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ELEMENTS
OF
INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
BY
REV. JOSEPH ALDEN, D.D., LL.D.,
LATE PRESIDENT OF JEFFERSON COLLEGE.
NEV/ YORK:
B, APPLETON" & CO., 90, 92 & 94 GRAND ST.
1868.
EwTEKED, according to Act of Congress, in tlie year 1866, hy
J). viPPLETON & CO.,
Id thf Clcrk'£ Ofllce of the District Court of the United States for tlie
Southern District of lle^v York.
^-€a..
TO
WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT.
As a poet yoih deal with reality. You have
written that only which you have seen^ felt^ and
fully Relieved. In preparing this elementary worh
on Philosophy J I have endeavored to pursue a simi-
lar course, I tahe great pleasure in dedicating it
to - one whose friendship I have long regarded as
among the highest honors of my life.
Joseph Aldeh.
OOlsrTEI^TS,
CHAPTER I.
PAGB
Introductory Remarks, . . . . .13
CHAPTER II.
The Mind's Cognizing Power — Faculties — Mental An-
alysis, . . . . . . .19
CHAPTER III.
Object of a Text-book — ^Metaphorical Language in Re-
lation TO Mental Operations, . . ,25
CHAPTER lY.
Cognition of Material Objects, . . . .81
CHAPTER y.
Extension—Figure — ^Original and Acquired Perception, 87
6 CONTENTS.
CHAPTER YI.
PAGE
Primary and Secondary Qualities of Matter, . . 44
CHAPTER YII.
Theories of Perception — Locke — Berkeley, , . 48
CHAPTER YIII.
Theories of Perception — Reid— Brown, . . .55
CHAPTER IX.
Theory of Sir William Hamilton, . , .63
CHAPTER X.
Relativity of Knowledge, . . . , .71
CHAPTER XI.
Remarks on the Nature of Perception, , . .80
CHAPTER XII.
Cognition of Mental Operations — Personality — Unity —
Identity — Consciousness, . . . .84
CHAPTER XIII.
Cognition of Space, ...... 100
CHAPTER XIY.
Cognition of Time, . . . . . .107
COKTEIS^TS.
CHAPTER XY.
PAGE
Cognition op Relations, . . . . .111
CHAPTER XVI.
Resemblance and Generalization — General and Abstract
Terms, ....... 115
CHAPTER XYII.
Cause and Effect, ...... 128
CHAPTER XYIII.
Cognition of Beauty, . . . . . 147
CHAPTER XIX.
Cognition op Rectitude, . . , , .163
CHAPTER XX.
Reasoning, . . . . . , . 189
»
CHAPTER XXI.
Mathematical Reasoning, . . . . • 20S
CHAPTER XXII.
The Syllogism, ...... 215
CHAPTER XXIII.
Memory^ ..... 223
8 CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XXIY.
PAGE
Association, . . . . . , 240
CHAPTER XXY.
Imagination, ...,..• 248
CHAPTER XXYI.
TkeWill, . . . . . . .261
CHAPTER XXYII.
Attention, , • • . . . . , 280
CHAPTER XXYIII.
Understanding and Reason — Faith — Infinity, . . 284
PREFACE
The object of this book is not to teach a system
of philosophy, but to aid the student in studying
subjects which are adapted to promote fixedness
of attention and discrimination of thought, .and
which underlie all thinking pertaining to human
action and progress. This object has determined
the selection of topics, and the mode of treating
them. The topics treated relate chiefly to the
cognitive faculties. The general plan is indicated
by the following questions : Wliat can the mind
do ? How does it do it ?
The book might well enough be termed " Ele-
mentary Exercises in Thinking.^' In an experience
of more than a quarter of a century as a college
1 0 PEEFACE.
teacher, tlie autlior found that lie was successful
just in proportion as lie was elementary in liis
instructions. If men become familiar with the
alphabet of thinking, they are prepared for pro-
gress toward profoundness.
In accordance with the object above stated, no
topic has received an exhaustive djscussion ; and
yet no topic has received superficial consideration.
The first books put into the hands of the student
should not be commonplace compilations, but
should be characterized by a freshness, vivacity,
and clearness of thought which luay be communi-
cated to his mind. This v/ill be of more value
than numberless propositions committed to mem-
ory.
The book may be found serviceable to those
desirous of improvement who may not be favored
with a teacher. They will find no difficulty in
understanding it. The author believes that there
is nothing cognizable in philosophy which cannot be
clearly expressed in good English ; though, as Dr.
Chalmers remarks, he "is fully aware that whoso-
ever, in treating of the human mind, aims to be
PEEFACE. 11
understood, must lay liis account with forfeiting, in
the opinion of a very large proportion of Ms read-
ers, all pretensions to depth, to subtlety, and to
invention."
The author has no desire to inspire a love of
metaphysical disputation, or of metaphysical lore.
The object of education is to fit men for the service
of God here and hereafter. Life here is for wise
action. Habits of sober and accurate thought are
among the conditions of wise action. Such habits
the study of philosophy should form.
The teacher v/hose views of the end and method
of teaching correspond with those of the author,
will find the boot abundantly large enough for the
length of time usually devoted to this study in our
schools and colleges. The college teacher who
may see fit to use it, may find that his discussions
with his pupils in connection with the text, will
prepare them to understand and appreciate the
supplementary lectures which he will doubtless feel
inclined to prepare.
Should the work meet the approbation of teach-
ers, and be used as a text-book to a considerable
12 PKEFACE.
extent, it is the intention of tlie author to prepare,
for the benefit of those who have entered upon a
course in philosophy under his guidance, a volume
embracing additional topics and more extended
investigations.
J. A.
ELEMEITTS
IlsTTELLEOTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
CHAPTER I.
IK-TBODUCTOKT EEMABKS.
Nfmerous definitions of pMlosopliy have been
given. It would be of no advantage to repeat them.
"We have before us a field to explore. It is of com-
paratively little importance what name we give to
the field, or to the process of exploration.
A perfect definition of a science must include all
that belongs to it, and exclude all that does not belong
to it. It marks, therefore, the completion, not the
commencement of the science.
When used with reference to investigations which
have the mind for their subject, the term philosophy
is synonymous with science. Mental philosophy and
mental science are the same.
Mental philosophy has the mind for its subject-
14 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPnT.
matter; just as natural philosophy has the material
world for its subject-matter.
The mind is a spiritual existence which perceives,
remembers, imagines, loves, etc. ; that is, which per-
forms operations which we call perceiving, remem-
bering, imagining, loving.
Existence cannot be defined. There is no such
thing, as existence, apart from things existing. Every
one knows what it is for a thing to be — to exist. To
the questions. What is being ? In what does existence
consist ? no answers conveying information can be
given.
The mind is a spiritual existence. By spiritual is
meant that which is not material — the antithesis of
material. We describe the mind positively, when we
stat'$ what it can do. We describe it negatively,
when we state that it has none of the qualities of
matter.
The mind is self-active, and can think, feel, and
will. Matter is inert, extended, and divisible. Ob-
jects with qualities so different cannot reasonably be
regarded as identical.
We know the mind as connected with the bodyo
Its action is modified by the body. The acts which
we term mental acts are the acts of mind connected
with a material organization. What acts a disem-
bodied mind can perform, v/e do not know. Our
knowledge is confined to acts of mind united to the
body.
INTEODUCTOIIY REMARKS. 15
A mental act may be conditioned on a state of the
body; but it is, nevertheless, an act of the mind. An
act of perception may be conditioned on the state of
the brain; but the brain without the mind cannot
perform an act of perception. The act is therefore a
mental act. A pain felt in the finger is felt by the
mind ; for, if the mind be taken av/ay, no laceration
of the finger will occasion pain.
The first thing to be done in studying the science
of mind, is to observe the operations of the mind.
The mind can observe its own operations. It can
make its own operations the object of attention, just
as it can make the operations of a sewing-machine
the object of attention.
The mind sees the operations of the machine
through the instrumentality of the eyes. It sees its
own operations by a direct beholding. The question,
"How can the mind cognize its own operations?" is
as easily answered as the question, "How can the
mind cognize the operations of a machine ? "
It is sometimes said that we cognize our mental
acts by means of consciousness — as though conscious-
ness were an instrument by which we cognize them.
We must be careful to avoid, mistaking words for
things — imaginary processes for real processes. To
say that we cognize our mental operations by means
of consciousness, is simply to say that we do cognize
them. To say that consciousness informs us of what
takes pikce in our minds, is simply to say that the
IG ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
mind cognizes its own operations. Such forms of
expression do not explain how the cognition takes
place.
Some writers have used language which would
seem to imply that a definite act or operation of
consciousness, is necessary to make known to us each
thought and feeling ; that without the putting forth
of such an act, our thoughts and feelings would be
unknown to us. A ymter says, "Consciousness is
the faculty by which the various powers of the mind
are made known to us." If by this he means to
assert that the mind must put forth action in order
that we may know what pov»^ers of action it possesses,
the assertion is true ; but if he means to assert that
a separate and peculiar act of consciousness is neces-
sary to make known to us our mental acts, just as an
act of perception is necssary to make known to us
the existence of external objects, the assertion is not
true. It lacks proof. It leads to an absurdity.
We have a mental act — an act of memory, we
will suppose. According to the theory above stated,
an act of consciousness is necessary to make known
to us that act of memory. This act of consciousness,
being a mental act, must needs have another act of
consciousness to make it known to us, and that
another, and so on ad infinitmn!
This erroneous view is the result of supposing that
there is an analogy between the mode by which the
mind cognizes external objects, and the mode by
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 1*?
which it cognizes its own operations. False analogies
and imaginary mental processes are frequent sources
of error.
Accurate observation of our mental operations is
difficult. The habit of observation can be formed by
earnest and patient effort. No progress can be made
in the study of mind^ unless this habit be formed.
The operations of the mind, the facts which are the
subjects of study, must, in every instance, be observed
by the student for himself. Facts recorded by others
will be of no service to him, except as they enable
him to see them for himself. "Instruction can do
little more than point out the position in which the
pupil ought to place himself, in order to verify, by
his own experience, the facts which his instructor
proposes to him as true." The pupil may " get by
heart " systems of philosophy (so called) ; but little
or no benefit will result beyond that of improving a
verbal memory.
It may be a useful exercise for the young student
to reverse his train of thought. Let him observe
what thought now occupies his mind ; then let him
endeavor to recall the thought which immediately
preceded it, and so on, as far as recollection will ena«
ble him to go. He will thus be aided in making his
mental acts the object of attention.
Let the pupil, at the outset, resolve to be satisfied
with nothing short of clear definite ideas in relation
to the subject considered. Earnest and steady look-
18 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
0
ing at a subject, will render that clear which at first
appears confused and obscure, or will enable him to
decide that there are no materials for positive definite
knowledge before him. Let the line between what
he sees, and what he does not see, be clearly drawn.
CHAPTER IL
AK"ALYSIS.
The mind has capacities for action. It can do
various things. It can know, it can feel, it can will.
It can perform different acts of knowing, that is,
it can acquire different kinds of knowledge, and can
acquire knowledge under different conditions. It can
cognize the existence and qualities of matter. It can
cognize the relations between geometrical figures. It
can cognize, to some extent, the causes of events. It
can cognize the difference between right and wrong.
These different acts of the mind are distinguishable,
and can be classified. We can form classes of mental
acts.
These classes exist as classes in our minds only.
As our mental operations actually take place, those
belonging to different classes are blended. The suc-
cessive mental acts of an hour may include examples
from all the classes formed. The mind does not per-
form one class of acts exclusively for a time, and then
pass to the performance of acts of another class.
20 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
Acts of a particular class may predominate at a given
time, but various other acts are interspersed with
them, or are contemporaneous.
A man may be viewing a landscape. He is ear-
nestly engaged in cognizing its different points of in-
terest— the hill, the stream, the grove, the cottage.
Perceptions constitute the majority of his mental acts,
but other acts intervene. He remembers having seen
similar objects: he infers that the occupant of the cot-
tage must be a man of taste. Recollections and in-
ferences are thus blended with his perceptions.
Mental acts are classified on the principle of re-
semblance. The resemblance has reference to the ob-
jects acted upon by the mind.
We can look upon the different operations of a
machine, and can compare the operations, as well as
the results produced. Not so with the mind. The
acts of the mind, regarded as analogous to the revolu-
tion of the wheels of a machine, are invisible — incog-
nizable. We cannot see how the mind perceives : we
see that it does perceive, and what it perceives. We
can compare mental operations in their results only.
In view of the different objects which the mind
can act upon — in view of the different things which
the mind can do, we can classify its operations, and
ascribe the operations thus classified to different
faculties.
A faculty is not a component part of the mind.
The mind is not made up of faculties as its constitu-
THE mind's OOGNIZIKG POWER. 21
ent parts. When the mind is cognizmg external ob-
jects, we say it is exercising the faculty of percep-
tion. When it is recalling past thoughts, we say it
is exercising the faculty of memory. When it is cog-
nizing a truth by the aid of other truths, we say it
is exercising the faculty of reasoning. We use the
term faculty to express the different modes of the
mind's action. We must remember that it is the
mind which perceives, remembers, reasons ; not
something separate from it termed a faculty. A
faculty denotes a power of the mind to act in a par-
ticular way.
We may regard the mind as having a greater or
smaller number of faculties, according as we form a
greater or smaller number of classes of mental
operations. We may form a greater or smaller
number of classes, according as we pass by or no-
tice minor differences in the objects acted upon by
the mind.
The mind can cognize truth. We say it has a
faculty for cognizing truth. It can cognize different
kinds of truth. It can cognize truth relating to
mq^terial objects. It can cognize truth relating to
human duty. It can cognize truth relating to space
and numbers. We may thus form three classes of
truths, viz., material, moral, and mathematical. We
may thus ascribe to the mind three cognitive facul-
ties.
. We may carry our classification still further, and
22 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PKILOSOPIIY.
speak of a greater number of cognitive faculties,
and speak in accordance with the truth. We may
ascribe to the mind a greater or smaller number of
faculties, and may state nothing but truth in so
doing. The question before the student is not, how
many faculties has the mind, but what operations
can it perform ? In determining this question, it is
convenient for us to classify the operations we ob-
serve. We need to form classes enough to include
all the operations of the mind. There may be a
needless yet truthful multiplication of classes, and,
consequently, of faculties. Let it be remembered
that the term faculty is used simply to denote a par-
ticular mode of the mind's action.
It has been said, that the method to be pursued in
the study of mental philosophy is the same as in
natural philosophy, viz., to observe facts, and infer
principles or laws. The remark requires some modi-
fication, in consequence of the difference in the mate-
rials composing the two sciences. The instrument
by which both are studied is the same ; but the
subjects differ. The one is inert matter; the other
is self-active mind. In both cases we are to observe
facts ; but in the one case we ask, What are the
passive phenomena before us, and to what laws are
they subject ? In the other case we ask. What can
the mind do ? The difference does not relate so
much to method, as to the attitude of mind. There
is some advantage in viewing the mental phenomena
THE mind's cognizing POWER. 23
as the acts of- a voluntary being, instead of viewing
tlieni' as succeeding each other according to certain
laws.
The student must form the habit of analyzing his
mental operations.
To analyze a chemical substance, is to resolve it
into its constituent elements. A simple substance
cannot be analyzed. To analyze a mental process, is
to separate, in thought, the different mental acts
which constitute that process, A simple mental act
cannot be analyzed.
The mind is seldom in a simple state ; that is, is
seldom employed in performing a simple act. It is
seldom that one simple thought is present to the
rnind to the exclusion of all other thoughts. To
notice separately the different acts or states which
constitute a given complex state, is to analyze that
complex state.
One is looking upon a meadow. The state of his
mind is that of perception. There are various ob-
jects before him— grass, lilies, trees, cattle. He
hears the songs of the birds, and the murmur of the
rivulet by Vr^hich he is standing. The state of his
mind is complex, and consists of various perceptions
by means of the eye and the ear. .To notice them
separately in thought, is to analyze that complex
state.
The habit of analyzing our mental states is adapt-
ed to promote nice discrimination. Skill in distin-
24 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
guishing between nice shades of color is desirable ;
but skill in distinguishing between nice shades of
thought is still more desirable. He who would be-
come an acute thinker, must train his mind to habits
of mental analysis.
CHAPTER III,
OBJECT OF A TEXT-BOOK — METAPHOEICAL LANGUAGE
IN EELATIOI^ TO MENTAL OPERATIONS.
To Yiew truths directly, and not through the me-
dium of another's mind, or from a traditional stand-
point, should be the object of every student. His
text-book should be used as the traveller uses his
guide-book.
The traveller visits Rome. He gets a guide-book,
that he may know where to go, and what to see.
Each morning he consults his guide-book, and by its
aid forms the plans of the day. He visits St. Peter's
and the Vatican, and examines the objects mentioned
in his guide-book. He does not spend his time in
committing to memory the descriptions contained in
the book, but in seeing the objects described. When
questioned respecting St. Peter's and the Vatican, he
does not repeat from memory what he has read, but
tells what he has seen.
So with a text-book in mental science. Its object
is not* to tell men what to believe, but what to see.
2'
26 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
TJnless a man becomes a seer^ he derives no advan-
tage from Ms text-book or his teacher.
The student must guard against being misled by
the use of metaphorical language. Many of the
terms employed to denote the operations of the mind
are metaphorical. They were originally employed to
express material objects and material phenomena.
We call a certain operation or state of mind, a
mental image. We speak of having in our minds an
image of the Capitol, or of some other remarkable
edifice. In reality, there can be no resemblance be-
tween the Capitol and that state of mind — that con-
dition of an immaterial, invisible existence — which we
call having an image or picture of the Capitol in the
mind. We must be on our guard, lest the use of the
term image should modify our view of the state of
mind to which it is applied.
We speak of a deep impression made upon the
memory, and of its erasure by time. The language
is metaphorical, and should not lead us to suppose
that there is an analogy between an impression upon
wax and an impression upon memory. And yet
this assumed analogy is sometimes used to account
for facts. For instance, it is a fact made known by
observation and experience, that some minds remem-
ber events very easily for a time, but do not remem-
ber them long. To account for the fact, it is said
that impressions easily made are easily effaced : this
passes for an explanation of the fact above stated. ^
OBJECT OF A TEXT-BOOK, ETC. 27
State the matter thus : Impressions easily made
on material objects are, for the most part, easily
effaced: therefore things easily committed to mem-
ory are easily forgotten. Every one sees that the
conclusion does not follow from the premise.
The explanation owes its plausihility to the sup-
posed analogy between impressions on matter and
the mental act of remembering. There is no such
analogy. The idea is suggested by the metaphorical
use of the term impression. The student must be on
his guard against being thus misled.
He must also avoid drawing literal conclusions
from figurative premises. For example, conscience is
said to be the voice of God in the soul : hence, its
dictates must be infallibly correct.
The premise is figurative ; the conclusion literal.
The expression, " Conscience the voice of God in the
soul," means, " God has given the soul power to cog-
nize the difference between right and wrong — to cog-
nize duty and its opposite." Give the premise a lit-
eral form, and the matter stands thus : God has
given the mind power to cognize the difference be-
tween right and wrong; therefore all its decisions
are infallible. With just as much truth it may be
said, " God has given the mind power to distinguish
between truth and error; therefore all its decisions
are infallible."
" Although," says Sir William Drummond, " it be
very difficult to speak of the mind without employ-
28 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
ing figurative language and without borrowing from
analogy, yet it is altogether unphilosoj)hical to build
an argument on a trope, or found a system on a
simile."
Another source of error is that resulting from
personification of the faculties. The ^difierent facul-
ties, which, we have seen, are only different modes
of the mind's operation, have been treated as sepa-
rate and independent personalities, having extensive
dealings with one another, and with their master, the
mind. This source of error has been noticed by
several writers, yet few have successfully guarded
against it. Some eminent modern writers have, by
their excessive personification of the faculties, poured
confusion over the whole mental field.
Hobbes censured " that metaphorical speech of
attributing command and subjection to the faculties
of the soul, as if they made a commonwealth or
family within themselves, and could speak to one
another."
Locke says : " I suspect that this way of speaking
of faculties has led many into a confused notion of
so many distinct agents within us, which had their
several provinces and authorities, and did command,
obey, and perform several actions as so many distinct
beings ; which has been no small occasion of wran-
gling, obscurity, and uncertainty in questions relating
to -them."
Notice some illustrations of the error to be avoid-
29
ed. " The senses inform us of the existence of the
external world." The senses are here represented as
intelligent agents giving information to another intel-
ligent agent, the mind — "ns." The truth intended
to be conveyed is, " The mind, through the organs of
sense, cognizes the external world."
" Perception furnishes the memory and reason
with materials on which to act." Avoiding personi-
fication, the thought is, " The mind perceives truths,
remembers them, and cognizes other truths by their
aid."
" When we attend to any change which happens
in nature, judgment informs us that there must be a
cause of this change." Literally, " When the mind
attends to any change, it perceives that the change
or event must have had a cause." The language
used above implies that judgment is an agent sepa-
rate from the mind, whereas it is an act of the mind.
No writer has carried personification of the facul-
ties to a greater length than has Kant. " Pure rea-
son," he says, " leaves every thing to the understand-
ing which refers immediately to the objects of the
intuition, or rather to their synthesis in the imagina-
tion." Here the mind disappears altogether, and
certain imaginary entities take its place.
"The understanding cannot perceive, and the
senses cannot think."
Here the faculties are represented as independent
entities. Literally expressed, the thought is, " The
30 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
mind cannot, except through the organism of the
Benses, cognize material objects, and cannot cognize
spiritual objects by the said organism of the senses."
Cousin says : " The senses attest the existence of
concrete quantities and bodies ; consciousness, the
internal sense, attests the presence of a succession of
thoughts, and of all the phenomena which pertain to
personal identity ; but at the same time reason inter-
venes, and pronounces that the relations of the quan-
tities in question are abstract, universal, and neces-
sary."
The senses, consciousness, and reason, are here
set forth as personages doing the work of the mind.
To use such language in describing the acts of the
one indivisible mind, tends to produce obscurity and
error.
The above illustrations show, that facts in rela-
tion to the mind " should be stated in the simplest,
most direct, and least figurative language we can
select." When compelled to use metaphorical terms,
we should notice exactly the meaning intended to be
conveyed by them.
CHAPTER IV.
COGNITION^ OF MATERIAL OBJECTS.
What can the mind do ? It can know — cognize —
acquire knowledge. These forms of expression are
identical.
What can the mind cognize ? It can cognize
matter — the external world. It cognizes matter
through the senses. When it is asked. How can the
mind cognize matter through the senses ? we can
state the conditions of cognition, and that is all we
can do.
These conditions may he stated thus : An ob-
ject is presented to the organ of sense. A tree,
for example, is so presented that the light reflected
from it enters the eye, and forms an image upon the
retina, which is an expansion of the optic nerve in
the back part of the eye. If the optic nerve and the
brain be in a healthful state, the mind cognizes the
tree — that is, perceives its existence, form, and color.
Why these conditions are followed by cognitions, we
do not know. God has so ordained.
t If any of these conditions are wanting, cognition
32 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
will not take place. If the eye is disordered so that
an image is not formed on the retina — if the optic
nerve or the brain be not in their normal state, cog-
nition will not take j)lace.
When we have stated the conditions of cognition,
we have not told how the mind cognizes. The con-
ditions are material or physiological ; the act of cog-
nition is mental. Keeping in mind this distinction
will aid us in avoiding error. The act of cognition
is a simple act, and cannot be explained otherwise
than by stating its conditions and results. We
should never attempt to explain what is unexplain-
able.
We have stated the conditions of cognition by
the sense of sight. In cognition by the sense of
touch, the conditions are, that the object be brought
in contact with the organ — the hand, for example —
and that the connection formed by the nerves be-
tween the organ and the brain be uninterrupted, and
that the nerves and brain be in a normal state.
In cognition by the ear, the vibrations of the
air must strike upon the tympanum, and the impres-
sion or affection thereby produced be transmitted, by
means of the bones of the ear and the auditory
nerve, to the brain.
In cognition by taste, the object must be applied
to the organ, and the impression transmitted to the
brain. So in smelling.
We call the effect of the presentation of the
COGNITION^ OF MATERIAL OBJECTS. 33
object to the organ, an impression. By this term
we mean that change, whatever it may be, which
experience has shown is necessary to cognition. The
same may be said of the phrase, " transmitted by
the nerves to the brain." We mean by it, that state
of the nerves and .brain, whatever it may be, which
experience has shown is necessary to cognition.
How do we know that matter exists ? We see
it — feel it — cognize it. Does the eye see it ? Does
the hand feel it ? Take away the mind, and what
can the eye or the hand do ? It is the mind that sees
and feels. It is the mind which cognizes the exist-
ence of the tree, just as it is the mind which cognizes
the relation of equality between two and two. In
the one case, the agency of the senses is nsed ; in the
other, not.
If it be asked. How do we know that things are
as we perceive them to be ? How do we know that
matter exists ? we can only reply, " We know it."
We cannot doubt the direct, intuitive cognitions of
our minds. We cannot doubt that the whole of an
object is greater than its part. We cannot doubt
that the tree standing before us exists. The ground
of the certainty of our knowledge is, in both cases,
the same. We must accept our intuitive cognitions
as true.
It is said that consciousness assures us of the
truth of our cognitions. It has already been re-
marked, that to see an object, and to be conscious
2* ..
34 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
that we see an object, is one and the same thing. To
ask,. How do you know that you are conscious that
you see an object ? is to ask, How do you know that
you see it ?
Some say. We are conscious of the state of mind
termed cognition or j)erception, and of nothing else.
We see an external object. The seeing — cognizing,
is confessedly a mental act. Of its existence, it is
said, we are certain ; but we are not certain of any
thing else. We are not certain that there is any
thing external corresponding to this state of mind,
which alone is the object of consciousness. Thus we
have no certainty of the existence of external objects.
The error contained in the above statement con-
sists in not taking the whole of the conscious state
of mind into view. That of which we are conscious
is this : we are conscious that we cognize the object.
When we say we are conscious that we have a cogni-
tion— a subjective state of mind — we have not stated
the whole truth. Our consciousness embraces the
cognition of the object. We are as certain that we
cognize the object, as we are that we have a mental
state.
The term consciousness is properly coniSned to
our mental operations. We cannot, in strict propri-
ety, say that we are conscious of a tree ; but we can
say we are conscious that we perceive a tree.
If it be asked, What is the object of the mind in
perception ? the reply is. The object perceived. The
COGlSriTION OF MATERIAL OBJECTS. 35
objects of cognition are tlie things cognized. If we
scrutinize our mental operations, we shall find noth-
ing but the act of mind and the objects perceived.
If it be asked, How can the mind, which is spirit, act
upon matter ? How can the mind act upon objects at a
distance from it, as in the case of perception by the
eye ? we reply. The mind does act on matter, so far as
cognizing it is concerned, and it does cognize distant
objects. In proof of this, we appeal to conscious-
ness— that is, to observation of what takes place
when we cognize external objects.
Some philosophers have labored hard to discover
how the idea of externality — of something external —
is first acquired. It is acquired when the mind cog-
nizes an external object. Whenever the mind cog-
nizes an object out of the mind, it cognizes it as out
of the mind. No one, in cognizing a material object
by means of sight or touch, ever cognized it as a
modification of his own mind, or as existing within
his mind.
Do we get the idea of something es.ternal through
the agency of any of our senses except touch and
sight ? Take the sense of hearing. Suppose a per-
son destitute of all the senses except hearing. Let a
violin be sounded near him. What would be the
effect on his mind ? He would cognize a sound ;
and he would cognize it as external to his own mind.
He would have no knovfledge of the violin ; but he
would have a knowledge of sound. He would not
36 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPnY.
have a knowledge of something external extended
and offering resistance to muscular effort ; but he
would have a knowledge of sound as external to his
mind, and could probably infer the existence of a
cause external to his mind.
In like manner, we may have a knowledge of
something external to us, in the exercise of all our
senses. We get the idea of externality through all
our senses ; but not, in all cases, the idea of extended
externality. A distinction is to be made between
externality extended and unextended.
CHAPTER V.
EXTENSIOIS" — ^FIGURE — ORIGIl^AL AND ACQUIRED PER-
CEPTIONS.
" It is certain that sight alone, and independently
of touchj affords ns the idea of extension ; for exten-
sion is the necessary object of vision, and we should
see nothing if we did not see it extended. I even
believe that sight must give us the notion of exten-
sion more readily than touch, because sight makes us
remark more promptly and permanently than touch
that contiguity, and, at the same time, that distinc-
tion of parts in which extension consists. Moreover,
vision alone gives us the idea of the color of objects.
Let us suppose now parts of space differently colored
and presented to our eyes. The difference of colors
will necessarily cause us to observe the boundaries
or limits which separate two neighboring colors, and,
consequently, will give us an idea of figure, for we
conceive of a figure when we conceive a limitation or
boundary on all sides."
An appeal to our consciousness, that is, observa-
tion of what takes place in the exercise of vision,
38 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
shows that the mind cognizes extension and form by
means of the eye ; that is, cognizes extended and fig-
ured objects by means of the eye.
Some contend that we get the idea of exten-
sion and figure by means of the sense of touch,
and that those ideas are, by association, transferred
to our visual perceptions. So far is this from being
clear, it is doubtful whether any accurate idea of fig-
ure could be gained by the sense of touch only. Let
one be blindfolded, and then let an object different
from any object previously seen and handled be pre-
sented to the sense of touch, and he will form a very
inaccurate idea of its figure.
Some admit that we can cognize extension by the
eye, but deny that we can cognize figure, that is, so-
lidity, length, breadth, and thickness. That we now
acquire a knowledge of solidity by the eye is, it is
said, the result of inference from our experience gained
by the sense of touch. It is admitted that we seem
to cognize solidity by means of sight, and in reply, it
is said that we seem to cognize distance by the sense
of sight, whereas our cognition of distance is an infer-
ence or judgment. Now we affirm that we do cog-
nize distance by means of the eye. Those who deny
this assume that in all our primary perceptions by
sight all objects appear equally near. This is a mere
assumption. Memory does not reveal to us our first
perceptions. The oft-quoted case of Cheselden's pa-
tient has no bearing upon the point. The imperfect
cognition by means of the organ before it was in its
EXTENSION, FIGURE, ETC. 39
normal state, shows nothing as to the origjiial cl^?io^u
of the organ. Young children have very inaccura.te
cognitions of the distance of objects, but they give
no indications of cognizing all objects as equally near.
We cognize external objects as external. We
cognize them as distinct from us, and distant from us.
The quantity of distance is imperfectly cognized by
the eye. A process of inference is added to the vis-
ual perception, and thus our cognitions become more
and more accurate.
The state of mind which we call seeing distance,
is a complex state. We see an object — a tower for
example. We see it as distant from us. When we
make the distance an object of attention, and attempt
to determine the amount of the distance, a process of
inference takes place. In view of a former analogous
experience, the mind decides that the object is, say,
five miles distant. The cognition in regard to the
exact distance is not a direct cognition. It is an in-
ference or judgment founded upon the visual appear-
ance of the object, conjoined with former experience.
In many instances, this process of inferring is so rapid
that it escapes our attention.
It is asked. How, since the image on the retina is
inverted, do we see objects upright ? The reply is,
we do see them upright. This we know. Why the
physical conditions of perception are as they are, we
do not know. A similar answer may be given to the
question, why, when there is an image of the object
in each eye, we see but one object. Some recent dis-
40 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
coveries in optics reveal in a measure the connection
between binocular vision and the cognitio» of form.
A distinction exists between our original and our
acquired perceptions. The one class are perceptions
proper, the other inferences. The distinction may
also be expressed by calling the former direct cogni-
tions, and the latter indirect cognitions.
We hear music : we say we hear a hand-organ in
the street. In truth, we hear the sounds produced by
the organ. By means of sight or touch, we have cog-
nized the existence of organs. We have learned that
a particular instrument is the cause of particular
sounds. When we cognize those sounds, we seem to
cognize the instrument. But the mental process is as
follows. We hear the sound, and infer the presence
of an organ. The inference is founded on our expe-
rience. On former occasions, "we have known that
similar sounds proceeded from an organ. On the
principle that like causes produce like effects, we infer
that the sounds which we now hear proceed from an
organ. That there is an organ in the street is an
inference from analogy.
We see a plate of butter, and we say it looks soft.
But softness and hardness are not originally cognized
by the eye, but by touch. We have found, from tac-
tual examination, that butter under certain conditions
is soft. We have noted the appearance it then pre-
sented. When we see that appearance, we infer soft-
ness. We do not see softness, but the signs from
EXTENSION, FIGURE, ETC. 41
which we infer it. We must thus learn to distinguish
between our sense perceptions and our inferences.
Both are acts of the mind, hut they are not identical
— do not belong to the same class.
Are our perceptions copies of external objects?
Does the perception of a rose resemble a rose ? Is
there a resemblance between the idea of a rose and
the material rose ?
To perceive a rose, to have an idea of a rose, is a
mental act — an act of a spiritual, invisible, indivisible
existence. Can there be any resemblance between
said act and a rose ?
That such a resemblance exists is sometimes
assumed. It might be regarded as a harmless error,
were it not that it may influence one's subsequent
thinking. An inference may be drawn from the
assumption. That* inference may form a portion of
an argument, which must therefore be unsound. It
may well be doubted whether there can be any such
thing as harmless error. It is always liable to in-
fluence our thinking.
The phrase, mental image or picture, is properly
used to express a particular state of mind. We
speak of having a mental picture, conception, or image
of some edifice we have seen- — of the church we were
accustomed to frequent in our early days. A moment's
reflection will show that there can be no resemblance
between the church, a material object, and the act of
mind calling it to distinct remembrance.
42 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
We may, from reading or hearing a description of
a scene, form a conception, or image, or picture of
said scene in our minds. Those terms express a cer-
tain state of mind ; but that state of mind, while it
has a certain relation to the material objects, has no
literal resemblance to them.
It may be asked. Are all mental acts alike ? Is
the perception of a rose like the perception of a
stone ?
The act of perception cannot be distinguished in
thought from the perception — that is, the perception
as act cannot be distinguished from the perception as
knowledge. The only difference we can perceive
with respect to the acts above mentioned is, the one
is the perception of a rose, the other of a stone.
Is it proper to say, " I believe in the existence of
a material world " ? We have seen that by the or-
ganism of the senses, we cognize the existence of the
material world. To cognize a truth immediately, and
to believe a truth, are different mental acts. We
believe a friend's statement in regard to something
he has witnessed: we believe that statement to be
true, but we do not know it to be true. We know
that the whole is greater than its i:>ai% and that
matter exists. Our knowledge of these truths is
direct, intuitive.
Belief is founded on testimony or evidence, and is
elearly distinguishable from intuitive cognition.
EXTENSION, FIGUKE, ETC. 43
We may have beliefs in whose truth we have as
much confidence as we have in our intuitive cogni-
tions. Still a belief is not an intuitive cognition. As
our cognition of the existence of matter is intuitive, it
should not be spoken of as a belief.
CHAPTER VI.
PEIMARY AND SECONDARY QUALITIES OF MATTER.
Matter is that which possesses certain qualities.
Some of these qualities are intuitively cognized;
others are the subjects of inference. To the ques-
tions, What is matter apart from its qualities ? What
is the essence of matter? we answer, we do not
know that there is any such thing.
Some of the qualities of matter are essential to its
existence as matter. Some qualities are common to
all matter. There are other qualities which belong
to some kinds of matter only.
The division made by most writers, is that of
primary and secondary. The primary qualities are
those which are common to all matter. Thus exten-
sion is a primary quality.
Secondary qualities are those which belong to
some kinds of matter. Thus fragrance, heat, sonorous-
ness, belong to some kinds of matter, but not to all.
The primary qualities are cognized directly, intui-
tively. The cognition of them is, in fact, inseparable
from the cognition of matter — is the cognition of
PEIMARY AND SECONDARY QUALITIES OF MATTEE. 45
matter. If we did not cognize matter as extended
and solid, or having the capability of resisting press-
ure, we should not cognize it at all.
The secondary- qualities are cognized indirectly.
Their existence is inferred from certain effects. You
see a musical instrument — a yiolin, for example. You
cognize it as matter having extension and resistance.
You do not cognize the fact that it, or certain por-
tions of it, has the quality of producing musical
sound. The strings are made to vibrate : you have
a cognition of sound. From observation you con-
clude that the sound is produced by the vibration
of the strings: you conclude those strings are pos-
sessed of a peculiar quality — a quality not |)ossessed
by all forms of matter. The cognition of this quality
is not a direct, but an indirect cognition.
The same remarks luay be made respecting the
quality of fragrance.
With respect to flavor or taste, the case is different.
Apply a sweet body to the organ, and the perception
of sweetness is immediate — as immediate as the per-
ception of extension or resistance. We are as certain
that we cognize sweetness directly as that we cognize
hardness directly.
The secondary qualities are affirmed by some to
have no existence except in the mind. "These are
not," says Hamilton, "in propriety qualities of bodies
at all. As apprehended, they are only subjective
affections, and belong only to bodies in so far as
46 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
these are supposed to be furnished with the powers
capable of specifically determining the various parts
of our nervous apparatus to the particular action, or
-rather passion, of which they are susceptible ; which
determined action or passion is the quality of which
we are immediately cognizant; the external concause
of that internal effect remaining to the perception
altogether unknown." The error of regarding the
secondary qualities as existing only in the mind, has
arisen from applying the same term to the mental
affection and the cause of that affection. Heat, as a
feeling, exists only in the mind ; but heat, as a cause
of that feeling, is a real quality. Let one touch a
piece of red-hot iron. He will cognize the fact that
the iron has heat. He may not be able to tell what
it consists of, but that does not nullify his cognition
of its existence. He is not able to tell what extension
consists of, but that does not nullify his cognition of
extension.
Sound, it is said, exists only in the mind. It is
true that it exists, as a cognition, in the mind, but the
cause of that cognition is as truly a quality of the
violin as extension is a quality.
Color is said to be in the mind only. We see
only the light, it is said. The color of an object de-
pends upon the rays of light which it reflects. An
object which reflects green rays, appears green, and
one which reflects red rays, appears red. But, why
does one object reflect green rays and another red?
Is there not something in the object which reflects
PEIMAET AND SECONDARY QUALITIES OF MATTER. 47
green rays — some peculiar arrangement of the par-
ticles of matter wliicli causes the reflection of those
rays ? If so, then there is something in the object
iv^hich determines its color, and color is not a creation
of the mind.
Do we not know what color consists in, as well as
we know what gravity consists in, and what extension
consists in ?
Is it, then, proper to speak of some qualities in
matter as the unknown cause of certain mental affec-
tions ? May it not just as well be said, that exten-
sion is the unknown cause of a certain mental state
which we call the cognition of extension, as to say
that savor is the unknown cause of a certain mental
affection v/hich we term the cognition of sweetness ?
In the one case, we cognize the body as extended ; in
the other, we cognize it as sapid.
There has been, it seems to us, an unnecessary
amount of labor bestowed upon this distinction in
regard to the qualities of matter. The threefold dis-
tinction of Hamilton has led to no beneficial results.
The sum of what can be safely affirmed, seems to be
this : Some qualities are essential to matter — ^belong
to all matter. Some qualities belong only to certain
portions of matter. In regard to these qualities (of
both kinds), some are cognized directly, and some
indirectly. Some are cognized more clearly than
others. In short, our knov/ledge of the qualities of
matter, like our knowledge of other subjects, is made
up of intuitive perceptions and inferences.
CHAPTER VII.
THEORIES OF PEECEPTIOlSr LOCKE BERKELEY.
Various opinions have been held on the subject
of perception. Some of them must be briefly con-
sidered.
" It is singular, and at first sight unaccountable,
how it should ever have been pro|)ounded, that in
the act of perception, as, for example, in looking at
a tree, there is an independent image, form, or phan-
tasm, or idea of the tree, interposed between the tree
itself and the percipient being.
'' A man has only to look at any object before him,
not contenting himself with words, to be satisfied of
the non-existence of any such image or idea* To one
of untutored and unperverted mind, the very sugges-
tion of such a thing would appear absurd. He per-
ceives the external object, and, let him look as in-
tently as he may, he can perceive nothing else.
"Philosophers, however, Avere not content with
simple facts, and a simple statement of these facts.
" Amongst other conceits, divers of them a2:)pear to
have entertained the notion that some intermediate
THEOBIES OF PERCEPTlOl^j ETC. 49
image or phantasm is requisite, for the unmeaning rea-
son, that the immaterial mind cannot come into con-
tact Vvdth matter, or have any communication with
it, except, as several of these philosophers suppose,
through a fine, filmy, shadowy, unsubstantial me-
dium ; overlooking that it is the business of philoso-
phy at all times to tate facts as they are, to regard
what is done, — not to perplex itself with hypotheti-
cal impossibilities. What mind can do, and what
matter can do, must be determined by dry facts.
The best proof of the practicability of a thing, is
that it takes place.
" They might have known, by merely opening their
eyes, that intelligent beings do see material objects,
and that in this simple act they are utterly uncon-
scious of any image, species, idea, representation, or
whatever else a metaphysician might choose to call
that imaginary entity.
" Even philosophers who did not consider any inde-
pendent entity of this kind to exist, held the kindred
doctrine that there is a purely mental phenomenon,
whicb is the immediate thing perceived, either con-
stituting the object itself, or intervening in some in-
explicable way between the external object and the
percipient being, so as practically to prevent him
from getting at the object, or to keep it aloof from
him ; an hypothesis, in whatever way it may be put
or expressed, that embodies as rank a fiction as the
other.
3
50 ELEMENTS OF mTELLECTXJAL PHILOSOPHY.
"It seems to have been only after a thousand
struggles, that the simple truth was arrived at, which
is not by any means yet universally received, — the
truth that the perception of external things through
the organs of sense is a direct mental act — a phe-
nomenon of consciousness not susceptible of being
resolved into any thing else." *
Locke sometimes uses language which would in
dicate the doctrine of direct intuitive perception, but
the theory which determined his thinking was the
ideal theory.
"Whatsoever the mind perceives in itself, or is
the immediate object of perception, thought, or un-
derstanding, that I call idea."t This implies that
the object of perception is something in the mind.
There is a confusion of the object of perception with
the act of perception.
" Since extension, figure, number, and motion of
bodies of an observable bigness, may be observed at
a distance by the sight, it is evident some singly im-
perceptible bodies must come from them to the eyes,
and thereby convey to the brain some motion, which
produces these ideas which we have of them in
us."t
This implies that the external objects are not
directly perceived by the eye.
"It is evident that the mind knows not things
* Bailey. f Essay, Book I., chap, viii., sec. 8.
X Ibid., sec. 12.
51
immediately, but only by tlie intervention of the
ideas it lias of them. Our knowledge is therefore
real, only so far as there is a conformity between our
ideas and the reality of things. But what shall be
here the criterion? How shall the mind, when it
perceives nothing but its own ideas, know that they
agree with things themselves ? This, though it
seemxS not to want difficulty, yet, I think, there be
two sorts of ideas, that, we may be assured, agree
with things." *
These extracts make it plain that Locke did not
regard external objects as directly perceived by the
mind. The direct object of perception v/as some-
thing intermediate. The mind "perceives nothing
but its own ideas." He believed that there are ex-
ternal objects with which they agree — which they
represent.
But if the mind perceives nothing but its own
ideas, how can it know that there are any other
things ? How can it know that there are external
things corresponding to these ideas ? By concession,
these external things are unperceived — unknown.
The mind can cognize an agreement between two
known things, but how can it cognize an agreement
between a known object and an unknown one ?
Locke admits that there is a difficulty, but
thinks that " there be two sorts of ideas, that, we
may be assured, agree with things."
* Essay, Book lY., chap, iv., sec. 3.
52 IifLEMEITTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
On Locke's theory of perception, it is plain, we
can have no knowledge of any thing out of the
mind. Idealism is the logical consequence of the
theory. This remark is true with respect to every
theory of mediate perception. If the object of the
mind in perception be an idea, image, phantasm, and
not external objects, then we have no knowledge of
external^ objects. It may be affirmed that these
ideas, images, phantasms, represent external objects.
But of this, the advocates of the theory have no
proof. They have therefore no ground for believing
in the existence of an external world.
While Locke tau2:ht that the ideas, which are the
objects of perception, represent external realities,
Berkeley, with greater logical consistency, denied
the existence of external realities.
" In common talk," says Berkeley, " the objects
of our senses are not termed ideas, but things. Call
them so still, provided you do not attribute to them
any absolute existence, and I shall never quarrel with
you for a word."
Again, he says : " It is an opinion strangely pre-
vailing amongst men, that houses, mountains, rivers,
and, in a word, all sensible objects, have an existence
natural and real, distinct from their being perceived
by the understanding. But with how great an as-
surance and acquiescence soever this principle may
be entertained in this world, yet, whosoever shall
find in his heart to call it in question, may, if I mis
53
take not, perceive it to involve a manifest contradic-
tion. For wliat are tlie prementioned objects, but
tlie things we perceive by the sense ; and what do
we perceive besides our own ideas and sensations ;
and is it not plainly repugnant that any one of these,
or any combination of them, should exist unper-
ceived ? "
Here the existence of any thing excepting our
ideas and sensations is distinctly denied. The rea-
soning— if the term can properly be' applied to a
mere assumption and shifting of terms — is as' fol-
lows :
Jlouses, mountains, and rivers, are the objects
of our senses ; but the only things we perceive by
sense are our own ideas and sensations : hence houses,
mountains, etc., have no existence except in the
mind. '
Houses, mountains, etc., are called ideas, and then
all the qualities of ideas are ascribed to them. But
"f
to call a thing by the name of another thing, does
not change the nature of the former to that of the
latter. To call a horse a bird, does not change him
into a bird.
It may be asked. Whence come our ideas of
houses and mountains, if there are no such material
objects to cause them ? Berkeley would reply, that
the Author of Nature " imprints them in the senses."
The followiog remarks from the pen of Bailey
are deemed accurate ; \ Much as his [Berkeley's]
54 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
arguments have been extolled, whoever closely ex-
amines them will find that he does not adduce a sin-
gle one (arguments in a circle excepted) to prove his
fundamental position ; but, having assumed it with-
out proof, he is thenceforward occupied partly in de-
ducing conclusions from iL, partly in explaining facts
according to it, partly in contending with objections
which nothing but his original assumption enables
him to combat, partly in overcoming doctrines not
necessarily held in connection with the absolute ex-
istence of an external world, and partly in attempt-
ing, by a retrograde process, to confirm the truth of
the assumed proposition from its own consequences.
'' That in doing this he has shown great logical
adroitness and fertility of invention, much metaphysi-
cal knowledge and acumen, a wide range of thought,
and a fluent and felicitous style, I most cheerfully
admit."
CHAPTER VIII.
THEOKIES or PERCEPTIO]^ — KEID BKOWN^o
Dr, Thomas Reid has the merit of overthrowing
the theory of mediate perception — ^that is, the theory
of perception through the agency of ideas intervening
and bridging the space between matter and mind.
Before his time that theory was very generally held.
It is true that in many authors there may be found
passages indicating correct views of perception ; still
the ideal theory influenced the general tone of philo-
sophical thinking. The isolated passages referred to
do not lessen the substantial merit of Reid in leading
the way to more truthful views than had previously
obtained general currency.
Reid saw the truth in regard to the perception of
external objects, but did not see it with entire clear-
ness. He saw that there was no intermediate object
between the mind and the object perceived— that we
have a direct, immediate, intuitive perception of ex-
ternal objects; but he did not discriminate accurately
between sensation and perception. He sometimes
used language adapted to make the impression that
56 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
he regarded sensation as the instrument of perception.
He taught that sensation always precedes perception.
^ He says : '^ The impression made upon the organs,
, nerves, and brain, is followed by a sensation, and this
sensation is followed by a perception of the object.'^
Again : " The impression made upon the nerves and
brain is performed behind the scenes, and the mind
sees nothing of it. But every such impression^ by the
laws of the drama, is followed by a sensation which is
the first scene exhibited to the mind, and this scene
is quickly succeeded by another, which is the percep-
tion of the object."
Professor Dugald Stewart understood Reid to
teach " that the mind is so formed that certain impres-
sions produced upon our organs of sense by external
objects, are followed by corresponding sensations, and
that these sensations (which have no more resem-
blance to the qualities of matter than the words of
language have to the things which they denote) are
followed by a perception of the existence and quali-
ties of the bodies by which the impressions are
made."
" Every different perception," says Reid, " is con-
joined with a sensation proper to it. The one is the
sign, the other is the thing signified."
These expressions would seem to indicate that
Reid regarded perception as an inference from sensa-
tion, and not a direct knowledge of the object. But
he remarks : " We ask no argument for the existence
57
of the object, Ibut that we perceive it : perception
commands our belief upon its own authority, and dis-
dains to rest its authority upon any reasoning what-
ever." Exception may be taken to the use of the
term belief in connection with perception, yet the
passage shows that he regarded perception as a direct
knowledge of the object — not a knowledge acquired
by inference.
As was stated above, the defect in Reid's view of
perception was owing to a want of accurate discrimi-
nation between sensation and perception. The dis-
tinction stated by Bailey is clear and satisfactory.
Sensation is " an affection felt to be in'some part of
the body, whether attended or not by a discernment
of any thing different from, or external to the sen-
tient being." Perception is " discerning something
different from, or external to, the percipient being,
whether attended or not by a bodily sensation."
Sensation and perception are not always conjoined.
We may have sensations without perceptions. Place
a piece of ice near the body. A radiation of caloric
from the body — a change in the condition of the
body — will produce a sensation of cold or chilliness.
This is in one sense a knowledge ; that is to say, I
know that I have in my body a sensation of chilli
ness ; but it is not a perception, i, 6,, a cognition of
something external.
After long-continued bodily exertion, there is felt,
in different parts of the body, a sensation of, fatigue.
3^'
58 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
This is not necessarily conjoined with the perception
of any external object.
When one has gone without food for an unusual
period, the condition of the stomach produces the
sensation of hunger. This sensation is not in any way
connected with the perception of any thing external.
These sensations are feelings localized in the body.
They are mental acts, states, or affections, clearly dis-
tinguishable from perceptions.
We may have perceptions without sensations.
An object of sight is presented— a tree for example.
The cognition is immediate. If we consult our con-
sciousness, we shall find nothing but a direct cognition
of the tree. The conditions of this cognition, the
rays of light reflected from the object to the eye, the
picture on the retina, the state of the optic nerve and
the brain, are not within the sphere of consciousness.
All that we are conscious of is an immediate percep-
tion of the tree. When the organ is in a healthy
state, we are conscious of no feeling localized in the
organ — ^no sensation. If the organ be diseased, a
painful sensation may be felt in it, but the sensation
has no connection with vision — that is, in no way con-
tributes to it. It may be occasioned by nerves en-
tirely distinct from the optic nerve.
Let the keys of a piano be struck : we hear a
sound. Is it a sensation, that is, a feeling localized in
the ear, or is it a cognition of sound ? Plainly the
latter. We cognize a sound. It is a mental act. We
59
are conscious of i^e act, "but are not ordinarily con-
scious of any local affection of the organ.
In case the ear is diseased, the vibrations of the
atmosphere, one of the conditions of the mental act
of hearing, may occasion a painful sensation. Even
when the organ is in a healthy state, vibrations of
great intensity, such as those occasioned by the explo-
sion of a cannon near to one, will occasion a painful
sensation.
Some writers have used the term sensation in con-
nection with hearing, when they should have used
the term emotion. They have spoken of the agreea-
ble and disagreeable sensations of hearing, when they
meant the agreeable or disagreeable emotions conse-
quent upon the cognition of sounds. Some sounds are
agreeable, and some disagreeable. An attendant or
consequent emotion is one thing, a preceding sensation
is another thing. The two things should not be con-
founded.
Perception by the sense of touch is attended by a
sensation — a feeling localized in the organ. The sen-
sation is separable in thought from the perception.
Cognitions by the sense of taste and of smell are also
attended with sensations. But a large portion of our
perceptions are neither preceded nor attended by sen-
sations. If the above remarks are correct, the reader
will place a just estimate on Sir William Hamilton's
law, the alleged discovery of which is claimed as one
of his contributions to philosophy — " the grand law by
60 ELEMEISTTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
wMcli perception and sensation ara governed by their
reciprocal relation." This lavf, which Hamilton says
" has been wholly overlooked by onr psychologists,"
is thus stated : " Perception and sensation, though al-
ways coexistent, are always in the inverse ratio to
each other."
Had Reid distinguished clearly between sensation
and perception, there would have been no occasion
for charging him with failing to teach the true doc-
trine of perception. That he held it substantially, no
candid reader of his works can doubt.
Dr. Thomas Brown, whose "Lectures on the
Philosophy of the Human Mind " furnish frequent
examples of wonderful acuteness, taught, in regard to
perception, that when an object is presented to our
organs of sense, a certain mental state is occasioned,
and this conscious state of mind is followed by an
irresistible belief of the existence of the object
causing said mental state.
Brown discarded altogether the doctrine of ideas,
that is, of a terthim quid between the object per-
ceived and the perceiving mind, but he did not give a
true account of the process of perception. He says,
when an object is presented to the organs of sense, a
mental state follows that presentation, and that state
is followed by an irresistible belief of the existence
of the object. But what is that mental state ? When
a table is placed before me, a mental state is produced.
What is that mental state ? It is a direct perception
61,
of tlie table. As soon as the light falls upon the
table and is reflected to the eye, the mind sees the
table. The conscious act or state of mind is a simple
act or state, and cannot be analyzed into an act fol-
lowed by an irresistible belief.
In consequence of his view of perception, Brown
found great difficulty in determining the origin of our
idea of externality. An object is presented to the
senses, and produces a state of mind. All that we
are conscious of is a state of mind — a subjective af-
fection. We know that it must have a cause, but
whether that cause be an external object or not, we
cannot know, so long as we are destitute of the idea
of externality. In attempting to account for the ori-
gin of our ideas of externality, he gives a striking
specimen of ingenuity, but fails to remove the diffi-
culty, which is of his own creation.
It is simply absurd to ask how we get the idea of
externality in connection with our perception of ex-
ternal objects. When we cognize an external object,
we cognize it as external. If we cognize it at all, we
must cognize it as external to the mind and to the
bodily organism. No one cognizing an object by one
of the senses, ever cognized it as a mere modification
of his own mind. The mind was made to cognize
external objects. The idea of externality is neces-
sarily involved in every cognition of matter.
Brown's doctrine of perception as logically leads
to idealism, as does the doctrine of perception by
62 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
means of ideas. If we are conscious of cognizing
ideas only, then we have no means of knowing that
there are external objects corresponding to those
ideas. If, as Brown affirms, we are conscious only of
a mental state, how can we know that the cause of
that mental state has a material existence ? Brown
calls in the aid of an irresistible belief, bu^ conscious-
ness does not testify to the presence of said belief.
It testifies to the direct cognition of the object.
/k ajZcA. y^i
■t^^-^%'^'t'^'t>^
■ CHAPTER IX.
THEORY OF SIR WILLIAM HAMILTOl^T.
Sir William Hamilton claims to teach the doctrine
of direct perception more emphatically than any of
his predecessors. It is supposed by some that he cor-
rected the errors of Reid and Brown^ and gave an
exposition of the philosophy of perception, at once
convincing and exhaustive. A brief examination of
his teachings may prove a useful exercise.
He teaches that the mind has a direct, immediate,
intuitive perception of external objects. After a con-
sideration of the various objections that have been
made to the doctrine of direct perception, he re-
marks : " We have thus found, by an examination of
the various grounds on which it has been attempted
to establish the necessity of rejecting the testimony
of consciousness to the intuitive perception of the
external world, that the grounds are,"^ one and all,
incompetent."
He would extend the sphere of consciousness, so
as to include the object perceived as well as the per-
ceiving act. He insists on the propriety of saying,
64 ELEMENTS OF USTTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
" I am conscious of the inkstand," instead of saying,
" I am conscious that I perceive the inkstand." " A
^ slight consideration," he affirms, " is sufficient to
reconcile us to the expression, as showing, if we
hold the doctrine of immediate perception, the ne-
cessity of not limiting consciousness to our subjec-
tiye states." Again he says : " The assertion that
we can be conscious of the act of knowledge
without being conscious of the object, is virtually
suicidal."
The reader may be surprised to learn from Ham-
ilton, who so strenuously contends for the authority
of consciousness, that although ''we are conscious of
the inkstand," we do not see it. To be conscious of
the inkstand must mean to be conscious that we see
the inkstand. Tet, according to Hamilton, we do
not see it. " We perceive, through no sense, augh^"//
external but what is in immediate relation and in
immediate contact with its organ ; and that is true,
which Democritus of old asserted, that all our
senses are only modifications of touch. Through the
eye we perceive nothing but the rays of light in rela-
tion to, and in contact Vvdth, the retina ; what we add
to this perception must not be taken into account."
" To say, for example, that we perceive by sight the
sun or moon, is a false or an elliptical expression. We
perceive nothing but certain modifications of light in
immediate relation to our organ of vision ; and so far
from Dr. Reid being philosophically correct, Avhen he
THEORY OF SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON". 65
says that, 'when "ten men look at tlie sun or moon,
they all see the same indiyidual object/ the truth is
that each of these persons sees a cliiFerent object, be-
cause each person sees a different complement of rays in
relation to his individual organ. In fact, if we look
alternately with each, we have a different object iil
our right, and a different object in our left eye. It is
not by perception, but by a process of reasoning, that
we connect the objects of sense with existences be-
yond the sphere of immediate knowledge. It is enough
that perception affords us the knowledge of the noji-
ego at the point of sense. To arrogate to it the
power of immediately informing us of the existence
of external things, which are only the cause of the
objects which are immediately perceived, is either
positively erroneous, or a confusion of language
arising from an inadequate discrimination of the
phenomena. Such assumptions tend only to throw
discredit on the doctrine of intuitive perception ; and
such assumptions you will find scattered over the
works both of Reid and Stewart. I would therefore
establish as a fundamental position of the doctrine
of immediate perception, the opinion of I)emocritus
— that all our senses are only modifications of
touch; in other words, that the external object of
perception is always in contact with the organs of
sense."
Do not the assumptions of Hamilton "tend to
throw discredit on the doctrine of intuitive percep-
66 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
tion"? What are his assertions iit regard to visible
objects? We see only modifications of light, and
difierent persons looking at the sun see different
objects. Will it be said different rays of light enter
different eyes ? True, but does that fact prove that
all do not see the same object? A cannon is fired:
the undulations or portions of undulations that strike
upon the tympanums of ten different persons are
different ; does that prevent their all hearing the
same cannon?
The learned author confounds the condition of
perception with the object of perception. The en-
trance of rays of light is a condition of perception.
Every beholder of the sun is conscious of seeing it:
he is not conscious of seeing certain modifications of
light. In fact, he knows nothing about light, the
retina, the optic nerve, till informed by the physiol-
ogist.
These assumptions of Hamilton are entirely incon-
sistent with the doctrine of direct, intuitive perception.
If we see only rays of light, how do we know there
is any thing but said rays ? Hamilton stoutly con-
tends that we must receive the attestations of con-
sciousness as true. His whole doctrine of intuitive
perception rests upon the truthfulness of conscious-
ness. Now, we are as conscious that we see the
inkstand when it is before us on the table, as we are
that we feel it when we place our hand upon it. If
Hamilton's assertion that we do not see the inkstand
THEORY OF SIR WILLIAM UAMILTON. 67
but only rays of light, be true, then consciousness is
deceptive. If we are deceived as to seeing the ink-
stand, we may be deceived as to feeling the inkstand.
All ground for certainty is gone.
Thus it appears that no man has more emphatically
asserted the truthfulness of consciousness, and no man
has more emphatically denied it.
He has made other assertions equally inconsistent
with the doctrine of intuitive perception. When he
insists on so direct a cognition that it is proper for
us to say that we are conscious of the object, conscious
of the inkstand, we have certainly a right to suppose
that a real object is perceived. This he does not
deny — in words at least. He affirms that "we per-
ceive the material reality." "But what," he asks,
" is meant by perceiving the material reality ? " We
give his answer ; but shall be obliged to repeat his
question, "What is meant?" in respect to several
of his phrases. " In the first place," he says, in reply
to the question, " it does not mean that we perceive
the material reality absolutely and in itself; that is,
out of relation to our organs or faculties." What is
meant by "perceiving the material reality absolutely
and in itself" ? What is meant by the explanatory
phrase " out of relation to our organs and faculties " ?
Having told us, in his way, what is not meant by
perceiving the material reality, he proceeds : " On the
contrary, the total and real object of perception is the
external object under relation to our sense and the
68 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
faculty of cognition." What is meant by "under
relation to our sense and the faculty of cognition"?
He continues: "Bat though thus relative to us, the
object is still no representation, no modification of
the ego. It is the non-ego^ modified and relative it
may be, but still the non-ego. I formerly illustrated
this to you by a supposition. Suppose that the total
object in perception is 12; and suppose that. the
external reality contributes 6, the material sense 3,
and the mind 3~this may enable you to form some
rude conjecture of the nature of the object of percep-
tion." The material reality perceived is thus a com-
pound of matter, sense, and mind ! Consciousness
says it is matter.
What modification does the non-ego receive from
the mind ? Suppose the non-ego to be a house ; what
modification does it receive at the hands of "the ma-
terial sense," and " the mind," when perception takes
place ?
A house is before me : the light is reflected from
the house to the eye, and an image of the house is
formed on the retina. The optic nerve and the brain
are in their normal state. A cognition takes place.
The mind cognizes the house. All the facts men-
tioned as preceding the act of cognition are physio-
logical conditions of the act. When these take place,
the simple inexplicable act of cognition takes place.
If cognizing the house is modifying it, it is so modified.
Hamilton tells us that the simple cognition is
THEORY OF SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON". 69
made up of contributions from three sources, viz. :
the house, the material sense, and the mind. The
house contributes, say, one-half; the material struc-
ture of the eye one-third ; and the mind one-third.
Consciousness gives us no information of this
partnership. We are conscious of perceiving the
house. If this consciousness is erroneous, and the
object of perception is not the house, but a certain
threefold combination, then consciousness is not trust-
worthy, and universal skepticism must be our portion.
Observe the impropriety of that mode of speaking,
adopted by many writers, which represents knowledge
as the joint contribution of mind and object. Mind
and object are both necessary in order to knowledge,
but it does not follow that knowledge is a compound
of mind and object. What is the relation between
mind and object? The mind knows, the object is
known. That is the whole of the matter. If it be
asked, How can the mind know ? the conditions of the
cognizing act may be stated, but the cognizing act
cannot be described.
The following passage contains a doctrine of per-
ception closely allied to, if not identical with, that held
by Dr. Thomas Brown, and censured by Hamilton.
"If it be asked," says Hamilton, "How do we know
that this object (of perception) is not a mere mode of
mind, illusively presented to us as a mode of matter?
then, indeed, we must reply, that we do not in pro-
priety know that what we are compelled to perceive
70 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHr.
as not self— is not a perception of self; and that we
can only on reflection believe such to be the case, in
reliance tipon the original necessity of so believing
imposed on tis by our nature."
After all, then, our knowledge of external objects
as separate from the mind, is not a direct cognition,
but an inevitable belief!
CHAPTER X.
EELATIYITY OF KNOWLEDGE.
Much has "been said by late writers about tlie
relativity of our knowledge, the tendency of which is
to weaken the grounds of certainty of knowledge.
We are told that " we know mind and matter not in
themselves, but in their accidents and phenomena*'
Hamilton aiBrms that "all human knowledge,"
consequently all human philosophy, "is only of the
relative and phenomenal. In this proposition the
term relative is opposed to the absolute ; and, there-
fore, in saying that we know only the relative, I vir-
tually assert that we know nothing absolute — nothing
existing absolutely, in and for itself, and without
relation to us and our faculties." Of course we
cannot know that which has no relation to our facul-
ties— that which is not an object of knowledge — that
which is unknowable. The distinction, then, between
the relative and the absolute, is simply the distinction
between that which can be known and that which
cannot be known. It is granted that our knowledge
is limited. We know but in part. Beyond and con-
V2 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY,
nected with all that is known, there is much that is
unknown. If the terms relative and absolute were
intended to express this distinction, thej were not
happily chosen ; for when we are told our knowledge
is only relative and phenomenal, there is a tendency
to regard it as unsubstantial. If the terms were not
intended to express this distinction, what were they
intended to express ? What is meant by " existing
absolutely and of itself, without relation to us and
our faculties"? How is it known that there are
objects existing out of relation to our faculties? If
we are authorized to affirm that there are such ob-
jects, that affirmation is knov/ledge. Hov*^ came the
exTsteiice of these unknown and unknowable objects
to be known ? If an object is without relation to our
faculties, it cannot be cognized by our faculties, and
of course its existence cannot be affirmed.
Hamilton proceeds to illustrate the assertions
above quoted : " I shall illustrate this by its applica-
tion. Our knowledge is either of matter or of mind.
Now, what is matter ? What do we know of mat-
ter ? Matter, or body, is to us the name either of
something known or of something unknown. In so
far as matter is the name of something known, it
means that which appears to us under the forms of
extension, solidity, divisibility, figure, motion, rough-
ness, smoothness, color, heat, cold, etc. ; in short, it
is a common name for certain series, aggregate, or
complement of appearances or phenomena manifested
RELATIVITY OF KNOWLEDGE. 73
in coexistence. Put as the plienomena appear only
in conjunction, we are compelled, by the constitution
of our nature, to think them conjoined in and by
something ; and as they are phenomena, we cannot
think them the phenomena of nothing, but must re-
gard them as the properties or qualities of something
that is extended, solid, figured, etc. But this some-
thing, absolutely and in itself-— ^^ 6., considered apart
from its phenomena — is to us as zero. It is only in
its qualities, only in its effects, in its relative or phe-
nomenal existence, that it is cognizable or conceiv-
able. It is only by a law of thought that compels us
to think of something absolute and unknown as the
basis or condition of the relative and known, that
something obtains a kind of incomprehensible reality
to us. Now, that which manifests its qualities — in
other words, that in which the appearing causes in-
here, that to which they belong — is called, then, sub-
ject^ or substance^ or substratum. To this subject of
the phenomena of extension, solidity, etc., the term
matter^ or material substance^ is commonly given ; and
therefore, as contradistinguished from these qualities,
it is the name of something unknown and incon-
ceivable."
The same doctrine in regard to our knowledge of
matter was taught by Professor Dugald Stewart.
" It is not matter or body which I perceive by my
senses, but only extension, color, figure, and certain
other qualities which the constitution of my nature
4
74 ELEMENTS OF lOTTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
leads me to refer to something which is extended,
figured, colored."
In opposition to these high authorities, it may be
safely affirmed that it is not true that we perceive
extension, figure, color, etc., and infer the existence
of something in which they inhere. We intuitively
cognize matter or body as extended, figured, colored,
etc. If we do not cognize matter — body — directly,
we cognize nothing directly. If we do not know
what matter is, we do not know what any thing is.
Extension, and color, and other facts in relation to
matter, when considered apart from body, are mere
abstractions ; and abstractions are not known enti-
ties inhering in an unknown something. We can
consider extension, solidity, color, etc., abstractly,
but that is not cognizing them as entities belonging
to an unknown substratum. We cognize body as
extended, divisible, colored, etc. If the use of ab-
stract terms had been avoided in relation to body,
the doctrine of a substratum^ and of a relative knowl-
edge of matter, would not have been known. It is
the offspring of scholastic abstraction.
The position I have taken is supported by one of
the most sober and accurate thinkers of the day. " I
can see," says McCosh, " no evidence whatever for the
existence of any such thing as a substratum^ lying in
or beyond, or standing under all that comes under our
immediate knowledge. There is no topic on which
there has been a greater amount of unintelligible Ian-
RELATIVITY OF KITOWLEDGE. 75
guage employed than on this. We know, it is said,
only qualities ; but we are constrained by reason, or
by common sense, to believe in a something in which
they inhere. Or, qualities, it is said, fall under sense,
while substance is known by reason. Others, pro-
ceeding on these admissions, maintain that, qualities
alone being known, we may doubt whether there is
such a thing as substance, and may certainly affirm
that we can never know it. Now, in opposition to
all this style of thinking and of writing, which has
prevailed to so great an extent since the days of
Locke, I maintain that we never know qualities with-
out also knowing substance. Qualities, as qualities,
distinct from substances, are as much unknown to us
as substance distinct from qualities."
Again : " It is very common to say that sub
stance is a thing behind the qualities, or underneath
them, acting as a substratum, basis, ground, or sup-
port. All such language is in its very nature meta-
phorical ; the analogy is of the most distant kind,
and may have a misleading character. The sub-
stance is the very thing itself considered in a certain
aspect, and the qualities are its action or manifesta-
tion. Again, it is frequently said that qualities are
known, whereas substance cannot be known, or, if
known, known only by some deeper or more tran-
scendental principle of the mind. Now, I hold that
we never know quality except as the quality of a
substance, and that we know both equally in one un-
76 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
divided act. This is a somewhat less mystical and
mysterious account than that commonly given ty
metaphysicians, but is, as it appears to me, in strict
accordance with the revelations of consciousness."
We are told by some writers, that the essence of
matter and mind is unknown. The author above
quoted says of essence : '' It is a very mystical word,
and a whole aggregate of foolish speculations has
clustered around it." " We are not warranted to
maintain that there must be something lying further
in than the qualities we know, and that this some-
thing is entitled to be regarded as the essence of the
object. We have no ground whatever for believing
that there must be, or that there is, something more
internal or central than the substance and quality
which we know. True, there are probably occult
qualities even in those objects with which we are
most intimately acquainted ; but we are not there-
fore warranted to conclude, that what is concealed
must differ in nature or in kind from Avhat is re-
vealed, or that it is in any way more necessary to the
existence or the continuance of the object. I have a
shrewd suspicion that there is a vast amount of un-
meaning talk in the language which is employed on
this special subject by metaphysicians, who would
see something which the vulgar cannot discern,
whereas they should be contented with pointing to
what all men perceive. It is quite conceivable, and
perfectly probable, that though we should know all
RELATIVITY OF KNOWLEDGE. 77
about any given terrestrial or material object, we
should, after all, not fall in with any thing more
mysterious or deep than those wonders which come
every day under our notice in the world without, and
the world within us."
The following are the views of this author in
regard to existence in itself: "I cannot give my
adhesion to the opinion of those who speak so
strongly of man being incapacitated to know Being.
I have already intimated my dissent from that Kant-
ian doctrine, that we do not know things, but ap-
pearances ; and even from the theory of those Scot-
tish metaphysicians who affirm that we do not know
things, but qualities. What we know, is the thing
manifesting itself to us — is the thing exercising par-
ticular qualities. But then it is confidently asserted
that we do not know the ' thing in itself.' The lan-
guage, I rather think, is unmeaning ; but if it has a
meaning, it is incorrect. I do not believe that there
is any such thing in existence as Being in itself, or
that man can even so much as imagine it ; and if
this be so, it is clear that we cannot know it, and
desirable that we should not suppose that we know
it. Of this I am sure, that those Neo-Platonists who
professed to be able to rise to the discovery of Being
in itself (which could only be the abstract idea of
Being), and to be employed in gazing on it, had mis-
erably bare and most unprofitable matter of medita-
tion whether for intellectual, or moral, or religious
78 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
ends. But if any mean to deny that we can know
Being as it is, I maintain in opposition to them, and
I appeal to consciousness to confirm me, when I say,
that we immediately know Being in every act of
cognition. But then we are told that we cannot
know the mystery of Being. I am under a strong
impression that speculators have attached a much
greater amount of mystery to this simple subject
than really belongs to it. Of this I am sure, that
much of the obscurity Avhich has collected around it
has sprung from the confused discussions of meta-
physicians, who have labored to explain what needs
no explanation to our intelligence, or to get a basis
on which to build what stands securely on its own
foundation. I do indeed most fully admit, that there
may be much about Being which we do not know ;
much about Being generally, much about every indi-
vidual Being, unknown to us, and unknowable to us
in this world. Still, I do affirm that we know so
much of Being, and that any further knowledge con-
veyed to us woiild not set aside our present knowl-
edge, but would simply enlarge it." ^'
The following remarks in regard to the phrase,
" knowing things in themselves," are by Bailey :
"It is worth while to advert more particularly
to the proposition often reiterated by Kant, that we
cannot know things in themselves — a proposition ex-
tensively accepted by philosophers.
* McCosVs '* Intuitions of the Mind," p. 163.
KELATIYITY OF KISTOWLEDGE. 79
" This is, in my view, a perfectly unmeaning as-
sertion. We cannot form the slightest conception of
knowing external things, except as we do know
them, i. e., through the organs of sense. Do you
demur at this ? Then he so good as to tell me the
precise signification of knowing things in them-
selves ; give me a specimen of that sort of knowl-
edge which we have not ; and point out how you
have gained so envious a piece of transcendental in-
formation.
" No one, manifestly, is entitled to deny that our
knowledge is of things in themselves, unless he not
only possesses the sort of knowledge which he denies
to others, and has found, in comparison, that we —
the rest of the human race — have only a knowledge
of things as they are not in themselves, but actually
produces it for our examination. Till that is done,
assertions ahout knowing things in themselves must
be regarded as utterly without meaning,"
CHAPTER XL
HEMAEKS 02T THE NATURE OF* PERCEPTION.
It has not been my design to give an historical
account of the various theories of perception. I
have noticed some errors, for the purpose of enabling
the student to get a clearer view of the truth. On
this, as on many other subjects, the simple truth has
been overlooked, and almost every conceivable form
of error has been adopted, and exploded. The true
doctrine of perception is very simple, and has always
been held by all except philosophers. It is some-
times asked, Can the existence of an external world
be proved ? The reply is. It is an object of direct
cognition, and hence is not susceptible of proof or
disproof. " For, let us pause a moment, and reflect
what constitutes proof — what proof is. It is neither
more nor less than some fact which causes us, or
which is adduced for the purpose of causing us, to
discern or to believe some other fact.
" Now, a fact must be either external or internal,
material or mental, relating to the world without or
the world within. But an external fact cannot be
REMARKS ON THE KATURIJ OF PERCEPTION. 81
adduced in proof that there are such things as exter-
nal objects ; for that would be alleging as evidence
the very truth to be proved. IsTor can it be adduced
in disproof; for that would be affirming the positive
existence of a thing in order to disprove its exist-
ence.
" But if an external fact cannot, in this case, be
brought forward in proof or disproof, it is equally
plain that a purely mental or internal fact cannot be
adduced for either purpose.
" The only mental or internal fact which can be
mentioned as at .all relating to the subject, is, that
we perceive external objects : but this cannot, of
course, be alleged in proof of itself, or of its own
truth ; nor can it be brought, without egregious ab-
sur^^, in disproof of itself.
" That there are external objects perceived by us,
is, therefore, a primary fact, which admits neither of
being proved nor disproved ; and it is amazing that
philosophers of great depth and power have attempt-
ed to .do either." *
The following remarks by the author above quo-
ted are worthy of attention :
" When we perceive an object, we have not any
consciousness of the conditions of the nerves and
brain concerned in the resulting act of perception,
nor of the motions of any inorganic medium between
the object and our organ : we are conscious of per-
* Bailey
. 4* . -
82 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
ceiving the external object, and nothing else. In
seeing, we are not conscious of the retina, nor of the
rays of light impinging upon it, nor of the picture
there delineated. In hearing, we are not conscious
of the drum of the ear, nor of the pulses of the air
by which it is struck, nor, in either case, of any com-
munication between those parts and the brain.
"As we are unconscious of the physical process, so
what we are conscious of perceiving is not at all af-
fected by our being able or unable to trace that pro-
cess of which perception is the result. In other
words, our perception of external objects is not alter-
able by any insight or want of insight into its physi-
cal causes. What is designated by the words ' seeing
an object,' is the same mental state in the child, the
savage, the philosopher, and as a simple modification
of consciousness neither wants nor admits of any
analysis or explanation. Although the physical
events leading to it may be minutely investigated, it
cannot itself be resolved into any mental state or
states. You may trace the course of light from the
object to the organ, you may follow its refractions by
the lens of the eye, you may detect the picture on
the retina, you may explore the connection of the
optic nerve with the brain ; but you do not, by all
these discoveries, valuable as fhey are, alter in the
slightest degree the resulting state of consciousness
denominated seeing the object. Although they are
facts in the physical process absolutely necessary to
EEMAKKS OK THE NATUEE OF PEKCEPTION. 83
the result, a knowledge of them does not in the least
modify the consequent perception. Hence it follows
that no extent of investigation, no discovery in sci-
ence, can ever change the character of our acquaint-
ance with external objects. If we could push our in-
sight of nature to the utmost imaginable extreme, if
we could ascertain the shape and pursue the move-
ments of every particle of matter in the world around
us, we should still have only the same hind of knowl-
edge, although highly exalted in degree, which we
have now; we should still be acquainted with the
material universe only through our sensitive organs.
The telescope and the microscope, w^hile they extend
the reach of our senses, do not in the slightest degree
alter the nature of our perceptions. And further,
all the various steps in the physical process through
which we become cognizant of any external object
are external objects themselves, and are perceived in
the same way as the rest."
CHAPTER XII.
COGlSriTION OF MENTAL OPERATIONS — PEESOKALITY —
IDENTITY — CEASELESS ACTIYITT — CONSCIOUSNESS.
We have seen that the mind can cognize the ex-
istence and qualities of material objects. But mate-
rial objects are not the sole objects of knowledge.
We do not acquire all our knowledge through the
agency of the senses.
The mind can cogniz® its own existence and oper-
ations. If it be asked, How can the mind be at the
same time both subject and object of knowledge ? we
can only reply, such is the fact. Our knowledge of a
fact is not destroyed by our ignorance of the manner
in which the fact takes place.
We have a direct cognition of our mental opera-
tions. We do not, it is true, see them by the eye, or
hear them by the ear, but we have a direct cognition
of them.
We have also a direct cognition of our existence.
Whenever the mind cognizes the existence of an ob-
ject, it cognizes its own existence. In the con-
sciousness of cognizing the object is involved the
COGNITION OF MENTAL OPERATIONS, ETC. 85
consciousness of cognizing its own existence. In
every mental act there is a direct cognition of the
existence of the mind. Some writers aiBrm that we
are conscious only of our mental acts or states, and
that the existence of the mind is an inference — a ne-
cessary inference, indeed, but still an inference — from
those mental acts or states. Thus I am conscious of
an act, therefore there must be an agent.
Professor Stewart, one of the few men who have
not been overrated by their admirers, says : " We are
not immediately conscious of its (the mind's) exist-
ence, but we are conscious of sensation, thought, and
volition, operations which imply the existence of
something which feels, thinks, and wills."
ISTo doubt the existence of thought implies a
thinker, just as the existence of a watch implies a
maker. In the latter case, the inference is separable
in thought from the fact. But not so in regard to
the thinker. The cognition of the existence of the
thinker is contemporaneous with and inseparable
from the conscious thought. The consciousness of
the existence of the mind operating is an integral
part of the conscious act. The perceiving agent and
the thing perceived are embraced in the same act of
consciousness.
Professor Mansel teaches the doctrine of a direct
^cognition. " Is it not," he says, " a flat contradiction
to maintain that I am not immediately conscious of
myself, but only of my sensations or volitions ? Who
86 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
then is this Zthat is conscious, and how can Zbe con-
scious of such states as mine ? In this case it would
surely be far more accurate to say, not that I am con-
scious of my sensations, but that the sensation is
conscious of itself; but thus worded, the glaring ab-
surdity of the theory would carry with it its own ref-
utation." " The one presented substance^ the source
from which our data for thinking on the subject are
originally drawn, is myself. Whatever may be the
variety of the phenomena of consciousness, sensations
by this or that organ, ♦volitions, thoughts, imagina-
tions, of all we are immediately conscious as affec-
tions of one and the same self. It is not by any
afterthought of reflection that I combine together
sight, hearing, thought, and volition, into a factitious
unity or compounded whole ; in each case I am im-
mediately conscious of myself seeing and hearing,
willing and thinking. This self-personality, like all
other simple apprehensions, is indefinable, but it is
so because it is superior to definition. It can be ana-
lyzed into no simple element, for it is itself the sim-
plest of all ; it can be made no clearer by description
or comparison, for it is revealed to us in all the clear-
ness of an original intuition, of which description and
comparison can furnish only faint and partial resem-
blances."
We cognize the mind as existing as a person, not
as a thing. To be conscious of our existence, is to be
conscious of our existence as persons. Some would
COGNITION OF MENTAL OPERATIONS, ETC. 87
ap]3ear to find difficulty in determining in what per-
sonality consists, just as they find difficulty in deter-
mining in what truth consists and in what existence
consists. To inquire in what our personality consists,
is to inquire in what we consist. An inanimate thing
has certain qualities, that is, there are certain things
or facts true concerning it. The same is true of a
brute and of a person. We can inquire what things
are true of each, and can thus learn what things are
peculiar to each. This covers the whole ground of
inquiry open to us. The main fact characteristic of a
person as distinguished from a brute is, that a person
has the power of cognizing duty, and of acting freely
in relation to it.
To cognize the mind as a person, is to Qognize it
as one — as having unity. We are conscious of nu-
merous operations, but we are conscious of them as
the operations of one operator. The question. What
is one? in what does unity consist? cannot be an-
swered. The mind is capable of knowing many
things which it cannot describe or explain. Every
simple elementary idea, every intuition, belongs to
this class. It is scarcely necessary to observe that
none of thes-e things need to be described or explained.
It is said by some, that, while we cognize the
existence and operations of the mind, we do not
cognize its nature. The nature of an object is not
something different from the object, as many seem
to imagine. Suppose an object possesses four prop-
88 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
erties ; that is, there are four things cognizable,
true, concerning it. When we have cognized those
four things, is there still something different from
them remaining unknown, viz., its nature ? The
questions, What is a thing, and what is its nature ?
are identical. A recognition of this truth would
have saved many discussions.
When the question is asked respecting a thing.
What is it ? the answer states facts concerning it. To
tell what a thing is fully, is to state all facts belong-
ing to it; that is, everything that is true concern-
ing it — all its properties or qualities. If it be a
compound object, its constituent elements as well as
its qualities are stated. If it be a simple object, its
qualities are stated. If, when the question. What is a
thing ? has thus been answered, the question is still
asked, What is its nature ? the answer will consist of
a statement of its most prominent characteristics or
qualities, but said characteristics or qualities will be
found among the facts stated in answer to the ques-
tion. What is it ?
The mind continues to be the same mind amid
all changes of its operations and conditions, and all
changes of the body. The conscious operations of
to-day may differ widely from those of yesterday ; but
I am as certain that I am the same person that I was
yesterday, as I am that I exist to-day.
The doctrine of personal identity requires no
proof. It is intuitively perceived. Why, then, it
COGNITION OF MENTAL OPERATIONS, ETC. 89
may be asked, have there been discussions and dis-
putes about it ? Disputes imply difficulties.
Difficulties always arise when men try to prove
self-evident truths, or to answer questions which are
unanswerable. Locke attempted to answer the ques-
tion, "In what does our identity consist?" and, of
course, fell into confusion of thought. Unable to
answer the question, he unwittingly answered in its
stead, ".On what is our cognition of identity con-
ditioned ? "
The cognition of identity is conditioned on an act
of remembrance. If Ave could not remember any
past act, we could have no idea of personal identity.
Our knowledge would be confined to our present
existence and present acts. When we remember a
mental act, we remember it ais our act. The idea of
identity is involved in every act of remembrance.
Identity does not depend upon memory, but memory
is the necessary condition of cognizing it. Our cog-
nition of personal identity is thus an intuition con-
ditioned on an act of remembrance.
Is the mind always active? Are its operations
ceaseless ? We know from experience that it is
always active during our waking hours. Its action
is sometimes sluggish and sometimes rapid, but it
always acts — always exists in some active state. Is
it always active during sleep ? Sleep seems to be a
bodily affection solely. It consists in the temporary
inability of the organs of sense to perform their func-
90 ELEMENTS OF IISTTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
tions. We know that the mind is active up to the
time when sleep takes place. We know that we often
dream ; that is, we remember operations that took
place when we were asleep. We know that we dream
more when our sleep is broken than when it is sound. J
We know that the mind is active as soon as sleep is
removed. We sometimes have dreams, that is, mental
operations take place during sleep, which we do not
remember; for we are observed to speak in sleep, and
do not remember it when we awake. The probability
is that the mind in its normal state is always active.
Is the mind always conscious of its operations? or
can it perform unconscious processes? Those who
affirm that the mind can perform acts of which it is
unconscious, state, as example, the case of the striking
of a clock when one is reading. He does not hear it,
he says. Tou must have. heard it, says his friend, for
it has just struck. I was not conscious of it. Was
it a case of unconscious hearing ? or did he hear it,
but, in consequence of paying no attention to it,
forget it ?
Often a man has been told that he has performed
a certain act. He affirms, in all honesty, that he has
not performed it. Some time afterwards he remem-
bers the act. But for that accidental remembrance,
the act might be quoted as an example of unconscious
mental operation.
A person is reading aloud. His attention wan-
ders. He turns the leaf, but is perfectly ignorant of
COGNITION OF MENTAL OPERATIONS, ETC. 91
the ideas expressed on the pages read. His mind has
been occupied by some other topic. He must have
cognized the letters and words, and performed acts
of will causing utterance. Were those acts micon-
^sciously performed, or were they consciously per-
formed, but immediately forgotten in consequence of
the lack of attention ? Some degree of attention, we
know, is necessary, in order that we may remember.
A skilful musician performs a piece of music on
the piano. Is there a volition connected with every
movement of the fingers ? When he first began to
play, he was conscious of a distinct volition in con-
nection with every movement. When a high degree
of skill has been attained, he is not conscious of any
such volition. He is conscious only of a general pur-
pose to perform the piece. Do the volitions take
place unconsciously ? Reid says, the action of the
fingers in this case is mechanical — an illustration of
what he calls a mechanical habit. An objection to
Reid's view is found in the fact, that if a false note is
struck, it is instantly perceived and corrected. This
would indicate attention, though the person may not
be conscious of bestowing it.
Stewart says there is conscious volition antecedent
to each movement. He says: "I cannot help thinking
it more philosophical to suppose that those actions
which are originally voluntary always continue so,
although in the case of bperations which ua^o beome
habitual in consequence of long practice, w<^ m^> not
92 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
be able to recollect every different volition. Thus, in
the case of a performer on the harpsichord, I appre-
hend that there is an act of the will preceding every
motion of the fingers, although he may not be able to
recollect these volitions afterwards, and although he^,
may, during the time of his performance, be employed
in carrying on a separate train of thought. For it
must be remarked, that the most rapid performer can,
when he pleases, play so slowly as to be able to attend
to and to recollect every separate act of his will in
the various movements of his fingers, and he can
gradually accelerate the rate of his execution till he
is unable to recollect these acts. , Now, in this in-
stance, one of two suppositions must be made. The
one is, that the operations in the two cases are carried
on in precisely the same manner, and differ only in
the degree of rapidity ; and the other, that when this
rapidity exceeds a certain rate, the operation is taken
entirely out of our hands, and is carried on by some
unknown power, of the nature of which we are as
ignorant as we are of the cause of the circulation of
the blood, or of the motion of the intestines. The last
supposition seems to me to be somewhat similar to
that of a man who should maintain, that although a
body projected with a moderate velocity is seen to
pass through all the intermediate spaces in moving
from one place to another, yet we are not entitled
to conclude that this happens when the body moves
60 quickly as to become invisible to the eye.
4i>
COGNITION OF MENTAL OPERATIONS, ETC. 93
" The former supposition is supported by the an-
alogy of many other facts in our constitution. An
expert accountant, for example, can sum up, almost
at a single glance of his eye, a long column of figures.
He can tell the sum with unerring certainty, while,
at the same time, he is unable to recollect any one
of the figures of which that sum is composed ; and
yet nobody doubts that each one of these figures has
passed through his mind, or supposes that when the
rapidity of the process becomes so great that he is
unable to recollect the various steps, he obtains the
result by a sort of inspiration."
Sir William Hamilton advocates the doctrine of
unconscious mental agency. He asks : "Are there, in
ordinary, mental modifications, i, 6., mental activities
and passivities, of which we are unconscious, but
which manifest their existence by effects of which we
are conscious ? "
That there are mental modifications beyond the
sphere of consciousness, is doubtless true ; our habits
and dispositions are examples of such modifications ;
but are there such modifications as may properly be
termed activities beyond the sphere of consciousness ?
Are there any unconscious mental activities ?
" Let us take our first example," says Hamilton,
" from perception — the perception of external ob-
jects— and in that faculty let us commence with the
sense of sight. Now, you either already know, or
can at once be informed, what it is that has obtained
04 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPnY.
the name of the Minwium Visibile, You are, of
course, aware in general, that vision is the result of
the rays of light reflected from the surface of objects
to the eye ; a greater number of rays is reflected
from a larger surface : if the superficial extent of an
object, and, consequently, the number of rays which
it reflects, be diminished beyond a certain limit, the
object becomes invisible ; and the minimum visibile
is the smallest expanse which can be seen — which
can consciously afiect us — which we can be conscious
of seeing. This being understood, it is plain that if
we divide the minimum visibile into two parts, nei-
ther half can, by itself, be an object of vision, or
visual consciousness. They are, severally and apart,
to consciousness as zero. But it is evident that each
half must, by itself, have produced in us a certain
modification, real, though unperceived ; for as the
perceived whole is nothing but the union of the un-
perceived halves, so the perception — the perceived
affection itself of which we are conscious — is only
the sum of two modifications, each of which sev-
erally eludes our consciousness."
The above does not prove that we can perform
unconscious acts. There is, on the part of the au-
thor, a failure to distinguish between a material or
physiological condition of perception and the mental
act of perception. The conscious perception of the
minimum visibile is not made up of two unconscious
perceptions. We may admit that each half of the
COGlSriTION OF MENTAL OPERATIONS, ETC. 95
expanse has produced a certain modification of the
organism of sense ; but a modification of tlie organ-
Ism of sense is one thing, and the modification of a
mental act is another. The two must not be con-
founded. Assume that the modification is a mental
act, and you have an example of an unconscious men-
tal act ; but the modification is not a mental act, but
the condition of a mental act.
The whole expanse perceived is the union of the
two halves ; but it does not follow that" the percep-
tion of the whole, considered as a mental act, is made
up of two half perceptions considered as ^mental acts.
His remarks are tantamount to this. The minimum
visibile produces a perception ; therefore half of it
must produce half a perception : but we are not
conscious of the half perception; therefore we have
unconscious perceptions.
Suppose a pair of scales, with an ounce weight in
one of the scales. Put another ounce weight in the
other scale, and it will bring that side down to a level
with the other. No one would say that half an ounce
will bring it down halfway. An ounce is the small-
est weight that will bring down the scale, and so the
minimum visibile is the smallest expanse that will
produce perception. Each half of the minimum visi-
bile produces a modification of the organ of sense, on
which the mental act is conditioned.
Again he says : " When we look at a distant for-
est, we perceive a certain expanse of green. Of this,
96 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
as an affection of our organism, we are clearly and
distinctly conscious. Now, the expanse of which we
are conscious is evidently made up of parts of which
we are not conscious. No leaf, perhaps no tree, may
be separately visible. But the greenness of the for-
est is made up of the greenness of the leaves ; that
is, the total impression of which we are conscious is
made up of an infinitude of small impressions of
which we are not conscious."
Here the impressions upon the organs of sense,
which are among the conditions of perception, are
confounded with the mental act of perception. We
are conscious of perceiving the outline and color of
the forest. Whatever impressions were made upon
the organs of sense, whatever rays of light were re-
flected from whatever number of leaves, are the con-
ditions of perception, and not the mental act of per-
ception. Those conditions are not within the sphere
of consciousness ; they are modifications of the mate-
rial organs. One is not authorized to say, " Modifi-
cations of the material organs may take place with-
out our being conscious of them ; therefore mental
acts may take place without our being conscious of
them."
" Take another example," says Hamilton, '' from
the sense of hearing. In this sense there is, in like
manner, a Minimum Audibile ; that is, a sound the
least that can come into perception and conscious-
ness. But this minimum audibile is made up of
COGKITIOIS- OF MENTAL OPERATIONS, ETC. 97
parts whicli severally affect tlie sense, but of which
afFections, separately, we are not conscious, though
of their joint result we are. We must, therefore,
here likewise admit the reality of modifications be-
yond the sphere of consciousness. Take a special
example. When we hear the distant murmur of the
sea, what are the constituents of the total perception
of which we are conscious ? This murmur is a sum
made up of parts, and the sum would be as zero if
the parts did not count as something. The noise of
the sea is a complement of the noise of its several
waves ; and if the noise of each wave made no im-
pression on our sense, the noise of the sea, as the
result of these impressions, could not be realized.
But the noise of each several wave, at the distance
we suppose, is inaudible ; we must, however, admit
that they produce a certain modification, beyond con-
sciousness, on the recipient subject'; for this is neces-
sarily involved in the reality of their result."
One wave is inaudible, but a hundred waves are
audible. Therefore the audible is made up of one
hundred inaudibles ; the conscious mental act is made
up of one hundred unconscious mental modifications.
If by " modifications on the recipient subject "
he does not mean mental modifications, then the
point for which he is contending, viz., unconscious
mental operations, is not reached. He confounds
here, as above, impressions on the organism of
98 ELEMEN^TS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
sense — conditions of perception — with the act of per-
ception.
The vibrations caused by one wave fail to affect
the ear so as to produce a cognition of sound ; the
vibration of one hundred waves do so affect the ear
as to produce a cognition of sound. This is a fair
statement of the facts of the case. It furnishes no
proof of unconscious mental agency.
The fact that the mind may possess latent knowl-
edge, does not prove that it can perform unconscious
mental acts. The condition of the mind, as distin-
guished from acts of the mind, is, of course, beyond
the sphere of consciousness. A habit is a condition
of the mind which is manifested by effects — conscious
acts. A condition of mind may be termed a modifi-
cation of mind, but it cannot properly be termed a
mental agency. Hamilton does not use the term
"unconscious mental operation;" but if he is not
arguing in behalf of the proposition that such oper-
ations may take place, he is arguing for that which
no one ever disputed.
The case of the somnambulist does not furnish an
example of unconscious mental action. He gives
abundant proof, when in that state, that he is con-
scious of his actions — that he knows what he is
about. When he is awake, he has no remembrance
of what took place in his sleep. To forget and to be
unconscious, are not identical.
COGNITION OF MENTAL OPERATIONS, ETC. 99
Cases of disordered mental action seem to furnish
examples of unconscious mental action. Admitting
that unconscious mental action does take place in
cases of disease, the question still remains, Can the
mind, when it is in its normal state, perform opera-
tions of which it is unconscious ?
CHAPTER XIII.
COGl^ITIOK OF SPACE,
There is a difference between knowing what a
thing is, and telling what it is. Our inability to de-
fine or describe a thing does not authorize us to deny
its existence. Every one knows there is such a thing
as truth, ^. 6., true propositions ; but no one can tell
what truth is. If the question be asked, In what
does truth consist ? no answer can be given. There is
no such thing as truth apart from true propositions ;
as there is no such thing as life apart from living
things. When it is said we cannot cognize being in
itself, if by being in itself is meant existence apart
from things existing, the assertion is true, for there
is no such thing. That which is not, we cannot
cognize.
Of a provable proposition the question may be
asked. In what does its truth consist — /. 6., on what
proof does it rest ? But if the question be asked
with respect to a self-evident proposition, such as that
the whole is greater than its part, no answer can be
COGNITIOK OF SPACE. 101
given. You may say it consists in being true, but
that is only an awkward re-affirmance.
We cannot tell what an act of perception is. Do
you say it is a mental act ? What kind of a mental act ?
An act of perceiving. What kind of mental act is an
act of perceiving ? To this question we can give no
answer. If asked in what it consists, we can only an-
swer, It consists in perceiving. We are not, then, to
call in question the reality of a thing, merely because
we are not able to tell what it is, or in what it consists.
We have seen that our cognition of identity is
not a remembrance, but an intuition conditioned
upon a remembrance. An intuitive cognition may
thus be conditioned on a preceding act of mind.
Such a cognition is distinguishable from an inference
properly so called.
We can cognize space. The cognition of space is
intuitive, though it is conditioned on the cognition of
body. If we had no knowledge of body, it does not
appear that we should have any knowledge of space.
When we cognize an object as existing, we cog-
nize it as existing in space. We are as conscious
that we cognize it in space, as we are that we cog-
nize it at all. The two cognitions are inseparable.
Space, then, exists independently of the mind which
cognizes it. The tree which we cognize as existing
in space, exists when it is not perceived. We have
the same ground for asserting that space exists when
it is not perceived, as we have for asserting that the
102 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
tree exists when it is not perceived. Consciousness
does not affirm that the mind creates space : it affirms
that the mind cognizes it. It is not, then, a creation
of the mind, a subjective state, as is held by Kant,
Hamilton, Whewell, and others.
"According to Kant," says McCosh, "space and
time are forms given by the mind to the phenomena
which are presented through the senses, and are not
to be considered as having any thing more than a
subjective existence. It is one of the most fatal
heresies — ^that is, dogmas opposed to the revelations
of consciousness — ever introduced into philosophy,
and it lies at the basis of all the aberrations in the
school of speculation which followed. For those
who were taught that the mind could create space
and time, soon learned to suppose that the mind
could also create the objects and events cognized as
existing in space and time, till the whole external
universe became ideal, and all reality was supposed
to lie in a series of connected mental forms?'
McCosh frankly admits that there are difficulties
connected with space as an objective existence.
"But," he remarks, "it is of all courses the most
foolish and suicidal to urge the difficulties connected
with space and time as a reason for setting aside our
intuitive convictions respecting them, say in regard
to their reality. Doubtless we are landed in some
perplexities by allowing that they are real, but we
are landed in more hopeless difficulties and in far
COGNITION OF SPACE. 103
more serious consequences when we deny their
reality ; and there is this important difference in the
cases, that in the one the difficulties arise from the
nature of the subject, whereas in the other they are
created by our own unwarranted affirmations and
speculations."
Professor D. Stewart says : " We have an irre-
sistible conviction that space is necessarily existent,
and that its annihilation is impossible. To call this
proposition in question, is to open the door to uni-
versal skepticism."
If we are asked. What is space ? in what does it
consist ? we answer, we cannot tell. Our inability
to state in what space consists, does not prove that
it does not exist. Our inability to state in what the
Divine Existence consists, does not prove that there
is no Divine Existence.
Space is not a material existence. It is extended,
but it has not material extension. When we cognize
it, we do not cognize it as possessing any of the
qualities of matter. It has not gravity, solidity, or
visible and tangible form. It has no one of the
qualities of matter.
Space is not a spiritual existence ; it is not an
existence that thinks, feels, and wills. We have no
proof that it thinks, feels, and wills; no reason to
suppose that it does.
Will it be asked. If it be not a material nor spiritual
existence, what kind of existence is it ? We reply,
104 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
It is space. All existences do not of necessity come
under the head of material and spiritual existences.
It does not follow that if space be neither material
nor spiritual, there is no such thing. We know that
it is ; we cognize its existence.
Space is not an attribute of God, as was assumed
by Dr. Samuel Clark. God is a spirit. His attributes
are the attributes of a spiritual being. Space, we
have seen, is not a spiritual existence, and for the
same reason we may affirm that it is not the attribute
of a spiritual being.
Space is limitless. When the mind makes it the
object of attention, it sees that it can have no limit.
If it be asked how the mind can see so far, I reply :
We are not called upon to tell how a thing is done,
in order to know that it is done. We cognize the
fact that all truth is consistent; that two proposi-
tions, one directly in conflict with the other, cannot
be true. Our conviction of the proposition is not an
inference .from a number of experiences. The first
time we found an assertion in conflict with a known
truth, we knew it was false. We are just as sure
that truth is consistent with itself in Jupiter as on
the earth, though our minds have never ' made an
excursion to that planet.
If the mind can cognize the fact that truth is
everywhere consistent with itself throughout the
universe, may it not cognize the fact that space is
Umitless ?
COGNITION OF SPACE. 105
It is common to say that space is limitless, be-
cause we cannot conceive of its being limited. A
mode of expression more strictly accordant with our
consciousness is, that the mind sees that space can
have no limits.
Conceivability or non-conceiv ability is not a test
of truth. The phrase, "I cannot conceive of it," has
two meanings which must not be confounded. Two
hills cannot exist without an intervening valley.
Why not? I cannot' conceive of such a thing, is the
reply. The phrase thus used expresses our cognition
of the impossibility of the thing. The mind sees that
it cannot be.
A person ignorant of the existence of a magnetic
telegraph is assured, on evidence that he cannot
doubt, that a message was sent to California and an
answer returned the same day. He says, I cannot
conceive of such a thing ! The phrase expresses his
ignorance of the manner in which the communication
took place.
Space always has existed, and always will exist.
This is a bold affirmation; but it is one which the
mind is abundantly competent to make. Suppose
that all material objects were annihilated : we know
that space would remain. Go back in thought to the
era of creation : space existed then. The mind sees
that it always must have existed, as clearly as it sees
that the whole is greater than its part.
Space is not divisible ; that is, it is not divisibl
5-
106 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOtHY.
in the sense in which matter is divisible. Matter is
divided when the parts are separated so that space
intervenes. Space cannot be thus divided. We
cannot separate space from space.
Space is not made up of parts, yet it may be said
to have parts or portions. A portion larger or smaller
may be occupied by created objects ; yet space is not
made up of portions as the earth is made up of por-
tions.
Points in space may be taken, and these points
may sustain certain relations to each other. The
science of geometry has for its subject-matter the
relations of space. We can take a finite portion
of space, and cognize its relations; yet the infinite
is not made up of multiplications of the finite.
CHAPTER XIV.
COGI^ITIO]^ OF TIME.
Whek we remember an event, we remember it as
past. We thus have a cognition of time. The cog-
nition is involved in every act of remembrance. We
know that all events take place in time.
What is time ? It is sometimes said that it is a
portion of duration measured by the revolution of
the heavenly bodies. But it may be asked. What is
duration ? We cannot give a definition or description
of duration. Yet we know that duration is. Like
space, it is neither a material nor a spiritual existence.
It is not a creation of the mind or form of our cogni-
tions, as is asserted by Kant and others — whatever
that phrase may mean.
Duration had no beginning, and will have no end.
The ground of this assertion is, that the mind sees
that there never could have been a time when dura«
tion was not. We turn to the past, and see that there
could not have been a starting point to duration.
We turn to the future, and see that it must continue
108 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
to be. Time, duration as measured by the sun, may
be no longer ; but duration must go on forever.
It is thought by some, that what we have described
as acts of cognition, are really acts of imagination.
We go back or forward, it is said, in imagination,
and find no beginning or end of duration; but our
imaginations are not cognitions. I affirm that we
cognize the fact that duration never began and never
will have an end. It is a question to be decided by
an appeal to consciousness. Do we not know that
duration will never be ended ? Are we not as certain
of it as we are that the sun exists ? This is not
cognizing a fact at an infinite distance in the future,
but cognizing the fact that duration not only is, but
must be forever.
It is said that time cannot have a real existence ;
for then God, who cognizes all things, v/ould cognize
its existence : but v/ith God there is no succession ;
all events are present to his view in an " eternal now."
We can form no conception of an " eternal now."
God views events as successive, because they are suc-
cessive. His views must be in accordance with truth.
He created things at difierent times ; and he contin-
ues to act. Immutability does not prevent him from
doing to-day what he did not do yesterday. He is
the same to-day, yesterday, and forever — that is, his
holy character remains unchanged. Character re-
mains unchanged, though the acts that manifest it
may vary and take place at difierent times.
COGNITION OF TIME. 109
The mode of the Divine existence, and of the
action of the Divine Mind, is beyond our powers of
cos-nition. Hence we should make no unauthorized
or unmeaning assertions concerning it.
Duration is a reality. It is a fact that events take
place as successive ; that successiveness may be meas-
ured. Some writers say that time is a mere word ex-
pressive of the fact that events are successive. Sup-
pose all events and all created objects were to cease —
would there be any such thing as duration? God
would endure. Is time, 'then, an attribute of God, as
some have contended ? The everlasting existence .of
God is a fact, but is no part of his being, as benevo-
lence and justice are.
What then is time, or duration ? The best answer
that can be given is, that it is time, duration. We
know what it is, though we cannot define it or state
in what it consists.
We have all the knowledge of time that is needed.
We must not, in order to carry out pur notions of
philosophical inquiry, multiply words without knovfl-
edge. In every department of knowledge the last
resort is, the mind's cognition that a thing is ; and all
questions beyond that may be answered by saying,
" I don't know." It oftea requires as much discrimi-
nation to make an intelligent confession of ignorance,
as to make the clearest explanations.
Duration and space are infinite ; that is, the one
has limitless extension, and the other is without be-
110 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
ginning or end. It has been said that if space and
time are infinite realities, and God is an infinite Being,
then we have three infinite existences — which, it is
alleged, is impossible. It is not possible that there
be three infinite beings, but there is no absurdity in
supposing the existence of limitless space as the
theatre of creative power for an infinite being, nor in
supposing that that being has always lived, and al-
ways will live. We do not assume that infinite dura,
tion is an infinite being.
CHAPTER XV.
EELATIOl^S.
Whek we cognize two or more objects, we cog-
nize something more than their existence and quali-
ties. When we cognize the pillars of a portico, we
see that they are similar to each other. "We look
upon two adjacent mountains, and see that one is
higher than the other. We see a number of men
marching, and that one goes before the other. We
see a blow given to a standing pillar, and it falls :
the blow caused the pillar to fall.
In the above-mentioned cases we cognize the ob-
jects, and certain relations existing between them ;
we cognize the relations of resemblance, superiority,
of antecedence and consequence, and of cause and
effect.
No object, material or mental, exists isolated.
The almost numberless existences have relations ex-
isting between thfem, and a knowledge of these rela-
tions constitutes no small part of our knowledge.
Existences and their relations may be said to
constitute the entire material of our knowledge.
112 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
Some of the more obvious relations may easily be
classified, such as those of resemblance, of proportion,
and of cause and eflfect. The number of relations is
so great, that an exhaustive classification cannot be
made. The field of mental discovery — I do not mean
as to the operations of mind, but as to truth — per-
tains chiefly to relations between known existences
and truths. Relations exist not only between exist-
ing things, but between one another. Every thought
sustains certain relations to other thoughts. The
cognition of relations previously unnoticed, consti-
tutes, to a good degree, originality, of thought.
An original thinker does not create truth, any
mors than an original geographical discoverer creates
the rivers and mountains which he makes known to
the world. The man of original thought is one who
sees more clearly and further than his fellows. Origi-
nality of thought is not then a sudden inspiration, it
is simply mental seeing — ^^eeing vfhat is. The power
may thus be cultivated. The sailor sharpens his
vision by careful and earnest looking into the distant
blending of the earth and sky, and hence can discern
a sail long before it is visible to uneducated eyes. In
like manner, some, by steady and earnest looking in
the direction of truth, come to see objects unseen by
others. Newton cultivated original thought by long
and patient looking. All true originality is to be
sought in that way, and not by imitating the uncouth
phraseology of men claiming to possess origii?ahty
RELATIONS. 113
The perception of relations has usually been
treated as an act of judgment. If one chooses to call
those cognitions which are the result of the cognition
of two or more objects, judgments, it may be well,
though there is danger of leading the indiscriminating
reader to suppose a judgment to be something generi-
cally different from a cognition.
Judgment is said to be the result of comparison.
The mind compares two objects, and judges that they
are equal, or that one is greater than the other — that
they agree or disagree. It is desirable to confine the
word judgment to those opinions or beliefs which are
the result of evidence made up of parts, each incon-
clusive in itself, or of evidences conflicting. Thus we
say a man has sound judgment, whose opinions on dif-
ficult and complicated subjects are usually correct.
The operation of the mind in cognizing relations,
seems to be this : We cognize the objects, and then
the relation existing between them. Our cognitions
of relations are conditioned upon our cognition of the
objects related. This is what actually takes place ;
and nothing is gained, and much may be lost, by call-
ing in the agency of the faculty of judgment.
Our knowledge of relations is as positive and real
as our knowledge of existences. The mind does not
create the resemblance between two objects ; it sim-
ply cognizes it. The resemblance is a reality as truly
as the resembling objects are a reality. The reality
of the resemblance is not a reality apart from the re-
114 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
sembling objects. There can be no such thing as re-
semblance apart from resembling objects. The fact
that the objects resemble each other, is a real fact.
Our knowledge which has relations for its subject, is
thus as real as any portion of our knowledge.
Some relations are cognized intuitively, and others
mediately, that is, by the aid of other truths. The
relations existing between material and spiritual
existences, and between all objects of thought and
feeling, are inexhaustible to finite minds.
CHAPTER XVI.
EESEMBLAl!^CE — GENERALIZATION GENEEAL TERMS-
ABSTRACT TERMS.
One of the most important of relations is that of
resemblance. Our cognition of resemblance is said
to be the result of comparison. It is said we com-
pare the objects, and by an act of judgment perceive
that they are like or unlike. What is the process as
revealed by consciousness ? I look toward a forest,
and see two oaks, and also see that they are simi-
lar in size, form, and color. , The perception of the
trees is a direct act, and the perception of their resem-
blance follows the perception of the trees. If both
the trees are within range of vision at the same mo-
ment, the perception of resemblance immediately fol-
lows the perception of the trees. It may be that the
trees may not both be perceived at the same moment.
An act of memory then takes place antecedent to the
perception of resemblance. The perception of resem-
blance is a direct perception, conditioned on the per-
ception of the trees. Comparison is not therefore an
act generically different from an act of cognition.
116 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
Classification and generalization are conditioned
on oiir power of cognizing resemblance. Our cog-
nitions are always of particulars — are always individ-
ual cognitions. If we had not the power of classifi-
cation, we should be overwhelmed with the number
of individual objects, and language would fail us in
our attempts to designate them. By classification we
condense our knowledge, and make it manageable.
We have before us, in a park, a vast number of
animals. We have never seen them before. Were
our knowledge confined to individuals, it would soon
become confused and unwieldy. But we notice that
some resemble others, and we mentally separate those
resembling each other in certain points, and put them
in a class by themselves. We give to each class a
name.
The process supposed is strictly analogous to the
process of generalization. Objects resembling each
other are placed in a class by themselves, and a name
given to the class. The name thus given is a com-
mon or general term.
(^Have general terms any meaning?/ Are there
any real existences corresponding to the terms ani-
mal, man, tree ? There are individual animals, indi-
vidual m.cn, individual trees. Are there any such
things as a general animal, a general man, a general
tree ? We can form a conception, idea, or notion
of an individual animal — a bear, for instance ; of an
individual man — John, for instance ; of an individual
RESEMBLANCE, ETC. 117
tree — the hickory that overshadowed the homestead.
But can we form a conception or notion of a general
man, a general animal, a general tree ? If we make
the attempt, shall we not find the notion of an indi-
vidual as the result ? Have* general terms, then,
no meaning ? Are they merely names ?
It may be said that general terms stand for all the
individuals of the class — that man means all men.
We must distinguish, between general and collective
terms. A collective term, such as army, congrega-
tion, church, includes the aggregate of individuals
composing the army or the church. The amount of
meaning of the term varies at different times. But
not so with general terms. The meaning of the
term man remains the same, whether there are more
or fewer men. It is clear that it has some meaning,
is not a mere, name, and that there is no such thing
as an existing man in general for it to signify.
What, then, does it stand for? What is the object
of our thoughts, when we employ a general term ?
The general term or name of a class expresses the
qualities common to all the members of the class.
Man stands for those qualities which belong to all
men. We see that all men resemble each other in
some respects, though they may differ in other re-
spects. The term man, then, has a meaning as truly
as the term John.
McCosh remarks : "It has been very generally
allowed by philosophers, that the mind begins with
118 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
the knowledge of individual objects or scenes pre-
sented to it. . Among these objects it may, by its
comparative faculty, discover resemblances. In some
cases the comparison is preceded by an abstraction
of the qualities in respect of which the objects are
alike ; in other cases it may be perceived, at once that
there is ^ resemblance, and the abstraction of the
points of resemblance may follow. In all cases, both
the discovery of resemblance and abstraction are
needful to generalization, in which we put in a class,
and usually call by a common name, the objects
thought to resemble each other in certain respects,
and so far as they resemble each other.
" I am prepared to lay down, in regard to generali-
zation, a proposition similar to that which I am in-
clined to enforce in regard to abstraction. When the
individuals are real, the generalization has also a real-
ity ; that is, there is a reality in the class. True, I
may constitute a class from imaginary individuals —
say a class of griffins, or a class of mermaids, or a
class of ghosts. In such a case the general is as
unreal as the singular. But if my generalization is
from real objects ; if it is a generalization made up
of objects in nature, say of marbles, or reptiles, or
cruciferous plants, or even of objects of human work-
manship, such as chairs, or houses, or churches, then
the intellectual product has also a reality involved.
"I do not mean to say that the general exists, or
can exist, as an individual thing, like the singulars
119
which it embraces — that the class crocodile has the
same sort of existence as the individual crocodile ;
but I maintain that it has a reality in the common
attributes possessed by the objects.
" In abstraction, the reality may be simply that of
an attribute in an individual object. In generaliza-
tion, it is the possession of a common attribute by an
indefinite number of objects. The composition of
marble is a fact quite as much, though not exactly of
the same sort, as the limestone itself. The possession
of cold blood, and of the three heart-compartments,
is a reality quite as much as the individual crocodile
is. The possession of four cross petals is a real thing,
just as a particular wild mustard plant is. The struc-
ture and adaptation to a practical use, of chair, house,
and church, are not fictitious, any more than this
chair, or this house, or this church is. This account
preserves us, on the one hand, from an extravagant
realism, which would give to the universal the same
sort of reality as the singular; and, on the other,
from an extreme conceptualism or nominalism, which
would place the reality solely in the conception of
the mind, or in the name. The class has a reality,
but it is simply in the possession of common qualities
by an indefinite number of objects.
"According to this view, abstraction and generali-
zation are processes of a very high order ; they are,
in fact, essential to philosophy, quite as much so
indeed, as Plato and the Schoolmen supposed. With
120 ELEMENTS -OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
out them we can never reach the truths on which the
higher forms of wisdom gaze. They always presup-
pose, indeed, that something has been given them ;
but, acting upon this, they turn it to most important
purposes ; and if they start with realities and are
properly conducted, they are ever in the region of
realities, and of realities of the highest kind. We
shall see, as we advance, tliat all philosophic notions
and maxims are the results of these processes, some
of them being abstractions, and others being also of
the nature of generalizations."
Generalization is said to depend upon abstraction.
There is connected with the latter term, at least in
the minds of some, an obscurity which it may be
well to dispel. The act of abstraction is not so diffi-
cult and mysterious as is sometimes supposed. We
see an object — a rose, for example — and fix our atten-
tion exclusively upon the color. We perform an act
of abstraction. To contemplate an object abstractly,
is to make it an object of exclusive attention.
Abstract and general terms are often confounded.
Abstract terms are expressive of our notion of quali-
ties, attributes, or objects, viewed apart from the
qualities, attributes, or objects with which they are
connected. I see a round object — a globe. I can
contemplate the roundness apart from the color and
density of the ball. I say of the ball that it is
round. The same quality w^hich leads me to affirm
that the ball is round, when contemplated apart from
121
tlie ball, separated in thouglit from the ball, is called
roundness. Is there any such thing as roundness ?
Not as a separate entity. Roundness is the name ap-
plied to a quality viewed apart from other qualities.
It has, therefore, a real significance,
"Abstraction," says McCosh, "may be considered
in a wider or in a narrower sense. It may be regard-
ed, in an extended sense, as that operation of mind
in which, to use the language of Whately, ' we draw
off and contemplate separately any part of an object
presented to the mind, disregarding the rest.' In
this more general sense the parts may exist separately
as well as the whole ; thus, having seen a judge with
his wig, we can not only separate in thought the wig
from the judge, but the wig can in fact be separated
from the wearer. In a narrower sense, abstraction is
that operation of mind in which we contemplate the
quality of an object separately from the object.
" ' An abstract name,' says Mr. Mill (' Logic,' book
i. ch. ii.), ^is a name which stands for an attribute of
a thing.' In this sense, the part separated in thought
cannot be separated from the object in fact. Color
may be thought of (not seen or imagined) apart from
an extended body, but cannot exist apart from a col-
ored object.
" It is a common impression that our abstractions
are in no sense realities. I wish, at this early stage
of the investigations to be prosecuted in this treatise,
to set myself against this view which has sometimes
6
122 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
been positively expressed, but is far more freg[nently
underlying and implied in statements and arguments
without being formally announced. I lay down a
very different position, that if the concrete be real,
and the abstraction be properly made, the abstract
thing, that is, the thing contemplated in the abstrac-
tion, will also be real. I may never have seen a bird
without vangs, but I can consider the wings apart
from the bird, and I am sure that the wings have as
real an existence as the bird itself. This will be ad-
mitted at once in regard to all such cases as this, in
which I can in fact separate the pinions from the
body of the fowl. But I go a step further, anel
maintain, that even in cases in which the part ab-
stracted cannot be separated in reality from the
whole, still it is to be considered as real. It may not
have, or be capable of having, an independent real-
ity, but still it has a reality. I can tliink of gravita.-
tion apart from a given body, or from the chemical
affinity of that body ; and in doing so I do not sup-
pose that it can exist apart from body ; still the
gravitation has an existence just as much as the body
has: it has not a reality independent of the body,
but it has a reality in the body, as a quality of it.
The same remark might be applied to, and will hold
good of, any other abstraction. No doubt, if the
original concrete object be imaginary, the abstrac-
tion formed from it may be the same. I can separate
in thought the beauty of Venus from Venus herself;
RESEIilBLAJSrCE, ETC. 123
and, of course, as Venus is ideal, so also is her
beauty. But wlien the object is real, and I abstract
or separately contemplate what has been known in
the real, then, as the concrete object is real, so is also
the part or quality abstracted real ; not that it may
be a reality capable of subsisting in itself, but still a
reality in the object as a quality of it.
" I reckon it of the utmost moment to make this
remark. The view here presented saves us, on the
one hand, from an extreme realism, which would
attribute an independent reality to every quality ab-
stracted— which would, for example, represent beauty
as a separate thing, like a beautiful scene in nature ;
and, on the other hand, from what is more important
in our present inquiry, from regarding it as a non-
entity, or at the utmost as a mere form or creation
of the mind. We are ever hearing the phrase re-
peated, a ^ mere abstraction ; ' and the language is
applied to such objects as space, time, beauty, and
even truth and moral good. In opposition to such
views, I maintain that abstraction is not necessarily
concerned about fictions or illusions. Abstractions
are not, as they have often been represented, the
attenuated ghosts of departed quantities ; they may
rather be represented as the very skeleton of the
body, not capable of action alone, but still an impor-
tant existence in the body, acting with its covering
of flesh and skin."
In former times, the question, " What is the ob-
124 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL rHILOSOPHY.
ject of thought when we employ general terms ? "
was a prolific subject of discussion.
The Nominalists held that general terms are mere
names without any signification — that we have no
ideas corresponding to general terms. The Realists
held that there are real existences corresponding to
those terms.
Nominalism is still held by quite a number of
philosopher,^ : a modified style of realism seems also
to be held by some.
We have seen what general terms signify. It
may be well to notice a statement made by nominal-
ists. It is said that we can form no general idea of
any class of objects : we can form only particular
ideas. We can form an idea of an acute-angled tri-
angle, and of a right-angled triangle, and of an
obtuse-angled triangle ; but we cannot form an idea
of a general triangle which shall be acute, right,
obtuse, and right-angled at the same time.
In this statement the term idea is used as synony-
mous with image. We cannot form a mental image
of an acute, obtuse, and right-angled triangle in one.
It should be observed that a fact may be real, though
not mentally picturable. The general term may
have a meaning, though that meaning may not con-
stitute a mental image.
. The general term triangle includes the qualities
in which the different kinds of triano;le ao:ree.
They agree in having three sides and three angles.
125
No one affirms that the general term stands for any
and every kind of triangle in particular, as the objec-
tion above stated assumes. It stands for those things
which are common to all triangles.
Bailey denies altogether the existence of abstract
ideas or notions. " It has been maintained by emi-
nent philosophers, that we form in our minds what
they term abstract notions corresponding to the ab-
stract terms employed in writing and speaking ; but
they have not been hitherto successful in their at-
tempts to show what an abstract notion is. On
closely analyzing what passes in my own mind, I do
not discover that I can think of any thing but par-
ticular objects and events, either apart or combined,
single or numerous, with various degrees of distinct-
ness or completeness."
Again : " Now, my doctrine is, that, as we are
unable to perceive, so we are unable to conceive any
separate entity corresponding to an abstract term ;
nor are we conscious of any peculiar mental phe-
nomena to which that term can be applied. In dif-
ferent language, we have no ideas in the mind an-
swering to such words as extension and motion ; but
when they are used, v>^e think of an extended and
moving body. Our thoughts on such occasions may
frequently be vague, shadowy, indistinct, and fugi-
tive, but their real character is what I have described
it to be."
Because the term brightness suggests the thought
•^
126 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
of the sun, or a lamp, or some other bright object,
^ Bailey affirms that it has no meaning — that is, " no
^ notion corresponding to it;" that there are "no pe-
> culiar mental phenomena to which it can be applied."
,.^ We affirm that it expresses a quality considered
,t apart from the object to which it belongs, and that
\ this is the peculiar mental phenomenon to which it is
: properly applied. Bright expresses a quality belong-
ing to some object. Brightness exj^resses the qual-
ity mentally viewed as separate from the object.
Brightness is not an entity separate from a material
object. It marks a quality of a material object con-
templated in a particular way. Brightness, truth,
life, denote no separate entities, but qualities of ob-
jects, propositions, beings, viewed abstractly. The
abstract term does not express an existence, but a
mental phenomenon vfhich is as real as any existence.
The fact that an abstract or general term brings
up with greater or less distinctness a particular
image, does not prove that said image is the signifi-
cation of the te]'m. When you speak of the >house
m which you live, the image of the house arises, and
of the overhanging tree also. But the tree is no part
of the idea of the house.
General terms and abstract terms, then, are not
mere words. They do not express entities apart
from the individuals of the class, and the substance.
They do not express nonentities, but realities such as
have been described above.
127
Individual terms are more definite and precise
tlian general and abstract terms. In composition,
vivacity is promoted by avoiding as much as may be
the use of abstract, general, and collective terms.
The fact that our original cognitions are individual,
gives a hint as to the best mode of producing cogni-
tions in the minds of others.
CHAPTEK XVIt
CAUSE A]^D EFFECT.
Events have various relations existing between
them. The most important one is that of cause and
effect. \
Every physical event has a cause. We may he
ignorant of the cause of a given event — we may fail
to discover it even after the most careful investiga-
tion ; hut we know that the event had a cause.
What is the ground of this knowledge ?
We will suppose the event to be the fall of a
tree : what is the ground of our knowledge of that
event ? We saw it — we saw the tree fall ; that is,
the mind cognized the fact through the sense of
sight.
What is the ground of our knowledge that the
event thus cognized had a cause ? The same as our
knowledge of the event : we saw it — not the particu-
lar cause of the event, but saw that it had a cause.
We know that an event has a cause just as we
know that the event occurs. In both cases we cog-
nize the fact. Whenever we cognize an event, we
CAUSE AND EFFECT. 129
also cognize the fact that it had a cause. Both are
•* direct, intuitive coo-nitions of the mind. In the one
\^ case, the cognition may take place through the agen-
cy of the senses ; in the other case, the cognition is
; conditioned on the cognition of the event."" ^ ^f^ "
Perhaps it may Ibe said, in answer to the question,
How do we know that every event has a cause ? that
u we know it from experience. If by this is meant, that
in the case of every event cognized by us, we have
^ cognized the fact that it had some cause, the asser-
J tion is true. But the idea of cause is no more the
^ result of experience, than the idea of the event is the
^" result of experience. Cognitions of both are expe-
. riences, but not deductions from former experiences.
I The truth of the proposition, every event has a
i "^cause, is not the result of experience in the sense in fi^'^
which the expression is commonly used. We say ^^^^
we learn from experience that men are to be tried
. /before they are trusted. The conclusion is the result
I .;^ of numerous cognitions. No single cognition would -4
I *^ authorize the conclusion. We learn from experience ^^
^ that all kinds of wood will burn — not that we have
I <^ burned all kinds of wood : we have burned several .7
K . . . ^;
' J ^ kinds, and hence conclude that all kinds of wood will ).'
X burn.
We do not come to the conclusion that every
- event has a cause, because we have found that a
number of events have had causes, and hence con-
elude that all must have. The truth that all events
fes^^
130 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
must have causes is cognized as soon as an event is
cognized. When we have cognized a thousand
events, no additional certainty is thereby added to
the proposition. We are certain of its truth when
we have cognized one event.
ISTo one, on consulting his past consciousness, will
2nd that he was once ignorant of the truth that every
;3vent must have a cause — that is, ignorant after he
Aad cognized an event — and that he acquired that
•' ruth gradually by experience.
The infant gives evidence that it cognizes this
iruth as soon as it cognizes events. It also cognizes
the kindred proposition that like causes produce like
effects. Let him burn his fingers in the flame of a
candle, and he will not thrust them into the flame a
second time.
The maxim, every event must have a cause, is
a generalized statement of what we intuitively cog-
nize whenever we cognize an event.
The following is McCosh's method of showing
that our cognition of causality is not a generalization
from experience :
" First, it would not, as being the result of gen-
eralization, operate at so early a period of life as our
belief in cause and effect evidently does. The causal
belief [cognition] is as strong in infancy as in mature
life or in old age ; is as strong among savages as in
civilized countries in which scientific observation has
made the greatest advances. True, savage nations
CAUSE AND EFFECT. 131
have not a belief in the nniformity of nature, which
is a result of observation ; they discover events which
are thought to have no cause in nature, but then they
seek for a cause beyond nature. Now, if the con-
viction of causation were like the belief in the uni-
formity of nature, a principle derived from induc-
tion— which must necessarily be a large induction —
it would be difficult to account for its existence and
its invariable operation in the earliest stages of indi-
vidual life and of society. I admit that all this merely
proves that there is a native instinct or inclination
prompting us to rise from an eifect to a cause, and by
no means justifies us in standing up for a necessary
conviction.
" Secondly, it would scarcely account for the uni-
versality of the belief of men brought up in such
various countries and situations, attached to such
different sects and creeds, and under the influence
of all kinds of whim and caprice. This can be most
satisfactorily explained by supposing that there is a
native principle at work, inclining and guiding all
men. Such a consideration, I allovf, does not show
that the conviction is a fundamental one, nor would
I urge it as in itself a positive proof of the existence
even of a native instinct ; still it is a strong presump-
tion. Indeed, the theory which supposes that there
is some original impulse or inclination, is the only
one which can give a full explanation of all the
132 ELEMEISTTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
beliefs which man cherishes, and the judgments
which he ever pronounces.
" Thirdly, it would not account for the fundamental
and necessary character of the judgment. This is
the conclusive circumstance, of which the others are
to be regarded as merely corroborations. No pos-
sible length or uniformity could or should give this
necessity of conviction to the judgment. We might
have seen A and B, this stone and that stone, this
star and that star, this man and that man together,
a thousand, or a million, or a billion of times, and
without our ever having seen them separate ; but this
would not and ought not to necessitate us to believe
that they have been forever together, and shall be
forever together, and must be forever together. No
doubt, it would lead us when we fell in with the one
to look for the other, and we would wonder if the
one presented itself without the other ; still, it is
possible for us to conceive, and, on evidence being
produced, to believe that there may be the one with-
out the other. It was long supposed that all metals
are comparatively heavy; but while every one was
astonished at the fact, no one was prepared to deny
it, when it was shown by Davy that potassium floated
on water. Down to a very recent date civilized men
had never seen a black swan, yet no naturalist was
ever so presumptuous as to affirm that there never
could be such an animal ; and when black swans
were discovered in Australia, scientific men, no doubt,
CAUSE AND EFFECT. 133
wondered, but never went so far as to deny the fact.
A very wide and uniform experience would justify a
general expectation, but not a necessary conviction ;
and this experience is liable to be disturbed at any
time by a new occurrence inconsistent with what has
been previously known to us. But the belief in the
connection between cause and effect is of a totally
different character. We can believe that two things
which have been united since creation began, may
never be united again while creation lasts; but we
never can be made to believe, or rather think, judge,
or decide (for this is the right expression), that a
change can take place without a cause. We can
believe that night and day might henceforth be dis-
connected, and that from and after this day or some
other day there would only be perpetual day or per-
petual night on the earth; but we could never be
: made to decide that, the causes which produced day
, and night being the same, there ever could be any
''^^^other effect than day and night. We could believe,
|^.pn sufficient evidence, that the sun might not rise on
^^ our earth to-morrow ; but we never could be made to
judge that, the sun and earth and all other things
necessary to the sun rising on our earth abiding as
they are, the luminary of day should not run his
round as usual. We see at once that there is a dif-
ference between the judgment of the mind in the two
cases ; in the case in which we have before us a mere
conjunction sanctioned by a wide and invariable in-
134 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
duction, and that in which we have an effect, and
connect it with its cause. The one belief can be
overcome, and should be overcome at any time by a
new inconsistent fact coming under our observation ;
whereas, in regard to the other, we are confident that
it never can be modified or set aside, and we feel that
it ought not to be overborne."
^ir. J. S. Mill, the author of Mill's "Logic" and
other very able works, denies that the cognition of
" the law of causation " is intuitive. He regards the
proposition that every event has a cause as true, so
far as this world is concerned, because observation
has shown it to be true.
" The uniformity in the succession of events," he
remarks, " otherwise called the law of causation, must
not be received as a law of the universe, but of that
portion of it only that is within range of our sure
observation, with a reasonable degree of extension to
adjacent cases."
Again : " I am convinced that any one accustomed
to abstraction and analysis, who vfill fairly exert his
faculties for the purpose, will, when his imagination
has learned to entertain the notion, find no difficulty
in conceiving that in some one, for instance, of the
many firmaments into which sidereal astronomy now
divides the universe, events may succeed one another
at random without any fixed law ; nor can any thing
m our experience, or in our mental nature, constitute
CAUSE AND EFFECT. 135
a sufficient, or indeed any reason for believing that
this is nowhere the case."
If by "events succeeding one another at random,"
he means happening without a cause, then our " men-
tal nature" does furnish a sufficient reason for deny-
ing his assertion. The mind is so constituted that it
cognizes the fact that distant events must have causes,
as well as those which are near at hand.
If he means to assert that a different kind of uni-
formity may exist in other portions of the universe,
the assertion may be correct. Different causes may
exist in different portions of the universe. The uni-
formity which we witness may not prevail throughout
the universe; but the truth that every event has a
cause does thus prevail.
If it be asked. How do we know that an event in
Sirius must have a cause ? the reply is, the mind
cognizes that truth. If it be asked. How can the
mind cognize a truth so distant from it ? the reply is,
the mind does cognize said truth. The questions.
Sow can the mind cognize? and ii^Jiat does it cog-
nize ? are distinct. We can ansv/er the latter, but
not the former.
Dr. Thomas Brown taught that invariable ante-
cedence and consequence constitutes the relation of
cause and effect. He affirms that " we have no other
idea in our minds when we speak of cause and effect,
than an invariable antecedence and consequence."
If antecedence and consequence constitute the
136 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
relation of cause and effect, there is no such thing
as power. The terms power, efficacy, energy, mean
nothing but invariable antecedence and consequence.
" To him," says this author, " Avho had previously
kindled a fire, and placed on it a vessel full of water,
with a certainty that in that situation the water
would become speedily hot, what additional informa-
tion would be given by telling him that the fire had
the power of boiling water?"
"It is only by confoundiug casual with uniform
and invariable antecedence, that power can be con-
ceived to be something different from antecedence."
" In the various changes that occur, there can as
little be any poAvers or susceptibilities different from
the antecedents and consequents themselves^ as there
can be forms differing from the coexisting particles
of matter which constitute them."
In opposition to these assertions, it is sufiicient to
say that all men do cognize the existence of power
in the antecedents which are causes. Words expres-
sive of the idea of power are found in every language.
All men testify to the fdct that they intuitively cog-
nize the existence of power. If they, like Brown,
deny it in words, their actions testify to the truth.
There are many things invariably antecedent
to other things^ which are not the causes of those
things. The antecedent which has power to produce
the consequent, is the antecedent which we cognize as
the cause.
CAUSE AND EFFECT. 137
"Simple and invariable succession," says Dr.
Hickok, "is not onr conviction of cause and effect,
nor at all like it. Night invariably succeeds the
day; one o'clock invariably succeeds twelve o'clock;
one fixed star invariably succeeds another fixed star
in crossing our meridian ; but none of these invariable
successions is our conviction of causal connection.
If we assume two pair of wheels, one of which has
each wheel separately driven so that the cogs in
their periphery exactly match in every revolution;
but the other pair is so constructed, that one wheel
being moved, its cogs drive the other ; there will be
alike invariable succession in each case ; but we must
' carry the mind quite beyond the fact of invariable
. succession to some efficiency in an antecedent that
^' produces the consequent. No conception of simple
^ succession, no matter how invariable, is our notion of
^ cause."
J*^ The consciousness of the reader will attest the
^ truth of the statement thus made.
^ ^ The following remarks are from the pen of Pro-
fessor Wilson, Dr. Brown's successor in the chair of
Moral Philosophy at Edinburgh. They are given as
quoted by Hamilton. The test proposed by Dr.
J ! Brown was: "Let any one ask himself what it is
which he means by the term power, and, without
contenting himself with a few phrases v/hich signify
nothing, reflect before he gives his answer, and he
will find that he means nothing more than that, in
138 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PniLOSOPIIY.
all similar circumstances, the explosion of gunpow-
der Tvill be the immediate and uniform consequence
of the application of a spark."
^2, "Let us, then," says Professor Wilson, "apply
' * the test by which Dr. Bro^yn proposes the truth of
his*^iews shall be tried. Let us ask ourselves what
we mean when we say that the spark has power to
kindle the gunpowder — that powder is susceptible of
being kindled by the spark. Do we mean only, that
when they come together this will happen ? Do we
merely predict this visible and certain futurity ?
apJ' We do not fear to say, that when we speak of a
^**power in one substance to produce a change in an-
other, and of a susceptibility of such change in that
other, v/e express more than our belief that the
change has taken place, and will take place. There
is more in our mind than a conviction of the past and
a foresight of the future. There is, besides this, the
conception of a fixed constitution of their nature,
which determines the event — a constitution which,
while it lasts, makes the event the necessary conse-
quence of the situation in which the objects are
placed. We should say, then, that there are includ-
ed in these terms, 'power' and 'susceptibility of
change,' two ideas which are not expressed in Dr.
Brown's analysis — one of necessity, and the other of
a constitution of things, in which that necessity is
established. That these two ideas are not expressed
in Dr. Brown's analysis, is seen by quoting again his
CAUSE AWD EFFECT. 139
words : ' He will find that he means nothing more
than that, in all similar circumstances, the explosion
of gunpowder will be the immediate and uniform
consequence of the application of a spark.'
" It is certain, from the whole tenor of his work,
that Dr. Brown has designed to exclude the idea of
necessity from his analysis." , ^
The following is Dr. Hickok's account of Kant's
view of the relation of cause and effect :
" Kant assumes the phenomenal consequences to
be real ; but what the substances as things in them-
selves, of which these phenomena are only qualities,
truly are, can never be known by human intelligence.
The mind, as a regulative principle of its thinking in
judgments, is obliged to use the conception of cau-
sality, and bring its sequences into connection under
this category ; but this notion of causality is alto-
gether subjective — a mental conception for regulat-
ing the mind's own thinking ; and we cannot say
that the phenomenal realities have any such connec-
tions in the things themselves. The mind has such
original forms, as pure conceptions, from itself, and,
in thinking, it fits these forms on to the real phe-
nomena, and brings them into orderly connection
thereby ; but it is the mind which makes the con-
nections, and not that the connections are in the
things themselves, and that they make the mind to
know after their conditions." .. ,
Kant admits that we have the idea of power, but
140 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
affirms that it is simply " subjective" — a figment of
the mind, not a cognition of reality. Consciousness
attests that the idea of power is the cognition of a
reality in things themselves.
Sir William Hamilton has put forth a new theory
of causality ; we presume his claims to originality in
regard to it are just.
The following is his account of " the phenomenon
of causality": "When we are aware of something
which begins to be, we are, by the necessity of our
intelligence, constrained to believe that it has a
cause. But what does the expression, that it has a
eausCy signify ? If we analyze our thought, we shall
find that it simply means that, as we cannot con-
ceive any new existence to commence, therefore all
that is now seen to arise under a new appearance had
previously an existence under a prior form. We are
utterly unable to realize in thought the possibility of
the complement of existence being either increased
or diminished. We are unable, on the one hand, to
conceive of nothing becoming something, or, on the
other hand, of something becoming nothing. When
God is said to create out of nothing, we construe this
to thought by supposing that He evolves existence
out of Himself. We view the Creator as the cause of
the universe. Mjc 7iihilo rdhil^ in nihilum nil posse
reverti^ expresses, in its purest form, the whole intel-
lectual phenomenon of causality." He affirms " that
causation is simply our inability to think an absolute
CAUSE AND EFFECT. 141
commencement or an absolute termination of be-
ing."
If causation is simply our inability to think an
absolute commencement or an absolute termination
of being, it is wholly a subjective matter. But it is
to be presumed that he meant that our idea of cause
is the result of our inability. The question is not to
be decided by an inference from an elaborate theory
of " the conditioned," or from any other theory, but
by an appeal to consciousness. Whenever an event
takes place, does not every one intuitively cognize
the truth that it had an adequate cause ? Is not the
cognition of cause as clear and defined a cognition,
as any cognition of which we are conscious ? May
we not as well say that our cognition of a body as
extended or colored is the result of " inability, " as
our cognition of cause ? If it be a fact of conscious-
ness, that whenever we cognize an event we intui-
tively cognize the fact that it must have an adequate
cause, then the elaborate theory of Hamilton is
false.
Some questions may be asked with respect to
Hamilton's statements as to the phenomena of cau-
sality. Is it true that " all that is now seen to arise
under a new appearance, had previously an existence
under a prior form " ? In v/hat form did the mate-
rial universe exist, before God " in the beginning cre-
ated the heavens and the earth " ? Will it be said
that it existed in the power of God ? That is simply
142 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
saying that God had power to bring it into exist-
ence.
Is it true that we cannot conceive of God cre-
^ ating something out of nothing ; and that we con-
strue it to thought "by supposing that He evolyes ex-
istence out of Himself? We cannot, it is granted,
conceive how God creates something out of nothing ;
but we can conceive the fact of His doing so.
What is meant by evolving existence out of Him-
self? Is it affirmed that the world previously exist-
ed in God ? If it existed as matter, is God then
material ? If it existed as spirit, then can spirit be
changed into matter ?
Can any thing be properly said to be evolved
L from the Divine existence in any other sense than
' that of being created by Divine power ? If this is
what Hamilton means, then his view of causation is
reduced to the one received practically by all men,
and his claims to the discovery amount simply to a
new use of terms.
It has by some been thought difficult to account
for the character of necessity which attaches to our
idea of cause. When we see an event, Ave not only
see that it has a cause, but that it must have a cause.
We see that a cause is necessary because it is
necessary, just as we see that a raven is black be-
cause it is black. That every event "imtst have a
cause, is a truth v/hich the human mind can cognize ;
that the raven is black, is also a truth which the
CAUSE AND EFFECT. 143
human mind can cognize; and there is no more diffi-
culty or mystery in tlie one case than in the other.
The law or fact of causation is sometimes inaccu-
rately stated, and needless difficulties have thus heen
caused. " As the doctrine of causation is sometimes
stated," says McCosh, " it might appear as if we
were required, in following the chain of cause and
effect, to go back ad infinitwn. It is said in a loose
way, that every object must have a cause ; and then,
as this cause must also have a cause, it might seem as
if ^we were compelled to go on forever from one link
to another. In particular, it might appear as if we
could never legitimately argue from the law of cau-
sation in favor of this world being caused ; for, if
the law of cause and effect be universal, then we
must seek for a cause, not only of the world, but of
the Being who made the world ; and if it be not uni-
versal, then it is conceivable that this world may be
one of the things that are not caused. This is an
objection urged with great confidence by Kant ; and
a large school of metaphysicians seem to think that
it is fatal to any argument in favor of the Divine ex-
istence derived from human intelligence, as in every
such argument the law of causation must enter as an
element. Kant endeavors to escape from the dismal
consequences in which he felt himself being en-
gulfed, by declaring that the law of 9ause and effect,
which thus required an infinite fegressits^ was a law
of thought and not of things, and by calling in a
144 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
moral argument (which argument has again been
assailed by the very objections which Kant directed
against the speculative argument ; for if our intelli-
gence be a delusion, why may not our moral convic-
tions also be so ?) ; while a large body of thinkers
appealed to some sort of mysterious faith which will
not submit to be examined, or even expressed. But,
with all deference to these bold asseverations, I main-
tain that if only this cc^smos'^can be shown to bear
marks of being an effect, the argument from causa-
tion can carry us up to a*'supermundane'5<3ausef'while
it does not require us to go back to a cause of that
cause. All inquiry into causation conducts us to
substance ; but it does not compel us to go on fur-
ther, or to go on forever. The law of causality does
insist that the world, as an effect, must have a cause
in a Being possessing power; and if, on inquiring
into the nature of that Being, we have reason to
believe that He or it must be an effect, it would in-
sist on our going on to look out for a further cause.
But if, on the other hand, w^e find no signs of that
Being who made the w^orld being an effect, our intui-
tion regarding causation would be entirely satisfied
in looking on that Being as uncaused, as self-existent,
as having power in Himself. It thus appears that
this difficulty, which has puzzled so many, has arisen
entirely from a misapprehension and perversion of
the law of causation, commencing with Hume, and
presented in a new form by Kant."
CAUSE AND EFFECT. 145
Nearly allied to the maxim, Every event must
have an adequate cause, is the maxim, Like causes
produce like effects. This principle lies at the foun-
dation of our belief in the uniformity of the course
of nature. Some of the Scotch philosophers refer
our belief in the uniformity of nature to an original
principle. Reid says : " God hath implanted in hu-
man minds an original principle, by which we believe
and expect the continuance of those connections
which we have observed in times past."
This is a very incautious statement. If the
human mind is made to believe that the course of
nature is uniform— that is, if this belief is original
and instinctive — then the human mind cannot believe
a miracle, however well attested, since a miracle is
a deviation from the uniform course of nature. If
this principle be implanted in the minds of all men,
it will be found in the minds of those who shall live
when the world's -history is about to be closed.
Hence they will be led by a divinely implanted prin^
ciple to believe what is not true !
It is a self-evident truth, that the same or similar
causes, under the same or similar conditions, will pro-
duce the same or similar effects. Hence, so lono- as
the present causes are in operation, the course of
nature will be uniform. ^ When new causes come into
operation, changes will take place. We have ob-
served that events have followed each other with 3
1
146 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
certain nniformity, and hence we infer that, so long
as present causes continue to operate, events will suc-
ceed each other with a like uniformity. We expect
causes to remain as they are, till we have some rea-
son to suppose that there will be a change.
CHAPTER XVIIL
COGNITION OF BEAUTY.
The mind can cognize beauty. We turn our eyes
in winter toward the trunk and leafless brandies of
a tree; we cognize its existence and form. We
turn our eyes in spring toward the tree in full
bloom, and we cognize the additional fact that it is
beautiful. We turn our eyes upward in a clear night :
we cognize the fact that the stars studding the blue
vault are beautiful. We hear a strain of music, and
cognize the fact that it is beautiful. We witness an
act of self-sacrificing affection, and cognize the fact
that it is beautiful. We cognize objects that are use-
ful, objects that are injurious, and objects that are
beautiful. Our cognitions of beauty are as distinct
from our cognitions of the useful, as are our cognitions
of the injurious.
Beauty appertains to objects animate and inani-
mate, material and spiritual; to feelings, thoughts,
and actions. It would be as impossible to make an
exhaustive enumeration of beautiful objects, as to
make an exhaustive enumeration of true propositions.
148 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
How do Ave know that the objects we call beauti-
ful, are beautiful ? Just as we know that the propo-
sitions we call true, are true. We know that the
mind has poA^er to cognize truth and beauty, because
it does cognize truth and beauty. When we perceive
the rainbow, we perceive its beauty. We have a di-
rect, intuitive cognition of the beauty of many objects.
In regard to every kind of knowledge, we must rely
upon our primary cognitions, or we are at once with-
out any ground of certainty. If things are not as we
cognize them to be, then there is an end to all knowl-
edge. Universal skepticism is the result.
The human mind is not infallible. It may err in
its cognitions. One may think a proposition to be
true when it is not, and one may think an object
beautiful when it is not. But there are propositions
relating both to truth and beauty, in regard to which
he is not liable to err. There are intuitive cognitions
which are certain. How do we know them to be cer-
tainly true ? We cognize the fact ; and we must rely
upon the cognition, or fall into universal skepticism.
Because the mind may err in certain cognitions, it
does not follow that it may err in regard to all cog-
nitions.
Beauty, as we have seen, is varied, as well as
truth ; that is, there are various things that are beau-
tiful, and various things that are true. In what one
thing do these diversified beautiful objects agree?
The only answer that can be given to this question is,
COGNITION OF BEAUTY. 149
that they agree in being beautiful. The idea of beauty
is a simple idea, and cannot be analyzed.
Writers have nevertheless attempted to analyze
it, and to discover in what beauty consists. Different
qualities or facts have been named by different wri-
ters as constituting the beautiful. The qualities thus
set forth belong to some beautiful objects, but not to
all. " Some have thought," says Cousin, " to find
the beautiful in proportion ; and this is, in fact, one
of the conditions of beauty, but it is not the only
one." * ♦ ♦ " What makes the terrible beauty
of a storm ? what makes that of a great picture, of
an isolated verse, or a sublime ode ? " The remark
above quoted applies to all attempts to state in what
the beautiful consists.
In truth, there is no such thing as the beautiful
apart from beautiful objects. Beauty is not an inde-
pendent entity. It is a quality of objects, and of re-
lations between objects. Beauty is a general term,
standing for that in which ail beautiful objects agree ;
just as truth is a general term, standing for that in
which all true propositions agree.
Cousin affirms : " Truth, beauty, and goodness are
attributes, not entities. Now, there is no attribute
without a subject. And as here the question is con-
cerning absolute truth, beauty, and goodness, their
substance can be nothing else but the absolute Being.
It is thus we arrive at God."
Has Cousin come any nearer telling us what beauty
150 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
is, than those who say it consists in proportion ? To
afSrm that beauty is an attribute of God, is simply to
aiBrm that God is beautiful. When we say wisdom
is an attribute of God, we simply affirm that God is
wise — we do not explain what wisdom is. It may
safely be affirmed that the Divine character is beauti-
ful ; but that is not explaining in what beauty con-
sists.
Professor Haven affirms that "The true, the beauti-
ful, and the good exist as simple, absolute, eternal
principles. They are in the Divine mind. They are
in the Divine works. They are in a sense independent
of Deity. He does not create them. He cannot re-
verse or change their nature. He works according to
them. They are not created by, but only manifested
in what God does."
Is this a successful attempt to tell us what beauty
is ? It is, according to our author, the manifestation
of a simple, absolute, eternal principle existing in the
Divine mind. Is it certain that there is any informa-
tion contained in these vfords? What kind of a
principle is this principle of beauty ? Wherein does
it differ from the principle of truth ? What proof is
there that the principle of beauty is a simple, abso-
lute, and eternal principle in the Divine mind, any
more than the principle of form, or of extension ?
It is said that beauty is the manifestation of the
Divine nature. It is true, and so are all God's works
the manifestation of His nature — of His character ;
COGNITION OF BEAUTY. 151
that is, they show what He is. We have no reason
to suppose that beauty is, in a peculiar sense, the
manifestation of the Divine nature. God is the author
of all created beauty; but the fact that God has
created a thing does not prove that it is identical in
nature with Him ; ^. 6., that it is a part of Himself.
He created matter, but matter is no part of the Divine
nature.
It is useless to attempt to say what beauty and
truth are, except by saying that they are beauty and
truth. Attempts to go beyond this, and to affirm
that they are principles in the Divine mind, convey
no definite ideas, and have a pantheistic tendency.
It may not be amiss to notice in this connection
the not infrequent expression, " God is the principle
of truth." What is the meaning of the expression?
Is it that He is the author and source of all truth ?
Did He create space and its relations, and originate
the difference between right and wrong ? Was there
ever a time when the difference between right and
wrong did not exist ? Will it be said that " his
Being embraces all truth" ? Is it not proper to ask
for the meaning of that expression ?
Christ is said to be the truth; but that does not
mean that truth and the Divine existence are the
same. God is said to be love; but love and the
Divine existence are not the same. God is also said
to be a consuming fire : but a consuming fire and the
Divine existence are not the same.
152 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
Christ is said to be the truth, because the truths
relating to him are to man the most important of all
truths. In comparison with the truths which are
able to make us wise unto salvation, all scientific and
political truths are of little value.
These remarks in regard to the principle of truth,
apply in all respects to the principle of beauty.
It is affirmed by some that all beauty is the ex-
pression of mental qualities. There is a beauty of
expression. A countenance whose features are plain,
not to say ugly, beams vv^ith an expression of benev-
olence, and is therefore beautiful. A delicate lily is
beautiful. It suggests the idea of woman's delicacy
and purity. It is remotely analogous to woman's
delicacy and purity. A distinction is to be made
between the signs of a thing and an analogy between
two things. We have found from experience that
certain things signify the presence of other things.
We have also found that certain things are analogous.
This distinction is overlooked by those who would
refer all beauty to expression.
Much of the beauty of the human countenance
is the beauty of expression, and depends, not on the
form and coloring of the features, but upon the con-
dition of the mind. The condition of the indwelling
mind vfill give expression to the countenance. One
cannot change the structure of his features, but he
can change the condition of his mind. Let him aim
to form a beautiful mind, and so far as he succeeds, it
COGNITION OF BEAUTY. 153
will appear in the expression of his countenance and
person. ^.
Association has a great influence on our opinions
in regard to beauty. It has, in some instances, power
to reverse our ideas as to the beauty of an object.
An object, an article of dress, for example, when first
seen by us, may appear to us the reverse of beautiful ;
but when we have seen it worn by those whose opin-
ions we are accustomed to respect — when it has be-
come the fashion — we come to regard it as beautiful.
In consequence of association, some objects are re-
garded in some countries as beautiful, which are
regarded as ugly in other countries. In consequence
of the diversities of opinion in regard to beauty,
caused by association, some have referred all beauty
to association. They deny that there is any such
thing as intrinsic beauty — that there are any objects
originally adapted to produce ideas of beauty. They
affirm that the power now possessed by some objects
to awaken in our minds ideas and emotions of beauty,
is wholly owing to association.
To such it is sufficient to say, that association will
account for the transfer of the idea of beauty from
one object to another, but cannot account for the
origin of the idea. The idea of beauty must either be
innate, or some object must have an original adapta-
tion to produce it ; that is, there must be some object
beautiful in itself.
Association controls oftentimes our opinions of
1*
154 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
beauty, but never controls our intuitive cognitions
of beauty. There are objects whose beauty all men
cognize intuitively. The rainbow, the flower of bright
hues, the stars, are regarded as beautiful by all who
have the ordinary attributes of humanity. When we
pass from the sphere of intuition, and proceed to form
judgments, opinions, on matters pertaining to beauty,
we are liable to err, as in regard to all other subjects.
Hence diversities of opinion in regard to beauty exist,
just as diversities of opinion in regard to government
exist. This does not prove that beauty is wholly
subjective, and that one man's judgments are as good
as another's. There are truths relating to beauty,
just as there are truths relating to numbers ; that is,
there are truths aesthetic and truths mathematical. The
mind's modes of procedure in cognizing these kinds of
truth are similar. It cognizes some truths intuitively,
and others by the aid of truths previously known.
All men possess the power of cognizing beauty ;
but all men do not possess this power in the same
degree. All men can cognize mathematical truth,
but some men can cognize it with greater clearness
and rapidity than others.
The actual differences among men as to their
power of cognizing beauty are owing to two causes.
There is an original difference in the structure of their
minds. Some men have by nature a keener sense of
beauty than others. Then some men have the power
of perceiving beauty more fully developed by educa-
COGNITIOK OP BEAUTY. 155
tion — hj the education of instruction or the education
of circumstances.
There is a greater difference among men in their
power of perceiving beauty than in their power of
perceiving truth — especially truth in relation to prac-
tical matters. Men are compelled by circumstances
to exercise their pov/ers in perceiving truth more
than in perceiving beauty. Hence the power of per-
ceiving truth is more fully developed.
The cognition of beauty is not a sensational cog-
nition. By smell and taste we have, or may have,
agreeable sensations. By the eye and ear we cog-
nize beauty, w^hich cognition is followed by or at-
tended with a peculiar emotion, separable in thought
from the cognition. An agreeable sensation — that is,
an agreeable feeling localized in some part of the
body — is one thing ; an emotion, such a^ the emotion
of beauty — -a purely mental act — is another. The
feeling of beauty, if the expression be allowed, is
not a sensational feeling. When we look at the
heavens or the waving wheat field, or listen to the
gsolian harp, the enjoyment is not localized in the
eye and ear. The enjoyment is as purely mental as
that resulting from perceiving a neat^ demonstration
in geometry.
The emotion of beauty is a simple emotion, which
cannot be described or analyzed, and can be known
only by being felt. It is conditioned on the cogni-
tion of a beautiful object, or the presence of the idea
156 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
of beauty in the mind. If we choose to call the
mind's power of cognizing and enjoying beauty the
aesthetic faculty, the acts of said faculty may be
regarded as complex — composed of a cognition and
an emotion.
Minds are differently constituted as to power to
perform the different elements of this complex act.
In some the perceptive and in others the emotive
element predominates. Some men have clearer and
more discriminative perceptions of beauty, and oth-
ers have a deeper susceptibility in view of it.
Is there a standard of beauty, or of taste —
an aesthetic yard-stick — something with which we
compare objects, and judge them to be beautiful or
not, according as they agree or disagree with it ? Is
every cognition of beauty a judgment, the result of
comparison ?
Some of our cognitions of beauty are direct, in-
tuitive, and hence do not involve the process of com-
parison. In such cases, there can be no reference to
a standard. Some of our cognitions are conditioned
upon other cognitions, and may be said to be the
result of comparison; that is, the process of com-
parison is among the conditions of the cognition.
But in these cases there is no one idea or standard
with which the object in question is compared.
There is what may be called a practical standard
of taste, by which all are in some degree influenced.
The books, statues, pictures, and edifices which have
COGNITION OF BEAUTY. 157
received the approbation and admiration of all culti*
vated minds, form a practical standard of taste.
When a new work appears, we often unconsciously
compare it with works of established reputation, and
form our judgment accordingly.
While a due regard should be paid to authority,
it should not be allowed to interfere with the forma-
tion of independent literary judgments f nor should
one's freshness and originality be impaired by a too
scrupulous conformity to the models furnished by
standard authors and artists.
God designed that men should perceive and enjoy
beauty. This appears from the fact that He has been
profuse in the creation of beauty, and has given man
capacity to perceive and enjoy it. Hence it is man's
duty to cultivate his power of cognizing beauty.
It is cultivated by exercise. The choicest speci-
mens of beauty in nature and art should be studied,
that the mind's power of cognizing beauty may be
improved.
The wise artist does not study his> model that he
may practise a servile imitation. He studies it to
heighten his sense of the beautiful — that is, to im-
prove his power of perceiving beauty — ^that he may
form higher conceptions which he may strive to
realize.
The study of beauty has a tendency to refine and
ennoble the mind. Rightly conducted, it is favor-
able to morals, though there is no necessary connec-
i-
158 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
tion between a fine taste and good morals. They
have often been dissociated. There have been men
of fine taste and of corrupt morals. Their corrupt
morals were not the consequence of their fine taste.
Whatever elevates the mind tends to good morals,
though that tendency may be counteracted by other
causes.
Our Puritan fathers erred in dissociating beauty
from religion. In avoiding the Romish idolatry of
worshipping the beautiful, they went to the opposite
extreme. Hence the absence of all decoration in
their places of worship, and the formation of a char-
acter in which the aesthetic element was sadly want-
ing. God's works are beautiful, and hence :?aan's
works dedicated to God's service should be beautiful.
" Beauty and strength are in thy sanctuary." There
is a beauty of holiness which, in one sense, includes
all other beauty. God's children should not ignore
the beauty which their Father has taken so much
pains to create.
There are certain emotions that are sometimes
called emotions of taste. These are the emotions of
beauty, grandeur, sublimity, and the ludicrous. The
emotion of grandeur is nearly allied to the emotion
of beauty. An object which has none of the ele-
ments of beauty would scarcely be called a grand |
object. An object may be sublime without being at
all beautiful.
All the emotions of taste are simple emotions,
COGNITION OF BEAUTY. 159
and can be known only from experience. The emo-
tion of sublimity is more intense and transient than
the emotion of beauty. There are fewer objects in
nature, and fewer thoughts, that awaken it. There
are more beautiful than sublime writers.
Is there any such thing as sublimity apart from
the emotion ? The emotion is always preceded by a
cognition or conception as its cause, and we call the
object of that cognition or conception sublime. In
what the sublimity of objects consists, cannot be
told. There are certain objects that are sublime be-
cause they produce a certain effect on our minds. In
some cases this effect may be owing to association ;
but there must be some objects originally adapted to
produce the emotion, or we could never have it. We
give the name of sublimity to that in an object,
whatever it may be, which produces the emotion of
sublimity.
What is wit ? That which produces a peculiar
effect when cognized, which effect we term the emo-
tion of the ludicrous. We can no more tell in what
wit consists, than we can tell in what truth consists.
Attempts to reduce it to a single principle or charac-
teristic have failed. A great variety of thoughts
and relations are witty.
The lowest form of wit is termed hufiior, and
may be possessed by one by no means remarkable for
intellectual power. The higher forms of wit require
a nice discrimination, which is alliqd to intellect-
160 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
ual power. It has sometimes been said that wit and
judgment never meet in the same person. The ques-
tion is one to be determined by observation.
Wit and judgment — that is, the capacity for cog-
nizing the relations of the ludicrous, and capacity for
cognizing the relations necessary to come to sound
conclusions— are not allied in the sense that the pres-
ence of the one indicates the presence of the other.
A man may have a sound practical judgment, and
be almost wholly incapable of cognizing ludicrous
relations ; but, on the other hand, I think it will be
found that the person who has wit in its highest
power — that is, power to cognize those relations
which constitute the highest form of wit — will have
power to cognize the relations necessary to the for-
mation of sound opinions.
The fine arts, painting, poetry, music, sculpture,
architecture, and gardening, have for their basis
man's aesthetic nature — that is, his power of cognizing
and enjoying beauty. They are said to be addressed
to the eye and ear ; but properly speaking, they are
addressed to the mind. They should receive due at-
tention from all who would give to their minds a full
and harmonious development.
Beauty should be studied in subordination to truth
and goodness. " The effect of the Beautiful upon the
soul," says Professor Shedd, "when unmixed, un-
counteracted, and exorbitant, is enervation. . . . When
the sesthetical prevails over the intellectual and moral,
COGNITION OF BEAUTY. 161
the prime qualities, the depth, the originality, and
the power die out of letters, and the mediocrity that
ensues is but poorly concealed by the elegance and
polish thrown over it. Even when there is much
genius and much originality, an excess of Art, a too
deep suffusion of beauty, a too fine flush of color, is
often the cause of a radical defect."
In further proof of his viewSi, he refers to " John
Milton, one of those two minds which tower high
above all others in the sphere of modern literature.
If there ever was a man in v/hom the aesthetic was in
complete subjection to the intellectual and moral,
without being in the least suppressed or mutilated by
them, that man was Milton. If there ever was a
human intellect so entirely master of itself, of such a
severe type, that all its processes seem to have been
the pure issue of discipline and law, it was the intel-
lect of Milton. In contemplating the grandeur of the
products of his mind, we are apt to lose sight of the
mind itself, and of his intellectual character. If we
rightly consider it, the discipline to which he sub-
jected himself, and the austere style of intellect and
of art in which it resulted, are as worthy of the rev-
erence and admiration of the scholar as the 'Paradise
Lost.' We have unfortunately no minute and de-
tailed account of his every-day life ; but from all that
we do know, and from all that we can infer from the
lofty, colossal culture and character in which he comes
down to us, it is safe to say that Milton must have
162 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PIIIIOSOPHT,
subjected his intellect to a restraint, and rigid dealing
with its luxurious tendencies, as strict as that to
which Simeon Stylites or St. Francis of Assisi sub-
jected their bodies. We can trace the process, the
defecating, purifying process, that went on in his in-
tellect, through his entire productions. The longer
he lived, and the more he composed, the severer be-
came his taste, and the more grandly and serenely
beautiful became his works. It is true that the
theory of art, and of culture, opposed to that which
we are recommending, may complain of the occasional
absence of beauty, and may charge as a fault an un-
due nakedness and austerity of form. But one thing
is certain, and must be granted by the candid critic,
that whenever the element of Beauty is found in Mil-
ton, it is found in absolute purity. That severe re-
fining process, that test of light and fire, to which all
his materials w^ere subjected, left no residuum which
was not perfectly pure. And therefore it is, that
throughout universal literature, a more absolute
Beauty, and a more delicate aerial grace, are not to
be found than appear in the ' Comus,' and the Fourth
Book of ' Paradise Lost.' "
CHAPTER XIX.
COGNITION OF KECTITUDE.
We see a person inflicting a severe Wow upon an
unofiending stranger. We cognize by the eye the
blow and its physical efiects. We also cognize the
fact that it was wrong. When we say that the blow
was wrong, we mean that the person did wrong in
giving the. blow.
Will any one ask. How do we know that the blow
was wrong ? We know it, just as we know that the
blow was struck. We saw the blow, and saw that it
was wrong. In both cases it was the mind that saw.
If we can trust the mind's cognitive power in regard
to the blow, we can trust it in regard to the moral
character of the blow.
We see a man in danger of drowning. Another
rescues him. We see the act, and we also see that it
is right.
We see one giving another money. We do not
know whether the act is right or wrong. If it be in
payment for goods purchased, it is right ; if it be
given in bribery, it is wrong. In this case, the cog-
nition of the moral character of the act is not direct,
164 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
as in the former cases. It is conditioned upon a cog-
nition of the motive of the giver.
In simple and clear cases, the cognition of the
moral character of an action is intuitive ; in complex
cases, the cognition is inferential — that is, is condi-
tioned on preceding cognitions. Hence, in complex
cases, there is liability to error : different minds may
come to different conclusions as to the moral character
of an act.
There is thus a difference between right and
wrong. We know that there is a difference between
right and wrong actions, just as we know that there
is a difference between white and black objects : we
cognize the fact in both cases. Nothing is gained
by saying that reason makes known to us the dis-
tinction ; for reason is not something distinct from
us — our minds. We may ascribe some acts of the
mind to reason and some to the understanding ; but
if the mind is one, those terms simply express different
modes of its action. When the mind is cognizing
contingent truth, it is said by some to be exercising
the understanding ; when it is cognizing necessary
truth, it is said to be exercising the reason. The real
distinction relates to the nature of the truth cognized.
Some seem to think that the mind does not arrive
at truth in regard to morals in the same Avay in which
it arrives at truths in regard to agriculture and poli-
tics. A special organ must be constructed and
endowed with infallibility. Reason or conscience
COGNITION OF RECTITUDE. 165
must be endowed with powers transcending other
faculties, that it may make known to us the difference
between right and wrong, and authoritatively tell us
our duty. Numerous errors in regard to the elements
of morality have resulted from this personification of
reason and conscience.
It may be asked, " Has not man a conscience to
make known to him his duty ? "
What is meant by the expression, "Man has a
conscience"? Simply that man has the power of cog-
nizing right and wrong actions. The mind can cog-
nize right and its opposite ; man has a conscience ;
the mind possesses a moral faculty : all these are
identical expressions.
It may be said, " All men do not agree in their
views of right and wrong. If man is endowed with
a moral faculty — ^if conscience is possessed by all men —
then all men would have the same views as to moral
questions. Sight is possessed by all men, and hence
all men agree in distinguishing black from white.
There are no instances in which some men contend
that white is black ; but there are frequent examples
of men differing in regard to the same action — some
regarding it as right and others as wrong."
The inference thus drawn is not legitimate. It
does not follow from the premise, " All men are en-
dowed Avith the power of cognizing the difference
between right and wrong,*' that all men will agree
in regard to the moral character of all actions. The
166 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
inference as drawn by the objector is founded on the
assumption, that if the mind has power to cognize the
moral qualities of actions, it must be infallible in the
exercise of that power. This assumption is unauthor-
ized. The mind is not infallible in any of its mediate
cognitions. Men have the power of distinguishing
truth from falsehood. They know that the assertion,
" The whole is greater than its part," is true, and that
the assertion, "The whole is less than its part," is false.
But the fact that the mind has thus power to cognize
truth, does not prove that its cognitions of truth must
in all case be infallible, and that all men will think
alike on all questions relating to truth.
Some truths are simple and self-luminous. In
regard to such truths all men agree in their cogni-
tions. Some truths or questions are complicated,
and can be cognized only through the medium of
other truths. Hence there is liability to error. Hence
there will be diversities of judgments. But diver-
sities of opinion in regard to what is true and false in
certain cases, do not prove that the mind has not the
power to cognize truth — do not prove that there
is no diiference between truth and error. In like
manner, diversities of opinion in regard to what is
right and wrong in certain cases, do not prove that
the mind has not power to cognize rectitude — do not
prove that there is no difference between right and
wrong.
Every one is conscious that he has power to cog-
COGJSriTION OF RECTITUDE, 167
nize rectitude — that is, to cognize the moral quality
of actions. How does he know that others have this
power — that it is an attribute of humanity ?
He infers from the actions of others that they have
this power.
How does he know that men in other lands and in
other ages possessed this power ?
The proof of the fact is found in the structure of
every language and in every historic record. In
every language there are words expressive of right
and wrong, of obligation, of praise and blame.
Words are expressive of ideas : the people using
those languages had ideas of right and wrong, of
obligation, of praise and blame — that is, had the
power of cognizing the moral quality of actions.
Every code of laws that has come down to us, re-
cognizes moral distinctions. There have been unjust
laws ; yet the statutes of all nations have a wonderful
agreement in forbidding that which is wrong and
allowing that which is right.
The approbation which the heroes of history have
received, is based on the supposed possession of good
qualities. Bad men have been honored, but not be-
cause they were bad.
Conscience, then, is an original attribute of our
nature ; in other words, all men have the power of
cognizing the moral qualities of actions. The mind
is not infallible in the exercise of this power. It may
form erroneous conclusions in regard to duty, and it
168 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
may form erroneous conclusions in regard to ques-
tions of political economy.
In regard to some actions, all men's cognitions are
the same. In regard to some actions, the cognition
of the moral quality is intuitive. All men's intuitions
in regard to a given truth are the same. In other
words, some truths are self-evident, and in regard to
such truths all men agree. The axioms of geometry
are self-evident, and all men agree that they are true.
There are self-evident truths in morals. In regard to
these all men agree.
That benevolence is right and malignity is wrong,
are self-evident truths. In regard to such truths, the
cognitions of all men are the same. It is not affirmed
that all men would assent to the generalized state-
ment that malignity is wrong ; but let an act of
wanton, unprovoked malignity be witnessed, and all
men would see that it is wrong. Let an act of true
benevolence be witnessed, and all men would approve
it as right. Differences of opinion, as has been before
remarked, may take place in complicated cases, where
the steps taken to reach the conclusion are numerous,
and depending upon truths which may be imperfectly
apprehended. White and black are clearly distin-
guishable by all men when white and black objects
are before them, and so of other colors. But let two
colors be blended, as in the structure of the rainbow,
and it is difficult to say where one color ends and the
other begins. If men were required to state which
COGNITION OF RECTITUDE. 169
color predominated at a particular point, there would
be diversities of opinion, though there would be
none as to the difference between the two colors. So
the difference between right and wrong is clearly
seen in simple cases. In complicated ones, there will
be diversities of opinion.
In what does rectitude consist? What consti-
tutes a right action ? We have seen that we cannot
answer similar questions asked with reference to
truth. We cannot tell in what truth consists ; we
cannot tell what constitutes a true proposition. We
are in the same condition in relation to these ques-
tions when asked with reference to rectitude. When,
with respect to a particular act, it is asked, What
constitutes its Tightness ? we may be able to give an
answer. For example: I see one giving money tc
relieve a person in distress. The act is a right one.
Why is it right ? Because kindness to the distressed
— ^benevolence — is right. On what does the Tightness
of benevolence depend? It may be said that it is
right because God commands it. With reverence be
it asked, on what does the lightness of God's com
mand depend ? A number of questions may be asked,
but the point to which we shall be brought is a
confession of our inability to state in what right
consists.
It will be asked. Does not the Tightness of an action
consist in its tendency to promote happiness ? The
Tightness of a particular action may be made known
8
170 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
to US by its tendency to promote happiness ; but the
question may be asked, Why is it right to promote
happiness ?
The followers of Paley and Bentham affirm that
the moral difference betY>^een actions is founded
•wholly on their tendency to promote happiness or
misery. Those actions which tend to promote happi-
ness are right, and right on that account alone ; and
those actions which tend to cause misery are wrong,
and wrong on that account alone. The question,
Why are actions tending to happiness right ? re-
mains unanswered.
We may admit that right actions tend to promote
happiness ; but it does not prove that their rightness
consists in this tendency. In many cases, we intui-
tively cognize an act to be right before we take the
consequences into view — when we are wholly igno-
rant of the consequences. The mind clearly distin-
guishes between utility and rightness. These are
not identical. Let the appeal be made to conscious
ness.
If the theory under consideration were true, then
if murder, malignity, and treason were followed by
the greatest amount of happiness, they would be
right. This conclusion, so diametrically opposed to
our intuitive cognitions, is sufficient to show the un-
soundness of the theory.
Again, on this theory a system of morals would
be impossible to one of less than infinite knowledge.
COGNITION OF RECTITUDE. l7l
Indeed, a finite mind conld never settle a single ques*
tion of duty. We wish to know whether an action
is right. If there is no difference in actions except in
relation to their consequences, then we wish to know
whether the action will be followed by more happi-
ness than, misery during the whole duration of our
being. Infinite knowledge would be required to
determine whether the action is right or wrong ; and
infinite knowledge is not ours.
The tendency of an action to promote happiness
no more constitutes its rightness, than the tendency
of mathematical truths to utility constitutes their
trueness. There are certain mathematical principles
or truths useful to the engineer. Their tendency, if
rightly applied, is to make his work secure. Their
utility is a fact — a fact clearly distinguishable from
their truth. Moral truths, rightly applied, are use-
ful— render the structure of happiness stable ; but
their utility is clearly distinguishable from their
rightness.
As it is conceded that we are under obligation to
do right, if doing right consists in securing the great-
est amount of happiness, then if we could secure
more happiness by serving Satan than by serving
God, we should be under obligation to do so !
Why are we under obligation to do right ? At-
tempts have been made to answer this question — to
give a reason for doing right — to prove that we
ought to do right. The consequence has been, that
172 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
obscurity has been thrown upon a subject naturally
clear. This is always the consequence of attempts
to prove self-evident truths.
Why should we believe a true proposition when
it is clearly set before the mind ? Because it is true.
Why should we do right ? Because it is right. The
obligation to do right is involved in the j)erception
of right ; or it may be stated thus : It is a self-evident
truth, that we are under obligation to do right. No
truth clearer than this can be brought to prove it.
We may state advantages following right doing, and
disadvantages following wrong doing. But these
facts only show that it is prudent to do right ; they
do not add to the force of the obligation.
It may be said that we should do right because
God commands it. Undoubtedly all God's com-
mands are right, and it is our duty to obey them.
But the fact that it is right for us to obey God's
commands, does not prove that God created the
distinction between right and wrong — that things
which are right are so simply because He commands
us to do them. That which is created, is created in
time — ^that is, at some time. Now, was there ever a
time when malignity was right and benevolence
wrong ? Has God always been just and holy ? Has
He always been a hater of iniquity ? Then the dis-
tinction between holiness and iniquity has always
existed — there never was a time when it began
to be.
COG]SriTIOK OF EECTITUDE. 173
The question, Why should we obey God's com-
mand? remains as yet unanswered. The true an-
swer is, because it is right to do so. It may be said,
we should obey Him because He is our Creator. Why
does the creature owe obedience to its Creator ? It
will be said, because He made him. Suppose the
maker of man were an unholy being, and command-
ed man to practise iniqaity. Suppose man's moral
nature to be as it now is, would it be right for man
to practise iniquity ? If it would not, then the mere
relation of Creator and creature does not of itself
involve the duty of obedience on the part of the
latter. Suppose — with reverence be it spoken — ^tliat
God's commands should be the opposite of what they
are; suppose He should command us to be sinful,
would it be right for us to be sinful? We know
that it is impossible for Him to command that which
is not right, just as it is impossible for Him to lie ;
but if it were possible, and were done, would not our
obligation to obedience cease ?
Will it be said. If God command me to murder
a man, it would be right to do so ? If God were to
command you to take ^he life of a man, it would be
right for you to do so. But to take the life of a man
in obedience to God's commands, is one thing ; and to
take the life of a man with malice prepense and in
violation of God's command, is another thing. The
latter is murder, the former is not.
God could not authorize murder. His perfections
174 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
forbid it. He can authorize one to take the life of
another. All souls are His, and He may dispose of
them according to His righteous will. Whatever
may be the case in regard to sinless beings, we have
sinned, and forfeited our lives to His justice. He
may therefore take our lives in any way that He
chooses — by disease, or by the instrumentality of
men.
While God cannot change wrong into right, yet,
whenever He commands us to perform an act, it be-
comes moral, though before it was indifferent. In
many cases it is a matter of indifference what kind
of dress we wear ; we may wear this or that, with-
out doing wrong. If God were to command us to
wear a particular dress, it would be wrong for us not
to do so. So far as there are actions without a moral
character, they become moral and obligatory when
commanded by Him.
Men are under obligation to do what is right —
not what they may think is right. It is a popular
error, that sincerity in error changes the moral
character of acts consequent upon that error. It is
thought that if a man sincerely believes he is right,
his action will be right.
Sincerity in error in physical matters does not
affect the consequences of the error. If a man build-
ing a tower sincerely believes that he has so con-
structed it that the line of gravity falls within the
base, and yet it falls without the base, his sincerity
COGNITION OF EECTITUDEo 175
will not prevent the tower froDi falling. Sincerity in
error will not reverse the law of gravitation.
If a man intending to visit a city lying eastward,
"by mistake takes a road leading northward, he
may sincerely believe he is right, but he will not
reach the desired city. Sincerity in error cannot
change the point of compass. Can it change the
supreme law of right, to which even God himself
is subject ?
A man may sincerely believe that he is doing
God's will when he is going contrary to that will —
as Paul thought he was doing God service when he
was persecuting unto death the followers of Christ.
It is true that failure to do God's will in such circum-
stances may be attended with less guilt than when
the failure is the result of wilful passion ; still, if one
has acted contrary to God's will, he has done wrong.
Thinking a thing to be right will not make it right,
any more than thinking a thing to be true will make
it true. It is singular that an error so transparent as
that uinder consideration should have had so wide an
influence.
Intention to do right is not doing right ; it is a
necessary condition of doing right. Intention to take
the right road is not taking the right road ; nor does
it of necessity lead to taking the right road.
The right road may be taken by accident, but we
can never do right by accident.
It is said that the moral character of an act lies in
176 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
the intention. Intention is the condition of perform*
ing a moral act, not the constituting quality of the
act. Intention is used in two senses. Sometimes it
means the motives prompting to action. Suppose the
act to be the payment of a just debt. The act in
itself is right ; but if the debtor pay it solely through
fear of an arrest, he does not do his duty — does not
do right. Here it is seen that in order to perform a
right action, the act must be in itself right, and it
must be performed from right motives.
Intention is also used in the sense of volition.
A man may conform to a physical law without in-
tending to do it. A farmer, though ignorant of an
important law of vegetation, may conform to it, and
he will reap all the advantages resulting from con-
formity to that law. But a purpose to obey, a volun-
tary obedience to moral law, is essential; there can
be no obedience in ignorance or by accident. We
must know what the law is, and voluntarily conform
to it.
Moral qualities belong to actions. Actions are
performed by the intelligent, accountable mind. The
body is the instrument of the mind. Bodily changes,
physical acts as they are sometimes termed, consid-
ered apart from the mind, have no moral character.
The motion of the limbs occasioned by the action of
a galvanic battery has no moral character. The
motion of the limbs as caused by the volitions of the
mind has a moral character. The volitions are a
COGNITIOK OF EECTITUDE. 177
part of the mental act ; and the dispositions and de-
sires leading to the volition are a part of the act, and
come within the view of the mind, when it decides
that the act is right or wrong.
In order to a perfect moral action, the act its-elf,
that is, the end sought to be eifected, must be right ;
the intention must be right, and the action of mind
and body must correspond with the intention.
Some actions are intrinsically right-^for example,
acts of honesty and benevolence : some actions are
intrinsically wrong, such as acts of malignity and
treachery. Some actions are neither right nor v/rong
in themselves, but are right or wrong according to
circumstances. It may not be wrong for me to sway
my body backwards and forwards in my own study ;
but it would be wrong for me to do so in the house
of God during public worship.
Is morality predicable of dispositions and habits
as well as of voluntary actions ? Some affirm that
morality is predicable only of voluntary actions ; but,
in order to include all things plainly moral, they give
an unauthorized extension to the term voluntary.
They make it include our desires and affections. A
man earnestly desires to exercise revenge upon an-
other— earnestly desires to injure him. He puts
forth no voluntary act designed to injure him, be-
cause he has no opportunity. The desire is clearly
distinguishable from a volition — an act of the wiM —
that is, of the mind willing. Is the desire destitute
8*
178 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
of a moral character ? Is it not as clearly wrong a?
a volition causing a blow is wrong ?
There may he thus virtuous and vicious desires*
In like manner, there may be virtuous and vicious dis-
positions and habits.
Dispositions and habits are not acts, but condi-
tions of mind causing acts, and determining their
moral character. A man who is constantly perform-
ing benevolent acts, forms a habit of benevolence. A
man who is continually performing selfish acts, forms
a habit of selfishness. These habits form a portion of
the character of each. Is the character of the one
praiseworthy, and the character of the other blame-
worthy; or are our approbation and disapprobation
confined to the voluntary actions ?
I think the general sense of mankind attributes
virtue and vice to dispositions and character as well
as to strictly voluntary acts. It would be more
correct to say that the moral character of our actions
depends upon our dispositions, rather than that moral-
ity is confined to our volitions.
Men are under obligation to do right — to do right
in all things and at all times. Have they power to
do so ? Is man's ability commensurate with his
obligation ?
In his present fallen condition, man is not able to
act with perfect uprightness — to be perfectly holy.
He is fallible in his judgments, and. hence often fails
to form right ideas as to his duty. We must know
COGI^ITION OF RECTITUDE. 179
our duty perfectly in order to perform it perfectly.
In order to perfect holiness, there must be a per-
fect knowledge of duty, and this man does not
possess.
Does man's ignorance of duty excuse him from
performing it ? The answer depends upon the causes
of his ignorance. If he is wilfully ignorant — ignorant
because he will not use his powers aright — if he is
misled by prejudice and passion, he is responsible for
the causes of the ignorance, and consequently for the
ignorance itself.
Suppose man has a perfect knowledge of duty :
has he ability to perform it perfectly — to be perfectly
holy? :
Man was originally endowed! with full power to
do his whole duty — 1]0 be perfectly holy. But the
Scriptures teach that by the fall and by his wilful
transgressions his capacity for right doing has been
lessened. It is conceded by all that a man, by form-
ing sinful habits, diminishes his power to do right.
He diminishes his power to see duty and to do it. Is
his obligation to do right/ thereby lessened ? or may
the moral Governor hold 1dm responsible for not doing
all that he could have do/iie, if he had not lessened his
/
moral power ?^ /
Some think that, in/ this case, man is responsible
only for what he has power to do — no matter how
the lack of power waf/^ occasioned. They hold him
punishable for the act 'of lessening his power, but not
• /
180 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
accountable for doing that whicli would have been
his duty had he not lessened his power.
To this it may be objected, that it makes God's
claims dependent upon the will of the sinner. Just
so far as the sinner lessens his power to do right,
God's . claims to obedience are lowered. A new law
must be made for the sinner every day; or rather, he
makes a new law for himself!
If, in proportion as the sinner lessens by sinning
his moral power, God's claims to his obedience are
lessened, then if he could destroy all his power to do
right, God would have no claims to his obedience at
all. He would be a subject of punishment, but not
subject to the law of holiness. Is it reasonable to
suppose that a man by sinning can place himself
without the domain of God's law ? Is not God's
law immutable and binding forever on every moral
being ?
We find that men are in fact unable to perfectly
obey God's law ; and ye.^j God commands them to be
holy as He is holy. It Avould seem, therefore, that
God claims that which mail, in his fallen condition, is
unable to perform. "We aro here met by a difficulty
that human wisdom cannc>t solve. Men are born
without the requisite power to render perfect obe-
dience to God's law : their power is lessened still more
by voluntary transgression ; but this is the result of
a native tendency to evil. Wbence this strange con
dition ? The Bible informs us that it is the result of
COGKITION OF RECTITUDE. 181
Adam's sin. Whether one accept the explanation or
not, the difficulty still remains.
The present disordered condition of the human
mind, whether it he regarded as a consequence of
Adam's sin, or whether it he regarded as the result
of creation, is a mystery that the future may solve.
At present it is one of those things in regard to which
it may be said, " clouds and darkness are round about
him." Still, this should never for a moment permit us
to doubt the truth, that "justice and judgment are
the habitation of his throne." We must not deny a
well-established fact because we cannot give a satis-
factory explanation of it.
The difficulty above noted is in nowise chargeable
to revealed religion. Man is as he is, whether the
Bible be a revelation from God or not. Revelation
proposes a remedial system, and in its perfect adapta-
tion to fallen man is found one of the strongest ar-
guments for its truth.
Much is said about the duty of obeying the dic-
tates of conscience : what is meant by tl e expres-
sion ? Acting in accordance with our perceptions
of right.
Do we always do right when we obey con-
science ? That is, do we always do right when we
think we are doing right ? Are our moral judgments
always correct ? Or doe^s our thinking a thing to be
right, make it right ?
To ask, Ought we always to obev cop^r^ienr-e ? is to
182 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
ask. Ought we always to do wliat w^e think is right ?
The reply to this is obvious. We are not to act con-
trary to our convictions of duty ; but then our views
of duty should be accurate.
Suppose one fully believes it to be his duty to per-
secute those whom he regards as heretics. In popular
language, his conscience tells him he ought to do it.
If he obeys his conscience, if he acts according to
his erroneous convictions of duty, he does wrong ; for
it is not God's will that any one should persecute
others. If he disobeys his conscience, acts contrary
to his erroneous conviction of duty, he does wrong.
The wrong consists, it is said, in violating his con-
science ; but this simply means that he refused to act
in accordance with his convictions of duty. The
wrong consists in acting contrary to what he believed
to be the will of God. He believed it to be God's
will that he should persecute ; but from tenderness of
heart, or fear of public opinion, he declined to do
what he believed to be God's will, and thus was
guilty, in principle, of disobeying God — -just as a
child may be guilty of disobedience to his parent, by
refusing to do what he believed his parent com-
manded, though that belief was erroneous.
We see thus that a man, by entertaining wrong
opinions, may be in a condition in which he will do
wrong whether he acts or refrains from acting. Is he
then to blame ?
That depends on the causes of his being in that
COGNITION OF EECTITUDE. 183
position. If the cause was Ms neglect to investigate
and understand the truth on which his duty was con-
ditioned, he is of course responsible for being in that
unhappy position.
We are under obligation to have right views of
duty, and to act in accordance with those views.
Hence we see the importance of a knowledge of re-
ligious truth, so much insisted on in the Scriptures.
An orthodox creed is an essential condition of an or-
thodox life.
Are we to decide questions of duty for ourselves,
or are we to defer to the judgment and authority of
others ? Are we ever to act contrary to our con-
victions of right from regard to the authority of
others ?
We have seen that one is under obligation to know
his duty — to know it himself. Whatever aid he can
get from others in arriving at true conclusions in regard
to duty, he is under obligation to get ; but he cannot
throw upon others the responsibility of deciding.
He must act for himself, and therefore he must think
for himself: thinking, in such cases, is not separable
from action. Every one must give account of himself
unto God. Priest or potentate cannot answer for
him ; therefore they are not to decide questions of
duty for him.
It has been said by some men of great reputation,
that in regard to religious matters a man's own con-
science is to be his guide, but that in regard to civil
184 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
matters the law of the land, and not conscience, is to
be his guide.
To say that a man's conscience is to be his guide
in religious matters, is to say that he is to decide for
himself what his duty is in regard to religion, and to
do it.
To say that the law, as distinguished from con-
science, is to be one's guide in civil matters, is to say
that one is to do what the law enjoins, whether he
regards it as right, as according to the will of God,
or not.
This view implies a distinction in regard to human
actions which does not exist. It is not true that some
of our actions are religious, and others civil or sec-
ular. God's will has respect to all our actions.
Whether we eat or drink, or whatsoever we do, we
are to do all to the glory of God — to do all with ref-
erence to pleasing God. Acts pertaining to govern-
ment have a moral character, are religious acts, as
truly as acts pertaining to the public worship of God.
It is God's will that men should worship Him : it is
also His will that they should obey magistrates. In
all things God's will is to be our guide. This is what
is meant when it is said conscience should be our
guide.
Again, this view implies that rulers have the
power of changing moral distinctions — if not of
creating them. If the law is to be our guide, then
whatever the law enjohas must be right. Suppose it
COGNITION OF EECTITUDE. 185
enjoins idolatry — are we to worship idols ? Can a
legislature or a despot change the ten command-
ments ? The apostles said, we ought to obey God
rather than man.
The true doctrine is plain. Government is a di-
vine institution. It is our duty to obey all the laws,
unless they come in conflict with the law of God.
Every one must decide for himself whether in a given
case there is a conflict or not. If the law commands
him to do what is wrong, or what he thinks is wrong,
he is to refuse to obey, and submit to the penalty. If
it inflicts wrong upon him at the hand of others, he is
to suffer it. without resistance; unless the oppression
is so great as to justify a revolution — that is, a forci-
ble overthrow of the oppressive government, and the
establishing of another in its place. The fact that a
law is unwise and unjust, does not authorize us to
disobey it, or forcibly resist its execution. It is often
our duty to suffer wrong. When the wrong is well-
nigh intolerable, and there is a fair prospect that an
attempt to overthrow the government and establish a
better one would be successful, then a people are jus-
tified in resorting to the right of revolution.
Thus it may be our duty to submit to a govern-
ment, for a time at least, which had its origin in in-
justice and cruelty. The fact that we are com-
manded to pay tribute to Caesar, does not prove that
Caesar has a right to sway the sceptre of absolute
authority, and that it would not be right to dethrone
186 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
him if we had the power. The fact that a slave is
commanded to obey his master, does not prove that
the master has a right to his obedience. Rights and
duties, when different persons are concerned, are not
always reciprocal. It may be my duty to obey a
highwayman till such time . as I can put a bullet
through him.
The view under consideration destroys the right
of private judgment, and hence destroys personal ac-
countability. Man is no longer responsible for his
conduct in civil matters. His responsibility is thrown
on the government. It may just as well be thrown
on the priest or the fjope.
This view was adopted in consequence of an il-
logical conclusion drawn from the proposition, that
every man should follow his convictions of duty in
civil as well as religious matters. The conclusion
was, that every man would be at liberty to do that
which was right in his own eyes — that anarchy would
be the result. One man would think that one law
was wrong, and would disobey it ; and another, an-
other : consequently, the authority of law would be
at an end.
Ko such conclusion can be legitimately drawn from
the premises. Every man is under obligation to act
according to his convictions of duty ; he is also under
obligation to have his convictions of duty accurate.
If his convictions are accurate, he vfill conscientiously
obey all laws except those which are really in con-
COGNITION 03^^ RECTITUDE. 187
flict with the law of God, and no one will contend
that any government can nullify the law of God.
Suppose his convictions of duty are inaccurate — that
he thinks that a law is opposed to the law of God
when it is not : he will not obey it ; he will disobey,
and suffer the penalty. He thus recognizes the au-
thority of government. He makes no resistance to
the laws. In fact, he renders a passive obedience to
the law. Anarchy cannot take place where every
law is either actively or passively obeyed — where
every law is obeyed, or the penalty of non-obedience
submitted to.
Can conscience be perverted? That is, can the
mind come to wrong conclusions in respect to duty ?
Of course, as it is fallible, it may err in regard to ques-
tions of duty as in regard to all other questions. The
error may result from an inaccurate view of the facts
of the case, or from an obtuseness of perception.
The mind's power of cognizing duty may be im-
paired by neglecting to exercise it aright. The sus-
ceptibility of feeling may be in like manner decreased.
Sin blinds the mind — ^lessens its discriminating power,
and hardens the heart— renders the mind less suscep-
tible of enjoyment or suffering, as duty is or is not
performed.
Can conscience be eradicated- — can the mind lose
its power of cognizing moral distinctions, and its
power of feeling remorse ? We have seen that by
wrong doing the discriminating and emotive power
188 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
may be impaired : can it be annihilated ? Can a
man by sinning destroy his moral nature ?
We have no reason to believe that such an event
can take place. Conscience sometimes seems to slum-
ber; that is, a man seems insensible to moral distinc-
tions, and sins grievously without any apparent sense
of guilt or remorse. But this slumber is often
broken, and the mind seems to have all its discrimina-
tion and moral sensibility restored.
What is meant by the supremacy of conscience ?
Simply, that we ought always to do right. Two
plans of action are proposed : one will be productive
of great pecuniary benefit, but will involve a course
of wrong doing ; the other proposes that which is
strictly right. Of the two, we should adopt the lat-
ter : we were made to do right, and it can never be
right to do wrong. We may say that one plan is
dictated by the understanding, and the other by con-
science, and thus be led to speak of a conflict between
understanding and conscience ; but the conflict is be-
tween the plans, not between two imaginary entities
termed faculties. Both plans were apprehended by
the mind. The mind sees that one is right, and the
other wrong.
To say that conscience should be carefully culti-
vated, is to say that we should take the utmost pains
to learn what is right, and to do it ; that we should
seek first the kingdom of God and his righteousness.
^ ^: (Prr ^yv%. i ^ . n
/^'f^^l/^y^/ L ^z-t^
J^^^i^tcAZcU /^.
CHAPTER XX.
EEASOKING.
ISTo mental process is more important than that of
reasoning. Hence a clear explanation of it is de-
sirable.
To give an explanation or analysis of the process
of reasoning, is to state what the mind does when it
reasons. As all men frequently perform acts of rea-
soning, it ought not to be difficult to, describe the
acts thus performed.
Reasoning is an act of the mind — not the act of a
supposed faculty distinct from the mind, or forming
a constituent portion of the mind. In regard to no
mental process has personification been carried to
greater excess than in regard to the process of reason-
ing. Reason, or the reasoning faculty, has been en-
dowed with nearly all the attributes of personality.
It is said to inform the mind, to receive from the-
senses facts and draw inferences from them ; it is
said to fall into error, and to lead the mind astray.
This unfortunate use of language has thrown needless
190 ELEMEl^TS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
obscurity over the subject of reasoning. In consider-
ing this subject, let the student forget, for the time
being, the existence of faculties ; let him ignore the
existence of Reason, and Judgment, and Comparison,
and the like personages, and confine his attention to
successive mental acts which constitute the process
of reasoning. He will not find it to be so obscure
and complicated a matter as it is commonly supposed
to be.
It is the mind which reasons, just as it is the
mind that cognizes external objects and remembers.
Reasoning is a cognizing act of the mind. We cog-
nize by reasoning truths which were unknown to us
before. Reasoning, then, is the mental process of
cognizing unknown truths, by means of those that
are known. We can attend to this process in a
given instance, and state the successive steps.
We have seen that some of our cognitions are
direct, immediate, intuitive. Such are our cognitions
of the existence of material objects, and of the self-
evident truths termed axioms. But all our cogni-
tions are not direct, immediate, intuitive. Our
knowledge of some truths is conditioned upon our
previous knowledge of other truths ; that is, we see
some things to be true in consequence of having seen
some other things to be true. This last method of
seeing is reasoning. If we observe what the mind
does — what its successive acts are when it sees a
thing to be true because it has previously seen an-
REASONING. 191
other thing to be true — we shall observe the process
of reasoning.
We are not at liberty to assume that the process
of reasoning is in all cases identical. The effect of
so doing is a liability to warp our facts to suit the
assumption. This assumption has sometimes been
made by those attempting to give an analysis of the
process of reasoning. The mind may have different
modes of procedure in cognizing unknown truths by
means of known truths. When we have observed
the process in different circumstances, and in regard
to a variety of truths, we may be prepared to affirm
that the reasoning process is or is not identical in all
cases.
Before proceeding to consider an example of rea-
soning, we would remind the student that all condi-
tioned cognition is not reasoning. We have some
direct, intuitive cognitions conditioned on a previous
cognition. Thus, our cognition of space is condi-
tioned on our cognition of body. Our cognition of
power is conditioned upon our cognition of change
in an object. We cannot be said to arrive at a
knowledge of space and power by reasoning. They
have the directness and universality characteristic of
intuitions.
Again, the cognition of certain relations is condi-
tioned on previous cognitions. We cognize the re-
semblance between two pillars. The cognition is
conditioned upon the previous cognition of the pil-
192 ELEMENTS OF INTEL^OECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
lars. Objects must be known before the relations
between them can be known. Hence the cognition
of certain relations, though conditioned on other cog-
nitions, is not reasoning.
This direct cognition of relations is generally-
termed a judgment. Hence we hear of judgment
and reasoning — ^of reasoning being made up of judg-
ments. The > naming of an act does not alter its
nature, though it may cause confusion in relation to
it. The direct perception of the relation of similar-
ity, superiority, equality, may be called a judgment,
but it is no part of the process of reasoning — that is,
of the process peculiar to reasoning. The term judg-
ment is used in two senses : one, to express the cog-
nition consequent upon comparing two objects ; the
other, to express the decision which the mind comes
to when it has considered the evidence favorable and
adverse to a particular proposition. It would be
well to confine the use of the word to the latter
sense.
Let us now examine some instances of reasoning,
and observe the successive mental acts. Reasoning,
as we have seen, is the mental process of cognizing
unknown truths by means of those that are known.
Suppose I am passing along the street, and see
dilapidated walls and the charred remains of timber.
I infer that a building has been destroyed by fire.
The facts directly perceived are the crumbling walls
and charred remains, and yet I know that there has
eeasokhstCt. 193
been a fire ttere. Using common language, I may
sajr, I see there has been a fire there ; but through the
agency of sense I see only the evidences of fire. The
truth that there has been fire there, is not a sense-
perception — is not a direct perception, but an infer-
ence. It is a knowledge, however, and may have as
much certainty attached to it as attaches to a direct
perception.
Suppose I had never witnessed the action of fire :
could I, on seeing the ruins, infer that a building had
been destroyed by fire ? Suppose I had witnessed
the action of fire, but had entirely forgotten its
effect : could I make the above inference from the
sight of the ruins ? A condition of the inference,
then, is recollected knov^edge. I infer that the pres-
ent ruin is the effect of fire, because I have previously
known that such is the effect of fire. The whole
process of cognizing the fact that a fire destroyed
the building, may be stated thus : 1. A sense-percep-
tion of the ruins. 2, A recollection of the effects of
fire previously known. 3. An inference from anal-
ogy— illustrating the principle that like causes pro-
duce like effects — that the present ruins were caused
by fire. All that is peculiar to the process is infer-
ring. This is conditioned on sense-perception and
recollected knowledge.
It may be said that I know from experience that
the building was destroyed by fire. My experience
is not experience pertaining to the case in. hand. I
9
194 ELEMENTS O:^ INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
have seen other buildings destroyed by fire. I did
not see this building destroyed. Strictly speaking, I
have had no experience in the matter. I have had
experience in similar cases. How can I, then, decide
that fire destroyed this building, because fire de-
stroyed other buildings ? I answer, the mind does
thus decide. We must accept the fact that the mind
does thus cognize the existence of fire as the cause of
the ruin in question, as we accept the fact that it
cognizes the existence of material objects when pre-
sented to the senses. Where the analogy is perfect,
the cognition is one of certainty.
It may be said that the mind, in making an ana-
logical inference, proceeds upon the principle that like
causes produce like effects. When it is said the mind
proceeds upon a certain principle, the meaning is not
very clear. If by the expression is meant that the
procedure or act exemplifies a certain principle, the
meaning is clear. But if it be meant that the con-
clusion is an inference from the general fact, the
meaning is not true. One sees a tree fall. He sees
that there was some cause for its falling. But the
truth that the fall of the tree had a cause, is not an
inference from the general truth that every change has
a cause. The cognition was intuitive. The mind,
on seeino; the fall of the tree, and co2:nizino^ the fact
that it must have had a cause, may be said to pro-
ceed upon the principle that every effect must have a
cause ; but the cognition is not an inference from,
EEASONIN^G. 195
but an exemplification of that principle. In like
manner, the inference in the case under considera-
tion is an exemplification of the truth, that like
causes produce like effects.
•^^^Take another example of reasoning. I hear an
organ in an adjoining apartment. It may be said
that I know the organ is there because I hear it.
But all that I hear is a sound. That is the sum of
my direct cognition. I remember that I have heard
similar sounds, and that I had a direct cognition that
they were caused by an organ. I infer that the
sound now heard is caused by an organ. The men-
tal process is similar to the one above described.
There is first a direct cognition — i, e., sense-percep-
tion— of sound ; secondly, recollected cognitions of
similar sounds and their causes ; thirdly, an infer-
ence from analogy that the present sounds are caused
by an organ. The inference exemplifies the truth,
that like causes produce like effects. We have in
the process an act of cognition, an act of memory,
and an act differing from both, viz., an inference.
Reasoning is thus inferring unknown truths from
those that are known.
A man is standing on the bank of a river. He
wishes to place his fish-hook at the bottom of the
river. He attaches a piece of lead to it, with the cer-
tainty that it will sink to the bottom. That the lead
will sink, is an inference from analogy. The mental
process is the same as in the two cases above noticed.
196 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PKILOSOPHT.
We have thus considered three cases of inferring
— cases in which the inferences had reference to the
past, the present, and the future. In each case,
the certainty of the inference is proportioned to the
exactness of the resembhince to former cases.
A farmer surveys his fields with reference to dis-
tributing his crops. He concludes that a certain
field will yield a good crop of corn, because he has
found from experience that soils of that description
have yielded a good crop. He has had no experience
connected with that particu.lar field. He has had
experience of similar fields. His inference is an
inference from analogy. It will be true in propor-
tion as the field in question, and attendant circum-
stances, are similar to those of which he has had
experience.
The merchant determines to import a certain arti-
cle, because he believes there will be a demand for it,
and that he can sell it at a profit. His experience
has taught him that, on former occasions, when the
circumstances of the country werc^ similar to present
circumstances, there was a demand for the article in
question. He infers that the article will be again in
demand. The inference is founded on present and
recollected cognitions. The facts whicli are the
object of his present cognitions — which constitute
the circumstances of the country — may be numerous
and complicated. Some of them may be cognized
by him directly, and some may be received on testi*
REASONING. 197
mony, and some may be inferred from other facts.
He is therefore liable to error in regard to his facts —
in regard to the grounds of his inference. He may
err as to the degree of similarity between the pres-
ent circumstances of the country and the circum-
stances when the demand existed. The analogy may
be so small, that the inference may not be accurate.
But the mental process is the same as in the cases
above described.
The physician is called to visit a patient. He
finds the patient has a certain disease. He prescribes
a certain medicine, which he is confident will work a
cure. He may be asked the ground of his confi-
dence, and he answers, he is acting from experience.
He knows from experience that the medicine will
cure the disease.
Now, what he really knov\^s is, that the medicine
was efiective in a similar case. With the present
patient he has had no experience. He has found
that, in other similar cases, the medicine effected a
cure ; he therefore infers that it will work a cure in
the present case. His judgments from experience
are inferences from analogy, and will be sound in
proportion to the strictness of the analogy between
the condition of his present and former patients.
The statesman is said to be governed by experi-
ence— his individual experience, and the recorded
experience of the past. He adopts such measures
as experience has shown to be wise. He has
198 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
learned that certain measures in certain circum-
stances have proved beneficial ; he therefore con-
cludes that similar measures in similar circumstances
will prove beneficial. His conclusions from experi-
ence are inferences from analogy. Thus we have the
type of all reasoning from experience. Reasoning
from experience is inferring from analogy.
Let us next consider the ordinary argument ibr
the existence of an intelligent First Cause of the
world. We observe in nature indications of design.
Design implies an intelligent designer. Hence the
world had an intelligent Creator. We cognize cer-
tain facts. We know from experience what indica-
tions of design are. We have seen certain things
which we know to be the work of design ; hence,
when we see analogous things in nature, we infer
that they were the result of design. In the same
way we know that design is the work of an intelli-
gent cause, a person. The argument for the exist-
ence of God is thus an argument from analogy.
It thus appears that analogical reasoning compre-
hends a very large portion of our reasonings. It is
not, as has been sometimes stated in books, a second-
ary and imperfect mode of reasoning, chiefly useful
In answering objections. Nearly all the reasonings
pertaining to practical life are reasonings from anal-
ogy. It is the type of by far the greatest portion of
the reasonings of life.
Tlie conclusions arrived a,t by analogy vary from
BEASONING. 199
certainty to the lowest degree of probability. If
you see footprints on the sand, you are perfectly sure
that some person has been there. If you cast lead
into the water, you are perfectly sure that it will
sink. Tou meet with a stranger : you are perfectly
sure that he is not infallible in all his conclusions.
The certainty, in these cases, is the result of analogi-
cal inference.
You meet a large assemblage of uncultivated
people, and find that they are partaking freely of
intoxicating drinks. You infer that it is highly
probable that there Avill be some disorder.
There is liability to error in reasoning from anal-
ogy. The error commonly is caused by an imperfect
cognition of facts. An analogy is supposed to exist
when it does not, or the analogy is less perfect than
is supposed. False and imperfect analogies have
been most fruitful sources of error.
The mind should be carefully trained to an accu-
rate perception of analogies. It is a most impor-
tant part of the training of a reasoner. One of the
ablest lawyers of our country remarked to the au-
thor, " A perfect perception of analogies would make
a perfect lawyer."
We do not reason by mferring : inferring is rea-
soning. Are analogical inferences the only inferences
drawn by the mind ?
Let it be proposed to prove the following proposi-
tion : The President did not affix his signature at
200 ELEMEJ^TS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY,
Washington to a certain document on the fourth
of January. Let the truth be substantiated that
the President was on that day, and during the
whole of that day, at Boston. Of course, he could
not affix his signature to a document in Washington.
The inference is irresistible : on what is it grounded ?
On two facts or knowledges : the one, that a man
cannot act where he is not ; and the other, that the
President was in Boston. If we were destitute of
either of these knowledges, the inference would not
be sound. We know from experience that a man
cannot act where he is not, and from personal obser-
vation or testimony that the President was in Boston.
The inference from these facts cannot fairly be classed
under the head of analogy. In the case of a piece of
lead being cast into water, the inference is from anal-
ogy. We have seen other pieces sink, and confidently
believe that this will sink. Our belief is so strong,
that we say we know it will sink.
When we know the facts above stated, we see
that the signature was impossible. The inference is
not a belief, however confident. It is a knowledge.
We not only see that the proposition may be true :
we see that it must be true. The process is clearly
distinguishable from the analogical process. The
principle illustrated in the analogical process is, like
causes produce like effects. The principle or general
fact illustrated in the case before us is, that a man
cannot act where he is not. The inference may be
called an inference from implication.
REASONING. 201
Take another example. One enters a portrait
gallery. He sees a portrait wliich is a striking like-
ness of his friend B. On inquiry, he learns that it is
the portrait of Mr. C. C is unknown to him, but
he infers that he resembles his friend B. Here is an
inference grounded on the fact that the portrait is a
striking likeness of two different persons. In that
fact is implied the fact that the two persons resemble
each other. The inference is one of implication, and
not of analogy. It may perhaps be stated in an
analogical form, but the statement would be a forced
one, and the principle illustrated is not the analogical
principle. The general fact illustrated is, that things
that resemble the same things resemble one another.
A man lost all his money yesterday ; therefore he
cannot pay a debt due. Here is a fact and an infer-
ence. The conclusion is implied in the fact.
Analogy is not, therefore, the type of all reason-
ing. We cognize some new truths by analogy, and
others because implied in truths already known. The
author has not examined any example of reasoning
that does not come under the head of analogy or
implication.
In reasoning from analogy, the process and the
principle illustrated are always the same. In reason-
ing from implication, the process varies, or rather the
principle illustrated differs as the facts or premises
differ. This we should expect. The process consists
in seeing a truth in consequence of its relation to an-
9*
202 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
other truth. Tiniths are connected by various rela-
tions. Hence, one truth introduces another to the
mind's view by a relation different from that by
which another truth introduces one. In other words,
we should not expect to find all truths implied in
other truths in the same way.
4r>w
Cy O^^^ 'iiS'^'it-'^-i,-!,
CHAPTER XXI.
MATHEMATICAL REASONIlS'a.
Mathematical reasoning is reasoning concerning
mathematical truth. It is cognizing unknown mathe-
matical truths by means of those that are known.
Certainty attaches to mathematical reasoning, but
this does not constitute the difference between mathe-
matical and moral reasoning; that is, reasoning on
subjects that are mathematical and those that are
not mathematical — reasoning relating to necessary
truth and to contingent truth. Some of our conclu-
sions from contingent truths are as certain as are all
our conclusions from necessary truths. The conclu-
sions in some of the examples above given are as
certain as any of the conclusions of geometry; and to
affirm the opposite is as absurd as to affirm the oppo-
site of the conclusions of geometry. To affirm that
a man in Boston can write his sign manual in Wash-
ington, is not less absurd than to say that two lines that
are equal to a third line are not equal to one another.
It has been said that the certainty of geometrical
204 ELEMENTS OE INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
reasoning is owing to the exactness of its definitions,
and that a similar exactness in our definitions in
morals and politics would secure a similar certaintj
m moral and political reasoning. The remark is
founded on a misapprehension as to the nature of the
definitions of geometry. They are not arbitrary eon-
structions depending upon the skill of the writers
on geometry. They are not creations of the mind.
They are statements of necessary truths. They are
statements of facts respecting space and its relations.
A straight line is a certain relation in space between
two objects or points in space. Angles are certain
combinations of straight lines. So of other geomet-
rical figures described in the definitions. The defi-
nitions are statements of facts in relation to space, as
the definitions of geology are statements of facts ii?
regard to the earth.
They are not mere conceptions of the mind —
hypotheses, from which we infer hypothetical truth.
They are realities — that is, real truths in relation to
space, which are cognized as soon as they are set be-
fore the mind.
If they were mere hypotheses, mental figments, we
should be at liberty to vary them ; but this has not
been done, and cannot be done. Writers on geom.-
etry have difiered slightly in their modes of expres-
sion when stating the definitions ^ but all have
directed the mind to the same truths. If they are
hypotheses, they are mere creations of the mind.
MATHEMATICAL REASONING. 205
The uniforin agreement of geometers in regard to
them is inexplicable on the supposition that they are
hypotheses, hut perfectly explicable on the supposi-
tion "that they are cognized relations of space — ne-
cessary truths.
It is objected to this view, that had we never seen
a material line, angle, or circle, we could not under-
stand the definitions of geometry. Doubtless our
first ideas of lines, angles, and circles, are received
through the agency of the senses. Our primary cog-
nitions are probably cognitions by the senses. Our
cognition of space is conditioned on our cognition of
matter. In like manner, our cognition of the relations
of space — forms of shape, may be conditioned on our
cognition of material forms.
Mill denies that the definitions of geometry have
any existence — denies that there are any geometrical
forms distinct from material forms. He says: "There
exist no points without magnitude, no lines without
breadth, nor perfectly straight ; no circles v/ith all
their radii exactly equal, nor squares with all their
angles perfectly right. It will perhaps be said that
the assumption does not extend to the actual, but
only to the possible existence of such things. I answer
that, according to any test that we have of possi-
bility, they are not even possible. Their existence, so
far as we can form any judgment, would seem to be
inconsistent with the physical constitution of our
planet, at least, if not of the universe. To get rid of
206 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
this difficulty, and at the same time to save the credit
of the supposed systems of necessary truths, it is
customary to say that the points, lines, circles, and
squares which are the subject of geometry, exist in our
conceptions merely, and are part of our minds ; which
minds, by working on their own materials, construct
an a priori science, the evidence of which is purely
mental, and has nothing whatever to do with outward
experience. By howsoever high authorities this doc-
trine may have been sanctioned, it appears to me
psychologically incorrect. The points, lines, circles,
and squares which any one has in his mind, are, I
apprehend, simply copies of the points, lines, circles,
and squares which he has known by experience. A
line as defined by geometers is wholly inconceivable.
We can reason about a line as if it had no breadth ;
because we have a power, which is the foundation
of the control we can exercise over the operations of
our minds ; the power, when a perception is present
to our senses, or a conception to our intellects, of
attending to a part only of that perception or concep-
tion, instead of the whole. But we cannot conceive
of a line without breadth; we can form no mental
picture of such a line : all the lines which we have in
our minds are lines possessing breadth. If any one
doubts this, we may refer him to his own experience.-
I much question if any one who fancies that he can
conceive what is called a mathematical line, thinks so
from the evidence of his consciousness. I suspect it
MATHEMATICAL REASONING. 207
is rather because he supposes that unless such a con-
ception were possible, mathematics could not exist as
a science ; a supposition which there will be no diffi-
culty in showing to be entirely groundless.
" Since, then, neither in nature nor in the human
mind do there exist any objects exactly correspond-
ing to the definitions of geometry, while yet that
science"^ cannot be supposed to be conversant about
nonentities ; nothing remains but to consider geom-
etry as conversant with such lines, angles, and
figures as really exist; and the definitions, as they
are called, must be regarded as some of our first and
most obvious generalizations concerning those natural
objects."
We admit that "there exist no real [material]
things exactly conformable to the definitions;" but
unless material things are admitted to comprehend
all things, his assertion is not necessarily correct.
We affirm that there exist real things exactly con-
formable to the definitions ; that there are real rela-
tions of space, which are intuitively cognized when
the mind's attention is directed to them.
He says, " We cannot conceive of a line without
breadth," by which we suppose he means, we can
form no mental picture of such a line. Material
objects are the only objects of which we can form
mental pictures. We can form no mental picture of
the human mind, yet it is a reality. All spiritual
truths are unpicturable. If reality were confined to
208 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
the picturaWe, materialism v/ould be the only true
philosophy.
The definitions of geometry are then neither arbi-
trary creations of the mind, nor mere copies of ma-
terial objects. If the former were true, the science
of geometry would be wholly subjective. If the
latter, then it would follow, as Mill affirms, that
the peculiar certainty always ascribed to it*^"is an
illusion."
Dugald Stewart taught that reasoning in geometry
is built wholly upon the definitions. The definitions
.he regarded as hypotheses, and hence the results of
demonstration as only hypothetically true.
We have seen that the definitions of geometry
are statements of facts. Let us next consider the
axioms. The axioms are generalized statements of
self-evident truths. Like all intuitive truths, they
are cognized by all men — are admitted by all. This
has been denied. It has been said that the savages
of the western world never cognized the axioms,
and hence the assertion that all men cognize them is
not true. It is true that the axioms of geometry, as
they are stated in books, have not been present to
the minds of all men. But it must be remembered;
that truth of every kind is first cognized in particu-
lar or individual instances. Did the savage ever
fail to perceive that the whole of a deer was greater
than its part ? Did he ever proceed to a division
of the results of hunting on the opposite principle ?
MATHEMATICAL REASONING. 209
When an individual case occurred, did he ever fail to
perceive that two arrows, each equal in length to a
third, were equal to one another ? The tiaiths of
which the axioms are the generalized statement are
intuitively cognized hy all men as instances occur.
They are intuitive, necessary truths.
Mill affirms that the axioms " are experimental
truths — generalizations from observation." Observe
that a generalization from observation is one thing —
a generalized statement of an intuitive cognition
another thing. That all men are mortal, is a gener-
alizatioD from observation. A series of observa-
tions— that is, a number of observed facts — is neces-
sary to a generalization. A single intuitive cognition
renders the truth of the axioms as certain as a thou-
sand cognitions. When we have seen two rods each
equal to a third, we intuitively cognize their equality
with each other ; and the statement of the fact thus
cognized in a general form constitutes an axiom. A
single cognition gives us the axiom. -Vf e see that it
is true and must be true from one example as v/ell as
from a thousand.
The question. Does geometrical reasoning depend
upon the axioms or the definitions ? has been ear-
nestly discussed. Locke and others contended that
the axioms contribute nothing to the reasoning.
Stewart adopted the same view, and contended
that geometrical reasoning depends upon the defini-
tions. Whewell, whose view of the nature of the
210 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
definitions approaches very nearly to the true view,
contends that the axioms, as well as the definitions,
must be admitted as first principles of geometrical
reasoning.
The expression, first principles of reasoning, is
equivocal. First principles may mean the facts from
which the reasoning starts, or they may mean princi-
ples or truths from which all the truths of geometry
are deduced. Thus it is sometimes said, that from a
few simple truths the far-reaching science of geome-
try has been built up. The impression on some
minds seems to be, that the science is constructed
out of the few truths expressed in the axioms or defi-
nitions, or both, either by combination or deduction.
It is, perhaps, a common impression, that the truths
of every science are deduced from self-evident truths.
This impression is in consequence of the fact, that
when we trace our knowledge in any department of
science to its origin, we arrive at self-evident truths.
But it does not follow from this, that all our knowl-
edge is deduced from those self-evident truths.
Truth is deduced only from comprehensive truths,
and self-evident truths are always simple. Self-evi-
dent truths may constitute the origin, but not the
source of all our knowledge. It does not follow,
because a knowledge of certain truths is necessary
to the knowledge of other truths, that the latter
are contained m the former. A truth may be the
condition of my cognizing another truth, witliout
I
MATHEMATICAL REASONIIS^G. 211
containing that truth. So far is it from being true
that the science of geometry is deduced from the
axioms, it may be affirmed that no truth can be
deduced from an axiom. Take any one of the ac-
knowledged axioms (for some propositions which
appear among the axioms in some treatises are really
definitions), and try* to deduce a truth from it. Take
the axiom, " Things equal to the same things are
equal to one another," and what truth can you de-
duce from it ? None. It will be said, we prove
propositions by its aid. Let that assertion be made
good by an appeal to facts. Take the first problem
of Euclid — ^to construct an equilateral triangle. The
process of proving that the triangle constructed is
equilateral, consists in showing that two sides of the
triangle, viz., A and B, are equal, because radii of
the same circle ; and that the sides B and C are
equal, because radii of the same circle. The sides A
and C have thus been shown to be equal to B, there-
fore they are equal to one another. If the question
be asked. On what ground is the conclusion made
that A and C are equal ? the reply may be, Because
things equal to the same are equal to one another.
The conclusion is supposed to be drawn from the
axiom as a premise. But suppose one had never
heard the axiom stated. He would perceive the
equality of the two lines as soon as he had perceived
their equality to a third line. In fact, the truth is
seen before the axiom is quoted, and before it is
212 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
called to mind. Of course, it cannot be drawn from
the axiom. If we consult what takes place m our
minds, we shall discover that, as soon as we see that
A and C are equal to B, we see that they are equal to
one another. We see that they are equal because
they are equal ; just as we see the tree before us,
because it is before us.
In the demonstration, the conditions of the cogni-
tion of the equality of A to B and C to B are given,
and then the truth of their equality to each other is
announced. The question is asked, Why? and the
reply is, " Because things equal to the same are equal
to one another." A generalized statement of what is
intuitively perceived to be true in a given case, is
given as the reason of it ; that is, the repetition of a
truth is given as the reason of that truth ! There is
no reasoning in such a course of procedure.
Take another example. In the course of a demon-
stration, it is seen and stated that an angle A is a
part of an angle B, therefore B is greater than A.
It is not necessary to quote or to call to mind the
axiom. The whole is greater than its part, before we
cognize the fact that B is greater than A. It is in-
tuitively perceived ; and when we quote the axiom,
our cognition is not aifected by it. It is a mere repe-
tition in a general form of the truth intuitively per-
ceived in the case in hand.
It thus appears that conclusions in geometry are
not deduced from the axioms — that the axioms have
^lATHEMATICAL EEASONi:^rG. 213
no probative force. If treatises on geometry were to
omit all reference to axioms, the reasoning v/oukl be
just as intelligible and irresistible as it is now.
It may perhaps be said, that if the axioms were
not true, the steps in the demonstration which exem-
plify them would not be true. A little reflection y^^ill
show that this is tantamount to saying, that if cer-
tain things were not true, they would not be true.
The truths of geometry are, then, not deduced
from the axioms. Geometrical reasoning does not
depend upon the axioms. The science of geometry
is not built up of axioms.
Does geometrical reasoning, then, depend upon
the definitions ? In a certain sense it does. Geo-
metrical reasoning depends upon the definitions in
the same sense in which geological reasoning de-
pends upon the rocks which constitute the facts of
the science. The definitions are the facts which the
geometer reasons about. He compares them, and
cognizes relations existing betv^een them. The new
truths arrived at are not inferences, but intuitive cog-
nitions. A demonstration is a series of intuitive cog-
nitions conditioned upon preceding cognitions. At
the outset the intuitive cognitions are conditioned
on the truths contained in the definitions : each new
cognition may be the condition of a new cogni-
tion, as each step in the ascent of a mountain may
be the condition of a v/ider prospect.
A geometrical demonstration is a series of intui-
214 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL rHILOSOPHY.
tive cognitions conditioned on preceding truths —
starting with the truth contained in the definitions.
The process is plainly distinguishable from that of
inferring.
If the definitions are not truths, if they are mere
mental figments, then the relations between them are
figments, and that which is regarded as the most cer-
tain of all knowledge becomes unreal, fictitious.
But the definitions are truths, self-evident, necessary
truths. They are assented to by all as soon as clearly
stated ; that is, it is seen that space has, and must
have, the relations indicated by the definitions. The
certainty of the reasoning depends upon the nature
of the truth reasoned about, and not upon skilfulness
of definition. It is therefore unreasonable to demand
mathematical demonstration in relation to contins^ent
truths. No fact, that is, no contingent event, can be
mathematically demonstrated.
It was stated above that a demonstration consists
of a series of intuitive cognitions, each conditioned
on preceding cognitions. Testimony and inference
have no place in a demonstration ; for every step must
not only be seen to be true, but necessarily true, and
the opposite impossible. The opposite of the truest
testimony is often not impossible. The opposite of
the soundest inference is not impossible. The truth j
of the above assertion in regard to geometrical de- j
monstration can be tested by an analysis of a demon-
stration.
^^.^/
CHAPTER XXII.
THE SYLLOGISM.
It has been affirmed that the syllogism is the mode
of reasoning in regard both to contingent and neces-
sary truth. A syllogism consists of a major and
minor premise and a conclusion. The following is an
example :
All men are mortal :
Socrates is a man ;
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
It is affirmed that the reasoning process is the
same in all cases. Whately says that " one of the
chief impediments in attaining a just view of the na-
ture and object of Logic, is the not fully understand-
ing or not sufficiently keeping in mind the sameistess
of the reasoning process in all cases." The syllogism
he regards as the type of all reasoning, and the prin-
ciple on which syllogisms are constructed "is the
miiversal principle of reasoning." This universal
principle is the Dictum of Aristotle, viz., "that
whatever is predicated (^. 6., affirmed or denied) uni-
versally of any class of things, may be predicated in
216 ELEMENTS OF II^TELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
like marnier (viz., affirmed or denied) of any thing
comprehended in that class."
. " 'Now to remind one, on each occasion, that so
and so is referable to such and such a class, and that
the class which happens to be before us comprehends
such and such things — this is precisely all that is ever
acco7nplished hy reasoning,'^''
If this is all, reasoning has a much less extended
scope than is generally supposed. If the analysis we
have given of contingent and demonstrative reason
be true, the process is not in all cases the same ; and
the Dictum is not the universal principle of reasoning.
The process by which we cognize truths previously
unknown, is something more than a reminding that
the object we are reasoning about belongs to a certain
class of objects.
The following remarks of Bailey are worthy of
attention : ^' The Dictum de omni et nullo^ viz., that
' whatever is predicated universally of any class of
things, may be predicated in like manner of any thing,
comprehended in that class,' is not only stated by
logicians to be a general maxim, of the application
of which every direct syllogism is a particular in-
stance, but proclaimed to be the universal principle
of reasoning.
" If we closely scrutinize the meaning of this maxim,
undazzled by the somewhat magnificent and imposing
phraseology in which it has been spoken of, we shall
find it an obviously simple and undeniable proposition,
1
THE SYLLOGISM. 217
viz., whatever is asserted of a class may be asserted
of any species or individual of that class. A class,
ht)Vfever, we must bear in mind, is not a collective or
corporate whole, which, as a whole, possesses proper-
ties or attributes different from those of the individ-
uals composing it; but what is predicated of it is
predicated of every separate individual ranked under
it. The proposition, *A11 men are fallible,' affirms that
every individual man is fallible ; while the proposi-
tion, 'The army is large,' affirms of the body col-
lectively something which it does not affirm of any
single individual in it. If a class v/ere such a col-
lective body, the Aristotelian maxim could not be true.
" The dictum, therefore, it is plain, means neither
more nor less than that w^hatever is predicated of
every individual of a class, may be predicated of any
individual, or any number of individuals, of that class.
As, however, what can be truly predicated of any
thing must be a property or attribute actually pos-
sessed, we may, if we choose, leave out predication
altogether, and then the maxim w^ill appear in a still
simpler shape, as follows : What belongs to every
individual of a class must belong to any individual
of that class. However it may be expressed, it is
obviously a self-evident and indisputable truth, like
the other maxims we have just been considering ; and
this view of its coordinate character is sufficient of
itself to determine the accuracy of the maxim which
proclaims it the universal principle of reasoning.
10
218 ELEMENTS OP INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
"If this doctrine were true, every act of reasoning
would be an exemplification of this one maxim, and
might be ranged under it. In other words, all rea-
soning without exce|)tion would consist in concluding
that an attribute belongs to some individual class, be-
cause it belongs to every individual of that class. No
other reason, according to this theory, can possibly
exist or be assigned. The sole ground on which we
can argue that an individual thing possesses any
attribute, is, that the thing belongs to a class, all the
members of which possess the attribute."
From the examples of reasoning which have
been given, the student can decide whether they all
come under the head of what may be termed class-
reasoning; whether the concUision, be it an inference
from analogy, or a cognition conditioned on preceding
cognitions, is reached by referring the subject to a
particular class or not.
The doctrine above stated assumes that all our
reasonings proceed from general principles, which
assumption is unauthorized and is contrary to fact.
All reasoning at the outset proceeds from facts di-
rectly cognized. By reasoning from facts we acquire
general conclusions, and may use these conclusions as
premises or facts for further reasoning.
When we thus use a general conclusion as a
premise, the whole reasoning rests upon the facts
from which the conclusion was deduced.
General principles may be revealed to us, and we
THE SYLLOGISM. 219
may draw inferences from them. The absolute per-
fection of God is revealed to iis : we may infer from
it that such and such things cannot be done by him.
If all our reasonings proceeded upon general prin-
ciples— that is, if a general principle must in all cases
form the major premise — then, in order that our rea-
soning be sound, the major premise must be revealed
to us, or we must intuitively cognize its truth. But
all our intuitions are of individual truths, not of
general principles ; and all general principles are not
revealed to us. They are arrived at by induction,
which is inferring from analogy.
That every argument may be stated in a syllogistic
form, does not prove that the mind used the syllogistic
form, in mating the inference. The different steps in
a geometrical demonstration can be stated in a syl-
logistic form; but the mind does not use that form in
reaching the conclusion. In the problem above ad-
duced, in which the object is to prove that the tri-
angle constructed is equilateral, two sides are shown
each to be equal to the third side, and consequently
they are equal to one another. The mind sees their
equality to one another as soon as it sees their equal-
ity to the third side. The argument may be stated
in a syllogistic form.
Things equal to the same are equal to one another :
A and C are each equal to B ;
Therefore, they are equal to one another.
We have seen that the conclusion follows as soon
220 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
as we see that A and C are equal to B. It is not
drawn from the axiom. The axiom is merely the
generalized statement of what is intuitively cognized
in an invividual case. The mind made no use of the
major premise in coming to the conclusion ; the
conclusion would have been reached just as quickly,
if the major premise had never been heard of. Every
step in a geometrical demonstration can be stated in
the form of a syllogism. The remarks respecting the
problem above noticed will apply to every geomet-
rical syllogism.
Instead of all reasoning being resolvable into the
syllogism, a large portion of syllogistic reasoning is
resolvable into reasoning from analogy. Take the
example given above :
All men are mortal :
Socrates is a man ;
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
Here the thing to be proved, the unknown truth
to be reached by means of the known, is the mortality
of Socrates. What is it inferred from ? According
to the syllogism, from the major premise, "All men are
mortal." But how does the reasoner know that all
men, including Socrates, are mortal ? For as Socrates
is a man, his being mortal must be known, that the
premise may be valid ; that is, the thing to be proved
must be known, in order that it may be proved !
It has been charged against the syllogism, that in
the major premise it assumes the point to be proved ;
THE SYLLOGISM. 221
that every syllogism is a petitio principii. The charge
is good against the syllogism of Avliich the above is
the type.
The mortality of Socrates, or of any other man, is
provable. What is the process of proof? All men
v/ho have lived heretofore have died: Socrates is
like them — has the same attributes; therefore, So-
crates will die. In other words, a great many beings
like Socrates have died ; therefore, he will die. The
inference is plainly an inference from analogy. The
real argument cannot be stated in a syllogism con-
structed in accordance with the dictum.
Men learn to reason by reasoning, and not by the
study of treatises on logic, which are not necessarily
logical treatises. The author bas questioned quite a
number of men eminent for power in reasoning, and
in no instance was the study of a technical logic
referred to as a source of that power. They learned
to reason by reasoning.
In fact, logic as taught in the schools does not
profess to teach one how to reason. It professes to
teach him how to cast an argument into a syllogistic
form, in order that its soundness or unsoundness may
appear from the form of the syllogism, though the
argument were not understood. It would furnish, as
it were, a mechanical test of arguments.
May there not be a more excellent way — that of
training the mind to look directly at the proposition
in question, to scan the premises to see if they are
222 ELEMENTS OF INTELLEOTFAL PHILOSOPHY.
true, and the inference to see if it be legitimate? If
reasoning consists in perceiving certain relations exist-
ing between truths, the power of cognizing relations
should be exercised in preference to the practice of
formal rules. We learn to reason by reasoning, just
as we learn to remember by remembering. Let the
student select the best specimens of reasoning to be
found in the language. Let him make those speci-
mens the subject of a careful study. Let him note
how such men as Marshall and Webster and other
great reasoners reasoned, and let him go and do like-
wise.
The study of mathematics may form habits favor-
able to moral reasoning, but cannot make a moral
reasoner ; that is, cannot make one skilful in reasoning
on subjects that are not mathematical. The exclusive
, devotion of the mind for a long time to mathematical
reasoning, has a tendency to unfit one for moral
reasoning. The mind forms the habit of demanding
certainty at every step, and acquires no skill in
weighing probabilities, and evolving the truth from
conflicting evidences. To estimate probabilities, and
to reconcile apparent contradictions, and to detect
tendencies, are processes Avhich the reasoner on prac-
tical matters has occasion to perform daily ; and he
who acquires skill in these processes is better fitted
for practical life than he who has skill in the use of
the calculus.
(7 A ^r^a-it/a.,
CHAPTER XXIII.
MEMORY,
Our cognitions, feelings, and volitions are con-
stantly changing. As they pass from consciousness,
they leave the mind in a condition which renders
their resuscitation possible. The mind can remember
or recall its past operations.
How the mind remembers we cannot tell ; that is,
we cannot describe the act of remembering. We have
seen that we cannot describe the act of perception ;
we can only state its conditions. "We can pursue a
similar course in regard to memory.
In order that a thing may be remembered, it must
receive some degree of attention. Objects which
receive little or no attention, are seldom remembered.
That memory is conditioned on attention, is known
to all.
The attention may be spontaneous or voluntary.
The object of thought may be in itself so interesting,
that the attention shall be spontaneously fixed upon
it. In reading an interesting narrative, we may be
conscious of no effort at attention, and yet the atten-
tion may be so intensely fixed upon it, that we may
224 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
become insensible to objects around ns. Such iiarra
tives are easily remembered. Hence, if we would have
others remember what we say, we must make our
discourse interesting.
The attention may, by an effort, an act of will, be
fixed on objects which are not interesting — which do
not attract spontaneous attention. To be able thus
to fix the attention, is the chief characteristic of a
well-disciplined mind. The habit can be gained only
by repeated and long-continued effort.
Clear and definite apprehension is necessary to
distinct remembrance. The idea cannot appear in
memory with greater distinctness than it appeared in
perception. Hence, he who is cultivating the power
of clear seeing, is cultivating his memory also. The
right culture of one power of the mind tends to the
improvement of the other powers.
Objects which awaken emotion arc more easily
remembered than those which do not. The effect of
the emotion may be to concentrate the attention
upon the object. It is said that such objects make a
deeper impression upon the mind, and are therefore
the more perfectly remembered. The phrase is simply
a repetition of the fact which it seeks to account for.
Repetition is favorable to remembrance. A story
heard several times is remembered with all its details*;
if it is heard but once, only the outline is remem-
bered. The more frequently an object is present to
the mind, the more readily it is recalled.
MEMOEY. 225
Relying upon the mind's power to remember — or
trusting to memory — is another condition of remem-
brance. This is the same thing as exercising the
mind vigorously in remembering. The mind's power
in regard to every kind of action is increased in pro-
portion to the legitimate, vigorous exercise which it
receives. Two persons may resolve to commit the
same poem to memory. One, under a mistaken view
of the relation of repetition to remembrance, reads it
over a score of times before he attempts to repeat it.
The other undertakes to repeat it after a single peru-
sal, and refers to the book only when, after long-con-
tinued effort, he fails to remember the stanza at
fault. The latter pursues the course best adapted to
strengthen his memory.
The use of written memoranda is unfavorable
to good habits of remembering. He who relies upon
his memoranda, will not rely upon his memory.
Power in remembering is thereby impaired. Self-
reliance is as important in regard to memory as it is
in regard to moral perception and voluntary action.
One's memory Avill serve him just in proportion as he .
really trusts it. One of the ablest and most exten-
sive practitioners of law in ISTew York city never
keeps a memorandum of the cases on hand. It is not
known that he ever failed to attend to a case at the
appointed time.
An orderly and natural arrangement of our
knowledge is favorable to memory. A well-arranged
10*
226 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
discourse or essay, in which the thoughts are placed
in their natural relations to each other, is easily re-
membered. Of a desultory, disconnected essay or
discourse, we can remember only here and there a
thought. This is owing to the fact that our thoughts
succeed each other according to certain relations, or
laws of association. Why they succeed each other
according to these laws, we cannot tell.
Susceptibility, retentivenes^, and readiness have
been named as the qualities of a good memory ; in
other words, it is desirable that the mind should be
able to commit to memory easily, retain that which
is thus committed, and readily reproduce it when
wanted. Some minds commit to memory rapidly,
and quickly forget what they have committed.
Some commit with difficulty, but retain it long.
Some retain with fidelity, but recall it slowly. Com-
monly, slowness of recollection is not owing to any
peculiar mental action in remembering. There is a
great difference in minds with respect to rapidity
and slowness of action. A mind whose general
operations are slow, will be slow in remembering.
Some minds are rapid, retentive, and ready with
respect to remembering.
Some acts of memory are spontaneous, and some
are voluntary ; that is, voluntary efforts are neces-
sary in order to recall the desired thought. Memory
is not directly subject to the will. The mind cannot
will the presence of any thought : the attempt pre-
MEMORY. 227
supposes the presence of the thought. We wish to
remember something — we cannot tell what it is, for
that would be to remember it. It seems to be
utterly gone from our minds ; and yet, if another
thought is suggested, we can see at once that it is
not the thought whose presence we desire. We
make an effort to remember. The effort consists in
fixing our attention on objects known to be con-
nected with the forgotten thought — in putting the
mind in a waiting attitude. By-and-by the thought
is resuscitated : perhaps we can trace the successive
associated thoughts which brought it to mind — per-
haps not. Sometimes a thought seems to flash upon
our minds without any apparent connection with any
other thought. Are there such disconnected mental
acts ?
Dugald Stewart thinks the thoughts constituting
the links in the chain of association pass so quickly
that we do not remember their presence. Hamil-
ton's explanation is based on his theory of latent,
unconscious mental modifications.
Minds differ as to their power of remembering.
This may be owing, in some cases, to original differ-
ences in the structure of the minds thus differing,
and in some cases to culture. There is in the case
of nearly all persons a necessity for the exercise of
memory which produces a considerable degree of
development.
Some men have an extraordinary capacity for
228 ELEMENTS OF lA'TELI ECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
remembering dates and names, and an ordinary,
perhaps inferior capacity of remembering ordinary
things. "Others remember permanently, and with-
out effort, localities, the faces of persons, and every
form of external nature. Some have great facility in
recollecting words and their relations to each other."
"That these differences," says Dr. Wayland,
" can be accounted for in some degree by educa-
tion, I have no doubt. In the most remarkable
instances, however, they seem to depend chiefly
upon natural endowment. I have known several
persons who have been gifted with some of these
forms of recollection in a very uncommon degree,
and they have uniformly told me that the things
which they remembered cost them no more pains
than those which they forgot. All the account
which they could give of the matter was, that
some classes of facts, without any special effort,
remained permanently fixed in their recollection,
while others were as readily forgotten by them as
by other men. A highly esteemed clergyman of
Massachusetts, lately deceased, who could tell the
year of the graduation of every alumnus of his uni-
versity, and the minutest incidents relating to every
ordination in his vicinity for the last half century,
assured me that it cost him no labor, but that it was,
so far as he knew, a mental peculiarity.
" The large development of any particular form of
memory is not, of necessity, accompanied by any
MEMORY. 229
other remarkable intellectual endowments. Instances
have frequently been noticed of men with prodigious
powers of recollection, whose abilities in other re-
sjDCCts were even below mediocrity. Very remark-
able memory has even been observed in persons of so
infirm an understanding, that they did not even com-
prehend what they accurately repeated. In this case,
probably, the power was mere susceptibility of mem-
ory ; that is, the power of acquiring on the instant,
without the ability of permanent recollection. A
very remarkable case of this one-sided power is men-
tioned in the life of the late Mr. Roscoe, of Liver-
pool. A young Welsh fisherman, of about the age
of eighteen, was found to have made most remark-
able progress in the study of languages. He was
not only familiar with Latin and Greek, but also with
Hebrew, Arabic, and other Oriental dialects. Some
benevolent gentlemen in that city provided means
for giving him every literary advantage, in the hope
that his vast acquisitions might be made useful to
society, and also that he might unfold the processes
by which his singular attainments had been made.
The attempt was, however, unsuccessful. He seemed
not to be peculiarly capable of education, but, with
the exception of this peculiar gift, his mind partook
entirely of the character of the class with which he
had been associated."
On the other hand, it is rare that high intellectual
powers are found in connection with a defective
230 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
memory. " For intellectnal power of the highest
order," says Hamilton, " none were distinguished
above Grotius and Pascal ; and Groiius and Pascal
forgot nothing they had ever read or thought. Leib-
nitz and Euler were not less celebrated for their in-
telligence than for their memory, and both could
repeat the whole of the u^iieid, Donellus knew the
Corpus Juris by neart, and yet he was one of the
profoundest and most original speculators in jurispru-
dence. Muratori, though not a genius of the very
highest order, was still a man of great ability and
judgment ; and so powerful was his retention, that
in making quotations he had only to read his pas-
sages, put the books in their place, and then to write
out from memory the words. Ben Jonson tells us
that he could repeat all he had ever written, and
whole books that he had read. Themistocles could
call by their names the twenty thousand citizens of
Athens ; Cyrus is reported to have known the names
of every soldier in his army. Hortensius, after
Cicero the greatest orator of Rome, after sitting a
whole day at a public sale, correctly enunciated from
memory all the things sold, their prices, and the
names of the purchasers. Niebuhr, the historian of
Rome, was not less distinguished for his memory
than for his acuteness. In his youth he was em-
ployed in one of the public offices of Denmark ; part
of a book of accounts having been destroyed, he re-
stored it from his recollection. Sir James Mackin-
MEMORY. 231
tosh was, likewise, remarkable for his power of mem-
ory. An instance I can give you which I witnessed
myself. In a conversation I had with him, we hap-
pened to touch upon an author whom I mentioned in
my last lecture — Muretus ; and Sir James recited
from his oration in praise of the massacre of St. Bar-
tholomew some considerable passages. Mr. Dugald
Stewart, and the late Dr. Gregory, are likewise ex-
amples of great talent united with great memory."
As there has been thought to be an incompatibil-
ity between great powers of memory and a sound
judgment, it may be well to consider the relation of
memory to judgment ; that is, what relation those
mental acts which we call acts of memory sustain to
those mental acts which we call conclusions or judg-
ments.
A man of good judgment draws accurate inferences
from complex premises. From simple premises, men
of slender capacity can draw accurate inferences. If
one sees footprints on the sand, he infers that some
person has been walking there. When the premises
are complex — when the inference is to be drawn from
a variety of facts, some of them obscure, perhaps, and
some of them apparently in conflict, there is difficulty
and liability to error. A man who cognizes the truth
—draws accurate conclusions — under such circum-
stances, is called a man of good judgment.
The various facts from which he draws his infer-
ences must be viewed, not separately, but in theii
232 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
relations to each other. This comprehensive view
requires the exercise of memory. The facts must be
clearly before the mind, either by direct seeing oi
distinct remembrance. Besides, the final conclusion
must be the result of many subordinate conclusions.
Hence they must all be distinctly remembered. Unles^i
a man, therefore, have a good memory, he cannot be a
man of good judgment. He may not have a good
memory for dates and casual occurrences ; but he must
have a good memory in relation to the materials oi
his reasonings. He must have a good memory in
relation to trains of thought.
The power of memory is early developed, and, in
comparison with the other powers, early decays. The
first indications of mental decline have respect to the
memory. The aged man forgets recent events. He
forgets the events of yesterday, while he remembers
the events of childhood. Why is this ?
It is said that events in early life make a deeper
impression upon the memory than events in later life,
and are therefore remembered. Is this apparent
reason for the fact any more than a re-afiirmance of
the fact in other words ? The careful observer will
meet with many examples of this method of proce-
dure, when attempts are made to give a reason for
that for which no reason can be given. Does the
mind ever forget any of its experiences ? Are any
mental operations so entirely forgotten that they
cannot be recalled ?
MEMORY. ' 233
" From remarkable and well authenticated facts,"
says Dr. Wayland, "it appears that, probably from
some unexplained condition of the material organs,
the recollection of knowledge long since obliterated
may be suddenly revived. These cases have been
observed to occur most frequently in extreme sick-
ness, and on the near approach of death. May it not
be that, in our present state, the material and imma-
terial part of man being intimately united, our failure
of recollection is caused by some condition of the
material organism ; and that, as this union approaches
dissolution, the power of the material over the im-
material is weakened, and the knowledge which we
have once acquired is more fully revealed to our
consciousness, indicating that when the separation is
complete it will remain with us forever ?
"A variety of cases are mentioned by writers on this
subject, a few of which are here inserted.
"An instance is mentioned by Coleridge of a ser-
vant-girl in Germany, who, in extreme sickness, was
observed to repeat passages of Greek, Latin, and
Hebrew, though she was known to have no acquaint-
ance with those languages. Upon inquiry into her
history, it was found that many years before, she had
been a domestic in the family of a learned professor,
who Vt^as in the habit of repeating aloud passages
from his favorite authors while walking in his study,
which adjoined the apartment in which she was ac-
customed to labor. This case is the more remarkable.
234 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
inasmuch as the person had never been conscious
herself of having acquired the knowledge which she,
under these circumstances, exhibited,
"The Rev. Mr. Flint, a very intelligent gentleman,
who, in a series of interesting letters, has related his
experiences in the valley of the Mississippi, informs
^us that, under a desperate attack of typhus fever, as
his attendants afterwards told him, he repeated whole
pages from Virgil and Homer, which he had never
committed to memory, and of which, after his re-
covery, he could not recollect a line.
" Dr. Abercrombie, in his work on intellectual phi-
losophy, mentions a variety of cases in which persons
in extreme sickness, and under operations for injuries
of the head, conversed in languages which they had
known in youth, but had for many years entirely for-
gotten.
" Dr. Rush mentions the case of an Italian gentle-
man who died of yellow fever in New York, who, in
the beginning of his sickness, spoke English ; in the
middle of it, French ; but on the day of his death,
nothing but Italian. A Lutheran clergyman informed
Dr. Rush that the Germans and Swedes of his con-
gregation in Philadelphia, when near death, always
prayed in their native languages, though some of
them, he was confident, had not spoken them for fifty
or sixty years.
" Dr. Abercrombie mentions another case, of a boy,
who, at the age of four, received a fracture of the
MEMOEY. 235
skull, for wliich he underwent the operation of the
trepan. He was at the time in a state of perfect
stupor ; and, after his recovery, retained no recollec-
tion either of the accident or of the operation. At
the age of fifteen, during the delirium of a fever, he
gave his mother a correct description of the operation,
and the persons who were present at it, with their
dress and other minute particulars. He had never
been observed to allude to it before, and no means
were known by which he could have acquired a
knowledge of the circumstances which he related.
"What conclusion we are authorized to draw from
these facts, it is difficult to determine. They, how-
ever, indicate that what we seem to forget can never
be irretrievably lost to the percipient soul. The
means for recalling it in some inexplicable manner
appears to exist ; and when, under some unknown
conditions, they are called into action, all or any part
of our knowledge may on the instant be brought to
our recollection.
" The moral lesson which these facts inculcate is
obvious. If every impression made upon the mind
is to remain upon it forever ; if the soul be a tablet
from which nothing that is written is ever erased, how
great is the importance of imbuing it with that knowl-
edge w^hich shall be a source of joy to us as long as
we exist. And, again, since knowledge which iies so
long dormant may be revived unexpectedly, under
conditions which we cannot foresee, and at times
236 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
when it may have the most important bearings upon
our decisions and our destiny, it is of the greatest
consequence to us to store tbe mind with such knowl-
edge as shall invigorate our principles and confirm
our virtue. He who reads a corrupting book for pas-
time may thoughtlessly lay it down, and suppose that
in a few days all the images which it has created will
have passed from his remembrance forever. But
these latent ideas may be recalled by some casual as-
sociation, or some physical condition of the brain, and
give that bias to his mind in the hour of temj)tation,
which will determine him to a course that shall tend
to his final undoing."
The power of memory is susceptible of rapid and
great improvement ; and^ as many of the most im-
portant of the operations of the mind are conditioned
upon its proper exercise, it is worthy of cultivation.
The law of its growth is exercise, and the only diffi-
culty lying in the way is indolence. Every fact,
every thought perfectly mastered, increases the
power of the memory. The memory is not like a
storehouse, which may be filled to repletion. It is a
power that grows strong in proportion to the amount
of work it does. The more one remembers accu-
rately and perfectly, the more he can remember.
Few, if any, acquire the power of memory which
they might acquire.
There is in the minds of some a prejudice against
committing to memorj ve7'I)ati7n ; but the power of
MEMORY. 237
SO doing is very desirable, and almost indispensable.
No power of retaining wbat is called the substance
of a discourse or chapter will supply its place.
What is wanted is j^ower to remember thoughts in
their connection, and words also. In early life, the
mind should be exercised much in committing to
memory. The habit thus formed y/ill be of great
importance in subsequent life. It is not, of course,
to be a substitute for the exercise of other powers,
but a condition for the exercise of those powers. If
those teachers who rigidly exact the accurate exer-
cise of the memory, would in like manner exact a
rigid exercise of the reasoning power, there would be
no prejudices against their pupils in consequence of
their power of memory. They would not be termed
men of mere memory.
As Dr. Wayland remarks, " The importance of
this faculty is frequently underrated, especially by
young men. If a man succeed in almost any depart-
ment of intellectual labor, it is often said, by way of
disparagement, that his elfort is nothing but the
result of unusual memory. Were this the fact, it
would still be true that the cultivation of memory to
high perfection, so that our past knowledge is always
available in every emergency, is neither an ordinary
nor a contemptiblo* attainment. But the assertion is
commonly unfounded. Yv^hile distinguished success
in any department can rarely be attained by the
exercise of memory alone, it is equally true that the
238 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
noblest powers would be continually liable to morti*
fying ^failure without it. Let us, then, labor to culti-
vate this faculty by every means in our power,
always remembering that we shall derive from it the
greatest advantage, not by allowing it to supersede
the use of the other faculties, but by training it to
act in subordination to them. He who reasons with-
out facts must always proceed in the dark ; while he
who relies on isolated facts, neither using his powers
of generalization nor reasoning, must be willing to
remain always a child."
Is memory to be trusted ? Can we rely upon our
recollections ? It is said that memory sometimes
deceives us : how, then, can we be sure that in any
given instance it does not deceive us ? If a witness
is known to testify falsely sometimes, how can we be
sure that he testifies truly at any given time, unless
there is other evidence to the truth of what he
affirms ?
The attentive reader will readily see that there is
no analogy between mistakes in regard to remember-
ing and false testimony on the part of a witness.
What is meant by the expression, Our memory
sometimes deceives us ? Simply that w^e sometimes
think we remember a thing when we do not remem-
ber it ; just as we sometimes think we see a thing
when we do not see it. The fact that sometimes, in
a mist, we mistake a shrub for a man, does not cause
u$ to doubt whether we see the man that stands
MEMORY. 239
before us in the clear sunlight. There are some
things whicli^we are absolutely certain we see ; so
there are some things which we are absolutely cer-
tain we remember. Trusting our memories is trust-
ing our minds. We can trust our minds in regard to
our recollections as well as in regard to our percep-
tions.
•-5"..^' (/'^-^ ^-^^£^r^
n
CHAPTER XXIV.
ASSOCIATION.
In all our waking hours we are conscious of a
constant succession of tliouglits and feelings. We
can influence the train of thought by turning our
attention to certain objects, and withdray/ing it from
other objects; but when we make no such effort, the
train proceeds spontaneously. The thoughts do not,
however, succeed each other at random, but accord-
ing to certain laws, or certain relations existing be-
tween them. The relations most influential are those
of resemblance, contrast, contiguity in time or place,
and cause and effect. These are commonly called
laws of association. They are facts derived from
experience.
Thoughts have a tendency to introduce resem-
bling thoughts, or are naturally followed by resem-
bling thoughts. You see a building : you remember
one similar to it. You read a beautiful passage : you
remember a similar one. The suggesting similarity
between two things may relate to the things them-
selves, or to their causes, or to their consequences.
ASSOCIATION. 241
The resemblance may be striking, or it may be
sliglit. Dr. Thomas Brown affirms that genius con-
sists in the capacity of associating ideas by remote
analogies.
Thoughts have a tendency to introduce their
opposites. The palace suggests the hovel, the desert
the luxuriant field. The rhetorical figure of antithe-
sis is founded on the principle of contrast. Fewer
thoughts are introduced by this relation than by the
relation of resemblance.
When we visit the scenes of our childhood, the
incidents of that period are brought to mind. We
never think of Thermopyl^ without thinking of
Leonidas. We never think of Calvary without
thinking of the stupendous event of which it was
the scene. Places owe their chief interest to the
events associated vath them. Contiguity in time
and place is a principle of association in all mind^
and a leading one in uneducated minds.
When we see an event, we think of its cause and
of its consequences. This principle of association is
prominent in philosophical minds.
The above-mentioned relations have a great influ-
ence in determining our trains of thought ; yet other
relations have an influence. The relations between
our thoughts are numberless, and any one of them
may introduce a thought. Some have attempted to
enumerate all the laws of association, and have enu-
merated primary and secondary laws — objective and
11
242 ELEMEIS^TS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
subjective laws. To enumerate all the facts that may
cause one thought to introduce another, would be to
enumerate all the relations existino- between our
thoughts ; and that is impossible.
Our spontaneous trains of thought are modified
by the peculiar emotive condition of the mind. Dif-
ferent laws of association operate in diiferent moods
of mind. When the mind is in a gloomy state, a
joyous assembly may suggest a funeral : vfhen in a
cheerful state, it calls to remembrance a similar
assembly. In the one case the principle of contrast,
and in the other that of similitude, determines the
suggestion.
While our trains of thought are thus dependent
upon relations which we do not create, yet they are
not beyond our control. We can cause our thoughts
to succeed each other in accordance with certain rela-
tions rather than others. We can put our minds in
an attitude favorable to the operation of a particular
law. The more our thoughts succeed each other ac-
cording to that law, the greater will be their tendency
to do so. In this way, in the case of the poet, the
law of resemblance and of contrast becomes promi-
nent, and in the case of the philosopher, the law of
cause and effect.
" The will," says Dr. Hickok, " may have much
to do in regulating and controlling the association of
thought, and an earnest and protracted effort may
cultivate and discipline this faculty in various direc-
ASSOCIATIO]sr. 243
tions. A man may make himself a rhymer, a pun-
ster, a dealer in charades and anagrams, by certain
hahits of associating thoughts v/ith words ; or observ-
ing, inventive, practically effective, by certain associa-
tions of thonghts with things. An orderly and me-
thodical train of thought may be cultivated by keep-
ing the operation of this faculty under the regula-
tions of time, place, and circumstance, so that the
thought may be appropriate to the occasion."
Some w^riters have treated this subject in a man
ner that has led to erroneous conclusions. They have
'regarded the mind as wholly passive in respect- to its
trains of thought — as helplessly subject to the laws
of association. Our trains of thought, it is said, do
not depend upon our wills, but upon laws ordained by
a higher power. We are therefore not responsible
for them, nor for the conclusions to which they lead
us. Thus man is not responsible for his belief. He
may be an infidel and not be to blame for it. Dr.
Thomas Brown and Lord Brougham teach that men
are not responsible for their opinions. And there is
a popular prejudice which regards freedom of opinion
as inconsistent with responsibility for belief.
It is true that belief is not under the direct con-
trol of the will. We cannot believe a proposition by
willing to believe it. Belief depends upon evidence.
We can attend to the evidence of a proposition ; we
can guard against the influence of prejudice. If
the evidence is adequate, belief follows. Our belief
244 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
is tluis indirectly under our control. A direct con-
trol over all our states of mind is not a necessary
condition of responsibility for our belief.
We are responsible for the right exercise of our
minds ; and the right exercise of our minds will re-
sult in the formation of correct opinions.
We are responsible for our actions, and we are
under obligation to act rationally. If we act ration-
ally, we shall act in accordance with our views of
truth — that is, with our opinions ; hence the responsi-
bility reaches back to our opinions.
God holds us responsible for our opinions. He
requires us to believe the truth, to form correct opin-
ions. This is taught throughout the Bible.
The law of resemblance suggests an important
mode of procedure in respect to self-culture. When
we store the mind with choice thoughts, they will,
by the law of resemblance, introduce similar ones.
Hence we should become familiar with the best
thoughts of the best authors. This explains, in part
at least, the fact of mental assimilation. We become
like those with whose works we are familiar.
The laws of association are sometimes considered
under the head of memory, as though they operated
only in reviving thoughts that have been experienced.
This is not the case. If we may be said to remember
by association, we may be said to reason by associa-
tion. The laws of association often bring to our
minds thouo-hts that were never there before.
ASSOCIATIO]^. 245
Suppose one is engaged in the work of original
composition. He designs to prove a particular propo-
sition. The thoughts which constitute that proof are
not present to his mind. He cannot directly will
their presence — that would be to have them already.
He fixes his attention on the proposition. He watches
for thoughts which tend to his purpose. From the
ceaseless flow of thoughts, he selects such as seem
suited to his purpose. These introduce others of like
tendency. By degrees the materials for his proof are
selected. The train from which they were selected
was in accordance with the laws of association modi-
fied by his will — -just as is the case in voluntary recol-
lection.
In this case, thoughts which were never in the
mind before, are introduced by the same laws or rela-
tions which call up thoughts that had formerly been
in the mind.
Association is therefore not properly termed a
faculty. It denotes a mode of the mind's operation
with respect to several of its faculties. It is true, v/e
define a faculty to be a mode of the mind's operation :
association is a mode of the mind's operation, but not
in the sense in which we use that phrase Avhen we
would designate a faculty. Associated thoughts form
a portion of the operations classed under the head of
memory, of reasoning, of imagination, of the aesthetic
and moral faculties. Association is a term expressive ,
of our thoughts as successive and related.
246 ELEMENTS OF II!TTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
A knowledge of the prmci|)les of association is
specially important to the dramatist, the writer of
fiction, and the critic. The dramatist and novelist
form ideal characters which are represented as speak
ing and acting. Their language and actions must be
in keeping with their characters. The characters
must be natural, and their language and action in ac-
cordance Vv^ith the natural laws of thought and feel-
ing. The facts connected with association must
therefore be known to the author. The same is true
of the critic, whose office is to sit in judgment on the
productions of the author. One important question
he is to decide is, Are the characters and incidents of
the work natural — that is, in accordance with the
laws of thought and feeling ? A knowledge of those
laws is a necessary condition of an intelligent de-
cision.
The principle of habit is usually referred to asso-
ciation. The law or fact which underlies habit is not
strictly a law o£ association, yet it is one of great
importance.
The repetition of an act increases the tendency
to the performance of that act, and increased facility
in performing it. Repetition continued at stated in-
tervals forms a habit, which is a condition of mind
disposing to perform certain acts, and giving facility
in the performance of said acts. A habit may be
grafted on an original disposition, or it may be wholly
ASSOCIATION^. 247
factitious. The chief object of education is the forma-
tion of right mental habits.
Habits are active or passive. One may form a
habit of industry or a habit of indolence. The one is
formed by action, the other by inaction.
A course of action ' which is unpleasant at first,
becomes pleasant when habitual. Labor is not in it-
self pleasant to many, if indeed it be to any ; but
habit makes it agreeable, nay, a source of high enjoy-
ment. We have, therefore, to fix upon that course of
exertion which duty requires, and habit will soon
render it agreeable.
When a habit is founded on the love of some par-
ticular indulgence, the pleasure decays as the habit is
formed, and the pain of want is the stimulus instead
of expected pleasure.
Right habits increase our power to do right, and
lessen the difficulties in our way. The constitution
of our minds whereby we are rendered capable of
forming habits, is thus a cause for gratitude to our
Maker.
Our great business here is the formation of right
habits. Right habits, so far as they are perfectly
formed, render the soul perfect, and confirm it in that
condition. If one were suddenly made perfectly vir-
tuous, he would need to form habits of virtue to pre-
serve him in that condition.
CHAPTER XXV.
IMAGINATION.
You have seen an edifice : when absent from it,
you can form a mental image of it — can see it with
the mind's eye. The capacity of the mind for per-
forming this act, is termed imagination. The act is a
simple one, and is thus incapable of definition. We
use figurative language v/hen we call it an image.
There can he no literal resemblance between an edi-
fice,— material object, and an act of the immaterial
mind.
It may be said the image of the edifice is a re-
membrance, more or less perfect, of its appearance.
This is true ; but the image-making power is clearly
distinguishable from the remembering power. This
appears from the fact that we can form images of
things which we have not seen. A skilful description
of the edifice will enable us to form an image of it,
almost as complete as if we had seen it. To remem-
ber is to recall past mental states, recognizing them
as past. The process of image-making will take
place in remembering according to the nature of the
IMAGINATIOIfr. 249
mental acts recalled, and the habits of the inclivid-
iial's mind.
We can also form images of things which never
have existed. An architect forms a mental image of
the edifice he is about to erect.
This image-making power has been called by some
writers conception. Conception is by them defined
to be the power to form an image of an object pre-
viously perceived. It is comparatively of little con-
sequence what name is given to a mental act, so that
the act be clearly stated.
Those who would designate the image-making
power by the term conception, apply the term imagi-
nation to the process by which conceptions are com-
bined into new wholes. For example, one may take
conceptions of different features, and selecting one
from one man and another from another, may form a
new combination of features differing from any that
has existed. He must select his features, which said
writers call an exercise of abstraction, and combine
them, and the result is a product of imagination.
Imagination, they tell us, is thus a complex opera-
tion, to which abstraction, conceptioli, and taste
render their aid. The objection to this statement is,
that the calling in the aid of several faculties tends
to produce obscurity, if not confusion^^ in the reader's
mind.
The operation of forming new wholes, whatever
we may call those wholes, is a complex operation.
11*
250 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
Let the object be to form an image, conception, or
product of imagination, different from any thing
before known. Let the object be to form an imagi-
nary castle differing from any castle that has existed.
The mind selects from castles which it has seen, or
heard, or read of, certain parts, and out of these parts,
which exist as mental images, it forms a new whole.
We cannot tell how it does this: we know that
it does do it. Nothing is gained by saying that
abstraction selects the materials, that judgment or
taste approves the selection. Li the complex opera-
tions referred to imagination, mental acts which we,
when classifying mental acts, refer to separate facul-
ties, find a place. The same is true of all complex or
combined mental operations, whether they have refer-
ence to the formation of images, the discovery of
truth, or its communication. An act of imagination
is not the act of something separate from the mind ;
it is the mind acting in a particular way — putting
forth peculiar acts, forming images.
The power of forming mental images is possessed
by all men, but, like other powers, is not possessed
by all in the same degree. Some can form distinct
and vivid images of objects which they have seen, or
which are described in language ; others form dim
and indistinct images.
Some readily form images of objects thus set
before them, but are destitute of the power of form-
ing new images. They can only repeat the processes
IMAGINATION. 251
of other minds. This has heen termed a passive ex-
ercise of the imagination.
An active exercise is said to consist in forming
new images, by means of the process of selection and
combination above noticed.
An author is said to have a creative imagination
who produces new scenes and new characters. Is it
certain that the process of construction is that assum-
ed above ? Did Shakespeare, when he created a new
character, take one quality from one real character
and another from another, and tlius form a new char-
acter out of old materials ? To answer this question
by an appeal to consciousness, it would be necessary
to have the consciousness of one possessing a creative
imagination. May not the mind possess a power
more strictly analogous to the creative ? In the orig-
ination of a new character, may not the process be
that of construction from analogy — not that of selec-
tion and combination ? May there not be a difference
between a combination of cognized parts into a new
whole, and the production of a new whole analogous
to something previously known ?
One man studies a picture. He makes a copy of
it, or changes it by introducing some parts from an-
other picture. Another studies the same picture.
Conceptions are awakened which he throws upon the
canvas. His work is not made up of parts of the
pictures studied, and yet it was occasioned by the
study of them. May we not safely affirm that the
252 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY,
original productions of the mind referred to imagina-
tion are more nearly allied to the creative than to the
formative ? I am aware that this is not pointing out
in what the distinction consists.
The power of imagination is not to be confounded
with the power to cognize beauty. In order to form
beautiful imaginative creations, there must be the
power of cognizing beauty; but the power to cognize
beauty may be possessed by one who has little or no
power of imagination, formative or creative.
One who abounds in the use of jBgures is said to
have a fine imagination, whereas his characteristic
power is that of cognizing analogies. With it is
probably always connected the power of forming
mental images, but not of necessity the power of pro-
ducing new combinations. "When Burke's gorgeous
imagination is spoken of, reference is had to his power
of cognizing analogies. Analogies are cognized, not
created. A man looks upon the fading leaf, and
exclaims, "We all do fade as a leaf." He sees an
analogy. He creates nothing. The act is cognitive,
not imaginative.
The forming a mental image of a visible object
is the act which gives designation to the power
under consideration. There are other acts, by no
means identical with it, referred to the same power.
We form an imaginary character. Grant that it is
made up of traits selected from characters known to
us, yet the conceptions of those traits are not images
IMAGINATIOl!*r. 253
in the sense in wliich our conception of St. Peter's
is an image. A conception of a character difters from
a conception of a landscape. The idea of the pictur-
able enters into the one, and not into the other.
An imaginary conversation is held. There may
be images of persons supposed to he conversing, but
there are no images of the sentences supposed to be
uttered.
We thus apply the term imaginary to things un-
real as distinguishable from real : we do not confine
the term to the picturable.
Poetry and fiction are said to be the products of
imagination. By this is meant, that acts which we
term acts of imagination have a prominent place in
said works. The plan of a work of fiction, its char-
acters and incidents, may be imaginary — that is, the
mental acts expressed in language are those that we
refer to the head of imagination ; but much of the fill-
ing up of 4he plot may consist of acts that we refer to
other heads. Sound reasoning, admirable illustrations
of important principles, are found in works termed
works of imagination. Poetry is not necessarily the
product of imagination. There are scenes in nature, an
accurate description of which — an accurate statement
of the truth in relation to which — constitutes poetry.
The poetry of a stanza or stanzas may consist of the
expression of a fine analogy. There are human ac-
tions, the simple record of v^hich constitutes poetry.
There are operations far removed from poetry and
254 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
fiction, in wHcli acts of imagination have a prominent
place. A military commander forms his plan of a
campaign. He has a mental image of the country
which is the theatre of y/ar, of his own army and
that of the enemy, and of the movements which will
probably be made. He fights imaginary battles, and
conducts an imaginary campaign. Here is a series
of mental operations of great importance, tending to
great practical results. Of this series, processes that
are legitimately referable to imagination form an
essential part. The series abounds with sound rea-
sonings, but they are founded on supposititious or
imaginary events. A good imagination may be said
to be essential to a great military commander.
The same is true of all men of enterprise and fore-
cast. Plans having reference to the future call into
exercise the constructive power of the mind as truly
as did the composition of "Paradise Lost." In such
cases there is no call for the aesthetic element. A man
may be a great general and a great man of business
without having the power of perceiving beauty.
Hypotheses are imaginary solutions of scientific
questions, and have often been formed as the guides
of experiment. If experiment proves the hypothesis
to be true, the hypothesis becomes a theory. Ima-
gination has, therefore, much to do with scientific
progress.
Imagination -is most important with respect to
models; that is, the mental operation of forming
IMAGINATIO:^. 255
models is most important. No one in any depart-
ment of effort attains an excellence transcending his
conception of excellence. He alyv^ays comes short
of it. In the fine arts, the artist never realizes the
full beauty of his ideal. The artist has his model —
his conception of excellence. To realize it on the
canvas, or in marble, or in the anthem, is the object
of his effort. He vfho cannot form a conception of
high excellence can never become an original artist.
He can be only a copyist, an imitator.
The painter or sculptor repairs to those portions
of the world where the most perfect specimens of art
are to be found. These specimens he studies, not
that he may imitate them, but that he may be aided
in forming conceptions, models, to which he may
give a local habitation and a name.
The importance of models is not confined to the
fine arts. They have their place in every department
of human effort where excellence is sought. Espe-
cially are they important in the most important of
all arts, the art of forming a strong, beautiful, and
holy mind.
Every student should form a true conception of
excellence in regard to character and attainment.
One of the great advantages of biography is to ena-
ble us to form models of excellence, to the realization
of which our efforts should be directed.
The importance of models in relation to the forma-
tion of character appears from the fact, that one ob-
256 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PRILOSOPHr.
ject of Christ's mission was to furnish a perfect model
of human excellence — a conception that no man be-
fore His time ever attained. There is no proof that
the idea of a perfect manhood was ever possessed by
any one who did not derive it from a knowledge of
the character of Christ. In all our efforts at self-im-
provement, regard should be had to the perfect model
set before us in the character of Christ. To neglect
this model when aiming at excellence of character,
were more unwise than to close our eyes on the
beauty of nature when attempting to improve our
power of cognizing beauty.
The legitimate operations of imagination are at-
tended with enjoyment and profit. Even the perver-
sion of this power is attended with enjoyment. The
day-dreamer is happy for the time being.
Hence, imagination should receive proper culture
in the work of self-improvement. The imagination
is cultivated, as memory and the reasoning faculties
are cultivated, by exercise. The mind performs the
process of reasoning more readily in proportion as it
is exercised in reasoning. The mind performs the
process of imagining the more readily in proportion
as it is exercised in imagining.
How shall it be exercised ? By reading works of
imagination, by forming wise plans and scientific hy-
potheses.
It is supposed by some that the chief exercise of
the imagination consists in reading works of fiction.
IMAGIKATIOX. 257
In regard to a vast number of such works, they con-
tain very little that can he legitimately said to he the
product of imagination. There are few writers of
creative power. The y/orks of such writers only are
worthy of being read. The works of such writers,
unless they contain moral poison, will always be
read with profit.
The mind grows by intimate communion with su-
perior minds. Intimacy with a man of genius, per-
sonally or by his works, will promote mental im-
provement. Who ever read and understood Shake-
speare, Milton, Bunyan^ Dickens, and Thackeray, with-
out receiving not merely amusement, but mental
profit?
We cannot associate habitually with feeble minds
without injury to ourselves. We cannot become fa-
miliar with the works of feeble minds without injury.
The mass of fiction with which the press groans is for
the most part the product of feeble minds, and hence
should be avoided altogether.
" We may cultivate the imagination," says Dr.
Wayland, " by studying attentively works most dis-
tinguished for poetical combination. I say study at-
tentively, in distinction from the mere cursory peru-
sal of classical authors. Vf e must not only read, but
meditate on the sublime and beautiful in thought, un-
til we feel the full force of every analogy, entering
into the spirit of the writer himself, if we would avail
ourselves of the most successful efforts of human
258 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
genius. We thus acquire the intellectual habits of the
masters of human thought. In the language of poetry
we catch a portion of their inspiration, instead of ser-
vilely rendering their thoughts in our own language.
It is by a diligent study of a few of the best writers,
and not the hasty reading of many, that we derive
the greatest benefit from the study of the classics of
our own or any other country." These remarks have
reference to mental culture in general, as well as to
imagination.
The propriety of using fiction as the vehicle of
truth, is settled by the example of Christ. The para-
bles of the New Testament furnish the requisite au-
thority for those who, like Bunyan, would use the
gifts of imagination bestowed upon them in teaching
and enforcing truth.
Some seem to suppose that high powers of imagi-
nation and of reasoning are incompatible. We have
thus far seen nothing in the character of the opera-
tions classed under the heads of imagination and
reasoning which would show any incompatibility.
So far is this prejudice from being true, it may safely
be afiirmed that the right cultivation of one faculty
has a tendency to strengthen all the faculties. This
is only saying that the legitimate action of the mind
in one class of operations, quickens its power to per-
form other operations. The legitimate use of the axe
strengthens the arm to use the plane.
The term fancy has been employed in several
IMAGIKATION". 259
meanings. With Stewart it is the power of cognizing
analogies. " It is," says he, " the power of fancy
which supplies the poet with metaphorical language,
and with all the analogies which are the foundation
of his allusions. But it is the power of imagination
which creates the complex scenes he describes, and
the fictitious characters which he delineates."
Some of the German writers give the name fancy
to the spontaneous exercise of imagination — sponta-
neous as distinguished from voluntary.
I think the prevailing usage of the term fancy is
to express the lighter forms of imagination. A
scheme or plan which is but remotely analogous to
truth, which pays but little regard to the natural, is
said to be a fanciful scheme. The productions of an
ill-regulated imagination v/ould often be termed fan-
ciful.
Some operations are improperly ascribed to the
imagination. It is said that a man passing through a
graveyard at night imagined that he saw a ghost.
What were the facts of the case ? He saw a white
rose in bloom, and under the influence of fear inferred
that it v/as a ghost. His error was a false conclusion
from a sense-perception.
A man imagines that he has been slighted, when
he has not. He has drawn a conclusion that the facts
in regard to his treatment did not warrant.
A well-developed imagination is a source of en-
joyment and of power. We cognize truth in the
260 ELEMEl^TS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
concrete, not in the abstract. We arrive at general
truths by means of individual truths. The dramatist,
the vrriter of imaginary histories, has it in his power
to communicate truth more effectively than the phi-
losopher.
CHAPTER XXVI.
THE WILL.
The will is the mind v/illiiig — not a separate
agent, as the language often used respecting it would
imply. It has been called the executive faculty, and
the attributes of personality have been assigned to
it. To such an extent has this been the case, that it
is difficult to think on this subject without regarding
the will as an entity controlling the mind. Let it be
remembered that by the voluntary faculty, or the
will, we mean simply the capacity of the mind to per-
form acts of volition ; just as by memory we mean
the capacity of the mind to recall past thoughts and
feelings. An act of the will is an act of the mind —
the mind willing or performing an act of volition.
We must guard against the impression that the will
is an agent separate from the mind, and controlling
its acts.
The mind, then, has the power of performing acts
of volition. A volition cannot be defined. It is a
simple act, and is known only in consciousness. You
262 eleme:^ts of intellectual philosophy.
will to move your arm; the motion takes place.
The volition causing the motion is clearly defined in
consciousness, though it cannot be in language.
Volitions sustain important relations to other
mental acts. They are conditioned on other acts or
states of mind, and influence succeeding acts or
states.
Volition is alvf ays preceded by desire. Desire is
a simple feeling known in consciousness, but incapable
of analysis or definition. Consciousness testifies that
eyerj volition is preceded by some desire. Contem-
plate any volition of which you have been conscious.
Why did you put forth that volition ? Ton v/ill find
that some desire occasioned it.
If you doubt the truth of the affirmation, if you
think the mind can will without having aoy desire
whatever to do so, make the experiment ; perform an
act of will without any antecedent desire : you will
probably find yourself in the condition of a pupil who
stoutly contended that he could put forth a volition
without any antecedent desire if he heed a mind to.
There is in consciousness a plain distinction be-
tween the state of mind termed desire and the state
of mind termed volition, though some writers regard
them as identical. It is thouHit that some difiiculties
are avoided by regarding them as identical. But we
should consult consciousness, and abide by its deci-
sions— not departing from them in the vain hope of
avoiding difficulties.
THE WILL. 263
A man desires to take a journey. The desire may
Ibe felt for years before the will to take the journey is
put forth. Those who regard desire and volition as
identical, say that what we call volition is simply an
intense form of the desire. It is true that the desire
may become gradually or suddenly more intense, and
the consequence may be a volition ; but the volition
is clearly distinguishable in consciousness from the
desire. 'No man ever mistook a desire for his dinner,
however great that desire, for the act of willing to eat.
Will it be said that we sometimes will in opposi-
tion to desire? The error implied in this assertion
arises from failing to distinguish between two desires
that may be felt at the same time. Let us consider
an example of willing in opposition to desire. A
child has no desire to go to school, and yet he goes :
of course he wills to go. Does he will to go in oppo-
sition to his desire? He wills in opposition to his
desire to stay at home or go to the play-ground, but
not in opposition to his desire to avoid punishment
which might follow truancy. Let the question, " Why
did he go ? " be answered. It will be foimd that he
was influenced by some motive — a desire to please his
parents, or to avoid punishment, or a sense of duty.
The mind is free in willing. No material restraint
is laid upon it. No mental restraint is laid upon it.
The mind is conscious when it wills that it exercises
freed^om.
What is meant by freedom of v/ill — the theme
264 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
of SO much discussion? It may be replied, The free-
dom of tlie mind in willing. If it Ibe asked, In what
does the freedom of the mind in willing consist ? I
do not know that any better answer can be given than
that it consists in being free. To speak of the freedom
of voluntariness is to speak of the freedom of freedom.
Freedom with respect to mental operations, if not
identical with voluntariness, is inseparable from it.
A man acts freely when he acts without constraint
— when he does as he pleases. It would be a singu-
lar definition of free acting, to say that he acts freely
when he does not do as he pleases. By action is
meant voluntary action. In all such action, volition
is the essential element. What can be affirmed of the
action can be affirmed of the volition.
To act as one pleases, is to act in accordance with
one's desires. The mind is free as respects volition
when it can vf ill as it desires to. That it can and does
thus will, is attested by every one's consciousness.
The freedom of fhe mind in willing is an intuitive
truth. It is seen by all who are capable of account-
able action. When one says, "I feel that I am a
free moral agent," he gives expression to an intuitive
cognition.
Hence, that man is a free moral agent does not
require proof. All arguments against it must be fal-
lacious— as are all arguments brought against intui-
tive truths. Whether we can detect the fallacy or
THE WILL. 205
not, makes no difference as to our convictions in re-
gard to human freedom.
It may be said. There are some who deny that the
will is free — who hold to the doctrine of fatalism.
Now, as it is characteristic of self-evident truths that
they are admitted by all, it follows that the freedom
of the will, or rather of man in willing, is not a self
evident truth.
It is true that the mark of an mtuitive or self-evi-
dent fact is, that it is admitted by all either in words
or by action. That the things around us are real,
not mere subjective illusions, is a self-evident truth;
but there are philosophers who profess to believe that
they are merely subjective — there are idealists. Still,
in their practical conduct, they regard a wall as a
wall, and an enraged animal as a reality, and not a
subjective idea. By their action they recognize the
truth that the objects around us are real.
There are men who profess to disbelieve in human
freedom and human accountability ; but let any one
appropriate the property of such men, and they will
complain of the injustice done them, and demand the
punishment of the offender. They thus recognize the
doctrine of human freedom and human accountability.
We have seen that some desire always precedes a
volition ; we have seen that man wills as he pleases —
that is, as he desires : does he always will in accord-
ance with the strongest desire ? Suppose there are
two desires in his mind at the same time, or that they
12
266 ELEMENTS OF KSTTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
succeed each other in alternation so rapidly that, for
all practical purposes, it is the same as if they were
co-existent. Suppose one desire is stronger than the
other : in accordance with which will the man Avill ?
Which will lead him to determine to do or not to do
a certain thing, the stronger or the weaker desire ?
It may be said, he may follow which one he pleases.
True ; hut which will he please to follow, the weaker
or the stronger desire ?
The proper method of deciding in this case, is
for each one to consult his own consciousness — his
own experience. Take a case in which two or more
desires were felt, and a decision was to be made.
Note the decision made, and which desire it was the
result of. Can any one find a case in which he acted
in accordance with the weaker desire — did one thing
when he had a greater desire to do another practi-
cable thing — another thing equally within his capacity
for action ?
It is said that we ground our assertion, that the
mind wills in accordance with the strongest desire, on
the fact that the act of will v/as performed. We are
charged with saying that the desire was the strongest
because volition resulted from it. Instead of this, we
affirm that the mind is capable of comparing two
desires, and of cognizing their relative strength. The
question whether the mind is influenced to will by the
stronger or feebler desire, can thus be referred to
consciousness, and a definite decision can be reached.
THE WILL. 267
Cannot a man act in accordance with the weaker
desire, if he chooses to ? Is not this choosing an-
other form of expressing the fact that, on the whole,
the so-called weaker desire is the stronger; or that
the object of the supposed weaker desire is desired
more than the object of the supposed stronger desire?
Suppose the two objects of desire be a suit of clothes
and a horse. It is readily supposable that the desire
for the horse is stronger than the desire for the suit
of clothes. If it be — if we knoy,^ it to be so — then
could we not confidently predict that he would pur-
chase the horse ? What Y/ould be the ground of our
prediction ? Would it not be the uniform experience
that we have had, that men act according to the
strongest desire ?
Suppose our predictions fail to be realized : the
clothes are purchased. We inquire how this came to
pass, when the desire for the horse was the strongest.
We learn that certain other conditions were present-
ed to his mind : his parents expressed their disappro-
bation of his purpose to purchase the horse; the
clothes were highly commended by one in whose
taste he had confidence; these and other considera-
tions influenced him. The combined desire to please
his parents and to possess the clothes became
stronger than the desire which y/e supposed Yfould
occasion a decision.
Observe, we do not affirm that the strongest de-
sire governs the mind just as the heaviest Vv^eight
268 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY,
brings down the balance. The presence of this and
kindred false analogies has vitiated a great deal of
the thinking that has been exercised on this subject.
The mind is not a passive subject, in which desires
spontaneously spring up and irresistibly control it : it
is an active free agent, that can do what it has a
mind to, and does do what it has a mind to.
Desires, it is true, are in their origin spontane-
ous ; but the mind has an indirect control over them
— can repress or indulge them, and can thus, in view
of them, determine its own volitions.
Man' has thus a self-determining povv^er. No
being wills for him. He wills himself as he pleases.
To say that the will has a self-determining power, is
to say that the mind has a self-determining power.
The will is nothing apart from the mind willing.
The question is whether the mind determines its
volitions in view of motives or without motives, or
in opposition to all motives ?
What are motives ? Are they external to the
mind, or internal ? A man's motives are the reasons
of his conduct. Man is a reasonable being, and
should have a reason for all that he does — that is, for
all his voluntary actions. To act from good motives,
is to be a good man ; to act from bad motives, is to
be a bad man.
A man's motives, it was said, are the reasons of
his conduct ; they are internal — being conscious
states of mind for which he is responsible. External
THE WILL. 269
objects may be the occasion of producing states of
mind wMcli constitute motives. An apple may
attract one's attention and awaken a desire to pos-
sess it, and that may lead to effort — acts of will.
The desire to possess it was a motive. The apple
itself, irrespective of the desire, cannot be a motive.
What is true of the apple, is true of all objects ex-
ternal to the mind. They are not motives, but may
be the occasion of motives. Every motive, before
it causes action, takes the form of a desire. The
word motive is more comprehensive than desire, and
includes the states of mind which give rise and
modification to desire. '^
Consciousness affirms that man acts from motives.
We can recall no act of our own that had not some
motive — was not incited by some desire. The mo-
tive may have been a very foolish one — a very frivo-
lous desire ; but some motive there was. To the
question, Why did you do so ? some answer can be
given. Insolence may say. Because I chose to do
so, or had a mind to ; but something was antecedent
to the deed, and connected with it.
To say that men determine their acts in view of
the strongest motive, is to say that they act in ac-
cordance with the strongest desire. No state of
mind influences the decision of the mind, except as
it awakens a desire or desires. To say that men de-
termine their actions in view of motives, and that
they always act in accordance with the strongest
270 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
motive, is simply to say that men act in accord*
anc€ with their strongest desires.
There is a caricature of this doctrine which rep-
resents motives as external, and the strongest as gov-
erning the mind. Man is thus under the control of
objects without him, and is as destitute of freedom
as the vessel without a rudder which must go be-
fore the wind.
To avoid this conclusion, they claim for the will a
self-determining power ; they claim for man a power
to will without motives, and in opposition to all mo-
tives. This they think essential to freedom. They
admit that man usually, if not uniformly, acts from
motives ; but he must, they think, have power to
rise above them, and act independently of them, or
he cannot be free.
To this view there is the objection, that we are
always conscious of acting from some motive, and
always take it for granted that all other men act
from motives. The moral character of acts is
judged of by the motives. We proceed upon the
conviction that human actions have motives, just as
we proceed upon the conviction that physical events
have causes.
To affirm that man must have a power to will
without motives and in opposition to all motives,
and yet to confess that he seldom if ever exercises
that povv^er, while he is nevertheless free, seems to be
somewhat inconsistent.
THE WILL. 271
!Again, to act without motive is to act without
a reason. To contend, therefore, that a man must be
able to act without motives in order to he free, is to
contend that he must he able to act irrationally in
order to be free. Wherein would a mental act,
prompted by no motive whatever, differ as to ration-
ality from the movement of a limb by galvanism ?
This view is a false inference from a fact of con-
sciousness—the fact of remorse. When we are con-
scious that we have done wrong, we are conscious of
guilt ; and. in the consciousness of guilt is involved,
the consciousness that we might have acted differ-
ently. If there were no power to act differently,
there could be no sense of blame. The false infer-
ence drawn from this fact is, that we might have
acted differently, all our feelings which preceded
volition and all the circumstances heing the saine.
The error lies in assuming that our conviction that
we might have acted differently, is a conviction that
we might have acted differently all motives and cir-
cumstances being the same. This assumption is un-
warranted.
Suppose, in a moment of passion occasioned by
a false view of the conduct of another, you strike
him and inflict a serious injury. In a short time you
are conscious that you have done wrong. Tou see
that there was no cause for your anger, and that, if
there had been, you had no right to yield to it. Tou
say to yourself, " I ought not to have been so hasty.
272 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
A moment's reflection would have made it plain that
I was in error. I ought to have been on my guard
against the impulse of passion, and controlled my-
self." You would feel that you could have acted
differently, by having had a different state of mind —
different motives. You would not feel that, had you
been just as hasty, thoughtless, and unguarded as
you were, you could have acted differently. The ob-
ligation to have acted differently involves the obliga-
tion to have had different motives, and does not
prove that you can act without motives.
All our control over our mental operations is in-
direct. We cannot, by an act of mere volition, cause
any thought or feeling to be present to the mind.
We may will to do things adapted to cause the pres-
ence of said thought or feeling. We control our
mind as we control nature, by obeying its laws.
Motives are sometimes spoken of as existing with-
out the mind, whereas they are states of mind. These
states of mind may be occasioned by external objects.
When an external object awakens a desire vfhich
leads to action, that object is loosely spoken of as the
impelling motive. A thief breaks into a bank, and
steals a quantity of gold. The gold is said to have
influenced his action. It is true that the gold pre-
sented a temptation to him ; but this was in conse-
quence of the condition of his mind. If his mind had
been in a perfectly healthy moral condition, the gold
would have presented no temptation. Its power over
THE WILL. 2'73
the thief was owing wholly to the thievish condition
of the mind. For that condition said thief was re-
sponsible.
What is true of the gold, is true of all external
objects as to their power to produce voluntary action.
So far as they influence the mind in connection with
volition, it is owing wholly to the subjective condition
of the mind, for which consciousness asserts that we
are responsible.
We are responsible for certain states of mind irre-
spective of the means by which they were produced.
A malignant disposition is the object of moral disap-
probation, whether that disposition was caused by
voluntary acts or was inherited. To say that one is
to blame for having a malignant disposition, is to say
that he ought to have a different disposition, and that
he might have a different disposition. If the disposi-
tion was born with him, how could he be without it ?
Here we had better confess our ignorance than deny
the facts of consciousness. Some deny that we inherit
from our first parents any evil dispositions, though
the fact is afiirmed by the Word of God, and is in
keeping with universal experience.
So in regard to our volitions. We should admit
the facts attested by consciousness, whether we can ex-
plain the difficulties or not. We ara conscious that our
volitions are preceded by desires, and that we always
will in accordance with the strongest desire. In our
consciousness of blame for doing a wrong act, is in-
12*
274 ELEMENTS OP INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
volved the consciousness of avoidability ; that is, that
we might have acted otherwise. We are conscious
of a self-determining power — that is, of free self-
determination in view of motives which are states of
mind for which we are accountable.
In some minds there seems to be a difficulty of
reconciling free volitions with any conditions what-
ever. Such should remember that every thing which
begins to be is conditioned. Every event is con-
ditioned on some other event. Our control over all
our mental operations is a conditioned control. Our
power to cognize external objects is conditioned on
putting our organs in certain relations to the object.
Our power to remember is conditioned on certain
laws of mind. It may be our duty to have a certain
thought present to our minds at a certain hour, but
we cannot place it there by simply willing it. It
may be our duty to cognize a certain truth, but we
cannot cognize it by simply willing to cognize it. We
must turn our attention to the truths on which its cog-
nition is conditioned. It may be our duty to put forth
certain volitions at a certain time, but the power to
do so may be conditioned on certain states of mind.
The mind's power of willing is conditioned, and yet
free. The fact that events are conditioned does not
prove that they are the result of fatal necessity.
The doctrine set forth in these pages makes our
volitions dependent upon our dispositions and char-
acter. Dr. Hickok remarks : " There is in all men a
THE WILL. 276
deep consciousness that, somehow, there is an alter-
native to present disposition and character, and thus
an avoidability in all voluntary action."
Whether we are able to explain the " somehow "
or not, let us admit the testimony of consciousness.
The impression that the doctrine of the strongest
motive — that is, the doctrine that the mind deter-
mines to act or not to act in view of motives, or in
accordance with the strongest desire — ^is inconsistent
with freedom of v/ill, is very strong on the minds of
some able thinkers, and has led them to seek for
means of avoiding the supposed difficulty. Very few
such men have failed to see and acknowledge the
absurdity of volitions without motives and in oppo-
sition to motives, and yet they have found motives
in their way, and have sought, as it were, to get rid
of them.
McCosh admits that volitions have causes, but
would seem to deny that the causes of volitions are
found in antecedent dispositions and desires. He
says : " V/"e hold — we cannot but hold- — that the prin-
ciple of cause and effect reigns in mind as in mat-
ter. Our intuitive belief in causation leads us to
this conclusion. It is on account of the existence of
such a connection that we can anticipate the future in
regard to the actions of intelligent and voluntary
beings, as well as in regard to changes in material
substances. It is upon it that we ground our confi-
dence in the character and word of God. But there
276 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
is an important difference between the manner in
whicli this principle operates in body and spirit. In
all proper mental operations, the causes and the effects
both lie within the mind. Mind is a self-acting sub-
stance, and hence its activity and independence."
He proceeds to give his idea of cause in connection
with mental phenomena : " The true cause of any
given mental phenomenon, its unconditional antece-
dent, which always v/ill produce it, and without which
it cannot recur, is composed of two things — the im-
mediately preceding state, and a mental power or
faculty."
In case of a volition, then, the cause would be the
immediately preceding state of mind, and the mental
power or faculty of wilL He would probably admit
that the immediately preceding state of mind was a
desire. We have then a desire as one element of the
cause, and the will as the other. The will, be it remem-
bered, is simply the name given to the capacity of
the mind for willing. The will in action is the mind
willing. "Why is this power exercised? Why is
this element of the cause active instead of latent ?
Is it owing to the presence of the desire ? If so, is
not this admitting that the mind wills under the in-
centive of desire ?
But he does not admit this conclusion. He says :
" Now, we hold it to be an incontrovertible fact, and
one of great importance, that the true determiniug
cause in every given volition is not a mere anterior
THE WILL. 277
excitement, but the very soul itself "by its inherent
power of will." ^
No doubt the soul or mind wills — determines its
own volitions; but why does it determine to put
forth now sinful volitions, and now holy ones ? What
is the cause of the difference ? Does it consist " in
the inherent power of the will " ? Does that phrase
express any thing more than the fact that the mind
can will ? To say that the mind can will, is not to
answer the question, "Why does the mind will thus
and so ?
In the following passage he seems to admit the
doctrine of a non-rational self-determining power :
" We must ever hold that a mere incitement can
become a motive only so far as sanctioned by the
will ; so that it is not so much the incentive that de-
termines the will, as the will that adopts the incen-
tive."
Why does the will — or the mind willing — adopt
one incentive rather than another? In so doing,
does it act arbitrarily, without any reason — without
any motive ?
Will it be said, Because it chooses to ? Why
does it choose to ? The expression, the mind wills
in a particular way because it chooses to, must mean
either that it wills because it wills, or that it wills
because it desires to.
Wherein does sanctioning a motive differ from
acting in view of it, or at its promptings ? Is there
278 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
any distinction in consciousness between sanctioning
an incentive, and acting in accordance with it ?
Dr. McCosh rarely mistakes words for things, as
he seems to have done in endeavoring .to avoid the
supposed difficulty attendant upon the doctrine that
the mind always puts forth volition in accordance
with the strongest motive. May not his error arise
from attempting to seek for profoundness where the
truth is very simple ? Do not all men, learned and
unlearned, act on the principle that men will be gov-
erned by the strongest motive ?
Let it be remembered that there is no analogy
between the influence of a motive on the mind, and
the influence of a weight on a balance. A motive is
as difierent from a weight as a balance is from a
mind. We are obliged to use figurative language
when describing mental operations ; but the borrowed
terms should not be allowed to give us a distorted
view of the facts they are borrowed to cypress. This
has been the case in regard to the matter under con-
sideration.
Nothing is gained, so far as we can see, by ascrib-
ing the will to the spiritual in man. All the thoughts,
and feelings, and acts of which we are conscious, are
the thoughts, and feehngs, and acts of the human
spirit. Some of its operations are conditioned upon
its connection with the body, some of them have re-
lation to material realities, and some to spiritual
realities. It has not yet been shown that the mind,
THE WILL. 27^
when acting in relation to spiritual realities, does not
proceed on the same principles as when acting in re-
lation to material realities. Motives drawn from the
spiritual ought to have more weight than motives
drawn from the material. When they do not, it is
owing to the moral condition of the soul — " the
spiritual disposition "
CHAPTER XXVII.
ATTENTIOJSr.
The subject of attention has been frequently
noticed in the foregoing pages. Every one knows
what attention is, tbougb few possess the power of
attention in a high degree : few have the power of
fixing the mind upon an unattractive subject, and of
keeping it fixed till the end aimed at is gained.
Attention has been treated by some writers as a
separate faculty : so far as we are conscious of effort
in relation to attention, the effort is a voluntary one —
is an act of will.
It is of little consequence whether we regard it
as a separate faculty, or as a form of volition ; but it
is of the utmost consequence that power of attention
be acquired.
No object can be seen unless the eyes are turned
towards it. No spiritual truth can be seen, no propo-
sition cognized, no complex subject understood, un-
less the mind be fixed steadily and continuously
upon it.
ATTENTIOjST. 281
It must be remembered that the thinker does not
create truth ; he only sees it. The original thinker
simply sees truths that have not been seen before.
Truths are seen by looking at them — fixing the at-
tention exclusively upon them. Subjects are not com-
prehended by a single mental glance. Long-con-
tinued thoughtfulness — meditation — which consists
mainly in fixing the attention upon them, is necessary.
The student's first efforts at attention are not re-
markably successful. He opens an argumentative
work, and resolves to master the arguments. He be-
gins to read with a vigorous effort at attention. Before
he has reached the bottom of the page, perhaps be-
fore he has reached the third sentence, he finds his
attention wandering to other objects. He has read
the words, perhaps pronounced them aloud, but has
no idea of the thoughts they were intended to ex-
press. He begins again, but soon finds his attention
turned towards objects far removed from the train of
thought before him. After a score of efforts, per-
haps, he is able to keep his attention fixed till he has
reached the bottom of the page. If he will faithfully
persevere in this course, he will ultimately be able to
attend to a long argument as easily as he now attends
to an attractive narrative.
In all his studies, the student should have reference
to forming the habit of attention. No exercise is
more conducive to this than analyzing works of
thought. Various other advantages will result from
that exercise.
282 ELEMENTS OP INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
Let the student select, say, an argumentative ora-
tion of Daniel Webster, or tlie work of some first-
rate mind; and let him read with the purpose of
seizing the outline of the plan — the frame-work of
the discourse. Let him fix his attention on the suc-
cessive thoughts which constitute the train, noting
the relation of each one to that which follows. Let
Mm endeavor to remember each thought by its rela-
tion to that which preceded it, and not by associating
it with certain forms of expression, or the place which
it occupies on the printed page. Let the successive
thoughts be thus noticed and remembered at the ex-
pense of as few perusals as possible. Let the succes-
sive steps be mentally reviewed frequently, now by a
condensed statement of each point in the train, and
now by a statement, not of the thoughts, but of the
relations they sustain to each other. This last will
compel attention to the thoughts dissociated from the
language in which they are expressed. Suppose, for
example, the analysis be on this wise. First there is
an introductory remark, then a statement of the prop-
osition, then an argument fi'om analogy in support of
it, then an illustration drawn from history, then an
inference from the proposition. Perfect thoroughness
is thus secured, and the habit of seizing and retaining
trains of thought formed.
The discipline thus secured will enable the student
to arrange in his mind trains of his own construction,
and keep them as steadily before his mind as if they
ATTENTIO]^". 283
were on paper. This power is indispensable to tlie
extempore speaker. The extempore speaker who
speaks with power, does not utter that which occurs
to him after he has risen to speak ; he ntters that
which he has pre-composed mentally. True, a man
should acquire the power of " thinking on his legs," —
of speaking to the point on questions which it was
impossible for him to premeditate.
Some of the most eminent public speakers not
only arrange their trains of thought mentally, but
even compose the sentences. Robert Hall's cele-
brated discourse on infidelity was thus pre-composed,
and the orations of Daniel Webster give abundant
proof that he possessed and practised this power.
The exercise of attention is the condition of clear
apprehension, and is scarcely distinguishable from it.
We have seen that it is the condition of accurate re-
membering. Clear apprehension and accurate remem-
brance are essential to sound reasoning.
Sir Isaac KTewton ascribed his success to fixed and
patient attention. Profound investigation is little
more than concentrated, long-continued attention.
The power of attention is therefore worthy of assidu-
ous cultivation.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
TRUTH — UNDERSTAINTDIZSTG AND EEASOIS" FAITH AKD
KEASON — IISTFINITT.
We have seen that no definition can be given of
truth. Every one whose mind is in a normal state
knows what truth is, or rather knows what true prop-
ositions are. There are different kinds of truth ; that
is, there are true propositions relating to different
classes of objects. There are truths material, spirit-
ual, sesthetic, moral, etc. Some truths are contingent
and some are necessary. It is true that there is such
a place as Moscow. There was a time when it was
not true. There may come a time when it will not
be true. The earth revolves around the sun once a
year. There was a time when it did not revolve, and
there may be a time when it will not revolve. Such
truths are called contingent ; not because they are not
subject to uniform laws, but to distinguish them from
necessary truths.
The whole is greater than its part, is a true propo-
sition, necessarily true. That it should not be true
285
is an impossibility. There is no sucli impossibility
attaching to propositions affirming contingent truth.
The truths of geometry are necessary truths.
That all right angles are equal, always was and
always will be true, everywhere.
How can contingent truths be distinguished from
necessary tru^ths ? Some writers state the marks of
necessary truths, such as absolute certainty, and the
fkct that the opposite of a necessaiy truth is not only
false but absurd. These are facts respecting neces-
sary truths ; but we do not look at these facts and
infer from them that the truth is a necessary one.
We distinguish between contingent and necessary
truths hj direct seeing. When we cognize a contin-
gent truth, we cognize it as contingent; when we
cognize a necessary truth, we cognize it as necessary :
just as when we cognize a white object, we cognize
it as white, and when we cognize a black object, we
cognize it as black. Some contingent truths are cog-
nized directly and some indirectly ; the same is true
of necessary truths.
Some waiters refer contingent truths to the under-
standing, and necessary truths to the reason. It is
the mind which distinguishes contingent from neces-
sary truths, not certain imaginary entities called un-
derstanding and reason.
The distinction betvfeen the understanding and
reason, to which so great importance is attached by
some, is simply the distinction between contingent
286 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
and necessary truth — a distinction by no means of
modern discovery, as is \yell known to those who are
at all acquainted with the earlier English writers on
morals and theology.
Some Y/riters seem to teach that necessary truths,
or the truths of reason, are more intimately connected
with the mind than contingent truths — truths of the
understanding. They use language which implies
that some necessary truths are native to the mind,
and are evolved from it on certain occasions.
There is no reason to think that any truth is native
to the mind in any other sense than that the mind
has capacity to cognize it. The relation of the mind
to all kinds of truth is the same. The mind cognizes,
truth is cognized. No truths are evolved from the
mind except as the mind is the object of cognition.
It is commonly supposed that greater certainty
attaches to necessary than to contingent truths. All
necessary truths are certain, absolutely certain. But
all contingent truths are not therefore A^oid of cer-
tainty. A contingent truth may be as certain as a •
necessary truth. It is certain that there is such a
place as London. It is certain that Washington lived.
We are as certain of the truth of these propositions
as Ave are of the proposition which affirms the equal-
ity of alternate angles.
All necessary truths are certain. Some contingent
truths are certain, and some are doubtful. The un-
certainty of a truth has reference to our cognizing
287
power, not to the truth itself. If it be a truth, if the
proposition is true, it is certainly true.
Another distinction of importance is that between
intuitive and deductiye truths. Intuitive truths are
also called self-evident truths. Some writers seem to
regard intuitive truths as coming from the mind,
whereas they come from the mind only in the sense
that they are cognized by the mind. Intuitive
truths do not constitute a class of truths generically
different from other truths, as geometrical differ from
geological truths. The term intuitive has reference
to the mode of cognition, not to the nature of the
truths. Intuitive truths are those which are cognized
directly, immediately, without the aid of any other
truths. In every department of knowledge there are
some truths that are self-evident — which are cognized
intuitively. Our intuitions are not inspirations- —
knowledge derived from a source differing from that
whence our other knowledge is derived. They are
direct cognitions of the mind. They are native only
as our cognizing capacity is native.
Deductive truths are those cognized by the aid of
other truths. The term would indicate that all truths
mediately cognized were wrapped up in self-evident
truths, and deduced from them. Some truths are de-
duced from other truths ; but some truths are seen to
be true in conseqence of our having seen certain other
truths to be true. These cannot properly be said to
be deduced from those truths, certainly not in the
288 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
sense of being evolved from them. Inferential would
perhaps Ibe a better term than deductive. AH our
cognitions are either intuitive or inferential. We
infer that a proposition is true, that is, discern its
truth, in consequence of having discerned the truth of
some other proposition or propositions.
If a man denies intuitive truths, he cannot be
reasoned with. He denies every thing. It does not
follov/ from this, that all inferential truths are educed
from intuitive truths. We perceive some things to
be true because we have intuitively cognized some
other things to be true.
What truths have we a right to regard as intui-
tive ? May every man have a set of intuitions of his
own ? When he wishes a thing to be true and can-
not prove it, may he place it among his intuitions ?
Certainly not. Those truths only can be regarded as
intuitive which are received as true by all men. In-
tuitive truths are admitted either by word or deed
by all men.
Faith and Reason, — The relation of faith to reason
is a very simple one. They are not antagonistic, but
concordant. Faith is confidence in testimony, which
involves confidence in character. Testimony is a
source of knowledge. The knowledge of a jury re-
specting the guilt or innocence of a prisoner is from
testimony.
Testimony may give us certain knowledge. Only
a few Americans have seen the city of Canton, yet all
TRUTH, ETC. 289
Americans are sure there is such a city. This certain
knowledge rests upon testimony alone. It is reason-
able for a man to believe good testimony ; that is, it
is reasonable to have faith.
Religious and secular faith differ only as their
objects differ. The doctrines of Revelation are re-
ceived by faith — that is, on the testimony of God.
It is certainly reasonable to believe God's testimony ;
therefore it is reasonable to exercise religious faith.
There is, therefore, no antagonism between religious
faith and reason.
If we have God's testimony, it is reasonable to
believe it, whether we can fally understand it or not.
To believe that which we do not comprehend, is not
to believe that which is unreasonable and absurd.
We must have satisfactory evidence that we have
God's testimony. We must examine the evidence on
which the claim of the Bible to be the testimony of
God rests. If we find satisfactory evidence, the
Bible is to be believed.
It may be asked. Suppose it contain contradictions
and absurdities, are they to be believed ? Certainly
not. If it contain contradictions and absurdities,
and it is certain that they are not interpolations, then
there is not satisfactory evidence that it is God's tes-
timony; for his testimony cannot be contradictory
and absurd. The alleged contradictions must be dis-
posed of in considering the evidence of the Bible's
being God's testimony. If the conclusion be that the
13
290 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
Bible is God's vford, it is reasonable to believe all it
contains. Faitli, confidence in His testimony and
character, is in the liighest degree reasonable.
The Infinite, — There is no such thing as a general
infinite. There are infinite things or attributes, just
as there are true propositions; but the infinite and
the true are not independent entities. We cognize
infinite objects, and can thus form an abstract idea of
infinity. The idea is not definable. As we say truth
is that in y/hich all true propositions agree, so "we may
say that the infinite is that in which all infinite ob-
jects agree.
That \% infinite which has no limit. That which
we cognize as limitless is to us infinite. We must
distinguish betv^een the infinite and the indefinite.
God's Yfisclom is infinite ; it transcends all our
powers of apprehension. So of His mercy and His
benevolence. Infinite existence is everlasting exist-
ence. When we speak of God as the infinite exist-
ence, we mean that all His attributes are infinite.
The human mind can form no adequate apprehen-
sion of the infinite — that is, of infinite things*. And
yet it is not, properly speaking, a negative apprehen-
sion which we have of it. The fact that we cannot
know every thing about a subject or object, does not
prove that we cannot know any thing about it. The
fact that we cannot by searching find out God to
perfection, does not prove that we cannot know many
things respecting Him.
TEUTII, ETC. 291
God is infinite ; that is. His existence and attri
butes are without limit — transcend all our powers o±
apprehension. We know that nothing can "be added
to them.
There has been a great deal written about the
absolute and infinite which conveys no meaning to
such as have not the faculty of understanding the
unintelligible. Many assertions have been made for
which there is no proof. For example, Mansel says :
" That which is conceived as absolute and infinite,
must be conceived of as containing within itself the
sum, not only of all actual, 'but of all possible modes
of being,"
" The nature of man's conviction in regard to in-
finity," says McCosh, " is fitted to impress us, at one
and the same time, with the s-trength and the weak-
ness of human intelligence, which is powerful in that
it can apprehend so much, but feeble in that it can
apprehend no more. The idea entertained is felt to
be inadequate, but this is one of its excellences, that
it is felt to be inadequate; for it would indeed be lam-
entably deficient, if it did not acknowledge of itself
that it falls infinitely beneath the magnitude of the
object. The mind is led by an inward tendency to
stretch its ideas wider and wider, but is made to
know, at the most extreme point which it has reached,
that there is something further on. It is thus im-
pelled to be ever striving after something which it has
not yet reached, and to look beyond the limits of time
292 ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
into eternity beyond, in which there is the prospect
of a noble occupation in beholding, through ages
which can come to no end, and a space which has no
bounds, the manifestation of a might and an excel-
lence of which we can never know all, but of which
we may ever know more. It is an idea which would
ever allure us up toward a God of infinite perfection,
and yet make us feel more and more impressively the
higher we ascend, that we are, after all, infinitely be-
neath Him. Man's capacity to form such an idea is
a proof that he was formed by an infinite God, and in
the image of an infinite God ; his incapacity in spite
of all his efforts to form a higher idea, is fitted to
show us how wide the space and how impassable the
gulf which separates man as finite from God the
infinite."
THE EiTD.
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clearnegs and comprehensiveness jjdtli|Which he has treated them leave
nothing, to be desired. Q i TC ^
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