GIFT OF
HARVEY'S LANGUAGE COURSE
ELEMENTS .
OF
COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC
WITH
COPIOUS EXERCISES IN BOTH CRITICISM AND
CONSTRUCTION
BY
VIRGINIA WADDY
Teacher of Rhetoric in the Richmond High School, Richmond, Va.
NEW-YORK ! CINCINNATI : CHICAGO
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
Copyright, 1889, by
VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG, AND COMPANY
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1888, by
VIRGINIA WADDY,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress.
WADDY'S RHET.
fcdnteb at
$be Eclectic presa
Cincinnati TIL S. a,
PREFACE.
THE object aimed at in the preparation of this work has been
to furnish a practical treatise on Composition and Rhetoric,
one sufficiently elementary for the lower grades of the high
school, and at the same time comprehensive enough to give a
fair knowledge of the principles and graces of Rhetoric.
While the discussion of simple, complex, and compound
sentences is the province of Grammar, a subject usually com-
pleted before that of Rhetoric is begun, it has been deemed
advisable to include these topics, for the pupil seldom possesses
the maturity of mind to comprehend thoroughly the laws of
Grammar, even when he undertakes to master the elements of
Rhetoric; moreover, his attention has been directed almost ex-
clusively to analytical processes, to the neglect of synthetical;
hence, he may be skillful in discovering the relations of words
in sentences formed by others, and be but a bungler in giving
expression to his own ideas. For a like reason, also, the sub-
ject of Concord, which perhaps belongs still more strictly to
Grammar, is included; not all of the syntactical arrangements
are noticed, only those wherein the grammatical principle re-
ceives a special signification from the rhetorical point of view.
The Reproductions furnish material for practice upon the
principles under discussion. As a means of securing ease of ex-
pression, they are of great value ; the material for the discourse
being furnished, the pupil is thus enabled to concentrate his at-
tention upon the form. A more advanced step towards original
writing is found in the Developments. These give play to the
imagination, and supply the details of a connected story; they
also furnish an excellent test of style, because they give no
(iii)
iv PREFACE.
assistance. In the first Developments, hints are given to guide
the pupil. This aid should be given with succeeding Develop-
ments only where the pupil may not fully understand the poem,
or where he might be discouraged without such assistance.
Although it may be said that the finer principles of literary
taste, fancy, and allusion, and the subtle music of rhythm, are
obtained only through a special sense developed by long and
minute discipline, and belong to the delicate and difficult sci-
ence of criticism, there are included in this treatise extracts
from masters of style, to which attention is directed; for it
must be conceded that, since a true appreciation of what is
best in our literature requires years of careful criticism, the
student's attention should be given to such criticism as soon as
his mind has attained sufficient maturity for the consideration
of the subject.
The "Exercises" with which the book abounds are given,
that the pupil may learn discourse by applying it. Some learn-
ers may, perhaps, need less of such practice than others; the
teacher can, therefore, omit what is deemed superfluous.
This work is in every respect the outgrowth of the class-
room; much of the subject-matter and many of the exercises
have been given as oral instruction in the author's classes, and
it is hoped that in other hands it will stand the only true test
of a school-book, the test of trial.
Most grateful acknowledgment is due to Prof. W. F. Fox,
Principal of the Richmond High School, for assistance and en-
couragement during the progress of the work.
Thanks are also due to several publishers for kindness in
allowing selections to be made from their publications, to
Messrs. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co., to the Century Company,
to Messrs. J. B. Lippincott Co., to Messrs. Chas. Scribner's
Sons, to Messrs. Roberts Bros., to Mr. Parke Godwin, and
to others whose names are mentioned in connection with the
selections copied.
RICHMOND, VA., January, 1890.
CONTENTS.
I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 9
Elements of the Simple Sentence II
Position of Phrases 14
Synthesis of the Simple Sentence ..... 16
II. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 21
Clauses of the Complex Sentence . . . .21
Synthesis of the Complex Sentence .... 29
III. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 35
Connectives . . . 35
Contracted Compound Sentences 39
Synthesis of the Compound Sentence .... 41
Exercises in Composition ...... 45
IV. TRANSFORMATION OF ELEMENTS 52
Contraction of Sentences 54
Expansion of Sentences ....... 64
Exercises in Composition ...... 66
V. CONCORD 76
Rules of Syntax ........ 76
Exercises in Composition ...... 88
VI. SYNTHESIS OF SENTENCES INTO A PARAGRAPH ... 93
Exercises in Composition ...... 98
VII. VARIETY OF EXPRESSION 106
Change of Structure ....... 106
Change of Phraseology . . . . . . .120
Exercises in Composition . . . . . .125
(v)
VI CONTENTS.
CHAPTER PAGE
VIII. STYLE 132
Diction 133
Purity of Diction 135
Propriety of Diction ....... 139
Precision of Diction . . . . . . .152
Synonyms . . . . . . . . .154
Simplicity of Diction . . . . . . .174
Construction of Sentences 180
Clearness of Construction . . . . . .180
Unity of Construction ....... 190
Energy of Construction 195
Harmony of Construction . . . . . . 214
IX. FIGURES OF SPEECH 218
Simile .......... 220
Metaphor 224
Personification 228
Allegory 230
Metonymy ......... 232
Synecdoche 234
Apostrophe . . 235
Vision 237
Antithesis .238
Epigram .......... 240
Irony .... 241
Hyperbole . 243
Litotes 244
Exercise in Figures 245
Exercises in Composition 250
X. THE PARAGRAPH 256
Construction of the Paragraph . . . . . 256
Exercises in the Paragraph 260
XI. THE SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF STYLE 267
Wit 26 7
Humor 270
Pathos 2 7i
Beauty and Sublimity . . . . . . .275
Extracts for the Critical Study of Style .... 284
CONTENTS. Vii
CHAPTER PAGE
XII. THE PARAPHRASE 297
Selections for Paraphrase ...... 299
XIII. PROSE COMPOSITION 309
Discourses ......... 309
Letters 312
Essays . . . , 318
Treatises 318
Travels 319
History 319
Fiction .......... 322
News 323
Exercise in Paraphrase and Composition . . . 325
XIV. PROSODY AND VERSIFICATION 336
Meter 336
Rhyme .......... 347
Stanza .......... 350
Poetical Pauses 367
XV. POETRY .368
Lyric 369
Elegiac .......... 370
Pastoral 370
Didactic . . . 371
Satirical .......... 372
Epic 372
Dramatic 374
XVI. CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION 375
COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC
CHAPTER I.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
/ Composition is the art of combining- ideas, or thoughts,
/and arranging them in order. As an art, it is regulated by
Yhe principles of Rhetoric.
Rhetoric, derived from a Greek verb meaning to speak,
is the science that discusses the means whereby thoughts
may be forcibly presented Aristotle, the oldest writer on
'the subject, defines rhetoric as "the faculty of perceiving
all the possible means of persuasion on every subject." As
its etymology suggests, it was originally limited to spoken
discourse; but since the principles which apply to spoken
discourse apply with equal force to written discourse, the
meaning of the term has been so extended as to include
both written and spoken composition.
Composition and Style. The two important divisions
of Rhetoric are Composition and Style.
^A Simple Sentence consists of one independent prop-
osition. It contains only one subjectTand one predicate;
buF"an indefinite number of words and phrases may be
brought into the sentence, and grouped about the subject
and the predicate as modifiers of these elements.
(9)
IO COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
The subject and the predicate can be enlarged onlyjby
the~a33ition of words wnSTphrases ; for, if another proposi-
tion, either subordinate or independent, be introduced, the
sentence is no longer simple, but complex or compound,
according to the nature of the proposition introduced. The
following examples will severally illustrate the simple, the
complex, and the compound sentence:
After reading the papers, I returned them.
Since this sentence contains but one subject and one
predicate, it is restricted to a single proposition, and is,
therefore, simple.
When I had read the papers, I returned them.
What was expressed in the first sentence by means of the
phrase " after reading the papers," is in the second sentence
expressed by means of the clause ' ' when I had read the
papers.'* This clause contains a subject and a predicate,
but, for completeness of meaning, depends on some word
in the succeeding clause. Such clauses are subordinate, or
dependent, and sentences containing such clauses are com-
plex.
I read the papers, and I returned them.
In the third sentence we use neither the phrase nor the
dependent clause, but express the ideas by means of in-
dependent propositions. Such a sentence is compound.
In its simplest form, the simple sentence consists of sub-
ject and predicate, without adjuncts. The first of the fol-
lowing sentences is in its simplest form. Observe how the
subject and the predicate are enlarged, in the three sen-
tences following, by the gradual addition of certain particu-
lars. Thus :
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
II
. John
Merry John
Merry John, the blacksmith's son,
Merry John, son of the black-
smith of White Plains,
ran quickly.
ran quickly down the hill,
ran quickly down the hill to bring
a bucket of water.
\
We see, therefore, that, by a skillful introduction of
words and phrases, even the simple sentence may be long
and difficult, and may express much.
Words introduced as modifiers are:
(1) Adjectives; as, "Honest men can speak for them-
selves."
(2) Adverbs; as, "The house fell suddenly."
(3) Nouns used as complements; as, "He is considered
a good man."
(4) Nouns used as adjective modifiers either possessive
or explanatory; as, "Thy fatJur's virtue is not thine";
"Mr. Barret, a surgeon, was writing a history of Bristol."
(5) Words used independently; as, "0, sir y hear me!"
DIRECTION. Write sentences illustrating all the points made above.
Phrases introduced as rnodifiers_ma^_be^preposi-
tionaLinfinitive. participial, or adjectival.
Prepositional Phrasc.-^^jgreposition and^jts object
forming_a_ prepositional phrp^, may HP hrought^into the
sentence and perform the office of:
(1) An adjective modifier; as, "The clouds of smoke will
disappear."
(2) An adverb modifier; as, "They walked beyond us ."
Without its preposition the noun may be used adverbi-
ally and become:
(1) An indirect object; as, " Give John the book"; or
(2) A noun of measure, direction, or time; as, "He sat
,n hour"
12 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
An infinitive phrase, "to" with its verb, may be
br0ught into the sentence, and become:
(1) A subject; as, "To forget an injury is noble."
(2) A complement; as, "The duty is to act"; "He told
me to go home"; "The doctor bade the man (to) walk."
(3) An adjective modifier; as, "Music hath charms to
soothe the savage breast."
(4) An adverb modifier; as, "Aim to speak well."
(5) An explanatory modifier; as, "This law, to love, is
recognized by Christians. "
(6) An independent phrase ; as, " To speak plainly, your
habits are your worst enemies."
(7) It may be the principal term of another phrase ; as,
"They are about to fall"
\
A participle or a participial phrase may be brought
into the sentence and become :
(1) A subject; as, "Dying for a principle is a high de-
gree of virtue."
(2) An adjective modifier; as, "Flowers, withering, soon
perish"; "The Knight, having called the squire aloud, dis-
mounted."
(3) A complement; as, ff Hope appeared smiling"; "I
saw a man laughing"
(4) The principal word of a prepositional phrase; as,
"By taking pains, you will succeed."
(5) The principal word in a phrase used as a comple-
ment; as, "Excuse my answering your question. "
(6) It may be independent; as, "Confessing the truth,
there were many bad traits in the character of Queen Eliz-
^beth."
The adjective phrase is one introduced by a word
used regularly as an adjective. Thus: "He was a man
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 13
generous in all things "; " His garden, gay with flowers, was
open to us."
The_absolute phrase is without grammatical depend-
ence onarv^ other word. It may consist of the name of a
"person or thing spoken of in exclamatory phrases; as, "0
their dreadful end!" or of a noun with a limiting adjective
or participle; as, "The storm having ceased, we departed";
or of the name of the person or thing addressed, modified
by words or phrases ; as, ' ' O, pardon me, thou bleeding
piece of earth"
DIRECTION. Write sentences illustrating all the points made above.
EXERCISE I.
DIRECTION. Supply appropriate subjects, so as to make complete simple sen-
tences. Thus :
tends his flock. The shepherd tends his flock.
commends the scholar.
overcomes difficulties.
promotes health.
make long voyages.
buries its eggs in the sand.
lies between the tropics.
will prove a source of happiness.
. yields a costly fur.
sounds the charge.
walks rapidly over the hot desert.
DIRECTION. Supply appropriate predicates, so as to make complete simple
sentences. Thus :
King John of France King John of France was led in
triumph through the streets of London.
A child eighteen months old ....
The President of the United States . .
Two honest tradesmen
In the flower of youth and beauty, she *
14 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
Montcalm, fighting gallantly at the head of the French, ....
Patrick Henry, styled by his contemporaries the " Orator of Nat-
ure,"
Tea and coffee, for a long time used only as luxuries,
The gleaming rushes
After walking at a brisk pace for half an hour, he
General Arnold, commander of West Point, *
POSITION OF PHRASES.
As a simple sentence may consist of an indefinite number
of words and phrases, a variety of changes in the arrange-
ment of its parts may be made. Thus the sentence, "On
a pleasant spring morning, with my little curious friend
beside me, I stood on the beach opposite the promontory,"
may be arranged in several ways; as,
With my little curious friend beside me, I stood, on a pleasant
spring morning, on the beach opposite the promontory.
I stood on the beach opposite the promontory, with my little curi-
ous friend beside me, on a pleasant spring morning.
On a pleasant spring morning, I stood on the beach opposite the
promontory, with my little curious friend beside me.
The particular position that a phrase should occupy
will generally depend on the sense intended; therefore,
phrases should usually be placed beside the parts of the
sentence they are designed to modify. This is especially
true of all phrases used as adjective elements, but phrases
used adverbially may be placed in almost any part of the
sentence. The taste of the writer must determine which
is the best place. Should the sentence contain a number
of phrases, they should not be grouped together at the be-
* To THE TEACHER. The pupil should here be taught the punctuation of
simple sentences. The rules for such punctuation, together with examples illus-
trating the rules, will be found in Chapter XVI.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 15
ginning, at the end, or in the middle, but they should be
distributed in such a way that the sentence shall be agree-
able to the ear. For example, in the sentence, "They
were imprisoned for three months in the town of Clinch
in an old stone house, dark and damp, and altogether bar-
ren of human comforts," the phrases are all placed together
after the verb, and the effect is unpleasant. By distribut-
ing the phrases, the statement may be more neatly ex-
pressed; thus,
For three months, they were imprisoned in the town of Clinch in
an old stone house, etc.; or, They were, for three months, imprisoned
in the town of Clinch in an old stone house, etc.
Clearness of meaning is of the utmost importance, and
often depends upon the arrangement of phrases. Hence it
is well in constructing sentences to try several arrange-
ments and carefully avoid those that admit the least doubt
as to the meaning.
It sometimes happens that several arrangements of a
simple sentence present the meaning with equal clearness ;
yet there may be still a choice of structure. It is not
enough that we express ourselves so as to be clearly un-
derstood; we should endeavor to arrange our sentences
neatly, elegantly, and harmoniously. Hence, when the
several varieties of structure have been made, ask yourself
the following questions: Which construction is clearest?
Which is neatest? Which is most harmonious?
EXERCISE II.
DIRECTION. Change the position of the words and phrases in the following
sentences in four ways, without altering the meaning :
1. Dogs, in their love for man, play a part in nearly every tragedy.
2. The sea for many hundred miles rolls and flashes over a shallow
bottom.
16 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
3. In the far East, tiny humming-birds are eagerly sought by the
ladies of high rank.
4. You have but to peep, in any lane, or brake, in spring, into a
bird's nest to see a number of mysterious spheres lying cozily in their
mossy couch.
5. Directly in front of the tent, and at no great distance from it, a
thick net-work of vines stretched between two trees.
6. The sun has thrown its shadow upon the pewter dial two hours
beyond the meridian time.
7. Nations, therefore, have fittingly rejoiced in every century since
the creation, in the joyfulness of harvest.
8. Then, standing in the center of his court, in the great hall of
Hatfield House, the Lord of Misrule bade his herald declare him
Lord Supreme from Christmas Eve to Twelfth Night.
9. Alone, in unuttered sympathy, the two ascended the steps of the
sacred temple to approach the shrine.
10. With a merry heart and a glad countenance, he eagerly en-
tered his mother's room early in the morning before breakfast.
SYNTHESIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES.
Synthesis is the process of combining separate state-
sentence: The"followmgTB-theTTtethod :
Separate
Statements.
' i. An Italian mariner made his appearance at various
courts.
2. He made his appearance successively.
3. These courts were in the south and west of Europe.
4. He was a citizen of Genoa.
5. Genoa was a little republic.
6. He made his appearance in the fifteenth century.
7. It was in the last quarter of the century.
Combined. In the last quarter of the fifteenth century, an Italian
mariner, a citizen of the little republic of Genoa, made his appearance
successively at various courts in the south and west of Europe.*
* NOTE. It will be observed that in the combined sentence all the elements
contained in each of the separate statements are woven together.
.Statement i is the principal proposition, or skeleton sentence.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. \J
Rhetorical^ analysis, the opposite of synthesis, is the
separation of a single sentenceTnto^the~ditterent statements
it The~~fottowmg ittustTates^the^nethod: ^
The Natural Bridge, over Cedar Creek, is a rocky mass spanning
the bed of the stream at a height of 2 1 5 feet.
{The Natural Bridge is a rocky mass.
It is over Cedar Creek.
It spans the bed of the stream.
It spans it at a height of 215 feet.
EXERCISE III.
DIRECTION. Combine each of the following groups of statements into a sim-
ple sentence. Try the sentence in various orders, and tell which construction
you prefer, and why. Attend carefully to the punctuation :
1. A favorite diversion was hunting. A favorite diversion was
hawking. These were diversions of the Middle Ages. They occurred
at intervals. They occurred during the intervals of war.
2. Former kings possessed large forests. These forests were in all
parts of England. The Conqueror was not content with these forests.
He resolved to make a new forest. He decided to make it near Win-
chester. Winchester was the usual place of his residence.
3. Alice Cary and her sister Phoebe planted the tree. They planted
it in their youth. It is the large, beautiful sycamore. It is seen in
passing along the Hamilton turnpike. It is seen in passing from Col-
lege Hill to Mt. Pleasant. These places are in Ohio.
4. It was an idle question. It was put to a railway acquaintance.
A name was spoken. It was spoken in a moment. The landlady's
Statement 2 contributes the single word " successively."
Statement 3 furnishes the adjective phrase " in the south and west of Europe."
Statement 4 adds the phrase " a citizen of Genoa"; this phrase is put in appo-
sition with the subject.
Statement 5 adds the words "little republic."
Statements 6 and 7, combined, appear in the form of an adverbial phrase, " in
the last quarter of the fifteenth century," which serves as a modifier of the predi-
cate.
Rhet.--2.
1 8 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
name was spoken. She was the best landlady in all Germany. She
was the dearest in all Germany. She was the jolliest in all Germany.
5. The youth was Narcissus. He was hunting one day. He was
hunting in the forest. He chanced to see the fountain. The fountain
was flashing. It was flashing beneath a stray sunbeam.
6. The daylight faded away. The moonbeams crept down. They
crept into the little glade. They came to bear him company. They
came to be with him in his faithful watch. They came to stay till
morning.
7. The prince was a dissolute young man. He was a debauched
young man. He was eighteen years of age. He bore no love to the
English. He declared his intention. He intended to yoke the En-
glish to the plow. He would yoke them like oxen. He would do this
on coming to the throne.
8. It was a monster of a bee. It had been wandering overhead.
It was now among the leaves. It was now flashing through the strips
of sunshine. It was now lost in the dark shade. It finally appeared
to be settling. It appeared to be settling on the eyelid of David Swan.
9. Their two faces were grim. Their two faces were wrinkled. They
were ghastly with guilt and fear. Their faces bent over their victim.
They looked horrible. Their looks might have caused them to be
mistaken for fiends.
10. We should suit our behavior to men. We should suit it to the
several degrees of men. Of these degrees, there are three. We should
suit our behavior to our superiors. We should suit it to our equals.
We should suit it to those below us. This is the principal point of
good breeding.
11. Ben was still stunned by the change. The change was sudden.
It was terrible. The change was in his affairs. Ben sat gazing out
of the window. It was the window of the coach. He hoped to see
some phenomenon. He wished the phenomenon to be monstrous.
He hoped to see it in the street. He wished it to prove the awful
state to be only a dream. The awful state of his affairs inspired this
hope.
12. The glow showed him a figure. The figure was shown by the
fire's glow. It was a wood fire. The glow was a dull red. The fig-
ure was seated. It had its back to him. The figure sat on the hearth.
It bent over the light. The light was fitful.
13. To come alone was to remind him. To come thus with the
chaise was to remind Sampson Brass. It was for Kit to come in this
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 19
way. Brass was reminded of some mission. The mission called Mr.
Swiveller to some place. It might be to Peckham Rye again. It
would surely be to some distant place. From this distant place he
could not be expected to return for two or three hours. It might
be for a much longer period. This longer stay was altogether prob-
able.
14. The water sports with its freight. The water is resistless. The
freight is ghastly. The water bruises its freight against the slimy piles.
It hides it in mud. It hides it in long grass. The grass is rank. The
water drags its freight heavily. It drags it over rough stones. It drags
it over gravel. It feigns to yield it to its own element. It lures it away.
It flings it at last on a swamp. The swamp is a dismal place. The
water flings its freight to remain there forever.
15. Miriam bade farewell to this nest. It was a dove's nest. She
bade farewell from the threshold. She did this with a long regard.
She turned from this one little nook. It was a nook of pure thoughts.
It was a nook of innocent enthusiasms. She had now stained it with
her dark trouble.
1 6. The Niobe of Nations is made to bewail. She is made to be-
wail anew. She bewails with sincerity. This is doubtless. She is
made to bewail the loss of part of her population. It is a large part.
She derives this part from other lands. This part affords her prosper-
ity. It is a remnant of prosperity. She still enjoys this remnant. She
is made to bewail this loss on the approach of summer.
17. The Indian wife sailed with her husband for England. She
sailed in 1616. She had been instructed in the English language.
She bore an English name. She was "the first Christian of her na-
tion."
1 8. The first band of emigrants sailed from England, November,
1633. This band consisted of about two hundred gentlemen. They
possessed considerable rank and fortune. They professed the Roman
Catholic faith. They had with them a number of inferior adherents.
They sailed in a vessel called The Ark and the Dove. The band
was under the command of Leonard Calvert.
19. Patrick Henry electrified the minds of his colleagues. He did
this by his brilliant displays of argument and eloquence. This was in
March, 1775. He had electrified them before. His colleagues were
hesitating and reluctant. They hesitated to enter upon a contest with
the mother-country. This occurred in the Virginia Convention. Pat-
rick Henry was styled by his contemporaries the "Orator of Nature."
2O COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
20. Edward Plantagenet was the eldest son of King Edward III.
He was born at Woodstock, in 1330. He was commonly called the
Black Prince. He was called the Black Prince from the color of his
armor. The color of the armor was specially chosen. It set off the
fairness of his skin and hair.
EXERCISE IV.
DIRECTION. Analyze the following simple sentences :
1. Indian Territory is a large tract originally set apart for Indian
tribes removed from their homes east of the Mississippi.
2. The South Atlantic States were the scene of stirring events in the
Revolutionary War, being at one time the chief battle-ground.
3. Its mountain-ranges, clad in forests, contain great mineral wealth,
to some extent developed.
4. Indigo is a blue dye obtained from the leaves of several species
of plants largely cultivated throughout the warm regions of Asia.
5. In 1520, Magellan entered the Pacific by passing through the
strait since called by his name.
6. At the dawn of day, on the 1 2th of October, 1492, Columbus saw
before him a level island, several leagues in extent, and covered with
trees like a continuous orchard.
7. The Spaniards found the native tribes, everywhere on the route,
in a state of cultivation beyond that of nomadic hordes, with fixed
places of abode and a liberal subsistence from the tillage of their lands.
8. The national vanity of the English, highly stimulated by the
victory of Agincourt, and the short-lived conquest of French territory,
was now exasperated by the reverses of the war in France.
9. According to a tradition in our family, Henry Hudson, the great
navigator, on being blessed with a view of the enchanting island of
Manhattan, exhibited, for the first and only time in his life, strong
symptoms of astonishment and admiration.
10. At daybreak the next morning, the red ensign, the well-known
signal for battle, was seen flying over Varro's headquarters, just in
front of the main army then forming in order of battle on the right
bank of the river.
CHAPTER II.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE.
/" A Complex Sentence consists of one independent, or
/ principal, proposition, and one or more subordinate propo-
Vsitions, or clauses.
Every clause contains a subject and a predicate, and every
proposition contains a subject and a predicate, hence, inde-
pendent propositions are likewise clauses; but, as subordi-
nate propositions perform merely the functions of adjectives,
or adverbs, or nouns, we shall use the word "clause" with
special reference to those dependent, or subordinate, prop-
ositions, introduced by connectives.
CLAUSES.
There are three kinds of clauses : (i) The adjective clause ;
(2) The adverbial clause; (3) The substantive, or noun,
clause.
i. An adjective clause performs the officeof an ad-
jective: rrrnaylnodify any noun or pronoun in the princi-
pal proposition. It is generally joined to the principal
statement by a relative pronoun or by a conjunctive adverb,
as "where," "when," "why"; thus,
He prayed for those whose love had been his shield.
"Whose love had been his shield " is an adjective clause,
connected with the principal statement, "he prayed for
those," by means of the relative "whose." The clause
modifies the pronoun "those."
22 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
He came to a garden where rich roses bloomed.
" Where rich roses bloomed" is an adjective clause, in-
troduced by the conjunctive adverb " where," and modify-
ing the noun "garden."
This was a time when brave hearts trembled.
"When brave hearts trembled" is an adjective clause,
introduced by the conjunctive adverb "when," and modi-
fying the noun "time."
The hate which we all bear with the most Christian pa-
tience, is the hate of those who envy us.
"Which we all bear," etc., is an adjective clause modify-
ing the noun "hate." "Who envy us" is an adjective
clause modifying the pronoun "those."
Adjective clauses may be classified as restrictive and non-
festnctive. Torres tiictive clause limits the application, or
the meaning, of the word it modifies; as, "The person
who stole my money is in this company." A non-restrictive
clause does not so limit, or restrict, the application of the
word it modifies; thus, "Their dark faces were set off by
cloth caps, which were drawn down aslant over their brows. " *
The relative pronoun introducing an adjective clause not
restrictive, should be "who" or "which." Example: "I
heard this from the commander, who (and he) heard it
from the aid that carried the message."
The relative introducing a restrictive clause should be
"that," if euphony allows.
Abbott says, "'Who,' 'which,' etc., introduce a new
* N OTE. For fuller explanation of restrictive and non-restrictive clauses, the
pupil is referred to "Adjective Clauses" under the rules for the punctuation of
complex sentences, Chapter XVI.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 23
fact about the antecedent, whereas 'that' introduces some-
thing without which the antecedent is incomplete or unde-
fined."
The principal cases where "who" and "which" are
used, instead of "that," to introduce restrictive clauses are :
1. If the antecedent is qualified by the adjective "that,"
the relative pronoun must not be "that."
Notice how disagreeable the repetition of "that" in the
sentence, ' ' That cloak that I wore to-day is not that that
you admire."
2. Near "that" used as a conjunction it is sometimes
unadvisable to use ' ' that " as a relative. Example : ' l There
is the horse that I said that I regretted that I had bought."
3. To avoid ending a sentence with a preposition, it is
often necessary to place the preposition before the relative ;
now, since "that" can not be preceded by a preposition,
"whom" or "which" must in such cases be used instead.
Example: "This is the fence that I fell over" This would
be more agreeably expressed thus: "This is the fence over
which I fell."
4. After pronominal adjectives used as personal pronouns,
"who" is preferred to "that." Thus: "There are some,
others, several, many who hold," etc.
5. When "that" is separated from its antecedent and
from its verb, and made emphatic by its separation, "who"
or "which" should be used instead. Abbott illustrates
this objectionable use of "that" by the sentence, "There
are many persons that, though unscrupulous, are commonly
good-tempered, and that, if not strongly incited by self-
interest, are ready for the most part to think of the interest
of their neighbors."
6. Since "that" applies to both persons and things, its
use may be somewhat ambiguous when the antecedent does
c
24 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
not express which is meant. This is the case with such
antecedents as "one" and "all." Now "who" instead of
"that" would decide at once for persons; "which" for
things.
EXERCISE V.
DIRECTION. Point out and classify the adjective clauses in the following sen-
tences, and tell what they modify. In cases where the restrictive relative "that"
is not used to introduce restrictive relative clauses, state the reason why :
1 . Behavior is a mirror, in which every one shows his image.
2. Books that you may carry to the fire and hold readily in your
hand are the most useful after all.
3. Tall are the oaks whose acorns drop into dark Auser's rill.
4. Earnest people, who try to get a reality out of human existence,
are necessarily absurd in the view of the revelers.
5. Hilda's disappearance, which took place the day before, was
known to them through a secret channel.
6. We paint such qualities as we do not possess.
7. The evil that men do lives after them.
8. The sorrows that wring our hearts often leave them better fitted
for life's realities.
9. Cats that wear gloves catch no mice.
10. I have something that will suit you.
1 1 . There are times when every active mind feels itself above any
and all human books.
12. Thrice is he armed that hath his quarrel just.
13. Congress, which was in session since last December, has ad-
journed.
14. They remind me of that portion of Aladdin's palace which he
left unfinished.
r$. Kenyon saw that she was in one of those moods of elevated
feeling which is really more passionate than emotions far exceeding
it in violence.
1 6. This is the mark beyond which I jumped.
2. An adverbial clause is a clause equivalent to an ad-
verb. It modifies a verb, an adjective, an adverb, or a
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 2$
participle, and denotes the various circumstances of place,
time, cause, manner, degree, consequence, etc. It is joined
to the principal statement by a subordinate conjunction or
by a conjunctive adverb.
The subordinate conjunctions most frequently used to
introduce adverbial clauses are:
if since though supposing that
than as whether inasmuch as
unless for that reason as if in order that
except that notwithstanding so as
because lest provided that as as
for
The conjunctive adverbs used to introduce adverbial
clauses are:
when as ere* after
while until before since
If all be well y we shall leave home in a week.
"If all be well" is an adverbial clause, expressing con-
dition, introduced by the subordinate conjunction "if, " and
modifying the principal predicate " shall leave home in a
week."
Expect nothing, lest you be disappointed.
" Lest you be disappointed" is an adverbial clause ex-
pressing result, introduced by the subordinate conjunction
"lest"
Corruption wins not more than honesty receives.
"Than honesty receives" is an adverbial clause of com-
parison, introduced by the subordinate conjunction "than."
We listened while he played.
"While he played" is an adverbial clause of time, intro
Rhet. 3.
26 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
duced by the conjunctive adverb "while," and modifying
the principal predicate " listened."
V/here your treasure is, there will your heart be also.
"Where your treasure is " is an adverbial clause of place,
introduced by the conjunctive adverb "where."
EXERCISE VI.
DIRECTION. Classify the adverbial clauses in the following sentences, and
tell what they modify :
1 . Though they fell, they fell like stars.
2. Halt, where thou art.
3. We only did as we were politely requested.
4. Had he thy reason, would he skip and play?
5. We set out early in flie morning, that we might reach the sum-
mit of the mountain by sunset.
6. Stay a little, that we may make an end the sooner.
7. The colorless substance known in ancient times as bird-lime, is
the gluten remaining after the starch in flour has been washed away.
8. When love begins to sicken and decay, it useth an enforced cer-
emony.
9. It is turning out a fine day, notwithstanding the morning was
wet.
10. Long and curious speeches are as fit for despatch as a robe or a
mantle, with a long train, is for a race.
n. He died as he had lived.
12. He then treated me with such unaffected kindness, that I was
moved to copious tears.
13. When you run into debt, you give another power over your own
liberty.
14. She saw not the bird, though it whirled untroubled by fear in
wanton circles about her head.
15. This law is short, in order that it may be more easily understood
by the ignorant.
3. A substantive, or noun, clause is a clause equiva-
lent to a noun. A noun clause may be :
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 2/
(1) The subject of a verb; as, "That you have wronged
me doth appear in this."
(2) An attribute complement, or predicate clause; as,
" Plato's definition of man is, 'Man is a two-legged animal
without feathers.' '
(3) An explanatory modifier in apposition; as, "Dr.
Watts' statement, that 'Birds in their little nests agree,' is
very far from being true."
(4) An object complement the direct object of a verb
or participle ; as, " Then the maiden clasped her hands and
prayed that saved sJie might be "; * * Having learned that it was
best to visit the ruins at midnight, we set out just after dark. "
(5) The object of a preposition, the preposition being
\ either expressed or understood; as, "Bonaparte thought
^ little about what he should do in case of success."
The noun clause is generally introduced by an in-
terrogative or relative adverb, by a subordinate conjunction,
w or by the interrogative pronouns ' ' who " or " what. " Thus :
Who had handled the gun, perplexed the good hunter no
little.
"Who had handled the gun" is a noun clause, subject
of "perplexed," and is introduced by the interrogative pro-
noun "who."
Some said that she had not been seen for six days.
"That she had not been," etc., is a noun clause, object
of "said," and is introduced by the subordinate conjunction
"that."
When he will come, is hidden from us.
"When he will come" is a noun clause, subject of "is
hidden," and is introduced by the interrogative adverb
"when."
28 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
EXERCISE VII.
DIRECTION. Point out the noun clauses in the following sentences, and tell
what functions they perform :
1 . The whole force of conversation depends on how much you can
take for granted.
2. That fortune favors the brave is a cheering maxim.
3. I heard that a battle had been fought.
4. How far I have succeeded is for you to judge.
5. I will find out whence you derive that idea.
6. We could never understand why he left so suddenly.
7. Mark, now, how a plain tale shall put you down.
8. Tell me not in mournful numbers,
Life is but an empty dream.
9. Charles Lamb, reading the epitaphs in the church-yard, inquired,
"Where be all the bad people buried?"
10. A sober melancholy was spread over my mind by the idea, that
I had taken everlasting leave of an old and agreeable companion.
11. We listened attentively to them relating what they had seen in
their travels.
12. I attempt to impress nothing upon you except, "Be careful still
of the main chance."
13. What man dare, I dare.
14. Know ye not that a little leaven leaveneth the whole lump?
15. What has chiefly perplexed us, however, among our friend's ad-
ventures, is the mode of her release.*
EXERCISE VIII.
DIRECTION. Complete the following complex sentences by supplying adjective,
clauses:
1. The man shows prudence.
2. France is the country where
3. He received the reward
* To THE TEACHER. The pupil should here be taught those rules that ap-
ply specially to the punctuation of complex sentences. See Chapter XVI.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 29
4. A metal is said to be ductile.
5. The house has been burnt.
6. Botany is the science
7. Offices of trust should be conferred only on those
8. John Wycliffe died in 1384.
DIRECTION. Complete the following complex sentences by supplying adverb^
ial clauses :
1. Be ready
2 the temperature of the ground seldom falls beA
low the freezing point.
3. The chase did not end till
4. Are friends as numerous in adversity ?
5. When be not terrified.
6. The Romans took Cincinnatus from the plow, that . . . . ...
7. Foul deeds will rise
8. He calls pleasure the bait of evil, because
DIRECTION. Complete the following complex sentences by supplying noun
clauses:
I requires no demonstration.
2. His excuse for not being present was
3. The King could not understand
4. We believe
5 is right.
6. . ... . . . is a traitor.
7. When the trial is concluded, we shall know
8. His courage and success illustrate the proverb
9. I am more willing to give .... than to ask
SYNTHESIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES.
Statements may be combined into a complex sentence by
making one statement the principal proposition, and the
other statement, or statements, dependent upon it. The
dependent statements may be embodied in the sentence by
means of modifying words, phrases, or clauses. Thus:
3O COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
Egypt has recently annexed large territory on the south.
Separate
Statements.
By this annexation, it now extends to the equator.
Egypt was once the most powerful country in the world.
Egypt was once the most civilized country in the world.
Egypt is still the most important division of Africa.
Combined. Egypt, once the most powerful and civilized country
in the world, and still the most important division of Africa, has re-
cently annexed large territory on the south, so that it now extends to
the equator.
| The rhetorical analysis of a complex sentence is ef-
\ fected by separating the sentence into the statements im-
^ plied in it. Thus:
"A caliph, who once reigned in Bagdad, built a palace renowned
for beauty and magnificence."
( A caliph built a palace.
I The caliph reigned in Bagdad.
Analysis. j The pa | ace was renowne d for beauty.
I The palace was renowned for magnificence.
Variety of Arrangement. As in the simple sentence
variety of arrangement is obtained by changing the position
of phrases, so in the complex sentence variety is effected by
changing thej)osition of phrases and clauses. Thus the sen-
the lock of the wicket which opened into the
castle garden, at the dead hour of midnight, the page put
the key, when all was silent in the garden, ' ' may be varied
thus:
At the dead hour of midnight, when all was silent in the garden,
the page put the key into the lock of the wicket which opened into the
castle garden.
When all was silent in the garden, at the dead hour of midnight,
the page put the key into the lock of the wicket which opened into the
castle garden.
At the dead hour of midnight, the page, when all was silent in the
garden, put the key into the lock of the wicket which opened into the
castle garden.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 31
EXERCISE IX.
DIRECTION. Change the position of the clauses and phrases in the following
sentences in at least three ways, without altering the construction or destroying
the sense. In making the changes, bear in mind the directions given for the
proper placing of the clauses :
1. Last night, as I lay fettered in my dungeon, I heard a strange,
ominous sound.
2. In prayer you will find that a state of mind is generated which
will shed a holy influence over the whole character.
3. In days long ago, when birds and flowers and trees could talk,
in a country far over the sea, there was a beautiful fountain.
4. If I were a prince, I would hire or buy a private literary teapot,
in which I would steep all the leaves of new books that promised well.
5. In the meantime, I talked on with our boarders, much as usual,
as you may see by what I have reported.
6. As I rode along the pleasant way, watching eagerly for the ob-
ject of my journey, the rounded tops of the elms rose from time to
time at the roadside.
7. However, before their astonished eyes, a little flower rose from
the water's edge, just where their friend had died.
8. His ear, though he did not seem to listen, caught every word of
the boastful talk.
9. When, at last, the White Ship shot out of the harbor of Barfleur,
there was not a sober seaman on board.
10. Soon after, the royal family, perceiving, too late, that they were
mere prisoners in the Tuileries, undertook to escape to Coblentz,
where the great body of emigrants resided.
/ Directions for the Synthesis of Complex Senten-
ces. In combining a number of given statements into a
complex sentence, be guided by the following directions :
i. Consider carefully the nature of the assertion in each
of the given statements so as to select the leading thought
for the principal proposition, and to determine what con-
nection the remaining statements have with the leading
ought.
COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
2. A clause should be placed beside the statement con-
taining the word it modifies, or to which it is grammatically
related.
3. An adjective clause must follow the noun it modifies;
an adverbial clause usually follows the word it modifies,
but a clause denoting time, place, cause, condition, conces-
sion, may precede it.
4. Words, phrases, and clauses should be placed as near
as possible to the words with which they are grammatically
connected.
5. In a long conditional sentence, where the condition is
introduced by "if" or "though," place the antecedent, or
"if-clause," first. Never, except when the "if-clause" is
emphatic, should it be placed after the consequent
EXERCISE X.
DIRECTION. Combine each of the following groups into one complex sentence:
1. The portrait of Parris is one of the best things in Mr. Upham's
book. Parris was the minister of Salem village. In the household of
Parris three children began their tricks. These children became ac-
cusers and witnesses. They became such under the assumed posses-
sion of evil spirits.
2. Benvenuto Cellini saw a salamander come out of the fire. He
saw it in his boyhood. On seeing the salamander, his grandfather
gave him a sound beating. He gave him the beating forthwith. By
means of the beating Cellini might better remember the unique prod-
igy. Cellini tells us this.
3. A youthful angel comes to us. At his coming, we are as yet
small children. At his coming, those two grown ladies have not of-
fered us the choice of Hercules. He holds in his right hand cubes
like dice. In his left hand, he holds spheres like marbles.
4. William Pitt entered public life at a very early age. He was the
second son of the first Earl of Chatham. William Pitt was the prime
minister of George III. He held this office at an early period of life.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 33
At such period, most men are just completing a professional educa-
tion.
5. The battle of Bunker Hill was fought on the iyth of June. It
was fought in the year 1775. It proved the bravery of the Americans.
It was followed by great moral results.
6. Some persons seem to be preparing themselves for eternity.
They seem to be preparing even in this life. They prepare for a
smileless eternity. They look hopefully forward to this eternity. They
prepare for it by banishing all gayety from their hearts. They pre-
pare for it by banishing all joyousness from their countenances.
7. The natives of Virginia seized on a quantity of gunpowder. It
was their first seizure of gunpowder. They sowed it for grain. They
Expected to reap a plentiful crop of combustion. They expected to
reap this by the next harvest. They expected a crop so plentiful as to
blow away the whole colony. The gunpowder seized by the natives
belonged to the English colony.
8. Again and again, the frigate appeared to be rushing on shoals.
It appeared to be rushing blindly. The sea was covered with foam.
Destruction would have been certain. It would likewise have been
sudden. Then the clear voice of the stranger was heard. The voice
warned them of their danger. The voice incited them to their duty.
9. To behold the peasantry is a pleasing sight. To behold them
in their best finery is a pleasing sight. Their ruddy faces are pleasing.
Their modest cheerfulness is delightful. To see them on a Sunday
morning is a pleasing sight. To see them thronging tranquilly along
the green lanes to church is most pleasant. At the time of their going
the bell is sending its sober melody across the quiet fields.
10. A clear river ran at the foot of this hill. The river was deep-
banked. It was bounded on one side by a slip of rich level meadow.
On the other side it was bounded by a kind of common. The com-
mon was for the village geese. The white feathers of the geese lay
scattered over its green surface. They were scattered there in the
summer season.
1 1. It is a sad thing to be born a sneaking fellow. It is much worse
than to inherit a hump-back. It is worse than to inherit a couple of.
club-feet. Looking upon such a fellow causes me sometimes a pecul-
iar feeling. The feeling tells of the necessity of our loving the crip-
pled souls. May I be allowed to use the expression " crippled souls"?
We should love them with a certain tenderness. This tenderness we
need not waste on noble natures.
34 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
12. You may observe a toil-worn man. He is seated upon a hob
at the door. He is without coat or waistcoat. His shoulder is peeping
through the remnant of a shirt. The shoulder is red. Muscular. Sun-
burnt. The man is mending his shoes. He mends them with a piece
of twisted flax. The twisted flax is called lingeL
13. Johnson showed roughness and violence. He showed these
qualities in society. They were to be expected in such a man. This
man's temper was not naturally gentle. It had been long tried by the
bitterest calamities. It had been tried by the want of meat. It had
been long tried by the want of fire and clothes. It had been tried by
the importunity of creditors. It had been tried by the insolence of
booksellers. The derision of fools had tried it. The insincerity of
patrons had tried it. It had been tried by bread. Such bread is the
bitterest of all food. It had been tried by those stairs the most toil-
some of all paths. It had been tried by deferred hope. Deferred hope
makes the heart sick.
EXERCISE XL
DIRECTION. Separate tht following complex sentences into the different
statements contained in them :
1. In the month of July, when the grass on the meadow was long,
many an hour have I spent in solitary enjoyment, watching the wavy
motion produced on its pliant surface by the sunny winds, or the flight
of the cloud shadows, like gigantic phantoms, as they swept rapidly
over it.
2. On Christmas day, 1770, I was surprised by a message from my
godfather, saying that he had sent a man and a horse to bring me to
Ashburton, and desiring me to set out without delay.
3. Straghan made such haste, that the Earl of Sutherland, who at
least pretended to have gathered together a body of fifteen hundred
men to meet Montrose, chose rather to join with Straghan.
4. Of these, one was a man of six or eight and fifty, who sat on a
chair near one of the entrances of the booth, with his hands folded on
the top of his stick, and his chin appearing above them.
5. The walls of Sir Roger's great hall are covered with the horns
of several kinds of deer that he has killed in the chase, which he thinks
the most valuable furniture of his house, as they afford him frequent
topics of discourse, and show that he has not been idle.
CHAPTER III.
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.
A Compound Sentence consists of two or more inde-
pendent propositions.
:The propositions joined to form a compound sentence are
of equal rank (co-ordinate). They are usually connected
by means of co-ordinate conjunctions; but they may stand
joined by their very position in the sentence connected
without any conjunction expressed.
r Co-ordinate Conjunctions are divided into four classes;
I namely, copulative, adversative, alternative, illative.
Copulative Conjunctions. When the members of a
compound sentence are in the same line of thought, the
second adding to the first, the third to the second, and so
on, they should be joined by copulative conjunctions^ The
following is a list of the principal copulative conjunctions:
and as well as not only but moreover
also secondly partly partly now
likewise first then further well
Adversative Conjunctions. When the propositions
present thoughts in contrast or in opposition to one another,
they should be joined by adversative conjunctions.) The
following are the principal adversative conjunctions!
but still yet however
but then nevertheless only notwithstanding
(35)
36 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
_. Alternative^Coniunctions. When the members pre-
sent thoughts in alternation expressing that which may be
chosen or omitted, they should be joined by alternative
conjunctions.^ The following are the principal alternative
conjunctions:
else or either or whether or
otherwise nor neither nor
Dilative Conjunctions. When the members express
thougKfs~one~of~which shall be an effect or consequence of
the other, or an inference from it, they should be joined
by illative conjunctions.) The following are the principal
illative conjunctionsT"
therefore whence so consequently
wherefore thus so that accordingly
hence so then then for
The following sentences illustrate the various kinds of
connection :
{Copulative) All the world's a stage, and all the men and women
merely players.
(Adversative} True, he served the state in his youth ; but then he
betrayed it in his old age.
(Alternative) Either Rome must destroy Carthage, or Carthage
will be a perpetual threat to Rome.
{Illative) They went away from town abruptly, so that I had no
opportunity of seeing them again.
Conjunction Omitted. Where the connection between
the members is either copulative or adversative, the con-
junction is frequently omitted. Abbott says, "When sen-
tences are short, conjunctions may be advantageously omit-
ted. The omission gives a certain forcible abruptness ; as,
' You say this ; I (on the other hand) deny it. ' ' Other
illustrations are:
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 37
Moderate lamentation is the right of the dead ; excessive grief, the
enemy to the living.
Fools build houses ; wise men live in them.
Ideas quickly fade; they often vanish quite out of the understand-
ing.
Some sentences complex in form are equivalent to com-
pound sentences. When the relation of the members is cop-
ulative, the conjunction may be, absorbed in a relative pro-
noun or a conjunctive adverb ; as,
James called for John, who [==and he] responded at once.
They shouted at the dog, which [and it~\ fled in affright.
We shall discuss this next week, when \=and then~\ we may pos*-
sibly come to a decision.
The monkey climbed into a tree, where [=and there~\ it sat chat-
tering to me.
While such constructions are frequently met with even
in good authors, it is better to avoid them. Modern writers
seldom use relative pronouns or conjunctive adverbs to in-
troduce independent propositions ; and where we find forms
passing into disuse, it is safer not to employ them. The
following lines from Prof. Bain's Composition and Rhetoric
furnish additional explanation on this point: "A relative
pronoun refers one clause to another in the same sentence,
but rarely connects two successive sentences. The old En-
glish usage of commencing a sentence with who for and he
is now obsolete ; the reason being that the relative expresses
a close connection between the members jomed. "
EXERCISE XII.
DIRECTION. Add to each of the following statements another statement, so
as to make a copulative compound sentence. Thus :
Return, and Return, and I will deal with thee.
1. He turned from the road, and ....
2. His action was not only considerate, but
38 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
3. Raleigh persevered in his attempts at colonization ....
4. Steam is used to propel great trains across the continent ; it is
also
DIRECTION. Add to each of the following statements another statement, so
as to make an adversative compound sentence. Thus :
He was often warned of the danger, but
He was often warned of the danger, but, for all that, he persisted in his mad
attempts.
1. Philosophy makes us wiseY men ;
2. It is a hard case ; still
3. Charms strike the sight, but ......
4. We seek ever the light of knowledge ....
5. He was wise and virtuous, yet
6. A whole city on fire is a spectacle full of horror
DIRECTION. Add to each of the following statements another statement, so as
to make an alternative compound sentence. Thus :
He must return soon He must return soon, or his affairs -will
go wrong.
1. I have no tears, else
2. Be generous, otherwise
3. Come ye in peace here, or.
4. We must take the current when it serves, or
5. Man does not stand in awe of man, nor
DIRECTION. Add to each of the following statements another statement, so
as to make an illative compound sentence. Thus :
They are idle; consequently They are idle; consequently
they are discontented.
1. This agreeth not well with me ; wherefore,
2. Pope desired to excel ; therefore
3. Our memories are most retentive in youth ; consequently . . .
4. Happiness does not consist in self-love ; hence
5. The Turkish government has possessed only two secrets for gov-
erning to drain and to brutify its subjects; hence
6. These barbarous tribes meet only to attack and to destroy each
other; so that
7. Infancy conforms to nobody; so that
8. The shadow of the earth, in every position, is round ; . . . .
9. Pittsburgh is the center of a rich coal region ; hence ....
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 39
CONTRACTED COMPOUND SENTENCES.
The members of a compound sentence may have a com-
TnTorpaTrm^eTtheF the subject oTthe predicate; IfTwhicir
case r tEe~sentence is said to be contracted. Triiis!
n~ jM "Tile~&^ his crown for-
ever," is equivalent to, "The king must reach Italy, or the
king must forfeit his crown forever" (contracted in the
subject; partly, also, in the predicate).
2. "A man of real information becomes a center of opin-
ion, and therefore of action "=" A man of real informa-
tion becomes a center of opinion, and therefore a man of
real information becomes a center of action ' ' (contraction
in the subject and adjunct, and in the predicate).
3. "I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him" = "I
come to bury Caesar; I come not to praise him" (contrac-
tion in the subject and in the predicate).
4. ' ' Stone walls do not a prison make, nor iron bars a
cage" = "Stone walls do not a prison make, nor do iron
bars make a cage" (contraction in the predicate).
5. "Religious controversy sharpens the understanding
by the subtlety and remoteness of the topics it discusses,
and embraces the will by their infinite importance "=
' ' Religious controversy sharpens the understanding by the
subtlety and remoteness of the topics it discusses, and
religious controversy embraces the will by the infinite im-
portance of the topics it discusses" (contraction in the
subject, and in adjuncts).
When the predicate relates to two or more subjects in
combination, the sentence is not contracted but simple ; as,
" (Four and three) make seven " ; " (Tennyson and Swin-
burne) are the only great living poets."
4O COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
EXERCISE XIII.
DIRECTION. Contract the following compound sentences, and; state the nat-
ure of the contraction :
1. How France was saved from this humiliation will now be seen,
and how the great alliance was preserved will now be seen.
2. The apple-trees slope with the hill, and in the spring the apple-
trees are covered with a profusion of the most beautiful blossoms, and
in the autumn the apple-trees are generally weighed down with their
load of red fruit.
3. In a few years, perhaps next year, the fine gentleman will shut
up his umbrella, and the fine gentleman will give it to his sister, and
the fine gentleman will fill his hand with a crab-tree cudgel instead of
the umbrella.
4. In the strength and ardor of youth, Rome sustained the storms
of war ; in the strength and ardor of youth, Rome carried her victorious
arms beyond the seas and mountains ; in the strength and ardor of
youth, Rome brought home triumphant laurels from every country
of the globe.
5. I was buried for a thousand years; I was buried in stone coffins;
I was buried with mummies and sphinxes ; I was buried in narrow
chambers at the heart of the eternal pyramids.
6. The island does not abound in grand prospects ; the island does
not abound in sublime prospects ; but the island abounds rather in
little home-scenes of rural repose and sheltered quiet.
7. My Uncle Toby went to his bureau, and my uncle Toby put his
purse into his breeches pocket, and, having ordered the corporal to
go early in the morning for a physician, my Uncle Toby went to bed
and fell asleep.
8. The fowls of the air furnish sustenance to man, and the beasts
of the field furnish sustenance to man, and the dwellers of the deep
furnish sustenance to man.*
#NOTE. The members of a compound sentence are subject to the rules of
punctuation that have been given for the simple and for the complex sentence;
but the pupil should here be taught the rules that apply specially to the punctua-
tion of the compound sentence. See Chapter XVI.
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 41
SYNTHESIS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES.
In combining detached statements into compound sen-
tences, the nature of the separate statements should be
carefully considered, so as to connect in construction the
members that are connected in sense ; the closest attention
should be given to the selection of the proper conjunction
when one is required. Remember that conjunctions mark
every turn, every change of relation ; therefore, it is of the
highest importance that the writer be able to estimate
closely, in every instance, the nature and extent of their in-
fluence.
In the synthesis of compound sentences, much use is
made of contraction ; the participial phrase is very useful,
and it is often advantageous to express certain ideas by
means of dependent clauses. The members of a compound
sentence may be:
(1) Simple; as,
" Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight,
And all the air a solemn stillness holds."
(2) Simple and Complex ; as, ' ' My uncle is a tall, hard-
faced man ; I fear him when he calls me ' child. ' '
(3) Complex; as, " To be content with what is sufficient,
is the greatest wisdom; he who increases his riches, in-
creases his cares."
(4) Compound sentences are sometimes made up of two
or more members used in pairs ; as, " Homer was the greater
genius ; Virgil, the better artist ; in the one we most admire
the man; in the other, the work."
The following examples illustrate the combination of de-
tached statements into a compound sentence:
Rhet. 4.
COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
Separate
Statements.
The Royal George went down with all her crew.
Cowper wrote an exquisitely simple poem about it.
The leaf holding this poem is smooth.
The leaf bearing the lines on his mother's portrait is
(^ blistered with tears.
Combined. When the Royal George went down with all her crew,
Cowper wrote an exquisitely simple poem about it ; but the leaf which
holds it is smooth, while that which bears the lines on his mother's
portrait is blistered with tears.
1. Sir Roger went out fully satisfied with his entertain-
ment.
2. We guarded him to his lodging.
3. We guarded him in a certain manner.
4. In this same manner we brought him to the play-
house.
5. We were highly pleased.
6. I, for my own part, was highly pleased with the per-
formance of the piece.
7. I was pleased not only with this.
8. The piece was excellent.
9. I was highly pleased by the satisfaction given by the
piece.
10. This satisfaction it had given to the good old man.
Combined. Sir Roger went out fully satisfied with his entertain-
ment, and we guarded him to his lodging in the same manner that
we brought him to the playhouse, being highly pleased, for my own
part, not only with the performance of the excellent piece, but with
the satisfaction which it had given to the good old man. Addison*
Separate
Statements.
#NOTE. In combining the statements embraced in the second group of the
examples given above, statement i forms the first member.
Statement 2 forms the second member.
Statement 3 is changed to a prepositional phrase, used adverbially.
Statement 4 forms a dependent clause of comparison.
Statement 5 becomes a participial phrase.
Statements 6 and 9 are expressed as co-ordinate phrases.
Statement 7 is given in the words " not only."
Statement 8 is expressed by the word "excellent."
Statement 10 appears as a relative clause.
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 43
EXERCISE XIV.
DIRECTION. Combine the statements in each of the following groups into a
compound sentence:
1 . The slow, regular swells of the great Pacific may be heard through
the day. One, listening, may hear them. They may be heard like a
solemn undertone. It is like a solemn undertone to all the noises of
the town. At midnight those successive shocks fall upon the ear.
They produce a sensation of inexpressible solemnity. All else is still
at midnight.
2. Only one sound fell upon the ear. That sound was the steady
step of the camel. Its feet were crunching through the hard crust.
We passed through long stretches of soft sand. Then even the sound
of the steady step seemed muffled. The broad foot sank under us
almost without a sound. This foot equals the tiger's in being soft and
springy.
3. The merchant was impressed with awe. This awe the humblest
sleeper usually sheds around him. The merchant trod lightly. The
gout would not allow him to tread more lightly. His spouse took good
heed not to rustle her silk gown. By reason of the rustling, David
might possibly start up all of a sudden.
4. In spite of her fatness, Fraulein Hahlreiner's step was elastic and
light. Her hands and feet were delicately shaped. Her broken En-
glish was the most deliciously comic and effectively eloquent language.
I have never heard spoken a language exceeding it in eloquence. She
cooked our dinner for us at two. She went shopping for or with us at
five. She threw us into fits of laughter at eight. She threw us into
laughter by some unexpected bit of mimicry or droll story. She tucked
us up at bedtime with an affectionate " Good night. Sleep well ! " All
these things, I can say for her.
5. The first introduction of tea into Europe is not known. It came
into England from Holland, in 1666. According to common accounts
it came thus. At this time Lord Arlington and Lord Ossory brought
over a small quantity. A pound of tea then sold for sixty shillings.
The custom of drinking tea became fashionable.
6. Ten years afterwards coffee as a beverage became highly fash-
ionable in France. It was made fashionable by the Turkish embas-
sador. He was in Paris. The elegance of the equipage recommended
44 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
it to the eye. The elegance of the equipage charmed the women.
The coffee was poured into brilliant porcelain cups. The napkins
were fringed with gold. Turkish slaves presented it on their knees
to the ladies. The ladies were seated on the ground on cushions.
These things turned the heads of the Parisian dames.
7. We must sail sometimes with the wind. We must sail sometimes
against it. We must do these things to reach the port of heaven.
We must not drift. We must not lie at anchor. We must sail.
8. In Naples, even the lowest class enjoy every blessing. Every
blessing to make the animal happy is theirs. They rejoice in a deli-
cious climate. They revel in high spirits. They have a happy facility
of satisfying every appetite. They enjoy a conscience giving no pain.
They are happy in a convenient ignorance of their duty.
9. This scene was silent. All the figures might have been shad-
ows [adverbial clause c f comparison]. The fire-lit apartment might
have been a picture [adverbial clause of comparison]. This scene
was hushed. I could hear the cinder fall from the grate [adverbial
clause of result], I could hear the clock tick in its obscure corner
[adverbial clause of result]. I even fancied [something]. I could
distinguish the click-click of the woman's knitting-needles.
10. The royal litter reeled more and more. Several of the nobles
supporting it were slain. At length it was overturned. The Indian
prince would have come with violence to the ground. His fall was
broken by the efforts of Pizarro. His fall was also broken by the
efforts of some other of the cavaliers. They caught him in their arms.
1 1. At break of day the kind people saw all the country under water.
The country included rr.any fields. These fields, the day before, were
beautiful with yellow wheat. They were beautiful with the green tops
of turnips. Other crops had beautified these fields. These kind peo-
ple were, at break of day, looking out for Sandy Smith and his family.
The surface of the flood was strewed with trees. It was strewed with
every kind of wreck from farms. Every kind of wreck from barns
and from houses strewed the surface of the flood.
12. The Indian men are hunters. The Indian men are warriors.
Such they are in their youth. The Indian men are counselors. They
are counselors in their old age. All their government is by counsel
of the sages. There is no force. There ar no officers to compel
obedience. There are no officers to inflict pu-*vshment.
13. The mocking-bird many times deceives 'the sportsman. He
sends the sportsman in search of birds. These birds, perhaps, are not
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 45
within miles of the sportsman. The mocking-bird exactly imitates
their notes. This admirable mimic frequently imposes on birds them-
selves. The birds are decoyed by the fancied calls of their mates.
They dive, with precipitation, into the depths of thickets. They dive
because of a scream. This scream seems to be the sparrow-hawk's.
14. Caesar was killed. Brutus came forward. He evidently wanted
to say something about the deed. The Senators did not wait to listen.
They rushed through the door. They made their escape. They filled
the people with confusion. They filled the people with indescribable
alarm. Some people closed their houses. Others left their tables and
places of business. Some ran to the place. They ran to the place to
see [something]. This something had happened. Others ran away.
These others had seen it.
EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.
The following selections are designed to give practice in
connected composition.
The exercise is to be a Reproduction of the poem in prose.
To make a pleasing reproduction, it is necessary :
(1) To read the poem until it is thoroughly understood.
(2) To know the essential parts so well as to be able to
write a continuous story, preserving a careful proportion of
parts.
(3) To give the poem fully enough and gracefully enough
to produce an agreeable effect.
To insure a pleasing effect in prose composition, it is nec-
essary to avoid rhyme. To be independent in the expression
of the ideas it is necessary to avoid the language of the poem.
When the poem is clearly understood it should be laid
aside, and the list of topics used to assist the memory. The
pupil should, from this list, write out the story in his own
words.
46 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
REPRODUCTION 7.
A NEST IN A POCKET.
A LITTLE bird went to and fro,
Once in the nesting season,
And sought for shelter high and low,
Until, for some queer reason,
She flew into a granary
Where, on a nail suspended,
The farmer's coat she chanced to see,
And there her search was ended.
The granary was in a loft,
Where not a creature met her ;
The coat had hollows deep and soft
Could anything be better ?
And where it hung, how safe it was,
Without a breeze to rock it ! '
Come, little busy beak and claws,
Build quick inside the pocket !
You never saw a prettier nest
In rye-field or in clover,
Than this wherein she sat at rest
When building work was over.
Three speckled eggs soon warmly lay
Beneath the happy sitter ;
Three little birds oh, joy ! one day
Began to chirp and twitter.
You would have laughed to see them lie
Within the good man's pocket,
Securely hid from every eye
As pictures in a locket !
Busy, and blissfully content,
With such a place for hiding,
The little mother came and went
To do their small providing.
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 47
And not a creature wandered in,
Her nestlings to discover,
(Except a wasp that now and then
About her head would hover.)
Until ah, can you guess the tale ?
The farmer came one morning,
And took his coat down from the nail
Without a word of warning !
Poor little frightened motherling !
Up from her nest she fluttered,
And straightway every gaping thing
Its wide-mouthed terror uttered.
The good man started back aghast ;
But merry was his wonder
When in the pocket he at last
Found such unlooked-for plunder.
He laughed and laughed. "Upon my ward,"
He said aloud, "I never!
Who could suppose a little bird
Would do a thing so clever?
Come, now! 'twould be a shame to harm
The fruit of such wise labor.
I wouldn't hurt you for a farm,
My pretty little neighbor!"
He put the coat back carefully :
" I think I have another;
So don't you be afraid of me,
You little bright-eyed mother.
I know just how you feel, poor thing,
For I have youngsters, bless you !
There, stop your foolish fluttering
Nobody shall distress you."
Then merrily he ran away
To tell his wife about it,
How in his coat the nestlings lay,
48 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
And he must do without it.
She laughed and said she thought he could !
And so, all unmolested,
The mother-birdie and her brood
Safe in the pocket rested,
Till all the little wings were set
In proper flying feather,
And then there was a nest to let
For off they flocked together.
The farmer keeps it still to show,
And says that he's the debtor;
His coat is none the worse, you know,
While he's a little better.
MARY E. BRADLEY, in St. Nicholas.
TOPICAL OUTLINE.
Introduction. The bird's search for shelter.
She flies into a granary.
She finds the soft hollows in the farmer's coat.
She builds a nest.
Soon there chirp three little birds.
The mother undisturbed provides for them.
The farmer comes for his coat.
Discussion. \ _, r . , . r , ,' v
The fright of the mother and the nestlings.
The farmer quiets their fears.
He runs to tell his wife.
What the wife says.
The birds take their flight.
The farmer keeps the nest to show.
Conclusion. The effect of the farmer's kindness on his own heart.*
* NOTE. In all kinds of discourse there are but three main divisions the in-
troduction, the discussion, and the conclusion. The introduction is short, and is
designed to pave the way for the discussion. The discussion includes all that
bears directly on the subject. The conclusion consists of an inference or appli-
cation, and fitly closes the discourse.
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 49
REPRODUCTION II.
THE PUPIL OF CIMABUE.
A SHEPHERD boy beneath the pines
That clothe the solemn Apennines.
All through the day he played his pipe,
Or watched the wanderings of his sheep,
Or, when the pine-cone seeds were ripe,
He stored them like a squirrel's heap,
Or, half-awake and half-asleep,
He dreamed among the tangled vines.
Below him, shining in the sun,
Through Vespignano's verdant vale
He saw the slender rivulets run ;
Above him, by the day made pale,
The moon, a phantom vessel, sail
Past reefs of cloud in rugged lines.
Of stray lost sheep or lonely lamb
Sometimes he heard the plaintive bleat.
Then he would answer, " Here I am,"
And on his pipe make music sweet,
And run to meet and gladly greet
The animal with friendly signs.
A shepherd boy beneath the pines
That clothe the solemn Apennines.
Once, as he sat beside a rock,
For his caress the favorite came,
The gentlest sheep of all the flock,
Shapely of form, full-fleeced, and tame ;
He stroked her head and called her name,
While in his mind grew grand designs.
Rhet. 5.
5<3 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
"Can I not picture her?" he thought.
Then, satisfied with pats and praise,
The sheep a tuft of clover sought,
And with bent head began to graze ;
The child, not moving from his place,
Upon the rock drew rapid lines.
And while the boy was busy still
With pencil made of sharpened slate,
A mounted man rode up the hill,
And seeing the child, he chose to wait
And watch the work for he was great
In art, and knew Art's countersigns.
A shepherd boy beneath the pines
That clothe the solemn Apennines.
And when he saw, the task being done,
The sheep depicted faithfully,
Old Cimabue said, " My son,
Will you not come to live with me,
My pupil and my friend to be,
And leave your lonely Apennines?"
The boy, all blushing at his words,
Said, "Ah, my master, if I may!
My father, leading home his herds,
Comes even now along the way ;
And I must do as he shall say
His 'yes' accepts, his 'no' declines."
Right readily the father yields
His son the "yes" of his desire;
And Giotto left his upland fields,
With heart and fancy all on fire,
To climb the hill of Fame far higher
Than any slope of Apennines.
A shepherd boy beneath the pines
That clothe the solemn Apennines.
E. CAVAZZA, in St. Nicholas.
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.
TOPICAL OUTLINE.
Introduction. Describe the place of pasture, and tell how the shep-
herd passed the time while tending his sheep.
The favorite of the flock comes one day for his caress.
His love for her awakens in him a great desire.
His effort to picture her on the rock.
The great artist finds the boy busy with pencil of sharp-
ened slate.
Discussion. -
Cimabue waits to see the work completed.
The artist requests the boy to go with him and live as
his pupil and his friend.
The boy's strong wish to go, provided his father's con-
sent can be obtained.
The father readily gives the desired permission.
Conclusion. Giotto's success as an artist.
CHAPTER IV.
TRANSFORMATION OF ELEMENTS.
THE elements of a sentence may be transformed by sub-
stituting one part of speech, or modifier, for another.
Words may be transformed to phrases or other ^vord ele-
ments. By omission and contraction, clauses, dependent 'or
independent, may be transformed to phrases or single words ;
phrases, to single words or to other phrase elements.
EXERCISE XV.
DIRECTION. In the following sentences, change, where you can, the adjec-
tives, adverbs, and nouns in the possessive case, to prepositional phrases. Thus:
The sensible man, the man of sense ; He labored cheerfully, he labored with cheer-
fulness; The soldier's duty, the duty of the soldier.
1. The country's food may have been lessened only by a fourth
part of its usual supply.
2. This dreadful object might quell the bravest men's courage.
3. I noticed these objects cursorily.
4. A large old pointer dog rested its head on the girl's knee.
5. The other girl's lap was the black cat's cushion.
6. With the servant's aid, I contrived to mount a stair-case.
7. Let his shames quickly drive him to Rome.
8. Have you perused the duke's letters?
9. The sun really gives vigor.
10. The passengers walk through the woods fearing and dreading.
11. Uninterrupted sunshine would parch our hearts.
12. Natural good is closely connected with moral good and natural
evil.
13. To an energetic man this is easy.
14. The water is flowing very rapidly.
(52)
TRANSFORMATION OF ELEMENTS. 53
EXERCISE XVI.
DIRECTION. Change, if possible, the prepositional phrases in these senten-
ces to adjectives i to adverbs , or to nouns in the possessive case. Thus: Wines of
France, French wines ; He spoke with calmness, ke spoke calmly ; The word of
Go<jJ, God's word.
1. A soul without reflection runs to ruin.
2. Too soon the flowers of spring will fade.
3. Shakespeare is without doubt the poet of nature.
4. The flowers of late sprung a beauteous sisterhood.
5. The palace of the royal family was destroyed by fire on the fifth
night.
6. He knew the subtle art of no school-man.
7. He spoke with decision.
8. They rest in peace.
9. Three fishers went sailing toward the west.
10. Hope is the dream of a waking man.
11. In a laughing manner, they accept my reflections.
12. Our actions disclose the secret in the heart.
13. A strong mind, in all cases, hopes.
14. A fine day is commended by every one.
15. The animal with long ears gives a kick to the bucket.
1 6. The age, without question, produces daring profligates, and
hypocrites of an insidious character.
EXERCISE XVII.
DIRECTION. In the following sentences, change, where you can, the parti-
ciples to infinitive phrases, and the infinitive phrases to participles. Thus : Earn-
ing is having, to earn is to have.
1. Dying, but dying bravely .
2. Lying is base.
3. To bear your father's name is indeed an honor to you.
4. To laugh would be want of grace.
5. Waiting on the bank for the river to run by is foolish, indeed.
6. To smile at the jest is to become a principal in the mischief.
7. Walking by moonlight was her favorite amusement.
54 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
8. To take offence at every trifling scorn shows great pride or little
sense.
9. Praying is contemplating the facts of life from the highest point
of view.
10. To believe your own thought, to believe that what is true for
you in your private heart is true for all men, that is genius.
11. To tell all that we think is inexpedient. *
12. Confessing the truth, I was greatly to blame for my indiscretion.
13. To pull down the false and to build up the true, and to uphold
what there is of true in the old, let this be our endeavor.
14. Striving to make men contented is undertaking an impossibility.
1 5. The stranger was heard to warn them of the danger, and to in-
cite them to duty.
1 6. This duty, to obey, is recognized.
17. In this place, they at first began meeting, singing, praying,
preaching, and baptizing.
1 8. Being delightful is being classic.
19. To spend too much time in studies is sloth; to use them too
much for ornament is affectation.
20. Hoping too much from the patronage of powerful individuals
is dooming one's self to disappointment.
21. To take only the historical parts of the Old Testament, there is
nothing like them in the power of exciting awe and admiration.
CONTRACTION.
By means of contraction, compound sentences are reduced
to complex and to simple sentences. To contract a com-
pound sentence into a complex sentence, we convert one
of the independent members into a clause; to contract a
complex sentence into a simple sentence, we convert the
dependent clauses into words or phrases. The following
examples illustrate the method :
Compound. You are perplexed, and I see it.
Complex. I see that you are perplexed.
Simple. I ee your perplexity. *
Compound. The child loves his parents, therefore he obeys them.
TRANSFORMATION OF ELEMENTS. 55
Complex. The child obeys his parents, because he loves them.
Simple. The child obeys, from love to his parents.
1. The adjective clauses of a complex sentence may
be contracted by dropping the subject and th
"The child, who was overcome by fatigue, soon fell asleep,"
may be changed to, "The child, overcome by fatigue," etc.
The adverb clauses of a complex sentence maybe con-
tracted by dropping the subject, verb, and connective^ Thus :
"The Romans took Cincinnatus from the plow, that he
might be dictator," changed to, "The Romans took Cincin-
natus from the plow to make him dictator."
2. An adjective clause maybe contracted intaa prep-
ositional phrase with a noun for the principaLwor^L-) Thus :
"A man, who is indolent" changed to, "A man of indolent
character. ' '
An adverb or a noun claus'* may be contracted into a
prepositional phrase with a participle or a noun for the prin-
cipal word.^) Thus : ' ' When that the poor have cried, Caesar
hath wept," changed to, "At the cry of the poor, Caesar
hath wept" ; "We hoped that he would recover ," changed to,
* ' We hoped for his recovery "
3. Adjective, adverb, and noun clauses may be con-
tracted to participles, or to phrases containing participles^)
Thus : ' ' This is the only course which is left to us, " changed
to, "This is the only course left to us"; "As he came for-
ward, he took his brother's hand," changed to, "Coming
forward fa took his brother's hand " ; "We regret that we
never reached the goal," changed to, "We regret having
never reached the goal. "
4. Adjective, adverb, and noun clauses may be con-
tracted to infinitive phrases\ Thus : ' ' The sailors found no
56 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
haven where they might cast anchor, ' ' changed to, ' ' The sail-
ors found no haven to cast anchor"; "He strove that he
might conquer" changed to, ' ' He strove to conquer" ; ' ' That
we do good to our enemies is commanded," changed to, "To
do good to our enemies is commanded. "
5. Adverb clauses may be contracted to absolute phrases^
Thus: "When the rain ceased, we resumed our journey,"
changed to, " The rain having ceased, we resumed our jour-
ney. "
EXERCISE XVIII.
DIRECTION. Get rid of as many of the following adjective and adverb clauses
as you can :
1. The wretched prisoner, who seemed overwhelmed by his mis-
fortune, was on the point of putting an end to his existence.
2. The soldiers of the tenth legion, who were exhausted from want
of food, could not resist the onset of the enemy.
3. In mere love of what is vile, Charles II. stood ahead of any
of his subjects.
4. He was so feeble that he could not walk.
5. He has lived there ever since he was born.
6. The bundle is so heavy that I can not lift it.
7. My brother lives in a house which is one hundred years old.
8. He is as wise as he is learned.
9. The best sermon which was ever preached upon modern society
is Vanity Fair.
10. I have experienced nothing that was not kind at his hands.
11. Hope, which is the star of life, never sets.
12. When the boy had completed his task, he went to play.
13. He has lost the book which I gave him.
14. The book that was lost has been found.
1 5. Wherever they marched, their route was marked with blood.
1 6. A fierce spirit of rivalry, which is at all times a dangerous pas-
sion, had now taken full possession of him. _
17. Attend, that you may receive instruction.
TRANSFORMATION OF ELEMENTS. 57
EXERCISE XIX.
DIRECTION. Contract the following adjective, adverb, and noun clauses to
prepositional phrases with nouns or participles as the principal words:
1. Tell me how old you were when I first met you.
2. The fact that he was there has been clearly shown.
3. He did not tell me why he went away.
4. Except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish.
5. He will go to ruin unless he alter his conduct.
6. Trains should be run that travelers may be accommodated.
7. If we keep to the golden mean in everything, we shall at least
avoid danger.
8. As soon as I landed, I was accosted by some of the principal
chiefs.
9. When we had rounded a point of land, we saw immediately
before us the great Manitoulin Island.
10. As I did not take notes of this speech, -I could not accurately
repeat it.
11. The friends of the wounded man were hopeful that he would
recover.
12. There is something, too, which is immortal in the sad, faint
sweetness.
13. It carries me in blissful thought to the banks of asphodel that
border the River of Life.
14. We are very sure that he will appreciate your kindness.
1 5. An infinity of elders, who had streaming beards, had prostrated
themselves before the ascent of a lofty eminence.
1 6. A sharp criticism which has a drop of witty venom in it, stings
a young author almost to death.
17. Men, like peaches and pears, grow sweet a little while before
they are ready to fall.
1 8. If things go on in this way, a gentleman will not be able to
speak his own mind.
19. The people could not refrain from capering if they heard the
sound of a fiddle.
20. The Mohammedan lives as the Koran directs.
21. He prayed that he might be speedily succored.
58 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
EXERCISE XX.
DIRECTION. Change each dependent clause in the following sentences to
a participle, or to a phrase containing a participle :
1. This is the only witchcraft he has used.
2. As he rushed forward, he shouted to his companions.
3. The big fifth-form boys, who were a sporting and drinking set,
soon began to usurp power.
4. His own associates, who were looking on, took no trouble to
hide their scorn from him.
5. Men who are unacquainted with literature have little idea of
the solace it affords.
6. At Rugby, the Avon is a capital river for bathing, as it has
many nice small pools, all within a mile of one another.
7. The landlord, as he rode past, was hissed at the school gates.
8. As they start into the next field, they recognize Holmes and
Diggs taking a constitutional.
9. This was the first gap which the angel Death had made in
Tom's circle.
10. As he wearily labored at his line, he thought it possible for the
report to be altogether false.
11. Here he had felt the drawing of the bond which links all living
souls together in one brotherhood.
12. When several men are employed in lifting the same weight,
they co-operate with each other.
13. Poor Adam, who was banished and undone, went and lived a
sad life in the mountains of India.
14. Now that I was resolved to be a poet, I saw everything with a
new purpose.
15. Every country which I have surveyed has contributed some-
thing to my poetical powers.
1 6. Dark clothes are warm in summer, because they absorb the
rays of the sun.
17. Error dies of lockjaw, if she scratches her finger.
1 8. Who does not regret that he never heard the matchless elo-
quence of Demosthenes ?
19. Had he thy reason, would he skip and play ?
20. It fell not, for it was founded on a rock.
TRANSFORMATION OF ELEMENTS.
EXERCISE XXI.
59
DIRECTION. Contract the dependent clauses in the following sentences to
phrases containing infinitives :
1 . Men seeing clearly how they should act in difficult cases, are
invaluable helpers.
2. We set out early in the morning that we might reach the sum-
mit of the mountain by sunset.
3. Be ye not terrified when ye shall hear of wars and commotions.
4. Strangers have wept when they have heard his deep and pasx
sionate notes.
5. The Son of Man had no place where he might lay his head.
6. There is a time when one may dance.
7. Some men are foolish, because they risk health and happiness
in acquiring wealth.
8. That we make the most of opportunities is an inestimable priv-
ilege.
9. These wretched people are seldom with the means by which
they can procure food.
10. The pilot proceeded to the wheel that he might undertake with
his own hands the steerage of the ship.
11. It is a perilous thing when canvas is loosed in such a tempest.
12. I perceived the victor using every art by which the enemy
could be drawn from his stronghold.
13. I hope that I may go soon.
14. That we hate our foes is forbidden.
15. Fortune has denied you the leisure wherein you may acquire
knowledge.
EXERCISE XXII.
DIRECTION. Change the adverb clauses in the following sentences to abso-
lute phrases :
1. When spring comes, the flowers will bloom.
2. After Conrad had been well refreshed, Canasetogo began to
converse with him.
3. As the sloth is an inhabitant of forests within the tropics, there
6O COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
seems to be no reason of his confining himself to one tree alone for
food.
4. As the storm increased, they landed from the vessel and wan-
dered about without any definite object.
5. When Metellus arrived at Rome, the soldiers deserted Octavius.
6. While matters were in this state, the Senate sent a deputation
to Cinna and Marius to invite them into the city.
7. Every avenue to escape was closed, for the entrance to the
square was choked up with the dead bodies of men.
8. As hospitality was formerly the virtue of the Romans, every
stranger was relieved or rewarded by their generosity.
9. When my sufferings make me measure sadly the length of the
night, I often divert my mind from my present state, in thinking of
the various events of my life.
10. When the speaker has finished, the members of the council
leave him five or six minutes to recollect anything inadvertently
omitted.
11. As the Indians hear with patience the truths of the gospel ex-
plained to them, you would think their acceptance of these truths cer-
tain.*
EXERCISE XXIII.
DIRECTION. Contract the following complex sentences into simple sentences,
and tell the kind of phrase into which each dependent clause is contracted :
1. He was there when the train arrived.
2. When Xerxes had resolved to invade Greece, he raised an army
of two millions of men.
3. If your friends come, they will be welcome.
4. Hope, which is the star of life, darts a ray of light through the
thickest gioom.
5. My friend Sir Roger, who is a good churchman, has beautified
the inside of his church with several texts of his own choosing.
6. A pin, which might be paste, or could be diamond, peeped be-
low a tattered and dingy black kid stock, like a gypsy's eye beneath
her hair.
* NOTE. The nominative absolute should be used sparingly, as its use tends to
weakness of style, or to ambiguity.
TRANSFORMATION OF ELEMENTS. 6l
7. Charles V., when he abdicated a throne and retired to the mon-
astery of St. Juste, amused himself with the mechanical arts.
8. The whole nation heard with astonishment that the Emperor
had abdicated.
9. A loft raised some seven or eight feet, which was reached by a
ladder, was the resting-place that awaited us.
10. As soon as day appeared, all the family, making a great noise,
came to awaken us as we had requested.
11. Rags, which are the reproach of poverty, are the beggar's robes
and graceful insignia of his profession.
12. The two men whom Lord Nelson especially honored were Sir
Thomas Troubridge and Sir Alexander Ball.
13. In the gardens of Findamore, which are usually fringed with
nettles, you will see a solitary laborer, working with carelessness and
apathy.
14. The site that I had chosen for the shanty was near to a little
brook, on the top of the main river's bank.
15. The most good-natured host began to repent of his eagerness
to serve a man of genius in distress, when he heard his guest roaring
for fresh punch at five o'clock in the morning.
1 6. We call one man a great historical painter, because he has
taken for his subjects kings or great men, or transactions over which
time has thrown a grandeur.
17. That wonderful book, Pilgrim's Progress, while it obtains ad-
miration from the most fastidious critics, is loved by those who are
too simple to admire it.
EXERCISE XXIV.
DIRECTION. Contract the following compound sentences into complex^ and,
where possible, into simple. Explain the nature of the contraction :
1. The shadow of the earth, in every position, is round; conse-
quently the earth is a globe.
2. Hatred stirreth up strifes, but love covereth all sins.
3. You must assist me, otherwise I can not succeed.
4. It is no honor to be rich ; and to be poor is no sin.
5. He had many relatives, but he died without a friend.
62 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
6. You must either pay the debt or you must go to prison.
7. He was an honorable man, and therefore his friends trusted
him.
8. We were compelled to ford the river, but we got across without
accident.
9. I ate my dinner, and I then went out for a walk.
10. Our bugles sang truce, for the night-cloud had lowered,
And the sentinel stars set their watch in the sky.
1 1 . One bright laughing day, I threw down my book an hour sooner
than usual, and with a lightness of foot and exhilaration of spirit I
sallied out.
12. Murder will speak with most miraculous organ, and yet it has
no tongue.
13. Be thou faithful unto death, and I will give thee a crown of
life.
14. Knowledge is not, like food, destroyed by use, but it is rather
augmented and perfected.
EXERCISE XXV.
DIRECTION. Transform the italicized phrases and clauses into single words
or shorter phrases. Thus:
His countenance was marked by an entire absence of color. His countenance
was pallid.
1. The style of this book is of such a nature that it can not be un-
derstood.
2. Morning arose in splendor that was undimmed by clouds.
3. As was the historian, so were the auditors, given to asking ques-
tions, apt to believe on slight evidence.
4. I have in life met with a few things which I found it impossi-
ble to explain.
5. No great name strikes it with terror.
6. They shock minds that are imbued with piety and with rever-
ence.
7. In accordance with this, education is becoming the work of
nations.
TRANSFORMATION OF ELEMENTS. 63
8. The art of drawing, in some countries, is taught in schools to
which all classes are admitted.
9. Works designed for the halls of emperors .popes, and nobles find
their way in no poor representations into humble dwellings.
10. On assuming command of a man-of-war, he found a crew that
was in a state of open defiance to lawful authority.
11. Instead of encouragement marked by the spirit of brotherly
kindness, he gave me scoffs and threats.
12. Such charity as is taught by the Christian religion is friendship
to all the world.
13. Persistent effort succeeds in doing anything.
14. We shudder at his nimbleness and skill in doing deeds of evil.
15. The council took all care that could be thought of for their re-
lief.
1 6. A little room adjoining the hall is used as a place for storing
guns and ammunition.
17. He received a tribute that is in every way suited to recompense
him for his benevolence to all men everywhere.
1 8. I pressed my shivering children to my bosom, but I could not
speak.
19. This rescue was in itself a thing which so excited wonder that
it was some time before I could realize that it was true.
20. The opposition could reward those who bestowed upon it exces-
sive and studied praise with little more than promises.
21. Benevolent men at length became weary of giving relief which
was dissipated with the wildest profusion as soon as it had been re-
ceived.
22. His house became a place of refuge for a crowd of wretched old
creatures.
23. The wind which never ceases blows a blast that is keen to-night.
24. The leaves produced soft sounds in the air.
25. The dead man lay with his face turned upwards to the sky.
26. Now, all dames given to finding fault should know the story
of Grandmother Hopeful, who bore, without murmur or repining, the
many ills of her life.
27. There is no place where one must climb, no place where one
must go down, no place whereon one may rest, no stile which turns in
the path, with which we are not perfectly acquainted.
28. He redeemed man/nw/ the worship of that idol, self.
COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC
EXPANSION.
A simple sentence may be converted into a complex sen*
tence by changing some word or phrase into a clause.
A complex sentence may be converted into a compound
sentence by changing a clause into an independent member.
The process by which these changes are made is called
expansion. The following examples illustrate the method:
u n pie, The wise man is the man of years.
t tuplex. The man tkat is wise is the man of years.
e. The enemy, tea/** at alt points, surrendered.
Complex, The enemy, wkiek had fat* beaten at all points > sur-
>n pie. Oppressed by tke keat % we sought the cool shade.
Complex.- We sought the cool shade, became we were oppressed
bytkekeat*
Compound. We were oppressed by tke keat> hence we sought the
EXERCISE XXVI.
i M RUCTION. Expand the following simple sentences into ***>&*, and state
\\ hi thor the clause thus introduced it td/W/*t*t/, n/f*r***/, or jr*Arta*#t* .
t. My friend's account of the affair alarmed me.
a. An old man on horseback passed us on the road between
Monticello and Charlottesville.
3. The most difficult tasks are overcome by perseverance.
4. Why have you kept this news from me so long?
$. A horseman wrapped in a huge cloak entered the yard.
6. And seeing the muitmMcs, he went up into the mountain.
7. Thus, after a siege of fifty-three days, was Constantinople irre-
tlicv;\M\ MiKlurilln- tin- > -' M Vn.'nuM the Sr. ,MU!.
8. The imii.ms \\ith swpiisc tomul the mjakiering trees of their
MuUlcnl) trrnun:; \\ith .nnlM>-.i.il
TRANSFORMATION OF ELEMENTS. 65
9. Two of the bee-hunters now plied their axes vigorously at the
root of the tree, to level it with the ground,
10. My heart was filled with a deep melancholy to see several drop-
ping unexpectedly in the midst of mirth and jollity.
11. Several of them in the act of striking at the enemy fell down
from mere weakness.
12. The great qualities of Charlemagne were indeed alloyed by the
vices of a barbarian and a conqueror.
13. Jerusalem has derived some reputation from the number and
importance of her memorable sieges.
14. To form an adequate idea of the duties of this crisis, it will be
necessary to raise your minds to a level with your station.
EXERCISE XXVII.
DIRECTION. Expand the following simple sentences into complex, and then,
if possible, into compound:
1. Through this dismayed and bewildered multitude, the discon-
solate family of their gallant general made their way silently to the
shore.
2. My companion, climbing up alone, and already nearly asleep,
laid himself down with his head upon the precious portmanteau.
3. At Athens, at once the center and capital of Greek philosophy
and heathen superstition, takes place the first public and direct con-
flict between Christianity and Paganism.
4. At the same time, the good old knight, with a mixture of the
father and the master of the family, tempered the inquiries after his
own affairs with several kind questions relating to themselves.
5. At the top of the stair we saw a small tray, with a single plate
and glasses for one solitary person's dinner.
6. Often in the narrations of history and fiction, an agent of the
most dreadful designs compels a sentiment of deep respect for the un-
conquerable mind displayed in their execution.
7. Accordingly, they got a painter by the knight's directions to
add a pair of whiskers to the face, and, by a little aggravation of the
features, to change it into the Saracen's Head.
8. In the first chapter of Don Quixote, Cervantes, with a few
strokes of a great master, sets before us the pauper gentleman, an
Rhet. 6
66 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
early riser and keen sportsman, idle for the most part of the year, but
fond of reading books of chivalry.
9. Of an idle, unrevolving man the kindest Destiny, like the most
assiduous potter without a wheel, can bake and knead nothing other
than a botch.
10. Then the road passing straight on through a waste moor, the
towers of a distant city at length appear before the traveler.
11. Amid all the buzzing noise of the games and the perpetual pass-
ing in and out of people, he seemed perfectly calm and abstracted,
without the smallest particle of excitement in his composition.
12. The stutterer had almost finished his travels through Europe
and part of Asia, without ever budging beyond the liberties of the
King's Bench, except in term-time, with a tip-staff for his companion.
13. He wore an ample cloak of black sheep's wool, faded into a
dull brown, and recently refreshed by an enormous patch of the
original color.
14. One window there was a perfect and unpretending cottage
window, with little diamond panes, embowered at almost every sea-
son of the year with roses ; and, in the summer and autumn, with a
profusion of jasmine and other fragrant shrubs.
15. The foremost, a somewhat tall young woman, with the most
winning expression of benignity upon her features, advanced to me,
presenting her hand with an air frank enough to dispel every shadow
of embarrassment.
EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.
REPRODUCTION III.
THE INCHCAPE ROCK.
No stir in the air, no stir in the sea,
The ship was still as she could be ;
Her sails from heaven received no motion ;
Her keel was steady in the ocean.
Without either sign or sound of their shock,
The waves flowed over the Inchcape Rock;
So little they rose, so little they fell,
They did not move the Inchcape Bell.
TRANSFORMATION OF ELEMENTS. 67
The Abbot of Aberbrothok
Had placed that bell on the Inchcape Rock;
On a buoy in the storm it floated and swung,
And over the waves its warning rung.
When the Rock was hid by the surge's swell,
The mariners heard the warning bell ;
And then they knew the perilous rock,
And blessed the Abbot of Aberbrothok.
The sun in heaven was shining gay ;
All things were joyful on that day ;
The sea-birds screamed as they wheeled round,
And there was joyance in their sound.
The buoy of the Inchcape Bell was seen,
A darker speck on the ocean green :
Sir Ralph the Rover walked his deck,
And he fixed his eye on the darker speck.
He felt the cheering power of spring;
It made him whistle, it made him sing ;
His heart was mirthful to excess,
But the Rover's mirth was wickedness.
His eye was on the Inchcape float;
Quoth he, " My men, put out the boat,
And row me to the Inchcape Rock,
And I '11 plague the Abbot of Aberbrothok."
The boat is lowered, the boatmen row,
And to the Inchcape Rock they go;
Sir Ralph bent over from the boat,
And he cut the bell from the Inchcape float.
Down sunk the bell with a gurgling sound ;
The bubbles rose and burst around ;
Quoth Sir Ralph, "The next who comes to the rock
Won't bless the Abbot of Aberbrothok."
68 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
Sir Ralph the Rover sailed away ;
He scoured the seas for many a day ;
And now, grown rich with plundered store,
He steers his course for Scotland's shore.
So thick a haze o'erspreads the sky,
They can not see the sun on high ;
The wind hath blown a gale all day ;
At evening it hath died away.
On the deck the Rover takes his stand ;
So dark it is, they see no land.
Quoth Sir Ralph, " It will be lighter soon,
For there is the dawn of the rising moon."
"Canst hear," said one, "the breakers roar?
For methinks we should be near the shore."
44 Now where we are I can not tell,
But I wish we could hear the Inchcape Bell."
They hear no sound; the swell is strong;
Though the wind hath fallen, they drift along,
Till the vessel strikes with a shivering shock :
" O Christ ! it is the Inchcape rock ! "
Sir Ralph the Rover tore his hair ;
He cursed himself in his despair;
The waves rush in on every side ;
The ship is sinking beneath the tide.
But, even in his dying fear,
One dreadful sound could the Rover hear
A sound as if, with the Inchcape Bell,
The Devil below was ringing his knell.
ROBERT SOUTHEY.
TOPICAL OUTLINE.
Introduction. The dead calm no wind to stir a sail, nor wave to
move the Inchcape Bell. The bell placed where, how, by whom ?
TRANSFORMATION OF ELEMENTS.
6 9
Discussion. <
Sir Ralph the Rover, idly pacing his deck, sees in the
distance the Inchcape float.
His merry, wicked mood prompts him to plague the
good Abbot.
At his command, his men row him to the rock ; over
the boat he bends, and cuts the bell from the buoy.
Sir Ralph sails away ; he scours the seas for many a day.
Rich in ill-got store, he turns his craft homeward to
Scotland.
Night comes on in darkness and in storm ; the vessel
drifts before the wind.
They hear the breakers roar, but no sound of bell tells
them of their danger.
There comes a fearful shock ; the ship has struck the
Inchcape Rock.
The Rover curses himself in his wild despair; and, as
the waves run over the sinking ship, he, in dying
fear, fancies he hears the Inchcape Bell, sounding
forth his doom.
Conclusion.
REPRODUCTION IV.
SELFISH SORROW.
THE house lay snug as a robin's nest
Beneath its sheltering tree,
And a field of flowers was toward the west,
And toward the east the sea,
Where a belt of weedy and wet black sand
Was always pushing in to the land.
And with her face away from the sun
And toward the sea so wild,
The grandam sat, and spun and spun,
And never heeded the child,
So wistfully waiting beside her chair,
More than she heeded the bird of the air.
7O COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
Fret and fret, and spin and spin,
With her face the way of the sea :
And whether the tide were out or in,
A sighing, "Woe is me!"
In spite of the waiting and wistful eyes
Pleading so sweetly against the sighs.
And spin, spin, and fret, fret,
And at last the day was done,
And the light of the fire went out and met
The light o' the setting sun.
" It will be a stormy night ah me ! "
Sighed the grandam, looking at the sea.
"Oh, no, it isn't a-going to rain ! "
Cries the dove-eyed little girl,
Pressing her cheek to the window-pane
And pulling her hair out of curl.
But the grandam answered with a sigh,
Just as she answered the cricket's cry.
" If it rains, let it rain ; we shall not drown !
Says the child, so glad and gay ;
"The leaves of the aspen are blowing down;
A sign of fair weather, they say ! "
And the grandam moaned, as if the sea
Were beating her life out, "Woe is me!"
The heart of the dove-eyed little girl
Began in her throat to rise,
And she says, pulling golden curl upon curl
All over her face and her eyes,
" I wish we were out of sight of the sea ! "
And the grandam answered, "Woe is me!"
The sun in a sudden darkness slid,
The winds began to plain,
And all the flowery field was hid
With the cold gray mist and the rain.
Then knelt the child on the hearth so low,
And blew the embers all aglow.
TRANSFORMATION OF ELEMENTS.
On one small hand so lily white
She propped her golden head,
And lying along the rosy light,
She took her book and read :
And the grandam heard her laughter low,
As she rocked in the shadows to and fro.
At length she put her spectacles on,
And drew the book to her knee :
"And does it tell," she said, "about John,
My lad who was lost at sea?"
"Why, no," says the child turning face about,
" 'Tis a fairy tale ; shall I read it out ? "
The grandam lowlier bent upon
The page as it lay on her knee :
"No, not if it doesn't tell about John,'*
She says, "who was lost at sea."
And the little girl, with a saddened face,
Shut her hair in the leaves to keep the place.
And climbing up and over the chair,
The way that her sweet heart led,
She put one arm so round and fair
Like a crown, on the old gray head.
"So, child," says the grandam keeping on
With her thoughts " your book doesn't tell about John ?
"No, ma'am, it tells of a fairy old
Who lived in a daffodil bell,
And who had a heart so hard and cold
That she kept the dews to sell ;
And when a butterfly wanted a drink,
How much did she ask him, do you think?"
"O foolish child, I can not tell,
May be a crown, or so."
"But the fairy lived in a daffodil bell,
And couldn't hoard crowns, you know ! "
And the grandam answered her thought joined on
To the old thought " Not a word about John ?"
72 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
"But, grandam" "Nay, for pity's sake
Don't vex me about your crown,
But say if the ribs of a ship should break
And the ship's crew all go down
Of a night like this, how long it would take
For a strong-limbed lad to drown ! "
"But, grandam" " Nay, have done," she said,
"With your fairy and her crown !
Besides, your arm upon my head
Is heavy ; get you down ! "
" O ma'am, I 'm so sorry to give you a pain ! "
And the child kissed the wrinkled face time and again.
And then she told the story through
Of the fairy of the dell,
Who sold God's blessed gift of the dew
When it was n't hers to sell,
And who shut the sweet light all away
With her thick black wings, and pined all day.
And how at last God struck her blind,
The grandam wiped a tear,
And then she said, " I shouldn't mind
If you read to me now, my dear ! "
And the little girl, with a wondering look,
Slipped her golden hair from the leaves of the book.
And the grandam pulled her down to her knee,
And pressed her close in her arm,
And kissing her, said, " Run out and see
If there is n't a lull in the storm.
I think the moon, or at least some star,
Must shine, and the wind grows faint and far."
Next day again the grandam spun,
And oh, how sweet were the hours !
For she sat at the window toward the sun,
And next the field of flowers,
And never looked at the long gray sea,
Nor sighed for her lad that was lost, "Ah, me! "
ALICE GARY.
TRANSFORMATION OF ELEMENTS. 73
THE PREPARATION OF A TOPICAL OUTLINE.
The pupil is now required to make his own topical out-
line. Such an outline should be made with every Repro-
duction before attempting to give the story in other words.
Observe carefully the following directions for making an
outline :
1. Search your material for leading thoughts, these will
form the general topics.
2. Make as few topics as possible; raise nothing to the
rank of a topic which may properly stand under one already
found.
3. Make each topic complete in itself; no two topics
should cover the same ground; no one topic disguised in
different words should appear twice.
4. A general topic may consist of sub-topics arranged
under it.
5. Be careful to consider the order of the topics ; no point
to the clear understanding of which some other point is
necessary, should precede that other.
6. The list of topics should give a clear conception of the
whole subject.
REPRODUCTION V.
ON THE DEATH OF A FAVORITE CAT, DROWNED IN A TUB
OF GOLDFISHES.
'TWAS on a lofty vase's side,
Where China's gayest art had dyed
The azure flowers that blow,
Demurest of the tabby kind,
The pensive Selima, reclined,
Gazed on the lake below.
Rhet. 7.
74 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
Her conscious tail her joy declared;
The fair round face, the snowy beard,
The velvet of her paws,
Her coat that with the tortoise vies,
Her ears of jet, and emerald eyes,
She saw, and purred applause.
Still had she gazed, but, midst the tide,
Two angel forms were seen to glide,
The Genii of the stream :
Their scaly armor's Tyrian hue,
Through richest purple, to the view
Betrayed a golden gleam.
The hapless nymph with wonder saw :
A whisker first, and then a claw,
With many an ardent wish,
She stretched in vain to reach the prize:
What female heart can gold despise ?
What Cat 's averse to fish ?
Presumptuous maid ! with looks intent,
Again she stretched, again she bent,
Nor knew the gulf between :
(Malignant Fate sat by and smiled)
The slippery verge her feet beguiled ;
She tumbled headlong in.
Eight times emerging from the flood,
She mewed to every watery god
Some speedy aid to send.
No dolphin came, no Nereid stirred,
Nor cruel Tom or Susan heard :
A favorite has no friend.
From hence, ye Beauties ! undeceived,
Know one false step is ne'er retrieved,
And be with caution bold :
Not all that tempts your wandering eyes
And heedless hearts, is lawful prize,
Nor all that glistens, gold. - -,
THOMAS GRAY.
TRANSFORMATION OF ELEMENTS. 75
DE VEL OPMENT I.
The exercise called Development is designed to give prac-
tice in original composition. In the following selection
much that the imagination can supply has been omitted.
For example, we might tell who the little girl is ; we might
tell something of her home at this glad Christmas time;
whose kind hands tucked her snugly in bed ; who bade her
close her eyes in sleep; what gifts she desired from Santa
Claus ; the contents of the stocking, etc. It is not neces-
sary to keep strictly to the statements ; they may be varied
to suit the story as you prefer to state it. Be careful to
supply all that is needed to make a connected story ; avoid
introducing anything not consistent with every other part;
and develop the parts proportionately.
CHRISTMAS.
THEY put me in the great spare bed, and there they bade me sleep-'
I must not stir ; I must not wake ; I must not even peep !
Right opposite that lonely bed, my Christmas stocking hung ;
While near it, waiting for the morn, my Sunday clothes were flung.
I counted softly, to myself, to ten, and ten times ten,
And went through all the alphabet, and then began again ;
I repeated that Fifth Reader piece a poem called "Repose,"
And tried a dozen other ways to fall into a doze
When suddenly the room grew light. I heard a soft, strong bound-
'Twas Santa Claus, I felt quite sure, but dared not look around.
'Twas nice to know that he was there, and things were going rightly,
And so I took a little nap, and tried to smile politely.
" Ho ! merry Christmas ! " cried a voice ; I felt the bed a-rocking;
'Twas daylight Brother Bob was up ! and oh, that splendid stocking !
BESSIE HILL, in St. Nicholas.
CHAPTER V.
CONCORD.
/ Concord is derived from the Latin concordia, and signi-
fees agreement.
* The process called Concord enters very largely into all
inflected languages languages in which the forms of the
words show their mutual relations. In all such languages,
concord means the adjustment of .words to one another
chiefly by correspondence of form\ The Latin, Greek,
French, Italian, German, and other inflectional tongues,
possess this correspondence of form in a high degree;
modern^ Englishf^n the otter hand7~ possesses jt only to a
very limited extent. jn_ our language, inflection consists
mainlylrPthe forms of the pronouns, the possessive case
of nouns, and a few forms of the verb ; hence concord, in
English discourse, has also reference to the principles regu-
"Tating the proper conjunction of words.
The following rules and examples illustrate the leading
requirements of Concord :
RULE I. The subject of a sentence or of a proposition
should have the nominative form. Thus :
"James and /came home," not, "James and me."
"There is a child who I think deserves encouragement," not,
"There is a child whom I think," etc.
"He was by nature less ready than she" not, "than her"
(76)
CONCORD.
77
"As mad as they" not, "as them"
"These men, no matter who spoke or who was addressed," not,
"whom was addressed."
"I will question whoever stands at the gate," not, "whomever
stands," etc.
" Close to him was a strange, unearthly figure, who Gabriel felt
at once was no being of this world," not, "whom Gabriel felt," etc.
CRuLE II. The object of an action or of a preposition should
\ave the objective form.
Violations of this rule are frequent in the use of pronouns
that are subject to a change of form.
" Whom are you speaking to?" not, " Who are you speaking to?"
" Whom servest thou under?" not, " Who" etc.
"You can keep this letter and show it to whomever you like,"
not, "whoever" etc.
" Them that honor me I will honor," not, " They" etc.
" Whom do you think I saw yesterday?" not, " Who" etc.
"Him that confesseth me I will confess," not, "He" etc.
"Thee, Nature, partial Nature, I arraign," not, "Thou" etc.
"Whom should I meet the other day but my old friend?" not,
"Who should I meet," etc.
RULE III. In an abridged proposition, if the verb be
\changed to an infinitive complement, the subject of the comple-
wgnt should be in the objective case. Thus :
Let him speak.
Let us go.
For me to hope for something better seems idle.
I believe him to be an honest man.
Note the following errors:
Let he who made thee, answer that.
Let they who raise the spell, beware the Fiend.
Will this matter bring both he and / to give up the lady ?
Did she ask you and / to come ?
78 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
i RULE IV. In an abridged proposition, if the verb be
I changed to a participial noun, the subject should be changed
\ to the possessive. Thus :
I am opposed to your going.
His having done his duty was a sufficient reward.
The kings persisting in such designs was the height of folly.
This did not prevent Napoleon s being forced to abdicate the
throne.
Correct the following:
I did not object to him helping me.
He had no knowledge of his wife being there.
They have hope of John being elected sheriff.
Instead of the man coming with all haste, he loitered. on the road
several days.*
RULE V. A noun or pronoun iised as the complement of
an intransitive or a passive verb must be in the nominative
\case. Thus :
This is he. Who do you think it is ?
He became a scholar. Let him be who he may.
He shall be called John. I do not know who they were.
Correct the errors in the following :
I think that it is him.
This sly creature, my brother says, is me.
Whom do men say that I am ?
If there is one more infamous than another, it is him.
/ RULE VI. A noun or pronoun following the infinitive of
me verb " de," or of any other copulative verb, must be in the
*NoTE. There has been much discussion and disagreement among gram-
marians as to whether the participle should be preceded by the possessive case ;
yet this construction has the sanction of the best authors, and is almost uniformly
adopted. Doubtless the sense can often be better expressed by a clause contain-
ing a finite verb ; as, " There was convincing proof of his being the thief" changed
to, " There was convincing proof that he was the thief. "** The phrase, however, is
briefer, and is often needed to express a thought by means of a simple sentence.
CONCORD. 79
same case as the subject of the verb which it follows ; that is,
such verbs require the same case after them as before them.
Thus:
I did not suppose // to be him [objective].
He thought it to be me.
Whom do you think it to be ?
RULE VII. A noun or pronoun in apposition is put in the
same case as the noun it modifies. Thus :
Will you dishonor your mother, her who is your best friend ?
Ask the murderer, him who has steeped his hands in the blood of
another.
I saw Mrs. Brown to-day, her that was Mary Jones.
r
RULE VIII. Pronouns must agree with their antecedents
\in gender, person, and number.
The following directions must be carefully observed :
1 . Two or more singular antecedents connected by ' * and ' '
require a pronoun in the plural number; as, "James and I
study our lessons"; "He sought wealth and fame, but
they eluded him."
2. Two or more singular antecedents connected by "or"
or "nor" should be represented by a pronoun in the sin-
gular number; as ' ' Neither the man nor the boy was in his
place"; "If you have a pencil or a pen, bring it to me."
3. A collective noun, denoting unity, must have a pro-
noun in the singular; as, "The class was in its room";
"The men of Nineveh shall rise in judgment with this gen-
eration, and shall condemn it"
4. A noun of multitude requires a pronoun in the plural ;
as, "The public are requested to enter their names in the
book" ; " He would not suffer his people to forget, he would
not suffer them to hope."
80 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
5. The words one, each, -every, either, neither, take a pro-
noun in the singular ; as, ' ' Every man should attend to his
own business " ; <( Each of the sexes should keep within its
particular bounds"; "Both sisters were uncomfortable
enough. Each felt for the other, and, of course, for her-
self."
CRuLE IX. A verb must agree with its subject in person
md number.
In the agreement of verbs with their subjects, primary
regard must be paid to the meaning. We may have a
singular meaning in a plural form, and a plural meaning in
a singular form. If the meaning is singular, the verb
agrees with it in the singular; if the meaning is plural, the
verb must be plural in form.
The following are correct:
Why is dust and ashes proud ?
The wages of sin is death.
Ethics with atheism is impossible.
The majority are on their way home.
A group of fine young children w ere growing up about him.
Witji Thee, a thousand years is as one day.
Two shillings is the fare.
The ebb and flow of the tides is now understood.
Nor heaven nor earth has been at peace to-night.
Nine tenths of every man's happiness depends upon his reception
among his fellows in society.
One of the wisest men that have lived in this century.
^ X. In the use of irregular verbs, be careful to dis-
tinguish the past tense from the perfect participle.
No mistake is more common than the confusion of these
parts of the verb, so frequently the same, and yet in many
instances different.
CONCORD. 8 1
Correct the errors in the use of the past tense and per-
fect participle in the following sentences :
I wish I had chose a different seat.
I have wrote for the books, but they have not come.
The lady sung very sweetly, and she has sang that song before.
I seen him when he come home yesterday.
He has rose from the ranks to be a major-general.
My book was stole and my slate is broke.
He done it at my request.
He run a great risk.
He has mistook his true interest.
The cloth was wove of the finest wool.
She would have went.
C RULE XI. The time indicated by the tense inflections
( should harmonize with the time indicated by other parts of the
Thus we say: "I saw him last week," not, "I have seen
him last week"; "We were afraid he would fall" not,
"would have fallen" ; "He has been tardy every day this
week" not, "was tardy"; "I will see that he do it," not,
"that he does it."
i. Present Tense. When the act or condition ex-
pressed by an infinitive is subsequent in time to that expressed
by the principal verb, the infinitive must be in the present
tense. Thus verbs expressing hope, fear, expectation, in-
tention, obligation, etc., should be followed by the present
infinitive; as, "I intended to go," not, " to have gone" ; "I
should have liked to see him, " not, " to have seen him "; "I
meant to come" not, "to have come"; "\ should have
thought it wrong to interfere " not, "to have interfered"
/ 2. Present Perfect Tense. When the dependent in-
I finitive expresses an act or condition prior to that of the
\principal verb, it must be in the present perfect tense.
82 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
Thus: " He is believed to have ivritten the ' Letters of Ju-
nius'"; "Columbus is said to have discovered America";
"He is known to 'have used every artifice."
RULE XII. Existing facts, and what is always true, should
(J}e expressed in the present tense. Thus :
" He maintained that only the virtuous are happy," not, "were happy."
" It has been declared that the earth does not move about the sun,"
not, "did not move."
"The ancients believed that 'the earth is flat,' " not, "was flat."
"It was hard for some to understand what conscience is," not,
"what conscience was"
"The Stoics believed that 'all crimes are equal,' " not, "were equal."
I RULE XIII. In using auxiliaries, the auxiliary should
\Jiarmonize with the idea to be expressed.
"May" is the sign of possibility, permission, or desire;
"can," of ability within one's self; "must," of necessity;
"shall" in the first person, and "will" in the second and
third, are signs of futurity. "Will" in the first person is
the sign of resolution or determination; "shall" in the
second and third persons denotes obligation. "Should,"
the past tense of shall, and "would," the past tense of
will, are used, especially in dependent clauses, after a past
tense, as "shall" and "will" are used after a present or a
future tense.
Justify the uses of shall and will in these sentences:
Will you speak to him, or shall I ?
Shall my son go, or will you send yours ?
I shall go to Europe next summer.
You shall not go ; we will not allow it.
Shall I see you at the convention ?
Shall you be at home to-morrow ?
You will, I suppose, remain at home ?
Shall he accompany you ? Will he accompany you ?
CONCORD. 83
Correct the errors in each of the following, and give a
reason for the change:
Will I talk to you ?
If we do wrong, we will be punished.
Should you like me to go with you ?
When will we meet again ?
I suppose you shall be here next week.
We shall assist him if he desires it.
We would be glad if you should favor us.
He ought to have known that I would be ruined.
Could you come to visit us next week ?
You shall be hurt, if you ride that vicious horse.
/ RULE XIV. Distinguish between the indicative and the
\ subjunctive forms of the verb.
r i. Subjunctive Mode. The case most suited to the
V subjunctive is the expression of an event absolutely un-
known, as being still in the future.
Q The present subjunctive is used:
To express a future contingency \ as, "If he be there, I
will speak to him" ; ^^T^^cdn^mue to study, he will im-
prove " ; " I am to second Ion if he fail. "
The past subjunctive is used:
(1) To express a supposition implying the contrary^; as,
"Even were I disposed, I could not gratify the" reader";
"If I had the book, it should be at your service." .
(2) To express a mere supposition with indefinite time; \
as, "Unless I were prepared, I would not undertakethe*^
case"; "If he were to go, he would not find what he
seeks."
(3) To express a wish or desire^ as, "O that he were
wise ! " "I wish I were rich."
84 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
The past perfect subjunctive is used:
To express, as past, a supposition implying the
:hus, ("If he had repented [which he did not], I should
haveTorgiven him."
2. Indicative Mode. A conditional circumstance as^
sumed as a fact, or as a mere uncertainty, requires the in-
dicative mode^j Thus : ' * If he was there, I did not see
T7 ~If this man is innocent, he ought to be liberated " ;
"If the boy is sick, he should be excused."
Correct these sentences, and give reason for the change :
I wish I was at home.
If he know his lesson, he may go out to play.
Was gold more abundant, it would be of less value.
It is cold, though the sky be clear.
Lock the door lest a robber enters.
If any man were unjustly censured, it is he.
We shall start now unless it rain.
If I was he I would accept your offer.
If he is but discreet, he will succeed.
Take care that the horse does not run away.
RULE XV. Distinguish between adjectives and adverbs.
These are often confounded by using an adjective for an
adverb, or by using an adverb for an adjective.
1. To express time, place, degree, or manner, an adverb
should be used; as, "I suffer greatly" ; "He ran very
swiftly"
2. To express quality, an adjective should be used; as,
"The flowers smell sweet" ; "She looks beautiful" ; "He
feels strong"
Correct the errors in the following, and give reason for
the correction:
CONCORD. 85
He acted agreeable to his promise.
That music sounds very sweetly.
He was pretty near tired out.
He was dressed fine, but he acted fearful bad.
That was a remarkable fine sermon.
The work goes on slower than we expected.
Her new dress looked very prettily.
The people are miserable poor, but tolerable contented.
He who knowingly does wrong, must feel contemptibly.
Questions are easier proposed than rightly answered.
GRuLE XVI. In general, correspondent parts of a sentence
l iould be similarly constructed.
This principle is violated :
(1) In the union of ancient and modern forms (espe-
cially of verbs and of pronouns) ; as, ' ' He giveth [gives]
us good advice whenever he comes to see us" ; "My father
loveth [loves] flowers, but he loves his children better";
"Honor thy father and thy mother, if you would [thou
wouldst] be blessed."
(2) In the union of different modes ; as, " If a man have
a hundred sheep, and one of them goes [go] astray," etc. ;
"Had I spoken to him, and he would have replied" [had
replied].
(3) In the union of auxiliary with simple forms; as,
"This opinion never has [prevailed] and never can pre-
vail" ; "He does not [live there] and has not lived there
since his election."
(4) In the union of plural with singular forms; as, "I
do not doubt thee ; but ye do [thou dost] not try to avoid
the appearance of evil."
(5) In the union of dissimilar elements by co-ordinate
connectives ; as, " The delay was not an accident, but pre-
meditated" [accidental but premeditated]; "The fort was
86 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
forced by the treachery of the governor and the indolent
general to capitulate within a week " [indolence of the] etc.;
"He embraced the cause of liberty faintly and pursued it
without, resolution" [irresolutely]; "The act was sinful, but
it was committed without intention" [unintentional].
EXERCISE XXVIII.
DIRECTION. Justify, or criticise and correct the following:
1. I knew that you was my father's friend.
2. Ambition is one of those passions that is never satisfied.
3. Each of the soldiers have received a pension.
4. Hence arises the following advantages.
5. The rapidity of his movements were much admired.
6. Thou or he may have the book.
7. He laid down on the road and was almost froze.
8. This story by Dickens was began in All the Year Round.
9. Night Thoughts were written by Young.
10. If he was a year older I would send him to school.
11. If he know anything he surely knows that he can not go un-
less he gets better.
12. Thou art not the trustworthy person I hoped you were.
13. Time passes the slowest when we are unemployed.
14. I meant, when first I came, to have bought all Paris.
15. If you had have written, I would have been glad to have an-
swered it.
1 6. I did not suppose it to be he.
17. He had done that correct, I am sure.
1 8. 'It had been my intention to have collected Keats' Composi-
tions.
19. The stars look very brightly, and the wind blows coldly.
20. This was done conformable to your order.
21. A great number of people was at the convention.
22. Neither of these houses are for sale.
23. I do not know who I gave the letter to.
24. Is service real, if we do not know whom it is we serve?
25. We may, and ought to do good to others.
CONCORD. S/
26. My Lord Duke's entertainments were both seldom and shabby.
27. Everything, since that event, wore a new aspect.
28. He is wiser than me.
29. It is not me you are in love with.
30. Let there be no solace left for thou and me.
31. She was neither better bred nor wiser than you or me.
32. This paper should properly have appeared to-morrow.
33. The following facts may or have been adduced as reasons.
34. I do not think any one to blame for taking care of their health.
35. During the last century no prime minister has become rich in
office.
36. We are alone, here's none but thee and I.
37. Successful he might have been, had his horse been as ambi-
tious as he.
38. Every one of this grotesque family were the creatures of na-
tional genius.
39. It is not fit for such as us to sit with the rulers of the land.
40. It was my intention to have arranged the contents of this new
issue of The Queen s English under the parts of speech.
41. What should we gain by it that we should speedily become as
poor as them ?
42. The richness of her arms and apparel were conspicuou5 in the
foremost rank.
43. The Prince was apprehensive that Waverley, if set at liberty,
might have resumed his purpose of returning to England.
44. Come quick and do not hinder us.
45. We got home safe.
46. Open the door wide.
47. I heard you were here, therefore I have come.
48. Rapid rivers are seldom if ever deep.
49. How many sounds have each of the vowels?
50. Napoleon wished to have made Lucien king of Spain.
51. Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits delight some persons.
52. You think you shall go to the city, then ?
53. One of the most trying things that is known to life, is to suffer
alone and unjustly.
54. Let he and you consider the question before complying.
55. I regarded thee as my friend, but now I doubt your friendship.
56. They naturally prefer to stand where they would have long
ago, if it were not for their mistakes.
88 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.
REPRODUCTION VT.
THE PET-LAMB.
THE dew was falling fast, the stars began to blink ;
I heard a voice ; it said, " Drink, pretty creature, drink! "
And, looking o'er the hedge, before me I espied
A snow-white mountain-lamb with a Maiden at its side.
Nor sheep nor kine were near; the lamb was all alone,
And by a slender cord was tethered to a stone;
With one knee on the grass did the little Maiden kneel,
While to that mountain-lamb she gave its evening meal.
The lamb, while from her hand he thus his supper took,
Seemed to feast with head and ears ; and his tail with pleasure shook.
"Drink, pretty creature, drink," she said in such a tone
That I almost received her heart into my own.
'Twas little Barbara Lewthwaite, a child of beauty rare!
I watched them with delight, they were a lovely pair.
Now with her empty can the Maiden turned away ;
But ere ten yards were gone her footsteps did she stay.
Right towards the lamb she looked ; and from a shady place
I, unobserved, could see the workings of her face;
If Nature to her tongue could measured numbers bring,
Thus, thought I, to her lamb that little Maid might sing :
"What ails thee, young One? what? Why pull so at thy cord?
Is it not well with thee? well both for bed and board?
Thy plot of grass is soft, and green as grass can be ;
Rest, little young One, rest ; what is 't that aileth thee ?
"What is it thou wouldst seek? What is wanting to thy heart?
Thy limbs, are they not strong? And beautiful thou art:
This grass is tender grass ; these flowers they have no peers ;
And that green corn all day is rustling in thy ears !
CONCORD.
"If the sun be shining hot, do but stretch thy woolen chain,
This beech is standing by, its covert thou canst gain ;
For rain and mountain-storms! the like thou need'st not fear,
The rain and storm are things that scarcely can come here.
" Rest, little young One, rest; thou hast forgot the day
When my father found thee first in places far away ;
Many flocks were on the hills, but thou wert owned by none,
And thy mother from thy side forevermore was gone.
" He took thee in his arms, and in pity brought thee home;
A blessed day for thee ! then whither wouldst thou roam ?
A faithful nurse thou hast ; the dam that did thee yean
Upon the mountain-tops no kinder could have been.
" Thou know'st that twice a day I have brought thee in this can
Fresh water from the brook, as clear as ever ran ;
And twice in the day, when the ground is wet with dew,
I bring thee draughts of milk, warm milk it is and new f
"Thy limbs will shortly be twice as stout as they are now,
Then I '11 yoke thee to my cart like a pony in the plow ;
My playmate thou shalt be ; and when the wind is cold
Our hearth shall be thy bed, our house shall be thy fold.
" It will not, will not rest! Poor creature, can it be
That 'tis thy mother's heart which is working so in thee?
Things that I know not of belike to thee are dear,
And dreams of things which thou canst neither see nor hear.
"Alas, the mountain-tops that look so green and fair!
I've heard of fearful winds and darkness that come there;
The little brooks that seem all pastime and all play,
When they are angry, roar like lions for their prey.
"Here thou need'st not dread the raven in the sky;
Night and day thou art safe, our cottage is hard by.
Why bleat so after me ? Why pull so at thy chain ?
Sleep and at break of day I will come to thee again ! '*
WORDSWORTH,
Rhet. 8.
8 9
90 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
DEVELOPMENT II.
NUTTING-TIME.
THE month was October, the frosts had come down,
The woodlands were scarlet and yellow and brown ;
The harvests were gathered, the nights had grown chill,
But warm was the day on the south of the hill.
'Twas there with our bags and our baskets we went,
And searching the dry leaves we busily bent ;
The chestnuts were big and the beech-nuts were small,
But both sorts are welcome to boys in the fall.
And when, in the ashes beneath the bright flame,
On eves of November, with laughter and game,
The sweetmeats are roasted, we recollect still
How tine was the day on the south of the hill.
H. I., in St. Nicholas.
Tell how much the nut-gathering had been talked of, and
how long ; who formed the party ; whose quick eyes were
first to spy the nuts ; whose nimble fingers helped to fill
each basket ; how the squirrels stared in startled wonder at
the merry party whose voices broke the usual stillness of
the woods ; how they regarded this invasion of their rights ;
of the journey home all heavily laden ; what is the dear-
est recollection of that happy day?
DEVELOPMENT I IT.
AT THE SEASIDE.
HEAPING up the shining pebbles,
Spading in the glistening sandp
Building fierce but mimic forts
CONCORD. O!
That from foes shall guard the land,
Making lovely landscape gardens
That are watered by the spray,
Ah! 'tis surely pleasant,
On the beach to play.
Hand in hand with merry playmates
Wading where the billows break,
Swift their feet the way retracing,
Lest the waves their steps o'ertake,
Merry childish laughter pealing
Out from hearts so wildly gay,
Ah! 'tis surely pleasant,
On the beach to play.
Give the names of your playmates ; tell who is the merry,
daring leader in your play; describe your gardens or the
forts you have constructed ; tell how often the incoming
wave has kissed your retreating feet ; the delightful sail
over the bright waters ; give any other amusements in which
you might engage ; describe the feelings awakened on be-
holding the awful grandeur of the ocean.
DEVELOPMENT IV.
TRUST.
SEARCHING for strawberries ready to eat,
Finding them crimson and large and sweet,
What do you think I found at my feet
Deep in the green hill-side ?
Four brown sparrows, the cunning things,
Feathered on back and breast and wings,
Proud with the dignity plumage brings,
Opening their four mouths wide.
92 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
Stooping lower to scan my prize,
Watching their motions with curious eyes,
Dropping my berries in glad surprise,
A plaintive sound I heard.
And looking up at that mournful call,
I spied on a branch near the old stone wall,
Trembling and twittering, ready to fall,
The poor little mother-bird.
With grief and terror her heart was wrung ;
And while to the slender bough she clung,
She felt that the lives of her birdlings hung
On a more slender thread.
"Oh, birdie," I said> "if you only knew
That my heart is tender and warm and true."
But the thought that I loved her birdlings too
Never entered her small brown head.
And so through this world of ours we go,
Bearing our burdens of needless woe ;
Many a heart beating heavy and slow
Under its load of care.
But, oh ! if we only, only knew
That God is tender and warm and true,
And that he loves us through and through,
Our hearts would be lighter than air.
ANONYMOUS.
CHAPTER VI.
SYNTHESIS OF SENTENCES INTO A PARAGRAPH.
A Paragraph is a connected series of sentences, devel-
oping a single topic.
In form, it is distinguished by commencing on a new
line a short distance from the beginning of the line. The
sentences are then written in close succession, until the par-
agraph is completed.
In combining sentences into a paragraph, the following
directions should be observed :
1. Read carefully the various sentences. Select the lead-
ing statements, and express them by means of independent
propositions ; the other thoughts should be expressed by
words, phrases, or clauses.
2. Do not connect facts that are unconnected in thought,
into long, loose, compound sentences joined by ands.
3. See that each sentence has some bearing upon what
precedes it ; while, at the same time, it expresses a thought
jiot given in a preceding sentence.
4. Be careful, when expressing connection between sen-
tences, to use such conjunctions as show the correct rela-
tion of the thoughts. Where it is necessary to express the
connection, such words or phrases as and, biit, therefore,
since this is so, furthermore, again, so, likewise, may be used.
When the connection in thought between successive senten-
ces is either very close or very distant, connectives may gen-
erally be omitted.
(93>
94 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
5. Aim at variety of construction; that is, do not form
a succession of sentences of any one kind ; but make them
simple, complex, or compound, as seems best suited to the
purpose. No one kind of sentence is pre-eminently the
best ; each kind has its own peculiar advantages ; but where
\ excellence in composition is aimed at, there should be a
\nroper intermixture of the several kinds.
jThe following will illustrate the method of combining
sentences into a paragraph:
A husbandman set a net in his field.
He placed it there to catch the cranes.
The cranes came to pluck up his newly-planted corn.
The husbandman went to examine the net.
He went to see the cranes thus taken.
A stork was found among the number.
The stork begged to be spared.
The stork begged to be let go.
It professed to be no crane.
It denied having eaten any of the corn.
It declared itself to be a poor, innocent stork, the most pious and
dutiful of birds.
It professed to honor and succor its father and mother.
The husbandman would hear no more.
He owned this to be possibly true enough.
He acknowledged this in his reply to the stork.
The husbandman knew one thing plainly.
He had caught the stork with the destroyers of his crop.
For this the stork must suffer with the company.
In such company it had been taken.
Combined. A husbandman set a net in his field to catch the cranes
that came to pluck up his newly-planted corn. When he went to
examine the net, to see what cranes he had taken, a stork was found
among the number. "Spare me," cried the stork, "and let me go.
I am no crane; I have not eaten any of your corn; I am a poor in-
nocent stork the most pious and dutiful of birds. I honor and suc-
cor my father and mother." But the husbandman would hear no
SYNTHESIS OF SENTENCES INTO A PARAGRAPH. 95
more, and replied, "All this may be true enough ; but this I plainly
know, that I have caught you with those that were destroying my
crops, and you must suffer with the company in which you were
taken."
EXERCISE XXIX.
DIRECTION. Combine the following statements into well-constructed sen-
tences, forming a single paragraph :
1. THE MISTAKE OF A LIFE. A piece of money was lying in the
road. A young man picked it up. He hoped he should find another.
He kept his eyes fixed steadily on the ground. He did this always
afterward, as he walked along. He did pick up a good amount of
gold and silver. This was in the course of a long life. He was look-
ing for money all this time. The heavens were bright above him.
Nature was beautiful around him. He did not see them. He never
looked up from the mud and filth. He sought treasure in them. He
died a rich old man. He knew this fair earth, even up to his death,
only as a dirty road. He thought it was to pick money from.
2. A MISSIONARY'S EXPERIENCE. I was riding alone across one
of the South Pacific Islands. The night was dark and rainy. I was
delighted to see, just ahead, a light. Seemingly, there was a man
carrying a lighted torch. I shouted to my supposed companion to
wait a little. I wished to get up to him. I received no reply. I
spurred my horse. The animal made its way with difficulty. The
mire was deep. I was not a little annoyed to see the light dancing
on and on. A clump of trees now hid the windings of the road. This
mocking companion seemed to dart through its gloomiest recesses.
It moved in a most inexplicable manner. A long and weary chase*
followed. The light forsook the beaten track. It hovered over the
deep waters of a little lake in that neighborhood. I reached home
that night. I related my adventure. The natives jestingly remarked
upon the adventure. An elf had been lighting my path with her torch.
I had been chasing a Will-o'-the-wisp.
3. A CURIOUS INSECT. There is a certain black beetle. It is fa-
miliar to all dwellers in the country. It swims on the surface of the
summer brook. It loves to hold conventions in some quiet eddy. It
96 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
loves to spend the hours in whirling around. In all manner of tangled
curves. There is one curious thing. It is in the construction of this
diminutive insect. The insect possesses two pairs of eyes. These
eyes are placed in a peculiar way. The insect floats along. It is
enabled to have one pair above the surface of the water. The other
pair is below the surface of the water. All these eyes are designed to
be used. One pair is to view things beneath the water. The other
pair is to view things above the water. One pair looks out for food.
The other pair looks out for danger and for enjoyment. The two to-
gether fit the insect for its life. This life is on the dividing line be-
tween air and water.
4. SMALL GARDENS IN DEVONSHIRE. Nothing can exceed in pret-
tiness these gardens in Devonshire. They are attached to thatched
cottages. They are frequently seen on the side of a hill. They are
oftener at the bottom of a hill. Down this hill a narrow road leads.
A rude, single-arched stone bridge. Here a shallow stream may
be seen flowing rapidly. The stream now and then " stickles " over a
pavement. Pebbles or rag-stone. " Stickles " is a Devonshire phrase.
A little rill descends by the side of the lane. The rill descends close
to the hedge. The hedge is approached by a broad stepping-stone
over the rill. Beyond the hedge is a gate made of rough sticks. The
gate leads to the cottage. At a short distance from the cottage, an
excavation has been cut in the bank. It has been paved round with
rough stones. Into this the water finds its way. It makes its way
out clear and sparkling. This is the cottager's well. His garden is
gay with flowers. His bees are placed on each side of a window.
The window is surrounded with honeysuckle, jessamine, or a flourish-
ing vine. The rustic porch is covered with these or other creepers.
The gorgeous hollyhock may be seen in perfection. The hollyhock
delights in the rich red soil of Devonshire. Giantstocks, carnations,
and china-asters flourish from the same cause. These make the gar-
den appear like Flora's. It appears to belong to Flora herself.
DIRECTION. Combine each of the following groups of statements into a
paragraph, and write on the first line of each paragraph the topic it develops :
I. The deer seem to foresee every change of weather. In this re-
spect they are like many other animals. At the approach of a storm,
deer leave the higher hills. They descend to the. low grounds. Some-
times even two days in advance of the change. At the approach of
SYNTHESIS OF SENTENCES INTO A PARAGRAPH. 97
a thaw, they leave the low grounds. They go to the mountains.
They never perish in snow-drifts. In this, they are not like sheep.
Not sheltering themselves in hollows prevents their perishing in snow-
drifts. Keeping the bare ground prevents their perishing. Further,
they eat the tops of the heather.
2. There was at hand no cotton in the seed. Whitney went to
Savannah to procure some. He searched there among warehouses
and boats. He found a small parcel. He carried it home. He se-
cluded it with himself in a basement-room. Here he set to work.
He worked to devise and construct the implement required. The
tools were rude and few. He was constrained to make better ones.
He was forced to draw his own wire. No wire could be bought in
Savannah. There were but two persons allowed to enter his work-
shop. These were Mrs. Greene and her next friend, Mr. Miller. They
were, in fact, the only ones having a clear knowledge of his efforts
and intentions. His mysterious hammering and tinkering in that sol-
itary cell were subjects of infinite curiosity. They were subjects of
marvel. They were subjects of ridicule. This was among the younger
members of the family. He did not interfere with their merriment.
He did not allow them to interfere with his enterprise. Before the
close of the winter, his machine was nearly completed. Its success
was no longer doubtful.
3. The immediate loss of Constantinople may be ascribed to a
bullet. An arrow. This bullet or arrow pierced the gauntlet of John
Justiniani. The sight of his blood appalled the courage of the chief.
The exquisite pain destroyed his courage. His arms and counsels
were the firmest ramparts of the city. He withdrew from his station.
He went in quest of a surgeon. His flight was perceived. He was
stopped by the emperor. The emperor was indefatigable. "Your
wound is slight." "The danger is pressing." "Your presence is
necessary." "Whither will you retire ?" These words were said by
Palaeologus. The Genoese trembled. " I will retire by a certain
road." God had opened this road to the Turks. He passed hastily
through a breach in the wall. It was one of the breaches of the inner
wall. The act was pusillanimous. He stained the honors of a mili-
tary life. His example was imitated. The greater part of the Latin
auxiliaries followed his example. The defense began to slacken. The
attack was pressed with redoubled vigor. Constantinople was irre-
trievably subdued. Mahomet the Second was its conqueror.
Rhet. 9.
98 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.
REPRODUCTION V17.
PROSE READINGS.
To THE TEACHER. It will be found advantageous to give also prose selec-
tions for reproduction. These have been omitted for want of space. They can,
however, be given whenever desired by reading the class something suited to the
purpose. Selections by Prof. Edward R. Shaw, will furnish excellent material for
such reproduction.
REPRODUCTION VIII.
ENVY AND AVARICE.
ENVY and Avarice, one summer day,
Sauntering abroad
In quest of the abode
Of some poor wretch or fool who lived that way
You or myself, perhaps I can not say
Along the road, scarce heeding where it tended,
Their way in sullen, sulky silence wended;
For, though twin sisters, these two charming creatures,
Rivals in hideousness of form and features,
Wasted no great love between them as they went.
Pale Avarice,
With gloating eyes,
And back and shoulders almost double bent,
Was hugging close that fatal box
For which she 's ever on the watch
Some glance to catch
Suspiciously directed to its locks ;
And Envy, too, no doubt with silent winking
At her green, greedy orbs, no single minute
Withdrawn from it, was hard a-thinking-
Of all the shining dollars in it.
SYNTHESIS OF SENTENCES INTO A PARAGRAPH. 99
The only words that Avarice could utter,
Her constant doom, in a low, frightened mutter,
"There's not enough, enough, yet in my store!'*
While Envy, as she scanned the glittering sight,
Groaned as she gnashed her yellow teeth with spite,
"She's more than I, more, still forever more!"
Thus, each in her own fashion, as they wandered,
Upon the coffer's precious contents pondered,
When suddenly, to their surprise,
The God Desire stood before their eyes.
Desire, that courteous deity, who grants
All wishes, prayers, and wants ;
Said he to the two sisters, " Beauteous ladies,
As I 'm a gentleman, my task and trade is
To be the slave of your behest
Choose therefore at your own sweet will and pleasure,
Honors or treasure !
Or in one word, whatever you 'd like best.
But, let us understand each other she
Who speaks the first, her prayers shall certainly
Receive the other, the same boon redoubled /"
Imagine how our amiable pair,
At this proposal, all so frank and fair,
Were mutually troubled !
Misers and enviers of our human race,
Say, what would you have done in such a case ?
Each of the sisters murmured, sad and low,
" What boots it, oh, Desire, to me to have
Crowns, treasures, all the goods that heart can crave,
Or power divine bestow,
Since still another must have always more?"
So each, lest she should speak before
The other, hesitating slow and long
'Till the god lost all patience, held her tongue.
He was enraged in such a way,
To be kept waiting there all day,
IOO COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
With two such beauties in the public road ;
Scarce able to be civil even,
He wished them both well, not in heaven.
Envy at last the silence broke,
And smiling, with malignant sneer,
Upon her sister dear,
Who stood in expectation by,
Ever implacable and cruel, spoke :
" I would be blinded of one eye ! "
VICTOR HUGO.
REPRODUCTION IX.
NORA'S CHARM.
'TWAS the fisher's wife at her neighbor's door,
And she cried, as she wrung her hands,
"O Nora, get your cloak and hood,
And haste with me o'er the sands."
Now a kind man was the fisherman,
And a lucky man was he ;
And never a steadier sailed away
From the Bay of Cromarty.
And the wife had plenty on her board,
And the babe in her arms was fair ;
But her heart was always full of fear,
And her brow was black with care.
And she stood at her neighbor's door and cried,
"Oh, woe is me this night!
For the fairies have stolen my pretty babe
And left me an ugly sprite.
" My pretty babe, that was more than all
The wealth of the world to me ;
With his coral lips, and his hair of geld,
And his teeth like pearls of the sea !
SYNTHESIS OF SENTENCES INTO A PARAGRAPH. IOI
" I went to look for his father's boat,
When I heard the stroke of the oar ;
And I left him cooing soft in his bed,
As the bird in her nest by the door.
"And there was the father fair in sight,
And pulling hard to the land ;
And my foot was back o'er the sill again,
Ere his keel had struck the sand.
" But the fairies had time to steal my babe,
And leave me in his place
A restless imp, with a wicked grin,
And never a smile on his face."
And Nora took her cloak and hood,
And softly by the hand
She led the fisher's wife through the night
Across the yellow sand.
" Nay, do not rave, and talk so wild ; "
'Twas Nora thus that spoke;
" We must have our wits to work against
The arts of fairy folk.
"There's a charm to help us in our need,
But its power we can not try,
With the black cloud hanging o'er the brow,
And the salt tear in the eye.
" For wicked things may gibe and grin
With noisy cheer and shout,
But the joyous peal of a happy laugh
Has power to drive them out.
"And if this sprite we can but please
Till he laughs with merry glee,
We shall break the spell that holds him here,
And keeps the babe from your knee."
IO2 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
So the mother wiped her tears away,
And patiently and long
They plied the restless, stubborn imp
With cunning trick and song.
They blew a blast on the fisher's horn,
Each curious prank they tried ;
They rocked the cradle where he lay,
As a boat is rocked on the tide.
But there the hateful creature kept,
In place of the human child ;
And never once his writhing ceased,
And never once he smiled.
Then Nora cried, "Take yonder egg
That lies upon the shelf,
And make of it two hollow cups,
Like tiny cups of delf."
And the mother took the sea-mew's egg,
And broke in twain the shell,
And made of it two tiny cups,
And filled them at the well.
She filled them up as Nora bade,
And set them on the coals :
And the imp grew still, for he ne'er had seen
In fairy-land such bowls.
And when the water bubbled and boiled,
Like a fountain in its play,
Mirth bubbled up to his lips, and he laughed
Till he laughed himself away !
And the mother turned about, and felt
The heart in her bosom leap ;
For the imp was gone, and there in has place
Lay her baby fast asleep.
SYNTHESIS OF SENTENCES INTO A PARAGRAPH. 103
And Nora said to her neighbor, "Now
There sure can be no doubt
But a merry heart and a merry laugh
Drive evil spirits out !
"And who can say but the dismal frown
And the doleful sigh are the sin
That keeps the good from our homes and hearts,
And lets the evil in!"
PHCEBE GARY.
DEVELOPMENT V.
"O MARY, go and call the cattle home,
And call the cattle home,
And call the cattle home,
Across the sands o' Dee ; "
The western wind was wild and dank wi' foam,
And all alone went she.
The creeping tide came up along the sand,
And o'er and o'er the sand,
And round and round the sand,
As far as eye could see ;
The blinding mist came down and hid the land
And never home came she.
" Oh, is it weed, or fish, or floating hair
A tress o' golden hair,
O 1 drowned maiden's hair,
Above the nets at sea ?
Was never salmon yet that shone so fair
Among the stakes on Dee."
They rowed her in across the rolling foam,
The cruel, crawling foam,
The cruel, hungry foam,
To her grave beside the sea ;
But still the boatmen hear her call the cattle home,
Across the sands o' Dee.
CHAS. KINGSLEY.
IO4 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC,
DEVELOPMENT VI.
OH ! many a shaft at random sent
Finds mark the archer little meant ;
And many a word at random spoken
May soothe or wound the heart that's broken.
SIR WALTER SCOTT.
DEVELOPMENT VII.
DRIFTING.
OH, the winds were all a-blowing down the blue, blue sky,
And the tide was outward flowing, and the rushes flitted by ;
All the lilies seemed to quiver
On the fair and dimpled river,
All the west was golden red ;
We were children four together,
In the pleasant summer weather,
And merrily down we sped.
Oh, the town behind us faded in the pale, pale gray,
As we left the river shaded, and we drifted down the bay ;
And across the harbor bar,
Where the angry breakers are,
You and Grace, and Tom and I,
To the Golden Land with laughter,
Where we'd live in peace thereafter,
Just beyond the golden sky.
Oh, the winds were chilly growing o'er the gray, gray sea,
When a white-winged bark came blowing o'er the billows on our lee.
Cried the skipper all a-wonder :
" Mercy on us ! over yonder
Bear a hand, my lads, with me
Four young children all together,
In this ple*asant evening weather,
Go a-drifting out to sea ! "
SYNTHESIS OF SENTENCES INTO A PARAGRAPH. 105
All our prayers were unavailing, all our fond, fond hopes,
For our Golden Land had vanished with its fair and blooming slopes,
As the skipper, with loud laughter,
Towed our little shallop after,
Homeward by the dreary bay.
Fast our childish tears were flowing,
Chill the western wind was blowing,
And the gold had turned to gray.
E. VINTON BLAKE, in St. Nicholas.
DEVELOPMENT VIII.
FABLE.
A CERTAIN bird in a certain wood,
Feeling the spring-time warm and good,
Sang to it in melodious mood.
On other neighboring branches stood
Other birds who heard his song :
Loudly he sang and clear and strong ;
Sweetly he sang, and it stirred their gall
There should be a voice so musical.
They said to themselves : "We must stop that bird,
He's the sweetest voice was ever heard.
That rich, deep chest-note, crystal clear,
Is a mortifying thing to hear.
We have sharper beaks and hardier wings,
Yet we but croak : this fellow sings ! "
So they planned arfd planned, and killed the bird
With the sweetest voice was ever heard.
T. B. ALDKICH.
CHAPTER VII.
VARIETY OF EXPRESSION.
VARIETY is the opposite of uniformity, or sameness, and
we soon grow weary of sameness ; hence variety in com-
position is one of the sources of excellence^ It keeps up
the attention of the reader or hearer, and, for this reason,
conduces to the vivacity and strength of the discourse.
On this point Blair says : ' ' Sentences constructed in a sim-
ilar manner, with the pauses falling at equal intervals,
should never follow one another. Short sentences should
be intermixed with long and swelling ones, to render dis-
course sprightly as well as magnificent. Even discords,
properly introduced, abrupt sounds, departures from regu-
lar cadence, have sometimes a good effect. Monotony is the
great fault into which writers are apt to fall who are fond
of harmonious arrangement ; and to have only one tune or
measure is not much better than having none at all."
: Variety of expression may be secured in two ways:
(i) By changing the arrangement, or structure, of the sen-
tence. (2) By changing the phraseology, or language, used
to express the thought.
CHANGE OF STRUCTURE.
V Change of structure may be secured : -
\(i) By changing the voice of the verb. Thus:
\ (106)
VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. IO/
Active Caesar defeated Pompey.
Passive Pompey was defeated by Caesar.
By substituting an interrogative for a declarative sen-
ce.
The interrogative form is often the more forcible. Thus :
Interrogative Is this the character of true manhood?
Declarative This is not the character of true manhood.
(3) By substituting an exclamatory for a declarative sen-
:ence. Thus :
Declarative It is a beautiful sunset.
Exclamatory-^N\&\. a beautiful sunset !
f (4) By the use of "there" or "it" as an introductory
word. Thus :
1. There is no place like home.
2. No place is like home.
The first of these sentences is more impressive ; the im-
pressiveness is effected by the use of the introductory
"there."
P (5) By substituting the direct form of statement for the
indirect. Thus :
Direct General Wolfe said, "I die happy."
Indirect General Wolfe said that he died happy.
f (6) By transposing the parts of the sentence.
V/This transposition may take place in either prose or poetry,
but it occurs most frequently in poetry. Thus :
Natural order Honor and shame rise from no condition.
Transposed Honor and shame from no condition rise.
(7) By abridging clauses.
IO8 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
/ (8) By substituting phrases for words, or words for
phrases.
\ (9) By expanding words or phrases into clauses.*
METHOD I. To change the voice of a verb.
EXERCISE XXX.
DIRECTION. Vary the structure of the following sentences by changing the
verbs in the active voice to the passive, and those in the passive to the active :
1. Some one calls a blush the color of virtue.
2. Snow is melted by the sun.
3. The general surrendered the fort.
4. Much practice is required to write well.
5. Health is promoted by temperance; ruined by intemperance,
6. Great men are measured by their character.
7. The sweet song of the birds delighted his ears,
8. Hands of angels hidden from mortal eyes, shifted the scenery
of the heavens.
9. Neglect of duty often produces unhappiness.
10. What evil has smitten the pinnace?
11. The Norman Conquest introduced Chivalry and the Feudal
System into England.
12. In 1512, Albert Diirer was first employed by the Emperor Max-
imilian.
13. The press of England is guarded by the hearts and arms of
Englishmen.
14. This system did not promote the good order of society.
15. A cold, sleety rain accompanied the cart and the foot travelers
all the way to the city.
1 6. Every gentleman, born a soldier, scorns any other occupation.
17. The writings of Cicero represent, in the most lively colors, the
ignorance, the errors, and the uncertainty of the ancient philosophers
with regard to the immortality of the soul.
* NOTE. The last three methods have been treated under "Transformation
of Elements."
VARIETY OF EXPRESSION.
109
METHOD II. To change a declarative to an interrogative
sentence.
The natural, or primary, use of interrogation is to ask a
question ; but when declarative sentences are expressed in
the interrogative form, no answer is expected ; the inter-
rogative form is used merely to make the statement more
emphatic and convincing than the declarative form could
make it.
When using interrogation as a means of emphasis, we
should observe two things :
(1) A negative interrogation affirms. Thus, " Do we not
bear the image of our Maker?" is but a forcible way of
saying, "We bear the image of our Maker."
(2) An affirmative interrogation denies. Thus : ' ' Doth
God pervert judgment ? or doth the Almighty pervert jus-
tice?" Here the effect is to deny or to give a negative
answer to the question.
EXERCISE XXXI.
DIRECTION. Vary the structure of the following sentences by substituting
the interrogative form for the declarative, and the declarative for the interroga-
tive. Note the gain or loss in emphasis.
1. Who shall lay anything to the charge of God's elect?
2. Life is not so dear, nor peace so sweet, as to be purchased at
the price of chains and slavery.
3. We shall not gather strength by irresolution and inaction.
4. Life can never be too short, which brings nothing but disgrace
and oppression. *
5. What fairer prospects of success could be presented?
6. Despair is followed by courage.
7. Where there is injury, will there not be resentment?
8. When a king is lost in a wood, what is he more than other men?
IIO COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
9. Evil so reacts upon good, as not only to retard its motion, but
to change its nature.
10. If we repent of our good actions, what is left for our faults and
follies ?
11. You can not expect to do justice when you will not hear the ac-
cused.
12. Your troops and your ships have made a vain and insulting
parade in their streets and in their harbors.
13. You can not expect to be well informed when you listen only to
partisans.
14. Men do not gather grapes of thorns, nor figs of thistles.
15. It is lawful for me to do what I will with my own.
1 6. Nothing remains, then, but for us to stand foremost in the
breach, to repair it, or perish in it.
17. Can you put the dearest interest of society at risk, without guilt
and without remorse ?
1 8. A man can not contrive to be hereafter in England on a day
that is past.
METHOD III. To change a declarative to an exclamatory
sentence.
By this change, a plain or simple fact is expressed with
emotion. Care should be taken, therefore, to use the ex-
clamatory form only where strong feeling or great earnest-
ness is to be expressed.
In exclamative sentences the verb is frequently omitted ;
as, ' ' What a terrible crime ! ' ' This is equivalent to, ' ' What
a terrible crime this is! " To express this idea in the de-
clarative form we would say, "This is a terrible crime."
EXERCISE XXXII.
DIRECTION. Vary the structure of the following sentences by changing the
declarative to the exclamatory form :
1. She is fruitful in resources and comprehensive in her views.
2. A silence came with the snow.
VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. I i i
3. A wilderness of floral beauty was hidden upon the tropic islands.
4. The chime of the Sabbath bells is sweet.
5. The hot tears fall.
6. This bleak old house will look lonely next year.
7. It is hard to follow, with lips that quiver, that moving speck on
the far-off side.
8. Vast motives press upon us for lofty efforts.
9. That a nation could be thus deluded is wonderful.
10. The music of those evening bells, those evening bells, tells
many a tale.
11. It is a bitter thing to look into happiness through another man's
eyes.
12. This hour of calm is sweet and soothing.
13. Man is a wonderful piece of work; noble in reason, infinite in
faculties ; in form and moving, express and admirable ; in action, like
an angel ; in apprehension, like a god.
14. The poor country is almost afraid to know itself.
15. I wish that a man might know the end of this day's business.
1 6. Mischiei is swift to enter into the thoughts of desperate men.
17. It is too true; that speech doth give my conscience a smart lash.
1 8. A noble mind is here o'erthrown.
19. He hath accumulated piles of wealth to his own portion.
20. Ye eagerly follow my disgrace, as if it fed ye.
21. The poor man that hangs on princes' favors is wretched.
METHOD IV. To use "there" as an introductory word,
or "it" as tJie anticipative subject.
The beginning of the sentence is the usual place for the
subject; now, to use the introductory ''there" or the an-
ticipative subject "it" removes the real subject from the
beginning, and thus emphasizes it.
The idiom "it is" introducing a sentence or a clause,
is one of great value ; yet it is a frequent source of ambi-
guity. Whenever doubt arises from its use, substitute for
the impersonal verb, the corresponding noun; as, "// is
asserted," "the assertion is made"; "//will be explained,"
"the explanation will be given."
112 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
EXERCISE XXXIII.
DIRECTION. Vary the following expressions by using the anticipative subject
"There" or " It":
1. To twist iron anchors and braid cannons is as easy as to braid
straw.
2. That paint costs nothing is a Dutch proverb.
3. None were so brave as he.
4. Some men are full of affection for themselves.
5. We crossed the Alleghanies just about daybreak.
6. Several of us are in the secret.
7. Much may be said in favor of our project.
8. For men to deceive is wrong.
9. To avoid harshness in such a case is not necessary.
10. That we only believe as deep as we live is curious.
11. For a man to rest in ignorance of the structure of his own body
is a shame.
12. That the little mill can never resist this mighty rush of waters
is plain enough.
13. What you ought to deny already exists.
14. To learn caution by the misfortunes of others is a good thing.
15. Anger seldom deprived him of power over himself.
16. He appeared to understand me well enough.
17. Judgment had better be deferred.
1 8. Probably the ship will sail to-morrow.
19. Hope soothes us under misfortune.
20. A poor exile of Erin came to the beach.
21. Faith, hope, and charity are three noble virtues.
22. Moral principles slumber in the souls of the most depraved.
23. Many able minds are considering this matter.
METHOD V. To substitute the direct form of discourse for
the indirect.
The direct form of speech gives the words of the speaker
exactly as uttered by himself; the indirect form gives them
as reported by another. In the direct form, the words of
VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 113
the statement must be inclosed in quotation marks ; in the
indirect, the marks are not used.
In substituting the indirect form of speech for the direct,
the principal variations are :
(1) The first and second persons are changed to the third.
(2) The present tense is changed to its corresponding past.
(3) The near demonstrative this is changed to the more
remote that.
EXERCISE XXXIV.
DIRECTION. In the following passages, vary the structure by substituting the
direct form for the indirect, and the indirect for the direct :
1. Patrick Henry said that the war was inevitable, and that he was
willing it should come. Then he repeated that he wished it to come.
2. The Senate, he observed, must have heard with pleasure, that
Caesar condemned the conspiracy.
3. When the Emperor signaled that he had no further charge to
make, Augustus said, "Next time, when you give ear to information
against honest men, take care that your informants are honest men
themselves."
4. He told us that he had been thirty years employing his thoughts
for the improvement of mankind.
5. "I beseech you, O Athenians," said Themistocles, "to betake
yourselves to your ships ; for I perceive that there is no longer any
hope."
6. Bion, seeing a person who was tearing the hair of his head for
sorrow, said, "Does this man think that baldness is a remedy for
grief?"
7. Down the long street he walked, as one who said that a town
which boasted inhabitants like him could have no lack of good society.
8. A drunkard once reeled up to Whitefield with the remark, " Mr.
Whitefield, I am one of your converts." "I think it very likely,"
was the reply; "for I am sure you are none of God's."
9. The Samnites told the Romans that there should be no peace
in Italy till the forests were rooted up in which the Roman wolves had
made themselves a covert.
Rhet. 10.
114 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
10. When his architect offered to build him a house in which he
could screen all his acts from his neighbors, Drusus said, "Build me
rather a dwelling wherein all my countrymen "may witness all I do."
11. When Plato heard that his enemies called him a bad man, he
said that he should take care so to live that no one would believe them.
12. "See you yon lighten the southern headland?" returned the
pilot; "you may know it from the star near it by its sinking, at times,
into the ocean. If we keep that light open from the hill, we shall do
well but, if not, we surely go to pieces."*
13. To the lords of convention 'twas Claverhouse spoke,
"Ere the king's crown shall fall there are crowns to be broke;
So let each cavalier who loves honor and me,
Come and follow the bonnets of bonnie Dundee! "
14. "I have been thinking all day," said gently the Puritan maiden,
"Dreaming all night, and thinking all day, of the hedge-rows of
England,
They are in blossom now, and the country is all like a garden ;
Thinking of lanes and fields, and the song of the lark and the
linnet,
Seeing the village street, and familiar faces of neighbors
Going about as of old, and stopping to gossip together,
And, at the end of the street, the village church, with the ivy
Climbing the old gray tower, and the quiet graves in the church-
yard.
Kind are the people I live with, and dear to me my religion ;
Still my heart is so sad, that I wish myself back in Old England."
15. "Ah, how short are the days ! How soon the night overtakes us !
In the old country the twilight is longer; but here in the forest
Suddenly comes the dark, with hardly a pause in its coming,
Hardly a moment between the two lights, the day and the lamp-
light ;
Yet how grand is the winter! How spotless the snow is, and per-
fect!"
*NOTE. It is not expected that the required substitution be made in the fol-
lowing stanzas without destroying the meter.
VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 1 15
Thus spake Elizabeth Haddon at nightfall to Hannah the house-
maid,
As in the farm-house kitchen, that served for kitchen and parlor,
By the window she sat with her work, and looked on a landscape
White as the great white sheet that Peter saw in his vision,
By the four corners let down and descending out of the heavens.
METHOD VI. To transpose the parts of a sentence.
Every word in a sentence has its natural position, where
it performs its office, but attracts no special attention. In
this natural or grammatical order we have, (i) the subject
with its modifiers ; (2) the verb ; (3) the object or comple-
ment ; (4) the adverbial phrases or clauses. Now, for the
sake of emphasis or adornment, the writer has frequent
occasion to invert the grammatical order of parts in a sen-
tence, to put verbs before their subjects, objects and
predicate adjectives before their verbs, or adverbial words
and phrases at the beginning of the sentence. The mere
fact that the word is in an unwonted place gives it distinc-
tion.
The inverted, or rhetorical order belongs peculiarly
to poetry, where the utmost freedom is allowed for the
sake of rhyme and meter. The use of this order in prose
is mainly for emphasis ; and, being a feature more natural
to impassioned style, it should be used sparingly, and only
when there is a sufficient reason for the inversion.
To secure emphasis by means of inversion it should be
borne in mind that
Emphatic words must stand in prominent positions ; that
is, for the most part, at the beginning of the sentence or at
the end.
Example: Now is the accepted time.
1 16 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
The following are some of the principal poetical construc-
tions :
1. The omission of the article ; as,
When ( ) day was gone.
Not fearing toil nor ( ) length of weary days.
2. The omission of conjunctive particles ; as,
But ( ) soon as Luke could stand.
( ) Dear as the blood ye gave.
3. The antecedent is omitted; as,
Happy who walks with him.
Who overcomes by force, hath overcome but half his foe.
4. The auxiliary verb "to do" is omitted in an interroga-
tion; as,
Know ye aught of mercy ?
Lovest thou thy native land ?
Ho ! come ye in peace here, or come ye in war?
5. The verb precedes the nominative ; as,
Then shook the hills, with thunder riven,
Then rushed the steed, to battle driven,
And louder than the bolts of heaven
^2^ flashed the red artillery.
6. The object precedes the verb ; as,
The doors wide open fling.
These abilities Charles V. possessed.
His look on me he bent.
Lands he could measure, times and tides presage.
7. The noun precedes the adjective ; as,
Across the meadows bare and brown.
Hadst thou sent warning fair and true.
Each wolf that dies in the woodland brown.
VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. I 17
8. The adjective precedes the verb "to be"; as,
Sweet is the breath of vernal showers.
Bitter but unavailing were my regrets.
9. The pronoun is expressed in the imperative ; as,
Be thou as lightning in the eyes of France.
But, blench not thou.
Hope thou in God.
10. Adjectives are used for adverbs ; as,
So strode he back slow to the wounded King.
Then he would whistle rapid as any lark.
Swift fly the years, and rise the expected morn.
1 1. Personal pronouns are used with their antecedents ; as,
The winds and the waves of ocean,
They rested quietly.
For the deck, it was their field of fame.
12. Prepositions are suppressed; as,
He flies ( ) the event.
( ) Chisel in hand stood a sculptor boy.
Despair and anguish fled ( ) the struggling soul.
13. Adverbial phrases are not placed beside the words to
which they grammatically belong ; as,
On through the camp the column trod.
In coat of mail the pools are bound.
Under a spreading chestnut-tree
The village smithy stands.
1 4. ' 'And and* ' is used for ' ' both and "; * ' or or ' ' for
' ' either or "; ' ' nor nor ' ' for l ' neither nor "; as,
Nor war's wild note nor glory's peal.
And the starlight and moonlight.
Or trust or doubt give o'er.
Our acts our angels are, or good or ill.
Il8 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
EXERCISE XXXV.
DIRECTION. In the following passages are found both orders the rhe-
torical and the natural. Transpose the passages in the rhetorical, or poetical,
order to the natural, or prose, order, and those in the natural order to the
rhetorical*
1. Fancy then spread her magical pinion.
2. Gusty and raw was the morning.
3. They were moving slow in weeds of woe.
4. The sun is still shining behind the clouds.
5. Nature's darling was laid in thy green lap.
6. Thou art no boding maid of divine skill.
7. Prepare the rich repast.
8. From every face He wipes off every tear.
9. Far, vague, and dim, the mountains swim.
10. The waves had gone to sleep.
11. The spring greets my senses in vain.
12. Beneath her torn hat glowed the wealth
Of simple beauty and rustic health.
13. These delights if thou canst give,
Mirth, with thee I mean to live.
14. O, the root was evil, and the fruit was bitter, and the juice of
the vintage that we trod was crimson.
15. Like lions leaping at a fold, when mad with hunger's pang,
Right up against the English line the Irish exiles sprang.
1 6. No more on life's parade shall meet
That brave and fallen few.
On fame's eternal camping-ground
Their silent tents are spread.
17. He goes onward, toiling, rejoicing, sorrowing through life.
1 8. Their juice is drugged for foreign use.
#NOTE. In transposing poetical passages from the metrical to the prose
order, all ellipses should be supplied, and the elements of each sentence should
be arranged in natural order. This order may afterwards be modified in re-
spect to the arrangement of the phrases and clauses, so as to make the sen-
tence more graceful and harmonious.
VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. lip
19. The only hope of courage dwells in native swords and native
ranks.
20. I do not grieve for past pleasures nor for perils gathering near.
2 1 . Flows there a tear of pity for the dead ?
22. Sudden he stops ; his eye is fixed.
23. Here giant weeds a passage scarce allow,
To halls deserted, portals gaping wide.
24. Hark ! heard you not those hoofs of dreadful note ?
Sounds not the clang of conflict on the heath ?
25. Who wickedly is wise, or madly brave,
Is but the more a fool, the more a knave.
26. He falls slowly, and, amidst triumphant cries, he dies without a
groan, without a struggle.
27. The swallows sang wild and high from their nests beneath the
rafters ; and the world, sleeping beneath me, seemed more distant
than the sky.
28. The golden sun poured in a dusty beam through the closed
blinds.
29. Long at the scene, bewildered and amazed,
The trembling clerks in speechless wonder gazed.
30. Golden and red above it
The clouds float gorgeously.
31. Then stirs the feeling infinite, so felt
In solitude, when we are least alone.
32. Brunswick's fated chieftain sat within a niche of that high wall.
33. I feel within me a peace above all earthly dignities, a still and
quiet conscience.
34. I obtained this freedom with a great sum.
35. And every soul, it passed me by.
36. Him serve with mirth, his praise forth tell.
37. Headlong themselves they threw down from the verge of
heaven.
38. That divine messenger comes with a slow and noiseless step.
39. The ancient splendor is vanished, and these mingled shapes
and figures wave like a faded tapestry, before my dreamy eyes.
40. Life's goblet is filled to the brim; and though my eyes are dim
with tears, I see its sparkling bubbles swim, and chant with slow and
solemn voice a melancholy hymn.
120 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
CHANGE OF PHRASEOLOGY.
Change of phraseology may be secured :
(1) By using words of similar meaning.
Thus, "We rejoice in his fidelity" and, "We rejoice
in his faithfulness " express substantially the same idea.
" He giveth grace to the humble" and, "He giveth grace
to the lowly " do not differ materially in meaning.
(2) By denying the contrary of a proposition.
Thus, "It is easy to manage the matter" is equivalent
to, "It is not difficult to manage the matter."
(3) By euphemism.
This change is similar to "denying the contrary," but
its special use is to avoid the harshness of a direct state-
ment. Euphemism means "soft-speaking." Thus:
Direct He is cowardly.
EupJiemism He could hardly be called a brave man.
(4) By circumlocution.
This is effected by saying indirectly what might be said
directly, or by using several words to express the sense of
one; as, "the terrestrial sphere" for "the earth," "night's
gentle radiance" for "the moon," and similar expressions.
In general, this mode of variation is not advisable, as the
statement is likely to lose in force.
(5) By recasting the sentence.
Frequently, this is the only manner in which variety can
be secured. No rule can be given for such recasting;
practice alone will enable the writer to express the idea in
different forms.
The following illustration exemplifies^ this method of
variation :
VARIETY OF EXPRESSION.
121
Statement : Youth is hopeful.
Variations.
The young look not anxiously upon the future.
The young are full of eager trust.
In life's morning we think not of its clouds.
Bright-eyed youth sees nothing to dread.
Hope is the birthright of the young.
'Tis as natural for young hearts to hope as for roses to
blossom in June.
Doubt and fear can not daunt the youthful spirit.
Though life's pathway is rugged and steep, the feet of
the young press bravely on.
Keen-edged despair seldom pierces a youthful breast.
To the spring-time of life belong the radiant buds of
promise.
Youth sees no darkness ahead; its open, trustful ey<cs
look upon the future as a realm of glorious beauty.*
EXERCISE XXXVI.
DIRECTION. Vary the phraseology of the following sentences by substitut-
ing words of similar meaning for those in italics :
1. The lamb has a gentle disposition.
2. He continued the work without resting.
3. He is free from care.
4. I found that he was an enemy.
5. Law and order are not observed.
6. A pile of dust is all that remains of thee.
7. I began to think the whole thing a gross deception.
8. The boy carried the book to my lodgings.
9. I will attend the conference, if I can do it conveniently.
* NOTE. Each of these eleven sentences conveys the meaning of the orig-
inal statement, yet how different are the forms obtained by aid of the art of
varying expression. Readiness in changing the form of a statement is of prac-
tical importance ; we can never be sure that we have used the best mode of
wording a sentence until we have thought of the various ways in which it may
be worded. By practice we learn to think promptly of many forms of expres-
sion, and to select the best.
Rhet. it.
122 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
10. Among all our bad passions there is a strong and close connec-
tion.
1 1 . James deserved reproof far more than John did.
12. This quiet sail is as a noiseless wing to waft me from distrac-
tion.
13. She pined in thought.
14. There is no malice in this burning coal.
15. Socrates was one of the greatest sages the world has ever seen.
1 6. To confess the truth, I was wrong.
17. Make me a cottage in the 'vale, where I may mourn and pray.
1 8. See how the morning opes her golden gates.
19. This is the beginning of civility.
20. 'Tis hard to find the right Homer.
21. My traveling companions were very disagreeable individuals.
22. A person who looked on the waters only for a moment might
fancy that they were retiring*
EXERCISE XXXVII.
DIRECTION. Vary the following by denying the contrary of each proposi-
tion : |
1. Men laugh at the infirmities of others.
2. He that is wise may be profitable unto himself.
3. Cold is Cadwallo's tongue.
4. The robin visits us frequently.
5. They were satisfied with the result.
6. He is without wit.
7. Chastening for the present seems grievous.
8. I shall ever remember the waking next morning.
9. The evil that men do lives after them.
10. He favors our project.
1 1 . This seems probable.
#To THE TEACHER. The object of the foregoing exercise is not to exact
strict verbal accuracy, but merely to assist the pupil in acquiring a command
of language.
f-NOTE. This change may often be effected by the use of a word of op-
posite meaning in the predicate. Thus, "Mary is diligent" is equivalent to,
" Mary is not idle."
VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 123
12. The flowers smell sweet.
13. Her step was light.
14. Only a small part of Arabia is fertile.
15. I will remain with you.
1 6. She is disposed to help you.
17. Time is as precious as gold.
1 8. She is more beautiful than her sister.
19. He is a brave man.
20. A large part of the company were pleased with his remarks.
21. The character of the Patriarch Joseph is the most remarkable
and instructive exhibited by the records of Scripture.
22. She who studies her glass neglects her heart.
23. The elegance of her manners is as conspicuous as the beauty
of her person.
24. Strong expressions suit only strong feelings.
EXERCISE XXXVIII.
DIRECTION. Vary the following by substituting euphemisms for the direct
statements :
1. He is a very dirty fellow.
2. Major Andre" was hanged, although he earnestly requested that
he might be shot.
3. I consider him an impudent puppy.
4. The man was drunk when he uttered the indecent words.
5. He thought the man a scoundrel, and therefore would not pay
him the money.
6. A genteel man never uses low language.
7. He eats like a pig.
8. His conceit and incessant gabble render him a great bore.
9. John is too lazy to succeed in any undertaking.
10. It is thought that he came into possession of his great wealth
by means of fraud and theft.
11. He was inclined to drink too much.
12. His greediness and stinginess made him an object of contempt.
1 3. Disaster stared them in the face, for they were led by a hot-
headed dolt.
14. He is a vagrant a disgrace to himself and to his friends.
124 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
EXERCISE XXXIX.
DIRECTION. Vary the following expressions by using circumlocution :
1. Despair not.
2. Fishes swim.
3. Forsake evil.
4. The sun rises.
5. Know thyself.
6. Bread is dear.
7. Life is fleeting.
8. Death is certain.
9. Time is precious.
10. Pity excites love.
11. The sky is clear.
12. Man lives by toil.
13. Avarice is a curse.
14. The grass is green.
1 5. Jenny Lind is dead.
1 6. Men delve for gold.
17. Knowledge is power.
1 8. Contentment is peace.
19. Her manners are gentle.
20. The moon shines bright.
21. She has disappointed me.
22. Washington was a patriot.
23. The sun gives light and heat.
24. Our school-mates seldom forget us.
25. Victoria sways the English scepter.
26. Palaces and cottages alike must fall.
EXERCISE XL.
DIRECTION. Recast each of the following sentences, expressing the sense in
as many different ways as possible :
1. She resolved to become entirely free.
2. Fortune was still as unkind as ever.
3. The king was thoroughly alarmed at this invasion.
4. These successes did not long continue.
5. We should love our enemies.
6. Many a man sacrifices his life to the acquisition of wealth.
7. The world is still deceived with ornament.
8. Mercy is twice blessed ; it blesseth him that gives, and him that
takes.
9. The sumach is staining the hedges with red.
10. One may hide his sorrow beneath a smiling face.
11. Rome, the capital of Italy, is the world's art-center.
12. The heart is not satisfied.
13. Trust thyself.
14. He who is honest is noble, whatever his fortunes or birth.
VARIETY OF EXPRESSION.
I2 5
1 5. The way-worn traveler longs for rest.
1 6. The fields are gay with buttercups and clover.
17. Few persons have the courage of their convictions.
1 8. Neither man nor angel can discern hypocrisy, the only evil that
walks invisible, except to God alone.
19. Our unwise purposes are wisely crossed.
20. As thy day is, so shall thy strength be.
21. Form your taste on the classics, and your principles on the book
of all truth.
22. Let the first fruits of your intellect be laid before the altar of
Him who breathed into your nostrils the breath of life ; and with that
breath your immortal spirit.
23. God's angel, Sleep, with manifold
Soft touches, smoothing brows of care,
Dwells not beyond the gates of gold,
Because no night is there.
24. Time hath, my lord, a wallet at his back,
Wherein he puts alms for oblivion.
25. Out of the earthly years we live,
How small a profit springs !
EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.
REPRODUCTION X.
AN INCIDENT OF THE FIRE AT HAMBURG.
THE tower of old Saint Nicholas soared upward to the skies,
Like some huge piece of Nature's make, the growth of centuries;
You could not deem its crowding spires a work of human art,
They seemed to struggle lightward from a sturdy living heart.
Not Nature's self more freely speaks in crystal or in oak,
Than, through the pious builder's hand, in that gray pile she spoke;
And as from acorn springs the oak, so, freely and alone,
Sprang from his heart this hymn to God, sung in obedient stone.
126 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
It seemed a wondrous freak of chance, so perfect, yet so rough,
A whim of Nature crystallized slowly in granite tough ;
The thick spires yearned towards the sky in quaint, harmonious lines,
And in broad sunlight basked and slept, like a grove of blasted pines.
Never did rock or stream or tree lay claim with better right
To all the adorning sympathies of shadow and of light ;
And, in that forest petrified, as forester there dwells
Stout Herman, the old sacristan, sole lord of all its bells.
Surge leaping after surge, the fire roared onward red as blood,
Till half of Hamburg lay engulfed beneath the eddying flood ;
For miles away the fiery spray poured down its deadly rain,
And back and forth the billows sucked, and paused, and burst again.
From square to square with tiger leaps panted the lustful fire;
The air to leeward shuddered with the gasps of its desire ;
And church and palace, which even now stood whelmed but to the
knee,
Lift their black roofs like breakers lone amid the whirling sea.
Up in his tower old Herman sat and watched with quiet look;
His soul had trusted God too long to be at last forsook ;
He could not fear, for surely God a pathway would unfold
Through this red sea for faithful hearts, as once he did of old.
But scarcely can he cross himself, or on his good saint call,
Before the sacrilegious flood o'erleaped the church-yard wall ;
And, ere a pater half was said, mid smoke and crackling glare,
His island tower scarce juts its head above the wide despair.
Upon the peril's desperate peak his heart stood up sublime ;
His first thought was for God above, his next was for his chime ;
" Sing now and make your voices heard in hymns of praise," cried he,
"As did the Israelites of old, safe walking through the sea!
"Through this red sea our God hath made the pathway safe to shore;
Our promised land stands full in sight; shout now as ne'er before!"
And as the tower came crushing down, the bells, in clear accord,
Pealed forth the grand old German hymn, "All good souls, praise the
Lord!"
J. R. LOWELL.
VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 127
REPRODUCTION XL
PRAYING FOR RAIN.
How difficult, alas ! to please mankind !
One or the other every moment mutters :
This wants an eastern, that a western, wind :
A third, petition for a southern, utters.
Some pray for rain, and some for frost and snow :
How can Heaven suit all palates ? I don't know.
Good Lamb, the curate, much approved,
Indeed, by all his flock beloved,
Was one dry summer begged to pray for rain.
The parson most devoutly prayed
The powers of prayer were soon displayed ;
Immediately a torrent drenched the plain.
It chanced that the church- warden, Robin Jay,
Had of his meadow not yet saved the hay :
Thus was his hay to health quite past restoring.
It happened, too, that Robin was from home ;
But when he heard the story, in a foam
He sought the parson, like a lion roaring.
"Zounds! Parson Lamb, why, what have you been doing?
A pretty storm, indeed, ye have been brewing !
What ! pray for rain before I saved my hay ?
Oh ! you 're a cruel and ungrateful man !
I that forever help you all I can ;
Ask you to dine with me and Mistress Jay,
Whenever we have something on the spit,
Or in the pot a nice and dainty bit ;
" Send you a goose, a pair bf chicken,
Whose bones you are so fond of picking ;
And often, too, a cag of brandy !
You that were welcome to a treat,
To smoke and chat, and drink and eat;
Making my house so very handy ! "
128 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
"Dear Mister Jay !" quoth Lamb, "alas! alas!
I never thought upon your field of grass."
"Lord! parson, you're a fool, one might suppose
Was not the field just underneath your nose?
This is a very pretty losing job ! "
"Sir," quoth the curate, "know that Harry Cobb,
Your brother warden, joined to have the prayer."
"Cobb! Cobb! why, this for Cobb was only sport:
What doth Cobb own that any rain can hurt?"
Roared furious Jay as broad as he could stare.
" Besides why could you not for drizzle pray?
Why force it down in buckets on the hay ?
Would I have played with your hay such a freak ?
No ! I 'd have stopped the weather for a week."
" Dear Mister Jay, I do protest,
I acted solely for the best ;
I do affirm it, Mr. Jay, indeed.
Your anger for this once restrain,
I '11 never bring a drop again
Till you and all the parish are agreed"
PETER PINDAR.
DE VEL OPMENT IX.
LOST.
WITHOUT a hat upon his head,
Or shoes upon his tired feet,
Poor little Dick had roamed along
The miles of hot and dusty street.
Where was his home ? He could not say ;
His mother ? She was far away.
A kind policeman picked him up,
And held him in his strong right arm,
And there the wandering little boy
Was snugly kept from every harm.
'Come, little man, you'll go with me;
I'll find out where you ought to be."
I2 9
VARIETY OF EXPRESSION,
But first, a, biscuit, large and sweet,
Was placed within his fingers small,
And, oh ! it was a perfect treat !
Poor little Dick, he ate it all,
And wished, no doubt, that every day
A treat so good would come his way.
And did he ever reach his home ?
And was he welcomed there with joy?
Alas, that I should have to tell
That none had missed the little boy.
Poor little Dick ! he had no one
To care for him beneath the sun !
D. B.
DE VEL OPMENT X.
FOUR bluish eggs all in the moss !
Soft-lined home on the cherry bough !
Life is trouble, and love is loss
There 's only one robin now.
T. B. ALDRICH.
DE VEL OPMENT XL
YUSSOUF.
A STRANGER came one night to Yussouf 's tent
Saying, "Behold one outcast and in dread,
Against whose life the bow of power is bent,
Who flies, and hath not where to lay his head ;
I come to thee for shelter and for food,
To Yussouf, called through all our tribes 'The Good.' "
"This tent is mine, 1 * said Yussouf, "but no more
Than it is God's; come in, and be at peace;
Freely shalt thou partake of all my store,^
As I of His who buildeth over these
Our tents His glorious roof of night and day,
And at whose door none ever yet heard Nay."
I3O COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
So Yussouf entertained his guest .that night,
And, waking him ere day, said: " Here is gold;
My swiftest horse is saddled for thy flight ;
Depart before the prying day grow bold."
As one lamp lights another, nor grows less,
So nobleness enkindleth nobleness.
That inward light the stranger's face made grand,
Which shines from all self-conquest ; kneeling low,
He bowed his forehead upon Yussouf 's hand,
Sobbing: "O Sheik, I can not leave thee so;
I will repay thee ; all this thou hast done
Unto that Ibrahim who slew thy son ! "
"Take thrice the gold," said Yussouf, "for with thee
Into the desert, never to return,
My one black thought shall ride away from me.
First-born, for whom by day and night I yearn,
Balanced and just are all of God's decrees;
Thou art avenged, my first-born, sleep in peace !"
J. R. LOWELL.
DE VEL OPMENT XII.
DIRECTION. Write a story from the following heads, supplying whatever is
needed to preserve the connection, and to sustain the interest:
THE STORY OF GRUMBLE TONE.
He was sick of land.
He ran away to sea.
Into foreign lands he wandered.
There were wondrous sights.
He dined in courts with kings and fair ladies.
Naught pleased him.
Over the wide world he wandered.
His hair grew white as snow.
He still found only discontent.
He took his disposition everywhere he went.
VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 131
SUBJECTS FOR STORY.
DIRECTION. Write short stories from the following heads:
1. The Snow Man.
2. Dollie's Education.
3. Our Cooking Club.
4. The Cricket's Song.
5. The Story of a Wolf.
6. Miss Butterfly's Party.
7. The Way to Fairyland.
8. Mrs. Simpson's Poodle.
9. A Day in the Hayfield.
10. The Three Little Fishes. *
11. The Story of a Lost Dog.
12. The Dance of the Leaves.
13. The Crow and the Scarecrow.
14. The Voyage of a Paper Canoe.
15. The Flight of John's New Kite.
16. How Madge Learned to Skate.
17. The Three Boys of Marshtown.
1 8. Ellen's Hunt for her Lost Kitten.
19. The Complaint of the Foot-ball.
20. The History of my Work-basket.
2 1 . The Experience of a Silver Dollar.
22. My Visit to the Children's Hospital.
CHAPTER VIII.
STYLE.
Style is that part of Rhetoric which treats of the modes
of expressing thought in language, whether oral or written. 1
It depends partly on the nature and importance of the sub- /
ject, but chiefly on the character and disposition of the /
wrjter. It reveals how one thinks as well as what one thinks^J
The word " style" comes from the Latin stylus, a small
pointed instrument used by the Romans for writing on
waxen tablets.
The stylus was to the Roman writer what the pen is to
us, and became, by an easy metaphor, the means of ex-
pressing any one's method of composition, just as we now,
by like metaphor, speak of a gifted pen, a ready pen, mean-
ing thereby a gifted or ready author.
A close attention to style is of the utmost importance.
All know that the reception of a truth is owing, not wholly
to the truth itself, but partly to the manner in which it is
presented. The same facts which, when stated by one,
gain the understanding and affections, will, as shown by
another, produce weariness and disgust.
To give our thoughts their full and just expression is
not an easy task ; it demands care and perseverance. The
greatest masters of style have composed slowly and labo-
riously. No work, however, takes a permanent place in
literature that is not distinguished for the perfection of its
style as well as for the solidity of its thought.
STYLE. 133
The excellence of the style of any piece of writing de-
pends primarily upon two things:
(1) Upon the choice of words.
(2) Upon the construction of the sentences.
The first requisite, namely, the choice of words, is treated
under the head of Diction.
DICTION.
/ Diction is that property of style which has reference to
Vthe words and phrases used by a writer or speaker.
/" Words at best are only imperfect representations of our
\Jioughts, in general expressing too little or too much.
Therefore, ' ' A man that seeketh precise truth had need
to remember what every name he useth stands for, and to
place it accordingly ; or else he will find himself entangled
in words as a bird in lime-twigs ; the more he struggles,
the more belimed." Hobbes.
The secret of literary power is chiefly the art of putting
the right word in the right place ; hence, it is important
that a writer or speaker should have a great number of
words at his command, and that he should have such a
knowledge of the precise meaning of each as to be able in
all cases to select just that word which expresses most per-
fectly the idea intended. As a means towards acquiring
such knowledge, it is well to carry out the following sug-
gestions :
/ i. Always note a new word, with a view to ascertaining its
Vprecise meaning and use.
2. Make constant use of a dictionary. It is the practice
of rnany great scholars never to allow a word to pass with-
134 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
out an examination, if there is the least doubt about its
origin, pronunciation, meaning, or spelli-ng.
/ 3. Study etymology. It is useful to trace out the origin,
Jpomposition, and primary meaning of words.^ It should
not be forgotten, however, that many words do not now
mean what they once did, or what their derivation would
seem to imply. The etymology of "prevent" signifies to
go before. In this sense it was once actually used ; as,
"I prevented the dawning of the morning. " Ps. 1 19.
4 * Your messenger prevented mine but an hour." Bishop
Taylor.
The accepted meaning of the word at the present time
is to hinder.
"Resent" means etymologically to reciprocate or re-
spond to any kind of feeling, good or bad. It once had
this meaning. Three centuries ago a man could speak of
resenting a benefit, as well as resenting an injury. The use
of later times restricts the word to the single meaning;
/ence "resent" is now to take ill.
4. Seek good society. There is great advantage to be
derived from a frequent association with intelligent and
cultivated persons. One who has this advantage will ac-
quire a good vocabulary without great effort.
/ 5. Read the best books carefully. Observe the selection
* and combination of words as illustrated by the best au-
thors, if you would be profited by formal rhetorical rules.
You must not, however, imitate your author in a slavish
spirit.
/ The words of any composition should be pure, appro-
/ priate, precise, and simple. We shall, therefore, consider
I separately, (i) Purity, (2) Propriety, (3) Precision, and
\ (4) Simplicity.
STYLE. 135
Purity. A word is said to be pure when it belongs to
the language as it is at present used by the best writers
and speakers. \ Campbell defines good usage to be :
(1) Reputable, or the practice of intelligent and educated
writers ;
(2) National, as opposed to provincial and foreign ;
(3) Present, or the usage of the generation in which one
' lives.
A violation of purity is called a Barbarism. To avoid
such the following rules are given :
r. Avoid obsolete words, or such as were once in good
use, but have ceased to be employed by the best writers.
Language, like everything else in the world, is subject
to change. Some words go out of fashion ; some alter
their meaning ; some grow less in value ; some rise in im-
portance; while here and there one wakes up from a long
sleep to bear again its burden of thought. There is little
probability that an obsolete expression will be used except
by deliberate intention ; to use it willfully in ordinary prose
is affectation. It is allowable, however, where the writer,
as in a historical novel, wishes to suggest antiquity, to
characterize the time in which the scene is laid. Within
moderate limits it is also allowable in poetry:
I wis in all the Senate
There was no heart so bold. Macaulay.
Whilom in Albion's isle there dwelt a youth
Who ne in virtue's ways did take delight;
Ah, me ! in sooth he was^a shameless wight,
Childe Harold was he hight. Byron.
But come, thou goddess fair and free,
In Jieaven ycleped Euphrosyne. Milton,
136 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
We should also avoid obsolescent words; that is, such
words as are gradually vanishing from the vocabulary of
the most polished writers. Among them we find betwixt,
amongst, froward, hearken, whilst, peradventure, trow, quoth,
etc. No effort should be made to retain them, for their
disuse implies their uselessness.
2. Avoid newly-coined words, or such words as have
nol^TELuivcd the saTTctiorroi^good writers. A word is not,
however, to be rejected simply because it is new, for some
of the best words in the language have been recently in-
troduced. Learning, invention, discovery, art, fashion,
popular commotions, foreign intercourse, the progress of
thought, have brought to the English language accessions
of beauty and strength in every age from Chaucer to the
present. So long as the language has life this process
must continue. But the best course for the young writer
or speaker, striving after purity of style, is to shun newly-
coined words. He may, indeed, have occasion to speak
of a new invention or a new idea, for which there is no
word but that originating with the invention or idea itself;
but in all ordinary cases the safe plan is to select only
well-known and fully sanctioned words. Quintilian says,
"Prefer the oldest of the new and the newest of the old."
The same idea is expressed in rhyme :
In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold,
Alike fantastic if too new or old :
Be not the first by whom the new are tried,
Nor yet the last to lay the old aside. Pope.
3._Avoi^alLforeign words. This includes words from
both the ancient and modern languages. Nothing is more
indicative of affectation and pedantry than a free use of
Latin, Italian, and French expressions. A writer whose
STYLE. 137
heroes are always marked by an air distingue, whose vile
men are sure to be blase, whose lady friends dance a mer-
veille, and who himself, when lolling on the sofa, luxuri-
ates in the dolce far niente, and wonders when he will
begin his magnum opus, may possibly have a slight ac-
quaintance with the foreign languages with which he has
attempted to vary his discourse, but it is evident that his
stock of good English words is small.
The late poet and journalist Bryant used to say that he
never felt the temptation to use a foreign word without
being able to find in English a word that expressed his
meaning with more exactness and felicity.
There are, however, certain words borrowed from other
languages that have become so thoroughly incorporated
into our language that they are properly regarded as En-
glish words. The use of such words is not a violation of
purity. For example, such words as ignoramus, omnibus,
qiwrwn, and paradise, though foreign, are familiar to ordi-
nary readers. They also express the meaning more pre-
cisely than any translation could do; hence there would
be more pedantry in translating them than in using them
in the form with which the public is already familiar.
4. <s4vpid a H provincialisms, or local forms of expres-
sion. Alm^5treveiy^arrofThe country has certain local-
isms. These form no part of reputable, current English.
The standard of purity is not the usage in any particular
village, town, city, or state, but the practice of intelligent
and educated authors throughout the English-speaking
world.
These vulgarisms include all low or slang words, which,
as a matter of morals, ought to be avoided. This style of
speech is generally low, not seldom silly. In serious or
dignified writings it is always a blemish.
Rhet. 12.
138 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
"A tendency to slang, to colloquial inelegancies, and
even vulgarities," says Professor Whitney, "is the beset-
ting sin against which we, as Americans, have especially
to guard and struggle."
5. Avoid all technical terms, or such as belong to spe-
cial arts or sciences. These are usually known only to those
who understand the specialties to which they apply. They
may be used in addressing persons who understand the art
or science to which the words belong, for then they are
much more brief and intelligible than the words of ordi-
nary use. Many words once purely technical have en-
tered into common use, and may now be employed with
freedom.
It is not easy to tell just where to draw the line; but
where there is doubt as to whether a word will be under-
stood, it is a safe rule to employ some other, or even a
circumlocution.
EXERCISE XLI.
DIRECTION. Form sentences, where you can, containing good English
equivalents for the italicized expressions:
1. In the following year the tables were turned, and the party of
the Queen-mother came into power.
2. He curried favor with the leader of his party.
3. A house on Broad street was burglarized last night.
4. He gave himself away.
5. Kate made her debut last evening.
6. The old man's constant cry was, " O temp or a ! O mores f"
7. Having acquired the savoir faire, he is never afraid of making
a faux pas, and in every conversation plunges in medias res.
8. It is impossible to extirp it.
9. It is pro bono publico.
10. His fastidiosity is unbearable.
STYLE.
139
1 1 . This was said sub voce.
12. He lived like a poor homunculus, in a glass bottle.
13. The Templar, who was now hors de combat, was borne within
the castle walls.
14. The enterprise did not pan out as we had hoped.
15. They have the matter sub jitdice.
1 6. He lost not one minute in picking and choosing no shilly
shally in John.
17. During the night the army skedaddled.
1 8. Snub the rope.
19. We raised our eyes to the handsomely decorated soffit.
20. The soi-disant prince dismissed his followers.
21. His supper was bread and ivhitsul.
22. He is enthused with the project.
23. Not by a long shot.
24. The students at the College seem bent on going it.
25. The young man was up on his ear.
26. Shall I go on, or have I said enow? .
DIRECTION. Bring into the class as many such expressions, and give good
English equivalents for them.
Propriety. Propriety consists in using words in their
proper_sensej "Here, as in the case of purity, good usage
is the principal testj It matters little what the primary
elements of a^ww3~signify, or what the meaning of a word
has been ; we must either use the words as others under-
stand them, or violate propriety. Improprieties arise chiefly
from a seeming analogy between words, or from ignorance
of their authorized meaning.
Many words have acquired in actual use a meaning very
different from what they once possessed. The word " let "
once meant to hinder; but now it is used as equivalent
to "allow." " Edify" originally signified to build up, as
a house is built, but now it is applied only to mental
improvement. "Station" was used for the manner of
standing, posture; now it means place. "Admire" once
I4O COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
meant to wonder at, but now it means only to regard with
esteem and reverence.
To attain propriety we must be guided by the following
rules :
i. Avoid confoundimjj Words from the Same Rad-
mean the same thing. Thus,
"observation" signifies the act or habit of noticing; as,
"An observation of the habits of the lower animals furnishes
many interesting facts. " " Observance " means the celebra-
tion of anything, or holding it sacred ; as, " They require a
strict observance of truth and justice. " We should not say,
"observation of the Sabbath." Yet we may say, the man
observes [notices] an action, or observes [celebrates] the
Sabbath.
"Contemptible" ami "contemptuous" differ in this:
Contemptible means that which deserves contempt, as a
contemptible act ; contemptuous means filled with contempt,
as a contemptuous reply.
"Respectfully" and "respectively" are sometimes con-
founded. Respectfully means in a respectful manner; re-
spectively, relating to each ; as, " Let each man respectively
perform his duty."
"Predict" and "predicate" mean respectively foretell
and assert.
"Construe" and "construct." Writers construct; read-
ers construe. We construct a sentence when we form or
make one ; we construe when we explain its construction.
2. Use Words in their\Accepted Sense. This requires
that we attach to every word only such a meaning as will
be generally understood to belong to it. Thus, the proper
meaning of "aggravate" is to add weight to, or to make
worse. It is sometimes incorrectly used to signify the
STYLE. 141
same as "irritate." It is correct to say, "The offense
was aggravated by the motive." It is incorrect to say,
" He aggravates me by his impudence."
The following are given as examples of words commonly
misused :
1. But, for that, or if; as, "I have no doubt but he will
come"; "I shall not wonder but that was the cause."
2. Plenty, for plentiful; as, "That measure will make
money plenty in every man's pocket."
3. I have got, for I have. Possession is completely ex-
pressed by have ; get expresses attainment by voluntary
exertion. A man may say, ' ' I have got more money than
my neighbor has, because I have been more industrious";
but he can not with propriety say, "I have got a long
nose," unless it be an artificial one; nor can he properly
speak of "getting a cold," "getting left by the train,"
* ' getting crazy, ' ' etc. The idea that get expresses ' ' to come
into possession of," as, "He got the estate through his
mother," is common, but it has not the sanction of good
writers. Herbert is quoted as authority for using "got"
in this sense: "He has got the face of a man," but even
here we note not so much the expression of simple posses-
sion as the effect of voluntary exertion, since the impress
of manliness upon the face is due less to growth, or phys-
ical development, than to the formation of manly character
by means of noble purpose and high endeavor.
4. Differ with, for differ from. Writers differ from one
another in opinion with regard to the particle we should
use with this verb. Some say they differ with, others that
they differ from, their neighbors in opinion. The weight
of authority is on the side of always using from. " I differ,
as to this matter, from Bishop Lowth." Cobbett.
5. Wearies, for is weaned; as, "One wearies of such
142 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
nonsense." Weary is a transitive verb, having either an
active or a passive form; thus, "I weary thee," or, "The
soldier is wearied with long marching."
6. Anyhow is exceeding vulgar; it should be in any
manner. "If the damage can be anyhow repaired " should
be, "If the damage can be in any manner repaired."
7. // were, for it would be ; as, ' ' It were an intolerable
spectacle should they behold one of their fellows in the
agonies of death."
8. Like f did, for as I did. Like should not be used
as a conjunction; with it a verb is neither expressed nor
understood. As, on the contrary, requires a verb either
expressed or understood.
9. Less, for fewer; as, "Not less than fifty persons."
Less relates to quantity ; fewer, to number.
10. / doubt, for I doubt whether; as, "I doubt such is
the true meaning of the constitution." Whether implies
"which of two"; hence, in cases where hesitation exists
between two opinions, two meanings, two courses, etc.,
we may doubt wtiether our choice is the wise one.
11. Likewise, for also. Likewise means in like manner.
It couples actions or states of being ; while also classes to-
gether things or qualities. "He did it likewise " means,
"He did it in like manner."
12. Avocation, for vocation. Avocations engage a man's
attention when he is "called away from" his regular busi-
ness or vocation. Avocations may be music, visits, games,
hunting, fishing, etc.
13. But that, for that; as, "He never doubts but that he
knows their intentions."
14. Had have is a very low vulgarism. "Had I have
seen him " should be, " Had I seen him/'
15. Party, for person. An English witness once testi-
STYLE. 143
fied that he saw "a short party" (meaning person) "go
over the bridge." It is hardly necessary to say that it
takes several persons to make a party.
1 6. Try, for make; as, "Try the experiment."
17. Deceiving, for trying to deceive. For example, a
person says to another, "You are deceiving me," when he
means exactly the opposite ; namely, ' * You are trying to
deceive me."
1 8. Either, neither, and both are applicable only to two
objects. "Either of the three" should be, "Any one of
the three."
19. Seldom or ever is a common vulgarism. Say, "Sel-
dom, if ever." *
20. Banister, for baluster or balustrade. Banister is a
corruption of baluster.
21. Illy, for ill. There is no such word as illy. Ill is
the noun, adjective, and adverb.
22. Least, for less; as, "Of two evils, choose the least."
Less is the comparative degree of little ; least, the superla-
tive. When two things are compared, the comparative is
used ; when more than two, the superlative.
23. From thence, from whence, for thence or whence. As
the adverbs thence and whence literally supply the place of
a noun and preposition, there is a solecism in employing a
preposition in conjunction with them.
24. No, for not; as, "Whether I am there or no." As
an adjective "no" is an abbreviation of "none"; as an ad-
verb, of "not." Hence the phrase "whether or no" is
appropriate only when there is a suppressed noun ; ' ' whether
* While there is authority for " seldom or never," we find the terms inconsist-
ent: seldom means happening rarely, never occurring at no time, either past or
present. Hence, "Seldom or never has an English word two full accents," would
doubtless be better rendered, "Seldom, if ever," etc.
144 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
or not" is the proper phrase, if it is a verb that is sup-
pressed.
25. A confirmed invalid. A person, weak and infirm,
is an invalid; whatever is made firm, or is strengthened,
established, or rendered certain, is confirmed. Hence, we
have here a contradiction in terms. How can a man be a
confirmed, or strengthened, invalid?
26. Such, for so; as, "I never saw such a high spire.'*
This means, * ' I never saw a high spire of such a form or of
such architecture"; whereas the speaker, in all probability,
means only that he never saw so high a spire.
% 27. How, for that. "I have heard how some critics
have been pacified with claret and a supper." How is an
adverb, and can not be used as a conjunction. Older writers
frequently followed it by that, but this practice is no longer
in good use ; as, ' ' Knowing how that part of the South
Sea was utterly unknown." Bacon.
28. Directly, for as soon as. " Directly he came, we
started home." Directly, in the sense of as soon as, has not
the sanction of careful writers; it must be regarded as a
gross solecism.
29. Equally as well, for equally well ; as, ' ' It will do
equally as well." Equally, an adverb of degree, should
modify well; hence there is a solecism in joining them by
the conjunction.
30. All of them. As the etymology of the preposition
of shows its primary meaning to be from, or out from, it
can not be correct to say all of them. We may say, ' ' Take
one of them," or, "Take two of them," or, "Take them
all"; but the phrase we are criticising is wholly unjustifia-
ble.
31. Quantity, for number; as, "A quantity of books."
We may use quantity in speaking of a collection or mass ;
STYLE. 145
but in speaking of individual objects, we must use the word
number. "A quantity of meat" or, "A quantity of iron"
is good English, but not, "A quantity of bank-notes. " We
may say, "A quantity of wood," but we should say, ''A
number of sticks."
32. Whole, for all. Whole refers to the component
parts of a single body ; and is, therefore, singular in mean-
ing. ' ' The whole Russians are inspired with the belief that
their mission is to conquer the world." This can only
mean that those Russians who are entire, who have not
lost a leg, an arm, or some other part of the body, are
inspired with the belief of which he speaks.
33. Stopping, for staying. "The Hon. John Jones is
stopping at the Gait House." In reading such a statement
as this, we are tempted to ask, When will Hon. J. Jones
stop stopping ? A man may stop many times at a place, or
on a journey, but he can not continue stopping. One may
stop at a hotel without becoming a guest.
34. Indices, for indexes. "We have examined our in-
dices." Indices are algebraic signs; tables of contents are
indexes.
35. Rendition, for rendering; as, "Mr. Barrett's rendi-
tion of Hamlet was admirable. " Rendition means surrender,
giving up, relinquishing to another, as when we speak of
the rendition of a beleaguered town to the besieger, or of a
pledge upon the satisfaction of a debt.
36. Condign. ' ' He does not deserve the condign pun-
ishment he has received." As the meaning of condign is
that which is deserved, we have here a contradiction in terms,
the statement being equivalent to this: "He does not de-
serve the' deserved punishment he has received."
37. Folks, for folk. As folk implies plurality, the "s"
is needless.
Rhet. 13.
146 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
38. Older, for elder. Older is properly applied to objects,
animate and inanimate ; elder, to rational beings.
39. Overflown^ for overflowed; as, "The river has over-
flown its banks." Flowed is the past participle of "to
flow"; flown, of "to fly."
40. Accord, for grant. "He accorded them (or, to them),
all they asked for." To accord with, means properly to
agree or to suit; as, "He accorded with my views."
41. Almost, as an adjective; as, " The almost universality
of opinion." We might properly say, "The opinion is
almost universal. "
42. Mutual, for common, or reciprocal. Mutual means
an interchange between two at the same time ; reciprocal*
existing in one by way of return to something previously
done by another ; common, belonging to all in common.
Hence, we may speak of a mutual desire, reciprocal re-
proaches, common country. Dean Alford justly protests
against the stereotyped vulgarism, "a mutual friend."
Mutual is applicable to sentiments and acts, but not to
persons. Two friends may have a mutual love, but for
either to speak of a third person as being "their mutual
friend," is absurd. The expression should be, " their com-
mon friend."
43. Nice. One of the most offensive barbarisms now
prevalent is the use of this pet word to express almost every
kind of approbation, and almost every quality. Nice im-
plies a union of delicacy and exactness. In nice food, cook-
ery, taste, etc. , delicacy predominates ; in nice discrimina-
tion, management, workmanship, etc., exactness predomi-
nates. Lately, however, a new sense has been introduced
which excludes them both ; this new sense is pleasing, and
it is a common thing to hear of "A jiice girl," "A nice
excursion," "A nice book." Of the vulgarity of such ex-
STYLE. 147
pressions as "A nice man" (meaning a good or pleasing
man), "A nice day," "A nice party," etc., there can be no
question. Archdeacon Hare stigmatizes the word nice a
1 ' characterless domino. "
44. Looks beautifully. The error arises from confound-
ing look in the sense of to direct the eye, and look in the
sense of to seem, to appear. In English, many verbs take
an adjective with them to form the predicate ; as, " He fell
ill "; " He feels cold "; "Her smiles amid the blushes love-
lier show." No cultivated person would say, ''She is beau-
tifully," or, " She seems beautifully," yet these phrases are
no more improper than, ' ' She looks beautifully. " We qual-
ify what a person docs by an adverb ; what a person is, or
set ins to be, by an adjective ; as, * ' She looks coldly on
him"; "She looks cold."
45. Myself, for I ; as, "Mrs. Smith and myself will be
happy to dine with you "; " Prof. W. and myself have ex-
amined the work." The proper use of myself or t/iyself is
either as a reflexive pronoun, or for the sake of distinction
and emphasis; as,
These are thy glorious works, Parent of good,
Almighty ! Thine this universal frame,
Thus wondrous fair ; thyself how wondrous then. Milton.
46. Previous, for previously ; as, " This occurred previous
to my leaving Europe." To describe whatever goes before
in time, we use the adjective previous; as, "Sound from
the mountain, previous to the storm, rolls o'er the mutter-
ing earth." Thomson. To express the time of an occur-
rence, we use the adverb previously ; as, "A plan previously
formed."
47. Try and, for try to; as, "Try and do it." "Try to
learn, " ' l Try to lift a weight, " " The horses tried to draw the
load, " are instances of correct usage. Try is followed by and
148 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
only when the conjunction occurs between root-forms. Thus,
in the sentence, "If I try and find it, I shall be amply re-
paid," both try and find are equally contingent as regards
the principal verb.
48. Restive, for uneasy or restless; as, "A restive horse."
A restive horse is one that balks ; but horses that are rest-
less or frisky are frequently called restive. The following
is an example of its correct use : ' ' The beasts which were
to drag him to the gallows became restive, and went back."
Macaulay.
49. Allude, for refer. To allude means to hint at in an
indirect way.
50. Balance, for remainder; as, "The balance of the
people went home." Webster says: "To transfer the
word ' balance* to the general concerns of life, and speak
of ' the balance of the week, ' ' the balance of the evening, '
etc. , meaning remainder, is a gross vulgarism, to be avoided
by every one who does not mean to ' smell of the shop. ' '
51. Calculate, for design or intend, or as an equivalent to
likely, apt; as, "Sensational newspapers are calculated to
injure the morals of the young." They are not calculated
to do so ; but they are certainly likely to do so. Calculate
means to compute, to reckon, to work out by figures;
hence, the essential thought expressed by it is the careful
adjustment of means to an end. Thus, ' ' Religion is calculated
for our benefit." Tillotson.
52. Couple, for two; as, "He gave me a couple of
peaches." A couple means properly two that are coupled.
53. Demean, for debase ; as, "I would not demean myself
by doing so." To demean is to behave in any way, and has
no connection with the term mean.
54. Emblem, for motto, sentiment, or^meaning; gener-
ally applied to flowers. "The emblem of this flower is
STYLE.
149
'modesty.'" In this case the flower itself is the emblem:
"modesty" is the meaning given to it.
55. Expect, for suppose, or think; as, "I expect you had
a pretty hard time of it yesterday." Expect refers only to
that which is to come.
56. Inaugurate, for begin or set up. To inaugurate is to
induct into office with solemn ceremonies; thus we speak
of the President's being inaugurated. But we can not in-
augurate a thing.
57. Name, for mention; as, "I never named the matter
to any one." Name is properly used in the sense of "giv-
ing a name to," "mentioning by name," or "designating
for any purpose by name"; but to use it interchangeably
with "mention" is without authority.
Be careful in the use of prepositions, conjunctions, and other
particles. When prepositions follow nouns, verbs, or ad-
jectives, select those which usage has sanctioned. The fol-
lowing list from Angus' Hand- Book of the English Language
will be of use for reference :
Accord with (neuter).
Accord to (active).
Accuse of crime, by one's friend.
Acquit persons of.
Affinity to or between.
Adapted to a thing or for a purpose.
Agreeable to.
Agree with persons, to things,
among ourselves.
Amuse with, at, in.
Angry with (a person), at (a thing).
Anxious for, about, sometimes on.
Attend to (listen).
Attend upon (wait).
Averse to, when describing feel-
ing, from when describing an
act or state.
Bestow upon.
Boast of.
Call on.
Change for.
Confer on (give), with (converse).
Confided, when intransitive;
when transitive, confide it to.
Conformable to; so the verb and
adverb.
Compliance with.
Consonant to, sometimes with.
Correspond with (by letter), to
(similar things).
ISO
COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
Dependent on, upon.
Derogate from.
Derogatory to a person or thing.
Die of or by.
Differ from.
Difference with a person.
Difference between things.
Difficulty in.
Diminution of.
Disappointed of what we do not
get; and in it when we get it
and it fails to answer our ex-
pectations.
Disapprove of.
Discouragement to.
Dissent from.
Distinguishedy0r,yh?;tf, sometimes
by.
Eager in.
Entertain by (a person), with (a
thing).
Exception is taken to statements ;
sometimes against; the verb has
sometimes from.
Expert at or in.
Fall under.
Yreefrom.
Frightened at.
Glad #/" something gained, and of
or at what befalls another.
Convenient to ox for.
Conversant with persons; in af-
fairs ; about subjects.
Martyr for a cause, to a disease.
Marry to.
Need of.
Notice of.
Observance of.
Prejudicial to.
Prejudice against.
Profit by.
Provide for, with, against.
Recreant to, from.
Reconcile to.
Replete with.
Resemblance fo c
Resolve on.
Respect for, to,
Grieve at, for.
Independent of.
Insist upon.
Made of, for, from, with.
Reduce to a state; under subjection.
Regard for or to.
Smile at, ^tpon.
Swerve from.
Taste 0/"what is actually enjoyed,
for what we have the capacity
of enjoying.
Think of or on.
Thirst for, after.
True of (predicable).
True to (faithful).
Wait on (serve), at (a place), for
(await).
Worthy of.
Many expressions have become so fixed that a change
would violate propriety. Bain mentions the following:
Use or employ means. Take degrees.
Take steps. Contract habits.
Acquire knowledge. Lay lip treasures.
Obtain rewards.
Win prizes.
Gain celebrity.
Arrive at honors.
Conduct affairs.
Espouse a side.
Interpose authority.
STYLE. I 5 i
Pursue a course.
Turn to account.
Serve for a warning.
Bear malice.
Profess principles.
Cultivate acquaintance.
Pass over in silence.
EXERCISE XLII.
DIRECTION. Substitute appropriate expressions for the italicized words :
1 . They never swerved in their allegiance to him.
2. Favors are not always bestowed to the most deserving.
3. A strong young woman was employed to attend to the baby.
4. She was disappointed in not obtaining a reward.
5. He is conversant with the most intricate affairs of state.
6. He spoke most contemptibly of his assistant.
7. James sings like Charles does.
8. Congratulate to themselves.
9. That variety of faction into which we are still engaged .
10. Nevertheless, it is open, I expect, to serious question.
11. The Irish are perpetually using "shall" for "will."
12. The rains rendered the roads impracticable.
13. Perhaps some people are quite indifferent whether or no it is
said that they sip their coffee out of a jar.
14. The greatest masters of critical learning differ among one
another.
15. The emblem of the lily is purity.
1 6. He predicated his action on a misconception of my meaning.
17. Macaulay speaks of an observation of the Sabbath.
1 8. I thus obtained a character for natural powers of reasoning.
19. I have no doubt but that the pistol is a relic of the buccaneers.
20. Hast thou walked in the world with such little observance as to
wonder that men are not what they seem ?
21. A society for the prevention of cruelty to animals has been in-
augurated. *
22. Triplet disbarrassed her of a thick mantle and a hood that con-
cealed her features.
152 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
23. He looked wretchedly.
24. She feels badly.
25. I doubt his lady could demean herself so low as to accept me.
26. He is resolved of going to the Persian court.
27. He has a good record, I am told, and preaches to acceptance.
28. I have a couple of dollars.
29. He accorded me the privilege.
30. The balance of the night was spent in finding a hiding-place.
31. Herschel discovered the telescope.
32. Observe me, Sir Anthony, I would by no means wish a daugh-
ter of mine to be a progeny of learning.
33. They stand upon security, and will not liberate him until it be
obtained.
34. The children work hard to gain rewards.
35. In their perplexity, they knew not what course to follow.
36. James inserts his authority without due reflection.
37. He owns principles that are opposed to such a line of action.
38. H. D. Osgood has won the honor of representing his country
at the court of Austria.
Precision. Precision (from the Latin prczcidere, to cut
off,) is "that property of diction which requires the use of
such words as cut off all that we do not mean to express.
If, for example, we wish to say, " He has sufficient money,"
but say instead, " He has enough money," we express more
than we intend. Sufficient means what one actually needs ;
enough, what one desires. When one has money to supply
all his needs, he has sufficient; he has enough only when
his desires are satisfied. The precise writer chooses words
that express what he means to say without any addition or
diminution.
Discourse may lack precision (i) Through the use of equiv-
ocal terms ; (2) Through the confounding of synonyms.
^Equivocal terms. These are words and phrases that
admit of being understood in a sense different from that in
which the writer applies them.X They are found in every
STYLE.
IS3
part of speech. Thus, "did" is used equivocally in this
sentence: "He admired nothing except what you did."
To those who are ignorant of the facts, this might mean,
"He admired nothing except your doings or actions," or,
" He admired nothing except what you admired."
There are few words in our language which have only
one meaning. Some are used in many different senses, and
the meaning intended by the writer must be inferred from
the connection. There is usually no difficulty in this when
the word is used in the same sense throughout a sentence,
and in sentences near one another. Obscurity arises, how-
ever, if the same word has two different meanings in the
same sentence.
Synonymous Words. In the second place, precision
is violated by the faulty use of synonymous wordsA As, by
the changes of language, the same word is brought to des-
ignate different things, so different words are brought to
designate the same thing, or nearly the ame) No two
words are the exact equivalents of each other, though it
may answer practical purposes to use them as such. ' ' Syn-
onym" is commonly applied, therefore, to words not iden-
tical, but similar, in meaning; generically so alike as to be
liable to be confounded, yet specifically so different as to
require to be distinguished. Thus "hasten" and "hurry"
both imply a quick movement, but "hurry" always adds
the idea of excitement or irregularity, while "hasten" con-
veys only the notion of rapid movement.
The English language, more than any other, has words
that are truly synonymous, and this on account of its com-
posite character. In many cases we have two sets of de-
rivatives, one set from the Latin, the other set from the
Anglo-Saxon, which are nearly parallel in meaning; as,
154 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
SAXON. LATIN.
motherly = maternal
brotherly fraternal
hide conceal
teach instruct
It will generally be found that the Saxon expression is
the better understood, and therefore the stronger. Saxon
words belong to the mother element of the English tongue ;
they name the things known to our ancestors ; they denote
the qualities, acts, states, and relations of these things.
Thus they are our household words, and are better under-
stood by all, even by the educated ; for this reason, it is a
good general rule to prefer Saxon terms to Latin. They
will not always serve as well as words of Latin origin, but
in most cases they will serve much better. Prefer them
where you would express yourself with great simplicity,
directness, and force.
Accuracy in the use of words can not be acquired in a
few easy lessons. But get into the habit of thinking about
the words you employ, and this habit will gradually bring
about correctness in the use of language.
The following examples, adapted from Smith's Synonyms
Discriminated, will illustrate the different shades of meaning
between words nearly synonymous:
ALLOW [Fr. or Lat.]; ADMIT [Lat.]. These terms are
here compared only in regard to matters of speculation and
argument. Allow is negative, while Admit is positive. I
admit what I can not deny. I allow what in fairness ought
to be granted. Logical necessity compels me to admit.
Argumentative honesty requires that I should allow. Ad-
mit denotes what is due to the case ; Allow, what is due to
him who argues, as a claim.
STYLE. I 5 5
ALLOW PERMIT [Lat.]. To Permit is used in a passive,
while Allow has a more active, sense. If I allow him, I
give him at least some degree of sanction, however small ;
if I permit, I only do not prevent him. But in matters not
of the will of individuals only, but of formal or public sanc-
tion, Permit is a stronger term than Allow. In this con-
nection the case is reversed. If the law permit me to do
something, it sanctions my doing it. Allow supposes the
thing allowed to be good ; Permit, that it may be good or
bad.
ANIMAL [Lat.]; BRUTE [Lat. bnitus, irrational]; BEAST
[Lat. bcstid\. Animal comprehends every creature en-
dowed with that life which is superior to the merely vege-
table life of plants, and therefore includes man. It is some-
times, however, made to express distinctively other animals
than man. In that case we have to suppose a further distinc-
tion drawn between the rational and irrational animal life.
Brute and Beast stand related each in its own way to
man. Brute is the animal regarded in reference to the ab-
sence of that intelligence which man possesses ; Beast, (ex-
cept where the word is used in the sense of cattle) in refer-
ence to that savage nature of which man is or ought to be
devoid. The indolent, senseless, and violent brute; the
cruel, savage, vile, or filthy beast. Hence, while the term
animal is applicable to insects, neither brute nor beast is so,
being insusceptible of moral comparison with man. In ap-
plying the terms figuratively to the character and disposi-
tion of men, Animal denotes one who follows the instincts
and propensities of his lower nature to the neglect of moral
restraints and intellectual sympathies ; Beast, one who grov-
els in sensuality ; Brute, one whose nature seems deadened
to finer feeling.
156 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
ASK [A. S.]; REQUEST [Lat.]; BEG [O. E. or A. S.];
BESEECH [O. E.]; SUPPLICATE [Lat.]; ENTREAT [O. Fr.];
IMPLORE [Lat.]. To Ask is to seek to obtain by words.
But the character of the words may vary from the humblest
entreaty to a demand. Its further sense of obtaining in-
formation by words of inquiry is not here considered. It
is the simplest and broadest term for making a request. It
implies no particular sort of relationship, as of superiority
or inferiority between parties. The master asks the servant,
and the servant asks the master to do a thing. It is the or-
dinary form for expressing ordinary requirements.
Request is a more polite word for the same thing. Never-
theless, it is sometimes used with an implied sense of au-
thority, amounting virtually to a command. Request is not
a strong term, carrying with it neither urgency of want nor
vehemency of words.
To Beg is more earnest; and, except when used in a
kind of irony, is the act of an equal or an inferior, as re-
quest may be of an equal or a superior. To beg is not a
term of marked character. We may beg boldly or timidly,
but in any case some degree of dependence is involved.
The term is a useful one when the speaker wishes to com-
bine impressiveness of entreaty with deference or respect.
Neither ask, request, nor beg is so strong as Beseech.
To Beseech and to Entreat are much the same, but be-
seech belongs more to feeling ; entreat, to argument. We
entreat an equal by what he knows, feels, or understands ;
we beseech a superior by his goodness or his greatness.
There is a condescension when we entreat an inferior, as a
father may entreat a son to be more diligent for his own
sake. This is to urge on grounds of affection and argu-
ment combined.
To Supplicate and to Implore both imply extreme distress
STYLE. 157
and earnestness ; but we may implore equals, we supplicate
only superiors ; for supplication denotes abject humility, as
in a slave, or an offender, supplicating for pardon. We
commonly beseech on the ground of personal influence, as
in the phrase, "I beseech you for my sake." In imploring
we strive to move the feelings, as of pity, sympathy, or com-
passion.
BURIAL [A. S.]; INTERMENT [Fr. Internment Lat. in,
and terra, the earth]. Burial is simply the covering of
one thing over with others, so as to conceal it from view;
as, to bury one's face in one's hands. As used in the
above connection, the burial of a body is the laying of it
sufficiently deep in the earth to conceal it from view. We
can even speak of a burial^at sea.
So characteristic is the idea of concealment in the term
Bury, that in a secondary sense it is employed in reference
to many things of which circumstances combine to prevent
the exhibition. A man fitted to adorn society or to be
eminently useful to it, is often buried in some remote and
obscure locality, beyond which his name is not heard.
Interment is a more dignified and polite word than burial,
but by its etymology more restricted in meaning, and de-
noting any formal and ceremonial or decent placing of the
body under ground. We might say, "Buried like a dog, "
but we should be more likely to say, ' ' Reverently and even
sumptuously interred. " Interment involves the idea of earth
or soil, not so burial. It is remarkable how the word Inter
has in English literature been confined to the burial of the
dead.
CALUMNY [Lat.] ; DEFAMATION [Lat.] ; SLANDER [O. Fr.] ;
LIBEL [Lat.]. Calumny is that evil speaking which is based
in any degree on what the speaker knows to be false, whether
158 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
it be a crime or an offence. The calumniator is both a
forger and a propagator of evil report against another, and
aims at doing him an injury.
For calumny will sear
Virtue itself. Shakespeare.
Defamation is essentially public; it is the spreading far
and wide of what is injurious to the reputation of persons.
Slander differs from defamation in being not only public,
but also secret and underhanded. The slanderer is not so
inventive as the calumniator.
Libel is a written slander of defamation. Originally a
libel was a document. So the phrase of the present ver-
sion of the Scriptures, " A writing of divorcement," stood
in Wycliffe's version,, " A libel of forsaking. " It is now any
kind of published defamation, whether in print, by pictures,
or any other such representation.
DEFEND [Lat.] ; PROTECT [Lat.]. Defend implies an
active repelling of some adverse influence or power.
Protect implies a passive placing of something between
the object and the power. A fortress is defended by its
guns, and protected by its walls. A defence is successful
or unsuccessful. A protection is adequate or inadequate.
In some cases of a somewhat metaphorical character we use
the words interchangeably. So we say, to defend or pro-
tect plants from frost: but in the one case we look upon
the power we have to resist ; in the other, upon the object
we have to guard.
One defends what is attacked, one protects what is weak.
Defence, therefore, supposes an actual and pressing danger,
protection only that feebleness which exposes to it. Both
defend and protect may be applied to ourselves. We de-
fend ourselves by meeting force with counter-force. We
STYLE. 159
protect ourselves by measures of precaution, and by the in-
terposition of what may counteract adverse influences.
DIFFIDENT [Lat.] ; MODEST [Lat.]; BASHFUL [O. Fr.].
Bashfulness is a constitutional feeling, Modesty a virtue.
Bashfulness is extreme modesty. It is an instinctive, almost
animal sensation, though involving intelligence. It is not
unbecoming in young persons of either sex, especially in
the presence of elders or superiors. It betrays itself in a
look of self-conscious timidity, and in grown-up persons is
a defect amounting to a mental disease.
Modesty is the absence of all tendency to overestimate
one's self, while Diffidence is the positive distrust of our-
selves. Modesty is in some respects very unlike diffidence,
for though inclined to claim less than his due, and to ac-
cord more than their due to others, the modest man is not
deterred from such efforts in the struggle of life as are need-
ful to do justice to himself; while diffidence, if it be a habit
of the disposition, leads to positive injustice to one's self
and one's own powers.
DIFFICULTY [Lat.]; OBSTACLE [Lat]; OBSTRUCTION [Lat.];
IMPEDIMENT [Lat.]. Difficulties are generally complicated,
Obstacles and Impediments are usually simple. Difficulties
are not usually surmounted by vigor, energy, resolution,
hardihood, and the like, but by patience, skill, and perse-
verance. The cutting of the Gordian Knot was an escape
from, not a solution of, the difficulty.
In marching through a foreign country, the general would
find difficulties in the incidental things the badness of the
roads, the nature of the climate, the disposition of the na-
tives, the scarcity or remoteness of provisions. A precip-
itous valley suddenly yawning under the feet of the soldiers
would be an obstacle, that is, a barrier, to their progress.
I6O COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
A river might be an obstacle, a heavy cloak an imped-
iment, to the traveler. In common parlance difficulties
are met and solved, obstacles surmounted, impediments
removed. It is obvious that the same thing may be some-
times all three, according to the point of view from which
it is regarded. The eloquence of Demosthenes was to
Philip of Macedon a difficulty to be met with his best re-
sources, an obstacle to his own ambition, and an imped-
iment in his political career. Difficulties perplex, imped-
iments embarrass, obstacles deter or retard. Difficulties
commonly arise out of the inherent nature and character
of the matter in hand. Obstacles come from foreign
causes. Impediments come from some established law or
superior force.
Obstruction is not so strong as obstacle, which latter has
also a more abstract sense. We surmount obstacles, and
remove obstructions. An obstacle may be moral and in-
ternal, as indolence is an obstacle to success. Obstruc-
tion is external, and lies in the path.
EXCEED [Lat.]; EXCEL [Lat.]. Exceed \s a relative term,
implying some limit, measure, or quantity already exist-
ing, whether of bulk, stature, weight, distance, number,
or power moral, mental, or mechanical. It is also used
intransitively and abstractedly; as, "The temperate man
will be careful not to exceed"; but even here the measure
of sufficiency and sobriety is understood.
Excel is never employed but in an honorable sense. It
is to go far in good qualities, or laudable actions or ac-
quirements, or specifically, as a transitive verb, to go be-
yond others in such things.
EXPECT [Lat.]; HOPE [A. S.]. We Expect when we
have arrived at the conclusion that something future will
STYLE. l6l
really happen in all probability. We may expect what
may or may not interest us personally. We may expect,
but not hope, for an occurrence which will cause us pain.
We Hope when we look with pleasure to the future. In
proportion as it is welcome, we hope ; in proportion as it
is certain, we expect. Hope is a faculty of the human
soul, a quality which diminishes with the increase of age.
The young, who live in the future, are full of hope.
EXCITE [Lat.]; INCITE [Lat.]. To Excite is to call out
into greater activity what before existed in a calm or
calmer state, or to arouse to an active state faculties or
powers which before were dormant. The term is also
used of purely physical action. We may excite heat by
friction.
To Incite is to excite to a specific act or end which the
inciter has in view.
GLANCE [Sw.]; GLIMPSE [A. S. or Ger.]. Glance ex-
presses both the sudden shooting of a bright object or
ray of light before the eyes, and the rapid casting of the
vision itself upon an object.
Glimpse differs in implying the seeing momentarily and
imperfectly, while Glance implies that the object is seen
momentarily and distinctly. Glance is more commonly
voluntary; glimpse involuntary. We take glances; we
catch glimpses.
GRATITUDE [Fr.]; THANKFULNESS [A. S.]. Gratitude
relates to the inner state of, Thankfulness to the exhibi-
tion of, it in words. We commonly use Grateful in refer-
ence to human agents ; Thankful, to Divine Providence.
We may look grateful. We speak our thanks. Thank-
fulness is mistrusted if it be not expressed ; but gratitude
may be too deep for words. Thankfulness is uneasy till
Rhet. 14.
1 62 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
it has acknowledged a kindness ; gratitude, till it has reo
ompensed it.
IMPOSTOR [Lat.]; DECEIVER [Fr.]. An Impostor is a
deceiver of the public, while Deceiver might be of the
public or of a private individual. Any one who deceives
by word or deed is a deceiver. An impostor assumes a
false appearance, and impersonates what is not truly his.
An impostor acts for his own benefit ; a deceiver may act
simply for the injury of another.
LONELY [Fr.]; SOLITARY [Lat.]. Lonely conveys the
idea of the melancholy or the forsaken. Solitary denotes
no more than the absence of life or society. The essence
of solitariness is separation, not the feeling consequent
upon it. A lonely wanderer is not only solitary, but feels
it in sadness. Places are solitary as being without inhab-
itants. They are lonely, as producing in persons the ef-
fects of isolation. So we may be lonely, though not sol-
itary, in a crowd.
MARINE [Lat.]; MARITIME [Lat.]; NAVAL [Lat.]. Mamie
means belonging to the sea in its simplest aspect or nat-
ural state; as, marine productions or deposits.
Maritime means belonging to the sea as it is employed
by man, or in relation to the life of man ; as a maritime
people, maritime trade or occupations.
Naval means belonging to ships. We speak of a naval
life, a naval profession, a naval armament.
MUTUAL [Lat.]; RECIPROCAL [Lat.]. Mutual implies
nothing as to time or order of action. Reciprocal involves
an idea of priority and succession. A mutual thing is
simply a thing which exists between two^ persons ; a re-
ciprocal thing so exists as to the result of a giving and
STYLE. 163
returning. "The attachment was mutual," would mean
simply that it was felt on both sides ; that it was recipro-
cal, would mean that what one had given the other also
had returned.
NOTED [Lat.]; NOTORIOUS [Lat.]. Noted is reserved for
that which is well known, favorably or eminently.
Notorious is employed to express what is publicly known,
and universally in men's mouths, commonly, though not
invariably, with an unfavorable meaning. At least, no-
torious is never used of what is known purely for good.
We speak indiscriminately of a notorious or a noted fact,
but not person ; nor are virtue and excellence ever said to
be notorious.
NIGHTLY [A. S.]; NOCTURNAL [Lat. noctein~\. Nightly
is derived from the English word night ; Nocturnal, from
the Latin noctem, night; yet they are somewhat differ-
ently employed. The former is a term of more familiar
character than the latter; but a further difference is no-
ticeable, flowing, however, from the same difference of
origin. Nightly means simply at the time of night, or
every night, while Nocturnal means connected with the
nature of the night. A nightly visit. The nocturnal
habits of some birds, insects, and quadrupeds.
OCCUPANCY [Lat.]; OCCUPATION [Lat.]. The difference
between these two words flows from the different forces
of the verb occupy, to take possession and to hold pos-
session.
Occupancy is the taking, or having possession in relation
to, rights, claims, or privileges; Occupation, in relation to
no more than the fact of possessing and holding. We
speak of the occupancy of an estate ; and the occupation,
not occupancy, of a country by an army. Occupancy has
164 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
a passive sense; Occupation has both an active and a
passive sense.
POLITE [Lat.]; CIVIL [Lat.]; POLISHED [Lat.]. Polished
may be applied to that which exhibits traces of finish in
training or preparation; as, "A polished man," " Polished
manners," "A polished discourse." Polished is opposed
to rough ; it is an attribute of external things.
Civil. The civil man is observant of the slight outward
courtesies of intercourse between man and man. True
civility is seen in the demeanor of those who respect oth-
ers because they respect themselves, and is as far removed
from condescension on the one side as from servility on
the other.
Polite. The polite man is polished in such courtesies,
and is in higher training. The courtier is polite, but even
the rustic may be civil. The civil man is not necessarily
polite. Civility is confined to no class or grade of so-
ciety; Politeness is between equals, and that in the society
of the better born and educated.
PEOPLE [O. E. or Lat. populus\\ PERSONS [Lat.]. In
colloquial language, these terms are synonymous; as,
' ' Many persons say so"; "Many people do it." The dif-
ference seems to be that in the term Persons, the individ-
uals are more thought of, and with more deference ; while
in the term People, the individuals are merged in the ag-
gregate. "At the dinner yesterday there were five peo-
ple," would be, if not inelegant, expressive of contempt-
uousness. "People of that sort"; "Persons of distinc-
tion"; "People say"; "It is said by many respectable
persons." It may be observed that Persons in this gen-
eral sense does not appear in the objective- case. Again,
"This often pleases people" (#0/ persons).
STYLE. 165
PERUSE READ [A. S.]. To Read is to interpret char-
acters into their words whether mentally only or audibly
also ; and more generally, to gather the meaning by obser-
vation of anything which expresses itself by outward effects
or indications ; as, to read character in a face.
To Peruse, the etymology of which is quite uncertain,
meant formerly to observe closely and in detail. This
might be the matter of some book or not. Now to peruse
is to read thoughtfully. One peruses at length a work in
which one is interested ; one reads, it may be, a name upon
a sign-post.
PERSUADE [Lat] ; CONVINCE [Lat.]. Persuade has much
in common with Convince ; but conviction is the result of
the understanding, persuasion of the will. Conviction is a
necessity of the mind ; persuasion, an acquiescence of the
inclination. Conviction, being mental, is less active ; per-
suasion, being moral, is the more active outwardly. We
are convinced of truths and facts. We are persuaded to
act and to behave. We speak of a persuasive manner,
convincing proofs.
PURPOSE [O. Fr.]; PROPOSE [Lat.]. No two terms are
more commonly confounded than Purpose and Propose ; but
the former denotes a settled, the latter a contingent, state
of the mind. I propose to do something, if I have not yet
made up my mind. I purpose when I have made it up.
Yet the words Purpose and Propose might often be used in-
differently, provided it be remembered that they express
different aspects of the same thing. I purpose to do a
thing when I have formed a practical intention to do it. I
propose to do it when I recognize it as a design which I
shall carry out, provided nothing should arise to hinder or
deter me.
166 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
RESOLUTION [Lat.]; DETERMINATION [Lat.]; DECISION
[Lat.]. A choice between action and inaction is Resolu-
tion. A choice between one motive and another is Determi-
nation. An irrevocable choice is Decision. Decision com-
monly implies a choice among several courses of action.
We determine what to do and resolve to carry out our
determination. Determination is a less energetic form of
decision. Resolution is a promise made to one's self to
undertake a thing. It implies a finer moral choice. A
stubborn man may be determined, a firm man is resolved,
what to do. Both determination and decision are at an
end when the action has been entered upon, but resolution
may be carried on into the action itself.
Decision is an act of the mind, and supposes examination.
Resolution is an act of the will, and supposes deliberation.
Our decisions should be just, that we may not repent them.
Our resolutions should be firm, that we may not break
them.
In matters of science, we speak of the decision of a ques-
tion, and of the resolution of a doubt or difficulty.
WATCH [A. S.]; OBSERVE [Lat.]. Watching is a strict,
constant, close, and eager observation. We Observe with
coolness the present state of a case. We watch for what
is to take place hereafter. Where we are interested, we
observe. Where we are suspicious, we watch.
WEIGHT [A. S.] ; HEAVINESS [A. S.]. Weight is wholly
indefinite, and is opposed to that which is imponderable.
The lightest substances have some amount of weight.
Weight, however, is used scientifically, while Heaviness is
concrete, that is, expresses the sensation of weight. In their
secondary senses, Heaviness is the weight of care or trouble,
Weightiness, the urgency of fact or reasoning. Heavy
STYLE.
167
rather than weighty is the term employed to express the
force which results from the weight of a body in motion.
Thus we speak of a heavy, not a weighty, blow. The
felled tree falls not weightily, but heavily, to the ground.
WHOLE [A. S.]; ENTIRE [O. Fr. or Lat.]; COMPLETE
[Lat.]. Who j e and Entire are very nicely distinguished.
In most cases the words are simply interchangeable. The
entire house and the whole house are the same thing. But
Whole relates to what is made up of parts, and a whole
thing is a thing in which no part is wanting. Entire does
not relate to any idea of parts, but simply to perfect and
undiminished unity. So that in cases in which the idea
is not resolvable into parts, Entire is used where Whole
could not be. So we say, " A whole orange," "A whole
number," "The whole quantity." But, "His character was
marked by an entire absence of selfishness," "entire igno-
rance, " ' ' entire confidence, " * ' entire control, " and the like.
Complete denotes the possession of all that is needful to
constitute a thing, or to fulfill a purpose or a definition.
A thing is entire which is not broken, or mutilated, or di-
vided; it is complete when it wants nothing. Complete
relates to what implies a thing in its perfection.
WING [Dan. Sw.]; PINION [Fr.]. The Pinion is a feath-
ered wing ; while Wing is more generally a lateral append-
age of comparatively light material, moved with a vibratory
motion, and supporting the flying body by its pressure upon
the atmosphere. Hence, insecjts, for instance, have wings,
but not pinions.
SORRY [A. S.] ; GRIEVED [Lat] ; HURT [O. Fr.]. Sorry
and Grieved differ from the nouns Sorrow and Grief in
being used in a lighter sense and of more ordinary matters.
168 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
We are commonly sorry for what is on our own account,
and grieved on account of another. To be grieved is more
than to be sorry. ' ' I am sorry that I was not at home
when you called"; "I was much grieved to hear the loss
he had sustained."
Hurt is used of wounded feelings, and denotes the sense
of having been treated unfairly, inconsiderately, or without
due respect.
We are sorry for circumstances. We are grieved for acts
and conduct. We are hurt by treatment or behavior.
SORROW ; GRIEF. Grief 'and Sorrow are very nearly alike,
but Grief is the more active and demonstrative of the two.
It expresses a poignant state of mental trouble, while Sor-
row is more still and reflexive, and is more commonly tinged
with regret. Grief contemplates things as they might have
been, and deplores the fact of their occurrence. Being
more active than Sorrow, it is often found mingled with
compassion for others, and with remorse on our own account.
Grief is caused by bitter calamities and misfortunes which
come to us from outside. Sorrow may be the consequence
of our own acts. Sorrow in the last degree is profound;
Grief is violent. Sorrow mourns ; Grief cries aloud.
TEDIOUS [Lat] ; IRKSOME [O. E.]. Tedious denotes the
weariness caused by time. The nature of the thing to be
done makes it irksome. The time taken up in doing a thing
makes it tedious. Hence, Tedious denotes what is felt after
a work is begun or a process commenced ; while Irksome
may denote the feeling which prevents one from undertak-
ing at all.
TIMELY [A. S.]; SEASONABLE [Fr.]; OPPORTUNE [Lat.].
Timely means in good time; Seasonable, in right time.
STYLE.
169
Timely aid is that which comes before it is too late ; Sea-
sonable aid, that which meets the nature of the occasion.
The difference is slight between these and Opportune,
which seems to express more the occurrence of that which,
by its timeliness, aids some particular project or specific
course of things. Like Timely and unlike Seasonable, it
qualifies a case rather than a class of cases. Things are
opportune for the occasion, and not as a rule. The shower
which falls seasonably and in timely preservation of a crop
may be inopportune as regards a party of pleasure.
EXERCISE XLIII.
DIRECTION. Give the meaning which the synonyms grouped below have
in common ; give the meaning which belongs to each separately ; and write sen-
tences, using each word correctly :
1. Absolve exonerate acquit.
2. Adversary opponent.
3. Affirm aver protest.
4. Alarm terror.
5. Appreciate estimate es-
teem.
6. Assault attack assail.
7. Kill murder assassinate.
8. Battle combat engagement.
9. Intricate complex compli-
cated.
10. Calculate compute.
11. Care anxiety.
12. Adorn decorate embellish.,,
13. Gentle meek mild tame.
14. Ingenuous fair open
frank.
15. Emotion feeling.
1 6. Ferocious fierce savage
barbarous.
Rhet. 15.
17. Firmness constancy.
1 8. Follow succeed.
19. Formal ceremonious.
20. Friendly amicable.
21. In into.
22. Acquaintance intimacy fa-
miliarity.
23. Insolence insult.
24. Journey tour excursion
pilgrimage.
25. Amend rectify.
26. Axiom maxim adage.
27. Mean base vile.
28. Manifest evident plain
clear.
29. Mature ripe.
30. Motive incentive induce-
ment.
31. Motherly maternal.
32. Mute silent dumb.
I/O COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
33. Novel new.
34. Abundance plenty.
35. Pleasing pleasant agree-
able.
36. Pillage plunder.
37. Poverty indigence pauper-
38. Poison venom.
39. Rest repose.
40. Resign relinquish.
41. Sensible intelligent.
42. Gain win.
43. Slight neglect.
44. Tall high lofty.
EXERCISE XLIV.
DIRECTION. Supply precise words in the following sentences:
1. Hope Expect, (a) Such was the violence of the storm that
none of the passengers the vessel could outlive the gale.
(&) The father had that his son would be eminent.
2. Lonely Solitary, (a) It appeared to the misled and
traveler.
(b) Hie home unto my chamber, where thou shalt find me sad and
3. Ask Beg Request, (a) What shall you of me that I '11
deny?
(b) In other inferior things it may become us to be reserved
and modest.
(c) him to accept the same as a testimony of their tender-
ness towards him.
4. Admit Allow, (a) The ruined spendthrift claimed kindred
there, and had his claim .
(b) Even a real miracle can not be as such by those who
are not assured that the event is contradictory to the course of nature.
5. Excite Incite, (a) Can the sons of Greece compassion
in Achilles' mind ?
(b) The concurrence of many circumstances, resembling those
which had been so favorable to the late monarch, him to a
similar attempt.
6. Poison Venom, (a) As souls, they say, by our first touch take
in the of original sin.
{b) The God of truth defend you and all others that maintain his
truth from the of liars.
(c) The of asps is under their tongues.
STYLE. 171
7. Modern Recent, (a) Yet was much taxed, by that age precise,
for faults which times not strange have thought.
(b) Amphitryon, from the nether sphere.
8. Curious Prying Inquisitive, (a) Bacon says, some have
been so as to remark the times and seasons, when the stroke
of an envious eye is most effectually pernicious.
(b) Man is read in his face, God in his creatures, but not as the
philosopher, the creature of his glory, reads him, but as the divine,
the servant of humility ; yet he must take care not to be too .
(c) So close in poplar shades, her children gone,
The mother nightingale laments alone,
Whose nest some churl has found.
9. Tedious Irksome, (a) The length of nine revolving
years.
(b) It was perhaps less to live the life of a hermit in a sol-
itary den than to submit to the humors of a bigot.
10. Defend Protect, (a) God the right.
(b) How poor a thing is man, whom death itself can not
from injuries.
11. Glance Glimpse, (a) The poet's eye, in a fine frenzy rolling,
doth from heaven to earth, from earth to heaven.
(b) In His face the of His Father's glory shine.
12. Persuade Convince, (a) He that a man to rob a
house is guilty of the sin he him to.
(b) Wise men desire to discover such evident marks of superior
wisdom, power, and goodness in the frame of it, as may them
that it is truly divine.
13. Timely Seasonable Opportune, (a) Mercy is in the
time of affliction.
(b) The English, coming in to their succor, beat them back
into the city.
(c) The most place shall never melt mine honor into lust.
14. Sorrow Grief. *
(a) is humble and dissolves in tears ;
Make not your Hecuba with fury rage,
And show a ranting upon the stage.
15. Impostor Deceiver, (a) If these things prove true, let me be
registered not only for a most notorious , but such an hypocrite
as never trod upon the earth before.
1/2 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
(b) Our Savior wrought his miracles frequently, and for a long
time together ; a time sufficient to have detected any in.
1 6. Propose Purpose, (a) The ship a helpless hull is left; she
quits her way.
(b) There are but two plans on which any man can to con-
duct himself through the dangers and distresses of human life.
17. Mutual Reciprocal.
(a) But as He framed a whole, the whole to bless,
On wants built happiness.
(b) Life can not subsist in society but by concessions.
1 8. Pillage Plunder, (a) I took away from our men the
with which they were loaded, and gave it to the owners.
(b) For the of malignants, I answer that I think the parlia-
ment never yet approved the , or, in plain English, robbing of
any man by any of their forces.
19. Resolution Determination Decision, (a) Be it with ,
then, to fight.
(b) The will is said to be when, in consequence of some
action or influence, its choice is fixed upon a particular object.
(r) The of dying to end our miseries does not show such a
degree of magnanimity, as a to bear them.
20. Gratitude Thankfulness, (a) is the lively and power-
ful reaction of a well-disposed mind upon whom benevolence has
conferred something important.
(b) Give us that due sense of all Thy mercies, that our hearts may
be unfeignedly .
21. Difficulty Obstacle Impediment Obstruction. (a) They
were all night removing the that had been placed across the
road.
(b) Was ever any overcome by a sudden cast of thought ?
(c) The want of a life conformable to the religion which we profess,
hath been an to the progress of Christianity.
(d) Because an by nature earthly and foul doth not receive
the pure clearness of light
22. Exceed Excel, (a) Man's boundless avarice , and on
his neighbors round about him feeds.
(b) The Power that shuts within its seed the future flower, bids
these in elegance of form .
23. Defamation Calumny Slander Libel, (a) Their aim is
STYLE.
1/3
only men's , not their reformation, since they proclaim men's
vices unto others, not lay them open to themselves.
(b) Whether we speak evil of a man to his face or behind his
back ; the former way indeed seems to be the most generous, but yet
is a great fault, and that which we call reviling. The latter is more
mean and base, and that which we call .
(c) "The way to silence ," says Bias, "is to be always exer-
cised in such things as are praiseworthy."
(d) We have in a ; (i) the writing; (2) the communication;
(3) the application to persons and facts ; (4) the intent and tendency ;
(5) the matter diminution of fame.
24. Bashful Modest Diffident, (a) A man is so only in
the presence of others.
(b) is a kind of shame or bashfulness proceeding from the
sense a man has of his own defects, compared with the perfections of
him whom he comes before.
(c) and presumption both arise from the want of knowing,
or rather endeavoring to know, ourselves.
25. Scheme Plan Design, (a) The vigor of a boundless imag-
ination told him how a might be disposed that would embel-
lish Nature and restore Art to its proper office.
(b) The machine which we are inspecting demonstrates by its con-
struction, contrivance, and .
(c) The idea of the possibility of multiplying paper money to
almost any extent was the real foundation of what is called the
Mississippi , the most extravagant project, both of banking and
stock-jobbing, that perhaps the world ever saw.
26. Linger Lag Saunter Loiter, (a) We must proceed speed-
ily, and persist constantly, nowhere staying or .
(b) Yet not content, more to increase his shame, when so she
-, as she needs mote so, he with his spear would thump her
forward.
(c) On yonder cliffs, a grisly band,
I see them sit ; they yet ;
Avengers of their native land.
(d) Upon the first suspicion a father has that his son is of a
temper, he must carefully observe him whether he be listless and in-
different in all his actions, or whether in some things he be slow and
sluggish, but in others vigorous and eager.
174 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
Simplicity. Simplicity has reference to the choice of
simple words and their unaffected presentation. If prop-
erly and skillfully used, words readily and generally intel-
ligible produce their full effect.
Short words require the least attention, and are corre-
spondingly strong. Hence the strength of the Anglo-
Saxon element, which, as we have seen, comprises the
vocabulary of common life, the language of the emo-
tions, of the fireside, street, market, and farm. This ele-
ment predominates in the books most widely circulated;
as, the Bible , Pilgrim s Progress, Robinson Crusoe y and
Gulliver's Travels; and it is to the home-going Saxon of
these books that their popular impressiveness and general
intelligibility may be ascribed. Every word in the follow-
ing passage from St. John is of Saxon origin :
11 In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and
the Word was God. The same was in the beginning with God. All
things were made by him; and without him was not anything made
that was made. In him was life; and the life was the light of men."
Bain says: "Our translation of the Bible is usually re-
ferred to as showing most remarkably the force of the
Saxon element in our language, whereby it is intelligible,
familiar, and home -going. These qualities it certainly
possesses in a very high degree; but as the translators
seem to have been guided rather by an unconscious tact,
which must sometimes have failed them, than by a delib-
erate preference of Saxon words, the statement must be
received with some qualifications." In passages marked
by great simplicity, the Saxon element is largely used.
Of this the Gospels furnish numerous examples. Again,
when emotional effect is chiefly aimed at, the translators
often give the Saxon in great purity. Many examples of
melody and pathos might be produced from the Psalms;
STYLE. 175
none more conspicuous, however, than the twenty-third,
the whole of which contains only ten classical words.
"While the great majority of words in the English
Bible are native, there is necessarily, also, a considerable
mixture of the classical element. One reason of this is
that the terms in use for designating ideas peculiar to Ju-
daism or Christianity had mostly been derived from the
Latin. The following are examples of such words ; some
of them were originally Greek, though received by us
through the Latin: apostle, evangelist, bishop, baptism,
grace, salvation, repent, justify, sanctify, elect, saint, an-
gel, eternal, immortal, miracle, creation, sacrifice. These
have become household words; we are as much at home
with them as we should have been with native terms.
Some of them are as easy and homely as the commonest
of the words inherited from our simple-minded Teutonic
forefathers; while some of our Saxon words, by being
sparingly used, or by being connected with difficult no-
tions (as laws and government), may not be readily fol-
lowed. The classical ' flower,' 'gain,' 'branch,' 'gentle,'
are quite as familiar as the Saxon 'bloom,' 'win,' 'bough,'
and 'riding'; while 'wapentake,' 'wardmote,' 'gavelkind/
though native, are not universally understood." Bain.
We may, therefore, greatly simplify a learned style,
without resolving it into the pure Saxon. To simplify a
difficult passage by the substitution of Saxon, or, failing
that, of easy classical, terms, will form one of the best ex-
ercises in applying the pupil's knowledge of the sources
of the English.
Writers who seek the utmost intelligibility, will avoid
foreign words, not because they are foreign, but because
they are not current. "I observe," says Emerson, "that
all distinguished poetry is written in the oldest and sim-
COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
plest English words. There is a point, above coarseness
and below refinement, where propriety abides." It is
well, however, to remember that classical words are more
dignified in their associations. The Saxon part of the
vocabulary, while favorable to feeling and pathos, con-
tains also the coarse and vulgar words of the language.
Latin and Greek words not only are freer from coarse-
ness, but also are associated with dignity or elevation.
For Saxon " sweat," we have "perspiration"; and for
many coarse, strong Saxon words words found only in
the mouths of the uneducated and unrefined, our language
affords equivalents derived from the more refined Latin.
We see, then, the necessity as well as the advantage of
using simple English words; and these include not only
natives, but many foreign derivatives, which are equally
brief and clear.
EXERCISE XLV.
DIRECTION. Express the following sentences in simple, natural English:
1. I was confronted by a diminutive maiden, whose habiliments
were indicative of penury.
2. The poor Indian lay in his last extremity.
3. There is a potentiality of growing rich beyond the dreams of
avarice.
4. Your sister was evidently laboring under some hallucination.
5. His spirit quitted its earthly habitation.
6. An individual was precipitated.
7. Who urges into motion corpulent animals of the bovine species
should himself be of no mean dimensions.
8. The ruminants repose beneath the umbrageous trees.
9. These youthful personages were engaged in tumultuary rec-
reations.
10. The conflagration reached out as if to inclose the wide city in
its fiery embrace.
STYLE.
1 1 . John and his canine companion unceremoniously disturbed the
felicitous slumbers of the old cat and her young family.
12. Many of our seemingly insignificant and barbarous conso-
nental monosyllables are expressive of the mightiest thoughts.
13. That affluence and power, advantages extrinsic and adventi*
tious, should very often flatter the mind with expectations of felicity
which they can not give, raises no astonishment.
14. By my side was a square-built, fresh-colored personage.
15. Even if this conciliatory proceeding were a proper device .
1 6. I bore the diminution of my riches without any outrages of
sorrow or pusillanimity of dejection.
17. Their hearts are like thnt of the principle of evil himself in-
corporeal, pure, unmixed, dephlegmated, defecated evil.
1 8. They agreed to homologate the choice that had been made.
19. Out of one of the beds on which we were to repose, started up,
at our entrance, a man black as a Cyclops from the forge.
20. I would inculcate the importance of a careful study of genuine
English, and a conscientious scrupulosity in its accurate use.
21. I was surprised, after the civilities of my first reception, to find,
instead of the leisure and tranquillity which a rural life always prom-
ises, and, if well-conducted, might always afford, a confused wilder-
ness of care, and a tumultuous hurry of diligence, by which every
face was clouded and every motion agitated.
22. Professions lavishly effused and parsimoniously verified are
alike inconsistent with the precepts of innate rectitude, and the prac-
tice of internal policy.
EXERCISE XLVI.
DIRECTION. Write sentences containing shorter or more familiar expres-
sions for the following :
Aggravate, individual, residence, circumspect, simultaneously, tort-
uous, termination, occult, extinguish, transform, accomplish, instruct,
preclude, articulate, felicity, exacerbated, antagonist, cognizance, pro-
genitor, audacious, inaugurate, approximate, minatory, commence,
indoctrinate, penetrate, auxiliaries, invalidate, atmosphere, idiosyn-
crasies, ethereal, pabulum, anomaly, isothermal, elimination, interpo-
late, aesthetic, disparage, obliterate, circumlocution, supersede.
COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
EXERCISE XLVII.
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES ON DICTION.
DIRECTION. Tell what quality of diction purity, propriety, precision, or
simplicity is violated here. Correct all errors in your recast of the sentences :
1 . He is worthy of praise for his observation of filial duty.
2. The sellers of the newest patterns at present give extreme good
bargains.
3. But what will fame be to an ephemerae who no longer exists ?
4. The protest laid quietly on the table.
5. The child died from the sequelae of the scarlet fever.
6. The only danger that attends the multiplicity of publications is
that some of them may be calculated to injure rather than benefit
society.
7. I guess you may speak respectably to your superiors.
8. He was led to the abattoir of political life.
9. He is free of many common faults.
10. Then, methought, the air grew denser.
11. John lost his avocation by idleness.
12. If we examine with minuteness the falling snow, we will ob-
serve that each flake consists of a number of exceedingly delicate
particles of ice.
13. The entertainment of last evening was much enjoyed by the
juvenile members of the community.
14. The cuisine was perfect.
15. During the ancien regime the peasants were grievously op-
pressed.
1 6. He dispenses favors on every side.
17. I have suffered remorse ever since I sold my flute.
1 8. My hat never stays where I put it.
19. We propose to spend the greater part of the summer in study-
ing music.
20. It was a lapsus linguae.
21. Paterfamilias placed his hands in loving tenderness upon the
heads of the children.
22. A fault inevitable by literary ladies.
STYLE. 1/9
23. The mischievous urchins caught the poor dog, and to his cau-
dal appendage they affixed a hollow vessel that reverberated most
discordantly as the yelping quadruped ran down the street.
24. I could not tell them apart.
25. I expect it rained last night.
26. He went back on us.
27. Henry had been from his youth attached to the Church of
Rome.
28. Sea-birds have places of rendezvous, where they seem to de-
liberate on the affairs of the republic.
29. The minister's resignation, in these circumstances, can not be
too highly praised.
30. Our cicerone first conducted us through the principal buildings
of the city.
31. The queen did not want solicitation to consent to' the measure.
32. The amende honorable having been made, a hostile meeting
was prevented.
33. They resplended in purple and gold lace.
34. The patrons of husbandry, having thoroughly examined all the
inventions of genius to be found within the machinery hall, retired
to an adjoining apartment to partake of liquid refreshments.
35. It is aggravating to be subjected to the rudeness of ill-bred
people.
36. His contemporaries were anxious for his repute.
37. He sat upon a rural bench and looked with admiring eyes
upon the rustic scene.
38. James Brown, a noted thief, was taken to jail yesterday.
39. Excessive use of wine is a bad custom.
40. By assisting her, you will confer to me a favor.
41. The veracity of a statement is admitted when the truth of its
author is unquestioned.
42. Name the time, and let it not excel three days.
43. I have persuaded him that he has made a mistake.
44. This state of things kept us on the qui vive.
45. The constable has abdicated his office.
46. Exile evil thoughts from the heart.
47. Alphonsus ordered a great fire to be prepared, into which,
after his majesty and the public had joined in prayer for heavenly
assistance in this ordeal, both the rivals were thrown into the flames.
ISO COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
SENTENCES.
Sentences. As regards the arrangement of its parts,
there are three qualities which a sentence should possess:
(i) Clearness; (2) Unity; (3) Strength; and when it is pos-
sible, the sentence should have a pleasing effect by its
Harmony.
Clearness. Clearness requires that the parts of a sen-
tence words, phrases, and clauses should be so arranged
as fop leave no possibility of doubt as to the author's mean-
ing. Language is the medium of communication. It
should reveal the whole thought as the writer or speaker
would have it understood by the person addressed. As
Quintilian says, the expression should be so clear that the
hearer not only may but must understand^
Clearness of style should be the first consideration with
the young composer. He should not aim so much at
being brief or forcible, as at being perspicuous.
The faults opposed to clearness are two: (i) Obscurity,
which leaves us wholly in doubt as to the author's mean-
ing; (2) Ambiguity, which leaves us in doubt as to which
of two or more meanings is the one intended.
One half of the words of a language qualify the other
half; and in English, position is almost the only thing
that shows the relation between qualifying adjuncts and
the words they modify; hence, it is chiefly through the
wrong placing of words, phrases, or clauses that clearness
is lost. In the English language, which is very deficient
in inflections to mark the grammatical relations of words,
position is a matter of prime importance. The sentence,
"The savage here the settler slew," is not clear. The sub-
ject and the object of the transitive verb are both placed
before the verb; and since there is no peculiar ending, in
STYLE. 1 8 1
English, for a noun in the singular number, objective case,
or singular number, nominative case, it is impossible to
know the writer's meaning. In Latin this is not so. ' ' Puer
magistrum amat, " the boy the master loves, means, "The
boy loves the master" no matter what the order of the
words. This is indicated by the inflection, or ending, of
the Latin nouns. Had "boy" been the object and "mas-
ter" the subject of the verb, the form would have been,
"Puerum magister amat."
Clearness is lost usually by the improper placing of
words, phrases, and clauses, by the omission of necessary
words, or by using words whose meaning is ambiguous.
The following ^xe-the-^rinxipaljnules for securingclear-
ness:
/ "" RULE I. Words, phrases, and clauses that are closely re-
1 lated should be placed as near to each other as possible, that
^^their mutual relation may clearly appear.
This rule is violated most frequently by the improper
placing of adverbs, of adverbial phrases and clauses, of
participles, and of personal and relative pronouns.
The single-word adverbs that are most frequently mis-
placed, are "only" and "not." There are some others
that often give trouble; as, "never," "even," "always,"
"enough," and the phrase "at least"
ONLY. The strict rule is, that "only" should be placed
before the word affected by it.
The following are ambiguous: "The address is only to
be written on this side"; "The heavens are not open to
the faithful only at intervals."
Abbott says : ' ' The best rule is to avoid placing ' only '
between two emphatic words, and to avoid using ' only '
where ' alone ' can be used instead.
1 82 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
i ' In strictness perhaps the three following sentences :
He only beat three,
He beat only three,
He beat three only,
ought to be explained, severally, thus:
He did no more than beat, did not kill, three.
He beat no more than three.
He beat three, and that was all he did. (Here only
modifies the whole of the sentence and depreciates the ac-
tion.)"
NOT. "Not" must be taken as qualifying all that fol-
lows, to the first break; as, "Not a drum was heard";
"They have no share in all that's done
Beneath the circuit of the sun."
Here the "no" is placed so as to command "share"
with all its qualifications. This is correct.
"ENOUGH" is specially understood to follow the word
it modifies; as, "good enough," "not kindly enough."
"AT LEAST" is used with more exactness of meaning
when it immediately precedes the word it modifies. ' ' A
tear at least is due to the fallen brave." "At least" is
intended to qualify "tear"; and while we might readily
refer this phrase to the word going before, there would
be more precision in this arrangement: "To the fallen
brave is due at least a tear," or, "We owe to the fallen
brave at least a tear."
"Misplacement is very frequent with the combinations
' not but, ' * not only but also. ' * I am not come to send
peace on the earth but a sword. ' This is a contraction for,
1 1 am not come to send peace on the earth, / am come to
send a sword. ' The better order would be, ' I am come
not to send peace on the earth but a sword.' " Bain.
STYLE. 183
" He not only gave me advice but also help" is wrong.
" He gave me not only advice, but also help" is the proper
form for the sentence.
' ' It is not only hard to distinguish between two little and
too much reform, but between the good and the evil in-
tention of the reformers," should be, "It is hard to dis-
tinguish, not only between too little and too much reform,
but between the good," etc.
The strict rule is, ' ' When ' not only ' precedes ' but also, '
see that each is followed by the same part of speech."
Abbott.
For example: "He acted not only wisely but also
promptly (adverbs), and this too, not only under trying
circumstances, but also in (prepositions) the face of strong
opposition ; yet his acts were not only successful, but also
worthy (adjectives) of success."
We shall now notice the placing of adjuncts generally;
that is, the position of qualifying words, phrases, and
clauses, whether as adjectives or as adverbs.
In the sentence, "He looked and muttered in a way
that could not but fill those whose life it Was to watch
him and obey him with great alarm." "Fill" is to be
qualified, not "watch" or "obey"; hence, the phrase
"with great alarm" should be placed as near as possible
to the word "fill."
1 ' It was by hunting and fishing that the Indians chiefly
subsisted." "Chiefly" is not intended to qualify "sub-
sisted"; it restricts the means of gaining a subsistence.
"The French nation is not consoled for the misfortunes
which it has endured by the incidental triumph of justice in
Italy." "Consoled" is the word meant to be qualified.
"A pocket-book was found by a boy made of leather "
"Made" should modify "pocket-book."
184 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
' ' ' I must not forget the two sons of this aspiring cit-
izen, who came to church in a dashing curricle.' Without
the context, we can not be quite certain, although we
may think it highly probable, that who refers, not to the
near noun citizen, but to the prominent noun sons. The
possessive 'citizen's two sons, who' would remove all
doubt." Bain,
"This way will direct you to a gentleman's house that
hath skill to take off these burdens." Correct to this: "to
the house of a gentleman that hatJi skill."
"The farmer's orchard is respected by the boy who
owns a large dog." Changed: "The boy respects the
orchard of the farmer who owns a large dog."
"Nor better was their lot who fled." Changed: "Nor
better was the lot of them that fled ."
Each qualifying word or set of words should be looked
at in its setting ; we should try the bearing both before and
after, and place the word where it will modify only the
subject intended. Sometimes we find, thrown into the
middle of a sentence, a grammatical expression that can
be connected in -meaning either with what goes before, or
with what follows. This is a common source of ambiguity.
"Gibbon incurred the imputation of avarice, while he
was, in fact, exceeding generous, simply by his ignorance of
the purchasing power of money. " The words "exceeding
generous" may be construed either with the words which
precede, or with those which follow. We may understand
the author as meaning either "exceeding generous not-
withstanding the imputation of avarice," or "exceeding
generous simply by his ignorance of the purchasing power
of money." The proper arrangement would be: "Gib-
bon, while, in fact, exceeding generous, incurred the im-
putation of avarice, simply by his ignorance," etc.
STYLE. 185
Personal pronouns should be used with care. The pro-
noun is by nature a kind of universal noun ; it mayTeFer to
anything of the same gender, number, and person, hence
care is required to have it suggest at once its antecedent.
The strict rule is that pronouns should follow the nouns to
which they refer, without the intervention of another noun.
Ambiguity in the use of pronouns may be avoided some-
times by substituting direct for indirect narration, some-
times by repeating the antecedent, sometimes by changing
the number of one of the antecedents, sometimes by changing
the order. Occasionally sentences in themselves not clear
may be tolerated if the context gives the meaning unmis-
takably.
"John asked his cousin to bring his hat, as he was going
on an errand for his mother. " This is objectionable because
there is doubt as to the antecedent of "his," in two cases.
To correct it we must in some way make perfectly evident
what is meant. By changing to direct narration, we can
express every possible meaning with perfect clearness ; as,
"John said to his cousin, 'Bring me my hat; I am going
on an errand for your mother.
"He said that he had conversed with Mr. Smith, and
his proposition was impracticable." Here the only escape
from ambiguity is to express the antecedent in full. "Mr.
Smith's" should be substituted for "his."
"They were persons of high hopes, before they (hopes)
were clouded over by misfortune." This may be improved
by changing the number of one of the antecedents : "They
were full of hope until it was clouded over by misfortune."
"Joe Brown, the brother of Faith Brown, who gave me
this book, has gone to Europe." By changing the order
we may effect an improvement ; as, "Faith Brown's brother
Joe, who gave me this book, has gone to Europe."
Rhet. 16.
1 86 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
RULE II. Omit no word that is necessary to the complete
expression of the thought.
Words which should not be omitted:
1. The subject, or a pronoun standing for it, should
be repeated whenever its omission would cause ambiguity
or obscurity) The following is ambiguous :
'iHe-fesupposed to be working for his party, which in
truth is suffering from his neglect, and (he? or it?) will not
permit any one else to give it advice."
The relative should be repeated when it is the subject
of several verbsj)as, "The father was awaiting his son,
who had Clever failed to gather with the family around
the Christmas board, and was prompted by the closest ties
of natural affection to speed this reunion." Say, "who
was prompted," etc. Otherwise it might mean that "the
father" was prompted.
2. Repeat the preposition after an intervening con-
junction, especially if a verb and an object also intervgnej
"Had John inherited the great qualities of his father,
Henry Beauclerc, or the conqueror," etc. The omission
of the preposition is misleading to such as are not ac-
quainted with the facts from other sources. Macaulay's
arrangement of this sentence is, however, perfectly clear:
"Had John inherited the great qualities of his father, of
Henry Beauclerc, or of the conqueror," etc.
3. Repeat the article, "A," "An," or "The," before
each of two or more connected nouns denoting things that
are to be distinguished from each other or emphasized^ as,
"Wanted, a nurse and housemaid." This means tfiat the
same person is to be both. If two persons-are wanted, one
for each office, the article should be repeated.
STYLE. 187
"The" should be repeated when the object is not suffi-
ciently distinguished without it. "They possessed both
the civil and criminal jurisdiction." Say, "both the civil
and the criminal jurisdiction."
"The pursuers and pursued entered the gates together."
The contrast requires the repetition of the article; thus,
"The pursuers and the pursued entered the gates together. "
4. Conjunctions should be repeated where the omission
would cause ambiguity^JShould there be several verbs at
some distance from a conjunction on which they depend,
the conjunction must be repeated.
"When we look back upon the havoc that two hundred
years have made in the ranks of our national authors and,
above all, (when) we refer their rapid disappearance to the
quick succession of new competitors we can not help being
dismayed at the prospect that lies before the writers of the
present day." Here, if "when" is omitted we at once
substitute a parenthetical statement for what is really a sub-
ordinate clause.
In reporting a speech or an opinion, "that" must be
continually repeated, to avoid the danger of confusing
what the writer says with what others say.
In the examples that follow, notice how the sentences
gain in clearness by the repetition of the conjunction: "He
lives in the family rather as a relative, than as a depend-
ent. " "Do not forget that the youth was the greater fool
of the two, and that the master served such a booby rightly
in turning him out-of-doors."
5. The verb, or the verb with its subject should be
repeated after the conjunctions "than," "as," etc., when
the omission would cause ambiguity^Thus :
"Lovest thou me more - thSrftEese ? " might convey two
1 88 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
meanings, either, "more than these love me" or, "more
than thou lovest these."
"I hope you will find me as faithful as William," /. e.,
either as faithful as William finds me or as faithful as you
find William.
Even auxiliary verbs, as well as principal verbs, must
follow the rule of repetition.
"The Doctor was a very great favorite, and received with
much respect and honor." Say, "was received." Some-
times the principal verb is omitted, much to the injury of
the sentence; as, "I have always and still do believe that
the soul is immortal." Say, "I have always believed and
still do believe that the soul is immortal."
EXERCISE XLVIII.
DIRECTION. Criticise the following sentences with regard to clearness:
1. The English nearly lost two thousand men.
2. Louisiana not only produces cotton in abundance, but sugar
also.
3. The Romans, at least, understood liberty, as well as we.
4. Among the numberless contradictions, this one predominates,
in our nature.
5. A man would not scruple to pick a pocket who could make so
vile a pun.
6. According to his conduct, in this world, a man's worth is esti-
mated.
7. It is true what he says, but it is not applicable to the point.
8. Mary told her sister that she was going to get something pretty
for her at the store, and that she ought to go along.
9. The Spartans prayed the gods, notwithstanding their austerity,
to grant them the beautiful with the good.
10. The slaves were sold by their masters whenever they were
forced by their recklessness or by their misfortunes to have their value
in money.
STYLE. 1 89
11. People do not simply admire an orator, that he can use big
words.
12. He should care no more for meeting that phantom, opinion,
than a ghost.
13. The error has and will again be exploded.
14. The lunatic, lover, and poet are of imagination all compact.
15. Six shots were fired by those who were placed to guard the
treasure without effect.
1 6. He left the room very slowly repeating his determination not
to obey.
17. Lothair was unaffectedly gratified at not only receiving his
friends at his own castle, but under these circumstances of intimacy.
1 8. You are not obliged to take any money which is not gold or
silver: not only the half-pence or farthings of England, but of any
other country.
19. The Sabbath was regarded as a day for rest from worldly oc-
cupation and holy joy.
20. My rebuke did her good.
21. There are few artists who paint horses as well as Rosa Bon-
heur.
22. And thus the son the fervent sire addressed.
23. Those who drove James from his throne, seduced his army,
alienated his friends, imprisoned him in his palace, broke in upon
his very slumbers by imperious messages, and pursued him with fire
and sword from one part of the empire to the other, were his nephew
and his two daughters.
24. She has worn to-day a black and white dress.
25. Remember, you must be diligent to be successful, and if the
idle have failed it is only because of idleness.
26. I never expect to see you again.
27. Wolsey left at his death many buildings which he had begun,
in an unfinished state, and which no one expects to see complete.
28. Cardinal Richelieu hated Buckingham as sincerely as the
Spaniard Olivares.
29. Adversity gives wisdom ; it ought to be greatly prized.
30. The Emperor Alexander presented to the Emperor William a
portrait of himself.
31. He aimed at nothing less than the crown.
32. The boy did not want opportunities.
COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
Unity. Unity is that property in a sentence which
keeps all its parts in connection with the principal thought,
and logically subordinate to it. ^fUnity is such expression
of thcuoghtas causes each sentence to make one impres-
may consist of parts so combined as to
produce the impression of oneness, or it may be so loosely
thrown together as to produce only a confused and indef-
inite idea in the mind. The test of unity is the connection
between the parts^Jf^ the connection is close, the sen-
tence has unity; if it is remote, the sentence lacks unity.
The following are the principal rules for preserving the
unity of a sentence :
\gi(
RULE I. The subject should be changed as little as pos-
ible in t/ie course of the sentence.
It is not meant by this that every sentence should have
but one subject. Every complex sentence must, from its
nature, have more than one subject. There is, however,
in any sentence, the name of some person or thing which
is the prominent subject of discourse ; this should be con-
tinued, if possible, from the beginning to the end of the
proposition. Thus: "After we reached Rouen, they soon
conducted me to 116 Riviere Place, where I was received
by my friend, who greatly rejoiced to see me."
Here, from the frequent changing of subject ("we,"
"they," "I," "who,") the sense of connection is almost
lost. Alter, so as to preserve the same subject or princi-
pal word throughout, and thereby secure the unity of the
sentence : ' ' After we reached Rouen, I was conducted to
116 Riviere Place, where I was received, with great joy,
by my friend"; or, "After reaching Rouen, I was con-
ducted to 116 Riviere Place, where I was Deceived, with
great joy, by my friend."
STYLE. 19!
f RULE II. Ideas that have but little connection should be
V expressed in separate sentences, and not crowded into one.
The great danger of violating this rule is in writing long
compound sentences. The compound sentence contains
two, and may contain many, principal propositions, and,
hence, the liability to crowding. If the propositions be
closely connected in thought, they should be united into one
compound sentence ; but if there be no logical connection,
the propositions should be stated as separate sentences ; for
example, * ( In days long ago, when birds and flowers and
trees could talk, in a country far over the sea, there was a
beautiful fountain in an opening in the forest, and the little
sunbeams that crept between the leaves, falling upon it,
made it shine and sparkle like silver ; and you would have
thought the wind was playing a polka among the trees, so
gayly did the fountain dance and bubble over the rocks."
This sentence contains material for three. Thus : "In
days long ago, when birds and flowers and trees could talk,
there was, in a country far over the sea, a beautiful fount-
ain. It was in an opening in the forest, and the little sun-
beams that crept between the leaves, falling upon it, made
it shine and sparkle like silver. You would have thought
the wind was playing a polka among the trees, so gayly did
the fountain dance and bubble over the rocks."
There is not the least difficulty in preserving the unity of
a simple sentence ; it is secured by the very form of the
sentence.
/ RULE III. Avoid using relative clauses in clauses that are
\ themselves relative.
This rule is frequently violated in forming complex sen-
tences. "The House That Jack Built" furnishes an illus-
tration.
192 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
"His reign was like the course of a brilliant and rapid
meteor, which shoots along the face of heaven, and which
sheds around an unnecessary and portentous light, which is
instantly swallowed up by universal darkness."
A better arrangement would be: " His reign was like
the course of a rapid and brilliant meteor, shooting along
the face of heaven, and shedding around an unnecessary
and portentous light, which is instantly swallowed up, " etc.
This rule does not forbid two or more relative clauses
having a common dependence upon some preceding word
or clause; as, "He was a soldier who disregarded every
hardship, who courted every danger, and wJio faced it boldly
and even joyfully when found/'
V RULE IV. Long parentheses in the middle of a sentence
should be avoided, as interfering with unity of expression.
Parentheses were formerly much more frequently em-
ployed than they are at present. Their excessive use in-
dicates a lack of art in writing. They can in nearly all
cases be avoided. We usually remedy the fault by remov-
ing the matter from the parenthesis and making it into a
separate sentence ; but if the matter is not necessary to the
completeness of the thought, it may be omitted altogether.
For example: " ' Mind your own business' is an ancient
proverb (indeed all proverbs seem to be ancient), which de-
serves a due degree of attention from all mankind." To
correct, we may say, "'Mind your own business' is an
ancient proverb which deserves a due degree of attention
from all mankind." "The learning of Sir William Jones
(he was master of twenty-eight languages), was the wonder
of his contemporaries." Corrected: "Sir William Jones
was master of twenty-eight languages. His learning was
the wonder of his contemporaries."
STYLE.
193
RULE V. Avoid adding a supplementary clause to a sen-
tence that has been apparently brought to a close.
"An unfinished sentence is no sentence at all. But very
often we meet with sentences that are, so to speak, more
than finished. When we have arrived at what we expected
was to be the conclusion ; when we have come to the word
on which the mind is naturally led, by what went before,
to rest; unexpectedly, some circumstance pops out, which
ought to have been omitted, or to have been disposed of
elsewhere ; but which is left lagging behind, like a tail ad-
justed to the sentence. All these adjections to the proper
close disfigure a sentence extremely." Blair.
"We start on our journey next week; while abroad we
shall visit many places of note, and linger amid scenes
made dear by associations, provided our brother can accom-
pany us." The last clause destroys the unity of the sen-
tence ; it should either have been disposed of elsewhere in
the sentence or have been left out altogether.
EXERCISE XLIX.
DIRECTION. Criticise the sentences with regard to unity:
1. Sir Andrew Freeport has a letter from one of his correspond-
ents in those parts, that informs him that the old man caught a cold
at the county sessions, as he was very warmly promoting an address
of his own penning, in which he succeeded according to his wishes.
2. The landlady sent her son to get me some cream, and he was
just such a chap as I was at his age, and dressed just in the same sort
of way, his main garment being a blue smock-frock, faded from wear,
and mended with pieces of new stuff, and, of course, not faded.
3. Having completed our arrangements for the voyage, we set sail
on the 4th of July, which celebrates the Declaration of Independence.
4. Here we stopped to talk to Mr. Blank, who was returning from
Batesville, where he had called to see our old friend Simpson, who
Rhet. .17.
194 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
has been sick for the past two months, and of whose returning health
we were delighted to hear.
5. "Wait," said the tailor, "I must go out and buy a piece of
cloth ; when I return, you will hear what I expect you to do ; at least
you are willing to stay."
6. What He said, after His washing the disciples' feet, (an action
wherein there was such an admirable mixture of humility and love,
that it is not possible to conceive which excelled, for they were both
in the highest perfection,) " I have given you an example, that as I
have done to you, so do ye," is applicable to all the kinds of virtues
and graces exhibited in His practice.
7. It is a winter's day when we take our peep into the school-
room, and see the great logs of wood that have been rolled into the
fire-place, and the broad, bright blaze that is leaping up the chimney,
while every few moments a vast cloud of smoke is puffed into the
room, which sails slowly over the heads of the scholars, until it grad-
ually settles upon the walls and ceiling, which are blackened with the
smoke of many years already.
8. She dropped her face on my old nurse's breast, and, ceasing
this supplication, which in its agony and grief was half a woman's,
half a child's, as all her manner was (being, in that, more natural, and
better suited to her beauty, as I thought, than any other manner could
have been), wept silently, while my old nurse hushed her like an infant.
9. She was looking at an humble stone which told of a young man
who had died at twenty-three years of age, fifty-five years ago, when
she heard a faltering step approaching, and looking around saw a
feeble woman bent with the weight of years, who tottered to the foot
of that same grave and asked her to read the writing on the stone.
10. Their patroness then shut the door, and sat herself down by
her drum at an open window ; and, the steps being struck by George
and stowed under the carriage, away they went, with a great noise
of flapping and creaking and straining, and the bright brass knocker,
which nobody ever knocked at, knocking one perpetual double-knock
of its own accord as they jolted heavily along.
11. To whom my lord said, "Father Abbot, I am come hither
to leave my bones among you ; " whom they brought on his mule
to the stairs' foot of his chamber, and there alighted, and Master
Kingston then took him by the arm, and led him up the stairs ; who
told me afterwards that he never carried so heav/ a burden in all
his life.
STYLE. 195
12. So you stand alone in a tangled wilderness outside, and in
the blackness of doubt inside; and you feel the need of a guide for
the one, and a light for the other, if you can find one.
13. Goethe read in a manner which was peculiar to him; and as
the incidents of the little story came forth in his serious, simple voice,
in one unmoved, unaltering tone ("just as if nothing of it was present
before him, but all was only historical ; as if the shadows of this
poetic creation did not affect him in a life-like manner, but only
glided gently by,") a new ideal of letters and of life arose in the
mind of his listener.
14. The body of Stephen Girard lies in a sarcophagus in the ves-
tibule of the main college building, which is built after the model
of a Grecian temple ; its thirty-four Corinthian columns measure six
feet in diameter, and are fifty-five feet high, and cost $15,000 each.
Strength. A sentence may be constructed in accord-
ance with the nrieiriorTte^rnessrand unity, and still pro-
duce but little effecT; something is wanting to fix the at-
tention and sustain the interest. This important quality
is strength, variously called ^^nergy, " " vivacity," or
"animation"; it causes the sentence to produce a forcible
and vivid impression. Style is greatly affected by the
strength or the feebleness of the thought, but even com-
monplace thoughts may be expressed in energetic lan-
guage. The quality of the thought belongs to invention ;
the term "energy of expression" has reference solely to
the fitness of the words to convey the ideas with force.
Thoughts must be so presented as to call into vigorous
energy the mental powers of the reader.
Among the various means of securing energy of expres-
siorTwe note the*1oITowing :
I RULE I. Be concise.
Conciseness, or brevity of expression, consists in using
the smallest number of words necessary for the complete
expression of a thought it is fullness in little compass.
196 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
A thought that can be as well presented in a sentence or
two, should not be drawn out into ten times the number.
"Many words darken counsel"; and this for the reason
that surplus words, by absorbing mental force, diminish
the strength of the impression.
The most effective writers are concise and terse in style :
Nothing is so fleeting as form ; yet never does it quite deny itself.
If I can be firm enough to-day to do right, and scorn eyes, I must
have done so much right before as to defend me now. Emerson.
Speech is but broken light upon the depths of the unspoken.
George Eliot.
They make a solitude, and call it peace. Tacitus.
Conciseness implies the use of no unnecessary words,
however many may be employed ; it tells the whole thing,
but tells it compactly. The following will be found a use-
ful general rule:
Go critically over what you have written, and strike out
every word, phrase, and clause, the omission of which neither
impairs the clearness nor the force of the sentence.
Conci3eness^s_vj^lated--ttrliYfee ways :
/ (i) By redundancy, or the use of words that the sense
does not require.
Redundancy is most likely to show itself in the use of
adjectives. These words are usually descriptive, and hence
serve to enrich style, but when used in excess they over-
burden the sentence. It is well to strike out such words
as "very," "stupendous," "inexpressible," "magnifi-
cent," "unprecedented," etc., whenever they are not
strictly required.
Another common source of redundancy is the use of a
separate word to express an idea which is implied in one
of the words already used; as, "The universal opinion of
STYLE. 197
all men" ; "They returned back again to the same place
from whence they came forth " ; "His very excellent re-
marks were most intolerable and extremely inconsistent in
the eyes of his enemies"; "The boundless plains in the
heart of the country furnished inexhaustible supplies of
corn, that would have almost sufficed for twice the pop-
ulation"; "The immense revenue of this fertile land is un-
precedented among nations; its vastness is beyond concep-
tion; it fills a treasury that could scarcely be depleted by
a three -years' war."
f (2) By tautology, or the repetition of the same idea in
different words; thus, "ffe walked on foot, bareheaded";
* ' The names of our forefathers who came before us should
be held in reverence"; "The prophecy has been fulfilled
literally and to the letter."
((3) By circumlocution, or a roundabout, diffuse way of
expressing a thought.
A lengthened, roundabout mode of speech is allowable
for the sake of variety or emphasis, or when a direct as-
sertion might be offensive ; but when none of these ends
is accomplished, it is feeble and affected. For example :
"That night Richard Penderell and I went to Mr. Pitch-
croft's, about six or seven miles off, where I found the gen-
tleman of the house, and an old grandmother of his, and
Father Hurlston, who had then the care as governor, of
bringing up two young gentlemen, who, I think, were Sir
John Preston and his brother, they being boys."
Condensed: "That night Richard Penderell and I went
to Mr. Pitchcroft's, a distance of six or seven miles ; there
we found Mr. Pitchcroft, his grandmother, and Father
Hurlston, who then had the care, as governor, of two boys,
probably Sir John Preston and brother."
The remedy for circumlocution consists, not in leaving
198 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
out parts, but in recasting the whole in terser language.
Condensation is sometimes effected by substituting words
for phrases, and words or phrases for clauses.
RULE II. The most important words should occupy the
most prominent places. These are the beginning and the end
of a sentence ; of the two places, however, the end is the more
emphatic.
To place a word or phrase or clause out of its wonted
position is to indicate that a heavier burden of thought is
laid upon it than it ordinarily bears, heavier than is borne
by any of its neighbors. The more important words are
usually in the predicate the latter part of the sentence.
To bring these to the beginning of the sentence is to re-
move them farthest from their natural place, and to give
them the greatest possible emphasis that position can be-
stow. The subject, if unusually emphatic, should often be
removed from the beginning of the sentence.
As the end of the sentence is the most emphatic place,
it is a good general rule not to terminate a sentence with an
adverb, preposition, or other particle. Thus: "What a
pity it is that even the best should speak to our understand-
ings so seldom." Here the adverb usurps the prominent
place. Change thus: "should so seldom speak to our un-
derstandings." "Who had promised, upon the first notice
of his arrival, to resort with all their friends and followers
to him." Change thus: "to resort to him with all their
friends," etc. "And so begin his examination in such arti-
cles as he could raise the greatest bustle in." This is both
weak and inelegant. An improvement would be: "in those
articles in which he could raise the greatest bustle."
A sentence should not close with an unimportant clause;
nor should it end in an abrupt and inharmonious manner,
STYLE.
I 99
even though the words are strongly emphatic ; for example,
"The soldier, transfixed with the spear, 'writhed.' We
want a longer ending, 'fell writhing to the ground,' or,
' writhed in the agonies of death. ' " Abbott.
(
^^f
RULE III. The strength of a sentence may often be in-
ased by the proper use of connectives.
Connectives are words having no significance of their own,
but whose office it is to indicate the relations of words and
clauses. ' ' These little words, but, and, which, whose, where,
etc., are frequently the most important of any; they are
the joints or hinges upon which all sentences turn, and, of
course, much, both of the gracefulness and strength of
sentences, must depend upon such particles." Blair.
The shortest conjunctions should be used. Most conjunc-
tions are words of one syllable, but many contain several
syllables ; as, nevertheless, notwithstanding, furthermore, for-
asmuch, etc. The length of these makes them too promi-
nent ; monosyllabic connectives should, if possible, be sub-
stituted for them. The use of these drawling conjunctions
is characteristic of our older writers ; they are rare in good
modern authors.
The omission of particles is generally forceful by admit-
ting the concentration of energy on the significant parts,
and by the exciting effect of rapid utterance. Thus: "A
multitude fills roads, paths, bridges, plains, hills, valleys,
woods, choked up by the flight of forty thousand men.
Cries, despair; knapsacks and muskets cast into the grow-
ing rye ; passages forced at the point of the sword ; no
more comrades, no more officers, no more generals, inex-
pressible dismay. " Victor Hugo.
On the other hand, if it is desired that the mind should
dwell upon the various circumstances, connectives may be
2OO COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
used with great frequency. In the following examples ob-
serve how the several items are, by the use of connectives,
separated and distinguished, and the attention detained :
Thus with the year
Seasons return, but not to me returns
Day, or the sweet approach of even or morn,
Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose,
Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine. Milton.
I am persuaded that neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor prin-
cipalities, nor powers, nor things present, nor things to come, nor
height, nor depth, nor any other creature, shall be able to separate us
from the love of God, which is in Christ Jesus our Lord. St. Paul.
The animation of the one method, and the gravity of the
other, are seen together here:
So eagerly the fiend
O'er bog or steep, through straight, rough, dense, or rare,
With head, hands, wings, or feet, pursues his way,
And swims, or sinks, or wades, or creeps, or flies. Milton.
Splitting particles. " I have often spoken to you upon
matters kindred to, but perhaps not distinctly connected
with, my subject for Easter. " Here the preposition is widely
separated from its object: this is called "splitting particles."
It is a violent separation of things that ought to be closely
united ; consequently it produces an unsatisfied and dis-
pleased feeling in the mind. The current of thought is
brought to a stand-still, and we are obliged to rest for a time
on a little word which carries no meaning with it until it is
connected with its proper object. A better arrangement
of the sentence is: "I have spoken to you upon matters
kindred to my subject for Easter, or at any rate not dis-
tinctly connected with it." In this construction each prep-
osition stands in close proximity to its object.
STYLE. 2O I
/ RULE IV. A sentence is enfeebled by the improper repeti-
I tion of a word, or by the recurrence of unpleasing similarity
\ of sound. Thus :
"What right have I to write on Prudence"; "During
the night preceding the waters were slowly receding" ;
"The few who regarded them in their true light were re-
garded as dreamers. "
This principle does not apply to a repetition made for some
sound rhetorical reason; on the contrary, such repetition /-
often adds great strength to a sentence. Thus : ' ' He as-
pired to the highest above the people, above the authori-
ties, above the laws, above his country"; "She flew through
the brakes and over the huge stones, up up up faster
than ever huntsman ran in to the death."
Ring out old shapes of foul disease ;
Ring out the narrowing lust of gold ;
Ring out the thousand wars of old,
Ring in the thousand years of peace. Tennyson.
Work work work !
From weary chime to chime ;
Work work work
As prisoners work for crime ! Hood.
Often intense energy may be secured by the omission of
words easily supplied. Words are sometimes a hindrance
to the thought, less expressive even than signs or gestures.
The strongest effects are produced by interjections, which
condense entire sentences into syllables. Thus the word
"Miscreant! " expresses all that could be conveyed by the
sentence, "Thou art a miscreant!" "A Daniel come to
judgment!" is a more energetic arrangement than, "Thou
art a Daniel come to judgment." "On to Richmond! " is
more forcible than, "Let us go on to Richmond."
c
2O2 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
RULE V. Use specific words.
Words which denote individual things, have a definite-
ness of meaning; hence they are more readily understood,
and the impression produced by them is deeper than that
produced by generic words. words whose meaning is
broader, words which name classes of objects. Thus: "Can
good come of evil? " is less forcible than, "Do men gather
grapes of thorns or figs of thistles?" "If you have tears,
prepare to shed them now " is more effective than, " If you
have sympathy, prepare to show it now." "It seemed that
a Bonaparte had planned the battle " produces a more vivid
impression than, "It seemed that the battle had been
planned by a great military genius." To say, " He was a
Judas in heart " is to describe in energetic terms a base and
treacherous nature.
RULE VI. In cases of contrast, a sentence is stronger and
more effective, if the contrasted members are constructed alike.
1 ' Happiness is found in the arm-chair of dozing age, as
well as in the sprightliness whicli belongs to the dance " Cor-
rect thus: "the sprightliness of the dance. "
* ' Prosperity gains friends, but they are tried by adver-
sity." Correct thus: " Prosperity gains friends ; adversity
tries them." " Hope, inspiring the heart, and Fear, which
destroys faith in one's self, work ever against each other."
Correct thus: "Hope, which inspires the heart, and Fear,
which destroys faith," etc. "I stood a long time consid-
ering many things connected with this stately old mansion,
and to note the perfect harmony between it and its surround-
ings." Change to: "I stood a longtime considering many
things connected with this stately old mansion, and noticing
(or observing) the perfect harmony between it and its sur-
roundings."
STYLE. 2O3
1 RULE VII. // often adds strength to a sentence to use the
V periodic form.
periodic sentence is qne in which the complete sense
is suspended until the close. A
A loose sentence is one in which the predicate is fol-
lowed by phrases or clauses that are not necessary to the
completeness of the sense. I It takes the whole of a period
to express a thoughfpttefe may be many places in a loose
sentence, at any of which a thought has been expressed,
and a full stop could be made.
Both the periodic and the loose sentence have their ad-
vantages and their disadvantages. The periodic structure
promotes energy, as it preserves the unity of the sentence
and concentrates its strength in a single point, the close;
but it has an artificial appearance the whole must be
thought out before anything is set down ; as the beginning
has reference to the end and the end recalls the beginning,
all that lies between looks back to the beginning and for-
wards to the end. It is unfitted for some kinds of compo-
sition, and its frequent recurrence is always disagreeable.
A loose sentence is not necessarily deficient in energy;
it begins without apparent consciousness of how it is to
end the beginning has in construction no dependence on
what follows, though what follows depends for its construc-
tion and its sense on what precedes it. By a judicious choice
and arrangement of words, the writer may keep the mind
of the reader in suspense even in sentences that are not
grammatically complete before their close ; still, loose sen-
tences are very liable to degenerate into feebleness. The
proper management of the loose sentence requires much
care and skill. Hence young and inexperienced writers
should generally aim to make their sentences periodic.
2O4 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
The two modes of arrangement may be united in one
sentence ; such a sentence is a compromise between the pe-
riodic and the loose sentence, the point at which the sense
is complete standing not at the close, but near it.
Periodic sentence. To this knowledge which all men carry about
with them, and to these sympathies in which, without any other disci-
pline than that of our daily life, we are fitted to take delight, the poet
principally directs his attention. Wordsworth.
Loose sentence. It was mercy that preserved the noblest of God's
creatures here below ; | he who stood condemned and undone under
all the other attributes of God was saved and rescued by His mercy ; |
that it may be evident that God's mercy is above all His works, | and
above all ours, | greater than the creation, and greater than our sins.
Jeremy Taylor.
Compromise. While the multitude below saw only the flat, sterile
desert in which they had so long wandered, bounded on every side
by a near horizon, or diversified only by some deceitful mirage, he
was gazing from a far higher stand on a far lovelier country, following
with his eye the long course of fertilizing rivers, through ample past-
ures, and under the bridges of great capitals, measuring the distances
of marts and havens, and portioning out all those wealthy regions
from Dan to Beersheba. Macaulay.
If the preliminary parts of a sentence are many, the fac-
ulty of attention is taxed and wearied by the effort to grasp
the thought. In such cases the compromise between the
periodic and the loose sentence would be serviceable, enab-
ling the reader or listener to lay down his growing burden
before the close is reached.
RULE VII L The energy of a sentence is promoted by in-
version, interrogation, and exclamation.
These methods have been treated under "Variety of Ex-
pression"; but we give here a few examples:
Inversion; as, " Oft did the harvest to their sickle yield"
instead of, "The harvest did often yield to their sickle."
STYLE. 205
Other examples are :
Now begins the storm to lower.
Full swells the deep, pure fountain of young life.
Then shrieked the timid, and stood still the brave.
Never had spies been so actively employed in detecting congrega-
tions.
Prophet of evil I ever am to myself.
Many are the roofs once thatched with reeds.
Me he restored unto mine office, and him he hanged.
How the truth came to the prophet he himself knew not.
Interrogation :
Who planteth a vineyard, and eateth not of the fruit thereof?
Who does not crave sympathy ?
Wouldst thou have a serpent sting thee twice ?
Who ever knew truth put to the worse, in a free and open encounter?
Is there no balm in Gilead ? is there no physician there ?
Who can refute a sneer ?
Can the leopard change his spots ?
Canst thou draw out leviathan with a hook? or his tongue with
a cord which thou lettest down? Canst thou put a hook into his
nose? or bore his jaw through with a thorn? Will he make many
supplications unto thee? will he speak soft words unto thee? Will
he make a covenant with thee? wilt thou take him for a servant
forever? Wilt thou play with him as with a bird? or wilt thou bind
him for thy maidens? Shall thy companions make a banquet of
him ? shall they part him among the merchants ? Canst thou fill his
skin with barbed irons ? or his head with fish spears ?
v Exclamation. The occasions which justify the use of
exclamation are comparatively rare, and writers should be
correspondingly careful in resorting to it.") The figure is
suitable only in cases of real emotion, ancTwhen properly
used if is of great value and power. As for example:
A horse ! a horse ! my kingdom for a horse !
How prayed I that my father's land might be an heritage for thee !
I hear, I hear, with joy I hear!
2O6 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
When one sits quite alone! Then one weeps, then one kneels!
God ! how the house feels !
Hark ! a glad voice the lonely desert cheers :
Prepare the way ! a God, a God appears !
And yet was every faltering tongue of man,
Almighty Father ! silent in thy praise !
How sweet and soothing is this hour of calm !
f RULE IX. Climax promotes strength.
/ Climax (Greek klimax, a ladder), consists in so arrang-
/ ing the words of a series, or the parts of a sentence, that
the least impressive shall stand first, and the successive
I words or parts grow in strength. This order may hold
V^ in (i) words, (2) phrases, (3) clauses, and (4) sentences.
^ Paragraphs, even, may stand in this order.
The following passages are examples of this kind of
construction :
I was born an American ; I live an American ; I shall die an Amer-
ican.
A day, an hour, an instant, may prove fatal.
While stands the Coliseum, Rome shall stand;
When falls the Coliseum, Rome shall fall ;
And when Rome falls, the World.
Whither thou goest, I will go ; and where thou lodgest, I will lodge :
thy people shall be my people, and thy God my God.
The poorest man may in his cottage bid defiance to all the forces
of the crown. It may be frail ; its roof may shake ; the wind may
blow through it; the storms may enter, the rain may enter, but the
King of England can not enter! All his forces dare not qross the
threshold of that ruined tenement.
The cloud-capped towers, the gorgeous palaces, the solemn temples,
the great globe itself, yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolve, and, like
this insubstantial pageant faded, leave not a rack behind.
STYLE. 2O7
It is not always easy to construct a sentence in the or-
der of climax. Not every subject admits of such arrange-
ment, nor would it be desirable to construct all our sen-
tences, or even a majority of them, on this model. The
effect would be to destroy all simplicity, and to make the
style stiff and pompous. Yet an occasional climax,
brought in when the foregoing ideas have prepared the
way for it, has a powerful effect.
( Anti-climax. The inversion of climacteric order gives
anti- climax. \ The arrangement of the parts of the sen-
tencels such that the ideas suddenly become less digni-
fied at the close. Anti-climax is allowable in comic writ-
ings, but it is a fault in serious discourse. Thus :
The Russian grandees came to court dropping
i f and diamonds. Climax.
pearls
( and vermin. Anti-climax.
These two nations were divided by mutual
r f and the bitter remembrance of recent losses. Climax.
\ and mountains. Anti-climax.
A ludicrous descent from the elevated to the mean is
called "bathos" Thus:
He lost his wife, his child, his household goods, and his dog, at
one fell swoop.
Go teach Eternal Wisdom how to rule,
Then drop into thyself, and be a fool.
There is some one I see a dark shape
At that window, the hottest of all,
My good woman, why don't you escape?
Never think of your bonnet and shawl.
A clergyman, preaching to a country congregation, used the fol-
lowing persuasive arguments against swearing: "Oh, my brethren,
avoid this practice, for it is a great sin, and, what is more, it is
ungenteel"
208 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
EXERCISE L.
-\
DIRECTION. Criticise and amend the following:
1. Her chief is slain, and she fills his fatal post, where death is
certain.
2. My ecstatic joys, my deepest, most despondent griefs, my most
unconquerable passions, and my indefatigable powers, were my in-
alienable friends.
3. Sea-port towns on the coast are the great marts for selling
produce.
4. Is it true, can it be possible, is it not a mistake, that we have
taken the wrong road ?
5. It is plain enough, it is quite evident, that the little mill can
never keep a stand against this mighty rush of waters, or resist them.
6. The ancient Romans wore a long, loose, untrammeled robe,
called a toga.
7. Thought and expression act and react upon each other mu-
tually.
8. I went home full of a great many serious reflections.
9. I do not know what they paved the street with.
10. He gives a glowing description of his descent down into the
mine.
11. It is a principle of our religion that we should not revenge
ourselves on our enemies, nor take vengeance on our foes.
12. A severe and tyrannical exercise of power must become a
matter of necessary policy with kings when their subjects are imbued
with such principles as justify and authorize rebellion.
13. In this plight, and with a strong consciousness of it, I waited
to introduce myself to, and make my first impression on, my for-
midable aunt.
14. The laughers will be for those who have most wit; the serious
part of mankind, for those who have most reason on their side.
15. There are few things that have not a good side as well as
that which is bad.
1 6. He took the bundle from, and would not return it to, the child.
17. When will the balloon ascend up?
1 8. Whence you derive that idea, I will find out.
STYLE. 209
EXERCISE LI.
DIRECTION. Point out in the following sentences the cases in which rep-
etition is emphatic:
I . So many hours must I tend my flock ;
So many hours must I take my rest ;
So many hours must I contemplate ;
So many hours must I sport myself.
2. Why, I can smile the while, since thy wiles can ne'er de-
ceive me.
3. They upbraided him for evading the truth and parading his
conceit in the presence of their friends.
4. Happy, happy, happy pair!
None but the brave,
None but the brave,
None but the brave deserves the fair.
5. No more shall the meads be decked with flowers,
Nor sweetness dwell in rosy bowers ;
Nor greenest buds on branches spring,
Nor warbling birds delight to sing,
Nor April violets paint the grove.
6. They sang of peace to them that sang of war.
DIRECTION. Make the following sentences more forcible, by omitting all
words that the sense does not require:
1. What news have you heard from Genoa?
2. May woe betide those within.
3. It is base treachery.
4. What is the cause, then, sir, the cause?
5. Rush ye on him, rush ye on him.
6. May it please God to bless you, sir.
7. Venice, thou art the proud queen of the waters.
8. Who is it that comes so fast in the silence of the night ?
9. Is it that life is so dear or that peace is so sweet as to be pur-
chased at the price of chains and slavery ?
10. Do not suffer yourselves to be betrayed with a kiss.
Rhet. 18.
2IO
COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
EXERCISE LII.
DIRECTION. Substitute for each of the following generic words as many
specific words as you can think of:
1. Flower.
2. Fruit.
3-
4-
Motion.
Animal.
5. Beast.
6. Insect.
7. Food.
8. Free.
9. Vehicle.
10. Implement.
1 1 . Garment.
12. Fowl.
13. Destroy.
14. Building.
15. Color.
1 6. Crime.
17. Sound.
1 8. Disease.
DIRECTION. Construct sentences containing the following specific words ;
and then exchange them for corresponding generic words. Note what you thus
lose in energy :
IO. Plow.
Harp.
Vulture.
1. Sparrow.
2. Flannel.
3. Horse.
4. Coat.
5. Daisy.
6. Wagon.
7. Bread.
8. Small-pox.
9. Oak.
ii.
12.
13. Ant.
14. Mocking-bird.
15. Green.
16. Thunder.
17. Gun.
1 8. Silver.
EXERCISE LIII.
DIRECTION. Make the following sentences periodic:
1. He came out from the sheltering rock, and stood beneath the
cave to receive the Divine communication.
2. I will be open and sincere with you before I invite you into
my society and friendship.
3. The ministerial ranks began to waver as soon as it was un-
derstood that the attack was directed against him alone, and that,
if he were sacrificed, his associates might expect Advantageous and
honorable terms.
STYLE. 2 I I
4. Antonio, with calm resignation, replied that he had but little
to say, for that he had prepared his mind for death.
5. I was willing enough to intrust my son with this commission,
as I had some opinion of his prudence.
6. The ships were in extreme peril ; for the river was low, and
the only navigable channel ran very near to the left bank, where
the headquarters of the enemy had been fixed.
7. I reflect with sorrow and astonishment on the little competi-
tions, factions, and debates of mankind, when I see kings lying by
those who deposed them, when I consider rival wits placed side by
side, or the holy men that divided the world with their contests and
disputes.
8. The contemplation of celestial things will make a man both
speak and think more sublimely and magnificently, when he de-
scends to human affairs.
DIRECTION. Make the following sentences loose:
1. Unless we look on this world as only a nursery for the next,
and believe that the several generations of rational creatures, which
rise up and disappear in such quick succession, here receive only
the first rudiments of their existence, afterward to be transported into
a more friendly climate, where they may spread and flourish to all
eternity, how can we find in the formation of man that wisdom which
shines through all the works of God ?
2. When he was not under the influence of some strange scruple,
or some domineering passion, which prevented him from boldly and
fairly investigating a subject, he was a wary and acute reasoner.
3. When in the course of human events, it becomes necessary
for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected
them with another, * * * * * a decent respect for the
opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes
which impel them to the separation.
4. When, at length, Hyder Ali found that he had to do with
men who either would sign no convention, or whom no treaty and
no signature could bind, and who were the determined enemies of
human intercourse itself, he decreed to make the country possessed
by these incorrigible and predestinated criminals a memorable ex-
ample to mankind.
212 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
EXERCISE LIV.
DIRECTION. Arrange in climacteric order the parts of these sentences:
1. It is good to commemorate patriotic sentiments, good to honor
them, good to encourage them, good to have them.
2. Gentleness ought to diffuse itself over our whole behavior, to
form our address, and to regulate our speech.
3. Ambition creates seditions, wars, discords, hatred, and shyness.
4. Charity breathes long-suffering to enemies, courtesy to stran-
gers, and habitual kindness towards friends.
5. Virtue supports in sickness, comforts in the hour of death,
strengthens in adversity, and moderates in prosperity.
6. Since man is on his very entrance into the world the most
helpless of all creatures ; since he must at last be laid down in the
dust from which he was taken ; and since he is for a series of years
entirely dependent on the protection of others; how vain and absurd
does it appear that such a being should indulge in worldly pride.
EXERCISE LV.
DIRECTION. Complete the following sentences by adding suitable contrasts:
1. Pride is the offspring of ignorance .
2. He is young in years, but .
3. Silence your opponent with reason
4. The form perishes ; the matter -
5. The desire of the righteous is only good; but the expectation
of the wicked .
6. Force was resisted by force ; valor .
7. William was the more attentive, but his brother
8. The simple inherit folly ; .
9. In peace, children bury their parents ; in war -
10. Contemporaries appreciate the man rather than the merit ; but
posterity .
11. Philadelphia covers the larger extent of territory, but New
York .
12. An upright minister asks what recommends a man; a corrupt
minister .
STYLE. 2 1 3
EXERCISE LVI.
DIRECTION. Criticise and amend the following sentences, with reference
to unity, clearness, and strength :
1 . The effect of the concluding verb, placed where it is, is most
striking.
2. On this occasion, the question gave rise to much agitation,
and soon after absorbed every other consideration.
3. After the most straightest sect of our religion I lived a Phar-
isee.
4. Thou found'st me poor at first and keep'st me so.
5. Rich or poor you have always been to me a true friend.
6. Owing to an obstacle on the track, and the badness of the
weather, the train was delayed, and as John did not reach home in
time to attend the funeral, they concluded to postpone it.
7. Yet it was natural for him to conceal whatever sadness he
might entertain on account of the misfortunes of his friend, in the
brilliant scenes of which he was the principal actor.
8. It was midnight the very hour at which (with a punctuality
few of them have exhibited in the flesh) spirits invariably revisit
(what can be the attraction in many cases ?) their former abodes.
9. Both mind and body were patient under hardships, whether
voluntary or under necessity endured.
10. He could only live in agitation ; he could only breathe in a
volcanic atmosphere.
n. Mrs. A.'s compliments to Mrs. B., and begs to say that C.
lived with her a year and found her respectable, steady, and honest.
12. But you will bear it as you have so many things.
13. No introduction has, nor in any probability ever will, authorize
that which common thinkers would call a liberty.
14. I am going to yonder gate to receive further direction how I
may get to the place of deliverance.
15. He sympathized, not with their cause, but their fate.
1 6. Upon which the Moor, seizing a bolster, full of rage and jeal-
ousy, smothered the unhappy Desdemona.
17. He knows, further, that the keeper of the asylum has either
been deceived by, or is an accomplice of, these doctors.
1 8. He has carefully transcribed his history.
214 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
Harmony. A sentence may be grammatical, and ob-
seive the rules lor clearness, unity, and~e r nergy, without
pleasmgTHe^ar by its smoothness of sound or displaying
'any adaptatiofTof sound to 'fK^ensei Most sentences are
constructed without any thought as to how they will sound.
In poetry and oratory we find abundant examples of that
harmonious combination of sounds and that connection be-
tween sound and sense which constitute the most perfect
melody known to language. While prose has neither the
rhyme nor meter of poetry, it is susceptible of a melody
which every writer should strive to attain.
Harmony, however, must not be held of more impor-
tance than the ideas to be presented ; nor must it be pur-
chased at the cost of clearness and force. It should be
the last element of style to engage our attention.
To promote the harmony of a sentence, be guided by the
following considerations :
RULE I. Avoid using words that are hard to pronounce.
For example, we should avoid such words as contain a
greater number of consonants, or a succession of short, un-
accented syllables, or such as occasion a clash of vowels.
Opposed to all such are (i) words ending in soft consonants
or open vowels; as, ever, alive, dream; (2) words containing
liquids; as, roaming, mellmu, noontide, loving; (3) polysylla-
bles with the accent near the end ; as, sono'rous, locomotion,
regalement; (4) words in which vowels and consonants are
blended ; as, humility, remedy, demeanor. These four classes
of words contribute much to the melody of composition.
RULE II. Avoid combinations of letters of one kind.
Among such combinations are strengthen^ dst, periphrasis,
farriering. Long compound words are generally disagree-
STYLE.
215
able ; as, unwholesomeness, vegetarianism. Long words hav-
ing the accent near the beginning, and words with a suc-
cession of unaccented syllables, are difficult to pronounce,
and, accordingly, unpleasant to the ear; as, hospitably,
derog'atorily, peremptorily, arbitrarily.
!RULE III. Avoid all disagreeable combinations of words.
Words which by themselves are sufficiently euphonious,
sometimes displease the ear on account of their position
with regard to other words in the sentence ; as, "I can can-
didly say "; ' 'The women wofnlly and will/idly "; ' ' I confess
with humility my inability "; ' 'Stately ships sail on the stormy
sea "; " Brown berries. ' '
RULE IV. The harmony of a sentence is promoted by
arranging the words in such a manner that the accents come
- at convenient and somewhat measured intervals.
It is this arrangement of words with reference to accent
which makes some prose writings so much easier to read than
others. We find it, more or less, in all well written prose.
The following are examples :
The plants of the garden, the animals of the wood, the minerals of
the earth, the meteors of the sky, must all concur to store his mind
with inexhaustible variety ; for every idea is useful for the enforcement
or decoration of moral or religious truth ; and he who knows most will
have most power of diversifying his scenes, and of gratifying his reader
with remote allusions and unexpected instructions. Johnson.
What silence, too, came with the snow, and what seclusion ! Every
sound was muffled, every noise changed to something soft and mu-
sical. No more tramping hoofs, no more rattling wheels ! Only the
chiming sleigh-bells, beating as swift and merrily as the hearts of the
children . Longfellow*
*NoTE. The pupil is cautioned against continuing this* style through several
periods in succession. It would be monotonous and wearisome.
2l6 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
f RULE V. Attend to the cadence of sentences.
By cadence is meant the falling of the voice before coming
to a full stop. The cadence at the close of a sentence adds
much to the harmony. The words and clauses should,
therefore, be so placed that something pleasing and sonorous
may be found at the end.
As regards single words, the most musical cadences are
made on words of four syllables, accented on the first and
third ; as, contemplation, providential. An agreeable cadence
is made by words of three syllables, accented on the second ;
as, dejec'tion, abstraction. Monosyllables or a series of un-
accented syllables make a disagreeable cadence; hence a
sentence, unless wholly unavoidable, should not close with
any small word, but with the longest words and most sono-
rous members. It is unadvisable, however, to close every
sentence with a particular kind of word, or to sacrifice an
appropriate word for one less expressive, simply to obtain
f a more musical cadence.
RULE VI. The harmony of a sentence is promoted by
\ adapting the sound to the sense.
Numerous words in our language, such as hum, hiss,
whiz, clash, crash, rush, roar, patter, rattle, crackling, whis-
tling, readily suggest their meaning by their sound. By the
use of such words, a writer may indicate many varieties of
motion, and may even imitate particular noises, as when we
speak of the buzz of the fly, the whistling of the wind, the
creaking of the door. Our feelings, whether grave or stern,
serious or impetuous, gentle or bold, loving or hateful, are
more accurately conveyed if the words chosen be "an echo
to the sense. " The felling of timber is thus described:
Deep-echoing groan the thickets brawn,
Then rustling, crackling, crashing, thunder down.
STYLE.
217
The hidden harmony that lies in our short Saxon words
is revealed in the following lines :
Our harsh northern whistling, grunting, guttural,
Which we are obliged to hiss, and spit, and sputter all. Byron.
Exquisite tenderness is breathed by the soft and flowing
words in the following lines :
And neither the angels in heaven above,
Nor the demons down under the sea,
Can ever dissever my soul from the soul
Of the beautiful Annabel Lee. Poe.
EXERCISE LVIL
DIRECTION. Show where harmony is violated in the following, and recast
the sentences so as to make them harmonious :
1. Her actions were such as to make her a genuine heroine.
2. We should not speak derogatorily of the work of others.
3. The proposition is now stated in an entirely different form.
4. Arrangements have been made for forwarding forty cars of
lumber.
5. Shamefacedness is by some considered a virtue.
6. Energy, industry, and temperance recommend many.
7. Shylock can be persuaded to accept of nothing except the for-
feit.
8. The cottage stood by a beautiful placid brook.
9. He was first thoroughly subjugated, and then thoroughly made
to feel that his position was wholly insubordinate.
10. The party was so large that only a part could be accommodated.
11. 'Twas thou that soothedst the rough, rugged bed of pain.
12. He exemplified the principal applications of the principle by
numerous examples.
13. The river, again gaining strength, flows more swiftly.
14. Every nature, you. perceive, is either too excellent to want it,
or too base to be capable of it.
15. Up the lofty hill he raises a large, round stone.
1 6. It is a mystery which we firmly believe the truth of.
Rhet. 19.
CHAPTER IX.
FIGURES OF SPEECH.
IN the expression of thought we have seen that it is the
business of the writer or speaker, first, to obtain the words
needed, and then to arrange them into completed sentences.
The selection, however, of accurate words, and the correct
placing of these words in sentences, give us nothing more
than the expression of the thought in the simplest manner
possible. To write elegantly and effectively, something fur-
ther must be considered. We should not content ourselves
with the mere expression of our meaning, but we should
express it in such forms as will make it more agreeable and
attractive ; we must appeal to the taste and imagination, as
well as to the understanding. Among the means of render-
ing the style of any composition forcible and graceful, none
are more conspicuous than those known as Figures.
A Figure of Speech, or of Rhetoric, is an intentional
deviation from the ordinary application of words, with a
view to making the meaning more effective. Rhetorical
- 3. 2
figures, in general, may be described as forms of language
^prompted either by ^E^maginatimL-jorlby the~passions.
Thus : * * Calamity is man's true touch-stone" is a figurative,
forcible, and graceful way of saying, * ' It is only amid great
misfortunes that man shows his real character."
If we say, " She becomes prudent and sagacious, " we use
the plain, ordinary way of stating a fact-, but if we say,
41 How prudent and sagacious she becomes! " the statement
(218)
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 2 19
is changed to an exclamation of surprise. It is, therefore,
a form of speech different from the ordinary mode of ex-
pression, yet a form both forcible and natural.
Figures are natural and necessary ; they should not
be considered as mere ornaments, which render a discourse
more pleasing, and which may be used or rejected at pleas-
ure.) Instead of being inventions of art, they are the nat-
ural and, therefore, the universal forms, in which excited
imagination and passion manifest themselves. The young
and the old, the barbarous and the civilized, all employ
them unconsciously. Excited feeling manifests itself in the
movements of the body; much more will it leave its im-
press on language. For a person under great excitement
to express the thoughts that agitate him in the ordinary,
logical forms, would be as unnatural as for one whose mind
is perfectly calm to employ the language of passion. Fig-
ures also express that which is abstract, difficult, or general,
more clearly than a literal statement could do. J-Ience, fig-
ures increase the strength and beauty of style (i) by enrich-
ing the language, (2) by Jieighteningthe expression of emotion,
(3) by giving^learness to abstract ideas.
The ancients observed carefully~The distinction between
Figures and Tropes, but modern writers use the one term
Figure to cover the whole subject, whether the deviation
be in the form of the sentence or in the meaning of a
particular word. Tropes (Greek trope, turning?) are single
words used figuratively. The figures called synecdoche,
metonymy, and metaphor are tropes.
The most important figures are Simile, Metaphor, Per^
sonification, Allegory, Synecdoche, Metonymy, Apostro-
phe, Vision, Interrogation, Exclamation, Repetition, Climax,
Antithesis, Epigram, Irony, Hyperbole.
22O COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
Figures of Rhetoric have been variously classified, but
the numerous and complicated classifications are useless to
the learner. Figures accomplish a twofold purpose: (i)
they reproduce ideas with something of the fullness and
vividness of objects of sense ; (2) they give emphasis to the
thoughts which the writer wishes to impress on his hearers.
Some figures are better adapted to the first of these pur-
poses, others to the second. We may, therefore, divide
them into two main classes: (i) Figures of Intuition. (2)
Figures of Emphasis.
The former present an idea to the imagination in a sen-
sible form ; the latter present no picture to the imagination,
but emphasize some thought. These two divisions would
separate figures of speech thus :
FIGURES OF INTUITION.
Simile.
Metaphor.
Personification.
Allegory.
Synecdoche.
Metonymy.
Apostrophe.
Vision.
FIGURES OF EMPHASIS.
Interrogation.
Exclamation.
Repetition.
Climax.
Antithesis.
Epigram.
Irony.
Hyperbole.
SIMILE.
or Comparison, consists in formally likening
one thing to another that in its nature is essentially differ-
ent, but which it resembles in some prorjerties.j This fig-
ure is often as necessary to the exhibition of the thought,
as it is ornamental to the language by which that thought
is conveyed. The comparison is oftenest jienoted by the
word like, but as, so, just as, similar to, and many more
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 221
expressions, may be used for the purpose ; and sometimes
the formal term of comparison may be omitted. Note the
following simile with the formal word of comparison :
"At first, like thunder's distant tone,
The rattling din came rolling on."
Without the comparing word: "Too much indulgence
does not strengthen the mind of the young ; plants raised
with tenderness are seldom strong."
Causes. A simile does not always state a direct resem-
blance between objects. \ Sometimes the resemblance is
between causes; as7
" I scarcely understand my own intent;
But silkworm-like, so long within have wrought,
That I am lost in my own web of thought."
Effects. Sometimes the resemblance is one of effects;
as, "Often, like the evening sun, comes the memory of
former times on my soul."
Relations. Sometimes the resemblance is one of rela-
tionsXas, ' ' Faith is to despair as the stars to the blackness
"oTriight "; "Reason is to faith as the eye to the telescope."
Mere likeness does not of itself constitute a simile. When
objects are compared in respect of quantity or degree, or to
see how they differ, there is no simile. If we should com-
pare one town to another town, one tree to another tree,
one statesman to another statesman, Hannibal to Alexander,
Longfellow to Tennyson, there would be no simile. It is
only when the objects compared are of a different kind, and
the comparison traces internal resemblance, that the com-
parison becomes a figure of similitude.
In the use of similes the following rules should be ob-
served :
222 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
( RULE I. The objects compared should not have too close
\and obvious a resemblance to each other.
( RULE II. Objects in which the likeness is too faint and
remote should not be compared.
RULE III. Objects should not be compared to other objects
^with which ordinary readers are unacquainted.
(RULE IV. In describing sublime objects we should not
draw our comparisons from what is mean or low ; nor should
we associate what is trivial with grand and elevated objects.
Such comparisons may be proper in mock-heroic or bur-
lesque. In such writings the author aims to bring an object
into ridicule by associating it with something ridiculous;
but in serious discourse the aim is just the opposite, hence
the comparisons should be of a pleasing and elevating char-
acter.
I RULE V. When strong passion is to be expressed, com-
\parisons should be avoided.
EXERCISE LVIII.
DIRECTION. Point out the similes in the following sentences, and show the
nature of resemblance between the objects compared :
1. Cowards, whose hearts are all as false as stairs of sand.
2. Her skin is as smooth as monumental alabaster.
3. This morning, like the spirit of a youth that means to be of
note, begins betimes.
4. Kings are like stars they rise and set.
5. States, as great engines, move slowly.
6. Her face is like the milky way in the sky, a meeting of gentle
lights without a name.
7. Glories, like glow-worms, afar off shine bright ; but looked to
near, have neither heat nor light.
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 223
8. Out of the earth a huge fabric rose, like an exhalation.
9. Woe succeeds woe ; as wave, a wave.
10. Curses, like chickens, come home to roost.
11. So mayst thou live, till like ripe fruit thou drop into thy moth-
er's lap.
12. This is the arsenal ; from floor to ceiling, like a huge organ rise
the burnished arms.
13. I see you stand like greyhounds in the slips, straining upon
the start.
14. Our hopes, like towering falcons, aim at objects in an airy height.
15. His words like so many nimble and airy servitors, trip about
him at command.
16. Satire should, like a polished razor keen,
Wound with a touch that 's scarcely felt or seen.
17. Books, like proverbs, receive their chief value from the stamp
and esteem of ages through which they have passed.
1 8. The vulgar intellectual palate thinks nothing good that does
not go off with a pop like a champagne cork.
19. A false friend and a shadow attend only when the sun shines.
DIRECTION. Find apt resemblances, and complete the comparisons here
begun :
1. Fortune is fickle .
2. Man's life fleeth .
3. An evil conscience is like .
4. The cultivation of the mind .
5. Thy tears must flow .
6. A sad tale is best for winter.
7. Cunning leads to knavery .
8. The front of the English army disappeared .
9. The cuirassiers hurled themselves upon the English squares .
10. Their lives glide on .
1 1 . These temples grew .
1 2. Good counsel rejected returns to enrich the giver's bosom .
13. And darkness and doubt are now flying away .
14. Gentle means sometimes accomplish what harsh measures can
not .
15. This water is as pure
224 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
DIRECTION. Form similes by comparing the following pairs of objects:
1. Anger and a cloud. 5. Mercy and rain.
2. Life and a battle. 6. Food and books.
3. Influence and dew. 7. Hope and a rainbow.
4. Genius and lightning. 8. Wisdom and an owl.
9. A man unstable in his ways and water.
10. Grateful persons and fertile fields.
11. Laughter and a rippling brook.
12. Cold waters and good news.
METAPHOR.
Metaphor Js a figure-ot- speech, founded upon resem-
<4>lance._It is often called an abridged simUei It agrees"
with the^simile in being founded upon resemblance, but
differs from it in structure. In the simile one object is said
to resemble another ; and, generally, some sign of compar-
ison (as, like, etc.) stands between them. In the metaphor,
an object is spoken of as if it were another, and no sign of
comparison is used. Thus: "Man is as the flower of the
field " is a simile. "Man is a flower of the field " expresses
the same thought by a metaphor.
The metaphor is briefer than the simile ; it leaves more
to the reader or hearer to detect, and stimulates him to the
detection. As it results from a more intensely excited im-
agination, so it conveys a more forcible conception. It
often possesses more beauty than the simile, and more
nearly resembles a picture ; hence the use of the metaphor
is sometimes called "word-painting." \
The rules which have been given for the simile apply in
a measure to the metaphor, yet for a correct use of the
metaphor additional aid is needed. The rules which more
particularly limit its use are the following:
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 225
CRuLE I. Metaphorical and plain language should not be
sed in the same sentence.
When a metaphor has been introduced into a sentence,
all parts of the sentence should be made to conform to the
figure thus introduced; if part of it must be understood
metaphorically, and part literally, a disagreeable confusion
is produced. Thus: "Trothal went forth with the stream
of his people, but they met a rock; for Fingal stood un-
moved; broken they rolled back from his side; nor did
they roll in safety ; the spear of the king pursued their flight. "
The literal meaning is improperly mixed with the meta-
phorical ; first they are waves that roll; and then they are
presented to us as men that may be zvounded with a spear.
RULE II. Two different metaphors should not be used in
the same sentence and in reference to the same subject.
This is what is called " mixed metaphor/' and is indeed
one of the grossest abuses of this figure. Such is the ex-
pression, "His tongue grappled with a flood of words."
This makes a most unnatural medley. Another example
is, "His thoughts soared up from earth likeyf/r and winged
their flight to distant stars. "
RULE III. Metaphors even on the same subject shoidd not
be crowded together in rapid succession.
Crowding metaphors has a confusing effect upon the
mind. Figures, whether for ornament or for illustration,
tohave their proper effect, must be used with moderation.
\RULE IV. Metaphors should not be too far pursued.
\his is called "straining the metaphor," and is a sure
means of destroying the dignity of the figure.
226 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
If the resemblance on which the figure is founded be
long dwelt upon, and carried into all its minute circum-
stances, we tire the reader, who soon grows weary of this
play of fancy. We also render our discourse obscure.
EXERCISE LIX.
DIRECTION. Point out the metaphors in these sentences, and change them
to plain language :
1. The web of our life is of mingled yarn, good and ill together.
2. Fame is a plant that grows on soil immortal.
3. Confidence is a plant of slow growth in an aged bosom.
4. Our doubts are traitors, and make us lose the good we oft
might win by fearing to attempt.
5. A good book is the precious life-blood of a master spirit.
6. They stemmed the torrent of a downward age.
7. This is the porcelain clay of human kind.
8. His tongue dropped manna.
9. Moderation is the silken string running through the pearl chain
of all virtues.
10. 'Tis slander, whose edge is sharper than the sword,
n. He wears the rose of youth upon him.
12. No hinge nor loop to hang a doubt on.
13. You shall see them on a quarto page, where a neat rivulet of
text shall meander through a meadow of margin.
14. The leaves of memory seemed to make a mournful rustling in
the dark.
15. There stood a brotherhood of venerable trees.
16. Though inland far we be,
Our Souls have sight of that immortal sea
Which brought us hither.
17. And when the stream
Which overflowed the soul was passed away,
A consciousness remained that it had left,
Deposited upon the silent shore of memory,
Images, and precious thoughts that shafrnot die,
And can not be destroyed.
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 22J
1 8. Dwell I but in the suburbs of your good pleasure?
19. The valiant never taste of death but once.
20. He baits his hook for subscribers.
DIRECTION. Recast these sentences, using metaphors instead of plain Ian*
guage :
1. They write for wealth, not fame.
2. We are often deceived by appearances.
3. Forsake not your friends.
4. You have many advantages.
5. The rulers of great monarchies have not always been wise men.
6. Washington was cautious.
7. We have no money.
8. We often tremble when there is no cause for alarm.
9. One is injured by evil associates.
10. Fabius was cunning.
EXERCISE LX.
DIRECTION. Correct these examples of mixed metaphor, by (i) changing
the first part to agree with what follows, and (2) the last part to agree with what
precedes :
1 . The chariot of day peers over the mountain-tops.
2. He is swamped in the meshes of his argument.
3. There is not a single view of human nature which is not suffi-
cient to extinguish the seeds of pride.
4. When the tongue goes upon stilts ', reason spreads but half her
sails.
5. This world, with all its trials, is \htfurnace through which the
soul must pass and be developed before it is ripe for the next world.
6. We are constantly called upon to observe how the noxious pas-
sions, which spring up in the heart like weeds in a neglected garden,
are dissipated by the light of truth.
7. The germ, the dawn of a new vein in literature, lies there.
8. We must keep the ball rolling until it becomes a thorn in thi
side of Congress.
228 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
9. A torrent of superstition consumed the land.
10. The very recognition of these by the jurisprudence of a nation
is a mortal wound to the keystone upon which the whole arch of mor-
ality reposes.
11. O Independence Day, thou chorus of the ages, we hail thy
glimmerings 'mid the cataracts of time.
DIRECTION. Bring into the class examples of correct metaphor, a part of
them gleaned from your reading and a part of them your own coining.
PERSONIFICATION.
Personification is a figure of language which represents
the lower animals and inanimate objects as endowed with
powers of being above their own. The figure is of three
grades: (i) that in which inanimate objects are raised to
the rank of brutes, (2) that in which brutes are raised to
the rank of man, and (3) that in which inanimate objects
are raised to the rank of man.
The first of these grades, that of endowing inanimate
objects with life, is the most common form of personifi-
cation, but it is the least forcible. The second grade is
used less frequently than either of the others. The third
grade, that in which things are raised farthest, is the
most forcible. The notion of the resemblance of the thing
personified to a person is produced by an excited imagina-
tion ; hence, this figure is appropriate only as the expres-
sion of strong emotion. The higher forms of personifica-
tion can be admitted only into the most animated prose;
they are employed much more freely in poetry. The per-
sonification of abstract qualities is frequent even in prose,
the object of which is merely to instruct.
It is well to note that while all personifications are meta-
phors, not all metaphors are personifications.
FIGURES OF SPEECH.
EXERCISE LXI.
229
DIRECTION. Point out the personification in these sentences, and give the
grade to which it belongs ; express the ideas in plain language :
i. One woe doth tread upon another's heel, so fast they follow.
2. Religion, blushing, veils her sacred fires,
And unawares Morality expires.
3. This fell sergeant, Death, is strict in his arrest.
4. The morn, in russet mantle clad, walks o'er the dew of yon
high eastern hill.
5. The conscious water saw its Lord, and blushed.
6. The lowering element scowls o'er the darkened landscape.
7. At whose sight all the stars hide their diminished heads.
8. Over them, triumphant Death shook his dart.
9. Virtue could see to do what virtue would by her own radiant
light, though sun and moon were in the flat sea sunk.
10. The Pyramids, doting with age, have forgotten the names of
their founders.
11. For Truth hath such a face and such a mien, as to be loved
needs only to be seen.
12. Beauty calls, and glory shows the way.
13. Night, sable goddess, now stretches forth her leaden scepter
o'er a slumbering world.
14. Alas ! it is not till Time, with reckless hand, has torn out half
the leaves from the Book of Human Life, to light the fires of passion
with, from day to day, that man begins to see that the leaves which
remain are few in number.
15. Earth proudly wears the Parthenon as the best gem upon her
zone.
1 6. Every gift of noble origin is breathed upon by Hope's perpet-
ual breath.
17. Stern Winter loves a dirge-like sound.
1 8. The Waves to sleep had gone.
19. In winter when the dismal rain
Came down in slanting lines,
And Wind, that grand old harper, smote
His thunder-harp of pines.
23O COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
20. O mountains, rivers, rocks, and savage herds,
To you I speak ! to you alone I now
Must breathe my sorrows !
21. With other ministrations, thou, O Nature,
Healest thy wandering and distempered child.
22. There is no malice in this burning coal ;
The breath of heaven hath blown its spirit out,
And strowed repentant ashes on his head.
DIRECTION. Bring to the class examples of personification. Let them illus-
trate the three grades of this figure.
ALLEGORY.
Allegory is a form of expression in which the words are
symbolical of something. The allegory is a continued met-
aphor or a narrative representing objects and events that
are intended to be symbolical of other objects and events
having usually a moral or spiritual character.
Allegory, Metaphor, and Simile are all founded in re-
semblance, there being in each case two subjects having
certain points of likeness. In the simile, this resemblance
is expressed in form ; as, ' ' Israel is like a vineyard in a
very fruitful hill." In metaphor the sign of comparison is
dropped; as, "Israel is a vineyard in a very fruitful hill."
In allegory, the principal subject and the formal comparison
are both dropped ; the secondary subject is described, leav-
ing the application entirely to the imagination of the reader,
but so obviously that he can not miss it ; as,
"My well beloved hath a vineyard in a very fruitful hill: and he
fenced it, and gathered out the stones thereof, and planted it with the
choicest vine, and built a tower in the midst of it, and also made a
winepress therein: and he looked that it should bring forth grapes,
and it brought forth wild grapes."
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 23 I
Though there is neither simile nor metaphor, there is
resemblance, and the reader knows that the " choicest
vine" is a figurative expression used to represent God's
people, Israel. This allegory is found in the 5th chapter
of Isaiah.
The principal thing to be observed in regard to Allegory
is to avoid mingling the literal signification with the figura-
tive. The figure must be in itself an intelligible, consist-
ent statement, and this requires much skill.
Allegory, Parable, and Fable are closely related.
The Parable, one form of the allegory, is properly the
exhibition ofajreligious truth lJ7iiied,iib of facts from nature
and humanTTifel It is not to be supposed that the state-
ments areTilstorically true ; they are offered only as a means
of conveying a higher general truth. They are, however,
always true to nature ; the laws of the nature of the differ-
ent beings introduced are strictly observed, and the events
are such as might have taken place. "The Prodigal Son,"
"The Sower," "The Ten Virgins," are allegorical tales in
Scripture, which were introduced for the purpose of illus-
trating a truth to which they have a similitude.
The Fable differs from the parable in this, that it gives
the actions and words^gf human beings to brutes and
imate objects brutes and plants are made to think, and
speak, and act like men. Purely fictitious, it serves to teach
sonTeTnoraT lesson or to inculcate some prudent maxim.
Some of our finest literature is in the form of allegory.
The allegory may be short, as in many proverbs, but it is
usually an extended composition. Pope's Temple of Fame,
Bunyan's Pilgrim s Progress, Spenser's Faerie Queene, and
Swift's Tale of a Tub and Gulliver' s Travels ', are long alle-
gories.
232 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
EXERCISE LXII.
DIRECTION. Explain what is described in these allegorical selections:
i. Vessels large may venture more,
But little boats should keep near the shore.
2. The trees went forth on a time to anoint a king over them ; and
they said unto the olive tree, "Reign thou over us." But the olive
tree said unto them, "Should I leave my fatness, wherewith by me
they honor God and man, and go to be promoted over the trees?"
And the trees said to the fig tree, "Come thou, and reign over us.'*
But the fig tree said unto them, "Should I forsake my sweetness,
and my good fruit, and go to be promoted over the trees?" Then
said the trees unto the vine, "Come thou, and reign over us." And
the vine said unto them, "Should I leave my wine which cheereth
God and man, and go to be promoted over the trees?" Then said
all the trees unto the bramble, "Come thou, and reign over us."
And the bramble said unto the trees, "If in truth ye anoint me king
over you, then come and put your trust in my shadow ; and if not,
let fire come out of the bramble, and devour the cedars of Lebanon."
ix: 8-1 6.
DIRECTION. Bring into the class examples of Allegory, Parable, and Fable.
Bring, to be read in class, Ps. Ixxx: 8-16: this is one of the finest and most
correct allegories. Explain the " Fable," by T. B. Aldrich, page 105.
METONYMY.
Metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of
one object is put for some other object, the two being so
closely related that the mention of one naturally suggests
the other.
Among the various relations which give rise to me-
/ tonymy are (i) sign and the thing signified ; (2) cause and
I effect, or source and what flows from it ; (3) instrument and
the user of it; (4) container and the thing contained; (5) ma-
\ terial and the thing made out of it. Thus :
v
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 233
Cause for effect; as, "I read Milton" ; "He shall bear
his iniquity."
Effect for cause ; as, ' ' Man shall live by the sweat of
his brow."
Container for what is contained; as, " He is fond of the
bottle" ; "France would not consent."
Instrument for the user; as, "He thought himself not
a bad oar."
Material for thing made out of it; as, "The sanctity of
the lawn should be kept unsullied."
Sign for thing signified; as, The "olive branch," instead
of peace; the "throne," the "purple," the "scepter," in-
stead of kingly power.
EXERCISE LXIII.
DIRECTION. Classify the metonymies below, and recast the sentences, using
plain language :
1. Strike for your altars and your fires.
2. Socrates drank the fatal cup.
3. The pen is mightier than the sword.
4. Gray hairs should be respected.
5. Bayonets think.
6. The kettle boils.
7. They have Moses and the prophets.
8. He smokes his pipe.
9. Address the chair.
10. Take away the sword; states can be saved without it.
11. Their discords sting through Burns and Moore.
12. We sat by the flesh-pots.
13. We hanged our harps upon the willows.
14. There is death in the pot.
15. England's commerce whitens every sea.
1 6. Whoso diggeth a pit shall fall therein.
17. This dish is well cooked.
Rhet. 20.
234 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
1 8. The hedges are white with May.
19. The prince succeeded to the throne.
20. They keep a good table.
21. The glittering steel descended.
22. The crescent in Europe is waning before the cross.
23. Lead rained upon our ranks.
DIRECTION. Bring into the class examples of metonymy, and tell out of
what relation each arises.
SYNECDOCHE.
Synecdoche is a figure in which the name of a part is
used to represent the whole, or the name of the whole is
used to represent a part, or a definite number to represent
an indefinite; as, (i) " All hands were at work." (Here a
part is put for the whole.) (2) "The world condemns
him." (In this, the whole is put for a part.) (3) "Ten
thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain." (A definite
number represents an indefinite.) In like manner, an at-
tribute may be put for a subject; as, "Youth and beauty,"
for, "The young and the beautiful"; and sometimes a
subject for its attribute.
This figure is somewhat akin to metonymy; they are
both founded on the contiguity of two objects of thought.
The species for the genus, the genus for the species, and
the individual for his class, are all examples of a part for
the whole or of the whole for a part.
The advantage of synecdoche seems to lie in its limiting
the attention to that particular thing which we wish to
emphasize. It is a natural expedient to put a thing well
known in place of one less known.
That branch of the figure in which the name of a part
denotes the whole is more common and- more valuable
than the other.
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 235
EXERCISE LXIV.
DIRECTION. Point out the synecdoches in the following sentences; recast
the sentences, using plain language instead of figurative :
1. The harbor was crowded with masts.
2. The boy left his father's hearth.
3. The snows of eighty winters whitened his head.
4. Ten thousand stars were in the sky.
5. Our hero was gray.
6. Forty sail were in the harbor.
7. At present there is no distinction among the upper ten thou'
sand of the city.
8. Thine eye was on the censer, and not the hand that bore it.
9. Consider the lilies how they grow.
10. They will visit the Old World this summer.
11. The busy fingers toiled on.
12. Youth and beauty shall be laid in the dust.
13. My roof shall always shelter you.
14. He bought fifty head of cattle.
15. It is a city of spires.
1 6. The enemy are in possession of the walls.
17. Cloth is the product of the shuttle.
1 8. She has seen sixteen summers.
19. It is a village of three hundred chimneys.
20. Miles of hulls are rotting in the harbor of Portsmouth.
DIRECTION. Bring into the class examples of synecdoche, illustrating both
branches of the figure.
APOSTROPHE.
S Apostrophe (Gr., meaning "to turn away 1 '), is a figure
( of speech in which the speaker ta?m aside from the nat-
\ ural course of his ideas to address the absent or dead as
( if present, to address former ages, future ages, or the ab-
^stract as personal. It is closely allied to Personification,
with which it is often combined. In the address to inan-
imate things the form of the figure most common there
is of course personification. The principal difference be-
236 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
tween the two figures is the address. Objects personified
are not addressed; objects apostrophized, whether already
persons, or made such by the figure, are addressed. The
following are examples: "O my son Absalom! my son,
my son Absalom! would God I had died for thee"; "O
Rome, Rome, thou hast been a tender nurse to me!'*
Apostrophe is expressive of strong feeling; hence, it
should be used only when the reader or hearer is already
under the influence of some emotion. It is found chiefly
in oratory and poetry.
EXERCISE LXV.
DIRECTION. Point out the figure, and express the thought in these sen-
tences without it:
1. Advance then, ye future generations!
2. Down, thou climbing sorrow! thy element's below.
3. Blow, Winds, and crack your cheeks.
4. Farewell, happy Fields, where joy forever dwells.
5. Hail, holy Light, offspring of heaven first-born.
6. The Grave, dread thing! men shiver when thou art named:
Nature appalled shakes off her wonted firmness.
7. Come, gentle Spring! ethereal Mildness, come!
8. Hope ! thou nurse of young desire !
9. O Winter, ruler of the inverted year !
10. O Cuckoo! shall I call thee Bird, or but a wandering Voice?
11. All the kings of the nations, even all of them lie in glory, every
one in his own house. But thou art cast out of thy grave, like an abom-
inable branch.
12. O Hope, with eyes so fair, what was thy delighted measure?
13. Sleep! O gentle sleep! Nature's soft nurse, how have I frighted
thee, that thou no more wilt weigh my eyelids down ?
14. But, alas, you are not all here; time and the sword have
thinned your ranks. Prescott, Putnam, Stark, Brooks, Read, Pome-
roy, Bridge ! our eyes seek for you in vain amid this broken band.
DIRECTION. Bring into the class apostrophes of the kinds given above.
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 237
VISION.
/ Vision is closely akin to Apostrophe in this, that it rep-
nts objects, distant in space or time, as present. In
this figure the writer declares himself an eye-witness of
some event, and depicts it as taking place in his presence.
It is the expression of powerful emotion, and should be
used but seldom, and with the greatest caution.
The following are examples:
Methinks I see in my mind a noble and puissant nation rousing
herself like a strong man after sleep, and shaking her invincible
locks; methinks I see her, as an eagle, mewing her mighty youth,
and kindling her undazzled eyes at the full midday beam ; purging
and scaling her long abused sight at the fountain itself of heavenly
radiance ; while the whole noise of timorous and flocking birds, with
those also that love the twilight, flutter about, amazed at what she
means, and in their envious gabble would prognosticate a year of
sects and schisms. Milton.
I seem to myself to behold this city, the ornament of the earth,
and the capital of all nations, suddenly involved in one conflagra-
tion. I see before me the slaughtered heaps of citizens, lying un-
buried in their ruined country. Cicero's fourth oration, translated.
From the tapestry that adorns these walls, the immortal ances-
tor of this noble lord frowns with indignation at the disgrace of his
country. Earl of Chatham.
Methought I heard a voice cry, "Sleep no more! Macbeth doth
murder sleep." Shakespeare.
Lo ! a deer from Dalness, hound-driven, or sullenly astray, slowly
bearing his antlers up the glen, then stopping for a moment to snuff
the air, then away away ! The rifle-shot rings dully from the scarce
echoing snow-cliffs, and the animal leaps aloft, struck by a certain
but not sudden death-wound. Oh ! for Fingal now to pull him down
like a wolf! But laboring and lumbering heavily along, the snow
spotted, as he bounds, with blood, the huge animal at last disappears
round some rocks at the head of the glen. Wilson.
Lochiel, Lochiel ! beware of the day
When the Lowlands shall meet thee in battle array !
*
238 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
For a field of the dead rushes red on my sight,
And the clans of Culloden are scattered in fight.
They rally, they bleed, for their kingdom and crown ;
Woe, woe to the riders that trample them down !
Proud Cumberland prances, insulting the slain,
And their hoof-beaten bosoms are trod to the plain. Campbell.
Figures of Emphasis differ from Figures of Intuition
in giving prominence and emphasis to logically important
[ghts. They are not addressed to the imagination,
they present no picture; but they direct the attention to
the thought, and convey, at the same time, the feelings
which it has excited in the writer's mind. Hence, they
are called Figures of Emphasis and Passion.
Of these, Interrogation, Exclamation, Repetition, and
Climax, have been discussed under " Strength. " The re-
maining figures of this class are Antithesis, Epigram, Irony,
and Hyperbole.
ANTITHESIS.
Antithesis is a figure of speech in which things mutu-
ally opposed in some particular are set over against each
other ; it is founded upon the principle that opposites when
brought together reflect light upon each^other.)
The peculiar marks to ^hlclTattention is directed are
brought out more vividly when the opposition of thought
is made apparent by the structure of the sentence ; hence,
the proper form of antithesis is the balanced sentence a
sentence in which the members are constructed on the same
plan; as, "Gold can not make a man happy, any more than
rags can make him miserable." There may be antithesis
of thought, however, without the balanced sentence.
Antithesis is a brilliant and dangerous, figure. To be
effective, there must always be a real opposition of thought;
FIGURES OF SPEECH.
239
antithesis in which there is an opposition in language with-
out any in thought, is always offensive. This figure is not
suited to the expression of strong passion, though it may
be employed occasionally with effect in the higher forms
of prose. Used judiciously, antithesis is a figure of great
beauty, but its frequent recurrence gives to a discourse the
appearance of artifice and affectation.
EXERCISE LXVI.
DIRECTION. Explain the antithesis in each of the following sentences by
pointing out the words which denote the things contrasted:
i. When all the blandishments of life are gone,
The coward sneaks to death, the brave live on.
2. If goodness lead him not, yet weariness may toss him to my
breast.
3. Too rashly charged the troops of Error, and remain as trophies
unto the enemies of Truth.
4. On eagles' wings immortal scandals fly,
While virtuous actions are but born and die.
5. In peace a charge, in war a weak defense.
6. Art may err, but Nature can not miss.
7. Fools admire, but men of sense approve.
8. For words are wise men's counters, they do but reckon by them ;
but they are the money of fools.
9. Where the law ends, tyranny begins.
10. For fools rush in where angels fear to tread.
11. In the world, a man lives in his own age; in solitude, in all
ages.
12. Plato's arrow, aimed at the stars, was followed by a track of
dazzling radiance, but it struck nothing; Bacon fixed his eye on a
mark which was placed on the earth,. and within bow-shot, and hit
it in the white.
13. Speech was given to the ordinary sort of men, whereby to com-
municate their mind ; but to wise men, whereby to conceal it.
240 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
14. As Hastings himself said, the arraignment had taken place be-
fore one generation, and the judgment was pronounced by another.
1 5. He knew that as they had worshiped some gods from love, so
they worshiped others from fear.
1 6. The Saxon words are simple, homely, and substantial, fitted for
every-day events and natural feelings ; while the French and Latin
words are elegant, dignified, and artificial, fitted for the pomp of rhet-
oric, the subtlety of disputation, or the courtly reserve of diplomacy.
17. Once to every man and nation comes the moment to decide,
In the strife of Truth with Falsehood, for the good or evil side;
Some great cause, God's new Messiah offering each the bloom or
blight,
Puts the goats upon the left hand, and the sheep upon the right ;
And the choice goes on forever 'twixt that darkness and that light.
DIRECTION. Bring examples of antithesis to the class.
EPIGRAM.
Epigram at first meant an inscription on a monument.
Such inscriptions are usually short, containing as much as
possible in a few words; hence, Epigram came to signify-
any pointed expression. As a figure of speech, it now
means a statement in which there is an apparent contra-
diction between the form of the expression and the mean-
jngjgally intendecj) Epigram is somewhat akin to Antith-
esis, since in both these figures there is the element of con-
trariety. In antithesis it is the contrariety between two dif-
ferent things brought together; but in epigram it is the
contrariety between the apparent meaning of the words
and the real meaning. Thus, "Prosperity gains friends,
but adversity tries them" is an antithesis; "Some are too
foolish to commit follies" is an epigram a contradiction
between the sense and the form of the words. The force
of epigram lies in the pleasant surprise attendant upon the
perception of the real meaning.
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 24!
EXERCISE LXVII.
DIRECTION. Ascertain the real meaning in the following sentences, and show
the contrariety between it and the apparent meaning :
1. Dark with excessive brightness.
2. Solitude is sometimes best society.
3. To be once in doubt is once to be resolved.
4. I believe it because it is impossible.
5. Men of most renowned virtue have sometimes by transgressing
most truly kept the law.
6. Learning hath gained most by those books by which the print-
ers have lost.
7. Our antagonist is our helper.
8. The wind and waves are always on the side of the ablest nav-
igators.
9. Never less alone than when alone.
10. The child is father of the man.
11. And he is oft the wisest man, who is not wise at all.
12. The silent organ loudest chants the master's requiem.
13. He is a man of principle, in proportion to his interest.
14. Language is the art of concealing thought.
15. A favorite has no friend.
DIRECTION. Bring into the class examples of epigram, and express theb
hidden meaning in language that may be clearly understood.
IRONY.
Irony is a figure in which the meaning is contrary to
what is expressedA The writer seems to praise what is base
and foolish7~andm doing so sets forth the contrast between
the real character of the object and what is said of it. It
is a forcible figure, but it has the disadvantage of being
very liable to be misunderstood; in oral discourse there is
something in the tone or manner to show the real drift of
the speaker; in written discourse, this aid is wanting;
Rhet. 21.
242 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
hence, great care is necessary to make it clear that the op-
posite of what is said is intended. Another disadvantage
is, that it is personal, and exhibits those against whom it is
directed, in a ridiculous light; as it thus serves chiefly to
expose and humiliate, it must be used with moderation and
discretion. Vices and follies of all kinds are often more
effectually exposed by irony than by serious reasoning.
Irony sometimes conveys a compliment in the guise of an
insult, but more frequently an insult in the guise of a com-
pliment.
EXERCISE LXVIII.
DIRECTION. Point out the real meaning in the following sentences:
1. Pensive poets painful vigils keep, sleepless themselves to give
their readers sleep.
2. Is not a patron, my lord, one who looks with unconcern on a
man struggling for life in the water, and, when he has reached the
ground, encumbers him with help ?
3. O excellent interpreter of the law, master of iniquity ! correcter
and amender of our constitution !
4. Magnificent spectacle of human happiness !
5. A noisy man is always in the right.
6. A mighty hunter, and his prey was man.
7. It is the divine right of kings to govern wrong.
8. Great families of state we show, and lords, whose parents were
the Lord knows who.
9. Blest paper credit ! last and best supply ! that lends corruption
lighter wings to fly.
10. They made and recorded a sort of institute and digest of an-
archy, called the " Rights of Man."
11. Because half a dozen grasshoppers under a fern make the field
ring with their importunate chink, whilst thousands of great cattle re-
pose beneath the shadow of the British oak, chew the cud, and are
silent, pray do not imagine that those who make the noise are the
only inhabitants of the field.
FIGURES OF SPEECH.
243
12. No doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom shall die with you.
13. Cry aloud, for he is a god; either he is talking, or he is pur-
suing, or he is in- a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth and must be
awaked.
DIRECTION. Bring into the class examples of irony, and express the real
meaning in plain language.
HYPERBOLE.
Hyperbole consists in magnifying an object beyond the
bounds of what is even possible ;\as, "He was a man of
boundless knowledge. '> ^tTSrthe-rrarural expression of strong
passion and emotion, and is much used in poetry and ora-
tory. To use hyperbole in serious prose, the objects must
be great and unusual, capable of producing extraordinary
effects. Its use with common, trivial objects is feeble and
unnatural. It should not be introduced unless the imagi-
nation and feelings of the reader are prepared to admit it ;
even then it should be brief, and used sparingly. This fig-
ure is of more frequent occurrence when a comic effect is
intended ; as, * ' The English gain two hours a day by clip-
ping words."
" In sanguine temperaments or impulsive natures," says
Graham, ' ' this tendency to exaggerate is very common. With
some persons everything is magnificent! splendid! sublime !!
awful! !! They never condescend to use more ordinary or
moderate terms. They seem always on stilts, raised above
common mortals. Sometimes they will carry this feeling
so far as to make use no doubt unconsciously of contra-
dictory terms, such as 'immensely small,' ' exquisitely
u gly/ 'sublime nonsense/ etc. And such expressions are.
not confined to their spoken language, but find their way
into whatever they may be called on to write. It is hardly
244 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
necessary to state that this practice is strongly to be re-
proved. When we exhaust the superlatives of our language
on trivial objects or common occasions, what is to be done
for terms fitted to express the really great or sublime ? Be-
sides, morally speaking, it has a pernicious effect; for when
we once contract the habit of indulging in exaggerated lan-
guage, no one knows how far it may carry us beyond the
bounds of truth."
Litotes is a form of expression precisely the reverse of
hyperbole. It consists in giving emphasis to an idea by
using terms that convey less than the truth^ as, "Show
thyself a man, " meaning that the person spoken to is urged
to put forth the noblest qualities of manhood. A common
form of this figure is the denial of the contrary idea instead
of a direct statement ; as, "I do not think him a great
man," meaning that he is not only not great, but is even
inferior to most men.
EXERCISE LXIX.
DIRECTION. Point out the hyperboles below, and state whether the object
is magnified or diminished :
1 . I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice ; his spear the blasted fir ;
his shield the rising moon ; he sat on the shore like a cloud of mist on
the hill.
2. And thou, Bethlehem in the land of Judah, art not the least
among the princes of Judah.
3. An enemy not to be despised.
4. Sweet childish days, that were as long as twenty days are now.
5. A work not to be ashamed of.
' 6. And all Arabia breathes from yonder box.
7. I will kill thee a hundred and fifty ways.
8. Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast, to soften rocks,
or bend a knotted oak.
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 245
9. And panting Time toil after him in vain.
10. His spear, to equal which the tallest pine hewn on Norwegian
hills, to be the mast of some great ammiral, were but a wand, he
walked with.
1 1 . A lover may bestride the Gossamer
That idles in the wanton summer air
And yet not fall so light is vanity.
12. Here Orpheus sings; trees, moving to the sound,
Start from their roots, and form a shade around.
13. The waves leaped mountain high.
14. The world is grown so base, that wrens may prey where eagles
dare not perch.
15. Why, man, he doth bestride the narrow world like a Colossus;
and we petty men walk under his huge legs, and peep about to find
ourselves dishonorable graves.
1 6. Falstaff, thou globe of flesh, spotted o'er with continents of sin.
EXERCISE LXX.
DIRECTION. Study these sentences very carefully, find the figures they con-
tain, sometimes two or more in a sentence, and name and classify them:
1 . Grim-visaged war hath smoothed his wrinkled front.
2. Come, seeling Night, scarf up the tender eye of pitiful Day.
3. War slays its thousands ; Peace, its ten thousands.
4. Is it any pleasure to the Almighty that thou art righteous ? or
is it gain to him that thou makest thy ways perfect ? Will he reprove
thee for fear of thee ? will he enter with thee into judgment ?
5. Time has laid his hand
Upon my heart, gently, not smiting it,
But as a harper lays his open palm
Upon his harp, to deaden its vibrations.
6. O Art, my Art, thou 'it much, but Love is more!
Art symbolizes heaven, but Love is God
And makes heaven.
246 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
7. Who builds his hope in air of your fair looks,
Lives like a drunken sailor on a mast ;
Ready, with every nod, to tumble down
Into the fatal bowels of the deep.
8. Kings will be tyrants from policy, when subjects are rebels from
principle.
9. His reasons are as two grains of wheat hid in two bushels of
chaff.
10. The gown quarreled with the town.
11. The bench should be incorruptible.
12. Pity, you ancient stones, those tender babes, whom envy hath
immured within your walls ; rough cradle for such little pretty ones !
Rude ragged nurse, old sullen play-fellow for tender princes, use my
babies well !
13. Lowliness is young ambition's ladder.
14. Your words, they rob the Hybla bees, and leave them honey-
less.
15. There is a tide in the affairs of men, which, taken at the flood,
leads on to fortune; omitted, all the voyage of their life is bound. in
shallows and in miseries.
1 6. He could not believe that he was such a bad oar as the old
hands make him out to be.
17. Most sacrilegious murder hath broke ope the Lord's anointed
temple, and stole thence the life o' the building.
1 8. Who steals my purse steals trash.
19. Will all great Neptune's ocean wash this blood clean from my
hand ? No : this my hand will rather the multitudinous seas incar-
nadine, making the green one red.
20. The pew not unfrequently has got beyond the teaching of the
pulpit.
21. Canst thou not minister to a mind diseased, pluck from the
memory a rooted sorrow, raze out the written troubles of the brain ;
and with some sweet oblivious antidote cleanse the stuffed bosom of
that perilous stuff, which weighs upon the heart ?
22. There is no English soul stronger to direct you than yourself,
if with the sap of reason you would quench, or but allay, the fire of
passion.
23. But all hoods make not monks. - _
24. You have by fortune and his highness' favors, gone slightly o'er
FIGURES OF SPEECH.
247
low steps ; and now are mounted where powers are your retainers ;
and your words, domestics to you, serve your will, as't please yourself
pronounce their office.
25. A noble spirit, as yours was put into you, ever casts such doubts,
as false coin, from it.
26. Now I feel of what coarse metal ye are molded envy.
27. I have touched the highest point of all my greatness ; and, from
that full meridian of my glory, I haste now to my setting.
28. Canst thou bind the sweet influences of Pleiades, or loose the
bands of Orion ? Canst thou bring forth Mazzaroth in his season ? or
canst thou guide Arcturus with his sons? Knowest thou the ordi-
nances of heaven ? canst thou set the dominion thereof in the earth ?
29. This is the state of man ; to-day he puts forth the tender leaves
of hope, to-morrow blossoms, and bears his blushing honors thick upon
him; the third day, comes a frost, a killing frost; and when he
thinks, good easy man, full surely his greatness is a-ripening nips
his root, and then he falls, as I do.
30. The mountains saw thee and they trembled ; the overflowing
of the water passed by ; the deep uttered his voice, and lifted up his
hands on high.
31. If you blow your neighbor's fire, don't complain if the sparks
fly in your face.
32. With arms outstretched, the druid Wood waits with his bene-
dicite.
33. Say, I taught thee, say, Wolsey that once trod the ways of
glory, and sounded all the depths and shoals of honor found thee a
way, out of his wreck, to rise in.
34. His promises were, as he then was, mighty ; but his perform-
ance, as he is now, nothing.
35. Men's evil manners live in brass; their virtues we write in
water.
36. I am right glad to catch this good occasion most thoroughly
to be winnowed, where my chaff and corn shall fly asunder.
37. Trumpet, blow loud, send thy brass voice through all these
lazy tents.
38. O farewell, dear Hector. Look, how thou diest! look, how
thy eye turns pale ! look, how thy wounds do bleed at many vents !
Hark, how Troy roars! how Hecuba cries out! how poor Androm-
ache shrills her dolors forth ! Behold, destruction, frenzy, and amaze-
248 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
ment, like witless antics, one another meet, and all cry Hector!
Hector's dead! O Hector!
39. O earth, so full of dreary noises !
O men with wailing in your voices!
O delved gold the wailers heap !
O strife, O curse, that o'er it fall !
God strikes a silence through you all,
And giveth His beloved sleep.
40. They boast they come but to improve our state, enlarge our
thoughts, and free us from the yoke of error. Yes, they will give
enlightened freedom to our minds, who are themselves the slaves of
passion, avarice, and pride.
41. Can storied urn or animated bust
Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath ?
Can Honor's voice provoke the silent dust,
Or Flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of death ?
42. Come and trip it, as you go, on the light fantastic toe.
43. We sat beneath the shade.
44. My strength hath been my ruin, and my fall my stay.
45. His cattle feed on a thousand hills.
46. There the strawy Greeks, ripe for his edge, fall down before
him, like the mower's swath.
47. My mind is troubled, like a fountain stirred ; and I myself see
not the bottom of it.
48. Welcome ever smiles, and Farewell goes out sighing.
49. To fear the worst, oft cures the worst.
50. Light boats sail swift, though greater hulks draw deep.
51. The amity that Wisdom knits not, Folly may easily untie.
52. Her hand, in whose comparison all whites are ink, writing
their own reproach ; to whose soft seizure the cygnet's down is harsh
53. Saul and Jonathan were lovely and pleasant in their lives, and
in death they were not divided. They were swifter than eagles;
they were stronger than lions.
54. Every flower did, as a prophet, weep what it foresaw in Hec-
tor's wrath. .^
55. The lamp burns low in the silent chamber.
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 249
56. The stranger praised the eloquence of our pulpit, bar, aru*
senate.
57. But, Mr. Speaker, the gentleman says we have a right to tax
America ! Oh! inestimable right! Oh! wonderful, transcendent right,
the assertion of which has cost this country thirteen provinces, six
islands, one hundred thousand lives, and seventy millions of money.
58. Dear, my soul is gray
With poring over the long sum of ill ;
So much for vice, so much for discontent,
So much for the necessities of power,
So much for the connivances of fear.
59. Hast thou given the horse strength ? hast thou clothed his neck
with thunder ? Canst thou make him afraid as a grasshopper ?
60. Freeze, freeze, thou bitter sky, that dost not bite so nigh as
benefits forgot.
6 1. As fire drives out fire, so pity, pity.
62. What stronger breast-plate than a heart untainted?
63. Strange cozenage ! None would live passed years again ; yet
all hope pleasure in what yet remain; and from the dregs of life
think to receive what the first sprightly running could not give.
64. He who ascends to mountain-tops, shall find
The loftiest peaks most wrapped in clouds and snow ;
He who surpasses or subdues mankind,
Must look down on the hate of those below.
Though high above the sun of glory glow,
And far beneath the earth and ocean spread,
Round him are icy rocks, and loudly blow
Contending tempests on his naked head,
And thus reward the toils which to those summits led.
65. Ye stars ! which are the poetry of heaven !
If in your bright leaves we would read the fate
Of men and empires, 'tis to be forgiven,
That in our aspirations to be great,
Our destinies o'erleap their mortal state,
And claim a kindred with you ; for ye are
A beauty and a mystery, and create
In us such love and reverence from afar,
That fortune, fame, power, life, hath named themselves a star.
COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.
REPRODUCTION XII.
PROSE READINGS.
REPRODUCTION XIII.
VALDEMAR THE HAPPY.
FAVORED in love, and first in war,
Ever had been King Valdemar.
Bards had written heroic lays,
Minstrels had sung in Valdemar's praise.
Mothers had taught their babes his name,
"Maidens had dreamed it ; this is fame.
Beautiful eyes grew soft and meek
When Valdemar opened his mouth to speak.
Warriors grim obeyed his word,
Nobles were proud to call him Lord.
" Favored in love and famed in war,
Happy must be King Valdemar! "
So, as he swept along in state,
Muttered the crone at the palace gate,
Laughing to clasp in her withered palms
The merry monarch's golden alms.
Home at evening, for rest is sweet,
Tottered the beggar's weary feet.
Home at evening from chase and ring,
Buoyant and brave came Court and King.
Flickered the lamp in the cottage roofh,
Flickered the lamp in the castle's gloom.
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 251
One went forth at the break of day,
Asking alms on the King's highway.
One lay still at the break of day
A king uncrowned, a heap of clay.
For swiftly, suddenly, in the night,
A wind of death had put out the light.
And never again might Valdemar
Strike lance for love or lance for war.
Silent, as if on holy ground,
The weeping courtiers throng around.
Tenderly, as his mother might,
They turn his face to the morning light,
Loose his garments at throat and wrist,
Softly the silken sash untwist.
Under the linen soft and white,
What surprises their aching sight?
Fretting against the pallid breast,
Find they a penitent's sackcloth vest.
Seamed, and furrowed, and stained, and scarred,
Sadly the flesh of the King is marred.
Never had monk under serge and rope,
Never had priest under alb and cope,
Hidden away with closer art
The passion and pain of a weary heart,
Than had he whose secret torture lay
Openly shown in the light of day.
At the lips all pale and the close-shut eyes,
Long they gazed in their mute surprise
Eyes once lit with the fire of youth,
Lips that had spoken words of truth.
From each to each there floated a sigh,
" Had this man reason ? Then what am I ? "
252 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
O friend, think not that stately step,
That lifted brow or that smiling lip,
That sweep of velvet or fall of lace,
Or robes that cling with regal grace,
Are signs that tell of a soul at rest :
Peace seldom hides in a Valdemar's breast.
She shrinks away from the palace glare,
To the peasant's hut and the mountain air,
And kisses the crone at the palace gate,
While the poor, proud King is desolate.
MARGARET E. SANGSTER.
DE VEL OPMENT XI II.
THE SPIDER'S WEB A FABLE.
A DEXTROUS spider chose
The delicate blossom of a garden rose
Whereon to plant and bind
The net he framed to take the insect kind.
And when his task was done,
Proud of the cunning lines his art had spun,
He said: " I take my stand
Close by my work, and watch what I have planned.
And now, if Heaven should bless
My labors with but moderate success,
No fly shall pass this way,
Nor gnat, but it shall fall an easy prey."
He spoke, when from the sky
A strong wind swooped, and whirling, hurried by,
And, far before the blast,
Rose, leaf, and web, and plans and hopesrwere cast.
W. C. BRYANT.
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 253
DEVELOPMENT XIV.
ELDORADO.
GAYLY bedight,
A gallant knight,
In sunshine and in shadow,
Had journeyed long,
Singing a song,
In search of Eldorado.
But he grew old,
This knight so bold,
And o'er his heart a shadow
Fell as he found
No spot of ground
That looked like Eldorado.
And, as his strength
Failed him at length,
He met a pilgrim Shadow.
"Shadow," said he,
"Where can it be
This land of Eldorado?"
" Over the Mountains
Of the Moon,
Down the Valley of the Shadow,
Ride, boldly ride,"
The Shade replied,
" If you seek for Eldorado."
EDGAR A. POE.
DEVELOPMENT XV.
ABOU BEN ADHEM.
ABOU BEN ADHEM (may his tribe increase!)
Awoke one night from a deep dream of peace,
And saw, within the moonlight in his room,
Making it rich and like a lily in bloom,
254 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
An angel writing in a book of gold.
Exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold ;
And to the presence in the room he said,
"What writest thou?" The vision raised its head,
And with a look made of all sweet accord,
Answered, " The names of those who love the Lord."
"And is mine one?" said Abou. "Nay, not so,"
Replied the angel. Abou spoke more low,
But cheerly still ; and said, " I pray thee, then,
Write me as one that loves his fellow-men."
The angel wrote, and vanished. The next night
It came again, with a great wakening light,
And showed the names whom love of God had blest,
And, lo! Ben Adhem's name ledall the rest.
LEIGH HUNT.
DEVELOPMENT XVI.
A DESERTED FARM.
THE elms were old, and gnarled, and bent
The fields, untilled, were choked with weeds,
Where every year the thistles sent
Wider and wider their winged seeds.
Farther and farther the nettle and dock
Went colonizing o'er the plain,
Growing each season a plenteous stock
Of burs to protect their wild domain.
The last who ever had plowed the soil
Now in the furrowed church-yard lay
The boy who whistled to lighten his toil
Was a sexton somewhere far away.
Instead, you saw how the rabbit and mole
Burrowed and furrowed with never a fear ;
How the tunneling fox looked out of fns hole,
Like one who notes if the skies are clear.
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 2$ 5
No mower was there to startle the birds
With the noisy whet of his reeking scythe ;
The quail, like a cow-boy calling his herds,
Whistled to tell that his heart was blithe.
Now all was bequeathed with pious care
The groves and fields fenced round with briers
To the birds that sing in the cloisters of air,
And the squirrels, those merry woodland friars.
T. BUCHANAN READ.
SUBJECTS FOR COMPOSITION.
1. Holiday.
2. Little Barefoot.
3. Will-o'-the-wisps.
4. Planting the Tree.
5. A Sheaf of Wheat.
6. Pictures in the Fire.
7. The Old Arm-Chair.
8. The Apple-Woman.
9. The Uses of Pencils.
10. A Lost Child's Story.
11. A Day in the Country.
12. My First Day at School.
13. The Life of a Lazy Man.
14. The Day-Dreams of a Cat.
15. An Old Mill and the Miller.
1 6. A Council of Rats and Mice.
17. The Story of a Faded Shawl.
1 8. The Boy Who Always Forgot.
19. How the Soldier Lost his Arm.
20. The Trials of a Street-Car Conductor.
CHAPTER X.
THE PARAGRAPH.
A COMPOSITION of any length unless the very briefest
note requires a division into paragraphs in order to please
the eye and to render the relation of its parts readily in-
telligible.
The art of constructing paragraphs is not acquired with-
out labor and patience. One may be skillful in framing
sentences, and not succeed in combining them into con-
nected paragraphs. It is well, therefore, to analyze care-
fully those of writers on different subjects, so as to learn
their method of forming them.
/ There are three qualities to be aimed at in the construc-
tion of paragraphs: (i) Unity; (2) Continuity; (3) Variety.
| Unity. In order that a paragraph shall possess the
\quality of unity, it is requisite that the sentences compos-
ing it shall relate, each and all, to the one definite division
of the subject which they illustrate and explain. \ A par-
agraph should have but a single theme7=777^ central
thought, and all digressions from this principal thought
should be excluded. ^No sentence has any right to a po-
sition in connectionjywtn others, unless it is closely related
to the preceding sentence or to the one following.
Continuity. In order that a paragraph shall possess
the quality of continuity, it is requisite that the sentences
be so constructed and so placed as to-carry the line of
thought naturally and suggestively from one to the other. \
(356) __ '
THE PARAGRAPH. 257
It is vitally important that the sentences be so connected
that their relations will be clearly seen. The highest art is
required to cause the stream of thought to flow smoothly,
bearing the reader along without doubts or interruptions.
Accurate thinking and considerable practice in writing
will, however, give facility in seizing the true relation of
thoughts and expressing them with clearness and exact-
ness.
Sentences are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions,
and by conjunctional phrases; as, at the same time, on the
contrary, in like manner, in short, to conclude, so far, etc.
The expression of continuous thought, accordingly, re-
quires skill in the management of such particles ; it is by
the proper use of these connectives that threads of thought
are woven into a beautiful fabric ; yet it requires as much
judgment to avoid the excessive use of conjunctions as to
use them correctly. A lavish use of conjunctions renders
the style dragging and stiff; on the other hand, to dis-
pense with the use of them has a tendency to break up
the paragraph into short, independent sentences, among
which no connection can be found, and which it is impos-
sible to retain in the memory. Conjunctions may fre-
quently be avoided by the structure of the sentence, the
relation of a sentence to the preceding being distinctly in-
dicated by means of inversion, contrast, or words referring
to something that has gone before. By this means we
may form a series of sentences in which the succeeding
will appear to be suggested by some expression or turn
of thought in the one preceding. This method, when
skillfully employed, imparts a high degree of beauty to
the style.
The following sentences will illustrate the nature of this
mode of reference. The words of reference are in italics :
Rhet. 22.
258 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
I addressed him in some lines from the Iliad, considering that, of
such languages as I possessed, Greek, in point of longitude, came
geographically nearest to an Oriental one. He worshiped me in a fc
devout manner, and replied in what I suppose was Malay. In this
way I saved my reputation with my neighbors; for the Malay had
no means of betraying the secret. He lay down upon the floor for
about an hour, and then pursued his journey. On his departure I
presented him with a piece of opium. To him, as an Orientalist, I
concluded that opium must be familiar. De Quincey.
Variety. In order that a paragraph possess the quality
of variety, it is requisite that the constituent sentences shall
differ both in length and in structure.)
A continued uniformity of tengthor structure exhausts
the attention and becomes intolerably irksome. Even to
begin or end sentences too often in the same manner is
objectionable. Writers differ greatly as to the length of
sentences; some prefer long, others short. Short sen-
tences are generally more lively and familiar, and better
adapted to light and informal writing, to works of enter-
tainment and popular instruction. Long sentences require
a greater effort of attention, which is sometimes an advan-
tage, sometimes a disadvantage they may, by presenting
the thought as a whole, assist the memory; but, even if
periodic, they may be difficult to follow, and, if loose, they
may provoke impatience. Long sentences are adapted to
elaborate, exact, and dignified composition.
The most effective writing requires a combination of
long and short sentences the one for clearness and force,
the other for dignity and impressiveness.
The first sentence of a paragraph should be as short as
the sense will permit. The attention of the reader is thus
arrested at the outset, without being subjected to any un-
necessary strain. When interest and feeling have been
aroused, longer sentences are more appropriate. A long
THE PARAGRAPH. 259
sentence, gathering up the various threads of thought, has
its appropriate place at the close. To follow a very long
sentence with a very short one is objectionable.
The qualities of a well constructed paragraph are ex-
emplified in the following:
(The theme): Death is at all times solemn, but never so much
so as at sea. (First illustration): A man dies on shore: his body
remains with his friends, and "the mourners go about the streets";
but when a man falls overboard at sea and is lost, there is a sudden-
ness in the event, and a difficulty in realizing it, which gives to it an
air of awful mystery. {Second illustration, partly repetitionary) : A
man dies un shore: you follow his body to the grave, and a stone
marks the spot. You are prepared for the event. There is always
something which helps you to realize it when it happens, and to recall
it when it has passed. ( Third illustration) : A man is shot down by
your side in battle, and the mangled body remains an object, and a
real evidence; but, at sea, the man is near you at your side you
hear his voice, and in an instant he is gone, and nothing but vacancy
shows his loss. Dana.
In rural occupation there is nothing mean and debasing. It leads
a man forth among scenes of natural grandeur and br iuty ; it leaves
him to the workings of his own mind, operated upon by the purest
and most elevating of external influences. Such a man may be
simple and rough, but he can not be vulgar. The man of refine-
ment, therefore, finds nothing revolting in an intercourse with the
lower orders of rural life, as he does when he casually mingles with
the lower orders of cities. He lays aside his distance and reserve,
and is glad to waive the distinctions of rank, and to enter into the
honest, heartfelt enjoyments of common life. Indeed, the very amuse-
ments of the country bring men more and more together, and the
sound of hound and horn blend all feelings into harmony. I believe
this is one great reason why the nobility and gentry are more popular
among the inferior orders in England than they are in any other
country ; and why the latter have endured so many excessive press-
ures and extremities, without repining more generally at the unequal
distribution of fortune and privilege. W. Irving.
The style of Bunyan is delightful to every reader, and invalua-
ble as a study to every person who wishes to obtain a wide com
26O COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
mand over the English language. The vocabulary is the vocabulary
of the common people. There is not an expression, if we except a
few technical terms of theology, which would puzzle the rudest peas-
ant. We have observed several pages which do not contain a single
word of more than two syllables. Yet no writer has said more ex-
actly what he meant to say. For magnificence, for pathos, for vehe-
ment exhortation, for subtle disquisition, for every purpose of the poet,
the orator, and the divine, this homely dialect, the dialect of working
men, is perfectly sufficient. There is no book in our literature on
which we would so readily stake the fame of the unpolluted English
language, no book which shows so well how rich that language is in
its own proper wealth, and how little it has been improved by all that
it has borrowed. Macau/ay.
There is one mind common to all individual men. Every man
is an inlet to the same, and to all of the same. He that is once ad-
mitted to the right of reason is made a freeman of the whole estate.
What Plato has thought he may think ; what a saint has felt he may
feel; what at any time has befallen any man, he can understand.
Who hath access to this universal mind is a party to all that is or can
be done, for this is the only and sovereign agent. Emerson.
EXERCISE LXXI.
DIRECTION. Combine the following statements or facts in each paragraph
into a paragraph of your own, supplying what is needed, and write on the first
line of each paragraph the topic it develops :
i. Now a class in Latin is called to recite. Forth steps a row of
queer-looking little fellows. They wear square-skirted coats. They
wear small-clothes, with buttons at the knee. They look like so
many grandfathers. Like grandfathers in their second childhood.
These lads are to be sent to Cambridge. They are to be educated
for the learned professions. Old Master Cheever has lived so long.
Seen so many generations. He can almost prophesy. The sort of
man each boy will be. One urchin a doctor. Will administer pills.
Potions. Stalk gravely through life. Perfumed with asafcetida.
Another will wrangle at the bar. Fight his way to wealth. Honors.
In his declining age. A worshipful member of his majesty's council.
A third shall be a worthy successor. The master's favorite. The old
THE PARAGRAPH. 26l
Puritan ministers. In their graves. He shall preach. Great unc-
tion. Effect. Leave volumes. Sermons. Print and manuscript.
Benefit of future generations.
2. Certain. At the time. His conduct excited disapprobation.
Great and general. While Elizabeth lived. Disapprobation was not
expressed. Loudly. Deeply felt. Great change at hand. Health
of the Queen long decaying. Operation of age. Disease. Assisted
by acute mental suffering. Pitiable melancholy of last days. Gen-
erally ascribed. Fond regret for Essex. Disposed to attribute. De-
jection. Physical causes. Partly. Conduct of courtiers. Ministers.
Did all in their power. Conceal intrigues. Court of Scotland. Keen
sagacity. Not deceived. Did not know the whole. Knew. Sur-
rounded by men. Impatient. New world. At her death. Never
been attached. Affection. Now slightly attached. Interest. Pros-
tration and flattery. Conceal the cruel truth. Whom she had
trusted. Promoted. Never loved her. Fast ceasing to fear her.
Unable to avenge herself. Too proud. Complain. Suffered. Sor-
row and resentment. Prey. Heart. After a long career. Power,
prosperity, and glory. Died. Sick and weary of the world.
EXERCISE LXXII.
DIRECTION. Study the general groups of facts carefully, see what ones of
each group are related in meaning and can be united, form as many paragraphs
out of each group as you think there should be, and write on the first line of each
paragraph, the topic developed:
I . The personal character as well as history of the bold outlaw is
stamped on every verse. Against luxurious bishops and tyrannic sher-
iffs Robin Hood's bow was ever bent and his arrow in the string. The
will was kept secret during the short remainder of his life. On the
third of November, 1700, he expired. And I sank down where I
stood, and hid my face against the ground. All Madrid crowded to
the palace. The gates were thronged. I lay still a while ; the night
wind swept over the hill and over me, and died moaning in the dis-
tance. The antechamber was filled with embassadors and grandees,
eager to learn what dispositions the deceased sovereign had made.
He attacked and robbed, and sometimes slew, the latter without either
compunction or remorse. The rain fell fast, wetting me afresh to the
262 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
skin. In his more humorsome moods he contented himself with en-
ticing them in the guise of a butcher or a potter, with the hope of a
good bargain, into the green wood. At length the folding doors
were flung open. Could I but have stiffened to the still frost. It
might have pelted on. The Duke of Abrantes came forth. He first
made merry and then fleeced them. He announced that the whole
Spanish monarchy was bequeathed to Philip, Duke of Anjou. He
made them dance to such music as his forest afforded. I should not
have felt it. My living flesh shuddered to its chilling influence. He
made them join with Friar Tuck in hypocritical thanksgiving. I arose
ere long. The justice and mercy they had experienced.
2. Intellect is man's grand distinction. As you have done a thou-
sand times before. You take up the book in an idle moment. That
which gave the brightest luster to his character. His mental capacity.
You wonder, perhaps. The loftiness and nobleness of his soul. As
you turn over the leaves. It is this which renders him highly and pe-
culiarly responsible to his Creator. Not only to the eloquence of
Chatham. What the world finds in it to admire. It is on account of
this that the rule over other animals is established in his hands. If
ever there has lived a man. And it is this mainly. Suddenly, as you
read. This enables him to exercise dominion over the powers of nat-
ure. Your fingers press close upon the covers. That man, beyond all
doubt, was William Pitt. One that lived in modern times. Your frame
thrills. It enables him to subdue them to himself. One to whom the
praise of a Roman spirit might be truly applied. The passage chanced
upon chains you like a spell. He loved power. He loved it only as
a patriot should. It is so vividly true. He knew and felt his own
energies. His whole heart was burning to revive the one. It is so
vividly beautiful. It burned to wreathe fresh laurels round the other.
He also felt that his country needed them. He loved power because
he saw the public spirit languishing. The national glory declined.
3. These are not her glory. The bloom of that fair face is wasted.
In an open space behind the constable there was seen approaching "a
white chariot." She, in some measure, returned the enemy's fire.
Wherever literature consoles sorrow or assuages pain. This was owing
to the shift of the wind. Drawn by two palfreys in white damask. The
hair is gray with care. Wherever it brings gladness to eyes which fail
with wakefulness and tears. And to the position into which she had
tended. The damask swept the ground. The brightness of those eyes
is quenched. One of her own broadsides was discharged in the direc-
THE PARAGRAPH. 263
tion of the town. A golden canopy was borne above the chariot. It
made music with silver bells. Eyes that ache for the dark house and
the long sleep. Their lids hang drooping. In the chariot sat the ob-
served of all observers. The immortal influence of Athens is there
exhibited in its noblest form. The beautiful occasion of all this glitter-
ing homage. The other toward Fort English. The face is stony pale.
Fortune's plaything of the hour, the Queen of England. The appear-
ance of the ship was magnificent. As one living in death. Queen at
last. She is borne along upon the waves of this sea of glory. Mean
weeds attire the queen of the world. She breathes the perfumed in-
cense of greatness. She had risked her delicacy, her honor, her self-re-
spect to win greatness. These weeds her own hand has mended. She
had won. There she sat. Dressed in white tissue robes. Her fair hair
flowed loose over her shoulders. The death-hurdle where thou sittest
pale and motionless must stop. A light coronet encircled her temples.
Coronet of gold and diamonds. She seemed at that hour the most
beautiful of all England's daughters. She seemed the most favored.
Synthesis of Paragraphs into a Theme.' Just as
words, phrases, and clauses may be joined in sentences,
and sentences, jointly developing a topic, or thought, may
be united into a paragraph, so paragraphs may be con-
nected, standing one after another on the page, because
they are related the thoughts which they develop, being
divisions of the one general subject, or topic. Paragraphs
so related and so placed form a composition or theme.
EXERCISE LXXIII.
DIRECTION. Study these facts carefully, and group them into two great
paragraphs; under these make sub-paragraphs, if you think there should be
such, and write the subject of the theme at the top :
I. The dinner is now served. The bride sits between the bride-
groom and the priest. The spokesman delivers an oration. The ora-
tion is after the ancient custom of his fathers. He interlards it well
with quotations. The quotations are from the Bible. He invites the
Savior to be present at this marriage-feast. The Savior was present at
the marriage-feast in Cana of Galilee. The table is not sparingly set
264 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
forth. Each end makes a long arm. The feast goes cheerly on. Be-
tween the courses, punch and brandy pass round. Here and there
a pipe is smoked. This is done while waiting for the next dish.
They sit long at table. All things must have an end. A Swedish
dinner must end. Then the dance begins. It is led by the bride and
the priest. They perform a solemn minuet together. After midnight
comes the last dance. The girls form a ring around the bride. This
is to keep her from the hands of the married women. The married
women endeavor to break through the magic circle. Seize their new
sister. After long struggling they succeed. I must not forget the
changing seasons of the northern clime. There is no long lingering
spring. No unfolding leaf and blossom one by one. There is no long
lingering autumn. An autumn, pompous with many-colored leaves.
With the glow of Indian summers. But winter and summer are won-
derful. They pass into each other. The quail has hardly ceased pip-
ing in the corn. When winter comes from the folds of trailing clouds.
Broadcast over the land, she sows snow, icicles, and rattling hail. The
days wane .apace. Ere long the sun hardly rises above the horizon.
Or he does not rise at all. The moon and stars shine through the day.
At noon they are pale and wan. In the southern sky a glow, as of
sunset, burns along the horizon. This glow is red and fiery. It then
goes out. Pleasantly under the silver moon ring the steel shoes of the
skaters on the frozen sea. Under the silent, solemn stars, ring out
voices and the sound of bells.
EXERCISE LXXIV.
DIRECTION. Study carefully these facts, thrown together promiscuously, sort
them, and group them into as many paragraphs, arranged in their proper order,
as you think there should be. Write at the head the subject of the theme ; write,
also, the topic of each paragraph:
I . The early Christians here hid themselves. These cities of the dead
are scattered all over Europe. They abound in Italy. Just within the
entrance to the church of St. Sebastian there is a door. This is the
door by which descent is made to the Catacombs. We did not descend.
They here hid their devotions from their persecutors. Martyrs and
saints were buried here. I had determined to withstand every tempta-
tion to enter these cities of the dead. I had determined this from the.
THE PARAGRAPH. 255
first outset of my travels. How many accidents have happened ! Four-
teen popes were buried here. They have never since been heard of.
He stepped forward to take it up. He lost both ball and thread. Sev-
enty thousand martyrs are said to have been here laid in their un-
known graves. How many have lost their way ! A young man entered
without a guide. A whole school of boys from Rome entered the Cat-
acombs. He carried a light and a ball of twine. They came with
their teacher and a guide. How many have been shut out from return
by the falling of earth ! For a morning excursion of observation and
amusement. He fastened the end of the twine at the door. How the
light has gone out by accident ! He felt for it but dared not move
another step. That he might find the way back by following the thread.
How the foot has stumbled ! They entered. They have never since
been seen. Nothing more is known. To boast of having wandered
alone and in safety through these entangled passages. He was re-
stored to life. He had wound through numerous crooked alleys. By
accident, he dropped his twine. He had doubled untold and undis-
tinguishable corners. He felt for it. His light was burning out. HQ
dared not move another step. He found his way to the upper earth.
Grew more nervous and bewildered. No thread ! He groped around
in a small circle. He watched it grow less and less. In his desperate
panic he fell upon the earth. To caution his friends against such fool-
hardy enterprises. It grew dimmer and dimmer. He looked with
desperate sharpness. He dropped his light. His hand trembled. It
went out. His hand fell upon the twine.
DIRECTION. Do with these sentences -as directed with those in the preced
ing set:
I. " Peace, Mr. Griffith," interrupted the captain. "Yield the trum>
pet to Mr. Gray." The captain bended from the rigging. His gray
locks blew about in the wind. To haggard care they added a look of
wildness. This was exhibited by the light of his lantern. Griffith
tnrew his speaking-trumpet on the deck. " Then all is lost indeed,
and among the rest, the foolish hopes with which I visited this coast.'*
He walked proudly away. He muttered in bitterness of feeling. The
pilot had applied the trumpet to his mouth. He did this before the
crew understood their situation. His voice rose above the tempest.
He thundered forth his orders. Each command was given distinctly.
A precision that showed him to be master of his profession. The
Rhet. 23.
266 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
helm was kept fast. The headyards swung up heavily against the
wind. The vessel was soon whirling round on her keel. She whirled
with a retrograde movement. Griffith was too much of a seaman not
to perceive. The pilot had seized the only method that promised to
extricate the vessel from her situation. The pilot did this with a per-
ception almost intuitive. Griffith was young, impetuous, and proud.
He was also generous. He forgot his resentment and his mortifica-
tion. He rushed forward among the men. His presence and ex-
ample added certainty to the experiment. The ship fell off slowly
before the gale. She bowed her yards nearly to the water. She felt
the blast pouring its fury on her broadside. The surly waves beat
violently against her stern. They seemed to reproach her for de-
parting from her usual manner of moving. The voice of the pilot
was still heard. It was steady and calm. It was clear and high. It
reached every ear. The obedient seamen whirled the yards. They
did this in despite of the tempest. It seemed they handled the toys of
their childhood. The beautiful ship was obedient to her government.
She threw her bows up gracefully toward the wind, again. Her sails
were trimmed. She moved out from among the dangerous shoals.
She had been embayed there. She moved steadily and swiftly. In
the same way she had approached them. There was a moment of
breathless astonishment. It succeeded the accomplishment of the
nice maneuver. There was no time for the usual expressions of sur-
prise. The stranger still held the trumpet. He continued to lift his
voice. The howlings of the blast. He directed any change in the
management of the ship. He was guided by prudence or by skill.
There was a fearful struggle for their preservation. It lasted an hour
longer. At each step the channel became more complicated. The
shoals thickened around the mariners on every side. The lead was
cast rapidly. The quick eye of the pilot seemed to pierce the dark-
ness. A keen-ness of vision that exceeded human power. They were
under the guidance of one who understood navigation thoroughly.
It was apparent to all in the vessel. Their exertions kept pace with
their reviving confidence.
CHAPTER XI.
SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF STYLE.
WIT AND PATHOS.
Wit. This quality of style results from the union of
seemingly unrelated or incongruous ideas a union produc-
ing surprise and exciting a sense of the ridiculous. It is
an odd fancy, short-lived, and depending upon the associa-
tion of incongruities expressed in brief and pointed lan-
guage.
f!FTs""not, like clearness, a common and necessary qual-
ity of styled It takes many forms, and befits many uses
and occasit5ns ; it has its advantages and its disadvantages.
Often it is aggressive, exposing hypocrisy, ridiculing pre-
tension and pomposity, snubbing impertinence, and laying
bare foibles, follies, vices, meannesses, and wickednesses,
wherever it finds them. Oftentimes it is only sportive,
genial, and humane, and, without hostility to anybody or
anything, ministers to our sense of the ridiculous, to our
feeling of mirthfulness.
The following examples serve to illustrate the definition
of wit :
She strove the neighborhood to please,
With manners wondrous winning,
And never followed wicked ways,
Unless when she was sinning. Goldsmith.
A man from Maine, who had never paid more than twenty -five
cents for admission to an entertainment, went to a New York theater
where the play was "The Forty Thieves," and was charged a dollar
(267)
268 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
and a half for a ticket. Handing the pasteboard back, he remarked,
" Keep it, mister; I don't want to see the other thirty-nine."
A physician finds a lady reading "Twelfth Night," and asks:
"When Shakespeare wrote about Patience on a monument, did he
mean doctors' patients?" "No," is the reply; "you do not find doc-
tors' patients on monuments, but under them."
His face that infallible index of the mind presented a vast ex-
panse, unfurrowed by any of those lines and angles which disfigure
the human countenance with what is termed expression.
Several kindred forms of thought may be classified
under wit. Thus:
^Satire is used to ridicule the follies and vices of men,
and to reform abuses, sometimes humorously and good-
naturedly, and sometimes severely and indignantly.\ A
production of this kind, long or short, is ca^tetnTsatire.
The following lines from the Love of Fame furnish an
illustration :
Some for renown on scraps of learning dote,
And think they grow immortal as they quote.
To patchwork learned quotations are allied ;
Both strive to make our poverty our pride. Young.
Sarcasm is used only to scourge the follies and vices of
It is keen and reproachful, and may be witty. The
etymology of the word, implying to tear flesh like dogs,
gives us some idea of its character. As an example:
Ward, a flippant Parliamentary orator, who used to write
out and commit to memory bombastic speeches, having
severely criticised Rogers' poem entitled ; Italy, the poet
took his revenge in these lines :
Ward has no heart, they say ; but I deny it :
He has a heart and gets his speeches by it. Rogers.
Burlesque is a humorous degradation of a dignified sub-
jecty It is sometimes merely a combination of the great
SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF STYLE. 269
and the little. Things may be burlesqued not only by
words, but by pictures, by gestures, by attitudes by lu-
dicrous imitations of all kinds.
The Mock-heroic is a kind of witty discourse used to raise
things low or trivial to a plane of false dignity and impor-
tance^ as,
" To arms, to arms ! " the fierce virago cries,
And swift as lightning to th' combat flies.
All side in parties, and begin the attack :
Fans clap, silks rustle, and tough whalebones crack ;
Heroes' and heroines' shouts confusedly rise,
And bass and treble voices strike the skies.
No common weapons in their hands are found ;
Like gods they fight, nor dread a mortal wound. Pope.
A Parody, or Travesty, is a burlesque imitation of some-
thing serious. V The words of a production are copied in
part, but-the-spirit of the piece is changed and degraded ;
as,
Original: I stood on the bridge at midnight,
As the clocks were striking the hour,
And the moon rose o'er the city,
Behind the dark church-tower.
Parody : We stood on the bridge at evening,
As the Bell was striking the gong,
And the two in happy communion,
With quick steps passed along.
A Pun is an .unexpected relation between words, or a
play on wordsA It is an inferior species of wit, and one
whidTIs often ^carried to a tiresome excess ; yet it can not
be denied that puns are sometimes very effective. The
following are examples:
Sydney Smith, hearing a boy read of patriarchs as partridges,
declared, "It is too bad to make game of them."
2/O COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
Observing on a board the warning, "Beware the dog," Hood wrote
underneath, "Ware be the dog?"
Dean Ramsay tells of a soaked Scotch minister who was rubbed
down at the kirk, and told he need not fear ; he would be dry enough
when he got into the pulpit. .
The Romans were said to urn their dead, but we earn our living.
Humor. The forms of thought thus far described are
generally hostile, and are used to attack and destroy; but
there is another form, which provokes rmt a * ' laugh at
men and things," but a " laugh with themj) This form of
thought, which Thackeray has defmeoTTo be a compound
of wit and love, is called humoL Humor is wit, with an
infusion of good nature and tender sympathy^ Wit is a
brilliant flash ; humor is a lingering sunbeam, cheering
while it brightens. It is nobler than wit, for it mingles
the tender emotions of the heart with the brilliant con-
ceptions of the intellect. The following lines show a fine
distinction between wit and humor:
Wit lashes external appearances, or cunningly exaggerates single
foibles into character; humor glides into the heart of its object, looks
lovingly on the infirmities it detects, and represents the whole man.
Wit is abrupt, darting, scornful, and tosses its analogies in your
face ; humor is slow and shy, insinuating its fun into your heart * *
* * * Old Dr. Fuller's remark that a negro is "the image of Go J
in ebony," is humorous; Horace Smith's, that "the task-master is the
image of the devil cut in ivory," is witty. Whipple.
Sydney Smith remarked to the Chapter of St. Paul's, on
the proposal to lay a wooden pavement around the build-
ing, * ' If we lay our heads together the thing is done. " As
he includes himself, this is humorous. Had he said, "If
you lay your heads together," it would have been witty,
but not humorous.
The following passage from Hawthorne's Rill from the
Town Pump, is an example of humor :
SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF STYLE. 271
"Welcome, most rubicund sir! You and I have been great stran-
gers hitherto ; nor, to confess the truth, will my nose be anxious for a
closer intimacy, till the fumes of your breath be a little less potent.
Mercy on you man ! the water absolutely hisses down your red-hot
throat ! Fill again, and tell me, on the word of an honest toper, did
you ever, in cellar, tavern, or any kind of dram-shop, spend the price
of your children's food for a swig half so delicious ? Now, for the first
time these ten years, you know the flavor of cold water. Good-by,
and, whenever you are thirsty, remember that I keep a constant sup-
ply at the old stand." Hawthorne.
Pathos. This element of style is found in passages
which express sorrow or grief. It is founded on sympathy,
and seldom fails to engage the interest and touch the heart
It has somd natural connection with humor. Laughter and
tears lie close to each other, and the transition from the
humorous to the pathetic is short and easy. The writings
of some of our greatest humorists contain passages of ex-
quisite pathos: those of Irving, Hood, Dickens, and Lamb,
afford many such instances.
The following are illustrations of the pathetic :
O my friend! I think sometimes, could I recall the days that
are past, which among them should I choose? Not those "merrier
days," not the "pleasant days of hope," not "those wanderings with
a fair-haired maid," which I have so often and so feelingly regretted,
but the days, Coleridge, of a mother's fondness for her school-boy.
What would I give to call her back to earth for one day, on my knees
to ask her pardon for all those little asperities of temper, which, from
time to time, have given her gentle spirit pain ! Charles Lamb.
"Why, bless you, my dear," said Toby, "how often have I heard
them bells say, 'Toby Veck, Toby Veck, keep a good heart, Toby!
Toby Veck, Toby Veck, keep a good heart, Toby ! '
"When things is very bad, very bad indeed, I mean ; almost at
the worst; then it's, 'Toby Veck, Toby Veck, job coming soon,
Toby ! Toby Veck, Toby Veck, job coming soon, Toby ! ' That way."
"And it comes at last, father," said Meg, with a touch of sadness
in her pleasant voice.
"Always," answered Toby. "Never fails." Charles Dickens.
2/2 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
The service being ended, preparations were made to deposit the
coffin in the earth. There was that bustling stir that breaks so
harshly on the feelings of grief and affection ; directions were given
in the cold tones of business ; the striking of spades into sand and
gravel, which, at the grave of those we love, is of all sounds the most
withering. The bustle around seemed to awaken the mother from a
wretched reverie. She raised her glazed eyes, and looked about with
a faint wildness. As the men approached with cords to lower the
coffin into the grave, she wrung her hands and broke into an agony
of grief. The poor woman who attended her, took her by the arm,
endeavored to raise her from the earth, and whispered something like
consolation. * * * * * As they lowered the body into the earth,
the crackling of the cords seemed to agonize her; but when, on some
accidental obstruction, there was a jostling of the coffin, all the tender-
ness of the mother burst forth ; as if any, any harm could come to him
who was far beyond the reach of worldly suffering. Irving.
EXERCISE LXXV.
DIRECTION. In the following sentences classify those that are witty accord-
ing to the species of wit which enters into them ; point out those containing pathos:
1. What a comfort a dull but kindly person is, to be sure, at times !
A ground-glass shade over a gas-lamp does not bring more solace to
our dazzled eyes than such a one to our minds. There are men of
esprit who are excessively exhausting to some people. They are the
talkers that have what may be called the jerky minds. They say
bright things on all possible subjects, but their zigzags rack you to
death. After a jolting half hour with these jerky companions, talking
with a dull friend affords great relief. It is like taking a cat in your
lap after holding a squirrel.
2. O comrades ! enemies no more, let us take a mournful hand to-
gether as we stand by this royal corpse, and call a truce to battle !
Low he lies to whom the proudest used to kneel once, and who was
cast lower than the poorest; dead, whom millions prayed f or in vain.
Driven off his throne ; buffeted by rude hands ; with his children in
revolt; the darling of his old age killed before him untimely; our
Lear hangs over her breathless lips and cries,-'' Cordelia, Cordelia,
stay a little!"
SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF STYLE. 2/3
3. The Frenchman having swallowed the first spoonful, made a full
pause; his throat swelled as if an egg had stuck in his gullet, his eyes
rolled, and his mouth underwent a series of involuntary contractions
and dilatations. Pallet, who looked steadfastly at this connoisseur, with
a view of consulting his taste before he himself would venture upon
the soup, began to be disturbed at these emotions, and observed with
some concern, that the poor gentleman seemed to be going into a fit ;
when Peregrine assured him that these were symptoms of ecstasy, and,
for further confirmation, asked the marquis how he found the soup. It
was with infinite difficulty that his complaisance could so far master
his disgust as to enable him to answer, "Altogether excellent, upon
my honor ! " And the painter being certified of his approbation, lifted
the spoon to his mouth without scruple ; but far from justifying the
eulogium of his taster, when this precious composition diffused itself
upon his palate, he seemed to be deprived of all sense and motion,
and sat like the leaden statue of some river-god, with the liquor flow-
ing out at both sides of the mouth.
4. I fear I wrong the honorable men whose daggers have stabbed
Caesar.
5. There is one secret a woman can keep her age.
6. What a beautiful subject for a speech ! Water-lilies and aquatic
plants gemming the translucent crystal, shells of rainbow brightness,
a constant supply of gold and silver fish, with the right of angling se-
cured to share-holders. The extent of the river being necessarily lim-
ited, will render lying there so select, so very respectable.
7. " Call that a kind man, a man who is away from his family, and
never sends them a farthing ! Call that kindness ! " " Yes, unremit-
ting kindness," Jerrold replied.
8. O the anguish of that thought, that we can never atone to our
dead for the stinted affection we gave them, for the light answers we
returned to their plaints or their pleadings, for the little reverence we
showed to that sacred human soul that lived so close to us, and was
the divinest thing God has given us to know.
9. O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, thou that killest the prophets, and ston-
est them which are sent unto thee, how often would I have gathered
thy children together, even as a hen gathereth her chickens under her
wings, and ye would not !
10. Complaint is the largest tribute heaven receives, and the sin-
cerest part of our devotion.
2/4 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
11. Princes in their infancy, childhood, and youth, are said to dis-
cover prodigious parts and wit, to speak things that surprise and as-
tonish ; strange, so many hopeful princes, so many shameful kings !
If they happen to die young, they would have been prodigies of wis-
dom and virtue : if they live, they are often prodigies indeed, but of
another sort.
12. There never was any party, faction, sect, or cabal whatsoever,
in which the most ignorant were not the most violent ; for a bee is not
a busier animal than a blockhead. However, such instruments are
necessary to politicians ; and perhaps it may be with states as with
clocks, which must have some dead-weight hanging at them, to help
regulate the motion of the finer and more useful parts.
13. In the Chapel, O ye students.
Where the boys come duly slow,
And the foot-falls of the freshmen
Softly come and softly go ;
When the choristers are singing
In a deep and solemn flow,
Will you think to "stamp" O freshmen,
As you did one year ago ?
14. 'Tis pleasant, sure, to see one's name in print;
A book's a book, although there's nothing in 't.
15. "Professor," said a graduate, at parting, "I am indebted to
you for all I know." " Pray do not mention such a trifle," was the
not very flattering reply.
1 6. Of his simplicity let me record an instance where a sad and
civil young Chinaman brought me certain shirts with most of the
buttons missing, and others hanging on delusively by a single thread.
In a moment of unguarded irony I informed him that unity would at
least have been preserved if the buttons were removed altogether.
He smiled sadly and went away. I thought I had hurt his feelings,
until the next week when he brought me my shirts with a look of
intelligence, and the buttons carefully and totally erased.
17. This ambulatory chapel of Bacchus that gives the colic, but not
inebriates, only appeared at the Commencement holidays, and the lad
who bought of Lewis laid out his money well, getting respect as well
as beer, three "sirs" to every glass, "Beer, sif? yes, sir; spruce or
ginger, sir?"
SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF STYLE. 2/5
1 8. If there was any incense burning I could smell it, and that
would be something. But there is no smell in our church, except of
bad air, for there is no provision for ventilation in the splendid and
costly edifice. The reproduction of the Gothic is so complete that the
builders even seem to have brought over the ancient air from one of
the churches of the Middle Ages, you would declare it had n't been
changed in two centuries.
19. A college professor, lecturing on the effect of the wind in West-
ern forests, remarked: "In traveling along the road I sometimes
found the logs bound and twisted together to such an extent that a
mule could not climb over them, so I went round."
20. " Third boy, what 's a horse ? " "A beast, sir," replied the boy.
"So it is," said Squeers. "Ain't it, Nickleby ?" "I believe there is
no doubt of that, sir," answered Nicholas. "Of course there isn't !"
said Squeers. "A horse is a quadruped, and quadruped's Latin for
beast, as everybody that's gone through the grammar knows, or else
where 's the use of having grammars at all ? " " Where, indeed ! " said
Nicholas, abstractedly. "As you 're perfect in that," resumed Squeers,
turning to the boy, "go and look after my horse, and rub him down
well, or I'll rub you down."
21. "You must be either a knave or a fool," said two lawyers to an
Irishman sitting between them. "No, I'm between both," was- the
reply.
22. Dear, gentle, patient, noble Nell was dead. Her little bird
a poor, slight thing the pressure of a ringer would have crushed was
stirring nimbly in its cage ; and the strong heart of its child mistress
was mute and motionless forever.
BEAUTY AND SUBLIMITY.
That form of composition which concerns itself wholly
with the expression of the thought, is our ordinary prose.
The worth of its style is in proportion to the clearness or
force with which it expresses the thought. That style
which, instead of attracting attention to itself, presents
prominently the thought, is regarded as the best style ; yet,
independent of the thought, style has a value peculiarly its
276 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
own, and adds much to the attractiveness of the idea it
conveys. All thought can not be appropriately expressed
in the same manner ; hence, the variety of style a variety
as great as the multitudinous ideas it would portray. Lan-
guage and grace of expression should not soar above the
thought, neither should they fall below it; there should be
a perfect union of the two.
Beauty. Beauty of expression, in its rarest form, shows
itself in poetry, the most artistic species of literature ; it is
not sought with such anxious quest in prpse prose which
does the every-day work of our social life. Beauty, or ele-
gance, is the highest and most delicate quality of style.
In a writer, it is the outcome of high culture, perfect self-
possession, a beautiful subject, and a most complete mas-
tery of it.
Beauty of thought is essential to beauty of expression.
Words also, must be selected with regard to beauty and
euphony.} The English language affords the writer a rich-
ness of expression and a variety that is not found in any
other tongue : every passion and every thought can be ut-
tered in language especially appropriate to it. From this
rich diversity in our vocabulary, it happens that where the
words are well chosen and aptly used, the beauty of the
diction is at once seen, since every kind of it is set off by
some other differing from it. When the words of a lan-
guage are mainly euphonious or harsh, short or long, weak
or forcible, there can be but little beauty arising from the
fitness in sound of the word to the idea.
Imagery conduces to beauty of expression. Figures of
speech should not be used merely to adorn ; at the same
time it is not necessary that the image enlist wholly in the
service of the thought. Beautiful imagery may minister to
SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF STYLE.
our taste, gratify our craving for the beautiful, without neg-
lecting its duty to the thought.
{Alliteration is consistent with elegance. While it de-
stroys both the strength and harmony of discourse to use
words that sound alike, it is allowable, even in prose, to
begin several successive words with the same letter and
this because it is agreeable to the ear.
Smoothness is an essential quality. Elegance requires
that the sentence be smooth and fmvin^> This is somewhat
incompatible with energy, which, impatient of long senten-
ces, puts itself into the most compact form to be hurled at
the mark. When beauty of expression is sought, the sen-
tence may be allowed to run over long stretches without
stopping, provided it move smoothly, leisurely, and without
apparent effort, its parts not separated by anything par-
enthetical.
Rhythm contributes to elegance of expression. It need
not occur with perfect uniformity, as in the case of poetry ;
\ it may vary from two to six syllables. It requires on the
part of the reader a rise and a fall of the voice ; the parts
of the sentence are nicely balanced, as is frequently seen in
sentences containing antitheses.
Sublimity. As a quality of discourse the sublime dif-
fers from the beautiful in the greater excitement of mind
and feeling of awe which accompanyit-^JLike the beauti-
ful it gives pleasure, but the pleasure is too intense to be
lasting, while beauty is a source of perpetual joy.
A comparison between sublimity and beauty is given in the
following lines by Burke: "In this comparison, there ap-
pears a remarkable contrast; for sublime objects are vast
in their dimensions, beautiful ones comparatively small:
2/8 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
beauty should be smooth and polished ; the great, rugged
and negligent: beauty should shun the right line, yet de-
viate from it insensibly ; the great, in many cases, loves the
right line, and when it deviates, it often makes a strong
deviation ; beauty should not be obscure ; the great ought
to be dark and gloomy : beauty should be light and deli-
cate; the great ought to be solid and even massive."
Among the various circumstances that may be mentioned
as producing a feeling of the sublime, are vastness, power,
awfulness, obscurity, sound, and moral greatness.
Vastness of dimension is a powerful cause of the sublime. v
Great extension, whether in length, height, or depthTaweT*
the soul with the thought of its own weakness. Of these,
length strikes least ; a hundred yards of even ground will
never produce such an effect upon the mind as a tower of
that altitude. Height is, perhaps, less grand than depth;
we are more struck at looking down from a precipice than
looking up at an object of equal height. Endless numbers
and eternal duration fill the mind with ideas of sublimity.
er is an indispensable condition of things truly sub-
that is, such power as fills man with a knowledge of
n weakness. It is not that which is subservient to
his ease or to his pleasure, but that which he feels may be-
come the instrument of his destruction. Among natural
objects possessing this quality may be mentioned earth-
quakes, thunder and lightning, volcanoes, cataracts, storms
at sea, the tornado, and nearly all violent commotions of
the elements. Some of the larger animals, such as the lion,
the tiger, the panther, or the rhinoceros, display a power
and majesty that raise an emotion of sublimity in the be-
holder. In the book of Job it is said of the war-horse:
''The glory of his nostrils is terrible. He paweth in the
valley, and rejoiceth in his strength ; he goeth on to meet
SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF STYLE. 279
the armed men. He mocketh at fear, and is not affrighted ;
neither turneth he back from the sword. The quiver rattleth
against him, the glittering spear and the shield. He swal-
loweth the ground with fierceness and rage ; neither be-
lieveth he that it is the sound of the trumpet/'
Awfulness produces feelings of sublimity. \ Darkness,
solitude, and silence, under certain conditions' impress us
with intense awe ; especially when connected with some
apprehension of danger. The Scriptures give the follow-
ing sublime description of Jehovah : " He bowed the heav-
ens also, and came down ; and darkness was under his feet.
He made darkness his secret place; his pavilion round about
him were dark waters, and thick -clouds of the skies. "
Obscurity alone does not produce sublimity, but it co-
operates powerfully with other circumstances in producing
this_feelin^. To this circumstance may be attributed our
dread of ghosts and goblins, of which none can form clear
ideas ; to it, also, belongs much of the power exercised by
despotic governments, and by the priests that serve in
heathen temples. In such governments, the chief is kept
as much as may be from the public eye; in such temples,
the idol is enveloped in all the obscurity that the darkest
part of the temple can afford. For this purpose, too, the
ancient Druids performed all their ceremonies in the bosom
of the darkest woods, and in the shade of the oldest and
most spreading oaks. Some of Milton's most sublime pas-
sages are due to the obscurity with which he has surrounded
things terrible in themselves.
Sound that is excessively loud is alone sufficient to over-
power the soul, to suspend its action, arid to fill it with the
most vivid conceptions of sublimity./ The noise of vast
cataracts, raging storms,-^thundef7~or artillery, awakes a
great and awful sensation in the mind; the shouting of
28O COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
multitudes has a similar effect. The same effect is produced
by a sudden beginning or a sudden cessation of sound. A
single sound of strength, though but of short duration, if
repeated after intervals, fills the mind with ideas of grand-
eur: the striking of a great clock in the deep silence of the
night, the heavy stroke of a drum, repeated with pauses,
the successive firing of cannon at a distance, are illustra-
tions.
Moral Greatness. Human actions strikingly grea or no-
ble never fail to awaken a feeling of the su^lime_._J
When we see a man in some high and critical situation,
equal in all respects to the demands of the moment, supe-
rior to passion and fear, ignoring selfish interest and popu-
lar opinion, unmindful of dangers, even willing to face
death, we are struck with a sense of the sublime : the effect
is similar to that produced by the grand objects in nature.
History is full of these heroic actions.
From the foregoing remarks some idea may be formed
of those qualities which awaken feelings of the sublime ; the
following are the most effective ways of imparting this feel-
ing by means of discourse :
It is of prime importance that the subject be sublime; no
high-sounding words marshaled in swelling periods can
supply ideas of grandeur when they are wanting in the
subject itself.
There should be a vivid conception of the strong points,
and a concise and striking presentation of them. Napoleon,
wishing to inspire his army in Egypt with enthusiasm for
the battle, pointed to the Pyramids, and said, "Thirty cen-
turies are looking down upon you." How grandly these
wondrous monuments of antiquity, viewed in the light of
the great chieftain's sublime conception, fnust have appealed
to the valor of those weary, suffering legions ! Not only
SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF STYLE, 28 1
should we seize strongly upon the few grand features which
constitute what is sublime in an object, but we should omit
all details that are in themselves belittling.
Simplicity and conciseness of expression are essential to the
sublime in writing. I In sentences which men generally re-
gard as subHme,-"tne words are few and the construction
plain. Many of the sayings and most of the miracles of
our Lord, as recorded in the Gospels, are expressed with
the utmost simplicity and plainness, yet they are in the
highest degree sublime. For example, in stilling the tem-
pest he commanded the waves with the words, ' ' Peace, be
still." In healing the leper, he merely said to him, "Be
thou clean: and immediately his leprosy was cleansed."
In raising the dead, the record is simply, ' ' Lazarus, come
forth: and he that was dead came forth." When the dis-
ciples were in peril at sea, Jesus came unto them, and
quieted their fears with the words, "It is I, be not afraid."
To the sinner whose guilt placed her beyond the pale of
human mercy, he said, "Neither do I condemn thee: go,
and sin no more."
His claims to authority as a teacher come from God, are
put forth in few and simple words, but with a majesty of
expression that forced even his enemies to say, "Never
man spake like this man."
EXERCISE LXXVI.
DIRECTION. Study these sentences, point out those possessing beauty or
elegance, those possessing sublimity, and tell what gives them this quality:
I. From his lip like balm, the psalmody of Israel's king in Hebrew
streaming, floods his soul with joy, as though the solemn warbling
bird of night sang peace, while every cadence of its song dropped
manna like its life's own nutriment. And as the nightingale, of
russet plumage, sings, alone in darkness sown with stars of God, so
Rhet. 24.
282 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
sings, 'mid shadows deeper than the night, sown like the night, with
visions grand as stars, the philomel of ages.
2. We do not make our thoughts ; they grow in us like grain in
wood ; the growth is of the skies, which are of nature nature is of
God.
3. Piety practiced in solitude, like the flower that blooms in the
desert, may give its fragrance to the winds of heaven, and delight
those unembodied spirits that survey the works of God and the ac-
tions of men : but it bestows no assistance upon earthly beings, and,
however free from taints of impurity, yet wants the sacred splendor
of beneficence.
4. An image was before mine eyes, there was a silence, and I
heard a voice saying, "Shall mortal man be more just than God?
Shall a man be more pure than his Maker?"
5. There is a charm connected with mountains, so powerful that
the merest mention of them, the merest sketch of their magnificent
features, kindles the imagination, and carries the spirit at once into
the bosom of their enchanted regions. How the mind is filled with
their vast solitude ! how the inward eye is fixed on their silent, their
sublime, their everlasting, peaks ! How our heart bounds to the music
of their solitary cries, to the tinkling of their gushing rills, to the
sound of their cataracts ! How inspiriting are the odors that breathe
from the upland turf, from the rock-hung flower, from the hoary and
solemn pine! how beautiful are those lights and shadows thrown
abroad, and that fine, transparent haze which is diffused over the val-
leys and lower slopes, as over a vast, inimitable picture !
6. If ever, in autumn, a pensiveness falls upon us as the leaves
drift by in their fading, may we not wisely look up in hope to their
mighty monuments ? Behold how fair, how far prolonged in arch and
aisle, the avenues of the valley, the fringes of the hills ! So stately
so eternal; the joy of man, the comfort of all living creatures, the
glory of the earth they are but the monuments of those poor leaves
that flit faintly past us to die.
7. Unfading hope! when life's last embers burn,
When soul to soul, and dust to dust return,
Heaven to thy charge resigns the awful hour !
Oh, then thy kingdom comes, immortal power !
8. When dead of winter comes, how wondrous look the hills in
their white robes ! The round red ball of the sun looks through the
SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF STYLE. 283
frosty steam. The far-off firth gleams strange and ghostly, with a
sense of mysterious distance. The mountain loch is a sheet of blue,
on which you may disport in perfect solitude from morn to night,
with the hills white on all sides, save where the broken snow shows
the rusted leaves of the withered bracken.
9. A ruined character is as picturesque as a ruined castle. There
are dark abysses and yawning gulfs in the human heart, which can
be rendered passable only by bridging them over with iron nerves
and sinews.
10. The last stick on her andirons snaps asunder, and falls outward.
Two faintly smoking brands stand there. Grandfather lays them to-
gether, and they flame up; the two smokes are one united flame.
" Even so let it be in heaven," says grandfather.
11. When the sun rose on Memnon, it was fabled to have uttered
melodious noises ; but what were the rude twangings of that huge,
grotesque statue, compared with the soul's response when God rises
upon it, and every part, like a vibrating chord, sounds forth, to his
touch, its joy and worship?
12. There have been souls dedicated to heaven from childhood,
and guarded by good angels as sweet seclusions for holy thoughts,
and prayers, and all good purposes, wherein pious wishes dwelt like
nuns, and every image was a saint ; and yet in life's vicissitudes, by
the treachery of occasion, by the thronging passions of great cities, have
become soiled and sinful.
13. One by one the objects of our affection depart from us. But
our affections remain, and like vines stretch forth their broken, wounded
tendrils for support. The bleeding heart needs a balm to heal it ; and
there is none but the love of its kind, none but the affection of a hu-
man heart.
14. Ever as that dreaded day drew nearer, more frequent was the
haze in our eyes ; and in our blindness we knew not that such tears
ought to have been far more rueful still, for that he then lay under
orders for a longer and more lamentable voyage a voyage over a
narrow strait to the eternal shore.
15. The winds with wonder whist, smoothly the waters kissed.
1 6. And the sails did sigh like sedge.
17. There are no fields of amaranth on this side of the grave ; there
are no voices, O Rhodope, that are not soon mute, however tuneful ;
there is no name, with whatever emphasis of passionate love repeated,
of which the echo is not faint at last.
284 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
1 8. By the deeper base of its hoarse organ, the sea is now playing
upon its lowest stops, and the tide is down. Hear ! How it rushes in
beneath the rocks, broken and stilled in its tortuous way, till it ends
with a washing and dull hiss among the sea-weed, and, like a myriad
of small tinkling bells, the dripping from the crags is audible.
19. And I heard as it were the voice of a great multitude, and as
the voice of many waters, and as the voice of mighty thunderings, say-
ing, Alleluia : for the Lord God Omnipotent reigneth.
20. Far along
From peak to peak the rattling crags among,
Leaps the live thunder ! not from one lone cloud,
But every mountain now hath found a tongue,
And Jura answers through her misty shroud,
Back to the joyous Alps, who call to her aloud !
EXTRACTS FOR THE CRITICAL STUDY OF STYLE.
From the peculiarity of thought and expression belong-
ing to every writer, there is a certain character imprinted
on his style, which may be denominated his manner, com-
monly expressed by such general terms as strong, dry, sim-
ple, affected, or the like.
Different subjects require to be treated in different sorts
of style. A treatise on philosophy, for instance, ought not
to be composed in the same style as an oration. Differ-
ent parts of the same composition require also a variation
in the style and manner; some parts admit of more orna-
ment and require more warmth than others, which appeal
specially to the understanding.
Where imagery abounds, rich and gaudy in proportion
to the subject, we call the style florid. A style possessing
all the virtues of ornament, without any^of its excesses or
defects, we call elegant. If the style is barren of imagery,
SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF STYLE. 285
and is merely clear, precise, and lively, we call it plain ; if
matter-of-fact, and aiming only to be understood, it is dry.
The expression of much in few words makes the style
concise ; a lavish use of words and circumstance makes it
diffuse ; the free use of the idioms of the language makes
it idiomatic; the prevalence of short, pithy sentences makes
it epigrammatic. A writer who expresses himself in a di-
rect and easy manner, and in language intelligible to all,
uses a simple style; one who uses pedantic terms, stiffly
and formally arranged, has an affected style; one whose
expression is too high-sounding for the thought, uses a
bombastic style. If any one figure, as the metaphor or
antithesis, is in excess, the style is named from it, met-
aphorical or antithetical; if the common type of sentence
is the period, the style \s periodic ; if climax abounds, it is
climacteric. Each of the forms classified under wit, when
predominant, gives its name to the style, as satirical, liu-
morous, etc. Even great writers give their names to their
style ; as, Miltonic, Shakesperian, Addisonian, Johnsonian.
The Johnsonian style, as illustrated by Dr. Johnson,
abounds in long and sonorous terms and elaborately bal-
anced periods. It expresses nothing with simplicity, or
with that ease which indicates a sentiment coming natural
and warm from the heart.
The Addisonian style, as illustrated by Addison, is the
highest, most correct and ornamental degree of the simple
manner.
The Shakesperian style is best understood by a study of
Shakespeare's plays.
The Miltonic style, as illustrated by Milton, is sublime in
the highest degree; yet it is serious and simple in all its
grandeur.
The following prose extracts are given for minute study.
286 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
Note the spirit in which each passage was written and the
style which characterizes it. In particular, note the selec-
tion and placing of the words, the cast of the sentences,
their perspicuity, the imagery its kinds and its offices
the observation of men and nature revealed by each extract,
the thought and truth of the observation, and the character
of the author as disclosed in the passage selected :
I am always very well pleased with a country Sunday, and think,
if keeping holy the seventh day were only a human institution, it
would be the best method that could have been thought of for the
polishing and civilizing of mankind. It is certain the country people
would soon degenerate into a kind of savages and barbarians, were
there not such frequent returns of a stated time in which the whole
village meet together with their best faces, and in their cleanliest
habits, to converse with one another upon indifferent subjects, hear
their duties explained to them, and join together in adoration of the
Supreme Being. Sunday clears away the rust of the whole week, not
only as it refreshes in their minds the notions of religion, but as it
puts both the sexes upon appearing in their most agreeable forms, and
exerting all such qualities as are apt to give them a figure in the eye
of the village. A country fellow distinguishes himself as much in the
church-yard, as a citizen does upon the change, the whole parish poli-
tics being generally discussed in that place either after sermon or
before the bell rings. Addison.
"Now lay me down," he said; " and, Floy, come close to me and
let me see you4" Sister and brother wound their arms around each
other, and the golden light came streaming in and fell upon them,
locked together. "How fast the river runs between its green banks
and the rushes, Floy ! But it's very near the sea. I hear the waves!
They always said so." Presently he told her that the motion of the
boat upon the stream was lulling him to rest. How green the banks
were now ! how bright the flowers growing on them ! and how tall
the rushes ! Now the boat was out at sea, but gliding smoothly on ;
and now there was a shore before him. Who stood on the bank ! He
put his hands together, as he had been used to do at his prayers. He
did not remove his arms to do it ; but they saw^him fold them so, be-
hind her neck. " Mamma is like you, Floy : I know her by her face !
SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF STYLE. 287
But tell them that the print upon the stairs at school is not divine
enough. The light about the head is shining on me as I go !"
The golden ripple on the wall came back again, and nothing else
stirred in the room. The old, old fashion ! The fashion that came in
with our first garments, and will last unchanged until our race has
run its course, and the wide firmament is rolled up like a scroll. The
old, old fashion, Death ! Oh, thank God, all who see it, for that
older fashion yet, of Immortality! And look upon us, angels of
young children, with regards not quite estranged when the swift river
bears us to the ocean! Chas. Dickens.
At last Becky's kindness and attention to the chief of her hus-
band's family were destined to meet with an exceeding great reward ;
a reward which, though certainly somewhat unsubstantial, the little
woman coveted with greater eagerness than more positive benefits.
If she did not wish to lead a virtuous life, at least she desired to enjoy
a character for virtue, and we know that no lady in the genteel world
can possess this desideratum until she has put on a train and feathers,
and has been presented to her Sovereign at Court. From that august
interview they come out stamped as honest women. The Lord
Chamberlain gives them a certificate of virtue. And as dubious
goods or letters are passed through an oven at quarantine, sprinkled
with aromatic vinegar, and then pronounced clean many a lady
whose reputation would be doubtful otherwise and liable to give in-
fection, passes through the wholesome ordeal of the Royal presence,
and issues from it free from all taint. Thackeray.
I have forgotten whether the song of the cricket be not as early a
token of autumn's approach as any other that song which may be
called an audible stillness ; for though very loud and heard afar, yet
the mind does not take note of it as a sound, so completely is its indi-
vidual existence merged among the accompanying characteristics of
the season. Alas for the pleasant summer time ! In August the grass
is still verdant on the hills and in the valleys ; the foliage of the trees
is as dense as ever and as green ; the flowers gleam forth in richer
abundance along the margin of the river and by the stone walls and
deep among the woods ; the days, too, are as fervid now as they were
a month ago ; and yet, in every breath of wind and in every beam of
sunshine we hear the whispered farewell and behold the parting smile
of a dear friend. There is a coolness amid all the heat, a mildness
in the blazing noon. Not a breeze can stir but it thrills us with the
288 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
breath of autumn. A pensive glory is seen in the far, golden gleams,
among the shadows of the trees. The flowers even the brightest of
them, and they are the most gorgeous of the year have this gentle
sadness wedded to their pomp, and typify the character of the deli-
cious time each within itself. The brilliant cardinal flower has never
seemed gay to me. N. Hawthorne.
[Candle-light] is our own peculiar and household planet. Want-
ing it, what savage, unsocial nights must our ancestors have spent,
wintering in caves and unillumined fastnesses ! They must have lain
about and grumbled at one another in the dark. What repartees
could have passed, when you must have felt about for a smile, and
handled a neighbor's cheek to be sure that he understood it? This
accounts for the seriousness of the elder poetry ******
Jokes came in with candles. Chas. Lamb.
This golden image, high by measureless cubits, set up where your
green fields of England are furnace-burnt into the likeness of the
plain of Dura : this idol forbidden to us, first of all idols, by our own
master and faith ; forbidden to us also by every human lip that has
ever, in any age or people, been accounted of as able to speak ac-
cording to the purposes of God. Continue to make that forbidden
duty your principal one, and soon no more art, no more science, no
more pleasure will be possible. Catastrophe will come; or, worse
than catastrophe, slow moldering and withering into Hades. But if
you can fix some conception of a true human state of life to be striven
for life for all men as for yourself if you can determine some hon-
est and simple order of existence ; following those trodden ways of
wisdom, which are pleasantness, and seeking her quiet and with-
drawn paths, which are peace ; then, and so sanctifying wealth into
"commonwealth," all your art, your literature, your daily labors,
your domestic affection, and citizen's duty will join and increase into
one magnificent harmony. You will know then how to build, well
enough; you will build with stone well, but with flesh better; temples
not made with hands, but riveted of hearts ; and that kind of marble,
crimson-veined, is indeed eternal. John Ruskin.
There is no evil that we can not either face or fly from, but the
consciousness of duty disregarded. A sense of duty pursues us ever.
It is omnipresent, like the Deity. If we take-to ourselves the wings
of the morning, and dwell in the uttermost parts of the sea, duty
SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF STYLE. 289
performed or duty violated is still with us, for our happiness or our
misery. If we say, the darkness shall cover us in the darkness, as
in the light, our obligations are yet with us. We can not escape their
power, nor fly from their presence. They are with us in this life, will
be with us at its close ; and in that scene of inconceivable solemnity
which yet lies further onward, we shall still find ourselves surrounded
by the consciousness of duty, to pain us wherever it has been violated,
and to console us so far as God may have given us grace to perform
it. Webster.
He was an old bachelor, of a small independent income, which,
by careful management, was sufficient for all his wants. He re-
volved through the family system like a vagrant comet in its orbit ;
sometimes visiting one branch, and sometimes another quite remote ;
as is often the case with gentlemen of extensive connections and
small fortunes in England. He had a chirping, buoyant disposition,
always enjoying the present moment ; and his frequent change of
scene and company prevented his acquiring those rusty, unaccommo-
dating habits with which old bachelors are so uncharitably charged.
He was a complete family chronicle, being versed in the genealogy,
history, and intermarriages of the whole house of Bracebridge, which
made him a great favorite with the old folks ; he was the beau of all
the elder ladies and superannuated spinsters, among whom he was
habitually considered rather a young fellow ; and he was master of
the revels among the children ; so that there was not a more popular
being in the sphere in which he moved than Mr. Simon Bracebridge.
Of late years he had resided almost entirely with the squire, to whom
he had become a factotum, and whom he particularly delighted by
jumping with his humor in respect of old times, and by having a
scrap of song to suit every occasion. We had presently a specimen
of his last mentioned talent, for no sooner was supper removed, and
spiced wines and other beverages peculiar to the season introduced,
than Master Simon was called on for a good old Christmas song.
He bethought himself for a moment, and then, with a sparkle of the
eye, and a voice that was by no means bad, except that it ran occa-
sionally into a falsetto, like the notes of a split reed, he quavered
forth a quaint old ditty. W. Irving.
When the inordinate hopes of youth, which provoke their own dis-
appointment, have been sobered down by longer experience and
Rhet. 25.
290 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
more extended views when the keen contentions and eager rivalries
which employed our riper years have expired or been abandoned
when we have seen, year after year, the objects of our fiercest hos-
tility and of our fondest affections lie down together in the hallowed
peace of the grave when ordinary pleasures and amusements begin
to be insipid, and the gay derision which seasoned them to appear
flat and importunate when we reflect how often we have mourned
and been comforted, what opposite opinions we have successively
maintained and abandoned, to what inconsistent habits we have
gradually been formed, and how frequently the objects of our pride
have proved the sources of our shame, we are naturally led to recur
to the days of our childhood, and to retrace the whole of our career,
and that of our contemporaries, with feelings of far greater humility
and indulgence than those by which it had been accompanied; to
think all vain but affection and honor, the simplest and cheapest
pleasures the truest and most precious, and generosity of sentiment
the only mental superiority which ought either to be wished for or
admitted. Jeffrey-
Now, while I was gazing upon all these things, I turned my head
to look back, and saw Ignorance come up to the river side ; but he
soon got over, and that without half the difficulty which the other two
men met with. For it happened that there was then in that place
one Vain Hope, a ferryman, that with his boat helped him over; so
he, as the others, I saw, did ascend the hill to come up to the gate,
only he came alone ; neither did any man meet him with the least
encouragement. When he was come up to the gate, he looked up to
the writing that was above, and then began to knock, supposing that
entrance should have been quickly administered to him ; but he was
asked by the men that looked over the top of the gate, "Whence
come you, and what would you have?" He answered, " I have eat
and drank in the presence of the King, and He has taught in our
streets." Then they asked for his certificate, that they might go in
and show it to the King ; so he fumbled in his bosom for one, and
found none. Then said they, "You have none!" but the man an-
swered never a word. So they told the King, but he would not come
down to see him, but commanded the two shining ones that con-
ducted Christian and Hopeful to the city to go out and take Igno-
rance, and bind him hand and foot, and have-him away. Then they
took him up and carried him through the air to the door that I saw
SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF STYLE. 29!
on the side of the hill, and put him in there. Then I saw that there
was a way to hell even from the gates of heaven, as well as from the
City of Destruction. John Bunyan.
He who destroys a good book kills reason itself, kills the image of
God, as it were, in the eye. Many a man lives a burden to the earth ;
but a good book is the precious life-blood of a master spirit, embalmed
and treasured up on purpose to a life beyond life. It is true no age
can restore a life whereof, perhaps, there is no great loss ; and revolu-
tions of ages do not oft recover the loss of a rejected truth, for the want
of which whole nations fare the worse. We should be wary, there-
fore, what persecution we raise against the living labors of public men ;
how we spill that seasoned life of man, preserved and stored up in
books; since we see a kind of homicide may thus be committed,
sometimes a martyrdom ; and if it extend to the whole impression, a
kind of massacre, whereof the execution ends not in the slaying of an
elemental life, but strikes at that ethereal and sift essence, the breath
of reason itself, slays an immortality rather than a life. Milton.
I can not, my lords, I will not join in congratulation on misfortune
and disgrace. This, my lords, is a perilous and tremendous moment ;
it is not a time for adulation ; the smoothness of flattery can not save
us in this rugged and awful crisis. It is now necessary to instruct the
throne in the language of truth. We must, if possible, dispel the de-
lusion and darkness which envelope it, and display, in its full danger
and genuine colors, the ruin which is brought to our doors. Can min-
isters still presume to expect support in their infatuation ? Can parlia-
ment be so dead to their dignity and duty, as to give their support
to measures thus obtruded and forced upon them ; measures, my lords,
which have reduced this late flourishing empire to scorn and contempt?
But yesterday, and England might have stood against the world : now,
none so poor to do her reverence ! The people whom we at first
despised as rebels, but whom we now acknowledge as enemies, are
abetted against you, supplied with every military store, have their in-
terest consulted, and their embassadors entertained by your inveter-
ate enemy ; and ministers do not and dare not interpose with dignity
or effect. The desperate state of our army abroad is in part known.
No man more highly esteems and honors the English troops than 1
do ; I know their virtues and their valor ; I know they can achieve
anything but impossibilities. You can not, my lords, you can not
conquer America. Earl of Chatham.
292 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
My hold of the colonies is in the close affection which grows from
common names, from kindred blood, from similar privileges, and equal
protection. These are ties which, though light as air, are as strong
as links of iron. Let the colonies always keep the idea of their civil
rights associated with your government ; they will cling and grap-
ple to you ; and no force under heaven will be of power to tear
them from their allegiance. But let it be once understood that your
government may be one thing and their privileges another ; that these
two things may exist without any mutual relation, the cement is gone
the cohesion is loosened and everything hastens to decay and dis-
solution. As long as you have the wisdom to keep the sovereign au-
thority of this country as the sanctuary of liberty, the sacred temple
consecrated to our common faith, wherever the chosen race and sons
of England worship freedom, they will turn their faces towards you.
The more they multiply, the more friends you will have ; the more
ardently they love liberty, the more perfect will be their obedience.
Slavery they can have anywhere. It is a weed that grows in every
soil. They may have it from Spain, they may have it from Prussia;
but until you become lost to all feeling of your true interest and your
natural dignity, freedom they can have from none but you. This is
the commodity of price, of which you have the monopoly. This is
the true act of navigation, which binds you to the commerce of the
colonies, and through them secures to you the wealth of the world.
Deny them this participation of freedom, and you break that sole bond
which originally made, and must still preserve, the unity of the em-
pire. Edmund Burke.
I would have a woman as true as Death. At the first real lie which
works from the heart outward, she should be tenderly chloroformed
into a better world, where she can have an angel for a governess, and
feed on strange fruits which will make her all over again, even to her
bones and marrow. Proud she may be, in the sense of respecting
herself; but pride, in the sense of contemning others less gifted than
herself, deserves the two lowest circles of a vulgar woman's Inferno,
where the punishments are Small-pox and Bankruptcy. She who
nips off the end of a brittle courtesy, as one breaks the tip of an icicle,
to bestow upon those whom she ought cordially and kindly to recog-
nize, proclaims the fact that she comes not merely of low blood, but
of bad blood. Consciousness of unquestioned-position makes people
gracious in a proper measure to all ; but, if a woman puts on airs with
SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF STYLE.
293
her real equals, she has something about herself or her family she is
ashamed of, or ought to be. Better too few words from the woman
we love, than too many ; while she is silent, Nature is working for
her ; while she talks, she is working for herself. Love is sparingly
soluble in the words of men ; therefore they speak much of it ; but
one syllable of woman's speech can dissolve more of it than a man's
heart can hold. O. W. Holmes.
In passing judgment upon the characters of men, we ought to try
them by the principles and maxims of their own age, not by those of
another ; for although virtue and vice are at all times the same, man-
ners and customs vary continually. Some parts of Luther's behavior,
which appear to us most culpable, gave no disgust to his contempora-
ries. It was even by some of those qualities, which we are now apt
to blame, that he was fitted for accomplishing the great work which
he undertook. To arouse mankind, when sunk in ignorance or su-
perstition, and to encounter the rage of bigotry, armed with power,
required the utmost vehemence of zeal, as well as a temper daring to
excess. A gentle call would neither have reached nor have excited
those to whom it was addressed. A spirit more amiable, but less vig-
orous than Luther's, would have shrunk back from the dangers which
he braved and surmounted. Robertson.
According to the tradition of his companions, Mohammed was dis-
tinguished by the beauty of his person an outward gift which is sel-
dom despised, except by those to whom it has been refused. Before
he spoke, the orator engaged on his side the affections of a public or
private audience. They applauded his commanding presence, his
majestic aspect, his piercing eye, his gracious smile, his flowing beard,
his countenance that painted every sensation of the soul, and his
gestures that enforced each expression of the tongue. In the familiar
offices of life he scrupulously adhered to the grave and ceremonious
politeness of his country : his respectful attention to the rich and pow-
erful was dignified by his condescension and affability to the poorest
citizens of Mecca ; the frankness of his manner concealed the artifice
of his views ; and the habits of courtesy were imputed to personal
friendship or universal benevolence. His memory was capacious and
retentive, his wit easy and social, his imagination sublime, his judg-
ment clear, rapid, and decisive. He possessed the courage both of
thought and action ; and although his designs might gradually ex-
294 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
pand with his success, the first idea which he entertained of his divine
mission bears the stamp of an original and superior genius. The son
of Abdallah was educated in the bosom of the noblest race, in the use
of the purest dialect of Arabia; and the fluency of his speech was cor-
rected and enhanced by the practice of discreet and seasonable si-
lence. With these powers of eloquence Mohammed was an illiterate
barbarian ; his youth had never been instructed in the arts of reading
and writing ; the common ignorance exempted him from shame or
reproach, but he was reduced to a narrow circle of existence, and de-
prived of those faithful mirrors which reflect to our mind the minds
of sages and heroes. Yet the book of nature and of man was open to
his view ; and some fancy has been indulged in the political and phi-
losophical observations which are ascribed to the Arabian traveler.
He compares the nations and religions of the earth ; discovers the
weakness of the Persian and Roman monarchies ; beholds with pity
and indignation the degeneracy of the times ; and resolves to unite,
under one God and one king, the invincible spirit and primitive virt-
ues of the Arabs. Gibbon.
Do you not think a man may be the wiser I had almost said the
better for going a hundred or two of miles ; and that the mind has more
room in it than most people seem to think, if you will but furnish the
apartments ? I almost envy your last month, being in a very insipid
situation myself; and desire you would not fail to send me some fu r -
niture for my Gothic apartment, which is very cold at present. It will
be the easier task, as you have nothing to do but transcribe your
little red books, if they are not rubbed out ; for I conclude you have
not trusted everything to memory, which is ten times worse than a
lead-pencil : half a word fixed upon or near the spot is worth a cart-
load of recollection. When we trust to the picture that objects draw
of themselves on our mind, we deceive ourselves : without accurate
and particular observation, it is but ill drawn at first, the outlines are
soon blurred, the colors every day grow fainter; and at last, when we
would produce it to anybody, we are forced to supply its defects with
a few strokes of our own imagination. Thos. Gray.
An acre in Middlesex is better than a principality in Utopia. The
smallest actual good is better than the most magnificent promises of
impossibilities. The wise man of the Stoics ~would, no doubt, be a
grander object than a steam-engine. But there are steam-engines.
SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF STYLE. 295
And the wise man of the Stoics is yet to be born. A philosophy which
should enable a man to feel perfectly happy while in agonies of pain,
may be better than a philosophy which assuages pain. But we know
that there are remedies which will assuage pain ; and we know that
the ancient sages liked the toothache just as little as their neighbors.
A philosophy which should extinguish cupidity, would be better than
a philosophy which should devise laws for the security of property.
But it is possible to make laws which shall, to a very great extent, se-
cure property. And we do not understand how any motives which
the ancient philosophy furnished could extinguish cupidity. We know
indeed that the philosophers were no better than other men. From
the testimony of friends as well as of foes, from the confessions of
Epictetus and Seneca, as well as from the sneers of Lucian and the
fierce invectives of Juvenal, it is plain that these teachers of virtue
had all the vices of their neighbors, with the additional vice of hypoc-
risy. Some people may think the object of the Baconian philosophy
a low object, but they can not deny that every year makes an addition
to what Bacon called " fruit." They can not deny that mankind have
made, and are making, great and constant progress in the road which
he pointed out to them. Macaulay.
He [the robin] keeps a strict eye over one's fruit, and knows to a
shade of purple when your grapes have cooked long enough in the
sun. During the severe drought a few years ago, the robins wholly
vanished from my garden. I neither saw nor heard one for three
weeks. Meanwhile a small foreign grape-vine, rather shy of bearing,
seemed to find the dusty air congenial, and, dreaming perhaps of its
sweet Argos across the sea, decked itself with a score or so of fair
bunches. I watched them from day to day till they should have
secreted sugar enough from the sunbeams, and at last made up my
mind that I would celebrate my vintage the next morning. But the
robins, too, had somehow kept note of them. They must have sent
out spies, as did the Jews into the promised land, before I was stirring.
When I went with my basket, at least a dozen of these winged vinta-
gers bustled out from among the leaves, and, alighting on the nearest
trees, interchanged some shrill remarks about me of a derogatory
nature. They had fairly sacked the vine * * * * * I was keep-
ing my grapes a secret to surprise the fair Fidele with, but the robins
made them a profounder secret to her than I had meant. The tat-
tered remnant of a single bunch was all my harvest-home. How pal-
296 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
try it looked at the bottom of my basket, as if a humming-bird had
laid her egg in an eagle's nest ! I could not help laughing ; and the
robins seemed to join heartily in the merriment. There was a native
grape-vine close by, blue with its less refined abundance, but my cun-
ning thieves preferred the foreign flavor. Could I tax them with want
of taste ? ; /. R. Lowell.
The lettuce is to me a most interesting study. Lettuce is like con-
versation : it must be fresh and crisp, so sparkling that you scarcely
notice the bitter in it. Lettuce, like most talkers, is, however, apt to
run rapidly to seed. Blessed is that sort which comes to a head, and
so remains, like a few people I know ; growing more solid, and satis-
factory, and tender at the same time, and whiter at the center, and
crisp in their maturity. Lettuce, like conversation, requires a good
deal of oil, to avoid friction and keep the company smooth : a pinch
of Attic salt, a dash of pepper, a quantity of mustard and vinegar, by
all means, but so mixed that you will notice no sharp contrasts, and a
trifle of sugar. You can put anything, and the more things the better,
into salad, as into a conversation, but everything depends upon the
skill of mixing. I feel that I am in the best society when I am with
lettuce. It is in the select circle of vegetables. C. D. Warner.
I believe there is nothing in nature which so enlaces one's love for
the country, and binds it with willing fetters, as the silver meshes of a
brook. Not for its beauty only, but for its changes ; it is the warbler ;
it is the silent muser ; it is the loiterer ; it is the noisy brawler ; and,
like all brawlers, beats itself into angry foam, and turns in the eddies
demurely penitent, and runs away to sulk under the bush. Brooks,
too, pique terribly a man's audacity, if he has any eye for landscape
gardening. It seems so manageable in all its wildness. Here in the
glen a bit of dam will give a white gush of waterfall, and a pouring
sluice to some overshot wheel ; and the wheel shall have its connect-
ing shaft and whirl of labors. Of course there shall be a little scape-
way for the trout to pass up and down ; a rustic bridge shall spring
across somewhere below, and the stream shall be coaxed into loitering
where you will, under the roots of a beech that leans over the water;
into a broad pool of the pasture close, where the cattle may cool them-
selves in August. D. G. Mitchell.
CHAPTER XII.
THE PARAPHRASE.
Paraphrase is the fuller or clearer reproduction of an
author's complete thought in language ; it is a faithful trans-
lation from the author's language to one's own. \
The paraphrase of another's thought requires the closest
attention to every detail strict criticism of the words and
patient analysis of the grammatical features of expression.
At the same time, that interpretation which stops with
such minute work is as imperfect and inadequate as that
which neglects it ; such a paraphrase is sure to miss all that
gives life and spirit to the original. To the analytical judg-
ment which is able to reproduce, with exactness, every
shade of the author's meaning, must be added a vigor-
ous imagination, by which the interpreter can put himself
side by side with the author, and, looking thus through the
author's eyes, and communing with his secret heart, can
reproduce his inner feelings, his motives, and his ideas.
It is the highest merit of such paraphrase that the para-
phrast efface himself, and let the thought of the original
be perfectly transmitted, through a new medium, to the
reader.
Directions for Paraphrase. From the foregoing re-
marks, the following principles may be deduced :
I. Get the full meaning of every word in the original,
and the collective sense of the whole. When the mind is
(297)
298 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
filled with the thought, express it freely in your own lan-
guage, avoiding as far as possible the peculiar wording and
construction of the original sentences.
2. Seek to reproduce the thought that is expressed and
implied in the original, and no more. The words of the
author should be avoided, except in those few cases where
there is no fitting substitute ; but an allusion, or a phrase-
epithet, or the suggestiveness of a particle, belongs prop-
erly to what is embodied in the passage, and must in some
way enter into the reproduction.
3. Let all changes be made for the sake of greater clear-
ness. Changes of figurative expressions are allowable;
and in the translation of poetry, it is unadvisable to follow
all the poetical flights of the original.
4. Guard against weakening the thought of the original
by verbosity; but do not, for the sake of condensation,
sacrifice fullness or clearness.
5. Endeavor to reproduce any peculiar excellences of
the author's style; its humor, its elegance, its dignity.
Above all try to maintain unimpaired the tone and spirit
of the original ; this is a point of great importance. Every
literary work strikes a certain key-note, elevated or collo-
quial, humorous or severe ; and while it is often an elegance
as well as an advantage to rise on occasion to a higher
strain, it is unfortunate to fall below the adopted standard.
The following are examples of paraphrase :
Original: For I was alive without the law once, but when the
commandment came, sin revived, and I died. St. Paul.
Paraphrase : "I was alive without the law once," says Paul; "the
natural play of all the forces and desires in me went on smoothly
enough so long as I did not attempt to introduce order and regulation
among them." Matthew Arnold.
Original: One may smile and smile, and be a villain. Shakespeare.
THE PARAPHRASE.
299
Paraphrase : A man may affect the utmost candor and good nature
even while plotting the deepest iniquity.
Original: Praise ye the Lord. Praise ye the Lord from the heav-
ens : praise him in the heights. Praise ye him, all his angels : praise
ye him, all his hosts. Praise ye him, sun and moon: praise him,
all ye stars of light. Praise him, ye heavens of heavens, and ye
waters that<be above the heavens." Psalm 148.
Paraphrase : Praise ye the Lord ! on every height
Songs to His glory raise !
Ye angel-hosts, ye stars of night,
Join in immortal praise !
O heaven of heavens ! let praise far-swelling
From all thine orbs be sent !
Join in the strain, ye waters, dwelling
Above the firmament ! Mrs. Hemans.
SELECTION FOR PARAPHRASE.
THE LITTLE PEOPLE OF THE SNOW.
Alice. ONE of your old-world stories, Uncle John,
Such as you tell us by the winter fire,
Till we all wonder it is grown so late.
Uncle John. The story of the witch that ground to death
Two children in her mill, or will you have
The tale of Goody Cutpurse ?
Alice. Nay now, nay ;
Those stories are too childish, Uncle John,
Too childish even for little Willy here,
And I am older, two good years, than he ;
No, let us have a tale of elves that ride,
By night, with jingling reins, or gnomes of the mine,
Or water-fairies, such as you know how
To spin, till Willy's eyes forget to wink,
3OO COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
And good Aunt Mary, busy as she is,
Lays down her knitting.
Uncle John. Listen to me, then.
'Twas in the olden time, long, long ago,
And long before the great oak at our door
Was yet an acorn, on a mountain's side
Lived, with his wife, a cottager. They dwelt
Beside a glen and near a dashing brook,
A pleasant spot in spring, where first the wren
Was heard to chatter, and, among the grass,
Flowers opened earliest ; but when winter came,
That little brook was fringed with other flowers,
White flowers, with crystal leaf and stem, that grew
In clear November nights. And, later still,
That mountain-glen was filled with drifted snows
From side to side, that one might walk across ;
While, many a fathom deep, below, the brook
Sang to itself, and leaped and trotted on
Unfrozen, o'er its pebbles, toward the vale.
Alice. A mountain-side, you said ; the Alps, perhaps,
Or our own Alleghanies.
Uncle John. Not so fast,
My young geographer, for then the Alps,
With their broad pastures, haply were untrod
Of herdsman's foot, and never human voice
Had sounded in the woods that overhang
Our Alleghany's streams. I think it wag
Upon the slopes of the great Caucasus,
Or where the rivulets of Ararat
Seek the Armenian vales. That mountain rose
So high, that, on its top, the winter-snow
Was never melted, and the cottagers
Among the summer-blossoms, far below,
Saw its white peaks in August from their door.
One little maiden, in that cottage-home,
Dwelt with her parents, light of heart and limb,
Bright, restless, thoughtless, flitting here and there,
Like sunshine on the uneasy ocean waves,
And sometimes she forgot what she was bid,
As Alice does.
THE PARAPHRASE. 30 1
Alice. Or Willy, quite as oft.
Uncle John. But you are older, Alice, two good years,
And should be wiser. Eva was the name
Of this young maiden, now twelve summers old.
Now you must know that, in those early times,
When autumn days grew pale, there came a troop
Of childlike forms from that cold mountain-top ;
With trailing garments through the air they came,
Or walked the ground with girded loins, and threw
Spangles of silvery frost upon the grass,
And edged the brook with glistening parapets,
And built it crystal bridges, touched the pool,
And turned its face to glass ; or, rising thence,
They shook from their full laps the soft, light snow,
And buried the great earth, as autumn winds
Bury the forest-floor in heaps of leaves.
A beautiful race were they, with baby brows,
And fair, bright locks, and voices like the sound
Of steps on the crisp snow, in which they talked
With man, as friend with friend. A merry sight
It was, when, crowding round the traveler,
They smote him with their heaviest snow-flakes, flung
Needles of frost in handfuls at his cheeks,
And, of the light wreaths of his smoking breath,
Wove a white fringe for his brown beard, and laughed
Their slender laugh to see him wink and grin,
And make grim faces as he floundered on.
But, when spring came on, what terror reigned
Among these Little People of the Snow !
To them the sun's warm beams were shafts of fire,
And the soft south-wind was the wind of death.
Away they flew, all with a pretty scowl
Upon their childish faces, to the north,
Or scampered upward to the mountain's top,
And there defied their enemy, the Spring;
Skipping and dancing on the frozen peaks,
And molding little snow-balls in their palms,
And rolling them, to crush her flowers below,
Down the steep snow-fields.
3O2 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
EXAMPLE OF PARAPHRASE.
BY A PUPIL.
A CHEERFUL little family had gathered round that winter fire.
The kind, motherly aunt sat at one corner of the hearth, busy with
her knitting. Near her was Willy, her nephew, more asleep than
awake ; and, just opposite, her husband had settled himself comfort-
ably, with Alice at his side.
"Now, Uncle John," said the little girl, "we wish to hear one of
your best stories, such as you tell us beside the fire, in the long even-
ings, and we all forget that our bed-hour has come and passed."
" What shall it be, little one ? There is the story of Goody Cut-
purse ; or perhaps the old witch who ground two children in her mill
would please you better ? "
" Now, Uncle John, you know I am too old for such stories. Why,
even Willy is above them, and he is two whole years younger than I
am. No, no ; they will not do ; tell us something about those won-
derful gnomes of the mine, or those elves that ride with jingling reins,
or water-fairies, and before you have done Aunt Mary's knitting will
be dropped, and Willy's eyes will shine in wondering surprise."
After bidding them give close attention, the kind uncle began:
" Many, many years ago, and long before there was any appearance
of the grand old oak that for many decades has shaded our home,
there lived, on a mountain's side, a cottager with his wife and daugh-
ter. Near their cottage was a glen and the boldest of clear brooks.
What a pleasant place in spring ! then the lovely flowers bloomed,
and the pleasant chatting of little wren made lively melody about ; but
autumn came, all was changed : gay flowers no longer decked the
banks of the dashing brook ; for on the clear November nights, the
wizard Frost supplanted them with others of rare whiteness, whose
stems and leaves were beaded with purest pearls. Winter came si-
lently on. Soon the little glen was filled with snow, which drifted
from the high mountains on each side, forming a safe foot-path across
the narrow valley ; but far beneath all this snow and ice, the brook
merrily wended its way over its pebbly bed, towards the vale."
" Did you not say a mountain's side, Uncle John? Was it in our
own Alleghanies, or in the celebrated Alps of Central Europe?"
THE PARAPHRASE. 303
" It was in neither, Alice; the great pastures of the Alps were then
unknown to the herdsman, and human voice had never waked an
echo in the forests that shadow the Alleghany's streams. I think this
happened on the slopes of the Caucasus, or where the slender rivulets
flow down Mount Ararat's side in search of the fair Armenian val-
leys. The mountain rose far above the snow line; its top was cov-
ered with snow and ice, even while the lower slopes and base were
rich in summer fruits and flowers.
"Little Eva, now twelve years old, dwelt in that cottage with her
parents. She was a bright, merry, restless child, flitting about from
place to place, like sunshine on the ever-moving waves of ocean. I
must say, however, that she was very thoughtless, and sometimes for-
got what her mother had bid her, just as you do, Alice."
"Willy, too, is sometimes thoughtless, Uncle John."
"Yes, Alice: but you have yourself declared that Willy is two
whole years younger than you, and, therefore, is not expected to be
so thoughtful. Once every year, when the beautiful autumn days had
faded into the cold gray of winter, a troop of childish forms came
down from that bleak mountain-top. They came through the air
with trailing garments ; or, with loins girt round, they walked the bare
earth, and cast abroad over the withered grass glistening spangles of
silvery frost. At their touch the pool became a polished mirror. On
the edges of the brook they built shining ramparts ; across it, swung
crystal bridges; or rising, they shook, from laps heaped high, the
feathery snow-flakes, and buried, as do the leaves of autumn the
ground below them, the old earth under a soft, white mantle of snow.
"These little people were of loveliest form and feature; abundant
fair hair shaded their young brows, and their slender, childish voices
could be heard talking in friendly tones with man. The sight of
some lonely traveler was a signal for their merriest pranks. They
would gather around him in great numbers, pelt him with their largest
snow-flakes, prick his cheeks with frost-needles, and of his warm
breath make a white fringe for his dark beard, a curious combina-
tion of light and shade. Their delight grew wild to see the poor vic-
tim give signs of painful annoyance, and as they saw him stumble on,
their baby voices rang out upon the icy air in happiest laughter, like
the tinkling of silver bells." * * * * *
304 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
PARAPHRASE I.
Alice. THAT, too, must have been
A merry sight to look at.
Uncle John. You are right,
But I must speak of graver matters now.
Midwinter was the time, and Eva stood,
Within the cottage, all prepared to dare
The outer cold, with ample furry robe
Close-belted round her waist, and boots of fur,
And a broad kerchief, which her mother's hand
Had closely drawn about her ruddy cheek.
"Now, stay not long abroad," said the good dame,
" For sharp is the outer air, and, mark me well,
Go not upon the snow beyond the spot
Where the great linden bounds the neighboring field."
The little maiden promised, and went forth,
And climbed the rounded snow-swells firm with frost
Beneath her feet, and slid, with balancing arms,
Into the hollows. Once, as up a drift
She slowly rose, before her, in the way,
She saw a little creature, lily-cheeked,
With flowing flaxen locks, and faint blue eyes,
That gleamed like ice, and robe that only seemed
Of a more shadowy whiteness than her cheek.
On a smooth bank she sat.
Alice. She must have been
One of your Little People of the Snow.
Uncle John. She was so, and, as Eva now drew near,
The tiny creature bounded from her seat ;
"And come," she said, "my pretty friend; to-day
We will be playmates. I have watched thee long,
And seen how well thou lov'st to walk these drifts,
And scoop their fair sides into little cells,
And carve them with quaint figures, huge-limbed men,
Lions, and griffins. We will have, to-day,
A merry ramble over these bright fields,
And thou shalt see what thou hast never seen."
THE PARAPHRASE. 305
PARAPHRASE II.
ON went the pair, until they reached the bound
Where the great linden stood, set deep in snow,
Up to the lower branches. " Here we stop,"
Said Eva, " for my mother has my word
That I will go no farther than this tree."
Then the snow-maiden laughed: "And what is this ?
This fear of the pure snow, the innocent snow,
That never harmed aught living ? Thou mayst roam
For leagues beyond this garden, and return
In safety; here the grim wolf never prowls,
And here the eagle of our mountain -crags
Preys not in winter. I will show the way,
And bring thee safely home. Thy mother, sure,
Counseled thee thus because thou hadst no guide."
By such smooth words was Eva won to break
Her promise, and went on with her new friend,
Over the glistening snow and down a bank
Where a white shelf, wrought by the eddying wind,
Like to a billow's crest in the great sea,
Curtained an opening. " Look, we enter here."
And straight, beneath the fair o'erhanging fold,
Entered the little pair that hill of snow,
Walking along a passage with white walls,
And a white vault above where snow-stars shed
A wintry twilight. Eva moved in awe,
And held her peace, but the snow-maiden smiled,
And talked, and tripped along, as, down the way,
Deeper they went into that mountainous drift.
PARAPHRASE III.
WHEN, at last,
They reached the outer air, the clear north breathed
A bitter cold, from which she shrank with dread,
But the snow-maiden bounded as she felt
Rhet. 26.
3C6 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
The cutting blast, and uttered shouts of joy,
And skipped, with boundless glee, from drift to drift,
And danced round Eva, as she labored up
The mounds of snow. "Ah me ! I feel my eyes
Grow heavy," Eva said; "they swim with sleep;
I can not walk for utter weariness,
And I must rest a moment on this bank,
But let it not be long." As thus she spoke,
In half formed words, she sank on the smooth snow,
With closing lids. Her guide composed the robe
About her limbs, and said, "A pleasant spot
Is this to slumber in ; on such a couch
Oft have I slept away the winter night,
And had the sweetest dreams." So Eva slept,
But slept in death ; for when the power of frost
Locks up the motions of the living frame,
The victim passes to the realm of Death
Through the dim porch of sleep. The little guide,
Watching beside her, saw the hues of life
Fade from the fair smooth brow and rounded cheek,
As fades the crimson from a morning cloud,
Till they were white as marble, and the breath
Had ceased to come and go, yet knew she not
At first that this was death. But when she marked
How deep the paleness was, how motionless
That once lithe form, a fear came over her.
She strove to wake the sleeper, plucked her robe,
And shouted in her ear, but all in vain ;
The life had passed away from those young limbs.
PARAPHRASE IV.
THEN the snow-maiden raised a wailing cry,
Such as a dweller in some lonely wild,
Sleepless through all the long December night,
Hears when the mournful East begins to blow.
But suddenly was heard the sound of steps,
Grating on the crisp snow ; the cottagers
THE PARAPHRASE. 307
Were seeking Eva ; from afar they saw
The twain, and hurried toward them. As they came,
With gentle chidings ready on their lips,
And marked that deathlike sleep, and heard the tale
Of the snow-maiden, mortal anguish fell
Upon their hearts, and bitter words of grief
And blame were uttered: "Cruel, cruel one,
To tempt our daughter thus, and cruel we,
Who suffered her to wander forth alone
In this fierce cold ! " They lifted the dear child,
And bore her home and chafed her tender limbs,
And strove, by all the simple arts they knew,
To make the chilled blood move, and win the breath
Back to her bosom ; fruitlessly they strove ;
The little maid was dead. In blank despair
They stood, and gazed at her who never more
Should look on them. "Why die we not with her?"
They said; "without her, life is bitterness."
Now came the funeral-day ; the simple folk
Of all that pastoral region gathered round
To share the sorrow of the cottagers.
They carved a way into the mound of snow
To the glen's side, and dug a little grave
In the smooth slope, and, following the bier,
In long procession from the silent door,
Chanted a sad and solemn melody :
" Lay her away to rest within the ground.
Yea, lay her down whose pure and innocent life
Was spotless as these snows ; for she was reared
In love, and passed in love life's pleasant spring,
And all that now our tenderest love can do
Is to give burial to her lifeless limbs."
PARAPHRASE V.
THEY paused. A thousand slender voices round,
Like echoes softly flung from rock and hill,
Took up the strain, and all the hollow air
Seemed mourning for the dead ; for, on that day,
3O8 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
The Little People of the Snow had come,
From mountain-peak, and cloud, and icy hall,
To Eva's burial. As the murmur died,
The funeral-train renewed the solemn chant :
"Thou, Lord, hast taken her to be with Eve,
Whose gentle name was given her. Even so,
For so thy wisdom saw that it was best
For her and us. We bring our bleeding hearts
And ask the touch of healing from Thy hand,
As, with submissive tears, we render back
The lovely and beloved to Him who gave."
They ceased. Again the plaintive murmur rose.
From shadowy skirts of low-hung cloud it came,
And wide white fields, and fir-trees capped with snow,
Shivering to the sad sounds. They sank away
To silence in the dim-seen, distant woods.
The little grave was closed ; the funeral-train
Departed ; winter wore away ; the spring
Steeped, with her quickening rains, the violet-tufts,
By fond hands planted where the maiden slept.
But, after Eva's burial, never more
The Little People of the Snow were seen
By human eye, nor ever human ear
Heard from their lips articulate speech again ;
For a decree went forth to cut them off,
Forever, from communion with mankind.
The winter-clouds, along the mountain-side,
Rolled downward toward the vale, but no fair form
Leaned from their folds, and, in the icy glens,
And aged woods, under snow-loaded pines,
Where once they made their haunt, was emptiness.
But ever, when the wintry days drew near,
Around that little grave, in the long night,
Frost-wreaths were laid, and tufts of silvery rime,
In shape like blades and blossoms of the field,
As one would scatter flowers upon a bier.
W. C. BRYANT.
CHAPTER XIII.
PROSE COMPOSITION.
Prose. The term Prose is applied to all composition
which is not in verse. It means the ordinary, straightfor-
ward manner of discourse, in distinction from the inverted
order so common in poetry.
Although no exact classification has been made of the
varieties of prose composition, the principal forms are Dis-
courses, Letters, Essays, Treatises, Travels, History, Fic-
tion, Biography, News.
DISCOURSES.
A Discourse differs from other kinds of composition in
the fact that it is intended to be read or spoken to the
persons addressed, instead of being read by them.
The principal kinds of discourses are Orations, Ad-
dresses, Sermons, Lectures, and Speeches. Conversation is
discourse between two or more people; its value as a prep-
aration to written discourse is beyond estimate. It widens
one's view of his subject, puts him in better possession of
his thought, teaches him how to communicate it, and gives
him the art of putting it so as to make it most effective.
An Oration is a discourse of the most formal and elab-
orate kind. It is generally in commemoration of some
great event, or in eulogy of some distinguished person, or
on an occasion justifying the most careful preparation. It
(309)
310 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
is, therefore, never familiar and colloquial, but graceful,
polished, and dignified, disclosing rare scholarship, and
abounding, often, in classic allusion. Everett's oration on
"Washington" is a fine example.
An Address is nearly akin to an oration, but somewhat
less formal in character, and much less restricted in regard
to the occasion and the subject.
The occasions demanding an address are many and vari-
ous. The Governor of a State, the President of a College,
or the President of an Association, on entering upon the
duties of his office, usually delivers an address.
A Sermon is a formal discourse delivered by a clergy-
man before a religious body. It is founded usually on some
passage of Scripture, and is intended for religious instruc-
tion. No other species of oral discourse ranks with the
sermon in variety and dignity of topics, and in the impor-
tance of the motives arrayed and of the ends presented.
A Lecture is a discourse on any subject, secular or re-
ligious. Lectures are usually formal or methodical dis-
courses, intended for instruction, though not a few are
meant to amuse, and some to persuade. Those whose
sole object is to create amusement, and that not of the
most elevated kind, have no legitimate claim to the title
of lecture.
A Speech is always intended to be spoken, and it is
limited to no particular subject or occasion.
The most common places for making speeches are legis-
lative assemblies, courts of justice, and various kinds of
popular conventions, political, educational, and religious.
The subject-matter of these speeches is usually thoroughly
prepared, but commonly the speeches are not written out
the wording of the thought being left to the occasion;
PROSE COMPOSITION. 3 I I
sometimes, however, thought and expression are inspired
by the occasion, and the speech is delivered extemporane-
ously, composed at the time and in the act of delivery.
In the construction of all the more formal kinds of dis-
course certain principles are to be observed. First, the
discourse must maintain a certain unity of subject, the
topics introduced must have some common bond of union,
connecting and subordinating them all to one leading
thought or purpose. Secondly, it should be adapted to the
hearers, both in the subject selected and in the manner of
treating it. Thirdly, it should be symmetrical, the parts
should be related each to each in due order and proportion.
The parts of a discourse are : (i) The introduction ; (2) The
statement of the subject ; (3) The main discourse ; (4) The
conclusion.
1 . The Introduction, or Exordium, is one of the most im-
portant and one of the most difficult parts of a discourse.
Its object is to render the hearers well disposed, attentive,
and open to persuasion. It should be easy and natural,
accurate, calm, and modest ; further, it should not antici-
pate any of the main points of the discourse.
2. The Statement should be made in few and simple
words, and with the utmost possible clearness.
3. The Main Discourse must be left much to the judg-
ment and invention of the writer or speaker. No two sub-
jects ordinarily are to be handled precisely alike ; no two
writers handle the same topic exactly in the same way
under different circumstances ; but whatever be the method
of treatment, the discussion should be honest and thorough.
4. The Conclusion, or Peroration, like the Introduction,
requires special care. The object in the conclusion is to
leave as strong an impression as possible upon the minds
of the audience.
312 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
LETTERS.
Letters are written communications addressed by the
writer to some other person or persons. Not every one
can reasonably aspire to write histories or works of fiction,
or any of the other varieties of composition ; but every one
writes letters, and the difference between a letter well writ-
ten and one badly written is so great as to demand the most
careful consideration of the subject.
Usually letters are upon matters purely personal and
private, and are prompted by friendship or by business;
sometimes they are upon topics of general interest, and are
thought worthy of publication. The letters of distinguished
persons, from the universal desire to learn all that can be
known of the writer's character and situation, by reason of
the importance of the subject discussed or by the exquisite
style in which his thoughts are couched, have been gathered
into volumes, and form a valuable part of literature.
Letters should be natural and simple in style; a stiff and
labored manner is to be as much condemned as an affecta-
tion of brilliancy. The style of a letter should not be too
highly polished ; it ought to be neat and correct, smoothly
flowing, and graceful through sprightliness and wit.
The Form. In writing a letter there are five things to
consider the heading, the address, the body of the letter,
the subscription, or conclusion, and the superscription.
The Heading includes two points, namely, the place
where, and the time when, the letter is written. If you
write from a city, you should give the street and number
as well as the city and State. If you- write from a small
country place, give your post-office address, the name of
PROSE COMPOSITION. 313
the county, and that of the State. The date consists of the
month, the day of the month, and the year.
The heading is usually begun on the first ruled line, and
a little to the left of the middle of the page. If the head-
ing is short, it njay stand on one line. If it occupies more
than one line, the second line should begin farther to the
right than the first, and the third farther to the right than
the second. If the heading occupies more than one line,
the date should stand upon a line by itself. The number
of the house, the day of the month, and the year, are writ-
ten in figures, the rest in words. Each important word
begins with a capital letter, each item is set off by a com-
ma, and the whole closes with a period. Thus:
Scioto,-0hio, Nov. 2, 1886.
Lebanon, Ky.,
June 4, 1875.
221 W. Franklin St.,
(Richmond, Va.,
July 8, 1880.
Glendower, Albemarle Co., Va.,
November 10, 1887.
The Address consists of the name, the title, and the
place of business or the residence of the one addressed, and
the salutation. It is necessary in addressing a letter to
know what title to give. A young lad usually has the
prefix Master; an unmarried woman, Miss; a married
woman or widow, Mrs.; a man who has no other title,
Rhet. 27.
314 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
Mr. Messrs, precedes the names of several gentlemen.
Prefix Dr. to the name of a physician, or place the title
M. D. after the name. Esquire, a title of dignity next
below a knight, is prefixed to the name of a justice of
the peace and other magistrates, and, by, courtesy, is ex-
tended to men of the liberal professions and pursuits.
Prefix Rev. to the name of a clergyman ; Rt. Rev. to that
of a Bishop ; Rev. Dr. or Rev. before that of a Doctor of
Divinity, and D. D. after it. To the name of the Pres-
ident, to that of a governor or an embassador, prefix His
Excellency ; to that of a cabinet officer, a member of con-
gress, a member of a State legislature, a law judge, or a
mayor, prefix Hon. The prefix Hon. extinguishes the
title of Esquire after the name, but not any title of special
honor, as LL. D. Guard against an excessive use of
titles the higher implies the lower. When one reaches
D. D. or LL. D., he drops his A. B. or his A. M. It is
customary, however, to retain both the two higher titles,
D. D. and LL. D., written in the order conferred.
The President of the United States is addressed thus;
on the outside of the letter :
To the (President,
Executive Mansion,
Washington, f D. C.
Inside :
Mr. (President, I have the honor, etc.
Salutations vary with the station of the one addressed,
or the writer's degree of intimacy with him ; as, Sir, Dear
Sir, My dear Sir, Madam, Dear Madam, Rev. Sir, My
dear Madam, My dear Dr. Finlay, My dear Son, etc.
PROSE COMPOSITION. 3 1 5
The address follows the heading, beginning on the next
line, and standing on the left side of the page ; or, if the
letter is written to an intimate friend, or if it is an official
letter, the address may be placed at the bottom after the
conclusion. In other letters, especially those on ordinary
business, it should be placed at the top. Never omit it
from a letter that is not written in the third person. If
the address occupies more than one line, the initial words
of these lines should be written each a little to the right
of the preceding, as in the heading. Every important
word in the address should begin with a capital letter.
Each item of it should be set off by a comma, and the
whole should close with a period. The important words
in the salutation should begin with a capital letter, and
the whole be followed by a colon or a comma. Thus:
Hon. John W. (Daniel,
Washington, (D. C.
(Dear Sir :
We have
Mr. James F. Harrison,
(Pres. (Board of Commerce,
72,0 fine St., St. Louis, Mo.
My dear Sir, Your
Messrs. Hough ton, Mifflin, <r Co.,
4 fark Street,
(Boston, Mass.
Gentlemen :
Your letter of the 4th instant
3l6 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
The Body of the Letter. Begin the body of the let-
ter at the end of the salutation, and on the same line or
on the line below ; if on the same line, follow the saluta-
tion by a comma followed by a dash. Paragraph and
punctuate as in other kinds of writing. Write neatly and
with care; the letter "bespeaks the man." Letters of
friendship should be natural and familiar. It is a great
mistake in writing such letters to suppose that only the
marvelous is worth writing about. It is the incidents of
every-day life, the characteristic little acts and speeches
of the members of the household, that one longs to hear
about when away. Business letters should be brief, and
the sentences short and to the point. In formal notes the
third person is generally used instead of the first and sec-
ond; there is no heading, no introduction, no signature,
only the name of the place and the date at the bottom,
on the left side of the page. Thus :
Mr. and Mrs. James ( R. Field invite Mr. H. M . Logan
to meet their niece, Miss Gertrude Townsend, on Friday
evening at six o'clock.
2,2 Genesee Av., Oct. 2.
Mr. H. M. Logan will be most happy to accept Mr. and
Mrs. Jas. ( R. Field's kind invitation to meet Miss Town=
send, Friday evening.
144 Olive Street, Oct. 2.
The Conclusion consists of the complimentary close and
the signature. The complimentary close consists of the
closing words of respect or affection, and is expressed in
many forms; thus, Your sincere friend ; -^our loving daugh-
ter; Yours truly; Respectfully yours ; Very truly yours, etc.
PROSE COMPOSITION.
317
The signature consists of your Christian name and your
surname. In addressing a stranger, write your Christian
name in full. A lady writing to a stranger should prefix
her title in parenthesis (Miss) or (Mrs.) to her own
name.
The conclusion should begin near the middle of the first
line below the body of the letter, and each line should
begin a little to the right of the preceding, as in the head-
ing and the address. Begin each line of it with a capital
letter, and punctuate as in other writing, following the
whole with a period.
The Superscription is the address upon the envelope.
It is the same as the address, consisting of the name of
the one addressed, the titles, the number of the house,
the street, the city, and the state. The name should be
about midway between the top and the bottom of the en-
velope, and about equally distant from the two ends.
The spaces between the lines should be the same, and the
initial of each line should be placed to the right of the
one preceding, as in the address, the last line ending near
the lower right-hand corner. Thus :
Hon. Chas. (R. Newcomb,
Fayette Av.,
Louisville,
Ky.
Both safety of carriage and respect for the one addressed,
demand that the superscription be written in a legible hand.
3l8 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
ESSAYS.
An Essay is a composition treating a subject in a man-
ner somewhat formal and systematic. Essays vary in size
from short compositions to elaborate and lengthened works,
treating the subject with great fullness and dignity. Of
this latter class Macaulay's "Essays," and those of Carlyle,
are illustrations.
No other species of writing ranges over so wide and
varied a field of topics, and none other allows such freedom
and diversity in the handling; hence the great number of
essayists a number almost identical with that of writers,
for essays are written by almost every one who is engaged
in any kind of authorship. Essays now usually appear
first as contributions to magazines. If they have met with
favor in this form, they are sometimes collected and pub-
lished in separate volumes.
TREATISES.
A Treatise implies a more formal and methodical treat-
ment than an essay, but is not necessarily a full and elab-
orate discussion of the subject, though it is expected to
embrace the whole. An essay, on the other hand, may
select particular parts of a subject; it may also abound in
ornaments and figures, and reveal the personality of the
writer, while a treatise is usually plain in style, rarely ad-
mitting rhetorical ornament ; it aims to set forth the bare
facts and truths of a subject, and is, therefore, compara-
tively impersonal. Treatises are usually upon some definite
branch of science, as astronomy, botany, algebra, arithme-
tic, rhetoric, logic, and the like.
PROSE COMPOSITION. 319
TRAVELS.
A Book of Travels is a work describing, or picturing,
places and peoples visited by the author. Since he tells
us things which we can not see for ourselves, the traveler
should be specially accurate in regard to facts generally ;
we look to him for the exact truth. While we can not
expect works written in the haste and excitement of actual
travel to have a finished and elegant style, yet there are
books written by travelers of the present day that abound
in passages of eloquent description, exciting narrative, and
delightful humor.
HISTORY.
A History (from the Greek, historein, to learn, to know
by inquiry), is a narrative of events arranged in a methodical
manner, so as to show the connection of cause and effect.
As the proper office of the historian is to record truth for the
instruction of mankind, the fundamental qualities required
of him are impartiality, fidelity, and accuracy. He must
not enter into faction, nor give scope to affection ; but, cool
and dispassionate, he must present to his readers a faithful
copy of the men and the events that have influenced the
destinies of nations.
In the conduct and management of his subject, the his-
torian should aim at unity; his work should not consist of
separate, unconnected parts, but should be bound together
by some connecting principle, producing the effect of some-
thing that is one, whole, and entire. In his effort to ren-
der his narration agreeable he must not neglect chronolog-
ical order, but must be able to form some connection
among the affairs which he relates, so as to introduce them
32O COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC,
in a proper train. His style should be grave and dignified;
no affectation of pertness or of wit is allowed. In the ap-
plication of the lessons of History to questions agitating
the world at the time of the historian, there is need, at one
time, for the most vigorous and logical exercise of his rea-
soning faculty, at another, for the spacious flights of his
imagination, and throughout a demand for a wording which
shall range from dry and matter-of-fact up through all grades
of expression to the ornate and elegant.
The delineation of character is one of the most splendid
parts of historical composition ; it is, at the same time, one
of the most difficult. Some historians have given us pen
portraits that are masterly and enduring ; others have painted
in colors already fading.
It is necessary that the soundest morality pervade all
historical writing. Both in describing character, and in
relating transactions, the author should always show him-
self to be on the side of virtue.
Chronicles, Annals, Memoirs, and Biographies are spe-
cies of historical composition.
A Chronicle is a history in which the events are stated
with special reference to the order of time.
Annals are facts arranged in strict chronological order,
and divided into distinct years.
A Memoir is a species of history composed from per-
sonal experiences and memory. This species of composi-
tion does not demand the same research or the same varied
information that is found in history ; the author relates only
that with which he himself has been connected, or that
which has fallen under his personal observation. The writer
is not subject to the same laws of dignity and gravity. He
PROSE COMPOSITION. 321
may talk freely of himself; he may descend into the most
familiar anecdotes.
A Biography is the history of an individual, setting be-
fore us what manner of man he was, and what he did. The
biography of one in any way eminent in public life is largely
a history of his times. Biography deals much with char-
acter ; it abounds in personal incidents and anecdotes, which
afford the reader the opportunity of seeing the characters
and tempers, the virtues and failings, of eminent men ; and
which admit him into a thorough and intimate acquaintance
with such persons. In such work the biographer is helped
by the letters of his subject. In these the man speaks more
fully and frankly than in his public efforts. His hopes and
fears, his struggles, defeats, and triumphs, are apt to find
expression in his letters, and in these he displays his inner
self to us. And so, especially in recent times, letters form
a very large part of biographies often the most valuable
part.
In writing biographical sketches, the following outline
will serve as a guide:
Ancestry.
Birth time ; place.
Education (all formative influences) home; school; books; nat-
ure ; public events ; travel.
Orderly statement of the chief events in which he participated,
and the part he took in them.
Death time ; place ; circumstances.
Estimate of character personal appearance; mental qualities;
moral qualities ; influence on the world ; comparison with others.
An Autobiography is a biography of an individual writ-
ten by himself. The writer records the actions of his pri-
vate as well as his public life; and explains, as no other
can, the motives and circumstances which controlled him.
322 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
FICTION.
A Work of Fiction is a production which depicts the
lives of imaginary persons. It sometimes deals with real
men and women, but, even in this case, it does not claim
to relate what they actually said and did.
The names most commonly given to works of fiction are
Novels and Romances. These terms are for the most part
used interchangeably; but, strictly speaking, a novel is a
fictitious narrative, designed to represent the operation of
human passions, especially that of love ; while a romance
is a kind of novel of an extravagant nature, which treats
of wild or startling adventures, particularly in love or war
Fiction has to do with the motives that influence persons,
with the behavior of the persons under such influence, and
with the development of character under the conditions im-
posed. In its portrayal of character, it seeks to give a just
insight into human nature ; by means of the dialogue, in
which the novel abounds, each person reveals his peculiar-
ities and furnishes us a picture of himself so true as to re-
quire only a few touches by the author to make it as vivid
as reality.
Some novels teach us much concerning the customs,
habits, manners, domestic and social life, and even the
history of the people during the age in which the scenes
are laid. Other novels, with a higher purpose, aim to in-
terest us in classes of society whose condition should be
improved, to lay open, to the attention of the public, certain
evils, and, if need be, to bring legislation into play to re-
dress them. The novels written by Chas. Dickens are of
this class.
Fiction is one of the latest departments of literature, yet
one of the most extensive. Its growth is wonderful ; sup-
PROSE COMPOSITION. 323
ply keeps pace with an ever increasing demand. Though
fiction gives insight into human nature, teaches history,
lays bare the shams of social life, probes festering evils,
abounds in striking thoughts and rare descriptions, and
possesses all the wealth of style, yet it should not be read
to the neglect of other branches of literature. The youth
of our country should be restrained in novel reading; it
should be read as an amusement and a relaxation, only
alternating with more solid reading.
The greater part of the fiction now published and read
has no other object than mere pleasure, and that not of a
pure kind ; the reading of such novels is a mere mental
dissipation, unfitting the reader to enjoy literature of a
more elevated kind, or to properly perform the active
duties of life. To become intensely alive to fancied suffer-
ing, and be kindled to warm sympathy with fictitious per-
sonages without opportunity to express these feelings by
acts, and to do what he is moved to do, are unhealthful,
and tend to deaden him to the woes and sufferings of the
real world.
NEWS.
News forms a most extensive branch of literature. Next
to letter-writing, there is no species of composition of which
so much is done.
The daily newspaper contains the only literature that
reaches a large proportion of the people, and it should
therefore embody the best qualities of literary style. Very
generally, however, this is not the case.
One of the most common and serious faults of news>
writers is the use of slang words and phrases. This is too
often mistaken for wit.
324 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
Newspapers are frequently below the standard of pure
English ; the pupil should therefore bear in mind that words
are not to be accepted simply because they are used by the
morning journals.
In addition to the use of pure, grammatical English, the
qualities of style to be cultivated by a writer of news are
accuracy y condensation, and clearness.
1. Accuracy in a news item has a twofold signification.
The language should accurately convey the meaning which
the writer intends, and the facts themselves should be
undeniable. A careful selection of words, and a proper
construction of sentences, will enable the writer to express
himself so that his meaning can not be mistaken.
2. Condensation requires that the writer should give
his information in the briefest manner consistent with clear-
ness of statement. It does not imply that he should sup-
press the details of an occurrence, for these the reader will
demand. He should, however, state a fact but once, and
that in concise language.
3. Clearness is most imperatively demanded of a news
writer. People read news in haste, hence the meaning
should be so plain that "he may run that readeth it."
The business of writing news is very different from that
of writing editorials. The one simply records the facts of
the day ; the other discusses those facts, and gives opinions
about them, commending or condemning, explaining or
defending, persuading and exhorting, assigning causes and
suggesting remedies. The one writes with special reference
to accuracy, clearness, and brevity ; the other employs al-
most every grace and excellence of style known to rhetoric,
and needs for his task a knowledge as varied as the entire
range of subjects included in the scope of his paper.
PROSE COMPOSITION. 325
EXERCISES IN PARAPHRASE AND COMPOSITION.
GRACE DARLING.
AMONG the dwellers in the silent fields
The natural heart is touched, and public way
And crowded street resound with ballad strains,
Inspired by ONE whose very name bespeaks
Favor divine, exalting human love ;
Whom, since her birth on bleak Northumbria's coast,
Known unto few, but prized as far as known,
A single Act endears to high and low
Through the whole land to Manhood, moved in spite
Of the world's freezing cares to generous Youth
To Infancy, that lisps her praise to Age,
Whose eye reflects it, glistening through a tear
Of tremulous admiration. Such true fame
Awaits her now; but, verily, good deeds
Do not imperishable record find
Save in the rolls of heaven, where hers may live
A theme for angels, when they celebrate
The high-souled virtues which forgetful earth
Has witnessed. Oh! that winds and waves could speak
Of things which their united power called forth
From the pure depths of her humanity !
A Maiden gentle, yet, at duty's call,
Firm and unflinching as the Light-house reared
On the Island-rock, her lonely dwelling-place. * * *
All night the storm had raged, nor ceased, nor paused,
When, as day broke, the Maid, through misty air,
Espies far off a Wreck amid the surf,
Beating on one of those disastrous isles-
Half of a Vessel, half no more ; the rest
Had vanished, swallowed up with all that there
Had for the common safety striven in vain,
326 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
Or thither thronged for refuge. With quick glance
Daughter and Sire through optic-glass discern,
Clinging about the remnants of this Ship,
Creatures, how precious in the Maiden's sight!
For whom, belike, the old Man grieves still more
Than for their fellow-sufferers engulfed
Where every parting agony is hushed,
And hope and fear mix not in further strife.
" But courage, Father ! let us out to sea
A few may yet be saved." The Daughter's words,
Her earnest tone, and look beaming with faith,
Dispel the Father's doubts : nor do they lack
The noble-minded Mother's helping hand
To launch the boat; and with her blessing cheered,
And inwardly sustained by silent prayer,
Together they put forth, Father and Child !
Each grasps an oar, and struggling on they go
Rivals in effort ; and, alike intent
Here to elude and there surmount, they watch
The billows lengthening, mutually crossed
And shattered, and regathering their might ;
As if the tumult, by the Almighty's will
Were, in the conscious sea, roused and prolonged
That woman's fortitude so tried so proved
May brighten more and more !
True to the mark,
They stem the current of that perilous gorge,
Their arms still strengthening with the strengthening heart,
Though danger, as the Wreck is neared, becomes
More imminent. Not unseen do they approach ;
And rapture, with varieties of fear
Incessantly conflicting, thrills the frames
Of those who, in that dauntless energy,
Foretaste deliverance ; but the least perturbed
Can scarcely trust his eyes, when he perceives
That of the pair tossed on the waves to bring
Hope to the hopeless, to the dying, life
One is a Woman, a poor earthly sister^
Or, be the Visitant other than she seems,
PROSE COMPOSITION. 327
A guardian Spirit sent from pitying Heaven,
In woman's shape. But why prolong the tale,
Casting meek words amid a host of thoughts
Armed to repel them ? Every hazard faced
And difficulty mastered, with resolve
That no one breathing should be left to perish,
This last remainder of the crew are all
Placed in the little boat, then o'er the deep
Are safely borne, landed upon the beach,
And, in fulfillment of God's mercy, lodged
Within the sheltering Light-house. Shout, ye Waves !
Send forth a song of triumph. Waves and Winds,
Exult in this deliverance wrought through faith
In Him whose Providence your rage hath served!
Ye screaming Sea-mews, in the concert join !
And would that some immortal Voice a Voice
Fitly attuned to all that gratitude
Breathes out from floor or couch through pallid lips
Of the survivors to the clouds might bear
Blended with praise of that parental love,
Beneath whose watchful eye the Maiden grew
Pious and pure, modest and yet so brave,
Though young so wise, though meek so resolute
Might carry to the clouds and to the stars,
Yea, to celestial Choirs, GRACE DARLING'S name !
WORDSWORTH.
DE VEL OPMENT XVII.
BRANKSOME-HALL.
NINE-AND-TWENTY knights of fame
Hung their shields in Branksome-Hall ;
Nine-and-twenty squires of name
Brought them their steeds to bower from stall ;
Nine-and-twenty yeomen tall
Waited, duteous, on them all :
They were all knights of mettle true,
Kinsmen to the bold Buccleuch.
328 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
Ten of them were sheathed in steel,
With belted sword and spur on heel :
They quitted not their harness bright,
Neither by day nor yet by night :
They lay down to rest,
With corslet laced,
Pillowed on buckler cold and hard ;
They carved at the meal
With gloves of steel,
And they drank the red wine through the helmet barred.
Ten squires, ten yeomen, mail-clad men,
Waited the beck of the warders ten ;
Thirty steeds, both fleet and wight,
Stood saddled in stable day and night ;
Barbed with frontlet of steel, I trow,
And with Jedwood-axe at saddle-bow ;
A hundred more fed free in stall :
Such was the custom of Branksome-Hall.
SIR WALTER SCOTT.
DE VEL OPMENT X VIII.
THE ROBIN.
THE fowls of heaven,
Tamed by the cruel season, crowd around
The winnowing store, and claim the little boon
Which Providence assigns them. One alone,
The redbreast, sacred to the household gods,
Wisely regardful of the embroiling sky,
In joyless fields and thorny thickets leaves
His shivering mates, and pays to trusted man
His annual visit. Half-afraid, he first
Against the window beats ; then, brisk, alights
On the warm hearth ; then, hopping o'er the floor,
Eyes all the smiling family askance,
And peeks, and starts, and wonders where he is ;
Till, more familiar grown, the table-crumbs
Attract his slender feet.
JAMES THOMSON.
PROSE COMPOSITION. 329
DEVELOPMENT XIX.
REQUIESCAT.
FAIR is her cottage in its place,
Where yon broad water sweetly, slowly glides.
It sees itself from thatch to base
Dream in the sliding tides.
And fairer she, but, ah, how soon to die !
Her quiet dream of life this hour may cease.
Her peaceful being slowly passes by
To some more perfect peace.
ALFRED TENNYSON.
Weave into this a story of some one well known to you,
and whose home you may suppose this "fair cottage" to
be; change the character, if necessary, to suit your pur-
pose. In thus introducing narration, do not forget that
the theme is principally descriptive, and that you should
aim to produce a vivid picture of the scene.
DEVELOPMENT XX.
JACK FROST.
RUSTILY creak the crickets : Jack Frost came down last night,
He slid to the earth on a starbeam, keen and sparkling and bright ;
He sought in the grass for the crickets with delicate icy spear,
So sharp and fine and fatal, and he stabbed them far and near.
Only a few stout fellows, thawed by the morning sun,
Chirrup a mournful echo of by-gone frolic and fun.
But yesterday such a rippling chorus ran all over the land,
Over the hills and the valleys, down to the gray sea-sand.
Millions of merry harlequins, skipping and dancing in glee,
Cricket and locust and grasshopper, happy as happy could be.
Scooping rich caves in ripe apples, and feeding on honey and spice,
Rhet. 28.
33 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
Drunk with the mellow sunshine, nor dreaming of spears of ice !
Was it not enough that the crickets your weapon of power should pierce?
Pray what have you done to the flowers ? Jack Frost, you are cruel and fierce.
With never a sign or a whisper, you kissed them, and, lo! they exhale
Their beautiful lives; they are drooping, theirsweet colorebbs, they are pale,
They fade and they die! See the pansies, yet striving so hard to unfold
Their garments of velvety splendor, all Tyrian purple and gold.
But how weary they look, and how withered, Tike handsome court dames,
who all night
Have danced at the ball till sunrise struck chill to their hearts with its light.
Where hides the wood-aster ? She vanished as snow-wreaths dissolve in
the sun
The moment you touched her. Look yonder, where sober and gray as a nun
The maple-tree stands that at sunset was blushing as red as the sky;
At its foot, glowing scarlet as fire, its robes of magnificence lie,
Despoiler ! stripping the world as you strip the shivering tree
Of color and sound and perfume, scaring the bird and the bee,
Turning beauty to ashes O to join the swift swallows and fly
Far away out of sight of your mischief! I give you no welcome, not I !
CELIA THAXTER.
DE VEL OPMENT XXI.
A WINTER SABBATH WALK.
How dazzling white the snowy scene ! deep, deep
The stillness of the winter Sabbath day
Not even a foot-fall heard. Smooth are the fields,
Each hollow pathway level with the plain :
Hid are the bushes, save that here and there
Are seen the topmost shoots of brier or broom.
High-ridged, the whirled drift has almost reached
The powdered key-stone of the church-yard porch.
Mute hangs the hooded bell ; the tombs lie buried ;
No step approaches to the house of prayer.
The flickering fall is o'er : the clouds disperse,
And show the sun, hung o'er the welkin's verge,
Shooting a bright but ineffectual beam
On all the sparkling waste.
PROSE COMPOSITION. 331
How beautiful the plain stretched far below,
Unvaried though it be, save by yon stream
With azure windings, or the leafless wood !
But what the beauty of the plain, compared
To that sublimity which reigns enthroned,
Holding joint rule with solitude divine,
Among yon rocky fells that bid defiance
To steps the most adventurously bold ?
There silence dwells profound ; or if the cry
Of high poised eagle break at times the hush,
The mantled echoes no response return.
JAMES GRAHAME.
DE VEL OPMENT XXI L
THE ANGLER.
AN angler by a brook doth lie ;
Upon his hook, a painted fly ;
A dream's soft shadow in his eye.
Thus, like a charmed prince he seems,
Destined a glorious prize to win,
Which, like a jeweled javelin,
Poised, as in air, on quivering fin
Before his vision gleams.
With purest blue, the blissful sky
Pavilions him right royally.
Sometimes an oriole flames on high ;
A bee, impetuous, sparkles by;
A bobolink, ecstatic, flings
Bubbles of music down the air ;
And so he gathers everywhere
From realms of ease, all joys most rare,
Like pearls on silken strings.
A Masque of Poets.
33 2 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
DE VEL OPMENT XXIII.
SOUNDS AT EVENING.
SWEET was the sound, when oft, at evening's close,
Up yonder hill the village murmur rose.
There, as I passed with careless steps and slow,
The mingling notes came softened from below ;
The swain responsive as the milk-maid sung,
The sober herd that lowed to meet their young,
The noisy geese that gabbled o'er the pool,
The playful children just let loose from school,
The watch-dog's voice that bayed the whispering wind,
And the loud laugh that spoke the vacant mind ;
These all in sweet confusion sought the shade,
And filled each pause the nightingale had made.
OLIVER GOLDSMITH.
DEVELOPMENT XXIV.
THE MONEY-SEEKER.
WHAT has he in this glorious world's domain ?
Unreckoned loss which he counts up as gain ;
Unreckoned shame, of which he feels no stain ;
Unreckoned dead he does not know were slain.
What things does he take with him when he dies ?
Nothing of all that he on earth did prize :
Unto his groveling feet and sordid eyes
How difficult and empty seem the sktes !
A Masque of Poets.
PROSE COMPOSITION. 333
DE VEL OPMENT XXV.
MOTH-EATEN.
I HAD a beautiful garment,
And I laid it by with care ;
I folded it close, with lavender leaves,
In a napkin fine and fair :
" It is far too costly a robe," I said,
" For one like me to wear."
There were guests who came to my portal,
There were friends who sat with me ;
And clad in soberest raiment
I bore them company ;
I knew that I owned a beautiful robe,
Though its splendor none might see.
There were poor that stood at my portal,
There were orphaned sought my care;
I gave them the tenderest pity,
But had nothing beside to spare ;
I had only the beautiful garment,
And the raiment for daily wear.
At last on a feast-day's coming,
I thought in my dress to shine ;
I would please myself with the luster
Of its shifting colors fine ;
I would walk with pride in the marvel
Of its rarely -rich design.
So out from the dusk I bore it,
The lavender fell away,
And fold on fold I held it up
To the searching light of day.
Alas ! the glory had perished
While there in its place it lay.
334 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
Who seeks for fadeless beauty
Must seek for the use that seals,
To the grace of a constant blessing,
The beauty that use reveals ;
For into the folded robe alone
The moth with its blighting steals.
MARGARET E. SANGSTER.
DE VEL OPMENT XXVI.
RESPECT THE BURDEN.
GREAT Garibaldi, through the streets one day
Passing triumphant, while admiring throngs
With acclamations and exultant songs
For the uncrowned kingly man made way,
Met one poor knave, 'neath heavy burden bowed,
Indifferent to the hero and the crowd.
His zealous followers would have driven aside
The sorry creature, but that good man said,
Laying a kind hand on the suffering head,
" Respect the burden." Then, majestic-eyed
He paused, and passed on, no man saying him nay;
The heavy-laden also went his way.
Thou happy soul, who journeyest like a king
Along the rose-strewn road, whate'er thy lot,
" Respect the burden." Thou mayst see it, or not,
For one heart is to another a sealed thing :
Laughter there is which hideth sobs or moans ;
Firm footsteps may leave blood-prints on the stones.
Respect the burden, whatsoe'er it be,
Whether loud outcries vex the startled air,
Or in dumb agonies of loss, despair
Lifts her still face, so like tranquillity ;
Though each strained heart-string break~ she never shrinks ;
Says, " Let this cup pass from me," stoops and drinks.
PROSE COMPOSITION. 335
O heavy burden ! why 't is borne, or how,
None know save those who bear, and He whose hand
Has laid it on, saying, "My beloved, stand
Upright, and take this chrism upon thy brow,
God's own anointed. Sore thy load may be,
But know within it thou art carrying ME."
DINAH MARIA MULOCK.
DEVELOPMENT XXVII.
THE THREE FISHERS.
THREE fishers went sailing away to the West,
Away to the West as the sun went down ;
Each thought on the woman who loved him the best,
And the children stood watching them out of the town ;
For men must work, and women must weep,
And there's little to earn, and many to keep,
Though the harbor-bar be moaning.
Three wives sat up in the light-house tower,
And they trimmed the lamps as the sun went down ;
They looked at the squall, and they looked at the shower,
And the night-rack came rolling up ragged and brown :
But men must work, and women must weep,
Though storms be sudden, and waters deep,
And the harbor-bar be moaning.
Three corpses lay out on the shining sands,
In the morning gleam, as the tide went down,
And the women are weeping, and wringing their hands
For those who will never come home to the town ;
For men must work, and women must weep,
And the sooner it 's over, the sooner to sleep ;
And good-by to the bar and its moaning.
CHARLES KINGSLEY.
CHAPTER XIV.
PROSODY AND VERSIFICATION.
Prosody, from the Greek prosodia, (pros, to, and ode, a
song,) is that division of rhetoric which treats of versifica-
tion, or the art of composing poetic verse.
Verse is that species of composition in which the words
are arranged in lines containing a definite number and suc-
cession of accented and unaccented syllables ; as,
By faith, | and faith | alone, | embrace,
Believ|ing where | we can | not prove.
Verse (Latin vertere, to tura), is so called because when
a line is completed the writer turns back, and begins an-
other. A verse is a single line of poetry, made up of feet,
and named from the kind and number of feet in a line.
As poetry is properly a versified composition, in treating
of its form all that is essential may be grouped under three
heads: (i) Meter; (2) Rhyme; (3) Stanza.
METER.
Meter (Greek metron, a measure), is the arrangement into
verse of definite measures of sounds definitely accented.
As we use the term, it more strictly refers to the number
of feet in the respective lines, and varies with the number
of the accented syllables. In English, nteter depends almost
wholly upon the accent, or rhythm.
(336)
PROSODY AND VERSIFICATION. 337
Rhythm is the recurrence of stress at regular intervals.
Practically speaking, rhythm refers to the kind of feet, and
varies with the number of the unaccented syllables and the
place of the accent in the feet.
It is from rhythm that English verse derives its charac-
ter. In this respect, English meter differs from the clas-
sical meters, which are constructed principally according to
the length, or quantity, of the vowels. Thus, in English
verse we speak of syllables as accented or unaccented, while
Greek and Latin verse is measured by syllables regarded as
long or short.
A foot, or measure, is a portion of a line consisting of
two or three syllables (and not more), combined according
to accent.
Each perfect line is composed of a certain number of
equal parts, or "feet": these correspond to bars in musical
melody. The accented part in a foot always consists of a
single syllable; the interval generally consists of a single
syllable intervening between the accents, though it may
consist of two syllables sounded in the same time as one.
This is illustrated by the occurrence of feet of two and
of three syllables in the same line ; as,
My thoughts | still cling | to the mold|ering Past,
But the hopes | of youth | fall thick | in the blast.
Between two accented syllables in English verse there
may occur one or two, but not more than two, unaccented
syllables.
A foot is not necessarily a single word. It may consist of:
(i) A succession of monosyllables; as,
And what | is the shore | where I stood | to see
My boat | sail down | the west ?
Rhet. 29.
338 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
(2) Parts of polysyllables ; as,
A long | and mel|anchol|y mew.
The division of a verse or line into feet is called scanning.
A straight line (-) over a syllable shows that it is accented ;
a curved line (-) shows that it is unaccented. In verse,
monosyllables may receive accent, although they are with-
out it in prose ; as,
And in no quiet canst thou be.
Two syllables may sometimes be contracted into one ; as.
O'er man|y a froz|en, man|y a fi|ery Alp.
Elision is the running together of two syllables into one
by the dropping of one or more letters. This may some-
times be necessary in English verse, but some of the best
critics claim that in all cases it can be avoided by suppos-
ing that, where it seems to be needed, the poet substituted
a trisyllabic foot for a dissyllabic. In the verse
Blest as | the immor\\3\ gods | is he
we must run the and im of the second foot together, if we
would preserve the dissyllabic foot throughout. But, if we
regard the second foot trisyllabic, there is no need of elis-
ion.
Some of the older critics supposed that in verse, where
the feet consist of two syllables each, these particular feet
must be reduced to two syllables, both in pronunciation
and in writing. The following from Butler's Hudibras is
an instance of needless elision :
We grant | although | he had | much wit,
H' was ver|y shy | of us | ing it.
PROSODY AND VERSIFICATION. 339
Poetic Feet. The kinds of feet most used In English
are four ; namely, the iambus, the trochee, the anapest, the
dactyl.
Iambus. The multitude | of an|gels, with | a shout.
In this line the five accents give the character and the
meter also of five feet. This foot of two syllables, with the
accent on the last, is called an iambus (), and the
rhythm of such feet, iambic.
Trochee. Great men | die and | are for [gotten.
In this line the number of accents gives a meter of
four feet; and the accent, falling on the first of the two
syllables, thus changes the rhythm. This foot is called a
trochee (- -), and the rhythm of such feet, trochaic.
Anapest. For the sun | set of life | gives me mys|tical lore.
In this line we have twelve syllables, but the same num-
ber of natural accents as in the line of only eight syllables
above, and so the same number of feet, or the same ' * meter. "
But the rhythm and the measure are greatly changed by
double the number of unaccented syllables in these four
feet. This trisyllabic foot, with the accent on the last
syllable, is called an anapest (^ ~ -), and the rhythm of such
feet, anapestic.
Dactyl. Bird of the | wilderness,
Blithesome and | cumberless,
Sweet be thy | matin o'er | moorland and | lea!
Emblem of | happiness,
Blest is thy | dwelling-place!
O, to a|bide in the | desert with | thee !
In these lines, the meter changes from two feet to four
340 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
in every third line ; while the rhythm is the same except
in the last foot of the longer lines, where " lea" and " thee "
the one long syllable in each line pleasantly break the
monotony of the regular foot. This foot of three syllables,
with the accent on the first, is called a dactyl (- - ^), and
the rhythm of such feet, dactylic.
Every poem in the English language of any character,
whatever the meter, is founded on one or another of the
four " regular feet" illustrated above. But this perfect
regularity of any standard measure, which so pleases the
ear for a while, becomes monotonous if not in some way
varied now and then. In many poems the various meters
are combined, iambics in one line being followed by tro-
chees in another, and dactyls by anapests. These combi-
nations are almost endless, and yet verse may be still further
varied by the introduction of secondary feet. They are
as follows:
(1) The spondee, two accented syllables, (--).
(2) The pyrrhic, two unaccented syllables, (- ~).
(3) The amphibrach, first unaccented, second accented,
third unaccented, (^ - ~).
(4) The tribrach, three unaccented syllables, (~ -^).
Mixed Verse. Sometimes the verse is so varied by an
intermixture of the different kinds of feet that it is difficult
to recognize the preponderance of any one kind of foot.
Some attempts have been made in English to write con-
tinued poems in this kind of verse. Longfellow has given
us conspicuous examples in The Courtship of Miles Standish,
and the soliloquy of Friar Claus from the Golden Legend.
The first may be described as prevailingly dactylic, but
with a free intermixture of iambuses, trochees, anapests,
and spondees.
PROSODY AND VERSIFICATION. 34!
Hawtrey, in the following lines, has given perhaps the
most successful specimen of this verse ever produced :
Clearly the | rest I be|hold of the | dark-eyed | sons of A|chaia;
Known to me | well are the | faces of | all ; their | names I re|member ;
Two, two | only re|main, whom I | see not a|mong the com|manders,
Castor | fleet in the | car, Poly|deuces | brave with the | cestus.
Another fine example is found in Boker's Ivory Carver:
Silently | sat the | artist a|lone,
Carving a | Christ from the | ivory | bone.
Little by | little, | with toil | and pain,
He won | his way | through the sight|less grain,
That held | and yet hid | the thing | he sought,
Till the work | stood up, | a grow|ing thought.
Mixed verse seems to succeed best when combined with
rhyme, and when the lines are comparatively short
Kinds of Verse. Verse is named according to two
characteristics :
1 . According to the kind of foot prevailing in a line.
2. According to the number of feet contained in a line.
We have seen how the kind of foot characterizes verse.
Now by combining the name of the foot the metric tmit
by which the line is measured and the name for the num-
ber of feet in a line, we can accurately describe the meter
and the rhythm of any poem.
If the metric unit, or foot, is contained in the line but
once, we have Manometer, a line of one foot; if twice,
Dimeter, a line of two feet ; if three times, Trimeter, a line
of three feet; if four times, Tetrameter, a line of four feet;
34 2 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
if five times, Pentameter, a line of five feet; if s?x times,
Hexameter, a line of six feet; if seven times, Heptameter,
a line of seven feet; if eight times, Octometer, a line of
eight feet.
The combination of kind of foot with number of feet
gives rise to such designations as iambic dimeter, iambic
trimeter, etc. ; trochaic dimeter, trochaic- tetrameter, etc. ; an-
apestic dimeter, anapestic trimeter, etc.
Iambic Verse. Of all measures, the iambic is the most
easily continued to great length: hence it is in very com-
mon use, and is peculiarly adapted for long poems. Until
quite recently, about nine tenths of English verse was iam-
bic, and probably three fourths of it iambic pentameter.
Manometer. .How sure.
Dimeter . . .With rav|ished ears.
Trimeter. . .A thousand cups | of gold.
Tetrameter. .Let me | not cast | to end|less shade.
Pentameter. .Roll on, | thou deep | and dark | blue O|cean roll!
Hexameter. .Celes|tial as | thou art, | O, do | not love | that wrong.
Heptameter. He looked | upon | his peo|ple, and | a tear | was in | his eye.
Octometer. . All peo|ple that | on earth | do dwell, | sing to [ the Lord |
with cheer | ful voice.
The iambic monometer and dimeter are too short to be
continued through any great number of lines, but as indi-
vidual lines they are met with in stanzas. Thus :
(Trimeter) No: 'Tis | a fast | to dole,
(Dimeter) Thy sheaf | of wheat
(Monometer) And meat
(Trimeter) Unto | the hun|gry soul.
PROSODY AND VERSIFICATION. 343
The iambic trimeter is rarely used by itself, but is often
found in combination with tetrameter, these two alternating,
and with divers unions of rhymes. Thus :
We build | with fruitless cost, | unless
The Lord | the pile | sustain;
Unless | the Lord | the cit|y keep,
The watch|man wakes | in vain.
Blest be | the tie | that binds
Our hearts | in Christian love :
The fellowship | of kin|dred minds
Is like | to that | above.
The iambic tetrameter is largely used uncombined ; it is
the meter of most of Sir Walter Scott's works :
The way ] was long, | the wind was cold,
The min|strel was | infirm | and old;
His with|ered cheek | and tress|es gray
Seemed to | have known | a bet|ter day ;
The harp, | his sole | remaining joy,
Was car|ried by | an or|phan boy.
Iambic pentameter is the " heroic measure " of English
poetry. Most of our epic, dramatic, and descriptive po-
etry is written in iambic pentameter. In its rhymed form
it is the measure of Chaucer, Spenser, Dryden, Pope,
Campbell, and Byron; as,
Three po|ets in | three dis|tant alges born,
Greece, It|aly, | and En|gland did | adorn.
In its unrhymed form the iambic pentameter is the
stately blank verse of Milton and Wordsworth.
The iambic hexameter is commonly called the Alexan-
drine, from the fact that old French poems in praise of
Alexander were written in this measure. It is now sel-
344 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
dom used, except in combination with other measures.
It forms the last line of the Spenserian stanza.
The iambic heptameter, on account of the length of the
line, is now generally divided into alternate lines of four
and of three feet; so divided, it is the common meter of
our hymns, and the favorite meter of ballad poetry.
The iambic odometer is usually written as two tetrame-
ters. Each couplet of this meter is now generally printed
as a stanza of four tetrameter lines, rhyming alternately,
and each commencing with a capital. In old books, how-
ever, the second and fourth lines are made to begin with
a small letter. It forms the long meter of our hymns.
The scheme of any particular kind of verse requires a
definite number of syllables ; when the verse contains just
the number required, it is Acatalectic ; when the sylla-
bles are too few, the verse is Catalectic deficient ; when
there is an additional syllable, the verse is Hypercata-
lectic redundant.
Trochaic Verse. In trochaic verse the accent is laid
on the odd syllables. The trochaic measure has a light,
tripping movement, and is peculiarly fitted for lively sub-
jects.
Manometer . . Highly.
Dimeter. . . . Children, | choose it.
Trimeter . . . Singing | through the | forests.
Tetrameter . . Lauded | be thy | name for | ever.
Pentameter . . Spake full | well in | language | quaint and | olden.
Hexameter . . Holy! | holy! | holy! | all the | saints a|dore thee.
Heptameter. . Hasten, | Lord, to | rescue | me^ and | set me | safe
from I trouble.
PROSODY AND VERSIFICATION. 345
Odometer . . Once up|on a | midnight | dreary, | while I | pon-
dered | weak and | weary.
The mob common form of the trochaic meter is the
tetrameter, in alternate lines of eight syllables and seven.
The line of seven syllables is denominated catalectic ; thus,
Savior, | breathe an | evening | blessing,
Ere re|pose our | spirits | seal
Sin and | want we | come confessing,
Thou canst | save and | thou canst | heal.
This forms a favorite hymn measure, the usual 8's and
7's of our hymns.
The trochaic pentameter is not common, nor is it very
melodious. It is usually catalectic.
The trochaic hexameter is rare. Sometimes each coup-
let is divided into alternate lines of six syllables and five.
This forms the trochaic ii's of our hymns.
The trochaic octometer is not common ; when found it is
usually catalectic; as,
In the | spring a | fuller | crimson | comes up|on the | robin's | breast,
In the | spring the | wanton | lapwing | gets him|self an|other | crest.
Anapestic Verse. Anapests have been in current use
for a long time. This is a very pleasing measure, and
much used, both in solemn and cheerful subjects.
Manometer . . But in vain.
Dimeter ... In my rage | shall be seen.
Trimeter ... I am mon|arch of all | I survey.
Tetrameter . . Tho' his life | be a dream | his enjoy |ments I see.
In this meter lines longer than tetrameter are rarely
found.
346 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
Anapestic verse is not always pure ; it is quite as often
found with the interchangeable iambus (~-) occupying
the place of the first foot. Thus :
The ranjsomed crea|tion, . . . Dimeter, hypercatalectic, with --),
Though fee|ble their lays, . . Dimeter, acatalectic, with (^-).
With true | adora|tion Dimeter, hypercatalectic, with (-),
Shall lisp | to Thy praise . . . Dimeter, acatalectic, with (^-).
The few | lurid morn|ings that dawn | on us here
Tetrameter, acatalectic, with ( --)
Are enough | for life's woes, | full enough | for its cheer.
Tetrameter, acatalectic, pure
When through | the torn sail | the wild tem|pest is
Tetrameter,
streaming, [ hypercata]ec .
When o'er | the dark wave | the red lightjning is
tic, with (~-).
gleam | ing.
Dactylic Verse. Dactylic verse was but sparingly
used in English until the present century; and, although
we have had some brilliant examples, it is not yet in gen-
eral use. It is not often pure, that is, composed wholly
of dactyls: a spondee, or a trochee, or one long syllable
generally forms the last foot.
The dactylic hexameter was the heroic verse of the Greeks
and Latins: it is used in Homer's Iliad and in Virgil's
^Eneid. In it a spondee or a dactyl might form any foot
except the fifth, which was usually a dactyl, and the sixth,
which was always a spondee. Longfellow's Evangeline is
written in imitation of the classical hexameter.
Manometer . . Fearfully.
Dimeter. . . . Emblem of | happiness.
PROSODY AND VERSIFICATION. 347
Trimeter . . Wearing a|way in his | youthfulness.
Tetrameter. Weary way | wanderer, | languid and | sick at heart.
Hexameter. Over his | countenance | flitted a | shadow like | those on
the | landscape.
Dactylic pentameters and heptameters are very rare.
Dactylic dimeter seems especially appropriate to mourn-
ing. It is used in the Bridge of Sighs :
Take her up | tenderly,
Lift her with | care;
Fashioned so | slenderly,
Young, and so | fair! Hood.
RHYME.
Rhyme is a correspondence of sound at the end of
verses, or sometimes at intervals in the verse. It was not
employed in ancient poetry, but it is used in almost all
modern verse. It is (i) Alliterative, (2) Assonantal, and
(3) Consonantal.
Alliterative rhyme is the correspondence in sound of
the first letters of certain words. These words more fre-
quently succeed each other, but they may stand at no great
distance apart. Thus :
He rushed into the/ield, an d/oremost fighting, yell.
That /zeld and yet ^id the thing ^e sought.
Arms on Armor clashing brayed.
Alliteration formed the distinctive mark of the oldest
English poetry; it was the only kind of rhyme used in
Anglo-Saxon verse. Although no longer a regular con-
stituent of English poetry, it is sometimes used for effect
COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
by modern authors; within moderate limits it promotes
melody, but its frequent introduction savors of affectation.
Assonantal rhyme is the correspondence of the vowels
at the end of two lines ; as,
The mighty master smiled to see
That love was in the next degm.
Consonantal rhyme is the correspondence of the vowel
and the final consonant or consonants in the rhyming sylla-
bles. This is the most common rhyme in English poetry;
as,
Nobody knew how the fisherman '
With a look of despair that was half a iwwn.
To form a perfect consonantal rhyme, three things are
essential :
1. That the vowel and the parts following it be the same.
2. That the parts preceding the vowel be different.
3. That the rhyming syllables be accented alike.
Thus wing and ring, breeze and trees, night and white are
perfect rhymes ; but room and home, war and car, breathe
and tease, are not perfect. The number of words in the
English language which form perfect rhymes is so limited
that many slight deviations are sanctioned, and are termed
allowable rhymes. " Still," says Angus, "it may be safely
affirmed that rhyme will never be universal in our poetry.
Many of our most beautiful poetic words have no rhymes ;
nor does the ever accumulating wealth of our language
tend to supply this deficiency. Modern additions to our
speech are chiefly inflected forms, and are, therefore, un-
suited for poetry. From all these causes there will always
be in English room for forms of blank verse, and for the
exercise of ingenuity in new meters."
PROSODY AND VERSIFICATION. 349
Single rhymes are words of one syllable rhyming to-
gether; as, breast and rest. These are sometimes called
"masculine rhymes."
Double rhymes are words, the last two syllables of
which rhyme together; as, glory and story, tinkling and
sprinkling, condition and repetition. Double rhymes are
called by some authors "feminine rhymes."
Triple rhymes have three corresponding syllables ; as,
glorious and victorious, readily and steadily, tenderly and
slenderly.
Sectional, or line, rhyme is an agreement of sound oc-
curring in the same line. Thus:
Her look was like the morning star. Burns.
The splendor falls on castle walls
And snowy summits old in story :
The long light shakes across the lakes,
And the wild cataract leaps in glory. Tennyson.
Then gently scan your brother man,
Still gentlier sister woman ;
Tho' they may gang a kennin wrang,
To step aside is human. Burns.
Will stood for skill, and law obeyed lust ;
Might trod down right: of king there was no fear. Ferrers.
We were the first that ever burst
Into that silent sea! Coleridge.
Then up with your cup, till you stagger in speech,
And match me this catch, though you swagger and screech. Scott.
Blank Verse is without rhyme. Its versification is noble
and bold, particularly suited to subjects of dignity and force,
which demand a freedom from the constraint and strict
regularity of rhyme.
3SO COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
STANZA.
A Stanza is a division of a poem containing two or more
verses. A stanza is commonly called a verse. Each line is
a verse, but a stanza contains at least two lines. There are
a great many kinds of stanza in English poetry. Some of
the most common are explained below.
A Distich, or Couplet, consists of two verses rhyming
together; as,
A man he was to all the country dear,
And passing rich with forty pounds a year. Goldsmith.
A Triplet consists of three verses rhyming together; as,
Then to the still small voice I said,
Let me not cast to endless shade
What is so wonderfully made. Tennyson.
A Quatrain is a stanza of four lines; in general the
lines rhyme alternately ; as,
Soon rested those who fought ; but thou
Who minglest in the harder strife
For truths which men receive not now,
Thy warfare only ends with life. Bryant.
The Rhyme -Royal is a seven-line stanza, invented by
Chaucer. It is composed of iambic pentameter lines, the
first four being an ordinary quatrain, the lines rhyming
alternately ; the fifth line repeats the rhyme of the fourth,
and the last two form a rhyming couplet. The following
is an example:
Why then doth flesh, a bubble-glass of breath, r v
Hunt after honor and advancement vain, 2 J
And rear a trophy for devouring death, 3'J
With so great labor and long lasting pain, 4/
As if his days forever should remain ? $)
Since all that in this world is great or gay, 6 N
Doth as a vapor vanish and decay. Spenser. 7 *
PROSODY AND VERSIFICATION. 351
The Spenserian Stanza derives its name from its in-
ventor, Edmund Spenser, who used it in his Faerie
Queene. It consists of nine lines, the first eight being
iambic pentameters, the last one an iambic hexameter. In
respect to the rhyme, the stanza is constructed of two ordi-
nary quatrains, with lines rhyming alternately. These
quatrains are then tied together by the last line of the first
quatrain rhyming with the first line of the second. The
ninth line rhymes with the eighth.
This stanza has been found to be peculiarly suited to long
poems, and was used by Spenser, Thomson, and Byron.
A large part of Byron's poetry is written in it; among re-
cent poets he is the most successful cultivator of it. The
following is a selection from C /tilde Harold:
It is the hush of night ; and all between
Thy margin and the mountains, dusk, yet clear,
Mellowed and mingling, yet distinctly seen 3'
Save darkened Jura, whose capped heights appear ^
Precipitously steep ; and, drawing near,
There breathes a living fragrance from the shore, 6\
Of flowers yet fresh with childhood; on the ear 7'
Drops the light drip of the suspended oar,
Or chirps the grasshopper one good-night carol more. 9 >
The Sonnet Stanza originated with the Italians, or
was borrowed by them from the early Provencal poets.
The Italians were assiduous cultivators of this stanza, and
brought it to such perfection that excellent models are to
be found in the writings of nearly all the Italian poets ; the
sonnets of Petrarch and Dante, however, are the finest ex-
amples. The sonnet is very elaborate in its structure. It
consists of fourteen lines of iambic pentameter, composing
two divisions, called the Major and the Minor. The Major
352 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
division contains eight lines, and is called the Octave ; the
Minor division, six lines, and is called the Sestette.
The Octave consists of two quatrains, in each of which
the first line rhymes with the fourth line, and the second
with the third. The octave has but two rhymes, the first
and the fourth lines in one quatrain rhyming with the first
and the fourth in the other ; so also the second and the
third of the first quatrain rhyme with the same lines in the
second. The octave is joined to the sestette by a close
grammatical structure.
The Sestette is not fixed in its form, but the following
sonnet by Milton illustrates the order generally found, and
that which conforms more strictly to the Petrarcan model.
In this order the first line rhymes with the fourth, the sec-
ond with the fifth, and the third with the sixth.
When I consider how my light is spent i -
Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide, 2-
w
CO
And that one talent which is death to hide, 3-
Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent4<
To serve therewith my Maker, and present 5.
My true account, lest he, returning, chide ; 6-
"Doth God exact day-labor, light denied?" 7-
I fondly ask ; but Patience, to prevent
That murmur, soon replies: "God doth not need-i
Either man's work, or his own gifts; who best 2-
Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best ; his state 3"
Is kingly; thousands at his bidding speed,
And post o'er land and ocean without rest ; 5-
They also serve who only stand and wait! " 6-
Poets have commonly followed the Petrarcan model as
to the Octave, but many have deviated from it in the
rhymes of the Sestette. The most ordinary case is that
in which the six lines have but two rhjones, and are ar-
ranged in three rhyming couplets.
PROSODY AND VERSIFICATION.
353
CO
The following, from Wordsworth, shows yet a different or-
der of rhyme in the sestette :
Milton ! thou should'st be living at this hour:
England hath need of thee : she is a fen
Of stagnant waters : altar, sword, and pen,
Fireside, the heroic wealth of hall and bower,
Have forfeited their ancient English dower
Of inward happiness. We are selfish men ;
Oh ! raise us up, return to us again,
And give us manners, virtue, freedom, power.
Thy soul was like a Star, and dwelt apart ;
Thou hadst a voice whose sound was like the sea :
Pure as the naked heavens, majestic, free;
So didst thou travel on life's common way
In cheerful godliness ; and yet thy heart
The lowliest duties on herself didst lay.
The Ottava Rima, the heroic meter of the Italians, in
which Tasso and Ariosto wrote, consists of eight lines of
iambic pentameter, the first six rhyming alternately, the
last two, in succession ; as,
When I prepared my bark first to obey,
As it should still obey, the helm, my mind,
And carry prose or rhyme, and this my fay
Of Charles the Emperor, whom you will find
By several pens already praised ; but they
Who to diffuse his glory were inclined,
For all that I can see in prose or verse, 7~\
Have understood Charles badly and wrote worse. S^
Morgante Maggiore (Byron's translation).
In our language Byron's Don Juan is the chief example
of this stanza.
The Terza Rima consists of iambic pentameters, with
three rhymes at intervals ; as,
Scarce had I learned the names of all that press
Of knights and dames, than I beheld a sight
Rhet. 30.
354 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
Nigh reft my wits for very tenderness.
" O guide," I said, " fain would I if I might
Have speech with yonder pair that hand in hand
Seem borne before the dreadful wind so light."
DANTE (Leigh Hunt's translation).
The Elegiac Stanza consists of four iambic pentame-
ters rhyming alternately ; as,
Full many a gem of purest ray serene,
The dark, unfathomed caves of ocean bear ;
Full many a flower is born to blush unseen,
And waste its sweetness on the desert air.
GRAY.
This example is from Gray's Elegy. Milton's Lycidas and
Dryden's Elegy on Cromwell are also in iambic pentameter.
Tennyson's In Mcmoriam is in iambic tetrameter. Shelley's
Adonais is in the Spenserian stanza.
The Acrostic is a poem in which the first letters of the
successive lines spell a word or phrase that is the subject of
the whole, generally a person's name or a motto.
The actress Rachel received a compliment as delicate as
the acrostic has ever paid. She was given a diadem set
with precious stones so arranged that the initials of the
names of the successive stones were in their order the in-
itials of six of her principal parts, and in their order formed
her name. Thus :
R uby,
A methyst,
C ornelian,
H ematite,
E merald,
L apis Lazuli,
R oxana.
A meniade.
C amille.
H ermione.
E milie.
L aodice.
The variety of stanzas in successful use is almost endless.
PROSODY AND VERSIFICATION. 355
In a work like this it would be impossible to describe them ;
however, a brief notice is given of those commonly used in
hymns for public worship.
The most common of the psalm and hymn stanzas are
the Long, the Short, and the Common Meter. These
three agree in this: they are all in iambic meter, and they
are all quatrains. The Long Meter (marked L. M.) consists
of tetrameters; the Common Meter (C. M.) consists of te-
trameters and trimeters combined alternately; the Short
Meter (S. M.) consists of three trimeters and one tetrameter.
The following formulas show the construction of these
stanzas :
L. M. C. M. S. M.
Long Particular Meter is a stanza in which some of
our hymns are written. It consists of six lines of iambic
tetrameter, the third and sixth rhyming together, and the
others rhyming in couplets ; as,
Fountain of good ! all blessing flows
From thee : no want thy fullness knows :
What but thyself canst thou desire ?
Yet, self-sufficient as thou art,
Thou dost desire my worthless heart :
This, only this, dost thou require. Wesley.
Halleluiah Meter is a stanza consisting of eight lines
of iambic meter. The first four are trimeters, rhyming
alternately. The last four are dimeters, the first of which
rhymes with the fourth ; the second, with the third ; as,
356 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
Lo ! the angelic bands
In full assembly meet,
To wait his high commands,
And worship at his feet !
Joyfully they come,
And wing their way
From realms of day
To such a tomb. Doddridge.
Other Meters. No names have been given to the va-
rious stanzas used for those hymns which are in trochaic,
anapestic, or dactylic meter. In the hymn-books these
stanzas are called 6's, 7's, 8's, ii's, etc., according to the
number of syllables in a line. Such designation, however,
gives no clue to the rhythmic movement. A more ac-
curate way would be to add the name of the verse immedi-
ately after the figures representing the number of syllables.
Thus:
Savior, source of every blessing,
Tune my heart to grateful lays. 8's, 7's, Trochaic.
Sing we to our God above. 7's, Trochaic.
Steadfast, then, in our endeavor,
Heavenly Father, may we be ;
And forever, and forever,
We will give the praise to thee,
Alleluia
Singing, all eternity. 8's, 7's, 4's, Trochaic.
Mid scenes of confusion and creature complaints. n's, Anapestic.
Say, shall we yield Him, in costly devotion,
Odors of Edom, and offerings divine? n's and ID'S, Dactylic.
The voice of free grace cries escape to the mountains. I2's, Anapestic.
DIRECTION. Bring into the class examples of the various stanzas described
above.
PROSODY AND VERSIFICATION. 357
EXERCISE LXXVII.
DIRECTION. Arrange each of the following sentences into an heroic coup-
let two iambic pentameters:
1. This man would soar to heaven by his own strength, and would
not be obliged for more to God.
2. How art thou misled, vain, wretched creature, to think thy wit
bred these godlike notions.
3. She made a little stand at every turn, and thrust her lily hand
among the thorns to draw the rose, and she shook the stalk, every
rose she drew, and brushed the dew away. (Four lines.)
4. Whoever thinks to see a faultless piece, thinks what never shall
be, nor ever was, nor is.
5. Sometimes men of wit, as men of breeding, must commit less
errors, to avoid the great.
6. The hungry judges soon sign the sentence, and that jurymen
may dine, wretches hang.
DIRECTION. Arrange each of the following into iambic tetrameters, rhym-
ing:
1. He soon stood on the steep hill's verge, that looks o'er Brank-
some's towers and wood ; and martial murmurs proclaimed from be-
low the southern foe approaching. (Four lines.)
2. Of mild mood was the Earl, and gentle; the vassals were rude,
and warlike, and fierce; haughty of word, and of heart high, they
recked little of a tame liege lord. (Four lines.)
3. A lion, worn with cares, tired with the state affairs, and quite
sick of pomp, resolved to pass his latter life in peace, remote from strife
and noise. (Four lines.)
4. I felt as, when all the waves that o'er thee dash, on a plank at
sea, whelm and upheave at the same time, and towards a desert realm
hurl thee. (Four lines.)
5. No more sweet Teviot, blaze the glaring bale-fires on thy silver
tide ; steel-clad warriors ride along thy wild and willowed shore no
longer. (Four lines, rhyming alternately.)
6. His eyes of swarthy glow he rolls fierce on the hunter's quivered
hand, spurns the sand with black hoof and horn, and tosses his
mane of snow high. (Four lines, rhyming alternately.)
35$ COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
7. Where late the green ruins were blended with the rock's wood-
covered side, turrets rise in fantastic pride, and between flaunt feudal
banners. (Four lines, rhyming alternately.)
8. Whate'er befall, I hold it true ; when I sorrow most, I feel it ;
better than never to have loved at all, 'tis to have loved and lost.
(Four lines; the ist rhyming with the 4th; the 2d with the 3d.)
DIRECTION. Arrange each of the following into four lines of anapestic tetram-
eter:
1 . Content and joy are now fled from our dwellings, and, instead, dis-
ease and want are our inmates; now chivalry is dead, and Gallia
ruined, and the glory of Europe is fled forever. (Let the lines rhyme
in couplets).
2. How sweet is the thought of to-morrow to the heart, when Hope's
fairy pictures display bright colors, how sweet when we can borrow
from futurity a balm for the griefs that to-day afflict us. (Lines rhym-
ing alternately.)
3. There's a game I think it's called euchre much in fashion,
(though for pleasure or lucre I have never played it,) in which the
players appear, when the cards are in certain conditions, to have
changed their positions, and, in a confident tone, one of them cries,
" I may venture to go it alone, I think ! " (Six lines, rhyming in coup-
lets.)
DIRECTION. Arrange each of the following examples into trochaic verse :
1. But from stream, dell, or mountain, springs not a fluttering
zephyr, lest the noontide beam, fearful, his silken, his soft wings scorch.
(Four lines, tetrameter.)
2. See the rooks returning home to their high-built airy beds, for
shelter, where the rising forest, the lordly dome, spreads. (Four lines,
tetrameter.)
3. God hath written in those stars above, wondrous truths, and
manifold as wondrous ; but the revelation of his love stands not less
in the bright flowerets under us. (Four lines, pentameter.)
DIRECTION. Arrange each of the following examples into dactylic verse :
I. We vainly offer such ample oblation; would vainly secure his
favor with gifts ; the heart's adoration is richer by far ; the prayers of
the poor are dearer to God. (Four lines, tetrameter, rhyming alter-
nately.)
PROSODY AND VERSIFICATION. 359
2. Over the dim cloudlet, soar, musical cherub, singing, away ! o'er
fountain sheen and fell, o'er green mountain and moor, o'er the red
streamer that heralds the day, over the rainbow's rim. (Six lines;
four dimeters and two trimeters, the third line rhyming with the sixth,
the others, in couplets.)
3. Let the trumpets, lads, be suing for us: to pleasure calling; call-
ing to ruin ! Our life is stormy ; such is its boon. (Six lines, dimeter
catalectic.)
4. To the chief who advances in triumph, hail! Be the ever-green
pine blest and honored ! may the tree, in his banner that glances, the
shelter and grace of our line, long flourish ! (Four lines, tetrameter
catalectic rhyming alternately.)
EXERCISE LXXVIII.
The following extracts are intended to illustrate some of
the varieties of meter and stanza. Bring in the passages
copied on paper, with the versification marked. In mark-
ing the versification, mark first each accented syllable and
then mark the others as unaccented. When a number of
lines in any piece have been thus marked, determine
whether the movement is Iambic, Trochaic, Anapestic, or
Dactylic, and divide it off accordingly into feet. The proper
designation should then be given to the verse, as being
Iambic, Trochaic, etc., and as being monometer, dimeter,
trimeter, tetrameter, etc. Thus in the following lines, the
first is Iambic trimeter; the second is Trochaic tetrameter;
the third is Anapestic tetrameter; the fourth is Dactylic
trimeter catalectic :
1. j Stand up | and bless | the Lord. |
2. | Who are | in those | graves we | know not. |
3. | At the dead | of the night | a sweet vis|ion I saw. |
4. | Ferry me | over the | ferry. |
360 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
In the case of rhyming passages, the rhyme should be
described as being in couplets, quatrains, sonnet-meter, etc. ,
and the formula for the rhyme and stanza should be given.
1. Italy, loved of the sun,
Wooed of the sweet winds and wed by the sea,
When, since the nations begun,
Was other inheritance like unto thee ? Bayard Taylor.
2. I know not where his islands lift
Their fronded palms in air ;
I only know I can not drift
Beyond his love and care. Whittier.
3. When breezes are soft and skies are fair,
I steal an hour from study and care,
And hie me away to the woodland scene,
Where wanders the stream with waters of green,
As if the bright fringe of herbs on its brink
Had given their stain to the wave they drink ;
And they whose meadows it murmurs through,
Have named the stream from its own fair hue. W. C. Bryant.
4. I thought the sparrow's note from heaven,
Singing at dawn on the alder bough ;
I brought him home, in his nest, at even ;
He sings the song, but it cheers not now,
For I did not bring home the river and sky ;
He sang to my ear, they sang to my eye. Emerson.
5. If our faith in Thee was shaken,
Pardon Thou our hearts mistaken,
Our obedience re-awaken.
6. Willows whiten, aspens quiver,
Little breezes dusk and shiver
Thro' the wave that runs forever
By the island in the river
Flowing down to Camelot. "'- -
Four gray walls, and four gray towers,
PROSODY AND VERSIFICATION. 361
Overlook a space of flowers,
And the silent isle embowers
The Lady of Shalott. Tennyson.
7. Day after day, day after day,
We stuck, nor breath nor motion ;
As idle as a painted ship
Upon a painted ocean. Coleridge.
8. Rarely, rarely, comest thou,
Spirit of Delight :
Wherefore hast thou left me now
Many a day and night?
Many a weary night and day
Tis since thou art fled away. Shelley.
9. Launch thy bark, mariner !
Christian, God speed thee !
Let loose the rudder-bands
Good angels lead thee !
Set thy sails warily ;
Tempests will come ;
Steer thy course steadily ;
Christian, steer home ! Mrs. Sou they.
10. I' 11 not leave thee, thou lone one,
To pine on the stem ;
Since the lovely are sleeping,
Go sleep thou with them.
Thus kindly I scatter
Thy leaves o'er the bed,
Where thy mates of the garden
Lie scentless and dead. Moore.
11. When reposing that night on my pallet of straw,
By the wolf-scaring fagot that guarded the slain,
At the dead of the night a sweet vision I saw,
And thrice ere the morning I dreamt it again. Campbell.
12. Touch us gently, Time!
We've not proud nor soaring wings:
Our ambition, our content
Lies in simple things.
Rhet. 31.
362 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
Humble voyagers are we,
'er Life's dim, unsounded sea,
Seeking only some calm clime :
Touch us gently, gentle Time ! B. W. Procter.
13. And I have loved thee, Ocean! and my joy
Of youthful sports was on thy breast to be
Borne, like thy bubbles, onward : from a boy
1 wantoned with thy breakers they to me
Were a delight ; and if the freshening sea
Made them a terror 'twas a pleasing fear,
For I was as it were a child of thee,
And trusted to thy billows far and near,
And laid my hand upon thy mane as I do here. Byron.
14. Dwell within us, blessed Spirit ;
Where thou art, no ill can come ;
Bless us now, through Jesus' merit ;
Reign in every heart and home.
15. O then shall the veil be removed,
And round me Thy brightness be poured ;
I shall see Him whom, absent, I loved,
Whom, not having seen, I adored.
1 6. The Lord my Shepherd is ;
I shall be well supplied ;
Since he is mine, and I am his,
What can I want beside ? Watts.
17. The Lord himself, the mighty Lord,
Vouchsafes to be my guide ;
The shepherd, by whose constant care
My wants are all supplied.
1 8. My God, permit me not to be
A stranger to myself and thee;
Amidst a thousand thoughts I rove,
Forgetful of my highest love.
19. Hail to the brightness of Zion's glad morning;
Joy to the lands that in darkness have lain ;
Hushed be the accents of sorrow and rffourning;
Zion in triumph begins her mild reign. T. Hastings.
PROSODY AND VERSIFICATION. 363
20. Who knows the errors of his thoughts ?
My God, forgive my secret faults,
And from presumptuous sins restrain ;
Accept my poor attempts of praise,
That I have read thy book of grace,
And book of nature, not in vain.
21. Swell the anthem, raise the song;
Praises to our God belong ;
Saints and angels, join to sing
Praises to the heavenly King.
22. In Death's kindly bosom our last hope remains :
The dead fear no tyrants ; the grave has no chains.
On, on to the combat ! the heroes that bleed
For virtue and mankind, are heroes indeed !
And, oh ! e'en if Freedom from this world be driven,
Despair not at least we shall find her in heaven ! Moore.
23. 'Tis the wink of an eye, 'tis the draught of a breath,
From the blossom of health to the paleness of death,
From the gilded saloon to the bier and the shroud,
O why should the spirit of mortal be proud ? Knox.
24. Creep into thy narrow bed,
Creep, and let no more be said !
Vain thy onset, all stands fast.
Thou thyself must break at last. Arnold.
25. Christmas is here;
Winds whistle shrill,
Icy and chill.
Little care we ;
Little we fear
Weather without,
Sheltered about
The mahogany-tree. Thackeray.
26. Break, break, break,
At the foot of thy crags, O Sea !
But the tender grace of a day that is dead
Will never come back to me. Tennyson.
364 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
27. Farewell, O day misspent ;
Thy fleeting hours were lent
In vain to my endeavor.
In shade and sun
Thy race is run
Forever! oh, forever!
The leaf drops from the tree,
The sand falls in the glass,
And to the dread Eternity
The dying minutes pass. Mackay.
28. Sweet and low, sweet and low,
Wind of the western sea,
Low, low, breathe and blow,
Wind of the western sea !
Over the rolling waters go,
Come from the dying moon, and blow,
Blow him again to me ;
While my little one, while my pretty one, sleeps. Tennyson.
29. Under my window, under my window,
All in the midsummer weather,
, Three little girls with fluttering curls
Flit to and fro together :
There 's Bell with her bonnet of satin sheen,
And Maud with her mantle of silver-green,
And Kate with her scarlet feather. Westwood.
30. Work work work !
From weary chime to chime,
Work work work
As prisoners work for crime !
Band, and gusset, and seam,
Seam, and gusset, and band,
Till the heart is sick, and the brain benumbed,
As well as the weary hand. Hood.
31. I sometimes hold it half a sin
To put in words the grief I feel ;
For words, like Nature, half reveal, '-
And half conceal the Soul within. Tennyson.
PROSODY AND VERSIFICATION. 365
32. Take her up tenderly.
Lift her with care ;
Fashioned so slenderly,
Young, and so fair j
Ere her limbs frigidly
Stiffen too rigidly,
Decently, kindly,
Smooth and compose them ;
And her eyes, close them,
Staring so blindly ! Hood.
33. By the craggy hillside,
Through the mosses bare,
They have planted thorn-trees
For pleasure here and there.
Is any man so daring
To dig up one in spite,
He shall find the thornies set
In his bed at night. Allingham.
34. Alas ! the joys that fortune brings
Are trifling, and decay ;
And those who prize the paltry things,
More trifling still than they. Goldsmith.
35. Let not Ambition mock their useful toil,
Their homely joys, and destiny obscure;
Nor Grandeur hear with a disdainful smile
The short and simple annals of the poor. Gray.
36. Art thou poor, yet hast thou golden slumbers ?
Oh, sweet content !
Art thou rich, yet is thy mind perplexed ?
Oh, punishment !
Dost thou laugh to see how fools are vexed
To add to golden numbers, golden numbers ?
Oh, sweet content ! Dekker.
37. Opinion governs all mankind,
Like the blind's leading of the blind. Butler.
366 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
38. But the raven, sitting lonely on that placid bust, spoke only
That one word, as if his soul in that one word he did outpour.
Nothing further then he uttered ; not a feather then he fluttered
Till I scarcely more than muttered, "Other friends have flown
before
On the morrow tie will leave me, as my hopes have flown before."
Then the bird said, "Nevermore." Poe.
39. The splendor falls on castle walls,
And snowy summits old in story :
The long light shakes across the lakes,
And the wild cataract leaps in glory.
Blow, bugle, blow, set the wild echoes flying,
Blow, bugle; answer, echoes, dying, dying, dying. Tennyson.
40. Four Seasons fill the measure of the year ;
There are four seasons in the mind of man.
He has his lusty Spring, when fancy clear
Takes in all beauty with an easy span :
He has his Summer, when luxuriously
Spring's honied cud of youthful thought he loves
To ruminate, and by such dreaming high
Is nearest unto heaven : quiet coves
His soul has in its Autumn, when his wings
He furleth close ; contented so to look
On mists in idleness to let fair things
Pass by unheeded as a threshold brook.
He has his Winter too, of pale misfeature,
Or else he would forego his mortal nature. Keats.
41. I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers,
From the sea and the streams ;
I bear light shade for the leaves when laid
In their noon-day dreams.
From my wings are shaken the dews that waken
The sweet birds every one,
When rocked to rest on their mother's breast,
As she dances about the sun. Shelley.
PROSODY AND VERSIFICATION. 367
Poetic Pauses. In addition to the pauses required by
the sense, two suspensions of the voice \hefinal and the
ccesural pause belong to verse.
The final pause is a slight suspension of the voice at the
end of each line, even when the grammatical sense does
not require it.
The csesural pause is a slight suspension of the voice
within the line, and generally, though not always, about
the middle of it. Long lines may have two or more cae-
sural pauses. In these lines the caesura is marked (||) :
Soldier, rest! || thy warfare o'er.
Eternal sunshine || of the spotless mind.
Of all the Grecian woes, || O goddess, sing !
Lives through all life, || extends || through all extent,
Spreads || undivided, operates || unspent.
Much of the harmony of our meters, and of iambic
meters especially, depends on the skillful disposition of
caesural pauses. They often correspond, though not always,
to pauses required by the sense. Skillful poets aim to
construct their lines in such a v/ay that the final and caesural
pauses shall fall where they are required by the meaning,
or grammatical construction. The caesural pause should
never be placed so as to injure the sense.
In iambic meters, the most appropriate place for caesural
pauses is after the fourth, or after the sixth syllable. If
the pause fall after the fourth syllable, the briskest melody
is thereby produced, and the most spirited air given to the
line. If the pause fall after the fifth syllable, the verse be-
comes more smooth, gentle, and flowing; if it follow the
sixth syllable, the tenor of the music becomes solemn and
grave; if it fall after the seventh syllable, which is the
nearest place to the end of the line that it can occupy, the
grave, solemn cadence becomes still more sensible.
CHAPTER XV.
POETRY.
Poetry may be defined as the product of an excited and
a creative imagination, with a primary object to please, and
expressed in the form of verse. The most artistic depart-
ment of literature, it is near akin, in its effects, to music and
painting. The poet is a creator an artist sensitive to
impressions which do not affect ordinary natures ; he gives
to his fancies a delicacy of form, a warmth of coloring, and
a richness of expression alien to prose, the "common
drudge between man and man.'*
Poetry does not confine itself to the language of common
life. It selects words for their beauty of sound and asso-
ciation, for their picturesqueness, for their elevation rare
words often, words that are even obsolete in prose.
It uses the transposed order in a degree forbidden in con-
versation, unpardonable even in impassioned oratory. "Im-
perfect periods are frequent; elisions are perpetual; and
many of the minor words, which would be deemed essential
in prose, are dispensed with."
Poetry admits of a bold use of imagery. Herbert Spencer
says: "Metaphors, similes, hyperboles, and personifications
are the poet's colors, which he has liberty to employ al-
most without limit. We characterize as ' poetical ' the
prose which uses these appliances of language with any
frequency; and condemn it as 'overflorid' or 'affected'
(368)
POETRY. 369
long before they occur with the profusion allowed in
verse."
Poetry may be divided into five principal species the
Lyric, the Pastoral, the Didactic, the Epic, and the Dra-
matic.
To classify existing poems is very difficult, since some
poems will not readily take their place in any list, and
others may be classed in several.
LYRIC POETRY.
The Lyric Poem is an expression of some intense feel-
ing, passion, or emotion. As its name denotes, it originally
meant poetry intended to be sung to the accompaniment
of the lyre, being either in its tone of feeling, or more
commonly in its quick movement and vivacity, suitable for
music. It is usually short, and is exemplified in the song,
hymn, and ode.
The varieties of lyric poetry may be thus enumerated :
(1) The Sacred Song or hymn.
(2) The Secular Song. To this class belong the war
song, the political song, the patriotic song, the sentimental
song, the comic song, the bacchanalian song, etc.
(3) The Ode, which is the loftiest embodiment of intense
feeling, is not intended to be sung. Odes are of four prin-
cipal kinds: Sacred, Heroic, Moral, and Amatory.
Sacred odes are sometimes called hymns; as Spenser's
four hymns, on Love, Beauty, Heavenly Love, and Heav-
enly Beauty. These average nearly three hundred lines
each. Milton's Ode on the Nativity is another example.
Byron's Hebrew Melodies and Moore's Sacred Melodies con-
tain pieces of great lyrical beauty.
3/O COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
Heroic odes celebrate the praises of heroes, and are mostly
occupied with martial exploits. Of this class are Pindar's
odes, in Greek, and Alexander ' s Feast, by Dryden. Lowell's
Commemoration Ode should, perhaps, be mentioned also.
Moral odes express almost every sentiment suggested
by friendship, humanity, art, patriotism, etc. Collins' ode
The Passions, Gray's Ode on a Distant Prospect of Eton Col-
lege, and Pope's ode St. Cecilia, are examples of this class
of composition.
Amatory odes are more generally known as Love Songs:
these are numerous in all literatures. Anacreon among the
Greeks, and Horace among the Romans, were the most
successful writers of this kind of verse among the ancients.
Thomas Moore and Robert Burns have contributed much
to this branch of our literature. Coleridge's Genevieve and
Byron's Maid of Athens are illustrations.
The Elegy. This variety may be classed under the
head of lyric poetry. Elegiac poetry is usually of a sad
and mournful kind, celebrating the virtues of the dead.
Gray's Elegy in a Country Church - Yard, Shelley's Adonais
on the death of Keats, Milton's Lycidas on the death
of his friend Edmund King, Tennyson's In Memoriam
on the death of his beloved friend Arthur Henry Hallam,
are illustrations.
PASTORAL POETRY.
Pastoral Poetry means strictly that which celebrates
shepherd or rustic life ; such were the themes of the early
pastoral poets, Theocritus among the Greeks and Virgil
among the Romans. But modern authorsDf this verse have
used a wider range, and the term Pastoral is now applied
POETRY. 371
to any poem that deals with the objects of external nature.
No poetry is better understood or appreciated, and none is
more popular. Flower and leaf and bird and insect and
beast of the field, the scenery of mountain and valley and
rivers and lakes and clouds, rural life in all its changes,
nature in all her moods, are subjects of pastoral poetry.
The pastoral poems of Virgil, called by him Eclogues,
though graceful and musical, are inferior in excellence to
the Idyls of Theocritus. From these exquisite Idyls arose
the term idyllic, which is sometimes applied to pastoral
poetry. The poetry of Burns bears the true pastoral stamp ;
his Cotter's Saturday Night is a fine example. Tennyson's
Idyls of the King, Allan Ramsay's Gentle Shepherd, Pope's
Pastorals, Shenstone's Ballad in four parts, on Absence,
Hope, Solitude, and Disappointment, are further illustra-
tions of this kind of verse.
DIDACTIC POETRY.
The Didactic Poem seeks to teach some moral, philo-
sophical, or literary truth. As it directly aims to teach, it
is less purely poetical than the other kinds of verse. Didac-
tic poems are often dry and prosaic, as compared with other
kinds of poetical composition ; but many of them are full of
interest, and fitted to lift us to nobler thought and life.
Considered as essays in verse, they are among the finest
compositions in our language. They are on every subject.
Some examples are: Wordsworth's Excursion, Pope's Es-
say on Criticism and Essay on Man, Young's Night Thoughts,
Pollok's Course of Time, Tupper's Proverbial Philosophy,
Thomson's Seasons, Campbell's Pleasures of Hope, and
Cowper's Task. The Hind and Panther of Dry den is the
earliest didactic poem in the language.
3/2 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
Satirical Poetry. Allied to the didactic poem is the
satire, or satirical poem. To this species of poetry the
didactic has the same relation which the schools of a
country have to its courts of justice. One aims at forming
virtue, and imparting wisdom ; the other at scourging vice
and exposing folly. Satirical poetry is divisible into three
classes Moral, Personal, and Political. Moral satires are
those satires on contemporary morals and manners ; of these
Pope's Moral Essays and the satires of Horace furnish ex-
cellent examples. Personal satires are mainly directed
against individuals, as Dryden's MacFlecknoe, which is an
attack on a rival dramatist, Byron's English Bards and Scotch
Reviewers, which ridicules nearly all the poets of the author's
day, and Pope's Dnnciad, which vilifies all writers by whom
he had been attacked. Political satires are written in the
interest of a party in the state ; the most famous instance
is Dryden's Absalom and Achitophel; nearly equal in rank
is Butler's Hitdibras. Under the head of satire may, also,
be placed Lowell's Fable for Critics.
Satirists, as a class, seldom attempt to inculcate posi-
tively what is good, or to recommend what is right and
proper; they leave this task to moralists and public in-
structors.
EPIC POETRY.
The Epic Poem is a poetical recital of some great and
heroic enterprise. The events are narrated by the hero or
some participant in the scenes. The plot should be inter-
esting and complicated; .there should be many actors,
many episodes, and the whole should be recounted in ele-
vated language. The epic is the longest of all poetic com-
positions.
POETRY. 373
The leading forms of epic poetry are :
(1) The Grand Epic, which has for its subject some
great complex action. The number of grand epics is very
limited. Most civilized nations have one ; few have more
than one. The most celebrated are Homer's Iliad, Virgil's
jEneid, Dante's Divine Comedy, and Milton's Paradise Lost.
English literature possesses but the one great epic poem,
Milton's Paradise Lost, a composition which, for grandeur
of conception, artistic structure, careful, vigorous treatment,
and nobleness of style, is unrivaled in our language. It
places Milton as an epic poet, says Coleridge, above Homer
and above Dante.
(2) The Metrical Romance, which is inferior in dignity
and grandeur to the epic. It is a narrative of adventure,
and has nearly every quality belonging to the epic, but
has them in a less marked degree. Spenser's Faerie
Queene is the highest specimen of this kind of composi-
tion ; other examples are Chaucer's Canterbury Tales;
The Lady of the Lake and Mar mi on by Sir Walter Scott ;
Longfellow's Rvangeline ; Keats* Eve of St. Agnes, and
Moore's Lalla Rookh.
(3) The Historical Poem, or Metrical History, which
is a narrative of public events, extending over a period
more or less prolonged of a nation's history. This species
of poetry relies very much upon the story for its effect.
Dry den's Annus Mirabilis belongs to this class. Akin to
the historical poem, though in nature more strictly lyrical,
are war poems, such as Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Rome,
and Campbell's Hohenlinden and Battle of the Baltic. These,
however, might also be given as examples of the Ballad
the simplest kind of narrative poetry.
3/4 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
DRAMATIC POETRY.
A Dramatic Poem is designed to be acted on the stage.
This species of poetry exists in the form called plays.
Scenery, costume, dialogue, and action combine to repro-
duce the original events and represent the characters, as if
really present. In such a poem, there is little that is com-
monplace ; everything is positive and pronounced ; the
passion is strong, often tumultuous; the thought is vigor-
ous; the incidents exciting. Like the epic it contains a
story, but unlike it the story is acted, not narrated.
The main divisions of the drama are tragedy and comedy.
Tragedy is earnest and serious, and deals often with
great men and lofty actions. It represents the calamitous
events of human life, with the design of arousing pity and
fear in connection with admiration of nobility and scorn of
baseness in character. The language is poetically pleasing,
and the subjects are various. Shakespeare has given us a
great variety of tragic situations in Hamlet, Othello, King
Lear, Julius Ccesar, Romeo and Juliet, and others.
Comedy represents the ludicrous side of life. It seeks
chiefly the topics of common life, and deals largely in ridi-
cule and satire; its many forms embrace the lowest per-
sonal caricature and the most refined humor. When the
dialogue is low and the characters are of inferior rank, it is
called a Farce. Gross exaggerations for the purpose of
exciting mirth, or comical situations which are eminently
absurd, produce the Travesty, or Mock-heroic. Scenes
mingling the tragic and the comic, and interspersed with
songs, constitute Melodrama. Of the genteel comedy,
Goldsmith's Good-Natured Man and She Stoops to Conquer,
and Sheridan's Rivals and The Critic, are illustrations.
CHAPTER XVI.
CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION.
CAPITALS.
IF written language be efficient as a medium of commu-
nication, it must be clearly expressed ; and to this end we
should be able to make a just distinction of the symbols
by which the thought is conveyed. For example, compare
-"GIVE ME, O FATHER, TO THY THRONE
ACCESS," with " Give me, O Father, to thy throne ac-
cess." Now suppose an entire page to be printed in the
style of the first, and another in the style of the second ;
then we may readily perceive the advantages obtained in
giving to the prominence of the idea a corresponding
prominence of sign. Capital letters are, therefore, used for
the sake of giving distinction to certain words, so that the
sense may be more obvious. Notice the distinction be-
tween ''Green Mountains," and "green mountains"; be-
tween ' ' White Plains, " and "white plains"; between "the
principles of the Democratic party," and "democratic
principles."
Capitals were formerly employed with far greater fre-
quency than now. Almost every word of the slightest
importance once had a capital as its initial. A few great
writers of the present day make an excessive use of capi-
tals. In the German language every noun begins with a
capital ; but there is no reason for this practice in the En-
(375)
3/6 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
glish language. Capitals are of advantage only when used
so sparingly as to contrast with small letters.
The prevailing practice limits the use of capitals chiefly
to the following cases:
1. The first word of every sentence; as, "Did you call
John?" "No, sir; I did not."
2. The first word of every line of poetry ; as,
rail
My hand I trail
Within the shadow of the sail."
3. All proper nouns, and words derived from them; as,
' 'Richmond " ; ' ( Central America " ; ' ' The French nation ' ' ;
"The English language"; "The Mohammedan religion."
4. The names of things strongly personified ; as, "O Sol-
itude ! Where are the charms that sages have seen in thy
face"; "They went to the Butterfly s ball."
5 . The names of religious sects, and of political parties ; as,
' ' The Brahmins "; " The Protestants "; " The Democrats. ' '
6. The names of important historical events ; as, ' ' The Res-
toration" ; "The Reformation"; " The Declaration of Inde-
pendence."
7. Titles of office, honor, or respect, especially when ap-
plied to a particular person or when they precede a name ;
as, "The Count of Paris' '; " President Harrison" ; "Queen
Anne"; "Uncle John" ; "Mrs. Adams"
If such titles as king, lord, general, etc. occur frequently
and are not followed by the name, the capital need not be
used.
8. The names of the days of tJu week, and of the months
CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION. 377
of the year, but not of the seasons ; as, " It is Monday morn-
ing"; "The month of December"; "Snow fell during the
winter. ' ' *
9. All 'names of 'Deity ; as, "TlntAbmgkty**; "The Divine
Architect"; ' ' The Most High" ; ' 'The Creator"; ' Jehovah, "f
10. The names of the Bible, and any of its books ; as,
"The Holy Bible"; "The New Testament"; "The Holy
Scriptures "; ' ' The Gospel of John. " \
11. The first word of a direct quotation; as, "He replied,
l My coffers are empty.' "
* NOTE. The words " north," " east," "south," " west," when they denote parts
of a country, should begin with capital letters, but when they denote simply direc-
tion, they should be written with small letters; as, "The West is rapidly develop-
ing her wealth "; " Indiana is west of Ohio."
f NOTE i. Pronouns referring to Deity, when equivalent to the name of Deity,
should begin with a capital letter; but if the reference is perfectly clear the capi-
tals may be omitted. In the best editions of the English Bible the pronouns are
printed with small letters, unless used emphatically without a noun ; as, "O Thou
that hearest prayer"; "To Him who guards us."
NOTE 2. When a name of Deity is applied to a created being, it does not be*-
gin with a capital; as, " The Lord is a great God above all gods."
NOTE 3. Providence, when used to mean the One who provides for us, be-
gins with a capital. When the word " heaven " is used to mean the Deity, it should
begin with a capital ; when it means the firmament, it should begin with a small
letter; when it refers to the abode of the blest, it is written by some with a capi-
tal, and by others with a small letter: usage is not uniform.
J NOTE. When the Bible is spoken of simply as a book, no capital is needed ;
as, "Seven bibles were placed upon the shelf."
NOTE i. Should the quotation, however, consist of a single word or merely
a part of a sentence, the capital is not necessary.
NOTE 2. The first word of an important statement should begin with a capital
letter; thus, "The question is, Who shall take the lead"; " My opinion is this: If
we do not succeed now, we shall never succeed."
Rhet. 32.
378 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
12. The pronoun I and the interjection O are always capi-
tals. Single letters forming abbreviations should be capitals.
13. In the titles of books, or the headings of essays, etc.,
every noun, adjective, verb, and adverb shoidd begin with a
capital letter.
14. The first word of each of a series of numbered clauses
or phrases should begin with a capital letter; as, "He di-
rected his efforts to these points : (i) The necessity for gain-
ing time ; (2) How time might be gained ; (3) That the way
he recommended was the only practical one. "
15. The first word of a clause or a sentence, when used as
an example, slioidd begin with a capital letter. Thus:
1 'Proper names should begin with capitals; as, 'His home
is in Virginia. ' '
1 6. The first word after an introductory word or clause
should begin with a capital; as, ' ' Voted, To appoint Mr.
William Brown commissioner"; "Be it enacted> That a
tax of two mills," etc. .
EXERCISE LXXIX.
DIRECTION. Correct the capitalization of the following examples, and give
the reason for every change :
1. Thou shalt not Steal.
2. have you studied french or german ?
3. June and July are Summer months.
4. The american revolution continued eight years.
5. He devoted himself to the Study of the holy scriptures.
6. His advice to his little Son was, "get Money, Boy, get Money."
7. i've seen yon weary Winter sun
twice forty times return,
and every Time has added proofs
that Man was made to mourn.
CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION. 379
8. The general assembly meets on the first monday in January.
9. Three cheers were given for the "champion of the south."
10. The bible says, "children, obey your parents."
11. The wars of the roses desolated britain between the years 1455
and 1485.
12. He flattered himself that the tories might be induced to make
some concessions to the dissenters, on condition that the whigs would
be lenient to the Jacobites.
13. The reign of queen Anne is generally admitted to have been the
augustan age of English Literature.
14. The work is admirably adapted to the use of schools: (i) by
thorough and varied exercises ; (2) by frequent and complete reviews ;
(3) by simplicity of terms and arrangement.
15. Burke' s philosophical inquiry into the origin of our ideas of the
sublime and beautiful, and allison's essays on the nature and princi-
ples of taste, are works of permanent value.
1 6. The Guests were entertained by Senator gray at his Residence,
no. 56 independence avenue.
17. He is also called the eternal, the almighty, the invisible, the in-
finite, the lord of Lords.
1 8. This, o king, is my plea for mercy.
19. The acts of the apostles and revelation were his favorite parts
of the new testament.
20. Edward the elder succeeded his father, alfred the great.
21. The koran is the sacred book of the followers of mohammed.
22. We crossed the rocky mountains just about daybreak.
23. Resolved, that every citizen be allowed to exercise his rights as
a voter.
24. The City of galveston is on galveston Island.
EXERCISE LXXX.
DIRECTION. Distinguish between the use of small letters and capitals in the
following sentences :
f The Devil and his angels.
' \ The devils also believe and tremble.
( The design of our infinite Creator.
' \ Either the world has a creator, or it exists by chance.
380 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
He has many friends.
William Penn was accompanied by a few Friends.
He was educated in a university.
He was a student at the University.
You Moon! Have you done something wrong in Heaven that
God has hidden your face ?
The moon climbs the high heavens.
Can a Roman senate long debate which of the two to choose,
6. \ slavery or death ?
He has been elected to the Senate.
{Wave your boughs, ye oaks.
This struck the Oak with a thought of admiration.
| He referred to the union of the States.
C The Union , the Constitution, and the enforcement of the Laws.
They murmured, " The world is all a dream."
They murmured that "the world is all a dream."
PUNCTUATION OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
f
(
The meaning of a sentence is made clear chiefly by a
proper arrangement of its words ; but sometimes, in writ-
ten or printed discourse, by proper punctuation, which en-
ables the eye to take in more readily the sense of a passage.
The marks used for this purpose are called Punctuation
Marks. These marks are :
The period . The interrogation point ?
The comma The exclamation point !
j.
The quotation marks
The semicolon
The colon
The apostrophe
The hyphen - The caret A*
The dash
The parenthesis ( )
* NOTE. The rules for the punctuation of the simple sentence apply equally
well to the clauses of complex, and to the members of compound, sentences.
CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION. 381
THE PERIOD.
In the punctuation of simple sentences the only points
used are the terminal marks, the apostrophe, and the
comma.
Terminal marks are the marks placed at the end of sen-
tences. They are the period, the interrogation point, and
the exclamation point.
RULE I. Every sentence not interrogative or exclamatory
must be followed by a period.
RULE II. A period is used after every abbreviation; as,
"Mr.Jas. Green"; " Y. M. C. A."
RULE III. Roman numerals, headings, and signatures^
must be followed by a period; as, " Chapter IV. "; " Cow-
per's Task."; " H. M. Godwin."
EXERCISE LXXXI.
DIRECTION. In the following examples make whatever abbreviations would
be proper, and punctuate according to the rules :
1. President Elliott, Doctor of Divinity, Doctor of Laws.
2. Colonel Irving is the guest of Governor Gordon.
3. Gentlemen Belf, Dale, and Company, Saint Louis, Missouri.
4. Charles Pollard, Master of Arts.
5. Charles L, King of England, was beheaded.
6. The Right Reverend Henry Carrol Potter, Bishop of Chicago,
is visiting relatives at 34 Jefferson Street.
7. Mister Lawrence Barrett, the American actor, was traveling in
Europe.
8. The examination was held October the second, at two o'clock
in the afternoon.
9. Farm Ballads By Will Carleton.
10. Baltimore, Maryland, November 8, 1886.
382 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
THE APOSTROPHE.
RULE I. All nouns in the singular, and all plurals not
ending in "s, "form their posse ssives by the addition of the
"apostrophe" and "s"; as, "The girl's cloak''; "The
men's boots."
Plurals ending in "j" add the "apostrophe" only; as,
"Tte girls cloaks"; "The ladies' books."
RULE II. The apostrophe is used to denote the elision of
a letter or syllable ; as, "O'er the wide plain"; ''He'll neer
come back."
THE COMMA.
RULE I. Nouns in apposition, when accompanied by mod-
ifying words or phrases, are separated from the rest of the
sentence by a comma, or by commas; as, " Washington, the
first President, was a Virginian "; "Collins the poet admired
Fairfax, the translator of Dante." *
EXERCISE LXXXII.
DIRECTION. Punctuate the following examples, and give reasons:
1. Brabantio a rich senator of Venice had a fair daughter the
gentle Desdemona.
2. Lord Alfred Tennyson the poet-laureate of England wrote The
Charge of the Light Brigade.
3. At Waterloo the allied armies defeated Napoleon the greatest
general of modern times.
4. See the beautiful flowers the attendants of Spring !
*NOTE. If the appositional expression is restrictive, no commas are needed;
thus, " The emperor Augustus was a patron of the fine arts"* 1 ; " The apostle John" ;
''Alfred the Great."
CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION. 383
5. Sir Walter Scott the author of the Waverley Novels possessed
great legendary lore.
6. Shakespeare the bard of Avon was born in 1 564.
7. Webster the orator and statesman was a native of New Hamp-
shire.
8. Diogenes the Greek philosopher was a cynic.
9. Much stress was laid by the greatest of the ancient orators De-
mosthenes upon delivery.
10. Paul the apostle was a bitter persecutor of the faith he after-
wards preached to the Greeks and Romans.
RULE II. A noun independent by address must be set off
by a comma, or by commas; as, " Why sleepest thou, Eve" ;
"Plato, thou reasonest well"; "Tell me, my friend, all the
circumstances."
EXERCISE LXXXIII.
DIRECTION. Punctuate the following examples, and give reasons:
1. My son give me thy heart.
2. Acquire my daughters the habit of doing everything well.
3. O tiny ant you 're a busy fellow !
4. O sleepless God forever keep both living and dead.
5. Your son my Lord has paid a soldier's debt.
6. How could he mark thee for the tomb my proud boy Absalom ?
7. Master I marvel at nothing.
8. Accept my dear young friends this expression of my regard.
9. I rise Mr. President to a point of order.
- 10. It was then good friends that your assistance was most needed.
RULE III. A phrase formed by a noun used absolutely
with a participle, must be set off by a comma, or by com-
mas; as, " Shame being lost, all virtue is lost"; "Then came
Jesus, the doors being shut, and stood in the midst." *
#NOTE. The participle in an absolute phrase can always be converted into
a verb having the noun for its subject. Thus, "Shame being lost" is equivalent
to, " When shame is lost" which is a temporal adverbial clause.
COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
EXERCISE LXXXIV.
DIRECTION. Punctuate the following examples, and give reasons:
1. Occupation being absent there is not necessarily rest.
2. People are seldom ungrateful to us we continuing in condition
to assist them.
3. These matters having been arranged the company separated.
4. They creep to bed the tales done and sleep lulled by whisper-
ing winds.
5. The passions having been subdued a man's worst enemies are
subdued.
6. These truths being known what honest triumph flushed their
breasts.
7. They having made gestures of authority he severed the thongs
of the captive with a knife.
8. Hope lost all faith is lost.
9. His promise secured we rested in confident expectation.
RULE IV. Three or more words used in a series in the
same construction are generally set off by commas ; as, ' ' The
South produces sugar, cotton, and corn"; "The /#/#/, nigged,
snow-capped Andes traverse South America."*
* NOTE. When all the words are connected by conjunctions, the commas
may be omitted; as, "The South produces sugar and cotton and corn" When
no conjunction is placed between the last two words in the series, the words
should be separated from each other and from what follows, by a comma; as,
" The sun, the moon, the planets, the stars, are all in motion." An element indicat-
ing a common reference or dependence upon each word of the series is sep-
arated by a comma; as, "Charity beareth, believeth, hopeth, all things." To
this rule, however, adjectives and adverbs form an exception; as, "He was a
brave, pious, patriotic prince"; "The duty was strictly, bravely, cheerfully
performed"
Care should be taken to avoid regarding words as in the same grammatical
construction because they happen to be the same part of speech. In the expres-
sion, " A large white owl," the first adjective qualifies the second adjective and the
noun taken together, and not simply the noun. It would* be wrong to write the
expression, "A large, white owl."
CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION. 385
EXERCISE LXXXV.
DIRECTION. Punctuate the following examples, and give reasons:
1 . Punish guide instruct the boy.
2. For all was blank bleak and gray.
3. Holly mistletoe red berries ivy turkeys all vanished instantly.
4. All was deep and dark and cold.
5. The earth the air the water teem with life.
6. Our friend was a wise prudent and influential citizen.
7. Trees vines hedges shrubs encircle the house.
8. There are pictures telling stories of mercy hope courage faith
and charity.
9. He was wise prudent cautious in all his actions.
10. Kings rose reigned and fell.
11. Days and months and years have passed since we saw him.
RULE V. Two words used in the same construction should
not be separated by a comma, unless the connective is omitted;
as, "The South produces sugar and cotton"; "The lofty
and rugged Andes traverse South America"; "Slowly, sadly
we laid him down/'*
EXERCISE LXXXVI.
DIRECTION. Punctuate the following examples, and give the reasons:
1. Truth virtue are the wealth of all men.
2. Rash fruitless war is only splendid murder.
3. They flew to the better country the upper day.
4. The times made Brutus an assassin and traitor.
5. The bed or channel of the river is wide.
*NoTE. To this rule there are two exceptions: (i) When two words con-
nected by "or" mean the same thing, they may be separated by commas; as,
"The sky, or firmament, is above us." (2) In the case of two words or phrases
joined by way of contrast, a comma is placed after the first; as, "It is not
John but William"; "He is poor, but honest."
Rhet. 33.
386 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
6. The Puritans gave the world not thought but action.
7. Yeast is added to dough to convert or to change some of the
starch into sugar.
8. The world saw Marie Antoinette decorating cheering her ele-
vated sphere.
9. The Saxon words in English are short chiefly monosyllabic.
10. Virtuous and wise he was but not severe.
RULE VI. Words used in pairs take a comma after each
pair; as, " Truth is fair and artless, simple and sincere, uni-
form and consistent" ; "Eating or drinking, laboring or sleep-
ing, let us do all in moderation."
EXERCISE LXXXVII.
DIRECTION. Punctuate the following sentences, and give reasons:
1. The poor and the rich the weak and the strong the young and
the old have one common Father.
2. Earth and sky land and water mountain and valley bear traces
of divine workmanship.
3. Anarchy and confusion poverty and distress desolation and ruin
are the consequences of civil war.
4. Hope and despondency joy and sorrow pleasure and pain di-
versify life with their sudden contrasts.
5. I inquired and rejected consulted and deliberated for ten years.
6. Houses and lands offices and honors gold and bonds are noth-
ing to the man at Death's door.
RULE VII. Participial and adjective phrases not restrict-
ive must be set off by commas ; as, ' ' The Indian monarch,
stunned and bewildered, saw his faithful subjects falling
around him." *
* NOTE. If the phrase is restrictive it limits the meaning of the noun it modi-
fies to a particular sense, which would be wholly changed by the omission of the
phrase. Thus : "A eity set on a hill can not be hid "; ""Walls built of stone aie
durable."
CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION. 387
EXERCISE LXXXVIII.
DIRECTION. Punctuate the following sentences, and give reasons:
1. The Nile rising to a certain height makes Egypt fruitful.
2. Then comes the infant riding his father's walking-stick.
3. 'Twas but the car rattling o'er the stony street.
4. I threw open the shutters admitting a flood of brilliant moonlight.
5. Seated on the old mail-coach we needed no evidence out of
ourselves to indicate the velocity.
6. The laws relating to the preservation of game are in every coun-
try uncommonly rigorous.
7. Ores are natural compounds being produced by nature.
8. Our troops putting themselves in order of battle calmly waited
the charge of the enemy.
9. They lived in a cottage thatched with straw.
RULE VIII. Inverted phrases, and phrases standing par-
enthetically between the main parts of the sentence, are gener-
ally set off by commas ; as, ' ' To illustrate the matter, let me
tell you a story"; "The richest of men may, from want
of proper culture, fail to grace society."
EXERCISE LXXXIX.
DIRECTION. Punctuate the following examples, and give reasons:
1. Man even in his lower state is a noble work.
2. Of all the senses sight is the most perfect.
3. To confess the truth I never could understand his position.
4. Truth like gold shines brighter by collision.
5. To the wise and good old age presents a scene of tranquil en-
joyment.
6. In order to succeed in study the cultivation of attention is neces-
sary.
7. A spiritual nature to grow in power demands spiritual liberty.
8. To the wise and prudent misfortune seldom comes.
9. Nature through all her works delights in variety.
388 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
RULE IX. Adverbs and short phrases when used nearly
orqiiite independently, are set off by commas ; as, ' ' Away, then,
they dashed through thick and thin"; "In truth, I have
little hope of his doing well/'
The following words and phrases are commonly used as
independent :
however, then, perhaps,
indeed, therefore, consequently,
moreover, too, finally,
namely, surely, hence,
in truth, in a word, of course,
in fact, in short, after all,
in the meantime, without doubt, to be brief,
in the first place, to be sure, beyond question,
for the most part, on the contrary, as it happens.
EXERCISE XC
DIRECTION. Punctuate the following examples, and give reasons:
1. Finally let us announce our conclusion.
2. Well what shall we say in reply ?
3. The work was however very poorly done.
4. Again there are some points to be overlooked.
5. On the contrary there is great danger in delay.
6. There are after all several of us in the secret.
7. Every man therefore should be at his post.
8. Besides this may be useful to you in after life.
9. On the other hand continue to preserve a calm demeanor.
10. Feudalism is in fact the embodiment of pride.
11. Roland's death too is supernatural.
12. It is then a mark of wisdom to live virtuously.
13. We must however pay some respect to the opinions of one who
has had so large an experience.
14. I have shown how just and equitable the arrangement is and
now what is the fair conclusion ?
15. The nation in the meantime is free from danger.
CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION. 389
EXERCISE XCI.
DIRECTION. Fill out the blanks with a noun in the possessive. Make simple
sentences, punctuating properly :
1 . Care keeps his watch in every old eye
2. colors are the most beautiful
3. cup is full of bitterness
4. It is excellent to have a strength
5. This horse is lame
6. I read letter
7. Hope is a staff
8. Peter the hermit excited his passions
9. The royal palace was destroyed by fire
DIRECTION. Fill out the blanks with a noun in apposition. Make simple
sentences, punctuating properly :
1 . Benedict Arnold died in obscurity
2. Victoria is a noble woman
3. A doctor soon set the broken arm
4. Art makes mighty things from small beginnings grow
5. Man can speak
6. Elizabeth was a wise ruler
7. Chaucer died in the first year of the fifteenth century
8. The old guard was invincible
9. Tom Thumb was exhibited by Barnum
10. The horse was scared by a snail
1 1 . Dr. Kane deserves to rank with Livingston
12. The greatest poet among the ancients was blind
13. The book was edited by Bayard Taylor
DIRECTION. Fill out the blanks with a noun independent by direct address.
Make simple sentences, punctuating properly :
1. Come to see my desk
2. Accept this gift
3. Draw draw your arrows to the head
4. Are you ready
5. you are now dismissed
6. have you learned your lesson
390 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
7. Welcome to a foreign fireside
8. I am your friend
9. O help me
DIRECTION. Fill the blanks with a noun used absolutely with a participle.
Make simple sentences, punctuating properly :
1 . the army began its march
2. her sister returned
3. the prisoner was released
4. does that settle the question
5. Pompey prepared for battle
6. we should spend it wisely
7. they were dismissed at once
8. a dispute arose as to the succession
9. the engines returned
EXERCISE XCII.
DIRECTION. Punctuate the following examples, and give reasons:
1. A moral sensible and well-bred man will not affront me
2. Alone on a wide wide sea
3. The deed was done nobly bravely modestly
4. Honor and truth kindness and modesty were remarked in him
5. Tops marbles skates books all received in turn his attention
6. There were gathered together grace and female loveliness wit
and learning the representatives of every science and of every art
7. His face was pale and worn but serene
8. There stood the ingenious the chivalrous the high-souled Wind-
ham
9. Here the rye the peas and the oats were high enough to conceal
a man
10. These fields were overgrown with fern and brambles
11. We were at the entrance of a small inlet or bay
12. Before this duty honor love humanity fell prostrate
13. Morality and conscience and principle were to Napoleon em-
bodied in the word "fame"
14. Lend lend your wings
CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION. 39!
EXERCISE XCIII.
DIRECTION. Fill out the blanks with a participial or adjective phrase. Make
simple sentences, punctuating properly :
1 . The venerable man took his friend by the hand
2. The battle-scarred veteran had signified his purpose of
returning to his native mountains
3. The orator began to speak
4. The peers were marshaled by the heralds under Garter-
King-at-Arms.
5. Last of all came the Prince of Wales
6. Hannah sat down to rock to and fro
7. She stood behind the curtain
8. the peddler betook himself to flight
9. The cathedrals are magnificent
10. A person of those could hardly help analyzing
the impression produced by such a face
DIRECTION. Fill out the blanks with an inverted or parenthetical phrase.
Make simple sentences; punctuate properly:
1. She began to talk in a hoarse broken voice
2. Amy longed eagerly to be at home
3. I have looked into the old books
4. I proceed to ask a considerable number of questions
5. he seemed to make little distinction between the good
and the bad
6. I was much obliged by him
7. Warren Hastings amused himself with embellishing his
grounds
8. there is a grassy ledge or shelf
9. a hot debate ensued
10. I see the brightness of the future
DIRECTION. Fill out the blanks with an adverb or short phrase used inde-
pendently. Make simple sentences :
1. The stranger >- quickened his horse to an equal pace
2. the governess had been taken suddenly ill
3. It comes like the bursting forth of volcanic fires
4. Let us open their doors
39 2 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
5. The war must go on
6. You and I : may rue it
7. I conjure you to respect and love one another
8. she bids fair to excel in this art
9. I am perplexed
10. I will join you
11. Every colony has expressed its willingness to follow
12. gentlemen I would prefer being the author of that poem
to the glory of beating the French to-morrow
PUNCTUATION OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE.
THE COMMA.
In addition to the rules given for the punctuation of the
simple sentence, which apply also to the main divisions of
the complex sentence, are the following special rules for
punctuating the complex sentence.
RULE I. Adverbial clauses introducing a proposition or
standing parenthetically between the parts of the principal
clause, are set off by commas; as, "If the soul is immortal,
its character will determine its destiny"; "'Honesty/
as the proverb runs, ' is the best policy. * "
The adverbial clause is always separated from the rest
of the sentence unless the connection is very close. The
following are examples of the close connection which needs
no comma, the clause being of a restrictive character:
"Be ready when he comes"; "The pursuit did not cease
//// the thief was caught. " *
*NOTE. For the same reason, clauses joined by the conjunction that should
not be separated by a comma, unless the conjunction is removed some distance
from the verb or the words " in order" precede that, thus causing the grammatical
continuity to be somewhat broken; as, " He went away that you might come";
" He used every available form of assistance thathe mighfsucceed"; " He labors,
in order that he may gain a livelihood."
CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION. 393
EXERCISE XCIV.
DIRECTION. Punctuate, and give reasons:
1. Though He slay me yet will I trust in Him
2. When the white blossoms of the hawthorn came out he left the
island with a little army of brave men
3. When the revel was over the minstrel stole away to the forest
4. How much kinder Heaven is to us than we are to each other
5. The sun had set before the battle was decided
6. When all was ready he cut a way for the river to flow into these
artificial troughs
7. If you desire success you must win it
8. If at first you don't succeed try try again
9. If you would be pungent be brief
10. As he took his seat every lip quivered
11. Wolfe while he was urging his battalions in this charge received
a slight wound in the wrist
12. Crown me with flowers that I may thus enter upon eternal sleep
RULE II. Adjective clauses are set off by commas, except
when they are "restrictive"
The adjective clause, when restrictive, is too closely con-
nected to admit of the comma ; as, ' ' The man that had tlie
line in his hand went eastward. " If the clause is non-
restrictive, or additional, (that is, if it merely adds a thought
without limiting the meaning of the antecedent,) it may,
without change of sense, be converted into an independent
proposition, a co-ordinate conjunction and a personal pro-
noun being put in the place of the relative ; thus, ' ' I gave
him a flower, which he rudely crushed." Here the relative
clause is simply additional ; hence, the same thought may
be expressed by means of two independent propositions;
as, "I gave him a flower, and he rudely crushed it '."
Sometimes a clause may be punctuated as either addi-
tional or restrictive, but with a different meaning for each.
394 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
EXERCISE XCV.
DIRECTION. Punctuate, and give reasons :
1. I did send to you for certain sums of gold which you denied me
2. Woe to the hands that shed innocent blood
3. Curses always recoil on the head of him who imprecates them
4. The girl forgot all about the lesson which she had to learn
5. The enthusiasm of the orator infected all who were near him
6. Walpole tells a story which is much too good to be true
7. He deserved all the praise which he has ever received
8. The bran of wheat which is the covering of the kernel is made
up of several layers
9. Hampden was struck by two bullets which broke the shoulder-
bone
RULE III. A noun clause when long, when ending with a
verb, or when resembling a quotation in form y is set off by a
comma.
In all other cases, no comma is required. The follow-
ing examples illustrate the punctuation of the noun clause :
' ' That you have wronged me doth appear in this "; * ' Seneca
says that there is a settled friendship between God and men ";
' ' That this invention may be capable of great improvement,
is not doubted."
EXERCISE XCVI.
DIRECTION. Punctuate, and give reasons:
i. "I will try" has done wonders
.2. That the earth is round is now well known
3. It is an old saying that open admonition is open disgrace
4. Whatever is is right
5. That he has maintained a steady course amid all the adver-
sities of life marks a great mind
6. You say that Edward is your brother's son
CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION. 395
7. A law of the nature of water is that under the mean pressure
of the atmosphere at the level of the sea it boils at 212 Fahrenheit
8. O say what may it be
9. What man dare I dare
f o. I hear the great commanding Warwick is thither gone
11. "Dust thou art to dust returnest" was not written of the soul
12. Another rule is not to let familiarity swallow up all courtesy
EXERCISE XCVII.
DIRECTION. Fill out the blanks with adverbial clauses, and justify jfour
punctuation :
1 . He gladly returned home - -^ -
2. The king reigned but a short time
3. I will obey them in this ~
4. Foul deeds will rise ~-
5. They resolved to detain him
6. he was followed by a crowd of curious watchers
7. there is no transgression
8. True hope is swift and flies
9. Follow a good commander
10. the faithful dog follows
1 1 . be not terrified
12. Watch
13. My brother is older
DIRECTION. Fill out the blanks with adjective clauses ; justify your punc-
tuation:
1. My children appeared transported with joy
2. Show me the room
3. He never can be wise
4. I am satisfied with those pleasures
5. He remembered all the joyous scenes
6. They could find only one apartment
7. I love everything
8. The Nile is one of those rivers
The flowers have all faded
396 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
10. The clergyman died yesterday at the very hour -
11. John Wycliffe died in 1384
12. The earth is a globe or sphere
13. Offices of trust should be conferred only on those
DIRECTION. Fill out the blanks with noun clauses; describe the use of each
clause, and justify your punctuation :
i. He insisted
2. was a mystery to all his friends
3. Nobody will ever know
4. A raven observed
5. The ancient Greeks believed
6. There was no such expectation
7. How shall I know
8. is perfectly true
9. I perceive
10. I was taught in my youth
11. The king could not understand
12. doth appear in this
13. is a traitor
14. I promise to do
PUNCTUATION OF THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.
COMMA, SEMICOLON, AND COLON.
RULE I. The parts of a compound predicate, each simple
co-ordinate expression, especially if long and differently modi-
fied, must be separated from each other by the comma ; as,
" Israel shall blossom, and bud, and fill the face of the world
with fruit "; " She looked so yottng and merry, and used such
simple but expressive gestures, and spoke in such a clear, soft
voice that the children sat as if spell-bound"; "The kitchen
was of spacious dimensions, hung round with copper and
tin vessels highly polished, and decorated Jntrz and there
with a Christmas green. "
CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION. 397
EXERCISE XCVIII.
DIRECTION. Punctuate, and give reasons:
1. Grief lies in my bed walks up and down with me
2. Brother and sister wound their arms around each other and fell
fast asleep
3. In the best books great men talk to us give us their most pre-
cious thoughts and pour their souls into ours
4. A strong mind always hopes and has always cause to hope
5. Miss Celia rose as she spoke and led the way to the dressing-
room
6. The creature rolled ecstatically at her feet licked her hands and
gazed into her face
RULE II. If the members of the compound sentence are
short, or if they are closely connected, only the comma should
be placed between them ; as, * ' The leader died, and the en-
terprise was a failure"; "Pride hardens the heart, but hu-
mility softens it."
RULE III. If the members of the compound sentence are
long, or if they are not closely connected, the semicolon should
be used to separate them. Sometimes the connection is so
slight that the colon is placed between the members. The
following are examples :
" It is easy in the world to live after the world's opinion ;
it is easy in solitude to live after our own; but the great
man is he who in the midst of the crowd keeps with perfect
sweetness the independence of solitude"; "In every work
of genius we recognize our own rejected thoughts: they
come back to us with a certain alienated majesty "; "These
little words are called particles merely in reference to the
diminutive space they occupy ; but this quantitative term
is far wide of their spiritual significance."
398 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
RULE IV. The members of a compound sentence ', which
are themselves subdivided by commas, are separated by semi-
colons ; if tlie members contain semicolons, they are commonly
separated from each other by colons; as, "Young frogs in
thousands are issuing from the waters, and traversing the
roads ; and birds, having terminated their spring cares, are
out enjoying their families in the sunny and plentiful fields";
"The feeblest and most far-away torrent among the high
hills has its companions : the goats browse beside it ; and
the traveler drinks from it, and passes over it with his staff;
and the peasant traces a new channel for it down to his
mill- wheel. "
RULE V. A comma is used to denote the omission of a
noun or verb within the propositions ; as, "To err is human ;
to forgive, divine"; "To suffer is the lot of all; to bear,
the glory of a few"; "I bought good butter at 30 cents
per pound; better, at 50 cents."
EXERCISE XCIX.
DIRECTION. Explain the punctuation :
1. Economy is no disgrace; it is better to live on a little than to
outlive a great deal.
2. It is not sorrow; it is not despondency; it is not gloom.
3. Besides, Mrs. Sparrowgrass had bought a rattle when she was
in Philadelphia ; such a rattle as watchmen carry there.
4. His knife is still in his hand, and strength in his sinews, and a
new created aspiration in his heart.
5. A wise man seeks to outshine himself; a fool, to outshine others.
6. The hurricane had come by night, and with one fell swash had
made an irretrievable sop of everything.
7. Argument, as usually managed, is the worst sort of conver-
sation ; as it is generally, in books, the worst sort of reading.
CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION. 399
DIRECTION. Punctuate, and give reasons :
1. Knavery is supple and can bend but honesty is firm and upright
and yields not
2. Beware of little expenses a small leak will sink a great ship
3. An egotist always speaks of himself either in praise or censure
but a modest man shuns making himself the subject of his conversa-
tion
4. If there are any here who have never known misery and never
lost those that were dear to them let them come out and receive the
bounty of the queen but none came forth
5. Nature is the master of talent genius is the master of nature
6. Youth is the aromatic flower upon the tree the grave life of ma-
turer years its sober solid fruit
7. In the learned journal in the influential newspaper I discern no
form only some irresponsible shadow oftener some moneyed corpora-
tion or some dangler who hopes in the mask and robes of his para-
graph to pass for somebody
8. My mother is ready for me at her writing-desk but not half so
ready as Mr. Murdstone in his easy-chair by the window
EXERCISE C.
DIRECTION. Complete the following sentences by the addition of one or
more independent propositions ; justify your punctuation :
1 . The king himself was thought to be among the slain -
2. Lord Bacon was convicted of receiving bribes
3. He spent some time in wandering among the mountains -
4. You will doubtless either squander your property by negli-
gence
5. Experience keeps a dear school
6. I was not content with my situation
7. Yonder palace was raised by single stones
8. The next morning we all set forward together
9. The wide the unbounded prospect lies before us
10. Man passes away
11. Honor comes by diligence
12. The gem has lost its sparkle
4OO COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
THE EXCLAMATION POINT.
RULE I. Interjections, and all words, phrases, and sen-
tences that express emotion, must be followed by the excla-
mation point; as, * ' Hark ! hark ! I hear footsteps ! "; ' ' Alas !
How are the mighty fallen ! "; " Rouse, ye Romans ! rouse,
ye slaves!"*
EXERCISE CI.
DIRECTION. Punctuate, and give reasons :
1. Charge Chester charge
2. How sweet and soothing is this hour of calm
3. Reputation reputation reputation O I have lost my reputation I
have lost the immortal part of myself
4. What a piece of work is man How noble in reason how infinite
*NoTE i. The exclamation point is equivalent most commonly to a period;
but it may be equivalent to a colon, a semicolon, or a comma. If the exclama-
tion is used where in the declarative sentence a colon, a semicolon, or a comma
could be used, it must be followed by a small letter; as, " O, how extensive they
are! what a fair and goodly inheritance!" ;
"An heir of glory! a frail child of dust!
Helpless immortal ! insect infinite !
A worm ! a god ! I tremble at myself,
And in myself am lost."
NOTE 2. When an interjection is repeated several times, the words are sepa-
rated from each other by a comma, the exclamation being put only after the
last ; as, " Ha, ha, ha ! "; " Fie, fie, fie ! "
NOTE 3. Formerly the difference between O and oh was closely observed,
O being used in direct address ; as, " O earth, so full of dreary noises ! " while oh
was used more directly to express emotion ; as, " Oh, how shall I get out of this ! "
This difference is now often overlooked.
O is not immediately followed by an exclamation point, but oh requires the
exclamation except where the emotion runs through the whole expression, in
which case oh is followed by a comma, and the entire emotional expression by an
exclamation point.
CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION. 40 1
in faculties in form and moving how express and admirable in action
how like an angel in apprehension how like a god
5. Ingratitude thou marble-hearted fiend
6. Soldiers from yonder pyramids forty generations of men look
down upon you
7. What a heart our Father has
8. O holy Night from thee I learn to bear
What man has borne before
THE INTERROGATION POINT.
RULE I. Every sentence or expression asking a direct ques-
tion must be followed by the interrogation point; as, "Is
this your work?"; "Why did you go so soon?"; "Shall
a man obtain the favor of heaven by impiety? by mur-
der? by falsehood? by theft?"*
EXERCISE CII.
DIRECTION. Punctuate, and give reasons:
1. Do you travel for health or for pleasure
2. Greece indeed fell but how did she fall Did she fall like
Babylon Did she fall like Lucifer never to rise again
3. What is the meaning of all this excitement of all this tumult of
all this confusion
4. Who shall say me nay
5. Dost thou think that I am an executioner
6. Whence came we and whither do we go
7. Why do people love you
*NOTE i. In regard to the portion of discourse set off by it, the interrogation
point, like the exclamation point, is equivalent commonly to a period; but it
may be equivalent to a colon, a semicolon, or a comma. The same directions
govern here that govern in the case of the exclamation.
NOTE 2. The mark of interrogation is sometimes inserted in a parenthesis to
suggest doubt; as, " The elegance (?) of this creature excites wonder."
Rhet. 34.
4O2 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
8. O Place O Form
How often dost thou with thy ease thy habit
Wrench awe from fools and tie the wiser souls
To thy false seeming
9. Can I call that home where I anchor yet
Though my good man has sailed
Can I call that home where my nest was set
Now all its hope hath failed
10. Do you hear the children weeping O my brothers
Ere the sorrow comes with years
THE DASH.
RULE I. The dash is used to mark some sudden or abrupt
change in the construction or the meaning of a sentence ; as,
' ' I take eh ! oh ! as much exercise eh ! as I can, Madam
Gout";
" He had no malice in his mind
No ruffles on his shirt."
RULE II. The dash is sometimes used to indicate a pause
made for rhetorical effect ; as, " Upon that I kissed your hand,
and called you my queen"; "Some men are full of affec-
tion affection for themselves "
RULE III. When a word or expression is repeated for
rhetorical effect, a dash should be inserted before each repeti-
tion; as, "Prominent among the philosophers of antiquity is
Socrates Socrates ! who looked beyond the absurd fables
of his country's mythology "; "I wish, " said my uncle Toby,
with a deep sigh " I wish, Trim, I were asleep."
RULE IV. The dash is sometimes used to denote a sum-
ming up of particulars ; as, ' i Father, mother, brother, sister,
#//are dead"; "She has rank, talent, wealth, beauty,
everything the world prizes."
CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION. 403
RULE V. A series of expressions dependent upon some
concluding clause should be followed by a dash at the end of
the series; as, "The great men of Rome, her beautiful
legends, her history, the height to which she rose, and
the depth to which she fell, these make up one half of a
students ideal world."
RULE VI. When words at the end of a sentence stand de-
tached and are in apposition with preceding parts of the sen-
tence, they are separated from tJie preceding portion by a dash;
as, "The world's three greatest poems are epics Paradise
Lost, the ^Eneid, and the Iliad."
RULE VII. The dash is sometimes used to set off paren-
thetical expressions when the connection is not so close as to
require commas; as, "It was a sight that child in the agony
of death that would have melted any one to pity."
RULE VIII. A dash is rtsed to denote the omission of
letters or figures ; as,
"J sS h . . . James Smith/ 1
"Matthew x. 11-4.. Matthew x. : I, 2, 3, 4."
"Session 1887-8 . . . Session 1887, 1888."
RULE IX. When a title or a heading, instead of standing
over a paragraph, is run in so as to make a part of the par-
agraph, it is separated from the rest of the line by a dash ;
as, "Simplicity of Narration. Much of the effect of story-
telling depends," etc.
If, at the end of a paragraph, the name of the author or
the book from which the paragraph has been taken is
given, it is separated from the rest of the paragraph by a
dash; as, "There is no true orator who is not a hero.
Emerson"
404 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
When the name of the author is not in the same par-
agraph, but on a line by itself, no dash is needed ; as,
" There is a great deal of unmapped country within us
which would have to be taken into account in explanation
of our gusts and storms,
"George Eliot."
RULE X. The parts of a conversation or a dialogue, if
run into a paragraph instead of beginning separate lines y are
separated by dashes when quotation marks are not used; as,
"Do you give your time to this matter? Yes, sir. Do
you enjoy the work? I find it a pleasant occupation. "
EXERCISE CIII.
DIRECTION. Punctuate, and explain:
1. Children dear was it yesterday call yet once that she went
away
2. I ahem I forget
3. Perhaps he did see Nora Heaven only knows and so died
4. What do you mean what is it
5. Then too at sea to use a homely but expressive phrase you
miss a man so much
6. Take her said the mother take her I am glad to be rid of her
7. A third and he is the master's favorite shall be a worthy suc-
cessor to the old Puritan ministers now in their graves
8. He knew not that a phantom of wealth had thrown a golden
hue upon its waters nor that one of love had sighed softly to their
murmur nor that one of death had threatened to crimson them with
his blood all in the brief hour since he lay down to sleep
9. Conceit may puff a man up but never prop him up Ruskin
10. Greece Rome Carthage where are they
II. He suffered but his pangs are o'er
Enj oyed but his delights are fled
Had friends his friends are now no "more
And foes his foes are dead
CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION. 405
12. Life is trod under foot Life the one block
Of marble that 's vouchsafed wherefrom to carve
Our great thoughts white and godlike to shine down
The future Life the irredeemable block
Which one o'erhasty chisel-dint oft mars
13. Friends neighbors my own kindred were all against the
project
14. He has a weakness a weakness of the head as well as of the
heart
THE HYPHEN.
RULE I. The hyphen is used to connect the parts of a
compound word ; as, "Rose-tree"; " Fellow -student "
RULE II. The hyphen is placed at the end of a line to
show that a part of the last word has been carried over to
the next line ; as, " Caesar now leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubi-
con, and enters Italy.'**
THE CARET.
RULE I. If a letter, a word, or an expression is omitted,
a caret is placed where the omission occurs, and the omitted
part interlined; as,
scenes
"I have revisited the of my childhood."
A
*NOTE. In dividing words, syllables should never be broken, but the word
should be separated by closing the line with a full syllable and a hyphen, and
beginning the next line with the next syllable.
To divide words into syllables, the practice most common is to join con-
sonants to the vowels whose sounds they modify ; as, in-di-cate, ex-pla-na-tion,
ge-og-ra-phy, ce-les-tial. In all cases where there is doubt as to the proper
division of a word, decide the matter by referring to the dictionary.
406 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
THE MARKS OF PARENTHESIS.
The marks of parenthesis [()] are used to inclose some ex-
planatory word or phrase which has little or no connection
with the rest of the sentence ; as, * ' I told him (and who would
not?) just what I thought of him."*
EXERCISE CIV.
DIRECTION. Punctuate, and explain:
1. The senator from South Carolina Mr. Calhoun then rose to speak
2. Our new cottage is it not a pretty one is very comfortable
3. Style Latin stylus refers to the expression of thought
4. I here give a fourth part of all my wealth three cents to this
cause
5. The bliss of man could pride that blessing find
Is not to act or think beyond mankind
6. Seven years of scarcity I know that one of them might be called
an average season were followed by two of plenty
*NOTE. The sentence containing the parenthesis, and the part within the
curves, are both punctuated independently of each other; the sentence is punc-
tuated as though it contained no parenthesis ; and the part within the curves,
just as if no parenthesis were used.
If a parenthesis is inserted at a place in the sentence where no point is re-
quired, no point should be put either before or after the marks of parenthesis.
Should the sentence require other marks, they must precede or follow the marks
of parenthesis, according to the character of the parenthetical expression. When
the words in parenthesis have a point of their own after them, the point which
would be used if there were no parenthesis is placed before the first curve,
and the point belonging to the parenthesis is placed before the last curve ; as,
"While we all desire fame, (and why should we not desire it?) we should do
nothing unfair to gain it." When a point is necessary at the place where the
parenthesis is thrown in, and none is required in the parenthesis, the point should
follow the parenthesis; as, "If we exercise right principles {and we can not havt
them unless we exercise them), they must be perpetually on the increase"
CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION. 407
THE QUOTATION MARKS.
Quotation marks are two inverted commas at the begin-
ning of the part quoted, and two apostrophes at its close ;
thus, (" ").
RULE I. A direct quotation should be inclosed by quota-
tion marks; as, " Daily, with souls that cringe and plot,
we Sinais climb and know it not." Lowell*
RULE II. A quotation within a quotation is inclosed in
single quotation marks; as, "The bullet-headed man has
outstripped the broad-browed man in everything he under-
took ; and people say, ' Where is your phrenology ? ' In reply,
I say, l Look at that bullet-headed man, and see what he has
to drive his bullet-head with !' His stomach gives evidence
that he has natural forces to carry forward his purposes."
Henry Ward Beecher, Lecture on Preaching.
RULE III. In a succession of quoted paragraphs the in-
verted commas are used at the beginning of each paragraph,
but the apostrophes are used at the cloe of the last para-
graph only.
RULE IV. The quotation retains its own punctuation.
An exclamation or an interrogation point belonging to the
quotation must stand within the quotation marks; as, He
asked me, * ' Why do you weep ? "
When the exclamation or the interrogation belongs to
the entire sentence, it should be placed outside the quota-
tion marks ; as, Why did he not say at once, ' ' I will
come" ?
*NOTE. A direct quotation is one in which the exact language is reported.
When we make no pretension to use the exact language, but give merely the
substance in our own words, the marks of quotation are unnecessary.
408 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC:
RULE V. When the parts of a direct quotation are sepa-
rated by anything parenthetical, quotation marks should be
used to inclose each part of tJte quotation so separated; as,
"I will take that office on myself, " said the captain ; "pass
a light into the weather main-chains."
RULE VI. A direct quotation is generally preceded by a
colon; but if the quotation is merely some short saying, a
comma is sufficient.
When the quotation is formally introduced introduced
by the words following, as follows, thus, first, secondly, etc.
it should be preceded by the colon ; when it is informal
arising naturally from the sentence in which it stands it
should be preceded by a comma; thus, Governor Dix made
the following statement: "Our finances are in a sound con-
dition." Here the quotation is formally introduced. The
wounded hero said, "Now, God be praised, I die happy. "
Here the quotation is informal.
EXERCISE CV.
DIRECTION. Justify the punctuation in the following examples:
1. Themistocles said, " I beseech you to betake yourselves to your
ships."
2. These were the words of Themistocles: " I beseech you, O Athe-
nians, to betake yourselves to your ships."
3. "Will you not listen to my entreaties, O Athenians?" inquired
Themistocles.
4. Themistocles inquired whether the Athenians would not listen
to his entreaties.
5. Sir Philip Francis says, " With a callous heart there can be no
genius in imagination or wisdom in the mind ; and therefore the prayer,
with equal truth and sublimity, says, ' Incline our hearts to wisdom'."
6. "Description," he said, "is to the author -of romance exactly
what drawing and tinting are to a painter ; words are his colors."
CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION. 409
PRINTERS' MARKS.
The following are the most important of the remaining
marks used in printed discourse. Some of them are used
wholly by printers, and the others are mostly so used :
1. Accents are used to mark the stress of voice on vow-
els. The Acute ['] denotes a rising tone of voice, or
sometimes a simple stress; the Grave p] a falling tone, or
that the final vowel over which it is placed, as in French
words and words ending in ed, is sounded ; the Circum-
flex [A] that the vowel over which it is placed is sounded
with both a rising and a falling tone, as ah in sarcasm.
2. Braces. These are used to show that two or more
terms are connected with another term ; as,
Aids to History! 1 , 010 ^;
( Anthropoid
^ Anthropology.
3. Brackets. When a parenthetical expression is too
little connected with the text for inclusion in marks of
parenthesis, Brackets [] are used. Such cases are: (i) to
inclose some word or words necessary to correct an error
or afford an explanation ; (2) in dictionaries, to inclose
the pronunciation or etymology of a word ; (3) in dramas,
etc., to inclose directions to the players.
4. The Cedilla. This mark is placed under the letter
c [g] to show that it has the sound of s ; as, facade.
5. The Diaeresis ["] is sometimes placed over the
second of two vowels to show that they are pronounced
separately; as, zoology, cooperation.
6. Marks of Ellipsis [**** .' ] denote the
omission of letters, words, sentences, and paragraphs.
Rhet. 35.
4IO COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
7. Marks of Emphasis call attention to some statement.
They are, (i) the Index [J^"], and (2) the Asterism [*#*].
8. Reference-marks are generally used to refer to mar-
ginal notes. They are, (i) the Asterisk [*], (2) the Obelisk,
or Dagger [f], (3) the Double Dagger [J], (4) the Section
[], (5) Parallel lines [||], and (6) the Paragraph [^[]. When
a greater number is required, these marks are either doubled,
or letters and numbers are employed.
9. The Section [] indicates a subdivision of a chapter.
10. The Tilde [N] is a character written' above the letter
n in Spanish words, to show that the letter should be
sounded as if spelled with a y; as, canon (canyon).
11. Quantity-marks serve to indicate the quantity of a
vowel. The Macron [-], placed over a vowel, shows that
it has the long sound, as a in age. The breve [-], placed
over a vowel, shows that it has the short sound, as a in rdn.
12. The Ditto Mark ["] is used to indicate that the
words above are to be repeated ; as,
10 Ibs. Butter @ 500 $5-oo
9 " " " 6oc 5.40
This mark should not be used in repeating the names of
persons. Every name should be written in full.
13. Leaders are dots used to carry the eye from words
at the beginning of the line to something at the end of it,
usually the number of the page ; as,
Invention page 40.
1*4. Italics are letters inclined to the right. They (i) mark
an emphatic word ; and (2) in the English Bible show that
the words so printed are not in the original.
In writing, Italics are indicated,by drawing one line under
the word to be italicized.
INDEX.
Acatalectic verse 344
Accents, explained 4oq
Accepted sense, words in their 140
"Accord," misuse of. 146
Accuracy of news items 324
Acrostic, defined 354
Active voice varies expression 106-108
Address, defined 310
Adjuncts, the placing of. 183, 184
Adverbs, conj unctive 25
single-word 181
Allegory 230-232
Alliteration, beauty of expression pro-
moted by 277
"All of them," criticised 144
"Allude," misuse of 148
"Almost," misuse of 146
Ambiguity, defined 180
Amphibrach, defined 340
Analysis 17, 30
Anapest, defined 339
Ancient and modern forms, union of. . 85
Anglo-Saxon derivatives 154
Annals, defined 320
Anti-climax, defined 207
Antithesis 238, 239
"Anyhow," vulgar use of 149
Apostrophe 235
rules for the point 382
Arrangement, variety of 30
Article, omission of the 186
"At least," position of 182
Autobiography, defined 321
Auxiliary with simple forms 85
"Avocation," misuse of 142
Awfulness, relation to sublimity 279
B
" Balance," misuse of 148
" Banister," criticised 143
Barbarism, defined 135
Bathos, defined 207
" Beautifully," misuse of 147
Beauty of expression 275-7
Biography, defined 321
" Both," misuse of 143
Braces, explained 409
Brackets, explained 409
Burlesque, defined 268
" But," misuse of 141
" But that," criticised 142
" Calculate," misuse of 148
Capitals, rules for 376
value of 375
Caret, rule for 405
Catalectic verse 344
Cedilla, explained 409
Chronicle, defined 320
Circumlocution, defined 120, 197
Clauses, adjective 21, 32
adverbial 24, 32
bad effect of supplementary 193
conditional 32
contraction of 54, 55-63
position of 31
relative, when to avoid 191
restrictive, and non-restrictive 22
substantive 26
words introducing 21, 22, 23, 25, 27
Clearness of construction. .180-189, 213, 324
omissions that destroy 186
Climax 206
Colon, rules for 396
Comedy, defined 374
Comma, rules for 382-396
Complex sentence, analysis of. 30
defined 21
example of to
412
COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
Complex sentence, punctuation of... 392
synthesis of 2 9~34
Composition, defined 9
subjects for 255
Compound sentence, adversative ....35, 38
alternative 36, 38
complex form of. 37
contracted 39
copulative 35, 37
defined 35
illative 36, 38
punctuation of 396
structure of members of 41
synthesis of 41
Conciseness, defined 195
sublimity promoted by 281
violations of. 196
Concord 76-85
adjectives and adverbs 84
agreement of tenses 81
auxiliaries should harmonize, etc. . . 82
correspondent parts of a sentence
constructed alike 85
existing facts require present tense 82
indicative and subjunctive forms... 83
nominative case 76
noun complement of a passive verb. 78
noun or pronoun following the in-
finitive of "be" 78
noun or pronoun in apposition 79
objective case 77
past tense and perfect participle of
irregular verbs 80
pronouns must agree with their an-
tecedents 79
subject of infinitive complement. ... 77
subject of participial noun 78
verb must agree with its subject... . 80
Condensation, illustrated 197
of news items 324
" Condign," misuse of. 145
" Confirmed," misuse of. 144
Conjunctions, adversative 35
alternative 36
co-ordinate 35
copulative 35
illative 36
omission v <xf 36, 187
subordinate 25
Connectives, proper use of. 199
Contraction of phrases, clauses, and
sentences 54-63
used in poetry 338
Contrasted members, construction of. 202
" Couple," misuse of 148
Couplet, defined 350
Dactyl, defined 339
Dash, rules for 402
" Deceiving," misuse of. 143
" Demean," misuse of 148
Denying the contrary 120, 122
Development, explained 75
Diaeresis, explained 409
Diction 133-178
Didactic poetry 371
Direct form of discourse, explained. 112, 113
" Directly,." misuse of 144
Discourse 309-311
Distich, defined 350
" Doubt," incompleteness of 142
Dramatic poetry 374
" Either," misuse of 143
Elegiac stanza 354
Elegy, defined 370
Elements, transformation of 52
union of dissimilar 85
Elision, defined 338
Ellipsis, marks of. 409
" Emblem," misuse of 148
Emphasis, figures of 220, 238
marks of 410
Emphatic words, position of. 198
Energy of discourse, defined 195
" Enough," position of. 182
Epic poetry 372
forms of. 373
Epigram 240, 241
" Equally as," corrected 144
Equivocal terms 152
Essays, defined 318
Euphemism 120, 123
Exclamation, energy promoted by. ... 205
in varying expression no
point, rules for 400
INDEX.
413
Exercises in Allegory 232
Analysis 20, 34
Antithesis 239
Apostrophe 236
Changing the Voice of a Verb 108
Circumlocution 124
Clearness of Construction 188, 213
Climax 212
Composition 45, 66, 88, 98, 125, 250
Concord 86, 87
Construction of Contrasted Mem-
bers 212
Contraction 56-63
Denying the Contrary 122
Diction 178
Direct forms of Discourse 113
Epigram , 241
Euphemism 123
Exclamatory form of Sentences.... no
Expansion 64, 65
Expression, variety of. 108-113, 1 18,121-124.
Figures of Speech. .222, 226, 227, 232, 233,
235, 236, 239, 241, 242, 244-249.
Harmony 217
Hyperbole 244
Indirect forms of Discourse 113
Interrogation 109
Irony 242
"It'' as an anticipative subject... 112
Litotes 244
Metaphor 226, 227
Metonymy 233
Order of Words 118
Paragraph 95, 96, 260
Paraphrase 299, 304, 325
Pathos 272-275
Personification 229
Propriety of Diction 251
Purity of Diction 138
Repetition 229
Simile 222-224
Simplicity of Diction 176, 177
Specific Words 210
Strength of Construction 208-213
Sublimity of Expression 281-284
Synecdoche 235
Synonyms 169, 170
Unity of Construction 193
Wit 272-275
Words of Similar Meaning 121
Exordium, defined 311
Expansion 64, 66
"Expect," misuse of...
149
Expression, to vary 106
by anticipative subject m
by contraction 107
by direct discourse 112
by exclamation no
by expansion 107
by interrogation 109
by substitution 107
by transposition 115
by voice of the verb 108
Fable 231
Farce, defined 374
Fiction 322
Figures of Speech 218-244
Classification of. 220
Allegory 23O
Antithesis 238
Apostrophe , 335
Epigram 240
Hyperbole 343
Irony
Litotes
Metaphor 224
Metonymy 232
Personification 228
Simile 220
Synecdoche 234
Vision. 237
"Folks," criticised 145
Foot, poetical, defined 337
Foreign words 136
" From thence," etc., criticised 143
241
244
' Got," misuse of 14
H
" Had have," criticised 142
Harmony, defined 214-217
Historical, composition, varieties of . . 320
poem 373
414
COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
History 319
" How," misuse of 144
Humor, defined 270
Hyperbole, defined 243-4
Hypercatalectic verse 344
Hyphen, rules for 405
Iambus defined 339
Ideas, faulty connection of 191
" Illy," criticised 143
Imagery, its effect on expression 276
" Inaugurate," misuse of 149
Indicative mode 84
" Indices," misuse of 145
Indirect form of discourse 112-13
Infinitive mode 81
Interrogation, energy promoted by . 109,
204-205.
point, rules for 401
Intuition, figures of 220
Inversion, energy promoted by 204
Irony, defined 241, 242
Italics, explained 410
" It," anticipative subject xxx, 112
Latin derivatives 153, 154
Leaders, explained 410
" Least," misuse of 143
Lecture, defined 310
"Less," misuse of 142
Letters, address 312, 317
" Like," misuse of 142
" Likewise," misuse of 142
Litotes 244
M
Measure, poetical, defined 336
Melodrama, defined 374
Memoir, defined 320
Metaphor 224-227
Meter, defined 336
various 355, 356
Metonymy 232
Metrical romance 373
Mock-heroic, defined 269
Modes, incongruent union of. 85
Moral greatness 280
" Mutual," misuse of. , 146
"Myself," misuse of. 147
N
" Name," misuse of 149
" Neither," misuse of 143
Newly-coined words. 136
News-writing 323
" Nice," misuse of . . 146
" No," misuse of. 143
Not, position of 182
Not-but, etc., position of 182
Notes, formal, style of 316
Obscurity, defined 180
sublimity promoted by 279
Obsolescent words 136
Obsolete words 135
"Older," criticised 146
Only, rule for 181
Oration, defined 309
Order of words 115, 198
grammatical and rhetorical 115-119
Ottava Rima 353
"Overflown," misuse of 146
Parable, defined 231
Paragraph, continuity of 256
defined 93
directions in forming 93
illustrations of 94, 259
synthesis of sentences into 93
unity of 256
variety of 258
Paraphrase 297-308, 325
Parenthesis, incorrect use of 192
marks of. 406
Parody 269
Particles 149
omission of. 199
" splitting " 200
" Party," misuse ,Q. !4 2
Passive voice in varying expression. . 108
Pastoral poetry 37
Pathos 271-275
INDEX.
415
PAGE
Periodic sentence 203
Period, rules for 3 Sl
Peroration, defined 311
Personification 228, 229
Phrase, absolute 13
adjectival 12
infinitive 12
nature of i
participial i
position of. 14
prepositional
stereotyped 150
tests of position of. 15
use of
Phraseology, variation of. 120
" Plenty," misuse of 141
Plural with singular forms 85
Poetical constructions 116
adjective precedes the verb " to be " 117
adjectives used for adverbs 117
adverbial phrases not in juxtaposi-
tion 117
"and-and" for "both-and," etc. .. 117
noun precedes the adjective. ....... 116
object precedes the verb 116
omission of the antecedent 116
omission of the article 116
omission of the conjunctive particles 116
omission of the verb "to do " 116
personal pronouns with their ante-
cedents 117
prepositions are suppressed 117
pronoun used in the imperative. . . . 117
verb precedes the nominative 116
Poetic feet 339
licenses 116, 117
pauses 367
Poetry, defined 368
didactic 371
dramatic 374
elegiac 370
epic 372
form of. 368
lyric 369
pastoral 370
satirical , 372
Position of words 180, 181
Power, feelings awakened by 278
Precision 152
Preposition, omission of 186
PAGE
" Previous," misuse of 147
Pronouns, personal 185
Propriety of diction, defined 139-151
Prose composition 309-324
Prosody, defined 336
Provincialisms 137
Pun 269
Punctuation, defined 380
marks used in 380
Purity of diction. 135-139
Pyrrhic, defined 340
Quantity marks 410
" Quantity, '' misuse of 144
Quatrain, defined 350
Quotation marks, rules for 407
Radical, words from the same 140
Recasting, explained ... 120, 124
Redundancy 196
Reference marks, explained 410
Relative, omission of the 186
" Rendition," misuse of. 145
Repetition 201, 209
Reproduction, directions for 45
" Restive," misuse of 148
Rhetorical order of words 115
Rhetoric, defined 9
Rhyme, alliterative 347
assonantal 348
consonantal 348
defined 347
double 349
sectional 349
single 349
triple 349
Rhyme-royal, defined 350
Rhythm, beauty of expression due to. 277
defined 338
influence on English poetry 337
Romances 322
Sarcasm 268
Satire 268
Satirical poetry 372
COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
Scanning, defined 338
Section mark, explained 410
" Seldom or ever," criticised 143
Semicolon, rules for 396-398
Sentence, complex 21
compound 35
compromise 204
construction of. 180
defined 9
exercises in 210, 211
formation of. 10
loose 203
miscellaneous examples in 213
periodic 203
qualities of construction of 180
simple 9
Sermon, defined 310
Simile 220-224
Simplicity of diction, defined 174-177
sublimity promoted by 281
Smoothness, beauty of expression pro-
moted by 277
Song, sacred 369
secular 369
Sonnet, defined 351
Sound, sublimity promoted by 279
Specific words 202, 210
Speech, explained 310
Spenserian stanza, defined 351
Spon dee, defined 340
Stanza, defined 350
" Stopping," misuse of. 145
Story, subjects for 131
Strength of construction i95- 2I 3
Style, defined 132
extracts for study of 284-296
varieties of 284, 285
Subject, omission of 186
frequent change of 190
sublimity of 280
Subjunctive mode, use of 83, 84
Sublimity of expression 277-284
exercises in 281-284
" Such," misuse of 144
Synecdoche 234, 235
Synonyms 153-170
examples of 154-168
Synthesis of complex sentences 29
of compound sentences 41
of paragraphs into a theme 263
Synthesis of sentences into a para-
graph 93
of simple sentences 16
Tautology 197
Technical terms 138
Terza Rima 353
"There," an introductory word... 107, 112
Tilde, explained 410
Topical outline, preparation of 73
use of. 48
examples of 48, 51, 68
Tragedy, defined 374
Transformation of elements 52-66
Transposition of parts of a sentence. . 115
Travels, a book of, defined 319
Travesty, defined 269
Treatise, defined 318
Tribrach, defined 340
Triplet, defined 350
Trochee, defined 339
" Try and," criticised 147
" Try," misuse of 143
U
Unity of construction 190-193
V
Variety of expression 106
Vastness, sublimity promoted by 278
V erb, omission of 187
Verse, anapestic 345
blank 349
dactylic 346
defined 33 6
iambic 34 2
trochaic 344
Versification, defined 336
exercises in 357~366
Vision 237
W
" Wearies," criticised 141
" Were/' misuse of 142
" Whole," misuse of 145
Wit, defined 267-276
" With," misuse of.-.-** 141
Words, embodied in a sentence n
of similar meaning 120, 121
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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
