some importance in the phonesis has taken place since
the language was first reduced to writing.
The Lithuanic, as a language, is fuU of interesting
points ; though it may easily be imagined that its affini-
ties with the Sanskrit have commanded almost exclu-
sive attention. Its affinities with the Latin and Greek
showing themselves every now and then, in unexpected
words, are also remarkable.
It has an approximation to the post-positive article,
i. e. it has a definite inflection of the adjective formed
by the incorporation, as an affix, of the demonstrative
pronoun. Thus geraszzgood, geram=.to good, gerozz
of good ; whilst Uce good, to the good, and of the good
are gerasis, gerarajam, gerojo, the pronoun being jis,
jam, and jo. On the other hand, except in the
Prussian, there is no definite article, eo Tiomine, at aU.
With a language so fi-agmentary as the one before us,
everything connected with the question of its original
difi'usion is of value ; and one of the points thus in-
vested with interest is this same approximate post-
position of the article. The four languages in Europe
where it is most conspicuous, are the Rumanyo, the Norse,
the Bulgarian, and the Albanian. That the Albanian lies
both too far south, and too much in situ to belong to an
area originally Lithuanic is denied by no one. That the
language of the Dacians, before the Roman conquest,
was Lithuanic, is held by many, and that on pre-emi-
nently goud grounds ; its relations to the Scandinavian
being more doubtful. Elsewhere the present writer has
s s
626 THE LITHUANIC CLASS,
given reasons for holding that before Scandinavia became
German it was, to a great extent, Prussian or Lithuanic
— in other words, he has given reasons for transferring
a great many of the conquests of the Goths, usually-
given to the Germans, to the Lithuanians ; who he
holds were, at one and the same time, the Gothini
of the Marcomannic frontier and the Gothones of the
Amber coast ; their area being, then, continuous — i. e.
extended from the most southern point of their present
occupancy in Grodno to Gallicia. If so, of the two
languages mentioned by Tacitus, one as Gallica, the
other as Britannicce proprior, the former was Galician,
the latter Prussian (Pruthenian) ; or, as the informants of
Tacitus (who, on other grounds, seem to have been
Germans) would have called it, Pryttisc.
At present the coincidence between the blood and the
language in Lithuania is only partial. The Letts, at
least, have encroached on the Fins.
The Lithuanic area, then, originally lay south-
wards ; its direction being from south to north ; the
south being the quarter in which it has, itself, been
the most displaced.
The Lithuanic area lies east of the Slavonic. This is
noted because its present relations to the Russian and
the German conceal the true character of its early situs.
The German touches it in the Baltic provinces : the
Russian stretches far beyond it into Asia. Both, how-
ever, have spread within the historical period. Mean-
while, on the Polish frontier there is an approach to the
original relations ; whilst, of all the Sarmatian languages,
it is the Lithuanic which is in the fullest contact with
the Fin.
THE SLAVONIC LANGUAGES.
62:
CHAPTER LXXVI.
The Slavonic Division of the Sarmatian Class. — ^The Bnssian, Servian, and
niyrian. — The Slovak, Tshek, Lnsatian, and Polish. — The Eassnb and
Linonian.
The most eastern, and, by extension, the most northern
member of the Slavonic division of the Sarmatian class,
the Russian, is spoken from Galicia to Kamtskatka,
with a minimum amount of variation ; the reason for
this lying in the recency of its diffusion. In the older
portions of its area, however, there is the distinction
between the Little Rassian of Galicia and the Ukraine,
and the Great Russian of Muscovy. This latter, again,
fells into subdivisions, of no great value, except so far
as they supply information concerning those populations
of Ugrian origin whose mother-tongue was displaced by
the Russian — for in Russia the coincidence between the
blood and the language is, by no means, close. In
Archangel and OJonets the Fin words are (I believe)
more numerous than elsewhere ; and, then, in the Sus-
dalian dialect to the east of Moscow. In Kursk they
would probably be found if looked for ; and a foiiioiri,
in the districts further east. In the White Russian of
Smolensko and the Black Russian of Grodno Lithuanian
elements may be expected. With the exception, how-
ever, of the Malo-Russian, Ruthenian, Russinian, Rusniak,
or Little Russian, rich in national songs, none of the
dialects of Russia have commanded much attention.
From its nearest congener, the Servian, the Russian
s s 2
628 THE SLAVONIC LANGUAGES.
is separated by the Wallachiaa — the Servian, like the
Malo -Russian, rich in national songs, being the chief
representative round which we may group the Bosnian
(spoken by a Mahometan population, and, perhaps,
written in the Arabic alphabet) ; the Herzegovinian ; the
Montenegrin (where h is used in the place of g) ; the
Croatian ; and the Slavonian Proper of that part of
Hungary so-called.
The alphabet of the Servian and Russian is that of
the old Slavonic translation of the Scriptures, attributed
to the missionaries Methodius and Cyrill. Its basis is
the Greek.
The exact dialect which the old Slavonic represents is
doubtful.
A priori, and upon geographical grounds, the Bul-
garian has the best claims. The Old Slavonic wants,
however, the chief Bulgarian characters ; a fact which
transfers the claim to the Russian or the Servian. Con-
sidering, however, the great displacement that has taken
place in these parts, it may easily be the descendant of
some division or sub-division now extinct.
The Illyrian or Slovenian of Carinthia and Cai'niola,
closely akin to the western dialects of the Servian
group, is the language of the Roman rather than the
Greek, church, and is written in Roman characters rather
than in an alphabet of Greek origin. I can give no
account of its dialects, nor of the links which connect it,
with the Croatian and Dcilmatian into which it probably
graduates. One of these was originally written in an
alphabet akin to the Old Slavonic and called the Glago-
litic.
In the northern and north-western counties of Hungary,
separated from the Poles and Rusniaks of Gallicia by
the Carpathians, and from Croatia, &c., by the intru-
sive Magyar, the Slovak, with a minimum, amount of
literary culture, is spoken — the language of Moravia or
Bohemia being preached. Into the Moravian it, probably,
THE SLAVONIC LANGUAGES. G29
graduates ; the details of the Moravian dialects being un-
known. The common Moravian lant^uacre diffei-s from
O O
the Bohemian in little except name ; the native name
for the Bohemian being Tshek.
The Sorb, Serb, or Sorabian of Lusatia, and
a part of the circle of Cotbus, intermediate to the
Bohemian and the Polish, falls into two dialects — a
Protestant dialect to the north and a Roman Catholic
dialect to the south.
The Kassiib and the Linonian (extinct) are frag-
mentary forms of a near congener of the Polish spoken
in Pomerania and Lunehnrg.
The Sarmatian languages may easily have their in-
flectional character (by which is meant their approxima-
tion in the way of stage to the Latin, Greek, and Sans-
krit) overvalued. Take their declensions and compare,
or contrast, them with the English or Italian, and they
look like languages of the classical, rather than the
modem, period. Their conjugation, however, by no
means, bears out this inference. Taking, however, this
view, we must disconnect the participle from the verb,
and treat it as a noun ; for the Lithuanic, which has
dropped, or is dropping, even the signs of the third
person, is pre-eminently rich in participles. Like most
other languages, however, these are in different degrees
of development in different parts ; a fact which,
except with extreme languages hke the English on one
side and the Latin on another, should caution us aeainst
any general predications of old or new, synthetic or
analytic, and the like, as terms applied to languages in
general.
Though it is scarcely safe to compare the Sarmatian
tongues with the Latin and Greek, they are nearer the
Latin and Greek stage than the Italian or English,
Their nearest analogues, however, in this respect, are, the
Icelandic and Anglo-Saxon. At any rate, it is unsafe to
suppose that they are in so early a stage as to have lost
630 THE SLAVONIC LANGUAGES.
nothing : a fact which, in comparing them with the
Sanskrit, is important. We must think what they were
when they had a full conjugation of verbs in -fit, and
a system of reduplicate perfects (the latter being a
phenomenon which we should never have known to have
been German if it were not for the Moeso-Gothic) ; and
what the Sanskrit would have been if it had come
down to us after these had (as in the newer German and
Latin tongues) been dropped.
The phonesis of all the Sarmatian tongues is peculiar.
Less vocalic and liquid than the Greek, they are pre-
eminently sibilant. They are this ; though their ortho-
graphy exaggerates their sibilancy. In separate sounds,
indeed, they are scarcely richer than the English or
Italian ; but they do what both those languages eschew.
They combine two. To the ch in chest they will prefix
the 8h in shire, so as to give the combination shish.
All this disguises their Latin and Sanskrit affinities.
As many of these sibilants represent a (/ or h, preserved
in German, Latin, and Greek, they must be considered,
in this point, at least, as new ratlier than old. However,
as has been stated, they are new in some points, old in
others. The oldest Slavonic is not old in the way that
Latin is old as compared to Italian. It is rather old in
the way that the Moeso-Gothic is old as compared with
the Anglo-Saxon — if, indeed, it be this. Still, Old
Slavonic is the name for the nearest congener of the
Russian, Servian, and Bulgarian in its oldest form.
In parts of Poland, in Lusatia, in Boliemia, and Mo-
ravia, in the Slovak parts of Hungary, in the Ruthe-
nian parts of Gallicia, in Carinthia, Carniola, Croatia,
Bosnia, and Servia, the blood and language coincide.
In Muscovy, or Great Russia, the blood is largely Fin.
The original situs and direction of the Sarmatian
languages now comes under notice. How far did they
reach eastwards ? How far did they reach northwards ?
This depends upon the original extent of the Ugrian
THE SLAVONIC LANGUAGES. 631
area. For other reasons besides those suggested by the
mere similarity of name, I imagine that it may in (say)
the time of Herodotus, have stretched as far as Minsk
and Pinsk ; its southern districts being overrun by in-
trusive Scythians, or Skoloti — ethnologically Turks.
Along the Baltic we may carry it, even at the beginning
of the historical period, to the frontier of East Prussia ;
and upon a few slight facts, at a still earlier period, to
the Elbe. This, however, is a point which I do not press.
I only remark that if I brought it to the Weser, or the
Rhine, I should not be supporting the Fin hypothesis
which carries it all over Europe. What is suggested
here is merely a question of more or less. That the
Pomeranian Slaves, and the Lithuanian Prussians, were
on the Baltic before the Christian era is nearly certain.
I think, however, that they had reached it from the
South, and that there were intruders there as truly as
were the Scythians, at even an earlier period, in South-
em Russia.
How far did they reach westwards? This depends
on the area allotted to the Germans and the Kelts;
points which wiU be considered in the sequel.
632 THE LATIN, ETC.
CHAPTER LXXVII.
The Latin and the Languages derived from it. — The Italian. — Spanish. —
Portuguese. — French. — Romance — Eomanyo.
If the views to which the writer committed himself in
the last chapter, as to the antiquity of the Slavonic lan-
guage in the Carnic Alps and the probability of its
having extended as far westwards as Savoy, be accurate,
we must suppose that, in the first instance at least,
either the northern frontier of the class of languages to
which the Latin belonged touched the southern frontier
of the Slavonic, or that some intermediate class has been
annihilated without leaving any sign whatever of its
existence. To do this, however, is to assume phenomena
unnecessarily.
Imagine, then, that (say) one thousand years B.C. the
Slavonic and Latin frontiers touched each other, and
that throughout the whole length of the latter — a doc-
trine which treats the 'Gallic of Cisalpine Gaul as intru-
sive and comparatively recent ; a doctrine, however,
which, though it connects the Latin far more closely
with the Slavonic than with the Keltic (or indeed any
other language except the Greek), by no means denies
the existence of Keltic elements in it.
This, however, is a question connected with the
analysis of the Latin language itself rather than with
its geographical distribution.
Where the Slavonic ended and where the most northern
congeners of the Latin, previous to the Gallic in-
vasions, began is unknown Neither do we know
THE LATIN, ETC. 633
what was the philological ethnography of Etruria before
the descent of the Etruscans. When Latium first
becomes known to us its area is eminently truncate, i. e.
cut ofi" abruptly on the north by the Tibur ; beyond
which lay the Etruscan. On the south lay the Volscian,
and on the east and north-east the dialects of the
Hernici and the Sabines, all three of which appear to
have been other than Latin in the strict provincial sense
of the term.
The Sabine led from the Latin to the Umhnan,
wherein the dificrences were sufficient (the Umbrian
being known to us from the Eugubine inscription) to
either simulate, or constitute, a fresh language ; how far
the Umbrian extended beyond the Rubicon being uncer-
tain. In Gallia Togata the intrusive Gallic, the Etruscan,
and the (Slavonic) Venetian prevailed.
The third congener of the Latin for which we have any
beyond mere glosses is the Oscan, known to us through the
Bantine and other inscriptions. It was spoken in parts
of Samnium and Campania ; and probably graduated
into the Latin through the Volscian, and into the
Umbrian through the dialects of the Peligni, Vestini,
and Piceni.
Of the languages of the south of Italy more will be
said in the sequel. Among those in the centre of the
peninsula, it is manifest that, before the spread of the
Latin, the dialects were numerous, well-marked, and in
two cases, at least, of sufficient importance to pass as
separate substantive languages.
Of the Latin Proper the history, as compared with
that of the Greek, begins late : the remains of what
may be called the Latin of the Early Republican
period being scanty. The details of the changes
which took place during the lifetimes of Csesar and
Cicero, and which give us the difi*erence between
Virgil and Horace on one side, and CatuUus and
Lucretius on the other, are obscure ; and are, perhaps,
634 THE LATIN, ETC.
connected with the orthography rather than the lan-
guage itself. This, however, has now taken its literary,
classical, and standard form ; and, unfortunately, it is
in this form alone that it has come down to us. The
analogue of the classical Latin is not the Greek language
en masse, but the Greek of the Attic, the Ionic, or some
single dialect. The language of the cultivated classes of
Rome may have differed from the vernaculars of its
immediate neighbourhood as the Florentine of Dante
differed from the dialect of the nearest Apennines, or
as the Athenian of Pericles from that of the neighbour-
ing Megara. The local dialects of the Latin are known
less than those of the Greek, and of the common lan-
guage of the lower Romans and of the army we know
nothing. Yet to this rather than to the classical Latin
were those forms of speech out of which the modern
derivatives of the Latin have been developed, in all
probability, akin.
These derivative languages are, roughly speaking, the
Italian, the Spanish, the Portuguese, the French, the
Romance of the Grison Cantons in Switzerland, and
the Rumanyo, or Roumain, of Wallachia and Moldavia.
Of these, the last alone is isolated. The others aU
touch each other on their frontiers. How far they
graduate into each other will be seen as we proceed.
In the growth of the modern languages out of the
Latin three questions command attention —
1. The condition of the Latin itself, both in respect
to the stage of its development, and the class of indi-
viduals by which it was introduced :
2. The language or languages with which it came in
contact :
3. The changes which have subsequently taken place ;
especially with reference to the introduction of foreign
elements.
In the history of all mixed languages these three ele-
ments must be recognized. In the Latin, however, and
THE LATIN, ETC. 635
its derivatives the phenomena with which they are
connected are to be studied on a great scale.
The Etruscan, and its own immediate congeners, such
as the Sabine, and the Yolscian, were the first languages
and dialects other than Latin in the limited sense of the
term upon which the Latin of Latium encroached — then
it touched the Gallic of Cisalpine Gaul and Liguria, the
Euganean and Venetian dialects of (?) the Slavonic, the
L'mbrian, the Oscan, the Greek of the southern extremity
of the peninsula, and, perhaps, certain ofishoots of
the Epirot, Illyrian, and Dalmatian from the opposite side
of the Adriatic in the parts between Mount Garganus
and the lapygian promontory. Extended to Sicily it
came in contact with the Greek of the colonies, as well
as with the original language of the island (so far as it
was spoken at all) ; which was probably Greek, though
of a peculiar kind. In Sardinia and Corsica it is
dijQicult to say with what vemaculai-s it met. They may
have been, like itself, Italian. They may have been
Gallic, Slavonic, Iberic, African. They may have been
some or all of these : dashed, perhaps, with intrusive
Greek and Phenician. In Spain, the Keltic and Iberic
languages were spoken widely ; and, in special localities,
the Punic of Carthage along with, perhaps, the Numi-
dian, the Mauritanian, or some other (? Amazig) lan-
guage of Africa. In Gaul there was the Iberic on the
south, the Keltic on the north, and, perhaps, along the
Rhine some German ; and in Savoy (by hypothesis) some
Slavonic. In the Grisons I believe the basis to have
been by no means Keltic, but a near congener of the
Etruscan ; and (as such) Slavonic. That Slavonic was
the chief language of Pannonia I have no doubt ; though
I would not say that Lithuanic forms of speech were
wholly wanting. In Dacia I beheve that the two
existed concmTently : pcssibly in concurrence with a
southern ofiset of the Scythian — a doctrine for which
I have given my reasons elsewhere.
636 THE LATIN, ETO.
The changes that have subsequently affected the several
portions of this area belong to general history rather
than to comparative philology. So do the details of
the conquests of Spain, Gaul, Dacia, and the like.
Between the first and last of these there was an
interval of more than four hundred years ; and between
the character of the different settlers there was a corre-
sponding difference. Dacia, the last to be reduced, was
the first to be given up. Nevertheless (as already
stated) the Wallachian and Moldavian of the present
time is a daughter of the Latin.
Every language that has grown out of the Latin
is either decidedly Latin or something else ; i. e. it is
either Latin or French, Latin or Italian, and the like.
In other words, there is no such thing as an equivocal or
ambiguous language. The earliest French, the earliest
Proven9al, the earliest Italian, are just as Italian, Pro-
vengal, or French as are the latest. In no sense of the
term can any of them be called Latin or even Semi-
Latin. The Sardinian is believed to have the best
claim to this name : but it has only an imperfect one.
It is essentially a derivative of the Latin and not the
Latin itself
This absence, however, of intermediate forms is only
subjective, i. e. it rests upon our want of data rather
than upon any real fact. The Latin served for the
little writing that was wanted so long after it had
ceased to be spoken as Latin that every one of its
modern descendants may reasonably be supposed to have
undergone notable modifications long before the earliest
record of them. This want of data for the French,
Italian, and their congeners during the period between the
last days of the pure and simple Latin and the eleventh
century (the date of the earliest Proven9al compositions)
is the great desideratum in the philological history of
this great language — in other respects so prolific in
valuable details.
THE LATIN, ETC. 637
That it is the Latin, eo noTnine, rather than the
Umbrian, the Oscan and their congeners, out of which
the modern dialects of the Italian in Oscan, Um-
brian, and similcxr localities have grown, is a reason-
able presumption : though it is possible that the Oscan
and Umbrian, &;c., if known in their full details,
might fairly be considered to have been the direct
progenitors of some of them. Upon this, and its
allied questions, much close thinking is wanted — all the
more because what may be called the break-up of the
Latin language is the great field for the study of all
similar break-ups.
In a notice of the numerous and well-illustrated
dialects of modem Italy it is convenient to begin
with :— (] .) The Sicilian, (2.) The Calabrian, (3.) The
Neapolitan, and (4.) The Roman : to which we may
add the dialects which (whatever they were originally)
are so modified by the influences of the literary
Italian, or Florentine, as to be independent of the
dialects of the districts around them. This means, in
general, those of the towns ; a difierence recognized by
the admission of a Lingua Urbana and Lingua Rustica.
The former, as a general inile, means the language of the
towns ; every one of which is more Italian, even when
beyond the proper Italian boundary (a term which will
soon make itself understood) than the dialects of the
parts around it.
In Tuscany the difi*erence between the rural and
urban dialects is at its minimum.
Not so, however, in the district circumscribed by the
Alps, the Apennines, and (there or thereabouts) the
drainage of the Foglia. On the south of this area
those strong characteristics which distinguish the
literary Italian from the French of Paris on the one
side, and the Romance of the Grisons on the other,
suSer diminution.
638 THE LATIN, ETC.
All these dialects are called by Biondelli Gallo-
Italian, and whether we attribute the name to their
belonging to that part of Italy which constituted Cisal-
pine and Cispadane Italy (Gallic districts) or to the
occurrence of French characteristics in the existing
dialects, the name (except so far as its compound form
makes it cumbrous) is a fair one. It falls into families.
(1.) the Piedmontese ; (2.) the Lombard; and (3.) the
Emilian, these latter lying on the line of the Via Emilia ;
just as, in England, we might make a group of the
dialects lying along the whole, or a part, of the Watling
Street. Tiie classification is definitional ; in each case,
however, it is specially stated that the continuous dia-
lects graduate into each other. A little alteration,
therefore, enables us to convert the arrangement into
a typical one, the arrangement itself being natural.
To this, add the Ligurian family on the one side, and
the Venetian and Carnic on the other ; the former
giving the Lingue Rustiche for Genoa, the other the
Lingue Rustiche for Venice and Fiume. The extreme
members of this latter graduate into the Romance ;
and it is because some of the north-western members
of the so-called Gallo-Italian do the same that I make
the very slight objections which I do make to either
the name or the class.
The Emilian dialects which come nearest to the
Tuscan and Ligurian in structure seem to be those of the
frontier. Of these the following extracts from the
Parable of the Prodigal Son (Luke xv.) in the dialect
of Bobbio may serve as specimens.
Bobbiese.
11. Un 6m u gh' aviva dii fio ;
12. Al pli giiivan d' lur 1' k dit so p^dar ; PapS,, dem la part di ben ch a
m' tocca ; e lii u gh' ^ sparti la sostanza.
13. Da li a pochi di, miss tiitt insem, al fio minilr, u s'n' e andit an 1' un
pais lunUn, e 1' 4 consUm^ tiitfc al fat so in bagiird.
THE LATIN, ETC.
639
li. E cini r e stat nett dal tiitt, u gh'e Tnii na gran caristia in 1' quel pais,
e a lii u gh' e cmens4 a manca al nesessari.
15. E r e and^t, e u s' e miss con un paisan d' quel paus, eh 'u V k mandsl a
la sd campagna apriss ai purse.
16. E u dessiderava d' impiniss la panz a die giande ch 'i mangi^van i
^ngnen ; ma nsiin gh' in dava.
As we move northwards the dialects of Mirandola and
Mantua take us into the Lombard and Venetian areas ;
while the Broni leads to Piedmont.
The Lombard family falls into two primary divisions,
the western and the eastern, the former represented by
the Milanese, the latter by the Bergamasco. Here, as
before, I shall take more special cognizance of the
Alpine varieties.
The Valteline and Ticino dialects are nearly as much
Romance as Italian.
Ticinese {Vol Maggia).
11. U jera un um con dii tosoi ;
12. El piii piscen de gnist 1' a dig al padri ; atta, dem al me part da quel
che m' toca ; e lu 1' a feC i divisivi e n gh' 1' k deci.
13. Da li a poc, V a ramassao el faC su, e u s' n' e neC in pais da lunz, e 1' 4
raffiibiao tiitt coss vivend da pore.
14. E dop ch' r k biii feC net, 1' e vegnii in quel pais una gran caresti^, e
r k comenzao a senti la sgajosa ;
15. E r e ne5, e 1' ^ scercao apress a un sci6r i da quel pais, e quest u 1' il
mand^o al bosc a ciir^ i porC.
16. E u scercava da mangia i giand, ch' k mangia i p6r2 : ma i un gh' dava
gnanc da quii.
Valtelinese {Val PregcUlia).
11. Un 6m veva diii fi ;
12. A plii gidvan dget con se bap : Bap, dam M md part de roba ; a '1 lur
Spartit i se ben.
13. A poc di dre, cur ch' al plii giJivan vet tiit quant robaca, al get davent
in iir paes lontan, a la '1 dissip^t la se roba, mentlnt na vita desmresiirada.
14. A cur ct 'el vet tiit fat andaal nit na gran famina in quel paes, a '1
scomanzat a senti la misera ;
15. Alua '1 get, a s'metet al servisei pet' iin da qui dal paes, ch' it mand^t
iu t' i si fond a ciira i porC.
16. A '1 v6s dgiii giidgent da s' pode sazia da quel ch' a mangiavan i porC ;
ma nagiin n' i am deva.
The dialect of the valley of the Bormio is peculiar ;
it having constituted a separate estate upon certain
640 THE LATIN, ETC.
conditions ; one of which was to have nothing to do
with the men of either Ticino or the Valteline.
Bormio.
11. Un 5men el gli' avea dol fioi ;
12. E '1 plii gioen de qui al gh' i dit al p^ ; P^, dam la part de roba.
13. E poc di dop, mess insema tot, al fiol pli gioen 1' e gi in pass lontan e li
M. sciolt al fat se, a far al putaneir.
14. E popo che 1' a avu consume tot, Y e vegni fora una gran penuria in quel
paes, &V k scomenzd a sentir la miseria :
15. L' d gi, e '1 s' e metii con un de qui de quel paes, ch' el 1' h mand^ fora in
un s^ 16c a past coi porcei.
16. E '1 desideraa de impleniss ol se ventro deli giande, che i mangidan i
porcei ; ma nigun i gh' en daan.
Tlie Bergomasco is one of the most marked dialects
of Italy.
Bergomasco.
11. On 6m el gh' ia du fioi ;
12. E '1 pio zuen de lur 1' a dej a s6 p^der: Tata, dem la porsiil de sostansa
ch' el me toca ; e lu '1 ghe divide la sostansa.
13. Dopo poc de, ol pio yuen 1' k regondit tot ol s5, e 1' e 'ndaC in pais lont^,
e M, r a dissip^t quat al gh' ia a viv de baracher.
14. E dopo ch' el s' e majat tot ol so, al s' e, fag in quel pais ona carestea
gajarda, e '1 comense e ess al bisogn ;
15. L' e 'ndag doca a fcic-^ss a ii benestant de quel pais ch' el 1' amandat
fd 'n da so campagna a ik pascola i porsei.
16. E 1^ 11 desideraa de impienisa la pansa di giande ch' i mangi^ a i stess
suni ; ma nissu gh' en daa.
The rustic Brescian from the Tal Camunica is as
follows.
Brescian.
11. On om el gh' ia du matei.
12. E '1 pio ziien de lur el gh' 4 dit al pare ; Buba, dam la part de la sos-
tanza che m' toca : e lii 1' a diidit a lur la sostanza.
13. E poc de dopo, el fiiil pio zuen, tofc so tota la so roba, 1' e 'ndat en d'iin
pais lontA,, e M 1' ^ consomat el fat so a godisla.
14. E dopo i consomat tot, el gh' e gnit iina gran caristi^ en quel pais, e' lii
r a scomensdt a pati ;
15. E r e 'ndd,t a ier con giii de quel pais, ch' el'l' k mand^t en d' ona s6 cam-
pagna a pasture i porsei.
16. E '1 gh' ia via d' empienis el veter de le giande ch' i majad. i porsei ; e
nigil i gh' en daa.
The sub-division of the Piedmontese family is into
DIALECTS OF THE ITALIAN, ETC.
641
three primary groups: (1.) the Montserrat on the south,
which is especially stated to approach the Ligurian, (2.)
the Piedraontese Proper on the east, and (3.) the Canavese
on the north. But, besides this, there is a division of the
Piedraontese Proper into the dialects of the comparatively
level country and those of the Alpine district. I have no
hesitation in calling this a cross-division, and in adding
that it finds a place in the other two divisions, as well as
in the Lombard, the Venetian, and the Camic families.
The extent to which the Alpine division is French may
be got from Biondelli himself; the following contrasts
being taken fi'om him.
(1.)
Italian
padre
fratello
mnojo
tocca
PiedmoTUese Proper
pare
fratel
mori
toca
Alpine
pa ire
iritxre
(2.)
muero
tndccia.
Italian
peccato
capretto
cantare
calzare
Piedmontese Proper
pec4
cavret
cante
caossS
Alpine
pecii
ciabn
ciant^r
cianssar
Prencli
peche
chevrean
(3.)
chanter
chansser.
Italian
detto
fatto
qnanti
qninto
Piedmontese
Proper
dit
fait
qnanti
riva
Alpine
di8
faS
qnanS
giung.
Italian
i porci
i mei amici
lefemmini
allegri
Alpine
Ins cuscions
mans amis
les femmes
allures
French
les cochona
mes amis
les femmes
allegres.
Italian
Piedmontese Proper
Alpine
FrcHch
Italian
Turin
Cureo
(5.)
per levarsi di ritomarmene per godermi
pr levese d'artomemne pr gddemla
per se levar de m' entoum^ per me regiui
pour se lever de m'en retoumer pour me rejonir.
(6.)
andato fatto dato
and^t fait d^Lit
andeit feit deit
mandate
mandait
mandeit
T T
stato
stait
steit.
642
DIALECTS OF THE ITALIAN, ETC.
(7.)
Italian
mangiamo
andavano
facevano
avevano
Piedmontese Proper
mangio
andavo
fasio
avio
Corio
mangien
andd.ven
(8.)
fasien
avien.
Italian
dird
far5
porterci
custodiro
Valdieri
vai dir
Tai far
vai portS,r
vai gardar
French
vais dire
faire
porterai
garderai.
In the Vinadio the nasals prevail ; as does the
habit of laying an accent on the last syllable. As far
as the specimens go, the pre-eminently French dialects
are those of Graglione, Oulx, Viu, Usseglio.
The Genoese has the sound of ng between two vowels,
as well as the French eu and u. The word lunha —
luna = moon is a sort of Genoese shibboleth.
Of the Piedmontese dialects those of Garessio and
Ormea are pre-eminently Ligurian — being spoken on the
frontier.
Less Italian than these, though, perhaps, not more
French, is the dialect of the valley of the Soana, as
spoken in Ingria, Eonco, Roncato, and Campiglia.
(1.)
Italian.
ha avesse viene
era aveva
voleva
entrasse
Soana.
hat usset vint
eret aveit
(2.)
voleit
intrasset.
Italian.
f6ssero morivano
mangiano
d&vano
av§,nzano
Soana.
fUssent crevavont
cucunt
donavant
av^nsunt.
Castelmagno.
11. tin ome avia diii figi ;
12. E tu pii giove da chisti a diC a sun paire ; P^ire dilBeme la part dia
roba ch' me toca. E el a faC tra tur les part dies sostanses.
13. E papa car'che gium, biitt^ tut ensem, lu figi pii picot se n' ^ ana en te
d' pais liJgn, e isi a 1' ^ consuma tut tu fa2 sio en d' porcheries.
14. E eart a 1' S, gu fini tutes es coses, gli es sagli na gran earestio en
I'achet pais, e el ^ cumensa a patir lu fam.
15. En I'achest mentre gli es vengu en t' la testa d'anar trubir tin sitadin
d'achet pais, ch' a 1' a manda a gardar i puerc.
16. Ea I'avia voglia d'empirse ta tripa dies giaudes che mingi^ven i puerc,
degiin guen douava.
SAR1>INIAN. 643
Oulx.
11. Un dmme avie das eif&ns ;
12. Le plii zone d' iellas di a snn p4ire ; PSdre, d&name la pniziun de ben
che me reven ; e ie lus a partaSa le ben.
13. Coches zurs apre aien tut rebate le plu zuve garsrtn parti par I'eitrangi,
par iin pai eilunia, e ithi u 1' a dissipa sun ben en viven luxrriusiuen.
14. Me apre ch' ul' a agu tut cunsuma, 1' es siirvegu une grande famine dins
que pai, eje meime u 1' a cnmens4 a esse in besun.
15. Altire u se n' ei anil, e u s* ei attasa a un dus abitan de qu6 pat, e set-
issi r a mandd a sa meisun de campagne, par fa paisse Ins cosciuns.
16. Ithi u deisiraye rempli sun ventre de las crofas che mijaven txis cus-
ciiins, e nengii n' i en dtmuave.
In Sardinia, with su for its definite article, and with
its plural ending in s, we have, inter alia, the elements
of, at least, as good a language (as opposed to a dialect)
as the Portuguese is to the Spanish and the Danish to
the Swedish, or vice versa. It falls into dialects and
sub-dialects ; the main divisions being apparently —
(] .) The Southern, represented in its Lingua Urbana
by the Cagliari form of speech.
Ruth i. 1.
A su tempus de is giugis candu unu solu fiat autoridadi, est accuntessin una
grandu famini in sa terra. £un omini de Betlem de Giudas fiat andau a
biviri in su paisu de Moab cun sa mulleri sua e cun duus fillus.
Matthew ii. 1, 2.
1. Essendi duncas nascin Gesus in Betlem de Giudas a tempus de su rei
Erodis, eccu chi benint a Gerusalemmi is Magus de orienti.
2. Narendi ; Aund'est su, ch' est nascin rei de is Giudeos ? poita nos hens
bistu sa Stella sua in s* orienti e sens benius a ad' adoraL
(2.) The Central Sardinian.
Ruth L 1.
Ad SOS tempos de unu juighe quando sos juighes guvemaiant, succedesit
una carestia in sa terra. £t un' homine de Bethlehem de Juda sind' andesit
pro peregrinare in sa terra de Moab, cum sa muzere soa et com duos fizos.
(3.) The Northern Sardinian.
Matthew iL 1, 2 (Logudore).
1. Essende edducas naschidu Jesus in Bethlehem de Juda in sas dies de sa
re Herodes, ecco qui sos magos dai s'oriente benzesint a Jerusalem.
2. Narzende : "Ue est su naschidu Ee de sos Judeos? hamus bidu s'istella
•soa in s'oriente, et semus bennidos a lu adorare."
T T 2
644 THE DIALECTS OF THE FRENCH, ETC.
Ruth i. 1 (Tempio).
Alu tempu d'un giudiei, candu li giudiei cuman daani, accadisi una caristia
in la tarra. Un omu di Betlem di Giuda andesi a pilligrin^, in rincuntrata
di Moab, cu' la mudderi e cu' li so' dui fiddoli.
The plural in 8 is, at least, a point wherein the Sar-
dinian is Spanish rather than Italian.
Through its northern dialects, the Sardinian graduates
into the Corsican.
Matthew ii. 1, 2 {Corsican).
1. Adunque essendu natu Ghiesu in Betlemme di Ghiuda, in tempu che
regnana lu re Erode, eccu che i Maghi arrivonu da I'oriente in Ghierusa-
lemme.
2. Dicendu : Duv' e quellu cli' e nalu re di li Ghiudei ? Avemu Vistula so
setter nel' oriente, e semu ghiunti per adurallu.
Between the Proven9al of Southern, and the French
Proper of Northern, France, the Loire is generally con-
sidered the boundary. The forms of speech themselves
are separate languages rather than dialects of any single
one. At present the French has the prerogative. It
was the Proven9al, however, which was first cultivated.
The following is the earliest specimen of it.
Oath of the King (a.d. 842).
Pro Deo amur et pro Xristian poblo et nostro commun salvament, d' ist di
en avant, in quant Deus savir et podir me dunat, si salverai eo cist meon
fradre Karlo, et in ajudha et in cadhun a cosa, si cum om per dreit son
f radra salvar dist, in o quia il mi altresi fazet ; et all Ludher nul placa nun-
quam prindrai uni, meon vol, cist meon fradre Karlo in damno sit.
Oath of the People.
Si Loduwigs sagrament, que son fradre Karlo jurat, conservat ; et Karlus,
meos sendra, de suo part non lo stanit ; si io returnar non Tint pois, ne lo,
ne nuls cui eo returnar int pois, in nulla ajudha contra Lodhuwig nun li
iver.
Vavdms.
Luke XV. 11-15.
11. Un hom avia du fill ;
12. E lou pi giouvon di S, so par6, "Pare, donne-m6 la part de b6n que me
bin." Et a 1' i ha partagia seni ben.
13. E un poc apreu, quant lou fill pi giouvon ha agi tut rabasti, a se n' e
an8, forca ent un pais lengu ; et lai a 1' ha dessipa so bin en vivant ent la des-
bancia.
THE DIALECTS OF THE FRENCH, ETC. G45
14. E aprea qu' a 1' ha agii tnt despendi, una gran fanina e veng^ ente
quel pa'is lai : e a 1' 6 arestd coun rdn dar tout.
15. Aloora a se n' e anil, et a s' e butt^ k patroun coun un di habitant
d' aquel pais, que 1' ha mand^ ent seui poussess per gard4 li pueic.
Northern French.
Lulce XV. 11-14.
11. Un home aviS dous enfans.
12. Lou plus pichoun diquet a son paire, "Moun paire, donnas mi ce qQ6
mi reyen de vouastre ben ;" Lou paire faquet lou partag6 de tout ce que pous-
sedavo.
13. Paou de jours apres, lou pichoun vendet tout se que soun paire il avie
desamparat, et s'en anet dins un pais fouico luench, ounte dissipet tout soun
ben en debaucho.
14. Quand aquet ton arcaba, uno grosso, famino arribet dins aqueou pais, et
leou, si y^uet rednech ^ la demiero misero.
South-western French,
Luke XT. 11-14.
11. Ain homme avoiiait deeux garoh^ons.
12. L'pus jone dit a sain p6re, "Main pere, bailie m' chon qui douo me
'r 'venired vous bren," et leu pere leu partit sain bren.
13. Ain n'sais yur, tro, quate, cheon jours apres 1' pus tid d' crids deeux
efeans oyant r'cuelle tout s'n peritt main , sot' ain voye dains n&in pahis gra-
mair toiion, dii qu'il echilla tout s'n argint ain fageant 1' braingand dains ches
cabarets.
14. Abora qu'il o eu tout bu, tout mi^ et tout drele, il o 6nu adonc dains
ch' pahis lo ainn 'famaire cruiiele, et i c'mainchouait d'avoir fon-ye d' pon-ye.
The Provencal is common to France and Spain ; for,
between the Catalonian and the Castilian, there is much
the same difference as between the French Proper and
the Provencal. Indeed, the Catalonian is, really, Pro-
vengal spoken in Spain. Again — the Gallician of Spain
is, in like manner, Portuguese — the difference between
the Portuguese and the Spanish being, to a great ex-
tent, political. Throughout, however, the whole range
the general phenomena are those of transition. In
Liege the language bears the name of Wallon : and is, as
we expect from its locality, an extreme form of the north-
em French. Contrasted with the French of Paris it is
a different language. This, however, may be said of so
many other dialects that it means but little.
646 THE DIALECTS OF THE FRENCH, ETC.
Catalonian,
Luke XV. 11-15.
11. Tin home tenia dos fills :
12. Yl mes petit dique & son pare : "Pare, donaume la part quern toca de
vostres bens." Y ell los repartl bens.
13. Y al cap de poehs dias, juntant lo fill menor tot lo que era sen, seu
an^ illuny & un pais estrany, y all! dissipd tots sos bens vivint dissolutament.
14. Y quant ho hagn6 gastat, vingue una gran fam en aquella terra y
comensd d patu miseria.
15. Llavors seu and, y s'arrimd 4 un dels ciutadans d'aquella terra, qui
I'enira 's sa granja a guardar porchs.
Spanish.
Luke XV. 11-15.
11. Un hombre tuvo dos hijos.
12. Y dico el menor de ellos & su padre : Padre, dame la parte de la haci-
enda, que me toca. Y el les repartio la hacienda.
13. Y no muchos dias despues juntando todo lo suyo el hijo menor se fu6
lejos k un pais muy distante, y all! malroto todo su haber, viviendo disoluta-
mente.
14. Y quando todo lo hubo gastado, vino una grande hambre en aquella
tierra, y 61 comenzo a padecer necesidad.
15. Y fue, y se arrlmo k uno de los curdadanos de aquella tierra : el qual lo
envida a su cortijo a quardar puercos.
Matthew ii. 1-6.
1. Habendo pois nacido Xesus en Belen de XudS, reinando Herodes, ve
aque que uns magos vineron do oriente a Xerusalem.
2. Preguntando : j Onde estS, o nacido rei dos Xudios 1 porque nosoutros
vimos en oriente a su estrella, e habernos chegada con fin de adorarlo.
3. Oindo esto o rei Herodes, turb6use, e consigo toda Xerusalem.
4. E chamando a todas os principes dos sacerdotes, e aos escribas do pueblo,
purguntaballes onde tina que nacer o Cristo ou Mesias,
5. Ao cal eles responderon ; en Belen de Xuda ; que asi se ten escrebido
no profeta ;
6. E ti Belen terra de Xuda, non eres certamente a mais cativa entre as
principales vilas de Xuda ; pois que e de ti que ten de salir o xefe, que
gobeme o meu pueblo de Israel.
Portuguese.
Luke XV. 11-15.
11. Hum homem teve dous filhos ;
12. E disse o mais mo^o delles a seu pai, Pai, dfi,-me a parte da fazenda, qua
me toca. E elle repartio entre ambos a fazenda.
13. E passados nao muitos dias, entrourando tudo o que era seu, partia o
filho mais mo90 para huma terra muito distante n'hum paiz estranho, e Ifi
dissipou toda a sua fazenda vivendo dissolutamente.
14. E depois de ter consumido tudo, succedeo haver uaquelle paiz huma
grande feme, e elle coma90u a necessitar.
15. Returoi-se pois dalli, e accommodou-se com hum dos CidadSos de tal
terra, Este porein o mandou para him casal seu a guardar os porcos.
ROMANCE. 647
Swiss and Protestant, the Orisons are separated from
Italy ; the language of the Orisons being called the
Rumonsch or RomaTice. Its orthography, too, is
Oerman rather than Italian. So that it passes for a
separate substantive language ; as, in its extreme forms,
it is. Except in name, however, several of the Italian
dialects are Romance.
Of the Romance Proper, the two main dialects are —
1 . That of the valley of the Rhine ;
2. That of the valley of the Inn — this latter falling,
at least, into the Upper and the Lower Engadino.
The elements subsequent to the Latin are chiefly Oer-
man. The language upon which the Latin, chiefly intro-
duced by the conquest of Drusus and Tiberius, encroached,
was a near congener of the Etruscan. At the present
time the Romance phonesis is largely Slavonic.
Romanese.
Luke XV, 11-15.
11. tin hnm veva das filgs.
12. Ad ilg juven da quels schet alg bali ; " Bab, mi dai la part da la
rauba c' aud' ^ mi : " ad ed parche or ad els la rauba.
13. A bucca bears gis suenter, cur ilg filg juven vet tut mess ansemel, scha
til& 1 navent en iinna terra dalunsch ; a lou sfiget el tut sia rauba cun viver
senza spargu.
14. A cur el vet tut s&ig, scha van^t ei en qnella terra iin gronse fumai:
ad el antshavel a ver basengs.
15. Ad el m^ a sa plide cun un burgeis da qnella tetra : a quel ilg taima-
tet or sin ses beins a parcherar lis pores,
Engadin.
LuJce XV. 11-15.
11. Tin crastien haveiva dos filgs.
12. E '1 plii juven d' els diss al bap, "Bap, da 'm la part dalla raba ch' Im
tocca." E '1 bap partit ad els la raba.
13. E pauc dids davo, il filg plii juven, haviand miss insemmel ogni chi-
aussa, giet el inavaunt seis viadi in pajais luntaun, e qua dissipet el sias
facultads, vivana dissoluta maing.
14. E dapo ch' el havet spais ogni chiaussa, vene una greiva charestia in
quel pajais : tal ch' el cumanzet ad havair bsceng.
15. E giet, e s' matel cun iin dais havadaduors da quella contiada, U qnal il
tramatet siin seis bains, ^ perchi)rar ils pores.
648 THE RUMANYO.
As a division in the class containing the derivatives
of the Latin, the Rumanyo, or Rouinain, of Wallachia,
Moldavia, Bessarabia, and parts of the Bukhovinia, and
Transylvania, stands (to repeat a well-worn illustra-
tion) as a genus with a single species ; being, single-
handed, of equal value with all the others. Nor is this
wholly due to its geographical isolation. It has true
points of internal difference — inter alia the post-posi-
tive article (homul = ho7no illezzil icomo, el hombre,
I'homme elsewhere) like the Bulgarian and the Albanian,
to the south, and the Lithuanian and the Norse lan-
guages to the north, of it. The change, too, from c to ^
is very regular.
English.
Latiu.
Rumanyo.
Breast
pectus
pepte
Milk
lac
lapte
Hip
coast
koapsa, &c.
Night
nox
nqpte.
The glossarial elements which have been engrafted on
the fundamental are what we expect a priori — Turk,
Greek, Slavonic, and German. The remains of the lan-
guage upon which the Latin itself intruded, would be,
if collected, neither more nor less than the original
Dacian. That they are Sarmatian is the decided opi-
nion of the present writer as well as of other better
judges. So influential an authority, however, as Grimm
has persuaded himself, and perhaps others, that the
Dacian names of certain plants and animals in Diosco-
rides are German.
Rumanyo. Latin.
Bela in larga valle ambU, Pnella in larga valle ambulabat,
Erba verde lin calea : Herbam viridem leniter calcabat,
Cant^, qui cantand plangea, Cantabat, et cantando plangebat,
Quod toti munti resun^, Ut omnes monies resonarent :
Ea in genunchi se punea, Ilia in genua se ponebat,
Ochi in sus indireptsl : Oculos sursum dirigebat ;
Ecce, Asi vorbe faced : Ecce, sic verba faciebat :
Domne, domne, bune domne. Domine, domine, bona domine.
Mica, fugu, frassinu Nux, fagus, fracinus,
THE RUMANYO.
649
Sumanyo.
Mult se certa intra sene
Nace, dice frassinu,
Quine vine, nnci cullege.
Cnllegend si ramuri frange :
Vaide dar de pelle a tua !
Da tn fage, mi vecine,
Que Toi spune in mente tene :
Multe fere saturasi :
Qui prebene nu amblasi ;
Quum se an geru apropiat
La pament te an si colcat,
Si in focu te an si aruncat, &c.
Latin.
Multine certant inter se.
Nux, dicit fracinus
Quisquis venit, nuces legit,
Colligendo ranios frangit :
Yse itaqne peUi toae !
At tu fage, mi vicine,
Quse exponam mente tene ?
Multas feras saturasti.
At baud bene ambulasti :
Quum gelu appropinquat
Ad pavimentum te deculcant,
Ad locum ptojiciont.
In French Philology, the Norman-French, or Anglo-
Norman, is simply so much French in an older form.
For English Philology it must be treated as a separate
language ; the words introduced from it being fuller in
form, and, often different in meaning, from their descen-
dants in the present French.
The Latin of the classics, notwithstanding its value,
its antiquity, and the fact of its being the standard or
typical dialect, is, in the way of bulk, a mere fraction
of the language. The Low Latin is full of incorporated
words, expressive of new ideas, and of foreign (often of
German) origin. Besides this, in Poland, in Hungary,
in Croatia, and elsewhere, the Latin has partaken of the
nature of a vernacular ; and is, more or less, modified by
the true vernaculars along with which it has been con-
currently spoken. Even in the Latin of French, Ger-
man, Italian, and other scholars, who have used it as a
learned language, traces of the several native languages
ai'e to be found. In this respect it is to be compare-d
with the Hebrew of the dispersed Jews. The Latin is,
undoubtedly, of more importance than any two lan-
guages put together ; and if it were not for one great
desideratuTn would be nearly perfect as a disciplinal
study in the field of philological induction. What we
miss is the knowledge of the exact nature of that
Roman language which has so decidedly impressed itself
650 THE RUMANYO.
on so many of the nations conquered by Rome. It can
scarcely have been the only Roman which is known to
us, i. e. the Latin of the classics. However extreme
may be the character of certain opinions, and however
illegitimate many of the current statements concerning
the differences between the Classical Latin and the
Lingua Rustica may be, no one believes that every
legionary of every legion in every portion of the Roman
dominions spoke the Latin of Caesar and Cicero. Not
to mention the very evident fact that many legions
bore the name of foreign populations, there were the
differences, within Italy itself, of the Samnite, Etruscan,
Marsian, Campanian, and what not, as compared with
either the Latin of Latium, or the pure Roman of Rome.
And that these differences were real, there is a fair
amount of historical evidence.
There must have been a Lingua Rustica, though
what this was is unknown ; and, of all the languages of
Latin origin, ifc is the Rumanyo which this question
touches the most closely.
THE GREEK. 651
CHAPTER LXXYIII.
The Greek.
The situs of the Greek is on the frontier of the Latin.
No one who recognizes the close aflBnity between these
two languages can doubt as to their having, at some
early period, graduated into one another. If, however,
oiu" views concerning the oricnnal diffusion of the Sla-
vonic be right, it was only on its southern frontier that
the Latin (through the Oscan of Campania) could ever
have touched the Greek area; inasmuch as on the east
and west lay the sea.
In order, however, to come to what the writer feels
to be a philological paradox, viz. that the Greek lan-
guage, foreign to the soil of Greece itself, was indigenous
to Southern Italy and Sicily, and that it comports itself
to the Italian of its original, and to the Albanian of its
secondary area, much as our own English comports
itself towards the German on the one side and the
Welsh on the other — the English and the Greek being
equally foreign to Greece and England — in order, I say,
to have this apparent improbability forced upon us, one of
the last vestiges of what may be called the Oriental
hypothesis must be cast away. To the inquirer who
believes that both the Latin and the Greek can be de-
rived from Asia (or, indeed, any other country), or who
considers that anything in the way of history is to be
got out of the current doctrines concerning the Pelasgi
and others, no such necessity suggests itself
6-52 THE GREEK.
But if the languages of Southern Italy and Sicily were
Greek, how came the fact to be unknown to the early
Greek colonists in those parts, who treated the abori-
gines as barbarians ? In this lies the main objection to
the present hypothesis.
I do not altogether deny its validity. I only re-
mark that, even if it were ever so much of a fiict, it
would only give the grounds of a slight objection. Let one
district supply a colony to another, and let the country
thus settled, after even a few generations, re-colonize the
rnother- country, and, what with change, on the one side,
the other side, or both sides, the chances are that the
original relationship wiU not be recognized. That this
is scarcely what we expect a priori may be true. It is
a fact nevertheless ; and it is not, improbably, the rule
rather than the exception. The best instance known is
that supplied in the Malayan peninsula, where the
Malays of Sumatran origin, with the Mahometan re-
ligion and with a fair amount of civilization, either
overlook or ignore the close affinity between themselves
and the aborigines ; and, just in this way, may the co-
lonial Greeks have overlooked the fundamental affinity,
assumed by the present writer, between themselves and
the Siculi, the Sicanians, and their congeners.
The arguments deducible from the Greek character of
the local names in Sicily contrasted with the Hon-Greek
character of those in Hellas, and other points of minute
criticism, find no place here. In a work like the pre-
sent, all that is given is a notice of the conditions re-
quired for the situs of language in hand, and it is
submitted that the only possible situs for the Greek is
Southern Italy — Southern Italy including Sicily.
If this be the case, the analysis of that part of the
Greek lansruage which is other than Latin must be made
with a special view towards the Albanian.
If this be the case, the affinities of the Greek with
the Sarniatian and German will, as a general rule, be
THE GREEK. 653
indirect, i. e. the Greek will be what is called Indo-
European chiefly, so far as it is Latin — chiefly, but not
wholly. That such is the case with the German may
be seen by any one who will make a list in English,
Latin, and Greek. The words which are Greek and
English will be Latin also. The words which are Ens:-
lish and Latin will not so frequently be Greek. That-
there are exceptions — such as OvyaTijp, daughter, jilia —
is true. The nile, however, is as it has just been given,
"With the Slavonic the case is somewhat diflferent ;
the proportion of words other than Latin, but common
to the Slavonic and the Greek, being greater. Subse-
quent, however, to the (hypothetical) Italian conquest of
Hellas, there has been (and is) a great amount of
Slavonic and Hellenic contact. The Non-latin elements
common to the Lithuanic and the Greek, and the Sans-
krit and the Greek, though not numerous, are obscure.
If this be the case, some of the difierences between
the Greek dialect may be due to difierences originated
on the soil of Italy, That the Doric took some of its
Doric characteristics is probable : Ionian, however, and
jEolian seem to belong, in the first instance, to the seas
and shores of Italy rather than Asia.
If this be the case, there is between the Greek lan-
guage and the Greek blood a minimum amount of
coincidence.
If this view be light, the ordinary views of the Greek
dialects are materially afiected ; and the Ionic and iEolic,
instead of having become what they were in the Ionia,
and ^olia of Asia, may have become what they were on
the shores of the Ionian Sea and the .^Eolian Islands.
At any rate, the fact of there being two lonias, and two
-^ohas (one of each being Itahan), must not be ignored.
Neither must the circumstance of the Italian havincr been,
apparently, the older ones. The Doric, on the other
hand, seems to have taken its name, and some, at least,
of its characteristics on the soil of Hellas. The evidence
65-1! THE GREEK.
of this, however, lies beyond the pale of the present
notice.
Different from the question concerning the local origin
of the Greek dialects is the question as to their value.
That the division named Doric is of the same ordinal
import as the other three is held by few. It is, rather, a
co-ordinate of the -^olic Proper, and other forms of speech.
If measured by their external relations, i. e. by the ex-
tent to which they differ, or agree, with other Hellenic
dialects, the Attic and Ionic are classes of considerable
value. If measured by their contents, i. e. by their
divisions and subdivisions, they are small ones. In a
great degree, however, they are scarcely dialects at all
— not, at least, truly vernacular ones. They are literary
languages ; or, at any rate, literary languages in the
way that the Lingua Urbane of Italy are literary lan-
guages as compared with the Lingue Rustiche of their
neighbourhoods.
The real data for anything beyond a general and
conventional view of the ancient Greek dialects are the
fragmentary compositions of minor writers, glosses, local
decrees, inscriptions, and, to a slight extent, theatrical
imitations or caricatures. From these, taken altogether,
we may safely infer that the true vernaculars of the
Athenian frontier and the Ionian area were anything
but the Attic of the dramatists, and the Ionic of Hero-
dotus.
The ancient Greek, as it sounded in the ears of the
common people, is as little known to us as the Lingua
Kustica of the Romans : and it is well to be aware of
the extent of our ignorance concerning it. When the de-
tails of the modern dialects shall have commanded the
attention they deserve, the question which has already
suggested itself in Italy will suggest itself in Greece.
Is this the descendant of the languages of Archilochus,
of Pericles, of Sappho, of Epicharmus, or of some obscure
dialect, which in the time of the classical writers was
\
THE GREEK. 655
really or nearly a different language ? Such is the ques-
tion which will be asked frequently. Such is the ques-
tion which is asked (but not answered) now.
With the dialects of the modern Greek, or Homaic,
more has been done than I have had the opportunity of
studpng. I have seen thiiieen given as the number of
them. This is, probably, either too much or too little.
It is too much if we look at the primary groups ; and
too little if we take in the minutice. The departures,
however, in the few dialects I have inspected, from the
ordinary Greek of any classical writer ai"e so consider-
able, that an independent origin must be assumed.
There is also a great range in the phonesis ; the Lesbian
dialect, for instance, being, like the dialects of Northern
Italy as compared with the Italian Proper, characterized
by a na.sal n like that of the French.
The form of speech, however, which has most especi-
ally stimulated the curiosity of scholars is the Tzakonian
(Laconian), spoken in a few villages on the eastern slope
of Mount Taygetus. This it is which is more especially
set-up as an independent language, a language bearing
the same relation to the ordinary Romaic that the Pro-
vencal does to the French.
This may be the case. That it is the descendant of
some extreme form of ancient Greek — the Cynurian
dialects as suggested by Thiersch who has carefully
studied it- — is certain.
It is from Thiersch that the following extracts are
taken : —
Singular. — Norn.
Ui»
l*i^
Oen.
#"'
ri
0i
Dot.
1"
»i
ft
Ace.
iti'au
xuv
r/
Plural. — Nom.
Itv, iftu
IfLtV
Gen.
IBLfiaU
riivfuu
rtv
Bat.
tecfuv
iiiufup
r«*
Ace.
ifuitxn
ifiiu
Of the so-called
verb
substantive
the
following is
656 THE GREEK.
the conjugation for the Present and Preterite Indica-
tive.
Present.
Peetehitr.
Si/ng.
Plural.
&'»^.
Plural.
1. in
2. l«
3. m<
1. J>^.
2. ?<rri
3. Ivn
1. V
2. iirei
3. J»/
1 . 'i/^fiaT
2. srai'
3. ^yKia7
rhe following for the Aorist and Perfect.
AORIST,
Perfect.
^ng.
Plural.
iSiwgf.
Plural
1 . y^K^*
2. y^d-^t^i
3. y^d'^i
1. y^dt^ecfii
2. y^dyl'art
3. y^d'4'a'i'
1. lygS/3«
2. ly^oL^i^i
3. lyga/3s
1. ly^d^aftt
2. ly^dfiart
3. iy^x^al
The Paternoster.
fietiTiXuxvri, voc Ma,6n r« hXnytdtn aat 'roii ou^avi 'iZ,^ev ^s 'rav /•y!?. To» av^« tov
inavffiov o) vdftou vi ffd/atpi, ^s a^s vd/iou tu, ^^U vdf/,(iu xa.§ou ^s svw l^^« ^ryrs
TO xaxo.
On the other side of Mount Taygetus the Mainot dia-
lect is spoken, being Messenian rather than Laconian.
An offset of the Mainot is spoken by the Greeks of
Corsica — of which the following is an extract from the
only-known specimen.
Luke XV. 11-19.
11. Eva; a.S^iu'^oi iip^i Sya vov;.
12. Ka.) if?ri i ^Xio f/,tx^o; diea atirou; r d(p'iiou rou, 'A^{3«, iofiou ro /^ipSixi
<r»u ^^otKiou axov fisZ r^i^ii. Ka.) reus ifii^atn to ir^iiixio.
13. Kai vffrt^n a-x eXfyais fifii^ais // al^ofiivo 'rdifa, T^ayf/.a, a (tXw //.ixpoi,
IdiaT ill ftia ^ii^a, dxd^yav xal \xui(fxoo<ri<n <ro •Jt^atxin ^eivra tra^xixd.
14. Kai uiTTi^a d-x oZ 'i^o^ia.a'i •jra.ffa •x^yf/i.a, n^ri f^ia fiiydXn ^tlta, u;
15. Ka) sS/ai' xa) i(f/^i^t fit s'vav vroXirtiy IxtTvns rtj; ;^»gatf ' xai tov iffruXi
lis rx x'^^'^f'" '■«" ''"^ (ioa'xri revs X'°"i"^^-
16. Kai dydiea, <td y(ij/.iar) r^v xeiXidt rou aTo rd [iiXdiiia ixou irpuuvt ei
X'ev^oi' xa) xavitas div rou toiii.
17. 'Epx'f^^'^'S *'V iaurov rou, tlti, TaVa/ ^oZXei r dipiSeu ftou ;\jaaTS»ai;vi dxo
ipu//,), xuc.) lyu "^oifu d-ro x'uva !
18. "S^xovof^ai xa) frdu irr d^iiou fiou, xa) rou Xiu, 'K(piit\, 'i//,apra lis t«v
ov^avov xai dit^otrrtt, ffou.
19. Ka) Sev ti/Axi vrXio d^ies *d (fuvax^V "'f ^"'' *d(/t,i fit iis ivaevc dxi reus
iouXovs (TOU,
i
THE GREEK. 657
Though the earliest specimens of the Greek are
earlier than the earhest specimens of the Latin, it by no
means follows that the Greek is the older language :
indeed, as it rarely happens that any one language is
wholly and in every part more archaic in its form than
another, the terms older and newer must be used with
extreme caution. As far as the Latin preserves the
neuter and accusative forms in -w (which in Greek become
v), along with other characteristics, it is, pro tanto, older.
With its preterites in -ha, its greater amount of verbs in
-/tt, as well as in other points, the comparative antiquity
is on the side of the Greek. In its eschewal of conso-
nantal terminations, (no words in the standard language,
with the exceptions of Ik and ovk, ending in any con-
sonant but <T or V,) the Greek reminds us of the modern
Itahan rather than the ancient Roman : indeed, for any
language but the Greek, its extreme liquidity and
vocality would earn for it the character of weakness
or something equally disparaging.
U U
658 THE GERMAN LANGUAGES.
CHAPTER LXXIX.
The German Class.— Tlie Moesogothic. — The High and Low German. — The
Anglo-Saxon and English. — The Frisian. — The Norse, or Scandinavian.
The language belonging to the German group, for which
we have the earliest specimens, is known by the some-
what exceptionable name of Mcesogothic ; wherein we
have a large portion of the Gospels, as translated by
Ulphilas, in the fourth century, for the Goths of the
Lower Danube ; along with a few other minor fragments.
It is the earliest as well as the latest member of its
class. It was spoken by a population projected into
a foreign locality, and by a population of which the
original locality has been filled up by dialects from
another area. Its original area was probably Thuringia.
As compared with the modern German dialects (the word
being taken in its widest sense, so as to comprise the
English and the Swedish), it is old : and it is old even
when compared with the Anglo-Saxon, the Icelandic, and
the Old German : though not in every point. It has (as
stated) no direct descendants.
Then come the languages of Southern Germany, in
which we have compositions as old as the eighth cen-
tury: some being what is called Alemannic or German
of the Upper Rhine, rather than Bavarian or German
of the Upper Danube, and vice versa. They graduate,
however, into each other.
The German of the Middle Rhine, often called Frank,
is intermediate in character to the German of the
THE GERMAN LANGUAGES. 659
South and North, the former being called High, the
latter Loiu, Grerman. And, in their extreme forms, they
are so named with propriety. They graduate, however,
both in the older and newer dialects, into one another,
and can only be separated by an arbitrary line ; in other
words, by fixing upon some single character — and even
that is not constant.
In these two divisions the modern literary German
is the cultivated representative of the High, the Dutch
of Holland, of the Low group. Neither, however (as is
the case with literary languages in general) represents
any dialect exactly.
The old standard of the High Grerman is the Bible
translation of the reformers ; and, as Luther was a
Saxon, it passes for being more akin to the language of
the parts about Dresden and Leipzic than aught else.
When it was pressed upon the Low Germans it was con-
temptuously called Luther's Misnian. Yet the dialect
of Meissen is, by no means, either the literary German
or its pure and simple progenitor.
The High German dialects are numerous ; and it
is probable that some are, in complex sentences,
mutually unintelligible — especially in certain outlying
districts, such as Monte Rosa, the Italian Tyrol,
the Sette and Tredici Commune in Venetia, and the
Siebenbiirgen in Transylvania. The Swiss German be-
longs to this division ; indeed, it is probable that the
Swiss, the Suabian, and the Bavarian all form divisions
of equal value with that of the High German itself.
At present there is (with one small exception) nothing
spoken in Germany Proper but dialects belonging to
one of these two divisions. A thousand years ago,
however, in the parts about the Sauerland and the Ysel,
the language of Northern Grermany was Saxon. Herein,
the most southern dialect was the Old Saxon of West-
phalia, of which a few specimens have been preserved.
To the north and north-east of this lay the Anglo-
u u 2
660 THE GERMAN LANGUAGES.
Saxon, or the English in its oldest form — bounded on the
one side by the sea, on the other by the Danish and Sla-
vonic. Little more than a variety, to the west lay the
Frisian of Friesland : of which a modification named the
North Frisian is spoken in Sleswick. In Saterland, too,
one of the fenniest districts of Germany, Frisian is still
spoken; and this exception to the general statement that
there is nothing in Germany but the German is the one
alluded to. The statement itself meant that the Saxon
forms of speech have been obliterated. In Holland it is
spoken largely.
The Frisian is transitional between the German and
the Scandinavian (or Norse) branch of this important
class ; the Scandinavian or Norse languages being the
Icelandic, the Feroic, the Danish, the Swedish, and the
numerous dialects of Norway — the literary Norwegian
being the Danish. With a post-positive article, and a
so-called passive voice (arising out of a middle ; itself the
result of a fusion between the verb and the reflective
pronoun), the Norse languages are sufiiciently separated
from the German — neither of these characteristics being
found in even the Frisian. At the same time they are
phenomena of which we may easily overvalue the
import. Both are of comparatively recent origin ; and
in the Danish of Sleswick, the post-positive article is
wanting. The other Danish dialects are the Northern
and Southern Jute ; the island dialects (of which those
of Sealand and Fyen are the chief) ; and the dialect
of Bornholm. In Sweden, that of Scaane is sufficiently
Danish to have been ascribed to Denmark — probably
on insufficient grounds.
North of Scaane the main dialects are those of East
and West Gothland, of the island of Gothland, of
Upland, Smaaland, and Dalecarlia. More outlying still,
is the dialect of the free Swedish yeomen {fria Svenska
bonder), of parts of Estonia and some of the small
islands opposite.
THE GERMAN LANGUAGES. G61
In Norway, where the dialects have met with more
than ordinary attention, an<l where some extreme
patriots hope to evolve out of them a literary language
by which the noiv foreign Danish may be superseded,
the approach to the old Norse, accurately represented
by the Icelandic, and approximately by the Feroic, is
closer than in any part of Denmark, and (with the
doubtful exception of Dalecarlia) any part of Sweden
either — the characteristic which has drawn the most
attention being a -third gender ; the feminine. In the
literary language there is only a common gender and a
neuter.
Among the Norwegian dialects we have specimens of
twenty in the curious work of Aasen.
Northern. — Lofoden, Helgeland, Inderoen, Stjordalen,
Orkedalen, Nordraor.
Western. — Sondmor, SondQord, Sogn, Nordhordland,
Voss, Hardanger, Sondhordland, Yfederen.
Southern. — Saetersdalen, Tellemaiken, Yalders, Hal-
lingdal, Gullbrandsdal, Osterdalen.
It is difficult to arrange these ; inasmuch as the speci-
mens are either short narratives taken from the mouth
of the common people or desciiptions of some locality :
the object of the collector being less the exhibition of so
many forms of his mother-tongue as dialects, than the
collection of materials for the development of a common
Norwegian language, as opposed to the Danish now
current.
It is evident, however, that they all agree on one
point, viz. in approaching nearer than the present lite-
rary language to the Old Norse. Generally, if not al-
ways, they have a feminine gender ; often a dative case.
In the use of a instead of e, at the end of words, many
of them approach the Swedish.
For the new Norwegian dialect to be obtained bv a
free and eclectic use of these materials there are sugges-
ted {inter alia) an infinitive in a, giving fara^ donuiy
662 THE GERMAN LANGUAGES.
&;c., instead of the existing fare, dome, &c., and a femi-
nine gender — a restoration which few Englishmen will
mistake for an improvement.
A series of facts upon which the evidence of the
Greek and Latin languages is silent, is well exhibited in
the history of those of the German group — best, perhaps,
and most especially by that of the Norse tongues. This
is because (out of it) no fewer than three literary languages
have been evolved ; not to mention numerous dialects and
sub-dialects. Of these —
1 . The modern Icelandic has preserved the old lan-
guage with a minimum amount of alteration ; practically
speaking, indeed, the modern Icelandic and the Old
Norse are synonymous.
2. The Swedish either changed more slowly than
Danish or began its changes later.
3. The Danish either changed more quickly than the
Swedish or began its changes earlier. Petersen, to whom
the best investigation of these interesting points is due,
considers that Denmark was (so to say) about a century
ahead of Sweden ; in other words, that if the Danish had
reached a given stage in (say) A.D. 1400, the Swedish
reached it about A.D. 1500. Meanwhile, the Norwegian
remained in a comparatively unaltered condition until
the Reformation, when change set in so rapidly that half
a century put it on the level with its sisters.
I lay this before the reader not because the statement
can be taken strictly and literally (which was, by no
means, the author's intention), but, because (being true
in the main), it illustrates phenomena, for which we
have no superabundance of data, but, unfortunately on
the contrary, a deficiency — viz. the conditions under
which change sets in, and the rate of the change itself.
Incidentally, too, they show what is even of greater in-
terest, i. e. the regularity with which the same changes
are undergone by different forms of speech. Roughly
speaking, we may say that in the break-up of the Old
THE GERMAN LANGUAGES. 663
Norse the same inflections are lost, in the same order ;
and that they are replaced by the same substitutes.
The changes (in other words) are the same ; the rate
only being different.
The blood and language in this family coincide but
slightly — the range of the latter being the widest.
Before the spread of the German, Scandinavia was
Ugrian, and, probably, to some extent Prussian or
Lithuanic ; Denmark, whether Ugrian or Saimatian,
other than German ; all the parts beyond the Elbe, and,
possibly beyond the Teutoberger Wald, Slavonic ; all
the parts to the South of the Mayn (in the opinion of
the present writer) the same ; Britain, Keltic Roman
and mixed. Hence, the original area of the Germans is
included by the Teutoberger Wald, the Elbe and Saale,
the Mayn, and the Rhine — an area which, small as it
is, when compared with the present magnitude of the
German, is gieater than that of the Latin family.
It should be added, however, that these limitations
are, by no means, currently admitted ; least of all in
Germany itself, and that they are incompatible with
two current doctrines — (1 .) that all the populations
mentioned in the Germania of Tacitus were German,
and (2.) that the name Goth indicates a German popula-
tion. His objections to both these doctrines have been
given by the present writer elsewhere. The Germans
were Goths just as the English are Britons, i. e. they
took the name when they settled in a country originally
Gothic.
664
THE KELTIC.
CHAPTER LXXX.
The Keltic Languages. — British Branch. — Gaelic Branch.
Of the Keltic Stock there are two Branches.
(1.) The British, represented by the Welsh, the
Cornish and the Armorican, or Breton, of Britany. It
is almost certain that the old British, and the ancient
language of Gaul, belonged to this branch.
English,
Welsh.
Head
pen
Haw
gwallt
Eye
llygad
Nose
trwyn
Mouth
ceg
Teeth
dannedd
Tongue
tafod
Ear
clust
Back
eefn
Blood
gwaed
Arm
braich
Hand
Haw
Leg
coes
Foot
troed
Nail
ewin
Horse
ce%l
Cow
buwch
Calf
llo
Sheep
dafad
Lamb
oen
Goat
gafr
Dog
ci
Fox
Uwynog
Goose
gwydd
Crow
br^n
Bird
adar
Fish
pysg
Cornish.
pen
bleu
lagat
tron
genau
dyns
tavat
scovom
chein
guit
brech
lof
coes
truit
ivin
march
bugh
loch
davat
oin
gavar
ty
louvern
guit
bran
ezn
pysg
Breton.
penn
bleo
try
guenon
dant
teod
scouam
chein
goad
brech
doum
garr
troad
ivin
march
vioch
lene
danvat
oan
chaour
chy
louarn
oaz
Tiaa
ein
pysg
THE KELTIC.
English.
Welsh.
Cornish.
Breton.
One
un
onaa
nnan
Two
dan
den
daoa
Three
tri
try
tri ••
Four
pedwar
peswar
perar
Fire
pump
pymp
pemp
Six
ctwech
whe
chnecli
Seven
saith
seyth
seiz
Eight
wyth
eath
eiz
Nine
naw
naw
nao
Ten
deg
dek
dec
Twenty
again
ugenis
ngent
Hundred
cant
cant
cant.
665
The Cornish Kteratnre is of the scantiest. A poem
called Calvary, three religious dramas or mysteries,
and a vocabulary, are, perhaps, as old as the fifteenth
century. Then there is another religious drama^ by
William Jordan — A.D. 1611, a few songs, a few pro-
verbs, a short tale, two translations of the first chapter
of Genesis, which Mr. Norriss (the authority for all
these statements) says are very poor, translations of the
Commandments, BeUef, and the Lord's Prayer, one of
which is called ancient, the other modern ; but this (I
again quote Mr. Norriss) without any apparent reason
for the distinction.
Cornish.
Deus Pater.
Adam, otte an pnskes,
Tthyn a'n nef ha'n bestes,
Kefrys yn tyr hag yn mor ;
Eo thethe aga hynwyn,
Y a thue the 'th worhemmyn,
Saw na byhgh y war nep cor.
Adam.
Tt 'hanwaf bngh ha tarow,
Ha margh, yw bast hep parow
The yap den rag ymweres ;
Qaver, yweges, karow,
Daves, war ve (?) lavarow
Hy hanow da kemeres.
In English.
God the Father.
Adam, behold the fishes.
The birds of heaven, and the beasts,
Equally in land and in sea ;
Give to them their names.
They wiU come at thy command,
But do not mistake them in any
sort.
Adam.
I name cow, and bull.
And horse, it is a beast withont
equal
For the son of man to help himself ;
GJoat, steer, stag,
Sheep, from my words
To take their names.
C66
THE KELTIC.
Lemyn hanwaf goyth ha yar,
A sensaf ethyn hep par
The vygyens den war an beys ;
Hos, payon, colom, grvgyer,
Swan, bargos, bryny ha'n er,
Moy drethof a vyth hynwys.
Y wf hynwyn the'n puskes,
Porpus, sowmens, syllyes,
01 thy'm gustyth y a vyth ;
Leneson ha barfusy,
Pysk ragof ny ura skvsy
Mar corthyaf dev yn perfyth.
Deus Pater.
Rag bones ol tek ha da.
In whed dyth myns yw formyys,
Aga sona a wra :
May fe seythves dyth hynwys.
Hen yw djrth a bowesva
The pup den a vo sylwys ;
Yd dysguythyens a henna
Ny a boves desempys.
Now I name goose and fowl,
I hold them birds without equal
For food of man on the earth ;
Duck, peacock, pidgeon, partridge,
Swan, kite, crows, and the eagle.
Further by me are named.
I gire names to the fishes,
Porpoises, salmons, congers,
All to me obedient they shall be ;
Ling and cod,
A fish from me shall not escape
If I honour Grod perfectly.
God the Father.
For all that is fair and good,
In six days all that is created,
Bless l.hem we will :
Let it be called the seventh day.
This is a day of rest
To every man that may be saved ;
In declaration of that
"We will rest forthwith.
The Pater-noster.
Older Form.
An Taz, ny es yn n^f, bethens thy hannow ughelles, gwr^nz doz thy gulas
ker : Bethens thy voth gwraz yn oar kepare hag yn nef ; I'o thyn ny hithow
agan peb dyth bara ; gava thyn ny ny agan cam, kepare ha gava ny neb es
cam ma erbyn ny ; nyn homfrek ny en antel, mez gwyUi ny the worth drok :
rag gans te yn an mighterneth, an creveder, hag an' worryans, byz a venitha.
Newer Form.
Agan Taz, leb ez en n^v benigas beth de hanno, gurra de gulasketh deaz, de
voth beth gwr^z en' oar pokar en n6v ; ro donj hithow agan pyb dyth bara ;
ha gava do ny agan cabmow, pokara ny gava an gy leb es cam ma war bidn
ny ; ha na dege ny en antail, brez gwitha ny dort droge : rag an mychteyr-
neth ew chee do honnen, ha an crSvder, ha an 'worryans, rag bisqueth ha
bisqueth.
(2.) The Gaelic or Erse Branch, represented by the
present Irish Gaelic, the Gaelic of the Highlands of
Scotland, and the Manhs of the Isle of Mam.
English.
Irish.
Scotch.
Mauks.
Head
cean
ceann
kione
Haw
folt
folt
folt
Eye
stiil
suil
sooil
Nose
sron
srdin
stioin
THE KELTIC.
English.
Irish.
Scotch.
TAa3i\a.
Mouth
beul
beul
beeal
Tooth
fiacail
fiaca]
feeackle
Tongue
teanga
teanga
chengey
Ear
duas
daas
cleaysh
Back
druim
druim
dreem
Blood
foil
fml
fniU
Arm
gaiidean
gairdean
clingan
Hand
lamh
lamh
lave
Leg
cos
cos
cass
Nail
iongna
iongna
ingin
Horse
each
each
agh
Cow
bo
bo
booa
Calf
laogh
laogh
Iheiy
Sheep
caor
caor
keyrrey
Lamb
uan
nan
eayn
Goat
gabhair
gabhar
goayr
Dog
cu
cu
coo
Fox
sionnacli
sionnach
shynnagh
Goose
geodh
geodh
guiy
Crow
feannog
feannag
feeagh
Bird
ban
eon
eean
Fish
iasg
iasg
eeast
One
aon
aofu
nnn^ie
Two
do
dh4
dhaa
Three
tri
tri
tree
Four
ceathar
ceithin
kiare
Five
cuig
cuig
queig
Six
se
se
shey
Seren
seacht
Beachd
shiaght
Eight
ocht
ochd
h<^ht
Nine
naoi
naoi
nuy
Ten
deich
deig
jeih
Ticenty
fitche
fichead
feed
Hundred
ceM
ceud
keead.
667
The Cornisli and Armorican are more closely allied
than the Cornish and Welsh.
The Armorican, or Breton, falls into (at least) two
dialects, the Breton Proper and the Vannetais of Vannes.
Song of Solomon ii. 1-4.
(1.)
Breton Ordinary.
1. Me eo ar rosen Sharon, hag el lilien ann traonennon.
2. Evel a lilien e-kreiz ar spern, evel-se e-ma ya miuoonez e-kreiz a
meic'hed.
668 THE KELTIC.
3. Evel eur wezen avalore e-kreiz gwez ar c'hoadou, evel-se e-ma va
miftoun e-kreiz ar vipien. Dindan. h6 ske(id ounn bet azezefc, hag h6 frou^z
a oa c'liouek d'am genou.
4. Va lekeat en detiz da vont e ti ar gwin ; hag h6 arwez dreist-ounn a oa
karantez.
(2.)
Breton of Vannes, or Vannetais.
1. Me zou er rosen Sharon, hag el lilien en douareu-izel.
2. El ul lilien e creis e spem, el-ce e-'ma me harante etre er merhed.
3. El ur hueen-aveleu gtre que er hoedeu, el-ce e-ma me rauian-caret d
mesq er pautred. Azeet e-on bet idan e squced quet ur vourradiqueah bras,
hag e freh e oe huek a p'en tanhouas.
4. Ean em gassas d'en ty a chervad, hag e arres, dreist-on, e oe carante,
The following is the parable of the Sower in (1.) the
Gaelic of Connaught, (2.) the Gaelic of Munster.
(1.)
Feuch, do chu§,idh siolad6ir a mach do chnr sil:
Agus ag cur an tsil do, do theut cuid dhe chors na sligheadh, agus tangadar
na he^nlaith, agus a duadar 6 :
Agus do thuit cuid eile dhe a bhfearan chlochach, mar nach raibh moran
uire aige : agus do fhas se go luath, do brigh nach bhfuair se dorinhneachd na
talmhan :
Agus ar ngirghe don ghrein, do doidheadh 6 ; agus ar son nach raibh
fr6umh aige, do shearg se.
Agus do thuit cuid eile dhe eidir mhuineach ; agus do eirghe an muineach
B<ias, agus do mhuch se 6 :
Agus do thuit cuid eile dhe a dtalamh mhaith, agus tus se toradh, cuid
c^uduired, cuid tri fichid uiread, cuid a deich fichead uiread.
Gidh be aga bhfuillia clu§,sa chum eisdeachda, eisdeagh se.
(2.)
Feuch, do cheiaid siolad6ir amach ug cur sll.
Agus ag cur an tsil do, do thuit cuid de cois na sllghe, agus th^inigh na
heanlacha agus d'itheadar suas e ;
Do thuit cuid eile dhe air thalamh bhi l&n do chlocha, ait, n& raibh mo-
r&n cr§ aige ; agus dfhS,s se suas a' urchar, mar na raibh doimhnios na talm-
han aige ;
Agus air eirighe don ghrein do doghag e ; agus mar na raibh aon phreumh
aige, do chrion se ;
Agus do thuit cuid eile dhe a measg deilgnldhe ; agus dfhSs na deilgnidhe
suas, agus do mhfichadar 6 ;
Ach do thuit cuid eile dhe air thalamh mhait, agus thug toradh uaig, cuid
de a chead uiriod fein, cuid a thri fichid uiriod, agus cuid a dheich der fhichiod
oiriod,
Pe duine go bfuil cluasa chum eisdeachta aige, 6isdigheach s6.
1. In Irish there is a peculiar fcrm for the dative
plural as cos —foot, cosaihh zz to feet (ped-ihus) ; and be-
yond this there is little else whatever in the way of case
THE KELTIC.
669
as found in the German, Latin, Greek, and other tongues.
Even the isolated form in question is not found in the
Welsh and Breton.
2. In Welsh the pronouns for V!e, ye, and they, are ni,
chwyi, and hvjynt respectively. In Welsh also the root r:
love is car. As conjugated in the plural number this is —
cax-wn = am-awus.
ca.r-ych = am-af is.
cox-ant = dim-ant.
Now the -wn, -ych, and -ant of the persons of the
verbs are the personal pronouns, so that the inflection is
really a verb and a pronoun in a state of agglutination ;
i. e. in a state where the original separate existence of
the two sorts of words is still manifest.
3. The Keltic noun changes its initial letter according
to its relation to the other words of tlie sentence ; of
course subject to rule.
Daw, a god.
1. form. Daw trogaro^ a fnereiful
god.
2. form, Ei dhuw, hit god.
3. Yy nuw, my god.
Bara, bread.
1. form, Bara cann, icAt f braid.
2. Ei vara, hit bread.
3. Vy mara, my bread.
Lhaw, a hand.
1. foi m, Lhaw wenn, a white hand.
2. Ei law, his hand.
Iklam, a mother.
1. form, Mam dirion, a tender mo-
ther.
2. Eiram, hit mother.
Ehwyd, a net.
1. form, Ehwyd lawn, afuU net.
2. Ei r\»yl, hit net.
(Prom the Ene.)
Soil, an eye.
■ 1. form, SuiL
2. A h6il, hia eye.
S14inte, health.
2. form. Do hi iinte, jKWr health.
C4r
(From the Welsh.)
a kinsman.
l.form, C4ragos, a nearJnnsman.
2. Ei g4r, his kinsman.
3. Ei chir, her kinsmun.
4. Yy ngh^r, my kinsman.
Tjkd, a father.
1. form. Tad y plentyn, the child*
father.
2. Ei dJLd, his father.
3. 'S^thSA, her father.
4. Yy nh&d, my father.
Pen, a head.
1. form, Pen gwr, the head of a
man.
2. Ei ben, his head.
3. Ei phen, her head.
4. Yy mhen, my head.
Ow&s, atervant.
l.form, Gwslsfydhlon, a faithful
servant.
2. Ei w4a, his servant.
3. Yy ngwas, my Krrant.
670 THE KELTIC.
The following is found in the fly-leaf of a copy of
Juvencus. It is pronounced to be not Welsh ; not
Cornish ; but Pict
(1.)
Ni guorcosam nemheunaur henoid
Mi telun it gurmaur
Mi am franc dam an calaur.
(2.)
Ni con ili ni guardam ni cusam henoid
Cel iben med nouel
Mi am franc dam an patel.
(3.)
Na mereit nep leguenid henoid
Is discinn mi coweidid
Dou nam Riceur imguetid.
Translation of Mr. Nash.*
(1.)
I shall not sleep a single hour to-night,
My harp is a very large one,
Give me for my play a taste of the kettle.
(2.)
I shall not sing a song, nor laugh or kiss to-night,
Before drinking the Christmas mead.
Give me for my play a taste of the bowl.
. (3.)
Let there be no sloth or sluggishness to-night,
I am very skilful in recitation.
God, King of Heaven, let my request be obtained.
Translation of Archdeacon Williams.
I will not sleep even an hour's sleep to-night,
My family is not formidable,
I and my Frank servant and our kettle.
(2.)
No bard will sing, I will not smile nor kiss to-night j
Together .... to the Christmas mead
Myself and my Frank client and our kettle.
(3.)
Let no one partake of joy to-night.
Until my fellow soldier arrives.
It is told to me that our lord the King will come.
* Taliessin ; or, the Bards and Druids of Britain, p. 79.
THE KELTIC. 671
I have given it as I found it. The word Noel=
Chnstnias is Anglo-Norman. It is not an impossible,
though not a likely, word to be found in the Pict ;
though it is quite as likely as the fact of a Pict reading
JuveTicus.
For the details of the early stages of the Keltic lan-
guages the valuable work of Zeuss is the great reper-
torium, the materials being for —
TJie Irish. — 1 . Glosses on Priscian, in the library of
St, Gallen. They are marginal and interlinear ; written
in three hands, A few are in the Ogham character ;
the majority in the ordinary Latin, The seventh century
is the assigned date of these glosses on Priscian,
2. The glosses of the Codex Paulinus, — This is a
MS. in the library of the University, originally of the
Cathedral of Wirtzburg. They apply to the Epistles of
St, Paul, The Pauline glosses are possibly as old as the
Priscian.
3. The Milan glosses. — These are a Commentaiy on
the Psalms, rightly or wrongly ascribed to St. Jerome.
They are, perhaps, as old as the preceding.
4. The glosses on Beda, in the Carlsruhe Library. —
Somewhat later than the MUan, Wirtzburg, and St.
Gallen MSS.
5. The Carlsrulie glosses on Priscian, — In some parts
these are based upon the St. Gallen MSS., or, at any
rate, originate in a common source. In others they are
independent.
6. The St, Gallen Incantations, or formulae for effect-
ing charms ; more or less metrical, if not poetical, in
character.
7. The Codex Camaracensis. — This contains Canonea
Hibemii Concilii, a.d, 684. The MS,, however, belongs
to the ninth century.
Of works of equal antiquity with these, in the Bri-
tish division of the Keltic tongues, Zeuss gives fewer for
Wales than for Ireland. They are —
672 THE KELTIC.
The Welsh. — 1. Codex Oxoniensis prior (Bodleian,
originally NE. D. 2. 19, now F. 4. 4 — 32), containing
glosses on Eutychius and Ovid's Ars Amandi, also the
alphabet of coelbren y beirdd, along with Be mensuris
et ponderibus qucedam, Cambrica intermixta Latinis,
pp. 22^' — 23".
2. Codex Oxoniensis posterior (Bodleian, originally
NE. B. 5. 9, now MS. Bodl. 572), membranaceus,
formse minoris, res theologicas continens, in medio auteui ;
and p. 41*, usque ad 47'' persa qusedam Latina ad prae-
bendam pueris verborum copiam (ut videtur) cum vocibus
Cambricis, quae scriptae sunt aut supra vocabula Latina
aut post ea in linea cum signo i. glossatorum solito.
8. Codex Ecclesice Lichfeldensis (antea Landavensis).
The Gospels, with certain entries of donations made to
the Cathedral of Landaff — adnotatse sunt Latine, sed
cum nominibus vel etiam sententiis Cambricis. Pub-
lished by Wanley.
4. Folium Luxemburgense. Published by Mone, in
Die Gallische Sprache Karlsruhe, 1851.
5. Liber Landavensis.
6. Codex Legum Venedotianus. — The Laws of
Howell Dda.
7. Codex Ruber Hergestensis (the Red Booh of Her-
gest). In the library of Jesus College. Intermediate
between the Old and Middle British.
The Cornish. — 1. The Cotton MSS., British Museum,
Vesp. A. 14.
2. Carmen de Paasione Christi.
The Breton. — 1. Glosses in the Chartularies of the
Monasteries of Rhedon and Landevin.
2. Vita S. Nonnoi. A mystery of the twelfth cen-
tury. Published as the Buhez santez Nonn, with an
Introduction by the Abbd Sionnet, and with a literal
translation by M. Legonidec. Paris, 1837.
The researches of Mr. Whitley Stokes have added to
our materials for the Irish, and Mr. Bradshawe, of
THE KELTIC.
673
Cambridge, has made the important discovery of a
specimen of what may be called the Middle Scotch
Gaelic ; in which language there had previously been
nothing older than the Reformation,
The following inscriptions are from Gaul (i. e. un-
doubted Keltic ground), and they are treated by Keltic
scholars as Keltic — so far, of course, as they are not
Latin.
oo
lAPTAI : : i i Ai\AN0ITAK02 AEAE
MATPEBO NAMAY2IKAB0 BPATOYAE
(2.)
CErOMAPOC
OYIAjVONEOG
TOOYTIOY
NAMAYCATIC
EIODPoYBHAH
CAMICOCIN
NEMHTON
(3.)
MARTIALIS • DANnJ*.
lEVRV • VCVETE • SOSIN
CELICNON CJ.ETIC
GOBEDBI • DVGnoNIiIo
IN ALISIIA.
(4.)
BVSCILLASOSIOLEGASITINALIXIEMAGALV
DOIROS
EEVRV •
(5.)
• SEGOMAEI
ALISANVif
(7.)
ICCAVOS • OP
PIANICNOSIEV
Il\^RIGINDON
CANTABOEK . . .
(6.)
LICNOS CoN
TEXTOS • EE^Tly
ANVALoNNACV
CANECoSEDLoN
(8.)
AXDE
CAMV
LOSTOVTI
SSICNOS
IEVB.Y
(90
.CRISPOS BOVI
. RAMEDON
. . AXTACBITIEV5 ....
ryO CARADITONV . .
VTASEIANISEB0DDV5 . .
REMIFILIA
DR\T?A GISACICIVIS SV
X X
674
THE KELTIC.
(10.)
KATN BRIVATIOM
FRONTV TARBEL : INOS
lEVEV
(11.)
IVBRON
SVMELI
VORETO
VIRIVS^F
(12.)
. N • H • D
DEO • MERCV
VASSO • CALETI
MANDALONIV
GRATVS • D
(13.)
BISGONTAVRIONANALABISBISGONTAVPtlON
CEANALABISBISGONTAVRIOSCATALASES
VIMCANIMAVIMSPATERNAMASTA
MASTARSSETVTATEIVSTINA QVEM
PEPERIT SARRA
The following are from Italy, i. e. from ground not
undoubtedly Keltic. Keltic scholars treat them as Kel-
tic, nevertheless.
I. II.
. . S. . V
OISIS • DRVTIF
RATER EIVS
INIMVS LOCAVIT
. ATVITQV .
. EKNATI • TRVTIK • I
. .NITV.LOICAN- OISIS
. VTIKNOS
MEP . CRVM
.... IS
DRVTEIFFRATER
EIVS
MINIMVS LOCAV
IT • ET STATVIT
ATE KN ATI TRVT
IKNI • KARNITV
ARTVAxKOISIS • T
RVTIKNOS
The range of the Keltic blood is inordinately larger
than the range of the Keltic language : the former
being found, to a great extent, in the French parts of
France, and the English parts of England, and North
AraQfica.
THK BASK. 675
CHAPTER LXXXI.
The Bask, Basque, or Biscayan.
This is the language with which I conclude ; and
although it is a language which comes at the end
of a work which professes to have dealt with nearly
all the known forms of speech in the world, it is,
in the way of philological importance and interest, equal
to any two of the ones which have preceded it. That
this interest and importance arise, to a great extent, out
of the mystery with which it is enveloped, is easily
surmised.
No language stands so much alone as the Basque.
To a certain extent this is what we expect. In the
first place it is spoken on the side of the vast Atlantic
Ocean, with nothing nearer to it, due west, than the
languages of America, and with nothing nearer to it on
the south than the languages of Afiica ; for the Spanish,
a descendant of the Latin, must, in respect to its origin,
be looked upon simply as a language of Italy.
Nor is this all — Spain and Portugal constitute a
peninsula rather than an ordinary part of a continent ;
so that it is only on one side (a broad one no doubt)
with which it comes in contact with anything but the
speechless sea ; and that sea a sea of the extreme west.
More still — on few (if any) portions of the eai-th's
smface have the displacement and obliteration of what,
in an earlier period of the world's history, may have
been transitional forms, been greater. The Latin has, for
above two thousand years, been dominant in Spain. The
X X 2
676 THE BASK.
Latin ha.«, for more than fifteen hundred years, been
dominant in Gaul. Of the original languages of
Corsica and Sardinia nothing except what can be ob-
tained by minute trains of inferential instances exists.
Nor is the case very different when we go further.
Beyond the Slavonic, the Keltic, the German and the
Latin, what is there with which the Bask can, in the
first instance, at least, be compared ? To assume the
prior existence of a family or families of languages now
lost is to explain the ignotum per ignotius ; whilst (as
has just been stated) the Bask has on the west, tlie
south, and the east nothing but the sea. Many lan-
guages, such as those in the centre of a continent, have
what may be called quaquaversal aspects. Most lan-
guages have frontagers on two sides. The Bask never
had fi-ontagers except in one direction ; and in that
direction those frontagers have been displaced.
In all this we have real, material, external and
objective elements of mystery. The others are subjec-
tive ; i. e. they relate to our ignorance as it arises from
the neglect of our data rather than from the non-exist-
ence of the data themselves. Except for philological
purposes, the Bask has never been a language to com-
mand attention ; and for philological observation (unless
an exception can be made in their favour on account of
the researches of the Jesuits upon the rude languages of
such pagans as they either failed or succeeded in con-
verting to Christianity) the natives of the Spanish
peninsula have never been eminent.
That the Basks themselves should have studied their
language is what we expect ; but knowing how, until
lately, the Keltic tongues were studied by patriotic
amateurs in the way of philology, we are fully prepared
to find that they have done it with more zeal than
criticism.
Much of the Bask area is now covered by the philo-
logical descendants of the Latin. The Keltic, that pre-
THE BASK. 677
vailed in Gaul before the time of Caesar, although the
extent of its diffusion has been enormously overrated,
was, in Gaul and on the German fi'ontier at least,
an encroaching language ; so that, even if we should
have succeeded in reconstructing the original situs of
the languages before the time of Caesar, the recon-
struction of an earlier situs would still stand over.
Taking things, then, as we find them, the nearest
Keltic to the present Bask area is in Brittany, the
nearest German in French Flanders, and the nearest
Slavonic in Bohemia. The original extension of these
languages towards the south, the west, and south-west
no one knows in its details. Even its generalities are
a matter of surmise and inference.
In all this we find an approximate reason for the
great extent to which the Bask has been either sepa-
rated firom other languages or connected with the most
improbable ones.
The Fin hj^othesis, in the technical sense of the
term, and in opposition to the opinion of those who
have merely found Fin and Siberian coincidences with the
Bask, — the Fin hypothesis, which taught that not only
did the Kelts, the Germans, the Sarmatians, the Latins,
and the Greeks come fi-ora Asia, but that before their
advent into Europe there was a population of congeners
continuously spread over the whole continent from
Hammerfest to Gibraltar, of course, gave much import-
ance to the Basks ; giving them also their nearest exist-
ing kinsmen in Lapland, in Estonia, and in the Govern-
ment of Penza — the three points nearest to the Pyrenees
which are, at the present moment, occupied by Ugrians.
Little has come out of this beyond some incidental
assertions resting on an otiose belief in the doctrine.
At the same time, it is probable that, as far as there are
any positive opinions at all on the matter, they are
more or less connected with tlie Fin hypothesis. Nor
is this unnatural.
678 THE BASK.
Of the fifty-six words in Bonaparte's Specimen
Lexici Comparativi omnium Linguarum Europce-
arum the isolation of the Basque is most conspicuous ;
even after we have made due and full allowance for the
fact of its being the only member of its class. Herein —
The words like Spirit, Angel, Paradise, &c. are, as
is to be expected, Latin ; being which they may be
eliminated.
With the Latin, however, beyond these, there is no
Bask word in common. Nor yet with the Greek. Nor
yet with the German. Nor yet with the Keltic. Nor
yet with the Skipitar. There is nothing, in short, like
anything in Southern, Central, or Western Europe.
What is more legitimate than to look for them in the
parts beyond — at the outcrop, so to say, of the secondary
and later layers of j)opulations ?
With the Fin there are the following approxima-
tions : —
Englisli.
God
Thvmder
Night
Rain
Basque,
jainco
turmoi
gau
uri, euri
Ugrian.
jen, Zirianian
diermes, Lap
gi, jy, yogul
jor, Tsheremiss.
with the Slavonic the following :
English.
Bask.
Slavonic.
Lake
River
Ice
aintzira
errio (? Spanish)
lei
ezero
re'ka
led.
Tliis is little enough : nor do we find much more if
we look in a direction, first suggested (I believe) by
Leibnitz, viz. : towards Africa : where Semitic afiini-
ties, Berber afllnities, Egyptian afiinities have been
noticed. Of these the latter has commanded attention
from the remarkable coincidence it gives us in the names
for the numerals one, six and seven ; where accident and
borrowing seem to be equally out of the question. Add
THE BASK.
679
to these the words for evening and rain, and the Coptic,
the Fin affinities become about equal.
English.
Basque.
Coptic
English.
Basque.
Coptic.
Head
bnrua
afe
Fire
sua
klom
Hair
illea
bo
Water
ur
man
Eye
lieguia
bal
Rain
nri
eroon
Ear
belarria
maake
Cloud
odd
kloole
Nose
sudurra
sha
Earth
lur
kah
Mouth
al)oa
ro
Sea
itsaso
iom
Tongue
mingaiia
aspe
Bird
egastia
halet
Hand
escua
tot
Fish
arraya
tebt
Foot
oina
rat
Egg
arraultza
sooohi
Blood
odola
snab
Stone
arria
al
Bone
ezurra
kas
Tree
arrecha
khaf
Beard
bizarra
malt
One
bat
oaot
Day
egun
meri
Two
biga
snan
Night
gau
en.shi
Three
hiru
Bhomt
Sun
^azqui
ri
Four
laur
fto
Mo&n
illargui
iob
Fire
bortz
tioa
Star
izar
siou
Six
sei
sooa
Morning
goiz
atooni
Seven
zazpi
shashp
Evening
arrats
aronpi
Bight
zortzi
shmen
Shf
ceru
pe
Nine
bederatzi
psit
Wind
aiz
nibe
Ten
amar
met.
Amongst the other languages of Northern Africa, with
which the Bask could, with any likelihood of success, be
compared, I have foimd no more than is found in the
Coptic: and, recognizing the bare possibiUty of the
Alani, who, in conjunction with the Silingian Vandals,
invaded Spain in the fifth century, having introduced it,
I have brought even the Turk dialects within the range
of ray comparison ; finding as little as I expected. Still,
to some slight extent, the gi'ound has been cleared.
Tentavirnus hcec ne itei'wni tententur.
The African affinities, however, few as they are, create
a serious complication. They suggest the notion that
the Bask knguage is not in situ : a fact which cer-
tain speculations concerning the old Celteberians sup-
port ; these being to the efiect that the Keltic element
suggested by the name was the older, the Iberic, the
680 THE BASK.
newer : the Kelts being aborigines, the Iberians in-
trusive. Hence, even the important preliminary ques-
tion as to whether the Basque be the original language
of the peninsula can scarcely be considered as finally
settled ; though the significance of the old geographical
names therein is strongly in favour of it.
The exact geogTaphy of the Bask part of Spain gives
us the Caristi and Farduli as the most definite ancestors
of the present Biscayans and Navarrese. Roughly
speaking, however, the indomitable Cantabri are fair
representatives of the Old Bask spirit — the Cantabri
belonging to Asturias rather than Biscay ; in which
province, however, Bask is still spoken. But the whole
of Spain appears to have been what the north was ; at
any rate, the termination -ani, as in Carpetam, -uli, as
in Turduli, -bed, as in the Iduheda, Mons, and the Oros-
bedct Mons, are generally distributed. More characte-
ristic still are the names of towns ending in -gurris and
-beris, as Cala^urris and lUiberis : and, in a somewhat
less degree, the forms in -asc-, -ucca-, -br-, -murg-, -urc-,
-issa-, -hare-, -lambr-, as Mendascus, Morasgi, Verea-
succa, Artabrum, Lacomurgis, lUurco, Nebrissa, Uxa-
mabarca, and Flaviolarabris.
With the distribution of these we may compare that
of the Keltic elements. That the names for the River
Duria and the Mons Vinnius are the Keltic dwr and
pe7i is possible. If so, they are Keltic names for na-
tural objects : which none of the others are. There is
a town or two, like Sehendunum, in -dun, and, perhaps,
a few places in -mag : but, as a general rule, the Keltic
names are all of one sort — towns ending in -briga :
many of which have, for their first element, the name of
one of the Emperors, e. g. Augu.sto-hriga, Jnlisi-briga.
These look as if they represented military colonies, with
Gallic garrisons, rather than true Keltic localities — add
to which, that they are found sporadicjiUy and indiffe-
rently all over the peninsula. Whatever may have been
THE BASK. 681
the Keltic population of Celtiberia, all this is against its
havincr been aboriginal.
As to the area of the Bask in France, there is no
need to refine upon the statements which carry it
as far north as the Garonne, and as far west as the
Rhone. Clira6e/'/'i.s and lUiberis are decidedly Bask
names ; though they will not carry us very hi.
Individually, I think that (early though they show
themselves in history) the Kelts of both the Narbonensis
and Aquitania were intrusive ; and that (say) a thousand
years B.C. the Iberic and Slavonic frontiers touched at
some point between the Rhone and the Alps. If so,
the Keltic and Slavonic languages are the nearest con-
geners to the Bask which the sitv^ suggests — and they
are very distant.
Everything, in Bask, is an a/'fix, sw/fix, or post^,
rather than a preQx ; i. e. the inflection is the preposi-
tion incorporated with the theme, and the j; reposition is
a j>08f -position.
What is roughly called the declension runs thus : —
mendis = mountain
inendik = mountain
inendiz = mountain-hy
menditan = mountain-in
mendiri = 7nmmtain-to
mendiren = mountain-of
mendirekin = mountain-vnth
menditako = mountain-for
menditarik = mountain-from
menditarat = mountain-Urwards.
Insert a between the theme and affix, and it becomes
definite :- —
mendia = the mountain \ mendiartkin = the mountain-with.
It is clear that the number of possible cases is that of
the possible aflBxes. Some of these, however, express
notions which are so difierent fi-om those ordinarily
represented by the case-endings of other languages that
they are conveniently separated from the declension.
More than this, they can themselves be declined ; thus
fi-om handle: great, we get handiago zz greater, hci'ndi-
s1mgo-=a little greater, handMgi=:foo great, handisheri
■=.a little too great, all of which may take the endings
682 THE BASK.
in tan, rekin, tako, &lg., and comport themselves as
nominatives.
Like mendi are declined the personal pronouns, ni
= 1, gu=.we; niketin=zme-with; gurekinzzua-'witli ;
and, in like manner, hi zz. thou ; zu ■=. ye, &c.
In this way, too, are declined all the pronouns and
all the participles.
The possessive pronouns precede, the adjectives follow,
the substantive. The Basks say inea mater, but matres
bonce.
When a substantive and adjective agree and come
together the latter only is declined ; just as if we said
in Latin vir bonis instead of viris bonis.
The possessives — enia zz my or mine, guria = our,
&ic., seem to be little more than the pronoun plus the
letter a — the definite article if we choose to call it so :
indeed this, the postpositions, and the change from a to
e in the plural seem to be chief, if not the sole factors
in the declension Of course there is great regularity,
just as there is great regularity in English in the use of
to, by, on, &c.
After recognizing the difference between (say) voco
and vocito, let us extend it to many shades of difference
between many verbs. That this will give us the basis
of a number of moods and tenses is clear. But the
form itself is, if not a mood, like vocem, a mode. Let
it be called so, and instead of potentials, and subjectives,
we may have inchoatives, frequentatives, desideratives,
and what not? In this the Bask is rich.
Its deferential conjugation is another characteristic.
Deferential modes of address are at their maximum,
in the Oceanic languages : though found in either frag-
ments or rudiments elsewhere. What is our fiction of
treating the single person spoken to as two and saying,
you for thou but this ? . Still, for a European language
though in contact with the Spanish, the deferential style
in Bask is highly developed.
THE BASK. 683
The main dialects of the Modem Basque are (1) the
Biscayan ; (2) the Guipuscoan ; (3) the Labourd ; (4)
the Soule — the first two exclusively Spanish. How
they fall into sub-sections is seen from the following ex-
tracts of the apocryphal song of the Three Children,
from the Bonaparte repertorium of facts on those
points.
I.
Ordinary Biscayan.
1. Jannaren obra gnztiak, bedeinkatn egizue Jaana : alabau ta goztien
ganetik goratu egizne beti.
2. Jaunaren Angemak, bedeinkatn, &c.
3. Zeruak, bedeinkatn, &c.
4. Zemen ganean dagozan nr gnztiak, bedeinkatn, &c.
5. Jaunaren birtnte gnztiak, bedeinkatn, &c.
6. Egnzkia ta irargia, bedeinkatn, &c.
7. Zemko izarrah, bedeinkatn, &c.
8. Euri ta iiiontz gnztiak, bedeinkatn, &c.
9. Jaungoikoaren espiritu gnztiak, bedeinkatn, &c.
10. Sua ta beroa, bedeinkatn egizne, &c.
11. Otza ta beroa, bedeinkatn, &c.
12. Inofltzak eta znrdea, bedeinkatn, &c.
13. Leya ta otza, bedeinkatn, &c.
14. Karraldoa ta edurrah, bedeinkatu, &c.
15. Ghiwak eta egunak, bedeinkatu, &c.
Ochandian.
1. Jaunen obea guatijek, bedeinketn eisoku Janne : alabau da gnstijen
ganetik goratu eisube heti.
2. Jannen Angerubek, bedeinketn, &c.
3. Sembek, bedeinketn, &c.
4. Semben ganien daosan ur gustijek, bedeinketn, &c.
5. Jaunen birtnte gustijek, bedeinketn eisube, &e.
6. Eguskije da iretargije, bedeinketn, &c.
7. Semko iserrak, bedeinketn, &c.
8. Euri da inontz gustijek, bedeinketn, &c.
9. Jaungoikuen espiritu gustijek, bedeinketn, &c.
10. Sube da berue, bedeinketn, &c.
11. Otza da beme, bedeinketn, &c.
12. Iflontzak da surdie, bedeinketn, &c.
13. Leije da otza, bedeinketn, &c.
14. Leije da edurrek, bedeinketn, &c.
15. Ganbek da egunek, bedeinketn, &c.
Marquenese.
1. Jannaren obra guztijak, bedeinkatn ezignbe Janna : alnbau ta gnztige
ganetik goratu egizube beti, &c.
684 THE BASK.
2. Junnaren Aingerubak, bedeinkatu, &c.
3. Zenibak, bedeinkatu, &c.
4. Zeruben ganian dagozan ur gustijak, bedeinkatu, &c.
5. Jaunaren birtute guztijak, bedeinkatu, &c.
6. Eguzkija ta illargija, bedeinkatu, &c.
7. Zeruko izan-ak, bedeinkatu, &c.
8. Euri ta iflontz guztijak, bedeinkatu, &c.
9. Jaungoikuaren espiritu gustijak, bedeinkatu, &c.
10. Sube ta berua, bedeinkatu, &c.
11. Otza ta berua, bedeinkatu, &c.
12. Iruntzak eta intzien-a, bedeinkatu, &c.
13. lyotza ta otza, bedeinkatu, &c.
14. lyotza ta edurrak, bedeinkatu, &c.
15. Gabak eta egunak, bedeinkatu, &c.
II.
Guipuscoan {Central).
1. Jaunaren obra guztiyak, bedeinkatu ezazue Jauna, alabatu eta guztiyen
gafietik goratu ezazue beti.
2. Jaunaren Aingerubak, bedeinkatu, &c,
3. Zerubak, bedeinkatu, &c.
4. Zeruben ganian dauden ur guztiyak, bedeinkatu, &c.
6. Jaunaren birtute guztiyak, bedeinkatu, &c.
6. Eguzkiya ta illargiya, bedeinkatu, &c.
7. Zeruko izarrak, bedeinkatu, &c.
8. Euri eta intz guztiyak, bedeinkatu, &c.
9. Jaungoikuaren espiritu guztiyak, bedeinkatu, &c.
10. Suba eta berua, bedeinkatu, &c.
11. Otza ta berua, bedeinkatu, &c.
12. Intzak eta intziarra, bedeinkatu, &c.
13. Izoztea eta otza, bedeinkatu, &c.
14. Izotza eta elurrak, bedeinkatu, &c.
15. Gabak eta egunak, bedeinkatu, &c.
Guipuscoan (2).
1. Jaunaren obra guziak, bedeikatu ezazute Jauna : alabatu eta guzien
gafietik goratu ezazute beti.
2. Jaunaren Aingeruak, bedeikatu, &c.
3. Zeruak, bedeikatu, &c.
4. Zeruen ganean dauden ur guziak, bedeikatu, &c.
5. Jaunaren birtute guziok, bedeikatu, &c.
6. Eguzkia ta illargia, bedeikatu, &e.
7. Zeruko izarrak, bedeikatu, &c.
8. Euri eta intz guziak, bedeikatu, &c.
9. Jaungoikoaren espiritu guziak, bedeikatu, &c.
10. Sua eta beroa, bedeikatu, &c.
11. Otza ta beroa, bedeikatu, &c.
12. Intzak eta intziarra, bedeikatu, &<;.
THE BASK. 685
13. Izotza eta otza, bedeikatn, tee.
14. Orma eta elurrak, bedeikatn, &c.
15. Gauak eta egunak, bedeikatn, &c.
m.
upper Navarre (Baztana).
1. Yaunaren obra guziat, benedika, zazue Yauna: laada eta giizien ga-
netik goratu zazne beti.
2. Yaunaren Aingemak, benedika, &c.
3. Zemak, benedika, &c.
4. Zemen ganean dirin nr gnziak, benedika, &c.
5. Yaunaren birtute guziak, benedika, &c.
6. Iguzkia eta ilargia, benedika, &c.
7. Zeruko izarrak, benedika, &c.
8. Uri eta intz guziak, benedika, &c.
9. Yaungoikoaren izpiritu guziak, benedika, &c.
10. Sua eta beroa, benedika, &c.
11. Otza eta beroa, benedika, &c.
12. Intzak eta izotza, benedika, &c.
13. Izotza eta otza, benedika, &c.
14. Orma eta eturrah, benedika, &c.
15. Gravak eta eguanak, benedika, &c.
Laburtanian.
1. Yaunaren obra guziak, benedika zazue Yanna : laada eta ororen gain-
etek alcba zazue bethi.
2. Yaunaren Aingeruiak, benedika, &c.
3. Zeruah, benedika, &c.
4. Zeruen gainean diren ur guziak, benedika, &c.
5. Yaunaren berthute guziak, benedika, &c.
6. Iguzkia eta ilhargia, benedika, &c.
7. Zeruko izarrak, benedika, &c.
8. Uri eta ihintz gnziak and benedika, &c.
9. Yinkoaren iziritu guziak, benedika, &c.
10. San eta beroa, benedika, &c.
11. Hotza eta beroa, benedika, &c.
12. Nintzak eta izotza, benedika, &c.
13. Izotza eta hotza, benedika, &c.
14. Horma eta elhurrah, benedika, &c.
15. Granak eta egunak, benedika, &c.
Lower Navarre (Baigorres).
1. Yaunain obra guziak, beneika zazi. ZazT Yauna: landa eta oroin
gainetik alcha zazi bethi.
2. Yaunain Aingeriak, beneika, &c.
3. Zeriak, beneika, &c.
4. Zerien gainian diren ur guziak, beneika, &c.
5. Yaunain berthute guziak, beneika, &c.
6. Tuzkia eta ilhaigia, beneika, &c.
686 THE BASK.
7. Zeruko izzarak, beneika, &c.
8. Euri eta ihintz guziak, beneika, &c.
9. Yinkoain izpiritu guziak, beneika, &c.
10. Suya eta beroa, beneika, &c.
11. Hotza eta beroa, beneika, &c.
12. Ihintzak eta izotza, beneika, &c.
1 3. Izotza eta notza, beneika, &c.
14. Khairoina eta elhurrah, beneika, &c.
15. Ganak eta eunak, beneika, &c.
IV.
Lower Navarre {Mixe).
1. Yaunain obra giiziak benedika zazie yauna lauda eta oroin ganetik
aloha zazie bethi.
2. Yaunain Ainguriak, benedika, &c.
3. Zeriak, benedika, &c.
4. Zerien ganan dien un giiziak, benedika, &o.
5. Yaunain berthiite giiziak, benedika, &c.
6. Ekhia eta argizaitia, benedika, &c.
7. Zeriiko izarrak, benedika, &c.
8. Euri eta izarrihitz giiziak, benedika, &c.
9. Yinknain ispiritii guziak, benedika, &c.
10. Suya eta berua, benedika, &c.
11. Hotza eta berua, benedika, &c.
12. Izarriliitzak eta izotza, benedika, &c.
13. Izotza eta hotza, benedika, &c.
14. Kharrona eta elhurrah, benedika, &c.
15. Ganak eta egunak, benedika, &c.
Soule {French).
1. Jatinaren lanhegin giiziak, benedik' ezazie Jauna, lauda eta orotan
gainti alch' ezazie bethiere.
2. Jaunaren Aingiiriak benedik', &c.
3. Zeliak, benedik', &c.
4. Zelietan gaflendiren her guziak, benedik', &c.
5. Jaunaren berthiite giiziak, benedik', &c.
6. Ekhia eta argizazia, benedik', &c.
7. Zeliiko izarrah, benedik', &c.
8. Euri eta ihitz guziak benedik', &c.
9. Jinkuaren izpiritu giiziak, benedik', &c.
10. Suya eta berua, benedik', &c.
11. Hotza eta berua, benedik', &c.
12. Thitzak eta izotza, benedik, &c.
13. Kharruntia eta hotza, benedik, &c.
14. Kharruak eta elhiirrah, benedik, &c.
15. Gayak eta egiimak, benedik', &c.
Soule (Spanish).
1. Jeinaren obra guziah, benedika zazei Jeina ; alaba eta guzien gain-
etik aska zazei beti.
THE BASK. 687
2. Jeinaren Ainguriak, benedika, &c.
3. Zeuriak, benedika, &c.
4. Zeurien gainian danden ur gtmak, benedika, &c.
5. Jeinaren birtute guziak, benedika, &c.
6. Eguzkia eta argizagia, benedika, &c.
7. Zeitriko izarrak, benedika, &c.
8. Euri eta aguada guziak, benedika, &c.
9. Jangoikoaren espiritu guziak, benedika, &e.
10. Sua eta beroa, benedika, &c.
11. Otza eta beroa, benedika, &c.
12. Aguadak eta arrosoda, benedika, &c.
13. lyotza eta otza, benedika, &c.
14. Karroya eta elurrah, benedika, &c.
15. Gayak eta egtinak, benedika, &c.
Even with a reconstitution of its grammar the Bask
stands alone. It stands alone when all allowance has
been made for the effects of displacement and en-
croachment on its frontier. If in situ, it ought to be
nearer the Keltic and Slavonic than it is. If African,
it ought to be more Berber, Coptic, Hawsa, Sungai,
than it is. If introduced by the Phenicians (a bare pos-
sibility, but entertained as such in order to clear the
ground), it ought to be more Semitic than it is : and if
Scythian, introduced by the Alans (a barer possibility
still, but entertained for the same reason), it should be
more Tm^k than it is. As far as its grammar and pho-
nesis goes, it is, certainly, more Ugrian than aught else
— a fact which is, to some extent, in favour of the Fin
hypothesis, and against the views of the present writer.
Still, the Ugiians may possibly (though not probably)
have covered Western Europe, and, yet, left room for
the so-called Indo-European languages in the more cen-
tral parts. I do not hold this to have been the case.
I onl}' hold that such a primeval distribution of them
is compatible with the European origin of the European
languages. I admit any amount of more or less in the
question. I only hold that they were never in Bohemia,
Italy, Greece, and elsewhere, to exclusion of the Slaves,
Latins, and Gei-man from each and every part of the
wide districts west of the Daidanelles. The Fin hypo-
688 THE BASK.
thesis which requires all Europe for some population
anterior to the chief Europeans, and Asia as the home
and origin for them, is the Fin hypothesis I oppose.
With the present tendency of certain opinions among
the naturalists, opinions which recent speculations upon
recent facts have led to favour the claims of the genus
Homo to a high antiquity, it is scarcely superfluous
to say a little upon a question even more tran-
scendental than the Fin hypothesis. They suggest the
possibility of certain outlying members of our kind
having belonged to certain continents now under water.
One of these, or a part of one, was in the parts beyond
Spain. If so the Bask area may be the remains of a
vast Atlantic system, of which Madeira and the Azores
are fragments, belonging to the Miocene period.
If the language belong to this, it forms a class of
equal value with all the other languages of the world
put together. But the proper geological evidence of
mankind having existed at this period is wanting; so
that we had better confine our attention to an accurate
valuation of the peculiarities which have supplied the
text of the preceding overlengthy dissertation — pecu-
liarities which, great as they are, have possibly been
exaggerated. Not only may the Bask be liker to other
languages than it is considered, but other languages may
be liker to the Bask. A Greek grammar wliich made,
out of words like ovpdvoOev and ovpdvovhe, cases, (as,
upon Fin principles, it might,) would do something
towards an approximation. The differences that gram-
matical manipulation makes it may also unmake. Be-
fore this problem is thrown-up as insoluble let some
competent Slavonic and Keltic scholar consider what
may have been the condition of each of their respective
languages in an early period of the agglutinate stage,
and then compare it with the Bask.
GENERAL REMARKS. 689
CHAPTER LXXXII.
General Bemaiks upon the Indo-European Class.
Ix several of the preceding notices there is so much at
variance with the doctrines of the highest authorities
that the present chapter must, perforce, be, to a great
extent, purely critical : the points whereon the little
that our space allows an opportunity of writing being
four in number, viz. (1.) the value of the primary and
the subordinate groups; (2.) the European origin of
the Sanskrit ; (3.) the original area of the Slavonic ;
and (4.) the stage of the Keltic.
(1.) Of the outlying character of the Skipitar we
have a good measure in the fact of its having been, with
the doubtful exception of the Keltic, the last to be re-
cognized as Indo-European.
That the value of the classes is exactly what it is said
to be is scai'cely likely. Few such valuations run quite
on all fours. It is well, however, to indicate them ;
inasmuch as nothing is more productive of careless phi-
lology than the otiose belief that when once you have
got a class of languages it matters little whether one or
the other be the nearest congener of a third. It is held,
for instance, to be a serious error to treat the Sanskrit
at one time as if it were as much Greek as Latin, at
another as if it were as much Slavonic as German.
This class, like all others, arranges its members round
some common centre, and the nearer two languages are
T Y
690 GENERAL REMARKS.
to the two extremes the greater the difference between
them. In the present group it is the Slavonic lan-
guages which are the centre, from which the Greek and
German are, decidedly, more distant than the Latin and
the Sanskrit.
The magnitude of the group itself is involved in the
doctrine explicitly stated in the first chapter, that the
distance of groups from each other is determined by the
amount of the actual or hypothetical obliteration of the
transitional forms, and implicitly suggested, by almost
every page of the work, in the doctrine that, if it were
not for these obliterations, forms of speech would graduate
into each other. If so, it is clear that it is a mere waste of
power for one writer to circumscribe a class of languages
by means of a particular denomination, and for another
to show that some member of some other class has a
certain amount of affinities with it.
That this is done largely is true, and it is a pity that
it is as true as it is. Most of the so-called discoveries
and generalizations in Comparative Philology consist in
some one correcting an overdrawn distinction of some
one else's. Hence, it must create no surprise if we hear
that certain Asiatic languages have European character-
istics of an important kind. Their existence is not
denied. It is only asked whether they are numerous
enough to make (say) the Armenian or the Fin allied to
(say) the Slavonic or the Latin as those two languages
are to each other. If they fail in this they fail alto-
gether ; being merely facts in favour of the fundamental
unity of languages in general ; facts of great importance
in their proper place, but irrelevant in a question of
classification, where we deal not with mere affinities but
with affinities in their different degrees.
Those, however, who have not taken this view, have,
after making the Persian Sanskrit, made the Iron Persian,
and the Georgian Iron. Others have made the Malay
Indian : others, the Fin and Armenian, Indo-European
GENERAL REMARKS. 691
in general. All this (except in the eyes of those who
deny an aflfinity of any kind) is merely raising the
value of a class ; which is, in other words, merely alter-
ing the import of a term. This is legitimate enough,
provided that fair notice be given of exactly what is
done, and if any good come fi-om the change. All, how-
ever, that is, at present, apparent is, that if we take one
lancniafje into a criven class we must take its congeners
— and where this will end few know beforehand. The
persons of the verbs, especially in the first person, are
very permanent. They seem to have been adopted as
inflections early, and to have been kept long. They
occur in languages which, in other points, differ notably.
They are common to the Iron and the Armenian. If this
make those languages Indo-European, well and good.
But they also occur in the Lap. If this make the Lap
Indo-European, better still. But all Caucasus must
follow the Iron, and all Siberia the Lap. Then, with
the outliers of Caucasus, there are Tibetan, and with
the outliers of Siberia, American affinities. When are
we to stop ? Only when the whole world shall have
made one great class which has to be divided afresh.
But that is where we beoTin.
(2.) Of the European origin of the Sanskrit it is
held that enough was said when the presumptions
againsi the Asiatic origin of its undoubted European
congeners was stated. It showed where the onus pro-
handi lay.
Upon its value, however, as a language, much depends
upon the relation which it bears to the modem dialects
of India. If it be the mother-tongue of them it shares
with the Latin, the Greek, and the German, the merit of
giving us an older and a newer stage of growth ; and,
so doing, rivals those languages in value as a philological
datum. There are no reasons, a pricrri, why it should
not do this ; or rather (roughly speaking) the presump-
tions on each side are equal. The Sanskrit may have
Y Y 2
692 GENERAL REMARKS.
fixed itself in India as the Anglo-Saxon did in England.
Or it may have fixed itself only after the fasliion of the
Anglo-Norman. The actual fact must be determined by
examination.
A common way of speaking of the modern languages
of Northern India is to say that they contain nine out of
ten, eight out of ten, five out of ten, or any number out of
any other number, as the case may be, of Sanskrit words
— the maximum being in either the Hindi or Bengali,
the minimum in the Mahratta. This may or may not be
the case. The details, however, have never been given,
except in the way that the pedant of Hierocles gave the
details of his house by showing a brick. Say, however,
that the fact is, to a great extent, true. Nineteen-
twentieths would not prove a lineal descent unless the
field over which the induction extended were sufficiently
wide. An Englishman who goes through the letter A
in Johnson's dictionary scarcely finds one word in
fifty of Anglo-Saxon origin, though in B he finds a
preponderance of them, and in K a larger one.
Again, many of the comparisons are founded on the
translations of the Lord's Prayer, a series of sentences
which pre-eminently requires, in most rude languages,
exotic words. The real data lie in the unwritten local
dialects, of which we know little. Yet the more we
know of them the more we find them containisg ele-
ments other than Sanskrit.
Another assumption is, that everything (with few
exceptions) which is common to the Indian vernaculars
and the learned language is treated as if the borrowing
were all on one side — all on the side of the vernacular,
and nothing on the side of the learned, language. Yet
such is rarely the case. The only undoubted Sanskrit
elements are those whicli are Greek, Latin, Slavonic,
Lithuanic, or German as well. The others may or may
not be aboriginal. Some of them, in all probability,
are so.
1
GENERAL REMARKS. 693
In the matter of grammar, the reader of the present
work can, to some slight extent, judge for himself. If
he know French and Latin, let him compare the grammar
of the former language with that of the latter. Let
him see how they agree and how they differ ; let him
then compare the Sanskrit inflections with the Hindi or
Punjabi. Great as is the difference between the French
and Latin, the difference between the two Asiatic tongues
is greater. What likeness the Mahratta, &c., in the way
of grammar, bear to any languages at all, is borne to
languages in other quarters.
The relations of the Persian to the language of the
Achsemenian inscriptions are by no means the parallel
of the relations of the modern languages of India to the
Sanskrit. The Persian can be traced through the Parsi
to the Huzvaresh. Can the Huzvaresh be traced to the
Persepolitan ? The presumptions balance each other. If
the PersepoHtan can fairly be compared, a pAoH, with
the Anglo-Norman in England, it can also, a pi^onn, be
compared with the Anglo-Saxon. The result lies in the
details of the facts. On these, the writer has no means
of passing an opinion. L^pon the Sanskrit and its
Western origin he spoke, not as a scholar, but as a logi-
cian. In Persia, however, where there is less play for
for the antiquarian imagination than in India, there is
less to be condemned on merely general grounds.
Still, it is probable that those points of grammar
wherein the Persian is Indo-European are not the result
of Indo-European descent. They may be of the same
kind as the personal endings of the verbs in the Iron,
Fin, and Armenian, a fact which connects itself with
another, which wiU be noticed in the sequel. Mean-
while, the classification just suggested is the one which,
subject to correction, is adopted in the present volume.
Whether we deduced the Sanskrit from Asia or Europe
its aflinities with the languages of Armenia and the dis-
tricts around would be nearly the same. As an Asiatic
694 GENERAL REMARKS.
language it would touch them on its western, as a Euro-
pean one, on its eastern extremity. Hence, in either
case, we get a situs which supplies some affinities. One
of the difficulties in making the Persian Indo-European
lies in its relations to the Iron, which is essentially Dios-
curian — so much so that, on the strength of these very
affinities, Bopp makes the Georgian (which is, undoubtedly,
Dioscurian) Indo-European. This is but a different read-
ing of the same fact. To the fact itself it is very decided
evidence ; though, like many others, it proves too much.
To conclude : it by no means follows that, because
a writer doubts as to the modern languages of India
being of Sanskrit origin, he, therefore, makes them
Tamul. The fact of the Brahui being, at one and
the same time, Tamul in its affinities and Persian in
its locality, suggests the possibility of even the Tamul
family having been originally of foreign origin. Other
reasons suggest the doctrine that, at a very early
period, the congeners of the Himalayan languages
reached from the Ganges to Cape Comorin ; so that the
Sanskrit belongs to the third rather than the second
layer of languages introduced from without. This,
however, is a point which, in the present work, is only to
be taken as a suggestion. It is certain that, in many
respects, the Ghond, Khond, and Kol tongues are largely
Himalaj^an, Tibetan, Nepalese, or whatever the class to
which the languages of the northern frontier of India
belong, may be called.
(3.) That the early area of both the Lithuanians and
the Slaves was very different from what it is at present,
has been suggested. The limit of the Slavonic on the
south-west has not, however, been considered : the
original extent of the Keltic and German tongues east-
ward and southward being one of the preliminaries to
its consideration. I find no occasion for carrying either
the original Germans to the south of the Mayn or the
Iberians and Gauls much beyond the Rhone. On the con-
GENERAL REMARKS. 695
traiy, I find some reasons for believing that some Sla-
vonic form of speech of wliich the present Tshek is the
nearest existing representative extended both far to the
west and far to the south of the present Slavonic
fi'ontier.
Indeed, I carry it as far as Savoy ; the reasons for
which I hope to exhibit in some special monograph.
They lie chiefly in the Slavonic character of numerous
local names in the Alps : especially in the root l--ra-n zz
rock, and k-r =. boundai^y, which I hold to be the etjTnons
of the Val Camunica, Chamouni, Ingria, the Alpes
Graice and many other obscure names. These (two out
of many) are given as illustrations of the criticism
applied to the question rather than as anything which
can be mistaken for even approximate evidence.
(4.) The Keltic, in respect to its stage, I place in the
same class with the Ugrian, Sec, rather than in that of
the English and the French ; so that what are fragments
of inflection in the eyes of the best Keltic scholars are,
in mine, rudiments. That there are minute facts in
favour of the opposite opinion which I cannot deal with
ofi'hand, I admit. Still, under a general view of the
subject the main principles are these. There are a
few languages concerning the stage of which there
are doubts, and there are the modem descendants of
the Latin, the Greek, and the old German, of which
the advanced character is beyond doubt. With these
three we may begin as absolute and primary data, and
with no others. Will anyone, after a due consideration
of the real characteristics of the English, Frencb, Ro-
maic, Danish, and Swedish, say that they are to be
found in the Gaelic and British ? Let anyone gen-
eralize the differentice between a language in the fourth
and a language in the second stage, and he will know
what to answer.
*******
696
GENERAL REMARKS.
Albanian.
Lithuanic.
Slavonic.
Latin.
Greek.
English.
ffO
akis
oko
oculus
B^SaX/MS
Eye
yon
burn^
geba
OS
trre/ict
Mouth
i»gt
ranka
reka
manus
X^'i
Hand
(MX^t
barzda,
broda
barba
ruyuv
Beard
itr%
diena
dzien
dies
Hfit^a
Day
tart
naktis
noc
nox
vuE
Night
iitX
saule
stonce
sol
vXiot
Sun
x*»K*
menu
miesiac
luna
ffiXtim
Moon
iXt
zvaigzde
gviazda
Stella
«*'TJJJ
Star
(iiyyts
rytas
ranek
mane
flUS
Morning
ftT^lfH
vdkaras
wieczon
vesper
Kr-rt^os
Evening
xitX
dangus
nebo
ccelum
ou^avos
Sky
««»
vejas
viatr
ventus
avi/ios
Wind
ouyt
vandu
voda
aqua
vSai^
Water
Xi-re^^t
snegas
snieg
nix
X"»*
Snow
fiyn^EouXt
debesis
oblok
nubes
vt^iXn
Cloud
h
iieme
ziemia
terra
yn
EaHh
2tr
jures
morze
mare
iaXuiffa.
Sea
Zoxyou
pauksztis
ptak
avis
o^tis
Bird
^KTKOt
zuwik
ryba
pisus
'X^vs
Fish
yee^
akmu
kamiens
lapis
XiSos
Stone
Xnffffi
medis
drzewo
arbor
iiyo^n
Tree
va
vSnas
jeden
anus
lis
One
lu
da
dwa
duo
^vu
Two
ru
trys
try
tres
r^ia,
Three
xetrti
keturi
cztery
quatuor
rtrru^K
Pour
snn
penki
piec
quinque
irttTt
Five
ytetffrt
szeszi
szes'c
sex
|S
Six
errurt
B«ptyni
siedm
septem
itrra
Seven
Tin
asztuni
OS in
octo
OKTU
Eight
KSvJj
devyni
dziewiec
novem
ivvia
Nine
inrt
deszimtis
dziesiec
decern
Scx«
Ten.
Here the English column not only translates the
other languages, but stands as the representative of the
German group.
LAKGUAGE. 697
PART II.
CHAPTER I.
Language in General. — Stages.
Language begins with voice. The language of the
eyes is a mere metaphor. Gesticulation on the part of
men and women is mere mimesis. Movements on the
part of the lower animals, however much they may
express, are merely dumb show.
Language ends with voice. Written language, as a
genus of speech, is a misnomer. It is a mere record,
register, or representation ; and is as different from real
language as a portrait is from the pei-son who sat for it.
Whether every significant vocal sound be conveniently
called language is another question. If it be, laugliing,
crying, and groaning give us language. This, however,
may be disposed of by dividing language into articulate
and inadiculate.
As there is no reason to believe that the vocal sounds
uttered by the lower animals are destitute of significance,
we cannot deny to the great mass of air-breathing
animals an inarticulate, or, at least, an imperfectly articu-
late, language.
Every animal that can make its breathing heard can
make an approximation to the soimd of h. When it
does this by drawing-27i its breath there is an iTispira-
698 LANGUAGE IN GENERAL.
tion. When it does it by giving it out there is an exr
piratiou. H, then, though an articulate sound (inas-
much as it can be united with other sounds so as to
form syllables) is scarcely a vocal one. Its connection
is with respiration rather than language. It is common
to man and all the air-breathing animals.
Vocal sounds begin with the batrachians. Snakes can
litter hisses which are of the same degree of sonancy as
the letters which we call sharp or surd, i. e. the sounds
of ^, /, t, k and s. Sounds of the same degree of sonancy
as b, V, d, g and z they cannot utter ; though most of the
batrachians can. The other sounds to which the nearest
approach is made by the lower animals are those of
6, m, and n, by sheep, oxen, and horses, respectively.
They are those which require the least special aptitude
on the part of the tongue. The sounds of v, and /,
which require the contact of upper teeth and the under
lip, are harder. So are those of t and d, requiring a
delicate manipulation of the tongue and teeth.
The nearest approach to a true articulation, i. e. the
union of one elementary sound to another, is exhibited
in the mu and baa of oxen and sheep.
No animal has the command of two consonantal
sounds. No one articulates freely and distinctly.
Domestic animals have the greatest compass ; and it is
probable that this is due to the imitation of man, rather
than to any special organization. Parrots and starlings
confirm this position. The simiadse, which are Tiot do-
mesticated, approach man nearer in shape than voice.
Human language begins when the elementary sounds
are combined so as to form syllables ; in which case they
are not only articulate but articulated.
The case of syllables consisting of only a single sound
is, here, put out of the question. Indeed, etymologically
speaking, they are not syllables. In this case (a hypo-
thetical one) language consists of nothing but interjec-
tions : using the term with sufficient latitude to include
STAGES. 699
commands like go, vocatives like puss, and demonstra^
lives like lo !
A word maj' either coincide with the syllable, or
exceed it — i. e. it may be monosyllabic or other than
monosyllabic. That no word is unnecessarily long is
an inference d lyriori, suggested by the rule which
forbids us to multiply causes unnecessarily. The de-
duction from it, that all roots were originally monosyl-
labic, partakes of this a priw^ character ; and, although
it is, to a great extent, borne out by actual investigation,
it can scarcely be taken absolutely and applied indis-
criminately. In a rough way, however, and provision-
ally, most philologues, either consciously or unconsciously,
act on it.
Syntax, or the combination of words in a state of
mutual relation to each other, begins when out of two
or more words we deKver either a proposition or the
part of one.*
Agglutination begins when one of two words in a
syntactic relation to one another, is so subordinated to
its fellow that it undergoes a change in either form or
meaning — d foHiori, when it. does so in both.
To this it should be added that the change need not
be a change of its component articulate elements. It is
enough if it be a change of accent. Indeed, the change
of accent is, in many respects, the more important one of
the two. A word thus affected becomes enclitic. Hence
we may say that agglutination begins when one of two
words becomes enclitic or suffers any greater change than
that term implies.
* I think that the term Syntax may fairly be used here ; because, though
even when there are no inflections and no approach to them (so that the
phenomena of concord, government, and the like, are out of the question),
there is still the necessity for some Syntaxis or Arrangement. This, of
course, consists in the order in which the words follow each other, »". e. in
position. Without, then, pressing the term, I submit that, in a proposition
consisting of two or more words differently arranged, there is not only a
difference but a difference of what may conveniently be called Syntax.
700 STAGES.
When one word in a language is thus affected, the
language to which it belongs is, pro tanto, agglutinate,
and when all the words are thus affected, the whole lan-
guage becomes so. Between these two extremes there
is every intermediate degree. When, however, a notable
majority has thus presented the phenomenon of aggluti-
nation, the language, unless there are other reasons against
it, may be classed as Agglutinate.
Inflection begins when a word originally enclitic loses
its capability of being separated from its principal and
being presented in an isolated form.
When the word has not only lost its individuality, but
is so far transformed as to be incapable of being explained,
i. e. incapable of having its original form re-exhibited,
the inflectional character has taken the most decided
form it is capable of taking.
When one word in a language is thus affected, the
language to which it belongs is, ])ro tanto, inflectional ;
and when all the words are thus affected the whole lan-
guage becomes so. Between these two extremes there
is every intermediate degree. When, however, a
notable majority of words has thus presented the
phenomenon of non-individuality, the language itself,
unless there are reasons against it, may be classed as
Inflectional.
Inflections may be lost : the loss of them being
either pure and simple, or attended with the evolution
of some equivalent circumlocution. When one inflec-
tion is thus dropped, the language to which it belongs
has, jpro tanto, departed from its inflectional character,
and when all inflections are dropped, the whole lan-
guage has become something else. Some writers apply
the term analytic to this stage ; but there is no good
name for it. It is, however, the stage which the
English and French, as contrasted with the Anglo-
Saxon and the Latin, represent.
Simply considered with a view to their want of in-
LANGUAGES PROPAGATED BY IMITATION. 701
flection, lancniaores in their fourth resemble lancniacres in
their second stage. The resemblance, however, is only ap-
parent ; in other words, there is no such thing in language
as a true anamorphosis, i. e. a simple repetition of the
same forms. The prepositions and auxiliar verbs which, in
many cases, serve as equivalents to the ejected inflections,
are of a more general and abstract character than the
words used in the in&ncy of language. Again ; inflec-
tions often impress on the main word certain secondary
changes, which may remain as efiects after the inflection
out of which they originated has departed. The
difierence, however, between the fragments and the
rudiments of an inflection has already been noticed.
In whatever way language originated it is by
imitation that it is propagated. With the exception
of the cry uttered by the infant at birth, which is a
purely reflex action, and which is of the same kind
for infants of all nations and countries, with the addi-
tion of, perhaps, a few others, everything that is
uttered by the child is the effect of imitation. He
speaks as others speak about him, as he has heard them
speak, and as he strives to imitate them. Hence all
known philological phenomena are facts in the history
of the communication, reception, and representation of
language rather than facts in its birth, or origin.
They all assume a language as it is — ready-made and
previously existing. They are facts of transmission
rather than of aught else.
After a time, however, simple imitation ceases,
and differences between the speech of two or more
speakers develope themselves. Of that particular form
of his mother-tongue which any individual uses, the
speaker is thoroughly, and in every sense, the master.
He uses it as an instrument of his own. He uses
it as he uses his arms and legs ; to a great extent
unconsciously, but almost always instinctively. He
702 SPONTANEITY OF LANGUAGE.
cannot err in this, so long as he is "at one and the same
time, unconscious, spontaneous, and intelligible. If he
think about grammar, and, by so doing, modify its spon-
taneity, it is, pro tanto, a language influenced aliunde.
In all cases, however, it is the only language he under-
stands in full. As long as he speaks it simply from his
instincts, it is in good grammar ; being simply what he
makes it. What is called bad grammar is a detail in
which he differs from some one else who calls his form
of speech good grammar. This means that there is no
such a thing as bad grammar. For every apparent
solecism there is a reason. If it were not so, bad gram-
mar would be a force exerting itself as such. That
these reasons have been but imperfectly investigated is
true, and it is true that the imperfect investigation which
has neglected them so thoroughly passes for a good one,
as to have obscured the philological truth that whatever
is, is right. Such, however, is the fact : whatever comes
spontaneously comes naturally, and whatever comes
naturally is a growth which we must take as it comes,
and not regulate by any preconceived notions. The real
bad grammar is on the part of those grammarians who
venture to lay down rules for the representation of
language which they cannot complete, rather than on
that of the speakers. To cut down language to gram-
mar is to regulate faces by pictures of them.
The man who, instead of / am, says / are, so speaks
because the unconscious analogies which regulate his
expression suggest these words. What he does others
will do also. Of such as do so all that can be said is,
that they use a dialect which is limited to the illiterate ;
and, amongst them, only to those who are within the
range of a certain set of philological influences. Yet, if
these men formed a community by themselves in (say)
an island of the Pacific, and were visited by a mis-
sionary there, who formed his grammar solely on what
INCORRECTNESS OF QRASIMAR ONLY APPARENT. 703
he found, and, by forming such a grammar, had fixed
the language, the vulgarism would become classical ; for,
if the language stood quite alone, there would be no
means of seeing that (even in the eyes of the gram-
marian) it had once been what he would call wrong.
No one calls jeg er, bad Danish. Yet, word for word,
it is the English / are. In Danish, as in English, there
was the older form in -m ; and in Danish, as in
English, some one spoke what is called bad grammar
when he, for the first time, used the form in -r in its
stead. In Denmark, however, the so-called bad lan-
guage has prevailed, i. e. has become good.
But how was it that the bad preference set in ?
We cannot say. This, however, we can say — that it
was determined by the forces which determine the
growth of language ; and that, as a force, it is as
little to be condemned as the conservative force which
would have resisted it is to be praised. Each is simply
to be investigated ; in the neglect of which investigation
lies the real fault, whatever that may be.
It does not follow, however, from this, that there is
no such a thing as bad. grammar. The term has two
meanings. It signifies the actual representation of a
language, and the formal scheme of a language. Lan-
guage, as a fact, must be taken as it is, and represented
as it best may be. Nevertheless there is a standard by
which it must be measured. In one sense the words myself
and hi'niself are good English ; so good that men may
be laughed at for saying hisself. In another sense, one
of them must be wrong. If self mean exactly the same
in each compound, and if the two compounds stand in
exactly the same ratio to the pronouns / and Ae, and if
my and him be in decidedly difierent cases, there must be
something wrong somewhere ; the wrong being a formal
one.
The rule in English that two negatives make an
a^TTnative is, as a nile of language, absolutely incom-
704 INCORRECTNESS OP GRAMMAR ONLY APPARENT.
patible with the rule that duce aut plures negativce
apud Grcecoa vehementius negant, so long as we keep
the word negative to one precise signification. By
making the second negative, however, an expletive, by
ignoring it altogether, or by making it express, in some
vague manner, the mode of the negation, we can recon-
cile the two.
Again — ^whatever may be the origin of the sign of
the first person in verbs, it is beyond doubt that, in cer-
tain stages of certain languages, it was the equivalent to
the first personal pronoun as the name of the subject of
the proposition. This is what the -m in am is : just like
the -/Jit in elfjbl. When I a7)i, then, was first said there
was one of four things. The combination meant the I
which is is I ; or /, 7 am with emphasis ; or it was
a simple piece of tautology ; or the -m was entirely
merged in the a. So far as it was purely tautological,
it was (so far as grammar is formal) a paralogism. Yet
it was, and is, a fact in language ; and its evolution was
the effect of some philological force which it is the
business of philologues to elucidate. Anything short of
this, such as the mere condemnation of certain expres-
sions on the score of bad grammar, is only cutting
the knot when it ought to be undone. There is, doubt-
less, wrong somewhere ; but the language adopts the
wrong, and the language we must take as we find it :
in other words, the wrong rights itself. And this (if we
may speak in metaphors without coming under the
charge of haziness) is the fact. Wrongs in language
have a tendency to right themselves ; language itself
being, at one and the same time, in a state of unstable
equilibrium and incapable of disorganization.
Its primary function is to be a medium of com-
munication, and it is impossible to imagine any na-
tural change in it which is not regulated by the con-
ditions herein applied. Men and women may have
more or less to say according to the range of their wants
INCORRECTNESS OP GRAMMAR ONLY APPARENT. 705
and experience ; but if language, at all times and in all
places, stands in the same relation to its ideas as an
exponent, it is equally good as language. What certain
changes do is this — they modify the particular phases
of the language, and, so far as they do this, change its
individual character.
Lest this should be thought incompatible with the
acknowledged fact that languages differ from each other
in copiousness, harmony, and development of inflection ;
lest it should seem to cut at the root of the doctrine
implicit in much of what this work is intended to
convey, I guard against any misinterpretation of my
meaning by saying (what is, perhaps, superfluous) that
a language representing a high state of civilization is
one thing, the manner in wliich it represents it is
another. All that is here argued is that, given a
certain range of ideas on the part of the speakers, all
languages represent it with an equal degree of ade-
quateness — the relation of the language, as a medium
to the ideas represented, being constant. A picture of
a stunted idiot is as good, as a mere representation,
as the picture of equal artistic skill of a genius, an
athlete, or an Antinous. The matter alone differs.
The relation of the representation, supposing it always
to be adequate, (as it is held to be in the case of
language,) is the same.
z z
70 C CLASSES.
CHAPTER II.
On Classes, and affinity.
Observe, in the remarks upon the several stages in which
languages are to be found, the word classed. Roughly
and practically speaking, a language may be agglutinate
or inflectional, and yet, on the first view, cannot be
treated as such, without inconvenience. Such is the
case when it belongs to a large class, wherein its
congeners are in a different stage of development. It is
only, however, laxly and superficially that this exception
holds good. The real view is, that agglutination or
inflection, as the case may be, is to be treated as a
single character overbalanced by others. Some of the
Ugrian forms of speech exhibit this complication. Their
congeners are agglutinate, whereas, the Fin is (in the
eyes of many) at least sub-inflectional. Still the original
classification holds good ; inasmuch as we classify by
affinity, rather than form.
Languages, in other respects but distantly related,
may agree with each other by being in the same stage :
this being agreement without affinity. Languages,
on the other hand, closely connected with each other
in the way of descent, may be in different stages ; in
other words, languages are related to each other according
to the time at which they are either known or believed
to have diverged from some common stock.
Differences in the rate of change, complicate, without
altering, this principle.
How far physical conformation coincides with blood,
or descent, is another question ; a question that belongs to
CLASSES. 707
the ethnologist almost exclusively. It is a question upon
which many extreme opinions are afloat ; but it is not a
question upon which the study of language has any
direct bearing, though it is one upon which many
philologists have committed themselves.
Several of the writers who have done me the honour
of either adopting or disparaging my opinions have been
pleased to look upon me as an investigator who lays
undue value upon the evidence of language as a test of
ethnological affinity. Having written on philology
before I touched the study of medicine, I may, many
years ago, have held opinions that justify this view. I
am not, however, aware of having ever expressed them
in any published work, or, indeed, of having entertained
them at all for upwards of twenty years. In all works on
ethnology, philology must preponderate ; simply becjiuse
the facts of language are numerous, definite, and, above
all, capable of being studied anywhere and at all times,
at first, or second, hand ; in the closet, or museum, as
well as in the country or open field. But identity
of language is, at the most, only a presumption in
favour of identity of blood. Being this, it must stand
as an important test — a provisional test no doubt ;
but, still, as a test that is satisfactory and valid so long
a 3 nothing is brought against it. It fits, however, but
loosely.
It is clear that changes in the physical conformation
of a population of sjjeakers and changes in the language
they speak may go on at difierent rates. A thousand
years may pass over two nations undoubtedly of the
same origin, and which were, at the beginning of those
thousand years, of the same complexion, form, and lan-
guage.
At the end of those thousand years there shall be
a difierence. On the one the language shall have changed
rapidly, the physical structure slowly. On the other
the physical conformation shall have been modified by a
z z 2
708 CLASSES.
quick succession of external influences, whilst the lan-
guage shall have stayed as it was.
With an assumed, or proved, original identity on each
side, the difference in the rate of action on the part of
the difierent influences is the key to the discrepancies
between the two tests. The language may remaiu in
statu quo, whilst the hair, complexion, and bones change ;
or the hair, complexion, and osteology may remain in
statu quo, whilst the language changes.
Apparently this leaves matters in an unsatisfactory
condition ; in a way which allows the ethnologist any
amount of assumption he chooses. Apparently it does
so ; but it does so in appearance only. In reality we
have ways and means of determining which of the two
changes is the likelier.
We know what modifies /orm. Change of latitude,
climate, sea-level, conditions of subsistence, conditions of
clothing, &;c., do this ; all (or nearly all) such changes
being physical.
We know, too (though in a less degree), what modifies
language. New wants gratified by objects with new
names, new ideas requiring new terms, increased inter-
course between man and man, tribe and tribe, nation
and nation, island and island, oasis and oasis, country
and country, do this. It is our business to learn from
history what does all this.
In the assumption of an original continuity (running
tlirough the whole of this book, thougli subject to
correction from new facts) of allied forms of speech
there is, doubtless, hypothesis ; and in the doctrine of
the obliteration of intermediate forms and the outcrop
of affinities there is hypothesis also. How much ?
In the facts themselves none. The hypothetical element,
such as it is, lies in the application of them. For
the French, Italian, and Spanish, the former is a
matter of history. It has gone on to some extent
already. To some extent it is going on before our
CLASSES. 709
eyes at the present time. In like manner, the out-
crops of the Fin languages, which lie in fragments
like islands in a Russian sea (as aforesaid), are simple
facts — without an atom of hj^othesis in them. The
nearest congener of A is not the contiguous B but dis-
tant C. It accounts, then, for something. The present
writer makes it account for much ; perhaps for too
much. Let those who differ with him, then, take ex-
ceptions to his several applications in detail, each on the
merits of the particular case; not to the primary fact.
The primary fact with a partial application is a truism.
How far it extends is a case of more or less.
Coincidence is an actual fact in more parts of the
world than one. As a general rule, however, neither
the phonesis of a language, nor the stage of its develop-
ment, are of much value in a question of relationship
— at any rate, they are not of primary importance.
Neither is the character of the grammatical structure.
Of two nations closely allied the one may prefer prefixes
to postfixes, whilst the other uses the postfix rather than
the prefix ; or, again, two languages may agree in
preferring prefixes which agree in little else. In the
way of generalizing the phonetic and ideologic character
of large groups of languages much good work has been
done. For the investigation, however, of affinities a
great deal of it is out of place. It is only to a certain,
though, doubtless, to a considerable, degree that languages
genealogically allied are also in the same stage of de-
velopment. This means that no single character is worth
much.
We may have, however, likeness without a cor-
responding affinity. Some thousand years hence, when
the differences between the Enghsh of America and of
Australia wiU have notably increased, the genitive cases in
-s may still exist. Their history will be known. Tiiey
will be known to have existed in the mother tongue at
the time of the division of the languages, and that as signs
710 SCHEMATIC FORMS.
of the genitive case. They will, therefore, represent
an inflection ready-made in or before the nineteenth
century : facts which will amply account for their ex-
istence elsewhere and at a later period. Tliey might,
however, represent something else. It might be that all
that the Australians on their part, and the Americans, on
theirs, took with them from their mother-country was a
series of uninflected substantives, a short word of which
the letter s was the main element with a meaning
akin to the meaning of the inflectional s, and a tendency
to combine the two. In this case the combination it-
self would have been effected within each of the two
countries at a period subsequent to the division from the
mother-tongue, and independently, as far as the combi-
nation went, of the mother-tongue itself.
But it was not so : as the critics of the time in pros-
pect will know from history. It was not so ; for the
inflection was part and parcel of the paradigms and
scheme of the mother-tongue. Let us call an inflec-
tion of this kind — imported rather than developed —
sdiematic.
Schematic inflections tell us that the languages in
which they appear broke off from the mother-tongue
during a stage of its development sufficiently advanced
to be, pj'O tanto, at least, inflectional.
With the other alternative the case is different, and
separation took place during a stage of which all that
can be said is, that a tendency to inflection existed, and
that the elements out of which it was evolved along
with the tendency to combine them, existed also. This
stage was, of course, an earlier one.
Nevertheless, a separation during the inflectional stage
is simulated.
This is no hypothetical case ; on the contrary, it is a
real one. Tlie root of the Latin se, the so-called reflec-
tive pronoun, is common to the Norse and Lithuanian
languages. It is common to many other forms of
ISOMORPHISM. 711
speech besides ; but these two are the only ones now
under notice. The Lithuanians append it in the way of
an agglutination to the verb, making thereby an ap-
proximation to a reflective, or middle, voice. The Scan-
dinavians did the same. They did more. Within the
historical period we have seen this same reflective pro-
noun (1.) as a full appendage like Ivcdla sikrzcall him-
self; (2.) as a modified appendage, kallasc ; (3.) as
halhxst, applying to all three persons, and meaning not
only call himself, but adl one's self, call thyself, call
myself, call ourselves, yourselves, and themselves ; (4.)
as kallas and kalles, in which forms it is treated
both in Danish and Swedish as an ordinary passive
voice. Now, if it were not for the older forms we
might never have known all this ; and if it were not
for the known newness of its origin, we might fancy
that it originated at a period when the mother-
tongues of the Norse and Lithuanian were one. We
might, also, entertain the notable blunder that, as it is
wanting in the allied languages of Germany and Eng-
land, it is the fragment of a fiill inflection once pos-
sessed by the whole class.
Let the Lithuanian and Norse middles be called
isomorphic.
If isomorphic combinations be something less as signs
of aflmity than schematic the forms which we are
about to call isomeric are somewhat less than isomor-
phic. In Norse and Rumanyo the article is post-posi-
tional, i. e. the former language has mand = rnan, and
mand-en-=.the man, whilst the latter has omozzman
and om-id^the man. The Norse -en is hin, the Ruman-
yo -I- is ille, each being the pronoun of the third person.
Here, though the words difier, the logical elements of
the combination are the same. This, in logic, is the
parallel to isomorphism. It will never be true isomor-
phism ; but always run parallel with it ; isoTiiorphism
h eing inchoative, possible, or contingent schematism.
712 CLASSES.
But in order to have either isomerism or isomorphism,
full and perfect, we must take cognizance of the logical
import of the fundamental, as well as of the appended or
sub-inflectional, element : inasmuch as it is not only a
possible, but a highly probable, phenomenon in language
that the same process may give a different result. Let a
word be doubled. The result will be different accord-
ing as the word itself is the name of a substance or an
action. I say nfian man or heat heat where the parts
in combination are the same ; or, rather, where there is
only one part made two by doubling or gemination.
But we can see our way to the results being dif-
ferent. The former may come out the equivalent to
avOpcoTTot, i. e. a plural number. The latter may come
out an equivalent to rerv^a. In each case we can see
our way to the ideas associated. In the first it is that
of repetition, pure and simple, which gives a plural at
once. In the latter there is the notion not only of
repetition, but of repetition combined with continuance,
in which idea of continuance that of past time is
implicit in the idea of the connection between a
beginning and an end. Let this element preponderate,
and we have a perfect tense, i. e. a tense combining a past
with a present meaning. But in order for this to be
possible the notion of time must be implicit in the word
doubled, i. e. it must be a verb.
AlfALYSIS AND SYNTHESia 71 S
CHAPTER III.
Analytic and Synthetic View of Methods. — Origin of Derivatives and of
Koots — of derived Forms, Yoice, &c.
The difference between Analysis and Synthesis, which
is good in so many departments of inquiry is pre-
eminently good in Comparative Philology. Each has
its own proper ground ; each illustrates its own definite
portion of the subject ; each requires appropriate
aptitudes and appropriate knowledge on the part of
the investigator.
Analysis, taking language as it finds it, is glad to
find it in as advanced a condition as possible ; every
element of complexity giving it fi-esh details in the way
of material. Its special fields are languages like the
English and French with such others as approach thera
in character. These it traces back to the Anglo-Saxon
and Latin ; and, beginning at the latest, and working
back to the earliest, known point, gets its results. In
this all those etymologies which deal with both secondary
forms and secondary meanings find their application.
So does all the excellent information concerning letter-
changes and the like.
Synthesis has its basis in psychology and logic,
rather than in proper philology. It strives at a picture
of the earliest form of the earliest language, and asks
how, by addition after addition, it has become complex.
It is to a great extent a pHori in its arguments : yet
not wholly so ; indeed, it would be an unsafe method
if it were. It owes much to the analytical method,
714 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS.
and is, to a great extent, dependent on it. If we
wish to know what language was at first there is no
better way of learning than by beginning at the end,
and by eliminating such elements of which the com-
paratively recent origin can be shown, to come to an
approximation of the simplicity of its original form.
Still, the two methods begin at different ends of the
subject, and require different aptitudes and different
masses of information. Synthesis is deduction based
on previous induction.
Respecting each, there are two facts of primary im-
portance ; which are these — each method covers a certain
amount of ground, and each leaves an enormous amount
of ground uncovered ; neither do the two combined,
when we consider the width of the field, cover much.
Yet there is no third method.
The view taken in the preceding pages was syn-
thetic, i. e. it began with the earliest stage of lan-
guage and went on to the latest. Yet the other might
just as easily have been taken, and I might, after writing
on the English or the French of the present year, have
asked what it was out of which they were developed,
and then what it was which preceded — so going back-
wards instead of forwards.
A competent inquirer should be able to take either
line as occasion requires ; the advantages which the
one has over the other, being dificrent under difier-
ent circumstances ; just as it is in chemistry and else-
where.
Let us apply this. The palmary problems in Com-
parative Philology are two, and two only — the me-
chanism of derivative forms (especially the inflections)
and the origin of roots. Everything else is subordinate
and auxiliary to these two main questions. Whether all
the points concerning them will ever be solved is another
matter. It is only certain that they give us the summa
genera of the inquiry. What do we know about them ?
ANALYSIS AND SYNTUESIS. 715
How far are we on the right road for discovering them ?
It is enough, for the present, to state that the analytic
method does the most for the one, the synthetic method
the most for the other, department.
The mechanism of derivatives most especially appeals
to the analytic method for elucidation. The very fact
of a secondary form, or a secondary meaning, implies
this.
It is consequently worked from the scholastic, rather
than the logical, side ; and deals most especially with
languages of which we have the longest history and the
most stages. Practically, it draws half its facts from
the Latin and its derivativ&s.
Hence, the order in which the primary divisions of
the facts which are now coming under notice are ex-
hibited is the reverse of that in which they are exhibited
in the general outline.
1. Roots are what we began with. They are what
the sequel will end with.
2. Then come those modifications of the root which
give such differences as those between ^Xeya and (f>\e<ye0(a,
voco and vocito, &c., modifications which do not affect, or
only indirectly affect, the inflections. These give us
what is called crude forms or themes — which may, how-
ever, as they often are, be limited to the distinct root.
The so-called frequentative, inchoative, causal, diminutive,
and other modifications, belong to this class.
3. Thirdly comes modification in the way of Accidence
or Inflection. As the ordinary Accidents of the current
grammar contain something more than true and proper
inflections, this class, like the last, is not strictly defined.
As the error, however, is on the side of comprehension, it
is excusable. Useless as they are for investigation of the
phenomena of growth and development in language, such
terms as Voice, Mood, Tense, &c., are such familiar, tan-
gible, and definite terms that, with all the exceptions
which lie against them, they will determine the extent
of the class -. thoui^h it is clear that the -im in words
716 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS.
like injimus, the -er in words like miserrimus, are
as little inflectional as the -it- in vocito. I admire,
then, rather than imitate, the boldness of one of tlie
ablest living philologues, Schleicher, who, in his Lithu-
anic grammar, has ejected them from the category in
which he places the case-endings of Nouns and the per-
sons and tenses of Verbs — recognizing comparative and
superlative degrees, only so far as they agree with the
positive in its signs of Case, Number, and Gender,
the true accidents of nouns.
The boundary in each of these classes is uncertain.
Many elements which seem to be adjuncts may really
be radical. More elements, apparently radical, will
really, when more carefully studied, prove adjuncts.
The class of Diminutives more especially simulate
radical forms ; but the refined investigations of Key
and others have put many of them in their true light.
The question most especially connected with this class of
words is the formation of Decomposites, or words con-
taining more superadded elements than one. Are these
elements ever added at once ? In the earlier stages of
languages, though the matter is difficult to prove, No.
In the later stages the compound affixes are common,
witness the number of words which, in the present Eng-
lish, end in -ally, where the adjective ends in -ic. Many
a man has said characteristically without having recog-
nized such a form as characteristical.
Of inflections, the separable ones are the simplest.
In many words, however, as in domin-ce, a single sound
expresses case, number, and gender at once.
To begin with the simpler forms. In the Greek
perfects the reduplication gives us a part of the original
as a prefix. Here we have a secondary element without
a second word to evolve it from. The same is the case
with the Malay orang orang = men.
Again, tip difi'ers from top, without any second word
to give the difference.
That these exceptions are not universally allowed is
INFLECTIOXS. 71 7
probable. Whether any one hold that reTU^a =r TeTV</)a
rervcpa (a true reduplication in fxill) I cannot say.
That many hold that changes like tip and top are
secondary results is beyond doubt. No fact is more
certain than that many additions effect a chanofe in
the contiguous syllables, and that the addition may
drop off whilst the change remains. Such, indeed,
is the case with our own perfects, which were once,
like the Greek, reduplications with a change of
vowel. The reduplication is lost ; the changed vowel
remains. That this explains many apparently simple
changes of vowels is certain. How many it explains
is another question.
Let us call this accommodatian. It is of two kinds.
Sometimes the vowel of the theme is accommodated to
the vowel of the addition. Sometimes the vowel of
the addition is accommodated to the vowel of the theme.
Again, the addition may be either a prefix or an aflSx ;
so that the change may be effected from the beginning
and proceed forwards, or from the end and proceed
backwards.
Sometimes the vowel may be wholly elided ; in which
case there is the actual dislocation of the syllables.
Again, the consonant may be changed, as it is in the
Keltic and other inflections.
All these processes are factors in numerous important
changes of words ; and, as a general rule, each is more
especially affected by some languages than by others.
But they are only factors — not principles.
Subject to exceptions of the kind indicated, I believe
that it is now the current doctrine that all modifica-
tions in the form of words are the result of secondary
changes, and that derivation is only composition in
disguise. If so, the disguise must be taken away.
I begin with the verbs.
In many of these the agglutination is simply a
matter of histoiy. In combinations like the English
718 INFLECTIONS.
can't, and the Scotch canna, the negative has lost its
original form.
In the Italian parlero=I shall speak, the analysis is
parlare + ho=.I have to speak.
Even in a language in the stage of the Sanskrit the
future is the verb plus the auxiliary am.
1. Srasht-<?s/n?', 1. Sraslit-(ls»ias.
2. Srasht-dsi. 2. Srasht-dstha.
Equivalent to the Latin
1. Creabo. 1. Creabimus.
2. Creabis. 2. Creabitis.
In the Greek passives, i. e. the true ones for the
Aorist (all the rest being middles with a passive power),
the addition is that of the same auxiliar; the power
of the original word being participial.
In catch'em and thank'ee the name of the object is
incorporated with that of the action by which it is
affected ; these expressions though vulgar being real, and
the independent existence of the pronominal elements
being concealed by the fact of their amalgamation.
Grammarians, it must be allowed, have not admitted
these forms into their grammars ; but that is merely
because their grammars only partially represent the
language. In the Italian, similar amalgamations are
recognized — indeed greater and more complex ones —
such as darmilo = give it me, where the object con-
veyed as well as the object to which it is made over is
named. In many rude languages these facts are
noted ; and, when this is done, pass for peculiarities.
They merely show that the principles of language are
general; the practice of grammarians partial, irregular,
and inconsistent.
The formation of much which is called voice is
equally agglutinate; so much so that it can scarcely be
called an inflection.
The combination of a term denoting" an action with
IJs'FLECTIOXS. 7 1 9
a term denoting the object which that action effects is
sufficiently common ; though its great prevalence in cer-
tain rude languages has been treated as if it were a com-
parative rarity elsewhere. The ordinary reflective con-
struction, however, supplies its elements — which in the
French places the pronoun before, in the Italian after,
the verb.
Let us apply this to voice. When two out of the
three i-eflective pronouns, thus brought into contact
with the governing verb, have not only been super-
seded by the third, but have become so far incorporated
with the word expressive of the action as to have lost
their independent form, the result is a middle voice.
A man who heats or washes himself is beaten or
washed, and, on the strength of this fact, middles be-
come passives. The palmary illustrations of this, as
may be anticipated, are to be found in the Norse
languages. Here sik-zzsezisdf, in its original the
equivalent of /iir>iself, Agj-self, or fA^/tselves, From
an extension to ones-self it proceeds to represent
myself, thyself, ourselves, and yourselves, just like
e and even eavrov in Greek. This gives, in the oldest
Norwegian of Norway, from kallazzcall, kalla-se^
call ones-self, raysdf, thyself, &c. ; wherein the change
is limited to the elimination of the i. In the Icelandic
of the same period the form is generall}' (though not al-
ways) -st : the sense being more middle than passive :
thus, whilst hann var Tiafnadr means he was called,
hann nefdist means he gave as his name, or called
himself
In modern Swedish and Danish the t is lost ; and
words like Tcallas in the one language, and kalles in the
other, are treated as simple passives, just like vocor, or
amor.
The languages just referred to give some interesting
examples of the reciprocal, or doubly-reflective, power of
720 INFLECTION OF VERBS.
these forms in -st, such as osttustzz. fight one another, drepiz
= kill one another, and which, in a later stage, give us
such words as vi slas, vi brottas, vi modes, vi skilles,
Szc. ■=. we fight, we wrestle, we meet, vje part, &c., isomeric,
and, indeed (with the difference of arrangement), iso-
morphic with the French se hattre, se quereller, &c.
This gives us certain, perhaps all, deponents.
The nearest known approximation to a true series of
passive, rather than middle, verbs is that given by the
Aorist Passive in Greek, where 6-Ty</> O-tjv, e-TV(j>-0-7]s,
€ TV(f>-$7}, TV(l)-0 r)TL, TV(f)-0ei,7)V, TVCp-d-O), and TV(f>-0-7jVai,
shew a verb plus the participle of the substantive
verb, i. e. the addition of 7]v, rjs, rjn, cltjv, o), and etvai.
Concerning passives not accounted for by either of
the preceding two methods I have nothing definite to
suggest.
The general nature, however, of the participle, along
with that of the infinitive (the two forms wherein the
verb passes into the noun or vice versa), demands
notice, since it breaks down the distinction between the
noun and the verb.
Infinitives are verbs in respect to what they mean,
but Substantives in every other respect. They are
names of actions with abstraction of the agent. In
this respect they comport them like words like
redness. They are names, though not concrete ones ;
being the names of substances with single attributes.
All we know of a runner, when we know not
whether it be a man or a horse, or what it is, is,
that it runs ; and all that we know of running is,
that it is the act of a runner. This act may take
place in past, present, or future time ; so that Infinitives
are susceptible of what is called Tense. It may also be
an act on the part of one who is more noted for what
is done to him than what he does ; so that voice is one
of these accidents.
INFLECTION OF VERBS. 721
These actions may be either singular or plural, or
even dual; two acts of running, or a hundred acts of
running, being just as intelligible as one ; besides which,
they may have the same relations in the way of space
that a tov:n or a house may have, i. e. we may go
towards such or such an action or come from it.[
In one sense the Infinitive is susceptible of Gender,
though not in the way that a Participle is so. The
gender of a Participle is that of the agent. This for an
Infinitive is as impossible as it is for an ordinary vei'b ;
inasmuch as such gender us full verbs are supposed, in
some cases, to possess, is only the gender of their parti-
ciple. But the kind of gender which makes gladius
masculine and hasta feminine may make the same dis-
tinction between two kinds of actions. The Greek In-
finitives ai-e all neuter ; but, logically, they might just
as well be masculine or feminine, as may be seen from
the way in which they are translated into Latin.
Though TO /At<retv = odiu7n, to ^^oi/efi/ = invidia.
Of person, however, ex vi termini, they are essen-
tially destitute ; person being the character of the agent
fi:om which they are abstracted, or changing the expres-
sion, which is abstracted from them.
All this is made plain by reference to those languages
which contain true verbal abstracts, one of them being
our own. Cleansing, fi-om the Anglo-Saxon cleansung,
is simply a substantive of the feminine gender.
Whether we can think the import of words like
^aTnLo-drjvai, ^e^ainiaOai, &c., exactly as it was
thought by an ancient Greek, is uncertain ; and it is
even more uncertain, from the fact of his having no
experience of such recent forms as our own, whether an
ancient Greek could think the import of such a phrase
as to have been dipped exactly like an Englishman. It
is only certain that both expressions are substantially
one ; and we can talk of wishing to have been dipped^
just as we can of wishing for a dipping.
3 A
722 INFLECTION OF VERBS.
It is not by accident that Gender and Number,
though possible inflections of an Infinitive Verb, are
either rare or non-existent.
For gender the great determinant, viz. the difference
of real or supposed sex on the part of the agent is
■wholly wanting ; all that remains being the hypothetical
or conventional gender of the action.
In respect to number, we must remember that even
in words like redness plurality is an exceptional pheno-
menon. Abstracts are essentially one and indivisible ;
so that such plurals as we have, are, in the very strictest
sense of the word, no abstracts at all. We can only
talk of rednesses when we mean either two different
shades of red, in which we really have two abstracts so
much alike as not to be distinguished, or the reds of
two different concrete substances, in which we have an
abstract with a substance in the background.
In respect to what they mean, participles, like infini-
tives, are verbs ; except that, instead of being actual
names of actions, they are words which suggest an action
and denote an agent ; whereas infinitives, whilst they
only suggest the agent, denote the action. Hence, the
participle has voice and tense to about the same extent as
the Infinitive ; but case, number, and gender to a much
greater. In all these it follows the substantive, towards
which it comports itself like an ordinary adjective. As
to Mood, the Infinitive is one ; the Participle being with-
out it — or rather, being, in some sense, a mood itself.
Have participles Persons ? I know of no lan-
guage wherein the participle, preceded by a pronoun
of the first person, has a different form from a participle
preceded by a pronoun of the second, or a participle
attended by a pronoun of the second person from a par-
ticiple attended by one of the third. At the same time
there is no logical reason against such a concord. From
this point of view, participles converted into tenses, by
losing their auxiliaries, cease to be participles.
INFLECTION OF VERBS. 723
The participle of the middle voice seems to have
arisen late, and to have been lost early ; such being the
inference from the Greek rinrrofievos and the Latin
regimini, amamini, &c. ; these last, though nominally
persons plural being really for the second person plural
just what rerv/iiievoL (eia-i) is for certain third persons
in Greek. In Latin, however, they have lost their auxi-
liary, and exist only as fragments of a participial in-
flection— fragments unless we prefer to consider them as
rudiments.
In these, as well as in rvrrTo/Mevoi, with which they
are isomorphic, the sign of the participle (v) follows the
sign of the voice (fi) ; so that rv-mofievos is newer than
Tinrrofiai.
Passives like rv^Oeis are merely participles upon a
participle, just hke havhuj been in English. Whether
Tv^deis or €Tv<f)07]v be the older form, is not the present
question. It is certain that TV(f>-6- is the basis of both.
In the Middle voice, then, the participle is later than
the tenses and the persons, whilst in the Passive it pre-
cedes them. Indeed, it is (as has been stated) the only
element which is truly and primarily passive. As for the
V in TUTTTOfievos it is active, being part of a word de-
noting an action, in which the complementary noun is
both the name of the agent and the person suggested aa
the object. I am not aware of any successful or even
plausible attempt at isolating any participial element and
even guessing at what it was as an independent word.
The contrast between the r in rv^Oeis and the n in
stricken is remarkable. In languages like our own,
where the Passive Participles stand either alone or ^dth-
out any such agglutinate passives, as €TV(f:0'r}v, &c. in
paradigm with them, there is the perplexing fact of
such connections as they have at all, being Active.
Form for form svjum and burnt, the i^oLssive participles
are identical with swum and buimt, the cuctive preterites.
In an earlier stage of our language there was a differ-
3 A 2
724 THE PERSONS OF VERBS.
ence, and whilst the participles were svjuminen and
bcerned, the preterites were svjummon, swumme or
swam, and bcernde. Even this, however, is but a slight
distinction.
Participles by losing their auxiliars simulate tenses —
often tenses with gender. But, then, as before stated,
they are something more than participles.
Now comes a short notice of the Persons. Many
grammarians have suggested that the signs of the
persons in the verb might be neither more nor less than
the personal pronouns appended, in the first instance,
to the verb, but, afterwards, amalgamated or incorporated
with it. Mr. Garnett, however, observed that the ap-
pended pronoun was not so much the personal as the
possessive one : that the analysis of a word like inqua-Tti
was not so much, say + 1, as saying + my ; in short,
that the verb was a noun, and the pronoun either an
adjective (like Tneus) or an oblique case (like mei),
agreeing with, or governed by, it.
It is certainly so in some cases. The Magyars, in-
stead of saying my apple, thy apple, say what is equi-
valent to apple-TYi, apple-th, Sue. ; i. e. they append the
possessive pronoun to the substantive, and, by modifying
its form, partially incorporate or amalgamate it. They
do more than this. They do precisely the same with
the verbs in their personal, as they do with the nouns
in their possessive, relations. Hence, olvas-om, &c., is
less / read than my reading ; less 7'ead + 1, than read-
ing + my.
(10
Olvas— om = I read z= reading -my.
od = thou readest ^ reading-thy.
uk = toe read = reading-our.
atok ^ ye read = reading-your.
(2.)
A]mk — m = my apple = apple-my.
d = thy ajiple = apple-thy.
• nk = our apple = apple-oitr.
tok = your apple = app>le-your.
\
THE ARTICLE. 725
From the verb, I pass to the Article. If we look to
the derivation of the word aHicle= joint, it suggests
nothing more than one word so united, or articulated,
with another as to have lost its own separate existence.
Such is the case with a which is an, an being ane or
one. Without a substantive it is nothing : though one
is a separate and separable word. The same is the Ciise
with the, which is a derivative of the root of this and
that. Yet it only exists as a prefix : however nmch its
congeners may exist as separate terms. Some years back
I found no added to the list of English articles, and, at
once, admitted that it was one. I have since added eveify.
None of these words can exist without a substantive of
which they are a concomitant part — separable, inasmuch
as the substantive can exist without them ; separable,
inasmuch as they are full words in the matter of pro-
nounceability ; but inseparable, inasmuch as when away
from their noun, they are only words in posse.
All these words are pronominal in origin, and they are
all recognized articles. They form a natural class, inas-
much as they ai"e the terms which play an important
part in Logic. They convey the notions of quantity or
its absence, of definitude or its opposite. They are a
natural class : but it does not foUow from this that they
constitute the whole of the gi'oup to which the terra
article may apply. Nothing in the etymology of the
names conveys this. All that the etymology requires is
their non-independent character. It does not even
limit them to nouns, still less to pronouns. When the
so-called possessive pronouns, instead of constituting a
whole term (as in mine is here, this is mine), form only
a part of one, they change their form, and are just as
articular in their construction as the, a, no, and every. We
say my, thy, our, your, their, or her — horse, but no one
says this horse is my, or this hat is thy. When the
article becomes post-positive it becomes a recognized
inflection ; pre-eminently agglutinate in its origin.
726 THE" ARTICLE,
Certain participles simulate (we may say become)
tenses. Cases may simulate (or become) adjectives.
Cujum is a neuter of cujus, word for word, koIov ;
which in Greek is treated as an actual adjective. Let a
case denote a quality (and, in the Fin, cases do so) and it
may take the gender of its substantive ; in other words,
agree with, instead of being governed by, it. Which
is the case is a mere point of grammatical phraseology.
Wallis calls man's in a man's hat an adjective. It is,
and it is not.
The above shows that parts of speech grow out of
parts of speech, and accidents out of accidents ; yet
little or nothing has been done towards even getting
to the fundamental inflection.
This alone implies a great deal of work as a mere
preliminary to the origin of the primary agglutination.
That all the preceding examples of inflection reduced
to agglutination are in reality no cases of inflection is
an objection easily made ; and it is one which the
author admits. When all inflections have been analyzed
and reduced, our phraseology may require alteration.
The present notices are based on the current language
of grammarians as it is found. How far a higher phi-
lology than the present will recognize the present gram-
matical nomenclature, no man can tell. For two sets,
however, of languages, — for languages in the most ad-
vanced, and languages in the most rudimentary, stage —
they are, for the most part, useless or something worse.
Numher in some cases arose out of reduplication.
The following from a rude African language, the
Tumali, is a suggestive instance of another origin : —
Ngi = /. Ngi-n-de = we.
Ngo = thou. Ngo-n-da ^ ye,
Ngu = he. Nge-n-da =■ they.
Da = loith.
Me-cum = me.
The da (or tie) in the second column, is the sign of
CASES WITH GENDER. 727
the plural number. It is also the preposition imth. Now
imth denotes association, association plurality. Hence
Ngi-n-de = 7 -f-,^ ice.
Ngo-n-da = thou +, = ye.
Nge-n-da = ke +> = '^^•
This is just as if the Latins, instead of nos and vos,
said ine-cum and te-cum.
Such are some selected instances out of those recog-
nized inflections which can be traced back to acrglutina-
tion. Strictly speaking, indeed, they are not so much
inflections as agglutinate forms in a language otherwise
inflectional.
728 SUBSTANCE AND ATTRIBUTE.
CHAPTER IT.
Roots. — Attributes and Substances.
Here we begin with the difference between the Attri-
bute and the Substance.
A yellowish, round, sapid, fragrant object, in a certain
place, of a certain size, and one in number, provided
it have other characters as well, is an orange. Its
colour, its roundness, its sapidity, its fragrance, its place,
its size, and the fact of its being of a certain number,
are so many attributes. The complex of these gives us
a substance ; such as the orange under notice, and many
millions of other objects besides are known to be. Let
us, however, strip it of its attributes one by one, with-
out replacing them by fresh ones. If we begin with its
place, the 'matter is easy. It is abolished at once. It
is not in its old, and, by our hypothesis, we find it no
new, one. It is nowhere, i. e. non-existent. Let tliis,
however, pass. When one after one all the attributes,
even to the very last, have disappeared, what remains ?
This is easier asked than answered. All we need know
at present is, that attributes are single, and that (with
one exception, which has no bearing upon our present in-
quiries) substances are complex. These last are the result
of a certain number of attributes combined. I do not
say that by dint of profound thought in the higher
regions of metaphysics this complex character on the
part of substances may not be done away with, and
that with all their multiplicity of attributes they may not
be reduced to unity. They may be looked upon as forms,
SUBSTANCE AND ATTRIBUTE. 729
ideas, or archetypes ; or they may be looked upon as
bonds of union, or nexus (iiexusaes), by which the attri-
butes are held together. For inquiries, however, like the
present, a substance which is other than a complex of
attributes is impossible. So much follows from the dis-
tinction that the reader's attention is especially directed
to it.
More important than the fact that metaphysicians can
give unity to a substance is the fact that the language
itself does so. It names many of them as if they were
the simplest of the simple. Orange is as simple a name
as fragrant, and it is older than orange-coloured. A
pebble is hard, round, smooth, and heavy, yet no one
knowingly calls it the hard, the smooth, the hea,vy,
or the round. Still less do they call it by a name
which implies hardness, smoothness, heaviness, and
roundness all at once. Yet, without more than one of
some such attributes it is no pebble ; and without more
than one of some attributes or other no substance is
what it is. They are all complex : yet most of them are
named as if they were simple. I leave this for the pre-
sent, and, for the sake of impressing the fact on the at-
tention of the reader, I call it a philological paradox; of
course, in preparation for an attempt at an explanation.
Attributes fall into two primary divisions ; (1 .) Attri-
butes of Quality, (2.) Attributes of Relation. Attributes
of Quality tell us what an object is in itself and- with-
out relation to other objects around it ; and are charac-
terized by being tixed, permanent, or invariable in mean-
ing, and inconvertible in respect to their application.
Red and luhite apply to colour : siueet and hitter to
tastes, and what they mean in the mouth of one
speaker they mean in the mouth of all others
also. Contrast with these such words as / and thou.
The first means the speaker, whoever he may be ; the
second the pereon spoken to ; and if ten different persons
address ten different persons in succession, each word
730 QUALITY AND RELATION.
means ten different individuals. The same with this and
that. Talk of two balls at different distances, and
change their relative places, and tlcis becomes that, and
mce versa. In short, attributes of relations give
convertil)le terms, terms of which the import is only
temporary ; and which may mean men, horses, stones,
and what not, ad infinitum, and in succession.
Another difference between attributes of Quality and
Attributes of Relation is that, while the former can form,
by themselves, only the predicates of propositions, the
latter can form both subjects and predicates. Thus we
can say —
The fire is hot.
but not
Hot is fire.
If we do, we either use hot for heat, or hot thing^ or
else transpose the order of the terms. Meanwhile we
can say —
This is fire.
These are hot.
This is in favour of the division being natural. Indeed,
it is not only natural, but generally acknowledged.
As to the grounds of this difference of power as
measured by the part which the two classes of words
play in propositions, they are sufficiently patent. Hot
means nothing, except so far as it applies to some object
endowed with heat ; and what this object is no one
knows without being told. With words like this and
that it is different. They are never used except when
the object to which they apply, either from having been
mentioned before, or from being within sight (perhaps
within touch), is already known. For this they are,
simply, not a qualifying word, but another name — tem-
porary and ephemeral indeed, and, except so far as they
are interpreted aliunde, obscure, but still neither more
nor less than a second name. If John Smith says " I,"
QUALITY AND RELATION. 731
he knows well enougrh who he means, and so does the
man whom he addressed as you.
Words Hke red and hitter are no true names, but
only words suggestive of names. Words like / and
this are, if not true names, their equivalents in every-
thing but steadiness of application. In grammar they
comport themselves as names.
Attributes of Quality fall into two divisions, which,
though they graduate into one another on their confines,
are sufficiently distinct when we take extreme, or even
medium, instances. In the one, the words express con-
ditions rather than actions, in the other actions, rather
than conditions. The sun is round gives us an instance
of the first ; the sun is scorching of the second. Be-
tween, however, the sun is shining and tJie sun is
bright the difierence is comparatively slight.
Attributes of Relation do the same. /, thou, he, this,
that, convey Relation in the limited sense of the terra.
One, tvjo, three, and the other numerals convey the attri-
bute of Quotiety, or Howmanyness.
Quantity, as applied to mass, comes between the two
primar}- classes. To the question. What is the size of Lake
Superior ? we may answer, either as large as Yorkshire,
or so many square miles ; according as we betake our-
selves to mass or numbei's.
It is because terms like this, &c., are terms of Re-
lation, Relations being changeable, that they are con-
vertible ; and it is because they are explained by some-
thincr within either the context or the actual range of
the speakers' senses that they can be used by them-
selves. The two properties are connected, and their con-
nection makes the division natural. This, however, is
not all. Words like me, thou, this and that must be
among the oldest of the languages. More than this.
They are words that play an important part in the
secondary formations — constituting, as we have seen.
732 QUALITY AND RELATION.
articles, and the personal affixes of verbs, to a certainty
— and, probably, much more.
A rose, besides being fragrant, and endowed with a
certain form, is red, in other words, besides possessing
certain other qualities, it has that of redness. The idea
of redness by itself, I get by neglecting the other quali-
ties and contemplating that of redness only. I may
also get it by drawing off and throwing aside all the
other qualities until redness alone is left, which I take
as a residuum. In either case I get redness. If I do
this without connecting it with any other substance,
such as a boiled lobster or a soldier's coat, I get redness
jper se. In the first case, I get it as an abstract proper,
by having selected it from so many other qualities, and
drawn it off. Here it is an abstract properly so called ;
inasmuch as the process that gave it was one which
made it an abstractum — i. e. a thing drawn off. In
the other, as far as the result obtained is the test, it is
just the same : only the name abstract is less proper.
The result is a relict, or thing left, rather than an ab-
stract proper. The result is the same (redness per se, or
redness without any particular thing to which it be-
longs) ; but the process in the first instance is one of
selection ; in the second one of exhaustion. If the
logicians, who have most to do with the distinction,
find it necessary, they will distinguish between the two
when the distinction is needed. Meanwhile, let it be
neglected.
Abstracts of the kind in question are common, and
very intelligible. We know how to make them. We
do it in English by adding -tJi, or -oiess, as in length and
happiness. The basis is an adjective ; and there is no
doubt as to what an adjective is. The only question is
whether an abstract term is the name of a substance
or an attribute. It is the name of an attribute and it
is not. It is the name of an attribute, inasmuch as it is
QUALITY AND RELATION. 733
a name which arises out of red, which is undoubtedly
attributive : and it is not the name of any red object,
inasmuch as it is an abstract solely and wholly on the
ground of its being separated from any object and from
all. It is also the name of a substance, and it is not.
If qualities be substances, the name of a quality is the
name of a substance also. In fact it is substantive with-
out being concrete : and herein lies its peculiarity. As
a general rule, substances are substances because they
give a concretion of attributes. An abstract, however,
must be looked upon as a substance with a single attri-
bute. These may exist, like as corporations sole, or
corporations consisting of a single individual, may exist.
In this view I diflfer from so high an authority as JSIr.
Mill, who states that abstracts are the names of attri-
butes. Is he prepared to deny that a name is a sub-
stance ? I admit that the vast extent to which concretes
and substances coincide (a fact upon which no one builds
more than myself) makes substances with single attri-
butes no better than concretes — concretes which have no
greater content and extent than an abstraction — and that
it reduces the doctrine just propounded to a veiy near
approximation to a philological fiction ; and I also admit
that for the question which Mr, Mill has to deal with,
his own definition may, possibly, be the right one. I
insist, however, that in philology substances with single
attributes must be recognized. In the way of declen-
sion length and redness, with their genitive cases and
plural numbers, are substantives, if not substantial.
I urge, then, the doctrine for philology only : and
even here I admit that, when we talk of length and
redness in the plural number, the pure abstract idea is
relinquished, and that we mean sorts, kinds, or varieties
of redness, rather than the indefinite unity suggested
by the pure abstract itself Substances, then, with
single attributes, are admitted laxly, exceptionally, and
734 QUALITY AND RELATION.
as philological fictions. They are admitted laxly, because
in some of the substantival forms the strict abstract
meaning is departed from ; exceptionally, because there
are not many of them ; by a philological fiction and
partially, because it may be that it is only in philology
that their recognition is required.
Perhaps, considering the fact that it is only in their
being attributes and units that the rudimentary words
of which the origin has just been investigated, agree
with the true abstracts of the logician, too much has
been written upon them. Still, the extent to which
extremes meet may have been worth the time spent
upon its elucidation. More than this. The opposite to
the abstract of the logician is concrete , and, though the
former term is a word which is of no great use in the
infancy of a language, the latter is a very convenient
one. Having no ambition to introduce new words
before the things to which they are applied are familiar,
I have kept the one where it is not wanted for the sake
of its fellow whicli is. I may add that, according to a
doctrine exhibited by myself elsewhere, concrete is, in
respect to its probable etymology, a term of doubtful
propriety for its new use. I have, elsewhere, derived it
from cerno, and connected it with discrete. The present
use, however, goes upon the common notion that it
comes from cresco, and means grown together. Hence,
I use it because it is convenient, rather than because it
is unexceptionable.
Again — I shall use it in a wider sense than it has
hitherto been used in.
In logic, the term red in redness is the name of an
attribute taken by itself, i. e. as (as has been stated) a
term in the abstract — red in the abstract.
The same word as applied to one of the numerous
attributes of which the complexus give us the substan-
tive name rose, or blood, is red in the concrete.
QUALITY AND RELATION. 735
In the eighteeenth century we take a substance and
by analysis, decomposition, or disintegration of its con-
cretions, pick out the abstract.
For (say) the year 1 of human speech, we attempt to
reverse the process, and beginning with a single attri-
bute, by a process of synthesis or construction, consider
the conditions under which it can be made to form a
concretion which shall constitute a substance. The sim-
ple reversal of the process tells us what to do. We have
to add to it just so many other attributes as, in a later
stage of language, we took away. The orange which we
made into no orange by subtraction, we make into an
orange by adding, to any one of its attributes, the remain-
der or complement. Doing this, we get a long compound ;
as long, perhaps, as the long word in Aristophanes. Or, I
should rather say, that we should get this if we wasted
our time on the process : for a waste of time it most cer-
tainly would be. Substances, in the way of name, were
not built up by a mere reversal of the process by which
they can be pulled down. How were they ? Was there
a system of short-hand, by which every name of an at-
tribute had its most essential element taken out and
combined with a similar element from the attributes of
the complement ? There might have been this in Laputa
amongst a body of philosophers. Was there a long
series of names in the mind of the first speakers which
were given to the objects around them as occasion de-
manded ? Upon sufficient testimony we might believe
this ; but it is scai'cely the doctrine at which we arrive
by inference. Were names given, as a man might put
a mark on a door, either drawing a figure haphazard, or
after mature deliberation as to which was the best suited
for the purpose ? Upon sufficient testimony, we might
believe this, as we believe upon sufficient testimony even
the most incredible statements (if we do not believe them
the testimony is insufficient) ; but we shall not get at it
by inference. We may safely pretermit all such supposi-
736 QUALITY AND RELATION.
tions as these : adding, with unfeigned reverence, that
until inference has been exhausted we should not have
recourse to intervention from above ; or rather we should
say that if this cutting of the knot be our first step,
scientific inquiry is out of place, and the problem is
either no problem at all, or an historical, rather than an
inferential one.
Attributes are essentially simple, and the names of, at
least, the primary attributes are simple also. Substances
are essentially complex ; yet the names of them are fully
as simple as, and, in some cases, simpler than those of
the attributes. Both classes, as far as the names go,
equally give us the names of unities.
I submit, then, that in the name of a substance, the
denotation of its complex of attributes cannot, at one
and the same time, be simple and significant ; mean-
ing by significant, being in the category of those names
of attributes which will soon come under notice, i. e.
capable of being reduced to some intelligible connection
between the speaker and the environment.
If redness, which is a substantive, be a name, red,
which is an adjective, is not one. It suggests redness.
It applies to a red object. But it is something different
from each. Like all adjectives (and every adjective has
either its real or its possible abstract) it is a word which
suggests a name, but which is, itself, no name. Mr.
Mill, with whom I again unwillingly differ, treats it as
a name. But, surely, name is a correlative word, and
wherever there is one, there is a thing named. But
there is no such thing as a red ; or, if there be one, the
fact of its existence makes red a substantive. I write,
however, again as a philologue. The question is one as
to the definition of the word name, and there is no ne-
cessity for its being the same in philology and logic.
In philology we must understand most distinctly that
adjectives are words suggestive of names rather than
names themselves, and that abstracts are the names of
EARLIEST NOTION OF ATTRIBUTES. 737
substantives with a single attribute — if necessary we
may (fictionally and exceptionally) call them concretes
without concretion.
Whatever they are, they are mentioned at the present
time, not because they are made much of, but because
they are neglected, or even ignored. They are noted as
exceptions, to be got rid of for the sake of clearing the
ground. They belong to the later stages of language,
and what is now under notice are the earlier ones. They
are all derivatives ; and what we are now considering
is roots.
You may get an actual building-stone by picking
one out of a ready-made castle : but you may also get a
building stone in posse from the first quarry you meet
with. With this, as an illustration for the difference
between what may be got in the way of a simple
element from a thing constructed and a thing in the
process of construction, let us turn to the opposite end
of our inquiry, and ask how far an abstract can be got
from a language under a course of formation.
As far as it is attributive it can certainly be obtained.
Whether it can be got as the name of an attribute is
another question. The date of our inquiry is, perhaps,
too early for names. A child burnt by putting his
hands too near a stove in a dark room, or dazzled by
opening his awakening eyes to the burning sun, has
certain sensations, and these sensations are referable
to the attributes of heat and light. He has an im-
pression. His expression in the lowest form is a scream
or a whimper. If it go further, and an attempt be
made to communicate his feelings to a second person, a
name is approached. Never mind how imperfectly ; it
is the attribute which has suggested it — the attribute
by which the feeling was created. Of the other attributes
connected with the cause he takes no cocrnizance : so
that the cause, though his elders know it to be substan-
tial, is simply attributive. In other words, his intellect
3 B
738 EARLIEST NOTION OP ATTRIBUTES.
has taken cognizance of nothing, and all that his senses
have perceived is an attribute. As he grows older he
knows that suns and fires do something else besides
burning and dazzling, and that other objects, besides
fires and suns, dazzle and burn. Hence, he separates
them, and understands why they have different names
accordingly. This, however, is knowing them as sub-
stances. So long as he knows nothing of them but
their respective heats and lights he knows nothing but
attributes.
Say that this attribute has a name — is that name an
abstraction ? It is, and it is not ! Etymologically, it
is not. Though pure and simple, it is got out of no
analysis, decomposition, or disintegration. It is got
neither by selection nor exhaustion. It belongs to the
rudiments instead of the climax of language : to the
infancy rather than the manhood of the mind ; to the
senses rather than the intellect. It can only be called
an abstraction, for want of a better name, and a better
name will, doubtless, be got for it when needed. Never-
theless, it is attributive, and it is a unity ; and in this
way the extremes meet.
The notions of any one who writes upon cases like
this must, perforce, be obscure and vague. The simple
fact of his being able to write at all removes him from
that state of mind in which alone they approach dis-
tinctness. And in this state of mind no cognizance can
be taken of them. Savages, children, and the men and
women who lived when language was in its embryo, alone
felt them ; though, feeling them, they could not think
upon tliem. Hard as it is for a Papuan to compass a
modern abstraction, it is nearl}^ as hard for a German or
an Englishman to understand tliese rudimentary abstracts
of our nonage. Wliat we know about them belongs
to that inferential kind of knowledge which we have
in all purely psychological inquiries ; inquiries in which
the subject examined is itself the conductor of the exa-
EARLIEST NOTION OF ATTRIBUTES. 739
mination. Nay, it is harder. It should be com-
pared with the investigator scrutinizing himself as a
child.
Three facts, however, concerning what we may call
these representative abstractions, with all our ignorance,
we do know.
1st. — That they are simple.
2nd. — That they strike the senses and excite the
emotions rather than the intellect.
3rd. — ^That between impressions on the senses, and
the external expression of them, there is always a con-
ceivable, and often an intelligible, relation.
And these facts are of paramount importance.
Of the first two propositions no further notice will be
taken at present. Upon the third there is something to
be said. Between simple sensations and the emotions in
their extreme form there is a broad difference : little,
however, on the confines of the two. We must prepare,
then, for transitional phenomena, a debateable land, and
a doubtful boundary. I shall put down to the account
of simple sense all cases where the feeling is one of
neither pleasure nor pain, neither satisfaction nor dis-
satisfaction. Where there is an element of the latter it
will give an emotion : and anything that implies a
wish (either directly or indirectly conveyed) for change
will pass as emotional. This will be carried so far that
a man's pointing-out to something (whether he want it
or not) providing he does so with an indistinct feeling
that he is trying to make himself underetood, will be
considered as a man desiring something — i. e. as a man
unsatisfied in some point.
Tlie very simplest, even the n on -articulate utterances
in this way have characteristics enough to make them the
representatives of a class : for groans and screams agree
in being independent of imitation and independent of
memor}^. A certain stimulus provokes a certain sound,
even when that sound has not been uttered before ; or,
3 B 2
740 ANALOGY OP IMPRESSIONS.
if uttered, forgotten. That the emotions give us those
inarticulate sounds which are imperfect imitations of
articulate ones is clear. They also give us our inter-
jections. But this is little. I claim for them, however,
another class of words which is an important one. I
submit that when we point out anything with (say) the
finger, and at the same time utter a word, the word so
uttered is the result of a definite consensus between
the tongue and the hand. I can not only easily conceive
that, when the hand goes forward, the tongue does the
same, but I am sure, from examinations in the field of
actual language, that such is sometimes the case.
"We now go to the next class : and begin with purel}'-
imitative sounds. As long as these are inarticulate they
are unimportant. They grow into importance when
they become articulate and representative, or (as, availing
myself of the difference of language which gives us the
distinction between a botanist and a florist, I shall call
them) mimetic. Hum, buzz, whizz, fizz are the types
of this class ; some of them, as mew for the noise of a
cat, tictac for that of a watch, being nearly imitative.
Herein the word is a sound addressed to the organ of
hearing, and is the result of an impression made on the
same organ ; the expression and impression being homo-
geneous. But what if they be heterogeneous ?
There is a well-known statement, which has done some
service in its time, that Cheselden couched a man for a
cataract, who on seeing a piece of scarlet cloth said it
was like the sound of a trumpet. Whether he really
said what he thought, whether Cheselden said that he
said so, whether the fact were true, are matters of in-
difference. All that is needed is the fact that every one
who mett j with the anecdote sees (to use a common ex-
pression) that there is something in it. We can under-
stand the man thinking so. We can fancy that we
might ourselves, in the same situation, have said the
same, and that we should not have said so of a puce-
ANALOGY OF IMPRESSIONS. 741
coloured piece of silk ; any more than we should have
compared the blind man's piece of scarlet to the murmur
of a rivulet. One, to be sure, was a colour and the
other a sound. For all that there was an analogy.
Now, if this fact were the only one of the kind under
notice, it would explain something ; however little. It
would tell us how the man who had developed a word
for the sound of a trumpet upon the principle that he
had called the sound from a bee-hive a huTti would, mu-
tatis mutandis, use an equivalent expression upon seeing
something very bright and very red.
That biologists can carry this train of reasoning
further than it has been dreamt of being caiTied I
believe, and with them I leave the question — to return
to a distinction between attributes of quality and
attributes of relation, which is one of primary im-
portance. Attributes of quality, the moment they take
part in the formation of a substance, however simple
that substance may be, are always more than one in
number ; whereas attributes of relation, however com-
plex, heterogeneous, and numerous may be the elements
of which the substance which they help to build-up
consists, are, in number, one, and no more than one.
A stone considered as a stone has weight, or some other
quality, 2)Ius something else. A stone considered as this
or that has nothing but its thisness or tliatness.
Yet this and that are its names. They may be its
names for a moment only, disappearing or changing
when the relations of the stone to the speaker are
altered ; but, for the time, they are names ; temporary
names, convertible names, variable names, non-essential
names, equivocal names if we like to call them so—
but still names. AU relations, however, end (or begin)
with the speaker : so that in relational names there is
what we may call an egoist element ; i. e. every relational
name has either a direct or an indirect connection with
the person who uses it. With /, or Tne, this is plain ;
742 THE SPEAKER THE BASIS OF ALL RELATIONS.
and with thou, and he, it is equally so. They are in the
relation of the object spoken to, or spoken of. This, is
nearer ; that, further from the speaker. Even words like
same and other, gravitate, so to say, to him : though the
connection is indirect. They denote something that is re-
lated to him by its relation to some third object, of which
he has already measured the relation borne by it to him-
self. If so, every word has two names, one taken from the
complex of its qualities, another taken from its relations
for the time being ; one permanent, one mutable. And
such is the fact, of which grammar has taken cognizance :
inasmuch as the relational names give the important,
though small, class of Pronouns ; the names based on the
complex of the permanent attributes the larger, but not
more important, class of Substantives.
From this it follows that all the difficulties alluded to
above, the difficulties connected with the conflict between
the simplicity of name and the complexity of attribute,
in the case of substantives, vanish when we come to
the pronouns ; so that if they were the only ones, the
philology of the pronouns would be easy.
Can substantives grow out of pronouns ? Can the
mystery connected with the antagonism between the
complexity of substances and the oneness of attributes
be explained by any of the attributes of relation ?
Definite and patent facts, sufficiently certain to be taken
as a basis for further trains of reasoning upon this
point, have yet to be found.
Can the converse take place ? Can pronouns grow out
of substantives ? or, changing the form of the question,
can substantive names, with all their complexity, become
simply attributive, their attribute being that of relation?
To this the history of the numerals says Yes — the
difference between the cardinals and the ordinals being
the point which most demands attention. The car-
dinals as compared with the ordinals are certainly
abstract, and, as such, ought, at the first view, to be
CARDINALS AND ORDINALS. 743
the newer tenns. They ought also to be derivative.
Yet the converse is the case. The concrete ordinals
are derivative, the abstract cardinals simple. To under-
stand this let us notice a distinction.
Objects which are designated as this, that, yon, are
also objects which can be designated as Jlrst, second,
third. Of a series of objects submitted to the process
of numeration the first z=.this. The second is another
this. The first, however, has ceased to be this, and
is what it is through its relation to the second. In
this way each object is this for the time being.
With third the ideas of relation get complicated, there
being firet the relation of third to second, and next
that of second to first. Third, however, is what it is
from being preceded by second. In other words, order
is necessary to our notions.
Let this mode of forming a series of numeration be
called the relatioTial method ; the place of each number
in the sequence, series, or sj'stem being determined by its
relation to the ones by which it was preceded and
followed. It is dear that such a phenomenon as the
idea of a fifth before a third, a thirds before a second,
is impo.ssible. In this way, then, number is order, and
things numbered are objects to which ordinal numbers
are applied.
Again, except with arithmeticians and algebraists,
there is no number without an object to which it
applies ; just as there is no this or that without an
object characterized by what we call its this-ness or its
that-ness. But words like thisness or thatness are ab-
stracts which lancmacres in their earlier stages mav and
do dispense with. At any rate they originate out of
the concrete term, with its special, definite, and often
palpable, application. Now, there or thereabouts, ten,
nine, &c. are to tenth and ninth as this-ne^ and that-
ness, or near-ness and /a/*-ness are to this and that.
Why, then, are the forms so simple ?
744 CARDINALS AND ORDINALS.
Because they are really the older and more original
words ; and they are the older and more original words
because the otherwise natural evolution of numbers in
the way of order, and as concrete ordinal terms, is
traversed by the existence of certain natural monads,
duads, triads, tetrads, pentads, the effect of which
has been to give us what may be called the representa-
tional method of numeration in addition to the rela-
tional.
The number for which we have the most natural
symbol is jive — the symbol, or natural pentad, being the
hand {zz. five fingers). If so, the following pheno-
menon, impossible with the relational, is possible with
the representational, method. There may have been
a name for five before there was one for four, three, or
two. Without asking how far this is a real fact or
imaginary illustration, let us deduce from it the infer-
ence that although the representational system of count-
ing may be more natural than the relational it is less
scientific. We may also add that though it may give
us numeration it gives us numeration of a very equi-
vocal kind, i. e. numeration without order, and (as such)
possibly no numeration at all. More natural than the
relational method it is ; inasmuch as investigation tells
us that language has adopted it to the total, or nearly
total, exclusion of the other. But it is natural only
from what we call the accident of the existence of
certain natural monads, pentads, Szc.
Of all these monads, duads, triads, &c. (words for
which we want a general term, and for which I
suggest the word tosad) the most natural, as aforesaid,
is the hand with its five fingers. In other words, the
pentad is the most natural of the tosads ; but if the
number of our fingers had been variable, it might
never have existed.
Next to this, perhaps, is the duad. In certain of the
North-American tongues the names for a pair of shoes,
CARDINALS AND ORDINALS. 745
a pair of snoiu skates z=.tvjo. In our language we
have brace, pair, couple, synonyms for tvjo ; whilst, for
three, we have only the word lea^h, for four nothixig.
The triad is less of a natural tosad than the duad,
and the tetrad less of one than the triad — the triad
being, generally, two + one, the tetrad two + two. In
other words, the natural tetrad is generally two duads.
Just as a tetrad is two duads, a decad is two pentads
— but as there is such an object as a pair of han/h = a
decad of fingers, the decad is one of the very natural
tosads.
An eiJcosad is also natural = the fingers and toes.
Amongst the Caribs one hand = ^ye, tivo hand^=: ten,
a haiul + a foot zz fifteen, a ivhole man (i. e. two hands
and two feet, or ten fingers and ten toes) = twenty.
Now it is clear that a system of numeration may
consist of those numerals only for which there exist the
natural tosads for two, five, ten, fifteen, and twenty —
the others being wanting. It is equally clear that it is
only in the eyes of the savage that this is a system of
numeration at all. To the arithmetician it is only a
series of names for a few out of many collections of
units : and for the purposes of his science one which is
wholly useless, being deficient in the great element of
order.
The three classes of words which give the minimum
amount of complexity and the nearest solution of our
problem are (1) the verbs and adjectives, the latter
being connected with the former through the participle ;
(2) the pronouns. Both give unities ; the former the
unity suggested by a single permanent quality which,
when it is contemplated as an element of a substance in
a given state, is adjectival, but which when contemplated
as an element of a substance afiecting the senses, or,
in motion, is verbal ; the verbal element being the
primary one, i. e. the one which most affects the
observer. The attribute of relation gives us pronouns.
746 CHANGES OF FORM AND MEANING.
Both are unities, and, by being this, they limit the
question to the simple consideration of their origin.
The substantives give the names for certain com-
plexes of attributes, superadding to the question of
origin, the second and more difficult one by which we try
to reconcile the complexity of constitution with the single-
ness of name. In other words, they give us concretes
with simple names — the main mystery in the question.
That pronouns may become substantives is possible ;
though unproven. That substantives become pronouns
is a fact verified by the history of the numerals. Still,
the evolution of substantive names out of pronominal
ones would (if proven) explain but little The only
hypothesis that covers much ground is the one which
holds that the name of some permanent attribute grew
into a representative of the whole complex or concretion.
Being this, it would undergo changes, and that both
in form and meaning.
Word for word, eveque and bishop are the same, yet
they have not a single letter in common.
Idea for idea, a deal at cards is the same as deal=z
plank of wood.
Where is the connection on either side ?
For the first, we have the Latin episcopus, or the
Greek eiriafcoTros, with the intermediate evesque.
For the second a great deal ; where deal zzpart, the
German theil, the Danish del.
We here see then the links. The psychologists explain
the hiatus. Concept A may agree with concept B,
but B shall be linked with C, by some element not
common to it and A. The same applies to sounds.
Hence, even if we knew the original phonetic ex-
pression of the primitive concepts, there are the phe-
nomena of transition to be explained. Induction helps
in both, and the further it goes the less mysterious
language becomes.
In the laws which regulate these changes superadded
THE TWO METHODS. 747
to the cognizance of the names of the primary
attributes, the application to the relations between
the organization of the speaker and its environment,
and the process by which they could be extended from
the representation of a unity to that of a concrete, lie
the problems of the Terra Incognita — a wide one, no
doubt, but not hopelessly beyond investigation.
As unities, the abstracts of the nineteenth century
agree with the primitive word out of which the substan-
tive concretes, by hypothesis, grew. These can scarcely
be called abstracts. At best they are abstracts before the
concretes, which are, etymologically, no abstracts at all.
Still, they are unities ; they give the key to the origin
of the chief elements in language. It is not easy to
realize their import. Still, they command our attention.
According to the present writer, the primary problems
of language are these or none.
If, out of the two methods exhibited above, the
synthetic only explain the origin of the words hum,
buzz, and the name of the cuckoo, it does something ;
and if the analytic only tell us that both bishop and
eveque come from liriaKoiros, it teUs us what is worth
knowing. Each covers some ground. It may be a
small plot, a mere cabbage garden in a hemisphere.
Still, some ground at each end is covered ; and the only
question is, how much ? And common-sense tells the
looker-on thus much ; viz., that it is less than the
defender of his own domain claims and more than is
allowed Mm by the claimant at his antipodes. Let the
two, however, work and work until something like an
approximation, by which the vast terra incognita
whicli intervenes may be covered, is effected. When
the limit, on either side is attained we shall probably
know that it is a limit, and uhy it is one — just as we
know, not only that the circle has not been squared,
but that its quadrature is impossible.
I conclude with a few remarks upon the claim of Com-
748 HOW FAR IS PHILOLOGY A SCIENCE?
parative Philology to be called a Science. It may and it
may not. At any rate it is an approximation to one.
To a certain extent, however, the answer depends upon
the country in which the question is put. It must do
so perfoi'ce ; inasmuch, as to a great extent, it is a matter
of definition. In England, where we pique ourselves
upon being a practical country, anything is Science
which is neither Art nor Literature : and, assuredly
Philology, in its higher branches, is neither the one
nor the other.
As a department of human knowledge, as a province
in a map, as an element in an organon, it is neither
moi'e nor less than a branch of anthopology, or the
natural history of man as distinguished fi'om the lower
animals, with a special bearing on ethnology or the
history of the varieties of man as a species. What
this is, and how it stands in its relations to de-
scriptive anatomy on its material, and to ontology on
its spiritual extremity, psychologists are the proper
persons to determine. As an art it is an adjunct to
the art of learning foreign languages, living or dead ;
and it is unsatisfactory to think that many admirable
linguists and accurate scholars know it in this aspect
only. As an applied science (to use a current term) it
is an instrument in what we may call prehistoric, ante-
documental, or ante-monumental, history ; especially in
ethnology. But this does not either make or unmake
it as a science.
That words apparently identical are distinct ; that
words without a letter in common are only one ; and
that they can be shown to be so by irrefragable and
refutation-tight lines of argument, are facts of an un-
doubted scientific character. So is the fact that nothing
is arbitrary or accidental. But this is not enough.
Where is there accident ? If the absence of it sufiice,
everything is scientific.
More relevant are the facts that depend upon the
HOW FAR IS PHILOLOGY A SCIENCE? 74-9
character of mind which is required for the successful
pursuit of any given study.
The study of language is one thing, that of languages,
another. They are different ; and the intellectual
powers that they require and exercise are different also.
The greatest comparative philologists have, generally, been
but moderate linguists. A certain familiarity with differ-
ent languages they have, of course, had ; and, as compared
with that of the special scholar, their range has been a
wide one ; but it has rarely been of that vast compass
which is found in men after the fashion of Mezzofanti, Szc.
— men who have spoken languages by the dozen, or the
score ; but who have left comparative philology as little
advanced as if their learning had been bounded by their
own mother-tongue.
In stating this, no opinion is given as to the com-
parative rank or dignity of the two studies ; no decision
upon the nobility or ignobihty of the faculties involved
in the attainment of excellence in either. The illus-
tration of a difference is all that has been aimed at.
There is a difference between the two classes of subjects,
and a difference between the two kinds of mental
faculties.
Upon the intellectual differences, however, of the ex-
treme literateur, and the extreme savant, it is needless to
enlarge. The one is strong in the history of opinions,
isolated facts, authorities and the Hke ; the other in prin-
ciples, concatenated phenomena, and forms : the model
mind, in which the two strengths are exactly balanced,
being
" The faultless monster that the world ne'er saw."
That Comparative Philology requires scientific rather
than literary aptitudes is certain : though in ordi-
nary scholarship, where language is the object of an
art, the exact reverse is the case.
Stronger still in favour of the application of the terra
Science are the inferences from the method of philo-
750 HOW FAR IS PHILOLOGY A SCIENCE?
logical investigation. In this respect, with its arguments
from effect to cause, from the later to the earlier, from
the known to the unknown, it has exactly the method
of Geology — that typically palseontological science. At
the same time, like geology, comparative philology is a
history. It is a record of events in sequence, just like
a common history of Kome or Greece. It covers more
ground, and it goes over a greater space : but this is a
question of degree rather than kind. It is a material
history rather than a moral one : but this also is only
a difference of degree. It is not, however. History in re-
spect to the way in which its facts are obtained : inas-
much as, whilst current history gets them from testimony,
and proceeds in its narrative from the earlier to the later,
palseontological history reverses the process, and, proceed-
ing from the later to the earlier, infers as it recedes.
Now for this method, scientific rather than literary apti-
tudes are required.
As little, however, as the absence of the accidental
and the arbitrary, will the existence of scientific apti-
tudes or the pal aeon tological method make a science, in
the strict sense of the term ; although it may make
both an actual approximation to one, and a science in
posse. Neither will simple certainty. The knowledge
a man has of his own existence, whether material or
immaterial, subjective or objective, at the moment he is
thinking about it, is certain enough for anything, but
it is not a scientific certainty. The knowledge, of
another kind, that a logically-constructed syllogism gives
a logically-true inference, like the knowledge that two
and two make four, is equally certain: but the certainty
is formal rather than scientific ; and, if the word phi-
losophy were not at a discount in England, truths of
this kind might be conveniently treated as truths in
philosophy rather than as truths in science.
For Science, as a term, to be sufficiently limited to be
useful, it must (I submit) imply knowledge beforehand,
HOW FAR IS PHILOLOGY A SCIENCE? 751
i. e. law and prevision, or rather prevision through law.
No mere record can become a law. A law looks for-
wards ; its essence being the anticipation of contingent
cases.
The question is, of course, one of definition, and I
think that both etymology and practice justify the sug-
gested limitations.
Let, then, the position of any given branch of human
knowledge, as a science, be determined by the number
and the generality of the laws which it exliibits — laws
which imply a force, and which, doing this, are notably
diflferent from the mere forms and conditions of the
mathematician and logician ; from which they are to be
distinguished on the one side, just as they are to be dis-
tinoruished from the method of the geologcist on the
other. If this be the case, the physical sciences, properly
so-called, are the typical ones. From the standard
suggested by these, comparative philology is, without
doubt, far distant ; so that, just in proportion as these
are our measures, comparative philologj' is other than
scientific. On the other hand, so far as the methods of
the geologist, or the forms of the logician, are scientific,
comparative philology is scientific also. At any rate,
its method is that of the geologist. Add to this that
its results are those of the historian, and that its
application is in the domain of the psychologist. All
beyond is a matter of definition rather than fact.
In respect to its bearings upon other branches of
knowledge, over and above those general and indirect
ones which every study exerts over every other, com-
parative philology has several definite and special claims
to attention. In what we may call pre-historic history
it is of primaiy importance. Upon logic it bears
decidedly, and strongly. No logician has yet written
at all who would not have written better with even a
smattering of comparative philology. That language is
the instrument as well as vehicle of thought, is a state-
^52 HOW FAR IS PHILOLOGY A SCIENCE?
ment to be found in most logical works. "Without a
single detail in the way of illustration, this is, at pre-
sent, little better than a platitude. Without the phe-
nomena of language, logic is a mere a priori symbolism.
Perhaps, in its properly-purified form, it is this. But
why talk about instruments when even the names of
the chief tools are unknown ?
As a disciplinal study we get its measure in the ex-
tent to which it finds a place in the English educational
curriculuTn ; where, though denuded of principles and
with an eminently artificial grammar, it still predomi-
nates : asserting its intrinsic value in spite of inordinate
disadvantages.
In psychology, on one side, and in special scholar-
ship on the other, it finds its chief auxiliaries. Only,
however, will these become important when special
scholars and psychologists, each in their own depart-
ment, shall have combined, with their proper subjects,
the instructive study which gives generality to the one
and great masses of relevant facts to the other.
ADDEXDA AND CORRIGENDA.
Page 131.
Motorian and Koibal vocabularies ; from the Asia
Polyglotta.
English.
Motorian.
Koibal.
Head
namban
ulu
Month
agma
an
Hair
ipti
apte
Ear
knina
ku
Eye
sime
Euna
Tooth
trme
tyme
Tongue
kashta
seka
Hand
ndam
oda
Nose
eyem
piya
Blow
kem
kam
Foot
hoi
mosta
Bone
le
le
Day
kain
dziJOa
Night
inde
po
Sty
niun
num
Sun
kaye
kuya
Moon
kishtit
kuii
Star
kindzhekei
kynsygei
Fire
tuek
siu
Water
ba
bu
Tree
kha
pa
HiU
biya
myya
Earth
tshia
dzhia
Fish
kele
kola.
Page 160.
Since the notice of the Liefe was written an elaborate
posthumous monograph of Sjogren's, on the Lief lan-
guage, has been published in St. Petersburg, edited by
Weidemann.
3c
754
GEORGIAN.
Page 270.
Specimen of the Georgian, from the Asia Polyglotta.
English.
Georgian.
En-ilish.
Georgian.
Man (homo)
k^zi
Sun
mse
Man (vir)
kmari
Moon
mt'are
Mead
t'awi
Star
warsk'lawi
Tooth
k'bUi
Fire
zezkhli
Tongue
ena
Water
tzquali
Ear
quri
Wind
kari
None
zkhwiri
Bain
tzwima
Eye
tVali •
Sand
kwisha
Mouth
piri
Earth
mitza
Beard
tzVeri
Hill
mta
Hair
tma
River
mdinare
Blood
sishkli
tzquali
Hand
kh'eU
Egg
kwerzkhi
Neck
gell
Fish
tewsi
Bone
dzwali
Milk
rdze
Day
dge
Snow
t'owli
Night
g'ame
Stone
kwa
Sky
za
Bird
prinweli.
English.
Georgian.
Mingrelian. Suanic.
Lazic.
One
erthi
arthi
es'gu
ar
Two
ori
shiri
jeru
dzur
Three
sami
sumi
semi
dshumi
Four
othchi
otchi
wors'tcho *
atch
Five
chuthi
chuthi
wochus'i
chut
Six
ekhwssi
apchs'ui
usgwa
as'
Seven
s'widi
'sqwithi
is'gwit
s'kit
Eight
rwa
mo
ara
ovro
Nine
zehru
c 'chore
c*chara
cVhoro
Ten
athi
wit
hi
je'st
wit.
Page 427.
Specimen of the Heve or Eudeve, from a translation
by Buckingham Smith of a Spanish grammar in MS.
English.
Heve.
English.
Heve.
People
dohme
Face
vusva
Woman
haquis
Mouth
tenit
Head
zonit
Tooth
tanus
Heart
hibes
Nose
dacat
Eye
vusit
Blood
erat
Ear
nacat
Beard
bimsi
EUDEVE, MEXICAN, AND AFRICAN LANGUAGES. Voo
English.
Here.
English.
Here.
Belli/
siqnat
Fire
te
Arm
nocat
Water
bat
Finger
mamat
Sain
duqui
Hand
mamat
Fiver
haqnit
Leg
morica
Forth
to vat
Day
taui
Sand
sa
Night
chngoi
Stone
tet
Sty
tegnics
Snow
sutepri
Sun
tuui
Tree
cut
Moon
metzat
Dog
chuchi
Star
sibora
Egg
aiarora.
Pages 430-434.
Mexican, Maya, and Otomi vocabularies.
English.
Hoasteca.
Maya.
Mexican.
Otomi.
Man
tlaoatl
inic
•ninic
nxihi
Woman
cisatl
oxom
ixal
behhi&, danxn
Head
totzontecon
oc
hool
n&, n&xmu
Hair
tomitt
jngal
tzotz
zi, xt4
Eye
ixtololotii
ghoal
nich
daa
Nose
yacati ,
zam
ni
zlna
Mouth
camatl
hay
chi
ne
Tooth
totlan
camablce
ca
td •
Hand
maitl
cuboc
cab
ye
Foot
iczitl
acan
uoc
gua
Blood
eztli
xihtz
kik
ghi
Sun
aquicha
kin
tonatnili
hiadi
Moon
ajtz
citlali
zana
Fire
k'akk
tleti
deM
Water
labtay&
atl
dehe.
Page 598.
Additions and corrections for the languages of Africa.
English.
Ako.
Nnfi.
AshantL
Man
okuri
bage
obaramba
Woman
obiri
isagi
owesia
Head
ori
eti
eti
Hair
era
tinyi
ehoi
Face
odsu
eye
enima
Note
imo
eye
ehoi
Eye
odsu
eye
enyna
Ear
eti
tagba
aso
Mouth
era
emi
ann
Tooth
eyi
ika
ese
3 c 2
75t)
AFRICAN LANGUAGES.
English.
Ako.
Nufi.
Ashanti.
Tongue
iwo
dseritara
tekerema
Blood
osi
edsa
bogia
Sun
cru
eyi
eiwia
Fire
ino
ena
ogia
Water
omi
niia
insuo
Bay
oso
eyali
adeaki
Night
cm
eyaa
adeaza.
English.
Timbuktu.
Hawsa.
Fula.
Man
bar
namidsi
gorko
Woman
woi
madsi
debo
Bead
bono
kai
bore
Hair
hamber
gasi
dsukuli
Face
nigine
fusga
yeso
Nose
nine
handsi
kinal
Eye
mo
ido
yitere
Ear
bana
kunne
noru
Mouth
me
baki
bunduko
Tooth
hinije
hakoli
nyire
Tongue
dene
balisi
dengal
Blood,
kuri
dsini
gidsam
Sun
woina
ana
nange
Fire
nune
wata
yite
Water
bari
laa
ndiyam
Day
dsari
lana
nyaloma
Night
kigi
dele
dsemma.
English,
man (people).
English,
eye.
Bangba,
dinga (man).
Bangbay
, hamto.
bernea {people).
Bornfi, sim.
Munio, hangoa=
man.
Kanem,
dsim.
Nguri, kangoa.
Baghem
I, Jcami
Kanyop,
nent.
Pepel, nyient,
pi. baent.
Sarar, nyient.
pi. bient.
Bola, nyendz.
Gbandi, siena.
Landoro, hinga.
Mendi, hindo.
Toma, zunu.
English, ear.
Bangbay, dudu.
Bamom, atot.
Balu, ntud.
Mandingo, tulo.
Kanyika, didu.
pi. matu.
Runda, didsh.
madsh.
Whida,
sunu.
English,
water.
Dahomy,
sunu.
Bangbay
, inji.
English,
bead.
man.
Bangbay, daigelles.
Bulom, 1
men.
Bornli, &c., Jcala
Mvimo, engi.
AFRICAN LANGUAGES.
To
English, rain.
rainy season.
Bengfcay, injiketar*=ra{n.
har:=rainy season,
Bulom, ipon=.rain.
Munio, enffie alabi=irain.
English, snn, sky.
y, har=zsun.
tar=sky.
Km, giro:=sun.
Yomba, oru.
Ntere, tart.
English, moon.
Bangbay, mai.
Udom, &c., me.
Boko, mo.
But€, mao pfonti=neK moon.
English.
A fan
Womnn
Head
Hair
Nose
Eye
Ear
Tooth
Tongue
Sun
Fire
Water
Pika.
momosi
moEda
ko
sowo
wnnti
ido
kumo
udo
lisi
poti
wozi
ama
Karekare.
mezi
mendo
ka
sago
wnnten
idaa
kono
ntu
lusn
pati
yasi
amu.
English.
Man
Woman
Head
Hair
Note
Eye
Ear
Tooth
Tongue
Sun
Fire
Water
Aiikaras.
ompen
okanto
ba
iwa
nomo
ne
kono
kanye
nana me
ibande
munturo
nyo
Wun.
owude
okanto
bo
iwa
nomo
ne
nano
kanye
numume
yanyo
nutngo
nyo.
* 'IMa=Siy-wal€r.
INDEX.
PAGE
Abenaki vocabulary . . .451
Abiponian vocabularies . 382, 506
Abor vocabulary ... 29
Absne „ 280
Abstract and Concrete . . 732
Abstraction of two kinds . . 732
Accaway vocabulary . . . 491
Accommodation . . • .717
Accrah vocabulary . . .670
Achagua j, ... 489
Acoma ,, ... 446
Adaiel ,, ... 536
Adaihi ,, ... 469
Adampi vocabularies . . 669, 570
Adelaide ,,.... 358
Adige dialects . . . .280
^thiopic, two varieties of . . 633
translation of the Scrip-
tures .....
Afghan language
African languages in general
to be classified
by type
— '■- observations on
vocabularies of
peculiar pro-
cesses in the
Afudu vocabulary
Agawmidr . . . .
Agaw area ....
Agawmidr vocabulary
Agglutination . . . .
Ahom vocabulary
Aaiawong ,, . . .
Aimauk ,, . . .
Aino dialects ....
of Kamtshatka vocabulary .
Aka tribes ....
Akush vocabulary
Albanian language, two main divi-
sions of ....
Albanian, list of words
Alemannic language
Aleutian forms of speech
Algonkin languages
533
252
599
602
549
604
564
642
543
557
700
52
354
85
169
ib.
28
272
606
696
658
386
449
Algonkin vocabulary .
(Old) vocabulary .
Alikhulip vocabulary
Almam, &c. . . . .
Almeida vocabularies . .
Alphabets, their multiplicity ex-
aggerates the differences of lan-
guages . . . .
observation on the Russian
PAaE
456
449
484
725
494
632
78
and Roman ....
Alpine dialect compared with French
and Italian .... 641
Amazig or Berber area . . 640
populations, divisions of the ib.
Amberlaki vocabulary , , 332
Amazons, languages of the northern
bank of 485
America, general grammatical struc-
ture of its languages . .619
languages of North Western 384
(south) languages of . 478
philology of, neglected . 479
(Portuguese,) languages of . 480
-and Asia, dialects connecting 617
no Asiatic language spoken
in 386
American languages, general remarks
on the 517
Amharic area .... 633
vocabulary . . .636
Amfir (middle), vocabulary . 76
Tungus of the, vocabulary of 75
Anadyr vocabulary . . . 387
Analysis and synthesis . . 713
Anam or Annam, the collective name
of Cochin-China and Tonkin . 61
Andaman islanders described by early
voyagers .... 68
— — modern character of ib.
vocabulary . . .69
Audi „ ... 272
Anfue ,, ... 669
Angami ,, . . .31
Anglo-Saxon .... 669
Annatom vocabularies . . 889, 349
INDEX.
759
Ansoes vocabulary
Antes
Antonio (San)
Antshnkli
Apiaca
Apinages
Appa
Ara (Arini), meaning of the word
Arabic Alphabet, the present, akin
to the Syriac .
— vocabulary
Arago ,,
Aramaic language
Syrian
PAGE
333
616
416
272
509
512
394
588
94
Arapaho vocabularies
Arancanan vocabulary
Arawak „
Areas of languages, large, small,
and medium , . , .
— seven great .
535
, 539
. 331
. 529
. 530
456, 458
. 483
492
4
7
. 491
. 332
. 92
. 94
536, 555
. 267
Arecuna vocabulary
Arfak ,,
Arini, or Ara, legend of the
vocabulary .
Arkiko- vocabularies
Armenian literature .
— alphabet, one of the com-
pletest in existence . . . ib.
■ — vocabulary . . . 266
Armorican language, vocabulary . 667
Arnaut language ... * 606
Arniya vocabularies . . 238, 250
Aro vocabulary .... 567
Aropin ,, ... 332
Artes of South American languages 478
Articles 726
Ashanti language . . .571
Asia and Europe one Continent for
ethnological purposes . . 8
and America, dialects con-
necting ..... 517
Aspirates, distinction between true
and false .... 618
Assam languages . , . .28
Assan, the ..... 91
vocabulary .... 94
.4ssyrian, acceptation of the term 530
Astek 480
Athabaskan dialects divided into
sections ..... 388
Atna dialects .... 399
vocabulary , < . . ib.
Atoria ,,.... 491
Atshin ,,.... 288
Attakapa ,, . . . , 476
PAGB
Attributes and Substances . .723
of Quality and of Rela-
tion . . . . .730
Australia, "Western vocabulary . 354
Australian ,, • 370
languages, fundamental
unity of the . . • • 357
in general,
comparison of . . • .358
group, Malay affinities of
the ..... 350
numerals . . 351, 359
Avar vocabulary .... 272
Avekvom ..... 571
Aymara area . . • • 482
vocabulary . . . 483
Baba vocabulary .... 303
Bagbalan ,,-... 584
Bagnon ,, ... 596
Bago „ ... 595
Bigwan ,, . • . 245
Baikha „ . . . 139
Bakeli affinities, languages with . 564
vocabulary . . - 561
Baladea ,, . . . .342
BaU „ .... 297
Banga ,,.... 228
Baniwa vocabularies . . . 486
Banjak Batta vocabulary . . 288
Baraba „ . . . 107
Barabinski, or Barama Turks . 105
Baraki vocabulary . . . 262
Barbara (Santa) vocabulary . .417
Barree ,, . • 486
Basa Erama^ „ . .296
Bashi „ . . 314
Bask, Basque, or Biscayan lan-
guage ..... 675
its isolation . . .677
Ugrian, Slavonic, African
affinities . . . .678
geographical names signifi-
cant in it . . . . 680
its declension . . . 681
dialects . . . 683, 687
general view of its possible
relations .... 688
its relation as Iberic to the
Kelt ..... 679
Bashkir vocabulary . . .112
Bashmuric dialect of Coptic . 546
Bassa vocabulary . . . 572
Bathurst „ .... 352
Batta language, Dr. Earth's re-
marks on the .... 589
760
INDEX.
PAGE
PAGK
Batta dialects, vocabularies of
288
Breton language, specimen of the
667
Battas, the
287
vocabulary
664
Bauro vocabulary
337
of Vannes, specimen of the 668
Bavarian language
658
British branch of Keltic
664
Bayano vocabulary
437
Brown's tables of dialects .
42
Beak and Mefur vocabulary .
332
Anamitic, Siamese
Begbarmi vocabulary .
577
and other languages
68
Bengali ,,
227
Buddhism, Pali the language of
617
Benin language ....
567
Budugur vocabulary .
208
Berber area ....
640
Buduma ,,
679
Bethuck, the native language of
Bugis ,,
307
Newfoundland
453
Bulanda ,,
695
Bergamasco dialect of Italian, spe-
Bullom ,,
596
cimen of .
640
Bultistan, Bhot of
12
Bishari vocabulary
549
Buriats Siberian rather than Chi
Bhatfii „ . . .
246
nese ....
83
Bhot, or Bhotiya group of lan-
Burmese group of languages
11, 36
guages, philological boundaries of
Proper, a literary language 47
the
12
vocabulary
48
Biafada vocabulary
594
and Tibetan, affinity be
Biajuk ,, ...
306
tween ....
68
Biluch ,, ...
259
Bushman vocabulary .
598
Bima ,, ...
298
Bfitan, Bhot of
13
Bini „ ...
567
Buton vocabulary
310
Bissayan ,, ...
313
Blackfoot ,, ...
448
Caddo vocabulary
475
Blackmouths, curious origin of the
488
Cahuillo ,, . .
443
Blasan, hlasennes, hlasenne .
722
Caldani, the modern .
631
Bode vocabulary ....
579
Caldwell's Dravirian grammar
207
Bodo ,,....
26
California (Old) languages .
422
Bokhara ,,
259
Camacan vocabulary .
511
Bolar ,,
595
Canarese ....
204
Bonny language ....
567
vocabularies, new, old, anc
Boraiper vocabulary
354
literary ....
209
Borgia (San) ,,
424
Canary vocabulary
641
Boritsu ,,
565
Canichana ,, . .
501
Bormio, dialect of Italian, speci-
Canton dialect of China, vocabu
men of
640
lary of .
66
Borneo, language of . .
305
Caraho vocabulary . .
513
Bornti, thirty different languages
Caraja ,, . .
512
spoken in ... .
578
Carib group
490
Bororo vocabulary
515
vocabulary
492
Borro ,, ...
26
Caribisi ,,
491
Botocudo class of languages .
509
Carnicobar language .
57
ib.
vocabulary
284
Bowri ,,
247
Caroline Archipelago, languages o
Brahmins, the expositors of the
the ....
321
Sanskrit ....
618
Carpentarian vocabulary
359
Brahfii forms and their English
Cashmir ,,
230
equivalents ....
211
Castelmagno dialect of Italian
642
glossary ....
214
Castren's researches, specimen of f
9,128
vocabulary
20
Tungfis grammar .
72
Brass Town language .
667
Catalonian, specimen of
646
Brazil, languages of .
607
Catawba vocabulary
465
Brescian, dialect of Italian, speci-
Caubul coins, language of the
614
men of
640
Caucasus, languages of the .
36
INDEX.
761
PAGE
Gajagan Tocabulary . . . 313
Cayowa ,, . . .509
Cayubaba language . . .515
Cayuga vocabulary . . . 463
CajTis ,, ... 406
Caynvava ,, ... 500
Celebese dialects . . .307
Celtiberians of Spain , . . 6i'9
Ceram vocabulary . , . 311
Ceylon, aboriginal language of . 232
Circassian, an Italian form of
Tsherkess . . . .279
Circumpolar forms of speech . 384
Chaco languages .... 505
Chaldee 531
"Xafiaoa, Xi^if .... 543
Chamorri vocabulary . . . 321
Chandragupta said to be identified
■with Sandracottus . . . 615
Changlo vocabulary . . ,16
Chanta „ ... 136
Chavante „ ... 513
Chemmesyan .... 401
Chemuhuevi vocabulary . . 443
Chepang ,, . . 21
Chepewyan ,, . . 391
Chiquito Proper, a sort of Lingua
Franca .... 504
Cherente vocabulary . . . 613
Cherokee spoken by more indivi-
duals than any other Indian Ian-
native
alphabet invented by a
vocabulary
Chetimacha
ChUeno language
Chimanos vocabulary
Chinese Proper, dialects of .
comparative vocabulary of
Sanskrit and ....
Chiquitos, a Spanish name .
languages
plural in -ca
vocabulary
467
tb.
468
469
478
487
63
622
504
502
504
502
Classification of languages, modes of 6
Click; the Hottentot . . .598
Cochetimi vocabulary . . .446
Cochimi of San Xavier, specimen
of . . . . .422
Cochin -China vocabulary . . 61
Cocomaricopa ,, , . 420
Cocos Island ,, . . 327
Coconoons ,, . .416
CohLstani language . . . 239
Comanch vocabulary . .443
PAGK
Concrete and Abstract . . 732
Copeh vocabulary . . .412
Coptic extinct as a true vernacular 546
three dialects of . . ib.
superseded by Arabic . 547
Coptic vocabulary . . . 679
Cora, specimen of . . . 429
Coretu vocabulary . . . 489
Corio dialect of Italian . . 642
Cornish language, list of existing
specimens of . . . . 672
vocabulary . . . 664
Keltic, specimen of . 665
Paternoster, old and
newer forms .... 666
Coroato vocabulary . . .514
Coropo „ . . . ib.
Corsican, si)ecimen of . . . 644
Costano vocabulary . . .415
Chocktaw ,, ... 468
Chuntaquiro ,, . . . 513
Chntia Deoria,, ... 35
Creek „ ... 468
Crow ,, ... 458
Cuchan vocabularies . . 405, 420
Cumanch language . . . 472
Cumanian dialect. Paternosters in
the 114
Gunacuna vocabulary . . . 438
Cuneiform inscription from the
tomb of Darius, and translation 614
Cuneo dialect of Italian . . 641
Curgi or Kodugu vocabulary . 205
Cypher, strictest test of a deci-
phered 546
Dahcota vocabulary . . . 460
Dahomey ,, . . . . 569
DaUa „ ... 556
Dalrymple (Port) vocabulary . 369
Danakil vocabulary . . . 655
Danish ,, ... 662
Darahi „ ... ISO
Dard group .... 238
Darien vocabulary . . . 438
Darius, cuneiform inscription from
the tomb of . . . . 614
Dark-skinned tribes, theory re-
specting .... 39
Dar-runga vocabulary . . 653
Dasen „ . ; . 332
Daurai ,, . . . 491
Dautgart ,, . . . 354
Deer ,, . . . 287
Definition, classification of languages
by 6
^62
INDEX.
PAGE
PAGK
Denka Ostiaks, dialect of the
90
Estonian bards ....
157
vocabulary.
561
vocabulary
159
Denwar ,,
181
Etchemin ....
461
Deoria Chutia ,,
35
Euphony, vocalic, explained
586
De Peyster's Islands, dialect of
324
Deri, meaning of the term
257
Fan, numerals of the
564
Derivation of words . . .
732
Faslaha vocabulary
542
Dewoi vocabulary • . . .
572
Fa«rorlang dictionary, Happast's .
315
Dhimal ,, ...
26
Fazoglo vocabulary
651
Dialects, how distinguished from
Felup ,, ...
696
languages . .
1
Fertit ,, ...
551
Dido vocabularies
272
Fiji group, its relations to the Poly-
Dieguno ,, . . 405
420
nesian and the Papuan .
345
Dinni an Athabastan termination
Dioscurian group of languages,
^QO
«.n/^nV..1»..n
ib.
153
OV\f
Fin districts, proper
meaning of the term
268
-^ — languages, conjectures respect-
Dizzela vocabulary
556
ing the ....
155
Doalu Bukere's invention of the
language, earliest specimens of
Vei Alphabet ....
576
the
156
Dodi vocabulary
579
mythology ....
ib.
Dofla ,,....
29
poem, the Kalevala
ib.
Dog -rib ,,
390
vocabulary . ■ .
159
Door, legend concerning the bot-
and Samoyed, Castren's asso-
tomless pool of . . .
241
ciation of .
120
Dor vocabulary
551
— and Ugrian nearly synonymous
127
Dravirian language, Caldwell's
or Ugrian, hypothesis . 677
687
gi-ammar of the
199
Flatbow area ....
395
Dsuku vocabulary
588
Flores or Ende dialects
299
Dumagat ,,....
314
Fokien dialect ....
64
Duman », •
248
Formosa, Malay form spoken in .
314
Dzelana ,, .
585
Frank language ....
658
French, dialects of the
644
Eafen vocabulary
566
(northern)j specimen of .
645
Ecuador, language of .
497
(south western) ,,
ib.
Ehnek vocabulary
409
• patois ....
5
Egbele ,, ...
667
Frisian transitional between Ger-
Egypt (Upper and Middle), Coptic
man and Norse ...
660
dialects of . .
646
Fuego (Tierra del), languages of .
484
Ekamtulufu vocabuary
566
Fula language, its importance for
Eloikob proved to be the same won
religious and commercial pur-
as Kekuafi ....
545
poses .....
591
Emilian dialects, where spoken .
638
Furian vocabulary
661
Ende vocabulary ...
300
Engadin, specimen of .
647
Gabelentz on the Formosan lan-
Enganho vocabulary .
293
guages
315
English language
660
Gabun, languages of the
661
Eregba vocabulary
588
Gadaba vocabulary
186
Erromango ,, , . .
340
Gradi ,,
218
Erroob ,, ...
335
Gaelic branch of Keltic
666
Erse branch of Keltic
666
Middle Scotch .
672
Eskimo languages . .
886
Gafat language .
633
• the only languages
vocabularies
634
common to Asia and America .
386
Galilean a dialect of Hebrew
621
Eslen vocabulary
416
Galla class, divisions of the
663
Estonian divided into two main
Proper, its vast extent
654
dialects , . . .
157
vocabulary
-
555
INDEX.
7(33
Gamett, his doctrine concerning the
persons of verbs
(3aro vocabulary ....
Gbe M •.
Greorgian populations .
alphabet, completeness of
the
Geral (Lingua), the current Indian
of the Brazilian, Empire .
Grerman languages
High and Low
modem literary
High, standard of .
— dialects
Swiss
Germans, in what sense Goths
Ghagar vocabulary
Gheez, the language of the .Sthi-
opic translation of Scripture
its relation to the Tigre
Gheg dialects of the Albanian
Ghonds, the, ....
Ghindzhar vocabulary . .
Gipsies of Persia
Gipsy language, its primitive ele-
ment Indian ....
of Norway vocabulary
Gnurellean ,,
Grohuri ,,
Gold Coast dialects
Gronds, tradition respecting the
origin of the ....
Gronga vocabulary
Grebo ,, ...
Greek language, its origin .
dialects, remarks on the
(modem) or Komaic, dialects
of
of Corsica, only known spe-
cimen of ....
list of words
Grenada (New), languages of
Guachi vocabulary
Guadalcanar ,, ...
Guaham „ ...
Gnajiquiro ,, ...
Guana ,, ...
of Castelnau .
Guanch language
Guaque vocabulary
Guarani, the current Tndinii of
Brazil . . . * .
vocabulary
Guatimala, language of
Guato vocabulary
Gudang „ ' ...
PAGE
725
26
572
269
270
607
658
659
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
663
2i9
533
ib.
606
188
537
248
ib.
249
353
247
570
199
544
572
651
653
655
656
696
479
514
337
.321
435
514
515
541
490
507
508
427
514
351
Guebe vocabulary ■
Guinau ,, . .
Gujer^ti interpreters, statement
of Sir E. Perry respecting
vocabulary
Gundi grammar
vocabulary
PACK
330
490
225
ib.
192
190
specimens of, with translation 194
Gunungtellu vocabulary . . 308
Gursea „ . . 585
Gurung ,, . . 19.
Gyami ,, . . 66
Gyarung „ . . 16
Haggai, a Iocvls standi for Hebrew 528
Haidah language . . . 401
Hailtsa vocabulary . . . ib.
Hamitic language . . .601
Hatigor vocabulary . . .32
Hawsa, Schon's Grammar of . 580
Hayu vocabulary ... 21
Head of Bight (Australia), vo-
cabulary . . . . 354
Hebrew language, date of criticism
of the 527
■ of Jndea . . . ib.
modem .... 539
vocabulary . . . 540
Helebi ,, . . .249
Hiaqui, specimen of . . . 428
Hieroglyphic inscriptions . . 546
Hillmen near Amsterdam and ifid-
dleburg (New Gruinea), vocabulary
of the 332
Himyaritic inscriptions . , 535
Hindmarsh (Lake) vocabulary . 353
Hindi, languages akin to the . 216
vocabulary . . .218
Hindostanee, a mixed tongue . 223
details of its accidence ib.
History, what parts of a language
important for . , . . 7
Hodgson (ilr.) on the Kiranti
dialects ..... 24
Honduras, dialects of . . . 435
Hoopah vocabulary . . . 395
Hor or Horpa ,, . . . 17
Hottentot ,, . . . 598
Hueco ,, . . . 475
Humming-bird Indians . .487
Hurur vocabulary . . . 536
Hururgi language . . , 524
Huzvaresh ,, ... 256
suggested alteration of the
name ..... 262
Hyperborean class . . . 118
764
INDEX.
PAGE
Ibo language . . . . 667
Icelandic, modem . . .662
Illinois vocabulary . . . 452
Illjrian or Slovenian language . 628
Illyrians, language of the . . 606
Ilmormo or Galla proper . . 555
Iloco vocabulary . . .313
Inbazk vocabulary in the Asia
Polyglotta .... 90
vocabulary . . .94
Incorrectness of grammar only
apparent . . . .705
India, migratory populations of . 245
Indo-European languages . . 605
character of the 600
remarks on the
class so-called ; position in it of
the Sanskrit, Slavonic, Skipitar
and Keltic . •. . . 689
extension of it . 691
Infinitives and Participles, their
nature and inflection . . 720
Ingush vocabulary . . . 275
Insam ,, . ... 332
Inscriptions treated as Keltic, and
found on undoubted Keltic
ground 673
treated as Keltic,
though found on doubtfully
Keltic ground .... 674
Insular and Continental distribution
of languages .... 4
Intermediate forms of language, ob-
literation of . . . . 6
Intibuca vocabulary . . . 435
Iquito ,, ... 495
Irish language, materials for inves-
tigating the .... 671
vocabulary . . .666
Iron ,, . . , .264
Iroquois languages . . . 463
Irular vocabulary . . . 208
Isanna ,, ... 486
Isiele „ ... 667
Islands, rule respecting languages of 294
Isle of Pines vocabulary
Isoama ,,
Isomeric inflections
Isomorphic ,,
Isubu affinities, languages with
Italian, dialects of the
-patois
Italy, division of the dialects of
modem
Itonama, number of the
vocabulary
343
567
711
711
664
641
6
637
603
501
PAGE
Jakon vocabulary . . , 407
Jansen on the dialects of Menadu . 309
Jaoi vocabulary . . . .492
Japanese ,, . , . .167
Jakun ,,.... 287
Java, Kawi the sacred language of 621
Javanese language . . . 295
vocabulary . . . 296
Javita ,, . . . 486
Jecorilla ,, . . .395
Jervis's Bay vocabularies 351, 358, 370
Jewish Scriptures, Hebrew of the 528
Jhongworong vocabulary .
Jili „
Joboca ,, . .
Jower ,, . .
Jupuroca ,, . .
Juru Samang , , . .
Juvencus, specimen of Pictish
found in a copy of
Ka vocabulary
Kadiak ,,
KafFa ,, ....
Kafirs, legends respecting the
tradition resijecting their
descent from Alexander the Great
Kaffir class of languages
languages, miscellaneous illus-
trations of the
prefixes
alliteration
curious syntactic peculiarities
Kajunah vocabulary .
Kakhyen ,, .
Kalka ,, .
Kalmuks of the Volga
Kamacintzi vocabulary
Kamas ,,
Kamassintzi ,,
Kambali ,,
Kambojia ,,
Kami ,,
Kamilaroi ,,
paradigms for the
Kamtshatkan of the Tigil .
vocabulary .
Kanaka, the language of the Sand
wich Islands ...
Kandokov vocabulary .
Kanem ,,
Kanuri grammar, contents of Nor
riss's . .
vocabulary
Kanyop „
Kapwi ,,
363
84
83
332
509
284
670
57
386
644
240
241
658
662
658
ih.
559
250
34
85
85
96
137
94
585
57
40
352
356
173
172
325
109
679
678
679
694
44
INDEX.
765
PAGE
PAQB
Eaiaga Tocabolaries .
169, 170
Kolyma vocabulary
.
170
Karagas vocabulary
. 109
Kondin „
.
133
Karatshai ,,
. 112
Konguan ,,
564
Earelians, tlie
. 152
Konkani, a dialect of the Marathi
227
Karelian vocabolaiy .
. 159
Kooch language
.
25
Karen tribes
. 45
vocabulary
.
182
Karon vocabulary
. 332
Koran, conservative influence ex-
Kiamba ,,
. 685
ercised by the
539
Kedah, Samang vocabulary
. 2S4
Korana vocabulary
598
Keh Doulan ,,
. 303
Korawi ,,
246
Kekuafi, proof of the identity of |
Korean ,,
167
the word with Eloikob
. 545
Koreng ,, . .
42
Kelenonesian class, meanir
g of
Koriak vocabularies .
117
169
the term
. 377
Koriak of the Tigil, vocabulary .
173
Keltic languages . :
. 664
Korinchi ,,
290
inscriptions from Gran]
. 673
Kot language still existing .
.
92
Italy
. 674
village, Castren's discovery of a
92
of the British
vocabulary .
94
Isles, observation on the
. 167
Kouri area ....
581
nouns
. 669
dialects
684
Kenay language
. 389
Kowelitsk vocabulary .
399
T-rt rtrt V T-l I O »»CT
. 390
Kowrarega „
361
> LH.<iuui^*ijr • •
Kashkari „
. 238
Kichai „ -.
475
Kasm „
. 584
Kij „ ...
419
Kassub language
. 629
King George's Sound, vocabu-
Katodi vocabulary
. 247
laries . . .355, 358
, 369
Katsha ,, . .
. 108
Baoway vocabulary
,
444
Eaure „
. 585
Kirata, or Eoranti vocabulary
23
Kawi, the learned language c
fJava 296
Kirghiz, area of the .
104
■ a sacred language
. 621
Kiriri vocabulary
513
vocabulary
. 621
Kisi ,,
76
Kayan ,,
. 307
Kissa vocabularies
. 303
, 304
Kazan ,,
. 112
Kitunaha area .
395
Ka!!inc2y's labours on the 3
la^yar
Kiwomi vocabulary
446
language
. 143
Kliketat „
440
Khamti vocabulary
. 52
Krepee ,,
570
Khari ,,
. 32
Km languages .
672
Kho of Kambojia
. 66
vocabulary .
ib.
Khoibu vocabulary
. 44
Kuki, origin of the
36
Khond ,,
. 185
old and new
ib.
Khong „
. 67
Kulanapo vocabulaiy .
411
Khorin „
. 84
Kumi „
40
Khotovii ,,
. 96
Kumuk „
112
Khumia and Kuk, the
, 36
Kupuas „
306
Khurbat vocabulajy .
. 248
Kurd „
260
Khwakhlamayu ,,
. 411
Knrilian or Aino vocabulary
168
Knistinaux „
. 449
Kusi Kumuk vocabulary
272
Kodugu or Curgi vocabulary
. 205
Kuskutshewak ,,
386
Koama „
. 584
Kusunda ,,
21
Kohatar ,,
. 208
Kuswar ,,
180
Koibal „
. 108
Kutani area
395
Kol dialects
. 183
. 38
1 T
396
Koladyn river, tribes of the
Kutshin ,,
390
Koldagi vocabulary
, 549
Kuznetsk ,,
107
Koligon „
. 354
KnzTnlbash „
112
Kolush of Sitka vocabulary
. 401
Kwaliokwa „
394
766
INDEX.
Labrador vocabulary .
Laconian or Tzakonian dialect, spe-
cimen of the
Ladak, Bhot of ...
Ladrone languages
Lampong vocabulary ,
Lamut ,, . .
Landoma ,,
Language, vocal, articulate .
its stages and develop-
ment
its spontaneity
its incoiTcctness
only
PAGE
386
655
12
323
291
76
595
697
700
702
705
apparent /
Languages, how distinguished from
dialects ..... 1
— of Europe and Asia,
western division of . . . 8
of Europe and Asia,
northern and south-western . 9
■ of Europe and Asia,
south- eastern . . . .10
Laos vocabulary . .^ . . 61
Lap language, Ugrian character of
the 161
two primary divi-
sions . . . . . ih.
three main dialects 163
vocabulary . . . ih,
dialects of JTorwegian . .162
Russian . . . .163
Lapidary alphabet, meaning of the
tenn 255
Laps, Scandinavian . . .161
Lar vocabulary . . . .229
Latin, and the languages derived
from it . , . . .632
enumeration of languages de-
rived from .... 634
three questions relating to
those languages . . . ib.
great desideratum in the phi-
lological history of . . . 636
Latin, list of words . . . 696
^riyai = Lekhi '. . . .271
Legba vocabulary . . .585
Lenca language .... 435
Lepcha vocabulary . . .24
Lesgians, the .... 271
Lett language, where spoken . 623
Lhopa vocabulary . . .13
Lief language . . . .160
Lifu vocabulary .... 341
Limbu ,, . . . .23
Limestone Creek vocabulary . 359
Lingua Urbana and Lingua Rustica 637
Linonian language
Literary influence on language
engenders an ar-
tificial element in languages .
Lithuania division of the Sarma-
tian class ....
distinguished from Li-
thuanian ....
its three branches
affinities with Sanskrit,
PAGE
629
257
539
623
Latin, and Greek
list of words
Lobo vocabulary .
Logone
Lombard languages, divisions of
Loretto vocabulary
Louisiade Archipelago .
Low Latin .
Loyalty Isles
Lubu vocabulary ,
Luchti
Lughman
Luhuppa
Luis Obispo (San) vocabulary
Lule vocabulary .
Lusatian language
Lutuami vocabulai-y
Macassar vocabulary
Maccabean coins .
Machakali vocabulary
Maconi ,,
Macusi , ,
Madagascar , ,
Madura ,,
Mag Readings,,
Magar ,, .
Magyar language and literature .
■ attempted sup-
pression of the
of Hungary intrusive
changes effected by Kazin-
czy
coinage of words .
Fin affinities of
— — and other Ugrian lan-
guages, vocabulary of
literature, reaction in fa-
vour of .
Mahari vocabulary
Mahi , ,
Mahratta , ,
Mainas paternoster
Mainot dialect of modern Greek
Maiongkong vocabulary
Maipfir vocabularies .
ih.
ib.
623
691
334
580
639
424
335
649
341
292
167
239
43
417
506
627
407
307
527
511
ib.
491
294
297
412
20
142
143
176
144
ih.
145
ib.
143
537
569
226
483
656
490
489
INDEX.
767
Mairassis vocabulary . . .
Malagas! (Madagascar) essentially
a JNIalay language . •
vocabulary .
Malali ,, . • •
Malay and its congeners
a commercial language
grammar ....
affinities with the Kh6 and
Mon
vocabularies
Malayalim vocabulary .
Maldive ,, . •
language, specimen of the
PAGE
334
294
295
512
283
287
285
286, 304, 345
. 204
. 234
ib.
338
306
302
458
458
Mallicollo vocabulary
Malo ,, ...
Manatoto ,,
Mandan ,, . . •
Mandara ,, . .
Mandarin, tlie classical language of
China .....
• dialect of China, vocabu-
lary of .
Mandhar vocabulary ...
Mandingo languages
vocabulary . . •
Mancr „ . . .
Mangalore, (Jerman missionaries at
Mangarei vocabularies
Mangasela ,,
Manks ,, . •
Slantshu, original area of the
vocabularies.
Manyak vocabulary
Maori (Sew Zealand) vocabulary .
Maram ,,
Mar^thi, limits of the
Mare vocabulary ....
Marianne, or Ladrone Archipelago
Maring vocabulary
Maroa ,,
Marquesas islands, language of
Maruvi vocabulary
Masaya
Massachusetts
Massied
Mataguaya
Matheo (St.)
Mawakwa
Maya languages
Mayorga vocabulary .
Mayoruna vocabularies
Mbarike vocabulary
Mbaya vocabularies . . 382,
Mbe vocabulary
Mbofia ,,
64
66
307
568
596
246
205
300, 383
. 77
. 666
. 175
75,76
. 16
325
44
226
341
321
44
486
325
292
436
452
351
505
313
491
433
328
495
565
506
564
567
PAOB
Mbofon vocabulary . . . 566
Mbokobi ,, . . .506
Mefur ,, ... 332
Melon ,, ... 565
Memphitic dialect of Coptic . 546
Menadu, dialects of . . . 309
vocabulary . . . 308
Mendis=ijnountain in Bask ; its
declension .... 681
Menero Downs vocabulary . . 353
Menieng ,, . .512
Menomeni ,, . .448
Men „ . . 306
Meshtsheriak ,, . .112
Mexican language (Proper) . . 430
Mfut vocabulary .... 564
iliami ]t • • « • 452
Micmac ,, . • . . 451
Miguel (St.) „ . . . .313
(San),, . . . .416
Mikronesia, meaning of the term . 320
jVIilchan, meaning of the word . 15
Millanow vocabulary . . . 306
Mille „ ... 323
Mincopie, or Andaman . . 58
Minetari vocabulary . . .461
Minsi ,, ... 451
Mir Tfisuf invents the £araki
language .... 262
Miri vocabulary .... 29
Miriam, a collective name . . 335
Mishmi, dialects of the . . 29
Missions, language of the South
American
Mithan vocabulary
Mixteca paternoster
Mobba language .
vocabularies .
Mobilian=Chocktah .
Moesogothic language .
Mogul dynasty, Tshagatai
Mohave vocabulary
Mohawk , ,
Mohikan ,, .
Mokobi ,,
Molonglo ,,
Mon, its affinities with certain Ian
guages of India
with the Kol
group .
vocabulary.
Mongol class
language, original area of the
vocabulary
. 499
. 33
. 433
. 552
553, 580
. 472
658
101
421
463
451
382
353
183
57
83
177
87
511
Mongoyos
Monosyllabic languages, numerals of 184
768
INDEX.
Monosyllabic applied to
remark on the term . . 686
. in what sense the Ame-
rican languages are . . . 603
Moor vocabulary . . . 332
Moquelumne group . . .414
Mordvin language . . .148
vocabulary . . .149
Moreton Bay vocabulary . .351
Mose ,, . . 585
Movima, number of the . . 603
vocabulary . . . 600
Moxa „ ... 382
Moxos languages . . . 500
vocabulary . . .601
Mpongwe ,,.... 561
Mrii ,, . . . . 40
Msambara,, .... 560
Mucury ,,.... 609
Mudji , 352
Mugs, the .... 37
Mundrucu vocabulary , , . 608
Mundy (Lake) „ . . .353
Munio ,, . . . 679
Munipur group of dialects . . 42
words, percentage of in
several dialects ... 45
Mura vocabulary . . . 494
Murmi >> • • • ,19
Murundo ,, • • • • ^^^
Murung >> • • • • ^^^
Muruya ^ • • • • ^^1
Muskogulge ,, . . • . 468
Naga dialects .... 32
Naknanuk vocabulary . .510
Nalu „ . . .596
Namseng ,, . . .33
Nancowry ,, . . . 284
Nanticok ,, . . . 451
Narragansetts ,, . . . 452
Natchez ,, ... 469
Natural groups of languages . 10
Navaho vocabulary . . . 394
Navigators' Islands, or Samoan lan-
guages ..... 325
Niwer vocabulary . . . 249
Ndob „ ... 664
Negrito element in the Indian
Archipelago . . . .374
Negro (Rio) languages of the . 485
Nepaul or Nepalese languages . 19
Nertshinsk vocabulary . . 76
Nestorian Gospels . . .638
Netela vocabulary . . .419
Neu-chih translations from the Chinese 80
Neu-chih inscriptions
New Caledonia .
Guinea dialects
Hebrides vocabularies .
Ireland vocabulary
Zealand or Maori language
Newar vocabulary
Newfoundland, native language of
Ngodzen vocabulary
Ngoko language . . .
Nogoten vocabulary
Nguru ,, . .
Nhalemoe ,, . .
Nias ,, . .
Nicaragua, dialects of .
Nicobar Islands, language of the
Nigritia, limits of the term
Niznih Uda, vocabulary
Nkele ,,
Nogay „
Norse languages
Norwegian dialects
Danish, the literary
Nottoway vocabulary
Nowgong „
Nsietshawus ,,
Nso ,,
Nubian languages
class, divisions of the
Proper, its three dialects
vocabulary
Nufi class ....
vocabularies illustrating the
affinities, languages with
Nukahiva, the language of the Mar
quesas ....
Numerals, general rule respecting
Nut vocabulary
Nfitka ,,
Nyamnam , ,
Nyutshi records
Obi vocabulary
Oceanic languages in general
Ojib^va vocabulary
Okuloma , ,
Olomo , ,
Olonets ,,
Olot, the ,,
Olvasom, &c.
Omagua vocabulary
Omaha ,,
Omar ,,
Ombay, language of
vocabulary
Oneida ,,
PAOB
. 80
341, 344
332
IKDEX.
769
PAGE
Onim vocabulary . . . 334
Onondago ,, . . . ib-
Opata, specimen of . . . 428
Opatoro vocabulary . • .435
Orang Laut, meaiung of the ex-
pression ..... 305
Oregones vocabularies . . .496
Orejones, a common rather than a
proper name .... ih.
Origin of inflections . . .716
middle voices, of pas-
sive voice, &c. . . .719
Orinoko, language of the . . 4S5
Orotshong tribes ... 73
Osage vocabulary , . . 460
Oscan known through the Bantine
inscriptions .... 633
Osmanli vocabulary . . .115
Osset or Iron ,, . . . 264
Ostiak Proper . . . . 89
Castren's grammar of the . 1 38
vocabulary . . .134
Otam afBnities, languages with . 564
Otomi language .... 430
Otshi, the language of the Gold
Coast 570
Ottawa vocabulary . . . 449
Otuke „ ... 503
Ouloff, Dard's Grammaire . . 593
Oulx dialect, specimen of the . 643
Pacaguara vocabulary . . . 601
Padsade „ . . . 594
Paduca group .... 442
Pahri or Pahi vocabulary . . 22
Paioconeca ,, . . 502
Pakhya „ . . ISl
Pakpak Batta vocabulary . . 288
Palaik „ . . 407
Palaong „ . . 53
PaU „ . . 621
— — the language of Buddhism . 617
Pampas, languages of the . .484
Panos glosses and inflections . 516
Papel vocabulary . . .594
Papuan ,,..,. 331
Pamkalla ,,.... 354
Paropamisan group cf languages . 236
Farsi language .... 256
Scriptures .... 620
Participles and Infinitives, their
nature and inflection . . 720
Pashai vocabulary . . . 239
Patacho ,, ... 511
Patau or Pukhtu vocabulary . 253
PatemosterB in Turkish dialects . 113
Patois, graduating forms of
ambiguous
Paumotu vocabulary
Pauro-syllabic languages
Pawni vocabulary
Payagua „
Peba „
Pedro (S.) vocabularies
Peel River vocabulary
Pegu, Mon language of
Pehlevi language
Pelew vocabulary
Pelu „
Peninsular languages
Permian vocabulary
Persepolitan language
Persian ,,
vocabulary
Pern, the general language of
Peruvian grammar and dictionary,
account of a . . .
Phenician alphabet . .
known only from inscrip-
tiODS
inscriptions .
far
Philippine languages
Physical conformation, how
coincident with language .
what affects
it, what affects language .
Piano^otto vocabulary ,
Pict language found in a copy of
Juvencus, specimen of, with
translations byl^ash and Williams
Piede (or Pa-uta) vocabulary
Piedmontese ftoper vocabulary
compared with French and
Italian .....
Pima vocabulary
Pinalero ,, ...
Pinegorine ,, ...
Pinoco language, subdivisions of
the
Pirinda, specimen of .
Piskaws vocabulary
Plautus, specimen of Punic in
Plurals
Poenulus of Plautus, the
P(^gi vocabulary ....
Poignavi of Humboldt ,
Polish language ....
Polynesia Proper
Polynesian languages, eminently vo-
calic .....
Polysynthetic languages
■- import of the term .
3 D
FAGB
6
ib.
328
477
470
515
496
494
352
56
256
320
87
165
151
608
254
259
481
ib.
525
526
526
313
707
708
491
670
443
661
427
394
353
504
4S2
399
526
726
ib.
292
486
630
324
380
430
770
INDEX,
PAGE
Pome vocabulary . . . 332
Port Dorey, language about . .331
Port Philip vocabulary . .355
Port Praslin ,, . . . 336
Portuguese, specimen of . . 646
Potowatami vocabulary . .449
Pracrit, meaning of the term . 617
Priyadasi inscriptions . . .614
Pronouns, exclusive and inclusive
Oceanic ..... 379
Provencal, earliest specimen of . 644
■ common to France and
Spain . . . • . 645
Prussian, Old ... . 624
Pueblo languages . . . 445
Pujuni vocabulary . . .412
Pukhtu ,, . . .252
Pumpokolsk vocabulary . . 94
Punic language in Plautus, speci-
men of . . . . . 526
Punjabi, its grammatical character 219
vocabulary . . .218
Puquina, paternoster . . . 483
Punis vocabulary . . .514
Pushtu „ ... 252
Pwo ,, ... 46
Quantity and Quotiety . . 731
Queen Charlotte (Cape), language
of 341
Quichua, the general language of
Peru 481
vocabulary . . . 483
Quin.iry numeration . . .380
Rajmahali vocabulary . . . 200
Ramusi ,, . . . 246
Raphael (San) ,, . . . 414
Rask's Lap grammar . . .162
Redscar Bay vocabulary . . 335
Reindeer Tshuktshi ,, . .171
Rejang „ . .290
Riccari ,, . . 470
Rodiya ,, . . 233
Romaic or Modern Greek, dialects
of 655
Roman alphabet, applications of the 78
Romance language, two main dia-'
lects of 647
Romanese, specimen of . . 647
Ron vocabulary .... 332
Rossawn ,,.... 228
Rotti, language of . . .301
vocabulary . . . .302
Rotuma „ . . . . 326
Rainga „ . . . .228
PAGE
Rukheng vocabulary . . .48
Rumanyo or Roumain vocabulary . 648
compared with Latin . ib.
Ruslen vocabulary . . .416
Russian alphabet, observations on
the _ 78
Rustica (Lingua). . . . 650
Sabuyah vocabulary . . . 51 3
Sacramento (Upper) vocabulary . 412
Sahaptin group of languages . 440
Sapitic dialect of Coptic . . 546
Sak vocabulary . . . .40
SakaiTan ,, . . . . 306
Salawatti ,, • . • • 332
Salbin „ . . . .109
Saldanha Bay vocabulary . . 598
Salivi vocabulary . . . 493
Salt Lake dialects . . . 439
Samaritan language . • .527
alphabet older than the
Hebrew .....
Samoyed, to whom the name first
applied
dialects, recent investi-
gations of . . .127,
and Yenisean, affinities
between .....
Samucu language, dialects of the .
Sandracottus identified with Chan-
dragupta ....
Sandwich Islands, language of .
Sangara (mouth of) vocabulary
Sangouw vocabulary .
Sanskrit, the old literary language
of India . . . . 608,
substantives and pro-
nouns, Latin illustrations of
substantives and pro-
nouns, Lithuanic illustrations of
verbs, Greek illustrations
of
gener
Lithuanic its nearest con-
Slavono - Lithuanic in
phonesis . ....
conjectures on the origin
of its connection with European
languages ....
two divisions of the
its true aspirates .
Brahmins its expositors
works in . . .
vocabularies
compariitive vocabula-
ries of Chinese and . 621,
526
130
129
119
505
615
325
76
306
610
ib.
609
610
ib.
ib.
611
617
618
ib.
ib.
243
622
ind::x.
771
of North,
essay
Saparna vocabulary
Sapiboconi ,,
Sarar ,,
Saraveca ,,
Sardinian, specimens
South, and Central
Sarmatian languages sibilant
Sasak vocabulary
Sassanian memorials
Satawal vocabulary
Sauki ,,
Savaneric , ,
Savara ,,
Savoy, jmtois of
Savu, vocabularies of
Scandinavian languages
peninsula originally
Lap • . . . .
Schematic inflections .
Schleiermacher's prize
Comparative Philology
Scotch Keltic vocabulary
Selenga vocabulary
Semitic languages, character of the
initial and me-
dial changes in . . .
SerawTilli or Seracolet language
vocabulary .
Seroci ,, ...
Serpa ,, ...
Servian, alphabet of the
Sekumne vocabulary .
Selish dialects ....
vocabulary
Seneca ,, ...
Sgau „ ...
Shabun ,, ...
Shan, Eastern and Western, voca-
bularies of . . . .
Shangalla language .
vocabulary .
Shankali ,, . .
Shasti ,, ...
Shawni ,, . . .
Shellu ,, . . .
Shendu, Capt. Ticket's vocabulary
of the .....
Shenvi Brahmins, mother tongue
of the
Sheshatapoosh vocabulary .
Shibboleth, Samaritan form of
Shilluk vocabulary
Shiho ,,
Shina vocabularies
Shoshoni , ,
Shyenne language
PAGE
310
499
595
600
643
630
298
255
321
452
437
187
5
301
660
163
710
49
666
84
600
601
692
696
332
14
628
412
399
404
464
46
551
52
546
557
557
407
452
541
41
227
450
626
. 551
. 555
. 237, 250
404, 409, 442
. 455
Shyenne vocabulary
Siah Posh ,,
Siam, population of .
Siamese group
poetry and music
vocabulary
Siberia, ethnology of .
Turkish of .
Sibnow vocabulary
Sideia, vocabulary of a sub-dialect
of .
Sikkim languages
Silong vocabulary
Singalese ,,
Singkal Batta vocabulary
Singpho group of dialects
vocabulary
Siraiki ,,
Sitka ,,
Skipitar language
Skittegats vocabulary .
Skoffi , , .
Skulls, artificially flattened
Skwali vocabulary
Slave ,,
Slavonic division of the Sarmatian
class . . ^
list of words
Slovak, ■where spoken .
Slovenian or Ugrian languagi
Soana dialect of Italian
Sobo vocabulary .
Socrikong ,,
Sohili ,,
Soiony ,,
Sok or Sokpa vocabulary
Sokhalar, the
Sokko language .
Sokotran vocabulary
Soledad „
Solomon Isles
Solor vocabulary
Songpu ,,
Sonora, language of
Sontal vocabulary
Sow ,,
Spanish, specimen of
patois
Stages of languages
Sub- Semitic, application of the
term
meaning
Substance and Attribu
Subtiabo vocabulary
Sudania or Kigritia
Sulu vocabulary
of
772
INDEX.
and
Sumatra, dialect of . •
■ dialects of islands off
Sumbawa vocabulary
Sumchfi , ,
Sumenap ,,
Sunda language .
vocabulary
Sunghai area
Suntah vocabulary
Sunwar , , .
Swedish language
Swiss German language .
Sydney vocabulary
Synthesis and analysis
Syriae of Damascus, Emesa,
Edessa .
vocabulary .
modern
Tablung vocabulary
Tagala ,,
Tahiti ,,
Tahlewah ,,
Takeli „
Takpa ,,
Takulli „
Takyul, language of
Talatui vocabulary
Talamenca , ,
Talmud, language of the
Tamanak vocabulary
Tamul vocabularies
Tana vocabulary
Tandia. „
Taneamu ,,
Tanema ,,
Tanguhti , ,
Tankhul, north
Tanna language, grammar of the
Tao, existing dialect of the .
Tapua, or Nufi language .
Tarahumara, specimen of
Tarakai vocabulary
Taraska paternoster
Tarawan vocabulary
Taremuki ,,
Taruma , ,
Tasmanian spoken by less than
. fifty individuals
■ its Papuan affinities
' ■ — dialects, vocabularies of
Tater vocabulary . . . ,
Tavastrians, the ....
Tawgi vocabulary
Tekeenika ,,
Telega or Telinga vocabulary ,
PAGE
287
293
298
15
297
295
296
580
306
26
662
659
351
713
531
539
538
. 33
. 313
. 325
. 409
. 551
. 13
. 391
. 13
. 414
. 437
. 538
. 492
200, 203
. 338
. 332
. 337
. ib.
. 67
. 43
329
504
575
429
169
432
323
245
493
371
370
362
249
152
133
484
202
Teleut ....
Tengsa ....
Teressa ....
Ternati vocabulary
Terra incognita of Africa defined
Tesuque vocabulary . .
Texas, derivation of the word
leading languages of
Texian Indians, list of
■ — statistics of .
languages, outline of
PAGE
107
32
284
310
755
445
472
471
473
474
475
15
181
50
546
15
16
46
245
692
13
17
Thaksya language
Tharu vocabulary
Thay group ....
Thebaic dialect of Coptic
Theburskud dialect
Thochu vocabulary
Thoung-lhfi ....
Thug numerals ....
Tibbu language ....
Tibetan language, written and spo-
ken, compared
vocabulary . .
and Burmese, affinity be-
tween . . . . .68
Ticino dialect of Italian, specimen
of the 639
Ticopia vocabulary . . . 327
Ticuna poison ... . . 496
Indians .... ib.
Ticunas vocabulary . . .497
Tigre, its relation to the Gheez . 533
vocabulary . . . 636
Timbiras ,, ... 512
Timbora vocabularies . . 299, 383
Timmani vocabulary . . . 595
Timor language .... 299
meaning of the terra . . 302
Timur, memoirs and institutes of . 102
Tirhai vocabulary . . . 237
Tiverighotto . . . .491
Tiwi 665
tl, a Mexican sound . . . 430
Tlatskanai vocabulary . . . 394
Toba paternoster . . . 506
Batta vocabulary . . 288
Tobi vocabulary . . . .320
Tobolsk „ . . . .107
Tocantins ,,,.., 613
Toma „ . . . .486
Tonga ,, . . . .325
Tonkin ,,.... 61
<ra tfSnu*, &c 722
Tosk dialect of the Albanian . 606
Totonaca, specimen of . . . 432
Trinal number (Oceanic) . . 379
INDEX.
773
Triton Bay Tocabulary
Tsagatai blood, the Mognl dynast;
of
I^amak vocabulary
Miamba, different applications of
the word ....
lyiapodzhir vocabulary
Tshari ,, . .
Tshek, the native name tor tiia
Bohemian ....
l^heremis vocabulary .
Tsherimis ,,
Tshetsh „ ...
Tshinuk language
vocabulary .
Tshokoyem ,,
Tshnlim, tribes of the
Toeabolaiy
Tshnvash „ ...
Tshampa „ ...
Tsherkess division
vocabulary .
Q^etsh grammar
Tsfauktshi Nos vocabulary .
Tubar, specimen of . .
Tuda vocabulary
Tnkiii „ . . . .
Tulare ,,....
Tulu or Tulava vocabulary .
Tumu vocabulary
Tung Mru tribe ....
TttDgus languages
orthography, observations
grammar, Castren's .
vocabulary
Tunguska
Tunkin „ , . .
Tupi vocabulary ....
To*T»fur4s and Tvfhis
Turanian class, general observations
on the .....
Turcomans, the ....
Turin dialect of Italian
TuA, first appearance of the name
in history ....
language, original area of the
wide signification of the word
area, its great extent
language, displacements
effected by the
paternosters
Turks of Siberia
Turkish vocabulary
Tuscarora ,,
Tushi, grammatical structure of the
PAGE
334
101
412
582
77
272
629
115
U9
275
402
404
415
105
107
115
283
279
2S0
277
387
428
207
100
416
205
564
39
72
79
72
117
77
84
508
723
177
103
641
100
177
93
id.
9
113
111
100
463
274
Tver, Rn of
Type, classification
according to
of languages
Uchee vocabulary
Udom ,,....
Udso ,
Dea=Wallis's Island .
vocabulary
Ugrian class of languages
chief languages of the
area, original
metres, analysis of
and Fin, nearly synonomous
Cgrians, territorial distribution of
the
aboriginal
Uighur Turks
Uigur vocabulary
Ukah ,,
Ukuafi „
Ulea „
Ulu
Ulnt, the
Umiray vocabulary
Umk wa , ,
Unalaska „
Undaza ,,
Uraon ,,
TJriya „
Uta
Utatanata ,,
Uzbek dialect .
Yaddah, language of the
Valdieri dialect compared with
French and Italian .
Yalteline dialect of Italian, speci-
men of the ....
Van Diemen's Land, earliest voca-
bulary of ... .
vocabulary .
PAGE
153
6
469
566
567
343
344
125
126
176
158
127
127
154
100
17
173
545
321
292
85
113
394
386
564
201
229
443
334
103
232
642
639
362
370
337
668
644
21
620
Vanikoro vocabulary
Yannes, specimen of the Breton of
Yaudois, specimen of . . .
Yayu vocabulary
Yedas, hypothesis repecting the .
Yei alphabet, history of its inven-
tion ..... 574
Yeragua 438
Yilela vocabulary . . . 506
Yincent (Gulf of St) vocabu-
laries .... 358, 369
Yiti (or Fiji) Archipelago . .345
Yocalic euphony explained . . 586
Yod dialect .... 154
7Y4
INDEX.
PAGE
PAGE
Vod vocabulary .
159
Wylie (Mr.) Translation from
the
Vogul language .
146
Chinese by . . .
.
81
Volga Fins, the .
147
Votiak vocabvilary
151
Xavier (San) vocabulary
Xumano ,, .
424
495
Waag vocabulary
542
Wahitaho , ,
328
Yagua vocabulary
496
Waigifi „
330
Yakkumban ,,
354
Waikur paternoster
426
Yakut vocabularies .
Ill
117
conjugation
ib.
Yakutsk vocabulary
76
■»T*^/»nVi»ll.-»-»»
Y
424
Yangaro ,, . .
544
VUOtlUUia>l
Waikna , ,
437
Yala „
565
Waiyamera ,,
490
Yamea paternoster
497
Wakamba , ,
560
Yankton vocabulary
460
Wakash class
403
Yap „
321
Wallawalla vocabulary
440
Yanesei ,,
77
Wallis's Island .
343
Yengen „
343
Wandamin vocabulary
332
Yeniseian, import of the term
88
Wanika ,,
Wapisiana ,,
660
490
between the .
.
118
Warow ,,
493
vocabularies .
in
136
Watlaka „
402
Yeniseians, Kot and Kem glosses to
Weitspek ,,
410
determine the area of the
95
Weiyot ,,
405
Yerukali vocabulary
186
Wellington ,,
352
Yeso ,,
169
Welsh pronouns united with
verbs
669
York (Cape) ,, .
351
language, list of wo
rks in
Yoruba area
585
the .
672
n 'm.-t'n/-tfi-TTl1nViA la-nrviiA/v
e .
60^
uvo
vocabulary
664
TnilT'''ii'^ nf it" "nrpfivf"!
687
Widah ,,
569
Crowther's grammar
of'
Wihinasht , ,
442
the ....
586
Willamet , ,
406
Yukahiri, remarks on the .
123
Winebago ,, '
460
compared with the Sa-
Wiradurei ,,
352
moyed and other dialects .
121
Wishosk ,,
405
vocabulary .
117
Witouro , ,
352
Yula „
584
Witshita ,,
475
Yuma dialects
420
Woccon language
465
Yunga paternoster
483
Woddowrong vocabulary
354
Yuracares vocabulary .
499
Wokan
303
Yurak ,,
132
Wolof or Jolof language,
bard's
grammar of
593
Zamucu language, dialects of the .
505
vocabulary
596
502
~- '■ ■ VUvctPJUltU. J •
tables of affinities
'. 592
, 697
Zapara ,, . .
.
497
Women tattooed to become u
giy •
38
Zaza ,,
260
Woratta vocabulary
544
Zechariah a locus standi for He-
Woyawai , ,
490
brew ....
.
528
Written works create an ai
•tificial
Z));t;a=Adige
278
element in language .
538
Zend the language of the Parsi
Wulwa vocabulary
437
Scriptui-es
.
620
Wyandot , ,
.
464
Zirianian vocabulary .
.
151
Printed by Woodfall and Kinder, Angel Court, Skinner Street, London.
WORKS BY DR. R. G. LATHAM.
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Fifth Edition. Complete in 1 Vol 8vo,
l&t. doth.
A HAND-BOOK OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE ; for the Use of Stu-
dents of the Universities and Higher Classes of Schools, l^'ifth Edition. 1 vol. crown
8vo, 7.J- 6d. cloth.
AN ELEMENTARY ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR THE USE OF
SCHUOLS. Ei.;hteenth Tlioasand. Revised and enlarged. With Chapters on Parsing
and the Analysis of S< ntences, and on Punctoation, followed by Fxercises and Questions
for Examination. Small 8vo, is. 6d. cloth.
A SilALLER ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. By
Dr. K. G. LA.TUAK and Miss M. C. Mabe<. Second Edition. Fcap. 8vo, 2t. 6d.
cloth.
AN ENGLISH GRAMilAR FOR CLASSICAL SCHOOLS. Third Edition,
revised and much enlarged. Fcap. 8vo. i». 6d.
ELEMENTS OF COitPARATIYE PHILOLOGY. 8vo.
LOGIC IN ITS APPLICATION TO LANGUAGK 12mo. 6». cloth.
London : WALTON & MABERLY, akd LONGMAN & CO.
THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE VARIETIES OF MAN. In 1 vol.
8to. Illustrated, price 2\s.
MAN AND HIS SCIGRATIONS. In foolscap Svo. Price 5s.
THE ETHNOLOGY OF THE BRITISH COLONIES AND DEPENDEN-
CIES. Fi-olscap Svo, 5*.
THE ETHNOLOGY OF GREAT BRITAIN. Foolscap Svo, 5s.
THE ETHNOLOGY OF EUROPK Foolscap Svo, 5s.
DESCRIPTIVE ETHNOLOGY. 2 vols. Svo, 32«.
ETHNOLOGY OF INDIA. Separate. Svo, 16s. cloth.
London : JOHN VAN VOORST, 1, Patkbkostkr Row.
NATIVE RACES OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE.
London: BAILLIERE.
ESSAYS— PHILOLOGICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL.
London : WILLIAMS & NORGATE.
JOHNSONS DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGR A New
Edition : xrith namerons Emendations and Additions. By R. G. Latham, M.D.,
F.R.S. To be published in Bi-monllily Parts, forming, when c< mpleted, 2 vols. 4to.
London : LONGMAN, GREEN, & CO. ; and other Proprietors.
#
I
I
I
-»
University oi Toronto
Library
DO NOT
REMOVE
THE
CARD
FROM
THIS
POCKET
Acme Library Card Pocket
LOWE-MARTIN CO. LIMITED
<,sifr
:W*pf'"
■s
^f m
'\ %W mil
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11