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ELEMENTS
O F
UNIVERSAL ERUDITION,
CONTAINING AWN
ANALYTICAL ABRIDGMENT
OF THE
SCIENCES, POLITE ARTS,
AND
BELLES LETTRES,
By Baron *BIELFELD,
SecreTARy oF LeGaTiIon To THE KinG*or Prussia, Precer- —
tor To Paince Ferpinaxn, amp CHANCELLOR OF ALE THE
Universities 1N THE Dominions oF 1s Prusstan Ma-
yesty, AvTHOR OF THE PotsTicat InsTiTUTES, &c,
Indoéti difcant, & ament meminiffe periti,
TRANSLATED FROM TH® LAST EDITION PRINTED
_ AT BERLIN 3
By W. HOOPER, M.D. ONY.
o.\e
VOL. Il. \
LONDON: |
Painted sy G. Scort,
For J. ROBSON Booxserrer 1m New-Bonp Street,
anv B. LAW 1n Ave-Mary Langs.
MDCCLXxX.
~~ So i“ ed x co "
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re Bn Fete Ge Oy
a ae sip’ th.
we +
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, 3
———e
:
—_
—f
G59 °N Vek MoT -s
THIRD VOLUME.
3H EEE EERE RRO
Cuap. + Page
ts F the Belles Lettres, and the fciences
of the memory in general - 1
p il. Of mythology - _- 15
Til. Chronology - - 36
IV. Of hiftory in general, and of its divi-
fions - - 69
V. Ancient hiftory . : go
VL. The hiftory of the middle Age 123
VII. Modern hiftory - - 145
VIll. Ecclefiaftic hiftory - . 187
IX. The hiftory of the Chriftian Church,
of herefies, popes and reformers 207
X. Of antiquities - - : 231
~
i ws
2. ee
ii” CONTENTS>:
Cuap. Page
XI. Medals and coins - - 244
XII. Diplomatics. - - 260
XIII. Statiftics - - 268
‘XIV. Of travels and travellers - 279
XV. Of Geography - - - 287
XVI. Genealogy - - 303
XVII, Blazonry - ~ 310
XVIIL. Of Philology in general 319
XIX. Of the oriental languages 328
XX. Of the other learned languages, and
of paleography —- “),., ae
*-XXI. Modern languages ° - 349
XXII. Digreffion on exercifes 359
XXII. ————on certain anomalous arts 7
| ‘and feiences SL 377
XXIV. ————on chimerical arts and
{ciences - = « -g@s
XXV. ———_—_on {chools, colleges, uni-
verfities and academies 402
XXVI. The hiftory of the fciences 414
XXVII. Of the knowledge of authors, and
of biography —- =‘ \4e9
XX VIII. Digreffions, 1. On criticifm 5 2.
3 On literary journals ; 3. On li-
braries - - 437
BOOK rue THIRD.
ag Sy. 3S a F
OF THE
BELLES LETTRES,
AND THE
Sciences of Memory in General.
if HETHER we confult the voluminous
dictionaries of the French language,
or thofe treatifes that profefs to point out the
method of ftudying and teaching the Belles
Lettres, we find not, in the one or the other,
either a clear definition, or a fuccinét explica-
tion of the words Belles Lettres, nor any fum-
mary of thofe iciences which are comprehend-
ed under that general and collective denomi-
nation. It appears to be a vague term,
under which evety*one may include what-
Vor. IIL, A ever
2 UNIverRsaAt ErvupiTion,
ever he thinks proper. Sometimes we are told
that by the Belles Lettres is meant, ** the know-
** ledge of the arts of poetry, and oratory;
** fometimes, that the true Belles Lettres are
** natural philofophy, geometry,and other effentiak
** parts of learning ; and fometimes, that they com-
*‘ prehend the art of war, by land and fea: in
* fhort, they are made to include all that we know,
‘* and whatever we pleafe; fo that in treating on
“* the Belles Lettres, they talk of the ufe of the
“‘ facraments, &c.*” In a word, it were an
endlefs tafk to attempt to enumerate all the
parts of literature that different learned men
have comprehended under this title. The fame
indecifion is to be found in the term humanity
or claffical learning ; under which they include
at pleafure, either more or lefs of the preparato-
ry parts of learning, as grammar, rhetoric, &c,
which are taught at f{chools, or in colleges, to
fuch as are intended for the ftudy of the fuperior
fciences. In the midft of this uncertainty, it
feems to be lawful for a private foreigner, who
dwells at two hundred leagues diftance from
Paris, and is much embarrafsed by fo many dif-
ferent refpeCtable authorities, to fix for. himfelf
the true import of the term; provided, however,
that he humbly acknowledge his error whenever
any mafter of the French language fhall prove,
by well-eftablifhed ufage, that he is wrong.
Il. We
. Rollin’s method of eens, and ftudying the Belles
Lettres. |
’
ial Se Re ee ea. Vy ™
- ee le iw . “
Tat Betures LetTres. 3
II. We comprehend, therefore, under the term
belles lettres, all thofe inftructive and pleafing
{ciences‘which occupy the memory and the jude-
ment, and do not make part, either of the fu-
perior fciences, of the polite arts, or of me-
chanic profeffions, 8c, To thefe we confecrate
this third volume of the analyfis of the fci«
ences ;-and we truit that we fhall not omit any of »
them that ought naturally to be here included :
for we hope, that memory and judgment will
ferve us as companions and guides in this long
and difficult career.
Iif.. All that relates to hiftory or philology,
requires at firft, nothing more than fight and
memory. In our earlieft years thofe faculties
are in their greateft vigour; all objects that then
prefent themfelves make the moft lively and
jafting impreffions: the memory feems to trace
on a young mind all thofe fciences which it is
capable of comprehending, with indelible
characters. The difcerning faculty is formed
more flowly ,; the mind requires a longer time
to attain the capacity of diftinguifhing thofe
~ obje&ts that are prefented to it by the fight or
the memory. The judgment, or underftand-
ing, requires {till more time to combine thofe
objects, to compare them with each other, to
draw from particular inferences ge.eral conclu-
fions, to form them into fyftems, and to reduce
them into fciences, Liaftly, the genius, or
inventive faculty, by aid of the fenfes, the me-
‘ A 2 mory
CS. pee eee kee ye ee,
‘ _" ‘ _ ™ r
y F fad
4 Universat ErvDITION:
mory and the judgment, creates, produces, or
difcovers, either new truths, or undifcovered
combinations, or brilliant comparifons, and ftrik-°
ing images. This appears to us to be the na-
tural progrefs of the faculties of the human
mind, and by this progrefs man is conducted in
the career of his ftudies. He fhould begin, iff
his early days, to apply to thofe fciences that ex-
ercife the memory ; proceed to the forming of
the. difcerning faculty; then elevate his mind
to thofe fuperior {ciences that occupy the judg-
ment; and at length launch forth into the
fublime regions of the polite arts ; which are
the produce of a well ftored memory, an en-
lightened judgment, and a fruitful genius.
IV. The peculiar employment of childhood
fhould be the learning of languages: for they.
are the inftruments with which his mind is to
work. To the beginning of youth, fhould be
given a rough draft of the principal fciences of
the memory, fuch as contains only facts, dates,
and axioms: a fketch, for example, of hiftory, |
a kind of gazette of fimple events, without in-
ferences or refleétions, moral or political, with-
out charaéters, and without ornaments, In the
dawn of manhood, while the young itudent is
preparing for the univerfity, he fhould make
himfelf a thorough mafter of logic, or the art
of reafoning: he fhould then likewife acquire
fome tincture of the philofophic fciences ; and
make a fecond, more comprehenfive, and more
| rational
Tue Berres Lerrres. 5
rational courfe in hiftory. Now opportunities
fhould alfo be given him of making fome. ef-
fays of his genius, that it may be conjectured of
what future productions he may be capable.
The univerfity will furnifh him with the :necef-
fary inftructions in the fuperior fciences, and he
will at laft advance to the practice of the polite
arts: he will invent, improve, produce; he
will become at once a learned man, and a re-
fplendent genius ; even a Leibnitz, if providence
fhall permit,
V. Hiftory ought in a peculiar manner to be —
the ftudy of every one, who would: attain a
liberal education; as it is a general ftorehoufe
for all the fciences, and a fchool for all the vir-
tues. Whoever is appointed to inftruct the
children of princes, of the nobles, or principal
inhabitants of the land, fhould endeavour, in —
the firft place, ftrongly to imprefs on their
minds a chronological feries of all the remark-
able events that are recorded in hiftory, from
the creation of the world down to the prefent
day; making them well obferve at the fame time
the feveral fynchronifms, or the various events
that have happened at the fame period in differ-
ent parts of the world. By thefe means he will
open in their minds a repofitary, where every par-
ticular event may hereafter be ranged in its proper
place ; for, otherwife, without this, hiftory would
prefent a mere chaos to the memory, without
order or connexion, When the ftudent has
thus
= Pee wt Pee”
6 Universat ErvupirTIow.
thus acquired a ready knowledge of chronology,
he may undertake, with his tutor, a complete
and rational courfe of hiftory: and there Clio
fhould pluck for him the golden apples of the
garden of the Hefperides. ‘The animated and
ftriking pictures of hiftory offer two forts of ex-
amples, the one to imitate, and the other to
avoid.* It is the bufinefs of an able inftructor
carefully to point out, in the annals of all na-
tions, thofe facts and characters that muft ‘in-
fpire their pupils with admiration or horror; and
confequently excite in their minds a defire to
imitate their virtues,. and avoid their vices.
The portraits of the truly great, as well as the ty-
rants of antiquity, when lively drawn, mutt
ftrongly affect the young ftudent; for they will
feem to fay: ‘* Future generations, princes,
“heroes, ftatefmen, {fcholars, philofoghers !
‘* Providence, for our greater reward, or more,
«exemplary punifhment, has placed our ftatues —
‘in this gallery, to ferve as amiable or detefta-
«¢ ble models to future ages. Emulate our vir-
“ tues, and have a juft.abhorrence of our crimes.
“ Know that your real characters, that your
* actions, however abfurd or unjuft, and with
*¢ whatever veil you may cover them, or under
** whatever mafk you may difguife them, will,
* like ours, ftand naked before pofterity. The
* piercing public eye will penetrate the moft
** fecret folds» of; your hearts. A thoufand
** fagacious obfervers continually furround you,
*¢ and a thoufand pencils are conftantly ready to
Paint
Ps aed
ye a een.
Tue Betres LetTrres: y
** paint you to pofterity, fuch as you really are.
*¢ Hiftory flatters not: it is the witnefs, not the
** adulator of mankind,”
VI. We muft here make a few obfervations
on the degree of credibility that a rational mind
fhould give to the truth of hiftory, or, in other
words, on bifforic faith. No act or eyent can
poffibly happen, but fuch as is the refult ar pro-
duce of human actions, or the effects of nature :
all aétions_muft- therefore arife from fituations,
circumftances or relations. We may be well
aftured, that all human actions, however extra-
ordinary and wonderful, never have been, nor
ever can be fupernatural or miraculous; ex-
cept .thofe fignal miracles only which God
vouchfafed to operate, in order to eftablifh the
Judaic and Chriftian religions; and of which
they are the foundations, Thefe objects of our
religious faith, of our piety and profound vene-
ration, are as much above our weak comprehen-
fion, as facred revelation is above philofophy,
or mere human reafon. It is with a lively,
evangelic faith, that we are to acknowledge the
truth and evidence of thefe faéts. The hittoric
faith on the contrary is, if we may ufe the ex-
preffion, ftrictly argumentative. It examines,
it doubts ; and here doubt is the beginning of
wifdom, foe as abbé Vallemont has very juftly
obferved, there is no merit, either before God
gr man, in a flupid credulity,
VIL We
8 Universat Ervorritos:
VII. We. fhould take due care, therefore;
not to’ pufh our hiftoric faith fo far as to believe
all the prodigies, all the fables and. extrava-
gancies that are related by profane hiftory, and
efpecially that of the ancients. It would cer-
tainly be ridiculous to doubt that there have
been fuch princes as Cyrus, Alexander, and
Czfar, and that they were great conquerors:
but it would be ftill far more. abfurd to give
credit to all the marvellous ftories that have been
related by~ hiftorians: it would be madnefs to
believe that Romulus and Remus were fuckled
by a wolf; that. Numa Pompilius held an inter-
courfe with the nymph Egeria ; that the head of
Ancus Martius burned ‘in the Capitol; that
_ Curtius threw himfelf. into a gulph; or that
the gods fpoke by the means. of oracles. Is it
not ridiculous enough to fee, in the eighteenth
century of Chriftianity, a learned, elaborate and
very ferious differtation, to prove that the oracles
did not ceafe.to fpeak at the coming of Jefus
Chrift; when it is evident to every man of any
knowledge, that there never was any fuch be-
ings as Jupiter or Apollo, and confequently
that they never did fpeak? Such fubjeés:as
thefe ought to be ranked. with the ftories of
giants, or the Tale of a’Tub; and, whenever we
meet in profane hiftory with like accounts of
prodigies and miracles, hiftoric faith, or rather
human credulity, fhould ceafe, and the fenfible
part of mankind fhould reafon thus: either the
gods were to blame fo to difpofe the order of
: nature,
THe Betres LetTTres, c)
nature, that it is not capable of producing the
complete felicity of created beings, and efpecia!ly
of mankind, or elfe thofe gods were guilty of an
abfurdity, by interrupting the eftablifhed order
of nature, to produce effects, that might have
been produced by merely following that eternal
order. It is to be: obferved here, that we are
now fpeaking of the gods of paganifm only.
VIII. Hiftoric faith is moreover founded en-
tirely on human teftimony,. and that foundation
is unfortunately very weak. What affurances
have we, that the witneffes of events have never
been deceived? or even that’ they have never
been willing to be deceived? The fame, and
{till more may be faid of hiftorians, who have
been very rarely witnefles of the facts they relate,
but have taken them merely from report. Now,
if we fuppofe thefe faéts to be certain, we mutt
conclude, that thefe witneffes and hiftorians were
angels; for it is not in the nature of man to be
infallible. The more witneffes likewife any
prodigy has, forthe moft part, the more rea-
fon there is to fufpect ic: for the multitude are
conftantly inclined to deceive themfelves; are
fond of the marvellous, and drown the voice of
the fmall number of the difcerning part of man-
kind, We have feen the miracles of the bleffed
abbé Paris, that were attefted by thoufands of
witnefles, whofe veracity was indifputable, and
yet they have at laft been proved to be nothing
more than artful impoftures,
1X. The
- o >. > 2
* =
ay *:
wr , ;
>
Io UNIVERSAL Frubirron,
IX. The imperfeétion in the frame of man,
the weaknefs of his difcernment, and the errors
of his judgment, on one fide, and the ftrength
of his paffions on the other, render his teftimo-
nies conftantly equivocal and fufpicious. Hear
the accounts of two general officers that have
been in the fame battle ; read the gazettes that
relate the events which have happened in our
own days, and frequently before our eyes, and
judge how far you can depend upon the real
truth of thofe facts. This being the cafe, you
may eafily determine what degree of credit is to
be given to thofe marvellous relations, which are
fuppofed to have happened among nations lef
enlightened than we are; in thofe ages, when
learning was quite‘in its infancy, before printing
was invented, and when the propagators of falfe
reports ftood in no dread of the feverity of criti-
cifm. Let thefe and many other reflections, that
we fhall pafs over in filence, fet due bounds ta
your hiftoric faith.
X. The paffions likewife, to which human
nature is liable, conftantly caft a veil over the
truth. It is an ancient faying, that.an hiftorian
ought to have no religion, and no country. He
is however, conftantly, either a friend, or enemy
of the prince or hero whofe hiftory he relates ;
he is prejudiced foror againft a country, a peo-
ple, areligion, a party or government. Paffion
continually guides his pen. We cannot read,
without indignation, all that Tacitus writes a-
| gaint
Ve —————i a 7
Tue. Berres LetTrres. if
gainft Tiberius, whofe profefied enemy he was;
Let Tiberius perform the moft innocent, _moft
juat and honourable actions, Tacitus would find
means to make them appear odious; though he
frequently did it in a very awkward manner,
Thucidydes, Xenophon, and Jofephus, were ex-
cellent hiftorians ; but if thofe people, who were
the enemies of the Jews and Greeks, had found
hiftorians of equal ability with their antagonifts,
it is likely that the actions of the feveral heroes
would have been fet before us in very different
lights. Notwithftanding the refpect that is due
to the fathers of the church, we cannot fay that
they were entirely free from paffions. They
gave to Conftantine the furname of Great, who
was doubtlefs one of the greateft dolts that ever
_ exifted; but he was a friend and protector of
the Chriftian priefts. The emperor Julian they
reprefented as a monfter, and a man of mean
abilities; whereas he was one of the greateft men
that hiftory has recorded, his unfortunate apo-
ftacy excepted. Judge, after sa of the credit
that is due to hiftorians.
XI. The ftatefman and the fcholar, the man
of the world, and the man of genius, neverthe-
lefs, will and ought to make himfelf acquainted
with hiftory, He ought even to know it in the
manner it has been tranfmitted to us, with all
its fables, errors and falfhoods, He ought to
know, for example, all that the ancient hiftorians
haye related of the labours of Hercules; of the
expedition
12 Uwniversart’ Ervorrron:
expedition of the Argonauts; of the fiege of
Troy, &c,: &c. though he do ‘not give the
fame credit to thefe as to the gofpely It is of |
little import to us, whether thefe relations be
true or not, either in fubftance or in circum-
{tance ; it is fufficient that we know in what
manner hiftory relates them. Thefe marvellous:
{tories even fometimes furnith affiftance, pleafing
ideas and allufions, to poetry and eloquence.
The ftrict veracity of faéts does; not: appear. to:
become interefting to us, but in proportion as’
hiftory approaches thafe ages that immediately
precede the prefent ; for the titles, the poffef-
fions, and pretenfions of modern princes and
nations, are entirely founded on thefe hiftorical
facts, and on the minuteft circumftances that
have attended them. The real influence ‘of:
thefe facts and events on the interefts of modern
nations, can go very little further back than the
time of Charlemagne. The principal points are,
to determine in what ftate that monarch found
Europe; what were then the rights of the peo-
_ ple; after what manner he conquered them ;
by what method he eftablifhed the weftern em-
pire; what rights. he thereby acquired ;\ and
what.are the revolutions that have happened
in the world fram that period down to the pres
fent day,
XII. It: is therefore from this famous epoch,
that it concerns us thoroughly to know the
veracity of facts; and of all their circumftances,
| Thate
Toe Berres LetTrTres. ij.
Thofe of the preceding ages being more the
objects of curiofity than utility, we fhall leave
them to the learned refearches of critics, anti-
quaries, and commentators ; acknowledging the
obligation we have to their laborious inquiries.
We fhall fay nothing here of the ftudy of the
other parts of hiftoric and philologic fcience.
That only requires, as we have already obferved,
good eyes, a juft difcernment, and a happy me-
mory. What remarks may be neceflary relative
to that matter,. we fhall make in the courfe of
our analyfis of thofe fciences,
XIIf. The love of truth obliges us to make
here one obfervation, and which we do at the
rifk of offending, and regardlefs of the confe-
quence. Every man who would acquire a true
knowledge of the hiftoric fciences (and frequent-
ly of the philofophic alfo) fhould learn them
from fuch works as are wrote by Proteftants.
The inquifition of the church of Rome ftrikes
all catholic writers, and efpecially hiftorians,
with a wretched timidity, that conftrains them
to difguife the truth, or at leaft to fupprefs it,
and be filent on all thofe matters that can in
the leaft affect their religion. In all fuch faéts
as relate to the origin and increafe of the hierar-
chy, thofe authors are to be altogether fufpected ;
efpecially when they belong themfelves to the
ecclefiaftical ftate, and their fortune vifibly de-
pends on the court of Rome. We will defy
any one to produce a fingle work of this kind,
. in
14 Universatr Ervuopirtroy.
in which we cannot point out vifible marks of
this unhappy truth ; and which we find ourfelves
obliged, however unwilling, to declare in this
place. The inconvenience is greater than is
eafily imagined..
XIV. And now, ye Studious Youth, who feék
to inform yourfelves by this abridgment of the.
courfe you fhould purfue in the ftudy of the
fciences, conftantly remember, that theory alone,
however perfect it may be, will perpetually re-
main a barren knowledge ; that hiftory, efpecially,
fhould direé& you to a fagacious conduét, fhould
infpire you with a love of virtue, and with an
averfion to folly and to vice. Be not therefore
content with knowing much, but let your know-
ledge be the guide to your talents ; for, in a
word, |
Omnia tendunt ad praxin,
CHAP.
“MytTHoutocy. 1s
RNP FA SAR FARO FR
C .H.A:P... Il.
MYTHOLOG Y,
I. 4 Rete word mythology is a Greek compound,
that fignifies a di/courfe on fables, and com-
prehends, in a collective fenfe, all the fabulous
and poetic hiftory of pagan antiquity. It fol-
lows therefore, that this fcience teaches the hif-
tory of the gods, demi-gods, and fabulous heroes
of antiquity; the theology of the pagans, the
principles of their religion, their myfteries, me-
tamorphofes, oracles, &c. By this definition, it
appears fufficiently what are the objects of which
we are to treat in this chapter.
IJ. If we well confider the matter, we fhall
find, that there were, in pagan antiquity, three
different religions. Firft, That of the philofophers,
who treated metaphyfically of the nature, the at-
tributes, and of the works of the Supreme Being.
They endeavoured to difcover the true God, and
the manner‘in which he ought to be worfhipped.
; It
16 Universat ErvupbitTIion.
It is not wonderful, that thefe men of exalted
genius fhould in fome degree ridicule, in their
works, the two other pofitive religions, and thofe
gods on whom they were founded; at the fame
time that they outwardly profeffed the eftablifh-
ed religion, in order to preferve the peace of
fociety, and to avoid the perfecutions of the
legiflature, and the infults of the populace. For
in fact, was it poffible for them to believe the
pagan fables? Muft they not forefee, that their
religion would one day give place to another,
while their own works would pafs with their
names to the lateft pofterity? And could they
fuffer the thought, that their reputation would
be tarnifhed in the eyes of that pofterity, by:
having it imagined they believed fuch idle tales
as were broached by the priefts of their times ?
Could Plato, Socrates, Seneca, and Cicero, be
unconcerned for their fame among future
generations, and future philofophers ?.. And
what fhould we at this day have faid of thofe
great men, had they been fo political, or hypocri-
tical, as to have entirely concealed their fenti-
ments with regard to thefe matters ?
II. The fecond religion was that of paganifn,
which was the eftablithed religion of all the an-
cient nations, except the Jews. This was the
doctrine that was taught by the priefts, and pro-
tected by the fovereigns, Its dogmas were de-
montftratively falfe, but not always fo abfurd as
may at firlt appear, efpecially if we annex (as I
think
.— se
MyTuotocy. 7
think we fhould) to the divinities, and to the re-
ligious ceremonies of the pagans, a fenfe that is
frequently myftic, and always allegoric; if we
remember, that the firft heathens deified thofe
great men to whom the reft of mankind were
indebted for any fignal benefits, as Jupiter,
Apollo, Ceres, Bacchus, Hercules, A£fculapius,
&c. in order to induce others, as well of the
prefent as future ages, to reverence and to imitate
them. Would not an ancient pagan, it he were
to return upon the earth, have fpecious argu-
ments, at.leaft, to fupport his religion, when he
faw weak mortals beatify or canonize,:merely by
their own authority, other weak mortals: (fre-
quently mere pedants) and place them in heaven,
without the permiffion or approbation of the
Supreme Being? MHappy is it for mankind,
when at different times iagacious pontiffs purge
the calendar, and the brains of the people, from
a herd of pretended faints, and prevent them,
at leaft after their death, from doing injury to
fociety, by interrupting thé induftry of the labo-
rious inhabitants with keeping their feftivals, »
IV. The third religion was idolatry, or the
religion of the populace. For the common
people, born to be deceived in every thing, con-
founding in their imaginations the ftatues of the
gods, the idols of their divinities, the emblems
of their virtues and of religious worfhip, with
the gods, divinities, virtues and worhhip them-
felves, adored thefe images, and proceeded to
Vor. If, © B extravagancies |
18 UnivErRSsSAL ERvUDITION.
extravagancies the moft ridiculous, and frequent-
ly moft criminal, in their ceremonies, feafts, li-
bations, facrifices, &c. It is to be feared,
that, as long as there are upon the earth men of
our limited capacities; this triple religion’ will
conftantly fubfift under different forms ;. and we .
are much deceived, if it may not be found under
the empire of Chriftianity itfelf, notwithftanding
the purity of its doctrine: — It will be eafily con-
ceived, that it is not of the religion of philofo-
phers, nor that of the populace, of which we are’
‘to treat inthis chapter on Mythology; but of
that whicls fubfifted under the authority of the
magiftracy and the priefthood, and confequently
of paganifm in general. |
V. As far-as we are able to judge by all’ the
ancient authors we have read, the pagans adored
the Sovereign Lord of the univerfe under the
name of Fate or Deftiny, (Fatum) which we muft
not confound with Fortune, who was. regarded
as a fubaltern divinity. Jupiter himfelf, all the
gods, every animated being, the heavens, the
earth, the whole frame of nature was fubfervient
to Deftiny, and nothing could reverfe its decrees.
This divinity was fo highly adorable, as to be
above all rank, and was regarded as too fupreme
to be reprefented under any fenfible image or
ftatue, or to have any temple erected for its
worfhip. We do not remember to have read, that
any facrifice was ever offered to this Deftiny, or
that any i aa or city was ever dedicated to its
| } name.
MyTHOLoOeY. 19
fame, Weare almoft inclined to think, that
the pagans were fenfible, that the temple and
the worfhip of the God of gods ought to be in
' the heart of man. Mention is made, indeed, of
a temple that was dedicated to the unknown
God, but we are ignorant whether or not Deftiny |
were thereby meant. We mutt not confound
this Deftiny, moreover, with the goddefs of
chance, of which there are fome antique ftatues
that reprefent her in a recumbent pofture, and
playing with little bones ; for this was nothing
more than an invention of fome ftatuary.
VI. After this general and philofophical idea
of the Supreme Being, comes the pofitive religion
of the pagans. This was entirely founded on
fable, which took its rife either from ancient
traditions, or hiftorical events, altered or aug-
mented by the imaginations of the poets, by
fuperftition, or by the credulity of the people ;
or élfe it confifted of allegoric or moral fictions,
A crowd of writers, and among the reft Noel le
Comte, (Natalis Comes) the abbots Bannier
and Pluche, &c. have made many refearches
into the origin of fable: and they think they
have difcovered its fource, 1. in the vanity of
mankind; 2. in the want of letters and charac-
ters; 3. in the delufive eloquence of orators ;
4. in the relations of travellers; 5. in the fic-
tions of poets, painters, ftatuaries, and dramatic
writers; 6, in the diverfity and uniformity of
names ; 7. in the ignorance of true philofophy ;
B 2 8. in
20 UNnirvEerRsaL ERvUDITION.
8. in the foundation of colonies, and the inven-
tion of arts; g. in the defire of having gods for
our anceftors ; 10. in the imperfect or falfe in-
terpretation of the holy criptures 5 Ir. in the
ignorance of ancient hiftory; 12. in a like ig-
norance of chronology ; 13. in that of foreign
Janguages ; 14. in the tranflation of the religion
of the Ee'yptians and Phoenicians into Giseces
15. in the ignorance of geography; and 16, in
the belief that the firft people had of the inter-
courfe of gods with men. It is certain, that all
thefe matters taken together are fufficient to
produce many thoufands of fables; are more
than fufficient to enable us to deceive ourfelves
and others, and to give rife to infinite reveries.
But we fhould take care how we draw from
thefe fources demoniirations that might be ufed,
by infidels, as arguments to overthrow the
hiftory of the Jews; a people the moft ftupid,
moft credulous, and oftentatious of all others.
In the mean time, the pagan philofophers them-
felves afferted, that it was a god who invented |
_ the fable: fo much they were convinced of its
ingenuity, and of its {trong tendency to inftruét
mankind in their duty.
VII. Mythology therefore, when properly
treated, begins with making learned refearches
into the real origin of fable, of paganifm, and
of that idolatry which was its confequence. It
recurs for this purpofe even to the beginning
of the world; and after finding that Laban, the
father-
MyTHOLOGY. 21
father-in-law of the patriarch Jacob, was a maker
of idols, and that he had his little images, or
houfhold gods, which he formed of baked earth,
and which fhows, that idolatry exifted in the
greateft antiquity, it then explains co/mogony,,
and ¢heogony, or the belief that the firft inhabi-
tants of the earth entertained of the creation of
the univerfe, and what the pagan theology
taught of the genealogy of their falfe gods. It
begins with the tradition of the Chaldeans, a
people fo ancient, that Nimrod was their firft
king; but at the fame time, fo credulous and
fuperftitious, that we may regard them as the
authors of all thofe fables, and the propagators
of all thofe vifions, that have fince blinded human
reafon. According to this tradition, a monfter
named Oannes, or Oes, half fifh and half man,
Sprang from the fea, before the chaos was com-
pletely difperfed, and gave laws to the Chaldeans.
A woman, called Omorka, reigned over all the
eatth. Bel cut her in two, and made of one
moiety the heavens, and of the other the earth.
They likewife invented the two primitive beings,
of which the good one, who was named Ora-
majdes, had the direction of heaven, and the
other called Arimanius, that of hell.
VIII. The fcience of mythology then teaches
the theogony of the Phoenicians ; concerning
whom it draws great lights from Sanchoniathon,
a prieft of Beryte, who lived before the Trojan
wars, more than four hundred years before He-
hed
22 UNIVERSAL ErvpIrTIon.
fiod and Homer, and of whom Eufebius has pre-
ferved confiderable fragments. From thence it
pafies to the theogony of the Egyptians, of
whom Thot or Thaut, the founder of that nation,
was likewife, they fay, their firft hiftorian, that
Sanchoniathon even copied from him; and of
whom we find many relations in the Greek hif-
torians, efpecially in Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus,
and in Eufebius of Cefarea. It then examines
the theogony of the Attlantides, who dwelt on
the weftern part of Africa, and of whom Diodo-
rus alone has preferved any account. From
thence it proceeds to the theogony of the Greeks,
which is far better known to us, as we find ac-
counts of it, more or lefs particular, in numbers
lefs Greek and Latin writers. This theogony
had the fame foundation as that of the Romans;
the latter having only extended it by adding to
the Greek divinities certain gods or demi-gods,
formed of their heroes, and certain fymbolic
and allegoric divinities, which mythology ex-
plains at the fame time; and it is on this oc-
cafion, that it enters into a particular explication
of the cofmogony and theogony of Ovid; whofe
book of metamorphofes contains as copious de-
{criptions as we could defire of the fable of the
ancients: what was their belief concerning the
habitations of the blefied after their death, or
of the Elyfian fields ; as well as of their hell or
T'artarus; of the dog Cerberus ; of the ferryman
Charon; of the Furies , of the four rivers, Cocy-
tus; ees Phlegethon a and Styx, which water the
Tartarian
- MyTHOLOcY. - 23
Tartarian regions, &c. The learned have
likewife made many inquiries, and many ingeni-
ous difcoveries concerning the theogony of the
ancient Germans, Celts, the Scythian and Hy-
perborean nations. In the laft place, this fci-
ence furnifhes great lights on the theogony of
the Bramins, the Troglodytes, the Indians, the
Chinefe, and even the Americans; all which it
concludes with a regular and minute examina-
tion of the pagan theology, and particularly
that of the poets.
{X. All thefe matters being well digeftec
in the minds of thofe who would make a regu-
lar ftudy of pagan theology, they continue their
refearches into the time, the epoch and, place
of the real origin of paganifm and idolatry, and
they prove that the pagans began by adoring
the heavenly bodies, tite ftars and planets.
They next,examine into the progrefs of idolatry,
what were the temples of the pagans, their
altars, their enclofures, their facred groves,
their afylums, the idols and ftatues of their
deities; in what manner they were reprefented,
what were their facrifices, the victims that were
offered, what were the facred veffels, the cen-
fers.and other inftruments that were ufed in
the facrifices, libations, and other religious ce-
remonies; concerning the priefts, priefteffes,
and other attendants on the fervice of each di-
vinity : what were the feftivals that were ce-
lebrated among the Greeks and Romans, as
well
24 Universat Eruption.
well as among the Orientals: what ‘the days
of penitence and fupplication, the feafts of 'the
gods or leétifternia, their invocations or in-
cantations, and exorcifms, the religious cere-
monies obferved at laying the foundations of
Cities, 8c.
_ XX. Divination, or the prediction of future
events, a weaknefs that has at all times poffeffed
the human mind, forms alfo an important ar-
ticle of pagan theology. It is therefore in this
place, that mythology confiders the nature of
Oracles, and in particular, 1. The oracle of
“Dodona, the moft ancient of Greece. 2. That
of Jupiter Hammon or Ammon, in Lybia.: .
3. That of Jupiter Philius. 4. That of A-
pollo, both of Heliopolis. 5. That of Apollo
of Delphos. 6. That of Trophonius in Boeo-
tia. 7. Thatof Venus of Aphaca, a country
between Byblos and Heliopolis, fituate on a
fmall lake; and a great number of other oracles
of lefs note, difperfed over Greece and other
countries. It alfo examines in what manner
thefe oracles gave their anfwers, the ceremonies
that were obferved in confulting them, the
frantic emotions of the prieftefs Pythia on her
tripod; and thofe of other priefts. It then
endeavours to determine if there ever were in
faét any Sibyls, which, whatever has been faid,
is ftill very doubtful; it draws, however, from
all the fources of antiquity, a kind of -hiftory
ef thefe Sibyls and of their prophecies. It
| next:
MyTHoLrtocy:, 28
ext paffes to the examen of the nature of au-
guries, aufpices, harufpices, prefages, _pro-
digies, and phenomena, of expiations and ab-
lutions, of the magic and aftrology of the an-
cients, &c. Whoever has thoroughly ftudied
all thefe objects, is fully provided with the pre-
liminary knowledge that is neceffary to enable
him to proceed fteadily and fecurely through
the darknefs of ancient mythology, and he may
thereby advance more confidently to the exa-
mination of the nature of the pagan divinities
themfelves.
XI. The celebrated treatife of Cicero de na-
tura deorum will here furnifh great lights; but
modern authors who have treated on thefe mat-
ters, have not been contented with this alone;
they have, fo to fay, extracted the eflence of
all antiquity, of which they have formed fyftems ;
but unluckily thefe fcarce ever agree with each
other. As philofophers, it is of very little im-
portance for us to know what was the nature of
thefe gods, feeing we know that they were mere-
ly fabulous: but as hiftorians and antiquaries,
it concerns us to know what was the nature that
was attributed to them in general, and in par-
ticular, what were the origin, genealogy, rank,
functions, authority and operations, that were
attributed to each divinity; and it is on thefe
matters that we have {till fome remarks to make.
XII. The
26 UNIVERSAL ErvditTion:
XII. The gods of the ancient Greeks and
Romans were all either Dii majorum gentium,
or Dit minorum gentium : that is, of the firft or
fecond order. The former were alfo called
confentes, magni confultores, &c. Accotding to
Ennius they were twelve in number, and are
included in thefe verfes :
Juno, Velta, Minerva, Ceres, Diana, Venus, Mars,
Mercurius, Jovis, Neptunus, Vulcanus, Apollo,
To thefe were added eight others under the
title of /eleéi, which were Sol, Luna, Tellus,
Genius, Janus, Saturnus, Liber, and Pluto.
The fecond order, or minorum gentium, were
called Adfcriptitii, Medioximi, Minufcularii,
Putatitiil, Indigetes, Semones, &c, the prin-
cipal. of which were Ai{culapius, Bacchus, Caftor,
Fauna, Hercules, the Lares or Penates, Pol-
lux, Quirinus, Semo Saneus or Dius Fidius,
&c.
XII. According to the fecond divifion, all
their divinities were claffed into, 1. Celeftial
gods, 2. Terreftrial gods, 3. Sea gods, and
4. the Infernal deities, or Jnferi. The celettial
_ gods were Jupiter, Juno, Apollo, Aurora,
Cupid, Cybele, the Graces, Hebe, Iris, Lu-
na, Mars, Mercury, Minerva, Nemefis, Sa-
turn, Themis, Venus, &c. The terreftrial gods
were fHolus, Aftreus, Aftreea, Ceres, Diana,
the Fauni, Feronia, Flora, Janus, Momus,
the Mufes, Pales, Pan, Pomona, Priapus,
the
MyTHoLtocy, 27
the Satyrs, Silenus, Silvanus, the god Ter-
minus, Vefta or Rhea, Berecynthia, Vulcan,
Harpocrates, &c. The fea gods were Nep-
tune, Amphitrite, Thetis, Canopus, Glaucus,
Ino, the Nereids, Nereus, Oceanus, Palaemon,
Triton, &c. The infernal gods were Pluto,
Proferpine, Charon, Minos, ‘Afacus, Rhada-
manthus, the Furies, Death, Night; the Fates,
Plutus, &c,
XIV. The third divifion ranged the divi-
nities according as they prefided, 1. Over the
pregnancy of women (Pregnantium.) 2. At
parturitions (Parturientium.) 3. At births (Na-
feentium.) 4, At adulteries. 5. At marriages:
to which they added, 6. Dii morales, or moral
gods, and 7. Funeral gods, The gods of
pregnancy were Pilumnus, Intercidona, and
Deverra: the gods of parturition, Juno, Lu-
cina, Diana, Egeria, Profa, Poftverta, Mena-
genata, Latona, the gods that were called Nixi,
or of labor, &c. The gods of birth were
Janus, Opis, Nafcion, Cunina, Carmenta, Va-
ginianus, Levana, Rumia, Potina, Educa,
Offilago, Carnea, Nundina, Statilinus, Fabu-
linus, Paventia, &c. The gods of adultery
were Juventus, Agenoria, Strenua, Stimula,
Horta, Quies, Murcia, Adeona, Abeona, Vo-
luptas, Orbona, Pellonia, Numeria, Camoena,
Sentia, Angerona, Heres, Martea, Laver-
na, the god Averruncus, Confus, Catius,
Volumnus and Volumna, Honorius, Aius Lo-
cutius, &c, The nuptial gods were Diana,
Domiduca,
28 UNIVERSAL ERUDITION.
Domiduca, Domitius, Hymenzus. or Hymen,’
Jugatinus, Jupiter perfectus, Juno perfeéta, Juno
cinxia, Junaunxia, Lucina, Manturna, Mutinus,
Dea Mater prema, Suada, Thalaffius, Venus, &c.
The moral gods were called Virtus, Honor,
Fides, Spes, Juftitia, Pietas, Mifericordia,
Clementia, Pudicitia, Veritas, Mens, Con-
cordia, Pax, Salus, Felicitas, Libertas, Pe-
cunia, Rifus, Invidia, Contumelia, Impuden-
tia, Calumnia, Fraus, Difcordia, Furor, Fama,
Fortuna, with all their epithets good or bad,
Febris, Pavor and Pallor, Paupertas, Necef-
fitas, Tempeftas, Silentium, &c. The fune-
ral gods were Pluto, Libitina, Nenia, Death,
the Fates, &c.
XV. Heftod indeed pretends that all thefe
gods derived their origin from chaos, but we
have already pointed out more juft fources. It
is almoft incredible to what a prodigious number
the fuperftition and weaknefs of the Greeks and
Romans multiplied thefe divinities; there have
been thirty thoufand of them enumerated. | It
will not be expected that we fhould here at-
tempt to defcribe them, nor will it be remark-
ablé if we have forgot to mention even fome of
the firft rank. Although vyaft as this company
of gods is, mythology does not omit to trace.
the hiftery of the greateft part of them, as it is
taught by paganifm; and they who are defirous
of particular information in thefe matters may
eonfult with advantage the theogony of Hefiod,
videllhe’ saa the
MvytuHotrocy. 29
the catalogue of Apollodorus, the metamorpho-
fes of Ovid ; the fables of Hygina; Lylii Gre-
gorii Gyraldi Syntagma de Diis Gentilium, the
mythology of Natalis Comes; the books of Ge-
rard Voffius de Idolatria Gentilium ; Johannis
Boccatii Genealogia Deorum; the Pantheon of
Pomey ; the hiftory of heaven by abbé Pluche ;
the hiftoric explanation of fables, by abbé Ban-
nier; and numberlefs other works of the fame
kind in all languages.
XVI. There were ftill many other diftinétions,
of which the pagans made ufe to mark their
rank, the funétions and nature of their feveral
divinities. For example, the goddefs Vefta, or
the mother of all the gods, was ‘adored by all
people in general. Mars, Bellona, Victoria,
Fortunata, &c. affifted all parties. The topical
gods, on the contrary, were adored in particular
countries only; as Aftarta in Syria, Derceto
and Semiramis among the Affyrians. Ifis and
Ofiris by the Egyptians; Quirinus at Rome,
&c. The title Semones, which was given to a
certain clafs of divinities, was doubtlefs derived
from Semi-homines, that is, demi-men, and
fignified the fame as femi-dii, or demi-gods.
Thefe were monarchs and illuftrious heroes, or
thofe great men who were the founders of cities
and nations, that were deified by way of apo-
theofis, Pythagoras had taught the Chaldeans
the doétrine of tranfmigration, and that after
their death, thofe who were virtuous, would be
elevated
go Universatn Ervovirion.
elevated to the rank of divinities. This doétriné
was adopted by all the pagan world. The
apotheofis, after they had erected temples and
altars to the new gods, was celebrated with much
folemnity.. In the laft ceremony, an eagle was
fixed on the catafalk, or funeral pile, on which
was placed the image of the hero, and when the
pile began to burn, the eagle was let loofe, who,
mounting into the air with the flames, feemed to
carry the foul of the departed hero up to heas
ven,
XVII. Mythology informs us alfo, who thofe
perfons were that antiquity regarded as the chil-
dren of the gods, fuch as Thefeus, Hippolytus,
Paris, 8c. what the pagans believed, with
regard to the nature of their Genii and Demons,
of their Dryades, Hamadryades, Nymphs, Tritons,
Sirens, Fawns,. Silvaiis, Centaurs, and other
fubaltern divinities; and in this manner it ex.
plains all the fyftems of the pofitive religion of
the Greeks and Romans, They who are defir-
ous Of extending their knowledge of paganifm
ftill further, of knowing the dogmas of each
particular people, what were their gods; and
the various manners in which they were worfhip-
ped, fuch as Apis, Ifis, Ofiris, &c. the adoration
of crocodiles and onions, &c. among the Egyp-
tians, muft ftudy the different theogonies of
thefe people, and notwithftanding all the infor-
mations which ancient and modern authors af-
ford, this ftudy is yet boundlefs, and attended
with
MyTHOoLocy. 31
with many difficulties and uncertainties. Though
it appears demonttrative, that: the origin of pa.
» and of idolatry in general, was derived
from: the Chaldeans, from whom the Egyptians
drew that doétrine which they after tranfmitted
to all other nations; and confequently that the
primordial divinities. were the fame, under dif.
ferent denomifiations, among all the idolatrous
nations of the earth.
XVIII. The nature of this work will not
permit us to defcend to further particulars. But
to give our readers an idea of the manner in
which mythology treats its fubjeéts, and of the
method that fhould be obferved in ftudying fable,
or the hiftory of the gods of antiquity, we fhall
here give, by way of example, a curfory defcrip-
tion of Parnaffus and its inhabitants.
Parnafflus was a mountain of Phocis, that had
two fummits, one of which was called Tithoreus,
and the other Hyampeus. Others fay, that one
of thefe hills was named Helicon, and the other
Cytheron, and that it is an error to imagine, that
Helicon was a mountain of Boeotia. However
that be, this double hill was confecrated to Apol-
Yo and the mufes, who there held their ufual
refidence. According to fable, there had been a
remarkable combat on this hill, between Helicon
and Cytheron, Whoever flept on , Parnaffus,
when he waked, became a poet. Apollo Hon
there
yz Universar Ervpirtiown,
there a temple. There alfo was the fountain.
Caftalia, into which Apollo had metamorphofed
a nymph that he loved, and had given to its
waters the power of making all who drank of
them poets. At the foot of Parnaffus flowed
the river Hippocrene, that had the famé virtue 5
and the fource of which was opéned by a ftroke
of the foot of the horfe Pegafus. . This river
nourifhed a great number of fwans, that were
regarded as facred. Pegafus was a winged horfe,
that belonged to Apollo, and grazed on the
fummit of Parnaffus. He fprang from the blood
of Medufa, when Perfeus cut off her head, which
was placed among the ftars. Such was the de-.
licious abode of Apollo, the fon of Jupiter and
Latona, who was born, with his twin fitter Diana,
in the ifland Delos. He killed the Cyclops who
forged the thunder bolts with which Jupiter had:
overthrown his fon /Efculapius ; but for that.
prefumption, he was forced to leave heaven, and
to become an inhabitant of the earth. He
guarded the oxen of Admetus; he aided Nep-
tune to build the walls of Troy; and Alcotheus
in forming the labyrinth. He killed the dra-
gon or ferpent Python. He invented mufic and
phyfic; and was honoured as the god of poets
and phyficians. ' He was reprefented as a young
man, without a beard, his head furrounded with
rays, and bearing in his hand a bow, or a lyre.
As the ancients denoted the fun by the name of
Apollo, they fometimes reprefented him alfo as
feated in a chariot, drawn by two white horfes,
preceded
MyTHOLOGY. 33
preceded by Aurora andthe ftar Venus: Phaeton
his fon, being defirous of conduéting thefe horfes,
was thrown into the fea. Apoilo was alfo called
Phoebus, Titan, and Sol. He is known to
have had amours with Arfinoe, Corycia; Me-
loene, Cyrene, Mantho, Sinope, Calliope, and
others; by whom he had Delphe, Naxe, Mi-
letus, Arabe, Garamas, Sirus, Linus, Orpheus,
and other children, He had peculiar honours
paid him in the Pythian games at Delphos, and
in the fecular games at Rome. ,
XIX. The Mufes were thé companions of
Apollo in his rural abode. They were likewife
called the learned fifters; as alfo the Camoenian,
Heliconian, Parnaffian, Aonian, Pierian, Pe-
gafian, Aganippian, Thefpian, Libethrian and
Caftalian fitters. They were the daughters of
_ Jupiter and Mnemofyne, and were régarded as
the goddefies of fciences and arts in general.
There were nine of thefe mufes, to. whom they
attributed, 1. to Clio, hiftory, 2. to Melpo-
mene, tragedy, 3. to Thalia, comedy, 4. to
Euterpe, flutes and other pneumatic inftruments
of mufic, 5. to Terpfichore, the harp and the
dance, 6. to Erato, the lyre and the lute, 7. to
Calliope, heroic verfe, 8. to Urania, aftronomy,
and g. to Polyhymnia, rhetoric and eloquence.
The Graces alfo fometimes quitted Venus to
pay their court to Apollo.
Vor. Hl, C XX. Such
34 Univeirsau Erupition.
XX. Such was the idea they entertained of
_ ‘Parnaffus and its inhabitants. There is no
doubt but that under thefe fabulous repre-
fentations, thefe fenfible images, were concealed
allegoric and moral meanings ;_ nor can it be de-
nied but that their method of cultivating the
arts and fciences, by this manner of expreffing
their ideas, was as ingenious and pleafing as it
is poffible toimagine. Every other fubje¢t that
paganifm embraced, it treated with the fame ge-
nius and in a manner equally pleafing; and
though that religion was altogether fallacious,
yet we muft allow that it was extremely well cal-
culated to promote the polite arts, by thofe re-
fined, noble, graceful, brilliant images, by
thofe charming fubjeéts which it conftantly pre-
fented, and which it ftill offers to the poet,
painter, fculptor and every other artift.
XXI. But this was not a power fufficiently
ftrong to fecure paganifm againft that viciffitude,
that decline and diffolution, which finally attends
all the produétions of this world. This religion,
which had fubfifted near five thoufand years,
and almoft from the origin of the human race,
gradually declined in proportion as the lights of
Chriftianity and philofophy illumined the minds
of mankind. For though the pagan religion,
and the fables on which it was founded, were
pleafing and favourable to the polite arts, they
were not however calculated to fatisfy the minds
of philofophers, nor to promote the real good of
mankind,
M+yrnoOLocy. 35
fankind, by fecuring their temporal and eter-
nal happinefs. It is even furprifing, that fo great
_@ genius as the emperor Julian fhould attempt
to revive the embers of paganifm, which infen-
fibly declined, and had received a mortal blow
at the beginning of the fourth century by the
emperor Conftantine the Great. ' Julian em-
ployed all the refourcés. of his imagination, of
his eloquence, of his power, and even of his
own fatal example, to revive it, but in vain.
The fatal period of paganifm was . arrived, \and
nothing could fave it from deftruction;. The
furious Theodofius, to whom bigotted -priefts
and hiftorians have affigned the name of Great,
totally overthrew it toward the clofe of the fame
century; deftroyed thofe temples and altars
which yet fubfifted, difperfed its colleges. and
exterminated its priefts.. From that dire epoch,
nothing of paganifm has remained, except fome
ruins-difperfed in the remote parts of the earth,
and among people wretched and almoft unknown;
where this religion, once fo flourfhing and _ uni-
verfal, is now degenerated into grofs and dif-
guftful idolatry.
mwC’4 CHAP.
36 Universar Ervpirrion.
© HOA Roa.
CHRONOL OG Y.
Ay C Hronology is the fcience that teaches
the method of meafuring time and diftin-
guifbing its parts. It is more difficult, than may
at firft appear, to determine the precife idea, and
clearly to explain the nature of time. That
ingenious and fubtile impoftor Mahomet has
given in his Alcoran fome traces of very refined
ideas of this fubjeét. But, leaving thefe meta-
phyfical refearches, we fhall content ourfelves
with faying, that by time we here mean the du-
ration and fucceffion of created beings. To de-
termine a fixed and fenfible meafure of duration,
it is neceflary to find fome motion that is con-
ftantly uniform, which may ferve as a fcale for
that meafure. From the creation of the world,
it has been obferved that the courfes of the heaven-
ly bodies afford the moft univerfal meafure of
motion to all the intabitants of the earth. As
it was originally imagined that the fun turned
round the earth, his annual and diurnal revolu-
tions were fixed on for the common meafure of
time ; and by this meafure they divided the du- ~
ration
CHRONOLOGY. 37
tation of beings info years, months, weeks,
days, hours, minutes and feconds. It may feem
ftrange to an aftronomer, or chronologift, to read,
in the firft chapter of Genefis, that God did not
create the fun, moon and ftars till the fourth
day, and that there were days and nights be-
fore there was any fun.. But who can fay what
is there precifely meant by the word day? Mo-
fes, who lived about three thoufand years after
the creation, wrote the origin and hiftory of the
Jews. In order to which he recurred to the
origin of all things: he began with the crea-
tion itfelf: but he wrote to men, and to men
who were even lefs enlightened than we are,
efpecially in matters of aftronomy. He was
therefore obliged to make ufe of expreffions that
were to them intelligible. The fcriptures were
moreover given to mankind to ferve them as
guides in matters of religion, and not to teach
them aftronomy; of which were they ignorant,
they would be obliged to believe, for example,
that the fun moves round the earth, and that it
was ftopped, though a thoufand timés greater
than the whole terreftrial globe, by the defire of
Jofhua at Gibeon ; and that the moon halted in
the valley of Ajalon, &c. alt which is direétly
contrary to the eternal laws of nature, and
therefore, taken in the ftrict letter, cannot betrue.
But who knows what means Providence may have
employed to produce thefe appearances? With-
out making further inquiry into thefe matters,
let us acknowledge the goodnefs of the Holy
Spirit
38 Universart-Ervprtiown.
Spirit that has vouchfafed to {peak to ‘mankind
in a language adapted to their ‘capacities, in
pointing out the path that leads to eternal feli-
city ;) where thofe dark clouds which now fur-
round the human underftanding fhall be difperf-
ed, and it will then perhaps difcover many of
thofe pofitions to be errors which philofophers
and aftronomers now regard as axioms, or incon-
teftable truths.
If. Since Copernicus has difcovered that the
earth moves in its orbit round the fun, it necef-
farily follows, that the meafure of time arifes
from the motion of this our globe. But as
chronology is founded on apparent aftronomy,
or on that part of it which confiders the celeftial
bodies and-their motions as they appear to our
fenfes, and forms its calculations in ° confe-
quence, all that we fhall here fay of its opera-
tions, will therefore relate to that part of. aftro-
nomy which is regulated by appearances.
III. The term chronology, when taken in its
full extent, has two objects that may feem to be’
in a manner two different {ciences, but which have
a natural connexion. The firft is the meafuring
of time and its different divifions,; now this
part of chronology i is regulated by aftronomical
calculation, and confequently makes a part of
mathematics. And it is by this method that
we are enabled to make complete calendars or
almanacs. The fecond part of chronolgy
Bix conlifts
CHRONOLOGY, | 39
confifts in fixing the dates of all thofe events that ~
are related in hiftory, and of ranging them in the
feveral divifions of time in which they occurred:
and by this means chronology becomes one of
the effential parts of hiftory. This fecond part
of chronology draws its principles from.the firft ;
but it has need,of other iupports, as of criti-
cifm, of the teftimony of authors, of ancient
coins, medals, infcriptions, &c. of fuch epochs
in hiftory as are inconteftable ; of eclipfes of the
fun and moon, and other aftronomical obferva-
tions, &c. We fhall now make the analyfis of
chronology according to this natural divifion,
and fhall confider it from thefe different points
of view.
IV. The time that the fun employs in going
completely round the earth is called a day.
We alfo call that time the fun remains above
the horizon, day; and the time he is under it,
night. As the fun’s. motion is flower when he is
in the apogee than when in the perigee, it fol-
lows that the firft fort of days, which are alfo
called natural days, muft be fhorter in fummer
than in winter, The natural day is divided into
four-and-twenty hours, the hour into fixty mi-
nutes, and the minute into fixty feconds. As
the point of mid-day or noon can be obferved,
by means of the meridian, with the greateft pre-
cifion, aftronomers begin the day at that point,
and count twenty-four hours in fucceffion ;
which, when thus counted, are called aftronomic
hours. The common people, on the contrary,
begin
wera oO mt © ee ee ee
40 Universart Exvopirtion,
begin the day at midnight, and count twelve
hours to mid-day, and from thenée twelve hours
more to midnight ; and thefe are se Euro-
péan hours.
Vi The andiene Atabs, and fome other na-
tions, began theif day with the aftronomers ; but
the Egyptians and Romians at the fate time we
do. The Italians and Chinefe (as did alfo the
Athenians) begin their day at funfer; and the
modern Greeks, by the example of the Babylo-
nians, begin it at funrife. Fhe hours therefore
that are counted after the former method are
called Italian, and the latter Babylonian hours:
and in both methods they count twenty-
four hours in fucceffion. The Jews begin the
day alfo at funfet:' anciently they divided each
day, whether long or fhort, into twelve hotirs,
and the night the fame. Fhefe unequal hours
are called Judaic or planetary hours: the fudaic
hours therefore are long or fhort,’ according to
the duration of the day. The Chaldean {cruple
is the ..",> part of an hour. The Jéws, Arabs,
and other oriental nations, make ufé of this divi-
fion, atid call thefe fcruples Helakim. Eighteen
Chaldean {crtiples are equal to one minute, and
confequently 15 minutes are equal to 270
fefuples.
VE.-A week is the {pace of feven days. This
divifion of time took its origin from the creation.
It was adopted by the patriarchs and other Jews,
and has pafied from them to moft other nations.
The
Curonovocy. 41
_ ‘The Perfians, however, do not count by weeks,
nor do forme of the Indian nations. We owe
the nates of the days to the Egyptians and
aftrologers, who have given to each day: the
name of that planet, which, according to them,
reigns over the firft hour of that day, beginning
with Saturday. They therefore range the days as
follows :
h Dies Saturni, - or - Saturday.
© Dies Solis, - - - -= Sunday.
> Dies Lune, - - - - Monday.
'$ Dies Martis, - - - Tuefday.
3 Dies Mercurii, - - - Wednefday,
u Dies Fovis, - - - Thurfday.
¢ Dies Veneris, - - - Friday.
Chriftian aftronomers and chronologifts have
preferved thefe figns of the Latin names: in their
almanacs; but we begin the week with Sunday
¢ Dies Solis) the day that Chriftians confecrate to
devotion, and to the memory of the refurreGtion
of our Saviour; their week therefore ends with
Saturday, or the day of the Jewifh Sabbath.
Sometimes they alfo mark the feven days of the
week in the calendar by the firft feven letters of
the alphabet; thus,
A. Sunday.
B. Monday.
C. Tuefday.
D. Wednefday.
E. Thurfday.
F. Friday.
G, Saturday,
Which
ta" -_, . eet
42 Universat Ervupirion:
Which is of ufe. in. calculating the days, as
each letter or fign, that is once adopted to fig-
nify any particular day, conftantly, denotes the
fame day throughout the year.
VII. A /olar month is the {pace of time that the
fun employs in pafling through a fign of the Zo-
diac. The folar months are equal among them-
felves, and, according to the mean motion, each
folar month is equal to 30 days, 10 hours, 29
- minutes, and 5 feconds, But this kind of month
cannot be ufed in the common affairs of life, as
we can there only count by whole days. A /unar
month is the {pace of time from one new moon
to another. ‘The duration of a lunar month be-
ing 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, and 3 fe-
conds, cannot, for the fame reafon, be obferved in
common life. |
VITE. A folar year is the time in which the fun
runs through all the twelve figns of the Zodiac,
and’ is confequently compofed of twelve: folar
months. But there are here two neceflary ob-
fervations to be made. The firftis, that the fo-
lar year, confifting of 365 days, 5 hours, and 49
minutes, it cannot likewife be obferved in com-
-mon life; and great confufion would arife if
the year did not conftantly begin on the fame
day. The folar year, therefore, is reduced to
365 days only, and when the odd hours and mi-
nutes amount to a day, it is added to that year,
which then confifts of 366 days. The fecond
gbfervation is, that when 365 is divided by 12,
- the
> | CHRONOLOGY. * 43
the quotient is 30,5, ; therefore, as the folar year
confifts of twelve months, feven of thefe
months fhould have 30 days, and five 31; and
when the year confifts of 366 days, there fhould
be fix months of 30 days, and fix of 3r. But
in our chronology a different method is obferved.
In the common year, of 365 days, the months of
january, March, May, July, Auguft, October.
and December, have 31 days each; thofe of
April, June, September, and November, 30;
and the month of February 28 days: but when
the year confifts of 366 days, February has 29
days: fuch a year is called Biffextile, or Leap-
year, and the day that is added is called the In-
tercalary day. It is alfo mecefflary to obferve,
that as the time above 366 days confifts of 5
hours 49 minutes, there will be in a century, be-
fide the 24 intercalary days, a furplus of 5 hours
and 40 minutes, which, in 400 years, will
amount to 22 hours 40 minutes, or almoft a day,
which muft therefore be alfo intercalated at the
end of the fourth century,
IX. The /wnar year is compofed of 12 lunar
months, and confifts of 354 days, 8 hours, 38
minutes, and 36 feconds: confequently the dif-
ference between the folar and the lunar year,
amounts to 10 days, 21 hours, 24 feconds.
Chronology therefore demonftrates, by the aid
of aftronomic calculation, that, in a hundred lu-
nar years, there muft be intercalated about 53
months; unlefs we would have the beginning of
the
44 UNIversar Ervpditron;
the year run through all the feafons, and fall
fometimes in fummer, and fometimes in winter.
X. The common Fulian year has 365 days,
and the biffextile 366. The fourth year is al-
ways biffextile. The emperor Julius Czefar, the
reformer of the Roman calendar, fixed the folar
year, by the advice of his aftronomer Soffygenes,
at 365 days, 6 hours, and confequently at 11 mi-
nutes more than the truth; and which produced,
in a hundred years, a difference of 18 hours and
20 minutes. The Julian year was ufed through-
out all Chriftianity till the year 1582, when
pope Gregory again altered the calendar.
XI. The common Gregorian year confifts, like
the Julian, of 365 days, and the biffextile of
366. But as in a hundred years there can be
only 24 biffextiles, at the end of four hundred
years there will confequently be a furplus of 22
hours; Gregory therefore appointed the biflex-
tile every fourth year, but at the end of the cen-
tury he directed there fhould be three common
years together, and has fixed the biffextile only
at the end of the fourth century: which makes
a difference with the true folar year of r hour and
20 minutes in 400 years, and confequently a
whole day in 7200 years. On the other hand,
the Gregorian year begins, in 400 years, always
three days fooner than the Julian year, This
difference had increafed, from the time of the
council of Nice to the pontificate of Gregory, to
10, and at the beginning of the prefent century;
. Dee to
CHRONOLOGY. 45
to 11 days. Thefe 11 days have therefore been
refcinded from the calendar, and this laft re-
formation is called the New Stile, and has been
adopted by all the nations of Europe.
XII. The names of the months, and the num-
ber of days they contain, are to be found in all
almanacs. The Romans reckoned at firft only
10 months, from whence came the names Sep-
tember, October, November, December. They
. had alfo a peculiar method of counting the days.
The firft day in each month they called the Ca-
lends. The calends were followed in the months
of March, May, July, and October, by fix No-
nes, and in the other months by four Nones.
Thefe Nones were alfo followed by eight Ides,
and the reft of the days were called the Calends
of the fucceeding months; as appears by thefe
veries ;
Prima dies menfis cujufque ef difla Calende.
Sex Maius, Nonas, Odiober, Fulius & Mars,
Quatuor at reliqui ; dabit Idus quilibet offo.
Inde dies reliquos omnes dic effe Calendas.
All this was counted backward. We begin
the year with the firft day of January, as did Ju-
lius Czfar; and which is nearly at the time
that the fun enters the fign Capricorn.
XIII. The Egyptian years of Nebuchadnezzar
are all of 365 days, and the twelve months each
of 30 days, which making only 360 ; they added
five
7)
‘
46 Universat ExvpbirTion.
five days to the end of each year, which they
called the fupernumerary days. Nebuchadnezzar
king of Babylon began to reign in the year of the
world 3257, and, by the agreement of all chro«
nologifts, 747 years before the common era.
The era and year of Nebuchadnezzar fhould- be
clearly determined, in order to be made ufe of iti
drawing lights from the aftronomic obfervations
of Ptolemy; The year of the Moors was much’
the fame with that of the Egyptians, |
XIV. The Perfians had anciently the % exdegird
year, which agreed in all refpects with that of Ne+
buchadnezzar, except that it began on the 16th
of July, and that of Nebuchadnezzar on thé
26th of February, of the Julian year. The five
days that were added they called Mufteraka : but;
under the reign of the fultan Gelal, they changed
their year, and adopted the fpace of the folar
year; that is, 365 days, 5 hours, 49 min. 15%,
0”, 48°". They ftill reckoned 30 days to each
month, and the 5 Mufteraka at the end of the
year: but after inferting fix or feven times in
the fourth year an intercalary day, they made
once, in five years only, a biflextile. They called
it the Gelalian year, and it proves that the Per-
fians have been, for time immemorial, very ex-
pert in aftronomy ; that they knew very accu-
rately the fpace of the folar year, and how to in-
tercalate the days in the moft proper manner, in
order to make the equinoxes and folftices fall al-
ways on the fame days of the year.
The
CHRONOLOGY. 49
XV. The Syriac year agrees in all things with the
Julian, except that the months bear other names,
and that the beginning of this year falls in the
month of Odtober of the Julian year. Ulugh
Beigh, Albateignius, and other oriental authors,
count by’Syriac years.
XVI. The Attic year of the Greeks is a lunat
year, and confifts of 12 months, which have al-
ternately 29 and 30 days. But to prevent it from
beginning at all the feafons of the folar year, the
Greeks made a biffextile of 13 months, and
counted the fixth month twice. So that in a re-
volution of 19 years, the 3, 5, 8, 11, 14, 16 and
1gth, were always Biffextile years. The beginning
of this year was fixed to the day of the new moon
which immediately preceded the fummer folftice.
In the time of Meton and Eudoxus, they placed
it on the 8th of June; and, inthe time of Timo-
charis and Hipparchus, it was fixed on the 27th
of July. The Greeks were of all people the moft
wretched aftronomers, and their chronology is con-
fequently full of confufion. The lunar year of
the Macedonians agreed with the Attic, and the
folar year with the Julian. The Macedonians
fometimes divided the year, moreover, into four
equal parts, on the fun’s entrance into the four
cardinal points, and they alloted to each quarter
gt days,
XVII. The Arabic or Mabometan year is a lu-
nar tyear that has 354 days. But as the Arabs
adopted
48 Universat Ervpirtrovy.
adopted the lunar aftronomic year of 354 days;
8 hours, 48 minutes, they fometimes inferted a
day at the end of the year, fo that in the {pace
of 29 years, the 2, 5,7, 10, 13, 15, 185 215 24,
26, and 29th years were Biffextiles. Their
months were alternately of 29 and 30 days; and
in the biffextile years the laft month, Dulheggiag
was allo of 0 days. The firlt year of this pe-
riod began on the 15th July of the Julian ca-
lendar.
XVIII. The year of the modern Fews ig allo
a lunar year of 354 days, and has twelve months
that confift alternately of 29 and 30 days. They
fometimes added to the month Odar, or March,
another entire month of 30 days, which . they
called Veodar, or more than March. Their ins
tercalary years are, in 19 years, the 3, 6, 8, 1 ly
17, and roth. The Jewith year begins on the day
of shat new moon, which, according to the
moon’s mean motion, is neareft to the autumnal »
equinox. Sometimes they refcind from the com-_
mon year, ‘as well as from the biffextile, a day
of the month Kiftow, or December; fo that the
common year then confifts of 353 days only, and
the biffextile of 383. Sometimes alfo they add
a day to each of thefe forts of years, and then
the former is of 355, and the latter of 385 days;
the reafon of which is, becaufe they mutt not ce-
lebrate the new moon of the month Tifchri
or Oétober, on the 1, 4, or 6th days of
the week, or begin the new year on thofe days, —
| as
CHRONOLOGY. 49
as that would be contrary to the inftitutions of
their anceftors.
XIX. The folar year of the Jews is exactly
I the fame as the Julian. It. is divided into four
equal parts; which are called Tekuphas, and
are feverally named Tekupham Tifchri, Tebeth,
' Nifan and Tamuz : and are diftinguifhed by the
fun’s entrance into the four cardinal points, Aries,
Cancer, Libra, ‘and Capricorn; and thefe days
they celebrate with great folemnity.
KX. The point of time, from whence any
number of years is begun to be counted, is cal-
led a period, era, or epoch. “he word era comes
from the Latin 2s, becaufe the Romans marked
their years with a kind of {mall brafs nails, The
difference between the terms era and epoch is,
thag the eras are certain points fixed by fome
| people or nation, and the epochs are points fixed
by chronologifts and hiftorians; ‘The idea of an
: era comprehends alfo a certain fucceffion of |
years, proceeding from a fixed point of time,
and the epoch is that point itfelf. Thus the
Chriftian era began at the epoch of the birth of
Jefus Chritt, ,
XXII. Chronological charaélers are thofe marks
by which one point of time is diftinguifhed from
another; which, by its refemblance, might other-
wile be miftaken for it. Now, as the eclipfes of
the fun and moon, the fun’s entrance into the |
. Vor. Ill. D - four
5o Universart ErvupitTion.
four cardinal points, the new and full moons,
the relative pofitions of the planets, and other
celeftial phenomena, can be calculated to the
greateft precifion, they may be regarded as in-
fallible marks of time. Therefore, when we .
know the year of any people, and find a fact re-
lated by an author according to the chronologic
date of another people, and that author alfo
makes mention of another event that happened
at the fame time among the former people, we
may find, by the known year of one of thefe
people, the unknown year of the other. Accord-
ing to thefe two methods of calculating, we may
alfo find, by years that are known, how many
years have paffed between them and the time
any event has happened, the precife date of
which has not been marked by hiftorians. For
example, the year that a prince came to the
crown may not be mentioned in the annals, but
we may find that in a certain known year of his
reign there was a remarkable eclipfe of the fun;
from whence we may eafily calculate the precife
year that he began to reign.
XXH. Mathematic chronology teaches us,
moreover, the method of reducing, by means of
calculation, the different years and periods of
different: people to-one common meafure; to
compare the one with the other, and thus to find
the precife time in which every event recorded
in hiftory has arrived. _ By thefe means we are
enabled not only to range the facts of various
bait, Gi sly nations,
-
tl en, —
eS oe ae ae eS ee ee ae
CHRONOLOGY. | 5i
mations, whofe hiftory is known to us, with their
dates, in a regular feries ; but alfo to reduce all
thefe events either.to the Chriftian era, or that of
the creation of the world. To facilitate this bu-
finefs, the celebrated Jofeph Scaliger has con-
trived a particular method, which we fhall pre-.
fently explain.
XXIII. The cycle of the fun is a revolution of
years, at the end of which, the letters that mark
the Sundays and other feafts return in the fame
order.in which they were in a former year. This
revolution is performed in 28 years. » The fun
has no particular relation to this period, and it is
only fo called becaufe the letter of Sunday is
principally fought after. Chronology furnifhes
rules alfo for finding the Sunday or Dominical
letter, and confequently thofe of the other days
of the week,
XXIV. The cycle of the mcon is a revolution
of 19 years; at the end of which, the new and
full moon fall on the fame day of the Julian year.
This method was invented by Meton the Athe-
nian, who firft obferved, that after this term the
lunations were the fame. _ But this ‘lunar cycle
will not hold true for longer than 310 years in
fucceffion. “The number that fhows the year
when the lunar cycle a is called the golden
number,
D 2 AXYV.
rs
52 UniversaAt ErRvpDITION.
XXV. The ep2és are the fupernumerary days
and hours that the Julian and Gregorian months
have more than the lunar months. Thefe latter .
months being of 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes,
3 feconds, it follows that a common month of
31 days muft have 1 day, 11 hours, 15 minutes,
57 feconds, and a month of go days will have 11
hours, 15 minutes, 57 feconds, more than a lunar
month. The annual epaéis form in like manner
the difference between a folar or civil year, and
a lunar aftronomic year. |
XXVI. The cycle of indiftion, or Roman cycle,
is a revolution of 15 years. This method of
computing was made ufe of by the ancient Ro-
mans, and it is ftill ufed in bulls and apoftolic
refcripts, as well as in inftruments drawn up by
German notaries. It is not certain by whom, or
for what purpofe, this cycle was firft invented ;
but, by comparing it with the number of years
ftom the birth of Chrift, its firft year falls three
years before our Saviour’s birth; though it does
fot clearly appear that the indiction was then in
ule. |
XXVII. The Yulian period is a {pace of time
that includes 7980 years. Scaliger, who i-
ventéd this period, compofed it of the folar cycle
of 28 years, the lunar cycle of 19 years, and the
indiétion of s5 years. For thefe three numbers,
multiplied into each other, produce 7980. if.
we fuppofe, therefore, that the world has not yet
; | exifted
_— Dh thn i be ad
- t
Ln, tal
CHRONOLOGY. 53
“exifted 6000 years, this imaginary period goes
er than the creation. But as all the years
fince the creation bear diftinét charaéters in all
the three revolutions we have mentioned, Scali-
ger made good ufe of it to compare and reduce,
with.more facility, the years and epochs of diile-
rent nations of the earth.
XXVIII. Modern Chriftians count the years
from the birth of Chrift; but the firft Chriftians
reckoned trom Dioclefian, and which they called
the Dioclefian era, or the year of martyrs. The
Moors ftill make ufe of it in ealoulating their fef-
tivals, and call them the years of grace. We
fhall prefently fpeak more fully of thefe different
eras, and efpecially that of modern Chriftians,
XXIX. In the Chriftian calendar the feafs or.
feftivals are divided into moveable and immoveable.
The moveable feafts, or thofe that do not always
fall on the fame day of the year, are Afh-Wed-
nefday, Good-Friday, Eafter-Sunday, Afcenfion-.
day, Whitfunday, Trinity-Sunday, &c. The
immoveable feafts are New-yeat’s day, the Epi-
phany, Lady-day, St. John Baptift, Michaelmas,
Chriftmas-day, &c. By virtue of the canons or
decrees of the Council of Nice, ** The feaft of
. Eafter is ta be for ever celebrated on the firft Sunday
that follows the firft full moon after the vernal equi-
nox ; and if that full moor fall on a Sunday, Eafter-
day fhall be kept the Sunday following.” Mathema-
tical chronology fhews different methods of cal-
culating,
.
54 Universar Ervuprrion.
culating, according to this decree, which is fol-
lowed by all Chriftian nations, the day of the
year on which Eafter will always fall; as well
in the Gregorian as Julian calendar.
XXX. Laftly, this part of chronology teaches
the method of conftructing a complete calendar,
as follows: 1. To find the feaft of Eafter, and
the dominical letter. 2. To divide the calendar
“into weeks, and regulate the moveable feafts by
that of Eafter; inferting at the fame time the im-
- moveable fea{ts, with the names of thofe faints
that are appointed for each day. 3. To extract,
from thofe tables that are called Ephimeres, the
place of the fun and moon in the zodiac, as well |
as. of the other planets ; to find the rifing and fer.’
ting of the two former, the duration of the twi-
light, and the length of the days and nights ;
and to infert all thefe matters in their proper
places. 4. To remark when a planet is vifible
to us, and when it is hid by the fun’s rays,
§. At the beginning of each month to make ob:
_ fervations on the feafons, and to give account of
the eclipfes of the fun and moon, and of other
celeftial phenomena. ites
XXXII. Thus far wehave treated of mathematic
chronology. We fhall now, in as brief a manner as
poffible, make the analyfis of hiftoric chronolo-
gy, or of that fcience which teaches to diftin-
guitfh the feveral events related in hiftory accord-
ing to the order of time in which they hap-
pened,
_
CHRONOLOGY. 65
pened. It is in this fcience that Julius Afri-
canus, Eufebius of Czfarea, George Cyncelle,
John of Antioch, Denis, Petau, Cluvier, Calvi-
fius, Uther, Simfon, John Marfham, and many
other learned men, have excelled. It confifts of
four principal parts, that form the foundations
on which all its learned refearches reft,. Thefe
are,
1. Aftronomic obfervations, and particularly
on the eclipfes of the fun and moon, combined
with the calculations of mathematic chronology
on the different eras and years of different na-
tions. 7
2. The teftimonies of credible ai iaie
3. Thofe epochs in hiftory which are fo deter-
mined and evident that no one has ever contefted
them.
4. Ancient medals, coins, monuments, and
ene
We fhall examine thefe four principal parts in
the order they here ftand, and conclude with
fome reflections on the uncertainty that {till
reigns, notwithftanding thefe lights, in chrono-
logical hiftory.
XXXII. It is with great reafon that the
eclipfes of the fun and moon, and the afpects of
the
56 Universat Ervoprition.
the other planets, have been called public and
celeftial characters of the times, as their calcula-
tions afford chronologers infallible proofs of the
_precife epochs on which a great number of the
mott fignal events in hiftory have occurred. So
that in chronological matters we cannot make:
‘any great progrefs, if we are ignorant of the ufe”
“OF aftronomic tables, and the calculation of
eclipfes. The ancients regarded the latter as
prognoftics of the fall of empires, of the lof
of battles, of the death of monarchs, &c. And
it is to this fuperftition, to this wretched igno-
rance, that we happily owe the vaft labour that’
hiftorians have taken to record fo great a number
of them. The moft able chronologers have col-
lected them with ftill greater labour. Calvifius,
for example, founds his chronology on A4
eclipfes of the fun, and 127 of the moon, that
he fays he had caculated. The grand conjunc.
tion of the two fuperior planets, Saturn and Ju-
piter, which, according to Kepler, occurs once
in 800 years in the fame point of the zodiac, —
and which has happened only eight.times fince
_ the creation, (the lait time in the month of De-
cember 1603) may alfo furnifh chronology with
inconteftable proofs, The fame may be faid of
the tranfit of Venus over the fun, which has been
ebferved in our days, and all the other uncom-
mon pofitions of the planets. But among thefe
celeftial and natural characters of times, there
are are alfo fome that are named) civil or artificial,
on and
CHRONOLOGY. 57
and which, neverthelefs, depend on aftronomic
calculation.
XX XIII. Such are the folar and lunar cycles,
the Roman indittion, the feaft of Eafter, the
biffextile year, the jubilees, the fabbatic years,
the combats and Olympic games of the Greeks,
and hegira of the Mahometans, &c. And to
thefe may be added the periods, eras, epoehs,
and years of different nations, ancient and mo-
dern. We fhall only remark on this occafion,
that the period or era of the Jews commences
with the creation of the world; that of the an-
cient Romans with the foundation of the city of
Rome ; that of the Greeks at the eftablifhment
of the Olympic games; that of Nebuchadnezzar,
with the advancement of the firft king of Baby-
lon to the throne; the Yezdegerdic years, with
the laft king of the Perfians of that name; the
hegira of the Turks with the flight of Mahomet
from Mecca to Medina, &c. The year of the
birth of Chrift was the 471 3th year of the Julian
period, according to the common method of
reckoning. Chronology teaches us to calculate
the precife year of the Julian period on which all
thefe epochs happened, |
XXXIV. The teftimony of authors is the fe-
cond principal part of hiftoric chronology. Tho’
no man whatever has a right to pretend to infal-
libility, or to be regarded as a facred oracle, it
would, however, be making a >. 7 judg-
ment
58 Universat Eruption.
ment of mankind, to treat them all-as dupes or
impoftors ; and it would be an injury offered to
public integrity, were we to doubt the veracity
of authors univerfally efteemed, and of facts that
are in themfelves right worthy of belief. It
would be even a kind of infatuation to doubt
that there have been fuch cities as Athens, Spar-
ta, Rome, Carthage, &c. or that Xerxes reigned
in Perfia, and Auguftus i in Rome; whether Han-
nibal ever was in Italy ; or. that the emperor
Conftantine built Conftantinople, &c. ‘The una-
nimous teftimony of the moft refpeéctable hifto-
rians will not admit any doubt of thefe matters.
When an hiftorian is allowed to be completely
able to judge of an event, and to have no.intent
of deceiving by his relation, his teftimony is irre-
cufable, But to avoid the danger of adopting
error for truth, and to be fatisfied of a faét that
appears doubtful in hiftory, we may make ufe of
the four following rules, as they are founded in
reafon.
. We ought to pay a particular regard.to the
reftdudnies of thofe who wrote at the {ame time
the events happened, and that have not been
contradicted by any cotemporary author of
known authority. Who can doubt, for exam-
ple, of the truth of the faéts related by admiral
Anfon, in the hiftory of his voyage round the
world? The admiral faw all the faéts there
mentioned with his own eyes, and publithed his
book when two hundred companions of his voy-
age
CHRONOLOGY. 59
fe were ftill living in London, and could have
contradicted him immediately, if he had given
any falfe or exaggerated relations.
2. After the cotemporary authors, we fhould
give more credit to thofe who lived near the
time the events happened, than thofe who lived
at a diftance.
3. Thofe doubtful hiftories, which are related
by authors that are but little known, can have
no weight if they are at variance with reafon, or
eftablifhed tradition.
4. We muft diftruft the truth of a hiftory
that is related by modern authors, when they do
not agree among themfelves in feveral circum-.
ftances, nor with ancient hiftorians,- who are to
be regarded as original fources. We fhould
efpecially doubt the truth of thofe brilliant por-
traits, that are drawn at pleafure by fuch as
never knew the perfons they are intended for,
and even made {feveral centuries after their de-
ceafe.
XXXV. The moft pure and moft fruitful
fource of ancient hiftory is doubtlefs to be found
in the Holy Bible. Let us here for a moment
ceafe to regard it as divine, and let us prefume
to confider it as a common hiftory. Now,
when we regard the writers of the books of the
Old Teftament, and confider them fometimes as
authors,
./! =e To ae
| ‘
6> Universat Ervptrion,
authors, fometimes as ocular witneffes, and fome-
times as refpectable hiftorians ; whether we re-
flec&t on the fimplicity of the narration, and the
air of truth that is there conftantly vifible ; or,
when we confider the care that the people, the
governments, and the learned. men of all ages
have taken to preferve the true text of the
Bible ; or that we have regard to the happy-con-
formity of the chronology of the holy fcriptures
with that of prophane hiftory ; or if we obferve
the admirable harmony that is between thefe
books and the moft refpeétable hiftorians, as Jo-
féphus and others; and laitly, when we confider
that the books of the holy fcripture furnifh us
alone with an accurate hiftory of the world from
the creation, through the line of patriarchs,
judges, kings and princes of the Hebrews; and
that -we may, by its aid, form an almoft entire:
feries of events down to the birth of Chrift, or
the time of Auguftus, which comprehends a
{pace of about 4ooo-years, feme fmall interrup-
tions excepted, and which are eafily fupplied: by
profane hiftory : when, we fay, all thefe refleétions
are juftly made; we muft conftantly allow that the
{criptures form a book which merits the firft
rank among all the fources of ancient hiftory. It
has been objected, that this héck contains con-
tradictions ; but the moft able interpreters have
reconciled thete feeming contradictions. It has
been faid, that the chronology of the Hebrew
text and the Vulgate do not agree with the
chronology of the verfion of the Septuagint;
but
CHRONOLOGY. 6x
but the foundeft critics have fhown that they
may be made to agree. It has been obferved,
moreover, that the fcriptures abound with mi-
racles and prodigies ; but they are miracles that
have really happened : and what ancient hifbory
is there that is not filled with miracles and other
marvellous events? And do we for that reject
their authority ? Cannot the true God be fup-
pofed to have performed ‘thofe miracles which
pagan hiftorians have atttibuted to their falfe divi-
nities? Mutt we pay no regard to the writings
of Livy, becaufe his hiftory contains many fabu-
lous relations ?
XXXVI. The epochs form the third principal
part of chronology. Thefe are thofe fixed points
in hiftory that have never been contefted, and of
which there can, in fact, be no doubt. Chrono-
logers fix on the events that are to ferve as
epochs, ina manner quite arbitrary ; but this is
of little confequence, provided thedates of thefe.
epochs agree, and that there is no contradiction
in the facts.themifelves, When we come to treat
exprelsly on hiftory, we fhallmention, in our
progrefs, all the pr, ipal-epochs. In order
rightly to underftand and to range each epoch in
its proper place, it is neceffary to remember the
fignification of the following terms, befide thofe
we have already explained in the courle of this
chapter.
An
62 Universat ErvupiTIon.
An age or century is the courfe of a hundred
years, or folar revolutions.
: Luftre is the {pace of five years. _ The poets
make frequent ufe of this: term.
Olympiad is a {pace of four years, which the
Greeks counted from the celebration of one of
the Olympic games to another. The firft Olym-
piad began in the year of the world 3228, and
confequently 776 years before =e common era.
Epoch : To what we have juft faid on this
term, it is proper to remark here, that chronolo-
gers diftinguifh three forts of epochs: the firft
they call facred; the fecond, ecclefiaftical; and
the third, civil or political.
Era: Befide what we have faid in the twen-
tieth fection, we muft here obferve, that the
word probably took its rife from the ignorance
of copyifts, who, finding in ancient manufcripts
“the letters ‘A. E.R. A. Annus Erat Regni Au-
“gifti, made of them the fimple word era, or;\as
the Latins write it, era.
The Seleucian era, from whence the Macedo-
nians began to count, is alfo denoted by the Gre-
cian years, of which the Jews principally made
ufe after they were fubdued by the Macedo-
nians. It began with the great Seleucus, fur-
named
CHRONOLOGY. 63
named Nicator, in the year of the world 3692,
and 312 years beens the vulgar era.
The Spanifh era began with the year of the
world. 3966, and 38 years before the common
era. This era is very famous in the councils,
and in the ancient monuments, of Spain.
Anachronifm is an error in the calculating or
fixing of time. So Virgil committed an ana-
chronifin i in making Aineas and Dido live at the
fame time, when there were bbe years diftance
between them.
Synchronifm is, as we have already faid, the
concurrence of different events at the fame times
A general fynchronifm is a defcription of all thar
happened in the various parts of the world at the
fame period.
-XXXKVII. Medals, monuments, and infcrip-
tions, form the fourth and laft principal part of
chronology. It is fcarce more than 150 years
' fince clofe application has been made to the
ftudy of thefe, and we owe to the celebrated
Spanheim the greateft obligations, for the pro-
fs that is made in this method: his excellent
work, De preftantia et ufu numifmatum antiquo-
rum, has fhown the great advantages of it; and
' iris évident that thefe monuments are the moft
authentic witnefles that can be produced. It is
by the aid of medals that M. Vaillant has com-
pofed
64 Universat Ervpiriow.
pofed his judicious hiftory of the kings of Syria,
from the time of Alexander the Great to that of
Pompey: they have been, moreover, of the
greateft fervice in elucidating all ancient hiftory,
efpecially that of the Romans ; and even. fome-
times that of the middle age. We thal! have
occafion to {peak more fully of their ufe in the
chapter where we exprefsly treat of medals* and
antiquities. ‘What we here fay of medals, is to be
underftood equally, in its full force, of ancient
infcriptions, and of all other authentic monu-
ments that have come down to us: as the fa-
mous /rundel marbles, which an Englith noble-
man of that name purchafed from the Turks in
the Levant, by William Petre, whom he fent
thither for that purpofe. Thefe marbles, which .
were ranged at London in the rooms and garden
of the .earl of Arundel, on the border of the
Thames, were found in the ifland of Paros, and
contain a chronicle, wherein the principal
epochs of the hiftory of the Athenians are exaétly
and diftinéily marked, from the firft year of the
Cecrops, which began 1582 years before the
Chriftian era. John Selden compofed a book jin
1629, the title of which is. Marinora Arundelliana,
wherein he explains thefe valuable antiquities.
Who can fay what happy difcoveries of monu-
ments, Fortune, propitious to letters, may have
referved for us in the ruins.of Herculaneum :
-and which may ferve.as well to elucidate as te
eftablith ancient hiftory ?
AXXVIII.
CHRONOLOGY. 65
XXXVIII. Every reader, endowed with a juft
difcernment, will readily allow that thefe four
parts of chronology afford clear lights, and are
excellent guides to conduét us through the thick
darknefs of antiquity. That impartiality, how-
ever, which directs us to give a faithful relation
of that which is true and falfe, of the certainty
and uncertainty of all the fciences, obliges us
here freely to confefs, that thefe guides are not
infallible, nor the proofs that they afford ma-
thematical demonftrations. In fact, with regard
to hiftory in general, and ancient hiftory in par-
ticular, femething muft be always left to conjec-
ture and hiftoric faith. It would be an offence
againft common probity, were we to fuffer ours
felves to pafs over in filence thofe objections
which authors of the greateft reputation! have
made againfl the certainty of chronology. We
fhall extract them from their own works; and
we hope that there is no magiftrate, theologian, _
or public profeffor in Europe, who would be
mean enough to accufe us of a crime, for not
unworthily difguifing the truth.
-XXXIX. 1. The prodigious difference there
is between the feptuagint Bible and the vulgate,
in point of chronology, occafions an embarrafi-
ment, which is the more difficult to avoid, as we
cannot pofitively fay on which fide the error lies.
The Greek Bible counts, for example, from the
creation of the world to the birth of Abraham,
1500 years more than the Hebrew and Latin
‘Wor. III, E Bibles,
66 Universat Erupirion.
Bibles, Sc. 2. How difficult-is. it to afcertain
the years.of the judges of the Jewith nation, im:
the. Biple ?, What darknefs, is: fpread, over ther
fucceffien. of the. kings of. Judaly and LMfrael,?
The ‘calculation of time is there fo. inaccurate,
that’ the. fcripture. never marks if they are curs
rent or complete. years.. For.we cannot fuppofes
that a patriarch, judge, or king, lived exactly
60, 90, 100, or g69 years, without any odd:
months or days. 3. Tihe different names that
the Afiyrians, Egyptians, Perfians, and Greeks;
have, given to.the fame prince, have contributed:
no; a little, to. embarrafs all ancient chronology:
‘Three or four princes: have borne the name of
Affuerus, though they had alfo other names. If
we. did) net. “tha that. Nabucodonofor, Nabu-
codrofor, and Nabucolafiar, were the famename,
or the name of the fame man, we-fhoulddearcely
believe it.. Sargon 1 is Sennacherib:, Ozias is Aza-
tias; Sedecias is Mathanias; Joachas is: alfo
called. Sellum-;. Afaraddon, which is - pro-
nounced indifferently. Efarhaddon. and Afarhad#
don, is called Afenaphar. by the Cutheans; and~
by an oddity of which we do not know the ori-
gin, Sardanapalus is called by the Greeks 'Te-
nos Concoleros. 4. There remain’ to us but-fewe.
monuments of the firft»monarchs.of. the worlds:
Numberlefs books have. been loft, and/ thofes
which have come dowm to us are mutilated or»
altered. by tranfcribers, The Greeks began to-
write very late. Herodotus, their firft hiftorian, ’
was of a credulous difpofition, and: believed all
the
CHRONOLOGY. 67
the fables. that’ were related. by the Egyptian
priefts. The Greeks were in general vain, par-
tial, and held no nation in efteem but cheir own.
The Romans were ftill more infatuated with no-
tions of their own merit and grandeur: their hif- .
torians were altogether as unjuft as was their fe-
nate, toward other nations that were frequently
far more refpectable. And, with regard to the
Jews in particular, it feems, whatever Jofephus
may fay, that their nation, who pofiefied only
that imall country called Paleftine, never
made a fufficient figure in the world to attract
the regard of the hiftorians of other civilrzed
people. 5. The eras, the years, the periods and
epochs were not the fame in each nation ; and
they, moreover, began at different feafons of the
year. All this has thrown fo much objcurity,
over chronology, that it appears to be beyond all .
human capacity totally to difperfe it.
XL. Chriftianity itfclf had fubfifted near 1200
years, before they knew precifely how niany years.
had paffed fince the birth of our Saviour. They
faw clearly that the vulgar era was defective, but’
it was along time before they could comprehend
that it required four whole years to make up the
true period. Abbé Denis the Little, who, in
the year 532, was the firft among the Chriftians
to form the era of that grand epoch, and to count »
the years from that time, in order to make their
chronology altogether Chriftian,’ erred in his cal-
culation, and led ail Europe into his error.
E 2 - They
68 Universat Erupirion.
They count 132 contrary opinions of diffe-
rent authors concerning the year in which
the Meffiah appeared on the earth. M,. Val-
lemont names 64 of them, and all celebrated
writers. Among all thefe authors, however,
there is none that reckon more than 7000, nor
lefs than 3700 years. But even this difference is
enormous. The moft moderate fix the birth of
Chrift in the 400oth year of the world, The rea-
fons, however, on which they found their opi-
nion, appear to be fufficiently arbitrary.
XLI. Be thefe matters, however, as they may,
the wifdom of Providence has fo difpofed ali
things, that there remain fufficient lights to en-
able us nearly to connect the feries of events:
for in the firft 3000 years of the world, where
profane hiftory is defective, we have the chrono-
logy of the Bible to direét us ; and after that pe-
riod, where we find more obfcurity in the chro-
nology of the holy fcriptures, we have, on the
other hand, greater lights from profane authors,
It is at this period that begins the time which
Varro calls. hifforic : “as, fince the time of the
Olympiads, the truth of fuch events as have hap-
pened fhines clear in hiftory. Chronology, there-
fore, draws its principal lights from hiftory; and,
in return, ferves it as a guide: as we fhall fee in.
the following chapters. a
CHAP.
ee
HirsTory. 69
CiFL-A, Pi: BY.
On HISTORY IN GENERAL,
AND ITS
Saravers tte Ri 6.
E are now come to one of the moft
pleafing profpeéts in the vaft empire of
the fciences ; to one of the moft important ob-
jects of univerfal erudition ; to a ftudy worthy. to
engage the attention of the firft. of mankind.
Hiftory is now the fubject of our reflections.
All who have hitherto treated on this interefting
part of literature, and have attempted to point
out the moft proper method of attaining it, have
“conftantly repeated what Cicero and their other
predeceffors, ancient and modern, have faid in
praife of hiftory. We do not think it neceffary
here to enumerate thofe encomiums, but fhall
endeavour to add to their fagacious reflections
fome further remarks on the utility of this ad-
mirable fcience, M
II, Ignorance was ever difgraceful to huma-
nity ; and it is more efpecially fo in an age which
offers
70 «69h niversat Ervpirion.
offers fo many fources of inftruétion,. that it
cannot proceed but from negligence or idlenefs.
Even among the leaft civilized people, hiftory .
has been at all times held in efteem. Before
the ufe of letters were known to mankind, they
tran{mitted to their pofterity the a¢tions of their
anceftors, their heroes, and the founders of their
nations, by hymns or fongs, in which poetry, ig-
‘norant as it then was, conftantly mixed fable
with truth. It is for. this reafon, doubilefs, that
the moft ancient people, and even the Greeks,
confounded thefe two terms, calling hiftory
fometimes fable, and fable, hiftory. For the word
hiftory is derived from the Greek verb tsogeiv,
which fignifies to contemplate or confider, Un-
der this collective term, therefore, they compre-
hended not only the knowledge of things paft,
but alfo mythology, Efopean and’? Milefian : fables,
‘romances, tragedy, comedy, pantomimes, &c.
But words like thefe, which are too univerfal,
‘conitanftly difcover the indigence of a language;
for, by comprehending too many objets, they
ferve only to create confufion in our ideas, ag
“well as in the fciences. It is for this reafon
‘that the moft fagacicus of modern literati endea-
your to difpel the chaos of erudition, and to
give to each word, each term of art, a fixed and
determinate fignification, and not to compre-
hend, under the denomination of a fcience, any
objects that do not abfglutely and nec aeae re-
Jate thereto,
: IH. Ac-
-
7
HasTory. mt
* Ill. According to reafon, therefore, as well as
the practice of modern writers, biflory isa true
relation of real facts and events that bave occurred in
‘the werld. It mere curiofity did net excite in
the mind of man a rational delire of knowiag
what has pafed on the earth, that is remarkable
and interefting, from the creation ,to..owr own
time; and if the knowledge of all thefe matters
‘did not intprove the underftanding of thofe who
are deftined to live among the intelligent part of
mankind, and did not render their converfation
more pleafing, more firikiag and inftructive, yet
would they find, in the Rudy y of hiftory, number-
lefs other advantages, that are ftill moré itnpit-
tant, and that prove its excellence. Hiftory,
being the faithful depofitory of all the actions,
good and bad, of the whole race of mankind,
who have lived in all ages, and have performed
any diftinguifhed parc on the theatre of the
world, forms the mot powerful incentive to
_ virtue, and prefervative from vice. The maft
fuccefsful uiurper, the moft abfolute and cruel
_ tyrant, would not have his memory appear loaded
with infamy in the eyes of pofterity. To cover
the iniquity of his enterprifes, he accompanies
them with manifeftoes, and other memoirs of juf-
tification. But hiftory here tells him, that his
efforts are vain, that the time will come when
his iniquity will be unvailed, and the fecret folds
of his heart ‘laid open; when neither the arts of
his worthlefs minifters, nor the eulogies of venal
pens, will be able to defend him: that pofterity
will
_
92 Universart Erupirion.
will be his judge ; and that the only method of
obtaining a favourable fentence, is, by perform-
ing worthy actions: that true glory is never to
be found but in real merit: that hiftory flatters
not: that it treats the wicked even with an in-
exorable feverity ; and that it pays no refpect
to fceptres or diadems,
IV. Hiftory likewife forms, fo to fay, a courfe
of experimental morality and politics, where the -
caufes and effects of human actions are expofed
to our fight. It is a fcene where the charaéters
and precepts of Theophraftus, la Bruyere, and
Shaftefbury, are put in action. Here all- takes
a body, a mind, a foul. Experience, which cofts
mankind fo much time, and fo many errors, is
here acquired at once, or, at leaft, by a fingle
ftudy. Princes efpecially, and they whom Pro-
_vidence has called to the government of a people,
or to the dictating of laws, fhould never be ig-
norant of this fcience: for, though they ought
not to draw their maxims of government, or
their laws, from hiftory itfelf, feeing that would
render them pitiful imitators, by chance, of the
wifdom, but much more frequently of the folly
and depravity of paft ages, hiftory, neverthelefs,
will warn them of numberlefs rocks that are but
juft covered by the vaft ocean of politics, and
again{t which they would be in continual danger
of rufhing, if they were not directed by this {kil-
ful chart. | |
V. We
History. 7%
V. We have three objeéts to eee in this
‘chapter; which are,
1. The manner of writing hiftory :
2. The manner of ftudying it:
3. The different divifions, or fpecies of
hiftory.
With regard to the manner of writing hiftory,
the firft fault that we find in all hiftorical writings,
ancient and modern, and which appears to us of
no {mall magnitude, is, that they confift of a
mere defcription of thofe wars that have defolated
the earth from the origin of the human race. It
fhould feem as if mankind found nothing g ereat
in nature, nothing worthy their attention, but
that which ought to cover them with fhame and
confufion: that which ariles from their depravity,
a mad defire of victory, of deftroying each other;
a barbarous cuftom of maintaining their preten-
fions by the force of arms; of imagining that fu-
perior force gives right ; and the folly of placing
a vain honour, a falfe glory, in their brutal quar-
rels and combats. Follies are frequently conta-
gious : that of heroes has infected their hifto-
rians: blood muft be conftantly fpilc: if they
were to place only one man upon the earth, they
would make him fight, either againft the gods
or devils, or with ferpents and montfters, or elfe
with his own fhadow, rather than paint him
peaceful and amiable. If they fhould fuppofe
two men to exift, it would be merely with a de-
fign that they might deftroy each other, or at
jeaft that one of them might murder his compa-
nion,
94 Universat Erupirrion,
‘ion, When they made Cadmus fow the earth
with teeth, from whence men fprung up, it was
neceflary that thefe firft of human race fhould
immediately attack and butcher each other.
Barbarians! to whom no object appears great
but that of war! The nurture of the human race,
their eftablifhments, their migrations, the found-*
ing of cities and colonies, the progrefs of the hu-
man mind in the arts and fciences, grand inven-
tions and difcoveries, as that of navigation and
a new world, and a thoufand like objects; Are
mot thefe worthy of regard? A king came to the
crown on fuch a day, infuch a year: without the
Jeaft reafon he attacked fuch a people, and after
that fo many others ; or he was himfelf attacked;
and fuch were the confequences of his wars, he
overthrew fo many cities, he took fo many pri-
foners, and left fo many dead upon the field;
and at laft this mighty monarch himfelf is killed,
or he dies with remorfe in his bed. You have
here, in a few words, the fubftance of hiftory
in general; fome little ornaments of moral and
political reflections apart,
VI. The fecond fault of ‘hiftorians is, the bad
proportions they obferve in the arrangement of
their works. Each hiftory, whether univerfal
er particular, refembles a peacock, who, to a
very fmall head, and a body indifferently large,
hhas joined an enormous tail; which continually
extends as it approaches the extremity, The
| beft
History. "8
eft writers of hiftory are faulty in this refpect.
_ Every one can repeat thofe excellent lines with
which Tacitus-begins his annals ; and when they
_fhall remark the cencifien he there obferves, and
compare it with the prodigious number of ani-
madverfions that are fpread over his hiftory, and
the prolixity with which he concludes, they will
be convinced that our obfervation is juft. It is
‘to be wifhed, therefore, that the writers of hif-
tory would acquire the art of extending their in-
troductions, and of contracting their conclufions,
that there might be more uniformity in the parts,
_more regularity and harmony in the whole. Cu-
“sious and learned refearches, pleafing and ufeful
- fefleétions, are very natural amplifications. And
why are not facts that occur in the beginning of
a hiftory as worthy of our attention as thofe of
latter times ? We know thereare many who are of
a contrary opinion, but wethink they deceive
themfelves. All the details of recent events ierve
only to promote chicanery and the quarrels of
fovereigns: their minifters make ule of them to
produce arguments in defence of their preten-
fions. But, fhould hiftory be debafed to fuch
-purpofes as theie? Are there not memoirs, pe-
riodieal productions, and archives, fufficient to
kindle thefe difputes, to furnifh deductions, and
to fupport thefe literary wars?
VII. All modern capital hiftories have like-
wife the fault of being highly prolix. What
life is fufficiently long, what eyes are good
enough,
76 Universar Ervorrion,
enough, and what memory is ftrong enough,’ to
read and retain thefe works? Thofe of de Thou,
Mariana, Rapin Thoyras, Barre, Daniel, and
the reft of this clafs? By naming a few hifto-
rians only, it is eafy to enumerate feveral hun-
Cred folio and quarto volumes : and if we refleét
that M. le Long, in his Hiftorical Bibliotheque,
has produced the names of. more than twenty
thoufand authors who have wrote the hiftory of
France only; and that the late count de Bunau
collected above thirty thoufandGerman hiftorians,
whom they call Scriptores rerum Germanicarum,
we may eafily conceive how enormous a chaos
all this muft form, and what indefatigable 1a-
bour it would require to wade. through this vatt,
barren defart of erudition. In proportion as the
world increafes in years, this hiftoric body in-
¢reafes in bulk, and muft at laft fink by its own
weight, All that can be done in this cafe Is, to
regard thefe voluminous works ag hiftoric dic.
tionaries, that are not to be read, but confulted
occafionally.
VIII. Independent of thefe faults, which the |
hiftorian ought to avoid, there are alfo fome
Precautions to be obferved, in order to which it
will be proper here to lay dewn certain precepts.
1. No one fhould attempt to write a hiftory
without a perfect knowledge of all its parts, By
conitantly running, a man may excel in the race,
but he will never excel as a hiftorian, merely by
writing. It is true, thatin the courfe of -the
work
‘History. a7
work he may frequently make curious and ufeful
diftoveries, but the ground of the fubjeét on
which he is to treat ought to be familiar to him;
he fhould therefore well confider his ftrength
before he attempts the enterprife. 2. When a
choice is judicioufly made, he fhould examine
the fources (fontes) from which the faéts are to~
be drawn. Original memoirs, manufcripts, ar-
chives, and other {carce papers, are of an inefti-
mable value to-an hiftorian, by enabling him to
prefent the public with fubjeéts that are new and
interefting. But, if he be not provided with
thefe, he ought at leaft to confult the hiftorical
bibliotheques, in order to inform himfelf of thofe
authors who have wrete on that part of hiftory ;
to procure their writings ; to make a careful exa-
mination of them, and to extra¢t all that can be
of ufe to his fubjeé&t. A judgment more than
common is here’neceflary, in order to diftinguith
the falfe, the fabulous, exaggeration and preju-
dice, from truth.and impartiality ; and to deter-
mine the degree of credibility that is to be af-
figned to each author. The chapter, in which
we fhall treat of the knowledge of authors, will
contain fome further inftructions on this fubject.
IX. When the hiftorian is provided with thefe
materials, he fhould, jdly, begin his work by
extracting thofe articles that are to compofe his
hiftory. And here it is indifpenfably neceffary to
make a judicious choice, and to range them in a
clear order, Nothing that is ipterefting fhould
be
78 Universar Eruprrioy,
be omitted, and nothing which: canbe omitted
fhould hold the place of that which is intereft-
ing. An hiftorian fhould faithfully relate all
that is commonly faid of an event; ‘and of its
circumftances, without being obliged to be anfwer-
able for the ftri& truth of what they may fome-
times contain that is marvellous or incredible.
He that would. write the hiftory of Rome, and
fhould pafs in filence the tradition of Romulus |
and Remus being: fuckled by a wolf, would
commit an egregious fault. No reafonable man
can believe that Hatton, archbifhop of Mayence,
was devoured by rats, and yet it would be un-
pardonable to make no mention of fach report,
when writing the hiftory of that archbifhopricks -
An able writer will endeavour, in the firft place;
to'reconcile thefe forts of popular traditions with
the-truth, and:which-if Ke cannot effect, there is
a certain manner of relating fuch ftories, by
which the reader will. immediately perceive that'-
the hiftorian gave'them no credit. The follow-
| ing words of a celebrated author, contain alfo an
important obfervation: “* There are a thoufand
“ incidents that are interefting to a cotemporary,
“ but’ whiclr are: loft to the eyes of potterity ;
“and which, difappearing, leave thofe great
“events only vifible, that have determined the
“fate of empires, Every thing that is: done, .
«© does’ not deferve tobe written.” For the reft, .
he will produce a mere chaos only, painful and.
difguftful to the'reader, who, after having made
choice of the matters. he would relate, does not.
reduce
Historw™ 79:
reduce them toa regular chronology, by making
a-rough draft of the hiftory he propofes to write,
by carefully obferving the feveral epochs, by
never lofing fight of the fynchronifms, and by»
taking {pecial caution to avoid all anachronifms,
which. are the moft unpardonable faults. in.
hiftory.
X. 4. Particular anecdotes are of the higheft
ufe in ornamenting a hiftory, but we fhould take-
care not to be too lavifh in thefe ornaments, for,
by that mean, ‘ they become infipid: The hifto-
rian fhould therefore be moderate in the. ufe of
thefe,, and have conftantly before his eyes the
gravity and’ majefty: of hiftory. 5. We have fo
often faid that an hiftorian fhould. be. impartial, -
that he fhould have neither country, nor particu
lar religion, and the obfervation is itielf {fo ma~-
nifeft, that ic may feem almoft fuperfuous ia
this.place. An exceffive predilection, notwith-
ftanding, is a fault with which the generality of
French hiftorians may be juttly reproached. They.
fee nothing great, but what is to be found among
themfelyes. “They are fo much poffeffed with
this prejudice, that, in an univerfal hiftory, they
fix the periods by the annals of their own. mo-
narchy, and make, for example, an epoch of
the time that Lewis XIV. after the death of his
prime minifter, refolved togovern by himfelf. We
fhould be glad to know of what importance this
was to the. reft of the world. It appears to us
to be a mean and ridiculous piece of flattery.
XI, The
80. Universar.Ervpirtioy.
XI. The ftyle is fo important an object in
writing a hiftory, that we cannot fufficiently re-
commend an attention to it. How excellent. fo-
€ver are the matters that a book contains, is of
little.importance, if, for want of perfpicuity and
elegance in the Writing, we cannot be induced to
read it. If, in the choice of a ftyle, we were
obliged to make ufe of that which is very concife . -
or very diffufed, we fhould incline to the former.
The point of perfeétion is, however, in a jut
medium. Style is a gift which every writer re-
Ceives from nature. We know of no two that
are precifely the fame. If we may be permitted
fo propofe the beft French models of ftyle, we
_think they may be found in the Hiftory of Charles
XII. and in the Age of Lewis XIV, by M. Vol-
taire; in the Revolutions of the abbé Vertot,
in the Hiftoric Pieces of the abbé St: Real, in
the Univerfal Hiftory of M. Hardion, and in fome
other modern hiftorians, The ftyle that M. Bof.
fuet, bifhop of Meaux, has employed in his Dif.
courfe on Univerfal Hiftory, is inimitable, and
might ferve as a capital model, if that prelate
had not endeavoured after too much eloquence,
and if he did not fometimes do violence to the
truth, in order to be always favourable to relj-
gion; of which he appears to be the panegyrift.
XII Faéts and events make the body of a
hiftory ; the inftructions they afford make the
foul of it.. A hiftory mutt refemble a journal or
gazette, if the author does not introduce thofe
efficacious
History. Sx
efficacious reflections, which fometimes difcover
the fecret caufes of human actions, and fome-.
times point out their confequences, And here a
bold and lively genius is neceflary; one that can
break through thofe obftacles which ftop the vul-:
gar mind, and that can produce thoughts where
truth and novelty are united: it is here that an
uncommon difcernment is requifite ; a marvel-.
lous fagacity that can penetrate the human heart,
that can make its way into the cabinets of princes,
and into the minds of minifters and generals,
that can unfold what paffes there, and that.
judges of their thoughts by their ations, rather
than by their words and writings. All thefe re-
fiec&tions, moreover, fhould arife from the fub-
jects themfelves, and not be forced into the work.
They fhould likewife be made with modera-
tion, and not in the manner of Tacitus, who, fo
to fay, drowns all events in the fea of politics.
Laftly, as all the reflections that a hiftory con-
tains fhould tend to form the heart as well as the
mind of the reader, to render virtue amiable,
and meliorate the human race; all malevolent
fatire, all fallacious reafoning, all impiety, ‘all ri-
dicule of religion, are at once ill placed, and
highly blameable in hiftory. The writer who
fhall think to fhine by thefe means, will find he
makes a very different appearance in the eyes of
the fagacious part of mankind, though he may
fometimes dazzle the ignorant: and he will be
the lefs efteemed for thefe railleries, as they are
Vor. Ul, F far
at
$2 Universat ERvUDITION.
far from. being fo difficult to produce as fome
may imagine.
XIII. It is a general cuftom to make from
hiftory a gallery of portraits; formed of the cha-
raters of the principal ators that are introduced
on the fcene: to paint their exterior figures, as
well as their manners, paffions, &c. We do. not
entirely difapprove of this cuftom; but who-
ever fhall confider how difficult it is for a painter
to catch the likenefs of an object that he has be-
fore his eyes, and of a difeerning perfon to paint
the mind even of thofe with whonr he is inti-
mately acquainted, will eafily judge what kind of
regard is to be paid to thefe fort of portraits that
are drawn feveral ages.after the exiftence of their
originals, the features of which are colleéted
from ancient authors, who frequently knew no
more about them than the modern painter, One
of the beft drawn portraits we have ever read, is
that which M. Duclos has placed at the end of
his excellent hiftory of Lewis XI. And yet we
‘imagine, that if any courtier who was admitted
to a familiar acquaintance with that monarch,
was to come now upon the earth, he would fcarce
know his mafter. As to thofe formal panegyrics
which fome hiftorians make on their heroes, there
is nothing which appears to us more infipid,
and more unworthy of the truth and gravity of
hiftory...
XIV.
History. 33
XIV. g. Almoft all the ancient hiftorians
have an idle method of crowding their hiftories
with a number of harangues, We will for once
affume a decifive tone, and pronounce all thefe
harangues, that are pretended to have been ad-
drefied to whole armies, to be either fictions or
abfurdities; for it is impoffible for the com-
mander of an army to make himfelf heard, even
by a whole regiment that is neareft to him, and
ftill much lefs by a numerous army extended by
ranks and files. For even the proper officers
would fcarce be able to make the words of com-
mand heard on the day of action, though pro-
nounced in monofyllables, and with a loud voice,
if the foldiers were not previoufly acquainted
with them. The general therefore, who fhould
{train his throat with making a long florid ha-
rangue before a battle, to an army that could
not poffibly hear it, would be defervedly re-
garded as a madman. Thofe orations which are
fuppofed to be made from the roftrum to an af-
fembly of the people, by an ambaflador to a
monarch, or by a public orator to a fenate or
council, are more juft, more. natural and pro-
bable. But even fuppofing them to be true,
they ought not to be very frequently introduced :
for they are a fort of machinery chat lofe their
power when too often ufed.
’ XV. 10. Laftly, in writing a hiftory we
may fometiines make an advantageous ufe of
setters, difeourfes, reflections, fayings and wri-
¥ 2 tings
84° Universat Ervupirion.
tings of thofe kings, heroes or magiftrates of
whom we are {fpeaking, by relating them either
entire or in abftract : and this is an advantage that
ought not to be neglected; for nothing gives
hiftory a greater air of veracity, or better proves
its authenticity. When with thefe precautions
the writer is {paring im his accounts of wars,
when he avoids all long defcriptions of battles
and fieges, which, after all that can be faid, from
the time of Jofhua and Cyrus down to the pre-
fent age, ftrongly refemble each other, and are
attended with a difguftful uniformity; and if
inftead of thefe he explain the caufes of grand
revolutions and remarkable events, and. efpeci-
ally if he be ftriétly true, judicious and impar-
tial in his relation, he may fafely indulge in the
pleafing reflection of having wrote a hiftory
worthy the approbation of the prefent age, and
of pofterity.
XVI. Moft of the precepts. we have here
given for the manner of writing hiftory, have am
intimate connexion with the manner of /tudying
it. Whoever would apply to this ftudy, ought
i the firft place to recollect all that we have
faid in the preceding chapter on chronology: —
for if we do not carefully diftinguifh the feverak
eras, periods and epochs, we fhall never be
able to form in our minds a regular and funda-
mental fyftem of hiftory, and to range each fact
in its proper place, .The methed that appears.
to
ee oes, =,
History. $5
ro us of all others the moft eligible, is nearly
contained in the following particulars.
XVII. We would begin by placing before
the eyes of our pupil a fketch, the mere ouilines
of univerfal hiftory, or chronological tables ;
or rather a large hiftorical and chronological
chart, fuch as that of which Juftus Lipfius
conceived the idea, and which we have fre-
quently intended to execute, had not other very
different occupations diverted our attention.
When we perceived that this general draught had
made a fufficient impreffion on the mind of our
pupil, we would make him read aloud the
moft concife and finifhed abridgment of hiftory
we could procure; taking particular care to re-
mark to him, as he went on, the feveral fyn-
chronifms or events that happened at the fame
period among the different nations of the earth.
By this mean we fhould by degrees fill up our
fketch, and provide our pupil with what is
called the thread of hiftory. This preliminary
ftudy would take up but little of his time, and
would be of great ufe to him during the whole
courfe of his life. We have elfewhere wihhed,
that the hiftories of all nations, ancient and
modern were wrote on the model of the chro-
_ nological abridgment of France by the prefi-
dent Henault, which we cannot too often re-
peat; and we have the high fatisfaction to fee
that our with is daily carrying into execution.
XVUL
86 UniversaLt ERvDITION.
XVIII. We would then pafs with our pupil
through a curfory lection of thofe authors, as.
well ancient as modern, that are called the
fources of hiftory (fontes): of thefe we would
choofe but a finall number, and would take
particular care to felect thofe only whofe authen-
ticity appears unqueftionable. After this, we
would go through a complete courfe of univer-
fal hiftory, which we would endeavour to en-
liven with moral, political and military reflec-
tions, with critical remaks on dubious faéts, &c.
And _ here efpecially, we would place before his
fight the portraits of thofe great men who have
filled the throne, or direéted the c-binet, have
commanded armies, adorned the mitre, or illu-
mined the f{ciences. We would endeavour here
to point out their virtues and their vices, their
fagacious and their futile a¢tions, their glory and
their fhame. We would paint the tyrant, the
rapacious minifter, the fenfelefs or brutal com-
mander, the bigoted prieft, and the idly labo-
rious fcholar, in their proper and difguftful
colours: in a word, it is here that we would
endeavour to draw all that comprehenfive and
and Jafting utility which hiftory is capable of
affording.
XIX. In the laft place; during the remainder of
thofe years which are confecrated to his educa- —
tion, we would teach him the hiflory of each
particular modern nation, beginning with that of
his own country: and here we would point out
the-
HirstTory. 87
mhe fources from whence he might draw the
hiftory of each particular province or di-
ftri&t, the annals of each city, &c. And in the
‘courfe of our progrefs we would ftudy ecclefi-
aftic hiftory, that of litterature, and thofe other
matters, with the enumeration of which we fhall
conclude this chapter, and which will make the
fubjects of fome of thofe that follow.
XX. Hiftory in general is divided into
1. Civil or political hiftory, which relates
all the revolutions and all the memorable events
that have occurred in governments; and gives
an account of the method by which all nations
have been founded, eftablifhed, maintained and
improved; of their increafe, ‘decline, and final
diffolution.
2. Military hiftory, which recounts the wars
that each people have fuftained, their battles
and fieges, the good and bad fuccefs of all their
military operations; thofe generals that have
diftinguifhed themfelves, &c. Xenophon, Po-
lybius, Vegetius, Quincy, and many others, have
wrote military hiftories.
Hiftory, as well civil as military. is fubdi-
vided into
The ancient.
That of the middle age.
The modern.
The three following chapters will explain
thefe fubdivifions, and give their analyfis.
3. Re-
$8 Universat Ervpirion.
~-geReligious hiftory ; ; which treats in general
of the religion and worfhip of all nations, both
“ancient and modern; of religious ceremonies,
and of the origin, progrefs and decline of each
religion.
4. Ecclefiaftic hiftory, or that of the Chrif-
‘tian church in particular ;, which teaches the ori-
gin and revolutions of the true religion, of the
oppofitions and perfecutions it has fuftained, of
the fuccefs it has met with, and of the triumph
it has finally obtained; from the commence-
ment of the world to the prefent time. Jt com-
' prehends alfo the hiftory of the various herefies
and {fchifms of the popes and reformers, &c,
and is fubdivided into
The hiftory of the church of God under the
Old Teftament. And
The like hiftory under the New Teftament.
_, § The hiftory of litterature, which treats
_of the progrefs of the human mind in general,
_and comprehends
Phyfical or natural hiftory, which relates all
_ that has arrived, or rather. all that has been dif-
covered and obferved, that is remarkable, from
the time of the creation; either in the heavens,
‘in’ the elements, or among men, animals, in-
fects, plants, and in general among all the parts
and productions of nature.
Philofophic hiftory, that teaches the progrefs
of philofophy among all the people of the
; earth,
The
Hrstory. 89
_ The hiftory of erudition, which gives an
account of the ftate of the other fciences among
all nations. —__
Technical hiftory, that treats of the progrefs
of the arts, as well liberal as ufeful.
6. The hiftory of the learned; which relates
the lives and productions of the learned men of
all ages, in thofe works that are called Biogra-
- phies.
7s Si: Giétheceone hiftory (Hiftoria mixta vel
mifcellanea); which contains all forts of anec-
dotes, political, ecclefiaftic, military, literary
and civil, that are of any importance, and that
are not included in pragmatic or political hi-
ftory.
XXI. They make in the fchools ftill other
divifions of hiftory, as into
Sacred and profane.
Univerfal or fundamental, and particular or
fpecial.
Real and poetical or fabulous.
Antediluvian and poftdiluvian.
European, ‘Afiatic, African, APTN. &c.
&c.
But without attending to thefe aivinote,
which are founded lefs in the nature of the ob-
. je€ts that relate to hiftory, than in the imagina-
tions of thofe who profefs it, and which, far from
_ elucidating this fcience, ferve only to perplex it,
_ by overloading. the memory; we fhall content
ourfelves with thus merely enumerating the
prin-
oo Universat Ervupition.
cipal of thefe divifions, that our readers may
not be quite ignorant of them, and fhall imme-
diately pafs to the analyfis of the real objeéts
of hiftory.
Ne ON ee Ne aN eee Oe
CHAP. V.
ANCIENT HISTORY.
E, can write that only which we know,
and in all the hiftoric fciences, we can
earn that only which is written. From this in-
conteftable axiom we may draw fome inftrudtive
confequences. ‘The firft is, that our ancient
hiftory cannot go higher than Adam, who is re-
prefented to us by Mofes (the moft ancient of
all thofe authors and hiftorians whofe works
have come down to us) as the origin of the hu-
man race. We know indeed, that in working
a quarry of porphyry they have lately found,
in the middle of a block of a prodigious fize,
a bar of wrought iron, and that according to
the
Ancient Hisrory. gt
the calculations of the moft fkilful naturalifts,
it would require more than ten thoufand years
for fo large a mafs of that hard marble to grow
round a bar, and if they knew the art of forg-
ing iron more than ten thoufand years fince, the
world muft be much older than Mofes makes it
to be. We know alfo that the world has, num-
berlefs other natural marks which feem to prove
an antiquity {till far greater. We are not ignorant
moreover of all the arguments that may be
drawn from the chronology of the Chaldeans,
Egyptians, and Chinefe, which go vaftly high-
er than that of Mofes: but it feems-to us, at
the fame time, that the world alfo affords num-
berlefs marks of a recent ftate, which counter-
balance the former, and at leaft reduce the fe-
veral arguments to conjectures only. All the
chronologies of the Chaldeans, Egyptians and
Chinefe, are founded moreover entirely on tra-
ditions, and on certain vouchers that are equally
equivocal and fufpicious. During the firft ages
of all nations the art of writing was unknown.
It was a long time before letters were invented :
and what confidence can be placed on a chro-
nology, fupported only by traditions, and, what
is worfe, by the traditions of the Orientals,
whoie heated imaginations have at all times pro-
produced fwarms of reveries, fables and extra-
vagancies ?
II. But let us fuppofe for a moment that
there have been Preadamites. This might in-
jure
92 Universat Eruprition,
jure us much as Chriftians, becaufe if this fa@e
‘could be eftablifhed, it would render the Mofaic
hiftory very doubtful; but it would be of very
little ufe to us as hiftorians. For what could hif-
_ tory have to do with thefe preadamite people, of
whom we know nothing, either by writing or
tradition? Befide, all the ancient chronology of °
the Egyptians and Chinefe is the moft wretched
that can be conceived, built on the weakeft foun-
dations, and fo confufed, that it is impoffible to.
deduce any one fact from it that bears the leaft
character of authenticity. Reafon and religion
therefore equally require that we begin our an-
cient hiftory with the creation of the world, ac-
cording to the account of Mofes, and confe-
quently that we regard Adam as the firft of
mankind. :
Ilf. The fecond confequence we draw from
our firft principle is, that the greateft part of
thofe ancient people, who inhabited the different
countries of the earth, being ignorant of letters,
could not tranfmit the hiftory of their own na-
tion, even to their defcendents, and ftill much
_ lefs to others. There may have been thoufands
of nations, whofe very names are not come down
to us. Some of thefe names indeed were by chance
tranfmitted by oral tradition to thofe people
who firft knew the ufe of letters, and particular-
ly to the Greeks: but thefe Greeks were at once
credulous and fallacious. Herodotus, the firft
_ of their hiftorians, readily believed all the fables
; . and
Ancient History. 93.
and traditions which the Egyptian prieft had told.
him on’his travels ; and of thefe he compofed
nine poems in profe, each of which he dedicated.
to one of the mufes, and recited them one after
the other at the Olympic Games, and which the
people greedily received, admiring all his mar-.
vellous ftories.
IV. The third confequence we draw from our
principle is, that ancient hiftory is lefs the.
knowledge of what has really happened in the
world, than of that which hiftorians have re-
Jated, and what they have affirmed as facts.’
And, in truth, is not this fufficient? Does it not
contain fufficient matter fully to fatisfy our curio-
fity? Do we not find in hiftory, as it now is, fo vaft
a compilation of facts and events, that the longeft
life, and moft happy memory, is fcarce fufficient
to learn and retain them.. Is not the time of
antiquaries, critics, and commentators, fully em
ployed in learned refearches? And of what con
fequence is it to us, after all, to know the exaé
truth of each ancient faét or event ? Would this
precife knowledge render us in any refpect bet«
ter, or can it in the leaft contribute to our hap.
pinefs? On the contrary, it is eafy to prove,
that the prefent generation are more obliged to
an ancient hiftorian who has recounted an event
fomewhat fabulous in its circumftances, but in a
manner that is interefting, agreeable and ufeful,
than to 6ne who has related faéts that are pres
cuny true, but ina manner cold, dry, and dif
intercfting,
of UNiversat Ervupitiown.
interefting. A fable teeming with inftrudtion
appears to be, in this cafe, far preferable to a
barren truth.
V. We by no means defpife the efforts of thofe
men of tranfcendent genius and indefatigable
application, who pafs their whole lives in mak-
ing judicious inferences, or ingenious conjectures,
in order to reconcile paffages, difcover truths,
or diffufe lights over the hiftory of the firft ages
of the. world: but we think, at the fame time,
that their labours are not accompanied with any
real certainty, or any direct utility to mankind.
While I was writing the above I difcovered,
from the window of my clofet, a large hole in
my garden wall; I enquired among my domef-
tics, I confulted even my chaplain, concerning
the caufe of this hole. Each of them affigns the
reafon at a venture, and all of them fupport
their opinions with warmth. An arch fellow
fteps up and tells us we are all in the wrong,
difcovers the real faét, and leaves us all fufi-
ciently confounded. I imagine the inquirers into
the faéts of ancient hiftory are frequently in the
fame circumftance with me and my wall. ©
VI. When we duly confider the matter, we
find that ancient hiftory may be divided into two
parts. The firft contains. the hiftory of the
Jews, or Hebrews, or of thofe who are called
the people of God. Independent of that religious
faith which this hiftory requires of Chriftians,
feeing
Ancient History, 45
feeing it forms the bafis of their religion, it me-
rits likewife a peculiar regard by all mankind,
confidering it merely as profane annals, 1. Be-
caufe it carries with it the marks of veracity,
while the ancient hiftory of other nations, efpe-
cially during the firft ages, is manifeftly nothing
more than a collection of fables. 2. Becaufe it
contains a chronological fucceffion of events, al-
moft without interruption, which we do not find
in any other hiftory; as we fhall fee further on.
And 3. Becaufe it forms a general fcale, a com-
mon meafure of chronology for all other hifto-
ries ; for, without this, we fhould not find in
any of them any meafure of time, nor any cer-
tain epoch ; all ancient hiftory would be a mere
chaos, impoffible to be reduced into any form :
a region covered with impenetrable darknefs.
VII. This hiftory, which, on more than one
account, deferves the title of facred, admits of
many divifions, of which we fhall here mention
two only, and thefe appear to us natural, and
remarkable by the importance of their epochs.
For, in the firft place, we may confider the
Jews under four kinds of governments ; as,
1. The patriarchal, under 22 patriarchs,
2. The judiciary, under 22 judges,
3. The royal, under 22 kings.
4. The facerdotal, under 22 pontiffs; among
whom fome have born the title of kings, as Arif-
tobulus, Alexander, Hircan, Antipater, Herod,
&c.
The
96 Universat Ervupitrion
The Jewifh hiftory differs from all others:
_ in this particular divifion. 1t may, moreover,
be divided into different ages, which may be thus )
fixed ': |
The t. mica with the creation of
the world, and ending with the uni-. ‘Years;
verfal deluge, comprehends — 1657
2. Beginning immediately after the de-
luge, and ending with Abraham, in
the year of the world 208 39 com-—
prehends . 426
3. Beginning with debichornt etnfacediad |
as the father of the Jewifh nation,
and ending with the departure from
Egypt, which was in the year 2513,
comprehends - -~ = 430
4. Begins with the going outof Egypt;
when Mofes, becoming the legiflator
and judge of the people of Ifrael,
conduéted them through the defart,
and left to Jofhua, his fucceffor,
the care of the conqueft of the coun-
try of Canaan, and the eftablifhment
of the Jews in that promifed land.
This age begins with the Judaic re-
public, and continues to the time if
the eftablifhment of the a saad
, comprehends- -—— - - 399
_&. Begins with the reign of Saul, the —
firtt king of the Jews, who was
anointed by Samuel in the year
2909, and concludes with the end
of
-Akerentr History. 97
of the captivity of that people in Ba-
~ bylon when Cyrus permitted them
to return, in the year of the world.
3468. This period includes alfo
the divifion of the Jewifh monarchy,
with the eftablifhment of the king- a
dom.of Judah and that of Ifrael ; “it . Years.
—confitts of se (hs - 559 :
6. Begins with the liberty that Cyrus
granted to the Jews, and ends with
the birth of Jefus Chrift, which was
about the year of the world 4000,
and confequently comprehends - 532
In all, - 4000
This epoch includes, among the reft, the
wars that the Jews had to fuftain againft the
Romans, and which ended in rendering them
tributary to that monarchy.
VIII. At the beginning of the feventh age,
there appeared, among the chofen, people, the
Meffiah, the Saviour, the Redeemer of mankind.
Forty years after the death of Chrift, Jerufalemi
was deftroyed by Titus, the fon of Veipafiah,
and, after him, efnperor. The Temple was pil-
laged, the inhabitants partly exterminated, and
partly carried away captive, and difperfed, over
the face of the earth. Thus finifhed the republic’
of the Jews; who, from that fatal period, have
never been able to afiemble as a nation. They
who followed the Meffiah and embraced his holy
Vor, IIL. G doétrine,
98 Universat Ervupirion,
doctrine, which may be faid to be grafted on that
of the Hebrews, called themfelves, after his
name, Chriftians; and dated the epoch of their
hiftory from the birth of Chrift. This epoch,
. as we have faid, began about the year of the
world 4000; and, to the time of writing this
work, it has continued 1765 years. So that,
without entering into a minute chronology, the
world, according to common opinion, has fub-
fifted, from the epoch of the creation to the pre-
fent time, 5765 folar years of 365 days.
TX. The hiftory of the Jews, as we find it in
the holy fcriptures, and as it is confirmed by Jo-
fephus, one of the beft hiftorians the world has
produced, ferves alfo to diffufe great lights over
the hiftories of thofe ancient people with which
this firft nation had wars, alliances, or connec-
tions: and in thefe hiftories, fable is confe-
quently lefs mixed with truth, than in thofe of
other ancient nations, which are founded entirely
upon doubtful traditions and monuments. We
are, however, to draw, from profane authors alfo,
all information that can be of any ufe in eluci-
dating the hiftories of thefe nations, and of re-
ducing them into the form of a fyftem, however
imperfect it may be. But, notwithftanding thefe
aids, and all the pains that have been taken, there
are ftill many chafms to be fupplied in thefe
hittories. |
X. Of
Anertent History, 99
X. Of all chofe ancient nations, whofe names, as
well as their actions, have not been defttoyed by
the length of time, the diftance of place, and
the ignorance of letters, there now remain
only,
1. The hiftory of the Moabites, from their
founder, Moab, the fon of Lot, to the time-of
Nebuchadnezzar.
2. The hiftory of the Ammonites, from Am-
mon to the fame Nebuchadnezzar.
3. The hiftory of the Midianites, from Mi-
dian, the fourth fon of Abraham, to their two laft
kings, Zeba and Zalmuna, who were vanquifh-
ed by Gideon.
4. The hiftory of the Edomites, the defcend-
ants of Edom, the fon of Ijaac, to the time of
Joram, the king of the Jews, by whom they
were deftroyed.
5. The hiftory of the Amalekites, whofe
founder was Amalek, the grandfon of Efau, to
the time of Saul and David, when they no longer
fubfiited as a nation.
6. The hiftory of the Canaanites, properly fo
called, from their founder Canaan, the fon of
Ham, to the time of Solomon, when they were
confounded in the common name of Pheeni-
cians.
7. The hiftory of the Philiftines, from Miz-
raim, the fon of Ham, their founder, to the
time they were in part overcome by king Heze-
kiah, when their capital, Afded, was deftroyed
‘ by the Affyrians ; and finally, to the time that
G2 the
>
a. = = *: ie Bas oe! >." CP ————) =
roo UNIveERSAL ErvpiTION.
the laft kings of Gaza, of that nation, were van-
quifhed by the Egyptians, and their nation en-
tirely extirpated.
8. The hiftory of the ancient Syrians, as well
thofe of Zobach, as thofe of Damafcus, from
Rehob, the firft king, who lived in the time of
David, to the reign of Jeroboam, who deftroyed
Damatcus.
g. The hiftory of the Phoenicians, from Age-
nor, the firft king of Sidon, who reigned a fhort
- time before the Trojan war (though, ' according
to Jofephus; Sidon, the eldeft fon of Canaan,
gave his name to that city and the country
round about) to the time that Sidon, as well as
Tyre, were reduced under the yoke of Alexan-
der the Great.
10. The hiftory of the Affyrians, from Pul,
or Phul, to’ Sardanapalus. ‘The capital of this
empire was Nineve.
11. The hiftory of the Babylonians or Chal-
deans. This nation was more ancient than that.
of the Affyrians. Their founder was Nimrod,
and Nebonaffar their firft king, whofe’ confort
was the famous Semiramis. Nebuchadnezzar,
17th king of Babylon, deftroyed the kingdom
of the Affyrians ; and that of Babylon fell in its
turn, in the reign of its twentieth king, Nabo- |
nadus (who was the Affuerus of the fcripture)
into the hands of the Medes and Perfians.
12, The hiftory of the Medes, whofe empire
arofe out of the ruins of that of Affyria,’ or’ra-
ther became formidable, when they were freed
7 from
AncrenT HtistTory, IOr
from the yoke of the Affyrians. Their firft king
was Arbaces, The epoch of their grandeur was
in the reign of their feventh king, Cyaxares,
who conquered, in conjunction with Nebychad-
nezzar, the city of Nineve. Affifted by the Per-
fians, they alfo took, during the fame king’s
reign, the city of Babylon; and laftly, Aftyages
(the Balthazar of the prophet Daniel) became
pofiefiéd of the whole empire.
_ XI. 13. Thehiftory of the Perfians, or Elamites;
who owed their origin to Elam, the fon of Sem.
The firft king, of whom there is mention made
in the fcripture, was Kedorlaomer. Cyrus, the
founder of the new empire of the Perfians, made
himfelf mafler at the fame time of thofe of the
Medes and Babylonians. Their laft king, Da-
rius, furnamed Codomanus, was vanquifhed by
Alexander. .
14. The hiftory of the Scythians, or Chome-
reans, who were alfo called Cimbri, or. Celts,
and were defcended from Gomar, the eldeft fon
of Japhet. Their firft king was Scythes, a pre-
tended fon of Hercules; and their laft Atheas,
who was conquered by Philip, king of Ma-
cedon,
15. The hiftory of the Phrygians, who are
faid to be defcended from Thogarme, the. fon of
Gomar. Midas was one of their moft ancient
kings; he reigned foon after the deluge of Deu-
calion. After the death of Adraitus, who lived
in che time of Croefus, the royal houfe was ex-
tinct, and Phrygia became a province of Lydia,
16. The
102 Uwnwiversat Ervupition.
16. The hiftory of Phrygia Minor, or Troy.
Dardanus and Teucer were its firft kings, and
Eneas its Jatt.
17. The hiftory of the Myfians. Olympus is
fituate in this country; and the firft king of
Myfia was alfo called Olympus in hiftory.
The laft was Arius; though there are mention
made of kings of Myfia in the time of me Atta-
lian kings of Pergamus.
18. The hiftory of the teint Their firft
king was Mones, and their laft Craefus, who was
vanquifhed by Cyrus.
ig. The hiftory of the Lycians. Their ori-
gin, and a great part of their hiftory, belongs to
fabulous times. One of their kings, named | Cy-
bernifcus, commanded in the fleet of Xerxes
againft the Greeks.
20. The hiftory of the Cilicians.. It is pre-
tended that they drew their origin from Farfis,
the fon of Javan, who peopled Cilicia, and gave
his name to the city Tarfus. This people had
kings at Thebes and Lyrneffus, who all bore
the common name of Syennefis. Cilicia did not
become a province to Macedonia till after the
deftruction of the kingdom of Perfia.—And fuch
were the principal ancient nations, of whom any
hiftory,- though imperfe& enough, has come
down to us.
XII. The fecond part of ancient hiftory con-
tains, ‘ The hiftory of the other empires, mo-
narchies, republics and leffer ftates, that have
anciently
AncrentT History. 108
anciently fubfifted in the world, and of whom no
knowledge is to be had, but from profane
writers.” And among whom we confequently
find more obfcurity, lefs order, lefs connection,
and lefs certainty. But, before we proceed to
the analyfis of thefe hiftories, let us here make
fome general reflections, that perhaps may not be
without their ufe. If we confider the vaft ex-
tent of the known part of the earth, and
remember that it has always been divided into
great, middling, and fmall ftates ; and if we re-
fie€&t on the immenfe number of mankind that
muft have there exifted, and that the human
race have conftantly been divided into nations,
governments, and colonies, more or lefs nume-
rous, we mutt be furprized to find, in the general
fyftem of ancient hiftory, which comprehends a
fpace of 4000 years, fo fmall a number of parti-
cular hiftories. It is therefore neceffary to ob-
ferve, that, in the firft ages of the four quarters
of the world, Afia alone was civilized; and,
confequently, the firft order of men was to be
found in that country only. Europe and Africa
were fcarce difcovered, or at moft their borders,
and the people who inhabited them, only were |
known. The center of Europe was as unknown
as the center of Africa is at this day. That cen-
ter is about the country which is now called
Franconia; for, if we place one point of a com-
pafs on that part where ftands the city of Nuren-
berg, and deferibe a circle’ with the other, we
fhall comprehend very nearly all our part of the
globe,
: : \
104 UNIVERSAL KRuUDITION.
globe. The feptentrional regions were entirely
unknown, though they were very populous. But
all thefe inhabitants of Europe and Africa,
_ efpecially thofe who lived toward the two poles,
were nothing better than a fort of favages, with-
out manners and without knowledge, ignorant
of the ufe of letters, and, in a word, fuch as man-
kind in general are, without arts and fciences.
The Romans difcovered them by degrees, fub-
dued them, and fent among them a-fort of po-
lifhers, to make them more tame and traétable,
and to infpire them with notions of humanity,
as in our days we fend miffionaries into’ the
fouthern countries as we difcover them. The
Romans beftowed. on all thefe people the title
of barbarians, which they right well deferved :
they alfo fometimes fent their criminals amongft
them, by. way of banifhment. Now, if we even
knew the hiftory of thefe people, it would not -
certainly, be worth the while to write it or fludy
it. For a hiftory that affords no inftruétion be-
comes an object of mere idle curjofity, and is
only an ufelefs burden to the memory ;, it would .
perhaps be altogether as interefting to know the .
hiftory of a colony of baboons, as fuch figures
of men as thefe. On the contrary, it is of con-
fequence to us to know the hiftory of thofe po-
lifhed nations who inhabited ancient Afia and its
neighbouring countries, and, in general, of all | |
civilized people ; ; and of thefe we ‘haus fufficient
accounts in the annals that are come down
£0 us.
XII. Ame-
SL —————— ra i Be =
Ancrent History. 10g
XII. America remaining undifcovered till
the beginning of the fifteenth century, the know-
Jedge of its firft inhabitants cannot make any
part of ancient hiftory. For the reft, we muft
. here obferve again, that as the fecond part of an-
cient hiftory, which is called profane, includes fo
many obfcurities and fables, which preceded the
real faéts, Varro has divided time into three
parts. The firft comprehends obfcure and un-
certain time, which is, from the origin of the
human race to the deluge of Ogyges, about the
year of the world 2208 ; 1796 years before the
common era, and 1020 before the firft Olym-
piad. The fecond includes the fabulous time,
and begins with the deluge of Ogyges, and con-
tinues to the Olympiads, that is, to the year of
the world 3228, and 776 before the common
era: this continued 1020 years. The third
comprehends the hiftoric time, and begins
with the Olympiads, that is, in the year of the
world 3228, and 776 before the vulgar era, It
is called Hiftoric, becaufe, fince the Olympiads,
the truth of faéts that have occurred has been.
confirmed by hiftory.
- XIV. The poets have alfo divided hiftory
after their manner, that is to fay, by fictions.
They diftinguifh, firlt, the golden age, which
they attribute to Saturn and Rhea; the fecond
is the filver age, afcribed to the reign of Jupi-
ter. This age they extend to the time that ty-
rants appeated among the human race ; who, to
render
¥ SPS ree ee a ”
106 UNIVERSAL ERuDITION.
render themfelves powerful, opprefléd mankind
by violence and injuftice. The filver age, there-
fore, muft terminate with the time that Nimrod,
the grandfon of Cham, rendered himfelf terrible,
built Babylon, and laid the foundation of the em- .
pire of the Chaldeans, about the year of the world
1771, and-115 yeats after the deluge. The
third was the brazen age, which was, when ra-
pacious men, poffeffed with the luft of domi-
nion, endeavoured to reduce their brethren to a
ftate of flavery. The fiege and burning of Troy
by the Greeks happened in this age, with which
likewife the poets finifh the time when thofe
heroes they called demi-gods appeared upon
the earth. The fourth age is that of iron,
which began with the firft Olympiad, that is,
in the year of the world 3228. About this time
Hefiod complains of living in an iron age; and
Ovid, in the defcription he gives of it, fays,
that all forts of crimes began then to prevail.
They pretend it ftill continues; but we may fay
with the worldling, .
Ob! le bon tems, que ce fiecle de fer!
XV. As we comprehend, in the idea of an-
cient hiftory, a continued feries of all facts and
events that have happened among civilized na-
tions, from the creation of the world to the
birth of Chrift, being a fpace of about 4000
years, we are here to confider, under profane hif-
tory,
| 1. The
i I oe kl le ll ae
Awcient History. roy
(1.) That of the empire of China. They
talk much of the chronology of this people,
which according to Father le Compte*, includes
more than 40,000 years from the foundation of
their empire ; but unlefs it can be clearly proved,
that the Chinefe have known the ufe of letters
for 40,000 years paft, we mutt regard their chro-
as fabulous, chimerical, and altogether
ridiculous: for there is no tradition, no other
monument or voucher that can laft fo long. And
and fuppofing the Chinefe to have exifted for fo
great a period, muft there not have been other peo-
ple upon the earth? Were not India, and all
other countries adjacent to China inhabited? And
muft not thefe people have learnt from the Chi-
nefe, in 40,000 years, the ufe of letters? Is
it poffible, that the communication between
neighbouring nations could be fo far interrupt-
ed? The ridiculous fables likewife, with which
the antient Chinefe hiftory is crowded, from be-
ginning to end, confirm, in every rational mind,
a contempt for their boafted chronology. Their
moft fagacious hiftorians, moreover, commonly
fuppofe that Fohi, their firft king, mounted the
throne 2252 years before the birth of Chrift.
The character they draw of this Fohi, is not un-
like that of Noah, who may alfo very well be that
Saturn of whom the poets talk, and who lived
about the fame time, Confucius the philofopher,
a prieft and legiflator of the Chinefe, flourithed
Vol, I. p. 205.
about
—*
ro8 Universat ERupirTion.
about 550 years before the commen era. In
the year of Chrift 1279, the Tartars made
themfelves mafters of this empire, and their fa-
mily bore the name of Iven.
XVI. (2.) The hiftory of Egypt. The chronolo-
gy of the Egyptians is altogether as extravagant
as that of the Chinefe, and has no better foun-
dation. The Chaldeans or Babylonians affigned
myriads of years to their monarchy. The Egyp-
tians, piqued at their pretenfions, would not yield
them the preference in point of antiquity. Their
priefts, and thofe they called fages, afferted that
gods and demi-gods reigned in Egypt 42,984
years before their kings. It would be fome fatif
faction to know by what channel, or rather by
what miracle, the knowledge of this has come
down to our days, fuppofing it to be true. They
have found means however to gain credit for
thefe reveries with Diodorus Siculus, Herodotus,
Manethon, and many others equally weak, credu_ -
‘lous,and fond of marvellous relations. The indefa-
tigable labours of that learned writer John Mars
fham, united with thofe of Uther, and fome other
able’ chronologers, have helped to diffipate, in
fome degree, this real Egyptian darknefs, and to
reduce ‘the hiftory of this country, quite fabu-
lous as it is in its origin, to a fyftem tolerably |
rational. This hiftory then is divided into dy-
nafties, or races of fovereigns that have reigned
in Egypt. Seven of thefe dynatties comprehend
the reign of gods, from Vulcan to Typhon : nine,
the
Ancient History. tog
the reigns of the demi-gods from Orus to the
demi-god Jupiter.. It is eafy to conceive what
credit is to be given to fuch hiftory. Then come
the obfcure dynafties of the kings of Thebes,
Thin, Memphis, and Heliopolis; and all this
brings their hiftory down to the time of Sefoftris,
or Sethofis, or Sefac, who reigned in the year
of the world 3033. He made many conquefts
in Afia, and took Jerufalem in the fifth year of
Rehoboam king of Juda. It is here that ma-
ny hiftorians quit Marfham, and follow the fyt-
tem of Ufher. They begin the hiftory of Egypt
with the year of the world 1760; and confider
this kingdom, 1ft, as under unknown kings dur-
ing 160 years ; 2d. under fix paftoral kings dur-
ing 260 years,’ that is to the year 2180, when
Amafis drove out thefe royal fhepherds ; 3. un-
der 48 kings that are named Pharohs, during
1299 years, that is to the year 3479, when
Cambyfes king of Perfia conquered Egypt ; 4.
- under two Perfian kings during 164 years to the
year 3673, when Alexander joined Egypt to his
other conquefts; 5. under the Greeks, that is,
under Alexander fix years; 6, under 13 Ptole-
mies and Cleopotra the laft queen of Egypt, dur-
ing 294 years, which comes to the year 3974,
when Auguftus, after the death of Cleopatra,
reduced Egypt to a province of the Roman em-
pire, and laftly, 7. under the dominion of the
Caliphs and Ottomans, from the time that Omar
the fecond caliph, or heir of Mahomet, con-
uered t in the year 637.
quered Egyp year 637 yer
Ee
trro.)6COr«C UU niversAL ERuDITION:
XVII. (3) The hiftory of the Afyrian Monarchy,
We have already mentioned this hiftory in the
tenth fection, but we cannot avoid {peaking of it
here, as one of the four grand monarchies, fo
called by way of excellence, and to which it is
frequently the cuftom to reduce almoft all ancient
hiftory. From this point of view, therefore, we
regard the Affyrians, not as a particular nation,
but as the fovereigns of Syria, Mefopotamia,
Babylon, Perfia, and, in a word, of all Afia ex-
cept India. It is all thefe countries united that
are comprehended under the name of Affyria
the Great, which formed the empire of Ninus
and Semiramis, and which is called for that reafon
the firft monarchy; and fometimes it is alfo called
the monarchy of the Babylonians, Chaldeans,
Affyrians, &c, by which is always meant the
fame empire; and which they make to com-
mence, for that reafon, not before the year of
the world 2737, with Ninus the fon of Bel, and
with Semiramis his confort; and to finith with
Balthazer, who. was flain by the foldiers at the
taking of Babylon by Cyrus: and thus the
Affyrian monarchy was overthrown, and paffed
to the Medes and Perfians.
XVIII (4) The hiftory of the Perfan Mao-
narchy, which is the fecond of thofe that were
called’ Grand. This, vaft empire comprehend-
ed not only. Perfia, properly fo called, and of
which we have made mention in the. fecond fec-
tion, but almoft all Afia, and fometimes alfo all
athe * the
the eet hee. oA am ¥ “Mpa all a A ee o ——. + = eo
ANCIENT History. ig
the circumjacent country; feeing that Xerxes,
after fubduing all Egypt, came into Greece and
took Athens. The hiftorimns make this grand
monarchy to begin with Cyrus in the year of the
world 3468, and to laft 206 years under twelve
kings, of whom Darius was the laft, who being
conquered by Alexander near Arbella, his eftates
and provinces pafied to the dominion of the con-
queror, and contributed to form the third grand
_ monarchy.
XIX (5) The hiftory of the Grecian Monareby,
which was the third grand monarchy. The hif-
tory of this empire will be very difficult to ex-
plain, and ftill more to comprehend without
making the following reflections. The Grecian
monarchy did not properly fubfift more than
fix years and ten months under the reign of Alex-
ander furmamed the Great, who had already
reigned fix years over Macedonia, when he began
to make himfelf mafter of the eaft; but, to con-
ceive a clear idea of the manner in which fo vaft
a monarchy was formed, it is neceflary to. be-
gin by fully underftanding the general hiftory of
Greece ; then to ftudy that of the kingdom of
' Macedonia, and after that to confider the life
and conquefts of Alexander in particular ; to
know the people, kingdoms, empires, and other
ftates that he fubdued, in order to form a mo-
narchy almoft univerfal ; and laftly to know, how
this immenfe monarchy was difmembered by his
fucceflors, The firft object of inquiry therefore
is
rz2_s U ntversat Ervuprrion.
is the hiftory of the Greeks, the moft curious and
moft important of all antiquity.
XX. Greece was fo named from an ob-
{eure king called Greecus. Another.king; who
was named Hellen, gave to the Greeks thé -
name of Hellenifts. The different augmentations
of this people have occafioned the learned to dif-
tinguifh their hiftory into four different ages;
marked by the like number of important epochs.
The firft age comprehends almoft 700 years,
from the foundation of the fmall kingdoms of
Greece to the fiege of Troy. To this period be:
longs the foundation of Athens, Lacedemon;
Thebes, Argos, Corinth and Sicyon ; the. atro-
cious aét of the Danaides, the Jabours of Her-
cules, and, in general, all the exploits of the firft
heroes of Greece, “Phe fevorid age includes 800
years, from the Trojan war to the battle of Ma»
rathon, The third age continued only 158
years: it begins with the battle of Marathon,
and ends with the death of Alexander. So many
accomplifhed philofophers, orators and generals,
never exifted upon the earth at the fame time, as
during this period. The fourth age was not
longer than the third; for, after the death of Alex-
ander, the Greeks began to decline, and at laft
became fubjeét to the dominion of the Romans,
-XXI. Here we are to diftinguith that which is
called Great Greece, which comprehends fome
adjacent countries alfo with Greece properly fo
called,
\
'
AncrenT HisTory. 113
called. It is very certain that never any country
fo fmall contained fo many kingdoms and re-
publics. They make the number amount to 49,
among which are fome whofe names are {carce
known. They are as follow: 1. Sicionia or Agi-
alia, 2. Leleg, 3. Meffina, 4. Athens; 5, Crete,
6.. Argos, 7. Lacedemon or Sparta, 8, Pelafgia,
g. Theffalia,. 10. Attica, 11. Phocis, 12. Lo-
cris, :3..Ozela, .14. Corinth, 15. Eleufina, 16.
Elis, 17. Pilus, 18. Arcadia, 19. Egina, 20.
Ithaca, 21. Cephalone, 22. Phthia, 23. Phocidia,
24. Ephyra, 25: A®oliay 26..Thebes, 27. Ca-
lita, 28, Aftolia, 29. Dolopa, 30. Oechalia, 31.
Mycenz, 32. Euboea, 33. Mynia, 34. Do-
ris, 35+ Phera, 36. Iola, 37. Trachina, 38.
Threfprocia, 39. Myrmidonia, 40. Salamine, 41.
Scyros, 42, Hyperia or Melite, 43. The. Vulca-
nian Ifes, 44. Megara, 45. Epirus, 46. Achaia,
47. lonia, 48. The Ifles of the A°gean Sea, and
49. Macedonia.
XXII. All thefe ftates in fact flourifhed in
Greece, and their united force refifted for a long
time the attacks of their common enemies, ef
pecially thofe of the Perfians, who were
often roughly treated by the Greeks.. We
muft not however form too grand an idea of all
thefe kingdoms and republics. They were for the
moft part towns only furrounded by a fmall
territory. The ftrength of the Greeks confifted
more in their courage and conduétt, than in the
extent of their country, which however was ex-
Vor. IIT: at. tremely
~~
in ae
114 Uwniversat ErupitTtion.
tremely populous. They who would apply to
the ftudy of the Grécian hiftory, fhould make it
their principal endeavour to learn the different
deftinies of Scionia, Argos, Arcadia, Sparta, A-
thens, Corinth, Thebes, Mycenz and Mefiene.
For it is there that they will find great models of
every kind, and they will there fee that the po-
liteft_ genius, and the profoundeft {cience may be
united in one people, with the moft noble and
amiable valour.
XXIII. The kingdom of Macedonia made,
as we have feen, part of Greece; its firft king
was Caranus, a native of Argina, and grandfon
of Hercules. This family reigned, in feventeen
generations, till the time of Alexander. Philip,
father of that celebrated hero, was an ambitious,
able, warlike prince, anda great politician. He
laid the foundation of that immenfe power which
his fon obtained by his numerous victories, and
which will render him renowned to the end of
time. The prophet Daniel compares him to a
winged leopard, and in fact he flew from con-
queft to conqueft; for in fix years and ten
months, he fubdued Thrace, Greece, Egypt, a
part of Arabia and Africa, Syria, Pamphylia,
the two Phrygias, Caria, Lydia, Paphlagonia,
Affyria, Sufiana, Drangiane, Arachofia, Gedra-
nia, Aria, Bactriana, Sogdiana, Parthia, Hyrcania,
Armenia, Perfia, Babylon, Mefopotamia, and
India. All thefe extenfive countries were ad-
“ded to Macedonia, and in the year of the
world
wi
. i,
7
Anecrent History. 15
world 3674; Alexander was declared king of
Afia ; when he made magnificent facrifices to his
gods, and diftributed to his friends, his riches, -
cities and provinces, ftill however referving to
himfelf the right of fovereignty. But he did
not enjoy thefe great profperities long, for on
May 22, 3681, he was taken off by a violent
fever, in the thirty third year of his age.
XXIV. After the death of Alexander, thofe
great men who had affifted in founding the Gre-
cian or Macedonian monarchy, were the firft to
overthrow and demolifh that coloffus. They
divided the whole monarchy into ten provinces,
whofe governors feemed to depend on four that
were principal; thefe were Ptolemy who had
Egypt; Seleucus, who reigned in Babylon and
Syria ; Caffander, to whom fell Macedonia and
Greece; and Antigonus, whofe portion was Afia
Minor. But this arrangement did not lait long,
for each of them aimed at independence; and at
length all the ftates, kingdoms, and provinces,
that compofed the fucceffion of Alexander, and.
were governed by his fucceffors, pafled, one after
the other, under the dominion of the Romans.
All thefe ftreams, great and fmall, at laft fell
into the ocean of the Roman monarchy, and
were there loft.
XXV. (6.) The hiftory of the Roman Monar-
chy. The annals of mankind prefent nothing
more grand than the Roman empire, as well
H 2 with
7
116 Universatr ERvupITIon.
with regard to its. power and extent, being in-
comparably more powerful and more extenfive
than any of the three former monarchies, as to
the great men of every kind which it produced.
To form.a juft and clear plan of this hiftory, we
muft take matters from their origin, and tranf-
port. ourfelves to the country of the Latins. This
country, the moft celebrated of Italy, took its
name from Jatendo, becaufe Saturn, chafed
from his kingdom by his fon Jupiter, came here
to. hide himfelf. The firft inhabitants of this
country were thofe called Aborigenes, the next
were the Egueans,-then the Aufonians, the Her-
nici, the. Latins, the Rutuleans, and the Volci-
ans. Latium is that country which is now. called
Campagna di,Roma, Before the foundation of
Rome, which became its capital, it was governs!
ed. by kings, of whom are recorded,
1. Picus the fon of Saturn,. the firft king of
thofe Latins called Aborigines, becaufe they
were; the original. people of the country. He
began his reign in the year of the world 2708,
and reigned 37 years.
2.,Faunus his fon reigned 44 years.
3. Latinus his fon reigned 34 years,
| 4, ZEneas, the foh of Venus, landed in Italy
after the taking of Troy, and married Lavinia the
daughter of king Latinus. He reigned after his
wiles father only three years. |
5. Afcanius, and fourteen other kings his fuc-
cellar, reigned in Latium till the time of Nu-
mitor
Ancrent History. 117
mitor and his brother Amulius, which was in
the year of the world 3249.
6. Romulus and Remus, who laid the foun-
dation of the city of Rome, and of a new em
pire.
XXVI. We may confider the Roman empire
as under feveral different {tates.
1. Under feven kings from Romulus to Tar-
quin the Proud, during 245 years.
‘2. As a republic under the confuls during 465
years, that is tothe year of the world 3960, when
_ Cafar began to make himfelf fovereign lord by
the deftruction of liberty. Numberlefs actions
of war and policy fignalized this period, and e-
fpecially the three Punic wars, that is, thofe
again{t Carthage.
3. Under Julius Cefar, who stormed with the
title of perpetual dictator and imperator, or ge-
neral of the army, He was affaffinated in the
midft of the fenate. Auguftus and Pompey
difputed the empire. Pompey fell. Auguftus
reigned, and took the title of emperor. Jefus
Chrift, the Saviour of the world, was born in Ju-
dza; with this ever memorable period ancient
hiftory ends. The hiftory of the middle age here
begins, and comprehends the remaining part of
the Roman monarchy, as we ‘hall fee in the fol-
lowing chapter.
XXVII. This is what we may, and ought na-
turally to comprehend under the idea of ancient
hiftory
* bet ata + Py 6ty — (s = 4 \>"-~ = Pere Te 7onY Law? Sree “Ss es a
; , bd os
118 Universat ErvupDITION.
hiftory. To render this fyftem however quite
complete, it is proper to obferve hete, that, inde-
pendent of the monarchies and empires which we
have here enumerated,there have been in the world,
during the firft forty centuries, fome other peo-
ple and ftates, who though they have not ar-
rived at that extreme power which conftitutes
empires of the firft magnitude, and though they
may not have produced events important enough
to attract the attention of all future ages, yet are
they notwithftanding worthy to be remembered,
though it were only on account of the intimate
connexion they have had with the four great
~monarchies ; and confequently the ftudy of their
hiftory becomes neceflary. Thefe people were,
In ASIA,
1. The Jdumeans or Edomites, who inhabited
the country of Seir, between Arabia, the gulph
of Perfia, and Judea. The principal cities
were Bozra and Petra. They united with the
Jews in the time of Hircan, and had the fame
fate with them.
2. The Arabians, defcended from Ifmael.
There is mention made of the kings of Arabia
in the latter hiftory of the Jews. In the reign of
Trajan they became tributary to the Romans,
but they regained their liberty, and at laft fub-
mitted to Mahomet in the year 625; from which
time their princes have been called caliphs, About
i rhe fame time a party of thefe Arabs paffed into
Africa,
,
AncrenTtT History. 119
: Africa, drove the Vandals from thence, and ef-
- tablifhed themfelves on the borders of Tunis.
3. The Armenians, whofe country was ancient-
ly a province of Perfia, and in that ftate fell
under the government of the Macedonians.
During the reign of Tigranes, the Armenians *
were conquered by the Romans, from which time
they were governed by petty princes, and at laft
fell under the dominion of the Parthians.
4. The Amazons, who dwelt, as is fuppofed,
in Cappadocia, and were originally Scythtans.
The firft queens, of whom they talk, lived in
the time of Adyftus of Argos. The latter of
them were conquered by Thefeus, and the re-
mains of this nation eftablifhed themfelves after
that time beyond the river Tanais.
5. The Carians, who inhabited Afia Minor,
and were anciently called Leleges. They were
for fome time fubject to Minos, king of Crete;
were afterward conquered by Cyrus, and at laft
fubmitted by degrees to the Ionians.
6. The Odrifes, a people of Thrace.
7. The Paphlagonians, who dwelt between the
Euxine fea and Galatia, and took their name
from Paphlagon fon of Phineas. They were
conquered fucceffively by Croefus, Cyrus, and
by the Romans, who, during the time of the em-
peror Dioclefian, incorporated that ftate with
the province of Pontus,
8. The kingdom of Pergamus, whofe laft king,
Attalus, left by his will his kingdom to the Ro-
mans,
g. The
Se ee
120 UniversArt Erxvupition.
. g. The kingdom of Bithynia,. ..
10. The kingdom of Cappadocia.
-11. The kingdom of Pontius, which nuded
with Mithridates.
_12. The. kingdom. of Armenia. - Thefe Sue
fmall kingdoms were fituate in Afia Minor. »
13, The kingdom of the Parthians, whofe
“ kings were. punish Arfacide. It finithed: 126
years before the vulgar era, after Artaban. IV.
was killed by the Perfians.
14. The kingdom of india, which sales its
name from the river Indus. Bacchus, they fay,
was the firft who conquered it; the kings of
Perfia'poffefied a portion of it till the time> of
Alexander... Since his death the Indians have
always had kings of their own, |
“In AFRICA:
XXVIII. (1) The Car thagintans.. were a Pa. |
ny of Phoenicians, who citablifhed themfelyes.
in the year of the world 3147, acquired a for-
midable power by their commerce, and poffefied
all the weftern coaft of Africa, They were re-
duced by the three Punic wars to a Roman pro-.
vince. :
2. The Cyreneans were a Grecian colony efta-
blifhed in Africa. 3 |
3. The Ethiopians: who though they had-al-.
ways their own kings, yet their hiftory is fo con-
nected with that of the Egyptians, as to make
them infeparable.
4. The
ini a iige ee BN:
a wae ee ae
AncrenT History. 124
4. The Numidians, who had always powerful
kings.. Mafiniffa and Jugurtha were formidable
to the Romans, who neverthelefs reduced this
kingdom at laft. to a Roman: province.
In EUROPE.
XXIX. (1) The Etru/cans in Italy, between the
Tiber and Appenine mountains. This country
was called Tuicia.. They are faid to have been
originally Lydians. The Gauls,.by their invafi-
ons, obliged them to change their ftation, and by
degrees they became fubjec& to the Romans.
2. The Jderians dwelt originally in Afia. One
of their colonies was eftablifhed on the coaft of
Spain, where they were oppofed, firft by the
Carthaginians, and afterwards by the Romans.
3- The Jiyrians, who inhabited thé country that
is now called Dalmatia, and fome other parts.
They had originally their own kings, but at
length fubmitted to the Roman yoke,
4. The Britavnic ifles, or the kingdom of
Albion. The firft kings of thefe ifles were Bri-
tons. Julius Czfar difcovered, as we may fay,
thefe iflands, and it was with much difficulty
that the Romans maintained their dominion
there.
5. The Gauls, Their country was divided
into Cifalpine and Tranfalpine. Czefar reduced
them to the Roman authority.
6. The Pannonians: who inhabited Hungary,
Dalmatia, and European Turkey. They formed
a powerful
oe) » = inal
Bos =" Pare! e 4 < 1 , e —
122 Universat ErnvopiTion.
a powerful nation, and were not reduced by the
Roman emperors till very late, and did not re-
main any long time under their dominion,
7. The Thracians. A rough and warlike peo-
ple, who inhabited the modern Romania; their
firft king was called Teres. This country was
fubdued by the fucceffors of Alexander. The
Gauls overrun it foon after : but they were drove
out by one Deuthes, whofe fucceffors reigned
tranquilly over this nation to the time of the em-
-peror Vefpafian.
XXX. Whoever fhall apply to the ftudy of an-
cient hiftory according to the plan here laid down,
we well hope, will be able to acquire a complete
knowledge of it, efpecially if they thall make a
judicious choice of the beft hiftorians and moft
faithful annals that are ftill remaining, of thefe
remote, and very frequently obfcure ages.
CHAP.
pT eee ea ee a ee ee Oc a
. , ak ao ae
—_— ee ee ea
ri aad ~ 4
— oe
History. 123
CHAP. .VI.
The HISTORY of the
MippLeE AGE.
I. S we do not find, in the writers of univer-
fal hiftory, the limits of that period, which
is comprehended under the term of Middle
Age, either diftinftly or uniformly marked, we
may be allowed to fix its bounds here, by two
of the grandeft epochs in all hiftory, fuch as
ftrike the mind and make the ftrongeft impreffion
on the memory, and form at the fame time fo na-
tural a divifion in hiftory, that the chronological
order of facts becomes thereby more clearly and
eafily conceived. We include therefore, in the
middle age, thofe eight centuries which paffed
between the birth of Chrift, and the re-eftablifh-
ment of the Weftern empire by Charlemagne ;
who was crowned emperor at Rome on Chritft-
mas day in the year 800, by pope Leo III.
If. Ac the birth of our Saviour, Auguftus, the
firft emperor that was acknowledged in that qua-
lity, and as fovereign, reigned over the Roman
monarchy, the whole earth being under his do-
minion, except China and thofe countries that
were cither unknown, or too diftant to be included,
or
een :
cs See pt as ee ee
124 Universat ErupitTion.
or inhabited by favage nations, or too inconfide-
rable to attract regard. All that was worth the
trouble of conquering, and all whofe hiftory is —
worth the trouble of tudying, was conquered,
and in fubjection to the Roman empire.. The
hiftory of all the nations of the earth, during the
middle age, is therefore included in the annals
of the Roman'monarchy: and when a people that
was unknown, as for example, the Vandals,
the Herulians, the Saracens, and others, ap-
peared upon the theatre of the world, and made .
invafions or conquetts. in the dominions of the —
empire; itis the bufinels of general hiftory to
explain the particular hiftory of fuch people, as
far as it is capable of explanation. For we cannot
avoid confeffing, that there reigns great obicurity
in the middle age, and that there are many
chafms in the hiftories of particular nations, who
were either in fubjection to the Roman cm nite
or at war with it.
Ill. The firft objects, that offer themfelves in
the hiftory of the middle age, are the Roman
monarchy under forty-feven emperors, from Au-
euftus to Theodofius the Great, who reigned
over the known world for 395 years; and the
tranflation of the feat of that immenfe empire
from Rome to Conftantinople. We then fee the
partition of that empire between the two fons of |
Theodofius, Arcadius and Honorius, and the:
eftablifhment of the two empires, the Eaftern
and the Weftern, which arofe from that diyifion.
We
| ve . ‘
~Aocrent History. 125
We learn, in the third place, the revolutions and
the events that occurred in that part of the world
Which’ belonged to. the empite of the Eaft, of
which Conftantinople was the feat, and Arcadius
the firftemperor:. and in the fourth place, we fee
all the revolutions and events that occurred in the
dominions: that made part of the Weftern em-
pire, of which Rome was the capital, and Hono-
rius the firft emperor. This feries of events con-
tinues, as we have faid, till, the time that Charle-
magne re-eftablifhed that empire, or rather
when he formed a new one out of the ruins of
the old. It will be-neceffary to give our readers
a more circumftantial account of thefe matters,
in order to enable them to form a clear idea of
the knowledge they fhould endeavour to acquire
of thehiftory of the middle age.
IV.. We have therefore to confider, in this
age of 800 years, firft, the Roman empire, un-
der the following fortyfeven emperors :
“ s 9
ae ae?
_ y. Auguftus, who reigned after the birthof Chrit 15.0 @
2. Tiberius, his adopted fon, who reigned . - 22 7 7
3. Caligula, fon of Germanicus, reigned = 3 9 28
4. Claudius, the fon of Drufus, : - 13 8 20
s5- Nero, his adopted fon : ~ - = 13°80
6. Galba, the fon of Servius Galba : - 0 6-7
7. Otho, the fon of Salvius Otho - - © 30
$. Vitellius, of an ob{cure family newer cui: 8. 2
9. Velpafian, the fon of Titus Flayius Sabinus 9g 6 2
10. Titus, the fon of Vefpafian . - 2 2.0
; | 11. De-
Te Le eS eT ee i . ' aay
» se”
-
126 UnNiversaLt ErvuDITION.
Y. M.D.
1r. Domitian reigned : - - 15 6 §
iz. Nerva, an old man, reigned only ~ I 49
13. Trajan, a Spaniard : - - 19 6 16
14. Adrian reigned - - - 20 1®@ 29,
15. Antoninus - - - i a
16. Marcus Aurelius - - - - 19 0 @
17. Commodus, the fon of Marcus Aurelius - 12 9 ©
18. Pertinax, the fon of a brickmaker “i Dy Be
19. Didius Julianus purchafed the empire, and
reigned but - - - 0 0 26
20. Severus, who died at York, after reigning 17°" S's
21. Caracalla and Geta fucceeded their father Se-
verus. Caracalla murdered his brother Geta
at the end of one year and 22 days, and
reigned, in all © - - 6s SE ee
zz. Macrinus reigned - - - 1 1 26
23. Heliogabalus - - = “3°79 4
24. Alexander Severus - - 13 9 @
25. Maximinus, of Thrace - -~ 297 @
26. Pupienus and Balbinus reigned fcarce - £00
27. Gordianus - «| "6 ao ag
28. Philip, with his fon Philip II. : - 5 0 0
29. Decius, furnamed Trajanus - - 2 0°
30. Gallus, with his fon Volufianus - 209
31. A milianus - - a. O Sian
32. Vallerianus and Gallienus - ene iS?
33. Gallienus reigned alone, after his father, - 8 © @
It was during this reign that the thirty
tyrants arofe.
34. Claudius II, called the Goth, reigned + 1 10 12
35- Aurelian reigned - . 6. GD) g
36. Tacitus - “ = ' a6) 26
37. Probus, the fon of a vilidanet - 6 4.0
38. Carus, with his two fons, Numerianus and
| Carinus, reigned altogether - - 2090
39. Dioclefian - - - 18000
; 40. Conftantius Chlorus, - o- jw at we
. 41. Conftantine, furnamed the Great, reigned 30 9 27
F He
k
‘ Ancrent History. 127
; | Y. M.D.
_ He transferred the feat of the empire to
Bizantium, and called it, after his own name,
Conftantinople. He alfo divided his empire
into two parts, the Eaft and the Weft. The
Eaft'comprehended Hungaria, Tranfilvania,
Valachia, Moldavia, Thrace, Macedonia, ay
Pontus, Afia, and Egypt. The Weft con-
tained Germany, Dalmatia, Sclavonia, Italy,
Gaul, England, Spain, and Africa.
42. Conftans, Conftantius, and-‘Conftantinus, di-
vided among them the empire of Conftantine
their father. This was a time of perpetual
troubles and commotions, which lafted about 24 o
43. Julian, furnamed the Apoftate, reigned but 1 8
44. Jovian, of Pannonia, reigned only *.0 72
45- Valentianus reigned - - I1 8
46. Gratian, his fon, divided the empire with Va-
lentianus I]. Gratian reigned \- - 16 0 6
And Valentianus reigned 16 y. § m. 24d.
47- Theodofius the Great reigned - . = 16..0 20
V. This firft period of the hiftory of the
middle age, under forty-feven Roman emperors,
includes therefore 395 years, and comprehends,
as we have faid, the hiftory of all nations, as all
known parts of the earth formed Roman pro-
vinces, or were at war with that people ; for their
luft of dominion led them to attempt the con-
ueft of every country they knew. Theodofius
divided the empire between his two fons. Ar-
cadius had that of the Eaft, and continued his
refidence at Conftantinople, as did his fucceffors.
This empire of the Eaft lafted 1058 years, under
feventyfix emperors, to the time of Conftantine
Palgologus, who perifhed at the taking of Con- °
ftantinople
eas. i.
1228 Universat ErvupiTIoNn.
ftantinople by Mahomet II. in the year 14533
after the death of whom, this formidable empire
paffed under the dominion of thie Ottomans.
This firft period of the hiftory of the Eaftern em-
pire defcends therefore fromy Arcadius to Nice-
phorus Logothata, the 29th emperor, who was
elected by the armiy after the death of Irene, in
the year 802 of the Chriftian era, and to that
period, this hiftory belongs to the middle age.
The fecond period begins with that emperor,
and ends with'the taking of Conftantinople. It
‘comprehends the fucceffive reigns of fortyeight
emperors, to Conftantine Palezologus, during
641 years. This laft period makes, properly,
part of modern hiftory, and may be. very well
ranged under that divifion. But that we may
not interrupt the regular feries, by being obliged —
to recur to it in the fucceeding chapter, which
will be otherwafe fufficiently long, -we fhall here
bring i it to a conclufion.
V1. The firft period of the hiftory of the
Eaftern empire, which belongs to the middle
age, comprehends therefore the following reigns;
Y. M. D.
1. Arcadius, who reigned - - 13-315 4
2. Theodofius II. - - - - 42 2 28
3. Marcian - - a 1@ 5 6h'O
Leo - 217 OR
* ct II. called the younger, rigned oly. 1 00
5. Zeno, of Ifauria, 17 0 °O
6. Anaftafius, of Dyrrachium or Dicorus - 27: aaa
7. Juftin . - © 23
im i le
Ancrent History. 12g.
Y. M.D.
> Jattinian, by whofe order was made the Ro-
man code, and ta whom the famous Belifa-
rius was general, reigned : + 38 7 13
g- Juftin I. called Curopalatis : - 10 10 20
20. Tiberius Conftantine . 2 2 610 $
t1. Matirice of ere . 7s 15
1z. Phocas - - a > 8.409
#3. Heraclius or 8 : - 30 10 ©
14. Conftanitine; hisfor = - - 04 90
#5. Heracleonas, the fecond fon of Heraclius os @
26. Conftans II. the fon of Conftantine - 17.6 @
37. Conftantine, called oo or Long- )
beard - | - i170 6
18. Juftinian HI. his fon - + 10 0 6
19. Leona, emprefs, reigned - - 30 06
20. Abfimarus Tiberius, whofe reign was one’
ie ow, troubles - - - 13.66
1. Philippicus Bardanes ‘3 <2 93
2. Anaftafius 2 - - a a a
ts TheodofiussIIE. fcaree ‘ + 10 6
24. Leo of Ifauria, called Ichonomachus = 2% 2 25
25. Conftantine V. furnamed Caproni + 34 2 26
26. Leo IV. his fon’ . a ee)
27.Conftantine VI. called Porphyrogsitmyand ee
28. Irena, his mother, reigned :
And hate finifhes the firft period of the hiftory
of the Eaftern empire, and the middle age, with
the year of our era 8or.
VII. The fecond period of this empire (which
makes part of modern hiftory) contains the fol-
lowing reigns :
Y. M. Dy
ag. Nicephorus Logit, who bom - 8¢e¢0
§0. Michel C tis o. 2 8-6
Vo., Hi "SS" yy. 31. Leo
130 Universart Ervpition):
Y. M. De
31. Leo of Armenia - - - 7 5
32. Michel IT. called the Stammerer - 89 o
33- Theophilus, his fon ~ 7 - IZ) 3°20
34- Michel III. fon of Theophilus $< 1 tg
35. Bafilius of Macedonia ios - 10 7
36. Leo VII. called the Philofopher - 25 0 06
37. Alexander, his brother, about - - (3 6 %@
«38. Conftantine VIL. Sa. amet reigned
near . . - 47 0 ©
39. Romanus Poripcadia: his fon oo ge ee ae
40. Nicephorus Phocas - - ot Gus ie
41. John Zimifces - . o) SPS
42. Bafilius and Conftantine, brothers, died one
after the other, having reigned more than 50 0 ©
43. Romanus reigned - ~- 5 6%
44 Michel of Paphlagonia = -, 6 °6 @&
45+ Michel Calaphatus reigned only te er eee
Zo€, the widow of Michel of Paphlagonia
affumed the government, and reigned, with
her fifter Theodora - . a ge
And then married.
46. Conftantine Monomachus, who eel with
» - Zo€ and Theodora - -' a2 oe
47. Theodora reigned after them, alone - 190
48. Michel the Warrior, an old man, reigned Io @
49- Haac Comnenus - - - ole © ,
so. Conftantine Ducas - a 7 6¢
1. Eudoxia, his widow, reigned with John, bro-
ther of Conftantine, and the three fons which
he had. by his wife, Michel, Andronicus, and
Conftantine, about. ~ - I 060 @©
52. Romanus Diogenes married Eudoxia, and
reigned - - ~ g§ 8 a2
$3. Michel Ducas - . - 6 6%
54. Nicephorus IT. - - - 3 6 °
55- Alexis Comnenus abe - 37 415
In his time, that is, atthe beginning of the
twelfthcentury, commenced the famous croi-
AncrentT History,
; ae
fades of the Occidental Chriftians againft the
Turks and Saracens, in the Eaft,
56. John Comneaus - -
$7- Manuel Comnents - : -
58. Alexis 11, his fon - ai sing
59- Andronicus Comnenus - -
60. Ihac, of the houfe of Angelus Comnenus
61. Alexis III. his brother A ip :
62. Alexis Mirtillus reigned only - ri
At this time there began to be two feats of
@ empire, one at Adrianopolis, by Theodorus
Lafcaris, and the other at Trebizond, by
Alexis Comnenus. ,
63 Baldwin, a Frenchman, made himfelf mafter
131
Y. M.D.
of Conftantinople, and was crowned emperor,” _
in the year 1204. But he reigned only
INTERREGNUM.
64. Henry, count of Flanders, brother of Bald-
win, fucceeded him, and reigned -
65. Peter de Courtenai, count of pray, ens
66. Robert, his fon
67. Baldwin II. the fon of Rébert, after reigning
was drove out of Conftantinople by Michel
~ Palsxologus, the tutor of John and Theodore
Ducas Ill. the fons of Theodore Ducas H.
who had reigned at Adrianopolis.
68. Michel peed made himfelf emperor,
~ and reigned - - -
6g. Andronicus II. his fon : -
yo Andronicus III. Palzologus
Jle dopa. V V. Palwologus reigned under the tute-
Mg hs VI. Cestecexenns, who ufurped the
whole authority, but at laft gave his daughter
in marriage to John, and, after having
reigned aM : .
I zee
3°
22
42
13
Nwoo°oM @®
“m OO 0°00 0 8
_
oot 0
eo0o 8
32 Universat Ervoitié6n
Be Y. M. Da
with his fon-in-law and pupil, was obliged »-
to abdicate, and turned monk, .
John V. feigned alone - SSR 8
93. Andronicus IV. Paleologus reigned a i2igabo .' 9’
74. Emanuel Palzologus ~ - “ 310.0
75. John VII. Palzologus - 27 0-@
76. Conftantine XIII, or, according to sidileas
XV. and laft emperor of Conftantinople, was
preffed to death amidft the multitude, at the
‘ taking of that city by Mahomet II, in the
year 1453, after having reigned about - 8 o @
VIII. It were to be wifhed that we could co-
ver with a thick veil the whole hiftory of the
Eaftern empire, and conceal from the eyes of
youth thofe horrors with which it is crowded
from beginning to end. All thefe emperors,
unworthy of fo.auguft a title, were either egre:
gious dolts, or execrabile villains; who acquired
he diadem, and maintained it, by the blackeft
treafons and murders. A ftream of blood flowed
inceffantly. Continual inftances of poifoning,
putting out of eyes, and other like horrors. » No
traces of genius or of virtue. This part of hit
_tory ought to be-made known merely to infpire
“a juft averfion to guilt : what is ftill. more, de-
slorable, all thefe’ crimes were committed under’
“the fhadow of religion, or rather fanaticifm and
fuperftition. We fhall fee im the *hiftory of the
ehurch, by what unlucky fchifm Chriftianity was,
fo to fay, torn afunder, and divided into the Greek
_and Latin-churches. © Conftantinople adopted
» Sewet , Sogo% phe
ee
“Ancient History, 133
‘ the dogmas and rites of the Greek church, and
Rome, the dogmas and rites of the Latin.
IX. They who would make a thorough ftudy
of the hiftory of the middle age,, thould there
include*the particular hiftories of fuch people as
were in fubjection to the Eaftern empire, or
againft whom its emperors waged war. ‘The
bounds of this work will not permit us to enter
into fo large a detail; but when, in the next
’ chapter on modern hiftory, we comé to treat of
the Ottoman empire, we fhall not forget to inform
our readers who thofe Turks were that took
Conftantinople under Mahomet II. and made it
the feat of their empire. It only remains here
to fay a few words on the kingdom of Jerufa-
lem, the emperors of Trebizond, and thofe of
Adrianopolis,
XX. The kingdom of Jerufalem continued
only 88 years, under nine kings ; that is, from
the year 1099, when the Chriftian army took
_ Jerufalem from the fultan of Egypt, to 1187,
when Saladin, fultan of Syria and Egypt, retook
it from the Chriftians, There reigned, during
that time, .
Y. M.D.
1. . Godfrey of Bouillon, fcarce - ot 6 ©
2. Baldwin fucceeded his brother, and reigned - 18 o o
3- Baldwin II. ficceeded his coufin, and reigned 12 0. ©
4- Foule, count of Anjou, married Beatrix, the
daughter of Baldwin II. and reigned *- If 096
' §. Baldwin III. who fucceeded his father - 28 Oo
6, Amau-
°
_g. Baldwin IV. the Leper, fucceeded his father 13 0
=. 2
334 Uwniversat Ervupirion.
Y. MD.
6. Amaurus, count of Afcalon, fucceeded his fa-
ther - - - 10
8. Baldwin V, reigned only ~ J
under the protection of
’ g- Guy of Lufignan, when the city of Jerufalem
was taken by aflault, 2 O&. 1187, and all
the Holy Land pafled into the hands of the
infidels,
XI. Colchis, or the province of Trebizond,
was. in the poffeflion of Alexis Comnenus, with
the title of principality, under the emperors of
Conftantinople, when the French took that capi-
tal, in the year 1204. Alexis, fecing Conftanti-
nople in the hands of the French, made himfelf
fovereign of Colchis, without however affuming
the title of emperor; nor did: the two princes
who fucceeded him. It was the fourth fovereign,
John Comnenus, who ufurped that title. Tre-
bezond therefore had nine emperors, who were,
1. John Comnenus; 2. Alexis Comnenus ; 3.
Bafil Comnenus; 4. Bafil Comnenus II. 5. N.
Comnenus, the natural fon of Bafil II. 6. Alexis
Comnenus II, 7. Alexander Comnenus; 8. John
Comnenus II. and g. David Comnenus, who fur-
rendered all Colchis to Mahomet II. a conqueror
- too powerful for him to withftand. Thus ended
the empire of Trebizond, after having lafted 257
years. ;
XII. The fmall empire of Adrianopolis was
founded in 1204, by Theodore Lafcaris, who
had
ee ee
Ancrzenr History. 135
had married Ann Comnenus, the daughter Of
‘Alexis Comnenus. It continued only 60 years,
under four emperors, who were,
~ ) Y. M. D.
1. Theodore Lafcaris, who reigned - - 18 © o
He married his daughter Irene to
2. John Ducas, who fucceeded him, and reigned 33 2 ©
3. Theodore II, fucceeded his father, and reigned 4 © ©
4+ John, his fon, fucceeded, and reigned one year
and fome months with his brother Theodore,
Michel Palzologus, their tutor, caufed them
to be murdered, and then joined the empire
of Adrianopolis to that of Conftantinople, of
which he had already made himfelf matter.
And thus we have given a flight {ketch of the
moft important eyents that popirhd 4 in the
Eaftern empire.
XIII. The fourth part of the hiftory of the
middle age comprehends the hiftory of the
Weftern empire, from the partition of the Roman
monarchy, that is, from the year 395, to the
year 800, of the Chriftian era; and in which we
diftinguifh the following epochs :
1. The emperors of the Welt, to the year 475.
Y. M.D.
1. Honorius, who died at Ravenna, after reigning 28 © o
z. Valentinian III. the fon of Conftantius, reigned 30 0 ©
Attila, king of the Huns, ravaged Italy:
the empire.of the Weft declined, and the im-
perial feat was almoft always, after this, at
Ravenna.
3. Maximus ufurped the empire ; but he was foon
cut in pieces by the Romans, and thrown -
into the Tiber; he reigned only ci Ole
Genferic,
#36 UNiyersat Ervpition.
Y. M. By,
Genferic, king of the Vandals, whom Eu- | ;
doxia, widow of Valentinian, had called
from Africa, entered Rome, and pillaged that
city for 15 days. ‘Fhe Weftern empire is dey
ftroyed. Africa is poffefled by the Vandals ;
Spain by the Vifigoths; Gaul by the Franks;
the Britith Ifles by the Pics, Englith, and
Saxons; and Italy by the Lombards. The
princes who fucceeded were rather pretenders *
to empire than emperors. However, we muft
not omit them.
A Avitus reigned ° a aN? geeg
5. Majorian eg - r £58
6. Severus - - - - 3 8 27
VE Anthemius - - > $5 2 28
8, Anicius, called Olibrius, reigned - ~- © 7 16
9- Glicerius abdicated, after he had reigned + 4 3 2f
10. Juliys Nepos reigned . - Pe
¥1- Romulus Auguftulus, fon of Oreftes, was the
Jaft Roman emperor that was acknowledged
at Rome ; he was difpoffefffed by Ordoacer, -
king of the Heruls, after having reigned only o 10, 5
The Wett was, after this, without emperors ;
for 324 years, that is, to the time of Charle-
magne, ‘Thus the ancient Roman empire,
that was fo formidable under the firft Au- . ye
guftus, was reduced to a mere fhadow of ex-
iftence under Auguftulus: this fovereignty,
which began very lowly under the firft Ro-
mulus, ended ftill more infignificantly under
the loft Romulus ; and was loft like a rive
let 1 that runs into the ocean, ;
-
" KIV, In order to have a juft conception’ of
the hiftory of the middle age in general, and of
that of the empire of the Wett during i its decline
and
— ———se SS Te ea ee ee
, :
Ancrent History. 137
and diffolution, in particular, it is indifpenfably
neceflary to acquire fome knowledge of thofe
ferocious people, who, in the fourth and fifth
centuries, over-ran all Europe, and penetrated
even into Africa. But as all thefe people were
barbarians, a kind of favages, without arts or
fcience, eyen ignorant of the ufe of letters, and’
who had always been in a manner vagabonds ©
upon the earth, without city or country, it is
evident that they could have no annals, and that
all we can fay of their origin and their hiftory
~ muft be a mere collection of conjectures. It js,
moreover, impoffible for us to enter here into a
the labyrinth of learned inquiries; we muft
therefore content ourfelves with giving the names
of thefe people, and merely informing our readers
of what they ought to inquire after in this part
of univerfal hiftory.
XV. The great and memorable migration of
people happened toward the clofe of the fourth,
and in the fifth centuries of the Chriftian era.
A numerous fwarm of unknown and barbarous
nations came, in part from the north, partly from
the Palus Mceotis, and partly from the Eaft, by
Hungary and Pannonia, and entered the pro-
vinces that formed the dominion of the empire,
Thefe people gravitating on each other, to ufe
the expreffion, conftantly impelled all that were
before them, till they at laft penetrated the
fouthern confines of Europe and Italy itelf;
where, meeting with a weak refiftance only, they
put
ae ee eS Se eee See ee
Re
338 UNiversat ErupitTion.
put an end to the fucceffion of Roman empe-
rors, and to their monarchy. ‘The principal of
thofe wandering and warlike people were,
1. The Vifigoths, who appeared under the
condutt of their king, Alaric.
2. The Oftrogoths, who became famous under
their king Theodoric, who conquered Italy, and
whofe defcendants pofleffed it for a long time.
3. The Vandals.
4. The Alains.
5. The Suevians.
6. The Heruleans, who were led by their king,
Odoacer.
7. The Huns, of whom Attila was chief.
8. The Longobards, or Lombards.
g. The Pitts.
10. The Scoti, or Scotch.
rz. The Slavi, or Efclavonians.
12. The Gepideans and Avarians.
All thefe people flocked, one after the other,
from the grand feminary of mankind, that is,
from the moft northern provinces of Europe,
and even of, Afia: as Norway, Sweden, Ruffia, -
and perhaps Siberia and Tartary alfo. The moft
part of the names they bore are analogous to the
modern low Saxon, or feem to be derived from
it. The Goths, for example, fignify, in that
language, Good people: the Quades, the Bad:
the Huns, Dogs: the Slavi, Slaves: the Lon-
gobards, perhaps Longbeards; and fo of the
reft. It is apparent, that the greateft part of
thefe:
a
; Ancient History. 1g
_thefe people came from thofe countries that make
_ part of Low Saxony.
XVI. All thefe people are frequently con-
_founded with each other in hiftory; and fre-
quently, alfo, the fame people was divided into
_ different governments, which had each a parti-
cular name. All this has produced a chaos very
difficult to be reduced into any order. The
greateft fatisfaction is, that ic is of very little im-
portance, to the prefent inhabitants of civilized
Europe, to know the particular hiftories of all
thefe barbarians; and that it is of no confequence
if we do fometimes err in thefe matters. But it
is not a matter fo infignificant to know the _hif-
tory of thofe who have made a confpicuous figure
in the world, who have either founded or :pof-
fefled grand fovereignties in Europe; and efpe-
cially thofé who fucceeded the emperors of the
Weft, and became poffeffed of the ruins of their
monarchy. It is with this view that we thal]
here treat of the hiftory of the empire of the
Welt, from the death of Romulus Auguttulus
to the time of Charlemagne: and when, in the
hiftory of empires, kingdoms, and other modern
ftates, we fhall have occafion to fpeak of their
origin and antiquities, we fhall endeavour to in-
veltigate the kind of eftablifhment that thefe
wandering people infticuted in each one of them
in particular.
XVII. It
“440 Universat Ervupition
XVII. It remains therefore to confider here
the ftate of the Weftern Roman empire under
nine kings ; one of the Heruleans, and eight of
the Oftrogoths ; during ninety-two years. Ac-
- cording to common opinion, the Goths came
from Scandinavia, a peninfula which is now in-
habited by the Swedes and Norwegians. After
having roved fome time on the borders of the
Baltic Sea, they paffed into Scythia, and efta-
blifhed themfelves along the borders of the Eux-
ine Sea. They who advanced the furtheft to-
wards the eaft were called Oftrogoths, that is,
Eaftern Goths ; and they who dwelt toward the
weft were named Wifigoths, or Weftern Goths.
In the year 476, all
Y. M. D,
- 1. Odoacer, king of the Heruleans, made himfelf’
matter of Rome, drove away Auguftulus, and.
called himfelf king of Italy. He reigned - 16 6 oO
_ 2. Theodoric, king of the Oftrogoths, retgnet - 33 6 0
3. Athalaric reigned . : - 8.00
4- Theodahat ° - . 2°64 °@
5- Witiges - - - "4° (89
During this reign Belifarius, general of the
emperor Juftinian, had well nigh drove all
the Goths out of Italy,
6. Theobald reigned — = .. 25 °
7. Alaric - - - es MO
8. Totila - - - 6 @ @
_g- Tejas, the laft king of ths Goths in Italy,
After having taken many cities during the
abfence of Belifarius, he made himfelf mafter
of Rome, and pillaged it for forty days ; i,
_ after reigning about - 10 ®&
He was vanquifhed by Narfes, whom the em-
peror
_— — ” te lilt ae al Pl eS ee ef
Ancient History. 140
> peror Juftinian had fent into Italy : and thus
_ ended the kingdom of the Oftrogoths. Italy
remained in pofleffion of the emperor of the
Eaft, and Narfes obtained the government ;
but the Romans fent great complaints to
Conftantinople, againft that eunuchy -Jufti-
"nian recalled him. in. anger; but, inftead of
obeying, he fent fecretly to Albion, king of
the Lombards, who’ paffed into Italy, and
there founded a kingdom that lafted till the
time of Charlemagne.
XVIII. The laft ftate of the Weftern em-
‘pire, in the middle age, comprehends therefore
the reigns of twenty-three Lombard’ kings, dur-
ing 205. years. The Lombards were alfo a
northern people, who firft eftablifhed themfelves
on the fouthern borders of the Baltic Sea, and
advancing by degrees more toward the fouth, at
laft penetrated Italy, and thete founded their
kingdom in Cifalpine Gaul; which was after
named Lombardy.
MED.
4 Albion entered Italy, and there reigned” © = 3°6 ©
Juttin, emperor of the Eaft, fept Longin to
Ravenna, as his exarch.
“w
b
‘a. Celphis reigned - ~ Pp 2
| After his death there was an ncregman,
which lafted : - -Yo 0 o
3. Antarit_ reigned - . -"*5 6-0
4 Agilulf - 1 -26 00
‘5, Adelwald reigned alone, after his father - 9 2.0
6. Ariowald reigned - ~_,* 12 @-0
“q. Rotharis |. + 4), - 16 4 90
»@eRodoald « 8 - = 6-0'0
9. Ari-
#42 Universat Ertprrion.
Y. M.D,
9- Aribert - + « - 2060¢6
10. Gondebert, and his brother
11. Berthier, reigned, together, only “ °
12. Grimoald - - 2 Bd 6
13. Garibaud, his fon . a & 3 ©
Berthier returned to Pavia, where he was
again acknowledged as king, and reigned - 18 © ©
14. Cunibert reigned, after his father Berthier 12 0 ©
15. Luitbert, his fon, reigned only - ©0 80
16. Racombert, duke of Turin, reigned alo - 0 3 9
x7. Aribert II. reigned - - 8-0 ©
18. Aufprand died-at the end of - - © 3 6
19- Luitprand, his fon, reigned - | ae ee
20. Hildebrand, his grandfon, only a Yee: iv
zi. Rachis - . ~- $5 6 0
22. Aftulf - - - 6 0 ©
23. Didier, duke of Etruria, reigned -i7 © @
He was‘conquered in the year 781 by Char- ;
lemagne, and the kingdom of the Lombards
ended with him, ;
XIX. After Narfes had revolted, and while
Albion was bufied in founding the kingdom of
the Lombards, the emperor of the Eaft, Juftin II.
fent Longin to Ravenna, to endeavour to efta-
blith his affairs in Italy, and to promote his in-
“tereft: But Longin made himfelf duke of Ra-
_venna, and affumed the title of Ewarch, by which
ais meant, without fuperior. They commonly
oreckon fixteen exarchs, who reigned at Ravenria
oduring 184 years, to the time of Aftulf, the laft
“king but one of the Lombards, who took that
city, and put an énd to the exarchy. Thefe ex-
archs
Le. ee ee ee
Ancrent History. 49 .
archs (whom fome alfo name vicars, or prefects)
were,
P ¥.MD.
1. Login, who governed - -15 00
2. Smaragdus - - - 3009
3. Romanus - - ~ -II 0 o
4: Callenic, . - - - 4.00
Smaragdus, in his age, gs again - 900
5. John Remiges *- 460
6. Eleuthera [My - - 300
7- Ifaacius - - - - 23 0 0
$. Theodore Calliopas - ot ae}
9. Olympius ” : . 3 °0
Theodore ee ae is re-ftablifed, and gor
verns - 34 : ° oO
10. Theodofius, or Theodore, governed - ©. 6.0
11. John Platini, or Platon - nk . O
32. Theophilactus > : “ - $8 06 o
13- John Rifocop, or st ot: - ‘ 225-68
14. Scholafticus . * -312 oF o
15. Paulus .s - ° «2 @: ©
26. Eutichius, the latt exarch ~ "244 0 ©
Who, after he was drove from Ravenna, re-
tired to Conftantinople.
XX. In proportion as the Roman empire in
the Faft, and more efpecially in the Weft, de-
clined, there arofe in the world, but principally
an Europe, feveral kingdoms and other inde-
pendant ftates, the revolutions of which belong
to the hiftory of the middle age. Thus, in the
year 420, Pharamond reigned as king in France.
In the year 408 the Goth and Vandal kings
reigned in Spain, and fo of the reft. But as
thefe eftablifhments include the origin of thofe
MQ:
‘se -" 7
144 Universan Erupitriow
imoharchies and ftates which now exift, it is more
éligible to make the account of them precedé
the hiftories of modern nations, in order to pre=
vent any interruption in the feries of thofe hifto-
ries, and all embarrafiment in the ftudy of them.
The next chapter, therefore, will contain all
that relates to this matter.in the middle age.
XXI. But as the kings of the Vandals in
Africa had, in the fifth ahd fixth centuries,
much concern 1m the affairs of Italy, and as their
empire difappeared before the end of the middle
age, fo that we fhall have no further occafion to
mention them, it appears neceffary to give the
chronology of the kings of that nation in this
place. The kingdom of the Vandals in Africa
dafted 108 years, under fix kings, who were,
. oT MB.
1. Genferic; king of the Vandals, who founded
that kingdom in the year 427, afd reigned - 48 0 ©
2. Huneric, fon-in-law of Valentinian III. fuc-
ceeded his father, and reigned ‘ -:8 © Oo
3. Gondebaut, the grandfon of Huneric, reigned 11 0 o
4: Trafimond fucceeded her brother, and reigned 26 0
5. Hilderic reigned - - 8 6
6. Gilimer was put in the place of Hilderic, who
had been unjuftly septa. of the throne. He
reigned ” =. - 9 © @
And was vanquifhed by Belifarius, in the year
534. And thus ended the kingdom of the
Vandals.
Here we fhall conclude our fketch of the hif-
tory of the middle age : very happily, if we have
. iy
ital ae teal oa oe
Mopern History. 145
in any degree difperfed that thick darknefs with
which it is furrounded ; and have given a regu-
Jar and clear plan, at leaft, by which if may be
fuccefsfully fludied.
AD e PAR FAR # PARRA
CHAP. Vil.
MODERN HISTORY.
HARLEMAGNE appeared upon the
earth. He was the fon of Pepin, mayor
of the palace of Childeric III. and the laft king
of France, of the Merovingian family. In the
year 751, Pepin himfelf was made king, and
died in >68. Charles was born in 741, Hewas
of German extraction, of the nation called
Francs, and was born in Germany. He efta-
blithed the feat of the empire he founded at Aix-
Ja-Chapelle: he and his courtiers {poke German;
and the public acts were wrote in German. He
fubdued the other tribes of his nation, converted
them to Chriftianity, and taught them to read
and write their native language. When he came
to the throne of F rance, in the year 768, Con-
ftantine V. was emperor of the Eaft, and, after
Vou, UI, K him,
146 UNIVERSAL ErvpiITION.
him, Leo IV, Conftantine VI. the emprefs Irene,
and Nicephorus. Italy was in the power of
Aftulf, king of the Lombards. Stephen IV. and,
after him, "Adtian I. and Leo III. were popes.
Germany contained many nations that were but
little civilized: Wittekind was chief of the
Saxons. Winceflaus, and, after him, Crzezonifle,
reigned in Bohemia. Gotric, or Sigefroi, was
king of Denmark. Biorno III. and, after him,
Alaric III. reigned in Sweden. Lefcus I. was
duke of Poland. The Saxons were mafters of
England, and had there eftablifhed feveral fmall
kingdoms, which were united. in 801 under Eg-
bert, firft fole king of that country. Fergus,
and, after him, Solvathius, Achaius, and Congal-
lus, reigned in Scotland. Aurelius, and, after
him, Silon, Mauregat, Veremond, and Alphonfo
the Chafte, reigned in the Auftrias and the king-
dom of Leon. The reft of Europe was entirely
~ barbarous ; and what they called civilized was
not much better. Such was the ftate of Europe
when Charlemagne, by the death of his father,
became king of France. But this hero foon made
new’ acquifitions, bearing in one hand the fword,
and in the other the promifes of the gofpel. By
the extinction of the kingdom of the Lombards
in 773, he got poffeffion of all Italy. By con-
quering the Saxons, and by converting them to
Chriftianity, he became mafter of all Germany.
- By the election of the Roman people in 800, he
- obtained the empire of the Welt, with the title
‘of Empétot’; and a fhort time before his death,
. HT di ; : 4 “in
~~
eee eee ae
MopEeRN Aistory, ¥47
in 809, was very near adding: to his vaft domi-
nions the kingdom of Spain, -
Il. It is therefore with the advancement of this
monarch to the imperial dignity, with the re-efta-
blifhment of the empire of the Weft, in the firft
year of the ninth century, that commences what
is called Modern Hiftory. The face of Europe
was changed. It became at once, Chriftian
and civilized. It was then that modern king
doms, republics, and ftates, were either founded,
or acquired their true confiftence. This laft
age of the world, down to the prefent day, con-
tains 965 years. The means by. which the Di-
vine Providence thought proper to civilize Eu-
rope, and, almoft all the other nations. of the
known earth, during that period; the fucceffive
progrefs of the arts and, iciences ; the ufeful in-
ventions of every kind ; the degree. of perfec-
tion to which manufactures and commerce have
been carried ; the difcovery of a new world; the
eftablifhment of pofts and public banks, and of
every kind of intercourfe between mankind; the
improvement of navigation, and a thoufand like
objects, require as much to be clearly invefti-
gated and explained in modern hiftory, as do the
politics of kings, the ftratagems of minifters, the
exploits of heroes, and the revolutions of king-
doms.. It is therefore our bufinefs here to pre-
fent our readers with a clew to this labyrinth, but
we truft they will not expect that we fhould con-
duc them thro’ all its minute windingsand recefles,
K 2 by
et = eee
rr a”
1448 Universat ErvupiTion.
by entering into a defcription of thofe {mall
ftates that may be called miniatures of govern-
ment. We fhall therefore confine ourfelves to
an inquiry into the ftate of the following na-
tions. .
II. L. The new Empire of the Weft, called the
Holy Roman Empire. 1. Before the interreg-
num: 2. During the interregnum: And, 3, Af-
ter the interregnum.
Before the Interregnum.
1. Under nine Carolovinian emperors, or thofe
who were the defcendants of Charlemagne ;
to wit, 1. Charlemagne; 2. Lewis I. the De-
bonnaire; 3. Lothario; 4. LewisII. 5.Charles
the Bald; 6. Lewis II. the Stammerer; 7. '
Charles the Grofs; 8. Arnold; 9, Lewis IV.
called the Child, who died without an heir in
the year - - - = giz
2. Under fix Saxon Emperors : that is, 1. Con-
rad I. Duke of Franconia. 2. Henry I. cal-
led the Fowler. 3. Otho I. called the Great,
4. Ocho Ii. refufed. 5. Otho IIL. called the
Marvellous. 6. Henry II. furnamed the Saint,
who died in the year a 1024.
3. Under five Franconian Emperors, who were
1, Conrad If. the Salic. 2. Henry MI. the:
Black. 3. Henry 1V. 4. Henry V. 5. Lo-
thario, who died in — y 137
4. Under
Moverwn Hrsrory. 149
4. Under fix Suabean Emperors, to wit, 1. Con-
rad IVI. of Suabia. 2. Frederic Barbaroffa.
3. Henry VI. called the Severe. 4. Philip.
5. Otho IV. 6. Frederic II. who was poifon-
ed in the year — —_ 1250
During the Interregnum,
This was a time of trouble and confufion that
lafted twenty-three years ; and during which, 1.
Henry Rafpo of Thuringia. 2. Conrad IV. of
Suabia. 3. William, Count of Holland. 4.
RichardI. King of England. 5. Alphonfo X. of
Spain: and, 6. Ottocar of Bohemia, were eleét-
ed by different factions; or pretended to the’ em-
pire, and endeavoured to attain it, either by ca-
bals, or by force of arms; whilft Conradin,
Charles of Anjou, Mainfroi, and the Popes, ex-
cited a thoufand troubles in Italy. This inter-.
regnum at laft ended in the year 1273
After the Interregnum.
1. Under twelve Emperors of divers houfes,
_chofe by the electors, r. Rodolph, Count of
Hapfbourg. 2. Adolph, Count of Naffau.
3. Albert of Autftria, called the One-eyed. 4.
Henry VII. Count of Luxembourg. 5. Lewis
V. of Bavaria. 6. Frederic III. of Auftria, cal-
led the Handfome, who difputed the empire
with him, abd, after the death of Lewis, Ed-
ward III. King of England; Frederic theSevere,
Mar-
ro UniversAat EruDITION.
Margrave of Mifnia; and Gunter, Count of
Schwartzbourg, were elected emperors, without
' being able to get poffeffion of that dignity,
which fell at laft on, 7. Charles IV. of Bohe-
mia. 8. Winceflaus, King of Bohemia. 9.
Frederic of Brunfwic. .10. Robert of Bava-
ria. 11. Jocelin of Moravia: and, 12. Si-
gifmond, fon of the .Emperor Charles IV.
King of Hungary, who died in - - 1437
2. Under thirteen.Emperors chofe by eleéctors
from the houfe of Auftria; to wit, 1. Albert
IL. 2. Frederic IV. 3. Maximilian I. 4,
Charles V. 5. Ferdinand I... 6. Maximilian
Il. 7. Rodolph II. 8. Matthias. 9, Fer-
_dinand II. 10. Ferdinand Il. 11. Leopold.
12+ Jofeph: and, 13- Charles VI..who died
in 1740
3. Under, the Emperor Charles VII. Elector of
Bavaria, who died in | 7 1744.
4. Under the Emperor Francis I, Duke of Lorrain,
and Grand Duke of Tufcany, who died in 1765
IV. JI, The empire of the Eaft, poffeffed by
the Sultans, or Turkifp Emperors, , or the Ot-
_toman Porte. ‘This hiftory divides itfelf natu-
rally into two parts, In the firft we are. to in-
veltigate the origin of the Turks or Ottomans; _
_ and the fate of that people till the time of Ma-
homet II- who took Conftantinople,. and. there
fixed the feat of his dominion. In the fe- —
cond we are to bring the hiftory of the Ottoman
2 i empire,
Movern History. 161
2
empire, from Mahomet If. down to. the prefent
time,
In the firft part we thall fee, that.. she Arabs
or Saracens, who were a people defcended from
Ifhmael the fon of Abraham and-_of Hagar,
inhabited the country which is calledArabia,
from the word Araba,. which fignifies. folitude..
Thefe Arabs are alfo fometimes called Ifmmael-
ites, fometimes Agarenians, and fometimes Sar-
razins, from the word Saraz, which fignifies to,
fteal; becaufe this people traverfed: the country
in order to rob on the highways, . In 571 the
falfe prophet Mahomet was born among-them,
and taught them a new religion, which théy fol-
lowed, as we fhall fee in the néxXt: chapter,
Mahomet, who was at once a prophet, a legifla-
tor, and a conqueror, made himfelf fovereign of
the Saracens or Arabs. The fuccefiors of
Mahomet bore the title of Caliph$. About a
hundred years after the death of Mahomet, a
people of Scythia, . named Turks, came by. the
Cafpian Sea, paft Mount Caucafus, and. efta-
blifhed themfelves in that country, which is now
called Georgia, Turcomania and Diarbeck, The
Saracens at firft waged war with .thefe. new
comers; but about the middle of the eighth
century they made peace, and incorporated with
them, on condition that the Turks fhould em-
brace the Mahometan religion, and join. with
them in fighting againft the Chriftians, who were
come to moleft them, even in Afia, The word
Turk fignifies a fhepherd of peafant, It has ef-
faced
Fise UniaverrsAr Ervopittow
faced that of Saracen and Arab. Thefe two
people therefore united, formed only one nation;
and gave themfelves the title of Muffulmans, or
true believers‘ The Caliphs, fucceffors of Ma-
homet, extended their dominions on every fide-
1, Ottoman, whofe origi and time of birth is
uncertain, made himfelf mafter of the power
and territories of all thé other Caliphs and Sol-
dans who then reigned in the Eaft: he laid the
foundation of that empire, which is called Og-
toman, from his hame, and took the title of Sul-
tan. This happened in the year 1303. His
fucceffors were, z. Orchan: 3. Amurath: 4.
Bajazet: 5. Izazebel : 6. Solyman : 7. Mofes:
8. Mahomet: 9g. Amurath II. 16. and laftly,
Mahomet IE. | '
V. In the fecond part of the hiftory of the
Ottoman empire, we fee Mahomet IT. overthrow
the empire of the Greeks in the Eaft, make hime
felf mafter of Conftantinople, and there eftablith
the feat of his monarchy, and take to. himfelf
the title of Emperor and Grand Seignior. . This
great event happened on the 29th of May, in the
year 1453. The fucceffors of Mahomet II. were,
1. Bajazet II. 2. Selim: 3. Solyman If 4. Se-
lim I. 5. Amurath HIT. 6. Mahomet III. 9
Achmet : 8. Muftapha: 9. Ofman: 10 Amu-
rath IV. 11. Ibrahim : i2, Mahomet IV. 13.
Solyman III. 14. Achmet II. 15. Maftapha IT.
16. Achmet III, 17. Maftapha III. which makes
in all, from the firft period to Mahomet II. ten
Sul-
Movern History. 153
Sultans : and in the fecond period, from Maho-
met IJ. to our days, feventeen emperors or
Grand Seigniors.
VI. After having thus brought down the hifto-
ty of the two grand empires of the Eaft and
Welt, to our own days, we may ftudy to advan-
tage the hiftory of all other empires, kingdoms,
republics, and modern ftates, by following
the geographic order in which they prefent them-
felves to us in the map of Europe; beginning
with the weft, and advancing toward the eaft, till
we come to Afia, Africa, and even to America,
that we may learn the hiftories of the people who
at this day inhabit thofe parts of the world. And
in this manner we begin with learning,
VII. IZ. The biftory of Portugal; which is
divided into the following epochs: 1. The ori-
gin of the Luficanians ; the defcription of an-
cient Lufitania, and of its inhabitants. 2. The
firft part of the hiftory of the Lufitanians, to the
year of Rome 607. 3. Their itate and conduc
under the Roman government, from the year of
Rome 607 to the year of Jeius Chrift 395. 4.
The manner in which that country was invaded °
by the northern barbarians ; and what paffed to
the year of Jefus Chrift $00. 5. The fate of
Lufitania during modern times, to the year 1075,
6. The government of the Moors in Portugal,
7. The erection of Portugal into a county ; and
the reigns of Henry and Alphonfo Henriquez,
8. The erection of Portugal into a kingdem;
and
154 Universat Eruption.
and the reigns of Alphonfo I. called Henriquez,
SanchoI. and Alphonfo II. 9. The reigns of
Sancho II. called Capel, Alphonfo III. Dennis,
Alphonfo IV.. Don Pedro, and_ Ferdinand, .to
the year 1383. 10. The interregnum. 11. The
reigns of Don John I, Edward, Alphonfo V.
Don John JI. Emanuel, called the Great, Don
John III. Sebaftian, and Cardinal Henry, to the
year 1580. 12. The reign of Philip II. King
of Spain, who became King of Portugal. 13.
The affairs of the Indies under the three laft
Kings, Sebaftian, Henry, and Philip II. to the
year 1640. .14. The reign of Philip IV.. and
the revolution in favour of the Duke of Bragan-
za, who was proclaimed King by the name of
Don JohnIV. 15. The confequence of this re-
volution, and the wars of the Portugueze againf{t
Spain, to the year 1656, . 16. The reign of Al-
phonfo VI. and the further confequenee of the
wars againft Spain ; the depofition of this Prince,
and the advancement of Don Pedro his brother
to the crown of Portugal ; the reign of John V.
and laftly, the reign of JofephI. the prefent
King of Portugal.
VU. VI. The hiftory of Spain, which contains
the following epochs.
1. The ancient hiftory of Spain, in part ob-
fcure and fabulous, from Japhet and Tubal to
the eighth century after the birth of Chrift, when
the Saracens penetrated into Spain. This pe-
riod
Movrrn History. 155
riod includes about 2862 years, and is divided
into three memorable epochs; which are, |
That which pafied in Spain before the Ro-
mans :
That which was under the Romans: and
The fate of Spain after the Romans.
2. The middle hiftory of Spain; which con-
tains what paffed from the invafion of. the Sa-
_ Facens and the Moors, to the time of their en-
tire expulfion : a period that comprehends about
779 years; and during which many Barbarian
and Chriftian Kings reigned over divers pro-
vinces of Spain ; and who formed the kingdoms
of Caftile, Leon, Navarre, Arragon, and Portu-
gal, befide that of the Saracens ; and this comes
down to the year of Jefus Chrift 1474.
3. The modern hiftory of Spain; which be-
gins with the-reign of Ferdinand the Catholic,
who united under his {ceptre all the kingdoms,
provinces and colonies belonging to Spain, and
formed of them one powerful monarchy. This
laft period, which includes 291 years, to the
year 1765, contains the remarkable reigns of,
». Ferdinand V. called the Catholic: 2. The fix
Kings of the houfe of Auftria; to wit, Philip I. .
called the Fair, fon of the Emperor Maximilian I.
3. Charles V,. Emperor: 4. Philip I. 5. Phi-
lip II. . 6. Philip IV. 7. Charles IL. and three
Kings of the -houfe of France’; that is, 8. Phi-
ip V. g. Ferdinand VII. and 10, Charles III.
In this laft period due attention alfo fhould be
had
56 Universat ErubDiTiox.
had to the manner in which feveral provinces of
Africa, in Italy and the Low Countries, &c.
have been united to the Spanifh monarchy : and
likewife the manner in which America was dif-
covered, and reduced, under the reigns of three
Spanith Kings ; and many other very remark-
able events.
IX. V. The biftory of France. Thofe hiftorians
who fuppofe with M. Mezerai, that the Romans
firft gave the name of Gaul to that large tract
of land which lies between theAlps, the Pyrenees,
the Mediterranean Sea, the Ocean and the Rhine,
feem to have lefs foundation for their opinion,
than they who maintain that this extenfive and
pleafant country was very populous in the firft
ages of the world, as appears by the moft anci-
ent monuments ; that thefe people had probably
a name before the exiftence of the Romans, and
that they called themfelves Galli; and, that be-
Ing too numerous for their own country, they
pafied the Alps at the beginning of the Roman
republic, and occupied a part of Italy, which
was called Cifalpine Gaul; that they: extended
their colonies even to Afia, where they inhabited
a country called Galatia, which is the name the
- Greeks. gave to Gaul; and that other detach-
ments of this nation advanced into Germany,
beyond the Rhine. Be thefe matters however
as they may, the hiftory of France may be di-
vided into feveral periods; the principal of
which are characterized by events that are im-
. portant,
Mopvern Hisrory. 157
portant, and proper to affift the mind of thofe
who make ic their ftudy.
X. The firft period comprehends the hiftory
of ancient Gaul, to the time that Julius Ceefar
finifhed the conqueft of that country, about
forty-eight years before the birth of Canft.
The fecond period contains the time that
Gaul was under 'the dominion of the Romans,
till the Francs entered that country, and there
eftablifhed their refidence ; which includes about
400 years.
The third period, which begins about the
year of Jefus Chrift 412, contains the govern-
ment of the Francs in Gaul; and goes only to
the year 420, From that period the kingdom
of France has been governed by kings that have
fprung from grand houfes, which they call Ra-
ces; and of which there are five that form fo
many diftinét and confpicuous divifions in the
hiftory of this illuftrious monarchy,
The fourth period, therefore, contains the
hiftory.of France, under twelve Kings of the Me-
rovingian race, from Pharamond the firft King;
that is, from the year 420 to 752; when Chil-
deric III. after the death of Charles Martel, was
depofed by the States, and Pepin eleéted in his
ftead. This period comprehends ‘332 years,
The firft period makes part of ancient hiftory ;
the fecond, third, and fourth belong to the mid-
die age; the fifth, and all that follow, appertain
to modern hiftory. |
The
—s i A tt
58 Universant ErvupDiITIon.,
The fifth period contains the hiftory of thir-
teen Kings of the Carolovinian race, from Pepin.
the Short to Lewis V. called the Drone; that
is, from the year 752 to 987: making 235
years,
The fixth period includes the reigns of fourteen
Kings of the Capetian race, from Hugh Capet
to Charles IV. called the Fair ; that is, from
987 to 1328: being 341 years,
‘The feventh period contains the reign of
twelve Kings of the Valefian race, or of the
houfe of Valois; from Philip VI. of Valois
to Henry III. that is, from the year 1328
to 1589: including 261 years.
The eighth period. contains the reigns of four
Kings, of the race or houfe of Bourbon, from
Henry IV. called the Great to Lewis XV. named
the Well-beloved ; that is, from the year 1592
to the prefent year 1765 : comprehending 163
years.
XI. After having acquired a fufficient know-
ledge of the kingdom of France, it is proper
to be acquainted, with,
VI. The biftory. of the Kings of Bourgogne,
as it is not only intimately connected with that
of France, but alfo throws great light on thofe
of Germany, Spain, the Low Countries, &c.
And here we muft carefully diftinguifh, (1.) the
. Kings of the firft kingdom of Bourgogne, and
retaeeaioer that when the Vandals, Suavians, and
Alains, quitting Germany, pafied theRhine, and,
entered
oer ea
MopERN History. 159
entered Gaul, the Bourgognians, being amon eft
them, fixed themfelves near the Rhine, ni
founded a kingdom that lafted 128 years ; that
is, from the year 406 to 534. Their govern-
ment comprehended, toward the clofe of it, the
Dutchy of Bourgogne, Franch County, Dauphi-
ny, and Sayoy; under five Kings, named, 1.
Gondicair: 2. Gonderic and Chilperic, who
were brothers: 3. Gondebaut, Godegifel, Chil-
peric, and Gondemer ; likewife brothers 4. ‘Si-
gifmond’; and, 5. Gondemer, who, was deprived
of his kingdom by the fucceffors of Clodomire
King of France ; and his dominions united to
thofe of that kingdom. (2.) The Kings of Bour-
gogneTransjurane: ‘and we muft here remember,
‘that about the year 888, after the depofition of
the Emperor Charles the Grofs, Raoul or Ro-
dolph, fon of the younger Conrad, and grand-
fon of Hugh, poffeffed the country between
Mount Jou and the Alps; that is to fay, as A
and Switzerland; and was. crowned King. of
BourgogneTransjurane at St. Maurice in Valois.
This kingdom lafted 145 years, under four
Kings: who were, 1. Raoul : 2. Raoul Il. 3.
Conrad: and, 4. Raoul III, called the Drone.
Conrad had united to his kingdom that of Arles;
and Raoul III. having no family, left dll his
rich pofleffions to Conrod Il. called the) Salic :
fo that after his death this kingdom palfed to
the Emperors, who fucceeded Conrad, and.made
a part of the Germanic empire. (3.) The Kings
of Arles or Provence. Lewis the Stammerer,
King
160 UNniversabt EruDITION.
King of France, dying, and leaving only princes
that were quite young, Bofon, brother to Queen
Richilde, wife of Charles the Bald, founded the
kingdom of Arles (regnum Arelatenfe) and of
which he made himfelt King. This kingdom
was furrounded by the Soana, the Rhone, and
the Alps. It cannot be properly faid to have
exifted more than 53 years; and had only two
Kings, which were, Bofon, who was crowned at
Vienna by the Archbifhop of Lions ;, and, 2.
Lewis, fon of Bofon, whom Berenger took pri-
foner in Veronne, and whofe eyes he put out.
Lewis the Blind reigned, notwithftanding, forty-
three years, and left a fon named Charles Con-
ftantine. But as he was too young to reign,
the Provencals elected Hugh King of Italy, to
be King of Arles. There were great conten-
tions between this Hugh and Raoul Il. King
of Bourgogne : but by the interpofition of friends
they were reconciled. Raoul renounced his pre-
tenfions to the kingdom of Italy ; and Hugh,
in return, ceded to him all he poffeffed in
Brefie, Viennois and Provence, and even the
title of King of Arles; which kingdom was
therefore united to that of Bourgogne Tranf-
jurane. Be
XII. And here we fhould alfo ftudy,
VII. The biftory of the Dukes of Lorrain, the
Dukes of Normandy, Princes of Orange, &c.
but we muft content ourfelves with the bare
mention of thefe, without making their analyfis,
that
aa
Movern HisTory:. rey
that we may not extend this chapter beyond its
due bounds. We therefore pafs directly to,
XILI. VII. The Hiftory of Switzerland, or the
Thirteen Cantons. The people that are now cal-
led Swifs, were anciently called Helvetians. A-
bout fiftyfix years before the birth of Chrift,
they made an invafion upon Gaul; but the Gauls
calling the Romans to their affiftance, thefe not
only drove out the Helvetians, but brought
them alfo entirely under the dominion of the fe-
nate dnd people of Rome. The capital of their
country was called Aventicum, a {mall town that
is now called Wifflisburg. The moft remark-
able periods in the hiftory of the Swifs, befide
the aforementioned epoch, are,
1. The time the Helvetians were in fubjection _
to the Romans. .
2. The time that the greateft part of Switzer-
land paffed under the power of the ancient Kings
of Bourgogne (fee fect. XI).
3. The time when, after the extinction of the
kings of Bourgogne, Switzerland became a pro-
vince of France.
4. The time when Switzerland was annexed
to the kingdom of Lothair (regnum Lotharingia,
or Lorrain).
5. The time when it made a province of the
the empire of Germany, after the diffolution of
the kingdom of Lorrain.
‘6. The time when it made a part of the king-
dom of Arles.
Vor. III. L, 7. The
162 Univrersat Ernvupition.
4, The time when it fell under the power of
the emperors of Germany.
8. The time when Switzerland threw off the
yoke, or when the Cantons affociated, and formed
a free republic.
- g. The time that has paffed fince that affo-
ciation, under the government of the thirteen free
Cantons, down to the prefent day. To which
may be added,
* ro, The hiftory of the country of the Gri-
fons, and
' a1. The hiftory of the countries affociated
with the Helvetic republic :- and laftly,
-12. The hiftory of the city and republic of
Geneva,
' KIV. IX. The Hiftory of Italy, fince the
time of Charlemagne, that is, from the begin-
ning of the ninth century to the prefent time.
In this general hiftory of Italy we have to re-.
gard, in particular,
1. The hiftory of the Popes, confidered as
fecular Princes and temporal Sovereigns.
2. That of the kingdom of Sardinia.
3. That of the kingdom of Naples.
4. That of the kingdom of Sicily.
5. That of the kingdom of Corfica.
6. The hiftory of the Grand Dutchy of Tuf-
cany, or Florence.
7, The hiftories of the eight moft confider-
ble dutchies and principalities ; which are,
a The
-
-MonErn History. 163
a The dutchy of Savoy, and the county of
Piedmont.
b The dutchy of Milan.
c That of Montferrat.
da That of Mantua.
e That of Parma and Placentia,
f That of Modena.
g That of Mirandola. r
4 That of Monaco.
8. The hiftory of the ifland of Malta and
of the religion, or order; of the Knights of St,
John of Jerufalem.
g. The hiftory of the republic of Venice.
10. That of the republic of Genoa.
11. That of the republic of Lucca. And
12. The hiftory of the republic of St. Marino,
To which may be alfo added,
13. The hiftory of the ifland of Cyprus,
which had once its proper Kings, but has fince ’
paffed under the dominion. of the Ottoman em-
pire. It would require an entire volume fully
to. explain all the principal periods and epochs
of the particular hiftories of each of thefe go-
vernments. But, as on one hand the hiftory
of Italy is intimately connected with thofe of all
the principal modern monarchies; and as,on
the other, there are many excellent hiftories of
this country, we muft refer our readers to them,
as they can only expect here to find general in-
ftructions for the guidance of their ftudies in
thefe matters,
L 2 XV. X. The
164 Universar Eritpnirion.
XV. X. Lhe Hiftory of Great Britain, or of
the kingdoms of England and Scotland, and the
hiftory of Ireland. ‘Fhe hiftory of England is,
like moft others, eafily divifible into three pe-
riods, which comprehend,
1. The ancient hiftory of England, whofe ori-
ginal name was Albion, fo called from the white
chalky mountains with which the coafts of that
ifland are furrounded. The hiftorians begin this
period with a king named Brutus, the fon of
ffineas Sylvius, king of the Latins, and grand-
fon*of Afcanius, the fon of Aineas the Trojan.
They pretend that he began to reign in Albion
in the year of the world 2828. This period
continued to the year 3895, and confequently
till within about a century of the Chriftian era.
This is a period of obfcure and fabulous con-
jectures, when England was governed by kings _
that may be called Aborigines, or originally of
the country, of which, however, they pretend to
have a regular chronological lift.
2. The hiftory of the middle age of England.
The Romans invaded England, under the con-
duct of Julius Czar; and though it appears
they were but badly received, yet it is certain
that the fucceeding kings of this country paid an |
annual tribute to the Romans, and were obliged
to fuffer their prefect to refide there. This go-
vernment lafted 503 years, under a long fuccef- .
fion of kings who were natives of the country,
and of whom Arthur, one of the laft, was the
moft famous. In the fifth century the Saxons .
and
Mopvern History. 165
and Angles made a defcent in England, and there
eftablithed feven fmall kingdoms; this govern-
ment was diftinguifhed by the name of the Hep-
tarchy ; and lafted 369 years, and the domi-
nion of the Saxons in England continued in all
564 years.
3. The modern hiftory of England. Soon
after the death of Charlemaene, chat is, in the
year 801, the feven Saxon kingdoms in Eng-
land were united in one, under Egbert, king of
the Weft Saxons, who fubcued all the others,
and reigned alone in that country. He and his
fucceffors were greatly molefted by the Danes,
who alfo made a defcent in this ifland, com-
mitted hoftilities, and endeavoured to eftablifh
themfelves there; and which at laft they effe&ed,
in the year 1017, when Canute the Great, king —
of Denmark and Norway, was alfo crowned king
pf England. This Danith epoch continued only
50 years, for in the year 1066, William I. called
the Conqueror, duke of Normandy, landed on
the Englifh coaft, drove out the Danes, and
caufed himfelf to be crowned king of Eneland.
From that time England has been governed
by,
| "Three kings of the houfe of the dukes of Nor-
mandy, from William the Conqueror to Henry I.
during 70 years, and to the year 1136.
One king of the houte of Blois, named Ssephen,
who reigned 19 years.
Fourteen kings of the houfe of Anjou, from Hen-
ry Il. duke of Anjou, ead and Aquitain,
ta
-
166 UNrversat EruDiITIon.
to Richard III. during 331 years, down to
1485.
Three kings defcended from the earls of Rich-
mond, from Henry VII.to Edward V1. during
68 years, and to the year 1553.
Two queens, Mary and Elizabeth, during
50 years, to 1603. -
Fourkings of the houfe of Stewart of Scotland,
James I. Charles I. who was beheaded, Charles IT.
,and James II. who, with the Protector Cromwell,
reigned, during 85 years, to the year 1688.
One prince of Orange and Naffau, William IIL.
crowned king of England in 1689, and died in
1702.
One queen, Ann, daughter of James II. and
wife of George prince of Denmark. She died
in 1714.
Three kings of the houfe of Hanover, George.
George II. and George III. during 51 years, to
the prefent time.
XVI. The Hiftory of Scotland. ‘The hiftorians
of this country, after relating fome conjectures
concerning the origin, and firft ages of the
Scotch, begin their hiftory with Fergus, king of
Treland, whom the Scoti called from thence, and
appointed their king; being no longer able to
bear the horrid invafions of the Picts. Fifty-
eight kings reigned after him in Scotland, dur-
ing 959 years: that is to fay, from the year 411
to 1370. The laft of thefe kings was David II.
who died without iffue. Robert II. fon of Wal-
ter
-Moverwn History. 169
ter Stewart, great ftewart of Scotland, and of
Mary, daughter of king Robert Bruce, fucceeded
his uncle, and reigned twenty years. He had
eleven fucceffors of his own family ; and thefe
twelve kings of the houfe of Stewart bring the
Scotch hiftory down to 1603, when James VI.
(and the Firft of England) fucceeded Elizabeth
queen of England, and united the two kingdoms
which compofe Great Britain.
The Hiftory of Ireland. If we are to believe
the Irifh hiftorians, there were kings of this
country more than 1500 years before the birth
of Chrift, and they mention one of them,
named Slanius, who reigned in the year of the
world 2448. They fay alfo, that this country
was divided into five governments, each of which
had a king; and that, over thefe: five kings,
there was one who was fupreme, and bore the
title of King of Kings.. There is, however, very
little appearance of truth in the Irifh, hiftory, till
about the year of Chrift 420, when a prince
named Loegarius reigned in Ireland. Hiftory
fays that his wife and children embraced. Chrif-
tianity, but that he himfelf remained in his infi-
delity, and that he was killed by a clap of thun-
der, after having reigned go years. This king
had forty-feven fuccefiors, who, with him, filled
the throne of Ireland for 732 years; that is, to
the year 1162, when this kingdom paffed under
the dominion of the Englifh. The forty-eighth
and laft king of Ireland was named Roderic.
Henry VIII, was the firft Englifh monarch who
took
;
368 Uwniversart ErvpirTIon.
took the title of king of Ireland, by virtue of
an act of the parliament of Dublin.
XVII. XI. The Hiftory of thé Low Countries,
and, in particular, that of the Seven United Pro-
vinces, containing,
4 Duchies: Brabant, Limburg, Luxemburg,
and Guelders. |
7 Counties: Flanders, Artois, Hainault Hol-
land, Zealand, Namur, and Zutphen.
5 Principalities, or feigniories: Friezland,
Mechlin, Utrecht, Overyfflel, and Groe-
ningen.
1 Margraviate; that of Antwerp ; which, to-
gether, form the
17 United Provinces, that are called the Low >
Countries. In the time of the Romans, the
Rhine traced the limits between Gaul and Ger-
many. That part of the Low Countries which
is on the weft borders of the Rhine, was
‘mamed Gallia Belgica, Belgic Gaul; and that
fituate on the eaft belonged to Germany, and
was called Batavia. In the fifth century, when
the Franks paffed into Gaul, the Low Countries
remained annexed to France, under the Mero-
vingian kings. In the partition which the
Carlovinian emperor, Lewis le Debonnair, made
of his dominions, the greateft part of the Low |
Countries falling to Lothair, made a confiderable
part of the kingdom of Lorrain; and that king-
dom being diflolved, the feventeen provinces
| aboveés
Movern Hrsrory. 169
abovementioned were fucceffively formed. Their
governors acquired great power, and at the
time of the invafion of the Normans, they
made themfelves independent. This hiftory
therefore contains three periods. In the firft,
inquiry is to be made into the origin of each
dutchy, county and feigniory, till the time of
their union in the fifteenth century. In the fe-
cond, the union itfelf is to be explained, and the
- manner fhown in which they fell under the
power, (1.) of the kings of Bourgogne, (2.) of
the houfe of Auftria, and (3.) under the domi-
nion of Spain, till the year 1564. And in the
third period, it is to be explained in what man-
ner the feven previnces of Guelderland, Holland,
Zealand, Utrecht, Friezland, Overy ffel and Groe-
ningen, united themfelves, in order to throw
off the Spainifh yoke, and under the condu& «
of the prince of Orange and Naffau, came to be
declared by Spain free provinces. Laftly, is to
feen the ftate of this powerful Republic down to
the prefent day; together with the important
eftablifhments which it has formed in the three
other parts of the world, but efpecially in Afia,
The hiftories of the counts of Flanders, the counts
of Holland, &c. that of the princes of Orange
of the houfe of Naffau, are alfo intimately con-
neéted with that of the Low Countries.
XVIII. XII. The Hiftory of Germany. This
hiftory likewife divides itfelf into three periods,
which form, the Ancient Hiftory, chat of the
Middle
170 Universat Ervpirion..
Middle Age, and that of Modern Germany.
The firft period comprehends the origin of the
Germans, .whom they fuppofe to be defcended
from Tuifcon, or Teuthon, otherwife called Af
canes, the fon of Gomer, the grandfon of Japhet,
and great grandfon of Noah.’ This chief, they -
fay, began his reign in the year of . the world
1812. It feems likely enough that thefe people
took their German name Teutfche from Theuton,
and that of Germans, or Germani, appears to
be derived from the old German word Gerr, that
is, war, and from the word Man, by which they
were diftinguifhed as men addicted to war.
Their name of Allemands came doubtlefs from
Allemannus Hercules, prince of Suabia, who
reigned they fay about the year of the wofld 2399.
It is eafy to conceive that all this ancient hiftory
muft be obfcure, uncertain and fabulous. The
people who inhabited thefe countries ,.knew
not the ufe of letters: they tranfmitted to their
pofterity the memorable actions of their founders
and of the heroes of their country, by hymns
and fongs. Inthe Greek hiftorians, thefe na-
tions are always confounded under the name of
Scythians, Celts, &c. and it is impoflible to
diftinguifh them. The firft knowledge we have
of them muft therefore be from the Romans,
who. thought them worth the trouble of con-
quering, and had connexions with them: and
confequently all that we can learn of them muft
be drawn from Strabo, Ptolemy, Czefar and Taci-
Hs : and thefe authors did not even underftand
| the
——
“Movern History. 17%
the language in which thofe hiftoric hymns were
fung. It appears by thefe writers that the an-
cient Germans were mere barbarians. Among
that dark ignorance and that ferocity with which
they were furrounded, there were however to be
feen fome fparks of virtue, valour, art and know-
ledge. Tacitus fays, for example, that they
were much addicted to drinking; and this im-
plies that they had the art of making wine, of
fome other ftrong liquor: that author, indeed,
exprefly fays, that they brewed beer (cerevifia).
He fays alfo, that they trafficked with the Ro-
mans, and fold them, among other things, am-
ber,- which they gathered on the borders of the
Baltic Sea; and named Glefe. All this fuppofes
fome exertion of induftry. This firft period
comes down to the birth of Chrift.
XIX. The middle age comprehends the re-
volutions in Germany from-the commencement
of the Chriftian era to the time of Charlemagne,
including eight centuries. It is in this fecond
period that we find, (1.) The accounts of the
wars that the Germans fuftained againft the Ro-
mans, who were never able completely to fub-
due them. (2.) The particular enumeration of
the different nations that then inhabited Ger-
many. (3.) The progrefs of each of thefe peo-
ple; their ftate during the decline of the Roman
empire, and the manner in which each of them
infenfibly recovered their liberty, It is a matter
well worthy of remark, that during all the mid-
dle
72 6 Universat ErupitTion.
dle age, the Germans remained ignorant of the
artof writing, and that Charlemagne was the firft
who taught them the ufe of letters. All there-
fore that has been wrote of the hiftory of the
Germans during the middle age, was either by
foreigners, or by monks, and others equally ig-
norant, after the eight century. It is fuficiently
manifeft what regard ought to be paid to thefe.
The greateft inconvenience is, that we cannot
form a juft and diftinct idea of the ftate of the
German nations before Charlemagne. That they
had chiefs is certain, but the fame chief of a
nation is fometimes named rex, and fometimes
dux, princeps, margravio, or comes, and fome-
times {till different from any of thefe. All the
Scriptores rerum Germanicarum of the middle
age, are but fo many troubled and confufed
fources: the bufinefs here, however, is to
know what has been wrote, rather than what
has really happened.
XX. The modern hiftory of Germany begins
with Charlemagne, and comes down to Francis I.
that is to fay, down to the prefent time. The
hiftory of thefe emperors being already included
in that of the empire, it only remains in the
third period of the hiftory of Germany, to con-
fider, (1.) The particular hiftory of the twelve
grand fovereign houfes of Germany, which are
thofe of Auftria, Brandenburg, Bavaria, Baden,
Brunfwick, Anhalt, Hefle, Holftein, Mecklen-
burg, Naffau, Saxony” and Wirtemberg. (2.)
That
Movern History. 173
That of the {tates and countries which thefe houfes
pofiefled. (3.) That of the archbifhopricks, bi-
fhopricks, abbies, military orders, &c. (4.) That
of the free cities and thofe that hold immediately
of the empire, &c. To which may be added divers
hiftorical matters, as (5.) an inquiry into the
origin of electors, and in what manner the
chiefs of divers Germanic nations recovered their —
liberty by the right of poftliminy, after the ex-
tinction of the Carolovinian houfe. (6.) The
particular hiftory of the Anfeatic league. (7.)
That of the war of thirty years; and numberlefs
other particulars which relate to the Modern
Hiftory of Germany. The hiftory of the houfe
of Auftria, and that of Brandenburg, merit a
more particular ftudy; becaufe the heads of thefe
auguit houfes are at this day elevated to the firft
rank among the fovereigns of Europe.
XXI. XIII. The Hiftory of the Kings of Bobe-
mia. This country, fituate on the borders of the
Elbe, was anciently inhabited by the Sclavi, whom
they named Behemanns or Behaims, for it is not
more than 200 years fince they called Bohemia,
Behaigna. It was originally governed by dukes,
the firftt of whom, named Zicco, conducted,
with his brother Lecho, in the year 550, a
powerful colony into this country, uninhabited,
and almoft covered with forefts. From his time
there have been twenty-two dukes in Bohemia,
the courfe of 536 years, down to the year 1086,
The laft of thefe dukes was named Uladiflaus IE.
‘ fix
74 Universar Ervupbitron
fix years before whofe.death Bohemia was ho-
noured with the title of a kingdom by Henry IV.
and Uladiflaus reigned in. quality of king. There
were twenty kings his fucceffors to the year 1307,
when Henry duke of Carinthia, and king of Bo-
hemia, was depofed. ,From that time feventeen
kings and one queen of the houfe of Luxemburg
and that of Auftria, have reigned in Bohemia;
the firft of whom was John of Luxemburg, fon
of the emperor Henry VII. At this time Bo-
hemia makes part of the hereditary eftates of the
houfe of Auftria.
XXII. XIV. The Hiftory of the Kings of Hun-
gary. That country which is now named Hun-
gary, was formerly called Pannonia. The Huns,
a Gothic people, eftablifhed themfelves there,
and gave the country their name, Attila made
his city the capital of Sicambia, and gave it the
name of Buda, which was that of shis brother.
The. Huns gave themfelves very little trouble
about writing their hiftory. We know that there
were at firft dukes in Hungary, and that in the
year 1000, it was erected into a kingdom in fa-
your of Stephen, called the Saint, That king
_ had fixty-fix fucceffors, down to the prefent day ;
and Hungary alfo makes part of the hereditary
dominions of the auguft houfe of Auftria.
XX. XV. The Hiftory of Poland. This
country was anciently named Sarmatia, and its
inhabitants Sarmates, We have only aconfufed
account,
te Ne Ll ee
f , s ?
Mopverrn History. 175
account, that this country was originally govern-
ed by dukes or princes, of whom there were
twelve fromCraco and his brother Lechus I.
during 450. years: that is, from the year of
Chrift 550, to 999: that on the laft named
year Poland was erected into a kingdom by the
emperor Otho III. that it had afterwards four
Polifh kings who reigned during eighty-two
years: that the laft of thefe kings, Boleflaus II.
' called the Cruel, occafioned this country, by his
bad conduét, to lofe the title of kingdom ;. and
that it was governed from, 1081 to .1370,.by .
twelve princes, among whom was the renowned
Piaft: that in the year 1370 it refumed the _
rank ofa kingdom,; and that it has finc® had
eighteen elective kings, who have been chofen
as well from foreign houfes, as from the Piafts,
or original families of the country: that the firft
of thete elective kings was Lewis king of Hun-
gary, and the laft Auguftus II. elector of Sax-
ony ; and that this prince dying in the year 1763,
the ftates of Poland have placed on the throne
Staniflaus Hl. of the family of Poniatowfky, a
prince in every fenfe worthy to wear that crown,
The Hiftory of Lithuania is comprehended under
that of Poland. The hiftory of Pruffa is like-
wife included, in part, under that of Poland, in
part under thofe of the orders of the Teutonic
knights, and the knights Templars, and in part
under that of ‘the houfe of Brandenburg. The
hiftory of Finland, Livonia, Eftheria and Courlend;
is
776 Universart ErvupitTion,
is comprifed under thofe of Sweden, Ruffia and
Poland.
XXIV. XVI. The Hiftory of the kingdom of
Denmark. \f we regard what is faid, and ftill
more, what they have not fcrupled to write, we
muft begin this hiftory with Gomer II. great-
‘grandfon of Japhet, who was the firft that in-
habited Cimbrica Cherfonefus, or Cimbria, 1800
years after the creation of the world, 193 years
after the deluge, and 2098 before Chrift. This
country, they fay, was governed, at firft, by
eleven fucceflive judges, the firft of whom was
.cotemporary with Abraham: that in the year
of the world 2910, and 1058 before Chrift,
Dan founded the kingdom of Denmark, and
called it after his name: that it had twenty-fix
Kings, all of whofe names they know, and their
principal actions, to the time of Dan III. who-
began to reign 141 years before the common
era: that 110 years before this epoch, there was
a great migration of the Cimbri and Teutoni,
who penetrated into Italy ; but were there al-
moft entirely extirpated by the Romans; and at
this time it: is that the ancient hiftory of Den-
mark ends, that is, about feventy-four years be-
fore the birth of Chrift. That of the middle
age begins with Fridlef 1. furnamed the expedi=
tious, who was the twenty-feventh king; and
continues till Sigefroi, whofe reign began about
the year 760, and ended with the eighth cen-
tury. This age comprehends a fucceffion of —
thirty-.
ever. we EE ——
se MopeRrn History, 179
_ @hirty one kings. But they whofe defign it is to
* Jknow what hins really happened, will give but
little credit to all.thefe relations, as they will not
believe it poflible that a nation, which knew not
the ufe.of letters tilla long time after the reign
of Charlemagne, fheuld be able to trace their
origin'to the time of the deluge; or that they
could, by any monuments whatever, be able to
deduce their hiftory from that period, without
interruption, down to modern times, that is to
the ninth century: they will therefore be per-
fuaded that ali thofe ancient hiftories-and chro-
nicles, in verfe and profe, on which their autho-
rities are founded, are nothing more than a mafs.
of fables, written by impoftors and. vifionaries
two or three thoufend years after the facts are
fuppofed to have happened, and confequently
that they knew no more of the matter than we
do, Without making any further inquiry
therefore into thele relations, we fhall fay, ‘that
the modern hiftory of Denmark, which begins
about the year 800 with Goteric, Godfrey, or
Gotilae,.is more clear and lefs uncertain. It in-
cludes the reigns of fifty-five kings, during 965
years, that is, from the year 8or tothe prefent
time. So that the hiftorians count.one hundred
and thirteen kings who have reigned in Denmark,
from Dan I, to Frederic 'V. who now fo worthily
fills that throne. The; introduction of Chrifti-
anity into Denmark, under Eric I. and the fixty-
feventh king, about the year 850, falls in this
Jaft age, which alfo abounds with .rematkable
Vor. III. M events.
18 Universat Erupitiow
events. The hiftory of Norway is included in
that of Denmark; as are thofe of the iflands of
Iceland and of Greenland, if any fuch there are.
XXV. XVID. The Hiftory of Sweden. The
ancient hiftory of this kingdom is altogether as
fabulous as that of Denmark. All its firft ac-
counts confift of relations, fongs and legends,’
of the allegoric traditions of ancient priefts or
poets, On thefe authorities they fuppofe that
Magog, the fon of Japhet, and grandfon of Noah;
was the origin from whom defcended the Scy-
thians andGoths. Magog left five fons. From one
of them, named Suenon, they fay the Swedes are
defcended: from Gog or Gethar, they fuppofe the
Goths or Gete derive their original. ‘Ubbon fuc-
ceeded his brother Suenon, and built, they fay, the
city of Upfal. They here make a fucceffion of
twenty-five fabulous kings, from Magog to Both-
avill, and which comes down to the birth of
Chrift.
The middle age begins with the reign of
Alaric, and after him of Eric II. and continues
to Ingo Il. or Ingel, and lafts about 800 years ;
including the reigns of thirty-five kings, whofe
hiftory is fcarce more certain than that of the
former.
‘The modern hiftory begins with the Risk
Charles and Biorn. About the year 831, the em-
peror Lewis the Debonnair fent Anfgairus, ‘bi-
fhop of Bremen and Hamburgh, into Sweden, ©
to preach the gofpel, and Chriftianity was re-
ceived
Movoderwn History. 79.
atived ‘into that-kingdom. From Charles to
Suercher If. that is, to the year 1ts40, there
Were twenty-two other kings who reigned in Swe-
den, during a fpace of 302 years: and from
Eric IX. called the Saint, who fucceeded Suer-
cher II. there is 4 {ucceffion of forty kings, who
have filled the Swedith throne, down to the pre-
fent day, during 615,years: This long feries of
i22 kings is very glorioufly terminated by the
feigning monarch Frederic Adolphus, a prince
of the houfe of Holftein: The hiftory of Lap-
Jand, as far as any hiftory can be found of that
country, is entirely included in that of Sweden.
XXXVI. XVIII. The Hiftry of Rufia. AN that
we cian fay of the ancient hiftory of Ruffia is;
that this country was thé hive from whence that
innumerable fwarm of people iffued; which overs
tan all Europe; and patt of Afia and Africa.
It would be a vain and frivolous enterprife to
endeavour to inveftigate either the ancient hif-
tory, or that of the middle age; of this immenfe
country, as no written accounts of them havé
come to out knowledge. The foundation of this
vaft and formidable empire, which was civilized
by the labours of Peter the Great, and of thofe
princeffes who have borne the fceptre after him,
and who at this day make fo confpicuous a figure
on the theatre of the world, *vas not laid ull the
ninth century of the Chriftian era. The fame
origin is ufually afcribed tothe inhabitants of this
country as to thofe of Poland and Bohemia.
M 2 The
ae
180 UniversaL ERUDITION.
The language called Sclavonian, which they al
fpeak, but in different dialects, feems to confirm
this conjecture. All the colonies of the great
nation of Sarmatia took, in the fixth century, the
name of Sclavi ; by which they meant to exprefs
that they were purfuers of glory, for fuch is the
import of that word in the Sclavonian language.
That of Rufia, or Roffaia, implies a people that.
are difperfed ; and this etymology is confirmed
by Procopius, a Greek hiftorian of the fixth
‘century. The ftory of one Ruffus, the brother
of Lexkhus and Czekhus, is an invention of
modern writers among the iiynans or Dal-
matians.
Inthe years 861 and 862, the inhabitants of
Ruffia chofe for their governors three Varegeam
princes, Rurika, who firft fixed his refidence at
Ladoga; Sineus, at Bielo Ofero, and Truvera at -
Uborka. The two laft died without children
in the fpace of two years, By that means Rurika
became fole fovereign of Ruffia; and having.
augmented the city of Novogrod, which had
been lately built, he there eftablifhed his refi-
dence. In 878, this great prince, Rurika, died,
and left Igora, his fon, under the tutelage of
Olegha, his uncle ; he governed Rufiia thirty-
five years. When Igora came to age of matu-
rity, he efpoufed a young maiden of 'Plefkow,
named Olpha. This prince was maffacred by
the Drevelians about the year 945, and Sueto-
flava, his fon, reioned in his ftead, under the tu-
telage of his mother Olpha, with whom he’ al-
ways
MopverRn HisToOrRy. uSr
ways lived in harmony. This princefs embraced
the Chriftian religion at Conftantinople, and was
baptized by the name of Helena. Her fon,
however, did not follow her example. Jarapolka
reigned after.his father Suetoflava, from the year
972 to 988. His brother Vladimire, or Wolo-
dimir, called Bafil, fucceeded him, .and embraced
the Chriftian ‘religion according to the rites of
the Greek church. From this point, the hiftory
of Ruffia becomes more luminous.: for, with
the doctrine of ‘Chriftianity, the ufe of writing
was introduced among this people. From Wo-
Jodimir or Bafil, to Bafil V.. during 546 years,
that is, from 988 to 1534, we find a fucceffion
of thirty-five fovereigns, who reigned in Rufiia
under the title.of Great Dukes. John IV. or
Iwan Bafilowitz, the fon and fuccefior of the laft
Bafil, took the title of Tzar, or Czar, which his
fucceffors have continued to bear, and which, in
the Sclavonian.tongue, properly fignifies a king.
He alfo joined :to his titles that of Povelitela and
Samodertza, confervator or fovereign of all the
Ruffias. Foreigners call this prince the Tyrant,
‘but the Ruffians name him the Severe. He had
fix fucceffors, who contented themfelves with
the title of czar, till the year 1613, when Michael
Fedorowitz, of the haufe of Romanova, mounted
the throne, and took.the title of czar, emperor,
and autocrator (or fovereign confervator) of all
the Ruffias. This title of emperor is no longer
contefted with thefe powerful monarchs. From
Michael Federowitz there were three emperors
of
i i Me i) 7 a
r : ' 7 . iy
2 Univerrsart Ervupition.
of Ruffia, Alexis his fon, Teodore or Theodore,
and Ivan, or John V. to the year 1696, when
Peter I, furnamed the Great, came to the
throne : a monarch who made the moft aftonith-
ing, and at the fame time the moft happy efforts,
toward the civilizing of the Ruffian nation. This
Buc man died in 1725; and the throne’ of
uffia has been fince filled by Catherine, the
widow of the emperor Peter ; by Peter II. his *
grandfon ; by Ann, the daughter of John V. by
John VI. grandfon of John V. by Elizabeth Pe-
trowna, daughter of Peter the Great; by Peter
III. grandfon of Peter, and lattly, by the auguift
Catherine Il. now reigning,
XXVIT. If the Coffacks, Calmacs, the inha-
bitants of Siberia and the Ukraine, the Samoeids,
hended under that of Ruffia. It will not be ex-
pected that we fhould lofe ourfelves in thefé de-
farts. We mutt here fay a few words, however,
concerning the Tartars. Tartary i in Afia, which
they call Great Tartary, is an immenfe country,
that is as imperfectly known to geographers, as
the fucceffion of its fovereigns is to hiftorians
and chronologifts, It was. thefe ‘Tartars, how- |
ever, that i in the year 1 280 made themfelves mat-
ters of China ; and it was then that the family
named Ivan began to reign there. There were
nine Poriaian emperors "of that houfe, which
lafted 89 years. In “4369 the Tartars were:
drove out of China ; 5 but in 1645 they re-en-
. tered,
ee
Moverw Hisrory. 183
eered, under the command of their cham, or
king, Xun Chi, whom they named the Grand
Kam; again fubdued the empire of China, and
the family of that Tartar prince continues to
reign there till thisday. Zitt/e artary compre-
hends ai] that country which is between the Ta-
nais and Boryfthenes. It is far from being:pre-
cifely known what time the Tartars made’ them-
felves mafters of this country, for the opinions
of hiftorians differ widely concerning this matter.
‘That which appears the moft probable is, that
the dukes of Lithuania having fubdyed the Far-
tars, they fent princes of their nation to rale in
this country. The laft of thefe princes was
named Aczkirei, from whom came the race of
Girei, and al] thofe pretended emperors who-have
ned in Little Tartary fince the year 1452.
About the middle of the fixteenth century, Se-
lim, emperor of the Turks, fubdued Crim Tar-
tary, and took the fortrefs of Cafa: and from
that time the Kam of the Tartars has been cho-
fen by the Ottoman Porte: fometimes: indeed
they have fuffered the eldeft fon of the Kam to
fucceed him, and at other times they have not.
We have feen, moreover, a Kam called to Con-
ftantinople to give account of his conduct, and
fent into banifhment. We are the better pleated
with this opportunity of mentioning the Tartars,
as their hiftory leads us to make three reflec-
tions. The firft is, that we cannot conceive
from whence the illuftrious author of the Per-
flan Letters could learn that the Tartars con-
guered
m4 Universact Ervupition.
quered almoft the whole world. For if that
were the cafe, it certainly was not fince that
people who inhabit Great and Little Tartary
have borne the name of Tartars. Perhaps he
thereby means the Scythians or Celts, or tome
other ancient and warlike people. The fecond
obfervation is, that if modern hiftorians know
- fo little of the revolutions and actions of a na=
tion that is now exifting, and before our eyes,
but who are ferocious, uncivilized, and have no
writers among them, what. are we to think of
the ancient hiftories of all nations, and efpecially
thofe of the north, who, for thoufands of years,
were in the fame circumftances, and: were.igno-
rant of the ufe of characters, and the art of writ+
ing ? And laftly, that thofe philofophers deceive
themfelves, who imagine that a nation becomes
more formidable by being ignorant of arts and
fciences. The example of the Tartars fufficiently
proves the contrary, and fhows that a people may
be numerous, brave and warlike, and’ yet not
able to form themfelves into a body as’a nation,
and ftill lefs able long to fupport themfelves, if
they do not become civilized, and cultivate the
arts and fciences. _The Goths and Vandals
proved this truth formerly. What remains of
thofe people are there now upon the earth? If
any of them can be faid fill to exift, they are ~
become civilized ; for the children of the Goths
and Vandals that were born among polifhed na-
tions acquired the manners of thofe people from
their infancy. |
XXVIII.
,Moverw History. 185
. XXVIII. To render the ftudy of modern hit
tory complete, we muft tranfport ourfelves into
the other three parts of the world, and we live in
an age when we can make thofe journies without
- going out of our clofets. In Afia we have to
confider, befide the empire of the Turks, which
we have already mentioned,
1. The modern hiftory of Perfia.; _ :
2. The like hiftory of the Moguls, or empe-
rors of Indoftan.
3. That of the kingdoms of Pegu, Ava, and
Arracan, or of thofe countries which the
ancients comprehended under the name of
the Indies beyond the Ganges.
4. The hiftory of the kingdoms of Siam, Laos,
and Tonquin.
5- That of the kingdom of Bengal, and its
nabobs,
6. The modern hiftory of China.
7. The hiftory of Fapan.
. $8. The hiftory of the kingdom of ava.
_ g. That of Ceylon, formerly called Taprodane.
10. The hiftories of the other /arge iflands of
the Indian and Oriental fea.
XXIX. In Africa, we have alfo to learn, be-
fide what is under the immediate dominion of the
Ottoman empire,
1. The hiftory of Aby/finia.
2, That of Tunis and Tripoly.
3. That of Algiers.
4- That
186 Unrversat Erntprirron.
4. That of the kingdom of Morocco, under
which are comprehended thofe of Fez,
Taffilet, Tetuan, Sus, and others.
5. The hiftory of the other nations of Africa,
as far as they can be, and are worthy to
be known:
XXX. In America, we have’ laftly to con-
fider,
1. The hiftory of the Canary lands, -
2. The hiftory of the difcovery of America, and
the progreffive: manner in which we have »
become acquainted with all its various
countries, as well iflands as continent.
g: The hiftory of the partition of America
among the European: porn 4 to which
may. be added,
4. The hiftory of Memico, and
5. That of Peru and its Yncas,
XXX) Such in general is the fyften of what
Gs called the’ univerfal hiftory of the world; of
the aneient and middle ages, and of miodern
times. It mutt be confeffed that the labours of
the learned have, in this fcienee, furpaffed all
that we could expect, and all that the capacity
‘arid‘affiduity of-the human mind feemed capable
of producing. There are now; in‘almoft all lan-
guages, univerfal and particular'hiftories that are
highly excellent; where the’ moft learned’ re-
eaves are united with the mioftfagacious re-
: fiections,
MeccestasticaL Hrstrory. 187
fie€tions, and where a regular and confpicuous
narration is ornamented with all thofe graces of
which the hiftoric ftyle’ is fufceptible. There
are itt the univerfities able profeffors, who make
courfés in hiftory that are highly inftruétive’: and
there are hiftorical bibliotheques which furnifh
us with the knowledge of the beft authors in
every fpecies of hiftory. They therefore who
are defirous of applying to this {cience, cannot
want for guides, or inftru€tions ; and we may
add, that, in this age, the ufeful and the agree-
able will be found united in’ the ftudy of hit
fory.
CHAP. VIII
T H-£E
EccoLestastTicab Hisrory
OF ALL THE
Principal Nations of the Earth.
Ys, Hott of having treated’ on profane’ or
4 & civil hiftory, we naturally proceed to Sa-
ered, or Ecclefaftical Hiftory. From the firtt hour
that
—e - a a
88 Universab EruDITION.
that man comes into the world, he feeks after
~happinefs. The milk. which nature has given
to the mother, renders the child content, and con-
fequently happy : it defires nothing more. But
as its age advances, and its ideas increafe, it
feeks after fports, pleafures, and fortune. At
-Iength man difcovers that there is a future exift-
ence, and a Supreme Being, who is the creator
and preferver of this. world, and the ~difpenfer
of happinefs or mifery in the world that is to
come. The firft human beings perceived there-
fore that it was of importance to render the Divi-
nity propitious to them; but to obtain that end,
they made ufe of means that were as weak and
imperfect as were their underftandings. Hav-
ing nothing but fenfible objects before their eyes,
they could form only corporeal ideas, and thefe
ideas they applied to the Supreme Being, to
whom nothing corporeal can belong.
II. By groping continually in that darknefs,
without the guidance of revelation or philofophy,
after the tight way of obtaining the knowledge
of God, and the manner in which he ought to
be worfhipped, they could not but wander and
deceive themfelves, as well with refpeét to the
one as the other of thefe objeés. The know-
ledge of God, and of the manner in which he is
to be worfhipped, forms what we call religion.
The defign of this chapter, therefore, is to in-
$orm our readers what have been the principal
religions, that men have invented and followed,
from
— ie. see
‘
‘EccrestasticaL History: 189
from the creation of the world ; and the follow-
ing chapter will contain the hiftory of Chrifti-
anity, or of the church of Chrift in particular.
III. Adam, and the firft patriarchs after him,
followed, doubtlefs, the religion of nature; the
lights of reafon, enforced by thofe which God
had vouchfafed them in Paradife, and in the fuc-
ceeding ages; as we find in the book of Genefis,
wrote by Mofes. But this worfhip, fo pure in ,
itfelf, feems to have been fometimes corrupted
by a propenfity to idolatry, which infected man-
kind from the beginning of the world. The fa- ?
crifices of animals, and even of innocent men,
are not certainly according to the religion of na-
ture, but have a near relation to paganifm. For
all facrifices are diametrically repugnant to the
religion of nature, as no man can poffibly prove,
by the light of reafon, that the Supreme Being,
all-wife and good, can find pleafure in the flaugh-
ter of his creatures, and what is more, of man-
kind; whom his wifdom has created, and whom
his goodnefs fupports. The little houfhold gods
of Laban, the father-in-law of Abraham, clearly
prove that idolatry reigned in the firft ages of
the world. Mofes purged the worfhip of
the Hebrews entirely from it; it was he
who, by the exprefs order of God, eftablifhed
the true principles of religion among the chil-
dren of Ifrael; their dogmas and their religious
ceremonies. We are therefore here to con-
fider :
IV..(1.)
eee © RS yee ev ie cae Pe ene
tgo Univers ai Ervpirion.
AV. (1.) Paganifm. We have already given
an ample defcription of this religion in the fe-
cond chapter, on mythology ; and we fhall only
add here; that paganifm in general has at all
tumes had various fects, and that even when it
poffefied almoft the whole earth, each people
had their different-gods, idols, and religious wor-
fhip ; at leaft with regard to exterior matters,
The pagan religion of the Egyptians, for ex-
ample, was not the fame with that which was
profefied by the Greeks, and theirs differed like- .
wife from that.of the Romans, who multiplied
their. demigods and temples to an endlefs num-
ber. It ois a fingular circumftance, and well
worthy of remark, that, even in modern. times,
whenever a nation or troop ef mankind are dif-
covered in any: part of the earthy they are always
found to be pagans. . Whence comes. it. that
mankind have naturally fo univerfal a propenfity
to idolatry, and fo little to philofophy and the
principles of Chriftianity ? Whencefoever that bey
paganifm was deftroyed in the reign of Theodo-
fius the Great, at the clofe of the fourth century
of the Chriftian era; and the ruins of it which
are to be found in Afia, Africa, and Americas
are degenerated into an abfurd idolatry; and
always attended by ferocity, ignorance, and bar-
barity. That large work, of ‘‘ the religious ce-
*‘ remonies and cuftoms of all nations, repre-
*< fented by figures defigned by Bernard Picart,
*< with ar. hiftoric explanation, &c.” and efpe-
cially thofe volumes which treat of the idolatrous
nations,
a ‘ore - Pe 7 ‘i a =
eS SO “Saray ek
7 + ald se 7 o
:
_ oEcenzstasticat History? ' ‘Fos
nations, is very inftructive, and throws great
light on thefe objects.
V. (2.) Fhe ancient religion of the Chinefe:
which is but little known to us. We know
that they adored the heavens, under the name
of Thien; and that they had in their devotion
fome mixture of that of the Jews, though we
know not from whence they -had ir. There is a
very ancient tradition among the Orientals, that
there are a great number of Jews in China, and
that God having opened a paflage, they went
thither in the time of Jofhua. However that
be, it is certain that a large portion of idolatry,
fome principles of natural religion, and of that
of the Hebrews, formed the religion of the an-
cient Chinefe. But about 550 years before the
birth of Chrift, that is about the year of the
world 3450, the renowned Confucius was born
in the kingdom of Zz, which is the province
that is now called Xantung. This philofopher
was of an illuftrious family, that defcended from
the emperor Ti-Ye, of the fecond race. He
began by profefling philofophy, and ended by
inventing a new fyftem of religion and politics.
His reputation acquired him more than three
thoufand difciples, among whom there were
feventy-two that fignalized themfelves, and are
ftill held in great veneration by the Chinefe,
Confucius divided his doétrine into four parts,
antl his difciples into a like number of clafles,
The firft were thofe who applied themfelves to
the
x92 Universau Ervupitron.
the ftudy of virtue: the fecond, fuch ‘as applied
themielves to the arts of reafoning and elo-
quence: the third, they who ftudied the art of —
government, and the duties of magiftrates ; and
the fourth, thofe who applied themfelves to the
doétrines of morality. The tour books that are
attributed to Confucius are confidered’ by the
Chinefe, as of the higheft authority. ‘The firft
is intitled Ta-Kio, or the grand fcience. There is
only the firft chapter of that book that properly
belongs to Confucius. The reft of it, as wellas
the fecond, called Chung- Yung, or the medium of
virtue; the third named Lungya, or the confer-
ences; and the fourth which is a collection of
converfations : all thefe books are the works of
his: diiciples. Though it is: faid, in all thefe
books, 1. That it is the heavens or virtue that
holds the place of the Supreme Being, yet 2.
They direct fuperftitious worfhipand facrifices to
others than that Being, and 3. They promife no
other recompence or happinefs than that of this
life. In the modern religion of the Chinefe,
which is founded on the doétrine and writings
of Confucius, there are three fects, the Leowie
the Idolaters, and the Sorcerers. The fir is
that of the emperor and nobles, who {facrifice
to the ftars : the fecond pay their adorations and
build temples to idols; and both of them render
a religious worfhip to Confucius, to philofophers,
to kings and their anceftors. The third fect
worfhip demons and practile magic. ‘The Chi-
- nefe
ee Se 0 - eee
. 14
Eccresiasticay History, 193
nefe priefts are named Mandarins; and apply
themfelves to religious affairs, to philofophy and
government. ‘There are many temples and con-
vents in all parts of China. The idols of the
_ Chinefe are called Pagods or Chines. The latter
are made in the fhape of figured pyramids , and
are’ held in’ great awe by the vulgar... When
they purchafea flave, they bring him before one
of ‘thefe chines, and after making an offering of
rice, ‘or other matter, they entreat the idol, that
the flave, if he fhould fly from his mafter, may
be devoured “by tigers and ferpents: and this
the flaves fear to' fo great a degree, that they
never dare to leave their mafters, whatever may
be thes treatment they receive. Idolatry there-
fore is very manifeft in the religion of the mo-
_dern Chinefe, but Confucius is not to be blamed
for this error ; for in the firft chapter of the book
Ta Kio, which is the only one that he wrote,
there is no trace of itto be found. All the reft is
the work of his difciples, a clafs of men who con-
ftantly enlarge, decorate; and disfigure the doc-
trines of their mafters. Notwithftanding all the
abfurdities which we difcover in the religion of
the modern Chinefe, that people have lived, for
2002 years paft, in peace and tranquillity under
its fhadow, and have derived from it an exterior
es 5 se 9
VI. (3.) The Religion of the Magt. 'The'word
Magus in the ancient Perfian is nearly fynony-
mous with that of fage or wife man: and this
Vor. ILL. N name
194 Universat Ervupirion.
name was given to thofe philofophers who taught
morality and natural theology, founded on the
adoration and worfhip of a Divinity, as Arno-
bius has remarked. | This natural religion, how-
ever, was not either very pure or very rational ;
for the magi laid down two imaginary principles,
which were, that Aight was the fource of good,
and darkne/s the origin of evil. Thefe philofo-
phers, however, were in high eftimation with the
kings of Perfia, who acknowledged their wifdom,
and honoured them with the name of Sages;
frequently confulted them in the affairs of go-
vernment, and charged them. with all that re-
garded the religion and policy of their kingdoms;
fo that. they were at once priefts, politicians and
philofophers.. It is eafy to conceive what im-
portance this triple employ gave them in their
country; and the more, as by the ftudy of na-
tural philofophy thefe magi were enabled to pre-
dict appearances in nature, and fometimes to per-
form operations that appeared fupernatural to
the people, and which thefe fubtle priefts caufed
to pafs for conjurations, prodigies and miracles.
When Cambyfes had determined to carry the
war into Egypt, he appointed one of thefe,
named Patizithes, governor in his abfcence. But
that minifter attempting to place his brother
Smerdis on the throne, in the room of the fon
of Cyrus, whom Cambyfes had flain, the prin-
cipal fatrapes or nobles, perceiving his fraduluent
defign, maffacred, at once, him and all the reft of
the magi. .From the time of this cataftrophe, the
fect
Ecerestastican History, 195
fet of the magi fell into difrepute; but, fome
years after, they were reftored to authority, and
at the fame time reformed by Zoroafter. They,
who in fucceeding times made a profeffion. of
forcery, took the name of magi, and trom thence
a bad fignification was annexed to that ticle, and
from thence alfo is derived the word magician.
Thefe magi {pread themfelves over all the Eaft,
and even in Egypt, where we find them in the
time of Mofes. The priefts of the feét of magi
in Perfia were all of the fame tribe; and they
rarely communicated their f{cience to any but thofe
of the royal family, who from thence were
regarded as belonging to the facerdotal tribe.
Thefe priefts were divided into three orders;
the common clergy,» the fuperiors, and the
archimagus, or head of their religion, _ The
temples were in like manner of three orders,
The archimagus held his refidence in the prin-
cipal temple, and the whole fect thought them.
felves obliged,’ once in their lives, to go thither
ona pilgrimage. The. bufinefs of thee priefts
was to read the offices of each day in their liturgy,
and at certain fixed and folemn times to explain to
the people different-parts of their facred books,
There were no altars in thefe temples; but they
preferved facred fires, in lamps, before which
they performed their adorations, _ This people
were in great dread of fpeétres or apparitions,
VII. (4.,) Zoroafter, whom the Perfians called
Zerbufbt, was, according to oriental writers, a
oe great
196 Universat ErupitTion
great philofopher, who lived at the time that
Darius, the fon of Hyftafpes, filled the throne of
Perfia. He was perfectly acquainted with all
the oriental {ciences, and much verfed in the
religion of the Jews. He did not found a new
religion, but undertook to reform that of the.
magi, which for many centuries had been the pre-
vailing religion among the Medes and Perfians.
He eftablifhed the doctrine of a firft principle, or
Supreme Being. We taught that fire was the
fymbol of the prefence of the Divinity, and that
God had eftablifhed his throne in the fun. He
fhut himfelf up, for along: time, in a cavern of
Media, where he compofed the book of his Reve-
Jations. A fhort time after, he went into Bactriana,
and Petfia, and there caufed his doctrine to be
received. From thence he paffed into India, in
order to learn the fciences of the Brachmans ; and
having acquired all they knew of phyfics and.
metaphyfics, he returned into Perfia, and com-
municated his knowledge to the magi; who
from that time were held in high efteem. Zo-
roafter, repairing to the court of Darius at Sufa,
prefented that monarch the book he had
compofed, bound in twelve volumes, each of
which contained a hundred fkins reduced into
vellum, on which it was the cuftom of the. Per-
fians to write.’ This book was intitled Zenda-
vefta, and by contraction Zend; a word that
fignifies the frre lighter. The king, his courtiers,
and the nobles of the land, embraced magianifm,
thus ‘reformed by Zoroafter; maugre the
- ana efforts
Eccrestasticat History. ~ 197
efforts of the chiefs among the Sabeans: and this
reli_ion continued to prevail in Perfia till the
time it was fuperfeded by the doétrine of Maho-
met. Its morality was pure, except that it per-
mitted inceft. With regard to the worfhip of
this religion, it was fimple : philofophy and policy
appear to have been there artfully united. They
fay that Zoroafter, who retired to Balch with the
quality of archimagus, was there flain by Ar-
gafp, king of the Scythians, and his temples de-
molifhed. The difciples of Zoroafter, who ftill
remain in Perfia, are called by the Mahometans
Gaures or infidels,
VIII. (5.) Fudaifm. Mofes who lived about
the year of the world 2550, near 500 years be-
fore Homer, and goo years before the philofo-
pher Thales, was the firft who gave a form to the
~ geligion of the Jews, reduced it into a fyftem,.
and prefcribed them a law as he had received it
from God, This law is contained in the penta-
teuch of Mofes, which comprehends the books —
of Genefis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and
Deuteronomy, which are in the hands of all
Chriftians in every part of the earth. Leviticus
properly contains the Jaw, the facrifices and cere-
monies of the Jews, and Duteronomy ferves as a
recapitulation or abridgement of the law. The
ten commandments form a kind of fummary of
all the fundamental laws that God prefcribed by
Mofes to the people of Ifrael. All thefe laws
are either religious and doétrinal, and relate to
the
198 Unitversat ERvupiITION,
the dogmas or effence of the Jewifh religion; or
ceremonial, and regard its rites and ceremo-
nies ; or civil and political, and regulate the
' conftitution of the Judaic republic, or their po-
lice, and prefcribe in a particular manner fuch
rules as were proper to be obferved by that in-
temperate and leperous people: or laftly moral,
and ierved to regulate the manners and con-
f{ciences of the Hebrews, by exciting them to
virtue. Thefe Divine laws, however, they did
not always practife; for, when we read their hif-
tory, we find, that a more profligate, cruel, co-
vetous and deceitful people fcarce ever exifted
upon the earth. To all their other vices they
joined a ftrong fuperftition. Their Talmud,
which is a fort of dogmatic catechifm, or am-
plification of the law of Mofes, is the quinteffence
of abfurdity ; and the writings of their rabbies
and cabalifts contain the moft complete collec-
tion of infipid whims that it is poffibe for fana-
ticifm to conceive. Since the promulgation of the
Chriftian religion, the Jews have been difperfed
over the face of the earth, and no where united
in a national body.
IX. (6.) Chriftianity arofe, about the year of
the world 4000, out of Judaifin, at the time that
it was become greatly corrupted: Jefus Chrift
appeared upon the earth, taught a doétrine that
is perfectly divine, and founded a church that
has ipread itfelf into all the four parts of the
: world ,
EccrestasticaL History. 199
world; and of which we fhall give a brief hif-
tory in the following chapter.
X. (7.) Mabometanifm. Mahomet, called the
prophet, was an artful impoftor, and of his
kind, perhaps the greateft man that ever appear-
ed upon theearth. He was born the 5th of
May in the year 570 of the Chriftian era. His
father, who was an Arab and a Pagan, was called
Abdalla, and his mother, who was a Jew,- was
named Emina, and they were both of the dregs
of the people. It would require a volume to
fhow by what addrefs, what fubtle genius,
what extenfive fchemes, what refources, by what
a bold and daring fpirit, he became enabled to
produce a new religion, and to eftablith it in Afia,
Africa, and even in fome countries of Europe ;
by bearing in one hand the Coran, and in the
other the {word ; and by fucceeding equally well,
as conqueror, legiflator and prophet. The Ma-
hometans acknowledge that Judaifm and Chritt-
ianity are true religions; but that they no longer
contain any certain principles, becaufe their holy
books have been corrupted. They fay that God
eommunicated himfelf to his prophet Mahomet,
by the angel Gabriel, for the fpace of twenty-
three years; and gave him a certain number of
written fheets, from whence he compofed the
book called the Coran or Alcoran. M. du
Ryer has tranflated this Alcoran into French,
and M. Prideaux and count Boulainvilliers have
each of them wrote the life of Mahomet. The
principal
200 UNIVERSAL KRUDITION.
principal dogmas of the Mahometan. religion
are, the unity of God; that there is no other
God but God, and that he is one: that Maho-
met was -fent. from God, and was: his prophet,
and that this laft trath has been confirmed by
numberlefs miracles (which always appear ridi-
culous to thofe that are not of the fame religion).
The Mahometans have alfo their faints to whom
they likewile attribute miracles, but inferior to
thofe of: their prophet. They acknowledge,
moreoyer, that there are angels, who are the mi-
nifters of the commands of God: they believe in
a general. refurrection of the dead; in a day of
judgment; ina hell, and paradife, whofe delights
are. painted -by the Coran in the moft pleafing
figures, and with the moft glowing colours, | It
is reprefented as a delicious garden, watered by
fountains and rivers of milk, of wine and honey,
and adorned with trees that are for ever green,
and that’bear apples whofe kernels turn into wo-
men, who conftantly preferve their youth, their
beauty and virginity, and are of fo fweet a na-
ture, that if one of them were to {pit into the
océan, all its falt waters would become immedi-
ately frefh. TheMuffulmans likewife believe in
predeftination ; and fay that no good or evil arifes
but by the ordinance of God: and if they are
afked, why God has created the wicked? they
reply, that it is not for us to fearch too curioufly
into the fecrets of the Almighty ; that what°ap-
pears good in the eyes of man, may be found
ewil before God, and that good which we call |
evil,
ai i a OO OO Ee——EE————————— LL Ss hl !UmrmmUmt””t
7 -
.. » Eeerestasticart History. 20%
evil. They admit of polygamy, or a plurality
of wives, and forbid the ufe of wine and other
{trong liquors. They have adopted’ the Jewith
cuftom of circumcifion. Their morality confitts
in doing good and avoiding evil. They hope
for the mercy of God, and the forgivenefs of fins,
and recommend, in a particular manner, prayers,
and ablutions or the ufe of baths, that is cor-
poreal purity. Chriftian divines have frequently
attributed to the Mahometans errors which they
do not profefs : it muft be acknowledged, at the
fame time, that the Coran, notwithftanding all
that we there find, which is fagacious and even
fublime, abounds with abfurdities and fuch idle
tales as are offenfive to common fenfe. We
ought not, however, always to attribute thefe to
Mahomet, for they are frequently the produce
of his commentators, and of the enthufiaftic {pi-
rit of the oriental nations.
XI. The Muffulmans are at this day divided
into two principal fects, and who are even mortal
enemies to each other. The Perfians glory in
being the followers of Ali, and wear a red tur-
ban. The Turks, on the contrary, hold the
memory of Ali in contempt, following the feé&
of Omar, and wear a white turban. There are
many other fects among the Mahometans, of
whom they count even fixty-feven. All thefe
fects, however, occafion no {chifm, but agree
jn their fundamental dogmas; pray, give alms,
make
202 UNIVERSAL ERUDITION.
make the pilgrimage to Mecca, and obferve the
faft of Ramadan.
XII. It remains to fpeak of certain religions,
of which, though not generally received, ,but
are or have been lefs diffufed among mankind
than the preceding, we ought not to be ig-
norant at leaft of the names, if we would at-
tain a complete idea of the various worfhips and
juperftitions that have reigned among the hu-
man race from its firit exiftence. | Such are,
(8.) Lhe Religion of the Bramins, or the inha-
bitants of Tonquin, between China and India.
Brama is their principal god, and adored by the
followers of Confucius. They have likewife
three other divinities, who are Raumu, Betolo,
and Ramonu, and one goddefs, who is called
Satibana. Befide which they facrifice to the
feven planets as divinities. ‘The people, but
efpecially the priefts of this fect, are named Bra-
mens, Bramins, or Bramines, and thofe names
are formed from the word Brachmanes, by which
the Greeks and Latins denoted the Indian philo-
fophers. ‘They believed in the immortality of
the foul, but they added to that belief the
metempfychofis, or tranfmigration of the foul
from one body to another,
(9.) The Religion of the People of Buradtolagh in
Southern Tartary, in Afia, This kingdom is
governed by two fovereigns. The firft, who is
charged with the political government, is named
Deva; the other, who lives retired, is not only
adored
EcciestastTicaL History. 203
adored by the inhabitants of the country as a
divinity, but alfo by the other kings of Tartary,
who fend him prefents. This falfe god is called
Grand Lama, that is to fay, Great Prieft; or
Lama of Lamas, Prieft of Priefts. He is be-
heved to be eternal; and the other lamas ferve
him, and repert his oracles. He is fhown ‘in a
fecret apartment of his palace, illuminated with
an infinite number of lamps; he appears covered
with gold and diamonds, and is feated on an
eminence adorned with rich tapeftry, and fits
with his legs croffed. He is fo much refpected
by the Tartars, that they, who by rich prefents
can obtain a part of the excrements of the grand
lama, efteem themfelves extremely happy, and
carry them about their necks in a gold box, in
the manner of a relick,
XIII. (10.) The Bonzes are the minifters of
the religion of the Japanefe. Thefe affect
great continence, and a wonderful fobriety.
They live in community, and have feveral uni-
verfities, where they teach their theology and
the myfteries of their fect. . Amang the Bonzes,
there is one named Combadaxi, whom the Ja-
panefe highly revere, and believe him to be im-
mortal. The young women of Japan live alfo
in a fort of convents. The name of bonzes is
likewife given to fome other priefts among the
idolatrous nations of India.
(11.) The Druids were the priefts among the
ancient Gauls, and they are thought to be the
¢ fame
204 Universat ErupDirTion.
fame with the Eubages, of whom Ammianus Mar-
cellinus fpeaks, and the Saronides that are men-
tioned by Diodorus Siculus, They taught a re-
ligion to the people, which they had probably
learned from the Phoceans. They had an extra-
ordinary veneration for the oak, becaufe that tree
bore the miftletoe. For the reft, they applied
themfelves to the contemplation of the works of
nature, and regulated the religious ceremonies,
being at once the theologians and philofophers
of the ancient’ Gauls ; of whom the Bards were
the poets, fcholars, and muficians, |
XIV. (12.) The Religion of the Peruvians, or
the Yncas. The firft king of Peru was, they fay,
Ynca Manco Capac, and all his fucceflors have
been called, from his name, Yncas.. The Peru-
vians make their firft kings to be defcended from
the fun, which they adens: as a god. Their other
divinities, as the moon, the fifter and wife of the
fun, which they named Quilla; the ftar Venus,
that they call Chafca; the thunder and lighten-
ing, to which they gave the common name of .
Yllapa; the rainbow, that they named Cuychu;
were divinities inferior to the fun. To all thefe,
however, magnificent temples were erected. They
facrificed all fort of animals to the fun, efpecially
theep, but never men, as the Spaniards have falfely
reported of them, They confecrated virgins in-
deed to the fun, but that was in the: manner of
devotees, or nuns. Thefe divinities, but efpe-
cially the fun, had their folemn feafts, The Pe-
ruvians,
EocctesrasticaL History. 205
ravians, before the Spaniards entered their couns
try, cultivated alfo philofophy, and efpecially a-
ftronomy. It is not wonderful that thefe people,
to whom the knowledge of the true God, and of
the Chriftian religion could fearce be known,
adored the firmament, and efpecially the fun, that
benign planet, which appears to animate, ‘che-
rifh and fupport all nature. They knew of: no-
thing greater, nothing more worthy of adoration.
This worfhip appears, moreover, lefs abfurd
than that which the pagans offered to imaginary
divinities, or to men whom they had themfelves
deified. |
xv. ‘Such is- nearly the general plan of all
the religions that have amufed the minds of men
from the creation of the world to the prefent
day. The human mind is conftantly limited,
and its limits are very contracted when it would
extend itfelf toward the Supreme Being. ‘We
cannot be furprifed therefore, that men of the
moft fublime genius, and the moft profound phi-
lofophy, when they have framed new religions,
and have affumed the important title of leaders
of feéts, have laid down falfe fyftems, and have
frequently united grofs errors and fuperftitions
with clear, philofophic truths, and dogmas ftrict-
ly rational. But while we lament the weaknefs
of the human underftanding, let us remember,
that a religion, purely natural and philofophic,
can never fubfift among any nation upon earth;
for the bulk of every people cannot, and ought
not,
206 UNIvekSAL ERUDITION.
not, to apply themfelves to ratiocination; the
ftate has too much need of their hands, to admit
them to apply their heads to abftract fpecula-
tions, It is therefore abfolutely neceffary for
every founder of a religion, to prefcribe a uni-
form, fixed and immutable ftandard, as well for
the dogmas that the people are to believe, as for
the morals they are to practife, and the ceremo-
nies they are to obferve in their worfhip of the
Divinity : and this is the more neceffary, as the
principles of natural religion, if they were alone
fufficient to operate the temporal and eternal
happinefs of mankind, cannot be fo fixed, that
men of a fubtle and philofophic fpirit may not,
fooner or later, fet them in new lights, invent
new feéts, and throw the whole ftate into confu-
fion.» Let us remember, laftly, that the com-
mon people conftantly require fomething mar-
vellous in their religion, and that the marvellous
is more difficult to invent than is “TRC
imagined.
CHAP,
_, Ecerestasticat, History. 207
CHAP, IX.
The HISTORY of the Cur IstT-
taAN Church, of Herefies, of
the Popes and Reformers.
TROM amidft the thickeft darknefs a light
fhone forth: Jefus Chrift, the Saviour of
the world, was born at Bethlehem in Judea, on
the 25th of December, about the year of the
world 40003, in the 23d year of the reign of
Auguftus, and-in the 37th of that of Herod. If
Chrift had been nothing more than man, it muft
be confefied that he would have been the greateft
of men, the moft virtuous of the human race, the
wifeft of philofophers, and the moft truly learned
of all teachers. His doftrine would not have been
lefs divine. He difcovered to mankind the true
and the only principle of all virtue, by faying to
them, Love. But as he is acknowledged by all
Chriftians to be the real Son of God, who came
upon the earth to fave mankind, and offered him-
felf as a facrifice for the expiation of their fins,
it is not in the power of language fully to exprefs
that acknowledgment, that gratitude, veneration,
and profound devotion which we owe unto him.
His
208 Univirsat ErRvuvition.
His doétrine, his wifdom, his aéts, and his mi-
racles, foon diftinguifhed him from all thofe, who,
about the time of his birth, fet up for teachers,
and afiumed the title of King of the Jews, or
Meffiah; as Theudas, who is mentioned in
the Acts of the Apoftles, and many others.
When he was twelve years old, Jefus was brought
by his parents (Mary and Jofeph) to the temple
of Jerufalem, at the time of the celebration of
the feaft of Eafter: there he feated himfelf
amidft the doétors, who were aftonifhed at his
wifdom. From that time he is loft to our fight;
he returns to Nazareth, and exercifes the profef-
fion of a carpenter; with his fuppofed father, Jo-
feph; earning his:bread by the fweat of his brow.
When Jefus Chrifthad attained the age of twen-
ty-fix years, John appeared in Judea, declared
bimfelf the forerunner of the ‘true Meffiah, and
baptized Jefus in Jordan, when he was thirty
years of age, and was returned from Nazareth
in Galilee. The following ‘year Jefus went up
to Jerufalem, and there celebrated his firft feaft
of Eafter: but hearing that John was imprifoned
by Herod the Tetrarch, he left’ Judea, and re+ —
turned to Galilee. At the age of 32 years, he
went again up to Jerufalem, and there celebrated
his fecond feaft of Eafter: he then felected his
twelve apoftles, and afterward retired toward Cas ~~
pernaum: fome of his difciples left him, but the
apoftles remained faithful. The year following,
when our Saviour had attained his thirty-third
year, he returned to Jerufalem to celebrate his
third
.
-EcctesrasticaLt History. 209
third Eafter: he then inftituted the Holy Sup-
per; was taken into cuftody by the Jews, was
crucified, buried, defcended into Hell, role again,
appeared to his difciples, afcended into Heaven,
and feated himfelf on the sree of God the
Father.
II. They; who would make a regular courfe in
the hiftory of the church, fhould begin, there-
fore, by ftudying the life ot Jefus Chrift, as it is
contained in the four evangelifts, Matthew,
Mark, Luke, and John, and in the Ads of the
Apoftles, and no where elfe. The cotemporary
hiftorians make no mention of him: all the tra-
ditions that are related are mere fables, without
the leaft authority or appearance of truth; and
we muft regard thele as every man of fenfe re-
gards the portrait of our Saviour that is faid to
have been painted by St. Luke, who was a phy-
fician ; or thofe relicks of Chrift, and of the real
crofs, of which there are many cart-loads in the
world; as it would be very eafy to make appa-
rent, did the bounds of this work admit. For
the reft, each word that our Saviour pronounced,
_each aét, each miracle that he performed, is a
monument of his divine vocation, and which
every Chriftian ought to know and revere.
Ill. After the death of Chrift, his apoftles
continued to preach his doétrine, and extended
' jt, by degrees, over all the then known world.
Thefe twelve apoftles were called: 1. Peter, firit
Vor. III. O named
210 UNIVERSAL ERUDITION.
named Simon; 2. James, the fon of Zebedee;
3. John, the brother of James; 4. Andrew; 5.
Philip; 6. Bartholomew; 7. Matthew; 8. Tho-
mas; 9. James, the fon of Alpheus; 10. Jude,
or Thades, the brother of James; 11. Simon of
Canana; and 12. Matthias, elected by the other
apoftles in the place of Judas Ifcariot, who, after
he had betrayed our Saviour, hanged himfelf in
defpair. Thefe apoftles performed great actions
and miracles, which are related by St. Luke in
the book called The As. The apottles chofe
feven deacons, who were to difpenfe the alms,.
and thefe were, 1. Stephen, a man full of the
faith, who was ftoned to death; 2. Phillip; 3.
Procor; 4. Nicanor; 5. Timon; 6. Parmenass;
and 7. Nicholas, a profelyte of Antioch. There
were, befide thefe, feventy-two difciples of Chrift,
all of whofe names are not known tous. By the
preaching of the apoftles they continually in-
creafed, and in procefs of time the number of
profelytes to Chriftianity, in all countries, was
without bounds. Saul, a native of Tarfus in Ci-
licia, and. in that quality a Roman citizen, was a
man of diftinguifhed rank, and of great learn-
ing. He at firft perfecuted the Chriftians, but
was foon converted, embraced Chriftianity, was
baptized, and took the name of Paul; he effi-
cacioufly affifted the apoftles in their labours,
cand became himfelf the apoftle of the Gentiles.
His travels and. fuccefs are well known. He,
and all the other apoftles, fuffered martyrdom in
the firft age, except St. John, who died a natu-
ral
EFcciestasticat History. ort
ral death. Such was the firft ftate of the Chrif-
tian church after its foundation by Jefus Chrift:
We ‘are likewife to examine, in this firft age,
called Apoftolic, how, when; where, and by
whom, the books of the New Teftament, that
is, the Four Evangelifts, the Acts of the Apof-
tles, the Epiftles or Letters of St. Paul and the
other apoftles, and the Apocalypfe, were writ-
ten; and by what methods the certainty of” their
dates, and their authenticity, are eftablifhed.,
- TV. The firft ages of Chriftianity were im-
brued with blood. We find every where accounts
of the troubles, perfecutions and punifhments
which they fuffered who embraced the Chriftian
doétrine. Itfeems as if the fovereigns and rulers
of the earth had combined to opprefs this reli-
gion, and to exterminate its firft profeflors: but
Providence was pleafed to confound the malice
and cruelty of man, and even to make the
church of Chrift flourifh by the blood of the
martyrs 5 to become conftantly more victorious,
and at laft triumphant, in the fourth century,
under the emperor Conftantine the Great. We
learn therefore, in the ecclefiaftical hiftory of the
firlt three ages, that of the great perfecutions,
which the emperors and pagan princes made the
Chriftians undergo ; and that of the martyrs,
who fealed the evangelic faith with their blood;
and whofe names the church has collected in its
martyrology.
O 2 V. That
212 UNiversat ErvuDITION.
V. That we may not confound all thofe: ob-
jects which the ftudy of the general hiftory of the
Chriftian church, from its origin to the prefent
time, prefents to us, but preferve perfpicuity in
our ideas of thefe matters, it feems convenient to
make a fhort analyfis of them, by ranging them
in the following order: we fhould therefore make,
VI. (1.) The neceffary obfervations on the
firft eftablifhment of bifhops, and on certain cut
toms of the primitive church, The word bi-
fhop comes from the Greek Emioxémes, and fig-
nifies an overfeer or infpeétor: by which is meant
a prieft, ecclefiaftic or facred prelate, who has
the {fpiritual conduct of a diocefe, province or
country. He receives his charge by ordination.
We find that there were in the primitive church,
immediately after the death of Chrift, fuch fort
of fupervifors or bifhops for each particular
church, whom St. John in his Apocalypfe names,
in a figurative ftyle, Angels, as the Angel of
Smyrna, the Angel of Laodicea, &c. But thefe
bifhops had little refemblance to thofe of our
time: they certainly bore neither mitre nor crofs;
they did not enjoy the revenues of a prince, nor
roll in luxurious pleafures: they lived in the
greateft fimplicity, inftructed, preached, and pre-
ferved order among their flocks, without pomp, —
and without ambition. This part of ecclefiafti-
cal hiftory fhews alfo, what were the deacons, dea-
conefies, and other religious ; the prefbytery of
bifhops, or the college compofed of priefts and
| deacons ;
Ecciesiasticat H.story. 213
deacons; what was the ftate of the ancient
churches and their conftruction ; what is meant
by the agapz, or feafts of charity, that were made
- dn the affemblies of the faithful, during the time
of the apoftles; the eu/ogies, which were {mall
pieces of bread that were fanétified by folemn
prayers, to be diftributed among the brethren in
fign of communion of faith and charity: : the dip-
tychs, or regifters of perfons of greateft confe-
quence, who were to be publicly prayed for: the
degrees of public penitence*: and laftly, the
~ Eucharift, or holy fupper, whofe very name and
inftitution prove fufficiently, that it was a folemn
fupper, which the faithful held among them in
order to celebrate the memory of our Saviour;
that they made it in their houfes, and amidft
their families, and not in a church; that it was
held at night, and not in the morning, which
would have been abfurd; that it was never called
a facrament, which is a Latin word, that-is not
to be found either in the Old or New Tefta-
ment, but is of modern invention ; that it was a
repaft in which they did not pretend to include
any thing myfterious, myftic or miraculous, any
more than the Jews did in their pafchal lamb, in
* We here difcover, in thefe early days, traces of human
invention ; for we find not one word of all thefe matters in
the holy feripture. So difficult is it for man to imitate the
admirable fimplicity of his Divine Mafter, and to leave his
doétrine unaltered, though ‘he has denounced the moft ter-
rible imprecations againft thofe who fhall add or diminith
one word of his gofpel,
the
214 UNniversat ERvDITION,
the place of which our Saviour inftituted the
holy fupper, by making ufe of almoft the very
phrafes, in bleffing the bread and wine, that the
father of a Jewifh family made ufe of in bleffing
the lamb and the wine of Eafter: in fhort, that
it was a refpectable inftitution, but has been
ftrangely disfigured.
VII. (2.) The Hiftory of the Popes. Though
it may appear extraordinary enough, when we
form an idea of the prefent popes as heads of the
Chriftian church and fecular princes, to find an
uninterrupted fucceffion of thefe fovereign pon-
tiffs, from the apoitle St. Peter to Clement XIII.
a Venetian; it is, however, convenient and ufe-
ful to follow this feries of the catholic hiftorians,
as it produces great order in the hiftory of the
church, and leaves no confiderable vacuities to
be fupplied.. By diftinguifhing, therefore, the
eighteen ages of the church, and the reigns of
the popes in each century, and by learning the
moft confiderable events, with regard to the
church, that occurred under each pontificate, we
are enabled to acquire a knowledge fufficiently
complete of ecclefiaftical hiftory. We can here
give their names only, in their proper order.
VIIl.
Firft Age.
1. St. Peter the apoftle. 2. St. Linus. 3.St,
Cletus, a Roman, 4. St. Clement, a Roman.
Second
EcciestastTicaL History. 215
Second Age..
5. St. Anaclet, an Athenian. 6. St. Evarif-
tus. 7. St. Alexander, a Roman. 9g. St. The-
lefphore, a Grecian. 10. St. Higin, an Athe-
nian. 11. St. Pius of Aquila. 12. St. Anicetus,
a Syrian. 13. St. Soter of Fondi. 14. St. Elu-
therus, a Grecian. 15. St. Victor, an African.
Third Age.
16. St. Zephrinus, 17. St. Calliftus, 18.
St. Urban, 19. St. Pontianus, all Romans. 20.
St. Anterus, a Grecian. 21. St. Fabian, 22. St.
Cornelius, 23. St. Lucius I. 24. St. Stephen,
Romans. 25. St. Sixtus]. 26. St. Denis, both
Grecians. 27. St. Felix]. a Roman. 28. St.
Eutichian, a Tufcan. 29. St. Cajus, a Dalma-
tian. 30. St. Marcellinus, a Roman. *
Fourth Age.
31. St. Marcellus, a Roman. 32. St. Eufe-
bius, a Grecian. 33. St. Melchiades, an Afri-
can. 34. St. Silvefter, 35. St. Mark,” 36. St.
Julius, 37. St. Liberius, all Romans. 38. St.
Damaticus, a Spaniard. 39. St. Siricus, 40. St.
Anaftafius I. Romans,
Fifth Age, |
41. St. Innocent I. of Albany. 42. St. Zozi-
mus, aGrecian. 43. St. Boniface I. 44. St. Ce-
leftin I. Romans. 45. St. Sixtus II. 46. St.
Leo I. a Tufcan, furnamed the Great. 47. St.
Flilary of Sardinia, 48. St. Simplicius of Tri-
y voly,
216 UNIVERSAL Eruprrion,
voly. 49. St. Felix I]. a Roman. 50. St. Gis
lafiis, an African. 51. St. Anaftatius, a Roman.
52. St. Simmachus of Sardinia.
Sixth Age.
53. St. Hormifdas, of the Campania of Rome,
»64. St. John lL. of Tufcany. 55. St. Felix III.
of Benevento. 56. St. Boniface II. 57. St,
John Il. 58. St. Agapitus, all Romans. 49.
St. Silverus of Campania. 60. St. Vigil. 61.
St. Pelagus I. 62. St. John III. 63. St. Be-
nedi&, 64. St. Pelagus II. 65. St. Gregory J.
all Romans.
Seventh Age.
66. St. Sabinian of Pifcany: 67. St. Boniface
III. a Roman. 68. Boniface IV. of Valeria.
69. Deusdeditus, a Roman. 70. Boniface V. a
Neapolitan. 71. Honorius I. of Campania. 72.
Severinus, a Roman. 73. John IV of Dalma-
tia. 74. Theodore of Jerufalem. 75. 8t. Mar-
tin I. of Todi. 76. Eugenius I. 77.: Vitalian
of Segni. 78. Adeodatus, 79. Domnus, Ro-
mans. 80. St. Agathen, - 81. St. Leo IT. both
of Sicilia. 82. St. Benedict II. a Roman. 83.
St. John V. a Syrian, 84. St. Conon of Tarfus.
85. St. Sergius, a Syrian.
Goa Highth Age.’
86. John VI. 87. John VIL. both Grecians.
88. Sifinnius, 89. Conftantine, both Syrians. go,
Gregory Il. a Roman. 91. Gregory IH. a Sy-
rian.
FeecrestastTicat Husrory. 217
rian, 92. St. Zachary, a Grecian. 93. St. Ste-
phen II. 94. St. Stephen Ill. 95. Paul I. a
Roman. 96. Stephen IV. a Sicilian. 97, Adrian
I. 98. Leo III. Romans,
| Ninth Age. |
. gg- Stephen V. 100, Pafcal I. . ro1- Euge-
nius II. 102. Valentianus. 103. Gregory IV.
104. Sergius II. 105, Leo IV.* 106. Bene-
di& III. 107- Nicholas 1. called the Great, all
Romans. 108- Adrian II- 109. John VIII. a
Roman. 110. Martin II. a Tufcan. air. A-
drian IJ. 112. Stephen VI. 113. Formofus.
114. Boniface VI. 115- Stephen VII,
Tenth Age,
116. John IX. of Trivoli- 117. Benedi& IV.
aRoman- 118- Leo V. of Ardea. 119. Chrif-
topher, a Roman. 120. Sergius ITF. ef Tufcu-
lum. 121- Anaftafius III. a Roman. 422.
Lando Sabinus. 123- John X- 124. Leo VI.
a Roman. 125, Stephen VIII. 126. John XI.
of Tufculum. 127- Leo VII. a Roman. «128.
Stephen IX- a German. 129- Martin III. a
Roman. 130. Agapitus II. a Roman. 131,
John XII. of Tufcany. 132. Benedict V. 133.
John XIII. 134. Domnus II. 135. Benediét
VJ. all Romans. 136. Benedict VII. 137.
John XIV. of Pavia. 138- John XV. a Roman,
* Between Leo IV. and Benedict Til, fome place pope ;
or under. the title of John Vil.
139. Gre-
a
218 Universat Ervupirron:.
. 139. Gregory V..a German. — 140, Silvefter IT,
a monk of Auvergne.
Eleventh Age,
141- John XVI. 142. John XVII. - 143,
Sergius Ii]. Romans. 144. Benedict VIII. 145.
John XVIII. 146. Benedi&t IX. Tufcans. 147.
Gregory VI. 148. Clement II. - 149. Damafus
Hl. 150, Leo. IX, 151. Victor II. Germans.
152. Stephen X. of Lorrain. 1453. Nicholas II.
a Savoyard- 154. Alexander IJ. of Lucca, 155,
St. Gregory of Soana. 156. Viétor III. of Be-
nevento. 157+ Urban II. a Frenchman. 158,
Pafcal II. a Tufcan. —
Twelfth Age.
159. Gelafus of Gaita. 160. Califtus II. of
Bourgogne. 161. Honorius II. of Boulogne.
162. Innocent II,a Roman. 163. Celeftin II. a
Tufcan. 164. Lucius II. of Boulogne. 165.
Eugenius UI. of Pifa. 166. Anaftafius IV. 167.
Adrian IV, an Englifhman. 168. Alexander III,
of {Sienna. 169. Lucius II. of Lucca. 170,
Urban III. of Milan. 171. Gregory VIII. of
Benevento. 172. Clement III. a Roman. 173.
Celeftin III. a Roman. 174. Innocent III. of
Anagnia.
Thirteenth Age-
175- Honorius III, a Roman. 176. Gregory
IX. of Anagnia. 177. Celeftin IV. of Milan.
178, Innocent IV. of Genoa. 179. Alexander
Ty.
EcciestaSTICcAL History. 219
1V. of Anagniae 180. Urban IV. of Troja,
181. Clement IV. of gt. Giles’s. 182. Gregory
X- of Plaifance. 183. Innocent V- of Lyons,
184- Adrian V. count of Lavagne. 185. John
XIX. of Frefeati. 186- Nicholas III. of Rome.
187- Martin IV. of Brey. 188. Honorius IV.
of Rome. 18g. Nicholas IV. of Afcoli. Igo.
Celeftin V. of Ifernia- 191. Boniface VIII. of
Anagnia. )
Fourteenth Age-
192, Benedict X. of Trevifa- 193. Clement
V. of Bazas- 194. John XX- commonly called
John XXII. of Cahors, 195. Benedict XI. of
Foix. 196. Clement VI. of Limofin. 197. In-
nocent VI. of Limofin. 198. Urban VI. of
Manda. 199. Gregory XI. of Limofin. 200.
Urban VI. a Neapolitan. 201- Boniface IX.
Fifteenth Age. |
202. Innocent VII..of Sulmona. 203. Gre-
gory XII. a Venetian. 204. Alexander V. of
Candia. 205. John XXI. commonly called the
XXIII. a Neapolitan. 206. Martin V. a Ro-
man. 207. Eugenius 1V. a Venetian. 208.
Nicholas V. of Lucca. 209. Califtus III. a
Spaniard. 210. Pius II. of Sienna, 211. Paul ©
II. a Venetian. 212. Sixtus IV. of Savona,
213. Innocent VIII. of Genoa, 214. Alexander
YI. a Spaniard,
Sixteenth
220 UNIVERsaL ERUDITION.
Sixteenth Age,
215. Pius IIL. of Sienna. 216. Julius II. of
Savona, 217: Leo X. a Florentine. 218. Adri-
an VI. of Utrecht, 21 g- Clement VII, a-Flo-
fentine. 220. Paul III,a Roman, 221. Julius
III. a Tufcan: 222, Marcellus II. 22 3. Paul
IV. a Neapolitan. 224. Pius IV. of Milan,
225. Pius V. of Alexandria. 226. Gregory XIII.
of Boulogne. 227. Sixtus V. of Ancona. 228,
Urban VII. 229, Gregory XIV. of Milan.
230. Innocent IX. of Boulogna. 2 31. Clement
VILL. of Florence.
7 Seventeenth Age.
232. Leo XI. of Medicis, a Florentin. «2 33.
Paul V. a Borgefian. 234, Gregory XV. 235.
Urban VIII. a Florentine. 236. Innocent X. a
Roman. 237. Alexander VII. of Genoa. 2 38.
Clement IX. of Piftonia. 239. Clement X. a
Roman. 240. Innocent xj. of Milan, 241,
Alexander VIII. of Rome. 242. Innocent XII.
a Roman, | }
Eighteenth Age.
-243.Clement XI. of the dutchy of Urbano.
244. Innocent XIII. ‘a Roman. 245. Benedi&t
XII. or XIII. by the reafon of the antipope Be- .
nediét. 246. Clement XII. a Florentine. 247,
Benidi&t XIV. and 248. Clement XIII. a Ve-
netian.
IX. How
EcciesiasTicaL Husrory. 2248
IX. How happy, how glorious would it have
beem for Chriftianity if all thefe heads of the vi-
fible church, all thefe vicars of Chrift, had been
animated with the fpirit of their Divine matter ,
if they had been fagacious, learned, wife and
virtuous ; if they had all refembled Benedict XIV.
and Clement XHI. But fuch was not the will of
Providence, for the tiara has been frequently born
by the moft criminal heads. It is not for us,
however, to fcrutinize the counfels of the Su-
preme Being, nor to be. diffatisfied with thofe
inftruments of which he has thought proper to
make ufe, in executing his eternal decrees.
X. (3.) The Hiftory of the Schifms that have
arofe in the Chriftian church, and efpecially that
grand divifion by which it was divided into the
Greek and Latin churches, This fchifm began
about the year of Chrift 854. under the emperor
Michael of Conftantinople, «Its origin and pro-
grefs are to be found in all the hiftorians; but
to form a juft judgment it is neceffary to read
the authors of both parties. The empire of the
Eaft has followed from that time the dogmas
and rites of the Greek church, and the empire
of the Weft the dogmas and rites of the Latin.
The empire of the Eaft being now in the hands
of the Mahomertans, it is only the Greeks in Eu-
rope, in Afia Minor, and the iflands ; the Syrians,
the Georgians, and the Ruffians, who form the
Greek church, under the patriarchs of Conftan-
tinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerufalem . and
Ruffia,
222 UNniversart Ervpiriox.
Ruffia. The patriarch of Conftantinople bears
the title of Panagiotita fou, or his all-boline/s.
There are in this church archimandrins or abbies,
archbifhops, bifhops, fuffragans, bapas or curates;
and the religious named caloyers, who wear a
black habit, nearly the fame as that of the Be-
nedictines. - Ecclefiaftic hiftory informs us what
are the particular cireumftances that have at-
tended the ancient church; the fucceffior of its
patriarchs ; the councils it has held; and what
are its dogmas, its rites and ceremonies.
XI. The Hiftory of the Councils, during the
eighteen centuries of the univerfal Chriftian
church. Thefe councils have beén either cecu-
menical, in which all Chriftianity is interrefteds
or national, or provincial, or diocefian; and the
conciliabules, held by fchifmatic. ecclefiaftics:
They call the firft council that affembly of the
apoftles held in Jerufalem, where Jofeph, Bar-
fabas and Matthias, were propofed to fill the
place of Judas the traitor, when the lot fell on
Matthias. There have been fince that time many
of thefe forts of affemblies of bifhops and prin-
cipal ecclefiaftics, which may be compared to
provincial councils, but have never borne. that
title. The firft general council: was held at
Nice, a city of Bithynia, in Afia Minor, in the
year 325. ‘The cecumenical councils which have
fucceeded that, are
2. That of Conftantinople, held in the year
381. . “
3. That
EcciestasTicaL History. 223
3. That of Ephefus, in the year 431.
4. That of Calcedonia, 451.
5. The fecond of Conftantinople, in 553.
6. The third of the fame city, 680.
7. The fecond of Nice, in the year 787.
8. The fourth of Conftantinople, in 869.
g. That of the Lateran, held in 1123.
10. The fecond of the Lateran, in the year 1139.
11. The third of the fame place, in 1179.
12. The fourth of the fame place, in 1215,
13. That of Lyons, held in 1245.
14. The fecond of Lyons, in 1274.
15. That of Vienna, in 1311.
16. That of Conftance, in 1414.
17. That of Bafil, in 1431.
18. That of Florence, in 1439.
19. The fifth of the Lateran, in 1512, and
laftly,
20. That of Trent, held in the year 1545.
The decifions of thefe councils are named de-
crees or canons, and are regarded as infallible, be-
caufe they are fuppofed to have been immediately
dictated by the Holy Spirit. ‘The Holy Spirit,
however, has not been accuftomed to revoke and
contradict its decrees, as thefe councils have
publickly done. When the council of Trent
was fitting, there were in the world certain wick-
ed wits, who faid that the Holy Spirit arrived
* at Trent every day in the cloak-bag of the poftil-
lion who came from Verfailles. By read-
ing with attention the hiftory, the debates, and
decrees of all thefe councils, we may fee the ori-
gin
224 Universan Eruoirron.
gin and date of each article of faith, and each
dogma, contained in the theory or dogmatic,
and in the catechifms of modern Chriftians 5 as
they have deduced them from the principles of
the gofpel.
XII. The Hiftory of the Herefies. Any doctrine
that is contrary to the decifions of the catholic
church is called a herefy: an herefiarch, therefore,
is one who invents and maintains fuch doétrine,
and from whom it takes its name ; and a heretic
is he who embraces and follows that doétrine.
According to this definition we cannot fay that
there have been any heretics, properly fo called,
fince the time of the apoftles, becaufe. the gene-
ral fyftem of the catholic religion, as it is at this
day, has been. formed by the fucceffive decifions
of the councils only: for otherwife, a man who
had advanced, in the fecond or third century, a
point of doétrine that was not eftablifhed by any
council till the tenth century, would have been
a heretic. This is fo clear, that itis not likely
any one will be hardy enough to deny it. But
if we agree to call thofe heretics who have ad-
vanced and maintained doétrines contrary to
thofe received and taught by the Chriftian church
at that very time, there have been certainly he-
retics without number in all ages of the church;
from Simon the Magician and Dofithea, who
lived in the time of the apoftles, down to count
Sintzendorff, leader of the Herrenhutters. Ec-
clefiaftic hiftory informs us, from age to age,
what
_Eccuestastitar History? 4.28
what were theit names, their doctrines, the pro-
fs that they made, and the obftacles they en-
countered. It makes particular mention of one
hamed Manes; who lived in the third century;
about the year 277, ahd who was the founder
of a feét called Manicheans: of one” Aftius; who
appeared 1 in the fourth century, and became the
Chief of the formidable fect of Arians: of one,
Pelagius; who éftablifhed, at the begirining of
the fifth century, thé celebrated fect of Pela-
gians: of one Neftorius, who, about the year
430; founded the feét of Neftorians: of one Le-.
lius Socinus, who formed, toward the middle of
the fixteenth century, the fect of Socinians ; and
of many other herefiarchs, who have made thent-
felves very famous in the world.
XIII: Bur it appears to be unjuft ro give the
Odious appellation of herefiarch, or heretic, td
Martin Luther, or John Calvin; who, far from
attempting to introduce any new dogmas into the
church, have not, in any mantief,; attacked the
fundamental principles of the Chriftian religion;
but have applied themfélyes folely to the re-
eftablithment of thé pure and fimple doétrine of
Jefus Chrift; and co the purging of the catholio
feligion from divers points of faith and practice,
. which time, the troubles of the church, its leaders
and councils, had introduced, and which had
rendered the doétrine of our Saviour quite differ-
ent from that fimplicity and humility by which
it was originally characterized. Their only in-
Vou. IE, P tention
all
i.
226 Univirsat ErvuDITION.
tention was to reform abufes, and not to intro+
duce new fyftems. Perhaps they wanted either
difcernnient or courage, or. proper fupport, to
retrench more of thofe dazzling fuperftitions. Be
that as it may, ecclefiaftic hiftory inftructs us in,
(6.) The Hiftory of the Reformation, in its full
extent, as well as the moit remarkable events
that have occurred in the two religions (the Cal-
yinift and Lutheran) from the time that fome of
the principal nations of Europe have embraced
them,
XIV. This hiftory likewife informs us,
(7.) Of the different Seis which at this Day di-
vide the three principal Chriftian Communities, who,
though they follow in general the fundamental _
dogmas of their communion, and the rites of ©
their church, yet differ from it in fome. effential
articles. Such are the Molinifts and Janfenifts
‘among the Catholics ; the Moravian brethren, or
Herrenhutters, among the Lutherans; and the
Armenians, Gomarifts, Coccigans, &c. among
the Calvinifts. We here fee alfo the origin and
hiftory ‘of the Mennonifts and the Quakers,
and, in fhort, of all the fe&ts which now fubfilt
in the Chriftian world.
XV. (8.) The Hiftory of the Martyrs. Mankind:
have been, in all ages, fo fenfelefs and inhuman
as to perfecute their brethren for fecking a diffe-
rent way by which they might arrive at eternal
felicity, and have even casried their ba
: ar
.
Ec cesrasticAt History. 227
far as to caufé them, fot that reafon only, to ex:
pire in tortures : an abfurdity as great, a prac-
tice as ehorioufly inhuman and wicked, as it
would be to put them to the torture for going
to Paris or Rome by a road different from that
which is taken by the poft. The firft Chriftians,
in particular, efidured inexpreffible, inconceiv-
able perfecutions and torments. They whofe
blood has been {pilt in the caule of religion are
called Martyrs, and their names,\ as well as the
hiftory of their lives and deaths, are recorded in
thofe immortal books called Martyrologies.
There ate fome of thefe that contain merely a
lift of their names, and of the place and day of
martyrdom Of each faint. Baronius gives to pope
Clement I. the glory of having introduced the
cuftom of collecting the acts of the martyrs. The
martyrology of Eufebius of Cziarea; which is
attributed to St. Jerom, is the moft ancient
that is kriown tous. That of Beda was wrote
in 730. The ninth century was very fruitful of
works of this jort. There is alfo the fmall mar-
tyrolopy that was fent by the pope to Aquila;
thofe of Florus, Wandelbent, Raban, Notker,
Adon, Uiuard, Neéveloh, Ditmar, &c. The
martyrologies were preceded by the calendars.
XVI. (9.) The Hiffory of the Religious Orders.
By which is meant fuch focieties of religious
people as monks and nuns, who live uncer the
direction of a chicf, obierve the fame regu-
lations, and wear the fame habic. Thefe reli-
Sy gious
228 UniversaL ErRuDITION.
cious orders may be reduced to five clafles,
monks, canons, knights, mendicants, and regu-
lar clerks. Many of the fathers of the church
regard St. John the Baptift as the founder of a
monattie life, and St Jerom calls him, on that
account, monachorum princeps. But nothing is
more ridiculous than fuch an opinion, What
refemblance is there between St. John and @
monk ? Could St. John ever think of prohibit-
ing that which God and religion, pofitive and
natural, permit ; that is, the allowing of churche-
men to marry, and provide inhabitants for the
world, and fubjects for the fate? Be this how-
ever as it may, we find in the hiftory of the
church (efpecially in thofe that are wrote by ca~
tholic authors) a feries of all the religious or-
ders that have been founded in Chriftianity dur-
ing the eighteen centuries that it has fubfifted,
with the regulations that each of theie orders
have adopted and followed. Father Helyot, a
penitent of the third order of St. Franeis, has.
gormed a hiftory of the monaftic, religious and
military orders, and of all the focieties of each
fex: and there is, at the beginning of his firft
~volume,. a catalogue of fuch books as treat of
thefe orders.
XVII. (10.) The Series of the principal Authors
of Sacred Hiftory. At the head of this laft divi-
fion are naturally placed,
1. The facred authors of the New Teftament.
@ur. Saviour has left us no part of his
divine
Eccrrstasticat History. 225
divine doétrine in writing. The whole
of it was collected and digefted by the
four evangelifts. Sr. Luke wrote the
Aéts of the Apoftles, and St. John the
Apocalypfe, The reftof the New Tefta- -
ment confifts of epiftles or letters, which
St. Paul, St. James, and St. Jude wrote,
after the death of Chrift, to fome churches
of the faithful, or to fome of their re-
lations,
2. The fathers of the church. By this title
is properly meant thofe ecclefiaftical
writers who have preferved what is. called
the tradition of the church.. Their
writings are held in high veneration, and
have an extraordinary authority in the ca-
tholic church, and are in much efteem
among the other communions. The ca-
talogue of thefe is to be found in moft
ecclefiaftic hiftories, but is too nume-
rous to be inferted here.
3. The other catholic authors, who have
wrote fince the beginning of the thir-
teenth century, down to the prefent day,
on matters of importance to religion, and
who are called doétors.
4. The principal Lutheran authors, from
Martin Luther, Phil. Melanchton, &c. to
the prefent time.
5. The
230 UNiverRsaL ErvpiTiown.
5. The principal writers among the Cal-
_ vinifts, from John Calvin, Zuinglius,
Oecolampadus, &c. down to our own
day.
6. The Socinian authors, who are alfo called
Polonian brethren, whofe works have
been collected ; as thofe of Socinus, Crel-
lius, Walzogen, &c. |
7. The Janfenift and Molinift writers, &c,
_ among the catholics: and laftly,
8. The writers among the various modern
fects, as Quakers, Mennonifts, Herren-
hutters, &c. *
He, who fhall ftudy ecclefiaftical hiftory ac-
cording to the plan we have here laid down,
will acquire, we apprehend, a complete know-
dedge of it, and at the fame time range in his
_memory all its various matters, in a proper
order. Hin?
EHAP,
ANTIQUITIES. 231
C H.A-P.. ..x.
ANTIO DOUITIES.
E fhould not confound in our ideas the
different terms of Antiquities and An-
tiques. By antiquities are meant all teftimonies
or authentic accounts, that have come down to
us, of ancient nations; and by antiques, thofe
precious works in painting, architecture, fculp-
ture, and graving, that were made from the time
of Alexander the Great, to that of the emperor
Phocas, and the devaftations of the barbarians ;
that time has fpared and has committed to our
care, and which are the ornaments of our cabi-
nets and galleries, and fometimes of the gardens’
of princes. Antiques therefore make only a part
of antiquities, and the latter form a very exten-
five fcience, including “‘ an hiftorical knowledge
of the edifices, magiftrates, offices, habiliments,
manners, cuftoms, ceremonies, worfhip, and
other objects worthy of curiofity, of all the prin-
cipal ancient nations of the earth.”
II. This fcience, therefore, is not a matter of
mere curiofity, but is indifpenfable to the theo-
logian ;
’
23% Ontyrrsar Erupition,
logian; who ought to be thoroughly acquainted
with the antiquities of the Jews, to enable him
properly to explain numberlefs paffages in the
Old and New Teftament: to the lawyer ; who,
without the knowledge of the antiquities of
Greece and Rome, can never well underftand,
and properly apply, the greateft part of the Ro-
man laws: to the phyfician and the philofopher,
that they may have a complete knowledge-of the
hiftory and principles of the phyfic and philofo-
phy of the ancients: to the critic, that he may
be able to underftand and interpret ancient au-
thors: to the orator and poet; who will be
thereby enabled to ornament their writings with
umberlefs images, allufions, comparifons, &c,
all which | gave Mafenius occafion to fay : Qui-
cunque ad aliquam inter Romanos eloquentie faculta-
tem ad/pirat, hance veterem Romane urbis hiftoriam,
originem, mores, infiituta hujus gentis, di i/ciplinam
in toga fagoque ufitatam, tencre neceffe of. Neque
enim citra banc cognitionem prifcos Romane eloquent
tig affertores, Ciceronem, Livium, Plinium, Teren-
tinm, aliofque, Satis quifquam vel legendo affequatyr,
uel immitetut feribendo. Palaftr, Siyh Rom, L. III,
¢, 18.
Til. Antiquities are divided into facred and
profane, into public and private, univerfal and
particular, &c. It is true that the antiquaries
(efpecially fuch as are infe&ted with a fpirit of
pedantiim, and. the number of thefe is great) fre-
quently, carry their i inquirigs too far, and employ
them-
-
~~
ANTIQUITIES 233
elves in laborious refearches after learned
trifles : but the abufe of a fcience ought never
to make us neglect the applying 1 it to rational
and ufeful purpofes. |
IV, Many antiquaries alfo reftrain their learned
labours to the ecclaitciflement of the antiquities
of Greece and Rome: but this field is far too
confined, and by no means contains the whole
of this fcience, feeing it properly includes the
antiquities of the Jews, Egyptians, . Perfians,
Phenicians, Carthaginians, Hetrufcans, Germans,
and, in general, all thofe principal nations whom
we have mentioned in the sth chapter of ancient
hiftory ; fo far as any accounts of them are come
down to us,
V. It will be eafily conceived, that it.is not
poffible for us to enter here into the detail of all
thefe matters : it is our bufinefs, however, to in-
form our readers of what they ought to inquire
after in the ftudy of the antiquities of each peo-
ple, as far as the monuments or memoirs that
are yet remaining can furnifh any lights ; and
this is what remains to be done to complete this
chapter.
VI. The fcience of antiquities includes there-
fore,
4. The origin of a people, and of the ame
they bear,
2. The
>
234. Universat Ervpition.
--2. The local fituation of the country they
inhabited.
3. The extent and bounds of their country.
4. The climate and its properties.
5. The genius and fpirit of the people.
6. Their manners.
7. The progrefs they have made in arts and
fciences, in commerce, navigation, &c.
8. Their military capacity; their valour, dif-
cipline, knowledge in fortification, &c.
9. The ‘geographic defcription of the coun-
try its mountains, forefts, rivers, lakes,
&c.
to. The natural hiftory of the country ; its
animals, plants, minerals, and other pro-
ductions.
11. The account of its principal cities, and
efpecially its capital.
12. Its bridges, gates, highways, and moft
confiderable edifices, ,
13. Its public places,
14. Its aqueducts, cifterns, fountains, 8c.
15. The palaces of its kings, princes, or fe-
nate.
16. All its other public buildings, as arfe-
nals, tribunals of juftice, public halls, &c.
VII. And alfo,
17. The public libraries.
18. Public baths, |
19. Harbours and keys.
ey 20. The-
ANTIQUITIES. 238
20. Theatres, amphitheatres, circufes, places
for public, combats, &c.
21, Subterraneous paflages for water, as com-
mon fewers, &c.
22. Public magazines and granaries.
23. Public fciools.
24. The fields where the foldiery were exer-
cifed.
25. The public mills.
26. The burfes, or places where the merchants
affembled.
27. The houfes of private, perfons, as well in
town as country.
28. Their carriages, cars, litters, &c. ecuries,
&c,
VIII. Embellifhments and ornaments in archi-
ecture and ftatuary, as
29. Triumphal arches.
30. Columns,
31. Obcelifks,
32. Colofies.
33- Equeftrian and pedeftrian ftatues, groups,
&c. |
34. Bafs-relieves, &c. To all which fhould be
added inquiries into the mechanics of the
ancients, or the machines of which they
made ufe in their immenfe works, and the
advancement they had made in this
art,
IX. Sacred
#36 Universat Ervupitroy;
IX. Sacred antiquities, comprehending,
35. Their temples, chapels, facred groves,
—) &e.
36. The gods of each nation, their demigods,
&c,
37. The general and particular worfhip -of
_) each people,
38. Their idols, oracles, &c.
39- Their priefts, facrificers, augurs, flamens,
and other perfons of both fexes employed
in their facred offices.
40. Their folemn feafts, and particularly
thofe inftituted in honour of each divinity,
41. The habiliments and ornaments of the
priefts and ecclefiaftics.
42. The vafes, cenfers, altars, and utenfils that
they employed in the facred fevice,
43. Their facrifices and viGtims.
44. Myfteries.
45. Sacred books.
46. Lares or domeftic gods.
47. Proceffions. And laftly,
48. The principal dogmas of the religion, and
the precepts of morality of each people.
X. In profarie aiitiquities, there are likewife
to be inquired after,
49. The public fhews that were exhibited by
the ancient nations in general.
50. Their tragedies, comedies, mimes, panto-
mimes, &c.
| 51. Their
ANTIQUITIES 3%
g1. Their games, as the olympic and capito-
_ lian games: their fairs; 8c.
52. The combats of gladiators, wreftlers, wild
beaits, &c.
53. Lhe races of men and horfes.
§4. The mulic of the ancients, and the inftru-
ments that were in ufe. among each people.
This divifion likewife includes their
triumphs, and the feveral crowns and dia-
dems with which they ornamented the
heads of their emperors, kings, conquer-
ors, priefts, priefteffes, poets, and other il-
luftrious perfonages, &c.
XI. They next pafs to the examination of po-
litical {ubjects, as
55. The form of government,
56. The divifion of a people into tribes.
57. The chiefs of each people, and their au-
thority.
58. The heads of their tribes.
59. Their magiftrates.
60. Their manner of rendering juftice, and
the method of procefs in their laws,
61. Their criminal juftice.
62. Fhe corporeal punifhments, and other po-
litical pains, penalties, and ignominies
which they inflicted.
63. The various claffes of the inhabitants ; as,
among the Romans, the patriciens, knights,
plebeians, fenators, the people in a body,
: the:
238 Untversar Eruoprrion:
the nobles, ignobles, the ingenui, the fréed=
men and the /ertini.
64. Their flaves; the nature of flavery, fervi-
tude, and of the peculium or property of
flaves,
65. Their ambaffadors and their privileges,
66. ‘Their military officers of all ranks; the
nature of their troops, théir duty, and of
_ __ the art of war among then.
67. The civil laws of each people.
68. Their criminal laws. '
69. The public conftitution of each nation.
70. The affemblies of the people, and their
_ delibérations on the affairs of ftate:
71. The nature of the finances of the ancient
nations, and of their contributions.
72. The induftry of the people, their manu:
‘fa€tures and commerce.
73. Their mines, and the manner of working’
them.
74. Their agriculture and rural economy.
75- Their weights arid meafures.
76. Their current coins, and their value.
77- Their medals, and their ufe.
78. The folemn forms which they obferved, »
~ as well in their public ‘acts, as in their con-
tracts, wills, and other private affairs.
XII. In the laft place, they examine into cer-
tain ufages and cuftoms obferyed by ancient na-
tions, in private life, as
79. Eheit
ANTiQuiTigzS, 239
79. Their marriages.
80. Their burials, fepulchres, funeral urns,
&c.
81. The ordinary drefs of the inhabitants of
both fexes ; their manner of cloathing the
head, body, and feet; and the ornaments
of their drefs, &c.
$2. Their different kinds of foods; and me-
theds of preparing them.
$2. Thet manner of fitting at table.
84. Their ordinary drink, and ftrong liquors.
85. Lheir beds, dormitories, furniture and
utenfils.
86. Their chefts and cabinets.
87. The proper names of the ancients, and
efpecially thofe of the Romans, who had
feveral, as Marcus Tullius Cicero: and
an infinity of other like matters, as,
$8. The education they gave their children,
&c.
XIII. If to all thefe general fubjeéts we: add
the particular ftudy of antiques, of the ftatues,
bafi-relieves, and the precious relicks of architec-
ture, painting, camaycus, medals, 8c. it is eafy
to conceive that antiquities form a fcience very
exteniive and very complicate, and which is alone
fufficient to employ the whole lite of a man who
is a laborious ftudent: and though a ftrong me-
mory be the principal faculty that isrequired, yet
great fagacity and attention are neceflary in com-
paring the feveral objects, in drawing judicious”
inferences,
eK Sl Oe a4
hy te : >. ait ae
a40 Universat Erubdirion:
inferences, and in formirig from thence an inge-
pious and rational fyftem. . It is manifeft; more-
over, that the ftudy of aiitiquities muft be vaftly
extenfive; when we confider that all the articles
we have enumerated for one people; muft be ex-
tended to all the nations of antiquity; and that
we muit know them, as if, in a manner, we had
lived among them; But this is 4 knowledge
that it would have been impoffible for any one
man whatever to have attained, if our predecef-
fors had not prepared the way for us; if they
had not left us fuch ineftimable works as: thofe
of Gronovius; Grevius; Montfaucon, count
Caylus, Winckelmann, the Hebraic antiquities,
of D. Iken of Bremen, the Grecian antiquities of
Brunings, the Roman antiquities of Nieupoort,
and efpecially that work which is intitled Biblio-
eraphia Antiquaria Joh. Alberti Fabricii, pro-
feffor at Hamburg.
XIV. Nor muft we here forget that very
valuable work, with which Mr. Robert Wood,
am Englifhman, has lately enriched this feience,
and which is fo: well known, and fo juftly efteem-.
ed: by all true connoiffeurs, under the title of
the Ruins of Palmyra, and thofe of Balbeck. It
is by this work that we are fully convinced of
the grandeur and magnificence, the tafte and
elegance of the buildings of the ancients. We
here fee that the invention of thefe matters is
not all owing to the Greeks, but that there were
other nations who ferved them as models. For
: thoveh
Fe ANTIQUITIES | 24%
though many of the edifices of Palmyra are to
be attributed to the emperor Aurelian, and to
Odenatus and his wife Zenobia, who reigned
there about the year 264, yét there are found,
at the fame place, ruins of buildings, that ap-
pear to be of far greater antiquity, and that are
not lefs beautiful. The ancient Perfepolis is
fufficient to prove this affertion,. When we
ferioufly reflect on all thefe matters, and efpecial-
ly if we attempt to acquire any knowledgé
of this. fcience, we fhall foon be PELE TE |
that it but ill becomes a petit-maitre to laugh at |
a learned antiquary. ©
XV. The knowledge of thefe monuments of
the ancients, the works of {culpture, ftatuary,
graving, painting, &c. which they call antiques,
requires a ftrict attention; with regard to the
matter itfelf on which the art has been exer-
cifed ; as the wax, clay, wood, ivory, ftones
of every kind, marble, flint, bronze, and every
fort of metal, We fhould begin by learning on
what matter each . ancient nation principally
worked, and. in which of the fine arts they ex-
celled. For the matter itfelf,. as the different
forts of marble; compofitions of metals, and the
fpecies of precious ftones, ferve frequently ta
characterize the true antique, and to difcover the
counterfeit. The connoiffeurs pretend alfo to
know, by certain diftinct charatters in the defign
and execution of a work of art, the age and
nation where it was made. They find, more-
Vou. If. Q over,
I. ee,
is ST Ne VS Pee, SS ce ae
242 UNIVERSAL ERUDITION.
over, in the invention and execution, a degree
of excellence, which modern artifts are not able
to imitate. Now, though we ought to allow,
in general, the great merit of the ancients in the
polite arts, we fhould not, however, fuffer our
admiration to lead us into a blind fuperftition.
There are pieces of antiquity of every fort, which
have come down to us, that are perfectly excel-
lent, and there are others fo wretched, that the
meaneft among modern artifts would not ac-
knowledge them. The mixture of the good
and bad has taken place in all fubjects, at all
times, and in all nations. ‘ The misfortune is,
that moft of our great antiquaries have been fo
little fkilled in defigning, as fcarcely to know
how to draw a circle with a pair of compafies.
It is prejudice therefore, which frequently directs
them to give the palm to the ancients, rather
than a-judgement directed by a knowledge of
the art. That charaéter of expreffion, which
they find fo marvellous in the works of anti-
quity, is often nothing more than a mete chi-
mera, They pretend that the artifts of our
days conftantly exaggerate their expreffions ;
that a modern Bacchus has the appearance of
aman diftraé&ted with intoxication; and that a
Mercury feems to be animated with the fpirit
Of a fury, and fo of the reft. But let them not »
decide too haftily. Almoft all the antique fi-
gures are totally void of all fpirit of expreffion ;
‘we are forced to guefs at their characters.
Every artificial expreffion requires, moreover,
." to
ANTIQUITIES. 243.
to be fomewhat exaggerated. A ftatue or por-
trait is an inanimate, a dead figure, and muft
therefore have a very different effect from one,,
which, being endowed with life, has the mufcles
conftantly in play, and where the continual
change of the features, the motion of the eyes,
and the looks, more or lefs lively, eafily and
clearly exprefs the paffions and _ fentiments,
Whereas in a figure, that is the produce of art,
the delicate touches, that fhould exprefs the
paffions, are loft.to the eyes of ‘the fpeétators :
they muft therefore be ftruck by ftrong, bold
characters, which can affect them at the firft
glance of the eye. A very moderate artift is
fenfible, at the fame time, that he is not to
give his figures extravagant expreflions, nor to
place them in diftorted attitudes.
XVI. We will finifh this chapter with one
material obfervation. All the fciences, by which
we can acquire any knowledge of antiquity,
as, 1, That which we have here explained ; 2.
that of medals and coins; 3. the diplomatic,
and the explication of infcriptions, or what is
called LEpigrammatographica, or res lapidaria;
and 4, The knowledge of books, are comprifed
under the common collective title of Literature.
But by a caprice of the literati, they have in-
cluded, under that denomination, the philofophic
fciences and hiftory : though for fo doing, there
can be no good reafon whatever, Why fhould
we perplex the ideas of thofe who are defirous
Q2 of
a
244 Universaur ErupbiTion.
of obtaining a knowledge of thefe matters, by
confounding the fciences ? Ought we not much
rather to endeavour carefully tomark their diftine&
Jimits? But perhaps their intention is to: com-
prehend, under the denomination of literature, '
the whole of Univerfal Erudition; and if that be.
the cafe, we are not defirous of difputing with
any one about words.
SARRUAR.NH ARS AEA
CHAP. XI.
Of MeEpALs and Coins.
I, "E fhall begin with coins, becaufe they
are moft ancient, and of moft univer-
fal ufe; money was current a long time before
- they had invented the method of preferving the
memory of illuftrious perfons, by thofe little
monuments of metal, which imitate coins, and
are eafily difperfed among mankind, and which
are called Medals. The number that has
been made of thefe medals is, befide, vaftly in-
ferior to that of monies; and the coins of the
ancients are, moreover, become our medals.
The
Mepats and Corns, 245
The learned comprehend thefe two objects,
which form an important part of literature,
under the denomination of Res Nummaria, or
Numifimatica.
II. It is certain, that in the moft ancient
times, all commerce was carried on by barter.
There was always a neceffity, however, for a
fort of common meafure, by which they eftimat-
ed the value of commodities. The firft inhabi-
tants of the earth were almoft all fhepherds and
hufbandmen: they therefore made that common
meafure to confift of a certain portion of their
flocks, which was confidered tanquam_ pretium
eminens: and any commodity was faid to be
worth fo many oxen, fheep, &c. as is confirmed
by Gellius, Nodes Attica, 1. xi. c. 1. In procefs of
time, they found it more expedient to exprefs
the value of moft commodities, by bits of lea-
ther, which by their marks fhowed the number
of beafts they were worth, This was the firft
money, and the origin of all coins. Hiftory
fays pofitively, that Numa Pompilius caufed
money to be made of wood and leather: and
from hence came the Latin word pecunia. Caf-
fiodorus fays likewife in exprefs terms: Pecunia
enim a pecudis tergo nominate, Gallis auctoribus, fine
aliquo adbuc figno ad metalla tranflata ef. Ue
treats alfo de affibus fcorteis in the tenth book. °
_ JIL. Metals being found the moft incorruptible
of all fubftances, they afterwards made ule of
a | bits
PY. ee ae
ee i ty, tt Ne ee i il
246 Unitversat Erupition.
bits of rough copper in the room of leather,
which they called «s rude, and reckoned by their
weight : thefe were after marked according
to their weight, and laftly, with images, And
we {till fee, on the moft ancient coins, the figures
of animals, and efpecially of oxen and fwine,
Numa, toward the end of his reign, began to
caft money, and it was from him that came the
word Nummus. They formed pieces of money
of different weights, and marked on each, as we
have juft faid, its weight, or its intrinfic value,
It is time that perfects ail inventions, and it was
time that taught the ancient mations (as it may
one day teach the modern Swedes) that the
precious metals were more commodious in the
commerce of life, and that a lefs weight might
exprefs, and be equal to, a greater value; and
from difcovering this, they came to form money
of filver and gold.
IV. But, in the daily ufe of thefe pieces,
it would be impoffible always to weigh them,
and much fraud might arife by depending on
their marks. To obviate this inconvenience,
the fovereigns of each country took on them
the exclufive office of making money; and
that the public might be certain the weight was
juftly marked, they ftamped them on one fide
with their image, and on the other with their
arms or cypher: which practice has continued
to the prefent day: and it is manifeft, that the
credit and glory of a prince is concerned in
| having
Mepvats and Corns, . e4y
having the coin, which bears his image, contain
the true value, both with regard ¢ to the prefent
age, and to pofterity.
V. Mankind have alfo contrived to preferve
the memory of great events, and of RT
perfonages, by coins which they call medals :
term that is manifeftly derived from the a
metal. Thefe precious monuments of antiquity
do not, therefore, ferve merely to engage the
curiofity of the fcholar and the connoiffeur, but
are of ufe alfo in elucidating hiftory ; in
fixing the chronology, and in throwing clear
lights on ancient events: and as the current
coins of antiquity cannot pafs among us, on
account of the fmall number that is remainin
of them, and of the difference i in value of gold
and filver, thefe coins are now become the moft
precious medals. a
VI. The greateft part of antique coins and me-
dals, efpecially the Greek and Roman, are fo finely
ftruck, the defign and graving fo perfect, the in-
vention fimple and fublime, and the tafte fo exqui-
fite, that independent of their utility in hiftory, we
‘cannot fufficiently admire their intrinfic merit, and
muft conftantly regard them as inconteftable
proofs of the perfection of the arts in thofe diftant
ages. It is not therefore wonderful, that fo
many perfons of difcernment, tafte, and learn-
ing, have employed themfelves in forming col-
- Jeétions of the coins and medals of the ancients ;
and
248 Universart Erupition.
and that fo many learned men have wrote curious
and inftructive treatifes concerning them ; and
Jaftly, that the knowledge of thefe precious mo-
numents is become a very extenfive branch of
{cience, under the title of Numismatographia ;
and which we fhall now endeayour briefly to
explain,
VII. Medals may be divided into different
claffes,
(1.) According to the time when they were
ftruck: and in this refpeét they are either,
y. Antiques; which are. thofe that were
made from the moft ancient times of which we
haye any account, down to the fixth or feyenth
century of the Chriftian era.
2. Thofe of the middle age ; which 1 is from
the feyenth century, or the death of Phocas and
Heraclius, in 641, when Italy became a prey to
the Barbarians; where thofe fine medals that
are called Imperials end, and where begin thofe
of the lower empire; and,of the Grecian empe-
-sors, down to the taking of Conftantinople.
The Gothics continue the feries from the Impe-
rials, .They are fo called, becaufe they were
made in the time of the Goths, during the
decline of the two empires; and they refemble
the ignorance of their age. The connoiffeurs
pay but little regard to thee: they are, however,
of. great importance in hiltory, in afcertaining
the true chronology of events. Thefe come
quite down to the fifteenth century.
3. The
**Mevpars and Corns, ~ 249
3. The modern; which are thofe that have
been ftruck in Europe, from the time that. the
Goths were exterminated, and the art of
engraving began again to flourifh. The firft of
thefe is that of John Hufs, a famous heretic,
which was ftruck in the year 1415. This art
has rofe with great luftre from its afhes : there
are now many excellent medallifts, and we have
feen pieces executed by the celebrated Hedlin-
ger, a Swede, which, prejudice apart, are nothing -
inferior to the moft finifhed that Greece and
‘Rome have left us,
VIE. (2.) According to the nature and qua-
lity of the metal: and in this refpect they are
either of .
1. Gold; whofe feries is the leaft nume-
rous, and raltte exeeeds 1000 or 1200 in the
imperials, |
2. Silver; the feries of which may amount
to 3000, in the imperials alone.
. Brafs; which are of three different fizes,
‘that are called the great, the middle, and fmall,
and of which the feries‘ amounts to 6 or 7000,
if not more, in the imperials. It is not, how-
ever, either the metal or the magnitude that
renders medals valuable, but the rarity of the
head, the reverfe, or the legend. A medal may
be common in gold that is very fcarce in brafs ;
or very rare in filver, that is common in gold
or brafs. A head may be common that has a
very uncommon réverfe, and the contrary. There
are
2950 UNIVERSAL ERUDITION.
are alfo medals that are only fcarce in fome fe-
ries, and very common in others, as in gold,
filver, the great, middle, or {mall brafs.
IX. (3.) According to their effential qua-
lities, and the ufe to which they have been ap-
plied: and in this refpect they are,
r, Coins, that have anciently feryed in the:
commerce of life, but which time has rendered —
medals.
2. Real medals, ftruck in the form of coins,
either in gold, filver or brafs, to prefecve to
pofterity the image of illuftrious perfons, or the
memory of fome important action.
_ 3, Medallions; which are properly nothing
more than medals uncommonly large; and
which have been prefented by princes to thofe
whom they have honoured with their efteem :
or to ferve as public monuments. The Romans
named them Miffilia, There is no feries to be
formed of thefe, even if the different magni-
tudes and metals be united: and there are not _
above four or five hundred of them to be found
in the richeft cabinets. 2
X. (4.) According to the nation by whom
they have been made: and in this cafe they
are, |
1. Hebraic. The common opinion is, that
there are no Hebrew medals, and that the Jews
learned the knowledge of them from the Ro-
‘mans, when they invented the art of clipping
them.
Merpats and “Corns, 25%
them. ‘But, as we have faid in the firft fection,
the coins of the ancients are become our medals,
and efpecially the Hebraic, which are alfo cal-
Jed Samaritan, becaufe their legend is ufually
in the Samaritan language, and there is reafon
to believe that there was a mint in that city.
There are twenty paffages in the Bible which
prove that the Jews knew the ufe of money in
the time of Solomon. In the cabinets of the
cutious there are to be found thekels of copper
or filver, and we are affured that there is a gold
Hebraic medal in the cabinet of the king of
Denmark: but this is the only one that is
known, Father Soucier has wrate ia differtation
on Hebraic or Samaritan medals, where he ac-
curately diftinguifhes the true from the falfe;
defcribes all the kinds of thofe that are true,
and fhows that they were real Hebrew coins
ftruck by the Jews, after the models of the an-
cient monies, and that they were current before
the captivity of Babylon. All thofe medals how-
“ever, that we fee with the head of Mofes and
“Jefus Chrift, are manifeftly falfe. It has been
a pious or fuperftitious fraud, but ftill more
commonly a thirft of gain that has fabricated
thefe. Laftly, it is neceffary to obferve, that
‘the Jews counted by talents, thekels, bekas,
zuzas or dracmons, and by geras. The gera
was equal to fix fols of France, or three Englith
pence. There were ‘thekels of gold and of filver
the filver thekel is that which is commonly taken
- for a penny, and of which the Jews gave thirty
to
—_ ee Tay ee ee ee ey pee * “7 4
252 UNIVERSAL ERuUDITION.
to Judas as the price of his perfidy in betraying.
our Saviour. It has on one fide the figure of
Aaron’s rod, with this infcription, Jeroucha-
Jaim Hakkedoucha, Jerufalem the holy ; and
on the other the cup in which the manna was
kept, that was preferved in the fanctuary, with
thefe words round it, Chekel Ifchrael, or the
money of Ifrael. After the Romans became
matters of Paleftine, the Jews put the image of
the emperors on their coins, as appears by the
words of our Saviour himfelf, in chap. 20, of
the gofpel of St. Luke.
XI. There are likewife,
2. Egyptian medals, which are very rare.
3. Chinefe; but of which there are {carce any
that are antique.
4. Syriac.
5. - Perfian.
‘6. Arabic. |
7. Greek; which are the moft beautiful of
all: for the Greeks ftruck coins in all the three
metals, with an art fo excellent, that the Ro-
-mans were never able to equal them. The
figures on the Greek medals have a defign, an
attitude, a ftrength and delicacy, which expref-
fes the mujfcles and the veins in a manner infi-
_, nitely fuperior to thofe of the Romans. Thefe
, are very {carce and extremely valuable.
8. The Roman; which are elegant, common,
and authentic, and of which a feries may be
formed
Mepa rs and Corns. 253°
- formed almoft without any interruption. We:
fhall hereafter fpeak more fully of thefe.
g. The Hetrufcan; of which it is pretended
there are ftill fome to be found, but of this
many learned men have a rational doubt.
10. The Punic or Carthaginian: thefe are
not fcarce, efpecially in fmall brafs. They ‘are
eafily diftinguifhed by their emblem, which is
a crocodile refting againft a palm tree; and
was the arms of the republic of Carthage.
There are fome of them alfo that have a human
figure on one fide holding a {pear in one hand,
with this infcription Kart-hago; and on the >
other the head of a horfe, in profile, and un-
der, on the exergue is XI!
rt. The Parthian. | |
12. The Gothic: thefe are ill thaped pieces,
‘and of which neither the characters nor emblems
are explicable. The Goths, having made them-
felves mafters of Italy, would imitate the em-
perors, and caufed money to be immediately
ftruck, with a form and charaéter of their
own: but they fucceeded very badly; and in
their gold coins there is not fometimes a fourth
part that is pure. There are however fome
medals of their kings, as Atalaric, Theodal,
Witiges, Totilas, Attila, &c. which fhould be
ranged after the laft emperors of the Weft.
13. The Spanifh; which were made in‘imi- .
tation of the Punic, becaufe the Carthaginians
were then mafters of Spain; and they had par-
ticular
Ss a CU 4
as UNIVERSAL ErRuDiTION.
ticular charafters which no body now under-
ftands.
14. The modern European.
_ 15. The Mifcellaneous: thefe do not belong
to any regular feries or fyftem; but have been
ftruck by fome particular city. Thefe are met
with by chance, and there is frequently much _
labour required to decypher and explain them.
XIL. It would be to enter an immenfe laby-
rinth, were we here to attempt to deferibe all
the different coins and medals, and to point out.
their echaracteriftics. We muft content ourfelves
with explaining their general qualities. Every
medal has two fides, which are called its face
and reverfe. On each fide there is. the field,
which is the middle of the medal; the rim or
border; and the exergue, which is that part
that is beneath the ground on which the figures
ftand. On the two fides they diftinguifh the
type, and infcription or legend. The type is
the figures that are reprefented; and the infcrip-
tion, or legend, is the writing, and principally ©
that which is on the rim. Though frequently
in the Greek medals, and fometimes in the La-
tin, the infcriptiom is on the field. That which
is on the exergue is lefs commonly called in-
{cription, becaufe it frequently confitts of initial
letters only, the meaning of which is not under-
ftood. Thofe which are counterfeits of the an-
tique are called falfe medals: thofe which are in
part effaced are named defaced medals: fuch as
are
~~
“ Mepatcs and Corns, 255
_ @ré called reftored medals have the letters ref. on
them; which fhow that they were reftored by
the’ emperors, in order to render them perpetual ;
thofe that were made of copper, and afterward
covered with filver, are called, cafed medals:
fuch as have only a very thin coat of filver over
the copper, but which are fo dextroufly done
that it cannot be perceived, without cutting
them, ate faid to be plated: cleft medals are
thofe that ate cracked on the edge by the force
of the ftamp: thofe that are notched on the
edge are called indented medals ; this is a proof
of their value and antiquity: incufe medals are
fuch as have no reverfe : counter-marked medals
are fuch as have a ftamp either on the face or
on the reverfe, and which fhows. that they have
changed their value; the curious make much
featch after thefe : caft medals are fuch as were
not ftruck, but caft in a mould.
XIII. To give our readers an idea of the me-
thod of examining all forts of medals; and of
making a juft and learned decifion concerning
them, we fhall take, as an example, the coins
and medals of the Romans, which may ferve as
miodels in every refpect; and of which we have
remaining the moft complete feries, They there-
fore confider,.
1. The metal. Gold* medals are not liable
to be injured by ruft; ahd the gold of
which they are made is very pure, even finer
than that of the Holland ducats. There is no
great
_ . . '
ee a
Youre N°
“ae
256 UNIVERSAL. Er upitrow!
great number of their filver medals; and they
are commonly very imall: of thefe there can be
no remarkable clafs or divifion formed : filver is
likewife not f{ubject to ruft. The medals of
brafs, and the coins of copper, are, on the con-
trary, fo numerous, that a regular and complete
fyftem may be formed of them. They .are di-
vided, as we have faid, into large, middle and
fmall. The connoiffeurs pretend alfo that there
are likewife fome of Corinthian metal. There
is found on the copper an antique’ ruft, that
refembles a varnifh, and is called patima : it is
of a variable colour between green and black,
and prevents the ruft from eating any further,
This ruft the moderns have not hitherto been
able to imitate. There are alfo medallions that
are called 4ris moduli maximi, and ris maxiii
and which are known by not having the ufual
mark of the letters S.O. There are. alfo me-
dals or coins of iron, tin, and even lead (plum-
bei nummi.)
XIV. 2. The time when they were ftruck, In
the Roman medals they diftinguith two periods,
The firft is of thofe that were made in the time
of the republic, and are named Nummi confulares :
and the fecond is of thofe that were ftruck un-
der the emperors, and are named Nummi impera-
torum, and Imperiales. ° |
3- The reprefentation of a medal: in which
they examine, 1. on one fide the face, image or
buft: 2. the reverfe, or iconologic reprefenta- _
tion ;
7) ee or >,
Mepats and Corns, 259
tion: and here we muft obferve, that iconology
is the art of reprefenting to the fight all forts of
memorable events by images or fymbols, in
which a corporeal figure reprefents a moral or
ideal obje&t. The Greeks and Romans made
frequent ufe of thefe in their medals. And 3.
the infcription; in which the ancients employed
particular abbreviations, that are neceflary to
be known: thus S. F. fignified feculi felicitas :
T. F. temporum felicitas: C. R. claritas reip:
S. A. /pes Augufta, &c. Sometimes alfo the
name of the city is feen, where the piece was
made; or monograms, with the name of the mafter
of the mint, and other like matters.
XV. 4. The value of the coin, as it paffed in
the community where it was made; fuch as the
’ denarii, affes, quinarit, feftertii, fefquitertii, lidel-
la, fimbella, &c. Thefe values are commonly
marked on the coins by figns. |
6. The fingularity or fcarcity of a medal,
which forms its hypothetic value. Thus, in
the Roman medals, thofe of Otho, Pertinax,
Gordianus, Africanus, are of ineftimable worth,
becaufe they are, fo to fay, fingular. In like
manner when there are two bufts or heads toge-
ther (capita jugata) &c. with other important or
remarkable fingularities.
6. The preiervation of a medal; that is,
whether it has been well pteferved, or effaced,
diminifhed, or injured by ruft, or otherwife
damaged ; which diminifhes its value. There
Vor, Il. R are
<4 Se eee
258 Universat Ervpitiown.
are fometimes medals found fo fair and frefh,
that they appear as if they were juft come out
of the mint. The French name thefe a Fleur de
éoin, and the Italians, Di tutta offervazione.
7. The beauty of the defign, and the per-
fection of the engraving, as well as the relief, in
which the ancients, and efpecially the Greeks, ex-
celled. By this is meant the whole compofition
ofa medal. To judge properly of thefe mat-
ters; it is neceflary to underftand drawing, and
engraving ; to be a connoiffeur in the polite arts;
and, by feeing a great number of fuch as are ex-
cellent, to form a refined tafte.
8. In the confular coins or medals, the Roman
family to which they belong is alfo to be cons
fidered. There are medals of 178 illuftrious .
families of Rome.
g. Laftly, in order to underftand well, and
properly judge of antique coins, we fhould
be verfed in hiftory and antiquities, and know
the cuftoms, ceremonies and manners of ancient
nations,.
XVI; But as the medals of the ancients have
been frequently counterfeited, and as’ it is of
great confequence not to be deceived in this mat-
ter, numifmatography points out to us the prin-
cipal characteriftics of thefe counterfeits, and the
marks by: which we may diftinguith the true
from the falfe. Thele fititious medals are
therefore divided into five claffes. 1. Such ag
have been defigned and made, in modern times,
pie . ip
=
«3
wm
tl a te a
Mepats and Corns. 25g
in imitation of thofe of the antique. 2. Such
as have been accurately copied after fome an-
tique medal that really exilts. 3. Thofe that
have been formed or caft in the mold of an
- ancient medal. 4. Such as are compofed of
two antique medals, by cementing or joining
them together. 5. Thofe that are réally an-
tique, but that have been altered and fophitti-
cated, But notwithftanding all the precautions’
that numiimatography gives in full. detail, it -is
ftill very difficult for the connoiffeur to avoid:
thofe fnares that: are: continually laid ror him;
and even nor co be frequently deceived.
XVIIv With regard to the methods of which
‘the ancients made ufe in forming or coining’
their moneys and medals, we know bat litcle of
the matte?. The opinions of ‘the learned con-
cerning ‘it differ widely: Ostavio Ligorio, an
Italian amiquary, imagines that they drew the
defign on the medal itfelf; and afterward graved -
it in relief? To conclude; the moft celebrated:
writers on medals are, Antonius Auguftinus, bifhop:
of Tarracon ,; Wolff, Lazius, Fulvius Urfinus, Hu-
bertius Goltzius, Andrew Schot, «ycfuit, Lewis Non--
nius, aphyfician, neas Vicus, Oifelias; Seguin;
Occo, Trifan; Sirmond, Vaillant, Charles Patin;
Noris, Spanbeim, Hardoin, Morel, ‘Joubert, count’
Mezzabarba, M. Begher, &c. Father Bandouri
has placed, at the head of his collection of me-
dals, Bibliotheca mummaria, Siye auctorum yui dé
numifmaribas feripferunt.’ ;
R 2 CHAP.
260 UNIversat ERUDITION.
C HAP. Re
DIPLOMATICS.
HIS fcience does not, nor can it, extend
its refearches to antiquity ; but is confined
to the middle age, and the firft centuries of mo-
dern times. For though the ancients were ac-
cuftomed to reduce their contracts and treaties
into writing, yet they graved them on tables,
or covered them over with wax, or brafs, cop-
per, ftone or wood, &c. And all that in the
firft ages were not traced on brafs or marble has
perifhed by the length of time, and the number
of deftructive events. Notwithftanding which,
diplomatics muft not be regarded as a trifling
{cience, or as of mere curiofity : on the contra-
ry, it is ufeful, indifpenfable, and of the greateft
importance to erudition in general, and to lite-
rature in particular.
II. As the objects which enter into diploma-
tics, and on which it is exercifed, make it a —
diftinét {cience, it is therefore only neceflary to
know thofe objects and their denominations, as
they have been defcribed by the learned of dif-
ferent ages. We fhall begin by explaining the
peculiar terms of t the art ; and we imagine that
it
DIPLOMATICS. 26y
‘it will be afterward eafy to explain the fyftem
of the {cience itfelf.
III. The word diploma fignifies, properly, a
letter or epiftle, that is folded in the middle, and
that is not open. But, in more modern times,
the title has been given to all ancient epiftles,
letters, literary monuments, and public docu-
ments, and to all thofe pieces of writing which
the ancients called Syngrapha, Chirographa,
Codicilli, &c. In the middle age, and in the
diplomas themfelves, thefe writings are called
Littere, Pracepta, Placita, Chart indicula,
Sigilla, and Bullz; as alfo Pancharte, Panto-
charte, Tractoriz, Defcriptiones, &c. The ori-
ginals of thefe pieces are named Examplaria, or
Autographa, Charte authentice, Originalia,
&c.° and the copies, Apographa, Copia, Parti-
cule, and fo forth. The collections, that have
been made of them, are called Chartaria and
Chartulia. The place where thele papers and
documents were kept, the ancients named Scri-
nia, Tabularium, or /Erarium, words that were
derived from the tables of brafs, and according
to the Greek idiom, Archeium or Archivum.
IV. In order to underftand the nature of thefe
ancient papers, diplomas and manufcripts, and
to diftinguifh the authentic from the counter-
feit, it is neceflary to know that the paper of
the ancients came from Egypt, and was form-
ed
262 UNIVERSAL E.RupitTiow
ed of thin leaves or membranes, . taken from. the
branches of a tree, named Papyrus, or Biblum
fEgypthiacum, and which were pafted one
over the other with the fliime of the Nile, and
were prefled and, polifhed with a pumice ftone.
This paper was very fcarce, and. it was of va-
rious qualities, forms and_ prices, ..which’, they
diftinguithed by the names, of charta hieratica,
luria, augufta, amphitheatrica, faitica, tanirica,
emporetica,) &c. .. They cut this paper into
{quare leaves, which they, pafted one) to: the
other, in order to make rolls of them ; from
whence an intire book was called ealumens from
volvendo; and the leaves, of which it confifted,
pagine. Sumetimes, -alfo, they patted the leaves
altogether, by one.of their extremities, as is now
practited in binding ; by. this method they
formed the back of a book, and thefe the learn-
ed call codices. They: rolled the volume round
a ftick, which they named umbilicus, and the
two -ends, that , came out beyond the paper,
cornua,, The title, wrote on. parchment, ., in
-purple: characters, was joined to the latt theet,
and ferved it asa cover. They.made ufe.of
all forts; of firings or ribbands, ‘and.even fome-
times of locks, to clofe the book, and fometimes
alfo it was put. into a cafe, But there is not
now to be found, in any library or cabinet what-
ever, any. one of thefe volumes. We have been
affured, however, by a traveller, that he had
feen feveral.of them in the ruins of Herculane-
um, but fo damaged, the paper fo ftiff and brit-
tle,
DrpLroMaTics. 263
tle, by the length of time, that it was impoffible
to unrol them, and confequently to make any
ufe of them, for on the firft touch they fell
into fhatters. We fhall fpeak hereafter of thofe
books gi call codices.
V. We are ignorant of the precife time when:
our modern paper was invented, and when they.
began to make ufe of pens in writing, inftead
of the ftalks of reeds... The ink, that-the-an-
<ients uled, was not made of vitriol and galls,
like the modern, but-of foot. Sometimes alfo,
they wrote with red ink, made of vermilion,
or in letters of gold, on purple or violet parch-
ment. It is not difficult for thofe, who apply
themfelves to this ftudy to diftinguifh ‘the
parchment of the ancients from that.of the
moderns, as well.as their ink and various exterior
characters: but that, which beft diftinguifhes
the original from the counterfeit,. is. the
writing or character itfelf, which is fo diftinétly
different from one century to another, that we
may tell with certainty, within about 40 or 50
years, when any diploma was written. ‘There
are two works which furnith the cleareft lights
on this matter, and which may ferve as fure
guides in the judgments we may have occafion
to make on what are called ancient diplomas,
The one is the celebrated treatife on the Diplo-
matic, by F. Mabillon ; and the other, the Grit
volume of the Chronicon Gotvicenfe. We there
find fpecimens of all the charaéters, the flour- -
ifhes,
_ a. ,
a64 Universat Erupition.
ifhes, and different methods of writing of every
age. For thefe matters, therefore, we mutt re-
fer our readers to thofe authors; and fhall here
only add, that,
VI. All the diplomas are wrote in Latin,
and confequently the letters and characters have
a refemblance to each other; but there are
certain ftrokes of the pen, which diftinguifh not
only the ages, but alfo the different nations t
as the writings of the Lombards, French, Saxon,
&c. The letters in the diplomas are alfo ufually
longer, and not fo ftrong as thofe of manu-
fcripts. There has been alfo introduced a kind
of court hand, of a very difproportionate length,
and the letters of which are called Exiles itera,
crifpe ac protratiiores. ‘The firft line ot the dip-
loma, the fignature of the fovereign, that of the
chancellor, notary, 8c. ‘are ufually wrote in this
character. ot |
VII. The fignature of a diploma confifts
either of the fign of the crofs, or of a monogram
or cypher, compofed of the letters of the names
of thofe who iubfcribed it. The initial letters
of the name, and fometimes alfo the titles, were
placed about this crofs. By degrees, the cuf-
com changed, and they invented other marks 5
as for example, the fign of Charlemagne was
thus : ies
=
DiPLOoMATICS, 265
R
r_A
V ’
L
They fometimes added alfo the dates and
epoch of the fignature, the feafts of the church,
the days of the calendar, and other like matters.
The fucceflive corruption of the Latin language,
the ftyle and orthography of each age, as well
as their different. titles and forms; the abbrevia-
tions, accentuation, and punctuation, and the va-
rious methods of writing the dipthongs, all thefe
matters united, form fo many characters and
marks, by which the authenticity of a diploma
is-to be known.
- VIII. The feal, annexed to a diploma, was
anciently of white wax, and artfully imprinted on
the parchment itfelf. It was afterward pendent
from the paper, and inclofed in a box or cafe,
which they called Bulla. There are fome alfo
that are ftamped on’ metal, and even on pure
gold. When a diploma bears all the characters
that are requifite to the time and place where it
is fuppofed to be written, its authenticity is not
to be doubted ; but, at the fame time, we cannot
examine them too fcrupuloufly, feeing that the
monks and priefts, of former ages, have been
very adroit in making of counterfeits; and the
more, as they enjoyed the confidence of princes
and ftatefmen, and were even fometimes in pof-
feffion of their rings or feals.
IX. With
266 Unrversat Ervuprrion:
IX. With regard to manufcripts that were
wrote before ‘the invention of printing, it is
neceflary, 1. to know their nature, their effential
qualities and matter; 2. to be able to read
them freely, and without error; 3. to judge of
their antiquity by thofe characters which we have
juf mentioned with regard to the diplomas;
and 4. to render them of ufe.in the {ciences.
As there are fcarce any of the ancient codes now
remaining, (fee fect. IV.) wrote on the Egyptian
paper, or on wood, ivory, &c. we have only to
confider thofe that are written on parchment or
vellum. (membraneos) and fuch as are wrote on
our paper (chartaceos). The former of thefe
are in moit efteem. | With regard to the charac-
ter, thefe codes are written either in fquare and
capital letters, or in half fquare, or round and
{mall letters. Thofe of the firft kind are the
moft ancient. ‘There are no intervals between
the words, no letters different from the others at.
the beginning of any word, no points, nor any
other diftin¢étion. The codes, which are wrote
in.letters that are half fquare, refemble tliofe we
have, in Gothic characters, as well for. the age,
as, the form of the letters. Such as are wrote
in round letters are not fo ancient as the former,
anddo not go higher than the ninth or tenth
century. Thefe have {paces between the words,
and fome punctuation. They are likewife not
fo well wrote as the preceding, and are fre-
quently disfigured with comments. The codes
are divided, according to the country, into Lom-
bard,
Daritomatacs, 267
bard, Italian, Gaulic, Franco-Gaulic, Saxon,
Anglo-Saxon, &e.
K.In the ancient Greek» books, they fre-
quently tetminated the periods vof a difcourfe,
inftead of all other divifion, byclines ;. and Leste
divifions were called, in Latin, verfus, from
vertendo: for which reafon thefe lines are {till
more properly named verfus than -linee. At
the-end of a work, ‘they put down the number
of -verfes of which it confifted, that the copies
might be more eafily collated and it is in this —
fenfe we are:to underftand Trebonius, when he
fays, «that» the .pandetts «contain 150000: pene
verfuum. ‘Thefe codes were likewife vel probe
vel deterioris note, more or ‘lefs perie&, not
only with regard to the calligraphy or beauty
of the character, but to the correction of the
text alfo.
XI. It is likewife neceflary to obferve, in an¢
cient codes, the abreviations, as they have been
ufed in different centuries. Thus for example, A.
C.D. fignifies, Aulus Caius Decimus ; Ap. Cn.
Appius Cnaius. Aug. ‘mp. Avguttus Impera-
tor. The characters, that are called mote, are
fuch as are not to be found in the alphabet, but
which, notwithftanding, fignify certain words,
All thefe matters are explained in a copious
manner by Voflius, and in the Chronicon Got-
vicenfe. » Laftly, the learned divide all the an-
cient codes: into »¢edices minus» raros, rariores,
editos
268 UNIVERSAL Ervuprrrow;:
editos {9 amecdotos. The critical art is here
indifpenfably neceflary ; its refearches, moreover,
have no bounds, and the more, as the ufe
of it augments every day, by the difcover-
ies that are made in languages, and by the in-
creafe of erudition,
XII. We might here fpeak of the invention
of printing, and’ of the different characters of
books that have appeared fince that epoch:
but all. that concerns printed books, feems to
appertain lefs to the diplomatic, which relates to
manu{cripts, than to the knowledge of authors ;
we fhall therefore take due care, when we treat
on that» part of literature, to mention every
thing material that relates to the art of printing.
CHAP. XIII.
STAT PsP Peg,
Ty A F TER having learned the ancient ftate
| of the world by hiftory, by antiquities,
medals, and the diplomatic art, it is both na-
tural
STATISTICS. 269
tural and juft, to defire to have a knowledge of
the ftate of the prefent world, and of the moft
important occurrences of our own days; and
this we learn by Statiftics, by the relations of
travellers, and by geography. The {cience, that
is called Statiftics, teaches us what is the political
arrangement of all the modern ftates of the known
world, This arrangement, comprehended for-
merly under the title of the political fyftem, has
been known and explained very imperfectly, not ~
only with regard to diftant and {mall ftates, but
even large kingdoms, fituate in the ceriter of
Europe. _ In geographical treatifes, they placed,
before the local defcription of each country, a
fort of account of the principal objeéts - that
compofed its, fyftem. But thefe introduétions
were always imperfect, naturally very contracted,
frequently dubious, and fometimes abfolutely
falfe, or ill grounded. We mutt except fome
of them however, efpecially thofe which are
to be found in the excellent geography of M.,
Bufching, an author, whofe affiduity, precifion,
and difcernment, can never be fufficiently .com-
mended. But this book has, as we may fay,
but juft appeared in its full perfection,
II. The hiftorians have not been lefs fenfible
of the neceflity of making their readers acquain-
ted with the political fyftem of the principal
modern ftates of Europe; and the celebrated
Baron Puffendorff, in his univerfal hiftory, has
. annexed
270 Universat Ervpition.
annexed, to that of each country, an abridged
relation, which contains fome’ inftruétions: réla-
tive to this matter. But 1.- thefe fort of inftruc-
tions are frequently erroneous, and always im-
perfect or defective ; 2. they are too much dif-
perfed to be ufed as a fyftematic abridgement;
which might ferve as the bafis of public or pri-
vate leGtures; 3. the daily occurrences that hap?
pen in’ the world, and efpecially the treaties of
peace, are conftantly changing the fyftem of
governments,’ and make the ftatiftic fcience a
kind of moving piéture,; where the momentary
fituation of the parts is much better feen in
a courfé made by an able: profeffor, than in @
book; which lofes its accuracy and ufe in pro-
portion as it grows old. Thefe confiderations,
and numberlefs others, have’ induced authors
of ability to furnith the world with inftructive
defcriptions of this nature. | |
Ill. Thus, the Thirty two republics of the
Elzeviers, which appeared more than a century
fince; the work of Frederic Achillis, duke of
Wirtemburg, intitled Confultatio de — prinei~
patu inter provincias Europe opera Thome
Lanfii, Tubingz 1655; Le Monde, by Peter
D’Avity ; Gothofredi Archontologia cofmica;
Lucas de Linda, Defcriptio Orbis; Hermannt
Conringii, opus pofthumum, de notitia Rerum-
publicarum hodiernarum; J. C. Beckman, Hit
toria orbis tertarum, geographica & civilis.
_ Many ftatefmen alfo have employed themfelves
in
SraTiIsTics. 27%
in defcribine fome particular ftates to their co-
temporaries; thus toward the end of the fix-
teenth century there appeared, the’ relations of
fome Venetian ambaffladors: the embaffies of
the Earl of Carlifle, an Englifh minifter: Moles-
. worth’s account of the ‘ftace of Denmark; and
a number of other works of the fame kind. M.
Everhard Otto, profeffor at Utrecht, and after-
ward fenator at Bremen, was the firft who made
a collection of theie fcattered accounts, and, by
adding his own informations, compofed a very
good work, under the title of Notitia precipu-
arum Europz Rerumpublicarum. “We have
alfo La defcription du monde, de Jean Funck:
and avery good work in Englifh, intitled Mo-
dern hiftory, or the prefent ftate of all nations,
by Mr. Salmon, illuftrated with cuts, London
1744. This work has been tranflated into Ita-
han and Dutch, with fome advantageous altera-
tions,
IV. It would be far from juft, in this place,
to pafs over in filence the obligations this {ci-
ence has to M. Godfrey Achenwal, profeffor
at Gottingen, who has not only compofed an
Introduction to the political fyftem of the mo-
dern ftates of Europe; and another work not
lefs interefting, intitled Principles of the hif-
tory of Europe, leading to the knowledge of
the principal ftates of the prefent time; but
has been alfo the firft to reduce’ this important
fubject
272 Universau ErubDiTion.
fubjeét into a true fyftem, and has made a fe
parate {cience of it, under the title of Statiftics;
and which he profeffes with great reputation :
a. fcience from which hiftory borrows great
lights; which’ furnifhes the beft materials for
the conftitution of a ftate, which enriches po-
litics, and which prepares thofe of the brighteft
genius among the ftudious youth, to become
one day able minifters of the ftate.
V. All that occurs in a ftate is not worthy of
remark, but all that is worthy of remark in a
ftate, enters neceffarily into ftatiftics. This fci-
ence begins therefore by making, 1. An exact
divifion ef the four parts of the world, and
fhows into how many ftates, nations, monarchies,
republics, and leffer governments, each of thefe
parts is divided. It is fcarce neceflary to ob-
ferve, that the knowledge of the ftates which
belong to Europe are the moft important.
' 2. It proceeds to the examen of each parti-
cular ftate, and of its revolutions; and here it
has an efpecial regard, 1. to the principal e-
-pochs; 2. to the changes that have occurred in
the form of government; 3. to the provinces
that have been conquered or acquired’by a ftate,
or that have been difmembered from it, and 4.
to the hereditary governments, and the altera-
tions that have happened in families,
VI. Each
al a
. STABISTICS... «3 293
its Each ftate confifts of country and inha-
ts. Under the tithe of PRED: Saris
ehends,
hen 3. “The extent of territory in a ftate, its’ lo-
nm fituation,. the rivers by which it is watered,
. the fea that wafhes its. coafts, its borders, its
mountains, and natural produttions. It inquires
into the flate of its capital, or the feat of go-
vernment, its exterior poffeffions, and efpeci-
ally its colonies, in Se other’ parts vf: che
world, &c.
4» With regard to the inhabitants y it tones
into their number and qualities: and for this
purpote it makes, by the aid of political arith-
metic, of regitkers: of births and ‘burials; 8c..
the moft elaborate and accurate refeactes pof-
fible, into the number of the inhabitants of a
ftate, and into their genius; the prevailing cha-
racter, the ey: the virtues and vices, of : a
nation.
VU. 5, It next confiders the inhabitants un2
der the quality of citizens, united by laws for
their common intereft; and in this light, the
fovereign himfelf is nothing more, than the firft
citizen. And here it dire€ts its views to. two
principal objets, which are 1. all that relates
to the conftatucion of a ftate, and 2. all that
enters into the arrangement of its public affairs.
It examines; therefore, what are the fundamental
Jaws, the ufages and cuftoms received in a coun-
— Vor. Hk - 3 try,
+r
_——=
ra ¢7 © rst tes
ae
;
;
:
4
oy4 Unsiversar Ervpition
try, and which have there the force of laws,
&c. From thence it pafles, Boas,
6. To the rights, privileges and prerogatives
of kings and other fovereigns, or of fenates and
magiftrates: it confiders the manner of attain-
ing to the throne or government; the limits
prefcribed by each country to the authority of
its fovereign, or other governors; and fo of the
reft.
7- The rights of the ftates of a nation, of
the nobility, clergy, military, citizens, and pea-
fants; the diets and other public affemblies for
deliberating on affairs of importance, &c,
VII. When a folid knowledge is acquired of
all thefe matters, ftatiftics paffes to the examen
of the difpofitions eftablifhed in each country,
for the conduéting of public affairs: and it
’ fhows, : ,
8. The dignity, rank, title, and arms; the
court, ceremonial, orders of knighthood, &c.
of the fovereign.
g- The arrangement of the department for
foreign affairs, or the cabinet. |
10. The difpofitions in the direction of interi-
or affairs, for the ecclefiaftic ftate, the admini-
{tration of juftice, the finances, commerce, the
fciences, and the military: and here it enters
into the following particulars.
IX. 11. Tt confiders what is the eftablifhed
religion of a country, and what other religions
are
Statistics. -. 9g
Bie there tolerated; and their feveral rights, not
only as they relate to the ftate, but with regard
to each other. The privileges of each. church,
the tights of the clergy, the feveral orders a
ecclefiaftics, their principal functions, charges,
revenues, &c.
12. The laws civil and municipal, the tribu-
nals of juftice, the forms of procefs, and the
criminal laws and jurisprudence.
13. The principal regulations with regard to
the police.
14. The refources of the ftate, 1. in its agri-
culture and all its natural productions ; 2. in
its manufactures and fabrics ; 3. in its com-
merce interior and exterior, active. and paflive ;
and 4. in its mercantile navigation,
15. In the arrangements Of its chambers of
finances, the domains of princes or ftates, the
royalties, contributions, and all the fubfidies that
the fubjects pay to the fovereign for the fupport
of government: in a word, all the revenues of
aftate, and the manner of colle¢ting and em-
ploying them:
Xx, Statiftics theri confiders,
16. The ftate of the arts and f{ciences, which
do fo much honour to a nation; what f{chools,
colleges, academies .and univerfities there flou-
rifh; what remarkable public libraries they
have; what artifts there excel, and what en- ~
couragement all thefe receive from the ftate.
S2 XI. Laftly
276 Universat Ervupition.
XI. Laftly, as the military ftate is now be-
come a neceffary evil in the political fyftem of
modern Europe, this fcience applies itfelf par-
ticularly to the defeription of
17. The number of troops that each ftate
maintains, the arrangement of the army, what
is the difpofition of each ‘people for war, the
goodnels of their troops, their difcipline, their
uniform, their arms, the refpective numbers
of cavalry and infantry, the ftate of its artillery
and arfenals, its fortifications, the facility with
which it raifes recruits, its barracks, hofpi-
tals for invalids, its engineers, cadets, and everf
thing that can have any relation to the milita-
ty ftate, |
18. .It confiders, after the fame manner, the
marine of a nation, the number of its fhips of
the line, frigates, bomb vefiels, firefhips, &c.
the number and ability of the failors each ftate
can furnifh; the arrangement of its docks, yards
and arfenals for the marine; the materials for
the conftruction, equipment and victualling of -
fuch fhips as the ftate can furnifh, or as the go-
vernment is obliged to draw from other parts 5
the {chools for the marine, and all other objects
relative to this article,
“XII. The lait inquiry in which fatiftics is
employed, is in explaining what is the true in-
/ tereft of each nation. Now this intereft is ei-
ther,,
rg. Internal,
Statistics. 277
1g. Internal; and relates to the tranguillity,
profperity, and increafe of a people, ‘in its in-
duftry, its manners and politenefs; its riches,
refinements and opulence. Or,
20, External; and relates to the maxims of
government that are proper for it to obferve
with regard to its neighbours, its allies, neutral
powers, and even with regard to its enemies:
- maxims which ought to be founded om the lo-
cal fituation of each country; on the rivality
either greater or lefs in commerce; on the ap-
parent views of increafe of power that a ftate
may have; on family compacts or confanguini-
ty; on alliances, either perpetual, or limited
to a time or an objeé&t; on the proportion of
power ; and on an infinity of fimilar relations.
XIIL They who teach the ftatiftic fcience as
public profefiors, ‘or write exprefSly on this fub-
je&t, endeavour to explain. all thefe various ob-
jects as they regard each nation, country, or
- particular ftate. It is true, that they are fome-
times miftaken in their conjectures : it is like-
wife true, that a man of letters is not.a minifter
of ftate, and frequently a minifter of {tate is
not a man of letters: it fometimes happens,
however, that, by force of reflection, a man of
genius and learning becomes enabled to difcover
the true interefts of a ftate, efpecially thofe that
are natural and immutable; while the politician
miftakes thofe tranfient interefts, of which he
_makes fuch wonderful myfteries.
XIV. We
=
278 Universat Erupition.
XIV. We have remarked in the fecond fec-
tion, that the books which treat on ftatiftics,
or the defcriptions of modern ftates, which ap-
proach neareft the exact truth, are made to
recede from it by time, by thofe viciffitudes to
which all human in{titutions are liable, and which
arife as well from the daily occurrences, and from
thofe grand revolutions that are natural to every
ftate. This is an unavoidable inconvenience,
and for which there is no remedy but the con-
ftant and judicious perufal of the gazettes and
political journals, as the Hiftorical Mercury, &e,
Thefe daily and periodical publications afford a
continual fupplement to the beft ftatiftic au-
‘thors, and form a kind of practical ftatiftics.
It is for this reafon that the German _profeffois
make conftant ufe of them in the univerfities;
for in reading the beft gazettes that are brought
by each poft, they explain to their auditors, not
only the terms, the facts, and the caufes of e-
vents, but by applying thefe facts and events
to ftatiftics, they fhew the alterations that are
thereby caufed in the conftitution of the coun-
try to ‘which they relate. But, to anfwer this
“purpok, it is neceflary to make ufe of the beft
gazettes of the time, that is, fuch as are efteemed
of the greateft veracity, whofe authors are not in
hafte to infert reports which they are afterwards
obliged to contradi&; and that are not infeéted
with a national partiality, or a predilection for
a particular court or party, and that do not
load their relations with infipid or malignant re-
flections,
—— gk
ve
*
Of Travers and TRAVELLERS. 279
flections, nor affume:the gift of predicting future
event; but fuch as recount, neither too foon,
nor too late, the feveral events as they arife, in
a natural ftyle, in a faithful and impartial man-
ner, and without glofs or comment; leaving to
their readers the care of making, on each event,
their critico-politico-prophetical reflections.
TORII OOO OIOIOOIOK
CHAP, XIV,
OF
'TRAVELs and TRAVELLERS.
Great traveller makes a good liar, {ays the
proverb, and Strabo afferts, that every
man, who relates his travels, relates falfities :
but whatever the proverb or Strabo may fay,
it is to the relations of travellers that we owe
our knowledge of the ftate of the world, and
efpecially of fuch countries as are at a great
diftance from us. The utility of thefe relations;
their great number, which amounts to more
than 1300 that are already printed; the fatis-
| faction
280 Uwniversar Ervpittiom
faction they afford our curiofity; the affiduity with
which men of letters, as well as men of the
- world, apply to thefe authors, and many other
confiderations, have made the ftudy of voyages
and travels a confiderable branch of Univerfal
Erudition: it appeared therefore neceflary to
make. of it hege a-diftinc chapter.
II. Whenever a man paffes from one country
or province to anather, he is faid to travel; but
the travels of which we here fpedk ate thofe
that are made into far diftant countries, and
that are undertaken with various views. We
are not here to confider the vayages of mer-
chants or f¢amen, who traverfe the fea from mo-
tives of commerce, nor the journeys of fuch men
whofe private affairs carry them into diftant
countries, but we are here to treat of the tra-
vels of thofe whom a defire of knowledge, and
of communicating their difcoveries to mankind,
have induced to undertake long journeys, Thus
the indefatigable inquirer, after philofophical
knowledge, fearches every part of the globe. in
purfuit of ‘new difCeveries in natural hiftory,
apaly: &c. or defcends with his thermometer
into the deepeft caverns. Thus the fagacious
aftronomer tran{ports himfelf, fometimes to the
equator, and fometimes to the poles, intent upon
making accurate obfervations on the heavenly
bodies; of on meafuring the degrees of the ©
_ earth. Thus the learned antiquary traverfes
_ Italy, Greece, Afia Minor, Paleftine, Egypt,
and
‘
>
Of Travets and Traverngrs. ef%
gad all the regions of the eaft, in queit of thofe
ious monuments of antiquity, which may
on the knowledge of aricient hiftory. Thus
the politician vifits every civilized nation, in or-
det to learn their manners, their pohey, and
form of government. And thus the man of
curiofity flies to the moft diftant parts. of the
earth, in fedrch of unknown nations, and to
tify bis defire of making new difcoveries,
i it therefore, to thefe five objects that we
may reduce the defign of all travellers.
Lik. It were to be withed, that all, who un-
dertake long journeys from either of thefe mo-
tives, would not only provide themfelves. with
all, the neceffary preliminary knowledge, which
could give them a well. grounded hope of fuc-
cefs in their attempt, but alfo, that before they
engage in fo difficult an enterprife, they would
lay down a judicious plan for their journey, ‘and
for all the objects that relate to. their inquiries.
Ie were alfo to be withed, that they would com-
municate their defign to the public, at leafta
year before they fet off, by an advertifement-in
all the licerary gazettes, that the learned might
be induced to communicate their falutary. in-
formations and advice, relative to the undertak-
ing. Whoever has tread the inftructions that
were drawn up by M. Baumgarten, profefior at
Hall, for ‘the young batchelors of arts, whe were
fent for to teach philology, in a celebrated
Greek convent fituate on the promontory of
| Athos,
ides ot 2
a
282 Universart Ervprrion:
Athos, and thofe which profeffor Michaélis of
Gottingen gave to the learned men, who were
Jately fent to the Holy Land, and other parts of
Afia, by the king of Denmark, will clearly fee
the importance, utility, and even indifpenfable
neceffity of fuch informations. He, who does
not know what it is he ought to inquire after,
can never expect to find, except it be by chance,
any thing remarkable that others have not
found before him. It were to be wifhed, in
the laft place, that no one would undertake
fuch a journey, without the company of fome
one fkillful in drawing, and even in geometry ;
for there are a thoufand occafions where it will
be neceffary to meafure altitudes and diftances,
and a thoufand objects, of which adequate de-
{criptions cannot be given, of which we cannot
form a true idea, without the help'of figures.
IV. During the courfe of his journey, the
‘traveller cannot be too much on his guard, as
well againft his own credulity, as the {nares that
will be laid for him by the inhabitants of the
countries through which he fhall travel. All -
rations of the earth, and efpecially thofe af the
warm Climates, are full of ancient traditions and
fables ; which, if he fhould believe, would carry
him far diftant from the truth. Herodotus,
Diodorus Siculus, and almoft all the ancient
hiftorians, geographers, and travellers, have
been the dupes of thefe relations. We cannot
read, without difguft, the idle tales they recount,
and
Of Travers and Travetirrs. 283,
and by which their wretched credulity is in-
ceffantly fhown. We are inclined to fay to the
travellers who relate fuch tales: Sir, if I had
feen thefe things myfelf, I foould not bave beliewed
‘them, but I believe them becaufe you have feen them.
‘A traveller fhould examine all things with his
own eyes, and fhould-write down all he fees on
the fpot, in his protocol, or itinerary.” Idlenefs
is incompatible with accuracy, and whoever is
‘fearful of inconvenience, fatigue and expence,
muft never hope to produce a relation of his
travels worthy of regard.
V. A defire of recounting marvellous rela-
tions is natural to all travellers ; but they fhould
remember, that all that is marvellous appears
conftantly fufpicious to a rational mind; and
that it is even more prudent to fupprefs facts,
which, though true, are incredible, than to ren-
der their veracity doubtful by aftonifhing re-
ports. Candor, fincerity, accuracy, and a judi-
cious difcernment, fhould be conftantly confpi-
cuous in* every’ relation, The ground work
fhould be laid in truth, and the ornaments
fhould be pleating and judicious: for it is by
" jaft and pertinent reflections, that relations of
this kind are prevented from becoming dry and
difagreeable, —
VI. There are but few good relations of tra-
-yels made in Europe ; becaufe it has been very
difficult, and even dangerous to {peak the truth.
It
4 =. ee ees gd ee eee i ile ae coe te es a Bl
¢ va ad 2
I ae a st, ry
284 Universar Erupirron.
It: fhould feem as if the people were afhamed
of their countries, and the princes of their
conduét, Such as have given true accounts
have been. perfecuted for their veracity, The
travels of Keifler, in Europe, are the moft ef-
teemed, and the moft worthy of eftimation,
There are fome made in other parts of the
world, that are very valuable. The travels of
Tavernier in Turkey, Perfia, Moguftan, &c,
are much celebrated, but the ftri& truth does
not always appear manifeft in them: the me-
thod of valuing diamonds according to. their
fize and weight, and the perfe&tion of the wa-
ter, is the moft interefting article they contain,
-The travels of Chardin in Perfia, of DuHalde
in China, of Kempfer in Japan, of Shaw in
Egypt, of Kolbu to the Cape of Good Hope,
the relation which M. de la Condamine made
to the academy of fciences on his return from
América, the celebrated voyage of Lord Anfon
round the world, &c. are mafter-pieces of this
kind, and may ferve as models to all who
fhall hereafter undertake fimilar enterprifes.
VII. We owe to England’the firft idea of an
admirable work, confifting of a vat collection
of the beft relations of travels and voyages, and
reduced~into a regular fyftem. This work
firft appeared at London under the title of a
Collection of voyages and travels, in folio; the
firft‘ four volumes in 1704, and the fifth and
fixth in 1732, and’ the feyenth and: eighth in
. STAT
Of Travers and Travenizrs; 28%
1747. This grand) work has been: tranflated
into almoft all languages, but particularly into
German, and French by abbé Prevot, un-
der the title of A General Hiltory of Voy-
ages and travels, in thirteen quarto volumes,
Paris 1744, and at the Hague 1746. The
French tranflation, but efpecially the German,
is enriched with many notes that are inftruétive,
and that reétify confiderable errors in the ori-
ginal. Whoever has courage enough to attempt,
and perfeverance enough to labour through thir-
teen quarto volumes, may acquire a complete
knowledge of all travels that have been under-
taken, and of all the known countries in the four
parts of the globe, without having fcarce any
occafion to apply to other books of the kind.
This work may however, at all times, be of ufe
as adi€tionary, to be confulted occafionally con
cerning any particular country of which we
tay want information,
VUI. In a kingdom that is furrounded by the
the fea, and whofe power arifes from navigation,
it appeared neceffary to render thefe accounts in-
terefting to mariners. For which reafon there
are many matters inierted which appear to be
calculated merely for them, as accounts of
foundings, of rocks, coaits, of the entrance of
harbours, of trade and variable winds, &c. But
évery reader who is noc ‘interefted in navigation,
may calily pafs over thefe tedious articies.
IX, We
886 UNniversaLt ErvpITIOWN:
IX: We fhould be liable to be equally tediousy
“were we to attempt to inform fuchas may un-
dertake what is called a literary journey, of alt
the objects that ought to attract their. curio-
fity: of the moft celebrated among the literati,
whofe acquaintance they fhould endeavour. to
acquire : of the public and private libraries they
fhould vifit, as well as the cabinets of natural
hiftory, antiquities, medals, coins, paintings and
other curiofities: the monuments of every kind
they fhould examine: the obfervations they
fhould make relative to the character, the genius,
humanity, and politnefs of each:nation: on thé
different forms of government: on the ftate of
letters in each country, its univerfities, colleges;
academies, and an infinity of like matters; as
raré°manufcripts, remarkable infcriptions, &c.
Some learned men have given inftructions in
form relative to thefe matters, and among
others M. Kohler, a celebrated profeffor at Got-
tingen, to whom the world is indebted for many
other valuable works.
X. We fhall finifh this chapter with one re-
mark. Credulity is the fource of moft errors,
as doubt is the beginning of wifdom. Jt is
‘therefore allowable to entertain a rational pyr-
‘rhonifm concerning the relations of moft travel-
lers, and it is of the laft importance to make ai
judicious choice of fuch as we propofe to read:
for the firft accounts of any country, or people,
make
GrocRAPHY: $87
make the ftrongeft impreffions on our minds,
and if they: fhould be falfe or erroneous, it
is almoft impoffible for us totally to eradicate
fuch impreffions, but we fhall continue to enter-
tain thefe falfe ideas during the remairider of
our lives. It is highly neceffary, therefore, to
be previoufly acquainted with the degree of re-
putation each writer of travels bears, for ve-
racity, and for a judicious relation of facts.
FOCOK OCI GOOIIIOROK
CHAP. XV.
GEOGRAPHY.
HE world fwarms with defcriptions . of
the world: they appear as if they fprung
from the earth like vegetables. There are to
be found, in all languages, copious, complete,
abridged, fyftematic and univerfal geographies ;
elements, introductions, effays and dictionaries
of geography; with numberlefs other like works,
This fcience is taught in fchools, academies,
univerfities, &c. Profeffors of geography travel
the
a
— et ae
¢
288 Universat Ernupition,
the countries, and teach it to. the youth of each
town or village through which they pafs. The
printiellers fhops are loaded with maps, and the
walls of each houfe, are covered with them, No
branch of learning feems to be fo famliar to
mankind as geography: and we fhould there-
fore be inclined to fupprefs the analyfis of this
{cience, if it did not form an effential article in
the fyftem of univerfal erudition, and if we did
not hope to mention fome matters relative to it
that are not very commonly known.
II. Geography is 4 fcience that teaches the
knowledge of the terreftrial globe, or of the fur-
face of the eafth; of the fituation of countries,
cities, rivers, feas, &c. with the defcription of
each of them. There are here fome preliminafy
and effential diftinctions to be made.
(1.) As our globe forms only a part of the
univerfe, geography in like manner makes only
a part of cofmography.
(2.) It is the bufinefs of geography to inform’
us of the fituation and natural productions of the
earth in each country or climate, which is alfo
called phyfical geography. The civil and po-
fitical arrangement of ftates or governments
does not properly belong to it, that rather ap-
pertains to ftatiftics; though many of the belt
modern geographers have happily united thefe
two branches, by cqHling the latter political geo
graphy.
(3.) Geography is cither mathematic or na-
tural. The former confiders the earth in the
fame
oa
GEOGRAPHY. 28g
farhe manner it does the other celeftial bodies ;
examines its dimenfions, its figure and fituation
in the univerfe ; and, in a word, all that has any
relation to the mathematics. As we have fuffi-
ciently explained this part of geography in the
forty- ninth chapter of the firft book, from fec-
tion feventy-nine to eighty. fix, we fhall confine
ourfelves here to natural and phyfical geography;
having alfo explained what relates to the politi-
cal ‘part in the chapter on ftatiftics in this
volume.
(4.) The knowledge of maps and charts, and.
the manner of ufing them, makes alfo a part of
geography.
Ill. (5.) Bese 0 is likewife either facred
or profane. The former furnifhes inftruétions
relative to the perégrinations of the patriarchs,
and the travels of the Iftaelites. It elucidates
the predictions of the prophets againft certain
kingdoms and nations ; the wars of the Jews ;
the travels of St. Paul and the other apoftles ;
the eftablifiimeit of the church in all parts of
the known world, &c. Profane geography _ is
divided into,
(6.) The geography of the ancient and middle
ages, and of nfodern times. Each of thefe parts
comprehends a defcription of the earth and its
various inhabitants, in their proper periods. By
the labours of ancient geographers, and the mo-
dern authors of thaps, we have now a complete
atlas of the ftate of the ancient world.
Vor, IIL. T (7.) The
/
290 UNIvEeRSAL ERvUDITION.
(7.) The defcription of any diftin& country
or region is called chorography.
(8.) Topography is a particular defeription of
any place, in fo exact and minute a manner, that |
no one circumftance relative to it is omitted.
(9.) Hydrography is, laftly, the defcription of
waters ; for there are charts that contain merely
the plans of thofe feas, rivers, ftreams or lakes,
by which a country is watered.
IV. As the furface of our globe is divided
into land and water, geography makes ufe of
certain’ terms in defcribing each of thefe, of
which it is neceffary to give here a brief expla-
nation, in order to facilitate the underftanding of
what we have further to fay on this fubject.
A continent is a large portion of the earth,
that contains feveral contiguous countries, and
that is not furrounded by the fea.
An ifland is a part of the earth that is fur-
rounded by water.
A peninfula, called in Greek cherfonefos, is a
piece of land that is almoft furrounded by the
fea.
An ifthmus is a narrow neck of land that
joins a peninfula to the continent, as the ifthmus
of Corinth, Panama, &c.
A defile is a narrow and difficult Pofinge be-
tween mountains.
A ftrand is a flat and fandy fhore, which the
flux and reflux of the fea covers and leaves un-
covered each tide.
A
GrocRaAPHY. 29°
A-promontory is a high’ land that juts into
the fea.
A cape is a mountain that in like manner’
runs into the fea.
A point, on the contrary, isa flat land whofe
extremity is in the fea.
Downs are fnall fand hills near the hore.”
A beach is avhigh and fteep hill on the fhore,
V. With regard to the terms that relate'to
the water : |
An archipelago is a portion of the fea in
which there are many iflands. .
A gulf, or bay, \is a part of the fea that runs
in between lands.
A ftrait is a neck of the fea inclofed by twa
lands, and by which we may pais from one fea
‘to another; it is likewife called a bofphorus,
channel, or arm of the fea.
A road isa place proper for cafting the anchor,
and where fhips can ride fecure from the wind.
A conflux is that place where two or more
rivers join each other.
‘The mouth of a river is that part where ic
leaves its bed and runs into the fea, or a lake.
A canal is an artificial river, like thofe of
Ladoga, L. anguedoc, &c.
A parage is a part of the fea under any given
latitude.
VL In continuing to treat of geography, there-
' fore, we are to be underftood to {peak of the na-
tural and not the mathematical part, and we
z>3 mention
292 UNIVERSAL ERUDITION.
mention this once for all. This fcience begins’
by examining the properties of theatmofphere that
furrounds this globe, the air that we breathe, and
the clouds that pafs over our heads; the caufes
of rain, fnow, dews, tempefts, but efpecially of
the winds, as well thofe called variable, as the
trade winds; as alfo of whirlwinds and other
meteors. It fhows that an air charged with va-
pours is heavier than aclear air*, and confe-
quently more elaftic; that it prefles more, and
that from thence arifes that agitation, that mo-
tion in the air which is called wind: and that
the fwifteft wind does not pafs over more than
fifty feet in a fecond. It inquires likewife into
the caufes of the variation of the weather, and:
the different temperature of each. climate. |
VII. Geography then’ proceeds to the cen-.
templation of the earth itfelf. It examines its:
mountains and vallies: it confiders that chain of
mountains of 188 geographic leagues in length,
which the Greek and Latin authors call the Alps,
andwhich feparate Italy from Germany, and Swit-..
zerland from France;: thofe celebrated moun-
tains in South America called the Cordeliers, the
higheft in the known world, and of which the ~
ereateft, named Chimboraffo, is 19320 feet above
the furface of the fea, It defcribes the vlocanos
* The more gencral opinion is; that the drieft air is the
heavieft; and the obfervations on the barometer feem to con-
firm, this opinion.
, of.
GEOGRAPHY. 293
of Vefuvius, tna, Stromboli, of Hockla and
‘Krabla in Iceland, of their eruptions, their lava,
and their effects. It treats likewife of the defarts
of thofe uninhabited countries in northern Afia,
which are called Steps; of the natural produc-
tions of each climate and country, and of all
that relates to the philofophical ftate of our
globe. It then extends its inquiries to the in-
habitants of the earth, and endeavours to deter-
mine their number, and the principal alterations
that attend it, by the aid of political arithmetic:
and from thence it concludes, that this earth is
capable of maintaining 3000 millions of inhabi-
tants, but that there are not in fact more than
1000 mullions exifting. It generally allows thir-
ty-three years to each generation: and on that
fuppofition there are 1000 millions of mankind
that are born and die within the {pace of thirty-
three years; more than thirty millions each year,
82000 each day, 3400 each hour, 60 each mi-
mute, and one each moment. The number of
the two fexes is nearly equal, which proves that
polygamy cannot contribute to the increafe of
the human race, and that the celibacy of the
clergy, the monks and nuns, is an unnatural and
horrid practice. Mankind are diftinguifhed
into white, black and mulattoes.
VII. That part of geography which is called
Hydrography, or more properly Hydrology, ex-
amines, in an hiftorical manner, the nature and
properties of the water; the fources from whence
proceed
294 UNniversat Ervupition.
proceed thofe ftreams that uniting form rivers,
which, flowing with different rapidities, fometimes
form cataracts, and at laft pour their waters into
the fea: and it fhows that. the fea covers near
two-thirds of the globe, and bears different names
in different regions: the bed of the fea is only a
continuation of the furface of the earth, and has
like it various inequalities, heights and depths,
mountains and vallies, rocks, &c. Hydrology
confiders alfo the nature of the waters of the fea,
which is more or lefs falt or bitter in different
parts; the motions of its waves, its continual
courfe from Eaft to Weft, its currents and. tides,
its gulfs, whirlpools, and fathomlets depths.
IX. After thefe general confiderations, .geo-
gtaphy paffes to the examen of the four parts
of the world. The earth is divided, 1. Into the
old world, which comprehends the three parts
that were known to the ancients, Afia, Africa
and Europe; 2. The new world, that is America,
and 3. The unknown world, as the Terra Auf-
tralis, and other countries that have not hitherto
been penetrated by travellers. The earth has
been alfo divided according to the different tha-
dows: thus the inhabitants of the frigid zoneg
are called Perifcii,; thofe of the temperate
zones, Heterofcii; of the torrid zone, Am-
phifcii;. and they who have no fhadow at
noon-day, the fun being direétly in their zenith,
Afcii. We muft here obferve by the way,
that geographers regard in their operations the
north,
GEOGRAPHY. 295
north, and that pole, as by that they determine
the latitude of places: and the aftronomers ob-
ferve the fouth, becaufe from thence they deter-
mine the meridian height of the fun and ftars,;
and it is in that part they obferve the courfe of
the zodiac. Another divifion of the earth 1s
that by climates : thus they make twenty-four
climates of hours, begining at the equator, pro-
ceeding by the degrees of latitude, and ending
at fifty-fix degrees thirty-one minutes. They
likewile diftinguith fix climates of days, towards
the north, the firft of which begins at the fame
degree of fixty-fix, and ends at the pole, where
theday is of fix months continuance : thefe latter
climates include countries inhabited and unin-
habited.
X. But the moft natural qn and that
which is the moft eafy to be conceived and re-
tained i in the memory, is that by which,the earth
is divided into four parts. Each of thefe four
parts is fubdivided into continent. and iflands,
and geography, by ftill further extending thefe
divifions, confiders the ftates or nations that in-
habit the feveral parts of the continent and ifles.
Thus,
(1.) Europe comprehends I. toward the ont
Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Lapland, Ruffia,
including Livonia, Eftonia and Finland, Cour-
land, Pruffia, and Poland with Lithuania: 2.
toward the center, that is on the eaft and weft,
France, Savoy, Switzerland, Flanders, Holland,
' Germany,
296 UNIVERSAL ERvUDITION.
Germany, including Bohemia, Hungary, Tran-
fylvania, Walachia, Moldavia, and part of Tarta-
ry: 3. towards the fouth, Spain, Portugal, Italy,
Ragula, Morea, and Turkey in Europe. The
iflands that make part of Europe are, 1. in the
ocean, Great Britain, including England and
Scotland, with the Orcades, &c. Ireland, Ice-
land, and the ifles of the Baltic Sea: 2. in
the Mediterranean, Sicily, Sardinia, Corfu,
Zante, Cefalonia, Candia, Corfica, Malta, Cerigo,
and the iflands’i in the Archipelago, Majorca and
Minorca.
_ XI. (2.) Afia contains Turkey in Afia, Tar-
tary, Siberia, the provinces of the Ruffian em-
pire in Afia, China, India, Perfia, Arabia, and |
_all the provinces and kingdoms that are com-
prifed under thofe general denominations. The
iflands that appertain to Afia are 1. in the
ocean, the Maldives, Ceylon, Sumatra, Java,
Borneo, Ormus, Celebes, the Molucca ifles, the
Philippines, the Latrones, and the iflands of Ja-
pan: 2. in the Mediterranean, Cyprus, Rhodes,
and fome ifles of the Archipelago on the coaft :
of Natolia,
XII. (3-) Africa comprehends 1. on this
fide the equator, Egypt, Barbary, Biledulgerig,
the defarts of Zaara, Nigritia, Guinea and Nu-
bia; 2. under the equator, Congo, Ethiopia,
in which is Abyffinia; and 3. beydnd the equa-
for, the ‘kingdom of Angola, Momemugi, Mo-
nomotapa,
GEOGRAPHY. 297
- momotapa, Cafraria, Mozambique, Zanguebar,
the kingdom of Melinda, the country of the
Hottentots, and the cape of Good Hope. The
iflands that belong to Africa, and fituate in the
ocean are, the Canaries, the ifles of Cape Verd,
St. Thomas, the Afcenfion, St. Helena, and Ma-
davafcar.
~ KITT. (4.) America contains in its continent,
which is divided into north and fouth; 1. in
the northern part, Nova Scotia, New England,
New York, Pennfilvania, Maryland, Virginia,
Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Canada; and. Mexi-
co or New Spain; 2. in'South America are,
Terra Firma, Peru, Chili, Patagonia and Pa-
ragua, and Brazil. The Dutch have eftablifh-
ments in America at Curacoa, Surinam, and St.
Euftatia. The iflands of America are 1. in the
eaft, the Azores or the Flemifh iflands, the An-
tilles, Lucayas, and the Bermudas: 2. in the
weft, California.
XIV. (5.) The unknown world confifts. 1.
under the Artic pole, of the country of Jerfo,
New Denmark, New Wales, Labrador, Cum-
berland’s Bay, Greenland, Spitzberg and Zem-
bra or Zembla; 2. under the Antartic pole,
Terra del Fuego, New Holland, Los Capous,
New Guinea, the iflands of Solomon, la terre
de Guis, New Zealand, and all that is included
in the Terra Auftralis.
XV, Geo-
2g9$ Universart Ervpbirion.
XV. Geography then defcribés the ocean, and
‘affigns the proper names to the feveral feas that
wath the coafts of the four quarters of the known
and unknown parts of the earth; as alfo the ri--
vers that water each country, and the lakes that
they contain. It recounts all the obfervations
that have been made on thefe. feas by mariners;
and by naturalifts ; the productions of each fea;
and every other particular relative to them.
XVI. After thefe general matters, geography
pafiés to the analyfis of the feveral parts of the
world: and here it examines their fituation and
extent; their apparent number of inhabitants,
with their figures, qualities, cuftoms and man-
ners; the principal produétions of ‘each part of
the world; and laftly, the countries and pro-
vinces of which it is compofed. Each country
alfo undergoes a particular and minute exami-
Nation, with regard to its natural and political
fituation, its frontiers and limits, its neighbours
and form of government; its capital and other
citiés, which are divided into great, middling,
and {mall; its fea-ports, fortified places, re-
markable towns, palaces, caftles, feats, and
houfes of pleafure; its parks, forefts, mines,
falt-pits; and, in a word, every object by which
it is diftinguifhed or rendered remarkable. From
all this it appears, that, to underftand geography,
it is only neceflary to have a good fight, a clear
difcernment, and a {trong memory. ©
XVII. As
GEOGRAPHY. 299
_KVII.:As geography cannot be well underftood
without having the-objects before oureyes, itis:
apparent that good maps and;charts are indif-
.penfably neceflary to this fcience; ‘and.as it.is
neceffary to comprehend. and remember what we
fee, it is therefore equally neceffiary to have com-.
plete treatifes, as well as abridgments, ‘on this
fubjeé&t. It is not. known who was the original
inventor of the globe or fphere. John Albeft
Fabricius has collected, in his Greek Bibliotheque,
l. iv. c.14. the names of thofe authors who
have treated on the globes; and D. Hauber, a
German, has given the hiftory of maps. If it
be true, that the two globes or balls, in'‘Solomon’s
temple, were aftronomic. or geographic globes,
they are doubtlefs the moft ‘ancient of which
we have any account. According to Diodorus
Siculus, Atlas, king of Mauritania, was the firft
who invented a fphere ; which gave rife to the
ftory that Atlas fupported the heavens on hig
fhoulders, and was transformed into a moun-
tain. Among the moderns we know of noné
before thofe made by Martin Behaim of Nu-
temberg and Jerome Fracaftor. Since. their
time they have been made by de Hond, Bleau,
Coronelli, Gerard Valck, de L’Ifle, Moll, Wei-
gel, Beyer, Andrew, Doppelmayer, Pufchner,
Lowits, and many other celebrated geographers.
There have been fome globes conftruéted of full
twelve feet in diameter,
XVIII. With
goo Universat Ervupition.
XVIII. With regard to maps, which form
what may be called plans of the earth’s furface,
they reprefent 1. either the two hemifpheres
of the globe; or 2. the four parts of the
world; or 3. particular diftris; or 4, en-
_ tire countries ; or 5. provinces ; or 6. cities and
their environs. Charts, on the other hand, re-
prefent the different feas, coatts, fand-banks,
rocks, &c. They alfo mark the different depths
of the feveral foundings, the currents, whirl-
pools, trade and variable winds in each region ;
the degrees of latitude and longitude, &c. A
complete collection of thefe land and fea charts
or maps is called an Atlas. The inventor of
maps is no better known than that of globes. Eu-
ftathius relates, that Sefoftris caufed a map to
be made of all the countries-he traverfed; which
mutt certainly be the moft ancient. ‘They were
alfo in ufe among the Greeks and Romans, and
Other ancient nations. Agathodaemon drew the
maps for the geography of Ptolemy, which have
come down tous; as well as the famous table of
Peutinger that was difcovered by Conrad Celtis, —
purchaied by Conrad Peutinger, a nobleman
of Augfburg, explained by Beatus Rhenanus,
and publifhed by Mark Velferus. After the
re-eftablifhment of letters in the fixteenth cen-
tury, they began again to make maps. Thole,
which were found in the manufcript of- Pto-
lomy’s geography, were the originals of all
that have appeared fince. Sebaftian Munfter
made them the models of thofe he defigned:
others
GEOGRAPHY. 369
others imitated him, and drew maps of particu-
lar countries. Abraham Ortelius and Daniel
Cellarius collected them, and Gerard Merca-
tor reduced them into a regular fyftem. Wil-
liam and John Bleau, and John Janfion. or Jan-
fenius followed this fyftem. Sometime after,
Sanfon defigned new maps: Francis de Witt
and the younger Vifcher improved them, and
the Germans copied them; but at length H.
Moll, an Englifhman, and William de L’Ifle, a
Frenchman, defigned and executed- maps that
were fo correct and beautiful as to efface the
merit of all that had been done before. There
is a collection of forty two maps of M. de L’Ifle,
that is beheld with admiration by all connoif-
feurs. But as the arts are to be brought to per-
fection by degrees only, Meff. Thomas Kitchin,
and J. M. Hafc, have ftill corrected fome little
inaccuracies in the maps of Meff. Moll and de’
L’Ifle. The cofmographical fociety of Nurem-
berg, the academy of fciences of Berlin, the
fueceffors of Homarin, Meff. Zurner, Scutter, ©
&c. in Germany, Meff. Anville, — Buache
and Bellin in France, and many other able ge-
ogtaphers, labour inceffantly, in giving to maps
and charts the greateft degree of perfection
poffible.
XIX. The beft maps and charts (and per-
haps fuch only as deferve to be called good)
are thofe where the fituation of places and the
limits of countries are determined by accurate
aftronomieal
goz- Universat ErvubdDITion.
aftronomical. obfervations, and: are- laid ~ dowr's
with the ftri€teft precifion. The planning and<
executing of: maps requires great judgment,
when they-are fo made:as to give a juft reprefen-
tation of the terreftrial globe, in ally its various
divifions. The Cofmographic: fociety fuppofe:
that the horizontal or ftereographic projeétion.:
is the moft eligible, as it bears the -greateft re-
femblance to the globe itfelf. We are indebted”
to .the celebrated Hubner, formerly reétor ‘of
the college.at ,|Hamburg,. for the invention. of
illuminating maps with different tranfparent co-
lours,, by which the limits of ‘each country are ©
diftinguifhed, after a regular and fyftematic man-
ners, ’
XX. We might here addithe: folution of -va-»
rious problems, explain certain paradoxes, and -
relate pmany. geographic -curiofities ; but thefe.
particulars would, carry us» beyond our limits: .
and befide,. they more» properly belong to the «
ftudy of geography itfelf, and are likewife more
curious than ufeful.. The. moft finifhed parti-
cular,»map that we know, and. which may ferve
as a patern for all others, .is that of Bohemia, by
Muller,
CHAP.
C 303 )
CHAP. XVI.
GENEALOGY.
m3 ENEALOGY is the fcience_ of the, ori-.
gin of illuftrious houfes, of noble. and.
diftinguifhed families : or an enumeration of the
anceftors of any perfon, together with a .fum-.,
mary relation, of their feveral alliances, as well:
in a direét as collateral line, The term gene-,
alogy is derived from the Greek, and is com-
pofed of two words which fignify the one Genus...
and the other Sermo: and from this. definition .,
it appears, that this fcience has two objects, and.
that a good genealogift ought to know, in the.
firft place, the chronological fucceffion of thofe,
fovereign and illuftrious houfes that are, fo to
fay, at the head of nations; and fecondly, he
fhould be able to form, from ancient documents}
diplomas, and other authorities, genealogical
plans of noble and illuftrious families ; or tables,
in which are inferted, in a regular and_uninter-
rupted feries, the generations of fuch diftin-
guifhed perfons as have defcended from thofe
families down to the prefent day,
Il With
go4 UNiversat ERuDITION:
IJ. With regard to the firft object, genealdz
gy draws its knowledge from the hiftory of na-
tions themfelves:| for it is hiftory that furnifhes
this fcience with the names of thofe illuftrious —
perfonages that have adorned any country or
nation; with the dates of their birth, marriage
and death, their immediate pofterity, their alli2
ances, &c. John Hubner, ancient rector of
the college of Hamburg, has publifhed, in four
folio volumes, a Sale ion of genealogical tables,
whereini he has exhibited, in a regular fyfterh,
and with admirable order, the genealogy of all
the illuftrious families, as well ancient as mo-
dern, that have. exifted upon the earth, from ~
the days of the patriarchs down to the prefent —
time. It is thus that genealogy reftores to hif-
tory what it has borrowed from it; for it is
fcarce poffible clearly to comprehend the latter,
to have a diftinét idea of all the revolutions that
have occurred among the various nations of the
earth, without having tables of this fort before
out eyes; without knowing the genealogy of
thofe families that have governed or concurred
in the government of each nation,
III. It is not eafy to conceive ih the conftruc-
tion of fuch tables, how great a knowledge of ~
hiftory in general is neceffary, how many par-
ticular hiftories, memoirs, &c. an author, of
this fort muft read or- confult, before he fits
down to write, what difficulty he will find inf ~~
aeRO with propriety, the frequent contra-
dictions
+
7
dictions he will rencounter, in fupplying the
vacuities, and in drawing the truth out of an
abylfs of darknefs. We cannot fufficiently ad-
tire the refolution, affiduity and perfeverance
of thofe learned men who have undertaken thofe
labours, and have executed them in the greateft
degree of perfection of which they are fufcep-
tible;’ We are obliged to refer our readers to
the genealogical tables of M. Hubner themfelves,
and to a fhort work which his fon has publifhed,
. by way of dialogue, to facilitate the underitands
ing them. - Thefe are books that can fcarce be
confulted but~ as’ dictionaries; and which will
be found neceffary, but of which it is impof-
fible here to make an analyfis, or even to give an
abftract. “With regard to the learning of gene-
alogy in general, nothing is requifite but fight
and memory.
GENEALOGY. sU5
IV. The fecond objeé& of this fcience’ is thé
knowledge of the names, the days of the births
and ‘marriages, and the alliancés of the fove-:
reigns, princes and other illuftrious perfonages,
who at this time reign or govern in the world:
an object alfo that may have great utility, but
in which the underitanding has no fhare. This
is the province of the memiory alone, and who-
ever Cafries in his pocket an almanac, or fhort
genealogical dictionary, is as learned on opening
his book, as he that has thought fit to load his
memory with thefeé matters, and which perhaps
U mighg
g0o6 UNIvERSAL ERUDITION,
might have-been furnifhed with more important
matters.
V. The third and laft object of a genealogift
by profeffion, -is to elucidate the defcent of noble
and illuftrious families: to enumerate their pro-
genitors, to range them in a regular feries, to
draw up genealogic plans, to fupply deficien-
cies, to difcover affinities from the refemblance.
of names, and to convert conjectures into de-
monftrations. It is neceflary. to make here a
few obfervations. The order of fociety and
welfare of mankind require, that the inhabitants
of every country fhould be ranged. in different
claffes; that there fhould be different ftates or
conditions in life, and that each ftate fhould be
honoured according to its rank. The nobles are
naturally at the head of all the other ftates, and
on that account ought to be treated with great
refpect. But for any man to entertain a ridicu-
lous prodigality on account of his origin ; to ima-
gin himfelf formed of different materials from
the reft of mankind, to reduce to the mere cir-
cumftance of birth all that conftitutes diftinc-
tion among men; to fuppofe there can be any
merit in that which is owing entirely to chance,
and cannot have any real effeét, and .to’ give ta
this mere incident, that preference. which is due
to the talents of the mind and the virtues of the
heart, which have real and important. confe- .
quences : : and on this illufive idea, the offspring
of vanity and weaknefs, to imagine himfelf de-
{cended
Grnxarocy. 307
fcerided from monarchs, Heroes, or even gods, to
deduce his race from Jupiter, or to place in his
genealogical tables the names of Cafar, Pom-
pey, Palzologus, Charlemagne, Rollo, Wit-
tekind, &c. thefe are infatuations that are at
once very common.and. highly ridiculous)
VI. Hiftory haat all . thofe wip would
pique themfelves on the antiquity of their race,
that the origin of all particular families or houfes
is loft in the darknefs of the middle age;) that
during the fifth, fixth, feventh and eighth cen-
turies, all Europe was. over-run by favage na-
tions, who mixed with the natives of each coun-
try: that the Moors and Infidels were a long
time in Spain, and the remnants of the Goths,
Vandals, Catti; Obotritces and many other like
nations in Germany ; that in moft of the weitern
countries. they could neither write nor. read,
before Charlemagne; that there is not in the
whole world any one document relative to any
family that lived in the tenth century; that the
nobility of Spain and Portugal are naturally de-
fcended in part from the Moors and Infidels, and
perhaps from the Jews, at leaft with fome mix-
ture of thefe; that their tournaments and feats
of chivalry were the invention of the Moors, as
well as their romantic gallantry; that in ancient
Germany the nobility were not near fo reipect-
able as is commonly imagined; that many of
thefe gentry made a profeffion of robbing on the
high way, and had caftles to which they retreat-
U 2 ed
308 Universanv ErvuDITION.
ed with their booty: that travellers in their lita
nies begged of God to preferve them from meet-
ing with any of thefe nobility, and there are
ftill ancient litanies remaining in which their
particular names are mentioned; and this prac-
tice continued till the fifteenth century ; that the
magiftrates of the cities were then confidered as
the firft rank of the people; and laftly, that no
private gentleman muft expect to find his name,
his origin and family in modern genealogies,
and {till lefS in the hiftory of paft ages, when
writing was fo rare, and before printing had fa+
cilitated the prefervation of fuch inconfiderable
objecis. |
VII. The laws, the conftitutions, and received
euftoms require ‘however, that to be admitted
into certain illuftrious chapters, or military and
other orders, the candidate fhould be able to
prove his quarters; by quarter in heraldry is
meant a fheild or feutcheon; fixteen of thefe
are neceffary to prove nobility by four defcents,
in thofe focieties where fuch fort of nobles only
are admitted, this term is derived from an an-
cient cuftom of placing on the four corners of
a tomb, the fcutcheon of the father, mother,
grandfather and grandmether of the deceafed.
There are in Flanders and Germany, tombs that
have eight, fixteen, and thirty two quarters,
The authenticity of the thirty two quarters is,
however, always very difficult to be proved, and
frequently liable to much fufpicion; the proof
} bate
GENEALOGY. 309
ef the fixteen quarters is abundantly more eafy,
as they do not go back to thofe ages when writ-
ing was. very uncommon. They may without
{cruple of confcience affert upon oath, their no-
bility of four defcents by fixteen. quarters, as is
the cuftom; whereas, in the proofs by thirty
two quarters, it is frequently neceflary to admit
infcriptions, epitaphs, and other vouchers of a
very equivocal nature.
- VIII. The noblefs form genealogical plans
or trees of their families, where the chief, the
founder, or the firft of whom they have any
knowledge, is placed at the bottom, as the
trunck from whence all the branches fhoot that
form the tree; atthe extremities of thefe branch-
€s are painted the coats of arms of each anceftor
in their natural colours, according to the rules
of blazonry; fo that the youngeft or exifting
branch of the family is at the top of the tree,
We fometimes alfo fee, though but rarely, ge-
nealogical columns, the fufts of which are in
form of a genealogical tree, whofe branches that
furround the column bear the arms, cyphers or
medals of a family. . We think we ought not to
fay more of fo dubious a fcience, and where
there is fo little certainty of the truth, that it may
be properly called the art of hazardous conjec-
tures.
IX. To conclude, the genealogic fyftems of
dowerigy and illuftrious houfes, and the digni-
fied
“glo UNIveRsALt ErvpDiITIOn.
fied families of modern Europe, are moving
pictures, that births and deaths. ate inceffantly’
changing. The cuftom of ornamenting our al-
‘manacs with thefe, is highly ufeful. We have
likewife in Germany genealogical tables’ (efpe-
cially the manual of M. Schumann, which ap-
pears every year at Leipzig) which, being care-
fully made, ‘furnifh every neceflary inftruction
relative to thefe matters.
CH A*P, °XVIL
Bih A! et Ot NOOR
:
ANY a fatirift has roundly afferted that
blazonry and phyficbécome fciences mere-
ly by virtue of their terminology ; and Defpreaux
- fays, |
Auffitot maint efprit fécond en réveries
Inventa le Blafon avec les Armoiries.
Soon
: F
7
BLAZONRY. . 3Ir
Soon after, man, fruitful in vanities,
Did blazoning and armory devife.
OLDHAM.
- Others, on the contrary, have fet too high a value
on this art, and pretend to find fomething mar-
vellous in it. F. Bouhours, the Jefuit, feri-
oufly afferts, that the-motto to a coat of arms is
alone an abridgement of perfection; and Sco-
hier affures us, that the ftudy of blazonry is an
abyfs of knowledge, and that he who fhall ap-
ply himfelf to it for thirty or forty years, will |
{till find that he has fome thing to learn. F.
Meneftrier, a Jefuit, has not only formed the
beft treatife that we have on heraldry, but has
alfo given an account of all the writers on this
{cience, as well as on blazonry and genealogy, in
different languages; and he makes their num-
ber amount to 300. Every author is poffeffed
with a good opinion of the fcience on which he
treats, or elfe it is likely he would have chofen
fome other: there are confequently three hund-
red vouchers that blazonry is an important {ci-
ence. But they who are difinterefted and im-
partial take the mid way between thefe extremes,
and fuppofe, that if blazonry even does not con-
cur to the emolument of mankind,’ there are
many other fciences that are in the fame circum-
ftance, and that it is at leaft interefting to one or-
der of inhabitants, the nobility 5 that the efta-
blifhment of different ranks in fociety is necef-
fay | ina ftate, and that the knowledge of the
origin
g12 Universar Erupirtti ow.
origin and diftinguifhing marks of the fir(t rank
among the people, is not a matter of mere in-
difference: but at the fame time no {fcience
fhould be eftimated beyond its real value ; and
blazonry. is certainly inferior to. many. others,
feeing it requires {carce any faculty of the mind,
but memory, and is befide loaded with a number
of barbarous, and frequently abfurd terms.
II. Blazonry, or heraldry, in Latin heraldica,
is therefore the fcience of diftinguifbing and. de-
eyphering all forts of arms, and of explai-ing them
in their proper and peculiar terms. The word
blazon is derived from the German word blafen,
which fignifies to found a horn or trumpet.
Tournaments were anciently held in Germany
every third year. The nobles or gentlemen
who prefented themfelves at the lifts founded a
horn, to give notice of their arrival. The
heralds, after examining their claim to the title
of gentlemen, founded their trumpets alfo to
inform the marfhals, proclaiming with. a loud
voice the titles, and defcribing the arms of thofe
who prefented themfelves. After any getleman
had appeared twice at the tournaments his rank
was acknowledged, and they founded the trum-
pet only, without making further. inquiry.
From thence the word blafen was ufed to fig nity
the practice of examining and defcribing fhields
and arms in. general; of praifing or cenfuring
knights, &c. and the word has fince remained
attached to the fcienceitfelf
Ill. By
_BLAZONRY, 313
/Al1..By.the. word arms is;therefore meant cer-
tain, marks of honour'exprefied by various figures
and colours, by which the families of thofe that
bear them are ciftinguifhed, or fuch as apper-
tain to a whole nation, city or province. Thus
the feveral. refpectable families among the Ple-
beians and Patricians, cities and provinces, have
their. peculiar arms; and thus fhips hoift their
flags with the arms of Hemburg,. Bremen,
Dantzick, &c. Coats of arms are the fame marks
of honour-accompanied with devices or cyphers,
and are peculiar to noble.and illuftrious families ;
they are drawn in fcutcheons or on. banners, and
were. ancjently. borne on the fhield, cuirafs, &c.
as they are now on. ftandards, colours, &c.
They generally reckon eight. different: kinds of
arms, which are, 1. thofe of houfes er.families;
2. thofe of dignities or employments; 3. thofe
of conceffion, adoption,.or aggregation ;, 4, thofe
of patronage, as the cardinals take the arms of
the popes who have raifed them to the-purple ;
5. thofe of pretenfion, or of fuch countries over
which, the bearer pretends to have authority ;
6. thofe of fiefs, of domains and fubftitutions ;
7. thofe of communiti¢s, republics, cities, aca-
demies, &c. 8. thofe of fucceffion, which are borne
by heirs or legatees. Arms are likewife dif-
tinguifhed into expreflive or arbitary. Blazonry
is, as we have already faid, the method of de-
cyphering and defcribing thefe coats of arms.
IV. This
314 Unirversat ErvubiTion.
IV. This fcience begins therefore by invefti-
gating the origin of arms, and for this purpofe
it afcends to the higheft antiquity: {feveral
curious refearches of this nature are to be found
in the works of Meneftrier and Varennius. There
are fome learned men who pretend to difcover,
even in the Old Teftament, traces of the firft
ufe of arms. They fuppofe they were firft borne
on the fhoe; and the form of the fhield or coat
on which the arms are painted, by its refemblance
to the leather of a fandal or fhoe, they fay con-
firms this opinion. The authors who have
wrote on this fcience have borrowed the _affift--
ance of the profane hiftorians of the three ages,
and after fhowing that arms have at all times
been ufed as reprefentations of the dignity of
birth, the nobility, alliances, employments, and
great atchievements of illuftrious men, they bring
the hiftory of arms down to the prefent times,
and fhow what are the coats of arms that are
now borne by all the fovereign princes of Eu-
rope, and even of all the known world: of illuf
trious houfes, of noble families, of countries,
provinces and cities, &c. And to a minute —
defcription of thefe, they add their figures en-
graved: according to the rules of blazonry.
V. To acquire a juft knowledge of this. art,
it, is neceflary to begin with the ftudy of ‘its ter-
minology, -that is, we fhould learn the terms of
blazonry, as well ancient as modern, the num-
ber of which is fo great, that we might eafily
compole ~
“
BLAZONRY. 315
compofe of them a confiderable vocabulary, or
fhort dictionary ; and the more, as it is neceflary
to add the fignification to each of thefe barba-
rous terms: for this matter, therefore, we muft
refer our readers to exprefs treatifes on blazonry,
as thofe of Varennius, Meneftrier, Andrew Fa-
vin, Spelman, Colombiere, Bara, Segoin, Geliot,
Philip Moreau, Scohier, and efpecially to a work
intituled; The Art of Blazonry, or the Science of
Nobiity, &c. publifhed by Daniel de la Feuille,
at Amfterdam, 1695. . They will there find the
greateft part of the terms of this fcience clearly
explained. .
VI. In the next place it is neceffary to remark
the diverfity of colours in the thield, which confit
of two metals, four other colours, and two furs,
The two metals are Or, and argent, or yellow and
white: the four other colours are azure or blue,
gules or red, fable or black, and vert or green,
called finople, to which is fometimes added
purple or violet. The two furs are ermin and
vairy; to which are alfo added counter-ermin
and counter-vairy. They fay in the etymo-
logy of thefe denominations, that each of
the colours exprefs fome celeftial or mundane
virtue, as, for example, that red is called gules,
becaufe all beafts by devouring their prey have
the gule or throat boody, or of a red colour;
and for this reafon gules in blazonry denotes
valour, intrepidity, &c. It is evident, however,
that the moft natural colours are exprefled by un-
common
— 7 - was
ern
316 Universan ERvuDITION.,
common and fantaftic names, mérely to render
them unintelligible, and by means. of quackery
to make a fcience of thefe matters.. Thefe
eolours are reprefented in drawings ,and en-
gravings by points and ftrokes in different direc-
tions, and fometimes crofling each other, as
well as by diftinét figns and characters. . There
are ftill two other colours in blazonry, which are
the natural colours of fruit, animals or plants,
and that of carnation or fiefh colour for feveral
parts of the human body.
VII. The figures that ufually compofe coats
of arms are of three kinds, which are, natural,
artificial and heraldic. The firft confifts of re-
prefentations of all fort of animals, ftars, plants,
&c. The fecond of all that art has produced,
and that is of ufe in life, as habitable buildings,
bridges, columns, furniture, dre{s, inftruments,
tools, military weapons, &c. The heraldic are
all thofe that fill the {cutcheons at equal and
alternate diftances, of metal and colour,- or that
havea particular fituation. allotted to fome part
of the arms; and are, Firft, all the divifions of the
fhield; as parti per crofs, per chief, pale, fefs, —
bend dexter, bend finifter, chevron, &c.. Second,
the chief, the bend, the pale, the bar, the chev-
ron, the crofs, the, faltier, the orle, &c.. Third,
the faced, © bended, barred, paled, traverfed,
checkered, lozenged, &c. . Fourth, billets, frets,
guirons, lozenges, mafcles, ruftres, &c. . It is
proper to obferve here, that all thefe terms, this
jargon
BLAZONRY. 317
jatgon of blazonry, was in common ufe in the
eleventh century, when that art began to be in
vogue, for then the faltiers, fufils, guirons, ruf-
tres, &c. were parts of the armour worn by
knights : and. we find no author who has men-
tioned this art before the year 1150,
_ VIET. ‘With regard to the manner of ranging
thefe figures and colours, the principal rule is,
always to put metal upon colour, or colour upon
metal; and if any example of the contrary is
_ met with, it is from a particular caufe which is
to be inquired into, The reafon they give for
this rule is, that the ancient drefs was compofed
of party-coloured ftuffs fewed together, or of
cloth of gold or filver ; and that they put pieces
of gold and filver on the colours, and ‘colours on
the gold. Blazonary gives a great number of
particular rules for the manner of arranging
thefe figures; for quartering and diminifhing
arms, &c.
IX. Coats of arms have hkewife ornaments
that may be called exterior, and are accompanied
with marks of honour; fuch as crowns and co-
ronets, colars of the orders of knighthood, en-
figns of employment, fupporters, the helnret,
creft, and mantle. Crowns dnd coronets have
not been placed on fcutcheons till within two
hundred years paft: they are the diftinguifhing
marks of fovereings and of the nobility ; as pope,
em-
=a.
gi8 UniversatrEruDITION.
emperors, kings, dukes, marquifes, counts or earlsj
and barons: thefe crowns or coronets are different
foreach order of fovereigns or noblemen. The
arms of a knight are furrounded by the collar
of his order; and the marks of the military or-
ders is a crofs with eight points, which is placed
behind the fhield, the points only appearing.
The marks of dignities and employments are, for
example, the tiara or triple crown, with the keys,
for the pope ; the crofs for a bifhop ; the baton for
a marfhal; the mace, the mortar-piece, &c. The
fupporters are thofe figures which are placed on
the fides of the arms of fovereigns and the principal
nobility. The helmet is. placed over the arms
with the crown: the helmet is either open or
fhut; or with bars, and is placed in froat, or in
profile. ‘The creft is an ornament or figure that
is placed on the top of the helmet; and in the
fame part is likewife fometimes placed a plume
of feathers.
X. There is in the Jaft place, the pavilion,
which covers and furrounds the arms of empe-
rors, kings and fovereign princes, who depend on
God alone for their inheritance : it .is compofed
of a chapeau or coronet at the top, and a curtain
which forms the mantle. Befides thefe, there is
the banner that ferves as a creft; cyphers, mot-
toes, and feveral other particular ornaments ; of
which blazonry explains the origin, etymology,
diverfity and intention.
XI. We
t¢
{
a
PHILOLOGY. 319
XI. We thall conclude this article with ob-
ferving, that the fcience of blazonry alfo explains,
by its rules and in its peculiar terms, the nature
of the banners and colours. of fovereigns and
ftates, and efpecially what relates to the flags of
maritime nations. . Each nation has its peculiar
flag, which is borne by all its veffels, except they
be pirates, who make ufe of all colours to furprife
thofe that are weaker, or to deceive fuch as are
ftronger than themfelves. The two metals, and
all the other colours, are ufed in the fame man-
ner on the flag as on the fcutcheon. Blazonry
therefore defcribes the colours and arms that
belong to each nation, republic, or maritime city,
as well in their armies as in their navies.
.
o
SRR FRSA
CHAP. XVIII
Of PuHILoLoGy in General.
MONG all the follies to which mankind are
liable, there is no.one more futile or more
difguftful, than a difpute about. words. Juft
denominations, however, are very neceflary .if
we
~ ‘
320 Universau ErvubDition.
we would convey clear ideas of what they are in-
tended toexprefs; it is very effential therefore,
’ that the ‘name which is given to each-feience be
fuch as precifely expreffes its nature, and gives it
thofe characteriftics which diftinguifh it from all
others. ‘This maxim does not feem to have been
catefully obferved by thofe who comprehend, un- -
der the term philology, univerfal literature, who
extend it to all fciences, fo that each one may
there include whatever he thinks proper; as
grammar, rhetoric, poetry, antiquities, hiftory,
criticifm, the interpretation of authors, &c. This
feems to be not only making’ ftrange abufe of
words, but creating confufion’ in thofe matters
where too much regularity and ‘precifion cannot
be obferved. The term philology will not ad-
mit of an arbitéry and indeterminate ufe. It is
compofed of the Greek words giro and aoyos,
which imply a love or ftudy of languages. It
appears therefore, magure all authorities that
may be produced, and which in fact form no
great argument on this occafion, that philology
is nothing more than a general knowledge of
languages, of the natural and figurative fignifi- -
cation of their words and phrafes, and, in fhort,
of all that ‘relates to expreffion in the-different
dialeéts of nations, as well ancient as modern.
II. We fhall not examine ‘here whether Eta-
toftines, the librarian of Alexandria, who, accord-
ing to Suetonius, was the firft that was called a
philologift or: panees bore that name on account
of
f
i
PHILOLOGY.. 321
of his being aman of great learning, or becaufe
he was highly fkilful in languages: or whether,
in modern times, Juftus Lipfius, Angelus Po-
litianus, Calus Rhodiginus, Muret and others,
have obtained the title of philologifts by one or
the other of thefe accomplifhments ; but asin our
fyftem we underftand, by the term erudition, the
univerfality of the {ciences, and by that of Jite-
rature, all which relates to the knowledge of an-
tiquities, fo we include, under the term philology,
a critical knowledge of the languages. This
fcience when juftly limited is fo extenfive, that
we are obliged greatly to concenter its objects, in
order to give the analyfis of it in a fuccinét from.
ILI. As we have already treated, in the fecond
book, on grammar, rhetoric, eloquence, poetry
and verfification, we have there given thofe ge-
neral rules which are applicable to all poffible
languages; and as we fhall have occafion here-
after, in the twenty-fourth chapter of this book,
to explain the principal precepts of criticifm,
we fhall here confine our obfervation to the lan-
guages themfelves, and to thofe general ideas
which philology offers, without leading our
readers through all the paths of an immenfe
labyrinth.
IV. Language in general may be divided into,
1. Ancient languages, which are thofe that have
become extinét with the people who fpoke them,
or have been fo altered and disfigured, that they
Vor. III. x no
gzz Universat Ervbditiom
no longer refemble the languages which were:
{poke by thofe people. |
2. Oriental languages the ftudy of which is:
neceffary in order to the underftanding of the
text of thé holy fcriptures, efpecially the Old:
Teftament. |
3. Learned languages, which are thofe that are
indifpenfably. necefiary in the ftudy of erudition,
and particularly literature; which, while there
were people. in the world who made them their
common language, were called living ; but as no.
nation now makes ufe of them, they are called:
dead languages, and are therefore to be learned
from books or in {chools. ,
4. Modern languages, in which are diftinguifh-
ed, firft, the common languages of the European:
nations, and fecondly, the languages of the
people whe: inhabit. the three other parts of the:
world.. |
V. With regard’ to the languages that were
{poken by the firft inhabitants of the world, tilP
the deftruction of the tower of Babel, there are:
not now the. leaft traces of them remaining 5
though fome zealous theologians pretend that it.
was the Hebrew, as it is found in the Bible, or
at leaft the ancient Chaldean ; but all this is mere
conjecture ; and. it is) certain, on the contrary,.
- that every veltige of thofe languages has been:
totally deftroyed by time. ' The ancient langua-
ees that that have been in ufe in the different
parts of the world fince that period, and the
i Pte _ know-
* >
PHILOLOGY. | 323.
knowledge of which, more or lefs imperfect, hag i
come down us, are, ;
&. The Chaldean.
2. The Syriac and Eftrangetic.
3. The Arabic, .
4. Coptic or ancient Egyptian™.
5. Ancient Ethiopian.
6. Ancient Indian.
_g. Ancient Phznician, which is alfo called
the Ionic Phzenician.
8. Punic or Carthaginian.
g. Scythian, and the Scythian of the Huns.
10, Cyrillian.
11. Glagolitic.
12. Braminian or Bracmanian.
13. Aolian or Holic.
14. Jacobitian. :
15. Celtic.
16. Saracen. |
17. Ancient Efclavonian.
18. Gothic.
19. Hetrufcan.
20. Mangiurian; of which the Maronites,
Neftorians, and fomermics the yakab-
ites made ufe.
‘21. Hieroglyphic.
22. Runic. |
23. Ancient Vandalidn,
4. Ancient Germanic.
. ™ The late M. de la Crofe ea made a Reitianee and
Diftionary of this language, which is in manulcrtpt in the
Jibrary of, the univerfity of Leyden.
X2 25. Gauli¢,
324 UniversaLt ERvDITION.
' 25. Gaulic.
And perhaps fome others that may be
known to philologifts. To thefe may
be added,
26. The different alphabets, idioms, and me-
thods of fpeaking and writing in the
middle age.
VI. Philology is therefore employed in ma-
king learned refearches, not only into thefe lan-
cuages, but into many others, which we fhall
enumerate in the three following chapters. It
prefcribes rules, lays down precepts, points out
principles, furnifhes etymologies, and makes all
the neceflary remarks for the underftanding and
attainment of every known language. It fhows
the ufe that may be made of each particular lan-
guage ; in what country, and by what people, it
has been fpoken ; and explains, as far as is pof-
fible, all the obfcurities and ambiguities that at-
tend the ftudy of each language.
_ VII. When the’ alphabet of a language is once
difcovered and well underftood, we may eafily
attain, or at leaft with much lefs difficulty, the
knowledge of the reft. Befide numberlefs phi-
lological works, with which each library is
crowded, we have, in Germany, a {mall treatile
that is very curious and very inftructive, intitled,
The new A. B..C. in a hundred languages : or,
fundamental inftructions for teaching the young-
eft fcholars not only German, Latin, F rench
| s: and
PHILOLOGY. 325
and Italian, but alfo the oriental and other lan-
guages; as well as the pronunciation and
Knowledge of thefe different languages : Leip-
fic, publifhed by Gefner 1743. In this book
are contained the alphabets and firft elements of
a hundred different languages, as well ancient
as modern. This work was reprinted in 1748,
and very confiderably augmented, under the
title of The matter of the oriental and occiden-
tal languages. To this has been added the
Lord’s prayer, in two hundred languages, an- °
cient and modern, in the chara¢ters proper to
each, with the dialect or manner of pronoun-
cing the prayer; which contributes greatly to
facilitate the attaining an idea of thefe languages.
The author of this equally curious and inftruc-
tive book is M. John Frederic Frits; and he
was affifted by the Danifh miffionary Schults of
Hall. The fucceflors of Homann of Nuren-
burg have alfo publifhed four geographico-phi-
lological maps, defigned by Godfrey Henfel;
which bear the following titles: 1. Europa po-
lyglotta, linguarum genealogiam exhibens, una
cum litteris, fcribendique modis omnium gen-
tium: 2. Afia: 3. Africa; with the fame
title: and 4. America cum fupplementis -po-
lyglottis. The four parts of the world are en-
graved and coloured on thefe maps; but in
every country, inftead of the names of its
cities and provinces, is feen the begin-
ning of the Lord’s prayer, in the chara+ters
ufed in that country; fo that with a fingle
glance
26 Universat Ervupition.
glance of the eye, we fee all the languages ‘that:
are in ufe in all parts of the known: world.
Thefe maps are highly curious, and have doubt-
lefs coft the inventors immenfe labour.
VIII. We have elfewhere remarked, that the
books which teach the particular rules of a lan-
guage are called grammars, rudiments, &c. and
thofe that contain the words and phrafes, dictio-
naries, lexicons, lexical manuals, vocabularies,
&c. Philology thews the manner in which
thefe books are to be made, and the precautions
that are to be obferved to render them inftructive
and agreeable: the method of treating fynony-
mous terms; the gradations that. are among
words feemingly fynonymous ; and many other
like matters. . It fhews alfo. the reciprocal in-
fluence which the genius and manners of a
people have on their language; and their lan-
guage on their general method of thinking;
their. manners, urbanity and refinement. |
1X. But as it is impoffible to perceive all the
force and'elegance of the various allufions, me-
taphors and comparifons in.a language, efpeci- _
ally in an ancient language, if we are not pro- |
perly inftructed in their manners, cuitoms, cere-
monies, laws, arts, {ciences and profefiions, and
other peculiarities of the nation by whom they
have been ufed, and whofe natural idiom they
formed, philology, in order to know the true
origin, etymology, and fignification of the words,
terms,
PHILOLOGY. 327
iterms, and phrafes of a language, remounts to
the moft diftant ages, and employing all the aids
_ Gt can receive from literature, it makes ufe of
antiquities, numifmatics, and diplomatics, in ix-
ing the meaning of each term, and mode of ex-
preffion, and by thefe means renders languages
and authors intelligible, clear and agreeable.
_X. Thofe languages, which are no longer in
«common ufe, .can only be learned. by books or
manuicripts. But as thefe-have come down to
us by the means of copying, they have .confe-
quently been frequently mutilated, altered, di-
minifhed and disfigured, by thofe who -have
copied them ; the text, -in general, or at leaft
many paffages of thefe books and manufcripts,
is unintelligible at the firft reading. From hence
there has arofe in modern Europe a particular
{cience, that is called the Criticifm of Languages,
which makes a part of philology, .and is employ-
ed, 1. inexamining the authenticity and truth of
the text; 2. in difecovering and pointing out the
means of correcting the text; 3. in reftoring
fuch paffages .as have been altered, omitted, or
mutilated; 4..in explaining the true fenfe of the
text; and 5. in eftablithing a language by thefe
means in its full primitive perfection, and mak-
iing it perfectly intelligible to modern times.
The celebrated .M. le Clerc has-given us an ad-
mirable work on this fubjeét, intitled 4s Critica,
in which he explains, with equal genius and fa-
didity, the rules of found philological criticifm,
AI. That
328 Universat ErupDitTion.
XI. That which is of the greateft ufe in un-
derftanding and interpreting an obfcure or imper-
feé&t paffage, or an unintelligible word or phrafe,
is confrontation. The beft confrontation is that
which is made by comparing an author, book or
manufcript with itfelf ; by examining if the fame
word, matter or phrafe, is not repeated elfewhere,
or in equivalent expreffions. This is the moft
certain method, and produces an authentic inter-
pretation. The fecond method is to confront a
writer with his cotemporaries of the fame nation:
and the third confifts in comparing him with other
authors who have written at different times, but
in the fame language.
EKA OOO 30K
ea 2 fee Mat hs 9G
ORIENTAL LANGUAGES.
H O’ moft of the languages we have enu-
merated in the preceding chapter, and
many of thofe we fhall mention in the twenty-
firft, have been, or are ftill in ufe in the eaftern
countries,
ORIENTAL LANGUAGES. 329
countries, we here underftand, however, by the
term oriental, thofe only which are effentially ne-
ceflary to the underftanding, and interpreting, in
an exegetic manner, the holy writings, efpecially
thofe of the Old Teftament; and for this re-
ftriction of the term we have the authority of ‘a
great number of learned men, who by the orien-
tal languages underftand only the Hebrew, Chal-
dean, Syriac, Arabic and Coptic: to which we
fhall add the Samaritan, Rabbinic and Talmudic.
Thefe eight languages merit a more particular
examen, as they ferve to eftablifh the foundations
of the Chriftian religion, and make a confider-
able part of the ftudy of a Theologian.
II. The Hebrew, Arabic and Chaldean, re-
fpectively claim the right of feniority, each of
them has its advocates, and the point is not eafy
to be decided. Moft zealous divines are in-
clined to favour the Hebrew; and there are
fome of them who pretend that it was the lan-
guage in which God talked with Adam in Para-
dife,. and that the faints will make ufe of it in
heaven in thofe praifes which they will eternally
offer to the Almighty. Thefe doétors feem to
be as certain with regard to what is pafied
as what is to come. Some philologifts give
the priority to the Arabic, and others to the
Chaldean. This difference is the more difficult
to be reconciled, as Mofes was not born till
2464 years after the creation, and in Egypt;
that is to fay, 700 years after the deftruction of
the
330 Unrversat Ervorrron.
the tower of Babel, when all. languages were
mixed and confounded ; for we have no proof,
nor even any account, that the Hebrew was ex-
empted, .and preferved its purity amid the ge-
meral confufion. . There is not, moreover, at
this time, any one work of antiquity ‘exift-
ing that is wrote in Hebrew, except the Old
Teftament: and of that there are even fome parts
in Chaldaic, and words of that and ether. lan-
guages are to be found difperfed in different
parts of it.
III. There is one more remark we mutt here
make. The firft time we find the word Hebrew
in the Bible, is in the 13 verfe of the xiv. chap-
ter of Genefis; and it is manifeft that Abraham
and his defcendants took that name from the
patriarch Heber, the fon of Salah, and third
grandfather of Abraham : it is therefore evident,
that in the time of Abraham this name-was that of
a family,-and not of a people who had a feparate
danguage.. We are therefore to fuppofe, that
‘Abraham, and the patriarchs after him, {poke
the cuftomary language of the country where
they lived; that this language changed by degrees,
as all living languages have done and ever will
do: that Jacob and his fons having pafled into
Egypt, they :and their defcendants, under the
name of the Children of. Ifrael, did not pres
ierve the language of their fathers in all its
purity; ‘but that they mixed with it many ex-
preflions. borrowed from foreign languages, and
elpecially
- a
aT in, A
ae.
Vee SOWA ae ees, eae eee ee
OrienTat Lanycvaces. 331
efpecially from the Egyptian and Coptic: that
Motes wrote in the Hebrew language, as the
children of. Ifrael. then fpoke it: that the other
books of the Old Teftament were wrote ftill
later; and that it is almoft impoflible for this
language to. have been preferved without any
alteration.
1Vy Notwithftanding all this, as thetheologians
are always very fure of what they fay, we thall be-
lieve with them that the Hebrew was the firft ian-
guage in the world, and thatit was delivered from
God himfelf ; forthefe learned doctors tell us, that
the Almighty taught it Adam as foon as he had
created him, that he might be able to converfe
with God; and that he gave him the power of
calling all things by their names: in the fame
manner as in after-time the gift of tongues was
communicated to the apoftles on the day of pen-
tecoft. Albertus in his Hebrew Dictionary finds
in each word, in each roor, in its letters, and the
manner of pronouncing it, the. fignification of
that word. Looefcher, .in his treatife De caufis
linguz Hebree, carries this matter flill further.
V. Neverthelefs, as we have no Hebrew but
what is contained in the Holy Bible, this lan-
guage muft naturally be deficient of many words;
not only becaule all the ancient languages,
but efpecially thofe of the firft ages, were not fa
copious as the modern; but there were in thofe
times fewer objects to be named; and the
facred
332, Universat ErvupitTron.
facred authors moreover had not occafion te
treat on all fubjec&ts. ~The Hebrew language
however is fufceptible of all the ornaments of
diction, and is very expreffive. Itis not, befide,
fo difficult to learn as fome have imagined.
The ftyle of the Pfalms, of the book of Job,
and of all that is wrote in a poetic manner, is
the moft difficult to underftand. That of Ifaiah
is. noble and elegant, worthy of an author who
was of the houfe of David, and the nephew and
grandfon of a king. But, notwithftanding all
the labours of the learned for fo many centuries,
we are very far from having a perfect knowledge ©
of the Hebrew language: this inconvenience
is the greater, as it gives occafion to many im-
- perfect tranflations, which disfigure the true
fenfe of the original text ; and, what is {till more,
they have founded, on thefe paffages wrong inter-
preted, a belief of events that have never ar-
rived in the manner predicted; and even fome-
times religious dogmas. It is to be wifhed
that a fociety of men, the moft learned in thefe
matters, were formed in order to perfect the
knowledge of the oriental languages, and of the
Hebrew in particular.
VI. The Hebrew language had originally no
vowels. They are marked in the mafforets by
points under the confonants. This language is
wrote and read from the left to the right : it has
thirteen letters, which grammarians divide into
gutteral,, palatic, dental, labial and gingival.
They
OrrenTAL LANGUAGES, 333
They now diftinguifh only five vowels in Heb-
rew, which are the fame as ours, a, ¢, i, 0, u.
' But they divide each vowel into two or three ;
as long, fhort, fhorteft. The articles, pronouns,
_ &c. are placed after the fubftantive; and the
fame word is fometimes fubftantive, adjective
and verb. The punctuation and accent are the
objects that require the greateft attention in the
Hebrew language; they count near forty ac-
cents, and there are many whofe ufe is ftill. un-
known; they ferve in general to diftinguifh, 1.
the period and its members, as the points do
in other languages; 2. to determine the quan-
tity of fyllables, and 3. to mark the tone that
is to be obferved in chanting them. Nineteen
of thefe accents are alfo called, by grammarians,
diflinétivi or accentus regii, and the others conjunéi-
vi, fervi or miniftri. There is, properly fpeaking,
only one conjugation in this language, which is
of itfelf fimple, but is varied in each verb by
feven or eight different manners, that form in
fact fo many different conjugations, and give a
great number of expreffions, to reprefent by one
word the various modifications of a verb, Thefe
are the principal characteriftics of the Hebrew,
as we find it in the Holy Scriptures; and which,
taken all together, forms a very regular and
analogous language. )
VII. The Chaldean is that which was fpoken in
Chaldea. Some fay that it is a dialect derived
from the Hebrew, and others that the Hebrew
1S
334 Universat’ Erupptren.
is‘a diale&t of the Chaldean, This language
has twenty five letters; the forms of which are
very different from the Hebrew.’ It is in like
manner wrote from the left to the right.
The Syriac is alfo confidered as.a diale&t of
the Hebrew. It has twenty two letters, which
have the fame names with the Hebrew, ‘but are:
of very different forms.
The Arabic, or the language of the Arabians,
is in like manner a dialect of.the Hebsew. It
has twenty eight letters, the names of which
have a good deal of refemblance to the Hebrew,
but their characters are alfo very different.
The Coptic is the ancient language of the E-
gyptians, but mixed in procefs of time with
much of the Greek. We have already, faid, in
the preceding chapter, that the late M. de la
Crofe has in a manner _re-eftablifhed this lan-
guage, when we fcarce knew more than the name
of it; and that he has compofed a Coptic gram-
mar and dictionary. F. Kircher, it is true, had
before publifhed a Coptic vocabulary and kind
ef grammar, but veryincomplete., There are thirty
two letters in its alphabet, but the characters
are almoft entirely Greek. There has been no
book found in this language but tranflations of
the Holy Scriptures, or ecclefiaftic offices, &c,
SRLOChe Scmatitan is another dialeciak uae
‘Hebrew. The Saniaritans. were Jews, and their
city Samaria was in Judea. ‘They followed the
law of Mofes with more rigour, more after the
/ letter
te» » ew 9
—s -
OrrentTat LAaAnGvuaGESs. 325;
fetter than the Hebrews. There is a Sa-
maritan copy of the Pentateuch, Wiich differs,
indeed, but litle from that of the Jews in Heb-
rew, but is wrote in different characters, that
are commonly called Samaritan, and which
Origen, St, Jerom,. and many other writets, as:
well ancient as modern, fuppofe to be the firit
letters of the Hebrews. There are alfo medals.
that are called Samaritan; they have Hebrew
infcriptions, in characters different from thofe
ef our Hebrew bible; and which are called
fqguare Hebrew. For a further account of the |
Samaritan language, confult M. Simon in ‘his.
cuftoms and ceremonies of the Jews, Eduardé:
Bernhardi. Lexicon Samaritanum, F. Kircher,.
M. Buxtorff, M. de Spanheim, F. Morin, M..
Walton, and a great number of other writers,
IX. The Rabbinic, or the Hebrew of the Rab-
bins, is the language of which they have made
ufé in their works. The body of it is compofed
of Hebrew and Chaldaic, with divers alterations.
in the words of thofe two languages, whofe fig-
nifications they have much extended. They
have likewife borrowed greatly from the Ara-
bic. The reft is compofed of words taken for
the moft part from the Greek, with fome from
the Latin, and others from various modern lan-
guages, efpecially that of ‘the country in which
each rabbin lived. For we fhould remember
here, that after the return from the laft capti-
¥ity, they fpoke fearce any pure Hebrew at Je-
rufalens
336 Universat ERvuDITION.
rufalem and in Judea, but Greek mixed with fome
Hebraic expreffions ; the Romans afterward en-
tering Palaftine, and becoming conquerors of
that country, fpoke their own language there:
and at laft the Jewith nation was totaly difperfed.
We hall only add, that the Rabbinic is a very
copious language, and that there is’ fcarce any
part of fcience of which the Rabbins have not
treated, but always with an enthufiafm that is
natural to them: there have been among them
even poets and orators.
X. The Zalmudic is another dialect or. par-
ticular idiom of the Hebrew, in which the Tal-
mud, or the book compofed by the Jews that
contains all the explications of their law, is writ-
ten. This language differs greatly from the
pure Hebrew. M. Buxtorff has compofed a Chal-
daic, Talmudic and Rabbinic di€tionary. We
have alfo a work of the emperor Conftantine,
intitled Clavis Talmudica; and one of Otto,
called Vite doétorum Mifnicorum ; befide feve-
ral others.
XI: We fhall conclude this article with. fay-
ing a few words concerning the Hebrew charac-
ters in general. Thefe are the ancient Heb-
rew, the modern Hebrew, the fquare and the
Rabbinic Hebrew. The fquare Hebrew is fo
called from the form of its letters, which are
more regularly fquare, and have their angles
better defined than the Hebrew of the Rabbins.
The
Dean Laneuacesi 344
The faireft characters in the fquare Hebrew,
are fuch as refemble the characters of the
Spanifh manufcriprs: thé next are thofe of the
Talian manufcripts, and then thofe of the French
and German, Many authors fay that the fquare
Hebrew is not the true ancient character that
the Jews wrote from the origin of their language
to the captivity of Babylon; but an Affyrian or
Chaldean character, which they adopted during
their captiviey and have fince retained. The
Rabbiaic is a character not imelegant, and is
formed from the fquate Hebrew by cutting
off che greateft part of its angles,
eng
j ) | CHAP. KX.
Of thofe LANGvAGEs that are
called dead; and of PaLzo-
GR APHY.« .
a =" -
[| ANGUAGES in general, properly fpeak-
ing, form no fcience that can enrich the
mind with real knowledge, but are to be con-
fidered as introductions to the fciences; as keys
Wor. Il, ‘ Y that
‘a ‘. ¥ ee ee oe ee 4 , a
- 2 a = 7\ oa chs) - A.
’ 5 the : ‘ }
x * - a3 4
.
: 938 Unrversat ErupitTion.
>
that open to us the fanctuaries of erudition. In
order to attain the knowledge of ‘antiquity in- its
full extent, the knowledge of thofe laneuages
that were then in‘ufe is of great utility: and
properly to judge of modern nations, it is al-
. moft indifpenfably neceffary to be acquainted
with the principal languages which are now
ufed in the world,. There are ‘two languages
however, which are called Jearned by way of
eminence, and thofe -are the Greek and the
Latin. The former of thefe not only enables
us to read. the mafterlyproduétions of genius of
ancient Greece, but alfo to forma true jude-
ment of all its antiquities, and of its different
ages, which form the moft entertaining and
interefting | periods. for the, .fciences and polite
arts of all ancient times. The latter affordsus _-
the means of underftanding the original texts of —
all the admirable works of the moft celebrated
‘ Latin authors, and of, becoming acquainted with
the city, republic,- and monarchy of Rome, as
_ if we had been prefent with them: and of form-
ing a folid judgment. of thofe precious Roman
antiquities of every kind, that are ol remaining
among us. ,
Il. But that which has given the Latin an
advantage even over the Greek itfelf, that has
rendered it indifpenfable to every man of letters,
and has made it,the bafis of erudition, is, that
during the middle age, and in -general in all
modern times, the learned of. all sick have
7* ~ . - : +
Dz ab. LAN GUAG RB Sip, U «334
hiade i it their common;and. unjverfal -language
fo chat the Latin forms, if. we may. ufe the ex-
: preflion, the natural aah of the fciences,
iit. All that is written i in Greek. cannot-b&
properly. faid to be inthe tame languages for .
we thould carefully diftinguith,. sng Comal
(1.) Fhe ancient or literal Greek : anh. a
rable language, 1 in which are. wrote the works of
Xenophon, Thucidydes, Demotthenes, Platog
_Arniftotle, Homer, Sophaciess 8c; works, rhat
‘have preferved_ this language in all its . purity,
- and that will make it, with themielves, immortal,
‘There are, however, feveral idioms, or dialegs
in this tongue, among \
‘principal, and thefe are, 1, the Attic; which ig
‘the moft efteemed ; .2. the Tonic; 3. the Eolics |
‘did 4: the Doric ; which was a kind. ‘of. ruttic
diale&t, and in which ate written, eclogu 5
‘idyls, and other paftorals. | We muft obfeive —
by the way, that all thefe four dialects are to be.
‘found in Homer, and produce an odd effect j in
an heroic poem, notwithftanding the univerfal
approbation that is given to this _poet. The
Greek language is very copious in words, and
its inflexions are as. various as they are. Gimple.in ~
‘moft modern languages, It has three numbers,
‘the fingular, dual, and plural, and many, tenfes.
in its verbs, which afford great. variety. of ex-
preffion, The ule of. the participles of the
aorift, and,of the preterit; and of compound
words, which are very numerous in this lang
Yo guages
e which; rour are reckoned |
4 2
+
g40 Universat Erubition.
guage, give it force and brevity without, in the
leaft, diminifhing its perfpicuity. Proper names
have alfo a meaning in this, as in the Oriental
languages, and the learned there find likewife
the charaéter of their origin. The dialect itfelf,
or the pronunciation, is fonorous, foft, harmo-
nious and delightful: in a word, the Greek is
the language of a polite nation, that had a tafte
for il the arts’ and fciences.
IV. (z) The Greek of the middle age. The
ancient Greek ended at the time that Conftanti-
nople became the capital of the Roman empire,
though there were after that time feveral works,
and fome by the fathers of the ‘church, which
were wrote in Greek, and with fufficient purity:
‘but as theology, Jaw, civil and military policy,
‘the alteration of cuftoms and manners, &c. in-
“troduced fucceffively a great number of words
that were before unknown, thefe novelties by
‘degrees altered and corrupted the language——
‘The natural elegance of the ancient Greek was
no longer to be found. ‘Thole men of exalted
genius, who conftantly give a true beauty to a
Yafignage, were ho more. And what could be
expected from a barbarous age, and from’authors
¢hat were even below a moderate capacity °
V. (3.) The modern or vulgar Greek. Te
commenced at the taking of Conftantinople by
the Turks, and is the language that is now _
commonly fpoke in Greece, without any regatd
OP OO LO OT ae eS ee Ee OO
—_—
Deavd LANGVAGES. 341
ta improvement. The wretched flate to which
the Greeks are reduced by the Turks, rénders
them indolent, and, by a neceflary confequence,
ignorant, The policy of the Otteman Porte
does not permit its fubjects to apply themfelves
to ftudy; and that fame {pirit, which has deftroyed
the fineft monuments of antiquity, which has
made, of columns of porphyry and granate, balls °
for their cannons, bas caufed the decadency and
total deftruction of the {ciences.. The principal
difference between the ancient and vulgar Greek
confifts im the terminations of their nouns, pro-
nouns, verbs, and other parts of fpeech. There ’
are alfo, in the modern, many words that are not
to be found in the ancient Greek ; particles that
appear to be expletives, and which cuftom alone
has introduced to diftinguith certain tenfe¢ of '
their verbs ; names of employments and dignities * -
unknown to the ancient Grecians; and a great
number of words taken from modern tongues :
which altogether form a fpurious language, a>
kind of jargon. There is a gloffary of this’
language compofed by du Cange.
VI. (4.) Fhe Greek of the New Teftament.
The Greek of the Evangelifts and Apoftles is.
very different fram that of Thucidydes, Xeno-
phon, and Demofthenes, At the time of the
birth of our Saviour, Greek was commonly {poke
in Judea; for after the laft captivity, the people:
no longer underftood Hebrew: their Greek,
however, was corrupted, mixed with a great
number
342 Universay Ervoitron.
Aumber “of *Hebraifins ;) with words'eand terns ©
that related tothe worfhip,: to the laws, policy,
manners, and ‘cultoms uf the’ ‘Jews’; -by which
means it became ' a vulgar language, a provincial |
and rude dialect, in“compariion ‘ofthe ancient _
or literal Greek. He that underftands ‘the °
New Teftament will’ not in’ confequence under-
ftand ° Homer. It may appear furprifing, that
Jofephus, the Jewith hiftorian, who ‘lived at the -
time of the -deftruction . of. Jerufalem, about |
forty years after the death of Chrift, fhould be
abie to write Greek with fo much purity and
elegance ; ; .obut he was: at once, a courtier, ‘a mi-
ftudied the Ssreek Janguage, ani had {poke it at
the court of. Vetpafien: in Rome. For the fame»
S nifter,.a "general, « anda man of letters; had:
t+
reafon, St. Paul alfo wrote -better ‘Greek than
the Evangelitts ine other Apenere pacer.
Ls
Vil. men all that has beet fib itis appar-
ent how much*utility attends the ftudy of. the
Greek tongue, andshow much reafon the Englith
have for applying themfelves:to it from their ¢ arly
syouth.. There are, moreover, in modern lan-
etiages, an infinity of terms in the: arts and
{ciences,:as.moft of thofe in aftronomy, mathe-
matics, phyfic, anatomy, botany, and the names
of many: machines;. inftruments, and other,mo-
dern ipventions, that. are either altogether Greek,
or détived’ trom it, which ‘renders this language
in a manner indifpeniable to a man of real
' Jearnine, ‘We caanot, laftly, determine, if mo-
rie tall dern
9 ed
‘one *
Ps
’ , ™ . bt Aes
‘ . ‘ d
-
Deav LANGUAGES: 343
7. dern, nations pronounce the Greek language in
the manner that the ancient inhabitants of Greece:
- did; but it is very probable, that if Demoft-:
henés or Ariftides were now to come upon the»
earth, they would be very far from underftand-.
ing what our Jearned. men-fhould. fay to. pore
in Greek. Si | %
vu The Latin is the fecond of thofe lan-.
guages that are called dead. It was firft fpoke:
in Latium, afterwards at Rome, and by means:
of the Latin church, and of the labours of the.
learned, has. come down -to. us. » The Latins
not. an original tongue, bur is formed ,of the
Greek, and esis. 9 of the Eolian dialect, and,
of many words taken from the languages. of the:
Ofci, the Hetrurians, and feveral other ancient
nations of Italy. It has had different | periods
of improvement and decadency, which form its!
different ages.
\ The firft. age comprehenda the anole Latin :
that was {poke in Latium, and caltivated at
Rome, from its firft foundation, under the
reigns of its kings, and: in the-firft ages of its
republic. At the beginning, the: Latin tongue’
was, fo to fay, inclofed.within. the walls of Rome, :
for the Romans. did not. commionly permit. the
ufe of it to their neighbours, or the people they
conquered: ;but when they»came to perceive
how neceflary i it was for facilitating their. com-:
merce, that the Latin tongue fhould be {poke
every where, and that all nations, in fubjection to
' their
— alia ail oe <— ee ~ a...” les ee Bi 5 a ee
: "
.
Pen ge a a ee ee
Se * = <a =: _* : "
%
344 Universan Exuprtran.
their empire, fhould be united by one éémrtién:
language, they then obliged thofe they con-
quered to adopt their language. It is: eafy. t6
conceive what muft have been the ‘original
language of a fet of freebooters, without man-
ners, and without arts or feiences 5 this jargon
mult, befide, have been neceffarily mixed with
the language of the Sabines, from whom they
ftole their wives , and with thofe of feveral other
foreign nations whom they had conquered, or
who were incorporated with their republic. But
in proportion as the Romans became polithedy
their language became refined. There are but
very few works of the firft agé now remaining,
among which are réckoned “thofe of Ennis,
&c.
IX. The fecond age of the Latin langwage
began about the time of Ceafar, and ended with
Tiberius. This is what is called the Auguttan:
age, which was perhaps of all otliers the moft
brilliant. A period at which i it fhould feem as
if the greateft men, and the immortal authors,
had met together upon the earth, in order to:
write the Latin language in its utmoft purity:
and perfection. This age, and the language.
of this age, are fo well known, and we have f6.
great-a number of works produced a€ this pe
riod, as makes it unneceflary fof us to fay any.
thing further of i here.
X. The
» Bran Lanevaces. . 945
%. The third age begins with the reign of:
Fiberius. Seneca feems to have contributed
plot @ little to have deprived the Latin language —
of its energy and dignity, and to have fubftisuted
the little tricks of ftyle in its ftead, and fome-
times thofe childifh expreffions which the Italians
call concesti. Even Tacitus appears not to have
been quite free from thefe faults; for his concife
and fententious ftyle is not that of the goldew
age; nor likewife is that of the poet Lucian. ~
XI. The fourth age of the Latin tongue is
that of the remainder of the middle age, and:
the firft centaries of modern times, daring
which, this langwage fell by degrees into fo
great 4 decadency, that it became nothing better
thai a barbarous jargon. It is to the ftyle of
thefe times that is given the name of low Latin;
and, in fact, it was fo corrupted, alered, and
mixed ‘with forcign expreffions, that‘ M. du
Cange has formed a voluminous gloffary, which
contains thofe words and phrafes only that are
ufed in the low Latin, and which we fhould not
bé able to enderftand without fuch helps. What
indeed could be expeéted from this language,
at a time when the barbarians had taken poflef-
fion of all Europe, but efpecially of Italy; when
the empire of the eaft was governed by idiots;
when there was a total corruption of morals ;
when the arts and fciences were in a manner
annihilated; when the priefts and monks were
the only men of letters, and were at the fame
time
hw ~; ie ie — = —— + = ———._, ="
0 ee eller ee > ery 4 "22> 2 ' \.o en i
re
346 Universat Erupition.
time the moft ignorant and futile mortals in
the .world: » Under thefe times of -darknefs, we .
mutt, therefore, rank that Latin, which is called
lingua ecclefiaftica, and which we cannot read
without difguft. :
XII. The fifth and laft age of the Latin
tongue is that which began with the fixteenth
century,:and was that of Leo X, Charles V,
Francis I, Henry VIII of England, &c. A
happy period, and ever memorable for the re-
- ftoration of letters, of arts and fciences, of man-
ners; and of. the powers of the human mind, :
which till then feemed to, have remained ina
perpetual ftupor, It is -neceffary to remember
here, that the art of printing was sot invented
till about.the year 1441; and that the manu-
{cripts of the ancient Greek and Latin authors.
were become extremely fcarce.. and highly va-,
juable; fo. that but few private perfons were
able:to procure them, and to ftudy the Latin of
the. Auguftan age. But-fince that time, we
have had many Latin works, as well. in verfe as
profe, in, a ftyle that.we cannot fufficiently ad-
mire, and which, though not altogether fo pure
aiid elegant. as thofe of the golden age, yet are:
not much inferior.
"XII, There are, however, i in the Latin, aa
in all dead languages, two great inconveniences.
which continually attend them, with regard to
modern ages. The firft confifts. in the pronune:
ciation,
el
+ a - a
eDeran \Lancvacrss 3497
giation!: “As ‘to;what concerns the Latin,. each
nation “pronounces: its after’ the -manner of: its.
own language, andseach, of them imagines their
pronunciation tocbe the beft,. It: may be . prov-
ed; however,. by. many:arguments, that no man
now upon earth, pronounces’ Latin’ in thefame
manner asidid Horace and\Cicero. The.fecond
inconvenience ‘is: the deficiency. of .the Latin
language with regard to us, <as it has not terms.
whereby. to exprefs thofe inventions and difcove-
ries of everyskind: that have been made. fince
the exiftence.of the’ Roniam empire.: There-are
no Latin) words. for any of the. furniture.that.
furrcoundsus, for three fourths of the, difhes that’
come upon our: tables, for. the drefs.we wear,
for our inftruments of war and navigation, for
civil and military employments, and, in a word,
forall our daily occupations. ~ It is droll enough’
. to hear our authors call a cannon, bombarda ;
a peruque, capilamentum ; and a button of our’
cloaths, globulus, &c., Whoever fhall doubt
the propriety of this obfervation, need -only
read the effays that fome able .Latinifts have
made in our days to write gazettes in that lan-
guage, and they will there fee the pains thofe
writers have taken, and the ill fuccefs they.have
had. We fhall fay no more of a language which
every fcholar learns from his infancy, which is
taught over all Europe in fchools and colleges,
and of which there are grammars, dictionaries,
and other inftructive books without number,
XIV. Paleography
948 Universan Ervuprrron.
XIV. Paleography is a-defeription of the an-
cient manner of writing a language from its
origin to the moft recent time. This denomi-
nation is taken from the two Greek words
mararos palaios, and yeeen grapbe; of which
the former fignifies, ancient, and the latter,
writing. Paleography is not confined to the
tracing of the various alterations that have been
introduced from age to age in the letters and
abbreviations of a language, but it hkewife
gives an account of the fucceffive changes in
the language itfelf, of the corruptions and bar-
- barifms that have been introduced, or of its im-
provements, of its acquifitions, and the manner
by which it has arrived at the greateft degree of
perfection. In a word, it is the hiftory of the re-
volutions of a language, whether ancient, learned
or modern. Abbé Pluche has given, in his
Spectacle de la Nature, vol. vii. a paleography
of the French language, which may ferve as
an example, and which we here quote as it is
in the hands of every one; who, by confulting
it, may eafily form an idea of this art.
CHAB
|
{ 349 J
CHAP. XKIL
MopDERN LANGUAGES
F we call all the different dialects of the va-
rious nations that now inhabit the known
earth, languages, the number is truly great, and
vain would be his ambition who fhould att
to learn them, though but imperfe@ly. We
will bezin with naming the principal of them,
There are three which may be called original”
or mother languages, and which feem to have
given birth to all that are now {poke.in Europe.
Thefe are the Latin, German, and Sclavonian.
From the Latin are derived the languages of all
thofe nations which inhabit the fouthern, and
moft weftern countries of this part of the world.
From the German, all thofe of the nations that
inhabit the centre and the northern regions: and
from the Sclavonian all the languages of the
people who dwell in the moft eaftern part of
Europe. The Sclavonian is extended even to
Afia; and is fpoken from the Adriatic fea to the
northern ocean; .and almoft from the ‘Cafpian
fea to Saxony. But it muft not be imagined
from the term Original, which is given to thefe
languages, that they have come down to us
from
al ro 4 ——_—s. 2
— a
, aid ‘ f
— . a
350 Universan--Erupditron:
from the confufion at Babel without any altera:
tion: No; we have already fhown, in the pre-
ceding chapter, of what languages the Latin wag
formed. With regard to the German, it may
be very juftly fuppoted to have been the ancient
language of the inhabitants of Germany, as the
names of their divinities and heroés (Mann) Erta,
Hermann, &c. appellative names, which ftill
fignify Man, Earth, Chief of an army) feem
to confirm that opinion. . But it is indubitable,
that fhe antient German has been mixed arid
corrupted by the languages of thofe northern na-
tions which in the fourth century deluged Eu-
rope : and who, when they penetrated Italy and
Africa, did not merely pafs through Germany as
an army that marches in regular ordér, but re-
mained there a confiderable time, and mixed
with the natives of the country. All thefe Scy- -
_ thian or Celtic’ people acquired likewife in Ger-
many the name of Allamands or Germans;
—fome ‘were called Goths, that is, good ; others
Quades, or bad; others Huns, or dogs ; others
Normans, or men from the north; and fo of
the reft. And thofe nations were from that
time known and erie ih by thefe denomi-
hationis. oth
Il. With regard to the Sclavonian, it is to
be fuppofed that it is in part the antient lan-
guage of the Celts or Scythians, mixed with
fome particular dialects of different eaftern na-
tions. But be that as it may, thefe three Jan-
guages
Movern Lancuagss. 358
. guages appear to have. eit the ee
modern tongues ; c
7
’
(1.). From the Latin camey
. The Portuguete.
_ Spanifh.
. French,
. Italian. oul
> th
>
(2.) From the German, or Allamana,. -
. The modern German, which. fo little re-
fembles the ancient, that it. is with diffi-
culty we read.the authors of the fourteenth
century.
. The low Saxon or low German, .
« The Dutch.
. The Englith, in which almoft all the noun
fubftantives are German, and many of the
won oi NOrbs French, Latin, &c. and which is -
enriched with the, fpoils of all: other lan-
. guages...
g. The Danifh.
10. The Norwegian. ,
11. Swedifh, | ;
: “12s Dalecarlian,
13. Laplandifh,
oO
ON
ons
(3.) From the Sclavonian, = =—
14. The Polonefe, with a mixture of the ans
cient Sarmatian,
a 15. The
wy Se ee See
$g2 Universat Exvnorrion
ay. The Lithuanian.
16. Bohemian.
17. Hungarian,
18. Tranfylvanian.
19. Moravian.
20. The modern Vandalian, 48 it is fill fPoké
in Liufatia, Pruffian Vandalia; &e:
21. The Croatian.
22. The Ruffian or Mufcovite.
23. The language of the Calmacs and Coffics.
24. Thirty-two different diale€&ts of nations
who inhabit the north-eaftern parts of Fu-
tope and Afia, and who are defcerided
front ‘the ‘Tartars and Fiuno-Scythians.
There are polyglott tables, which contain
not only the alphabets, ‘but alo the prin-
‘cipal diftiné& Charatters “OE ‘all thefe Jan-
5 ates — a
To all thefe ‘may ‘be added,
| #8. The modern Greck, or that which is now
-. fipeken in Greece.
26, The modern Hebrew, or vulgar language
of the Jews, which is alfo called the 'Ger-
man Hebrew, &c. And,
27. The jargon that is called Lingua Franca;
III. The common languages of Afia are,
28. The Turkifh and,Tartarian, with their
different dialeéts,
29. Fhe
we -
ee
Mob ZERN LAN
GUAGES. 353
89% The -Perfian;. 4) }5 204
go. TheGeorgian or
Iberian.
31. The Colchic or
Mingralian.,..
+ G2. The Albanian or |
Circaffian.
33. The Armenian. -|
Thefe languages’ are
{poke by the Greek
‘Chriftians in’ Afia,
under the’ patriarcli
of Conftantinople,
>» 34. Thedanguage of the Jews in Petfa Me-
_. dia,-and Babylon. .
» 35. The:modern Indian.
36. posh army The Dartith ’ Tailtiod.
37: The Indolkanic.
ges The Malabarian.
49. The Warugian. «|:
- 40. The :Talmulic, }
».or Damulic: j
“aries who go toTran-
quebar, print books
at Hall in thefe lan:
guages.
41. The modern Arabic:
42: The Tangutian.
43: The Mungalic.
44: The language! of Balabandu; dnd the Nie
» . \ogariari, or Akar Nigarian.
45. The Grufinic or'Grofinian. > >
46. The Chinefey o—
47. The Japonefe.
We have enumerated here thofe AGatie lan-
guages only, of which we have fome knowledge
in Europe, and even alphabets, grammars, or
other books that can givé us’ information con-
cerning thems There «are “doubtlefs’ other
tongues and dialects in thofe yaft regions and
Vor. IIL z
adjacent: .
wren ee
354 UNIvEeRSAL ERUDITION.
adjacent iflands, but of thefe we are not able to
give any account.
IV. The principal languages of Africa are,
48. The modern Egyptian.
49. The Fetuitic or the language of the king-
dom of Fetu.
50. The Moroccan, and
61. The jargons.of thofe favage nations who
inhabit the defart and burning regions. The
people on the coaft of Barbary fpeak a kind of
Turkifh. To thefe may be added the Chilhic
language, otherwife called Tamazeght: the
Negritian, and that of Guinea; the Abyffinian,
and the language of the Hottentots.
The languages of the American nations are
but little known in Europe. Every one of thefe,
though diftant but a few days journey from each
other, have their particular language or rather
jargon. The languages of the Mexicans and
Peruvians feem to be the moft regular and po-
lifhed. There is alfo one called Poconchi or Po- |
comana, that is ufed in the bay of Honduras
and toward Guntimal, the words and rules of
which are moft known to us. The languages
of North America are in general the Algonhic,
‘Apalachian, Mohogic, Savanahamic, Virginic,
and Mexican: and, in South America, the Pe-
ruvian, Caraibic, the language of Chili, the Cai-
ric, the Tucumanian, and the languages ufed in
Paraguay, Brafil, and Guiana.
V. We i
Moperw Lanovaces. 355
V. We have already faid, that it would -be a
vain and fenfelefs undertaking for a man of let-
ters to attempt the ftudy of all thefe languages,
and to make his head an univerfal dictionary of
languages ; but it would be ftill more abfurd in
us to attempt the analyfis of them in this place:
fome general reflections therefore mutt here fuf-
fice. Among the modern languages of Europe,
the French feems to merit the greateft attention,
as it is elegant and pleafing in itfelf, as it is be-
come the general language of courts, and even
of public tranfactions, which are now commonly
treated in French: with this tongue likewile
we may travel from one end of Europe to the
other, without fcarce having any occafion. for an
interpreter: and in this language alfo are to be
found excellent works of every kind, both in
verfe and profe, ufeful and agreeable. The
other nations of Europe, moreover, find great
facility in learning it: the proteftant refugees of
France of both fexes are difperfed over all Eu-
rope; the late M. Regnard found fome of them
even in the mines of Oftrabothnia. The French,
moreover, are fond of travelling and of living in
foreign countries, and the inhabitants of other
nations are defirous of feeing France, which fo
well deferves to be vifited : from whence arifes
an ufeful communication between the French
and other nations. We have, befides, grammars
-and dictionaries of this language which give us
every information concerning it, and very able
mafters who teach it: efpecially fuch as come
ine Z 2 from
ta) it a a + ee
3566 Universav Ervpirion
from thofe parts of France where it is fpoke cor-
rectly ; for, with all its advantages, the French
language has this inconvenience, thattit is pro-
nounced fcarce any where purely but at Paris,
and on the banks of the Loire. The language
of the court, of the great world, and of men of
letters, is, moreover, very different from that ‘of
the common people: ‘and the French tongue, in
general,’ is fubjeft to great alteration’ and ‘no-
velty. What pity it is, that the ftyle of the great
Corneille, and that of Moliere, fhould already be-
ein to be obfolete, and that it will be but a little
time before the ‘inimitable’ chefs d’ceuvres of
thofe men of fublimé genius will be no longer
feen onthe ftage! The moft modern ftyle
of the French, moreover, does not feem to be the
beft.. We are inclined to think, that too much.
concifion, the epigrammatic point, the anti-
thefis, the paradox, the fententious expreffion,
&c. diminilh its force : and that by becoming,
more polifhed and refined, it lofes much of its.
energy.
VI. The German, [talian and Englifh lan- .
guages, merit likewife a particular application..
They have many real and great excellencies, and
are not deftitute of natural graces. Authors of
great ability daily labour in improving them,
and what language would not become excellent
were men of ‘exalted talents to make conftant.
ufe of it in their works ? If we had in Iroquois,
‘books like thofe which we have in Italian, Englith
and.
Movern LanocuaGes: 357
and ‘German, : fhould we not be tempted to learn
that lavguage? - How glad fhould we be to un-
derftand.the Spanifh tongue; though it were only
to read the Araucana of Don Alonzo D’Ercilia,
Don Quixotte, fome dramatic pieces, and a fmall
number of other Spanifh works, in the original: or
the poem of Camoens in Portuguefe: The other
languages of Europe have each their beauties
and excellencies. Happy would he be that could
know them: but how many other things are
there more neceffary to be known than lan-
guages ?
' VII. The greateft difficulty in all living lan-
guages conftantly confifts in the pronunciation,
which it is fcarcé poflible for any one to attain
unlefs he be born or educated in the country
where it is fpoke: and this is the only article
for which a matter is neceflary, as it cannot be
learned but by teaching, or by converfation: all
the reft may be acquired by a good grammar and
other books. . In all laguages whatever, the po-
_ etic ftyle is more difficult than the profaic: in
every language we fhould. endeavour to enrich
our memories with great ftore of words (copia
verborum) and to have them ready to produce
on all occafions: in all languages it is difficult
to extend our knowledge fo far as to be able to
form a critical judgment of them. All living
languages, are pronounced, rapidly, and without
dwelling on’ the long fyllables. (which the gram-
marians call moram): almoft all of them
have
b
358 Universat ERvuDITION.
have articles which diftinguifh the genders:
all the European. languages are wrote from
the left to the right, and almoft all the Afiatic
from the right to the left. |
VIII. Thofe languages that are derived from
the Latin have this further advantage, that they
adopt without reftraint, and without offending the
ear, Latin and Greek words and expreflions, and
which, by the aid of a new terminations appear
to be natives of the language. The privilege is
forbid the Germans, who in their beft tranfla-
tions dare not ule any foreign word, unlefs it be
fome technical term in cafe of great ‘neceffity.
Our moft {csupulous tranflators would gladly
make ufe of the word menuet, if they were not
fearful of appearing ridiculous. |
1X. To conclude ; philology is yet deficient of
one very important invention; and that is, an
univerfal language, or rather an univerfal charac-
ter, which each nation may read and comprehend
in their own language. After like manner, as all
European nations underftand the figures and cal-
culations of each other; and as the Chinefe and Ja-
panefe exprefs their thoughts by the fame charac-
ters, fo that thefe two nations can read each others
writing, though their languages are very different.
The late baron Leibnitz was fo far from believing
this invention impoffible or impracticable, that
he employed himlelf affiduoufly to the ftudy of
it: and it is to be imagined that his death de-
prived Europe of {fo 1 important a wear
CHAP,
CH A.P., SX,"
DIGRESSION ON EXERCISES.
A bis principal intention of this work being to
ferve as a guide to youth in the carreer of
their ftudies, and efpecially to give them fome falu-
tary advice for the employment of that preci-
ous time which they devote to the academy and
univerfity, the reader will not be furprifed to
find, in this and the three following chapters, a
very brief analyfis of thofe exercifes, arts and
fciences, of which a man of letters ought at
leaft to know the names and firft principles,
though they do not direétly appertain to the fyf-
tem of general erudition: of thofe arts, which
may be even called frivolous, but which the
wifeft legiflators have eftablifhed for the im-
provement of mankind.
II. How ufeful, how agreeable fo ever ftudy
may be to the mind, it is very far from being
equally falutary to the body. Every one ob-
ferves, that the Creator has formed an intimate
connexion between the body and the mind; a
perpetual action and reaction, by which the bo-
dy inftantly feels the diforders of the mind, and
the
360 Universat Ervupirron.
the mind thofe of the body. The delicaté
{prings of our frail machines lofe their acti-
vity, and become enervated, and the veffels
are choked by obftructions when we totally
defift from exercife, and the confequences ne-
ceffarily affect- the-brain: a mere ftudious and
fedentary life is therefore equally prejudicial to
the body and the mind. The limbs likewife be-
come ftiff; we contract an auwkard, conftrain-
ed-manher; a certain difguftfal ait attends all our
‘actions, and) we dre. very near being as difagree-
able to ourfelyes as. to others. An inclination
to ftudy. is highly commendable; but. it ought
not however to. infpire, us with. an’ averfion to
fociety.... The’ natura] Jot ef;man is;‘to live
among his fellows ; and whatever may \be' the
condition of our birth, or our ‘fituaticn in life,
there are a thoufand. occafions’ where a man
muit naturally defire. to render himfelf agree-
able ; to be active and adroit; to dance with
. A graces to -command-the fiery fteed ; to de-
fend, himéelf dgainft a, brutal enemy; to pre-
ferve-his life by dexterity, as by leaping, {wim-
ming, &c. Many rational caufes have there-
fore given rife to the practice of particular ex-
ercifes,, and: the ‘moit fagactous and: benevolent
legiflators have inftituted, in their-academits and
univerfities, proper. miethods of enabling: youth,
who ‘devote themfelves to re to become eX-
pant alfo 4 in laudable exercifes.:
IIT. By the seeestcuecestets we tnderftand
thofe arts in which a man cannot acquire the
_ deaf
*
-_ ———— — ee
On Expriersis.' / ig6e
feat ability’ without the dexterity-ef the body ;
and ‘confequently ‘they*are to be attained by
_. only’ Such an s |
~99y,. Dancing.
2. Riding.
3. Fencing.
aie beabingt ©
“be Wieltling,
6. Swimrhing,
- 9. Shooting.
$; Gameés® of addrets, Ben ‘To which may
; bé ‘added,® #20
g- The art of drawing and wae forifen.
tions on the ground; that-of« eurningy ;
of forming and polifhing optic glafies,
IV. We fhall fee, ‘in the twenty- ‘fth peas’
of this‘book, that many fovereigns have found-
¢d’particular academies ‘where thefe exercifes are
‘taught, either folely to the young nobility and
‘gentty, of to the citizens in general: or that
they have appointed mafters in the colleges for
the fame purpofe: ~Thefe-arts cannot certainly
Be learned “without mafters and it is no {mall
‘advantage to meet with fuch‘as proceed on clear
and folid principles, Every oné who applies
himfelf to the ftudy of the fciences, would do
right well to fet apart fome hours in the day for
‘exercilé ; and ought not to regard thofe hours
as loft, but as employed in ‘recreations that are
V. The
-eveb more uleful than agreeable.
i ae, to
g62 Unirversat Eruption.
V. The laft method of expreffing our
thoughts, the fentiments and paffions of the
mind by means of the fight, is in the dance;
fee vol. ii. page 419. Almoft from the firft ac-
counts we have of mankind by hiftory, we are
told of their dancing: we muft not imagine,
however, that the dances of the firft inhabitants
of the world, or all thofe of ancient nations,
were like fuch as are practifed in our days:
for we cannot fuppofe that when the king and
prophet David’ danced before the ark, he did
it in the ftep of a minuet or country-dance, as
that would prefent a very ftrange idea, and not
very compatible with our notions of the pro-
priety of manners, We fhould not have a very
high opinion of a king of Franée or Spain,
for example, who fhould dance before the hoft
in a religious proceffion, and in the face of all
the people. The dance was, among the an- ©
cients, fometimes a religious ceremony ; and it
is faid in Ecclefiaftes, that there is a time to
dance. We have already remarked, in the chap-
ter on declamation, that the Greeks ufed the
word orchefis, and the Latins that of /altatio, in
a much more extenfive fenfe than we do that of
dancing ; and that the theatric declamation, ac-
companied by artificial geftures, ‘and a determi-
nate expreffion, was there included; as well as
the art of mimics and pantomimes, &c. The
tranflators meeting with the word orchefis, opxnoss,
_and the verb x7, from whence alfo is derived
the term orcheftra, and /altatio, faltare, or
other
» On Exercises. 363
other equivalent terms ; and finding themfelves
embarrafled by the indigence of modern lan-
guages, and the'diverfity of our cuftoms, have
exprefied them by the words dance and danc-
ing ; though thefe convey an idea far more con-
fined. We may, moreover, very eafily con-
ceive, that the theatric declamation, as weil for
the voice as the gefture, might be expreffed by
notes on a fcale, and that. after the manner of
mufic they might prefcribe the elevation of the
voice, or the motion of the hands, by the placing
of thefe notes, and determine their duration by
proper marks. Our modern chorographies (of
which we fhall prefently fpeak) moreover con-
firm this idea,
VI. But without making further inquiry after
matters that are now quite out of ufe, and con-
fequently objects of mere curiofity, let us exa-
mine the nature of modern dancing, by which
we underftand ‘ the art of expreffing the fen-
timents of the mind, or the paffions, by mea-
' fured fteps or bounds that are made in cadence,
by regulated motions of the body, and by grace-
ful geftures ; all performed to the found of mu-
fical inftruments, or of the voice :” and which
forms at once an exercife agreeable to the per-
former, and pleafing to the {pectator. For we
mutt not imagine with the vulgar, that dancing
confifts of a jumble of freaks and gambols.
The dances of people of education always ex-
prefs fome idea: and it was faid of Mlle. —
wit
oo * ee oe
364 Universat Erupition.
with more propriety, perhaps, than is common-
ly imagined, that all her fteps were. Sentiments.
Every minuet forms a kind of pantomime,
which defcribes tothe eyes an amorous intrigue:
Two lovers falute, they amouroufly regard each
other, they give their hands, they féparate; they
reproach, renew their love by prefenting their
open arms, they at laft give their hands, and
again ialute in token of réconciliation.” It is’the
fame of all other noble-and graceful dances.
There is in French a charming little treatife,
known by the title’ of “* Charatters of ‘the dance
and of the lovers,” where poetry, mufic, and the
dance, very happily concur to exprefs ‘the va-
rious characters and fentiments of thofe who are
under the dominion of love,
VII. Modern dancing is divided’ into that of
the theatre and that of fociety. Theatric dan-
cing confifts,' 1. of the performance of a fingle
dancer? 2. of dances by two, three; four, &c.
3. of complete ‘ballets, where the chief dancers _
fometimes ‘perform alone, and fometimes with
the chorus of figure dancers: 4. a dancé of
two, three, &¢. with a pantomime ballet; by
which is expreffed ‘fome fact in real or fabulédte
hiftory ; ‘or fome other defign, by the dance
and ‘by geftures. We’ have feen chefs d’euvres
of this kind if the ballet of Pygmalion, ‘or the
animateéd ftattie; in the ballet of the Rofe; in
that of Boreas and Zephyrus, and in many other
highly ingenious dances. The invention and
Pere com-
y
:9 Om Exercises. . 365
compofition of thefe dances belong .ta the bal-
lét-mafter, who fhould conftantly confult the
poet in his, choice of. fubjeéts; for the. dances
of an opera or other dramatic piece. It is -in-
fufferable to a man of any tafte, to fee in the
Italian operas, ballets that have fcarce ever the
leaft relation to the mufical drama: the opera
of Titus, for example, is terminated by a Chi-
nefe ballet; a very grave and tragic ftory fhalt
be interlarded with a dance of gay, fportful
fhepherds.. This is to join contrarieties and to
produce montfters,
VIE. To exprefs the different characters of
the perfons who compofe a ballet, or any other
theatric dance whatever, the fubjeéts they are to
reprefent, and the fentiments they are fuppofed
to entertain, the mafter of the ballet makes
ufe. of the different. modes or characters in mu-
fic, and the fteps that are appropriated to each
mode; as thofe of the faraband, courant, lou-
vre, &c. for the grave and ferious, and thofe
of the minuet, paffepié, chaconne, gavot, ri-
gaudoon, jig, &c. for the gay, lively or co-
mic. ~All: thefe are comprehended under. the
name of the high dance, and are always accom-
panied by a graceful motion of the arms. The
art of adapting each of thefe fteps, fo as hap-
pily to exprefs the various fentiments or emo-
tions of the mind, forms thetalent of the bal
let-matter, and is the greateft merit in the com-
pofition of a dance,
IX. For-
$66 Universart Ervupirion:
IX. Formerly there were fearce any dances
exhibited on the theatre but the pavan, of which
we fhall prefently fpeak, and thofe that do not
rife from the ground in difplaying the natural
graces, either by the manner of the ftep or in
the attitude: the women efpecially danced only
after this manner; but fince M. Durpré, Mlle.
Camargo, and ‘their competitors, have fhown
that the high dance, the noble and _ graceful,
is fufceptible of leaps or bounds, and of entre-
chats or capers of fix or eight, the entrechat
en tournant, the ail de pigeon, the gargouillade,
and many other high fteps (which muft be feen
to be underftood) the theatric dance is become
more lively and brilliant; and: the extraordi-
nary abilities of modern dancers have afforded
the mafters of the ballet opportunity of greatly
varying their fubjects, of furprifing the fpec-
tator to a greater degree, by conftantly. pre-
ferving the graceful in the attitudes; and even
in the moft difficult fteps.
X. They always diftinguifh, however, in thea-
tric dancing, the high and the low, the noble
and graceful, and the ferious dance; the high, »
the grand, and the low comic, the antic dance,
the pantomime, &c: Every dancer fhould ap-
ply himfelf to fome particular rank of dancing,
and there endeavour to excel, according to the
extent of his talents. But there are many who
can never rife to any confiderable rank in their
pe their utmoft abilities only enabling —
them
\
On Exercises. 367
them to figure in the chorus, from whence they
are called figure dancers. The tumblers and
rope dancers are not worthy to be mentiojied
here, as there is no talent required in their per-
formances, but merely the dint of practice.
XI. With regard to the dance of fociety, the
manner of it is greatly altered in Europe. For-
merly, for example, they danced in France and
elfewhere the pavan, a grave dance that came .
from Spain; wherein the dancers made a ring
by paffing one before the other, like peacocks
with their long tails. The noblemen perform-
ed this ferious dance with a cap of ftate and a
fword; the judges in their long robes, the prin-
ces in their mantles, and the ladies with the
tails of their robes trailing behind them. This
was what they called the grand ball. Such gra-
vity would appear highly comic in our days, as
all affectation is new laid afide, and nothing is
called ferious but what is really fo: fuch mi-+
mickries of the majeftic, therefore, as thefe,
would be regarded as childifh and treated with
contempt. In the time of Lewis XIV. they
ftill danced at court and at Paris, amiable vain-
queurs, paflepiés, farabands, courants, &c.
But all thefe grand matters have been difmiffed,
and configned to the wardrobe of «ancient gal-
lantry; from whence, however, they may be
one day again brought forth, by inconftancy
and by the love of novelty. The modern prac-
tice of dancing is confined to the minuet and
contre
368 Universat Erubition:
contre dances or country dances either Frehcli
or Englifhs In. Germany:.they ftill fometimés
dance allernandes, fuabeans, polonefe;-:&c.
XII. By Choregraphy- is meant the. aft. of
noting on paper the fteps and figures of a dance,
by means of certain characters invented for that
purpofe, which.are peculiar. to, this art and are
adopted» by moft) nations. The -underftanding
of thefe requires anexprefs ftudy.. They call
the defeription ofa dance, -whofe, fteps.. ate exé
prefied with the notes of »mufic, orchefography.
Thoinet Arbeaw printed, at Langres.inia 588;
acurious treatife.on this. matter, .whichhe ins
titled Orchefography ;_and:he was the firft who
exprefied the fteps of the dances of his time by
notes, in the fame manner that fongs. and airs
are noted: He was followed by. the famous
Beauchamp. We havereveral books of Englith
‘country dancesawhere:the choregraphy is placed
under the :airsx Dancing:canibe. learned only
by practice 5 -by:the aid of =a good mafter, and
by imitating thofe‘excellent dancers»who. dre to
be ‘met within the great world. They-who |
would excel in dancing fhould take. particular
care in their‘youth:not.to contract any bad ha-
bits, any’ fteps ‘or attitudes that are awkward,
conftrained or affected. In the laft place; dan-
cing isa matter of agility, ‘an exercife that re-
wirés “hatural talents, which are called forth
and Cultivated ‘by an able matter; and-who, at
the fame time thatthe teaches his art,. enables hig
pupils
Ow Exererses. 359
pupils to deport themftlves in fociery with grace,
with €afe and dignity.
XIII. Pantomimes ate reptefentations of thofe
characters, manners, fentiments, actions and paf-
fions of mankind, which may be mace the fubjeé
of a comedy or other theatric performance; and
thefe reprefentations are exhivited by aétors,
who exprefs their meanings by looks and imi-
tative geftures, wirhout the aid of words. ‘The
word mime is Greek, and fignifies an imitator,
and the word pan means all or all things; fo
that the compound term pantomime implies an
imitator of all things. This term is now ufed
‘for the reprefentations themfelves ; and the per-
formers of thefe comedies, which are called
mimes or pantomimes, have been named mi-
mographilts. The ancient hiftorians, rhetors,
gtammarians and critics, give marvellous ac-
counts of the performances of thefe mimes and _
pantomimes, Caffiodorus calls them men whofe
eloquent hands had, fo to fay, a tongue at the |
end of each finger. But when they come to
particulars, and give examples of their. perfor-
mances, we {ee that they were little better than
trifies. The following is an inftance recorded
by Macrobius in his Saturnalia: ‘* Hilas, the
fcholar and competitor of Pylades, who was the
inventor of pantomimes, executed after his man-
ner, before the Roman people, a monologue,
which ended with thefe words, Agamemnon the
great. Hilas, to exprefs thofe words, made the
Vor, Il, Aa geftures
370 Universat ErvubDition —
geftures of a man who would meafure another
that was greater than himfelf. Pylades cries out
to him from among the people, My friend, you
jujfily make your Agamemnon to be @ man of great
flature, but not a great man.” The people de-
manded that Pylades fhould inftantly perform
the fame part; and the people were obeyed.
Pylades then reprefented by his attitude and gef-
tures, the appearance of a man plunged in pro-
found meditation, in order to exprefs the proper
charaéter of a great man. ‘ As if a man of a‘mo-
derate or even a low capacity was not fometimes
rapt in profound meditation. ‘The people how-
ever cried a miracle, and fhouted applaufe.
What a pitiful example is this! Not that we
imagine another actor could. have done better
in this inftance than Hylas or Pylades, but we.
think that matters like this, and {till lefs fcenes
of fentiment, can never be well expreffed mere-
ly by attitudes or oeftures ; and that it is a folly to
attempt it, or to be pleafed with fo imperfect an
expreffion.
XIV. The Romans, however, were fo charm-
ed with thefe performances, that the two great
pantomime rivals, Pylades and Bathyllus, and
their moft famous fucceffors, .were fometimes —
well nigh diftracting the empire by the parties
they occafioned among the people. “All thefe pan-
tomime buffoons were at the fame time nothing
better than miferable eunuchs, who, to make
their performance {till more ridiculous, a¢ted
with —
On Exercises. 371.
With a mak; and confequently could exprefs
nothing of that continual alteration which arifes
in the countenance. In procefs of time thefe
geftures were accompanied by indecent expref-
fions, witnefs the mimes of Laberius, which
were licentious comedies, and which carried
theft exhibitions to the heigth of extravagance.
XV. A mah of genius in the prefent age, M:
Rich of London, undertook to re-eftablifh thefe
pantomimes of the ancients on his theatre; to
fupply what was deficient, and to give them the
utmoilt perfection of which they feemied capable.
He made choice of happy fubjects for thefe re-
prefentations ; he laid afide, with good reafon,
the mafk; he collected the moft able aétors ;
he fupported the reprefentation, from the be-
ginning to the end, by an accompanyment of
diverfified and very expreffive inftrumental mu-
fic; to all this Hie added dances, the ftriking
power of decorations, and the almoft mitacul-
ous power of machinery. By the affiftance of
all thefe refources he has at length made the
pantomime an amufing entertainment. He has
been -fince imitated by M. Nicolini an Italian,
at Brunfwick. We have feen with great plea-
fure, the birth of Harlequin; Harlequin in
the mimes of Hartz; and many other charm-
ing pieces of this kind: but as thefe performan-
ces {peak more to the fenfes than to the under-
ftanding, we cannot fee them very often not-
withftanding their charming variety.
Aa 2 XVI. In
g72 Univirsat Erubitron.
XVI In the lait place, there are fometimes.
dances performed by miarionetts, which are
puppets that are moved by fprings, and while
they are in motion appear to be animated, Thefe
Ste allo occafionally ufed by private and refpectable
companies in the performing of fome farce, or
other dramatic piece. Reprefentations of this
fort are made on a:fmall theatre, agreeable to
the fize of the marionetts. The operator who
direéts their fprings is concealed behind the
fcenes, fo that the wooden actors only appear, and
who frequently imitate nature to a remarkable
degree. This is an entertainment in fact trivial
and imperfect enough, and where a certain per-
fonage, known by the name of punchinello, is.
the principal character; and who by his blun-
ders, and fometimes by his droll fatires, con-
tributes not a little to diffipate the f{pettators.
fpleen; while the fublime dramas, efpecially
thofe of the crying kind, plunge him into more
melancholy.
XVII. Though there are in all languages.
_many excellent treatifes on the art of horfemans
fein, as thofe of the duke of Newcaftle, baron.
Hochberg, M..Pluvinel, de la Gueriniere, &c..
yet this exercife can never be well learned but.
in the menage or riding {chool, under the di-
_yeétion of an able mafter, and. by riding of ma-
-naged horfes, as well in their natural as artificial:
paces. To fit a horfe gracefully, to make him
gonférm td all our defires, and to avoid all thofe:
accidents,
“On EXERCISES, , 373
accidents to which riding is liable, are the three
principal points that are propofed by learning
this art. 5
XVIII. The art of fencing is likewife to be
learned from a mafter, and b exercifing i ina
fchool; the mafter is Pe lifted by : a
prevot or fub-mafter. It is under t is direétion
that the fcholar learns, by the ufe ‘of files, the
_ proper manner of holding the fword, and of
making the various thrufts, as tierce, quart,
fecond, &c. with ra idity and fecurity ; as well
as the method of parrying all thrufts that can
be made at him. To give, and not to receive is
the motto of a fencing mafter. There is, in
Italian, a treatife by M. Salvatore, of the theory
and pra&ice of fencing; and a celebrated work
in French, by M. Givald Thibault, intitled .zhe
academy of the fword; as well as feyeral others
that have appeared fince.
XIX. Vaulting is anexercife by which we learn
to perform all feats of the body with eafe and
addrefs ; as leaping into the faddle, or difmount-
ing a horfe in‘a hke manner, or afcendin
fome great eminence with dexterity, &c, The
mafters of this art make ufe of a wooden horfe ; ;
of a long floping table, covered with rufhes or
fuch like matter, and of fome other machinery,
for the convenience of their {cholars, and for |
preventing them from unlucky accidents; which
might
374 UnNIrvErRsAL ERUDITION.
might frequently happen in fo dangerous an
exercife.
XX. Wreftling is an encounter by two men
without weapons, in order to try theit ftrength,
and to endeavour to throw each other on the
ground. This was a famous exercife amiong the
ancients, and we ftill fee the cruel and difoutt-
ful remains of it among the Englihh. But this
exercife is fo violent, dangerous and repug-
nant to humanity, that far from exhorting youth
to the practice of it, we cannot but endeayour
to infpire them with an averfion toit. A wreft-
ler by profeffion, and a fpectator who 1s pleafed
with fuch encounters, are commonly two per-
fons equally defpicable.
XXI. The art of /wimming; or the method
of fuftaining the body on the water by the mo-
tions of the arms and the legs, and by proper-
ly holding the breath. This exercife is alfo
very dangerous, but at the fame time very health-
ful, feeing that it unites the advantages of a bath
with thofe of exercife: it is, moreover, very
ufeful as it may fometimes fave the life or ho-
nour of aman. Pieces of cork or bladders may
affift thole who are learning to fwim, but thefe
are weak fecurities, and on which, therefore,
much dependence ought not to be placed. A
boat near at hand, and an able fwimmer by his
fide, afford the learner of this exercife the beft
fecurities, and the moft confidence where. there
1S
On Exerérses. = 375
ig a natural timidity. ‘The greateft accomplith-
_ ment in this art is to be able to dive, and to
remain under the water, to fetch matters from
_ the bed of a river or the fea, and to rife again
with velocity to the furface of the water. M.
Thevenot has publifhed a curious work, intit-
led the art of fwimming, illuftrated by figures.
Everard Digby, an Englifhman, and Nicolas
’ Wireman a Hollander, have alfo given pre-
cepts relative to this art. |
XXII. The art of fbocting, whether with
‘the fpring bow, the crofs bow, the mufquet,
or fowling piece, &c. ata mark, at a wood-
en bird, or in the chafe, is likewife not to
be neglected. This is an exercife that may
be of ‘the greateft utility in life, and depends
much on a fharp fight, a fteady hand, and
on practice, which gives a proficiency in all
things.
XXIII. The games of addrefs, as the dex-
terity in running at the ring; in the combats
of the Spanifh bulls; in winter upon the ice
with fkates; at the mall, tennis, bowls, bil-
liards, and numberlefs other games that are
practifed in different parts of Europe, are not
fo frivolous as they may tofomeappear. Thefe
games conftantly afford a falutary exercife to
the body, render a man active and adroit, and
better difpofed for more ferious occupations,
Great care, however, fhould be taken by youth
not
g76 Universat Ervupirtion.
not to give themfelves up to thefe, and there-.
by lofe that precious time of which every man
of letters ought to be fo thrifty and even avari-
tious.
XXIV. In the laft place, the art.of draw-
ing and raifing fortifications on the ground;
that of turning wood, ivory, mother of pearl
and eyen metals; that of polifhing glafies, and
fetting them for optical inftruments, &c. all
thefe and many other like matters, belong ra-
ther to ufeful arts than exercifes. It is tfue,
aman of fedentary life may apply himfelf to .
them by way of relaxing his mind and exer-
cifing his body, but thefe arts are to be learn-
ed of thofe who make them their profeffion ;
it is fufficient for us juft to mention theit
mames and thereby recal them to the. readers
memory.
CHAR.
( 377.)
CHAP. XXII,
DIGRESSION on certain
Anomarous Arts and Scr
ENCES, or fuch as do not di-
rectly appertain to Erudition.
CCORDING to the general idea, and
the definition we have given of Univer-
fal Erudition, at the beginning of this work, the
more extenfive any man’s knowledge is, the
more Erudition he may be faid to have. We
have already remarked, however, that there are
feveral fciences which do not directly appertain to
the fyftem of Erudition; and it is of thefe fci-
ences and arts, that we here propole to fay.a
few words; not fo much with a view of making
their analyfis, and thereby confounding them with
thofe that rightly belong to our fyftem, as to
fhow, that though we have not forgot them, yet
we think, that from their nature they ought to
be excluded, and not confounded with thole that
rightly appertain to Erudition, and thereby reduce
our fyftem to a chaos. We'thall therefore bare
ly mention them, and leave thofe who may have
particular
378 Universat ERvupiTion.
particular reafons for thinking them worthy of
their ftudy, to apply to fome good treatife, or
to the practice of them; and this we the rather
do, as moft of thefe arts and fciences are not the
fruits of genius, but merely employments of the
judgment and the memory: are founded on
experience, and conducted by the aid of the
mathematics, or fome other {cience of which we
have already treated, or elfe are fubordinate to,
and make a part of politics.
Il. (1.) Lhe condu& of a war requires the
union of the theory of that art, with the practice,
Now as that art is included in thofe which concur
in the fcience of government, we have already
mentioned, in the chapter on politics, the illuf-
trious names of thofe great men -who have re-
duced it to a fyftem, and have laboured in
teaching it to the public. It is in thefe fchools
that they who ate ambitious of fhining in the
fields of Mars, are to feek for inftruction. He
only, who joins to a fruitful genius, confummate
experience, and a folid theory, deferves the
name of a great general.
Wil. (2.) The marine, taking that term in its
full extent, and in the manner which a minifter
of that department, or an admiral, ought to
underftand it, is a fcience that comprehends, and
fuppofes a mafterly knowledge of many other
arts and f{ciences. It is divided into four gene*
ral parts, which are,‘ 1. , thie knowledge of all
| the
ANOMALOUS: Arts and Sciences. 379
the ftores, arms, amunition, and other matters
neceffary to a fhip; and with which the maga-
zines and yards belonging to the admiralty
ought to be provided. 2. Naval architecture ;
which teaches the method of conftructing all
forts of veffels or fhips. 3. Steerage, or the
art of condutting a veffel on the fea. ‘And 4.
The art of evolutions, which fhews the method
of commanding a number of fhips together, as
fquadrons or fleets. We do not know of any
complete fyftem, that treats of all thefe four
parts together, but there are a great number
‘that treat of them feparately.
IV. (3.) Commerce, which comprehends vaft
knowledge, and forms a fcience that is very
intricate, and highly important. Many cele-
brated authors have endeavoured to reduce it to
a fyftem, and have wrote very inftructive trea-
tifes relative to it. The grand hiftorical and
political treafury of the flourifhing commerce of
the Dutch is a very curious work; the firft
chapter contains an interefting hiftory of the
commerce of all Europe. The works of M.
Savary, efpecially his great dictionary; the
elements of commerce; the political effay on
commerce, by the late M. Melon: and many
other works which are daily appearing in the
commercial ftates, will greatly facilitate the .
knowledge of thefe matters. This fcience,
however, makes no > part of Erudition, properly
fo called,
V. (4) Coiming,
380 Universat Eruparion.
V. (4.) Coining, or the making of money,
requires alfo various knowledge, the union of
which forms a very complex art. The know-
ledge of all metals, their intrinfic and numerary
value, their nature, the degrees of their ductili-
ty, the proportion they bear to the exchange,
their allay, &c. form the preliminary {cience of
a good matter of the mint, who is not fo com-
mon a chara¢ter as fome may imagine. He
mult likewife underftand the art of founding
metals, of forming them into ingots or wedges,
of reducing them into planchets, or picees fit to
receive the ftamp, and the manner of givi
them their proper impreffion, either by the
hammer, or the mill. He fthould alfo infpect
the refining, affaying, plating, graving of the .
dyes, &c. There are but few good books
~ on this important fubject, or even on the feveral
articles of which it is compofed.
Vi. (5.) Mineralogy, or the art of working
mines, whether of metals, ftones, foffils, &c.
forms alfo an extenfiye fcience, and one that is
daily improving by practice, and which prac-
tice men of ability now endeavour to reduce
into..a theoretic fyftem, by thofe difcoveries
which they are inceflantly making of new prin- ©
ciples and new inyentions. There have been
hitherto but few good books wrote on this fub-
ieCt : however, the directors of mines, and miners
themfelyes, of all the countries of Europe,
readily communicate to each other their know-
ledge
Anomatots Arts aid Serintrs, 48%
Yédge and their difcoveries. There is a termi:
nology altogether peculiar to'this art, and which,
being unintelligible to all but miners, requires a
particular ftudy.
VII. (6.) The venéry, which conyprehends not
énly the art of hunting beafts and fowls, the »
method of knowing their tracks, and fumets or
dung, of defeating their artifices, and ot régue
lating the attendants on the chace, ‘as the hunt&
men, hounds, &c. but alfo the knowledge of
woods and forefts, of what relates to their srowth
and prefervation; the ufe of the feveral kinds
of trées they produce, &c. There ate number-
lefs authors in ail languages, who have wrote dn
the venéry, at the head of whom ‘is the emperor
Frederic Il. A peculiar terminolody fims
alfo an efféntial article in this art.
VIII. (7.) Political economy, as well ‘forthe
city as the country, has béeh reduced for fore
time paft, in Germany, into a particular {cience =
a number of authors have wrote large works 6n
‘it, and, in forte univerfities, profeffors have been
eftablifhed who make complete courfes in it,
under the title of collegium atonomicum, ' urban
& rufticum. It happens, however, unfoftunate-
ly, that thefe profeffors are commonly men who
‘jn their ftudies difewfs thofe matters ina me-
thodical manner, which the hufbandman, the
fhepherd, and the fitherman, learn far better,
though more flowly, by a daily practice: ‘tlie
rules.
382 Universar ERvUDITION.:
rules thefe profeffors give, are, moreover, fcarc¢
ever applicable out of their own neighbourhood ;
for there are not under the fun, any two cli-
mates and foils perfectly alike.
1X. (8.) Flora and Pomona concur to enrich
and decorate our lands, and thefe .goddefies
have produced among us the aré of gardening;
which has two parts: the firft comprehends the
theory and practice of pleafure gardens; and
the other regards in like manner, fruit gardens,
orchards, kitchen gardens, &c. There are very
pleafing treatifes on this art, as thofe of Alexan-
der Blond; M. de la Quintinie; the Solitary
Gardener ; and. many others. The hortulan
art was fo far improved during the reign of
Lewis XIV, and under the direction of M. le
Nautre, that we almoft defpair of ever fecing it
carried to a greater degree of perfection. The
German gardeners, however, have fhown, that
in producing forward fruit, they have the prio-
rity of all other nations, by the aid of their
ingenious hot houfes: and England is daily
decorated by new pleafure gardens, in a ftyle
truly original.. The Englifh fuppofey that a
garden ought to reprefent a beautiful landicape, .
formed by nature, and ornamented by art: and
not the decorations of a deffert precifely difpofed,
and cut into fpruce figures by the fhears. On
this principle they form their alleys, bafons,
flopes, woods, groves, &c. as if nature had
produced them; regardle{s of ftrict rea
and
Anomatous Arts and Sciences, 383
and this method has a marvellous effect, efpe-.
cially in an extenfive plan. The dcfcriptions.
and plans that have been lately publifhed of
Chinefe gardens, exhibit alfo ideas that are new
and grand in their kind.
X. (9.) Who could have imagined that the
preparation of food. for man fhould haye pro-
duced fo complicated an art as is that of cookry?
Thanks to the rapacious appetite and refined
tafte of the ancient and modern Luculli, we
have the celebrated treatife of Apicius, de re cu-
linari, which informs us of the ftate of cookery
among the Romans; and, for that of the mo-
derns, we have Le parfait Cuifinier, Le Cuifinier
royal et bourgeois; Le Cuifinier moderne, by
M. Chapelle, and a great number of fimilar
works, in almoft all languages. But. this art
and thefe works belong to the univerfal erudi-
tion of the glutton, the voluptuary, and the pa-
rafite, who affert that a cook is a divine mortal ;
and maintain by arguments plaufible enough,
though falacious, that this art is more ufeful, and
requires more wit and fagacity than meta-
phyficy ;
XI. (10.) Let us not here forget to mention
an art worthy to be honoured by the whole lite-
rary world ; an art of all others the moft pleafing
and moft ufeful : and of which they make a very
juft eulogy in Germany, by a folemn jublee in
honour of its invention: in a word, the Art of
Printing.
—
984 Universan Ervvirron.
Priating. ‘This art has never been placed on a
rank with ticchanic profeflions ; afd the man-of
fenfe ftill lauglis at the fuperftition and ignorance —
of thofe priefts who would formerly have made
the world believe, that typography was a dan-
gerous art. It would require more than one
volume to fhew how far this art was known,
Jong fince, by the Chinefe: in what manner it
was invented and improved in Europe by John
Fauftus of Mentz, John Mentel of Strafburg,
Guttemburg, Laurence Cofter of Harlem, Ni-
eolas Janfon, Aldus Manucius, who invented
the Italian charaéters; Elziver, Blaauw, Wef-
téin, and an infinity of able printers of our own
days: or if we wotild deferibe all the mechanifm
of this art, thé various inftruments, materials,
and workmen that are ettiployed, and the know-
ledge and tafte that it requires. That relation
which we have to letters will not permit us,
however, to omit this opportunity of giving a
public téftimony to the abilities of the celebrated
M.Breitkopf of Leipzig, who, after having carried
the typosraphic art to the utmoft degree of per-
feétion of which it appears capable, has lately in-
vented the art of printing, by the means of move-
able characters or notes, all forts of mufic, and
that with as much precifion as tafte and elegance.
The mere infpedtion of this furprifing art is fuffi-
cient to make every one admire the invention,
. and be charmed with the execution,
CHAP,
.
Vis
4
F385") °
CHAP, .XXIV.
DIGRESSION on CHIME-
RICAL ArTS and ScIENCES.»
HEN meditating on the ambitious
views of the human’ mind, we have
frequently faid,
Les écarts de raifoh, l’ignorance & I’ erreur,
Sont de l’efprit humain l’ordinaire appanage.
Tout mortel pour monter au rang du Créateur,
Voudroit /aveir beaucoup, & pouvoir davantage,
The deviations from reafon, ignorance and error, are
the ordinary portion of the human-mind. Each mor-
tal, to raife bimfelf to a rank with his Creator,
would be able to know much, and to perform
more. And in faét, the fource of all the chime-
rical arts, and all the frivolous or pretended
fciences, feems to be difcovered in thefe four lines.
The defire of being highly learned, or at leaft
of appearing fo, has given rife to the art of divi-
nation, and to all thofe which are dependant on ir.
The defire of being powerful and formidable, or —
at leaft to appear fo, in order to feem to predié,
has produced the magical art, and all thofe that
~ Vor, IIL. Bb attend
F -
386 Universat Ervopirron.
attend it. So much for the Origin of thofe mat-
ters; we fhall now fee what hiftory relates con-
cerning them.
II. The ancient inhabitants of Afia, in gene-
neral, partook of the ardor of their climate, and
the Chaldeans, in particular, were the greateft
vifionaries and the pooreft philofophers in the
whole world. They faw that there was evil in
the world, and they could tell how to afcribe it
to the All-perfeé&t Being: for they did not per-
ceive, that the terms, good and bad, convey ideas
that are merely relative or comparative, like
thofe of great and little; that there could be
no fuch thing as good, if there were no evik
by which it might be compared; and that this
proceeds from the very effence of all beings
whatfoever. They therefore fuppofed there were
two’ primordial beings, one of which was the au-
thor of all.good, and whom they named Oro-
mafdes, Divinity or Gods; and. the other the au-
thor of all evil, whom they called Arimanius,
Demon or Devil. They did not perceive that
it was a far greater offence to the Divinity to
fuppofe an oppofite being, another creator and —
producer befide him, than to fuppofe that he
had produced an evil that was unavoidable and
abfolutely neceffary, and an evil the idea of —
which is alfo conftantly relative.
IJ. When this Arimanius or devil, however,
was once invented, they did not fail, according
LO
CHIMERICAL SCIENCES. 38%
to the laudable cuftom of the firft ages, and of
thofe warm climates, to give him a figure, and
make him ferve their purpofes, This dogma
was not fown in barrenland: All priefts (except
thofe of the Chrifiian religion) have been at all
times ambitious and felfinterefted. They have
fought after great importance, great authority,
and great riches; The belief of ademon became
therefore to the Chaldean pagan priefts a real
treafure; the foundation’ on which they built
their principal authority; and the fource from
whence they derived their greateft wealth.
Without the aid-of their demon they would have
been overthrown more than once; and for this
reafon it is- that. they were conftantly fo jea-
lous of this dogma, and. alfo drew from it
fuch fubtle, lucrative and convenient confe-.
quences.
IV. All the eaft, and afterwards all the weft,
and in fhort the whole earth, was foon poflefied
withthisdogma. By conftantly purfuing earthly
ideas, and human notions, the good being was
naturally fuppofed to refide at one place, and the
bad being at another, To the former they
therefore affigned a heaven, which they fuppofed
to be over their heads, and gave him a celeftial
court: to the latter they gave a hell, which they
imagined to be under their feet, and affigned him
an infernal court, From hence arofe their gods
and demi-gods, their devils, demons, and fpirits
of every rank and every kind.
Bb a2 V. But
388 Universat EruDiTion.
V. But this was not all. This dogma would
have been of little confequence if they had not
fuppofed a direct, immediate and particular con-
nexion between the infernal court and mankind
who inhabit the earth. Now, as no mortal what-
ever could perceive this connexion by the aid of
his fenfes only, they made of it an occult fcience,
which naturally remained in the hands of the
priefts and priefteffes, the magi, the foothfayers,
_ the augurs, the vifionaries, the priefts of the
oracles, the falfe prophets, and other like pro-
feffors, till the time of the coming of Jefus
Chrift. The light of the gofpel, it is true, has
diffipated much of this darknefs ; but it is more
difficult, than is commonly conceived, to eradi-
cate from the human mind a deep rooted fuper-
ftition, even though the truth be fet in the
ftrongeft light, efpecially when the error has
been believed almoft from the orign of the
world; fo we ftill find exifting among us the
remains of this Pagan fuperftition, in the follow-
ing chimeras, which enthuftaftic and defigning
men have formed into arts and fciences: though
it muft be owned, to the honour of the eigh-
teenth century, that the pure doétrines of Chrift-
ianity, and the fpirit of philofophy, which be-
' come, God be praifed, every day more diffufed,
equally concur in banifhing thefe vifionary opi-
nions. The vogue for thefe pretended fciences
and arts, moreover, is paft, and they can. no
longer be named without exciting ridicule in all
fenfible people. By relating them here, there-
| fore,
-
CHIMERICAL ScIENCES. 389
fore, and drawing them from their obfcurity, we
only mean to fhow their futilty, and to mark
thofe rocks againft which the human mind, with-
out the affiftance of a pilot, might eafily run.
VI. For the attaining of thefe fupernatural
qualifications, there are {till exifting in the world
the remains of,
(1.) Affrology: a conjectural fcience which
teaches to judge of the effects and influences of
the ftars; and to predict future events by the
fituation of the planets and their different afpects.
It is divided into natural aftrology, or meteoro-
logy, which is confined to the foretelling of na-
tural effeéts, as the winds, rain, hail and fnow, —
frofts and tempefts. In this confifts one branch
of the art of our almanack makers, and by
merely confronting thefe predictions in the calen-
dar, with the weather each day produces, every
aman of fenfe will fee what regard is to be paid
to this part of aftrology. The other part, which.
is called judicial aftrology, is ftill far more il-
lufive and rafh than the former: and having.
been at firft the wonderful art of vifionaries, it
afterwards became that of impoftors; a very
common fate with all thofe chimerical fciences,
of which we fhall here fpeak. This art pre-
tends to-teach the method of predicting all forts
of events that fhall happen upon the earth, as
well fuch as relate to the public, as to private
perfons ; and that by the fame infpection of the
the ftars and planets, and their different conftel-
lations,
g90 Universat Erubitrion.
Jations. The cabala fignifies in like manner the
knowledge of thing that are above the moon, as
the celeftial bodies and their influences; and in
this fenfe it is the fame with judicial aftrology,
or makes a part of it.
VII. (2.) Horofcopy, which may alfo be con-
fidered as a part of aftrology, is the art by which
they draw a figure, or celeitial-fcheme, contain-
ing the twelve houfes, wherein they mark the dif-
pofition of the heavens at a certain moment; for
example, that at which a man is born, in order
to fortel his fortune, or the incidents of his life.
In aword, it is the difpofition of the {tars and
planets at the moment of any perfon’s birth. But
as there cannot be any probable or poffible re-
Jation between the conftellations and the human
race, all the principles they lay down, and the
prophecies they draw from them, -are:chimerical,
falle, abfurd, and a criminal impofition on man-
kind. |
VIII. (3.): The frivolous and pernicious art of
Augury confited, among the ancient Romans, in
obierying the flight, the finging and eating of
birds, efpecially fuch as were held facred. (4.)
The equally deceitful art of Haru/picy confitted, -
‘on the contrary, in the infpectiiea of the bowels
of animals, but’ principally of vittims, and
from thence predicting: grand incidents relative
to the republic, and the good or bad events of
its enterprifes.
IX. (5.) Aere-
CMIMERICAL SCIENCES. gor
IX. (5.) eromancy was the art of divining by
the air. This vain feience has alfo come to us
from the Pagans =: but is rejected by reafon as well
as Chriftianity, as falfe and abfurd. —(6.) Pyro-
mancy is a divination made «by the infpection of
a flame, either by obferving to which fide it
turns, or by throwing into it fome combuttible
matter; or a bladder filled with wine, or any
thing elfe-from which they imagined they were
able to predict. 7.) Hydromancy is the fuppofed
art of divining by water. The Perfians, accord-
cording to Varro, invented it; Pythagoras and
Numa Pompilius made ufe of it; and we ftill
admire like wonderful prognofticators. (8.)
Geomancy was a divination made by obferving of
cracks or clefts in the earth. It was alfo per-
formed by points made on paper, or any other
fubftance, at a venture; and they judged of fu-
ture events from the figures that refulted from
thence. This was certainly very ridiculous, but
it is nothing lefs fo to pretend to predic future
events by the infpection of the grounds of a difh
of coffee, or by cards, and many other like mat-
ters. Thus have defigning men made ufe of the
four elements to deceive their credulous brethren.
XK. (9.) Chiromancy, in the laft place, is the art
which teaches to know, by infpecting the hand,
not only the inclinations of a man, but his future
deftiny alfo. The fools or impoftors, who prac-
rife this art, pretend that the different parts, or
the lines of the hand, have a relation to the in.
ternal
392, Universart Ervupirtron.
ternal parts of the body, as fome to the heart,
others to the liver, fpleen, &c. On this falfe
fuppofition, and on many others equally extra-
vagant, the principles of chiromancy are found-
ed: and on which, however, feveral authors,
as Robert Flud, an Englifhman; Artemidorus ;
M. de la Chambre; John of Indagina; and
many others, have wrote large treatiles. Phy-
Sicgnomy, or Phyfionomancy, is a {cience that pre-
tends to teach the nature, the temperament, the
underftanding, and the inclinations of men, by
the infpection of their countenances, and 1s there-
fore very little lefs frivolous. than chiromancy ;
though Ariftotle, and a number of learned men
after him, have wrote exprefs treatifes concern-
ing it. | |
XI. (10.) In the rank of pretended and dan-
. gerous fciences, we may alfo place thofe fanatico-
myftico-theologic doétrines; which ftill re.
main in the world, and thofe books which {piri-
tual vifionaries have wrote on thefe matters, and
which others, equally weak, think they under-
ftand. We have had a very renowned. genius
of this kind, in Germany, named Jacob Bohem,
and he has had, for fucceffors, fome authors not
unworthy of him, and many dark. preachers.
Thefe are conftantly a fet of impoftors, who
cover the truth with’ impenetrable darknefs :
who pretend to have fome particular lights,
fecret and occult {ciences, on thofe fubjects that
are
CHIMERICAL ScIENCEs. 393
are fo holy and fo important, and which require
the utmoft perfpicuity. _ A fpirit of enthufiafm
is always concealed in thefe doétrines and writ-.
ings, and it is afpirit that a wife legiflator fhould
endeavour to fupprefs wherever it appears. For,
to {peak plainly, all myftic theology, except
that which is fanctified by the church, is an
abfurd and frivolous {cience ; feeing it is equally
repugnant to the wifdom of God, and to human
reafon, to fay, that the facred writers, who were
infpired by the Holy Spirit, have included in
their doctrines, befide the true, rational, . clear,
and inftructive fenfe, one that is myfterious,
hidden, allegoric, and involved, which certain
vifionaries alone can comprehend, which they
alone can difcover, and which at the fame time
is neither inftructive nor perfuafive: or that a
book, diétated by the Supreme Being for the
falvation of mankind, fhould contain enigmas,
which a theologian alone has a right to ex-
pound, 3
_ XII. In order to obtain a great and formida-
ble power, and to be able to produce fuper-
natural effects, mankind have alfo invented,
(1.) Magic. This word was at firft taken in a
good fenfe, and fignified the art of performing
uncommon and marvellous aéts, by the aid of
certain natural fecrets, or at leaft, fuch as were
fo to the vulgar. The magicians of thofe days
were men worthy of efteem, who endeavoured
to penetrate the hidden powers of nature by
lawful
394 Universar Ervupitron.
lawful means. Magic was affociated with the
mathematics, with phyfic, and theology. Mofes
himfelf, Daniel, Apollonius, Tyaneus, Elymas
who oppoied St. Paul, the fages of Egypt and
Babylon, thofe of the eaft that came to feek the
king of the Jews, who was juft born; and
numberlefs other illuftrious perfonages of anti-
quity, were all magicians, But in the fucceffion
of time, thefe magi applied themfelves to aftro-
logy, to divinations, to enchantments, and
witchcraft; and by thofe means became oppro-
brious, and their fcience contemptible, its pro-
duétions being no longer regarded but as_ illu-
fions, mere jugglers tricks. This art is at pre-
fent in very little efteem, notwithftanding the
diftinction that is made between natural and
fupernatural magic, and all the books which have
appeared, and ftill continue to appear under the
former title; which generally contain fome
pretended fecrets, and which would be even
trifling and peurile, did experience eftablith
their reality. The authors of thefe ought at
leaft to publifh them under fome title lefs often-
tatious, obnoxious, and contemptible.
XIII. (2.) Necromancy, or Negromancy ; an art
that would be deteftable if it were real, and is ri-
diculous, becaufe it is chimerical: for by this is
meant a communication with demons; the art
of raifing the dead; and of performing many
other miraculous facts by a diabolical power,
and by enchantments. This was the pretended
art of Merlin and Fauftus, and which no longer
exifts.
s ots
ae
CHIMERICAL Scrences. 395
exifts but on the ftage, or in childifh roman- . -
ces.
XIV. (3.) Sorcery, or witchcraft, is the third
art that pretends to: borrow the aid and minif-
try of the devil, and to perform miraculous
operations by invoking demons, either in ob-
feure retreats, or in the darknefs of the night,
or in an affembly of wizards or witches, which
they call afabbat. It would require a large vo-
lume to relate all the influence which this chi-
merical and abfurd art has had on the minds of
weak men in all ages, from the creation of the
world to the age which immediately preceded
the prefent: to what degree credulous people
have believed it: in how ferious and important
a manner it has been treated. by -prieits, by
princes and miagiftrates, and what horrible
_cruelties they have been induced from thence
to commit. Thefe magiftrates were certainly
no conjurers: they no ways refembled them,
but in wickednefs. Since philofophy has con-
fined forcery to the wardrobe of ancient reve-
ries; and fince wife legiflators have prohibited
the tribunals from exercifing their powers againft
it, and priefts from pretending to exorcifms ;
there is no longer to be found in the world
either demon, forcerer, witch, conjurer, or
fabbat.
XV. (4.) The fame feverity, however, has
not been fhown to Alchymy, though it juftly
merits
396 Universat ErvDItTion.
merits as great a punifhment from the prince,
and as much contempt from the philofopher.
If alchymy were nothing more than the art of
diffolving natural bodies, and of reducing them
to their original principles ; of feparating the
ufeful parts of each mixture from the ufelefs,
fo far from deferving to be decryed, it would
be an admirable art; but this is the bufinefs of
the moft exalted chymiftry, and we fhould care-
fully avoid confounding the arts and {fciences.
Men have perceived in all ages that by the aid
of gold the moft difficult matters. were to be
achieved ; that if they poffeffed the art by which
Jupiter rained gold, they fhould be: able to
accomplifh the greateft enterprifes, and that
they fhould not even findyany difficuity in ob-
taining a Danae. A modern Prometheus, how-
ever, in order to create gold, does not attempt
to fteal that celeftial fire which is fo -necef-
fary in the creating of all beings, but contents
himfelf with a fire of coals, which he ftirs and
blows till all the gold, which the inheritance or
induftry of his, anceftors have given him, paf-
fes with the fmoak up the chimney. The expe-
rience of four or five thoufand years has not
been fufficient to cure mankind of this frenzy;
and what is more furprifing, is that thofe, who
are reputed philofophers, countenance this prac-
tice, by roundly afferting the poffibility of ma-
king gold. Now, if the matter were really
practicable, a good citizen ought not to affert
it, becaufe of the {mall degree of probability
there
CHIMERICAL SCIENCES. 397
there is of ever difcovering the fecret, and thé
certain ruin that would attend a great number
of men who fhould attempt it, and the very
trifling advantage the difcovery would be to fo-
ciety ; for perhaps there is no fubftance, no
metal more ufelefs than gold, confidered in its
own nature. What a celebrated author, whofe
memory we otherwife revere, has faid in his
letters on the fciences, with the regard to the-phi-
lofophers ftone in particular, fills us with afto-
nifhment. Under a {pecious appearance nothing
is lefs conclufive than his method of reafoning.
For, 1. Wether all matter be homogeneous, . or
2. that all the parts of matter are reducible to a
certain number of principles, which form the e-
lements of all bodies, or 3. that all the parts of
matter are as various in themfelves as all the dif-
ferent bodies in nature; which ever of thefe be
the cafe, it is of no importance with regard to
the production and generation of compofite
bodies; and the confequences which he draws
from thence may be equally applicable to,
the production of plants, animals, &c. The
fource of this argument proceeds from a certain
fyftem in philofophy applied to natural hiftory,
in which they fuppofe that ftones and minerals
are not produced by a regular generation, com-
mon to all other material beings: a fyftem
that we find very difficult to comprehend, and
concerning which we have elfewhere ventured
to propofe fome doubts. For what we might
further fay here on the fubject of alchymy we
refer
go8 ~Universar Ervupitron.
refer our readers to the chapter -on chymiftry
in the firft book. This fcierice appears to us
in. fo futile a light, that we cannot perfuade
ourfelves to make a more ample analyfis: of
it;*.
* As we forefee that what is here faid will be liable to
much objection, in order to avoid all difpute about words,
we entreat thefe philofophers to refolve the following que~
ftions.
1. How can-we make gold, any more than filver,. cop-
per, iron, lead, ftones, foffils, fhells, &c.
2. How can we make (produce or create). any fubftance
whatever? .
3. Can they conceive that there is in nature two genera-
tions, two different manners of engendering; and where«
fore ? |
4. If there be two methods of generation, why fhould
there not be more, 3, 4, 5,6, &c.
5. Why then do they reject equivocal generation, as a
chimera ?
6. If there are different generations for {tones and metals,
may there not be alfo for infects; and why from faw duft*
mixed with urine may not fleas be generated?
7. Does it require lefs effort to create or produce a ftone,
or a grain of gold, than to make a flea; lefs art to pros
duce a flea than an elephant ?
8. The creating of that which is inanimate; or that .
which appears to us as fuch, does it embarrafs them Jefs
than the produétion of that which is animated ?
g- The great or the little, the immenfe or the imper-
ceptible, are they not equal in true phyfics? Is it ‘more.
difficult to make a rhinoceros than a worm?
Io. If they know how to make gold (that is, to create;
or at leaft to change the effence of the elements of matter}
they can no longer be furprifed at all the miracles which the
Egyptian magicians performed before their king Pharoah
ia the prefence of Mofes.
(5-) The
Cuimericant Sciences. 399
XVI. (5.) The panacea or univerfal remedy,
the potable gold, and the quinteffences, are alfo
chimeras that. ufually accompany the philofo,
phers ftone, and of which. the difcovery is e-
qually impoffible.. It is a circumftance fufficient-
ly mortifying to the human mind, to fee fo many
men (not confined ins a mad houfe) employ
themfelves in fearch of thefe: to fee fo many
impoftors run about the world, affuring man-
kind. that they have difcovered them; and to
fee fo many weak mortals believe them on their
word, From whence can they derive any pre-
cepts or rules for fuch, "inquiries? Who. can
make the analyfis of arts like thefe? Senfelefs
mortals! you would cure thoufands of difeafes
by one remedy! you pretend to change the
order of nature and the decrees of providence}!
you would perform a perpetual miracle by pro-
longing the natural duration of beings and the
life of man!, And can you think that we wil}
countenance fuch a chimera ?
XVII. Men perceiving that they could no
Jonger impofe on the credulity of their brethren
by magic, forcery, necromancy, alchimy and
the like, have endeavoured to perfuade them
that they could, however, perform great mat-
ters by /ympathy, and have therefore made of \
it a myfterious art. That appearance of the
marvellous which this pretended fcience contains,
has not failed to give it authority among man-
kind, and efpecially among the vulgar. It ig
true
goo: Universat Ervupition.
true, that we fee in nature many effects, the
caufes of which the moft profound and fagaci-
ous philofophy has not been able to difcover.
All thefe have been ranged under the dominion
of fympathy, and the vifionaries and mounte-
banks have affumed full powers, where philo-
fophers have prudently been filent. They have
invented fympathetic cures for wounds and other
diforders, fympathetic powders, &c. &c. They
have deprived both men and horfes of all power
of motion in the middle of achace; have cauf-
ed convulfive or fwooning fits, and perform-
ed a thoufand dike matters, at an immenfe
diftance. “We will here affume an affirmative
tone, without fear of being thought prefump-
tuous. Reft affured, reader, that there is no
fuch thing as fympathy, properly fo called, and
in the manner thefe quacks underftand the term,
No one body can ever act upon another, in any
manner whatever, at a very g oreat diftance, and
where all communication is’ interrupted by the
air, or other intervening bodies. It is impof-
fible to reduce into fyftem an art or {fcience, or
rather a chimera that is founded on no one prin-
ciple known to any mortal upon earth. We,,
therefore, rank what Sir .Kenelm Digby, and
many others before and after him, have wrote on
this fubjeét, with the frivolous and pretends
arts.
XVIIL It fhould feem, that it is on fuch
books as thefe, which treat on fictitious and
dangerous
_——
_
CHirmericaL Sciences: 402
dangerous arts, that the civil magiftrate ought
to exercife his authority; on works that ferve:
enly to fill the heads of mankind with chimeras,
to entice them from their labours or ufeful: ftu-
dies, and to engage them in ruinous enterprifes.
Every book that contains reflections which are
injurious to the majefty of God; opinions that
are inconfiftent with the order of fociety; a-
trocious libels on government, or calumnies
on private characters, are worthy of the flames ;
or what were ftill better, of confifcation. There
are even fome ufeful and refpeétable prejudices
in the world, which a wife man and a good
citizen will never publicly expofe 5 . and if any
one is rafh enough to attempt it, he is worthy
of chaftifement, But that the magiftrates of a
nation fhould be fuch pitiful reafoners, as to
wilh to treat a harmlefs philofopher, who may
err in the fearch of truth, as they formerly
treated the poor pretended forcerers, and as
they would have treated Galileo, is the moft
confummate injuftice and abfurdity. . They feem
to fay with a loud voice: Citizens, behold a pbilofo-
phical work, which is wrote with fo much ftrength
of argument, that no one can anfwer it, but fo dan-
gerous that we are afraid you fhould know the truth,
left it might be prejudicial to’ you. ' Here, hangman
(what an expreffionin the free republic of letters)
do your duty! The treating of errors in philo-
fophy with too much rigour has impeded the
progre{s of the human mind, more than is eafily
imagined, by chécking:the {pirit of. liberty ever
Ton. Il, Cec fince
goz Universal ERrvupDItIon.
fince the firft invention of printing. There is
a religion in the world which produces fingular
and very fatal effects of this nature, We will
by no means name it, but let a book be wrote
on any fubjeét whatever, we will engage to
tell at any time, whether the author was edu-
cated in that religion or not; for there are con-
{tantly to be feen fome traces of conftraint, and
efcertain prejudices imbibed in early days,
ORO RIOR ORO AAR ARIAS
CE A PR. Oa.
DIGRESSION on ScHooLs,
-‘CoLLEGES, UNIVERSITIES,
and ACADEMIES.
HE man who confines himfelf to his
clofet is but rarely .vifited by the fci-
ences, the arts and belles lettres. To ac-
quire their intimate acquaintance he mutt feek
them in. thofe places where Minerva, Pallas,
Apollo and the Mules, have fixed their refi-
| "dence?
Own Scuoors, &e, 403
dence. Emulation, that ftrong impulfe in thé
eareer of all our purfuits, fliould conftaritly at-
tend the nian of letters from’ his early youth to
the laft period of his life; in’ the fchool, at
college, at the wniverfity, in thofé employments
to which his knowledge may léad him, or in thofe
academies of {ciénicé fo whith hé may be admiit-
ted. Emulation is an animating faculty that
réfalts from fociety: and few there are to whort
nature has given a genius fufficiently {trong to
attain an extenfive erudition in ‘folitude; who
are provided with wings that can bear thet,
without guides, without models, without com-
panions or fupports, to the lofty regions of the
empyrean.
Il. The moft fagacious and moft benign ke
giflators have therefore eftablithed in their do-
minions, fchools for the arts and {ciences, acades
mies porticoes, Lyceums, another Athens; and
judicioufly adapting inftruétion to thé agé and
faculties of mankind, they have founded dif-
ferent inftitutions for this grand defign. But
far be from thefe venerable, thefe facred abodes,
where the mitid is invigorated and enriched,
where the heart is purified and formed to bene-
volence, where focial man is prepared for thofe
functions to which he appears to have been
_ deftined by his Creator, is enabled to render what
nature has made rude and barren, polifhed,
fefined, and improved to the greateft degree
poffible! far from thefe fanétuaries be all de-
TT Cc2 famers
404 Universat Ervpirion.
famers of the fciences! Let them deplore in the
midft of defarts, or of uncultivated, favage na
tions, the crime of having endeavoured,
though in vain, to degrade the fciences, the
arts, the laws and manners of mankind; let
them there lament the misfortune of being
poffefied with a paradoxical fpirit. In giving
’ a general idea of Erudition, we think therefore
we fhould defcribe the outlines of all thofe ad-
mirable foundations for the cultivation of the
{cienees, which do fo much honour to huma-
nity.
_ JI. Schools are either public or private. efta-
blifhments for the inftruétion of the youngeft
pupils in the firft elements of. knowledge; in
the rudiments of their native language, and fome-
times in Latin; in the firft principles of reli
gion, &c. In fome {chools of Germany the
French language is likewife taught. Parents,
to be free from the care of their children, fre-
quently fend them to fchool while yet too young.
They fhould remember, that at fo early an age
the fprings of the. brain are too delicate to be
continually ftretched by attention; and allthata
child acquires by the faculty of his memory is
at the expenfe of his genius, fpirit, judgment,
and frequently even of his health. There is at
Berlin a grand {chool which they call Real, where,
+o the languages and the principles of religion,
they join inftructions for drawing, the firft ele-
‘ments of hiftory, of the polite arts, mechanics, }
and j
On ScHoors, &c, 405
and of many ufeful employments. This is a
very judicious eftablifhment; and has poiaces
many excellent {cholars.
IV. Colleges are likewife public inftitutions
for the inftruction of youth ; and are moreover
endowed with certain revenues. They there
teach divine and human learning, in halls fet
apart for that purpofe, and in what they call
claffes ; where the fcholars are raifed, acccord-
ing to their faculties, and the progrefs they
make, from the loweft clafs to the higheft;
which is called prima. All civilized nations,
from the Jews and Egyptians down to thofe of
the prefent day, have had their colleges. - They
there teach not only the languages, but alfo ex-
plain the principal claffic authors; the regent
of each clafs pointing out to his pupils, at. the
fame time, their various beauties and defeét.
The firft elements of philofophy, and particu-
larly of logic, are likewife there taught. Ina
word, youth are there prepared for the univer-
fity ; the foundation of that edifice of erudition,
which a ftill more ferious ftudy is to raife, is
there laid in their minds : for he who carries no-
thing with him to the univerfity, will certainly
bring no great matters from thence. An efta-
blifhment of this kind is called in. Germany
Gymnafium, but improperly: for among the
Greeks that term was applied to a place fet apart
for bodily exercifes,
Vv. We
406 Universav Ervpifriown.
V. We alfo fee with pleafure, many countries
adorned with academies or colleges, founded by
wife and generous fovereigns, for the inftruétion of
the young nobility and gentry. In thefe illuftri-
ous gymnafiums they are caught not only the fci-
ences and belles lettres, but fuch exercifes alfo
as are proper to their birth and rank, and for
that ftation ig the world which they are one day
intended to fill. Among all the eftablifhments
of this kind there are in Europe, we know of
none that appreaches nearer to perfeétion than
the celebrated Carolinum of Brunfwick : the
young gentleman there meets, at-once, the moft
able profeffors of the fciences, the beft mafters
for the languages and exercifes, and, by the fa-
vour and indulgence of a very polite court, the
moft efficacious means of attaining a knowledge
of the world; at the fame time that he ac-
quires every kind of erudition which he may
hereafter want. The plan of the Carolinum -
were well worthy to be here given, as the moft
excellent model, if the bounds of this work
would: admit of fuch particulars.
Vi. Univesfities are foundations that have
arofe from. the benevolence, the wifdom, and
policy. of the beft of fovereigns, for the in-
ftrudction of youth in the higher fciences. They
are formed of communities of the different pro-
feffors in philofophy, theology, jurifprudence, and
phyfic; who each read lectures in public chairs;
onthe principles of their feveral fciences, to
| | fuch
On Scuoors, &ci 407
fuch fcholars who attend as their difciples or
auditors; and to whom they give, when they
have finifhed their courfes, certificates of their
qualifications, degrees, diplomas, and the doc-
torial habit. Thefe profeffors, moreover, af-
femble in their refpective faculties, to decide
fuch cafes as may be prefented to them, and
come under their proper jurifdiction : and laft-
ly, they affemble in a body, and by uniting the
four faculties, they form, under the ‘authority of
curators, a chancellor, a rector of each faculty,
and with the concurrence of a fyndic or fecre-
tary, a treafurer, and other fubaltern officers,
the fenate of the univerfity. The firft book of
this work fhows what are the particular f{ciences
that are taught in univerfities, and come pro-
perly under their direction. But modern prac--
tice (and a very advantageous practice it is) has
introduced at univerfities, proteffors of hiftory,
of the principal fcienices that compofe the belles
lettres, fome of the polite arts, exercifes, &c.
So that a young man, who devotes himfelf to
ftudy, will find at the univerfity the common
fource of all the fciences ; a fource that flows
in various ftreams, and from whence he may at
once choofe that to which he propofes parti-
cularly to apply himfelf;, and at the fame
time drink as much as he thinks proper of all
the reft. This affemblage of all the fciences
affords thofe, who devote three or four years of
their life to the acquifition of knowledge, the
greateft facility, and the moft folid advantages.
VII. The
408 Universat Ervuprtiov.
~») VIL. The univerfity of Paris-is, without
doubt, the moft ancient in Europe. It may.be '
juftly dated from the time of Charlemagne.
That truly great monarch, after having re-efta-
blifhed the eaftern empire, endeavoured by every
means to enlighten and civilize his people. Al-
cuinus, Raban, Johannes and Claudius, difciples
of the venerable Beda, were called to profefs the
{ciences at Paris. This firft, eftablifhment was
fucceflively improved ; and in proportion as the
fcales fell from the eyes of the people, who were
nearly reduced to the ftate of mere brutes, un-
der the dominion of the barbarians, the youth
of every country of Europe repaired to) the
univerfity of Paris to learn the fciences. As
the connexion between. nations was not. then
formed in the manner it now is, ‘as neither pofts
nor coaches, or other public carriages were yet
invented, the univerfity maintained proper mef-
fengers, who went once or twice every year into
the different countries of Europe, carrying with
them letters-or mefiages from the ftudents at
Paris, and returning with anfwers from their re-
lations. |The titles of thefe employments. {till
remain in the univerfity, though their funétions
have ceafed; and many perfons of rank. now
- feek and obtain thefe pofls, in order to ac-
quire thereby the right .of committimus, But
fince Paris has been: crowded with nobility of
the firft rank, courtiers, foldiers, lawyers, : finan-
ciers, &c. fince it has abounded with public
diverfions, and with thofe pleafures and diffipa-
tlons
On Scuoars, &c. 409
tions that are the natural confequences, it 1s be-
come a refidence too noify, and too feducing for
the mufes. Otter nations have,\moreover, im-
proved on the plan of the univerfity of Paris.
Of all the univerfities of Europe, thofe of Ox-
ford and Cambridge in England appear at pre-
fent to approach the neareft to perfection. The
great men they produce are a better proof than
any other argument. We could with always to
fee an univerfity a real city of learning ; a place
confecrated entirely to the mufes and their dif-
ciples ; that the Greek and Latin languages were
there predominant; and that every thing were
banifhed from thence which could caufe the |
leaft diffipation in thofe wha devote them{elves
to letters,
VIII. We fhall fay nothing here of public
libraries, anatomical theatres, printing-houfes,
and other like eftablifhments which ought to be
found in an univerfity ; nor of the regulations
and difcipline that are there to be obferved.
We have treated on thefe matters in our Poli-
tical Inftitutes, vol. i. chap. iv. the twelfth and
following fections; to which we refer the
reader.
IX. Literary focieties are affemblies of men
drawn together by the love of letters ; who are
united in the cultivating of fome particular
parts of fcience ; who make all their feveral la-
bours tend to one determinate point; who are
protected
410 Unrversar ERupitron.
protected by the ftate, encouraged, and fome-
times rewarded with honours and emoluments
by the fovereign. Such are the Royal Society
of London; that which is called Nature Curio-
forum in Germany ; that in the fame country
for the improvement of the language; and ma-
ny others. Thefe focieties commonly fix their
affemblies at fome determined place; chufe a
prefident or director, a fecretary, &c, but at
the fame time they admit learned foreigners :to
be enrolled with them. Before the connexions
between the European nations were folidly efta-
blifhed, before the invention of pofts, gazettes,
and literary journals, before navigation was fo
much improved, and travelling fo much prac-
tifed by learned men, -ere yet the art of printing
was eftablifhed, and libraries were formed, in
every country, it was permiffible to fuppofe that
the mufes: favoured certain privileged places;
and that. the arts and fciences were there cultiva-
ted with an exclufive advantage. Bat fince thefe
happy alterations have taken place, the learned,
the men of genius, the artifts of Europe, and of
the whole world, form but one republic, in
which the inhabitants of the banks of the Ta-
gus, the Seine, and the Neva, have an. equal
right. Experience fhows that men are born
every where with the fame organs, the fame fa-
culties and difpofitions of the mind and» that
there is no more difference. between their mental
. abilities,. than between the oaks of. different
countries. National’ diftinctions are, therefore,
banifhed
On Scuoors, &c. 41g
banifhed from this common republic. Men of
great and refined talents are every where fcarce.
But to attribute to certain climates ah exclufive
faculty of producing beautiful poems or paint-
ings, is a capricious notion, repugnant to reafon,
and daily contradicted by experience. Literary
focieties a€t very wifely, therefore, in admitting
men of ability, of every country, to be affociated
with them.
X. Academies, in the laft place, are learned
communities, inftituted by fovereigns, to im-
prove, encourage, and recompenfe thofe who
have diftinguifhed themfelves in the republic of
letters, and excel in the arts and fciences. Thefe
eftabliihments are not intended--to inftruct the
ignorant, but to improve the learned, to pro-
mote the further advancement of letters, and of
the arts ; and to reward thofe who therein excel,
To be admitted to the honour of being a mem-
ber of a renowned academy, is to be crowned
with the lauréls of Apollo: it is to obtain the
blue ribbon in the republic of letters. The
royal academy of fciences at Paris, inftituted for
the cultivation of natural philofophy, mathema-
tics and chymiftry: the French academy for
promoting the purity of that language: that of
medals and infcriptions: the academies Del/a
Crufca and Del Cimento at Florence: the royal
academy of {ciences and belles lettres at Berlin,
which was projected by the renowned Leibnitz,
and founded and perfected by king Frederic ,
and
4t2 Universat ErRvupitiow:
and many others; are immortal. inftitutions,'
highly ufeful in promoting of human know-
ledge, and infinitely glorious for their founders.
To thefe academies alfo foreigners are admit-
ted.
XI. Were it our lot to poffefs powerful au-
thority upon the earth, we would add to thefe
brilliant eftablifhments yet one more inftitution ;
and which, perhaps, would not be the leaft ufe-
ful. We would found an encyclopedic academy
for the promotion of univerfal erudition. It
fhould be compofed of
3 Members for theology,
3 for law.
3 for phyfic.
3 for {peculative philofophy.
4 -—— for natural philofophy and ma-
thematics.
4 ———-— for eloquence and poetry.
2:6 —- for the polite arts.
10, for hiftory, philology, and lite.
=D rature in.general.
scr fupernumerary members for uni-
verfal erudition in thofe parts
where. they might be ftill ne-
ceflary. Thefe would make
_ in all the number of
40 Academicians. To whom we would adda
prefident, and two fecretaries: and we would
endeavour to procure the moft able profeffors in
every clafs. Thefe jlluftrious men, thefe lite-
rat
Own ScuooLs, &c. 413
rati of the firft order, fhould have before them a
fyftem of univerfal erudition ; like that of which
we have traced the outlines in this work. Each of
the eight claffes fhould labour diftinétly in thofe
matters that naturally belong to their depart-
ment ; and the produce of their labours fhould
be examined in the general affemblies, The de-
fign of this inftitution would be to furnifh the
world, at the end of a certain number of years,
with a complete methodical treatife of all the
arts and {ciences of every kind of human know-
ledge. So that each reader would find full in-
formation concerning univerfal erudition in ge-
neral, and every part of it in particular, This
work, of more importance than any that has hi-
-therto appeared, might extend to twelve, or per-
haps twenty volumes in quarto; and might be en-
larged from time to time by fupplements, contain-
ing either new difcoveries, or eclairciffements of
what had been before given. The public would
be thereby enriched with a treafure that would
contain the effence of all the knowledge of the
human mind, There would be only one book
more: but how great would be the value of that
book !
CHAP.
_—
[ 414 J
CHAP. XXVE
The History of the ScicENCES,
H AVING thus finifhed the analyfis of
all the fciences in the concifeft manner we
found poffible, it will be neceffary, in order to
render the fyftem of univerfal erudition complete,
to add a few words here :
r.'On the general and particular hiftory of
afl the fciences, of their “_ and progrefs.
2. On thofe authors who have cultivated or
enriched the fciencés, and who may be called
the workmen: of erudition. And
3. On the principal means by which the know-
ledge of thofe authors and their works are tobe
attained, which are (1) by the criticifms that
have been made on them, (2) by the literary.
journals, and (3) by libraries, as well private as
public.
The confideration of thefé objeéts will be the
bufinefs of the three following PGE and
which will finifh this work,
II. Laconia
History of the Scrences. 415
II. Literary hiftory then informs us of the
origin, progrefs, decadence, and re-eftablith-
ment of all the arts and all the fciences, from
the beginning of the world to the prefent day.
It is either general, and confiders erudition in
its univerfality ; or particular, and treats of each
art or fcience feparately.
Ill. Whenever we fpeak of mankind, we
{peak of beings endowed with reafon, for where
ever there are men, there are intellectual facul-
ties. Thus it ever was from the beginning of
the world, and thus it will be to the end. The
firft operations of the-human mind relate to ob-
jects that tend to the prefervation of each indi-
vidual, and the next are thofe that ferve to fup-
ply his wants. When thefe two objects are gra-
aified, the mind begins to reafon,’ it becomes
philofophic without knowing it, and without de-
firing it; reafon and experience endow it, by
infenfible degrees, with knowledge. The firft
men were naturally occupied in defending them»
felves againft the elements, againft favage beafts,
and other men but little lefs ferocious ,\ and in
procuring the mere neceffaries of life. For
this reafon it is, that every favage and uncivi-
lized nation, every people who are in continual
wars, every people who are in want of thofe ob-
jects that are effentially neceffary for their fub-
fiftence, ever have been, and will be, ftupid)
ignorant, and without arts or {ciences.
IV. The
416 Universat ErvupitTion.
IV. The firft men, of whom we have any
account, were born in Afia, on that part of the
globe which we call, in our fituation, the eaft.
They were, doubtlefs, born with the fame facul-
ties of the mind as all their defcendants. When
they had obtained fecurity and fubfiftence, they
naturally began to exercife their reafoning facul-
ties. Neceffity itfelf made them foon induftri-
ous. Wemutt confequently look for the origin
of arts and fciences where the firft men dwelt,
that is, inthe eaft. Hiftory confirms what rea-
fon teaches us relative to this matter: it fhews
what was the ftate of letters in ancient Arabia,
in Egypt, Syria, Babylon, Perfia, and among the
Pheenicians; the people to whom we owe the in-
vention of writing, and from whom all the arts
and feiences feem to have proceeded. It alfo
fhews how far the powers of the human mind
were extended, in thofe firft ages, by the other
nations of the known earth. The monuments
that are ftill remaining of thofe diftant times, as
- for example, the famous ruins of Palmyra, a
city of Syria, near to Arabia the Defart, plain-
ly thew that this firft age of , the .arts and
fciences ought not to be forgot or defpifed ; and
that the moft pleafing inventions are. not owing
to the Greeks, as the moft ancient people ex-
celled in the arts, and it was with much difficulty
that the Greeks attained an equal degree. of per-
feétion; they could even never give that air of
grandeur to their productions, which we difco-
yer in the works of their predeceffors. It is to
: be
History of the Sereners! 417
be ithagined, moreover, ‘that nations who ex-
celled in architecture, could not be quite ignorant
of the other arts and feiences, though the length
of time has prevented any montimehts of them
from coming down to us. °
V. There is one material remark we muft
here make: It is aftonifhing to fee, in thefe
days, men of the greateft genius, and otherwife
of the moft philofophic temper, poffefled with
the notion of the influence of climates, and
affign to certain regions, more or lefS torrid of
temperate, an excliifive power of invention and
execution in the polite arts of belles lettres. A
belief in fpeétres, in fympathies, and a thoufand
other chimeras that cannot be fupported by any
argument, is equally rationale Whoever will
take the trouble to refleét on what we have faid
in the third and fourth feétions, can no longer
entertain fo ridiculous esther We are told
that the poetry, and all the other expreffions of
the eaftern nations, breathe a warmth, a certain
fire, an enthufiafin that is inimitable by the in-
habitants of the cold regions of the weft. In
the firft place, is there, in fact, any great merit in
this enthufiafm? Thofe Hebraifins, thofe ori-
ental exprefiions, lias sea hyperboles,
forced comparifons, gigantic images, perpetual
fictions, that tumid ftyle, does it all together
produce fuch amazing beauty ? Tt fhould feem,
on the contrary, that the more fagacity mankind
* have acquired, the more they have quitted this
Vor. Ul. Dd falfe
‘418 Universat ErvubDitTion.
falfe fublime, ‘have abandoned the project of
continual foaring among the clouds, have been
content to remain upon the earth, and there imi-
tate the operations of nature.
VI. The ancient inhabitants of the eaft, and
the Egyptians, were moreover accuftomed to
exprefs themfelves by hieroglyphics, and by all
kinds of images. It was a national tafte of which
their ftyle partook, as well in profe as verfe.
The pfalms of David, and the writings of the
prophets are full of thefe images. Jt would per-
haps be dangerous, and even injudicious to imi-
tate them. Now, if this enthufiafm was the ef-
fect of the climate, the modern inhabitants of
thofe countries ought to be poffefied of it. But
experience proves the reverfe, The Orientals of
our days are cold ahd phlegmatic, and have pre- -
— ferved nothing of the ancient warmth, but the
faftuous titles of their monarchs. ‘The ancient
Greeks were notable babblers, the modern are re-
markable for taciturnity.. The ancient Romans
were grave and thoughtful, warriors, politicians,
philofophers ; the medern inhabitants of Rome,
and of Italy, in general, are lively and {plendid,
oreat and florid talkers, but weak in war, fubtle,
refined, induftrious : characters totally oppofite.
Have thefe climates chaniged :
Bat: The epochs fatal to the arts and fciences
arife from four principal caufes. The firft is
war, A people that are continually in arms, and
| | for
History of the Sciences, 419
For ever amidft the buftle and din of war, have
neither fufficient opportunity. nor refolution to
apply themfelves to the ftady and the cultivation
of the arts. While Afia was Conftantly in arms;
after Philip, Alexander, and their fucceffors, were
poftefied with the fancy of being conquerors,
when the barbarotis and warlike nations entered
and eftablithed themfelves in Europe, the miufes,
fturined by the clamour of war, fell into a pro-
found lethargy. The fecond caufe is poverty.
A people that are furrounded by indigence, are
too much occupied with their indifpenfable wants
to bufy themfelves with ftudy ; and if there. are
any men of uncommon genius, who make the
moft happy advancements, they find in their
country neither emulation, encouragement, or
reward. In England and Holland, on the con-
trary, we fee the arts and fciences flourith under
the fhadow of opulence, in the midft of the
greateft commerce. The third caufe is the
abufe that is made of religion, by debafing it to
fuperftition; to fanaticifm and tyranny; than
which nothing is moze injurious to the progrefs
of the human mind. Thoie thackles, which the
clergy fometimesput on philofophy, prevent
all advancement im learning, The hiftory of
every age and every people fhew their: fatal ef-
feéts. . All is loft when the church once enjoys
this kind of triumph. The annals of the mid-
dle age, and of the Grecian empire in the eaft,
fafficiently prove this affertion. . The fourth and
Ddg2 haft
420 Universat Ervupition.
laft caufe is, when a fucceffion of ftupid, indo-
lent, ignorant, trifling, and, at the fame time,
defpotic foyereigns, who are enemies to the pro-
auctions of the mind, reign over a nation for a
long time together, The reafons are too ob-
vious, and the examples too odious to be recited
here.
VIII. Place, on the contrary, a nation under
whatever climate you pleafe; let them enjoy
continual peace ; introduce wealth and plenty
among them; confine the authority of the clergy
within due bounds; place on the throne a dif-
cerning prince ; or give them able and learned
minifters and magiftrates, and you will foon fee
arifé, as it were from the earth, men of the
greateft genius, confummate mafters in every art
and fcience. Thefe are the natural caufes of the
improvement or decadence of the arts: the man
of fenfe will find them without labour, without
forming hypothefes, or having recourfe to illu-
fions and occult caufes, or the different nature
of climates. But let us ‘return to our fub-
ject. * :
IX. The fecond-age, or bright period of the
arts and fciences, was the time that preceded the
reign of Philip, that paffed under his reign, and
during the firft years of that of Alexander: a .
period at which there flourifhed, in Greece alone,
fuch men of exalted genius as Plato, Arif
se totle,
History of the, Screnczs. 421
totle, Demofthenes, Pericles, Apelles, Phidias,
and Praxiteles*.
Ti, he third age was that of Cefar and Au
guttus, whofe memory is rendered immortal by
Lucretius, Horace, Virgil, Ovid, Cicero, tans *
Caefar, Varro, Vitruvius, &c.
The fourth age was that of Charlemagne.
This monarch, who re-eftablifhed the empire of
the eaft, was at once the reftorer and father of
letters: he was himfelf as learned as a man
could be at that time; he compofed feveral
books, and among others a. grammar of his own,
' language; he endeavoured to enlighten, not
only his natural fubjeéts, but thofé’ nations alfo
whom he conquered; he made aftronomical
obfervations, and eftablifhed {fchools in all his
dominions ; he enticed learned men into France,
and, among others, Alcuinus from England; he
reduced the laws and cuftoms of thofe countries
that were fubje<t to his empire into writing: du- —
ring his repafts he cauled the hiftories of the
kings his predeceffors, or fome of the works of
St. Auguftine, to be read to him; he drew u
the capitularies and ordinances for the aot
with his own hands ; he collected all the ancient
verfes that related to the renowned attions of the
Germans and French, to ferve him as memoirs
for their hiftory, which he intended to write ;
* See the introduétion to M. Voltaire’s Age of Lewis XIV.
he
goes Unrversar Ervpition.
he had the holy fcriptures tranflated into the Gere
mantongue, &c. It is true that this age favour-
ed fomewhat of the barbarous ignorance of the
times that immediately preceded, and of the
wars by which the reign of Charlemagne was
continually agitated: but without the affiftance
of that great prince, literature had been totally
loft : he faved it, colleéted its fhattered remains,
did all that it was poffible to do at that epoch,
and what perhaps no other man would have done
in his fituation.
X. The fifth age was that which is called by
the name of Pope Leo X.. a period when a
private family, that of the Medicis, made pro-
digious efforts in the re-eftablifhment of the arts.
and fciences, and which in return concurred in
the elevation, in the grandeur and glory of that
houfe. So many learned authors, fo many great
men have faid and wrote that the arts and {ci-
ences came from the eaft, from Greece and Con-
ftantinople, to feek an afylum among the weftern
nations, after the taking of that city by the
Turks, that it is not without timidity we pre-
fume to combat that error. Never was there feen,
however, more fanaticifm, bigotry, ignorance
and ftupidity, among any people, than in the
eaftern empire at the time of the taking of
Conftantinople. M. Montefquieu fays*:
* Caufes of the grandeur and decline of the Romans.
* A grofs '
.
History of the Sciencts. 423
«< A grofs fuperftition, which debafes the hu- |
*¢. man mind as much as'religion exalts it, placed
€¢ all the virtue and confidence of mankind in a
*¢ ftupid veneration for images ; fo that generals
** were feen to raife a fiege, and lofe a town in
*‘ order to gain-an image.”——-He continues:
** When I think of the profound ignorance into
** which the clergy plunged the laity, I cannot
** help comparing them with thofe Scythians, of
*“whom Herodotus {peaks, who put out the
** eyes of their flaves, that nothing might divert
** their attention from their labours.” And
further on he fays: ** The fury of ifputation
** became fo natural to the Greeks, that when
**Contacuzene took Conftantinople, he found
** the emperor John, and the emprefs Ann, bufy
** in a council that was held againft certain ene-
’ © mies of the monks: and when Mahomet the
** fecond befieged that city, he could not fufpend
‘* the theologic animofities ; the council of Flo-
«* rence engaging their attention, at that time,
** more than the army of the Turks.”
XI. Now let them fairly tell us, what affift.
ance could be drawn for the arts and fciences
from fuch futile mortals as thefe ? What book
is there left of all the lower empire that
a man of fenfe cam bear to read? What
monuments of the polite arts are there now re-
maining, or even what traces of them are to be
found in Conftantinople or the eaft? A vaft
temple of Sophia, the cathedral of the Greek
| empier
424 Universat Eruption.
empire, a clumfy building, with fo litre tafte
~ or knowiedge of architecture, as to be a difgrace
to the art. No ftatues or bafs-relieves, painting's
or fculpture ; neither verfe nor profe ; in a word,
nothing has come to us from the lower empire,
that does not prove the decadence and diffolution
of the arts and fciences in thofe barbarous and
fuperftitious times. How then could they be
tranfplanted from thence into Europe? We know
very well that certain enthufiaftic Arabs came
about that time into Italy, and pretended to
great learning; but their writings fufficiently
prove their mediocrity. It was not fuch people
as thefe that brought the arts and fciences from
Afia ito Evirope, but it was Leo X. Charles V,
Francis I. Henry VIII. and the other great
princes their cotemporaries, that encovraged and
protected them, and had the fatistaction to {ee
their benign influence produce men of ability
and learning of every kind; fuch artifts as Mi-
chael Angelo, Raphael, Titian, Taffo, Ariofto,
&c. That in ancient times the arts came from
Greece to Rome, we readily believe, becaufe
thofe arts were then cultivated with the utmoft
fuccefs iri Greece: but it is impoflible to draw
any thing from a country where it is not to be
had. The re-eftablifhment of letters is there-
fore owing folely to the weftern nations.
XII. Lhe fixth and loft age is that which M.
de Voltaire calls the age of Lewis XIV. It be-
gan
History of the Scimnces. 425
gan about the year 165G, and comes down to
the prefent day. This age is enriched with all
the difcoveries of thofe that have preceded) it,
and has effeéted more than all the other five put
together. The faculties of the human mind
have been enlarged to the utmoft extent, in
every part of Europe, and every civilized nation
has made the greateft and moft fuccefsful efforts,
in carrying univerfal erudition to the higheft
degree of perfection, It is from the general
hiftory. of the fciences that we learn all the par-
ticular inventions, difcoveries and improvements,
that have been made in the arts, end in lessens
during thele fix ages,
Milf. Independent of thefe general epochs,
literary hiftory likewife informs us of the different
revolutions that the arts and iciences have under-
gone in each particular country. It is here we fee
the origin, progrefs, and aétual {tate of letters in
Germany, France, Italy, England, Spain, and, in
fhort, in every civilized country of Eurepe.. It
is extended, moreover, to the other parts of
the world, There are a fufficient number of
univerfal «literary hiftories in all languages, and
among others that of profeffor Stolle of Jena in
Germany, Thefe works are very ufeful, but
there are many things in which they are all de-
fective, for they {peak more of the authors than
of the hiftories of the arts and fciences them-
felves. It would require a boundlefs erudition,
the utmoft ftrength of judgment, a refined and
fubtle
426 Uwniversar Ervorrion.
fubtle difcernment, an exquifite tafte, and an ab--
folute impartiality, to compofe fuch a work of
this kind as we have ftill to wifh for.
XIV. In the laft place, particular literary hif-
tory inftruéts us in the rational hiftory of the
feveral {ciences ; and this knowledge is indifpenf-
able to every man who applies to any particular
fcience with a defign to make it his profeffion.
The philofophers ought not, doubtlefs, to be ig-
norant of the hiftory of philofophy, or of the
different fyftems that have been invented in all
ages: the theologian ought certainly to be ac-
quainted with the various revolutions that have
happened in his fcience; the lawyer would be
inceffantly liable to error, in the interpretation
and application of laws, without a thorough
knowledge of the hiftory of jurifprudence: the
phyfician ought likewife to know all the remark-
able events that have occurred in his art from the
days of Efculapius to the prefent time ; and fo
of the reft, Whoever fhall read with attention
this analyfis of Univerfal Erudition, will have an
idea fufficiently explicit of thofe arts and fciences
whofe hiftory he fhould endeavour to know.
We have, moreover, in our progrefs marked the
principal epochs and revolutions. A work three
times as large as this would be fcarce fufficient
to contain the outlines of the hiftory of all the
{ciences..
CHA F,
>}
[ 427°] c
CoA Py SAVEL
Of the Knowledge of AuTHORs,
and of BIOGRAPHY.
ite,
*OLOMON faid, more than a thoufand
years before the Chriftian era, That of mak-
ing books there is no end. If we believe the Tal-
mud, the ancient rabbins had innumerable li-
braries'in Arabia. Every one knows that Pto-
lemy Il. king of Egypt, amaffed more than two
hundred thoufand volumes, of which he formed
his library at Alexandria; and Demetrius Pha-
laris, to whom he committed the care of it, pro-
mifed him to make the number foon amount to
five hundred thoufand. All thefe books are
loft. There are, however, ftill remaining in the
world fo immenfe a number, that the life of
man would be {carce fufficient to read the cata-
logue: and which would require the lives of
many learned men to compofe. Whoever has
read the work of John Albert Fabricius, door
jn theology, and profeffor at Hamburg, intitled
Bibliotheca
428 Universat ErvpitTion.
Bibliotheca Graeca, in fourteen quarto volumes,
which contains an account of fuch Greek authors
only as have come down to us, and the Biblio-
theca Latina of the fame author, will be eafily
convinced on the one hand, that a knowledge of
authors (Notitia Auctorum) is indifpenfable to a
man of letters; and on the other, that the ftudy
of this part of erudition is {o extenfive, that a
work like this cannot. pretend to give any detail
of it.
II, We thall endeavour, however, to explain
fome of its firft principles. The knowledge of
authors and their works, forms, as we have
faid, a partof literary hiftory. It is divided into
univerfal and particular, facred and profane, &c.
It diftinguifhes books and. authors,
1. Into thofe of the ancient, the middle, and
modern ages ; with regard to the time in which
the former have been wrote, and the latter have
lived,
2. Into theologic, justice, medicinal, philo-
fophic, thofe of literature, philology, &c. accord-
img to the matter which each author has treated.
3. Into Hebrew, Chaldaic, Syriac, Arabic,
Greek, Latin, German, French, and every other
language, ancient or modern, in which any au-
thor has wrote.
4. Into profaic or poetic, according to the na-
ioe and {pecies of expreffion.
5. Into Pagan, Jewith, Mahometan, Chriftian,
bec. ‘actording to the religion of each author, and
the objects he has embraced. |
6. Into
ee a Eee
cJe*
s
Of AUTHORS. 429
6. Into facred, ecclefiaftic and profane.
7. Into works that are preferved, and fuch as
are loft. ;
8. Into authentic writings, and thofe that are
fpurious.
g. Into complete works, and fach as are mu-
tilated, or fragments.
10. Into books publifhed and unpublifhed.
rt. Into printed books and manufcripts. And
12. Into authors that are called claffics, com-
mon books, and bibliotheques, .
If. With regard to the works themf€lves, it
is neceffary (1.) to be well acquainted with their
titles, (2.) not to miftake allegoricaP for natu-
ral titles, (3.) when a book has two: titles, not
to miftake it for two different works, (4.:) not
to confound two authors that have the fame
name, as Pliny the naturalift, and the younger
Pliny, (5.) to know of how many parts or
volumes a work confifts, (6.) clearly to under
ftand the titles that are marked by abbreviations,
(7.) to be acquainted with all the different
editions of a book, and to know which of them .
is the} beft, (8.) to know the place, the year
and form of each edition, (9.) to know the fe-
veral editors, (10.) to know if any particular
edition be enriched with notes or comments,
with a fummary, indéx, preface &c. (11.) if all
thefe are good, indifferent or bad, (12.) to
know who is the author of the notes, or if the
work have been publifhed cam notis variorum,
(13.) if
4g0 Universat Erupition.
(13.) if the book be divided into chapters or
paragraphs, (14.) if the edition be hand-
fomely printed, with a good paper and letter,
and be correct, (15.) if a work be. ornament-
ed with plates of any kind, (16.) if it has
been criticifed, and if the critics have attacked
the matter, the ftyle, or the author perfonally,
(«7.) if the critics have been competent judges
or ignorant, if they have been impartial or
not, &c.
IV. The title of clafic is properly given
to thofe Latin books only whofe authors lived
in the Auguftan age, and a little before or
after it, that is, at the time the Latin tongue
was in its greateft purity; and which began to , be
corrupted after the reign of Tiberius: Thefe
writers being read in the claffes at fchools, or
colleges, are therefore called claffic authors ; and
are regarded as of great authority. It is not,
however, very clearly determined what aurhors
ought to be raifed to this rank. Aulugelus, in
his Attic Nights, makes the claffics to be Cicero,
Cefar, Salluft, Virgil, Horace, &c. . There is,
however, no determinate rule for this matter; but
much depends on the order eftablifhed in each
college for the different claffes. From the ac-
count we have here given of this denomination, it
is evident, that there are alfo Greek authors who’
merit, and who in fact have the title of claffic
given them, fuch as Thucidydes,; Xenophon, De-
mofthenes, Homer, Pindar, &c. For the fame
3 reafony
Of AuTHORS, 431
reafon, they alfo call St. Thomas the mafter of
fentences, St. Auguttine, &c. the claffic authors,
whom they quote in the divinity fchools; Arif-
totle in philofophy, and fo of the reft. It
would be both juft and highly ufeful to make
choice, in the principal modern languages, of a
certain number of authors whofe merit is gene-
rally acknowledged ; to introduce the read-
ing of them tn the claffes, and to honour them
with the ftyle of claffic authors; fuch for exam-
ple, in the French language, as abbé Vertot, F.
Daniel, Patru, Boileau, Racine, Moliere, Vol-
taire, &c. The fame might be done in all other
languages. And fince the fchools have been
purged of the reveries of Ariftotle, what pre-
vents our naming Locke, Leibnitz, Newton,
and Wolff, as claffic authors in philofophy ?
V. It is quite neceffary to remark here, that
the knowledge of thofe ages and nations of the
world which preceded the Greeks, is come
down to us only by the informations of the
Holy Scriptures, and by the Greek writers,
Herodotus is the firft hiftorian whofe works we
have. Of Sanchoniathon, or Sanjuniaton, for
example, we have only fome fragments recorded
by Eufebeus, The works of all thofe authors
likewife, who are faid to have lived before
Homer, as Orpheus, Mufzeus, Zoroafter, Linus,
Hermes, Trifmegiftus, Horus, Afclepius, Dares
the Phrygian, Dictys the Cretan, Hanno, the
books of the Sibyls, and a number of others,
are
432 Untvitrsart Ervoition.
are entirely loft: what they now ‘producé
as their works, are fpurious pieces, and fabri-
cated very lately. It follows therefore, that all
our aficient Erudition can begin only with the
Greek authors. Thofe books which lead us to
a Knowledge of the Greek writers, as well as the
Latin, and thofe of modern authors of all na-
tions, relative to the arts, the fciences, and
doétrines,: are therefore the only guides, the
only méans we can propofe to thofe who are
defirous of applying themfelves to this part of
erudition. The reft they muft learn by their
daily ftadies; and the only advice we can here
give them, is not to be prejudiced’ in favour of
any author, ancient or modern; but to read
them with circum |{pection, and endeavour to
diftinguifh, in the writers of every age, the falfe
{tone from the true brilliant.
VI. Arowne an innumerable number of works
that lead to the knowledge of books and their
authors, we fhall cite only, 1. Diogenes Laertius,
and Eunapius de vitis philofophorum; 2. Ge.
fatd Jo. Voffius, de hiftoricis; item de poetis
Grecis atque Latinis; 3. Martinus Hanikius,
de feriptoribus rerum Romanarum _& Byzanti-
natum; 4. Bluntit cenfura auctorum; 5. Jo-
hannis Alberti Fabricii bibliotheca Greca; 6.
ejufd. Bibliotheca Latina; 7. ejufd. Bibliogra-
phia Antiquaria; 8. Wolffii bibl. Heebraica ; 9.
the bibliotheque hiftorique of M. le Long; 10;
the bibliotheque poetique of abbé Goujet. In
a word,
Thyoc,
Of AuTHORS. 433
a word, every art, fcience, and language, has
now its bibliotheque or catalogue of books that
treat of fuch matters as relate to it; and F,
Labbe, a Jefuit, has compofed a bibliotheque
of bibliotheques, which contains merely a cata).
logue of them, and of the authors of all nations
-who-have made catalogues of books. It is
manifeft, that a work like this mutt afford vaftly
more inftruction on this fubject, than our limits’
can poffibly allow us to give.
VII. It is not Jefs important to know thé -
charaéter of an author, than to know his, works, »
For this purpofe, it is proper to be acquainted
with the hiftory of his life; 1. at what time he
lived; 2. in what country he lived; 3. his
rank by birth; 4. who were his relations; 5.
what was his fortune, ftation, or employment;
6. if he can be fufpected of partiality, or is
fuppofed to be difinterefted, with regard to the
fubjeét on which he treats; 7. what were the
principal incidents in his life; 8. what fect or
religion he profeffed; 9. who were his matters,
colleagues, or cotemporaries; 10. if he was a.
married or fingle man; ry. if he travelled, and
many other like particulars. |
VIII. To the knowledge of books likewife
belongs that of tranflations: as whether a
work be rendered in a faithful, elegant, and
agreeable manner or not; into what language
each valuable book has been tranflated ;° what»
Vor. IIL Ee are
434 Universat Ervupition.
are the names of the moft celebrated tranflators,
as Amiot, Du Ryer, Dacier, &c. in what con-
fifts the merit or demerit of each tranflation,
&c. The knowledge of all thefe matters is only
to be acquired by much reading and reflection,
and by frequenting the beft libraries. By thefe
means alfo, we are enabled to judge of anony-
mous works, and fometimes to difcover the
name of an author who may have thought
proper to conceal himfelf.
IX. Prohibited books are commonly. very
rare and coftly, and at the fame time are {carce
ever worth the pains of looking after. We da
not know three prohibited works that are worth
reading: we fpeak of impious and _ irrational
works, fuch as the famous book De tribus im-
poftoribus, and the two that refemble it; or of
certain fanatical works, which are at conftant
variance with common fenfe: or of political
treatifes that have attacked the government at
particular periods, which being paft, they have loft
all their fatire: or of lafcivious writings, which
are calculated to corrupt the morals of man-
kind; or fuch works as fill weak and credulous
minds with all forts of chimeras, as the Clavicle
of Solamon, &c. All works like thefe are at beft
but matters of curiofity, and for the moft part
excite the readers pity; fo that we are tempted
to exclaim, is thunder and lightning neceffary to
deftiroy fuch vermin as thefe? It is certain, how-
ever, that an exorbitant power in the hands “i
the
Se
* oo 2 Pie ee
Of AUTHORS, 435
the clergy, and the rigour of the laws in certain
countries, have profcribed many excellent works;
to which pofterity will do juitice, and eagerly
fearch after.
X. The knowledge of manujcripts likewife
appertains to that of authors. The critical art
fhows the manner of diftinguifhing their agé
and authenticity; of reading and explaining
them, and the ufes to which they may be ap-
plied. Morhoff, in his Polyphiftor, has an
entire and very curious chapter on manufcripts ;
and C. Arnot has publifhed a difcourfe De felec-
tis doétorum virorum in manufcripta literaria
meritis. The liberality with which the celebrat-
ed Magliabechi communicates his own manu-
fcripts, or thofe of others, and even renders them
public, does him much honour, and has gained
him great efteem among the learned.
XI. Biography is a title given to thofe books
in general, which contain the life, the hiftory,
or actions of illuftrious men, who are not fove-
reign princes; and particularly thofe of learned
men and their works; and fometimes alfo of
faints. This term is compofed of two Greek
words, the firft of which fignifies vita, and the
other /cribo: this term, however, is but little
ufed by the French writers. The biographies
of the moft celebrated men of letters ‘are of
infinite ufe in attaining a knowledge of authors:
they frequently contain anecdotes that are highly
: ie 2 curious,
~
436 Univiersau ERvuDITION.,
curious, and which cannot with any propriety
be introduced in a regular hiftory. There have
been many of thefe wrote and publifhed in
England, which are equally replete with enter-
tainment and inftruction.
XII. How much is it to be wifhed, that the
reading of thefe biographies, thefe lives of illuf-
trious literati, might excite men of exalted ge-
nius to exert all their powers in the career of
fcience! But how unfortunate if they fhould
there find motives for the contrary? If they
fhould be influenced by the fate of a Tfchirn-
haus, who fpent all his fortune in labouring,
with the moft happy fuccefs, to enlighten man-
kind, and to make his name revered by all —
future ages ; who was the glory of his country,
and caufed it to abound with riches.. The ava-
rice of moft bookfellers is the principal caufe of
the great fcarcity of excellent works: but ava-
rice, ftill more than other crimes, carries its pro-
per punifhment with it: the flender fortune of
moft authors will not permit them to labour
for glory alone, the laurels of Apollo will but
badly fupport a numerous family: from hence
proceeds that vaft number of unfinifhed works,
paid by the fheet, which fill the bookfellers
fhops, load the fhelves of each library, and in
the end ruin the proprietors. And you, the
arbiters of human fate, there are born in your
dominions men of rare genius, of unbounded
talents: while they live, you allow them a bare
fubfiftence,
*
.& «
er aa _—
Diecresstons on Criticism, &c., 437
fubfiftence, or more frequently fuffer them to
languifh in penury, and fometimes die for want.
When they are dead you would fain recal them,
you would render them immortal by public
eulogies and ftatues. Mighty recompente !
Wonderful munificence ! But you are your own
enemies: you deprive your ftate of its moft
valuable fubjeéts, and you deprive yourfelves
of your brighteft glory !
BRT ARS IA # FAR & FARO
CHAP. XXVIII.
DIiGR ES SITIONS
1. On Criticifm ;
2. On Literary Journals ;
3. On Libraries.
I. O man has ever yet known the bare titles
of all the books that have been written: ~
and. no one can ever pretend to have a difcern-
ment fo ftriétly juft, and a knowledge fo uni-
verfal,
i. at ed “=
_
438 Universas Erxvoition.
verfal, as to be able to form a true, infallible
judgment on all fubjeéts, and on every author.
It is therefore highly advantageous and neceffary
that there fhould be in the world, learned,
faborious and judicious men, who fhould make
it their bufinefs to point out to the ftudious part
of mankind, fuch books of each age and nation
as deferve to be known; and bya clear, im-
partial, and fkilfal examination, to fhow where-.
in their merit confifts, This fort of learned
men are called critics, and their labours, criti-
cifms, or produétions of the critical art. This
art requires, therefore, both difcernment and
tafte, in order to form a juft judement of the
“matter, and the ftyle of any work. Such was
the fcience of Scaliger, Erafmus, Gefner, Juftus
Lipfius, Cafaubon, Saumaife, &c.
II. Sometimes by the term criticifm is alfo
underftood a cenfure that is made of a work or
an author; that malicious trouble which fome
writers give themfelves to find out and publith
the defeéts or inadvertencies of an author. This
art is far inferior to the preceding, and in which
men of very moderate talents are capable of
excelling; by its nature, moreover, it has a
{trong appearance of a depraved temper. A
criticifm of this fort, when not ftritly juft,
degenerates into infolence, and becomes at once
dull and difguftful; for, as M. de St. Real ob-
ferves, no critic fhould be. allowed to infult an
author for an imaginary or dubious fault.
We
- Dicresstons on Criticism, &c. 439
. Wedo not remember ever to have read more
than one good criticifm of this kind, which is
that made by the French academy on the Cid of
Corneille, and which for truth and difcernment,
for that method and politenefs which is every
where obferved, and thofe interefting and in-
ftructive reflections with which it abounds, may
juftly ferve as a model to all others. This is
the manner in which thofe critics, who are defi-
rous to cenfure, fhould proceed. But fuch fort
of men have feldom any capacity for juft criti-
‘cifm. The occafions are, moreover, very rare,
wherein it is allowable to fearch out, and expofe ~
to the public view, the faults of a truly valuable
work ; and never fhould critics be permitted to
extend their cenfures to the perfon of an author,
for this is not making inftructive criticifms, but
rancorous fatires, and deteftable libels.
III. Jet us return to the former rank of fa-
gacious critics. All books are confidered as
old or new : by the former are meant fuch works
as have appeared before our time; and by the
Jatter thofe of the prefent day. A knowledge of
the firft fort is to be attained from the criticifms _
that the literati, hiftorians, profeffors of arts
and fciences, have made, and are ftill making,
on them; or from bibliotheques. It is by the
literary journals that we are to acquire a know-
ledge of fuch works as are daily appearing in
the republic of letters.
IV. Mott
440 UNIVERSAL ErvpDiTIon:
IV. Moft countries of Europe, where the arts
are cultivated, abound in thefe days with lite-
rary journals; but thefe are very far from
bearing all thofe marks of merit which are necef-
fary to render them inftructive, entertaining and
valuable. Thefe journals are no longer wrote
by the ancient authors of the Acta Eruditorum
of Leipfig: there is now no Bayle, nor any one
like him, concerned in writing them. The mo-
dern journalifts are commonly men of little abi-
lity, who, being unable to produce any work
worth printing, let themfelves out to fome book-
feller, and then fet up for dictators of Parnaffus;
fummons all new authors to appear before their
tribunal, praife or blame, and finally determine
their merit, with a matchlefs effrontery. To what
judges are the Montefquieus, Chefterfields,
Voltaires, Wolffs, Bernoullis, Eulers, Hallers,
and many other truly great men, obliged to fub-
_ mit! M. Voltaire has given, in his mifcellanies
of literature and philofophy, Advice to a Fournalif:
which they ought every one of them to be able to
repeat memoriter. They fhould well. remem-
ber, that a literary gazette is like one of politics,
in which we look for facts and events that hap-
pen daily in the world, and not for the crude
remarks of a gazetteer. The public alone has a
right to judge of the fecret caufes of an event,
and of the wifdom or folly, the equity or injuftice
of the aétors, as well as of the value of a book, ,
and merit of its author; and does not require to
have it pointed out by a journalift.
V. But
Dicressons on Crrricism, &c, 441
V. But the beft, and perhaps the only way of
acquiring a true knowledge of a book, is to read
it ourfelves. Books are to aman of letters what
tools or inftruments -are to an artift. What is
it that produces fo great a degree of perfection
in the works of art and induftry in England and
and France, but the goodnefs of their tools?
What is there that concurs more to the perfec-
tion of the works of the mind in all countries,
than the abundance of valuable writings ? Even
the moft ingenious poets would produce infipid
and trifling verfes only, mere trafh, if found
learning did not appear in their works, amidft
all the brilliancy of expreffion, The dunce and
coxcomb may therefore defpife books, but the
man of fenfe is convinced, that there is no im-
portant knowledge to be acquired without them:
he knows at the fame time, however, that every
thing in this world has its bounds, and that there
are collections of books of neceflity, utility and
oftentation, and that the latter are ridiculous.
VI. Libraries are either public or private.
The former are collected and fupported by fo-
vereigns or ftates. Thefe cannot be too nume-
rous; they form, fo to fay, the archives of the
human mind of all ages ; and they fhould furnith
every man of letters with all the inftructions for
which he may have occafion, They concur very
efficacioufly in the encouragement and improve-
ment of the arts and fciences in each country :
and wherever there is a good public library, the
people
442. Universat Ervobditiown)
people can fcarce poffibly be totally uncivilized.
The mufes are fond of thofe places where they
find the moft delicious nurture for the mind.
We cannot therefore wonder to fee in the Va-
tican, at Verfailles, Oxford, and fuch like cities,
the moft numerous and excellent libraries that
can poffibly be formed; and to find that the
fovereigns and magiftrates permit them to be
open to the vublic at certain feafons, and under
the direction of learned and polite librarians,
from whom each man of letters may alfo receive
information relative to the authors he fhould
confult on each fubjec&t. Nothing does more
honour to a prince, or produces more advantage
to a ftate, than eftablifhments of this kind.
VII. With regard to private libraries, every
man of fenfe will confult his own abilities in the
extent of his library. We are not to ruin our-
felves in the fervice of the mufes.' But as the
fortunes of men are infinitely various, there is no
tracing limits for each individual. Whenever
we find a man pretend to learning and be. quite
deftitute of books, we have reafon to queftion
his pretenfions: and whenever we {ee a ftatef-
man, a general, or financier, who has,but very
little learning, have a numerous and fplendid li-
brary, we have good reafon to fufpect him of
oftentation.
VIII. Whoever has read this work with atten-
tion, will be able to form a complete fyftem of
thofe fubjeéts which ought naturally to be found
in
.
Dicressions on Criticism, &c, - 443
in an ‘univerfal library. The works of the cri-
tics, and the bibliotheques, for every art and
feience, will inform him of the names of all the
celebrated authors who have wrote on each fub-
ject. Every man of letters has commonly fome
employment, fome ftation in fociety, or fome
kind of ftudy to which he is particularly attach-
ed. It is very natural for a principal part of his
library to confift‘of books relative to his pro-
feffion or his favourite ftudy, Thus a prince’s
library fhould contain the beft authors on poli-
tics; and that of 2 man of literature of the moft
celebrated critics. For the reft, thofe books,
whichcontain inftructions for forming a library are
fo very common that we may fafely refer the read-
er to them; barely adding, that the continual
efforts of the learned to enrich the literary world
with new productions, caufes daily alterations in
thefe plans, fo that a bibliotheque,which appeared
very complete at the beginning of this century,
is very far from being fo now. Whoever would
colleé&t a judicious and ufeful library, fhould cer-
tainly confult the beft journalifts, and endeavour
to felect fuch works as appear the moft excellent
in the republic of letters, and confequently his
library will increafe as long as he lives,
IX. Thus have we finifhed our propofed plan;
have completed our fketch of Univerfal Erudi-
tion, that is, of all the knowledge the human
mind has been hitherto capable of acquiring.
When we confider the multiplicity and intricacy
of
444 UNniversat ErubDition,
of thefe objects, and when we reflect on the
weaknefs of our own talents, we are ftill inclined
to afe ourfelves, if we are really arrived at the
end of our labour? There may be ftill fome
f{eiences which we have not mentioned, or at
leaft fome nominal fcience, though it may be al-
ready comprifed in fome other part of Erudition:
but we are attached to things and not to deno-
minations, to real objects and not to frivolous
diftinctions.
Xi. Ye fiudious Youth, it is to you we confecrate
our labours: fometimes perufe this abridgment.
You will read a romance, ancient or modern, of
a dozen volumes, and many frivolous and volu-
minous works. Why therefore can you not
read three volumes? But if you would attempt
thoroughly to underftand all the arts and fciences
we have here indicated, know, that neither the
life of man, nor the limits of the human under-
ftanding, are fufficient for fuch'a project. Ifyou -
read this work, however, as you'read a romance,
you will receive but little advantage : but if you
fhall ferioufly ftudy it ; if by means of it you ac-
quire a juft idea of Univerfal Erudition, and if
from amidft this mafs of {ciences you fhall make:
a judicious choice of thofe to which you will
particularly apply yourfelves, you may become
truly learned; and perhaps you will owe us fome
obligation to your lateft hour. :
FIN 1S,
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