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1984 |

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im the Collection of the
Cooper-Hewitt Museum

The Smithsonian
Institution’s
National Museum
of Design

Embroidered
Samplers

in the Collection of the
Cooper-Hewitt Museum ,

The Smithsonian
Institution’s
National Museum
of Design

Cover

Bristol, Rhode Island, 1802
Embroiderer: Mary Follet, age 12

Silk on plain-weave linen

Sutches: cross, stem, chain, running
Dimensions: 21 x 16% inches

Bequest of Gertrude M. Oppenheimer
1981-28-132

Inside cover

first row:

cross stitch (looping backward
movement)

feather stitch

eyelet stitch

second row:

plaited braid sutch
rococo (queen) stitch
French knot

third row:

long-armed cross stitch
marking cross stitch
wrapped cross

Frontispiece

England, first half of 17th century

Silk and metal-wrapped silk on plain-weave
linen

Sutches: tent, half cross, chain, running, satin
plaited braid, back

Dimensions: 20 x 7 inches

Bequest of Gertrude M. Oppenheimer
1981-28-83

Photographs by Scott Hyde
Design by Abigail Sturges
Type by AA Typeart, Inc.
Printing by Meridan-Stinehour

© 1984 by The Smithsonian Institution
All rights reserved

Library of Congress Catalog No. 83-73735
ISBN 0-910503-43-5

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Foreword

Most of the Cooper-Hewitt’s delightful collection of nearly one thousand
samplers stem from the generosity of two donors, Mrs. Henry E. Coe, who
made an important bequest in 1941, and Gertrude M. Oppenheimer,
whose bequest came forty years later, in 1981. Each collector had a
different focus. Mrs. Coe, who had written the book American Samplers with
Ethel Stanwood Bolton in 1921, clearly preferred the work of American
and English embroiderers, while Miss Oppenheimer’s interests lay in the
work of The Netherlands and Germany. Gifts from Emily Coe Stowell and
Rosalie Coe, Mrs. Coe’s daughters, from Eleanor and Sarah Hewitt, the
founders of the Museum, and from other generous donors have also
enriched the collection.

The last few years have seen an increasing number of requests to study
the Museum’s samplers, a reflection of the general interest in folk and
country styles. This publication and its accompanying exhibition,
Embroidered Samplers, along with Gillian Moss’s Stitch Guide, are intended to
bring the Cooper-Hewitt’s collection to an even wider audience. The New
York State Council on the Arts has provided funds for the project. The
Andrew W. Mellon Foundation has also given support.

Lisa Taylor
Director

1. Boston, the Province of Massachusetts
Bay, 1734

Embroiderer: Ann Peartree

Silk, paper, and metal-wrapped silk on
plain-weave linen

Stitches using silk: cross, satin, running,
herringbone, back, stem, couching
Stitches using metal-wrapped silk: stem,
satin

Dimensions: 14% x 11% inches

Bequest of Gertrude M. Oppenheimer
1981-28-157

Ann Peartree was the daughter of
Katherine Peartree, who was granted a
license by the Selectmen of Boston to sell
strong drink at retail. In 1744 Ann Peartree
and her mother died of smallpox.

he intimate world of childhood, domesticity, and the schoolroom was the
world of the embroidered sampler. Almost without exception, samplers were
stitched by young girls who were attempting to master the techniques of
such future tasks as mending, darning, marking household linens, and
creating decorative accessories. A child often worked her first sampler at the
age of five or six and later stitched several others as she mastered new and
more complicated techniques. (Not until the twentieth century did it become
fashionable for adult women to make samplers.) Overall, the needlework of
these young children was of high quality, although the pedagogic mistakes of
childhood — backwards letters, reversed numerals, and misspelled words —
occasionally asserted themselves.

Perhaps it is inevitable that the nostalgia evoked by looking at an object
produced by a child who lived hundreds of years earlier intrudes upon
scholarly analysis; yet a group of samplers speaks of a locality, a region, or a
country, and a study of samplers can lead to insights into the roles of
children and women, as well as into the history, politics, and economics of a
particular country or period. The foundation fabric and embroidery
threads, the stitches, the combination of techniques, the design, and the
shape of a sampler all give clues to where it was made and when.

The foundation fabric used for samplers was almost always plain-weave
linen, cotton, or wool, of a density varying from a loose weave that made
stitches easy to count, to a weave so tight that counting stitches would have
been impossible. In Britain and Northern Europe foundation fabrics were
specially manufactured in twelve- to fifteen-inch widths, with blue threads at
the selvages.

Silk was the most frequent choice for embroidery thread, although
alternatives existed in some regions. Wool was used in Northern Europe and
in Spain. Linen and metal-wrapped silk embroidery threads enlivened
English samplers in the seventeenth century, and by the nineteenth century,
cotton thread had become available virtually everywhere and was commonly
intermixed with more expensive silks.

A consideration of two English works in the Cooper-Hewitt collection,
both made by the same child, one a year later than the other, suggests the
importance of materials in the overall appearance of a sampler. The earlier
sampler, which is the more elaborate of the two, technically and visually, is of
silk embroidery on a linen foundation, while the second was worked with
wool embroidery on a wool foundation. The most likely explanation for
what would otherwise appear to be a decline or loss of needleworking skills
is that the wool itself proved to be an impediment and is responsible for the
crudity of the work.

5

2. Friesland or Groningen, United Provinces
(The Netherlands), 1774

Embroiderer: I.V.S., age 15

Silk on plain-weave linen

Stitches: running (pattern darning), eyelet,
cross

Dimensions: 19 x 20 inches

Bequest of Gertrude M. Oppenheimer
1981-28-251

In this darning sampler, ten squares of
foundation fabric were cut out and
discarded. The remaining holes were then
filled with darning in patterns that
simulated plain weave and various twills.

Stitches can reveal a sampler’s origin, since the use of some was limited
to certain countries. Among those that serve as guides are plaited braid done
in metal-wrapped silk, which is found only on seventeenth-century
English samplers; surface satin, which appears on American samplers;
wrapped cross stitch, used on Spanish samplers; Aztec stitch, used only in
Mexico; and a combination of half cross stitch with double running stitch, which
was used in Turkey.

While it would seem that the surest and most direct way to determine
the origin of a sampler would be through an examination of its design, the
study of motifs must be approached cautiously.

Many of the motifs on European samplers can be traced to designs
published in various European pattern books. Johannes Sibmacher’s book
Neues Modelbuch in Kupffer gemacht, published in Nuremberg in 1604, and
Peter Quentel’s book, Eyn new kunstlich Boch, published in Cologne in 1527,
were frequently consulted sources. Some of their more popular patterns
were pirated by other printers and can be found on the samplers of
Germany, The Netherlands, England, and even Mexico. A considerable
number of the motifs found on samplers may have had symbolic meaning
originally, but through the generations they were repeated often enough so
that many grew to be clichés and were routinely stitched by young girls who
were unfamiliar with their associations.

In the United States, a schoolteacher was often responsible for the
arrangement of a pattern. This must have been the case for an 1838
sampler in the Cooper-Hewitt collection (see figure 15). The piece shows a
large Gothic Revival church erroneously identified as St. Paul’s Chapel. (St.
Paul’s was a Greek Revival building constructed in New York in 1790.) The
sampler is almost an exact match with another 1838 sampler that came up
for auction in 1981. It has been discovered that the two girls who stitched
these lessons lived in southern New Jersey, one in Egg Harbor, the other in
Perth Amboy. Presumably they were schoolmates, both under the tutelage of
a schoolmistress who was confused about the identity of an illustration of St.
Thomas Church that appeared in the the New York Mirror in 1829, about six
years before the structure was finally consecrated.

Frequently an instructor combined a geography or history lesson with a
stitchery exercise. Historical events were popular in English samplers. A
man peering out from the branches of a tree on an English sampler in the
Cooper-Hewitt collection represents Charles II hiding in the Boscobel oak,
an event with which all English school children were familiar. In an English
sampler embroidered by S. Edwards in 1814, we are told that “the Allies
entered Paris March 31, 1814,” a reference to the allied advance on Paris
that resulted in the abdication of Napoleon. On samplers from The
Netherlands, a country that foreign powers tried to dominate for centuries,
“The Maid of The Netherlands in a Dutch Garden” was a popular symbol of

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3. Northern Germany, 1879
Embroiderer: B.U.

Silk and cotton on plain-weave cotton,
gauze-weave silk and 2/2 wool twill
Stitches: cross, herringbone, threaded
herringbone, overcasting

Dimensions: 18% x 18'/4 inches

Bequest of Gertrude M. Oppenheimer
1981-28-318

There is one fabric patch in each of the
squares of this patch sampler except in the
square with initials, which has two. On the
five patterned fabrics, the patch has been
carefully matched to the pattern.

liberty, even when the country was responsible to foreign powers.

Religious scenes were popular on samplers in both northern and
southern Germany. The black-robed figure of Martin Luther is seen
frequently on the samplers of northern Germany, while in the southern,
predominantly Catholic states, the crucifixion is dominant.

In most European countries, sampler motifs are a combination of
religious and domestic themes. Human figures usually represent characters
from a Bible story: Adam and Eve, the Wise Virgins, the spies of Eskol, Jacob
wrestling with the angel, or Cain slaying Abel.

With the exception of Adam and Eve, religious and secular motifs are
rarely found combined in English and American samplers. Instead, ordinary
people are portrayed, conducting the routines of their daily lives.

The custom of including a maxim or uplifting verse on a sampler was
by no means universal. On most European samplers, lettering was limited to
repetitions of the alphabet. In England, toward the end of the seventeenth
century, verses and cautionary maxims began to appear on samplers.
Sometimes the texts were long, with several verses of a poem. An English
early eighteenth-century sampler advises us, “he sharpness of a needle
profit yields and pleasure. The sharpness of a tongue bites out of measure.”
In a continuation of the English tradition, American samplers from
Massachusetts and Rhode Island often included cautionary texts.

Deciphering the names and initials on a sampler can be challenging,
and familiarity with local customs can help in understanding the names.
Usually a girl’s first choice was her own name or initials. Often she would
include her parents’ names and initials, using her mother’s maiden name.
When a sampler was made in school the instructor’s name or initials might
be included, as well as the initials of schoolmates and friends. When the
names or initials of a man and woman were used together, they were usually
the names of the girl’s parents; only occasionally a girl would combine her
name with the name of her betrothed.

In some instances the lettering style may help locate the origin of a
sampler; for example, elaborate block letters were used in the Frisian
Islands, off the coast of The Netherlands (see figure 4). In many European
communities the local alphabet did not contain the letters Y and Z.
Frequently V served for both V and U, and J served for both / and J. In
seventeenth-century England, and occasionally in eighteenth-century United
States, Q was both a backwards P and Q, with both forms being used at the
same time.

A specific type of sampler known as the darning or mending sampler
developed in northern Europe (figure 2) in the eighteenth century. Darning
simulated the structures of the fabrics that the northern European
housewife could expect to encounter in her own home—plain weave, twills,
and knitting —and the skills the embroiderer acquired in stitching a darning

9

4. Frisian Islands, United Provinces (The
Netherlands), 1696

Silk on plain-weave linen

Stitches: satin, eyelet, four-sided, cross,
whipped running, French knot, withdrawn
element work with needlemade fillings.
Dimensions: 141% x 17% inches

Bequest of Gertrude M. Oppenheimer

198 1-28-242

The small figures at the lower left represent
Christ and the Wise Virgins (Matthew
25:1-12), a cautionary parable advocating
preparedness.

sampler were later used to mend tablecloths, napkins and sheets.

To make a darning sampler, the embroiderer cut holes in the woven
foundation fabric and then carefully darned the hole back in, using silks of
different colors for woven warps and wefts, so that both the embroiderer
and the instructor could see if the threads were interlacing properly. In
some cases the embroidery was done through the cloth, without cutting
holes in the foundation fabric.

Some of the most technically skilled darning samplers were made in
The Netherlands, usually by girls who were about fifteen years old and who
had previously mastered the simpler techniques of the pattern sampler. In
the Dutch language there are different words for the several variously
shaped holes: corner, square, three-corner, and staircase.

English darning samplers were quite different from the Continental
ones. Usually the center was decorated with a bouquet of flowers tied with a
ribbon. In the United States a few darning samplers were produced,
although they were not common and were never as decorative or as skilled
as European and English versions.

The skill of patching fabrics with a piece of the same fabric was also
practiced on samplers in Northern Europe (figure 3). The technique
involved placing the patch so skillfully that there was no visible change in the
pattern or weave.

Another kind of sampler, the marking sampler, which was particularly
important in Germany, was stitched specifically as preparation for
embroidering monograms and identifying numbers on towels, tablecovers,
and sheets. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, European families
had to mark their household linens with embroidered initials, monograms,
and numbers so that the linens could be reclaimed after they had been sent
to the bleach fields, a practice that was repeated annually.

Various methods were used to finish the edges of samplers. Nineteenth-
century Italian samplers have cut, unhemmed edges with no protection
against fraying. Samplers from Northern Europe were often carefully
completed with decorative hem-stitching (figure 4). And others have been
found that are still sewn to the inch-wide linen tape that the student basted
to the sampler before starting the embroidery. The tape was then lashed to
an embroidery frame to ensure a taut working surface. In still other
instances, the hemming was almost casual.

The tradition of framing samplers so that they can be hung on a wall is
not European, but was occasionally practiced in Great Britain and the
United States. Samplers made at some of the more fashionable schools were
framed —either by the school or by the families when the girls brought their
work home. The majority of samplers, however, were left unframed. It has
been the descendants of the embroiderers, or dealers and collectors, who
have decided that samplers should be framed.

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5. United Provinces (The Netherlands),
second half of 18th century

Silk on plain-weave linen

Stitches: rococo (queen), stem, cross
Dimensions: 12% x 194 inches
Bequest of Gertrude M. Oppenheimer
198 1-28-51

The Netherlands

Dutch samplers display a wide range of styles and a high level of
needlework, starting with the earliest of the samplers, which date from the
seventeenth century.

The samplers were worked on linen, although in the eighteenth
century, Dutch schoolgirls frequently used cotton as a foundation fabric, a
practice unheard of in the rest of Europe where the fabric was still a luxury.
The embroidery threads were silk, linen, or wool, and by the nineteenth
century, cotton thread had also become a choice. The samplers were made
in a variety of shapes, from squares to horizontal or vertical rectangles, with
a tendency in the eighteenth century for girls in larger cities such as
Amsterdam or Middelburg to choose the square. Sometimes the edges were
elaborately finished with hem stitching and needlemade picot edging.

Regional characteristics developed in Dutch samplers that make it
possible to attribute many of them to a city or specific region of the country.
Friesland is responsible for one of the more distinct bodies of work, partly
because of its alphabet, which is unmistakable with its blocklike letters
ornamented with curlicues, and partly because of such characteristic motifs
as tightly worked bands of geometric patterns (figure 4).

Frequently a Dutch sampler includes a coat of arms or another
traditional symbol of the city in which it was worked: paired rabbits indicate
the city of Amsterdam; a single rabbit, that of Middelburg. Sometimes
buildings can be identified: Lange Jan, a yellow brick tower in Middelburg,
was embroidered on a 1764 sampler in the Cooper-Hewitt collection.

Dutch samplers rarely include religious texts or maxims, although
occasionally a personal note is added such as that on a Frisian sampler in the
Cooper-Hewitt collection that records the names of two men who built a mill
in the embroiderer’s town in 1721.

More than the needlework of any of the other European countries,
Dutch needlework reveals the nation’s political history. Centuries of
struggling against larger and more powerful states can be seen in political
images such as “The Lion Holding the Sword and Arrows” and “The Maid
of The Netherlands in a Dutch Garden,” both symbols of freedom.

The eighteenth-century “Dutch rococo samplers” form another group
of distinctive needlework (figure 5). The samplers were decorated with
flowers and hearts executed in rococo stitch, a stitch that was tightly massed
to decorate such diverse accessories of the period as shoes and psalters.

In the nineteenth century, uniquely Dutch motifs gave way to romantic
motifs such as the pastoral landscapes and floral bouquets that were popular
throughout Europe.

The embroiderer’s name or her initials, the monograms of family
members and instructors, and the date are usually included on Dutch
samplers. In the nineteenth century, the age of the embroiderer was
sometimes added, too.

13

Germany

Scandinavia

6. Northern or central Germany, 1796

Silk on plain-weave cotton

Sutches: cross, satin, eyelet, double running
Dimensions: 13/4 x 14 inches

Bequest of Gertude M. Oppenheimer
1981-28-190

A considerable number of German samplers have survived, the earliest of
which date from the first half of the seventeenth century.

Until the nineteenth century, when cotton became widely available,
linen was always used for the foundation of German samplers and silk for
embroidery thread. In shape, northern German samplers were usually
square, while from the seventeenth century on, those from southern
Germany were vertical rectangles. In both regions, the practice pieces were
almost always hemmed in a tidy manner.

Samplers made in northern Germany are much closer in appearance to
the samplers of Scandinavia and The Netherlands than to those of southern
Germany. Those made in the Vierlande, a region in the north, on the Elbe
River, are sombre pieces embroidered in black with circular motifs. The
Cooper-Hewitt collection contains a sampler from northern Germany on
which the young embroiderer has carefully stitched a Hebrew alphabet and
the Old Testament scene of Cain slaying Abel (figure 6). In the Roman
Catholic south, a large crucifixion scene often dominates the center of a long
vertical sampler, with bands of pattern beneath and/or above the symbol.
Occasionally one finds southern German samplers with motifs from the Old
Testament. Adam and Eve, when they appear, are plump and jolly (figure
7). The samplers of Central Europe had taken on a characteristic look as
early as the seventeenth century, due to a preference for floral motifs
worked in cross stitch (figure 8).

Texts were unusual on German samplers until the nineteenth century,
when a few sentimental inscriptions and fragments of verse began to appear.
Religious maxims are sometimes found on the long, narrow samplers from
southern Germany. Most German samplers are dated and monogrammed.

Scandinavian samplers are generally more sedate and restrained than those
from the Continent or Great Britain. The variety of stitches on the sampler
is reduced, and indeed, the sampler itself is slightly smaller in size,
suggesting that the young girl who stitched the sampler already had been
imbued with a sense of thrift and economy.

Wool was regularly used in Scandinavian samplers, both for foundation
fabric and embroidery thread. The white deflected element sampler was an
exception; in this type, white embroidery thread was used to deflect the
warps and wefts of a piece of woven white linen or cotton from their
horizontal and vertical alignment in order to create an openwork effect.

Many of the motifs found on Scandinavian samplers also appear on
samplers from northern Germany and The Netherlands, although their
arrangement is different. One image of uniquely Scandinavian appeal is the
Biblical story of the woman of Samaria at the well with Christ.

The date and a number of personal monograms are usually present on
Scandinavian samplers, but the embroiderer’s full name is not given.

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Stitches: two-sided cross, half cross, satin
Dimensions: 214 x 13% inches
: Vf) Bate Eee se Bequest of Mrs. Henry E. Coe
CR et LE ae 1941-69-247
8. Bohemia (Czechoslovakia), 1683
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2G El ¢ ay Bequest of Gertrude M. Oppenheimer
SERENE onan emmanayy 198 1-28-184

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9. France, 1832

Embroiderer: V.P.Q.

Silk on plain-weave linen
Stitches: cross, satin, back
Dimensions: 9° x 10% inches
Bequest of Mrs. Henry E. Coe
1941-69-66

Italy

France

Samplers were stitched in Italy from the seventeenth through the twentieth
centuries, but eighteenth-century samplers are rare.

Seventeenth-century Italian samplers were worked on large squares of
linen as well as on long, narrow rectangles. Silk or linen threads were used
to embroider patterns around all four edges of the sampler, with no attempt
to present a “picture.” The bands of pattern on these samplers are generally
composed of a variety of motifs, each repeated only once or twice.

Nineteenth-century Italian samplers are the most prevalent. In shape,
they are usually horizontal rectangles with cut, unhemmed edges.
Embroidery was done in silk, linen, or cotton thread. While alphabets are
commonly present on these samplers, verses and maxims are not. The
alphabet is always introduced by a cross, the traditional way of starting the
alphabet in Roman Catholic countries. Usually a number of religious and
domestic motifs, including animals and people, are depicted within a variety
of floral borders. Often a chinoiserie design is included, and frequently
several different border patterns are used on the same sampler.

The cross stitch on an Italian sampler was always worked with two
separate journeys of the needle and thread across the cloth, each journey
making a half cross stitch. This creates a row of double parallel lines along
the back of the foundation, which can be used for identification.

Italian girls often signed and dated their samplers.

The relatively small number of French samplers in existence suggests that
fewer samplers were made in France than in other European countries,
although it is difficult to assess to what extent the scarcity of examples is due
to the apparent lack of interest that the French have shown for studying or
preserving this part of their heritage.

Linen was used as the foundation fabric for eighteenth-century French
samplers, with silk for embroidery thread. In the nineteenth century, cotton
was often preferred. Sizes and shapes of French samplers vary, and the
edges were sometimes finished and sometimes not.

Designs on French samplers are similar to those on Belgian, English, and
Italian samplers, and therefore cannot be used as a method of determining
the country of origin. Nor is the presence of a French text reason alone to
ascribe a work to France, since schoolgirls in England and the United States
were sometimes assigned French texts for their samplers (see figure 18).

One possible way of authenticating a French sampler is through the
identification of stitch techniques. In all of the nineteenth-century French
samplers in the Cooper-Hewitt collection, cross stitch is the predominant
stitch (figure 9), and it is made in a peculiarly French way, with one passage
of the needle and thread across the cloth, in a looping backward movement.

Another distinguishing factor is that a French girl usually included her
age on her sampler, along with her name and the date.

19

Spain

Mexico

10. Spain, 1802

Silk on plain-weave cotton

Sutches: satin, cross, running, back, four-
sided, chain, eyelet

Dimensions: 27! x 26% inches

Bequest of Gertrude M. Oppenheimer
198 1-28-421

Text:

Leizo Agustina Barero discipula ded. Rosa Artiaga
Seremato eldia u de diciembre del anode 1802
(Made by Agustina Barero, student of Rosa
Artiaga Seremato, December 11, 1802)

Spanish samplers were not regularly dated until the nineteenth century, and
consequently it has been difficult to determine a chronology for the
seventeenth- and eighteenth-century examples that exist.

Spanish samplers are almost always filled with geometric bands of
pattern arranged in one of three ways: a receding square on a sampler
approximately two feet square (figure 10); vertical columns positioned on a
larger vertical rectangle; or a long, horizontal rectangle, smaller in size than
the other two. On this last, the embroidery consists almost entirely of
running stitch. Each of the three types has its distinctive coloring. The
receding square arrangement is colored with bright pastels and is worked in
silk threads; the vertical column is worked in shades of natural and blue,
using linen and wool; and the horizontal rectangle is stitched with brightly
colored wool, linen, or cotton.

The name of the embroiderer, the name of the teacher, and the date
are often included on the square samplers. The Cooper-Hewitt collection
has two samplers of almost identical design, one made in 1820, the other, in
1826, which read in translation, “I made this in the house of my teacher,
Maria Coller.” The other types of samplers have neither text nor alphabets.

Mexican samplers are filled with vitality, exuberance and bright color (figure
11), and the needlework is often of very high quality. During the period that
Mexico was a colony of Spain, from 1519 until 1821, education was
controlled almost exclusively by the Church. In the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries, a number of European religious orders sent nuns to
Mexico who taught needlework in convent schools. Consequently many of
the individual motifs on Mexican samplers are European, although there are
a great number of uniquely Mexican touches. In some cases a particular
style can be associated with a specific school. The Cooper-Hewitt collection
has two similar samplers made by different students at the Academy at
Puebla in 1852 (figure 12) and 1853.

A list of uniquely Mexican sampler types and characteristics would
include white samplers, samplers of withdrawn element work, samplers
worked with glass beads, and those with elaborate needlemade edges.

Sometimes Mexican motifs are incorporated with European motifs. A
motto frequently embroidered on Mexican samplers was “Ni me doy ni me
presto, solo di me duena soy.” (“I do not lend or give myself, I keep myself
only for my master.”) “My master” refers not to a man but to the Church.

A uniquely Mexican embroidery technique is the “Aztec stitch.” To
work it, warp and weft threads of the foundation fabric are withdrawn from
the cloth at spaced intervals, leaving a regular grid of foundation fabric
squares. Embroidery stitches are worked diagonally across the squares, each
stitch wrapping once or twice around remaining groups of elements before
returning and wrapping in the opposite direction.

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Silk on plain-weave cotton

Stitches: long-armed cross, whipped
running, satin, roumanian, fern
Dimensions: 14% x 18% inches
Bequest of Gertrude M. Oppenheimer
1981-28-341

NO

12. Puebla, Mexico, 1852

Embroiderer: Refugio Gavino, student in
the Puebla Academy

Silk on plain-weave cotton

Stitches: satin, stem, knot

Dimensions: 17! x 28°/4 inches

Bequest of Gertrude M. Oppenheimer
1981-28-395

Text:

Lo hizo Refugio Gavino en lan enserianza de la
Academia de Puebla en el mes de Agosto del ano
de 1852.

(Made by Refugio Gavino under the
instruction of the Puebla Academy in the
month of August, 1852.)

Great Britain

United States

Samplers from England and other parts of the United Kingdom offer a rich
variety of styles and stitches—a diversity that may reflect Britain’s well-
established ties with other European countries.

Several styles of samplers were being made in England in the
seventeenth century, including the isolated motif type (figure 13) and the
various band-type samplers (see frontispiece).

Most seventeenth-century British samplers were long, narrow
rectangles. The foundation fabric was prepared by cutting an eight- to ten-
inch length of linen fabric from a two- to three-foot-wide selvage width of
linen. The long, cut edges were hemmed and the embroidery was worked
across the shorter dimension. Bands of openwork, raised work, and solid
embroidery were usually combined on these samplers. Often bands of
colored silks were worked in intricate patterns and stitches. Sometimes the
entire piece was in white. Later, still, in the seventeenth century, whitework
bands were combined with bands of colored embroidery, alphabet and texts.
Two or three letter A’s started the alphabet, followed by one version of each
of the other letters.

A number of new styles developed in Great Britain in the eighteenth
century, including the most familiar sampler format, a combination of a
picture, a verse, and a repetition of alphabets.

Some British samplers can be associated with specific schools. The
Museum has two samplers signed Ackworth School. Ackworth was a Quaker
school in Yorkshire, England, that became a model for some of the
Quaker schools in the United States. One of the pieces is a simple darning
sampler, which would have had practical application, since the female
students at Ackworth were expected to make and mend their own clothes,
along with all of the linen for the school and the boys’ underclothing. The
other Ackworth sampler is a closely filled arrangement of circular motifs
and numbers.

Scottish samplers derive from English work, while having definite
characteristics of their own. Often a large house dominates the center of the
sampler (figure 14). One house, with a peaked gable, four columns at the
front, and a garden enclosed by a picket fence, appears on several different
Scottish samplers, with variations in the windows, the mortaring, and the
roof tiles.

In the samplers of the British Isles, the embroiderer included her name
and the date, although she generally omitted her age.

While sampler-making traditions came to America with the first European
settlers, samplers from the seventeenth century are extremely rare. The
earliest American samplers in the Cooper-Hewitt collection were made in
Boston in 1729 and 1734 (see figure 1). The collection contains other
samplers made in Massachusetts and Rhode Island before the Revolutionary

24

13. England, mid-17th century

Silk and metal-wrapped silk on plain-weave
linen

Stitches using silk: tent, half cross, chain,
running

Stitches using metal-wrapped silk: back,
crossed chain, plaited braid, chain, ladder,
wrapping, looping, interlaced looping
Dimensions: 21 x 14 inches

Bequest of Gertrude M. Oppenheimer
1981-28-38

Following pages

14. Scotland, probably Edinburgh, late 18th
or early 19th century

Embroiderer: Bridget Rule

Silk on plain-weave wool

Stitches: cross, satin, back, rococo (queen),
double running

Dimensions: 127/44 x 114 inches

Bequest of Gertrude M. Oppenheimer
1981-28-85

The names of the schoolmistresses, Mrs.
McConochie and Mrs. Hog, have been
embroidered on the sampler. The initials
are probably those of schoolmates.

15. Southern New Jersey, 1838

Embroiderer: Elizabeth Scull, age 8

Silk and beads on plain-weave wool

Stitches: cross, satin, stem, chain, buttonhole,
feather

Dimensions: 162 by 13 inches

Bequest of Gertrude M. Oppenheimer
1981-28-108

Elizabeth Scull was the daughter of Lydia and
John Scull of Egg Harbor, New Jersey.

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With Liny dear children may she have o part
Awd write thy a ame thy: self uponher heart

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16. Made at the New York African Free
School, New York, April 1803
Embroiderer: Mary Emiston

Silk on plain-weave linen

Stitches: cross

Dimensions: 11 x 16% inches

Bequest of Gertrude M. Oppenheimer
1981-28-77

The African Free School, founded in 1787
by the New York Manumission Society, was

a coeducational school that taught practical
skills.

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Following pages

17. Probably New York or Connecticut,
about 1800

Embroiderer: Lucy Lathrop

Silk on plain-weave linen

Sutches: cross, long-armed cross, tent, stem,

rococo (queen), satin, eyelet, chain
Dimensions: 14 x 1234 inches
Bequest of Marian Hague
1971-50-158

18. Baltimore, Maryland, June 1823
Embroiderer: Louisa Nenninger, age 8
Silk on plain-weave linen

Stitches: cross

Dimensions: 17% x 17% inches
Bequest of Gertrude M. Oppenheimer
1981-28-78

Text:
Louis Seize connoit les pertes qu'on déplore
(Louis XVI knew deplorable losses)

Déja de nos beaux jours on voit brillert aurore
(We already see the dawn of our beautiful
days)

Louisa Nenninger, daughter of Louisa
(Kohlstadt) and John Nenninger, was born
in 1815. Louisa married Richard Connelly
in December 1841.

War, in the 1750s, ’60s, and 70s. Many of these pre-Revolutionary samplers
include both the date the sampler was made and the embroiderer’s
birthdate, information that is of great help in determining where the girl
lived. Without such specific information, genealogical research is difficult;
towns were frequently settled by related families, and often two or three
people in a township had the same name.

As might be expected American samplers reflect patterns of
immigration. Samplers made in Massachusetts, which was settled largely by
the British, use English motifs. In certain cases it is difficult to distinguish a
Massachusetts sampler from an English sampler. Samplers made in
Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, which was settled largely by emigrants from
Germany, display many of the same motifs found on German samplers. The
exceptions are samplers made in schools along the Susquehanna River. The
blocked format of these is similar to that found in some English samplers
and can perhaps be attributed to the British names of some of the teachers:
Mrs. Leah Mequier’s (McQuire) and Mrs. Buchanan’s names appear on two
Cooper-Hewitt samplers.

Many of the larger schools had their students produce samplers that are
distinctive enough to be associated with that school. All the students
produced essentially the same sampler, varying the verse or the placement of
details. When one is familiar with the styles of the various schools, it is
possible to make correct attributions. Only rarely was the name of the school
stitched on the sampler (figure 16).

American contributions to sampler making include the family record
sampler and samplers with black backgrounds (figure 17). In the Middle
Atlantic states the backgrounds were closely worked with black cross stitch,
while in Bristol, Rhode Island, long and floating black stitches were used.

Beginning in the 1820s and ’30s, larger samplers, of approximately two
by two and one-half feet, were preferred, and they were worked with larger
and fewer kinds of stitches.

Samplers continued to be made by American schoolgirls at the
beginning of the twentieth century, but after World War I, they were
stitched primarily by adult women who regarded the craft as a nostalgic and
sentimental one.

In addition to samplers from all of the countries of Great Britain,
Europe, and North and South America, samplers from the Far East, China,
and Sri Lanka are occasionally found in needlework collections. These pieces
were usually commercial endeavors, however, prepared for a Western
market. It is the embroidered samplers of the West, made for prosaic
reasons, yet imbued with the individuality of their makers and the stamp of
their time, that have gained in appeal as the years have passed.

Gillian Moss
29

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2

Selected Bibliography

Bolton, Ethel Stanwood and Eva Johnston Coe. American Samplers.
Massachusetts Society of the Colonial Dames of America, 1921. Reprint.
New York: Dover Publications, 1973.

Cavallo, Adolph S. Needlework. The Smithsonian Illustrated Library of
Antiques. New York: Cooper-Hewitt Museum, 1979.

Clabburn, Pamela. Samplers. Aylesbury, England: Shire Publications
Ltd., 1977.

Fawdry, Marguerite and Deborah Brown. The Book of Samplers. New York:
St. Martin’s Press, 1980.

King, Donald. Samplers. London: Victoria and Albert Museum, Her
Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1960.

Krueger, Glee. New England Samplers to 1840. Old Sturbridge Village,
Massachusetts: Old Sturbridge Village, 1978.

Krueger, Glee. A Gallery of American Samplers: The Theodore A. Kapnek
Collection. New York: E.P. Dutton in association with the Museum of
American Folk Art, 1978.

Meulenbelt-Nieuwburg, Albarta. Merklap Motieven. Amsterdam: H.J.W.
Becht’s Uitgeversmaatschappij B.V., 1981.

Moss, Gillian. Stetch Guide: A Study of the Stitches on the Embroidered
Samplers in the Collection of the Cooper-Hewitt Museum. New York: Cooper-
Hewitt Museum, 1984.

Ring, Betty. Let Virtue Be a Guide to Thee. Providence, Rhode Island: Rhode
Island Historical Society, 1983.

Schiffer, Margaret. Historical Needlework of Pennsylvania. Bonanza
Books, New York, 1958.

Schipper-Van Lottum, Bix. Overmerklappen gesproken. Amsterdam:
Wereldbibliotheek, 1980.

Swan, Susan Burrows. Plain & Fancy: American Women and Their
Needlework, 1700-1850. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1977.

Tarrant, Naomi E.A. Samplers. Edinburgh: The Royal Scottish
Museum, 1978.

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