ELEMENTS OF
WATER GAS
A Practical Treatise on the
jVLanufacture of vvater Gas
By
J. STEPHENSON
11
Member of American Chemical Society, Pacific Coast Gas Association
Associate Member American Institute of
Electrical Engineers
FIRST EDITION
1916
THE STATE COMPANY,
COLUMBIA, S. C.
COPYRIGHTED, 1916
By J. STEPHENSON
PREFACE
The object of this work is to briefly outline the
development of water gas to its present stage,
and enable the reader to grasp the fundamental
principles which govern the past and future
developments. It will be observed that only
such apparatus has been referred to that con-
stitute an important and established develop-
ment of the process, and the author realizes that
the subject is far from being exhausted. The
work, however, is intended to provide a stepping
stone to a later study, and technicalities have
been avoided as far as possible.
To the reader interested in water gas manu-
facture, it is hoped that a perusal of this work
will educate him in a general way into the prin-
ciples of the process.
To the student who contemplates gas engi-
neering as a profession, it need hardly be said
is especially adapted.
To the salesman it will give a brief outline
into the principles of modern developments, and
enable immediate comparison with his own par-
ticular plant. 349
6 Contents
CHAPTEK IV.
The Vertical Type.
Williamson's Generator — Water Seal Valve.
CHAPTER V.
Twin Generator Systems.
Convertible Apparatus — Continuous Process.
CHAPTER VI.
Automatic Control.
General Remarks — Blast Pressures — Temperature
Conditions — Advantages — Conclusive Remarks.
CHAPTER VII.
Mechanical Operation.
Cam and Clutch Mechanism — Rotary Valves.
CHAPTER VIII.
Electrically Controlled Process.
Carburetted Water Gas — Blue Water Gas.
CHAPTER IX.
Hydraulic and Air Systems.
Hydraulic Control — Air Control.
Contents 7
CHAPTER X.
Construction Developments.
Valve Mechanism — Automatic Clinkering — Car-
buretting Zone — Self-sealing Cap — Notes on
Construction — Excavation — Concrete — B r i c k-
work — Columns and Girders — Carpentry.
APPENDIX.
Tables and Factors.
ELEMENTS OF WATER GAS
CHAPTER I.
EARLY HISTORY.
The origin of water gas goes back to the year
1780, when Fontana, a French chemist, discov-
ered that by passing steam through incandescent
fuel containing carbon, the oxygen of the steam
had greater affinity for the carbon than its com-
bining element hydrogen, and thereby the steam
was broken up as follows: C+H2O=H2-|-CO.
It was not, however, until some 50 years later
that this reaction was used commercially, when
Michael Donavan distributed it for public light-
ing in Dublin, Ireland. Briefly, this attempt
consisted of passing steam through coke heated
to redness in contact with vapors of spirits of
turpentine, tar, coal naphthalene, or other illum-
inating agents, but did not, however, meet with
much success, and little appears to have been
done in further developments until the year
1858, when Dr. J. M. Sanders erected a plant in
Philadelphia, to supply gas to a certain Girard
House.
In this design of plant a series of (L) shaped
retorts 1 (Fig. 1) were set in an ordinary coal
gas setting, and filled with charcoal, and heated
10
Elements oj TF 'cuter Gas
Elements of Water Gas 11
externally by furnace 2 while steam and melted
rosin were passed downwards by way of pipe 3
through the bed of fuel, the resultant products
passing up through the standpipe to an hy-
draulic main. This process was proven to be
about 10 per cent, more expensive than coal gas,
and in due course was abandoned.
The next attempt worthy of note was in 1873
by the Allen-Harris system, which consisted of
passing superheated steam through anthracite
coal in an ordinary coal gas bench, and then
passing the water gas into retorts distilling coal
gas from bituminous coal. In this process it was
claimed that the distillation of coal in an atmos-
phere of water gas protected some hydrocarbons
from decomposition that otherwise broke down
into tar, and thereby increased the quantity of
gas to about 30 per cent, without any appreci-
able loss in candle power, and a confirmation of
this claim appears to be seen in the fact that
the yield of tar was approximately two gallons
less per ton of coal than in ordinary coal gas
practice. The theoretical principle involved in
this process has been the subject of much discus-
sion of recent years, but as yet no design of plant
has met with any remarkable success and the
advantage claimed can not be accurately con-
firmed.
12 Elements of Water Gas
The developments following the Allen-Harris
system were chiefly for the utilization of naph-
thas, obtained as a by-product in the petroleum
industry, and one of the most interesting con-
sisted of a bench of vertical retorts charged with
anthracite coal, through which superheated
steam was passed, and a series of horizontal
retorts which were divided by a partition which
extended nearly to the back of the retort. In
the latter retorts oil was sprayed by means of
steam, and the water gas from the vertical
retorts mixed with it, after which the mixture
traversed the bottom section from front to back,
and the top section from back to front, and then
up the standpipe to an hydraulic main.
The retort processes were continued for some
time in a variety of ways, and the last known
appears to have been the Slade or Salisbury
process, which was finally abandoned in favor of
the generator-retort system.
In the development of the generator-retort
system the most successful attempts were those
of Tessie Du Motay and Wilkinson. In the
former apparatus, blue gas was made intermit-
tently in a double generator, and stored in an
hydrogen holder, from which it was drawn and
passed through a steam heated evaporator, where
it took up naphtha vapors. The mixture of
Elements of Water Gas 13
gases were then sent through externally heated
retorts, the function of which was to fix into
permanent gases.
The Wilkinson apparatus, whilst different in
construction, was practically the same in prin-
ciple as the former, and one particularly inter-
esting feature in it is that it was the first appa-
ratus on which the down or reverse run is known
to have been used on the generator.
Various modifications of these principles fol-
lowed, of which the Hanlon-Johnson, Edgerton,
Mackensie, and Egner types were the most
important.
In the first named, water and oil gas were
made and stored in separate holders and mixed
cold, whilst in the Edgerton, the oil gas was pro-
duced in vertical retorts heated by the producer
gases froijn the generators, and the gases sep-
arately sirred and mixed cold.
The Mjfekensie apparatus attempted at a con-
tinuous production by carburetting producer
gases with oil in coal gas retorts, and in the
Egner process blue water gas was made in gen-
erators heated by air drawn through the fuel
l>ed, and the water gas carburetted with oil in
coal gas retorts. These attempts were proved
unsuccessful, and in due course the generator-
retort system was finally abandoned with the
14
Elements of Water Gas
advent of the internal combustion system, which
laid the foundation of modern water gas prac-
tice.
The original apparatus for the generation ol
enriched water gas by the internal combustion
system was invented during the Civil War, in
Elements of Water Gas 15
1874, by Dr. C. S. Lowe, who was then engaged
in the manufacture of balloons. The apparatus,
which is shown in Fig. 2, comprised a generator
1, and a fixing chamber 2, and was heated by
forced blast with secondary combustion in the
fixing chamber. In the run of gas, oil was
sprayed into the top of the generator, passed
through the fixing chamber to a washer, and
through a boiler for the production of steam
used in the generator. The inventor, in his
patent application, laid special importance on
the advantages of vaporizing oil in the presence
of hydrogen, and also claimed a reduction of
fuel consumption by the utilization of wasted
gases from the generator by the internal heating
of the fixing chamber.
This system was afterwards modified in
various ways, the most important of which was
that of Granger and Collins, in which the gen-
erator was placed so that the top was level with
the bottom of the fixing chamber, or superheater,
and only a short, straight connection was
required. This design met with marked success
for several years, and the advantages claimed
were :
(1) Convenient means of operation.
(2) Reduction of ground area.
(3) Free access to fire for cleaning.
16 Elements of Water Gas
(4) Minimum amount of heat lost by short
connection between generator and super-
heater.
Another modification was the Hanlon-Leadley,
which consisted of three generators connected to
two steam and two gas superheaters. The gen-
erators were blasted in parallel and steam in
series, the object of which was to provide a low
fuel bed in blasting and thereby minimize the
percentage of carbon monoxide, and a deep bed
in steaming to minimize the percentage of car-
bon dioxide in the water gas. The steam used in
the generators was first passed through the
steam superheaters, and the oil gas and water
gas were permanently fixed by passing through
the gas superheaters in parallel. It may be
interesting to note that this apparatus appears
to have been the origin of modern twin-generator
practice discussed later in this work.
In the years following these developments it
became necessary to use a heavier grade of oil,
and the first important development was made
by the Lowe apparatus which consisted of add-
ing another superheater and increasing the.
height of the second superheater to increase the
fixing surface of the gases and also provide a
draft from the generator when the charging
door was opened. The height of the entire
Elements of Water Gas 17
machine was also increased to provide a deeper
fuel bed, and, in about 1890, means were pro-
vided to run the steam in an upward and down-
ward direction, after which the developments
consisted of minor and mechanical details.
With the progress of the internal combustion
system it was found, however, that only hard
coal or coke could be used with advantage, and
many attempts have been made to use the
cheaper soft or bituminous coals, but up to the
present date this practice has not met with any
remarkable success, although some interesting
plants have been designed for the purpose.
One of the most noteworthy attempts to- use
soft coal was made by the Rose-Hasting appa-
ratus, which is illustrated in Fig. 3. In this
design the generator 1 is charged with soft coal
about every 50 minutes, and carries a bed of
fuel approximately 8 feet deep, and the regen-
erator 2 is charged with coke or hard coal. The
operation of this plant consists of first blasting
1 and 2 with stack valve 1' open for a period of
5 minutes, after which the stack valve 2' was
opened and 1' closed for about 2 minutes, and
then the stack valve 3' opened and 2' closed, dur-
ing which time secondary air was admitted to the
base of 3 as required until the end of the blast-
ing period. During the run of gas steam was
18
Elements of Water Gas
admitted below the grate in generator 1, and the
gas passed through the checkerbrick in 1 to the
top of the checkers in 2, where it mixed with oil
sprayed into the top of the chamber by steam.
The gas then passed through the bed of fuel in
2 and up superheater 3. The object of the regen-
erator in this apparatus was to improve the
quality of the water gas made in the generator
by converting the high percentage of carbon
Elements of Water Gas 19
dioxide in carbon monoxide, and also to assist
in fixing the oil vapors.
Another method tried for some time was the
Fehiiehjelm apparatus, which consisted of a gen-
erator extending into the superheater to form a
vertical retort, the purpose of which was to
coke the coal before being discharged into the
generator. In view of the fact that a modern
water gas machine will consume approximately
2,000 pounds of fuel per square foot of grate
area in 24 hours, it is evident that the primary
object to this plant was that the capacity of the
vertical retort was inadequate in producing suf-
ficient fuel for the generator.
The Rew apparatus was another modification
of plant designed for the use of soft coal, and
was built and operated in pairs. In this plant,
Fig. 4, the air blast was admitted beneath the
grate in both generators 1 simultaneously, and
passed over a bed of fuel in chamber 2, and down
regenerator 3. Primary air was also admitted
beneath the grate in coking chamber 2 at 4, and
secondary air to the top of generator at 5 and
regenerator at 6. During the run of gas steam
was admitted to the base of one regenerator at 7,
and traveled up and down over the bed of soft
coal in 2, by which it picked up hydrocarbons,
and then passed down through the fire of one
20
Elements of Water Gas
generator and up through the fire of the other
and over the second bed of coal. The gases then
passed to the second regenerator, where they
were met by a spray of oil, after which they
O'L.
traveled to the base of the lower regenerator
and led off to the washing plant. At the end of
the run the air blasting was repeated and the
direction of flow in the following run reversed.
This apparatus can not be claimed to have been
Elements of Water Gas 21
a permanent success, and its disadvantages
appear to have been in the caking and sticking
of coke in the coking chamber, and the compara-
tively large amount of labor necessary for the
operation of the plant.
Various modifications embodying these prin-
ciples followed, but have either been abandoned
or altered for the manufacture of producer gases
for power purposes, and in view of the fact that
this work is intended to discuss water gas appa-
ratus exclusively, the modifications referred to
will not be further dealt with.
CHAPTER II.
ELEMENTS OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION PROCESS.
The internal combustion process was, as pre-
viously stated, originally invented by Dr. S. C.
Lowe in 1874, since when many designs of plants
have been brought forward, each embodying
some new advantage or claim. In general, how-
ever, the modern carburet ted water gas appa-
ratus consists of a generator for producing
water gas according to the reaction C+H2O=
H2+CO, a carburettor for gasifying oil, a super-
heater to permanently fix the gases produced in
the said chambers, an hydraulic seal to remove
a certain amount of tarrv matter and seal the
22 Elements of Water Gas
gases when the machine is opened, and a scrub-
bing and condensing plant.
THE GENERATOR.
The function of the generator is to produce
water gas according to the previous reaction,
and also to produce carbon monoxide to be burnt
in the carburettor and superheater in order to
supply the necessary heat for the gasification
of the oil. This unit consists of a heavy steel
shell 1, Fig. 5, which contains a firebrick lining
2, a set of grate bars 3, air and steam blast inlets
4 and 5, a gas outlet 6, clinker and ash doors 7,
and a charging door 8, with sight cock 9.
In the operation of this chamber for the gen-
eration of water gas, a blast of live steam is
passed through a bed of highly incandescent fuel,
containing carbon, which by reason of its greater
affinity combines with the oxygen of the steam
and liberates free hydrogen, thereby forming the
two combustible gases, carbon monoxide and
hydrogen. In this part of the reaction heat is
absorbed from the fuel and after a certain time
the fire has to be revived. This is accomplished
by cutting off the steam and admitting a blast
of air beneath the grate bars, which combines
with the carbon in the lower part of the gene-
Elements of Water Gas
23
24 Elements of Water Gas
rator, as follows: C+O2=CO2, and the carbon
dioxide formed is converted to carbon monoxide
is passing up through the fuel as follows:
CO2+C=2CO. This gas is led from the gen-
erator to the carburetter and superheater, where
it is met by another blast of air and burnt as
CO2 for the subsequent heating of these cham-
bers. After the heating period continues for a
sufficient length of time, the air blasts are cut
off and the gas-making period again commenced
by passing steam through the fuel.
In Fig. 5 it is seen that steam inlets are pro-
vided at both the top and bottom of the gen-
erator as the continual passage of steam in an
upward direction would deaden the lire at the
bottom, and it is necessary to pass it in a down-
ward direction about once in three periods. The
percentage of fluids used vary with the nature
of the fuel and working temperatures of the
plant, and an excess amount of steam will lower
the temperature of the fuel too much and pro-
duce carbon dioxide, which is very detrimental
to the calorific and illuminating power of the
gas. It is seen, then, that the keeping of the
fuel bed at a uniform temperature is a very
important factor in keeping down the percentage
of CO2, and the sight cock provided, when used
frequently, is of valuable service, as the operator
Elements of Water Gas 25
soon becomes expert in judging the correct tem-
perature.
CARE OF THE FIRE.
One of the most important factors is gas mak-
ing is the controlling of the generator tire, and
whilst engineers differ in their opinion as to
the correct number of runs to be made in each
charge, an average of the methods adopted may
be taken at six runs when coal is used, and four
when coke is used. This should be done after
the run of gas, and the operator should always
take care to blow the gas from the machine by
opening the blast valve for a few seconds before
opening the charging door, or an explosion will
result when the combustible gases .meet the
oxygen in the atmosphere. After six or eight
hours' continuous operation, it is found that a^h
and metallic residue from the fuel accumulates
in the lower part of the machine, and prevents
the air and steam from passing freely through
the fire, and thereby seriously interferes with
the capacity of the apparatus. It is then neces-
sary to temporarily shut down the plant ana
remove the clinkers by means of the doors 7,
Fig. 5, and in preparation of this the fuel bed
is burned well down to allow the removal of
clinkers which may adhere to the generator wall.
26 Elements of Water Gas
When the fire is at a suitable depth, the gas is
first blown from the machine by the air blast,
and then the charging door is opened and the
gas lit off before opening the clinkering door.
After the clinkers are drawn by means off bars
and hooks, the ash pit door is opened for the
withdrawal of matter which falls through the
grate bars, and on reclosing care should be taken
to clean the doors well to ensure a gas tight
joint. If the machine is then to be shut down
for the night it is charged well up, the depth of
fuel made even all round, and the ash pit door
slightly cracked to admit a small portion of air
to keep the fire alive. If the machine, however,
is to be put directly back to gasmaking, the
doors are made tight and the air blast put on
slightly longer than usual to heat the heavy
charge of fresh fuel.
CARBURETTER AND SUPERHEATER.
The carburetter B, Fig. 6, comprises the second
unit in a carburetted water gas set, and consists
of a chamber with a steel shell lined with fire-
brick, and is filled with a checkerwork of fire-
brick, the purpose of which is to store up heat
for the gasification of oil. It is provided with
an oil inlet 1, an air blast inlet 2, a steam inlet
Elements of Water Gas
27
28 Elements of Water Gas
in the oil line 3, valve connections to the gen-
erator A, and a passage to the superheater.
During the heating or blasting period, the gases
coming from the generator consist of carbon
dioxide and carbon monoxide, and the sensible
heat supplies a comparatively large proportion
of the heat necessary to maintain the tempera-
ture of the checkerwork. It is found, however,
necessary to admit a portion of secondary air
at 2 to burn the remainder of the gases and keep
up the required temperature, which varies with
the grade of oil used, but in a general way may
be taken at from 1,400 to 1,600 degrees Fahren-
heit. When the necessary heats have been
reached, the air blasts are cut off, and oil is
sprayed into the carburetter whilst steam Is
being passed through the fuel in the generator,
which results in breaking up the oil into Its
component parts, and loading the otherwise non-
luminous water gas with hydrocarbons of a high
illuminating quality.
The superheater C is the third unit in the
process, of like construction to the carburetter,
and is provided with a sight cock and air blast
inlet at its lower portion, and a gas outlet and
stack valve at the top of the chamber. This unit,
which is sometimes known as the fixing chamber,
is intended to fix the products of the previous
Elements of Water Gas 29
chamber into permanent gases and complete the
work of the generating plant. The air blast
inlet, whilst provided in practically all types ot
apparatus, is scarcely used inasmuch that the
sensible heat from the carburetter is usually suf-
ficient to maintain the temperature of this cham-
ber, and it is only necessary to use the valve
when starting a set after being shut down for
repairs. On leaving the fixing chamber, tne
blast gases enter into the atmosphere through
the stack or through a waste heat boiler for the
generation of steam, and the carburetted water
gas during the run passes through the off-take
to the wash box, which prevents the gas from
returning when the stack valve is reopened, and
then to the scrubbing and condensing plant.
OIL SPRAY.
In injecting the oil into the carburetter it is
of great importance that it is distributed over
the surface of the checkerbrick as evenly as pos-
sible, as a straight injection is the cause of dead
holes down the center of the carburetter where
the oil enters, and a variety of devices have been
used to distribute the oil evenly. One form of
injector which the writer has found to give good
results is shown in Fig. 7, and consists of a spray
30 Elements of Water Gas
OtL.
Elements of Water Gas 31
nozzle 1, which threads on a wrought iron pipe
2, and contains a disc 3, through which the valve
rod 4 passes. The disc contains a series of small
holes 5, and the spray nozzle and valve rod form
a tapered joint 6, which produces a very tine
injection. A protecting shield which threads in
the head of the carburetter is also provided, and
the spray can be readily moved for inspection
by means of the nuts. These sprays are made in
various sizes to atomize a certain number of gal-
lons per minute, and the specified number can
be adjusted by means of the hand wheel.
PYROMETERS.
The most commonly used pyrometers in the
manufacture of water gas is the thermo-electric
type, which depend for their action on the fact
than when two metals in contact are heated and
the cool end connected by a wire an electric cur-
rent is generated in proportion to the tempera-
ture of the heated contact. The metals employed
usually consist of platinum and platinum-ro-
dium, which are fused together at one end and
connected at the other end to suitable indicating
and recording gauges. These pyrometers are
usually placed in the bottom of the carburetter
and top of superheater, and are protected by a
32
Elements of Water Gas
shield of wrought iron. The indicating gauge
is placed on the operating floor to guide the gas-
maker in his work, and the recording gauge is
/o
placed in the engineer's or superintendent's office
to enable the temperatures of the machine to be
ascertained at any time without leaving the
office. As previously shown, the heats of the
machine alternate with the blasting and gas-
Elements of Water Gas 33
making period, and a recording chart of an effi-
cient gasmaker would appear as illustrated in
Fig. 8, in which the high heat represents the
beginning of the run, and the low heat the begin-
ning of the blow.
WASHING, SCRUBBING, AND CONDENSING PLANT.
After the carburetted water gas leaves the
superheater it passes through the off-take pipe
to the wash-box or seal, where a considerable
amount of tar is deposited. This vessel usually
consists of a cylindrical tank into which a
stream of water is constantly passed to maintain
a constant level in the box, and thereby prevent
the gases from returning when the stack valve
is opened. The mixture of tar and water is led
from the wash-box at the overflow into a seal
pot, from which it flows to a well or tar sepa-
rator, and the gases pass up a hot scrubber and
through a condenser to a relief holder. In Fig. 9
is shown one type of scrubber which is fre-
quently used, and consists of a cylindrical tower
filled with coke or layers of wooden trays, which
break up the gas into fine streams as it passes
upwards, and brings it in contact with hot water
constantly passing down, which has the effect
of removing more tar and suspended oils. These
34
Elements of Water Gas
Elements of Water Gas 35
apparatus are provided with separate compart-
ments, each of which are provided with large
manholes for easy access whereby the filling of
any one compartment may be removed without
disturbing the contents of the remaining com-
partments. On leaving this tower the gas passes
to a condenser, which is generally of the mnlti-
tublar water cooled type, where more tar is
dropped, after which the gas passes to a relief
holder and treated further in other scrubbing
and purifying plant.
LINING AND REPAIRS.
When a water gas apparatus has been run for
a certain period, it is necessary to let it down
for repairs to generator lining and renewing the
checkerbrick in the carburetter and superheater.
This period varies according to condition and
the engineer's opinion, but in a general way may
be taken at 1,000 hours. In letting down the
machine, however, the temperature should be
allowed to lower gradually to prevent rapid con-
traction, and it is best to kill the generator fire
slowly with steam before drawing it, and allow-
ing cold air to enter a hot machine. When the
set has finally cooled off a careful examination
should be made of the inner firebrick lining of
the generator, particularly around the cleaning
36 Elements of Water Gas
doors, where it usually wears out quickly, and
the necessary repairs made with a very close
joint, using as little fireclay as possible between
the bricks. The doors are generally built up
with arches and blocks over a cast iron sleeve,
and in such a manner as to enable the sleeve to
be removed when it burns out and replaced with
a new one from the exterior of the machine.
Special care should also be given to the brick
work around the charging door, as these are lia-
ble to be knocked out by bars and shovels when
clinkering and charging, and one crevice may
let down more bricks and cause the neck casting
to be burned or cracked.
It is then necessary to give some attention to
the carburetter and superheater, which requires
a renewal or cleaning of the checkerbrick. In
the injection of oil into the carburetter practi-
cally no design of spray reach their maximum
efficiency and the brick at the top of the chamber
where the oil enters are generally coated with
lampblack or splintered by the force of the injec-
tion. In any case the brickwork becomes more
or less saturated with oil, which burns to carbon
and finally does not take up and give out the
heat necessary for the economical working of the
plant, and all the checkerwork should be
removed by way of manhole doors provided and
Elements of Water Gas
38 Elements of Water Gas
thoroughly cleaned or replaced with new bricks.
Usually ordinary firebrick are used, and these
are placed on their edges in rows at right angles
to each other with a space of one and one-half
to two and one-half inches between adjacent
rows. The rows of each tier are so placed that
each comes directly over the space left between
the two rows of bricks running in the same direc-
tion in the second tier below. This is seen in
Fig. 10, where the longitudinal rows of bricks
in tier 1 comes directly over the spaces between
the rows of tier 2, and the rows in tier 3 come
over the spaces in tier 4, and also tiers 1 and 2
come over spaces in tiers 3 and 4 running in
the same direction, which give the gases a wave-
like motion throughout the chamber.
CLEANING THE STANDPIPE.
The off-take pipe, which connects the super-
heater to the wash-box, gradually becomes coated
with carbon deposits, and an unusual back pres-
sure will be seen on the operator's gauge board
when the coating becomes excessive. When this
occurs, the hand hole doors are removed, and
the carbon cleaned off by means of bars, caution
being taken to prevent the carbon from falling
in the wash-box by placing a tray in the bottom
Elements of Water Gas 39
cleaning door of the standpipe. It is also neces-
sary to clean out the wash-box occasionally, and
it is advisable to open the outlet valve at the
bottom and wash out the heavy tarry matter
about once a week.
CHEMICAL OBSERVATIONS.
Water is composed of two parts of hydrogen
and one part of oxygen, and the process of
obtaining gases by the decomposition of water
vapor or steam is known as the "Water Gas Pro-
cess" in view of the fact that three-fifths of its
weight and three-fourths of its bulk consists of
the hydrogen and oxygen which previously con-
stituted water H2O. It has been repeatedly
proven in chemical research that steam can not
be broken into its component parts by the direct
action of heat alone, but when subjected to high
temperatures in the presence of reducing agents
which have a stronger affinity for the oxygen
than the hydrogen with which it is combined,
the oxygen will combine with the reducing ele-
ment and liberate free hydrogen.
On this theory the water gas process is
founded, and the reducing element is carbon con-
taining matter, usually coal or coke. The reac-
tion is brought about by subjecting the hot fuel
to the influence of an air blast wherebv tne
40 Elements of Water Gas
oxygen of the air combines with the carbon of
the fuel to form carbon monoxide (CO) or car-
bon dioxide (CO2) according to the proportion
of oxygen available. The combination of the
carbon and oxygen may occur in different pro-
portions to form different gases, according to the
following conditions.
In the presence of an excess of oxygen burn-
ing carbon saturates itself with two atomic pro-
portions of oxygen, and forms the gas CO2. This
reaction is exothermic and completes the com-
bustion of the carbon with the evolution of
14,500 British Thermal Units (B. T. U.) per
pound of carbon, taking two and two-third
pounds of oxygen and forming three and two-
third pounds of carbon dioxide. This reaction
being complete is known as the first law of com-
bustion.
In the second law of combustion the supply
of oxygen is insufficient to completely saturate
the carbon, and the excess carbon will partially
satisfy its affinity for oxygen by combining with
one atomic proportion or robbing saturated car-
bon of one of its oxygen atoms, for instance,
carbon dioxide passing through heated carbon
will be reduced to carbon monoxide, as follows:
CO2+C=2CO, with an absorbing of 5,880 B. T.
IT. per pound of carbon.
Elements of Water Gas 41
If the carbon monoxide is then brought in
contact with an excess of oxygen, the third law
of combustion takes place to carbon dioxide
with an evolution of 10,190 B. T. U. per pound
of carbon. In the above it is seen, then, that
in the first law of combustion one pound of car-
bon takes up two and two-third pounds of
oxygen, and forms three and two-third pounds
of carbon dioxide with an evolution of 14,500
B. T. U. In the second law the CO2 is reduced
by the second pound of carbon with an absorb-
ing of 5,880 B. T. U., resulting in the formation
of four and two-third pounds of carbon monoxide
with the total evolution of 8,620 B. T. U. In
the third law the CO takes up another atomic
proportion of oxygen and produces complete
combustion with the evolution of 20,380 B. T. U.
and the formation of seven and one-third pounds
of carbon dioxide, which makes the total heat
evolved from two pounds of carbon as 29,000
B. T. U.
In the elementary study of the carburetted
water gas process in this chapter, it has been
seen that a blast of air is first admitted to the
generator when the excess of oxygen combines
with carbon and the first law of combustion
takes place. The CO2 gases thus formed then
pass up the bed of fuel in an excess of carbon
42 Elements of Water Gas
when the gases are reduced to CO, which con-
stitutes the second law, and these are passed to
the carburetter to be met by another blast of
air when the third law of combustion takes place
and completes the heating period of the process.
In the decomposition of the steam in the gas-
making period there is absorbed 4,340 B. T. U.
per pound of carbon, which generates approxi-
mately 62 cubic feet of gas with a calorific value
of approximately 300 B. T. U. The value of this
gas, however, is too low for domestic purposes,
and the purpose of the carburetter is, therefore,
to generate gas of high illuminating value and
thereby enrich the blue water gas. The compo-
sition of the oil gases may vary with different
conditions and qualities, and a typical analyses
before and after enrichment is as follows :
Carburetted
Blue Water Gas. Water Gas.
Hydrogen (H) 51.00 30.40 per cent.
Methane (CH4) 0.50 16.90
Hydrocarbons 0.00 7.25
Carbon monoxide. . . .40.00 29.00 "
Carbon dioxide 5.50 2.05 "
Oxygen (O) 0.00 0.20 "
Nitrogen (N) 3.00 5.10 "
Elements of Water Gas 43
The consumption of fuel coincident with these
figures will be about 35 pounds of coke and 3.33
gallons of oil per 1,000 cubic feet of gas, with a
candle power of 20 or heating value of 580
R T. U.
CHAPTER III.
STANDARD DOUBLE SUPERHEATER.
UP AND DOWN RUNS.
In the preceding chapter the reader has been
led into the elements of the internal combustion
or intermittent system, and it will now be to
advantage to illustrate a standard type of
machine in which modern methods are employed.
The following descriptions are not confined to
any one particular plant, but embodies the most
interesting features of various designs. In the
early developments of the intermittent process
the steam used in the generator always entered
beneath the grate and passed upward through
the fuel bed to the carburetter. This, however,
resulted in the lower part of the fire being cooled
considerably, and a down or reverse run was
occasionally adopted to overcome this difficulty.
After continued application of the down run it
was found that it had several effects on the fuel
44 Elements of Water Gas
bed, the foremost of which may be summarized
as follows:
(1) It reduced labor in clinkering and in
picking out comparatively large pro-
portion of unburnt coke.
(2) It effected a saving in fuel by burning
small coke that otherwise fell through
the grate bars.
(3) It made it possible to vary the height of
the zone of intense combustion, and
allow the use of a wider range of fuels.
(4) It enables the temperature at the top of
the fire to be better controlled, and con-
sequently a better control in tempera-
tures in the carburetter and super-
heater.
In the early attempts the down runs were
made about once in every six, but this has been
increased to one in every three or less, according
to the nature of the fuel used. In the up run the
gases leave the generator at the top, and in the
down run at the bottom, each outlet being con-
trolled by valves which are linked together so
that one opens when the other closes. The top
valve is generally known as the hot valve, in view
of the fact that burning gases pass through it
during the air-blasting period, and it was until
recent years necessary to water cool it to pre-
Elements of Water Gas 45
46 Elements of Water Gas
vent overheating and eventual cracking. In
modern apparatus, however, the metallic com-
position of this valve is capable of withstanding
the heat and a dry valve is now employed.
One of the most common means of connecting
the top and bottom outlet valves is illustrated
in Fig. 11, in which 1 is the top outlet for the
up runs, 2 the bottom outlet for the down runs,
3 a counterbalance weight which serve to equal-
ize the load in either direction, and 4 a dust
catcher which collects solid matter carried over
in the gas, and thereby prevents such from enter-
ing the carburetter. The hot valve is also pro-
vided with an ash pocket (not shown) for col-
lecting solid matter which is liable to interfere
Avith the seating of the valve, and this, in con-
junction with the dust catcher, should be cleared
every few days to ensure proper seating of valves
and a free passage of gas.
CENTRAL BLAST AND AIR-COOLED OIL SPRAY.
An interesting feature in one design of plant
is the arrangement of the blast pipe entering the
carburetter, by which a more uniform heat is
obtained in the top of the chamber, and also has
the effect of keeping the oil spray cool during
the blasting period when oil is not being passed
Elements of Water Gas
47
through it. In this arrangement Fig. 12, the
blast gases come from the generator at 1, and
the secondary air blast enters the carburetter at
2, which effects combustion directly in the center
of the chamber, and thereby produces a more
even distribution of heat over the surface of the
checkerbrick. The oil spray 3 is also kept cool
by this arrangement, as combustion does not
take place until the secondary air meets the blast
gases in the top of the carburetter.
48 Elements of Water Gas
OIL HEATER.
In certain climates it is advisable to heat the
oil before passing it into the machine, and this
has been done in various ways. One method
that has been largely used was to place a coil
of pipe in the gas off-take between the super-
heater and wash-box and pre-heat the oil by pass-
ing it through the coil while the hot gases were
passing in the opposite direction. These heaters,
however, gave considerable trouble with stop-
pages, and the coil became coated with lamp-
black, which reduced the efficiency considerably,
and in due course the method was abandoned
for the simple modification illustrated in Fig. 13.
In this heater the cold oil is circulated around
a coil of steam pipe in a suitable vessel, which is
made of cast iron and is provided with a steam
inlet 1, a coil of pipe 2, a steam outlet 3, oil inlet
4, and oil outlet 5. A vapor chamber 6 is also
provided at the top of the heater, which main-
tains a constant pressure on the hot oil line by
minimizing the pulsations of the oil pump. Pre-
vious to entering the heater the oil is measured
cold by passing through a meter, and the steam
condensed by passing through the coil of pipe
is led to a steam trap.
Elements of Water Gas 49
50 Elements of Water Gas
AIR METER.
One of the most important developments in
water gas manufacture was the introduction of
the air and steam meters, by which accurate
measurements of the fluids employed could be
made and thereby the process put on a more
scientific basis. Whilst different designs of
meter have been used, the principles employed
are practically the same, the essence of which is
illustrated in the following descriptions.
The application of the air meter to the car-
buretted water gas machine is shown in Figs.
14 and 15, in which 1 comprises the generator,
2 the carburetter, 3 the superheater, and 4 the
wash or seal box. The air blast pipe 5 is pro-
vided with the usual branches, 6, 7, 8 to 1, 2, 3,
each of which is provided with a supply regulat-
ing valve 9. The essence of the meter lies in the
venturi tubes 10, which are placed in each air
supply, and indicates the volume of air passing
through per second or other unit of time by rea-
son of the different pressures that simultane-
ously exist in the most contracted area or throat
and the larger area on each side of the throat,
and since this indication is continuous, it
enables the difference to be transmitted to a suit-
able indicating gauge. It is now a well estab-
Elements of Water Gas
51
52 Elements of Water Gas
lished fact that the economical operation of a
water gas set requires that each set of the pro-
cess must be performed in a manner that has
been ascertained to be the most efficient, and it
is necessary that a pre-determined volume of air-
is introduced in each blow in order to raise the
apparatus to the correct temperature for the
reception of a given quantity of oil and steam.
For instance, if a larger volume of air is passed
through the generator than what is needed, an
unnecessary consumption of fuel will result,
whilst an insufficient quantity of air will fail to
raise the machine to the required temperature
for gas making. It is evident, then, that the
temperature of the set is substantially propor-
tional to the quantity of air introduced, and the
volume of gas made is proportional to amount of
steam and oil capable of being decomposed or
vaporized by the temperature of the machine.
Prom the above it is clear that the admission of
a pre-determined volume of air is necessary for
the economical operation of the set, and the ven-
turi tubes 10, shown more fully in Fig. 15, are
connected to a gauge on the operating floor by
means of pipes 12 and 13, which enable the oper-
ator to know at a glance the volume of air pass-
ing to the set. The gauges are provided with
pet cocks 14, valves at 15, and a graduated scale
Elements of Water Gas
53
54: Elements of Water Gas
16 for convenient reading. In operating the set
with the guidance of this meter, the attendant
knows in advance the volume of air that is to
be introduced to the respective parts of the appa-
ratus, and he can, therefore, accomplish this by
reference to the scale 16, and the adjustment of
the valves 9 accordingly.
STEAM METER.
The object of the steam meter is to provide
means for controlling the quality and quantity
of the gas produced by enabling the operator to
introduce a definite volume of steam into the
generator per volume of gas required in conjunc-
tion with a pre-determined volume of air. For
instance, if the set is such that it is required to
generate 10,000 cubic feet of gas per run of four
minutes, the air meter will be set in accordance
with this to guide the operator in admitting suf-
ficient air to raise the temperature of the fuel to
a degree at which it will decompose sufficient
steam for the production of 10,000 cubic feet of
fixed gas, and the steam meter will be set in
accordance with it to allow an accurate volume
of the fluid to be admitted, and thereby prevent
the fire from being cooled too much or insuffi-
ciently. It has been found in practice that it
Elements of Water Gas
o
55
2 *
50 Elements of Water Gas
requires approximately 30 pounds of water in
the form of steam per 1,000 cubic feet of car-
buretted water gas, and in the example referred
to, where 10,000 cubic feet needs to be produced
in four minutes, the fuel would require sufficient
steam per minute for the production of 2,500
cubic feet, which is 30X2.5=75 pounds. With
these pre-determined facts the respective meters
are set so that the attendant knows exactly what
is required in the apparatus, and thereby oper-
ates the machine -accordingly for a desired
result.
One of the best and simplest forms of steam
meters is illustrated in Fig. 16, in which 1 is
the generator, with the usual charging and off-
take ports, 2 is a gauge or metal dial, and 3 is
the meter tube through which the steam used in
the generator passes. This tube consists of an
internally bell shaped body, 4, Fig. 17, having an
inlet 5, and outlet 6, and is connected at its inlet
to pipe 7 communicating to the meter dial, and
at its outlet to the generator by way of 8. The
steam is supplied by way of pipe 9 through valve
10 and automatic pressure regulator 11, which
adjusts variations in boiler pressure and main-
tains a constant pressure at the meter tube. The
regulator may be of various design, and a con-
venient one as shown at A, Fig. 16, consists of
Elements of Water Gas
S
57
58 Elements of Water Gas
an adjustable weighted spindle 12, connected
with a diaphragm 13, and having valves 14 and
15. This device is connected to pipe 16, which
leads to meter tube 3 and keeps the pressure of
the steam constant on the inlet side of the tube
and appropriate for causing 2 to indicate the
required volume passing through per unit of
time. The theory of this measurement is based
upon the fact that the quantity of flow through
tube 3 is directly proportionate to the absolute
pressure of the steam on the inlet side of the
meter tube, and inasmuch as the gauge 2 indi-
cates the pressure, it also indicates the quantity
of flow of steam entering the generator per unit
of time, and under these conditions it is only
necessary for the attendant to operate the valve
10 when commencing or ending a run. Occa-
sionally, however, the steam regulator is omitted
when it is necessary to operate the valve to a
position corresponding to the amount of steam
required as indicated by the gauge.
AIR REGULATOR.
One of the latest developments in the progress
of water gas manufacture is the air regulator,
the object of which is to automatically increase
the quantity of air supplied for the combustion
Elements of Water Gas 59
of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide in the
carburetter as the quantity of the former gas
increases. In the heating or air blasting period
of the apparatus the composition of the gases
given off from the generator varies during dif-
ferent portions of the blow whilst the fuel is
being raised to its highest state of incandes-
cence, and invariably gives off a greater propor-
tion of combustible gas as the temperature con-
tinues to rise and liberates carbon more rapidly.
Under the average conditions it has been found
that the percentages of carbon monoxide in the
producer gases from the generator varies from
5.00 per cent, after 25 seconds of blasting to
20.00 per cent, after 200 seconds of blasting, and
in order to effect complete combustion of the
gas it is evident that the quantity of air admitted
to the carburetter needs to increase in accord-
ance with the increase of combustible matter,
whilst, at the same time, an uncalculated in-
crease, such as raising the valve at intervals, is
liable to cause an excess of air to be admitted
at certain portions of the blow, and thereby cool
the checkerbricks and seriously affect the eco-
nomical operation of the plant.
An interesting and simple device used for the
purpose of controlling the necessary quantity
of air is illustrated in Fig. 18, in which 1 is the
Elements of Water Gas
Elements of Water Gas 61
secondary air line leading to the carburetter,
and is provided with valve 2, which is connected
by links and levers to operating mechanism on
holder 3. The holder is provided with a bell 4,
connected by rope 5 to the operating handle 6
of a damper 7, arranged in the air line 1. The
interior of the bell is connected by means of a
three-way cock 8 to a pipe 9, which leads to the
air line or to pipe 10, which leads to the atmos-
phere, each branch being provided with regu-
lating cocks 11. A counterweight for the damper
7 is provided at 12, and the three-way valve is
connected to valve 2 by means of link 13, bell
crank 14, link 15, and handle 16, so that the
operation of valve 2 will also operate the three-
way valve 8. In the run of gas when the gate
valve 2 is closed the position of the three-way
cock is such that the bell 4 is in communication
with the air line 1, which results in the bell
being raised to the stops as indicated by dotted
lines, and simultaneously causes the counter-
weight 12 to close the damper 7 by means of the
lever 6. At the end of the run of gas the gen-
erator air blast is opened, and a few seconds
later the carburetter blast valve 2 is opened,
which in turn operates the cock 8 so that the bell
is put in communication with the atmosphere
by way of pipe 10, which causes air to gradually
02 Elements of Water Gas
escape and the bell to descend. This movement
actuates the damper 7 and automatically
increases the supply of air through valve 2 into
the carburetter simultaneously with the increase
in temperature of the fuel bed in the generator,
and subsequent decomposition of the fuel more
rapidly. The speed of descent of the bell can
be varied by the adjustment of the cock 11 on
line 10, and where it is desired, weights are pro-
vided which suspend at various heights from the
top frame of the holder and rest on the bell
throughout a desired portion of its travel and
increase the rate of movement accordingly.
A slight modification of this arrangement is
illustrated in Fig. 19, in which an additional
holder 17 and bell 18 is provided, and has inlet
connections 19 to pipe 9 and outlet 20 to the
throat of a meter 21 interposed in the blast line.
The stem 22 of the holder 18 is connected by a
short link 23 with one end of the floating lever
24, which leads to the stem 25 of bell 4 in holder
3, and a link 26 connected with lever 14 is in
communication with arm 6 of damper 7. In the
operation of this arrangement the bell 4 is in
its raised position at the beginning of the blow
and the bell 18 in its lowest position, and on
opening the blast valve 2 the three-way cock 8
is operated so that the bell 4 descends and opens
Elements of Water Gas
63
64 Elements of Water Gas
the damper 7 as in the previous arrangement.
This action causes air to pass through venturi
meter which produces a differential pressure
across such meter and tends to raise the bell 18,
and in turn close damper 7. It is obvious, then,
that by the adjustment of these bells and levers
the flow of air can be regulated to any desired
portion at any part of the blow, and if the blast
pressure in the line increases the differential
pressure across the meter will also increase and
thereby raise the bell 18 and close damper 7 and
reduce the flow of air to the normal requirement.
STARTING AND WORKING A SET.
The purpose of the double superheater is to
increase the contact surface in fixing the oil, and
also to carry the blast gases away from the oper-
ating floor and thereby minimize the risk of dan-
ger to the attendant. This form of apparatus
is erected by a number of makers, and a common
example is shown in Fig. 20. When a new set
is put in operation it should first be carefully
dried out by covering the grate bars of the gen-
erator with six or eight inches of coke, adding
about one foot of shavings and dry wood and a
portion of coal or coke. A fire is then started
with the charging door of the generator open
Elements of Water Gas 65
until a good body of fire has been obtained, after
which the charging door may be closed and the
heat allowed to pass through the machine, care
being taken to effect a gradual drying by check-
ing the draft at the ash pit doors. If the time
is available it is advisable to allow two or three
days in drying out a new set, although, if neces-
sary, this period can be reduced to a few hours
by careful management without injury to the
plant. When the set is being dried gradually
the body of fire should be kept at about two feet,
and each time fuel is added care must be exer-
cised to light the gases at the charging door
before opening wide, or an explosion will result.
When the shell of the carburetter is warm the
machine may be put under blast, and in prepara-
tion of this the fire is charged well up and the
clinkering and ash pit doors securely fastened.
After the blast has been on for more than ten
minutes, the bottom steam valve should be
slightly opened to prevent overheating of the
brickwork in the lower part of the generator,
and when a flame can be seen in the top of the
generator through the sight cock, the carburetter
blast valve should be opened, care being taken
to open only very slightly until a flame appears
in the top of the chamber. The carburetter
being lit off. it is then advisable to light the gas
66 Elements of Water Gas
jet or pilot light at the stack valve on top of the
superheater, as this serves as a guide to the
attendant by igniting unburnt gases as they
issue from the machine, and when a blue flame
is seen at the stack valve it is necessary for the
attendant to increase the supply of air in the
carburetter and effect complete combustion
within the machine. When the carburetter has
reached a red heat it is time to look for a blue
flame in the bottom of the superheater, and when
such appears the superheater air blast should
be raised and when ignited the carburetter blast
should be lowered to allow a portion of combus-
tible gases to be burned in the superheater. A
method sometimes adopted in lighting off the
superheater is for one man to pass a red hot
bar or pipe through the sight cock while another
man opens the air supply, but this method is
not to be advised in view of the fact that the
man holding the pipe is in danger of flying
sparks when the gas ignites, and it is certainly
not necessary to an experienced gasmaker.
After the superheater has reached a red heat,
the air blasts can be cut off and a run of blue
gas made by passing steam through the gene-
rator, and this should proceed by first closing
the superheater air blast, then the carburetter,
and finally the generator, after which the steam
Elements of Water Gas
68 Elements of Water Gas
valve is opened slightly, the stack valve closed,
and the steam valve adjusted according to the
gauge.
It may here be stated that the operator's gauge
board is usually placed in a position so that it
can be seen at all times during the operation of
the plant, and consists of a series of water col-
umns, Fig. 21, which indicate the pressure of
the machine in inches at different parts in the
order of generator 1, carburetter 2, superheater
3, and seal box 4, the highest pressure being
seen on the generator gauge and decreasing in
order to the seal box. The board is also pro-
vided with steam gauges or meters 5 and 6 for
up and down runs, respectively, air meter 7, oil
pressure gauge 8, and indicating pyrometer 9,
whilst on a stand near the oil meter is placed.
When the run of gas is put on the operator
should immediately observe the pressures indi-
cated, and if an unusual pressure is seen, the
steam should be immediately cut off until the
cause has been ascertained, which generally may
be a closed valve or an excess of condensation in
the drip pot between the machine and relief
holder. It is advisable to see, at this point, that
water is passing through the scrubber and con-
denser, and special care should be taken in see-
ing that water is passing into the seal box before
Elements of Water Gas
69
the run is taken off, or gas will return and
escape into the atmosphere when the stack valve
is opened. After two or three runs of blue water
gas have been made the temperature of the car-
buretter should be high enough to break up the
oil to the required extent, and on the third or
70 Elements of Water Gas
fourth run the oil is admitted, when a greater
pressure will be seen on the water column
gauges. About one-half minute before the end
of the run the oil is cut off, and the spray wiped
out by passing steam through it for a few sec-
onds. When the machine is in full working con-
dition the operator should pay frequent atten-
tion to the nature of the overflow at the seal pot
for the appearance of lampblack, which is seen
when the heats are too high, or for light tars
when the heats are too low.
OPERATING CONDITIONS.
The length of the air blast and runs of gas
depend on various conditions, such as the nature
of fuel used, power of the blasting plant, quality
of gas desired, and quality of fuels used. In the
early stages of the internal combustion system
it was customary to blast for 20 minutes or more
and make runs of gas for 30 minutes, but with
the development of the process the tendency has
been to reduce the length of the cycle to the
present day rate, which may be taken on an aver-
age of three minutes' blasting and five minutes'
gasmaking, with a blast pressure of 20 inches of
water on the gauge. The steam is admitted in
accordance with the steam meter, whilst air is
Elements of Water Gas 71
admitted to the carburetter in accordance with
the differential air meter, and a pressure of
about 45 pounds per square inch is kept on the
oil line. The temperature of the carburetter and
superheater varies, of course, with the grade of
oil, and may be taken, on the average, at 1,400°
F. in the carburetter, with about 100° F. less in
the superheater at the beginning of the run. The
gasmaker is provided with printed sheets to
record the times of operation of the machine,
check the oil meter at the end of each run, record
the amount of fuel, and frequently record the
temperatures of the carburetter and superheater.
In the smaller works he has also frequently to
check the reading of the station meter about
every hour, and compute the amount of gas per
run with the quantity of oil per 1,000 cubic feet.
CHAPTER IV.
THE VERTICAL APPARATUS.
A design of apparatus that has met with
marked success is the vertical type, the most
important of which is the Williamson's. In this
plant the carburetter and superheater are
arranged in a vertical plane with the generator,
the object of which is simplicity of construction
and operation, reduction of ground area, and a
72
Elements of Water Gas
•**:
**
Elements of Water Gas 73
more thorough uniting of vapors in the car-
buretter and superheater by passing through a
deeper surface of checkerbrick.
In Fig. 22 is shown a sectional elevation of
one form of apparatus in which 1 is the air blast
line supplying pipe 2, which is provided with a
valve 3, which is usually of the ordinary gate
type. The pipe 2 leads into header 4, which in
turn communicates with the generator by means
of a series of partitions 5, each of which are pro-
vided with a series of slots for projecting jets of
air into the ash box 6 beneath the grate of the
generator, which rests on a cross bar 7, sup-
ported on the wall. The outlet of the generator
is provided at 8 and is controlled by valve 9,
which is of special construction, as described
later. A connection 10 leads into the mixing
chamber at the top of the carburetter, and a port
11 is provided in the said chamber for the admis-
sion of secondary air, and there is also an oil
spray 12 connected to a pipe 13 through which
the oil is passed. The carburetter 14 is filled
with checkerbrick as in the usual manner, and
has communication at its lower end through
passages 15, Fig. 23, into receiving chamber 16,
into which the gases descend and commingle
before entering the superheater. The dividing
wall 17, which separates the carburetter from
74
Elements of Water Gas
the superheater, extends the whole length of tne
chambers, and has openings 18, which furnish
communication between the receiving chamber
16 and discharge chamber 19, the latter of which
Elements of Water Gas 75
leads into superheater 20 by way of passage 21.
The superheater is filled with checkerbrick as
in the standard type, and the fixed gases are dis-
charged into chamber 22, which leads to seal box
23 by way of pipe 24. The shell of the carbu-
retter and superheater is of the usual type and
is a continuation of the generator shell, and is
provided with a lining of firebrick or other
refractory material, and is separated from the
wall of the generator by means of an arch of
special design. The blast gases leave the machine
through passage 25 and stack valve 26, and pass
into the atmosphere through the stack 27. The
stack valve is mounted on wheels and rests on a
track 28, supported by swinging links, the lower
ends of which are mounted in pivot plates on
the top binding plate of the wall of the machine.
The stack valve or cap can be moved by means
of levers which are connected to a pivot of one
of the said links, and is actuated by a chain so
that by moving the lever downwards the rails
and cap are elevated, and by moving the lever
upwards the rails and cap are lowered. In order
to move the cap at the end of the blow and run
there is provided a draw bar 29, which is pivoted
to ears on the cap, and connected by links 30
with a rock shaft mounted in ears, and having
connected therewith a lever 31, which is moved
76
Elements of Water Gas
Elements of Water Gas 77
by a chain running over a pulley attached to a
girder at the top of the building and another
pulley on the operating floor. In some installa-
tions of this apparatus the construction of the
carburetter and superheater is slightly modified,
as illustrated in Fig. 24, where, instead of the
blast gases entering the mixing chamber at the
top of the carburetter, they are led through out-
let pipe 8 on each side of the generator, by way
of valves 9, and into chamber 13 on one side of
the apparatus and chamber 19 on the other side,
the said chambers in this design being separated
entirely by a solid wall 17. The chamber 13 con-
stitutes the mixing chamber for the oil and
water gas, and leads to carburetter 14 and
receiving chamber 16, and down superheater 20,
which is in communication with chamber 19,
from which the gas passes to a seal box. The
operation of this design is the same as in the
previous arrangement, but different in the flow
of gas in that the carburetted water gas passes
up the carburetter and down the superheater,
and the blast gases pass up both chambers 14
and 20 through valves 9 simultaneously, and out
of the stack by way of 25. At the end of the
blasting period the pipe 8a, which leads to lOa,
is closed, which causes the water gas to pass oft
78 Elements of Water Gas
by way of 8 and 10 and up the carburetter and
down superheater.
WATER SEALED VALVE.
A novel feature in this apparatus is the con-
struction and arrangement of the outlet valve
from the generator, which is frequently known
as the hot valve, in view of the fact that burning
gases pass through it on the way to the car-
buretter. Briefly, the valve shown in connection
with Figs. 22 and 24 consists of an inclined plate
and a peripheral rim with a seating face on the
solid plate which coacts with a seating face
around the pipe, and is located in a casing of
ordinary construction, which may be water-
cooled if desired. However, in the later develop-
ments of this apparatus a specially designed
valve has been adopted, which is illustrated in
Figs. 25 and 26, in which 1 is the outer casing
communicating with the adjacent ends of pipes
2 and 3, Fig. 27, which leads from generator to
carburetter. This casing is of spherical shape,
and through its wall the nozzle 4 extends
upwardly, as shown in Fig. 25. In the opposite
walls of the casing and extending inwardly
therefrom are stub shafts 5 and 6, the latter of
which is connected with a lever 7, Fig. 27, and
Elements of Water Gas
79
secured to the inner ends of the shafts 5 and 6
is a hood 8 of semi-circular shape in longitudinal
cross-section, which is adapted to swing into
and out of the position in which it extends over
80
Elements of Water Gas
the open ends of the nozzle 4. The casing 1 pro-
vides a receptacle for water, which enters at 9
and overflows therefrom through a pipe 10, com-
municating with the casing at 11, and the upper
Elements of Water Gas
81
82 Elements of Water Gas
end of the pipe 10 is connected with gas off-take
2 by way of 12 for equalizing the pressure on
the water, which determines its level in the cas-
ing. It is necessary that the level of the water
is maintained at a point between the top of the
nozzle 4 and lower portion of the hood 8 when
in the position shown in Fig. 25 for closing the
valve in order to form a water sealed valve capa-
ble of being opened by swinging the hood upon
its journals to a position into which it is sub-
merged in the water for uncovering the top of
the nozzle as shown by dotted lines, Fig. 25.
The valve 13, Fig. 27, is of the same construc-
tion as valve 14, and receives its supply of water
for producing the seal from the valve 14 by way
of pipe 10 and overflows at 15. On the outer
surface of the valve 14 there is provided a pas-
sage 16, which communicates at its lower end
with pipe 17 and at its upper end with pipe 2,
and thereby forms a continuous passage between
the two pipes. The two valves are connected
together by a link 18 and lever 19, so that one
valve opens when the other closes. When the
generator is put on the down run the valve 14
is closed by means of a wheel, which simultane-
ously opens the bottom valve, and allows the gas
to pass upward to pipe 2 by way of passage 16
into the carburetter. The nozzle 4 of the upper
Elements of Water Gas 83
valve is lined with firebrick or other refractory
material to prevent rapid deterioration by the
burning gases during the blasting period, and it
is obvious that the hood or valve proper 8 moves
in a water seal and prevents the wearing of
metal, which is usually very rapid under the
influence of the intense heat, and simultaneously
insures a substantially gas tight joint.
CHAPTER V.
TWIN GENERATOR SYSTEMS.
In the twin-generator system the object is to
minimize the percentage of carbon monoxide in
the blast gases, and that of carbon dioxide in
the water gas, and it is usual to employ two gen-
erators connected together at the bottom and
allow the air blast to pass upward through them
in parallel, whilst the steam during the run is
passed up one and down the other alternately.
In the earlier installations of this system, how-
ever, it was found that the output of gas per
square foot of grate area was considerably
reduced, and various modifications have been
tried to increase the efficiency of the system in
this respect to equal that of the single generator
system,
84 Elements of Water Gas
CONVERTIBLE APPARATUS.
One design of apparatus possessing a number
of advantages over any previous attempts con-
sists of two generators connected by a common
bottom, in which the gasmaking steam in proper
proportions is passed simultaneously either all
upward or downward, or serially in either direc-
tion, supplemented by steam for the second gen-
erator. The object of this design is to enable
the plant to be worked on the single generator
system, and simultaneously obtain the advan-
tages of the twin system, according to the will
of the operator, and the valve mechanism and
link motion is such that the plant can be changed
automatically from the single to the twin system
by the movement of a single lever.
In Fig. 28 the generators 1 and 2 are con-
nected by a conduit 3, which is provided with an
optional gas outlet 4, Fig. 29, controlled by valve
5, in addition to the outlet pipes and valves 6
and 7, and 6' and 7'. The valves 7 and 7' are
actuated by levers 8 and 8', Fig. 30, which are
connected to shafts 9 and 9' by arms and links
10 and 10'. These shafts are coupled together
and connected to valve 5 by means of yoke 11
and link 12. The lever 8" is operatively con-
nected by link 13 to clutch 14, whose members
Elements of Water Gas
86 Elements of Water Gas
14', 14", and 15, are splined on the shafts 9 and
9' and coupled by snivels to the connecting link
13 so that the clutch members travel along the
shaft and respond to the movement of the lever
8". The members 14', 14" and 15 are adapted to
couple simultaneously the shafts 9 and 9' with
the yoke 11 at 15' and 15", and with each other
at 16, so that the valves 7, 7' and 5 must all work
together ; 7 and 7' being opened when 5 is closed
until the clutch is disengaged, when the shafts
are free to rotate separately. The blast valve 17
is operated by wheel 18, through gearing 19, and
controls the admission of air to the bottom of
the two generators for upward blasting in par-
allel, when the blast products pass off through
outlets 6 and 6'. On the primary steam supply
20 are placed a series of distributing cocks 21',
21", 22', 22", which are connected with shaft 9,
and operated simultaneously with the valve 7
so that 21' and 22' and 21" 22" are opened when
the valve 7 is opened. The valves 23', 23", 24'
and 24" are connected to shaft 9', so that 23' and
23'' are closed, and 24' and 24" are opened when
valve 7' is opened. The steam conduits are pro-
vided at 25, 25', 25" and 26', 26", and 26' is
formed with a dual connection to the primary
steam supply, and the valves 21" and 23" are on
one branch of the connection, with 22' and 24'
Elements of Water Gas
87
88 Elements of Water Gas
on the other. The steam entering the generator
is accurately controlled by regulating cocks and
meters 27, 27' and 27", and 28, 28' and 28", of
which 27 and 28 control the upward supply in
parallel, and 27' and 28' the downward supply.
In serial steaming, however, it is necessary to
increase the supply, and this is provided by the
regulating cock 29 on the loop connection 26",
which automatically adds to the top of either
generator any desired proportion of the quan-
tity of steam that is available for the top of the
other generator, whilst a supplemental bottom
steam may be had if desired through 29' and 29"
in conduit 26'.
The relative position and object of the valve
mechanism having been thus described, it will
be seen that independent regulation is provided
for each supply, and that the setting of any may
be varied without altering the others. If the
operation is now followed it is seen that the
disengagement of clutch 14 by lever 8" will
enable the plant to be steamed upwards in paral-
lel or serially in either direction with optional
bottom steam, according to the position of the
valves 7 and 7'. If upward steaming in parallel
is desired, the valves 7 and 7' are both open, and
steam from the pipe 20 passes through regulat-
ing cock 27, steam cocks 22", 24", 21" and 24',
Elements of Water Gas 89
through conduit 25 controlled by them, and
meter 28 into conduit 3, and upwards through
generators. If it is then desired to steam
serially, for instance, down through generator 1
and up generator 2, the valve 7 is closed by the
movement of lever 8, which simultaneously closes
steam cocks 22" and 21", thereby closing conduit
25 to the bottom of both generators, and, at the
same time, the closing of these valves is effected,
the cocks 21' and 22' are opened, which admits
steam to the top of generator 1 through conduit
25' and meter 28', this supply being supple-
mented at the bottom, if desired, through regu-
lating cocks 29', steam cocks 22' and 24', the con-
duit 30, meter 29", into conduit 3, and up
through generator 2. In reversing the direction
of serial steam the gas outlet 7 is opened, which
closes steam cocks 21' and 22', and opens 21" and
22", and the gas valve T is closed, which simul-
taneously opens steam cocks 23' and 23", and
closes 24' and 24". This order allows steam to
pass through cock 23' to top of generator 2 by
way of cocks 27" and 29, conduit 25' and meter
28", supplemental bottom steam being admitted
through 29', 21" and 23", the conduit 26', meter
29", into conduit 3 and up generator 1.
If it is then desired to change the operation
of the plant from the alternating series to a pair
90
Elements of Water Gas
Elements of Water Gas 91
of generators steaming together in either an
upward or downward direction, the lever 8" is
moved back to the position shown by dotted
lines, which causes the clutch 14 to couple the
shafts 9 and 9' with yoke 11 at 15' and 15", and
with each other at 16, and simultaneously causes
the gas outlet valves 7, 7' and 5 to work together,
7 and 7' being opened while 5 is closed.
In this position the up run will proceed as
previously described, and on moving one of the
levers 8 or 8' to the dotted position, the gas
valves 7 or 7' will be closed and gas valve 5 will
be opened. The steam cocks 21', 22', 23', and 23"
will at the same time be opened and 22", 24' and
24" will be closed, whereby steam will be directed
to the tops of both generators for the down run
in parallel, when the gas will leave the gen-
erators by way of conduit 3 and valve 5. It is
seen, then, that the movement of one of the
levers 8 or 8' will alternate the generator from
the up and down run in parallel, and the move-
ment of the lever 8" will automatically change
the working of the plant from parallel steaming
to serial steaming characteristic to the twin-
generator system.
It may here be noted that the valve 5 is of
special design so that any excess pressure in
92 Elements of Water Gas
the generators will cause the disc to be raised,
and thereby act as a relief valve.
The twin system has not been very largely
employed, although it may be said to possess
certain advantages, and in the writer's opinion
a design of plant particularly adapted to meet
the requirements will in course of time super-
sede the single generator system. It has been
well said that one of the most important items
in the manufacture of carburetted water gas is
the control of the generator fire, particularly in
keeping it in a healthy condition, and every gas
engineer knows that after four or five hours'
continuous operation the efficiency of the plant
is reduced by the accumulation of ash and
clinker, which also interferes with the make per
unit of fuel. The removal of this clinker causes
the entire plant to be shut down for a period,
which may vary from 10 to 150 minutes, accord-
ing to the condition, and where water gas is
made exclusively, as in many districts in the
United States, a shut down period of two hours
or more at an inconvenient time of the day often
causes the holder supply to be considerably
reduced, and also interferes with the normal
working temperatures of other parts of the appa-
ratus. If, however, a satisfactory design of twin
generator was adopted, it would enable the plant
Elements of Water Gas 93
to continue working on the single generator sys-
tem while the condition of the other generator
was made healthy, and increase the output of
the machine by at least 10 per cent, on the same
carburetter and superheater at a comparatively
small outlay of capital, and simultaneously com-
bine the advantages of the twin system with
those of the single system when both generators
are being operated together either serially or in
parallel, as illustrated in the previous example.
CONTINUOUS PROCESS.
A modification of the twin-system which pos-
sesses some very interesting developments is that
in which two generators are operated alternately
in conjunction with a series of retorts and an oil
fixing chamber.
The objects of this apparatus are :
(1) To enable gas to be made continuously.
(2) To allow the use of cheaper grades of soft
coal.
(3) To effect distillation of the coal in an
atmosphere of water gas, and thereby
take up hydrocarbons that otherwise
break down to tar.
94 Elements of Water Gets
(4) To control the temperatures of the dis-
tillation chambers by making it possi-
ble to use a definite proportion of water
gas and air for combustion, under a
given pressure and temperature.
(5) To enable a constant temperature in the
oil fixing chamber to be obtained.
This system purposes to have several advan-
tages over any previous attempts to carbonize
soft coal in conjunction with water gas gen-
erators, and its arrangement is such that the
water gas generators can be employed with the
retorts without the oil fixing chamber and
thereby lower the quality of the gas in the event
of it being too rich, or the oil chamber can be
brought into operation immediately and enrich
the gases. It also embodies positive heating of
the retorts by employing a definite proportion
of gas at definite heating value, and thereby
effecting greater uniformity in the working of
the plant.
In the diagramatic view, Fig. 31, the prin-
ciple of the apparatus is shown, and 1 and 1'
are vertical retorts arranged within a firebrick
setting and provided with a series of flues as
hereafter described. The gas leaves the retorts
by way of pipes 29 and 29' and pass to pipe 30,
where they mix with water gas or carburetted
Elements of Water Gas
95
^ 7
96 Elements of Water Gas
water gas. The retorts are continuously charged
at 32 and 32', and continuously discharged at
16 and 16' by rotating buckets, and at the lower
end of the retorts a series of flues 20, 20', 21 and
21r are arranged, through which air is passed to
receive a primary heating. A boiler provided at
2 for the generation of steam is heated by gases
coming from one or the other generators 3 alter-
nately and passes steam therein through pipe 4.
The second water gas generator stands behind 3
and is, therefore, not seen in the illustration, but
is similar in construction as the one shown, and
operates alternately with it on a three-minute
blast and three-minute run. In this arrange-
ment it is evident that one generator is making
gas for three minutes while the other is being
blasted for three minutes, after which the order
is reversed, which results in a continuous flow
of gas through pipe 13 from one or the other gen-
erator. A portion of the gas entering pipe 13
is passed through valve 12 to pipe 11 to be met
by an injection of oil at 10 and into the hori-
zontal retorts 8, which extend within the heat-
ing flue 7. These retorts are of various dimen-
sions, according to the location of the plant and
consequent nature of enriching agent, and are
about 15 to 20 inches in their cross section,
where heavy oil is used, or from 8 to 10 inches
Elements of Water Gas 97
where light oils are used. The carburetted water
gas emerges from the retorts at 9 and is passed
into coal gas main 30 or to a relief holder as
desired. The heating of the plant is accom-
plished by admitting air from main 5 through
branch 6 into generator 3, which results in the
formation of producer gases, which are passed
up flue 7 from one or the other generator, and
raises the temperature of the retorts to the
required degree, which is controlled by the
initial pressure of the air blast. The arrange-
ment of this flue is in a vertical plane with the
generators, and the resistance of the gases is
thereby reduced to its lowest degree, and by
employing an high pressure blast and low fuel
bed an excess of oxygen is created in the gen-
erators which makes it unnecessary to employ
secondary air in the carburetter, although means
are provided at 31, if desired. The products of
the combustion are then passed into chimney 28
or to a waste heat boiler.
In the path of the burning gases are placed a
series of flues, 20, 21, 20' and 21', through which
air passes and receives a secondary heating pre-
vious to combustion around the coal gas retorts.
The path of the air is up branch 17 from main 5
into flues 20, 20', 21, 21', arranged around the
lower part of the retorts, and then through the
98 Elements of Water Gas
aforesaid flue extensions, which passes through
the heating flue 7, and on to the combustion
chambers 18 and 19. A portion of the blue water
gas fed into main 13 is passed through valves
14 and 14' into pipes 15 and 15', and then to the
aforesaid combustion chambers, where it meets
the heated air, and the products of combustion
pass into flues surrounding the vertical retorts ;
23 and 24 leading from 18 to downward flues 25,
and finally into chimney 28, whilst flues 26 and
27 lead from 19 to downward flues 25', and
finally into chimney 28'.
In following the description of the plant it is
evident that the operation of the process is as
follows: The generators are caused to produce
water gas in the usual manner, part of which is
led into combustion chambers for the subsequent
heating of vertical retorts, and part of which is
passed through a series of smaller retorts in con-
junction with oil to be carburetted and fixed, and
alternately each generator is caused to produce
gases for the purpose of heating the oil retorts
and simultaneously giving a secondary heat to
air used for combustion around the vertical
retorts.
The Fig. 31 is somewhat diagramatical and
various modifications employing a similar prin-
ciple are made ; for instance, in one form the air
Elements of Water Gas
99
flues 20 and 21 are not passed through heating
flue 7 and the producer gases are thereby used
entirely for heating the oil fixing retorts, whilst
in another modification the combustion flues 1,
t
t
4
t
~
\
\
Fig. 32, are divided by a wall 3 and the retorts 2
arranged vertically so that the carburetted water
gas passes up one set and down the other, and
again the combustion chamber 7, Fig. 31, is
divided in the center and filled with a checker-
100 Elements of Water Gas
work of bricks to form fixing chambers as in the
intermittent process, and each chamber operated
alternately in unison with the alternate opera-
tion of the generators so that there is always a
flow of gas from the carburetting plant, and a
continuous distillation of the soft coal in the
water gas atmosphere.
CHAPTER VI.
AUTOMATIC CONTROL.
In the early developments of water gas appa-
ratus the length of the blasting period was about
20 minutes, and .that of the run about 30 min-
utes, and the efficiency of the apparatus was
usually about 20,000 cubic feet per square foot
of grate area of the generator in 24 hours. The
tendency, however, has been to reduce the oper-
ating cycle, and this has resulted in increasing
the capacity of the set and simultaneously reduc-
ing the amount of coal per unit of gas made.
At the present time, where apparatus is man-
ually operated the cycle is usually about eight
minutes, consisting of a three-minute blow and
five-minute run, and occasionally it has been
reduced to six minutes, in which a two-minute
blow and four-minute run is employed. It has
been found that this cycle puts an unusual strain
Elements of Water Gas 101
*•• ~* - ' . ' '••',* '^ J j * *
on a gasmaker, who has to be constantly on the
alert in an unhealthy atmosphere, and the influ-
ence of the poisonous carbon monoxide, com-
bined with the strain of the reduced cycle, has
made it practically impossible for a human ele-
ment to remain consistent to his post and oper-
ate the machine to accurately timed periods, and
many engineers regard this as the worst diffi-
culty in the economical and scientific operation
of water gas apparatus. Personally, the writer
has found that the most consistent gasmaker is
in the habit of running 10 or 15 seconds above
or below the recorded time, and this, when com-
puted in a day's results, is liable to considerably
effect the coal and oil figures.
BLAST PRESSURES.
It is evident, however, that many engineers
could not, under existing conditions, reduce the
six-minute cycle, owing to inadequate blowing
capacity, as it requires at least two minutes to
get up the heats when the blowing plant is being
operated at its maximum capacity, but where the
necessary air can be obtained, it has been found
that even this cycle can be reduced with advan-
tage to three or four minutes in combination
with automatic control.
102 Elertnent$ of Water Gas
The capacity of the blowing plant needed
depends, of course, on the size of the machine it
has to supply, and it is believed that the greater
amount of air that can be passed through the
fire in a limited time, the more economical will
be the results and the greater will be the
capacity of the machine. The highest volume
of air passed through the fire within the
writer's experience is approximately 300 cubic
feet per square foot of grate area per minute,
and by this it was able to reduce the length of
the blow to 75 seconds, and there is every reason
to believe that this volume can be increased with
advantage and the blasting period still made
shorter.
One of the most important advantages of high
pressure blasting is that it enables the use of
lower grade of fuel, owing to the fact of there
being less variation in the temperature of the
fuel during the shorter blow. In a fuel contain-
ing a high percentage of ash with a low melting
point, the ash will fuse into clinker and disturb
the efficiency of the fire when a blow of several
minutes is adopted owing to there being a wide
variation in temperature between the beginning
and end of the blow, and if a shorter cycle is
adopted the temperature of the fire will not be
lowered to the same extent during the run, or
Elements of Water Gas 103
need not be heated to the same degree at the
bottom of the fire before the commencement of
the run.
TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS.
With the advent of high pressure blasting it
was found advisable to reduce the depth of the
fuel bed, and thereby correspondingly reduce the
resistance. In existing methods where a three-
minute blast is employed it is customary to
clinker the fire about every 8 or 12 hours, and in
the latter part of this period the depth of the
clinker and unburnt fuel is usually one foot or
more, which considerably reduces the efficiency
of the blowing plant, and also reduces the depth
of the live fuel bed. With high pressure blast-
ing, however, and a lower fuel bed the resistance
to the air is reduced, which makes it possible to
obtain the necessary temperatures in about one
minute, and since the difference in the tempera-
ture of the fuel at the bottom is not so great, a
less proportion of ash is fused and consequently
the bottom of the fire is kept more healthy.
When the clinker in the generator is one foot
or more in thickness, it is a difficult and
laborious matter to remove it, and a cleaning
period may take anywhere from 30 minutes to
three hours, which consequently reduces the
104 Elements of Water Gas
capacity of the set per 24 hours. In the high
pressure system, however, where the clinker does
not fuse to the same extent, it is found that by
shaking the fire about every 25 runs or every 100
minutes, the dead or fused matter can be worked
through the grate bars in a comparatively short
space of time, it being only necessary to pass
a light bar over the grate once or twice. In
an experimental test in which the writer is
acquainted, the average cleaning time for a
period of four weeks was slightly over one min-
ute per clean on a system of 25 runs on a four-
minute cycle. Under these conditions the fire
is kept practically healthy at all times, and the
depth of fire can be reduced one foot or more
and still be as effective in the decomposition of
steam as if the depth was kept seven or eight
feet, as in existing conditions. It is also found
that in the high blast and low fire system, the
excess of air in the presence of less carbon pro-
duces a greater percentage of carbon dioxide in
the producer gases entering the carburetter,
which consumes less fuel per unit of make and
produces a larger proportion of sensible heat,
which, under the influence of the high pressure,
is almost sufficient to heat up the carburetter
to the required extent without the use of sec-
ondary air. Under these conditions, in which the
Elements of Water Gas 105
rate of gasmaking is considerably accelerated,
the temperatures of the carburetter and super-
heater have not such a wide variation and conse-
quently do not require as much heating in each
cycle,' and whilst it has yet been necessary to use
a small portion of secondary air in the carbu-
retter, it is believed that in course of time the
secondary air will be dispensed with as the auto-
matic and high pressure system develops still
further.
ADVANTAGES.
It is now a well accepted fact that the adop-
tion of a shorter cycle will increase the capacity
of the set and improve the oil and fuel results,
and in order to reduce the cycle to below six or
eight minutes, it is necessary to use high pres-
sures to obtain the heats in the minimum time
and to employ automatic operation to obtain
the necessary speed. Briefly, the advantages of
automatic operation may be summarized as fol-
lows:
(1) By accurately timed periods coincident
with accurate measurements of air and steam,
the operation is placed on a basis at which uni-
formity must result.
(2) It enables the use of lower grades of fuel
containing a higher percentage of ash by reduc-
106 Elements of Water Gas
ing the ranges of temperature between the begin-
ning and end of the blow, and largely preventing
fusion of the ash into clinker.
(3) It produces a more constant temperature
in the carburetter and superheater, and mini-
mizes excess decomposition at the beginning of
the run and the production of tar towards the
end of the run.
(4) It enables fuel to be fed at any part of
the run or blow, which allows the volatile mat-
ter to be driven off at the most suitable time,
according to the nature of the fuel.
(5) It keeps the fire at a uniform depth by
frequent charging without loss of time, and
thereby minimizes the percentage of CO2 in the
water gas, and provides a uniform proportion of
CO2 in the blast gases.
(6) It enables the fire to be kept more healthy
at the bottom by preventing fusion of ash into
large masses of clinker, and enables the use of
a rocking grate which will efficiently remove
smaller particles of ash.
(7) It allows the water gas to be driven from
the machine at the end of the run by enabling
the blast valve to be opened a few seconds in
advance of the stack valve.
Elements of Water Gas 107
(8) It increases the capacity of the set by
practically 100 per cent., and thereby reduces
the outlay of capital per unit of make.
(9) It eliminates the human element and
reduces the cost of operation.
( 10 ) It reduces the risk of explosion by avoid-
ing the inconsistency of an attendant.
In looking over these facts, the experienced
engineer or gasmaker will no doubt hesitate in
accepting the reliability and efficiency of a
mechanical or other contrivance which will sub-
stantially bring about such radical changes, and
the writer intends, in the following pages, to
discuss the relative advantages of apparatus at
present brought forward.
The first apparatus of which we are aware was
designed in England in 1911, but owing to a
sudden increase in the rate of oil, the water gas
process in that country received a set-back in
competition with coal gas, and little interest
appears to have been taken in the development
of the apparatus for this reason. Other modifi-
cations, however, quickly followed, and in the
writer's belief the first apparatus successfully
operated on a commercial scale was built by the
United Gas Improvement Company, Philadel-
phia, at a subsidiary plant in Pensacola, Flor-
ida, in 1914, and it is now a general belief that
108 Elements of Water Gas
an automatic and high pressure system will, in
the course of a few years, entirely displace the
present system. The reliability of this belief
.undoubtedly depends on the reliability and
efficiency of the design of apparatus, and the
following chapters have been arranged to bring
out the fundamental principles governing the
respective designs, and enable the reader to
firmly grasp the elements on which successful
operation depends.
CHAPTER VII.
MECHANICAL OPERATION.
The most reliable means of automatic control
is undoubtedly by positive action on the valve
mechanism by a substantial application of
mechanical means. In this chapter it is intended
to outline the generation of blue and carburetted
water gas from the automatic standpoint, and
to show a combination of apparatus which will
serve to illustrate different principles of mechan-
ical control from which a variety of modifica-
tions could be made.
CAM AND CLUTCH MECHANISM.
The apparatus referred to in figures 33 to 40
is for the generation of straight or blue water
Elements of Water Gas 109
gas, which is theoretically a mixture of hydro-
gen and carbon monoxide only and does not
contain any hydrocarbons or other illuminating
vapors.
It is obvious, then, that there is no carburetter
or superheater in this apparatus, and as there
are no combustible gases required for oil car-
bu ration, it is usual to employ a higher blast
pressure and reduce the percentage of carbon
monoxide as far as possible in the producer
gases. Until recent years the producer gases
given off in this type of apparatus were dis-
charged straight through a chimney in a vertical
plane with the generator, it being claimed that
the high blast pressures employed produced an
excess of oxygen in the generator, and burnt the
gases therein direct to carbon dioxide, and con-
sequently the gases were of little heating value
after leaving the apparatus. It has, however,
been repeatedly proven that under the influence
of the high blast pressure and comparatively
small area of contact surface, the carbon can
not be completely burnt in the generator, and
also that the gases already converted to carbon
dioxide contain a very large amount of sensible
heat when passing up the chimney. In the
various tests made, it was found that under
average conditions from 30 to 40 per cent, of
110 Elements of Water Gas
the total heat was lost in the atmosphere, and
by arranging a tubular steam boiler in the path
of the burning gases, the heat could be used to
substantially generate steam at a most conven-
ient time. This arrangement also claims to have
other advantages, the foremost of which are:
(1) It increases the efficiency of the steam
boiler by reducing the distance between the
boiler and gas generator, and thereby ensures
dry steam.
(2) It insures the production of the highest
steam pressure at the commencement of the run,
when the carbon in the generator is at its most
active stage for the decomposition of steam.
(3) It reduces the relative cost of construc-
tion, ground area, and centralizes the plant.
(4) It eliminates the necessity of an atten-
dant.
(5) It reduces the amount of fuel per unit
of gas by employing gases that were otherwise
lost in the atmosphere.
It may be pointed out that blue water gas is
not distributed commercially for illuminating
or heating, owing to its low calorific value, and
such plants are used chiefly for industrial pur-
poses.
Referring now to the automatic apparatus,
Fig. 33 is a general view, showing the principal
Elements of Water Gas
111
112 Elements of Water Gas
parts, of which 1 is the generator, and 2 is the
charging door or stack valve, which is pivoted
at 3. A rocking grate is provided at 4, which is
actuated by alternately arranged cams on the
revolving shafts 8, arranged beneath the ends of
the grate bars. The residue from the fuel is
directed on the grate bars by side pieces 10, and
on passing through the grate is discharged into
the ash pit 5, from which it is carried by a
worm 6 to the exterior of the machine. The ash
pit is kept at a constant level of water to seal
the escape of gas and quench the hot ashes.
At the top of the generator a steam boiler 11
is provided, and connects with gas generator by
funnel 12. The steam boiler is of the tubular
type and is heated by the gases from the gen-
erator during the blasting period, and by water
gas burning in jets from a burner ring 17 during
the gasmaking period. The funnel 12 has open-
ings at 13 therein for the admission of air to
insure the complete combustion of the generator
gases. The fuel is stored in the hopper 14, from
which it is discharged at intervals by means of
a rotating bucket device 15, which discharges a
measured quantity into chute 16 and thence
through the funnel 12 into generator 1 when the
cover 2 is raised at the end of the run. The gas
used at the burner ring 17 is supplied through
Elements of Water Gas
*
113
114 Elements of Water Gas
cock 18 and pipe 9, and a slide valve 19 Is
adapted to close the funnel 12 when the blast
through the generator is cut off, so as to cut off
cold air from the boiler during the gasmaking
period. The slide 19 has a series of small open-
ings to admit just sufficient air for the combus-
tion of the water gas.
The apparatus is driven from one source of
power by means of shafts, gearing and so
forth in order that the various operations are
accurately timed to take place in their proper
sequences. The driving shaft 20 is connected to
an engine or dynamo or other source of power
controlled by governor mechanism so that the
speed remains practically constant. The shaft
20 drives through a worm and worm wheel 21
a second shaft 22, which in turn drives through
another worm and worm wheel a shaft 23, which
makes one revolution in four minutes, which is
the assumed time of each cycle. The shaft 23
drives a shaft 24 running at the same speed, and
this in turn drives a shaft 25, which makes one
revolution in every three cycles or one in 12
minutes.
In Fig. 34 an enlarged view is shown of the
valve and operating mechanism which control
the flow of air, steam and gas. The source of
the air blast is from pipe 26, through a safety
Elements of Water Gas 115
valve 27, which serves to keep a constant pres-
sure, and through valve 28 and pipe 29 to gen-
erator 1. The bottom and top gas outlets are
provided at 30 and 31, and are controlled by
valves 32 and 33, respectively, which communi-
cate by a connecting pipe 34 to branch pipe 35
leading to a relief holder. The steam admission
pipe 36 leads from the steam boiler 11 and
branches off into pipes 37 and 38 with cocks 39
and 40 therein, the said pipes being carried
through the outlet pipes 30 and 31 into the bot-
tom and top of generator respectively. The cock
40 is shown in section and turned through a
right angle to show its construction. The two
cocks 39 and 40 are adapted to be operated by
toothed sectors 41 and 42, pivoted at 61 and 62,
and connected by links 63 and 64, respectively,
to rocking levers 48 and 47, which are pivoted
at 50 and 49, respectively. The rocking levers
47 and 48 are also connected by links 43 and 44
to rockers 45 and 46, by which the outlet valves
32 and 33 are operated. The said levers are
counterweighted at 51 and 52, and have rollers
53 and 54, which work respectively on cams 55
and 56 on the shaft 25. These cams are shown
in detail in Figs. 35, 36 and 38, wherein the cams
are separated out and also in plan on the shaft
25. A third cam 57, Fig. 37, having three pro-
116 Elements of Water Gas
jections is adapted to work against a roller 58
on one end of a lever 59, which is pivoted at 65
and connected by a link 66 to the arm of the air
blast valve 28.
The mechanism which raises the cover of the
generator is shown more fully in Figs. 39 and 40,
in which 67 is a bevel wheel on the shaft 22,
Fig. 33, and gears with two bevel wheels 68 and
69, Fig. 40, which are mounted to run loose on
the shaft 70 and are held against longitudinal
movement by fixed straps or brackets . ( not
shown) engaging in grooves 71 and 72 in the
bosses of the bevel wheels. The bevel wheels
have ratchet clutch faces 73 and 74 formed on
them, opposite to which are ratchet clutch mem-
bers 75 and 76 revolubly supported on a sliding
bracket 77 and working on keyway on the
shaft 70. The bracket 77 is adapted to be moved
to and fro by means of a toothed sector 78,
pivoted at 79 and having a pin 80 at its rear end,
which works in a grooved cam 81, driven from
the four-minute shaft 23 by means of bevel gear-
ing as shown in Fig. 33. The grooved cam makes
one revolution in each cycle of operation, and
has two principal projections, 82 and 83, which
engage with the pin 80 as the cam rotates in the
direction of the arrow. A separate mechanism
returns the pin 80 to its mid-position in the
Elements of Water Gas
117
118 Elements of Water Gas
groove, and behind each of the projections 82
and 83 the cam groove is made wide for a space
to allow time for the returning mechanism to
operate. The returning of the pin and moving
back of the bracket and the disengagement of the
clutches therein is effected at the opening and
closing of the cover of the generator. On the
shaft 70 are two pulley drums 84 and 85, over
which pass chains 86 and 87, the chain 86 being
carried around the pulley 88 to a staple 89 on
the cover of the generator, while the chain 87,
which runs in the other direction around its
drum 85, is connected to a tail piece 90, project-
ing rearwardly from the cover 2 and its pivot 3.
The cover 2 and the tail piece 90 have projections
91 and 92 respectively upon them, which are
adjustable, and which are adapted to knock
against and throw over a weighted lever 93,
pivoted at 94. This lever is geared through a
bevel gear 97 to a shaft 99 carrying a pair of
arms 96 and 98, which can strike against a pro-
jection 100 on the bracket 77. A stop 95 limits
the movements of shaft 99 and its arms 96
and 98. A catch 102 is pivoted on the projection
101 from the support for the member 78, and its
forked rear end engages and is moved by the
member 78, while its hooked front end coacts
with the catch 103 on the cover 2, to hold the
Elements of Water Gas
119
120 Elements of Water Gas
cover in its raised position. When the toothed
sector and lever 78 and the bracket 77 are
thrown over into the position for lowering the
cover, the catches 102 and 103 are automatically
disengaged by the movement imparted to the
lever 78.
Assuming that the cover 2 be lowered, the pin
80 will be in the long plain portion of the
grooved cam 81 on the four-minute shaft and the
bracket 77 Avith the clutches thereon will be in
the mid-position so that both bevel wheels 68
and 69 are running idle. The projection 82
strikes against the pin 80 when the air blast is
turned on, and the bracket 77 is thrown over
towards the right, and the clutch 74 and 76 are
engaged so that the shaft 70 is turned in one
direction of rotation through the bevel wheels
67 and 69. The drum 84 then winds up the chain
86, while the drum 85 pays out the chain 87
and the cover 2 is pulled up until the catches
102 and 103 engage. At the same time the pro-
jection 91 on the cover strikes against and
throws over the weighted lever 93 and this, in
fallijig, operates the fork 98, which throws back
the bracket to its mid-position, in which it is
held by a spring roller device 104 engages
between curved projections 108. The clutches
on the bracket are now out of engagement and
Elements of Water Gas
121
122 Elements of Water Gas
the cover remains in its raised position. At the
end of the blasting period the projection 83
strikes against the pin 80 and the lever T8
releases the catch 102 from 103, and simultane-
ously the shaft is clutched by the members 73
and 75 to the bevel wheel 68, and is, therefore,
turned in the reverse direction while the chain 87
is wound up on the drum 85 and the chain 86
is paid out from the drum 84. The tail piece 90
is therefore pulled up while the cover itself is
allowed to fall as its chain 86 is paid out, until
it is closed on its seating on the top of the gen-
erator. At this time the projection 92 on the
tail piece 90 strikes against the weighted lever
93 on the other side thereof, throwing it over in
the reverse direction and causing the fork 98
to move over in the other direction to bring the
bracket 77 back to its mid-position and to dis-
engage again the clutches on the said bracket,
in which position it is ready for the next open-
ing of the cover when the cam again moves the
sector 78.
The opening and closing of the cover is accom-
panied by the opening and closing of the slide 19,
and this is effected by means of the drums 110
around which are passed chains or cables 109.
Both of these cables pass around another pul-
ley 111, and one cable is attached to the front
Elements of Water Gas 123
end of the slide, while the other passes around
the flue and around another guide pulley 112 to
the rear of the slide. When the pulley 110
rotates the cable 109 is wound up on the said
pulley while the other cable is paid out, which
results in the movement of the slide in one direc-
tion. The reverse movement of the shaft 70
causes the slide to be moved back again to the
original position.
If the operation of this apparatus is now fol-
lowed it is seen that at the same time the cover 2
is raised the air blast is turned on at the valve 28
by means of the cam 57 on the 12-minute
shaft 25. As the blasting period continues the
steam boiler 11 at the top of the generator is
heated by the producer gases, during which time
the valve 18 has been nearly closed by the catch
106 so as to cut off the supply of water gas from
the boiler. At this period the rotating bucket 15
discharges a definite amount of fuel in the gen-
erator, after which the bucket continues its rota-
tion and takes in a fresh supply of fuel from the
hopper 14 in readiness for the next charging,
time when the cover is again raised. At the end
of the blasting period the cock 28 is closed as
the roller 58 runs down on the smooth part of
the cam 57, and simultaneous with this action
the cover 2 is lowered by the mechanism pre-
124 Elements of Water Gas
viously referred to. The closing of the cover also
effects the closing of the slide 19, and the move-
ment of the latter turns on the gas at the cock 18
by means of the catches 106 and 107, so that the
steam generator continues to be heated. At the
same time as the blasting period is being ended
the cam 56 causes the steam to be turned on at
the cock 39, and the outlet valve 33 to be opened.
This puts the generator on the up run for 150
seconds, after which the cock 39 and valve 33
are again closed and the blasting period recom-
menced for a period of 90 seconds. During the
next period of four minutes the sequence of oper-
ation is repeated for the second up run, and in
the third period the steam is turned on at the
top through cock 40 and the bottom outlet valve
32 opened, which puts the generator on the down
run, after which the shaft 25 has gone through
one period of rotation and the whole cycle is
again repeated.
ROTARY VALVES.
The most simplest form of automatic opera-
tion is undoubtedly that in which a series of
rotary valves are employed to control the inlet
and outlet ports. The system has been designed
especially to effect simplicity of control, and the
Elements of Water Gas
125
126 Elements of Water Gas
valves are arranged to rotate continuously in a
given period from a constant speed shaft, or are
provided with mutilated gearing so that the
valves are actuated in a rotary direction at the
time period desired, after which they remain
stationary during the run or blow while the
shaft continues to rotate until the gearing again
engages at the pre-determined time for the next
movement of the valve.
In addition to automatic operation the same
design of apparatus embodies a new feature in
connection with the oil injection, in which a cen-
trifugal fan is employed to draw blue water gas
from the generator off-take for the purpose of
injecting the oil. Briefly, the objects of this are :
(1) To atomize the oil and inject in a fine
mist.
(2) To preheat the oil by direct contact with
hot gases before entering the carburetter.
(3) To avoid dead holes in the carburetter by
insuring a perfect distribution of the oil over
the surface of the checkerbrick.
( 4 ) To wipe out the spray after each injection
and prevent carbon deposits therein.
For the purpose of illustration, the constantly
rotating valve system will be described, and
Fig. 41 shows a vertical section through part of
a carburetted water gas apparatus in which 1
Elements of Water Gas
127
ILL
128 Elements of Water Gas
is the generator and 2 the carburetter. The fuel
is supplied from the hopper 3 by means of a
revolving feed device 4, which delivers a meas-
ured charge of fuel into the chamber 5 at fixed
intervals, and a valve 6 allows the chamber 5
to communicate with the generator at the desired
time to pass the charge therein. The valve 6 is
actuated by mutilated gearing from the shaft 7,
which rotates once in each cycle.
The valve 8 admits air from the pipe 9 to the
generator, and valve 10 admits air to the car-
buretter by way of inlet 21. The valve 12 con-
nects the generator and carburetter, and rotates
synchronously with valve 8, so that when air is
admitted to the generator the valve 12 allows
the producer gases to pass to the carburetter,
and a few seconds later the valve 10 operates so
that air is passed to the carburetter for the com-
bustion of the producer gases.
Steam is admitted through the pipe 13 and
valve 14, which rotates once in three cycles so
that the steam is passed twice to the bottom for
the up run and once to the top for the down run
through pipes 23 and 22, respectively. The
water gas is led from the generator by way of
valve 11, which is synchronous with valve 14,
and rotates once in three cycles so that the gas
leaves the generator twice from the top and once
Elements of Water Gas 129
from the bottom in accordance with the admis-
sion of steam.
The valves 8, 10, 11, 12 are all operated from
one shaft 15. Oil is supplied through pipe 18,
and 19 is a centrifugal fan which draws gas from
pipe 16 and forces it through 20 for injecting
the oil. The oil and stack valves are operated
from the shaft 7 in a similar way at the same
time as the operation of the steam and outlet
valves, and will, therefore, need no illustration.
The sequence of operation is the same as in
the previous apparatus, and briefly it may be
stated that the process is controlled by two sets
of valves which effect the blasting and gasmak-
ing period at the required time, which is con-
trolled by the speed of the shafts 7 and 15.
The valve 11 is similar in construction to
valve 14 and is shown in Fig. 42 through the
section lines A, B, C, Fig. 41, where it is seen
that the valve has three ports which are placed
at an angle of 120° to each other, and open the
pipes 13', 14' and 14" in order. In the illustra-
tion the port 14" is shown open, while the port
13' will be opened on the next cycle and 14' on
the third cycle, when the valve will have made
one revolution and the order again commences.
The valves 8, 10 and 12 operate together, making
one revolution in each cycle, and open the ports
130 Elements of Water Gas
during the blasting period and close during the
gasmaking period.
In this design it is obvious that the operation
is of the simplest and most uniform nature and
that the plant will require little attention or
repair.
CHAPTER VIII.
ELECTRICALLY CONTROLLED PROCESS.
CARBURETTED WATER GAS.
In this design of apparatus the principle of
operation is that of electrically energizing a
member mounted on the valve to be operated in
accordance with a pre-determined cycle which
is controlled by a contact making and breaking
device.
The members energized consist of solenoids
for the smaller valves, and motors for the larger
valves, and by their use the automatic means
can be applied to any existing design of appa-
ratus or valve mechanism and ensure a substan-
tial and efficient operation in a speedy or
retarded manner as desired.
It is obvious that the scope of electrical
control is very broad and could be applied
to various combinations of mechanism with-
out departing from the principles hereafter
Elements of Water Gas 131
described. However, a description of all the
means of application is impossible in a work of
this kind, and for the purpose of illustration
the most simplest design will be referred to.
In Fig. 43 is shown a form of apparatus ol
the usual standard type with regards to the
generator, carburetter, superheater, and wash-
box, and is provided with the usual inlet and
off-take ports. The charging of the fuel into
generator 1 is effected from the hopper 2 by
means of a pair of rotating drums 3 and 4, the
upper one of which has a pocket which receives
fuel from the hopper each time the pocket comes
in the position shown. The drum 4 has also a
similar pocket, which is adapted to be turned
into a position to receive the fuel from the drum
3 when the latter is inverted, and on further
rotation the drum 4 causes the fuel to be dis-
charged into the generator at any period of the
run or blow which is found to be the most appro-
priate, according to the nature of fuel and work-
ing conditions. The shafts of the two drums
are connected together by chain gearing and
rotate in a given period, and since the drum 4 is
adapted to discharge into the generator when the
drum 3 is being charged from the hopper, the two
drums prevent the escape of any gas when charg-
ing is taking place, whilst at the same time the
132
Elements of Water Gas
Elements of Water Gas 133
heat of the machine is kept from the upper drum
and storage hopper and thereby avoids all risk
of the fuel being volatilized before entering the
generator. The lower shaft 6 receives its motion
from the shaft 5, which in turn receives its
motion from an electric motor driven through
gearing, the last element of which is a worm
wheel 7 on the shaft 5, which also is adapted to
give motion to shafts 8 and 9, on which are
mounted drums enclosed in a casing, which serve
to control the time of operation according to
the desired cycle.
The carburetter and fixing chamber 10 and 11
are arranged slightly different from the usual
manner, in that the two chambers are enclosed
within one shell, the purpose of which is to avoid
unnecessary loss of heat, and the admission of
air to these chambers is controlled by a valve
actuated by solenoid 13.
The solenoids 12, 13 and 14 each comprise a
coil 18, partially enclosed in an iron casing 19,
fixed in a certain position so that the coil acts
when energized upon armatures 20, carried upon
frames 21, which are of brass or other non-mag-
netic material, and is pivoted upon the axis 22.
The frames 21 also carries an arm 23, Fig. 44,
which is adapted to co-operate with a pair of
stationary contacts 24 and 25.
134
Elements of Water Gas
f 6J 6263
Elements of Water Gas 135
One terminal of each of the coils 18 is perma-
nently connected with the negative main 26 by
a wire 27, and the contact plates 24 and 25 are
connected by wires 28 and 29 with contact mem-
bers, which, through the intermediary of the con-
trolling drums, are adapted to be put in con-
nection with the positive main 30 for energizing
the solenoids. Assuming, then, that the wire
connected with the contact plate 25 of the sole-
noid 12 is put into communication with the posi-
tive main, the coil 18 is energized by way of
plate 25 and arm 23, and the solenoid attracts
the armature and moves it until it takes up a
central position relative to the iron casing 19.
As it reaches this point the arm 23 moves off the
contact plate 25 so that the connection with the
positive main is broken, and the solenoid thereby
becomes de-energized, at which period the inertia
of the armature 20 causes it to swing past its
central position and enables it to complete the
end of its movement by gravity. In the com-
pletion of this movement, the arm 23 is brought
in contact with plate 24, so that the circuit is
ready for the next energizing of the solenoid for
bringing the armature back through the reverse
movement to the position shown in Fig. 43. The
solenoids 13 and 14 operate in a similar way,
but in 14 an additional device is provided, the
136 Elements of Water Gas
object of which is to reduce the disadvantageous
effects of self-induction of the coil 18. This
device consists essentially of a resistance 31,
Fig. 45, which is connected with wire 27 and
also with terminal 32, and by such connection
it is obvious that on the movement of the arma-
ture 20 the arm 23 breaks contact with plate 25
and makes contact with plate 24 and closes the
circuit through the wire 28, the connection to
terminal 32 and resistance 31, instead of break-
ing it permanently as in the previous example.
In order to produce the reverse movement of the
solenoid with this additional device, it is neces-
sary to connect the terminal 32 with the wire 29
instead of 28, and to change the connection of
the positive main 30 to the wire 28 instead of
wire 29 as indicated by dotted lines.
The oil and stack valves on the carburetter
and superheater, respectively, are actuated from
an electric motor 33, which has permanently
Elements of Water Gas
137
connected with its shaft a centrifugal fan 34,
which draws water gas through the pipe 35 from
the generator off-take 36, and forces the gas
through the injector 37 by which it draws oil
from pipe 38 and sprays it into the carburetter
in a very fine mist. The motor 33 also has on Its
shaft an electro-magnetic clutch 39, Fig. 44, by
which the shaft is adapted to be put into opera-
tive connection with a pinion 40 driving a gear
wheel 41 on the shaft of which is a worm 42
driving a worm wheel 43, on the shaft 44, which
actuates the oil valve 45 and stack valve 46. The
shaft 44 also carries a controlling drum 47,
which is referred to later.
In the operation of the motor 33 and its asso-
ciated parts, one terminal of the motor, and one
terminal of the coil of the clutch 39 are perma-
Elements of Water Gas
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nently connected by the wire 48 with the nega-
tive main 26. The connections to the positive
main are made through the controlling drum 47
and the contact members shown in the lower
Elements of Water Gas 139
part of Fig. 44 coacting with the main con-
trolling drums 8 and 9, Fig. 43.
On opposite sides of drum 47 are mounted a
series of curved contact plates insulated from
each other, the end views of which are shown in
the upper and lower parts of Fig. 46. From the
side view of the drum, shown in Fig. 44, it is
seen that the plates are mounted on helical sur-
faces, so that as they rotate, they gradually press
the brushes 49 and 50 back, and then permit
them to snap on the next contact plate when the
end of the first contact plate is reached, which
action enables the circuit to be quickly broken.
The left-hand end of the drum 47 carries four
contact plates connected together in pairs, as
seen in the upper part of Fig. 46, and the right-
hand end of the drum has two contact plates,
as seen in the lower part of the figure. From
each end of the drum two connections pass to
the contacts of the main controlling drum, which
is adapted to put them at appropriate periods
into connection with the positive main 30. When
the drum 47 is in the position shown in Fig. 46,
and the wires 52 and 54 are put in communica-
tion with the positive main 30, the motor 33 com-
mences to rotate and at the same time the coil of
the clutch 39 is energized, so that, in addition
to driving the fan 34, the motor also rotates the
140 Elements of Water Gas
shaft 44 and actuates the valves 45 and 46, open-
ing the oil supply and closing the stack valve.
When these valves have moved to the required
extent, the next contact plate comes under the
brush 49 so that the circuit of the coil of the
clutch is broken, which causes the shaft 44 to
come to rest, while the motor continues to rotate
and drive the fan 34. The stoppage of the motor,
accompanied by the second operation of the
valves 45 and 46 at the end of the run, is brought
about by connecting the wire 51 with the posi-
tive main 30, and again energizing the clutch 39,
and causing the shaft to rotate through another
quarter of a revolution, at which the circuit of
the coil of the clutch, and the circuit of the motor
is broken at the brushes 49 and 50, respectively.
In re-starting the motor and energizing the
clutch at the end of the blasting period, the wires
53 and 52 are put in communication with
wire 30.
The movement of the valves 55 and 56, Fig. 43,
for the steam supply to the generator is effected
by the rocking of the armature 20 of the solenoid
12, through a lever 57, actuating a pair of con-
necting rods 58, which rotate the shaft 59
through pawls acting on a ratchet wheel. On
this shaft there is mounted a disc 60, having
pins projecting from the two sides so as to act
Elements of Water Gas 141
upon radial arms on the spindle of the valves 55
and 56. The pins acting on valve 55 project
from the rear of the plate, whilst those acting on
valve 56 project on the front of the plate, and
their disposition is such so as to obtain the cor-
rect timing of the opening and closing of the
valves, according to the desired cycle. In the
illustration it is assumed that the cycle of oper-
ation is two up runs and one down run, and four
pins are provided at the front of the plate so as
to open and close the valve 56 twice in succes-
sion, whilst two pins are arranged on the rear
of the plate so as to come into action after the
four pins referred to, and thereby open and close
the valve 55 once for each revolution of the plate.
By this means steam is caused to be admitted
twice to the lower part of the generator through
pipe 88, and once to the top part through pipe 87
in each cycle of three runs.
The main controlling drums 8 and 9 are
approximately cylindrical in form, and consist
of a series of plates, Fig. 47, which are adapted
to strike against the contact fingers indicated by
the circles in the lower part of the figure. The
plates are all connected together so that a posi-
tive current flows through them all, and the sur-
face of the plates are partly of metal and partly
of insulating material, according to the work of
142 . Elements of Water Gas
each, so that when the metal portion strikes the
contact finger the current is transmitted through
the finger to the valve mechanism to be operated.
The surface of the drum is not perfectly cylin-
drical but has steps form on it in front on the
leading edge of each part of the metal portion,
so that the spring contact members snap quickly
over from the raised part of insulating material
on to the next contact plate, and thereby estab-
lish the circuit rapidly, and bring about a cor-
responding rapid action on the valve mechanism
with which the respective circuits are associated.
The form of the drum is more clearly shown by
the section in Fig. 48, where contact plates are
shown located on the stepped body of insulating
material, and the direction of the drum is indi-
cated by the arrow.
It should here be noted that the breaking ot
the circuit does not occur at the drum, but at
contact members carried by movable parts of
the apparatus, so that it is not very material at
which point the contact plates end, but they
Elements of Water Gas 143
have, however, been shown as continued as far
as possible over the surface of the drum in the
direction of the movement, so that if the mem-
bers which have control should be accidentally
put back in a wrong position, the circuits will
be closed and the valve mechanism will move to
the position with which they are due to occupy
at definite parts of the cycle.
If the sequence of operation is now followed
it will be obvious that the proceeding is as fol-
lows: Commencing at the beginning of the
cycle, the contact 61, Fig. 47, is put into com-
munication with the positive main, and the con-
tact 68 has been previously connected with the
positive main and remain so connected at the
time.
This causes the shaft 44 to be rotated so as
to close the oil valve and open the stack valve,
and simultaneous with this action, the contact 62
is connected with the positive main which ener-
gizes the solenoid 12 and causes air to be passed
into the generator through the pipe 90 by the
rocking of lever 57, which actuates the valve.
At the same time the movement of the lever
imparts an angular displacement of the disc 60,
which causes the steam supply to be cut off at
one or the other of the valves 55 or 56, according
to the previous run. The producer gases pass
144 Elements of Water Gas
off by way of pipe 16, valve 15, and pipe 36 to
the carburetter 10 and superheater 11, and
finally through valve 46 and chimney 92. About
10 seconds after the contact 62 has been put into
connection with the positive main, the contact 63
is thus connected, and accordingly the solenoid
13 is energized, which opens the valve on pipe 91
and passes air into the carburetter and super-
heater, if desired.
The blasting period having been thus estab-
lished continues for 90 seconds, when contacts
64 and 65 are put into communication with the
positive main, which again energizes solenoids
13 and 12 and causes them to cut off the air
supplies to the apparatus, and simultaneously
open the steam supply. A few seconds after this
action, the contacts 66 and 67 are put into com-
munication with the positive main, by which the
motor is started, and the clutch 39 energized, so
that the shaft 44 is caused to turn and close
the stack valve and open the oil valve. The
clutch is then de-energized by the drum 47, pre-
viously referred to, while the motor continues
to run and drive the fan 34 for injecting the oil
into the carburetter. The condition has now
been established for a run of gas, and this con-
tinues for 150 seconds until the fuel needs reviv-
ing by the air blast.
Elements of Water Gas 145
The second run constitutes another up run
and the proceeding is exactly the same as just
described. When the drum has passed through
91/2 minutes of its rotation, which is equivalent
to the two runs and the third air blast, the con-
tact 71 is put into communication with main 30
and the contacts 69 and 70 are connected
together which produces the energizing of the
solenoid 14 and the movement of the valve mem-
ber 15 from the position shown in Fig. 43 to the
position in which the pipe 16 is cut off and the
pipe 17 opened. This operation synchronizes
with the closing of the air valve and opening of
the steam valve 55, so that the steam is passed
into the top of the generator and the gas passed
off at the bottom by way of pipe 17, which con-
stitutes the down run. This condition continues
for 150 seconds, when contact 69 is connected
with the positive main, and the contacts 70
and 71 are connected together, by which the
solenoid 14 is again energized and the valve 15
moved back to the position shown in Fig. 43
when the cycle again commences for another
up run.
In large installations where considerable fuel
is used, the drum 37 is geared with the shaft 5
at three to one, so that fuel is charged into the
generator at each cycle while the drum makes
146 Elements of Water Gas
one revolution in every three cycles in order
to bring about the up and down runs in the pro-
portion of two to one.
BLUB WATER GAS.
The automatic operation of blue water gas
apparatus by electrical means is practically the
same as in the previous example, and the pro-
ceeding is only slightly different in accordance
with the different construction and purpose of
the apparatus.
Keferring to Fig. 49, the part 96 is a tubular
steam boiler, and is connected with the gas gen-
erator with a flue section, which has a series of
apertures for the admission of air for completing
the combustion of the producer gases. This sec-
tion is also provided with a gas burner ring con-
trolled by the cock 83, which gives heat to the
boiler during the gasmaking period, and is
adapted to be almost turned off during the blast-
ing period when the top of the generator is
opened at 80 for the flow of producer gases.
The rod of the bell 80 is also connected by
links (not shown) to the apertures in the flue
section, so that these are partially closed when
the generator is closed and opened when the bell
is lowered. By this means the air supply is
Elements of Water Gas
147
148 Elements of Water Gas
reduced to the boiler during the run of gas, only
sufficient being admitted to burn the gas at the
burner ring.
The fuel is discharged from the bucket 3 and
to the bell 80 and then to the generator, and the
bell is suspended by means of a rod and chain
on a segment of one end of a lever 81, which is
pivoted at 97. The provision of a rod as one of
the connecting members insures that the bell can
be forced down by the pressure of one end of the
segment on the rod if it should be held up by
the pressure of gas or otherwise. The lever 81
is connected by a link with a crank on the spin-
dle of the cock 83, so that when the bell is low-
ered the cock is partially closed, and when the
bell is raised the cock is opened.
The lever 81 is actuated through solenoid 84
through the intermediary of a pin on a crank 85
working in a slot in the lever, and in the two
positions of rest the line of pressure acts along
the line of crank, and thereby exerts no turning
effect on the crank so that the weight of the fuel
can not force the bell down until the solenoid is
energized.
An additional valve 98 is provided on the gas
off-take 36, the purpose of which is to cut off
the gas holder from the machine when the bell
is lowered, and thereby prevent gas from return-
Elements of Water Gag 149
99
-23 29
12
28-
nrr
1001016Z66 lOZta 69 70-71
150 Elements of Water Gas
ing. It will be obvious that this valve has the
same purpose as the water seal in carburetted
water gas apparatus, but inasmuch as blue
water gas is essentially a mixture of hydrogen
and carbon monoxide, there is no tarry matter
to be removed, and in certain cases the seal could
be eliminated with advantages or substituted
with a specially designed washer-scrubber.
The valve 98 is actuated by solenoid 99, which
is similar to solenoid 84 and operates in con-
junction with it. The solenoid 84 is connected
with contact 100 and 101, and solenoid 99 with
contacts 102 and 103, Fig. 50.
In the operation of this plant, a controlling
drum is employed, the principle of which is the
same as in the previous example, but is slightly
different in regard to time and action in accord-
ance with the different conditions. As pre-
viously stated, a high pressure blast is usually
employed in blue water gas apparatus, and the
blasting period is reduced to one minute whilst
the runs of gas are approximately three minutes,
which makes the cycle at four minutes, or one
complete cycle of three runs at 12 minutes. The
controlling drum, which is shown diagramati-
cally in Fig. 51, is driven on the same shaft as
the charging apparatus, and makes one revolu-
tion to three of the latter, and, as seen from the
Elements of Water Gas 151
diagram, the solenoids all come into operation
practically at the same time, by which it is pos-
sible to simplify the connection by allowing
solenoids 12, 84 and 99 to be operated from the
same contact members. The diagram, however,
62 -O
at-o
is prepared on the assumption that it is desirable
for electrical consideration to maintain the cir-
cuits independent so that they are not connected
together except when the contact members are
on the metal part of the drum.
In view of the sequence of operation being
described in the carburetted water gas appa-
ratus, it is believed that a detail description is
not necessary in the blue gas apparatus, inas-
much as the action of the controlling drums on
the solenoids and valves is practically the same.
Briefly, the process is that of heating the bed of
fuel to incandescence by a powerful air blast for
a period of one minute, during which time the
steam boiler is being heated by the complete
combustion of the producer gases, after which
the air blast is cut off and steam admitted
instead for a period of three minutes, during
152 Elements of Water Gas
which time gas is generated and carried off to
the holder, and the steam boiler is heated by
water gas from a burner ring as herebefore
described.
It may here be pointed out that pivotal parts
connected with the valves and solenoids are pro-
vided with counterbalance weights which serve
to equalize the load during each of the two
strokes, and the valves have also the lever attach-
ment, each of which are connected by link
mechanism to a lever at a centralized point so
that in the case of an electrical breakdown the
valves can be operated by hand, and by centraliz-
ing the operation one or more valves can be oper-
ated simultaneously and thereby effect a rapid
changing action on the apparatus.
CHAPTER IX.
HYDRAULIC AND AIR SYSTEMS.
HYDRAULIC CONTROL.
A recently adopted system 'of automatic con-
trol is that of acting on the valve mechanism by
hydraulic power by means of a cam or tappet
arrangement which controls the source of power.
The object of this system is to provide means by
which the power can be turned on in a rapid
Elements of Water Gas
153
154 Elements of Water Gas
manner by the movement of a comparatively
small valve, and allow the water pressure in
turn to act upon cylinders and pistons which
are connected through link motion to the valve
mechanism on the gasmaking apparatus.
The apparatus valves associated with this
system are usually of the slide variety where the
pistons need to move in a vertical plane, and in
large valves which require to be moved through
a considerable distance in a limited time, a
series of hydraulical valves are provided, of
which there are one for each slide valve to be
operated. The hydraulic valves are in turn con-
trolled by a series of pilot valves 10, Fig. 52, of
which 11 and 12 are the inlet and outlet con-
nections. The stem of these valves project from
the casing at each end at 13 and 14 to the tappet
arms, and the valve body communicates with a
double acting piston and cylinder 15 by way
of 16 and 17. The pistons of each of the ele-
ments 15 are provided with hand lever 18, so
that the apparatus can be operated by hand if
desired. The valves 19 are connected through
stem 20 with the pistons of the elements 15, and
by their combination with the valves 10 the
pistons and cylinders co-operate in such a way
that a slight movement of the pilot valves 10
opens up large fluid ways to the valves 19 and
Elements of Water Gas
155
156 Elements of Water Gas
causes the slide valve on the gasmaking appa-
ratus to move quickly through a comparatively
long distance.
The inlet and outlet connections from valves
19 are provided at 21 and 22, Fig. 53, and 23
and 24 are connected from the said valves to the
apparatus valves pistons and cylinders. The
valves 19 are shown more fully in Fig. 53, and
are enclosed in a suitable casing, which is con-
nected with or carried by a frame 25 that sup-
ports the pilot valve pistons and cylinders, and
also other parts as hereafter described. The
inlet 21 is common to all these valves and also
the outlet 22, and the casing of the valves are
connected at 26 and 27 by means of suitable
openings which constitute inlet and exhaust
ports. The opening 27 at the left-hand end is
connected by a port 28, which communicates
with the outlet 22.
A pair of interconnected cam shafts are pro-
vided at 29 and 30, Figs. 52 and 54, and are
geared together by wheels 31, 32 and 33, and
move in the same direction from a source of
power which is usually an electric motor. The
said shafts are mounted in brackets 36 on the
frames 25, and each shaft is provided with tap-
pet or other projecting devices 37 and 38, of
which there is a pair for each pilot valve. The
Elements of Water Gas
157
158 Elements of Water Gas
tappets of each pair operate upon one of a pair
of spring retracted followers or tappet arms
39 and 40, which in turn operates respectively
upon opposite faces of a head 41 on the pilot
valve spindle. At the other ends of these arms
a roller 42 is provided, which has a knife edge 43,
and ordinarily runs on the rim of the cam, keep-
ing the knife edge clear of it. When the tappet
arm, however, is about to drop into the lower
part of the cam, the roller first runs into a
groove 44 in the cam, and permits the knife edge
to ride on the wear plate 45, and finally allows
it to drop into the low part 46. This results in
the tappet arm being quickly moved for the sub-
sequent operation of the apparatus valves. It
should here be noted that the function of the
two shafts with their respective cams and tap-
pets is to operate the pilot valves in opposite
directions, and the position of the tappets is
such that at the end of the movement the pilot
valves are left in a position relative to the opera-
tion of the gasmaking apparatus valves. The
regulation of the shafts and their cams can be
made by disengaging the wheel 32 and turning
the shaft 30 by applying a crank to the square
end 47, and meshing the wheel 32 to the desired
position. The shafts 29 and 30 drive through a
pair of gear wheels 48, two concentric dials 49
Elements of Water Gas 159
and 50, which serve to indicate the relative
angular position of the said shafts.
A shaft 51, which is revolvably supported in
the frame 25, is provided with tappet arms 52,
Fig. 52, so that when the shaft 51 is turned from
its normal position, its arms 52 push the pilot
valves into a position which correspond to one
of rest and safety of the valves on the gasmaking
apparatus. On the shaft 51 there is also an arm
53, which is subjected to the pull of a spring 54,
and also the pull of an electro-magnet 55.
When the circuit 56 is connected with a live
wire, the spring and electro-magnet balance each
other, and the parts associated therewith are in
the position shown, but on the failure of current
in the circuit the power of the spring predomi-
nates and turns the arm 53 into a position for
bringing the arm 52 into action on the pilot
valves. A circuit breaker 57 is provided in the
live circuit, and is connected to a weighted arm
58 that is held up by a diaphragm 59, which is
exposed to the fluid pressure system, which oper-
ates on the various apparatus valves. By this
means a safety device is obtained, in that if the
power in the fluid system fails, the circuit is
interrupted and the safety mechanism controlled
by the electro-magnet comes into operation. An
oxtra precaution is also provided in the form of
160 Elements of Water Gas
a pair of centrally pivoted dogs 60 and 61, Fig.
53, which are normally held in their position
(dotted lines) by springs, in such a way that
their inner ends 62 and 63 block the line of travel
of one of the handles 18, which is linked to the
stack valve and prevents the valve from being
closed and thereby leaves the apparatus in a
safe position. The handles 18 adjacent to the
stack valve handle constitute the generator and
carburetter air blast, and operate the tail of the
dogs 64 and 65 when pulled down and turn the
dogs into the position shown by full lines in
which their inner ends does not block the stack
valve handle. In this arrangement it is obvious
that the stack valve handle can not be pulled
down until the generator and carburetter blasts
have been pulled down, and when all the valves
are in the up position, it is evident that the air
blast must be cut off first before the stack valve
can be closed.
The operation of the process according to this
system may be briefly described as follows : The
speed of the shafts 29 and 30 is adjusted so that
each makes one revolution in each cycle of opera-
tion of the gasmaking apparatus. The cams 38
on the shaft 30 are set in respect to each other
that they cause the mechanism with which they
coact to move the valves at the end of the run
Elements of Water Gas 161
and commencement of the blast, and the cams 37
on the shaft 29 are set in their respective order
to move the valves at the end of the blast and
commencement of the run.
This condition continues while the mechan-
ism is in working order, and in the event of a
failing of power on the shafts, the safety device
comes into operation and leaves the apparatus
in a safe position, whereafter the machine can
be operated manually by levers 18 until the auto-
matic mechanism is repaired.
AIR CONTROL.
A modification of the latter apparatus is that
in which hydraulic pistons are employed to
actuate the apparatus valves, while the control
is affected by means of air pressures acting on
the fluids in the hydraulic cylinders.
The air control is a development of the former
apparatus, and its object is to produce greater
activity in turning on or off the source of power
and thereby speed up the movement of valves
passing through a long distance of travel, as in
the case of large gate valves which are usually
employed in connection with these systems.
The air controlling valves, Fig. 55, are
actuated from a constant speed shaft, which car-
162
Elements of Water Gas
ries a series of cams, of which there is one for
each valve to be operated. Each of the valves
on the gasmaking apparatus are self-closing,
with the exception of the stack valve, in the sense
that the operating levers 1, Fig. 56, are provided
with weights 2, which force down the rods 3
when the upward pressure is released. Attached
to each lever there is fluid cylinder and piston 4
connected by a pipe 5 to a reservoir 6. These
pipes have interposed in them a valve 7, the stem
of which is connected with levers 8, pivoted at 9,
and have their ends 10 in range of the cams.
When, the valves 7 are in the position shown
in Fig. 55, they correspond to the position of
the lever 8, shown in Fig. 56, so that the pipe 11'
is in communication by means of port 12 with
the exhaust pipe 13, but when the end of the
Elements of Water Gas
163
164 Elements of Water Gas
lever is raised the pipe 11 is put into communi-
cation with 11', which leads to the reservoir 6,
which in turn communicates with the cylinder
and pistons 4 of the apparatus valves.
The method of control of one valve is similar
in all the valves associated with the apparatus,
and the description may, therefore, be confined
to one. When the end 14 of the cam collides
with the end 10 of the lever 8, it opens the
valve 7, which causes a pressure of air to flow
from a compression tank by way of 11 and 11',
and into reservoir 6, where it acts on the fluid
and causes it to flow through the check valve 15
and lift the piston 4, connected to the lever 1,
which actuates the apparatus valves through
rod 3. At the end of the given period the action
of the cam on the point 10 ceases, and the spring
16 pulls down the lever and breaks the com-
munication of valve 7 with pipe 11', and allows
the air in reservoir 6 to escape through pipe 13.
This action causes the weight 2 to move the pis-
ton downwards and close the gasmaking appa-
ratus valves at the desired time as predetermined
by the length of the cam, which is adjustable at
each of the ends 14 and 17 by means of a slot and
pin connection.
The shaft 18 controls the operation on a cycle,
according to its speed of rotation, and is driven
Elements of Water Gas
165
166
Elements of Water Gas
by a clockwork arrangement. This consists of
a gear 19, Figs. 56 and 57, connected with the
clockwork, and a weighted lever 20, which is
Elements of Water Gas 167
adapted when released to arrest the pendulum 21
out of the plumb and stop the clockwork, and
also when restrained by the cord, it is adapted
to free the pendulum and consequently let it
swing and oscillate. A governor is also provided
to keep the shaft at normal speed, and consists
of pivotal arms 23, Fig. 58, which at normal
speed clears the projections 24, as illustrated by
dotted lines, but which, at an increase in speed,
strikes the projection and arrests the clockwork.
The arms constituting the governor are adjusta-
ble by winding the shaft 25 of the clockwork.
CHAPTER X.
CONSTRUCTION DEVELOPMENTS.
VALVE MECHANISM.
In the previous descriptions of automatic
operation it is obvious that the apparatus illus-
trated constitute three distinct principles of con-
trol, from which a variety of modifications may
arise, to be especially adaptable to any one par-
ticular design of apparatus valves. In the elec-
trical and mechanical arrangements, the valves
used are of the rotary and angle types, inasmuch
as these valves move through the smallest dis-
tance of travel in opening and closing, and
168 Elements of Water Gas
thereby effect a most rapid opening and closing
of the connections associated therewith, whilst
at the same time the valves are equally bal-
anced for movement in either direction. In the
hydraulic and air system of control it is evident
that the action is especially adaptable to valves
of the slide variety, in view of the fact that the
primary object is to effect a rapid action on
valves passing through a long distance of travel
by the movement of an air or hydraulic valve,
which is comparatively smaller, and thereby
only need move through a short distance in order
to apply the power to the apparatus valves.
It has been claimed, however, that the air
and hydraulic systems are more adaptable to
machines already in operation by manual labor,
inasmuch as the slide valve is almost universally
adopted in these plants, and that by applying
the automatic operation to apparatus without
the substitution of a different type of valve, a
less outlay of capital will be needed. Whilst
this claim may carry some weight with those
unskilled in the art, it is clear to the technical
man that the efficiency of the mechanical or
electrical operation on the valves illustrated is
much greater than the hydraulic or air systems
on the slide valve, and would more than compen-
sate the outlay of capital in substituting types
Elements of Water Gas 169
of valves especially suitable to automatic opera-
tion. It is clear, however, that the mechanical
means is equally adaptable to valves of the slide
variety, in view of the fact that the power can
be made to act in either a vertical or horizontal
plane, whilst positive action is assured at all
times. A convenient and substantial mechanical
arrangement applicable to valves of the slide
variety would be to provide a shaft running at
constant speed in accordance with the cycle, and
connected to the rack of the slide valve by means
of gear wheels, which are put into communica-
tion at the required time by sliding pinions actu-
ated by a lever or grooved cam. In this way a
rapid action would be obtained on the valves,
and such could be opened at any desired -speed,
according to the speed of the shaft and size of
the pinions. In the writer's opinion, however,
the slide valve is not to be recommended for
automatic operation, in view of the unequal
weight in its up and down movement, and com-
paratively long distance of travel, and it is
believed that the valves illustrated in the
mechanical and electrical methods possess a
much greater efficiency.
170 Elements of Water Gas
AUTOMATIC CLINKERING.
It has been shown that the importance of keep-
ing the fire in a healthy condition comes second
to none in the economical operation of water gas
apparatus, and various attempts have been made
to remove the ashes and clinker automatically.
It is well known that in the direct fired furnaces
as used in the generation of steam, there are
many designs of moving grates which have met
with a fair degree of success, but in water gas
apparatus, however, the conditions are more dif-
ficult, in view of the higher and variable tem-
peratures brought about by the alternation of
the run and blow, and also amount of fuel used
per square foot of grate area per unit of time.
In the methods that have been tried it is found
Jhat the larger masses of clinker could not be
successfully removed, whilst the movement of
the smaller ash was accompanied by the removal
of a comparatively large amount of small fuel,
and was, therefore, not economical. It was also
found that the grate bars suffer rapid deteriora-
tion by the heat brought down upon them during
the down run.
A modification of the rocking grate which may
claim to have a fair degree of efficiency is that
which is only moved occasionally at the most
Elements of Water Gas 171
suitable time. In this grate the bars are of ordi-
nary construction, and are adapted to be moved
at intervals of about 30 minutes for one or two
oscillations only. The period of oscillation takes
place immediately after the down run, and
breaks up the thin layer of clinker so that it falls
through the grate bars into a pit from which it
is carried away by a worm discharge working
in a water seal. The object of moving the bars
after the down run is that the clinker formed
during the next three blasting periods provide a
protection for the bars when they are subjected
to the heat under the pressure of the down run,
and in small installations where the clinker
formed would not be sufficient to form a layer
the design of the bars are such that they turn
over at each oscillation period and the surface
previously exposed to the fire is exposed to the
cooling action of the steam during the next
period of three cycles, so that the same surface
of the bars are only exposed to the influence of
the down run but once without being cooled by
the steam which enters Inmeath the grate during
the up run.
From the previous description of automatic
operation it will be clear that the bars can be
actuated at the required time in a variety of
ways, and this will need no further description.
172 Elements of Water Gas
In view of the fact, however, that the movement
of the bars is only required at certain times, it
may, in certain cases, be more economical to
move them manually by means of a lever which
may be connected to a source of power, or by a
wheel suitably geared down to the actuating
shaft.
CARBURETTING ZONE.
In injecting the oil into the carburetter it is
found that the top courses of brick suffer more
rapid deterioration than the rest of the appa-
ratus, which is partly due to the force of the
injection, and partly to the greater variation of
temperature at the beginning and end of the run.
During the air blasting period these top courses
of brick receive the greater percentage of sen-
sible heat from the generator, and are conse-
quently heated to a higher degree during the air
blast than the rest of the machine. When the
oil is injected these bricks are subjected to the
pressure of the injection and are splintered at
the result. It is to be noted, however, that the
temperature of the carburetter needs to be
higher at this point than the rest of the machine,
in order to supply an extra heat equivalent to
the "latent heat of vaporization" of the oil, and
the object of the carburetting zone is to provide
Elements of Water Gas 173
means by which the top of the carburetter can
be raised to a temperature which is compara-
tively higher than the rest of the fixing appa-
ratus, and thereby supply sufficient heat for the
vaporization of the oil at one centralized point
and enable the temperature of the fixing cham-
ber to remain more constant and consequently
lengthen the life of the brickwork contained
therein. Assuming that the pyrometer at the
bottom of the carburetter records 1,400° F., it
may generally be taken that the top of the car-
buretter is about 100° F. higher while the top
of the superheater is 100° F. lower, the gradual
fall in temperature being due to the vaporization
and breaking up of the oil as it passes through
the apparatus. If, then, the vaporization of the
oil could be centralized, a portion of the car-
buretter and superheater would remain at a
more constant temperature throughout, whilst
the centralized point or carburetting zone could
be filled with special constructed brickwork
adapted to withstand the higher temperature.
In order to raise this zone to a temperature
which is comparatively higher than the rest of
the apparatus, it is suggested that the walls of
the zone be built oval so that the blast gases are
given a circular motion, and instead of passing
direct through the apparatus, they repeatedly
174 Elements of Water Gas
react on the brickwork contained in the zone
and thereby give up a greater percentage of heat
within it. If the oil is then injected in a fine
mist by means of a fan or otherwise, and led
into the zone in a circular manner, the latent
heat of vaporization of the oil will be counter-
acted under the higher temperature and repeated
contact, and the rest of the apparatus will
remain at a more constant temperature and
break up the oil vapor to the required degree,
instead of subjecting the oil vapors to the vari-
able temperature and evitably producing excess
decomposition to a certain amount of the lighter
hydrocarbons.
i
SELF SEALING CAP.
At the stack valve or cap it is usual to pro-
vide a pilot light to burn up gases which are
liable to leak through the valve, as these gases,
when passed into the atmosphere unburnt, pro-
duce complaints from neighboring residents. It
is well known that this valve frequently becomes
coated with lampblack and tar, and occasionally
during working periods the waste of gas is com-
paratively large. It is obvious that this con-
dition could be easily and inexpensively rem-
edied by providing a cap with an outer rim
Elements of Water Gas 175
adapted to dip into a water seal when the cap
is closed. The escape of gas could then be passed
off through a pipe in the seal basin to the wash
box, or to a small holder of about 10 cubic feet
capacity, where it provides a good mixture for
an indicating photometer or for analytical pur-
poses. The seal and rim could be provided with
an opening extending to within one inch of the
cap seating for the usual pilot light to ignite
unburnt gases during the blasting period. .
NOTES ON CONSTRUCTION.
The engineer who is contemplating the erec-
tion of water gas apparatus will find it to
advantage to compute the cost of constructional
developments associated with the apparatus
before deciding upon a contractor's estimate.
Of course, local rates can usually be obtained for
excavation, concrete work, bricklaying and car-
pentry, but in the face of this the essential data
for obtaining such prices will generally be of
service.
EXCAVATION.
It will be in order to first consider the item
of excavation of a trench, say, five feet deep,
which included the leveling of the bottom and
176 Elements of Water Gas
fixing or removing planking. Assuming that the
ground is of ordinary description, the amount
of soil capable of being thrown out per man per
day of nine hours may be taken at nine cubic
yards, at a cost of approximately $1.50, or 16.66
cents per cubic yard, to which may be added one-
tenth for the laying and removing of planks,
which makes the cost at about 18.30 cents per
cubic yard, and it will also be well to provide
one-tenth for supervision, making the total cost
at approximately 20 cents.
CONCRETE.
The concrete floor of the generator house
should then be considered, and a mixture of one
part of cement to five parts of a mixture of
gravel and sand will, under ordinary conditions,
be found suitable. In view of the fact that the
sand and cement diminishes in volume when
mixed with water, the approximate quantities
per cubic yard may be taken as :
.75 cubic yards of gravel.
.50 " " » sand.
.25 " •" " cement.
25 gallons of water.
The cost of these materials varies consider-
ably, according to the location, and on the aver-
Elements of Water Gas 177
age may be taken at $2.10, to which 20 cents per
cubic yard should be allowed for laying and 10
per cent, for superintendence, making the total
cost at approximately $2.50 per cubic yard.
Assuming that the floor is to be laid at a thick-
ness of nine inches, one cubic yard will be equal
to four square yards of floor surface, which
makes the cost per square yard at $0.625.
BRICKWORK.
In computing the cost of brickwork it is well
to first consider the lime mortar, which may be
computed of one part lime to three parts of sand,
and 40 gallons of water per cubic yard. The
cost of these materials also vary greatly accord-
ing to location, and may be taken at $3.25 per
cubic yard, with an addition of 45 cents for
labor or $3.70 per cubic yard. Assuming the
brickwork to be one and one-half bricks in thick-
ness, the material desired per rod will be approx-
imately :
4,500 bricks at $10 per 1,000 $45.00
500 gallons of water 10
Bricklayers' time (four days at $5) 20.00
Laborers' time (four days at $1.50) 6.00
Scaffolding 1.50
178 Elements of Water Gas
Two cubic yards of mortar 7.40
$80.00
Ten per cent, superintendence 8.00
$88.00
This does not include pointing the building,
and if same is desired a 1 per cent, allowance
should be made.
COLUMNS AND GIRDERS.
On the roof and floor of a generator house it
is necessary to eliminate wood of any descrip-
tion and provide steel girders and columns, as
the temperature of the room and liability of
explosion would be an incentive to fire in the
presence of timber. The main girders are usually
about eight inches, and are built in the wall,
and extend the length and breadth of the build-
ing with supporting columns or angle irons at
about every ten feet. It is necessary to provide
for four-inch girders which are bolted at right
angles to the main girders at about every three
or four feet to receive the floor plates, which are
usually of cast iron.
The roofing is provided by extending six-inch
girders over the breadth of the building at dis-
Elements of Water Gas 179
tances of about 15 feet, upon which are placed
smaller girders at distances which vary accord-
ing to the roofing material. This may be of tiles,
slates, or corrugated iron, and the cost will vary
accordingly. With this data the amount of
girder and roofing material can be computed,
and this in combination with the cost of material
per ton will give the approximate cost per unit,
to which must be added a labor and superinten-
dence allowance.
CARPENTRY.
The item of carpentry and glaziers with ref-
erence to windows is subject to wide variation,
according to the location of the building and
the number of open sides, and also the supply
of material is purely a local proposition and in
general it will be more economical to obtain
estimates locally for frames and windows com-
plete.
APPENDIX
TEMPERATURE AND BAROMETRIC FACTORS.
Barometer.
Temp.
28.5
28.6
28.7
28.8
28.9
29.0
29.1
29.0
29.3
29.4
105.
.820
.823
.827
.830
.833
.836
.839
.842
.845
.848
104.
.823
.827
.830
.833
.836
.839
.842
.845
.848
.851
103.
.827
.830
.834
.837
.840
.843
.847
.849
.852
.855
102.
.830
.834
.837
.840
.843
.847
.850
.853
.856
.859
101.
.834
.837
.840
.843
.846
.850
.853
.856
.859
.862
100.
.837
.840
.843
.846
.849
.853
.856
.859
.862
.865
99.
.840
.844
.846
.850
.853
.857
.860
.863
.866
.869
98.
.844
.847
.850
.853
.856
.860
.863
.866
.869
.872
97.
.847
.850
.853
.856
.859
.863
.866
.870
.873
.876
96.
.850
.854
.857
.860
.863
.867
.870
.873
.876
.879
95.
.854
.857
.860
.863
.866
.870
.873
.876
.879
.882
94.
.857
.860
.863
.866
.869
.873
.876
.879
.882
.885
93.
.860
.863
.866
.869
.872
.876
.879
.883
.886
.889
92.
.863
.866
.869
.872
.875
.879
.882
.885
.889
.892
91.
.866
.869
.872
.875
.879
.882
.885
.889
.892
.895
90.
.869
.872
.875
.878
.881
.885
.888
.892
.895
.898
89.
.871
.875
.878
.882
.885
.889
.892
.895
.898
.901
88.
.875
.878
.881
.885
.888
.892
.895
.898
.901
.904
87.
.878
.881
.884
.888
.891
.895
.898
.901
.904
.907
86.
.881
.884
.887
.890
.894
.898
.901
.904
.907
.910
85.
.884
.887
.890
.893
.896
.900
.903
.906
.909
.913
84.
.887
.889
.893
.896
.899
.903
.906
.909
.912
.915
83.
.889
.892
.895
.899
.902
.906
.909
.912
.915
.918
82.
.892
.895
.898
.901
.905
.906
.911
.914
.918
.921
81.
.895
.898
.901
.905
.908
.911
.914
.917
.921
.924
80.
.898
.901
.904
.907
.910
.914
.917
.920
.923
.927
79.
.901
.904
.907
.910
.914
.917
.920
.923
.926
.930
78.
.904
.906
.909
.913
.916
.919
.923
.926
.929
.932
77.
.906
.909
.912
.915
.919
.922
.925
.928
.931
.935
76.
.909
.911
.915
.918
.921
.925
.928
.931
.935
.938
75.
.911
.914
.917
.921
.924
.928
.931
.934
.937
.940
74.
.914
.917
.920
.924
.927
.930
.933
.937
.940
.943
73.
.917
.920
.923
.926
.930
.933
.936
.940
.943
.946
72.
.920
.923
.925
.929
.932
.935
.939
.942
.945
.949
71.
.922
.925
.928
.931
.935
.938
.941
.944
.948
.951
70.
.925 .
.927
.931
.934
.937
.941
.944
.947
.950
.954
69.
.927
.930
.938
.937
.940
.944
.947
.950
.953
.957
68.
.930
.932
.936
.939
.942
.946
.949
.952
.956
.959
182
Elements of Water Gas
TEMPERATURE
AND
BAROMETER FACTORS.
Barometer.— (Continued. )
Temp.
28.5
28.6
28.7
28.8
28.9
29.0 29.1
29.0 29.3 29.4
67.
.932
.935
.938
.942
.945
.949 .952
955 .959 .962
66.
.935
.938
.941
.944
.948
.951 .954
958 .961 .964
65.
.938
.941
.944
.947
.950
.954 .957
960 .963 .967
64.
.941
.943
.946
.949
.952
.956 .959
963 .966 .969
63.
.943
.945
.949
.952
.955
.959 .962
965 .969 .972
62.
.945
.947
.951
.954
.958
.961 .964
968 .971 .975
61.
.947
.950
.954
.957
.961
.964 .967
971 .974 .977
60.
.950
.952
.956
.959
.963
.966 .969
973 .976 .980
59.
.952
.955
.959
.962
.966
.969 .972
976 .979 .983
58.
.955
.957
.961
.964
.968
.971 .975
978 .981 .985
57.
.957
.960
.963
.967
.970
.974 .977
980 .984 .988
56.
.960
.962
.966
.969
.973
.976 .979
982 .986 .990
55.
.962
.965
.968
.972
.975
.979 .982
985 .989 .993
54.
.965
.967
.970
.974
.977
.981 .984
988 .991 .995
53.
.967
.969
.973
.976
.980
.983 .986
990 .993 .997
52.
.969
.971
.975
.978
.982
.985 .989
992 .996 .999
51.
.971
.974
.977
.981
.984
.988 .991
995 .998
.002
50.
.974
.976
.980
.983
.987
.990 .994
997 1.001
.004
49.
.976
.979
.982
.986
.989
.993 .996
1
000 1.003
.007
48.
.979
.981
.985
.988
.992
.995 .999
1
002
.006
.009
47.
.981
.984
.987
.991
.994
.998
.001
1
005
.008
.012
46.
.984
.986
.990
.993
.997
.000
.004
1
007
.011
.014
45.
.986
.989
.992
.996
.999
.003
.006
1
010
.013
.017
44.
.989
.991
.994
.996
1.001
.005
.008
1
012
.015
.019
43.
.991
.993
.996
1.000
1.004
.008
.011
1
015
.018
.022
42.
.993
.995
.999
1.003
1.006
.010
.013
1
017
.020
.024
41.
.995
.998
1.001
1.005
1.009
.012
.016
1
019
.022
.026
40.
.998
1.000
1.003
1.007
1.011
.015
.018
1
022
.025
.028
39.
1.000
1.003
1.006
1.010
1.013
.017
.020
1
024
.027
.031
38.
1.003
1.005
1.009
1.012
1.016
.020
.023
1
027
.030
.034
37.
1.005
1.007
1.011
1.015
1.018
.022
.025
1
029
.032
.036
36.
1.007
1.009
1.013
1.017
1.020
.024
.027
1
031
.035
.038
3.3.
1.009
1.012
1.015
1.019
1.023
.026
.030
1
033
.037
.040
34.
1.012
1.014
1.018
1.022
1.025
.029
.032
1
036
.040
.043
33.
1.014
1.016
1.020
1.024
1.027
.031
.034
1
038
.042
.046
32.
1.016
1.019
1.023
1.027
1.030
L.034
.037
1
041
.044
L.048
.31.
1.019
1.021
1.025
1.029
1.032
1.036
.039
1
.043
.047
.050
30.
1.021
1.023
1.027
1.031
1.034 1.038
.042
1
045
.049
.053
29.
1.023
1.026
1.030
1.033
1.037 1.040
.044
1.048
.051
.055
28.
1.026
1.028
1.032
1.036
1.039 1.043
.047
1
050
.0.34
.058
Elements of Water Gas
TEMPERATURE AND BAROMETER FACTORS.
183
Barometer. — (Continued. )
Temp.
28.5
28.6
28.7
28.8
28.9
29.0 29.1 29.0
29.3 29.4
27.
1.028
1.030
1.034
1.038
.041
1.045 1.049 1.053
1
.056 1.060
26.
.030
1.033
1.037
1.041
.044
1.048 1.051 1.055
1
.059 1.082
25.
.033
1.035
1.039
1.043
.046
1.050 .054 1.057
1
.061 1.065
24.
.035
1.037
1.041
1.045
.048
1.052 .056 1.060
1
.064 1.067
23.
.037
1.040
1.044
1.048
.061
1.055 .058 1.062
1
.066 1.069
22.
.040
1.042
1.046
1.050
.063
1.057 .061
.065
1
.068
.072
21.
.042
1.044
1.048
.052
.065
1.069 .063
.067
1
.071
.074
20.
.044
1.047
1.051
.065
.058
1.062 .065
.069
1
.072
.076
19.
.047
1.050
1.054
.068
.061
1.065 1.068
.072
1
.076
.079
18.
.050
1.052
1.056
.060
1.063
1.067 1.070
.074
1
.078
.082
17.
1.052
1.055
1.059
.062
1.066
1.069 1.073
.076
1
.080
.084
16.
1.065
1.057
1.061
.064
1.068
1.071 1.075
.079
1
.063
.086
15.
1.057
1.059
1.063
.066
1.070
1.074
.077
.061
1
.085
.068
14.
1.069
1.062
1.066
1.069
1.073
1.076
.080
.084
1
.087
.091
13.
1.082
1.064
1.068
1.071
1.075
1.078
.082
.086
1
.090
.094
12.
1.064
1.066
1.070
1.073
1.077
1.080
.084
.088
1
.092
.096
11.
1.066
1.069
1.073
1.076
1.080
1.083
.067
.091
1
.095
.098
10.
1.069
1.071
1.075
1.078
1.082
1.086
.090
.093
1
.097
.101
9.
1.071
1.073
1.077
1.081
1.084
1.088
.092
.095
1
.099
.103
8.
1.073
1.076
1.079
1.083
1.087
1.090
.094
.098
1
.102
.105
7.
1.076
1.078
1.082
1.085
1.089
1.093
.096
.100
1
.104
.108
6.
1.078
1.080
1.084
1.088
1.091
1.095
.099
.103
1
.107
.111
5.
1.080
1.083
1.087
1.090
1.094
1.098
.102
.105
1
.109
.113
4.
1.083
1.085
1.089
1.092
1.096
1.100
.104
.108
1
.111
.115
3.
1.085
1.088
1.092
1.095
1.099
1.103
.107
.111
1
.114
.118
2.
1.088
1.090
1.094
1.098
1.101
1.105
.100 •
.113
1
.117
.121
1.
1.090
1.093
1.097
1.100
1.104
1.108
.111
.115
1
.119
.123
0.
1.093
1.095
1.099
1.103
1.107
1.111
.114 1.118
1
.122
.126
184 Elements of Water Gas
BAROMETER.
Temp. 29.5 29.6 29.7 29.8 29.9 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 30.4 30.5
105.
.851
.855
.858
.861
.864
.867
.871
.874
.878
.881
.884
104.
.854
.858
.861
.864
.867
.871'
.874
.878
.881
.884
.887
103.
.858
.862
.865
.868
.871
.874
.878
.881
.885
.888
.891
102.
.862
.865
.868
.871
.874
.878
.881
.885
.888
.891
.894
101.
.865
.868
.872
.875
.878
.882
.885
.888
.891
.895
.898
100.
.868
.872
.875
.878
.881
.885
.888
.891
.895
.898
.901
99.
.872
.876
.879
.882
.885
.889
.892
.895
.898
.902
.905
98.
.875
.879
.882
.885
.888
.892
.895
.898
.902
.905
.908
97.
.879
.882
.885
.888
.891
.894
.898
.901
.905
.908
.911
96.
.882
.886
.889
.892
.895
.898
.901
.904
.908
.911
.914
95.
.885
.889
.892
.895
.898
.901
.904
.907
.911
.914
.918
94.
.888
.892
.895
.898
.901
.904
.907
.911
.914
.918
.921
93.
.891
.895
.898
.901
.904
.907
.910
.914
.918
.921
.924
92.
.894
.898
.902
.904
.907
.910
.914
.917
.921
.924
.928
91.
.898
.902
.905
.908
.911
.914
.917
.921
.924
.928
.931
90.
.901
.905
.908
.911
.914
.917
.920
.924
.927
.931
.934
89.
.904
.907
.910
.914
.917
.920
.923
.927
.931
.934
.937
88.
.907
.910
.913
.917
.920
.923
.926
.930
.934
.937
.940
87.
.910
.913
.916
.920
.923
.926
.929
.933
.937
.940
.943
86.
.913
.916
.919
.923
.926
.929
.932
.936
.940
.943
.946
85.
.916
.919
.922
.926
.929
.932
.936
.939
.943
.946
.949
84.
.919
.922
.925
.928
.932
.935
.939
.942
.946
.949
.952
83.
.921
.924
.928
.931
.935
.938
.942
.945
.949
.952
.955
82.
.924
.927
.931
.934
.937
.941
.945
.948
.951
.954
.958
81.
.927
.930
.934
.937
.940
.944
.948
.951
.954
.957
.960
80.
.930
.933
.937
.940
.943
.946
.950
.954
.957
.960
.963
79.
.933
.936
.939
.943
.946
.949
.953
.956
.960
.963
.967
78.
.936
.939
.942
.946
.949
.952
.956
.959
.962
.966
.969
77.
.938
.942
.945
.948
.951
.955
.958
.962
.965
.968
.972
76.
.941
.944
.948
.951
.954
.958
.961
.964
.968
.971
.975
75.
.943
.947
.950
.954
.957
.960
.963
.967
.971
.974
.978
74.
.947
.950
.953
.957
.960
.963
.966
.970
.973
.977
.980
73.
.949
.953
.956
.960
.963
.966
.969
.972
.976
.980
.983
72.
.952
.955
.959
.962
.965
.968
.972
.975
.979
.982
.986
71.
.954
.958
.961
.965
.968
.971
.975
.978
.981
.985
.989
70.
.957
.960
.964
.967
.970
.974
.977
.980
.984
.988
.991
69.
.960
.963
.967
.970
.973
.977
.980
.983
.987
.990
.994
68.
.962
.966
.969
.972
.976
.979
.983
.986
.989
.993
.997
67.
.965
.968
.972
.975
.979
.982
.985
.989
.992
.996
1.000
66.
.968
.971
.974
.978
.981
.985
.988
.992
.995
.998
1.002
65.
.970
.973
.977
.980
.984
.987
.991
.994
.997
1.001
1.005
Elements of Water Gas
BAROMETER.— (Continued.)
185
Tern
p 29 "i
29 6
29.7
29.8
29.9
30.0
30.1
30.2
30.3
30.4
30 5
64.
63.
.973
975
.976
.979
. .980
.982
.983
.985
.986
.989
.990
.993
.994
.996
.997
1.000
1.000
1.003
1.004
1.006
1.008
1 010
62.
.978
.981
.985
.988
.991
.995
.999
1.002
1.006
1.009
1.013
61.
.981
.984
.987
.991
.994
.998
1.001
1.004
1.008
1.011
1.015
60.
.983
.986
.990
.993
.997
1.000
1.004
1.007
1.010
1.014
1.017
59.
.986
.989
.992
.995
.999
1.003
1.006
1.010
1.013
1.016
1.020
58.
.988
.992
.995
.998
1.002
1.005
1.009
1.012
1.016
1.019
1.023
57.
.991
.994
.997
1.000
1.004
1.007
1.011
1.014
1.018
1.021
1.025
56.
.993
.996
1.000
1.003
1.007
1.010
1.014
1.017
1.021
1.024
1.028
55.
.996
.999
1.002
1.006
1.009
1.013
1.016
1.020
1.023
1.027
1.030
54.
.998
1.001
1.005
1.008
1.012
1.015
1.019
1.022
1.026
1.029
1.033
53.
1.000
1.004
1.007
1.011
1.014
1.018
1.021
1.025
1.028
1.031
1.035
52.
1.003
1.006
1.010
1.013
1.017
1.020
1.024
1.027
1.031
1.034
1.038
51.
1.005
1.009
1.012
1.016
1.019
1.023
1.026
1.030
1.033
1.037
1.040
50.
1.008
1.011
1.015
1.018
1.022
1.025
1.029
1.032
1.036
1.039
1.043
49.
1.010
1.014
1.017
1.021
1.024
1.028
1.031
1.035
1.038
1.042
1.045
48.
1.013
1.016
1.020
1.023
1.027
1.030
1.034
1.037
1.041
1.044
1.048
47.
1.015
1.019
1.022
1.026
1.029
1.032
1.030
1.040
1.045
1.047
1.050
46.
1.018
1.021
1.025
1.028
1.032
1.035
1.039
1.042
1.046
1.049
1.063
45.
1 090
1 024
1 027
1 031
1 034
1.038
1.041
1 045
1 048
1 052
1 056
44.
1.022
1.026
1.029
1.033
1.036
1.040
1.043
1.047
1.050
1.054
1.058
43.
1.025
1.029
1.082
1.036
1.039
1.043
1.046
1.050
1.053
1.057
1.060
42.
1.027
1.031
1.034
1.038
1.041
1.045
1.048
1.052
1.055
1.069
1.063
41.
1.030
1.032
1.037
1.041
1.044
1.048
1.051
1.055
1.058
1.062
1.065
40.
1.032
1.036
1.039
1.043
1.046
1.050
1.054
1.057
1.060
1.064
1.068
39.
1.035
1.039
1.042
1.045
1.049
1.053
1.056
1.059
1.063
1.066
1.070
38.
1.037
1.041
1.044
1.048
1.051
1.055
1.058
1.062
1.065
1.069
1.073
37.
1.039
1.043
1.046
1.050
1.053
1.057
1.060
1.064
1.068
1.072
1.076
36.
1.042
1.045
1.049
1.052
1.066
1.060
1.063
1.067
1.071
1.074
1.078
35.
1.044
1.048
1.051
1.055
1.058
1.0C2
1.065
1.069
1.073
1.076
1.081
34.
1.047
1.050
1.054
1.057
1.061
1.064
1.068
1.072
1.075
1.079
1.083
33.
1.049
1.053
1.056
1.060
.063
1.067
1.070
1.074
1.078
1.082
1.086
32.
1.051
1.055
1.068
1.062
.066
1.069
1.073
1.077
1.081
1.085
1.089
31.
1.054
1.057
1.061
1.064
.068
1.072
1.075
1.079
1.083
1.087
1.091
30.
1.056
1.060
1.063
1.067
.071
1.074
1.078
1.082
1.086
1.090
1.094
29.
1.058
1.062
1.065
1.069
.073
1.076
1.080
1.084
1.088
1.09-2
1.006
28.
1.061
1.065
1.068
1.072
.075
1.079
1.083
1.087
1.091
1.093
1.099
27.
1.063
1.067
1.070
1.074
.078
1.082
1.086
1.090
1.094
1.098
1.102
26.
1.066
1.069
1.073
1.077
.080
1.084
1.088
1.092
1.096
1.100
1.104
25.
1.068
1.072
1.075
1.079
.083
1.086
1.090
1.094
1.098
1.102
1.106
24.
1.071
1.074
1.078
1.081
.085
1.089
1.093
1.097
1.101
1.105
1.109
23.
1.073
1.076
1.080
1.084
.088
1.092
1.095
1.099
1.103
1.107
l.lll
186
Elements of Water Gas
BAROMETER.— (Continued..)
Temp. 29.5 29.6 29.7 29.8 29.9 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 30.4
30.5
22.
.075 1.079 1.083 1.086 1.090 1.094 1.098 1.102
.106 1.110 ]
L.114
21.
.078 1.081
.085 1.089 1.093 1.096 1.100 1.104
.108 1.112 ]
L.116
20.
.060 1.084
.087 1.091 1.095 1.099 1.103 1.107
.111 1.115 ]
L.118
19.
.083
.087
.090 1.093 1.098 1.102 1.106 1.110
.114 1.118 1.121
18.
.085
.089
.093 1.097 1.100
.104 1.108 1.112
.116 1.120
L.124
17.
.088
.091
.095 1.099 1.102
.106 1.110 1.114
.118 1.122
L.126
16.
.090
.094
.099
.101 1.105
.109 1.113 1.117
.121 1.125 1.129
15.
.092
.096
.100
.103 1.107
.111 1.115 1.119
.123 1.127 1.131
14.
.095
.099
.102
L.106 1.110
.114 1.117 1.121
.125 1.129 1.133
13.
.097
.101
.105
.109 1.112
.116 1.120 1.124
.128 1.132 1.136
12.
.100
.103
.107
.111 1.115
.119 1.122 1.126
.130 1.134 1.138
11.
.102
.106
.110
.114 1.117
.121 1.125 1 129
133 1 137
141
10.
.105
.108
.112
.116 1.120
.123 1.127 1.131
.135 1.139
L.143
9.
.107
.111
.114
.118 1.122
.126 1.130 1.133
.137 1.141
1.145
8.
.109
.113
.117
.121 1.125
.128 1.132 1.136
.140 1.144 1.148
7.
.112
.115
.119
.123 1.127
.131 1.135 1.139
.143 1.147
.151
6.
.114
.118
.122
.126 1,130
.133 1.137 1.141 1.145 1.149
.153
5. 1.117
.120
.124
.128 1.132 ]
.136 1.140 1.144 1.148 1.152
.156
4. 1.119
.123
.126
.130 1.134
.138 1.142 1.146 1.150 1.154
.158
3. 1.122
.126
.129
.133 1.137 1
.141 1.145 1.149 1.153 1.157
.161
2. 1.125
.128
.132
.136 1.140 ]
.144 1.148 1.152 1.156 1.160
.164
1. 1.127 1.131
.135
.139 1.143
.146 1.150 1.154 1.158 1.162
.166
0. 1.130 1.133
.137
.141 1.145
.149 1.153 1.157 1.161 1.165
.169
TEMPERATURE FACTORS.
Note: The preceding factors are calculated from the formula
17. 64 (b— a)
f= — — in which (b) is the height of the barometer, (a) is the
460 + t
tension of aqueous vapor, and (t) is the temperature fahrenheit. For
instance, if the barometer is 30.0 and the temperature 100°, the factor
will be:
17.64(30—1.918)
f= — — =.885
460 + 100
Elements of Water Gas 187
AQUEOUS VAPOR TENSION.
Temp. F°
Mercury ins.
Temp.
Mercury.
1
—
.046
51
=
.374
2
- —
.048
52
=
.388
3
-
.050
53
=•
.403
4
_
.052
54
=
.418
5
—
.054
55
=
.433
6
=
.067
56
=
.449
7
—
.060
57
=
.465
8
_
.062
58
=
.482
9
=
.065
59
=
.500
10
—
,.068
60
=
.518
11
—
.071
61
=
.537
12
—
.074
62
=
.556
13
—
.078
63
=
.576
14
=
.084
64
=
.506
15
=
.086
65
=
.617
16
—
.090
66
=
.639
17
—
.004
67
=
.661
18
—
.098
68
=
.685
19
—
.103
69
=
.708
20
—
.106
70
=
.733
21
=
.113
71
=
.759
22
=
.118
72
=
.785
23
=
.123
73
=
.812
24
=
.129
74
=
.840
25
=
.135
75
=
.868
26
=
.141
76
=
.877
27
=
.147
77
=
.927
28
=
.153
78
=
.958
29
=
.160
79
=
.990
30
=
.167
80
=
1.023
31
=
.174
81
=
1.057
32
=
.181
82
=
1.092
33
=
.188
83
=
1.128
34
=
.196
84
=
1.165
35
=
.204
85
=
1.203
36
=
.212
86
=
1.242
37
=
.220
87
=
1.282
38
=
.229
88
=
1.323
39
=
.238
89
=
1.366
40
=
.247
90
=
1.401
41
=
.257
91
=
1.455
42
—
.267
92
=
1.501
43
=
.277
93
=
1.548
188 Elements of Water Gas
AQUEOUS VAPOR TENSION.— (Continued.)
Temp. F° Mercury ins. Temp. Mercury.
44 .288 94
45 .299 95
46 .311 96
47 .323 97
48 .335 98
49 .348 99
50 .361 100
596
646
751
.918
Elements of Water Gas
189
CENTIGRADE
AND FAHRENHEIT SCALE.
Cent.
Fahr.
Cent,
Fahr. Cent.
Fahr.
Cent.
Fahr.
0 =
32.
0
26
=
78.8
51
B
123.8
76
a
168.8
1 =
33.
8 '
27
80.6
i>-2
Bl
125.6
77
a
170.8
2 =
35.
6
28
=
82.4
a
=
127.4
78
a
172.4
3 =
37.
4
29
33
84.2
54
B
129.2
79
-
174.2
4 =
39.
2
30
33
86.0
55
B
131.0
80
a
176.0
5 =
41.
0
31
S
87.8
H
B
132.8
81
B
177.8
6 =
42.
8
32
=
89.6
57
=
134.6
82
=
179.6
7 =
44.
6
33
=
91.4
H
B
136.4
83
a
181.4
8 =
46.
4
34
33
93.2
59
=
138.2
84
a
183.2
9 =
48.
2
35
=S
95.0
00
B
140.0
85
a
185.0
10 =
50.0
36
ss
96.8
61
B
141.8
86
-
186.8
11 =
51.
8
37
33
98.6
88
a
143.6
87
i
188.6
12 =
53.
6
38
33
100.4
68
a
145.4
88
a
190.4
13 =
55.
4
39
3=
102.2
81
=
147.2
89
a
192.2
14 =
57.
2
40
33
104.0
65
rr
149.0
90
B
194.0
15 =
59.
0
41
S3
105.8
88
B
150.8
91
=
195.8
16 =
60.
8
42
3S
107.6
67
35
1-52.6
92
=
197.6
17 =
62.6
43
33
109.4
08
B
154.4
93
s
199.4
18 =
64.
4
44
S3
111.2
80
a
156.2
94
a
201.2
19 =
66.
2
45
33
113.0
70
a
158.0
95
B
203.0
20 =
68.
0
46
3=
114.8
71
a
159.8
96
=
204.8
21 =
69.
8
47
B
116.6
7:2
s
161.6
97
=
206.6
22 =
71.
6
48
S3
118.4
7:-:
a
163.4
98
a
208.4
23 =
73.
4
49
=
120.2
74
a
165.2
99
a
210.2
24 =
75.
2
50
=
122.0
75
^
167.0
100
212.0
25 =
: 77.0
SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF
GASES.
Weight of 1
Cubic Foot
in Grains
at60F.
Cubic Feet
Spec. Grav.
and 30.0
Equal to
Gas.
(Air=1.00)
Barometer
1 Pound.
Hydrogen
Methane
Carbon M
Olefiant <
Nitrogen
Oxygen (
Hydrogen
Carbon E
Water V:
(H2)
(CH4)
[onoxide (CO)
3as (OH.V..
0.06926
0.558
0.9678
0.971
0.97137
1.10563
1.1912
1.529
0.615
37.15
297.20
520.10
520.10
520.10
594.40
631.54
817.30
334.85
188.42
23.65
13.46
13.46
13.46
11.77
11. (W
8.56
20.93
(N2)
:o2> .
Sulp
>i"Xi'lt
ipor i
Z~ 4>
hide
; (CO
;H.Q).
(H.S)
) "
190 Elements of Water Gas
BOILING POINTS OF WATER AT DIFFERENT PRESSURES.
Temp. F° Bar. ins. Temp. Bar. ins.
184 16.676 201 28.937
186
17.047
202
24.441
186
17.421
203
25.014
187
17. 803
204
2~).4<>S
188
18.196
205
25.992
189
18.593
206
26.529
190
18.992
207
27.068
191
19.407
208
27.614
192
19.822
209
28.183
193
20.254
210^
28.744
194
20.687
211
29.331
195
21.124
212
29.922
196
21.576
213
30.516
197
22.030
214
31.120
198
22.498
215
31.730
200
23.454
216
32.350
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