Skip to main content

Full text of "Encyclopædia britannica : or, A dictionary of arts, sciences, and miscellaneous literature : constructed on a plan, by which the different sciences and arts are digested into the form of distinct treatises or systems .."

See other formats 


V 


--^ 


'X^. 


/ 


J 


\. 


Encyclopmdia  Britannic  As 
D   I   C   T   \6  NARY 


O  F 


ARTS,  SCIENCES, 

AND 

MISCELLANEOUS  LITERATURE^ 

Conftrudled  on  a  Plan, 

BY  WHICH 

,       THE  DIFFERENT  SCIENCES  AND  ARTS 

Are  digefted  into  the  Form  of  Diftindl 

REATISES     OR     SYSTEM  Si 

CCMFKIUC  NPINO 

The  History,  Theory,  and  Practice,  of  each, 
according-  to  the  Lateft  Difcoveries  and  Improvements ; 

AND  FULL  EXPLANATIONS  GIVEN  OF  THE 

VARIOUS  DETACHED  PARTS  OF  KNOWLEDGE, 

WHETHER    RELATING    TO 

Natural  and  Artificial  Objeds,  or  to  Matters  Ecclesiastical, 

Civil,  Military,  Commercial,  6*^. 

Including  Elucidations  of  the  moft  important  Topics  relative  to  Religion,  MoralSj 

Manners,  and  the  Oeconomy  of  Life  : 

TOGITHIR    WITH 

A  Description  of  all  the  Countries,   Cities,  principal  Mountains,  Seas,  Rivers,  6e, 

throughout  the   W  o  R  L  D  i 
A  General  Histort,  Ancient  and  Modern,  of  the  different  Empires,  Kingdoms,  and  States; 

AND 

An  Account  of  the  Li  v  es  of  the  moft  Eminent  Perfons  in  every  Nation, 
from  the  earlieft  ages  down  to  the  prefent  times^ 

Coafi.'eJ/rfnit/je  ■wrilingi  o/lte  tejl  Aultois,  in  feveral  languagei  i   the  moji  apf  raved  Dia'wnariei,  as  -wrll  of  general  fciince  at  df  iUf  arti- 
cular branchet  ;   the  TranfaSions\  Journalt^  anj  Memoir j^  of  LearKeJ  Speietiet,  bath  at  lone  and  abriad\  the  MS,  Lecturet  y 
Eminent  Profejfurj  on  different  Jcicnces  ;   and  a  "variety  of  Original  Material/,  furnijhed  by  on  Extenfi^'e  Ccrtefpondence, 

THE  THIRD  EDIIlON,  IN  EIGHTEEN  VOLUMES,  GREATLT  IMPROVED. 

ILLUSTRATED  WITH  FIVE  HUNDRED  AND  FORTY-TWO  COPPERPLATES. 

VOL.     V. 

INDOCTI     DISCjiKT,    BT    JMENT   MSMIVISS  B    PEtttTl. 


E    D    t     N     B    U    R    G     H, 

JRIHTED   FOR   A.    BELL   AND   C.   MACFAKIU H AR. 
MDCCXCVII. 


\. 


Cntcrcu  ill  ^tationew  pali  in  Cevms  of  tt)e  aa  of  parliament 


■  ' '  ■ 


rni  bti 


.i-iit.j  ■ 


J 

ENCYCLOPJiDIA  BrITANNICA. 


OBHBa 


C    I    c 

CICERO  (Marcus  TuUius),  the  celebiated  Roman 
oratoi,  was  born  in  the  year  of  Rome  647,  about 
IC7  years  btfore  Chrilt.  His  falher  Marcus  TuUius,  who 
was  of  the  equoflrian  ordtr,  took  great  (.are  of  his  edu- 
cation, which  was  direCltd  particularly  with  a  view 
to  the  bar.  Young  Tully,  at  his  firft  appearance  in 
public,  declaimed  with  fi;ch  vehemence  againll  Sylla's 
party,  that  it  became  expedient  for  him  to  retire  into 
Greece  ;  where  he  heard  the  Athenian  orators  and 
philofophers,  and  greatly  improved  both  in  eloquence 
and  knowledge.  Here  he  met  with  T.  Pomponius,  who 
had  been  his  I'cliool-fellow  ;  and  who,  from  his  love  to 
Athens,  and  fpending  a  srrcat  part  of  his  days  in  it, 
obtained  the  fumame  oi  Jltticus;  and  here  they  revived 
and  confirmed  that  noted  frieiidfhip  which  fublifUd  be- 
tween them  throui;h  life  with  fo  celebrated  a  coiiftancy 
and  affection.  From  Athens  he  paffed  into  Afia  ;  and 
after  an  excurfion  of  two  years  came  back  again  into 
Italy. 

Cicero  was  now  arrived  at  Rome  ;  and,  after  one 
year  more  fpcntat  the  bar,  obtained,  in  the  next  place, 
the  dignity  of  quaeilor.  Among  the  caufcs  which  he 
pleaded  before  his  queiloifhip,  was  that  of  the  famous 
comedian  Rofcius,  whom  a  linguhir  m.rit  in  his  art 
had  recommended  to  the  familiarity  and  friendfhip  of 
the  great  IL  men  in  Rome.  Tlie  quxdors  were  the 
general  receivers  or  treafurers  of  the  republic,  and 
were  fent  annually  Into  the  provinces  diftributed  to 
them,  as  they  always  were,  by  lot.  The  Ifland  of 
Sicily  happened  to  fall  to  Cicero's  fhare  ;  and  that 
part  of  it-,  for  it  was  confiderable  enough  to  be  di- 
vided into  two  provinces,  which  was  called  Lilybmtm. 
This  office  he  received,  not  as  a  gift,  but  a  trult  ;  and 
he  acquiited  himfelf  fo  well  in  it,  that  he  gained  the 
love  and  admiration  of  all  the  Sicilians.  Before  he 
left  Sicily,  he  made  the  tour  of  the  ifland,  to  fee  every 
thing  that  was  curious,  and  efpecially  the  city  of  Sy- 
racuie  ;  v/here  he  difcovered  the  tomb  of  Archimedes 
to  the  magiilratts  who  were  fhowing  him  the  ciiriofi- 
tits  of  the  place,  but  who,  to  his  furprife,  knew  nothing 
of  any  fucli  tomb. 

We  have  no  account  of  the  precife  time  of  Cicero's 
marriage  with  Terenti?  out  it  is  fuppofed  to  have 
been  celebrated  im:.ivuiately  after  his  return  from  his 
travels  to  Italy,  when  he  was  about  30  years  old.  He 
was  now  difcngaged  from  his  queftorlhip  in  Sicily,  by 
which  tirft  lltp,  in  the  legal  gradation  and  afcent  of 
public  honours,  he  gained  an  immediate  right  to  the 
fenate,  and  an  aftual  admiffion  into  it  during  life  ; 
and  fettled  again  in  Roir.e,  where  he  employed  him- 
felf conP.antly  in  defending  the  perfons  aod- properties 

Vol.  V.  Part  I. 


C    I    c 

of  its  citizens,  and  was  indeed  a  general  patron.  Five  Cicero. 
years  were  almotl  elapfed  fincc  Cicero's  eleftion  to  the  *— \'— J 
queilorfhip,  v.'hi;h  was  the  proper  interval  prefcribed 
bylaw  before  he  could  hold  the  next  office  of  ^dile ; 
to  which  he  was  now,  in  his  37th  year,  elefted  by  the 
unanimous  fuffrages  of  all  the  tribes,  and  preferably  to 
all  his  competitors.  After  Cicero's  tledtion  to  the 
a;di!c(hip,  but  before  his  entrance  upon  the  ofSce,  he 
undettook  the  famed  profecution  of  C.  Verres,  the  late 
prsetor  of  Sicily  ;  who  was  charged  with  many  flagrant 
aiSs  of  injulUce,  rapine,  and  cruelty,  during  his  tri- 
ennial government  of  that  ifland.  This  was  one  of  the 
moll  memorable  tranfaib'ons  of  his  life  ;  for  which  he 
was  greatly  and  juftly  celebrated  by  antiquity,  and  for 
which  he  will,  in  all  ages,  be  admired  and  elleemed  by 
the  friends  of  mankind.  The  result  was,  that,  by  his 
diligence  and  addrefs,  he  fo  confounded  Hortenfiui<, 
though  the  reigning  orator  at  the  bar,  and  ufually  . 
llylcd //if  Vmg  of  the  forum,  that  he  had  nothing  to  fay 
for  his  client.  Verres,  defpairing  of  all  defence,  fub- 
mitted  immidiatcly,  without  expcfting  the  fentence, 
to  a  voluntary  exile  ;  where  he  lived  many  years,  for- 
gotten and  def.rted  by  all  his  friends.  He  is  faid  to 
have  been  relieved  in  this  milerable  fituation  by  the  ge- 
neiofity  of  Cicero  ;  yet  was  profcribed  and  murdered 
after  ail  by  Mik  Antony,  for  the  fake  of  thofe  fine 
ftatues  and  Corinthian  vefTels  of  which  he  had  plunder- 
ed the  Sicilians. 

After  the  nfual  interval  of  two  years  from  tlie  time 
of  his  being  ehofen  adile,  Cicero  offered  himfelf  a  can- 
didate for  the  prsetorfhip ;  and,  in  three  different  af- 
femblies  convened  for  the  choice  of  prxtors,  two  of 
which  were  diffolved  without  effeft,  he  was  declared, 
every  time  the  firft  prxtor  by  the  fuffrages  of  all  the 
centuries.  He  was  now  in  the  career  of  his  fortunes; 
and  in  fight,  as  it  were,  of  the  confuKhip,  the  grand 
objefl  of  his  ambition  :  and  therefore,  when  his  prie- 
torlhip  was  at  an  end,  he  would  not  accept  any  foreign 
province,  the  ufual  reward  of  that  maglflracy,  and 
the  chief  fruit  which  the  generality  propofcd  from  it. 
He  had  no  particular  love  for  money,  nor  genius  for 
arms  ;  fo  that  thofe  governments  had  no  cliarms  for 
him  :  the  glory  which  he  purfued  was  to  lliine  in  the 
eyes  of  the  city  as  the  guardian  of  its  laws  ;  and  to 
teach  the  magiilrates  how  to  execute,  the  citizens  hovr 
to  obey,  them. 

Being  now  in  his  4;?d  year,  the  proper  age  required 
by  law,  he  declared  himfelf  a  candidate  for  the  con- 
fulfhip  along  with  fix  competitors,  L.  Sculpiclus  Gal- 
ba,  L.  Sergius  Catilina,  C.  Antonius,  L.  CalTius  Lon- 
ginus,  Qj-Cornificius,  and  C.  Lieiniui  Sacerdos.  The 
A  tw« 


C       I       C  ,  [2 

Cicero,  two  firfl  were  patricians  ;  the  two  next  pleV  eians,  yet 
"""^  noble;  the  two  lail  the  fons  of  fathers  whd»lcad  firft 
imported  the  public  lionours  into  their  faraih'cs :  Ci- 
cero was  the  only  i^ew  man,  as  he  was  called,  among 
them,  or  one  of  equeftriau  rank.  Thefe  were  the 
competitoro  ;  and  in  this  competition  the  praftice  of 
bribing  was  carried  on  as  openly  and  as  fliamefiilly  by 
Antonius  and  Catiline  as  it  nlually  is  at  our  cleftions 
in  Britain.  However,  as  tlie  ehflion  appioachid, 
Cicero's  interc-ft  appeared  to  be  fuperior  to  that  of  all 
the  candidates  :   for  the  nobles  thcmfclves,  though  al- 


]  C    I    c 

fliip,  took  care  to  fend  a  particular  account  of  his  Ciccm. 
whole  adminiftration  to  Pompey,  who  was  finilhing  "— — y— 
the  Mithridalic  war  in  Afia  ;  in  hopes  to  prevent  any 
wrong  impreffions  there  from  the  calumnies  of  his 
enemies,  and  to  draw  from  him  fome  public  declara- 
tion in  praife  of  what  he  had  been  doing.  But  Pom- 
pey being  informed  by  Metellus  and  Casfar  of  the  ill 
humour  that  was  rifing  againll  Cicero  in  Rome,  an- 
fwered  him  with  great  coldnefs  ;  and  iallead  of  pay- 
ing him  any  compliment,  took  no  notice  at  all  of 
what  had  palFed  in  the  affair  of  Catiline  :   upon  which 


ways  envious  and  dcfirous  to  deprefs  him,  yet  out  of    Cicero  expollulates  with  him  in  a  letter  which  is  lUU 
regaid   to  the  dangers  which  threatened  the  city  frofn     extant. 


many  quarters,  and  feemed  leady  to  burft  out  into  a 
flame,  began  to  think  him  the  only  man  qualified  to 
preferve  the  republic,  and  break  the  cabals  of  the  de- 
fperate  by  the  vigour  and  prudence  of  his  adminiftra- 
tion. The  method  of  choofing  confuls  was  not  by  an 
open  vote  ;  but  by  a  kind  of  ballot,  or  little  tickets  of 
wood  dillributed  to  the  citizens,  with  the  names  of 
the  fcveral  candidates  infcribed  upon  each  :  but  in  Ci- 
cero's cafe  the  people  were  not  content  with  this  fecret 
and  filent  way  ;  but,  before  they  came  to  any  fcrutiny, 
loudly  and  univerfally  proclaimed  Cicero  the  firft  con- 
ful :  fo  that,  as  he  himfelf  lays,  "  he  was  not  chofen 
by  the  votes  of  particular  citizens,  but  the  common 
fuffrage  of  the  city  ;  nor  declared  by  the  voice  of  the 
crier,  but  of  the  whole  Roman  people." 

Cicero  had  no  fooner  entered  upon  his  office  than 
he  had  occafion  to  exert  himfelf  againft  P.  Servilius 
Rullus,  one  of  the  new  tribunes,  who  had  been  alarm- 
ing the  fenate  with  the  promulgation  of  an  Agrarian 
law  ;  the  purpofe  of  which  was  to  create  a  dccemvi- 
rate,  or  ten  commifTioners,  with  abx^olute  power  for 
five  years  over  all  the  revenues  of  the  republic,  to  di- 
tlribute  them  at  pleafure  to  the  citizens,  &c.  Thefe 
laws  ufed  to  be  greedily  received  by  the  populace, 
and  were  propofed  therefore  by  faftious  magillrates 
as  oft  as  they  had  any  point  to  carry  with  the  multi- 
tude againd  the  public  good  ;  fo  that  Cicero's  firfl  bu- 
finefs  was  to  quiet  the  apprtlienfions  of  the  city,  and 
to  baffle,  if  poifible,  the  intrigues  of  the  tribune.  Ac-.< 
cordingly,  in  an  artful  and  elegant  fpeech  from  the 
roflra,  he  gave  fuch  a  turn  to  the  inclination  of  the 
people,  that  they  rejefted  this  law  with  as  much  eager- 
nefs  as  they  had  ever  received  one.  But  the  grand 
affair  of  all,  which  conftituted  the  gloty  of  his  conful- 
(hip,  and  has  tranfmitted  his  name  with  fuch  luftre  to 
pofterity,  was  the  fkill  he  lliowed,  and  the  unwearied 
pains  he  took,  in  fupprefTing  that  horrid  confpiracy 
which  was  formed  by  Catiline  and  his  accomplices  for 
the  fubverfion  of  the  commonwealth.  For  this  great 
fervice  he  was  honoured  with  the  glorious  title  of paUr 
palrlis,  "  the  father  of  his  country,"  which  he  retained 
for  a  long  time  after. 

Cicero's  adminiibation  was  now  at  an  end  ;  but  he 
had  no  fooner  quitted  his  office,  than  he  began  to  feel 
the  weight  of  that  envy  which  is  the  certain  fruit  of 
illuftiious  merit.  He  was  now,  therefore,  the  com- 
mon mark,  not  only  of  all  the  fadlious,  againll  whom 
he  had  declared  perpetual  war,  but  of  another  party 
not  lefs  dangerous,  the  envious  too  :  whofe  united 
fpleen  never  left  him  from  this  moment  till  they  had 
driven  him  out  of  that  city  which  he  had  fo  lately  prc- 
ftrved,      Cicero,  upon  the  expiration  of  his  conful- 


About  this  time  Cicero  bought  a  honfc  of  M.  Ciaffm 
on  the  Palatine-hill,  adjoining  to  that  in  wliich  he  had 
always  lived  with  his  father,  and  w  hich  he  is  now  fup- 
pofed  to  have  given  up  to  his  brother  Qalntius.  The 
houfe  cofl  him  near  L.  30,000,  and  i'cems  to  have 
been  one  of  the  nobletl  in  Rome.  It  was  built  about 
30  yeais  before  by  the  famous  tribune  M.  Livius  Dru- 
fus :  on  which  occafion  we  are  told,  that  when  the  ar- 
chiteft  promil'ed  to  build  it  for  him  iu  fuch  a  manner 
that  none  of  his  neighbours  fhoiild  overlook  him ; 
"  But  if  you  have  any  fl<ill  (replied  Drufus),  contrive 
it  rather  fo  that  all  the  world  may  fee  what  I  am 
doing."  The  purchafe  of  fo  expeiilive  a  houfe  railed 
fome  cenfure  on  his  vanity  ;  and  tfpecially  as  it  was 
made  with  borrowed  money.  This  circumftance  he 
himfelf  does  not  dlffemble  ;  but  fay.-,  men  ily  upon  it, 
that  "  he  was  now  plunged  fo  deeply  in  debt,  as  to  be 
ready  for  a  plot,  only  that  the  cunlpiiators  would  not 
trull  him." 

Tiie  mofl  remarkable  event  that  happened  In  this 
year,  which  was  the  45th  of  Cicero's  life,  was  the 
pollution  of  the  myfteiics  of  the  ioiur  deu  by  P.  Clo- 
dius  ;  which,  by  an  unhappy  train  of  confequences, 
involved  Cicero  in  a  great  and  unexpected  calamity. 
Clodius  had  an  intrigue  with  Caelar's  wife  Pom- 
peia,  who,  accoiding  to  annual  cuftom,  was  now  ce- 
lebrating in  her  houfe  thofe  awful  facrilices  of  the 
goddefs,  to  which  no  male  creature  ever  was  admitted, 
and  where  every  thing  mafculine  was  fo  fcrupuloully 
excluded,  that  even  piitures  of  that  fort  were  covered 
during  the  ceremony.  It  flattered  Ciodius's  imagina- 
tion greatly  to  gain  accefs  to  his  millrefs  in  the  midll 
of  her  holy  miniflry  ;  and  with  this  view  lit  dreiTed 
himfelf  in  a  woman's  habit,  that  by  the  benefit  of 
his  fmooth  face,  and  the  introduflioh  of  one  of  the 
maids,  he  might  pafs  without  difcovery  :  but  by  fome 
miflake  between  him  and  his  guide,  he  loll  his  way 
wl\en  he  came  within  the  houfe,  and  fell  in  unluckily 
among  the  other  female  fervants.  litre  he  was  detec- 
ted by  his, voice,  and  the  fervants  alarmed  the  whole 
company  by  their  flirieks,  to  the  great  amazement  of 
the  matrons,  who  threw  a  veil  over  their  facred  m.yf- 
teries,  while  Clodius  found  means  to  tfcape.  The 
ftory  was  prefently  fpread  abroad,  and  taifed  a  general 
fcandal  and  horror  throughout  the  city.  The  whole 
defence  which  Clodius  made  when,  by  order  of  the  fe- 
nate, he  was  brought  to  a  trial,  was  to  prove  himfelf 
abfent  at  the  lime  of  the  fadl ;  for  which  purpofe  he 
produced  two  men  to  fwear -that  he  was  then  at  Intei-- 
amna,  about  two  or  thiee  days  journey  from  the  city. 
But  Cicero  being  called  upon  to  give  his  teflimony,  de- 
poftd,  that  Clodius  had  been  witli  liim  that  very  racrn. 


C    I    c 


[ 


Ci'cro.  ingr  at  his  houfe  in  Rome.  Irritated  by  this,  Clouius 
—-^■~~  formed  a  fcheme  of  revenge.  Tin's  was  to  get  himfelf 
chofen  trilnine,  and  in  that  office  to  drive  Cicero  out 
of  the  city,  by  the  pubh'cation-of  a  law,  which,  by 
fome  ilratagem  or  other,  he  hoped  to  obtrude  upon 
the  people.  15ut  as  all  patricians  were  incapable  of  the 
tribunate  by  its  original  inllitution,  fo  his  firft  fttp 
was  to  mak.e  himfelf  a  plebeian,  by  tiie  pretence  of  an 
adoption  into  a  plebeian  houfe,  which  could  not  yet 
be  done  without  the  fuffrage  of  the  people.  The  firft 
triumvirate  was  now  formed ;  which  was  nothing  elfe  in 
reality  but  a  traiterons  confpiracy  of  three  of  the  moft 
powerful  citizens  of  Rome,  to  extort  from  their  coun- 
try by  violence  what  they  could  not  obtain  by  law, 
Pompey's  chief  motive  was  to  get  his  afts  confirmed 
by  Ca;far  in  his  confuldiip,  which  was  now  coming  on; 
Crefar,  by  giving  way  to  Pompey's  glory,  to  advance 
his  own  ;  and  Craffus,  to  gain  that  afcendence  by  the 
authority  of  Pompey  and  Cxfar,  which  he  could  not 
fuftain  alone.  Cicero  might  have  made  what  terms  he 
pleafed  with  the  tiiumvirate  ;  and  been  admitted  even 
a  partner  of  their  power,  and  a  fourth  in  their  league: 
but  he  would  not  enter  into  any  engagements  with  the 
three  vvhofe  union  he  and  all  the  friends  of  the  republic 
abhorred.  Clodius,  in  the  mean  time,  had  been  pufii- 
ing  on  the  bufinefs  of  his  adoption :  which  at  lafl:  he  ef- 
fefted  ;  and  began  foon  after  to  threaten  Cicero  with 
all  the  terrors  of  his  tribunate,  to  which  he  was  now 
advanced  without  any  oppofition.  Both  Caefar  and 
Pompey  fecretly  favouied'h is  fcheme:  not  that  they 
intended  to  ruin  Cicero,  but  only  to  keep  him  under 
the  lalh  ;  and  if  they  could  not  draw  him  into  their 
meafurrs,  or  make  him  at  leall  keep  quiet,  to  let  Clo- 
dius loole  upon  him.  Ciefar,  in  particular,  wanted 
to  dillrefs  him  fo  far  as  to  force  him  to  a  d^-pendence 
on  himielf :  for  which  end,  while  he  was  privately  en- 
couraging Clodius  to  purfue  him,  he  was  propofing  ex- 
pedients to  Ciccro  for  his  fecurity.  But  though  his 
fortunes  icemed  now  to  be  in  a  tottering  condition, 
and  his  enemies  to  gain  ground  daily  upon  him  ;  yet 
he  was  unwilling  to  owe  the  obligation  of  his  fafety  to 
any  man,  tar  lels  to  Cffifar,  whofe  defigns  he  always 
fulpecled,  and  whofe  fchemcs  he  never  approved.  Tiiis 
ftiifnefs  in  Cicero  fo  exafperated  Coefar,  that  he  refolved 
immediately  to  afTill  Clodius  with  all  his  power  to  op- 
prefb  him  ;  while  Pompey  was  all  the  while  giving  him 
the  Iltongell  aifuiances  that  there  was  no  danger,  and 
that  he  would  fooner  be  killed  himfelf  than  fuffer  him 
to  be  hmt. 

Clodius,  in  the  mean  time,  was  obliging  the  people 
with  feveral  new  laws,  contrived  chielly  for  their  ad- 
vantage ;  the  defign  of  all  which  was  only  to  intro- 
duce, with  a  better  grace,  the  ground-plot  of  the  play, 
the  hanilhment  of  Cicero.  In  fhort,  having  caufed  a 
law  to  be  enafted,  importing,  that  any  who  had  con- 
demned a  Roman  citizen  unheard  fliould  himfelf  be 
banifhed,  he  foon  after  impeached  Cicero  upon  it.  It 
was  in  vain  that  this  great  man  went  up  and  down 
the  city  foliciting  his  caufe  in  the  habit  of  a  fuppliant, 
and  attended  by  many  of  the  firft  young  noblemen 
whom  he  had  taught  the  rules  of  eloquence  ;  thofe 
powers  of  fpcaking  which  had  fo  often  been  fuccefs- 
ful  in  defending  the  caufe  of  others,  feemed  totally  to 
forlake  his  own  :  he  was  baniihed  by  the  votes  of  the 
people  400  miles  from  Italy  ;  his  houfes  were  ordered 


3     ]  C     I     C 

to  be  demJtidied,  and  hia  goods  fet  up  to  falc.  It  dan-  Cicero, 
not  be  denied,  that  in  this  great  calamity  he  did  not  '""" 
behave  himfelf  with  that  firmnefs  which  might  rcafon- 
ably  be  expected  from  one  who  had  borne  fo  glorious  a 
part  in  the  republic  ;  confcious  of  his  integrity,  a'.id 
fufFering  in  the  caufe  of  his  country  :  for  his  letters  are 
generally  filled  with  fuch  lamentable  exprelTions  of 
grief  and  dcfpair,  that  his  bell  friends,  and  even  hi8 
wife,  were  forced  fometimes  to  admonifli  him  to  roufe 
his  courage,  and  remember  his  former  charaAer.  At- 
ticus  was  conftantly  putting  him  in  mind  of  it;  and 
fent  him  word  of  a  report  that  was  brought  to  Rome 
by  one  of  Caflius's  freed-men,  that  his  alBiftion  had 
difordered  his  fenfes.  He  was  now  indeed  attacked 
iu  his  weaktft  part ;  the  only  place  in  which  he  was 
vulnerable.  To  have  been  as  great  in  affliftlon  as  he 
was  in  profperity,  would  have  been  a  perfcftion  not 
given  to  man  :  yet  this  very  weaknefs  flowed  from  a 
fource  which  rendered  him  the  more  amiable  In  all  the 
other  parts  of  his  life  ;  and  the  fame  tendernefs  of  dif- 
pofilion  which  made  him  love  his  friends,  lu's  children,' 
and  his  country,  more  palTionately'than  other  men, 
made  him  feel  the  lofs  of  them  more  fenfibly.  When 
he  had  been  gone  a  little  more  than  two  months,  a 
motion  was  made  in  the  fenate  by  one  of  the  tribunes, 
who  was  his  friend,  to  recal  him,  and  repeal  the  law? 
of  Clodius  ;  to  which  the  whole  houfe  readily  ao-recd. 
Many  obftruftions,  as  may  be  eafily  imagined,  were 
given  to  it  by  the  Clodian  faftion  ;  but  this  made  the 
lenate  only  more  refolute  to  cifeft  it.  They  palTcd 
a  vote,  therefore,  that  no  other  bufinefs  (hould  be  done 
till  Cicero's  return  was  carried  :  which  at  laft  it  was; 
and  in  fo  fplendid  and  triumpliant  a  manner,  that  he 
had  reafon,  he  fays,  to  fear,  left  people  fliould  imarrine 
that  he  himfelf  had  contrived  his  late  flight  for  the  fake 
of  fo  glorious  a  reftoration. 

Cicero,  now  in  his  50th  year,  was  reftored  to  his 
former  dignity,  and  foon  after  to  his  former  fortunes; 
fatlsfaftion  being  made  to  him  for  the  ruin  of  his  cftates 
and  houfes  ;  which  laft  were  built  up  again  by  him- 
felf with  more  magnificence  than  before.  But  he  had  • 
domeftic  grievances  about  this  time,  which  touched 
him  very  nearly  ;  and  which,  as  he  fignifies  obfcurely 
to  Atticus,  were  of  too  delicate  a  nature  to  be  expref- 
fed  in  a  letter:  They  arofe  chiefly  from  the  petulant 
humour  of  his  wife,  which  began  to  give  him  frequent 
occafions  of  chagrin  ;  and,  by  a  ferlcs  of  repeated  pro- 
vocations, confirmed  in  hi.m  that  fettled  difguft  which 
at  laft  ended  in  a  divorce. 

In  the  56th  year  of  his  age,  he  was  made  procon- 
ful  of  Cilicia  ;  and  his  adminiftration  there  gained 
him  great  honour.  About  this  time  the  expectation 
of  a  breach  between  Cxfar  and  Pompey  engao-ed  the 
general  attention.  Crafl\is  had  been  deftroyed  with 
his  army  fome  years  before  in  the  war  with  the  Par- 
thlans ;  and  Julia  the  daughter  of  Casfar,  whom. Pom- 
pey married,  and  who,  while  ftie  lived,  was  the  ce- 
ment of  their  union,  was  alfo  dead  in  child-bed.  Ceb- 
far  had  put  an  end  to  the  Gallic  war,  and  reduced 
the  whole  province  to  the  Roman  yoke  :  but  thouo-li 
his  commiifion  was  near  expiring,  he  feemed  to  have 
no  thoughts  of  giving  it  up  and  returning  to  the  con- 
dition of  a  private  fubjedt.  He  pretended  that  he 
could  not  poifibly  be  fafe  if  he  parted  with  his  army; 
efpecially  v\hile  Pompey  held  the  province  of  Spain 
A  2  prolonged 


C     T     C  [4 

Cicero.  prolotiKed  to  Iiiir  for  five  years.  Tin's  dli|>ofilion  to 
■— V  '  a  breach  Cicero  foon  Itarncd  from  liis  friends,-  as  he 
was  returning  from  his  province  of  Cilici'u  Bat  as  he 
forefaw  the  conlcquences  of  a-  war  more  clearly  and 
fiillv  ihau  any  of  thtm,  fo  his  firll  refoliition  v.as  to 
applv  all  his  endeavours  and  authoi-ity  to  the  mediation 
of  a  peace  ;  though,  in  the  event  of  u  breach,  he  was 
determined  withiu  himfeif  to  follow  Pompey.  He 
clearly  forefaw,  \\hat  he  declared  without  fcruple  to 
his  friends,  that  which  fide  foever  got  the  better,  the 
war  mull  neceflarily  end  in  a  tyranny.  The  only  dif- 
ference, he  faid,  was,  that  if  their  enemies  conquered, 
they  (hould  be  profcribcd  ;  if  their  friends,  they  would, 
be  flavcs. 

He  no  fooner  arrived  at  the  city,  however,  than 
he  fell,  as  he  tells  us,  into  the  very  flame  of  civil  dif- 
cord,  and  found  the  war  in  efted  proclaimed  :  for  the 
feiiate  had  juft  voted  a  decree,  that  Ca-far  Ihould  dif- 
band  his  army  by  a  certain  day,  or  be  declared  an 
enemy  ;  and  Galar's  fudden  march  towards  Rome 
e"ffeCiualIy  confirmed  it.  In  the  midft  of  all  this  huriy 
and  confufion,  C'far  was  extremely  foiicitous  about 
Cicero  ;  not  fo  much  to  gain  him,  for  tliat  was  not  to 
be  expedled,  as  to  prevail  witli  him  to  ftand  neuter. 
He  wrote  to  him  feveral  times  to  that  eiTedl ;  and 
employed  all  their  common  friends  to  prefs  him  with 
letters  on  that  fubjedl :  all  which  was  done  ;  but  in 
\um,  for  Cicero  was  impatient  to  be  gone  to  Pompey. 
In  the  mean  time,  thefe  letters  give  us  a  raoll  fen- 
fible  proof  of  the  high  eilecm  r.nd  credit  in  which  Ci- 
cero fiouiifhed  at  this  time  in  Rome  ;  when,  in  a  con- 
tell  for  empire,  which  force  alone  was  to  decide,  we 
fee  the  chiefs  on  both  fides  fo  foiicitous  to  gain  a  man 
to  their  party,  who  had  no  peculiar  fl<ill  in  arms  or 
talents  for  war.  Puifuing,  however,  the  refult  of  all 
his  dehberations,  he  embarked  at  length  to  follow 
Pompey,  who  had  been  obliged  to  quit  Italy  fome 
time  before,  and  was  dien  at  Dyrrhachium  ;  and  ar- 
rived fafely  in  his  c^imp  with  his  ion,  his  brotheri  and 
his  nephew,  committing  the  fortunes  of  the  whole 
family  to  the  ifiiie  of  that  caufe.  After  the  battle  of 
Pharfalia,  in  which  Pompey  was  defeated,  Cicero  re- 
turned into  Italy,  and  was  afterwards  received  into 
great  favour  by  Csefar,  who  was  now  declared  difta- 
tor  the  fecond  time,  and  Mark  Antony  his  mafter  of 
horfe.  We  may  eafily  imagine,  what  we  find  indeed 
from  his  letters,  that  he  was  not  a  little  difccnr-pofed 
at  the  thouglits  of  an  interview  with  Cafar,  and  the 
indignity  of  offering  himfelt  to  a  conqueror  againll 
whom  he  had  been  in  arms  :  for  though  upon  many  ac- 
counts he  had  reafon  to  expeft  a  kind  reception  from 
Cxfar,  yet  he  hardly  thought  his  hfe,  he  fays,  worth 
begging ;  fince  what  was  given  by  a  malter  might  al- 
ways be  taken  away  again  at  pleafure.  But  at  their 
meeting  he  had  no  occalion  to  fay  or  do  any  thing  that 
was  below  his  dignity :  for  Cacfar  no  fooner  law  him  than 
he  alighted,  ran  to  embrace  him ;  and  walked  with  him 
alone,  convcrfing  very  fainiliarly,  for  feveral  furlongs. 

Cicero  was  now  in  his  6 id  year,  and  forced  at  lad 
to  part  with  his  wife  Terentia  ;  whofe  humour  and 
eonduct  had  been  lung  untafy  to  him.  She  was  a 
woman  of  an  imperious  and  turbulent  fpirit  :  and 
though  he  had  borne  her  perverfenefs  in  the,  vigour  of 
health,  and  flourifhiug  Rate  of  his  fortunes  ;  yet,  in  a 
declining  life,  foured  by  a  continual  fuccefiion  of  mor- 


T  C     T 

tifications  from  abroad,  the  want  of  cafe  and  qUict  at  Cif 
home  was  no  longer  tolerable  to  him.  But  he  was  """^ 
immediately  oppreiled  by  a  new  and  moil  cruel  af- 
fUclion,  the  death  of  his  beloved  daughter  TuUia,  who 
died  in  child-bed  loon  after  her  divorce  from  her 
third  hufband  Dolabella.  She  was  about  32  years 
old  at  the  time  of  her  death  ;  and,  by  the  few  hints 
which  are  left  of  her  diarafter,  appears  to  have  beci|. 
an  excellent  and  admirable  wcnjan.  She  was  moll 
affetlionately  and  pioufly  obfervant  of  her  fathiir;. 
and,  to  the  ufual  graces  of  her  fex,  having  added  the 
more  folid  accompliflnnents  of  knowledge  and  polite 
letters,  was  qualified  to  be  the  companion  and  delight 
of  his  age;  awi  wai  juftly  elleemed  not  only  as  one 
of  the  bcil,  but  the  moll  learned,  of  the  Roman  ladies. 
His  afllittion  for  the  death  of  this  daughter  was  fo- 
great,  tliat,  to  fliun  all  company  as  much  as  he  could, 
he  removed  to  Atticus's  houfe,  where  he  lived  chitfiy 
in  his  library,  turning  over  every  book  he  could  meet. 
with  on  the  uibjett  of  moderating  grief.  But  finding 
his  rtfidence  here  too  public,  and  a  greater  refort  to 
him  than  lie  could  bear,  he  retired  to  Ailuria,  one  of 
his  feats  near  Antium ;  a  little  ifland  on  the  Latian 
fnore,  at  the  mouth  of  a  river  of  the  lame  name,  cover- 
ed with  woods  and  groves  cut  into  -fiiady  walks-;  a 
fcene  of  all  others  the  fittell  to  indulge  melancholy,  and. 
where  he  could  give  a  free  courfe  to  his  grief.  "  Here 
(fays  he  to  Atticus)  I  live  without  the  fpeech  of  man; 
every  morning  early  I  hide  rayfelf  in  the  thickeft  of. 
the  wood,  and  never  come  out  till  the  evening.  Next 
to  yourlelf,  nothing  is  fo  dear  to  me  as  this  folitude  ;. 
and  my  whole  converfation  is'  with  my  books."  In- 
deed his  whole  time  was  employed  in  little  elfe  than 
reading  and  writing  during  Ctefar's  adminiftration,. 
which  he  could  never  cheertuUy  lubmit  to;  and  it  was 
within  this  period  that  he  drew  up  one  of  the  grayetl 
of  thofe  philofophicjJ  pieces  which  are  llill  extant  in 
his  works. 

Upon  the  death  of  Csefar,  Odlavius  his  nephew  and 
heir  coming  into  Italy,  was  prefented  to  Cicero  by 
Hirtius  and  Panfa,  with  the  ilrongeft  profeffions  on. 
the  part  of  the  young  man  that  he  would  be  governed 
entirely  by  his  direttion.  Indeed  Cicero  thought  it 
neceflary  to  cherilh  and  encourage  OAavius,  if  for  no- 
thing elfe,  yet  to  keep  him  at  a  diilance  from  Antony;, 
but  could  not  yet  be  perfuaded  to  enter  heartily  into 
his  affairs.  He  fufpetlcd  his  youth  and  want  of  expe- 
rience ;  and  that  he  had  not  ftrength  enough  to  deal' 
with  Anton-v;  and,  above  all,  that  he  had  no  good  dif- 
pofition  towards  the  confpirators.  He  thought  it  im- 
polTible  he  fiiould  ever  be  a  friend  to  them  ;  and  was 
peifuaded  rather,  that  if  ever  he  got  the  upper  hand,, 
his  uncle's  acls  would  be  more  violently  enforced,  and 
his  death  more  cruelly  revenged,  than  by  Antony  him- 
feif. And  when  Cicero  did  confent  at  lail  to  unite 
liimfelf  to  Ottavius's  interells,  it  was  with  no  other  view 
but  to  arm  him  vfith  a  power  fufficieut  to  opprefs  An- 
tony; yet  fo  checked  and  limited,  that  he  Ihould  not 
be  able  to  opprefs  the  republic. 

In  the  hurry  of  ail  thefe  politics,  he  was  ftill  profe— 
cuting  his  Itudies  with  his  ufual  application  ;  and,  be.: 
fides  lomc  philofophical  pieces,  now  finilhed  his  book  of 
offices,  or  the  duties  of  man,  for  the  life  of  his  fon:  A 
work  admit  cd  by  all  fucceeding  ages  as  the  moll  per- 
fedl  fyftcm  of  Heathen  morality,  and  the  noblell  effort 

and 


C     T     C 


[     5     1 


C     I     C 


f  i«TO.  and  fpccimcn  of  what  rcafon  could  J«i  in  guiJinji  man 
lirough  life  with  innocence  and  happiucfs.  How- 
ever, he  paid  a  conltr.nt  attention  to  public  affairs  ; 
miffed  no  opportuniticp,  but  did  every  thing  that  hu- 
man prudence  could  do  for  the  recovery  of  the  repub- 
lic :  for  all  that  vigour  vvitli  which  it  was  making  this 
loll  effort  for  itfclf,  was  entirely  owing  to  his  counfels 
and  authority.  This  appears  from  thofe  memorable 
Philippics  which  from  time  to  time  he  publidied  againft 
Antony,  as  well  as  from  other  monuments  of  antiquity. 
But  all  was  in  vain  :  for  though  Antony's  army  was 
entirely  defeated  at  the  fiege  of  Modena,  which  made 
many  people  imagine  that  the  war  was  at  an  end,  and 
the  liberty  of  Rome  eflabliflied ;  ytt  the  death  of  the 
confuls  Panfa  and  Pllrtius  in  that  aClion  gave  the  fatal 
blow  to  all  Cicero's  fchemes,  and  was  the  immediate 
caufe  of  the  ruin  of  the  republic. 

Oflaviiis  having  fubdued  the  fenate  to  his  mind, 
marched  towards  Gaul  to  meet  Antony  and  Lcpi- 
dus  ;  who  had  already  paffed  the  Alps,  and  brought 
their  armies  into  Italy,  in  order  to  have  a  perfonal 
interview  with  hiai  ;  which  had  been  privately  con- 
certed for  fettling  the  terras  of  a  triple  league,  and 
dividing  the  power  and  provinces  of  Italy  among 
themfelves.  'I'he  place  appointed  for  this  interview 
was  a  fmall  ifland  about  two  miles  from  Bononia,  form- 
ed by  the  river  Rhenus  which  runs  near  that  city. 
Here  they  met,  raid  fpcnt  three  days  in  a  clofe  con- 
ference to  adjuft.  the  plan  of  their  accommodation  : 
and  the  laft  thing  they  adjulled  was  the  lill  of  a  pro- 
fcription  which  they  were  determined  to  make  of 
their  enemies.  This,  as  the  writeis  tell  us,  occalioned 
much  diiBcuIly  and  warm  contefts  among  them  ;  till 
each  in  his  turn  confented  to  facriiice  fome  of  his  beft 
friends  to  the  revenge  and  refentment  cf  his  col- 
leagues. Cicero  was  at  his  Tufculan  villa,  when  he 
fii-ft  received  the  new*  of  the  profcription,  and  of  his 
being  included  in  it.  It  was  the  deiign  of  the  trium- 
virate to  keep  it  a  fecret,  if  poffible,  to  the  moment 
of  execution  ;  in  order  to  furprife  thofe  whom  they 
had  dellined  to  dellruftion,  before  they  were  aware  of 
their  danger,  or  had  time  to  make  their  efcape.  But 
fome  of  Cicero's  friends  found  means  to  give  him  early 
notice  of  it;  upon  which  he  fet  forward  to  the  fea-fide, 
v.'ith  a  defign  to  tranfport  himfelf  out  of  the  reach  of 
his  enemies.  There,  finding  a  veftel  ready,  he  prefently 
embarked ;  but  the  winds  being  adverfe,  and  the  fea 
uneafy  to  him,  after  he  had  failed  about  two  leagues 
along  the  coaft,  he  was  obliged  to  land,  and  fpend  the 
right  on  fhore.  From  thence  he  was  forced,  by  the 
importunity  of  his  fervants,  on  board  again  ;  but  was 
foon  afterwards  obliged  to  land  at  a  country-feat  of  his 
a  mile  from  the  fhore,  weary  of  life,  and  declaring  he 
was  refolved  to  die  in  that  country  which  he  had  fo 
often  faved.  Here  he  /Icpt  foundly  for  fome  time,  tiU 
his  fervants  once  more  forced  him  away  In  a  litter  to- 
wards the  (hip,  having  heard  that  he  was  purfued  by 
Antony's  afiailins.  They  were  fcarce  departed  when 
the  affaffins  arrived  at  his  houfe  ;  and,  perceiving  him 
to  be  fled,  purfued  him  immediately  towaids  the  fea, 
and  overtook  him  in  a  wood  that  was  near  the  fiiore. 
Their  leader  was  one  Popilius  Lenas,  a  tribune  of  the 
army,  whofe  life  Cicero  had  formerly  defended  and 
faved.  As  foon  as  the  foldiers  appeared,  the  fervants 
prepared  to  defend  their  mailer's  life  at  the  hazard  of 


their  own  ;  but  Cicero  commande<l  them  to  I'et  him  Cic-.m. 
down  and  malM  no  refiftance.  They  foon  cut  off  his  »  -^ 
head  and*}iis  hands,  returning  with  them  to  Rome  as 
the  mod  agreeable  prtfent  to  their  cruel  empL  yti-. 
Antony,  who  was  then  at  Rome,  received  them  with 
extreme  joy,  rewarding  tb.e  murderer  with  a  large  ft:;n. 
of  money,  and  ordering  the  head  to  be  fixed  upon  the- 
roftra  between  the  two  hands  ;  a  fad  fpcftaele  to  the 
city;  and  what  drew  tears  from  every  eye,  to  ice  thofe 
mangled  members  which  ufed.  to  exert  themfelves  fo. 
glorioufly  from  that  place  in  defence  of  the  lives,  ths 
iortunes,  and  the  liberties  of  tb.e  Rom.un  people,  fo 
lamentably  expoftd  to  the  fcorn  of  fycopiiants  and 
traitors.  The  deaths  of  the  reil,  fays  an  hiilorida 
of  tliHt  age,  caid'ed  only  a  private  and  particular  fur- 
row; but  Cicero's  an  univeric!  one.  It  was  a  triumph 
ovvr  the  repub'Ic  itfclf;  and  feemed  to  confirm  and 
eftabllfn  the  perjietual  flavery  of  Rome. 

A  modern  writer*,  however,  is  of  opinion,  that'S-n-hiinrf 
"  poftcrity  has  been  too  much  feduced  by  the  name  o{ '^''"'•"^^ '" ' 
Cicero,  and  that  better  citizens  were  facrifxccd  to  the  ?'"'•''', ^°^ 
jealoufy  of  the  triumvirs  without  exciting  lb  much  in-"''"'^^'' 
dignation.  If  we  take  an  impartial  furvey  of  Cicero's 
condutt  and  principles,  avowed  in  his  own  epilkolary 
correfpondence,  and  trace  him  through  all  the  laby- 
rinths of  h's  contvadiftory  letters,  we  fhall  find  more 
to  blame  than  to  admire ;  and  difcover,  that  the  defu-e 
of  advancing  his  fortunes,  and  making  himfelf  a  namc'» 
were,  from  his  outfet  in  life,  the  only  objctls  he  had- 
in  view.  The  good  of  his  countiy,  and  the  diftatcs 
of  ilern  ftcady  virtue,  were  not,  as  in  Brutus  and  Cato, 
the  conllant  fprings  of  his  adions.  The  misfortunes 
that  befel  him  after  his  confulfliip,  developed  his  cha- 
ra£ter,  and  fliowed  him  in  his  true  colours  ;  from  that 
time  to  his  death,  pufilhinlniity,  irrefolution,  and  un- 
worthy repining,  tainted  his  judgment,  and  perplexed 
every  ilep  he  wiflied  to  take.  He  flattered  Poiiipey- 
and  cringed  to  Ccfar,  wWle  in  his  private  letters  he 
abufed  them  both  alternately.  He  acknowledges  in  a. 
letter  to  his  friend,  the  time-ferving  Atticus,  that,  al- 
though he  was  at  prefent  determined  to  fupport  the 
caufe  cf  Rome  and  liberty,  and  to  bear  misfortune  like 
a  philofopher,  there  was  one  thing  which  would  gain 
him  over  to  the  triumvirs,  and  that  was  their  procu- 
ring for  him  the  vacant  augiirllilp  ;  fo  pitiful  was  the 
bribe  to  which  he  would  have  facrificcd  his  honour, 
his  opinion,  and  the  commonwealth.  By  his  waver- 
ing imprudent  condutl,  he  contributed  greatly  towards 
its  dellrutlion.  After  reproaching  the  confplrators 
for  leaving  him  out  of  the  fecret,  and  loading  them 
with  the  mod  flattering  comphments  on  their  delivering 
Rome  from  Carfar's  tyranny,  he  calls  Cafca  an  ajaffiny 
to  pay  his  court  to  the  boy  Odlavlus,  by  whom  he  was 
completely  duped.  His  praifes  of  this  triumvir  are  ia. 
the  higheil  llrain  of  panegyric.  Mark  Antony  well 
knew,  that  the  virulent  abufe  which  Cicero  was  con- 
tinually pouring  out  againll  him,  was  not  an  efi"ufion 
of  patriotic  zeal  or  virtuous  indignation,  but  merely 
the  ebuUitions  of  perfonal  hatred.  He  therefore  caufed 
Cicero  to  be  killed,  as  an  angry  man  that  has  been 
ilung  ilamps  on  a  venomous  animal  that  comes  within 
reach  of  his  foot.  The  cloak  he  threw  over  the  body 
of  Bi-utus,  and  the  fpeech  he  pronounced  at  the  fight 
of  that  hero  when  dead,  differ  widely  from  the  treat- 
ment he  gave  the  remains  of  Cicero;  and  (how,  that  he 
3  made 


C     I     C  [ 

made  a  diftinclion  between  a  Roman  wTio  oppofed  liim 
from  political  motives,  and  one  whofe  enmity  arofe 
from  private  pique." 

Cieero's  death  happened  on  the  7tli  of  December,  in 
the  64th  year  of  his  age,  about  ten  days  from  the  fettle- 
ment  of  the  tirll  triinnvirate;  and  with  him  expired  the 
fhort  empire  of  eloquence  among  the  Romans.  As  an 
orator  he  is  thus  cliaratlerifed  by  Dr  Blair.  "  In  all  his 
orations  his  art  is  confpicuous.  He  begins  commonly 
with  a  regular  exordium  ;  and  with  much  addrefs  pre- 
pofTcffesthe  hearers,  and  lludies  to  gain  their  affeflions. 
His  method  is  clear,  and  his  arguments  are  arranged 
with  exaift  propriety.  In  a  fuperior  clearnefs  of  me- 
thod, he  has  an  advantage  over  Dcmofthenes.  Every 
thing  appears  in  its  proper  place.  He  never  tries  to 
move  till  he  has  attempted  to  convince;  and  in  moving, 
particularly  the  fofter  paffions,  he  is  highly  fuccefsfal. 
No  one  ever  knew  the  force  of  words  better  than  Cice- 
ro. He  rolls  them  along  with  the  greateft  beauty  and 
magJiificence  ;  and  in  the  ftruclure  of  his  fentences  is 
eminently  curious  and  exadt.  He  is  always  full  and 
flowing,  never  abrupt.  He  amplifies  every  thing;  yet 
though  his  manner  is  generally  diffufe,  it  is  often  hap- 
pily varied  and  accommodated  to  the  fubject.  When 
an  important  public  object  roufed  his  mind,  and  de- 
manded indignation  and  force,  he  departs  confiderably 
from  that  loofe  and  declamatory  manner  to  whicli  he 
at  other  times  is  addifted,  and  becomes  very  forcible  and 
vehement.  This  great  orator,  however,  is  not  without 
his  defefts.  In  moll  of  his  orations  there  is  too  much 
art,  even  carried  to  a  degree  of  oflentation.  He  feems 
often  defirous  of  obtaining  admiration  rather  than  of 
operating  convittion.  He  is  fometimes,  therefore, 
fhowy  rather  than  folid,  and  diffufe  where  he  ought 
to  have  been  urgent.  His  fentences  are  always  round 
and  fonorous.  They  cannot  be  accufed  of  monotony, 
fmce  they  pofiefs  variety  of  cadence  ;  but  ft-om  too 
great  a  fondnefs  for  magnificence,  he  is  on  fome 
occafions  deficient  in  ftrength.  Though  the  fervices 
which  he  had  performed  to  his  country  were  very  con- 
Cderable,  yet  he  is  too  much  his  own  panegyriil.  An- 
cient manners,  which  impofed  fewer  rellrainls  on  the 
fide  of  decorum,  may  in  fome  degree  excufe,  but  can- 
not entirely  juftify,  his  vanity." 

CICHORIUM,  SUCCORY  :  A  genus  of  the  po- 
lygamiaoequalis  order,  belonging  to  the  fyngenefia  clafs 
of  plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under 
the  49th  order,  Compofiu.  The  receptacle  is  a  little 
paleaceous ;  the  calyx  calyculattd  ;  the  pappus  almoll 
quinquedentaled,  and  indiilinftly  hairy. 

Species.  1.  The  intybus,  or  wild  fuccory,  grows 
naturally  by  the  fides  of  toads,  and  in  fliady  lanes,  in 
many  places  of  Britain.  It  fends  out  long  leaves  from 
the  roots,  from  between  which  the  (talks  arife,  grow- 
ing to  the  height  of  three  or  four  feet,  and  branching 
out  into  fmaller  ones.  The  flowers  come  out  from 
the  fides  of  the  ftalks,  and  arc  of  a  fine  blue  colour. 
They  are  fucceeded  by  oblong  feeds  covered,  inclofcd 
in  a  down.  2.  The  fpinolum,  with  a  prickly  forked 
ftalk,  grows  naturally  on  the  fea-coafts  in  Sicily,  and 
the  illauds  of  the  Archipelago.  Tliis  fends  out  from 
the  root  many  long  leaves  wliich  are  indented  on  their 
edges,  and  fpread  flat  on  the  ground  ;  from  between 
thefe  arife   the   llalks,   which    have  very  few  leaves. 


6     ] 


.C     I     G 


and  thofe  are  rm3ll  and  entire  :  thefe  ftalks  are  di- 
vided in  forks  upward,  and  fiom  between  them  come 
out  the  flowers,  which  are  of  a  pale  blue  colour,  and  are 
fucceeded  by  feeds  ihaped  like  thofe  of  the  common 
forts.  The  en  J?  of  the  fmaller  branches  are  termina- 
ted by  fliarlike  fpines  which  are  very  fli.irp.  3.  The 
endivia,  or  fuccory  with  broad  crenatcd  leaves,  differs 
from  the  wild  fort  in  its  duration,  being  only  annual, 
whereas  the  wild  fort  is  perennial. 

Culture,   &c.     The  lafl  fpecies  may  be  confidered 
both  as  an  annual  and  biennial  plant.      If  fown   early 
in  the  fpring,  or  even   any  time  before  the  beginning 
of  June,  the  plants  very  commonly  fly  up  to  feed  the 
fame  fnmmcr,  and  perlih  in  autumn.     If  (own  in  June 
and  July,  they   acquire   perfection  in  autumn,  conti- 
nue till  the  next  fpring,  then  ihoot  up  ftalks  for  flower 
and  feed,    and    loon  after  perlih.     The   inner   leaves 
are  the  ufeful  parts.     Thefe  when  blanched  white  to 
rentier  them  crifp  and  tender,  and  reduce  them  from 
their  natural  (Irong  tafte  to   an  agreeably  bitter  one, 
are  then   fit  for  ufe.     They  are  valued  chiefly  as  in- 
gredients in  autumn  and  winter  falads,  and  for  fome 
culinary  ufes.     The  principal  feafon  of  them   is   from 
the  latter  end  of  Auguft  till  Chriftmas  or  longer,  ac- 
cording to  the  temperature  of  the  feafcn  ;  though  the 
curled  kinds  generally  refift  the  trolls  of  our  ordinary 
winters,  and  remain  in  tolerable  perfection  till  March 
or  April.     They  are  propagated  by  feeds  fown  in  an 
open  Ipot  of  ground,  from  which  the  plants  are  to  be 
removed  into  open  beds  or  borders,   where  they  may 
remain  to  grow  to  fall  fize.  •  The  feafon  for  fowing 
thefe  feeds  is  from  the  beginning  of  June  to  the   end 
of  July ;  and  to  have  a  regular  fupply  of  plants,  it  is 
proper  to  perform  three  different   fovvings    at   about 
three  weeks  or  a  month's  interval.     The  great  excel- 
lence of  endive  is  to  have  its   inner  leaves  finely  whi- 
tened or  blanched.     They  natural'y  incline  to  vvhite- 
nels  of  themfclves  ;  but  this  may  be  greatly  improved 
by   art   when    the   plants  are  arrived  at  full  growth. 
Different  methods  are  pradtlfed  for  this  purpole,  fuch 
as  tying  the  leaves  together ;  or  taking  up  the  plants, 
and  replanting  them  direftly,  almoft  to  their  tops,  in 
nt'ges  of  dry   earth,  laying  boards  or  tiles  flatways 
on  the  top  of  the  plants  ;  but  tlie  firft  is  found  to  an- 
fwer  the  purpofe   mod    effotiually.      The  proper  time 
lor  beginning  this  work  is,    when  the  leaves  are  al- 
moll  full  grown  ;  that  is,  when  they  are  fo  far  ad- 
vanced that  the  leaves  of  the  different  plants  interfere 
with  one   another,  and  their  hearts  are  full  and  bufliy : 
but  they   are  not  all  to  be  tied  up  at  once,  only  a  due 
fupply  of  the  largeft.   and  furwardefl:  plants,  once  eve- 
ry ten  or  twelve   days  according   to  the  demand  ;  for 
the  blanching  takes  up  about  three  weeks.      Blanch- 
ing in   ridges  of  earth,  however,  is  fometimes    prac- 
tifed  in  winter  when  a  fevere  froft  is  fitting  in;  for 
by  burying  them  in  the    earth   almoft  to  their  tops, 
they  are  more  out  of  the  power  of  the  cold.     In  Nj- 
vtmber,   or    December,    when   hard    weather    is    ap- 
proaching, let  a  piece  of  light  ground,  that  lies  warm, 
be  trenched   up   in  one  or  more   fiiarp  ridges  two  or 
three    feet   wide    at    bottom,    and    near    as    ir.uch   in 
height,  fideways  to  the  fun,  making  the  fides  as  lleep 
as  pofTible,  that  the   wet  may  run  quickly  off;  then, 
in  a  dry  day,  take  up  a  quantity  of  your   full  grown 

plants, 


Cichori- 
nm. 


C    I    c 


[     7     ] 


C    I    c 


plants,  with  their  roots  entire,  and  diverting  them  of 
damaged  Icavis,  gather  each  plant  clofe  in  your  hand, 
placing  them  horizontally  in  the  funny  fule  of  the 
ridge  of  earth  p.lmoft  to  tjieir  tops,  and  about  fix 
or  eight  inches  each  way  diliant.  In  fcvere  froft,  it 
will  be  proper  to  bellow  fome  covering  on  the  plants. 

Medicinal  ufes.  The  roots  and  leaves  of  the  wild 
fuccory.  and  feeds  of  the  endive,  are  articles  of  the 
materia  medica.  The  firft  has  a  moderately  bitter 
tafte,  with  fome  degree  of  roua:hnefs;  the  leaves  are 
fomewhat  lefs  bitter  ;  and  the  dirker  coloured  and 
more  deeply  jagged  they  are,  the  bitterer  is  their  tafte. 
Wild  fuccory  is  an  ufeful  detergent,  aperient,  and  at- 
tenuating medicine,  aftlng  without  much  irritation, 
tending  rather  to  cool  than  to  heal  the  body  ;  and,  at 
the  fame  time,  corroborating  the  tone  of  the  inteftines. 
All  the  paits  of  the  plant,  when  wounded,  yield  a 
milky  faponaceous  juice.  This,  when  taken  in  large 
quantities,  to  as  to  keep  up  a  gentle  diarrhoea,  and 
continued  for  fome  weeks,  lias  been  found  to  produce 
excellent  effects  in  fcorbutic  and  other  chronical  dlfor- 
ders.  The  qualities  of  the  endive  are  nearly  of  the 
fame  kind.  The  feeds  are  ranked  among  the  four  lef- 
fer  cold  ones. 

CICINDELA,  the  Sparkler,  In  zoology,  a  genus 
of  infefts  belonging  to  the  order  of  coleoptera.  The 
anteniue  are  fetaceous;  the  jaws  are  prominent,  and  fur- 
nnhedwith  teeth  ;  the  eyes  are  a  little  prominent ;  and 
the  breaft  is  loundidi  and  marglnated.  There  are  14 
fpecles.  The  campeftris,*  or  field-fparkler,  is  one  of 
the  moft  beautiful  of  the  genus.  The  upper  part  of  its 
body  Is  of  a  line  green  colour,  rough,  and  lather  blu- 
ilh.  The  under  fide,  as  alfo  the  legs  and  antenna,  are 
of  a  fliot  colour,  gold  and  red,  of  a  copperifli  call. 
The  eyes  are  very  prominent,  and  give  the  head  a 
broad  appearance.  The  thorax  Is  angular,  and  nar- 
rower than  the  head  ;  which  conilltutes  the  charafter 
of  the  cicindelas.  It  is  rough,  and  of  a  green  colour 
tinged  wiih  gold,  as  well  as  the  head.  The  elytra  are 
delicately  and  irregularly  dotted.  Each  of  them  has  fix 
white  fpots,  viz.  one  on  the  top  of  the  elytrum,  at  Its 
outward  angle  :  three  more  along  the  outward  edge, 
cf  which  the  middlemoft  forms  a  kind  of  lunula  :  a 
fifth,  on  the  middle  of  the  elytra,  oppofite  the  lunula  ; 
and  that  one  is  broader,  and  tolerably  round  :  laftly, 
a  fixth,  at  the  extremity  of  the  elytra.  There  Is  alfo 
fometlmesfeen  a  black  fpot  on  the  middle  of  each  ely- 
trum, oppofite  to  the  fecond  white  fpot.  The  upper  lip 
is  alfo  white,  as  is  the  upper  fide  of  the  jaws,  which  are 
very  pi  eminent  and  (harp.  This  infeft  rims  with 
great  fwiftnefs,  and  flies  eafily.  It  is  found  In  dry 
fandy  places,  efpeclally  in  the  beginning  of  fprlng. 
In  the  fame  places  its  larva  is  met  with,  which  reiem- 
bles  a  long,  foft,  whitifli  worm,  armed  with  fix  legs, 
and  a  brown  fcaly  head.  It  makes  a  perpendicular 
round  hole  in  the  ground,  and  keeps  its  head  at  the 
entrance  of  the  hole  to  catch  the  inlecls  that  fall  into 
it;  a  fpot  of  ground  Is  fometimes  entirely  perforated 
in  this  manner.  The  infefts  belonging  to  this  genus 
are  in  general  very  beautiful,  and  merit  the  attention 
of  the  curious  In  their  microfcopic  obfervatlons  ;  fome 
are  minute,  though  not  inferiur  in  fplendor,  therefore 
beft  fulled  fur  the  amufement.  Living  fubjedts  are 
ever  preferable  to  dead  ones.  The  larvse  of  all  this  genus 


live  under  ground  ;  and  are,  as  well  as  the  p?rfc£l  infefts,    Cicifbeo 

■      ■    ■  II 

Cid. 


tigers  in  their  nature,  attacking  and  dcllroylng  all  they        -'.'. 


can  overcome.  ,__ 

CICISBEO,  an  Italian  term,  which  In  Itn  etymolo- 
gy figniii;3  a  ivliijpcrer ;  whioh  has  been  bcftowed  In 
Italy  both  on  lovers,  and  on  thcfe  wlio  to  outward  ap- 
pearance aft  as  fuch,  attending  on  married  ladies  wicli 
as  much  attention  and  refpeft  es  If  they  were  their  lo- 
vers. This  Italian  cuftom  has  been  fpoken  of  very  re- 
proachfully by  fome  wi iters:  Mr  Baretti  has  taken 
great  pains  to  vindicate  it.  He  afcribes  it  to  a  fpirit 
of  gallantry,  derived  from  tlie  ages  of  chivalry,  and 
much  heightened  and  refined  by  the  revival  of  che  Pla- 
tonic phllofophy  in  Italy,  about  the  thirteenth  century; 
and  by  the  verfes  of  Petrarch  in  coaipllment  to  the 
beautiful  Laura,  and  his  numerous  imitators. 

CICLUT,  or  CiCLUCH,  a  flrong  frontier  town  of  - 
Dalmatia,  fituated  on  the  river  Norentlia,  in  E.  Long. 
17.  40.  N.  Lat.  45.  20.      It  is  furrounded  with  walls 
built  In  tlie  ancient  manner,  and  was  taken  by  the  Ve- 
netians from  the  Turks  In  1(194. 

CICONES,  a  people  of  Thrace  near  the  Hebrus. 
Ulyffes  at  his  return  from  Troy  conquered  them,  and 
plundered  their  chief  city  Ifmarus.  They  tore  to  piece* 
Orpheus  for  his  obfcene  Indiilgencles. 

CICUTA,  properly  fignifies  an  hollow  intercepted 
between  two  knots,  of  the  flalks  or  rjceds  of  which 
the  ancient  fliephetds  ufed  to  make  their  pipes.  It  is 
now,  however,  generally  ufed  to  fignify  the  water  hem- 
lock, and  alfo  the  common  fort  ;  but  Linnseus  has  de- 
feribed  the  latter  under  the  old  name  of  Conium. 
See  that  article. 

There  aie  three  fpecies  of  water-hemlock;  the  virofa,. 
the  bulbifera,  and  the  maculata.  Of  thefe  the  firil  is 
the  only  one  remaikab'c,  and  that  for  the  poifonous 
qualities  of  Its  roots,  which  have  been  often  known  to 
deilroy  children  who  eat  them  for  parfnips. 

CicuTA  is  alfo  ufed,  chiefly  among  the  ancients^, 
for  the  juice  or  liquor  expreficd  from  the  above  plant, 
being  the  common  poifon  wherewith  the  flate  crimi- 
nals at  Athens  were  put  to  death  :  Though  fome  have 
fuggefted,  that  the  poifonous  draught  to  which  the 
Atlitnlans  doomed  their  criminals  was  an  infpiffated 
juice  compounded  of  the  juice  oi crcuta  aird  fome  other 
corrofive  herbs. 

Socrates  drank  the  ckuta. — Plato,  in  his  dialogue- 
on  the  Immortaliiy  of  the  foul,  obftrves,  that  "The 
executioner  advifcd  Socrates  not  to  talk,  for  fear  of; 
caufing  the  c/V«/«  to  operate  too  {lowly. "  M.  Petit^ 
in  his  ObJ'ervntiones  Mifrellanej',  remarks,  that  this  ad- 
vertifement  was  not  given  by  the  executioner  out  of- 
humanity,  but  to  fave  the  ckuta:  for  he  was  only  al- 
lowed fo  much  pollon  per  anti.  which,  if  he  exceeded, 
he  was  to  furnifh  at  his  own  expence.  This  con- 
lliuftlon  is  confirmed  by  a  paffage  in  Plutarch:  the 
executioner  who  ^jdmlnlftered  the  c'icala  to  Phocion,, 
not  having  enough,  Piioeion  gave  him  money  to  buy 
more  ;  obferving  by  the  way,  "  that  It  was  odd  enough,, 
that  at  Athens  a  man  mull  pay  for  every  thing,  even, 
his  own  death." 

CID  (Roderigo  Dias  Ic),  a  CaRilian  officer,  who 
was  very  fuccelsiul  againll  the  Moors,  under  Ferdi- 
nand II.  king  of  Caflile  ;  but  whole  name  would  hardi- 
ly have  been  remembered,  if  Corneille  had  not  mad-ic 

hia> 


C    1     L  I     8 

C  Arli     his  palTioii  for  Chimece  the  fubjeft  of  an  admired  tra- 
Ciiicia. 


'I         gedy,  fouinlfd  on  a  limple  but  atftcling  incident.   Tiie 


CId  is  defperatcly  in  love  with  Chimene,  daughter 
cf  the  Count  de  Gooics:  but  he  is  at  variance  with 
the  Count;  and  being  challenged  by  him,  kills  him 
in  3  duel.  The  conflicl  between  love  and  honour  in 
the  bread  of  Chimene,  who  at  length  pardons  and 
inatries  the  Cid,  forras  the  beauty  of  th^  piece.  Ha 
died  in  ICQ'^. 

CIDARI3,  in  antiquity,  the  mitre  ufed  by  the  Jew- 
i(h  high  prierto.  The  R-bbins  fay,  that  the  bonnet 
-ufed  by  priells  in  general  was  made  of  a  piece  of  linen 
cloth  l6  yards  long,  which  covered  their  heads  like  a 
helmet  or  turban  :  and  they  allow  no  other  difference 
between  the  hlgh-priell's  bonnet  and  that  of  other 
priefts,  than  that  the  one  is  flatter,  and  more  in  the 
form  of  a  turbant ;  whereas  that  worn  by  ordinary 
priefts  rofe  fomething  more  in  a  point. 

CIGNANI  (Carlo),  an  Italian  painter,  was  born  at 
Bologna  in  1628;  and  was  the  dil'ciple  of  Albani.  lEe 
was  efleemed  by  pope  Clement  XI.  who  nominated 
him  prince  of  the  academy  of  Bologna,  and  loaded  him 
with  favours.  Cignani  died  at  Forli  in  1719.  _  The 
cupcla  of  la  M-idona  del  Fuoco  at  Fovli,  in  which  he 
leprefented  Paradlfe,  is  an  admirable  work.  His  ptin- 
cipaV  pifturcs  arc  at  Rome,  Bologna,  and  Forli. 

CiGOLI,  or  CivoLi,  the  painter.     See  Civoli. 

CILIA,  the  Eye-lashes.    See  AsATbMY,  p.  766. 

col.  I .  .    ,       ■ 

CILIATED  LEAF,  among  botanical  writers,  one 
furrounded  with  pataUcl  filaments  fomewhat  like  the 
hairs  of  the  eye-lids. 

CILICTA,  an  ancient  kingdom  of  Alia,  lying  be- 
tween the  36th  and  40ih  degree  of  north  latitude: 
bounded  on  the  eaft  by  Syria,  or  rather  by  Mount 
Amanus,  which  feparates  it  from  that  kingdom  ;  by 
Pamphylla,  on  the  wed  ;  by  Ifauria,  Cappadocia,  and 
Armenia  Minor,  on  the  north  ;  and  by  the  Mediter- 
ranean fea,  on  the  fouth.  It  is  fo  furrounded  by  fteep 
and  craggy  niouiUains,  chiefly  the  Taurus  and  Amanus, 
that  it  may  be  defended  by  a  handful  of  refohue  men 
againft  a  numerous  army,  there  being  but  three  nar- 
row paffts  leading  into  it,  commonly  called  FyU  Ci- 
lia^, or  the  gates  of  Ciiicia  ;  one  on  the  fide  ot  Cap- 
padocia, called  the  P<!/i  0/  Mount  Taunts;  and  the 
other  two  called  tlte  P'l/s  of  Mount  Jmamis,  and  the 
Pafs  of  Syria.  The  whole  country  was  divided  by  the 
ancients  into  Ciiicia  Afpera,  and  Ciiicia  Campellns ; 
the  former  called  by  the  Greeks  Trachaa  or  Stony, 
from  its  abounding  fo  with  lit  nes  ;  and  to  this  day  ihe 
•whole  province  is  called  by  the  Turks,  Tas  Wileieth, 
or  the  Stony  Province. 

According  to  Jofcphus,  Ciiicia  was  firft  peopled  by 
Tarfliifh  the^fon  of  Javan,  and  his  aefcendents,  Aivhence 
the  whole  country  was  named  Tarfus  Tiie  ancient 
inhabitants  were  in  procefs  of  time  driven  out  by  a 
colony  of  Plicenicians,  who,  under  the  conduft  of  Ci- 
Tix^  firft  fettled  in  the  ifland  of  Cyprus,  and  from 
thence  paffed  into  the  country  which,  from  the  leader, 
they  called  CiUc'ia.  Atlerwards,  feveral  other  colo- 
nies from  different  nations  fettled  in  this  kingdom, 
particularly  from  Syria  and  Greece  ;  whence  the  Cili- 
cians  in  fome  places  ufed  the  Greek  tongue,  in  others 
the  Syiiac;  but  the  former  greatly  corrupted  by  the 
Perfian,  the  predominant  language  of  the  country  be- 
M=  81. 


]  C     I    L  ] 

ing  a  dialeA  of  that  tongue.  We  find  no  mention  of  Cnicta. 
the  kings  of  Ciiicia  after  their  fcttlement  in  that  coun-  '""""""^ 
try,  till  the  time  of  Cyrus,  to  whom  they  voluntarily 
fubmitted,  continuing  fuWeA  to  the  Pcilians  till  the 
overthrow  of  that  empire  ;  but  governed  to  the  tim^ 
of  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  by  kings  of  their  own  na- 
tion. After  the  downfal  of  the  Peifian  empire,  Ciii- 
cia became  a  province  of  that  of  M-iCedon  ;  and,  on 
the  death  of  Alexander,  fell  to  the  fliare  of  Selcucus, 
and  continued  under  his  delcendents  till  it  was  reduced 
to  a  Roman  province  by  Pompey.  As  a  proconlular 
province,  it  was  firft  governed  by  Appius  Claudius 
Puichec ;  and  after  him  by  Cicero,  who  reduced  feve- 
ral ftrong  holds  on  Mount  Amanus,  in  which  fome  Ci- 
licians  had  fortified  themfelves,  and  held  out  againll 
his  predeccifor.  It  was  on  this  occafioa  that  the  dl- 
vifion,  form.trly  mentioned,  into  Trachaea  and  Cam- 
peilris,  took  place.  The  latter  became  a  Roman  pro- 
vince ;  but  the  former  was  governed  by  kinjs  appoint. 
ed  by  tlie  Romans,  till  the  reign  of  Vefpafian,  when 
the  family  of  Tracondementus  being  extir.ft,  this  part 
alfo  made  a  province  of  the  empire,  and  the  whole  di- 
vided into  Ciiicia  Prima,  Ciiicia  Senmda,  and  Ifauria  ; 
the  firft  took  in  all  Ciiicia  Campellris,  the  fecond  the 
coafl  of  Ciiicia  Tvachxa,  and  the  laft  the  inland  parts 
of  the  fame  dlvifion.  It  is  now  a  province  of  Alialic 
Turky  ;  and  is  called  Caramar.ia,  having  been  the 
laft  province  of  the  Caramanian  kingdom  which  held 
out  agaioft  the  Ottoman  race. 

That  part  of  Ciiicia  called  by  the  ancients  Ciiicia 
Campcjlris,  was,  if  we  believe  Ammianv.s  Marcellinus, 
one  of  the  moft  fruitful  countries  of  Afia  ;  but  the 
weftern  part  equally  barren,  though  famous,  even,  to 
this  day,  for  an  excellent  breed  of  horfes,  of  which 
600  are  yearly  fent  to  Conftantinople  for  the  fpecial 
ule  of  the  Grand  Signior.  The  air  in  the  inland  parts 
is  reckoned  wholefome  ;  but  that  on  the  fea-coall  very 
dangerous,  efpecially  to  ftrangers. 

The  rivers  of  any  note  are  the  Pyramus,  which  rifes 
on  the  north  fide  of  mount  Taurus,  and  empties  itf-lf 
into  the  Mediterranean  between  Iffus  and  MsigarafTus  ; 
and  the  Cydnus,  which  fprings  from  the  Aiiti'aurua, 
pafTss  through  Tarfus,  and  difembogues  itfelf  into  the 
M«diterranean.  This  laft  is  famous  for  the  rapidity  of 
its  llream,  and  the  cnldnefs  of  its  waters,  which  proved 
very  dangerous  to  Alexander  the  Great. 

The  Cilicians,  if  we  believe  the  Greek  and  Roman 
hiftorians,  were  a  rough  unpoliftied  race  of  people,  un- 
fair in  their  dealings,  cruel,  and  liars  even  to  a  proverb. 
In  the  Roman  times,  they  became  greatly  addifted  to 
piracy.  They  firft  began,  in  the  time  of  the  Mithri- 
datic  war,  to  infeft  the  neighbouring  provinces  along 
with  ihe  Pamphylians  ;  and,  being  emboldened  with 
fuccefs,  they  foon  ventured  as  far  as  the  coafts  of 
Greece  and  Italy,  where  they  took  a  vaft  number  of 
Daves,  whom  they  fold  to  the  Cypriots  and  the  kings 
of  Egvpt  and  Syiia.  They  were,  however,  at  laft 
defeated  and  entirely  fuppreflcd  by  Pompey  the  Great. 
See  fNiJIory  of  J  Rome. 

Ciiicia  Terra,  in  the  natural  hiftoiy  of  the  anci- 
ents, a  bituminous  fubftance  improperly  called  an  earth, 
which,  by  boiling,  became  tougli  like  bird-lime,  and 
was  ufed  inftead  of  that  fubftance  to  cover  the  ftocks 
of  the  vines  for  preferving  them  from  the  worms. 
It  probably  ferved  in  this  office  in  a  fort  of  double  ca- 
pacity, 


C    I    M 


[    9    3 


C    I    M 


pacity,  driving  away  thefe  animals  by  itf  naufeous  join  them,  and  to  invade  Italy,  The  Roman  army  Cimbri. 
fmell,  and  entangling  them  if  they  chanced  to  get  a-  was  commanded  by  the  pioconful  Csepio,  and  the  con-  '— ■—- 
moiigft  it.  _       ful  Mallius  ;  but  as  thcle  two   commanders  could  not 

CILICIUM,  in  Hebrew  antiquity,  a  fort  of  habit  agree,  they  were  advifcd  to  feparate,  and  divide  their 
made  of  coarfe  IhifF,  formerly  in  ufe  among  the  Jews  forces.  This  advice  provtd  the  ruin  of  the  whole 
in  times  of  mourning  and  dillrefs.  It  is  the  fame  with  army.  The  Cimbri  immediately  fell  upon  a  ftroiio- 
what  the  Septuagint  and  Hebrew  verfions  call  fackcloth.  detachment  of  the  confular  army  commanded  by  m" 
CILLEY,  au  ancient  and  famous  town  of  Germa-  Aurehus  Scaurus,  which  they  cut  off  to  a  man,  and 
ry,  in  the  circle  of  Auftria,  and  in  Upper  Carniola.  made  Scaurus  himfclf  prifoner.  Mallius  being  greatly 
It  is  the  capital  of  a  county  of  the  fame  name,  and  is  intimidated  by  this  defeat,  defired  a  reconciliation  with 
fituated  on  the  river  Saan,  in  E.  Long.  15.  45.  N.  Lac.  Csepio,  but  was  haughtily  refufed.  He  moved  near- 
46.  28.  er  the  conful,  however,  with  his  army,  that  the  enemy 

CILURNUM,  (Notitia;)  a  town  of  Britain:  might  not  be  defeated  without  his  having  a  fhare  in 
thought  to  be  CoUerton,  or  CoUerford,  in  Northum-  the  aftion.  The  Cimbri,  by  this  movement,  imagin- 
berland  ;  but  Walwic,  or  Sciliceiler,  according  to  ing  the  commanders  had  made  up  their  quarrel,  fent 
Cambden.  arabalfadors  to  Mallius  with   propofals  of  peace.     As 

CIMA,  or  SiMA,  in  architecture,  the  fame  with'  they  could  not  help  going  tlirough  Crepio's  camp,  he 
Cymatium,  or  Ogek.  ordered  them  to  be  brouglit  before  him  ;  but  findinsr 

CIMABUE  (Giovaui),  a  renowned  painter,  born  they  were  empowered  to  treat  only  with  Mallius,  he 
at  Florence  in  1240,  and  the  tirft  who  revived  the  art  could  fcarce  be  retrained  from  puttin"  them  to  death, 
of  painting  in  Italy.  He  painted,  according  to  the  His  troops,  however,  forced  him  to  confer  with  Ma!- 
cuttom  of  thofd  times,  in  frefco  and  in  dillemper  ;  lius  about  the  propofals  fent  by  the  barbarians  :  but 
colours  in  oil  not  being  then  found  out.  He  excelled  as  Coepio  went  to  the  conful's  tent  againll  his  will  fo 
in  architefture  as  well  as  in  painting  ;  and  was  con-  he  oppofed  him  in  every  thing ;  coutradidted  with 
cerned  in  the  fabric  of  Sanfta  Maria  del  Fior  at  Flo-  great  obftinacy,  and  infulted  him  in  the  groffeft  man- 
rence  :  during  which  employment  he  died  at  the  age  ner.  The  deputies  on  their  return  acquainted  their 
of  60,  and  left  many  difciples.  countrymen  that  the  mifunderilanding  between  the  Ro- 

CIMBRI,  an  ancient  Celtic  nation,  inhabiting  the     man  commanders  ilill  fubllfted  ;  upon  which  the  Cim- 
northeni  parts  of  Germany.      They  are  faid  to  have     bri  attacked  the  camp  of  Caepio,   and   the  Gauls  that 
been   dcfcended   from   the  Afiatic  C/'mmeWa/jj-,  and  to     of  Mallius.     Both  were  forced,  and  the  Romans  ilaun-h- 
have  taken   the   name   of  Cimbri  when   they  changed     tcred  without  mercy.      Eighty  thoufand  citizens  and 
their  old   habitations.     When   they  firft  becaine   re-     allies  of  Rome,  with  40,000   fcrvants  and  iutlers   pe- 
markable,   they   inhabited   chiefly  the   peninfula   now     riflied  on  that  fatal  day.      In  ihort,  of  the  two  Roman 
called  Jnthnd,   and  by  the   ancients  Cimbrica  Cherfo-     armies  only  10  men,  with  the  two  o-enerals,  efcaped  to 
nejus.     About  1  13  years  before  Chrift,  they  left  their     carry  the  news  of  fo  dreadful  a  defeat.      The  conquer- 
peninfula  with  their  wives   and  children  ;  and  joining     ors  dellroyed  aU  the  fpoil,   purfuant  to  a  vow  they  had 
the  Tuetones,  a  neighbouring  nation,  took  their  jour-     made   before   the   battle.      The   gold   and   lilver  they 
iiey  fouthward   in   queft  of  a   better  country.      They     threw  into  the  Rhone,   drowned  the   horfes   they  had 
firlt  fell  upon  the  Boii,  a  Gaulifli  nation  fituated  near     taken,  and  put  to  death  all  the  prifoners. 
the  Hercynian  foreft.     Here  they  were  repidfed,  and         The  Romans  were  thrown  into  the  utmoft  confl;er- 
obliged  to  move   nearer  the  Roman  provinces.     The     nation  on  the  news  of  fo  terrible  an  overthrow.    They 
republic  being  then  alarmed  at  the  approach  of  fuch     faw  themfelves  threatened   with  a  deluge  of  Cimbri 
multitudes  of  barbarians,  fent   an   army  againft  them     and  Gauls,  numerous   enough  to   over-run   the  whole 
imder  the  confiU  Papirius  Carbo.      On  the  approach     country.      They  did   not,   however,  defpair.     A  new 
of  the    Roman   anny,   the   Cimbri  made  propolals  of     army  \vns  raifed   with  incredible  expedition  ;   no  citi- 
peace.     The  conful  pretended  to   accept  it  ;  but  ha-     zen  whatever  who  was  fit  to  bear  arms  being  exempt- 
ed.     On  this  occafion  alfo,  feucing-mafters  were   firll: 
introduced  into  the  Roman  camp;  by  wliich  means  the 
foldiers  were   foon   rendered   in    a   manner  invincible. 
Marius,  who  was  at  that  time   in  high  reputation  on 
account   of  his   viftories  in  Africa,  was  chofen  com- 
mander,  and  waited   for  the   Cimbri  in  Tranfalpine 
_  Gaul  :  but   they  had  refolved   to  enter  Italy  by  two 

Cimbri  entered  Tranfalpine  Gaul,  which  they  quickly     different  ways ;  the  Cimbri  over  the  eaftern    and  the 
filled  with  llaughter  and  defolation.     Here  they  con-     Teutones  and  other  allies  over  the  wcltern  Alps.  Tlie 
tinued  five   or   fix  years,  when  another  Roman  army     Roman   general  therefore  n.arched  to  oppofe  the  iat- 
under  the  conful  Silauus  marched  againft  them.    This     ter,  ^nd   defeated  the  Ambrones  and  Teutones  with 
general   met  with   no   better   fuccefs  than  Carbo  had     great   flaughter*.      The   Cimbri,   in   the   mean    time,  •  «     ^ 
done.      His   army  was  routed   at   the   firft   onfet ;  in     entered  Italy,  and  ftruck  the  whole  country  v.'ith  ter- ir„,"and' 
confequence  of  which,  all  Narbonne  Gaul  was  expofed     ror.      Catullus  and   Sylla  attempted  to  oppofe  them  •  ^^■■'tonn, 
at  once  to  the  ravages  of  thefe  barbarians.  but   their  foldiers  were   fo    intimidated   by  the  fierce 

About  105  years  before  Chrift,  the  Cimbri  began  countenances  and  terrible  appearance  of  thefe  barba- 
to  threaten  the  Roman  empire  itfelf  with  deftruftiwn.  rians,  that  nothing  could  prevent  their  flving  before 
The  Gauls   marched  from   all  parts  with  a  defign  to     them.     The  ciiy   of  Rome  was  now  totally  defence-. 

■B  Jefsj 


ving  thrown  them  into  a  difadvantageous  fituation, 
treachcroufly  attacked  their  camp.  His  perfidy  was 
rewarded  as  it  defcrved  ;  the  Cimbri  ran  to  arms,  and 
not  onl)  rcpulfed  the  Romans,  but,  attacking  them 
in  their  turn,  utterly  defeated  them,  and  obliged  the 
fiiattered  remains  of  their  forces  to  conceal  themfelves 
in  the  neighbouring   forefts.     After  this  vidtory  tlie 


Vol.  V.  Part  I. 


C     I     M  [     1 

Cimtn,  lefs ;  and,  had  the  Cimbri  only  marched  bridvly  for- 
,  Cimex.  ^yards,  they  had  undoubtedly  become  mafters  of  it  ; 
-  •  but  they  waited  in  expcftation  of  being  joined  by  their 
illics  the  An-.brones  and  Teutones,  not  having  heard 
cf  their  defeat  by  Marius,  till  the  fenate  had  tiaie  to 
recal  him  to  the  defence  of  his  country.  By  their  or- 
der he  joined  his  amiy  to  that  of  Catullus  and  Sylla  ; 
and  upon  that  union,  was  declared  commaadcr  in  cliief. 
The  Roman  army  conliiled  of  52,30c  mgn.  The  ca- 
Talry  of  the  Cimbri  were  no  more  than  15,000,  but 
their  foot  feemed  innumerable  ;  for,  being  drawn  up 
in  a  fquarc,  they  are  faid  to  have  cuvered  30  furlongs. 
The  Cimbri  attacked  the  Romans  with  the  utmoil 
fur)- ;  but,  being  unaccuiloraed  to  bear  the  heats  of 
Italy,  they  foon  began  to  lofe  their  ftrength,  and  were 
cafily  overcome.  But  they  had  put  it  out  of  their 
power  to  fly  ;  for,  that  they  might  keep  their  ranks 
the  better,  they  had,  like  true  barbarian?,  tied  them- 
felves  together  with  cords  faftencd  to  their  belts,  10 
that  the  Romans  made  a  moll  terrible  havock  of  them. 
The  battle  was  therefore  loon  over,  and  the  whole 
day  employed  only  in  the  moft  terrible  butchery.  An 
Imcdred  arid  twenty  thoufand  were  killed  on  the  field 
of  battle,  and  6o,coo  taken  prilbners.  The  victoiious 
Romans  then  marched  to  the  enemy's  camp  ;  where 
they  had  a  new  battle  to  fight  with  the  women,  whom 
they  found  more  fierce  than  even  their  hufband's  had 
been.  From  their  carts  and  waggons,  which  formed 
a  kind  of  fortification,  they  diicharged  Ihowers  of 
darts  and  arrows  on  friends  and  foes  without  diftinc- 
tion.  Then  they  firft  fuffocated  their  children  in  their 
arms,  and  then  they  put  an  end  to  their  own  lives. 
The  greateit  part  of  them  hanged  themfelves  on  trees. 
One  was  found  hanging  at  a  cart  with  two  of  her  chil- 
dren at  her  heels.  Many  of  the  men,  for  want  of 
trees  and  (takes,  tied  firings  in  running  knots  about 
their  necks,  and  failened  them  to  the  tails  of  their 
horfeSj  and  the  horns  and  feet  of  their  oxen,  in  order 
to  flrangle  themfelves  that  way  ;  and  thus  the  whole 
multitude  was  deflroyed. 

The  country  of  the  Cimbri,  which,  after  this  ter- 
rible cataftiophe,  was  left  a  mere  defart,  was  again 
peopled  by  the  Scythians;  who,  being  driven  by  Pom- 
pty  out  of  thr.t  vail  fpace  between  the  Euxine  and  the 
Cafpian  fea,  marched  towards  the  north  and  weft  of 
Europe,  fubduing  ail  the  nations  they  met  with  in  their 
way.  They  conquered  Rullia,  Saxony,  Weilphalia, 
and  other  countries  as  far  as  Finland,  Norway,  and 
Sweden.  It  is  pretended  that  Wodin  their  leader  tra- 
verfed  fo  many  countries,  and  endeavoured  to  fubdue 
them,  only  with  a  view  to  excite  the  people  againft 
the  Romans  ;  snd  that  the  fpirit  of  animofity  which 
he  had  excited  operated  fo  powerfully  after  his  death, 
tliat  the  northern  nations  combined  to  attack  it,  and 
never  ceafed  their  rncurfions  till  it  was  totally  fub- 
verted. 
Plats  CIMEX;  or' Bug,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of  infedls 

ciiivni.  belonging  to  the  order  of  hcmiptera.  The  roflrum  is 
inflected.  The  antennx  are  longer  than  the  thorax. 
The  wings  are  folded  togetlier  ciofs-wife  ;  the  uf>per 
ones  are  coriaceous  from  their  bafe  towards  their  mid- 
die.  The  back  is  fiat ;  the  thorax  margined.  The 
feet  are  formed  fo:  running. 

This  genus  is  divided  into  differen:  fections,  as  fol- 
lows:   I.  Thofe  without  wings.  2.  Thofe  in  which  the 


o     ]  C     I    M 

•  efcutcheon  is  extended  fo  far  as  to  cover  the  abdomen  C': 
and  the  winr;s.  3.  The  c  le.ipti-ati,  whofe  elytra  are  *"" 
wholly  coriaceous.  4.  Thof'  whofe  elytra  are  mem- 
branaceous ;  thefe  are  very  much  dcprefTed  like  a  leaf. 
5.  In  which  the  thorax  is  armed  on  each  fide  with  a 
fpine.  6.  Thofe  which  are  of  an  oval  form,  without 
fpines  on  the  thorax.  7.  In  which  the  antennx  be- 
come fetaceous  towards  their  point.  8.  Thofe  of  an 
oblong  form.  9.  Thofe  whofe  antennae  are  fetaceous, 
and  as  long  as  the  body.  10.  Thofe  which  have 
their  thigh?  ^.rmed  with  fpines.  II.  Thofe  whofe  bo- 
dies are  long  v.nd  narrow.  I^innaeus  enumerates  no 
fewer  than  121  fpecies,  to  which  feveral  hT.e  been 
added  by  other  naturaliils.  A  very  peculiar  fpecies 
was.difcovered  by  Dr  Sparman  at  the  Cape,  which 
he  has  named  Cinux paradcxus.  He  obf.."rved  it  as  at 
noon-tide  lie  fought  for  flicker  among  the  branches  of 
a  ihrub  from  the  intolerable  heat  of  the  fun.  "  Tho' 
the  air  (fays  he)  was  extremely  llill  and  cahn,  fo  as 
hardly  to  have  fhaken  an  afpen  leaf,  yet  I  thought  I 
faw  a  little  withered,  pale,  crumpled  ieaf,  eaten  as  it 
were  by  caterpillars,  flittering  from  the  tree.  This 
appeared  to  me  fo  veiy  extraordinary,  that  I  thought 
it  worth  my  while  luddenly  to  quit  my  verdant  bower 
in  order  to  contemplate  it ;  and  I  could  fcarcely  be- 
lieve my  eyes,  when  I  faw  a  h've  infect,  in  fhape  and 
colour  refembling  the  fragment  of  a  withered  leaf,  with 
the  edges  turned  up  and  eaten  away,  as  it  were,  by 
caterpillars,  and  at  the  fame  time  all  over  befet  with 
prickles.  Nature,  by  this  peculiar  form,  has  certain- 
ly extremely  well  defended  and  concealed,  as  it  were 
in  a  malk,  this  infect  from  birds  and  its  other  dimi- 
nutive foes  ;  in  all  probability  with  a  view  to  preferve 
it,  and  employ  it  for  fome  important  ofhcc  in  the  fy- 
llem  of  her  economy  ;  a  fyftem  with  which  we  are 
too  little  acquainted,  in  general  too  little  invelli- 
gate,  and,  in  every  part  of  it,  can  never  fufficiently 
admire  with  that  refpecl  and  veneration  which  «e 
owe  to  the  great  Author  of  nature  and  Ruler  of  the 
univerfe." 

The  larvx  of  bugs  only  differ  from  the  perfeft  in 
ie&.  by  the  want  of  wing-s ;  they  run  over  plants  ; 
grow  and  change  to  chrylalids,  without  appearing  to 
undergo  any  material  difference.  They  have  only  ru- 
diments of  wings,  which  the  laft  transformation  un- 
folds, and  the  infecl  is  then  perfect.  In  the  two  firft 
flages  they  are  unable  to  propagate  their  fpecies.  In 
their  perfetl  flate,  the  female,  fecundated,  lays  a 
g^eat  nnmber  of  eggs,  which  are  often  found  upon 
plants,  placed  one  by  the  fide  of  another  ;  many  of 
which,  viewed  through  t  glafs,  prelent  fingular  va- 
rieties of  confiouration.  Some  are  crowned  with  a 
row  of  fmall  hairs,  others  have  a  circular  fillet ;  and 
moll  have  a  pece  which  forms  a  cap  ;  this  piece  the 
larva  pufhes  off  when  it  forces  open  the  egg.  Releafed 
by  nature  from  their  prifon,  they  overfpread  the  plant 
on  which  they  feed,  extrafting,  by  th.e  help  of  the 
roilrum,  the  juices  appropriated  for  their  nourifhment ; 
even  in  this  Hate,  the  larvx  are  not  all  fo  peaceably  in- 
clined ;  fome  are  voracious  in  an  eminent  degree,  and 
fpare  neither  fex  nor  fpecies  they  can  conquer.  In 
their  perfect  ftate  they  are  mere  canoibais,  glutting 
themfelves  with  the  blood  of  animals ;  they  deilroy 
caterpillars,  flies,  and  even  the  coleopterous  tribe,  whofe 
harduefs  of  elytra  one  would  imagine  was  proof  a- 

gaiall 


CiiKolia 


C    I    M  [     1 

Ciniirifuga  nrainft  flieir  attacks,  have  fallen  an  cafy  prey  to  the 
Ihaip  piercing  nature  of  the  roftrum  of  the  bug,  and 
die  uncautious  naturalift  may  experience  a  feeling  fe- 
verity  of  its  nature.  The  cimex  leCtularius  or  houfe- 
bug,  is  particularly  acceptable  to  the  palate  of  fpiders 
in  general,  and  is  even  fought  after  by  wood-bugs ; 
which  is  not  indeed  furpri/.ing,  when  the  general  vo- 
racity of  this  genus  is  confidereJ. 

The  methods  of  expclhng  houfe-bugs  are  various,  as 
oil  of  turpentine,  the  fmoke  of  coin-mint,  of  narrow- 
leaved  wild  crefs,  of  herb-robert,  of  the  reddifh  agaric, 
of  muftard,  Guinea  pepper,  peats  or  turt,  iSc:  (See 
alfo  Bug  and  Cimicifuga). 

CIMICIFUGA,  in  botany  :  A  genus  of  the  poly- 
andria  order,  belonging  to  the  dicecia  clafs  of  plants. 
Tlie  male  calyx  is  ahuoll  pentaphyllous ;  there  is  no  co- 
rolla ;  the  Itamina  are  20  in  number:  the  female  calyx 
is  almofl:  pentaphyllous ;  no  corolla  ;  the  llamina  20,  and 
barren;  the  capfules  from  4  to  7,  polyfpermous.  Mef- 
ferfchmidius,  in  the  Ills  Siberica,  gives  it  the  follow- 
ing eharadler  and  name  :  Cimicifuga  ftetida,  with  the 
leaves  of  the  herb  Chriilopher,  bearing  a  thyrfis  of 
yellow  male  flowers  with  a  red  villous  feed,  the  feedr 
veffel  in  form  of  a  horn.  This  whole  plant  fo  refembles 
the  afiea  racemola,  that  it  is  difficult  to  diflinguifti 
them  when  not  in  flower;  but  in  the  fiuetification  it 
greatly  differs  from  it,  the  cimicifuga  having  four  pi- 
ilils,  tlie  aCtea  but  one.  Jacquin  fays,  that  it  is  a 
native  of  the  Carpathian  m.ountains.  It  has  obtained 
the  name  of  cimicifuga,  or  Ptigbane,  both  in  Siberia  and 
Turtarj',  from  its  property  of  driving'  away  thofe  in- 
fects; and  the  botanifl:s  of  thofe  parts  of  Europe  which 
are  infefted  by  them,  have  long  defired  to  naturalife  it 
in  their  feveral  countries.  Gmelin  mentions,  that  in 
Siberia  the  natives  alfo  ufe  it  as  an  evacuant  in  dropfy ; 
and  that  its  effefts  are  violently  emetic  and  drallic. 

CIMIVIERII,  anciently  a  people  near  the  Palus 
Msotis.  They  invaded  Afia  Minor  1284  years  before 
Chrill,  and  feized  upon  the  kingdom  of  Cyaxares. 
After  they  had  been  mailers  of  the  country  for  28 
years,  they  were  driven  back  by  Alyattes  king  of  I>y- 
dia. — The  name  alfo  of  another  nation  on  the  wcftern 
coaft.  of  Italy.  The  country  which  they  inhabited 
was  fuppofed  to  be  fo  gloomy,  that  to  exprefs  a  great 
obfeurity  the  expreifion  of  Cimmerian  darkuefs  has  pro- 
verbially been  uled  ;  and  Homer,  according  to  Plu- 
tarch, drew  his  images  of  hell  and  Pluto  from  the 
gloomy  and  difmal  country  where  they  dwelt. 

CIMMERll'M  (anc.  geog.),  a  town  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Pains  Mieotis  ;  from  which  the  Bofphorns  Cim- 
merius  is  named  ;  that  ilrait  which  joins  the  Euxine 
and  the  Palus  Mseotis.  Cimmerii  was  the  name  of  the 
people,  (Homer)  :  and  here  flood  the  Promontorium 
Cimmerium,  (Ptolemy)  ;  and  hence  probably  the  mo- 
dern appellation  Crim. 

Cimmerium  (anc.  geog.),  a  place  near  Baiae,  in 
Campania,  where  formerly  ftood  the  cave  of  the  fibyl. 
The  people  were  called  Cimmerii;  who  living  in  fub- 
ten-aneous  habitations,  from  which  they  iflfued  in  the 
night  to  commit  robberies  and  other  acls  of  violence, 
never  faw  the  light  of  the  fun  (Homer).  To  give  a 
natural  account  of  this  fable,  Feftus  fays,  there  was 
a  valley  furrounded  with  a  pretty  high  ridge,  which 
precluded  the  morning  and  evening  fun. 

CIMOLIA  TERRA,  in  natural  hiilory  ;  a  name  by 


1     1  C    I    M 

which  the  ancients  exprcfied  a  very  valuable  medici-    Cimoli* 
nal  earth ;   but  which   latter   ages   have  fuppofed  to     p.  I' 
be  no  other  than  our  tobacco-pipe  clay  and  fuller's  '  t 

earth. 

The  cimolia  terra  of  the  ancients  was  found  in  fe- 
veral of  the  idands  of  the  Archipelago  ;  particularly 
in  the  ifland  of  Cimolus,  fr.  m  whence  it  has  its  name. 
It  was  ufed  with  great  iviccefs  in  the  eryfipelas,  in- 
flammations, and  the  like,  being  applied  by  way  of 
cataplafm  to  the  part.  They  alfo  ufed,  as  we  do, 
what  we  call  cimolia,  or  fuller's  earth,  for  the  cleanfing 
of  clothes.  This  earth  of  the  ancients,  though  fo  long 
difregarded,  and  by  many  fuppokd  to  be  loft,  is  yet 
very  plentiful  in  Argentlere  (the  ancient  Cimolus), 
Sphanto,  and  many  of  thofe  illands.  It  is  a  marl  of 
a  lax  and  crumbly  texture,  and  a  pure  bright  white 
colour,  very  foft  to  the  touch.  It  adheres  firmly  to 
the  tongue  ;  and,  if  thrown  into  water,  raifes  a  little 
hifling  and  ebullition,  and  moulders  to  a  fine  powder. 
It  makes  a  coniiderable  effervefcence  with  acids,  and 
fuflers  no  change  of  colour  in  the  fire.  Thefe  are  the 
charadters  of  what  the  ancients  called  fimply  terra  ci- 
molia :  but  befides  this,  they  had,  from  the  fame  place, 
another  earth  which  they  called  by  the  fame  general 
name,  but  diftinguiflied  by  the  epithet  purple,  purpw 
refcem.  This  they  deicribed  to  be  fattiih,  cold  to  the 
touch,  of  a  mixed  purple  colour,  and  nearly  as  hard 
as  a  ftone.  And  this  was  evidently  the  fubRance  we 
cz^XJIeatiles,  or  the  foap-rork ;  common  in  Cotnwallj 
and  alfo  in  the  ifland  of  Argenliere,  or  Cimolus. 

Cimolia  Jllla,  the  officinal  name  cf  the  earth  of 
which  we  now  make  tobacco-pipes.  Irs  diftinguifh- 
ing  charafters  are,  that  it  is  a  denfe,  compaCl;,  heavy 
earth,  of  a  dull  white  colour,  and  very  dole  texture  ; 
it  will  not  eafily  break  between  the  fingers,  and  ih'ghc- 
ly  ftains  the  fl<In  in  handling.  It  adheres  firmly  to  the 
tongue  ;  melts  very  flowly  in  the  mouth,  and  is  not 
readily  diffufible  in  watei.  It  is  found  in  many  places. 
That  of  the  Ifle  of  Wight  is  much  efteemed  for  its  co- 
lour. Great  plenty  of  it  is  found  near  Pole  in  Dorfet- 
fhire,  and  near  Wedenfljury  in  StaflFordftiire. 

CiMor.iA  Nigra,  is  of  a  dark  lead  colour,  hard,  dry, 
and  heavy ;  of  a  fniooth  compaft  texture,  and  not 
vifcid  :  it  does  not  colour  the  hands  ;  crumbles  when 
dry  ;  adheres  to  the  tongue  ;  dlfTufes  flowly  in  water  ; 
and  is  not  afted  upon  by  acids.  It  burns  perfeftly 
white,  and  acquires  a  confideiable  hardnefs.  The  chief 
pits  for  this  clay  are  near  Northampton,  where  it  is 
ufed  in  the  manufatlure  of  tobacco-pipes.  It  is  alfo 
mixed  with  the  ciitche  clay  of  Deibyfliire,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  one  part  to  three,  in  the  manufaftureof  the 
hard  rcddifh  brown  ware. 

CIMOLUS,  (anc.  geog.)  one  of  the  Cyclades,  now 
called  ylrgeritiere. 

CIMON,  an  Athenian,  fon  of  Miltiades  and  He- 
gifipyle.  He  was  famous  for  his  debaucheries  in  his 
youth,  and  the  reformation  of  his  morals  when  arrived 
to  years  of  difcretion.  He  behaved  with  great  cou- 
rage at  the  battle  of  SalamlB,  aiid  rendered  himfelf  po- 
pular by  his  munificence  and  valour.  He  defeated 
the  Perfian  fleet,  took  2G0  (lu'ps,  and  totally  routed 
their  land  army,  the  very  fame  day,  A.  U.  C.  284. 
The  money  that  he  obtained  by  his  vlftoiies  was  not 
applied  for  his  own  private  ufe,  but  with  it  he  foitified 
and  enibelli'flied  the  city.  He  fome  time  after  loft  all 
B  2  his 


C    I    N  [     12 

Cinaloa    his  popularity, and  was  banifhed  by  the  Athenians,  who 
I'         declared  war  againll  the  Lacedxmoniaiis.     Hewasre- 
Cinchona.  ^^jj^j  f^^^  his  exile  ;   and  at  his  return  he  made  a  re- 
'  conciliation  between  Lacedxmon  and  his  countrymen. 

He  wa?  afterwards  appointed  to  carry  on  the  war  a- 
gainll  Pcrfia  in  Egypt  and  Cyprus,  with  a  fleet  of  200 
{hips,  and  on  the  coaft  of  Afia  he  gave  battle  to  the 
enemy,  and  totally  ruined  their  fleet,  A.  U.  C.  304. 
He  died  as  he  was  befieging  the  town  of  Citium  in 
Cyprus.  He  may  be  called  the  lall  of  the  Greeks 
whofe  fpirit  ?.r.d  boldnefs  defeated  the  armies  of  the 
barbarians.  He  was  fuch  an  inveterate  enemy  to  the 
Perfian  power,  that  he  formed  a  plan  of  totally  de- 
ftroying  it  ;  and  in  his  wars  he  had  fo  reduced  the 
Perfians,  that  they  promifed  in  a  treaty  not  to  pafs 
the  Chelidonian  iflands  with  their  fleet,  or  to  approach 
within  a  day's  journey  of  the  Grecian  feas.  See  At- 
tica. 

CINALOA,  a  province  of  Mexico  in  South  A- 
merica,  abounding  in  corn,  cattle,  and  cotton  ;  and 
rendered  extremely  pifturefque,  by  a  number  of  beau- 
tiful cafcades  of  clear  water  that  fall  down  from  the 
mountains.  It  lies  on  the  eaftern  coall  of  the  Tea  of  Ca- 
lifornia, and  has  a  town  of  the  fame  name,  fituated  in 
N.  Lat.'a^^. 

CINARA,  in  botany,  the  Artichoke.    See  Cy- 

NARA.  , 

CINCHONA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  monogy- 
nia  order,  belonging  to  the  pentandria  clafs  of  plants; 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  with  thefe  plants, 
the  order  of  which  is  doubtful.  The  corolla  isfunnel- 
fiiaped,  with  a  woolly  fummit  ;  the  capfule  inferior, 
bilocular,  with  a  parallel  partition.  Linnjeus  de- 
fcribes  two  fpecies :  i.  The  corymbiftra,  corymb- 
bearing  cinchona,  or  white  Peruvian  bark,  with  ob- 
long lanceolate  leaves  and  axillary  coijmbs;  and,  2.  The 
officinalis,  or  coloured  Peruvian  bark,  with  elliptic  leaves 
downy  underneath,  and  the  leaves  of  the  coiolla  woolly. 
Both  fpecies  are  natives  of  Peru,  where  the  trees  at- 
tain the  height  of  15  to  20  feet.  The  former  particu- 
larly abounds  in  the  hilly  parts  of  Quito,  growing  pro- 
mifciioufly  in  the  forefts,  and  is  fpontaneoufly  propa- 
gated from  its  feeds.  Both  forts  have  alio  been  found 
in  the  province  of  Santa  Fe. 

The  bark  has  fome  odour,  to  moft  people  not  un- 
pieafant,  and  very  perceptible  in  the  didilled  water,  in 
which  floating  globules,  like  efTential  oil,  have  been 
obferved.  Its  tafte  is  bitter  and  aftringent,  accompa- 
>  .  iiied  with  a  degree  of  pungency,  and  leaving  a  confi- 
derably  lafting  impreffion  on  the  tongue. 

According  to  fome,  the  Peruviana  learned  the  ufe 
of  the  bark  by  obftrving  certain  animals  affecled  with 
intermittent*  inflinflively  led  to  it  ;  while  others  fay, 
that  a  Peruvian  having  an  ague,  was  cured  by  hap- 
pening to  drink  of  a  pool  which,  from  fome  trees  ha- 
ving fallen  into  It,  tafted  of  cinchona;  and  its  ufe  in 
j^angrene  is  faid  to  have  originated  from  its  curing  one 
in  an  aguirti  patient.  About  the  year  1640,  the  lady 
of  the  Spanifli  viceroy,  the  Comitiffa  del  Cinchon, 
was  cured  by  the  bark,  which  has  therefore  been  call- 
ed Cortex  or  Pul-vrs  Comitijjtt,  Cinchona,.  Chinach:>:a,  or 
Ch'mcbina,  KUmhlna  or  K'mhina,  ^Inaguina  or  ^lirt- 
qii'ma ;  and  from  the  intereft  which  the  Cardinal  de 
-Lugo  and  the  Jefuit  fathers  took  in  Its  diftribution,  it 
has  been  called  Cortex  or  Fu'v'is  C^rd'malis  di  Lu^o,ye- 
Jitituu.',  Patntm,  i^c,. 


1 


C    I    N 


On  its  firft  introdiiftion  into  Europe,  it  was  reproba-  CJncIioni, 
ted  bymanyemincnt  phyficlans;  and  at  different  periods  — — v— ^ 
long  after,  it  was  confidered  a  dangerous  remedy  ;  but 
its  character,  in  procefs  of  time,  became  very  univcrfally 
eilablilhed.     For  a  number  of  years,  trhe  bark  which  is 
rolled  up  into  fhoit  thick  quills,  with  a  rough  coat,  and 
a  bright  cuinamou   colour   in  the  infide,  which  broke 
brittle,  and  was  found,  had  an  aromatic  flavour,  a  bit- 
terlfh    allringent    tafte,     with    a   degree   of  aromatic 
warmth,  was  efteemed  the  beft;  though  fome  efteemed 
the  large  pieces  as  of  equal  goodnefs.     During  the  time 
of  the  late   war,  in  the  year  1779,  the  Huflar  frigate 
took  a  Spaniili   fliip,  loaded  principally  with  Peruvian 
bark,  which  was  much  larger,  thicker,  and  of  a  deeper 
reddifli  colour  than  the  bark  in  common  ufe.    Soon  af- 
ter it  was  brought  to  London,  it  was  tried  in  St  Bar- 
tholomew's  Hofpital,  and   in    other   hofpitals    about 
town,  and  was  laid   to   be  more  efficacious  than  the' 
quill  bark.      This  put  practitioners   on  examining  in- 
to   the    hiftory  of  the  bark,   on   trying    experiments 
with  it,  and  on  m.aking  comparative  trials  of  its  ef- 
fefts  with  thofe  of  the  bark  in  common   ufe  on  pa- 
tients   labouring  Under   intermittent  complaints.      la 
Jidy  1782,  Dr  William  Saunders  publiflied  an  account 
of  this  red  bark;  in  which  he  fays,  that  the  fmall  quill 
bark   ufed  in    England,   Is   either   the  bark  of  young 
trees,  or  of  the  twigs  or   branches  of  the   old  ones  ; 
and  that  the  large  bark,  called  the  red  lark  from  the 
deep  colour,  is  the  bark  of  the  trunk  of  the  old  trees  : 
and  he  mentions  a  Mr  Arnot,  who  himfelf  gathered 
the  bark  from  the  trees  in  Peru  ;  and  Monf.  Conda- 
mlne,  who  gives  an  account  of  the   tree  in   the  Me- 
moirs of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  ac   Paris  in  the 
year  1738  ;   who  both  fay.  that  taking  the  bark  from 
an  old  tree  efFeftually  kills  it;  but  that  n.ofl:  of  the 
young  trees  which  are  barked,  recover,  and   continue 
healthy  ;  and  that  for  thefe  reafons  the  Spaniards  now 
barked  the  younger  trees  for  foreign  markets,  though- 
they  ftill  impoited  into  Spain  fome  of  the  bark  of  the 
old  trees,  which  they  efteemed  to  be  much  more  effi- 
cacious than   what   was  got  from  the  young.     From 
thefe  accounts  Dr  Saunders  concludes,   that  the  large 
red  bark  brought  to  London  in  the  year  1779   ^'"'  of 
the  fame  kind  as  that  ufcd  by  Sydenham  and  Morton, 
as  It  anfwers  to   the  defcription  of  the  bark  ufed  In 
their  time,  which  is  given  by  Dale  and  other  writers 
on   the  materia  medica,  who  were  their  contempora- 
ries.    Dr    Saunders  fays,  that  it  is  not  only  llronger 
and   more  rellnous,  but  likewife  more  efficacioua  and 
certain  In  its  efFeft,  than  the  common  bark,  and  had 
cured  many  agues  after  the  other  had  failed. 

A  fpecies  of  cinchona  has  alfo  been  difcovered  in 
the  Well  India  Iflands,  particularly  in  Jamaica  :  It  Is 
accurately  defcribed  by  Dr  Wright,  under  the  title 
of  Cinchona  jfamaiceijfis,  in  a  paper  publiflied  In  the- 
Philofophical  Tranfatlions.  In  Jamaica  it  Is  called 
\.\iQ  fea-ftde  beech,  and  grows  from  20  to  40  feet  high. 
The  white,  furrowed,  thick  outer  bark  u  not  ufcd  ; 
the  dark;brown  inner  bark  has  the  common  flavour, 
with  a  mixed  kind  of  a  tafte,  at  firft  of  horfe-radidi 
and  ginger,  becoming  at  laft  bitter  and  aftringent.  It 
feems  to  give  out  more  extraftlve  matter  than  the  cin- 
chona officinalis.  Some  of  it  was  i.nported  from  St 
Lucia,  In  conlequence  of  its  having  been  ufed  with  ad- 
vantage in  the  army  and  navy  during  the  laft  war;  and 
it  has  lately  beea  treated  of  at  confiderable.  length  by. 

Dr 


C    I    N 


[     13     1 


C    T    N 


Ci"chona.  Dr  KentifTi,  under  the  title  of.?/  Luda  hmi.  The  frefli 

'       *        '  bark  is  found  to  be  confidtrably  emetic  and  cathartic, 

wliich  properties  it  is  laid  to  lofe  on  drying-. 

The  pale  and  the  red  are  chiefly  in  uCe  in  Britain, 
The  pnle  is  bronc;ht  to  us  in  pieces  of  different  fi/.es, 
either  flat  or  quilud,  and  the  powder  is  rather  of  a 
lighter  colour  than  that  of  cinnamon.  The  red  is  ge- 
nerally in  ranch  larger,  thicker,  flattifli  pieces,  but 
fomctimes  alfo  in  the  form  of  quills,  and  its  powder  is 
reddifli  like  that  of  Armenian  bole.  As  already  ob- 
ferved,  it  is  much  more  refinous,  and  poffefles  the  fen- 
fible  qualities  of  the  cinchona  in  a  much  higher  de- 
gree than  the  other  forts ;  and  the  more  nearly  the  other 
kinds  refemble  the  red  bark,  the  better  they  are  now 
confidered.  The  red  barkJs  heavy,  firm,  found,  and 
dry  ;  friable  between  the  teeth  ;  does  not  feparate  in- 
to fibres  ;  and  breaks,  not  fliivery,  but  fhort,  clofe, 
and  Imooth.  It  has  three  layers:  the  outer  is  thin, 
rugtred,  of  a  reddifh  brown  colour,  but  frequently  co- 
vered with  uioffy  matter:  the  middle  Is  thicker,  more 
compait,  darker  coloured,  very  refinous,  brittle,  and 
yields  firft  to  the  peiHe:  the  inmoll  is  more  woody,  fi- 
brous, and  of  a  brighter  red. 

The  Peruvian  bark  yields  its  virtues  both  to  cold 
and  boiling  water;  but  the  decoftion  is  thicker,  gives 
out  its  talle  more  readily,  and  forms  an  ink  with  a 
chalybeate  more  fuddenly  than  the  frefli  cold  infufion. 
This  infufion,  however,  contains  at  leal!  as  much  ex- 
tractive matter,  but  more  in  a  ftate  of  folutlon  ;  and  its 
colour,  on  (landing  fome  time  w-ith  the  chalybeate,  be- 
comes darker,  while  that  of  the  decoftion  becomes 
more  faint.  When  they  are  of  a  certain  age,  the  addi- 
tion of  a  chalybeate  renders  them  green;  and  when 
this  is  the  cale,  they  are  found  to  be  in  a  ilace  of  fer- 
mentation, and  effete.  Mild  or  cauftlc  alkalies,  or 
lime,  precipitate  the  extractive  matter,  which  in  the 
cafe  of  the  caullic  alkali  is  redlffolved  by  a  farther  ad- 
dition of  the  alkali.  Lime-water  precipitates  lefs  from 
a  frefh  infufion  than  from  a  frefli  decoftion;  and  in  the 
precipitate  of  this  laft  fome  mild  earth  is  perceptible. 
The  infufion  is  by  age  reduced  to  the  fame  Itate  with 
the  frelh, decoftion,  and  then  they  depofite  nearly  an 
equal  quantity  of  mild  earth  and  extraftive  matter;  fo 
that  lime-water,  as  well  as  a  chalybeate,  may  be  ufed 
as  a  ttft  of  the  relative  itrength  and  perifliable  nature 
of  the  different  prepaiations,  and  of  different  barks. 
Accordingly  cold  Infufions  are  found  by  experiments 
to  be  lels  perithaij'e  than  decoftlons;  infufions  and  de- 
coftions  of  the  red  bark  than  thofe  of  the  pale  ;  thofe 
of  the  red  bark,  however,  are  found  by  length  of  time 
to  feparate  more  mild  earth  with  the  lune-water,  and 
more  extrafted  matter.  Lime-water,  as  precipitating 
the  extrafted  matter,  appears  an  equally  improper  and 
difagreeable  menllruum. 

Water  is  found  to  fufpend  the  rcfin  by  means  of 
much  Icfs  gum  than  has  been  fuppofed.  Rectified  fpi- 
rit  of  wine  extrafts  a  bitternefs,  but  no  ailringency, 
from  a  reilduum  of  20  affufions  of  cold  water;,  and 
water  cxtrafts  ailringency,  but  no  bitternefs,  from  the 
refiduum  of  as  many  affufions  of  rcfllfied  fpirit.  The 
rcfidua  in  both  arc  Infipid. 

From  many  ingenious  experiments  made  on  the  Pe- 
ruvian bark  by  Dr  Irvine,  which  are  now  publlfhed  in 
a  differtation  which  gained  the  prize-medal  given  by 
the  Hatveian   Society  of  Edinburgh   for    1783,   the 


power  of  different  menftrua,  as  afting  upon  Peruvian  CinelMiva. 
bark,  is  afceitained  with  greater  accuracy  than  had  be 
fore  been  done  :  and  it  appears,  that  with  refpeft  to 
comparative  power,  the  fluids  after  mentioned  atl  in 
the  order  in  which  they  are  placed. 

Dulc  fied  fpirit  of  vitriol. 

Caullic  ley. 

French  brandy. 

Rhcnifli  wine. 

Soft  water. 

Vinegar  and  water. 

Dulcified  fpirit  of  nitre. 

Mild  volatile  alkali. 

Reftified  fpirit  of  wine. 

Mild  vegetable  alkali. 

Lime-water. 
The  antifcptic  powers  of  vinegar  and  bark  un'ttd 
arc  double  the  fum  of  thofe  taken  feparately.     I'he  a- 
(Irlngent  power  of  the  bark  is  Inereafed  by  acid  of  vi- 
triol ;  the  bitter  talle  is  dellroyed  by  it. 

The  officinal  preparations  ot  the  bark  are,  i.  The 
powder :  of  this,  the  firll  parcel  that  paffes  the  fievt. 
being  the  moll  refinous  and  brittle  layer,  is  the  ilrong- 
eft.  2.  The  extraft  :  the  watery  and  fpirituous  ex- 
trail  conjoined  form  the  mod  proper  preparations  of 
this  kind.  3.  The  refin  :  this  carmot  perhaps  be  ob- 
tained feparate  from  the  gummy  part,  nor  would  it  be 
defirable.  4.  Spirituous  tinfture  :  this  is  beft:  made 
with  proof- fpirit.  5.  The  decoftion  :  this  preparation, 
tho'  frequently  employed,  is  yet  In  many  refpefts  infe- 
rior even  to  a  fimple  watery  infufion. 

The  beft  form  is  that  of  powder ;  in  which  the 
conftituent  parts  are  in  the  moft  effeftual  proportion. - 
The  cold  infufion,  which  can  be  made  in  a  ievi  mi- 
nutes by  agitation,  the  fpirituous  tinfture,  and  the 
cxtraft,  are  likewife  proper  In  this  refpeft.  For  co- 
vering the  tafte,  different  patients  require  different  ve- 
hicles ;  liquorice,  aromatics,  acids,  port-wine,  fmall 
beer,  porter,  milk,  butter-milk,  &c.  are  frequently 
employed  ;  and  thofe  who  difllke  the  tafte  of  the  bark 
itfelf,  vary  In  their  accounts  to  which  the  preference  Is 
due  ;  or  it  may  be  given  in  form  of  eleftuaty  with  cur- 
rant-jelly, or  with  brandy  or  rum. 

Praftltioners  have  differed  much  with  regard  to  the 
mode  of  operation  of  the  Peruvian  bark.  Some  have 
afcrlbed  lis  virtues  entirely  to  a  ilimulant  power.  But 
while  the  ftrongeil  and  moft  permanent  ftlmuli  have 
by  no  means  the  fame  effeft  wicli  bark  in  tlie  cure  of 
difeafts',  the  bark  Itfelf  (hows  hardly  any  Ilimulant 
power,  either  from  its  aftion  on  the  ftomach,  or  on 
other  fenfible  parts  to  which  it  is  applied.  From  its 
aftion  on  dead  animal  fibres,  there  can  be  no  doubt  of 
its  being  a  powerful  aftringent ;  and  from  Its  good  ef- 
fefts  In  certain  cafes  of  difeaie,  there  is  reafon  to  pre- 
fume  that  it  is  a  ftlll  more  powerful  tonic.  To  this 
tonic  power  fome  think  that  its  aftion  as  an  antifcptic 
is  to  be  entirely  attributed  :  but  that,  independently 
ofthis,  it  has  a  very  powerful  effeft  In  refifting  tha 
feptic  procefs  to  which  animal  fubilanccs  are  naturally 
fubjec\ed,  appears  beyond  all  dlfpute,  from  is*  effefta  • 
in  refilling  putrcfaftion,  not  only  in  dead  animal  (0- 
lids,  but  even  in  animal  fluids,  when  entirely  detached' 
from  the  living  body. 

But  although  it  be  admitted  that  the  Peruvian  baik 
afti.  powerfully  as  an  aftringent,  as  a  tonic,  and  as  aa 

ami«  ■ 


C     I    N 


[     14    1 


C    I     N 


.Cinchona,  antifeptic  ;  yet  ihefe  principles  will  by  no  means  ex- 
'~'~v--~'  plain  all  the  effcfts  derived  from  it  in  the  cure  of  dif-. 
eafej.  And  accordingly,  from  no  artificial  combina- 
lion  in  which  thefe  powers  are  combined,  or  in  which 
they  exift  even  to  a  higlier  degree,  can  the  good  con- 
fequences  tefultlng  from  PtiruviRn  bark  be  obtained. 
Many  praftitioneri,  therefore,  are  difpofed  to  view  it 
as  a  fpecific.  If  by  a  fpecific  we  mean  an  infaUible  re- 
medy, it  cannot  indeed  be  confidercd  as  intitled  to 
that  appellation  ;  but  in  as  far  as  it  is  a  very  powerful 
remedy,  of  the  operation  of  which  no  fatisfailory  ex- 
planation has  yet  been  given,  it  may  with  great  pro- 
priety be  denominated  a  fpecific.  But  whatever  its 
mode  of  operation  may  be,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
it  is  daily  employed  with  fuccefs  in  a  great  variety  of 
■different  difeafes. 

It  was  firll  introduced,  as  has  already  been  faid,  for 
the  cure  of  intermittent  fevers  ;  and  in  thefe,  when 
properly  exhibited,  it  rarely  fails  of  fuccefs.  Practi- 
tioners, however,  have  differed  with  regard  to  the  bed 
mode  of  exhibition  ;  fome  prefer  giving  it  jull  before 
the  fit,  fome  during  the  fit,  others  immediately  after 
it.  Some,  again,  order  it  in  the  quantity  of  an  ounce, 
between  the  fits  ;  the  dofe  being  the  more  frequent 
and  larger  according  to  the  frequency  of  the  fits;  and 
this  mode  of  exhibition,  although  it  may  perhaps 
fometimes  lead  to  the  employment  of  more  bark  than 
is  neceffary,  we  confider  as  upon  tlie  whole  preferable, 
from  being  bed  fuited  to  moll  ftomaehs.  Therequifite 
quantity  is  very  different  in  dilferent  -cafes  ;  and  in 
many  vernal  intermittents  it  feems  even  hardly  necef- 
fary. 

It  often  pukes  or  purges,  and  fometimes  opprefles 
the  ftoraach.  Thefe,  or  any  other  effeAs  that  may 
take  place,  are  to  be  counteraiited  by  remedies  parti- 
cularly appropriated  to  them.  Thus,  vomiting  is  of- 
ten rellrained  by  exhibiting  it  in  wine  ;  loofenefs  by 
combining  it  with  opium  ;  and  opprcflion  at  llomach, 
by  the  addition  of  an  aromatic.  But  unlefs  for  obvia- 
ting particular  occurrences,  it  is  more  fuccefsful  when 
exhibited  in  its  fimple  (late  than  with  any  addition  ; 
"and  there  feems  to  be  little  ground  for  believing  that 
its  powers  are  increaled  by  crude  fal  ammoniac,  or 
any  other  additions  which  have  frequently  been  made. 
It  is  now  given,  from  the  very  commencement  of 
the  difeafe,  witlsout  previous  evacuations,  which,  with 
the  delay  of  the  bark,  or  under  dofes  of  it,  by  retard- 
ing the  cure,  often  ieem  to  induce  abdominal  inflam- 
mation, fclrrhus,  jaundice,  hedtic,  dropfy,  Sec.  fymp- 
toms  formerly  Imputed  to  the  premature  or  intempe- 
rate ufe  of  the  bark,  but  which  are  beft  obviated  by  its 
early  and  large  ufe.  It  is  to  be  continued  not  only  till  the 
paroxyfms  ceafe,  but  till  the  natural  appetite,  ftrength, 
and  complexion,  return.  Its  ufe  is  then  to  be  gradually 
left  off,  ;nd  repeated  at  proper  Intervals  to  iecure  a- 
gainft  a  relapfe;  to  which,  hov/ever  unaccountable,  in- 
dependently of  the  recovery  of  vigour,  there  often  feems 
to  be  a  peculiar  difpofition  ;  and  efpecially  when  the 
wind  blows  from  the  eaft.  Although,  however,  moft 
tvacuants  conjoined  with  the  Peruvian  bark  in  inter- 
mittents are  rather  prejudicial  than  otherwlfe,  yet  it  is 
of  advantage,  previous  to  its  ufe,  to  empty  the  ali- 
mentary canal,  particularly  the  Itomach  ;  and  on  this 
account  good  efFetls  are  often  obtained  from  premifing 
an  emetic. 


It  is  a  medicine  which  feems  not  only  fuited  to  both 
formed  and  latent  intermittents,  but  to  that  ftatc  of 
fibre  on  which  all  rigidly  periodical  difeafes  feem  to 
depend  ;  as  periodical  pain,  inflammation,  hcmorrha- 
gy,  fpafm,  cough,  lofs  of  external  fenfc,   &c'. 

Baik  is  now  ufed  by  fome  in  all  continued  fevers: 
at  the  fame  time  attention  is  paid  to  keep  the  bowels 
clean,  and  to  promote  when  neceflary  the  evacuation 
of  redundant  bile  ;  alivays,  however,  fo  as  to  weaken  as 
little  as  pofllble. 

In  confluent  fraall-pox,  it  promotes  languid  erup- 
tion and  luppuration,  diminirties  the  fever  through  the 
whole  courfe  of  it,  and  prevents  or  correiSlsputrefcence 
and  gangrene. 

In  gangrenous  fore  throats  it  is  much  ufed,  as  it  Is 
externally  and  internally  in  every  fpecies  of  gangrene. 

In  contagious  dylentery,  after  due  evacuation,  it  has 
been  ufed  by  the  mouth,  and  by  injetllon  with  and  with- 
out opium. 

In  all  thofe  hemorrhagles  called  j*n/7/w,  and  which 
it  is  allowed  all  hemorrhagies  are  very  apt  to  become, 
and  likewife  in  other  increafed  difcharges,  it  is  much 
ufed  ;  and  in  certain  undefined  cafes  of  haemoptyfis, 
fome  allege  that  it  is  remarkably  eflfed.ual  when  joined 
with  an  abforbent. 

It  is  ufed  for  obviating  the  difpofition  to  nervous  and 
convulfive  difeafes  ;  and  fome  have  great  confidence  in 
it  joined  with  the  acid  of  vitriol,  in  cafes  of  phthifis, 
fcrophula,  ill-conditioned  ulcers,  rickets,  fcurvy,  and 
in  ftates  of  convalefcence. 

In  thefe  cafes  in  general,  notwithftanding  the  ufe 
of  the  acid,  it  is  proper  to  conjoin  it  with  a  milk 
diet. 

In  dropfy,  not  depending  on  any  particular  local 
affection,  it  is  often  alternated  or  conjoined  with  diu- 
retics, or  other  evacuants  ;  and  by  its  early  exhibition 
after  the  water  is  once  drawn  off,  or  even  begins  to 
be  freely  diichavged,  a  frefh  accumulation  Is  prevent- 
ed, and  a  radical  cure  obtained.  In  obilinate  vene- 
real cafes,  particularly  thofe  which  appear  under  the 
form  of  pains  In  the  bones,  the  Peruvl.in  bark  is  often 
fuccefofully  fubjoined  to  mercury,  or  even  given  in 
conjunftlon  with  it. 

CINCINNATUS,  the  Roman  diilator,  was  taken 
from  the  plough,  to  be  advanced  to  the  dignity  of 
couful;  in  which  office  he  rtflored  public  tranquillity, 
and  then  returned  to  his  rural  employments.  Being 
called  forth  a  lecond  time  to  be  dlft.^tor,  he  conquered 
the  enemies  of  Rome,  and,  refufing  all  rewards,  re- 
tired again  to  his  farm,  after  he  had  been  dlAator  only 
1 6  days.  Tlie  iame  circumllance  appeared  once  more 
in  the  80th  year  of  his  age.  H'.-.  died  376  years  be- 
fore Chrlll. 

Ortltr  of  CiNCiNN.iTUS,  or  the  Cincinnati,  a  foclety 
which  was  eftabliflied  in  America  foon  after  the 
peace,  and  coiififls  of  the  generals  and  officers  of  the 
army  and  navy  of  the  United  States-  This  iiifiitu- 
tion,  called  after  the  name  of  the  Roman  didlator 
mentioned  in  the  preceding  article,  -.vas  intended  to 
perpetuate  the  memory  of  the  revolution,  the  friend- 
ihlp  of  the  officers,  and  the  union  of  the  ftat.;s;  and 
alfo  to  raife  a  fund  for  the  relief  of  poor  widows  and 
orphans  whofe  hufbanls  and  fathers  had  fallen  during 
the  war,  and  for  their  defcendants.  The  loeiety  waslub- 
divided  iuto  Hate  focieties,  which  were  to  meet  on  the 

4th 


C    I    N 


Cinflure   i}t!i  of  July,  and  with  other  bufincfs  depute  a  number 
li         of  ihcir  meinbeis  to  convene  ?.i  iiially  in  genera!  mect- 
t   '""•'  '^'"'  ing,s.      The  members  of  the  :n(lituti<,n  were  lo  be  di- 
^  ftinguifhed   by  wearinj^  a   Tedal,   -mhlematlcal  of  the 

defign  of  the  fuciety;  and  the  honours  dnd  advantai!fes 
were  to  be  iieirditary  in  the  elricll  male  hL-irs,  and,  in 
default  of  nnale  ufuf",  in  the  collateral  male  heirs.  Ho- 
norary members  were  to  be  admitted,  but  without  the 
heredilaty  advantages  of  the  fociety,  and  provided 
their  number  fhniild  never  exceed  the  ratio  of  one  to 
four  of  the  officers  or  their  delcenda.its.  Though  the 
apparent  defigns  of  tliis  fociety  were  liarmlefs  and 
honourable,  it  did  not  efcape  popular  jealoufy.  Views 
of  a  deeper  nature  were  imputed  to  the  fi  amers  ;  and 
the  inflitution  was  cenfurtd  and  opp.lcd  as  giving 
birth  to  a  military  nobility,  of  a  dangerous  arillocra- 
tic  power,  which  might  ultimately  prove  ruinous  to 
the  liberties  of  the  new  empire.  But  the  principal 
ground  of  apprehenfnm  was  the  fuppofed  right  of  in- 
heritance conntfted  ivith  this  honour  to  rtndcr  it  he- 
reditary ;  which,  however,  hath  been  given  up  and 
totally  difclaimed  by  the  fociety. 

CINCTURE,  in  architetlure,  a  ring,  lift,  or  or- 
lo,  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  (haft  of  a  coluini, 
fcparating  the  (haft  at  one  end  from  the  bale,  and  at 
the  other  from  the  capital. 

CINEAS,  a  Thtffalian,  minifter  and  friend  to  Pyr- 
ihus  king  of  Epirus.  He  w-as  fent  to  Rome  by  his 
mafter  to  fue  for  a  peace,'which  he,  however,  could 
not  obtain.  He  told  Pyrrhus  that  the  Roman  fenate 
was  a  venerable  affembly  of  kings;  and  oblerved,  that 
to  fight  with  them  was  to  fight  againft  another  Hy- 
dra. He  was  of  fuch  a  retentive  memory,  that  the  day 
after  his  arrival  at  Rome  he  could  call  every  fenator 
and  knight  by  his  name. 

CINERITIOUS,  an  appellation  given  to  different 
fubftances,  on  account  of  their  refembhng  aflies  either 
in  colour  or  confillcnce  ;  hence  it  is  that  the  cortical 
part  of  tlie  brain  has  fometimes  got  this  epithet. 

CINNA  (L.  Corn.),  a  Roman  who  oppreffed  the 
republic  with  his  cruelties.  He  was  banifhtd  by  Oc- 
tavius  for  attempting  to  make  the  fiLgitive  flaves  free. 
He  joined  himfelf  with  Marius;  and  with  him  at  the 
head  of  the  flaves  he  defeated  his  enemies,  and  made 
himfelf  confu!  even  to  a  fourth  time.  He  malTacred 
fo  many  citizens  at  Rome,  that  his  name  became  odi- 
ous; and  one  of  his  officers  affaffinatedhim  at  Ancona, 
as  he  w;is  preparing  war  againft  Sylla. 

CiNNA  (C.  Helvius),  a  poet  intimate  with  Casfar. 
He  went  to  attend  the  obfequies  of  Ca^far,  and  being 
miftaken  by  the  populace  for  the  other  Cinna,  he  wrs 
torn  to  p!eces.--Alfo  a  grandfon  of  Pompey's.  He 
confpired  againft  Aiiguftus,  who  pardoned  liim,  and 
made  nim  one  of  his  moft  intimate  friends.  He  was 
conful  A.  U.  C  758,  and  made  Aiiguftus  his  heir. 

CINNABAR,  in  natur-al  hiftory,  is  either  native  or 
faftitious. 

The  native  cinnabar  is  an  ore  of  quickfilver,  mode- 
rately compaft,  very  hea-^,  and  of  an  elegant  ftriated 
ted  colour. 

FaBitwus  cinnabar  is  a  mixture  of  mercury  and  ful- 
phur  fuhlimed,  and  thus  reduced  into  a  fine  red  glebe. 
The  belt  is  of  a  high  colour,  and  full  of  fibres  like 
needles.     See  Chemistry,  n°  1404. 

The  chief  ufc  ofcinnabsris  for  painting.  Although 


[       15       1 


C     I    N 


the  body  is  coinpofed  of  fulphur,  which  Is  of  a  light  C  n^mcn 
colour,   and  mercury  which  is  white  as  frlvet,   it  Is  ne-     „.  " 
verthcl'  fs  of  an  exceeding  ftrong  red  colour,      f.rimpn .      '"'' '  '  . 
of  it    are    of  a   deep   brown   led   without  brilliancy; 
but   whin  the  too   great   intenfity  of  its  colour  is  di- 
nininied  Ky  bruiling  and  dividing  it  into  fmall  parts, 
(which   is  a  method  generally  ufed    to   lolfen   the  in- 
tenfity  of  all   colours),   'he    red  of  the  cinnabar  be- 
comes mr-re  and  more  exalted,  flame  coloured,  and  ex- 
ceedingly vivid  and   brilliant :   in  this  flate  it  is  called 
•DermilUon. 

Cinnabar  is  often  employed  ,is  an  internal  medicine. 
Hoffman  greatly  recommends  it  as  a  fedative  and  an- 
tifpafmodic  :  and  Stahl  makes  it  an  ingrt-dient  in  his 
tewperaiit  powder.  0th'  r  intelligent  phyficians  deny 
that  cinnabar  t  iken  internally  has  any  medicinal  qua- 
lity. Their  opinion  is  grounded  on  the  infolubility  of 
this  fubftance  in  any  menftruum.  This  qiieftlon  con- 
cerning its  internal  utility  cannot  be  decided  without 
fmther  rcfearches  and  experiments  ;  but  cinnabar  is 
certainly  ufed  with  fucccfs  to  procui'e  a  mercurial  fu- 
migation, when  that  method  of  cure  is  proper  in  ve- 
nereal dlleafes.  For  thispurpofe  it  is  burnt  in  an  open 
fire  on  red-hot  coals,  by  which  the  mercury  is  difen- 
gaged  and  forms  vapours,  which,  being  applied  to  the 
body  of  the  diieafed  perfon,  penetrate  through  the 
pores  of  the  flcin,  and  produce  effefts  fimilar  to  thcfs 
of  mercury  adminiftcred  by  friftion. 

CINNAMON,  the  bark  of  two  fpecles  of  laurus. 
The  true  cinnamon  is  from  the  laurus  cinnar-iomum  •,, 
and  the  bafe  cinnamon,  which  is  often  fold  for  the 
true,   is  from  the  laurus  cafTra.      See  Laurvs. 

CifivATAO-n-Water,  is  made  by  diftilling  the  bark 
firft  infufed  in  fpirit  of  wine,  brandy,  or  white- 
wine, 

Clove-CiNN.^MON,  is  tire  bark  of  a  tree  growing  in 
Brazil,  which  is  often  fubftituted  for  real  cloves. 

White  CiNN/iMON,  called  alfo  Winter's  bark,  is  the 
bark  of  a  tree  frequent  in  the  ifle  of  St  Domingo,  Gua- 
dalupe, i^c.  of  a  fha.-p  biting  tafte  like  pepper. 
Some  ufeit  inftead  of  nutmeg  ;  and  in  medicine  it  is 
efteemed  a  ftomachic  and  antifcorbutic.  See  Ca- 
ne ll  a. 

CINNAMUS,  a  Greek  hiiloilan,  wrote  a  hiflory 
of  the  eaftern  empire,  during  the  I'cigns  of  John  and 
Manuel  Commenes,  from  iirS  to  1143.  His  ftyle  ia 
reckoned  the  beft  of  the  modern  Greek  authors.  He 
died  after  i  tRjj. 

CINNERETH,  Cinereth,  Chinnereth,  (Mofcs)  ; 
or  Gemiefctrclk,  (anc.  geog.)  a  lake  of  the  Lower  Ga- 
lilee ;  called  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  (Matthew);  cf  Tibe- 
rius, (John).  Its  name  Gennefareth  is  from  a  fmall" 
cognominal  dlflriA  upon  it.  In  breadth  40  ftadia,  m 
length  140.  The  water  frefh  and  fit  to  di'Ink,  and 
abounding  in  fifli. 

CINQITEFOIL,  in  botany.  Sec  Potfntilla. 
CINQUE- Ports,  five  havens  that  lie  on  the  eaft 
part  of  England,  towards  France  ;  thus  called  by  way 
of  eminence  on  account  of  ihtir  fupcrior  importance^ 
as  having  been  thought  by  our  kings  to  merit  a  parti- 
cular regard  for  their  prefer  vation  againft  invafion.. 
Hence  they  have  a  particular  policy,  and  ar-e  governed 
by  a  keeper  with  the  title  of  Lord-ivarden  of  thi 
Cinque-ports. 
Cambden  tells  us,  that  William  the  Conqueror  firfti 


C     I    N  C     i6     ]  C    I     P 

Cintjne    appointed  a  warden  of  the  Cinqne-ports :  but  King  daughter,  wlio  cfcaped  his  purfnlt  and  fled  to  Arabia, 

.  "         John  tiril  granted  them  tlieir  privileges;  and  that  up-  where,  after  (he   had  brought  forth,  Hie  was  c'.iangeJ 

j'."^'^^'  ■  on    condition   they  (hould  provide   80  Ihlps  at  their  into  a  tree  which  itill  bears  her  name.     Cinyras,  ac- 

own  charge  for  40  days,  as  often  as  the  king  {hoiild  cordinj^  to  feme,  flabbed  liimfclf. 


have  occafion  in  the  wars  ;  he  being  then  ftraitened  for 
a  navy  to  recoi'er  Normandy. 

The  five  ports  are,  H:iflings,  Romney,  Hythe, 
Dover,  and  Sandwich. — Thorn  tells  us,  that  Ha- 
ftings  provided  2  r  vcficlo,  and  in  each  veffel  2 1  men. 
To  this  port  belong  Seaford,  Pevenfey,  Hedney, 
Winchelfey,     Rye,    Ha;v;ine,    Wakefbonin,  Creneth, 


CION,  or  CvoN,  in  gardening,  a  young  (hoot, 
fprout,  or  fprig,  put  forth  by  a  tree.  Grafting  is  per- 
formed by  the  application  of  the  cion  of  one  plant  up- 
on the  (lock  of  aiirther.  To  produce  a  (lock  of  cions 
for  grafting,  planting,  5:c.  the  gaideners  fomeliniies 
cut  off  the  bodies  of  trees  a  little  above  the  ground, 
and  only  leave   a  (lump  or  root  (landing  :  the  redun- 


and  Foithclipe. —  Romney  provided  five  (hips,  and  in     dant  fap  will  not  fail  next  fpring  to   put  forth  a  great 


each  24  men.  To  this  belong  Bromhal,  Lyde,  Of- 
jvardone,  Dangemares,  and  Romenhal. — Hythe  fur- 
niihed  five  (hips,  and  in  each  2 1  feamen.  To  this  belongs 
Wedmeath. — Dover  the  fame  number  asHaftings.  'I'o 
this  belong  Folkdon,  Feverfham,  and  Marge. — Lad- 
ly.  Sandwich  furnifhed  the  fame  with  Hythe.  To 
this  belong   Fordiwic,   Rrculver,   Serre,   and  Deal. 

The  privileges  granted  to  them  in  confcquence  of 
thefe  fervices  were  very  great.  Amongd  others,  they 
were  each  of  them  to  fend  two  ba-ons  to  reprefent 
them  in  pailiament ;  their  deputies  were  to  bear  the 
canopy  over  the  king's  head  at  the  time  of  his  coro- 
nation, and  to  dine  at  the  uppermoft  table  in  the 
great  hall  on  his  right  hand;  to  be  exempted  from  fub- 
fidies  and  other  aids ;  their  heirs  to  be  free  from 
perfonal  wardfhip,  notwithftanding  any  tenure;  to  be 
impleaded  in  their  own  towns,  and  not  elfewhere  ; 
not  to  be  liable  to  tolls,   &c. 

The  Cinque-ports  give  the  following  titles:  Ha- 
ftings,  a  barony  to  the  ancient  family  of  Huntington  : 
Romney,  to  the  Marihams :  Dover,  new  barony,  to  a 
branch  of  the  York  family,;    formerly  a  dukedom  (now 


number  of  (hoots.  In  drelTing  dwarf-trees,  a  great  many 
cions  are  to  be  cut  off. 

CIOTAT,  a  fea-port  town  of  Provence  in  France  ; 
famous  for  Mnfcadine  wine.  It  is  leated  on  the  bay  of 
Laquea,  between  Marfeilles  and  Toulon  ;  and  the 
harbour  is  defended  by  a  drong  iort.  E.  Long.  5.  30. 
N.  Lat.  43.  10. 

CIPHER,  or  Cypher,  one  of  the  Arabic  charac- 
ters or  figures  ufed  in  computation,  formed  thus,  ©. 
See  Arithmetic. 

Cipher  is  alfo  a  kind  of  enigmatic  charafter,  com- 
pofed  of  feveral  letters  interwoven,  which  are  (general- 
ly the  initial  letters  of  the  petfons  names  for  whom 
the  ciphers  are  intended.  Thefe  are  frequently  ufed 
on  feals,  coaches,  and  other  moveables. — Anciently, 
merchants  and  tradefunen  were  not  allowed  to  bear 
arms  :  in  lieu  thereof,  they  bore  their  ciphers,  or 
the  initial  letters  of  their  names,  artfully  interwoven 
about  a  crofs ;  of  which  we  have  divers  inllances  on 
tombs,  &c.     See  Devise. 

Cipher,  denotes  likewife  certain  fecret  charafters 
difguifed  and  varied,  ufed  in  wiiting  letters  that  con- 


extinft)    to  the   Queenfberry   family  :    Sandwich,   an  tain  fome   fecret,   not  to   be  underllood  but  by  thole 

earldom  to   a  branch  of  the  Montagues.  between  whom  the  cipher  is  agreed  on. 

CINTRA,  a    cape  and  mountain  of  Portugal,  in  De  la  GuiUetiere,  in   his  Laceda-nion  ancient  and  mo- 

the  province  of  Edremadura,  ufually  called  the  Rock  dern,  endeavours  to  make  the  ancient  Spartans  the  in- 

of  Lijhon.      It  lies  on  the  north  fide  of  the  entrance  of  ventors  of  the  art  of  writing  in  cipher.     Their  fcytala, 

the  river  Tajo  ;  and  there  is  a  town  of  the  fame  name  according  to  him,  was  the  firft  (Ifetch  of  this  myfteri- 


iituated  thereon.     W.  Long.  10.    15.   N.  Lat.  59.  o. 

CINUS,  orCvNUs,  a  famous  civilian  of  Piftoia  in 
the  t4th  century.  His  commentary  ©n  the  Code  was 
finiflied  in  1313  :  he  alfo  wrote  on  fome  parts  of  the 
digeft.  He  was  no  lefs  famous  for  his  Italian  poems; 
and  is  ranked  among  thofe  who  firft  gave  graces  to  the 
Tufcan  lyric  poetry. 

CINYRA.  in  the  Jewidi  antiquities,  a  m\ifical  in- 
ftrument.  This,  and  the  Hebr-ew  chinor,  which  is  ge- 
nerally tranflated  c'lthera,  lyra,  or  pjaltenum,  are  the 
fame.  It  was  made  of  wood,  and  was  played  on  in  the 
temple  of  Jerufalem.  Jofephus  fays  that  the  c'mrra  of 
the  temple  had  ten  d rings,  and  that  it  was  touched 
with  a  bow.     In  another  place  he  fays  that  Solomon 


ous  ait :  thefe  fcytalae  were  two  rollers  of  wood,  of 
equal  length  and  thicknefs  ;  one  of  the.-ii  kept  by  the 
ephori ;  the  other  by  the  general  of  the  army  fent  on 
any  expedition  againll  the  enemy.  Whenfoever  thofe 
raagiftrates  would  fend  any  fecret  orders  to  the  gene- 
ral, they  took  a  (lip  of  parchment,  and  rolled  it  very 
juftly  about  the  fcytala  which  they  had  referved  ;  and 
in  this  (late  wrote  their  intentions,  which  appeared 
perfedl  and  confident  while  the  parchment  continued 
on  the  roll :  when  taken  off,  the  writing  was 
maimed,  and  without  conneftion  :  but  was  eafily  re- 
trieved by  the  general,  upon  his  applying  it  to  his 
fcytala. 

Polybius  fays,  that  .^neas  Taflitus,  20CO  years  ago, 


made  a  great  number  of  them  with  a  ptecious  kind  of  collc£led  together  20  different   manners   of  wiiling  fo 

metal  called  f/ft??rwm;  wherein  he  contiadidls  the  fcrip-  as  not  to  be  underdood  by   any  but  thofe  in  the  (e- 

tures,   which  inform    us   that  Solomon's  cinnors  were  cret ;  part  whereof  were  invented  by  himfelf,  and  part 

made  of  wood.  ufed  before  his  time. — Trlthemius,  Cap.  Porta,  Vige- 

CINYRAS,   (fab.  hid.)  a  king  of  Cyprus,  fon  of  nere,  and  P.  Niceton,   have  written   exprefsly  oa  the 

Paphus.      Hemani-d  Cenchrcis,  by  whom  he  had  a  {\ih]tGl  oi  ciphers ■ 


d aught -r  called  Myrrha.  Myrrha  fell  in  love  with  her 
father,  .'.nd  in  the  abfence  of  her  mother  (he  introdu- 
ced iinfelf  into  his  bed  by  means  of  her  nurfe.  Ciny- 
ras hid  by  her  a  fon  called  yldonls  ;  and  when  he  knew 

tlie  inceft  he  had  committed,  he  attempted  to  dab  his    any  common  cipher  written  in  EngUfh, 
N°  81.  1 


As  the  writing  in  cipher  is  become  an  art  ;  fo  is  the 
reading  or  unravelling  thereof,  called  deciphering. — The 
rules  of  deciphering  are  different  in  different  languages. 
By  obferving  the   following,   you   will  loon  make  out 


I.  Obfcrve 


C     I     P  [     1 

Cipher.         I.  Obferve  the  letters  or  charafters  that  mod   fre- 
""~Y~  quently  occur  ;  and  fet  them  down  for  the  fi.^  vowels, 
including^';  and  of  tliefe  the  moll  frequent  will  gene- 
rally be  e,  and  the  Kail  frequent  u. 

2.  The  vowels  that  moll  frequently  come  together 
are  ea  and  on. 

3.  The  confonant  molt  common  at  the  ends  of  words 
is  s,  and  the  next  frequent  r  and  /. 

4.  When  two  fimilar  charadters  come. together,  they 
are  moll  likely  to  be  the  confonantsy",  /,  or  s,  or  the 
vowels  e  or  0. 

5.  The  letter  that  precedes  or  follows  two  fimilar 
charafters  is  either  a  vowel,  or  /,  m,  ti,  or  r. 

6.  In  deciphering,  begin  with  the  words  that  confift 
of  a  fingle  letter,  which  will  be  either  a,  I,  0,  or  cj". 

7.  Then  take  the  words  of  two  letters,  one  of  which 
will  be  a  vowel.  Of  thefe  words  the  moft  frequent  are, 
an,  to,  he,  by,  of,  on,  or,  no,  Jo,  as,  at,  if,  in,  is,  it,  Le,  me, 
fiif,  us,  'we,  am. 

8.  In  words  of  three  letters  there  are  mod;  common- 
ly two  confonants.  Of  thefe  words  the  moll  frequent 
are,  the,  and,  not,  but,  yet,  for,  tho',  hoiv,  ivhy,  all,  you, 
fl.v,  his,  her,  our,  ivho,  may,  can,  did,  was,  are,  has,  had, 
let,  one,  tiuo,fix,  ten,  isfe- — Some  of  tliefe,  or  thole  of 
two  letters,  will  be  found  in  every  fentence; 

9.  The  moll  common  words  of  four  lettera  are,  this, 
that,  then,  thus,  luith,  when,  from,  here,  fume,  mojl,  none, 
they,  them,  whom,  mine,  your,  felf,  mujl,  will,  have,  been, 
txiere,  four, Jive,  nine,  &c. 

to.  The  moll  ufual  worBs  of  five  letters  are,  there, 
thefe,  thoje,  which,  were,  while,  Jince,  their,  Jliall,  might, 
tould,  would,  ought,  three,  Jeven,  eight,  &c. 

1 1.  Words  of  two  or  more  fyllables  frequently  begin 
with  double  confonants,  or  with  a  prepolition  ;  that  is, 
a  vowel  joined  with  one  or  more  confonants.  The  moft 
common  double  confonants  are  bl,  br,  dr,Jl,Jr,  gl,  gr, 
ph,  pi,  pr,  /h,Jh,Jp,Jl,  th,  tr,  wh,wr.  Sec.  and  the  moll 
common  prnpolitions  are  com,  con,  Je,dis,ex,  im,  in,  int, 
mis,  per,  pre,  pro,  re,  Jub,Jup,  un,  &c. 

12.  The  double  confonants  moll  frequent  at  the  end 
of  long  words  are,  </f,  Id,  If,  mn,  nd,  ng,  rl,  rm,  rn,  rp, 
rt,fm,ff,  xt,  &c.  and  the  moft  common  terminations 
are  ed,  en,  er,  es,  et,  ing,  ly,  fon,Jion,  tion,  able,  encc,  ent, 
ment,  full,  lefs,  nejs,  4i.c. 

•  In  On  Plate  CXXXVII.*  fig.  7.  is  given  an  example  of 

Vol.  IV.  a  cipher  wrote  in  arbitrary  charafters  as  is  commonly 
praftifed.  It  will  be  talily  deciphered  by  oblerving 
the  rules :  but  when  the  charafters  are  all  placed 
clofe  together,  as  in  the  example  fig.  8.  and  as  they  al- 
ways fhould  be,  the  deciphering  is  much  more  difilcult. 

To  decipher  a  writing  of  this  fort,  you  mull  fitft 
look  for  thofe  charafters  that  moft  frequently  occur, 
and  fet  them  down  for  vowels  as  before.  Then  ob- 
ferve the  fimilar  charafters  that  come  together  ;  but 
you  muft  remember  that  two  fuch  charafters  may 
here  belong  to  two  words.  You  are  next  to  remember 
the  combinations  of  two  or  three  charafters  that  are 
moft  frequent ;  which  will  be  fome  of  the  words  in 
the  feventh  and  eighth  of  the  foregoing  rules  ;  and  by 
pbferving  the  other  rules,  you  will  infallibly  difcovcr, 
with  time  and  attention,  any  cipher  wrote  on  thefe 
principles. 

When  the  words  are  wrote  all  clofe  together,  if 
the  key  to  the  cipher  were  to  be  changed  every 
word,  according   to  a  regular  method  agreed  on  be- 

Vol.  V.  Parti. 


7     ]  C    I    P 

tween  the  parties,  as  might  be  done  by  cither  of  the  Cipher.  ^ 
methods  mentioned  in  N'^  II.  below,  with  very  little  » 
additional  trouble,  the  writing  would  then  be  extreme- 
ly difficult  to  decipher.  The  longer  any  letter  wrote 
in  cipher  is,,  the  more  eafy  it  is  to  decipher,  as  then  tlie 
repetitions  of  the'charafters  and  combinations  are  the 
more  frequent. 

The  following  are  the  contents  of  the  two  forego- 
ing ciphers  ;  in  which  we  have  inverted  the  order  of 
the  words  and  letters,  that  they  who  are  defirous  of  try- 
ing their  talent  at  deciphering,  may  not,  inadvertently, 
read  the  explanation  before  the  cipher. 

cnil  eno  ton  dna  slitnom  elohw  eerht,  suoidifrep 
dna  leurc  o.  noituac  &  ecnedurp  fo  klat  Diw  uoy  :  on, 
rotiart,  tcelgen  &  ecnereffidni  si  ti.  yltrohs  rettel  a  em 
dnes  ot  snaem  emof  dnif  rehtie,  traeh  eht  morf  semoc 
ti  taht  ees  em  tel  &,  erom  ecaf  ym  eesot  erad  reven  ro. 

evlewt  fo  ruoh  eht  ta  thgin  silit,  ledatic  eht  fo  etag 
eht  erofeb  elbmcffa  Uiw  sdneirf  ruo  Ua.  ruoh  eht  ot 
lautcnup  eb:  derapcrp  Hew  emoc  dna,  ytiebil  ruoy 
niager  ot,  ylevarb  eid  ro.  thgin  eht  si  siht,  su  sekam 
rehtie  taht,  etiuq  su  seodnu  ro. 

Contrivances Jor  communicating  intelligence  by  Cipher. 

I.  By  means  oj  a  pack  oj cards.  The  parties  muft  pre- 
vioufly  agree  in  what  manner  the  cards  (liall  be  firll 
placed,  and  then  how  they  fhall  be  fiiuffled.  Thus  fup- 
pol'e  the  cards  are  to  be  firft  placed  in  the  order  as  here- 
after follows,  and  then  fhuffled  by  taking  off  3  from  the 
top,  putting  the  next  z  over  them,  and  the  following  3 
under  them  *,  and  fo  alternately.      Therefore  the  par-  *  By  fhuf- 

tv  who  fends  the  cipher  firft  writes  the  contents  of  {tfl'"R*e   . 
r  ji.  •.I.CI11..1       cards  m  this 

on  a  leparate  paper,  and  then  copies  the  hrlt  32  letters ^.,^j.^g|. 

on  the  cards,  by  writing  one  letter  on  every  card;  he  there  will 

then  fliuffles  them,  in  the  manner  defcribed,  and  writes  remain  on- 

the  fecond  32  letters:  he  Ihuffles  them  a  fecond  time, 'v  *.'°  P"' 

and  writes  the  third  32  letters,  and  fo  of  the  reft.    An"" 


example  will  make  this   plain, 
be  as  follows : 


Suppofe  the  letter  to 


under  at 
lift. 


/  am  in  Jull  march  to  relieve  you  ;  within]  three  days 
I  Jhnll  he  with  you.  If  the  ene\my  in  the  mean  time 
Jhould  make  an  ajj'ai^t,  remember  what  you  owe  to  your 
countr\y,  to  your  family,  and  yourfelf.  Live  with  ho\noury 
or  die  with  glory. 


rder  of  the  cards  before 

the  I  ft  Ihuffle. 

Ace  fpade 
Ten  diamonds 

i    a    d   u    y    t 
ale     u    I 

Eight  hearts 

m   I    m    0    i    u 

King  fpades 

Nine  clubs 

i    s    u     m    I 
n    h    I     e     0 

Seven  diamods 

f  h    m    r    i 

Nine  diamonds 

u   e   a    c     In 

Ace  clubs 

I    w  I  \r    y     i 

Knave  hearts 

I    s    e    e    a    e 

Seven  fpades 
Ten  clubs 

mi    a    r    m    w 
a  i    t    h    e     r 

Ten  hearts 

r   r   h    of 

Qn^een  fpades 
Eight  diamonds 

c    h  t    e     i 
h   a   h  y     iu 

Eight  clubs 
Seven  hearts 

t*y    0    0     0     I 
e   y    a    0     ho 

Queen  clubs 

r  0    n    u    J    h 

Nine  fpades 
King  hearts 

e    u    i    y    f    y 
I    e    t    (     u     9 

Queea 


c 

I       P 

Qneen  d'amonda 

;  d  s 

0    e 

Eight  fpades 

e     i     n 

•w   s 

B 

Knave  clubs 

V  f  a 

n     1 

s 

Seven  clubs 

e    t    s 

I      V 

Ace  hearts 

y    r    e 

}    'r 

Nine  hearts 

0      I     11 

•W     0 

f 

Ace  diamonds 

u    h    s 

t    isf 

d 

Knave  fpades 

>w  I    m 

a    1 

Ten  fpades 

i    e    y 

t     r 

r 

King  diamonds 

t    t    i 

b    u 

r 

(^een  hearts 

h    h    m 

m    u 

King  chibs 

i    ri    a 

i    h 

Knave  diamcnds 

n    e    u 

r    0 

[    js    ] 


G   r   p 


The  pcrfon  that  receives  thefe  cards  firft  places  them 
in  the  order  EgreeJ  on,  and  tranfcribes  the  firft  letter 
on  every  card.  He  then  (hiiffles  them,  according  to 
order,  and  trar.fcribes  the  feccnd  letter  on  each  card. 
He  fliufBes  them  a  fecond  time,  and  tranfcribes  the 
third  letters  :  and  fo  of  the  reft. 

If  the  cards  were  to  be  fluiHTcd  the  fecond  time  by 
threes  and  fours,  the  third  time  by  two  and  fours,  ci"V. 
it  would  make  the  cipher  ftill  more  difHcult  to  dif- 
cover  :  though  as  all  ciphers  depend  on  the  combina- 
tion of  letters,  there  are  fcarce  any  that  may  not  be 
deciphered  with  time  and  pains  ;  as  we  (hall  (how  fur- 
ther on.  Thofe  ciphers  are  the  be(l  that  are  by  their 
jiature  moft  free  fronn  fnfpicion  of  being  ciphers  -,  as  for 
example,  if  the  letters  were  there  wrote  with  fympathe- 
tic  ink,  the  cards  rci^lit  then  pafs  for  a  common  pack. 

n.  By  a  dial.  On  a  piece  of  fquare  pafteboard 
ABCD,  fig.  3.  4.  draw  the  circle  EFGH,  and  divide 
it  into  26  equal  parts,  in  each  of  which  muft  be  wrote 
one  of  tlie  letters  of  the  alphabet. 

On  the  infide  of  this  there  muft  be  another  circle  of 
pafteboard,  ILMN,  moveable  round  the  centre  O,  and 
the  extremity  of  this. muft  be  divided  into  the  fame 
number  of  equal  parts  as  the  other.  -  On  this  aUo  muft 
be  wrote  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  which,  however, 
need  not  be  difpofed  in  the  fame  order.  The  pcrfon 
with  whom  you  correfpond  m>;ft  have  a  fimilar  dial,  and 
at  the  beginning  of  your  letter  you  muft  put  any  two 
letters  that  anfwtr  to  each  other  when  you  have  fixed 
the  dial. 

Exam.  Suppofe  you  would  write  as  follows  :  "  If 
you  will  come  over  to  us,  you  (hall  have  a  penfion,  and 
you  may  ftill  make  a  (liam  oppofition."  You  begin 
with  the  letters  Ma,  which  (how  how  the  dial  is  fixed  : 
then  for  If  you,  you  write  unjtic,  and  fo  for  the  reft,  as 
you  will  fee  at  fig.  6. 

The  fame  intention  may  be  anfwered  by  a  ruler,  the 
upper  part  of  which  is  fixed  and  the  lower  part  made 
to  flide  ;  but  in  this  cafe  the  upper  part  muft  contain 
two  alph5bets  in  fuccefiicn,  that  fome  letter  of  that  part 
may  conllantly  correfpond  to  one  in  the  lower  part. 
The  divifions  ftanding  diieclly  over  each  other  in  a 
ftraight  line  will  be  much  moie  obvious  than  in  the 
circumference  of  a  circle.  Or  two  ftraight  pieces  of 
pafteboard  regularly  divided,  the  one  containing  a  fin- 
gle  and  the  other  a  double  alphabet,  would  anfwer  ex- 
aftly  the  fame  purpofe.  In  this  cafe  a  blank  fpace  may 
be  left  at  each  fnd  of  the  fmjrle  alphabet,  and  one  or 
two  weights  being  placed  on  both  the  pieces  will  keep 
ihem  Ready. 

III.  Tht  corref ponding  f^aca.     Take  two  pieces  cf 


pafteboard  or  ftifT  pnper,  through  which  you  m'llt  cut    CipTi«r, 
long  <"qtiares,  at  different   diftances,  as  you  will  fee  in     t-'TP""- 
the  following  example.     One  of  ihcfe  pieces  you  keep         ^ 
yourftlf,  and  the  other  you  give  to  your  correfpondent. 
When  you  would  fend  him  any  feci  et  intelligence,  you 
lay  the  pafteboard  upon  a  paper  of  the  fame  iu.i  ;  and 
in  the  fpaces  cut  out,  you  write  what  you  would  have 
underftood  by   him  only,  and  then  fill  up  the  interint- 
diate  fpac-.-s  with  fomewhat  that  makes  with  thofe  words  . 
a  different  fenfe. 

|1  Ihall  be|  much  obliged  to  you,  as  reading  |  ilouel 
engages  my  attention  lat]  prefent,  if  you  will  lend  me 
any  one  of  the  |-i^ht|  volumes  of  the  Spe<5lator.  I 
hope  )'ou  will  excule  |tius|  freedom,  but  for  a  winter's 
|evening|  I  |don't|  know  a  better  entertainment.  If  I 
[fail|  to  return  it  foon,  never  tiuft    me  far  the  time 


A  paper  of  this  fort  may  be  placed  four  different 
ways,  either  by  putting  the  bottom  at  the  top,  or  by 
turning  it  over;  and  by  thcfe  means  the  fuperfiuous 
words  may  be  the  more  cafily  adapted  to  the  fenfe  of 
the  others. 

This  is  a  very  eligible  cipher,  as  it  is  free  from  fu- 
fpicion,  but  it  will  do  only  for  (hort  rieffages  :  for  if 
the  fpaces  be  frequent,  it  will  be  very  difficult  to  make 
the  concealed  and  obvious  meanings  agree  together : 
and  if  the  fenfe  be  not  clear,  the  writing  will  be  liable 
to  fufpicion. 

IV.  The  mtifical  ciphet:  The  conftruftion  of  this 
cipher  is  fimilar  to  that  of  N'  II.  The  circle  EFGH 
(fig.  3.)  is  to  be  divided  into  twenty-fix  equal  parts, 
in  each  part  there  muft  be  wrote  one  of  the  letters 
of  the  alphabet  :  and  on  the  anterior  circle  ILMN, 
moveable  round  the  centre  O,  there  is  to  be  the  fame 
number  of  divifions  :  the  circumference  of  the  inner 
circle  muft  be  ruled  in  the  manner  of  a  mufic  paper  ; 
and  in  each  divifion  there  is  to  be  placed  a  note,  dif- 
fering either  in  figure  or  pofition.  Laftly,  within  the 
mufical  lines  place  the  three  keys,  and  on  the  outer 
circle,  the  figures  that  are  comraouly  ufed  to  denote 
the  time. 

Then  provide  yourfelf  v/ith  a  ruled  paper,  and  place 
one  of  the  keys,  as  fuppofe  that  of  ge  refol,  againft 
the  time  two-fourths  at  the  beginning  of  the  paper, 
which  will  inform  your  correfpondent  how  to  fix  his  - 
circle.  You  then  copy  the  nates  that  anfwer  to  the 
feveral  letters  of  the  words  you  intend  to  wTite,  in  the 
manner  expreffed  at  fig.  5. 

A  cypher  of  this  fort  may  be  made  more  difficult 
to  dlfcover  by  frequently  changing  the  key,  and  that 
will  not  in  the  leaft  embarrafs  the  reader.  You  may 
likewife  add  the  mark  ^  or  [j  to  die  note  that  be- 
gins a  wmd,  which  will  make  it  more  eafy  to  read, 
and  at  the  fame  time  give  the  mufic  a  more  natural 
afpeft.  This  cipher  is  preferable  to  that  of  N"  IL 
above,  as  it  may  be  inclofed  in  a  letter  about  common 
affairs,  fnd  pafs  unfufpecled. 

CIPPUS,  in  antiquity,  a  low  column,  with  an  in- 
fcription,  erefted  on  the  high  roads,  or  other  places, 
to  (how  the  way  to  travellers  ;  to  ferve  as  a  boun- 
dary :  to  mark  the  qrave  of  a  deceafcd  perfon,  Ific. 

CIR 


Cir 

II 
CirciCTia. 


CIR  [     1 

CI'R  (St),  a  village  of  France,  two  miles  from  Ver- 
failles,  remarkable  for  a  nunnery  founded  here  by 
Louis  XIV.  The  nuns  are  obliged  to  take  care  of 
the  education  of  250  girls,  who  niuft  prove  their  fa- 
milies to  have  been  noble  from  the  4th  generation  on 
the  father's  iide.  They  cannot  enter  before  7,  nor 
nfter  12  years  of  age:  and  they  continue  there  till 
they  are  20  years  and  3  months  old.  The  lioufe  is  a 
mod  magnificent  rtruftnre. 

CIRC^'EA,  ENCHANTfR's  NMGHT-SHADC  :  A genus 
Df  the  munogynia  order,  belonging  to  the  diandria 
clafs  of  plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  rank'ng  un- 
der the  4Sth  order,  yl^pr^al.t.  The  corolla  is  dipeta- 
lous  ;  the  calyx  dipliyllous,  fuperior,  with  one  bilocu- 
!ar  feed.  There  are  two  fpecies,  one  of  which  is  a 
native  of  Britain,  and  the  other  of  Germany.  They 
are  low  herbaceous  plants  with  white  flowers,  and 
poflefTcd  of  no  remarkable  property. 

CIRCASSIA,  a  large  country  of  Afia,  fituated  be- 
tween 45  and  50  degrees  of  north  latitude,   and  be- 
tween 40  and  50  of  eail  longitude.      It  is  Ijouiided  by 
Ruiiia  on  the  .north;  by  Aifracan  and  the  Cafpian  fea 
on  the  eaft  ;  by  Georgia  and  Daglflan  on  the  fouth  ; 
and  by  the  river  Don,  the  Palus  Meotis,  and  the  Black 
Sea,  on  the  weft.      This  country  has   long  been  cele- 
brated for  the  extraordinary  beauty  of  its  women  ;  and 
liere   it  was  that   the   pratlice  of  inoculatmg  for  the 
fmall-pox  firft  began.     Terki,   the  principal    city,   is 
feated  in  a  very  fpacious  pl^in,  very  fwampy,   towards 
the   fea-fide,   in  43  deg.  23  niin.  north  latitude  :  it  is 
about  three  werfis  in  compafs,  v.'£ll  fortiiied  with  ram- 
parts and  baftions  in  the  mcdeni  ilyle,  well  llored  with 
cannon,  and  has  always  a  confiderable  garrifon  in   it, 
under  the  command  of  a  governor.     The  CircaiTian 
prince  who  refidcs  here,   is  allowed  five  hundred  Ruf- 
fians for  his  guard,  but  none  of  his   own  fubjefts   are 
permitted  to  dwell  within  any  part  of  the  fortifications. 
Ever  fince  the   reduction   of  thofe  parts  to  the  obedi- 
ence of  R.uffia,  they  have  put  in  all  places  of  ftrength, 
not  only  Ruffian  garrifons  and   governors,  but   magi- 
ftrates,  and  priells  for  the  exercife  of  the  Chriilian  re- 
ligion ;  yet   the   Circaflian   Tartars  are  governed   by 
iheir  own  princes,  lords,  and  judges;  but  thefe  admini- 
f)er  juftice  in  the  name  of  the  emperor,  and  in  matters 
of  importance,  not  without  the  prefenct  of  the  Ruflian 
governors,  being  :,!'  obliged  to   take  the  oath  of  alle- 
giance to   his  imperial   majefty.     The  apparel  of  the 
men  of  Circaflia  is  much   the  fame  with  that  of  the 
Nagayans :  only  their  caps  are  fomcthing  larger  ;  and 
their  cloaks   being   Ilkewife  of  coarfe   cloth   Or  flieep 
fkins,  are  faftened  only  at  the  neck  with  a  itring,  and 
as* they  are  not  large  enough  to  cover  the-whole  body, 
they  turn  them  round  according  to  the  wind  and  wea- 
ther.    The  men   here  are  much  better  favoured  than 
thofe  of  Nagaya,   and  the   women  extremely  well  (ha- 
ped,   with  exceeding  fine  features,  fmooth  clear  com- 
plexions, and  beautiful  black  eyes,   vi'hich,   with  their 
black  hair  hanging  in  two  trelTes,  one  on  each  fide  the 
face,   give  them  a  mofl  lovely  appearance:  they  wear 
a  black  coif  on  their  heads,  covered  with  a  fine  white 
uloth  lied  under  the  chin.     During  the  fummer  they 
«11  wear  only  a  fmock  of  divers  colours,  and  that  open 
fo  low  before,  that   one  m?.y  fee  below  their  navels : 
this,  with  their  beautiful  faces  always  uncovered  (con- 
trary to  the  cwftom  of  moll  of  tke  other  provinces  in 


9     ]  CIR 

thele  parts),  their  good  humour  and  lively  freedom  in  ClrcsfEi. 
couverfation,  altogcllier  render  them  very  attradling  :  r-~" 

notwithftandiug  which  they  have  the  reputation  of  be- 
ing very  chafte,  though  they  feldom  want  opportunity  ; 
for  according  to  the  accounts  of  a  late  traveller,  it  is  an 
eilabliflied  point  of  good  manners  among  them,  that  as 
foon  as  any  perfou  comes  in  to  fpeak  to  the  wife,  the 
hufoand  goes  out  of  the  houfe  :  but  whether  this  conti- 
neucy  of  theirs  proceeds  from  their  own  generoiity,  to 
recompcnce  their  huftjands  for  the  confidence  they  put 
in  them,  or  has  its  foundation  only  in  fame,  he  pretends 
not  to  determine.     Their  language  they  have  in  com- 
mon v.-ith   the  other  neighbouring  I'artars,   altliough 
the  chief  people  among  them  are  alfo  not  ignorant  of 
the  Ruilian  :  tlicir  religion  is  Paganifm  ;  for  notwith- 
Handing  they  ufe  circumcifion  among  them,  tliey  have 
neither  priclf ,  alcorau,  or  mofque,  like  other  Mahome- 
tans.    Every  body  here  offers  his  own  lacrince  at  jjlea- 
fure ;  for  which,  however,  they  have  certain  days,  eila- 
blif.ied  rather  by  cuftom  than  any  pofitive  command  : 
tlieir  moil  folcmn   facrilice  is  offered  at  the  death  of 
their  neareft  friends  ;   upon  which  occafion  both  men 
and  women  meet  in  the  field  to  be  prefent  at  the  offer- 
ing, which  is  an  he-goat  ;  and  having  killed,  they  flay 
it,   and  ftretch    the  ikin  with  the  head  and  horns  on, 
upon  a  crofs  at  the  top  of  a  long  pole,  placed  common- 
ly in  a  quickfet  hedge    (to  keep  the  cattle   from   it)  ; 
and  near  the  place  the  facrifice  is  offered  by  boihng  and 
roalling  the  flclh,  which  they  afterv/ards  eat.     When 
the  feall  is  over,  the  men  rife,   and  having  paid  their 
adoration  to  the  iliin,  and  muttered  over  fome  certain 
prayers,  the  women  withdraw,    and  the  men  conclude 
the  ceremony  with  drinking  a  great  quantity  of  aqua- 
vitx  ;  and  this  generally  ends  in  a  quarrel  before  they 
part.     The  face  of  the  country  is  pleafantly  diverfitied 
with  mountains,  valleys,  woods,  lakes,  and  rivers  ;  and, 
though  not  much  cultivated,  is  far  from  being  unfruit- 
ful.    In  fummer  the  inhabitants  quit  tlie  towns,   and 
encamp  in  the  fields  like  the  neighbouring  Tartars ; 
occafionally    (liifting   their   llations    along   with  their 
flocks   and  herds.     Befides  game,  in  v.hich  the  coun- 
try greatly  abounds,  the  Circaffians  eat  beef  and  mut- 
ton ;  but  that  which  they  prefer  to   all  others   is  the 
flefli  of  a  young  horfe.      Th;ir  bread   coufiits  of  thli» 
cakes  of  barley   meal,   baked  upon  the  hearth,  which 
they  always  eat  new  ;  and  their  ufual  drink  is  water  or 
mare's'  milk;  from  the  latter  of  which  they  dillil  a  fpi- 
rit,  as  moft  of  the  Tartar  nations.     They  allot  no  fix- 
ed hours  for, the  refrefhments  of  the  table   or  flecp, 
which  they  indulge  irregularly,  as  inchnation  or  con- 
venience dictates.  When  the  men  make  excurfions  into 
an  enemy's  country,  they  willpafs  fevcral  days  andnights 
fucceffively  without  fleeping  ;  but,  at  tlieir  return,  de- 
vote as  much  time  to  repofe  as  the  fpace  in  which  they 
had  before  with-he'd  from  that  gratification.       When 
they  eat,  they  fit  crofs-legged  on  the  floor,   the  &in  of 
fome  animal  lerving  them  inllead  of  a  carpet.      In  re- 
moving from  one  part  of  the  country  to   another,  tlie 
women  and  children  are  carried  in  waggons,  which  are 
a  kind  of  travelling  houfes,  and  drawn  by  oxen  or  ca- 
mels,  they  never    uiing    horfes    for    draught.      Their 
breed  of  the  latter,  however,  is  reckoned   exceeding 
good  ;  and  they  are  accuftomed  to  fwim  almoll  any  ri- 
ver on  horfeback.     The  women  and  children   fmokc 
tobacco  as  well  as  the  men ;  and  this  is  the  molt  accept- 
C  2  able 


Circe 

II 
Circle. 


C     I     R  C     20     ]  C     I     R 

taWecommoditywhichatravellercan  carry  with  him  in-  periphery  in  the  immoveable  fiirface,  do  not  revolve  ;  Circles. 
to  the  Tartar  countries.  Tliere  are  here  no  public  inns,  as  the  ecliptic,  equator,  and  its  parallels,  fee.  See  '"" 
which  indeed  ave  unneceiTary;  for  fo  great  is  the  holpl-      Geography. 

CiRi/ pa  of  ylllil!u/i;  iitherv.-ik  csWcd  almi/c^ntars,  ^ye 
circles  parallel  to  the  hori/jon,  havini^  their  common 
pole  in  the  zenith,  and  Hill  diminifhlujr  as  they  ap- 
pioacli  the  zenith.      See  Almucantar. 

Diuriiiil  Ctkc/.f.s,  are  immoveable  circles,  fuppofed 


ta!i;y  of  the  people,  that  they  will  contend  with  each 
other  who  (liall  entertain  any  ftranger  that  happens  to 
come  among  them. — The  principal  branch  of  their 
traffic  is  their  own  children,  cipecially  their  daughters, 
whom  they  fell  for  the  ufc  of  the  feraglios  in   Turky 


and    Pcrfia,  where  they  frequently  marry  to  great  ad-     to  be   dcfcribed  bythefeven   liars,  and  other   point? 

vantage,  and  make  the  fortune  of  their  families.     The        '■    '      '  ■  '   -  —  -  - 

merchants  who  come  from  Conflantinople  to  piirchafe 
thofe  girls,  are  generally  Jews,  who,  as  well  as  the  mo- 
thers, are  faid  to  be  eKtremely  careful  of  preferving  the 
chaRity  of  the  young  women,  knowing  the  value  that 
is  fet  by  the  Turks  upon  the  marks  of  virginity.  The 
greater  part  of  the  Ciicaflians  are  Chrilllans  of  the 
Greek  church  ;  but  there  are  alfo  both  Mahometans 
and  Pagans  amongll  them. 

CIRCE  (fab.  hill.),  a  daughter  of  Sol  and  Perfcis, 
celebrated  for  lier  knowledge  of  magic  and  venomous 
herbs.  She  was  filler  to  iEetcs  king  of  Colclils,  and 
to  Pafiphae  the  wife  of  Minos.  She  married  a  Sarma- 
tian  prince  of  Colchis,  whom  fhe  murdered  to  obtain 
the  kingdom.  She  was  expelled  by  her  fubjeft?,  and 
carried    by  her   father    upon    the  coalls   of   Italy   in 


of  the  heavens,  in  their  diurn:J  rotaticm  round  the 
earth  ;  or  i.tlher,  in  the  rotation  of  tlie  earth  roumj 
its  axis.  The  diurnal  circles  are  all  unequal :  the  e- 
quator  is  the  higgeft. 

Horary  CiRCLfS,  in  dialing,  are  the  lines  which 
fliow  the  hours  on  dials  ;  though,  tliefe  be  not  drawn 
circular,  but  nearly  ftraight.     See  Dialing. 

CiRcr.F.s  of  Latitude,  or  Secondaries  of  the  Edipt'iCf 
are  great  circles  parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic, 
paffing  through  the  poles  thereof,  and  through  every 
liar  and  planet.  They  are  fo  called,  becaufe  they 
ferve  to  meafure  the  latitude  of  the  liars,  which  is  no- 
thing but  an  arch  of  one  of  thefe  circles  intercepted 
between  the  ilar  and  the  ecliptic.     See  Latitude. 

CmciEU  of  Longitude,- ^rs  feveral  leffer  circles,  pa- 
rallel to   the  ecliptic  ;  ftiU  diminiihing,  in  proportion 


ifland  called   ..Exa.     UlyiTeo,  at  his  return  from  the     as  they  recede  from  it.      On  the  arches  of  thefe  circles 


the  longitude  of  the  liars  is  reckoned. 

CiRCLF  cf  perpetual  ylpj^arhion,  one  of  the  lelTer  cir- 
cles, parallel  to  the  equator  ;  defcribed  by  any  point 
of  the  fphere  touching  the  northern  ptjint  of  the  ho- 
rizon;  and  carried  about  with  the  diurnal  motion.  All 
the  flars  included  wfthin  this  circle  never  fet,  but  arc 
rellorationof  his  companions  to  their  former  Hate.  She  ever  vifible  above  the  horizon, 
complied,  and  loaded  the  hero  with  pleafures  and  ho-  Circle  of  perpetual  Occuhation,  is  another  circle  at  a 

riours.  In  this  voluptuous  retreat  Ulyfies  had  by  like  dillance  from  the  equator  ;  and  contains  all  thofc 
Circe  one  fon  called  Telegonus,  or  two,  according  to  liars  which  never  appear  in  our  hemifphere.  The  liars 
Hefiod,   called  Agrius  and  Latinus.      For  one  whole     fituated  between  thefe  circles  alternately  rife   and  fet 


Trojan  war,  vifited  her  coalls ;  and  all  his  compa 
nions,  who  ran  headlong  into  pleafure  and  voluptuoaf- 
nefs,  were  changed  by  Circe's  potions  into  filthy  fwine. 
Ulyfies,  who  was  fortified  againll  all  enchantments  by 
an  herb  called  muJy,  which  he  had  received  from  Mercu- 
ry, went  to  Circe,  and  demanded   fword  in   hand    the 


year  UlylTes  forgot  his  glory  in  Circe's  ai*is.  At  his 
departure  the  nymph  advifcd  him  to  defcend  to  heU 
and  to  confnlt  the  manes  of  Tirefias  concerning  the 
fates  that  attended  him.  Circe  feowed  herfelf  cruel  to 
Scylla  her  rival,  and  to  Picus. 

CIRCENSIANgames,  a  general  term  under  which 
was  comprehended  all  combats  exhibited  in  the  P«.omafi 
circus,  in  imitation  of  the  Olympic  games  in  Greece. 


at  certain  times. 

Polar  Cjrci.ks,  are   immoveable  circles,  parallel  to 
the  equator,  and  at  a  dillance  from  tlie  poles  equal  to 
the  greatell  declination  of  the  ecliptic.    That  next  the 
northern  pole  is  called  the  arctic;   and  that  next  tQ 
the  louthern  one  the  antarctic. 
Fairv-CiKCiF,      Se«  Fairv-C/rci^. 
Druidical  CiRCLCi,  in    Britifh  topography,  a   nains 
Moll  of  the  fealls  of  the   Romans   were  accompanied     given  to  certain    ancient   inclofures    formed  by   rude 
with  Circenfian  frames;   and  the  magiftrates,  and  other     ftones  circularly  arranged,  in   the  manner  reprefented 
ofRcers  of  the  republic,  frequently  prefented  the  people     on  Plate  CXXXV.*  Thefe,  it  is  now  generally  agreed,     •  in 
with   them,    in    order  to   procure  their  favour.     The     were  temples,  and  many  writers  think  alfo   places  of  Vol.  IVi 
grand  games  were  held  five  days,  commencing  on  the     folcmn  alTeinblies  for  councils  or  eleftlons,  and  feats  of 
I  cth  of  September.     See  Circus.  judgment.     Mr  Borlace  is  of  this  opinion.    "  Inllead, 

CIRCLE,  in  geometiy,  a  plane  figure  comprehend-  therefore  (fays  he),  of  detaining  the  reader  with  a 
ed  by  a  fingle  curve  line,  called  its  circumference,  to  difpute,  wliether  they  were  places  of  worlhip  or  coun- 
which  right  hues  drawn  from  a  point  in  the  middle,  cil,  it  may  with  great  probability  be  afferted,  that  they 
called  the  centre,  are  equal  to  each  other.     See  Geo-     were  ufed  for  both  purpofes  ;  and  having  for  the  moil 

part  been  firll  dedicated  to  religion,  naturally  became 
afterwards  the  curiae  and  foras  of  the  fame  communi- 
ty." Thefe  temples,  though  generally  circular,  oc- 
cafionally  differ  as  well  in  figure  as  magnitude:  with 
relation  to  the  firll,  the  moll  fimple  were  compofed  of 
one  circle  :  Stonelkenge  confilled  of  two  circles  and 
two  ovals,  rtfpeftively  concentric  ;  whilll  that  at  Bot- 
talch  near  St  Jull  in '  Cornwall  is  formed  by  four  in- 


METRY. 

Circles  cf  lie  Sphere,  are  fuch  as  cut  the  mundane 
fphere,  and  have  their  periphery  either  on  its  move- 
able furface,  or  in  another  immoveable,  conterminous, 
and  equidillant  furface.  Sec  Sphere.  Hence  arife 
two  kinds  of  circles,  moveable  and  immoveable.  The 
firll,  thofe  whofe  peripheries  are  in  the  moveable  fur- 
face, and  which  therefore  revolve  with  its  diurnal  mo- 
tion ;  as,  the  meridians,  &c.     The  latter  having  their 

2 


terfcfting  circles.     And  the  great  temple  at  Abury  in 

Wiltnurs, 


C     I     R 


[      21       ] 


C     I     R 


Circle, 

CirccnccI 

Hones. 


Wlltfliire,  it  IS  faid,  dcfcribtd  the  figure  of  a  fe- 
raph  or  fiery  flying  fcrpeut,  reprcfented  by  circles  and 
right  lines.  Some  belidcs  circles  have  avenues  of  ftone 
pillars.  Moft,  if  not  aU  of  them,  have  pill-vrs  or  al- 
tTirs  witliin  their  penetralia  or  centre.  ]n  llie  article 
of  magnitude  and  number  of  ilones,  there  is  tlie  great- 
eil  variety  ;  fome  circles  being  only  twelve  feet  dia- 
meter and  formed  only  of  twelve  ilones,  whilil:  othtrs, 
fuch  as  vStonehenge  and  Abury,  contained,  tlie  fnll 
one  hundred  and  forty,  the  fecond  fi.^  hundred  and 
liftv  two,  and  occupied  many  acres  of  ground.  All 
ihefe  dlilerent  numbers  and  meafures  and  arrangements 
had  their  pretended  reference  ;  either  to  the  allronomi- 
fal  divifions  of  the  year,  or  fome  myfleries  of  the  drui- 
dieal  religion.  Mr  Borlace,  however,  fuppofes,  that 
thofe  veiy  fmall  circles,  fomctimes  formed  of  a  low 
bank  of  earth,  fomctimes  of  ftones  eretl,  and  fre- 
quently of  loofe  fmall  Hones  thrown  together  in  a  cir- 
cular form,  enelofing  an  area  of  abovn  three  yards 
diameter,  without  any  larger  ciicle  round  tliem,  were 
originally  places  of  burial. 

Circle,  in  logic,  or  Logical  CiiiciF,  is  wheh  the 
fame  terms  are  proved  i/i  orhi-m  by  the  fame  terms;  and 
the  parts  of  the  lyllogifm  alternately  by  each  other,  both 
direilly  and  indireftly. 

CikciT.s  of  the  Empire,  fuch  pi-ovinces  and  principa- 
lities of  the  German  empire  as.  have  a  right  to  be  pre- 
fent  at  diets.  Maximilian  I.  divided  the  empire  into 
fix,  and  fome  years  after  into  ten  circles.  This  laft  di- 
vlfion  was  confirmed  by  Charles  V.  The  circles,  as 
they  Hand  in  the  Imperial  Matricola,  are  as  follow  : 
Auftria,  Burgundy,  the  JLower  Riilne,  Bavaria,  Up- 
per Saxony,  Franeonia,  Swabia,  Upper  Rhine,  Weil- 
phalia,  and  the  I^ower  Saxony. 

CIRCONCELLIONES,  a  fpecles  of  fanatics,  fo 

called   becaufe  they  were   continually  rambling  round 

the  houfes  in  the  country.    They  took  their  rife  among 

the  donatifts,  in  tlie  reign  of  the  emperor  Confiantine. 

It  is  incredible  what  ravasres  and  cruelties  thefe  vaffa- 

.  *?  .   *-' 

bonds  committed  in   Africa  through  a  \on<x,  feries  of 

years.  They  were  illiterate,  favage  peafants,  who 
underftood  only  ihe  Punic  language.  Intoxicated 
ivith  a  barbarous  zeal,  they  renounced  agriculture, 
profefl'td  continence,  and  aifumed  the  title  of  "  Vindi- 
cators of  juilice,  and  Protetlors  of  the  opprell."  To 
acccomplilh  their  milTion,  they  enfranchifed  flaves, 
fcoured  the  roads,  forced  mailers  to  alight  from  their 
chariots,  and  run  before  their  flaves,  whom  they  ob- 
liged to  mount  in  their  place;  and  difcharged  debtors, 
killing  the  creditors  if  they  refufed  to  cancel  the  bonds. 
But  the  chief  objeds  of  their  cruelty  were  the  catholics, 
and  efpecially  thofe  who  had  renounced  donatifm. 
At  firll  they  ufed  no  fwords,  becaufe  God  had  forbidden 
the  ufe  of  oile  to  Peter ;  but  they  were  armed  with 
dnbs,  which  they  called  the  clubs  of  Jfrael ;  and  which 
they  handled  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  break  a  man's 
bones  without  killing  him  immediately,  fo  that  he  lan- 
gulllied  a  long  time  and  then  died.  When  they  took 
away  a  man's  life  at  once,  they  looked  upon  it  as  a  fa- 
vour. They  became  lefs  fcnipulous  afterwards,  and 
tiiade  ufe  of  all  forts  of  arms.  Their  fliout  was  Praifi 
be  to  God.  Thefe  words  in  their  mouths  were  the  fig- 
tial  of  flaughter,  more  terrible  than  the  roaring  of  a 
lion.  They  had  invented  an  unheard  oi  punifliment  ; 
which  was  to  cover  with  hnie  diluted  with-  vinegar, 


the  eyes  of  thofe  unhappy  wretches  whom  they  had  C'rconcel 
cruflied  with  blows,  and  covered  with  wounds,  and  ,;.'"""' 
to  abandon  them  in  that  condition.  Never  was  a 
flronger  proof  what  horrors  fuperftition  can  beget  in 
minds  dellitute  of  knowledge  and  humanity.  Thefe 
brutes,  who  had  made  a  vow  of  chaftlty,  gave  them- 
felves  up  to  wine  and  all  forts  of  imparities,  rimnlng 
about  with  women  and  young  girls  as  drunk  as  them- 
felves,  whom  they  called  facred  virghis,  and  who  of- 
ten carried  proofs  of  their  incontlneHCe.  Their  chiefs- 
took  the  name  of  Chiefs  of  ihe  Saints.  After  having 
glutted  themfelves  with  blood,  they  turned  their  rage 
upon  themfeWes,  and  fought  death  with  the  fame  fury 
with  which  they  gave  it  to  others.  Some  fcrambled 
up  to  the  tops  of  rocks,  and  call  themfelves  down 
headlong  in  multitudes ;  others  burned  themfelves,  or 
threw  tliemfelves  into  the  fca.  Thofe  who  propofed 
to  acquire  the  title  of  martyrs,  publiflied  it  long  be- 
fore ;  uj)on  which  they  were  fealted  and  fattened 
like  oxen  for  the  flaughter ;  after  thefe  preparations 
they  fet  out  to  be  deftroycd.  Sometimes  they  gave 
money  to  thofe  whom  they  met,  and  threatened  to 
murder  them  if  they  did  not  make  them  martyrs. 
Theodorat  gives  an  account  of  a  (lout  young  man, 
who  meeting  with  a  troop  of  thefe  fanatics,  confent- 
ed  to  kill  them,  provided  he  might  bind  them  firft  ;. 
and  having  by  this  means  put  it  out  of  their  power 
to  defend  themfelves,  whipped  them  as  long  as  he 
was  able,  and  tlien  left  t!iem  tied  in  that  manner. 
Their  bllhops  pretended  to  blame  them,  but  in  reali- 
ty made  ule  of  them  to  Intimidate  fuch  as  might  be 
tempted  to  forfake  their  fetl  ;  they  even  honoured 
them  as  faints.  They  vsere  not,  however,  able  to  go- 
vern thofe  furieus  monfters  ;  and  more  than  once 
found  themfelves  under  a  neceflity  of  abandoning  them,, 
and  even  of  imploring  the  allifl;ance  of  the  fecular 
power  againft  them.  The  counts  Urfacuis  and  Tau- 
rimis  were  emphiyed  to  quell  them  ;  they  dellroyed 
a  great  number  of  them,  of  whom  the  dolanills  made 
as  many  martyrs.  Urfacius,  who  was  a  good  ca- 
tliolic  and  a  religious  nran,  having  loil  his  life  ia 
an  engagement  with  the  barbarians,  the  donatifts 
did  not  fall  to  triumph  In  ills  death,  as  an  efledl  of 
the  vengeance  of  heaven.  Africa  was  the  theatre  of 
thefe  bloody  fcenes  during  a  great  part  of  Conllantine's 
hfe. 

CIRCUIT,  In  law,  fignlfies  a  longer  courfe  of 
proceedings  than  is  needful  to  recover  the  thing  fued 
tor. 

Circuit,  alfo  fignlfies  the  journey  or  progrefs, 
which  the  judges  take  twice  every  year,  through  the 
feveral  counties  of  England  and  Wales,  to  hold  courts 
and  admlniiler  julUce,  where  recourfe  cannot  be  had 
to  the  king's  courts  at  Wellmlnlller :  hence  England- 
is  divided  into  fix  circuits,  vi-z..  the  Home  circuit;  Nor- 
folk circuit;  Midland  circuit  ;  Oxford  circuit  ;  Weft- 
ern  circuit,  and  Northern  circuit.  In  Wales  there 
are  but  two  circuits.  North  and  South  Wales  :  two 
judges  are  afligned  by  the  king's  commiffion  to  every 
circuit. 

In  Scotland,  the  judges  of  the  fupreme  criminal 
court,  or  court  of  julllelary,  are  divided  into  three 
feparate  courts,  cunfilling  of  two  judges  each;  and 
the  kingdom  into  as  many  dillrifts.  In  certain  bo- 
roughs of  every  diftrift,.  each  of  thefe  courts  by  rota?? 

lion 


C    1     R  [ 

tion  are  oUiged   to  hol'l   tvro  courts   in  tlie  year,  in 
Ipring  and  autumn ;  which  are  cabled  c'u-aiit'courts. 

Ekfirkdl  Circuit,  denotes  the  courfe  of  the  elediic 
fluid  from  t'lie  charged  furfice  of  an  eleflric  body,  to 
the  oppofite  fiirface  into  which  the  difcharge  is  mads. 
Some  of  the  firit  ekftricians  appr*;hendcd,  that  the 
fame  particles  cf  the  eleAric  fluid,  which  were  thrown 
o-.i  one  fide  of  the  charged  glafs,  adlually  made  the 
whole  circuit  of  the  intervening  conduftors,  and  ar- 
jived  at  the  oppofite  fide  :  whereas  Dr  Franklin's 
theoiy  only  requires,  that  the  redundancy  of  eleftric 
matter  on  the  charged  furface  (hould'  pafs  into  the  bo- 
dies which  fonn  that  part  of  the  circuit  which  is  con- 
tiguous to  it,  driving  forward  that  part  of  the  fluid 
which  they  naturally  poiTefs  ;  and  that  thi  deficiency 
of  the  exhaufted  furface  ftiould  be  fupplied  by  the 
■neighbouring  conduftors,  which  fc.-n  the  laft  part  of 
the  circuit.  On  this  fuppofition,  a  vibrating  motion 
is  fucceiuvely  communicated  through  tlie  whole  length 
of  the  circuit.  This  circuit  is  always  formed  of  the 
'befl:  condsftors,  let  the  lengtli  of  it  be  ever  fo  great. 
Many  attempts  were  made,  both  in  France  and  Eng- 
land, at  an  early  period  in  the  hiftory  of  eleftricity, 
^o  afcertain  the  diftance  to  which  tlie  electric  fliuck 
might  be  carried,  and  the  velocity  of  its  motion.  The 
French  philofophers,  at  diiTerent  times,  made  it  to 
pafs  through  a  circuit  of  900  toifes,  and  of  2000 
tolfes,  or  about  two  Enghlh  miles  and  a  half;  and 
they  difcharged  the  Leyden  phial  through  a  bafon  of 
water,  the  furface  of  which  was  about  an  acre.  And 
M.  Mounier  found,  that,  in  pafling  through  an  iron 
wire  of  950  toifes  in  length,  it  did  not  fpend  a  quar- 
ter of  a  fccond  ;  and  that  Its  motion  was  inftantancous 
through  a  wire  of  13 19  feet.  In  1747,  Dr  Watfcn, 
and  other  Enghih  philofophers,  after  many  experiments 
of  a  fimilar  kind,  conveyed  the  eleclric  matter  through 
a  circuit  of  four  miles  ;  and  they  concluded  from  tliis 
and  anotlier  trial,  that  its  velocity  is  infi;antaneous. 

CIRCULAR,  in  a  gene-ral  fenfe,  any  thing  that  is 
defcribcd,  or  moved  in  a  round,  as  the  circumference 
of  a  circle,  or  furface  of  a  globe. 

CiRCL'LAR  Kumbers,  called  a.\l'o  Jjiherhn/  ones,  accord- 
ing to  fome,  are  fuch  vvhofe  powers  terminate  in  the 
raots  themfclves.  Thus,  for  iuftance,  5  and  6,  all 
whofe  poweis  do  end  in  5  and  6,  as  the  fquare  of  5 
is  25;  the  fquare  of  6  is  36,  Isfc. 

CiRcvLJR  SaUin^,  is  the  method  of  failing  by  the 
arch  cf  a  great  circle.     See  Navigation. 

CIRCULATION,  the  act  of  moving  round,  or  in 
a  cirele  ;  thus  we  fay,  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  &c. 
CiKCVLJTioN  of  lie  Blood,  the  natural  motion  of  the 
Wood  in  a  living  anin.-al,  whereby  that  fluid  is  alter- 
nately carried  froia  the  heart  Into  al!  parts  of  the  body, 
by  the  arteries,  from  whence  it  is  brought  back  to  the 
rheart  again  by  the  veins.      See  Anatomy,  n=  125. 

In  a  f«tus,  the  apparatus  for  the  circulation  of  the 
blood  is  fomcwhat  dhterent  from  that  in  adults.  The 
feptum,  which  feparates  the  two  auricles  of  the  heart, 
is  pierced  through  with  an  aperture,  called  ihn  fora- 
men oi'a/f ;  and  the  trunk  of  the  pulmonary  artery,  a 
little  after  it  has  left  the  heart,  fends  out  a  tube  into 
the  dcfcendlng  aorta,  called  the  conimurthat'm!i  canal. 
■The  foetus  being  born,  the  foramen  ovale  clofes  by 
degrees,  and  the  canal  of  communication  dries  up, 
i«nd  becomes  a  fimple  ligament. 


2     1  C    I     R 

As  to  thi  velocity  of  the  circulating  li!ood>  and  the  Circ  iUti»iv 
time  wherein  the  circulation  is  completed,  feveral  — -v—~"_ 
computations  have  been  made.  By  Dr  Kcil's  account, 
the  blood  is  driren  out  of  the  heart  into  the  aorta  with 
a  velocity  which  would  carry  it  twenty-five  feet  in  a 
minute  ;  but  this  velocity  is  continually  abated  in  the 
progrcfs  of  the  blood,  in  the  numerous  fcAIons  or 
blanches  of  the  arteries  ;  fo  tliat  before  it  arrive  at 
the  extremities  of  the  body,  its  motion  is  greatly  di- 
mini'htd.  The  fpace  of  time  wherein  the  whole  rnafi 
of  blood  ordiniirily  cirtzulates,  is  varioufly  determined. 
Some  ftate  it  thus  :  Suppofing  the  heart  to  make  two 
thoufand  pulfes  in  an  hour,  and  that  at  every  piilfe 
there  is  expelled  an  ounce  of  blood  ;  as  the  whole  inafi 
of  blood  is  not  ordinarily  computed  to  exceed  twenty- 
four  pounds,  it  muft:  be  circulated  feven  or  eight  timei 
over  in  the  fpace  of  an  hour. 

The  curious,  in  microfcopic  obfervations,  have  found 
an  eafy  method  of  fielng  ihe  circulation  of  the  blood 
in  the  bodies  of  animals  :  for  thefe  inquiries  it  is  ne- 
ceffary  to  choofe  fuch  animals  as  are  fmall,  and  eaiily 
manageable,  and  which  are  either  wholly  or  in  part 
tranfparent.  The  obfervations  made  by  this  means 
are  preferable  to  any  others  we  can  have  recourfe  to ; 
fuice,  in  diirc<SlIon3,  the  animal  is  in  a  ftate  of  pain, 
or  dying  ;  whereas  in  animals  fmall  enough  to  be  thus 
viewed,  all  is  left  in  its  ufa?!  couife,  and  we  i.'s  what 
nature  does  in  her  own  undiilurbed  method.  In  thefe 
creatures  alfo,  after  viewing,  a^  long  as  we  pleafe,  the 
natural  ilate  and  current  of  the  blood,  we  may,  by 
prefTure,  and  feveral  other  ways,  impede  its  courfe  ; 
and  by  putting  various  mixtures  into  the  creature's 
water,  induce  a  morbid  fl:ate,  and  finally  fee  the  crea- 
ture die,  either  by  means  of  this. or  by  any  other  me- 
thod ;  and  we  may  thus  accurately  obferve  all  the 
changes  it  undergoes,  and  fee  what  occafions  the 
trembling  pulfe,  &c.  of  dying  people. 

The  current  of  the  blood  in  fmall  animals,  that  is, 
its  pairing  on  through  tlie  vefiels,  either  to  or  from 
the  heart,  is  very  eafily  fecn  by  the  microfcope  ;  but 
its  circulation,  that  is,  its  running  to  the  extremities 
of  the  pai-ts,  and  thence  returning,  is  more  difficult  ; 
becaufe  the  vefTels  where  tin's  fliould  be  fecn  are  fo  ex- 
tremely minute,  as  not  eafily  to  come  under  obferva- 
tion.  The  larger  arteries  are  cafdy  dlillngiilflied 
from  the  veins  by  the  motion  of  the  blood  through 
them,  which  in  the  veins  is  always  fiiiooth  and  regu- 
lar ;  but  in  the  arteries  by  feveral  propulfions  after  the 
manner  of  pulfatlon.  But  this  difference  is  not  to  he 
found  in  the  moie  minute  veifels;  in  all  which,  as  well 
arteries  as  veins,  the  motion  of  the  blood  is  even  and 
regular. 

The  tranfparent  membrane,  or  web  between  the 
toes  of  a  frog's  hinder  foot,  is  a  ver)'  proper  objeft 
to  obfii-ve  the  circulation  of  the  blood  in.  The  tails 
or  fins  of  filhes  are  alfo  very  fine  objefts  ;  and  when 
the  fifli  is  very  fmall,  thefe  are  manageable,  and  af- 
ford a  view  of  a  great  number  of  veins  and  arteries, 
with  a  very  quick  and  beautiful  fucceflion  of  blood 
through  them.  The  tail  of  a  flounder  may  be  very 
conveniently  placed  before  the  double  microfcope  on 
a  plate  of  glafs;  and  its  body  being  fupported  by  fome- 
thing  of  equal  height,  the  fidi  will  lie  itill,  and  the  cir- 
culation may  be  fecn  veiy  agreeably.  In  the  minu- 
teH  veffels  thus  examined,  the  blood  always  appears 
3  ?»*« 


C    I     R 


[ 


3rcu1atton,pate  or  colourlcfs,  but  in  the  large  ones  it  is  maiiifolU 
(Jiicuiu^.  ]y  ^gj_  'j'jjj.  arteries  ufually  branch  out  txticmely 
■*~~>'~~  before  they  join  the  veins  to  carry  the  blood  back  to 
tlie  he-irt  :  but  this  is  not  always  the  cafe  ;  for  JVIr 
Lcwenho.'ck  has  obferved,  that  on  each  fide  of  tlic 
little  gril'Jes  which  give  a .  lliffnefs  to  the  tail  of  a 
flounder,  there  may  be  fcon  a  very  open  communi- 
cation of  the  veins  and  arteries ;  the  blood  running 
towards  the  extremities  through  arteries,  and  rcturn- 
intj  back  attain  througli  veins,  wliich  were  evidently 
a  contiiuiation  of  tliofe  arteries,  and  of  the  fame  dia- 
meter with  them.  The  whole  fi(h  on  the  tail  of  which 
this  examination  was  made,  was  not  more  than  half 
an  inch  in  length  ;  it  is  eafy  to  conceive,  theiefore, 
liovv  fmall  the  tail  mufl  be  ;  and  yet  in  it  there  were 
68  veffcls  which  carried  and  returned  the  blood ; 
and  yet  thefe  vefTcls  were  far  from  being  the  moll 
minute  of  all.  How  inconceivably  numerous  then 
inuft  the  circiilr.tions  in  the  wliole  human  body  be  ? 
JMr  Levvenhoeck  is  of  opinion,  that  a  thoufand  dif- 
ferent circulations  are  continually  carried  on  in  every 
part  of  a  man's  body  in  the  breadth  of  a  finger  nail. 

The  tail  of  a  newt  or  water-H/ard  affords  alfo  a  ve. 
rv  entertaining  profpeft  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood 
through  almoil  numbeilefs  fmall  veflels  ;  but  no  ob- 
ject fhows  it  fo  agreeably  as  one  of  thefe  animals 
v/hile  fo  young  as  not  to  be  above  an  inch  long  ;  for 
then  the  whole  body  is  fo  very  tranfparent,  that  the 
circulation  may  be  feen  in  every  part  of  it,  as  well  as 
in  the  tail  ;  and,  fn  thefe  objefts,  nothing  is  more 
beautiful  than  the  courfe  of  the  blood  into  the  toes 
•and  back  again,  where  it  may  be  traced  all  tlie  way 
>vviLh  great  eafe.  Near  the  head  there  are  alfo  found 
three  fmall  fins  which  afford  a  very  delightful  pro- 
fpcft  :  thefe  are  all  divided  like  the  leaves  of  polypo- 
dy ;  and  in  every  one  of  the  braHches  of  thefe,  the 
blood  may  be  vtry  accurately  traced,  running  to  the 
end  through  the  artery,  and  there  returning  back 
■p.gain  by  a  vein  of  the  fame  iize,  and  laid  in  the  fame 
direftion  ;  and  as  the  ve'Tcls  are  very  numerous  and 
large  in  this  part,  and  the  third  or  fourth  magniiier 
may  be  ufed,  there  are  fometimes  feen  30  or  40  chan- 
nels of  running  blood  at  once  1  and  this  the  more  as 
the  globules  of  blood  in  the  newt  are  large,  and  are 
fewer  in  number,  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  fe- 
rum,  than  in  any  other  ani«ial  :  and  their  iigure,  as 
they  are  protruded  through  the  veflels,  changes  in  a 
very  furprillng  manner.  The  impetus  occafioning  the 
circulation,  is  great  enough  in  fome  animals  to  raife 
the  blood  fix,  feven,  or  eight  Let  high  from  the  blood- 
vcflel  it  fprings  out  at  ;  which,  however,  is  far  exceed- 
ed by  that  of  the  fap  of  a  vine  in  bleeding  time,  which 
will  fometimes  rife  forty  feet  high. 

Circulation  of  the  faf  of  Pltiuts.  See  Plants,  and 
Sap. 

C1RCD1.ATIOS  of  tlx  Spirits,  or  Ker-vous  Fluid.  See 
As'ATOMV,  n"^  136. 

■  Circulation,  in  chemiftry,  is  an  operation  where- 
by the  fame  vapour,  raifed  by  fire,  falls  back,  to  be 
returned  and  diiliiled  feveral  times. 

'CtRCVL.iTtoK  of  Money.  See  Commerce,  and  Mo- 
ney. 

Subterranean  CincvLAttON.     See  Springs. 

CIRCULUS,  in  chemiftry,  an  iron  inftrument  in 
for«i  of  a  ring,  which  being  heated  red-hot,  and  ap- 


3     ]  C     I     R 

plied  to  the  necks  of  retorts  and  other  glafs  vtfTtls  till  Cir  nmani- 
tl'-cy  grow  hot,  a  few  drops  of  cold  water  thrown  upon        "j""' 
tliem,  or  a  coldblaft,  will  make  the  necks  fly  regularly  circnmci- 
and  evenly  off.  Gon. 

Anotlier  method  of  doing  this  is,  to  tie  a  thread,  — ~« 
firfl  dipt  in  oil  of  turpentine,  round  the  place  where 
you  would  have  it  break  ;  and  then  fetting  fire  to  the 
thread,  and  altervifards  fprinkliiig  the  place  with  cold 
water,  the  glafs  will  craeii  exactly  where  the  tiiread 
ivas  tied. 

CIRCUMAMBIENT,  an  apoellatlon  gireu  to  a 
thing  that  furrounds  another  on  all  fides;  chiefly  «&'«!. 
in  fpeaking  of  the  air, 

CDRCUMCEL.LIONES.       Sec    Circonckllio- 

NES. 

CIRCLFMCISION,,  the  aA  of  cutting  off  the  pre- 
puce ;  a  ceremony  in  the  Jewilh  and  Mahometan  re- 
ligions, wherein  they  cut  off  the  forcflcin  of  their 
males,  who  we  to  profefs  the  one  or  the  other  law. 

C'i7-cu>nc}fcn  commenced  in  the  time  of  Abraham'; 
and  was,  as  it  were,  the  feal  of  a  covenant  Itipulated 
between  God  and  him.  It  was  in  the  year  of  the 
world  2 1 78,  that  Abraham,  by  divine  appointment, 
clrcumcifed  himfelf,  and  all  the  males  of  his  family  ;  , 
from  which  time  it  became  an  hereditary  prailice  a- 
mong  his  dcfcendants. 

The  ceiemony,  however,  was  not  confined  to  the 
Jews  :  Herodotus  and  Philo  Juda;us  obfervc,  that  it 
obtained  alfo  aniong  the  Egyptians  and  Ethiopians. 
Herodotus  fays,  that  tlie  ciiilom  was  very  ancient 
among  eacli  people  ;  fo  that  tliere  was  no  determining 
wliich  of  them  borrowed  it  from  the  other.  The 
fame  hiftorian  relates,  that  the  inhabitants  of  Colchis 
alfo  ufed  circumcifion  ;  whence  he  concludes,  that  they 
v^ere  originally  Egyptians.  He  adds,  that  the  Phce- 
■nicians  and  Syrians  were  likewife  circumcifed ;  but 
that  they  borrowed  the  praftioe  from  the  Egyptians. 
And  lallly,  that  a  little  before  the  time  when  he  wrote, 
circumcifion  had  pafTed  from  Colchis,  to  the  people  in- 
habiting near  Thermodoon  and  Parthenius, 

Mariliam  is  of  opinion,  that  the  Hebrews  boiTowed 
circumcifion  from  the  Egyptians  ;  and  that  God  was 
not  tlie  firlt  author  thereof ;  citing  DioJorous  Siculus', 
and  Herodotus,  as  evidences  on  liis  fide.  This  latter 
propofition  feems  direftlj-  contraiT-  to  the  teflimony 
of  Alofes,  viho  affures.  Gen.  xvii.  that  Abraham,  thd* 
99  years  of  age,  was  not  circumcifed  till  he  had  the 
exprefs  command  of  God  for  it.  But  as  to  the  for- 
mer pofition  of  Marfiiam,  it  will  admit  of  more  de- 
bate. The  arguments  on  both  fides  may  be  feen  in 
one  view  in  Spencer  tie  Leg'iLus  Hcbr.toruin,  I.  2.  c.  4. 

Be  this  as  it  vpill,  it  is  certain  the  pradice  of  cir- 
cumcifion among  the  Hebrews  differed  very  confide- 
rably  fiom  that  of  the  Egyptians.  Among  the  firft  it 
was  a  ceremony  of  religion,  and  was  performed  on  the 
eighth  day  after  the  birth  of  the  child.  Among  the  ' 
latter,  a  point  of  mere  decency  and  cJeanlinefs  ;  and, 
as  fome  will  have  it,  of  phyfical  neceffity  ;  and  was  not 
performed  till  the  1 3th  year,  and  then  on  girls  as  well 
as  boys. 

Among  the  Jews,  the  time  for  performing  this  rite 
was  the  eighth  day,  that  is,  fix  full  days,  after  the  child 
was  born  :  the  law  of  Mofes  ordained  nothing  with  re- 
fpeft  to  the  perfon  by  whom,  the  inftrument  with  wliicH, 
or  the  manner  how,  the  ceremony  was  to  be  perform- 

ed  ;  : 


H 


lion 


G     I     R  [     24. 

ed ;  the  inflrument  was  generally  a  knife  of  flone^ 
The  child  is  iifually  circumcifed  at  home,  where  the 
father,  or  godfather,  holds  him  in  his  arms,  while  the 
operator  takes  hold  of  the  prepuce  with  one  hand,  and 
with  the  other  cuts  it  off;  a  third  perfon  holds  a  por- 
ringer, with  fand  in  it,  to  catch  the  blood  ;  then  the 


3 


C     I     R 


fufpended   on    the   pivot    in   the   centre  of  the  circle.  Circamft. 
There  are  alfo  two  fights  to  fcrew  on,  and  illdc  up  and    / 
down  the  index  ;  as  alio  a  fpangle  and  focket  ferewed  ^_ 
on  the  back  fide  of  the  circle  for  putting  the  head  of 
the  ftaiF  in. 

H0IU    to  olftri'e  ths  ^ant'ity  of  an  Angle  ly  thi  Clr- 


opei-ator  applies  his  mouth   to   the   part,   and,  having  cumjl-n-iilor.      Let   it   be    required  to  find  the  quantity 
fucked  the  blood,fpits  it  into  a  bowl  of  wine,and  throws  -  of  the  angle  EKG  ;  firft;  place  your  inilrument  at  K, 

a  ftyptic  powder  upon   the   wound.     This   ceremony  with  the  flower-de-luce  cf  the  chart  towards  you ;  then 

was  ufualiy  accompanied  with  great  rejoicings  and  feall-  dired  your  fights  to  E,  and  obferve  what  degrees  are 

ing  ;  and  it  was  at  this  time  that  the  child  was  named  cut  by  the  fouth  end  of  the  needle,  which  let  be  296; 

in  prefence  of  the   company.      The  Jews  invented  fe-  then,  turning  the  inilrument  about,  direft  your  fights 

veral  fuperftitious  cuftoms  at  this   ceremony,  fuch   as  to  G,  noting   tl'.en   alfo  what  degrees  are  cut  by   the 

placing  three  flools,  one  for  the   circumcifor,  the   fe-  fouth  end  of  the  needle,  which    fuppofe  247.     This 

cond  for  the  perfon  who  holds  the  child,  and  the  third  done,  always  fubtratt  the  lefler  from  the  greater,  as 

for  Elijah,  who,  they  fay,  affifts  invifibly  at  the  cere-  in   this   example,    247    from    296,    the    remainder  is 

monv   £iff.  49  degrees,  which  is  the  true  quantity  of  the  angle 

The  Jews  diftinguilhed   their   profelytes   into  two  EKG._ 

forts,  according  as  they  became   circumcifed  or  not :  A  circumferentor  is  made  by  Mr  Jones  of  Holbuvn 


Ibid. 


thofe  who  fubmittcd  to  this  rite  were  looked  upon 
as  children  of  Abraham,  and  obhged  to  ke^p  the 
laws  of  Mofes  ;  the  uncircumclfed  were  only  bound 
to  obferve  the  precepts  of  Noah,  and  were  called  noa- 
ehidf. 

The  Turks  never  circumcife  till  the  feventh  or  eighth 
year,  as  having  no  notion  of  its  being  neceffary  to  fal- 
vation.  The  Perfians  circumcife  their  boys  at  13,  and 
their  girls  from  9  to  15.      Thofe  of  Madagaicar  cut 


on  an  improved  conllrudtion.  From  a  very  fimple 
contrivance,  it  is  rendered  fufficieut  to  take  angles  with 
the  accuracy  of  a  common  theodolite  ;  and  by  it  angles 
of  altitude  and  depreffion  may  be  obfcrved  as  readily 
as  horizontal  ones.  The  improvement  chiefly  confllls  in 
an  arm  or  index  (G),fo  applied  to  the  centre  of  the  com- 
pafs  box,  and  within  it,  that,  at  the  time  of  obferving, 
by  only  flipping  a  pin  (/>)  out,  the  circle  of  degrees 
alone  may  move  round,  and  leave  the  index  (G)  tixed. 


the  flefli  at  three  feveral  times  ;   and  the  moil  zealous  This  index   will   remain  ftationary,  from  its  being  at- 

of  the  relations  prefent,  catches  hold  of  the  preputium  tached  to  the  focket  that  fcrews  on  the   head   of  the 

and  fwallows  it."  ftafFs.      On  the  end  of  this  index,  next  the  degrees  in 

Circumcifion  is  praftifed  on   women   by  cutting  off  the  box,  there   is   graduated  a  nonius  fcale,  by  which 

the  foreflvin  of  the  clitoris,  which  bears  a  near  refem-  the  circle  of  360  degrees  is  fubdivided  into  5  minutes 


or  lefs  if  dcfu-ed.  To  take  angles  of  altitude  or  de- 
preflions,  the  inilrument  is  turned  down  on  its  ball  and' 
focket  into  a  perpendicidar  pofition,  and  adjufted  to 
its  level  by  a  plumb  line   (/),  that   is  hung  on   a   pin 


blance  and  analogy  to  the  preputium  of  the  male  pe 

nis.     We  are    told  that  the  Egyptian  captive-women 

were  circumcifed  ;  and  alfo  the  fubjcfts  of  Prefter  John. 

Circumcision   is    alfo  the  name  of  a  feaft,   cele- 

'             bratedonthe  firft  of  January,  in  commemoration  of  the  at  the  back  of  the  box,  and  made  to  coincide  with  a 

circumcifion  of  our  Saviour.  mark  made  thereon.     Then   by  looking  through  the 

CIRCUMDUCTION,  in  Scots  law.     When  par-  fm all  fight  holes   {s)    purpofely  made,  the  angles  are 

ties  in  a  fuit  are  allowed  a  proof  of  alledgeances ;  af-  ihown  on  the  circle  of  degrees  by  the  nonius  as  be- 

ter  the  time  limited  by  the  judge  for  taking  that  proof  fore.     The  arms  (A  A)  of  the  inilrument  flip  ofl"  (aC 

is  elapfed,  either  party  may  apply  for   circumdudion  BB),  and   the  whole  packs  into   a  cafe  but  ji  inches 

of  the  time  of  proving  ;  the  elfedl   of  which   is,   that  fquarc  and  3  deep. 

no  proof  can  afterwards  be   brought,   and  the  caufe  CIRCUMFLEX,   in  grammar,  an  accent,  ferving 

muil  be  determined  as  it   flood  when  circumduftiou  to  note,  or  dillinguifli,  a  fyllable  of  an   intermediate 

was  obtained.  found  between  acute  and  grave  ;   and   geneially  fome- 

CIRCUMFERENCE,  in  a  general  fenfe,  denotes  what  long. — The  Greeks  had   three  accents,  the  a- 

the  line  or  lines  bounding  a  plane   figure.      However,  cute,   the  grave^  and   the   circumflex  ;    formed   thus, 

it  is  generally  ufed   in   a  more  limited   fenfe,    for  the  ',  \  '.      In   Latin,  Englilh,   French,   &:c.  the  circum- 

curve  line  which  bounds  a  ciicle,  and  otherwife  called  flex  is  made  thus  '. — The  acute  raifes  the  voice,  and 

z  periphery  ;  the  boundary  of  a  right-lined  figure  being  the  giave  falls  or  lowers  it:  the  circumflex  is  a  kind 

exprefild  by  the  term  perimeter,  of  undulation,  or  wavering  of  the  voice,  between  the 

CIRCUMFERENTOR,   an    inilrument  ufcd  by  two.     It  is  feldom  ufed  among  the  moderns,  unlefs  to 

Plate      furveyors  for  taking  angles.  fliow  the  omifllon  of  a  letter  which  made  the  fyllable 

CXXXV.       It  confills  of  a  brafs  index  and  circle,  all  of  a  piece,  long  and  open  ;  a   thing   much  more  frequent   in  the 

in  Vol.  IV.  rpj^g  index  is  commonly  about  14  inches  long,  and  an  French  than  among  us  :   thus  they  write /^./f  forpnjii 

inch  and  a  half  broad  ;   the  diameter  of  the  circle  is  t/te  for  le/Ie  ;  fumes  ior  fufmes,   &c.     They  allb  ufe  the 

about  feven  inches.      On   this   circle   is  made  a  chart,  circumflex   in   the   participles;  fome  of  their  authors 

whofe   meridian  line    anfwers    to   the   middle  of    the  writing  cunneu,   peu,   others   connC,  piS,    &c.      Father 

breadth  of  the  index,  and  is  divided  into  360  degrees.  Bufirer  is  at  a  lofs  for  the  reafon  of  the  circumflex  on 

There  is  a  brafs  ring  foldered  on  the  circumference  of  this  occafion. 

the  circle,  on  which  fcrews   another  ring,   with  a  flat  The  form  of  the  Greek  circumflex  was  anciently  the 

glafs  in  it,  fo  as  to  form  a  kind  of  box  for  the  needle,  fame  with  that  of  ours,  viz. ';  being  a  compofition  of 

N^  8i,  the 


Ibid, 


C    I    R 


[ 


-  the  otlier  two  accents  a  in  one — But  the  copifts,  chan- 
ging the  form  of  the  charadlcrs,  and  introducing  the 
running-hand,  changed  alfo  the  form  of  the  ciicum- 
flex  accent;  and  inftead  of  making  a  jufl  angle,  round- 
j  cd  it  off,  adding  a  daih,  thtough  too  much  hafte;  and 
thus  formed  an  s,  laid  horizontally,  which  produced 
this  figure  :,  inftead  of  this  *. 

CIRCUMGYRATION,  denotes  the  whirling  mo- 
tion  of  any  body  round  a  centre  ;  fuch  is  that  cf  the 
planets  round  the  fun. 

CIRCUMLOCUTION,  an  ambages,  or  tour  of 
words,  ufed  either  when  a  proper  term  is  not  at  hand, 
to  exprefs  a  thing  naturally  and  immediately  by  ;  or 
when  one  choofes  not  to  do  it,  out  of  refpeft,  or  for 
fome  other  reafon.  The  word  comes  from  chxumlo- 
quoi;  "  I  fpeak  about." 

Circumlocution,  in  oratory,  is  the  avoiding  of 
fomething  difagreeable  or  inconvenient  to  be  exprefs- 
td  in  direft  terms  ;  by  intimating  the  fenfe  thereof  in 
a  kind  of  paraphrafe,  fo  conceived  as  to  foftcn  or 
break  the  foice  thereof. 

Thus  Cicero,  unable  to  deny  that  Clodius  was  flain 
by  Milo,  owns  it,  with  this  circumlocution,  "  Milo's 
•'  fervants  being  prevented  from  affilling  their  mailer, 
"  who  was  reported  to  be  killed  by  Clodius ;  they,  in 
"  his  abfence,  and  without  his  privity,  or  confent,  did 
"  what  every  body  would  expedl  from  their  own  fer- 
"   vants  on  fuch  an  occafion." 

CIRCUMPOLAR  stars,  an  appellation  given  to 
thofe  ftars,  which,  by  reafon  of  their  vicinity  to  the 
pole,  move  round  it  without  fetting. 

CIRCUMPOTATIO,  in  antiquity,  a  funeral  feaft 
provided  In  honour  of  the  dead.  This  was  very  fre- 
quent among  the  ancient  Romans,  as  well  as  among 
the  Athenians.  Solon  at  Athens,  and  the  decemviri 
at  Rome,  endeavoured  to  reform  this  cuilom,  thinking 
it  abfurd  that  miith  and  drunkennefs  fhould  mingle 
with  forrovv  and  grief. 

CIRCUMSCRIBED,  in  geometry,  is  faid  of  a 
figure  which  is  drawn  round  another  figure,  fo  that  all 
its  fides  or  planes  touch  the  infcribed  figure. 

CIRCUMSCRIPTION,  in  natural  philofophy, 
the  termination,  bounds,  or  limits,  of  any  natural  body. 

CIRCUMSTANCE,  a  particularity,  which,  tho' 
not  effential  to  any  aftion,  yet  doth  fome  way  af- 
fea  it. 

CIRCUMSTANTIAL  evidence,  inlaw,  or  the 
doftrine  of  prefumption,  takes  place  next  to  pofitive 
proof  :  circumftances  which  cither  neceffarily  or  ufual- 
ly  attend  fafts  of  a  particular  nature,  that  cannot  be 
deinonftratively  evinced,  are  called  prefumptions ,  and  are 
only  to  be  relied  on  till  the  contrary  be  aftually  pro- 
ved. 

CIRCUMSTANTIBUS,  in  law,  a  term  uftdfor 
fupplying  and  making  up  the  number  of  jurors  (in 
cafe  any  impanelled  appear  not,  or  appearing  are  chal- 
langed  by  any  party),  by  adding  to  them  fo  many  of 
the  perfons  prefent  as  will  makeup  the  number,  in  cafe 
they  ate  properly  qualified. 

CIRCUMVALLATION,  or  LmeofCiKcuMi-AL- 
LATioN,  in  the  art  of  war,  is  a  trench  bordered  with 
a  parapet,  thrown  up  quite  rrund  the  befieger's  camp, 
by  way  of  fecurity  againll  any  army  that  may  at- 
tempt to  relieve  the  place,  as  well  as  to  prevent  de- 
fertion. 

Vol.  V.  Part  I. 


>     ]  C     I     R 

CIRCUMVOLUTION,  In   archltcaure,  denotes Circumro- 
the  torus  of  the  fpiral  line  of  the  Ionic  order.  ';i"°" 

CIRCUS,  in  antiquity,  a  large  building,  either) 
round  or  oval,  uffd  for  the  exhibiting  of  fliows  to  the 
people.  Some  derive  the  word  from  Circe,  to  whom 
Tertullian  attributes  the  invention.  Cafliodorus  fays. 
Circus  comes  a  circuitu.  The  Romans,  Servius  ob- 
ferves,  at  firft  had  no  other  circus  but  that  made  by 
the  Tiber  on  one  fide,  and  a  palifade  of  naked  fwords 
on  the  other.  Hence,  according  to  Ifidore,  came  the 
term  ludi  cirunfes,  quajl  circum  enj'cs.  But  Scaliger  ri- 
dicules that  etymology. 

The  Roman  circus  was  a  large  oblong  edifice,  arch- 
ed at  one  end  ;  encompalTed  with  porticos,  and  fur- 
nillied  with  rows  of  feats,  placed  afcending  over  each 
other.  In  the  middle  was  a  kind  of  foot-lsank,  or  e- 
minence,  with  obelilks,  ftatues,  and  pods  at  each  end. 
This  ferved  them  for  the  courfes  of  their  //iga  and  qua- 
(frig.s.  There  were  no  lefs  than  ten  clrcules  at  Rome; 
the  largeft  was  built  by  the  elder  Tarquin,  called 
Circus  Maxinuis,  between  the  Aventine  and  Palatine 
mounts.  It  was  fo  called,  either  becaufe  of  its  vail 
circumference,  or  becaufe  the  great  games  were  cele- 
brated in  it;  or  again, becaufe  it  was  confccrated  to  the 
great  gods,  viz.  to  Vertumnus,  Neptune,  Jupiter,  Ju- 
no, Minerva,  and  the  Dli  Penates  of  Rome.  Dio- 
nyfius  Halicarnafienfis  fays  that  it  was  three  ftadia  and 
a  half  in  length,  and  four  jugera  broad;  and  thefe 
meafures;  according  to  Pliny,  allowing  to  the  Roman 
ftadia  625  Roman  feet,  each  of  which  is  12  inches, 
will  give  for  the  length  2187  Roman  feet,  or  fome- 
what  more  than  three  Engllih  furlongs  ;  and  as  to  the 
breadth,  allowing  for  each  of  the  jugera  240  Roman 
feet,  it  will  be  960  Roman  feet.  It  was  beautified 
and  enlai-ged  by  the  Roman  emperors,  fo  as  to  feat 
250,000  fpeftators.  The  moft  magnificent  circufes 
wei-e  thofe  of  Auguftus  and  Ncr-o.  There  are  ftill 
fome  remains  of  the  circufes  at  Rome,  at  Nifmes,  and 
other  places.  The  Romans  were  exceffively  fond  of 
the  games  exhibited  in  the  circus:  witnefs  that  verfe 
in  Juvenal, 

/!trjue  duas  tantum  res  anx'ius  optat, 

Vcnem  '^  circsufes 

The  Games  of  the  Ciscus,  which  fome  call  Circenfuin 
Games,  were  combats  celebrated  in  the  circus,  in  ho- 
nour of  Con  fus  the  god  of  councils;  and  thence  alfo 
called  Confjalia.  They  were  alfo  called  Roman  Games, 
Ludi  Romani,  elthei"  on  account  of  their  antiquity,  as 
being  coeval  with  the  Roman  people,  or  becaufe  efta- 
bllflied  by  the  Rornans :  and  the  games  held  there,  the 
great  games,  luJi  magni,  becaufe  celebrated  with  more 
expence  and  magnificence  than  others ;  and  becaufe 
held  in  honour  of  the  great  god  Neptune,  who  was 
their  Confus. — Thofe  who  fay  they  were  inflituted  in 
honour  of  the  fun,  confound  the  pompa  circenjis,  or 
proceffion  of  the  circus,  with  the  games. 

The  games  of  the  circus  were  inftltuted  by  Evan- 
der-,  and  re-eftabllflied  by  Romulus  :  the  pomp,  or 
proceffion,  was  only  a  part  of  the  games,  making  the 
prelude  thereof,  and  confiding  of  a  fimpk  cavalcade  of 
chariots.  Till  the  time  of  the  elder  Tar-quin,  they 
were  held  In  an  ifland  of  the  Tiber ;  and  were  called 
Roman  games:  after  that  prince  had  built  the  circus, 
they  took  their  name  therefrom  ;  as  being  conltantly 
held  there.  There  were  fix  kinds  of  exercifes  in  the 
D  circus ; 


C    I    R 


[     26    ] 


C    I    s 


Cirtnccfli 

II 

Cirrus. 


:r  circus:  the  firll  was  wreftling,  and  fighting  with 
fw'ords,  with  ftaves,  and  with  pikes  ;  the  fecond  was 
racing  ;  the  third,  faltatio,  dancing  ;  the  fourth,  dil- 
ci,  quoits,  arr.oivs,  and  celUis :  all  which  WcrS  on 
foot :  the  fifth  was  horfe-couifing  ;  the  fixth,  courfts 
of  chariots,  whether  with  two  hotfes  or  with  four. 
In  this  lad  txercife,  the  combatants  Were  at  firil  di- 
vided into  two  Iquadrons  or  quadri'.s;  then  ii  to  four; 
each  bearina;  the  names  of  the  colours  they  worc.;yiM-- 
tio  alba,  rujfea,  &c.  At  firlt  there  was  only  white  and 
red  ;  then  green  was  added,  and  blue.  Domitlan  ad- 
ded two  more  colours,  but  they  did  not  continue. 
It  was  Ocnomaus  who  firll  invented  this  method  of  di- 
ftinguidiing  the  quadrils  by  colouis.  The  green  was 
for  thole  wh>  reprefented  the  earth;  the  blue  for  the 
fea,  8ic. 

CIRENCESTER,  an  ancient  town  of  Gloucefler- 
ihlre  in  England.  It  w<?s  Wrongly  fortified  with  walls 
and  a  caflle  in  the  time  of  the  Romans.  The  ruins 
of  the  wniis  and  ttreet  are,  or  were  lately,  to  be  feen 
in  the  adjacent  meadows,  where  many  Roman  coin.-i, 
chequered  pavements,  and  infcriptions  on  marble,  have 
been  found.  Two  of  the  Roman  confalar  ways  ctofs 
each  other  at  this  town.  The  fofTcf-way,  which  comes 
from  Scotland,  pafTes  through  this  county  and  town 
to  Totnels  in  Devonlhire.  The  other,  called  Irmhi- 
Jlrcet,  comes  from  Glouceftcr,  and  runs  along  to  South- 
ampton. Not  many  years  ago  they  difcovered,  by 
di'gging  in  a  meadow  near  the  town,  an  ancient  build- 
ing under  ground,  50  feet  long,  40  broad,  and  4  high, 
and  fupported  by  too  brick  pillars,  curioufly  inlaid 
with  ftones  of  various  colours,  fuppofed  to  have  been 
a  Roman  bath.  Cirenceller  has  now  but  one  church, 
I'n  the  windows  of  which  are  the  remains  of  very  va- 
luable painted  glafs.  Tiie  town  is  governed  by  2  high 
conftables,  and  14  «-ards-men,  who  govejn  7  diflui<ft 
wards;  and  it  fends  two  members  to  parliament.  It 
has  a  free  fchool,  a  chaiity  fchool,  with  feveral  alms- 
houfes;  and  is  feated  on  the  river  Churn,  36  miles 
norlh-eaft  of  Briftol,  and  88  weft  by  north  of  Lon- 
don.    W.  Long.  o.  2.      N.  Lat.  51.  42. 

CIRENZA,  a  city  of  Naples,  capital  of  the  Bafi- 
licate,  with  an  archbifiiop's  fee.  It  was  formerly  a 
confiderable  place,  but  is  now  of  fmall  confequtnce. 
It  is  fcaied  on  the  river  Brandano,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Apennine  mountains,  in  E.  Long.  16.  44.  N.  Lat. 
40.   48.       . 

CIRO-FERRi,  an  excellent  Italian  pamter  and  ar- 
chitect, was  born  at  Rome  in  1614,  and  was  the  dif- 
ciple  of  Peter  de  Cortona,  whofe  defigns  he  imita- 
ted with  fuch  exaftnefs,  that  it  is  difficult  to  dilliu- 
gulfh  tliem.  He  was  efleemed  by  Pope  Alexan- 
der VII.  and  his  three  fucceffors,  and  died  at  Rome 
in  1689. 

CIRRUS,  or  CiRRHUs,  in  botany,  a  clafper  or 
tendril  ;  that  fine  fpiral  firing  or  fibre  put  out  from  the 
foot-ftalks,  by  which  fome  plants,  as  the  ivy  and 
vine,  fallen  themfelves  to  walls,  pales,  or  trees,  for 
fupport.  The  term  is  fynonymous  to  the  capreo- 
lus,  clavicula,  and  viliculus  of  other  botanills  :  and 
is  ranked  by  Linnasus  among  the  fulcra,  or  parts 
of  plants  that  ferve  for  prottftion,  fupport,  and  de- 
fence. 

Tendrils  are  fometlmes  placed  oppofite  to  the  leaves, 
as  in  the  vine ;  fomctimes  at  the  fide  of  the  foot-ftalk. 


of  the  leaf,  as  in  pafilon-flower;  and  fometime*,  as  in  CiiTai 
winged  pea,  pij'um  ochnis,  they  are  emitted  from  the  II 
leaves  themfelves.  With  refpeift  to  compofition,  they  Cifiadana 
are  either  fimple,  that  is,  compoftd  of  one  fibre  or 
chord,  as  in  the  vetch;  or  compound,  lh:tt  is,  confift 
of  two,  three,  or  more,  as  in  tiie  everlalling  pea. 
Litter  fwifet,  folanum,  dulcamara,  bignonia,  and  ivy, 
fi-nd  forth  tendrils  which  plant  ihemfilves  hke  roots  in 
the  adjacent  walls,  or  the  bark  of  the  ncijrhbouiing 
trees.  CLifpers,  lays  the  ingenious  Dr  Grew,  are  like 
trunk-rcots,  a  mean  betwixt  a  root  and  a  trunk,  but  a 
compound  of  both,  as  may  be  gathered  from  their  cir- 
cumvolutions, in  \yhich  they  mutually  afcend  and  de- 
fcend.  In  the  mounting  of  the  trunk,  continues  the 
fame  author,  claipers  feive  for  fupport.  Thus,  in 
vines,  the  branches  being  very  long,  fragile,  and  flen- 
der,  would  be  liable  to  frequent  breaking,  unlefs,  by 
means  of  their  clafpers,  they  were  mutually  contained 
together;  fo  that  the  vvliole  care  is  divided  betwixt  the 
gardener  and  nature  :  the  former,  with  his  ligaments 
of  leather,  ftcutes  the  main  branches;  and  nature,  with 
thofe  of  her  own  providing,  fecures  the  lefs.  Their 
aptitude  to  this  end  is  feen  in  their  convolutions,  a 
motion  not  proper  to  any  other  part  :.  and  alfo  in  their 
toughnefs,  which  is  fo  much  the  m.ore  rematkable,  ss 
th.fy  are  llenderer  than  the  branches  from  which  they 
proceed.  In  the  trailing  of  the  trunk,  tendrils  ferve 
for  llabilement  and  (hade  i  thus,  in  cucumbers,  the 
trunk  and  branches  being  lonp  and  fragile,  would  be 
driven  to  and  fro  by  the  winds,  to  the  great  preju- 
dice both  of  themfelves  and  their  tender  fruits,  were 
they  not,  by  thcfe  ligaments,  held  faft  together,  and 
preferved  in  afiociation  and  good  fellowlhip.  The  f  iice 
clafpers  ferve  liktwile  for  fliade:  fo  that  a  natural  ar- 
bour is  formed  by  the  branches  of  the  cucumber,  in  the 
fame  manner  as  an  artificial  one  is  made  by  tangling 
together  the  twigs  cf  trees  ;  for  the  branches,  by  the 
linking  of  their  clalpcrs,  being  couched  ti)2;ether,  the 
tender  fruits  lie  under  the  uinbra).;e  of  a  bower  made 
of  their  own  leaves.  Moil  of  the  pea- bloom  flowers 
have  twining  clafpers,  that  is,  which  wind  to  the  right 
and  back  again. 

CIRRI,  in  ichthyology,  certain  oblong  and  foft 
appendages,  not  unlike  little  worms,  hanging  from, 
the  under  jaws  or  mouths  of  fome  fifties:  thele  cirri, 
commonly  tranflated  beards,  afford  marks  to  diftin- 
guifh  the  ditFerent  fpecies  of  the  fifties  on  which  they 
are  found. 

CIRTA,  (anc.  geog.)  the  metropolis  and  rOyal 
refidence,  not  far  from  the  river  Ampfaga,  in  the  in- 
land parts  of  Numldia  Propria.  A  colony,  furnamed 
Colonla  Sittianorum,  very  rich,  when  in  the  hands  of 
Syphax.  The  colony  was  led  by  one  P.  Sittius,  un- 
der the  aufpices  of  Csefar,  and  was  furnamed  yidia. 
Now  called  Conjlanllna,  in  Algiers.  E.  Long.  7.  O. 
Lat   35.  ^o. 

CISALPINE,  any  thing  on  this  fide  the  Alps. 
The  Romans  divided  Gaul  and  the  country  now  called 
JLombardy,  into  Cifalpine  and  Tranfalpine.  That  which 
was  Cifalpine  with  regard  to  the  Romans,  is  Tranfal- 
pine with  regard  to  us. 

CISLEU,  In  Hebrew  chronology,  the  ninth  month, 
of  their  ecclefiafticai,  and  third  of  their  civil,  year,  an- 
fwering  nearly  to  our  November. 
CISPADANAd.\lli.i, (anc.  geog.)adiftria  of  Italy, 

to 


CIS  [2 

to  the  foulh  of  thePo,  occupied  by  theGau'.s  in  the  ?ime 
of  the  king,?  of  Jlomt,  feparated  from  Ligiiria  on  the 
weft,  as  is  thoui;lit  Ijy^the  Irl:i,  runninjr  t'lom  loulh  to 
north  into  the  Po  ;  bounded  on  the  fouth  hy  the  A- 
ptiinine,  ?.n4  on  the  eaft  by  t  tie  Adriatic.  The  term  is 
formed  analogicidly,  there  being  mucli  mention  in  Ci- 
cero, Tacitus,  Suetonius,  and  ancient  iiiforlptions, 
made  of  the  Tranfpadani ;  which  and  CifpaJunl  are 
terms  ufcd  with  refpeft  to  Rome.  Ptolemy  calls  the 
Cifpadana  peculiarly  GaNia  Togata,  extending  be- 
tween tl  e  Po  and  Apennine,  to  the  Sipis  and  Ru- 
bicon. 

CISSA,  orCissuM  (anc.  geog.),  a  town  of  the 
Hither  Spain,  in  Lncetnnia,  on  the  tall  fide  of  the  I- 
bcri;s,  (thought  ro  be  Gti'iffona.']  Where  the  Cartha- 
gininns  were  fiift  defeated  by  Scipio.  Another  C'l[fa 
of  Thrace,  fitnatfd  on  the  river  TEffo-  Potamus,  which 
Scylax  leems  to  call  Crejfa,  or  Crijfa  ;  fu  that  the  read- 
ing is  il.)ub'.rul. 

CISSAMPELOS,  in  botany:  A  genus  of  the  mo- 
nodelpliia  order,  beloaging  to  the  dicecia  clafs  of  plants; 
and  in  thr  natuial  method  ranking  under  the  iltli  or- 
der, Sc.rmentace<r.  Tlie  male  calyx  is  tttraphyllous; 
po  corolla;  the  neftarium  whet-l-fliaped;  four  (lamina 
with  their  filaments  grown  together.  Tiie  female  ca- 
lyx is  monophvllous  and  ligulatid  roundini,  or  like 
a  piece  of  garter  a  little  roundifh.  There  is  no 
corolla;  three  ftvles,  and  a  monofpermous  beny. 
There  are  two  fpecies,  the  pareira  and  caapcha,  both 
natives  of  the  waimcft  parts  of  America.  The  root 
of  the  fecond,  rpplied  externally,  is  faid  to  be  an  an- 
tidote againft  thcr  bites  of  venomous  ft-rpcnts.  The 
plant  being  infufcd  in  water,  quickly  fills  the  liquor 
with  a  mucilaginous  fuoHar.ce,  which  is  as  thick  as 
jelly  ;  whence  the  name  of  freezhig-wyth,  by  which 
this  genus  of  plants  has  been  diftinguifhcd  by  the  Bra- 
zilians. 

CISSOID,  in  geometry,  a  curve  of  the  fecond  or- 
der, firll  invented  by  Diodes,  whence  it  is  called  the 
I'lffohl  of  Diodes.      See  Fluxions. 

CISSUS,  the  WILD-GRAPE  :  A  genus  of  the  mo 
noeryi.ia  order,  belonging  to  thf  tetrandria  clafs  of 
plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  rankiny  under  the 
46th  Older,  Hedcracet.  The  berry  is  tuonolpermous, 
fiiiriiundcd  by  the  calyx,  and  a  qiiadripartite  corolla. 
There  are  four  fpicifs,  all  of  them  natives  of  the 
ifland  of  Jamaica,  and  fome  of  the  other  iflands  in 
the  warm  paits  of  America.  They  fend  out  (len- 
der branchts,  having  tendrils  at  their  joints,  by  which 
they  fallen  to  the  neighhourinj  trees,  bulheb,  and 
any  other  fupport,  mou;.ti".g  to  a  confidetable  height. 
The  fruit  of  fome  of  the  fpccies  ate  eaten  by  the 
negroes. 

CISTERCIANS,  in  chtirch  liillory,  a  religious  or- 
der founded  in  the  i  nh  century  by  St  Robett,  a  Be- 
nediftine.  Thty  became  fo  powerful,  that  they  go- 
verned almolt  all  Europe,  both  in  fpirituals  and  tem- 
porals. Cardin<)l  de  Vitri  defcribing  their  obftrvan- 
ces,  fays,  they  neither  wore  fl<iiis  nor  flurts  :  nor  ever 
eat  flefh,  except  in  fickneff  ;  and  abltaintd  fiom  filh, 
eggs,  milk,  and  cheefe  :  they  lay  upon  ftraw-beds,  in 
tunics  and  cowli :  they  rofe  at  mi''night  to  pray  rs  : 
they  fpent  the  day  in  labour,  reading,  and  prayer: 
and  in  all  their  exercifes  obfcrvcd  a  cortinual  filcnce. 
The  habit  of  the   cillercian  monks  is  a  white  robe. 


7     1  C     I     T 

in  the  nature  of  a  cafTock,  with  a  black  fcapulary 
and  hood,  and  is  girt  wliii  a  wooden  girdle.  The 
nuns  wear  a  while  tunic,  and  a  black  icapulary  and 
girdle. 

CISTERN,  denotes  a  fubterraneous  refervoir  of 
rain-water ;  or  a  vcfTcl  ferving  as  a  rec;ptacle  for 
rain  or  other  water,  for  the  neceflary  ufes  of  a  fa- 
mily.   There  are  likewifelead-cifterns,  jar-clfterns,  &c. 

Auuhors  mention  a  cillcrn  at  Conllantinople,  the 
vaults  of  which  are  fupported  by  two  rows  of  pillars, 
2  12  in  each  row,  each  pillar  being  two  feet  in  diameter. 
They  are  planted  circularly,  aud  in  radii  tending  to 
that  of  the  centre. 

Anciently  there  were  cifterns  all  over  the  country  in. 
Paleftine.  There  were  fome  likewile  in  cities  and  pri- 
vate houfes.  As  the  cities  for  the  moft  part  were 
built  en  mountains,  and  the  rains  fell  regularly  in  Ju- 
dea  at  two  fe  ifons  in  the  year  only,  in  fpring  and  au- 
tumn, people  were  obliged  to  keep  water  in  cifterns  in 
the  country  for  the  ufe  of  their  cattle,  and  in  cities  for 
the  conveniency  of  the  inhabitants.  There  are  ftill 
ciftern^  of  very  large  dimenfiotis  to  be  feen  inPalelline, 
fome  whereof  are  150  paces  long,  and  54  wide. 
'I  here  is  one  to  be  feen  at  Ramah  of  32  pacs  in 
lensfth,  aud  28  in  breadth.  Wells  and  cillerns,  Iprings 
and  fountains,  are  generally  confounded  in  fcripture- 
language. 

CISTUS,  the  RocK-ROSE  :  A  genus  of  the  mo- 
nogynia  order,  belonging  to  the  polyai^dria  clafs  of 
plants  ;  and  in  the  natuial  method  ranking  under  the 
2;nh  order,  Rotace^t.  The  corolla  is  pentapetahjus  ; 
the  calyx  pentaphyllous,  with  two  of  its  leaves  fmailer 
than  the  reft.  The  feeds  are  contained  in  a  capfule. 
There  are  37  fpecies,  moft  of  them  natives  of  the  fou- 
thern  parts  of  Europe,  but  hardy  enough  to  bear  the 
open  air  in  this  countty.  They  aie  beautiful  ever- 
green ftirubs,  generally  very  branchy  quite  from  the 
bottom,  and  formincr  difFufed  heads.  They  are  very 
ornamental  in  gardens,  not  only  as  evergreens,  ma- 
king a  fine  variety  at  all  feafon5  with  their  le'aves 
of  different  figures,  fizes,  and  fliadcs  of  giecn  and 
white,  but  alfo  as  firft-rate  flowering  ftirubs,  being 
very  profufe  in  moft  elegant  flowers  of  white,  puiiple, 
and  yellow  coh)ars.  Thefe  flo^^ers  only  lall  lor  one 
day  ;  but  there  is  a  continual  fuccefTion  of  new  ones 
for  a  month  or  fix  weeks  on  the  fame  plant;  and  when 
there  ate  different  fpecies,  they  will  cxiiibit  a  conftant 
bloom  for  near  three  months.  They  are  propagated 
either  by  feeds  or  cuttings,  and  thr'.ve  beft  in  a  dry 
foil.  Their  proper  fituation  in  flimbhery  works  fhoidd 
be  towards  the  front  of  the  clumps  and  other  compart- 
ments, in  afTcmblage  with  the  choiceft  fhrubp  of  fimi- 
lar  grovvtli,  dilpafing  them  fo  as  to  make  a  variety, 
and  to  have  ftieltcr  from  the  other  plsnts ;  but  they 
ought  by  no  means  to  be  crowded.  Gumlabdanum  is 
found  upon  a  fpecits  of  ciftus  which  grows  naturally  in 
the  Levant,  and  is  therefore  called  iadanifera.  See 
Labdanuivt. 

CI  I'  .DEL,  a  place  fortified  with  five  or  fix  ba- 
(lions,  biidt  on  a  convenient  ground  near  a  city,  that 
it  may  co    mand  it  incafe  of  a  rebellion. 

CI  TADELLA    the  capital  town  in  the  ifland  of 

Mmorc.',   in  the  Medlierranean,   with  a  new  harbour. 

This,  with  the  whole   ifland,   were   taken   by  general 

Stanhope  and  the  confederate  fleet  in  1708,  and  ceded 

D  2  ttf 


ncfca 

li 
Ckium. 


C    I    T  [2 

to  Great  Britain  by  the  treaty  of  Utreclit  in  1713: 
but  it  was  taken  by  the  French,  after  a  brave  defence, 
in  1756  ;  and  reftored  by  the  peace.  In  1782,  it  wa'S 
taken  by  the  S;)anlards,  and  confirmed  to  them  at 
the  fubfcqnent  peace.  It  is  27  miles  weft  of  Port- 
Mahon.      E.  lyonjj.  3.  30.  N.  Lat.  39.  58. 

CITADINESCA,  in  natural  hiftory,  a  name  given 
by  fomc  writers  to  the  Florentine  marble,  which  is 
fuppofed  to  reprefent  towns,  palaces,  ruins,  rivers,  &c. 
Thefe  delineations  are  merely  accidental,  and  are  com- 
monly much  .Tfiifted  by  the  imagination,  though  the 
natural  lines  of  a  ftone  may  fometimcs  luckily  enough 
reprefent  the  ruins  of  fome  ancient  building,  or  the 
courfc  of  a  riven  In  England  there  is  a  kind  of  fep- 
taria,  or  Indus  Hclniontii,  which  has  fometimes  pret- 
ty beautiful,  though  very  irregular,  delineations  of  this 
kind.  The  Florentine  marble,  as  we  fee  it  wrought  up 
in  the  ornaments  of  cabinets,  &c.  owes  a  great  deal  to 
the  fliill  of  the  workmen,  who  al«'ays  pick  out  the 
proper  pieces  from  the  mafs,  and  difpofe  them  in  the 
work  fo  as  to  reprefent  what  they  pleafe. 

CITATION,  in  ecclefiaftical  courts,  is  the  fame 
with  fummons  in  civil  courts.    See  Summons. 

Citation,  is  alfo  a  quotation  of  fome  law,  autho- 
rity, or  paflage  of  a  book. 

CITHjERON  (anc.  geog),  a  mountain  and  foreft  of 
Boeotia,  celebrated  both  in  fable  and  fong.  To  the  weft 
it  ran  obliquely,  a  little  above  the  SinusCriflasus,  taking 
its  rife  contiguous  to  the  mountains  of  Megara  and  At- 
tica ;  then  levelled  into  plains,  it  terminates  at  Thebes, 
famous  for  the  fate  of  Pentheus  and  Aftaeon;  the 
former  torn  by  the  BacchtE,  the  latter  by  his  dogs ;  as 
alfo  for  the  orgia,  or  revels  of  Bacchus. 

CITHARA,  in  antiquity,  a  mufical  inftrument,  the 
precife  ftrufture  of  which  is  not  known  ;  fome  think 
it  refembled  the  Greek  delta  A;  and  others  the  (hape 
of  a  half  moon.  At  firft  it  had  only  3  llrings,  but 
the  number  was  at  different  times  increafed  to  8,  to 
9,  and  laftly  to  24.  It  was  ufed'  in  entertainments 
and  private  houfes,  and  played  upon  with  a  pledlrum 
or  quill,  like  the  lyre. 

CITHAREXYLON,  fiddle-wood:  A  genus  of 
tlie  angiofpermia  order,  belonging  to  the  didynamia 
clafs  of  plants  ;  and  in  the  natunJ  method  ranking 
under  the  40th  order,  Perfoiiatic.  The  calyx  is  quln- 
quedentated,  campanulated,  wheel-fhaped,  and  inclining 
to  be  funnel-fliaped,  with  its  fegments  villous  on  the 
upper  fide,  equal.  The  fruit  a  difpermous  berry ; 
the  feeds  bilocular.  There  arc  two  fpeeles,  both  na- 
tives of  the  warm  parts  of  America,  where  they  grow 
to  be  large  trees,  and  are  adorned  with  white  flowers 
growing  in  fpikes.  In  Britain  they  appear  only  as 
.'hrubs,  and  muft  be  conftantly  retained  -in  the  ftove, 
where  they  make  a  fine  appearance,  being  beautiful 
evergreens.  They  may  be  propagated  either  by  feeds 
or  cuttings. 

CITIUM,  Cetium,  or  Cittium  (anc.  geog.),  a 
tow-n  of  Cypras,  fituated  in  the  fouth  of  the  ifland; 
famous  for  the  birth  of  Zeno,  author  of  the  feft  called 
Sloirs;  dilHnt  two  himdrcd  ftadia  to  the  well  of  Sa- 
lamis  (Diodoruj  Siculus).  A  colony  of  I'hosniclans, 
called  Chi-Um  :  And  hence  it  is  that  not  only  Cyprus, 
but  the  other  ifiands  and  many  maritime  places,  are 
tailed  Ckstim  by  the  Hebrews ;  new  calkd  Chltl, 


Citr 


8     ]  C     I     T 

CITIZEN,  a  native  or  Inhabitant  of  a  city,  veiled    Citizen 
with  the  freedom  and  liberties  of  it. 

A  citizen  of  Rom:  was  dillin^uilhed  from  a  llran- 
ger,  bccaufc  he  belonged  to  no  certain  commouwoalth 
fubjcft  to  the  Romans.  A  citizen  is  either  by  birtli 
or  cloftion  ;  and  fons  may  derive  the  rl-'ht  fi'om  their 
fathers.  To  make  a  good  Roman  citizen,  it  vi-as  nc- 
ccffary  to  be  an  inhabitant  of  Rome,  to  be  inroUed  \<x 
one  of  the  tribes,  and  to  be  capable  of  dignities.  Thofe 
to  whom  were  granted  the  rights  and  privileges  of 
Roman  citizens,  were  only  honorary  citizens.  It  was 
not  lawful  to  fcourge  a  citizen  of  Rome. 

CITRINUS,  in  natural  hillory,  the  name  of  a  pe- 
culiar fpecies  of  fprig  cryftal,  which  is  of  a  bv;autifiil 
yellow.  Many  of  the  common  cryftals,  when  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  lead  mines,  are  liable  to  be  acci- 
dentally tinged  yellow,  by  an  admixture  of  the  pai- 
ticles  of  that  metal;  and  all  thef.:,  whether  finer  or 
coarfer,  have  been  too  frequently  confounded  together 
under  the  name  citrine :  but  Dr  Hill  has  afcertained 
this  to  be  a  peculiar  fpecies  of  cr^'ftal  dirTerent  from 
all  the  others  in  form  as  well  as  in  colour  ;  and  diftiu- 
guirtied  by  the  name  of  ellipomncrnflylum  liuiilum  Jla- 
•vefcens,  pyramide  brevl.  It  is  never  found  colourlefs 
like  the  other  cryftals,  but  has  great  variety  of  tinges, 
from  that  of  the  deeper  ochres  to  a  pale  lemon-colour. 
It  is  very  plentiful  in  the  Weft  Indies,  and  is  jfome- 
times  found  in  Bohemia.  Our  jewellers  have  learned 
from  the  French  and  Italians,  who  are  very  fond  of 
it,  to  call  it  dirine;  and  often  cut  ftones  for  rings  out 
of  it,  particularly  out  of  the  pyramid,  which  is^always. 
finer  than  the  colimin ;  and  thefe,  after  they  have 
paffed  through  two  or  three  hands,  are  generally  raif- 
taken  for  topazes. 

CITRON-TREE,  in  botany.      Sec  Citrus. 

CiTKON-IViiter,  a  well  known  ilrong;  water  or  cor- 
dial,  which  may  be  thus  made:  Take  of  fine  thin  le- 
mon-peel, 18  ounces;  of  orange-peel,  9  ounces  ;  per- 
fect nutmegs,  4  ounces  ;  the  fineft  and  beft  reftified 
fpirit  of  wine,  2  gallons  and  a  half.  Digeft  in  balneo 
maris  for  one  night  :  draw  off  with  a  flow  fire  ;  then 
add  as  much  water  as  will  juft  make  the  matter  milky 
(which  will  be  about  7  quarts  or  2  gallons)  ;  and, 
laftly,  add  2  pounds  of  fine  fugar.  This  compofition 
may  be  improved  by  frelh  elder  flowers,  hung  in  a 
cloth  in  the  head  of  the  ftlll,  fprinkled  with  amber- 
greafe  in  powder,  or  its  effence. 

CiTRON-lVood,  the  wood  of  an  American  tree,  cal- 
led by  the  natives  candle-wood ;  becaufe,  being  cut 
into  fplinters,  it  burns  like  a  candle.  The  tree  is  fre- 
quent in  the  Leeward  Iflands,  and  grows  to  a  confi- 
derable  fize  :  the  leaves  are  like  thofe  of  the  bay -tree, 
but  of  a  finer  green  ;  the  flower  is  fweet,  and  muck 
like  thofe  of  the  orange  ;  the  fruit  fucceeding  thefe  is 
black,  and  of  the  fize  of  a  pepper-corn.  The  trunk, 
is  fo  like  the  yellow  faunders  in  colour,  that  there  was 
once  an  opinion  that  it  was  the  fame  tree,  and  much 
of  it  was  imported  into  Europe,  and  fold  as  fuch:  but 
they  were  foon  found  to  be  different ;  the  faunders  be- 
ing of  a  fweet  fcent,  and  but  moderately  heavy  and 
refinous ;  but  the  citron-wood  confiderably  heavy, 
very  oily,  and  of  a  ftrong  fmell.  It  is  of  no  known 
ufe  in  mediclBe  ;  but  is  ufed  in  France  and  Germany 
by  the   turners,   being  a  fine  firm-grained  wood,  and 

taking 


( '///'/ f-^,  '  \>r/'f(/(/t/f-/J/,/r.7^f 


Plate  cxxxiin 


/  '■  ^''•''>"i^//ti/jL/an'/>A'r  //><■/ . 


C     I     T  f     29 

taking  a  fine  polifh,  and  with  age  becoming  of  a  very     ters 
'  beautiful  brown. 

Crn^US,  the  Citron-tree:  A  genus  of  the  po- 
Ivadelphia  onlcr,  hclong;in^  to  the  icofandria  clafs  of 
plants.  The  calyx  is  quinq'jefid  ;  the  petals  obl'ing, 
and  iivc  in  numb;i- ;  the  anthers  20,  with  their  iila- 
ments  grown  toj^otiier  fo  as  to  -form  various  pencils. 
The  fruit  is  an  unilocular  bi-rrj-. 

Sfieci.'s.  I.  The  Medica,  or  Citron-tree,  hath  an  up- 
right fmooth  trunk,  divided  at  top  into  a  branchy 
ftrong-fliooting,  full  head,  from  about  5  to  15  feet 
high,  adorned  with  large  oval,  fpear-fiiapcd,  thick 
leaves,  having  linear  foot-ftalks,  and  numerous  fiowers 
from  the  fides  of  the  branches,  furcteded  by  very 
large  oblong  oval,  pointed,  rough-rinded 
variv'tics  are  citron-tree  with  four  fruit  ; 
fruit  ;  with  long  fruit ;  with  waited  fruit ;  with  re- 
curved fruit;  and  with  blotched  leaves. 

II.  The  Lima,  or  Lemon-tree,  hath  an  upright 
fmooth  trunk,  divided  upward  into  a  branchy  regular 


head;  from  12  to  15  feet  high;  large,  oval,  fpear- 
(haped,  pointed,  (lightly  fawed  leaves,  on  linear  foot- 
ftalks:  and  many  flowers  from  the  fides  of  the  branches 
fucceeded  by  large  oval  fruit  prominent  at  the  top. 
The  varieties  are,  tlie  lemon-tree  with  four  fruit  ; 
with  fwcetifli  fruit  ;  with  very  large  fruit  caUed  Lnj'it.'- 
rial  leimv ;  with  pear-fhaped  fruit  ;  ■with  furrowed 
fruit;  with  cluHered  fruit  ;  with  chllding  fruit ;  with 
wliitiOi  fruit  ;  with  tricolor  ilriped  fruit ;  with  filver 
ftriped  leaves;  and  with  double  fiowers. 

III.  The  Aurantium,  or  Orange-tree,  hath  an  up- 
right trunk  dividing  upward  into  a  bi'anchy,  regular 
head,  from  5  to  10  or  i  2  feet  high ;  oval,  fpear-fhaped, 
entire  leaves,   having  winged  foot-ftalks  and  numerous 
white  flowers  at  the  fnles  of  the  branches,  fucceeded 
by  globular  fruit  compreifed  at  both  ends-      The  moft 
noted  varieties  are,    1 .  The  Seville  orange.     This  is  a 
very  handfome  tree,  and  the  hardiefl;  of  any;  as  in  this 
country  it  fhoots  freely,  produces  large  and  beautiful 
leaves,  flowers  ftronger,  &c.    The  fruit  is  large,  rough, 
rinded,   and   four,  of  excellent  quality  for  economical 
iifes.      2.  The   China  orange.     This  tree   has  mode- 
rately fized  leaves,  and  a  fmooth,   thin-rinded,  fweet 
fruit,   of  which   tliere   are  feveral   varieties   in   warm 
countries,    where    they    grow    in    the    open    ground. 
3.  The  great  Shaddock  orange,  orpumplemoes,  grows 
larger  and   ftronger  than   the   foregoing,  with  large, 
thick,  and  foraewhat  fcrrated  leaves,   and  very  large 
fruit,  having  a  teddifli  pulp.      It  derives  the  name  of 
Shaddock  from  one  of  that   name  that  firil  brought 
it  from  the  Eaft  Indies.     4.  The  Foibidden-fruit-tree, 
in  trunk,  leaves,  and  flowers,  very  much  refcmbles  the 
common   orange-tree  ;     but   the   fruit,    when  ripe,   is- 
larger  and  longer  than  the  biggeft  orange.      It  has. 
fomewhat  the  tafte   of  a   fiiaddock  ;  but   far  exceeds 
that,    as   well    as    the   bcft    orange,    in    its  delicious 
tafte  and   flavour.      5.  The   Horned  orange  is   a  tree 
of  moderate   fize,   producing  fruit  v.diich  divide,  and 
the  rind   runs  out   into  divifions  like  horns.    6.  The 
Hermaphrodite  orange  is  a  common   fized  tree,  pro- 
ducing fruit  fhapcd  partly  like  an  orange  and  partly  like 
a  citron.     7.  The  Dwai'f  orange    tree,    or    nutmeg 
orange,  has  a  long  ftem  and  fmall  bufliy  head,  grow- 
ing two  or  three  feet   high  ;  fmall   oval  leaves  in  cluf- 


c    I    r 

and  numerous  flowers  in  clufters,  covering  the 
branc-hes,  fucceeded  by  very  fmall  fruit.  Thefo  are 
the  moil  remarkable  varieties  of  the  three  foregoing 
fpecies  of  citrus  :  but  befides  thefe  there  are  a  great 
number  of  others;  and  indeed  in  thofu  coimtries  where 
they  grov/  naturally,  the  varieties  may  be  multiplied 
without  end,  like  thofe  of  our  apples  and  pears.  The 
flowers  of  all  the  fpecies  and  varieties  are  formed  each 
of  five  fjireading  petals,  appearing  here  principally  in 
May  and  June  ;  and  the  fruit  continue  felting  in  June 
and  July,  and  ripen  the  year  following.     ,. 

IV.  The  Trifoliata,  or  Japonefe  citron,  is  a  thorny 
flirub  growing  naturally  in  Japan,  where  it  i.s  llkewife 
known  by  the  names  of  Gees,  and  Karatals  bauna. 
ruit.  The-  The  trunk,  we  are  told  by  Ka:mpfer,  acquires  by  age 
with  fweet  and  culture  the  thieknefs  of  a  tree.  The  branches  and 
fhoots  are  unequal;  in  fome  parts  comprefFed,  in  others 
fwclling,  efpecially  about  the  fpines.  Thefe  jji-oceed 
fingly  from  the  ftem  and  brandies  ;  are  ftraight,  run 
out  from  a  broad  bafe  into  a  very  flrarp  point ;  and 
are  protruded  from  the  wood,  with  the  common  bark 
of  which  they  are  likewife  invefted.  The  wood  is 
loofe  and  foft  ;  the  bark  of  a  fliining  green,  moift 
and  eafily  parting  from  the  wood.  The  leaves  are 
few  in  number,  fawed  on  the  edges,  veined,  placed' 
without  order,  but  generally  growing  under  the  fpiues. 
They  grow  by  threes,  like  thofe  of  trefoil,  upon  the 
extremity  of  a  common  foot-ftalk  which  is  furniflied 
on  each  fide  vvith  a  membranaceous  fringe  or  margin,, 
fomewhat  refembling  the  pedicles  of  the  orange.  The 
upper  furface  of  the  leaves  is  of  a  bright  lucid  green, 
the  lower  dark  and  herbaceous.  The  flowers,  which 
refemble  thofe  of  the  nredlar,  proceed  fingly  from  the 
arm-pits  of  the  leaves;  are  white,  poirefl"ed  of  no  great 
degree  of  fragrance,  and  confift  of  five  petals.  The 
fruit  is  equally  beautiful  with  a  middle-fized  orauTe  ; 
their  internal  ftrufture  is  alfo  pretty  much  the  fame  ; 
only  the  pulp  is  glutinous,  of  an  unpleafant  fmell,  and 
a  harlhdifagreeable  tafte.  The  feeds  liave  the  fame 
tafte  with  the  pulp,  and  are  ftiaped  exaftly  like  thofe 
of  the  orange. 

Culiure.  The  three  firft  fpecies  merit  particular  at- 
tention. They  are  elegant  evergreens,  rifing  in  tin's 
country  from  about  5  to  10  feet  in  height;  forming, 
full  and  handfome  heads,  clofely  garniftied  with  beau- 
tiful large  leaves  all  the  year  round,  and  putting  forth 
a  profufion  of  fweet  flowers  in  fpring  and  early  in  fum- 
mer ;  which  even  in  this  climate  are  often  fucceeded 
by  abundance  of  fruit  that  fometimes  arrive  at  tole- 
rable perfeftion.  'I'hough  all  the  varieties  were  ori- 
ginally obtained  by  feed,  yet  the  only  certain  method 
of  continuing  the  approved  varieties  is  by  buddino-  or 
inarching  them  on  ftocks  raifed  from  feed  to  a  proper 
fize.      As  the  young   trees,  however,   are  brought  in 


Citr;!9» 


plenty  from  abroad,  this  method  is  feldom  praftiied  ia 
this  country  :  but  for  curioftty,  it  may  be  done  by 
thofe  who  are  fo  inchned,  in  the  following  manner  : 
Early  in  the  fpring  procure  fome  kernels,  which  may 
be  had  in  plenty  from  rotten  fruits,  or  others  that  are 
properly  ripened,  obferving  that  for  ftocks,  the  citron, 
lemon,  and  Seville-orange,  as  being  the  freeft  ftiooters, 
are  to  be  preferred  ;  and  of  thefe  the  citron  is  the 
ilrongeft.  Sow  the  kernels  in  March,  in  pots  of  rich 
light  earth  half  an  inch  deep,   and  plunge  them  in  a 

Iwt. 


C     I     T 


[     3^     1 


C     I     T 


Citru'.  Tiot-'bed  under  frames  and  gbfles.  Dimg  or  tan  piay 
'"~~«  be  ufed,  but  the  latter  is  preferable,  giving  air,  and 
frequent  fpriiildings  of  water.  In  two  or  three  weeks, 
the  plants  will  come  up  ;  and  in  'fix  or  eight  weeks 
more,  they  will  be  advanced  four  or  five  inches  or 
more  in  height.  You  muft  now  give  them  more  air 
and  water;  and  about  the  middle  of  June  harden  them 
to  the  full  air,  in  wJiich  kt  them  remain  till  Oclober ; 
then  move  them  into  the  green  houfe,  to  (land  till  the 
fpring,  and  in  March  or  April  plant  them  fingly  in 
fmall  pots;  being  careful  to  (hake  them  out  of  the  feed 
pots  with  their  roots  entire.  They  muft  be  watered 
immediately  after-  planting,  and  the  watering  mu(l  be 
occafionallj'  repeated.  After  this  they  are  to  be  treat- 
ed as  woody  exotics  of  the  green-houfe  ;  and  in  a 
year  or  two  tlie  largeft  of  thofe  dcfigned  for  (locks 
will  be  fit  for  budding. 

The  operation    for  budding    is    performed    in   the 
•  .See  /nif- month  of  Augiift,  and  is  done  in  the  common  way  *  ; 
cuUlhn.        only  t!>e  buds  mufl  be  taktn  from  trees  of  a  good  kind 
th:it  bear  well.      As  f'on  as  the  operation  is  finiflicd, 
the  pots  with  their  plants  muft  be  placed  in  the  green- 
houfe,  or  in  a  glafs-cafc  ;  or,  where  there  is  the  con- 
venience of  a  fpare  bark-pit,  where  the  heat  of  the 
bark  is  almoft  exhaufted,  the  pots  may  be  plunged  there- 
in for  two   or  three  weeks.      In  either  cafe,   however, 
-the   air  mull   be   admitted  freely  by  opening  t!ie  front 
glaffes  ;  'allowing   alfo  a  flight   (liade   of  mats  in   the 
middle  of  hot  funfhine  days,  and  fupplying  them  with 
water  every   two   or   three   days  during  this  kind  of 
weather.     In  three  or  four  weeks  the   buds  will  be 
united  with  the  (lock  ;  when  it  will  be  proper  to  loofen 
the  bandages,  that  they  may  have  room  to  fwell ;  the 
buds,  however,  will  all   remain  dormant  till  the  next 
fpring.     They  may  alfo  be  propagated  by  inarching, 
f   See    /...which  is  done  in  the  common  way  \ ;   but  the  method 
arMiig.        of  budding  is  found  to  produce  much  handfomer  trees, 
and  therefore  is  to  be  preferred.      But  the  mod  cheap 
and  expeditious  mjfthod   of  procuring  a   colledtion  of 
thefe  kinds  of  trees  is  by  having  recour(e  to  (uch  as 
are  imported  from  Spain,  Italy,  and  Portugal.     Thefe 
come  over  in  chefts,  withrut  any  earth  to  their  roots, 
having  their  roots  and  heads  a  little  trimmed:  they  are 
commoidy  from  one  inch  to  two  or  three   in  diameter 
in  the  ftem  ;  from  two  to  four  or  five  feet  in  height  : 
and  by  the  alTiftance  of  a  bark-bed  they  readily  take 
root  and  grow  freely  ;  forming  as  good   trees  in  two 
years,  as  could  be  raifcd  here  by  inarching  or  budding 
in  15  or  20.     They  arc  fold  in  the  Italian  warehoufes 
in  London.  Their  price  is  from  three  (hillings  to  a  guinea 
each,  according  to   their  fize  ;  and   they  are  generally 
adveitifed  as  foon  as  they  arrive,  which  is  early  in  the 
fpring,  and  the  fooner  the  better.     In  the  choice  of 
thefe  trees,  it  mult  be  obferved,  that  they  are  com- 
monly budded  at  fuch  height  in  the  ftem,  as  to  ^orm 
heads  from  about  two  to  four  or  five  feet  high;  and  as 
thev  are  frequently  furnidred   with  two  buds,  one  on 
each  fide  of  the  ftem,  thefe  (hould  be  chofen  prefer- 
ablv  to  others  ;    as  they  will  form  the  mod  regular 
heads.      Preparatory  to  their  planting,  they  mu(l  be 
placed   for  a  day  or  two  in   tubs  of  water  to  plump 
their  bark  and  roots;  after  thii  they  muft  be  wafhed  and 
cleaned,  their  branches  trimmed  to  half  a  foot  long,  and 
the  roots  freed  from  dileafed  parts,  and  all  the  fmall 


dried  fibres.    Then  they  are  to  be  planted  in  pots  filled    Citrui 
with  light  rich  earth ;  and  plunged  in  a  tan-bed,  where   ""     •"' 
they  are  to  remain  for  three  or  four  months;    after 
which  they  are  to  be  trained  to  the  open  air,  but   will 
not  bear  it  lons'er  than  from  the  end  of  Miy  till  the 
middle  or  end  of  Oftober. 

Sometimes  thefe  trt-es,  inftead  of  being  kept  in  pots 
or  trsbs,   are  planted  in  tlie    full  ground  ;   and  where 
this  can  be  done,  it  is  by  far  the  moft  eligible  mechod. 
Wliere  this  is  intended,   thsre  muft  be  frames  ercfted 
for  the  fnpport  of  glafs  and  other  covei-s,  to  defend 
the  plants  during  inclement  weather;  and  in  this  fitua- 
I'on   the   trees   generally   (hoot    (Irong,  produce  large 
fruit,  and   may  be  trained   either  as  wall  or  ftandard 
trees.     A  fouth  walU  in  a  dry  fituation,  13  proper  for 
training  them   as   wall-trees;    againft   which   may   be 
ereiSled    wooden   frame-work   (l.)ping,    either  fixed  or 
m-'veable,  for  the   fupport  of  elafs  frames  for  wiiter; 
likewile  for  the  greater  proteftion  of  the   trees  in  fc- 
vere   frofti,   there   may   be  a   fire-place  with  a  flue  or 
two  carried  alongft  a  low  wall  in  the  fronts  and  ends. 
To  have   the  trees  as  ftandards,  a  more  capacious  and 
lofty  glafs-cafe  fliould  be  erefted  againft  the  wall,  in 
the  manner  of  a  hot-lioufe,  but  higher  ;   in  this  one  or 
two  rows  of  orange-trees  may  be  planted,  fufff  ring  them 
to  run   up  as  ftandards  with  only  fome  necedary  pru- 
ning juft  to  preferve  their  regularity.      In  fome  places 
there  are  lofty  moveable  glafscafes,    fo  that  Hvo  or 
three  rows  of  trees  are  plrnted  in  a  confpiouous  part 
of  the  pkafure-ground.      In  winter  the  frame  is  put 
over  them,   and    in   fummer  wholly  taken  alway  ;   fo 
that  they  appear  like  a  little  oran<);e-grove  growinp-  in 
the    open   eround.       The  flowerincr  and  fruit- letting 
feafon   of  all  the  f>rts  <if  citrus  is  in  June  and  July. 
They   are   often,    efpecially  the  orange-trees,  greatly 
loaded  with    blolTums  ;     and    when    the(e    ftand   very 
thick,   it   is  proper  to  thin  them  a  little,    taking  o(F 
the  fmalleft.      It    is  alfo  to   be   obferved,   that  as  the 
trees    continue   blowing    and    fetting    their    fruit    for 
three  months,  when  a  full  crop  of  fruit  is  fet,  it  is  of 
benefit   to  the  trees    and  fruit    to  gather   off  the  fii- 
perabundant  blolFoms  as  they  are  produced  ;  though 
fome   permit  them   to  remain  on  account  of  their  ap- 
pearance. 

U/cs.  The  fri.'its  of  the  citron,  lemon,  and  orange 
trees,  yield  very  agreeable  acid  juices.;  wliich,  befides 
the  ufes  to  which  they  are  commonly  applied,  anfwer 
confiderable  purpofes  in  medicine.  When  Commodore 
Anion  failed  n  und  the  world,  his  men  were  fo  furpri- 
fingly  recovered  fr<  m  the  fcurvy  by  the  oranges  which 
they  found  at  the  ifland  of  Tinian,  that  it  was  after- 
wards thouc^ht  worthy  of  the  attention  of  government 
to  inquire  ii:to  the  virtues  of  thefe  fruit.'  as  an  antifcor- 
butic  medicine.  In  Captain  Cook's  Lift  voyas-c,  he 
was  fupplied  with  a  quantity  of  orange  and  lemon  jirice 
infpi(r?.ted  to  a  rob  ;  but  his  opinion  of  its  efficacy  is 
by  no  means  great.  The  dearncfs  of  it  is  a  great  ob- 
jeftion  ;  and.  unlefs  in  canjunftion  with  other  things, 
he  has  not  obferved  its  good  effedts.  Sir  John  Pringle, 
in  his  dlfcourfe  before  the  .Royal  Society,  when  Captaiu 
Cook  was  prcfented  with  a  medal  by  that  refpedlable 
body,  differs  a  little  frcin  the  Captain's  opinion,  and 
thinks  that  in  the  (ea-fcurvy  thefe  fruits  mull  necelfarily 
be  very  efficacious.     He  approves,  however,  more  of 

the 


C     I     T  [ 

the  [ui'cfs  themfelves  depurated,  than  tfie  extraft  of 
tlicm ;  as  tin's  cannot  be  prepared  without  dfffipati'iij 
many  of  the  finer  parts.  The  juice  of  lemons  is  very 
frequently  ufed  fur  neutralifing  alkaline  lalts  for  faline 
draiu>-ht3.  The  citron  is  fcldom  ulVd  in  this  country  ; 
thoti^'h  its  peel,  as  well  as  that  of  the  lemon,  is  can- 
died, and  fold  as  a  fiveetmeal.  The  yellow  peel  of  the 
lemon  is  an  agreeable  aromatic,  as  is  alfo  that  of  the 
orane;c ;  and  i'l  cold  phlegmatic  conftitutions  they 
prove  excellent  flomachics  and  carminatives,  promoting 
appetite,  warming  the  habit,  and  Urengtliening  the 
tone  of  the  vifeera.  Orimgc-peel,  however,  is  very  con- 
fideraWy  warmer  than  th:-,t  of  lemons,  and  abounds  more 
in  clTcnti-il  oil;  to''this  circumftance,  therefore,  due  re- 
pard  ought  to  be  had  in  the  ufe  of  thele  medicines. 
The  flavour  of  oranj^e-peel  is  likfwife  lei's  perifhable 
than  that  of  lemons.  Both  are  ingredients  in  many 
officinal  preparations. 

The  young  ft  nit  of  the  Seville  orange  dried  are 
ufed.  in  medicine  under  tlie  name  of  auranUa  cx'-rajlcmen- 
i'la.  They  are  moderately  warm  biltcrifh  aromatlcs,  of 
a  fiiflicicntly  agreeable  flavour.  The  flowers  of  the 
orange-tree  have  been  for  fomc  time  pall  in  great  efteem 
as  a  perfume.-  They  arc  highly  odoriferous,  of  a  fonie- 
what  warm  and  bitter  tafle.  They  yield  their  flavour 
by  infufion  to  reclificd  fpirit,  and  in  diPtillation  both 
to  fpirit  and  water.  Tiie  bitter  matter  is  diffolved  in 
water,  and  on  evavorating  the  decoftion  remains  entire 
in  tKe  extraft.  The  diflilied  water  wr.s  formerly  kept 
in  the  fliops,  but  gn  account  of  the  great  fcarcity  of 
the  fl^kvers  is  now  laid  afide  :  it  is  called  by  foreign 
vv'.ifers  ajua  naphis.  An  oil  diftilied  from  thefe  flowers 
is  broueht  from  Italy  under  the  name  of  oleum,  or  elfin- 
tia  iieroVi. 

CITTERN,  a  mufical  Inl^rument  much  refembling 
the  guittar,  f<ir  which  it  has  been  hequen'Iy  miftaken. 
Anciently  it  was  called  the  t'lflrum,  and  till  latrly  was 
held  in  great  conteinpt  both  in  France  and  Britain. 
The  praftice  on  it  being  very  eafy,  it  was  formerly 
the  amufement  and  recreation  of  lewd  women  and 
their  vifitors  ;  infomuch,  that  in  many  of  the  old  Eng- 
lifh  dramatic  writers,  It  is  made  the  fymbol  of  a  wo- 
man that  lived  by  proflitution.  It  was  alfo  the  com- 
mon amufement  of  waiting  cuftomers  in  barbers  fhops, 
as  being  the  mod  eafy  of  all  inftruments  to  play  on, 
and  therefore  it  was  thought  that  almoft  every  body 
could  m?ke  ufe  of  it. 

CITY,  according  to  Cowel,  is  a  town  corporate 
which  hath  a  bifhop  and  cathedral  church;  and  is  call- 
ed cl'vitas,  oppLlum,  and  urbs:  civ'itas,  in  regard  it  is 
governed  by  juflice  and  order  of  magillracy  ;  oppi- 
Jum,  becaufc  it  contains  a  great  number  of  inhabi- 
tants ;  and  urbs,  bccaufe  it  is  in  due  form  furrounded 
with  walls. 

Kingdoms  have  been  faid  to  contain  as  many  cities 
as  they  have  feats  of  archbiihops  and  bifhops :  but,  ac- 
cording to  B!our;t,  city  is  a  word  that  hath  obtained 
fince  the  conquefl  ;  for,  in  the  time  of  the  Saxons, 
there  were  no  cities,  but  all  the  great  towns  were 
called  burghs,  and  even  London  was  then  called  Lnn- 
doiiburgh,  as  the  capital  of  Scotland  is  called  Edinluijh. 
And  lonij  after  the  conqueft  the  word  chy  is  ufed  pro- 
ibifcucufly  with  the  burgh,  as  in  the  charter  of  Leice- 
fter,  where  it  is  both  called  ctvitas  and  lurgus;  which 
fhows  that  thofe  writers  were  miHaken  who    tell  us 


3^     ] 


C     I     T 


Cbarlts  V. 


every  city  was,  or  is,  a  bifliop's  fee.     And  though  the      City, 
wor.d  city  fignifies  with  us  Inch  a  toivn  corporate  as  hath  /"" 

ufuaily  a  bilhop  ar^  a  cathedral  church,  yet  it  is  not 
alwriys  fo. 

As  to  the  ancient  (late  of  cities  and  villages,  whihl 
the  feudal  policy  pievailcJ,  they  held  of  fome  great 
lord  on  whom  they  depended  for  prottftion,  and  were 
fuhjr;ift  to  liis  arbitrary  jurifdidion.  I'he  inhabitants 
were  dtprivcd  of  the  natural  and  moll  unalienable 
rights  ot  humanity.  They  could  not  dir[)ofe  of  the 
efi'ccls  which  their  own  induftiy  had  acquired,  either 
by  a  latter-will  or  by  any  deed  executed  during  their 
life.  They  h.ad  no  right  to  appoint  guardians  for  their 
children  during  -their  minority.  They  were  not  per- 
mitted to  marry  without  purcliafing  the  confent  of  the 
hud  on  wh<xn  they  depended.  If  once  they  had  com- 
menced a  law-fuit,  they  durft  not  terminate  it  by  an 
accoinmodnlion,  becaufe  that  would  have  deprived  the 
lord,  In  whofe  court  they  pleaded,  of  the  perqulfites 
due  to  him  on  pafTing  his  ientence.  Services  of  vari- •^f'";''''^^'' 
ous  kinds  no  leis  dilgraceful  than  opprelTive  were  ex- 
afted  from  them  without  mercy  or  moderation.  The 
fpirit  of  induilry  were  checked  in  fome  cities  by  abfurd 
regulations,  and  in  others  by  unreafonable  cxailions: 
nor  would  the  narrow  and  oppreffive  maxims  of  a  mili- 
tary arifiociacy  have  permitted  it  ever  to  rife  to  any 
degree  of  height  or  vi.jour. 

The  freedom  of  cities  was  firfl;  eftablilhcd  in  Italy, 
owing  principally  to  the  introduftion  of  commerce. 
As  foon  as  they  began  to  turn  their  attention  towards 
this  objttl,  and  to  conceive  fome  idea  of  the  advan- 
tages they  might  derive  from  it,  they  became  impa- 
tient to  fhake  off  the  yoke  of  their  infolent  lords,  and 
to  efti-iblilh  among  themfclves  fuch  a  free  and  equal 
government  as  would  render  property  fecure  and  in- 
duftry  flourifliing.  The  German  emperors,  efpecially 
thofe  of  the  Franconian  and  Suabian  lines,  as  the  feat 
of  their  government  was  far  diilaiit  from  Italy,  pofl"efl"cd 
a  feeble  and  imperfeft  jurildiflion  in  that  country. 
Their  perpetual  quarrels,  either  w  ith  the  popes  or  their 
own  turbulent  vaiTals,  diverted  their  attention  from  the 
interior  police  of  Italy,  and  gave  conftant  employment 
for  their  arms.  Thefe  circumltances  induced  fome  of 
the  Italian  cities,  towards  the  beginning  of  the  i  Ith 
century,  to  affume  new  privileges;  to  unite  together 
more  cinfely  ;  and  to  form  themfclves  into  bodies  poli- 
tic, under  the  government  of  laws  eftablifhed  by  com- 
mon confent.  The  rights  which  many  cities  acquired 
by  bold  or  fortunate  nf'irpatioas,  others  purchafed  from 
the  emperors,  who  deemed  themfclves  gainers  when 
they  received  large  fums  for  immunities  which  they 
were  no  longer  able  to  withhold  ;  and  fome  cities  ob- 
tained tiiem  gratuitoufly  from  the  facility  or  generofi- 
ty  of  the  princes  on  whom  they  depended.  The  great 
increafe  of  wealth  which  the  crufades  brought  into  Italy, 
occafioned  a  new  kind  of  fermentation  and  aftivity  in 
the  minds  of  the  people,  and  excited  fuch  a  general 
pafiion  for  liberty  and  independence,  that,  before  the 
conchihon  of  the  laft  crufade,  all  the  confiderable  cities 
in  that  country  had  cither  purchafcd  or  had  extorted 
large  immunities  from  the  emperors. 

This  innovation  was  not  long  known  in  Italy  before 
it  made  its  way  into  France.  Louis  the  Grofs,  in  or- 
der to  create  fome  power  that  might  counterbalance 
thofe  potent  vaflJals  who  controlled  or  gave  lavsr  to  the 

crownj. 


G     I     T 


[     32     ] 


C     I     V 


>-'','■      crown,  nrll  adapted  the  plan  of  coiiferring  new  privi- 
'  '"   »  iecffs  on   the   towns  fitu^ted  within  his  own  domaine. 

Thefe  privileces  were  called  charters  of  eomwuiihy,  by 
which  he  enfranchifed  the  inhabitants,  abohflied  all 
marks  of  fervitude,  and  formed  ihera  into  corporations 
or  bodies  politic,  to  be  governed  by  a  council  and  ma- 
-.giftrates  of  their  own  nomination.  Thefe  magiftrates 
had  the  right  of  adminiltering  jullice  within  their  own 
precinfts  ;  of  levying  taxes ;  of  embot^ying  and  train- 
ing to  arms  the  militia  of  the  town,  which  took  the 
field  when  required  by  the  fovereign,  under  the  com- 
mand of  officers  appointed  by  the  community.  The 
great  barons  imitated  the  example  of  their  monarch, 
and  granted  like  immunities  to  the  towns  within  their 
territories.  They  had  wafted  fuch  great  fums  in  their 
expeditions  to  the  Holy  Land,  that  they  were  eager  to 
lay  hold  on  this  new  expedient  forraifing  money  by  the 
fale  of  thofe  charters  of  liberty.  Though  the  conftitu- 
tion  of  communities  was  as  repugnant  to  their  maxims 
of  policy  as  it  was  adverfe  to  their  power,  they  dilre- 
garded  remote  confequences  in  order  to  obtain  prefent 
relief.  In  lefs  than  two  centiu-ies,  fervitude  was  abolifh- 
ed  in  moil  of  the  cities  of  France,  and  they  became  free 
corporations,  inftead  of  dependent  villages  without  ju- 
rifdiftion  or  privileges.  Much  about  the  fame  period 
the  great  cities  of  Germany  began  to  acquire  like  im- 
munities, and  laid  the  foundations  of  their  prefent  li- 
berty and  independence.  The  praftice  fpread  quickly 
over  Europe,  and  was  adopted  in  Spain,  England,  Scot- 
land, and  all  the  other  feudal  kingdoms. 

The  Spanilh  hillorians  are  almoft  entirely  filetit  con- 
cerning the  origin  and  progrefs  of  communities  in  that 
kingdom  ;  fo  that  it  is  impoffible  to  fix  with  any  degree 
of  certainty  the  tirr.e  and  manner  of  their  firft  intro- 
duftion  there.  It  appears,  however,  from  Mariana, 
that  in  the  year  1350  eighteen  cities  had  obtained  a 
feat  in  the  Cortes  of  Caftile.  In  Arragon,  cities  feem 
early  to  have  acquired  extenfive  immunities,  together 
with  a  fhare  in  the  legiflature.  In  the  year  1 1  f  8,  the 
citizens  of  SaragoflTa  had  not  only  obtained  political  li- 
berty, but  they  were  declared  to  be  of  equal  rank  with 
the  nobles  of  the  fecond  clafs  ;  and  many  other  immu- 
nities, unknown  to  perfons  in  their  rank  of  life  in  other 
parts  of  Europe,  were  conferred  upon  them.  In  Eng- 
land, the  eftablifhment  of  communities  or  corporations 
was  pofterior  to  the  conqueit.  The  praftice  was  bor- 
rowed from  France,  and  the  privileges  granted  by  the 
crown  were  perfeftly  fimilar  to  thofe  above  enumerated. 
It  is  not  improbable,  that  iome  of  the  towns  in  England 
were  formed  into  corporations  under  the  Saxon  kings; 
and  that  the  charters  granted  by  the  kings  of  the  Nor- 
man race  were  not  charters  of  enfranchifement  from  a 
ftate  of  llavery,  but  a  confirmation  of  privileges  which 
+  See  Lcrd^^^y  ^'"^  already  enjoyed f.  The  Englifh  cities,  how- 
LyttclioHs  ever,  were  very  inconfiderable  in  the  izth  century.  A 
Hiflarycf  clear  proof  of  this  occurs  in  the  hiflory  jull  referred 
Benryll.  jg_  Fitz-Stephen,  a  Contemporary  author,  gives  a  de- 
fcription  of  the  city  of  London  in  the  reign  of  Hen- 
ry II.  and  the  terms  in  which  he  fpeaks  of  its  trade, 
its  wealth,  and  the  number  of  its  inhabitants,  would 
fuggefl  no  inadequate  idea  of  its  ftate  at  prefent,  when 
it  is  the  greatell  and  moft  (  ;  ulent  city  in  Europe. 
But  all  idc;>3  of  grandeur  and  nijgnificence  are  merely 
comparative.  It  appears  from  Peter  of  Blois,  arch- 
deacon of  London,  who  fltiurilhed  in  the  fame  reignj 
N=3i. 


Vol.  II 


and  who  had  good  opportunity  of  being  informed,  that  C'lVKt 
this  city,  of  which  Fitz-Stephen  gives  fuch  a  pompous  f''""=- 
account,  contained  no  more  than  40,000  inhabitants.  *     ' 

The  other  cities  were  fmall  in  proportion,  and  in  no 
condition  to  extort  any  cxtcnfive  privileges.  That 
the  conftitution  of  the  boroughs  of  Scotland  in  many 
circumllances  refembled  that  of  the  towns  of  France 
and  England,  is  manifeft  from  the  Le^a  Burgorum  an- 
nexed to  the  RcgLjm  Mojejlatem. 

CIVET,  a  kind  of  perfume  which  .bears  the  name 
of  the  animal  it  is  taken  from,  and  to  which  it  is  pecu- 
liar.    See  VivERRA. 

Good  civet  is  of  a  clear,  yellowiili,  or  brownilh  co- 
lour ;  not  fluid  nor  hard,  but  about  the  confiftence  of 
butter  or  honey,  and  uniform  throughout ;  of  a  veiy 
ftrong  fmell,  quite  offenfive  when  undiluted,  but  agree- 
able wl^en  only  a  fmall  portion  of  civet  is  mixed  with 
a  large  one  of  other  fubllinces.  It  unites  eafdy  with 
oils  both  expreflfed  and  diftilled,  but  not  at  all  with  wa- 
ter or  fpirit  of  v\  ine  :  nor  can  it  be  rendered  mifciblfi 
with  water  by  the  mediation  of  fugar.  The  yolk  of 
an  egg  feems  to  difpofe  it  to  unite  with  water  ;  but  in 
a  vei-y  little  while  the  civet  feparates  from  the  liquor, 
and  fidls  to  the  bottom,  though  it  does  not  prove  of 
fuch  a  refinous  tenacity  as  when  treated  with  fugar  and 
fpirit  of  wine.  It  communicates,  however,  fome  fhare 
of  its  fmell  both  to  watery  and  fpirituous  liquors:  hence 
a  fmall  portion  of  it  is  often  added  in  odoriferous  tinc- 
tures, and  fufpended  in  the  llill-head  during  the  diftil- 
lation  of  odoriferous  waters  and  fpirits.  It  is  rarelv 
if  ever  employed  for  medicinal  purpofes.  The  Italians 
make  it  an  ingredient  in  perfumed  oils,  and  thus , ob- 
tain the  whole  of  its  fcent ;  for  oils  wholly  dillelve  the 
fubftance  of  it.  It  is  veiy  rare,  however,  to  meet  with 
civet  unadulterated.  The  fubftances  ufually  mixed  with 
it  are  lard  and  butter  ;  which  agreeing  with  it  in  its 
general  properties,  render  all  criteria  for  dillinguifhlng 
the  adulteration  impolTible.  A  great  trade  of  civet  is 
carried  on  at  Calicut,  BalTora,  and  other  parts  of  the 
Indies,  and  in  Africa,  where  the  animal  that  produces 
the  perfume  is  found.  Live  civet-cats  are  to  be  feen 
alfo  in  France  and  Holland.  The  French  keep  them 
only  as  a  rarity;  but  the  Dutch,  who  keep  a  great  num- 
ber, draw  the  civet  from  them  for  fale.  It  is  moftly 
ufed  by  confedlioners  and  perfumers. 

Cu'Et-Cat,  the  Englilh  name  of  the  animal  which 
produces  the  civet.      See  Viverra. 

CIVIC  CROWN,  was  a  crown  given  by  the  ancient 
Romans  to  any  foldier  who  had  faved  the  life  of  a  ci- 
tizen in  an  engagement. 

The  civic  crown  was  reckoned  more  honourable 
than  any  other  crown,  though  compofed  of  no  better 
materials  than  oak-boughs.  Plutarch,  in  the  Ille  of 
C.  M.  Coriolanus,  accounts  as  follows  for  uling  on 
this  occafion  the  branches  of  this  tree  before  all  others: 
becaufe,  fays  he,  the  oaken  wreath  being  facred  to 
Jupiter,  the  great  guardian  of  their  city,  they  thought 
it  the  moft  proper  ornament  for  him  who  had  pre- 
ferved  the  life  of  a  citizen.  Pliny*,  fpeaking  of  the  •  Llh.rn. 
honour  and  privileges  conferred  on  thofe  who  had"/-4- 
merited  tills  crown,  fays,  "  They  who  had  once  ob- 
tained it,  might  wear  it  always.  When  they  appeared 
at  the  public  fpeftacles,  the  fenate  and  people  rofe  to 
do  them  honour,  and  they  took  their  feats  on  thefe 
pccafions  aaiong  the  fcnators.     They  were  not  only 

per- 


CIV  L     33     1 

perfonally   e:;cufcd   from   all   troublefomc  offices,  but 


C     I     V 


procured  the  fame  immunity  for  their  father  aii<l  grand- 
father by  the  father's  fule. 

CIVIi)AU-DE-LAS-I'ALMAs,  the  Capital  town  of 
the  illaiid  of  Canary,  with  a  bilhop's  fee,  and  a  good 
harbour.  The  houfes  are  well  built,  two  rtories  high, 
and  iiat-roofed.  Tlie  cathedral  is  a  very  handfome 
ftruflure  ;  and  the  inhabitants  are  gay  and  rich.  The 
air  is  temperate,  and  free  from  extremes  of  heat  and 
cold.  It  is  defended  by  a  fmall  callle  featcd  on  a  hill. 
W.  Long.  14.  35.   N.  Lat.  28.  o. 

CiyiDAD-Rcal,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  New  Cafllle,  and 
capital  of  La  Mancha  The  inhabitants  arc  noted  for 
drefiing  leather  extremely  well  for  gloves.  W.  Long. 
4.  15. "N.  Lat.  39.  2. 

Cii'inAii-Roikngo,  a  ftrong  and  confiderable  town 
of  Spain,  in  the  kingdom  of  Leon,  with  a  billiop's  fee. 
It  is  feated  in  a  fertile  country,  on  the  river  Aquada, 
in  W.  Long.  6.  52.   N.  Lat.  40.  38. 

CiriDAD-di-FriuU,2L  fmall  but  ancient  town  of  Italy,  in 
Friuli,  and  in  the  territory  of  Venice  ;  Icated  on  the 
river  Natifcina.      E.  Long.  13.  25.   N.  Lat.  46.  15. 

CIVIL,  in  a  general  feufe,  fomething  that  regards 
the  policy,  public  good,  or  peace,  of  the  citizens  or 
fubjeds  of  the  Itate  ;  in  which  fenfe  we  fay,  civil  go- 
vernment, civil  law,  civil  right,  civil  war,  &c. 

Civil,  in  a  popular  fenfe,  is  applied  to  a  complai- 
fant  and  humane  behaviour  in  the  ordinary  intercourlc 
of  life,      yec  Civility. 

Civil,  in  a  legal  linfe,  is  alfo  applied  to  the  ordi- 
nary procedure  in  an  action,  relating  to  fome  pecuniary 
matter  or  intereil ;  in  which  fuife  it  io  oppoltd  to  cri- 
minal. 

Ci!/iL  Death,  any  thing  that  cuts  off  a  man  from 
civil  fociety  ;  as  a  condemnation  to  the  giJleys,  perpe- 
tual baniihment,  condemnation  to  death,  outlawry,  and 
excommunication. 

Cii'u.  Law,  is  properly  the  peculiar  law  of  each  flate, 
country,  or  city  :  but  wliat  we  ufually  mean  by  the 
civil  law,  is  a  body  of  laws  compofed  out  of  the  belt 
Roman  and  Grecian  laws,  compiled  from  the  laws  of 
nature  and  nations  ;  and,  for  the  molt  part,  received 
and  obferved  throughout  all  the  Roman  dominions  for 
above  1200  yearSj.     See  Law,  Part  I.  n"  43,  44. 

It  was  full  brought  over  into  England  by  Theobald 
a  Norman  abbot,  who  was  elefted  to  the  lee  of  Can- 
terbury in  1 1 38;  and  he  appointed  a  profeflbr,  viz. 
Roger  firnamed  Pluirius,  in  the  unlverfity  of  Oxford, 
to  .teach  it  to  the  people  of  this  countiy.  Nevcr- 
thelefs,  it  gained  ground  very  flowly.  King  Ste- 
phen iffued  a  proclamation,  prohibiting  the  ftudy 
of  it.  And  though  the  clergy  were  attached  to 
it,  the  laity  ratliei  wifiied  to  preferve  the  old  conilitu- 
tion.  However,  the  zeal  and  influence  of  the  clergy 
prevailed  ;  and  the  civil  law  acquired  great  reputation 
from  the  reign  of  King  Stephen  to  the  reign  of  King 
Edward  III.  both  inclufive.  Many  traulcripts  ofju- 
ftinian's  Inftitute  are  to  be  found  in  the  writings  of  our 
ancient  authors,  particularly  of  Brafton  and  Fleta  ; 
and  Judge  Biackitone  obferves,  that  the  common  law 
would  have  been  loil  and  over-run  by  the  civil,  had 
it  not  been  for  the  incident  of  fixing  the  court  of  com- 
mon pleas  in  one  certain  fpot,  and  the  forming  the 
profeflion  of  the  municipal  law  into  an  aggregate 
body. 

Vol..  V.  Part  L 


It  is  allowed,  that  the  civil  law  contains  ;ill  the  prin- 
ciples of  natural  equity  ;  and  that  nothing  can  be  bet- 
ter calculated  to  form  good  fenfe  and  found  judirment. 
I-Ienee,  though  in  feveral  countries  it  has  no  other  au- 
thority but  that  of  reafon  andjuflice,  it  is  every  where 
reftrred  to  for  authority.  It  is  not  received  at  this 
day  in  any  nation  without  fome  alterations ;  and  fome- 
times  the  feudal  law  is  mixed  with  it,  or  general  and 
particular  cuiloms  ;  and  often  ordinances  and  ilatutes 
cut  off  a  great  part  of  it. 

In  Turky,  the  Bafdics  are  only  ufed.  In  Italy, 
the  canon  law  and  cuiloms  have  excluded  a  good  part 
of  it.  In  Venice,  cuftom  hath  almoft  an  abfolute  go- 
vernment. In  the  Milancfe,  the  feudal  law,  and  par- 
ticular cuftoms,  bear  fway.  In  Naples  and  Sicily,  the 
conllitutions  and  laws  of  the  Lombards  aie  faid  to  pre- 
vail. In  Germany  and  Holland,  the  civil  law  ia 
efleemed  to  be  the  municipal  law  :  but  yet  many  parts 
of  it  are  tjiere  grown  obfolete  ;  and  others  are  altered, 
either  by  the  canon  law  or  a  different  ufage.  In 
Friezeland,  it  is  obferved  with  more  ftri£lnefs  ;  but  in 
the  northern  parts  of  Germany,  the  jus  Saxonicum, 
Lubecenfe,  or  Culmenfe,  is  preferred  before  it.  In 
Denmark  and  Sweden,  it  hath  fcarce  any  authority  at 
all.  In  France,  only  a  part  of  it  is  received,  and  that 
part  is  in  fome  places  as  a  cuflomary  law;  and  in  thofe 
provinces  neareil  to  Italy  it  is  received  as  a  municipal 
written  law.  In  criminal  caufes,  the  civil  law  is  more 
regarded  in  France  ;  but  the  manner  of  trial  is  regula- 
ted by  ordinances  and  edifts.  In  Spain  and  Portugal, 
the  civil  law  is  connected  with  the  jus  regium  and  cu- 
ftom.  In  Scotland,  the  ftatutes  of  the  federunt,  part 
of  the  regiae  majeilatis,  and  their  cuiloms,  controul  the 
civil  law. 

In  England,  it  is  ufed  in  the  eccleliaftical  courts,  ia 
the  high  court  of  admiralty,  in  the  court  of  chivalry, 
in  th^  two  univerfities,  and  in  the  courts  of  equity  ; 
yet  in  all  thefe  it  is  reihained  and  direfted  by  the  com' 
mon  law. 

CiriL  Society.     See  Law,  Part  I.  n°  £2. 

C/rii  State,  in  the  Britilh  polity,  one  of  the  gene- 
ral divifions  of  the  I^AiTY,  comprehending  all  orders  of 
men  from  the  higheft  nobleman  to  the  meaneft  peafant 
that  are  not  included  under  the  Military  or  Mari- 
time ftates  :  though  it  may  fometimes  include  indivi- 
duals of  thefe  as  well  as  of  the  Clergy  ;  fiuce  anoble- 
man,  a  knight,  a  gentleman,  or  a  peafant,  may  become 
either  a  divine,  a  foldier,  or  a  feaman.  The  divifion 
of  this  ilate  is  into  Nobility  and  Commonalty.  See 
thefe  articles. 

Cifu  War,  a  war  between  people  of  the  fame  ftate, 
or  the  citizens  of  the  fame  city. 

CifiL  Tear,  is  the  legal  year,  or  annual  account  of 
time,  which'  every  government  appoints  to  be  ufed 
within  its  own  dominions  ;  and  is  fo  called  in  contra- 
diiUndtion  to  the  natural  year,  which  is  ineafured  ex- 
aftly  by  the  revolution  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 

CIVILIAN,  in  general,  denotes  fomething  belon<T. 
ing  to  the  civil  law  ;  but  more  efpecially  the  doftots 
and  profeffors  thereof  are  called  civilians. 

CIVILITY,  a  term  ufed  ia  common  life  as  fyiio- 
nymous  with  complalfance  or  good-breeding. 

Civility  isjulUy  inculcated  by  didaftic  writers  as  a  duty 

of  no  (light  conlideratlon.     Without  civility,  or  o-ood- 

brecding,  a  couit  would  be  the  feat  of  violence~an'd  de- 

E  folation. 


Civil 

I) 

CivritV. 


CIV 


[ 


CivUfty.  folalation.  There,  all  the  pafTions  arc  In  fermentation, 
»  becaiife  all  purfue  what  but  few  can  obtain  ;   there,  if 

enemies  did  not  embrace,  they  would  ftab  ;  there, 
fiiiiles  arc  often  pnt  on  to  conceal  tears  ;  there,  mutual 
ferviccs  are  profelfed,  vvliile  mutual  injuries  are  intend- 
ed ;  and  there,  the  guile  of  the  ferpent  fimulatcs  the 
gentlenefs  of  the  dove.  To  what  a  degree  mull  good- 
breeding  adorn  the  beauty  of  truth,  when  it  can  thus 
foften  the  deformity  of  falfchood?  On  this  fubjcdlwe 
have  the  following  elegant  obfeivations  in  Knox's  Ef- 
fays,  N"  95. 

"  However  juft  the  complaints  of  the  mifery  of 
life,  yet  great  occafions  for  the  difplay  of  benefi- 
cence andhberality  do  not  often  occur.  But  there  is 
an  hourly  neeeffity  for  the  iittle  kind  offices  of  mu- 
tual civility.  At  the  fame  time  that  they  give  pleafure 
to  others,  they  add  to  our  own  happinefs  and  improve- 
ment. Habitual  afts  of  kindnefs  have  a  powerful  ef- 
fect in  foftening  the  heart.  An  intercourfe  with  po- 
liflied  and  humane  company  tends  to  improve  the  dif- 
pofition,  becaufe  it  requires  a  conformity  of  manners. 
And  it  is  certain,  that  a  ienfe  of  decorum,  and  of  a 
proper  external  behaviour,  will  refliain  thofe  whole 
natural  temper  would  otherwife  break  out  in  acrimo- 
nious and  petulant  converlation.  Even  the  affedlation 
of  philanthropy  will  in  time  contribute  to  realife  it. 
The  pleafure  refulting  from  an  a£l  of  kindnefs  natu- 
rally excites  a  wilh  to  repeat  it  ;  and  indeed  the  gene- 
ral efteem  which  the  charafter  of  benevolence  procures, 
is  fufficient  to  induce  thofe  to  wifli  for  it  who  aft  only 
from  the  mean  mcvives  of  felf-intereft. 

"  As  we  are  placed  in  a  world  where  natural  evil 
abounds,  we  ought  to  render  it  fupportable  to  each 
ether  as  far  as  human  endeavours  can  avail.  All  that 
can  add  a  fvveet  ingredient  to  the  bitter  cup  muft  be 
infufed.  Amid  the  multitude  of  thorns,  every  flower 
that  v\'ill  grow  muft  be  cultivated  with  care.  But  nei- 
ther pomp  nor  power  are  of  themfelves  able  to  alleviate 
the  load  of  life.  The  heart  requires  to  be  foothed  by 
fympathy.  A  thoufand  little  attentions  from  all  around 
MS  are  neceflary  to  rendtr  our  days  agreeable.  Tlie 
appearance  of  negleft  in  any  of  thofe  with  whom  we 
are  connefled,  chills  our  bcfom  with  chagrin,  or  kindles 
the  fire  of  refcntment.  Nothing  therefore  fecms  fo 
likely  to  enfure  happinefs  as  our  mutual  endeavours  to 
promote  it.  Our  fingle  endeavours,  originating  and 
terminating  in  ourfelves,  are  nfually  unfucccfsful.  Pro- 
vidence has  taken  care  to  fecure  that  intercourfe  which 
is  neceffai-y  to  the  exiftence  of  foclety,  by  rendering  it 
the  greateft  fweetener  of  human  life. 

"  Bv  reciprocal  attentions  we  are  enabled  to  become 
beneficent  without  expence.  A  fmilc,  an  affable  ad- 
drefs,  a  look  of  approbation,  are  often  capable  of  gi- 
ving a  greater  pleafure  than  pecuniary  benefits  can  be- 
ftow-  The  mere  participatiou  of  the  ftudies  and  amufe- 
ments  of  others,  at  the  fame  time  that  it  gratifies  onr- 
fclvcs,  is  often  an  aft  ot  real  humanity  ;  becaufe  others 
would  not  enjoy  them  without  companions.  A  friendly 
vifit  in  a  folitary  hour,  is  often  a  gi-eater  aft  of  kind- 
nefs than  a  valuable  prefent. 

"  It  is  really  matter  of  fuqjrife,  that  thofe  who  are 
diflinguifhed  by  rank  and  opulence  (liould  ever  be  un- 
popular in  their  neighbourhood.  They  muft  know  the 
value  of  popularity ;  and  fuj-cly  nothing  Is  more  eafily 
obtained  by  a  fuperior.    Their  notice  confers  honoiu-; 


34    1      ..  CIV 

and  the  afplring  heart  of  man  is  always  delighted  with 
diftinftion.  A  gracious  look  from  them  diffufes  hap-  *■ 
pinefs  on  the  lower  ranks.  But  it  ufually  happens, 
that  an  overgrown  rleh  man  is  not  the  favourite  of  a 
neighbouring  country' ;  and  it  is  unfortunate^  that  pride 
or  inadvertence  often  prevent  men  from  afting  the  god- 
like part  of  milking  others  happy,  even  when  they 
miglvt  do  it  without  inconvenience  to  themfelves." 

CIVITA-di-Penna,  an  ancient  town  of  Italy,  in 
the  kingdom  of  Naples,  and  in  the  Farther  Al)ruzzo, 
with  a  biftiop's  fee.  It  is  filuated  near  the  river  Sali- 
no,  25  miles  north  eaft  of  Aquila.  E.  Long.  13.  2. 
N.  Lat.  42.  2  J. 

CiiriTA-CaJUlhwa,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  St  Peter's 
patrimony,  feated  on  a  river,  which,  feven  miles  from 
thence,  falls  into  the  Tiber.  E.  Long.  13.  5.  N.  Lat. 
42.  15. 

CiriT.i  Tun/lino,  a  place  in  Italy,  about  two  miles 
north  of  the  town  of  Corneto  in  the  patrirnony  of 
St  Peter.  It  is  an  hill  of  an  oblong  form,  the  fummit 
of  which  Is  almoft  one  continued  plain.  '  From  the 
quantity  of  medals,  Intaglios,  fragments  of  infcrip- 
tions,  cJ'c.  that  are  occafionally  found  here,  this  is  be- 
lieved to  be  the  very  (pot  where  the  ancient  and 
powerful  city  of  Tarquinii  once  ftood.  At  prefent  it 
is  only  one  continued  field  of  corn.  On  the  fouth- 
eaft  fide  of  it  runs  the  ridge  of  a  hill  which  unites  it 
to  Corneto.  This  ridge  is  at  leaft  three  or  four  miles 
in  length,  and  almoft  entirely  covered  with  artificial 
hillocks,  called  by  the  inhabitants  monti  rofi.  About 
twelve  of  thefe  hillocks  have  at  different  times  been 
optned;  and  in  every  one  of  them  have  been  found 
feveral  fubterranean  apartments  cut  out  of  the  folld 
rock.  Thefe  apartments  are  of  various  forms  and  di- 
meiifions:  fome  confift  of  a  large  outer  room,  and  a 
fmall  one  within  ;  others  of  a  fmall  room  at  the  firft 
entrance,  and  a  large  one  within  :  others  arc  fup- 
ported  by  a  column  of  the  folld  rock  left  in  the  centre, 
with  openings  on  every  part.  The  entrance  to  them 
all  is  by  a  door  about  five  feet  high,  by  two  and  a 
half  broad.  Some  of  them  have  no  light  but  from 
the  door,  while  others  feem  to  have  had  a  fmall  light 
from  above,  through  an  hole  of  a  pyramidal  form. 
Many  of  thefe  apartments  have  an  elevated  port  that 
runs  all  round  the  wall,  being  a  part  of  the  rock  left 
for  that  purpofe.  The  moveables  found  in  thefe  apart- 
ments confift  chiefly  of  Etrufcan  vafes  of  various  forms  ; 
in  fome  indeed  have  been  found  fome  plain  facrophagi 
of  ftone,  with  bones  in  them.  The  whole  of  thefe 
apartments  are  ftuccoed,  and  ornamented  in  various 
manners  :  fome  indeed  are  plain  ;  but  others,  particii- 
larly  three,  are  richly  adorned,  having  a  double  row 
of  Etrufcan  infcriptions  running  Tound  the  upper  part 
of  the  walls,  and  under  them  a  kind  of  frieze  ot  fi- 
gures in  painting  .'  fome  have  an  ornament  under  the 
figures,  which  feems  to  fupply  the  place  of  an  archi- 
trave. The  paintings  feem  to  be  in  frefco  ;  and  in 
general  refemble  thofe  which  are  ufually  feen  upon 
Etrufcan  vafes ;  though  fome  of  them  are  perhaps- 
fuperior  to  any  thing  as  yet  fton  of  the  Etrufcan  art 
in  painting.  In  general  they  art  flight,  but  well  con- 
ceived ;  and  prove,  that  the  artiit  was  capable  of  pro- 
ducing things  more  ftudied  and  better  finiflied  ;  though^ 
In  fuch  a  fubtetianeous  fituatlon,  the  delicacy  of  a  fi- 
nlflted   work   would   in  a   great  meafu.-e    have  been 

throwa 


C    L     A  [     35  .]  C     L     A 

It  is  probable,  however,  that  among     blifhed  feveral   things ;  but  his  principal  work  is  his  Claim 

"  Difcourfe   concerning  the  Operations  of  tlie  Holy  _jl 

Spirit:"  nor  mull  it  be  forgotten    that   he  was  one  of  j"''"  i 
thofe  excellent  di  ' 


thrown  away, 

the  immenfc  number  of  thcfe  apartments  that  yet  re 
main  to  be  opened,  many  paintings  and  infcriptions 
may  be  found  fufiicient  to  form  a  very  ultful  and  en- 
tertaining work.  At  prcient  this  great  fccne  of  anti- 
quities is  almoll  entinly  unknown,  even  in  Rome.  Mr 
Jenkins,  refiJent  at  Rome,  was  the  firft  Engliihraan 
who  viiited  it. 

CniTA-Vecchia,  a  fea-port  town  of  Italy  in  the 
patrimony  of  St  Peter,  with  a  good  hatbour  and  an 
arfennl.  Here  the  Pope's  galleys  are  ftationed,  and  it 
Ijas  lately  been  made  a  free  port  ;  but  the  air  is  very  un- 
wholef(ime.      E.  Long.  12.  31.  N.  Lat.  45.  y. 

CIVOLI,  or  CiGoLi,  (Lewis),  an  Italian  painter, 
whofe  family-name  was  Cuiuli,  was  born  at  the  caIHe 
of  Cigoli,  in  Tufcany,  in  ihe  year  1559.  H'lSi-cce /jomo, 
which  he  performed  as  a  trial  of  ikill  with  Barochio 
and  Michael  Angelo  da  Caravaggio,  was  judijed  better 
than  thofe  executed  by  them.  He  excelled  in  de- 
fi^ning,  and  was  employed  by  the  popes  and  princes  of 
his  time.      He  died  at  Rome  in  1 61 3. 

CIUS  (anc.  geog. )  a  town  and  river  of  Bithynia, 
which  gave  name  to  the  Sinus  Cianus.  The  town  was 
afterwards  called  Fri/Jia,  Cins  having  been  dellroyed 
by  Philip  father  of  Perfeus,  and  rebuilt  by  Priifias 
king  of  Bithynia.  In  the  river,  Hylas,  the  favourite 
boy  of  Hercules,  was  drowned  ;  (ApoUonius  Rhodius). 

CLAC,  among  countrymen.  To  clack  wool,  is  to 
cut  off  the  fheep's  mark,  which  makes  the  weight  lefs, 
and  yields  lefs  culfom^  to  the  king. 

CLACKMANNAN,  the  name  of  a  fmall  fhire  in 
Scotland,  not  exceeding  eight  miles  in  length  and  five 
in  breadth.  It  is  bounded  on  the  fouth  by  the  frith 
of  Forth  ;  on  the  north  and  weft  by  Perthfliire;  and 
on  the  eaft  by  Fife.  The  country  is  plain  and  fertile 
towards  the  frith,  producing  coin  and  paftiire  in  abun- 
dance. It  likewife  yields  great  quantities  of  exc<--llent 
coal,  which  is  exported  to  England,  France,  and  Hol- 
land. It  is  watered  by  the  rivers  Forth  and  Devan, 
and  joins  the  (hire  of  Kinrofs  in  fending  a  member  al- 
ternately to  parliament. 

Clackmannan,  a  fmall  town  of  Scotland,  and  ca- 
pital of  the  county  of  that  name,  is  fituated  on  the 
northern  fhore  of  the  Forth,  in  W.  Long.  3.  40. 
N.  Lat.  56.  15.  It  ftands  on  a  hill,  on  the  top  of  which 
18  the  caftle,  commanding  a  noble  profpeft.  It  was 
long  the  feat  of  the  chief  of  the  Bruces,  who  was  here- 
ditary (heriff  of  the  county  before  the  jurifdiftions  were 
abolilhed.  The  large  fquare  tower  is  called  after  the 
name  of  Robert  Bruce;  whofe  great  fword  and  cafque 
are  ttill  preferved  here.  The  hill  is  prettily  wooded  ; 
and,  with  the  tower,  forms  a  pldlurefque  objeft.  Clack- 
mannan is  ftill  the  feat  of  the  Bruces  (if  Kennet. 

CLAGENFURT,  a  ftrong  town  of  Germany,  and 
capital  of  Carinthia,  fituated  in  E.  Long.  13.  56. 
N.  Lat.  46.  50. 

CLAGET  (William),  an  eminent  and  learned  di- 
vine, born  in  i  646.  He  was  preacher  to  the  fociety 
of  Gray's  Inn;  which  employment  he  exercifed  until 
he  died  in  1688,  being  then  alfo  one  of  the  king's 
chaplains.  Archbilhop  Sharp  gives  him  an  excellent 
charaAer;  and  bifliop  Burnet  has  ranked  him  among 
thofe  worthy  men  «  hofe  lives  and  labours  contributed 
to  refcue  the  church  from  the  reproaches  which  the 
follies  of  others  had  drawn  upon  it.     Dr  Claget  pu- 


livines  who  made  a  noble  ftand  againft 
the  defigns  of  James  II.  to  introduce  popery.  Four 
volumes  of  his  fermons  were  publiflicd  after  his  death 
by  his  brother  Nicholas  Clagtt,  archdeacon  of  Sud- 
bury, father  of  Nicholas  Claget  afterwards  bifliop  of 
Exeter. 

CLAIM,  in  law,  a  challenge  of  intereft  in  any 
thing  that  is  in  the  pofleffion  of  another* 

CLy\IR,  obfcure.      See  CL.iRo-Olfcuro. 

CLAIRAULT  (Alexis),  of  the  French  acade- 
my of  fciences,  was  one  of  the  moft  illuftrious  mathe- 
maticians in  Europe.  He  read  to  the  academy  in 
1726,  when  he  was  not  13  years  old,  "  a  memoir 
upon  four  new  geometrical  curves  of  his  o'wn  inven- 
tion ;"  and  fupported  the  charafter  he  thus  laid  a 
foundation  for  by  various  publications  from  time  to 
time.  He  publiflied,  Elemcns  de  Giom'trie,  1741,  in 
Svo  ;  EJcmens  d' Algchre,  1 746,  in  8vo  ;  Thcerle  de  la 
Figure  de  la  Terre,  1743,  in  Svo;  Tables  de  la  Lune, 
1754-,  in  Svo.  He  was  concerned  alfo  in  the  Journal 
des  6'tai'aHj',  which  he  fuinlflied  with  many  excellent  ex- 
tracts. He  died  in  1765.  He  was  one  of  the  acade- 
micians who  were  fent  into  the  north  to  determine  the 
figure  of  the  eaith. 

CLAM,  in  zoology,  a  fliell-fifh.      See  Venus. 

CLAMP,  a  piece  of  wood  joined  to  another. 

Ci-AMP  is  likew'ife  the  term  for  a  pile  of  uiiburnt 
bricks  built  up  for  burning.  Thefe  clamps  are  built 
rnuch  after  the  fame  manner  as  arches  are  built  In  kilns, 
viz.  with  a  vacuity  betwixt  each  brick's  breadth  for  the 
fite  to  afcend  by  ;  but  with  this  difference,  that  in- 
ftead  of  arching,  they  trufs  over,  or  over-fpan  ;  that  is, 
the  end  of  one  brick  is  laid  about  halfway  over  the 
end  of  another,  and  fo  till  both  fides  meet  within  half 
a  brick's  length,  and  then  a  binding  brick  at  the  top 
hniflies  the  aich. 

Ci.AMp  in  a  floip,  denotes  a  piece  of  timber  applied  to 
a  mad  or  yard  to  prevent  the  wood  from  burlling  ;  and 
alfo  a  thick  plank  lying  fore  and  aft  under  the  beams 
of  the  firft  orhip,  or  fecond  deck,  and  is  the  fame  that 
the  fifing  timbers  are  to  the  deck. 

CiAiiip-Naih,  fuch  nails  as  are  ufed  to  faften  on 
clamps  in  the  building  or  repairina;  of  fliips.  . 

CLAMPETIA  (anc.  geog.),  a  town  of  the  Brutii, 
one  of  thofe  which  revolted  from  Hannibal,  (Livy)  ; 
called  Lampcfhi  by  Polybius.  Now  Amanlui,  or  Man. 
tia,  a  town  of  Calabria  Ultra,  near  the  bay  of  Euphe- 
mia.     E.  Long.  16.  20.  N   Lat.  39.  15. 

CLAMPING,  in  joinery,  is  the  fitting  a  piece  of 
board  with  the  grain  to  another  piece  of  board  crofs 
the  grain.  Thus  the  ends  of  tables  are  commonly 
clamped,  to  prevent  their  warping. 

CLANDESTINE,  any  thing  done  without  the 
knowledge  of  the  parties  concerned,  or  without  the  pro- 
per folemnltles.  Thus  a  marriage  is  faid  to  be  claiide- 
ihne,  when  performed  without  the  publication  of  bans, 
the  confent  of  parents,  &c.  , 

CLANS,  is  hlftory,  and  particularly  in  that  of  Scot- 
land. The  nations  which  over-ran  Europe  were  ori- 
ginally divided  into  many  fmall  tribes  ;  and  when  they 
came  to  paicel  out  the  lands  which  they  had  conquered, 
it  was  natural  for  every  chieftain  to  bcHow  a  portion, 
•t.  *  in 


C    L     A 


[ 


Robert/on  s 
Hipty  of 
SiOtianJ. 


in  tilt  fi^fl  place,  up^n  thofe  ol  his  own  tribe  or  fa- 
mily. Thele  all  held  their  lands  of  liim  ;  and  as  the 
fafety  of  each  individual  depended  on  the  general 
union,  fhcfe  Imall  focicties  clung  togctlier,  and  were 
dillinguifiied  by  lomt  common  appellation,  either  pa- 
tronymical  or  local,  long  before  the  introduiStion  of 
furnames  or  enfigns  armorial.  But  when  thefe  be- 
came common,  the  dcfcendan;!.  and  relations  of  eveiy 
chieftain  affumed  the  lame  name  and  arms  with  him  ; 
other  vaffals  were  proud  to  imitate  their  example  ; 
and  by  degrees  they  were  communicated  to  all  thofe 
who  held  of  the  fame  fuperior.  Thns  clanfhips  were 
formed  ;  and,  in  a  generation  or  two,  that  confangui- 
nity,  which  was  at  firft  In  a  great  mrafure  imaginary, 
was  believed  to  be  real.  An  artificial  union  was  con- 
verted into  a  natural  one  :  men  willingly  followed  a 
leader,  whom  they  regarded  both  as  the  fuperior  of 
theii  lands  and  (he  chief  of  their  blood  ;  and  ferved 
him  not  only  u  Ith  the  fidelity  of  valTals,  but  the  afl'^c- 
tlon  of  friends.  In  the  other  feudal  kingdoms,  we 
may  obferve  fuch  unions  as  we  have  defcribed,  im- 
perfeftly  formed  ;  but  in  Scotland,  whether  they  were 
the  produftion  of  chance,  or  the  efteft  of  policy,  or 
flrengthened  by  their  preferving  their  genealogies 
both  genuine  and  fabulous,  clanlhips  were  univeifal. 
Such  a  confederacy  might  be  overcome  ;  it  could  not 
be  broken  ;  and  no  change  of  manners  or  govern- 
ment has  been  able,  in  fome  parts  of  the  kingdom,  to 
dilTolvc  anbciatlons  which  are  founded  upon  prejudices 
fo  natural  to  the  human  mind.  How  formidable  were 
nobles  at  the  head  of  followers,  who,  counting  that 
caufe  juft  and  honourable  which  their  chief  approved, 
were  ever  ready  to  take  the  field  at  his  command, 
and  to  facrlfice  their  lives  in  defence  of  his  perfon  or 
of  his  fame  !  Agalnft  fuch  men  a  king  contended  with 
great  difadvantage  ;  and  that  cold  fervice,  which  money 
purchafcs,  or  autliorlty  extorts,  was  not  an  equal  match 
for  their  ardour  and  zeal. 

Some  imagine  the  word  clan  to  be  only  a  corruption 
of  the  Roman  colonia;  buc  Mr  Whittaker  afferts  it  to 
be  purely  Britiih,  and  to  fignify  -i.  family. 

CLAP,  in  medicine,  the  firll  ftagc  of  the  venereal 
dlfeafe,  more  ufually  called  a  Gonorrhoea. 

CiAP-Nef,  in  birding,  a  fort  of  net  contrived  for 
the  taking  of  laiks  with  the  looking- glafs,  by  the  me- 
thod called  daring  or  doring.  The  nets  are  fptead 
ever  an  even  piece  of  ground,  and  the  larks  are  invi- 
ted to  the  place  by  other  larks  failened  down,  and  by 
i.  looking-glafs  compofcd  of  five  pieces,  and  fixed  in  a 
frame  fo  that  it  is  turned  round  very  fwiftly  back- 
wards and  forwards,  by  means  of  a  cord  pulled  by  a 
perfon  at  a  confiderable  diftance  behind  a  hedge.     See 

DORING. 

CLAR,  or  CuAER,  in  metallurgy,  bone-a(hes  per- 
feftly  calcined,  and  finely  powdered,  kept  purpofely 
for  covering  the  infides  of  Coppels. 

CLARAMONT-powDER,  a  kli-d  of  earth,  called 
Itrra  de  Buira,  from  the  place  where  it  Is  found  ;  it 
is  famous  at  Venice,  for  its  efficacy  in  flopping  hemor- 
rfiages  of  all  kinds,  and  in  curing  malignant  fevers. 

Precept  of  CLARE  constat,  in  Scots  law,  the 
■warrant  of  a  fuperior  for  entering  and  infcfting  the  heir 
i>f  his  former  vaflal,  without  the  interpofition  of  an  in- 
quell. 

Nuns  of  St  CiARE,  were  founded  at  Aflifa  in  Italy, 


6     ]  C     L     A 

about  the  r?i2.  Thefe  nuns  obferved  the  rule  of  St. 
Francis,  and  wore  habits  of  the  fame  col  jur  with  thofe 
of  the  Franciican  friars  :  and  hence  were  called  Mcno- 
reffes  ;  and  their  houfe,  without  Aldgate,  the  Mlnories,  % 
where  they  were  fettled  when  liiii  brought  over  into 
England,  about  the  year  1293.  They  had  only  three 
houfcG  bcfides  this. 

Clare,  a  market-town  of  Suffolk,  13  miles  fouth 
of  Bury.  E.Long,  o.  35  N.  Lat.  52.  15.  It  gives  the 
title  of  Earl  to  the  duke  of  Newcaftle. 

Clare  is  alfo  the  capital  of  a  county  of  the  fame 
name  in  the  province  of  Connaught,  in  Iiclanl,  fiuia- 
ted  about  1  7  miles  north-v.-eil  of  Limerick.  W.  Loi!g. 
9.  o.  N.  Lat.  92.  43. 

CLARENCIELTX,  the  fecond  king  at  arms,  fo 
called  from  the  duke  of  Clarence,'to  whom  he  firll  be- 
longed :  for  Lionel,  3d  fon  to  Edward  HI.  having  by 
his  wife  the  honour  of  Clare  In  the  county  of  Tho- 
mond,  was  afterwards  declared  duke  of  Clarence  ; 
which  dukedom  afterwards  efcheating  to  Edward  IV. 
he  made  this  earl  a  king  at  arms.  His  oTice  is  to 
marrtial  and  difpofe  of  the  funerals  of  all  the  lovvet  no- 
bility, as  baronets,  knights,  efqulres,  on  the  fouth  fide 
of  the  Trent  ;  whence  he  is  fometimes  called  yj/rra)'  or 
fuuth-rey,  in  contradiftlnftlon  to  norroy. 

CLARENDON  (Conftitutions  of),  certain  confti- 
tutiimb  made  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  A.  D.  1 164,  In 
a  parliament  held  at  Clarendon  ;  whereby  the  king 
checked  the  power  of  the  Pope  and  his  clergy,  and 
greatly  narrowed  the  total  exemptlou  they  claimed  from 
fccularjurifdidlion. 

Clarendon  (Earl  of.)     See  Hyde. 

CLARENNA,  Tabulae  (anc.  geog. )  ;  a  town  of 
VIndelicIa,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Lycus  and  Danube. 
Now  Rain,  a  town  of  Bavaria,  on  the  fouth  fide  of  the 
Dan\ibe,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Lech.  E.  Long. 
11.  o.  N.  Lat.  48.  45'. 

CLARENZA,  the  capital  of  a  duchy  of  the  fame 
name  in  the  Morea  j  it  is  a  fea  port  tov.n,  fituatcdon- 
the  Mediterranean.     E.  Long.  2  i.  40.  N.  Lat.  37.  40. 

CLARET,  a  name  given  by  the  French  to  fuch  oj 
their  red  wines  as  are  not'  of  a  deep  or  high  colour. 
See  Wine. 

CLARICHORD,  orMANicHORD,  amuficalinftru- 
ment  in  form  of  a  fplnet. 

It  has  49  or  50  flops,  and  70  ftrings,  which  bear 
on  five  bridges  ;  the  firfl  whereof  Is  the  higheft,  the  reft 
diminlfliing  in  proportion.  Some  of  the  ftrings  are 
in  unifon,  their  number  being  greater  than  that  of  the 
flops.  There  are  feveral  little  moitolfes  for  palling 
the  jacks,  armed  withbrafs-hoiiks,  which  flop  and  raife 
the  chords  inllead  of  the  feather  ufed  In  virginals  and 
fplnets-:  but  what  diftingullhcs  it  moil  is,  that  the 
chords  are  covered  with  pieces  of  cloth,  which  render 
the  fmmd  fweeter,  and  deaden  it  fo  that  it  cannot  be 
heard  at  any  confiderable  diftance:  whence  it  comes  to 
be  particularly  in  ufe  among  tlie  nuns,  who  learn  to 
play,  and  are  unwilling  to  dill  urb  the  filence  of  the  dor- 
mitory. 

CLARIFICATION,  the  aa  of  cleaning  or  fining 
any  fluid  from  all  heterogeneous  mutter  or  fecu- 
lencies. 

The  fubftarjces  ufually  employed  for  clarifying  li- 
quors, are  whites  of  eggs,  blood,  and  ifmglafs.  The 
two  firft  are  ufed  for  fuch  liquors  as  are  clarified  whilit 

boillnvT 


C     L     A 


[     37     3 


boiling  !iot  ;  the  lad  for  thofc  which  are  clarified 
in  the  cold,  fuch  as  wines,  Src.  The  whites  of  egi/s 
are  beat  up  into  a  froth,  and  mixed  with  the  licjuor, 
upon  which  they  unite  with  and  entangle  the  i:ppuve 
matters  that  floated  in  it;  and  piefently  (j;rowing 
batd  by  the  heat,  carry  them  \\p  to  the  furface  in 
form  of  a  fcum  no  longer  diffoluble  in  the  liquid. 
Blood  operates  in  the  lame  manner,  and  is  chiefly  uled 
in  purifying  the  brine  from  which  fait  is  made.  Great 
quaiitities  of  ifniglal's  are  confumed  for  fining  turbid 
wines.  For  this  purpofe  fome  throw  an  entire  piece, 
about  a  quarter  of  an  ounce,  into  a  wine  Cilk  ;  by  de- 
grees the  ghie  diffoives,  and  forms  a  Ikin  upon  the  fur- 
fi.ce,  which  at  length  fubfiding,  carries  down  with  it 
the  feculent  matter  whicli  floated  in  the  wine.  Others 
previoufly  difToKe  the  ifinglafs ;  and  having  boiled  it 
down  to  a  flimy  confiilencc,  mix  it  wiih  the  liquor, 
roll  the  caft:  ftrongly  about,  and  then  fufftr  it  to  ftand 
to  fettle.  Neuman  quetlions  the  wholefomenefa  of 
wines  thus  puiiSed;  and  afTures  us  that  he  hi'mfelf, 
after  drinking  only  a  few  ounces  of  fack  thus  clarified, 
hut  not  fettled  quite  fine,  was  feized  with  ficknefj  and 
vomiting,  followed  by  fuch  a  vertigo,  that  he  could  not 
fland  upright  for  a  minute  together.  The  giddinefs 
cuntiniitd  with  a  naufea  and  want  of  appetite  for  le- 
vcral  days. 

CLARIGATIO,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  ceremony 
that  always  preceded  a  formal  dt-claraiion  of  war.  It 
was  performed  in  tliis  manner  :  firfl  four  heralds 
crowned  with  vcrviijn,  were  fent  to  demand  fatisfac- 
lion  for  the  iniurits  done  the  Roman  flate.  Tliefe 
heralds  taking  the  gods  to  vvitnefs  that  their  demands 
were  jull,  one  of  them,  with  a  clear  voice,  de- 
manded reftitution  within  a  limited  time,  commoi;ly 
;j3  days  ;  which  being  expired  without  reftitution 
made,  then  the  pater  patralus,  or  prince  of  the  herald  i, 
proceeded  to  the  enemies  frontiers,  and  declared 
war. 

CLARII  AroLLiNts  Fanum  (Strabo,  Pliny),  a 
temple  and  grove  of  Apollo,  fituated  between  Colophon 
and  Lebedos,  in  Ionia ;  called  Claras  (Thucydides, 
Ovid).  The  name  alfo  of  a  town  and  rnouiitain  there 
(Nicander);  and  of  a  fountain  (Clemens  Alexandrinus) ; 
the  waters  of  which  infpired  with  prophetic  fury.  Cla- 
rhis  the  epithet  of  Apollo  (Strabo). 

CLARION,  a  kind  of  trumpet,  whofc  tube  is  nar- 
rower and  its  tone  acuter  and  (hriller  than  that  of  the 
common  trumpet.  It  is  faidthat  the  clarion,  now  ufed 
among  the  Moors  and  Foituguefe,  who  borrowed  it 
from  the  Moors,  ferved  anciently  for  a  treble  to  fe- 
veral  trumpets,  which  founded  tenor  and  bafs. 

CIwARISSES,  an  order  of  nuns  fo  called  from  their 
founder  St  Clara  or  iSt  Clare.  (See  St  Clare).  She 
was  in  the  town  of  Aflifa  in  Italy  ;  and  having  re- 
nounced the  world  to  dedicate  herfelf  to  religion,  gave 
birth  to  this  order  in  the  year  i  2  i  2  ;  which  compre- 
hends not  only  thofe  nuns  that  follow  the  rule  of  St 
Francis,  according  to  the  flrift  letter,  and  without 
any  mitigation,  but  thofe  likewife  who  follow  the  fame 
rule  foftencd  and  miLigated  by  feveral  popes.  It  is  at 
prelent  one  of  the  moft  flourilhlng  orders  of  nuns  in 
Europe.  After  Ferdinand  Cortez  had  conquered  Mexi- 
co for  the  king  of  Spain,  IfMbcUa  of  Portugal,  wife 
of  the  emperor  Charles  V.  fent  thither  fome  nuns  of 
the  order_  of  St  Clara,  who  made  feveral  fettlements 

4. 


7     J  C     I.     A 

there.  Near  their  mouaderics  were  founded  commu- 
nities of  Indian  young  women,  to  he  Initrufted  by  the 
daiiifcs  in  religion,  and  fuch  works  as  were  fuitahlc  to 
perfiins  of  their  fex.  Thefe  communities  are  fo  con- 
fiderable  that  they  ufually  conlitt  of  four  or  five  hun- 
dred. 

CLARKE  (Dr  Samuel),  a  preacher  and  writer  of 
conliderable  note  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  was, 
during  the  inter-regnum,  and 'at  the  time  of  the  ejec- 
tion, rainifttr  of  St  Bennet  Fink  in  Loudon.  In  No- 
vember i66o,  he,  in  the  name  of  the  Prefbyterian 
mini!lers,  prefented  an  addrefs  of  thanks  to  the  king 
for  his  declaration  of  liberty  of  confcience.  He  was 
one  of  the  commiirioners  of  the  Savoy  ;  and  behaved 
on  that  occafion  with  great  prudence  and  moderation. 
He  fometimes  attended  the  church  as  an  hearer  and 
communicant  ;  and  was  much  eileeined  by  all  that 
kucw  him,  for  his  great  probity  and  Induilry.  The 
moll  valuable  of  his  numerous  works  are  laid  to  be 
his  Lives  of  the  Puritan  Divines  and  other  perlons  of 
note,  iz  of  which  arc  printed  in  his  m.artyrology  :  the 
reft  arc  in  his  Lives  of  fundry  Eminent  Perlons  in  this 
latter  Age,  folio  ;  and  in  his  Marrow  of  Ecclefiaftical 
Hillory,   in  folio  and  quarto.      He  died  in  i6So. 

Ci-ARKE  (Samuel),  the  fon  of  the  former,  was  fel- 
low of  Pembroke-hall  in  Cambridge  ;  but  was  ejected- 
from  his  fellowlhip  for  refuling  to  take  the  engage- 
ments, as  he  was  alfo  afterwards  fiora  his  rcftory  of 
Grendon  in  Buckinghamfhire.  He  applied  himfelt" 
early  to  the  ftudy  of  the  fcriptures  ;  and  his  annota- 
tions on  the  Bible,  printed  together  with  the  facred 
text,  is  highly  commended  by  Dr  Oa'ch,  Mr  Baxter, 
and  Di  Calamy.      He  died  in  1701,  aged  79. 

Clarke  (Dr  Samuel),  a  very  celebrated  Engliflt 
divine,  was  the  fou  of  Edward  Clarke,  Efq;  alderman 
of  Norwich,  and  one  of  its  reprcfentatives  in  parlia- 
ment for  feveial  years;  and  born  there  October  II, 
1675.  I^^  ^^''s  inllrufted  in  claflical  learning  at  the 
free-fchool  of  that  town  ;  and  in  1(191  removed  thence 
to  Caius  college  in  Cambridge,  where  his  uncommon 
abilities  foon  began  to  difplay  themfilves.  Though 
the  phllofophy  of  Des  Cartes  was  at  that  time  the 
eflablilhed  phllofophy  of  the  univerfity,  yet  Clarki; 
ealily  maHered  the  new  fyilem  of  Nvwton  ;  and  in  or- 
der  to  his  firll  degree  of  arts,  performed  a  public  ex- 
ercife  in  the  fchools  upon  a  queftion  taken  from  it. 
He  greatly  contributed  to  the  ellabliflimcnt  of  the. 
Newtonian  phllofophy  by  an  excellent  tranflation  of, 
and  notes  upon,  Rohault's  "  Phyfics,"  which  he  fi- 
nlihed  before  he  was  22  years  of  age.  The  lyftem  of 
natural  phllofophy  then  generally  taught  in  the  univet- 
iity  was  that  written  by  Rohault,  founded  altogether 
upon  Cartefian  principles,  and  very  ill  tranflatc  1  into 
Latin.  Clarke  gave  a  new  tranflation,  and  added  to 
it  fuch  notes  as  might  lead  (ludents  infenfibly  and  by 
decrees  to  other  and  truer  notions  than  could  be 
found  there.  "  And  this  certainly  (fays  Bifhop  Hoad- 
ly)  was  a  more  prudent  method  of  introducing  truth 
unknown  before,  than  to  attempt  to  throw  afiJe  this 
treatife  entirely,  and  write  a  new  one  inftead  of  it. 
The  luccefs  anlwered  exceedingly  well  to  his  hopes  ; 
and  he  may  julUy  be  flyled  a  great  benefaftor  to  the' 
univeifity  in  this  attempt.  For  by  this  means  thi  true 
phih.'fophy  has,  without  any  noife,  prevailed  ;  aiH  to 
this  day  his  tranflation  of  Rohault  is,  generally  fpeak» 

ing, 


Clarke. 


C    L     A 


C    38    1 


G    L    A 


Claris.  ;ng,  the  (landing  text  for  leftures,  and  his  notes  the 
"■~v— -  firfl  direftion  to  thofe  who  are  wilhng  to  receive  the 
reality  and  truth  of  things  in  the  place  of  invention 
and  romance."  Wliifton  relates,  that  in  1697,  while 
he  was  chaplain  to  Moore  bilhop  of  Norwich,  he  met 
young  Clarke,  then  wholly  unknown  to  him,  at  a  cof- 
feehoiife  in  that  city  ;  where  they  entered  into  a  con- 
verfation  about  the  Cartcfian  philofophy,  particulaily 
Rohault's  «  Phyfics,"  wRich  Clarke's  tutor,  as  he  tells 
lis,  had  put  him  upon  trandating.  "  The  refult  of 
this  converfation  was  (fays  Whilton),  that  I  was  great- 
ly furprized  that  fo  young  a  man  as  Clarke  then  vvas, 
fhould  know  fo  much  of  thofe  fublime  difcoveries, 
which  were  then  almoft  a  fecret  to  all,  but  to  a  few 
particular  mathematicians.  Nor  did  I  remember  (con- 
tinues he)  above  one  or  two  at  the  moll,  whom  I  had 
then  met  with,  that  fecmed  to  know  fo  much  of  that 
philofophy  as  Clarke."  This  translation  of  Rohault 
was  firil  printed  in  1697,  8vo.  There  have  been  four 
editions  of  it,  in  every  one  of  which  improvements 
have  been  made;  efpecially  in  the  laft  in  I- 18,  which 
has  the  following  title  :  Jacnbi  RohmiJti  Phvfca.  La- 
tine  vertit,  recevfu'it,  et  uberiorilus  jam  Aur.otaltor.ibus, 
(s  iUiiftnfimi  Ifaacl  Neivtoiti  Ph'dofiphia  max'mam  partem 
hmijfis,  ampl'ificwvit  et  ornavit  S.  Clarke,  S.  T.  P.  Acce- 
dunt  ettam  in  hac  qiiarta  editinne  nova  aliquot  tnlu!<e  ari 
iticifie,  et  Annotatioties  miiltum  funt  auf.Ke.  Dr  John  Clai  ke, 
late  dean  of  Sarum,  and  our  author's  brother,  tranf- 
lated  this  work  into  Englilh,  and  publiflied  it  in  2  vols 
8vo. 

Afterwards  he  turned  his  thoughts  to  divinity  ;  and 
in  order  to  fit  himfelf  for  the  facred  funftion,  he  ftudied 
the  Old  Teftament  in  the  original  Hebrew,  the  New 
in  the  original  Greek,  and  the  primitive  CKriftian 
writers.  Having  taken  holy  orders,  he  became  chap- 
lain to  Moore  bifhop  of  Norwich,  who  was  ever  after 
his  conflant  friend  and  patron.  In  1699  he  publifhed 
two  treatifts  :  one  intitled  "  Three  pradical  Eifays  on 
Baptlfm,  Confiimation,  and  Repentance;"  the  other, 
"  Some  Refleftions  on  that  part  of  a  book  called 
Amyntor,  or  a  Defence  of  Milton's  Life,  which  re- 
lates to  the  Writings  of  the  Primitive  Fathers,  and  the 
Canon  of  the  New  Teftament."  In  1 701  he  publidied 
"  A  Paraphrafe  upon  the  Gofpel  of  St  Matthew  ;" 
which  was  followed  in  1702  by  the  "  Paraphrafes  up- 
on the  Gofpels  of  St  Mark  and  St  Luke,"  and  foon 
after  by  a  third  volume  "  upon  St  John."  They  were 
afterwards  printed  together  in  2  vols  8vo  ;  and  have 
fince  undergone  feveral  editions.  He  intended  to  have 
gone  through  the  remaining  books  of  the  New  Tefta- 
ment, but  lomething  accidentally  interrupted  the  exe- 
cution. 

Mean  while  Piifhop  Moore  gave  him  the  reftory  of 
Drayton  near  Norwich,  and  procured  for  him  a  parilh 
in  that  city  ;  and  thtfe  he  ferved  himfelf  in  that  fea- 
fon  when  the  bifhop  refided  at  Norwich.  In  1704 
he  was  appointed  to  preach  Boyle's  leftiire  ;  and  the 
fiibjeft  he  chofe  was,  "  The  being  and  attributes  of 
God."  He  fucceeded  fo  well  in  this,  and  gave  fuch 
high  fatisfatlion,  tint  he  was  appointed  to  preach  the 
fame  leisure,  the  next  year ;  when  he  chcfe  for  his  fub- 
jeft  "  The  evidences  of  natural  and  revealed  religion." 
Thefe  fermons  were  firll  prii4tcd  in  two  diftinft  vo- 
lumes ;  the  former  in  1705,  the  latter  in  1706.  They 
have  fince  been  printed  in  one  volume,  under  the  ge- 


neral title  of  "  A  Difcourfe  concerning  the  Being  «nd  Ha 
Attributes  of  God,  the  Obligations  of  natural  Rtli-  *~~~\ 
gion,  and  the  Truth  and  Certainty  of  the  Chriftian 
Rfvelation,  in  anfvver  to  Hobbes,  Spinoza,  the  Au- 
thor of  the  Oracles  of  Reafon,  and  other  Deniers  of 
na;ural  and  revealed  Religion."  Clarke  having  endea- 
voured in  the  firil  part  of  this  work  to  Ihow,  that  the 
being  of  a  God  may  be  demdnllrated  by  arguments 
i priori.  Is  unluckily  involved  in  the  cenfure  which  Pope 
has  pafied  upon  this  method  of  reafoniiig  in  the  fol- 
lowing lines.  They  are'  put  into  the  mouth  of  one  of 
his  dunces,  addrelfing  himfilf  to  the  goddtfs  Dul- 
nefs  : 

"  Let  others  creep  by  timid  nen«  and  (low, 

"  On  plain  experience  lay  fnundations  lunr, 

•'  By  cnii\iuon  T^nfe  ro  common  kiiov^ledf^c  bred, 

"  And  loft  to  nsf  lire's  caufe  thriiuuh  nature  led. 

"   All-feeinp  in  thy  mifts,  wc  want  no  guide, 

"  M  thernf  arrr)u-ance,  and  fource  of  pride! 

'*   We  nobly  talce  the  hii^h  jjfiori  r-ad, 

"  And  reafun  downward,  till  we  i!ou!'t  of  God." 

Duiu't,id^  b.  4.  1.  455. 

Upon  which  we  have  the  following  note  :  "  Thofe  who, 
from  the  effctls  in  this  vifible  world,  deduce  the  eter- 
nal power  and  Godhead  of  the  fiift  caufe,  th.ough  they 
cannot  attain    to   an   adequate  idea  of  the  Deity,  yet 
difcover  fo  much  of  him   as  enables  them   to  fee  the 
end  of  their  creation    and   the   means   of  their  happi- 
nefs  :  whereas   they  who   take   this  high   piiori  road, 
as  Hobbes,   Spinofa,  Des  Cartes,  and  fome  better  rea- 
foners,   for  one  that  goes  right,   ten   lofe  themfelves  in 
milts,  or   ramble   after  vifiors,  which  deprive  them  of 
all  fight  of  their  end,  and   miflead  them  in  the  choice 
of  wrong  means."     Clarke,  it  is  probable,  would  not  " 
have  denied  this  ;  and   the   poet  perhaps  would   have 
fpared  his  better  reafoners,  and   not  have  joined  them 
with  fuch  company,  had  he   recoUedled  our  author's 
apology  for  ufingthe  arg'.:ment  a  priori.      "  The  argu- 
'ment   a pojleriori   (fays  he)    is   indeed   by  far  the  moil 
generally  uleful  argument,  moft  eafy  to  be  underllood, 
and  in  fome  decree  fuited  to  all  capacities  ;  and  there- 
fore it  ought  always   to  be   infifted  upon  :   But  for  as 
much  as  atht.iftical  writers  have  fometimes  oppofed  the 
being  and  attributes  of  God  by  fuch  rattaphjiical  rea- 
fonings,  as  can    no   otherwife  be  obviated  than  by  ar- 
guing ,';/i;7oW  ;  therefore  this  manner  of  arguing  alfo 
is  ufef'.il   and   neceftary  in   its  proper  place."     To  this 
may  be  added  the  anfwer  he  made  to  Mr  Whifton  up- 
on this  occafion,  as   narrated   by  the  latter  in  his  Hi- 
ftorical  Memoirs.      "  When    Clarke   brought   me   his 
book,  I  was  in  my  garden  againft  St  Peter's  college  in 
Cambridge,  where    I   then   lived.      Now  I    perceived, 
that  in  thefe  fermons   he  had  dealt  a  great  deal  in  ab- 
ftraft   arid   metaphyfical  reafonirg.      I  therefore  an<ed 
him  how  he  ventured   into   fuch  fubtlcties  which  I  ne- 
ver duril  meddle  with  ?  and  (hewing  him  a  nettle,  or 
fome   contemptible   weed   in   my  garden,  I   told  him 
that  weed  contained  better  arguments  for  the  being  and 
attributes  of  a  God  than   all  his  metaphyfics.      Clarke 
confcfTcd  it  to  be  fo  ;   but  alleged  for  himfelf,  that  fince 
fuch  philofophers  as  Hobbes  and  Spinoza  had  made  ufe 
of  thofe  kind  of  fubtleties  againft,  he  thought  proper  to 
fliow  that  the  like  way  of  reafoning  might  be  made  better 
ufe  of  on  the  fide  of,  religion  :   which  reafon  or  excufe 
I  allowed  to   be   not  inconfiderable."     Undoubtedly, 
as  the  prefent  editor  of    Biographia  Britaonica  ob- 

feives. 


C    L    A  ! 

ferves,  the  grand,  the  proper,  the  ilecifive  proof  of 
"'  the  exillonce,  pcrfeftions,  and  providence  of  llie  DciiV, 
muft  be  drawn  from  his  works.  On  tliis  proof,  as  be- 
ing cquilly  fatisfaftory  to  the  profoundell  phllofophcr 
and  the  incaneil  peafint,  the  caiife  of  religion  will 
ever  ftand  feeure.  Neverthelefo,  if  there  be  fuch  a 
thing  as  an  argument  .; /;•«/•/',  why  may  not  fpecula- 
tive  men  be  employed  in  its  examination  ?  Several  able 
divines  and  philofophers  have  thought,  and  ftill  think, 
that  this  ari;ument  for  the  being  and  atttibules  of  Gud, 
will  (land  the  teft  of  the  feverell  fcrutiny  ;  and  there- 
fore they  cannot  be  blamed  for  endeavouring  to  fet  it 
in  a  convincing  light  to  others.  As  to  the  merit,  in- 
deed, of  the  whole  work  under  confideration,  including 
the  evidences  of  natural  and  revealed  religion,  it  is  un- 
doubtedly of  the  firft  order.  Difficulties  may  be  railed 
on  particular  points,  and  the  ableft  and  moft  candid 
inquirers  may  fometimes  fee  caule  to  helkate  with  re- 
gard to  the  validity  of  the  reafoning  :  but  ftill,  in  ge- 
neral, the  book  rcflefts  honour  on  the  age  as  well  as 
the  author  that  produced  it,  and  vvdl  delcend,  with 
diftingulflied  reputation,  to  a  late  pofterity.  The  de- 
fence, in  particular,  of  the  facrcd  original  and  autho- 
rity of  Chriftianltv,  is  admirably  condufted. 

In  1706  he  publiflied  "  A  Letter  to  Mr  Dodwell ;" 
wherein  all  the  arguments  in  hir,  epiftolary  dilcourfe 
againft  the  immortality  of  the  foul  are  particularly  an- 
fwered,  and  the  judgment  of  the  fathers,  to  whom 
Mr  Dodwell  had  appealed  concerning  chat  matter, 
truly  teprefented.  pifhop  Hoadly  obferves,  that  in 
this  letter  he  anfwered  Mr  Dodwell  in  fo  excellent  a 
manner,  both  with  regard  to  the  philofophical  part, 
and  to  the  opinions  of  fome  of  the  primitive  writers, 
upon  whom  thefe  doftrines  were  fixed,  that  it  gave 
univerfal  fatisfadtion.  But  this  ccntvoverfy  did  not  Hop 
here  ;  for  the  celebrated  Collins,  coming  in  as  a  fe- 
cond  to  Dodwell,  went  much  farther  into  the  philofo- 
phy  of  the  difpute,  and  indeed  feemed  to  produce  all 
that  could  pofTibly  be  faid  againft  the  immateriality  of 
the  foul,  as  well  as  the  liberty  of  human  aftions.  This 
enlarged  the  fcene  of  the  difpute  ;  into  which  our  au- 
thor entered,  and  wrote  with  fuch  a  fpirit  of  clear- 
nefs  and  demonfttation,  as  at  once  fhowcd  him  great- 
ly fupcrior  to  his  adverfaries  in  metaphyfieal  and  phy- 
fical  knowledge  ;  and  made  evety  inttlh'gent  reader  re- 
joice, that  fuch  an  incident  had  happened  to  provoke 
and  extort  from  him  that  plenty  of  llrong  reafoning 
and  perfpicuity  of  expreflion,  which  were  indeed  very 
much  wanted  upon  this  intricate  and  obfcure  fubjcft. 
"  And  I  am  perfuaded  (continues  the  bifliop),  that 
as  what  he  has  writ  in  this  conti-overfy  comprehends 
the  little  that  the  ancients  had  faid  well,  and  adds  ftill 
more  evidence  than  ever  clearly  appeared  before,  and 
all  in  words  that  have  a  meaning  to  them,  it  will  re- 
main the  ftandard  of  good  fenfe  on  that  fide  of  the 
queftion,  on  which  he  fpent  fo  many  of  his  thoughts, 
as  upon  one  of  his  favourite  points."  Clarke's  letter 
to  Dodwell  was  foon  followed  by  four  defences  of  it, 
in  four  feveral  letters  to  the  author  of  "  A  Letter  to 
the  learned  Mr  Henry  Dodwell  ;  contaiiring  fome  Re- 
marks on  a  prctendid  Demonftration  of  the  Immate- 
riality and  natural  Immortality  of  the  Soul,  in  Mr 
Clarke'b  Anfwer  to  his  late  Epiftolary  Difcourle,  &.C." 
They  were  afterwards  all  printed  together;  and  the 
^'  Anfwer   to    Tcland's  An.yntor"   added  to    them. 


.39    ]  C    L    A 

In  tiie  midft  of  all  thefe  labours,  he  found  time  to  Clatftif. 
(how  his  regard  to  mathematical  and  phyfical  iludics,  ^■~'*~~ 
and  cxaft  knowledge  and  (l<ill  in  them.  And  his  na- 
tural aft'eiftioii  and  capacity  for  thefe  ftudies  were  not 
a  little  improved  by  the  friendfiiip  of  bir  Ifaac  Nc\*- 
ton  ;  at  whrfe  requeft  he  tranflated  his  "  Optics"  in- 
to Latin  in  1706.  With  this  vtrfion  Sir  Ilaac  was  fo 
highly  plcafed,  that  he  prefented  him  with  the  fum  of 
L.joo,  or  L.  100  for  each  cFiild,  Clarke  having  then 
five  children. 

This  year  alfo,    bifhop  Moore,  who  had  long  form- 
ed a  defign  of  fixing  him   more  confpicuoufly,  procu- 
red for  him  the  reftory  of  St  Btnnet's,  Paul's  Wharf, 
in    London  ;  and  foon  after  cairied  him  to  court,  and 
recommended  him  to  the  favour  of  qiecH  Anne.     Slie 
appointed  him  one  of  her  chaplains  in  ordinary  ;  and, 
in  confideration  of  his  great  merit,    and  at  the  tequeft; 
of  the    bifliop,  prefented   him   to    the  reiftory  of  St 
James's,  Wellminiler,  when  it  became  vacant  in  1709. 
Upon  his  advancement  to   this   (tation,    he    took  the 
degree   of  D.  D.   when  the  public  excrcife  which  he 
performed  for  it  at  Cambridge  was  prodigioufly  admi- 
red.    The  queltions  which  he  maintained  were  thefe  : 
I.  "  Nulh'.m  fidei  Chrillianre  dogma,  in   I'aciis    Icrip- 
turis  ti-adituni,  eft  rcdx  rationl  diffentaneum  :"  that, 
is,   "   No  article  of  the  Chriftian  fjith,  delivered  in  the 
holy  Scriptures,    is  diiagreeable  to  right  reafon."      2. 
''   Sine  attionum  hurnanarum  libertate  nulla  poteft  effe 
religio  :"  that  is,  '•  Without  the  liberty  of  human  ac- 
tions there  can  be  no  religion."     His  thefis  was  upon 
the   firil  of  thefe  queftions  ;  which  being  thoroughly 
fifted   by  that   moll  acute  difpuiant  profefTor  James, 
he  made  an  extempore  reply,  in  a  continued  difceurfe 
for  near  half  an  hour,    with  fo  little  hefitation,    that 
many  of  the  auditors  declared  themfelves   aftoniflied  ; 
and  owned,   that  if  they  had  not  been  within  fight  of 
him,  they  fliould  have  fuppufed  him  to  have  read  every 
word  of  it  from   a   paper.     After  this,  through  the 
courfe  of  the  fyllogiftical  difputation,  he  guarded  fo 
well  againft  the  arts  which   tire  profelTor  was  a  com- 
plete maftcr   of;  replied  fo  readily  to  the  grcatell  dif- 
ficulties fuch  an   objeflor  could  propofe  ;  and   prelftd 
him  fo  clofe  and  hard  with  clear  and  intelligible    an- 
fweis,  that   perhaps   there  never   was   fuch  a  conflift 
heard  in  thofe  fchools.    The  profeffcr,  who  was  a  man 
of  humour  as  well  as  learning,  faid  to  him  at  the  eii4 
of  the  difputation,  "  Profedlo,  me  probe  exercuilli  ;" 
that  is,  "  On  my   word,  you   have    worked  me   fuffi- 
clently  ;"    and   the   members    of  the   univerfity    went 
away,  admiring,  as  indeed  they  well  might,  that  a  man 
even  of  Clarke's  abilities,   after  an  abfence  of  fo  many 
years,  and   a  long  difcour-fe  of  bufinefs  of  qm'te  ano- 
ther nature,  (hould  acquit  himfelf  in  fuch  a  manner,  as 
if  this  fort  of  academical  cxercife  had  been  his  conftant 
employment  ;   and  with  fuch  fluency  and  purity  of  ex- 
prLiTu  n,  as  if  he  had  been  accuftomed  to  no  other  lan- 
guage  in   coriverfation   but    Latin.      The  fame  year, 
1709,  he  revifed  and  correfted  Whifton's  tranflation 
of    the    "    Apoftolical    Conftitutions"    into    Engli/h. 
Whifton  tells  us,that  hisown  lludies  having  been  chivfly 
upon  other  things,   and  having  render-ed  him  incapable 
of  being  alfo  a  critic  in  words  and  languages,   lie  defi- 
red  his  great  friend  and  great  critic  Dr  Clarke  to  re- 
vife  that  tranflation  ;   which  he  was  fo  kind  as  to  agree 
to. 

Lo 


C    L     A  -       I     4 

Clarke.  In  171 1,  he  piiblifhtd  a.  mofi.  beautiful  and  pom- 
'pous  edition  of  Cirfar's  commeiitarits,  adorned  with 
elegant  fculptures.  It  is  intitule-d,  "  C.  Julii  Cslaiis 
qua:  extant,  accuratinifr.e  cum  llbris  edit  is  &  nuT.  opti- 
mis  collata,  recogiiita,  &;  corifrta  ;  acctlTctunt  annota- 
tiones  Samuells  Clarke,  S  T.  P.  item  indices  loLOium, 
rerumque  &  verborum,  utiliiliiniE."  It  was  printed  in 
I  7 12,  folio;  and  afterwards  in  1720,  8vo.  It  wjs  de- 
dicated to  the  frreat  duke  of  Mailborough,  "  at  a  time," 
fays  Bifliop  lioadly,  "  when  liis  unequalled  vidories 
and  fucceffes  liad  railed  his  glory  to  the  highell  pitch 
abroad,  and  lelTened  his  intereft  and  favour  at  home." 
In  the  publication  of  this  book,  the  doctor  took  par- 
ticular care  of  the  punctuation.  In  the  annotations, 
he  felefted  w'hat  appeared  the  beft  and  mofl:  judicious 
in  former  editors,  with  fome  corrections  and  emenda- 
tions of  his  own  interfperfed.  Mr  Addifon  has  fpoken 
of  this  folio  edition  of  Ca;far's  commentaries  in  the  fol- 
lowing words  :  "  The  new  edition,  which  is  given  us 
cf  Caefar's  commentaries,  has  already  been  taken  notice 
of  in  foreign  gazettes,  and  is  a  work  that  does  ho- 
nour to  the  Enghlh  prefs.  It  is  no  wonder  that  an 
edition  fhould  be  ver)^  correct,  whichhaspafTed  thro'  the 
hands  of  one  of  the  moft  accurate,  learned,  andjudicious 
writers  this  age  has  produced.  The  beauty  of  the  pa- 
per, of  the  chara^Lcr,  and  of  the  ftveral  cuts  with 
which  this  noble  woik  is  illuftrated,  makes  it  the  fi- 
ned book  that  I  have  ever  feen  ;  and  is  a  true  inftance 
of  the  Englifli  genius,  which,  though  it  dees  not  come 
the  tiril  into  any  art,  generally  can-ies  it  to  great- 
er heights  than  any  other  country  in  the  world."  This 
noble  work  has  rifen  in  value  from  that  time  to  the  pre- 
fent.  A  copy  of  this  edition  in  large  paper,  moft 
fplendidly  bound  in  morocco,  was  fold  at  the  Hon. 
Mr  Beauclerk's  fale  for  forty-four  pounds  ;  and  it  was 
fald  to  be  purchafed  by  the  Duke  of  Grafton.  "  To 
a  prince  e;r  a  nobleman  (fays  Dr  Harwood),  it  was  a 
cheap  purchale;  for  it  was  the  moftjnagnificcnt  book  I 
ever  beheld.  The  binding  coflMrBeaucierkfive  guineas. 
The  fame  year,  I  7  12,  he  puUidied  his  celebrated 
book  intituled,  «  The  Scripture  Dotlrlne  of  the  Tri- 
nity, &c."  which  is  divided  into  three  parts.  The 
lirft  is,  a  collcftion  and  explication  of  all  the  texts  in 
the  "  NewTelhj.ient,"  relating  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  :  in  the  fecond,  the  foregoing  doctrine  is  fet 
forth  at  large,  and  explained  in  particidar  and  diftlnct 
propofitions  ;  and  in  the  third,  the  princl^^;d  pafFages 
in  the  liturgy  of  the  church  of  England,  relating  to 
the  doftrine  of  the  Trinity,  are  coniidcred.  Bifliop 
Hoadly  applauds  our  author's  method  of  proceeding, 
in  forming  his  fentiments  upon  fo  important  a  point : 
"  He  knew  (fays  he),  and  all  men  agreed,  that  it  was  a 
matter  of  mere  revelation.  He  did  not  therefore  retire 
into  his  clofet,  and  fet  himfclf  to  invent  and  forge  a  plau- 
fible  hypothecs,  which  might  lit  eafdy  upon  his  mind. 
He  had  not  recourfe  to  aWlracl  and  metaphyfical  rea- 
fonlngs  to  cover  or  patronize  any  fylltrra  he  might  have 
embraced  before.  But,  as  a  Chriilian,  he  laid  open  the 
New  Teftanient  before  him.  He  fear.jhed  out  every 
text  in  which  mention  was  made  of  the  tlirte  perfons, 
or  any  one  of  them.  He  accurately  examined  the 
meaning  of  the  words  ufcd  about  c^ery  one  of  them  ; 
and  by  the  bell  rules  of  grammar  and  critique,  and 
by  his  Ikill  in  language,  he  endeavoured  to  fix  plainly 
what  was  declared  about  every  perfon,  and  wliat  was 
not.  And  what  he  thought  :j  be  the  truth,  he  pub- 
No  81. 


o     1  C     L     A 

llfhed  under  the  the  title  of  '  The  Scripture  Doclrine     Clv.-lce 

of  the  Trinity.'   "  I  am   far    (fays  the  Bi(hop)  from  >— 

taking  upon  me  to  determine,  in  fo  dilficult  a  quellioii 
between  him  and  thofe  who  made  replies  to  him  ;  but 
this  I  hope  I  may  be  allowed  to  fay,  that  <:\'sry 
Chriilian  divine  and  layman  ouglit  to  pay  his  thaiiki 
to  Dr  Clarke  for  the  method  into  which  he  brought 
this  dilpute  ;  and  for  that  Collection  of  texts  of  the 
New  Teftanient,  by  which  at  lall  it  muft  be  decided, 
on  which  fide  foeverthc  truth  may  be  luppolcd  to  he." 
Whilton  infomis  us,  that  fome  time  before  tlie  publi- 
cation of  this  book,  there  was  a  meffage  fent  to  him 
from  lord  Godolphiii,  and  others  of  queen  Anne's  mj- 
niilers,  importing,  "  That  the  affairs  of  the  public 
were  with  difhcnlty  then  kept  in  the  hands  of  thofe 
tiiat  were  for  liberty  ;  that  it  was  therefore  an  unfcafon- 
able  time  for  the  publication  of  a  book  that  would 
make  a  great  nolfe  and  dillurbance  ;  and  that  there- 
fore they  defired  him  to  forbear  till  a  fitter  oppor- 
tunity fliould  offer  itfelf :"  which  meffage  (fays  he) 
the  doftor  had  no  regard  to,  but  went  on  according 
to  the  dictates  of  his  own  conlclence  with  the  publi- 
cation of  his  book.  The  niiniflers,  however,  were 
very  right  in  their  conjeftures  ;  for  the  work  made  noile 
and  diilurbance  enough,  and  occaiioned  a  great  number 
of  books  and  pamphlets,  written  by  himlelt  and  others. 

Books  and  pamphlets,  however,  were  not  all  which 
the  "  Scripture  Doclrine  of  the  Trinity"  occafioned  : 
it  made  its  author  obnoxious  to  the  power  eccleiialtical, 
and  his  book  to  be  complained  of  by  tlie  Eower  Houfe 
of  convention.  The  Dodlor  drew  up  a  preface,  and  af- 
terwards gave  in  feveral  explanations,  which  feemed  to 
fatisfy  tiie  Upper  Houfe  ;  at  leail  the  affair  was  not 
brought  to  any  Iffue,  the  members  appearing  defirous 
to  prevent  dlffenfions  and  dlviiions. 

In  1715  and  17 16,  he  had  a  difpute  with  the  cele- 
brated Leibnitz,  relating  to  the  principles  of  natural 
philofophy  and  religion;  and  a  collection  of  the  pa- 
pers which  puffed  between  them  was  publlfhed  in 
I -17.  This  performance  of  the  doctor's  is  infcribed 
to  her  late  majefty  queen  Caroline,  then  princefs  of 
Wales,  who  was  pleafed  to  have  the  controverfy  pafs 
through  her  hands.  It  related  chiefly  to  die  import- 
ant and  diflicult  fubjects  of  liberty  and  necelhty. 

In  1718,  Dr  Clarke  made  an  alteration  in  the  forms 
of  doxology  in  the  finging  pfahns,  which  produced  no 
fmall  noife  and  diilurbance,  and  occafioned  fome  pam- 
plilets  to  be  written.     The  alteration  was  this  : 

To  God,  tlirouj;Ii  Chrift,  his  suly  Son, 

Immortal  gl'  rv  be,  &c. 
And, 
To  G.t.l,  through  Clrifl,  his  Son,  i  ur  LcrJ, 

Aii  glory  be  therefore,  &i.. 


A  cor.fiderable  number  of  tliefe  fcleft  pfalms  and 
hymns  having  been  difperfed  by  the  Society  for  Pro- 
moting Chriltian  Knowledge,  before  the  alteration  of 
the  doxologics  was  taken  notice  of,  he  was  chaiged 
with  a  delign  of  impofing  upon  the  fociety  :  whereas. 
In  truth,  the  edition  of  them  had  been  prepared  by 
him  for  the  ufe  of  his  own  parifh  only,  before  the  fo- 
cietv  had  thoughts  of  purchafing  any  of  the  copies: 
and'as  the  ufual  forms  of  doxology  are  not  eftabhfhed 
by  any  leg;d  authority,  ecclefiallical  or  civil,  in  this 
he  had  not  offended. 

About  this  time  he  was  prefented  by  the  lord  Lech- 
mere, 


C     L    A  [4 

mere,  tlic  clianccIJorof  the  ducliy  of  Lancafter,  to  the 
'  mafterfliip  of  Wigfton's  hofpital  in  Leiceller.  In  1724, 
he  publiilied  17  fcrmons  preached  on  fcveral  occalions, 
II  of  which  wore  never  before  printed  ;  and  the  year 
following,  a  fermon,  preached  at  the  parifh-chiirch  of 
St  James's,  upon  the  erefting  a  charity-fchool  for  the 
education  of  women  fervants.  In  1727,  upon  the 
death  of  Sir  Ifaac  Newton,  he  was  offered  by  the  court 
the  place  of  mafter  of  the  Mint,  worth  commutiilms  an- 
Ills  1200  or  1500I.  a  year.  But  to  this  fccular  prefer- 
ment he  could  not  reconcile  himfelf;  and  therefore  ab- 
foliitcly  refufed  it.  Whillon  feems  to  wonder,  that 
Clarke's  elogills  fliould  lay  fo  little  ftrefs  upon  this  re- 
fufal,  as  to  mention  it  not  at  all,  or  at  leaft  very  negli- 
gently ;  while  "  he  takes  it,"  he  fays,  "  to  be  one  of 
the  molt  glorious  aftions  of  his  life,  and  to  afford  un- 
deniable convitfion,  that  he  was  in  earneft  in  liis  re- 
ligion." In  1728,  was  publifhed,  "  A  Letter  from 
Dr  Clarke  to  Mr  Benjamin  Hoadly,  F.  R.  S.  occa- 
fioned  by  the  Controverfy,  relating  to  the  Proportion 
of  Velocity  and  Force  in  Bodies  in  Motion  ;"  and 
printed  in  the  "  Philofophical  Tranfaftions,  n°  401. 

In  1729,  he  publiHied  the  12  firft  books  of  "  Ho- 
mer's  Iliad."     This  edition  was  printed  in  4to,  and 
dedicated   to   the   duke   of  Cumberland.      The  Latin 
verfion  is  alraofl   entirely  new  ;  and  annotations  are 
added  to  the  bottom  of  the  pages.     Homer,  Bifhop 
Hoadly  tells,  was  Clarke's  admired  author,   even  to  a 
degree  of  fomething  like  enthuliafm,  hardly  natural  to 
his  temper  ;  and  that  in  this  he  went  a  little  beyond 
the  bounds  of  Horace's  judgment,  and  was  fo  unwil- 
ling to  allow  the  favourite  poet  ever  to  nod,  that  he 
has  taken   remarkable   pains  to  find  out,  and  give  a 
i-eafon  for  every  paffage,  word,  and  title,   that  could 
create   any  fufpicion.      "  The   tranflation,"   adds  the 
Bifhop,  "  with  his  corrections,  may  now  be  llyled  accu- 
rate :  and  his  notes,  as  far  as  they  go,  are  indeed  a 
treafury  of  grammatical  and  critical  knowledge.     He 
■was  called  to  his  taflcby  royal  command  ;  and  he  has  pre- 
formed  it   in  fuch   a   manner,  as  to  be  worthy  of  the 
young  prince,  for  whom    itwas  laboured."     The  year 
of  its  pubhcation  was  the  laft  of  this  great  man's  life. 
Though  not  robull,  he  had  always  enjoyed  a  firm  ilate 
of  health,  without  any  indifpofition   bad   enough   to 
confine  him,  except  the   fmall-pox  in  his  youth  ;  till, 
on  Sunday  May  11.  1729,    going  out  in  the  morning 
to  preach  before  the  judges  at  Scrjeant's-inn,  lie   was 
there  feized  with   a  pain   in  his  fide,  which  made   it 
impolTible  for  him  to  perform  the  office  he  was  called 
to ;  and  quickly  became  fo  violent,  that  he  was  obliged 
to   be   carried  home.      He  went  to  bed,  and  thought 
himfelf  fo  much  better  in  the  afternoon,  that  he  would 
net  fuffer  himfelf  to  be  blooded  ;  againlt  which  reme- 
dy, it  is  remarkable   that   he  had   entertained   flrong 
prejudices.      But  the   pain   returning  vio'ently   about 
two  the  next  morning,  made  bleeding  abfoiutely  ne- 
cefTary ;  he   appeared  to  be  out  of  danger,   and  conti- 
nued to   think   himfelf  fo,  till  the  Saturday  morning 
following  ;   when,    to  the   inexpreflible  furprife  of  all 
about  him,    the   pain   removed   from   his  fide  to  his 
head  ;  and,  after   a  very  fhort  complaint,  took  away 
his  fenfes  fo,  as  they  never  returned  any  more.      He 
continued  brcathiflg  till  between  feven  and  eight  of  the 
evening  of  that  day,   which  was  May  17.  1729  j  and 
tfeen  died,  in  his  54th  year. 
Vol.  V.  Part  I. 


I     1  C     L     A 

Soon  after  his  death  were  publilhed,  from  his  ori- 
ginal manufcrlpts,  by  his  brother  Dr  John  Clarke,  dean 
ofSarum,  "An  Expofition  of  the  Church  Catechifm," 
and  ten  volumes  of  fermons,  in  8vo.  His  "  Expofi- 
tion" is  made  up  of  thofe  leftures  he  read  every 
Thurfday  morning  for  fome  nionths  in  the  year,  at  St 
James's  church.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  time  he  re- 
vifed  them  with  great  care,  and  left  them  completely 
prepared  for  the  prefs.  As  to  the  fermons,  few  dif- 
courfes  in  the  Englifh  language  are  more  judlciour, 
and  fewer  ftill  are  equally  inftru(!'tive.  The  rcafoning 
and  the  praftical  parts  are  excellent,  and  the  explana- 
tions of  fcripture  are  uncommonly  valuable.  Though 
Ur  Clarke  had  not  the  turn  of  mind  which  quahlied 
him  for  moving  the  pafiions,  and  indeed  did  not  make 
it  his  objeft,  his  fentiments,  neverthclefs,  are  frequent- 
ly expreffed  with  fuch  a  clearnefs  of  conception  and 
fuch  a  force  of  language,  as  to  produce  in  well  difpo- 
fcd  readers  all  the  cifedl  of  the  pathetic.  Several  vo- 
lumes of  fermons  have  iKen  publilhed  fince  his  time, 
which  are  far  fuperior  in  point  of  elegance  and  beauty, 
and  we  have  the  highefl  fenfe  of  their  merit.  But  llil!, 
if  we  were  called  upon  to  recommend  dilcourfes,  which 
abound  with  the  niofl  folid  inftrudlioii,  and  promife 
the  moft  lafting  improvement,  we  lliuuld  never  forget 
a  Clarke  and  a  Jortin.  Three  years  after  the  Dodtor's 
death,  appeared  alfo  the  Twelve  Lafl  Books  of  the 
Iliad,  publiflied  in  4to  by  his  fon,  Mr  Samuel  Clarke, 
who  informs  us,  in  the  preface,  that  his  father  liad  fi« 
niflied  the  annotations  to  the  three  firft  of  thofe  books, 
and  as  far  as  the  359th  verfe  of  the  fourth  ;  and  had 
revifed  the  text  and  verfion  as  far  as  verfe  510  of  the 
fame  book.  Dr  Clarke  married  Catharine,  the  daugh- 
ter of  the  Rev.  Mr  Lockwood,  reAor  of  Little  Mif- 
fingham  in  Norfolk  ;  in  whole  good  fenfe  and  un- 
blameable  behaviour  he  was  happy  to  his  death.  By 
her  he  had  feven  children,  two  of  whom  diedbefore  him, 
and  one  a  few  weeks  after  him. 

Of  the  charaifter  of  this  great  divine,  the  following 
fhort  delineation  appeared  fome  years  fince  in  the  Gen- 
tleman's Magazine  :  "  Samuel  Clarke,  D.D.  reftor 
of  St  James's,  Weftminfter ;  in  each  feveral  part  of 
ufeful  knowledge  and  critical  learning,  perhaps  witli- 
out  a  fuperior ;  In  all  united,  certainly  without  an 
equal :  in  his  works,  the  befl  defender  of  religion  ;  in 
his  praftice,  the  greateft  ornament  to  it  :  in  his  con- 
verfation  communicative,  and  in  an  uncommon  man- 
ner inftruflive  ;  in  his  preaching  and  writings,  ftrong, 
clear,  and  calm  ;  in  his  life,  high  in  the  elleem  of  the 
wife,  the  good,  and  the  great  ;  in  his  death,  lamented 
by  every  friend  to  learning,  truth,  and  virtue."  In 
the  fame  publication  fome  not  incurious  anecdotes 
concerning  him  are  printed,  collefted  by  the  Rev.  Mr 
Jones  of  Welwyn.  We  learn  from  them,  that  Dr 
Clarke  was  of  a  very  humane  and  tender  difpofition. 
When  his  young  children  amufed  themfelves  with  tor- 
menting and  killing  flies  upon  the  windows,  he  not  on- 
ly forbad  fuch  praftices,  but  calmly  reafoned  with 
tlvem,  in  fuch  a  familiar  manner,  as  was  calculated  to 
make  a  powerful  impixffion  upon  their  minds,  lie 
was  very  ready  and  condefcendimg  in  anfwering  appli- 
cations to  him  with  refpect  to  fcruples  ;  numbcrlcl's 
inflancts  of  which  occurred  In  the  courfe  of  his  life. 
One  tiling  of  wbleh  Dr  Clarke  was  peculiarly  cautiojs, 
was  not  to  lofe  the  leaft  minute  of  uis  time.  He  al- 
I'  wars 


Clarke. 


C    L    A 


[     42     1 


C    L     A 


Clarltf.     ways,  carried  fome  book  about  with  him,  which  he 
V      ■'  would  read  whiUl  riding  in  a  coach,  or  walking  in  the 
fields,  or   if  he   had    any  leifure   moments   free  from 
company  or   his   other  Ihidies.     Nay,  he  would  read 
even  in  company  itfelf,  where  he  might  tnke  fiieh  a  li- 
berty without  offence  togood  manners.  His  memory  was 
remarkably  ftrong.      He  told  Mr  Pyle  of  Lyn,  that  he 
never  foigot  any  ihingvvbichhe  had  once  thoroughly  ap- 
prehended and  undcrftood.     The  DoAur,  with  his  in- 
timate  friends,   was  perfeAly   tree   and  cafy  ;  but    if 
llrangers  were  introduced,  lie  behaved  with  much  cir- 
cumfpeftion,   converfing  only    upon    common  topics. 
When  he  vlfted  Dr  Sykes,   his  ufual  way  was  to  fit 
with  him  upon  a  coucli,  and,  reel  nmg  upon  his  bo- 
fom,  to  difcourfe  with  him,  in  the  moll  familiar  man- 
ner, upon  fuch  fubjeils  as  were  agreeable  to  the  tafte 
and  judgment  of  both.     When  Sir  John  Gei-maine  lay 
upon  his  death-bed,  and  was  in  great   confufion  and 
trouble  of  mind,  he  fent  for  Dr  Clarke,  and  requeft- 
ed  to  know  of  him  whether  he  fnould  receive  the  fa- 
crament,  and   what  he  fllould  do  in  his  fad  condition. 
The  Doftor,  virho  was  well  acquainted  with  Sir  John's 
purfaits  and  courfe  of  Ufe,   fedately   replied,    that   he 
could  not  advlfc    him   to   receive   the   facrament,   and 
that  he  did  not  think  It  likely  to  be  of  any  avail  to  him 
-  with  refpeftto  his  final  welfare.      Having  faid  this,  he 
departed  without  adminlftering  the  communion,  having 
iirll  recommended  the  dying  man  to  the  mercy  oi  God. 
Dr  Clarke  was  of  a  cheerful,   and  even  playful  dif- 
pofition.     An  intimate  friend  of  his,  the  late  Rev.  Mr 
Bott,   ufed  to  relate,   that  once  when  lie  called  upon 
him,  he  found  him  fwlmming  upon  a  table.     At  ano- 
ther  time,  when  the  two  Dr  Clarke's,   Mr  Bott,  and 
feveral  men  of  ability  and  learning  were  together,  and 
amufing  themfelves  with  diverting  tricks,  Dr  Samuel 
Clarke,   looking    out    of   the    window,    faw   a    grave 
blockhead  approaching  to  the  houfe  ;   upon  which  he 
cried  out,    "  Boys,  boys,  be  wife,  here  comes  a  fool." 
This  turn  of  his  mind  hith  (Ince  been  confirmed  by  Dr 
Warton,  who,  in  his  oblcrvations  on  the  following  line 
of  Mr  Pope, 

"  UnthoHght  of  frailties  cheat  us  in  the  wife," 

fays,  "  Who  could  imagine  that  I^ocke  was  fond  of 
romances ;  that  Newton  once  ftiidied  aftrology  ;  that 
Dr  Clarke  valued  himfelf  for  his  agility,  and  frequent- 
ly amufed  himfelf,  in  a  private  room  of  his  houfe,  in 
leaping  over  the  tables  and  chairs  ;  and  that  our  author 
lilmfelf  was  a  great  epicure  ?"  With  refpett  to  what 
is  here  recorded  of  Dr  Clarke,  we  can  fcarcely  per- 
fuade  ourfelves  to  confider  it  as  a  frailty.  To  be  pof- 
fcfled  of  fuch  a  temper  as  his  waf,  mull  have  been  no 
fmall  degree  of  happinefs  ;  as  it  probably  enabled  him 
to  purfue  his  important  and  ferious  ftudies  with  great- 
er vivacity  and  vigour.  To  be  capable  of  deriving 
amufement  from  trivial  circumftances,  indicates  a  heart 
at  eafe,  and  may  generally  be  regarded  as  the  concomi- 
tant of  virtue. 

Clarke  (William),  an  Engllfli  divine,  was  born  at 
Haghmon-abbey  in  Shropihire,  1696  ;  and  after  a 
grammar-education  at  Shrewlbury  fchool,  was  fent  to 
St  John's  college  Cambridge,  of  which  he  was  defied 
fellow,  Jan.  17.  1716  ;  B.  A.  1731,  M.  A.  I  735.  Ke 
Vfas  prefented  by  arciibifliop  Wake  in  1724  to  the  rec- 


tory of  Buxted  in  Suffex,  at  the  particular  recommen- 
dation  of  Dr  Wotton,   whofe  daughter  he   married.   * 
In  I  738,  he  was  made  prebendary  ;aid  reiidentiary  of 
the  cathedral  church  of  Cliichefter.    Some  years  before 
this  he  had  given  to  the  public  a  fpecimen  of  his  lite- 
rary abilities.  In  a  preface  to  his  father-in-law  Dr  Wot- 
ton's  Leges  IVallite  Eeclefiajl'ica  et   C'ro'iles  Hoel'i  Bon't,  et 
nllonim  IViiUix  Principum ;  or,  Eeelefiallical  and  Civil 
Laws  of  Howel,   D  Da,   and   other  princes  of  Wales. 
There  is  reafon  llkewlfe  to   furmife,  that  an  excellent 
Difcourfe  on   the  Commerce  of  the   Romans,   which 
was  highly  extolled  by  Dr  Taylor  in  his  Elements  of 
the  Civil  Law,  might  have  been  written  by  our  author. 
It  came  either  from  his  hand  or  from  that  of  his  friend 
Mr  Bowyer,  and  is  reprinted  in  that  gentleman's  Mif- 
cellaneous  Tratfs.     But  Mr  Clarke's  chief  work  was, 
The  Connexion  of  the   Roman,   Saxon,   and  Englifh 
Coins  ;  deducing  the  Antiquities,  Culloms,  and  Man- 
ners of  each  people  to  modern  times  ;  particularly  the 
Origin  of  Feudal  Tenures,  and  of  Parliaments;   Illu- 
ftrated  throughout  with   critical    and    hlftorical    Re- 
marks on  variirfis  Authors,   both  facrcd  and  profane. 
This  work  v^'as  piibliihed,  in  one  volume   quarto,   in 
1767;   and  Its  appearance  from  the  prefs  was  owing  to 
the  difcovery  made  by  Martin  Fedkes,  Elq:   of  the  old 
Saxon  pound.     It  was  dedicated  to  the  duke  of  New- 
calUe,   whofe  beneficent  dilpofilion    is  celebrated   for 
having  conferred  obligations  upon  the  author,  which 
were  not  the  cffefts  of  importunity.      Mr  Clarke's  per- 
formance was  perufed  in  manufcript  by  Arthur  On- 
flow, Efq;  fpeaker  of  the  houfe  of  commons,  avIio  ho- 
noured him  with  fome  ufeful  hints  and  obfcrvations : 
but  he  was  chlcfiy  Indebted  to  Mr  Bowyer,  who  took 
upon  him  all  the  care  of  the  publication,  drew  up  fe- 
veral of  the  notes,  wrote  part  of  the  dlfTertatlon  on  the 
Roman  fefterce,  and  formed  an  admirable  index  to  the 
whole.      By   this   work  our   author  acquired   a  great 
and  jiift  repjitation.      Indeed,  it  refledts  honour  upon 
the  country  by  which  it  is  produced  ;  for  there  are 
few  performances  that  are  more  replete  vvlth  profound 
and  curious   learning.       Mr  Clarke's  lail  promotions 
were  the  chancellorlhip  of  the   church  of  ChicheiUr, 
and  the  vicarage  of  Amport,   which  were   bellowed 
upon   him  in  1 770.     Thefe  preferments   he  did   not 
long  live  to   enjoy,   departing   this  life  on  the  2ifl;  of 
Oftober,  in  the  following  year.     He  had  refigned,  ia 
1768,  the  reftory  of  Buxted  to  his  fon  Edward.      In 
Mr  Nichols's  Anecdotes  of  Bowyer,  there  are  feveral 
letters  and  extracls  of  letters,  written  to  that  learned  , 
printer  by    Mr  Clarke,   which   difplay  him  to   great 
advantage  as  a  man  of  piety,  a  friend,  and  a  fcho- 
lar. 

In  a  llcetch  of  his  charadler  in  the  Btographia  Br'i- 
tamnca,  furnifhed  by  Mr  Hajley,  who  was  his  inti- 
mate acquaintance,  he  is  reprefented  as  not  only  a  man 
of  extenfive  erudition,  but  as  poifefl'ed  of  the  pleafing 
talent  of  communicating  his  various  knowledge  in  fa- 
miliar convtrfation,  without  any  appearance  of  pedan- 
try'" or  prefuniptlon.  Antiquities  were  the  favourite 
ftudy  of  Mr  Clarke,  as  his  pubhcations  fufficiently 
{how  :  but  he  was  a  fecret,  and  by  no  means  an  unfuc- 
cefsful,  votary  of  the  mufes.  He  wrote  Englllh  verle 
with  eafe,  elegance,  and  fpirlt.  Perlraps  there  are  few 
better  epigrams  in  our  language  than  the  following, 

wliichi 


•    C    L     A  [43 

wliicli  lie  compofed  on  feeing  the  words  Domiit  uh'wm 
iiifcribed  on  the  vault  belonging  to  the  dukeS  of  Rich 
nioiid  in  the  cathedral  of  Chicheflcr. 

"  DiJ  he,  who  thus  infcrih'd  the  wa!l, 
No'  read,  or  i.cit  believe  St  Poul, 
Whi)  f;iy.'  t!ie  c  i-,  whtr-'er  it  iian.ls, 
AnotI  cr  honfenr.t  made  with  hands? 
0-,  may  we  gather  from  thele  words, 
Tliat  honle  ia  not  ahoufe  of  l^ord  ? 

Among  the  happier  little  pieces  of  his  fportive 
poetr)', -there  were  Tome  animated  ibnizas,  dcfcribiiig 
the  charafter  of  the  twelve  Englilh  poets,  whofe  por- 
traits, engraved  by  Vertue,  were  the  favourite  orna- 
ment of  his  parlour  :  but  he  fct  fo  modell  and  humble 
a  value  on  his  poetical  compofitions,  that  they  were  fel- 
dom  committed  to  paper,  and  are  therefore  very  im- 
perfectly preferved  in  the  memoiy  of  thofe  to  whom 
he  fometiaies  recited  them.  His  tafte  and  judgment 
in  poetry  appears  indeed  very  ftriking  in  many  parts  of 
his  learned  and  elaborate  ConneSion  of  Corns.  His  il- 
luftration  of  Neftor's  cup,  in  particular,  may  be  ettcem- 
ed  as  one  of  the  happieit  examples  of  that  light  and 
beauty  wliich  the  learning  and  fpirit  of  an  elegant  an- 
tianarian  may  throw  on  a  cloudy  and  miilaken  paffagc 
of  an  ancient  poet.  Li  flrift  attention  to  all  the  du- 
ties of  his  llation,  in  the  mod  aftive  and  unwearied 
charity,  lie  might  be  regarded  as  a  model  to  the  mini- 
Iters  of  God.  Though  his  income  was  never  large,  it 
was  his  cuftom  to  devote  a  fliilling  in  every  guinea  that 
he  received  to  tlie  f<rvice  pf  the  poor.  As  a  mafier, 
as  a  hufbaiid,  and  a  father,  his  conduS  was  amiable 
and  endearing  ;  and  to  clofe  this  inipcrfeft  fl?ctch  of 
him  with  his  moft  ftriking  feature,  he  was  a  man  of 
genuine  unaffefted  piety." 

CLARO-OBscuRO,  or  CiAiR-OBSCURE,  in  paint- 
ing, the  art  of  diftributing  to  advantage  the  lights  and 
fliadows  of  a  piece,  both  with  refpett  to  tlie  eafing  of 
the  eye  and  the  efFe£l  of  the  whole  piece.  See 
Painting. 

Ci.ARo-Olfcuro,  or  Chiaro-fcuro,  is  alfo  ufed  to  fig- 
nify  a  delign  confifting  only  of  two  colours,  moll  uiu- 
ally  black  and  white,  but  fonietimes  black  and  yellow; 
or  it  is  a  deiign  waihed  only  with  one  Colour,  the 
Ihadows  being  of  a  dulky  brown,  and  the  lights  heigh- 
tened up  by  white. 

The  word  is  ahb  applied  to  piints  of  two  colours 
taken  oft  at  twice:  whereof  there  are  volumes  in  the 
•cabinets  of  thofe  who  are  curious  in  prints. 

CLARUS,  or  Claros  (anc.  geog. ),  a  town  of 
Ionia,  famous  for  an  oracle  of  Apollo.  It  was  built 
by  Manto,  daughter  of  Tirefias,  who  tied  from  Thebes 
after  it  had  been  dcftoyid  by  the  Epigoni.  She  was 
fo  afflifted  with  her  misfortunes,  that  a  lake  was  formed 
with  her  tears,  where  fhe  hift  founded  llie  oracle. 
Apollo  was  from  thence  firnanied  Chrr'nu.  Alfo  an 
ifland   of  the  ililgean,   between   Tenedos  and    Scios. 

CL.ARY,  in  botany.      SeeSAniA. 

Ci.ARr-JVitter,  is  compofed  of  brandy,  fugar,  clary- 
flowers,  and  cianamon,  with  a  little  ambergris  diihjlvtd 
in  it.  It  helps  digcftion,  and  is  cardiac.  This  water 
is  rendered  either  purgative  or  emetic,  by  adding  refin 
of  jail))  and  feamniony,  or  crocus  mcialhrum.  Some 
make  clary-water  of  brandy,  juice  of  cherries,  ftraw- 
berries,  and  goofeberrics,  fugar,  cloves,  white  pepper, 
and  coriander  feeds  ;  infufed,  fugared,  and  ftrained. 


1  C     L     A 

CLASMIUM,  in  natmal  fiiilon,-,  the  name  of  a  Chfmiuni 
genus  of  foffil;;,  of  the  clafs  of  the  gypfums  ;  the  cha-  j;i^j„;,_ 
ractcrs  of  which  arc,  that  they  ai-e  of  a  foft  texture,  '  ■ 

and  of  a  dull  opaque  look,  being  compofed,  as  all  the 
other  gypfums,  of  irregularly  arranged  flat  particles. 

The  word  is  derived  from  tlie  Greek  'laiiu©-,  a 
fragment  or  fmall  particle  ;  from  the  flaky  fmall  par- 
ticles of  which  thefc  bodies  arc  compofed.  Of  thij 
genus  there  is  only  one  known  fpecies :  this  is  of  a 
tolerably  regular  and  even  flruilure ;  though  very 
coarfe  and  harlh  to  the  touch.  It  is  of  a  very  lively 
and  beautiful  red  in  colour ;  and  is  found  in  thick 
roimdilh  mafles,  which,  when  broken,  are  to  be  fccn 
compofed  of  irregular  aiTangements  of  flat  particles  ; 
and  emulate  a  ftriated  texture.  It  will  neither  give 
fire  with  fleel  nor  ferment  with  acids  ;  but  calcines 
very  freely  and  eafily,  and  affords  a  very  valuable 
plaifer  of  Paris,  as  do  all  the  purer  gypfums.  It  is 
common  iu  Italy,  and  is  greatly  efteemed  there  ;  it  is 
alfo  found  in  fome  parts  of  England,  particularly  Der- 
by fli  ire,  but  there  it  is  not  much  regarded. 

CLASPERS,  or  Tendrils.  See  Cirrhus. 
■CLASS,  an  appellation  given  to  the  moft  general 
fubdivifions  of  any  thing  :  thus,  anhnal  is  lubdivided 
into  the  clafTcs  quadrupeds,  birds,  filhes,  &c.  which 
are  again  fubdisided  into  feriefes  or  orders  ;  and  thefc 
laft  into  genera.     See  Botany  and  Zoology. 

Class,  is  alfo  ufed  in  fchools,  in  a  fynonymous  fenfe 
withyonji,  for  a  number  of  boys  all  learning  the  fame 
thing. 

CLASSIC,  or  Classical,  an  epithet,  chiefly  ap- 
plied to  authors  read  in  the.  claffes  at  fchools. 

This  term  feems  to  owe  its  origin  to  Tullius  Ser- 
vius,  who,  iu  order  to  make  an  eftimate  of  every  per- 
fon's  eflate,  divided  the  Roman  people  into  fix  bands, 
which  he  called  clajjes.  The  ertate  of  the  firft  clafs 
was  not  to  be  under  200 1.  and  thefe  by  way  of  emi- 
nence were  called  clalfici,  "  clafTics":  hence  authors  of 
the  firft  rank  came  to  be  called  daffies,  all  the  reft  being 
faid  to  be  ir.J'ni  clafftm  :  thus  Ariilotle  is  a  claffic 
author  in  philofophy;  Aquinas  in  fchool  divinity,  &c. 

CLASSICUivI  was  the  alarm  for  battle,  given  by 
the  Roman  generals  ;  and  founded  by  trumpets  and 
other  martial  mufic  throughout  the  army. 

CLATHRF,  in  antiquity,  bars  of  wood  or  iron, 
ufed  in  fecuring  doors  and  windov.-s.  There  was  a 
goddefs  called  CAulhra,  that  prelided  over  the  clathri. 

CLAVARIA,  club-top:  A  genus  belonging  tn 
the  cryptogamia  clafs  of  plants,  and  of  the  order  of 
fungi ;  the  58th  in  the  natural  method.  The  fungus 
is  fmoothand  oblong.  The  hemotadcs,  or  oak  leather 
club-top,  exatlly  reiemblcs  tanned  leather,  except  that 
it  is  thinner  and  fofter.  It  is  of  no  determinate  form. 
It  grows  in  the  clefts  and  hollov.'S  of  old  oaks,  and 
fcmetimes  on  afti  in  Ireland  and  in  fome  places  of  Eng- 
land. &:c.  In  Ireland  it  is  ufed  to  drefs  ulcers,  and  in 
Virginia  to  fpread  plafters  upon,  inftead  of  leather. 
The  militaris,  and  one  or  two  otlie;-  fpecies,  are  re- 
markable for  growing  only  on  the  head  of  a  dead  in- 
fect In  the  nympha  ftate. 

A  modern  writer  on  natural  hiftory  (Mr  Miller), 
has  aflerted  the  whole  genus  of  clavarla  to  belong  to 
the  tribe  of  ^-oophytes,  that  is,  to  the  animal,  and  not  to 
the  vegetable  kingdom.  According  to  his  method,  he 
ranks  them  among  the  Vcimes,  under  a  fubdivifion 
F  2  which 


C    L    A 


[     44     1 


C    L     A 


Clavarium  which  he  terms  Fungofa  ofcuUs  alomifens;  thereby  un- 
.  ''         derftanding  them  to  be  compound  animals  with  many 
■  orifices  on   their  furface,  from  which  are   protruded 

atoms  or  animalcules  which  have  a  vifible  fpontaneous 
motioHi  fomething  fimilar  to  what  is  now  acknow- 
Irdged  to  be  a  fact  with  regard  to  a  numerous  clafs  of 
marine  bodies  termed  corallines.  This  motion,  how- 
ever, has  not  been  obferved  by  other  naturalLfts. 
SchoefFer  has  figured  the  feeds  of  feveral  clavariae  as 
they  appeared  to  him  through  the  microfcope  ;  and 
none  of  thefe  fungi,  when  burnt,  emit  the  ftrong  difa- 
greeable  fmell  peculiar  to  animal  fubflances. 

CLAVARIUM,  in  antiquity,  an  allowance  the  Ro- 
man foldiers  had  for  furnilhing  nails  to  lecure  their 
(hoes  with.  They  raifed  frequent  mutinies,  demand- 
ing largelfes  of  the  emperors  under  this  pretence. 

CJLAVATA  VESTIMENTA,  in  antitiuity,  habits 
adorned  with  purple  clavi,  which  were  either  broad 
or  narrow.      See  Clavus. 

CLAUBERGE  (John),  alearned  profelTor  of  phi- 
lofophy  and  divinity  at  Duifburg,  was  l»orn  at  Solin- 
gen  in  1622.  He  travelled  into  Holland,  France,  and 
England,  and  in  each  country  obtained  the  efteem  of 
tlie  learned.  The  eledor  of  Brandenburg  gave  him 
public  teftimonies  of  his  efteem.  He  died  in  1665. 
His  works  were  printed  at  Amfterdam  in  2  vols  4to. 
The  moft  celebrated  of  thefe  is  his  treatife,  entitled 
~      Logica  I'eliis  et  nova,  &c. 

CLAUDE  of  I>ORRAiN,  or  Claude  Geke,  a  cele- 
brated landfcape  painter,  and  a  ftriking  example  of  the 
efiicacy  of  induftry  to  fupply,  or  at  leail  to  call  forth, 
genius.  Claude  was  born  in  1 600;  and  being  dull 
and  heavy  at  fchool,  was  put  apprentice  to  a  paftry- 
cook  :  he  afterwards  rambled  to  Rome  to  feek  a  live- 
lihood ;  but  being  very  ill-bred,  and  unacquainted 
with  the  language,  no  body  cared  to  employ  him. 
Cljance  threw  him  at  laft  in  the  way  of  Auguftino 
TrafTo,  who  hired  him  to  grind  his  colours,  and  to  do 
all  his  houfehold  drudgery,  as  he  kept  no  other  fer- 
vant.  His  mailer  hoping  to  make  him  ferviceable  to 
him  in  fome  of  his  greateft  works,  taught  him  by  de- 
grees the  rules  of  pell  fpective  and  the  elements  of  de- 
fign.  Claude  at  firft  did  not  know  what  to  make  of 
thofe  principles  of  art ;  but  being  encouraged,  and  not 
failing  in  application,  he  came  at  length  to  underftand 
them.  Then  his  foul  enlarged  itfclf  apace,  and  cul- 
tivated the  art  with  wonderful  eagernefs.  He  exerted 
•  his  utmoll  indullry  to  explore  the  true  principles  of 
painting  by  an  incelfant  examination  of  nature,  that 
genuine  fource  of  excellence  ;  for  which  purpofe,  he 
made  his  ftudics  in  the  open  fields  ;  where  he  very  fre- 
quently continued  from  fun  rife  till  the  dufli  of  the 
evening  compelled  him  to  withdraw  himfelf  from  his 
contemplations.  It  was  his  cuftom  to  iltetch  whatever 
he  thought  beautiful  or  linking  ;  and  every  curious 
tinge  of  light,  on  all  kinds  of  objedls,  he  marked  in  his 
Iketches  with  a  fimilar  colour;  from  which  he  perfect- 
ed his  landfcapes  with  fuch  a  look  of  real  nature,  and 
gave  them  fueh  an  appearance  of  truth,  as  proved  fu- 
pcrior  to  any  artlfl  that  ever  painted  in  that  ftyle. 
The  beauties  of  f.is  paintings  are  derived  from  na- 
ture herfelf,  which  he  examined  with  uncommon  af- 
fiduity  ;  and  Sandrat  relates,  that  Claude  ufed  to  ex- 
plain to  him.,  as  they  walked  through  the  fields,  the 
caufes  of  the  different  aptjearances  of  the  fame  profpedt 


at  different  hours  of  the  day,  from  the  refleflions  or 
refradlions  of  light,  from  dews  or  vapours,  in  the  even- 
ing or  morning,  with  all  the  precifion  of  aphllofopher. 
He  worked  on  his  pictures  with  great  care,  endeavour- 
ing to  bring  them  to  perfeftlon,  by  touching  them  fre- 
quently over  again ;  and  if  any  performance  did  not  an- 
fwcr  his  idea,  it  was  cuftomary  with  him  to  alter,  to 
deface,  and  repaint  it  again  fcveral  times  overj  till  it 
correfpondcd  with  that  image  pidlured  in  his  mind. 
But  whatever  ftruck  his  imagination,  while  he  obiervcd 
nature  abroad,  it  was  fo  llrongly  impreifed  on  his  me- 
mory, that  on  his  return  to  his  work,  he  never  failed 
to  make  the  happicft  ufe  of  it. 

His  fivies  are  warm  and  full  of  luftre,  and  every  ob- 
jeft  is  properly  illumined.  His  dillances  arc  admiia- 
ble,  andin  every  part  a  delightful  union  and  harmony 
not  only  excite  out  applaufe  but  our  admiration.  His 
invention  is  pleafing,  his  colouring  delicate,  and  his 
tints  have  fuch  an  agreeable  f.veetnefs  and  variety, 
as  have  been  but  imperfcftly  imitated  by  the  bell  fub- 
fequent  artifts,  but  weie  never  equalled.  He  frequent- 
ly gave  an  uncommon  tendernefs  to  his  finifiied  trees 
by  glazing  ;  and  in  his  large  compofitions.  which  he 
painted  in  frefco,  he  was  fo  exacl  that  the  diftincl  fpe- 
cies  of  every  tree  might  readily  be  diftingullhed.  As 
to  his  figures,  if  he  painted  them  himfelf,  they  are  very 
indifferent  ;,  and  he  was  fo  confcious  of  his  deficiency 
ia  this  rcfpett,  that  he  ufually  engaged  other  artilts 
who  were  eminent  to  paint  them  for  him  ;  of  which 
number  were  Courtois  and  Phillppo  Laura.  His  pic- 
tures are  now  very  rare,  efpecially  fuch  as  are  unda- 
maged ;  and  thofe  are  at  this  time  fo  valued,  that  no 
price,  however  great,  is  thought  to  be  fuperior  to  their 
merit.  Li  order  to  avoid  a  repetition  of  the  fame  ful>- 
jeft,  and  alfo  to  deteft  fuch  copies  of  his  works  as 
might  be  injurious  to  his  fame,  by  being  fold  for  ori- 
ginals, it  was  his  cuftom  to  draw  (in  a  paper-book  pre- 
pitfed  for  his  purpofe)  the  dcfigns  of  all  thofe  pidfures 
which  were  tranfmitttd  to  different  countries ;  and  ca 
the  back  of  the  drawings,  he  wrote  the  name  of  the 
perfon  who  had  been  the  purchafer.  That  book> 
which  he  titled  Libro  ci'i  f^erita,  is  now  in  the  poffeffica 
of  the  ulike  of  Devonfhire. 

Claude  (John),  a  Pjoteftant  divine,  born  in  the 
province  of  Angenois  in  1619.  MelT.  de  Port  Roy^d 
ufing  their  utmoft  endavours  to  convert  M.  de  Tu- 
renne  to  the  catholic  faith,  prefented  him  with  a  piece 
calculated  to  that  end,  which  his  lady  engaged  Mr 
Claude  to  anfwer ;  and  his  perfoi-mance  gave  rife  to 
the  moft  famous  controverfy  tliat  was  ever  carried  ou 
in  France  between  the  Roman  Cathohcs  and  Prote- 
ftants.  On  the  revocation  of  the  editl  of  Nantz,  h« 
retired  to  Holland,  where  he  met  with  a  kind  recep- 
tion, and  was  honoured  with  a  confiderable  penfion  by 
the  prince  of  Orange.  He  died  in  1687;  and  left  a 
fon  Ifaac  Claude,  whom  he  lived  to  fee  minifter  of  the 
Walloon  church  at  the  Hague,  and  who  publilhed  fe- 
veral excellent  works  of  lus  deceafed  father. 

CLAUDL'\,  a  vellal  virgin  at  Rome,  who  being 
fufpedled  of  unchallity,  is  faid  to  have  been  cleared 
from  that  imputation  in  the  following  manner  :  the 
image  of  Cjbele  being  brought  out  of  Phrygia  to 
Rome  in  a  barge,  and  it  happening  to  ftick  fo  faft  in 
the  river  Tyber  that  it  could  not  be  moved,  ihe  tying 
her  girdle,  the  badge  oi  chaftity,  to  the  baige,  drew 

it 


CI  ia.'*, , 
CUudii, 


C    L     A 


[    45     ] 


C     L     A 


Claiulia,    it  along  to  the  city,  which  a  thoufand  men  wsre  unable 

laudianu?.  to  do, 

-—y^*  Claudia  Aqua  (Frontinns),  water  conveyed  to  Rome 
by  a  canal  or  aquedudl  of  eleven  miles  in  length,  the 
contrivance  of  Appius  Claudius  the  ccnfor,  and  the 
firft  ilrufture  of  the  kind,  in  tlie  year  of  Kome  441. 
Called  alfo  Aqua  App'ut. 

C/.Jcni.i  Cop'ui  (Infcriptions),  a  name  oi Lugdunum, 
or  Lyons  in  France  ;  the  birth-place  of  the  emperor 
Claudius  :  A  Roman  colony,  called  Chiutua,  from  its 
bentfador  the  emperor ;  and  C:jpa,  from  its  plenty  of 
all  ntccfTarics,  efpecially  corn.     See  Lugdunum. 

Claudia,  or  Clodui  Via  (Ovid),  was  that  road 
which,  beginning  at  the  Pons  Milvlus,  joined  the  Fla- 
minia,  palling  through  Etruria,  on  the  fouth  fide  of  the 
Lacus  Sabatinus,  and  ilriking  off  from  t?ie  Caflia, 
and  leading  to  Luca  (Antoninc) :  large  remains  of  it 
are  to  be  feen  above  Bracciano  (Holllenius). 

Claudia  Ltx,  de  Comtliis,  was  enafted  by  M.  CI. 
Marcellus  in  the  year  of  Rome  702.  It  ordained,  that 
at  public  elcftions  of  magiftrates  no  notice  fhould  be 
taken  of  the  votes  of  fuch  as  were  abfent.  Another, 
.  de  Ufiir,!,  which  forbad  people  to  lend  money  to  minors 
on  condition  of  payment,  after  the  dtceafe  of  their 
parents.  Another,  i/e  Negotiatione,  by  Q^CIaudius  the 
tribune,  535.  It  forbad  any  fenator  or  father  of  a 
fenatorto  have  any  veird  containing  above  300  ampho- 
ra, for  fear  of  their  engaging  themfelvcsin  commercial 
fchemes.  The  fam;  law  alfo  forbad  the  fame  thing  to 
the  fcribes  and  tlu;  attendants  of  the  queftors,  as  it 
was  naturally  fuppofcd  that  people  who  had  any  com- 
mercial connexions  could  not  be  faithful  to  their  trull 
nor  promote  the  intercft  of  the  ftate.  Another, 
576,  to  permit  the  allies  to  return  to  their  refpeftive 
cities,  after  their  names  were  inroUed.  Liv.  41. 
c.  9.  Anothc;,  to  take  away  the  freedom  of  the 
city  of  Rome  from  the  colonics  which  Csefar  had 
carried  to  Novicomum. 

CLAUDIANUS  (Claudius),  a  Latia  poet,  flou- 
rilhed  in  the  4th  century,  under  the  emperor  Theo- 
dofius,  and  under  his  fons  Arcadius  and  Houorius.  It 
is  not  agreed  of  what  country  he  was  a  native  ;  but 
lie  came  to  Rome  in  the  year  of  Chrilt:  395,  when  he 
was  about  30  years  old  ;  and  there  iiifinuatcd  himfclf 
into  Stilieho's  favour ;  who  being  a  perfon  of  great 
abilities  both  for  civil  and  militai-y  affairs,  though  a 
Goth  by  birth,  was  fo  confiderable  a  perlon  under  Ho- 
norius,  that  he  may  be  faid  for  many  years  to  have 
governed  the  wcftern  empire.  Stilicho  afterwards  fell 
into  difgrace,  and  was  put  to  death  ;  and  it  is  more 
than  probable  that  the  poet  was  involved  In  the  mis- 
fortunes of  his  patron,  and  feverely  perfecuted  in  his 
perfon  and  fortunes  by  Hadrian,  an  Egyptian  by  birth, 
who  was  captain  of  the  guards  to  Honorius,  and  fuc- 
ceedtd  Stilicho.  There  is  reafon,  however,  to  think 
that  he  rofe  afterwards  to  great  favour  ;  and  obtained 
feveral  honours  both  civil  and  military.  The  princefs 
Serena  had  a  great  efteem  for  Claudian,  and  recom- 
mended and  married  him  to  a  lady  of  great  quality 
and  fortune  in  Libya.  There  are  a  few  little  poems 
on  facred  fubjefts,  which  through  miflake  have  been 
afcribed  by  fome  critics  to  Claudian  ;  and  fu  have  made 
him  be  thought  a  Chiiftan.  But  St  Auftin,  who  was 
cotcmporary  with  him,  exprefsly  fays  that  he  was  a 
Heathen.     The  time  o|'  Claudian's  death  is  uncertain, 

I 


nor  do  we  know  any  further  particulars  of  his  life  than 
what  are  to  be  coUeftcd  from  his  works,   and  which 
we  have   already   related  above.      He   Is  thouglit  to  , 
have  more  of  Virgil  in  his  ftyle  than  all  the  other  Imi- 
tators of  him. 

Claudius  I.  Roman  emperor,  A.  D.  41.  The  be- 
ginning of  his  reign  was  veiy  promiling  ;  but  it  was 
foon  difcoverd  that  little  better  than  an  ideot  filled 
the  throne,  who  might  eafily  be  made  a  tyrant  :  ac- 
cordingly he  became  a  vei-)'  cruel  one,  through  the  in- 
fluence of  his  emprefs,  the  infamous  MelTalina  :  aftei' 
her  death,  he  married  his  niece  Agrlppina,  who  caufed 
him  to  be  polfoned  to  make  way  for  Nero,  A.  D.  54. 
See  (Hijloryof)  Rome. 

Claudius  II.*  (Aurelius),  furnamed  GolLicus,  fig- 
nallzed  himfelf  by  his  courage  and  prudence  under  the 
reigns  of  Valerian  and  Julian;  and  on  the  deuth  of  the 
latter  was  declared  emperor  In  26?.  He  put  to  d.-:ith 
Aureolus,  the  murderer  of  Galicnus  ;  defeated  the 
Germans;  and  In  269  marched  againlt  the  Goths,  who 
ravaged  the  empire  with  an  army  of  300,000  men, 
which  he  at  firft  harafltd,  and  the  next  year  entirely 
defeated  :  but  a  contagious  difeafe,  which  had  fpread 
through  that  vaft  army,  was  caught  by  the  Romans  ; 
and  the  emperor  himfelf  died  of  it  a  fliort  time  after, 
aged  ^6.  PoUIo  fays  that  this  prince  had  the  mo- 
deration of  Anguftus,  the  virtue  of  Trajan,  and  the 
piety  of  Antoninus. 

CLAVES  iNSUL/E,  a  term  ufed  In  the Ille  of  Man; 
where  all  weighty  and  ambiguous  caufes  are  referred 
to  a  jury  of  twelve,  who  are  called  cloves  Injulis,  the 
keys  of  the  Ifland. 

CLAVICHORD,  and  Clavicitherium,  two  mu- 
fical  inftruments  ufed  In  the  1 6th  century.  They  were 
of  the  nature  of  the  fpinet,  but  of  an  oblong  figure. 
The  firll  is  ftlll  ufed  by  the  nuns  in  convents ;  and 
that  the  praftitloners  may  not  dlilurb  the  fillers  in  the 
doimltory,  the  firings  are  muffled  with  fmall  bits  of 
fine  woollen  cloth. 

CLAVICLE.     See  Anatomy,  n" 46. 

CLAVICYMBALUM,  in  antiquity,  a  mufical  in- 
flrument  with  30  firings.  Modern  writers  apply  the 
name  to  our  harpfichords. 

CLAVI  VESTiUM,  were  flowers  or  fluds  of  purple 
interwoven  with  or  fewed  upon  the  garments  of 
knights  or  fenators;  only,  for  diitlnftlon,  the  former 
ufed  them  narrow,  the  latter  broad. 

CLAVIS  properly  fignifies  a  key;  and  Is  fome- 
times  ufed  In  Englifh  to  denote  an  explanation  of  fome 
obfcure  pafTages  of  any  book  or  writing. 

CLAVIUS  (Chrlftopher),  a  German  Jefult  born  at 
Bamberg,  excelled  In  the  knov/ledge  of  the  mathe- 
matics, and  was  one  of  the  chief  perfons  employed  to 
reftify  the  kalendar ;  the  defence  of  which  he  alfo 
undertook  againlt  thofe  who  cenfured  It,  efpecially 
Scallger.  He  died  at  Rome  In  161 2,  aged  75.  His 
works  have  been  printed  In  five  volumes  folio  ;  the 
principal  of  which  Is  his  commentary  on  Euchd's  ele- 
ments. 

CLAUSE,  In  grammar,  denotes  a  member  of  a  pe- 
riod or  fentence. 

Clause  fignifies  alfo  an  article  or  partlc.dar  ftipii- 
lation  In  a  coutradt,  a  charge  or  condition  in  a  telta- 
ment,  cic. 

CLAUSENBURC,  a  large  city  of  Tranfilvania, 

fituated " 


ClautJius, 

ChufL-ci- 

burg. 


c 

river 


L     A 

Samos, 


E.  Long.  20.  50. 


fituated  on  tiie 
N.  Lat.  47.  10. 

CLAVUS,  in  antiquity,  ?.n  ornament  upon  the  robes 
of  the  Roman  fcnators  and  knights ;  w^iiich  was  more 
6r  Icfs  broad,  according  to  the  dignit)'  of  the  perfon  ; 
hence  the  diilinilioii  of  tunica  angufti-clavia  and  lati- 
clavia. 

Clavus,  in  medicine  and  furs^ery,"  is  ufed  in  fcvc- 
ral  llgnilications  :  1.  Claviis  liyflericus,  is  a  fliootiiig 
pain  "in  the  head,  between  tlie  pev'icranium  and  cra- 
nium, which  nfieft  fuch  as  have  the  grecn-fickncfs. 
2.  Clavus  oculoniin,  according  to  Cellus,  is  a  callous 
tubercle  on  the  white  of  the  eye,  taking  its  denomi- 
nation from  its  figure.  3.  Clavits  imports  indurated 
tubercles  of  the  utenie.  4.  It  alfo  imports  a  chi- 
rurppcal  inftrumenl  of  golJ,  mentioned  by  Amatus 
Liifitanus,  defigued  to  be  introduced  into  an  exul- 
ceri-led  palate,  for  the  better  articulation  of  the 
voice.   And,  5.  It  fignifies  a  callus,  or  corn  on  the  foot. 

Clai'vs  yfrmalis,  in  antiquity.  So  rude  and  igno- 
rant were  the  Romans  towards  the  rife  of  their  itatc, 
that  the  diiving  or  fixing  a  nail  was  the  only  method 
they  had  of  keeping  a  regiller  of  time  ;  for  which 
reafon  it  was  called  clavus  annaHs.  There  was  an  an- 
cient law,  ordaining  the  chief  prsetor  to  fix  a  nail 
cveiy  year  on  the  Ides  of  September  ;  it  was  driven 
into  the  right  fide  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Opt.  Max. 
towards  Minerva's  temple.  This  cullom  of  keeping 
an  account  of  time  by  means  of  fixing  nails,  was  not 
peculiar  to  the  Romans  ;  for  the  Etrurians  ufed  like- 
wife  to  drive  nails  into  the  temple  of  their  goddefs 
Nortia  with  the  fame  view. 

CLAW,among  zoologifts, denotes  the  fliarp-pointed 
■nails  with  which  the  feet  of  certain  quadrupeds  and 
birds  are  furnifhcd. 

CLAY,  in  natural  hillory,  a  genus  of  earths,  the 
charafters  of  which  are  thefe  :  Thev  are  firmly  cohe- 
rent, weighty,  and  compaft  ;  ftifF,  vifcid,  and  ductile 
to  a  great  degree,  while  moift,  fiaooth  to  the  touch  ; 
not  eafily  breaking  between  the  fingers,  nor  readily 
diffufible  in  water  ;  and,  when  mixed,  not  readily  fub- 
fiding  from  it.      See  Chemistry,  n' 647,  &c. 

Clay  {brinks  remarkably  when  di"ying ;  in  fo  much 
that  Dr  Lewis  obferves,  the  purity  of  it  may  be  known 
by  the  degree  to  which  it  (lirinks.  He  made  experi- 
ments on  it  pure,  and  when  mixed  with  various 
proportions  of  fand.  Pure  clay  he  found  flirunk  one 
part  in  1 8  while  drying  ;  but,  when  mixed  with  twice 
its  weight  of  fand,  only  one  part  in  30. 

The  common  clays  arc  never  free  from  filiccous 
earth  :  the  beft  method  of  obtaining  the  argillaceous 
earth  in  perfeft  purity  is,  by  diffblvlng  Roman  alum 
in  water,  filtering  the  folution,  and  precipitating  it  by 
inild  volatile  alkali.  When  procured  by  this  method, 
its  fpecific  gravity  is  about  1305  ;  it  is  foluble  in  acids 
with  a  little  efrervcfctr.ce  ;  it  forms  alum  with  the  vi- 
triolic acid ;  and  deliquefcent  falls  with  the  nitrous 
and  marine.  When  dry  it  abforbo  water  greedily, 
and  becomes  foft,  and  acquires  fuch  a  tenacity  that  it 
may  be  moulded  at  pleafure  ;  it  contrails,  however, 
greatly  in  the  fire,  by  which  numerous  cracks  are  oc- 
cafioned.  With  a  certain  degree  of  heat  it  becomes 
fo  hard  as  to  ftrike  fire  with  ftecl,  and  by  llius  burn- 
ing it  lofes  its  tenacity,  the  water  being  excluded  by 
the  approach  of  its  particles  towards  each  otlicr.     Af- 


C    46    ^ 


C    L    A 


ter  .having  loft  this  property,  it  cannot  be  made  to  af- 

fume  it  again  without  being  dilTolvcd  in  an  acid,  and 
then  precipitated  from  it.  Fixed  alkalies  alfo  diil'olve 
it  in  the  dry  way,  as  acids  do  in-  the  moill  ;  but  of 
thefe  lall  the  vitriolic  is  the  moil  proper,  as  it  may  be 
moll  ealily  concentrated. 

According  to  Mr  Kirwan,  the  fpecific  gravity  wf 
this  earth,  when  pure,  does  not  exceed  2000.  It  is 
exceedingly  diftulible  in  water,  though  fcarcely  more 
foluble  than  magnelia.  It  is  combinablc  with  acids, 
from  wheiice  it  may  be  feparated  like  magncfia,  but 
can  fcarce  be  precipitated  by  the  vitriolic  acid,  with 
which  it  forms  alum,  a  fait  that  always  contains  an 
excefs  of  ncid,  and  has  an  aftringent  tafte.  When  in 
combination  with  any  qf  thefe  acids,  it  cannot  be  pre- 
cipitated by  acid  of  fugar  ;  a  criterion  byWhich  it  js 
dillinguilhed  from  all  the  other  earths ;  every  one  of 
which  (terra  ponderofa  alone  excepted,  which  when 
united  to  the  vitriolic  acid,  is  not  ailedled  by  any  o- 
ther  excepting  that  of  fluor)  is  precipitated  from  the 
vitriolic,  nitrous,  and  marine  acids,  by  that  of  fugar. 
The  precipitation  of  thefe  earths,  however,  does  not 
take  place  if  there  be  an  excels  of  the  mineral  acids, 
nor  does  it  always  appear  before  the  liquors  art  eva- 
porated. Though  clay  is  hardened  by  a  very  ftrong 
heat,  it  cannot  be  made  thereby  to  afiume  the  proper- 
ties of  hme.  B5'  a  mixture  with  calcareous  eartU  It 
readily  melts;  and  hence  M.  Gerhard  has  found  it  fu- 
fible  in  a  crucible  of  challi,  though  not  in  one  of  clav. 
Its  fulion  is  not  promoted  by  fixed  alkali,  but  borax 
and  microcofmic  fait  diflblve  It;  the  former  with  a  very 
flight  effervefcence,  but  the  latter  with  a  more  per- 
ceptible one.  It  is  lefs  alFedled  by  calces  of  lead  than 
the  ca'careous  earths  are. 

M.  Beaume  has  formed  a  newhypothefis  concerning 
this  earth  ;  fuppofiiig  the  bads  of  alum,  or  pure  argil- 
laceous earth,  to  be  nothing  tlfe  than  flint ;  and  com- 
mon clay  to  be  filiccous  earth  combined  with  a  little 
vitriolic  acid.  This  opinion  has  been  examined  by 
Mr  Scheele,  who  began  by  tr)-!ng,  in  the  following 
manner,  whether  the  iiiiccous  earth  be  in  reality  fo- 
luble in  vitriolic  acid.  He  took  an  ounce  of  moun- 
tain ci-)'llal  reduced  to  powder,  and  mixing  it  with 
three  ounces  of  fait  of  tartar,  melted  the  whole  by  a 
ftrong  fire.  The  mafs  was  then  dilTolvcd  in  20  ounces 
of  water,  and  as  much  diluted  vitriolic  acid  poured  up- 
on it  as  was  moie  than  fuiScient  for  faturaion.  The 
hquor  being  then  filtered  and  evaporated,  vielded  a 
drachm  and  an  half  of  alum,  befidcs  a  quantity  of  fub- 
acid  vitriolated  tartar.  It  now  remained  therefore 
to  determine  whctlicr  the  precipitated  filiccous  earth, 
by  a  repetition  of  the  fame  procefs,  would  Hill  continue 
to  yield  aliun.  The  operation  was  therefore  repeated 
leven  times,  and  a  quantity  of  alum  procured  at  cacii 
operation.  But  when  our  author  was  hbout  to  be  con- 
firmed in  his  opinion  that  M.  Beaume  was  in  the  right, 
he  happened  to  infpcCL  his  crucibles,  and  perceived 
them  to  be  full  of  little  cavities,  and  every  where  rough 
and  uneven  on  the  in  fide.  Thus  he  began  to  fufpedl 
that  the  alkali  had  dilTolved  part  of  the  clay  of  his 
crucibles,  by  which  means  the  alum  had  been  produ- 
ced ;  and  this  fuppofition  was  veriiied  by  his  after- 
wards ufing  a  crucible  of  iron,  when  he  could  not  ob- 
tain a  fingle  partick  of  alum,  nor  perceive  the  fmallell 
mark  of  folution  on  tlie  iilicc\ju6  earth. 

M- 


Clay. 


C     L    A 


[     47     1 


C    L    A 


Clay.  M.  Beaumc  alio  pretends  Unt  chj  contains  a  little 

"~v~~"  \  jtiiolic  acid,  and  is  tliercfore  fcluble  in  a  large  quan- 
tity of  boiling  water.  Mr  Scheele  likevvife  tried  lliis 
experiment ;  but  found,  that  of  feveral  kinds  of  argil- 
laceous tarth  not  the  fmalleft  quantity  was  diflolvtd  i 
and  he  likewife  made  feveral  experiments  in  order  to 
obtain  vitriolic  acid  from  pure  clay,  but  without  fuc- 
cefs  :  neither  was  he  able  to  obtain  any  hepar  either 
bv  means  of  alkali  of  tartar  or  with  charcxial  ;  nor 
could  he  obtain  with  clay  a  vitriolic  neutral  filt  from  the 
rcliduum  of  the  diftiliation  of  muriatic  and  nitrous  acid. 
The  contratUon  of  clay  by  heat  has  aft^rded  Mr 
Wedtrewood  an  opportunity  of  conllrufling  by  its 
means  an  inftrumcnt  for  meafuring  thofe  degrees 
of  heat  whicli  are  above  the  reach  of  tiie  fcale  of 
common  thermometers,  as  dcfcribed  under  the  article 

ThERM'IMKTER. 

Mr  Scheele  has  made  feveral  experiments  to  difco- 
ver  the  properties  of  aluni  when  mixed  with  other 
fi.bftances.  A  folution  of  alum,  he  finds,  is  decom- 
pofed  by  lime-water  ;  and  if  no  more  of  the  water  be 
added  than  is  exafUy  requifite  for  the  precipitation, 
the  earth  of  alum  fonns  a  tranfparent  precipitate  like 
boiled  (larch  ;  and  if  the  clear  water  be  filtered,  it  is 
ftuiad  to  be  a  folution  of  gypfum.  On  adding  more 
lime-water  than  is  neceffary  lor  precipitation,  the  pre- 
cipitated matter  is  delUtute  of  the  gelatinous  appear- 
ance juft  mentioned.  If  the  whole  be  alIo\red  to  lland 
for  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  and  frequerdly  agitated  du- 
ring this  time,  no  gypfura,  nor  even  lime,  is  found  in 
the  filtered  liquor,  Cnlefs  too  much  lime-Water  has  been 
uied.  On  examining  the  precipitate  in  this  cafe,  our 
author  foimd  it  to  confilt  of  earth  of  alum,  felenite, 
and  lime.  This  was  difcovered  firtl  by  treating  it  with 
muriatic  acid,  which  diffolved  the  aluminous  earth, 
leaving  the  gypfum  behind.  The  addition  of  caullic 
volatile  alkali  threw  down  a  tranfparent  gelatinous 
mafs,  which  was  the  earth  of  alum  ;  and  on  ftrainintT 
it  again,  and  then  adding  a  fixed  alkaline  lixivium, 
the  lime  was  thrown  down  ;  whence  it  appeared,  that 
the  lime  and  gypfum  had  feparated  from  the  water, 
and  united  with  the  earth  of  alum. 

To  underlland  the  reafon  of  this  uncommon  preci- 
pitation, Mr  Scheele  next  poured  into  a  folution  of 
alum  a  quantity  of  cauftic  volatile  alkali  more  than  fuf- 
iicient  to  faturate  the  acid,  in  order  to  be  certain  of 
having  it  all  taken  off.  The  precipitated  earth  was 
then  edulcorated,  and  mixed  with  a  folution  of  gj-pfum, 
that  he  might  ohferve  whether  the  gypfum  would  fe- 
parate  from  the  water,  and  precipitate  with  the  earth 
of  alum  ;  which,  however,  did  not  take  place.  On 
mixing  lime-water  with  the  precipitate,  he  found  that 
the  former  very  foon  loft  its  caullic  tafte,  and  that  the 
earth  of  alum  became  opaque.  Some  part  of  the  wa- 
ter was  iliained,  and  lixivium  tartari  dropped  into 
it ;  but  it  remamed  clear,  nor  was  any  precipitate 
fonned  by  a  folution  of  corrofive  fublimate.  He  after- 
wards added  muriatic  acid  to  the  lad  j)i-ecipitate,  which 
it  diffolved  entirely  without  leaving  any  gypfum  be- 
hind ;  whence  our  author  concludes,  that  the  earth  of 
alum  had  united  with  the  lime  into  a  peculiar  kind  of 
compound. 

Lailly,  he  now  imagined,  that  this-  compound  of 
earth  of  alum  and  lime  might  be  Capable  of  ieparating 
g}pfum  from  water.     To  try  this,  he  prepared  a  large 


quantity  of  the  compound  earth,  mixed  it  with  a  folu-      C"ay. 

tion  of  gypfum,  and  let  it  reft  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour;  ^ ^- 

when  he  touud,  to  his  furprife,  that  the  gypfum  itill 
remained   fufpcnded  in  the  water,  and  that  the  preci- 
pitate was  entir;:ly  foluble  in  rtinriatic  acid.     He  now 
mixed  a  folution  of  gypfum  with  lime-water,  adding 
earth  of  ;vl,.m  at  the  fame  time  ;  when  he  fouhd,  that 
the  whole  was  precipitated  as  before,  the  lime  and  alu- 
minous earth  having   fallen  to  the  bottom  along  with 
the  gypfum,  leaving  the  water  pure.     On  the  whole, 
our  author  condudep,    i.  That  tlie   vitriolic  acid  in 
gypfum  is  capable  of  combining  v\  itii  more  lime  than 
is  necelfary  to  an  exaft  faiuration.    2.  That  calcareous 
earth  is  capable  of  forming  an  union  with  the  earth  of 
alum.      3.    That  g;»pfum   cannot  combine   with  the 
earth   of  alum  ;   but  that   if  a  fuperfluous  quantity  of 
lime  be  united  v/ith  vitriolic  acid,  it  will  then  ferve  as 
a  bond  of  union  to  combine  gypfum  with  the  earth  of 
alum,  and  thus  form  a  new  compound  confining  of 
three  earths.^  Pure  clay  has  no  ttfeit  upon  limev.-atei-. 
Croniledt  is  of  opinion,  that  common  clay,  efpecially 
the  blue,  grey,  and  red  kinds,  may  derive  their  origin 
from  mud  ;-  and  as  the  mud  proceeds  from  vegetables, 
it  will  thence  follow,  that  the   varieties   of  clay  juit 
mentioned  are  nothing  elfe  but  the  common  mould  al- 
tered,   after  a  length   of  time,   by  mtaiis   of  water. 
I'his  opinion,  he  thinks,  receives  confiderable  llrength 
from   the  follov.-ing  circumilances;  viz.  that  a  great 
quantity  of  fca-plants  rot  every  year  in  the  lakes,  and 
are  changed  into  mud  ;  very  little  of  which,  howeverj 
is  feen  upon  the  fnores  after  the  water  is  dried  in  the 
fummer-time  ;  and  that  the  clay  begins  where  the  mud 
ceafes.  Profeffor  Bergman  has  likewife  hinted,  that  pure 
clay  may  be  a  calcareous  earth  combined  with  lome 
acid  not  yet  difcovered ;  "  but  (fays  he)  compofilions 
of  this  kind  ought  to  be  confidtred  as  primitive  fub- 
flances,  with  refpedt  to   our  knowledge  of  them,  till 
they  (hall  be  experimentally  decompoied  :  for  no  found 
knoTvledge  in  natural  phllofophy  can  be  obtained  from 
the  coniidenition  of  mere  porilbilities  ;  fince  daily  ex- 
perience (hows,  that  even  the   mod  probable  fuppofi- 
tions  have   proved  falfe,  when  the  means  of  puttino- 
them   to  the  tcil  have  afterwards  been  found  out."— 
"  Now,  therefore,   (fays  M.  Magellan),  that  the  ar- 
glUaccous  is  acknowledged  to  be  a  fimple  primitive  earth, 
wiiich  caimot  be  decompofed  into  any  other  principles, 
nor  formed  by  the  combination   of  any   other  fimple 
fubftances  we  know,  we  ought  to  rell  fatlsfied  at  jre- 
fent  without  endeavouring  to  account  for  itsformatlon." 
The  principal  fpecies  of  the  argillaceous  earths  or 
clays  are, 

1 .  The  arg'dht  aerata,  or  lac  hiiiiF.  It  is  generally 
found  in  fmall  cakes  of  tJie  hardnefs  of  chalk  ;  like 
which,  alfo,  it  marks  white.  Its  hardnefs  is  nearly  like 
that  ofthelleatltes,  and  it  feels  lefs  fat  than  clays  com- 
monly do.  It  is  of  a  fnow-white  colour,  and  about  the 
fpecltic  gravity  of  1.669.  When  examined  with  a  mi- 
crofcope,  it  is  found  to  confiil  of  fmall  tranfparent  cry- 
llals;  and,  from  Mr  Schrcber's  experiments,  appears 
to  be  an  argillaceous  earth  faturated  with  fixed  air,  in 
confequence  of  v,-hich  it  cfi^rvefces  with  acids.  It 
contains  alfo  a  fmall  quantity  of  calcareous  earth,  anji 
fometimes  of  g^'pfum,  with  fume  flight  traces  of  iron. 
It  is  found  at  Halles. 

2.  'I  he  orgilla  ap^ra,  porcelain  clay,  the  kaolin  of 

the 


C     I.     A 


[    48     ] 


C    L    A 


Clav.  tho  Cliinefc,  is  very  rofiadory  in  the  fire,  and  cannot 
—  • ill  any  common  ftrong  fire  he  brouglit  into  fulion  far- 
ther than  to  acquire  a  tenacious  foftncfs  without  lofing 
its  foim.  When  broken,  it  has  then  a  dim  fltining 
appearance,  and  is  of  a  folid  texture  ;  ftrikes  fire  with 
Heel  ;  and  lias  confequently  the  beil  chemical  proper- 
ties of  any  fubftance  whereof  veffels  can  be  made.  It 
■  is  found  of  an  excellent  quality  in  Japan,  and  likewife 
in  different  parts  of  Europe.  lu  Sweden  it  is  met 
with  in  coal-pits  between  the  itrata  of  coal.  Cronfledt 
informs  us,  that  he  has  fcen  the  root  of  a  tree  entirely 
changed  iiito  this  kind  of  earth. 

M.  Magellan  remarks,  that  we  muft  be  careful  to 
diftinguifii  between  the  pipe-clay  of  which  there  is 
plenty  in  Dcvonihire,  and  that  ufed  in  the  porcelain 
manufaftures.  The  former,  in  a  llrong  fire,  burns  to 
a  bluhh  grey  or  pigeon  colour,  the  latter  remains 
white.  Tlie  porcelain  clay,  according  to  our  author, 
feems  to  be  only  a  decayed  feldt-lpar ;  _  and,  confe- 
quently, according  to  Mr  Bergman,  contains  magnefia. 
Our  porcelain  clay  contains  likewife  quartz,  cryftals, 
and  mica,  parts  of  the  granite  wiiich  it  originally  cora- 
pofed.  Before  it  is  ufed,  the  quartz  muft  be  feparated, 
ibut  the  mica  remains. 

3.  Combined  with  phlogiflon,  and  including  the 
white  tobacco-pipe  clay,  with  others  of  a  grey,  black, 
or  violet  colour.  Mr  Kirwan  obferves,  that  many  of 
the  white days  become  grey  in  a  low  degree  of  heat, 
becaufe  the  mineral  oil  with  which  they  are  mixed 
burns  to  a  kind  of  coal,  and  tinges  them  ;  but  this  be- 
ing confumed  in  a  ftronger  heat,  they  again  become 
white.  The  other  clays  evidently  contain  phlogifton  ; 
in  confequencc  of  which,  they  become  quite  black 
internally  on  being  expofed  to  a  quick  and  itrong  fire, 
afluming  the  appearance  of  common  flints  both  in  co- 
lour and  hardnefs  ;  but  if  heated  by  degrees,  they  are 
iirft  white,  and  afterwards  of  a  pearl  colour.  They 
contain  a  larger  quantity  of  the  inflammable  principle 
in  proportion  to  their  apparent  fatnefs;  which  may  be 
judged  of  both  by  their  fmoothnefs  and  unftuofity, 
and  by  their  fhiuing  when  fcraped  with  the  nail.  "  It 
is  diflicult  (fays  M.  Magellan)  to  determine  whether 
this  ftrongly  adherent  phlogiflon  is  tlie  caufe  of  the 
above-mentioned  pearl-colour,  or  prevents  them  from 
being  burned  white  in  a  rtrong  fire  ;  yet  no  heterogene- 
ous fubflance  can  be  extrafted  from  them  except  fand, 
which  may  be  feparated  from  forae  by  means  of  water, 
but  does  not  form  any  conftituent  part  of  clay.  If  they 
be  boiled  in  aqua-regis  in  order  to  extraft  their  iron, 
they  lofe  their  vifcofity."  In  the  lefs  undtuous  clays, 
our  author  has  found  pure  quartz  in  greater  and  fmaller 
grains,  and  he  has  likewife  found  that  clays  of  this  kind 
fometimes  attrafl  phlogiffon  in  the  fire. 

4.  The  luhomarga,  or  ftone-marrow,  when  dry,  feels 
as  fat  and  flippery  as  foap,  but  is  not  wholly  diffufible 
in  water.  When  mixed  with  this  fluid,  it  falls  to  pie- 
ces either  in  larger  or  fmaller  maffes,  fo  as  to  affume 
the  appearance  of  curds.  In  the  tire  it  readily  melts 
into  a  white  or  reddilh  frothy  flag  ;  which,  in  confe- 
quencc of  its  internal  vacuities,  is  then  of  a  larger  vo- 
lume than  it  formerly  was.  In  ,tlie  mafs  it  breaks  in- 
to irregular  fcaly  pieces.  This  kind  is  called  fuller's 
earth  (ivaUera)  in  Sweden.  In  Crim  Tartary  it  is 
failed  kejfeh'd;  and  is  faid  to  be  ufed  there  iailead  of 
foap,  for  wafhing.  It  is  found  alfo  in  the  Auflri.sn 
Flanders  in  the  barony  of  Hierges,  near  Niverle,  belorg- 


ing  to  the  Duke  of  Arenberg.  It  was  fliowed  to 
M.  Magellan  by  the  Duke's  chancellot  ;  who,  from  *■ 
the  uprightnefs  of  his  behaviour,  has  obtained  the  ho 
nourable  appellation  of  Jean  de  Bten.  At  prefent  it  is 
only  found  in  feparate  mafl'es ;  but  M.  Magellan  is  of  opi- 
nion, that  fome  confidcrable  ilrata  of  it  miglit  be  met 
with,  if  properly  fearched  for  on  the  fpot,  by  digging 
the  ground  to  a  conliderablc  depth. 

To  this  fpecico  alio  belongs  the  yellowifli-brown 
earth  called  terra  hmn'm;  which  is  of  a  lliining  texture, 
and  falls  to  pieces  in  ivater  witii  a  crackling  noifc.  Ac- 
cording to  Mr  Bergman,  tlris  is  a  compound  of  the 
argillaceous,  filiceous,  and  magnefian  earths.  Its  com- 
ponent paits  are  the  fame  as  thofe  of  the  talc,  but 
loofer,  and  in  different  proportions.  M.  Cronllcdt 
remarks,  that  "  the  terra  lemnia  cannot  properly  be 
called  a  fuller's  earth,  as  it  is  never  ufed  in  the  fulling 
buflnefs,  nor  is  likely  to  be  applicable  to  it,  as  being 
befides  very  fcarce.  The  true  fuller's  earth  of  England 
agrees  entirely  with  the  defcription  of  the  ftone-mar- 
row already  given,  and  in  colour  and  texture  refembles 
that  from  Sweden,  which  is  compofed  of  coarfe  par- 
ticles. The  Hampfliire  fuller's  earth  is  of  a  du/lcy 
brown,  inclining  to  green,  with  veins  of  a  faint  yel- 
low ;  and  contains  a  fmall  portion  of  muriatic  acid, 
and  of  a  yellow  oily  matter.  Evei-y  fine  clav  that  does 
not  communicate  a  colour,  is  in  general  fit  for  the  bu- 
finefs  of  fulling  ;  even  the  excrements  of  hogs,  mixed 
with  huftian  urine,  ai'e  ufed  for  this  purpofe  in  variovis 
woollen  manufaftures.  The  properties  required  in  a 
good  fuller's  earth  are,  that  it  fhall  carry  off  the  oily 
impurities  of  the  woollen  cloth,  and  at  the  fame  time 
thicken  it  by  caufing  the  hairs  or  fibres  to  curl  up. 
The  beft  is  compofed  of  fine  filiceous  earth  with  argil- 
la,  and  a  Httle  calcareous  earth  without  vitriolic  acid  j 
a  little  martial  calx,  however,  is  not  hurtful,  if  unat- 
tended with  any  aAive  mentlruum. 

The  terra  lemnia  is  fo  called  from  the  i-fland  of 
Lemnos,  now  Statimane,  in  the  ^gean  Sea,  from 
whence  it  is  procured.  It  is  likewife  called  the  Turli/h 
earth,  on  account  of  its  being  impreffed  with  the  fekl 
of  the  Grand  Signior. 

The  Swedifli  fuller's  earth  is  found  in  a  mountain 
named  Ofmitnd  at  Ratwick  in  Eatt  Dalecarlia.  The 
ilratum  is  three  feet  thick,  and  the  mountain  iifclf  is 
chiefly  calcareous.  It  is  of  an  aflt  colour;  harder,  and  of 
finer  particles,  than  the  Lemnian  earth. 

"All  thefe  fubltances  (the  fuUei-'s  earths),"  fays 
M.  Magellan,  "  are  akin  to  zeolites,  and  likewife  re- 
ferable fome  marles.  But  in  the  Ofmundlan  earths, 
the  connection  of  the  parts  is  not  merely  mechanical,  as 
in  marks;  which  on  that  account  effervefce  llrongly  with 
acids,  though  they  often  contain  a  fmaller  quantity  of 
calcareous  earth  or  magnefia  than  the  litho  marga." 

The  following  table  fliows  the  proportion  of  ingre- 
dients in  each  of  the  fuller's  earths. 


CIsy. 


Terra  Icmniu. 

ipopai     /  Siliceous  earth,  47.0 
contain  j  ^' 
^         Chalk,  5.4. 
Magneiia,  6.2 
Argilla,  1 9.0 
Calx  of  iron,  J.4 
Water  or  vola- 
tile matter,  17.0 


Ofniund 
fuller's  earth. 

60.0 

5-7 

0.5 

II. I 

4-7 

iS.o 


Hamp- 
fliire d©. 

51.8 

3-3 

0.7 

25.0 

3-7 

15-5 


5-  Bolus,    bole,  or 


LA  L     49     ]  C    L     A 

iron- clay,  is   a   fine   and  dcnfe     vlfcidity  is  perceived  on  pounding  it  in  a  mortar,  as  is 


~  clay  of  various  colours,  containing  a  large  quantity  of 
iron,  fo  that  it  is  very  difficult,  or  even  impoffiblc,  to 
know  the  n?.tural  and  fpccific  qualities  of  the  bole  itfeU. 
It  is  not  fo  eafily  foFtened  in  water  when  indurnted  as 
the  porcelain  and  common  clays;  but  either  falls  to 
pieces  in  the  form  of  fmall  grains,  or  repels  the  wa- 
ter, and  cannot  be  made  duftile.  In  the  fire  it 
grows  black,  and  is  then  attrafted  by  the  loadllone. 

M.  Kirwan  thinks  the  term  hole  a  word  of  inch  un- 
certain fisrnification,  that  it  ouLjht  to  be  baniflied  from 
oommo'n  ufe,  or  at  lead  from  every  mineralogical  trca- 
tife.  "  Seme  (fays  he)  bellow  this  name  upon  very 
fmooth  compaft  clays,  confifting  of  the  firieil  par- 
ticles :  others  require  befides,  that  their  colour  fhould 
be  red,  yellow,  or  brown,  and  that  they  fliould  con- 
tain iron."  The  red  generally  blacken  in  the  fire;  but, 
accordiuc;  to  Rinman,  without  becoming  magnetic. 
The  yellow,  when  heated,  become  firll  red  ;  and,  in  a 
ftrong  heat,  brown  or  black.  What  the  Italians  call 
Calamit/i  Bianca,  according  to  Ferbtr,  is  a  white  bole 
ftriated  like  afbeftos.  The  true  figillata  rubra  con- 
tains calcareous  earth  ;  and,  according  to  Rinman,  be- 
comes magnetic  after  torretaAion.  The  yellow,  red, 
and  brown  clays  contain  moll  iron,  fometimes  difper- 
fed  through  their  fubftar.ce-,  and  fometimes  united  to 
the  filiceous  part:  in  this  cafe  they  are  fufible  with 
greater  difficulty.  The  yell  )w  calx  cf  iron  is  more  dc- 
phlogillica  ed  than  the  led,  and  the  red  than  the 
brown.  Thefe  clays  do  not  become  magnetic  after 
calcination,  uiilels  fhey  contain  14  or  15  per  cent,  of 
iron. 

Tilt  foft  boles  are  of  various  colours,  as  red,  yellow, 
green,  grey,  and  bluifh  gr«y.  The  red  kind  is  that 
ufed  in  medicine  unde'-  the  name  of  Armenian  bole  ;  an 
indurated  kind  of  which  affords  the  ir,aterlal  for  the  red 
pencils  Formerly,  when  the  terrse  figillatce  were 
efleemed  In  medicine,  the  drnggllls  en.'eavoured  to 
have  them  of  alldiflFerent  colours;  for  which  reafon  they 
not  only  lealed  up  all  tlie  natuial  fnrts  of  c\av,  but 
fuch  as  had  been  mixrtl  and  coloured  artificially  ; 
whence  tUe  clafs  of  boles  was  fuppofed  to  be  much 
more  numerous  than  it  really  is.  Crcmfledt  concludes, 
thr.r  "  fiuce  the  greattft  part  of  thefe  territ  JigillaU 
contain  iron,  the  bole  mufl  be  a  maitial  clay;  and  as 
fuch  11  fjcms  to  be  more  fit  for  medical  ufes  than  o- 
ther  clays,  if  any  dead  canh  mud  be  ufed  inter- 
nally, when  there  is  fuch  an  abundance  of  finer  fub- 
ftances. 

The  indurated  bole  or  (late  is  of  a  reddifli  brown 
or  gT"ey  colour,  and  is  found  in  moll  coallerics  between 
the  fean-.s  of  coal.  It  is  met  with  fi-equcntly  in  pieces 
like  nuts  of  various  fizes;  which,  when  broken,  ex- 
hibit iuiprefiions  of  plants  as  the  nodules  of  copper 
fiate  from  I'menaus  contain  filh. 

6.  With  fcaly  particles,  the  horn-Uende  of  the 
Swedes.  This  is  called  born  roch-Jloiu  by  Wallerlus, 
who  places  it  among  the  apyrous  llon.;s  ;  but  Lin 
iisus  has  put  it  among  the  calcareous  lloucs  by  the 
name  oi  hom-Jlag,  tciicum  rorneum.  It  Is  named  iVy/c-«/n 
fcrititwn  by  Rinman,  and  has  the  followi'i;'  properties  ; 
I.  Its  fpecit'C  gravity  is  never  lefs  thru.  2.660,  and 
frequently  rifes  to  ;?.88o.  2.  It  has  a  ftn.ug  earthy 
fmcU,  whicli  is  jj.irticularly  feufible  on  breathing  upon 
it,  or  pouring  hot  water  on  it.     3.  A  toughnefs  or 

Vol.  V.  Part  I. 


the  cafe  with  mica  and  horn  ;  from  which  lall  it  de- 
rives its  name.  4.  When  pounded  it  affords  a  green- 
ifii-grey  powder.  5.  It  is  laid  to  be  fufible  /rr  fe  ; 
though  Mr  Kirwan  informs  us,  that  he  could  never 
nivlt  this  flone  even  by  the  allillance  of  a  blow-pipe. 
This  Hone  is  frequently  mixed  with  pyrites.  It  is  di- 
flinguiflied  from  the  martial  glimmer  or  m'ica  by  the 
fcaks  being  lefs  fliinliig,  thicker,  and  reclangtdar.  It 
is  of  two  kinds,  black,  and  greculdi.  The  former, 
when  rubbed  fine,  affords  a  green  powder.  It  is  the 
cortuum  nilnu  of  Wallerlus,  and  Is  either  of  a  lamel- 
lated  or  granular  texture  ;  the  fonner  being  fometiitifg 
fo  foft  as  to  be  fcraped  with  the  nail,  and  Its  furface 
frequently  as  gloffy  as  if  it  had  been  greafed  ;  the 
fpccific  gravity  being  from  3600  to  3880.  It  does 
not  detonate  with  nitre,  but  becomes  of  a  fnuff-colour 
when  heated,  and  then  (lightly  effervefces  with  diluted 
nitrous  acivl  ;  the  folution  affuming  a  greenifll  colour. 
In  order  to  difcover  the  principle  on  which  the  fmell 
of  this  Hone  depends,  Mr  Kirwan  boiled  its  powder  in 
water ;  but  could  not  difcover,  either  by  the  taite  or 
by  any  other  method,  that  any  thing  h;id  been  com- 
municated to  the  fluid.  An  hundred  parts  of  the  la- 
mellar fort  contain  37  of  filiceous  earth,  22  of  pure 
argillaceous  earth,  16  of  magnefia,  and  two  of  calca- 
reous earth,  both  in  a  mild  ftate,  together  with  23  of 
calx  of  iron  not  much  deplogillicated.  The  greeuiftt 
kind  is  of  a  granular  texture,  or  ftriated  ;  the  fpccific 
gravity  of  a  fpecimen  examined  by  Mr  Kirwan  was 
2683.  The  common  pale,  greenifli-grey  whetllonc 
feems  to  belong  to  this  fpccies.   . 

7.  The  n^eolite  wis  firft  difcovered  by  Cronftedt, 
and  by  him  reckoned  a  genus  dllllnft  from  every  o- 
ther  ;  but  on  a  proper  chemical  analyfis,  both  Kir- 
wan and  Bergman  have  reckoned  them  among  the 
argillaceous  earths  ;  and  here  M  Magellan  obffrves, 
that,  "  it  Is  not  fo  much  the  qviantlty  as  the  liiien- 
fity  or  predominancy  of  property  that  IhoulJ  In  ge- 
neral diredt  us  in  the  clallification  of  mineral  1)  ;dies; 
not  to  mention,  that  if  the  rule  refpefting  quam'.ii  \>  ere 
rigoioufly  adhered  to,  the  two  primitive  earths,  niag- 
ncfia  and  argill,  would  not  be  found  among  the  earths  ; 
which  would  doiibtkfs  be  an  abfurdity,  as  Bergman 
has  rightly  obferved." 

The  properties  of  zeolite  are,  I.  It  is  a  little  harder 
than  the  fluors,  and  other  calcareous  fpars ;  but  is 
fcratched  by  ilecl,  and  does  not  llrike  fire  with  it. 
2.  It  melts  eafily  in  the  fire,  with  an  ebullition  like 
borax,  into  a  white  frothy  flag,  which  cannot,  without 
gieat  difficulty,  be  brought  into  a  folld  tranfparent 
Hate.  3.  It  dllfolves  more  readily  In  tlie  fire  by  the 
help  of  mineral  alkali,  than  that  of  borax  or  micro- 
cofmlc  fait.  4.  It  does  not  ferment  with  the  latter  as 
lime  does,  nor  with  the  former  as  thofe  of  the  gyp- 
fcous  kind.  5.  It  diffolves  very  flowly,  and  without 
effervefcencc.  In  acids,  as  oil  of  vitriol  and  fpirit  of 
n  tre.  With  the  former-  a  great  heat  arifcs,  and  the 
powder  unites  into  a  mafs.  By  dlillUation  with  ni- 
trous acid,  lome  fixed  and  dephloglfticated  airs  are 
procured.  Some  forts  of  zeolite,  however,  found  in 
Sweden,  I'o  not  melt  by  themfelves  in  the  fire,  but  arc 
readily  diffolved  by  the  acid  of  nitre  into  a  kind  of 
jelly.  7.  The  fufille  kinds,  in  the  very  moment  of 
fufioii,  emit  a  phofphoric  light. 

G  WitL 


Clay. 


C     L    A  [5 

ClaT-  With  regard  to  the  component  parts  of  zeolite,  M. 

■"^  '  '  Bayen  is  of  opinion  that  it  conlills  of  equal  parts  of  fi- 
liceous  and  argillaceyus  earths,  whicli  is  alio  confirm- 
ed by  M.  Gucttard  ;  but  according  to  Mr  Berjjman's 
analyfis,  the  red  zeolite  of  Adelfores  contains  80  pir 
cent,  of  filiceous  earth;  9.5  of  argillaceous;  6.5  of 
pure  calcareous  earth  ;  and  four  of  water.  The  white, 
oval,  radiated  zeolite  of  Feroe  in  Iceland,  contains, 
according  to  M.  Pelletier,  50  of  filex  ;  20  of  argilla- 
ceous earth  ;  8  of  pure  calcareous  earth ;  and  2  2  of 
water.  According  to  Mr  Mayer's  analyiis,  a  radiated 
zeolite  yielded  58.33  per  cent,  of  filtx  :  17.5  of  ar- 
gill;  6.66  of  lime;  and  175  of  water.  In  general 
the  cryilaUifed  kind  contain  more  water  than  the  o- 
ther.  At  anv  rate,  though  the  proportions  of  in- 
gredients are  various,  fdex  always  feems  to  predomi- 
nate. 

In  general  the  zeolites  are  of  a  crj'ftalline  form, 
conipofed  of  imperfeft  pyramids  turned  towards  a 
common  centre  ;  their  form  is  fometimts  globiJar, 
but  feldom  prifmatic.  Meffrs  Faujas  and  Rome  de 
I'Ifle  mention  zeolites,  of  a  cubic  and  other  forms, 
found  in  Iceland,  the  Cyclops  Iflands  near  Etna  in 
Sicily,  the  iflar.d  of  Bourbon,  ice.  their  fpecific  gra- 
vity is  from  2. 1 00  to  3.150;  but  this  lail  is  veiy  rare. 
Fabroni  mentions  a  femitranfparent  zeolite  from  Gar- 
pliyttan  in  Sweden,  which  has  an  eleelric  power.  To 
the  fpecits  of  zeolite  alfo  belongs  the  lapis  lazuli,  from 
■which  idtramarine  is  made.  See  Lapis  La-zuli,  and 
Ultramarine. 

The  fparry  zeolite  refembles  a  calcareous  fpar;  but 
is  of  a  more  irregular  figure,  as  well  as  more  brit- 
tle. It  is  found  in  Sweden  of  a  light  red  or  orange 
colour. 

The  crj'ftalhztd  zeolites  are  met  with  in  greater 
plenty  than  the  other  hinds  ;  and  are  found  in  Sweden 
of  various  forms  and  colours.  Brunich  informs  us,  that 
in  the  north,  the  countries  of  the  zeolites  and  of  the 
chalcedony  and  cr.lholong,  pieces  are  fliown  as  cu- 
riofities,  in  which  the  zeolite  is  inclofed  in  the  chalce- 
dony; but  this  is  not  fufficient  to  prove  that  the  one 
was  produced  from  the  other. 

Cronltedt  obferves,  that  the  zeolites  have  nearly 
the  faiTie  qualities  in  the  fire  as  the  boles.  The  pro- 
perty of  fwelling  in  the  fire,  like  borax,  is  peculiar  to 
the  ciyftallized  kind  ;  the  others  rife  only  in  fome 
fmall  bliilers,  which  are  of  a  white  colour  at  their  edges, 
and  inftantly  cover  themftlves  with  a  white  glaffy  /Icin, 
sifter  which  they  become  quite  refraftory.  According 
to  Bergman  they  have  a  great  afBnity  lo  the  fchoerls  ; 
but  their  component  parts  are  not  fo  ftrongly  connec- 
ted as  to  hinder  the  aftion  of  acids,  which  can  dcftrov 
their  combination,  without  being  previoufly  treated 
with  fixed  alkali  ;  this  laft  being  a  necefian'  requilite 
for  analyling  fchserb.  Mr  Pazumot  is  of  opinion 
that  the  zeolites  cannot  be  a  volcanic  produftion,  but 
only  a  fecondary  one  formed  by  the  decompofition  of 
volcanic  earths.  Pure  bafaltes  and  volcanic  lavas  have 
indeed  the  fame  component  parts  with  the  zeolites  ; 
and  thefe  laft  have  not  yet  been  found  but  among  vol- 
canic matters :  but,  as  M.  Faujaj  obferves,  there  are 
many  inftances  of  true  zeohtes  being  quite  buried 
within  the  bodies  of  folid  bafaltes,  fome  being  only 
fragment:,  and  others  complete  zeolites  ;  "  which, 
(fays  M.  Magellan),  undeniably  proves,  that  the  lat- 


o     ]  C     L     A 

ter  have  been  completely  formed  before  thefe  volcanic 
maffes  were  produced  by  fubttrraneous  fiies. 

8.  Tripoli  ufed  in  polithing  hard  fubjlances.  See  Tri- 
poli. 

9.  Tlie  common  or  brlch  day,  has  the  following 
properties.  1.  It  acquires  a  red  colour,  more  or  lefs 
deep,  in  the  fire.  2.  it  melts  pretty  ealily  into  a 
greenifh  gL-ifs.  3.  It  coiifills  of  a  mixture  of  pure 
clay,  filiceous  and  martial  earth,  containing  alio  a 
fmall  quantity  of  vitriolic  ac'd.  It  is  found  in  a  ilateof 
purity  of  various  colours,  as  red, pale -red.grey,  and  blue. 
In  fome  provinces  of  Sweden  a  white  kind  is  met  with^- 
often  in  a  llatv  form,  with  fine  fand  between  its  drata  ;. 
which  when  burnt  is  of  a  paler  colour  than  any  of  thj 
preceding,  and  does  not  cake  well  in  the  fire  ;  it  is  al- 
fo more  fufible  than  any  of  them.  In  this  country  al- 
fo is  found  a  fpecies  calLd,  by  Cronltedt,  fermenting 
cloy,  argiUa  itilumefant.  It  is  very  like  the  preceding 
as  to  the  external  appearance  and  other  qualities  :  but, 
when  both  are  found  in  the  fame  place,  they  feem  to- 
be  different  in  regard  to  the  fermenting  property  of 
this  variety.  "  This  fermentation  (fays  our  author )- 
cannot  be  the  effeft  of  the  fand  mixed  with  it,  becaufe- 
fand  is  found  in  them  both ;  and  bcfides,  this  kind 
firmeiits  in  the  fam.e  manner  when  it  is  mixed  with; 
gravel  or  (tones ;  and  then  it  ferments  later  in  the  fpring 
than  the  other,  fince  by  the  ilones,  perhaps,  the  froii 
is  longer  retained  in  it. 

This  kind  of  clay  is  alfo  found  mixed  with  calca- 
reous earth,  in  which  cafe  it  is  called  Marle.  It  is 
alfo  found  in  an  indurated  ilate,  and  that  either  pure 
or  mixed  with  phlogiilon  and  a  large  quantity  of  vi- 
triolic acid ;  in  which  cafe  it  conftitutes  the  ores  of  a- 
lum.  It  is  alfo  found  in  this  ilate  mixed  with  calca- 
reous earth,  forming  ilone  marie. 

10.  Argillaceous  fofflle  Hones.  The  moll  remarkable 
of  thefe  are,  1.  The  fch'iftus  tc^ularis,  or  common 
houfe-llate.  It  is  of  a  bluilh  purple  colour,  does  not 
ftrike  fire  with  fteel,  and  may  be  flightly  fcraped  with- 
the  nail.  It  is  very  brittle,  of  a  lamellar  texture,  and 
of  the  fpecific  gravity  2.876;  giving  a  clear  found 
when  in  pieces  of  half  an  inch  thick.  It  is  never  tranf- 
pirent,  but  has  a  moderately  fine  grain,  effervefcing^ 
llighliy  with  acids  v/hen  powdered,  but  not  other- 
wife.  In  the  fire  it  lofes  upwards  of  z per  cent,  of  its 
weight  ;  detonates  flightly  with  nitre,  and  then  af- 
fumes  a  brownrifh  red  colour;  however,  it  is  not  ren- 
dered magnetic  by  calcination.  By  a  vehen\ent  heat 
it  is  fufible  per  fe,  and  melts  into  a  black  fcoria.  '  It 
melts  with  difliculty  in  the  dry  way  with  mineral  alka- 
li, but  more  eafily  with  borax  and  microcolmic  fait,, 
with  little  effervefcence  ;  and  it  melts  with  equal  eafe 
in  chalk  or  clay  vefTels.  By  digeftion  for  two  month* 
in  dephlogifticated  fpirit  of  nitre,  the  mcnftruum  af- 
fumes  a  green  colour.  According  to  Mr  Kirwan,  it 
contains  26  parts  of  argillaceous  earth  j  46  of  fili- 
ceous ;  8  of  magnefia  ;  4  of  calcareous  earth;  and  14 
of  iron.  Part  of  the  iron  feems  to  be  phlogifticated 
by  a  mineral  oil  united  with  it ;  and  part  dephlogifti- 
cated, or  in  a  red  calx.  This  laft  is  united  to  the  ar- 
gillaceous part  as  well  as  to  the  fihceous,  and  cannot  be 
feparated  without  great  difficulty.  The  colour  of  this 
flate  varies  to  the  pale,  to  the  flightly  purple,  and  to 
theblulfti.  The  laminx  of  the  lall  are  thicker,  their 
tcsture  coarfer,  and  they  contaia  more  filiceous  earth 

and 


Cuv. 


C    L     A 


[     i'     1 


C    L     A 


and  Itfs  iron  than  the  foreg;oiiiij.  Other  ftones  are  alio 
made  life  of  for  covering  houfcs  ;  but  their  himinw  arc 
much  thicker,  their  fuiface  more  uneven,  and  their 
texture  coarfer.  They  bclonj^  chiefly  to  the  fand-llonef, 
or  to  the  calcareous  kinds.  The  dark  \i\uq  filrftus fcrip- 
terius  contains  more  magncfia  and  Itfi  iron  than  the 
foregoing,  and  therefore  effervefoes  more  biilkly  with 
acids.  Its  fpecinc  gravity  is  2701.  2. 'i'he  pyrita- 
ceous  fchi/'fi/s,  to  which  alfo  belongs  that  from  which 
alum  is  made,  is  of  a  grey,  blae,  brown,  or  black  colour; 
and  is  more  or  lefs  decompofabic  by  Its  expufurc  to  air, 
srccording  to  the  quantity  of  the  pyrites,  and  the  flate  of 
the  iron  in  it.  When  the  iron  is  in  a  femiphlogilticated 
ftate,  the  fchiftus  will  be  ealily  deccmpofed  ;  but  much 
more  (lowly,  if  afail,  when  the  calx  is  much  dephlogilU- 
CPted.  3.T!ie  bitiinur.ms J'chlj}ii.t  is  generally  black,  of 
a  lamellar  texture,  and  various  degrees  of  hardnefs.  It 
never  gives  fire  with  Heel,  but  emits  a  llrong  ftnell 
when  heated,  and  fometimcs  without  being  heated. 
V/hen  fcraped  it  does  not  produce  any  white  mark 
like  the  other  fchiftns.  M.  Magellan  mentions  a  fpe- 
cimen  found  in  Yovklhire  which  burned  like  coal,  with 
a  ftrong  fmell  of  bitumen. 

There  are  various  other  fpecies  of  argillaceous 
earths,  as  the  flag-done,  fand  or  free  ftbne,  toad- 
ftone,  &c.  for  a  defcrlption  of  which  fee  thefe  ar- 
ticles. 

Clays  are  of  veiy  extenfive  ufe  in  common  life. 
Some  varieties  of  the  porcelain  clay  become  perfetTtly 
white  in  the  fire;  %nd  it  is  not  to  be  doubted  but  thtle 
are  ufed  in  the  porcelain  manufaftories.  The  indu- 
rated porcelain  clay,  howevsr,  cannot  be  eafiiy  heat- 
ed without  cracking  ;  and  therefore  we  can  go  no  great 
length  in  hardening  it.  The  boles  have  almofl  loft 
their  value  as  medicines ;  but  are  ilill  employed  to 
make  bricks,  potter's  ware,  &c.  Tripoli  is  of  indif- 
penfable  ufe  in  the  bufinels  of  polidiing,  and  is  like- 
wife,  on  many  occaiions,  ined  for  making  raoiJds  to  caft 
metals  in. 

In  agriculture,  clay  is  indifpenfably  nece.Tary  ;  ex- 
cepting, however,  according  to  Cronlledt,  the  white 
and  fermenting  clays  above  mentioned,  for  which  no 
'jfe  has  yet  been  difcovered.  By  its  coherency  clay 
ret^ns  humidity  ;  on  which  perhaps  Its  chief  power  of 
prom'bting  vegetation  depends. 

Dr  Black  obferves,  that  clay,  when  mixed  with  a 
large  proportion  of  water,  and  kneaded  a  little,  be- 
comes a  remarkable  ductile  adhefive  mafs,  which  is  not 
eafiiy  difTolved  in  more  water,  and  to  render  it  thin 
and  fluid  requires  great  trouble.  Hence  it  is  employ- 
ed for  confining  large  quantities  of  water,  as  In  making 
ranals  and  dykes  :  but  the  foil  mufl;  either  contain  a 
"Teat  quantity  of  clay  natiually,  or  fome  quantity  of 
it  muft  be  fpread  on  the  bottom  ;  or  the  water  itfelf 
tnuft  depofit  a  quantity  of  clay  fufficient  to  render  it 
tight.  Hence  alfo  we  fee  the  b;id  effc&s  of  allowing 
cattle  to  tread  much  in  cl ^y-grotmds  v^hen  wet;  for 
the. clay  is  reduced  to  fuch  an  adhefive  mafs  as  not  to 
admit  the  roots  to  penetrate  the  foil,  or  the  water  to 
Tuter  to  the  roots. 

Clay  is  ufed  In  the  refining  of  fugar  ;  for  which  no 
«ther  property  Is  requliite  than  that  it  may  not  dry  too 
foon  :  but  that  fpecies  ufed  in  fulling  mnft,  if  we 
were  to  judge  a  prkri,  bcCdcs  tlTe  finenefg  of  its  par- 


ticles, be  of  a  dry  nature,  or  fuch  a:,  attracts  oils  ;  the*      CUr, 
thi.i  quality  perhap.iinay  not  be  found  in  all  thofe  clays  Clay^ri. 
that  are  no«'  employed  in  the  bufintfj.      According  to         ' 
Fabroni,the  pure  white  clay  being  calcined  in  a  ilrong 
heat,  acqjlics  a  pliofjjhorelcent  quality. 

Cl^y,  a  tov»n  of  Norfolk  in  England,  fcated  on 
an  arm  of  the  fea  between  two  rivtirs,  In  E.  Long, 
o.  30.  N.  Lat.  47.  28. 

CuAY-Lmic/s,  thofe  abounding  with  clay,  whether 
black,  blue,  yellow,  white,  &c.  of  which  the  black  and 
the  yellow  are  the  beft  for  com. 

All  clay-foils  are  apt  to  chill  the  plants  growing  on 
them  In  n«^l  feafons,  as  they  retain  too  much  water  : 
in  diy  feafons,  on  the  contrary,  they  turn  hard  and 
choke  the  plants.  t  heir  natural  produce  is  weeds, 
gooff-grafs,  large  daifies,  thiilles,  docks,  puppies,  &c. 
Some  clay-iulls  will  bear  clover  and  rye-grafs  ;  and,  if 
well  manured,  will  produce  the  bell  grain:  they  hold 
manure  the  bell  of  all  lands;  and  the  moft  proper  for 
them  are  horfe-dung,  pigeon's  dung,  fome  kinds  of 
mark,  folding  of  iheep,  malt-drlt,  alhes,  chalk,  lime, 
foot,  &c. 

CLAYTON  (Dr  Robert),  a  prelate  of  great  learn- 
ing, of  dirtinguiflied  worth  and  probity,  and  a  rcfpec- 
table  member  of  the  Royal  and  Antiquarian  Societies - 
at  London,  was  advanced  to  the  bilhoprlc  of  Klllala, 
Jan.  23.  1729;  trandated  to  the  fee  of  Cork,  IJec.  19. 
1735  ;  to  that  of  Clogher,  Aug.  26.  1745;  and  died 
much  lamented,  Feb.  2j.  1758.  His  publications 
are,  i.  A  Letter  In  the  f  hllofophical  Tianfacllons, 
n°46i,  p.  813.  giving  an  account  of  a  Frenchman  70 
years  old  (at  Inldianan,  In  his  diocefc  of  Coike),  who 
faid  he  gave  fuck  to  a  child. —  2.  The  Chronology 
of  the  Hebrew  Bible  vindicated,  &c.  1751,  4to. — 
3.  An  impartial  Inquiry  into  the  Time  of  the  Co- 
ming of  the  Meffiah  ;  1751,  8vo. — 4.  An  Eil'ay  on 
Spirit,  1751,  8vo. — 5.  A  Vindication  of  the  Hiilorlcs 
of  the  Old  and  New 'I'eilament,  in  Anfwer  to  the  Ob- 
je>flicms  of  the  late  lord  Bolingbroke  :  in  Two  Letters 
to  a  young  Nobleman,  1752,  8vo,  reprinted  in  1753. 
— 6.  A  defence  of  the  Eflay  on  Spirit,  with  Re- 
inarks  on  the  feveral  pretended  Anfvvers;  and  which 
(Tray  ferve  as  an  Antidote  agalnll  all  that  dial!  ever  ap- 
pear againil  it,  1753,  8vo.-  7.  A  Journal  from  Grand 
Cairo  to  Mount  Sinai,  and  back  again,  tranflatcd 
from  a  Maimfcript  v.Titten  by  the  Prefctto  of  E* 
gypt,  in  Company  with  fome  Milfionaries  de  prnpa- 
ganiUJidf  at  Grand  Cairo  :  to  which  arc  added.  Re- 
marks on  the  Origin  of  Hieroglyphics,  and  the  My- 
thology of  the  ancient  Heathens,  1753,  Svo,  two  e- 
ditlons  410  and  Svo.  It  was  foon  after  this  publica- 
tion that  his  Lorddilp  became  (in  March  1754) 
a  fellow  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries. — 8.  Some 
Thoughts  on  Self-love,  Innate  Ideas,  Free-will,  Tafte, 
Sentiments,  Liberty,  and  Necelhty,  &c.  occafionei 
by  reading  Mr  Hume's  Works,,  and  the  (hort  Trea- 
tife  written  In  French  by  Lord  Bolingbroke  on  Com- 
panion, 1754,  Svo — 9.  A  Vindication  of  the  HI- 
Ikorles  of  the  Old  and  New  Teltamcnt,  Part  II.  A- 
dorned  with  feveral  Explanatory  Cuts,    1754,  Svo. — 

10.  Letters  between   the  bidiop  of  Clogher   and  Mr 
William    Penn,    concerning    Baptifm,    175'5,   8vo.— • 

11.  A  Speech  made  in  the  Houfc  of  Lords  in   Ire- 
land, on  Monday,  Feb.  2.  1756,  for  omitting  the  Ni- 

G  2  cenc 


CLE  [5 

Claytonla  cene  and  Athanafian  Creeds  out  of  the  Liturgy,  &c. 
1756,  8vo. — 12.  A  Vindication,  part  III.  1758,  8vo, 
The  three  parts  of  the-"  Vindication,  with  the  EfTay 
oa  Spirit,  were  reprinted  by  Mr  Bowyer,  in  one  vol. 
8vo,  1759;  with  feme  additional  notes,  and  an  index 
of  texto  of  fcri|)tm-e  ilhiftrated  or  explained. 

CLAYTONIA,  in  botany  :  A  genus  of  the  mo- 
nogynia  order,  belonging  to  the  pcntandria  clafs  of 
plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
13th  order.  Succulent,!.  The  calyx  is  bivalved  ;  tlie 
corolla  pcntapctalous;  the  ftigmatrifid;  the  capfuletri- 
valved,  unilocular,  and  trifpermous.  There  are  two 
fpccies,  natives  of  America.  They  are  very  low  herba- 
ceous plants,  with  vvliite  flowers;  and  are  pofTeffed  of 
no  remarkable  property 

CLAZOMENvE  arum,  (Herodotus,  Strabo,  Vel- 
leius,  Pliny)  ;  Cla^omena,  M,  (Mela)  ;  one  of  the 
twelve  ancient  cities  of  Ionia.  The  country  of  An- 
axagoras;  fituated  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Colophon, 
The  city  was  fmall,  its  port  on  the  N.  N.  W.  fide 
of  the  ifland.  Traces  of  the  walls,  Dr  Chandler  in- 
forms us,  are  found  by  the  fea,  and  in  a  hill  are  veiK- 
ges  of  a  theatre.  Three  or  four  trees  grow  on  it ;  and 
by  one  is  a  cave  hewn  in  the  rock,  and  affording  water. 
A  vaulted  room  with  a  chimney  at  one  end,  and  a  ho- 
vel or  two  made  with  ftones  piled,  are  all  the  prcfent 
ftruftures  ;  and  thefe  are  chiefly  frequented  by  filher- 
men  and  by  perfons  employed  to  watch  and  to  drive 
away  birds  v,-hen  the  grain  ripens.  Referring  to  this 
confined  fituation  ,of  Clazoraenae,  a  famous  fophiil, 
when  importuned  to  adorn  his  native  city  by  re- 
fiding  in  it  rather  than  at  Smyrna,  replied,.  The  ntghlin- 
gale  refufes  to  Jin  ^  in  a  cage. 

CLEANTHES,  a  ftoic  philofopher,  difciple  of 
Zeno,  flouriflied  240  years  before  Chrifl;.  He  main- 
tained himfelf  in  the  day  by  working  in  the  night:  be- 
ing queftioned  by  the  magiftrates  how  he  lubfilled,  he 
brought  a  woman  for  whom  he  kneaded  bread,  and  a 
gardener  for  whom  he  drew  water  ;  and  refufed  a  pre- 
fent  from  them.  He  compofed  feveral  works,  of 
which  there  are  no\i>  only  a  few  fragments  remaining. 

CLEAR,  as  a  naval  term,  is  varioufly  applied  to 
the  weather,  the  fea-coafts,  cordage,  navigation,  &c. 
The  weather  Is  faid  to  be  clear  when  it  is  fair  and 
open,  as  oppofed  to  cloudy  or  foggy.  The  fea-coaft.  is 
tailed  clear  when  the  navigation  is  not  interrupted,  or 
rendered  dangerous  by  rocks,  fands,  or  breakers,  &c. 
It  is  expreffed  of  cordage,  cables,  &c.  when  they  are 
«nembarrafled  or  difentangled,  fo  as  to  be  ready  for 
immediate  fervice.  It  is  ufually  oppofed  to  foul  in  all 
thefe  fenfes. 

CLEARCHUS,  a  tyrant  of  Heraclea  in  Pontus, 
who  was  killed  by  Chion  and  Leonidas,  Plato's  pu- 
pils, during  the  celebration  of  the  feftlvals  of  Bacchus. 
He  had  enjoyed  the  fovereign  power  during  12  years. 
A  Lacedaemonian  ferit  to  quiet  the  Byzantines.  He 
was  r.-called,  but  refufed  to  obey,  and  fled  to  Cyrus 
the  younger,  who  made  him  captain  of  13,000  Greek 
foldiers.  He  obtained  a  viftory  over  Artaxerxes;  who 
was  fo  enraged  at  the  defeat,  that  when  Clearchus  fell 
Into  his  hands  by  the  treachery  of  Tiflaphernes,  he  put 
him  immediately  to  death. 

CLEATS,  in  naval  affairs,  pieces  of  wood  having 
one  or  two  projecling  ends  whereby  to  fatten  the 
lopes  :  fomc  of  them  are  faftened  to  the  fhroudj  belovir 


2     1  CLE 

for  this  purpofe,  and  others  nailed  to  different  places 
of  the  (hip's  deck  or  fides. 

CLECHE,  in  heraldry,   a  kind  of  crofs,  charged  j_ 
with  another  crofs  of  the  fame  figure,  but  of  the  colour 
of  the  field. 

CLEDGE,  among  miners,  denotes  the  upper  (Ira- 
tum  of  fuller's  earth. 

CLEDONISM,  Cledonismus,  a  kind  of  divina- 
tion, in  ufe  among  the  ancients.  The  word  is  formed 
from  '■>."<?-«,  which  fignifies  tv/o  things,  rumor,  "  a 
report,"  and  avii,  "  a  bird."  In  the  firfl;  fcnfe,  cle- 
donifm  fliould  denote  a  kind  of  divination  drawn  from 
words  occcifionally  uttered.  Cicero  obferves,  that  the 
Pythagoreans  made  obfervation  not  only  of  the  words 
of  the  gods,  but  of  thofe  of  men;  and  accordingly  be- 
lieved the  pronouncing  of  certain  words,  v.  g.  iiiccn- 
dium,  at  a  meal,  very  unhappy.  Thus,  inltead  of 
prifon,  they  ufed  the  word  domicilitim ;  and  to  avoid 
eriiinys,  furies,  faid  eumsnldcs.  In  the  fecond  fenfe, 
citdonjfm  (hould  fcem  a  divination  drawn  from  birds;  the 
fame  with  o^nithomantia. 

CLEEVERS.     See  Clivers. 

CLEF,  or  Clsff,  in  mf.fii,  derived  from  the  La- 
tin word  cltivis,  a  key ;  becaufe  by  it  is  expreffed  the 
fundamental  found  in  the  diatonic  fcale,  which  re- 
quires a  deterinined  fucctfiion  of  tones  or  femitones, 
whether  major  or  minor,  peculiar  to  tne  note  from, 
whence  we  fet  out,  and  refulting  from  its  pofition  in 
the  fcale.  Hence,  as  it  opens  a  way  to  this  fuccef- 
fion,  and  difcovers  it,  the  technical  term  key  is  ufed 
with  great  propriety.  But  clefs  rather  point  out 
the  pofition  of  different  mufical  parts  in  the  general 
fyffem,  and  the  relations  which  they  bear  one  to  an- 
other. 

A  clef,  fays  Rouffeau,  is  a  charailer  in  mufic  placed 
at  the  beginning  of  a  ftave,  to  determine  the  degree  of 
elevation  occupied  by  that  ffave  in  the  general  clavlary 
or  fyflem,  and  to  point  out  the  names  of  all  the  notes 
which  it  contains  in  the  line  of  that  clef. 

Anciently  the  letters  by  which  the  notes  of  the  ga- 
mut had  been  fignified  were  called  clefs.  Thus  the  let- 
ter A  was  the  clef  of  the  note  la,  C  the  clef  of  ut,  E 
the  clef  o?  mi,  &c.  In  propoition  as  the  fyilem  was 
extended,  the  embarraffment  and  fuperfluity  of  this 
multitude  of  clefs  were  felt. 

Gui  d'Arezzo,  who  had  inverted  them,  marked  a. 
letter  or  clef  at  the  beginning  of  each  hue  in  the  ftave  ; 
for  as  yet  he  had  placed  no  notes  in  the  fpaces.  In 
procefs  of  time  they  marked  no  more  than  one  of  tho 
feven  clefs  at  the  beginning  of  one  of  the  hnes  only  ; 
and  this  was  fufficient  to  fix  the  pofition  of  all  the 
reft,  according  to  their  satural  order  :  at  lall,ofthefa 
feven  lines  or  clefs  they  fclefted  four,  which  were 
called  clwvesjignals,  or  dfcrimiiiating  clefs  ;  becaufe  they 
fatisfied  themfelves  with  marking  one  of  them  upon 
one  of  the  lines,  from  which  the  powers  of  all  the  o- 
thers  might  be  recognized.  Prefently  afterwards  they 
even  retrenched  one  of  thefe  four,  viz.  the  gamma,  of 
which  they  made  ufe  to  mark  the  /o/  below,  that  is  to 
fay,  the  hypoproflambanoraene  added  to  the  fyllem  of 
the  Greeks. 

In  reality  Kircher  afferts,  that- if  we  underftood  the 
charafters  in  which  ancient  n>ufic  was  written,  and  exa- 
mined minutely  the  forms  of  our  clefs,  we  (hould  find 
thateachof  themreprefentsthc  letter  a  little  altered  in  its 

form. 


CLE 

form,  by  which  the  note  was  originally  named. 
■'  the  clef  o{  fal  was  originally  a  G,  the  clef  of  ul  a  C,  and 
the  clef  ofy<?  an  F. 

We  have  then  three  clefs,  one  a  fifth  above  the 
other  :  the  clef  of  F,  or  fa,  which  is  the  lowed  ; 
the  clef  of  (//,  or  C,  which  is  a  lifth  above  the  for- 
mer ;  and  the  clef  of  fol,  or  G,  which  is  a  fifth  above 
that  of  lit.  Thefe  clefs,  both  as  marked  by  foreign- 
ers and  in  Britain,  may  be  feen  in  art.  170  of  Music; 
upon  which  it  is  neceilkry  to  remark,  that  by  a  remain 
of  ancient  praAice,  the  clef  is  always  placed  upon  a 
line,  and  never  in  a  fpace.  It  defcrves  notice,  that 
(he  clef  of  fa  is  marked  in  three  diflerent  manners:  one 
in  mufic  which  is  printed;  another  in  mufic  which  is 
written  or  engraven  ;  and  a  third  in  the  full  hi  mony 
of  the  chorus. 

Cy  addin^f  four  lines  above  the  clef  of /<)/,  and  three 
lines  beneath  the  clef  of  yi/,  which  gives  both  above 
and  below  the  greatefl  extent  of  p  rmanent  or  efta- 
bliflied  lines,  it  .ippears,  that  the  whole  fcale  of  notes 
which  can  be  placed  upon  the  gra:1ation;i  relative  to 
thefe  ckfs  amounts  to  24;  that  is  to  fay,  three  Offlaves 
and  a  fourth  from  the  F,  or  fa,  which  is  found  be- 
neath the  (nVi  liije,  to  tiie^^,  or  B,  which  is  found  a- 
bove  the  laft,  and  all  this  together  forms  what  we  call 
the  general  clavlary  ;  from  whence  we  may  judge,  that 
this  compafs  has,  for  a  long  time,  conflituted  the  ex- 
tent of  the  fyltem.  But  as  at  prefent  it  is  continually 
acquiring  new  degrees,  as  well  above  as  below,  the  de- 
grees are  marked  bv  leger  lines,  which  are  added  a- 
bove  or  below  as  occafion  requires. 

Inftead  of  joining  all  the  lines,  as  has  been  done  by 
Rouffeau  in  his  Diftionary,  (plate  A,  fig  5.)  to  mark 
the  relation  which  one  clef  bears  to  another,  they  fe- 
parate  them  five  by  five  ;  becaufe  it  is  pretty  nearly 
within  the  degrees  to  which  the  compafs  of  ordinary 
voices  extends.  This  colleftion  of  five  lines  is  called  a 
Jlavej  and  in  thefe  they  place  a  clef,  to  determine  the 
names  of  the  notes,  the  pofitions  of  femitones,  and  to 
fliow  what  llation  the  ftave  occupies  in  the  claviary  or 
general  fcale. 

In  whatever  manner  we  take  five  fucceflive  lirfes  in 
the  claviary,  we  fliall  hnd  one  clef  comprehended  ;  nay, 
fometimestwo  ;  in  which  cafe  one  may  be  retrenched  as 
ufelefs.  Cuftom  has  even  prefcribed  which  of  the  two 
fhould  be  retrenched,  and  which  retained ;  it  is  this 
likewife  which  has  determmed  the  number  of  pofitions 
afilgned  to  each  clef. 

if  I  form  a  ftave  of  the  firft  five  lines  in  the  clavia- 
ry, beginning  from  below,  I  find  the  clef  oi fa  in  the 
fourth  line.  This  then  is  one  pofition  of  the  clef,  and 
this  pofition  evidently  relates  to  the  lowell  note  ;  thus 
likewife  it  is  that  of  the  bafs  clef. 

If  I  wifli  to  gain  a  third  in  afcent,  I  muiladd  aline 
above  ;  I  muft  then  obliterate  one  below,  otherwife 
the  Have  will  contain  more  than  five  lines.  The  clef  of 
fa  then  is  found  transferred  from  the  fourth  to  the 
third,  and  the  clef  of  ut  is  likewife  found  upon  the  fifth; 
but  as  two  clefs  are  ufelefs,  they  retrench  here  that  of 
ut.  It  is  evident,  that  the  ftave  of  this  clef  is  a  third 
higher  than  the  former. 

By  throwing  away  ftill  one  line  below  to  gain  ano- 
ther above,  we  have  a  third  kind  of  ftave,  where  the 
clef  of_/tf  will  be  found  upon  the  fecond  line,  and  that 
of  ut  upon  the  fourth.     Here  we  leave  out  the  clef  of 


[■     f3     ]  CLE 

Thus    fa,  and  retain  that  of  ut.     We  have  now  gamed  ;»no- 
ther  third  ab  )ve,  and  loft  it  below. 

By  continuing  th.-f-'  alterations  from  line  to  line, 
we  pifs  fucceffively  through  f)Ur  different  pofitions 
of  tlie  clef  of  ut.  Having  a.-rivcd  at  that  of  fiil,  we 
find  it  placed  upon  the  fecond  line,  and  then  upon 
the  firft.  This  pofition  includes  the.  '(viti  higheft  lines, 
and  gives  the  iharpcft  diapafon  which  the  clefs  can  fig- 
nify. 

The  reader  may  fee  in  RouOeau's  Mufical  Diction- 
ary, Plate  A.  fig.  5.  this  fucceffun  of  clefs  from  the 
loweft  to  the  highcft;  which  in  all  conftitutes  eight 
ftaves,  clefs,  01  different  pofitions  of  clefs. 

Whatever  may  be  the  charadler  and  genius  of  any 
voice  or  inftrument,  if  its  extent  above  or  below  does 
not  furpafs  that  of  the  general  claviary,  in  this  number 
may  be  found  a  Itation  and  a  clef  fuitable  to  it  ;  and 
there  are,  in  reality,  clefs  determined  for  all  the  parts 
in  mufic.  If  the  extent  of  a  part  is  very  confiderable^f 
fo  that  the  number  of  lines  neceflary  to  be  added  above 
or  below  may  became  inconvenient,  the  clef  is  then 
changed  in  the  courfe  of  the  mufic.  It  maybe  plainly- 
perceived  by  the  figure,  what  clef  it  is  necefi'ary,  t» 
choofe,  for  raifing  or  dcprefllng  auy  part,  under  what- 
ever clef  it  may  be  aftually  placed. 

It  will  likewife  appear,  that,  in  order  to  adjufl  one 
clef  to  another,  both  muft  be  compared  by  the  gene- 
ral claviary,  by  means  of  which  we  may  determine 
wiiat  every  note  under  one  of  the  clefs  is  with  re- 
fpeft  to  the  other.  It  is  by  this  exercife  repeated 
that  we  acquire  the  habit  of  reading  with  eafe  all  the 
parts. 

From  this  manoeuvre  it  follows,  that  we  may  place 
whatever  note  ^e  pleafe  of  the  gamut  upon  any  line 
or  fpace  whatever  of  the  ftave,  fince  we  have  the 
choice  of  eight  different  pofitions,  which  is  equal  to  the 
number  of  notes  in  the  odlave.  Thus  you  may  mark  a 
whole  tune  upon  the  fame  line,  by  changing  the  clef 
at  each  gradation.  The  7th  fig.  of  the  fame  plate  in 
RoufTeau's  Mulical  Diftionary,  to  which  we  formerly 
referred,  (hows  by  the  feries  of  clefs  the  order  of  the 
notes,  re,  fa,  la,  ut,  mi, fol,/!,  re,  rlfing  by  thirds,  al- 
thouijh  all  placed  upon  the  fame  line.  The  fig.  fol- 
lowing reprelents  upon  the  order  of  the  fame  clefs 
the  note  ut,  which  appears  to  defcend  by  thirds  upon 
all  the  hnts  of  the  ftave  ;  and  further,  which  yet,  by- 
means  of  changing  the  clef,  ftill  prefetvcs  its  unifon. 
It  is  upon  fuch  examples  as  this,  that  fcholars  ought 
to  exercife  themfelves,  in  order  to  underftand  at  the 
firft  glance  the  powers  of  all  the  clefs,  and  their  fi- 
multaneous  effe6l. 

There  are  two  cf  their  pofitions,  viz.  the  clef  of 
fvl  upon  the  firft  line,  and  that  of  fa  upon  the  third, 
which  feem  daily  to  fall  more  and  more  into  defuetude. 
The  firft  of  thefe  may  feem  lefs  neccfTuy,  becaufe 
it  produces  nothing  but  a  pofition  entirely  fimilar  to 
that  oi  fa  upon  the  fourth  line,  froiTi  which  however 
it  differs  by  two  oiftaves.  As  to  the  clef  oi  fa,  it  is 
plain,  that  in  removing  it  entirely  from  the  third  line, 
we  fhall  no  longer  have  any  equivalent  pofition,  and 
that  the  compofition  of  the  claviary,  which  is  at 
prefent  complete,  will  by  thefe  means  become  de- 
fective. 

Thus  much  for  Rouffeau's  account  of  clefs.  He  pro- 
ceeds to  explain  their  tranfpofition  5  but  as  this  would 

rer.de.1;- 


Clef. 


Clift 

,  tf 

C.eijieiiov, 


C  ^  L    E  [     54    ]  CLE 

render  the  prefent  article  too  long  and  ihtiicate,  we     placed,  and  offcnV.g  them  any  thing  elfe  wlilch  was  in   Clemenc;)* 


Svtttn,  c.  9 


remit  the  curious  to  his  Mujlcal  DiSianary,  vol.  I. 
page-  ifij.      See  alfo  Malrrtm's  Dj/prtatloti  on  Mific. 

CLEFT,  in  a  general  fcnfe,  is  a  !'pac&msde  by  the 
reparation  of  parts.  Green  limber  is  vjry  apt  to  fplit 
a-'d  cleave  in  feveral  places,  after  it  is  wroiight  into 
form  ;  and  thefe  cracks  in  it  are  very  difajreeable  to 
the  Hglit.  Tl.e  common  method  of  the  country  car- 
penters is  to  fill  up  thefe  ciacks  with  a  mixture  of 
pre  ife  and  faw  diift  ;  but  the  neatell  way  of  all  is, 
the  fcakintj  both  fides  well  with  the  fat  of  beef-broth, 
and  itien  dippiiiSj  pieces  of  fporge  into  the  fame  broth, 
and  filling  up  all  the  cracks  with  them  :  they  fwcU 
out  fo  as  to  fill  the  whole  crack  ;  and  acco"nmodate 
themftlves  fo  well  to  it,  that  the  deficiency  is  hardly 
ften. 

Clitfts,  or  Crach,  in  farriery,  appear  on  the 
bouf^ht  of  the  pafterns,  and  are  caufed  by  a  (harp  and 
inal!q;nant  humour.      See  Farriery,   feft.  xxxiii. 

CLEMA,  in  antiquity,  a  twig  of  the  vine,  which 
ftrv.s  as  a  badpe  of  the  Centurion's  office. 

CLEMATIS,  tirgisVbower  :  A  genus  of  the 
polygynia  order,  belonging  to  the  polyandria  clafs  of 
plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
26th  order,  Mhltyiliqus.  There  is  no  calyx  ;  the  petals 
are  four,  rarely  five  ;  the  feeds  have  a  train.  There 
are  twelve  fpecies  ;  all  of  which,  except  two.  are  fhrub- 
by  climbing  plants,  very  hardy,  and  adorned  with  qua- 
drupetalo'.:s  flowers  of  red,  blue,  purple,  white,  and 
gieenifli  colours.  They  are  very  eafily  propagated 
by  layers  or  cuttings.  The  vitis  alba,  one  of  the  fpe- 
cies, is  very  acrid  to  the  tafle,  and  without  any  fmell. 
It  is  frequently  ufed  as  a  cauftic,  and  for  cleanfing  old 
ulcers.  The  root  is  faid  to  be  purgative.  The  leaves 
t)f  all  the  fpecies  bruifed  and  applied  to  the  fein,  burn 
it  into  carbuncles  as  in  the  plague  ;  and  if  applied  to 
the  noilrils  in  a  fultry  day  immediately  after  being 
cropped,  will  caufe  the  fame  uneafy  feiifation  as  a  flame 
applied  to  that  part  would  occafion.  Hence  the  title 
oi  flammiila,  or  "  little  flame,"  by  which  this  genus 
of  plants  was  formerly  diftinguiOied. 

CLEMENCY,  denotes  much  the  fame  with  mercy  ; 
and  implies  a  remiffion  of  feverity  towards  offenders. 
The  term  is  moft  generally  ufed  in  fpeaking  of  the 
forgivenefs  exercifed  by  princes  or  perfons  of  high 
authority.  It  is  the  refult,  indeed,  of  a  difpofition 
which  ought  to  be  cultivated  by  all  ranks,  though 
its  effefts  cannot  be  equally  confpicuous  or  exten- 
five.  In  praife  of  clemency  joined  with  power, 
it  is  obferved,  that  it  is  not  only  the  privilege,  the 
honour,  and  the  duty  of  a  prince,  but  it  is  alfo  his 
fecurit)',  and  better  than  all  his  garrifons,  forts,  and 
guards,  to  prcferve  himfelf  and  his  dominions  in  fafe- 
tv  :  That  that  prince  is  truly  royal,  who  mafters  him- 
felf; looks  upon  all  injuries  as  below  him  ;  and  co- 
verns  by  equity  and  reafon,  not  by  pafilon  or  caprice. 
In  illuftration  of  this  fubjeft,  the  following  examples 
are  felefted  out  of  many  recorded  in  hi(tory. 

I.  Two  patricians  having  confpired  againfl  Titus 
the  Roman  emperor,  were  difcovered,  convifted,  and 
fentenced  to  death  by  the  fenate  :  but  the  good-na- 
tured prince  fent  for  them,  and  in  private  admonilhed 
them,  that  in  vain  they  afpired  to  the  empire,  which 
was  given  by  deftiny  ;  exhorting  them  to  be  fatisfied 
■with  the  rank  in  which  by  Providence  they  had  been 


his  power  to  grant.     At  the  fame  time  he  dlfpatched  ' 
a  meiTenger  to  the  mother  of  one  of  them,  who  was 
then  at  a  great  dillance,  and  under  deep  concern  about 
the  fate  of  her  fon,  to  alTure  her,  that  her  fon  was  not 
only  alive,  but  forgiven. 

2.  Licinius  having  raifed  a  numerous  army,  Zofi-  ^^ 
m'ls  faj'S  130,000  men,  endtavoured  to  wreft  the  go- 
vernment out  of  the  hands  of  his  brother-in-law  Con- 
ftantine  the  emperor.  Bat  his  army  being  defeated, 
Licinius  fied  with  what  forces  he  could  rally  to  Nico- 
media,  whither  Conflantine  purfued  him,  and  in^me- 
diately  invefted  the  place  :  but  on  the  fecjnd  day  of 
the  fiege,  the  emperor's  filler  intreating  him,  with  a 
flood  of  tears,  by  the  tendernefs  he  had  ever  fliown 
for  Tier,  to  forgive  her  hufband,  and  grant  him  at  lead 
his  life,  he  was  prevailed  upon  to  comply  with  her  re- 
queft  ;  and  the  next  day,  Licinius,  finding  no  means 
of  making  his  efcape,  prefented  himfelf  before  the 
conqueror,  and  throwing  himfelf  at  his  feet,  yielded 
to  him  the  purple  and  the  other  enfigns  of  lovereignty. 
Conflantine  received  him  in  a  very  friendly  manner, 
entertained  him  at  his  table,  and  afterwards  fent  him 
to  TheiTdlonica,  affiiriiig  him,  that  he  Ihoiild  live  ui> 
molefted  fo  long  as  he  railed  no  new  dillurbances. 

3.  The  council  of  thirty,  eilablilhed  at  Athens  by 
Lyfander,  c  immitted  the  moft  execrable  crutlcics. 
Upon  pretence  of  reftraiiiing  the  multitude  within 
their  duty,  and  to  prevent  feditions,  they  had  caufed 
guards  to  be  afligiied  them,  had  armed  3000  of  the 
citizens  for  that  purpofe,  and  at  the  fame  time  dif- 
armed  all  the  reft.  The  whole  city  was  in  the  utmoll 
terror  and  difmay.  Whoever  oppofed  their  injuftice 
and  violence  fell  a  viftim  to  their  refentment.  Riches 
were  a  crime  that  never  failed  of  drawing  a  fenttnce 
upon  their  owners,  always  followed  with  death  and  the 
confifcation  of  eftates  ;  which  the  thirty  tyrants  di- 
vided amongft  themfelves.  They  put  more  people  to 
death  (fays  Xenophon)  in  eight  months  of  a  peace, 
than  their  enemies  had  done  in  a  war  of  thirty  years. 
All  the  citizens  of  any  confideration  in  Athens,  and 
who  retained  a  love  of  liberty,  quitted  a  place  reduced 
to  fo  hard  and  fhamtful  a  flavery,  and  fought  clTcwhere 
an  afylum  and  retieat,  where  they  might  live  in  fafe- 
ty.  At  the  head  of  thefe  was  Thrafybulus,  a  per- 
fon  of  extraordinary  merit,  and  who  beheld  with  the 
moft  lively  afEiftion  the  miferies  of  his  country. 

The  Lacedemonians  had  the  inhumanity  to  endea- 
vour to  deprive  thofe  unhappy  fugitives  of  this  lall  re- 
fource.  They  publiflied  an  edift  to  prohibit  the  cities 
of  Greece  from  giving  them  refuge,  decreed  that  they 
fhould  be  delivered  up  to  the  thirty  tyrants,  and  con- 
demned all  fuch  as  fliould  contravene  the  execution  of 
this  edidt  to  pay  a  fine  of  five  talents.  Only  two  ci- 
ties rejefted  with  difdain  fo  unjuft  an  ordinance,  Me- 
gara  and  Thebes  ;  the  latter  of  which  made  a  decree 
to  pur.ifh  all  peifons  whatfoever  that  flioidd  fee  aa  A- 
thenian  attacked  by  his  enemies  without  doing  his  ut- 
moft  to  affiil  him.  Lyfias,  an  orator  of  Syraciife  who 
had  been  baniflied  by  the  thirty,  raifed  500  foldiers  at 
his  own  expence,  and  fent  them  to  the  aid  of  the  com- 
mon country  of  Eloquence.  Thrafybulus  loft  no 
time.  After  having  taken  Phyta,  a  fniall  fort  in  At- 
tica, he  marched  to  the  Pirseus,  of  which  he  made 
himfelf  matter.     The  thirty  flew  thither  with  their 

troops, 


a.  (f74 


CLE 


[     55     ] 


CLE 


men-y-  troops,  and  a  battle  enfiied.  The  tyrants  were  oirer- 
■■v~~  thiovvtv.  Critias,  the  mofl  favage  of  them  all,  was 
killed  on  the  fpot  :  and  as  the  army  was  taking  to 
flight,  Thrafybulus  cried  out,  "  Wherefore  do  yon  fly 
from  me  as  from  a  viflcr,  rather  than  alTiil  me  as  the 
avenger  of  your  liberty  ?  We  arc  not  enemies,  but  fcl- 
low-citiztns ;  nor  have  we  declared  war  againit  the 
city,  but  againll  the  thirty  tyrants."  He  continued 
with  bidding  them  to  remember,  that  they  had  the 
fame  origin,  country,  laws,  and  religion  :  he  exhorted 
them  to  compafGonate  their  exiled  brethren,  to  rellore 
their  c.-ir)ntry  (o  them,  and  refume  their  own  liberty. 
This  difcourfe  had  thedelired  effeiA.  The  army,  upon 
their  return  to  Athens,  expelled  the  thirty,  and  fub- 
ftituted  ten  perlons  to  govern  in  their  room,  whofe 
conduft  proved  no  better  than  theirs  ;  but  king  Pau- 
fanias,  moved  with  compaflion  for  the  deplorable  con- 
dition to  which  a  city,  once  fo  flourifhing,  was  redu- 
ced, had  the  generofity  to  favour  the  Athenians  in 
fecret,  and  at  length  obtained  a.  peace  for  them.  It 
was  fealed  with  the  blood  of  the  tyrants,  who  having 
taken  arms  to  reinilate  themfclves  in  the  government, 
were  all  put  to  the  fword,  and  left  Athens  in  the  full 
pofTeHion  of  its  liberty.  All  the  exiles  were  recalled. 
Thrafybulus  at  that  time  propofed  the  celebrated  am- 
neily,  by  which  the  citizens  engsged  upon  oath,  that 
all  pa'.l  tranfaitions  (hould  be  buried  in  oblivion.  The 
government  was  re  cftablillied  upon  its  ancient  foot, 
the  laws  were  reftored  to  their  priltine  vigour,  and 
magiftrates  clefted  vuithlhe  ufual  form. 

This  (fays  RoUin)  is  one  of  the  flneil  events  in  ancient 
hiftory,  worthy  the  Athenian  clemency  and  benevolence, 
and  has  fervcd  as  a  model  to  fncccfiivc  ages  in  all  good 
governments.  Never  had  tyranny  been  more  cruel  and 
bloody  than  that  the  Athenians  had  lately  thrown  off. 
Every  hoiife  was  in  mourning,  every  family  bewailed  the 
lofs  of  fome  relation;  it  had  been  a  ,feries  of  public  rob- 
bery and  rapine,  in  which  licence  and  impunity  had 
authorifcd  all  manner  of  crimes.  The  people  feemed 
to  have  a  right  to  demand  the  blood  of  all  accomplices 
in  fiich  notorious  malverfations,  and  even  the  interefl 
of  the  ftate  to  authorife  fuch  a  claim,  that  by  exem- 
plary feverities  fuch  enormous  crimes  might  be  pre- 
vented for  the  future.  But  Thrafybulus  rifing  above 
thefe  fentiments,  from  the  fuperiority  of  his  more  ex- 
tenfive  geniu<!,  and  the  views  of  a  more  difcerning  and 
profound  policy,  forefaw,  that  by  giving  in  to  the  pu- 
niftment  of  the  guilty,  eternal  feeds  of  difcord  and 
enmity  would  remain,  to  weaken  the  public  by  dome- 
flic  divifions,  when  it  was  neceffary  to  unite  againft 
the  common  enemy,  and  alfo  occafion  the  lofs  to  the 
ftate  of  a  great  number  of  citizens,  who  might  render 
It  important  fei-vices  from  the  view  of  making  amends 
for  paft  mifbehaviour. 

4.  Such  coiiduft,  after  great  troubles  in  a  flate,  has 
always  feemed,  with  the  ableft  politicians,  the  moft 
certain  and  ready  mtans  to  i=eftore  the  public  peace  and 
tranquillity.  Cicero,  when  Rome  was  divided  into 
two  faftions  upon  the  occafion  of  Casfar's  death,  who 
had  been  killed  by  the  confpirators,  calling  to  mind 
this  celebrated  amnefly,  propofed,  after  the  example 
of  the  Athenians,  to  bury  all  that  had  paffed  in  eter- 
nal oblivion. 

5.CardinalMazarine  obferved  toDon Lewis  deHaro, 
prime  minifter  of  Spain,  that  this  gentle  and  liumane 


cdndutl   in   France  had  prevented  the  troubles  and  re-  Clemency 
volts   of  that   kingdom   fiom    havicg   any  fatal  confe-      ,    " 
quenccsj   and  "  that   the   king   hi;d   not  loft  a  foot  of, 
land  by  them    to   that  d.~.y  ;"  whereas  "  the  iiifienible 
ievetity  of  the   Spaniards  was   the   occafion    that   tiiC 
fubjeflf  of  that   monarchy,  whenever  they  threw  off 
the  mafic,  never  returned  to. their  obedience  but  by  the 
fjice  of  arms  ;  which  faiiiciently  appears  (fays  he)  ia 
the  example  of  the  HoHnnders,  who  are  in  the  peace- 
able pollelFion  of  many  provinces,  that  not  an  age  ago 
were  the  patrimony  of  the  king  of  Spain." 

6.  Leonidas  the  I.,acedemonian  having,  with  ^00  u  ,, 
men  only,  difputed  the  pafs  of  Tliermopylae  agaiuil  i;i,  ij.'_ 
the  whole  army  of  Xerxes;  and  being  killed  in  lhatc.77.7S, 
engagement,  Xerxes,  by  the  advice  of  Maidonius  one 
of  his  generals,  cauled  his  dead  body  to  be  hung  up- 
on a  gallows,  making  thereby  the  intended  dilhonour 
of  his  enemy  his  o«'n  immortal  Iharae.  But  foms 
time  after,  Xerxes  being  defeated,  and  Mardonius 
flain,  one  of  the  principal  citizens  of  uEgina  came  and 
addreffed  himfelf  to  Paufanias,  defiring  him  to  avenge 
the  indignity  that  Mardonius  and  Xerxes  had  fhowij 
to  Leonidas,  by  treating  Mardonius's  body  after  the 
fame  manner.  As  a  farther  motive  for  doing  fo,  he 
added,  that  by  thus  fatisfylng  the  manes  of  thofe  who 
were  killed  at  Thermopylas,  he  would  be  fure  to  im- 
mortalize his  own  name  throughout  all  Greece,  and 
make  his  memory  precious  to  the  latell  poiterily. 
"  Carry  ihy  bafe  counfcis  elfewhere  (replied  Pau.a- 
nlas)  ;  thou  mull  have  a  very  wrong  notion  of  true 
glory  to  imagine,  that  the  way  for  me  to  acquire  it 
is  to  refemble  the  barbarians.  If  the  cfteem  of  the 
people  of  /Egina  is  not  to  be  purchafed  but  by  fuch  a 
proceeding,  I  fhall  be  content  with  preferving  that  of 
the  Lacedemonians  only,  amongft  whom  the  bafe  and 
ungenerous  pleafure  of  revenge  is  never  put  in  compe- 
tition with  that  of  ftowlng  clemency  and  moderation 
to  their  enemies,  efpccially  after  their  death.  As  for 
the  fouls  of  my  departed  countrymen,  they  are  fuffi.- 
ciently  avenged  by  the  death  of  the  many  thoufand 
Perfians  flain  upon  the  fpot  in  the  laft  engagement." 

CLEMENS  RoMANus,  bKhop  of  Rome,  where  he 
is  faid  to  have  been  born  ;  and  to  have  been  fellow- 
labourer  with  St  Peter  and  St  Paul.  We  have  no- 
thing remaining  cf_  his  works  that  is  clearly  genuine, 
excepting  one  eplflle,  written  to  quiet  fome  dlftur- 
bances  In  the  church  of  Coiinth  ;  which,  next  to  holy 
writ,  is  efteemed  one  of  the  moft  valuable  remains  of 
ecclefiallical  antiquity. 

Clemejjs  Jlkxandrinus,  fo  called  to  diftinguifh  him 
from  the  former,  was  an  eminent  father  of  the  church, 
who  flourlflied  at  the  end  of  the  fccond  and  beginning 
of  the  third  centuries.  He  was  the  fcholar  of  Pan- 
ta;nus,  and  the  inllrudlor  of  Orlgen.  The  beft  edi- 
tion of  his  works  is  that  In  2  vols  folio,  publillied  in 
'7 '5'   by  archbirtiop  Potter. 

CLEMENT  V.  (pope),  the  firtt  who  made  a  pub- 
lie  fale  of  indulgences.  He  tranfplanted  the  holy  fee 
to  Avignon  In  France  ;  greatly  contributed  to  the  fup- 
preffion  of  the  knights  templars;  and  was  author  of  a 
compilation  of  the  decrees  of  the  general  councils  of 
Vienna,  ftyled  Cleme?iUnes.     He  died  in  13 14. 

Clemlnt  VII.    (Julius  de  Medicis),  pope,   memo- 

rable  for  his   refufing   to  divorce  Catharine  of  Arra- 

gon  from  Henrjr  VIII. ;  and  for  the  bull  he  publlflied 

3  upon 


CLE 


L     5<5     ] 


CLE 


upon  the  king's  marriage  witli  Anne  Bolcyn  ;  which, 
according  to  the  Romifli  authors,  lofl.  him  England.  He 
died  in  1534. 

Clement  XIV.  (Francis  Laiirertins  Ganfranelli), 
the  late  pupf,  was  born  at  St  Angclo  in  the  duchy  of 
Urbino,  ir  Odlober  1705;  and  chofen  pope,  thoufrh 
not  yet  a  bifhop,  in  1769  :  at  which  time  the  fee  of 
Rome  was  involved  in  a  moll  dilagrceable  and  dan- 
gerous conteft  with  the  houfe  of  Bourbon.  His  reign 
was  rendered  troublefome  by  the  coUifion  of  parties 
on  the  affairs  of  the  Jti^uits  ;  and  it  is  pretended  that 
his  latter  days  were  embittered  by  the  apprehenfions 
of  poifon.  Though  this  report  was  probably  apocry- 
phal, it  is  faid  that  he  often  complained  of  the  heavy 
burden  which  he  was  obli^'ed  to  bear  ;  anr)  regretted, 
with  ereat  fenfibility,  the  lofs  of  that  tranquill'ty  which 
he  enjoyed  In  his  retirement  when  only  a  fimple  Fr.in- 
cifcan.  He  was,  however,  fortunate  in  having  an 
opportunity,  by  a  fingle  aft,  to  diftinguidi  a  (hort  ad 
miniltration  of  five  years  in  fuch  a  manner  as  will  ever 
prevent  its  finking  into  obfcurity.  His  death  was  im- 
mediately attributed  to  poifon,  as  if  an  old  man  of  70, 
loaded  with  infirmities  and  diforders,  could  not  quit 
the  world  without  violence.  His  proceedings  againft 
the  Jefuits  ftirnifiied  a  plaufible  pretence  for  this  charge  ; 
and  the  malevolence  of  their  enemies  embellllTicd  it  with 
circumllances.  It  even  feems  as  if  the  mini!lers  of 
thofe  powers  who  had  procured  their  diflbliition  did 
not  think  it  beneath  them  to  countenance  the  report ; 
as  if  falfehood  was  neceffarv  to  prevent  the  revival  of  a 
body  which  had  already  funk,  in  its  full  (Irength,  un- 
der the  weight  of  real  mifconduft.  The  charge  was 
the  more  ridiculous,  as  the  pontiff  had  undergone  a 
lonor  and  painful  illnefs,  which  originally  procetded 
from  a  fnppreflion  of  urine,  to  whicli  h"-  was  fubjt-ft  ; 
yet  the  report  was  projjagated  with  the  greateft  in- 
duftry  :  and  though  the  French  and  Spanilh  minifters 
were  prefenc  at  the  opening  of  hifl  body,  the  mod  hor- 
rible circumftanci'S  were  pubh(hed  relative  to  that  ope- 
ration. It  was  confidently  told  that  iht-  head  fell  off 
from  the  body,  and  that  the  flench  poifoned  and  killed 
the  operators. '  It  availed  but  little  that  the  operators 
{howed  themfelves  alive  and  in  g~od  health,  and  that 
the  furgeons  and  phyficians  proved  the  falfehood  of 
every  part  of  the  report  Clement  XIV.  appears  to 
have  been  a  man  of  a  virtuous  charafler,  and  pofTi  fled 
of  confidevable  abilities.  He  died  much  regretted  by 
his  fubjefts. 

CLEMENTINE,  a  term  ufed  among  the  Augu- 
fiins,  who  apply  i'.  to  a  perfon  who,  after  having  been 
nine  years  a  fuperior,  ceafes  to  be  fo,  and  becomes 
a  private  monk,  under  the  command  of  a  fuperior. 
The  word  has  its  rife  hence,  that  pope  Clement,  by 
a  bull,  prohibited  any  fuperior  among  the  Anguftins 
from  continuing  above  nine  years  in  his  office. 

Clementines,  in  the  canon  law,  are  the  conflitu- 
tions  of  pope  Clement  V.  and  the  canons  of  the  coun- 
cil of  Viennc. 

CLENARD  (Nicholas),  a  celebrated  grammarian 
in  the  1 6th  century,  was  born  at  Diell  ;  and  after  ha- 
ving tau?ht  humanity  at  Louvain,  travelled  into  France, 
Spain,  Portugal,  and  Africa.  He  wrote  in  Latin," 
I.  Letters  relating  to  his  Travels,  which  are  very  cu- 
rious and  fcarce.     2.  A  Greek  Grammar,  which  has 


been  revlfed   and   correfled    by  many   grammarians ;     ClfobU 
and  other  works.      Hr-  died  at  Grenoble  in  1542.  ""^  J""" 

CLEOBIS  and  BITON,  two  youths,  Ions  of  Cy-  cieomci.ej 
dippe  the  prieflcfs  of  Juno  at  Argos.  When  oxen  — — v — ^ 
could  not  be  procured  to  draw  their  mothei's  chariot 
to  the  temple  of  Juno,  tliey  put  ihemlclves  under  the 
yoke,  and  drew  it  45  Radia  lo  the  temple,  amidll  the 
acclam?,tions  of  the  multitude,  who  congratulated  the 
niothi.r  on  account  of  the  piety  of  her  Ions.  Cydip- 
pe  intreated  the  goddrfs  to  reward  the  piety  of  her 
fons  with  th.e  bell  gift  thtt  could  be  granted  to  a  mor- 
tal. They  went  to  refl  and  awoke  no  more  ;  and  by 
this  the  goddefs  (howed  that  death  is  the  only  true 
happy  event  that  can  happen  to  a  man.  The  Argivei 
railed  tliem  (litues  at  Delphi. 

CLEOBULUS.  lonofEvagoras,  and  one  of  the  Gre- 
cian fagts;  he  ^va^  valiant,  a  lover  of  learning,  and  an 
enemy  tv  vice.  Flourilhed  ah  lut  56ove.us  before  Ciirifl. 
CLEOMBROTUS,  a  king  of  Sparta,  (on  of  An- 
axandrides  He  was .  detened  from  buildrni/  a  wall 
acti'ls  tl'C  ilihmus  of  Corinth  agamli  the  approach  of 
the  Perlians,  by  an  eclipfe  of  the  fun.  He  died  in  the 
75th  Olympiad,  and  was  fucceeded  by  Pullaichus,  fon 
of  Leonidss,  a  minor. 

Cleombrotus  II.  fon  of  Paulani  s  king  of  Spar- 
ta, after  his  brother  Agelipohs  I.  He  m.adt  war 
agair.ft  the  Boeotians  ;  and  left  he  fli.'uld  be  fufperted 
of  treacherous  communications  with  Epaminondas,  he 
gave  that  general  battle  at  Leudra.  in  a  very  dilad- 
vant?.<rtous  place.  He  was  killed  in  the  engagement, 
and  his  army  deftroyed,  in  the  year  o!  R'  me  382. 

Cleombrotus  III.  a  fonin-law  of  Leonidas  king 
of  Sparta,  who  for  a  while  ufurped  the  kingdom  .ifter 
the  expulfion  of  his  father-in-l:w.  When  Lrcnidas 
was  recalled,  Cleombiolus  was  banifhed,  and  his  wife 
Clielonis,  who  had  accompanied  her  father,  now  ac- 
companied her  hufband  in  his  exile. 

CLEOME  in  botany  :  A  genus  of  the  filiquofa 
order,  belonging  tc  the  teti adynamia  ch'.fs  of  plants  ; 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  zjtii  or- 
der, Putmnhieie.  There  are  three  necilariftp'us  glan- 
dules, one  at  each  linus  of  the  calyx  excpt  ttie  low- 
ell  ;  the  petals  all  rifmg  upwards;  the  fillqua  unilocu- 
lar and  bivalved.  There  are  15  fpecies  ;  all  of  them, 
except  two,  natives  of  warm  climates.  They  are  herj 
baceous  plants  rifing  from  one  to  two  feet  high  ;  and 
are  adorned  with  floweis  of  various  colours,  as  red, 
yellow,  fl;  (h  colour,  &c.  They  are  propagated  by  leeds, 
and  require  no  other  care  than  what  is  common  to 
other  exotics  whi'jli  are  natives  of  warm  countiies. 

CLEOMENES,  king  of  Sparta,  conquered  the 
Argives  and  freed  Athens  from  the  tvranny  (■f  the  Pi-  . 
filliatido:.  By  bribing  the  oracle  he  pronoimced  De- 
maratus,  his  colleague  on  the  thione,  illegitimate,  be- 
caufe  he  re!ufed  to  punlfli  tiie  people  of  ^gina,  who 
had  delVrted  the  Greeks.  He  killed  himfelf  in  a  fit 
of  madnefs. 

Cleomenes  II.  fuccteded  his  brother  Ag^fipolis  II. 
He  reigned  1,.).  years  in  the  L'reateft  tianqu'lhty,  and 
was  father  to  Acrotatus  and  Ckonymus  He  was  fuc- 
ceeded by  Aieus  I.  fon  of  Acrotatus. 

Cleomenes    III.    fncceed.  d    his  father  Leonidas.  ■ 

He  was  of  an  entcrprilirg  Ipirit,  and  refolved  to  re- 
ftore  the  ancient  difcipline  of  Lycurgus  in  its  full 
2  force. 


;ieon 


CLE  [     57 

force.  He  killed  the  Ephori,  and  removed  by  puil'on 
his  royal  colleague  Eurydai.iides,  and  made  liis  own 
^'''■''""' brother  Euclidas  king,  againit  the  laws  ol  the  U  .te, 
"*  which  forbad  more  than  one  of  the  fame  faiiiiiy  to  lit 
en  the  throne.  He  made  war- at;aiiul  the  Acluenns, 
and  attempted  to  dcflroy  the  Achaan  league.  Aratus 
the  general  of  the  Achxans,  who  Juppofed  himfdf  in- 
ferior to  his  enemy,  called  Antij^onus  to  I'.is  afTubince; 
and  Cleomenes,  when  he  had  iouglit  the  iir.Forluii.tte 
battle  of  Sellalia,  retired  into  Egypt  to  the  court  of 
Ptolemy  Evcrgetes,  where  his  wife  and  cl'.ildten  hid 
gone  before  him.  Ptolemy  received  him  with  great 
cordiality  ;  but  his  fucceffor,  weak  and  fufpicious,  ioon 
txprelTed  his  jealniify  of  this  noble  ftrar.ger,  and  im- 
prifoned  him.  Cleomenes  killed  himlclf,  and  his  body 
was  flayed  and  expofed  on  a  crofs,  1 40  Olymp. 

CLEON,  the  name  of  feveral  noted  men  of  anti- 
quity. I.  Of  an  Athenian,  who,  though  originally  a 
tanner,  became  general  of  the  armies  of  the  Hate  by 
his  intrigues  and  eloquence.  Pie  took  Thoron  in 
Thrace,  and  was  killed  at  Amphipolis  in  a  battle  with 
hrafidas  the  Spartan  general,  Olymp.  89th.  2.  A  ge- 
neral of  Mtflenia,  who  dilputed  with  Arillodemus  for 
the  fovereignty.  3.  A  ttatuary.  4.  A  poet  who  wrote 
a  poem  on  the  Argonauts.  5-  An  orator  of  Halicar- 
naffus  who  compofed  an  oration  for  Lyfaiider,  in  which 
he  intimated  the  ])iopriety  of  making  the  kingdom  of 
Spatta  tlcAive.  6.  A  Magnefian  who  wrote  fome  com- 
mentaries, in  which  hefpeaks  of  portentous  events,  &c. 
CLE0N7E  (anc.  geog. ),  a  town  of  Argolis,  above 
Mycenar,  on  the  road  which  leads  from  Argos  to  Co- 
riiith  ;  Handing  on  an  eminence,  on  every  fide  occu- 
pied by  houfes.  In  the  foiell  near  this  town  was  flain 
by   Hercules   the   huge  lion    (Sil.    Italicus,   Seneca). 

Cleonttus   the   epithet  ;    Ckjiiisum  S;Jus,  the  lion. 

Another  Cleot:x  on  Mount  Athos  in  Chalcidice. 

CLEOPATRA,  the  celebrated  queen  of  Egypt, 
was  daughter  ol  Ptolemy  Auletes.  By  her  extraor- 
dinary bexuly,  flie  fubdutd  the  two  renowned  Roman 
generals  Julius  Csfar  and  Marc  Antony  ;  the  latter  of 
whom,  it  is  thought,  loft  the  empire  of  Rome  by  his 
attachment  to  her.  At  length,  Marc  Antony  being 
fubdued  by  Otlavius  Caefar,  (he  tried  the  force  of  her 
declining  charms  upon  the  corqueror,  but  In  vain  ;  up- 
on which,  expecling  no  meicy  from  him,  fne  poifon- 
ed  herftlf,  30  years  before  Chiift.  According  to  fome 
authors,  (lie  was  the-reftorcr  of  the  Alexandrian  libra- 
ry, to  which  line  added  that  of  Pergamos  ;  and  it  is 
faid,  that  fhe  ftudied  philofjphy  to  confole  her  for  the 
abfence  of  Antony.  With  her  death  ended  the  family 
of  the  Ptolemies  in  E^ypt,  after  it  had  reigned  from 
the  death  of  AIex.ander  294  years:  for  Egypt,  after 
this,  was  reduced  to  a  Roman  province  ;  in  which 
dependence  it  remained  till  it  was  taken  from  them  by 
the  Saracens,   A   D.  641. 

CLEOPATRIS  (anc.  geog.),  a  town  of  Egypt, 
on  the  Arab'an  Gulf.  SeeAasiNOE.  Now  faid  to  be 
Siua,  ikuated  at  the  bottom  of  the  gulf  of  the  Red 
Sea.  E.  Long.  34.  30.  N.  Lat.  30.  o. 
^  CLEOSTRA  PUS,  a  celebrated  aftronomer  born 
JuTenedos,  was,  according  to  Pliny,  the  frrft  who  dif- 
covcrcd  the  frgns  of  the  Zodiac  ;  others  fay,  that  he 
only  difcover-ed  the  frgns  Aries  and  Sagittarius.  He 
alfo  ccn-ecled  the  errors  of  the  Grecian  year  about 
the  3o6lh  before  Chrlll. 
V01..V.  PaitL 


1  C    L     E 

CLEPSYDRA,  an  inllrument  or  machine  ferving  Clepfy^r*,' 
to  rrreal'ure  time  by  the  fall  of  a  certain  quantity  of  J^*^'.'. 
•water. 

The  word  comes  from  "'^'^T",  eondo,  'h"i  aqua, 
"  walcr"  ;  though  there  have  likevvife  been  clepfydrac 
made  with  mercury. 

The  Egyptians,  by  this  machine,  meafured  the 
courfe  of  tire  fun.  Tycho  Bralre,  in  our  days,  made 
life  of  it  to  merfure  tlic  motion  of  the  ftars,  &.c  and 
Dudley  ufed  the  fame  contrivance  irr  making  all  his 
maritime  obfervations.  The  ufe  of  clepfydrx  is  very 
ancient:  they  were  irrvented  in  Egypt  urrdcr  the  Pto- 
lemies; as  were  alfo  fun-dials.  Their  ufe  was  chiefly 
in  the  winter;  the  fun-dials  fervcd  in  the  fummcr. 
They  had  two  great  defects ;  the  orre,  that  the  water 
ran  out  with  a  greater  or  lefs  facility,  as  the  air  was 
.more  or  lefs  denfe  ;  the  other,  that  the  water  ran 
more  readily  at  the  beginttitrg  than  towards  the  con- 
clufion.  M.  Amontons  has  irrvcnted  a  clepfydra  free 
fr-om  both  tlrefe  inconveniences;  and  which  has  thefi: 
thi-ee  grand  advantages,  of  lerving  the  oi-dinary  pur-- 
pofe  of  clocks,  of  ferving  in   navigation  for  the  difco- 


very  of  the  longitude,  an  J  of  mcaluring  the  motion  of 
the  arter-ies. 

ConJlruLlion  nf  a  Clspstdr/i.  To  divide  any  cy- 
llndric  veflll  into  parts  to  be  emptied  in  each  divifron 
of  time  ;  the  time  wherein  the  whole,  and  that  where- 
in any  part,  is  to  be  evacuated,  being  given. 

Suppofe,  V.  gr.  a  cylindric  veffel,  whole  charge  of 
water  flows  out  in  twelve  hours,  were  required  to  he 
divided  into  parts  to  be  evacuated  each  hour.  i.  Aa 
the  part  of  time  i  is  to  the  whole  time  1 2 ;  fo  is  the 
fame  time  12  to  a  fourth  propoi-tlonal,  144.  2.  Dlvldi- 
the  altltrrde  of  the  veflel  into  144  equal  parts  :  here 
the  lail  will  fall  to  the  lalf  hour  ;  the  three  next  above 
to  the  laft'part  but  one  ;  the  five  next  to  the  tenth 
hour,  &c.;  lallly,  the  23  laft  to  the  firll  hour.  For 
frnce  the  times  incrcafe  in  the  fer  ies  of  the  natural 
numbers  I,  2,  3,  4,3',  &c.  aijd  the  altitudes,  if  the 
numeration  be  in  retrograde  order  from  the  twelfth 
hour,  increafe  in  the  ferles  of  the  unequal  numbers  i, 
3,  5,  7,  9,  &c.  the  altitude,  computed  from  the  twelfth 
hour,  vvdl  be  as  the  fquares  of  the  times  I,  4,  9,  16, 
25,  &c.  therefore  the  fquare  of  the  whole  time  144 
comprehends  all  the  parts  of  the  altitude  of  the  veflel 
to  be  evacuated.  But  a  third  proportional  to  i  and 
12  Is  the  fquare  of  12,  and  cortfequently  it  Is  the  num- 
ber of  cqiral  parts  into  which  the  altitude  Is  to  be  di- 
vided, to  be  dillrlbnted  according  to  the  feries  of  the 
unequal  numbers,  through  the  equal  intervals  of  hour-s. 
Since  in  lieu  of  parts  of  the  fame  velTcl,  other  lefs 
veffels  equal  thereto  may  be  fubllituted  ;  the  altitude 
of  a  veflel  emptied  in  a  given  fpace  of  time  being  given, 
the  altitude  of  another  velTcl  to  be  emptied  in  a  given 
tinrc  may  be  found  ;  viz.  by  making  the  altitudes  a5 
the  fquares  of  the  times.  For  a  further  defcription, 
with  a  fgiire,  fee  Hydrostatics. 

CLERC  (John  le),  a  mod  celebrated  writer  and 
unlverlal  kholar,  Loi'n  at  Geneva  in  1657.  After  he 
had  pafled  through  the  ufual  courfe  of  fltidy  at  Geneva, 
and  had  loft  his  father  in  1676,  he  went  to  Fiance  in 
1678  ;  but  returning  the  year  after,  he  was  ordained 
with  the  general  applaufe  of  all  his  examiners.  In' 
1682,  le  Clercvilited  Englair<l  with  a  view  to  learning 
the  language.  He  preached  feveral  times  in  the  French 
H  churches 


CLE 

Clerc.  churclies  in  London,  and  vifited  fcveral  bilTiops  and 
•~~v—  men  of  Itarning:  but  the  fmoky  air  of  the  town  not 
agreeing  with  his  lungs,  he  returned  to  Holland  within 
the  year,  where  he  at  length  ieltled.  He  preached 
before  a  fvnod  held  at  Rotterdam  by  the  remonllrants 
in  1684  ;  and  was  admitted  profeflor  of  philoiophy, 
polite  literature,  and  the  Hebrew  tongue,  in  their 
fchool  at  Amfterdam.  The  remainder  of  his  life 
affords  nothing  but  the  hiftory  of  his  works,  and  of  the 
controverfies  he  was  engaged  in;  but  thefe  would  lead 
into  too  extenfive  a  detail.  He  continued  to  read  re- 
gular lefturcs ;  and  becaufe  there  was  no  fingle  author 
full  enough  for  his  purpofe,  he  drew  up  and  publilhed 
his  Logic,  Ontology,  Pneumatology,  and  Natural  Phi- 
lofophy.  Ho  publilhed  yirs  Critica  ;  a  C'onimentary 
on  the  Old  Teftamcnt  ;  a  Compendium  of  Univerfal 
Hiilory  ;  an  Ecclefiatlical  Hiftory  of  the  two  firft  Cen- 
.  Niries ;  a  French  Tranflation  of  the  New  Tellament, 
&c.  In  1686,  he  began,  jointly  with  M.  de  la  Crofe, 
his  Blbrwtheque  Univcrfelle  et  H'ljlor'ique,  in  imitation  of 
other  literary  journals;  which  was  continued  to  the 
year  1693,  inclufive,  in,26vo!s.  In  1703,  he  began 
liis  B'Mwtheqiie  Cbnifie,  and  continued  it  to  1714,  and 
then  commenced  another  work  on  the  fame  plan  called 
Bihliotheque  Andaini:  et  Maderne,  which  he  continued  to 
the  year  1728  ;  all  of  them  jullly  deemed  excellent 
llores  of  ufeful  knowledge.  In  1728,  he  was  feized 
w  ith  a  palfy  and  fever  ;  and  after  fpcnding  the  lall 
fix  years  of  his  lite  with  little  or  no  underllanding, 
died  in  1736. 

Clerc  (John  le),  called  Chcualisr,  an  eminent  hifto- 
rical  painter,  was  born  at  Nanci  in  15S7,  but  iludied 
in  Italy,  where  he  refided  for  twenty  years  ;  and  was 
a  difciple  of  Carlo  Venetiano,  with  whom  he  worked 
a  long  time,  aod  whole  llylc  he  fo  effeftually  ftudied 
and  imitated,  that  feveral  of  the  piftures  which  were 
finiihed  by  le  Clerc  were  taken  for  the  work  of  Ve- 
netiano. He  was  moil  highly  efteemed  at  Venice  for 
his  extraordinary  merit;  and  as  a  token  of  public  re- 
fpeft,  he  w-as  made  a  knight  of  St  Mark.  His  free- 
dom of  hand  was  remarkable;  he  had  a  light  pencil; 
and  in  his  colouring  he  relembled  his  mafter.  He  died 
in  1633. 

Clerc  (Sebaftian  le),  engraver  and  defigner  in  or- 
dinary to  the  French  king,  was  born  at  Metz  in  1637. 
After  having  learnt  defigning,  he  applied  himfelf  to 
mathematics,  and  was  engineer  to  the  mardial  de  la 
Ferte.  He  went  to  Paris  in  1665,  where  he  applied 
himfelf  to  dehgning  and  engraving  with  fuch  fuccefs, 
that  M.  Colbert  gave  him  a  penfion  of  600  crowns. 
In  1672,  he  was  admitted  into  the  royal  academy  of 
painting  and  fculpture  ;  and  in  1680  was  made  pro- 
feflor of  geometry  and  perfpeftive  in  the  fame  acade- 
my. He  publilhed,  befides  a  great  number  of  defigns 
and  prints,  I.  A  Treatife  on  theoretical  and  practical 
Geometry.  2.  A  Treatife  on  Architecture ;  and  other 
■works:  and  died  in  1714. — He  was  an  excellent  ar- 
tift,  but  chiefly  in  the  petit  ftyle.  His  genius  feldom 
exceeds  the  dimenfions  of  fix  inches.  ^Vithin  thofe 
limits  he  could  draw  up  20,000  men  with  great  dex- 
terity. No  artift  except  Callot  and  Delia  Bella  could 
touch  a  fmall  ligure  with  fo  much  fpirit.  His  moll 
efteemed  prints  are  :  l .  Tlie  pajfwn  of  our  Saviour,  on 
36  fmiJl  plates,  lengthwife,  from  his  own  compofitions. 
The  bell  impreflioas  are  without  the  borders,     z.  The 


[     58     j  CLE 

miracle  of  the  feeiFiitr  Ji^ve  thoufumi,  a  middling  fized 
plate,  lengthwife.  In  the  tirit  imprefiion?,  which  are  ^ 
very  rare,  a  town  appears  in  the  back-ground  ;  in 
place  of  which  a  mountain  is  fubllituted  in  the  common 
ones.  3.  The  e?iva/ion  of  t/jc-  lar^:  Jliiies  ufeil  in  bitiU- 
ir.g  the  front  of  the  Louvre,  a  large  plate,  lengthwife. 
The  firil  impreffions  are  without  the  date  1677,  which 
was  afterwards  added.  4.  "Wm.  acadcmf  of  the  fiencesy 
a  middhng  fized  plate,  lengthwife.  The  firll  irapref- 
fions  are  before  the  ikeleton  of  the  ftag  and  tortoife 
were  added.  The  fecond  impreffions  are  before  the 
(liadow  was  enlarged  at  the  bottom,  towards  the  riirht 
hand  fide  of  the  print.  Both  thefe  imprtnions  are 
very  Icarce.  The  firil  is  rarely  met  with.  This  print 
was  copied  for  Clutmbers's  Dictionary,  j.  The  May 
of  the  Gobelins,  a  middling-lized  plate,  lengthwife.  The 
firil  impreifion  is  before  the  woman  was  introduced, 
who  covers  the  wheel  of  the  coach.  6.  The  four  con- 
qucjh,  large  plates,  lengthwife,  rcprefenting  the  takincr 
of  Tournay,  the  taking  of  Dovay,  the  defeat  of  the 
cointe  de  Marfin,  and  the  Switzerland  alliance.  7. 
The  battles  of  Alexander,  from  Le  Brun,  fix  fmall  Iout 
plates,  including  the  title,  which  reprefcnts  the  pidlure 
gallery  at  the  Gobelins.  The  firil  impreffions  of  the 
tent  of  Darius,  which  plate  makes  part  of  this  fet,  is 
diftinguifhed  by  the  (houlder  of  the  woman,  who  is 
feated  in  the  front,  being  without  the  ih.aJow,  which 
was  afterv/ardi  added;  for  which  reafon  they  are  called 
the  prints  luiili  ths  naked  /houhier.  8.  The  entrv  nf 
Alexander  into  Babylon,  a  middling-fized  plate,  length- 
wife.  In  the  firil  imprtfrions,  the  face  of  Alexander 
is  feen  in  profile  ;  in  the  fecond,  it  is  a  three  quar- 
ter face,  and  therefore  called  the  print  luith  the  head 
turned. 

Clerc  (George  le)  count  de  BufTon,  a  celebrated 
naturalift,  was  born  at  Montbard,  in  Burgundy,  the 
7th  of  September  1707  :  his  father  was  a  counfcllor 
of  the  parliament  of  Dijon,  and  the  fon  was  deilined 
to  the  fame  ofGce,  if  fcience  had  not  drawn  him  away 
from  the  law.  He  fludicd  at  Dijon  ;  and  his  eager 
atlivity,  his  acutenefs,  penetration,  and  robult  conlli- 
tution,  fitted  him  to  purfiie  bufinefs  and  pleafure  with 
equal  ardour.  His  early  pafBon  was  for  aitronomv, 
and  the  young  I.ie  Clerc  was  never  without  Euclid  in 
his  pocket.  At  the  age  of  twenty,  he  went  with  an  . 
Englllh  nobleman  and  his  govenor  to  Italy  ;  but  he 
overlooked  the  choicell  remains  of  art,  and,  amidll  the 
ruins  of  an  elegant  and  luxurious  people,  he  firtl  felt 
the  charms  of  natural  hiftoty,  whofe  zealous  and  fuc- 
ccfsful  admirer  he  afterwards  proved.  On  his  return 
to  France,  he  fought,  on  forae  occafional  quarrel,  with 
an  Engliflmran,  whom  he  wounded,  and  was  obliged 
to  retire  to  Paris.  He  there  tranfiatcd  Newton's 
Fluxions,  from  the  Latin,  antl  Hales's  Statics  from  the 
EngliJh,  into  the  French  language.  He  aftewaids 
came  to  England,  at  the  age  of  twenty-five  ;  and  this 
journey  concluded  his  travels :  he  ftaid  here  about' 
three  months.  At  the  age  of  twenty-one,  he  fucceeded- 
to  the  ettate  of  his  mother,  which  was  valued  at  about 
300,000  livres  (above  1  2,000  pounds  llerling)  ;  and  he 
was  one  of  thofe  whofe  eafy  or  affluent  circumftances 
urge  on  literaiy  purfuits,  and  clear  the  path  of  fome  of 
its  thorns.  Perhaps  this  was  the  period  of  his  retirement 
to  Montbard,  where  he  fpent  much  time,  and  where 
his  leifure.was  little  iaten-upted  ;  while  in  the  capital,    - 

his 


Cle 


CLE 


ClcTf,     his  office  of  intendant  of  the  king's  garden  andcaViinot 
tlerpy.    engaged  much  of  his  time.      He  loved  much  company, 

"~"v and  was  partial  to  the  fair  ;  but   he  loved  ;;lory  more. 

He  fpeiit  14  hours  every  day  in  Ihidy  ;  and,  when  we 
examine  die  extent  of  his  knowledge,  and  the  luim- 
berof  his  works,  we  wonder  at  his  having  executed  fo 
much  even  in  this  time.  At  five  in  the  morning  he 
retired  to  a  pavilion  in  his  vaft  gardens,  and  he  was 
then  inacceflible.  This  was,  as  prince  Henry  of  Pruflia 
called  it,  the  cradle  of  natural  hiftory  ;  but  fhe  was  in- 
differently accommodated.  The  walls  were  naked,  an 
old  writing-table,  with  pen,  ink,  and  paper,  and  an  el- 
bow chair  of  black  leather,  were  the  only  furniture  of 
liis  ftudv.  His  manufcripts  were  in  a  cabinet  in  an- 
other building,  and  he  went  occafionally  from  one  to 
the  other.  The  eras  of  Bufl'on's  works  are  pretty 
well  known.  When  each  was  finifiied,  it  was  put 
alide,  in  order  that  he  might  forget  it,  and  he  then  re- 
turned to  it  with  the  feverity  of  a  critic  He  was 
anxious  to  have  it  perfpicuous ;  and  if  thofe  to  whom 
he  read  his  works  hefitated  a  moment,  he  changed  tlie 
pafTage.  The  works  of  others  he  at  lail  read  like 
Magliabechi,  the  titles,  the  contents,  and  the  moil  in- 
terefting  parts;  but  he  read  M.  Neckar's  Compte 
Rendu,  and  the  Adminiflration  of  the  Finances,  at 
length  :  he  fpoke  of  them  alfo  with  no  little  enthufiafm. 
His  favourite  authors  were  Fenelon,  Montefquieu,  and 
Richardfon. 

I\I.  de  Buuon's  converfation  was  unadorned,  rarely 
animated,  but  fometjmes  very  cheerful.  He  was  exaCf 
in  his  drei's,  particularly  in  drefiiug  his  hair.  He  fat 
long  at  table,  and  then  itemed  at  his  eafe.  His  con- 
verfation was,  at  this  time,  unembarrafTed,  and  his 
gueils  had  frequently  occalion  to  notice  fome  happy 
turn  of  phrafe,  or  fome  deep  refleftion.  His  compiai- 
fance  was  vei"y  conilderable  :  he  loved  praife,  and  even 
praifed  himfclf;  but  it  was  with  fo  much  franknefs,  and 
with  fo  little  contempt  of  others,  that  it  was  never  dif- 
agrecable.  Indeed,  when  we  confider  the  extent  of 
his  reputation,  the  credit  of  his  works,  and  the  atten- 
tion with  which  thty  were  always  received,  we  do  not 
■wonder  that  he  was  fenilble  of  his  own  value.  It 
would  perhaps  have  difplayed  a  Ifronger  mind  to  have 
concealed  it.  His  father  lived  to  93,  and  almoll 
adored  his  fon  ;  his  grandfather  to  87  ;  and  the  fub- 
je£t  of  the  prefent  article  exceeded  only  80.  He 
died  in  April  178S.  Fifty-fix  ftones  were  found  in  his 
bladder  ;  but  if  lie  had  confented  to  the  operation,  he 
might  probably  have  lived  longer.  One  fon  remains  ; 
who  near  a  high  tower  in  the  gardens  of  Montbard  has 
placed  a  low  column,  with  the  following  infcription  : 

Excelfae  Turri 

Hurailis  Columna, 

Parenti  fuo 

Fil.  BufTon, 

CLERGY,  a  general  name  given  to  the  body  of 
eccleliaii'cs  of  the  Chriilian  church,  in  contradillinftion 
to  th.e  laity.      See  Laity. 

I'he  diilinftion  of  Chriftians  into  clergy  and  laity, 
was  derived  from  the  Jewilh  church,  and  adopted  into 
the  Chriilian  by  the  apolUes  themfelves:  whenever 
any  number  of  cnnveits  was  made,  as  foon  as  they 
were  c.ij)able  of  being  formed  into  a  congre:,Mtion  or 
church,  a  biliiop.  urpieloyter,  with  a  deacon,  were  or- 


f     59     1  CLE 

daincd   to  minillcr  to  them.      Of  the  bifhops,  priefts,     CI;r?y. 
and  deacons,  the  clergy  originally  confilled  ;  but  in  the  "~~v~— ' 
third  CLUtury,  many  inferior  orders  v.-ere  appointed,  as 
fiibfervient  to  the    office  of    deacon,  fuch  as  Acolu- 
THiSTS,  Readers,  Sic. 

Tin's  venerable  body  of  men  being  feparate  and  fet  BlaclJI. 
apart    from    the   reit  of  the  people,   in  order  to  attend  Cwimtitt. 
the  more  c'olely  to  the  fervice  of  Almighty  God,  have 
therefore   large  privileges  allowed  them  by  our  muni- 
cipal laws :    and   had   formerly  much   greater,  which 
were  abridged  at  the  time  of  the   refonnation,  on   ac- 
coimt  of  the  ill  ufe  which  the  Poplih  clergy  had  endea- 
voured  to   make  of  them.     For,  the  laws  having  ex- 
empted them  from  almoft   every  perfonal  duty,   they 
attempted  a  total  exemption    from   every  fecular  tie. 
But  it  is  obferved  by  Sir  Edward    Coke,   that  as  the 
overflowing  of  waters  doth  many  times  make  the  ri- 
ver to  lofe  its  proper  channel,  fo,  in  times  pall,   eccle- 
fiaflical  peifons,  fceking  to  extend  their  liberties  be- 
yond their  due  bounds,  either  lofl,  or  enjoyed   not, 
thofe  which  of  right  belonged  to  them.     The  perfonal 
exemptions   do   indeed  for  the  moil  part  continue  :  a 
clergyman  cannot  be  compelled  to  ferve  on  a  jury,  nor 
to  appear  at  a  court-leet,  or  view    of  frank-pledge, 
which   almofl  every   other  perfon    is  obliged  to  do : 
but  if  a  layman  is  fummoned  on  a  jury,  and  before  the 
trial  takes  orders,  he  ihall  notwithllanding  appear  and 
be  fworn.     Neither  can  he  be  chofen  to  any  temporal 
oiKce,   as  bailiff,   reeve,   conftable,  or  the  like  ;  in  re- 
gard of  his  own   continual  attendance  on  the  facred 
function.      During  his  attendance  on  divine  fervice,  he 
is  privileged  from  arrefls  in  civil  fuits.     In  cafes  alfo  of 
felony,  a  clerk   in  orders  fliall  have  the  benefit  of  his 
clergy,  without  being  branded  in  the  hand;  and  may 
likewife  have  it  more   ihan  once:  in  both  which  par- 
ticulars he  is  diitinguiilied  from  a  layman.     But,  as 
they  have  their  privileges,  fo  they  have  alio  their  dif- 
abilities,  on  account  of  their  fpiritual  avocations.  Cler- 
gymen are  incapable  of  fitting  in   the  houfe  of  com- 
mons ;  and  by  flatutc  21  Hen.  VIII.  c.  13.   are  not 
in  general  allowed  to  take  any  lands  or  tenements  to 
farm,  upon  pain  of  I ol  /i-ri&onth,  and  total  avoidance 
of  the  leafe  ;  nor,  upon   like   pain,   to   keep  any  tap- 
houfe  or  brcw-houfe  ;   nor  fliall  engage  in  any  manner 
of  trade,  nor  fell  any  merchandize,  under  forfeiture  of 
of  the  treble   value.     Which  prohibition  is  confonant 
to  the  canon  law. 

Benefit  of  CiFRGr,  is  an  ancient  privilege  whereby 
one  in  orders  claimed  to  be  delivered  to  his  ordinaiy  to 
purge  himfelf  of  felony. 

After  trial  and  conviftion  *  of  a  criminal,  the  judg-  ♦  s^g  ,j,j 
ment  of  the  court  regularly  follows,  unlefs  fufpended  articles  yf/-- 
or  arrefled  by  fome  intervening  circumflance  ;   of  which  '■"■>•'"■■!■"', 
the  principal  is  l/enejt  of  clergy :   a  title  of  no  fmall  cu- '^'j"' '^"l'' 
nolityas  well  as  uie;   and  concerning  which,  therefore,  i/o^. 
it  may  not  be  improper  to  inquire,  i .  Into  its  original, 
and  the  vario-us  mutations   which  this  privilege  of  the 
clergy  has  fullaiiied.      2.  To  wl:at  perfons  ft  is  to  be 
allowed  at  this  day.     3.  In  what  cafes.     4.  The  confe- 


quences  of  allowing  it. 

I.  Clergy,  the  pnoikg'ium  clcrkale,   or   (in  common  ^/^^a 
fpeech)  the  benefit  of  clergy,  had  its  origiiud  from  the  Comment. 
pious  regard  paid  by  Chriilian  princes  to  the  church  in 
its  infant  ilate,  and  the  ill  ufe  wliich  the  popifh  eccle- 
liaflics  foon  made  of  that  pious  regard..     The  exemp- 
H  2  tinns 


CLE  i     Co 

C.cr^.    tions  which  they  granted  to  the  church  were  principal- 

"—y- '  ly  of  two  'kinds  :    i.  Exemptions  of  places  confccrated 

to  religious  duties  from  criminal  arrefts  ;  wliich  was 
the  foundation  of  fanftuurics.  2.  Exemption  of  the 
perfons  of  clergymen  from  criminal  proceis  liL-fore  the 
fecular  judge  in  a  few  particular  cafes;  which  was 
the  true  original  and  meaning  of  the  privihghtm  clerl- 
ca/r. 

But  the  clergy  Increafing  in  wealth,  power,  honour, 
number,  and  intereft,  foon  began  to  fet  up  for  them- 
felves  ;  and  that  which  they  obtained  by  th-  favour  of 
the  civil  government,  they  now  claimed  as  their  in- 
herent right,  and  as  a  right  of  the  higheft  nature,  in- 
defeafible,  and  jure  dkt'mo.  By  their  canons,  there- 
fore, and  conflitutious,  they  endeavoured  at,  and 
where  they  met  with  eafy  princes,  obtained,  a  vaft 
extenfion  of  thofe  exemptions  ;  as  well  in  regard  to 
the  crimes  themfelves,  of  which  the  liit  became  quite 
univerfal,  as  in  regard  to  the  perfons  exempted ; 
among  whom  were  at  length  comprehended,  not 
only  evei7  little  fubordinate  office  belonging  to  the 
church  or  clergy,  but  even  many  that  were  totally 
laymen. 

In  Eno-land,  however,  although  the  ufurpationsT.f  the 
pope  were  very  many  and  grievous,  till  Henry  VIII. 
totally  exterminated  his  fupremacy,  yet  a  total  ex- 
emption of  the  clergy  f'om  fecular  jurifdidion  could 
bever  be  thoroughly  effefted,  though  often  endea- 
voured by  the  clergy  :  and  therefore,  though  the  an- 
cient privilfgium  clericals  was  in  foirte  capital  cafes, 
yet  it  was  not  univerfally  allowed.  And  in  thofe  par- 
ticular cafes,  the  ufe  was  for  the  bii'hop  or  ordinary  to 
demand  his  clerks  to  be  remitted  out  of  the  king's 
courts  as  foon  as  they  were  inditted  :  concerning  the 
allowance  of  which  demand  there  was  for  many  years 
a  -rreat  uncertainty  ;  till  at  length  it  was  finely  fettled 
inthe  reign  of  Henry  VI.  that  the  prifoner  ihould  firft 
be  arraigned;  and  might  either  then  claim  his  benefit 
of  clergy  by  way  of  declinatoiy  plea  ;  or,  after  con- 
■viftion,  by  way  of  arreft  of  judgment.  This  latter 
way  is  mod  ufually  pratlifed,  as  it  is  more  to  the  fatif- 
faftion  of  the  court  to  have  the  crimfe  previoufly  afcer- 
tained  by  confeffion  or  the  verditl  of  a  ]uvj  ;  and  alfo 
it  is  more  advantageous  to  the  prifoner  himfelf,  who 
may  poflibly  be  acquitted,  and  fo  need  not  the  benefit 
of  his  clergy  at  all. 

Originally  the  law  was  held  that  no  man  (hould  be 
admitted  to  the  benefit  of  clergy,  but  fuch  as  had  the 
hahlnm  et  toiifuram  chrkakm.  But,  in  procefs  _  of 
time,  a  much  wider  and  more  comprehenfive  criterion 
was  eftablifhed  ;  every  one  that  co\ild  read  (a  gveat 
mark  of  learning  in  thofe  days  of  ignorance  and  her 
fitter  fuperftltion)  being  accounted  a  clerk,  or  cle- 
r'tcus,  and  allowed  the  benefit  of  clerkfliip,  though 
neither  initiated  in  clerkfliip,  nor  trimmed  with  the 
holy  tonfure.  But  when  learning,  by  means  of  the 
invention  of  printing,  and  other  concurrent  caufes,  bc- 
o-an  to  be  more  generally  difTeminated  than  formerly  ; 
Ad  reading  was  no  longer  a  competent  proof  of  clerk- 
-  iMp,  or  being  in  holy  orders  ;  it  was  found  that  as  ma- 
ny laymen  as  divines  were  adraittcd  to  the  prkuhgium 
ehrkale:  and  therefere  by  ftatute  4  Henry  VII.  c.  13. 
a  diftinftion  was  once  more  drawn  between  mere  lay 
feholars  and  clerks  that  were  really  in  orders.  And, 
though  it  was  thought  reafonable  ilill  to  mitigate  the 


1  CLE 

feverity  of  the  law  with  regard  to  the  former,  yet  C'tr^y. 
they  were  not  put  upon  the  fame  footing  with  ac-  ^~~v~~" 
tual  clergy  ;  being  fubjefted  to  a  flight  degree  of  pu- 
niihmcnt,  and  not  allowed  to  claim  the  clerical  privi- 
lege more  than  once.  Accordingly  the  itatute  direils, 
that  no  perfon,  once  admitted  to  the  benefit  of  clergy 
fhall  be  adiiiitted  thereto  a  fccond  lime,  until  he  pro- 
duces his  orders:  and  i.i  order  to  dirtluguilh  their 
perfons,  all  laymen  who  are  allowed  tliis  privilege, 
fliall  be  burned  v.-ith  a  hot-iron  in  the  brawn  of  the 
left  thumb.  Tiiis  difiindtlon  between  learned  laymen 
and  real  clerks  in  orders  was  abolilhed  for  a  time  by 
the  flatutes  28  Hen.  VIII.  c.  i.  and  32  Hen.  VIII. 
c.  3.5  but  is  held  to  have  been  virtually  reilorcd  by 
ftatute  I  Edw.  VI.  c.  12.  which  ilatutc  alfo  enafts, 
that  lords  of  parliament  and  peers  of  the  realm  may 
have  the  benefit  of  their  peerage,  equivalent  to  that  of 
clergy,  for  the  firll  oiFence  (although  they  cannot  read, 
and  without  being  burnt  in  the  hand),  for  all  offences 
then  clergyable  to  commoners,  a;id  alfo  for  the  crimes 
of  houie-brcaking,  highway-robbeiy,  horfe-llealing, 
and  robbing  of  churches. 

After  this  burnu\g,  the  laity,  and  before  it  the  real 
clergy,  were  difcharged  from  the  fentence  of  the  la\r 
in  the  king's  courts,  and  delivered  over  to  the  ordi- 
nary, to  be  dealt  with  according  to  the  ecclelialHcal 
canons.  Whereupon  the  ordinary,  not  fatisfied  with 
the  proofs  adduced  in  the  profane  fecular  court,  fet 
himlelf  formally  to  make  a  purgation  of  the  ofeender 
by  a  new  canonical  trial  ;  although  he  had  been  pre- 
vioufly convifted  by  his  country,  or  perhaps  by  his 
own  confeffion.  This  trial  was  held  before  the  bifliop 
in  perfon,  or  his  deputy;  and  by  a  jury  of  twelve 
clerks  :  And  there,  firil,  the  party  himfelf  was  re- 
quired to  make  oath  of  his  own  innocence:  next, 
there  was  to  be  the  oath  of  twelve  compurgators,  who 
fwore  they  believed  he  fpok,e  the  truth  :  then,  wit- 
neffes  were  to  be  t.Kamined  upon  oath,  but  on  behalf 
of  the  prifoner  only  :  and,  laftly,  the  juiy  were  tn 
bring  in  their  verdict  upon  oath,  which  ufually  acquit- 
ted the  prifoner  ;  otheiwife,  if  a  clerk,  he  was  de- 
graded, or  put  to  penance.  A  learned  judge  in  the 
beginning  of  laft  century,  remarks  with  much  indig- 
nation the  vail  complication  of  perjury  and  fuboina- 
tion  of  perjury  in  this  folemn  farce  of  a  mock  trial : 
the  witnelfes,  the  compurgators,  and  the  jury,  being  all 
of  them  partakers  in  the  guilt :  the'  delinquent  party 
alfo,  though  convlfted  in  the  cleareft  manner,  and  con- 
fcious  of  his  own  offence,  yet  was  permitted,  and  almoll: 
compelled,  to  fwear  himfelf  not  guilty  ;  nor  was  the 
goodbifhop  himfelf,  under  whofe  countenance  this  fcene 
was  tranfaited,  by  any  means  exempt  from  a  fhare  of 
it.  And  yet,  by  this  purgation,  the  party  was  reftored 
to  his  credit,  his  liberty,  his  lands,  and  his  capacity  of 
purchafing  afrefh,  and  was  entirely  made  a  new  and  an 
innocent  man. 

This  fcandalous  proflitution  of  oaths,  and  the  forma 
of  juftice,  in  the  almoil  ccnftant  acquittal  jaf  felonious 
clerks  by  purgation,  was  the  occafion  that,  upon  very 
heinous  and  notorious  circumftances  of  guilt,  tem- 
poral courts  would  not  trail;  the  ordinary  with  the 
trial  of  the  offender,  but  delivered  over  to  him  the 
conviited  clerk,  abfque  purgatione  Jacitndo  :  in,  which 
fituation  the  clerk  convift  could  not  make  purgation  ; 
but  was  to  continue  in  prifuu  during  hfe,  and  was  in- 
capable 


CLE 


C     6 


Cierfy.    capable  of  acquiring  any  pcrfonal  property,  or  recei- 
— V  viiig  tlic  profits  of  his  lands,    unlcfs   the   king   fhould 

pleafe  to  pardon  him.  Bocii  thefe  courfcs  were  in  fome 
degree  exceptionable  ;  the  latter  perhaps  being  too 
rigid,  as. the  former  was  prodiiilive  of  the  moll  aban- 
doned perjury.  As  therefore  thef-  moc!^  tri:ils  took 
their  rife  from  faftious  and  popifh  tenets,  tending  to 
exempt  one  part  of  the  nation  from  the  general  muni- 
cipal law  ;  it  beciUiie  high  ti^^e,  when  the  reformation 
was  thovoughly  eltabli;l.ed,  to  abolidi  fo  vain  and  impi- 
ous a  ceremony. 

Accordingly  the  flotutc  i8  Eliz.  c.  7.  enafts,  that, 
for  the  avoiding  f  ich  perjuries  and  abufcs,  after  the 
ofFendi.r  has  been  allowed  his  clergy,  he  fiiall  not  be 
delivered  to  the  ordinary  as  formerly  ;  but,  upon  fuch 
aliow^itnce,  and  burning  of  the  hand,  he  Ihall  forthwith 
be  enlarged  and  delivered  out  of  prifon  ;  with  pro- 
vifo,  that  the  judge  may,  if  he  thinks  fit,  continue  the 
offender  in  gaol  for  any  time  not  exceeding  a  year. 
And  thus  the  law  continued  unaltered  for  above  a 
centur)' ;  except  only,  that  the  ftatute  21  Jac.  I.  c.  6. 
allowed,  that  women  convifted  of  fimpte  larcenies 
under  the  value  of  10  s.  lliould  (not  properly  have 
■  the  benefit  of  clergy,  for  they  were  not  called  upon  to 
read  ;  but)  be  burned  in  the  l;and,  whipped,  or  Hock- 
ed, or  imprifoned  for  any  time  not  exceeding  a  year. 
And  a  fuiiilar  indulgence  by  the  ftatutes  3  and  4  Will, 
and  Mary  c.  9.  and  4  and  5  Will,  and  Mary  c.  24.  was 
extended  to  women  guiltyof  any  clergyable  felony  what- 
ever ;  who  were  allowed  once  to  claim  the  benefit  of 
the  ftatute,  in  like  manner  as  men  might  claim  the  be- 
nefit of  clergy,  and  to  be  difcliarged  upon  being  burned 
in  the  hand,  and  imprifoned  for  any  time  not  exceed- 
ing a  year.  All  women,  all  peers,  and  all  male  com- 
moners who  could  read,  were  therefore  difcharged  in 
fuch  felonies  abfolutely,  if  clerks  in  orders  ;  and  for  the 
firll  offence  upon  burning  in  the  hand,  if  lay  ;  yet  all 
liable  (except  peers),  if  the  judge  faw  occafion,  to 
imprifonment  not  exceeding  a  year.  And  thefe  men 
who  could  not  read,  if  under  the  degree  of  peerage, 
were  hanged. 

Afterwards,  indeed,  it  was  confidered,  that  educa- 
tion and  learning  weie  no  extenuations  of  guilt,  but 
quite  the  reverfe  :  and  that  if  the  punifliment  of  death 
for  fimple  felony  was  too  fevere  for  thofe  who  had 
been  liberally  inftrufted,  it  was,  a  fortiori,  too  fevere 
for  the  ignorant  alfo.  And  thereupon,  by  ftatute 
5  Anne,  c.  6.  it  was  enafted  that  the  benefit  of  clergy 
fhould  be  granted  to  all  thofe  who  were  intitled  to  aflc 
it,  without  requiring  them  to  read  by  way  of  condi- 
tional merit.  And,  experience  having  fhown  that  fo 
univerfal  a  lenity  was  frequently  inconvenient,  and  an 
encouragement  to  commit  the  lower  dcgres  of  felo- 
ny ;  and  that  though  capital  punifhments  were  too  ri- 
gorous for  thefe  inferior  offences,  yet  no  punifliment 
at  all  ('or  next  to  none,  as  branding  or  whipping), 
was  as  much  too  gentle  ;  it  was  enatted  by  the  fame 
ftatute  5  Anne,  c.  6.  that  when  any  perfon  is  convic- 
ted of  any  theft  or  larceny,  and  burnt  in  the  hand 
for  the  fume,  he  fliall,  at  the  dileretion  of  the  judge, 
be  committed  to  the  houfe  of  correction  or  public 
work-houfe,  to  be  there  kept  to  hard  labour  for  any 
time  not  lefs  then  fix  months,  and  not  exceeding  two 
years  ;  with  a  power  of  inflifting  a  double  confinement 
in  cafe  of  the  party's  efcape  from  the  firft.     And  it  is 


I     ]  CLE 

alfo  cr.afted  by  the  ftatutes  4  Geo.  I.  c.  II.  and  6. 
Geo.  I.  c.  23.  that  when  any  pcrfons  fiiall  be  conv.cled 
of  any  larceny,  cither  grand  or  petit,  or  any  felonious 
ftcaling  or  taking  of  money  or  goods  and  chittles,  ei- 
ther from  the  ptrfon  or  the  houfe  of  anv  other,  or  in 
any  other  manner,  and  who  by  the  law  fhall  be  intitled 
to  the  benefit  of  clergy,  and  liable  only  to  the  penal- 
ties of  burning  in  the  hand,  or  whipping  ;  the  court,  in 
their  difcretion,  infteadof  fuch  biivnirig  in  the  hand,  or 
whipping,  may  direcl;  fuch  offenders  to  lie  tranfportcd 
to  America  for  feven  years  ;  and  if  they  return,  or  arc 
feen  at  large  in  this  kingdom  within  that  time,  it  fhall 
be  felony  without  benefit  of  clergy. 

In  this  ftate  does  the  benefit  of  clergy  at  prefent 
Hand  ;  very  confiderably  different  from  its  original  iil- 
ftitution  :  the  wifdom  of  the  En^^ilh  legiflature  ha- 
ving, in  the  courfe  of  a  long  and  laborious  procefs,  ex- 
tracted, by  a  noble  alchemy,  rich  medicines  out  oi  poi- 
fonous  ingredients  ;  and  converted,  by  gradual  muta- 
tions, what  was  at  firft  an  unreafonable  exemption  of 
particular  popifh  ecclefiailics,  into  a  merciful  mitiga- 
tion of  the  gener.d  law  with  refpect  to  capital  punifh- 
ments. 

From  the  whole  of  this  detail,  we  may  eolleft,  that 
however  in  times  of  ignorance  and  fuperftition,  that, 
monfter  in  true  polic^  may  for  a  while  fubfill,  of  a 
body  of  men  refiding  in  a  ftate,  and  yet  independent 
of  its  laws  ;  yet  when  learning  and  rational  religion 
have  a  little  enlightened  mens  minds,  fociety  can  no 
longer  endure  an  abfurdity  fo  grofs,  as  muft  deftroy  its 
very  fundamentals.  For,  by  the  original  contraft  of 
government,  the  price  of  protetlion  by  the  united  force 
of  individu.als,  is  that  of  obedience  to  the  united  will  of 
the  community.  This  united  will  is  declared  in  the 
laws  of  the  land  :  and  that  united  force  is  exerted  in 
their  due,  and  univerfal,  execution. 

II.  We  are  next  to  inquire,  to  what  perfons  the  be- 
nefit of  clergy  is  to  be  allowed  at  this  day  :  and  this 
muft  chiefly  be  coUefted  from  what  has  been  obfer- 
ved  in  the  preceding  article.  For,  upon  the  whole, 
we  may  pronounce,  that  all  clerks  in  orders  are,  with- 
out any  branding,  and  of  courfe  without  any  tranf— 
portation  (for  that  is  only  fubftituted  in  lieu  of  the 
other),  to  be  admitted  to  this  privilege,  and  immedi- 
ately difcharged,  or  at  moft  only  confined  for  one  year; 
and  this  as  often  as  tliey  offend.  Again,  all  lords  of 
parliament,  and  peers  of  the  realm,  by  the  ftatute 
I  Edw.  VI.  c.  12.  fliall  be  difcharged  in  all  clergyable 
and  other  felonies  provided  for  by  the  aft  without  any 
burning  in  the  hand,  in  the  fame  manner  as  real  clerke 
convift  :  but  this  is  only  for  the  firft  offence.  Laftly, 
all  the  commons  of  the  realm,  not  in  orders,  v/hether 
male  or  female,  fhall,  for  the  firft  offence,  be  dif- 
charged of  the  punifhment  of  felonies,  within  the  be- 
nefit of  clergy,  upon  being  burnt  in  the  hand,  and  fuf- 
fering  difcretionary  imprifonment ;  or,  in  cafeoflar-- 
ceny,  upon  being  tranfported  for  feven  years,  if  the 
court  fliall  think  proper. 

III.  The  third  point  to  be  confidered  is,  for  what 
Climes  the  privHegium  dencale,  or  benefit  of  clergy, 
is  to  be  allowed.  And  it  is  to  be  obfei-ved,  that  nei- 
ther in  high  treafon,  iiop-in  petit  larceny,  nor  in  any 
mere  mifdemeanors,  it  was  indulged  at  the  common 
law  :  and  therefore  we  may  lay  it  down  as  a  rule, 
that  it  was  allowable  only  in  petit  treafon  and  capital 

5,  felonies ; , 


Cl^rey. 


CLE  [     62 

Clefgy-    felonies  ;  which  for  the  moll  p;ut  became  legallv  in-    lef;e:; 
°~~*  titled     to    this    indulgence    by    the     llatute  de  ckro, 

25  Edw.  III.  ilat.  3.  c.  4.  which  provides,  that  clerks 
conviil  for  treafon  or  felonies,  touchin'T  other  perfons 
than  the  king  liiral'elf  or  his  royal  majcfty,  (hall  have 
the  privilege  of  holy  church.  But  yet  it  was  not  al- 
lowed in  all  cafes  whatfoever  :  for  in  fome  it  was  de- 
nied even  in  common  law,  vi/-  iiijijlatio  •viiiruni,  or  ly- 
ing in  wait  for  one  on  the  highway  ;  d-popnla/io  agro- 
rum,  or  deftroying  and  ravaging  a  cuunti-y  ;  coinlufiio 
doimrum,  or  arfon,  that  is,  burning  of  houfes ;  all 
which  are  a  kind  of  hollile  a£ls,  and  in  fome  degree 
border  upon  treafon.  And  farther,  all  thefe  identical 
crimes,  together  with  petit  treafon,  and  very  many 
other  a£ls  of  felony,  are  ouiled  of  clergy  by  particular 
acls  of  parliament. 

Upon  the  whole,  we  may  obferve  the  following 
rules.  I.  That  in  all  felonies,  whether  new  created, 
or  by  common  law,  clergy  is  now  allowable,  unlefs  ta- 
ken away  by  acl  of  parliament.  2.  That  where  clergy 
IS  taken  away  from  the  principal,  it  is  not  of  courfe  ta- 
ken away  from  the  acccflory,  unltfs  he  be  alfo  particu- 
larly included  in  the  words  of  the  ftatute.  3.  That 
when  the  benefit  of  clergy  is  taken  away  trom  the  of- 
fence (as  in  cafe  of  murder,  buggery,  robbery,  rape, 
and  burglary),  a  principal  in  the  fecond  degree,  being 
prefent,  aiding  and  abetting  the  crime,  is  as  well  ex- 
cluded from  his  clergy  as  he  that  is  a  principal  in 
the  firft  degree  :  but,  4.  Th.it  where  it  is  only  taken 
awav  from  the  perfon  committing  the  offence  (as  in 
the  cafe  of  ftabbing,  or  committing  larceny  in  a 
dwclling-houfe),  his  aiders  and  abettors  are  not  ex- 
cluded, through  the  tendernefs  of  the  law  which 
hath  determined  that  fuch  flatutes  fliall  not  be  taken 
literally. 

IV.  Laftly,  We  are  to  inquire  what  the  confequen- 
ces  are  to  the  party,  of  allowing  him  this  benefit  of 
clergy.  We  fpeak  not  of  the  branding,  imprifonment, 
or  tranfportation  ;  which  are  rather  concomitant  con- 
ditions, than  confeqiiences,  of  receiving  this  indul- 
gence. The  confequences  are  fuch  as  alfecl  his  pre- 
fent intereft,  and  future  credit  and  capacity  :  as  ha- 
ving been  once  a  felon,  but  now  purged  from  that 
guilt  by  the  privilege  of  clergy  ;  which  operates  as  a 
kind  of  llatute  pardon.  And  we  may  obferve,  I.  That, 
by  his  conviaion,  he  forfeits  all  his  goods  to  the  king; 
which,  being  once  vefled  in  the  crown,  Ihall  not  after- 
wards be  reflorcd  to  the  offender.  2.  That,  after 
conviftion,  and  till  he  receives  the  judgment  of  the 
law  by  branding  or  the  like,  or  elfe  is  pardoned  by 
the  king,  he  is,  to  all  intents  and  purpofes,  a  felon  ; 
and  fubjeft  to  all  the  difabilities  and  other  incidents  of 
.a  felon.  3.  That,  after  burning  or  pardcn,  he  is  dif- 
.charged  for  ever  of  that,  and  all  other  felonies  before 
.committed,  within  the  benefit  of  clergy  ;  but  not  of 
felonies  frcm  which  fuch  benefit  is  excluded  :  and  this 
by  ftatutes  8  Eliz.  c.  4.  and  1 8  Eliz.  c.  7.  4.  That, 
by  the  burning,  or  pardon  of  It,  he  is  rellored  to  all 
capacities  and  credits,  and  the  poffeflion  of  his  land;, 
as  if  he  had  never  been  convifled.  5.  That  what  is 
faid  with  regard  to  the  advantages  of  commoners  and 
laymen,  fubfequent  to  the  burning  in  the  hand,  is 
equally  applicable  to  all  peers  and  clergymen,  although 
never  branded  at  all.     For  tliey  have  the  fame  privi- 

4 


]  CLE 

any  burning,   to  which 


others  arc  in-     Clcrfc. 


without 
tilled  after  it. 

CLERK  [cicr'uus),  a  word  formerly  uftd  to  fignify 
a  learned  man,  or  man  of  letters.  The  word  comes 
from  the  Greek  y->.<'f&,  ufed  for  clergy ;  but  more  pro- 
perly fignifying  lot  or  hirhage,  in  regard  the  lot  and 
portion  of  clerks  or  ecclefiaitics  is  to  ferve  God.  Ac- 
cordingly cinrus  was  at  firll  ufed  to  fignify  thofe  who 
had  a  particular  attachment  to  the  ferviee  of  God. 
The  origin  of  the  cxprefTion  is  derived  from  the  Old 
Telhiment,  where  the  tribe  of  Levi  is  called  the  lot, 
heritage,  y-'-os®" ;  and  God  is  reciprocally  called  their 
portion ;  by  reafon  that  tribe  was  conlecrated  to  the 
ferviee  of  God,  and  lived  on  the  offerings  made  to  God, 
without  any  other  fettled  provifion  as  the  reil  had. 
Thus,  Pafquier  obferves,  the  officers  of  the  counts  [co- 
mites)  were  anciently  created  under  the  title  oi  c/tris  oj 
accouipls;  and  fecrclaries  of  Hate  were  called  clerks  of 
the  Jicret.  So  cLricus  domini  regis,  in  the  time  of  Ed- 
ward I.  was  Engliflied,  the  king's  fecretary,  or  clerk  of  his 
council.  The  term  was  applied  indifferently  to  all  who 
made  any  profefTion  of  learning;  or  who  knew  how  to 
manage  the  pen  :  though  originally  it  u'as  appropria- 
ted to  ecolefiaftics.  As  the  nobility  and  gentiy  were 
ufually  brought  up  to  the  exercife  of  arms,  there  was 
none  but  the  clergy  left  to  cullivate  the  fciences:  hence, 
as  it  was  the  clergy  alone  who  made  any  profeflion  of 
letters,  a  very  leaiiied  man  came  to  be  cvi\\.tA  3.  great  clerk, 
and  a  llupid  ignorant  man  a  Lad  dcri. 

Clerk  is  alioapphed  to  fuch  as  by  their  courfe  of 
life  exercife  their  pens  in  any  court  or  oSicc;  of  which 
there  are  various  kinds:  thus, 

Clerk  of  the  Bails,  an  officer  in  the  court  of  king's 
bench,  whofe  bufinefs  is  to  file  all  bail-pieces  taken  in 
that  court,  where  he  always  attends. 

Clfrk  of  the  Check,  an  officer  belonging  to  the  king's 
court  ;  fo  called,  becaufe  he  has  the  check  and  con- 
trouhiient  of  the  yeomen  that  belong  to  tlie  king,  queen, 
or  prince.  He  likewile,  by  hinifelf  or  deputy,  fets  the 
watch  in  the  court.  There  is  al.''o  an  officer  in  the  navy 
of  tlie  fame  name,  belonging  to  the  king's  yards. 

Clerk  of  the  Crown,  an  officer  in  the  king's  bench, 
who  frames,  reads,  and  records  all  indiclments  againft 
offenders,  there  arraigned  or  indicted  of  any  public 
crime.  He  is  likewile  termed  clerk  of  the  crown-ojjice, 
in  which  capacity  he  exhibits  information  by  order  of 
the  court  for  divers  offences. 

Clerk  of  the  Crown,  in  chancery,  an  officer  whofe 
bufinefs  it  is  conflantly  to  attend  the  lord  chancellor 
in  perfon  or  by  deputy  ;  to  write  and  prepare  for  the 
great  feal  fpecial  matters  of , Hate  by  commilTion,  both 
ordinary  and  extraordinary,  •ui'z  commilTions  of  lieu- 
tenancy, of  juflices  of  alfize,  oyer  and  terminer,  gaol- 
delivery,  and  of  the  peace;  all  general  pardons,  granted 
eitlier  at  the  king's  coronation,  or  in  parliament :  the 
writs  of  parliament,  with  the  names  of  the  knights,  ci- 
tizens, and  burgefles,  are  alfo  returned  into  his  office. 
He  alfu  makes  out  fpecial  pardons  and  writs  of  execu- 
tion on  bonds  of  llatute-flaple  forfeited 

CihRK  if  the  Ueiiveries  of  the  Ordnance.  See  Ord- 
nance. 

Cif.RK  of  the  Errors,  in  the  court  of  common  pleas, 
an  officer  who  tranfcribes  and  certifies  into  the  king's 
bench,  the  tenor  of  the  record  of  the  aftion  on  which 

the 


Cle-h. 


CLE  [6 

the  ■BTi't  of  error,  made  out  ly  the  curfitor,  is  broiij^ht 
-'  t}icr'  ta  be  dctfrniincd.  In  the  king's  bench,  the  clerk 
of  the  errors  trunicribts  and  certifies  the  records  of 
caiifes,  by  bill,  in  that  court,  into  the  exchequer.  And 
the  bufinefsof  the  clcikof  the  errors  in  the  exchequer, 
is  to  tranfcribe  the  records  certified  thither  out  of  the 
king's  bencii,  and  to  prepare  them  for  judgment  in  the 
exchequer-chamber. 

Cu-tt-K  of  the  Fjfj'ins,  in  the  court  of  common  pleas, 
keeps  the  cIToin  roll,  or  enters  eifoins  :  he  alfo  provides 
parchment,  cuts  it  into  rolls,  marks  the  number  on 
them,  delivers  out  all  the  rolls  to  every  officer,  and  re- 
ceives them  again  when  written.     See  Essoin. 

Clt.kk  of  the  Efreafs,  an  officer  in  the  exchequer, 
who  every  term  receives  the  eilreats  out  of  the  lord- 
treafurer's  remembrancer's  office,  and  writes  them  out 
to  be  levied  for  the  crown. 

CiFKK  of  the  Gnen-iloth,  formerly  an  officer  in  chan- 
cery, but  now  abolilhed. 

Clipk  of  the  Ham'er,  or  Hanaper,  an  officer  in  chan- 
■cery,  whofe  buiinefs  is  to  receive  all  money  due  to  the 
king  for  the  Icals  of  charters,  letters  patent,  commif- 


fioiis,  and  writs  ;  alfo  the  fees  due  to  the  officers  for 
enrol  ing  and  examining  them. 

CihkK-Coiiiptroihr  of  the  Kirg's  Houfehold,  an  officer 
of  the  king's  court,  authoriled  to  allow  or  difallow 
the  charges  of  purfuivants,  meffengers  of  the  green- 
cloth,  &c.  to  infpeil  and  controul  all  defefts  of  any 
of  the  inferior  ofRcers  ;  and  to  fit  in  the  counting-houfe 
with  the  lord-fteward  and  other  officers  of  the  lK>ufe- 
hold  for  regulating  fiich  matters. 

Cif.RK  tf  the  King's  Siher,  an  officer  of  the  common 
pleas,  to  whom  every  fine  is  brought,  after  it  has  pafied 
the  office  of  the  ciflos  brevium;  and  who  enters  the  ef- 
fetl  of  writs  of  covenant,  into  a  book  kept  for  that 
purpofe,  according  to  which  all  the  fines  of  that  tern\ 
are  recorded  in  the  rolls  of  tlie  court. 

C/.F.itf.  of  the  Market,  an  officer  of  the  king's  houfe, 
to  whom  is  given  the  charge  of  the  king's  meafures 
and  weiglits,  the  flandards  of  thofe  that  ought  to  be 
ufed  all  over  England. 

Clfrk  of  the  Nichils,  or  Nihils,  an  officer  of  the  ex- 
chequer, who  makes  a  roll  of  all  fuch  Aims  as  are  ni- 
ciillled  by  the  ffierirFs  upon  their  eilreats  of  green  wax, 
and  delivers  them  in  to  the  remembrancer  of  the  trea- 
lury,  to  have  execution  done  upon  them  for  the  king. 
See  Nihil. 

Clerk  of  the  Ordnance.      See  Ord\'ANCF.; 

Clrrk  of  the  Oullaivries,  an  officer  of  tire  common 
pleas,  and  deputy  to  the  attorney-general,  for  making 
out  all  writs  of  cnpias  utlegatum  after  outlawry,  to  which 
there  muft  be  the  king's  attorney's  name. 

Clkrk  of  the  Papcr-ojfccy  an  officer  belonging  to  the 
king's  bench,  whofe  bufinefs  is  to  make  up  the  paper- 
books  of  fpecial  pleadings  in  that  court. 

Clerk  cf  the  Peace,  an  officer  belonging  to  the  .'"ef- 
fions  of  the  peace,  whofe  buiinefs  is  to  read  indittmeiits, 
itirol  the  proceedings,  and  draw  the  procefs  :  he  like- 
wife  certifies  into  the  king's  bench  tranfcripts  of  in- 
diftmcnts,  outlawries,  attainders,  and  conviftions  liad 
before  the  juftices  of  peace,  within  the  time  limited  by 
ftatute,  under  a  certain  penalty.  This  office  is  in  the 
gift  of  the  ai/ios  rotuLrum,  and  may  be  e:;ecuted  by  de- 
puty. 


^     1  CLE 

Clerk  of  the  Pells,  an  officer  that  belongs  to  the  es- 
chequer,  whofe  bufinefs  is  to  enter  every  teller's  bill 
into  a  parchment-roll  called  pellis  receptorum;  and  to 
make  another  roll  of  payments  called  peit'is  exUuum. 

Ci.e.RK  of  the  petty  B,ig,  an  officer  of  the  court  of  chan- 
cery, whereof  there  are  three,  the  mailer  of  the  rolls 
being  the  chief;  thiir  bufmefs  is  to  record  the  return 
of  all  inqiiifitions  out  of  every  Ihire  ;  to  make  out  pa- 
tents of  cuftomers,  gaugers,  comptrollers,  &c.  ;  libe- 
rates upon  extent  of  llatutes-ftaple ;  conge  tl'eli res  for 
bid-.ops  ;  fummons  of  the  nobility,  clergy,  and  bur- 
geflc'S  to  parliament  ;  and  commiffions  direfted  to 
knights  and  others  of  every  fhire,  for  aflefling  fubfidies 
and  taxes. 

Clerk  of  the  Pipe,  an  officer  of  the  exchequer,  who 
havinsf  the  accounts  of  all  debts  due  to  the  kine,  deli- 
vered  out  of  the  remembranccrs's  office,  charges  them 
in  a  great  roll  folded  up  like  a  pipe.  He  writes  out 
warrants  to  ihenfFs,  to  levy  the  faid  debts  on  the  goods 
and  chattels  of  the  debtors;  and  if  they  have  no  goods, 
then  he  draws  them  down  to  the  treaiurer's  remem- 
brancer to  write  eilreats  againil  their  lands. 


Cleric. 


Clerk  of  the  Pleas,  an  officer  of  the  exchequer,  in 
wliofe  office  all  the  officers  of  the  court,  iiaving  fpecial- 
priviiege,  ought  to  fue  or  be  fued  in  any  acilion.  In 
this  office  alfo  actions  at  law  may  be  profecuted  by  other 
perfons,  but  the  plaintiif  ought  to  be  tenant  or  debtor 
to  the  king,  or  lome  way  accountable  to  him.  The 
under  clerks  are  attorneys  in  all  fuits. 

Ct.frks  of  the  Priity-feal,  four  officers  that  attend  the> 
lord  privy  leal,  for  writing  and  making  out  all  things^ 
that  are  fent  by  warrant  from  the  fignet  to  the  privy  fealy 
and  to  be  paffcd  the  great  feal  ;  and  likewii'e  to  make 
out  privy  fcals,  upon  fpecial  occafions  of  his  majelly's 
affairs,  as  for  loan  of  money,  or  the  like. 

Clerk  'of  the  Rolls,  an  officer  of  the  chancery,  whofe 
buiinefs  is  to  make  fearches  after,  and  copies  of  deeds, 
officers,  &c. 

Clerk  of  the  Signet,  an  officer  continually  attending 
upon  his  majelly's  principal  fecretary,  who  has  the  cu- 
ilody  of  the  privy  fignet,  as  well  for  fealing  the  king's 
private  letters  as  thofe  grants  which  pals  the  king's 
hand  by  bill  figned.  Tliere  are  four  of  tliefe  officers 
who  have  their  diet  at  the  fecretary's  table. 

Six  Clerks,  officers  in  chancei-y  next  in  degree  be- 
low the  twelve  mailers,  whole  bufinefs  is  to  inrol  com- 
miffions, pardons,  patents,  warrants,  &c.  which  pafs 
tlic  great  feal.  They  were  anciently  clerict,  and  for- 
feited their  places  if  they  married.  Tliefe  are  alfo  at- 
torneys for  parties  in  fuits  depending  in  the  court  of 
chancery. 

Clerk  of  the  Trcafury,  an  officer  belonging  to  the 
couit  of  common  pleas,  who  has  the  charge  of  keeping 
the  records  of  the  court,  makes  out  all  records  of  nit! 
prit.s,  and  likewife  all  exemplifications  of  records  being 
ill  the  tieafur)'.  He  has  the  fees  due  for  ;ili  fearches  ;  ^ 
and  has  under  him  an  under  keeper,  who  always  keeps 
one  key  of  the  treafury-door. 

Clerk  of  the  Warrants,  an  officer  of  the  common 
pleas,  whofe  bufinefs  is  to  enter  all  warrants  of  at- 
torney for  plaintiffs  and  defendants  in  fuit ;  and  to  in- 
rol deeds  of  bargain  and  fale,  that  are  acknowledged 
in  court,  or  before  a  judge.  His  office  is  likewife  to  . 
eflreat  into  the  excheijucr  all  iffues,  fines,  eilreats,  and. 

amercements^ . 


CLE 


[    64    ] 


CLE 


CUrUe 

H 

■Clermoi  t. 


amercements,  wliich  grow  due  to  the  crown  in  that     prcRrved  by  Walton.       The  MS.  itfelf  was   in  theCleroma«, 
court.  pofltfTion  of  Morinus ;  and  after  his  death  dt^pofited        '■^ 

CLERKE  (Captain  Charles),  a  celebrated  Englifh     among  the  MS.  copiti  of  the  Royal  Library  at  Paris,  (-.,^^j'^jj,j 
navigator,  was   bred  up  in   the  navy  from  his  youth,     N°2  245.  _— y— _» 

and  was  prelent  in  fcvpral  aftions  during  the  v.-.-r  of  CLEROMANCY,  a  kind  of  divination  performed 
1755.  In  that  between  the  BtUona  and  Couiagcux  by  the  ilirowing  of  dice,  or  little  bones;  and  obfer- 
he  was  in  great  danger  ;  for  having  been  ftationed  in  ving  the  points,  or  marks,  turned  up.  The  word 
the  mizen-top  on  board  the  former,  the  mall  was  car-  <;omes  from  nx^f '.-,  "  lot,"  and  ""raa,  <<  divination." 
ried  overboard  by  a  fhot,  and  he  fell  into  the  fta  along  At  Bura,  a  city  of  Achaia,  was  a  temple  and  ce 
with  it :  but,  however,  was  taken  up  without  ha- 
ving received  any  injury.  When  Commodore  Byron 
made  his  firll  voyage  round  the  world,  Mr  Gierke  fcr- 
ved  on  board  his  fliip  in  quality  of  a  midihipman  ;  and 
was  afterwards  on  the  American  ftation.  In  the  year 
1768,  he  failed  round  the  \Mptld  a  fecond  time  in  the 
Endeavour,  on  board  of  which  he  ferved  in  the  ilation 
of  mailer's  mate  ;  but,   during  the  voyage,  fucceeded 


Icbrated  oracle  of  Hercules  ;  where  fuch  as  confultcd 
the  oracle,  after  praying  to  the  idol,  threw  four  dies, 
the  points  whereof  being  well  fcanncd  by  the  pricit, 
he  was  fuppofed  to  draw  an  atifwer  from  them. 

Something  of  this  kind  feems  to  have  been  pracli- 
fed  with  regard  to  Jouah. 

CLERVAL,  a  town   of  France,  in  the  Franche 

Comtc,  felted  on  the  river  Doux,  belonging  to  the 

to  a  lieutenancy.     He  returned  in  1775,  and  was  foon     houfe  of  Wirtemburgh,  but  depends  on  the  crown  of 


after  appointc-d  msftcr  and  commander.  When  Cap 
tain  Cook  undertook  his  laft  voyage,  Mr  Gierke  was 
appointed  Captain  of  the  Difcovery ;  and  in  conlequence 
of  the  death  of  Captain  Cook,  naturally  fucceeded  to 
the  fupreme  command.  He  did  not,  however,  long 
enjoy  his  new  dignity.  Before  his  departure  from 
England,  he  had  manifcil  fymptoms  of  a  confumpllon 


France.      E.  Long.  5.  57.  N.  Lnt.  46.  ^  j. 

CLERYAUX,  one  of  the  moll  celebrated  and  fined 
abbeys  of  France,  in  Champagne,  five  miles  from  Bar- 
fur- Aube,  and  featcd  in  a  vnlley  furrounded  with  wood* 
and  mountains.  It  is  the  chief  of  the  Ciilercian  or- 
der. Here  is  the  famous  Tun  of  St  Bernard,  which 
will  hold  800  tuns  of  wine.      Near  this  abbey  is  a  fuiall 


Of  this  dilcafe  he  lingered  during  the  whole  of  the  voy-  tov.-n 

age;  and  his  long  refidence  in  the  cold  northern  cli-  CLESIDES,    a  Greek  painter,  about    276  years 

mates  cut  off  all  hopes  of  recovery  :  but  though  fenfible  before  Chrift,  in   the  reign   of  Antlochus  I.      He  re- 

thattheonly  chance  he  had  of  prolonging  his  life  was  by  venged  the   injuries  he  had  received  from   queen  Stra- 

a  fpeedy  return   to  a  warmer  climate,  his  attention  to  tonice  by  reprefenting  her  in  the  arms  of  a  filherman. 

his  duty  was  fo  great,   that  he  perfevtred  in  fearch  of  However   indecent    the    painter    might   reprefent  the 

a  paffage  between  the  Afiatic  and  American  continents  queen,  (he  was  drawn  with  fuch  perfonal  beauty,  that 

tmtil  every  one  of  the  officers  was  of  opinion  that  it  (lie  preferved  the  piece  and  l.bcraUy  rewarded  the  ar- 

was  impraflicable.     He  bote  his  diRemper  with  great  tilL 

firmnefs  and  equanimity,  retaining  a  good  flow  of  fpi-  CLETHRA,  in  botany:   A  genus  of  the  mono- 

rits  to  the  laft;  and  died  on  the  22d  of  Augidl  1778,  gynia  order,  belonging  to  the  decandria  ckfs  of  plants ; 

in  the  38th  year  of  his  age,  the  (hip  being  then  within  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  i8th  or- 

view  of  the  coall  of  Kamtfchatka.  der,  B'icornes.     The  calyx  is   quinqucpartite  ;  the  pe- 

Clerse's  IJlanil  lies  on  the  weftern  fide  of  the  Ame-  tals  live  ;  the  ftigma  trifid  ;  the  capfule  trilocidar  and 
rican  continent,  in  N.  Lat.  63.  15.  and  E.  Long. 
IQO.  30.  It  was  difcovered  by  Captain  Cook  in  his 
lall  voyage,  but  a  landing  could  not  be  ed'eded.  At 
a  dillance  it  appeared  to  be  of  confiderable  extent,  and 
to  have  feveral  hills  connefted  with  the  low  grounds  in 


three-valved.  There  is  but  one  fpccies,  -y/z.  the  Alni- 
folla.  This  is  a  native  of  Virginia  and  Carolina, "wl^ri; 
it  grows  in  moift  places,  and  near  the  fides  of  rivu'.ts, 
riling  near  eight  or  ten  feet  high.  The  Laves  are  (haped 
like  thofe  of  the  alder-tree,  but  longer;  thcfe  are 
fuch  a  manner  as  to  make  it  look  like  a  ^roup  of  Klands.     placed  alternately  upon  the  branches  :   the  flowers  are 


Near  its  eaftern  extremity  is  a  little  ifland  temaikable 
for  having  three  elevated  rtcks  upon  it.  Both  the  large 
and  fmall  ifland  are  uninhabited. 

CLERMONT,  a  confiderable,  rich,  and  populous 
town  of  France,  In  Auvcrgne,  with  a  bllhop's  fee.  The 
cathedral,  the  public  fquares,  and  the  walks,  are  veiy 
fine.  Here  is  a  bridge  naturally  formed,  as  they  pre- 
tend, by  the  petrifying  quality  of  a  fountain.  E.  Long. 
3.  18.  'N.  Lat.  45.  47. 

Ci.fKMOKT  Manufcript,  is  a  copy  of  St  Paul's  Epi- 
ftles,  found  in  the  monattery  of  Clermont  in  France, 


produced  in  clofe  fpikes  at  the  extremities  of  the 
branches  ;  they  are  white,  compofed  of  five  petals,  and 
have  ten  ftamina  in  each,  nearly  of  the  lame  length 
with  the  petals.  This  is  hardy  enough  to  bear  the 
open  air  in  Britain,  and  is  one  of  the  moil  beautiful 
fiovvcring  ftirubs.  Its  feafon  is  commonly  about  the 
beginning  of  July ;  and,  if  the  feafun  is  not  very  hot, 
there  will  be  part  of  the  fpikes  in  beauty  till  the  mid- 
dle of  September.  This  flirub  will  thrive  belt  in  moift 
land,  and  requires  a  (licltered  fituation,  where  it  may 
be  defended  from  fl:rong  winds,  which  frequent- 
ak  off  the   branches  where   thev  are  too  much 


and  ufed  by  Beza,  together  with  the  Cambridge  MS.  ly  break 

in  preparing  his  edition  of  the  New  Teflament.      This  expofed  to  their  violence.      It  is  propagated  by  layers, 

copv  is   in   the   octavo  form,  and   is  written   on  fine  but  the-y  are  generally  two  years  before  they  take  root. 

vellum  in  Creek   and  Latin,  with   fome   mutilations.  It  may  alfo  be  propagated  by  fuckers,  which  are  fent 

Beza  fuppofes   that   it  is  of  equal  antiquity  with  the  out  from   the  roots :   if  thefc  are  carefully  taken  off 

Cambi-idge   copy  ;    but   both   were   probably   written  with  fibres  in  the  autumn,  and  planted    in   a  nurfery- 

W  a   Latin   fcribe  in  a  later  period  than  he  afTigns  bed,  they  will  be  (Irong  enough  in  two  years  to  trauf- 

to   them.       The  various  readings  of  this  MS.  were  plant  where  they  are  to  remain. 

communicated   to    archbifhop   Uiher,    and   they   are        CLEVELAND,  a  dillria  in  the  north  ridmg  of 


K"  82. 


Yoik- 


C    L    I 


[     CS     1 


C    L    I 


liffotia. 


evtl,in<l  Yorkrtiirc  in  Englaiul,  from  whence  the  noble  family 
of  Fitzroy  took  the  title  of  Duke,  but  which  is  now 
extindt. 

Cleveland  (John),  an  En  >lifh  poet  of  fome  emi- 
nence in  his  time,  who  during  the  civil  war  under 
Charles  I.  engaged  as  a  literary  champion  in  the  royal 
caufe  againll  the  parliamentarians.  He  died  in  1658, 
and  was  much  extolled  by  his  party.  His  works, 
which  confift  of  poems,  charafters,  orations,  epittles, 
tifc.  wei-e  printed  in  oAavo  in  1677. 

CLEVES,  the  duchy  of,  a  province  of  the  circle  of 
Weltphalia,  in  Germany.  It  is  divided  into  two  parts 
by  the  Rhine,  and  is  about  40  miles  in  length  from 
call  to  weft,  and  20  in  breadth  from  north  to  fouth. 
It  is  a  fine  agreeable  countiy,  and  pretty  populous. 
The  towns  are,  Cleves  the  capital,  Calcar.  Gennet, 
Santen,  Orfoy,  Bureck,  and  Greit.  Thefe  lie  on  the 
left  fide  the  river.  On  the  right,  Duylburgh,  Wcfe, 
Rees,  and  Emmerick.  There  have  been  great  con- 
tefts  about  this  duchy,  bat  it  now  belongs  to  the  king 
of  Pruffia. 

Cleves,  a  city  of  Gennany,  in  the  duchy  of  Cle- 
ves, of  which  it  is  the  capital.  It  flands  upon  a  plea- 
fant  hill,  about  three  miles  from  the  Rhine,  with 
which  it  communicates,  by  means  of  a  canal  which 
is  large  enough  for  great  barges.  The  caftle  flands 
upon  a  mountain,  and,  though  old,  is  very  agreeable. 
Calvinifts  Lutherans,  and  Roman  Catholics,  are 
all  tolerated  in  this  city.  E.  Long.  5.  36.  N.  Lat. 
51.40, 

CLIENT,  amon^  the  Romans,  a  citizen  who  put 
himfelf  under  the  proteftion  of  fome  great  man,  w  ho 
in  refpeft  of  that  relation  was  called />«/ron. 

This  patron  alTirted  his  client  with  his  proteftion, 
interell,  and  goods  ;  and  the  client  gave  his  vote  for 
his  patron,  when  he  fought  any  office  for  himfelf  or 
his  friends.  Clients  owed  refpeA  to  their  patrons,  as 
thefe  owed  them  their  proteftion. 

The  right  of  patronage  was  appointed  by  Romulus, 
to  unite  the  rich  and  poor  together,  in  fuch  a  manner 
as  thtit  one  might  live  without  contempt,  and  the 
other  without  envy  ;  but  the  conditrbn  of  a  client,  in 
courfe  of  time,  became  little  elfe  but  a  moderate 
flavery. 

Client  is  now  ufed  for  a  party  in  a  law-fuit,  who 
has  turned  over  his  caufe  into  the  hands  of  a  counfel- 
lor  or  folicitor. 

CLIFFORTIA,  in  botany:  A  genus  of  the  poly- 
andria  order,  belonging  to  the  dicEcia  cbfs  of  plants ; 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  3Sth  or- 
der, Trkoccf.  The  male  calyx  is  triphyllous ;  no 
corolla  ;  the  ftamina  near  30  in  number  ;  the  female 
calyx  is  triphyllous,  fuperior  to  the  receptacle  of  the 
fruit;  no  corolla  ;  two  ftyles;  with  a  bilocular  cap- 
fule;  and  a  fingle  feed.  There  are  three  fpecies, 
all  of  them  natives  of  Africa ;  fo  require  to  be  kept 
in  a  green-houfe  when  cultivated  in  this  country. 
Their  flowers  make  no  great  appearance ;  but  the 
plants  themfelves  are  veiy  ornamental  evergreens. 
They  grow  to  the  height  of  four  or  live  feet  ;  and 
are  propagated  by  cuttings,  which  muft  be  young 
fhoots  of  five  or  fix  inches  length.  If  thefe  are  plant- 
ed in  pots  in  fpring  or  fummer,  and  plunged  in  a 
hot  bed,  they    will  readilv   take    root.       They  muH 

Vol.  V.  Part  I. 


be  watered  plentifully  in  fummcv,  but  v;ry  fparlngly  Cltm?iJVe<-ic 
in  winter.  *  *^'""^"^- 

CLIMACTERIC,  among  phyficianii,  (from  elimac-         ' 
ter,  "a  ladder"),  a  crit  cal  year  in  a  perfon's  life. 

According  to  fome,  this  is  every  fevenlh  year  ;  but 
others  allow  only  thofe  years  produced  bv  midtiplyin^^ 
7  by  the  odd  number  3,  5,  7,  and  9,  to  be  chmadlcii- 
cal.  Thefe  years,  they  fay,  bring  with  them  fomii 
remarkable  change  with  reipc6t  to  health,  1  fe,  or  for- 
tune :  the  Qfrand  climaAeric  is  the  63d  year  ;  but 
fome,  making  two,  add  to  this  the  8  ill:  the  other 
remarkable  climacterics  are  the  7th,  2 1  ft,  35th,  49th, 
and  56th. 

CLIMATE,  or  Clime,  in  geography,  a  part  of 
the  furface  of  the  earth,  bounded  by  two  circlci 
parallel  to  the  equator ;  and  of  fuch  a  breadth,  as 
that  the  longeft  day  in  the  parallel  nearer  the  pole 
exceeds  the  longeft  day  in  that  next  the  equator  bv 
fome  certain  fpaces  ;  wz.  half  an  hour.  The  word 
comes  from  the  Greek  ^Ai.ua,  <<  inclinamentum,"  an 
inclination. 

The  heghiTi'.itg  of  the  climate,  is  a  pandlel  circle 
wherein  the  day  is  the  Ihortell.  Tiie  end  of  the 
climate,  is  that  wherein  the  day  is  the  longeft.  The 
climates  therefore  are  reckoned  from  the  equator  to 
the  pole  ;  and  are  fo  many  bands,  or  zones,  termi- 
nated by  lines  parallel  to  the  equator :  though,  in 
ftriftnefs,  there  are  feveral  climates  in  the  breadth  of 
one  zone.  Each  climate  only  differs  from  its  conti- 
guous ones,  in  that  the  longeft  day  in  fummer  is  longer 
or  Ihorter  by  half  an  hour  in  the  one  place  than  in  the 
other.  As  the  climates  commence  from  the  equator, 
the  firft  climate  at  its  beginning  has  its  longeft  day 
precifcly  12  hours  long  ;  at  its  end,  12  hours  and  an 
half:  the  fccond,  which  begins  where  the  firft  ends, 
•u'lz.  at  12  hours  and  an  half,  ends  at  13  hours;  and 
fo  of  the  reft,  as  far  as  the  polar  circles,  where,  what 
the  geographers  c;dl  hour-dimates  terminate,  and  month'  - 
climates  commence.  As  an  hour-climate  is  a  fpacc 
comprifed  between  two  parallels  of  the  equator,  in  the 
firft  of  vvhieh  the  longeft  day  exceeds  that  in  the  lat- 
ter by  half  an  hour  ;  fo  the  month-climate  is  a  fpace 
terminated  between  two  circles  parallel  to  the  polar 
circles,  wliofe  longeft  day  is  longer  or  ftiorter  than  that 
of  its  contiguous  one  by  a  month  or  30  days. 

The  ancients,  who  confined  the  climates  to  what 
they  imagined  the  habitable  parts  of  the  earth,  only 
allowed  of  feven.  The  firft  they  made  to  pafs  through 
Meroe,  the  fccond  through  Sienna,  the  third  through 
Alexandria,  the  fourth  through  Rhodes,  the  fifth 
through  Rome,  the  fixth  through  Pontus,  and  the  fe- 
veuth  through  the  |mouth  of  the  Eoryfthenes.  The 
moderns,  who  have  failed  further  to\^ard  the  poles, 
make  30  climates  on  each  fide  ;  and,  in  regard  the 
obliquity  of  the  fphere  makes  a  little  difference'  in  the 
length  of  the  longeft  day,  inftead  of  half  an  hour, 
fome  of  them  only  make  the  difterence  of  climates  a 
quarter. 

Vulgarly  the  term  climate  Is  beftowed  on  any  coun- 
tiy or  region  diff'ering  from  another  either  in  refpciil 
of  the  feafons,  the  quality  of  the  foil,  or  even  the 
manners  of  the  inhabitants  ;  without  any  r^  gard  to 
the  length  of  the  longell  day.  Abulfeda,  an  Ara- 
bic author,  diltinguilhcs  the  firft  kind  of  climates  by 
I  the 


C    L    I  I    66    }    ■ 

CliiEitt    the  term  rial  climates,  and  the  latter  by  that  of  ap-     Ricciolus 
parent  climates.     Varenius  gives  us  a  table  of  30  ell 
J  mates ;    but  without   any  regard  to   tlie  refraftlon 


Clio. 


C     L     I 

furnilhes  a  more  accurate  one,  wherein 
the  refraftions  are  allowed  for ;  an  abftrad.  of  which 
follows  : 


Climate 

II 
Clitoria. 


Middle 

Longed 

Latit. 

Middle 

Longt 

a 

Latit. 

Middle     Latit.  1 

Cont. 

North 

Cont. 

South 

of  Clim. 

Day. 

of  Clim. 

Day 
16th 

0 

of  CV/'ffi. 

Light. 

Niglit. 

Light. 

Night. 

I 

I2th    30 

r 

18 

VIII 

48 

17 

XV 

66°    S3 

3«^ 

27<i 

30" 

28J 

II 

13          0 

If 

36 

IX 

17 

0 

?3 

46 

XVI 

69     30 

62 

5« 

60 

59 

III 

13      3° 

23 

8 

X 

18 

0 

W 

44 

XVII 

73       0 

93 

«7 

89 

88 

IV 

14        0 

2C) 

4C) 

XI 

'9 

0 

60 

39 

XVIII 

78       6 

124 

117 

120 

118 

V 

H       30 

3T 

39 

XII 

20 

0 

62 

44 

XIX 

84       0 

156 

148 

150 

149 

VI 

15         0 

40 

32 

XIII 

22 

0 

6y 

10 

XX 

90       0 

188 

180 

178 

177 

VII 

ly       30 

44 

42 

XIV 

24 

c 

65 

54 

CLIMAX,  or  Gradation,  in  rhetoric,  a  figure 
wherein  the  word  or  cxpreffion  which  ends  the  firft 
member  of  a  period  begins  the  fecond,  and  fo  on  ;  fo 
that  every  member  will  make  a  diftinft  fentence,  ta- 
king its  rife  from  the  next  foregoing,  till  the  argument 
and  period  be  beautifully  finilhed;  as  in  the  following 
gradation  of  Dr  Tillotfon:  "  After  we  have  praftifed 
good  aftions  a  while,  they  become  cafy  ;  and  when 
they  are  eafy,  we  begin  to  take  pleafure  in  them  ; 
•and  when  they  ple.:ife  us,  we  do  them  frequently  ;  and 
by  frequency  of  aftb,  a  thing  grows  into  a  habit ;  and 
confirmed  habit  is  a  kind  of  fecond  nature;  and  fo  far 
as  any  thing  is  natural,  fo  far  it  is  neceflary ;  and  we 
can  hardly  do  otherwife  ;  nay,  we  do  it  many  times 
when  we  do  not  think  of  it." 

CLINCH,  in  the  fea-language,  that  part  of  a  cable 
which  is  bended  about  the  ring  of  the  anchor,  and  then 
feized  or  made  fail. 

CLINCHING,  in  the  fea-language,  a  kind  of  flight 
caulking  ufed  at  fea,  in  a  profpeft  of  foul  weather, 
about  the  polls  :  it  confifts  in  driving  a  little  oakum 
into  their  feams,  to  prevent  the  water  coming  in  at 
them. 

CLINIC,  a  term  applied  by  the  ancient  church-hi- 
llorians  te  thofe  who  received  baptifm  on  their  death- 
bed. 

Clinic  Midicine,  was  particularly  ufed  for  the  me- 
thod of  vifiting  and  treating  fick  perfons  in  bed,  for 
the  more  exaft  difcovery  of  all  the  fymptoms  of  their 
difeafe. 

CLINIAS,  a  Pythagorean  philofopher,  and  mufi- 
cian,  in  the  65th  Olympiad.  He  was  wont  to  affuage 
liis  pafiion,  being  very  choleric,  by  his  lyre. 

CLINOPODIUM,  Field-basil  :  A  genus  of  the 
gymnofpermia  order,  belonging  to  the  didynamia  chifs 
of  plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under 
the  4111  order,  AfpcriJoUi.  The  invohicrum  confills 
of  many  fmall  br-lUes  under  the  verticillus  or  whirl  of 
flowers.  There  are  fix  fpecies,  all  of  them  herbaceous 
plants,  growing  from  one  to  two  feet  high.  They 
are  remarkable  only  for  their  flrong  odour,  being 
iomewhat  between  marjoram  and  bafil. 

CLIO,  in  pagan  mythology,  the  firfl  of  the  mufes, 
daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Muemofyne.  She  prefided 
over  hiftoi-y.  She  is  reprefented  crowned  with  laurels, 
lioldinp'  ia  one  hand  a  trumpet,  and  a  book  in  the 
oiher.     Sometimes  Ihe  holds  a  plcftrum  or  quill  with 


a  lute.  Her  name  fignifies  honour  and  reputation, 
xM3f ,  gloria  i  and  it  was  her  office  faithfully  to  rtcord 
the  aclions  of  brave  and  illullrious  heroes.  She  had 
Hyacintha  by  Pierius,  fon  of  Magnes. 

ClioJ  in   zoology,  a  genus  of  infedls  belonging  to     plate 
the  order  of  vermes  moUufca.  The  body  is  oblong  and  cxxxviii, 
fitted  for  fwimming  ;   and  it  has  two  membranaceous 
wings  placed  oppofite  to  each  other.     The  fpecies  are 
three,  principally  diftinguilhed  by  the  (hape  of  their 
vagina,  and  are  all  natives  of  the  ocean. 

CLIPEUS,  in  natural  hiiloi-y,  a  name  given  to  the 
flat  depreffed  centronias,  from  their  rcfembling  a  fliield. 
See  Centronia. 

CLISTHENES,  a  famous  Athenian  magiflrate, 
the  author  of  the  mode  of  banilhing  ambitions  citizens 
by  ollracifm,  or  writing  their  names  upon  a  fliell :  the 
intention  was  patriotic,  but  it  was  abufed  like  all  other 
human  inttitutions  ;  fome  of  the  worthiell  citizens  of 
Athens  being  thus  exiled.  He  died  510  years  before 
Clu-ift. 

CLITOMACHUS,  the  philofopher,  ftourilhed  a- 
bout  140  years  before  Chriil.  He  was  born  at  Car- 
thage ;  quitted  his  country  at  40  years  of  age  ;  and 
went  to  Athens,  where  he  became  the  difcip'.e  and  fuc- 
ceflbr  of  Carneades.  He  coinpofed  many  books,  but 
they  are  all  loft. 

CLITORIA,  in  botany  :  A  genus  of  the  decan- 
dria  order,  belonging  to  the  diadelphia  clafs  of  plants  y 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  3 2d  or- 
der, PapiUonacedc.  The  corolla  is  fupine,  or  turned 
down-fide  up  ;  with  the  vexillum  or  flag-petal  very 
large,  patent,  and  almoft  covering  the  alse  or  wing-pe- 
tals. There  are  four  fpecies,  all  of  them  herbaceous 
perennials,  or  annuals,  of  the  kidney-bean  kind,  grow., 
ing  naturally  in  both  the  Indies.  The  ilalk  is  climbing, 
llender,  and  of  the  height  of  a  man.  The  leaves  are 
winged,  placed  alternately,  and  confift  of  two,  three, 
or  five  pair  of  lobes,  terminated  by  an  odd  one.  The 
flowers,  which  are  elegant,  lland  fingly,  each  on  its 
proper  foot-ftalk.  They  are  very  large,  and  gene- 
rally of  a  deep  blue,  but  fometimes  of  a  white  colour. 
From  the  fi-uit  of  this  plant  is  diililled  an  eye-water. 
The  beans  reduced  to  powder,  and  taken  in  broth,  to 
the  quantity  of  two  drachms,  prove  a  gentle  purge; 
and  Grimmnis  remarks,  in  his  Labor  Ceyl.  that  the 
powder  of  the  dried  beans,  being  mixed  with  the  milk 
of  the  cocoa  nut,  or  with  broth,  and  adminiftered  iu 
1  quantity 


C     L     I 


[ 


qiiantit)-  from  one  to  three  drachms,  not  only  mitigates 
colic  pains,  but  is  very  uftful,  and  much  ufed  in  Cey- 
_  Ion,  in  all  difordcrs  of  the  ftomach  and  bowels.  Thefe 
plants  are  propagated  by  feeds ;  and,  in  this  country, 
mud  be  kept  continually  in  a  Hove. 

CLITORIS,  in  anatomy,  is  a  part  of  the  external 
-pudenda,  fituatcd  at  the  angle  which  the  nymphx  form 
with  each  other.  Like  the  penis  it  has  an  ereftion, 
and  it  is  thought  to  be  the  principal  feat  of  venereal 
pleafure.  The  ditoris  is  of  different  fizes  in  different 
women  ;  but  in  general  it  is  fmall,  and  covered  with 
the  labia.  The  preternaturally  enlarged  clitoris  is 
what  conftitutes  an  hermaphrodite.  When  the  clito- 
ris is  too  large,  it  may  be  fo  extirpated  as  to  remove 
the  unneceffary  part;  but  this  requires  much  care,  for 
a  farther  extirpation  fubjcfts  the  patient  to  an  involun- 
tary difcharge  of  urine. 

CLITUMNUS,  (anc.  geog.),  a  river  of  Umbria, 
on  this  fide  the  Apennine.  According  to  Pliny, 
it  was  a  fountain  confiftiug  of  feveral  veins,  fituated 
between  Hifpellum  and  Spoletium  ;  which  foon  af- 
ter fwelled  into  a  very  large  and  navigable  river, 
rvmning  from  eaft  to  weft  into  the  Tinia,  and  both  to- 
gether into  the  Tiber.  A  river  famous  for  its  milk- 
white  flocks  and  herds,  (Virgil.)  The  god  of  the  ri- 
ver was  called  CUtumnus. 

CLITUS,  brother  to  Alexander  the  Great's  nurfe, 
followed  that  prince  in  his  conquells,  and  faved  his 
life  by  cutting  off  the  hand  of  Rofaces,  which  held 
an  ax  lifted  up  tp  kill  him  at  the  palfage  of  the 
Cranicus.  Alexander,  who  had  a  great  regard  for 
him,  fome  time  after  invited  him  to  fupper ;  when 
Clitus,  at  the  end  of  the  repaft,  being  heated  with 
wine,  diminifhed  the  exploits  of  that  prince,  in  order 
to  magnify  thofe  of  Philip  his  father.  This  fo  enraged 
Alexander,  that  he  killed  him  with  his  own  hand ;  but 
he  was  afterwards  fo  afflidted  at  it,  that  he  attempted 
his  own  life. 

CLIVE  (Robert)  lord,  fon  of  Richard  Cllve,  Efq; 
of  Styche  near  Drayton  in  Salop,  was  born  in  1725. 
Toward  the  clofe  of  the  war  in  174',  he  was  fent  as 
a  writer  in  the  Eaft  India  fervice  to  Madras  ;  but  be- 
ing fonder  of  the  camp  than  the  compting-houfe,  he 
foon  availed  himfelf  of  an  opportunity  to  exchange 
his  pon  for  a  pair  of  colours.  He  firft  diftinguiflied 
himfelf  at  the  ficge  of  Pondlcherry  in  1748  ;  afted 
under  major  Laurence  at  the  taking  of  Devi  Cotta  in 
Tanjore,  who  ViTote  of  his  military  talents  in  high 
terms ;  commanded  a  fmall  party  for  the  taking  of 
Arcot,  and  afterward  defended  that  place  againft  the 
French  ;  and  performed  many  other  exploits,  which, 
confidering  the  reniotenefs  of  the  fcene  of  aftion, 
would  require  a  long  detail  to  render  fufficlently  in- 
telligible. He  was,  however,  in  brief,  looked  upon 
and  acknowledged  as  the  man  who  iwH  ronfed  his 
countrymen  to  fpirited  aftion,  and  raifed  their  repu- 
tation in  the  Eaft  :  fo  that  when  he  came  over  to 
England  in  1753,  he  was  prefented,  by  the  court  of 
.direftors,  with  a  rich  fword  fet  with  diamonds,  as  an 
acknowledgment  of  paft,  and  an  Incitement  to  future, 
fervices.  Captain  Clive  returned  to  India  in  1755,  as 
governor  of  fort  St  David,  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
colonel  in  the  king's  troops  ;  when  as  commander  of 
the  company's  troops,  he,  in  conjundion  with  admiral 


67     1  C     L     O 

Watfon,  reduced  Angria  the  pirate^  and  bccaiTie  trta- 
fter  of  Geria,  his  capital,  with  all  his  accurnulated  trea- 
fure.  On  the  lofs  of  Calcutta  and  tlje  well  known 
barbarity  of  the  fuubah  Surajah  Dowla,  they  failed  to 
Bengal ;  where  they  took  fort  William,  in  January 
1757  ;  and  colonel  Chve  defeating  the  foubah's  army 
foon  after,  accelerated  a  peace.  Surajah  Dowla's  per- 
fidy, however,  foon  produced  frefti  hoftilities,  which 
enAtA  in  his  ruin  ;  he  being  totally  defeated  by  colonel 
Chve  at  the  famous  battle  of  Plaffcy.  The  next  day 
the  conqueror  entered  Muxadabad  in  triumph  ;  and 
placed  Jaffier  Ally'Cawn,  one  of  the  principal  gene- 
rals,  on  the  throne  :  the  depofed  foubah  was  foon  af- 
ter taken,  and  privately  put  to  death  by  Jaffier's  fon. 
Admiral  Watfon  died  at  Calcutta  ;  but  colonel  Clive 
commanded  in  Bengal  the  tv/o  fucceeding  years  :  he 
was  honoured  by  the  Mogul  with  the  dignity  of  an 
Omrah  of  the  empire ;  and  was  rewarded  by  the  nev7 
foubah  with  a  grant  of  lands,  or  a  jaghire,  produoint; 
27,000!.  a-year.  In  1760,  he  returned  to  England, 
where  he  received  the  unanimous  thanks  of  the  com- 
pany, was  elefted  member  of  parliament  for  Shrewf- 
bury,  and  was  raifed  to  an  Iriih  peerage  by  the  title 
of  Lord  Clive  Baron  of  Plaffey.  In  1764,  frefti  diftur- 
bances  taking  place  in  Bengal,  lord  Clive  was  efteera- 
ed  the  only  man  quahfied  to  fettle  them,  and  was  ac- 
cordingly again  appointed  to  that  prefidency ;  after  be- 
ing honoured  witli  the  order  of  the  Bath,  and  witit 
the  rank  of  major-general.  When  he  arrived  in  India, 
he  exceeded  the  moft  fanguine  expeftatlon,  in  refto- 
rlng  tranquillity  to  the  province  without  ilrlking  a 
blow,  and  fixed  the  higheft  ideas  of  the  Britifti  power 
in  the  minds  of  the  natives.  He  returned  home  in 
1767;  and,  In  1772,  when  a  parliamentary  Inquiry 
into  the  conduA  of  the  Eaft  India  company  was 
agitated,  he  entered  into  an  able  juftlfication  of 
himfelf  in  a  mafterly  fpeech  in  the  houfc  of  com-' 
mons.  He  died  fuiUen/y  towards  the  clofe  of  the  year 
1774. 

CLOACjE,  in  antiquity,  the  common  fewers  of 
Rome,  to  carry  off  the  dirt  and  foil  of  the  city  Into 
the  Tiber  ;  juilly  reckoned  among  the  grand  works  of 
the  Romans.  The  firft  common  fewer,  called  Cloaca 
Maxima,  was  built  by  Tarqulnius,  fome  fay  Prifcus, 
others  Superbus,  of  huge  blocks  of  ftone  joined  toge- 
ther without  any  cement,  in  the  manner  of  the  edi- 
fices of  thofe  early  times  ;  confifting  of  three  rows  of 
arches  one  above  another,  which  at  length  conjoin 
and  unite  together  ;  meafuring  In  the  clear  18  palms 
in  height,  and  as  many  In  width.  Under  thefe  arches 
they  rowed  in  boats  ;  which  made  Pliny  fay  that  the 
city  was  fufpended  in  air,  and  that  they  failed  beneath 
the  houfes.  Under  thefe  arches  alfo  were  ways 
through  which  carts  loaded  with  hay  could  pafs  with 
eafe.  It  began  in  the  Forum  Romanum  ;  meafured 
300  paces  in  length  ;  and  emptied  Iticlf  between  the 
temple  of  Vefta  and  the  Pons  Scnatorlus.  There 
were  as  many  principal  fewers  as  there  were  hills. 
Pliny  concludes  their  firmnefs  and  ftrength  from  their 
ftanding  for  fo  many  ages  the  (hocks  of  earthquakes, 
the  fall  of  houfes,  and  the  vaft  loads  and  weights  mo- 
ved over  them. 

CLOACINA,  the  goddefs  of  jukes  and  commou 
fewers,  among  the  Romans. 

1  2  CLOCK, 


CKte 

li 
Cliacina. 


C     L     O 


[     68     ] 


C     L     O 


Cl.ick.     ■    CLOCK,  a  ipachinc  conftrufted  in  fiich  a  n.anner, 
"">~~~  and   regulated   fo  by  the  uniform  motion  of  a  pendu- 
lum (a),  as  to  meahire   time,  and   all   its  fubdivifions, 
with  great  exaclni;fs. 

■  The  invention  of  clocks  with  wheels  is  referred  to 
Pacificus,  arcl'.dcacon  of  Verona,  >vho  lived  in  the  time 
of  Lotharius  fon  of  Lnuls  the  Dtbonnair,  on  the  cre- 
dit of  an  epitaph  quoted  by  Ughclli,  arid  borrowed  by 
him  from  Panvinius.  They  were  at  fiift  called  noc- 
turnal dials,  to  dillmguiih  ihcm  from  fun-dials,  which 
Ihowcd  the  hour  by  the  fun's  fliadow.  Others  afcribc 
tlie  invention  to  Boethius,  about  the  year  5  lO.  Mr 
Dcrham  makes  clock-vwork  of  a  much  older  ilandinfif ; 
and  ranks  Archinr.tdcs's  fphere  mentioned  by  Clau- 
dian,  and  that  <;f  Pofid)nius  mentioned  by  Cicero,  a- 
mong  the  machines  of  this  kind  :  not  that  either  their 
form  or  ufe  were  the  fame  with  thofe  of  ours,  but  that 
they  had  their  motion  from  fome  hidden  weights  or 
fprings,  with  wheels,  or  pullies,  or  fome  fuch  clock- 
tvork  principle.  But  be  this  as  it  will,  it  is  certain 
the  art  oi  making  clocks,  fuch  as  are  now  in  ufe,  was 
either  firll  invented,  or  at  leaft  retrieved,  in  Germany, 
about  200  years  ago.  The  water-clocks,  or  clepfy- 
dra;,  and  fun-dials,  have  both  a  much  better  claim  to 
anliqiii:y.  The  French  annals  mention  one  of  the  for- 
mer kind  fent  by  Aaron,  king  of  Perfia,  to  Charle- 
magne, about  the  year  807,  which  feemed  to  bear 
fome  refemblance  to  the  modern  clocks  :  it  was  of 
brafs,  and  (bowed  the  hours  by  twelve  little  balls  of 
the  fame  metal,  which  R'll  at  the  end  of  each  hour, 
and  in  falling  ilruck  a  bell  and  made  it  found.  There 
were  alfo  figures  of  12  cavaliers,  which  at  the  end  of 
each  hour  came  forth  at  certain  apertures  or  win- 
dows in  the  fide  of  the  clock,  and  fhut  them  a- 
gain,  &c. 

The  invention  of  pendulum-clocks  is  owing  to  the 
happy  induftry  of  the  lall  age  :  the  honour  of  it  is  dif- 
puted  by  Huygcns  and  Galileo.  The  former,  who 
has  written  a  volume  on  the  fubjefl,  declares  it  was 
firll  put  in  practice  in  the  year  1657,  and  the  defcrip- 
tion  therc<>f  printed  in  1658.  Btcher,  de  Nova  Tem- 
por'i!  dimetiendl  thcoria,  anno  1680,  contends  for  Ga- 
lileo ;  and  relate?,  though  at  fecond-hand,  the  whole 
hillory  of  the  invention  ;  adding,  that  one  Trefler, 
clock-maker  to  the  then  fatlier  of  the  Grand  Duke  of 
Tufcany,  made  the  firll  pendulum-clock  at  Florence, 
by  direction  of  Galileo  Galilei ;  a  pattern  of  which 
was  brought  into  Holland  The  Academy  dc'l  Ci- 
mento  fay  exprefsly,  that  the  application  of  the  pen- 
dulum to  the  movement  of  a  clock  was  firfl;  pro- 
pofed  by  Galileo,  and  fiill  put  in  praftice  by  his  fon 
Vincenzo  Galilei,  in  1649.  Be  the  inventor  who  he 
will,  it  is  certain  the  invention  never  floiirifhcd  till  it 
came  into  Haygens's  hands,  who  infills  on  it,  that  if 
ever  Galileo  thought  of  fuch  a  thing,  he  never  brought 
it  to  any  degree  of  perfeftion.  The  firll  pendulum- 
clock  made  in  England  was  in  the  year  J662,  by  Mr 
Frcmantil  a  Dutchman. 

Amongll  the  modern  clocks,  thofe  of  Strafburg  and 
Lyons  are  very  eminent  for  the  richncfs  of  their  fur- 
niture, and  the  variety  of  their  motions  and  hgures. 
In  the  firll,  a  cock  claps  his  wings,  and  proclaims  the 


hour  ;  the  anjje  1  opens  a  door,  and  falutes  the  virgin ; 
and  the  Holy  Spirit  defcends  on  her,  &c.  In  the  fe- 
cond,  two  horfemen  encounter,  and  beat  the  hour  on 
each  other  :  a  door  opens,  and  there  appears  on  the 
theatre  the  Virgin,  with  Jel'us  Clirill  in  her  arms  ;  the 
Magi,  with  their  retinue,  marching  in  order,  and  pre- 
fenting  their  gifts;  two  trumpeters  fo'inding  all  the 
while  to  proclaim  the  pioceffion.  Thefe,  however, 
are  excelled  by  two  lately  made  by  En  jliih  artifts,  and 
intended  as  a  preTent  from  the  Eail  India  company  to 
the  Empeior  of  China.  The  clocks  «e  fpeak  of  are 
in  the  form  of  chariots,  in  which  are  phced,  in  a  fine 
attitude,  a  lady,  leaning  h:fr  light  hand  upon  a  part 
of  the  chariot,  under  which  is  a  clock  of  curious  work- 
mar.lhip,  little  larger  than  a  fhllilng,  that  lltlkfs  and 
repeats,  and  goes  eight  days.  Upon  her  finger  fits  a 
bird  finely  modelled,  and  frt  with  diamonds  and  ru- 
bies, with  its  wings  expanded  in  a  %ing  poflure,  and 
adlually  flutters  for  a  confiderable  time  on  touching;  a 
diamcnd  button  below  it  ;  the  body  of  the  bird  (which 
contains  part  of  the  wheels  that  in  a  manner  give  life 
to  it)  is  not  the  bignefs  of  tiie  i6th  part  of  an  inch. 
The  lady  holds  in  her  left  hand  a  gold  tube  not  much 
thicker  than  a  liirge  pin,  or  the  top  of  which  Isafmall 
round  box,  to  which  a  circular  ornament  fet  with  dia- 
monds not  larger  than  a  fixpence  is  fixed,  which  goes 
roimd  near  three  hours  in  a  coiiflant  regular  motion. 
Over  the  lady's  head,  fupported  by  a  fmall  flited  pil- 
lar no  bigger  than  a  quill,  is  a  double  umbrella,  under 
the  largcll  of  which  a  bell  is  fixed  at  a  confiderable  di- 
flance  from  the  clock,  and  feems  to  have  no  connexion 
with  it ;  but  from  wliich  a  communication  is  fecretly 
conveyed  to  a  hammer,  that  regularly  (Irlkes  the  hour, 
and  repeats  the  fame  at  plcafure,  by  touching  a  dia- 
mond button  fixed  to  the  clock  btlow.  At  the  feet  of 
the  lady  is  a  gold  dog  ;  before  which  from  the  point 
of  the  charlotare  two  birds  fixed  on  fpiral  fprings;  the 
viings  and  feathers  of  which  ate  fet  with  llones  of  va- 
rious colours,  and  appear  as  if  flying  away  with  the 
chariot,  which,  from  another  ftcrtt  motion,  is  con- 
trived to  run  in  a  llraight,  circular,  or  any  other  direc- 
tion ;  a  boy  that  lays  hold  of  the  chariot  behind,  feems 
alfo  to  pulTi  it  forward.  Above  the  umbiclla  are  flow- 
ers and  ornaments  of  precious  flones  ;  and  it  terminates 
with  a  flying  dragon  fet  in  the  lame  manner.  The 
whole  is  of  gold,  mod  cui  ioufly  executed,  and  emb;l- 
lilhed  with  rubies  and  pearls. 

Of  the  general  Mechamjm  of  Clocks,  and  hoiu  they 
meafure  Time.  The  firll  figure  of  Plate  CXXXIX.  Is 
a  profile  of  a  clock  :  P  is  a  weight  that  is  fufpended 
by  a  rope  that  winds  about  the  cylinder  or  barrel  C, 
which  is  fixed  upon  the  axis  a  a;  the  pivots  bb  go  into 
holts  made  in  the  plates  TS,  TS,  in  which  they  turn 
freely-  Thefe  plates  are  made  of  brals  or  iron,  and  are 
conntfted  by  means  oi  four  pillars  'Z.'L;  and  the  whole 
together  Is  called  the  frame. 

The  weight  P,  if  not  reflrained,  would  neceflarily 
turn  the  barrel  C  with  an  uniform  acctleiated  motion, 
in  the  fame  manner  as  if  the  weight  was  falling  freely 
from  a  height.  But  the  barrel  is  lurnlfhed  with  a  rat- 
chet wheel  K  K,  the  right  fiJe  of  whole  teeth  ilrikes 
againll  the  click,  which  is  fixed  with  a  fcrtw  to  the 

wheel 


^a)  A  balance  not  unlike  the  fl)-  of  s  kitchen-jack,  was  formerly  ufed  in  place  of  the  pendulu.-n. 


(.:  L  O  C  K 


G^, 


^/M/yhM'lU/JmjUh-j 


C     L     O 

wheel  DD,  as  reprefenttd  in  fig.  2. 
-  of  the  weight  is  communicated  to  the  wheel  D  D,  the 
teeth  of  wliich  aft  upon  the  teeth  of  the  fmall  wheel  d 
which  turns  upon  the  pivots  ^  c.  The  commuuicatioji 
or  adtlc)n  of  one  wheel  with  another  is  called  xhe  pitch- 
ing;  a  fmall  wheel  like  d  is  called  ?i  pinion,  and  its  teeth 
are  leaves  of  the  pinion.  Several  tilings  are  reqnihte 
to  form  a  good  pitching,  the  advanta^'.es  of  which  are 
obvious  in  all  macliinety  where  teeth  and  pinions  are 
employed.  The  teeth  and  pinion  leaves  Ihonld  be  of  a 
proper  fhape,  and  perf  ttly  equal  among  thcmftlves: 
the  fize  alfo  of  the  pinion  fliould  be  of  ajull  pioportion 
to  the  wheel  afting  into  it  ;  and  its  place  mull  be  at  a 
certain  diltance  from  the  wheel,  beyond  or  within 
which  it  will  make  a  bad  pitching-. 

The  wheel  EE  is  fi.ted  upon  the  axis  of  the  pinion 
d;  and  the  motion  communicated  to  the  wheel  D  D 
by  the  weight  is  tranfinitted  to  the  pinion  d,  confe- 
quently  to  the  wheel  E  E,  as  likewife  to  the  pi- 
nion e  and  wheel  F  F,  which  moves  the  pinion  y,  upon 
the  axis  of  which  the  crown  or  balance  wheel  G  H  is 
fixed.  The  pivotsof  the  piniony"  play  in  hv'les  of  the 
plates  L  M,  which  ate  fixed  horizontally  to  the  plates 
T  S.  In  a  word,  the  motion  begun  by  the  weight  is 
tranlmitttd  from  the  wheel  G  H  to  the  palettes  I  K, 
and  by  means  of  the  fork  U  X  rivfttcd  on  the  pa- 
lettes communicates  motion  to  the  pendulum  A  B, 
which  is  fufpended  upon  the  hook  A.  The  pendulum 
A  B  deicribes,  round  the  point  A,  an  arc  of  a  circle 
alternately  gcinp-  aiid  returning.  If  then  the  pendu- 
lum be  once  put  in  motion  by  a  pu(h  of  the  hand,  the 
weight  of  the  pendulum  at  B  will  make  it  return  upon 
itfclf,  and  it  will  continue  to  go  alternately  backward 
84id  forward  till  the  refiftance  of  the  air  upon  the  pen- 
dulum, and  the  fridion  at  the  point  of  fulpenfion  at  A, 
deftroys  the  original  impreffcd  force.  But  as,  at  every 
vibration  of  the  pendulum,  the  teeth  of  the  balance- 
wheel  G  H  aft  fo  upon  the  palettes  1  K  (the  pivots 
upon  the  axis  ofthefe  palettes  play  in  two  holes  of  the 
potence  s  t),  that  after  one  tooth  H  has  communicated 
motion  to  the  palette  K,  that  tooth  efcapes  ;  then  the 
oppoiice  tooth  G  afts  upon  the  palette  I,  and  efcapes 
in  the  fame  manner;  and  thus  each  tooth  of  the 
wheel  efcapes  the  palettes  1  K,  after  having  commu- 
nicated their  motion  to  the  palettes  in  fuch  a  manner 
that  the  pendulum,  inftead  of  being  Itopt,  continues 
to  move. 

The  wheel  E  E  revolves  in  an  hour ;  the  pivot  c  of 
this  wheel  pafTes  through  the  plate,  and  is  continued 
tor;  upon  the  pivot  is  a  wheel  N  N  with  a  long  fick- 
et  fattened  in  the  centre;  upon  the  extremity  of  this 
focket  r  the  minute-hand  is  fixed.  The  wheel  N  N 
afts  upon  the  wheel  O  ;  the  pinion  of  which  p  afts 
upon  the  wheel  ^_f,  fixed  upon  a  focket  which  turns 
along  with  the  wheel  N.  This  wheel  ^^  makes  its  re- 
volution in  12  hours,  upon  the  focket  of  which  the 
hour-hand  is  fixed. 

From  the  above  defcrlptlon  it  is  eafy  to  fee,  i.  That 
the  weight /<  turns  all  the  v^'heels,  and  at  the  fame 
time  contiu'.ies  the  motion  of  the  pendulum.  2.  That 
the  quicknefs  of  the  motion  of  the  wheels  is  determined 
by  that  of  the  pendulum.  3;  That  the  wheels  point 
out  the  parts  of  time  divided  by  the  uniform  motion  of 
the  pendulum. 

When  the  cord  upon  which  the  weight  is  fufpend^ 


[     69     ]  C     L     O 

fo  that  the  aftion  cd  is  entirely  run  down  from  off  the  barrel,  it  is  wound 
up  again  by  means  of  a  key,  which  goes  on  the  fquare 
end  of  the  arbor  at  Q,  by  turning  it  in  a  contrary  di- 
reftion  from  that  in  which  the  weight  defcends.  For 
this  purpofe,  the  inclined  fiJe  of  the  teeth  of  the  wheel 
R  (fig.  2.)  removes  the  click  C,  f)  that  the  ratchel- 
wheil  R  turns  while  the  wheel  1)  is  at  rell  ;  but  as 
foon  as  the  cord  is  wound  up,  the  click  falls  in  be- 
tween the  teeth  of  the  wheel  U,  and  the  right  fide  of 
the  teeth  again  aft  upon  the  end  of  the  click,  which 
obliges  the  wheel  D  to  turn  along  with  the  barrel ; 
and  the  fpiing  A  keeps  the  click  between  the  teeth 
of  the  ratchet-wheel  R. 

We  (hall  now  explain  how  time  is  mcafured  by  the 
motion  of  the  pendulum  ;  and  how  the  wheel  E,  upon 
the  axis  of  which  the  minute  hand  is  fixed,  makes  but 
one  precife  revolution  in  an  hour.  The  vibrations  of 
a  pendulum  are  performed  in  a  fhorter  or  lunger  time 
in  proportion  to  the  length  of  the  pendulum  itlelf.  A 
pendulum  of  3  feet  8^  French  lines  in  length,  makes 
36CO  vibrations  in  an  hour:  i.e.  each  vibration  is  per- 
formed in  a  fecund  of  time,  and  for  that  reafon  it  is 
called  ■&  fccond  pendulum.  But  a  pcndulun  ot  9  inches 
2^  French  lines  makes  7200  vibrations  in  an  hour,  or 
two  vibrations  in  a  ftcond  of  time,  and  is  called  a  half 
fecond  pendulum.  Hence,  in  conftrufting  a  wheel 
whole  revolution  mull  be  performed  in  a  given  time, 
the  time  of  the  vibrations  of  the  pendulum  which  re- 
gulates its  motion  mull  be  confidcred.  Suppofingj 
then,  that  the  pendulum  AB  makes  72:0  vibrations  in 
an  hour,  let  us  confidcr  how  the  wheel  E  (hall  take  up 
an  hour  in  making  one  revolution.  This  entirely 
depends  on  the  number  of  teeth  in  the  wheels  and 
pinions.  If  the  balance-wheel  confills  of  30  teeth, 
it  will  turn  once  in  the  time  that  the  pendu- 
lum makes  60  vibrations:  for  at  every  turn  of  the 
wheel,  the  fame  tooth  afts  once  on  the  palette  I,  and 
once  on  the  palette  K,  which  occalioiis  tv/o  fcparate 
vibrations  in  the  pendulum  ;  and  the  wheel  having  30. 
teeth,  it  occafions  twice  30,  or  60  vibrations.  Con- 
fcquently,  this  wheel  muil  perforin  120  revolutions 
in  an  hour;  becaufe  60  vibrations,  which  it  occa- 
fions  at  every  revolution,  are  contained  1 20  times  -  - 
in  7200,  the  number  of  vibrations  performed  by  the 
pendulum  in  an  hour.  Now,  in  order  to  determine 
tlie  number  of  teeth  for  the  wheels  E  F,  and  their  pini- 
ons ^y,  it  mull  be  remarked,  that  one  revolution  of 
the  wheel  E  muil  turn  the  pinion  e  as  many  times  as 
the  number  of  teeth  in  the  pinion  is  contained  in. the 
number  of  teeth  in  the  wheel.  Thus,  if  the  wheel  E  . 
contains  72  teeth,  and  the  pinion  e  6,  the  pinion  will 
make  12  revolutions  in  the  time  that  the  wheel  makes 
1  ;  for  each  tooth  of  the  wheel  drives  forward  a  tooth 
of  the  pinion,  and  when  the  6  teeth  of  the  pinion  are 
moved,  a  complete  revolution  is  performed  ;  but  the 
wheel  E  has  by  that  time  only  advanced  6  teeth,  and 
has  ilill  66  to  advance  before  its  revolution  be  com- 
pleted, which  will  occafion  n  more  revolutions  of 
the  pinion.  For  the  fame  reafon,  the  wheel  F  ha- 
ving 60  teeth,  and  the  pinion  f  6,  the  pinion  will 
make  10  revoluticms  while  the  wheel  performs  one. 
Now,  the  wheel  F  being  turned  by  the  pinion  f,  makes 
12  revolutions  for  one  of  the  whejel  E;  and  the  pi- 
nion/ makes  10  revolutions  for  one  of  the  wheel  F5 
coufequentlyj  the  pinion  /  performs  10  times  12  or 

J  3,0. 


Cioelc. 


C    L    O 


[     70     ] 


G    L     O 


C'ioct.  120  revolutions  In  the  time  the  wheel  E  performs  one. 
•—'r-—  Cut  the  wheel  G,  which  is  turned  by  the  piniony",  oc- 
cafions  60  vibi aliens  in  the  pendulum  each  time  it 
turns  round  ;  confequently  tlie  wheel  G  occalions  60 
times  120  or  7200  vibrations  of  the  pendulum  while 
the  wheel  E  performs  one  revolution  ;  but  7200  is  the 
number  of  vibrations  made  by  the  pendulum  in  an  hour, 
and  confequently  the  wheel  E  performs  but  one  revo- 
lution in  an  hour  ;  and  fo  of  the  reft. 

From  this  reafoning,  it  is  eafy  to  difcover  how  a 
clock  may  be  made  to  go  for  any  length  of  time  with- 
out being  wound  up  :  1.  By  increaling  the  number  of 
teeth  in  the  wheels  ;  2.  By  diminiihing  the  number  of 
teeth  in  the  pinions  ;  3.  By  increafing  the  length  of 
the  cord  that  fufpends  the  weight ;  4.  By  increa- 
fing the  length  of  the  pendulum  ;  and,  5.  By  add- 
ing to  the  number  of  wheels  and  pinions.  But,  in 
proportion  as  the  time  is  augmented,  if  the  weight 
continues  the  fame,  the  force  which  it  communicates 
to  the  lad  wheel  G  H  will  be  diminifhed. 

It  only  remains  to  take  notice  of  the  number  of 
teeth  in  the  wheels  which  turn  the  hour  and  minute 
hands. 

The  wheel  E  pet  forms  one  revolution  in  an  hour  j 
the  wheel  N  N,  which  is  turned  by  the  axis  of  the 
wheel  E,  muft  likewife  make  only  one  revolution  in 
the  fame  time  ;  and  the  minute-hand  is  fixed  to  the 
focket  of  this  wheel.  The  wheel  N  has  30  teeth,  and 
afts  upon  the  wheel  O,  which  has  likewife  30  teeth, 
and  the  fame  diameter ;  confequently  the  wheel  O 
takes  one  hour  to  a  revolution  :  now  the  wheel  O  car- 
ries the  pinion  p,  wliich  has  6  teeth,  and  which  acts 
upon  the  wheel  qg  of  72  teeth;  confequently  the  pi- 
llion/>  makes  12  revolutions  while  the  wheel  gj  makes 
one,  and  of  courfe  the  wheel  gq  takes  1 2  hours  to  one 
revolution  ;  and  upon  the  focket  of  this  wheel  the 
hour-hand  is  fixed.  All  that  has  been  faid  here  con- 
cerning the  revolutions  of  the  wheels,  ijfc.  is  equally 
applicable  to  watches  as  to  clocks. 

The  ingenious  Dr  Franklin  has  contrived  a  clock  to 
fhow  the  hours,  minutes,  and  feconds,  with  only  three 
wheels  and  two  pinions  in  the  whole  movement.     The 
dial-plate  (tig.  3.)  has  the  hours  engraven  upon  it  in 
fpiral  fpaces  along  two  diameters  of  a  circle  containing 
four  times   60  minutes.     The  index  A  goes  round  in 
four  hours,  and  coimts  the  minutes  from  any  hour  by 
which  it  has  pafTed  to  the  next  following  hour.     The 
time,  therefore,  in  the  pofition  of  the  index  fhown  in 
the  figure  is  either  324- minutes  paft  XII.  Ill.or  VIII.; 
and  fo  in  every  other  quarter  of  the  circle  it  points  to 
the  number  of  minutes  after  the  hours  which  the  in- 
dex lafl  left  in  its  motion.     The  fmall  hand  B,  in  the 
arch  at  top,  goes  round  once  in  a  minute,  and  fliows 
the  feconds.     The  wheel-work  of  this  clock  may  be 
feen  in  fig.  4.     A  is  the  firft  or  great  wheel,  containing 
160  teeth,  and  going  round  in  four  hours  with  the  in- 
dex A  in  fig.  3.  let  down  by  a  hole  on  its  axis.     This 
wheel  turns  a  pinion  B  of  10  leaves,  which  therefore 
goes  round  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour.     On  the  axis  of 
this  pinion  is  the  wheel  C  of  120  teeth;  which  gots 
round    in    the  fame   time,     and  turns    a    pinion    D 
of  eight  leaves  round  in  a  minute,  with  the  fecond 
hand  B  of  fig.  3.  fixed  on  its  axis,  and  alfo  the  com- 
mon wheel  E  of   30   teeth  for  moving  a  pendulum 
/        f  by  palettes)  that  vibrates  feconds,  as  in  a  comiroii 


clock.     This  clock  Is  wound  up  by  a  line  going  over 
a  pulley  on  the  axis  of  the  great  wheel,  like  a  common  ^ 
thirty  hour  clock.      Many   of  thcfe  admirably  fimple 
machines  have  been  con!lru6led,  which,  meafurc  time 
exceedingly  well.     It  is  fubjeft,  however,  to  the  in- 
convenience of  requiring  frequent  winding  by  drawing 
up  the  weight,  and  likewife  to  fome  uncertainty  as  to 
the  particular  hour  fhown  by  the  index  A.     Mr  Fer- 
gufon  has  propofed  to  remedy  thefe  inconveniences  by 
the  following  conilrutlion.     In  the  dial-plate  of  his 
clock  (fig.  5.)  there  is  an  opening,  abed,  below  the 
centre  ;  through  which  appears  part  of  a  flat  plate,  on 
which  the  12  hours,  with  their  divifions  into  quarters, 
are  engraved.     This  plate  turns  round  in   1  2  hours ; 
and  the  index  A  points  out  the  true  hour,   &c.     B  is 
the  minute-hand,  which  goes  round  the  laige  circle  of 
60  minutes  whillt  the  plate  abed  fhifts  its  place  one 
hour  under  the  fixed  index  A.     There  is  another  open- 
ing, efg,  through  which  the  feconds   are   feen  on  a 
flat  moveable  ring  at  the  extremity  of  a  fleur-de-lis  en- 
graved  on   the  dial-plate.     A  in  fig.  6.   is  the  great 
wheel  of  this  clock,  containing  120  teeth,  and  turn- 
ing round  in  12  hours.     The  axis  of  this  wheel  bears 
the  plate  of  hours,  which  may  be  moved  by  a  pin  paf- 
fing  through  fmall  holes  drilled  in  the  plate,  witliout 
affedling  the  wheel-work.     The  great  wheel  A  turns 
a  pinion  B  of  ten  leaves  round  in  an  hour,  and  car- 
ries  the  minute-hand   B  on  its  axis  round  the  dial- 
plate  in  the  fame  time.     On  this  axis  is  a  wheel  C  of 
1 20  teeth,  turning  round  a  pinion  D  of  fix  leaves  in 
three  minutes ;  on  the  axis  of  which  there  is  a  wheel 
E  of  90  teeth,  that  keeps  a  pendulum  in  motion,  vi- 
brating feconds  by  palettes,  as  in   a  common  clock, 
when  the  pendulum-wheel  has  only  30  teeth,  and  go(;s 
round  in  a  minute.     In  order  to  (how  the  feconds  by 
this  clock,   a  thin  plate  mud  be  divided  into  three 
times  fixty,  or  180  equal  parts,  and  numbered  10,  20, 
30,  40,  50,  60,  three   times  fucceflively  ;   and   fixed 
on  the  fame  axis  with  the  wheel  of  90  teeth,  fo  as  to 
turn  round  near  the  back  of  the  dial-plate  ;  and  thefe 
divifions  will  fhow  the  feconds  through  the  opening 
efgh,  fig.  5.      This  clock   will   go  a  week  without 
winding,  and  always  fliow  the  precife  hour ;  but   this 
clock,  as  Mr  Fergulon  candidly  acknowledges,  has  two 
difadvantages  of  which  Dr  Franklin's  clock  is  free. 
When  the  minute-hand  B   is  adjufted,  the   hour-plate 
miull  alfo  be  fet  right  by  means  of  a  pin  ;  and  the  finall- 
nefs  of  the  teeth  in  the  pendulum-wheel  will  caufe  the 
pendulum  ball  to  defcribe  but  fmall  arcs  in  its  vibra- 
tions ;  and  therefore  the  momentum  of  the  ball  will  be 
lefs,  and  tlie  times  of  the  vibrations  will  be  more  affec- 
ted by  any  unequal  impulfe  of  the  pendulum-wheel  on 
the  palettes.      Befides,  the  weight  of  the  flat  ring  on 
which  the  feconds  are  engraved  will  load  the  pivots  of 
the  axis  of  the  pendulum-wheel  with  a  great  deal  of 
friftion,  which  ought  by  all  poflible  means  to  be  avoid- 
ed.    To  remedy  this  inconvenience,   the   fecond  plate 
miffht  be  omitted. 

A  clock  fimilar  to  Dr  Franklin's  was  made  in  Lin- 
colnlhire  about  the  end  of  lad  century  or  beginning  of 
this  ;  and  is  now  in  London  in  the  poflefiTion  of  a 
grandfon  of  the  perfon  who  made  it. 

A  clock,  fnowing  the  apparent  diurnal  motions  of 
the  fun  and  moon,  the  age  and  phafes  of  the  moon, 
with  the  tim.e  of  her  coming  to  the  meridian,  and  the 

timet 


CIocli. 


C     L     O 


r  7'  ] 


C     L     O 


times  of  high  and  low  water,    by  having  only  two 
wheels  and  a  pinion  added  to  the  common  movement, 
was  contrived  by  Mr  Fergufon,  and  defcribed  in  his  Se- 
leftExercifes.  The  dial-plate  of  this  clock  (fig  7.)  con- 
tains M  the  twenty-four  hours  of  the  day  and  night.  S  is 
the  fun,  which  feives  as  an  hour  index,  by  going  round 
the  dial-plate  in  t\venty-fo\ir  hours;  and  M  is  the  moon, 
which  goes  round  in  twenty-fourhours  fifty  minutes  and 
a  half,  the  time  of  her  going  round  in  the  heavens  from 
one  meridian  to  the  fame  meridian  again.      The  fun  is 
fixed  to  a  circular  plate  (fee  fig.  8.),  and  carried  round 
by  the  motion  of  that  plate  on  which  the  twenty- four 
hours  are  engraven  ;  and  within  them  is  a  circle  divi- 
ded into  twenty-nine  and  a  half  equal  parts  for  the  days 
of  the  moon'a  age,  reckoning  from  new  moon  to  new 
moon  ;  and  each  day  ftands  direftly   under  the  time, 
in  the  twenty-four  hour  circle  of  the  moon's  coming  to 
the  meridian  ;  the  XII  under  the  fun  ftanding  for  noon, 
and  the  oppofite  XII  for  midnight.      The   moon   M 
is  fixed  to  another  circular  plate  (fig.  6.)  of  the  fame 
diameter  with  that  which  carries  the  fun,  part  of  which 
may  be  feen  through   the  opening,    over  which   the 
fmall  wires  r  and  l>  pafs  in  the  moon-plate.     The  wire  a 
fhows  the  moon's  age  and  time  of  her  coming  to  the 
meridian,  and  i  (hows  the  time  of  high-water  for  that 
day  in  the  fun  plate.     The  diftance  of  thefe  wires  an- 
Iwers   to   the  difference  of  time   between  the  moon's 
coming  to  the  meridian  and  high-water  at  the  place  for 
which  the  clock  is  made.     At  London  their  difference 
is  two  hours  and  a  half.     Above  the  moon-plate  there 
is  a  fixed  plate  N,  'fupported  by  a  wire  A,  fixed  to  it 
at  one  end  and  fixed  at  right  angles  into  the  dial-plate 
at    the    midnight    XII.     This  plate    may    reprefent 
the   earth,   and    the    dot    L   London,     or   the   place 
to   which   the  clock   is  adapted.     Around  this  plate 
there  is  an  elliptic  (hade  on  the  moon-plate,  the  high- 
eft  points  of  which  are  marked  high-water,  and   the 
loweft  low-water.   As  this  plate  turns  round  below  the 
plate  N,  thefe  points  come  fucceflively  even  with  L, 
and  iland  over  it  at  the  times  when  it  is  high  or  low 
ivater  at  the  given  place  ;  which  times  are  pointed  by 
the  fun  S   on  the  dial-^Iate  ;  and   the  plate  H  above 
XII  at  noon  rifts  or  falls  with  the  tide.     As  the   fun 
S  goes  round  the  dial-plate  in  twenty-four  hours,  and 
the  moon  M  in  twenty-four  hours  fifty  minutes  and  a 
half,  it  is  plain  that  the  moon  makes  only  twenty-eight 
revolutions  and  a  half,  whiift  the  fun  makes  twenty-nine 
and  a  half;  fo  that  it  will  be  twenty-nine  days   and  a 
half  from  conjunftion  to  conjunction.     And  thus  the 
wire  a  (hifts  over  one  day  of  the  moon's  age  on  the  fun- 
plate  in  twenty-four  hours.     The  phafes  of  the  moon 
for  every  d.iy  of  her  age  may  be  feen  through  a  round 
hole   m   in   the   moon-plate  :   thus,   at  conjunftion   or 
new  moon,  the  whole  fpace  feen  through  m  is  black;  at 
oppofition  or  full   moon  this  fpace  is  white  ;   at  either 
quadrature   half  black   and   half  white  ;  and  at  every 
pofition  the  white  part  r^fembles  the  vifible  part  of  the 
moon   for  every   day  of  her  age.     The  black  fhaded 
fpace  N/F  /  (fig.  8.)   on  the  fun-plate  ferves  for  thefe 
appearances.     N  reprcfents  the  new  moon,    F  the  full 
moon,  and/ her  firft  quarte»,  and /her  laft  quarter,  &c. 
The  wheel-work  and  tide-work  of  this  clock  are  repre- 
fented  in  fig.  9.      A  and  B  are  two  wheels   of  equal 
diameters :  A  has  fifty-feven  teeth,  with  an  hollow  axis 
that  paffcs  tlirough  the  dial  of  the  clock,  and  carries 


the  fun-plate  with  the  fun  S.  B  has  fifty-nine  teeth,  ClocS. 
with  a  folid  fpindle  for  its  axis,  which  turns  within  the  — — v— ', 
hollow  axis  of  A,  and  carries  the  moon-plate  with  the 
moon  M  :  both  wheel»  are  turned  round  by  a  pinion 
C  of  nineteen  leaves,  and  this  pinion  is  turned  round 
by  the  common  clock-work  in  eight  hours  ;  and  a* 
nineteen  is  the  third  part  of  fifty-L-ven,  the  wheel  A 
will  go  round  in  twenty-four-hours  ;  and  the  wheel  B 
in  twenty-four  hours  fifty  minutes  and  a  half :  fifty- 
feven  being  to  twenty-four  as  fifty-nine  to  twenty-four 
hours  fifty  minutes  and  a  half  very  nearly.  On  the 
back  of  the  wheel  B  is  fixed  an  cUiptical  ring  D,  which, 
in  its  revolution,  raifes  and  lets  down  a  lever  EF,  whofs 
centre  of  motion  is  on  a  pin  at  F  ;  and  this,  by  the  up- 
right bar  G,  raifes  and  lets  down  the  tide-plate  H 
twice  in  the  time  of  the  moon's  revolving  from  the  me- 
ridian to  the  meridian  again  :  this  plate  moves  between 
four  rollers  R,  R,  R,  R.  A  clock  of  this  kind  wa* 
adapted  by  Mr  Fergufon  to  the  movement  of  an  old 
watch  :  the  great  wheel  of  a  watch  goes  round  in  four 
hours ;  on  the  axis  of  this  he  fixed  a  wheel  of  twenty  \ 
teeth,  to  turn  a  wheel  of  forty  teeth  on  the  axis  of  the 
pinion  C;  by  which  means  that  pinion  was  turned 
round  in  eight  hours,  the  wheel  A  in  twenty-four,  and 
the  wheel  B  in  twenty-four  hours  fifty  minutes  and  a 
half. 

To  this  article  we   (hall   fubjoln  a  brief  account  of 
two  curious  contrivances.  The  firft,  for  giving  motion 
to  the  parts  of  a  clock  by  making  it  to  defcend  along 
an    inclined  plane,   is  the   invention  of  Mr  Maurice 
Wheeler  ;  and  the  clock   itfelf  may  be  feen  in  Don 
Saltero's  cofFee-houfe  at  Chelfca.     DE,  fig.  10.  is  the  plate 
inclined   plane   on  which   the  clock  ABC  defcends :  CXLU 
this  confifts  externally  of  a  hoop  about  an  inch  broad, 
and  two  fides  or  plates  ftanding  out  beyond  the  hoop 
about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  all  round,  with  indented 
edges,    that   the   clock   may  not  Aide,  but  turn  round 
whilft  it  moves  down.     One  of  thefe  plates  is  infcribed 
with   the   twenty-four  hours,    which  pafs  fucceflively 
under  the  index  LP,  fig.  11.  which  is  always  in  a  pofi- 
tion perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  and  (hows  the  hour 
on  the  top  of  the  machine  :   for  this  reafon  the  lower 
part  of  the  index,  or  H  L,  is  heavieft,  that  it  may  pre- 
ponderate the  other  H  P,  and  always  keep  it  pendu- 
lous, with  its  point  to  the  vertical  hour,  as  the  move- 
ment goes  on.     Inftead  of  this  index,   an   image   may 
be  fixed  for  ornament  on   the  axis  g,  which  with  an 
erefted  finger  performs  the  office  of  an  index.     In  or- 
der to  defcribe  the  internal  part  or  mechanifra  of  this 
clock,  let  L  ETQ__be  the   externa!  circumference  of 
the  hoop,   and// the  fame  plate,  on  which  is  placed 
the  train  of  wheel-work  I,  2,  3,  4,  which  is  much  the 
fame  as  in  other  clocks,  and  is  governed  by  a  balance 
and  regulator  as  in  them.     But  there  is  no  need   of  a 
fpring  and  fufee  in  this   clock  ;  their  effefts  being  o- 
tlierwife  anfwered,  as  we  (hall  fee;     In   this   machine 
the  great  wheel  of  i  is  placed  in  the  centre,  or  upon  the 
axis  of  the  movement,  and  the  other  wheels  and  parts 
towards  one  fide,   which  would  therefore  pi  ove  a  bias 
to  the  body  of  the  clock,  and  caufe  it  to  move,  even 
en   an  horizontal  plane,  for  fome  (hort  dilfance  ;  this 
makes  it    necefTary  to  fix  a  thin  plate  of  lead  at  C,   on 
the  oppofite  part  of  the  hoop,  to  reftore  the  equihbrium 
of  the  movement.     This  being  done,  the  machine  will 
abide  at  left  in  any  pofition  on   the  horizontal  plan.-r 

IJ.  1 1  ^ 


C    L    O  [7 

Cl-ck.  HH  i  tut  if  that  plaie  be  changed  into  tlie  int'lincd 
'"v— '  plane  D  E,  it  will  toi'ch  it  in  the  point  D  i  but  it 
cannot  reft,  there,  becaufe  the  centre  of  gravity  at  M 
afting  in  the  dircftion  JI  I,  and  the  point  T  having 
nothing  to  fupport  it,  mull  continually  defcend,  and 
carry  the  body  down  the  plane.  But  ro>v  if  any 
weight  P  be  fijied  on  the  other  fide  of  the  raacliine, 
fuch  as.  (hall  remove  the  ctntre  of  gravity  from  M  to 
"  the  point  V  in  the  line  L  D  which  pafles  through  the 
point  D,  it  will  then  reil  upon  the  inclined  plane,  as 
in  the  cafe  of  the  rolling  c)linder.  If  this  weight 
P  be  fiippoltd  not  fixed,  but  lufpended  at  the  end  of 
an  arm,  or  vcdlis,  which  arm  or  lever  is  at  the  fame 
time  fillcncd  to  a  ctnirical  wheel  I,  moving  on  the  axis 
-M  of  the  machine,  which  wheel  by  its  teeth  fhall  com- 
municate with  the  train  of  wheels,  Sec.  on  the  ether 
fide,  and  the  power  of  the  weight  be  juft  equal  to  the 
fiiftion  or  rdiilance  of  the  train,  it  will  remain  motion- 
lefs  as  it  did  before  when  it  vi'as  fixed  ;  and  confe- 
qucntly  the  deck  alio  will  be  at  reft  on  the  inclined 
plane.  But  (uppofing  the  power  of  the  weight  P  to 
be  fuperior  to  the  refinance  of  the  train,  it  will  then 
put  it  into  motion,  and  of  courfe  the  clock  likewife  ; 
which  will  then  commence  a  motion  down  the  plane  ; 
while  the  weight  P,  its  vcclis  PM,  and  the  wheel  I, 
all  conllantly  retain  the  fame  pofition  which  they  have 
at  firft  when  the  clock  begins  to  move.  Hence  it  is 
cafy  to  underfland,  tliat  the  weight  P  may  have  fuch 
an  intrinfic  gravity,  as  fhall  caufe  it  to  act  upon  the 
train  with  any  required  force,  fo  as  to  produce  a  mo- 
tion in  the  machine  of  any  required  velocity  ;  fuch,  for 
inftance,  as  fhall  carry  it  once  round  in  twenty-four 
hours:  then,  if  the  diameters  of  the  plates  aBC  be 
four  inches,  it  will  defcrlbe  the  length  of  their  circum- 
ference, •viz.  12,56  inches  in  one  natural  day  ;  and 
therefore,  if  the  plane  be  of  a  fufficient  bieadth, 
fuch  a  clock  may  go  fcveial  days,  and  would  fur- 
nifh  a  perpetual  motion,  if  the  plane  were  infinitely 
extended.  I^et  SD  be  drawn  through  M  perpendicu- 
lar to  the  incHned  plane  in  the  point  D;  alio  let  LD  be 
perpendicular  to  the  horizontal  line  HH,  paffing  thro' 
D;  then  is  the  angle  HDE=zLDS  =  DMT;  whence 
it  follows  that  the  greater  the  angle  cf  the  plane's  ele- 
vation ij,  the  greater  will  be  the  arch  D T;  and  confe- 
quently  the  further  will  the  common  centre  cf  gravity 
be  removed  from  M  ;  therefore  the  power  of  P  will  be 
augmented,  and  of  courfe  the  motion  of  the  whole  ma- 
chine accelerated.  Thus  it  appears,  that  by  duly  ad- 
julling  the  intrinfic  weight  of  P,  at  firfl  to  produce  a 
motion  fhowing  the  mean  time  as  near  as  poiTible,  the 
time  may  be  afterwards  correcled,  or  the  clock  made 
to  go  farter  or  flower  by  taifing  or  deprefTuig  the  plane, 
by  means  of  the  fcrew  at  S.  The  angle  to  which  the 
plane  is  firll  raifed  is  about  ten  degrees.  The  marquis 
of  Worcefter  is  alfo  faid  to  have  contrived  a  watch  that 
moved  on  a  declivity.  See  farther  Phil.  Tranf.  Abr. 
vol.  I.  p.  46K,  Sec.  or  n^  161. 

The  other  contrivance  is  that  of  M.  de  Gennes  for 
.  making  a  clock  alcend  on  an  inclined  plane.  To  this 
end  let  ABC  (fig.  12.)  be  the  machine  on  the  inclined 
plane  EDE,  and  let  it  be  kept  at  veil  upon  it,  or  in 
tquilibrio  by  the  weight  P  at  the  end  of  the  lever  PM. 
The  circular  area  CF  is  one  end  of  a  fpring  barrel  in 
the  middle  of  the  movement,  in  which  is  included  a 
fpring  as  in  a  common  watch.  To  this  end  of  the 
barrel  the  ai  m  or  lever  PM  is  fixed  upon  the  centre  M; 
N^  82,  2 


2      ] 


C    L    O 


ami  thuj,  when  the  cloek  19  wound  up,  the  fpring  Clock, 
moves  the  barrel,  and  therefore  the  lever  and  weight  P "— v~~^ 
in  the  fituation  PM.  In  doing  this,  the  centre  of 
gravity  is  conftantly  removed  farther  from  the  centre 
of  the  machine,  and  therefore  it  mud  determine  the 
clock  to  move  upwards,  which  it  will  continue  to  do 
as  long  as  the  fpring  i.s  unbending  itfelf ;  and  thus  the 
weight  and  its  lever  PM  wiilprcferve  the  fituation  they 
firft  have,  and  do  the  ofSce  of  a  chain  and  ful'ee. 
Phil.  Tranf  ii°  140.  or  Abridg.  vol.  i.  p.  467. 

By  flat.  9  and  10  W.  III.  cap.  28.  §  2.  no  perfon 
fhall  export,  or  endeavour  to  export  out  of  this  king- 
dom, any  outward  or  inward  box -cafe  or  dial-plate,  of 
gold,  filver,  braff,  or  other  metal,  for  clock  or  watch, 
without  the  movemer>t  in  or  with  every  fuch  box,  tfc. 
made  up  fit  for  rife,  with  the  makei's  name  engraven 
thereon  ;  nor  fhall  any  pei  fon  make  up  any  cluck  or 
watch  without  putting  his  name  and  place  of  a- 
bode  or  freedom,  and  no  other  name  or  place,  on  e- 
very  clock  or  watch  ;  on  jienalty  of  ferfelting  every 
fuch  box,  cafe,  and  dial-plate,  clock  and  watch,  not 
made  up  and  engraven  as  aforefaid  ;  and  20I.  one 
moiety  to  the  king,  the  other  to  thofe  that  fhall  fue 
for  the  fame. 

Clocks,  porlalk,  or  puciet,  commonly  denomina- 
ted Watches.     See  the  article  Watch. 

CiocK-lFori,  properly  fo  called,  is  that  part  of  the 
movement  which  flrikes  the  hours,  tfc.  on  a  bell  ;  in 
conlradiflindion  to  that  part  of  the  movement  of  a 
clock  or  watch  which  is  defigned  to  meafure  and  ex- 
hibit the  time  on  a  dial-plate,  and  which  is  termed 
Watch-ioori. 

I.  Of  the  C/ofi-part.  The  wheels  compofing  this 
part  are  :  The  great  or  firft  wheel  H  ;  which  is  moved  p],  CXLI. 
by  the  weight  or  fpring  at  the  barrel  G:  in  fixteen  or  fig.  tj. 
thirty -hour  clocks,  this  has  ufually  pins,  and  is  called 
the  pm-'!vheel ;  in  eight-day  pieces,  the  fecond  wheel 
I  is  commonly  the  pin-wheel,  or  ftriking-vvheel,  which 
is  moved  by  the  former.  Next  the  ftriking-whecl  is 
the  detent-wheel,  or  hoop-wheel  K,  having  a  hoop 
almofl  round  it,  wherein  is  a  vacancy  at  which  the 
clock  locks.  The  next  is  the  third  or  fourth  wheel, 
according  to  its  diftance  from  the  firft,  called  the  it'^ir;!- 
Ing-iuhecl  L.  The  laft  is  the  flying  pinion  Q,  with  a 
fly  or  fan,  to  gather  air,  and  fo  bridle  the  rapidity 
of  the  clock's  motion.  To  thefe  mud  be  added  the 
pinion  of  report ;  which  drives  round  the  locking- 
wheel,  called  alfo  the  couni-ivhetl ;  ordinarily  with  ele- 
ven notches  in  it,  unequally  dillant,  to  make  the  clock 
ftrike  the  hours. 

Befides  the  wheels,  to  the  clock  part  belongs  the 
rafh  or  ratch;  a  kind  of  wheel  with  twelve  large  fangs, 
running  concentrical  to  the  dial-wheel,  and  ferving  to 
lift  up  the  detents  every  hour,  and  make  the  clock 
ftrike  :  the  detents  or  flops,  which  being  lifted  up 
and  let  fall,  lock  and  unlock  the  clock  in  finking  ; 
the  hammer,  as  S,  which  ftrikes  the  bell  R;  the  ham- 
mer-tails, as  T,  by  which  the  ilriking  pins  draw  back 
the  hammers  ;  latches,  whereby  the  work  is  lifted  up 
and  unlocked  ;  and  lifting -pieces,  as  P,  which  lift  up 
and  unlock  the  detents. 

The  method  of  calculating  the  numbers  of  a  piece 
of  clock  work  having  feme  thing  in  it  very  entertain- 
ing, and  at  the  fame  time  very  eafy  and  ufcful,  we 
fhall  give  the  readers  the  rules  relating  thereto  :  I.  Re- 
gard here  needs  only  be  Lad  to  the  counting-wheel, 

ftriking- 


CLOCK 


Tlate  CXL. 


^tj^ta.:^'. 


:>... 


<y^.  8. 


y^^e// ,!7h'n.  /^A'Jt^f^ir^r/h^'/'r. 


C    L     O 


ftiilaniT-wlieel,  and  dettnt-wlicci,  wliicli  move  round 
in  this  proportion  :  the  count-wheel  commonly  goes 
round  once  in  !•;  or  24  hours;  the  detent- wheel  moves 
round  every  ftroke  the  clock  ftiikes,  or  fomctimes  but 
once  in  two  ftrokes  ;  wherefore  it  follows,  that,  2. 
As  many  pins  as  are  in  the  pin-wheel,  fo  many  turns 
liath  the  detent-wheel  in  one  turn  of  the  pin-wheel ; 
or,  which  is  the  fame,  the  pins  of  the  pin-wheel  are 
the  quotients  of  that  wheel  divided  by  the  pinion  of 
the  detent-wheel.  But  if  the  detent-wheel  move  but 
once  round  in  two  ftrokes  of  the  clock,  then  the  faid 
quotient  is  but  half  the  number  of  pins.  3- As  many 
turns  of  the  pin-wheel  as  are  required  to  perform  the 
ftrokes  of  12  hours  (which  are  78),  fo  many  turns  rauft 
the  pinion  of  report  have  to  turn  round  the  count- wheel 
once:  or  thus,  the  quotient  of  78,  divided  by  the  num- 
ber of  ilriking-pins,  fliall  be  the  quotient  for  the  pi- 
nion of  report  and  the  count-wheel ;  and  this  is  in 
cafe  the  pinion  of  report  be  fixed  to  the  arbor  of  the 
pin-wheel,  which  is  commonly  done. 

An  example  will  make  all  plain  :  The  locking-wheel 

being  48,   the   pinion   of  report  8,   the 

fi\     s   ^   /^     pin- wheel  78,  the  ilriking  pins  are  i  ^, 

___.  ^"^  ^°  °f  ^''*  '■^*^-     ^°'^  ^"'"'  ^^^^  78 

fr\     Q   f         divided  by  1 3  gives  6,  the  quotient  of 

t"\   f      f         ^^^  pinion  of  report.     As  for  the  warn- 

F,i      9   /    r'  iig'^^hf^l  3f"^  liy-wheel,  it  matters  lit- 

'  ^     ^      'tie  what  numbers  they   have;  their  ufe 

being  only  to  bridle,  the  rapidity  of  the 

motion  of  the  other  wheels. 

The  following  rultli  will  be  of  good  fer"ice  in  this 
Calculation.  I.  TofndbijiamnnyJlrolesaclochJIiihcs 
hi  otieturn  of  the  fnjee  or  barrel i  As  the  turns  of  the 
great  wheel  or  fufee  are  to  the  days  of  the  clock's 
ccmtinuance  ;  fo  is  the  number  of  llrokes  in  24  hours, 
viz.  156,  to  the  ftrokes  of  one  turn  of  the  fufee. 

2.  Tojind  hoiU  many  days  a  clock  ■■will  go  :  As  the 
ftrokes  in  24  hours  are  to  thofe  in  one  turn  of  the  fu- 
fee ;  fo  aie  the  turns  of  the  fufee  to  the  days  of  the 
clock's  ffoing. 

3  Tojirul  the  number  of  turns  of  the  fufee  w  barrel: 
As  the  ftrokes  in  one  turn  of  the  fufee  are  to  thofe  of 
24  hours  ;  fo  is  the  clock's  continuance  to  the  turns  of 
the  fufee  or  great  wheel. 


[     !?>    ] 


C    L    O 


3  minute?,  56  feconds;  by  which  quan- 
tity of  time  every  ftar  comes  round 
fooner  tlipu  it  did  on  the  day  before. 

'I'herefore  if  you    mark  the  precife 
moment   fhown    by  a   clock  or  watch 
when  any  ftar  vaniflit-s  behind   a  chim- 
ney, or  any  other  objeft,  as  feen  thro' 
a  fmall  hole   in  a  thin  plate  of  metal,  : 
fixed  in  a  window-lhutter  \  and  do  this 
for   fcveral   nights  fuccelTivcly    (as  fup- 
pofe  twenty)  i  if,  at  the  end  of  that  time, 
the  ftar  vanilhes  as  much  fooner  than  it 
did  the  firft  night,  by  the  clock,  as  an- 
fwers  to  the  time  denoted  in  the  table  : 
for  fo   many  days,  the  clock  goes  true:  : 
otherwife  not.    If  the  difference  between  : 
the  clock  and  ftar  be  lefs  than  the  table  ; 
fhows,  the  clock  goes  too  fall ;  if  great- 
er, it  goes   too   (low  ;  and  muft  be  re- 
gulated accordingly,  by  letting  down  or  : 
raifing  up  the  ball  of  the  pendulum,  by  : 
little  and  little,  by  turning  the  fcrcw- 
nut  under  the  ball,  till  you  find  it  keeps; 
true  equal  time. 

Thus,  fuppofing  the  ftar  ftiould  difappear  behind  a 
chimney,  any  night  when  it  is  XII.  by  the  clock;  and 
that,  on  the  20th  night  afterward,  the  fame  ftar 
ftrould  difappear  when  the  time  is  41  minutes  22  fe- 
conds paft  X.  by  the  clock  ;  which  being  fubtrafted 
from  12  hours  o  min.  o  ftc.  leaves  remaining  1  hour 
18  minutes  38  feconds  for  the  time  the  ftar  is  then 
fafter  than  tlie  clock  :  look  iti  the  table,  and  againil 
20,  in  the  left  hand  column,  you  will  find  the  acce- 
leiation  of  the  ftar  to  be  I  hour  18  min.  58.  fee. 
agreeing  exaflly  with  what  the  difference  ought  to  be 
between  the  clock  and  ftar  :  which  lliows  that  the 
clock  meafures  true  equal  time,  and  agrees  with  the 
mean  folar  time,  as  it  ought  to  do. 

II.  Of  the  /r<;/rZ-part  of  a  clock  or  watch.  This 
is  that  part  of  the  movement  which  is  defigned  to 
meafure  and  exhibit  the  time  on  a  dial-plate  ;  in  con- 
tradiftinfiion  to  that  part  which  contributes  to  the 
ftriking  of  the  hour,  kSjc. 

The  feveral  members  of  the  watch-part  are,    I.  The. 


8 

0 

31 

27  Clock. 

9 

0 

35 

23  '~^ ' 

10 

0 

39 

1 9 

IT 

0 

43 

15 

12 

0 

47 

I  I 

I.^ 

0 

5' 

7 

'4 

0 

5> 

3 

'5 

0 

5'^ 

5« 

16 

2 

5  + 

17 

6 

5^ 

18 

10 

46 

'9 

14 

42 

20 

18 

3^ 

21 

22 

34 

22 

26 

30 

23 

30 

26 

H 

34 

22 

^5 

38 

17 

26 

43 

13 

27 

46 

9 

28 

50 

5 

291 

54 

I 

30 

I 

57 

57 

4.  Tojind  the  number  of  leaves  in  the  pinion  of  report  on  balance,  confifting  of  the  rim,  which  is  its  circular  part ; 
the  axis  of  the  great  wheel :  As  the  number  of  ftrokes  and  the  verge,  which  is  its  fpindle  ;  to  which  belong 
in  the  clock's  continuance  is  to  the  turns  of  the  f\ifee;     two  palettes  or  leaves,  that  play  in  the  teeth  of  the 

crown-wheel.  2.  The  potence,  or  pottance,  which 
is  the  ftrong  ftud  in  pocket-watches,  whereon  the  low- 
er pivot  of  the  verge  plays,  and  in  the  middle  of  which 
one  pivot  of  the  balance-wheel  plays  ;  the  bottom  of 
the  pottance  is  called  the  foot,  the  middle  part  the 
nofe,  and  the  upper  part  the  (houlder.  3.  The  cock, 
which  is  the  piece  covering  the  balance.  4.  The  re- 
gulator, or  pendulum  fpring,  which  is  the  fmall  fpring, 
in  the  new  pocket-watches,  underneath  the  balance. 
5.  The  pend ulum  (fitr.  13);  whofe  parts  arc,  thelverge  .r, 
palettes  ^,^,  cock^^vv,  the  rod,  the  fork  =,  the  flatt  2, 
the  bob  or  great  ball  3,  and  the  coireftor  or  regula- 
tor 4,  being  a  contrivance  of  Dr  Derham  for  bring- 
ing the  pendulu-n  to  its  nice  vibrations.  6.  The 
wheels,  which  are  the  crown-wheel  F  in  pocket- 
pieces,  and  iwing-whecl  in  pendulums;  ferving  to  drive 
the  balance  or  pendulum.  7.  The  contrate -wheel  E, 
wiiich  is  that  next  the  crown-wheel,  (slc,  and  whofe 
K  teeth 


fo  are  the  ftiokes  in  1 2  hours,  i>.'z.  78,  to  the  quo- 
tient of  the  pinion  of  report  fi.Kcd  on  the  arbor  of  the 
great  wheel. 

5.  To  find  theflrohes  in  the  clod's  continuance:  As  I  2 
is  to  78  ;  fo  are  the  hours  of  the  clock's  continuance 
to  the  number  of  ftrokes  in  that  time. 

By  means  of  the  following  table,  clocks  and  watch- 
es may  be  fo  regulated  as  to  meafure  true  equal  time. 


H.  M.     S. 


3 

7 

1 1 

15 
'9 

7'o     27 
Vol.  V. 


56 


The  ftars  make  366  revolutions  from 
any  point  of  the  compafs  to  the  fame 
point  again  in  365  days  and  one  mi- 
nute ;  and  therefore  they  gain  a  365th 
52!i)f  a  revolution  every  24  hours  of  mean 
48  f^lar  time,  near  enough  for  regulacirg 
44any  clock  or  watch. 
39I  This  acceleration  is  at  the  rate  of  3 
35  min.  55  fee.  53  thirds,  59  fourths  in  24 
3ihourj;  or,  in  the  neareft.  round  numbers. 
Part  I. 


C    L     O 


[     74     ] 


C     L     O 


and  /his  again  drives  a  wheel 


Clock,  teeth  and  hoop  lie  contrary  to  thofe  of  other  wheels ; 
'*~v~~~'  whence  the  name.  8.  The  grer.t,  or  firft  wheel  C  ; 
which  is  tliat  the  fufee  B,  (ifc.  immediately  drive?,  by 
means  of  the  chain  or  ftring  of  the  fprin^-bos  or  bar- 
rel A ;  after  which  are  the  fecond  whtel  D,  third 
wheel,  Sec.  JLallly,  betweea  the  frame  and  dial-plate, 
is  the  pinion  of  report,  which  is  that  fixed  on  the  ar- 
bor of  the  great  wheel ;  and  fervcs  to  drive  the  dial- 
wheel,  as  that  ferves  to  carry  the  hand. 

For  the  illuilration  of  this  part  of  the  work  which  lies 
concealed,  let  ABC  (fig.  14.)  reprefent  the  uppermod 
fide  of  the  frame  plate,  as  it  appears  when  detached 
from  the  dial-plate:  the  middle  of  this  plate  is  perforated 
with  a  hole,  receiving  that  end  of  the  arbor  of  the 
centre  wheel  which  carries  the  minute  hand ;  near 
the  plate  is  fixed  the  pinion  of  report  a  i  of  10  teeth  ; 
this  drives  a  wheel  rrt'of  40  teeth  ;  this  wheel  carries 
a  pinion  ef  oi  12  teeth 
gh  with  36  teeth. 

As  in  the  body  of  the  watch  the  wheels  every- 
where divide  the  pinions ;  here,  on  the  contrary,  the 
pinions  divide  the  wheels,  and  by  that  means  dimi- 
nilh  the  motion,  which  is  here  neceflary ;  for  the  hour- 
hand,  which  is  carried  on  a  focket  fixed  on  the  wheel 
g'h,  is  required  to  move  but  once  round,'  while  the 
pinion  a  b  moves  twelve  times  round.  For  this  pur- 
pofe  the  motion  of  the  wheel  c  d  \s  ^  of  the  pinion  ab. 
Again,  while  the  wheel  c  d,  or  the  pinion  ef,  goes 
once  round,  it  turns  the  wheel _f  A  but  y  part  round  ; 
confequently  the  motion  oi  g  h  is  but  -f-  of  ^  of  the  mo- 
tion of  ab;  but  -J-  of  -J:  is  tV  ;  '•  ^^  the  hour-wheel  g  h 
moves  o'.jce  round  in  the  time  that  the  pinion  of  re- 
port, on  the  arbor  of  the  centre  or  minute  wheel, 
makes  J  i  revolutions,  as  required.  Hence  the  ilruc- 
Hire  of  that  part  of  a  clock  or  watch  which  (hows  the 
ticie  may  be  eafily  uoderllood. 

The  cylinder  A  (fig.  13.)  put  into  motion  by  a 
weight  or  ir.clofed  fpring  moves  the  fufee  B,  and  the 
great  wheel  C,  to  which  it  is  fixed  by  the  line  or  cord 
that  goes  round  each,  and  anfwers  to  the  chain  of  a 
watch. 

The  method  of  calculation  is  eafily  underftood  by 
the  fequel  of  this  article:  for,  fuppofe  the  great  wheel 
C  goes  round  once  in  12  hours,  then  If  it  be  a  royal 
pendulum  clock,  flinging  feconds,  we  have  6oX(}oXi2 
r: 43 200  feconds  or  beats  in  one  turn  of  the  great 
wheel.  But  becaufe  there  are  60  fwlngs  or  feconds 
in  one  minute,  and  the  feconds  are  lliown  by  an  index 
on  the  end  of  the  arbor  of  the  fwing-wheel,  which  in 
thofe  clocks  is  in  an  horizontal  pofitlon  ;  therefore,  It 
isneceffary  that  the  fwing-wheel  F  ihould  have  30  tetthj 

whence  *'-^°  =  720,  the  number  to  be  broken  into 

00 

quotients  for  finding  the  number  of  teeth  for  the  other 
wheels  and  pinions. 

In  fpring- clocks,  the  difpofition  of  the  wheels  in 
the  watch  part  is  fuch  as  is  here  reprefented  in  the  fi- 
gure, where  the  crown-wheel  F  is  in  an  horizontal  po- 
fitlon ;  the  feconds  not  being  (hown  there  by  an  index, 
as  Is  done  in  the  large  pendulum  clocks.  Whence  in 
thefe  clocks  the  wheels  are  dlfpofed  in  a  different  man- 
ner, as  reprefented  in  fig.  14.  where  C  is  the  great  wheel, 
and  D  the  centre  or  minute  wheel,  as  before  :  but 
the  contrate  wheel  E  is  placed  on  one  fide,  and  F  the 
fwing-wheel -is  placed  with  its  centre  in  the  fame  per- 


pendicular line  Gil  with  the  minute-wheel,  and  with     Cloclt. 
its  plane  perpendicular  to  tlie  horizon,  as  are  all  the  "~^''~** 
others.     Thus  the  minute  and  hour  hands  turn  on  the 
end  of  the  arbor  of  the  minute-wheel  at  a,  anil  the  fe- 
cond hand  on  the  arbor  of  the  fwing-wheel  at  b. 

Theory  and  calculation  of  the  Watch-part,  as  laid  di/iun 
by  the  Re-u.  Dr  Derham. —  I.  The  lame  motion,  it  Is 
evident,  may  be  performed  either  by  one  wlicel  and 
one  pinion,  or  many  wheels  and  many  pinions  ;  pro- 
vided the  number  of  turns  of  all  the  wheels  bear  the 
proportion  to  all  the  pinions  which  that  one  wheel 
bears  to  its  pinion  :  or,  which  Is  the  fame  thing,  if 
the  nunriber  produced  by  multiplying  all  the  wheels 
together,  be  to  the  number  produced  by  multiplying 
all  the  pinions  together,  as  that  one  wheel  to  that 
one  pinon.  Thus,  fuppofe  you  had  occafion  for  a 
wheel  of  1440  teeth,  with  a  pinion  of  28  leaves; 
you  make  it  into  three  wheels  of  36,  8,  and  5,  and 
three  pinions  of  4,  7,  and  I .  For  the  three  wheels, 
36,  8,  and  5,  multiplied  together,  give  1440  for  the 
wheels,  and  the  three  pinions  4,  7,  and  i,  muhlplied 
together,  give  28  for  the  pinions.  Add,  that  it  mat- 
ters not  in  what  .oitler  the  wheels  and  pinions  are  fet, 
or  which  pinion  runs  in  %vhich  wheel ;  only,  for  con- 
venience fake,  the  biggeft  numbers  are  commonly  put 
to  drive  the  rell. 

2.  Two  wheels  and  pinions  of  different  number* 
may  peiform  the  fame  motion.  Thus,  a  wheel  of  36 
drives  a  pinion  of  4  ;  the  fame  as  a  wheel  of  45  a  pi- 
nion of  5  ;  or  a  wheel  of  90  a  pinion  of  10  :  the 
turns  of  each  being  9. 

3.  If,  in   breaking  the   train  into  parcels,  any  of 
the  quotients  ftiould  not  be  liked  ;  or  if  any  other  two 
numbers,  to  be  multiplied  together,  are  defired  to  be  « 
varied  ;  it  may  be  done  by  this  rule.     Divide  the  two 
Dumbeis  by  any  other  two   numbers  which  will  mea- 

fure  them ;  multiply  the  quotients  by  the  alternate  di- 
vifors ;  the  produfl  of  thefe  two  laft  numbers  found 
will  be  equal  to  the  produft  of  the  two  numbers  firft. 
given.  Thus,  if  you  would  vary  36  times  8,  divide 
thefe  by  any  two  numbers  which  will  evenly  meafure 
them  :  fo,  36  by  4  gives  9  ;  and  S  by  1  gives  8  : 
now,  by  the  rule,  9  times  i  is  9,  and  8  times  4  is  32 ; 
fo  that  for  36X8,  you  have  32X9  ;  each  equal  to  288. 
If  you  divide  36  by  6  and  8  by  z,  and  multiply  as 
before,  you  have  24X12  =  36X8  =  288. 

4.  If  a  wheel  and  pinion  fall  out  with  crofs  num- 
beis,  too  big  to  be  cut  in  wheels,' and  yet  not  to  be 
altered  by  thefe  ru.les ;  in  feeking  for  the  pinien  of  re- 
port, find  two  numbers  of  the  far.ie,  or  a  near  pro- 
portion, by  this  rule  :  as  either  of  the  two  given  num- 
bers is  to  the  other,  fo  is  360  to  a  fourth.  Divide 
that  fourth  number,  as  alfo  360,  by  4,  5,  6,  8,  9  lO, 
12,  15  (each  of  which  numbers  exaftly  mcafures  36c), . 
or  by  any  of  thole  numbers  that  biing  a  quotient 
nearell  to  an  integer.  As  fuppofe  you  had  147  for 
the  wheel,  and  1 70  for  the  pinion  ;  which  are  loo 
great  to  be  cut  into  Imall  wheels,  and  yet  cannot  be 
reduced  Into  lefs,  as  having  no  other  common  meafute 
but  unity;  fay,  as  170  :  147  ::  360  :  3  1  1.  Or,  as  147  : 
170:  :  360:416.  Divide  the  fourth  number  and 
360  by  one  of  the  foregoing  numbers;  as  311  and 
3C0  by  6,  it  gives  52  and  60;  divide  them  by  8, 
you  have  39  and  45:  and  if  you  divide  360  and  416  by  . 


C     L     O 


Clock.     8,  you  have  45  and  52  exaftly.    Wherefore,  inftead  of 
""■''         the  two  numbers  147  and  170,  you  may  take  52  and 
62,  or  39  and  45,  or  45  and  52,  CiV. 

5.  To  come  to  piaiSlict-  in  calculating  a  piece  of 
watch-work  :  Firil  pitch  on  t!ie  train  or  beats  of  the 
balance  in  an  hour  ;  as,  whether  a  fwifl  one  o{  about 
20,030  beats  (the  ufual  train  of  a  common  30  hour 
pocket- watch),  or  a  (lower  of  about  I  6000  (the  train 
of  the  new  pendulum  pocket-watches),  or  any  otiier 
tiain.  NLXt,  refolve  on  the  number  of  turns  the  fu- 
fee  is  inteadtd  to  have,  and  the  number  of  Iiours  the 
piece  is  to  go  :  fuppofe,  e.g.  12  turns,  and  to  go  30 
hours,  or  192  hours  [i.e.  8  days),  isfc.  Proceed  now 
to  find  the  beati  of  the  balance  or  pendulum  in  one 
turn  of  the  fufee  ;  thus  in  numbers ;  12  :  1 6  :  :  20oco»: 
2(^fi66.  Wherefore,  26666  are  the  beats  in  one  turn 
of  tiie  fufe  or  great  wheel,  and  are  equal  to  the  quo- 
tients of  all  the  wheels  unto  the  balance  multiplied  to- 
gether. Now  this  number  is  to  be  broken  iiito  a  con- 
venient parcel  of  quotients  ;  which  is  to  be  done  thus  : 
firil,  halve  the  number  of  be?.ts,  -viz.  26666,  and  you 
have  I33i3  ;  then  piteh  on  the  number  ot  tlie  crown- 
wheel, fuppofe  I  7  :  divide  13333  by  17,  and  you  have 
7B4  for  the  quotient  (or  turns)  of  the  reft,  of  the 
wheels  and  pinions  ;  wliich,  beinjj  too  big  for  one  or 
two  quotients,  may  be  bell  broken  into  thiee.  Choole 
therefore  three  numbers  ;  which,  when  multiplied  all 
together  continually,  will  come  neareft  784  :  as  fup- 
pole  ro,  9,  and  9,  multiplied  continually,  give  810, 
which  is  fome'A'hat*  too  much  ;  therefore  try  again  o- 
ther  numbers,  11,  9,  8:  thefe,  drawn  one  into  ano- 
ther continually,  produce  792  ;  v.hich  is  as  near  as 
can  be,  and  is  a  convenient  quotient.  Having  thus 
contrived  the  piece  from  the  great  wheel  to  the  ba- 
lance, but  the  numbers  not  falling  ouL  exaftly,  as  you 
fii  !l  propofedjcoriecl  the  work  thus:  full, multiply  792, 
the  produft  of  all  the  quotients  pitched  upon,  by  17 
(the  notches  of  the  crown-wheel)  ;  the  produtl  is 
13464,  which  is  half  the  number  of  beats  in  one  turn 
of  the  fufee  :  Then  find  the  true  number  of  beats  in  an 
hour.  Thus,  16:12::  13464  :  1CO98,  which  is  half  the 
beats  in  an  hour.  Then  find  what  quotient  is  to  be 
laid  upon  the  pinion  of  report  (by  the  rule  given  un- 
der that  woi-d).  Thus,  16:12:  :  i  2  :  9,  the  quo- 
tient of  the  pinion  of  report.  Having  thus  found 
your  quotients,  it  is  eafy  to  determine  what  numbers 
the  wheels  fhall  have,  for  choofing  what  numbers  the 
pinions  (hall  have,  and  multiplying  the  pinions  by 
,  ^  ,  their  quotients,  the  pioduifl  is  the  num- 
4/3  \  J  ber  for  the  wheels.  Thus,  the  number  of 
the  pinion  of  report  is  4,  and  its  quotient 
is  9 ;  therefore  the  numher  for  the  dial- 
wheel  mud  be  4X9,  or  36  :  fo  the  next 
pinion  being  5,  its  quotient  11,  therefore 
the  great  wheel  muft  be  5X11=55  ;  and 
fo  of  the  reft. 
Such  is  the  method  of  calculating  the  numbers  of  a 
16  hour  watch.  Which  watch  may  be  made  to  go 
longer  by  leffening  the  train,  and  altering  the  pinion 
of  report.  Suppofe  you  could  conveniently  flacken  the 
train  to  l6coo  ;  then  fay.  As  4-  1 6oco,  or  8000: 
13464:;  12:20;  fo  that  this  watch  will  go  20  hours. 
Then  for  the  pinion  of  report,  fay  (by  the  rule  given 
under  that  word),  as  20  :  12  :  ;  iz  :  7.     So  that   7 


[     75     1 


C    L     O 


5)55  ('I 
5)  45  (  9 
5)  40  (   8 

17 


is  the  quotient   of  the  jnnion  of  nport.  4)   28   (   7 

And  as  to  the  numbers,   the  operation  is ' 

the  fame  as  before,  only  the  dial-wheel  5)  55  (11 
is  but  28  ;  for  its  quotient  is  altered  to  7.  5)  45  (  9 
If  you  would  give  numbers  to  a  watch  of  5)   40   (    8 

about  locoo  beats  in  an  hour,  to  have  12 

turns  of  the   fufee,  to  go    1  70  hours,   and  1 7 

I  7  notches  in  the  crown-wheel  ;  the  work 
is  the  fame,  in  a  manner,  as  in  tlie  laft.  example  :  and 
cnnfequently  thue  :  as  12:  170;  :  loooo :  141666, 
which  fourth  number  is  the  beats  in  o^e  turn  of  the 
fufee ;  its  half,  70833,  being  divided  by  17,  gives 
4167  for  the  quotie:-.'  :  and  becaufe  this  number  is  too 
big  for  three  quoiientb,  therefore  choofe  tour,  as  10, 
8,  8,  6f  ;  whofe  produft  into  17  makes  71808,  near- 
ly eqiiai  to  half  the  true  beats  in  one  turn  of  the  fu- 
fee. Then  fay,  as  170:12:71  808  :  5069,  whicii  is 
half  the  true  train  of  your  watch.  And  again,  17O) 
12  :  :  \i:\ii^,  the  denominator  of  which  cxpreflei 
the  opinion  ot  report,  and  the  numerator  is  the  num- 
ber of  the  dial- V.  heel.  But  tht(e  numbers  bein;;-  too 
big  to  be  cut  in  I'mall  wheels,  they  mull  be  vaiied  by 
the  fourth  rule  above.     Thus  : 

As  144: 170: : 360: 425; 
Or  170: 144: : 360:  305. 
Then  dividing  360,  and  either  of  thefe  24)  20  (-Jf 
two  fourth  proportionals  (as  directed  by 
the  rule),  fuppofe  by  1  5 ;  you  will  have 
-*vOr-J|;  then  the  numbers  of  the  whole 
movem'-nt  will  iland  as  in  the  margin. 

Sucli   is   the    calculation   of  ordinary 
watches,  to  fliow   the  hour  of  the  day  : 
in    fuch   as    fliow  minutes,  and   feconds, 
the  procefs  is  thus  : 

I.  Having  refolvcd  on  the  beats  in  an  hour;  by  di- 
viding the  defigned  train  by  60,  find  the  beats  in  a 
minute  ;  and  accordingly,  find  proper  numbers  for  the 
croivn-wheel  and  quotieirts,  lb  as  that  the  minute- 
wheel  (hall  go  round  once  in  an  hour,  and  the  Iccond 
wheel  once  in  a  minute. 

Suppofe,  e.  g.  you  fhall  choofe  a  pendulum  of  fe- 
ven  inches,  which  vibrates  142  tlrokes  in  a  minute, 
and  8520  in  an  hour.  Half  thefe  fums  are  71,  and 
4260.  Now,  the  firil  work  is  to  break  this  71  into 
a  good  proportion,  which  will  fall  into  one  quotient, 
and  the  crown-*heel.  Let  the  crown-wheel  have  15 
notches;  then  71,  divided  by  15,  gives  nearly  5  ;  fo 
a  crown-wheel  of  15,  and  a  wheel  and  pinion  whofe 
quotient  is  5,  will  go  round  in  a  minute  to  carry  a 
hand  to  (how  feconds.  For  a  hand  to  go 
round  in  an  hour  to  (hAw  minutes,  becaufe   8)   40   (   5 

there  are  60  minutes  in  an  hour,  it  isi  but 

breaking  60  into  good  quotients  (luppoie 
10  and  6,  or  8  and  7-j,  Isfc),  and  it  is 
done.  ThuF,  4260  is  broken  as  near  as 
can  be  into  proper  mimbers.  But  fince  it 
does  not  fall  out  exaftly  into  the  above- 
mentioned  numbers,  you  mud  correft  (as 
before  direAed),  and  find  the  true  number 
of  beats  in  an  hour,  by  multiplyin:;  15  by 
5,  which  makes  75;  and  75  by  60  makes  4500,  which 
is  half  thetrue  train.  Then  find  the  beats  in  one  turn 
of  the  fufee;  thus,  16:  192  :  :45oo:54O0o;  which 
lall  is  half  the  beats  in  one  turn  of  the  fufee.  This 
K  2  54C09 


CI.kIc. 


6)  60  (10 

6)  48  (  8 

5)  40  (   8 

5)  33  (6^ 


i\ 


8)  64  (  g 
8)  60  (7-t 
8)  ^ojj 

15 


Clock, 
Clodia  lex. 


C    L     O  [7 

54COO  being  divided  by  4500  (the  true 
9)  ic8  (12  numbers  already  pitched  on),  the  quo- 
S)  64  (  8  tientwillbe  12;  which,  not  being  toobisj 
8)  60  (/T  for  a  fingle  quotient,  needs  not  be  divided 
8)     40  (   5  into  moie;  and  the  work  will  (land  as  in 

the  margin.     As  to  the  hour-hand,  the 

15  great  wheel,  which  performs  only  one  re- 
volution in  12  turns  of  the  minute-wheel, 
will  fhow  the  hour ;  or  it  may  be  done  by  the  miuute- 
wheel. 

It  is  requifite  for  thofe  who  make  nice  agronomical 
obfervations,  to  have  watches  that  make  foine  exiA 
number  of  beats  per  fecond,  without  any  fradion  ; 
but  we  feldom  find  a  watch  that  does.  As  four 
beats /'fr  fecond  would  be  a  very  convenient  number, 
we  (hall  here  give  the  train  for  fi'ch  a  watch,  which 
would  (like  raoft  others)  go  '.jo  hours,  but  is  to  be 
wound  lip  once  in  24  hours. 

The  fufee  and  firll  wheel  to  go  round  in  four  hours. 
This  wheel  has  48  teeth,  and  it  turns  a  pinion  of  12 
leaves,  on  whofe  axis  is  the  fecond  wheel,  which  goes 
round  in  one  hour,  and  carries  the  minute  hand.  This 
wheel  has  60  teeth,  and  turns  a  pinion  of  10  leaves; 
on  whofe  axis  is  the  third  wheel  of  60  teeth,  turning 
a  pinion  of  6  leaves;  on  whofe  axis  is  the  fourth  (or 
contrate)  wheel,  turning  round  in  a  minute,  aiid  car- 
rying the  fmall  hand  that  (hows  the  f^rconds,  on  a 
fmall  circle  on  the  dial-plate,  divided  into  60  parts  : 
this  contrate  wheel  has  48  teeth,  and  turns  a  pinion 
of  6  leaves  ;  on  whofe  axis  is  the  crov.'n  or  balance- 
wheel  of  15  teeth,  which  makes  30  beats  in  each  revo- 
lution. 

The  crown-wheel  goes  480  times  round  in  an  hour, 
and  3c  times  480  make  14400,  the  number  of  beats 
in  an  hour.  But  one  hour  contains  3600  feconds  ;  and 
14400  divided  by  3600  quotes  4,  the  required  number 
of  beats  in  a  fecond. 

The  fufee  mull  have  yi-  turns,  to  let  the  chain  go 
fo  many  times  round  it.  Then,  as  i  turn  is  to  4 
hours,  fo  is  j-x  turns  to  30  hours,  the  time  the  watch 
would  go  after  it  is  wound  up. 

See  further  the  articles  Movement,  Turn,  Js'<^. 
And  for  the  history  and  particular  conftnidion  of 
Watches  properly  fo  called,  fee  the  article  Watch. 

CLODIA  LEX,  de  Cypro,  was  enafled  by  the  tri- 
bune Clodius,  in  the  year  of  Rome  607,  to  reduce  Cy- 
prus into  a  Roman  province,  and  cxpofe  Ptolemy 
king  of  Egypt  to  fale  in  his  regal  ornaments.  It  im- 
powered  Cato  to  go  with  the  prxtorian  power  and 
fee  the  audlion  of  the  king's  goods,  and  commlflion- 
ed  him  to  return  the  money  to  Rome.  Another,  de 
Magijlratibus,  695,  by  Clodius  the  tribune.  It  for- 
bad the  cenfors  to  put  a  ftigma  or  mark  of  infamy 
upon  anv  perfon  who  had  not  been  actually  accufed 
and  condemned  by  both  the  cenfors.  Another,  ^j- i??- 
tiglone,  by  the  fame,  696,  to  deprive  the  priell  of  Cy- 
bele,  a  native  of  Peflinuns,  of  his  office,  and  confer  the 
priellhood  upon  Brotigonus,  a  Gallogrecian.  An- 
other, ds  ProvlncUs,  695,  which  nominated  the  pro- 
vinces of  Syria,  Babylon,  and  Perfia,  to  the  conful 
Gabinus,  and  Achaia,  Thelfaly,  Macedon,  and  Greece, 
to  his  colleague  Pifo,  with  proconfular  power.  It 
impowered  them  to  defray  the  expences  of  their 
march  from  the  public  treafury.  Another,  695,  which 
required  the  fame  diftributioa  of  corn   among   the 


6     1  C    L    O 

people  gratis,  as  had  been  given  them  before  at  nt 
affes  and  a  triens  the  bulhel.  Another,  695,  by  the 
fame,  de  jfudiciis.  It  called  to  an  account  fuch  as  _ 
had  executed  a  Roman  citizen  without  a  judg- 
ment of  the  people  and  all  the  formalities  of  a  trial. 
Another,  by  the  fame,  to  pay  no  attention  to  the 
appearances  of  the  heavens  while  any  affair  was  be- 
fore the  people.  Another,  to  make  the  power  of 
the  tribunes  free  in  making  and  propol'mg  laws. 
Another,  to  re-elhibli(li  the  companies  of  artifts  which 
had  been  inlUtuted  by  Numa,  but  fmce  his  time  abo- 
lilhed. 

CLODIUS  (Publi'us),  a  Roman  defcend.-d  of  an 
illuftrious  family.  He  made  himfelf  famous  for  his 
licentioufncfs,  avarice,  and  ambition.  He  committed 
iiiceil  with  his  three  fillers,  and  introduced  himftlf  in 
women's  clothes  into  the  houfe  of  Julius  Cvefar  whilll 
Pompeia  Ca;far's  wife,  of  whom  he  was  enamoured, 
was  celebrating  the  niyfteries  of  Ceres,  where  no  man 
was  permitted  to  appear.  He  was  accu(ed  for  this 
violation  of  human  and  divine  laws;  but  he  made  him- 
felf tribune,  and  by  that  means  fcreened  himfelf  froin 
jullice.  He  defcended  from  a  pati-ician  into  a  ple- 
beian family  to  become  a  tribune.  He  was  fuch  au 
enemy  to  Cato,  that  he  made  him  go  with  pnetoriaii 
power,  in  an  expedition  againll  Ptolemy  king  of  Cy- 
prus, that  by  the  difficulty  of  the  campaign  he  might 
ruin  his  reputation,  and  dellroy  his  interell  at  Rom.:; 
during  his  abfcnce.  Cato,  however,  by  his  uiicummou 
fuccefs  fruftrated  the  views  of  Clodius.  He  was  alfo 
an  inveterate  enemy  to  Cicero,  and  by  his  influence  he 
banifhed  him  from  Rome,  partly  on  pretence  that  ht: 
had  puniihed  with  death  and  without  trial  the  adhe- 
rents of  Catiline.  He  wreaked  his  vengeance  upon  Ci- 
cero's houfe,  which  he  burnt,  and  fct  all  liis  goods  to 
fale  ;  which,  however,  to  his  great  mortification,  no 
one  offered  to  buy.  In  fpite  of  Clodius,  Cicero  was 
recalled  and  all  his  goods  reilored  to  him.  Clodius 
was  fometime  after  murdered  by  Milo,  whofe  defenc; 
Cicero  took  upon  himfelf. 

CLOGHER,  an  epiicopal  town  of  Ireland,  in  the 
county  of  Tyrone,  and  province  of  Ulller.  It  fends 
two  members  to  parliament.  In  a  very  early  age  an 
abbey  of  regular  canons,  dedicated  to  the  Virgin  Mary, 
was  founded  here.  St  Patrick  is  laid  to  liave  prefided 
over  the  church  of  Cloglier ;  and  having  appointed 
St  Kertenn  to  be  his  fucceffor,  he  refigned  this  go- 
verument,  and  went  to  Armagh,  where  he  founded  his 
celebrated  abbey.  On  the  2cth  of  April  1396,  a 
dreadful  fire  burnt  to  the  ground  the  church,  the  two 
chapels,  the  abbey,  the  court  ot  the  bifliops,  and 
thiity-two  other  buildings,  with  all  the  facerdot^d 
veflments,  utcnfils,  &c.  belonging  to  the  bilhop's 
chapter  and  church.  In  the  year  iCto,  on  the  24th 
of  July,  whilll  George  Montgomery  was  bilhop  of 
Clogher,  king  James  annexed  this  abbey  and  its  reve- 
nues to  that  fee.  The  fee  (valued  in  the  king's  books 
at  350I. /f/"  annum  by  extent  returned  15th  James  I. } 
is  reputed  to  be  worth  L.4000  annually.  W.  Long. 
7.  30.  N.  Lat.  54.  16. 

CLOISTER  ( Cliiiijlium ) ,  a  habitation  furrounded 
with  walls,  and  inhabited  by  canons  or  religious,  &c.  . 
In  a  more   general  fenfe,  cloiller  is   uftd   for   a   mo- 
naftery  of  religious  of  either  fex.      In  a  more  rellraiu 
ed  fenfe,  cloilter  Is  afed  for  the  principal  part  of  a  re- 

gulx- 


CLOCK, 


VLMi^  CXTJ, 


f '^J^e//Pn'„.  II „i )r,f//i/,r/:;y'/. 


C     L     O 

Clormcll,  gular  monaftery,   confifting  of  a  fquaie  built  around  ; 
^'"^^      ordinarily  between  the  churcli,  the  chaptci-houfe,  and 
*  the  refciAoiy  ;  and  over  which  is  the  durmitory.    The 

cloifters  lervcd  for  feveral  i)urporcs  in  the  ancient  nio- 
naftcries.  Petrus  Blclenlis  obfcrves,  that  it  was  here 
the  monks  h^ld  tlicir  lel^;ures^  the  lefture  of  morali- 
ty at  the  north  fide,  next  the  church  ;  the  fchool  on 
tiie  well,  and  the  chapter  on  the  call  ;  fpiritual  medi- 
tation, &c.  being  reierved  for  the  chureii.  I^anfranc 
obferves,  that  the  proper  ufe  of  the  cloifter'was  fctr 
the  monks  to  meet  in,  and  converfe  together,  at  cer- 
tain hours  of  the  day. 

The  form  of  the  cloifter  was  fquare  ;  and  it  had  its 
name  claiijlrum,  from  claiido,  "  I  (hut  or  clofe  ;"  as 
being  inclofed  on  its  four  fides  with  buildings.  Hence, 
in  architecture,  a  building  is  ftill  faid  to  be  iu  form  of 
a  cloillcr,  when  there  are  buildings  on  each  of  the  four 
fides  of  the  court. 

CLONMELL,  the  afGze  town  of  the  county  of 
TIpperary  in  Ireland,  is  lituated  on  the  river  Suir,  hath 
a  barrack  for  two  troops  of  horfe,  and  is  governed  by 
a  mayor,  record.'r,  bailiffs,  and  town-clerk.  The  river 
is  navigable  from  this  town  to  Carrick  and  Waterford  ; 
and  there  is  feme  trade  carried  on  here  in  the  woollen 
branch,  particularly  by  the  quakers,  who  are  very  nu- 
merous in  this  neighbourhood.  There  is  a  fpring  here 
of  Spa  water,  that  ITues  out  of  the  fide  of  a  rifing 
ground,  that  is,  nctwithftanding,  overlooked  by  a 
pretty  itecp  hill,  on  that  fide  of  the  river  Suir  which 
is  in  the  county  of  Waterford.  The  cures  performed 
by  drinking  of  this  water  in  the  fcur^-y,  and  other 
chronic  diltempers,  drew  thither,  fome  years  ago,  a 
great  refort  of  people  ;  but  faOiion,  which  reigns  with 
an  abfolute  authority,  has  brought  other  waters  of  late 
into  higher  credit.  It  was  in  this  town  that  the  celebra- 
ted and  Rev.  Laurence  Sterne  was  born,  on  the  24th  of 
November  17 13.  The  town  confills  of  four  ciofs 
ilreets,  and  has  a  fpacious  bridge  of  20  arches  over 
the  rivfer  Suir ;  the  market  houfe  is  ftrong  and  well 
built;  and  there  is  a  charter  fchool  here  for  forty  chil- 
dren, to  which  the  late  John  Dawfon,  Efq;  and  Sir 
Charles  Moore,  Bart,  were  confiderable  benefaftors. 
A  Dominican  friary  was  founded  at  Clonmell,  in  1269, 
and  dedicated  to  St  Dominick.  In  the  fame  year 
Otho  de  Grandifon  erefted  a  Francifcan  friary,  the 
churcli  of  which  was  elleemed  one  of  the  maft  magni- 
ficent in  Ireland  ;  in  it  was  kept  an  image  of  St  Fran- 
cis, rcfpefting  the  miracles  wrought  by  which  many 
marvellous  itories  are  circulated.  This  town  is  very 
ancient,  being  built  before  the  invafion  of  the  Danes  : 
it  was  formerly  defended  by  a  fquare  wall.  Oliver 
Cromwell,  who  found  more  refiftance  from  this  place 
than  any  other  of  his  conquefls  in  the  kingdom,  de- 
niolifhed  the  caftles  and  fortifications,  of  which  now 
only  the  ruins  remain  :  the  chief  Gothic  chuich  here 
is  ftill  kept  in  good  repair. 

CLOSE,  in  heraldry.  When  any  bird  is  drawn  in 
a  coat  of  arms  with  its  wings  clofe  down  about  it, 
(i.  e.  not  difplayed),  and  iii  a  Handing  pofture,  they 
blazon  it  by  this  word  clofe  ;  but  if  it  be  flying,  they 
call  it  vo/aiit.     See  Volant. 

Close,  in  mufic.     See  Cadence. 

Ciose-Hau/ed,  in  navigation,  the  general  arrange- 
ment or  trim  of  a  fhip's  fails  when  (he  endeavours  to 
make  a  progrefs  in  the  neareil  dirc&ien  poffiblc  to-  • 


Clofe 

II 

Cloth. 


r     77     1  C     L     O 

wards  that  point  of  the  compafs  from  which  the  wind 
blows.      Ill  this  manner  of  failing,  the  keel  commonly 
makes  an  angle  of  fix  points  with  the  line  of  the  wind;  __^^_ 
but  Hoops  and  fome  other  fniall  velfels  are  faid  to  fail  ' 

almoll  a  point  nearer.  All  velfels,  however,  arc  fup- 
poied  to  make  nearly  a  point  of  lee-way  when  clofe- 
hauled,  even  when  they  liave  the  advantage  of  a  good 
lading  breeze  and  fmooth  water.  The  angle  of  lee- 
way, however,  inereafes  in  propmtion  to  the  incre\ift 
of  the  wind  and  fea.  In  this  difpolition  of  the  fails, 
they  are  all  oaeuded  fidevvays  on  the  Hiip,  fo  that 
the  wind,  as  it  crolfes  the  Ihip  obliquely  toward  the 
ftern  from  forv.'ards,  may  fill  their  cavities.  But  as 
the  current  of  winds  alfo  enters  the  fails  in  an  oblique 
direftion,  the  effort  of  it  to  make  the  ihip  advance 
is  confiderably  diminilhed :  fhe  will  therefore  make 
the  leail  progrefs  when  failing  in  this  manner.  The 
ihip  is  faid  to  be  clofe-hauled,  becaufe  at  this  time  her 
tcicis,  or  lower  corners  of  the  principal  falls,  are  drawn 
clofe  dow  n  to  her  fide  to  windward,  the  Iheets  hauled 
clofe-aft,  and  all  the  bow-lines  drawn  to  their  greatelt 
extenfion  to  keep  the  fails  Heady. 

CioiE-^iarters,  certain  ftrong  barriers  of  wood, 
ftre:chiiig  acrofs  a  inercliant-niip  in  feveral  places. 
They  are  uled  as  places  of  retreat  when  a  Ihip  is 
boarded  by  her  adverfary,  and  are  therefore  fitted 
with  leveral  fniall  loop-holes  through  which  to  fire  the 
fmall  arms,  and  thereby  annoy  the  enemy  and  defend 
themklves.  'I'liey  arc  likewife  furnilhed  with  feveral 
caifons  i^-A\iA po-uiiler-che/h,  which  are  fixed  upon  the 
deck,  and  lill-d  with  po.\der,  old-nails,  &c.  and  may- 
be fired  at  any  time  from  the  clofe-quarters  upon  the 
boarders. 

We   have   known  an  Englifii  merchant-lhlp  of  iCiFaLumr't 
guns,  and  properly  fitted  with  clofe-quarters,  defeat  ■'^"'■."/'■^' 
the    united    eiforts   of   three    French    privateers   who  ^'"^""• 
boarded  her  in  the  laft  war,  after  having  engaged  at 
fome  diftance  nearly  a  day  and  a  half,,  with  very  fevsr 
intervals  of  reft.      Two  of  the  cruifers  were  equipped 
with  twelve  guns  each,  and  the  other  with  eight.   The 
Frciich  failors  were,  after  boarding,   fo  much  expofed 
to  continued  riie  of  mufquetiy  and   coeiiorns  charged 
witli  grenadoes,   that  a  dreadful  fcene  of  carnage  en- 
fucd,  in  which  the  decks  were   foon   covered  witli  the 
dead  bodies  of  the  enemy,  feveral  of  which  the  board- 
ers, iu  their  hurry  to  efcape,  had  left  behind. 
CLO'F-BiRD  :   a  fpccies  of  Fringilla 
CLOTH,   in   commerce,  a  manufatture    made   of 
wool,  wove  in  the  loom. 

Cloths  are  of  divers  qualities,  fine  or  coarfe.  The 
goodnefs  of  cloth,  according  to  fome,  confilts  in  the 
following  particulars  :  i .  That  the  wool  be  of  a  good 
quahty,  and  well  dreffed.  2.  It  muit  be  equally  fpun, 
carefully  obfcrving  that  the  thread  of  the  warp  be 
finer  a:.d  better  twilled  than  that  of  the  woof.  3.  The 
cloth  muft  be  well  wrought,  aud  beaten  on  the  loom, 
fa  as  to  be  every  where  equally  compatl.  4.  The 
wool  muft  not  be  finer  at  one  end  of  the  piece  than  in 
the  reft.  5.  Tlie  lilts  muft;  be  fufficiently  ftrong,  of 
the  fame  length  with  the  ftuff,  and  mull  conlill  of 
good  wool,  hair,  or  oftrich-feathers  ;  or,  what  is  ftiU 
better,  of  Danilli  dog's  hair.  6.  The  cloth  mull  be 
free  from  knots  and  other  imperfedions.  7.  It  muft 
be  well  fcoured  with  fuller's  earth,  well  fulled  witlx  ^ 

the  bell  white  foap,   and  afterwards  walhed  in  clear 

water* 


C     L     O  [78 

CioJi.  water.  8.  The  hair  or  r.ap  mtift  be  well  drawn  out 
"~~»  ■  '  with  the  ttazd,  without  being  too  much  opentd. 
9.  It  muft  be  Hiorn  clofe  without  making  it  thiead- 
bare.  10.  It  miifl  be  well  dried.  1 1.  It  muft  not  be 
tentcr-ftrclched,  to  force  it  to  its  jufl;  dimcnfions. 
12.  It  muft  bt  preffed  cold,  not  hot  prefTed,  the  latter 
being  very  injurious  to  woollen  cloth. 

ManufaSunn^  of  luhite  Cloths  •which  arc  intendid  f',r 
d^eir.g.  The  bell  \vool  for  the  manufa&uring  of  cloths 
are  thofe  of  England  and  Spain,  efpecially  thofe  of 
Lincolnfliire  and  Segovia.  To  ufe  thofe  wools  to  the 
beft  advantage,  they  muft  be  ftoured,  by  putting  them 
into  a  liquor  fomcvvhat  more  than  luiiewarm,  com- 
pofed  of  three  parts  fair  water  and  one  of  urine.  Af- 
ter the  wool  has  continued  long  enough  in  the  liquor 
to  foak,  and  diflblve  the  greafe,  it  is  drained  and  well 
wafl'.ed  in  running  water.  When  it  feels  dry,  and  has 
no  fmell  but  the  natural  one  of  the  ftieep,  it  is  faid  to 
be  duly  fcoiired. 

After  this,  it  is  hung  to  dry  ia  the  fliade  ;  the  heat 
cf  the  fun  making  it  harlh  and  inflexible  :  when  dry, 
it  is  beat  with  rods  upon  hurdles  of  wood,  or  on  cords, 
to  cleanfe  it  from  duft  and  the  groffcr  filth  ;  the  more 
it  is  thus  beat  and  cleanfed,  the  fofter  it  becomes,  and 
the  better  for  fplnning.  After  beating,  it  muft  be  well 
,plcked,  to  free  it  from  the  reft  of  the  tilth  that  had 
efcaped  the  rods. 

It  is  now  in  a  proper  condition  to  be  oiled,  and 
carded  on  large  iron  cards  placed  flopewife.  Olive  oil 
is  efteemed  the  beft  for  this  pui^pofe;  one  fifth  of  which 
iKould  be  ufed  for  the  wool  intended  for  the  woof,  and 
a  ninth  for  that  defigned  for  the  warp.  After  the 
wool  has  been  well  oiled,  it  is  given  to  the  fpinners, 
who  firft  card  it  on  the  knee  with  fmall  fine  cards,  and 
then  fpin  it  on  the  wheel,  obfei-ving  to  make  the  thread 
of  the  warp  fmaDcr  by  one  third  than  that  of  the  woof, 
and  much  compafter  twifted. 

The  thread  thus  fpun,  is  reeled,  and  made  into 
ikeins.  That  defigned  for  the  woof  is  wound  on  little 
tubes,  pieces  of  paper,  or  rufhes,  io  difpofed  as  that 
t-!iey  may  be  eafiiy  put  in  the  eye  of  the  Ihuttle..  That 
for  the  warp  is  wound  on  a  kind  of  large  wooden 
bobbins,  to  difpofe  it  for  wai-ping.  \Vlien  warped, 
it  is  ftiffened  with  fize;  the  beft  of  which  is  that  made 
of  ftireds  of  parchment;  and  when  dry,  is  given  to  the 
weavers,  who  mount  it  on  the  loom. 

The  warp  thus  mounted,  the  weavers,  who  are  two 
to  each  loom,  one  on  each  fide,  tread  alternately  on 
the  treddle,  firft  on  the  right  ilep,  and  then  on  the 
left,  which  raifes  and  lowers  the  threads  of  the  warp 
equally;  between  which  they  throw  tranverfely  the 
fliuttle  from  the  one  to  the  other  :  and  every  time 
that  the  (liuttle  is  thus  thrown,  and  a  thread  of  the 
woof  inferted  within  the  warp,  they  ftrike  it  conjunft- 
ly  with  the  fame  frame,  wherein  is  fattened  the  comb 
or  rted,  between  wliofe  teeth  the  threads  of  the  warp 
are  paffed,  repeating  the  ftroke  as  often  as  is  necef- 
fary. 

The  weavers  having  continued  their  work  till  the 
-whole  warp  is  filled  with  the  woof,  the  cloth  is  fi- 
niftied  ;  it  is  then  taken  off  the  loom  by  unrolling  it 
from  the  beam  whereon  it  had  been  rolled  in  propor- 
tion as  it  was  wove  ;  and  now  given  to  be  cleanfed  of 
the  knots,  ends  of  threads,  ftra'ws,  and  other  filth, 
which  is  done  with  iron  nippers. 


]  C    L     O 

In  this  condition  it  is  carried  to  the  fullery,  to  be 
fc  )ured  with  urine,  or  a  kind  of  potter's  clay,  well 
fteeped  in  water,  put  along  with  the  cloth  in  the 
trough  wherein  it  is  fulled.  The  cloth  being  again 
cleared  from  the  earth  or  urine,  is  returned  to  the 
former  hands  to  have  the  lefl'er  filth,  fmall  ftraws,  &c. 
taken  off  as  before  :  then  it  is  returned  to  tlie  fuller 
to  be  beat  and  fulled  with  hot  water,  wherein  a 
luitable  quantity  of  foap  has  been  diflolved  ;  after  ful- 
ling, it  is  taken  out  to  be  fmoothcd  or  pulled  by  the 
lifts  longthwife,  to  take  out  the  wrinkles,  crevices,  &c. 

The  fmoothing  is  repeated  every  two  hours,  till 
the  fulling  be  finilhed,  and  the  cloth  brougbt  to  its 
proper  breadth  :  after  which  it  is  waflied  in  clear  wa- 
ter, to  purge  it  of  the  foap,  and  given  wet  to  the 
carders  to  raife  the  hair  or  nap  on  the  right  fide  with 
the  thiftle  or  weed.  After  this  preparation  the  cloth- 
worker  takes  the  cloth,  and  gives  it  its  firft  cut  or 
(liearing  :  then  the  carders  rcfume  it,  and  after  wet- 
ting, give  Jt  as  many  more  courfes  with  the  teazle, 
as  the  quality  of  the  ftuff  requires,  always  obferving 
to  begin  againft  the  grain  of  the  hair,  and  to  end  with 
it  ;  as  alfo  to  begin  with  a  fmoother  thiftle,  proceed- 
ing ftill  with  one  ftiarper  and  ftiarper,  as  far  as  the 
fixth  degree. 

After  thefe  operations,  the  cloth  being  dried,  is  re- 
turned to  the  cloth-worker,  who  ftieers  it  a  fecond 
time,  and  returns  it  to  the  carders,  who  repeat  their 
operation  as  before,  till  the  nap  be  well  ranged  on  the 
furface  of  the  cloth,  from  one  end  of  the  piece  to  the 
other. 

The  cloth  thus  wove,  fcoured,  napped,  and  fliorn,  is 
fent  to  the  dyer;  when  dyed,  it  is  waihed  in  fair  water, 
and  the  worker  takes  it  again  wet  as  it  is,  lays  the 
nap  with  a  brulh  on  the  table,  and  hangs  it  on  the 
tenters,  where  it  is  ftretched  both  in  length  and  breadth 
fufhciently  to  fmooth  it,  fet  it  fquare,  and  bring  it  to 
its  proper  dimenfions,  without  ftraining  it  too  much  ; 
obferving  to  brufh  it  afrcfli,  tlie  way  of  the  nap,  while 
a  little  moift,  on  the  tenters. 

When  quite  dry,  the  cloth  is  taken  off  the  tenters, 
and  bruihed  again  on  the  table,  to  finilh  the  laying  of 
the  nap  :  after  which  it  is  folded,  and  laid  cold  under 
a  prefs,  to  make  it  perfeftly  fmooth  and  even,  and 
give  it  a  glofs. 

Laftly,  the  cloth  being  taken  out  of  the  prefs,  and 
the  papers,  &c.  for  gloffing  it  removed,  it  is  in  a  con- 
dition for  fale  or  «fe.  With  regard  to  the  manufac- 
ture of  mixt  cloths,  or  thofe  wherein  the  wools  are 
firft  dyed,  and  then  mixt,  fpun,  and  wove  of  the  co- 
lours intended,  the  procefs,  except  what  relates  to 
the  colow,  is  mollly  the  fame  with  that  juft  repie- 
fcnted. 

Cloth  made  from  Vegetable  Filaments.  See  Bark 
and  Filaments. 

Incomlujlible  Cloth.     See  Asbestos. 

CLOTHO,  the  youngeft  of  the  three  Pares, 
daughters  of  Jupiter  and  Themis.  She  was  fuppo- 
fed  to  prefide  over  the  moment  that  we  are  born.  She 
held  the  dillaff  in  her  hand  and  fpun  the  thread  of 
life,  whence  her  name  «>.i'&-(i«,  to  fpin.  She  was  re- 
prefented  wearing  a  Ciown  with  feven  ftars,  and  cover- 
ed with  a  variegated  robe. 

CLOUD,  a  collcftion  of  vapours  fufpended  in  the 
atmofphere. 

That 


C     L     O 


Ctoud. 


Caufe  of 
thf   I'lirnia 
tioa  of 
clouJs  uii- 
cciiaio- 


Not  alwayi 
owin^  to 
cold. 


Blcflncity 

piobaV.ly 

concerned. 


That  the  clouds  are  formed  from  the  aqueous  va- 
pours which  before  were  fo  clofely  united  with  the 
atniofphcre  as  to  be  invifible,  is  univerfally  allowed  : 
but  it  is  no  eal'y  matter  to  account  for  the  long  conti- 
nuance of  fome  very  opaque  clouds  without  diiTulving  ; 
or  to  give  a  reafon  why  the  vapours,  when  they  have 
once  begun  to  condenfe,  do  not  contiiuie  to  do  fo  till 
they  at  lall  fall  to  the  ground  in  the  form  of  rain  or 
fnow,  &c.  Under  the  article  Barometer,  n°  23. 
wc  have  hinted  at  the  gen^jral  caufe  of  the  formation 
of  clouds  ;  namely,  a  leparation  of  the  latent  hc.it 
from  the  water  whereof  the  vapour  is  compofcd.  The 
conltquence  of  this  fepHration,  as  is  lUideniably  proved 
by  Dr  Black,  muft  be  die  condcnfation  of  that  vapour, 
in  fome  degree  at  Icall  :  in  fuch  cafe,  it  will  firft  ap- 
pear as  a  fmokc,  mift,  or  fog  ;  which  if  interpofed  be- 
twixt the  fun  and  earth,  will  form  a  cloud  ;  and  the 
fame  caufes  continiu'ng  to  adl,  the  cloud  will  produce 
rain  or  fnow.  But  though  the  fcparation  of  this  latc'tit 
heat  in  a  certain  degree  is  the  immediate  caufe  of  the 
formation. of  clouds,  the  remote  caufe,  or  tlie  changes 
produced  in  the  atmofphere,  whereby  fuch  a  repara- 
tion may  be  induced,  are  much  more  difficult  to  be 
difcovered.  In  common  obfervation,  we  fee  that  va- 
pour is  moft  powerfully  condenfed  by  cold  fubftances, 
fuch  as  metals,  water.  Sic.  But  cold  alone  cannot  in 
all  cafes  caufe  the  condenfation  of  the  atmofpherical 
vapours,  otherwife  the  nights  behoved  to  be  always 
foggy  or  cloudy,  owing  to  the  vapours,  raifed  tlirough- 
out  the  day  by  the  heat  of  the  fun,  being  condenfed 
by  the  fuperior  coldnefs  of  the  night.  Great  rains 
will  happea  in  very  warm  weather,  when  the  union  of 
the  vapours  with  the  atmofphere  ought  rather  to  be 
promoted  than  diffolved,  if  cold  was  the  only  agent  in 
their  condenfation.  The  ferenity  of  the  atmofphere, 
alfo,  in  the  moft  fevere  frofts,  abundantly  {hows  that 
fome  otlier  caufe  befides  mere  heat  or  cold  is  concerned 
in  the  formation  of  clouds,  and  condenfation  of  the 
atmofpherical  vapours. 

The  eledric  fluid  is  now  fo  generally  admitted  as 
an  agent  in  all  the  great  operations  of  nature,  that  it 
is  no  wonder  to  find  the  formation  of  douds  attributed 
to  it.  This  hath  accordingly  been  given  by  3.  Bec- 
caria  as  the  caufe  of  the  formation  of  all  clouds  what- 
foever,  whether  of  thunder,  rain,  hail,  or  fnow.  The 
firft,  he  thinks,  are  produced  by  a  very  great  power  of 
ele&ricity,  and  the  others  by  one  more  moderate.  But 
though  it  is  certain  that  all  clouds,  or  even  fogs  and 
rain,  are  eleftritied  in  fome  degree,  it  ftill  remains  a 
queftlon,  whether  the  clouds  are  formed  in  confequence 
ef  the  vapour  whereof  they  are  compofed  being  firlt 
elefti  ified,  or  whether  they  become  electrified  in  con- 
fequence of  its  being  firft  feparated  from  the  atmo- 
fphere, and  in  fome  meafure  condenfed.  This  hath 
not  yet,  as  far  as  we  know,  been  afcertained  by  the 
experiments  of  Beccaria,  or  any  other  perfon  j  and  in- 
deed, notwithllanding  the  multitude  of  electrical  dif- 
coveries  that  have  lately  been  made,  there  feems  to  be 
little  or  no  foundation  for  afcertaining  it.  Eleftricity 
is  known  to  be  in  many  cafes  a  promoter  of  evapora- 
tion ;  but  no  experiments  have  yet  been  brought  to 
prove,  that  eleftrilied  air  parts  with  its  moifture  more 
readily  than  fuch  as  is  not  eleftrified  ;  fo  that,  till  the 
properties  of  eleftrified  air  are  faither  inveftigated,  it  is 


[     79     ] 


C     L     O 


impoifible  to  lay  down  any  rational  theory  of  the  for- 
mation of  clouds  upon  this  principle. 

But  whether  the  clouds  are  produced,  /.  e.  the  in- 
vifible vapours  floating  in  the  atmofphere  condenfed 
fo  as  to  become  vilible,  by  means  of  tlearicity  or  nut, 
it  is  certain  tliat  they  do  contain  the  eletlric  fluid  in 
prodigious  and  inconceivable  quantities,  and  many  very 
terrible  and  dellruftive  phenomena  have  been  occa- 
fioned  by  clouds  very  iilgh'y  electritied.  The  moft  ex- 
traordinary inilancc  of  this  kind  perhaps  on  record 
happened  in  the  ifland  of  Java  in  the  Eall  Indies  in 
'Auguft  1772.  On  the  i  ith  of  that  month,  at  mid- 
night, a  bright  cloud  was  obfervcd  covering  a  mountain 
in  tiie  diftrid  called  Chrilon,  and  at  the  fame  time  feve- 
ral  reports  were  heard  like  thofe  of  a  gun.  The  people 
who  dwelt  upon  the  upper  parts  of  the  mountain  not 
being  able  to  fly  fall  enough,  a  great  part  of  the  cloud, 
almort  three  leagues  in  circumference,  detached  itfelf 
iinder  them,  and  was  feen  at  a  diftance  riling  and  falling 
like  the  waves  of  the  fea,  and  emitting  globes  of  fire 
fo  luminous,  that  the  night  became  as  clear  as  day. 
The  effetls  of  it  were  aftonifning;  every  thing  was  de- 
ftroyed  for  feven  leagues  round  ;  the  houfes  were  de- 
moliihed  ;  plantations  were  buried  in  the  earth  ;  and 
214P  people  loft  their  lives,  befides  1500  head  of  cat- 
tle, and  a  vaft  number  of  horfes,  goats,  &c. 

Another  inftance  of  a  very  deftruftive  cloud,  the  elec- 
tric qualities  of  which  will  at  prefent  fcarcely  be  doubt- 
ed, is  related  by  Mr  Brydone,  in  his  Tour  throiigh 
Malta.  It  appeared  on  the  29th  of  Oftober  1757. 
About  three  quarters  of  an  hour  after  midnight,  there 
was  feen  to  the  fouth-weft  of  the  city  of  Mehta,  a 
great  black  cloud,  which,  as- it  approached,  changed  its 
colour,  till  at  iaft  it  became  like  a  flame  of  fire  mixed 
with  black  fmoke.  A  dreadful  noife  was  heard  on  its 
approach,  which  alarmed  the  whole  city.  It  palTed 
over  the  port,  andcame  firft  on  a.i  Englift  fliip,  which 
in  an  inftant  was  torn  in  pieces,  and  nothing  left  but 
the  hulk  ;  part  of  the  mafls,  fails,  and  cordage,  were 
carried  to  a  confiderable  diftance  along  with  the  cloud. 
The  fmall  boats  and  fclloques  that  fell  in  its  way  were 
all  broken  to  pieces  and  funk.  The  noife  increafcd 
and  became  more  frightful.  A  centinel  terrified  at  its 
approach  ran  into  his  box  ;  but  both  he  and  it  were 
lifted  up  and  carried  into  the  fea,  where  he  perifhed. 
It  then  traverfed  a  confiderable  part  of  the  city,  and 
laid  in  ruins  almoft  every  thing  that  ftood  In  its  way. 
Several  houfes  were  laid  level  with  the  ground,  and 
it  did  not  leave  one  lleeplc  in  its  paft'age.  The  bells 
of  fome  of  them,  together  with  the  fpires,  were  car- 
ried to  a  confiderable  diftance;  the  roofs  of  the 
churches  demolilhed  and  beat  down,  &c.  It  went  off 
at  the  uorth-eaft  point  of  the  city,  and  dcmohlhing 
the  hght-houfe,  is  faid  to  have  mounted  up  into  the 
air  with  a  frightful  noife  ;  and  paffed  over  the  fea  to 
Sicily,  where  it  tore  up  fome  trees,  and  did  other  da- 
mage ;  but  nothing  confiderable,  as  its  fury  had  been 
molUy  fpent  at  Ivlalta.  The  number  of  killed  and 
wounded  amounted  to  near  200  ;  and  the  lofs  of  fhip.  • 
ping,  Sec.  was  very  confiderable. 

The  effeds  of  thunder-ftomis,  and  the  vaft  quantity 
of  eledricity  collefted  in  the  clouds  which  produce 
thefe  ftorms,  are  fo  well  known,  that  it  is  fuperfluous 
to   mention  them.      It   appears,   however,   that  even.' 

thefe 


C'lojd. 


Clouds  of- 
t-n  pnidi- 
;j;iouIlv  •-  - 
Ict^tiificd. 


.<; 

Terrible 
dclttudlioa 
b)'  an  elec- 
tritrcd  clout* 
in  Jiva. 


6 
By  aiiitlier 
inthe  ifland 
ol  Malta. 


Cloud. 


1  thunder' 
deud, 


8 

Height  of 
the  cloui^s. 


C     L     O  [So 

tliefe  clouds  arc  not  fo  liiglily  tli;i£lrirn.-cl  ns  to  produce 
''"'""'  their  fatal  effcfts  on  lliolc  who  arc  iinmcrfed  in  them. 
It  is  only  the  diicliarge  of"  part  of  their  electricity  up- 
on fuch  bodies  as  are  either  not  eleitlrllied  at  all,  or 
Inftance  of  "°*  ^^  highly  elee^trified  as  the  clond,  thnt  does  all  the 
two  people  niifchief.      We  have,   however,   only  the  foUowino;  in- 
involved  in  fiance  on  record,  of  any   perfon's  being  immerfed  in 
the    body   of  a   thunder-cloud.      Profcifor    SauUure, 
and  young  Mr  Jalabert,  when  travelling  over  one  of 
the  high  Alps,    were   caught  among   clouds  of   this 
kind  ;    and  to   their  aftonilhment  found  their   bodies 
fo  full  of  eleftrlcul  fire,  that  fpontancous  flafhes  darted 
from  their  fingers  with  a  crackling  noife,  and  the  fame- 
kind  of  fenfation  as  when  ftrongly  eleftrified  by  art. 

The  height  of  clouds  in  general  is  not  great  ;  the 
fummits  of  ve:y  high  mountains  being  commonly  quite 
free  from  them,  as  Mr  Brydon  experienced  in  his  jour- 
ney up  mount  JEtna. :  but  thofe  which  are  molt  high- 
ly elefrlrified  defcend  lowed,  their  height  being  often 
not  above  feven  or  eight  hundred  yards  above  the 
ground  ;  nay,  fometlmes  thunder-clouds  appear  aftu- 
•  See  TiaB-aUy  to  touch  the  ground  with  one  of  their  edges  *  : 
<kr.  but  the  generality  of  clouds  are  fufpeuded  at  the  height 

of  a  mile,  or  little  more,  above  the  earth.  Some, 
however,  have  imagined  them  to  arife  to  a  mofl  incre- 
dible and  extravagant  height.  Maignan  of  Thouloufe, 
in  his  Treatife  of  Pcrfpeftive,  p.  93,  gives  an  account 
of  an  exceeding  bright  little  cloud  that  appeared  at 
midnight  in  the  inonth  of  Auguft,  which  fpread  ttfelf 
almoil  as  far  as  the  zenith.  He  fays  that  the  fame 
thing  was  alfo  obferved  at  Rome ;  and  from  thence 
concludes,  that  the  cloud  was  a  collcdtion  of  vapours 
raifed  beyond  the  projection  of  the  earth's  fhadow, 
and  of  confequence  illuminated  by  the  beams  of  the 
fun.  This,  however,  can  by  no  means  be  credited  ; 
and  it  is  much  more  probable  that  this  cloud  owed  its 
fplendor  to  eleftricltyj  than  to  the  reileiSioii  of  the 
folar  beams. 

n,.  -^  „•  In  tlie  eve-ninrs  after  fun-fet,  and  mominccs  before 
i  ncir  v3ri-  .  *^  .  ^ 

ous  colours  fun-rife,  we  often  obferve  the  clouds  tinged  with  beau- 
accounted  tifvd  colours.  They  are  nioftly  red ;  fometimes  orange, 
for.  yellow,   or  purple  ;  more  rarely  bluifti  ;  and  feldom  or 

ever  green.  The  reafon  of  this  variety  of  colours,  ac-> 
cording  to  Sir  Ifaac  Newton,  is  the  diiTcrent  fizeof 
the  globules  into  which  the  vapours  are  condenfed. 
This  is  controverted  by  Mr  Melville,  who  thinks  that 
the  clouds  refledt  the  fun's  light  precifcly  as  it  is  tranf- 
mitted  to  them  through  the  atmofphcre.  This  reflerts 
the  moft  refrangible  rays  in  the  gTcateft  quantity;  and 
therefore  ought  to  tranfmit  tlie  leatl  refrangible  ones, 
red,  orange,  and  yellow,  to  the  clouds,  wljieU  accord- 
ingly appear  raoit  ufually  of  thole  colours.  In  this 
opinion  he  was  greatly  confirmed  by  oblerving,  when 
he  was  in  Switzerland,  that  the  fnowy  fummits  of  the 
Alps  turned  more  and  more  rcddilh  after  fun-fet,  in  the 
fame  manner  as  the  clouds  ;  and  ht  imagines,  that  the 
femitranfparency  of  the  clouds,  and  the  obliipjity  of 
their  lituation,  tend  to  moke  the  colours  in  them  much 
more  rich  and  copious  than  thofe  on  the  tops  of  fuowy 
mountains. 
Of  the  mo-  '^'^  motions  of  the  clouds,  though  fotuctlmes  di- 
tions  of  reftcd  by  the  wind,  are  not  always  fo,  efpecially  when 
clouds.  thunder  is  about  to  enfue.  In  this  cafe  they  feem  to 
mo»e  very  flowlv,  and  often  to  be  abfolutelv  Itatiouary 
N=82.  ■  ■        4 


C    L    O 

for  fome  time.  The  reafon  of  this  moft  probably  is,  Clo;id, 
that  they  are  impelled  bv  two  oppofite  flreams  of  air  — ~v~~ 
nearly  of  equal  Ihength  ;  by  which  means  their  velo- 
city is  greatly  retarded.  In  fiich  cafes  both  the  aerial 
currents  fccm  to  afccnd  to  a  very  confiderable  height  ; 
for  Mefl".  Ciiarlcs  and  Roberts,  when  endeavouring  to 
avoid  a  thunder-cloud  in  one  of  their  aerial  voyages, 
could  find  no  alteration  in  the  courfe  of  the  current, 
though  they  afcended  to  the  heiglit  of  4000  foet  from 
the  furface  of  the  earth.  In  fome  cafes  the  motions 
of  the  clouds  evidently  depend  on  their  eleiSricity,  in- 
dependent of  any  current  of  air  whatever.  Thus,  in 
a  calm  and  warm  day,  we  often  fee  fmall  clouds  meet- 
ing each  other  in  oppofite  direftlons,  and  fetting  out 
from  fuch  Ihort  dillances,  that  we  cannot  fuppofe  any 
oppofite  winds  to  be  the  caufe.  Tiiefe  clouds,  when 
they  meet,  inftead  of  forming  a  larger  one,  become  much 
lefs,  and  fometimes  vaniih  altogether  ;  a  circuniftance 
undoubtedly  owing  to  the  difcarge  of  oppofite  elec- 
tricities into  each  other.  This  ferves  alfo  to  throw 
fome  light  on  the  true  caufe  of  the  formation  of  clouds ; 
for  4f  two  clouds  cleftrified,  the  one  pofitively  and  the 
other  negatively,  dellroy  each  other  on  contatt  ;  it 
follows,  that  any  quantity  of  vapour  fufpeuded  in  the 
atmofphcre,  while  it  retains  its  natural  quantity  of 
eleftriclty,  remains  invifible,  but  becomes  a  cloud  when 
eleftrified  either  p/iis  or  minus.  A  difficulty,  however, 
ftill  occurs;  viz.  in  what  manner  a  fmall  quantity  of 
vapour  funoundcd  by  an  immenfe  ocean  of, the  fame 
kind  of  matter,  can  acquire  cither  more  or  lefs  electri- 
city than  that  which  furrounds  it  :  and  this  indeed  we 
feem  not  as  yet  to  have  any  data  to  folvc  in  a  fatisfac- 
tory  manner.  n 

The  fhapes  of  the  clouds  are  Ilkewife  undoubtedly  Their 
owing  to  their  eleftriclty;  for  in  thofe  feafons  in  which '^^I'^'" 
a  great  commotion  has  been  excited  in  the  atmofphe- 
rical  cleftricity,  we  fliall  perceive  the  clouds  affuming 
ftrange  and  whimfical  fliapes,  which  vary  almoft  every 
moment.  .This,  as  well  as  the  meeting  of  fmall  clouds 
in  the  air,  and  vnnifhing  upon  contadt,  is  an  almoil  iu- 
fallible  fign  of  thunder.  j, 

Befides  the  phenomena  of  thunder,  rain,  &c.  the  Connec- 
clouds  ai-e  intimately  connefted  with  thofe  of  wind,  """  "^ ''?' 
and  always  alTume  a  particiJar  (hape  when  a  llrong  '■"",  *  "' 
continued  wind  is  about  to  enfue;  though  it  is  remark- 
able, that  in  the  Itrongeft  winds  we  (hall  often  obferve 
them  ftationary.  Sometimes  alfo,  on  the  approach  of 
a  cloud,  we  Jhall  find  a  fudden  and  violent  gult  of  wind 
arife  ;  and  at  others,  the  wind,  though  violent  before, 
fliall  ceafe  on  the  approach  of  a  cloud,  and  recover  its 
llrength  as  loon  as  the  cloud  is  pafh.  This  connedtion 
of  the  clouds  with  wind  is  molt  remarkable  in  moun- 
taiuous  countries,  \rhen  tl'.e  peaks  are  fufficiently  high 
to  have  their  tops  involved  in  clouds.  A  very  remark- 
able mountain  of  this  kind  is  met  with  at  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  from  the  clouds  on  whofe  top,  tceord- 
ing  to  the  relations  of  travellers,  the  winds  IfTue  forth 
as  if  t  hey  had  been  confined  in  a  bag  ;  and  fomcthing 
fimiliir  has  been  obferved  of  mountains  in  other  parts 
of  the  world. 

The  uies  of  the  clouds  are  evident  ;  as  from  them  xheir  ufci! 
pi'oceeds  the  rain  which  retrefiics  the  earth;  and  with- 
out which,  according  to  the  prefent  lyilem  of  nature, 
the  whole  furface  of  the  earth  mull  be  a  mere  dcfart. 

They    . 


i 


13 


C    L     O 


[     8r     ] 


C    L    U 


'  They  arc  likewife  of  great  ufe  as  a  fcreen  interpofed 
between  the  earth  and  the  fcorching  rays  of  the  fun, 
which  are  often  fo  powerful  as  to  deltroy  the  grafs  and 
other  tender  vegetables.  In  the  more  fecret  operations 
of  nature  alfo,  where  the  eleftrical  fluid  is  concerned, 
the  clouds  bear  a  principal  (liare  ;  and  fei-ve  efpecially 
as  a  medium  for  conveying  that  fluid  from  the  atmo- 
fphere  into  the  earth,  and  from  the  earth  into  the  at- 
mofphere  :  in  doing  which,  when  eleftrified  to  a  great 
degree,  they  fometimes  produce  very  terrible  effefts;  of 
which  inftances  have  been  already  given. 

CLOVE-TREE,  in  botany.     See  Caryophyli.us. 

Clove,  a  term  ufed  in  weights  of  wool.  Seven 
pounds  make  a  clove.  In  Eflex,  eight  pounds  of  chcefe 
and  butter  go  to  the  clove. 

Ciot-R  July-foiuer.     See  Dianthus. 

CLOVER-GRASS,  in  botany.  See  Trifolium  ; 
and  Agriculture,  n°  177,  179. 

CLOUGH,  or  Draught,  in  commerce,  an  allow- 
ance of  two  pounds  in  eveiy  hundred  weight  for  the  turn 
of  the  fcale,  that  the  commodity  may  hold  out  weight 
when  fold  out  by  retail. 

CLOVIO  (Giorgio  GiuHo),  hiftory  and  portrait 
painter,  was  born  in  Sclavonia  In  1498.  Having  in 
the  early  part  of  his  youth  applied  himfelf  to  literature, 
his  genius  prompted  him  to  purfue  the  art  of  painting 
for  a  profefllon  ;  and  at  18  years  of  age  he  went  to 
'Rome,  where  he  fpent  three  years  to  perfeft  his  hand 
iin  drawing,  and  devoted  himlelf  entirely  to  painting 
in  miniature.  His  knowledge  of  colouring  was  efl;a- 
bllflied  by  the  inlli:u<3.ions  of  Juho  Romano,  and  his 
talle  of  compofition  and  defign  was  founded  on  the  ob- 
fervatlons  he  made  on  the  works  of  Michael  Angelo 
Buonaroti.  By  thofe  afnilances  he  proceeded  to  fuch 
a  degree  of  excellence  In  portrait  as  well  as  in  hiftory, 
that  in  the  former  he  was  accounted  equal  to  Titian, 
and  in  the  latter  not  inferior  to  Buonaroti.  He  died 
In  157S.  His  works  are  exceedingly  valuable,  and 
are  at  this  day  numbered  among  the  curiofities  of  Rome. 
Vafari,  who  had  feen  the  wonderful  performances  of 
Clovio  with  Inexpreffible  aftonifliment,  enumerates 
many  of  his  portraits  and  hiftorical  compofitions,  and 
feems  to  be  almoft  at  a  lofs  for  language  fufficiently  ex- 
preffive  of  their  merit.  He  mentions  two  or  three 
pictures  on  which  the  artifl  had  bellowed  the  labour 
Cf  nine  years :  but  the  principal  pifture  reprefented 
NImrod  building  the  Tower  of  Babel ;  which  was  fo 
exquifitely  finiflied,  and  fo  perfc6l  in  all  Its  parts,  that 
it  feemed  quite  inconceivable  how  the  eye  or  the  pen- 
cil could  execute  It.  He  fays  it  is  impoflible  to  ima- 
gine any  thing  fo  admirably  curious;  whether  one  con- 
fiders  the  elegance  of  the  attitudes,  the  richnefs  of  the 
compofition,  the  delicacy  of  the  naked  figures,  the 
perfpe&ive  proportion  of  the  objefts,  the  tender  di- 
ilances,  the  fccncry,  the  buildings,  or  other  ornaments; 
for  every  part  Is  beautiful  and  Inimitable.  He  alfo 
takes  notice  of  a  fingle  ant  introduced  in  one  of  the 
pIAures  of  this  mafter;  which,  though  exceedingly  and 
incredibly  fmall,  is  yet  fo  perfeft,  that  even  the  moll 
minute  member  was  as  diftindt  as  if  it  had  been  painted 
of  the  natural  fize. 

CLOVIS  I.  was  the  real  founder  of  the  French  mo- 
narchy ;  for  he  was  the  firft  conqueror  of  the  feveral 
provinces  of  Gaul,  pofrelfed  before  his  time  by  the  Ro- 
mans, Germans,  and  Goths.     Thefe  he  united  to  the 

Vol.  V.  Parti. 


then  fcanty  dominions  of  France,  removed  the  feat  of    C!o  .t» 
government  from  ScIflTons  to  Paris,  and  made  this  the     „," 
capital  of  his  new  kingdom.     He  died  in  51 1,  in  the         "' 
46th  year  of  his  age  and  3 1  (I  of  hfs  reign.     See  (Hill, 
of)  France. 

CLOUTS,  In  gunneiy,  are  thin  plates  of  iron  nail- 
ed on  that  part  of  the  axle-tree  of  a  gun-carriage  which 
comes  through  the  nave,  and  through  which  the  linfpin 
goes. 

CLOYNE,  a  town  of  Ireland,  in  the  county  of 
Cork  and  province  of  Munller.  W.  Long.  8.  o. 
N  Lat.  5 1 .  40.  It  is  but  a  fmall  place,  though  an 
epifcopal  refidence.  A  church  was  built,  and  a  blfliop- 
ric  ereAed  here,  by  St  Colman,  who  died  on  the  4th 
of  November  604  ;  and  in  707  an  abbey  was  alfo  found- 
ed here.  In  1430,  the  blflioprlc  was  united  to  that  of 
Cork;  and  the  union  continued  till  the  nth  of  No- 
vember 1638,  when  Dr  George  Synge  was  confecra- 
ted  blfliop  of  Cloyne  ;  lince  which  lime  this  fee  has 
been  governed  by  Its  own  prelates,  one  of  whom  was 
the  celebrated  Berkeley. — This  fee  is  not  taxed  in 
the  king's  books;  but  is  now  reputed  to  be  wortliL.2joo 
a-year. — The  chapter  of  Cloyne  is  compofed  of  a  dean, 
chanter,  chancellor,  treafurer,  an  archdeacon,  and 
fourteen  prebendaries.  The  diocefe  is  divided  into  four 
rural  deaneries,  and  the  collegiate  church  of  St  Mary 
of  Youghal  is  united  to  the  blflioprlc.  The  cathedral  is 
a  decent  Gothic  building.  The  nave  is  about  1 20  feet 
long  ;  having  lateral  aifles,  befides  the  crofs  alfles,  di- 
vided by  Gothic  arches,  five  on  each  fide.  In  the 
choir  there  is  an  excellent  organ.  The  birtiop's  pa- 
lace, which  was  rebuilt  at  the  beginning  of  the  prefent 
century.  Is  large  and  convenient.  To  the  nortli-weft 
of  Cloyne  is  a  reputed  holy  well,  dedicated  to  St  Col- 
man, which  Is  much  frequented  on  the  24th  of  Novem- 
ber, being  the  patron-day. 

CLUE  OF  A  SAIL,  the  lower  corner;  and  hence 

CmE-Ganuts,  are  a  fort  of  tackles  failened  to  the 
clues,  or  lower  corners  of  the  main-fail  or  fore-fail,  to 
trufs  them  up  to  the  yard  as  occafion  requires,  which 
is  ufually  termed  clueing  up  the  fails. 

-  CLUE-Lines  are  for  the  fame  purpofe  as  clue-garnets; 
only  that  the  latter  are  confined  to  the  courfes,  where- 
as the  former  are  common  to  all  the  fquare  fails.  See 
thefe  ropes  as  reprefented  in  the  article  Ship. 

CLUNIA  (anc.  geog.),  a  principal  town  of  the 
Hither  Spain,  a  Roman  colony,  with  a  conventus  juri- 
dlcus,  on  the  Durius,  to  the  weft,  of  Numantla.  Now 
Corutina  del  Conde. 

CLUNIUM  (anc.  geog.),  a  town  of  Corfica,  near 
Ba(tia.      Now  St  Catharine. 

CLUNY,  orCLOGNY,  a  celebrated  abbey  of  Bene- 
didine  monks,  in  a  city  of  tliat  name  ;  being  the  head 
orchlef  of  a  congregation  denominated  from  them. 

It  is  fituated  in  the  Mafonnois,  a  little  province  of 
France,  on  the  river  Grone ;  and  was  founded  by 
V^illlam  Duke  of  Beri-y  and  Aquitain  ;  or,  as  others 
fay,  by  the  Abbot  Bernon,  fupported  by  that  Duke, 
in  the  year  910. 

Tliis  abbey  was  anciently  fo  very  fpaclous  and  mag- 
nificent, that  In  1245,  ^f'"^""  ^^^  holding  of  tlie  firlt 
council  of  Lyons,  Pope  Innocent  IV.  went  to  Cluny, 
accompanied  with  the  2  patriarchs  of  Antiocli  and 
Conftantinople,  12  Cardinals,  3  archblftiops,  Ijbifliops, 
and  a  great  number  of  abbots ;  who  \vcre  all  enter- 
L  taincd, 


C    L    U  [8 

ctiipca.  talnfd>  without  om*  of  tlic  monks  beinj  put  out  of 
"~Y~^  fhtir  place  :  t1)o'  S.  I.oiris,  Q^Blaiiche  his  mother,  the 
Duke  of  Artcis  his  brothw,  and  his  filter,  the  Empe- 
ror of  Conl'aTitino^ilf,  the  foiw  of  the  kinj^s  of  Arra- 
gon  and  Caiule,  th._'  Duke  of  liurgundy,  6  counts,  and 
a  great  numlxT  of  Icvids,  with  all  tlicir  retinues,  were 
there  at  the  fame  time. 

Cluny,  at  its  firil  ereftion,  was  put  under  the  im- 
mediate proteiflion  of  the  ,T])oftolic  fee  ;  with  exprcfs 
pi'ohibition  to  all  fecular  and  ecclefiaftic  powers,  to  dif- 
turb  the  monks  in  the  pofieHiou  of  their  efTevrtf,  or 
the  eleftion  of  their  abbot.  \ij  this  they  pretended 
to  be  e-xempte<l  from  the  jurifdicliun  of  bilhops;  which 
at  length  gave  the  hint  to  other  abbeys  to  infill  on  the 
hmf. 

Ghiny  is  the  head  of  -a  very  numerous  and  extenfive 
congregation :  in  effedV,  it  was  the  firft  congi-cgation 
of  divers  mb-naftei-ies  united  under  one  chitf,  fo  as  only 
to  conP.itutc  one  body,  or,  as  they  call  it,  one  order, 
that  ever  aiofe. 

This  order  of  monks  ivas  brought  into  England  by 
Willia-m  Eafl  of  Wavren,  fon-in-jaw  to  William  the 
ConoLierOr,  who  -built  a  houfe  for  thtm  at  Lewes  in 
Suflcx  about  the  year  1077.  There  were  27  priories 
and  cells  of  thib  onlerin  England,  which  were  govern- 
ed by  foreii^ners,  afterwarc!s  made  denizens. 

CLUPEA-,  or  Herring,  iri  ichthyology,  a  genus 
belonging  to  the  order  of  abdominales.  The  upper  jaw 
is  furniihed  with  a'ferrated  myllaehe  ;  the  brandiiollege 
membrane  has  eight  rays  ;  a  fcaly  ferrated  line  runs 
alone  the  belly  from  the  head  to  the  tail  ;  and  the 
belly-fins  have  frequently  nine  rays.  There  are  1 1 
fpecies,  i:x, 

I.  The  harcngus,  or  common  hemng,  has  no  fpots, 
and  iHie  under  jaw  is  longer  than  the  upper  one.  A 
herr^u'^  dies  immediately  after  it  is  taken  oitt  of  the 
water;  whence  the  proverb  arifes,  yis  AaJ  as  ^  her- 
rjn^^.  The  meat  is  every  where  in  great  eftecm,  being 
fit,  foft,  and  delicate ;  efpecially  if  it  is  dreiTed  as  looii 
as  cavight,  for  then  it  is  iHconiparabiy  better  than  on  the 
next  diiy. 

The  herring  was  unknown  to  the  ancients.  Not- 
wlthftanding  the  words  x'*'"^  and  "«'>k  are  by  traiif- 
lators  rendered  Im/cc,  the  charafters  given  to  thofe  fifti 
are  common  to  fuch  nnmbers  of  difft  rent  fpecies  as  ren- 
der it  impoflible  to  fiy  which  they  intended. 

Kerring-s  are  found  from  the  highetl  northern  lati- 
tudes, yet  known  as  low  as  the  northern  coafts  of 
France  5  and  except  one  inflance,  brought  by  Dod,  of 
a  few  being  once  taken  in  the  bay  of  Tangier,  none 
are  ever  found  more  fcnitherly.  They  are  met  with 
jn  vaft  fhoals  on  the  coafl  of  America,  as  low  as  Ca- 
rolin-i.  In  Chcfapeak-bay  is  an  annual  inundation  of 
thofe  fi(h,  which  cover  the  (horc  in  fuch  quantities  ns 
to  become  a  nuifanco.  We  find  them  again  in  the  fcas 
of  KamptfcVi;itka,  and  probably  they  reach  Japan  ;  for 
Kempfer  mculions,  in  his  account  of  the  fifh  of  that 
country,  fome  that  are  congenerous  The  great  win- 
ter rendezvous  of  the  herring  is  within  the  artlic  circle: 
there  they  continue  for  many  months  in  order  to  re- 
cruit theml^lvf  s  after  the  fatigue  of  fpawning;  the  icas 
■within  that  fpace  fwarming  with  infeft  food  in  a  far 
t  greater  degree  than   thofe   of  our  warmer  latitudes. 

Imr-e  ^e  This  ir.ighty  army  begins  to  put  ilfelf  in  motion  in  the 
Iho-!  of  fpring  :  we  diftinguifh  this  vail  body  by  tha.t  name  ; 
»hein. 


] 


C     L     U 


Herring?, 

wheie 

found. 


for  the  word  herring  comes  from   the   German  he;r,    C'upe*. 

"  an   army,"  to  exprcfs  their  numbers.     They  begin  »~~^ 

to  appear  otF  the  Slietland  iiles  in  April  and  May  ; 
thtfe  are  only  the  forerunners  of  the  grand  fhoal  which 
comes  in  June:  and  their  appearance  is  marked  by 
certain  figns, -bythe  numbers  of  birds,  fuch  as  ganneta 
and  otherf.,  which  follow  to  prey  on  them  ;  but  when 
the  main  body  approaches,  its  breadth  and  depth  is 
fuch  as  to  alter  the  appearance  of  the  very  ocean.  It 
is  divided  into  diiiinft  columns  of  five  or  fix  miles  in 
length,  and  three  or  four  in  breadth,  and  they  drive 
the  water  before  them  v.-ith  a  kind  of  rippling  :  fome- 
times  they  fink  fur  the  fpace  often  or  fifteen  raliiults, 
and  then  rife  again  to  the  furfaee  ;  and  in  tine  wea- 
ther refleft  a  variety  of  fplendid  colours  like  a  field  of 
the  moll  precious  gems  ;  in  which,  or  rather  in  a  much 
mcire  valuable,  light  fhould  this  !!upendou:5  gift  of  Pro- 
vidence be  confidered  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Britiflj 
i-Qes. 

The  firft  check  this  army  meets  in  its  march  fouth- 
ward  is  from  the  Shetland  iiks,  which  divide  it  into 
two  parts ;  one  wing  takes  to  the  eafl,  the  other  to 
the  wellern  fliores  of  Great  Britain,  and  fill  every  bay 
ai3d  creek  with  their  tiumbei-s ;  others  pafs  on  to- 
wards Yarmouth,  the  great  and  ancient  mart  of  her- 
rings :  they  then  pafs  through  the  Britifii  Channel, 
and  alter  that,  in  a  manner  difappear.  Thofe  which 
take  towards  the  wefl,  after  offering  themfelves  to  the 
Hebrides,  where  the  great  ftationary  fifhery  is,  pro- 
ceed to  the  nortli  of  Ireland,  where  they  meet  with  a 
fccond  interruption,  and  are  obliged  to  make  a  fecond 
divilion  :  the  one  takes  t«  the  vveitern  fide,  and  is 
fcarce  perceived,  being  foon  loil  in  the  iminenfity  of 
the  Atlantic  ;  but  the  other,  that  pafTes  into  the  Irifli 
fca,  rejoices  and  feeds  the  inhabitants  of  moft  of  the  ; 

coafts  that  border  on  it.  Thefe  brigades,  as  we  may 
c;Jl  them,  which  are  thus  feparatcd  from  the  greater 
columns,  are  often  capricious  in  their  motions,  and  do 
not  fhow  an  invari.ible  attachment  to  their  haunts. 

Were  we  inclined  to  confider  this  partial  migration  ■Wondsrftl 
in  a  moral  light,  we  might  refleft  with  veneration  andii  ftniil  o£- 
awe  on  the  mighty  power  which  originally  intpreffed '''''^  ■=■■*** 
on  this  moll  ufeful  body  of  his  creatures  the  inftinft'"'"* 
that  directs  and  points  out  the  courfe,  that  blcffes  and 
enriches  thefe  iflands,  which  caufes  them,  at  certain 
and  invariable  times,  to  quit  the  vaft  polar  deeps,  and 
offer  themfelves  J;o  our  expefting  fleets.  That  bene- 
volent Being  has  nevet  been  known,  from  the  eailieft 
account  of  time,  once  to  withdraw  this  bleffing  from 
the  whole  ;  though  he  often  thinks  proper  to  deny  it 
to  particulars,  yet  this  partial  failure  (for  which  we  fee 
no  natural  reafon)  fhould  fill  us  with  the  moll  exalted 
and  grateful  fenfe  of  his  Providence  for  iniprefiingfuch 
an  invariable  and  general  inflinfl  on  thefe  ftfh  towaids 
a  foiithward  migration  when  the  whole  is  to  be  bene- 
fited, and  to  withdraw  it  v/hen  only  a  minute  part  is  to 
fuffer      " 

This  inftinft  was  given  them,  that  they  might  re- 
move for  the  fake  of  depofiting  their  fpawn  in  warmer 
feas,  that  would  mature  and  vivify  it  more  alTuredly 
than  thofe  of  the  frozen  zone.  It  is  not  from  dcfeft 
of  food  that  they  fet  themfelves  in  motion  ;  for  they 
come  to  us  full  of  fat,  and  on  thcii  return  are  alnioft 
univerfdly  obfervcd  to  be  lean  and  miitrable.  What 
their  food  is  near  the  Pole  we  are  not  yet  informed  ; 

but 


C     L     U 


[     83     1 


C    L     U 


■.■hen  in- 
'tiitcd. 


Clupfa.    but  in  our  feas  they  feijd  much  on  tlie  on'fivs  mariniis, 
■—^         a    cruilafcous    mlect,    and    fomttiiutj   on    their   own 

T!"'y  are  fall  of  roe  in  the  end  of  June,  and  coiitir 

nue  in  peifeition  till  the   beuinning  o{  winter,  when 

they  depofit  their  fpawn.      Tlie  youtig  herrings  begin 

to  approach   tlie   ihores  in  July  and  Augull,  and  are 

.  then  from  half  an   inch   to  two  inches  long:  thofe  in 

ITminarones  Yorklhire  are  called  herring Jde.     'I'liough  \vc  have  no 

jrobablv      ])articular  autliority  for  it,  yet  as  very  tew  young  her- 

herVa-      ''"'g^  '^'"^  found  in  our  feas  during  winter,  it  feems  mod 

■cnt».  certain  that  they  mull  return  to  their  parental  haunts 

beneath  the  ice,  to  repair  the  vaft  deihuiition  of  their 

race  during  furamer  by  men,  fowl,  and  fllh.      Some  of 

the  old  herrings  continue  on  our  coall  the  whole  year : 

the  Scarborough  filhermen  never  put  down  their  nets 

but  they  catch  a  few  :  but  thenumbers  tliat  remain  ai'e 

not  worth   comparlfon    with   thole  that    return.      See 

Jljrring-Vi  s  H  n  R  v. 

The  Dutch  are  mod  extravagantly  fond  of  this  fidi 
when  it  is  pickled.  A  premium  is  given  to  the  iirft 
bufs  that  arrives  in  Holland  with  a  lading  of  this  their 
anibrolia,  and  a  vail  price  given  for  each  keg.  There 
is  as  much  joy  among  the  inhabitants  on  its  arrival,  as 
,.  the   Egyptians   ihow   on   the  iirll  overflowing  of  the 

'ickling  of  Nde.  Flanders  had  the  honour  of  inventing  the  art 
of  pickling  herrings.  One  William  Beauklen  of  Bi- 
ferlet,  near  Slnys,  hit  on  this  uleful  expedient :  from 
liini  was  derived  the  name  pickh,  which  we  boiTow  from 
the  Dutch  and  C>erman.  Bauklen  died  in  l-?97.  Tiie 
emperor  Charles  V.  held  his  memory  in  fuch  venera- 
tion for  the  fervicc'  he  did  to  mankind,  as  to  do  his 
tomb  the  honour  of  a  vifit.  It  is  very  fingular  thjt 
moil  nations  give  the  name  of  their  favaurite  dilli  to 
the  facetious  attendant  on  every  mountebank.  Thus 
the  Dutch  call  him  ^ckle  lierriiig  ;  the  Italians,  inaca- 
roni  ;  the  Vre.\-n:\x,' jeiiii  poU^igi- ;  the  Germans,  havs 
tuitr/i,  that  h,jackf<iufage  ;  and  the  Englidi  digiiify  him 
with  the  name  oi ja-k p:idc'':ng^ 

2.  T\\c:fprcJ!us  has  13  rays  in  the  back  fin.  It  is  a 
native  of  tbe  European  feas,  and  has  a  great  reftra- 
blance  to  the  herring,  only  it  is  of  a  Itfs  fize.  They 
come  into  the  river  Hiamts  below  bridge  in  the  begin- 
ning of  November,  and  leave  it  in  iVIarclj ;  and  are,  du- 
ring that  ftafon,  a  great  relief  to  the  poor  of  the  capi- 
tal. At  Gravefend  and  at  Yarmouth,  they  are  cured 
like  red-herrings;  they  are  fomctimes  pickled,  and  are 
linlc  inferior  in  flavour  to  the  anchovy,  but  the  bones 
wiU  not  dilfolve  like  thofe  of  the  latter. 

3.  The  alnfe,  oxjljcui,  has  a  forked  fnout,  and  black 
fpots  on  the  fides.  According  to  Belonius  and  Haf- 
felquift,  this  is  a  fiih  of  paffage  in  the  Nile.  1'he  kii 
fays,  it  is  found  in  the  Mediterranean  near  Smyrna, 
and  on  the  coail  of  Egypt  near  Rofetto  ;  and  that  in 
the  months  of  December  and  January  it  afcenda  the 
Nile  as  higli  as  Cairo,  where  the  people  ftulT  it  with 
pot  marjoram  ;   and  when   dreflcd   in   that   manner,  it 

Phc  fined  will  very  neaily  intoxicate  the  eater.  lu  Great  Rri- 
iiliabit  the  tain  the  Severn  affords  this  full  in  higher  perfeiilioB 
than  any  other  river.  It  makes  its  firft:  appearance 
■there  in  May,  but  in  very  warm  feafons  in  April ;  for 
its  arrival  iooner  or  latter  depends  much  on  the  tem- 
per of  the  air.  It  continues  in  the  river  about  two 
months,  and  then  is  fucceeded  by  a  variety  which  we 
■lliall  have  occafion  to  mention  hereafter. 


6 

Ipratt; 
»he!e 
6un(J. 


Mofa,  or 
had,  where 
ound. 


8 


•cvern. 


The  Severn  flad  is  tlleemtd  a  vcr^'  delicste  fifii  Clup^, 
about  the  time  of  its  firll  appearance,  cfpccially  in  that  ^  ''" _■ 
part  of  the  river  tliat  flows  by  Glouceller,  where  they  ' 
are  taken  in  nets,  and  ufually  fell  dearer  than  falmon  ; 
fome  are  fent  to  London,  where  tiie  fifh-mongeis  dl- 
flinguilh  them  from  thofe  of  tiie  Thames  by  the  French 
jiame  eilofs.  Whether  they  fpawn  in  this  river  and  the 
Wye  is  not  determined,  for  their  fry  has  not  yet  been 
afcertained.  The  old  fifh  come  from  the  fea  into  tho 
river  in  full  roe.  In  the  months  of  July  and  Auguft, 
multitudes  of  bleak  frequent  the  river  near  Glouceller; 
fome  of  them  are  as  big  as  a  fmall  herring,  and  thcfo. 
the  iifhermcn  erroneoufly  fujipofe  to  be  the  fry  of  the 
fhad.  Numbers  of  thefe  are  taken  near  Glouceller,  in 
thofe  months  only,  but  none  of  the  emaciated  fhad  are 
ever  caught  in  their  return. 

The  'lliames  fliad  docs  not  frequent  that  river  till 
the  latter  end  of  May  or  beginning  of  June,  and  is 
efleemed  a  very  courle  and  inlipid  fort  of  fifh.  The 
Severn  fhad  is  fometimcs  caught  in  the  Thames,  though 
rarely,  and  called  allh  (no  doubt  aloje,  the  French 
name)  by  the  fifhermen  in  that  river.  About  the  fame 
time,  and  rather  earlier,  the  variety  called,  near  Glou- 
celler, the  twmle,  makes  its  appearance  ;  and  is  taken  1*4,,^,,^  <jj, 
in  great  numbers  in  the  Severn,  and  is  held  in  asfcribed. 
great  difrepute  as  the  fliad  of  the  Thames.  The  dif- 
ferences between  each  variety  are  a>  follows ;  the  true 
fhad  weighs  fomctimes  eight  pounds  ;  but  their  ge- 
neral fize  is  from  four  to  five.  The  i'u.'ulie,  on  tlic 
contrary,  weiglis  from  half  a  pound  to  two  pounds, 
which  it  never  exceeds-  The  t'U'mte  differs  from  a 
r.iad  only  in  having  one  or  more  round  black  fpots  on 
the  fides  :  if  only  one,  it  is  always  near  the  gill  ;  but 
ctJinmonly  there  are  three  or  four,  placed  one  under 
the  other.  jq 

4.   The  emjmjicohis,  or  wichovy,  has   i:s  upper  jaw  Anchovy- 
longer  than  the  under  one,  and  is   about  three   inches '^'''•'''^"^' 
long.     They  are  taken  in  vafl  quantities  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, and   are  brought  over  here  pickled.     The 
great  filliery  is  at  Georgia  a   fmall   ilk   weft  of  jLeg- 
horn.      See  yliichsvy-VuM'E^Y . 

I'lie  other  fpecies  are,  j.  The  atherlnoides  has  a 
fliiiiing  line  on  each  fide,  and  fmall  belly-lins.  It  is  a 
native  of  Surinam.  6.  The  tlinffa  has  2'6  ravs  in  the  fin 
at  the  anus.  It  is  found  in  the  Indian  oce.m.  7.  The 
fima  has  vellou  fins,  thofe  of  the  belly  being  very 
Iniall.  The  mouth  is  flat  ;  the  upper  jaw  is  very 
fiiort  ;  the  body  is  of  a  fliining  filver  colou*-  ;  and  the 
fins  are  yellow.  It  is  a  native  of  Afia.  8.  The  fterni- 
cla  has  no  belly-fins,  and  the  body  is  broad.  It  is  a 
native  tif  Surinam.  9.  The  inyflus  is  fliaped  like  a 
fword,  and  the  fins  at  the  anus  are  united.  It  is 
found  in  the  Indian  ocean.  10.  The  tropica  has  a 
wcdge-hke  tall,  and  a  white,  broad,  compreffed  body. 
It  is  found  at  Afcenfion  ifland.  1 1.  I'he  finenfis  is  veiy 
like  the  common  herring,  bui  broader.  It  has  no  teeth, 
and  is  a  native  of  Ciiina. 

CLUSIA,  the  BALSAM-TREE  :  A  genus  of  the 
monogynia  order,  belonging  to  the  polygamia  clafs 
of  plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under 
thofe  plants  the  order  of  which  is  doubtful.  I'he 
calyx  is  tetraphyllous  or  hexaphyllous,  with  its  leaf- 
lets oj)pofite  and  imbricated  ;  the  corolla  tetrapetalouj, 
or  htvapetalous  ;  the  ftamina  numerous.  Tl*e  calyx 
and  corolla  of  the  female  as  in  the  mak';  the  nefta- 
JL  2  rium 


C    L     U 


C    84    ] 


C    L    Y 


MtJkal 

\ol.  viii. 
rait  3. 


rium  of  anthers  or  glandules  coalited,  including  the 
germen.  The  capfule  is  quinquelocular,  quinquevalved, 
and  full  ot  pulp.  There  are  four  fpecies,  all  natives 
of  America.-  The  moft  remarkable  is  the  flava.  This 
is  pretty  common  in  the  Britidi  American  ifl.inds, 
where  the  trees  grow  to  the  height  of  20  feet,  and 
fhoot  out  many  branches  on  every  fide,  furnilhed  with 
thick,  round,  fucculent  leaves  placed  oppofite.  The 
flowers  are  produced  at  the  ends  of  the  branches,  each 
having  a  thick  fucclent  cover.  After  the  flowers  are 
part,  they  are  fucceeded  by  oval  fruit.  From  every 
part  of  thcfe  trees  there  exudes  a  kind  of  turpentine, 
■which  is  called  in  the  Weft  Indies  hog-gum  ;  becaufe 
they  fay,  that  when  any  of  the  wild  hogs  are  wound- 
ed, they  repair  to  thcfe  trees,  and  rub  their  wounded 
parts  againft  the  Hem  till  they  have  anointed  therafelves 
with  this  turpentine,  which  heals  their  wounds.  Thefe 
plants  are  vei-y  tender,  and  in  this  country  mull  be 
tept  conftautly  in  a  Hove  ;  and  fparingly  watered,  e- 
fpecially  in  winter  ;  for  they  naturally  grow  in  thofe 
parts  of  the  iflands  where  it  feldom  rains,  and  confe- 
quently  cannot  bear  much  moillure.  They  may  be  pro- 
pagated Irom  cuttings,  which  muil  be  laid  to  dry  for  a 
fortnight  or  three  weeks,  that  the  wounded  parts  may 
be  healed  over,  otherwife  they  will  rot.  The  belt 
time  for  planting  thefe  cuttings  is  in  July,  that  they 
may  be  well  rooted  before  the  cold  weather  comes  on 
in  autumn. 

CLUSINA  PALUs,  (anc.  geog. )  a  lake  of  Tuf- 
cany,  extending  north-weil  between  Chifium  and  Ar- 
retium,  and  communicating  with  the  Arnus  and  Cla- 
nis.     Now  Chidxa  P abide. 

CLUSINI  FONTEs,  (Horace),  baths  in  Tufcany, 
in  the  territory  of  Clufium,  between  this  laft  to  the 
north,  and  Acula  to  the  fouth,  at  the  diltance  of  eight 
miles  from  each.     Now  Bugni  di  S.  Caj'ciana. 

CLUSIUM,  anciently  called  Camars,  (Virgil,  Li- 
vy)  ;  a  town  of  Tufcany,  at  the  fouth  end  of  the  Palus 
Clulina,  where  it  forms  the  Clanis  ;  the  royal  reil- 
dence  of  Porfena,  three  days  journey  from  Rome  to 
the  north,  (Polybius).  Chifinus  the  epithet.  Chifini 
Veteres  the  people.  Now  Chiuji.  E.  Long.  13.  Lat. 
43. — Chifium  Nwiim,  was  a  town  of  Tufcany,  near  the 
iprings  of  the  Tiber,  in  the  territory  of  Arretium  ; 
where  lies  the  Ager  Clufinus ;  now  called  CafeiUim. 
Cluftni  Nmn,  the  people,  (Pliny). 

CLUTIA,  in  botany  :  A.  genus  of  the  gynandria 
order,  belonging  to  the  dicscia  clafs  of  plants  ;  and  in 
the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  38th  order,  Tri- 
coccis.  The  male  calyx  is  pentaphyllous,  the  coroUa 
pentapetalous  :  the  calyx  and  corolla  of  the  female  as 
in  the  male  ;  the  ftyles  are  three,  and  the  capfule  is 
trilocular  with  a  finglefeed.  There  are  three  fpecies, 
all  of  them  natives  of  warm  climates.  They  are  ever- 
green ihrubby  plants,  rifing  fix  or  eight  feet  high, 
garnilhed  with  hmple  leaves,  and  greenifli-white  quin- 
qucpetalous  flowers.  They  are  propagated  by  cuttings 
in  fpring  or  fummer,  planting  them  in  pots  of  light 
earth,  plunged  in  a  hot-bed.  The  plants  mult  always 
be  kept  in  a  ftove. 

Dr  Wright,  in  his  account  of  the  medicinal  plants 
of  Jamaica,  fays  that  the  clujla  elulher'in  is  the  lame 
as  the  cafcariUa  and  eleatheria  of  the  Ihops.  Other 
medical  writers  have  fuppefed  them  to  be  diitindt 
barks,  and  they  are  fold  in  the  Ihops  as  different  pro- 


duftions.     Linnsus's  croton  cafcarilla,  Dr  Wi  ight  ob- 
ferves,  is  the  wild  rofemary  Ihrub  of  Jamacia,  the  bark 
of  which  has  none  of  the  fenfible  qualities  of  the  caf-  ' 
carllla. 

CLUVIER  (Philip),  in  Latin  Clnwriiis,  a  cele- 
brated geographer,  born  at  Dantzic  in  1580.  Ke  tra- 
vcHed  into  Poland,  Germany,  and  the  Netherlands,  in 
order  to  ftudy  law  ;  but,  being  at  Leyden,  Jofeph 
Scaliger  perfuaded  him  to  give  way  to  his  genius  for 
geography.  Cluvier  followed  his  advice,  and  for  this 
purpofe  yifited  the  grcateil  part  of  the  European  ftatcs. 
He  was  well  vcried  in  many  languages  ;  and  where- 
ever  he  went,  obtained  iUu'ftiious  friends  and  protec- 
tors. At  his  return  to  Leyden,  he  taught  there  with 
great  applaufe ;  and  died  in  1623,  aged  43.  He 
wrote,  I.  De  tribus  Rheni  al-veis.  2.  Ger7na>iia  an- 
t'lqua.  3.  Sicll'ta  aiiliquii,  4.  Italia  auUqua.  5.  In- 
troduffioin  uiiiverfam  Geograph'uvn.     All  jullly  elleemed. 

CLYDE,  a  river  in  Scotland,  which,  ariling  in  An- 
nandale,  falls  into  the  fea  overagainit  the  llle  of  Bute. 
Next  to  the  Tay,  it  is  the  largeft  livcr  in  Scotland; 
and  is  navigable  for  fmall  craft  up  to  Glafgow.  The 
canal,  which  joins  the  Forth,  falls  into  it  a  little  below 
that  city.  The  cataradt  called  the  Frith  of  the  Clyde, 
oppofite  to  Lanark,  is  a  great  natural  curiofity,  and- 
the  firft  fcene  of  the  kind  in  Great  Britain.  This  tre- 
mendous flieet  of  water  for  about  a  mile  falls  from 
rock  to  rock.  At  Stone-byers,  the  firll  fall  is  about 
60  feet  ;  the  laft,  at  Cory-Lynn,  is  over  folid  rock, 
not  lefs  than  100  feet  high.  At  both  thefe  places 
this  great  body  of  water  exhibits  a  grander  and  more 
interefting  fpeftacle  than  imagination  can  pofTibly  con- 
ceive. 

At  Cory-Lynn, 'the  falls  are  fcen  to  moft  advantage 
from  a  ruinous  pavilion  in  a  garden,  placed  in  a  lofty 
iituation.  The  cataraft  is  full  in  view,  feen  over  the 
tops  of  trees  and  bulhes,  precipitating  itfelf,  for  an 
amazing  way,  from  rock  to  rock,  with  fhort  interrup- 
tions, forming  a  rude  flope  of  furious  foam.  The  fides 
are  bounded  by  vait  rocks,  clothed  on  their  tops  with 
trees  :  on  the  fummit  and  very  verge  of  one  is  a  ruin- 
ed tower,  and  in  front  a  wood  over-topt  by  a  verdant 
hill.  A  path  condufts  the  traveller  down  to  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fall,  into  which  projedts  a  high  rock, 
in  floods  infulated  by  the  water  ;  and  from  the  top  is  a 
tremendous  view  of  the  furious  Itream.  In  the  cliffs 
of  this  favage  retreat  the  brave  Wallace  is  faid  to 
have  concealed  himfelf,  meditating  revenge  for  his  in- 
jured country. 

On  regaining  the  top,  the  walk  is  formed  near  the 
verge  of  the  rocks  ;  which  on  both  fides  are  perfeftly 
mural  and  equidiltant,  except  where  they  overhang  : 
the  river  is  pent  up  between  them  at  a  diltance  far  be- 
neath ;  not  running,  but  rather  Hiding  along  a  ftoney 
bottom  lloping  the  whole  way.  The  fummits  of  the 
rock  are  wooded  ;  the  fides  fmooth  and  naked  ;  the 
ftrata  narrow  and  regular,  forming  a  ftupendous  natu- 
ral mafonry.  After  a  walk  of  above  half  a  mile  on  the 
edge  of  this  great  chafra,  on  a  fudden  appears  the 
great  and  bold  fall  of  Boniton,  in  a  foaming-lheet,  far- 
projedting  into  a  hollow,  in  which  the  water  lliows  a 
violent  agitation,  and  a  wide  extending  mill  arifes  from 
the  furface.  Above  that  is  a  fecond  great  fall ;  two 
leffer  fucceed  :  beyond  them  the  river  winds,  grows 
more  tranquil,,  and   is  feen  for  a  coiiCderable    way, 

bounded 


Cluvicr, 

qlvde.   ■ 


C     L     Y 


[     85     ] 


C     N     E 


bounded  on  one  fide  by  wooded  banks,  on  the  other  by 
rich  and  fwelling  fields. 

The  great  fall  of  Stone-byers,  fiifl  mentioned,  has 
more  of  the  horrible  in  it  than  any  of  the  others, 
and  is  feen  with  more  diificulty  :  it  confiRs  of  two 
precipitous  cataraifls  falling  one  above  the  other  into  a 
vail  chafm,  bounded  by  lofty  rocks,  forming  an  ama- 
zing theatre  to  the  view  of  thofe  who  take  the  pains  to 
defcend  to  the  bottom.  Belivijen  this  and  Cory-Lynn 
there  is  another  fall  called  Dundofflin. 

CLYMENE,  in  fabulous  hiftory,  the  daughter  of 
Oceanus  :  who,  being  'beloved  by  Apollo,  he  had  by 
her  Phaeton,  Lanipatia,  Egle,  and  Piitbc.  See  Phae- 
ton. 

CLYPEOLA,  TREACLE-MusfARD:  A  genus  of  the 
filiculola  order,  belonging  to  the  tetiadynamia  clafs  of 
plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
39th  order,  SlUqi/ol'e.  The  filicula  is  emarginated, 
orbiculated,  compreiTed  plane,  and  deciduous.  Tiicre 
are  two  fpecies,  both  natives  of  France,  Italy,  and  the 
warm  parts  of  Europe,  but  haydy  enough  to  bear  the 
winters  in  this  country.  One  of  them  is  an  annual,  and 
the  other  a  perennial  plant;  both  are  low  and  herba- 
ceous, bearing  fpikes  of  white  floweis.  They  are  pro- 
pagated by  feeds,  which  fliould  be  fown  in  autumn 
where  they  are  to  remain. 

CLYSSUS,  an  extraft  prepared,  not  from  one,  but 
feveral  bodies  mixed  together  :  and,  among  the  mo- 
derns, the  term  is  applied  to  feveral  extratls  prepared 
from  the  fame  body,  and  then  mixed  together. 

CLYSTER,  is  a  liquid  remedy,  to  be  injefted 
chiefly  at  the  anuS  into  the  larger  intellines.  It  is 
ufually  adminiftered  by  the  bladder  of  a  hog,  iheep,  or 
ox,  perforated  at  each  end,  and  having  at  one  of  the 
apertures  an  ivory  pipe  fattened  with  pack-thread.  But 
the  French,  and  fometimes  the  Dutch,  ufe  a  pewter 
fyringe,  by  which  the  liquor  may  be  drawn  in  with 
more  eafe  and  fttpedition  than  in  the  bladder,  and  like- 
wife  more  forcibly  expelled  into  the  large  intellines. 
This  remedy  (honld  never  be  adminiftered  either  too 
hot  or  too  cold,  but  tepid  ;  for  either  of  the  former 
will  be  injurious  to  the  bowels. 

Clylters  are  fometimes  ufed  tonourilh  and  fupport  a 
patient  who  can  f«';dlow  little  or  no  aliment,  by  reafoB 
of  fome  impediment  in  the  organs  of  deglutition  ;  in 
which  cafe  they  may  be  made  of  broth,  milk,  ale,  and 
decodlions  of  bailey  and  oats  with  wine.  The  Englllh 
introduced  a  new  kind  of  clyiter,  made  of  the  fmoke 
of  tobacco,  which  has  been  ufed  by  feveral  other  na- 
tions, and  appears  to  be  of  confiderable  efiicacy  when 
other  clyfters  prove  ineffedlnal,  and  particularly  in  the 
iliac  pafilon,  in  the  henna  incarcerata,  and  for  the  re- 
covery of  drowned  perfons. 

CLYTEMNESTRA,  in  fabulous  hiftory,  the 
daughter  of  Jupiter  andLeda.  She  married  Agamem- 
non ;  but  while  that  prince  was  at  the  fiege  of  Troy, 
file  had  an  amorous  intrigue  with  .^gifthus,  whom  ihe 
engaged  to  murder  Agamemnon  at  his  return  to  his 
dominions.  Her  fon  Oreftes,  however,  revenged  the 
death  of  his  father  by  killing  iEgillhus,  with  his  mo- 
ther Clytemneftra  ;  but  was  afterwards  haunted  by  the 
Furies  as  long  as  he  lived. 

CLYTIA,  or  Clytie,  daughter  of  Oceanus  and 
Tethys,  beloved  by  Apollo.    She  was  defertcd  by  her 


lover,  who  paid  his  addrelTcs  to  Ltucotlioe  ;  and  this 
fo  irritated  her,  that  Ihe  dilcovered  the  whole  intrigue 
to  her  rival's  father.  Apollo  defpifed  her  the  more 
for  this ;  and  fhe  pined  away,  and  was  changed  into  a 
flower,  commonly  called  a  fun-floiuer,  which  itill  turns 
its  head  towards  the  fun  in  his  courie  in  token  of  her 
love. 

CNEORUM,  widow-wail:  A  genus  of  themono- 
gynia  order,  belonging  to  the  triandria  clafs  of  plants  ; 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  38th  order, 
Tricccca.  The  calyx  is  tridentated  ;  there  are  three  equal 
petals,  and  a  tricoccous  berry.  There  is  but  one  f])C- 
ctes,  a  little  evergreen  and  very  ornamental  flirub,  adorn- 
ed with  fimple  leaves,  and  tripetalous  flowers  of  a  pale 
yellow  colour.  It  is  propagated  from  feeds,  and  requires 
no  other  care  than  to  be  kept  free  from  weeds. 

CNICUS,   Bi-ESSED  THISTLE  ;   A  genus  of  the  po- 
lygamia    asqualis   order,  belonging   to   the   fyngenefia 
clafs  of  plants;  and   in   the   natui-al  method   ranking 
under  the  49th  order,  Compnfua.  The  calyx  is  ovate,  im- 
bricated with   fpinous-bianched   fcales,  and   encircled 
with  braiteae.     The  florets  are  equal.     There  are  fe- 
ven  fpecies,  of  which  the  only  remarkable  one  is  that 
ufed  in  medicine  under  the  name  oi  carduas  lenedtctus. 
This  is  an  annual  plant  cultivated  in  gardens :  it  flow- 
ers in  June  and  July,  and  perfetls   it  feeds  in  autumn. 
For  medical  purpoles    the  plant  (hould    be  gathered 
when  in  flov/er,  dried  in  the  ihade,  and  kept  in  a  very 
dry  airy  place,  to  prevent  its  rotting  or  growing  moul- 
dy, which  it  is  very  apt  to  do.     The  leaves  have  a  pe- 
netrating bitter  tafte,  not  very  ftrong  or  durable,  ac- 
companied with  an  ungrateful  flavour,  which  they  are 
in  a  great  meafure  freed  from  by  keeping.     Water  ex- 
trafts  in  a  little  time,  even  without  heat,  the  lighter 
and  more  grateful  parts  of  this  plant ;  if  the  digeftion 
is  continued  for  fome  hours,  the  difagreeable  parts  are 
taken  up ;  a  ftrong  decoflion  is  very  naufeous  and  of- 
fenfive  to  the  ftomach.     Rcdlified   fpirit  gains  a  very 
pleafant  bitter   tafte,  which   remains  uninjured  in  the 
extraft.     The  virtues  of  this  plant  are  little  known  in 
the  prefent  praftice.    The  naufeous  decoftion  is  fome- 
times ufed  to  provoke  vomiting  ;  and  a  ftrong  infufion 
to  promote  the  operation  of  other  emetics.     But  this 
elegant  bitter,  when  freed  from  the  oflenfive  parts  of 
the  herb,  may  be  advantageoufly  applied  to  other  pur- 
pofes.     Dr  Lewis  Informs  us,  that  he  has  experienced 
excellent  effefts  from  a  light  infufion  of  carduus  in  lofs 
of  appetite,  where  the  ftomach  was  injured  by  iiTcgu- 
larities.     A  ftronger  Infufion  made  in  cold  or  warm 
water,  if  drunk  freely,  and  the  patient  kept  warm,  oc- 
cafions  a  plentiful  fweat,  and  promotes  all  the  fecre- 
tions  in  general.     The  feeds  of  the  plant  are  alfo  con- 
fiderably  bitter,  and  have  fometimes  been  ufed  with  the- 
fame  intention  as  the  leaves. 

CNIDUS,  (anc.  geog.)  a  Greek  town  of  Caria ; 
fituated  on  a  horn  or  promontory  of  a  peninfula.  It 
had  in  front  a  double  port,  and  an  ifland  lying  before 
it  in  form  of  a  theatre,  which  being  joined  to  the  con- 
tinent by  moles  or  caufeways,  made  Gnldtis  a  Dipo- 
lis  or  double  town,  (Strabo),  becaufe  a  great  number 
of  Cnidians  Inhabited  the  iiland.     Paufanias  mentions- 

a  bridge  which  joined  the  ifland  to  the  continent. 

Cnidii,  the  people.  Citidius,  the  epithet. —  Cnidia  Ve-- 
ntis,  a  principal  divinity  of-  the  Cnidians,  (Horace), 
I.  Her 


C    O     A 


[     S6     ] 


C     O     A 


Cne/Tus,    Her  ftatue  was  extcuted  by  Praxiteles;  and  fo  exqul- 

Co'.th       fjtcly  (ione,  and  lo  much  admired,  that  people  came 

'""'^  from  all  parts  to  view  it,  (Pliny).     Of  this  place  was 

r.udoxus,   the   famous  altronomer   and  geometrician, 

who  had  here  an  obfervatory,  (Stiabo). 

CNOSSUS,  or  Cnosus,  anciently  called  Cfratos, 
from  a  cotjiiominal  river  riniiiin^  by  it  ;  a  city  of 
Crete,  23  miles  to  the  caft  of  Gortina,  (Ptutinfjer). 
Here  flood  the  fepulchre  of  Jiipltcr,  the  famous  laby- 
linlli,  and  the  palace  of  Minos  a  very  ancient  king;  here 
liappened  the  adventnre  of  Ariadne  his  daughter  with 
Thcleiis,  called  Giwfis,  (Ovid).  Its  port-town  was 
Heracleiim,  on  the  eall  fide  of  the  ifland. 

COACH,  a  vehicle  for  commodious  travelling;,  fu- 
fpcnded  on  leathers,  and  moved  on  wheels.  In  Bii- 
tain,  and  throughout  Europe,  the  coaches  are  drawn 
bv  horfes,  except  in  Spain,  where  they  ufe  mules.  In 
apart  of  the  ea'A,  efpecially  the  dominions  of  the  great 
Mogul,  their  coacheo  are  drawn  by  oxen.  In  Den- 
mark they  foraetimcs  yoke  rein-dccr  in  their  coaches; 
though  rather  for  curiofity  than  uie.  The  coachman 
ib  ordinarily  placed  on  a  feat  raifed  before  the  body  of 
the  coach.  Init  the  Spanilh  policy  has  difplaced  him 
in  that  country  by  a  royal  ordonnance  ;  on  occafion  of 
the  Duke  d'Olivares,  who  found  that  a  very  import- 
ant fecvct,  whereon  he  had  conferred  in  his  coach, 
had  b:en  overheard  and  revealed  by  his  coachman  : 
iince  that  time  the  place  of  the  Spaniih  coachman  is  the 
fame  with  that  of  the  French  ftaee-coachman  and  our 
poftilion,  viz.  on  the  firft  horfe  on  the  left. 

The  invention  of  coaches  is  owing  to  the  Frer.ch  : 
vet  coaches  are  not  of  any  great  antiquity,  even  in 
France,  fcarce  reaching  beyond  the  reign  of  their 
Francis  I.  Their  ule,  at  their  firll  rife,  was  only  for 
the  country:  and  authors  obferve,  as  a  thing  very  fin- 
gular,  that  there  were  at  firft  no  more  than  two  coach- 
es in  Paris;  the  one  that  of  the  queen,  and  the  other 
that  of  Diana  natural  daughter  of  Henry  II.  The  firil 
courtier  who  had  one  was  Jean  de  Laval  d^_  Bois  Dau- 
phin; whofe  enormous  bulk  difabled  him  from  tiavel- 
ling  on  horfeback.  One  may  her.ce  judge  how  much 
variety,  luxury,  and  idlenefs,  have  grown  upon  our 
hands  in  later  days;  there  being  now  computed  in  that 
lame  city  r.o  lefs  than  15,000  coaches. 

Coaches  have  had  the  fate  of  ail  other  inventions,  to 
be  brought  by  degrees  to  their  peifttlion;  at  pre- 
fent  they  feem  to  want  nothin?,  either  with  regard 
to  eafs  or  magniiicence.  Louis  XIV.  of  France  made 
feveral  fumptnary  laws  for  rellraiiung  theexceflive  rich- 
nefs  of  coaches,  prohibiting  the  ufe  of  gold,  filver,  &c. 
therein  ;  but  they  have  had  the  fate  to  be  neglefled. 

By  the  aft  25  Geo.  III.  c.  47.  former  duties  on 
coaches,  &c.  are  repealed,  and  the  following  charged 
in  lieu  thereof,  namely:  For  every  coach,  berlin,  lan- 
dau, chariot,  calafh,  with  four  wheels,  chaife  marine, 
chaife  with  four  wheels,  and  caravan,  or  by  whatever 
name  fneh  carriages  may  bt  called,  kept  by  any  pcrfon 
for  his  own  ufe,  or  to  be  let  out  to  hire  (except  hack- 
ney coaches),  fhall  be  paid  the  yearly  funx  of  L.  7. 
And  for  every  calaih,  chaife,  chair,  gig,  or  whiikey, 
or  by  whatever  name  they  are  known  or  called,  having 
two  or  three  wheels,  to  be  drawn  by  one  or  more  hor- 
fes, that  fhall  be  kept  by  any  perfon  for  his  own  ufe, 
or  to  be  let  out  to  hire,  the  yearly  fum  of  L.  3,  103. 

Lvery  maker  of  coaches,  chaife,  chariots,  &c   muft. 


from  and  after  the  fjflh  day  of  July  1 7^5,  take  out  at 
the  cxcife  office  in  LonJun,  or  of  their  agents  in  the 
country,  a  licence  to  be  renewed  aiftual'.y  at  Icall  ten 
days  befoie  the  expiration  of  the  former,  for  which  tliey 
muft  pay  20s.  They  mull  alio  pay  203  duty  fr  every 
four-wheeled  cartiagenewly  bi:ilt  for  fale,  and  lOs.  for 
every  two-wheel  carriage.  Thefe  duties  are  aho  pay- 
able to  the  commiffioners  of  the  excife  in  town,  or  tiicir 
agents  in  the  country. 

Coach -makers  in  sicotland  are  to  take  out  their  li- 
cences and  pay  the  duties  to  the  commifiioiiers  of  ex- 
cife in  Edinburgh,  or  their  agents  in  the  country  of  thit 
part  ot  Great  Britain, 

Every  coach-maker  neglefting  to  take  out  a  licence, 
and  renewing  the  fame  annually,  forfeits  L.  lO;  and 
neglecting  or  refufing  to  fettle  every  fix  weeks,  in  the 
manner  paiticularly  directed  by  the  aft,  is  a  toifeiturc 
of  L  20. 

Huckney'Co-tcuF.s,  thofe  expofed  to  hire,  in  the 
flrcets  of  London,  and  fomc  other  gieat  cities,  at  rates 
lixed  by  authority. 

One  thoufand  hackney-coaches  are  allowed  in  Lon- 
■don  and  Weilminiler;  which  ire  to  be  hcenfed  by  com- 
millioners,  and  to  pay  a  duty  to  the  crown.  Tlicy  aie 
all  numbered,  having  their  numbers  engraved  on  tin 
plates  fixed  on  the  coach-doors.  Their  fares  or  rates 
are  fixed  by  aft  of  parliament  ;  and  by  a  laie  aft  have 
been  increafed  in  confequence  of  a  new  weekly  tax. 

Stti^e-Co.iCHFs,  are  th>sfe  appointed  for  the  convey- 
ance of  travellers  from  one  city  or  town  to  another. 
The  i.iafters  of  ftage-coaches  are  not  liable  to  an  ac- 
tion for  things  loll  by  their  coachmen,  who  have  mo- 
ney given  them  to  carry  the  goods,  uulefs  where  fuch 
mailer  takes  a  price  for  the  fame. 

Perlons  keeping  any  coach,  berlin,  landau,  or  other 
carriage  with  torn-  wheels,  or  any  calafh,  chaife,  chair, 
or  other  carriage  uith  two  wheels,  to  be  employed  as 
public  ftage  coaches  or  carriages,  for  the  purpofe  of 
conveying  paflengers  for  hire  to  andfrom  different  places," 
fhall  pay  annually  5  s.  for  a  licence  ;  and  no  perfon  fo 
licenfed  (hall  by  virtue  of  one  licence  keep  more  than 
one  carriage,  under  the  penalty  of  L.  10. 

Mnil-CoMCHF.s,  are  flagc-coachcs  of  a  particular  con- 
flruftion  to  prevent  overturns;  and  for  a  ceitain  conii- 
dei  ation  carry  his  Majefty's  mails,  which  arc  proteftcd  by 
a  guard,  and  iubjeft  to  the  regulations  of  the  poll-office. 
Tliey  are  pointed  as  to  their  time  of  arrival  and  depar- 
ture, are  rellrifted  to  four  inlide  pafFengers,  and  from 
experience  have  proved  very  beneficial  to  the  commerce 
and  correfpordence  of  this  country.  John  Palmer,  Efq; 
who  has  the  merit  of  the  invention,  and  b;en  indefati- 
gable in  bringing  the  ellablilhment  to  a  permanent  foot- 
ing, has  been  greatly  patronifed  by  government  ;  and 
got,  as  the  reward  of  his  fcrvice,a  handfome  appointment 
in  the  general  poll-ofEce  London. 

Coach,  or  Couch,  is  alfo  a  fort  of  chamber  or  apart- 
ment in  a  large  (hirj  of  war  near  the  Hern.  The  floor 
of  it  is  formed  by  the  aftmoll  part  of  the  quarter-deck, 
and  the  roof  of  it  by  the  poop:  it  is  generally  the  ha- 
bitation of  the  captain. 

COADUNATE,  in  botany,  an  order  of  plants  in 
ihe f momenta  methudi  naturalis  of  Lini;:Fus,  in  which  he 
has  thefe  genera,  viz.  annona,  liriodendrum,  magno- 
tia,  uvaria,  michclia,  thea. 

COAGULATION,  in  chemiilry,  is  performed  by 
5  fix 


11 
Coal. 


C    O     A  [8 

fix  dilTerent  agents;  and  by  each  of  tTiefe  in  feveral 
dffierent  manners,  t.  It  is  performed  with  water,  by 
congealing,  cryftalliying,  and  precipitating;,  as  in  the 
mercinius  viti  and  fome  other  preparations.  2.  With 
oil,  which,  by  the  force  of  fire,  unites  with  fulphiir, 
falcs,  and  metals.  3.  With  alcohol,  upon  the  fpiric 
of  fa!  ammoniac,  the  white  of  es^gs,  the  ferum  of  the 
blood,  &c.  4.  With  acid  and  alkaU  growincr  folij  to- 
gether, as  in  the  tartarnm  vitriolatimi.  5.  Wuh  fixed 
alkali,  as  in  milk.  And,  6.  With  acid  falls  ;  as  in 
milk,   fertim,   and  the  whites  of  eggs. 

COAGULUM,  is  the  fame  with  what  In  Englifli 
we  call  runnel,  or  rather  the  curd  formvd  thereby. 

COAKS.  For  the  exciting  of  iutenfe  heats,  aa 
for  the  rr.elting  of  iron  ore,  and  for  operations  where 
the  acid  and  oily  particles  would  be  detrimental,  as  the 
drying  of  malt,  foffd- coals  are  previoudy  charred,  or 
reduced  to  cnaks;  that  is,  they  are  m.ade  to  tnidergo  an 
operation  fimilar  to  that  by  which  charcoal  is  made. 
P.v  this  operation  coals  are  depiived  of  their  phlegm, 
llicir  acid  liquor,  snd  part  of  their  fluid  oil.  Coaks, 
therefore,  conlift  of  ttie  two  mod  fixed  conftituent 
parts,  the  heavy  oil  and  the  earth,  together  witli  the 
acid  concrete  fait,  which,  though  volatile,  is  difToIvcd 
by  the  oil  and  the  earth. 

COAL,  among  chemifts,  fignifiesany  fubftance 
containing  oil,  which  has  been  cxpofcd  to  the  fire  in 
clofe  veffels,  fo  that  all  its  volatile  principles  are  I'X- 
pelied,  and  that  it  can  fuftain  a  red  heat  without  fur- 
ther decompofition.  Coal  is  commonly  folid,  black, 
very  dry,  and  coufiderably  hard.  The  fpeciiic  ciia- 
rafter  of  perfeft  coal  Is  its  capacity  of  binning  with 
accefs  of  air,  while  it  becomes  red-hot  and  fparkles, 
fometimej  with  a  fcnfible  flame  which  gives  little  light, 
with  no  fmoke  or  foot  capable  of  blackening  white 
•bodies. 

Coal  13  capable  of  communicating  its  Inflammable 
principle,  eitlrer  to  the  vitriolic  acid  with  which  it 
forms  fulphnr  ;  or  to  the  nitroup  acid  contained  in 
■nitre,  which  it  inflames;  or  to  metallic  earths,  which 
it  reduces  Into  metals.  But  the  phlogiRon  cannot  pafs 
from  toal  to  firm  thefe  new  combinations  without  the 
afliftance  of  red-heat.  Coal  feems  to  be  an  unalte- 
rable compound  in  every  iiiftance  but  thofe  mentioned, 
cf  burning  in  the  open  air,  and  of  communicating  its 
phlogifton  to  other  bodies  :  for  it  may  be  expofed  in 
clofe  veffcjls  to  the  moll  violent  and  long  continued  fire 
without  futFering  the  1  aft  dccompi-fition.  No  difpofi- 
tion  to  fufe,  nor  any  diminution  of  weight,  can  be  per- 
ceived It  is  a  fuhflance  exceedingly  fixed,  and  per- 
haps the  mod  refi.iftory  In  nature.  It  refills  the  aiSion 
cf  the  moft  powerful  mtnftrua,  liver  of  fulpliur  alone 
excepted.  Coal  is  evidently  a  refult  of  the  decompofi- 
tion of  the  compound  bodies  fro.n  which  it  is  obtain- 
ed. It  confifts  of  the  greateft  part  of  the  earthy  prin- 
ciple of  thefe  compound  bodies,  with  which  a  patt  oF 
the  faline  principles,  and  fome  of  the  phlogillxjn  of 
the  decompofed  oil,  are  fixid  and  combined  very  inti- 
mately. Coal  can  never  be  formed  but  by  the  phlogl- 
ilon  of  a  body  which  has  been  In  an  oi!v  flate  :  hence 
It  cannot  be  formed  by  fulphur,  phol'pliorus,  metals, 
nor  by  any  other  fubftaiice  the  phlogiflon  of  which  is 
liot  in  an  oily  (late.  Alfo  every  oily  matter  treated 
with  fire  in  clofe  vefTels,  fiu-iiifhes  true  cn.il  ;  fo  that 
whenever  a  charry  refiduani  ia  left,,  we  may  be  certain. 


7     3  C    O    A 

that  the  fuhflance  employed  In  the  operation  contained 
oil.  LalUy,  the  Iiifiamniable  principle  of  Coal,  altho'  " 
It  proceeds  from  od,  certainly  Is  not  oil ;  but  pure 
phlogillon  ;  fince  coal  added  to  vitriolic  acid  can  form 
fulphur,  to  phofphoiic  acid  can  form  phofphorus, 
S:c.  and  fince  oil  can  produce  none  of  thcfe  effefts 
till  it  has  bf-en  dccompofed  and  reduced  to  the  ftate 
of  coal.  B. -fides,  the  phenomena  accompanying  tlij 
burning  of  coal  are  different  froui  thofe  which  happen 
when  oily  fubdances  aie  burnt.  The  flime  of  char- 
coal is  not  fo  biigiit  ao  that  of  oil,  and  produces  no 
flame  or  foot. 

All  the  phloglfton  of  coal  'S  not  burnt  in  the  opeiv 
air,  particularly  when  the  combuftion  is  flow.  One 
part  of  it  exhales  without  decompofition,  and  forms  a 
vapour,  or  an  Invifible  and  infeafible  gas.  This  va- 
pour (which  is,  or  at  leafl  contains  a  great  deal  of, 
fixed  air)  is  found  to  be  very  pernicious,  and  to  affect 
the  anlm?d  fytlem  In  fuch  a  manner  as  to  occafion 
death  in  a  very  fliort  time.  For  thi?  reaf  m  It  is  dan- 
gerous to  remain  In  a  cl  )fe  place,  where  charcoal  or 
any  other  fort  of  coal  Is  burnt.  Perfons  ftruck  by 
this  vapour  are  ftiinned,  faint,  fuffcr  a  violent  headach, 
and  fall  down  fenfelefs  and  motionlefs.  The  belt  me- 
thod of  recoveii'ig  them  is  by  expofure  to  the  open 
air,  and  by  making  them  fwallow  vinegar,  and  breathe 
Its  fleam. 

Amongll  coal.T,  fome  differences  are  obfervable, 
which  proceed  from  the  diiletence  of  the  bodies  fiora 
^which  tliey  are  made  :  fome  coals,  particularly,  are 
more  combulllble  than  others.  This  combuiUbiliiy 
feems  to  depend  on  the  greater  or  lefs  quantity  of  fa- 
line  principle  they  contain  ;  that  Is,,  the  more  of  the 
faline  principle  it  contains,  the  more  eafily  It  dtcom- 
pofes  and  burns.  For  example,  coals  made  of  plants 
and  wood  containing  much  faline  matter  capable  of 
fixing  it,  the  allies  of  which  contain  much  alkaline  fait,, 
burn  vigoroiifly  and  produce  much  heat  j  whereas  the 
coals  of  animal  matters,  the  falise  principles  of  vvhich  are 
volatile,  and  cannot  be  fixed  but  in  fmall  quantity,  and 
the  afhes  of  which  contain  little  or  no  fait,  are  fcarcely 
at  all  combuflible.  For  they  not  only  do  not  kindle  fo- 
eafily  as  charcoal  does,  nor  ever  burn  alone,  but  they 
cannot  be  reduced  to  afhes,  witliont  very  great  trouble^ 
even  when  the  moft  efFettual  methods  are  ufed  to  faci- 
litate the  combuftlon.  The  coal  of  bullocks  blood  has 
been  kept  for  fix  ho\irs  very  red  in  a  Jhallow  crucible,- 
f-jrrounded  with  burning  charcoal,  and  conflantly  llir- 
red  all  the  time,  that  it  might  be  totally  expoied  to- 
the  air  ;  yet  could  it  not  be  reduced  to  white,  or  even 
grey,  allies  r  It  ftiU  lemalned  very  black,  and  fidl  of 
phlogillon.  The  coals  of  pnre  oils,  or  of  concrete 
oily  lubftances  and  foot,  which  is  a  kind  of  coal  raifed 
during  inflammation,  are  as  difficultly  reduced  to  allies- 
as  animal  coals.  Thefe  co-als  contain  very  little  filiiie 
matter  ;  and  their  afhes  yield  no  alkali.  The  coals 
which  are  fo  diflicultly  burnt,  are  alfo  Icfs  capable  of 
inuaming  with  nicre  than  others  more  combuflible;  and 
fome  of  them  even  in  a  great  meafure  refill  the  aftion- 
of  nitre. 

COAL,  In  mineralogy,  a  kind  of  folld  inflammable 
fuhflance,  fuppofed  to  be  of  a  bituminous  nature,  and 
commonly  ufed  for  fuel.  Of  this  fubilance  there  are 
various  fpecies. 

I.  rii-coal  ( L'lihanlhrax ) ,  Is  a  black,  foil  J,  com- 

paa,. 


Cl.aT!. 


C    O     A  [ 

Coal.      paft,  brittle   mafj,  of  modeTate  hardnefs,  lamellated 
""v  ftruftuie,  more  or   lefs  (liiiiing,  but  feldom  capable  of 

a  good  polilli  ;  and  docs  not  naelt  when  heated.  Ac- 
cording to  Kirwan,  it  conhfts  of  petrol  or  afphaltum, 
intimately  mixed  with  a  fmall  portion  of  earth  chiefly- 
argillaceous  ;  feldom  calcareous  ;  and  frequently  mixed 
with  pyrites.  A  red  tinfturc  is  extracted  from  it  by 
fpirit  of  wine,  but  cauftic  alkali  attacks  the  bituminous 
part.  From  fome  forts  of  it  a  varnilh  may  be  made 
liy  means  of  fat  oils.  Fixed  alkali  has  never  been 
found  in  any  kind  of  it,  nor  fulphur,  unlefs  when  it 
happens  to  be  mixed  with  pyrites. — None  of  the  va- 
rious kinds  are  found  to  be  eleftrics />«•  /^  (a). 

The  varietiesoflithanthrax, enumerated  byCronftedt, 

are,  i .  With  a  fmall  quantity  of  argillaceous  earth  and 

vitriolic  acid.  It  is  of  a  black  colour,and  Ihining  texture: 

,  it  burns,  and  is  moftly  confumed  in  the  fire,  but  leaves, 

however,  a  fmall  quantity  of  aflies.     z.  Slaty  coal. 

2.  Giihn  coal,  called  iolm,  by  the  Swedes,  has  a 
greater  portion  of  argillaceous  earth  and  vitriolic  acid, 
with  a~moderate  proportion  of  petrol.  It  has  the 
fame  appearance  with  the  foregoing,  though  its  tex- 
ture is  more  dull':  it  biu-ns  with  a  flame,  without  be- 
ing confumed,  but  leaves  behind  It  a  flag  of  the  fame 
bulk  with  the  original  volume  of  the  coal.  The  fol- 
lowing Is  Mr  Kirwan's  defcrlptlon  of  it  from  the  me- 
moirs of  "the  Stockliolm  academy.  "  Its  frafture  has 
a  rougher  feftion  than  the  cannel  coal ;  its  fpecific 
gravity  from  1300  to  1370.  The  bell  kind  affords 
by  dUlIUatlon,  at  firft  fixed  air,  then  an  acid  liquor, 
aftervi'ards  Inflammable  air,  and  a  light  oil  of  the  na- 
ture of  petrol;  then  a  volatile  alkali;  and  laftly  pitch- 
oil.  The  refiduum  is  nearly  three  quarters  of  the 
whole  ;  and  being  flowly  burnt,  affords  1 3  per  cent. 
of  aflies,  which  confift  moflly  of  argillaceous  earth  ; 
and  about  three  hundredth  parts  of  them  are  magne- 
tic. It  is  found  in  England,  and  among  fome  alu- 
minous ores  In  Sweden." 

3.  •S'/(7/^-ro«/ contains  fuch  a  quantity  of  argillaceous 
earth,  that  It  looks  like  common  flate  ;  however,  it 
burns  by  itfelf  with  a  flame.  M.  Magellan  Is  of  opi- 
nion that  this  Is  the  bituminous  fubftancc  alfeady  de- 
feribed  (fee  Clay,  p.  51.)  This  fchlflus  is  of  a  dark 
bluHh  rufty  colour  ;  when  thrown  on  the  fire  It  burns 
with  a  lively  flame,  and  almofl  as  readily  as  the  oily 
wood  of  dry  olive  tree,  or  lignum  vitae  ;  emitting  the 
■very  difagreeable  fmell  of  petrol.     Such  large  quarries 

N°83. 


83     1 


C     O     A 


of  it  are  found  near  Purbeck  in  Dorfetlhire,  that  the 
poorer  part  of  the  inhabitants  are  thence  fupplled  with  '■ 
fuel.  From  the  appearance  of  this  (Inty  coal,  Cron- 
ilcdt  has  been  Induced  to  fuppofe  that  the  earth  of 
all  kinds  of  coal  Is  argillaceous,  though  it  is  not  fo 
eafy  to  diflinguifh  it  after  being  burnt.  The  pit-coals, 
he  fays,  contain  more  or  lefs  of  the  vitriolic  acid  ;  for 
which  reafon  the  fmoke  arifing  from  them  attacks  fil- 
ver  in  the  fame  manner  as  fulpluir  does,  let  the  coals 
be  ever  fo  free  from  marcafite,  which,  however,  is  of- 
ten Imbedded  or  mixed  witli  them. 

4.  Caimcl  co.il  (jimpflites),  is  of  a  dull  black  co- 
lour ;  breaks  eafiy  In  all  direftions ;  and,  if  broken 
tranfverfely,  prefents  a  fmooth  conchoidal  furface.  It 
burns  with  a  bright  lively  flame,  but  Is  very  apt  to 
fly  in  pieces  in  the  fire  ;  howevxr  it  is  laid  to  be  en- 
tirely deprived  of  this  property  by  immerlion  in  water 
for  fome  hours  previous  to  its  being  ufed.      It  contains 

— a  confiderable  quantity  of  petrol  in[alefs  condenfedltate 
than  other  coals.  Its  fpecific  gravity  Is  about  1.270. 
This  kind  of  coal,  being  of  an  uniform  hard  texture. 
Is  eafily  turned  on  a  lath,  and  takes  a  good  pollfh.  Heneo 
it  is  ufed  for  making  various  toys,  which  appear  almoil 
as  well  as  if  made  of  the  fineft  jet. 

5.  Kilkenny  'coal  is  the  lighted  of  any;  its  fpecific 
gravity  being  only  about  1400.  It  contains  the  lar- 
gefl  quantity  of  afphaltum ;  burns  with  lefs  fmoke  and 
flame,  and  more  intenfely,  though  more  flowly,  than 
the  cannel-coal.  The  quantity  of  earth  it  contains 
does  not  exceed  one  twentieth  part  of  its  weight ;  but 
this  kind  of  coal  Is  frequently  mixed  with  pyrites.  It 
is  found  in  the  county  of  Kilkenny,  belonging  to  the 
province  of  Leinfter  in  Ireland.  The  qualiity  of  it  as 
burning  without  fmoke,  is  proverbially  ufed  as  an  en- 
comium on  the  county. 

6.  Sulphureous  coal  confifts  of  the  former  kinds  mix- 
ed with  a  very  confiderable  portion  of  pyrites ;  whence 
it  is  apt  to  moulder  and  break  when  expofed  to  the 
air,  after  which  water  will  aft  upon  it.  It  contains 
yellow  fpots  that  look  like  metal ;  burns  witli  a  ful- 
phureous  fmell,  leaving  behind  it  either  flag  or  ful- 
phureous  aflies,  or  both.  Its  fpecific  gravity  is  J  500 
or  more. 

7.  Bovey  coal  (Xylanthrax),  is  of  a  brown  or 
brownifh  black  colour,  and  of  a  yellow  laminar  tex- 
ture. Its  lamlnas  are  frequently  flexible  when  firft 
dug,  though  thty  generally  harden   when   expofed  to 

.    the 


Coa!, . 


(a)  "  The  varieties  of  this  coal  (fays  Mr  Magellan)  are  very  numerous  according  to  the  different  fub- 
flances  with  which  it  is  mixed  ;  but  in  regard  to  their  o-conomical  ufef.,  only  two  kinds  are  taken  notice  of  by 
the  Britlfh  legiflature,  vitz.  culm  and  caking  coals.  The  caking  coals,  in  burning,  fliow  an  incipient  fufion, 
fo  that  their  fmallell  pieces  unite  in  the  fire  into  one  mafs ;  by  which  means  the  fmallcfl;  pieces,  and  even  the 
■mere  duft  of  this  kind,  are  almoft  equally  valuable  with  the  largeft  pieces.  The  other  fort  called  culn:,  does  not 
fufe  or  unite  In  the  fiercell  fire  ;  fo  that  the  fmall  coal,  being  unfit  for  domeftic  purpofes,  can  onkNibe  ufed  in 
burning  limeftone. 

*'  It  fhonld  be  an  eafy  matter  for  any  perfon  to  dlfl;lngulfli  culm  from  fmall  caking  coal,  either  by  tiy- 
ing  to  make  fire  with  it  In  a  common  grate,  without  interpofing  any  other  fuel  between  it ;  when  if  it 
kindles,  it  is  a  caking  coal ;  if  not,  it  is  culm  :  Or  by  putting  fome  of  thefe  fmall  fragments  of  coal 
on  an  ignited  Iron  fliovel ;  if  they  melt  and  run  together,  they  belong  to  the  caking  kinds ;  If  not,  they 
are  culm.  But  It  feems  that  coal  merchants  are  now  in  the  cuflom  of  calling  culm  the  powdery  parts  of  pit- 
coal,  of  whatfoever  kind  they  may  happen  to  be.  The  reafon  of  this  is,  that  there  is  a  difl^crence  In  the  duty 
payable  by  culm  and  by  caking  coals.  Tliere  never  was  any  difficulty,  however,  on  the  fubjeft  ;  nor  would 
tliere  be  any  difficulty  in  coUefting  the  tax,  wei-e  it  not  for  the  infufferable  ignorance  and  love  of  defpotic  op- 
yreffion  which  generally  per\-adcs  the  undeiling  officers  of  the  revenue." 


Coaij-Mtkes. 


PLate  CXIJl. 


>ca./ 


M^^i^JoaA'!.. 


C     O     A 


[     S9     1 


C     O     A 


Co;il.  tlie  nir.  It  confiih  of  wood  penetrated  with  petrol 
*~V~~-  or  bitiunen,  and  frequently  contains  pyrites,  alum, 
and  vitriol.  According  to  tlie  German  cbemifts  its 
afhes  contain  a  little  fixed  alkali  ;  but  Mr  Mills  difi'ers 
from  them  on  this  fuhjedt.  By  diftillation  it  yields  a 
■  fetid  liquor  mixed  with  a  volatile  alkali  and  oil  ;  part 
of  «'hicb  is  foluble  in  fpirit  of  wine,  and  part  of  a  mi- 
neral nature,  and  infoluble.  It  is  found  in  allnoll  all 
the  countries  of  Europe. 

Thefe  are  the  moft  confiderable  varieties  of  coals 
commonly  known  ;  but  we  muft  not  imagine  that 
each  of  them  is  to  be  met  honiogeneous  in  thofc  places 
where  they  are  fo\md.  On  the  contrary,  the  difler- 
cnt  qualities  and  proportions  of  their  ingredients  make 
a  vail  number  of  other  varieties,  fit  for  different  pur- 
pofes,  according  to  the  quality  and  quantity  of  tliofe 
thc'  contain.  Thus,  various  kinds  of  coals  are  often 
found  mixed  wiih  one  another  under  ground ;  and 
fome  of  the  finer  forts  fom.etimes  run  like  veins  be- 
tween thofe  of  a  coarfer  kind.  Thus,  M.  Magellan 
obferved  iii  the  fine  coals  employed  in  a  curious  ma- 
nufrftoi-y  at  Birmingham,  that  they  produced  a  much 
•  clearer  flame  than  he  had  ever  obferved  from  common 
coal ;  yet,  on  inquiry,  he  found  that  thefe  were 
picked  out  from  the  commori  coals  of  the  country, 
tlirough  which  they  ran  in  veins,  and  were  eafily  dif- 
tin^-fuiflied  by  the  manufafturers,  though  they  did 
not  afford  futficienl  indications  of  a  ipecific  differ- 
ence. The  purpofe  to  which  they  were  applied  was 
the  moulding  rods  of  tranfparent  and  coloured  glafs 
,',:  into  the  fliapes  proper  for  common  buttons;  which 
they  performed  with  aftonilhing  expedition. 

lourcroy  remarks,  that  this  folTil  biturnen,  when 
heated  in  contafl  with  a  body  in  combuflion,  and  ha- 
ving a  free  accefs  of  air,  kindles  the  more  flowly  and 
with  the  greater  difficulty  in  proportion  as  it  is  more 
weighty  and  compatt.  When  once  kindled,  it  emits 
a  llrong  and  durable  heat,  and  burns  for  a  long  time 
before  it  is  confumed.  The  matter  that. is  burned, 
and  pi'oduces  the  flame,  appears  very  denfe,  and  feems 
united  to  fome  other  fubilance  which  retards  its  de- 
llrudlion.  On  burning,  it  emits  a  particular  llrong 
fmell,  which  is  not  at  all  fulphureous  when  the  coal 
contains  no  pyrites.  When  the  combuflible,  oily, 
and  other  volatile  parts  of  the  coal  are  diffipated,  if 
the  combuflion  be  then  flopped,  the  remainder  is 
found  to  be  reduced  to  a  true  charred  Hate,  and  is 
called  coak.  This  fubflance  is  capable  of  exciting  the 
mofi  intenfe  heat,  for  which  purpofe  it  is  ufed  in  me- 
tallurgic  works  all  over  Britain.  .  ■     . 

"  It  is  well  known  (fays  M.  Magellan),  that  t!ie 
>  '  Englifh  method  of  burning  pit-coal  into  conk  has  been 
a  moll  profitable  and  happy  acquifition  for  the  fmclt- 
ing  our  ores,  and  for  many  other  metallurgical  and 
chemical  procefles  in  this  illand.  But  the  ingenious 
and  advantageous  undertaking  of  lord  Dundonald,  by 
which  he  turns  to  a  very  Confiderable  profit  the  mines 
of  coals  in  his  and  other  eliatcs,  building  ovens  of  a 
proper  conftruftion  for  burning  pit-coal  into  coak, 
and  at  the  fame  time  for  coUetliiig,  in  feparate  re- 
ceptacles, the  volatile  alkali,  oil,  tar,  and  pitch,  wh.ich 
were  generally  loll  by  the  ufual  method,  deferves  to 
be  noticed,  asit  affords  a  vfry  remarkable  inltsncc  of 
the  great  loffes  to  mankind,  for  want  of  carefully  at- 
tending to  everv  rcfult  from  great  proceffes  of  art 
VuL.  V.  Pan' I. 


when  made  on  a  large  fcale.     Thefe  ovens  are  fo  con-      foa'. 
trived,  as  to   admit  nn    under  fupply  of  air;  and  the    ^'" '"T- 
coals,  after  being  kindled,  deeom[K)ie  themfelvcs  by  a         * 
flow  but   incomplete   combuflion,  which  does  not  de- 
(Iroy  the  ingredients.     The  reilduiim  left  in   the  ovcu 
proves  to  be  moft  excellent  cinders  or  coaks  ;  whillt 
the  volatile  parts,  which  otherwife  would  be  dilTipatcd 
in  the  air,  are  feparated  and   condenfed   in  refervoirs, 
or  receptacles  of  capacious  fize,-  placed  at   proper  di- 
ftances   beyond  the    reach  of  fire.      Monf.  Faujas  de 
St  Fond,  who  vifited  thefe   works  in   a  trip   he  made 
to  Scotland,  undertook  to  eredl  a  fimilar  kind  of  oven 
in  France  :   and  it  is  rather  fingular,  that  he  endeavours 
to  eflablifli  a  claim  of  having  difcovcred  the  fame  pro- 
cefles before  he  faw  them  in  Scotland  ;  as  if  it  did  not 
refleft  a  greater  honour  on  his  induftry,  to  carry  back 
to  his  country  fome   ufeful  knowledge,  than  to  return 
as  ignorant  as  our  Enghfh  traveller.s,"  &c. 
■    On  fubjtcling  pit-coal  of  any  kind  to  diftillation  in 
clofe  veffels,  it  firfl  yields  a  phlegm  or  watery  hquor  ; 
then   an  ethereal  or  volatile  oil;   afterwards  a  volatile 
alkali.;  and  laflly,"a  thick  and  greafy  oil  :   but  it  is  re- 
markable, that,  by  reftifying  this  lail  oil,  a  tranfparent 
thin  and  light  oil  of  a  ftraw  colour  is  produced,  which 
being  expofed  to  the   air  becomes  black   like  animal 
oils.      From  this  and   other  obfervations,  the  general 
opinion   is,   that   all  coals,   bitumens,   and  other  oily 
fubflances  found  in  the  mineral  kingdom,  derive  their 
origin  from  vegetables  buried  in  the  earth  ;  flnce  it  is 
well  known  that  only  organifed  bodies  have  the  power 
of  producing  oily  and  fat  fubflances.      "  The  amazing 
irregularities,  gaps,  and  breaks  (favs  M.  Magellan)  of 
the  flrata   of  coals,  and  of  other  foffde  fubflances,  e- 
vince  that  this  globe  has  undergone   the   molt   violent 
convulfions,  by  which  its  parts  have  been  broken,  de- 
tached and  overturned  in  different  ways,  burying  large 
trafts   of   their  upper    furfaces,  with    all   the   animal 
and  vegetable  produdlions  there  exilling,  at  the  time 
of  thofe   horrible  cataftrophes,   whofe  epoch  far  pre- 
cedes  all   human   records.     And  it  is  eafy  to  be  con- 
ceived, that  the  various. heaps  and  congeries  of  thefe 
vegetable   and  animal  fubflances,    remaining  for  acres 
and  ages  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  have  obtained  va- 
rious confiflencies,  and  flill  produce  thofe  oily  and  bi- 
tuminous juices,  which  find  way  to  guiTi  out,  leaving 
behind  their  thickeft  parts  on   the  fame  places  where 
they'  are  found,  and  in  many  others  where  the  induftiy 
of  mankind  never  will  be  able  to  penetrate." 

Co.ii-]lfine.  See  Coaleky.  — Malicio'ufly  fetting 
fire  to  coal-mines  is  felony,  by  flat.  to.  Geo.  II.  c.  32. 
§6.  ^ 

Small  Co.u,  a  fort  of  charcoal  prepared  from  the 
fpray  and  brufhwood  ftripped  ofl'  from  the  branches  of 
coppice  wood,  fometimes  bound  in  bairns  for  that  pur- 
pofe, and  fometimes  charred  without  binding,  in  which 
cafe  it  is  called  '•  coming  it  together."  j 

COALERY,  CoALiERY,    or  Colliery  ;   a  coal-  HT-ory  of 
work,  or  place  where  Coals  are  dug.  coals. 

It  is  generally  agreed,  that  our  cannel-coal  *  is  the  ■•  See  Am- 
lapis  ampelites  of  the  Romans  ;  though  it  feems  toA''""- 
have  been  ufed  by  them  only  for  making  toys,  brace- 
lets, &c.  But  of  that  comraon  fuelwhicli  we  denomi- 
nate cojIs,  the  native  Romans  were  entiiely  ignorant. 
It  is  certain  that  they  are  ma,  as  fome  hive  imagined, 
the  lapis  obfidianus  of  PKny,  about  which  there  have 
M'  been 


C     O     A  [9c 

Coalerv'.  been  greatdifputesf :  northe  G agates,  or  Jet,  which 
*—  •■'~~'f  others,  again,  liave  taken  for  the  lapis  olJiJiiinus  ; 
cap  -•6  though  the  hghtnefs  and  texture  {how  plainly  that  it  is 
Auttftus  not  either  Itone  or  coal.  In  fact,  there  are  no  beds  of 
placi-a  the  it  in  the  compafs  of  Italy.  The  great  line  of  that  fuel 
llatues  ol  fccnis  to  fweep  away  round  the  glebe,  from  north-eall 
phants  '^^  louth-well  ;  not  ranging  at  a  diilance  even  from  the 
made  uf  it  fouth-eafterly  parts  of  our  illand,  as  is  generally  ima- 
in  the  tcin-  gined,  but  adtuallv  vifiting  Brabant  and  France,  and 
pleofCcn-  yet  avoiding  Italy.' 

curd.  '-,  ,      °    ■  ^   T>    •  1  ri- 

But  the  prima;val  iintons  appear  to   have   uled  it. 

And  in  the  precindts  of  Mancheiler  particularly,  which 

are  furnilhed  with   an  inexhaullible  abundance  of  it, 

thev  could  not  have  remained  uuapprifed  of  the  agree- 

ll'l'itahr's   able   combuftible  aroinid  them.     I'he  currents   there 

Hif.arsj  df    frequgntlv  bringr    down    fragments   of  coal   from  the 

Manib.ft.r.         ^    .    •  ■'  J    ■      ,1       1      '^         J        ■     r  re 

•'       moimtams  ;  and  in  the  long   and   windnig  courie  01 

them  through  the  parilh,  the  Britons  would  foon  mark 
the  fliiniug  Hones  in  the  channels  ;  and  by  the  aid  of 
accident,  or  the  force  of  refleftion,  find  out  the  utility 
of  tliem.      But  we  can  advance  ilill  nearer  to  a  cer- 
tainty.     Several  pieces  of  coal  were  difcovered  fome 
years  ago  in   the  fand  under  the  Roman  way  to  Rib- 
chcfter,  when  both  were  dug  up  at  the  conftruftion  of 
a  houfe  in  Quay-llreet.     The  number  of  pieces,  feve- 
ral  of  them  as  large  as  eggs,  was  not  leis  than  40  ; 
~~         and  a  quantity  of  flack  was  dug  up  with  them.   Thefe 
.  circuml'tances  (how  the  coals  to  have  been  lodged  upon 
the  fpot,  before  the  road  of  the   Romans  covered  it. 
That  ground  being  in   the   neighbourhood  of  Mancc- 
J  ;.  f.  "the  n/on J,  the  Britons  had  there   repofited  a  quantity   of 
place  of       coals,  probably  for  the  ufe  of  the  ganifon  ;  and  many 
ter.t<.    ^."  of  the  finallcr  fragments,  and  fome  of  the  flack,  were 
tifli  town     buried  in  the  fand  upon  wliich  they  were  laid.     And 
I.e.  fite  cjf    that  the  Britons  in  general  were  acquainted  with  this 
■which  was  fuel,  is  evident  from  its  appellation  amongil  us  at  pre- 
CaVlefidd'  '^^"*'  "''^''^^  '^  ^°'^  Saxon,  but   Britilh  ;  and  fubfifts  a- 
atManchcf-  ™ong  the  Irifli  in  their  0  glial,  and  among  the  Cornifh 
ter.  in  their  lohn,  to  this  day. 

The  extenfive  beds  of  fuel,  therefore,  with  which  the 
kingdom  of  England  and  the  precin6ts  of  Manchefter 
are  fo  happily  llored,  were  firft  noticed  by  the  (kill, 
and  firft  opened  by  the  labour  of  tlie  Britons  ;  and 
fome  time  before  the  arrival  of  the  Romans  among  us. 
And  the  nearer  quarries  in  the  confines  of  Bradford, 
Newton,  and  Manchefter,  would  naturally  attra£l  the 
notice,  and  invite  the  inquiries,  of  the  Britons,  before 
any  others.  The  current  of  the  Medlock,  which 
wafhes  the  f.des  of  them,  would  bring  down  fpecimens 
cf  the  riches  within,  lodge  many  of  them  about  the 
Caftlefield,  and  allure  the  Britons  fucceflively  to  a  col- 
kftion  cf  the  one  and  a  fearch  after  the  other. 

But,  even  for  ages  after  the  difcovti-y,  wood  continu- 
ed to  compofe  the  general  firing  of  the  nation.  In  852, 
3  grant  was  made  of  fome  lai  ds  by  the  abbey  of  Peter- 
borough, under  the  refervation  of  certain  boons  and 
payments  in  kind  to  the  monaftery  ;  as,  one  night's 
entertainment  ;  10  weflVls  of  Welfh  and  two  of  com- 
mon ale  ;  60  cart-leads  of  wood  ;  and  12  of  pit-coal  ; 
where  we  fee  the  quantity  of  coal  was  only  one  cart- 
load to  five  of  wood.  The  latter  naturally  continued 
the  principle  article  of  our  fuel  as  long  as  the  forcfts 
and  thickets  pretented  themfelves  fo  ready  to  the 
hand  :  and  fuch  it  contiiuied  lill  a  very  late  period. 
The  firft  public. notice  of  the  former  Is  mentioned  by 


]  C    O     A 

Mr  Hume  to  have  been  in  the  time  of  Henry  III.  who    Coilerj 
in   the  year    1272,    granted  a  charter  to  tlie  town  of  ^— v— 
Newcallle,  giving  the  inhabitants  a  licence  to  dig  coalti: 
and  the  firft   ftatute  relating   to  ijiis  article   was   the 
9  ILnry  V".  c.  10.  ordaining  all  kcds   in   the  port  of 
Nevvcaftlt    to   be   mealurcd   by  commifiloners,   before 
carriage  of  coals,  on  pain  of  forfeiture.     'J^hty  were  not 
brought  into  common  ufe  till  the  reign  of  Cnailes  I.  ; 
and  were  then   fold   for  about    17  s.   a   chaldron.      \x\  CamplcW . 
fome    years    after   the   reftoration,   there  were    about  ''»•'"'>''' 
200, ceo  chaldrons  burnt  in  London  ;  in  1670,  about        'J'* 
270,coc  chaldrons  ;  and  at  the  revolution,  upwards  of 
300,000  chaldioiis;  and  at  prefent,  full  6co,oco  are 
annually  confunied  there.     There  is,   bcfjdes,  an   im- 
raenle  conhimption  in  other   parts  of  Bi-itain,  and  in 
Ireland.      In  Scotland,  they  fupply  thsir  own  confurap- 
tion,  and  alfo  export.      In   Ireland,  though  they  have 
coal,  ytt  they  take  annually  to  the  value  cf  30,000!. 
from  England,  and  12,000  I.  from  Scotland. 

The  moft  remarkable  coalery,  or  coal-woik,  that  we 
have  ever  had  in  this  ifland,  was  that  wrought  at  Bur- 
rowftounneis,  under  the  fea.  The  veins  of  coal  were 
found  to  continue  under  the  bed  of  the  fca  in  this  place,, 
and  the  colliers  had  the  courage  to  work  the  vein  near 
half  way  over  ;  there  being  a  mote  half  a  mile  from  the 
fiiore,  where  there  was  an  entry  that  went  down  into 
the  coal-pit,  under  the  fea.  This  was  made  into  a 
kind  of  round  key  or  mote,  as  they  call  it,  built  fo  as  to- 
kcep  out  the  lea,  whicli  flowed  there  twelve  feet.  Here 
the  coals  were  laid,  and  a  fliip,  of  that  draught  of  wa- 
ter, could  lay  her  fide  to  the  mote,  and  take  in  the 
coal. — This  iamous  colliery  belonged  to  the  earl  of 
Kincardine's  family.  The  frcfli  water  which  fprung 
from  the  bortom  and  fides  of  tl/e  coal  pit,  was  always 
drawn  out  upon  the  flioie  by  an  engine  moved  by  wa- 
ter,lhat  drew  it  forty  fathom.  This  coal-pit  continued 
to  be  wrought  many  years  to  the  great  profit  of  the 
owners,  and  the  womler  of  all  that  faw  it  ;  but,  at 
lalt,  an  unexpeiled  high  tide  drowned  the  whole  at 
once  :  the  labourers  had  not  time  to  efcape,  but  perifli- 
ed  in  it. 

There  are  feveral  other  countries  in  Europe  which 
poftcfs  confiderable  coal-mines  ;  as  France,  Liege, 
Germany,  and  Sweden.  Alio  on  the  other  fide  of  the 
Atlantic  ocean,  there  has  been  coal  dilcovered,  and 
wrought;  in  Newfoundland,  Cape-Breton,  Canada,  and  . 

fome  of  the  New-England  provinces.      But  in  all  tliefe  jj^^u^n^ 
countries,  the  coal  is  of  a  quality  much  inferior  to  the  of  the  Br 
Britiflr,  ui'd  entirely  unfit  to  be  ufed  in   many  manu- ''"i  ™sls 
fatiures  ;    fo  that   they    are  obliged   to   import  great 
q;:ar,tities  from  Britain  for  the  ufe  of  their  manufac- 
tures ot  iron,  &c. 

Our  inland  coal  trade,  that  is,  carrying  coals  from  [rnp.Ttar 
Neivcaille,    Siurderland,    Biith,    and     other    adjacent  of  the co. 
places  ill  the  north  of  England,  as  alfo  from  the  frith 'r-'^^' 
of  Edinburgh  in  Scotland,  and  other  places  thereabouts, 
to  the  city  of  London,  and  to  the  port-towns  on  the 
coatt  all  the  way,   as   well   on    this  fide  of  Newcaftle, 
north,  as  up  the  channel  as  high  as  Portfmouth  weft, 
is  a  prodigious  article,  and  emjrloys  abundance  of  (hip- 
ping and   feamen ;    in  fo  ir.uch  that,   in  a  time   of  ur- 
gent ntceffity,  the  coalery  navigation  alone   has  been 
able  to  fupply  the  government  with  a  body  of  feamen 
for  the  royal  navy,  able  to  man  a  confiderable  fleet  at 
a  very  fnorl  warning,  and  that  without  difficulty,  when 

no 


C     O     A 


[     91     1 


C     O     A 


Coi'cy.    no  other  branch  of  trade  would  do  the  like.     Likewife 

— -V the  Whitehaven  coalerits  in  Cumberland,  boI<)n>;iiig  to 

Sir  James  Lovvther,  furnilh  fevcral  couniits  in  Ireland 
with  coals,  and  c  jnftantly  employ  upwards  of  2000 
feamen  ;  which  alio  is  a  noble  nurfery  f)r  the  navy  of 
this  kingdom.  And  not  only  do  the  pit-coals  fufii- 
ciently  fupply  al!  the  ports,  but,  by  Imcans  of  tliofe 
ports  and  the  navigable  rivers,  all  the  adjacent  coun- 
ties very  far  inland. 

In  fii^rt,  coals,  thousrh  not  an  excliifive,  ytt  may, 
with  propriety,  be  (Ivled  a  peculiar  I'ltfTinjj  to  Britain 
from  thrir  ijreat  plenty,  their  nek'iowlcdgcd  excel- 
lence, and  their  beincf  found  in  fuch  phccs  as  are 
conveniently  lltuattd  for  exportation.  Nor  Is  there 
any  danger  of  the  export-trade  beinR  lefTentd  even  by 
the  fcveral  duties  that  have  been  laid  up^  n  tliem  ;  for 
the  foreijrn  confumpt  being;  founded  in  receffity  with 
regard  to  manufaftures,  and  in  ccconomy  where  they 
are  ufed  for  convenience  (wood  and  turf  being  dearer 
than  coals  with  the  duty),  we  need  he  in  no  fear  of 
the  markets  declining-.  There  is  as  little  room  to  be 
alarmed  from  an  apprehenfion  of  their  beinjj  exhanlled, 
as  the  prefent  works  are  capable  of  fupplying  us  for  a 
long  feries  of  years,  and  there  are  many  other  mines 
ready  to  be  opened  when  thefe  fhsli  fail.  Befides, 
there  are  known  to  be  coals  in  many  parts  of  the  three 
Jiingdoms,  which  hitherto  they  hive  had  no  encourage- 
ment to  work. 

Bclides  the  vslne  of  this  commodity  as  a  converu- 
ency  of  life,  as  an  article  of  commeice,  and  as  giving 
rif;  to  a  nurfery  of  feamen    for   the    increafe   of  the 
marine  ;  1  ther  impojt?.nt  advTntages  deferve  to  he  no- 
ticed.     Coals  are  in  many  rtfpefts,  and  in  a  very  high 
degree,  ufcful  to  the  landed  intereft  ;   not  only  by  ral- 
fing  exceedingly  the  real  value,  ard  of  courft  the  pur- 
chafe,  of  thole  lands  in  which  they  are  found,  andthofe 
'There  are  through  which  it  is  neceffary  to  pafs*  from  the  vvoiks 
jip'^arical-to   the  places  where  they  are  embsrkel,  but  fiom  the 
jfiyled      jreneral  improvements  they  have  occaHoned  ;   fo  that 
''■'',"•  very  few  counties  are  now  better  cultivated  than  Nor- 
ashiL'h    thumberland,  and  the   fame  effefls  they  have  had  in  a 
!it<;  as  any  greater  or  lefs  degree  in  other  places.     Thoufands  of 
idcdprc-  laborious  people  are  employed  in  ar.d  about  the  mines; 
i"^. '"       thoufands  more  in  conveying  them   to  the  ports,  and 
*  on  board  the  (hips  ;  to  fay  nothing  of  thofe  that  draw 
their  fubfiftence  from  the  carriage  of  them  by  land  to 
fiipply  families,  &c.     There   ate   alio   great   numbers 
that  live  in  a  fuoerior  flaiion  ;  as  llewards.  ditcftors, 
factors,  agents,  book-keep.-rs.  See.     To  thcfe  we  may 
add  the  extraordinary  encouragement  given   to   inge- 
nious  artilts   who   have   invented,   and   the   numerous 
workmtn    continually    employed   about    thofe   fevtral 
'curious  and  coftly   machines  which,   for   a  variety  of 
purpofes  in  this  bufinefs,   are  in  continual  ufc,  and  of 
courfe  in    continual  wear  :  we  may  join  to  thcte  the 
multitudes  that  obtain  their  living  from  the  many  ma- 
nufaflures   in   which  they  are   employed,   and    which 
could  not  be  carried  on  but  by  the  help  and  cheapnefs 
of  coals.      Laftly,  the  produce  of  coals  expoited,  which 
amounts  to  a  very  confiderable  fum,  befides  being  pro- 
fitable  to  the   owners,  merchants,  and  mariners,   Is  fo 
much' clear  gain  to  the  nation. 

It  mioht  be  expefted,  that  a  trade  fo  beneficiil  to 
individuals,  and  to  the  nation  in  general,  and  whicli 
Las  been  gradually  increa&ng  for'f^eral  centuries  pail, 


iifun. 


would  "iave  beer,  advranced  by   this  tim:  to  very  great   Coilerv. 
perfeftiju,  and   reduced  to  a  regular  fyflcn:'.      But,  in  ' 

one  very  efTential  refpeft,  it  is  found  to  be  quite  other- 
Avife.  The  art  of  working  coal-mines  in  the  mo'l  pro- 
fitable manner  is  indeed  hiirlilv  improved  :  but  the  fun- 
damental of  the  ait,  that  of  fcarcliing  for  and  difco- 
V.  ring  coal  in  any  dillrift  of  country  where  it  has  not 
yet  been  found,  has  never,  that  we  know  of,  been 
treated  in  a  fyilematic  manner.  The  reac'cr,  there- 
fore, will  not  be  difpleafcd  to  find  this  defcft  'upplied 
in  the  courfe  of  the  prefent  article,  togethc.  A-ith  a 
detiiil  cf  all  the  other  operations  in  the  bufinefs  of 
coaleries. 

The    terrtllrial   matters    which    compofe    the    folid  Situation  of 
parts  cf  the  eaitli  are  difpofid  in  ftiata,  beds,  or  lay- the  lUata. 
era,  the  under  furface  of  one  bearing  againll   or  lying 
upon  the  upptr  furface  of  ih?.t  below  it.  which  lali  bears 
or  lies  on  the  next  below  in  the  fame  m.snner. 

Thefe  llrata  confiil  of  very  difi'erent  kinds  of  mat- 
ter, fuch  as  free  ftone,  limc-rtone,  mctal-llc.ne  or  whin- 
done,  coal,  &c.  R3  will  be  particularly  fpecified  in  the 
fequel. 

Some  of  thefe  (Irata  are  of  a  confiderable  thicknefs, 
being  often  found  from  100  to  200  feet  or  upwards, 
nearly  of  the  fame  kind  of  matter  from  the  fuperior 
to  the  inferior  furface  ;  and  others  are  found  of  the 
lead  thicknefs  imaginable,  one  inch  or  lefs. 

All  thefe  iirata  are  divided  or  parted  from  each  o- 
ther  laterally,  either  by  their  even,  fmooth,  polifhed 
furfices,  with  very  thin  lamina  of  foft  or  dully  matter 
betwixt  t'.iem,  called  iht:  pdi-tin^,  which  renders  them 
eafy  to  fepartite  ;  or  elfe  only  by  the  furfaccs  clolely 
conjoined  to  each  other,  without  any  vifible  matter  in- 
terpofed  betwixt  them  ;  yet  the  different  fubllance  of 
each  ftratum  is  not  iu  the  Icaft  intermixed,  though 
fometiiics  they  adhere  fo  Itrongly  together,  that  it  is 
very  d^fn.cult  to  part  or  disjoin  them  :  in  this  lail  cafe 
they  arc  fald  to  have  a  had  -partht^. 

Befides  this  principal  divifion  or  parting  laterally, 
there  are,  iu  fnme  llrata,  fecondary  divifions  or  part- 
ings alfo  laterally,  feparating  or  approaching  towards 
a  feparation,  of  the  fame  ftratum,  into  parts  of  dif- 
ferent thickneffes,  nearly  parallel  to  each  other,  iu  the 
fame  manner  as  the  principal  partings  divide  the  dif- 
ferent flrata  from  each  other:  but  thefe  fecondary 
ones  are  not  fo  ftrong  or  vifible,  nor  mak-  fo  eiFectual 
a  parting,  as  the  principal  ones  do  ;  and  ar-e  oidy  met 
with'in  fuch  llrata,  as  are  not  of  an  uniform  hardnefs, 
texture,  or  colour,  fi-om  the  upper  to  the  under  lur- 
face. 

There  are  other  divifions  or  partings,  called  hachs, 
in  almoft  every  llratum,  which  crofs  tlie  former  late- 
ral ones  longitudinally,  and  cut  the  whole  llratum 
throu'^h  its  two  furfaces  into  long  rliomboidal  figures. 
Thefe  again  are  crofied  by  others  called  culltrs,  run- 
ning either  in  an  oblique  or  perpendicular  dire£lion 
to  the  laft  mentioned  backs,  and  alio  cut  the  llratum 
through  its  two  lurfaces.  Both  thefe  backs  and  cut- 
ters generally  extend  from  the  upper  or  fuperior  ftra- 
tum down  through  fcveral  cf  the  lover  ones  ;  fo  that 
thtfe  backs  ar.d  cutters,  tog;tIier  with  the  lateral 
partings  before  mentioned,  divide  every  llratum  into 
innurre'able  cubic,  prifm:;tic,  and  rhornboidal  figures, 
according  to  the  thicknefs  of  the  ftratum,  and  the  po- 
fition  and  number  of  the  backs  and  cutters.  They 
M  2  fe).'net;'.r.cs 


Caalery. 


Pla?e 

CXLII. 


5 


6 

>!ltche5. 


C    O     A  f 

fomctimes  have  a  kind  of  thin  partition  of  d.'ly  or 
loit  matter  in  them,  and  fomttimes  none,  like  the  firll 
mentioned  partings  ;  but  the  fofter  kind  of  (Irata  gi- 
n«rally  have  moie  backs  and  cutters  than  the  harder 
kind,  and  they  do  not  extend  or  penetrate  through  the 
others. 

To  explain  this  a  lifJe  further, ■let  A,  B,  C,  D,  E, 
F,  G,  (da;.  I.)  reprelent  the  principal  partings  bef>ie 
mentioned,  or  the  upper  and  under  lui  faces  of  any 
ilratum  ;  then  a,  b,'  c,  d,  e,  f,  will  reprefcnt  the  le- 
condary  lateral  partings  nearly  parallel  to  the  princi- 
pal ones  :  g,  h,  i,  k,  I,  m,  the  lontjitudinal  partings  cal- 
led iacis  ;  ii,  o,  p,  q,  r,  s,  the  crofs  partings  called 
cutters,  crofling  the  lall  mentioned  ones  either  oblique- 
ly or  perpendicular. 

In  all  places  where  the  (Irata  lie  regular,  they  are 
divided  and  fubdivided  in  the  manner  above  men- 
tioned ;  and  fcmetimes  in  this  manner  extend  tlirough 
a  pretty  large  diftridt  of  country  :  though  it  is  often 
otherwife  ;  for  their  regularity  is  frequently  interrupt- 
ed, and  the  ftrata  bi'cken  and  difordered,  by  fundry 
chafms,  breaches,  or  fiffin'es,  which  are  differently  de- 
nominated accordina:  to  their  various  dimenfionr,  and 
the  matters  with  which  they  are  hlled,  to's.  drkts, 
hitches,  and  troubles,  which  fliall  be  explained  in  order, 
.  Dikfs  are  the  largell  kind  o{  filTureo.  Tiicy  feem  to 
be  nothing  but  a  crack  or  breach  of  the  folid  ftrata, 
occafioned  by  one  part  of  them  being  broken  away  and 
falleir  from  the  other.  They  gerierally  run  in  a  ftr-aight 
line  for  a  confiderable  length,  and  penetrate  from  the 
furface  to  the  greatell  depth  ever  yet  trred,  in  a  di- 
redlion  fometimes  per-pendicirlar  to  the  horizon,  and 
fometimes  obliquely  :  the  fame  kind  of  ftrata  are  found 
lying  upon  each  other  in  the  fame  order,  but  the  whole 
of  them  greatly  elevated  or  depreffed,  on  the  one  fide 
of  the  dike  as  on  the  other.  Thefe  hfTurcs  are  fome- 
times two  or  three  feet  wide,  and  fometimes  many 
fathoms.  If  the  fiifure  or  dike  be  of  any  confiderable 
width,  it  is  generally  filled  with  heterogeneous  mat- 
ter, different  from  that  of  the  folid  itrata  on  each  fide 
of  it.  It  is  fometimes  found  filled  with  clay,  gravel, 
or  fand;  fometimes  with  a  confufed  mjfb  of  drfferent 
kinds  of  ftone  lying  edgeways  ;  and  at  other  times 
with  a  folid  body  of  free- ftone,  or  even  whin-ftone. 
When  the  fiffure  is  of  no  great  width,  as  fuppofe  two 
or  three  feet  only,  it  is  then  ufually  found  filled  with 
a  confufed  mixture  of  the  different  matters  which 
compofe  the  adjoining  ftrata,  confolidated  into  one 
mafs.  If  the  dike  runs  or  ftretches  north  and  fouth, 
and  the  fame  kind  of  ftrata  are  found  on  the  eaft  fide 
of  the  dike,  in  a  fituation  with  refpedl  to  the  horizon 
lo  or  20  fathoms  lower  than  on  the  other  fide,  it  is 
then  faid  to  be  a  dip-dike  or  dwwncajl-dih  of  I  o  or  20 
fathoms  to  the  caftward  ; — or  counting  fr-om  the  eaft 
fide,  it  is  then  faid  to  be  a  rife-dike  or  upcq/l  of  fo 
many  fathoms  weftward.  If  the  ftrata  on  one  fide 
are  not  much  higher  or  lower  with  refpeft  to  the  ho- 
rizontal line,  than  thofe  on  the  other,  but  only  broken 
off  and  removed  to  a  certain  diftance,  it  is  then  faid 
to  be  a  dike  of  fo  many  fathoms  thick;  and  from  the 
matter  contained  between  the  two  fides  of  the  fiffure 
or  dike,  it  is  denominated  a  clay-dike,  Jione-dike,  &c. 

A  hitch  is  only  a  dike  or  fiffure  of  a  fmaller  degree, 
by  which  the  ftrata  on  one  fide  are  not  elevated  or 
feparated  from  thofe  on  the  other  fide  above  one  fa- 


92     ]  C     0     A 

thorn.     Thefe  hitches  are   denominated  in  the    fame    Coaltryt 
-   manner  as  dikes,  according  to  the  number  of  feet  they  '— v— ' 
elevate  or  deprefs  the  ftrat.i. 

There  are  dikes  (though  they  are  not  often  met 
with  in  the  coal-countrits)  whofe  cavities  are  filled, 
with  fparr,  the  ores  of  iron,  lead,  vitriol,  or  other  me- 
tallic or  mirreral  matters  ;  and  it  is  pretty  well  known,, 
that  all  metallic  vcirrs  arcr  nothing  elie  than  what  in 
the  coal  countries  are  caljtd  dikes. 

The  llrala  ar-e  generally  found  lying  upon  each 
other  in  the  fame- order  on  one  fide  of  the  dike  as  on 
the  other',  as  ir;entloned  above,  atrd  nearly  of  the  fame 
thickneffes,  appearing  to  have  been  originally  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  fame  regular  ftrata,  and  the  dike  only 
a  breach  by  forne  later  accident,  perpendicularly  or 
obliquely  down  through  them,  by  which  one  par"t  is 
removed  to  a  Imalf  diftance,  and  depreffed  to  a  lower 
fituation  than  the  other.  But  this  is  not  the  only  al- 
teration made  in  the  ftrata  by  dikes  ;  for  generally  to 
a  confiderable  diftance  on  each  fide  of  the  dike,  all  the 
ftrata  are  in  a  kind  of  fhattered  condition,  very  ten- 
der, eafily  pervious  to  water,  and  dcbafed  greatly  in 
their  quality,  and  their  inciiriatlon  to  the  horizon  often 
altered. 

1  rotihles-  may  be  denominated  dikes  of  the  fmallcft  Troublti, 
degree  j  for  tircy  are  rrot  a  real  breach,  but  orrly  an 
appr-oach  toward*  it  wliich  has  not  taken  a  full  effecft. 
The  ftrata  ai-e  generally  altered  by  a  trouble  from 
their  regular  fite  to  a  diftercnt  pontion^  When' the 
regular  courfe  of  the  ftrata  is  rrearly  level,  a  trouble 
will  caule  a  luddcn  and  confiderable  afcent  or  dtfceat  : 
where  they  have,  in  their  regular  fituation,  a  certain 
degree  of  afcent  or  defcent,  a  trouble  either  increafeth 
it  or  alters  it  to  a  contrary  pofition  :  and  a  trouble  has 
thefe  effeAs  upon  the  ftrata  in  common  with  dikes, 
that  it  greatly  dtbafeth  them  from  their  original  qua- 
lity ;  the  partings  are  fepar-atcd ;  the  backs  and  cutters 
disjoined,  and  their  regularity  difordered  ;  the  original 
cubic  and  prilmatrc  figrrref,  of  which  the  ftrata  were 
compoled,  are  broken,  and  the  diflocation  filled  with 
heterogeneous  matter ;  and  the  whole  ftrata  are  re- 
duced to  a  fofter  and  more  friable  ftate. 

The  ftrata  are  feldom  or  never  found  to  lie  in  a 
true  horizontal  fituation  ;  -but  generally  have  an  incli-  g 
nation  or  defcent,  called  the  dip,  to  fome  particular  Dip  and 
part  of  the  horizon.  If  this  inclination  be  to  the  eaft-  I'le  of  the 
ward,  it  is  called  an  ecijl  dip,  and  a  tvejl  rife ;  and  ac- ""'^' 
cording  to  the  point  ot  the  compafs  to  which  the  dip 
inclines,  it  is  denominated,  and  the  afcent  or  rife  is 
to  the  contrary  point.  Tiris  inclination  or  dip  of  the 
ftrata  is  found  to  hold  every  where.  In  fome  places,  it 
varies  very  little  from  the  level;  in  others,  very  con- 
fiderably  ;  and  in  fome  fo  much,  as  to  be  nearly  in 
a  perpendicular  direiftion  :  but  whatever  degree  of 
inclination  the  Itrata  have  to  the  horizon,  if  not  inter- 
rupted by  dikes,  hitches,  or  troubles,  they  are  always 
found  to  lie  in  the  firft  regular  manner  mentioned. 
They  generally  continue  upon'  one  uniform  dip  untiL 
they  are  broken  or  difordered  by  a  dike,  hitch,  or 
trouble,  by  which  the  dip  is  often  alter-ed,  fometimes 
to  a  different  partof  the  horizon,  and  often  to  an  oppo- 
fite  point;  fo  thaton  one  fide  of  a  dike,  hitch,  or  tr-ouble, 
if  the  ftrata  have  an  eaft  dip,  on  the  other  fide  they 
may  have  an  eaft  rile,  which  is  a  weft  dip  ;  and  in  ge- 
neral, any  confiderable  alteiation  in  the  dip  is  never. 

met 


C    O     A 


iercription 
if  the  (Ira- 
a  connec- 
ed  with 
ual. 


met  with,  but  what  'u  occafionedby  the  clrcamdances 
'  lall  mentioned. 

To  illullrate  what  has  been  faid,  fee  fig-  2.  where 
abed,  i:fc-  leprefeiits  a  courfe  of  ftrata  lying  upon  each 
other,  having  a  certain  inclination  to  the  horizon. 
A  B,  is  a  downcafi-dike,  which  deprtflTeth  the  ftrata 
obhqucly  to  efg  h,  l:^c.  lying  tipon  i;ach  other  in  tlie 
fame  oider,  but  altered  in  their  inclinati;>n  to  the 
lioii/.on.  C  D  reprefents  a  clay  or  free-llone  dike, 
where  tlie  llrata  are  neither  elevated  nor  depreffcd, 
but  only  broken  off  and  removed  to  a  certain  dillance. 
LF,  reprefcnts  a  hitch,  wliich  breaks  off  and  depref- 
felh  the  llrata  only  a  Hide,  but  alters  their  inclination 
to  the  horizon.  GH,  reprelentsa  trouble,  where  the 
llrata  on  one  fide  are  not  entirely  broken  off  from  thofe 
oil  the  other,  but  only  in  a  crulhcdand  irregulai  fitua- 
tion. 

As  fome  particular  llrata  are  found  at  fome  times  to 
increal'e,  and  at  other  times  to  di.niiiilh,  in  their  thick- 
iieffis,  whilit  others  remain  the  fame,  confequeiuly 
they  cannot  be  all  parallel;  yet  this  increafe  and  dinii- 
iiiition  in  their   thickiieiles  comes  on  very  gradually. 

The  llrata  are  not  found  difpofed  in  the  eatth  ac- 
cordinjT  to  their  fpccific  gravities  :  for  we  often  fin,d 
(Irata  of  very  denfe  matter  near  the  furface;  and  per- 
haps at  50  or  even  iqo  fithonis  beneath,  we  meet 
with  llrata  of  not  h;ilf  the  fpeciiic  gravity  of  the  firft. 
A  llratum  of  Iron  ore  is  very  often  found  above  one 
of  coal,  though  the  former  has  twice  the  gravity  of 
the  latter;  and,  in  (hurt,  there  is  fuch  an  ablohite  un- 
certainty in  forming  any  judgment  of  the  difpolilion 
of  the  llrata  from  their  fpecific  gravities,  that  it  can- 
not in  the  lead  be  relied  upon.  • 

It  has  been  imagined  by  many,  that  hills  and  val- 
lles  are  occafioned  by  thofe  breaches  in  the  ftrata  be- 
fore mentioned  called  diles  :  but  this  is  contradittcd 
by  experience.  If  it  was  fo,  we  Diould  meet  with 
dikes  at  the  Hcirls  of  the  hills,  and  by  the  fides  of  val- 
leys, and  the  fea-fhore  ;  but  inllead  of  that,  we  ge- 
nerally find  the  ftrata  lying  as  uniformly  regular  un- 
der hills  and  valleys,  and  beneath  the  bottom  of  the 
f;a  (as  far  as  has  been  yet  tiied),  as  in  the  moft  cham- 
paign cjuntries.  It  may  liappen,  indeed,  that  a  dike 
is  met  with  in  fome  of  thefc  places  ;  but  that  being 
only  a  cafual  circumllance,  can  never  be  admitted  as. 
a  geiveral  caufe.  Whatever  irregularities  are  occa- 
fioned in  the  folid  ftiata  by  dikes,  or  other  breaches,, 
are  commonly  covered  over  and  evened  by  thofe  beds 
of  gravel, 'clay,  fand,  or  foil,  which  lie  uppermoft, 
and  form  the  outward  furface  of  the  earth.  VVhere- 
ever  thefe  fofter  matters  have  been  carried  off,  or 
removed  by  accident,  as  on  the  tops  of  hills  and  the 
fides  of  valleys,  there  the  folid  ftrata  are  expofed,  and 
the  dip  and  rife  and  other  circumftances  of  them  may 
be  examined;  but  no  certain  conclufions  can  be  drawn, 
merely  from  the  unevennefs  and  inequalities  of  the  out- 
ward furface. 

The  preceding  obfervations,  iipon  the  general  dif- 
pofition  of  the  folid  ftrata,  are  equally  applicable  to 
the  ftrata  of  coal  as  to  thofe  of  ftone  or  other  matter. 

We  fhall  next  give  an  account  of  the  feveral  ftrata 
of  coal,  and  of  ftone  and  other  matters,  which  are 
ufually  connefled  with  coal,  and  are  found  to  have  a 
particular  affinity  with  it  :  and,  for  the  fake  of  dillinc- 
tion,    fl^all   arrange    ihera    into   fix    principal  claffes, 

Z 


I     93     ] 


C     O     A 


which  will  include  all  the  varieties  of  ftrata  that  have    Coalery. 
been  found  to  occur  in  all    thofe  diftriiSts  of  country  *"^~V       '' 
both  in  Scotland  and  England  where  coal  aboinids. 

1.  0/  IVI/m.Joiie '\  The  ftrata  of  what  is  deno.ni- 
natcd  whin-ftone  are  the  hardeft  of  all  others;  the  an- 
gular pieces  of  it  will  cut  glafs  ;  it  is  of  a  vtry  coarfc 
te.<!ture,  and  when  broke  acrofs  the  giain  exhibits  the 
app^rarance  of  large  grains  of  fand  half  vitrified;  it 
can  fcavcely  be  wrought,  or  broke  in  pieces,  by  com- 
mon tools  without  the  affillance  of  gim-powder  ;  each 
ftratum  is  commonly  homogeneous  in  fubftance  and 
colour,  and  cracked  in  the  rock  to  a  great  dtpih.  The 
moft  common  colours  of  thefe  (Irata  are  black  or  dark 
blue,  yet  there  are  others  of  it  afti-coloured  and  light 
brown.  Their  thicknefs  in  all  the  coal  countries  is 
but  inconfiderable,  from  fix  or  five  feet  down  to  a  fe\T 
inches  ;  and  it  is  only  in  a  few  places  they  are  met 
with  of  thc'fe  thickncffes.  In  the  air  it  decays  a  little, 
leaving- a  brown  powder;  and  in  the  fire  it  cracks,  and 
turns  rcddiftj  brown.  Limeftone,  and  what  is  called 
lajlurd  limeflune,  is  fomctimes,  though  rarely,  met  with 
hi  coaleries.  It  is  a  well  known  ftone;  but  from  its  re- 
fcmblance  in  hardnefs  and  colour  is  often  miftaken  for 
a  kind  of  whin.  Sometimes,  particularly  in  hilly 
countries,  the  fcilid  ma;ter  next  the  furface  is  found 
to  be  a  kind  of  fjft  or  rotten  whin  ; — but  it  may  be 
noted,  that  this  is  only  a  mafs  of  heterogeneous  mat- 
ter difpoftd  upon  the  regular  ftrata  ;  and  that  beneath 
this,  all  the  ftrata  are  generally  found  in  as  regular  an 
order  as  where  this  heterogeneous  matter  does  not  oc« 
cur. 

2.  Of  Pojl-Jione.']  This  is  a  free  ftone  of  the  hard- 
eft  kind,  and  nt-xt  to  the  limeftone  with  refpeft  to 
hardnefs  and  folldity.  It  is  of  a  very  fine  texture  ;  and. 
when  broken  appears  as  if  compofed  of  the  fineft  fand. 
It  is  commonly  found  in  a  homogeneous  mafs,  though 
variegated  in  colour  ;  and,  from  its  hardnefs,  is  not 
liable  to  injury  from  being  expofed  to  the  weather. 
Of  this  kind  ol  ftone  there  are  four  varieties,  which 
maybe  dKUnguiflied  by  their  colour :  the  moft  com- 
mon is  white  pod,  which  in  appearance  is  like  Port- 
land ftone,  but  confiderably  harder  ;  it  is  fometimes- 
varie^ated  v.'ith  ftreaks  or  fpots  of  brown,  red,  or 
bkck. 

Grey  poft  is  alfo  very  common  ;  it  appears  like  a 
mixture  of  fine  black  and  white  fand  :  it  is  often  va- 
riegated with  brown  and  black  ftreaks;  the  lad  men- 
tioned appear  like  fmall  clouds  compofed  of  particles 
of  coal. 

Brown  or  yellow  poft  is  often  met  with  of  differ- 
ent degrees  of  colour  ;  moft  commonly  of  the  colour  of 
llifht  ochre  or  yellovv  fand  :  it  is  as  hard  as  the  reft,  and 
fometimes  variegated  with  white  and  black  ftreaks. 

Red  poft  is  generally  of  a  dull  red  colour  :  this  is 
but  rarely  met  wiuh  ;  it  is  often  ftteaked  with  white, 
or  black. 

All  thefe  lie  in  ftrata  of  different  thickneffes ;  but 
commonly  thicker  than  any  other  ftrata  whatever  ;  they 
are  feparnted  from  each  other,  and  from  (jlher  kinds 
of  ftrata,  by  partings  of  coal,  fand,  or  foft  matter  of  dif- 
ferent colours  which  are  very  diftinguifliable. 

3.  Of  San(l-Jlofie.'\  This  is  a  free  ftone  of  a  coarfer 
texture  than  poll,  and  not  fo  hard  ;  is  fo  lax  as  to  bft 
eafily  pervious  to  water ;  when  broke,  is  apparently 
of  a  coarfe  fanJy  fubftance  ;  is  friable  and  moulders  to. 

faudi 


c   o 


xV 


[     9+     1 


C     O     A 


C<i.i!ery.  f^^J  when  expoftd  to  the  vvlod  anJ  ruin  ;  lias  frequent- 
''■""-y-'^-  \y  white  ihininjj  fpangles  in  it,  and  pebbles  or  other 
fn\a!l  ftones  inclofcd  in  its  mafs.  Of  this,  there  are 
two  kir.dii  commonly  met  with,  diftingiiin-icd  by  their 
colours,  grey  and  brown,  which  are  of  ditfercnt  iTiades, 
lighter  or  darker  in  jiropoition  to  the  mixture  of 
white  in  them.  It  is  mofl  generally  found  in  ilrata  of 
coiifiderable  thicknefs,  without  many  fcccndary  part- 
ings ;  and  fometimes,  though  rarely,  it  is  fv:bdivid»'d 
into  layers  as  thin  as  the  common  grey  flate.  It  has 
generally  fandy  or  foft  partings. 

4.  0/ Mdal-Jlone.^  This  is  a  tolerable  bard  ftratum, 
being  in  point  of  haidncfs  next  to  fand  ftone  ;  gene- 
rally folid,  compaft,  of  ccnfiderable  weight,  and  of 
an  argillaceous  fubftance,  containing  many  nodiiks  or 
balls  of  iron  ore,  and  ydbw  or  wh,ite  pyrites  ;  its  part- 
is:'*?, or  the  furfaces  of  its  ftrata,  aie  hard,  pohlTied,  and 
fmooth  33  ^lafs.  When  broke,  k  has  a  dull  diilkv  ap- 
pearance (though  of  a  fine  texture),  like  hard  dried 
clay  mixed  with  particles  of  coal.  Though  hard  in  the 
mine  or  quarry,  when  expofed  to  the  frefli  air  it  falls 
into  very  fmall  pieces.  The  moft  ufual  colour  of  this 
flone  is  black  ;  but  there  are  feveral  other  lighter  co- 
lours, down  to  a  light  brown  or  grey.  It  is  eafdy  di- 
ilinguifhed  from  free-flone  Ify  its  textuie  and  colour, 
as  well  as  by  its  other  charafteriftics.  It  lies  in  ilrata 
of  various  thiGkneflTes,  though  feldom  fo  thick  as  the 
two  kit  mentioned  kinds  of  (lone. 

5.  0/  Silver. 2  This  ftratiim  is  more  frequently  met 
•with  in  coaleiies  than  any  other.  There  are  many  va- 
rieties of  it,  both  in  hardnefs  and  colour  ;  but  they  all 
agree  in  one  general  charafterillic.  The  black  colour 
is  moft  common  ;  it  is  called  by  the  miners  blachjlnvcr, 
black  mettle,  or  bleas.  It  is  fofter  than  metal- ftone, 
and  in  the  mine  is  rather  a  tough  than  a  hard  fub- 
ftance, is  not  of  a  fulid  or  compaft  matter,  being  ea- 
fily  feparable,  by  the  multitude  of  its  partings,  &c. 
into  verv  fjnall  parts,  and  readily  abforbing  water. 
The  fubftance  of  this  ftratu-n  ij  an  indurated  bole, 
commonly  divided  into  thin  lamina  of  unequ  1  thlck- 
refles,  which  break  into  long  fmall  pieces  when  ftruck 
with  force  ;  and,  on  examination,  they  appear  to  be 
fmall  irregular  rhombcidcs :  each  of  ihefe  fmall  pieces 
has  a  poliftied  glafl)'  furface  ;  and,  when  broke  crofs 
the  grain,  appears  of  a  dry,  leafy,  or  laminated  tex- 
ture, like  exceeding  fine  clay  :  it  is  very  friable  ;  feels 
to  the  touch  like  an  unftuous  fubftance  ;  and  diflblvcs 
in  air  or  water  to  a  fine  pinjuid  black  clay.  There 
are  almoft:  conftantly  found  inclofed  in  its  ftrata 
lumps  or  nodules  of  iron  ore  ;  often  real  beds  of  the 
fame. 

There  are  other  colours  of  this  ftratum  befides  black. 
The  brown  or  dun  Oliver  is  very  frequently  met  with  ; 
it  agrees  with  the  above  dcfcription  in  every  thing  but 
colour.  Grey  fliiver  is  alfi  very  common  :  it  f  ems  to 
be  only  a  mixture  of  the  black  and  dun  ;  and  by  the 
different  degrees  of  mixture  of  thefe  colours  others 
are  produced.  It  lies  in  ftrata  fometimes  of  ccnfider- 
able thicknefs,  at  other  times  not  exceeding  a  fev/ 
feet  :  they  are  commonly  parted  from  each  other  by 
lamina  of  fpar,  coal,  or  foft  matter. 

6.  OfCoal.^  Referring  the  reader,  for  the  fcientilic 
divifion  of  coals,  to  Ampelites,  Lithanthrax,  and 
ihe  preceding  articles,  we  ftiall  here  confider  them  as 

3 


Coalcry. 


diftinguifiiable  into  three  kinds,  accoiding  to  their  de- 
grees of  infiammability. 

I.  The  leart  inflammable  kinds  are  thofe  known  by 
the  name  of  lyeljh  coal,  which  is  found  in  Wales  ;  Kil- 
kenny coal,  which  is  found  near  Kilkenny  in  Ireland  ; 
and  blind  or  dciif  coal,  whieh  is  found  in  many  pans  of 
Scotland  and  England.  This  coal  takes  a  conliderable 
degree  of  heat  to  kindle  it,  but  when  once  thoroughly 
ignited  will  burn  a  long  time  ;  it  remains  in  the  fire 
in  feparate  pieces  without  fticking  together  or  caking  ; 
i:  produceth  neither  flame  nor  fmoke,  and  makes  no 
cinder',  but  burns  to  a  white  ftony  ilagg  ;  ic  makes  a 
hot   glowing   fire   like   charcoal  or  cinders  ;  and  emits  y 

effluvia  of  a  fuffocating  nature  which  renders  it  unfit 
for  burning  in  dwelling-houfes,  its  chief  ufc  being 
amongft  maltfters,  dyers,  &c.  for  drying  their  commo- 
dities. 2.  Open  burning  coal,  foon  kindles,  maklnjr  a 
hot  pleafant  fire,  but  is  foon  confumtd  :  it  produceth 
both  iraoke  ar.d  flame  in  abundance  ;  but  lies  open  iu 
the  fire,  and  does  not  cake  together  fo  asto  form  cin- 
ders, its  furface  being  burnt  to  afhes  before  it  is  tho- 
roughly calcined  in  the  midft ;  from  this  it  has  its 
name  of  an  open  bvrnmg  coal;  it  burns  to  white  or 
brown  alhes  very  light.  Of  this  kind  is  cannel-coal, 
jttt,  parrot,  fplint,  and  moft  of  the  coals  in  Scotland. 
3.  Clofd  burning  coal,  kindles  very  quickly,  makes  a 
very  hot  fire,  melts  and  runs  together  like  bitumen, 
the  very  fmalleft  culm  making  the  fincft  cinders,  which 
being  thoroughly  burnt  are  porous  and  light  as  a  pu- 
mice ftone,  and  when  broke  are  of  a  fhining  lead  co- 
loui  ;  it  makes  a  more  durable  fire  than  any  other 
coal,  and  finally  burns  to  brown  or  reddiili  cjloured 
heavy  afhes.  Of  th's  kind  are.  the  Newcaftle  and  fe- 
veral other  of  the  Englifh  coals,  and  the  fmithv  coals 
of  Scotland.  The  open  burning  and  the  cloie  burn- 
ing coal  mixed  together,  make  a  more  profitable  fire 
for  domeftic  ufes  than  either  of  them  feparate. 

In  all  thole  diftiifts  of  country  where  coal  is  found, 
there  are  generally  feveral  ftrata  of  it  ;  perhaps  all  the 
different  kinds  above  mentioned  will  be  found  in  fome, 
and  only  one  of  the  kinds  in  others  ;  yet  this  one  kind 
ftiay  be  divided  into  many  different  leanis  or  ftrata, 
by  beds  of  ihiver  or  other  kinds  of  matter  interpofing, 
fo  as  to  give  it  the  appearance  of  fo  many  feparate 
ftrata.  '  j^ 

All  thefe  ftrata   above   defcribed,  with  their  feveral  The  order 
varieties,  do   not   lie   or   bear   upon  each  other  in  the:"  which 
order   in   which  they  are  defcribed,   nor  in  any  certain^  ^^ 
or  invariable  order.     Though  there  be  found  the  fame 
kinds  of  fti-ata  in  one  coaleiy  or  dillriil  as   in  another, 
yet   they  may  be    of  very    different   thickneffes.       In 
fome  places  there  are  moft  of  the  hard  kinds,  in  others 
moft  of  the  fofter  ;  and   in   any  one  diftrift   it   rarely 
happens  that  all  the  various  kinds  are  found  ;  for  fome 
kinds,  perhaps,  occur  only  Gnce  or  twice,  whilft  others 
occur  10  or  20  times   before  we  reach   the  principal 
ftratum  of  coal. 

In  order  to  explain  this,  fuppofe  the  ftrata  in  the 
pit  at  A  (fig.  3.)  lie  iu  the  order  a,  b,  c,  d,  l3c.  they 
may  be  fo  much  altered  in  their  thickneffes,  by  rea- 
fon  of  fome  of  them  increafing  and  others  diminifh- 
ing,  at  the  diftance  of  B,  that  they  may  be  found  there 
of  very  different  thickneffes  ;  or  if  they  are  examined 
in  a  pit  at  D,  by  reafon  of  its  lower  fituation,  and  the 

ilrata 


Pla-e 
CXLIf. 


C    O     A  I     9 

Cto'ery.    flrata  thtrc  not  being   a   continiiaUi-n   of  tliofe  in  the 
— V—  other  places,  they  may  be  very  dliTevent  both  in  their 
order  and  thickneffes,  and  yet  of  the  fame  kinds. 

Though  they  be  thus  found  very  different  in  one 
coalery  or  dilhidl  from  what  they  are  found  to  he  in 
another,  with  refpeA  to  their  thicknelTes,  and  the  or- 
der in  whieh  tliey  lie  upon  each  other,  yet  vee  never 
meet  with  a  ftratum  of  any  kind  of  matter  but  what 
btlontfs  to  fome  of  thofe  above  deferibed. 

To  illuflrate  how  the  various  lirata  lie  in  fome  places, 
and  how  often  the  fame  tlratum  may  occur  betwixt 
the  fiirface  ar.d  the  coal,  we  (hall  'five  the  following 
example.  The  numbers  in  the  left  hand  column  re- 
fer to  the  claffcs  of  (liata  before  defcribcd,  to  w'lich 
each  belong?.  The  fecond  column  contains  the  names 
of  the  lirata  ;  and  the  four  numeral  columns  to  the 
right  hand,  cxprefs  the  thicknefs  of  each  ftratum,  in 
fathoms,  yards,  feet,  and  inches. 

Example. 
Soil  and  g'a\e^ 
Clay  mixed  w  ith  !o'  fe  ftones 
Cuarfe  brown   fand-llone,  with  foft  p'rt' 

ings  -  -  _       -  .^      3     2     f' 

M'iiite  i^tift,  with  Tiivery  partii  ijs  1105 

Ebck  Oliver  or  lilcas,  with  iron-ftoiie  balls 
Coarfe  f|ilin:y  coal  -  -  0026 

Soft  i;rey  Oliver  -  -  -  0107 

BiowTi  anr!  j;i-eY  I'oft,  Trcalccd  with  black 
Black  (hivcr,  with  beds  and  balls  cf  iron 

ftone  -  ,       -  0126 

Grey  and  Hack  mettle-done  -  0119 

White  and  brown  poll  -  I       i     o     o 

Black  an  1  picy  diiver,  ft-caked  with  white  o  I  o  6 
Soft  L'ley  faiifl-ndiie  with  (liivery  parting's  olio 
VeMow  and  white  port,  witlifandy  1  arti'i^s  i  020 
fjlackr.ndjun  (liivcr,  with  iron-ftone  balls  0126 
White  \  oft  ftreakcd  with  black,  and  blacl'. 

part:ngs  -  -  - 

Grey  lliivcr.  with  iron-flnne  balls 
BroWn  and  bhck  mettle  (lone 
Hard  fiaty  black  fhivcr 
Coal,  hard  an.-l  fire  fplint 
S^'ft  black  fhiver 
0<  al,  fine  and  clear 
Hard  black  (hivcr 


To'al  Fathoms 


Fa'^ 

y.is 

Ft 

0 
[ 

I 
I 

I 
0 

.^ 

0 

2 

1 

I 

0 

2 

0 

2 

0 

0 

2 

0 

I 

0 

I 

0 

2 

0 

1 

2 

0 

I 

t 

I 

I 

0 

0 

1 

0 

0 

I 

I 

I 

0 

2 

0 

I 

2 

I 

0 

0 

I 

0 

I 

1 

2 

I 

I 

0 

0 

0 

3 

0 

° 

0 

0 

0 

.! 

0 

0 

I 

— 

— 

— . 

15 

0 

0 

Rule  id. 


P!-tc 


In  this  iiiftance  the  fpecies  of  fand-ftone  only  oc- 
curs twice,  pod  five  times,  whilft  the  (hiver  occurs  no 
lefs  than  nine  times. 

To  apply  the  foregoing  obfervations  to  praflice. 
Suppofe  it  was   required   to   examine  whether  there 
•was  coal  in  a  piece  of  ground  adjoining  to,   or  in  the 
neighbourhood  of,  other  coaleries. 
VIeihods  of      In  the  firft  place,  it   is  proper  to  be   informed,  at 
farchiiig     fome  of  the  adjacent  coaleries,  of  the  number  and  kinds 
or  coal.      (jf  ftrata  ;  the  order  in  which  they  lie  upon  each  other; 
to   what   point  of  the  horizon,  and  in  what  quantity, 
they  dip  ;  if  any  dikes,  hitches,  or  troubles,  and  the 
courfe   ihey  flretch.     Having  learnt   thefe  circumllan- 
ces,  fcarch  in  the  ground   under  examination  where 
the   ftrata    are  expofed  to  view,    and  compare  thefe 
with  the  other.     If  they  be  of  the   fame  kinds,  and 
nearly  correfpond  in  order  and  thicknefr,  and  be  lying 
in  a  regular  manner,  and   agree  by  computation  with 
the  dip  and  rife,  it  may  fafely  be  concluded  the  coal  is 
there  ;  and   the  depth   of  it  may  be  judged  from  the 
depth  of  the  coal  in  the  other  coalery,  below  any  par- 
ticular ftratum  which  is  vifible  in  this. 


5     1  C    O     A 

If  the  folid  ftrata  are  not  expofed  to  view,  n;itiier    Coalery. 
in  the  hills   nor  valleys  of  the  ground  under  exaniina-  " 

tion,  then  fearch  in  the  adjoining  grounds ;  and  if  the  '  "  ' 
fame  kind  of  ftrata  are  found  there  as  in  the  adjacent 
coalery,  and  there  is  reafoii,  from  the  dip  ;u;d  other 
circumllances,  to  believe  tliat  they  ftretch  through  the 
ground  to  be  examined  ;  it  may  tlicn  be  concluded  that 
the  coal  is  there,  as  well  as  thefe  other  ftrati 

Suppofe  a  coalery  is  on  the  fide  of  a  hill  at  A,  fig.  ^. 
and  you  would  fearch  for  a  coal  at  B,  on  the  other  fide 
of  the  hill,  but  in  a  much  lower  fituation  ;  by  oblervlng 
the  feveral  ftrata  lying  above  the  coal  at  A,  and  the 
poir.t  to  which  they  dip,  which  is  directly  towards  B 
(if  cL-ar  of  dikes),  you  may  expeft  to  find  the  lams 
kind  of  ftrata  on  the  other  fide  of  the  hill,  but  much 
lowL-r  down.  Accordingly,  if  foine  of  the  ftrata  are 
vifible  in  the  face  of  tlie  precipice  C,  they  may  be 
compared  with  fome  of  thofe  in  the  pit  at  A.  Oi",  if 
they  are  not  to  be  feeii  there,  by  fearching  in  the  op- 
pofite  hill,  they  may  perhaps  be  difcovered  at  the  placj 
F  ;  where,  if  thty  be  found  in  the  manner  before  men- 
tioned, and  there  be  reafon  to  believe  they  extend  re- 
gularly from  the  firft  place  to  this,  it  is  more  than  pro- 
bable the  coal,  as  well  as  thefe  ftrata,  will  be  found  in 
the  intei  mediate  ground. 

If  the  ground  to  be  examined  lie  more  to  the  rife  Rule  jtJ, 
of  the  coal,  as  at  E,  which  being  fuppofed  to  be  on  a 
flat,  perhaps  the  folid  ftrata  there  may  be  wholly  co- 
vered by  the  gravel,  clay,  &c.  of  the  <?utward  furface 
lying  upon  them  :  In  this  cafe,  by  meafuring  the  ho- 
rizontal ciftance  and  the  defcent  of  ground  from  A 
to  E,  and  computinsj  the  quantity  of  afcent  or  rife  of 
the  coal  in  that  diftance  :  by  comparing  thefe  toge- 
ther, it  may  be  jtidjed  at  what  depth  the  coal  w.U  be 
found  there,  allowing  that  it  lie  regular.  Thus,  fiip- 
pofe  the  coal  at  A  So  yards  deep,  the  diftance  from 
A  to  E  500  yards,  and  that  the  coal  rifes  i  yard  in 
10  yards  of  horizontal  diftance  : 

Then,  from  the  depth  of  the  pit  80 

Deduft  the  defcent  of  ground  from  A  to 

E,  fuppofe  -  -  -  24 

This  remainder  would  be  the  depth,  if  the 

coal  was  level  -  -  56 

But  as  the  coal  rifes  I  in  lo  feet,  then  de- 

du(A  what  it  rifes  in  500  yard.;,  which  is  50 

And   the  remainder  is  the  depth  of  that 

coal  at  E  -  -  -  6  Yards. 

Or   fuppofe  that   the  place   at  B  is  500  yards  the  Rule  4tfc, 
contrary  way,  or  to  the  full  dip  ot  the  coal  at  A  ;   if  a 
view  of  the  folid  ftrata   cannot   be  obtained,  then  by 
pi-occeding   in   the   fame  manner  as  before,  the  depth 
of  the  coal  at  that  place  may  be  computed.     Thus, 

To  the  depth  of  the  coal  at  the  pit  A       80 

Add  the  defcent  or  inclination  of  the  coal 
in  500  yards,  which,  as  before,  is         50 

This  fum  would  be  the  depth,  if  thegroimd 
was  level  -  •  130 

But  as  the  ground  defcends  towards  B, 
deduft  the  quantity  of  that,  which  fup- 
pofe -  -  -  80 


Remains  the  depth  of  the  coal  at  B 


50  Yards. 
If 


Coilery. 


€     O     A  L     9^     ]  C     O     A 

If  ibe  place  to  be  examined  be  neither  to  the  full  4lip  fuch   moderate  rifing   grounds   as  lall  defcribed,   are    CoaUryv 

nor  full  life,  but   in   fome   proportion    towards  titlKr,  alio  very  favourable  to  the  production  of  coal,  if  the  r— ^ 

the    fame   method   may  be   puiiued,   computing   how  folid    itiata,    and    other  circumitances  in  the    higher 

much  the  coal  rifes  or  dips  in  a  certain  diilance  in  that  grounds  adjoining,  be  conformable  ;  for  it  will  fearce- 

dire<5Hon.  '  ly  be  foiii:d,  in  luch  a  fitualion,  that  the  ilrata  are  fa- 

If  there  is  known  to  be  a  dike  in  the  workings  of  vourable  in  the  rihng   grounds,  on    both  tides  of  the 

the  pit  at  A,  which  elevates  or  deprefTeth   the  Ilrata  plam,  and  not  fo  in  the  fpace  betwixt  them.      Though 

towards  the  place  under  examination,  tnen  the  quan-  plains  be  fo  favourable,  in   inch  circumitances,  to  the 

tity  of  the  elevation  or  dtprcflion  muft  be  according-  produftion  of  coal,  yet  it  is  otten  n.ore  difficult  to  be 


ly  added  to  or  dcdudled  fiom  the  computed  depth  of 
the  coal  at  that  place.  Snppofe  there  is  an  upcall  dike 
of  lo  fathoms  or  20  yards  to^'ards  B,  then  deduft  20 
from  50,  the  depth  before  computed,  there  will  remain 
30  yardi  or  1 5  fathoms  for  the  depth  of  the  coal  at  B. 

But  it  often  happens  that  coal  is  to  be  fearched  for, 
in  a   part  of  the  country,  at  fuch  a  confiderable  di- 


difcovered  in  fuch  a  fituation,  than  in  that  before  de- 
dcfcribcd ;  becaufe  the  clay,  (oil,  and  other  lax  mat- 
ter, bi ought  off  the  higher  grounds  by  rains  and  other 
accidents,  tiave  generally  covered  the  lurlaces  of  fuch 
plains  to  a  conlicerable  depth,  which  prevents  the  ex- 
ploration of  the  folid  Itrata  there,  unlefs  tliey  be  cx- 
pofed  to  view  by  digging,  quarrying,  or  lome  luch 


fiance  from  all  other  coalerie;.,  that  by  reafon  of  the  operation 
intervention  of  hills,  valleys,  unknown  dikes,  &c.  the  "^ hat  part  of  the  dillria  being  fixed  upon  which 
•conneftion  or  relation  of  the  ftrata  with  thofe  of  any  abounds  with  moderate  hills  and  valleys  as  proptretl 
other  coalery  cannot  be  traced  by  the  methods  lall  to  begin  the  exdmination  at,  the  iirll  Itep  to  be  taken  is 
mentioned  ;  in  which  cafe  a  more  extcnfive  view  mui\  '"  examine  all  places  where  the  lohd  Utata  are  ex- 
be  taken  of  all  circumftances  than  was  necefiary  in  the  pofed  to  view  (which  are  culled  the  crops  of  the  lira- 
former;  and  a  few  general  rules  founded  on  the  fore-  •^a),  as  in  precipices,  hollows,  &c.  tracing  them  as  ac- 
going  obfervations,  and  on  conclufions  drawn  from  ciirately  and  giadually  as  the  circumitances  will  allow, 
them,  will  greatly  slTilt  in  determining  fometimes  with  a  f'"'"  "^'"^  uppermoll  llratum  or  highelt  part  of  the 
great  degreeof  probability,  and  fometimes  with  abfolute  ground  to  the  very  undernioil  :  and  if  they  appear  to 


certainty,  whether  ccal  be  in  any  particular  dilhift  of 
country  or  not. 
Rule  5th.  The  firfl.  proper  ftep  to  be  taken  in  fuch  a  cafe^,  is 
to  take  a  general  view  of  that  diftrift  of  country  in- 
tended to  be  fearched,  in  order  to  judge,  from  theout- 
ward  appearance  or  face  of  the  country,  which  parti- 
cular part  out  of  the  whole  is  the  moil  likely  to  con- 
tain thofe  kind  of  ftrata  favourable  to  the  production 
ot  co:il ;  and  confequently  fuch  particular  part  being 
found,  is  the  mofl  advlfable  to  be  begun  with  in  the 
examination. 

Though    the    appearance    of   the    outward  furface 


be  ot  the  kinds  before  delcribed,  it  will  be  picper  to 
note  in  a  memorandum  book  their  different  thiekiitfles; 
the  older  lii  atiich  they  he  upon  each  ether;  the  point 
ot  the  horizon  to  which  they  dip  or  inchne,  aiid'the 
quantity  ol  tl.at  inclination  ;  and  whether  they  lie  in 
a  regular  Hare.  This  Ihould  be  done  in  every  part  of 
the  ground  where  they  can  be  feen  :  oblerving  at  the 
fame  time,  that  if  a  Itratuiii  can  be  found  in  one  place, 
which  have  a  connection  with  lome  othei  in  a  Iccond 
place,  and  if  this  other  has  a  connection  with  another 
in  a  third  place,  &c  ;  then,  fiora  thelc  feparate  con- 
nections, the  joint  correlpondence  of  the  whjjlc  may 


gives  no  certain  or  infallible  rule  to  judge  of  the  kinds     be  traced,  and  the  Ilrata,  which  in  fome  places  arc  co 


■Mounta'n- 
oils  fitua- 
tions. 


of  ftrata  lying  beneath,  yet  it  irjves  a  probable  one  ; 
for  it  is  generally  found,  that  a  chain  of  mountains- or 
hills  riling  to  a  great  height,  and  very  fteep  on  the 
fides,  are  commonly  compoftd  of  ftiata  much  harder 
and  of  different  kinds  from  thofe  before  defcribed 
wherein  coal  is  found  to  lie,  and  therefore  unfavour- 
able to  the  production  of  coal ;  and  thefe  mountainous 
fjtuations  are  alfo  more  fubjeft  to  dikes  and  troubles 
than  the  lower  grounds:  fo  that  if  the  fclid  ftrata  com- 


vered,   may    be   known   by  their  correlpondence  with 
thofe  which  are  expoled  to  view. 

it  by  this  means  the  crops'  of  all  the  Ilrata  cannot 
be  leen  (which  is  olten  the  caie),  and  if  no  coal  be 
difcovered  by  its  ciop  appearing  at  the  furface;  yet 
if  the  ftrata  that  have  been -viewed  confilt  of  thofe 
kinds  before  delcribed,  and  arc  tound  lying  in  a  regu- 
lar order,  it  is  luffieiently  probable  that  coal  may  be 
ill  that  part  of  the  diltritl,  although  it  be  concealed 


Hills  and 
valleys. 


Plains. 


pofing  them   gave  even    favourable  fyrptoms  of  coal,  f'om   light  by   the  furface  of  earth   or  other  matter. 

yet   the  lall  circumftance    would    render    tlie  quality  Therefore,  at  the  lame  time  that  the  crops  of  the  ftrata 

bad,  and  the  quantity  precarious.    Aand,  on  the  whole,  afe  under  examination,  it  will  be  proper  to  take  notice 

it  may   be  obferved,   that  mountainous   fituations  are  of  all  fuch  Iprings  of  water  as  leem  to  be  ot  a  mineral 

found    more   favourable    to  the  produdtion   of  metals  nature,  particularly  thofe  known  by   the  name  of  iron 

than  of  coal.      It  is  llkewife  generally  found  that  thofe  water,  which  bear  a  mud  or  feuiment  of  the  colour  of 

dillrifts  abounding  with  valleys,  moderately  riling  hills,  mil  of  iron,  having  a  Itrong  aftriugent  taftc.     Springs 

and   interfperfed  with   plains,   fometimes  of  conlider-  of  this  kind  p'rocccd  originally  from  thole  ftrata  which 

able    eKent,  do    more    conimonly    cont.iin  coal,    and  contain  beds  or   balls  ot   iron-ore  ;  but  by  realon  of 

thofe  kinds  of  ftrata  favourable  to  its  produdlion,  than  the  tenacity  of  the  matter  of  thole  ftiata,  the  water 

either  the  mountainous  or  champaign  cc-untries  ;  and  only  difengages    itfelf  flowly  trom  them,  deleeiiding 

a  country   fo   fituattd  as  this  Inll  defcribed,  elptcially  into  fome  more  porous  or  open  llratum  below,   where, 

if  at  fome  confideiable  diilance  from   the    mountains,  gathering  in  a  body,  it  runs  out  to  the  furface  va  Imail 

oi^ght  to  be  the  firft  part  appointed  for   particular  ex-  Itreanis  or  rills.      The  llratum  of  coal  is  the  moft  ge» 

amuiation.      Plains,  or  level  grounds  cf  great  extent,  neral  refervoir  of  this  water;  for  the  iron- Hone  being 

generally  fituated  by  the   fidts  of  rivers,  or  betwixt  lodged  in  different  kinds  of  Ihiver,  and  the  coal  com- 

N"^  S3.  monly 


Rule  fitk. 


C     O     A 


L    97    1 


C     O     A 


monly  connefted  with  fome  of  them,  it  therefore  de- 
fcends  into  the  coal,  where  it  finds  a  ready  paffiige 
through  the  open  backs  and  cutters.  Sometimes,  in- 
deed, it  finds  forae  other  Itratum  than  coal  to  colleft 
and  tranfmit  it  to  the  furface  ;  but  the  difference  is 
eafily  diftinguilhable  ;  for  the  ochrey  matter  in  the 
water,  when  it  comes  from  a  ftratum  of  coal,  is  of  a 
darker  ruily  colour  than  when  it  proceeds  from  any 
other,  and  often  brings  with  it  particles  and  fmall 
pieces  of  coal ;  therefore,  wherever  thefe  two  cir- 
cumftanccs  concur  in  a  number  of  thefe  kind  of  fprings, 
fituated  in  a  direction  from  each  other  anfwerable  to 
the  (Iretch  or  to  the  inclination  of  the  ftrata,  it  may  be 
certain  the  water  comes  off  coal,  and  that  the  coal  lies 
in  a  fome  what  higher  fituation  thanthe  apertures  of  the 
fprings. 

There  are  other  fprings  alfo  which  come  off  coal, 
and  arc  not  dillinguifhable  from  common  water,  other- 
wife  than  by  thtir  aftringency,  and  their  having  a  blue 
fcum  of  an  oily  or  glutinous  nature  fwimming  upon 
the  furface  of  the  water.  Thefe,  in  common  with  the 
others,  bring  out  particles  of  coal,  more  efpecially  in 
rainy  feafons  when  the  fprings  flow  with  rapidity. 
When  a  number  of  thefe  kinds  are  fituated  from  each 
other  in  the  direftion  of  the  ilrata,  as  above  defcri- 
bed ;  or  if  the  water  does  not  run  forth  as  in  fprings, 
but  only  forms  a  fwamp,  or  an  extenfion  of  ftagnant 
water  beneath  the  turf;  in  either  cafe,  it  may  be  de- 
pended upon  that  this  water  proceeds  from  a  llratum 
of  coal. 

If  tlie  ftratnm  of  coal  is  net  e.\pofed  to  view,  or 
cannot  be  difcovered  by  the  firft  method  of  fearcliiiig 
for  the  crop,  although  the  appearance  of  the  other 
ftrata  be  very  favourable,  and  afford  a  ftr'ong  proba- 
bility of  coal  being  there  ;  and  if  the  lall-mentioncd 
method  of  judging  of  the  particular  place  where  the 
crop  of  the  coal  may  lie,  by  the  fprings  of  water  iffu- 
ing  from  it,  fhould,  from  the  deficiency  of  thofe  fprings 
or  other  circum fiances,  be  thought  equivocal,  and 
not  give  a  iatisfa6tory  indication  of  the  coal ;  then  a 
further  fearch  may  be  made  in  all  places  where  the 
outward  furface,  or  the  flratum  of  clay  or  earth,  is 
turned  up  by  ploughing,  ditching,  or  digging,  particu- 
larly in  the  lower  grounds,  in  hollows,  and  by  the 
fides  of  flreams.  Thefe  places  fhould  be  flriftly  exa- 
mined, to  fee  if  any  pieces  of  coal  be  interinixed  with 
the  fubftance  of  the  fuperior  lax  ftrata  ;  if  any  fuch  be 
found,  and  if  they  be  pretty  numerous  and  in  detached 
pieces,  of  a  firm  fubftance,  the  angles  perfeft  or  not 
much  worn,  and  the  texture  of  the  coal  diftinguifh- 
able,  it  may  be  concluded,  that  the  ftratum  of  coal  to 
which  they  originally  did  belong  is  at  no  great  dif- 
tance,  but  in  a  fituation  higher  with  refpeft  to  the 
horizon  ;  and  if  there  be  alfo  found  along  with  the 
pieces  of  coal  other  mineral  matter,  fuch  as  pieces  of 
ftiiver  or  freeftone,  this  is  a  concurrent  pr-oof,  that  it 
has  come  only  from  a  fmall  diftance.  Though  the  two 
fore-mentioued  methods  fhould  only  have  produced  a 
ftrong  probability,  yet  if  this  lafl  mentioned  place, 
V'hcre  the  pieces  of  coal,  &c.  are  found  in  the  clay, 
be  in  a  fituation  lower  than  the  fprings  ;  when  lliis 
circumftnnce  is  joined  to  the  other  two,  it  amounts  to 
little  lefs  tlian  a  moral  certainty  of  the  flratum  of  coal 
being  a  very  little  above  the  level  of  the  fprings.  But 
if,  on  the  contrary,  thefe  pieces  of  coal  are  found  more 

Vol.  V.   Part  I. 


fparingly  inlerfperfod  in  the  fuperior  flratum,  and  if  Coilery. 
the  angles  arc  much  fretted  or  worn  ofl,  and  very  little  • 
of  other  kinds  of  mineral  matter  conne6\cd  with  thcrn  j 
it  may  then  be  concluded,  that  they  have  come  from 
a  ftratum  of  coal  fituated  at  a  greater  diflance  than 
in  the  former  cafe  ;  and  by  a  ftrlft  fearch  and  an  ac- 
curate comparifon  of  other  circumflances,  that  parti- 
cular place  may  be  difcovered  with  as  much  certainty  as 
the  other. 

After  the  place  is  thus  difcovered,  where  the  ftra- 
tum of  coal  is  expefted  to  lie  concealed,  the  next  pro- 
per ftep  to  be  taken,  is  to  begin  digging  a  pit  or  hole 
there  perpendicularly  down  to  find  the  coal.  If  the 
coal  has  no  folid  ftrata  above  and  beneath  it,  but  be 
found  only  embodied  iu  the  clay  or  other  lax  matter, 
it  will  not  be  there  of  its  full  ihicknefs,  nor  fb  hard 
and  pure  as  in  its  perfeft  ftate  when  enclofed  be- 
twixt two  folid  ftrata,  the  uppermoft  called  the  roofy 
and  the  undermoft  called  the  pavement,  of  the  coal : 
in  fuch  fituation  therefore  it  becomes  necefTary,  either 
to  dig  a  new  pit,  or  to  work  a  mine  forward  until  the 
ilratum  of  coal  be  found  included  betwixt  a  folid  roof 
and  pavement,  after  which  it  need  not  be  expefted  to 
increafe  much  in  its  thicknefs  :  yet  as  it  goes  deeper 
or  farther  to  the  dip,  it  moft  likely  will  improve  in  ita 
quality  ;  for  that  part  of  the  ftratum  of  coal  which  lies 
near  the  furface,  or  only  at  a  fmall  depth,  is  often  de- 
bafed  by  a  mixture  of  earth  and  fundry  other  impuri- 
ties, waflied  down  from  the  furface,  through  the  backs 
and  cutters,  by  the  rains ;  whilft  the  other  part  of  the 
ftratum  which  lies  at  a  greater  depth  is  prefer  ved  pure, 
by  the  other  folid  ftrata  above  it  intercepting  all  the 
mud  wafrred  from  the  furface. 

The  above  methods  of  inveftigation  admit  of  many 
different  cafes,  according  to  the  greater  or  lefs  numbor 
of  favourable  circumftances  attending  each  of  the  modes 
of  inquiry  ;  and  the  refult  accordingly  admits  every 
degree  of  probability,  from  the  moft  diftant,  even  up 
to  abfolute  certainty.  In  fome  fituations,  the  coal 
will  be  difcovered  by  one  method  alone  ;  in  others,  by 
a  comparifon  of  certain  cii'cumftances  attending  each 
method  ;  whilft  in  fome  others,  all  the  circumftances 
that  can  be  collected  only  lead  to  a  certain  degree  of 
probability. 

In  the  laft  cafe,  where  the  evidence  Is  only  proba- 
ble, it  will  be  more  advifable  to  proceed  in  the  fearch 
by  boring  a  hole  through  the  folid  ftrata  (in  the  man- 
ner hereafter  defcribed),  than  by  digging  or  finking  a 
pit,  it  being  both  cheaper  and  more  expeditious  ;  and 
in  every  cafe,  which  does  not  amount  to  an  abfolute 
certainty,  this  operation  is  necefTary,  to  afcertain  the 
real  exiflence  of  the  coal  in  that  place. 

We  fliall  now  fuppofe,  that  having  examined  a  cei'- 
tain  diflrifrt,  fituated  within  a  few  miles  of  the  fea  or 
fome  navigable  river,  that  all  the  circumftances  which 
offer  only  amount  to  a  probability  of  the  coal  being 
tltere,  and  that  boring  is  necefTary  to  afcertain  it ;  we 
fhall  therefore  defcribe  the  operation  of  boring  to  the 
coal;  then  the  method  of  clearing  it  from  water,  com- 
monly called  winning  it ;  and  all  the  fubfequent  ope- 
rations of  working  the  coal  and  raifing  it  to  the  fur- 
face, leading  it  to  the  river  or  harbour,  and  finally- 
putting  it  on  boar-d  the  fliips.  12 

Suppofe  that  the  groirnd.  A,  B,  C,  D,  fig.  4.  has^f ''°""e 
been  examined,  and  from  the  appearance  of  the  ftrata  ^.^^j'  * 
.  N  where 


C    O     A 

Coa!ery.    where  tliev  are  vifiblc  (as  at  the  precipice  D, 


PUte 
CXLll. 


vci-al  othei  places),  they  are  found  to  be  of  thofe  kinds 
ufually  coiuitAed  witti  coal,  and  that  the  point  to 
which  they  rife  is  direttly  well  towards  A,  but  the 
ground  being  flat  and  covered  to  a  confidcrable  depth 
with  earth,  Isfc.  the  ftrata  cannot  be  viewed  in  the 
low  g^-ounds;  therefore,  in  this  and  all  fimilar  fituations, 
the  firft  hole  that  is  bored  for  a  trial  for  coal  (lionid  be 
on  the  well  fide  of  the  ground,  or  to  the  full  rife  of 
the  ilrata  as  at  A,  where,  boi-ing  down  through  the 
ftrata  l,  2,  3,  fuppofe  10  fathoms,  and  not  finding 
ccal,  it  will  be  better  to  bore  a  new  hole  than  to  pro- 
ceed to  a  great  depth  in  that:  therefore,  proceeding  fo 
far  to  the  ealKvard  as  B,  where  the  llratum  t,  of  the 
fiifthole,  is  computed  to  be  10  or  I2  fathoms  deep,  a 
fecond  hole  may  be  bored,  where  boring  down  through 
the  ftrata  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  the  llratum  i  is  met  with,  but 
no  coal;  it  would  be  of  no  ufc  to  bore  farther  in  this 
hole,  as  the  fame  ilrata  would  be  found  which  were 
in  the  hole  A  :  therefore,  proceeding  again  fo  far  to 
the  eaftward,  as  it  may  be  computed  the  llratum  4  of 
the  fecond  hole  will  be  met  with  at  the  depth  of  10  or 
12  fathoms,  a  new  hole  may  be  bored  at  C  ;  where, 
boring  through  the  ilrata  9,  10,  II,  12,  the  coal  is 
net  with  at-n,  before  the  hole  proceed  fo  deep  as 
the  ftratum  4  of  the  former.  It  is  evident,  liiat,  by 
this  method  of  procedure,  neither  the  coal  nor  any  o- 
ther  of  the  ftrata  can  be  pafled  over,  as  tlie  laft  hole  is 
alwa->'s  boied  down  to  that  ftratum  which  was  ntareft 
the  furface  in  the  fonner  hole. 

The  purpofes  for  which  boring  is  ufcd  are  nume- 
rous, and  fome  of  them  of  the  utmoft  importance  in 
coaleries.  In  coaleries  of  great  extent,  although  the 
coal  be  known  to  extend  through  the  whole  grounds, 
yet  accidental  turns,  and  other  alterations  in  the  dip, 
to  which  liic  coal  is  lirible,  render  the  boring  of  three 
or  more  holes  necefl'ary,  to  determine  exatlly  to  what 
point  of  the  horizon.it  dips  or  inclines,  before  any  ca- 
pital operation  for  the  winning  of  it  can  be  undertaken  ; 
becaufe  a  very  fmall  error  in  this  may  ocealion  the  lofs 
of  a  great  part  of  the  coal,  or  at  leaft  incur  a  double 
expence  in  recovering  it. 

Suppofe  A,  B,  C,  D,  fig.  5.  to  be  part  of  an  exten- 
five  field  of  coal,- intinded  to  be  von  or  laid  dry  by 
a  fire-engine  ;  according  to  the  courfe  of  the  dip  ui 
adjoining  coaleries,  the  point  C  is  the  place  at  which 
the  engine  (hould  be  eretled,  becaufe  the  coal  dips  in 
diretlion  of  the  line  AC,  confequently  the  level  line 
would  be  in  the  direftion  CD  ;  but  this  ought  not  to 
be  trufted  to.  Admit  two  holes,  i,  2,  be  bored  to 
the  coal  in  the  direftion  of  the  fuppofed  dip,  at  200 
yards  diftance  from  each  other,  and  a  third  hole  3  at 
200  yards  diftance  from  each  of  them :  fuppofe  the 
coal  is  found,  at  the  hole  i,  to  be  20  fathoms  deep;  at 
the  hole  2,10  fathoms  deeper;  but  at  the  hole  ^,  only 
8  fathoms  deeper  than  at  I.  Then  to  find  the  true 
level  line  and  dip  of  the  coal,  fay,  As  10  fathoms  the 
dip  from  1  to  2,  is  to  200  yards  the  diftance,  fo  is  8 
fathoms,  the  dip  from  1  to  3,  to  16c  yards,  the  dif- 
tance from  one  on  the  line  i  2,  to  a,  the  point  upon  a 
level  with  the  hole  3.  Again  fay,  As  8  fathoms,  the 
dip  from  I  to  3,  is  to  200  yards  the  diftance  ;  fo  is 
10  fathoms,  the  dip  from  i  to  2,  to  250  yards,  the' 
diftance  from  I,  in  direftion  of  the  line  I,  3,  to  b,  the 
poiat  upon  a  level  with  the  hole  2.     Thtu  let  fall  the 


[     98     1  C     O     A 

and  fe-     perpendicular  I,  e,  which  will  be  the  true  direflion  of  Coalerf, 


the  dip  of  the  coal,  inftead  of  the  fuppofed  line  AC; 
and  by  drawing  E  D,  and  D  F,  parallel  to  tlie  other 
lines,  the  angle  D,  and  no  other  place,  is  the  deepell 
part  of  the  coal,  and  the  place  where  the  engine 
ftiould  be  eredled.  If  it  had  been  ereCled  at  the  angle 
C,  the  level  line  would  have  gone  in  the  diredtiou  c  i, 
by  which  means  about  one  third  part  of  the  field  of 
coal  would  have  been  below  the  level  of  the  engine, 
and  perhaps  loft,  without  another  engine  was  erected 
at  U. 

Boring  not  only  fliows  the  depth  at  which  the  coal 
lies,  but  its  cxaA  tliickntfs  ;  its  lurdnefs  ;  its  quality, 
whether  clofo  burning  or  open  burning,  and  whether 
any  foul  mixture  in  it  or  not;  alfo  the  thickncfs,  hard- 
nefs,  and  other  circuraftsnces  of  all  the  ftrata  bored 
through;  and  from  the  quantity  of  water  met  with  in 
the  boring,  fome  judgment  may  be  formed  of  the  fizc 
of  an  engine  capable  of  drawing  it,  where  an  engine 
Is  neceflary.  When  holes  are  to  be  bored  for  thefo 
purpofes,  they  may  be  fixed  (as  near  a,  can  be  guef- 
fed)  in  fuch  a  fituation  from  each  other,  as  to  fuit  tiie 
places  where  pits  are  afterv/ards  to  be  funk;  by  which 
means  moll  of  the  expence  may  be  faved,  as  thcfe 
pits  would  otherwife  require  to  be  bored,  wlien  fink- 
ing, to  difcharge  their  water  into  the  mine  below. 
Theie  are  many  other  ufes  to  which  boring  is  applied, 
as  will  be  explained  hereafter. 

Forthefe  reafcns,  boring  is  greatly  prai^lifed  in  Eng- 
land, and  is  brought  to  great  perfeiHion  ;  and  as  the 
operation  13  generally  entrufted  to  a  man  of  integrity, 
who  makes  it  his  profelfton,  the  accounts  given  by  him 
of  die  thicknefs  and  other  circumftances  of  the  ftrata, 
are  the  nioft  accurate  imaginable,  and  are  trufted  to 
with  the  greatcft  confidence  ;  for  as  very  few  gentle- 
men choofe  to  take  a  leale  of  a  new  coalery  whiclv 
has  not  been  fufSciently  explored  by  boring,  it  is  ne- 
cefiary  the  accounts  ftiould  be  faithful,  being  the  only 
rule  to  guide  the  landlord  in  letting  his  coal,  and  the 
tenant  in  taking  it.  In  Scotland  it  is  not  fo  generally 
praftifed  ;  nor  are  there  any  men  of  character  who 
are  profeffed  borers,  that  operation  being  commonly 
left  to  any  common  workman;  whence  it  happens  that 
it  never  has  been  in  any  elleera,  the  accounts  given  by 
them  being  fo  imperfecl  and  equivocal  as  not  to  merit 
any  confidence. 

The  tools  or  inftruments  ufed  in  boring  are  very 
fimple.  The  boring  rods  are  made  of  iron  from  3  ta 
4  feet  long,  and  about  one  inch  and  a  half  fquare,  with 
a  fcrew  et  each  end,  by  which  they  are  fcrewed  toge- 
ther, and  other  rods  added  as  the  hole  incrcafes  in 
depth.  The  chiftel  is  about  i8  inches  long,  and  two 
and  a  half  broad  at  the  end,  which  being  fcrewed 
on  at  the  lower  end  of  the  rods,  and  a  piece  timber 
put  through  an  eye  at  the  upper  end,  they  are  preps- 
red  for  work.  The  operation  is  performed  by  lifting 
them  up  a  little,  and  letting  them  fall  again,  at  the 
fame  time  turning  them  a  little  round  ;  by  a  conti- 
nirauce  of  which  motions,  a  round  hole  is  fretted  or 
worn  through  the  hardeil  ftrata.  When  the  chillcl  ij 
blunt,  it  is  taken  out,  and  a  fcooped  infti-Hmcnt  call- 
ed a  nvimble  put  on  in  its  ftead  ;  by  which  the  duft  or 
pulverifed  matter  which  was  worn  off  the  ftratum  in 
the  laft  operation  is  brought  up.  By  this  fubftance, 
the  borers  know  exadly  the  nature  of  the  ftratum 

thej- 


C     O     A  [ 

r™i!ery,    1^163'  are  boring   in  ;   ami  by  any  alteration   in  the 

>— V workiiij;-  of  the  votls  (which  they  art   fcnfiblc  of  by 

handling' them),  they  perceive  the  leaft  variation  of  the 
ilrata  I'lte  principal  part  of  the  art  depends  upon 
keeping  the  hole  clean,  and  obferving  every  variation 
of  tlie  hrata  with  care  and  attention. 

'1  he  cftabliflied  price  of  boring  in  England  is  5  s. 
icr  fathom  fur  the  tirll  five  fathoms,  \o%.  per  fathom 
or  the  next  five  fathoms,  and  ijs/^-  fathom  for  the 
jncxt  five  fathoms;  and  fo  continually  incrcafmg  5  s. 
per  fathom  at  the  end  of  every  five  farhoms;  the  borer 
lindir.g  all  kinds  of  boring  inilrnments,  and  taking  his 
chance  of  the  hardnefs  of  the  Ilrata,  except  above  one 
foot  in  thicknefs  of  whin  occur,  when  the  former  price 
ceafes,  and  he  is  paid/iv  day. 
'3   .  It  is  exceedingly  uncommon  to  meet  with  a  ftratum 

'^  y^^l'' ^  of  coal  whicli  is  naturally  dry,  or  whofe  fubterranean 
fprings  or  feeders  of  water  are  fo  very  fmall  as  to  re- 
quire no  other  means  than  the  labour  of  men  to  draw 
off  or  conduft  them  away;  for  it  moll  commonly  hap- 
pens, that  the  ilratum  of  coal,  and  the  other  ftrata  ad- 
jacent, abound  fo  much  in  feeders  of  water,  that,  be- 
fore acccfs  can  be  had  to  the  coal,  fome  other  methods 
mull  be  purfued  to  drain  or  conduft  away  thefe  feed- 
ers :  therefore,  after  the  deepeil  part  of  the  coal  is 
difcoverid,  the  next  confideration  is  of  the  beil  me- 
thod of  draining  it,  or,  in  the  miner's  language,  of 
^vwtii/i^  ike  COdh 

If  the  coal  lies  in  fuch  an  elevated  fituation,  that  a 
part  of  it  can  be  drained  by  a  level  brought  up  from 
"the  lower  grounds,  then  that  will  be  the  moll  natural 
method  ;  but  whether  it  be  the  molt  prrfer  or  not, 
tlepcnds  upon  certain  circumilances.  If  the  fituation 
of  the  ground  be  fuch,  that  the  level  would  be  of  a 
gieat  lengtli,  or  have  to  come  through  very  hard  Ilrata, 
and  the  quantity  of  coal  it  would  drain,  or  the  profits 
expedcd  to  be  produced  by  that  coal,  fliould  be  ina- 
dequate to  the  t'xpence  of  carrying  it  up  ;  in  fuch  cafe 
fome  other  mctliod  of  winning  might  be  more  proper 
Or  fuppofc,  in  another  cafe,  it  be  found,  that  a  level 
•can  be  had  to  a  coalcry,  which  will  coll  L.  2000,  and 
require  five  years  to  bring  it  up  to  the  coal,  and  that 
it  will  drain  30  acres  of  coal  when  completed;  yet  if  it 
be  found  that  a  fiie  engine,  or  fome  other  maclime, 
can  be  erected  on  that  coalery,  for  the  fame  fuin  of 
money,  in  one  year,  which  will  drain  50  acres  of  the 
fame  coal,  then  this  hitl  would  be  a  more  proper  me- 
thod than  the  level;  becaufe  four  years  profit  would 
be  received  by  this  method  before  any  could  come  in 
by  the  other ;  and  aftei  the  30  acres  drained  by  the 
level  is  all  wrought,  a  machine  of  fi)me  kind  would  ne- 
verthelefsbe  neceflary  to  drain  the  remaining  aoacies: 
fo  that  eretling  a  machine  at  firft  would  be  on  all  ac- 
counts the  moll  advifable. 

Wheie  a  level  can  be  drove,  in  a  reafonable  time, 
and  at  an  adequate  expence,  to  drain  a  fufficient  traft 
of  coal,  it  is  I  hen  the  moll  eligible  method  of  winning; 
becaufe  the  charge  of  ujiholding  it  is  generally  lefs  than 
that  of  upholding  fire-engines  or  other  machines. 

Jf  a  level  is  judged  properell  after  confideration  of 
eveiT  neceflary  circumttance,  it  may  be  begun  at  the 
place  ajipointedin  the  manner  of  an  open  ditch,  about 
three  feet  wide,  and  carried  forward  until  it  be  about 
fix  or  feven  feet  deep  from  the  furface,  taking  care  to 
fecure  the  bottom  and  fides  by  timber-work  or  build>- 


are  liabls 
air.  If  tlif 
it   reach  the 


99     ]  C     O     A 

ing ;  after  which  it  may  be  continued  in  ilie  manner  Coal»rr- 
of  a  mine  about  three  feet  wide,  and  three  feet  and  a  """""^ 
half  high,  through  the  folid  ftrata,  taking  care  all  along 
to  keej)  the  bottom  upon  a  level,  and  to  fecure  the 
roof,  fides,  and  bottom,  by  timber  or  building,  in  all 
places  where  the  ftrata  are  not  llrong  enough  to_  fup- 
port  the  incumbent  weight,  or  where  they 
to  de  -ay  by  their  expofure  to  the  frefh 
mine  has  to  go  a  very  long  way  before 
coal,  it  may  be  neceflary  to  fink  a  fniall  pit,  fir  the 
convenience  of  taking  out  the  iloncs  and  lubbilh  pro- 
duced in  working  l^hc  mine,  as  well  as  to  fupply  frcih 
air  to  the  workmen  ;  and  if  the  air  ftiould  atltnvardj 
turn  damp,  then  fquare  wooden  pipes  made  of  dales 
clofely  jointed  (commonly  called  air-boxes  J,  may  be 
fixed  in  the  upper  part  of  the  mine,  from  the  pit-bot- 
tom all  the  way  to  the  end  of  the  mine,  which  will 
caufe  a  fuificient  circulation  of  frelh  air  for  the  work- 
men ;  perhaps  in  a  great  length  it  will  be  found  pro- 
per to  fink  another  «r  more  pits  upon  the  mine,  and 
bv  proceeding  in  this  manner  it  may  be  carried  for- 
ward until  it^arrive  at  the  coal;  and  after  diiving  a 
mine  in  the  coal  a  few  yards  to  one  fide,  the  firil  coal- 
pit may  be  funk. 

If  a  level  is  found  imprafticable,  or  for  particular 
reafons  unadvifable  ;  then  a  fire-engine*,  or  lorae  o- .  g^^  g^_ 
ther  machine,  will  be  neceflary,  whicH  flioidd  be  fixed  t.c'c  .SVf,,^. 
upon  the  deepell  part  of  the  coal,  or  at  leall  fo  hi- engine. 
towards  the  dip  as  will  drain  a  fufficient  extent  of 
coal,  to  continue  for  the  lime  intended  to  work  the 
coalery  ;  and  whether  a  fire-engine,  or  any  other 
machine,  is  ufed,  it  will  be  of  great  advantage  to  have 
a  partial  level  brought  up  to  the  engine-pit,  if  the  fi- 
tuation of  the  ground  will  admit  it  at  a  Imall  charge, 
in  order  to  receive  and  convey  away  the  water  with- 
out drawing  it  fo  high  as  to  the  furface:  for  if  the  pit 
was  30  fathoms  deep  to  the  coal,  and  if  there  was  % 
partial  level,  which  received  the  water  five  fathoms 
only  below  the  furface,  the  engine  by  this  means 
would  be  enabled  to  draw  i-6th  part  more  water  than 
without  it;  and  if  there  were  any  feeders  of  water 
in  the  pit  above  this  level,  they  might  be  conveyed 
into  it,  where  they  would  be  difcharged  without  be- 
ing drawn  by  the  engine. 

"The  engine-pit  may  be  from  feven  to  nine  feet 
wide  ;  and  whether  it  be  circular,  oval,  or  of  any 
other  form,  is  not  very  material,  provided  it  be  fuf- 
ficiently  ilrong,  though  a  circular  form  is  molt  gene- 
rally approved.  If  any  feeders  of  water  are  met 
with  a  few  fathoms  from  the  furface,  it  will  be  pro- 
per  to  make  a  circular  or  fpiral  cutting  about  one  foot 
deep,  and  a  little  hollowed  in  the  bottom,  round  the 
circumference  of  the  pit,  in  order  to  receive  and  con- 
duit the  water  down,  without  flying  over  the  pit  and 
incommoding  the  workmen.  If  the  (Irata  arc  of  fo 
tender  or  friable  a  nature  as  not  to  bear  this  opera- 
tion, or  if  the  water  leaks  through  them,  then  it  will 
be  neceflary  to  infert  in  the  forementioned  cutting  a 
ciicular  piece  of  timber  called  a  mi,  hollowed  in  the 
fame  manner  to  coUcdt  the  water;  and  a  fecond  may- 
be inferred  two  or  three  yards  below  the  firll,  with  a 
floping  nitch  down  the  wall  or  fide  of  the  pit,  to  con- 
vey the  water  from  the  former  into  it;  proceeding  by 
fi>me  of  thefe  methods  until  the  pit  is  funk  15  or  20 
fathoms ;  at  which  place  it  would  be  proper  to  fix. a 
N  ^  cilkro 


C    O    A  [     100     ] 

Coalery.    ciftern  or  refervoir,  for  the  firll  or  upper  fet  of  pumps     exhaling  from 


to  ftand  in;  for  if  the  pit  be  30  fathoms  as  fiippofed, 
it  would  be  too  great  a  length  for  the  pumps  to  be  all 
in  one  fet  from  bottom  to  top  ;  therefore,  if  any  ex- 
traordinary feeders  are  met  with,  betwixt  15  and  20 
fathoms  deep,  it  would  be  beft  to  fix  the  ciftern  where 
it  may  receive  them,  and  prevent  their  defcending  to 
the  bottom ;  obferving  tliat  the  upper  fet  of  pamps  be 
fo  much  larger  than  the  lower  one,  as  the  additional 
feeders  may  require ;  or  if  there  are  no  additional 
feeders,  it  ought  then  to  be  a  little  fmaller. 

After  the  upper  ciftern  is  fixed,  the  operation  may 
be  purfued  by  the  other  fet  of  pumps  in  much  the  fame 
manner  as  has  been  defcribed,  until  the  pit  is  funk  to 
the  coal  ;  which  being  done,  it  would  be  proper  to 
fink  it  fix  or  eight  feet  deeper,  and  to  work  fume  coal 
out  from  tlie  dip  fide  of  the  pit,  to  make  room  for  a 
large  quantity  of  water  to  coUedl,  without  incommo- 
ding the  coal-pits  when  the  engine  is  not  working. 

It  would  exceed  the  proper  bounds  of  this  article,  to 
enumerate  all  the  accidents  to  which  engine-pits  are 
liable  in  finking ;  we  fhall  therefore  only  recite  a  few 
which  fccm  impoitant. 

If  a  quickfand  happen  to  lie  above  the  folld  ftrata, 
next  the  furface,  it  may  be  got  through  by  digging 
the  pit  of  fuch  a  widenefs  at  the  top  (allowing  for  the 
natural  flope  or  running  of  the  fand)  as  to  have  the 
proper  fize  of  the  pit  on  the  uppermoft  foHd  ftratum  ; 
where  fixing  a  wooden  frame  or  tube  as  the  timber- 
'  work  of  the  pit,  and  covering  it  round  on  the  out- 
fide  with  wrought  clay  up  to  the  top,  the  fand  may 
again  be  thrown  into  the  excavation  round  the  tube, 
and  levelled  with  the  furface. 

If  the  quickfand  ftiould  happen  to  lie  at  a  confider- 


:   o    A 

an  infenfible 
as  great  i 


feme  in  an  infenfible  manner,  whtlll 
from  others  it  blows  with  as  great  impttuofity  as  a  ^ 
pair  of  bellows.  When  this  inflammable  air  is  pei- 
mitted  to  accumulate,  it  becomes  dangerous  by  taking 
fire,  and  burning  or  de:lroyiiig  the  workmen,  and 
fometimes  by  its  explolion  will  blow  the  timber  out  of 
the  pit,  and  do  confiderable  damage.  If  a  conftder- 
able  lupply  of  fiedi  air  is  forced  down  the  pit  by  air- 
boxes  and  a  ventilator,  or  by  dividing  the  pit  into  two 
by  a  clofe  partition  of  deals  from  top  to  bottom,  or  by 
any  other  means,  it  will  be  driven  out,  or  fo  weakened, 
that  it  will  be  of  no  dangerous  conlequence  :  or  when 
the  inflammable  air  is  very  ftrong,  it  may  be  fafely  car- 
ried off  by  makmg  a  dole  (heathing  or  lining  of  thin 
deals  quite  rouiid  the  circumference  of  the  pit,  fiom 
the  top  of  the  folid  ftrata  to  the  bottom,  and  length- 
ening it  as  the  pit  is  funk,  leaving  a  imall  vacancy  be- 
hind the  fheathing ;  when  the  combuftible  matter, 
which  exhales  from  the  ftrata,  being  confined  bclund 
thefe  deals,  may  be  vended  by  one  or  two  fmall  leaden 
pipes  carried  from  the  (heatiiing  to  the  furface  ;  fo 
that  very  little  of  it  can  tranfpire  into  the  area  of  the 
pit.  If  a  candle  be  applied  to  the  orifice  of  the  pipe 
at  the  furface,  the  inflammable  air  will  inftantly  lake 
fire,  and  continue  burning  like  an  oil-lamp  until  it  be 
cxtlnguifhed  by  fome  external  caufe.  Upo.i  the  whole, 
every  method  fhould  be  ufed  to  make  the  pit  as  ftrong 
in  every  part,  and  to  keep  it  as  dry  as  poilible  ;  and 
whenever  any  accident  happens,  it  fhould  be  as  ex- 
peditioufly  and  thoroughly  repaired  as  pofiiblc,  before 
any  other  operation  be  proceeded  in,  left  an  additional 
one  follow,  which  would  more  than  double  the  difficulty 
of  repairing  it. 


Coaltry. 


14 


The  firll  operations,  after  finking  the  engine-pit,  are 
able  depth' betwixt  the  clay  "and  folid  ftrata,  then  a  the  working  or  driving  a  mine  in  the  coal,  auJ  fink-,i^j.^|^jj_"'^ 
ftrong  tube  of  timber  clofely  jointed  and  fiiod  with  ing  the  firft  coalpit.  The  fituation  of  the  firft  coal- 
iron,  of  fuch  a  diameter  as  the  pit  will  admit,  may  be  pit  fliould  be  a  little  to  the  i-ife  of  the  engine-pit,  that 
let  down  into  it  ;  and  by  fixing  a  great  weight  upon  the  water  which  collefts  there  may  not  obftrutl  the 
the  top,  and  by  working  out  the  fand,  it  may  be  made  working  of  the  coals  every  lime  the  engine  ftops  : 
to  finii  gradually,  until  it  come  to  the  rock  or  other 
folid  ftratum  below  ;    and   when   all  the   fand  is   got 


and   when   all  the   fand 
out,  if  it  be  lightly  calked  and  fecured  it  will  be  fuf- 
ficient. 

It  fometimes  happens,  that  a  ftratum  of  foft  matter, 
lying  betwixt  two  hard  folid  ones,  produces  fo  large  a 
quantity  of  water  as  greatly  to  incommode  the  opera- 
tions. In  fuch  a  cafe,  a  frame-work  of  plank,  ftrength- 
ened  with  cribs  and  clofely  calked,  will  ftop  back  the 
whole  or  the  greateft  part  of  it,  provided  the  two  ftra- 
ta which  include  it  are  of  a  clofe  texture;  or  let  an  ex- 
cavation of  about  two  feet  be  made  in  the  foft  ftratum, 
quite  round  the  circumference  of  the  pit ;  and  let  that 
be  filled  clofe  up  betwixt  the  hard  ftrata,  with  pieces  of 
dry  fir-timber  about  ten  Inches  fquare  inferted  endwife, 
and  afterwards  as  many  wooden  wedges  driven  in  to 
them  as  they  can  be  made  to  receive  ;  if  this  be  well 
linifhed,  little  or  no  water  will  find  a  pafTage  through 
it. 

It  rarely  happens  that  any  fuffocating  damp  or  foul 
air  is  met  with  in  an  engine-pit ;  the  falling  of  water, 
and  the  working  of  the  pumps,  generally  caufing  a  fuf- 
ficient  circulation  of  frefh  air.  But  that  kind  of  com- 
buftible vapour,  or  inflammable  air,  which  will  catch 
fire  at  a  candle  is  often  met  with.  It  proceeds  from 
ihe,  partings,  backs,  and  cutters,  of  the  folid  ftrata, 


the  coals  every  lime  the 
and  it  fhould  not  exceed  the  dillance  of  2C,  30,  or  40 
yards ;  becaufe  when  the  firft  mine  has  to  be  driven  a 
long  way,  it  becomes  both  diflicult  and  expenfive.  If 
there  hi  not  a  fufficient  circulation  of  frefh  air  in  the 
mine,  it  may  be  fupphed  by  the  before  delcribed  air- 
boxes  and  a  ventilator,  until  it  arrive  below  the  inr 
tended  coal  pit,  when  the  pit  may  be  bored  and  funk 
to  the  coal,  in  the  manner  before  rrienlioned. 

After  the  pit  is  thus  got  down  to  the  coal,  the  next 
confideration  fhould  be  of  the  beft  method  of  working 
it.  The  moft  general  praftice  in  Scotland  is  to  ex- 
cavate and  take  away  a  part  only  of  tlie  ilratum  of 
coal  in  the  firft  working  of  the  pit,  leaving  the  other 
part  as  pillars  for  fupporting  the  roof ;  and  after  the 
coal  is  wrought  in  this  manner  to  fuch  a  diltance  from 
the  pit  as  intended,  then  thefe  pillars,  or  fo  many  of 
them  as  can  be  got,  are  taken  out  by  a  fecond  work- 
ing, and  the  roof  and  other  folid  ftrata  above  permit- 
ted to  fall  down  and  fill  up  the  excavation.  The 
quantity  ot  coal  wrought  away,  and  the  fize  of  the 
pillars  left  in  the  firft  working,  is  proportioned  to  the 
hardnefs  and  Itrength  of  the  coal  and  other  ftrata  adja- 
cent, compared  with  the  incumbent  weight  of  the  lupe- 
rior  ftrata. 

The  fame  mode  of  working  is  purfued  in  moft  part* 
of  England,  differing  only  as  the  circumltances  of  the 

coalery 


C     O     A 


[     loi      ] 


C     O     A 


cor.lerjt  may-  require  :  for  the  Englifli  coal,  particularly 
in  the  noilherii  i  Munties.  b^in;;-  of  a  fine  tinder  tex- 
ture, and  of  the  cloff-burning  kind,  and  alio  the  ruof 
and  pavement  of  the  coal  in  general  not  fo  llrong  as 
in  Scotland,  they  are  obliged  to  leave  a  larger  propor- 
tion of  coal  in  the  pillars  for  fupporting  the  roof,  ilu- 
ring  the  firft  time  of  working  ;  and,  in  the  fecond  work- 
ing, as  many  of  thefe  pillars  are  wrought  away  as  can 
be  got  with  fafety. 

The  Scots  coal  in  gencrnl  being  very  hard,  and  of 
the  open-burning  kind,  it  is  necefl'ary  to  work  it  in 
fuch  a  manner  as  to  produce  as  many  great  coals  as 
poffible,  which  is  bed  effetted  by  taking  away  as  high 
a  proportion  of  the  coal  as  circumilances  will  allow  in 
the  fii ft  working  ;  on  the  contrary,  the  Englifli  coal 
being  very  tender  cannot  poflibly  be  wrought  large, 
nor  is  it  of  much  importance  how  fmall  they  are,  be- 
ing of  fo  rich  a  quality  ;  fo  that  a  larger  proportion 
may  be  lett  in  pillars  in  this  coal  than  could  with  pro- 
priety be  done  in  the  other;  and,  when  all  circumttan- 
ces  are  confidered,  each  method  feems  well  adapted  to 
the  different  purpofes  intended. 

The  ancient  method  of  working  was,  to  work  away 
as  much  of  the  coal  as  could  be  got  with  fafety  at  one 
working  only  v  by  which  means  the  pillars  were  left  fo 
fmall  as  to  be  crufhed  by  the  weight  of  the  fuperfbr 
firata,  and  entirely  loft.  As  great  quantities  of 
ccals  w6te  loft  by  tliis  method,  It  is  now  generally  ex- 
ploded, and  the  former  adopted  in  its  place  ;  by  which 
a  much  larger  quantity  of  coal  is  obtained  from  the 
fame  extent  of  ground,  and  at  a  much  lefs  expence  in 
the  end. 

The  exaft  proportion  of  coal  proper  to  be  wrought 
away,  and  to  be  left  in  pillars  at  the  firft  working, 
may  be  judged  of  by  a  comparifon  of  the  circumttan- 
CCS  before  mentioned.  If  the  roof  and  pavement  are 
both  llrong,  as  well  as  the  coal,  and  the  pit  about  30 
fathoms  deep,  then  two-thirds,  or  probably  three- 
fourtlis,  may  be  taken  away  at  the  firft  working,  and 
one-third  or  one  fourth  left  in  pillars.  If  both  roof 
and  pavement  be  loft  or  tender,  then  a  larger  pio- 
porlion  mult  be  left  in  pillars,,  probably  one-third  or 
near  one-half;  and  in  all  cafes  the  hardnefs  or  ftreugth 
of  the  coal  muft  be  confidered.  If  tender,  it  will  re- 
quire a  larger  pillar  than  hard  coal  ;  becaufe,  by  being 
expofed  to  the  air  after  the  firft  working,  a  part  of  it 
will  moulder  and  fall  ctf,  by  which  it  will  lofe  much 
of  its  folidity  and  refiftance. 

Tlie  proportion  to  be  wrought  away  and  left  in 
pillars  being  determined,  the  next  proper  ttep  is  to 
fix  upon  fuch  dimenfions  of  the  pillars  to  be  left,  and 
of  the  excavations  from  which  the  coal  is  to  be  taken 
away,  as  may  produce  that  proportion.  In  order  to 
form  a  juft  idea  of  which,  fee  a  plan  of  pait  of  a  pit's 
workings  (fig.  6.),  fuppofed  to  he  at  the  depth  of  30 
fathoms,  and  the  coal  having  a  moderate  rife.  A,  re- 
prefcnts  the  engine-pit  ;  B,  the  coal-pit ;  A  a  B,  the 
mine  from  the  former  to  the  latter  ;  B  C,  the  firft 
woiking  or  excavation  made  from  the  coal-pit,  com- 
monly called  the  ivlnnlng  mme  or  nuinnlng  headway, 
nine  feet  wide  ;  hill,  &c.  the  workings  called  rooms, 
turned  off  at  right  angles  from  the  others,  of  the  width 
of  I  2  feet ;  c  c  c  c,  &c.  the  workings  called  throughers 
or  thirllngs,  9  feet  wide,  wrought  through  at  right 
angles  from  one  room  to  anotJier ;  ddd,  &c.  the  pil- 


lars of  coal  left  at  the  firft  working  for  fupporting  the  Coalcry 
roof,  ly  feet  long  and  12  feet  broad  j  DD,  two  large  *~~v~— 
pillars  of  coal  near  the  pit  bottom,  15  or  20  yards  long, 
and  JO  or  15  broad,  to  fupport  the  pit,  and  prevent  its 
being  damaged  by  the  roof  falling  in;  ee,  the  level 
mine  wrought  in  the  coal  from  the  engine-pit  bottom, 
4  or  five  feet  wide  ;  //,  &c.  large  pillars  of  coal  left 
next  the  level,  to  fccure  it  from  any  damage  by  the 
roof  falling /in  ;  g  g,  a  dike  which  dcpreffeth  the  coal, 
I  fathom  ;  h  h,  Sec.  large  pillars  and  barriers  of  coaL 
left  unwrought,  adjoining  to  the  dike  where  the  roof 
is  tender,  to  prevent  its  falling  down.  The  coal  ta- 
ken out  by  the  firft  working  in  this  pit  is  fuppofed  to 
be  one-third  of  the  whole  ;  and  allowing  the  rooms 
12  feet  wide,  and  the  thirhngs  9  feet  wide,  then  the 
pillars  will  requite  to  be  12  feet  wide  and  18  feet  long; 
for  if  one  pillar  be  in  a  certain  proportion  to  its  ad- 
joining room  and  thirling,  the  whole  number  of  pillars 
will  be  in  the  fame  proportion  to  the  whole  number 
of  rooms  and  tliirlings  in  the  pit.  Suppofe  ABCD, 
(fig.  7.),  to  be  a  pillar  of  coal  18  feet  long  and  iz  feet 
broad,  its  aiea  will  be  216  i'quare  feet;  ACHE,  the 
adjoining  thirling,  12  feet  by  9  feet,  and  its  area  108 
fquare  feet;  BAEFG,  the  adjoining  room,  27  feet  long 
and  tz  feet  broad,  and  its  area  324  fquare  feet;  wiiich 
added  to  108  gives  432  fquare  feet,  cr  two-thitds 
wrought,  and  z  16  fquare  feet  left,  or  one-third  of  the 
whole  area  F  G  H  D. 

It  is  proper  to  obferve,  that  in  the  profecution  of 
the  workings,  the  rooms  to  the  right  of  the  winning 
headway  fliould  be  oppofite  to  the  pillars  on  the  left  ;. 
and  the  firft,    third,    and   fifth  pillar,  or  the  fecond,  •• 

fourth,  and  fixth,  adjoining  to  the  faid  headway,  (hould 
be  of  fuch  a  length  as  to  overlay  the  adjoining  thir- 
lings  ;  as,  in  the  plan,  the  pillar  2  overlays  the  thir- 
lings  1  and  3  ;  and  the  pillar  4,  overlays  the  thir- 
iings  3  and  5  ;  this  will  effeftually  fupport  the  roof, 
of  the  main  road  B  C,  and  will  bring  the  other  pillars 
into  their  regular  order,  by  which  means  each  pillar 
will  be  oppofite  to  two  thirlings.  Alfo  a  larger  pro- 
portion of  coal  than  common  fliould  be  left  in  all. 
places  which  are  intended  to  be  kept  open  after  the 
fecond  working  ;  fuch  as  the  pit-bottoms,  air  courfcs,. 
roads,  and  water-courfes,  or  where  the  roof  is  ten- 
der, as  it  generally  is  near  dikes,  hitches,  and  troubles;, 
and  if  the  roof  iliould  continue  tender  for  a  confider- 
able  fpace,  it  will  perhaps  be  found  proper  to  leave  a 
tew  inches  of  coal  adhering  to  the  roof,  which,  toge- 
ther with  a  few  props  of  timber  fixed  under  it,  may 
fupport  it  effeiftually  for  a  long  time.  The  level  mine 
e  e,  and  the  winning.headway  BC,  fliould  be  wrought 
forwaid  a  confiderable  length  before  the  other  rooms, - 
in  order  to  be  drove  through  any  dikes  that  mi^ht  in- 
terpofe  ;  otherwife  the  progrefs  of  the  workings  might 
probably  be  flopped  a  confiderable  time,  waiting  untiL 
a  couile  of  new  rooms  were  procured  on  the  other 
lide  of  the  dike.  Suppofe  the  dike^_j,  lig.  6.  to  de- 
prcfs  the  coal  fix  feet  or  one  fathom,  and  that  it  rifes 
in  the  fame  manner  on  the  under  fide  of  the  dike  as  it 
does  on  the  upper  fide  ;  in  fuch  a  cafe,  the  only  reme- 
dy would  be  to  work  or  drive  a  level  mine  through  the 
ftrata  of  ftone  from  the  engine-level  at  e,  over  the 
dike,  until  it  intcifed  the  coal  at  i;  and  from  thence  to 
drive  a  new  level  mine  in  the  coal  at  i  i,  and  a  newp 
winning  headway  iL     In  order  to  gain  a  new  frt  ef 

rooms. 


C     O     A  [     10 

CoaIei7.  rooms,  and  to  Tupply  frefh  air  to  this  new  operation,  a 
v~~"  f:naU  mine  might  be  drove  from  the  room  /;,  and  a  hole 
funk,  down  upon  the  level  room  iij  therefore,  if  the 
level  mine  ee  was  not  drove  fo  far  forward  as  to  have 
all  thefe  operations  completed  before  the  rooms  and 
otlier  workings  were  intercepted  by  the  dike,  the 
working  of  the  pit  might  ceafe  until  thefe  new  places 
were  ready. 

If  there  be  two  or  three  llrata  or  feams  of  coal  in 
the  fame  pit  (as  there  often  are)  having  only  a  Rratmn 
of  a  few  feet  thiek  lying  betwixt  thein.  It  is  tlien  ma- 
terial to  oblervc,  that  every  pillar  in  the  fecond  feani 
be  placed  imnicdiately  below  one  in  the  firll,  and 
every  pillar  in  the  third  feam  below  one  in  the  fe- 
eond  }  and  in  fuch  a  fituation  the  upper  ftratam  of  coal 
ought  to  be  firft  wroxight,  or  elfe  all  the  three  toge- 
t1)er :  for  it  would  be  unfafe  to  work  the  lower  one 
firft,  left  the  roof  ihould  break,  and  damage  thofe  lying 
above. 

'  It  fometimes  becomes  necefiary  to  work  the  coal 
lying  to  the  dip  of  the  engine  or  the  level ;  which  coal 
is  conftqnently  drowned  with  water,  and  ni'ift  thete- 
forc  be  drained  by  !ome  means  before  it  can  be  wrought. 
If  the  quantity  of  water  proceeding  from  it  be  incon- 
iidcrahle,  it  may  then  be  drained  by  fniall  pumps  laid 
upon  the  pavement  of  the  coal,  and  wrought  by  men 
or  horfes,  to  raife  the  water  up  to  the  level  of  the  en- 
gine-pit bottom  :  or  if  the  feeders  of  water  be  more 
confiderablc,  and  the  iituation  be  fuitable,  the  work- 
ing rod  of  thefe  pumps  might  be  connected  with  thofe 
in  the  engine-pit ;  by  which  means  the  water  would  be 
railed  up  to  the  level  :  but  if  the  quantity  of  water  be 
very  gicat  ;  or  if,  from  other  circumllances,  thefe  me- 
thods may  not  be  applicable  ;  then  the  engine-pit  may 
be  funk  as  deep  below  the  coal  as  may  be  neceffary, 
and  a  level  ftone  mine  drove  from  its  bottom  to  the  dip 
of  the  ftrata,  until  it  interfeft  the  ftratum  of  coal,  from 
whence  a  new  level  mine  might  be  worked,  which  would 
eft'ciftually  drain  it.  Snppofe  A  B,  fig.  8.  to  be  a  fec- 
tion  of  the  engine-pic  ;  B  C,  the  coal  drained  by  the 
engine;  B  D,  the  coal  to  the  dip  of  the  engine  in- 
tended to  be  drained  ;  then  if  the  engine-pit  be  funk 
deeper  to  E,  a  ftone  mine  may  be  wrought  in  the  di- 
reilion  E  D,  until  it  interfeft  the  coal  at  D,  by  which 
the  water  will  have  a  free  paffjge  to  the  engine,  and 
the  coal  will  be  diained. 

If  tliere  be  another  ftratum  of  coal  lying  at  fuch  a 
depth  below  the  firft  as  the  engine-pit  is  intended  to 
.be  funk  to,  the  upper  feam  may  in  fonie  fituatious  be 
conveniently  drained,  by  driving  a  mine  in  the  lower 
feam  of  coal  from  E  to  F,  and  another  in  the  upper 
one  from  B  to  D;  and  by  boring  a  hole  from  D  to  F, 
the  water  will  delcend  to  F,  and,  filling  the  mine  EF, 
rife  up  to  the  engine-pit  bottom  at  E,  which  is  upon 
a  level  with  D. 

Whenever  it  is  judged  neceffary  to  work  the  pil- 
lars, regard  muft  be  had  to  the  nature  t)f  the  loof. 
If  the  roof  is  tender,  a  nairow  room  may  be  wrought 
through  the  pillar  from  one  end  to  the  other,  leaving 
only  a  fliell  of  coal  on  each  fide  for  fupporting  the  roof 
the  time  of  working.  Suppofe  A  B  C  D,  tig.  7.  to  be 
a  pillar  of  coal  18  feet  long  and  12  feet  broad:  if  the 
roof  is  not  ftrong,  the  room  i,  2,  3,  4,  of  eight  feet 
wide,  may  be  wrought  up  through  that  pillar,  leaving 
a  ihell  of  two  feet  thick  on  each  fide  ;  and  if  it  can  be 


2     ]  C     O     A 

fafely  done,  a  part  of  thefe  (hells  may  alfo  be  wrought  Co; 
away,  by  working  two  places  through  them  as  at  5  and  ~~" 
6.  By  this  means  veiy  little  of  the  coeI  will  be  loft  j 
for  t'.vo-thirdsof  the  whole  being  obtained  by  the  tiril 
wrn-king,  and  above  two-tl'.irdt  ol  the  pillar  by  the  fe- 
cond  working,  the  lofs  upon  the  whole  vi-ould  not  ex- 
ceed one-tenth  :  but  it  may  be  obftrvcd,  that  fomt  pil- 
lars will  not  produce  fo  great  a  proportion,  and  ptr-  ' 
haps  others  cannot  be  wrought  at  all  ;  fo  that,  ujjon 
the  whole,  there  may  be  about  one-eighth,  one-leventh, 
or  in  fome  fituati(nis  one-fixth  part  of  the  coal  loft.  If 
the  root  be  hard  and  ftrong,  then  as  much  coal  may  be 
wrought  oftcTch  fide  and  each  end  of  the  pillar  as  can 
be  done  with  fafety,  leaving  only  a  fmall  piece  ilandirg 
in  the  middle;  and  when  the  roof  is  very  Ihong,  fonie- 
tiniej  fevtral  pillars  may  be  taken  entirely  out,  without 
pny  lofs  of  coal:  and  in  general  this  laif  melliod  is  at- 
tended with  lefs  lofs,  and  produces  larger  coals,  than 
the  former.  In  all  cafes  it  is  proper  to  begin  working 
thofe  pillars  firft  which  lie  fartheit  from  the  pit  bottom, 
and  to  proceed  working  them  regularly  away  towards 
the  pit  ;  but  if  there  be  a  great  number  of  pillars 
to  the  dip  of  the  pit,  it  is  the  fafell  u.eihod  to  work 
thefe  out  before  thofe  to  the  rite  of  the  pit  are  begun 
with. 

There  is  no  great  difterenct  in  the  weight  of  differ- 
ent kinds  of  coals,  the  lighteft  being  about  74  pounds 
avoirdupois,  and  the  hcavieil  about  79  pounds  the  cu- 
bic foot;  but  the  moft  ufual  weight  is  75  pounds  the 
foot,  wliich  is  18  hundred  weight  and  9  pounds  the 
cubic  yard.  The  ftatute  chalder  is  5  5  hundredweight; 
or  when  meafnred  is  as  follows:  26S.S  cubic  inches  to 
the  Wir.chefter  gallon  ;  4  J-  gallons  to  the  coal  peck, 
about  3  pounds  weight;  S  coal  peeks  to  the  boll,  about 
24 7 f  pounds;  and  24  bolls  to  the  chalder,  of  53  hundrtd 
weight.  If  one  coal  meafuring  exaftly  a  cubic  yaid 
(nearly  equal  to  5  bolls)  be  broken  into  pieces  of  a  mo- 
derate fize,  it  will  mtafure  f'cven  coal  bolls  and  a  half. 
If  broken  very  fmall,  it  will  mealure  9  bolh  ;  which 
fhows,  that  the  proportion  of  the  weight  to  the  mea- 
fure  depends  upon  the  iize  of  the  coals  ;  therefore  ic- 
couniing  by  weight  is  the  moft  rational  method. 

A  Table  of  the  weight  and  quantity  of  cojil  contained 
in  one  acre  Scots  mealure,  allowing  on;  fixth  p;;rt 
to  be  loft  below  ground,  in  feams  of  the  following 
thicknefi'es. 


Icry, 


'i"liicki;efs  cf  ci  jI. 

Weight  ill  Luns. 

tiuintit)'  i.x  chaldcrs. 

Ecct.         Inciifs 

2                 0 

3068 

1158 

2                    6 

3^35 

1447 

3             0 

4602 

1736 

3             6 

53^>9 

2025 

4            0 

6136 

23 '4 

4             6 

6903 

2603 

5             » 

7670 

2ti92 

5             6 

8437 

3181 

6             0 

9204 

3470 

We  (liall  next  mention  fome  of  the  various  methods 
of  bringing  the  coals  from  the  rooms  and  other  work- 
ings to  the-  pit  bottom.  Where  the  ftratum  of  coal  is 
of  a  fifficient  thicknefs,  and  has  a  moderate  rife  and 
dip,  the  coals  are  moft  advantaireoufly  brcnsrht  out  by 
horfes,  who  draw  out  the  coals  in  a  tub  or  bafket  pla- 
ced 


C     O    A 


[     103     ] 


C    O     A 


ced  upon  a  (ledgs :  a  horfe  by  this  me^is  will  bring  out 
"  from  four  to  eight  hundred  weight  of  coalu  at  once, 
according  to  the  quantity  of  the  afcent  or  defcent.  In 
fome  couleiies  they  h-ive  accefs  to  the  worlcings  by  a. 
mine  made  for  them,  floping  down  from  the  furface  of 
the  earth  to  the  coal  ;  and  where  that  convenience  is 
wanting,  they  are  bound  into  a. net,  and  lowered  down 
the  pit.  If  the  coal  be  not  of  fuch  a  height  as  to  ad- 
mit horfes,  and  has  a  moderate  rife  like  the  laft,  then 
ir.eti  are  employed  to  bring  out  the  coals :  they  ufually 
draw  a  baflcet  of  four  or  Hvc  hundred  weight  of  coals, 
fixed  upon  a  fmall  fjur-wheeled  carriiige.  There  are 
fome  fituations  in  wliich  neither  horfes  nor  men  can  be 
properly  ufcd  ;  particularly  where  the  coal  has  a  great 
degree  of  defcent,  or  where  many  dikes  occur  :  in  fuch 
a  cafe  the  coals  are  beft  brought  out  by  women  called 
learer.t,  who  cirry  them  in  a  kind  of  balket  upon  their 
backs,  ufually  a  hundred,  or  a  hundred  weight  and  a 
half,  at  once. 

When  the  coals  are  brought  to  the  pit  bottom,  the 
bnikets  are  then  hooked  on  to  a  chain,  and  drawn  up 
the  pii  by  a  rope  to  the  furface.  wliich  is  belt  effected 
by  a  machine  called  a  gin,  wrought  by  horles.  ■  There 
are  other  kinds  of  gins  for  drawing  coals,  fome  wrought 
by  water,  others  by  the  vibrating  lever  of  a  fire-engine; 
but  either  of  thefe  iall  is  only  convenient  in  fome  par- 
ticular fituations,  thofe  wrought  by  hories  being  in 
moil  general  ufe.  After  the  coals  are  got  to  the  fur- 
face, they  are  drawn  a  fmall  diilance  from  the  pit,  and 
laid  in  feparate  heaps  :  the  largeft  coals  in  one  heap,  the 
fiTialler  pieces  called  (hews  in  anotiier,  and  the  culm  or 
pan-coa!  \r\  a  fepaiate  place. 

There  is  an  accident  of  a  very  dangerous  nature  to 
which  all  coaleries  are  liable,  and  which  has  been  the 
ruin  of  fcveral :  it  is  called  a  crujh,  or  a  fill.  V\''hen 
the  pillars  of  coal  are  left  fo  fmall  as  to  fail,  or  yield 
usder  the  weight  of  the  fuperior  flrata;  or  when  the 
pavement  of  the  coal  is  fo  foft  as  to  permit  the  pillars 
fo  link  into  it,  which  fometimes  happens  by  the  great 
weight  that  lies  upon  them  ;  in  either  cale  the  folid 
firalum  above  the  coal  breaks  and  falls  in,  ciaiflies  the 
pillar  to  pieces,  and  cloL-th  up  a  great  extent  of  the 
workings,  or  probably  the  wliole  coalery.  As  fuch  an 
accident  feldom  comes  on  fuddenly,  if  it  be  perceived 
in  the  beginning,  it  may  fometimes  be  flopped  by  build- 
ine  large  pillars  of  ftone  amongfl  the  coal  pillars:  but 
if  it  has  already  made  fome  progrefs,  then  the  befl  me- 
thod is  to  work  .iway  as  many  of  the  coal  pillars  ad- 
joining to  the  crulh  as  may  be  fufhcient  to  let  the  roof 
fall  fr'ecly  down  ;  and  if  it  makes  a  breach  of  the  folid 
flr?ta  from  the  coal  up  to  tlie  furface,  it  will  very  pro- 
bably prevent  the  ciufh  from  proceeding  any  farther  in 
tliat  part  of  the  coalery.  If  the  crnfh  begins  in  the  rife 
part  of  the  coalery,  it  i.':  more  difficult  to  flop  it  from 
proceeding  to  the  dip,  than  it  is  to  Hop  it  from  going 
to  the  rife  when  it  begins  in  a  contrai'y  part. 

Another  circumflance  proper  to  be  taken  notice  of 
Is  the  foul  or  adulterated  air  fo  often  troublefome  in 
coaleries.  Of  this  there  are  two  kinds  v  the  black 
damp  or  flyth,  which  is  of  a  fuffocating  nature  ;  and 
the  inflammable  or  combuftible  damp.  V/ithout  flay- 
ing to  inquire,  in  this  place,  into  the  origin  and  efFttls 
of  thefe  damps,  it  may  be  fufRcient  to  obferve,  that, 
in  whatever  part  of  any  coalery  a  conftant  fupply  or 
a  circulation  of  frefh  air  is  wanting^   there  fome  of 


Pl.f- 
CXLU, 


tl>ere  d.iJKps  exiil,  accumulate  in  a  body,  and  become  Co.-rlfy. 
naxioua  or  fatal :  and  whenever  there  is  a  good  citcu-  ~~"v~~" 
lation  of  frefh  air,  they  cannot  accumulate,  being  mixed 
with  and  carried  away  by  the  llreani  of  air  as  fafl 
as  they  generate  or  exhale  from  the  fltata.  Upon 
thefe  principles  are  founded  the  feveral  methods  of 
ventilating  a  coaleiy.  Sirppofe  the  workings  of  the  ^ 
pits  A  andB  (fig.  6.)  to  be  obnoxious  to  the  inflammable 
damps  ;  if  the  comminiication  was  open  betwixt  the 
two  pits,  the  air  which  went  down  the  pit  A  would 
proceed  immediately  along  the  mine  a,  and  afcend  out 
of  the  pit  B  ;  for  it  natitrally  takes  the  neareft  direc- 
tion :  fo  tliat  the  air  in  all  the  workings  would  be  flag- 
nant  ;  and  they  woiJd  be  utterly  inncctfribie  from  the 
accumulation  of  the  combullible  damp.  In  order  to 
expel  this,  the  air  muft  be  made  to  circulate  through 
all  the  different  r-ooms  by  means  of  collateral  air- 
courfes  made  in  this  manner :  The  paffage  or  mine  a 
mufl  be  cloftd  up  or  flopped  by  a  partition  of  deals,  or 
by  a  wall  built  with  bricks  or  Hones,  to  prevent  the  air 
pafTing  that  way.  This  building  is  czWedm  Ji.opping. 
There  mull  alfo  be  floppiiigs  made  in  the  thirlings- 
I  I  I,  i<<c.  betwixt  the  pillars //,  &c.  which  will  di- 
rett  tlie  air  up  the  mine  ec,  until  it  arrive  at  the  in- 
nermofl  thirling  2,  which  is  to  be  left  open  for  its  paf- 
fage.  There  mull  alfo  be  lloppings  made  at  the  fide  cf 
the  mine  rt  at  mm,  and  on  both  fides  of  the  main  head- 
way BC  at  bb,  &c  then  returning  to  the  innermoft  thir- 
ling z,  proceed  to  the  third  row  of  pillars,  and  build- 
up the  thirlings  z  z,  &c.  leaving  open  the  thirling  i, 
for  a  paffage  for  the  air  ;  and  proceeding  on  to  the 
fifth  row  of  pillars,  build  up  in  the  fame  manner  the 
ftoppings  3  3,  &c.  leaving  open  4  for  an  air  courfe  : 
and  by  proceeding  in  this  manner  to  Hop  up  the  thir- 
lings or  paflages  in  every  other  row  of  pillars,  the  cur- 
rent of  frefh  air  will  circulate  through  and  ventilate  the 
whole  workings,  in  the  direction  pointed  toby  the  fm.all' 
arrows  in  the  plan,  clearing  away  all  tiie  damps  and 
noxious  vapours  that  may  generate.  When  it  is  arrived 
at  C,  it  is  conduced  acrofs  the  main  headway,  and  car- 
ried through  the  other  part  of  the  pit's  workings  in  the 
fame  manner,  until  it  return  through  nn  to  the  pit  B,. 
where  it  afcends  ;  and  as  the  rooms  advance  faithtr,. 
other  lloppings  are  regularly  ir.ade. 

In  lome  of  thofe  floppings,  on  the  fides  of  the  main 
headway,  there  mufl  be  doors  to  admit  a  pallage  for 
the  bringing  out  of  the  coals  from  the  rooms  to  the  pit,- 
as  at  55:  thefe  doors  mull  be  conflantly  Ihut,  except 
at  the  time  of  paffing  through  them. 

There  are  other  methods  of  difpofing  the  flopping* 
fo  as  to  ventilate  the  pit  ;  but  none  wliich  will  fo  ef-- 
frftualiy  difperfe  the  damps  as  that  defcribed  above. 
If  the  damps  are  not  very  abundant,  then  the  C(>nrfe 
of  lloppings  III,  &c.  in  the  level  mine,  and  the  others 
at  hhh,  &CC.  in  the  main  headway,  without  any  others, 
may  perhaps  be  fuincieiit  to  keep  the  pit  clear.  If  at 
any  time  the  circulation  of  the  freih  air  is  not  brilk 
enough,  then  a  large  lamp  of  fire  may  be  placed  at  the 
bottom  of  the  pit  13,  which,  by  rarefying  the  air  there, 
V  ill  make  a  quicker  circulation. 

Mofl  of  the  larger  coaleries  fend  their  coals  to  theof Ita'jip- 
fliips  for  the  coafling  trade  or  exportation  ;  and,  as  the  and  fli  ;  -' 
quantity  is  generally  very  large,  it  would  take  a  greater  P'"''^'''- - 
number  of  carts  than  could  conveniently  be  obtamed  at'"'*' 
all  times  to  carry  them  j  bi.f:d;.a  the  confidtrablc  expcnc; 

oi 


tC 


C    O     A 


I,    104     1 


C     O     A 


C>ultry,   of  that  manner  of  carriage  :  iht-j-  therefore  generally 

CoJller    "'"'^  waggons,  for  carrying  llicm  along  waggon-ways, 

_j,  laid  with  timber  ;  by  which  means  one  horle  will  draw 

from  two  to  three  tuns  at  a  time,  when  in  a  cart  not 

above  half  a  tnn  could  be  drawn. 

The  firft  thing  to  be  done  in  making  a  waggon-way 


Coaft, 


are  often  fonnd,  from  the  conllitution  of  their  climate,  Coaminj!, 
not  to  be  io  well  calculated  for  fuuthcrn  navigation. 

COjVMINGS,  iii   Ihip-building,  are  thofe  planks,  . 
or  that  frame,  forming  a  border  round  the   hatches, 
which  raife  them  up  higher  than  the  reft  of  the  deck. 
Loop-holes  for  mulkets  to  flioot  out  at,  are  often  made 


IS  to  level  the   ground  in   fuch  a  manner  as  to  take  off  in  the  coamings,  in  order  to  clear  the  deck  of  the  ene- 

all  fudden  afcents  and  defccnts :   to  effeft  which,  it  is  my  when  the  Ihip  is  boarded. 

fometimes  neceffaiy  to  cut  through  hills,  and  to  raife  CO ANE,  among  the  Greeks,  a  name  given  to  a 
an  embankment  to  carry  the  road  through  hollows,  peculiar  fpecies  of  tulia  or  tutty,  which  was  always 
The  road  Ihould  be  formed  about  I  2  feet  wide  ;  and  found  in  a  tubular  form.  It  had  its  name  from  '-"i, 
no  part  fhould  have  a  greater  defcent  than  of  one  yard  a  word  ufed  to  exptcfs  a  fort  of  cylindric  tube,  into 
perpendicular  in  10  of  a  horizontal  line,  nor  a  greater  wliich  the  melted  brafs  was  received  from  the  furnace, 
afcent  than  one  yard  in  30.  After  the  road  is  formed,  and  in  which  it  was  fulfered  to  cool.  In  cooling,  it 
pieces  of  timber,  about  fix  feet  long  and  fix  inches  always  depofited  a  fort  of  recrement  on  the  fides  of  the 
diameter,  called/fr/<rj,  are  laid  acrofs  it,  being  18  or  veffel  or  tube,  and  this  was  the  tutty  ciJled  coane. 
24  inches  diftant  from  each  other.  Upon  thefe  lleepers  COAST,  a  fca-(hore,  or  the  country  adjoining  to 
other  pieces  of  timber,  called  ra/.r,  of  four  or  five  inches  the  edge  of  the  fea.  Dr  Campbell,  in  his  political 
fquare,  are  laid  in  a  lateral  direction,  four  feet  diftant  furvey  of  Great  Britain,  confiders  an  extenlive  fea- 
from  each  other,  for  the  waggon- wheels  to  run  upon  ;  coafl.  as  of  great  advantage  to  any  kingdom  ;  and  con- 
which  being  firmly  pinned  to  the  (leepers,  the  road  may  fequently  that  this  ifland  hath  many  conveniences  re- 
then  be  filled  with  gravel  and  finilhed.  fulling  from  the  extent  of  its  coails,  fuperior  to  other 
The  wan-(Tons  have  four  wheels,  either  made  of  fo-  kingdoms  which  are  much  larger.  The  chief  advan- 
lid  wood  or  of  call  iron.  The  body  of  the  carriage  is  tages  arifing  from  an  extenfive  fea-coail  are,  that 
longer  and  wider  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom  ;  and  thus  there  is  a  convenient  opportunity  for  exportation 
ufually  has  a  kind  of  trap-door  at  the  bottom,  which,  and  importation  to  or  from  all  parts  of  the  kingdom, 
being  loofed,  permits  the  coals  to  run  out  without  any  Thus,  a  number  of  cities  are  formed  on  the  coafts  ; 


permits 
trouble.     The  fize  of  a  waggon  to  carry  50  hundred 
weight  of  coals  is  as  follows : 


Length  of  the  top, 
Breadth  of  the  top. 
Length  of  the  bottom. 
Breadth  of  the  bottom. 
Perpendicular  height, 


Feet. 
7 

5 
5 

2 

,  4 


Iiiche 

9 

o 
o 
6 
3 


Where  the  pits  are  fituated  at  fome  confiderable  di- 
ftance  from  the  harbour,  it  becomes  neceffary  to  have 
a  ftore-houfe  near  the  dipping  place,  where  the  coals 
may  be  lodged,  until  the  lighters  or  (hips  are  ready 
to  take  them  in.  The  waggon-way  fhould  be  made 
into  the  ftore-houfe,  at  fuch  a  height  from  the  ground, 
as  to  permit  the  coals  to  run  from  the  waggons  down 
a  fpout  into  the  velfels ;  or  the  to  fall  down  into  the 
ftore-houfe,  as  occafion  may  require. 

This  kind  of  ftore-houfe  is  well  adapted  to  difpatch 


by  this  means  the  internal  parts  are  improved,  &c. 
The  extent  of  the  fea-coafts  of  Arabia,  he  looks  upon 
as  the  genuine  iource  of  wealth  and  fplcndour  to  tlie 
ancient  inhabitants  of  that  peninfula  ;  the  fame  was 
the  inllrument  of  the  greatnefs  of  ancient  Egypt,  of 
Phoenicia,  Sec.  In  Ihort,  according  to  him,  no  coun- 
try or  city  can  for  any  length  of  time  be  flourilhing 
unlefs  it  hath  a  confiderable  connedtion  with  the  fea. 
"  It  is  indeed  true  (fays  he)  that  the  wifdom  and  in- 
duilry  of  man,  taking  hold  of  fome  peculiar  circum- 
ftanees,  may  have  rendered  a  few  inland  citits  and 
countries  very  fair  and  flourilliing.  In  ancient  hiito- 
ry  we  read  of  Palmyra,  and  the  dilbiCl  round  it,  be- 
coming a  luxuriant  paradifc  in  the  midil  of  inhofpita- 
ble  deferts.  But  this  was  no  more  than  temporary 
grandeur ;  and  it  has  now  lain  for  fome  ages  in  ruins. 
The  city  and  principality  of  Kandahar  was  in  like 
manner, rendered  rich  and  famous,   in  confequence  ot 


and  faving  expence  :  for  a  waggon-load  of  coals  may  be     its  being  made  the  centre  of  the  Indian  commerce  ; 

delivered  either  into  the  ftore-houfe  or  veflcls  inftant-     """'    '  ^'^ " 

ly  with  very  little  trouble  :  and  if  the  coals  were  ex- 
pofed  to  the  effefts  of  the  fun  and  rain,  they  would  be 
o-reatly  injured  in  their  quality  ;  but  being  lodged  un- 
der cover  of  the  ftore-houfe,  they  arc  prcferved. 

COALESCENCE,  the  union  or  growing  together 
of  two  bodies  before  feparate.  It  is  principally  ap- 
plied to  fome  bones  in  the  body,  which  are  feparate 
during  infancy,  but  aftei-wards  grow  together ;  or  to 
fome  morbid  union  of  parts,  which  fhould  naturally 
be  diftinft  from  each  other.  Thus  there  is  a  coalef- 
cence  of  the  fides  of  the  vulva,  anus,  and  nares  ;  of  the 
eye-Hds,  fingers,  toes,  and  many  others  parts. 

COALLIER,  a  veffel  employed  to  carry  coals  from 


but,  long  ago  declining,  itsMeftrudlion  has  been  com- 
pleted, in  our  days,  from  that  dreadful  defolation 
which  Thamas  Kouli  Khan  fpread  through  Perfia  and 
the  Indies.  Here,  in  Europe,  many  of  the  large  ci- 
ties ill  Germany,  which  for  a  time  made  a  great  figure 
from  the  freedom  and  induftry  of  the  inhabitants,  and 
ditfufed  eafe,  plenty,  and  profperity,  through  the  di- 
ftridls  dependent  on  them,  which  of  courfe  rendered 
them  populous,  are  now  fo  much  funk,  through  inevi- 
table accidents,  as  to  be  but  fhadows  of  wliat  they 
were  ;  and  though  they  fliU  continue  to  fubfilt,  fubliit 
only  as  the  melancholy  monuments  of  tlieir  own  mif- 
fortunes.  We  may  therefore,  from  hence,  with  great 
certainty,  difctrn,  that    all  the   pains  and  labour  that 


one  port  to  another  ;  chiefly  from  the  northern  parts  can  be  bellowed   in   fupplying  the  dcfeft   of  fituation 

of  England  to  the  capital,  and  more  fouthcrly  pans,  in  this  refpeft,  proves,  upon  the_  whole,  but  a  tedious, 

as  well  as  to  foreign  markets;     Thi«  trade  is  known  difficult,   and  precarious  expedient.       but,   however, 

to  be  an  excellent  nurfery  for  feamen  ;  although  they  we  muft  at  the  fame  time  admit,  that  it  is  not  barely 


W  S.^ 


the 


C     O     A  [ 

'^pfCoaft  the  polTcnion  even  of  an  extended  coaft  that  can  pro- 
jl.  diice  all  thefe  defirable  effefts.  That  coall  raufl  like- 
'"^'.  wife  be  diftinguifhed  by  other  natural  advantages ; 
fuch  as  capes  and  promontories,  favourably  difpofed 
to  break  the  fur}'  of  the  winds  ;  deep  bays,  fafe  roads, 
and  convenient  harbours.  For,  without  thefe,  an  ex- 
tended coaft  is  no  more  than  a  maritime  barrier  againll 
the  maritime  force  of  other  nations  ;  as  is  the  cafe  in 
ii)any  parts  of  Europe  :  and  is  one  of  the  principal 
reafons  why  Africa  derives  fo  little  benefit  from  a  fitu- 
ation  which  has  fo  promifing  an  appearance  ;  there 
being  many  confidei-able  tradls  upon  its  coafts,  equally 
void  of  havens  and  inhabitants,  and  which  afford  not 
the  fmalleft  encouragement  to  the  attempting  any 
thing  that  might  alter  their  prefent  defolate  condition. 
It  is,  however,  a  lefs  inconvenience,  and  in  fome  cafes 
no  inconvenience  at  all.  If,  in  the  compafs  of  a  very 
extended  coaft,  there  fliould  be  fome  parts  difficult  or 
dangerous  of  accefs,  provided  ihey  are  not  altogether 
inacceffible. — The  fea  coaft  of  Britain,  from  the  figure, 
ill  fome  meafure,  of  the  idand,  but  chiefly  from  the 
inlets  of  the  fea,  and  the  very  irregular  indented  line 
which  forms  its  fhore,  comprehends,  allowing  for  thofe 
finuofities,  at  leaft  800  marine  leagues  :  we  may,  from 
hence,  therefore,  with  fafety  affirm,  that  in  this  refpedl 
It  Is  fuperlor  to  France,  though  that  be  a  much  larger 
country  ;  and  equal  to  Spain  and  Portugal  in  this 
circumftaace,  though  Britain  Is  not  half  the  fize  of 
that  noble  peninfula,  which  is  alfo  Angularly  happy  in 
this  ver)'  particular." 

Cape-Coast,  the  name  of  the  chief  BrItifh  ftttle- 
ment  on  the  coaft  of  Guinea  in  Africa.  The  name  is 
thought  to  be  a  corruption  of  Cabo  Corfo,  the  ancient 
Portuguefe  appellation.  This  cape  is  formed  by  an 
angular  point,  wathed  on  the  fouth  and  eaft  by  the 
fea,  on  which  ftands  the  Engllfti  fort.  Here  the  Por- 
tuguefe  fettled  in  1610,  and  built  the  citadel  of  Cape 
Coaft  upon  a  large  rock  that  projetls  Into  the  fea.  A 
few  years  afterwards  they  were  dlflodged  by  the  Dutch, 
to  whom  this  place  is  principally  indebted  for  its 
ftrength.  In  1664  it  was  demollftied  bv  Admiral 
Holmes,  and  In  1665  the  famous  Dutch  Admiral  De 
Ruyter  was  ordered  by  the  States  to  revenge  the  in- 
fults  of  the  Engliili.  With  a  fquadron  of  13  men  of 
war,  he  attacked  all  the  Englifh  fettlemetits  along  the 
coaft  ;  ruined  the  faiflories ;  and  took,  burnt,  and  funk  all 
the  ftilpping  of  the  Englldi  Company  :  however,  after 
all  his  efforts,  he  was  baffled  in  his  attempts  on  Cape 
Coaft.  By  the  treaty  of  Breda  It  was  confirmed  to 
the  Engllfli,  and  the  king  granted  a  new  charter  in 
1672  ;  on  which  the  Company  applied  all  their  at- 
tention to  the  fortifying  and  rendering  it  commo- 
dious. 

COASTING,  in  navigation,  the  aft  of  making  a 
progrefs  along  the  fea-caaft  of  any  country.  The 
principal  articles  relating  to  this  part  of  navigation 
are,  the  obferving  the  time  and  direitlon  of  the  tide  : 
knowledge  of  the  reigning  winds  ;  of  the  roads  and 
havens ;  of  the  dinVrent  depths  of  the  water,  and  qua- 
lities of  the  ground. 

CojsTiNG-PHot,  a  pilot  who  by  long  experience  has 
become  fufficicntly  acquainted  with  the  nature  of  any 
particular  coait,  and  of  the  requlfites  mentioned  In  the 
preceding  article,  to  conduit  a  ffiip  or  fleet  from  one 
part  of  it  to  another. 
VOL.V.  Parti. 


105     ]  CO     B 

COAT,  or  COAT  of  arms,  in  heraldr)',  a  habit  warn' 
by  the  ancient  knights  over  their  arms  both  in  war  and 
tournaments,  and  ftill  borne  by  heralds  at  arms.  It 
was  a  kind  of  fur-coat,  reaching  as  low  as  the  navel, 
open  at  the  fides,  wltli  Ihort  fleeves,  fonietimes  furred 
with  ermine  and  hair,  upon  which  were  applied  the 
armories  of  the  knights  embroidered  in  gold  and  fil- 
ver,  and  enamelled  with  beaten  tin  coloured  black, 
green,  red,  and  blue  ;  whence  the  rule  never  to  apply 
colour  on  colour,  nor  metal  on  metal.  The  coats  of 
arms  were  frequently  open,  and  diverfified  with  bands 
and  fillets  of  feveral  colours,  alternately  placed,  as  we 
ftill  fee  cloths  fcarleted,  watered,  &c.  Hence  they 
were  called  devlfes,  as  being  divided  and  compofed  of 
feveral  pieces  fewed  together ;  whence  the  words 
/(life,  pale,  chevron,  bend,  crofs,  falt'ier,  lozenge.  See. 
which  have  fince  become  honourable  pieces,  or  ordi- 
naries of  the  ftiitld.  See  Cross,  BtND,  CntviioN, 
&c. 

Coats  of  arms  and  banners  were  never  allowed  to  be 
worn  by  any  but  knights  and  ancient  nobles. 

Coat,  in  anatomy.     See  Tunic  and  Eye. 

Co^iT  0/  Mai/,  a  kind  of  armour  made  in  form  of  a 
ffurt  ;  confining  of  iron  rings  wove  together  netwife. 
See  Mail. 

COATI,  in  zoology,  a  fynonime  of  a  fpeclcs  of  Vi- 
VERRA,  and  Ursus, 

COATIMUNDI,  a  variety  of  the  above. 

COATING,  among  Chemifts.  See  Chemistry, 
no  580. 

Coating  cf  Vials,  Panes  of  Glufs,  Sic.  among  elec- 
tricians, is  ufually  performed  by  covering  the  outfide 
of  the  vial  with  tinfoil,  brafs  or  gold-leaf,  &c.  and  fil- 
ling its  infide  with  loofe  pieces  of  brafs-lcaf,  by  which 
means  It  becomes  capable  of  being  charged.     See  E- 

LECTRICITY. 

COATZONTECOXOCHITL,  or  Floiver  whh 
the  viper's  head,  in  botany,  a  Mexican  flower  of  in-" 
comparable  beauty.  It  Is  compofed  of  five  petals  or 
leaves,  purple  In  the  innermoft  part,  white  in  the  mid- 
dle, the  reft  red  but  elegantly  ftained  with  yellow  and 
white  fpots.  The  plant  which  bears  it  has  leaves  re- 
fembling  thofe  of  the  iris,  but  longer  and  larger  ;  Its 
trunk  is  fmall  and  film  ;  this  flower  was  one  of  the 
moft  efteemed  amongft  the  Mexicans.  The  LInccan 
academicians  of  Rome,  who  commented  on  and  pub- 
hfiied  the  Hiftory  of  Hernandez  in  i6jt,  and  faw  the 
paintings  of  this  flower,  with  its  colours,  executed  in 
Mexico,  conceived  fuch  an  idea  of  its  beauty,  thnt  they 
adopted  It  as  the  emblem  of  their  very  learned  academy, 
denominating  it  Fior  di  Lime.      See  Plate  CXLIII. 

COBALT,  one  of  the  femimetals,  according  to 
Cronftedt,  of  a  whitlili-grey  colour,  nearlyrefembllng 
fine  hardened  fttei,  and  of  the  fpeeific  gravity  of  6.000  ; 
but  according  to  others,  of  a  bliiilh  grey,  or  leddi/h 
white  colour,  and  of  the  fpecific  gravity  of  7.700.  It 
is  as  difficult  of  fufion  as  copper,  or  even  gold  ;  and 
when  v/e!l  purified,  fearcely  yields  to  iron  itfelf  in  this 
refpeft.  When  ilowly  ccolfd,  It  cryftalllzes,  forming  on 
its  furface  fmall  bundles  of  needles,  or  needle-foimed 
prifms,  laid  on  one  another,  and  united  into  bundles  ; 
greatly  refembling,  according  to  Monge/.,  a  mafs  of 
ihaken  bafaltes.  In  order  to  fuccecd  in  this  cryftalli- 
zation,  it  is  fufficient  to  melt  the  cobalt  in  a  crucible 
till  it  futfers  a  kind  of  ebullition  ;  and,  after  having 
O  taken 


COB  [     ic6 

«»l>:ilt.  taken  it  from  the  fire,  to  incline  the  vcffel  wliile  the 
' fuiface  of  the  fcmimetal  is  congeah'ng.  By  this  incli- 
nation the  portion  of  metal  iliU  fiifod  is  poured  out, 
and  that  which  adheres  to  this  kind  of  geode  formed 
by  the  cooling  of  the  furfaccs  of  the.  cobalt  is  found 
covered  with  the  cry  flats  fought  for.  Wlieji  melted 
■with  borax  It  affords  a  blue  glafs,  which  is  the  moft 
obvious  method  of  dilUnguifhing  its  ores  amongll  all 
others.  It  cannot  be  calcined  without  confiderable 
difficulty  ;  and  the  calx,  tho\igh  black  in  appearance, 
is  in  reality  of  a  deep  blue.  Tills  calx  melted  with 
borax,  or  potafli  and  filiceous  fand,  affords  the  blue 
plafs  called  fniali,  very  much  ufed  ■  in  enamel  painting 
and  tinging  of  other  glafs,  being  the  moft  fixed  of  all 
colours  in  the  fire. 

Cobalt,  when  calcined  along  with  the  calx  of  arfe- 
nic  in  a  gentle  heat,  affumes  a  red  colour.  The  fame 
is  naturally  produced  by  way  of  efflorefcence,  and  is 
then  called  the  lloom  o\  flowers  of  cobalt.  When  co- 
balt and  arfenic  are  melted  in  a  ftrong  fire,  they  burn 
with  a  Hue  flame.  It  does  not  mix  either  with  mer- 
cury by  any  means  hitherto  known,  nor  will  it  form 
imy  union  with  bifmuth  without  the  addition  of  fom.e 
medium.  It  is  eafily  foluble  in  fpirit  of  nitre,  and 
the  folution  either  in  this  or  any  other  acid  is  of  a 
red  colour  ;  and  it  is  obfervable  that  the  colour  of  the 
acid  folutions  of  this  femiraetal,  inftead  of  fading  by 
dilution  with  water,  becomes  more  vivid.  It  is  pre- 
cipitated of  a  p-ile  red  colour  from  its  folutions  by  a- 
cid  of  fugar,  which  has  the  greatefl  attraftion  for  it  ; 
though  acid  of  forrel  likewife  precipitates  it. 

Cronftedt,  in  fptakin,"'  of  this  femimetal,  makes  men- 
tion of  native  cobalt  ;  but  other  mineralogifts  affure 
us  that  it  has  never  been  found  perfcftly  pure  in  the 
bowels  of  the  earth.  What  paffes  for  fuch,  is  faid  by 
Kirwan  to  be  mineralized  by  arfenic.  That  called 
.  the  gre^  cobalt  ore  comes  nearetl  to  the  purity  pf  the 
native  femimetal,  but  always  holds  fome  quantity  of 
arfenic   and  iron.      It  is  found   in   Sweden,   Saxony, 


]  COB 

ochre  ;  but  when  in  fcorifonn  half  vitrified  maiTes,  It  Cobalt, 
obtains  the  name  oi  •vilreous  or  glajjy  ore.  When  this ''~~V~~^ 
kind  of  ore  contains  any  fulphur  or  arfenic,  they  are 
only  mechanically  mixed  with  it.  A  fmall  portion  of 
copper,  however,  is  fometimes  -found  in  it.  It  is  fre- 
quently embodied  in  ftones  or  funds  of  a  black  colour; 
fometimes  it  is  contained  in  argillaceous  earths  of  a 
blue  or  green  colour.  Talc,  chalk,  and  gypfum,  im- 
pregnated w  ith  it,  are  called  by  tlie  fame  name  ;  and 
by  fome  ffngel  cobalt. 

3.  Cobalt  mineralifcd  by  the  arfmical  acid,  is  found 
either  loofe  and  pure,  or  mixed  with  chalk  or  gypfum, 
or  indurated  and  cryl'.allized  in  tetrahedral  cryltals. 
It  is  alfo  found  in  a  ilalactitical  form.  It  melts  eafily, 
and  then  becomes  blue.  It  frequently  inverts  other 
cobaltic  ores  ;  and  is  found  fomeuimes  in  ftone  and 
fand.  From  the  experiments  of  Bergman  it  appears, 
that  the  arfenical  acid,  and  not  the  calx  of  arfenic,  en- 
ters into  this  combination  ;  for  cobalt  is  never  red  but 
when  united  to  an  acid.  Flowers  of  cobalt,  minera- 
lized by  arfenic  without  any  fdvtr,  and  intermixed 
with  galena,  have  alfo  been  difcovered  in  France. 

The  flowers  or  e/Borefcence  of  cobalt  are  often 
found  of  a  red  colour,  like  other  earths,  fpread  very  thin 
on  the  cobalt  ores  ;  and  is,  when  of  a  pa'e  colour,  eno- 
neoufly  called  Mowers  of  bifmuth.  A  white  cobalt  earth 
or  ochre  is  faid  to  have  been  found,  and  examined  bv  a 
celebrated  mineralogift,  who  found  it  to  refemble  the 
cobalt  flowers  in  every  refpetl  except  the  colour  ;  and 
indeed  it  is  poffible  that  in  thefe  flowers  the  colour 
might  by  length  ot  time,  or  fome  other  accident,  have 
loft  their  colour.  The  indurated  flowers  of  cobalt  are 
commonly  cryftallized  in  form  of  deep  red  fcmitranf- 
parent  rays  or  radiations.  It  is  found  at  Schnuberg 
in  Saxony. 

Cobalt,  mineralifed  hy  fulphurated  iron,  is  of  a  colour 
nearly  refembling  tin  or  iilver.  It  is  fometimes  found 
in  large  maffes,  fometimes  in  grains  cryftallized  of  a  dull 
white  colour,  and  frequently  has  the  appearance  of  mij"- 


Nonvav,  and  England,  particularly  at  Mendip  hills  in     pickle.  It  has  no  mixture  of  arfenic.      By  calcination 
Somerfetfhire,   and  in  Cornwall,  where  Dr  Lewis  fays 
it  has  lately  been  dug  up  in  large   quantities.  _    Here 
it  is  fometimes   found  in   conjundlion  with  bifmuth, 
and  fometimes  without   it,  refemblin 


veiy  much  in 
appearance  die  Saxon  ores  from  Schnuberg  in  Mifnia, 
and  produces  the  fineft  blue  colours  by  proper  manage- 
ment. An  arfenicated  grey  cobalt  ore  has  alfo  been 
found  at  Chatelaudren  in   France. 

This  kind  of  ore  is  folid,  heavy,  and  compaft,  fome- 
times dull  and  fometimes  of  a  bright  appearance,  cry- 
llallized  frequently  in  a  teffular  and  fometimes  in  a 
dendritical  form ;  being  generally  hard  enough  to 
ftrike  fire  with  fteel,  when  an  arfenical  fmell  is  per- 
ceived. It  grows  black  in  the  fire,  is  foluble  with  ef- 
fenefcence  in  the  nitrous  acid,  from  which  it  may  be 
precipitated  by  the  marine,  and  affords  the  Sympathetic 
Ink  mentioned  under  the  article  Chemistry,  n'  S22. 
This  and  the  blue  colour  conimunicated  by  it  to  glafs 
are  indeed  the  two  charafterillics  by  which  the  ores 
of  cobalt  are  diftinguilhed  from  other  arfenical  ores. 

The  moft  common  ore  of  cobalt  is  that  called  the 
hlack  or  •vitreous  ore,  and  Kobnll  Miilm  or  Schlaken  Ko- 
balt  by  the  Germans.  It  is  found  in  a  loofe  powdery 
form,  fometimes  refembling  lamp-black,  fometimes 
«f  a  grey  colour,  ia  which  ftate  it  is  called  cobalt 


becomes  black  and  not  red,  which  dittinguiihes  it  from 
the  pyrites  ;  and  it  contains  fo  little,  fulphur,  that  none 
can  be  extrafted  from  it.  When  diflblved  in  aqua 
regia  the  folution  is  yellow,  but  becomes  green  when 
boiling  hot  ;  which  alternation,  fays  Kirwan,  is  pecu- 
liar to  marine  cobalt.  A  coarfe  grained  kind  of  this 
ore,  found  in  Sweden,  becomes  flimy  in  the  fire,  and 
flicks  to  the  iron  rods  employed  in  ftirring  it  while 
calcining.  The  flaggy  kind  contains  a  large  quantity 
of  iron,  and  affords  a  very  beautiful  colour  as  well  as 
the  former. 

Cobalt  mineralized  by  fulphur,  arfenic,  and  iron, 
has  a  great  refemblance  to  the  harder  kinds  of  grey 
cobalt  ore,  formerly  m.entioned ;  but  it  is  never 
hard  enough  to  flrike  fire  with  fteel,  and  fometimes 
may  even  be  fcraped  with  a  knife.  The  moft  fhining 
kinds  of  this  and  the  former  fpecies  are  called  cobalt 
glan/z. 

The  great  confumption  of  cobalt  is  for  the  perma- 
nent blue  colour  which  it  communicates  to  glaffes  and 
enamels,  either  upon  metals,  porcelains,  or  earthen 
wares  of  any  kind.  It  is  the  fame  blue  prepared  in  a 
very  cheap  way  by  the  Dutch,  chiefly  from  the  coarfe 
glafs  or  blue  glafs  of  cobalt,  and  called  a^ur  Je  Hol- 
londe  by  the  French,  and  which  is  employed  by  laun- 

dreffcs^. 


COB 


[     107     1 


GOG 


drelTcs.     Cut  although  cobah  is  applied  to  few  o."  no  town  of  Germany,  n,  the  eleftoj-ate  of  Tr.ers  n    T.e^     Cob.b 

o  1        purpofes,  the\,.antit;es  confumed  in  this  way  ves,    cated  at  the  confluence  ot    he  nve  sRh.ne  and         ll_^„^ 

a£d  fuffieient  prof>t\o  thofe  who  have  cobalt  mines  Moklle,  >n  a  fert.k  country    with  mounau.s  cove  ed  _^__, 

.""[".        )..  y    '  With  vuieyavJs,      It  is  the  ulual  rtlidcnce  ot  the  eke- 

""S^:  tffbaJ;,   a.  has  already  been   ftild,  are  met  tor  of  Treve^  to  whom  it  beU.gs^    Over  the  Rhine 
.V  •                      /      f  17„,.^„^       Th^  ineatell  auanti-      s  a  brdge  of  twelve  arches,  builf, for  the  convenience 
with  in  many  parts  of  tmope       The  K  «gl  1—   '_  ;l,bitants  of  Coblentz  and  the  adjacent  places, 

t-u-s;  are  u)und  near  oohnubcri^  in   tne  uiunct  oi   i^a'a  "  ,  .       •  n       i  •        r         .i,       •»     ^  > 

IKS  arc  louuu  "^'li  ^      o     ■?    1       n         •     »;  o  TT1^r.,>r  A  feiTv  maciine  is  conftantly  <roin^  from  the  city  to 

nia  in   Saxony  ;  alfo  at  ^t  Andreafterg  in  the  Upp-  ^  fury  ma.  J  ^^,^^^«^  ^^^^^   .^   ^    y^^^ 

Hartz,  wheie  large  quantities  have  been  met  v.th  for       he  other   .  ^^       ^_^    ^_^    ^_^._^^^^^ 

P  5 'entnry.  L  iin    ing  deeper,  it  .^  iuc^eded  t..  b<jat.,   -he  W  ^^a  I.^  V^  galleiy^e   - 

by   a  veiy  nch   ore   of  iilver  ;    -hich^alfo   being  in  c  >mp^^  ^^^.^^^  ^_^  ^.^^^^^^^^  ^^^^  ^^_^^^  ^^^,^^_  ^^^^^^^ 

of  Treves.      It  is  put  in    motion  by  the   ferry-man's 


length  of  time  exhaufted,  gave  place  to  cobah  ores. 
Some  pieces,  however,  are  ftill  found  in  thefc  mines, 
that  contain  filver  and  gold.  _         . 

The  general  method  of  preparing  cobalt  ores  in  the 
large  vvay  feems  confined  to  Saxony  alone;  from 
whence  all  other  parts  of  the  world,  even  the  Eaft  In- 
dies, are  conlhmtly  fuiipllcd.  It  is  fiippofed  that  the 
Chinefe,  a..d  more  particularly  the  Japanefe,  had  for- 
merly mines  of  excellent  cobalt,  with  which  the  fine 
blues  of  their  ancient  porcelains  were  painted  ;  but  it 
appears  that  thefe  mines  are  now  exhaufted,  and  that 
the  inferior  blues  of  theii  prefent  wares  are  painted 
with  the  Saxon  zaffre  imported  to  them  by  the  Dutch. 
For  the  management  of  the  ore  in  fuch  a  manner  as 
to  fit  it  for  giving  the   defued   colour,  fee  the  article 

ZaFFRE.  .^  ,       ,  r      • 

When  cobalt  is  united  to  bifmuth,  by  means  ot  nic- 
kel, the  compound.  Is  called  fp.-ifs.  This  name  is  alfo 
given  to  a  mixture  of  cobalt,  nickel,  bilmuth,  iulphur, 

and  arfenic.  ,      ,    ,    ■  r  j 

In  Germany  and  Saxony,  the  word  cobalt  is  apphed 
to  the  damps,  arfenical  vapours,  and  their  elfetts  on 
the  miners ;  which  has  induced  the  vulgar  to  apply  it 
to  an  evil  fplrit  wliom  they  fuppofe  to  dwell  m  the 
mines 


pulling  a  rope,  which  is  fixed  to  a  ftandard  on  each 
fide  the  river.  The  caltle  appears  to  be  almoll  iiiac- 
cefllble  to  an  enemy,  and  entiiely  commands  the  city 
of  Cobleiitz.  I'lie  archbifliop's  palace  llarids  at  the 
foot  of  this  rock,  and  the  arfenal  at  a  httle  diftaiice. 
E.  Long.  7.  18.  N.  Lat.  50.  24. 

COBOB,  the  name  of  a  difli  among  the  Moors.  It 
is  made  of  feveral  pieces  of  mutton  wrapt  up  in  the 
cavvl,  and  afterwards  roailed  in  it  ;  the  poorer  people, 
inftead  of  the  meat,  ufe  the  heart,  hver,  and  other 
parts  of  the  entrails,  and  make  a  good  diih,  though 
not  equal  to  the  former. 

COBOOSE,  in  fea-language,  is  derived  from  the 
Dutch  Limluis,  and  denotes  a  fort  of  box,  reftrabling 
a  fentry-box,  ufcd  to  cover  the  chimneys  of  fome  mer- 
chant (liips.  It  generally  ftands  againit  the  barricade, 
on  the  fore-part  of  the  quarter  deck.  It  is  called  in 
the  Weft  Indies  cobre  ve^a. 

COBURG,  a  town  of  Germany  in  the  circle  of 
Franeonia,  and  capital  of  a  territory  of  the  fame  name, 
with  a  famous  college,  a  fort,  and  a  cattle.  This  town, 
with  its  principality,  belongs  to  the  houfe  of  Saxony, 
and  the   inhabitants  are  Proteftants.      It  is  feated  on 


'T'  I     .r  rn.  4,T    a   kind  of  femlmetal  prepared     the  river  Itch,  in  E.  Long.  1 1.  5.  N.  Lat.  50.,  20, 
Regu/usof  CoB.«r,   a   l-i"1^_°f  _  '^  ^^._  ^__  /,  i'  ^^^  COBWEB,  in  ohyfiolo-v,  the  fine  net-work  ^ 


from 'cobalt,  of  a  whitllh  colour  inclining  ta  red.  See 
Zaffre,  and  Ch  emistry,.  n"  1294,  &c.     _ 

COBBING,  a  punifhment  loaietimes  inflitted  at 
fea  It  is  performed  by  ftriking  the  olFender  a  certain 
number  of  times  on  the  breech  with  a  flat  piece  of 
wood  called  the  cobling-board.  It  is  chiefly  ufcd  as  a 
punlfliment  to  thofe  who  quit  their  ftation  during  the 
period  of  the  night-watch. 

COBITIS,  thff  LOAiHE,  in  Ichthyology,  a  genus 
of  fiflies  belonging  to  the  order  of  abdominales.  The 
eyes   are   in   the   upper   part   of  the  head  ;  the  bran 


COBWEB,  In  phyfiology,  the  fine  net-work  which 
fplders  ipin  out  of  their  own  bowels,  in  order  to  catch 
their  prey.      SccAranea. 

COCCEIUS  (John),  profeflbr  of  theology  at  Bre- 
men, was  founder  of  a  fed  called  Coccsiuiis :  ihey  held, 
amongll  other  fingular  opinions,  that  of  a  vifible^ reign 
of  Chrill  In  this  world,  after  a  general  converllon  of 
the  Jews  and  all  other  people  to  the  true  Chrlllian 
faith,  as  laid  down  in  the  voluminous  works  ot  Coc- 
celns.  He  died  in  1699,  aged  66. 
-     -  r    1       1      J      .„     h...  „  COrnNFI  r.A.  in/ooloo-v.a  eenusof  InfeAsofthePIate 

eyes  are  in  the  ^'PP'^^;.^  ^f  J^V  ra  s  :  d  orde?ofcoW^e^a  '  Thrdirf^r?  of  which  are  the^  ^ 
■chioftege  -e-braue  ha  ^  "^  f"^^  j- ^'^^^Jj  ^ Xhout.  The  antenna  are  fubclavated :  the  palpi  are  longer  than 
Se'Slesrelve-ThreH  whlcht.:  natives  of  the  ante«n.,  the  laft  aniculationhea..t-lhaped;  the  body 
1  he  ipe'^'^^^if  njj^  '  .    ^1    f  ^^^.  f^^ii     i,  hemifpheric  ;  the  thorax  .and  elytra  are  margined  ; 

Europe^     The   '  "^^^f  ^^  ™     '     ^^  ^^,,.,1     ,,d  is,     the  abdomen  Is  flat.     This  genus  is  divided  into  fec- 
nvei-s,  keepnig  at    he  bottom  on   the   .«^^  .  f_.^_^^  ^,,^  ^^,„^,^  ^f  ,^^  ,1  t,,,  „,j  of  the  fpots 

on  that  account,  m  fome  4)beesea!^d^^  g       w,th  which  they  are  adorned.     The  females,  impreg- 

Sii":  'wS:;:  th    fpo  tfo  «    thi^ugl^  rot,  Xwallo.  it     nated  by  the  miles,  depofit  theii-  eggs    which  turn  to 
Ihiie,  wncie  tnc  ipoiLime   ,  a  rmdllarve    How  in  the  r  progrefs,  and  are  enemies  to 

""cOBZ:E'"a^£;;^.^tr^.ot  finery,  twenty  ':^f^:;:Z:t.    Thoh.laLiefi..iently  toundupon 

feet  fix  hieics  long,  and  five  feet  bioad.      It  is  about  leaves  of  trees  cove  ed  with  plant-hce.      On  the  pomt 

one    on   b.rt.en,^;owed  with  three  pair  of  oars,  and  of  being  metamorphcfed,   ^hey  fettle  on  a   ear  by  the 

^dminibly  conftn'ifted  for  encountering  a  mountainous  hinder  part  of  their  body   f^f -^   ^d    weU    h      - 

'  ■  felves,  formmg  a  kind  oi  hooii.      ihe  iKin  extends, 

'COBLENTZ,  an  aiKient,  handfoxne,  and  ftrong  grows  h.rd  ;  aud  in  a  foruiight's  time  the  dujahs 


c  o  c 


II 

Coccus. 


Coccolubo  opens  along  the  back.  The  infedl  in  its  perfcA  ftate 
receives  the  impreffions  of  the  air,  that  gives  its  elytra 
a  greater  degree  of  confiftence.  It  feldom  flies,  and 
cannot  keep  long  on  the  wing.  Of  all  the  different 
larvK  of  the  cocciiidla,  the  nnolT;  curious  is  the  white 
hedgehog,  a  name  given  it  by  M.  de  Reaumur  on  ac- 
count of  the  fingularity  of  its  figure,  and  the  tufts  of 
liair  which  render  it  remarkable.  It  feeks  its  food  on 
the  leaves  of  trees.  After  a  fortniglit,  it  fettles  on  one 
fpot,  and  without  parting  with  its  fur,  turns  to  a 
chryfalis ;  three  weeks  after  which,  it  becomes  a 
coccinella.  The  flough  appears  nowife  impaired  by 
its  transformation.  M.  de  Reaumur  has  obferved  it 
on  a  plum-tree.  It  is  likewife  found  upon  the  rofe- 
tree. 

When  the  coccincUs  firft  arrive  at  the  ftate  of  per- 
feftion,  the  colours  of  their  elytra  are  very  pale,  nearly 
bordering  upon  white  or  cream  colour  ;  and  the  elytra 
are  very  foft  and  tender,  but  foon  gi-ow  hard,  and 
change  to  very  lively  brilliant  colours.  Their  eggs 
are  of  an  oblong  form,  and  of  the  colour  of  amber. 

COCCOLOBO,  in  botany:  A  genus  of  the  tri- 
gynia  order,  belonging  to  the  oftandria  clafs  of  plants; 
and  In  thenatural  method  ranking  under  the  12th  or- 
der, Noloracea.  The  calyx  is  quinquepartlte  and  co- 
loured ;  there  is  no  corolla;  the  berry  is  formed  of  the 
calyx,  and  is  monofpermous.  The  fpecies  called  iivifera, 
or  fea-jide  griipe,  grows  upon  the  fandy  fliorcsof  moft  of 
the  Weft  India  ifiands,  where  it  fends  up  many  woody 
ftems,  eight  or  ten  feet  high,  covered  with  a  brown 
fmooth  bark,  andfurniflied  with  thick,  veined,  (hiiiing, 
orbicular  leaves,  five  or  fix  inches  diameter,  ftanding 
upon  fhort  foot-ftalks.  The  flowers  come  out  at 
the  wings  of  the  ftalks,  in  racemi  of  five  or  fix  Inches 
long  ;  they  are  whitifh,  have  no  petals,  but  each  is 
compofed  of  a  monopliyllous  calyx,  cut  at  the  brim 
into  five  oblong  obtufe  fegments,  which  fpread  open, 
continue,  and  furround  feven  or  eight  awl-{hapcd  lla- 
mina,  and  three  Ihort  ftyles,  crowned  with  fimple  ftig- 
mata.  The  germen  is  oval,  and  becomes  a  flediy  fruit, 
wrapped  round  by  the  calyx,  and  includes  an  oval  nut 
cr  ftone.  Thcfe  plums  are  about  the  fize  of  goofe- 
berries,  of  a  purple  red  colour,  and  a  tolerable  good 
flavour.  There  are  fome  other  fpecies  of  this  genus 
whofe  fi  nits  are  eaten  by  the  inhabitants  where  they 
grow,  but  they  are  fmaller  and  not  fo  well  tailed. 

COCCOTHRAUSTES,  in  ornithology,  the  trivial 
name  of  a  fpecies  of  LoxiA. 

COCCULUS  Indicus,  the  name  of  a  poifonous 
berry,  too  frequently  mixed  with  malt-liquors  in  or- 
ter  to  make  them  intoxicating  ;  but  this  praftice  is 
exprcfsly  forbidden  by  ail  of  parhament.  It  is  the  fruit 
of  the  JMfnisffrmuh  Coccu/us.  Fiihermen  have  a  way 
cf  mixing  it  with  parte:  this  the  fifli  fwallow  greedily, 
and  are  thereby  rendered  lifelefs  for  a  time  and  float 
on  the  water.  The  good  women  ufe  it  with  ftavefacre, 
for  dellroying  vermin  in  childrens  heads. 
CXL  HI  COCCUS,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of  Infedls  belonging 

^"  •  to  the  order  of  hcmiptera.  The  mllrum  proceeds 
from  the  bread  ;  tlie  beiry  is  briftly  behind ;  the 
wings  of  the  male  are  erect  ;  and  the  female  has  no 
wings.  1'he  fpecies  are  22,  denominated  principally 
from  the  plants  they  frequent.  The  moll  remarkable 
fpecies  are  : 

x.The  coccus hcfperidum,  or  green-Loufe  bug,  which 


[       108       ] 


c   o   c 


is  oval,  oblong,  of  a  brown  colour,  covered  with  a  kind 
of  varnllh  :  it  has  fix  legs  ;  with  a  notch  and  four 
brUlles  at  the  tail.  It  infefts  orange  trees  and  other 
fimilar  plants  in  green-houfes.  When  young,  it  runs 
upon  the  trees  ;  but  afterwards  fixes  on  fome  Itaf, 
where  it  hatches  aa  infinity  of  eggs,  and  dies.  The 
male  is  a  very  fmall  fly. 

2.  The  coccus  phalaridis.  The  male  of  this  fpe- 
cies is  fmall.  Its  antenna  are  long  for  its  fize.  The 
feet  and  body  are  of  a  reddilh  colour,  nearly  pink,  and 
fprinkled  with  a  little  white  powder.  Its  two  wings, 
and  the  four  threads  of  its  tail,  are  fnow  white,  and 
of  thofe  threads  two  arc  longer  than  the  reil.  It  is  to 
be  found  upon  the  fpecies  uf  gramen  wiiich  Linnanis 
cslh  /lia/aris.  The  female  contrives,  along  the  Ibilks 
of  that  dog-grafs,  little  neds,  of  a  while  cottony  fub- 
ftance,  in  which  Ihe  depofits  her  eggs.  The  finall 
threads  of  her  tail  are  fcarce  perceptible. 

3.  The  coccus  cafti,  a  native  of  the  warmer  parts 
of  America,  is  the  famous  cochineal  animal,  fo  highly 
valued  in  every  part  of  the  world  for  the  incomparable 
beauty  of  its  red  colour,  which  it  readily  communi- 
cates to  v/ool  and  filk,  but  with  much  more  difficulty 
to  linen  and  cotton.  This  infeft,  like  all  others,  is  of 
two  fexes,  but  exceedingly  diffimilar  in  their  appear- 
ance. The  female,  which  alone  is  valuable  for  its  co- 
lour, is  ill-fliaped,  tardy,  and  ilupid  :  its  eyes,  mouth, 
and  antenna,  are  fixed  fo  deep,  and  are  fo  concealed 
in  the  folds  of  the  flvin,  that  it  Is  impoffible  to  diftin- 
gullh  them  without  a  microfcope.  The  male  Is  very 
fcarce,  and  is  fufficient  for  300  females  or  more  ;  It 
is  aclive,  fmall,  and  fiender,  in  comparifon  with  the 
female  ;  Its  neck  is  narrower  than  the  head,  and  Itill 
narrower  than  the  reft  of  the  body.  Its  thorax  is  of 
an  elliptic  form,  a  little  longer  than  the  neck  and  head 
put  togetlier,  and  flattened  below;  Its  antenna;  are 
jointed,  and  out  of  each  joint  IfFue  long  flender  hairs 
that  are  dllpofed  in  pairs  on  each  fide.  It  has  fix 
feet,  each  formed  of  diftinCl  parts.  From  the  poile- 
rior  extremity  of  its  bodv  two  large  hairs  or  briftles 
are  extended,  which  are  four  or  five  times  the  length  of 
the  infetl.  It  bears  two  wings  that  are  fixed  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  thorax,  which  falls  like  the  wings  of 
common  flies  when  it  walks  or  refts.  Thefe  wings, 
which  are  of  an  oblong  form,  are  fuddenly  diriiinifhed 
in  breadth  where  they  are  connefted  to  the  body. 
They  are  ftrengthened  by  two  oblong  mufcles,  one  of 
which  extends  itfelf  on  the  outfide  all  round  the  wing; 
and  the  other,  which  is  internal  and  paiallel  to  the 
former,  feems  interrupted  towards  the  fummit  of  the 
wings.  The  male  is  of  a  bright  red  ;  the  female  of  a 
deeper  colour.  They  aie  bred  on  a  plant  known  in 
Oaxaca  In  New  Spain,  and  all  thofe  parts  where  it 
abounds,  by  the  name  oi  nopal,  or  nopalleca,  the  Indian 

fig-tree.     See  Cactus. 

The  cochineal  was  formerly  imagined  to  be  a  fruit 
or  feed  of  fome  particular  plant  ;  an  error  which  pro- 
bably arofe  from  an  ignorance  of  the  manner  in  which 
it  is  propagated  j  but  at  prefent  every  one  is  convin- 
ced of  its  being  an  infeft,  agreeably  to  Its  name,  fig- 
nifying  a  wood-loufe,  which  generally  breeds  In  damp- 
places,  efpeciaUy  in  gardens.  Thefe  Infects,  by  rol- 
ling themfelves  up,  form  a  httle  ball  fomething  lefs 
than  a  pea  :  and  In  fome  places  are  known  by  the 
name  of  baquilas  de  San  jinfoti,  i.  e.  St  Anthony's 
I  little 


C     O     C  [     1 

little  cows :  and  fuch  is  the  figure  of  the  cochineal, 
"'  except  that  it  has  not  the  facility  of  rolling  itfelf  up  ; 
and  its  magnitude, , when  at  its  full  growth,  does  not 
exceed  that  of  a  tick  common  in  dogs  and  other  ani- 
mals. 

The  juice  of  the  plant  on  which  thcfe  infeifts  breed, 
IS  their  fole  nourifhment,  and  becomes  converted  into 
their  fubftance  ;  when,  inilead  of  being  thin  and  wa- 
teriih,  and  to  all  outward  appearance  of  little  or  no 
ufe,  it  is  rendered  of  a  moft  beautiful  crimlon  colour. 
The  plant  is  in  May  or  June  in  its  moft  vigorous 
ftate,  and  at  this  moft  favourable  feafon  the  eggs  are 
depofited  among  the  leaves.  In  the  fliort  fpace  of 
two  months,  from  an  animalcule,  the  infect  grows 
up  to  the  fize  above  mentioned  :  but  its  infant  ftate 
is  expofed  to  a  variety  of  dangers  ;  the  violent  blafts 
■of  the  north  wind  fweep  away  the  eggs  from  the  fo- 
liage of  the  plant  ;  and,  what  is  equally  fatal  to  their 
tender  conllitutions,  ftiowers,  fogs,  and  frofts,  often 
attack  them,  and  deftroy  the  leaves,  leaving  the  care- 
ful cultivator  this  only  refource,  namely,  that  of  ma- 
king fires  at  certain  diftances,  and  filling  the  air  with 
fmohe,  which  frequently  preferves  them  from  the  fatal 
effefts  of  the  inclemcncv  of  the  weather. 

The  breeding  of  cochineal  is  alfo  greatly  obftrufted 
by  birds  of  different  kinds,  which  are  very  fond  of 
thefe  infefts  ;  and  the  fame  danger  is  to  be  appre- 
hended from  the  woniiF,  &c.  which  are  found  among 
the  plantations  of  ncpals  :  fo  that  imlefs  conftant  care 
be  taken  to  fright  the  birds  away  from  the  pls.itation, 
and  to  clear  the  ground  of  thofe  various  kinds  of  ver- 
min which  multiply  fo  faft  in  it,  the  owner  will  be 
greatly  difappointed  in  his  expeftations. 

When  the  infcdls  are  at  their  full  growth,  they 
are  gathered  and  put  into  pots  of  earthen  ware  ;  but 
much  attention  is  requifite  to  prevent  them  from  get- 
ting out,  as  in  that  cafe  great  numbers  of  them  would 
be  loft  ;  though  there  is  no  danger  of  it,  where  they 
are  at  liberty  on  the  nopal  leaves,  thofe  being  their 
natural  habitation,  and  where  they  enjoy  a  plenty  of 
dehcious  food  :  for  though  they  often  remove  from 
one  leaf  to  another,  they  never  quit  the  plant  ;  nor  is 
it  uncommon  to  fee  the  leaves  entirely  covered  with 
them,  efpecially  when  they  are  arrived  at  maturity. 
When  they  have  been  confined  fome  time  in  thefe 
pots,  they  are  killed  and  put  in  bags.  The  Indians 
have  three  diff^erent  methods  of  killing  thefe  infefts  ; 
one  by  hut  water,  another  by  fire,  and  a  third  by  the 
rays  of  the  fun  :  and  to  thefe  are  owing  the  feveral 
gradations  of  the  colour,  which  in  fome  is  dark,  and 
in  others  bright  ;  but  all  require  a  certain  degree  of 
heat.  Thofe  therefore  who  ufe  hot  water  are  very 
careful  to  give  it  the  requifite  heat,  and  that  the  quan- 
tity of  water  be  proportioned  to  the  number  of  infects. 
The  method  of  killing  the  creatures  by  fire  is  to  put 
them  on  tliovels  into  an  oven  moderately  heated  for 
that  intention  ;  the  fine  quality  of  the  cochineal  de- 
pending on  its  not  being  over  dried  at  the  time  of  kil- 
ling the  infects :  and  it  muft  be  owned,  that  among 
the  feveral  ways  made  ufe  of  to  deftroy  this  valuable 
creature,  that  of  the  rays  of  the  fun  feems  to  bid  faireft 
for  performing  it  in  the  moft  perfeft  manner. 

Bciides  the  precaution  requifite  in  killing  the  cochi- 
neal, in  order  to  prcferve  its  quality,  it  is  equally  ne- 
celfary  to  know  when  it  is  in  a  proper  ftate  fur  beino; 


09    ]  c    o    c 

removed  from  the  leaves  of  the  nopal ;  but  as  expe-  Coccus.  1 
rience  only  can  teach  the  cultivator  this  neceffary  cri- '  v  ' ' 
terion,  no  fixed  rule  can  be  laid  down.  Accordingly, 
in  thofe  provinces  where  the  cultivation  of  thefe  in- 
fefts  is  chiefly  carried  on,  thofe  gathered  by  Indians 
of  one  village  differ  from  thofe  gathered  in  another ; 
and  even  thofe  gathered  by  one  perfon  in  the  famo 
village,  are  often  different  from  thofe  gathered  bv 
anotlier  ;  every  individual  adhering  to  his  owij  me- 
thod. 

The  cochineal-infedt  may,  in  fome  circumftances, 
be  compared  to  the  filk-worm,  particidarly  in  the  man- 
ner of  depofiting  its  eggs.  The  inf'eiils  deflined  for 
this  purpofe  are  taken  at  a  proper  time  of  their  gi-owth, 
and  put  into  a  box  well  clufed,  and  lined  with  a  coarfe 
cloth  that  none  of  them  be  loft  :  and  in  this  confine- 
ment they  lay  their  eggs  and  die.  The  box  is  kept 
clofe  ftiut  till  the  time  of  placing  the  eggs  on  the  no- 
pal, when,  if  any  motion  is  perceived,  it  is  a  fuificient 
indication  that  the  animalcule  has  life,  though  the  eg-^^ 
is  fo  minute  as  hardly  to  be  perceived  ;  and  this  is  tlie 
feed  placed  on  the  fohage  of  the  nopal,  and  the  quan- 
tity contained  in  the  ihell  of  a  hen's  egg  is  fufficient 
for  covering  a  whole  plant.  It  is  remarkable  that  this 
infeft  does  not,  or  at  leafl  in  any  vilible  manner, 
injure  the  plant,  but  extrafts  its  nourifhment  from 
the  moft  fucculent  juice,  which  it  fucks  by  means 
of  its  probofcis  through  the  fine  teguments  of  the 
leaves. 

The  principal  countries  where  the  cochineal  infeAs 
are  bred,  are  Oaxaca,  Tlafcala,  Chulula,  Nueva  Gal- 
licia,  and  Chiapa,  in  the  kingdom  of  New  Spain  ;  and 
Hambato,  Loja,  and  Tucuman  in  Peru:  but  it  is  only- 
in  Oaxaca  that  they  are  gathered  in  large  quantities, 
and  form  a  branch  of  commerce,  the  cultivation  of 
thefe  little  creatures  being  there  the  chief  employ- 
ment of  the  Indians. 

Though  the  cochineal  belongs  to  the  animal  king- 
dam,  of  all  others  the  moil  liable  to  corruption,  yet  it 
never  fpoils.  Without  any  other  care  than  merely 
that  of  keeping  in  a  box,  it  has  been  preferved  for 
ages.  In  drying,  it  lofes  about  two-thirds  of  its  weight. 
When  dried,  it  is  forted  into  large  entire  grains,  and 
fmall  or  broken  ones:  the  firft  are  called  by  the  Spa- 
niards grana,  the  latter  granilla.  In  trade,  four  forts 
are  diftinguifhed,  Majlique,  Campefchane,  Telrafckak, 
and  Jy/ve/kr  J  of  which,  the  firft  is  accounted  the  beft, 
and  the  laft  the  worft.  Tlie  three  firft  are  named 
from  the  places  where  they  are  produced ;  the  latter 
from  its  being  found  wild  v/ithout  any  culture. 

In  medicine,  cochineal  has  been  ftrongly  recom- 
mended as  a  fudorificj  cardiac,  and  alexipharmac;  but 
practitioners  have  never  obferved  any  confiderable  ef- 
tefts  from  it.  Its  principal  confumption  is  among 
dyers.     See  the  article  Dyeing. 

4.  The  coccus  ilicis,  or  that  forming  the  kermes 
grains,  inhabits  the  quercus  coccifera  of  the  fouthern 
parts  of  Europe.  Mr  Hellot  of  the  French  Academy 
of  Sciences,  in  his  Art  of  Dyeing,  cliap.  12.  fays  it  is 
found  in  the  woods  of  Vauvert,  Vendeman,  and  Nar- 
bonne  ;  Irjt  more  abundantly  in  Spain,  towards  Ali- 
cant  and  Valencia.  It  not  only  abounds  in  Vak-ncia, 
but  alio  in  Mureia,  Jatn,  Cordova,  Seville,  E.ftrema- 
duia,  U  Mttiicha,  Seiruniaa  de  Cutuea,  and  other 
places. 

-^  In 


Cocc'.is. 


Dillons 
'Xrt:vcis 
through 
Sj>,lill. 


C     O     C  [     II 

In  Xixona  and  Tierra  dc  Rtlleu,  there  !s  a  d!ftn'£l 
called  Z>c'  111  Grava,  where  the  people  of  Valencia  firft 
began  to  gather  it,  whofe  example  was  followed  all 
over  Spain.  It  has  fonie  years  piodiiced  30,000  dol- 
lars (5000  1.)  to  the  inhabicants  of  Xixona. 

Both  ancients  and  modems  feem  to  have  had  very 
confufed  notions  concerninj^  the  origin  and  nature  of 
the  kermes ;  fome  confidering  it  as  a  fruit,  without  a 
juft  knowledge  of  the  tree  which  produced  it ;  others 
taking  it  for  an  excrefccnce  formed  by  the  punclure  of 
a  particuLir  fly,  the  fame  as  the  common  gall  obferved 
upon  oaks.  Tournefort  was  of  this  number.  Count 
Marfigli,  and  Dr  Nifole  a  phyfician  of  Montpelier, 
made  experiments  and  obfervations,  with  a  view  of 
further  difcoveries ;  but  did  not  perfeftly  fucceed. 
Two  other  phyficians  at  Aix  in  Provence,  Dr  Emeric 
and  Dr  Garidel,  applied  themfelves  about  the  fame 
time,  and  with  greater  fuccefs  ;  having  finally  dilco- 
vered  that  the  kermes  is  in  reality  nothing  elfe  but  the 
body  of  an  infeft  transformed  into  a  grain,  berry,  or 
hulk,  according  to  the  courfe  of  nature. 

The  progrefs  of  this  transformation  mull  be  confi- 
dered  at  three  different  feafons.  In  the  firll  ftage,  at 
the  beginning  of  March,  an  animalcule,  no  larger  than 
a  grain  of  millet,  fcarce  able  to  crawl,  is  perceived 
flicking  to  the  branches  of  the  tree,  where  it  fixes  it- 
felf,  and  foon  becomes  immoveable  ;  at  this  'period- it 
grows  the  moll,  appears  to  fwell  and  thrive  with  the 
fuftenance  it  draws  in  by  degrees.  This  ftate  of  reft 
feems  to  iiave  dcceivi^d  the  ciuious  obferver,  it  then 
refembling  an  excrefcence  of  the  bark  ;  during  this 
period  of  its  growth,  it  appears  to  be  covered  with  a 
down,  extending  over  its  whole  frame  like  a  net,  and 
adhering  to  the  bark  ;  its  figure  is  convex,  not  unlike 
a  fmall  floe;  in  fuch  parts  as  are  not  quite  hidden  by 
this  foft  garment,  many  bright  fpccks  are  perceived  pi 
a  gold  colour,  as  well  as  ilripes  running  acrols  the 
body  from  one  fpace  to  another.  At  the  fecond  ftage, 
in  April,  its  growth  is  completed;  its  fliape  is  then 
round,  and  about  the  fize  of  a  pea :  it  has  then  acquired 
more  ttrength,  and  its  down  is  changed  into  dull,  and 
feems  to  be  nothing  but  a  hu(l<  or  a  capfule,  full  of  a 
reddifti  juice  not  unlike  difcoloured  blood.  Its'  third 
ftate  is  towards  the  end  oF  May,  a  little  fooner  or  la- 
ter according  to  the  warmth  of  the  cjimste.  The 
huflc  appears  replete  \5-ith  fmall  eggs,  lefs  than  the  feed 
of  a  poppy.  Thefe  are  properly  ranged  under  the 
belly  of  the  infedl,  pvogreflively  placed  in  the  neft  of 
down  that  covers  its  body,  which  it  withdraws  in  pro- 
portion to  the  number  of  eggs  :  after  this  work  is 
performed,  it  foim  dies,  though  it  ftill  adheres  to  its 
pofilion,  rendering  a  further  fervice  to  its  progeny, 
and  (hielding  them  from  ihe  inclemency  of  the  wea- 
ther, 01  the  hollile  attacks  of  an  enemy.  In  a  good 
feafon  they  multiply  exceedingly,  having  from  1 800 
to  2000  eggs,  which  produce  the  fame  number  of  ani- 
malcules. When  obftrved  with  the  microfcope  in  July 
or  Augnft,  we  find,  that  what  appeared  as  dull,  are  lo 
many  eggs  or  open  capfules,  as  white  as  fnow,  out 
of  each  of  which  ifTues  a  gold-coloured  animalcule,  of 
the  fliape  of  a  cockroach,  with  two  horns,  fix  feet, 
and  a  forked  tail.  In  Languedoc  and  Provence  the 
poor  are  employed  to  gather  the  kermes,  the  women 
letting  their  nails  grow  for  that  purpofe,  in  order  to 
pick  them  off  with  greater  facility. 


o     1  COG 

The  ciiftora  of  lopping  off  the  boughs  is  very  inju- 
dicious, as  by  this  means  they  deilroy  the  next  year's 
harvell.  Some  women  will  gather  two  or  three  pounds 
a-day  :  the  great  point  being  to  know  the  placpa  where 
they  are  moil  likely  to  be  lound  in  any  quantity,  and 
to  gather  them  early  with  the  morning -dew,  as  the 
leaves  are  more  pliable  and  tender  at  that  time  than 
after  they  have  been  dried  and  parched  by  the  rays  of 
the  fun  :  (hong  dews  will  occaiionally  make  them  fall 
from  the  trees  fooner  than  uiual :  when  the  proper 
feafon  pafles,  they  fall  off  of  themfelves,  and  become 
food  for  birds,  particularly  doves.  Sometimes  tiiere 
will  be  a  fecond  produClion,  which  is  commonly  of  a 
lefs  fize  with  a  fainter  tinge.  The  firll  is  generally 
found  adhering  to  the  bark,  as  well  as  on  the  branches 
and  ftalks ;  the  fecond  is  principally  on  the  leaves,  as 
the  worms  choofe  that  part  where  the  nutritious  juice 
prefcrves  itftlf  the  longeft,  is  moft  abundant,  and  can 
be  moft  cafily  devoured  in  the  fhort  ti.ne  that  remains 
of  their  exiftence,  the  bark  being  then  drier  and  hard- 
er than  the  leaves. 

Thofe  who  buy  the  kermes  to  fend  to  foreign  parts, 
fpread  it  on  linen  ;  taking  care  to  Iprinkle  it  with  vi- 
negar-, to  kill  the  worms  that  are  within,  which  pro- 
duces a  red  dull,  which  in  Spain  is  leparated  from  the 
hufl<.  Then  they  let  it  dry,  palTmg  it  tlirough  a 
fcarce,  and  make  it  up  into  bags.  In  the  middle  of 
each,  its  proportion  of  red  duft,  put  in  a  little  leather 
bag,  alio  belongs  to  the  buyer  ;  and  then  it  is  ready 
for  exportation,  being  always  in  demand  on  the  Afri- 
can coall.  The  people  of  Hinojos,  Bonares,  ViUalba, 
and  other  parts  of  the  kingdom  of  Seville,  dry  it  on 
mats  in  the  fun,  ilirring  it  about,  and  feparating  the 
red  duft,  which  is  the  fineft  part,  and  being  mixed 
with  vinegar  goes  by  the  name  ai pajlcl.  The  fame  is 
done  with  the  huflvs  ;  but  thefe  have  but  half  the  va- 
lue of  the  duft.  The  kermes  of  Spain  is  preferred  on 
the  coaft  of  Barbary,  on  account  of  its  goodnefs.  The 
people  of  Tunis  mix  it  with  that  of  Tetuan,  for  dyeing 
thole  fcailet  caps  fo  much  uftd  in  the  Levant.  The 
Tunifians  export  every  year  above  150,000  dozen  of 
thefe  caps,  which  yields  to  the  Dty  a  revenue  of 
150,000  haid  dollars  (33>75ol.) /fr  anuum  for  duties; 
lo  that,  exclullve  of  the  ufes  and  advantages  of  kermes 
in  medicine,  it  appears  to  be  a  very  valuable  branch  of 
coinmerce  in  Spain. 

5.  The  coccus  lacea,  or  g^m-lnc  animal,  is  a  native 
of  the  Ealt  Indies.  The  iread  and  trunk  form  one 
uniform,  oval,  compreffed,  red  body,  of  the  fliape  and 
magnitude  of  a  very  fmall  loufe,  coniilliug  of  twelve 
tranlvcrfe  rings.  The  back  is  carinite  ;  the  belly  flat; 
the  antennae  half  the  length  of  the  body,  filihirm,  trun- 
cated, and  diverging,  fending  off  two,  often  three,  deli- 
cate, diverging  hairs,  longer  than  the  antenna; :  the 
mouth  and  eyes  could  not  be  feen  with  the  naked  eye. 
The  tail  IS  a  little  white  point,  fending  off  two  hori- 
zontal hairs  as  long  as  the  body.  It  has  three  pair  of 
limbs,  half  the  length  of  the  inieft. 

This  is  Its  defcription  in  that  ftate  in  which  it  fal- 
lies  forth  from  the  womb  of  the  parent  in  the  months 
of  November  and  December.  They  travel fe,  the 
branches  of  the  trees  upon  which  they  were  produced 
for  fome  time,  and  then  fix  themfelves  upon  tiic  fuc- 
culent  extremities  of  the  young  branches  By  the 
middle  of  January  they  are  all  fixed  in  their  proper 
2  litua- 


C     O     C  [II 

Coccu5.  fituations  ;  they  appear  as  plump  as  beforf,  but  (how 
■""v-"-  no  other  marks  of  life.  The  limbs,  antennse,  and  fetas 
of  the  tail  are  no  longer  to  be  feen.  Around  their 
ed^es  they  are  environed  with  a  fpiffid  fubpelhicid  li- 
quid, which  fcems  to  glue  them  to  the  branch  :  it  is 
the  gradual  accMinulation  of  this  liquid,  which  forms 
'a  complete  cell  for  each  infetl,  and  is  what  is  called 
gum  lacca.  About  the  middle  of  March  the  cells  are 
V  completely  foimcd,   and  the  infeft  is  in  appearance  an 

oval,  fmooth,  red-ba^,  without  life,  about  the  fize  of 
a  fmall  cuchanical  infeft,  emarginated  at  the  obtufe 
end,  full  of  a  beautiful  red  liquid/  In  Octob'T  and 
November  we  find  about  20  or  30  oval  eg3;s,  or  rather 
young  grubs,  within  the  red  fluid  of  the  mother. 
When  this  fluid  is  all  expended,  the  young  inle<fts 
pitice  a  hole  through  the  back  of  their  mother,  and 
walk  off  one  by  one,  leaving  their  exuvije  behind, 
wliicli  is  that  white  membranous  fubftance  found  iu 
the  empty  cells  of  the  ftick  lac. 

The  infefts  are  the  inhabitants  of  four  trees:  i.  Fi- 
CU3  religiofa,  I'/mn/i ;  2.  Ficus  indica,  I.'inna't;  3.  Plafo, 
Hortiis  Malahiinct  ;   and  4.  Rhnmnus  jujuba,  Limitt'i. 

The  iufeds  generally  fix  thtmfclves  I'o  clofe  toge- 
ther, and  iu  fuch  numbers,  that  fcarcely  one  in  fix  can 
have  room  to  complete  her  cell  :  the  others  die,  and 
are  eat  up  by  varioub  infecls.  The  extreme  branches 
appear  as  if  they  were  covered  with  a  red  dull,  and 
their  fap  is  fo  much  exhaufted,  that  they  wither  and 
produce  no  fruit,  the  leaves  drop  off,  or  turn  to  a  dirty 
black  colour.  Thcfe  infefts  are  tranfplanted  by  birds: 
if  they  perch  upon  thefe  branches,  they  mud  carry  off 
a  number  of  the  Lnfefts  upon  their  feet  to  the  next  tree 
they  reft  upon.  It  is  worth  obferving,  that  thefe  fig- 
trees  when  wounded  drop  a  milky  juice,  which  inftant- 
ly  coaguk'.tes  into  a  vifcid  ropey  fubftance,  which, 
hardened  in  the  open  air,  is  fimilar  to  the  cell  of  the  coc- 
cus lacca.  The  natives  boil  this  milk  with  oils  into  a 
bird-lime,  which  will  catch  peacocks  or  the  largefl: 
birds. 

A  red  medicinal  gum  is  procured  by  incifion  from 
the  plafo  tree,  fo  fimilar  to  the  gum  lacca,  that  it  may 
readily  be  taken  for  the  fame  fubftance.  Hence  it  is 
probable,  that  thofe  infeifts  have  little  trouble  in  ani- 
malizing  the  fap  of  thefe  trees  in  the  formation  of  their 
cells.  The  gum  lacca  is  rarely  feen  upon  the  rham- 
nus  jujuba;  and  it  is  inferior  to  what  is  found  upon 
the  other  trees.  The  gum  lacca  of  this  country  is 
principally  found  upon  the  uncultivated  mountains  on 
both  fides  the'  Ganges,  where  bountiful  nature  has  pro- 
duced it  in  fuch  abundance,  that  was  the  confumption 
ten  times  greater  the  markets  might  be  fupplied  by 
this  minute  infeft.  The  only  trouble  in  procuring  the 
lac  is  in  breaking  down  the  branches,  and  carrying 
them  to  maiket.  The  prcfent  price  in  Dacca  is  about 
twelve  (hillings  the  hundred  pounds  weight,  although 
it  is  brought  from  the  diftant  country  of  Affam.  The 
befl;  lac  is  of  a  deep  red  colour.  If  it  is  pale,  and 
pierced  at  top,  the  value  diniiniflies.  becaufe  the  in- 
fefts  have  left  their  cells,  and  confequeritly  they  can 
be  of  no  ufe  as  a  dye  or  colour,  but  probably  they  are 
better  for  varnifties. 

This  infeft  and  its  cell  has  gone  under  the  various 
names  of  gum  lacca,  lack,  loc  tree.  In  Bengal,  la  ; 
and  by  the  Englifii  it  is  diftinguiflied  into  four  kinds, 


I       1 


COG 


differently  dcmominated  :  for  which,  and  their  feveral    Coccus, 
ufcs,  fee  the  article  ^acca.  w_y— «j 

In  the  figure,  a  rcprefents  the  infe£t  at  its  birth  ;  > 
b  ditto,  big  with  young;  both  the  natuial  fize. 
y  The  embyro  before  birth  inclofed  in  its  membrane  ; 
i  The  coccus,  with  two  hairs  from  each  antenna; 
I  Ditto,  with  three  liairs  from  each  antenna  ;  thefe 
three  figures  are  magnified. 

6.  Coccus  Polonicus,  an  infedt  which  may  properly 
enough  be  called  the  cochineal  of  the  nortliern  part  of 
the  world.'  As  the  cochine,il  loves  only  the  hot  cli- 
mates, this  creature  affcdts  only  the  cold  ones.  It  is 
coUttttd  tor  the  ufe  of  dyers  :  but  the  crops  of  it  are 
much  finaller,  more  difficultly  made,  and  the  drug  it- 
felt  greatly  inferior  to  the  true  cochineal.  It  is  com- 
monly known  by  the  name  of  coccus  Polonicus,  or  the 
fcarla  gram  of  Poland.  That  country  is  indeed  the 
place  where  it  is  gathered  in  the  gieateft  abundance  } 
but  it  is  not  the  only  one  where  it  is  found.  It  is  to 
be  met  with  in  many  of  the  northern  countries  ;  and 
poffibly  tway  be  found  in  fome  of  the  more  temperate 
ones,  where  it  is  not  yet  known  ;  as  it  is  very  much 
hid  by  nature  from  the  eyes  of  comi;ion  obfervers. 
It  is  found  alSxed  to  the  root  of  a  plant,  and  ufually 
to  plants  of  that  fptcies  from  thence  called  polygonum 
cocciferum :  though  authors  have  informed  us  of  the 
fame  berry,  as  it  is  often  called,  being  found  at  the 
roots  of  the  raoufeear,  rupture-wort,  pimpernel,  and 
pellitory  of  the  wall;  and  that  it  is  in  no  other  than 
faudy  places  that  it  is  found  at  the  roots  of  thofe  plants. 
Breynius,  in  173  I,  printed  at  Dantzlck  a  very  curious 
account  of  this  production,  which  proves  it  inconte- 
ftably  to  be  an  animal.  Towards  the  end  of  June  the 
coccus  is  in  a  fit  ftate  for  being  gathered.  Every  one 
of  the  creatures  is  then  nearly  of  a  fpherical  form,  and 
of  a  fine  violet  colour.  Some  of  them,  however,  are 
not  larger  than  poppy  feeds,  and  others  of  the  fize  of 
a  peppercorn  ;  and  each  of  them  is  lodged,  either  in 
part  or  entirely,  in  a  foit  of  cup  like  that  of  an  acorn. 
More  than  half  the  fur  face  of  the  body  of  the  animal 
is  covered  by  this  cup.  The  outfide  of  the  covering 
is  rough,  and  of  a  blackidi  brown  ;  but  the  infide  is 
fmooth,  poliftied,  and  (hining.  On  fome  plants  they 
find  only  one  or  two  of  thefe,  and  on  others  more 
than  forty  ;  and  they  are  fometimes  placed  near  the 
origin  of  the  ftalks  of  the  plants. 

Breynius  began  his  obfervations  on  the  animals  in  thiV 
ftate,  feveral  of  them  being  put  into  veffelsof  glafs  ;  and 
by  the  24th  of  July,  there  was  produced  from  every  one 
ot  them  a  hexapod,  or  fix-legged  worm,  with  two  an- 
tennae on  its  head.  Several  of  thefe  were  kept  a  fort- 
night, and  ffiowed  no  inclination  to  eat  any  thing.  They 
run  about,  however,  very  fwiftly  for  fome  time ;  but  then 
began  to  be  more  quiet,  drew  up  their  bodies  (horter, 
and  ceafed  to  run  about  any  longer.  They  were  now 
of  a  purple  colour  ;  but  in  this  ftate,  though  they  did 
not  walk  about,  they  were  fubjctl  to  various  contor- 
tions. At  length,  when  they  were  become  wholly 
motionlefs,  their  bodies  became  covered  with  a  fine 
down  :  this  was  white,  and  formed  them  a  perfedt 
covering,  which  was  fometimes  of  a  fpherical,  and 
fometimes  of  an  irregular  ^gure  :  it  was  always, 
however,  very  elegant ;  and  the  downy  matter  plain- 
ly enough  tranfpired  out  of  the  animal's  body.     The 

creatiaej 


COG 


C 


Cocnis.  creature?  remained  in  t)\is  ftate  of  reft,  and  covered 
"'-'Y—^  „,;th  this  down,  for  five  or  Gx  days  ;  but  at  the  end  of 
tliat  time,  every  one  of  them  laid  more  tlian  150  eggs. 
Thefe  eggs  were  depofited  upon  the  paper  on  which 
the  animals  were  placed,  and  were  enveloped  in  fome 
meafure  by  a  downy  matter.  When  the  creatures 
had  laid  all  their  eggs,  they  died  ;  and  about  the  24th 
of  Auguft  there  came  from  every  egg  a  fmall  infed, 
which  to  the  eye  fcarce  feemed  any  other  than  a  red 
point ;  it  might,  however,  be  obferved  very  plainly 
to  move  about.  Thefe  young  animah  lived  about  a 
month,  wholly  without  fuftenance.  Mr  Breynius  was 
induced  at  firft,  to  believe,  that  thefe  animals  came  to 
be  in  a  ftate  to  produce  perfeft  eggs,  without  any 
congrefs  with  the  male;  but  farther  obfervations  con- 
vinced him  of  the  error  of  this  opinion.  He  faw  af- 
terwards a  fort  of  very  fmall  flies  with  two  white 
wings  bordered  with  red,  produced  from  feveral  of  the 
cocci.  Thefe  flies  are  plainly  of  the  fame  kind  with 
the  male  gall-infefts. 

It  has  before  been  obferved,  that  thefe  cocci  differ 
ill  fize.  The  flies  are  produced  by  the  fmall  ones  not 
fcigger  than  a  poppy  feed;  the  others  produce  tlie  wornw 
before  defcribed:  and  one  obfervation  of  Mr  Brey- 
nius's  affords  a  plain  proof  that  thefe  flies  are  the  male 
infedls  of  the  fpecies ;  fince  all  thofe  of  the  females, 
which  had  been  a  day  or  two  accompanied  by  thofe 
flies,  quickly  covered  tliemfelves  with  down  and  be- 
gan to  lay  their  eggs  ;  whereas  thofe  which  had  not 
this  com'Tierce  with  the  flies  remained  in  the  fame 
Itate,  or  elfe  got  only  a  very  thin  and  (light  covering 
of  down,  and  never  laid  any  eggs.  The  manner  of 
this  creature's  life,  however,  from  its  being  hatched, 
to  its  being  found  in  the  Hiape  of  a  berry  at  the  rootd 
of  the  plants,  is  yet  unknown  :  and  how  they  aflume 
the  fliape  of  a  ball  lodged  in  a  cup,  muft  require  a  nice 
obfervation  to  difcover. 

The  proper  time  for  gathering  this  infeft,  as  we 
have  already  obferved,  is  about  the  end  of  June,  when 
it  is  quite  full  of  of  purple  juice.  Thofe  who  gather 
it  have  a  hollow  fpade  with  a  fhort  handle  ;  then,  ta- 
king hold  of  the  plant  with  one  hand,  iliey  raifc  it  out 
of  the  ground  with  the  tool  held  in  the  other  ;  after 
which  they  very  quick! ;•  and  dexteroufly  detach  the 
infefts,  and  replace  tnt-  plant  in  the  ground,  where  it 
again  takes  root.  The  inccus  is  then  feparated  from 
the  earth  by  means  of  a  fieve  ;  and  in  order  to  prevent 
them  from  turning  into  worms,  they  fnvinkle  them 
with  very  cold  water  or  vinegar.  LaHly,  they  are  kill- 
ed by  expofure  to  the  fun,  or  keeping  them  for  fome 
time  in  a  v;arni  place  ;  but  this  muft  be  dene  with  cau- 
tion, as  too  hafty  drying  would  fpoil  the  colour, 
Someti-^es  they  feparate  the  infeAs  from  the  veficles 
with  their  fingers,  and  form  them  into  balls  ;  but  by 
this  operation  the  nrice  is  greatly  increafed. 

We  are  informed  by  Bernard  de  Bemith,  from  whom 
this  account  is  taken,  that  the  harvcft  of  coccus  was 
farmed  out  to  the  Jews  by  fome  Polilh  lords,  who  had 
pofleflions  in  the  Ukraine ;  that  it  was  ufed  ty  them, 
as  well  as  the  Turks  and  Armenians,  for  dyeing 
not  only  wool  and  filk,  but  the  tails  and  manes  cf 
their  horfes ;  that  by  its  means  the  Turkifh  wamen 
dyed  the  tips  of  their  fingers  of  a  beautiful  carnation  ; 
and  that  it  was  formerly  ufed  by  the  Dutch  along  with 
an  equal  quantity  of  cochineal,  the  coccus  beii;g  pur- 


112     ]  COG 

chafed  at  a  very' dear  rate  ;   that  beautiful  paints  mayCoccygsu) 
be  prepared  from  this  infeft  and  pounded  clialk,  &c.         ". 
All  this,  however,  M.  Macquer  fuppofcs  to  have  been    *^°''''"- 
exaggerated,   as   he  never  could   pioduce  with  it  any         ''""' 
other  than  lilach,  flefh-colour,   or   crimfon  ;  and    he 
found  it,  morever,  vaftly  more  expenfive  than   cochi- 
neal,   as  not  yielding    one-fifth  part  of  the  colour. 
Hence  this  drug  is  dlmoft  entirely  fallen  into  difufe, 
being  fcarce  known  in  any  of  the  European  cities  re- 
mat  kable  for  having  good  dyers. 

COCCYGjTSUS    musculus.      See   Anatomv, 
Table  of  the  mufclcs. 

COCCYX,  or  CoccYcrs   os.       See  Anatomy, 
n'35. 

COCHIN,  a  Dutch  ftttlement  on  the  coaft:  of  Ma- 
labar in  N.  Lat.  9^  58.  E.  Long.  75.  58. — The  tojivn 
is  not  unpleafant,  though  it  falls  far  (hort  of  their  fettle- 
ment  at  Columbo  in  the  illand  of  Ceylon.  The  for- 
tification is  irregular,  but  ftrong  enough  to  refift  any 
of  the  Indian  powers,  and  has  40  or  jo  cannon  facing 
the  fea.  The  people  in  this  town  and  the  country 
adjacent  are  fubjeft  to  a  ftrange  diforder  of  the  legs 
called  Cochin  or  elephant  legs,  in  which  the  fweUed  limb 
is  fometimes  of  fuch  an  enormous  bulk  as  to  have 
greatly  the  appearance  both  in  fliape  and  fize  of  the 
leg  of  an  elephant.  According  to  Mr  Ives,  this  dif- 
order feems  to  be  merely  an  cedematous  fwelling,  oc- 
cafioned  by  an  impoveriftied  ftate  of  the  blood  and 
juices.  The  perfons  afflifted  >with  this  diftemper  very 
feldom  apply  to  European  furgeons,  and  thus  are 
rarely,  if  ever  curco.  Indeed,  our  author  obferves, 
that  their  application  would  probably  be  of  little  avail, 
as  the  only  thing  that  could  be  prefcribed  would  be  an 
alteration  from  the  pooreft  to  the  moft  cordial  and 
nutritious  diet;  and  the  Indians  are  fo  invincibly  wedded 
to  their  own  cuftoms,  that  they  would  fooner  die  than 
break  through  them.  Of  this  he  fays  there  were  feveral 
inilanccs  in  their  long  paiTage  to  Bengal,  duiing  which 
fome  of  the  Sepoys  periflied  for  want  of  food,  rather 
than  fave  themfcKes  by  partaking  of  the  fliip's  pro- 
vifions  after  their  own  had  been  expended.  Molt  of 
thofe  aflllcled  with  the  diforder  we  fpeak  of,  aie  un- 
able to  call  any  affillance,  being  thv;  very  pooreft  of 
the  people,  who  live  eutiiely  upon  a  kind  of  filh  calhd 
Sardinias,  without  being  able  to  purchafe  even  the 
fmalleft  quantity  of  rice  to  eat  along  with  it  ;  their 
drink  is  alfo  mere  water,  unlefs  they  fometijncs  pi-o- 
cure  a  draught  of  the  ilmple  unfermented  juice  called 
toddy.  Cochin  is  the  principal  phce  fiom  whence  the 
Dutch  import  their  pepper  into  Europe. 

Cochin-China,  a  kingdom  of  Afia,  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Tonquin  ;  on  the  eaS,  by  the  fea  of 
China;  on  the  foutli,  by  the  Indian  ocean;  and  on  the 
well,  by  Cambodia,  and  a  ridge  of  mountains  inhabited 
by  a  favage  people  called  Kemois,  who  live  indepen- 
dent of  any  government.  Eittle  of  the  hiftor)-  of  this 
kingdom  is  known.  M.  le  Poivre,  a  French  traveller, 
informs  us,  that  about  half  a  century  before  the  French 
firft  arrived  in  thefe  diftanl  regions,  a  prince  of  Ton- 
quin, as  he  fled  from  his  fovcreign,  by  whom  he  was 
purfued  as  a  rebel,  had  with  his  foldiers  and  adherents 
crolfed  the  river,  which  fervts  as  a  barrier  between 
Tonquin  and  Cochin-Chiua.  The  fugitives,  who  were 
warlike  and  civiUzed  men,  foon  expelled  the  icatter- 
cd  inhabitants,  who  wandered  about  without  any  fo- 

ciety 


rocos  ^rrcuKUA.. //,-/^vr,   \ u'r, /h-,- .  Yhwv  CXLlll. 


,.//.//. /',y]i/.  //,.'/.:  y.v'/^t/,'/  /.',v/. 


Ihina. 


n    O    C  [     I 

clety  or  form  of  government,  anu  founded  a  new  king- 
dom, wliicli  foon  grew  rich  and  populous.  During 
the  reigns  of  the  iirll  iix  kings,  no  nation  could  be  hap- 
pier than  the  Cochin-Chincfe.  Their  monarchs  go- 
verned them  AS  a  father  does  his  family,  eftiiblillung 
no  laws  hut  thofe  of  nature,  to  whieh  they  theml'elves 
were  the  firft  to  pay  obedience.  They  honoured  and 
encouraged  agriculture,  as  the  moll  ufeful  employment 
of  mankind  ;  and  required  from  their  lubjeCts  only  a 
fniall  annual  free-gift  to  defray  the  cxpence  of  their 
dcfenfivc  war  again'i  the  Tonquinefe,  who  were  their 
enemies.  This  impofition  was  regulated,  by  way  of 
poll-tax,  with  the  greateil  equity.  Every  man,  able 
to  till  the  ground,  paid  into  the  prince  a  fmall  fum 
proportioned  to  the  ilrcngth  of  his  conftitution,  and 
the  vigour  of  his  aim  ;  and  nothing  more. 

Cochin-China  continued  happy  under  thefe  princes 
for  more  than  a  centuiy  ;  but  the  dilcovery  of  gold- 
mines put  a  Hop  to  the  above  mild  regulations.  Luxury 
immediately  took  place.  The  prince  began  to  defpife 
the  Hmple  habitation  of  his  anceilors,  and  caufcd  a  fu- 
perb  palace  to  be  built  a  league  in  circumference, 
furrounded  with  a  wall  of  brick  in  the  model  of  that 
of  Pekin,  and  defended  by  1600  pieces  of  cannon. 
Not  content  with  this,  he  would  needs  havea  winter 
palace,  an  autumn  palace,  and  a  fummer  palace.  The 
old  taxes  were  by  no  means  fufEcient  to  defray  thefe 
expences ;  new  ones  were  devifed ;  and  opprefiion 
and  tyranny  every  where  took  place.  Plis  courtiers, 
to  flatter  their  jnince,  gave  him  the  title  of  the  king 
of  heaven,  whieh  hi  ftiU  continues  to  affiime.  Wiien 
fpeaking  of  his  fubjerts,  he  ftyles  them  his  child- 
ren, but  by  no  means  behaves  as  if  he  was  their  fa- 
ther :  for  our  author  informs  us,  that  he  has  feen 
whole  vdlages  newly  abandoned  by  their  inhabitants, 
who  were  haraffed  with  toil  and  infupportable  ex- 
aftions ;  the  neteffaiy  confequence  of  which  was, 
that  their  lands  returned  to  their  former  uncultivated 
date. 

M.  le  Poivre  reprefents  the  Cochin-Chinefe  as  gentle, 
liofpitable,  frugal,  and  indullrious.  There  is  not  a 
beggar  in  the  country  ;  and  robbery  and  murder  are 
abfolutcly  unknown.  A  ilranger  may  wander  over 
the  kingdom  from  one  end  to  the  other  (the  capital 
excepted)  without  meeting  with  the  (lightcil  infult. 
He  will  be  every  where  received  with  the  molt  eager 
curiofity,  but  at  the  fame  time  with  the  greateft  be- 
nevolence. A  Cochin-Chinefe  traveller,  v>ho  has  not 
money  fufiicient  to  defray  his  expences  at  an  inn,  en- 
ters the  hrft  houfe  of  the  town  or  village  he  an-ives  at, 
End  waiting  the  hour  of  dmner,  takes  part  with  the 
family,  and  goes  away  when  he  thinks  proper,  with- 
out fpeaking  a  word,  or  any  perfon's  putting  to  him 
a  fingle  quellion. 

The  country  of  Cochin-China  is  much  of  the  fame 
temperature  with  that  of  Tonquin  ;  though  rather  mild- 
er, as  lying  nearer  the  fea.  Like  Tonquin,  it  is  an- 
nually overflowed,  and  confequently  fruitful  in  rice, 
which  requires  no  other  manure  than  the  mud  left  by 
the  inundations.  They  have  fugar-canes,  and  the 
fame  kinds  of  fruits  common  to  other  parts  of  India. 
The  country  produces  no  grapes,  and  therefore  they 
drink  a  liquor  brewed  from  rice.  They  have  valt 
woods  of  mulberry-trees,  which  run  up  as  fait  as  our 
hemp.     Their  fdk  is  Rronger  than  that  of  China;  but 

Vol.  V.    P4RT  I. 


] 


c   o    c 


not  fo  fine.  They  Lave  tho  bed  timber  in  the  world,  Cocliin- 
particularly  a  fort  which  abounds  in  the  mountains,  ^*''"'- 
and  is  called  the  hicorrupulk  tree;  becajfe  it  never  rots  ' 
under  earth  or  water,  and  is  fo  folid  that  it  ferves 
for  anchors.  There  are  two  kfnds,  black  and  red. 
The  trees  are  very  tall,  llraight,  and  fo  big  that  two 
men  can  fcarce  fathom  them.  They  have  alfo  on  the 
mountains  of  the  Kemois  a  tree  of  the  moft  fragrant 
icent,  which  is  fuppokd  to  be  the  fame  witii  lignum 
aloes.  This,  being  reckoned  the  belt  produft  of  the 
country,  is  engroffcd  by  the  king,  and  is  fold  from  five 
to  16  ducats /)cr  pound.  It  is  highly  valued  both  in 
China  and  Japan,  where  the  logs  of  it  are  fold  for 
200  ducats  a  pound,  to  make  pillows  for  the  king  and 
nobility  ;  and  among  thofe  Indians  which  continue  to 
burn  their  dead,  great  quantities  of  it  are  ufcd  in  the 
funeral  piles.  The  young  trees  called  aquHa,  or  eagle- 
wood,  are  cveiy  one's  properly,  which  makes  the  old 
ones  called  calamha  fo  fcarce  and  dear.  They  have 
oak,  and  large  pines,  for  the  building  of  ihips;  fo  that 
this  country  is  of  the  fame  ufe  to  China  that  Norway 
is  to  Britain.  In  general,  they  have  the  fame  kind  of 
treis  and  plants  that  are  to  be  met  with  in  Tonquin. 
The  have  mines  of  gold,  as  well  as  diamonds  ;  but 
the  lail  they  do  not  value  fo  highly  as  pearl.  They 
alfo  efleem  their  coral  and  amber  very  much.  In  all 
the  provinces  there  are  great  granaries  filled  with 
rice,  in  fume  of  which  that  grain  is  kept  upwards  of 
30  years.  One  of  the  greateft  rarities  in  thefe  parts, 
efpeeially  in  grand  entertainments,  is  a  ragout  made 
of  the  eatable  birds  nelts,  which  fome  fay  are  found 
only  in  Cochin-China,  and  others  in  four  i.Qands  that 
He  fouth  of  its  coaft.     See  Birds-Nests. 

The  merchants  of  Can.bodia,  Tonquin,  China,  Ma- 
cao, Manila,  Japan,  and  Malacca,  trade  to  Cochin- 
China  with  plate,  which  they  exchange  for  the  com-' 
modities  of  the  country.  The  Portnguefe  are  the  moft 
favoured  here  of  any  Europeans.  The  Cochin-Chinefe 
themfelves,  not  being  inclined  to  travel,  feldom  fail 
out  of  fight  of  their  own  fhore,  but  purchafe  many- 
trifles  from  foreigners  at  great  rates,  particularly  combs, 
needles,  bracelets,  glafs  pendants,  l^c.  They  are  very 
fond  of  our  hats,  caps,  girdles,  fhirts,  and  other 
clothes ;  and,  above  ail,  fet  a  great  value  on  coral. 
The  country  is  faid  to  have  700  miles  of  coail,  with 
many  large  inlets  of  the  fea,  and  above  60  convenient 
landing  places  ;  which,  iiowever,  according  to  Captain 
Hamilton,  are  but  feldom  vifited  by  llrangers.. 

The  people  of  this  countiy  have  a  great  afTniity 
with  thofe  of  Tonquin,  with  whom  they  have  a  com- 
mon origin,  and  from  whom  they  diflicr  very  little  in 
their  manner  of  living,  as  well  as  their  manners  and 
cuttoms,  all  of  which  they  have  in  a  great  meafure 
borrowed  from  the  Chinefe.  The  principal  cx])ort9 
of  the  country  are  filk,  fugar,  ebony,  and  calamba- 
wood  ;  gold  in  dull  or  in  bars,  which  is  fold  for  only- 
ten  times  its  weight  in  filver  ;  and  copper  and  porce- 
lain brought  from  China  and  Japan.  From  this  coun- 
try alfo  are  exported  the  birds-ntfts  eftcemed  fuch 
a  delicacy  at  the  table.  They  are  found  in  four 
illands  fituated  near  the  coails  of  Cochin-China,  to  the 
eaihvard  of  which  are  five  other  fmaller  ones,  where 
are  found  prodigious  numbers  of  turtles,  the  fledi  of 
which  is  fo  delicate  that  the  Tonquinefe  and  people 
of  Cochin-China  frequently  fight  dtfperatc  battles, 
i*  in 


c   o  c 


in  order  to  take  them  from  one  another. — The  com- 
modities wliich  fe'l  'moft  readily  in  this  country  are, 
falt-petre,  lulphur,  lead,  fine  clotlis,  and  barred  or 
flowered  chintz.  Pearls,  amber,  and  coral,  were  for- 
merly ill  great  requeil,  but  at  prefcnt  only  the  two 
lail  are  faleable ;  and  even  tliefe  will  not  anfwer  un- 
Icfs  the  beads  of  coral  be  round,  well  polilhed,  and 
of  a  beautiful  red  colour  ;  the  amber  mull  alfo  be  ex- 
tremely clear,  the  beads  of  an  equal  fize,  and  not 
larger  than  an  hazel  nut. 

The  only  money  current  in  Cochin-China  is  that  of 
Japan,  which  is  paid  and  received  b)'  weight.  The 
money  of  the  country  is  of  copper,  and  as  large  as  our 
counters  ;  of  a  round  figure,  and  having  an  hole  in 
the  middle  by  which  the  pieces  may  be  ilrung  like 
beads.  Three  hundred  of  thefe  are  put  on  one  lide, 
and  as  many  on  the  other,  which  in  Cochin-China 
pafs  for  a  thoufand  ;  becaufe  in  600  are  found  ten 
times  60,  which  make  "a  centurj'  among  ahnoil  all  the 
people  of  the  eaft.  There  is,  however,  fcarce  any 
country  in  which  merchants  are  more  apt  to  be  de- 
ceived with  regard  to  the  value  of  money  than  Co- 
chin-China ;  owing  to  the  pieces  being  unequal  in  fi- 
gure and  quality,  and  the  difficulty  of  determining 
their  value,  which  is  regulated  only  by  a  few  charac- 
ters llaraped  upon  them.  The  dealers  mull  therefore 
be  at  pains  to  have  honeft  and  /Icilful  people  to  afcer- 
tain  the  value  of  the  pieces  they  receive  ;  otherwife 
they  run  a  great  rifle  of  being  deceived  in  their  va- 
lue, as  the  Cochin-Chinefe  make  a  great  merit  of  be- 
ing able  to  cheat  an  European. 

European  merchants  complain,  according  to  M. 
Grofier,  unjuftly  of  the  demands  made  in  Cochin- 
China  for  entrance,  clearance,  and  anchorage.  The 
duties  indeed  are  very  trifling,  amounting  only,  even 
thofe  of  the  cnllomhoufe,.  to  \  per  cent.;  but  no- 
thing can  be  removed  from  a  (hip  which  arrives  there 
until  flie  has  firft  been  infpefted,  when  the  cullom- 
houfe  officers  unload  her,  weigh  and  count  the  fmallcil 
pieces,  and  generally  take  what  they  look'upon  to  be  moil 
valuable,  in  order  to  fend  it  to  the  king.  The  monarch 
takes  what  he  thinks  proper,  and  returns  the  value  ;  but 
the  grandees  are  fald  to  keep  part  of  the  goods  alfo, 
without  paying  any  thing  for  them.  Thus  the  ordi- 
nary goods,  which,  had  they  been  accompanied  with 
the  more  valuable  part  of  the  cargo,  would  have  found 
a  ready  market,  can  now  fcarccly  be  diipofed  of; 
though  our  author  is  of  opinion,  that  the  matter  is 
not  altogether  without  remedy.  When  the  Dutch 
fent  to  this  country,  veflcls  loaded  with  cloths,  lead, 
and  faltpetre,  their  cargoes  were  fuffered  to  remain 
entire,  becaufe  they  had  taken  the  precaution  to  pay 
every  year  a  certain  fura  for  each  velTel  that  entered. 
Other  nations,  by  endeavouring  to  avoid  the  payment 
of  this  duty,  eirtirely  deftroyed  their  commerce  :  the 
people  of  Cochin-China,  however,  for  fome  years 
pail,  have  been  much  more  moderate  in  their  demands  ; 
and  whatever  their  exadlions  may  be,  they  are  far  lefs 
exorbitant  than  thofe  of  the  Tonr^uinefe. 

M.  Grofier  obferves,  that  a  faife  report  has  gained 
giround  in  Europe,  that  when  a  trading  veffel  happens  to 
run  a-ground  in  Cochin-China,  or  to  be  driven  Into  any 
of  its  harbours  by  ftrtfs  of  weatlier,  the  king  felzes 
the  cargo  if  the  rudder  be  broken.  He  affures  us, 
however,  thatj  fa  far  from  tliis  being  tli^  cafe,  a  vef- 


[       114      ] 


c  o   c 


fcl  in   dlftrcfs  is  much  fafer  on    the  coaflTi  of  Cochin-  Cochineal, 
China  than   almoll  any  where  ell'e.      Barks  are  imme-    ^chica. 
diatcly  fent  to  the  relief  of  the  crew,  and  people  em-  *""" 

ployed  to  drag  the  iea  with  nets  in  order  to  recover 
the  goodo  that  are  loll ;  and,  in  ffiort,  neither  labour 
nor  expences  are  fpared  to  put  the  (!iip  in  the  beft 
condition  poffible.  Only  two  things  can  hurt  the 
trade  of  foreigners  at  Cochin-China,  one  of  which 
may  be  eafily  avoided.  This  regards  the  clearing  out 
of  vcffels.  Thus,  while  the  mailer  is  waiting  on  the 
evening  before  his  departure,  or  on  the  day  fixed  for 
falling,  in  order  to  receive  his  difpatches,  it  often  hap- 
pens that  he  lofes  his  voyage,  which  may  prove  the 
ruin  of  a  trader.  For  this  rcafon,  caie  muit  be  taken 
to  folicit  a  clearance  a  month  befoie;  by  which  means 
one  is  always  certain  of  obtaining  It,  and  departlnu- 
on  the  day  appointed.  The  other  difficulty  is  occa- 
fioned  by  the  neceffity  of  felling  goods  on  credit, 
which  are  feldom  paid  at  the  llipnlatcd  time.  This, 
however,  Is  contraiy  to  the  inclination  of  the  prince  ;- 
for  every  merchant  who  can  convey  to  him  an  account 
of  thefe  unjull  delays,  is  fure  to  be  paid,  and  fometimes 
even  with  intereft. 

COCHINEAL,  or  Cocheneel,  a  drug  ufed  by 
the  dyers,  l^c.  for  giving  red  colours,  efpecially  crim- 
fons  and  fcarlets,  and  for  making  carmine;  and  like- 
wife  In  medicine  as  a  cardiac,  cordial,  fudoiific,  alexl- 
pharmac,  and  febrifuge. 

The  cochineal,  in  the  Hate  in  which  It  is  brought 
to  us,  is  In  fmall  bodies  of  an  Irregular  figur^,  ulually 
convex,  and  ridged  and  furrowed  on  one  lide,  and  con- 
cave on  the  other,  jl'he  colour  of  the  beil  Is  a  purplifh- 
grey,  powdered  over  'with  a  fort  of  wliite  dull.  All 
that  the  world  knew  of  it  for  a  long  time  was,  that  it 
was  gathered  from  certain  plants  In  Mexico ;  and 
therefore  it  was  naturally  fuppofed  to  be  a  feed,  till, 
in  the  year  1692  Father  Plamier  gave  Pomct  en  ac- 
count of  its  being  an  animal.  And  this,  though  then 
difregarded,  has  been  confirmed  by  fubfeqiient  obfer- 
vations.  Indeed,  to  determine  the  point,  we  have 
now  the  means  in  our  own  hands,  even  in  this  part  of 
the  world. — We  need  only  molften  and  foak  in  wa- 
ter, or  in  vinegar,  a  nimrber  of  cochineals  till  tiiey 
are  fwelled  and  diilended,  to  know  that  eveiy  one  is 
the  more  or  lefs  perfect  body  of  an  iufeft ;  the  moil 
imperfedl  and  mutilated  fpccimens  always  fliow  the 
rings  of  the  body  ;  and  from  obferving  others,  It  will 
be  eafy  to  fijid  the  number  and  difpofition  of  the  legs; 
parts,  or  even  whole  ones,  being  left  on  feveral,  and 
often  complete  pairs.  In  this  way  the,  legs,  anten- 
na, and  probofcis,  may  be  difcovered.  See  Coccus 
above. 

M.  Macquer  obferves,  tliat  the  cochineal  of  Sylvef- 
tre  is  gathered  in  the  woods  of  Old  and  New  Mexico^. 
The  lufett  lives,  grows,  and  mLiltiplIes  on  the  uncul- 
tivated opuntlas,  which  grow  there  In  great  abun- 
dance. It  is  there  expoled  to  the  inclemencies  of 
the  weather,  and  dies  naturally.  The  colour  is  more 
durable  than  that  of  the  common  cochineal,  but  lefa 
bright  :  but  there  is  no  advantage  in  ufing  It  ;  for> 
though  cheaper,  a  gieattr  quantity  is  requlfile. 

COCHLEA,  the  Ihell-fnail,  in  s^oology.     See  He' 

LIX. 

Cochlea,  in  Anatomy.  See  Anatomy,  p.  765. 
col.  I. 

COCHLE-ARIA» 


COG  [I 

ichfewia      COCHLEARIA,    scurvy-grass;    a    genus  of 
II  the   filiculofa    order,    belonging   to   the   tetradynamia 

.cuituni.  ^j^j-ji   ^^f  plants  ;  aiul  in    the   natural   method  ranking 
"^  under  the  39th  onler,  Si/:ijuoft.     The  iillcula  is  emar- 

ginated,  turgid,  and  feaiious;  with  the  valves  gib- 
bous arid  obtufe.  Tiicrt  ire  fix  fpecies  ;  the  moft  re- 
markable of  which  are,  1 .  The  angtjlica,  or  garden 
fcurvy-grafs,  grows  naturally  on  the  fea-lhore,  in  the 
north  of  England  and  in  Holland  ;  but  is  cultivated 
for  ufe  in  the  gardens  near  London.  It  hath  a  fibrous 
root,  from  which  arife  many  round  fucculent  leaves, 
which  are  hollowed  like  a  fpoen;  the  ilalks  rife  from 
fix  inches  to  a  foot  high  :  thefe  are  brittle,  and  gar- 
nifiied  with  leaves  which  are  oblong  and  finuated.  The 
flowers  are  produced  in  clufters  at  the  end  of  the 
branches,  confifting  of  four  fmall  white  petals  which 
are  placed  in  the  form  of  a  crofs ;  and  are  fucceeded 
by  fhort,  roundiih,  fwelling,  feed-veflels,  having  two 
cells  divided  by  a  thin  partition.  In  each  of  thefe  are 
lodged  four  or  five  roundilli  feeds.  2.  The  armoracia, 
or  horfe-radilb,  is  fo  well  known  as  to  need  no  defcrip- 
tion. 

The  firil  is  propagated  by  feeds,  which  are  to  be 
fown  in  July,  in  a  moift  fpot  of  ground  ;  and  when 
the  plants  are  come  up,  they  ihould  be  thinned,  fo  as  to 
be  left  at  about  fix  inches  dlilance  each  way.  The 
plants  that  are  taken  out  may  be  tranfplanted  into 
other  borders.  In  the  fpring  thefe  plants  will  be  fit 
for  ufe  ;  thofe  that  are  left  will  run  tip  to  feed  in 
May,  and  perfect  their  feeds  in  June.  If  the  feeds 
are  fown  in  the  ipring,  they  feldom  grow  well.  The 
horle-radilh  i^  propagated  by  cuttings  or  buds  from 
the  fides  of  the  old  roots.  The  belt  feafon  for  this 
work  is  in  Oftober  or  February;  the  former  for  dry 
lands,  the  latter  for  moill. 

Uj'cs.  Scurvy-grafs  is  a  pungent  ftimulating  medi- 
cine ;  capable  of  difiolviag  vifcid  juices,  opening  ob- 
ftructions  of  the  vifcera  and  the  more  diftant  glands, 
and  promoting  the  more  fluid  fecretions.  It  is  parti- 
cularly celebrated  in  fcurvles,  and  is  the  principal 
herb  employed  in  thefe  diforders  in  the  northern 
countries.  Horfe-radiih  root  has  a  quick  pungent 
finell,  and  a  penetrating  acrid  talle  ;  it  neveithelcfs 
contains  in  certain  velTels  a  fweet  juice,  which  fome- 
times  exfudes  on  the  furface.  By  drj'ing  it  lofes  all 
its  acrimony,  becoming  firft  fweetilli,  and  then  almoft 
infipid  :  if  kept  in  a  cool  place  in  fand,  it  retains  its 
qualities  for  a  confiderable  time.  The  medical  eifedls 
of  it  are  to  ftimulate  the  folids,  attenuate  the  juices, 
and  promote  the  fluid  fecretions :  it  feems  to  extend 
;its  attion  through  the  whole  habit,  and  to  afl"ecl  the 
minutell  glands.  It  has  frequently  done  fervice  in 
Xome  kinds  of  fciirvies,  and  other  chronic  diforders 
Jjrocecding  from  a  vifcidity  of  the  juices  or  obllruc- 
-tions  of  the  excretory  dufts.  Sydenham  recommends 
It  likewile  in  droplies,  particularly  thofe  which  fol- 
low intermittent  fevers.  Both  water  and  reftificd 
fpirit  extraft  the  virtues  of  this  root  by  infufion,  and 
elevate  them  in  diftiliations  :  along  with  the  aqueous 
fluid  an  effential  oil  rifes,  polfcfling  the  whole  talle  and 
pungency  of  the  horle-radifli. 

COCHLlTEci,  in   natural  hiftory,  an  appellation 
gi\-en  to  the  petrified  (hells  of  the  cochleae  or  fnails. 

COCINTUM  (unc.  gco.!.),  a  prom<,ntr,ry  of  the 
Bfuttii,   reckoned   the   longeit    in   Italy ;  and  which 


15     1  COG 

Holllenius  and  VofTuis  have  reftored  to  Ovid,  reading  Cock 
Cocintia  for  Ceurnnia,  Metam.  XV.  v.  704. — CocinUim,  „  J'  p. 
alfo  a  town,   22  miles  to  tlie  fo\ith   of  Scylaccum,  al-  % 

moll  on  the  fpot  where  now  Stilo  (lands  ;  from  which 
the  oppofite  promontory  Cocintum  is  commonly  called 
Capo  de  Stilo. 

COCK,  in  zoology,  the  Enfrlifli  name  of  the  males 
of  gallinaceous  birds,  but  more  cfpecially  ufcd  for  the 
common  dunghill  cock.     See  Phasianus. 

Blnct  Cock.  7       q      Te    rao 

Cock  of  the  IVooil.  y 

CocK-ChaJer.      See  Scarab«us. 

CocK-Paddlc,  Lump-Jifh,  or  Sea-owl.     See  CvcLor- 

TERUS. 

CocK-Pit,  a  fort  of  theatre  upon  which  game-cocks 
fight. 

It  mud  appear  aftonilhing  to  every  reflefting  mind, 
that  a  mode  of  diverfion  fo  cruel  and  inhuman  as  that  ; 
of  cock-fighting  (liould  fo  generally  prevail,  that  not 
only  the  ancients,  barbarians,  Greeks,  and  Romans, 
ihould  have  adopted  it ;  but  that  a  ptaAice  fo  favage 
and  heathenifli  fhould  be  continued  by  Ch'.'alians  of  all 
forts,  and  even  purfued  in  thefe  better  and  more  en- 
lightened times. 

The  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  as  Is  well  known, 
were  wont  to  call  all  the  nations  in  the  world  barba- 
rians ;  yet  certainly,  if  we  confider  the  many  inftances 
of  cruelty  praftifed  among  them,  there  was  very  little 
teafon  for  the  diltinftion.  Human  facrifices  were  com- 
mon both  to  them  and  the  barbarians ;  and  with  them 
the  expofing  of  infants,  the  combats  of  men  with  wild 
beafts,  and  of  men  with  men  in  the  gladiatorial  Icenes, 
were  fpeClacles  of  delight  and  fellivity. 

The  iflanders  of  Delos,  it  feems,  were  great  lovert; 
of  cock-fighting  ;  and  Tanagra  a  city  in  Boeotia,  the 
ille  of  Rhodes,  Chalcis  in  Euboea,  and  the  country  of 
Media,  were  famous  for  their  generous  and  magnani- 
mous race  of  chickens.  The  kingdom  of  Perlia  was 
probably  included  in  the  lad,  from  whence  this  kind 
of  poultry  was  firft  brought  into  Greece  ;  and  if  one  \ 
may  judge  of  the  rell  from  the  fowls  of  Rhodes  and 
Media,  the  exctUency  of  the  broods  at  that  time  con- 
filled  in  their  weight  and  largenefs  (as  the  fowls  of 
thofe  countries  were  heavy  and  bulky),  and  of  the  na- 
ture of  what  our  fportfmen  c?X[  Jliatebags  or  lumpohs. 
The  Greeks,  moreover,  had  fome  method  of  preparing 
the, birds  for  battle,  by  feeding;  as  may  be  coIleAed 
from  Columella. 

It  fliould  feem,  that  at  firft  cock-fighting  was  partly 
a  religious  and  partly  a  political  inilitution  at  Athens  ; 
and  was  there  continued  for  the  purpofe  of  improving 
the  feeds  of  valour  in  the  minds  of  their  youth  ;  but 
was  afterwards  abuftd  and  perverted  both  here  and  In 
the  other  parts  of  Greece  to  a  common  paftime,  with- 
out any  moral,  political,  or  religious  intention,  and  as 
it  is  now  followed  and  praftiftd  among  us. 

At  Rome,  as  the  Romans  were  prone  to  Imitate  the 
Greeks,  wc  may  expeft  to  find  them  following  their 
example  in  this  mode  of  diverfion,  and  in  the  word 
way,  viz.  without  any  good  or  laudable  motives;  fince, 
when  ihey  took  and  brought  It  to  Rome,  the  Greeks 
had  forgotten  every  thing  that  was  commendable  in  it, 
and  had  Lilready  ptrrvcrted  it  to  a  low  and  unmeaning 
fport.  Signii .  Hyam  chinks  the  Romans  borrowed 
the  paftinit  from  Dardanus  in  Alia ;  but  there  is  little 
P  2  rtafoii 


C     O     C  [     II 

Cock  ?i^  reafon  for  making  thcw  go  fo/ar  from  it,  when  it  was 
^  •^~"  fo  generally  followed  in  Greece,  whofe  culloms  the  Ro- 
mans were  adJitVed  to  borrow  and  imitate.  Hovvev;;r, 
it  is  probable,  thgy  did  not  adopt  this  opinion  very 
early.  It  may  be  gatliered  from  Columdla,  that  thi 
Romans  did  not  ule  the  Iport  in  his  time.  T iiis  au- 
thor ftyles  cock  fighting  a  Grecian  diverfion ;  and 
fpealis  of  it  in  tern:is  of  ignominy,  as  an  expenfive  a- 
mufcment,  unbecoming  the  frugal  houfcholder,  and  of- 
ten attended  with  the  ruin  of  the  parties  that  follov^ed 
it.  The  words  are  remarkable.  "  Nos  enlm  cenfe- 
mus  inftituere  vtftigal  indu'liii  patris  familias,  non  ri- 
xofaium  avium  lanilise,  ciijus  plerumque  totum  patrimo- 
nium  pignus  alea;,  viitorgalllRaceua  pyttes  abitalit  :" 
Where  he  defcribes,  as  we  think,  the  manner,  not  of 
the  Romans,  but  of  the  Greeks,  who  had  in  his  time 
converted  the  diverfion  of  cock-fighting  into  a  fpecies 
of  gaming,  and  even  to  the  total  ruin  of  their  families, 
as  happens  but  too  often  in  England  at  this  day.  The 
Romans,  however,  at  laft  gave  into  the  cuftom,  tho' 
not  till  the  decline  of  the  empire.  The  firft  caufe  of 
contention  between  the  two  brothers  Daffianus  and 
Geta,  fons  of  the  empeior  Septimus  Severus,  happen- 
ed, according  to  Herodian,  in  their  youth,  about 
the  fighting  of  their  cocks  j  and  if  the  battling  be- 
tween thtfe  two  princes  was  the  firft  inftance  of  it, 
probably  they  had  feen  and  learned  it  in  Greece,  whi- 
ther they  had  often  accompanied  the  emperor  their  far- 
ther. 

It  is  obfervable,  that  cocks  and  quails  pitted  for  the 
purpofe  of  engaging  one  another,  a  outrance,  or  to  the 
laft  gafp,  for  diverfion,  are  frequently  compared,  and 
with  much  propriety,  to  gladiators.     Hence   Phny's 

exprcflion,   Gallorun: ceu  gladuitai-um  ;  and    that  of 

Columella,  nxofai-um  ainum  lanijlit ;  ]an'tjla  being  the 
proper  term  for  the  maftcr  of  the  gladiators.  Gonfe- 
quently  one  would  expeft,  that  when  the  bloody 
fcenes  of  the  amphitheatre  were  difcarded,  as  they  were 
foon  after  the  Chriftian  religion  became  the  cftabliilt- 
ment  of  the  empire,  the  wanton  (hedding  of  mens 
blood  in  fport,  being  of  too  cruel  and  favage  a  na- 
ture to  be  patronifed  and  encouraged  in  an  inftltution 
fo  harmlefs  and  innocent  as  the  Chriftian  was,  one 
might  juftly  expeft  that  the  o/jTuj/o/iaxijc  and  the  et\(»- 
7fuo/iav.a  would  have  ceafed  of  courfe.  The  fathers 
of  the  church  are  continually  inveighing  againft  the 
fpeftacles  of  the  arena,  and  upbraiding  their  adverfa- 
ries  with  them.  Thefe  indeed  were  more  unnatu- 
ral and  fhocking  than  a  main  of  cocks ;  but  this, 
however,  had  a  tendency  towards  infufing  the  like  fero- 
city and  implacability  in  the  breafts  and  difpofitions 
of  men. 

Befides,  this  mode  of  diverfion  has  been  in  faft  the 
bane  and  dtftruftion  of  thoulands  here,  as  wtU  as  thofe 
<yi lani/iis avium,  "cock-feeders,"  mentioned  by  Columel- 
la, whofe  patrimonial  fortunes  were  totally  diffipated 
and  deftroyed  by  it. 

The  cock  is  not  only  an  ufeful  animal,  but  ftately  in 
his  figure,  and  magnificent  in  his  plumage.  "  Imperl- 
tantjuo  generi,  fays  Pliny,  et  regnum,  in  quacunqtie  lunt 
domo,  exercent"  Ariftophanes  compares  him  to  the 
king  of  Perfia  ;  moft  authors  alfo  take  notice  of  the 
"  fpeftatilRmuminfigne,  ferratum,  quod  eorum  verti- 
€em  reg!£  coronx  moilo  exornat."  His  tendevnefs  to- 
wards his  brood  is  fuch,  that,  contrary  to  the  cuftom 


6    ]  COG 

of  many  otlier  males,  he  will  fcratch  and  provide  for  Coc^JP!t 

them  with  an  aluduity  almoft  equal  to  that  of  the  hen ;  /— ' 

and  his  generofity  is  fo  great)  that,  on  finding  a  hoard 
of  meat,  he  wiil  chuckle  the  hens  together,  and  with- 
out touching  one  bit  himfelf  will  relinquifh  the  whole 
of  it  to  tli-.-m.  He  was  called  the  bird,  "-^r  i^^'X'^',  by 
many  of  ilie  anoients  ;  he  was  highly  efteemcd  in  fome 
countries,  and  in  others  was  even  held  facred,  inlw- 
much  that  o'-e  cannot  but  regret  that  a  creature  fo  ufe- 
ful and  noble,  fliould,  by  a  ftrange  fatality,  befo  enor- 
mourty  abufcd  by  us.  It  is  true,  our  aKir.Tpvofixm,  or' 
the  maftacre  of  Shrova  Tuelday,  is  now  in  a  declining 
way  ;  and,  in  a  few  years,  it  is  to  be  hoped  will  be 
totally  difufc-d  :  but  the  cockrpit -ftil!  continues  a  re- 
proach to  the  humanity  of  Englifhmen,  and  to  their 
religion  ;  the  pureft,  the  tendereft,  and  moft  compaf- 
fionate,  of  all  others,  not  excepting  even  the  Brach-- 
mannic. 

It  is  unknown  when  the  pitched  battle  firft  entered 
England  ;  but  it  was  probably  brought  thithei  by  the 
Romans.  The  bird  was  here  before  Caslar's  arrival, 
but  no  notice  of  his  fighting  occurs  earlier  than  the 
time  of  William  Fitz-Stephen,  who  wrote  the  life  of 
archbifhop  Becket,  fome  time  in  the  reign  of  Henty  11^ 
and  defcribes  the  cocking  as  a  fport  of  Ichool-boys  on 
Shrove  Tuefday. .  From  this  time  at  leaft  the  diver- 
fion, however  ablurd,  and  even  impious,  was  continued 
amongft  us.  It  was  followed,  though  difapproved  and 
prohibited  39  Edward  III.  ;  alfo  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII ;  and  A.  D.  1569.  It  has  by  fome  been 
called  a  royal  iliverfioii  ;  and,  as  every  one  knows,  the 
cock-pit  at  Whitehall  was  erected  by  a  crowned  head, 
for  the  more  magnificent  celebration  of  it.  There  was 
another  pit  in  Drury-lane,  and  another  in  Javin  ftreet. 
It  was  prohibited,  however,  by  one  of  OJiver's  afts, 
March  3 1.  1 66.-)..  What  aggravates  the  reproach  and 
difgrace  upon  EngliOimen,  are  thofe  fpecies  of  fight- 
ing which  are  called  the  luttk-royal iad  the  IVeHh-maiii, . 
known  no  where  in  the  world  but  there  ;  neither  in 
China,  nor  in  Perfia,  nor  in  Malacca,  nor  among  the 
favage  tribes  in  America.  Thefe  are  fcenes  fo  bloody 
as  almoft  to  be  too  fliocking  to  relate  ;  and  yet,  as 
many  may  not  be  acquainted  with  the  horrible  nature 
of  them,  it  may  be  proper  for  the  excitement  of  our 
averfion  and  deteftation  to  defcrlbe  them  in  a  few 
words.  In  the  former,  an  unlimited  number  of  fowls 
are  pitted,  and  when  they  have  flaughtered  one  ano- 
ther for  the  diverfion  [Dii  boni !)  of  the  otherwife  ge- 
nerous and  humane  Englifhman,  the  fingle  furviving 
bird  is  to  be  efteemed  the  viftor,  and  carries  away  the 
prize.  The  Wtlfti-main  confifts,  we  will  fuppofe  of 
16  pair  of  cocks  ;  of  thefe,  the  16  conquerors  are  pit- 
ted a  fecond  time  ;  the  8  conquerors  of  thefe  are  pitted 
a  third  time  ;  the  4  conquerors  the  fourth  time  ;  and 
laftly,  the  two  conquerors  of  thefe  are  pitted  the  fifth 
time;  fo  that  (incredible  barbarity!)  31  cocks  are 
fure  to  be  moft  inhumanely  murdered  for  the  fport  and  . 
pleafure,  the  noife  and  nonfenfe,  the  profane  curfing 
and  fwcaring,  of  thofe  who  have  the  effrontery  to  call 
themfelves,  with  all  thefe  bloody  doings,  and  with  all  ■ 
this  impiety  about  them,  Chr]fl\ans ;  nay,  what  with 
many  is  a  luperior  and  diftindt  charafter,  men  of  be- 
nevolence and  morality.  But  let  the  morality  and  be- 
nevolence of  fuch  be  appretiated  from  the  following 
inftance  recorded  as  authentic  in  the  obituary  of  the 

Gentleman's 


C    O    C  [     1 

it.rit,  Gentteman's  Magazine  for  April  1 789.  "  Died, 
'.lurnu.  y\pril  4.  at  Tottenham,  John  Ardefuif,  Efq;  a  young 
v~~"  man  of  large  fortune,  and  in  the  fplendor  of  his 
cariiages  and  horfes  rivalled  by  few  country  gentle- 
men. Hio  table  was  that  of  hofpitality,  where  it  may 
be  faid  he  facrificed  too  much  to  conviviality  ;  but  if 
he  had  his  foibles,  be  had  his  merits  alfo  that  far  out- 
weighed them.  Mr  Ardcfoif  was  very  fond  of  cock- 
fighting  ;  and  had  a  favourite  coc:k  upon  which  he  had 
won  many  profitable  matches.  The  kit  bet  he  laid 
itpon  this  cock  he  loil  ;  which  fo  enraged  him,  thatiie 
had  the  bird  tied  to  a  fpit  and  roafted  alive  befoie  a 
large  lire.  The  fcreams  of  the  miferablc  animal  were 
fo  affeifiing,  that  fome  gentlemtn  who  were  prefent 
attempted  to  interfere  ;  which  fo  enraged  Mr  Ardefoif, 
that  he  feized  a  poker,  and  with  the  mod  furi.Ms  ve- 
hemence declared,  that  he  would  kill  the  firll  man  who 
interprfed  ;  but,  in  the  midft  of  his  paflionate  afle- 
verations,  he  fell  down  dead  upon  the  fpot.  Such, 
we  are  afTured,  were  the  circumllances  which  attended 
the  death  of  this  great  pillar  of  humanity." 

CoCK-piT,  of  a  (liip  of  war,  the  apartment  of  the 
furgeon  and  his  mates;  being  the  place  whcie  the 
wounded  men  are  drcffed  in  time  of  battle,  or  other- 
wife.   It  is  fituued  under  the  lovver  deck. 

COCKBURNE  (Mrs  Catharine),  a  moft  accora- 
plifhed  lady  and  celebrated  writer,  was  the  daughter  of 
Captain  David  Trotter,  a  native  of  Scotland,  and  a  fea- 
commander  In  the  reigaof  King  Charles  II.  She  was 
born  in  London,  Augufl  16.  1679,  and  baptized  in 
the  Proleftant  church,  according  to  which  (he  was  bred 
up  in  her  infancy  a  Proteilant;  but  being  a  fprightly, 
ingenious,  and  beautiful  child,  (he  was  particularly  ca- 
refltd  by  fome  coiifiderable  families  among  the  PapiLls. 
This  favour  naturally  wrought  a  good  opinion  of  fuch 
friends  ;  and  entering  into  an  intimacy  with  them  as 
/he  grew  up,  (lie  became  an  eafy  conqueft  to  their  faith, 
in  which  (he  continued  many  years.  In  the  mean  time 
her  genius  ripened  apace,  f.nd  (hot  forth  proofs  of  her 
talents  for  poetry,  even  before  (he  had  pafled  her  child- 
hood. In  her  17th  year  (he  produced  a  tragedy  call- 
ed ji^ites  He  Cajtro,  which  was  afted  in  1695.  Tliis 
performance,  and  fome  verfes  addrelTed  to  Mr  Con- 
greve  upon  his  Mourning  Bride  in  1697,  brought  her 
into  the  acquaintance  of  that  gentleman.  Thus' en- 
couraged in  her  lirll  attempt,  her  Mufe  brought  upon 
the  ftage  three  plays  more,  before  the  death  of  Mr 
Drydcn  in  I  701,  to  whofe  memory  (he  joined  with  fe- 
veral  other  ladies  in  paying  a  tribute  of  verfe.  How- 
ever, poetry  and  dramatic  writing  was  not  the  moft 
dillinguilhed  of  Mifs  Trotter's  talents  ;  (he  had  a  re- 
markable philofophic  turn,  and  equal  to  fuch  refearches. 
Mr  Locke's  Elfay  on  Human  Undtrrtanding  came  out 
during  this  interval  :  that  famous  philofopher  had 
dreffed  out  logic  and  metaphyfics  in  (uch  a  new  mode 
as  was  very  agreeable  to  the  talle  of  the  fex  in  gene- 
ral, and  particularly  engaged  the  attention  and  admi- 
ration of  our  young  authorefs.  She  had  begun  to  pro- 
ject a  defence  of  the  Elfay  againft  fome  remarks  of  Dr 
Burnet  of  the  Charter-houfe,  which  was  linillied  fo 
early  as  the  beginning  of  December  1701.  She  had 
but  lately  palLd  the  2  2d  year  of  her  age  ;  and  the  ma- 
fterly  way  in  which  the  piece  was  drawn,  m\iil  needs 
have  given  fingular  plcafure  to  her  great  champion,  who 
accordingly  expreffed  his  fatisfaAion  by  a  prefent  of 


17    ]  c    o    c 

books   to   his  fair  defendrefs.     Pliilofophy  fojourns  in  C'"''^' "''f'l 
the  neighbourhood  of  religion  ;  thvfe  philotophic  re-     t-ot^''"- 
veries  would  naturally  lead   a  thoughttui  irrind  to  that  1  '  1 

fubjedl  ;  and  taking  into  her  cenlideralion  the  tenets 
of  her  prefent  faith,  (he  began  to  difcover  their  inde- 
fenlible  grounds :  (he  therefore  refolvcd  to  renounce  it, 
and  pubiidicd  a  vindication  of  her  change  in  1707  ; 
and  returning  to  the  ellablldied  church  of  S.-oiland, 
(he  changed  her  condition  likcwife  the  next  year, 
i7cS;  and  was  married  to  Mr  Cockburnc,  a  learned 
divine  of  that  ciiUrch.  The  duties  of  a  wife  and  mo- 
ther called  Mrs  Cockburne  from  her  books  and  pen 
many  years  ;  and  domcilic  cares  engaging  her  atten- 
tion, vs-e  hear  nothing  ot  her  as  a  wiiler  till  1726, 
when  her  zeal  foi  Mr  Locke'.-^  opinions  drew  her  agai'i 
into  public  light.  She  exerciled  her  pen  afterwards 
as  occaiion  offered  ;  and  in  1  739  (he  entered  into  the 
controverfy  concerning  the  foundation  of  moral  duty 
and  obligation.  In  that  coniros'erly  !he  wrote  two 
treatifes,  the  (itft  c>f  «hich  (lie  tranlinitted  in  manu-- 
fcript  to  Mr  afterwards  Dr  Warbui  Ion,  the  late  biihop 
of  Gloucclter,  who  pubhihed  it,  with  a  preface  of  his 
own,  in  1747.  Mrs  Cockburne  furvlved  this  publica- 
tion two  years  only.  She  died  in  1749,  and  was  in- 
terred at  Long  Hoifl>;y,  near  her  ^hulband,  who  died 
the  year  before  her,  with  this  (liort  ientence  upon  the 
tomb,  "  Let  their  works  pralfe  them  in  the  gates." 
Prov.  XXX.  31.  Her  works  were  coUefted  and  pub- 
lifned  in  175 1,  in  two  volumes  8vo,  with  an  account 
of  her  life  prelixed. — This  collcdlion  is  an  incontedahle 
proof  of  the  author's  genius.  Piut  her  abilities  as  a 
writer  will  not  be  feen  without  attending  to  the  pecu-- 
liar  circumftanccsin  which  her  writings  were  produced: 
her  early  youth,  for  inftance,  « hen  (lie  wrote  fome  ; 
her  very  advanced  age,  and  ill  (late  of  health,  when  (he 
drew  up  others  ;  the  uneafy  fituation  of  her  fortune 
during  the  whole  courfe  of  her  life  ;  and  an  interval  of 
near  20  years,  in  the  vigour  of  it,  fpent  in  the  cares- 
of  a  family,  without  the  lead  leifure  for  reading  or 
contemplation  ;  after  which,  with  a  mind  fo  long  di- 
verted and  encumbered,  refuming  htr  Itudies,  (he  in-  • 
ftantly  recovered  its  entire  pov/ers ;  and,  in  the  hours 
o?"relaxation  from  domellic  employments,  purfued  to 
the  utmoft  limits  fome  of  the  deepell  relearches  the 
human  underftanding  is  capable  of.  Her  charaitcr  is 
that  of  a  moft  uncommon  lady,no  lefs  celebrated  for  her 
beaiJty  in  her  younger  years,  than  for  her  genius  and 
accomplilhments.  She  was  fmall  of  llature,  but  had  a. 
remarkable  livelinefs  in  her  eyes,  and  a  dehcacy  of  com- 
plexion which  continued  to  her  death. 

COCKERMOUTH,  a  town  of  Cumberland  in. 
England,  lituated  in  W.  Long.  3.  12.  N.  Lat.  54.  35. 
It  is  a  large  town  irregularly  built,  with  broad  Itreecs. 
It  is  walbed  by  the  Dei  went  on  the  weftern  lide  ; 
divided  in  two  by  the  Cocker;  and  the  parts  are  con- 
nefted  by  a  (lone-bridge  of  one  (ingle  arch.  The  num- 
ber of  inhabitants  is  between  three  and  four  thoufand  : 
tlie  manufactures  are  (balloons,  worfttd  (lockings,  and 
hats  ;  the  laft  exported  from  Glafgow  to  the  Weft 
Indies.  It  is  a  borough-town,  and  the  tight  of  vo- 
ting is  veiled  by  burges  tenure  in  certain  houfes :  this 
is  alfo  the  town  where  the  county  eleftlons  are  made. 
— Here  is  a  caftle  (eated  on  an  artificial  mount  on  a 
bank  above  the  Derwent.  It  has  a  fquare  building, 
and  ftrengthened  with  fevsral  fquare  towers ;  on  each 
3  ,  fide. 


c   o   c 


ii8     ] 


c   o   c 


Cocliet,  fide  of  the  Inner  pate  are  two  deep  dungeons  capable 
■Cockle.  Qf  holding  50  pcrfons  in  either  ;  they  are  vaulted  at 
"  top,  and  have  only  a,  fmall  opening  in  order  to  lower 
through  it  the  unhappy  prifoners  into  this  dire  prifon  ; 
and  on  the  outfide  of  each  is  a  narrow  (lit  with  a  /lope 
from  it,  down  which  were  fhot  the  provifions  allotted 
for  the  wretched  inhabitants.  This  callle  was  found- 
ed by  Waldof,  firft  lord  of  AUerdale,  and  fon  of  Gof- 
patrick  earl  of  Northumberland,  cotemporary  with 
William  the  Conqueror.  Waldof  relided  firll  at  Pap- 
caftle,  which  he  afterwards  demoliilied  ;  and  with  the 
materials  built  that  at  Cockermouth,  where  he  and  his 
family  long  refided  ;  but  fevcral  atms  over  the  gate- 
way, which  Cambden  fays  are  thofe  of  the  Jilu/.'ons, 
Hunifrati'vUlfs,  Luaes,  and  Pierc'ies,  evince  it  to  have 
belonged  in  latter  times  to  thofe  families.  It  appears 
that  it  was  firft  granted  by  Edward  II.  to  Anthony 
de  Lucie,  fon  of  Tl.omas  de  Multon,  who  had  aflum- 
ed  that  name,  becaufe  his  mother  was  daughter  and 
co-heirefs  to  Richard  de  Lucie  ;  and  afterwards,  by 
marriages,  this  caftle  and  its  honours  defcended  to  the 
Humfranvilles,  and  finally  to  the  Percies.  In  1658, 
it  was  garrifoned  for  the  king;  and  being  befiegcd 
and  taken  by  the  rebels,  was  burnt,  and  never  after- 
wards repaired. — Cockermouth  is  now  in  the  pofief- 
fion  of  the  Lowther  family,  who  have  here  a  great 
property  in  coal-works.  The  town  fends  two  mem- 
bers to  parliament. 

COCKET,  is  a  fealbelonging  to  the  king's  cuftcm- 
ioufe,  or  rather  a  fcroll  of  parchment  fealcd  and  deli- 
vered by  the  officers  of  the  cuftoms  to  merchants,  as  a 
warrant  that  their  merchandiles  are  cuftomed. 

It  is  alfo  ufed  for  the  office  where  goods  tranfport- 
^d  were  firft  entered,  and  paid  their  cuftom,  and  had 
a  cocket  or  certificate  of  difcharge. 

COCKLE,  in  ichthyology.     See  Cardium. 

Cockle, or  Shirle, in  niineralogy,a  fpecies  of  ftones 
of  the  garnet  kind,  bfloiiging  to  the  fillceous  clafs.  It 
is  called  Schoerlus  by  Bergman,  Lapis  corneus  cryJiaUi- 
zalus  by  ^^'i^llcrius,  and  Slaimiim  cryJlaUis  cohimnaribus 
by  Linnxus.  It  is  hard  and  heavy,  fhonting  into  cry- 
ftals  of  a  prifmatic  figure,  principally  of  a  black  or 
green  colour.  The  nr.me  cockle  for  thefe  kinds  of 
ftcnes  is  an  old  Cornifh  word  ;  but  is  fometimes  alfo 
applied  to  very  difterent  fubftances.  The  term  Jlnrl 
IS  adopted  from  the  Germans.  The  Englifh  mineral 
name  of  call  has  alfo  been  nled  by  fom.e  authors  as  fy- 
nonimous  with  cockle,  and  thefe  are  even  confounded 
together  at  the  mines  ;  but  the  call,  definitively  fpeak- 
ing,  is  the  fame  with  the  fubftance  called  wolfram  by 
the  Germans. 

The  fpecific  gravity  of  thefe  ftones  Is  between  3000 
and  3400,  though  always  in  proportion  to  their  difle- 
reni  folidities.  They  crack  in  the  fire,  and  are  very 
difpK  ult  to  be  fufed  ;  relifting  both  microcofmic  fait 
and  mineral  alkali.  They  cannot  totally  be  dilFoIved 
in  aqua  forlis  ;  but  the  diffolved  part  is  precipitated 
in  a  gelatinous  form  on  the  addition  of  an  alkali.  On 
a  chemical  analyfis  they  are  found  to  contain  fillceous 
earth,  argil,  calcareous  earth,  and  iron  ;  which  laft  is 
found  in  a  much  greater  quantity  when  they  are  o- 
paque  than  when  tranlparent.  According  to  Berg- 
man, fome  contain  55  parts  of  fillceous  earth,  39  of 
.argillaceous,  and  fix  of  pure  calcareous  earth  :  but  fome 
contain  ten  or  twelve  of  magnefia.     In  Britain  they 


arc  chiefly  found  In  Cornwall,  about  the  tin  mines,  and 
fome   fine  cryftalii/.ed   kinds  have  been  brought  from  ' 
Scotland.     The  varieties  are, 

1.  The  fchoerhis  martialis,  or  cockle  mixed  with 
Iron.  It  is  of  a  green  colour,  and  found  in  moft  of 
the  Swedifti  iron  mines.  It  Is  coavie,  and  without  any 
Jetemiinate  figure. 

2.  The  fpaiofus,  or  fparry  cockle,  Is  found  in  fome 
places  of  a  deep  green  colour  ;  whence  authors  have 
called  it  the  mother  of  emeralds.  Its  fpecific  charac- 
ter is,  that  it  always  breaks  in  a  cubic  or  rhomboidal 
form.  !n  fome  parts  of  .Sweden  it  is  found  of  a  pale 
greed,  white,  or  black  colour,  and  of  a  brown  colour 
in  Weftmoreland  in  England.  It  frequently  occurs  In 
the  fcaly  llme-ftones,  and  Its  colour  changes  from  a 
deep  green  to  white,  in  proportion  as  it  contains  more 
or  lefs  Iron. 

3.  Fibrous  cockle  re fembles  threads  of  glafs.  Thefe 
are  cither  parallel,  or  like  rays  from  a  centre,  In  which 
laft  Cafe  it  is  ci^e.AJlaTrcd  cackle.  Its  colours  are  black, 
green,  white,  blackilli  green,  and  light  green ;  all 
which  are  to  be  met  with  in  Sweden.  In  Weftman- 
land  it  Is  found  along  with  a  fteel-grained  lead  ore  ; 
and  here  the  whole  is  called  gran-rh-malm,  or  pine-ore, 
from  its  refemblance  to  the  branches  of  that  tree. 
Cronftedt  obferves,  that  the  ftrufture  of  this  fubftance 
has  caufed  It  to  be  fometimes  confounded  with  the 
afbeftus,  and  that  to  this  fpecies  belong  moft  of  the 
fubftances  called  imperfed  ajliejli.  The  llrlated  cockle, 
compared  w  1th  the  aibefti,  is  of  a  fhlning  and  angular 
furface,  though  this  fometimes  requires  the  aid  of  a 
magnifying  glals  to  difcuver  it;  always  fomewhat  tranf- 
pareTit ;  and  is  pretty  eafily  vitrified  before  the  blow- 
pipe, without  being  confumed  as  the  pure  afbcfti  feem 
to  be. 

4.  Cryftallifcd  cockle  is  found  of  tlack,  deep-green, 
light-green,  and  reddifti-biown  In  Sweden,  and  fome 
other  European  countries.  Near  Bafil  in  Switzerland 
is  found,  thoirgh  very  rarely,  a  ftone  called  taujfjhin, 
belonging  to  this  variety.  It  is  of  a  reddidi- brown 
colour,  and  confiih  of  two  hexagonal  cryftals  of  cockle 
grown  together  in  the  form  of  a  crofs,  which  Is  worn 
by  the  Roman  Catholics  as  an  amulet,  and  called  by 
them  lapis  cruc'ifcr,  or  the  crofs-ftone.  This  form, 
however,  is  not  peculiar  to  the  cockle,  for  both  Wer- 
ner and  Bergman  mention  cryftals  of  mountaln-cryftal 
joined  together  In  the  fame  manner. 

This  variety  was  lately  found  by  M.  Fichtel  on  the 
Carpathian  mountains,  cryftallifcd  in  prifms,  and  em- 
bodied in  limcftone.  It  effewefces  flightly  with  acids, 
and  contains  61.6  of  filex,  2  1  6  of  calcareous  earth, 
6.6  of  argil,  5  of  magnefia,  1.6  of  Iron,  and  three 
of  water.  The  reddifh-bioHu  prifmatic  (lilrlfrora  Ve- 
fuvius  contains  48  of  filex,  40  of  aigil,  five  of  calx^ 
one  of  magnefia,  and  five  of  iron.  Other  kinds,  how- 
ever, have  afforded  50  per  cent,  of  fillceous  earth,  30 
of  argillaceous,  one  or  iwo  of  magnefia,  and  iS  or 
20  of  iron.  The  w  hite  fort  probably  contain  leis  iron, 
but  all  become  reddifti  by  calcination.  Cr'onftcdt  In- 
forms us  tliat  he  has  heard  of  lead  being  melted  out  of  a 
kind  of  cockle  from  Rodbeck's  Eiig  at  Umea  in  Lap- 
land ;  andhealfo  thinks  it  very  probable,  that  fome  of 
the  cockles  found  In  the  Englilhtin  mines  m.ny  contain 
tin.  Sor.ic  cryftah  of  cockli?  are  more  fufiblc  than  any 
fort  of  done  whatever.;  thefe  are  always  glafty  and  Ic- 
4  niitranfparent. 


Cock!«. 


c   o   c 


I     i'9     1 


c   o   c 


Cuckney  in'tranrparent.  The  precife  fi;;urc  of  the  cockle,  tho' 
al'.v.iv^  pril'matical,  is  uiiccrtHin  :  that  from  Yxfio,  at 
Nya  Kupparberg,  is  quadrangukr;  the  French  kind  has 
nine  (ides  oi-  planes,  and  the  taufHtein  is  hexagonal. 

COCKNEY,  a  very  ancient  nickname  for  a  citizen 
of  London.  Riy  fays,  an  intetpietation  of  it  is,  A 
young  perlon  coaxed  or  cocqiiercd,  made  a  wanton,  or 
ticillecock,  delicately  bied  ai.d  brought  up,  fo  as  when 
arrived  at  man's  eltate  to  be  unable  to  bear  the  leall 
l;:irdi'hip.  Another,  A  perfon  ignorant  of  the  terms  ot 
country  occonomy,  fuch  as  a  young  citizen,  who  ha- 
ving been  ridiculed  for  calling  the  neighing  of  a  horfe 
laughing-,  and  told  that  it  was  called  neighing,  ntxt 
morning,  on  hearing  the  cock  crow,  to  (how  inftruAion 
^Yas  nr^t  thrown  away  upon  him,  exclaimed  to  his  for- 
mer  inilr;i(?Lor,  How  that  cock  neighs!  whence  the  ci- 
tizens of  London  have  ever  fince  been  called  cock- 
neighs,  or  cockneys.  Whatever  may  be  the  origin  of 
this  Lcnr.,  we  at  lead  learn  from  the  following  verfes, 
attributed  to  Hugh  Bagot  earl  of  Norfolk,  that  it  was 
ia  ufe  in  the  time  of  king  Henry  li. 

Was  I  in  my  calUe  at  Bungay, 
Fall  by   t!ic  river  Wavcney, 
I  wo, .Id  not  (.are  f.ir  rhc  ling  of  cockney, 
(/.  e  the  king  nt  i^i>nd>Jii.) 

The  king  of  tlie  cockney  occurs  among  the  regula- 
tions for  the  fports  and  (how3  formerly  held  in  the 
Middle  Temple,  on  Childermas  day,  where  he  had  his 
nificers,  a  marlTral,  conftable,  butler,  &c. —  See  Dug- 
dale's  Ori^'ines  ^ ar'ul'u'iaks ,  p.  247. 

COCKROACH.  See  Blatta.  In  Captain  Cook's 
Lll  voyage,  tlie  (hips,  while  at  Huahtine,  were  infell- 
ed  with  incredible  numbers  of  thefe  creatures,  whom 
it  was  found  impoflible  by  any  means  to  deitroy.  E- 
very  kind  of  food,  when  expofed  only  for  a  few  mi- 
nutes, was  covered  with  thefe  noxious  infefls,  and  pier- 
ced fo  full  of  holes,  that  it  refcrabled  an  honey-comb. 
They  were  particularly  dcllrudtive  to  birds  which  had 
been  fluffed  for  curiolitics,  and  were  fo  fond  of  ink, 
that  they  ate  out  the  writing  on  labels.  Books,  how- 
ever, were  fecured  from  their  ravages  by  the  clofeneis 
of  the  binding,  which  prevented  them  from  getting  in 
between  the  leaves.  They  were  of  two  kinds,  the  Blat- 
ta Orientalise  and  Germanica. 

COCKSWAIN,  or  CoCKSON,  an  oflficer  on  board 
a  man  of  war,  who  hath  the  care  of  the  boat,  or  Hoop, 
and  all  things  belonging  to  it.  He  is  to  be  always  ready 
ivith  his  boat's  gang  or  crew,  and  to  man  the  boat  on 
all  occafions.  He  fits  in  the  ilern  of  the  boat,  and  fleers; 
and  hath  a  whiiUe  to  c:'.ll  and  encourage  his  men. 

COCLES,  (Pub.  Horat.)  a  celebrated  Roman,  vvlia 
alone  oppofed  the  whole  army  of  Porfcnna  at  the 
head  of  a  bridge,  while  his  companions  behind  him 
were  cutting  off  the  communication  with  the  other 
fhore.  When  the  bridge  was  dellroyed.  Codes,  tho' 
wounded  by  the  darts  of  the  enemy,  leapt  into  the 
Tiber-,  and  fwam  acrofs  it  with  his  arms.  A  brazen 
llatue  was  laifed  to  him  in  the  temple  ot  Vulcan,  by 
the  conful  Pirblicola,  for  his  eminent  fervices. 

COCOA,  in  botany.      See  Cocos. 

COCONATO,  a  town  of  Piedmont  in  Italy,  fa- 
mous for  being  the  birth-place  of  Columbus,  who  firil 
difcovered  America :  E.  Long.  8.  o.  N.  Lat.  44.  50. 

COCOS,  in  botany  :  A  genus  belonging  tc  the-  na- 
tural order  of  Palm<c.   The  calyx  of  the  male  is  tripar- 


tite ;  the  corolla  tripetalous,  with  fix  flamina.     The     Coco.s. 
calyx   of  the  female  quinquepartite  ;  the   corolla  tri-  ^' 

petalous ;  the  lligmata  three,  and  the  plum   coriace- 
ous.      There   is  only  on-    fpecfes   known,    which   is 
cultivated  in  both  the  Indies,  and  is  of  the  greatefl 
ufe  to  the  inhabitants.      It  is  fuppofed  to  be  a  native 
of  the  Maldive  and  fome  defert  iflands  in  the  Eaft  In- 
dies;  and  from  thence  to  have  been  tranfported  to  all 
the  warm  parts  of  America  :  for  it  is  not  found  in  any 
of  the  iidand   parts,    nor  any  where   far  diftant  from 
fettlcmcnts.      The   tree   frequently  rifes  60  feet  high. 
The  body  of  the  trunk,  which  generally  leans  to  one 
fide,   occafioned,  as  is  fuppofed,   by  the  great  weight 
of  nuts  it  fuflains  when  young,   is  the   exacl   fhape  of 
an  apothecary's  large   iron   peflle,  being  of  an  equal 
thicknefs  at  top  and  at  bottom,  but  fomewhat  finaller 
in  the  middle  ;  its  colour  is  of  a  pale  brown  tlirough- 
out,  and  the  bark  fmooth.     The  leaves  or  branches  are 
often  14  or  ij  feet  long,  about  28  in  number,  winged, 
of  a  yellow  colour,  ftraight  and  tapering.     The  pinna: 
or  partial  leaves  arc  green,   often  three  feet  long  next 
the  trunk»-but  diniiuiniing  in  length  toward  the  extre- 
mity of  the  bru-.chcs.     The  branches  are  fallened  at 
top  by  brown  itringy  threads  that  grow  out  of  them,  • 
of  the  fize  oi  ordinary  pack-thread,   and  are  interwo- 
ven  like  a  web.     The   nuis  hang  at  the  top  of  the- 
tiuuk,  in  clu:lerGof  a  d'jzeii  in  each.      Each  nut,  next 
the  item,  has  three  i.oles  clofely  itopped  ;  one  of  them 
being  wider,  and  more  eaiily_peiieliated  than  the  rell. 
When  the  kernel  begins  to  grov.-,  it  incrults  the  iiifide 
of  the  nut  in  a  blullli,  jelly-like  fubllance  ;  a^  this  grows 
I'.arder,  the  inclufed  liquid,  difUlled   into  the  nut  from 
the  roots,  becomes  fomewhat  acid  ;  and  the  kernel,  as  • 
the  nut  ripeils,  becomes  flill  more  folid  ;  and  at  length 
lines  the  whole  infide  of  the  nut   for   above  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  thick,  being  as  -white  as  fnow,  and  of  the 
flavour  of   an   ahnond.     The  quantity  of  liquor  in  a- 
full  grown  nut  is  frequently  a  pint  and  upwards.   The 
huflvy  tegument  of  the  nu'  conlills  of  flrong,  tough,. 
ftringy    filaments,    which,    when   removed  from    the 
fruit,  referable   coarfe   oakhum,  and  may  perhaps  be 
conveniently  enough  ufed  as  fuch.     The  flicUs  of  thefe 
nuts,  -being  tipped  with  filver,  are  fretjuently  ufed  for" 
drinking  bowls.  TJie  bark  of  the  tree  may  be  wrought 
into  cordage,  and  the  leaves  into  baiki-ts,  brooms,  hum- 
mocks in  form  of  nets,   ^1at^,  lucks,  and  other  ufeful' 
utenfils.     The  liquor  contained  in  the  fhcU  is  a  mofl- 
coolini{   wholefome  beverage  in   thofe  fultry  climates,, 
and  the  white  kernel  a  molt  agreeable  food.   The  Mal- 
dive cocoa-nut  is  clteemed,  by  the  inhabitants  of  thefe* 
iflands,  as  a^ powerful  antidote  aga.'nlt  the  bites  of  fer- 
pents  and  other  poifons.      The  cocoa-nut   tree   is  pro- - 
pagated  by  planting  the  nuts;  which,  in  fix  weeks  or' 
two   months  time,   will   come    up,  provided  they  are 
frclla   and  thoroughly  i-ipe  ;  but   this   is   what   few  of 
them  are  when  brought  into  this  country  ;  for  they  al- 
ways gather  them  before  they  are  ripe,  that  they  may 
keep   during   their  paflage.      The  bell  way,  therefore,  ■ 
would   be   to  gather  fuch  nuts  as  are  thoroughly  ripe 
in  their  native  country,  and  plant  them  in  a  tub  of  dry 
fand,   in  order  to  keep  them  from  the  vermin  during- 
their  palfage.        Here    they    will    frequently    fprout, 
which  will  be   an  advantage,  as  they  may  then  be  im-- 
meiii.itcly  planted  in  pots  of  earth,  and  plunged  in  the 
bark-flo.ve. 

COGTION^, 


li 

Codia. 


G     O     C  [     12 

cCriKon         COCTION,  a  general  term  for  all  alterations  made 
in  bodies  by  the  application  of  lire  or  heat. 

COCYTUS,  one  of  the  rivers  of  hell,  according  to 
the  theology  of  the  poets.     It   has   its  name  "-"  >■» 
xanuciy,  from  groaning  and  lamenting.     Hence  Milton, 
'Cncytu'  nam'd  of  lamentati'ii  loud. 
Heard  on  the  lutful  fircam. 
It  was  a'branch  of  the   river   Styx  ;  and  -flowed,   ac- 
cording to  Horace,  with  a  dull  and  languid  llrcam. 
COD,  in  ichthyology.     See  Gadus  and  Fishery. 
Cod  is  aJfo  a  term  ufed,  in  fome  parts  of  the  king- 
■  dom,  for  a  pod.     See  Pod. 

CoD-Capi,  a  promontory  on  the  coad  of  New  Eng- 
land, near  the  entrance  of  Bofton  harbour.  W.  Long. 
69.  50.  N.  I. at.  42.  o. 

CODDY-MODDY,  the  Englifh  name  of  a  fpecies  of 
Larus. 

CODE  (toikx),  a  colleftion  of  the  laws  and  confti- 
tutions  of  the  Roman  emperors,  made  by  order  of 
Juftinian.  The  word  comes  from  the  Latin  codex, 
"  a  paper  book;"  fo  called  a  codiribus,  or  caudicibm  ar- 
lorum,  "  the  trunks  of  trees  ;"  the  bark  whereof 
'bei-ncr  ft  ripped  off,  ferved  the  ancients  to  write  their 
books  on. 

The  code  is  accotinted  the  fecond  volume  of  the  ci- 
vil law,  and  contains  twelve  books ;  the  matter  of 
which  is  nearly  the  fame  with  that  cf  the  digeils,  ef- 
pecially  the  firft  eight  books  :  but  the  ftyle  is  neither 
fo  pure,  nor  the  method  fo  accurate,  as  that  of  the  di- 
geils ;  and  it  determines  matters  of  dally  ufe,  where- 
as the  digi;fts  difcufs  the  more  abftrufe  and  fubtle 
queftions  of  the  law,  giving  the  various  opinions  of 
the  ancient  lawyers.  Although  JuiHnian's  code  isdi- 
ilinguidied  by  the  appellation  of  code,  by  way  of  emi- 
nence, yet  there  were  codes  before  his  time  ;  fuoh 
were,  i.  The  Gregorian  code,  and  Hermogenean  code ; 
colleftions  of  the  Roman  laws,  made  by  two  famous 
lawyers,  Gregorius  and  Hermogenes,  v/hich  included 
the  conilitutions  of  the  emperors  from  Adrian  to  Dio- 
defian  and  Maximinus.  2.  The  Theodolian  code,  com- 
prifed  in  16  books,  formed  out  of  the  conilitutions 
of  the  emperors  from  Conflantine  the  Great  to  Theo- 
dofius  the  Younger :  tliis  was  obfervtd  almoft  ovei  all 
the  weil,  till  it  was  abrogated  by  the  JuRinian  code. 
There  ai-e  alfo  feveral  later  codes,  particularly  the 
ancient  Gothic,  and  thofe  of  the  French  kings;  as  the 
code  of  Euridic,  code-Lewis,  code-Henry,  code-Mar- 
chande,  code  des  Eaux,  Stc;  and  the  prcfent  king  of 
Pruffia  has  lately  publi fired  a  code,  ■i\hich  comprifes 
the  laws  of  his  kingdom  in  a  vcr)'  fmall  volume. 

CODEX,  in  antiquity,  denotes  a  book  or  tablet  on 
which  the  ancients  wrote.     See  Codex. 

Codex  alfo  denoted  a  kind  of  punifhment  by  means 
of  a  clog  or  block  of  wood,  to  which  flaves  who  had 
offended  were  tied  fad,  and  obliged  to  drag  it  along 
with  them;  and  fometlmes  they  fat  on  it  clolely  bound. 
CODIA,  among  botanills,  fignifies  the  head  of  any 
plant,  but  more  paiticularly  a  poppy  head  ;  whence  its 
iyrup  is  called  diiicodium. 

Codia,  in  botany:  A  genus  of  the  cigynia  order, 
belonging  to  the  odlandria  clafs  of  plants.  The  calyx 
is  tetraphyllous,  with  fmall- oblong  horizontal  leaves; 
the  corolla  confills  of  four  very  fmall  linear  petals ; 
the  ftamina  are  eight  filamtnts  twice  as  long  as  the 
calyx  ;  the  antherx  are  roundifh. 

N°  83- 


o    ]  CO    C 

CODICIL,  Is  a  writing,  by  way  of  fupplemcnt  to 
a  will,  when  any  thing  is  omitted   that   the  tellator 
would  have  added,  or  wants  to  be  explained,  altered;  ;_ 
or  recalled. 

CODLIN,  an  apple  ufeful  in  the  kitchen,  being  the 
moll  proper  for  baking. 

CODLING,  an  appellation  given  to  the  cod-fl(h 
when  young.     See  Gadus. 

CODON  (Kaji,,^,  in  antiquity,  a  cymbal,  or  rather 
little  brals  bell,  refembling  the  head  of  a  poppy.  They 
were  fallened  to  the  trappings  and  bridles  of  horfes. 

CoDON,  in  botany:  A  genus  of  the  monogynia  or- 
der, bolonging  the  decandyia  clafs  of  plants.  The 
calyx  is  decempartite,  with  the  fegments  alternately 
long  and  (hort  ;  the  corolla  campanulated,  with  the 
limb  decempartite  and  equal ;  the  nedlarium  decem- 
locular,  of  ten  fcales  inferted  into  the  heels  of  the  lla- 
mina;  the  feed-cale  bilocular;  the  feeds  hairy,  roundifli, 
in  a  dry  coloured  pulp. 

CODRINGTON  (Chriftopher),  a  brave  EngllHi 
officer,  and  not  let's  diltinguiihed  for  his  learning  and 
benevolence;  was  born  at  Barbadoes  in  the  year  1 663, 
and  educated  at  Oxford ;  after  which  he  betook  hirn- 
felf  to  the  army  ;  and,  by  his  merit  and  couiage,  foon 
recommending  hr.nfelf  to  the  favour  of  king  William, 
was  made  a  captain  in  the  firll  regiment  of  toot-guards. 
He  was  at  the  fiege  of  Namur  in  1695 ;  and,  upon  the 
conclufion  of  the  peace  of  Ryfwick,  was  made  captain- 
general  and  governor  in  chief  of  the  Leeward  and 
Caribbee  iilands.  However,  in  1701,  feveral  articles 
were  exhibited  againfl  him  to  the  houfe  of  commons 
in  England  ;  to  which  he  publifhed  a  diftintl  and  par- 
ticular anfwer,  and  was  honourably  acquitted  of  ail 
imputations.  In  1703,  he  fhowed  great  bravery  at  the 
attack  of  Gaudaloupe :  but  at  lall  he  refigned  his  go- 
vernment, and  lived  a  Hudious  retired  life ;  for  a  few 
years  before  Ills  death,  he  chiefly  applied  himfelf  to 
church-hiitory  and  raetaphyfics.  He  died  at  Barba- 
does, on  the  7th  of  April  i  710,  and  was  buried  there 
the  day  following  ;  but  his  body  was  afterwards  brought 
over  to  England,  and  interred,  on  the  19th  of  June 
1716,  in  the  chapel  of  All-Souls  College,  O.sford.  13y 
his  lait  will,  he  bequeathed  his  plantations  in  Barba- 
does, and  part  cf  the  ifland  of  Barbuda,  to  tlie  fociety 
for  propagating  the  gofpcl  in  foreign  parts ;  and  left 
a  noble  legacy  to  All-Souls  CoUege,  of  which  he  had 
been  a  fellow.  This  legacy  confifted  of  his  library, 
which  was  valued  at  6000/.;  and  10,000/.  to  be  laid 
out,  6000  in  building  a  library,  and  4000  in  furnilli- 
ing  it  with  books.  He  wrote  fome  of  the  poems  in 
the  Mufa:  ytngl'icartit,  printed  at  London  in  1 74 1. 

CODRL'S,  the  17th  and  laft  king  of  Athens,  fon 
of  Melanthus.  When  the  Heraclida:  made  war  againil 
Athens,  the  oracle  faid  that  the  viftory  would  be 
granted  to  that  nation  whofe  king  was  killed  in  battle. 
The  Hcraclida;  upon  this  gave  llrift  orders  to  fpare 
the  life  of  Codrus ;  but  the  patriotic  king  difguifed 
himfelf  and  attacked  one  of  the  enemy,  by  whom  he 
was  killed.  The  Athenians  obtained  the  viftory,  and 
Codrus  was  dcfervedly  called  the  father  of  his  coun- 
try. He  reigned  2 1  years,  about  2153  years  before 
the  Chrilllau  era.  To  pay  more  honour  to  his  me- 
mory, the  Athenians  made  a  refolution  that  no  man 
after  Codrus  ibovdd  reign  in  Athens  under  the  name  of 
king. 

COECUM, 


C    O     E  [     12 

COECUM,  or  BLiND-ovT.  See  Anatomy,  n"  93. 

l)i  MuCgiave  gives  us  an  account,  in  the  Pliilofo- 
phical  Traniaftioiis,  of  the  ccecum  of  a  dog  being  cut 
out  without  any  prejudice  to  tlic  uuim:il.  Mi'  Giles 
(fives  us  anotlier  of  the  ca-cum  of  a  lady  being  tiillend- 
td,  fo  as  to  fo'-m  a  tumor  that  held  alniyil  tlircc  tlio- 
pins  of  a  thin,  greyidi,  ahnoil  liquid  fublhuice,  of  whicli 
(he  died.  And  IVlr  Knowler  a  third,  of  a  boy's  cuecum 
being  vaftly  extended  and  ftuifed  with  chcriy-liones, 
wliich  like  wife  proved  mortal. 

COEFFICIENTS,  in  algebra,  are  fuch  numbers  or 
known  quantities  as  are  put  before  letters  or  quanti- 
ties, whether  known  or  unknown,  and  into  wliich  they 
are  fuppofed  to  be  multiplied.  Thus,  in  3  x,  ax,  or 
ix;  3,  (i  and  I,  are  the  coefficients  of  .v  .•  and  in  6  <7, 
C)i;  6,  and  9,  are  the  coefficients  of  a  and  I/.  See 
Algehra. 

COELESTIAL,  or  Celestial,  in  general,  de- 
notes any  thing  belonging  to  the  heavens:  thus  we  fay, 
caJiflici!  rjl'/h-'i'uticris,  the  ca-lcjluil  globe,  iyc, 

COELIAC  ARTi-RY,  in  anatomy,  that  artery  which 
iffues  from  the  aorta,  jull  below  the  diaphragm.  See 
Anatomy,  n"  123. 

Co^.Ll^c  Vein,  in  anatomy,  that  running  through  the 
intellluum  rciturn,  along  with  the  cccliac  artery. 

COELIMONTANA  Porta  (Pliny),  one  of  the 
gates  of  Rome,  fituatcd  at  the  foot  of  mount  Ccelius  ; 
and  hence  its;iame:  thought  to  be  the  ancient  ^J^Hijr/'a 
by  fome  ;  but  this  others  doubt.  By  this  gate  ^ilaric 
with  his  GiSths  is  faid  to  have  entered  and  plundered 
Rome. 

COELIOBRIGA  (anc.  geog.),  a  town  of  the 
Bracaii  in  tlie  Hither  Spain,  to  the  foutli  of  Bracara 
Auguila,  the  north  of  the  Durius,  and  not  far  from 
the  Atlantic;  a  municipiam  (Coin).  Now  thought 
to  be  Banelos,  a  town  of  Entii'  Miulio  y  Duero.  \V. 
Long.  9.  1  J.  J^at.  41.  20. 

COEIjIUS  mons,  one  of  the  fevcn  liillb  of  Rome  ; 
fo  called  from  Codes,  a  Tufcan  captain,  who  came  to 
th.e  afP.llancc  of  Romulus  againll  A\e  Sahincs,  (Diony- 
fuis  Haiicarnaifeus).  CsUed  alfo  ^icrrnliinus,  or  ^ler- 
tilulinnis,  from  the  oaks  growing  on  it ;  and  ySufujliis, 
by  Tiberins  (Tacitus,  Suetonius).  To  the  call  it  had 
the  city  walls,  on  the  loulh  tlie  Covliolus,  to  the  well 
the  Palatine,  and  on  tlv;  north  tlie  Efquilisc. 

COELIOEUS,  a  part  of  mount  CusJius  to  the 
fouth,  called  Minor  Callus  (Martial):  having  the  city 
walls  on  the  call,  the  Aventine  to  the  fouth,  on  the 
welt  and  nurth  the  valley  thro\igh  which  the  rivulet  of 
the  Appia  runs. 

COELOMA,  among  phyiicians,  a  hollow  ulcer, 
feated  in  the  tunica  cornea  of  the  eye. 

COELOS  PORTUs  (anc.  geog.),  a  town  of  the 
Chcrfonclus  of  Thraoe,  to  the  fouth  ijf  Seftos  ;  where 
the  Athenians  eredled  a  trophy,  after  a  fea  viilory  over 
the  LaeeJeir.onlans  (Diodorus  Siculus). 

COELOSYRIA,  in  the  larger  fcnf*  of  the  word, 
was  the  name  of  the  whole  country  lying  fouJiward 
ot  Seleucia,  and  extending  as  far  as  Egypt  aiid  Arabia  : 
but  this  word  is  principally  applied  to  the  valley  lying 
between  Libanus  and  Antilibauus.  This  word  occurs 
only  in  the  apocryphal  writings  of  the  Old  Teita- 
mcnt. 

COELUS  (Heaven),  in  Pagan  mythology,  the  fun 
of  jEther  and  Dies  or  Air  and  Dav.     According   to 

VoL.V.  Pait  I. 


] 


C    O     F 


CofTca, 


Hefiud,  ho  married  Terra  or  the  Eaith:  on  wjiom  he  Cormetery 
begat  Aurea  or  the  Mountains,  the  Ocean,  5:c.  But 
having  at  length  imiirlfoned  the  Cyclops,  wlio  were 
alfo  his  children,  his  wife,  being  offended,  incitod  her 
fon  Saturn  to  revenge  the  injuiy  done  to  his  b:-otlicrs  ; 
and,  by  her  afliilance,  he  bound  and  callrated  Calus, 
when  the  blood  that  flowed  from  the  wound  pi  edu- 
ced ihe  three  furies,  the  giants,  and  the  wood-nymph.^; 
and  the  genital  parts  being  thrown  into  the  fca,  im- 
pregnated the  waters,  and  formed  the  goddefs  W'nus. 
This  deity  was  called  by  the  Greeks  Urantis. 

COEMETERY.     See  CpMETtRv. 

COEMPTIONALES,  among  the  Romans,  an  aj)- 
pellation  given  to  old  flavcs,  which  were  fold  in  a  lot 
with  others,  bccaufe  they  could  not  be  fold  alone. 

COENOBITE,  a  Veligious  who  lives  in  a  convent, 
or  in  community,  under  a  certain  rule;  in  oppofition 
to  anachoret,  or  hermit,  who  lives  in  fohtude.  The 
word  comes  from  the  (ircek  '-oti®-,  con:munls  ;  and 
i>i&;  vita,  "  life".  Cafiian  makes  this  difference  be- 
tween a  convent  and  a  monajcry,  that  the  latter  may  be 
applied  to  the  refidence  of  a  finglc  religious  or  rcclufe; 
v\-hereas  the  convent  implies  cicitobites,  or  numbers  erf 
religious  living  in  common.  Fleury  fpeaks  of  three 
kinds  of  monks  in  Egypt  ;  anachorets,  who  live  in 
folitude  ;  cannbltes,  who  continue  to  live  in  commu- 
nity ;  M\A.farabaltes,  who  are  a  kind  of  monks-errant, 
that  ilroll  from  place  to  place.  He  refers  the  inllitu- 
tion  of  coenobites  to  the  times  of  the  apoflles,  and 
makes  it  a  kind  of  imitation  of  the  ordinary  lives  of 
the  faithful  at  Jerufalem.  Though  St  Pachomius  is 
ordinarily  owned  the  inftitutor  of  the  cccnobitc  life;  as' 
being  the  iirft  who  gave  a  rule  to  any  community. 

COENOBIUM,  ..o,.,/3,,.,  the  Hate  of  living  in  a  fo- 
ciety,  or  community,  where  all  things  are  common. 
Pythagoras  is  thought  to  be  the  author  or  Jirfl  infti- 
tutor of  this  kind  of  life  ;  his  difciples,  though  fomc 
hundieds  in  number,  being  obliged  to  give  up  all  tlieir 
private  eilates,  in  order  to  be  annexed  to  the  joint 
Itock  of  the  whole.  The  Effenians  among  the  Jews 
and  Platoni:ts  are  faid  to  have  lived  in  the  fame  man- 
ner. Many  of  the  Chril'ians  alfo  have  thought  this 
the  mofl  perfed  kind  of  fociety,  as  being  that  in  wliich 
Chriil  and  his  apolUes  chofc  to  live. 

COESFELDT,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  Weftpha- 
lia,  and  in  the  territories  of  the  bifhop  ofMunlter, 
where  he  often  rclides.  It  is  near  the  river  Burkel, 
E.  Long.  64.  2.  N.  Lat.  51.  58. 

COEVOllDEN,  one  of  the  ftrongeft  towns  in  the 
United  Provinces,  in  OveryfTel,  fortified  by  the  fa- 
mous Cohorn.  It  was  taken  by  the  bifliop  of  Mimfler, 
1673  ;  and  the  Dutch  retook  it  the  fame  year.  It  is 
furrounded  by  a  morafs.  E.  Long.  6.  41.  N.  Lat. 
5a.  40. 

COFFEA,  the  Coffee  tref:  A  genus  of  the  mo- 
ncgynia  order,  belonging  to  the  pentandria  clals  of 
plants;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
47th  order,  Stellatit.  The  corolla  is  funnel-lhaptd  ; 
the  flamina  above  the  tube  ;  the  berry  inferior,  difper- 
mous  5  the  feeds  aiillated,  or  having  a  proper  exterior 
covering  dropping  oft'  of  its  own  accord.  There  is 
but  one^  fpecies,  fuppofed  to  be  a  native  of  Arabia 
Felix.  It  feldom  rifes  more  than  16  or  18  feet  in 
height  ;  the  main  ilem  grows  upright,  and  is  covered 
with  a  light  brown  bark ;  the  branches  are  produced 
Q__  hcri- 


C    O    F  [     1 

Coffea.  horizontally  and  oppofite,  crofling  each  other  at  every 
'joint  ;  fo  that  every  llde  of  the  tree  is  fully  ganiifhed 
with  them,  and  they  fonn  a  fort  of  pyramid.  The 
leaves  alfo  Hand  oppofite  ;  and  when  fully  grown  are 
about  four  or  five  inches  long,  and  two  broad  in  the 
middle,  decreafing  toward  each  end  ;  the  borders  arc 
waved,  and  the  furface  is  of  a  lucid  green.  The  flowers 
are  produced  in  clufters  at  the  root  of  the  leaves,  fit- 
ting clofe  to  the  branches ;  they  are  tubulous,  and 
fpread  open  at  the  top,  where  they  are  divided  into 
five  parts  ;  they  are  of  a  pure  white,  and  have  a  very 
grateful  odour,  but  are  of  fliort  duration.  The  fruit, 
which  is  the  only  iifeful  part,  refembles  a  cherry.  It 
grows  in  clufters,  and  is  ranged  along  the  brandies 
under  the  axillae  of  the  leaves,  of  the  fame  green  as  the 
laurel,  but  fomething  longer.  When  it  comes  to  be  of 
a  deep  red,  it  is  gathered  for  the  mill,  in  order  to  be 
manufactured  into  thofe  coffee-beans  now  fo  generally 
known.  The  mill  is  compofed  of  two  wooden  rollers 
furniflied  with  iron  plates  18  inches  long,  and  10  or 
12  in  diameter.  Thefc  moveable  rollers  are  made  to 
approach  a  third  which  is  fixed,  and  which  they  call 
the  chnps.  Above  the  rollers  is  a  hopper,  in  which 
they  put  the  coffee,  from  whence  it  falls  between  the 
rollers  and  the  chops,  where  it  is  ftripped  of  its  firll 
ikin,  and  divided  into  two  parts,  as  may  be  feen  by  the 
form  of  it  after  it  has  undergone  this  operation  ;  being 
flat  on  the  one  fide  and  round  on  the  other.  From 
this  machine  it  falls  into  a  brafs  fieve,  where  the  fl<in 
drops  between  the  wires,  while  the  fruit  Aides  over 
them  into  ballcets  placed  ready  to  receive  it:  it  is  then 
thro\vn  into  a  veffel  full  of  water,  where  it  foaks  for 
one  night,  and  is  afterwards  thoroughly  wafhed.  When 
the  whole  is  finifiied,  and  well  dried,  it  is  put  into  an- 
other macliine  called  the  ped'mg-mill.  This  is  a  wood- 
en grinder,  turned  vertically  upon  it^  trendle  by  a 
mule  or  horfe.  In  pafllng  over  the  coffee  it  takes  off 
the  parchment,  which  is  nothing  but  a  thin  fliin  that 
detaches  itfelf  from  the  berry  in  proportion  as  it  grows 
dry.  The  parchment  being  removed,  it  is  taken  out 
of  this  mill  to  be  put  into  another,  which  is  called  the 
•w'mnoiu'wg-mill .  This  machine  is  provided  with  four 
pieces  of  tin  fixed  upon  an  axle,  which  is  turned  by  a 
flave  with  confiderable  force  ;  and  the  wind  that  is 
jBade  by  the  motion  of  thefe  plates  clears  the  coffee 
of  all  the  pellicles  that  are  mixed  with  it.  It  is  after- 
wards put  upon  a  table,  where  the  broken  berries, 
and  any  filth  that  may  remain  among  them,  are  fe- 
parated  by  negroes,  after  which  the  coffee  is  fit  for 
fale. 

The  coiFee-tree  is  cultivated  in  Arabia,  Perfia,  the 
Eaft  Indies,  the  Ifle  of  Bourbon,  and  feveral  parts  of 
America.  It  is  alfo  raifed  in  botanic  gardens  in  feve- 
ral parts  of  Europe.  Prince  Eugene's  garden  at  Vi- 
enna produced  more  coffee,  than  was  fufficient  for  his 
own  confumption.  It  delights  particularly  in  hills  and 
mountains,  where  its  root  is  almoft  always  dry,  and 
its  head  frequently  watered  with  gentle  fliowers.  It 
prefers  a  vvellern  afpeft,  and  ploughed  ground  \vith- 
cut  any  appearance  of  grafs.  The  plants  (hould  be 
placed  at  eight  feet  diilance  from  each  other,  and  in 
holes  twelve  or  iifteen  inches  deep.  If  left  to  them- 
felves,  they  would  rife  to  the  height  of  16  or  18  feet, 
as  already  obferved ;  but  they  are  generally  Hinted 
to  live,  for  the  convenieiicy  of  gathering  their  fruit 


22       ]  C      O       F 

with  the  greater  cafe.  Thus  dwarft,  they  extend 
their  branches  fo,  that  they  cover  the  whole  fpot  ^ 
niund  about  them.  They  begin  to  yield  fruit  the  tliird 
year,  but  are  not  in  full  bearing  till  tiic  fifth.  With  the 
famt  infirmities  that  mofl  other  trees  are  fubjecl  to, 
thefe  arc  likewife  in  danger  of  being  deftroj  ed  by  a 
worm  or  by  the  fcorchi  ng  rays  of  the  fuu.  The 
hills  where  the  coffee-trees  are  found  have  generally 
a  gravelly  or  chalky  bottom.  In  the  laft,  it  languiflies 
for  fome  time  and  then  dies  :  in  the  former,  its  roots, 
which  feldom  fail  of  ilriking  between  ilones,  obtain 
nourifhment,  and  keep  the  tree  alive  and  fruitful  for 
30  years.  Tliis  is  nearly  the  period  for  plants  of  the 
coffee-tree.  The  proprietor,  at  the  end  of  this  period, 
not  only  finds  himfelf  without  trees,  but  has  his  land 
reduced,  that  it  is  not  fit  for  any  kind  of  culture  ;  and 
unlefs  he  is  fo  fituated,  that  he  can  break  up  a  fpot  of 
virgin  land,  to  make  himfelf  amends  for  that  which  is 
totally  exhauited  by  the  coffee-trees,  his  lofs  is  irre- 
parable. 

The  coffee  produced  in  Arabia  is  found  fo  greatly 
to  excel  that  raifed  in  the  American  plantations  or 
elfevvhere,  that  the  cultivation  of  the  tree  is  now  but 
feldom  praftifed  in  any  of  the  Britifh  colonies.  Large 
plantations  of  this  kind  were  formerly  made  in  fome 
of  them  ;  and  it  was  propofed  to  the  pArllaRrefit  to 
give  a  proper  encouragement  for  cultivating  this  com- 
modity there,  fo  as  to  enable  the  planters  to_  under- 
fell  the  importers  from  Arabia.  Accordingly,  there 
was  an  abatement  of  the  duty  payable  oh  all  coffee 
imported  from  our  colonies  in  America,  which  at  that 
time  was  fuppofed  to  be  fufficient  encouragement  for 
this  kind  of  commerce  ;  but  the  inferiority  of  the  A- 
merican  coffee  to  the  Arabian  hath  almoft  ruined  the 
projett.  Mr  Miller  propofes  fome  improvements  in 
the  method  of  cultivation.  According  to  him,  the 
trees  are  planted  in  too  moift  a  foil,  and  the  berries 
are  gathered  too  foon.  They  ought,  he  fays,  to  be 
permitted  to  remain  on  the  trees  till  their  fkins  are 
fhrivelled,  and  they  fall  from  the  trees  when  fhaken.. 
This  will  indeed  greatly  diminifh  their  weight,  but 
the  value  of  the  commodity  w-ill  thereby  be  increafed 
to  more  than  double  of  that  which  is  gathered  fooner.^ 
In  Arabia,  they  always  fhake  the  berries  off  the  trees, 
fpreadlng  cloths  to  receive  theai,  and  only  take  fuch 
as  readily  fall  at  each  time.  Another  caufe  may  be 
the  method  of  drying  the  berries.  They  are,  he  ob- 
ferves,  very  apt  to  imbibe  moifture,  or  the  flavour  of 
any  thing  placed  near  them.  A  bottle  of  mm  placed 
in  a  clofet,  in  which  a  canifler  of  coffee-berries  clofely 
flopped  was  Handing  on  a  flielf  at  a  confiderable  dir 
ftance,  in  a  few  days  fo  impregnated  the  berries  as  to 
render  them  very  difagreeable  :  the  fame  hath  alfo 
happened  by  a  bottle  of  fpirit  of  wine  (landing  in  the 
fame  clofet  with  coffee  and  tea,  both  which  were  in  a 
few  days  fpolled  by  it.  Some  years  ago,  a  cofFee- 
(hlp  from  India  had  a  few  bags  of  pepper  put  on- 
boai-d,  the  flavour  of  which  was  imbibed  by  the  coffee, 
and  the  whole  cargo  fpoiled.  For  thefe  reafons,  Mr 
Miller  diretls  that  coffee-berries  fliould  never  be  brought 
over  in  fliips  freighted  with  rum,  nor  laid  to  dry 
in  the  houfes  where  fugars  are  boiled  or  rum  diftilled. 
When  they  are  fully  ripe,  they  Ihould  be  fhaken  off 
when  the  trees  are  pcrfeflly  dry,  and  fpread  upon 
cloths  in  the  fun  to  dry,  carrj-ing  tliem  fevery  evening 
I ,  uader 


C    O     F 


[     123     ] 


G     O     F 


under  cover,  to  prevent  the  dews  or  rain  from  falling 
■^  on  them.     When  perfeflly  dry,  thoy  Ihoiild  have  their 
outer  fl<ins  beaten  off,  and  tlien  be  carefully  packed  up 
in  cloths  or  bags  three  or  four  times  double. 

The  cofFee-tree,  as  we  have  already  obferved,  is 
fometimes  cultivated  in  European  gardens ;  but  for 
this  it  requires  the  aniftance  of  a  (love.  It  makes  a 
fine  appearance  at  all  feafons  of  the  year  (being  an 
evergreen),  but  efpecially  when  in  flower,  and  when 
the  berries  are  red,  which  is  generally  in  the  winter, 
fo  that  they  continue  a  long  time  in  that  flate.  It  is 
propagated  from  the  berries;  but  they  mull  be  plant- 
ed immediately  when  gathered  from  the  tree,  for  they 
lofe  their  vegetative  quality  in  a  very  fliort  time  :  when 
fent  abroad  by  the  poll,  they  have  conllantly  failed  in 
thofe  that  have  been  a  fortnight  on  their  journey  ;  fo 
that  where  thefe  trees  are  defired,  the  young  plants 
muft  be  fent,  if  it  be  at  any  dillance  from  the  place 
where  they  grow.  The  frelh  berries  nwy  be  planted 
in  fmall  pots,  and  plunged  into  a  hot-bed  of  tanners 
bark.  If  the  bed  he  of  a  propel  temperature,  the 
young  plants  will  appear  in  a  inonth  or  live  weeks 
time  ;  and  in  fix  weeks  more,  will  be  ready  for  tranf- 
plantiug  into  feveral  pots.  During  fummer,  they  mull 
be  frequently  watered  ;  but  not  in  too  great  plenty, 
otherwife  the  roots  will  be  apt  to  rot.  The  firlt  fign 
of  the  plants  being  difordered  is  their  leaves  fweating 
out  a  clammy  juice  ;  after  which  they  are  over-run 
with  infedls,  that  cannot  be  dedroyed  till  the  plants 
have  recovered  their  health  ;  fo  that  on  the  firll  ap- 
pearance of  thefe  infefts,  the  trees  (hould  be  removed 
into  frelh  earth,  and  all  poffible  care  taken  to  recover 
them.  The  diforders  incident  to  them,  generally  pro- 
ceed either  from  their  having  been  put  into  large  pots, 
or  from  the  earth  about  them  being  too  lliff  or  over- 
watered.  The  moll  proper  foil  for  them  is  that 
of  a  kitchen-garden,  which  is  naturally  loofe,  and  not 
fubjetl  to  bind,  efpecially  if  it  has  conftantly  been 
well  wrought  and  dunged. 

Coffee  alfo  denotes  a  kind  of  drink,  prepared  from 
thofe  berries;  very  familiar  in  Europe  for  thefe  100 
years,  and  among  the  Turks  for  170. 

Its  original  is  not  we!!  known.  Some  afcribe  it  to 
the  piior  of  a  monaftery;  who  being  informed  by  a 
goat-herd,  that  his  cattle  fometimes  browzing  on  the 
tree  would  wake  and  caper  all  night,  became  curi- 
ous to  prove  its  virtue  :  accordingly,  he  firll  tried  it 
on  his  monks,  to  prevent  their  fleeping  at  matins. 
Others,  from  Sshehabeddin,  refer  the  invention  of 
coffee  to  the  Perfians :  from  whom  it  was  learned  in 
the  15th  century  by  Gemaleddin,  mufti  of  Aden,  a  city 
near  the  mouth  of  the  red  fea  ;  and  who  having  tried 
its  virtues  himfelf,  and  found  that  it  difiipated  the 
fumes  which  opprcflcd  the  head,  infpired  joy,  opened 
the  bowels,  and  prevented  fleep,  without  being  in- 
commoded by  it,  recommended  it  firft  to  his  der- 
vifes,  with  whom  he  ufed  to  fpend  the  night  in  prayer. 
Their  example  brought  cotlee  into  vogue  at  Aden  ; 
the  profeffurs  of  the  law  for  ftudy,  artifans  to  work, 
travellers  to  walk  in  the  night,  in  fine  every  body 
at  Aden,  drank  coffee.  Hence  it  pafled  to  Mecca; 
where  firft  the  devotees,  then  the  reft,  of  the  people, 
took  it.  From  Arabia  Felix  it  paffed  to  Cairo.  In 
151 1,  Kahie  Beg  prohibited  it,  from  a  perfuafion  that 
it  inebriated,  and  inclined  to  things  forbidden,     But 


Sultan  Caufou  immediately  after  took  off  the  prohlbl-     Coffee. 

tion  ;  and  coffee  advanced  from  Egypt  to   Syria  and <""* 

Conllantinople.  The  dervifes  declaimed  againft  it 
from  the  Alcoran,  which  declares,  that  coal  is  not  of 
the  number  of  things  created  by  God  for  food.  Ac- 
cordingly, the  mufti  ordered  the  coffee-houfes  to  be 
ftut ;  but  his  fucceffor  declaring  coffee  not  to  be  coal, 
they  were  again  opened.  During  the  war  in  Candia, 
the  affemblies  of  news-mongers  making  too  free  with 
ilate  affairs,  the  grand  vifir  Cuproli  fupprcffed  the 
coffee-houfes  at  Conftantinople :  which  fuppreffion, 
though  Hill  on  foot,  does  not  prevent  the  public  ufe 
of  the  liquui  there.  Thevenot,  the  traveller,  was 
the  firft  who  brought  it  into  France  ;  and  a  Greek 
fervant,  named  Pa/qua,  brought  into  England  by  Mr 
Dan.  Edwards,  a  Turky  merch:int,  in  1652,  to  make 
his  coffee,  fiift  fct  up  the  proftffiou  of  coffee-man,  and 
introduced  the  drink  into  this  ifland. 

The  word  cojfu  is  originally  Arabic:  the  Turks  pro- 
nounce it  caheuh,  and  the  Arabians  friAu.?/';  which  fome 
authors  maintain  to  be  a  general  name  for  any  thing 
that  takes  away  the  appetite,  others  for  any  thing  that 
promote  appetite,  and  others  attain  for  any  thing  that 
gives  ftrength  and  vigour. — The  Mahometans,  it  is 
obferved,  diftinguilh  three  kinds  of  cahiiah.  The  firil 
is  wine,  or  any  liquor  that  inebriates :  the  fecond  is 
made  of  the  pods  that  contain  the  coffee-berry  ;  this 
they  call  the  Sultan's  coffee,  from  their  having  firft 
introduced  it  on  account  of  its  heating  lefs  than  the 
berry,  as  well  as  its  keeping  the  bowels  open  :  the 
third  is  that  made  with  the  beriy  itfelf,  which  alone 
is  ufed  in  Europe,  the  pods  being  found  improper  for 
tranfportation.  Some  Europeans  wh'o  imported  the 
pods  called  them  the  jlower  of  the  coffee-tree.  The 
deep  brown  colour  of  the  liquor  occafioned  its  being 
called  fyrttp  of  the  Indian  mulberry,  under  which  fpe- 
cious  name  it  firft  gained  ground  in  Europe. 

The  preparation  of  coffee  confifts  in  roalling,  or  gi- 
ving it  a  juft  degree  of  torrefaftion  on  an  earthen  or 
metalline  plate,  till  it  have  acquired  a  browniib  hue 
equally  deep  on  all  fides.  It  is  then  ground  in  a  mill, 
as  much  as  ferves  the  prefent  occafion.  A  proper  quan- 
tity of  water  is  next  boiled,  and  the  ground  coffee  nut 
into  it.  After  it  has  juft  boiled,  it  Is  taken  from  the 
fire,  and  the  decodlion  having  ftood  a  while  to  fettle 
and  fine,  they  pour  or  decant  it  into  dilhes.  The  or- 
dinary method  of  roafting  coffee  amongft  us  is  in  a  tin 
cylindrical  box  full  of  holes,  through  the  middle 
whereof  runs  a  fpit :  under  this  is  a  femicircular 
hearth,  whereon  is  a  large  charcoal- fire :  by  help  of 
a  jack  the  fpit  turns  iwift,  and  fo  roafts  the  berry  ; 
being  now  and  then  taken  up  to  be  (liaken.  When  the 
oil  rifes,  and  it  is  grown  of  a  dark  brown  colour,  it 
is  emptied  into  two  receivers  made  with  large  hoops, 
whofe  bottoms  are  iron  plates :  there  the  coffee  is 
Ihaken,  and  left  till  almoft  cold  ;  and  if  it  look  bright 
and  oily,   it  is  a  fign  it  is  well  done. 

Very  different  accounts  have  been  given  of  the  me- 
dicinal qualities  of  this  berry.     To  determine   its  real 
effects  on  the  human  body,   Dr  Percival  has  made  fe- 
veral experiments,  the  refult  of  which  he  gives  in  the 
following   words:   "  From  thefe  obfetvations  we  may ^^ 
infer,  that  coffee  is  flightly  aftringent,  and  antiieptic;  VdI.  II. 
that    it  moderates  alirneiitaiy    rermentati-)n,    and    isP-  '-7- 
powerfully  fedative.     Its  action  on  the  nervous  fyftem 
Q_2  pro- 


C    O    F 


[     124-    ] 


C    O    F 


Ci./rcf,     probably  dcpenJs  on  the   oil  it  contairs  ;  wliicU  re- 
Cofier.     (..j^-es   Jts   flavour,  and  13   rendered   jr.ildly  empyrcu- 
"'"''  matic,  by  the  proccfs  of  voafting-.     Neumann  obtained 

by  di:tiIlation  fiooi  one  pound  of  coffee,  five  ounces 
five  drachms  and  a  half  of  water,  fix  ounces  and  half 
a  drachm  of  thick  fetid  oil,  and  four  ounces  and  t'^-o 
drachms  of  a  c<;[)ut  morfuum.  And  it  is  well  known, 
■  that  rye,  torrefied  with  a  fewr  almond?,  which  furnlih 
the  necefTary  proportion  of  oil,  is  now  frequently  em- 
ployed as  a  fubllitiile  for  thefe  berries. 

"  The  medicinal  qualities  of  coflce  feem  to  be  de- 
rived from  the  grateful  ftnfation  which  it  produces  in 
the  ilomach,  and  from  the  fedative  powers  it  exerts 
■  on  the  vis  -oi/'.  '  Hence  it  afiifts  digcilion,  and  re- 
lieves the  headach  ;  and  is  taken  in  large  quantities, 
■with  peculiar  propriety,  by  the  Turks  and  Arabians ; 
becaufe  it  counterafts  the  narcotic  effttts  of  opui-n,  to 
the  ufe  of  which  thofe  nations  are  mucli  addicled. 

"  In  delicate  habits,  it  often  occalions  watchiulnefs, 
tremors,  and  many  of  tht  fe  complaints  whicli  are  de- 
nominated nervous.  It  has  been  even  lulpetled  of 
producing  palfies ;  and  from  my  own  obfervation,  I 
fhouKl  apprehend,  not  entirely  wliUcut  foundation. 
Slare  affums,  that  he  became  paralytic  by  the  too  li- 
beral ufe  of  coffee,  and  that  his  diforder  was  remo- 
ved by  ablllnence  from  that  liquor. 

"  The  following  curious  and  important  obfcrva- 
f'on  is  extraftcd  from  a  letter  with  wliich  I  was  ho- 
noured by  Sir  John  Pringle,  in  April  1773:  "  On 
reading  your '  feftion  concerning  coffee,  one  quality 
occurred  to  me  which  I  had  obfcrved  of  that  liquor, 
•confuiniiig  what  you  have  faid  of  its  fedative  virtues. 
It  is  the  beil  abater  of  the  paroxyfnrs  of  the  pei iodic 
atlhma  that  I  hive  feen.  The  coifce  ought  to  be  of 
the  be^  Mocco,  newly  burnt,  and  made  very  llrong 
immediately  after  gnnding  it.  I  have  commonly  or- 
dered an  ounce  for  one  dilh  ;  wliich  is  to  be  repeated 
frefli  after  the  interval  of  a  quaiter  or  half  an  hour; 
and  which  I  direft  to  be  taken  vjlthout  milk,  or  fugat. 
The  medicine  in  general  Is  mentioned  by  Mufgiave, 
in  his  treatife  De  arthriiiile  tiHomala  :  but  I  fird  heard 
of  it  from  a  phyfician  in  this  place,  who  having  once 
praftifed  it  in  Litchfield,  had  been  informed  by  the 
old  people  of  that  place,  that  Sir  John  Floyer,  during 
the  latter  year  of  his  life,  kept  free  from,  or  at  lealt 
lived  eafy  under,  his  atlhma,  from  the  ufe  of  very 
ftrong  coffee.  This  difcovery,  it  feems,  he  made  af- 
ter the  publication  of  his  book  upon  that  difeafe." 
Since  the  receipt  of  that  letter.  I  have  frequently  di- 
lefted  coffee  in  the  aflhma  with  great  fuccefs." 

COFFER,  in  architcfture,  a  fquare  depreffure  or 
finking  in  each  interval  between  the  modillions  of  the 
Corinlliian  cornice  ;  ordinarily  filled  up  with  a  role  ; 
fometimes  with  a  pomegranate,  or  other  enrichment. 

Coffer,  in  fortification,  denotes  a  hollow  lodge- 
ment, athwart  a  dry  moat,  from  6  to  7  feet  deep, 
and  from  16  to  18  broad;  the  upper  part  made  of 
pieces  of  timber  raifed  two  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  moat  ;  which  little  elevation  has  hurdles  laden 
v;i(h  earth  for  its  covering,  and  ferves  as  a  parapet 
•with  embrafures :  the  coffer  is  nearly  the  fame  with 
the  caponiere,  excepting  that  this  lall  is  fometimes 
made  beyond  the  counterfcarp  on  the  ;;lacis  ;  and  the 
coffer  always  in  the  moat  taking  up  its  whole  breadth, 
ivhich  the   caponiere  does   est.     It  diffas  fioia  the 


traverfe  and  gallery,  in  th.it  thefe  latter  are  made  by    CffTcrer. 
the   beficgers,  aid  the  coffer  by  the   befieged.     The     *-'°'^"- 
befieged  generally  make  ute  of  coffers  to  repulfa  the         •  ' 
beficgers  when  they  endeavour  to  pal's  the  ditch.     To 
fave  themfelves  from  the  fire  of  thefe  coffers,   ilie  bc- 
fieiJ'frs  throw  up  the  earth   on  that  fide   towards  the 
coffer. 

COFFERER  of  the  King's  hovsshoi.d,  a  princi- 
pal ofacer  in  the  court,  next  under  the  comptroller. 
He  was  likewife  a  white- liaff  officer,  and  always  a 
member  of  the  privy  council.  He  had  a  fpecial  charge 
and  o-^fernyht  of  the  other  officers  of  the  houfchold. 
He  paid  the  wages  of  the  king's  fervants  below  llaira, 
and  for  provifions  as  direiled  by  the  board  of  green 
cloth.  This  office  is  now  fuppreffed,  and  the  bufinefs 
of  it  is  tranfafted  by  the  lord  itcward,  and  payma'ler 
of  the  houfehold.  He  had  L.  100  a-year  wages,  and 
Li.  400  a-year  board-wages. 

COFFIN,  the  cheft  in  which  dead  bodies  are  put 
into  the  grouird. 

The  fepulchral  honours  paid  to  the  manes  of  de- 
parted friends  in  ancient  times,  demand  attention, 
and  are  extremely  cuiioas.  Their  being  pul  Ititj  a 
ctfin  his  been  particularly  confidered  as  a  mark  of 
the  highetl  diftlnftiou.  W:th  us  the  poorefl  people 
have  their  cofKns.  If  the  relations  cannot  afford  them, 
the  parifh  is  at  the  expence.  On  the  contrary,  in 
the  eail  they  are  not  at  all  made  ufe  of  ia  our  times  ; 
Turks  and  Chriilians,  as  Tlievenot  affures  us,  agree 
in  this.  The  ancitnt  Jews  feem  to  have  buried  their 
dead  in  the  fame  manner:  neither  was  the  body  of 
oirr  Lord,  It  fhculd  f;em,  put  into  a  coffin  ;  nor  that 
of  Eliiha,  2  Kings  xlii.  zi.  whofe  bones  were  touched 
by  the  corpfe  tiiat  was  let  down  a  lillle  afisr  into  his 
fepulchre.  However,  that  they  were  ardently  made 
ufe  of  in  Egypt,  all  agree  ;  and  antique  coff.ns  of  JlonCy 
and  fycmnore-'wood,  are  ftill  to  be  feen  In  that  country  ; 
not  to  mention  thofe  faid  to  be  made  of  a  kind  of 
paileboard  ;  formed  by  folding  or  glueing  cloth  to- 
gether a  great  many  times,  curloufly  pladertd,  and 
then  p.^.inted  with  hieroglyphics.  Its  being  an  ancient 
Egyptian  culiom,  and  not  praftifed  in  the  neigh- 
bouring countries,  were,  doubtlefs,  the  caufe  that  the 
facred  hiliorian  exprefbly  oblerves  of  Jofeph,  that  he 
v/as  not  only  embalmed,  but  put  into  a  cofBn  too  *  ;  .  q^j,  j  j 
both  being  managements  peculiar  to  the  Egyptians. 

Bifhop  Patrick,  in  his  commentary  on  this  paffage, 
takes  notice  of  thefe  Egyptian  cofKns  of  fycamore 
wood,  and  of  pafteboard  ;  but  he  doth  not  mention 
the  contrary  ufa*e  in  the  neighbouring  countries, 
which  was  requlfite,  one  might  fuppofe,  in  order  fully 
to  illuilrate  the  place  :  but  even  this  perhaps  would 
not  have  conveyed  the  whole  idea  of  the  facred  au- 
thor. Maillet  apprehends  that  all  were  not  inclofed 
in  coffins  who  were  laid  in  the  Egyptian  repofitoric* 
of  the  dead  ;  but  that  it  was  an  honour  appropriated 
to  perions  of  figure  :  for  after  having  given  an  ac- 
count of  feveral  jiches  found  in  thole  chambers  of 
death,  he  addsf,  "  But  it  muft  not  be  imagined  that  ■[■  L«t.  vii 
the  bodies  depofited  in  thefe  gloomy  apartments  were  p.  iSi. 
all  incloled  in  cLfls,  and  placed  in  niches.  The 
greated  part  wei-e  fimply  embalmed  and  fwathed  af- 
ter that  manner  which  every  one  hath  forae  notion 
of;  after  which  they  laid  them  one  by  the  fide  of 
auotb-cr  without  any  ceremony.     Some  were  even  laid 

ia 


COG 


[     125     1 


C     O     II 


in  tliefe  tombs  without  any  embnlminsr  at  all ;  or  fuch 
a  llijrht  one,  that  there  remains  nolhing  of  them  in 
the  linen  in  which  they  were  wrapped,  but  the  bones, 
and  thofe  half  rotten.  It  is  probable,  that  each 
confiderable  family  had  one  of  thefe  burial-places  to 
themfelves;  that  the  niches  were  deligntd  for  the 
bodies  of  the  heads  of  the  families ;  and  tliat  thofe  of 
their  domeftics  or  (laves  had  no  other  care  taken  of 
them  than  the  laying  them  on  the  groimd,  after  ha- 
vin<T  been  embalmed,  or  even  without  that ;  which, 
without  doubt,  was  alfo  all  that  was  done  even  to  the 
heads  of  families  of  lei's  diltinftion."  After  this  he 
gives  an  account  of  a  way  of  burial,  pr?.ftifed  anci- 
ently in  that  country,  which  had  been  but  lately  difco- 
vered  ;  and  which  confilled  in  placing  the  bodies,  af- 
ter they  were  fwathed,  upon  a  layer  of  charcoal,  and 
covering  them  with  a  mat,  under  a  depth  of  land  of 
feven  or  eiyht  feet. 

That  cojfini  then  were  not  univerfally  ufcd  in  E- 
gypt,  is  undoubted  from  thefe  accoimts  ;  and  probably 
t.hey  wi.re  only  perfoiii,  of  didinftion  who  were  buried 
in  them.  It  is  alfo  reafonablc  to  believe,  that  in 
times  fo  remote  as  that  of  Jnfeph,  tlicy  might  be 
much  It fi  common  than  afterwards;  and  conlequently, 
that  JoU'ph's  beiuCT  put  in  a  coffin  in  Ep:ypt  might  be 
mentioned  with  a  defign  to  exprefs  the  great  honouis 
which  the  Egyptians  did  him  at  his  diath,  as  well  as 
in  life,  being  interred  after  the  mod  fumptuous  man- 
tier  of  the  Egyptians,  emlahmd,  aiul  put  Into  a  cnffin. 
Agreeably  to  this,  the  Septuaginl  verfion,  which  was 
made  for  Egyptians,  fei-ms  to  reprefent  coffins  as  a 
mark  of  grandeur.     Job  xxi.  32. 

It  is  no.objeftion  to  this  account,  that  the  widow 
of  Nain's  fon  is  reprefented  as  carried  forth  to  be 
buried  in  a  <rof@-,  or  "-on  a  bier:"  for  the  pre- 
fcnt  inhabitants  of  the  Levant,  who  are  well  known 
to  lay  their  dead  bodies  in  the  earth  uninclofed,  carry 
them  frequently  out  to  burial  in  a  kind  of  coffin,  tjo 
Dr  RiiflU,  in  particular,  dcfcribes  the  bier  ufed  for 
the  Turks  at  Aleppo,  a?  a  kind  of  cofTiii  much  in  the 
form  of  ours,  only  that  the  lid  rifes  with  a  ledrje  in 
the  middle.  Chriftians,  indeed,  ?.s  he  ttlls  us,  are  car- 
ried to  the  grave  on  an  open  bier  :  but  as  the  moil 
common  kind  of  bier  refembles  our  coffins,  that  ufed 
by  the  people  of  Nain  might  very  poflibly  be  of  the 
fame  k-"d  ;  in  wliich  cafe  the  word  an-.Q^  was  very 
proper. 

COCGLE,  or  Cog,  a  fmall  fifhingboat  upon  the 
coalls  of  Yorklhire  :  and  cogs  (cogoncs)  are  a  kind  of 
little  fliips  or  veilc-ls  ufed  in  the  rivers  Oufe  and  Hum- 
ber  ;  (Stat.  23.  H.  VIII.  c.  18.)  Prafardlh  cogcni- 
ius,  galk'is,  £5"  aiih  im%'lbiu,  iifc.  ( Mat.  Par  is.  ann.  1 066. ) 
And  hence  the  cogmen,  boatmen,  and  ieamen,  who  af- 
ter fhipwreck  or  loC'es  by  fca  travelled  and  wandered 
about  to  defraud  the  people  by  begging  and  Healing, 
until  thev  were  reilrained  by  proper  laws. 

COGITATION,  a  term  ufed  by  fome  for  the  ad 
of  thinking. 

COGNAC,  a  town  of  France  in  Angoumois,  with 
a  caftle,  where  Francis  I.  was  born.  It  is  fcated  on  the 
river  Charap.te,  in  a  very  pleafant  country,  abounding 
in  wine,  and  remarkable  for  excellent  brandy.  W. 
Long.  o.  10.   N.  Lat.  45.  42. 

COGNATE,  in  Scots  law,  any  male  relation  thro' 
the  mother. 


COGNATION,  in  the  civil  la%v,  a  term  for  that  CognatJoa 
line  of  confanguinity  which  is  between  males  and  fe-  ^, J. ,■.(,_ 
males,  both  defcerdcd   from  the  fame  father  ;  as  ag- .  f 

nation  is  for  the  line  of  parentage  between  males  only 
defcendcd  from  the  lame  ilock. 

COGNI,  an  ancient  and  llrong  town  of  Caramania 
in  Ta iky  in  Afia,  and  the  refidence  of  a  beglerbeg. 
It  is  feated  in  a  pleafant  country,  abounding  in  corn, 
fruits,  pulfe,  and  cattle.  Here  arc  (heep  whofe  tails 
weigh  30  pounds.  E.  J^ong.  32.  56.  N.  Lat.  37.  56. 
COGNITIONIS  CAUSA, 'in  Scots  law.  When  a 
creditor  charges  the  heir  of  his  debtor  to  enter,  in 
order  to  conftitute  tlie  debt  againll  him,  and  the  heir 
renounces  the  lucceflion,  the  creditor  can  obtain  no 
decreet  of  conlUtulion  cf  that  debt  againft  the  heir  ; 
but  only  a  decreet  fubjcfting  the  hareiiitas  jacens,  or 
the  edate  which  belonged  to  the  debtor,  to  his  dili- 
gence :  and  this  is  called  a  decreet  cognition'is  cnufa. 

COGNIZANCE,  or  Co^JNUSANCE,  in  law,  has 
divers  fignitications.  Sometimes  it  is  an  acknowledge- 
ment of  a  fine,  or  confeffion  of  fomething  done  ;  fome- 
times  the  hearing  of  a  matter  judicially,  as  to  take  cog- 
nizance of  a  caufe  ;  and  fomctimes  a  particular  jurif- 
diction,  as  cognizance  of  pleas  is  an  authority  to  call 
a  caule  or  plea  out  of  another  court,  which  no  perfon 
can  do  but  the  king,'  except  he  can  {liow  a  charter  for 
it.  This  cognizance  is  a  privilege  granted  to  a  city 
or  a  town  to  hold  plea  of  all  contracts,  l^c.  within  the 
liberty  ;  and  if  any  one  is  impleaded  for  fuch  matters 
in  the  courts  at  Weftminfter,  the  mayor,  ISjc.  of  fuch 
fianchife  may  demand  cognizance  of  the  plea,  and 
that  it  may  be  determined  befote  them. 

CoGN'iZAXCE   is  alfo  ufed   for   a  badge  on  a  water- 
man's or  ferving-man's  (leeve,    which  i;;  commonly  the 
giver's  creft,  whereby  he  is  decerned  to  belong  to  this- 
or  that  nobleman  or  gentleman. 
COGS.      See  CoGGLK. 

COHABITATION,  denotes  the  date  of  a  man 
and  a  woman  who  live  together  without  being  legally 
married.  By  the  common  law  of  Scotland,  cohabita- 
tion for  year  and  day,  or  a  complete  twelvemonth,  19 
deemed  equivalent  to  matrimony, 

CO-HEIR,  one  who  fucceeds  to  a  (hare  of  an  Inheri- 
tance, to  be  divided  among  feveral. 

COHESION,  one  of  the  four  fpecies  of  attraftion, 
denoting  that  force  by  which  the  parts  of  bodies  ad- 
here or  ilick  together. 

This- power  was  firft  confulered  by  Sir  Ifaac  New- ConMeretf 
ton  as  one  of  the  properties  effential  to  all  matter,  and  ^v  .sir  Uzac 
the  caufe  of  all  that  variety  we  obferve  in  the  texture  ^'^^^""  ?' 
of  different  terreltrial  bodies.    He  did    net,  however,  i.-op^rtv  of 
abfoliitely  determine  that  the  power  of  cohefion  was  matter, 
an  immaterial  one  ;  but  thought  it  might  poffibly  arife, 
as  well   as  that  of  gravitation,  from  the  aftion  of  an 
ether.   His  account  of  the  original  conftitution  of  mat-  Hhacount 
ter  is  as  follows  :     It  fetms  probable,  that  God  in  theof  theori- 
beginning  formed  wrtWer  in  folid,  iriaffy,   impenetrable,-'."''''.'^""" 
moveable   particles;   of  fuch  fizes,  fiefures,  and  other    ''*"""  "^^ 
properties,  and  in  inch  proportion   to   (pace,  as  moil 
conduced  to  the  end  for  which  he  formed  them  :   and 
that  thefe  primitive  particles  being   folid,  are  incom- 
parably harder  than   any   porous   bodies   corapofed  of 
them  ;  even   fo   very  hard  as  never  to  wear  or  break 
in  pieces  ;  no   ordinary    power  being   able   to   divide 
what  God  himfelf  made  one  at  the  &rlt  creation.  While 

t!ic 


C    O     H  [12 

Cohefion.  tlif  particles  continue  entire,  they  may  compofe  bodies 
V  '  '  of  one  and  the  fame  nature  and  texture  in  all  ages; 
but  (hould  they  wear  awiy,  or  break  in  picrss,  the 
nature  of  all  tilings  depending  on  them  would  be  chan-. 
ged.  Water  and  earth  compofed  of  old  worn  panicles 
and  fragments  of  particles,  would  not  now  be  of  the 
fame  texture  with  water  and  earth  compofed  of  en- 
tire particles  in  the  beginning.  And  therefore,  that 
nature  may  be  lading,  the  changes  of  corporeal  things 
are  to  be  placed  in  the  various  feparations  and  new 
affociations  and  motions  of  thcfe  permanent  particles  ; 
compound  bodies  being  apt  to  break,  not  in  the  midft 
of  folid  particles,  but  where  thefc  particles  are  laid  to- 
gether, and  touch  in  a  few  points."  It  feems  farther, 
"  That  thefe  particles  have  not  only  a  vis  inertia,  ac- 
companied with  fuch  paifive  laws  of  motion  as  natu- 
rally rel'ult  from  that  force  ;  but  alfo  that  they  are 
moved  by  certain  aftive  piinciples,  fuch  as  that  of  gra- 
vity, and  that  which  caufeth  fermentation  and  the  co- 
lielion  of  bodies.  Thefe  principles  are  to  be  confide- 
red  not  as  occsilt  qualities,  fuppofed  to  refult  from  the 
fpeclfic  forms  of  things,  but  as  general  laws  of  nature 
by  which  the  things  themfelvts  are  formed  ;  their 
truth  appearing  to  us  by  phenomena,  though  their 
caufe  is  not  yet  difcovered." 
Attraiftiin  The  general  law  of  nature,  by  which  all  the  diffe- 
the  general  rent  bodies  in  the  univerfe  are  compofed,  according 
to  Sir  Ifaac  Nevifton,  is  that  of  attraflion :  /.  e.  "  Eve- 
ry particle  of  matter  has  an  attraftive  force,  or  a 
tendency  to  every  other  particle ;  which  power  is 
firongeft  in  the  point  of  contaft,  and  fuddenly  de- 
creafes,  infomuch  that  it  afts  no  more  at  the  leaft  fen- 
fible  diftance  ;  and  at  a  greater  diftance  is  converted 
into  a  repellent  force,  whereby  the  ;  parts  fly  from 
each  other.  On  this  principle  of  attraction  may  we 
account  for  the  cohefion  of  bodies,  otherwife  inexpli- 
cable. 

"  The  fmalleft  particles  may  cohere  by  the  ftrong- 
ofpai tides  gf]-  attraftions,  and  compofe  biijffer  particles  of  weaker 
virtue;  and  many  oi  thcle  may  cohere,  and  compole 
bigger  particles,  whofe  virtue  is  ftfll  lefs  ;  and  fo  on 
for  divers  fucctilions,  until  the  progreflion  end  in  the 
biggeft  particles,  on  which  the  operations  in-chemiftrj', 
and  the  colours  of  natural  bodies,  depend;  and  which, 
by  cohering,  compofe  bodies  of  a  fenfible  magnitude. 
If  the  body  is  compaft,  and  bends  or  yields  inward  to 
prelTure  without  any  Aiding  of  its  parts,  it  is  hard  and 
elaftic  ;   returning  to   its  figure   with   a  force   arifing 


6     ] 


C    O    H 


law  of  na- 
ture 


4  . 

Formation 


of  dififerciit 
fizcs, 


Didindion 
of  bodies 
into  iiar.^, 


^j'  'from  the  mutual  attraClion  of  its  parts.      If  the  parts 

flide  from  one  another,  the  body  is  malleable  or  foft. 
If  they  flip  eafily,  and  are  of  a  fit  fize  to  be  agita- 
ted by  heat,  and  the  heat  is  great  enough  to  keep 
them  in  agitation,  the  body  is  fluid  ;  and  if  it  be  apt 
to  flick  to  things,  it  is  humid  ;  and  the  drops  of  eve- 
ry fluid  affeft  a  round  ugure  by  the  mutual  attrac- 
tions of  their  parts,  as  the  globe  of  the  earth  and  fea 
affcfts  a  round  figure  from  the  mutual  attraftion  and 
gravity  of  its  parts.  • 

"  Since  metals  diflblved  in  acids  attratl  but  a  fmall 
quantity  of  the  acid,  their  attiaftive  force  reaches  but 
to  a  fmall  diftance.     Now,  as  in   algebra,  where  af- 

of  rei.i:lf:vefinnative  quantities   ccafe,  their  negative  ones  begin  ; 

power  pro-  f^  j^,  jnechanics,  where  attraftion  ceafes,  there  a  re- 
pulfive  virtue  muft  fuccccd.  That  there  really  is  fuch 
a  virtue  feems  to  follow  from  the  refleftions  and  in- 


6 
Exiftence 


\£d. 


fleftions  of  the  rays  of  light ;  the  rays  being  repelled  CoheriM. 
by  bodies  in  both  thefe  cafes  without  the  immediate  *— — v~— ' 
contafl:  of  the  rcflcfting  or  inflefting  body.  The  fame 
thing  feems  alfo  to  follow  from  the  emifiion  of  light ; 
a  ray,  as  foon  as  fhaken  off  from  a  body  by  the  vibra- 
ting motion  of  the  parts  of  the  body,  and  got  beyond 
the  reach  of  attraftion,  being  driven  away  with  ex- 
ceeding great  velocity  :  for  that  force  which  is  fuffi- 
cient  to  turn  it  back  in  refleftion  may  be  fufficient  to 
emit  it.  From  the  fame  repelling  power  it  feems  to 
be  that  flies  walk  upon  the  water  without  wetting  their 
feet ;  that  the  objcft-glafles  of  long  telefcopes  lie  up- 
on one  another  without  touching  ;  and  that  dry  pow- 
ders are  difficultly  made  to  touch  one  another  fo  as  to 
flick  together,  without  melting  them  or  wetting  them 
with  water,  which,  by  exhaling,  may  bring  them  to- 
gether. 

"  The  particles  of  all  hard  homogeneous  bodies 
which  touch  one  another,  cohere  with  a  great  force  : 
to  account  for  which,  fome  philofophers  have  recouvfe 
to  a  kind  of  hooked  atoms,  which  in  effeft  is  nothing 
elfe  but  to  beg  the  queftion.  Others  imagine,  that 
the  particle  of  bodies  are  connefted  by  reil,  /'.  ^.-in  ef- 
feiil  by  nothing  at  all ;  and  others,  by  confpiring  mo- 
tions, /'.  e.  by  a  relative  reft  among  themfelves.  For 
myfelf,  it  rather  appears  to  me,  that  the  particles  of 
bodies  cohere  by  an  attradlive  force,  whereby  they  tend 
mutually  to  each  other."  . 

From  this  account  of  the  formation  and  conftitution  No  con- 
of  bodies,  we  can  conclude  nothing,  except  that  they  c'ulion  to 
are  compofed  of  an  infinite  number  of  little  particles, ,'    '^"'J™ 
kept  together  by  a  torce  or  power;  but  oi   what  na- ai-j-yunt. 
ture  that  power  is,  whether  material  or  immaterial, 
we  muft  remain  ignorant  till  farther  experiments  are 
made.      Some  of  the   Newtonian  philofophers,  how- 
ever, have   pofitively  determined   thefe  powers  to  be 
immaterial.     In  confequence  of  this  fuppofition,  they 
have  fo  refined  upon   attraftions  and  repulfions,  that 
their  fyftems  feem  not  far  from  downright  fcepticifm, 
or  denying   the   exiftence  of   matter  altogether.      A 
fyftem  of  this  kind  we  find  adopted  by  Dr  Prieftley  *,  '^'Z-  '/  . 
from  Meflrs   Bofcovich  and  Michell,  in  order  to  folve    ^'°''^ 
fome  difficulties  concerning  the  Newtonian  doftrine  of        s 
light.     "  The  eafiefl;  method  (fays  he)  of  folving  all  Mr  Mi- 
difficulties,  is  to  adopt  the  hypothefis  of  Mr  Bofcovich,  di'-'Jl's  hy- 
who  fuppofes  that  matter  is  not  impenetrabl  .■,  as  has  joytgj  ),- 
been  perhaps  univerfally  taken  for  granted;  but  that  Br  Prielt- 
it  confifts  of  phyfical  points  only,  endued  with  powers  ley. 
of  attraction  and  repulfion  in  the  fame  manner  as  folid 
matter  is  generally  fuppofed  to  be :   provided  there- 
fore  that  any  body  move  with  a  fufficient  degree  of 
velocity,  or   have   a  fufficient   rnomeiitum   to   overcome 
any  powers  of  repulfion  that  it  may  meet  with,  it  will 
find  no  difficulty  in  making  its  wny  through  any  body 
whatever ;   for  nothing  elfe  will  penetrate   one  ano- 
ther but  powers,  fuch  as  we  know  do  in   facl  exill 
in   the   fame  place,    and  counterbalance  or  over-rule 
one  another.     The  moft  obvious  difiiculty,  and  indeed 
almoft  the  only  one  that  attends  this  hypothefis,   as  it 
fuppofes  the    mutual   penetrability   of  matter,    arifcs        5 
from  the  idea  of  the   natnvc  of  matter,  and  the  diffi-  BodieE  op- 
culty  we  meet  with  in  attempting  to  force  two  bodies''™^  '■'^'^\J 
into  the   fame  phoe.      But  it   is  demonftrable  that  the  fj^.,-,,  3^. 
firft  obftruftion  arifes  from  no  adtual  contaft  of  mat-  tual  con- 
ter,  but  from  mere  powers  of  repulfion.     This  diffi-  tadt. 

culty 


C     O    H 


[     127     ] 


C:     O     H 


Cohefion.  culty  wc  can  overcome  ;  and  having  got  within  one 
'■"~v~~"  fpKcre  of  rcpiilfion,  we  fancy  that  we  are  now  im- 
peded by  the  folld  matter  itl'elf.  But  the  very  fame 
is  the  opinion  of  the  yenerahty  of  manliind  with  re- 
fpedl  to  the  hid  oWltu<flion.  Wliy,  therefore,  may 
not  the  next  be  only  another  fpiiere  of  repuHion, 
vvliich  may  only  require  a  greater  force  than  we  can 
apply  to  overcome  it,  without  difordei  ing  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  conltituent  particles  ;  but  which  may  be 
overcome  by  a  body  moving  with  the  amazing  olocity 
of  light. 

"  This  fcheme  of  the  immateriality  of  matter,  as  it 
may  be  called,  or  rather  the  mutual  penetration  of  mat- 
,0  ter,  firft  occurred  to  Mr  Michel!  on  reading  Baxter  on 
MrBaxter's/^^  immateriality  of  the  Soul.  He  found  that  this  au- 
opimon.  thor's  idea  of  matter  was,  that  it  confilled  as  it  were 
of  bricks  cemented  together  with  immaterial  mortar. 
Thele  bricks,  if  lie  would  be  conliltent  with  his  own 
reafoning,  were  again  compofed  of  lefs  bricks,  ce- 
mented llkewife  by  an  immaterial  mortar ;  and  fo  on 
ad  infinitum.  This  putting  Mr  Michell  upon  the  con- 
fideration  of  the  feveral  appearances  of  nature,  he  be- 
gan to  perceive  that  the  bricks  were  fo  covered  with 
this  immaterial  mortar,  that  if  they  had  any  exiltence 
at  all,  it  could  not  poflibly  be  perceived  ;  every  ef- 
feft  being  produced,  in  nine  inftances  of  ten  cer- 
tainly, and  probably  in  the  tenth  alfo,  by  this  im- 
material, fpiritual,  'and  penetrable  mortar.  Iiillead 
therefore  of  placing  the  world  upon  the  giant,  the 
giant  upon  the  toituife,  and  the  tortoife  upon  he 
could  not  tell  what,  he  placed  the  world  at  once  upon 
Ufelf." 

Other  ^hilofophers  have  fuppofed  the  powers  both 
of  gravitation  and  cohelion  to  be  material  ;  and  to  be 
only  different  actions  of  the  etlierial  fluid,  or  elemen- 
ionentaiy  ^^^^,  ^^^^  j^^  fupport  of  this  it  hath  been  urged,  that 
before  we  have  rccourfe  to  a  fpiritual  and  immaterial 
power  as  the  caufe  of  any  natural  phenomenon,  we 
ought  to  be  well  affured  that  there  is  no  material  fub- 
flaiice  with  which  we  are  acquainted,  that  is  capable 
of  producing  fuch  cfTefts.  In  the  prefent  cafe,  we 
are  fo  far  from  having  fuch  afTurance,  that  the  contra- 
ry is  manifeft  to  our  fenfes.  One  inllance  of  this  is 
in  the  experiment  with  the  Magdeburg  hemifpheres,  as 
they  are  called.  Thefe  are  two  hollow  hemifpheres 
of  brafs,  exa(Sly  fitted  to  one  another,  fo  as  to  form 
one  globe  when  joined  together,  without  admitting  any 
air  at  tlie  joining.  In  this  ilate,  if  the  air  within 
them  is  exhaufted  by  means  of  a  pump,  they  will  co- 
here with  fuch  force,  if  they  are  five  or  fix  inches  dia- 
meter, as  to  require  a  weight  of  fome  hundreds  of 
pounds  to  feparate  them.  The  prtfTure  of  the  at- 
inofphere,  we  fee,  is  in  this  cafe  capable  of  produ- 
cing a  very  llrong  cohefion;  and  if  there  is  in  nature 
any  fluid  more  penetrating,  as  well  as  more  power- 
ful in  its  eft'efts,  than  the  air  we  breathe,  it  is  poflible 
that  what  is  called  tlie  attradion  of  cohefion  may  fome 
how  or  other  be  an  efleft  of  the  action  of  that  fluid. 
Such  a  fluid  as  this  is  the  element  of  fire.  Its  aftivity 
is  fuch  as  to  penetrate  all  bodies  whatever;  and  in  the 
ftate  in  which  it  is  commonly  called^yfre,  it  ads  accord^ 
ing  to  the  quantity  of  folid  matter  contained  in  the 
body.  In  this  ilate,  it  is  capable  of  diflblving  the 
ftrongeft  cohefions  obfervcd  in  nature  :  but  whatever 
is  capable  of  diffolving  any  cohefion,  mull  neceflarily 
be  endued  with  greater  power  than  that  by  which  the 


"ohefion 
uppnfid 
jwing  1 1 


cohefion   is  caufed.       Fire,  therefore,   being  able  to  C'h;fion, 
dilTolve    cohefions,    mull  alfo    be    capable  of  caufmg    Cohoba- 
them,   provided  its  power  is  exerted  for  that  piirpofe.       """"     , 
Nor  will  it  feem  at  all  llrange  that  this  fluid  fliouldaa 
in  two  fuch  oppofite  ways,   when  we  coiifider  the  dif- 
ferent   appearances    which    it    afl"umes.       Thefe    are 
three,   ill's.,  lire  or  heat,  in   wliich  it    ccmfumea,    de- 
ftroys,  and  difliblves:   light,  in  which  it  feems  deprived 
of  all  deftrudlive  or  diflblvent   power,  and  to   be  the 
moll  mild,  quiet,  and  placid  being  in  nature.     The 
third  itate  of  this   clemeriL  is,  when  it  becomes  what 
is   called  the  eUaric  fluid ;    and    then  it  attracts,  re- 
pels, and   moves  bodies,    in  a  vail  variety   of  ways, 
without  either  burning   or   rendering  them  vifiblc  by 
its  light.      In  this  flate   it  is  not  lefs  powerful  than  in 
either  of  the   other  two;   for  a  violent  fliock  of  elec- 
tricity will  difplace  and  tear  in  pieces  the  moil  heavy 
and  folid  bodies.      The   feeming  capricious   nature  of 
this  fluid,    however,  probably  renders  it  lefs  fufpe<5led 
as  the  caufe  of  cohefion,   than  it   otherwife   would  be, 
were    the   attraiilions    regular  and  permanent,-  v>-hich 
we  obferve  it  to  occafion.      But  here  we  mull  obferve, 
that  the  fluid  has  an  cxiflence  in  all  bodies  before  the 
experiments  are  tried  which  make  its  efleiSls  vifible  to 
us,  and  was   ading  in   them  according  to  its  fettled- 
and  ellabliflied  laws.     While  adling  in   this  manner  it 
was  petfettly  invifible  ;  and  all  we  can   do   is,   to  pro- 
duce   fome   litt'e  infringement   of   thefe   regular  laws 
according  to  which  it  commonly  ads.      In  fome  cafes, 
however,  the  eleftrical  attradions  produced  by  art  are 
found  to  be  pretty  permanent  and  llrong.     Thus,  Mr 
Symmer,    in    fome    experiments   with    lUk  llockino-s, 
found   their  attradion   fo  flrong,  that  it  required  up- 
wards of  15  pounds  weight   to   feparate  them  from 
each   other  ;  and   this  attradion  would   continue  for 
more  than  an   hour.      In  plates  of  glufs,  too,  be  ob- 
ferved  a   remarkable  cohefion   when  cledrified.       In 
the  Philofophical    Franfadions  for  1777,  we  find  this 
hypotliefis  taken  notice  of,  and  in  fome  meafure  adopt- 
ed, by  Mr  Henly.     "  Some  gentlemen  (fays  he)  have 
fuppofed  that  the  eledric  matter  is  the  caufe  of  the 
cohefion   of  the   particles   of  bodies.      If  the  eledric 
matter  be,  as   I   fufped,  a  real   elementary  fire  inhe- 
rent in  all  bodies,  that  opinion  may  probably  be  well 
founded ;    and  perhaps  the  foldering   of   metals,  and 
the  cementation  of  iron,  by  fire,  may  be  conlidered  as  ' 
llrong  proofs  of  the  truth  of  their  hypotliefis." 

On  this  lall  hypothefis  we  mufl  obferve,   that  if  the 
eletlric,  or  any  other  fluid,  is  fuppofed  to  be  the  caufe 
of  the  attrafUon  of  cohefion  univerf;dly,   the  particles 
of  that  fhiid  rauil  be  deflitute  of  all  cohefion  between-; 
themlelves ;  otherwife  we   (hould  be  at  as  great  a  lofs 
to  account  for  the  cohefion   of  thefe  (particles,   as  fof 
that  of  terreflrial  matter.     Philolbphers,  indeed,  do- 
not  fuppofc  any  cohefion  between  the  particles  of  the 
eledric  fluid  themfelves ;  it  is  generally  believed   that 
the  particles  of  this  fluid   are  repulfive  of  one  ano- 
ther, though  attraded  by  all  other  matter.      If  this  is 
a  fad,  we  cannot  fuppofe  the  eledric  fluid  to  be  the 
caufe  of  cohefion.     The  probability  or  improbaljility 
of  the  hypothefis  juft  mentioned,  mufl  greatly  depend- 
on  its   being   alcertained  whether  the  jiartieles  of  the 
eledric  fluid  do  really  repel  one  another,  and  attrad 
all  other  kinds  of  matter,  or  not;  but  for  this  wc  muft 
refer  to  the  article  Electricity. 

COHOBATION,  in  cheiniftiy,  an   operation  by 

whicbi 


II 
Coi 


COL  [     128     ]  COI 

im    wliich  the  fame  liquor  13  frequently  diftilled  from  the  which  have   currency  as   a  medium  in   Commsrch. 

fame  body,  either  with  an  intention  to  difl'olve  this  Coin  is  a  particular  ipecies,  always  made  of  metal,  and  ^ 

"^      body,  or  to  produce  fomc  cliange  upon  it.     This  is  Ihiick  according  to  a  certain  procefs  called  Coining. 

one  of  thofc  operations  which   the  iincicnt  chemi'ls  The  precife  ej>uclia   of  the   invention  of  money  is 

praftifed  with  great  patience  and  zeal,  and  which  are  too  ancient  ior  our  annals;  and,  if  we  raight  argue 

now  neglefled.     To  make    this  operation  caflcr,  and  fiom  the  neccfiity  and  o'ovioufncfs  of  the  thing,  mull 

to  picvent  the  trouble  of  frequently  changing  the  vef-  be  nearly  coeval  with  the  world. 

ids,  a  particular  kind  of  alembic,  called  a /li //Van,  was  Whether  coins  be  of  equal  antiquity,  may  admit  of 

invented.     This  veffel  was  made  in  the  form  of  a  cu-  fonie  doubt ;  efpecialJy  as  molt  of  the  ancient  writers 

curbit  with  an  alembic-head,  but  had  two  fpouts  com-  are  fo  frequent  and  exprefs  in   their  mention  of  lea- 

municatln'r  with  the   body.     As   the  vapour  rofe  up  thern-moncys,     paper-njoneys,    wooden-moneys,    i^c. 

i.ito  the  head,  it   was  gradually   condenfed,  and  ran  Some,  however,   nctwithllanding  this,  are  of  opinion, 

down  the  fpouts  into  ,the  body  of  the  pelican,  from  that  the  fu-il  moneys  were  of  metal :  the  reafons  they 

whence  it  was  again  diftilled  ;  and  fo  on.     This  vef-  give,  are  the  firmncfs,   neatnefs,  cleanlinefs,  durable- 

fel  is  reprefenied  Plate  CXXXIV.  fig.  6.  nefs,  and  univerfality  of  metals;  which,  however,  do 

COPIORN  (N.)  the  greatell  engineer  Holland  has  rather  coni-lude  they  ought  to  have  been  fo,  than  that 

^produced.    Among  his  other  works,  which  are  elleem-  tliey  actually  were  fo. 

ed  mafter-pieces  of  (l<il!,  he  fortified  Bergen-op-zoom;  In  effect,  the  very  commodities  themfelves  were 
which,  to  the  furprife  of  all  Europe,  was  taken  by  the  the  firlt  moneys,  /.  e.  were  current  for  one  another 
Frencti  in  1747.  He  wrote  a  treatife  on  fortification;  by  way  of  exchange  ;  and  it  was  the  ditticulty  of  cut- 
and  died  in  1704.  ting  or  dividing  certain  commodities,  and  the  inipof- 
COHOllT,  m  Roman  antiquity,  the  name  of  p.ut  fibility  of  doing  it  without  great  lofs,  that  firtt  put  men 
of  the  Roman  legion,  comprehending  about  600  men.  on  the  expedient  of  a  general  medium.  tiee  Ex- 
There  were  ten  cohorts  in  a  legion,  the  firll  of  which  change. 

exceeded  all  the  reft  both  in  dignity  and  number  of  Indeed,  thus  much  may  be  faid  in  behalf  of  coins, 

men.     When  the  army  was  ranged  in  order  of  battle,  that,  on   this   view,  it  was  natural  for  men  to  have 

the  firft   cohort  took   up  the  right  of  the   firft  line  ;  their  firft  recourfe  to  metals  ;  as  being  almoft  the  on- 

the  reft   followed  in   their  natural  order :   fo  that  the  ly  things  whofe  goodnefs,  and  as  h  were  integrity,  is 

third  was  in  the  centre  of  the  firft  line  of  the  legion,  not  diminiflied  by  partition  ;  befides  the   advantages 

and  the  fifth  on  the  left  ;  the  fecond  between  the  firft  above  cxprefied,   and  the  conveniences  of  melting  and 

and  third  ;  and  the  fourth  between  the  third  and  fifth :  returning  them  into  a  mafs  of  any  fize  or  weigiit. 

I  lie  five  remaining  cohorts  tormcd  a  fecond  line  in  their  It    was    probably,    tlieu,    this    property  of   metals 

natural  order.  which  firft  accuftomed   people,  who   trafficked  toge- 

COIF,  the  badge  of  a  fergeant  at  law,  who  is  cal-  ther,  to  account  them  in  lieu  of  quantities  of  other 

led  fergeant  of  the  coif,  from  the  lawn  coif  they  wear  merchandizes  in  their  exchanges,    and    at   length   to 

imder  their  caps,  when  they  are  created  fergeants.  fubftitute  them  wholly  iu   their  Head  ;  a!)d  thus  arofe 
The  chief  life  of  the  coif  was  to  cover  the  clerical     money  :   as  it  was  their  other   property  to   preferve 


Coin. 


tonfure.     See  Tonsure. 

COILING,  on  fliipboard,  implies  a  fort  of  ferpen- 
tine  winding  ;.of  a  cable  or  other  rope,  that  it  may 
occupy  a  fmall  fpace  in  the  ftiip.     Each  of  the  wind- 


any  mark  or  imprefiiofi  a  long  time,   which  confirmed 
them  in  the  right;  and  thus  was  the  firft  rife  of  coins. 

In  the  firft  ages,  each  perfon   cut  his  metal  into 
pieces  of  different  fizes  and  forms,  according  to  tl^e 


ings  of  this  fort  is   called   di.  fake ;  and  one  range  of  quantity  to  be  given  for  any  merchandize,  or  accord - 

fakes  upon  the  fame  hue   is  called  a  tier.     There  are  ing  to  the  demand  of  the  feller,  or  the  quantity  ftipu- 

gencrally  froni  five  to  feven  fakes  in  a  tier;  and  three  lated  between  them.      To  this  end  they  went  to  raar- 

•    or  four  tiers  in  the  whole  length  of  a  cable.     Tliis,  ket  loaden  with  metal  in  proportion  to  the  purchafe 

■  however,  depends  on  the   extent  of  the  fakes.     The  to  be  made,  and   furniilied  with  inftruments   for  por- 

fmaller  ropes  employed  about  the  fails  are  coiled  up-  tionlng  it,  and  fcales  for  deahng  it  out,   according  as 

on  cleats  at  fea,  to  prevent  their  being  entangled  a-  occafion  required.      By   degrees,  it   was  found   more 

mon"-ft  one  another  in  travcrfing,  contracting,  or  ex-  commodious   to   have   pieces  ready   weighed  ;  and  as 

tending  the  faihi.  there   were  «i;fferent    weights   required    according  to 

COILON,    in  the  ancient    Grecian,  theatres,  the  the  value  of  the  different  wares,  all  thofc  of  the  fame 

fame  with  the  cavca  of  the  Romans.        '  weight  began  to  be  dlftinguilhed  with   the  fame  mark 

COIIVIBRA,    a    handfome,    large,  and    celebrated  or  figure  :   thus  were  coins   carried  one   ftep  further. 

town   of  Portugal,  capital  of  the  province  of  Beira,  At  length  the  growing  commerce  of  money   begin- 

with  a  biihop's  fee,  and  a  famous   univerfity.     The  ning  to  be  difturbed  with  frauds,  both  in  the  weights 

cathedral  and  the  fountains  are  very  magnificent.      It  and  the  matter,  the  public  authority  interpofed  ;  and 

is  feated  in  a  very  pleafant  country  abounding  in  vine-  hence  the  firft  ilamps  or  imprtlfions  of  money  ;    to 

yards,  olive-trees,   and  fruits.      It  ftands   on   a  moun-  which   fucceeded   the   names  of  the   moniers ;  and  at 

tain,  by  the  fide  of  the   river  Mondego.     W^.  Long,  length  the  effigy  of  the  prince,  tlie  date,  legend,  and 

8.  C7.  N.  Lat.  40.  10.  other  precautions  to  prevent  the  alterations  of  the  Ipe- 

COIN,   a  piece  of  metal  converted  into  money  by  cies;  and  thus  were  coins  completed, 

the  impreffing  of  certain  marks  or  figures  thereon.  Modern  Coins.     In  England   the  current  fpecies  of 

Co:n  diff'ers  from  Money  as  the  fpecies  from  the  gold  are    the  guinea,    half-guinea.    Jacobus,   laureat, 

jTcnus.     Money  is  any  matter,  whether  metal,  wood,  angel,  and  rofc-noble:  the  four  lall  of  which  are  now 

leather,  glafs,  horn,  paper,  fruits,  fnclls,  or  kernels,  feldom  to  be  met  with  ;  having  been  moft  of  them 

K^  84.                                                                             5  '^""' 


U2i 
1660 


C     O     I  [129 

converted   into  giiiiuas,  chiefly  during  tlie  roign   of 
"^  Charles  II.  and  James  IT.       The  filver  coins  are  the 
crown,    half-crown,   fliilllng;,  and  fixpence.       Copper 
coins  are  the  h;df-penny  and  farthing. 

In  Scotland,  by  the  articles  of  the  Union,  it  is  ap- 
pointed that  all  tlie  coins  be  reduced  to  the  Engljlh, 
and  the  fame  accounts  obferved  throughout.  Till  then 
the  Scots  had  their  pounds,  fliillings,  and  pence,  as  in 
Kngland  ;  but  their  pound  was  but  20  pence  Englifh, 
and  the  others  in  proportion:  accordingly,  their  merk 
was  ijyS.  Scots,  current  in  England  at  13-sd.  their 
noble  in  proportion.  Befides  tliefe  they  had  their  tur- 
norer-pencc  and  half-pence;  their  penny  -rV  of  that  of 
England  :  belides  bafe  money  of  achifons,  babees,  and 
plucks.  The  bodle  ^  of  the  penny,  If  of  the  achifon, 
~j-  of  the  babee,  and  4-  "f  the  plack. 

In  Ireland,  the  coins  arc  as  in  England,  to's.  dril- 
lings, pence,  Isfc.  with  this  diiference,  that  their  /hil- 
ling is  but  equal  to  i  i^-Q-d.  Stealing:  whence  their 
pound  is  only  i8s.  54  d. 

But,  for  a  view  of  all  the  coins  prefently  current  in 
the  four  quarters  of  the  globe,  with  their  values  and 
proportions,  fee  the  table  iubjoined  to  the  article  Mo- 
ney. 

In  many  places  (hells  are  current  for  coins;  particu- 
larly a  fmall  white  kind  dug  out  of  the  ground  in  the 
Maldives,  and  fome  parts  of  America,  called  in  the 
Indies  coivries,  or  cons,  on  the  coafl  of  Africa  bonges, 
and  in  America  porcila'mes  ;  of  which  it  takes  a  vaft 
number  to  be  equivalent  in  value  to  a  penny.  Of  zim- 
bis,  another  kind  of  fiiell  current,  particularly  in  the 
kingdoms  of  Angola  and  Congo,  two  thoufand  make 
what  the  "negroes  call  a  macoute;  which  is  no  real  mo- 
ney ;  for  of  this  there  is  none  in  this  part  of  Africa 
but  a  manner  of  reckoning :  thus,  two  Flemiih  knives 
they  efteem  a  macoute  ;  a  copper-bafon  two  pounds 
weight,  and  1 2  inches  diameter,  they  reckon  three 
macoutes;  a  fufee  lo,  i^c. 

In  fome  places  fruits  are  current  for  coins.  Of 
thcf'  there  are  three  forts  ufed  ;  two  in  America,  par- 
ticnlaily  among  the  Mexicans,  which  arr  the  cacao  and 
maize  ;  the  other  in  the  Eaft  Indies,  v'n.  almonds 
brought  thither  from  Lar,  and  growing  in  the  defarts 
of  Arabia.  Of  cacao  15  are  efteemed  equivalent  to 
a  Spanifli  rial,  or  feven  pence  fterling.  Maize  has 
ceafed  to  be  a  common  money  fmcc  the  difcovery 
of  America  by  the  Europeans.  Almonds  are  chiefly 
ufed  where  the  coiur'ies  are  not  current.  As  the  year 
proves  more  or  Icfs  favourable  t.i  this  fruit,  the  value 
of  the  money  is  higher  or  lower.  In  a  common 
year  40  almonds  are  fct  againll  a  pcfcha,  or  half- 
penny ilerling ;  which  brings  each  almond  to  x'-ij  of  a 
farthing. 

Aiicn-nt  Coins   are   thofe   chiefly  which   have  been 
current  among  the  Jews,  Greeks,  and  Romans.   Their 
values  and  proportions  are  as  follows, 
JEWISH. 


c   o 

GRECIAN. 


LeptO'i  . . 

Oiclulcus 


124 


rJ' 


16 

II I 


'[.•mlob:)liim 

2,01)o!uS  

nioliolum 


Tetrobiilum      q 

Uraifma  o 

Dijraclimnn        1 

~|  I'errardftateri 

TlPentiad.  3 


sn 


qrs.  fler_ 
o  '  • 


o» 

z 
o 
3 


Note  : 
of  filver. 


Of  thefe  the  drachma,  didrachm,  &c.  were 
the   reft  for  the   moil   part  of  brafs.     The 
other  parts,   as  tridrachm,  triobolus,  &c.   were  fome- 
times  coined. 

Note  alfo :  The  drachma  is  he/e,  with  the  generality 
of  authors,  fuppofed  equal  to  the  denarius ;  though 
there  is  reafon  to  believe  that  the  drEchma  was  fome- 
what  the  weightier.     See  Drachma  and  Denarius. 


The  Grecian  gold  coin  was  the") 
ftater  aureus,  weighing  two  attic 
drachms,  or  half  of  the  ftater  ar-  ! 
genteus  ;  and  exchanging  ufually  ■ 
for  25  attic  drachms  of  filver ;  in  | 
our  money  J 

According  to  our  proportion  of  7 
gold  to  filver  -— —  J 

There  were  likewife  the  ftater") 
cycizenus,  exchanging  for  28  attic  J- 
drachms,  or  j 

Stater    philippicus,    and   ftater 
alexandrinus,  of  the  fame  value. 

Stater  daricus,  according  to  Jo 
fephus,  worth  50  attic  drachms, 
or  

Stater  crEefius,  of  the  fame  value. 

RO  MAN. 


/.    s.     d.   SterL 


o    \6      I 


I 


I    12      ?^ 


d. 


qrs 


SterL 


Terun 

4  2 

1 

if  ^ 
20J10 

ciu 
mil 
Li 

As 

ii 

5 
10 

s            .^_- 

bella 
beUa  7 

0 
0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 
0 

0 

I 

3 

7 

•5   ^ 

Quinarius     7 
V  ii^toriatus  3 
4    aiDenarius 

3 

/. 


Gerah 


d.  fter. 


10 

Brca 

\               

0     0     14-. 

2C 

:zc 

-bek 

■1           

0       0       2i 

12C0 

^ 

Manch              7 
M>na  hcIirai-.-a  J 

6c|T;iient 

5  14    oi 

60c  CC 

:>oco;i:o_ 

342     3     r> 

Solid,,. 

Siclus  3 

A  talcr 

Vo 

aurc 
Ulcus 
It  of; 
L.  V. 

I-,  or 
,  wor 
;old, 
Pat 

(extula,  worth 

rh              

worth              

t  I. 

0  12    ci- 

I    16     6 

5475     0     0 

Nole :  Of  thefe  the  denarius,  vidoriatus,  feftertius> 
and  fometimes  the  as,  were  of  lilver,  the  reft  of  brafs. 
See  As,  &c 

There  were  fometimes  alfo  coined  of  brafs  the  triena, 
fexlans,  uncia,  fextula,  and  dupondius. 

The  Roman  gold  coin  was  the^    /.     s.     d.  SterL 
aureus,  which  weighed  generally 
double  the  denarius  ;  the  value  of  ' 
w'hich,  according  to  the  firft  pro-  '  4     33:- 

portion  of  coinage,  mentioned  by  | 
Fliny,  was  J 

Accordingtotheproportionthat  7 
obtains  now  amongft  us,  worth      3  °     9 

R  Ac 


Coin. 


Coin, 

Coinage. 


iro-T 
and  > 


O    12 


I  1 


C    O     I  I      i;o 

According  to  the  decuple  pro 
portion,  mentioned  by  Livy  a 
Julius  Pollux,  worth 

According  to  the   proportion  "| 
mentioned  by  Tncitus,  and  which  | 
afterwards  obtained,  whereby  the  }   G    l6      1^ 
aureus  exchanged  for  ^5  denarii,  I 
its  value  J 

Coin,  in  architetlure,  a  kind  of  dye  cut  diagonal- 
wife,  after  the  manner  of  a  flight  of  a  ftair-cafe,  ler- 
ving  at  bottom  to  fupport  columns  in  a  level,  and  at 
top  to  corrcft  the  inclination  of  an  entablature  fup- 
porting  a  vault. 

Coin  Is  alfo  ufed  for  a  folid  angle  compofed  of  two 
fiirfaces  inclined  towards  each  other,  whether  that 
angle  be  exterior,  as  the  coin  of  a  wall,  a  tree,  &c.  or 
interior,  as  the  coin  of  a  chamber  or  chimney.  See 
Quoin. 

COINAGE,  cr  Coining,  the  art  of  making  mo- 
ney, as  performed  eitlier  by  the  hammer  or  mill. 

Formerly  the  fabiic  of  coins  was  different  from 
what  it  is  at  prefent.  They  cut  a  large  plate  of  me- 
tal into  feveral  little  fajjares,  the  corners  of  which 
were  cut  off  with  (heers.  After  having  (haped  thefe 
pieces,  fo  as  to  render  them  perfeftly  conformable,  in 
point  of  weight,  to  the  ftandard  piece,  they  took  each 
piece  in  hand  again,  to  make  it  exadtly  round  by  a 
gentle  hammering.  This  was  called  a  planchst,  and 
was  fit  for  immediate  coining.  Then  engravers  pre- 
pared, as  they  ftiU  do,  a  couple  of  fteel  malTes  in  foim 
•  of  dyes,  cut  and  terminated  by  a  flat  furface,  rounded 
off  at  the  edges.  They  engraved  or  ftamped  on  it  the 
hollow  of  a  head,  a  crofs,  a  fcutclieon,  or  any  other 
figure,  according  to  the  cuftom  of  the  times,  vi'Itli  a 
fhort  legend.  As  one  of  thefe  dyes  was  to  remain 
dormant,  and  the  other  moveable,  the  former  ended 
in  a  fquare  prifra,  that  it  might  be  introduced  into  the 
fquare  hole  of  the  block,  which,  being  fixed  very  fall, 
kept  the  dye  as  fteady  as  any  vice  coifld  have  done. 
The  planchet  of  metal  was  horizontally  laid  upon  this 
inferior  mafs,  to  receive  the  ftanip  of  it  on  one  fide, 
and  that  of  the  upper  dye,  wherewith  it  was  covered, 
on  the  other.  This  moveable  dye,  having  its  round 
engraved  furface  refting  upon  the  planchet,  had  at  its 
oppofite  extremity  a  fiat  fquare,  and  larger  furface, 
upon  which  they  gave  feveral  heavy  blows,  with  a 
hammer  of  an  enomious  fize,  till  the  double  ftamp 
was  fufficiently,  in  relievo,  impreffed  on  each  fide  of 
the  planchet.  This  being  finifhed,  was  immediately 
fucceedad  by  another,  and  they  thus  became  a  ftandard 
coin,  which  had  the  degree  of  finenefs  of  the  weight  and 
mark  determined  by  the  judgment  of  the  infpe^tors, 
to  make  it  good  current  money.  The  ftrong  tem- 
pering which  was  and  is  ftill  given  to  the  two  dyes, 
rendering  them  capable  of  bearing  tbofe  repeated 
blows.  Coining  has  been  confiderably  improved  and 
rendered  expeditious,  by  feveral  ingenious  machines, 
and  by  a  wiie  apphcation  of  the  fureff  phyfical  expe- 
riments to  the  methods  of  fining,  dyeing,  and  llaraping 
the  different  metals. 

The  three  fineft  Inffruments  the  mint-man  ufes,  are 
the  laminating  engine;  the  machine  for  making  the 
impreffions  on  the  edges  of  coins  ;  and  the  mill. 

After  they  have  taken  the  laminae,  or  plates  ef  me- 


1 


C     O     I 


tal,  out  of  the  mould  into  which  they  are  caft,  they    Coirspf. 
do  not  beat  tlu-ni  on  the  anvil,  as  was  formerly  done,  ^"""i  — 
but  they  make  tliem  pafs  and  repafs  between  the  fe- 
veral i-oUers  of  the  hminating   engine,   which   being 
gradually  brought  clofer  and  clofer  to  each  other,  pre- 
fentiy  give  the  lamina  its  uniform  and  exat\  thickncJs. 
Inflcad  of  dividing  the  lamina  into  fmall  fquares,  they 
at  once  cut  clean  out  of  ii  as  many  planch?ts  as  it  can 
contain,  by  means  of  a  (harp  fteel  trepan,  of  a  roun- 
dlfh  figure,   hollow  within,   and  of  a  proportionable 
diameter,  to  (hape  and  cut  off  the  piece  atone  and  the 
fame  time.     After  thefe  planchcts  have  been  prepared 
and  weighed  with  ftandard  pieces,  filed  or   fcraped  to 
eet  off  the  fuperfluous  part  of  the  metal,   and  then 
jailed  and  made  clean,  t'ley  arrive,  at^laft,  at  the  ma- 
chine  (fig.  1.),  which  marks  them  upon   the  edge;    , 
and  finally,   the  mill  (fig.  2),  which,  fqueezing  each      Plate- 
of  thcm\jngly  between  the  two  dyes,   brought   near    CXLIV. 
each  other  with  one  blow,  forces  the  two  furfaces  or 
fields  of  the  piece  to  fill  exati'y  all  the  vacancies  of  the 
two  figures  engraved  hollow.     The  engine  which  ferves 
to  laminate  lead,  gives  a  fufficient  notion  of  that  which 
ferves  to  flaten  gold  and  fdver  laminae  betw'een  rollers 
of  a  leffer  fize. 

The  principal  pieces  of  the  machine  (fig.  i.),  to 
ftamp  coins  on  the  edge,  are  two  fteel  laminx,  about 
a  line  thick.  One  half  of  the  legend,  or  of  the  ring, 
is  engraved  on  the  thicknefs  of  one  of  the  laminae, 
and  the  other  half  on  the  tliicknefs  of  the  other  ;  and 
thefe  two  laminre  are  ftraight,  although  the  planchet 
marked  with  them  be  circular. 

AVhen  they  ftamp  a  planchet,  they  firft  put  it  be- 
tween the  laraiuT  in  fuch  a  manner,  as  ''rat  thefe  be- 
ing each  of  them  litid  flat  upon  a  copperrplate,  which 
is  fattened  upon  a  very  thick  wooden  table,  and  the 
planchet  being  likewife  laid  flat  upon  the  fame  plate, 
the  edge  of  the  planchet  may  touch  the  two  lamin* 
on  each  fide,  and  in  their  thick  part. 

One  ef  thefe  lamins  is  immoveable,  and  fafl^ened 
with  feveral  fcrews ;  the  other  Aides  by  means  of  a 
dented  wheel,  which  takes  into  the  teeth  that  are  on 
the  furface  of  the  lamina.  This  flidmg  lamina  makes 
the  planchet  turn  in  fuch  a  manner,  that  it  remains 
ftamped  on  the  edge,  when  it  has  made  one  turn. 
Only  crown  and  half-crown  pieces  can  bear  the  im- 
preflion  of  letters  on  the  thicknefs  of  their  edges. 

The  coining  engine  or  mill  is  fo  handy  (fig.  2.), 
that  a  fingle  man  may  ftamp  twenty  thoufand  planchets 
in  one  day  :  gold,  filv.^,  and  copper  planchets,  are  all 
of  them  coined  with  a  mill,  to  wliich  the  coining 
fquares  [fi^.  3.),  commonly  called  dyes,  are  faflcned  ; 
that  of  the  face  under,  in  a  fquare  box  garniflied  with 
male  and  female  fcrews,  to  fix  and  keep  it  fteady;  and 
the  other  above,  in  a  little  box  garnilligd  with  the 
fame  fcrews,  to  faften  the  coining  fquare.  The  plan- 
chet is  laid  flat  on  the  fquare  of  the  effigy,  which  I3 
dormant ;  and  they  immediately  pull  the  bar  of  the 
mill  by  its  cords,  which  canfes  the  fcrew  fet  within  it 
to  turn.  This  enters  into  the  female  fcrew,  which  is 
in  the  body  of  the  mill,  and  turns  with  fo  much  ftrength, 
that  by  puihing  the  upper  fquare  upon  that  of  the 
effigy,  the  planchet,  violently  preffed  Wetween  both 
fquares,  receives  the  impreffion  of  both  at  one  pull, 
and  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye. 

The 


C    O    I 


[ 


151 


] 


C     O     I 


The  jjlanchct  thus  ftampt  anJ  coined,  goes  through  confts  of  Africa,  and  even  Mufcovy  :  the  king's  duty, 
v.  1.         c  ,    r       in  Perfiii,  is  fevtii  and  a  half /vvwwi/.   for  all  the  mo- 

neys coipcd,  which  are  lately  reduced  to  filver  and 
copper,  there  being  no  gold  coin  there  except  a  kind 
of  medals,  at  the  accenion  of  a  new  fophi. 

Sj>aiii/h  Coinjigk  is  elteemed  one  of  the  lead  perfeft 
in  Europe.  It  is  fettled  at  Seville  and  Segovia,  the 
only  cities  where  gold   and  fdver  are  ftruck. 

COI  RE,  or,  as  the  Germans  call  it,  Chur,  a  large 
and  haiidfomc  town  of  Switzerland,  and  capital  of  the 
country  of  the  Grifons,  with  a  bifliop's  fee  whofe  pre- 


'  a  final  examination  of  the  mint  wardens,   from  whofe 
hands  it  goes  into  the  world. 

In  the  Coixi.va  of  AMii/i,  the  procefs  is  the  fame, 
in  efleifl,  with  that  of  money  ;  the  principal  difference 
confitling  in  this,  that  money  having  but  a  fmall  re- 
lievo, receives  its  impreflion  at  a  fingle  ftroke  of  the 
engine  ;  whereas  for  medals,  the  height  of  their  re- 
lievo makes  it  necelfary  that  the  llroke  be  repeated 
fevenJ  times  :  to  this  end  the  piece  is  taken  out  from 
between  the  dyes,  heated,  and  returned  again;  which 


jprocefs,  in  medallions  and  large  medals,   is   i-epeated     late  has  the  right  of  coining  money.     It   is  divided 


fifteen  or  twenty  times  before  the  full  impreflion  be 
given  :  care  mull  be  taken,  every  time  the  planchct  is 
removed,  to  take  off  the  fuperfluous  metal  llrctched 
beyond  the  circumference  with  a  file.  Medallions, 
and  niediJs  of  a  high  rel'evo,  are  ufually  firll  call  in 
fand,  by  reaion  of  the  diihculty  of  ftamping  them  in 
the  prefs,   v,-here  they  are   put  only  to  perfedl  them  ; 


into  two  parts ;  the  leall  of  which  is  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  religion,  and  the  greatell  of  th-^  Protcdant. 
It  is  governed  by  its  own  laws,  and  feat,  d  in  a  plain, 
abounding  in  vineyards  and  game,  on  tiie  river  Plef- 
fure,  halt"  a  mile  from  the  Rhine.  E.Long.  9.  27. 
N.  Lat.  46.  50. 

COITION,  the  -ntercotirfe  between  male  and  fe- 


in  regard  the  fand  docs  not  leave  them  clear,  fmooth,  male  in  the  aft  of  generation, 

and  accurate   enough.      Therefore   we  may   fee  that  '       It  is  obfei-ved  that  frogs  are  forty  davs  in  the  aft  of 

medals  receive  their  form  and  impreflion  by  degrees,  coition.     Bartholiiic,  &c.  relate,  that  butterflies  make 
whereas  money  receives  them  all  at  once.                         ,130  vibrations  of  the  wings  in  one  aft  of  coition. 

Bntijl  C01N.IGF,  both  by  the  beauty  of  the  engra-  COIX,  job's-tears:  A  genus  of  the  triandria  or- 

ving,  and  by  the  invention  of  the  impreffions  on  the  ^er,  belonging  to  the  monoecia  clafs  of  plants  •  and  in 

edges,  that  admirsble  expedient  for  preventing  the  al-  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  4th  order,  Gra- 

teration  of  the  fpecies,  is  carried  to  the  utmoll  perfec-  ■•-"■''> 
lion. 


It  was  only  in  the  reign  of  king  William  III.  that 
the  hammer-money  ceaied  to  be  current  in  Enelaud, 
where  till  then  it  was  ftruck  in  that  manner,  as  in 
other  nations.  Before  the  hammer  fpecies  was  called 
in,  the  EnglilTi  ijioney  was  in  a  wretched  condition, 
having  been  filled  and  clipped  by  natives  as  well  as  fo- 
reigners, infomuch  that  it  was  fcarce  left  of  half  the 
value  :  the  retrieving  this  diftreffed  ilate  of  the  Eng- 


mina.  The  male  flowers  grow  in  fpikes  remote  from 
one  another  ;  the  calyx  is  a  biflorous,  beardlefs  glume. 
The  calyx  of  the  female  is  a  bifloious  glume  ;  the  co- 
rolla a  beardlefs  glume;  the  ftyle  bipartite;  the  feed 
covered  with  the  calyx  oflified.  '  Of  this  there  is  but, 
one  fpecies,  a  native  of  the  Archipelago  iflands,  and 
frequently  cultivated  in  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  alfo 
in  the  Weft  Indies.  It  is  an  annual  plant,  rifing  from 
a  fibrous  root,  with  two  or  three  jointed  ftalks,  to  the 
height  of  two  feet,  with  iingk,  long,  narrow  leaves  at 


lifh  money  is  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  glories  of  king  each  joint,  refembling  thofe  of  the  reed;  at  the  bafe 

William's  reign.    ^  ^  of  the  leaves  come  out  the  fpikes  of  flowers  fliandlno- 

The  Britifh  coinage  is  now  wholly  performed  in  the  on  fhort  foot-flalks ;  the  feeds  greatly  refemble  thofe 

Tower  of  London,   where  there. is  a  corporation  for  of  gromwell ;  whence  the  plant  has  by  fome  writers 

it,  under   the  title  of  the  mint.      Formerly  there  were  been   called  tkhofpermum.      This  plant  may  be  propa- 

here,  as  there  are  ftill  in  other  countries,  the  rights  of  gated  in  this  countiy  by  feeds  brought  from  Portuo-al 

feinorage  and  brafTagc  :  but  fmce  the  eighteenth  year  and  fown  on  a  hot-bed  ;  after  which  the  younp-  plants 
of  king  Charles  II.    there  is  nothing   taken   either  for  '     '  '  '  '  "  " 

the  king  or  for  the  expences  of  coning  ;  fo  that  weight 
is  returned  for  weight,  to  any  perfon  who  cariies  their 


pold  and  filver  to  the  Tower, 

The   fpecies  coined  in  Great  Britain  are  efleemed 
contraband  goods,  and  not  to  be.  exported.     All  fo- 


are  to  be  removed  into  a  wa.ni  borctr,  and  planted  at 
the  diftance  of  two  feet  at  leaft  from  t  ich  other.  They 
will  require  no  other  care  than  to  b  ■  kept  free  from 
weeds.  In  Spain  and  Portugal  the  poor  people  grind 
the  feeds  of  thi.s  plant,  in  times  of  fcar-ity,  and  make 
a  coarfe  kind  of  bread  of  them.     The  feeds  arc  inclo- 


reign  fpecies  are  allowed  to  be  fent  out  of  the  realm,  fed  ia  fmall  S&pfules  about  the  bignefs  of  ^n  Eno-Ijlh  pea 

as  well  as  gold  and  filver  in  bars,  ingots,  dull,  &c.  and  of  different  colours.     Thefe  are  ftr  mg  upon  filk 

Barbary  Coinage,  particularly  that  of  Fez  and  Tu-  and  ufed  inllead  of  bracelets  by  fome  of  the  poorer  fort 

nis,  is  under  no  proper  regulations,  as  every  goldfmith,  in  the  Well  Indies,  but  efpecially  by  the  negroes. 

Jew,  or  even  private  perfon,  undertakes  it  at  pleafure  ;  COKE,  or  Cooke  (Sir  Edwaid),  lord  chief  juftice 

which  praftice   renders  their  money  exceeding  bad,  of  the  king's  bench  in  the  reign  of  James  I.   wa?  de- 

and  their  commerce  veiT  uiifafe.  fcendcd  from  an  ancient  family  in  Norfolk,  and   born 

Mi'fcoi'ite  Coinage.     In  Mufcovy  there  is  no  other  at  Milchain  in  1549.     When  he  was  a  ftudent  in  the 

coin  flruck  but   filver,   and   that   only  in  the   cities  of  Inner-Temple,  the  firft;  occafion   of  his  diflinguifhing 

Mufeow,   Novogrod,  Twerc,   and  Plefltow,    to  which  himfelf  was  the  ilating  the  cafe  of  a  cook  belonging  to 

may  be   added  Peterfburgh.     The  coinage  of  each  of  the  Te.aiple  fo  exaftly,  that  all  the   houie,  who  were 

thefe  cities  is  let  out  to  fann,  and  makes  part  of  the  puzzled  with  it,  admired  him  and  hi.^  pleading,  and  the 

royal  revenue.  whole  bench  took  notice  of  him.      After  his  marriage 

Perfian   Coin/!Gf.     All   the   money  made  in  Perfia  with  a  lady  of  a  great  fortune,  preferments  flowed  in 

is  fl:ruck  with  a  hammer,  as  is  that  of  the  reil  of  Afia;  upon  him.     The  cities  of  Ncnwich  and  Coventry  chofe 

and  the  fame  may  be  underftood  of  America,  and  the  him  fur  their  recorder ;  the  county  of  Norfolk,  for 

R  2  oae 


COL  [     I 

one  of  tlieir  knights  in  parliament  ;  and  the  houfe  of 
commons,  for  their  ipeaker,  in  the  35th  year  of  queen 
Eh'zabeth,  The  queen  appointed  him  folicitor-general 
in  '592,  and  attorney  general  the  next  year.  In 
1603,  he  was  knighted  by  kin)»  James  I.  ;  and  in  No- 
vember the  fame  year,  upon  the  trial  of  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh,  iyc.  at  Winchefter,  he  treated  that  gentle- 
man with  a  fcnirility  of  language  hardly  to  be  paral- 
leled. June  27.  he  was  appointed  lord  chief  j  ilbce 
of  the  common  picas;  and  in  1613,  lord  chief  juftice 
of  the  king's  bench,  and  fworn  one  of  the  privy  coun- 
cil. In  1615:,  he  was  very  vigoro\is  in  the  difcovery 
and  profecution  of  the  ptrfons  employed  in  poiloning 
Sir  Thomas  Overbury  in  the  Tower  in  [612.  His 
conteft  not  long  after  with  the  lord  chancellor  Egeton, 
with  fome  other  cafes,  haftened  the  ruin  of  his  inte- 
reft  at  court :  fo  that  he  was  fequeftercd  from  the 
council-table  and  the  office  of  lord  chief  juftice.  In 
1621,  he  vigoroufly  maintained  in  the  houfe  of  com- 
mons, that  no  proclamation  is  of  any  force  againft  the 
parliament.  The  fame  year,  being  looked  upon  as 
one  of  the  great  incendiaries  in  the  houC?  of  commons, 
he  was  removed  from  the  council  of  ftate  with  dif- 
grace  ;  the  king  fiying,  that  "  he  was  the  fitted  in- 
ftrument  for  a  tyrant  that  ever  was  in  r.ngland  :"  he 
was  alfo  committed  to  the  Tower,  and  his  papers  were 
feized.  '  Upon  the  calhng  of  a  new  parliament  in 
1625,  the  court  party,  to  prevent  his  being  elefted  a 
member,  got  him  appointed  (heriff  of  Buckingham- 
fliire  ;  to  avoid  the  office,  if  poflible,  he  drew  up  ex- 
ceptions againft  the  oath  of  a  fiierifF,  but  was  obliged 
to  undertake  the  office.  In  1628,  he  fpoke  vigoroufly 
upon  grievances  ;"  and  made  a  fpeech  in  which  he  af- 
firmed, that  "  the  duke  of  Buckingham  was  the  caufe 
of  all  our  miferies."  While  he  lay  upon  his  death- 
bed, his  papers  and  laft  will  were  feized  by  an  order 
of  council.  He  died  in  1634,  and  pitbliflied  many 
■works  :  the  moft  remarkable  are  his  Inftitutes  of  the 
laws  of  England;  the  fiift  part  of  which  is  only  a  tranf- 
lation  and  co.-nment  of  Sir  Thomas  Littleton,  one  of 
the  chief  juftices  of  the  common  pleas  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  IV. 

COKENHAUSEN,  a  ftrong  town  of  Livonia  in 
S>vcden,  on  the  river  Divina.  E  Long.  24.  26.  N. 
Lat.  56.  40. 

COL,  a  name  given  by  fome  to  one  of  the  weftern 
iflands  of  Scotland  ;  it  abounds  in  corn,  pafture,  falmon, 
eels,  and  cod.      W.  Long.  7.  35.  N.  Lat.  57. 

COLAPIS,  CoLOPs  (anc.  geog.),  a  river  of  Li- 
burnia,  which  after  a  winding  north-eallcourfe,  falls  into 
the  Sivus,  at  the  Infula  Scgeftica.  Now  the  Cu/jie,  the 
boundary  of  the  Alps,  running  through  Croatia  into 
the   Save.      Colapiani,  the  people  living  on  it  (Phny). 

COLARBASIANS,  or  Colorbasians,  a  fet  of 
Chrillians  in  the  fecond  century  ;  fo  called  from  their 
leader  Colarbafus,  a  difciple  of  Valentinus ;  who,  with 
Marcus,  another  difciple  of  the  fame  mafter,  maintain- 
ed the  whole  plenitude,  and  perfection,  of  truth  and 
religion,  to  be  contained  in  the  Greek  alphabet:  and 
that  it  was  upon  this  account  that  Jefus  Chrift  was 
called  the  al/>ha  and  omega.  This  feft  was  a  branch  of 
the  Valentliiians.      See  alfo  Marcosians. 

COLDERG,  a  ftrong,  handfome  fea-port  town  of 
Germany,  in  Pomerania,  belonging  to  the  king  of 
Pruffia.     It  is  remarkable  for  its  fait  works ;  and  is 


32     ]  COL 

feated  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  P^rfant,  on  the  Baltic  Colbert, 
fea,  60  miles  north-eall  of  Stetin,  and  30  northeaft  of  '  »  — 
Camin.     E.  Long.  15.  57.  N.  Lat-  54.  l3. 

COLBERT  (John  Baptist),  marquis  of  Segnelai, 
one  of  the  gre«-.eil  llat-.fraen  that  Franc;  ever  had, 
was  born  at  Paris  in  1619  ;  and  dcfcended  from  a  fa- 
mily that  lived  at  Rheims  in  Champaigne,  no  way 
confiderable  for  its  fplendor  and  antiquity.  His  grand- 
father is  laid  to  have  been  a  wine-m^rohact,  and  his 
father  at  fuft  followed  the  fame  occupation  ;  but  after- 
wards traded  in  cloth,  and  at  laft  in  fiik.  Our  Colbert 
was  inftrutled  in  the  aits  of  merchandize;  and  after- 
wards became  clerk  to  a  notary.  In  1(148,  bis  rela- 
tion John  Baptift  Colbert,  krd  of  S.  Pouange,  prefer- 
red him  to  the  fervice  cf  Michael  Lt  Tcllitr,  fecietaty 
of  Hate,  whofe  fifter  he  had  married;  and  here  he  dif- 
covtred  fuch  diligence,  and  exaftnefs  in  executing  all 
the  commiffions  that  were  entrulled  to  his  care,  that 
he  quickly  grew  diftingniihed.  One  day  his  mafter 
■fent  him  to  cardinal  Mazarine,  who  was  then  at  Se- 
dan, with  a  letter  written  by  the  queen  mother;  and 
ordered  him  to  bring  it  back,  after  that  minifter  had 
fcen  it.  Colbert  carried  the  letter,  and  would  not  re- 
turn without  it,  though  the  cardinal  treated  him  rough- 
ly, ufed  fevcral  art,-!  to  deceive  him,  and  obliged  him  to 
wait  for  it  f^veral  days.  Sv.)me  time  after,  the  cardinal 
returning  to  court,  and  wanting  one  to  write  his  agenda 
or  memoranda,  dcfired  Le  Tellier  to  furnifh  liim  with 
a  fit  perfon  for  that  employment  :  and  Colbert  being 
prefenttd  to  him,  the  cardinal  had  fome  remembrance 
of  him,  and  defired  to  know  where  he  had  feen  bim» 
Colbert  was  afraid  of  putting  him  in  mind  of  Sedan, 
left  the  remembrance  of  his  importunacy,  in  demand- 
ing the  queen's  letter,  ftionld  renew  the  cardinal's  an- 
ger. But  his  erainency  was  fo  far  from  hating  him  for 
his  faithfulnefs  to  his  late  mafter,  that  he  received  him 
on  condition,  that  he  ftiould  ferve  hira  vsiih  the  like 
zeal  and  fidelity. 

Colbert  applied  himfelf  wholly  to  the  advancement 
of  his  mafter's  intereft:-,  and  gave  him  fo  many  marks 
of  his  diligence  and  fliill,  that  afterwards  he  made  him 
his  intendant.  He  accommodated  himfelf  fo  dex- 
teioufly  to  the.inchnations  of  that  minifter,  by  retrench- 
ing his  luperfluous  expences,  that  he  was  entrufted 
with  the  management  of  that  gainful  trade  of  felling 
benefices  and  governments.  It  was  by  Colbert's 
counfel,  that  the  cardinal  obliged  the  governors  of 
frontier  places  to  maintain  their  garrifons  with  the 
contributions  they  exafted  ;  with  which  advice  his 
eminency  was  extremely  pleafed.  He  was  fent  to 
Rome,  to  negociate  the  reconciliation  of  cardinal  de 
Rets,  for  which  the  Pope  had  Ih'jwtd  fome  concern; 
and  to  perfuade  his  holinefs  to  confent  to  the  difin- 
camerating  of  Ca'lo,  according  to  the  treaty  concluded 
with  his  predeceffor  Urban  VIII.  Upon  the  whole, 
Mazarine  had  fo  high  an  opinion  of  Colbert's  abilities, 
and  withal  fuch  a  regard  for  his  faithful  ferviccs,  that 
at  his  death,  which  happened  in  1661,  he  earneitly 
recommended  him  to  Louis  XIV.  as  the  properetl 
perfon  to  regulate  U^e  finances,  which  at  that  time 
ftood  in  much  need  of  reformation.  Louis  accept- 
ed the  recommendation,  and  made  Colbert  inten- 
dant of  the  finances.  He  applied  himielt  to  their 
regulation,  and  fucceedcd :  though  it  procured  him 
many  enemies,   and  fome  affronts.      Fiance   is   alio 

obliged 


COL 


[ 


Colbert,  obliged  to  this  minlfter  for  eftabllrtiinp;  at   that  time 
— /—  hir  trade  with  the  Ead  and  WcR  Indies  :  a  great  de- 
fign,  and  from  which  (he  has  reaped  innumerable   ad- 
vantages. 

In  1664,  he  became  fuperintendant  of  the  build- 
ings; and  for  that  time  applied  himlelf  fo  earneftly  to 
the  enbirging  and  adorning  of  the  royal  edifices,  that 
they  ait  at  prefcnt  fo  many  mafttr-pieccs  of  archi- 
tedlure  :  witnefs  the  palace  <  f  the  Thuiileries,  the  Lou- 
vri.-,  St  Germain,  Font3iiible:iu,  and  Chombord.  As 
for  Verfailles,  it  may  be  faid  that  he  raifcd  it  from  t!ic 
ground.  It  was  formeily  a  dog-kennel,  where  Louis 
XIII.  kept  his  hunting  furniture:  it  is  now  a  palace 
fit  for  the  greateft  monarcli.  But  royal  palaces  were 
not  Colbert's  only  care  :  he  formed  feveral  dcfigns  tor 
increafing  the  beaii'.y  and  convenience  of  the  capital 
city,  and  he  did  it  with  great  magnitic.nce  and  gran- 
deur. The  public  was  obliged  to  this  fame  miniiler  for 
the  ef*.ablilhment  of  the  academy  for  painting  and  fculp- 
ture  in  1664.  The  king's  piiiitcrs  and  fculpcors,  with 
other  fKilful  profefl'.'rs  of  thofe  arts,  being  profecuted 
at  law  by  the  mafter-painteis  at  Paris,  joined  together; 
and  began  to  form  a  fociety,  under  tlie  name  of  the 
Royal  Academy  fot  Sculpture  and  Painting.  Their 
defign  was  to  keep  public  exercifes,  for  the  fake  of 
improving  thofe  fine  arts,  and  advarcirg  them  to  the 
highcft.  degree  of  perftdion.  They  put  themfelves  un- 
der the  proteftion  of  Mazarine,  and  chofe  th:incellor 
Seguier  their  vice-proteftor ;  and  after  Mazarine's 
death  chofe  Seguiei  their  piotedlor,  and  Colbert  their 
vice-prolecTor.  It  was  at  his  folicitation  that  they 
were  finally  t;(labK(hed  by  a  patent,  containing  new  pri- 
vileges, ip  1664.  Colbert,  being  made  protcftor  af- 
ter the  death  of  Seguier,  thought  fit  that  an  hiilorio- 
grapher  (liould  be  appointed,  whofe  bufincfs  it  fhould 
be  to  colleft  all  curious  and  ufeful  obfervations  that 
fliould  be  made  at  theit  conferences.  This  was  ac- 
cordingly done  ;  and  his  majelty  was  pleafcd  to  leitle 
on  him  a  falary  of  300  livres.  To  Colbert  alfo  the 
lovers  of  naval  knowledge  are  obliged  for  the  ereftion 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences :  for  the  making  of  which 
the  more  ufeful,  he  caufed  to  be  creded,  in  1667,  the 
royal  obfervatory  at  Paris,  which  was  firft  inhabited 
by  Caffini.  But  thefe  are  not  the  only  obligations 
France  has  to  that  n-.inifter :  (he  owes  to  him  all  the 
advantages  (he  receives  by  the  union  of  the  two  feas  ;  a 
prodigious  work,  begun  in  1666  and  finiihed  in  16S0. 
Colbert  was  alfo  veiy  intent  upon  matters  of  a  more 
private  nature,  fuch  as  regarded  the  order,  decency, 
and  well  being  of  fociety.  He  undertook  to  reform 
the  courts  of  jullice,  and  to  put  a  Hop  to  the  ufurpa- 
tion  of  noble  titles ;  which  it  feems  was  tlien  very 
common  in  France.  In  the  former  of  thofe  attempts 
he  failed,  in  the  latter  he  fucceeded. 

In  1669,  he  was  made  fecretary  of  ftate,  and  en- 
tnifted  with  the  management  of  affairs  relating  to  the 
fea  :  and  his  performances  in  this  province  were  an- 
fwerable  to  the  confidence  his  majefty  repofed  in  him. 
He  fupprelfed  feveral  officts,  which  were  chargeahle, 
but  uiclefs :  and  in  the  mean  time,  perceiving  the 
king's  zeal  for  the  extirpation  of  hertfy,  he  fhiit  up 
the  chamber  indituled  by  the  tdifts  of  Paris  and  Roan. 
He  pvopofed  feverally  new  regulations  concerning  cri- 
minal courts  ;  and  was  extremely  fevere  with  the  par- 
liament of  Tholoufe  for  obllrufting  the  meafures   he 


133     ]  COL 

took  to  carry  the  famS  into  execution.  His  main  de-  Colbert, 
fign  in  reforming  the  tedious  methods  of  proceeding  at  Colcheiter.^ 
law,  was  to  give  the  people  more  leifure  10  apply  them-  ' 
fclves  to  trading :  tor  the  advancement  of  which  he 
procured  an  edift,  to  ereifl  a  general  infurance-office 
at  Pari?,  for  merchants,  &c.  In  1672,  he  was  made 
miniiler  of  Hate  :  for  how  bufied  foever  he  was  in  the 
regulation  of  public  afl'airs,  yet  he  never  negietlcd  his 
own  or  his  lamily's  iutertll  and  grandeur,  or  milfed  any 
opportunity  of  advancing  either.  He  had  been  mar- 
ried many  years,  had  foiis  and  daughters  grown  up  ; 
all  of  which,  as  occafion  I'eivtd,  he  took  care  to  marry 
to  great  perlons.  For  though  he  had  no  reafon  to 
doubt  of  his  mailer's  favour,  yet  he  wifely  fecured  his 
fortune  by  powerful  alliances.  However,  bufinefs  was 
certainly  Colbert's  natural  turn  ;  and  he  not  only  loved 
it,  but  was  very  impatient  to  be  interrupted  in  it,  as 
the  following  anecdote  may  ferve  to  (how.  A  lady  of 
great  quality  was  one  day  urging  him,  when  he  was  in 
the  htij.',ht  of  his  power,  to  do  her  fome  piece  of  fer- 
vice  ;  and  perceiving  him  inattentive  and  inflexible, 
threw  herlelf  at  his  feet,  in  the  prefence  of  above  100  ' 

perfons,  crying,  "  I  beg  your  greatnefs,  in  the  name 
of  Gjd,  to  grant  rr.e  this  favour."  Upon  which  Col- 
bert, kneeling  down  ever  againft  her,  replied,  in  the 
fame  mournful  tone,  "  I  conjure  you,  madam,  in  the 
name  of  God,  not  to  dillurb  me." 

This  great  miniiler  died  of  the  (lone,  September  6. 
1683,  in  his  65ch  year;  leaving  behind  him  fix  fans 
and  three  daughters.  He  was  of  a  middle  (lature,  ra- 
ther lean  than  (at.  His  mien  was  low  and  dejeftcd, 
his  air  gloomy,  and  his  afpedl  ftern.  He  flept  little, 
and  was  very  fober.  Though  naturally  four  and  mo- 
rofe,  he  knew  how  to  aS  the  lover,  and  had  niillreffes. 
He  was  of  a  flow  conception,  but  fpoke  judici- 
oufly  of  every  thing  after  he  had  once  comprehended 
it.  He  undcrllood  bufinels  perfectly  well,  and  he  pur- 
fiit-d  it  with  unwearied  application.  Thus  he  filled 
the  moll  important  places  with  high  reputation  and 
credit;  and  his  influence  difTufed  illelf  thiough  every 
part  of  the  government.  He  reftored  the  finances, 
the  navy,  the  commerce  :  and  he  erefled  thofe  various 
works  of  art,  which  have  ever  fince  been  monuments 
of  his  talle  and  magnificence.  He  was  a  lover  of 
learning,  though  he  never  applied  to  it  himltif ;  and 
tiierefore  conferred  d  .nations  and  peniions  upon  fcho- 
lars  in  other  countries,  while  he  cllabliihed  and  pro- 
tecled  academies  in  his  own.  He  invited  into  Fiaucc 
painters,  llatuaries,  mathematicians,  and  artiils  of  all 
kinds,  who  were  any  way  eminent  :  thus  giving  new 
life  to  the  fciences,  and  making  them  flouiilh,  as  they 
did,  exceedingly.  Upon  the  whole,  he  was  a  wile,  ac- 
tive, generous-fpiiited  minifter ;  ever  attentive  to  the 
interefts  of  his  mailer,  the  happincfs  of  the  people,  the 
progrefs  of  arts  and  inanuiattures,  and  in  fliort  to 
every  thing  that  could  advance  the  credit  and  interelt 
of  his  country.  He  was  a  pattern  for  all  miniflers  o£ 
ftate  ;  and  every  nation  may  with  themfelves  bleffed 
with  a  Colbert. 

COLCHESTER,  the  capital  of  the  county  of  Ef- 
fex  in  England.  It  is  by  fome  thought  to  be  tlie  place 
mentioned  by  Antoninus  under  'the  name  of  Cuhiiia, 
different  from  Colonia  Camaloduni,  and  by  the  Saxons 
called  Ccter  Colin.  It  is  a  beautiful,  populous,  and 
plcafant  town,  extended  on  the  brow  of  a  hill  from 

caft 


13 


COL  [ 

eafl  to  v.'i.-It,  and  adorned  with  lo  churches.  It  had 
'  formerly  ftro:)g  walls  and  a  calUe,  but  now  there  are 
fcarce  any  remains  of  either.  This  place  is  faid  to 
have  given  birth  to  Fl.  Julia  Helena,  mother  to  Con- 
ftantine  the  Great,  and  daughter  to  king  Coclus,  fo 
much  celebrated  for  her  piety  and  zeal  in  propagating 
the  Chriftian  religion.  Here,  and  in  the  neighbour- 
ing towns,  is  a  great  manufacture  of  biys  and  fays. 
It  is  alfo  famous  for  its  oy'lcrs ;  in  pickling  andbarrel- 
h'ng  which,  the  inhabitants  excel.  The  rendering  na- 
vigable the  river  Coin,  on  which  the  town  Hands, 
has  greatly  promoted  its  trade  and  manufaftures.  The 
town  had  formerly  an  abbey  whofe  abbot  was  mitred 
and  fat  in  pa.liamcnt.  In  the  time  of  the  civil  wars 
it  was  befieged  by  the  parliament's  troops  and  reduced 
by  famine.  It  was  formerly  a  corporation,  but  lately 
loll  its  charter  for  fome  mildemeanor;  however,  it  ftill 
fends  two  members  to  parliament.  E.  Long.  i.  2. 
N.  Lat.  51.  ^^. 

COLCHI(Arrian,  Ptolemy),  a  town  of  the  Hither 
India  ;  thought  to  be  Cochin,  on  the  coall  of  Malabar; 
now  a  faftoiy  and  flrong  foit  of  the  Dutch.  E.  Long. 
75.  o.  N.  Lat.  10.  o. 

COLCHICUM,  meadow-saffron:  A  genus  of 
the  trigynia  order,  belonging  to  the  hexandria  clafs 
of  plants ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under 
the  ninth  order,  SpathaceiE.  The  corolla  is  fexpartite, 
with  its  tube  radicated,  or  having  its  root  in  the 
ground  ;  there  are  three  capfules,  connected  and  in- 
flated. There  are  three  fpecies,  all  of  them  bulbous- 
rooted,  low,  perennials,  poffening  the  fingnlar  property 
of  their  leaves  appearing  at  one  time,  and  their  flowers 
at  another  ;  the  former  rifing  long  and  narrow  from 
the  root  in  the  fpring,  and  decaying  in  June ;  the 
flowers,  which  are  monopetalous,  long,  tubular,  ereft, 
and  fix-parted,  rife  naked  from  the  loot  in  autumn, 
not  more  than  four  or  five  inches  high.  Their  co- 
lours affi-rd  a  beautiful  variety ;  being  purple,  va- 
riegated purple,  white,  red,  rofe- coloured,  yellow,  &c. 
with  fingle  and  double  flowers.  They  are  all  hardy 
plants,  infomuch  that  they  will  flower  though  the  roots 
happen  to  lie  out  of  the  ground  ;  but  by  this  they  are 
much  weakened.  They  are  propagated  by  offsets 
from  the  roots,  of  which  they  are  very  prolific.  Thtie 
are  to  be  taken  up  and  divided  at  the  decay  of  the 
leaf  in  fummer,  planting  the  whole  again  before  the 
Biiddle  of  AugulL  They  are  to  be  placed  at  nine  in- 
ches diftance  from  one  another,  and  three  inches  deep 
in  the  ground. 

The  root  of  this  plant  is  poifimous.  When  young 
and  full  of  fap,  its  tafte  is  very  acrid  ;  but  when  old, 
mealy  and  faint.  Two  drachms  of  it  killed  a  large 
dog  in  13  hours,  operating  violently  by  flool,  vcmit, 
and  uiine.  One  grain  of  it  fwallowed  by  a  healthy 
man,  produced  heats  in  the  flomach,  and  foon  after 
flulhing  heats  in  difl"erent  parts  of  the  body,  with  fre- 
quent fliiverings,  followed  by  colicky  pains  ;  after 
which  an  itching  in  the  loins  and  urinary  paflages  was 
perceived ;  then  came  on  a  continual  inclination  to  make 
water,  a  tenefmus,  pain  in  the  head,  quick  pulfe,  thirft, 
and  other  difagreeable  fymptoms.  Notwithftanding 
thefe  efFciSs,  howeverj'  an  infufion  of  the  roots  in  vine- 
gar, formed  into  a  fyrup  with  honey  or  fugar,  proves  a 
fefe  and  powerful  peftoral  and  diuretic,  and  is  often  of 


4     ] 


COL 


fervice  in  dropfics,  &:c.   The  virtues  of  colchlcum  feem     CokhU 
much  to  refemble  thofe  of  fquiils.     The  herrnodaclyl         It 
of  the  (hops  is  faid  to  be  the  root  of  the  variegatum,  a      ^°*"'    , ' 
fpecies  of  this  genus.  • 

COLCHIS,  a  country  of  Afia,  at  the  fouth  of 
Afiatic  Sarmatia,  call  of  the  Euxine  Sea,  north  of  Ar- 
menia, and  well  of  Iberia.  It  is  famous  for  the  expe- 
dition of  the  Argonauts,  and  as  the  birth-place  of  Mi- 
dea.  It  was  fruitful  in  poifonous  herbs,  and  produced  . 
excellent  flax.  The  inhabitants  were  originally  Egyp- 
tians, who  fettled  there  when  Sefoltris  king  of  Egypt  • 
extended  his  conquells  in  the  north. 

COLCOTHAR,  the  fubttance  remaining  after  the 
diftillation  or  calcination  of  martial  vitriol  by  a  violent 
fire.     See  Chemistry,  n°  621. 

COLD,  in  a  relative  fenfc,  fienifies  the  fenfation  n ,«„.,, 
which  accompanies  a  traniition  01  the  tine  vellels  of  the 
human  body  from  an  expanded  to  a  more  contrafted 
flate.  In  an  abfulute  fenfe,  it  fignifies  the  caufe  of 
this  tranfition ;  or,  in  general,  the  caufe  of  the  contrac- 
tion of  every  fubftance,  whether  folid  or  fluid,  in  na- 
ture. 

The  arguments  concerning  the  fubftance  of  cold  in  Cold  tends 
the  abftratt,  are  difcuffcd  under  the  article  CHEM!STRY,fo™3kebo. 
to  which  we  mull  at  picftnt  refer  the  reader.     In  that '''P ^'"^ 
article  it  is  oblervcd,  that  cold  naturally  tends  to  make  "*"' 
bodies   elettric  which  are  not  fo  naturally,  and  to   in- 
creafe  the  elettric  properties  of  thole  which  are  :  and 
in  confiimaticn  of  the  hypothefis  there  advanced,  it  may 
be  obkrved,  that  all  bodies  dp  not  tranfmit  cold  equally 
well;  but  tliat  the  beft  conduSors  t/f  eleftricity,  viz. 
metals,  ai-e  likewife  the  bell  coDcuAors  of  cold.     We  gofij^,  rg^. 
may  alfo  add,  that  when  the  cold  has  been  carried  toderedelec- 
fuch  an  extremity  as  to  render  any  body  an  elcClric,  "'''^ '')' '^oj'' 
it  then  ceafes  to  conduCl  the  cold  as  wdl  as  formerly.  f°^^^^"^." 
This  is  exemplified  in  the  pradlice  of  the  Laplanders, 1,3,,  f^f. 
and  Siberians,  where  the  cold  in  winter  is  extremely  nicrly.' 
fevere.     In  order  to  exclude  it  from  their  habitations 
the  more  cffedually,  they  cut  pieces  of  ice,  which  in 
the  winter  time   muit  always  be  eledric  in  thefe  coun- 
tries, and   put   them  into  their  windows  ;  which  they 
find  to  be  much  more  eife<5tual  in  keeping  out  the  cold 
than  any  other  fubftance. 

Cold,  as  well  as  heat,  may  be  produced  artificially, ■v^'},'*^,^^]^  , 
though  we  have  no  method  of  making  cold  increafe  it- cannot  in-  ; 
felf  as  heat  will  do.  The  rcafon  of  this  eafily  appears '^.■'''"'^ ''''='' 
from  what  is  faid  on  the  fubjetl  of  cold  under  the  ar- '''"^ ''"'• 
tide  Chemistry  :  for  if  this  confifts  in  a  partial  ceflTa- 
tion  of  motion  in  the  elementary  fluid,  it  is  plain,  that 
though  we  may  partly  put  an  end  to  this  motion  in  a 
very  fmall  part  of  it ;  yet  that  of  the  furrounding  at- 
mofphcre  extending  for  an  immenfe  way  farther  than 
we  can  extend  our  influence,  will  quickly  counteraft 
our  operations,  and  reduce  the  bodies  to  the  lame  tem- 
perature they  were  of  before.  Though  there  are  there- 
fore fome  liquids  which  by  mixture  will  produce  con- 
fiderable  degrees  of  cold  ;  yet  by  being  left  to  the  ac- 
tion of  the  furrounding  warm  atmofphere,  the  heat  i« 
quickly  communicated  from  it  to  them,  and  the  effeft 
of  the  mixture  ceafes.  The  cafe  is  very  different  with 
heat;  for  this  fluid,  of  itfclf  naturally  vei-y  much  in- 
clined to  motion,  ho  fooner  finds  an  opportunity  of 
exerting  its  aftion,  than  vail  quantities  of  what  was 
formerly  at  reft  rulh  from  all  quarters  to  the  place 

where 


COL 


[     ^55     1 


COL 


Ad  pruilu- 
cd  by  vaii. 
iisftline 
iiixturcs. 


wb»re  the  aftion  has  commenced,  and  continue  it  un- 
til tlie  equilibrium  is  reftored,  as  ij  patticulaily  explain- 
ed under  the  article  Chemistry. 

The  power  of  producing  cold  belongs  pnnicularly  to 
bodies  of  the  faline  clafs.  In  a  paper  of  the  Philofo- 
pliJcal  Tranfattlcnis,  N^  27^.,  Mr  Geoti'roy  gives  an  ac- 
count of  fLt.r.e  reraarkabie  experimenta  with  regard  to 
the  production  of  cold.  Four  ounces  of  lal  ammoniac 
dilFolved  in  a  pint  of  water,  made  liib  thermometer  dc- 
fcend  two  inches  and  three  quarters  in  lefs  than  fifteen 


below  o  ;  but  Dr  Black,  as  foon  as  the  experiment: 
was  made  known  in  this  country,  obfcrvcd,  that  in  all 
probabiHty  the  point  of  congelation  was  far  above  this. 
His  reafons  for  fuppofing  this  to  be  the  cafe  were,  that 
the  mercury  dcfcended  regularly  only  to  a  certain  point, 
after  which  it  woidd  delcjnd  fuddenly  and  by  Harts 
100  degreea  at  a  time.  This,  he  conjeftured,  might 
proceed  from  the  irregular  comraclion  of  the  metal 
after  it  was  congealed  ;  and  he  obferved,  that  there 
was  one  thermometer  employed  in  the  experiment  which 


CM. 


minutes.  An  ounce  of  the  fame  fait  pnt  into  four  or  was  not  frozen,  and  which  did  not  defcend  fo  low  by 
five  ounces  of  diililled  water,  made  the  thermometer  a  great  many  degrees.  Ejiperience  has  fince  verified 
defcend  two  inches  and  a  quarter.     Half  an  ounce  of    his  conjeAure ;  and  it  is  now  generally  known,  that 


fal  amrnoniac  mixed  with  three  ounces  of  fpirit  of 
ritre,  made  the  thermometer  defcend  two  inches  and 
five  lines  ;.  but  on  ufing  fpirit  of  vitiiol  inftead  of  nitre, 
it  funk  two  inches  and  fix  lines.  In  this  lall  experi- 
ment it  was  remarked,  that  the  vaponrs  raifed  from  the 
mixture  had  a  confiderable  degree  of  heat,  though  the 
liquid  itfclf  was-  fo  extremely  cold.  Four  ounces  of 
faltpetre  mixed  with  a  pint  of  water,  funk  the  thermo- 
meter one  inch  three  lines  ;  but  a  like  quantity  of  fea- 


40°  below  o  is  the  freezing  point  of  quickfilver. 

Since  the  difcovery  of  the  noflibility  of  producing 
cold  by  artificial  means,  various  expeiiments  havebecu 
made  on  the  efficacy  of  faline  fuljilances  in  this  way ; 
all  of  wh'ch,  when  properly  applied,  arc  found  to  have 
a  confiderable  degree  of  power.     Dr  Boerhaave  found, 
that  both  fal  ammoniac  and  nitre,  when  well  dried  in 
a  crucible,  and  reduced  to  fine  powder,  will  produce 
a  greater  degree  of  cold  than   if  they  had  not  been         y 
fait  funk   it  only    two   lines.      Acids  always  produced     treated   in  this   manner.      His  experiments   were  re- Mr  Wal- 
heat,  even  common   fait  with  its  own  fpirit.      Volatile     peated  by  Mr  Walker  apothecary  to  the  Rcdclilre  In-K'^'''^  etpc* 
alkaline  falls  produced  cold  in  propoition  to  their  pu-     firmary  in  Oxford  with  the  fame  refult :  but  he  found, ""^"^"** 
rity,  but  fixed  alkalies  hedt.  that  his  thermometer  funk  32''  by  means  of  a  folutlou 

The  greatell  degree  of  cold  produced  by  the  mixture  of    of  fal  ammoniac;  when  Boerhaavc's,  with  the  fame,, 
falts  and  aqueous  fluids  wat  that  fhown  by  M.Homberg;     fell  only  28°.      Nitre   funk   it    19°.      On  mixing  the  ^ 

two  falls  together,  he  found  that  the  power  of  produ- 
cing cold  was  confiderably  increafed.  By  equal  parts 
of  thefe  falts,  he  cooled  fomc  water  to  23°,  the  ther- 
mometer ftanding  at  47°  in  the  open  air.  Adding  to 
this  fome  powder  of  the  fame  kind,  andimmerfing  two 
fmall  phials  in  the  m.ixture,  one  containing  boiled  and 
the  other  unboiled  water,  he  foon  found  them  both 


who  gives  the  following  receipt  for  making  the  expe 
riment :  "  Take  a  pound  of  corrofive  fublimate,  and 
as  much  fal  ammoniac  ;  powder  them  feparately,  and 
mix  the  powders  very  exactly  ;  put  the  mixtuie  into 
'a  vial,  pouring  upon  it  a  pint  and  a  half  of  didilled 
vinegar,  fhaking  all  well  together."  This  conipofi- 
tion  grows  fo  cold,  that  a  man  can  fcarce  hold  it  in  his 


hands  in  furamer  ;  and  it  happened,  as  M.  Homberg  frozen,  the  unboiled  water  freezing  firft. 
was   making  the  experiment,  liiat  the  fubjcdt  froze.         Having  obferved  that  Glauber's  fait,  when  it  retains 

The  fame  thing  once  happened  to  M.  Geoffroy  in  ma-  the  water  of  cryftallization,  produces  cold  during  it3 

king  an  experiment  with  fal  ammoniac  and  water,  but  folution,  he  tried  its  power  when  mixed  with  the  other 

it  never  was  in  his  power  to  make  it  fucceed  a  fecond  falls,  and  thus  funk  the  thermometer  from  65^  to  19-;. 

time.  and  thus  he  was  able  to  freeze  water  when  the  thermo- 

If,  inftead  of  making  thefe  experiments,  however,  meter  ftood  as  high  as  70"^.    And,  laftly,  by  firft  cool- 

with  fluid  water>  we  take  it  in  its  congealed  ftate  of  ing  the  falts  in  water  in  one  mixture,  and  then  making 

ice,  or  rather  fnow,  degrees  of  cold  will  be  produced  another  of  the  cooled  thermometers,  he  was  able  to 

vaflly  fuperior  to  any  we  have  yet  mentioned.    A  mix  fink  the  thermometer  64°.     Thus  he  froze  a  mixture 

ture  of  fnow  and  common  fait  finks  Fahrenheit's  ther-  of  fpirit  of  wine  and  water  in  the  proportion  of  feven 

mometerto  o;  potaflics  and  powdered  ice  fink  it  eight  of  the  latter  to  one  of  the  former  ;  and  by  adding  a 

degrees  farther ;  two  affufions  of  fpirit  of  fait  on'pound-  quantity  of  cooled  materials  to  the  mixture  in  which 


cd  ice  funk  it  below  144-°  below  o  ;  but  by  repeat- 
ed affufions  of  fpirit  of  nitre  Mr  Fahrenheit  funk  it  to 
40"  below  o.  This  is  the  ultimate  degree  of  cold  which 
tlie  merciu-ial  theimometer  will  meafure  :  bccaufe  the 
mercury  itfelf  begins  then  to  congeal ;  and  therefore 
we  mufl:  afterwards  have  recourfe  to  fpirit  of  wine, 
naptha,  or  fome  other  'fluid  which  will  not  congeal. 
The  greateft.  degree  6f  cold  hitherto  producible  by  ar- 
tificial means  has  been  80'  below  o  ;  which  was  done 


this  was  frozen,  the  thermometer  funk  to  — 4,  or  69°. 
Spirit  of  nitre  diluted  with  water  reduced  the  thermo- 
meter to  — 3  ;  and,  by  the  addition  offal  ammoniac, 
to  --15.  Nitrous  ammoniac  reduced  it  from  50'  to 
15" ;  but  the  cold  was  not  augmented  by  the  addition 
of  fal  ammoniac  or  nitre.  g 

The  mofl;  remarkable  experiment,  however,  was  His  metliad 
with  fpirit  of  nitre  poured  on  Glauber's  fait,  the  ef-  "f  freezing- 
feft  of  which  was  found  to  be  fimilar  to  that  of  the  1"'''^'''*''' 


at  Hudfon's  Bay  by  means  of  fnow  and  vitriolic  acid,  fame  fpirit  poured  on  ice  or  fnow;  and  the  addition  of 

the   thermometer  Handing  naturally  at  20°  below   o.  fal  ammoniac  rendered  the  cold  (till  more  intenfe.  The 

Greater  degrees  of  cold  than  this  have  indeed  been  fup-  pioportions  of  thefe  ingredients  recommended  by  Mr 

pofed.     Mr  Martin,  in  his  Treatife  on  Heat,  relates.  Walker  are  concentrated  nitrous  acid  two   parts  by 

that  at  Kirenga  in- Siberia,  the  mercurial  thermometer  weight,  water  one  part;  of  this  mixture  cooled  to  the 

funk  to  1 1 8°  below  o;  and  Profeffor  Brown  at  Peterf-  temperature  of  the  atmofphere  1  8  ounces,  of  Glauber's, 

burg,  when  he  made  the  firfl:  experiment  of  congeal-  fait  a  pound  and  an  half  avoirdupois,  and  of  fal  am- 

ing  quickfilver,  fixed  the  point  of  congelation  at  350"  moniac  12  ounces.     On  adding  the  Glauber's  fait  to 

3.  tli£ 


COL  [ 

C'  M.      tlie  nitrons  aciil,  tlic  tliL-nnomcterftll  from  50'  to  — i", 
~~v or  52  degrees;  and  on  the  addition  of  the  i'al  animonific, 


to  —  9°.  Thns  Mr  Walker  v,-as  able  to  freeze  quick- 
iilver  without  either  ice  or  fiiow,  when  ihc  thermo- 
meter Hood  at  45'.  For  the  experiment  four  pans 
were  procured  of  different  fizes,  fo  rliat  one  might  be 
put  within  the  other.  The  largeft  of  thcfe  pans  was 
placed  in  a  vefftl  ftiU  larger,  in  which  the  materials  for 
the  fecond  frigorific  mixtin-e  were  thinly  fpread  in  or- 
der to  be  cooled  ;  the  fecond  pan,  containing  the  li- 
quor, iiiz..  the  vitriolic  acid  properly  diluted,  was  pla- 
ced in  the  largeft  pan  ;  the  third  pan,  containing  the 
falts  for  the  third  mixture,  was  immerfed  in  the  liquor 
of  the  fecond  pan  ;  and  the  liquor  for  the  third  mix- 
ture was  put  into  widc-mouthtd  phials,  which  were 
immerfed  in  the  fecond  pan  likewife,  and  floated  round 
the  third  pan  ;  the  fourth  pan,  wh'ch  was  the  fmalleft 
of  all,  containing  its  cooling  materials,  was  placed  in 
the  midft.  of  the  falts  of  the  third  pan.  The  materials 
for  t!)e  firft  and  fecond  mixtures  confifted  of  diluted 
vitriolic  acid  and  Glauber's  fait ;  the  third  and  fourth  of 
diluted  nitrous  acid,  Glauber's  fait,  and  fal  ammoniac, 
in  the  proportions  above  mentioned.  The  pans  being 
adjulled  in  the  manner  already  mentioned,  the  mate- 
rials of  the  firil  and  largeft  pan  were  mixed  :  this  re- 
duced the  thermometer  to  10',  and  cooled  the  liquor 
in  the  fecond  pan  to  20^ ;  and  the  falts  for  the  fecond 
mixture,  which  were  placed  underneath  in  the  large 
veflel,  nearly  as  much.  The  fecond  mixture  was  then 
made  with  the  materials  thus  cooled,  and  the  thermo- 
meter was  reduced  to  3°.  The  ingredients  of  the  third 
mixture,  by  immerfion  in  this,  were  cooled  to  10^; 
and,  when  mixed,  reduced  the  thermometer  to — 15; 
The  materials  for  the  fourth  mixture  were  cooled  by 
jmmerfion  in  this  third  mixture  to  about  -  12°.  On 
mixture  they  funk  the  mercury  very  rapidly,  and  feem- 
ingly  below  —  40%  though  the  froth  occafioned  by  the 
ebullition  of  the  materials  prevented  any  accurate  ob- 
fervation.  The  rtafon  why  this  laft  mixture  reduced 
the  thermometer  more  than  the  third,  though  both 
were  of  the  fame  materials,  and  the  latter  of  a  lower 
temperature,  was  iuppofcd  to  have  been  part'y  becaufe 
the  fourth  pan  had  not  another  immerfed  in  it  to  give 
it  heat,  and  partly  becaufe  the  materials  were  reduced 
to  a  finer  powder. 

The  experiments  were  repeated  with  many  varia- 
tions ;  but  only  one  mixture  appeared  to  Dr  lieddoes, 
by  whom  the  account  was  communicated  to  the  Royal 
Society,  to  be  applicable  to  any  ufeful  purpofe.  This 
is  oil  of  vitriol  diluted  with  about  an  equal  quantity  of 
water ;  which,  by  diflblving  Glauber's  fait,  produces 
about  46°  of  cold,  and  by  the  addition  of  fal  ammoniac 
becomes  more  intenfe  by  a  few  degrees.  At  one  time, 
when  Mr  Walker  was  trying  a  mixture  of  two  parts  of 
<jil  of  vitriol  and  one  of  water,  he  perceived,  that  at 
the  temperature  of  35°  the  mixture  coagulated  as  if 
frozen,  and  the  thermometer  became  ftationary  ;  but 
on  adding  more  Glauber's  fait,  it  fell  a;;aln  in  a  fliort 
time  :  but  lefs  cold  was  produced  than  when  this  cir- 
cumftance  did  not  occur,  and  when  the  acid  was 
weaker.  The  fame  appearance  of  coagulation  took 
place  with  other  proportions  of  acid  and  water,  and 
with  other  temperatures. 

It  is  obfervable,   that  this  effeft  of  Glaubei's  fait  in 
producing  cold  took  place  only  when  it  was  pofTcffed 
N^  84.  2 


136     1  COL 

',  of  its  water  of  cr^'ftallization  ;  and  thus  the  mineral 
alkali  a'fo  augmented  the  cold  of  fome  of  the  mix- 
tures :   but  when  the  water  of  cn'ftallization  was  dif 


CqU. 


9 

O'f'^rva- 
fipatcd,  neither  of  them  luid  any  eff'cft  of  this  kind.  j|„„,„„  ^y^^. 

"This  circumftance  (fays,  Dr  Beddoes)  leads  us  in  exjicrimtm, 
fome  raeafiire  to  the  theoiy  of  the  phenomenon  Wa- 
ter undoubtedly  exifts  in  a  folid  ftate  in  cryftals ;  it 
muft  therefore,  as  in  other  cafes,  abforb  a  determinate 
quantity  of  fire  before  it  can  return  to  its  liquid  ftate. 
On  this  dcpenids  the  difference  between  Glauber's  fait 
and  mineral  alkali  in  its  different  rtates  of 'Cryftalliza- 
tion  and  cfflorefcence.  The  fame  circum.ttance,  too, 
enables  us  to  underftand  the  great  effeft  of  Glauber's 
fait  ;  which,  as  far  as  I  underftand,  has  the  greatell 
quantity  of  water  of  cryftallization."  On  this  the  re- 
viewers remark,  that  "if  in  fummer  the  water  brought 
from  a  deep  well  is  at  52^,  in  this  clieap  and  eafy  way 
it  might  be  reduced  to  12'^;  and  wine  placed  in  it 
woidd  be  chilled." 

Thefe  exceflive  degrees  of  cold  occur  naturally  in 
many  parts  of  the  globe  in  the  winter-time.  It  is 
true,  we  are  very  much  unacquainted  with  them  in  this 
country:  yet  in  the  \yinter  of  1780,  Mr  Wilfon  of 
Glafgow  obfei-ved,  that  a  therm.ometer  laid  on  the 
fnow  funk  to  25  below  o  ;  but  this  was  only  for  a 
fhort  lime  ;  and  in  general  our  atmofphere  does  not 
admit  of  very  great  degrees  of  cold  for  any  length  of 
time.  Mr  Derham,  however,  in  the  year  1708,  ob- 
ferved  in  England,  that  the  mercuiy  fk>od  w'lthin  one- 
tenth  of  an  inch  of  its  ftation  when  plunged  into  a 
mixture  of  fnow  and  fait.  In  1732,  the  thermometer 
at  Peterfburg  flood  at  28°  below  o;  and  in  1737, 
when  the  French  academicians  wintered  at  the  north 
polar  circle,  or  near  it,  the  thermometer  funk  to  33" 
below -o;  and  in  the  Afiatic  and  American  continents, 
ftiU  greater  degrees  of  cold  are  very  common. 

The  elfedls  of  thefe  extreme  degrees  of  cold  are  very 
furprifmg.  Trees  are  burll,  rocks  rent,  and  rivers  and 
lakes  frozen,  fcveral  feet  deep :  metallic  fubftances 
bllfter  the  flcin  like  red-hot  iron  :  the  air,  -when 
drawn  in  by  refpiration,  hurts  the  lungs,  and  excites 
a  cough  :  even  the  effefts  of  fire  in  a  great  meafure 
feem  to  ceafe  ;  and  it  is  obferved,  thac  though  metals 
are  kept  for  a  confiderable  time  before  a  ftrong  fire, 
they  will  ft  ill  freeze  water  when  thrown  upon  them. 
When  the  French  mathematicians  wintered  at  Tornea 
in  Lapland,  the  external  air,  when  fuddenly  admitted 
into  their  rooms,  converted  the  moil-lure  of  the  air  into 
whirls  of  fnow  ;  their  breafts  feemed  to  be  rent  when 
they  breathed  it,  and  the  contadt  of  it  was  intolerable 
to  their  bodies  ;  and  the  fpirit  of  wine,  which  had  not 
been  higlily  reflified,  burll  fome  of  their  thermometers 
by  the  congelation  of  the  aqneous  part. 

Extreme  cold  very  often  proves  fatal  to  animals  in 
thofe  countries  where  the  winters  are  very  fevere  ;  and 
thus  7000  Swedes  periflied  at  once  in  attempting  to 
pafs  the  mountains  Vvhich  divide  Norwa\-  from  Sweden. 
It  is  not  necelfary,  indeed,  that  the  cold,  in  order  to 
prove  fatal  to  the  human  life,  ftiould  be  fo  very  intenfe 
asJias  been  jull  mentioned.  There  is  only  requifite  a 
degree  fomewhat  below  32'  of  Fahrenheit,  accompa- 
nied with  fnow  or  hail,  from  which  fhelter  cannot  be  ' 
obtained.  The  fnow  which  falls  upon  the  clothes,  or 
the  uncovered  parts  of  the  body,  then  melts,  and  by 
a  continual  evaporation  carries  off  the  animal  heat  to 

fuch 


COL  r     T,;7     I  COL 

fucTi  a  Jcgjrce,  that  a  fiiif.cicnt  quantity  is^ not  left  for  heathy  mnor,  wlicre  it  was  fituati;d,  mi^rjit  be   fufTi^i- 

llie  fiijiport  of  life.     In  fiich  cafes,  the  iierfon  lirll  feels  tm  to  i^uitd  the  fair  inhabitants  of  the^nuiiiic^ry  were 

himfdf  extremely  chill  and  uneafy  ;  he  begins  to  turn  it  dill  fiibfidint^.      Th^t   defcriptioii,  however,  is   now 

liftkfs,  unwilling  to  walk  or  life  exerci-e  to  keep  him-  altogether  inapplicable  :  Tiie    whole  tia^,  five    miles 

fcii  warm  ;  and  at  laft  turns  drowfy,   fits  down  to  re-  over,     has    been    fiace   improved,  and  converted  into 

frefii  himfelf  with  (leep,  but  wakes  no  more.      An  in-  corn   fiilds;   the  cheerlefs  village  of  Old  Cambus  is  no 

fiance  of  this  was  feen   not  many  years  ago  at  Terra  more  ;   a  decent   inn   with   good  accommodations    has 

del   Fucgo  ;   where   Dr  Solander,  with    fome   others,  been  eftabliflied  at  a  convenient  diltance  ;  and  the  paf- 

having   taken  an  excurfion  up  tlie  countiy,  the  cold  fage  of  the  R-ep  glen  calJed  ihe   P^a/e,   which  ternii- 

was.  fo  intenfe,  that  one  of  their  number  died.     The  nates  the  moor  on   the  road  towards  Edinburgh,  anil 

Dotlor  himfelf,  though  he  had  warned  his  companions  was  formerly  the  terror  of  travellers,  is  now  r;?iidered 

of  the  danger  of  llecping   in  that  fituation,   yet  could  fafe  and  eafy  by  means  of  a  bridge  extending  from  one 

not  be  prevented  from  making  that  dangerous  experi-  fide  of  the  eliafm,  to  the  other. 

ment   himfelf;   and  though   he   was   awaked  with  all  COLDINGIIEN,  a  town  of  Denmark,  in  North 

poflible   expedition,  his  body  was  fo  much  Ihrunk  in  Jutland,  and   dioccfe   of  Ripen.      It  is  remarkable  for 

'bulk,   that   his    (lioes  fe'l  off  his  feet,  and  it  was  witii  its    bridge,   over   which  pafs  all   the   oxen    and   other 

the  utmoft  difficulty  that  he  was  recovered.  cattle  that  go  from  Jutland  into  Cirmany,  which  brings 

In  thofe  parts  of  the  world  where  vail  mafles  of  ice  in  a  confiderable  revenue  to  the  king.      It  is  feated  on 

are  produced,  the  accumulation  of  it,  by  abforbing  the  an  eminence,   in    a   pleafant   country   abounding   with 


heat  cf  the  atmofphere,  occafious  an  abfolute  fterility 
in  the  adjacent  countries,  as  is  particularly  the  cafe 
with  the  illaud  of  Iceland  ;  where  the  vaft  collettions 
of  ice  floating  out  from  the  Northern  Ocean,  and  flop- 
ped on  that  coail,  are  fometimes  fcveral  years  in  thaw- 
ing.     Indeed,  where  great  quantities  of  ice  are  collcc 


game.      E.  Long.  9.  25.   N.  Lat.  ^;.  35. 

COLD  FINCH,  a  fpecies  of  Mot.icilla. 

COLD-SHIRE  IRON,  that  which  is  brittle  wlien 
cold. 

COLE  (William),  the  mod  famous  botanift  of  his 
time,  was  born  at  Adderbury  in  Oxfordfliire,  abr-ut  the 


ted,  it  would  feem  to  have  a  power  like  fire,  both  aug-  year  1626,  and  ftudied  at  Merton  college  in  Oxford 
menting  Its  own  cold  and  that  of  the  adjacent  bodies.  He  at  length  removed  to  Putney,  near  London;  and 
An  initance  of  this  is  related  mider  the  article  Eva-  publidied  "The  Art  of  Sirnpling;  and  Adam  in  Eden, 
PORATiON,  in  Mr  Wedgewood's  experiment,  where  or  Nature's  Paiadife."  LTpon  the  refloration  of  kmg 
the  true  caufe  of  this  phenomenon  is  alfo  pointed  out.       Charles  IL  he  was  made  fecretary  to  Dr  Duppa,  bilhop 

Cold,  in  medicine.     See  MEr)!ciNE-//«/i-.v.  of  Wincbefter  ;  but  died  two  rears  after,  aged  37. 

Cold,   in  farriery.      See  thcie,  §  iii.  COLE  fish,  a  fpecies  of  Gadus. 

COLDENIA,  in  botany  :  A  genus   of  the  tetra-         CoLE-Smf,  the   feed  of  the  tii7p:/s  fat'va,  or  long- 
gynia  order,  belonging  to  the  tetrandria  clafs  of  plant!.;     rooted,  narrow.leaved  rapa,  called   in   'E.ngViGn  navcw, 

End  in  the  natural  method  ranked  among  thofe  the  or-  and  reckoned  by  I^innieus  among  the  braflicas,  or  cab- 
der  of  which  is  doubtful.     The  calyx  is  tetraphyllous  ;     bage-kind.      See  Brassica. 

the  corolla    funnel  (haped  ;   the   llyles  four;  the  feeds         This  plant   is  cultivated  to  great  advantage  in  many 

two  and  bilocular.     There  is  but  one  fpecies,  a  native  parts  of  England,  on  account  of  the  rape  oil  exprefild 

of  India.      It  is  an  annual  plant,  whofe  branches  trail  from   its  feeds.     The  practice   of  fowing   it  was  firft 

on  the  ground,   extending   about    fix   inches   from  the  introduced    by   thofe    Germans   and    Dutchmen   who 

root.      They  are  adorned  with  fmall  blue  flowera  grow-  drained  the  fens  of  Lincolnfliire  ;  and  hence  the  notion 

ing  in  chillers,  which  come  out  from  the  wings  of  the  hath  generally  prevailed,  that   it   will   thrive  only  in  a 

leaves.     They  are  propagated  by  feeds  fown  on  a  hot-  maifliy  foil;  but  this  is  now  found  to  be  a  millakc.    In 

bed;   when  ttie  plants  come  up,  they  may  be  removed  preparing  the   land  which   is   to   receive   it,  care  mud 

each  into  a  fcparate  pot,  and  plunged  into  a  iiot-bcd  of  be  taken   to  plow   it    in   May,  and   again  about  mid- 

tannei's  haik,  where  they  are  to  remain  conftantly.  fummer,   making   the   ground  as  fine  and  even  as  pof- 

COLDINGHAM,  fuppofed  to  be  the    Coktna  of  fible.      It  is  to  be  fown  the  very  day  of  the  lad  plow- 

Ptol,  my,  and  called  by  Bede  the  city  Coldana  and  of  ing,  about  a  gallon  on  an  acre.     la  the  months  of  Ja. 

Colud  (Coludum),  fituated  on  the  borders  of  Scotland,  nuary,  February,  and  March,  it  affords  very  good  food 

about    two    miles  from  Eyinouth,  was  a  place  famous  for  cattle,  and  will  fprout  again  when  cut ;  after  whicb 

many  ages  ago  for  its  convent.     This  was  the  oldcil  it  is  excellent  nouiifiiment   for  flieep.     After  all,  if  it 

nunnery  in   Scotland,   for  here  the  virgin-wife  Ethel-  is   not   too  clofcly  fed,  it   will  bear   feed  againlt  next 

dreda  took  the   veil  in  670;  but  by  the  ancient  name  July.     The   fame   caution,  however,  is  requifite  with 

Coludum  it  (hould  feem  that  it  had  before  been  inhabited  this  food  as  with  clover,  till   cattle  are  accudomed  to 

by  the  religious  called  Cuhlees.    In  870  it  was  deflroyed  it,  otherwife  it  is  apt  to  fwtll  them.     When  this  plant 

by  the  Danes,  but  its  name  rendered  immortal  by  the  is  cultivated   folely  with   a  view   to   the  feed,   it  mud 

heroifm  of  its  nuns  ;  who,  to  preferve  themfelves   in-  be  f  iwn  on   deep  llrong  land  without  dung,  and  mud 

violate  from  thofe  invaders,  cut  off  their  lips  and  nofes  ;  be  I  offered  to  ftand  till  one-half  of  the   feeds  at  lead 

and  thus  rendering  themfelves  objcfts  of  horror,  were,  are   turned   brown  ;  which,  according   to  the  fcafons, 

with  their  abbefs  Ebba,  burnt  in  the  monaftery  by  the  will  be  fometimes  fooner  fometimes  later.      In  this  date 

dil.ppointed  favayes.     After  this  it  lay  deftrted  till  the  it  is  to  be   cut   in   the  fame  manner  and  witli  tlie  fame 

year  1098,  when  king  Edgar  founded  on  its  fite  a  priory  care  as  wheat  ;  and  every  handful   as   it  is  cut  is  to  be 

of  btr.idirtiiics  in  honour  of  St  Cuthbert,  and  bettowed  regulaily  ranged   on    dieets,   that   it   may  dry  leifurcly 

it  01;  t   e  monks  of  Durham.  in  the  fun,  which  will   commonly  be   in   a  fortnight  ; 

Ml-   Peniiant'i    dtfcription    of  the    black,    joylefs,  after  which  it  is  to  be  carefully  threlhcd  out,  and  car- 
VoL.  V.  Part  L  S  rieJ 


COL  [     13S     1  COL 

•Coleoptera  pled  to  the  mill  for  expreffing  the  oil.    The  produce  of  of  preaching  and  expounding  the  fcriptures;  and  foon   Colibtrtj 

"  cole-feed  is  generally  from  five  to  eight  quarters  on  an  after  eftaWlfhed  a  perpetual  divinity  kdlure  in  St  Paul's 
.  '-"^'-  2j,^g  .  j,p(^  jj,  cnmmonly  fold  atzos.  per  quarter.  church,  three  days  in  every  week. ;  an  inftitiition  which  °  ""^' 
'  COLEOPTERA,  ot  Beetle,  the  name  of  Lin  gradually  made  way  for  the  reformation.  About  the  * 
"•  nous's  firll  on^'-r  of  infefts.  See  Zoology.  year  1508,  dean  Colet  formed  his  plan  for  the  fo -n- 
COLEWORT.  See  Brassica.  dation  of  St  Paul's  fchool,  which  hecompl-ted  in  1512, 
COLERAIN,  a  large  town  of  Ireland,  in  the  and  endowed  with  eftates  to  the  amount  of  L.  I  2  i  and 
county  of  Londonderry  and  province  of  Ulller;  feat-  upwards.  Trie  celebrated  grammarian,  William  Lilye, 
ed  on  the  river  Bann,  four  miles  foiith  of  the  ocean,  was  his  firft  mafter,  and  the  company  of  mercers  were 
in  W.  Long.  7.  2.  N.  Lat.  55.  10.  It  was  formerly  appointed  truftecs.  The  dean's  notions  of  religion 
a  place  of  great  confideration,  being  the  chief  tov/n  were  fo  much^more  rational  than  thofe  of  his  cotem- 
of  a  county  erefted  by  Sir  John  Perrot,  during  his  porary  priells,  .that  they  deemed  him  little  better  than 
government  of  Ireland;  whereas  it  is  now  only  the  ahfetic;  and  on  that  account  he  was  to  frequently 
head  of  one  of  the  baronies  in  the  county  of  Lon-  molelied,  that  he  at  lall  determined  to  fpend  the  relt 
donderry  ;  but  it- is  ftlU  a  corporation,  and  fends  two  of  his  days  in  peaceful  retirement.  With  this  intcn- 
mcmbers  to  parliament.  It  is  of  a  tolerable  fize,  and  tion  he  built  a  houfe  rear  the  palace  at  Richmond  ; 
very  clceanlly  built.  The  port  is  very  indifferent,  oc-  but,  being-feized  with  the  fweating  ficknefs,  he  died 
cafioned  by  the  extreme  rapidity  of  the  river,  which  in  15 19,  in  the  53d  year  of  bis  age.  He  was  buried 
repels  the  tide,  and  makes  the  coming  up  to  the  town  on  the  fouth  hde  ot  the  choir  of  St  Paul's  ;  and  a 
difficult  •  fo  that  it  has  but  little  trade,  and  might  per-  ftone  was  laid  over  his  grave,  with  no  other  infcription 
haps  have  lefs,  if  it  was  not  for  the  valuable  falmon  than  his  name.  Beiides  the  preferments  ah  jve  men- 
filhery  which  amounts  to  fome  thoufand  pounds  a-  tioned,  he  was  reftor  of  the  guild  of  Jelus  at  St 
■vear.  If  the  navigation  of  the  Bann  could  be  open-  Paul's,  and  chaplain  to  king  Henry  VIII.  Dean  Co- 
ed, which  is  totally  obftrufted  by  a  ridge  of  rocks,  let,  though  a  papift,  was  an  enemy  to  the  grofi  fuper- 
it  would  quickly  change  the  face  of  things  ;  for  then,  (litions  of  the  church  of  Rome.  He  difapproved  au- 
by  the  help  of  this  river,  and  the  Newry  canal,  there  ricular  conftlfion,  the  celibacy  of  the  priefts,  and  fuch 
would  be  a  direft  communication  acrofs  the  kingdom,  other  ridiculous  tenets  and  ceremonies  as  have  ever 
and  with  the  affiftance  of  the  Black-water  river,  which  been  condemned  by  men  of  found  underftanding  in 
likewife  falls  into  Lough  Ncagh,  almoft  all  the  coun-  every  age  and  country.  He  wrote,  l.  Rudinwtita  gram- 
ties  of  the  province  of  Ulller  might  have  a  corrcfpond-  inatica.  2.  The  conftru£lion  of  the  eight  parts  of 
ence  with  each  other  by  water-carriage,  to  their  reel-  fpeech.  3,  Daily  devotions.  4.  Ep'ijlah  ad Erafmum. 
procal  and  very  great  emolument.                                           5.  Several  fermons  ;  and  other  works  which   Hill   re- 

COLES  (Elilha),  author  of  the  well  known  Latin     main  in  manufcript. 
and  Englilh  diftionary,  was  born  in  Northamptonlhire  COLIBERTS  i^Colilerh'),  in  law,  were  tenants  in 

about  the  year  1640  ;  and  was  entered  of  Magdalene  foccage,  and  particularly  luch  villeins  as  were  nianu- 
Collese  Oxford,  which  he  left  without  taking  a  de-  mitted  or  made  freemen.  But  they  had  not  an  abfo- 
gree  •  and  taught  Latin  to  young  people,  and  Englifh  lute  freedom  ;  for  though  they  were  better  than  fer- 
to  forei'Tners,  in  London,  about  the  year  1663.  He  vants,  yet  they  Ifad  fuperior  loids  to  whom  they  paid 
afterwards  became  an  ulher  in  Merchant  taylor's  Ichool;  certain  duties,  and  in  that  refpctl  might  be  called  fer- 
but  for  fome  great   fault,  nowhere   expreisly  mention-     vants,  though  they  were  of  middle  condition  between 


ed,  he  was  forced  to  withdraw  to  Ireland,  whence  he 
never  returned.  He  was,  however,  a  good  critic  in 
the  Englifh  and  Latin  tongues  ;  and  wrote  feveral  ufe- 
ful  b'^oks  of  inftrudtion  in  his  profefTion. 

COLET  (John),  dean  of  St  Paul's,  the  fon  of  Hen- 
ry Colet  knight,  was  born  in  London  in  the  year  1466. 
His  edncatioV  began  in  St  Anthony's  fchool  in  that 
city,  from  whence,  in  1483,  he  was  fent  to  Oxford, 
and  prob.ibly  to  Magdalene  college.     After  feven  years 


freemen  and  lervants. 

COLIC,  a  fevere  pain  in  the  lower  venter,  fo  call- 
ed becaufe  the  colon  was  fotmerly  fuppofed  to  be  the 
part  affefted.      See  MEDiciNE-/n(/i?.v. 

Colic,   in  farriery.      See  there,   ^  xiii. 

COLIG.NI  (Gafpard  de),  admiral  of  France,  was 
born  in  15  16.  He  fignalized  himfelf  in  his  youth,  in 
the  reigns  of  Francis  I.  and  Henry  II.  and  was  made 
colonel  of  infantry  and  admiral   of  France   in    1552.. 


fludy  of  logic   and  philofophy,   he  took  his  degrees  in     Henry  II.  employed  him  in  the  mofl  important  affaits  ; 

arts.     About  the  year  1493,  Mr  Colet  went  to  Paris, 

and  thence  to  Italv,  probably  with  a  dellgn  to  improve 

himfelf  in   the    Greek  and  Latin  languages,  which  at 

■this   time   were  imperfeftly  taught   in  our  univerfities. 

On  his  return  to  England  in  1497,  he  took  orders  ;  and 

returned  to  Oxf  ird,   where  he  read  ledtures  grath,  on 

the  epilUes  of  St  Paul.     At  this  time  he  poffcffed  the 


but  after  the  death  of  that  prince,  he  embraced  the  re- 
formed ricligion,  and  became  the  chief  of  the  Prote- 
ftant  party  :  he  ftrongly  oppofed  the  houfe  of  Guife, 
and  rendered  this  oppofilion  fo  powerful,  that  it  was 
thought  he  would  have  overturned  the  French  go- 
vernment. On  the  peace  made  after  the  battles  of 
Jarnac  and  Montcontour,  Charles  IX.  deluded  Coligni 


reftory  of  Dennington   in   Suffolk,  to  which   he  had  into   fecurity  by  his  deceitful  favours  ;  and  though  he 

been  inftituted   at   the  age  of  19.      He  was   alfo  pre-  recovered  one  attempt  on   his   life,  when  he  attended 

bendary  of  Yoik,  and  canon  of  St  Martin's  le  Grand  the  nuptials  of  the  prince  of  Navarre,  yet  he  was  in- 

in  London.      In  i  J02  he  became  prebendary  of  Sa rum;  eluded   in  the   dreadful  maffacre  of  the  Pj-oteftants  on 

prebendary  of  St  Paul's  in  1505  ;  and  immediately  at-  St  Bartholomew's-day  1572,  and  his  body  treated  with 

ter  dean  of  that   cathedral,   having   previouf.y    taken  wanton  brutality  by  a  mifguided  Popifh  populace, 
the  degree   of  doftor  of  divinity.     He  was  no  fooner  COLIMA,  a  fea-port  town  of  Mexico   in   North, 

jaifcd  to  this  dignity,  than  lie  introduced  the  practice  America,  and  capital  of  a  fertile  valley  of  the  fame  ■ 

5__  name. . 


COL  [     I 

name.    It  !s  feated  at  the  mouth  of  a  river  in  W.  Long. 
log.  f>.  N.  Lat.  i8.  ^o. 

COLIOURE,  a  fmall,  but  ancient  and  ftrong  town 
of  France,  in  Roufillon,  feated  at  the  foot  of  the  Py- 
renenn  moiunains,  with  a  fmall  harbour.  E.  L  ing. 
3.  10.  N.  Lat.  43.  24. 

COLIR,  an  officer  in  China,  who  may  properly  be 
called  an  infpeftor,  having  an  eye  over  what  pnffLS  in 
every  court  or  tribunal  of  the  empire.  In  order  to 
render  him  impartial,  he  is  kept  independent,  by  ha- 
ving his  poll  for  life.  The  power  of  the  colirs  is  fuch, 
that  they  make  even  the  printes  of  the  blood  tremble. 

COLISEUM,  or  Coliseum,  in  the  ancient  archi- 
tefture,  an  oval  amphitheatre,  built  at  Rome  by  Ve- 
fpafian,  in  the  place  where  ftood  the  bafon  of  Nero's 
gilded  lioufe.  The  word  is  formed  from  colofnum,  on 
account  of  the  coloffus  of  Nero  that  ftood  near  it  ; 
or,  according  to  Nardini,  from  the  Italian  coUfeo.  In 
this  were  placed  llatues,  reprcfenting  all  the  provinces 
of  the  empire  ;  in  the  middle  whereof  ftood  that  of 
Rome,  holding  a  golden  apple  in  her  hand.  The  fame 
term,  (olifium,  is  alfo  given  to  another  amphitheatre  of 
the  emperor  Severus.  In  thefe  colifea  were  reprefented 
fames,  and  combats  of  men  and  wild  beafts  ;  but  there 
are  now  little  remaining  of  either  of  them,  time  and 
war  having  reduced  them  to  ruins. 

COLITES,  in  natural  hiftory,  a  name  given  by 
fome  writers  to  a  kind  of  pebble,  found  in  the  fhape 
of  the  human  penis  and  telles,  and  that  either  fepa- 
rately  or  bath  together. 

COLLAERT  (Adrian),  an  eminent  engraver  who 
fiouriihtd  about  1550,  was  born  at  Antwerp.  After 
having  learned  in  his  own  country  the  firft  principles 
of  engraving,  he  went  to  Italy,  where  he  refided  fome 
time  to  perfeft  himfelf  in  drawing.  He  worked  en- 
tirely with  the  graver,  in  a  firm  neat  ftyle,  but  rather 
ftiff  and  dry.  The  vail  number  of  plates  executed  by^ 
his  hand  fufficiently  evince  the  facility  with  which  he 
engraved  ;  and  though  exceedingly  neat,  yet  they  are 
feldom  highly  finiihed. 

CoLLAERT  (Hans  or  Jiihn),  fon  to  the  foregoing, 
was  alfo  an  excellent  artift.  He  drew  and  engraved 
exaftly  in  the  ftyle  of  his  father  ;  and  was  in  every 
refpeft  equal  to  him  in  merit.  He  mull  have  been 
very  old  when  he  died  ;  for  liis  prints  are  dated  from 
1555  to  1622.  He  aflifled  his  father  in  all  his  great 
v.'orks,  and  engraved  befides  a  prodigious  number  of 
plates  of  various  fubjefts.  One  of  his  beft  prints  is 
Mofesjli-ihing  the  roch,  a  large  print,  lengthwife,  from 
Lambeit  Lombard.  A  great  number  of  fmall  figures 
are  introduced  into  this  print  ;  and  they  are  admirably 
well  executed  :-the  heads  are  fine,  and  the  drawing 
very  correfl. 

COLLAR,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  foit  of  chain  put 
generally  round  the  ntck  of  flavcs  that  had  run  away, 
after  they  wci'e  taken,  with  an  infcriptiou  round  it, 
intimating  their  being  deft:rtcrs,  and  requiring  their 
being  leitored  to  their  proper  owners,  &c. 

Collar,  in  a  more  modern  fenfe,  an  ornament 
confifting  of  a  chain  of  gold,  enamelled,  frequently  fet 
with  ciphers  or  other  devices,  with  the  badge  of  the 
order  hanging  at  the  bottom,  wore  by  the  knights  of 
feveral  military  orders  over  their  flioulders,  on  the 
mantle,  and  its  figure  drawn  round  their  armories. 

Thus,  the  collar  of  the  order  of  the  garter  confifts 


39     ]     .  COL 

of  S.  S.  with  rofes  enamelled  red,  within  a  garter  en- 
amelled blue,  and  the  George  at  the  bottom. 

Lord  Mayor's  Collar  is  more  ulually  called  chain. 
See  Chain. 

Knights  of  the  Collar,  a  military  order  in  the  re- 
public of  Venice,  called  alfo  the  order  of  St  Mark,  or 
the  medal.  It  is  the  doi^e  and  the  fenate  that  confer 
this  order;  the  knights  bear  no  particular  habit,  only 
the  collar,  which  the  doge  puts  around  their  neck, 
wich  a  medal,  wherein  is  reprefented  the  winged  lion 
of  the  rcpirblic. 

CoLLAK  of  a  Drmighl-horfe,  a  part  of  harnefs  made 
of  leather  and  canvas,  and  ItufTcd  with  ftraw  or  wool, 
to  be  pirt  about  the  horfe's  neck. 

COLLARAGE,  a  tax  or  fine  laid  for  the  collars 
of  wlne-drawirH'  horfes. 

COLLATERAL,  any  thing,  place,  country,  &c. 
fituated  by  the  fide  of  another. 

Collateral,  in  genealogy,  thofe  relations  which 
proceed  fr'om  the  fame  ftock,  but  not  in  the  fame  line 
of  afcendents  or  defcendents,  but  being,  as  it  were,  afide 
of  each  other.  Thus,  uncles,  aunts,  nephews,  niecc,s, 
and  coufins,  arc  collatetals,  or  in  the  fame  collateral 
line  :  thofe  in  a  higher  degree,  and  nearer  the  com- 
mon root,  leprefent  a  kind  of  paternity  with  regard 
to  thofe  more  remote.      See  CoNSANGurNrTY. 

Collateral  Succejfwn.  When  a  defrrnCl,  for  want 
of  heirs  dcfcended  of  himfelf,  is  lucceeded  in  his  eftate 
by  a  brother  or  fitter,  or  their  defcendents,  the  eftate 
is  faid  to  have  gone  to  collateral  heirs. 

COLLATI A  (anc.  geog.),  a  town  of  the  Sabines  ; 
thought  to  be  dlllant  between  four  or  five  miles  out  of 
Rome  to  the  call;  fituated  on  an  eminence  (Virgil).  Of 
this  place  was  Tarquinius  CoUatinus,  married  to  Lucre- 
tia,  ravifhed  by  Sextus  Tarquinius  (Livy)  ;  fituated  on 
this  or  on  the  left  fide  of  the  Aiiio  (Pliny).  Extant  in 
Cicero's  time,  but  in  Strabo's  day  only  a  village  ;  now 
no  trace  r-emairrs  of  it. — Another  fuppofed  Collatia  of 
Apulia,  near  mount  Garganus  ;  becaufs  Pliny  mentions 
the  Collattm  in  Apulia,  and  Frontinus  the  AgerCollat'inus. 

COLLATINA  porta,  a  gate  of  Rome,  at  the 
CoUis  Hor'tulorum,  afterwards  called  Pinciana,  from 
the  Pincii,  a  noble  family.  Its  name  Colhitina  is  from 
Collatia,  to  the  right  of  which  was  the  Via  CoUatina, 
which  led  to  that  town. 

COLLINA,  a  gate  of  Rome  at  the  CoUis  Qnirl- 
nalis,  not  tar  from  the  temple  of  Venus  Erycina  (Ovid).; 
called  alfo  Salaria,  becaule  the  Sabines  carried  their 
fait  through  it  (Tacitus).      Now  Salara. 

COLLATION,  in  the  canon  law,  the  giving  or  be- 
ftowing  of  a  benefice  on  a  clergyman  by  a  bilhop, 
who  has  it  in  his  own  gift  or  patronage.  It  differs 
from  inllitution  in  this,  that  inllitution  is  performed 
by  the  bifiiop,  upon  the  prelentation  of  another  ;  and 
coUaiiorr  is  his  own  act  of  preftntation  :  and  it  dif- 
fereth  from  a  common  prelentation,  as  it  is  the  giving 
of  the  church  to  the  perfon,  and  prefentation  is  the 
giving  or  offering  of  the  perfon  to  the  church.  But 
collation  fupplics  the  place  of  pi-efentation  and  infti- 
tution  ;  and  anumnts  to  the  fame  as  inftitution  where 
the  bifliop  is  both  pation  and  ordinary.  Anciently  the 
right  of  prefentation  to  all  churches  was  in  the  bi- 
ftiop  ;  and  now  if  the  patron  neglefts  to  prtfent  to  a 
church,  then  this  right  returns  to  the  bilhop  by  colla- 
tion :  if  the  billiqp  negltfts  to  collate  within  fix  months 
S  2  after 


Collar 

II 
C'jlUtron. 


COL  [14 

■Collation   after  the  elapfe   of  the   patron,   then  the   archbifliop 

II         hath  a  right  to  do  it ;  and  if  the  archbifhop  neglc(its, 

,        ^   '    then  it  devolves  to  the  king  ;  the  one  as  fuperior,  to 

fuppiy  the  dtfefts  of  bifhops,  the  other  as  fupveme,  to 

fuppiy  all  defefts  of  government. 

Collation,  in  common  lavsr,  the  comparifon  or 
prcfentation  of  a  copy  to  its  original,  to  fee  u'hethcr 
or  not  it  be  conformable  ;  or  the  report  or  adt  of  the 
officer  who  made  the  comparifon.  A  collated  aft  is 
<ftju!v?.lent  to  its  original,  provided  all  the  parties  con- 
ce; ned  were  preftnt  at  the  collation. 

Collation,  in  Scots  law,  that  right  which  an  heir 
has  of  thr  jwing  the  whole  heritable  and  moveable 
cllates  of  the  deccaled  into  otie  mafs,  and  fharing  it 
equally  with  the  others  in  the  fame  degree  of  kindred, 
when  he  thinks  fuch  fhare  will  be  more  than  the 
value  of  the  heritage  to  which  he  had  an  exclufivc  title. 

Collation  is  alfo  ufed  among  the  Romanifts  for 
the  meal  or  repaft  made  on  a  faft-day,  in  lieu  of  a  fup- 
per.  Only  fruits  are  a'lowed  in  a  collation  :  F.  Lo- 
bineau  obferves,  that  anciently  theie  was  not  allowed 
even  bread  in.  the  collations  in  Lent,  nor  any  thing  befide 
a  few  comfits  and  dried  herbs  and  fruits  ;  which  cuftom, 
he  adds,  obtained  till  the  year  15 13.  Cardinal  Hum- 
bert obferves  further,  that  in  the  middle  of  the  llth 
century  there  were  no  collations  at  all  allowed  in  t!*; 
Latin  church  in  the  time  of  Lent;  and  that  thecu- 
Horn  of  collations  was  borrowed  from  the  Greeks,  who 
themfclves  did  not  take  it  up  till  about  the  i  ith  century. 

Collation  is  alfo  popularly  ufed  for  a  repaft  be- 
tween meals,  particularly  between  dinner  and  fupper. 
The  word  collation,  in  this  fenfe,  Du  Cange  derives 
from  coUocutlo,  "  conference  ;"  and  maintains,  that 
originally  collation  vsfas  only  a  conference,  or  conver- 
fation  on  fubjcdls  of  piety,  held  on  faft  days  in  nio- 
nafteries  ;  but  that,  by  degrees,  the  cullom  was  in- 
troduced of  bringing  in  a  few  refreihmcnts  ;  and  that 
by  the  excefTcs  to  which  thofe  fober  repaits  were  at 
length  carried,  the  name  of  the  abufe  was  retained, 
but  that  of  the  thing  loft. 

Collation  of  Seals,  denotes  one  fcal  fet  on  the  fame 
label,  on  the  reverfe  of  another. 

COLLEAGUE,  a  partner  cr  afibciate  in  the  fame 
office  or  mag'ilrature.     See  Adjunct. 

COLLECT,  collection,  a  voluntary  gathering  of 
%  money,   for  foine  pious  or  charitable  puipofe.      Some 

fay,  the  name  coUcS,  or  colkSion,  was  ufed,  by  realon 
thofe  gatherings  were  anciently  made  on  the  days  of 
colle&s,  and  in  eoUeds,  i.  e.  in  alTcmblies  of  Chriftians; 
but,  more  probably,  quia  coWgebatur  pecunla. 

Collect  is  fometimes  alfo  ufed  for  a  tax,  or  !m- 
pofition,  raifed  by  a  prince  for  any  pious  dcfign. 
Thus,hiftories  fay,  that  in  1166,  the  king  of  England, 
coming  into  Normandy,  appointed  a  coUeft  for  the 
relief  of  the  holy  land,  at  the  defire  and  after  the 
example  of  the  king  of  France.     SeeCaoiSADE. 

Collect,  in  the  liturgy  of  the  church  of  England, 
and  the  mafs  of  the  Romanifts,  denotes  a  prayer  ac- 
commodated to  any  particular  day,  occafion,  or  the 
like.     See  Liturgy,  and  Mass. 

In  the  general,  all  the  prayers  in  each  office  are 
called  co//fflj- ;  either  becaufe  the  prieft  fpeaks  in  the 
name  of  the  whole  affembly,  whofe  fentiments  and  de- 
lires  he  fums  up  by  the  word  oremiis,  "  let  us  pray," 
as  is  obfervcd  by  pope  Innocent  III.  or,  becaufe  thofe 


o     ]  CO     I. 

prayers    are    offered  when    the    people  are  afflmbled  CUeiliTe. 
together,  which  is  the  opinion  of  Pamelius  on  Ti-rtuliian.         » 

The  congregation  iticlf  is   in   lome  ancient  anthors       " ''^" 
called  fo.'/t'S.     The   popes  Gclafius  and   Gr'gury  are 
faid  to  have  been  the  firft  who  eilabliiTied  cdkHs.     De- 
fpence,  a  doAor  of  the  faculty  of  Puis,  has  an  exprefs 
trealifc  on  coUcPs,  their  origin,  antiquity,  authors,  &c. 

COLLECnVE,  among  grammarians,  a  term  ap- 
plied to  a  noun  exprcfUng  a  mulliiude,  though  ilfclf 
be  only  fina;ular  ;  as  an  army,  company,  iroop,  &;c. 
called  collc-di've  nouns. 

COLLECTOR,  in  jeneral,  denotes  a  perfon  wha 
gets  or  brings  together  things  formerly  difperfed  and 
feparated.      Hence, 

Collector,  in  matters  of  civil  polity,  is  a  perfon 
appointed  by  X.\x  comniiffioners  of  any  duty,  the  inhabi- 
tants of  a  parilh,  S:c.  to  raife  or  gather  any  kind  oi  tax. 

Collector,  among  hotanills,  one  who  gets  to- 
gether as  many  plants  as  he  can,  without  fludying  bo- 
tany in  a  fcientifical  n^anner. 

COLLEGATORY,  In  the  civil  law,  a  perfon  who 
has  a  legacy  left  him  in  common  with  one  or  more 
other  perfons. 

COLLEGE,  an  aflemblage  of  fcveral  bodies  or  fo- 
cieties,  or  of  feveral  perfons  into  one  lociety. 

College,  among  the  Remans,  ferved  indifferently 
for  thofe  employed  in  the  offices  of  religion,  of  gi- 
vernment,  tlie  liberal  and  even  mechanical  aits  ami 
trades  ;  fo  that,  with  them,  the  word  fignificd  what 
we  call  a  corporation  or  company. 

In  the  Roman  empire,  there  were  not  ciily  theW- 
lege  of  augurs,  and  the  college  of  caphohm,  i  e.  of  thofs 
who  had  the  fupcrintendence  of  the  capitoline  ga  ;  es  ; 
but  alfo  colleges  of  artificers,  collegia  artljicwn  ;  college 
of  carpenters,  falriconim,  or  fabrorum  t.gnariorum  ;  of 
potters,  Jigu/orum  ;  of  founders,  itrarionim  ;  the  col- 
lege ol\oLVSm'rt\i%,  fabrorum  ferrariorn:)!  ;  of  engineers 
of  the  army,  tignarloram  ;  of  butchers,  laii'ionim  ;  of 
derdrophori,  dendrophororum  ;  of  certonarics,  cento- 
nariorum ;  of  makers  of  railitary  calqucf,  y^«^(7r/or«m; 
of  tent-mzken,  tiiben:aculariorum  ;  o[  hikers,  pr/lorum  ; 
of  rauficians,  tibu'mum,  occ.  Plutarch  obferves,  that 
it  was  Numa  who  firil  divided  the  people  into  colleges  ; 
which  he  did  to  the  end  that  each  coniulting  the  inter- 
ells  of  their  college,  whereby  they  were  divided  from  the 
citizens  of  the  other  colleges,  they  might  not  enter  into 
a;iy  general  confpliacy  agalnil  the  p'jblic  rtpole. 

Each  of  thefe  colleges  had  dillinct  meeting-places  or 
halls  ;  and  likevvife,  in  imitation  of  the  (late,  a  trea- 
fury  and  common  chetl,  a  regiller,  and  one  to  repre- 
fent  them  upon  public  occafions,  and  afts  of  govern- 
ment. Thefc  colleges  had  the  privlle^;  of  manumit- 
ting flaves,  of  being  legates,  and  making  by-laws  for 
their  own  body,  provided  they  did  not  clalh  with 
thofe  of  the  government. 

There  are  various  colleges  on  foot  among  the  mo- 
derns, founded  on  the  model  of  thofe  of  the  ancients. 
Such  are  the  three  colleges  of  the  empire,  viz. 

CoiLEGK  of  EleSori,  or  their  Deputies,  affinibled  in 
the  diet  of  Ratifbon. 

College  of  Princes  ;  the  body  of  princes,  or  their 
deputies,  at  the  diet  of  Ratifbon. 

College  of  Cities,  is,  in  like  manner,  the  body  of 
deputies  which  the  imperial  cities  fend  to  the  diet. 

Collegs   of  Cardinals,  or  the   Sabred  College  ;  a 

body 


C    O    I.  [     1 

.    body  compofed  of  the  three  ordcis  of  cardinals.     Set 
'  Cardinals. 

College  is  alfu  uted  for  a  public  place  endo.Tcd 
with  certiiii  veveauiS,  wtiere  tlie  IcVtral  pans  cf  Ituni- 
iug  arc  tautjht. 

An  affembLyc  of  fcvernl  of  thefc  colleges  con flitutc 
an  univerfitv.  The  ereftion  of  colleges  is  part  of  the 
royal  prerogative,  and  not  to  be  done  without  the 
king'ti  licence. 

i'he  ellibliiliment  of  colleges  or  iinlverfities  is  a 
remarkable  period  in  literary  hiftory.  The  fchnols 
iri  cathedrals  and  monadcries  confined  themfclves 
chii:tly  to  t)ie  teaching  of  grammar.  There  v/ete  on- 
ly one  or  two  millers  employed  in  that  office.  But, 
in  colleges,  p'-ofelTors  are  appointed  to  teach  all  the 
dilferent  parts  of  .eicrce.  The  llrll  obfcure  mention 
of  academical  degrees  in  the  univerfity  of  Paris  (fiora 
which  the  oth-jr  iinive'fiLics  in  Europe  have  bor- 
rowt-d  moft  of  their  culloms  and  inllitutions),  occurs 
A.  D.  1215. 

College  of  Civilians,  commonly  called  Dodors  Com- 
mons ;  a  college  founded  by  Dr  Harvey,  dean  of  the 
arches,  for  the  prcfeflbrs  of  the  civil  law  refiding  in 
London  ;  where  ufually,  like  wife,  refides  the  judge 
of  the  arches  court  of  Canterbury,  judge  of  the  admi- 
ralty, of  the  prerogative  court,  iic.  with  other  civi- 
lians ;  wlio  all  liv-,  ai  to  diet  and  lodging,  in  a  col- 
legiate m.aniier,  commoning  together  ;  whence  the  ap- 
pellation o{  Dfj3ors  Commons.  Their  houfe  being  con- 
fumed  in  the  great  fire,  they  all  refided  at  Excter- 
tioui'e  in  the  Strand  till  1672  ;  when  their  former  houfe 
was  rebuilt, at  their  own  expcnce,irt  a  very  fplcndid  man- 
ner. To  this  college  belong  34.proft:ors,  who  make  them- 
fclves parties  for  their  cliento,  manage  their  caules,  .Sec. 

C0L1.FCE  of  Phyfcicins,  a  corporalron  of  phyficians 
in  London,  who,  by  ''everal  charters  and  afts  of  par- 
liament of  Henry  VIH.  and  his  fiiccelTors,  have  cer- 
tain privilegt-s,  whereby  no  man,  though  a  graduate 
in  phyfic  of  any  univerfity,  may,  without  licence  un- 
der the  faid  college  feal,  praflife  phylic  in  or  within 
feven  miles  of  London  ;  with  power  to  adminifter 
oaths,  fine  and  imprifm  offenders  in  that  and  feveral 
other  particulars ;  to  fearch  the  apothecaries  fliops,  &c. 
in  and  about  London,  to  fee  if  their  drugs,  &c.  be 
wholefome,  and  their  compofitions  according  to  the 
form  prefcribed  by  the  faid  college  in  their  difpenfa- 
tory.  By  the  faid  charter  they  are  alfo  freed  from  all 
troublefome  offices  ,  as  to  ferve  on  juries,  be  conilable, 
keep  watch,  provide  arms,   fee. 

The  focicty  had  anciently  a  college  in  Knight-rider- 
ftreet,  the  gift  of  Dr  Linacre  phyfician  to  king  Hen- 
ry VIII.  Since  that  time  they  have  had  a  houfe 
built  them  by  the  famous  Dr  Harvey  in  1652,  at  the 
end  of  Amen-corner,  which  he  endowed  with  his 
whole  inheritance  in  his  lifetime  ;  but  this  being  burnt 
in  the  great  fire  in  1666,  a  new  one  was  ereftcd,  at 
the  expi-tice  of  the  fellows,  in  Warwick-lane,  with  a 
noble  library,  given  partly  by  the  marquis  of  Dorche- 
fter,  and  partly  by  Sir  Theodore  Maycrne. 

Of  this  college  there  are  at  prefent  a  prefident,  four 
cenfors,  eight  eleAors,  a  regiller,  and  a  treafurer, 
chofen  annually  in  Oiflobcr  ;  the  cenfors  have,  by  char- 
ter, power  to  furvey,  govern,  and  arrell,  all  phyiician.s, 
or  others  praftifmg  phylic,  in  or  within  feven  miles  of 
London ;  and  to  fine,  amerce,  aod  imprifon  them,  at 


41     ]  GO     L 

difcrtlion.  The  number  of  fellows  was  anciently  thir- 
ty, till  ki.ijj;  Charles  II.  iricrtafcd  their  number  to' 
forty  ;  and  king  Jamcb  II.  ijiving  them  a  new  charter, 
alk>v\ed  the  number  of  fellows  to  be  enlarged  fj  as 
not  to  exceed  fourfcore  ;  rcferving  to  hirnft  If  and  fuc- 
ctfTors  the  power  of  placing  and  dilplaclng  any  of 
them  for  the  fu!  ur-e. 

The  college  is  not  very  rigorous  in  aHlrting  their 
privileges  ;  there  being  a  great  number  of  phyfitiana, 
fome  of  very  good  tibililies,  who  praclil'e  in  London, 
Sec.  without  their  licence,  and  are  connived  at  by  the 
college  :  yet,  by  law,  if  any  perfon  not  exprefsily  al- 
lowed to  pratlife,  take  on  liirn  the  cttrc  of  any  dileafe, 
and  the  patient  die  under  iris  hiird,  it  is  deemed  felo-- 
ny  in  the  praililer.  In  i6gf),  the  college  made  a  fub- 
fcription,  to  the  number  of  forty-two  of  their  mem- 
bers, to  fct  on  foot  a  difpenfatory  for  the  relief  of  the 
ftck  poor  :  frnce  that  they  have  erettcd  two  other  dif- 
per:f:itor!es. 

Edinburgh  College  of  Phyftcians  was  erefted  on  the 
2yth  November  168 1.      The  dellgn  of  this  inftitution 
was,  to  prevent  the  abufcs  daily  committed  by  foreign, 
and  illiterate  impolors,  quacks,  &:c.     For  this  r-eafon, 
his  majefty,  at  the  time  above  mentioned,  granted  let-" 
ters  patent  to  eredl  into  a  body  corporate  and  politic, 
certain  phyficians  in   Edinburgh   and   their   fucceffors,, 
by  the  title   of  '•  J  e  Pr-efideiit  and  Royal  College  of 
Phyficians  at  EJiwijurgh,"  with   power  to  chooie  an- 
nuflly  a  council  of  feven,  one  whereof  to  be  prefident  :- 
thefe  are  to  elefl  a  treafurer,  clerk,  and  other  officers; 
to  have  a  common  fcal  ;  to  fue  and  be  fued  ;  to  make 
laws  for  promoting  the   art   of  phyfic,  and  regulating 
the   praftice   thereof,  within  the   city  of  Edinburgh, 
town  of  Lcith,  and  diilridtS'of  the  Canongate,  Weft- 
port,  Pleafancc,  and   Potter  row  ;  through   all  which 
the  jurifdiftion  of  the   college  extends.     Throughout 
this  jurifdiftlon,  no  perfon   is  allowed  to  praftife  phy- 
fic, without  a  warrant  from  the  college,  under  the  pe- 
nalty of  L.5  Sterling  the  firft  month,  to   be   doubled 
monthly   afterwards   while    the    ( flence   is   continued  ; 
one- half  the   money  arifing   from   fuch  fines  to  go  to 
the  poor,  the  other   to  the  ufe  of  the  college.     They 
are  alfo  empo'Aered  to   punifh   all  licentiates  in  phyfic 
within  the  above  mentioned  bounds,  for  faults  commit- 
ted againft  the  inllitutions  of  the  college  ;  and  to  fine 
them  of  fnms  not  exceeding  40  s.      On  fuch  occalions,, 
however,   they  mud  have  one  of  the  bailies  of  the  city 
to   fit    in  judgment   along  with   them,  otherwife  their 
fentence  will  not  be  valid.      Tliey  arc    alfo  empowered 
to  fearch   and   infpeft   all  medicines  within  their  jurif. 
diftion,  and  throw  out  into  the  ftreet  all  fuch  as  are 
bad  or  unwholefome.     That    they  may  the  better  at- 
tend their  patients,   they  are  exempted  from  watching, 
warding,  and   ferving  on  jnries.      They  are,  however, 
refttained  from  erecting  fchocls  for  teaching  the  art  of 
phyfic,  or  conferring  degrees   on  any  perfon  qualified 
for  the  office  of  a  phyfician  ;  but  are  obhged  to  licenfe 
all  fuch   as  have   taken  their  degrees  in  any  other  uni- 
verfity, and  to  admit  as  honorary  members  all  the  pro- 
feffors  of  phyfic  in  the  reft  of  the  univerfities  of  Sect- 
land.      Thefe   privileges  and  immunities  are  not,  how- 
ever, to  interfere  with  the  rights  and  j-vivileges  of  the 
apothecary-  furgeons,  in  their  praftice  of  curing  woundsj. 
contufions,  fraftures,  and  other  external  operations. 
EditiLurgk  Colleji  of  Surgeons.     This  is  but  a  very 

ktfc 


College. 


COL  [     142     1  COL 

College,    late  Inftltution,  by  which   the  furgeons  of  Edinburgh  in  1623  by  Gregory  XV.  and  enriched  with  ample  re-    College 

* '  are  incorporated  into  a  Roval  College,  and  authorifed  to  venues.      It   ci.ulUts  of  thirteen  cardmals,  two  priefts,         ;' 

carry  into  execution  a  fchcme  for  making  provifion  for  and  a  fecretary  ;  and  was  deligned  for  the  propagation         J',  _ 

their  widows  and  children,  S:c.  They  have  alfo  the  pri-  and  maintenance  ot  the  Romiftl  religion  m  all  parts  of 

vileee  of  examining,  and  licenfing,  if  found  qualihed,  all  the  world.      The  funds  ot  this  college  have  been  very 

practitioners  in  furirery  within  a  certain  bounds.  confiderably   augmented ^by    Urban   V 111.   and  many 

Coii£Cfi  0/ J'#r^  the  fuprcme  civil  court  of  Scot-  pi  ivate   donations. 

land;  otherwife   called   Court  of  Sef on,  or,  of  Council  ■■■"■••—" —  ^ 

mid  Scfion.     See  Law,  Part  III.  N°  clvii.  4. 

S'wn  CoLiEOE,  or  the  college  of  the  London  clergy  j 


which  has  been  a  religions  houfe  time  out  of  mind, 
fometimes  under  the  denomination  of  a  priory,  fome- 
times  under  that  of  a  fpital  or  hofpital  :  at  its  diffo- 
liition  under  31ft  Henry  VIIL  it  was  called  £/^7!'j- 
Spilal,  from  the  name  of  its  founder,  a  mercer,  in  i  329. 
At  prefent  it  is  a  corapofition  of  both,  viz.  a  college 
for  the  clergy  of  London,  who  were  incorporated  in 
1 630,  in  purfuance  to  the  will  of  Dr  White,  under 
the  name  of  the  Prefuient  ami  Fellows  of  Slon  College ; 
and  an  hofpital  for  ten  poor  men  and  as  many  wo- 
men. The  officers  of  the  corporation  are  the  prefi- 
dent,  two  deans,  and  four  afflltants  ;  who  are  annually 
chofen  from  amon^  the  reftors  and  vicars  of  London  ; 
and  are  fubjeft  to  the  vifitation  of  the  bilhop.  _  They 
have  a  good  library,  built  and  flocked  by  Mr  Simpfon, 
and  furnillied  by  feveral  other  benefatlors,  chiefly  for 
the  clergy  of  the  city,  without  excluding  otlier  fl;u- 
dents  on  certain  terms ;  arfd  a  hall,  with  chambers  for 
lludents,  generally  occupied  by  the  miniflers  of  the 
neighbouring  parifhes. 

Grejlmm  Colif.cf,  or  College  of  Philofophy  ;  a  col- 
lege founded  by  Sir  Thomas  Grefliam,  and  endowed 
with  the  revenue  of  the  Royal  Exchange  :  one  moiety 
of  this  endowment  the  founder  bequeathed  to  the 
mayor  and  aldermen  of  London  and  their  fuccefl"ors, 
in  trufl,  that  they  fliould  find  four  able  perfons  to  read, 
within  the  college,  divinity,  geometry,  aftronomy,  and 
mufic  ;  who  are  chofen  by  a  committee  of  the  common 
council,  confifting  of  the  lord  mayor  and  three  aldermen 
and  eight  commoners,  and  allowed  each,  befides  lodging, 
L-  50  per  annum.     The  other  moiety  he  left  to  the  com- 

Danvof  mercers,  to  find  three  more  able  perfons,  chofen  -,     ,  ,       r  i-i  r  :•■  1 

by  a  committee  of  that  company,  confifting  of  the  matter  excepted,  has  the  fame  liberty  of  expounding  the 
andthieewaidens,  during  their  office,  and  eight  of  fcnpture,  praying,  &e.  They  are  faid  to  be  aU  ei- 
the  court  of  aflillants,  to  read  law,  phyfic,  and  rhe-  ther  Anans  or  Socimans :_  they  never  communicate 
•toric,  on  the  fame  terms;  with  this  limitation,  that  in  the  coUege  but  meet  twice  a-year  from  al  parts  of 
-      •  •         •  •  ■  '  Holland   at    Rhmlbergh,  whence  tliey  are  alio  calied 

Rhinjherirhers,  a  village  two  miles  from  Leyden,  where 
they  communicate  together  ;  admitting  every  one  that 
prefents  himfelf,  profeifing  his  faith  in  the  divinity  of 
the  holy  fcriptures,  and  rcfolution  to  live  fuitably  to 
their  precepts  and  doflrines,  without  regard  to  his  fedt 
or  opinion.  They  have  no  particular  minillers,  but 
each  officiates  as  he  is  difpofed.  They  never  baptize 
without  dipping. 

COLLEGIATE,  or  Collegial,  churches,  are 
thofc  vvhich  have  no  bifliop's  fee,  yet  have  the  ancient 
retinue  of  the  bilhop,  the  canons  and  prebends.  Such 
are  Weftminfter,   Rippon,  Windfor,  &£.  governed  by 


Mlffionaiies  are  fupplied  by  this 
nttitution,  together  with  a  variety  of  books  fuited  to 
their  feveral  appointments.  Seminaries  for  their  in- 
ftruftion  are  fupported  by  it,  and  a  number  of  cha- 
ritable ellablinimenta  connefted  with  and  conducive  to 
the  main  objeft  of  its  inflitution. 

Another  college  of  the  fame  denomination  was  efta- 
bllflied  by  Urban  VIII.  In  1627,  In  confequence  of 
the  hberality  of  John  Baptill  Viles,  a  Spanifln  noble- 
man. This  Is  fet  apart  for  the  inftruttion  of  thofe 
who  are  defigned  for  the  foreign  miffions.  It  was  at 
firft  committed  to  the  care  of  three  canons  of  the  pa- 
triarchal churches  ;  but  ever  fince  the  year  1 641  it  I3 
under  the  fame  government  v.'ith  the  former  inflitution. 

College  of  Heralds,  commonly  called  the  Heralds 
Office;  a  corporation  founded  by  charter  of  king 
Richard  III.  wlio  granted  them  feveral  privileges,  as 
to  be  free  from  fubfidies,  tolls,  offices,  &c.  They  had 
a  fecond  charter  from  king  Henry  VI.  ;  and  a  houfe 
built  near  Dodtors-commons,  by  the  earl  of  Derby,  in 
the  reign  of  king  Henry  VII.  was  given  them  by  the 
duke  of  Norfolk,  in  the  reign  of  queen  Mary,  which 
houfe  is  now  rebuilt. 

This  college  is  fubordinate  to  the  earl-marflial  of 
England.  They  are  affiftants  to  him  in  his  court  of 
chivalry,  ufually  held  In  the  common-hall  of  the  col- 
lege, where  they  fit  in  their  rich  coats  of  his  majefty's 
arms.      See  Herald. 

College  of  Heralds  in  Scotland,  confifts  of  Lyon 
king  at  arm;-',  fix  heralds,  and  fix  purluivants,  and  a 
number  of  mefl'engers.      See  Lyon. 

COLLEGIANS,  Collegiani,  Collegiants,  a 
religious  fe<5f  formed  among  the  Arminians  and  Ana- 
baptlfts  in  Holland,  about  the  beginning  of  the  feven- 
teenth  century  ;  fo  called  bccaufe  of  their  colleges,  or 
meetings,  twice  every  week  ;  where  every  one,  lemales 


die  feveral  ledfurers  fliould  read  in  term-time,  every  day 

in  the  week  except  Sundays  ;  in  the  morning  in  Latin, 

in  the  afternoon  the  fame  in  Englifli  :  but  that  in  mu- 

fxc   to   be  read  only  In  Englifli.     By  8th  George  III. 

cap.  32.  the  building  appropriated   to  this  college  was 

taken  down,  and  the  excife-office  erefted  in  its  room. 

•Each  of  the  profeffors  is  allowed  L.  ^o  per  annum,  in 

lieu  of  the  apartments,  f<c.  rellnquiflied  by  them  in  the 
college,  and  is  permitted  to  marry,  notvvithflanding 
the   reftriftion  of    Sir  Thomas  Grefliam's  will.      The 

leftures  are  now  read  in  a  room  over  the  Royal  Ex- 
change ;  and  the  city  and  mercers  company  al-e  requi- 
red to  provide  a  proper  place  for  this  purpofe. 

In  this  college  formerly  met  the  Royal  Society,  that     deans  and  chapters.  ,        ,        ,  ... 

roble  academy,  inftituted  by  king  Charles  II.   and  ce-  Of  thele  collegiate   churches  there  are  two  kinds  5 

Icbrated  throug'hout  the  world  for  their  improvements  fome  of  royal,  and  others  of  ecckfiaflical  foundation  ; 
■in  natural  knowledge.  See  their  hiftory  and  policy  each  of  them,  In  matters  of  divine  fervice,  regulated 
-     1      Society  '"    *^'^  famer  niannei    as  the  cathedrals.      i  licre  are 

''""cL.LESF  de  JPTopaganda  Fide,  was  founded  at  Rome     evcJi  fome  collegiate  churches  that  have  the  eP'^'.'-"'ji'»^ 


COL 


[     143     ] 


COL 


ricjlits.  Some  of  tliefe  churches  were  anciently  abbeys, 
\vhich  in  time  were  feculaii/.cd.  The  church  of  St 
J  Peter's,  Wcftmin  'er,  was  anci  ntly  a  cathedral  ;  but 
the  revenues  of  the  monallery  being  by  ail  of  parlia- 
ment I  Elizab  th  ve -cd  in  the  dean  and  chapter, 
it  commenced  a  collegiate  church.  In  leveral  caufes 
the  Hyling  it  cathedral,  inilead  of  collegiate,  church  of 
Wcflminfter,  hasoccafioned  error  in  the  pleadings. 

CO.LLE  r,  among  jewellers,  denotes  the  hoiizontal 
face  or  plane  at  the  bottom  of  brilliants.  See  Bril- 
liant. 

Collet,  in  gkfs-making,  is  that  part  of  glafs  vef- 
fels  which  Hicks  to  the  iron  inftrument  wherewith  t!ie 
metal  was  taken  out  of  the  melting-pot :  thefe  are 
afterwards  ufed  for  making  green  ^'afs. 

COLL.ETICS,  in  pharmacy,  denote  much  the  fame 
with  Agglutinants  or  Vulneraries. 

COLLIER  (Jeremy),  a  learned  Engli(h  nonjuring 
divine,  born  in  1650,  and  educated  in  Caius  college 
Cambridge.  He  had  firft  the  fm;Jl  rectorv  of  Amp- 
ton,  near  St  Edmund's  Bury  iji  Suffolk  ;  which  in  fix 
years  he  refigned,  to  come  to  London,  in  1685, 
where  he  was  made  lefturer  of  Gray's  Inn  :  but  the 
change  of  government  that  followed,  foon  rendered 
the  public  exercife  of  his  function  impracticable.  He 
was  committed  to  Newgate  for  writing  againft  the 
revolution  ;  and  again,  for  carrying  on  a  correfpon- 
dence  which  that  change  of  events  made  treafonable  ; 
but  was  releafed  both  times,  without  trial,  by  the  in- 
tervention of  friends.  It  is  obfervable  that  he  carried 
his  fcruples  fo  far,  as  to  prefer  confinement  to  the  ta- 
cit acknowledgment  of  the  jurifdiClion  of  the  court  by 
accepting  his  liberty  upon  bail.  Suitable  to  thefe 
principles,  he  next  acted  a  very  extraordinary  part 
with  two  other  clergymen  of  his  own  way  ol  think- 
ing, at  the  execution  of  Sir  John  Friend  and  Sir  Wil- 
liam Perkins  for  the  affaffination  plot;  by  giving  them 
folemn  abfolution,  and  by  impofition  of  hands  :  ab- 
fconding  for  which,  he  continued  under  an  outlawry 
to  the  day  of  his  death  in  1726.  Thefe  proceedings 
having  put  a  (lop  to  his  aftivity,  he  employed  his  le- 
tired  hours  rather  more  uftfully  in  literary  works. 
In  1698,  he  attempted  to  reform  our  theatrical  enter- 
tainments, by  publifhing  his  Short  •vieiu  of  the  immo- 
rality and  prufanenejs  of  the  Evglijli  flage  ;  which  en- 
gaged him  in  a  controverfy  with  the  wits  of  the  time : 
but  as  Mr  Collier  defended  his  ceafures  not  only  with 
wit,  hut  with  learning  and  reafon,  it  is  allowed  that 
the  decorum  obferved,  for  the  moil  part,  by  fuccecd- 
ing  dramatic  writers,  has  been  owing  to  his  animad- 
verfions.  He  next  undertook  a  tranflation  of  Mor- 
reri's  great  Hiftorical  and  Geographical  Didiionai-y  ; 
a  work  of  extraordinary  labour,  and  which  appeared 
in  4  vols,  folio.  After  this  he  publilhed  "  An  Eccle- 
fiaftical  Hiftory  of  Great  Britain,  chiefly  of  England," 
in  2  vols,  folio  ;  which  is  allowed  to  be  written  with 
great  judgment,  and  even  with  impartiality.  He 
was  befides  engaged  in  feveral  controverfies,  which 
his  conduft  and  writings  gave  rife  to,  not  material  to 
mention.  In  queen  Anne's  reign,  Mr  Collier  was 
tempted,  by.  offers  of  confiderable  preferment,  to  a 
fubmiffion  ;  but  as  he  was  a  nonjuror  upon  principle, 
lie  coiJd  not  be  brought  to  lilten  to  any  terms. 

GOLLiESt,  or  COALLIER.       ScC  CoALLIER. 


COLLIERY,   CoALERY,    or    Coalliery.      See 

COALERY. 

COLLINS  (Anthony),  a  polemical  writer,  born  at 
Heltcn  near  Houudowin  the  county  of  Middlefex 
in  1676,  was  the  fon  of  Henry  Colhns,  a  gentleman 
of  about  .L.  1500  a- year.  He  was  firft  bred  ;it  Eton 
college,  and  then  went  to  king's-coUege  Cambridge, 
where  he  had  for  his  tutor  Mr  Francis  Hare,  after- 
wards bifhop  of  Chicheiter.  He  was  afterwards  a 
(Indent  of  the  Temple  ;  but  not  relilhing  the  law, 
foon  abandoned  that  ft'udy.  He  was  an  ingenious 
man,  and  author  of  feveral  curious  books.  His  firll 
remarkable  piece  was  publiflicd  in  17^7,  "  An  EfTay 
concerning  the  ufe  of  reafon  in  propodtions,  the  evi- 
dence whereof  depends  on  human  teftimony."  la 
1702,  he  entered  into  the  controverfy  between  Mr 
Clark  and  Dr  Dodwell,  concerning  the  immortality 
of  the  foul.  In  1713,  he  publiflied  his  difcourfe  on 
free-thinking  ;  which  made  a  prodigious  noife.  In 
1 7 15,  he  letired  into  the  county  of  ElTex,  and  aftcd 
as  a  juftice  of  peace  and  deputy  lieutenant  for  the 
fame  county,  as  he  iiad  done  before  for  that  of  Mid- 
dlefex and  liberty  oi  Wellminller.  The  fame  year, 
he  publilhed  a  '•  Philofophical  Eilay  concerning  hu- 
man liberty."  In  17 18,  he  was  chofen  treafurer  of 
the  county  of  Effex  ;  and  this  ofHce  he  difchanred 
with  great  lionour.  In  1724,  he  publilhed  his  "  Hii- 
torical  and  critical  Effay  on  the  39  articles."  Soon 
aiter,  he  publiPned  his  "  Difcourfe  of  the  grounds  and 
reafons  of  the  ChrilHan  religion  ;"  to  which  is  prefix- 
ed, "  An  Apology  for  free  debate  and  liberty  of 
writing  ;"  which  piece  was-  immediately  attacked  by 
a  great  number  of  writings.  In  1726,  appeared  his 
"  Scheme  of  literary  prophecy  confidered,  in  a  view  of 
the  controverfy  occafioned  by  a  late  book  entitled,  A 
difcourfe  of  the  grounds,  fe'c."  In  this  difcourfe,  he 
mentions  a  MS.  differtation  of  his  to  (how  the  Sibyl- 
line oracles  to  be  a  forgery  made  in  the  times  of  the 
primitive  Chriftians,  who,  for  that  reafon,  were  cal-- 
led  Sibyllijls  by  the  Pagans ;  but  it  never  appeared  in 
print.  His  (cheme  of  literary  prophecy  was  replied  to 
by  feveral  writers ;  and  particularly  by  Dr  Jolm  Ro- 
gers in  his  "  NecelTity  of  divine  revelation  afTert- 
ed."  In  anfwer  to  which,  our  author  wrote  "  A 
letter  to  the  Reverend  Dr  Rogers,  on  occafion,  Isfc." 
His  health  began  to  decline  fome  years  before  his 
death,  and  he  was  very  much  afBifted  with  the  ftone, 
wliich  at  lall  put  an  end  to  his  life  at  his  houfe  in  Har- 
Icy  Iquare  in  1729.  He  was  interred  in  Oxford  cha- 
pel, where  a  monument  was  erefted  to  him,  with 
an  epitaph  in  Latin.  His  curious  libraiy  was  open  to 
all  men  of  letters,  to  whom  he  readily  communicated 
all  the  afliftance  in  his  power  ;  he  even  furniflied  his 
antagonills  with  books  to  confute  himfelf,  and  direc- 
ted them  how  to  give  their  arguments  all  the  force  of 
which  they  were  capable.  He  was  remarkably  averle 
to  all  indecency  and  obfcenity  of  diicourfe  ;  and  was, 
independent  of  his  fceplicifm,  alincerely  good  man. 

Collins  (John),  an  eminent  accountant  and  m.i- 
thematician,  born  in  1624,  and  bred  a  bookfcller  at 
Oxford.  Befides  feveral  treatiles  on  praftical  fub]cfts, 
he  communicated  fome  curious  papers  to  the  Royal  So- 
ciety, of  which  he  was  a  member,  which  are  to  be 
found  in  the  early  numbers  of  the  Philofophical  Tranf- 

a<5Uon$  i  - 


CoIliTy 

II 
Cdllins. 


C     O     L 


?.(ftior9 :  and  wr.s  t)ie  c  hieF  protroter  of  many  nxhcx 
fcientifical  publications  !n  his  time.  He  died  in  16S3  ; 
and  about  2J  years  after,  all  bis  papers  comirg  imo 
the  hands  of  the  learned  V.'ilHam  J(  nip,  Efq;  F.  R.  S. 
it  appeared  that  Mr  Collins  held  a  conftant  corre/pord- 
ence  for  mary  years  with  all  the  eminent  maihcira- 
ticians ;  and  that  many  of  the  late  dilcoveries  in  phy- 
fical  knowledge,  if  r.ot  aftiially  made  by  him,  were 
yet  brought  forth  by  his  endeavour.-. 

Collins  (William),  an  admirable  poet,  was  born 
at  Chichefter,  about  the  year  1724.  He  received  his 
claflical  education  at  Winchefter  ;  after  which  he  ftu- 
died  at  New  college,  in  Oxford,  was  admitted  a  conri- 
moner  of  King's  college  in  the  fame  univerfity,  and 
was  at  lenjjth  eleSed  a  demy  cf  Magdalene  college. 
\Mule  at  Oxford,  he  applied  Uimfelf  to  the  ftudy  of 
poetry,  and  publifiied  his  Oiiental  Eclogues;  after 
which  he  came  to  London.  He  was  naturally  pof- 
fclTed  of  an  ear  for  all  the  varieties  of  harmony  and 
modulation;  his  heart  was  fufceptible  of  the  fined 
feelings  of  tendernefs  and  hu;nan!ty,  and  was  particu- 
larly carried  away  by  that  high  e^thuliafra  which  gives 
to  imagination  its  (Irongeil  colouring  ;  and  he  was  at 
once  capable  of  foothing  the  ear  with  the  melody  of 
his  numbers,  of  influencing  the  pafEons  by  the  force 
of  the  pathos,  and  of  gratifying  the  fancy  by  the  luxu- 
ry of  defcription.  With  thefe  powers,  he  attempted 
lyric  poetry;  and  in  1746,  publifhed  his  Odes,  de- 
fcriptive  and  allegorical  :  but  the  fale  of  this  work  be- 
ing not  at  all  anfwerable  to  its  merit,  he  burnt  the 
remaining  copies  in  indignation.  Being  a  man  of 
a  liberal  fplrit  and  a  fmall  fortune,  his  pecuniaiy  re- 
fources  were  unhappily  foon  exhaufled  ;  and  his  life 
became  a  miferable  example  of  neccflity,  indolence, 
and  dllTipation.  He  projefted  books  VThich  he  was 
well  able  to  execute  ;  and  became  in  idea  an  hiflorlan, 
a  critic,  and  a  dramatic  poet  ;  but  wanted  the  means 
and  encouragement  to  carry  thefe  ideas  into  execu- 
tion. Day  fucceeded  day,  for  the  fuppnrt  of  which 
he  had  made  no  pro\'ifion  ;  and  he  was  obliged  to  fub- 
fift,  either  by  the  repeated  contributions  of  a  friend, 
or  the  generofity  of  a  cafual  acquaintance.  His  fpi- 
rits  became  oppreffed,  and  he  funk  into  a  fullen  de- 
fpondence.  While  in  this  gloomy  ftate  of  mind,  his 
uncle  colonel  M.irtin  died,  and  left  him  a  confiderahle 
fortune.  But  this  came  too  late  for  enjoyment ;  he 
had  been  fo  long  harafTed  by  anxiety  and  diftrefs, 
that  he  fell  into  a  nervous  diforder,  which  at  length 
reduced  the  fineft  underftanding  to  the  moft  deplor- 
able chlldlftinefs.  In  the  fiill  ilages  of  this  diforder, 
he  endeavoured  to  relieve  himlelf  by  travelling,  and 
paffed  into  France  ;  but  the  growing  .malady  obliged 
him  to  return  ;  and  having  continued,  with  fhort  in- 
tervals, in  this  pitiable  ftate  till  the  year  1756,  he 
died  in  the  arms  of  his  filler.  The  ingenious  Mr 
Longhorne  has  publilhcd  his  poetical  works,  with  me- 
moirs of  the  author,  in  one  volume  duodecimo. 

COLLINSON  (Peter),  an  eminent  naturallft  and 
antiquarian,  defcended  of  an  ancient  family,  was  born 
on  the  paternal  eftate  called  Htigal  Hall,  or  Height  of 
Hugal,  near  Windermere  lake,  in  the  parifh  of  Stavely, 
about  ten  miles  from  Kendal  in  Weftmoreland.  Whillt 
a  youth  he  difcovcrcd  his  attachment  to  natural  hifloiy. 
He  began  early  to  make  a  coUeftl'in  of  dried  fptci- 
mens  ni  plants,  and  had  accefs  to  the  beft  gardens  at 

N^  S4.  4 


[     M4     ] 


COL 


liat  titnt  In  the  rei^^V.bcirr^rcd  of  Lrrc'ru.     He  be-  CcJiiifiin. 
came  early  acquaintid  with  the  moR  eminent  natural-  """%—«-' 
irts  of  his  time  ;  the  Drs  Derliam,   Wocidv.nrd,   Dale, 
I^loyd^  and  Siaane,  were  arronpll  his  friends.   Among 
the  ;jreat  varie'v  of  a^icl  s  which   fjrm    th;it    fuperb 
cdltftion,  row  (by  the  wile  dilpohtion  of  Sir   Hare 
and  the  munificence  of  paillamcnt)  the  Briilfh  Mu- 
feum,  fmall  was  the  number  of  thofe  with  whofe  hi- 
ftory  Mr  Cillinfon  was  not  well  arqujinted  ;  he  being 
one  of  thofe  few  who  vifited  Sir  Hans  at  all  times  fa- 
miliarly;  th;ir  inclinations  and  puifuits  In    refpett  to 
natural   hillery  being  the  fame,  a  firm  fricT>dfiiIp  had 
early  been  eftablifhed  between    them.     Peicr   Collin- 
fon  was  tlefted  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  on   the 
I  zth  of  December  1728;   and  perhaps  was  one  of  the 
mort  diligent  and   uL'ful  members,  not  only  in  fuptly- 
ing  them  with  many  curioi-s  obfervatlons  himfelf,  but 
in   promoting  •and  preferving  a   moft  extenfive  corre- 
fpondence  with  learned  and  ineenious  foreigners,  in  all 
co\mtries  and  on  every   ufeful  fubjeft.      Befides  his  at- 
tention to  natural  hift^vy,  he  minuted  every  ftnking 
hint  th?t  occurred  either  in  reading  or  converfatlDn  ; 
and  from  this  fource  he  del ived  much   information,  as 
there   were  very  few    men  of  learnirg  and   ingenuity 
who  were  not  of  his  acquiintance  at  home  ;  and  moft 
foreigners  of  eminence  in  natural  hlft-iry,  or  in  arts  and 
fciencfs,  were  recommended  to  his  notice   and  friend- 
{hip.     His  diligence  and  osconomy  of  time  was  fiich, 
that  though  he  never  appeared  to  be  in  a  hurry,  he 
maintained    an    extenfive    correfpondence   with    great 
punctuality  ;  acquainting  the  learned  aid  ingenious  in 
diftant  parts  of  the  globe  with  the  difcoveries  a'.:d  im- 
provements in  natural  hiftory  in  this  country,  and  re- 
ceiving the   like  information  from  the   moft  eminent 
perfons  in  alrr-.oft  every  other.       His  correfpondence 
with  the  ingenious!  Cadwallader  Colden,  Efq;   of  New 
York,  and  the  jmlly  celebrated  Dr  Franklin  of  Phila- 
delphia,  furnilh  inftancts  of  the  benefit  rrfi;itlng  from 
his  atttntion  to  all  improTemenf!.     The  latter  of  tliefe 
gentlemen  communicated  his  firft  cflays  on  electricity 
to  Mr  Collinfon,  rn  a  feries  of  '^Rters,  which  were  then 
publifhtd,  ard  have  been  rep  '.rrted  in  a  late  edition  of 
the  Doftor's  ingenious  difccveries  and  improvements. 
Perhaps,  in  fome  futr're  period,  the  account  procured 
of  the  mmagemert  cf  ftieen  In  Spain,  publlihed  in  the 
Gentleman's  Magazine  for  May  and  June  1764,   may 
not  be  conlldered  among  the  leaft  of  the  benefits  ac- 
cruing from   his  extenfive    and   inqulfuive  correfpon- 
dence.    His  converfatlon,   cheerful  and  ^ifefully  enter- 
taining, rendered   his  acquaintance   much  dtlired  by 
thofe  v.-ho  had  a  relifti  fjr  natural  hiftory,  or  were  ftu- 
dlous.  in  cultivating  rural  improvements;   and  fecured 
him  the  intimate  friendlhip  of  fome  of  the  moft   emi- 
nent perfonages  in  this  kingdom,   as  diftinguiftied  by 
their  tafte  in  planting  and  horticulture,  as  by  their  rank 
and  dignity.      He  was   the  firft   who  introduced  the 
great  variety  of  feeds  and  fhruhs  which  are  now  the 
principal  ornaments  of  every  garden  ;   and  it  was   ow- 
ing to  his  indefatigable  induftrv,  thatfo  many  perfons 
of  the  firft  diftir.ftion  are  now  enabled  to  bthdd  groves 
tranfplanted    from  the  weliern  ccniintnt  flounflin.;  as 
luxuriantly   in    their   feveral  domains  ?s  il   they  were 
already  become  indigenous  to  Britain.      He  had  fome 
corrcfpondents  in  almoit  every  nution  in  Europe,  fome 
in  Afia,  sad   even   at   Pekin  ;  who  all  tranfmitted  to 

him 


COL 


[     I4J     ] 


COL 


>llii  finla  him  thi;  mod  valuable  feeds  they  could  coUeft,  in  re- 
(I  .  turn  for  the  treafures  of  Aiierica.  The  great  Lin- 
^  ^"''''  naeiis,  during  his  refiJence  in  England,  contrafted  an 
intima"!e  frienrlfhip  with  Mr  CoUinfon,  which  was  re- 
ciprocally increafed  by  a  multitude  of  )?ood  oflices,  and 
continued  to  the  laft.  Befidcs  hi.s  attachment  to  na- 
tural hiftory,  he  was  verv  converfant  in  the  antiquities 
of  our  own  country,  having  been  elefted  a  member  of 
the  Society  of  Antiquaries  April  7.  1737  ;  and  he 
fupplied  then  often  with  many  curious  articles  of  in-, 
tcUigence  and  obfervations,  refpefting  both  our  own 
and  other  countries.  He  died  in  1768,  leaving  be- 
hind him  many  materials  for  the  improvement  of  na- 
tural hiflory 

COLLINSONIA,  in  botany:  A  genus  of  themono- 
gynia  order  belonging  to  the  decandria  clafs  of  plants; 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  40th  or- 
der, Pcrfonatte.  The  corolla  is  unequal,  with  its  under 
lip  multifid,  and  the  fegments  capillary.  There  is  on- 
ly one  perfeft  feed.  There  is  but  one  fpccies,  a  native 
of  North  America,  but  pofleflcd  of  no  remarkable  pro- 
perties. 

COLLIQUAMENTUIM,  in  natural  hiftory,  an 
extreme  tranfparent  fluid  in  an  egg,  obfervable  after 
two  or  three  days  incubation,  containing  the  firft  ru- 
diments of  the  chick.  It  is  included  in  one  of  its  own 
proper  membranes  ;  diftinft  from  the  albumen.  Har- 
vey calls  it  the  ociih:s. 

COLLIQUATION,  in  cliemiftry,  is  applied  to  ani- 
mal, vegetable,  and  mineral  fubftances,  tending  to- 
wards fufion.      See  Fusion. 

CoLLiQUATiON,  in  phyfic,  a  term  applied  to  the 
blood,  when  it  lofes  its  crafis  or  balfau.ic  texture ; 
and  to  the  folid  parts,  when  thty  wafte  away,  by 
means  of  the  animal  fluids  flowing  off  through  the 
feveral  glands,  and  particularly  thofe  of  the  flcin, 
faller  than  they  ought :  which  occafions  fluxes  of  many 
kinds,  but  moilly  profufc,  greafy,  and  clammy  fweats. 

COLLIQUATIVE  fever,  in  phyfic,  a  fever  at- 
tended with  a  diarihces,  or  with  profufe  fweats. 

COLLISION,  the  fl:riking  of  one  hard  body  againft 
another ;  in  tiie  friftion  or  perculfion  of  bodies  mo- 
ving violently  with  difl^erent  direftions,  and  dafhing 
againfl:  esch  other. 

COLLUM,  the  fame  with  Neck. 

COLLUSION,  inlaw,  a  fecret  undei  (landing  be- 
twee:i  t\^"  iiarties,  who  plead  or  proceed  fraudulent- 
ly againft   -i-ch,  to  the  prejudice  of  a  third  perfon. 

COLLUTHIANS,  a  religious  feft,  who  rofe 
about  x\\c  beginnirig  of  the  fourth  century  ;  on  occa- 
fion  of  the  irdnlgence  fliown  to  Arius  by  Alexander 
patriarch  of  Alexandria.  Several  people  being  fcanda- 
lized  at  fo  1;  uch  condefcenfion  ;  and,  among  the  reft, 
CoUuihus,  a  piieil  of  the  fame  citv  ;  he  hence  took  n 
pretence  for  holding  feparateaflemblicu,  and  by  degrees 
proceeded  to  the  ordination  of  priefts,  as  if  he  had  been 
a  bifltop  ;  pretending  a  neceffity  tor  this  authority,  in 
order  to  oppofe  Arius.  To  his  fchifm  he  added  hcrtfy; 
teaching,  that  God  did  noi  create  the  wicked  ;  that  he 
was  not  author  of  the  evil  that  befal  men,  &c.  He 
was  condemned  by  a  council  held  at  Alexandria  by 
Ofius,  in  the  year  330. 

COLLYBUS  (KoAA,i-eof),  Jn  antiquity,  the  fame 
tvith  V  hat  is  now  called  the  rate  of  exchange. 

COLLYR.Ai,  or  CoLLYRiDEs,  in  antiquity,  a  ccr- 
VoL.  V.  Part  L 


tain  ornament  of  hair,  worn  by  the  wotnen  on  their 
necks.  It  was  made  up  in  the  form  of  the  fmall 
roundifh  cakes  called  x'^'.upKi,  collyrs. 

COLLYRIDIANS,  in  church  hiftory,  a  feft,  to- 
wards the  cloie  of  the  4th  century,  denominated  from 
a  little  cake,  called  by  the  Greeks  '"'^'^■■'S'^'^'-  co//yridia, 
which  they  offered  to  the  Virgin  Mary. 

This  feft,  it  feems,  confifted  chiefly  of  Arabian 
women,  who,  out  of  an  extravagance  of  devotion  to 
the  Virgin,  met  on  a  certain  day  in  the  year,  to  cele- 
brate a  folemn  feaft,  and  t'>  render  divine  honours  to 
Mary  as  to  a  goddefs ;  eating  the  cake  which  they 
offered  in  her  name.  St  Epiphanius,  who  relates  the 
hiftory  of  this  fuperftitious  ceremony,  ridicules  it. 
They  fprung  up  in  oppofition  to  the  Antidico-Ma- 

RIANITES. 

COLLYRIUM,  in  pharmacy,  a  topical  remedy  for 
a  diforder  of  the  eyes  ;  dcfigned  to  cool  and  repel  hot 
(harp  humours. 

COLMAR,  a  confiderable  town  of  France,  in  Up- 
per Alface,  of  which  it  is  the  capital.  It  has  great 
privileges,  and  the  Proteftants  have  liberty  of  con- 
fcience.  It  is  feated  near  the  river  111,  in  E.  Long, 
7.  16.  N.  Lat.  48.  5. 

COLMARS,  a  town  of  France  in  Provence,  and 
the  diocefe  of  Sens.  It  is  feated  near  the  Alps,  in 
E.  Long.  6.  25.  N.  Lat.  44.  17. 

COLMOGOROD,  a  town  of  the  empire  of  Ruffia, 
with  an  archbifhop's  fee,  feated  in  an  ifland  formed  by 
the  river  Divina,  in  E.  Long.  23.  30.  N.  Lat.  36.  32. 

COLNBROOK,  a  town  of  Buckinghamlhire  in 
England,  feated  on  the  river  Coin,  which  feparates 
this  county  from  Middlefex.  It  is  a  great  thorough- 
fare on  the  weftern  road,  and  has  feveral  good  inns. 
W.  Long.  o.  19.  N.  Lat.  51.  30. 

COLNE,  a  town  of  Lancafliire  in  England,  feated 
on  a  fmall  hill  near  the  confines  of  the  county.  W. 
Long.  2.  2.  N.  Lat.  53.  45. 

COLOCHINA,  an  ancient  town  of  the  Morea  in 
Turky  in  Europe.      E.  Long.  23.  2.  N.  Lat.  36.  32. 

COLOCYNTHIS,  in  botany,  a  fpeciesofCucuMis. 

COLOCZA,  a  town  of  Hungary,  feat-.J  on  the 
Danube,  and  capital  of  the  county  of  Bath,  with  an 
archbifliop's  fee.  It  was  taken  by  the  Turks  in  1686, 
but  afterwards  retaken  by  the  Imperialifts.  E.  Long. 
19.  42.  N.  Lat.  46.  33. 

COLOGNA,  a  town  of  Italy  in  Padua,  and  in  the 
territory  of  Venice.   E.  Long.  11.  43.  N.  Lat.  45.  39. 

COLOGNE  (the  archbiftiapric  or  diocefe  of)  is 
one  of  the  flates  that  conipofe  tlic  eleftoral  circle  of 
the  Rhine,  in  Germany.  It' is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  dr.chy  of  Cleves  and  GuelJrts,  on  the  weft  by 
that  of  Jullcrs,  on  the  fouth  by  the  archbifhopric  of 
Cleves,  and  on  the  taft  by  the  duchy  of  Berg,  from 
which  it  is  almoft  wholly  feparated  by  the  Rhine. 
This  country  is  very  fruitful  in  corn  and  wine,  which 
the  inhabitants  difpofe  of  by  embarking  it  on  the 
Rhine,  it  extending  aboui  ieventy  miles  along  that 
river.  It  is  divided  into  the  Higher  and  Lower  Dio- 
cefe ;  the  Higher  Dioccit,  contains  that  part  which 
lies  above  Cologne,  wherein  is  Bonne,  the  capital  tov/n 
of  this  tlcftorate,  and  where  the  tlcftor  relldes  ;  be- 
fid-s  which  there  are  Lcichiilch,  Ar.dernach,  Bruyl, 
Z'.Kich,  and  Kerpen.  The  Lower  Diocefe  is  on  the 
other  fide  of  Cologne,  and  contains  the  towns  of  Zonz, 
T  Neuys, 


Collyri- 
duMS 
II       ' 


COL 


[     146     ] 


COL 


Cologne.  Neuys,  Heizarwart,  Kempen,  Rhynbcrg,  and  Alpen. 
*—"/——  The  city  of  Cologne  and  county  of  Meurs,  though 
within  the  diocefe  of  Cologne,  do  not  belong  to  it  ; 
for  Cologne  is  a  free  city,  and  Meurs  belongs  to  the 
houfe  of  NaiTau-Orange  ;  but  by  way  of  recompence, 
the  eleftor  has  confiderable  poffefllons  in  Wcllphalia, 
which  they  call  the  Domain.  It  contains  the  duchy 
of  Wcllphalia  and  the  county  of  Jlecldinchufen.  This 
prelate  is  one  of  the  eleftors  of  the  empire,  and  liolds 
alternately  with  that  of  Treves  the  fecond  or  third 
rank  in  the  eledloral  college.  He  is  arch-chancellor 
of  the  empire  in  Italy  ;  which  dignity  was  very  im- 
portant when  the  emperors  were  mailers  of  Italy,  but 
now  it  is  next  to  nothing.  When  the  emperors  were 
crowned  at  Aix  la  Chapelle,  the  archbidiop  of  Cologne 
performed  the  ceremony,  which  cau(ed  him  to  pretend 
to  the  fame  right  elfewhere  ;  but  he  was  oppofed  by 
the  archbilhop  of  Mentz.  This  occafioned  an  order, 
that  they  fliould  each  of  them  have  that  honour  in 
their  own  diocefe,  but  if  it  was  done  elfewhere,  they 
(hoiJd  perform  it  alternately.  The  archbilhop  of  Co- 
logne is  elefted  by  the  chapter  in  that  city,  which  is 
the  moll  illuftrious  in  all  Germany.  They  are  all 
princes  or  counts,  except  eight  doctors,  who  have  no 
occafion  to  prove  their  nobility. 

Cologne,  an  ancient  and  celebrated  town  of  Ger" 
many,  in  the  diocefe  of  that  name,  with  an  archbi- 
fhop's  fee,  and  a  famous  univerfity,  feated  on  the  river 
Rhine,   in  E.  Long.  6.  38.  N.  Lat.  50.  50..     In  the 
limes  of  the  Romans,  this  city  was  called  Cotonia  A- 
gripplnn,  and  Ubiorum,  becaufe  it  was  built  by  Agrip- 
plna  the  wife  of  Claudius  I.  and  mother  of  Nero  ;'  and 
becaufe  the  Ubii  inhabited  this  country  on  the  Lower 
Rhine.     In  755,  it  was  an  archbiihopric,  and  in  1260 
entered  into  the   Hanfeatic   league.     The   univerfity 
was  eftablidied   in    1388   by  Pope   Urban  VI.     The 
city   is  fortified   with   llrong   walls,   flanked   with  83 
large  towers,  and  furrounded  with  three  ditches  ;  but 
thefe  fortifications,  being   executed  after  the  ancient 
manner,  could  make  but  a  poor  defence  at  prefent.     It 
Jies  in  the  Ihape  of  a  half-moon,  and  is  faid  to  have 
20  gates,  19  parifhes,  37  monafteries,  and  365  church- 
es and  chapels  ).  but  the  flreets  in  general   are   dirty 
and  badly  paved,  the  windows  of  the  houfes  compofed 
of  fmall  bits  of  round  gkfs,  and  the  inhabitants  are 
but  few  for  fo  large  a  place.    It  is  uihabited  moftly  by 
Papifts  ;  but  there  are  alfo  many  proteflants,  who  re- 
pair to  the   neighbouring  town   of  Mulheim,   in   the 
duchy  of  Berg,  for  pubhc  woifhip.      Its  trade,  which 
is  confiderable,  efpecially  in   Rhenifh  wine,  is  chiefly 
in  the  hands   of  Protellants,  and  carried  on  by  the 
Rhine.     The  (hips  with  which  they  trade  to  the  Ne- 
therlands are  of  a  particular  form,  and  confiderable 
burden.     The  clergy  here  are  very  numerous,  and  have 
large  revenues.     That  of  the  archbidiop  is  L.  1 30,000. 
Baron  Polnitz  fays,  that   though   Cologne  is   one   of 
the  greateft  cities,  it  is  one  of  the  moft  melancholy  in 
all  Europe  ;  there  being  nothing  to  be  feen  but  priefls, 
friars,  and  Undents,  many  of  whom  beg  alms  with  a 
fong  ;  and   nothing  to  be   heard  but   the   ringing  of 
bells ;  that  there  are  verj'  few  fiimilies  of  quahty  ;  that 
the  vulgar  are  vei-y  clownifli  ;  and  that  the  noblemen 
of  the  chapter  ftay  no  longer  in  town  than  their  duty 
obhges  them.     Mr  Wright,   in  his  travels,  fays,  that 
the  women  go  veiled  j  and  that  the  beft  gin  is  that 
a. 


diftilled  from  the  juniper  berries  which  grow  in  this    C 
neighbourhood.     This  city   is   perhaps  the  moft  re-  "" 
markablc  of  any  in  the  world  for  tlie  great  number  of 
precious  relics  it  contains;  of  which  the  Popilh  cler?v, 
no  doubt,   make   their   advantage.      In  the  church  of 
St  Urfula,  tliey  pretend  to   flroA'  her  tomb,   and  the 
bones  of  the  11,000  pretended  virgin  martyrs,  though 
that  ftory  is  entirely  owing  to  a  millakcn  iiifcn'ption. 
The  heads  of  fome  of  theie  imaginary  martyrs  are  kept 
in  cafes  of  filver,  others  are  covered  with  lluifs  of  gold, 
and  fome  have  caps  of  cloth  of  gold  and  velvet.     Bre- 
vat   fays,   he  faw  between  4  and  5000  flculls,  decked 
with  garlands,  and  coronets,  ranged  on  (Irelves.     The 
canoneffes   of  St  Urfula,  who  mud  be  all  countefles,. 
have  a  handfome  income.     In  their  church  they  pre- 
tend  to   fiiow   three  of  the  thorns  of  our  Saviour's 
crown,  and  one   of   the  veflels  which  contained  the 
water  that  he  converted  into  v.-ine  at  the  marriage  of 
Cana.      In  the  church  of  St  Gereon  are  900  heads  of 
Moorifh  Cavaliers,  faid   to  have   been   in  the  army  of 
Conftantine  before  it  was  converted,  and  to  have  been 
beheaded   for  refafing   to    facrifice   to   idols.       Every 
one  of  the  heads  has   a   cap   of  fcarlct,  adorned  with 
pearls.     In  the  magnificent  cathedral  of  St  Peter,  the 
three  wife  men  who  came   from   the  eall   to  vifit  our 
Saviour,  are  faid  to  be  interred.      They  lie  in  a  large 
purple   fhrine  fpangled   with  gold,  fet  upon  a  pedef- 
tal  of  brafs,  in  the  midll  of  a  fquare  maufoleum,  faced 
within   and  without  with  marble   and  jafper.     It  is 
opened  every  morning  at  nine  o'clock,  if  two   of  the 
canons  of  the  cathedral  are  prefent,  when  thefe  kings 
or  wife  men  are  feen   lying  at  full  length,  with  their 
heads  bedecked  with  a  crown  of  gold  gurnilhed  with 
precious  Hones.    Their  names,  which  are  Gafpar,Mcl- 
chier,   and    Balthafar,  are  in   purple   charadters   on   a 
little  grate,  which  is  .idorned  with  an  infinite  number 
of  large   rich   pearls  and  precious  llones,  particularly 
an  oriental  topaz  as  big  as  a  pigeon's  egg,  and  valued 
at  above  30,000  crowns.     Over  againil  tliem  are  fii. 
large  branches  of  filver,  with  wax  candles,  which  burn 
night  and  day.      The  bones  of  thefe  men,  we  are  told, 
were  brought  to  Conllantinople  by  Helena  mother  to 
Conftantine,     from    thence   to    Milan    by   Euftorpius 
bilhop  of  that  fee,  and  afterwards  hither  by  archbidiop 
Rainold.     In  the  Jeluits  college  are  the  portraits  of 
the  firft  13  generals  of  that  order,  with  Ignatius  Lo- 
yola at  their  head ;  and  in  the  church,  which  is  the 
fineil  in  Cologne,  are  many  rich  ftatues,  with  an  ama- 
zing quantity  of  fine  filver  plate  ;  and  the  utenfils  for 
mafs  are  all  of  gold  enriched  with  precious  ftones.      In 
the  Cordeliers  church,  is  the  tomb  of  the  famous  Duns 
Scotus,   furnamed  Doctor  Subtilis,  with   this  epitaph, 
"  Scotia   me  genuit,  Angha  me  fufcepit,  Gallia  me 
docuit,  Colognia  me  tenet."     Cologne  is  a  free  iinpe- 
rial  city,  and  as  fuch  has  a  feat  and  voice  at  the  diets  of 
the  empire,  and  circle  of  the  Lower  Rhine.     In  thofe 
of  the  empire,  it  has  the    firft  place  on   the  Rhenidi 
bench.     Towards  the  defence  of  the  empire,  its  afiefT- 
ment  is  825  florins  ;  and  towards  the  maintenance  of 
the    chamber-court,    405    rix-dollars,    724-    kruitzers 
each  term.      Its  militia  confifts  of  four  companies  of 
foot,  who  keep  guard   at  the   gates.      It  is   governed 
by   its  own  fenate,   in   refpeft   to    civil    matters  and 
caufes  ;  but  the   criminal  jurifdiftion   belongs  to  the 
cktlor  and  his  chapter  j  and  fo  jealous  are  the  inha- 
bitants 


iilogne. 


II . 

Colonia. 


COL  [147]  COL 

bitnnts  of  him,  that  they  will  not  permit  him  to  flay  ;V  mo-vitig  ;  ami  il  appears  the  grafs  Ims  grow,  though  no    Colond 

in  the  city  above  three  days  at   a  time,   nor   to  come  boily  ever  faiu  it  groiu  :  fo  the  advances  lue  mcilte  in  know- 

into  it  with  a  larg-e  retinue.      For  this  reafon  the  elcc-  Ifdge,  as  they  cnnjifl  of  fuch  minute j'leps,  are  only  perceiv- 

tor  refides  commonly  at  Bonn.  able  by  the  dijlance  —  \.\\xi  advancement  in   knowledge  is 

CoLOGKF-Earth,  a  kind  of  very  light  baftard  ochre,  compared  to  tiie  motion  of  a  fliadow,  and  the  gi-owth 

of  a  deep  brown  colour.                       •  of  grafs  ;  which  comparifon  divides  the  fentcnce  into 

COLOMBO,  a  handfome,  pleafant,  and    ftrong  two   principal  parts:   but  fince  what   is  faid   of  the 

town  of  Afia,   feated  on  the  eaftern  fide  of  the  ifland  movement  of  the  fliadow,  and  liitewife  of  the  gi-owth 

of  Ceylon   in   the  Eaft  Indies.     It  was  built  by  the  of  grafs,  contains  two  fimple  mejuteers,  they  are  to  be 

Porluguefe   in    1638;  and  in  1658  they  were  driven  feparared  by  a  femicolon  ;  confequcntly  a  higher  point- 

from  it  by  the  natives,  afiilled  by  the  Dutch,  who  are  ing  is  required   to   feparate  them   from  the  other  part 

now  in  pofl'cfTion  of  it.      It  is  about  three  quarters  of  of  the  fentence,  which   they  are  oppofed  to  :  and  this 

a  mile  long,  and   as  much  in  breadth.     The  natives  is  a  colon.     See  Punctuation. 

live  in  the   old  town,  without  the  walls  of  the  new  :  COLONEL,  in  military  matters,  the  commander  in 

tlie  ftreets  of  this  la(l  are  wide  and  fpacious ;  and  the  chief  of  a  regiment,  whether  horfe,  foot,  or  dragoons, 

buildings  are  in  the  modern  tafte,  particularly  the  go-  Slcinner  derives   the   word   from   colony  ;  being  of 

vernor's  houfe,  which  is  a  handfome  ftrufture.  E.Long,  opinion,  tlie  chiefs  of  colonics,  called  cokniaks,  might 

80.  25.  N.  Lat.  7.  o.  give  the  name  to  chiefs  offerees.     In  the  French  and 

COLOMEY,  or  Colomia,  a  town   of  Poland   in  Spanifli  armies,  colonel  is  confined  to  the  Infantr)-  and 

Red  Ruffia,  feated  on   tlic  river  Pruth,  in  E.  Long,  dragoons  :  the  commanding  officer  of  a   regiment  of 

horfe  they  ufually  call  mejlre  de  camp.  Formerly,  IH- 
ftead  of  colonel,  the  French  ufed  the  word  coronel ; 
and  this  old  fpelling   comes  nearer  to  our  common 


25.  9.   N.  L.at.  48.  45. 

COLOMNA  (Fabio),  a  very  learned  botanift,  born 
at  Naples  about  the  year  1567.     He  became  fliiilkd 


in  the  languages,   in  mufic,   defigning,  painting,  and  way  of  pronouncing  the  word  colonel. 

the  mathematics ;  and  died  about  the  middle   of  the         A  colonel  may  lay   any  ofliccr  of  his   regiment  in 

17th  century.     He  wrote,  ,1.  't'u.-o/^aD-avsy-,  feu  Plan-  aiTcft,  but   muft;   acquaint  the  general  with  it ;  he  is 

tarum  aliquot  (ac  pifciuni)  hiftoria.     2.  Minus  cogni-  not  allowed  a  guard,  only  a  centiy  from  the  quarter- 

tarum  rariorumque  ftirpium  £'.?pt«r/t ;  itemque  de  aqua-  guard. 

tilibus,  allifque  nonnuUIs  animalibus,  libellus  ;  and  o-         CoioNSL-Lieulenanl ,  he  who  commands  a  regiment 

ther  works.  of  guards,  whereof  the  king,  prince,   or   other   perfoa 

COLON,  In  anatomy',  the  firll  and  moft  confider-  of  the  firil  eminence,  is  colonel.     Thefe  colonel-lieute- 

able  of  the  large   intellines.     See  Anatomy,  wider  nants  have  always  a  colonel's  commiflion,  and  are  ufual- 

n°  93.  ly  general-officers. 

Colon,  in  grammar,  a  point,  or  charader  formed         ZM/toOTrf-CoiOJVfi,  the  fecond  officer  in  a  regiment, 

thus  [:],  ferving  to  mark  a  paufe,  and  to   divide  the  who  is  at  the  head  of  the  captains,  and  commands  in 

members  of  a  period.     See  Pointing  ;  fee  alfo  Pe-  the  abfence  of  the  colonel. 

RioD,  Comma,   and   Semicolon.     Grammarians  ge-         COLONIA,  (anc.  geog.)   a  town   of  the  Trino- 

nerally  aflign  the  ufe  of  a  colon  to  be,  to  mark  the  bantes,  a  little  above  Cameiodunum.     Now  Colchef 

middle  of  a  period  ;  or  to  conclude  a  fenfe  lefs  perfeft  ter  in  Eflex,  according  to  Cambden,  who  fuppofes  it 

than  the  dot  or  period  : — but,  a  fenfe  lefs  perfeil  than  to  take  its  name  from  the  river  Colne,  and  not  that  it 

the  period,  is  an  exprtflion  extremely  vague  and  inde-  was  a  colony.     Though  others  think  Antonine's  di- 

terminate.     See  Period.  llances  agree  with  Sudbuiy. 

Others  fay,  a  colon  is  to  be  ufed  when  the  fenfe  is         Colonia  Equejlris,   an  ancient  and   noble  colony  on 

perfeft,  but  the  fentence  not  concluded :  but  neither  the  Lacus  Lemanus.     It  appears  to  be   the  work  of 

is  this  over  clear  and  exprefs.  Julius  Citfar,  wlio  fettled  there  Equites  Limit  ami :   and 

A  late  author,  in  an  ingenious  difcourfe,  De  rations  to  this  Lucan  is  thought  to  refer.     By  the  Itinerary 

intcrpungendi,  marks  the  office  of  the  colon,  and  v.'here-  it  is  fuppofed    to    have  ft;ood   between   Laufane  and 

in   it   differs  from  the  femicolon,  &c.  more  precifcly.  Geneva,  12    miles  from  the  lafl  place  by  Peutinger's 

A  colon,  on  his  principles,  ferves  to  dlllinguini  thofe  map  ;  which  dircds  to  Nyon,  placed  in  Cavo  Lemano, 

conjuniil  members  of  a  fentence,  which  are  capable  of  according  to  Lucan's  expreffion,  that  is,  a  bay  or  cove 

being  divided  into   other  members;   whereof  one,  at  of  the  lake.   Its  ancient  name  was  iVoTWw/ram,  (Noti- 


leaft,  is  conjunct.  Thus,  in  the  fentence,  As  lue  can- 
not difcern  the  jlaclozu  moving  along  the  dial-plate,  Jo  the 
advances  loe  make  in  knoivledge  are  only  perceived  by 
the  dijlance  gone  over;  the  two  members  being  both 
fimple,  are  only  feparated  by  a  comma.  In  this,  yls 
ive  perceive  the  Jhadoiu  to  Imvc  moved,  but  did  no!  per- 
(ei've  it  moving  ;  fo  our  advances  in  underjlanding,  in  that 
that  they  conjtjl  of  fuch  minute  Jleps,  are  only  perceivable 


tia  Galliae)  :   hence  its  modern  name. 

CoLONi'i  MeUdlivci,  or  Mctaliinenfis,  a  town  of  Lu- 
fitania,  fituated  on  the  right  or  vvefl  fide  of  the  Anas, 
or  Guadiana  :  but  now  on  the  left  or  call  fide'  from 
tlie  river's  fliifting  its  bed  or  channel,  and  called  Me- 
delin,  a  town  in  Eflremadura.  VV.  Long.  6'  12,  Lat. 

Colonia   Morinurum,  a  town   of  Belgica,   thought 


hy  the  difuince  ;-thit  {tntcncc  being  divided  into  two  to  be  Tarveiina,  the  capital  of  tlie  Morinl.  Now 
equ?.l  parts,  and  tliofe  coiijundt  ones,  fince  they  include  Terrouen,  a  town  of  Artuis.  E  Long.  2  15',  Lat. 
others;  we  feparate  the- former  by  a  femicolon,  and    50°  37'. 

the  latter  by  commas.      But  in  this,  yls  we  perceive  the         Colonia   Norbenfis,   or  Norba  Cafarea,    a  town  of 
Jl.-ado-jj  to  have  moved  along  the  dial,  but  did  not  perceive    Lufitania,  to  the  fouth  of  Trajan's  bridge  on  the  Ta- 

T  2  gus. 


COL 


r     r48    ] 


COL 


Colonia 

II 
Colony. 


gvw.  Now  Alcantara,  in  Eftremadura.  W.  Long, 
7'  lo',  N.  Lat.  i(f  lo'. 

Colonia  Trajana,  (Antonine,  PeutJnger)  ;  a 
town  of  Bdgica,  furnamcd  alfo  Ulpia,  (Antoninc)  ; 
and  Tricejlma,  troin  being  the  ilation  of  the  thirtieth 
legion,  (Aminlan).  Now  Kellen,  a  village  of  the 
duchy  of  Cleves,  a  mile  from  the  Rhine. 

Colonia  Valentia,  (Ptolemy,  Livy)  ;  a  town  of 
the  Hither  Spain,  on  the  Turias  ;  detlroyed  by  Pom- 
pey,  (Sallull)  ;  reftored  by  Julius  Cnsfar.  Still  cal- 
led Valencia,  on  the  river  Guadalavlar,  in  Valencia. 
W.  Long.  :55',  Lat.  39 '  20'. 

COLONNA,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  Campagna  of 
Rome,  18  miles  eaftward  of  that  city.  E.  Long.  13'' 
15'  N.  Lat.  42°  o.' 

CoLONjJA  (Pompey),  cardinal  archbifhop  of  Mon- 
treal in  Sicily,  and  blihop  of  a  very  gi-eat  number  of 
places,  made  a  conlpicuous  figure  in  the  world.  He 
was  equally  qualified  to  wear  the  cardinal's  hat  and 
the  helmet,  and  experienced  more  than  once  the  re- 
verfes  of  fortune.  Julius  IL  removed  him  from  all 
his  dignities  ;  but  Leo  L  reftored  him,  created  him 
cardinal,  and  fent  him  on  feveral  embaffies.  Cle- 
ment VI  I.  diverted  liim  of  the  purple,  andagain  reftored 
hira  to  it.  It  was  pretended  he  was  obliged  to  him 
for  his  exaltation  to  the  papal  throne.  The  pope  re- 
fuling  him  fome  requeil,  he  reproached  hira,  faying, 
*'  That  it  was  by  his  intereft  he  had  arrived  at  his 
dignity."  The  pope  replied,  "  It  is  true,  but  let  me 
be  pope,  and  do  not  endeavour  to  be  fo  yourfelf ;  for 
by  afting  as  you  do,  you  endeavour  to  difpoli'efs  me 
of  that  you  have  raifed  me  to."  He  died  viceroy  of 
Naples  in  1532.  He  wrote  fome  poems  in  praife  of 
Ifabella  Fibmarini,  in  which  he  protefts  the  chaftity 
of  his  willies.  He  wrote  another  work,  De  laud'tbus 
mulu'ium. 

COLONNADE,  in  architefture,  a  peridyle  of  a 
circular  figure  ;  or  a  feries  of  columns  difpofed  in  a 
circle,  and  infulated  within  fide. 

A  PoJyfiyh  Colonnade,  is  that  whofe  numbers  of 
columns  is  too  great  to  be  taken  in  by  the  eye  at  a 
{ingle  view.  Such  is  the  colonnade  of  the  palace  of 
St  Peter's  at  Rome,  confifting  of  284  columns  of  the 
Doric  order,  each  above  four  feet  and  an  half  diame- 
ter, all  in  Tiburtine  marble. 

COLONOS,  (anc.  geog. )  an  eminence  near  Athens, 
ivhither  Qildipus,  after  his  banilhment  from  Thebes, 
is  faid  to  have  retired  :  and  hence  it  is  that  Sophocles 
calls  the  tragedy  on  the  fubjeft,  Oedipus  Colonsus.  A 
place  facred  to  Neptune,  and  where  flood  an  equef- 
trian  ftatue  of  him.  Here  alfo  flood  Timon's  tower; 
who,  for  his  love  of  folitude,  and  hatred  to  mankind, 
was  called  Mifar.thropos,  (Paufanias). 

OOLONSAY,  one  of  the  Hebrides  or  Weftern 
Iflands  belonging  to.  Scotland.  It  comprehends  that 
of  Oronfay,  from  which  it  is  only  feparated  in  time 
of  flood,  and  both  belong  to  the  fame  proprietor,  viz. 
Mr  M'Neil.     See  Oronsav. 

COLONUS,  an  hufljandman,  or  villager,  who  was 
bound  to  pay  yearly  a  certain  tribute,  or  at  certain 
times  of  the  year  to  plough  fome  part  of  the  lord's 
land  ;  and  from  hence  comes  the  word  clown,  who  is 
called  by  the  Dutch  boor. 

COLONY,  a  company  of  people  tranfplanted  In- 


to a  remote  province  in  order  to  cultivate  and  inhabit 
it.  ,  - 

We  may  diftingulfli  three  klfids  of  colonies.  Firft, 
thofe  ferving  to  cafe  or  difcharge  the  inhabllants  of  <i 
country,  where  the  people  are  become  too  numerous, 
fo  that  they  cannot  any  longer  convenicntlv  fubfift. 

The  fecond  are  thofe  cftabliihed  by  victorious  prin- 
ces and  people  in  the  middle  of  vanquiftied  nations,  to 
keep  them  in  awe  and  obedience. 

The  third  may  be  called  colonics  of  commerce;  be- 
caufe,  in  effetl,  it  is  trade  that  is  the  fole  oceafion  and 
objeft  thereof. 

It  was  by  means  of  the  fiift  kind  of  colonies  that, 
fome  ages  after  the  deluge,  the  eaft  firft,  and  fuccef- 
fively  all  the  other  parts  of  the  earth,  became  inha- 
bited :  and  without  mentioning  any  thing  of  the  Phce- 
nician  and  Grecian  colonies,  fo  famous  in  ancient  hi- 
ftoiy,  it  is  notorious  that  it  was  for  the  ettablifinnent 
of  fuch  colonies,  that,  during  the  detlenfion  of  the  em- 
pire, thofe  torrents  of  barbarous  nations,  ifiuing,  for 
the  generality,  out  of  the  north,  over-run  the  Gauls, 
Italy,  and  the  othec  foutliern  parts  of  Europe  ;  and, 
after  feveral  bloody  battles,  divided  it  with  tlie  ancient 
inhabitants. 

For  the  fecond  kind  of  colonies,  the  Romans  ufcd 
them  mor>;  than  any  other  people  ;  and  that  to  fecure 
the  conquefls  they  had  made  from  the  weft  to  the 
eaft.  Every  one  knows  how  many  cities  in  Gaul, 
Germany,  Spain,  and- even  England,  value  themfelves 
on  their  having  been  of  the  number  of  Roman  colo- 
nies. 

There  were  two  kinds  of  colonies  among  the  Ro- 
mans: thofe  fent  by  the  fenate;  and  the  mihtary  ones, 
confifting  of  old  foldiers,  broken  and  difabled  with  the 
fatigues  of  war,  who  were  thus  provided  with  lands 
as  the  reward  of  their  fervices.  See  Benefice.  The 
colonies  fent  by  the  fenate  were  either  Roman  or  La- 
tin, i.  e.  compofed  either  of  Roman  citizens  or  Latins. 
The  Coloniiie  Latinae  were  fuch  as  enjoyed  the  y'aj  La- 
tii ;  faid  to  confift  in  thofe  two  things :  one,  that 
whoever  was  edile  or  pretor  in  a  town  of  Latium,  be- 
came for  that  reafon  a  RomAn  citizen  ;  the  other, 
that  the  Latins  were  fubjcft  to  the  rfifts  of  their  own, 
and  not  to  thofe  of  the  Roman  magiftrates :  in  the 
year  of  the  city  fix  hundred  and  fixty  two,  after  the 
.focial  war,  the  city  was  granted  to  all  Latium,  by 
the  lex  Julia.  I'he  colonis  Romanae,  were  fuch  as 
had  the  jus  Romanum,  but  not  in  its  full  extent ; 
namely,  in  the  right  of  fuffi-age,  putting  up  for  ho- 
nours, magiltracies,  command  in  the  army,  ISjc.\  but 
the  jus  Quiritium  only,  or  private  right  ;  as  right  of 
liberty,  ot  gentility,  or  dignity  of  family,  facrifice, 
marriage,  Ijc.  For  it  was  long  a  rule,  never  to  grant 
the  liberty  of  the  city  in  full  to  colonies  :  nor  is  there 
any  inftance  to  the  contrary,  till  after  the  focial  war,, 
in  the  year  of  the  city  fix  hundred  and  fixty -two.  Ac- 
cording to  Ulpian  (I.  I.  D.  deCeiif.),  there  were  o- 
ther  colonies,  which  had  httle  more  than  die  name  ; 
only  enjoying  what  they  called y'wj  Italicnm,  i.e.  they 
were  free  from  the  tributes  and  taxes  paid  by  the  pro- 
vinces. Such  were  the  colonies  of  Tyre,  Bcrytus, 
Heliopolis,  Palmyra,  i^c.  M.  Vaillant  has  filled  a 
volume  in  foho  with  medals  ftruck  by  the  feveral  co- 
lonies, in  honour  of  the  emperors  who  founded  them.. 

.    Thc- 


Colnny. 


COL 


[     H9     1 


COL 


Colnry.  The  ordinary  fymbol  tliey  engraved  on  the'r  medals, 
^  »  '  '  was  citlicr  an  eagle  ;  as  when  the  veteran  legions  were 
dlftributcd  in  the  colonies :  or  a  labourer,  holding  a 
ploiigli  drawn  by  a  pair  of  oxen  ;  as  when  the  colony 
conlilted  of  ordinary  inhabitants.  On  all  the  medals 
are  fceii  the  names  of  the  decemviri,  who  held  the 
fame  var.lc  and  had  the  £ame  authority  'there  as  the 
confuls  had  at  Rome. 

Laftly,  the  colonies  of  commerce,  are  thofe  efta- 
bliflied  by  the  Englifli,  French,  Spaniards,  Portuguefe, 
and  uther  nations  within  thefe  two  lafl  centuries,  and 
which  t'ley  continue  Hill  to  eftablifi,  in  feveral  parts 
of  Afia,  Africa,  and  America  ;  either  to  keep  up  a 
regular  commerce  with  the  natives,  or  to  cultivate  the 
ground,  by  planting  fugar-canes,  indigo,  tobacco,  and 
other  commoilitics.  The  principal  of  this  kind  of  co- 
lonies, are  in  the  one  and  the  other  America,  nor- 
thein  and  fouthern  ;  particularly  Peru,  Mexico,  Ca- 
nada (lately  Virginia,  New-England,  Carolina),  la 
Louifiana,  I'Acadia,  Hudfon's  Bay,  the  Antilles  If- 
lantls,  Jamaica,  Domingo,  and  the  other  iflands. — In 
Africa,  Madagafcar,  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Cape 
Verd,  and  its  iflands,  and  all  thofe  vafl:  coafts  extend- 
ed thence  as- far  as  to  the  Red  Sea.  Lallly,  in  Afia, 
the  famous  Batavia  of  the  Dutch  ;  Goa,  Diu,  of  the 
Portuguefe  ;  and  fome  other  lefs  confiderable  places  of 
the  Englifh,  French,  and  Danes. 

The  practice  of  fettling;  commercial  colonies  in  di- 
ftarit  countries  hath  been  adopted  by  the  wifefl  nations 
of  antiquity,  who  aited  fyilematically  upon  maxims 
of  found  policy.  This  appears  to  have  been  fhe  cafe 
with  the  ancient  Eg'yptians,  the  Chinefe,  the  Phoeni- 
cians, the  commercial  ftates  of  Greece,  the  Carthagi- 
nians, and  even  <he  Romans  ;  for  though  the  colonies 
of  the  latter  were  chiefly  militaiy,  it  could  eafily  be 
ihown  that  they, were  llkewife  made  ufe  of  for  the 
purpofes  of  trade.  The  favage  nations  who  ruined 
the  Roman  empire,  fought  nothing  but  to  extirpate 
or  hold  in  vaflalage  thofe  whom  they  overcame  ;  and 
therefore,  whenever  princes  enlarged  their  dominions 
at  the  expence  of  their  neighbours,  they  had  recourfe 
to  ftrong  forts  and  garrifons  to  keep  the  conquered  in 
awe.  For  this  they  have  been  blamed  by  the  famous 
Machiavel ;  who  labours  to  Ihow,  that  the  fettling  of 
colonies  would  have  been  a  cheaper  and  better  me- 
thod of  bridling  conquered  countries,  than  building 
fortreffes  in  them.  John  de  AVitt,  who  was  one  of 
the  ableft  and  beft,  itatefmen  that  ever  appeared, 
ftrongly  recomm.cnded  colonies;  as  affording  a  refuge 
to  fuch  as  had  been  unfortunate  in  trade  ;  as  opening 
a  field  for  fuch  men  to  exert  their  abilities,  as  through 
want  of  intereft  could  not  raife  themfelvcs  in  their 
own  country  ;  and  as  a  "fupplement  to  hofpitals  and 
other  charitable  foundations,  which  he  thought  in  time 
might  come  to  be  overcharged.  Some,  however,  have 
ridiculed  the  fuppofed  advantages  of  colonies,  and  af- 
ferted  that  they  muft  always  do  mifchief  by  depopu- 
lating the  mother-countiy. 

The  hiftory  of  the  Britifh  colonies  undoubtedly 
fhows,  that  when  colonifts  become  numerous  and  opu- 
lent, it  is  very  difficult  to  retain  them  in  proper  fub- 
jeftion  to  the  parent  ftate.  It  becomes  then  a  qutf- 
tlon  not  very  eafily  anfvvereJ,  how  far  they  are  en- 
titled to  the  rights  they  had  as  inhabitants  of  the  mo- 
ther-country, or  how  far  they  are  bound  by  its  laws  ? 


On  this  fubjeiEl  Mr  Blackftone  hath  the  following  ob-    Colony, 
fervation.^.  >^ 

"  Plantations,  or  colonics  in  diftant  countries,  are 
either  fuch  where  the  lands  are  claimed  by  right  of 
occupancy  only,  by  finding  them  defert  and  unculti- 
vated, and  peopling  them  from  the  mother-country  ; 
or  where,  when  already  cultivated,  they  have  either 
been  gained  by  conqucfl,  or  ceded  to  us  by  treaties. 
And  both  the  rights  are  founded  upon  the  law  of  na- 
ture, or  at  leaft  on  that  t,f  nations.  But  there  is  a 
diflerence  between  theie  two  fpecies  of  colonies  with 
refpe£t  to  the  laws  by  which  they  are  bound.  For  it 
hath  been  held,  that  if  an  uninhabited  country  be  dif- 
covercd  and  planted  by  Englifli  fubjefls,  all  the  Engllih 
laws  then  in  being,  which  are  the  birthright  of  ever)' 
fubjeft,  are  immediately  there  in  force.  But  this  mult 
be  underllood  with  many  and  very  great  reftriftions. 
Such  coloniils  carry  with  them  only  fo  much  of  the- 
Englifh  law  as  is  applicable  to  their  own  fituation, 
and  the  condition  of  an  infant  colony;  fuch,  for  inftance, 
as  the  general  rules  of  inheritance,  and  of  protection 
from  perfonal  injuries.  The  artificial  refinements  and 
diftinftions  incident  to  the  property  of  a  great  and 
commercial  people,  the  laws  of  policy  and  revenue 
(fuch  efpecially  as  arc  enforced  by  penalties),  the  mode 
of  maintenance  for  the  eftablKhed  clergy,  the  jurifdic- 
tion  of  fpirltual  courts,  and  a  multitude  of  other  pro- 
vifions,  are  neither  neceflary  nor  convenient  for  them, 
and  therefore  are  not  in  force.  What  (hall  be  admit- 
ted, and  what  rejeded,  at  what  times,  and  under  - 
what  reftriftions,  muft,  in  cafes  of  difpute,  be  deci- 
ded in  the  firft  inftance  by  their  own  provincial  judi- 
catiu'e,  fubjeft  to  the  revifion  and  controul  of  the  king 
in  council ;  the  whole  of  their  conftitutlon  being  alfo 
liable  to  be  new-modelled  and  reformed  by  the  gene- 
ral fuperintending  power  of  the  legiflature  in  the  mo- 
ther-country. But  in  conquered  or  ceded  countries, 
that  have  already  laws  of  their  own,  the  king  may  in- 
deed alter  and  change  thofe  laws  ;  but,  till  he  does 
actually  change  them,  _the  ancient  laws  of  the  country 
remain,  unlefs  fuch  as  are  againll  the  law  of  God,  as 
in  an  infidel  country.  Our  American  plantations  are 
principally  of  this  latter  fort,  being  obtained  in  the  hft 
century,  either  by  right  of  conquell  and  driving  out 
the  natives  (with  what  natural  juftice  I  ihall  not  at 
prefent  inquire),  or  by  treaties.  And  therefore,  the 
common  law  of  England,  as  fuch,  has  no  allowance  or 
authority  there  ;  they  being  no  part  of  the  mother 
country,  but  diftinil  (though  dependent)  dominions. 
They  are  fubjeft,  however,  to  the  controul  of  the 
parliament;  though  (like  Ireland,  Mann,. and  the  reft) 
not  bound  by  any  adls  of  parliament,  unlefs  particu- 
larly named." 

With  rcfpeft  to  their  interior  polity,  our  colonies, 
whether  thofe  we  formerly  pofieifed  or  ftill  pofiefs, 
maybe  difl;ingulfned  into  three  forts.     J.  Provincial  ' 

eftablifliments,  the  conftitutions  of  which  depend  on 
the  refpeftive  commiffions  iffued  by  the  crown  to 
the  governors,  and  the  inftruftlons  which  ufually  ac- 
company thofe  commiffions  ;  under  the  authority  of 
which  provincial  afiemblies  are  conftituted,  with  the 
power  of  making  local  ordinances  not  repugnant  tO' 
the  laws  of  Britain.  2.  Pr-oprletary  governments, 
granted  out  by  the  crown  to  individuals,  in  the  na- 
ture of  feudatory  princJpaHtes,  with  all  the  inferior  re- 
galities,. 


Colony 

!l 

Colophony. 


COL  [     150    ]  COL 

gal'ities,  and  fubordinate  powers  of  kgination,  which     focms  to  have  been  liquid  pitch,  which   ia  the  crude  Coloquin 
formerly  belonged  to  the  owners  of  couiicies  palatine:     refin  of  the  pine  brought  from  Colophon;  tht   other 
yet  ftill  with  thefe  exprefs  conditions,  that   the  ends     was  called  refina  'fr'icla,  and  conQfled  only  of  the  for- 
for  which  the  grant  waa  made  be  fubftantiallv  piirfucd,     tner  deprived  of  its  humid  parts.  1. 

and  that   nothing  be  attempted  which  may  derogate  COLOQUINTIDA,  in  botany.     See  Cucumis. 

COLORATURA,  in  rauiic,  denotes  all  manner  of 


tvda 


Colour. 


from  the  fovereignty  of  tiie  mother-countiy.  3.  Char- 
ter governments,  in  the  nature  of  civil  corporations  ; 
vith  the  power  of  making  bye-laws  for  their  own  in- 
terior regulation,  not  contraiy  to  the  laws  of  Britain  ; 
and  with  fuch  rights  and  aiithorlties  as  are  fpecially 
given  them  in  their  feveral  charters  of  incorporation. 
The  form  of  government,  in  moft  of  them,  is  bor- 
rowed from  that  of  England.  They  have  a  governor 
named  by  the  king  (or,  in  fome  proprietary  colonies, 
-by  the  proprietor),  who  is  reprefentative  or  deputy. 
They  have  courts  of  juflice  of  their  own,  from  whofe 
dccifions  an  appeal  lies  to  the  king  in  council  here  in 
Ene;land-  Their  general  afTemblies,  which  are  their 
houie  of  commons,  together  with  their  council  of  ttale, 
being  their  upper  houfe,  with  the  concurrence  of  the 


variations,  IriUos,  diminutions,  &c.  lerving  to  make  a 
fong  agreeable. 

COLORNO,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  Parmazan, 
near  tlie  rivet  Po,  eight  miles  from  Parma.  .Tlieduke 
of  Parma  has  a  pleafure-houfe  here,  one  of  the  moll 
<lelightful  feats  in  all  Italy,  and  the  gardens  are  very 
fine.     E.  Long.  9.  15.  N.  Lat.  44.  54. 

COLOSSAE,  or  CoLosEAE  (anc.  geog.),  a  con- 
fiderable  town  of  Phrygia  Magna,  in  which  the  Lycus 
falls  into  a  gulph,  and  at  the  dillance  of  five  Iladia 
emerges  again,  and  runs  into  the  Meander  (Hero- 
dotus). Other  fay,  the  genuine  name  is  Colq/fac,  and 
the  people  Colajfenfes,  to  whom  St  Paul  wrote  aa  epillle: 
Strabo  calls  them  CoToffenl.      In  Nero's  time  the  town 


king,  or  his  reprefentative  the  governor,  make  laws  was  dcflroyed  by  an  earthquake  (Orofius). 

fuited  to  their  own  emei-gencies.     But  it  is  particu-  COLOSSUS,   a    Ilatue  of  enormous    or    gigantic 

larly  declared,  by  flat.  7  and  S  W.  III.  c.  22.  that  all  fize.     The  moft  eminent  of  this  kind  was  the  Colodus 

Jaws,  bye-laws,  ufages,  and  cuftoms,  which  fliall  be  in  of  Rhodes ;  a  ftatue    of  Apollo,   fo   high,  that    ihips 

pradlice  in  any  of  the  plantations,  repugnant  to  any  palled    with    full  fails  betwixt    its  legs.     It  was   the 

law  made  or  to  be  made   in   this  kingdom  relative  to  workmanfhip  of  Chares,  a  dilclple  of  Lyfippus ;   who 

the  faid  plantations,   (hall  be  utterly  void  and  of  none  fpent  r  2  years  in  making  it  :  it  was    at   length  over- 

effeft.    And,  becaufe  feveral  of  the  colonies  had  claim-  thrown   by  an   earthquake,  after  having  ftood    1  360 


ed  the  fole  and  exclufive  right  of  impofing  taxes  upon 
themfelves,  the  ftatute  6  Geo.  III.  f.  12.  exprefsly 
declares,  that  all  his  Majefty's  colonies  in  America, 
-have  been,  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be,  fubordinate 
to  and  dependent  upon  the  imperial  crown  and  par- 
liament of  Great  Britain  ;  who  have  full  power  and 


years.  Its  height  was  fixfcore  and  fix  feet :  there 
were  few  people  could  fathom  its  thumb,  &c.  When 
the  Saracens  became  polfeffed  of  the  ifland,  the  ftatue 
was  found  proftrate  on  the  ground  :  they  fold  it  to  a 
Jew,  who  loaded  900  camels  with  the  brals. 

The  bafis  that  fupported  it  was  a  triangular  figure  ; 


authority  to   make  laws  and  ftatutes  of  fufficient  vah-  its  extremities  were  fuftained  with  60  pillars  of  maible, 

.ditytobind  the  colonics  and  people  of  America,  fub-  There  was  a  winding-flair-cafe  to  go  up  to  the  top  of 

je6ts  to  the  crown  of  Gr^sX  Britain  in  all  cafes  what-  it ;  from  whence  one  might   difcover   Syria,  and  the 

foever.     And  the  attempting  to  enforce  this  by  other  (hips   that  went   fnfo  Egypt,  in  a  great  looking-glafs, 

•afts  of  Parliament,  penalties,  and  at  laft   by  mllitaiy  that  was  hung  about  the  neck  of  the  ftatue.  Among  the 


■power,  gave  rile,  as  is  well  known,  to  the  late  revolt 
.and  final  feparation  of  thirteen  colonies.  See  the  ar- 
ticle America. 

COLOPHON  (anc.  p:eog.),  a  town  of  Ionia,  in 
the  Hither  Afia,  on  a  promontory  on  the  Egean  fea, 
and  waftied  by  the  Halefus.  The  ancient  Colophon 
was  dellroyed  by  Lyfimachus,  in  his  war  with  Antl- 
gonus,  in  order  to  enlarge  Ephefiis.  Paufanias  fays, 
it  was  rebuilt  in  the  neigliboiirhood,  in  a  more  commo- 


anuquitles  of  Rome,  there  are  feven  famous  Coluffufts  : 
two  of  Jupiter,  as  many  of  Apollo,  one  of  Nero,  one 
of  Domitian,  and  one  of  the  Sun. 

COLOSTRUM,  the  firft  milk  of  any  animal  after 
bringing  forth  young,  called  becjiiugs.  It  is  reltiark- 
able  that  this  milk  is  generally  cathartic,  and  purges 
the  meconium  ;  thus  ferving  both  as  an  aliment  and 
medicine. 

An    emulfion    prepared    with    turpenilne    diflolved 


dions  fclte.     This  vvas  one  of  the  cities  that  laid  claim  with  the  yolk  of  an  egg,  is  fometimes  called  by  this 

to  Homer.      Coliphoncm  ndikre,  a  proverbial  faying,  ex-  name. 

phlned  by  Strabo   to  denote,  that   the    Colophonian         COLOSWAR,  a  large    and    celebrated    town  of 

hoife  turned  the  fcales  in  favour  of  the  fide  on  which  Tranfylvania,  where  the  fenates  have  their  meetings, 

they  fought.     The  Colophoiiians  had  a  grove,  a  temple.  It  is  leated  on  the  river  Samos,  in  E.  Long.  22.  45. 


and  an  oracle  of  Apollo  Clarius  (Stiaho).  Of  this 
town  was  the  poet  Antimachus,  remarked  on  for  his 
tumid  ftjle  Ly  Catullus.  He  wrote  a  life  of  Homer, 
■whom  he  makes  a  Colophonian  (Plutarch). 

COLOPHONY,  in  pharmacy,  black  refin,  or  tur- 
pentine, boiled  in  water,  and  afterwards  dried ;'  or, 
which  Is  itill  better,  the  caput  mortuum-remalnlng  af- 
ter the  dllllUation  of  the  etherial  oil,  being  further 
urged  by  a  more  Intenfe  and  long  continued  fire. — It 
receives  its  name  of  colophonln,  from  Colophon,  a  city 
of  Ionia  ;  becaufe  the  bell  was  formrtly  brought  from 
thence.  Two  forts  are  mentioned  in  ancient  writings ; 
the  one  dry,  the  other  in  a  liquid  form.     The  latter 


N-  Lat.  46.  53. 

COLOUR,  in  phyfics,  a  property  inherent  in  light, 
by  which,  according  to  the  various  lizes  of  its  parts, 
or  from  fome  other  caufe,  it  excites  ditferent  vibrations 
in  the  optic  nerve  ;  which  propagated  to  the  fenforium, 
affcft  the  mind  with  different  feafations.  See  Chro- 
matics and  Optics. 

Colour,  in  painting,  is  applied  "both  to  the  drugs, 
and  to  the  tints  produced  by  thofe  drugs  varioufly  mix- 
ed and  applied. 

The  principal  colours  ufed  by  painters  are  red  and 
white  lead,  or  ccrufs  ;  yellow  and  red  ochres  ;  feveral 
kinds  of  earth,  umbre,  orpiment,  lamp-black,  burnt 

ivory. 


COL  L     151 

Colii'ir.    ivory,  black   lead,   cinnabar   or  vermillii)n,  gamboge, 
-   \i       'lacca,   blue   and  green    aOics,    verdigris,    bi(tre,   bice, 
fmalt,     carmine,    ultramarine :    each    of  which,    with 
their  ufes,  &c.  are  to  be  found  under  their  proper  ar- 
ticles. 

Of  thefe  colours  iome  are  ufed  tempered  with  gum- 
water  :  fome  ground  with  oil ;  others  only  in  frcfco  ; 
and  others  for  miniature. 

Painters  reduce  all  the  C'llours  they  life  under  thefe 
two  claiTcs,  of  dark  and  light  colours  :  dark  colours 
are  black,  and  all  others  that  are  obfcuie  and  earthy, 
as  umbre,  biltre,  ^c. 

Under  light  colours  are  comprehended  white,  and  all 
that  approach  reared  to  it. 

Painters  alfo  diftiiiguilh  colours  into  fimple  and  mi- 
neral. 

Under  fimple  colours  they  rank  all  thofe  which  are 
extrafted  from  vegetables,  and  which  will  not  bear 
the  fire  ;  as  the  yellow  made  of  faffron,  French  ber- 
ries, lacca,  and  other  tinftures  extracted  from  flowers, 
ufed  by  limners,  illuminers,  &c. 

The  mineral  colours  are  thofe  which  being  drawn 
from  metals,  &c.  are  able  to  bear  the  fire,  and  there- 
fore ufed  by  enamellers.  Changeable  and  permanent 
clours  is  another  divifion,  which,  by  fome,  is  made  of 
colours. 

Changeable  colours  are  fuch  as  depend  on  the  fitua- 
tion  of  the  objedls  with  refpe6t  to  the  eye,  as  that  of 
a  pigeon's  neck,  tafFeties,  Sec.  the  firft  however  be- 
ing attentively  viewt-d  by  the  microlcope,  each  fibre 
of  the  featheis  appears  cumpofed  of  feveral  little 
fquares,  alternately  red  and  green,  fo  that  they  are  fixed 
colours. 

IVater  Colours,  are  fuch  as  are  ufed  In  painting 
with  gum- water  or  fize,  without  being  mixed  with 
oil. 

/ncjj>aci/y  of  (fl/li/igu'i/hing  Colours.  Of  this  ex- 
traordinary defeft  in  vifion,  we  have  the  following 
inftances  in  the  Philofophical  Tvanfaftioirs  for  1777; 
One  of  the  perfons  lived  at  M<irypoit  in  Cumberlandi 
The  account  was  communicated  by  Mr  Huddart  to 
Dr  Prieltlt)'',  and  is  as  follows.  "  His  name  was 
Harris,  by  trade  a  flioe-maker.  I  had  often  heard 
from  others,  tliat  he  could  difcern  the  form  and  mag- 
nitude of  all  objcfls  very  dillinflly,  but  could  not  di- 
llinguifii  colours.  This  report  having  excited  my  cu- 
riofity,  I  converfed  with  him  frequently  on  the  fub- 
jeft.  The  account  he  gave  was  this :  That  he  had 
reafon  to  believe  other  perfons  faw  fomething  in  ob- 
jefts  which  he  could  not  fee ;  that  their  language 
feemed  to  mark  qualities  with  precifion  and  confidence, 


which  he  could  only  gucfs  at  with  hefitation,  and  free- 
quently  with  error.  Hi*  firft  fufpicion'  of  this  arofe 
when  he  was  about  four  years  old.  Having  by  acci- 
dent found  in  the  ftreet  a  child's  flocking,  he  carried 
it  to  a  neighbouring  houfe  to  Inquire  for  the  owner : 
he  obftrved  the  people  called  it  a  rei!  flocking,  though 
he  did  not  underlland  why  they  gave  it  that  denomi- 
nation, as  he  himfelf  thought  it  completely  defcribed 
ty  being  called  a  Jlocking.  This  circumftance,  how- 
ever, remained  in  his  memory,  and,  together  with  fub- 
fcqnent  obfervatlons,  led  him  to  the  knowledge  of  his 
dtfea. 

"  He  alfo  obferved,  that  when  young,  other  chil- 
drtn.coald  difcetn  cheiriiis  cm  a  tree,  by  fome  pretend- 


]  COL 

ed  diflerfnce  of  colour,  tliough  he  could  only  diflin- 
guidi  them  from  the  leaves  by  the  difPcrctice  of  their  ' 
fize  and  ihapc.  He  obferved  alfo,  that  by  means  of 
this  diflPercnce  of  colour  they  could  fee  the  cherries  at 
a  greater  diftance  than  he  could,  though  he  could  fee 
other  objefts  at  as  great  a  dillance  as  they,  that  Is, 
where  the  fight  was  not  aflilled  by  the  colour.  Large 
objefts  he  could  fee  as  well  as  other  perfons;  and 
even  the  fnialler  ones  if  they  were  not  enveloped  In 
other  things,  as  In  the  cafe  of  cherries  among  the 
leaves. 

"  I  believe  he  could  never  do  more  than  guefs  the 
name  of  any  colour  ;  yet  he  could  diftinguHh  while  from 
black,  or  black  from  any  light  or  bright  colour.  Dove 
or  ftraw  colour  he  called  ivhllc,  and  different  colours  he 
frequently  called  by  the  lame  name  ;  yet  he  could  dif- 
cern a  difference  between  them  when  placed  toge- 
ther. In  general,  colours  of  an  equal  degree  of 
brightnefs,  however  they  might  otherwifn  diffor,  he 
confounded  together.  Yet  a  flriped  ribbon  he  could 
dilllnguillt  from  a  plain  one;  but  he  could  not  tell 
what  the  colours  were  with  any  tolerable  exadln^fs. 
Dark  colours,  in  general,  he  often  mi  Hook  for  black  % 
but  never  imagined  white  to  be  a  dark  colour,  nor  dark 
to  be  a  white  colour. 

"  He  was  an  Iiuelligent  man,  and  very  defirous  of 
underftandiiig  the  nature  of  light  and  colours;  for 
which  end  he  had  attended  a  couife  of  IcAurcs  In  na- 
tuial  phihifophy. 

"  He  had  two  brothers  in  the  fame  circimiflances  as 
to  fight ;  and  two  other  brothers  and  fillers,  who,  as 
well  as  their  parents,  had  nothing  of  this  d^fed. 

"  One  of  the  firft  mentioned  brothers,  vviio  is  now 
living,  I  met  with  at  Dublin,  and  wifhed  to  try  his 
capacity  to  diftinguifh  the  colours  in  a  prifm  ;  but  not 
having  one  by  me,  I  afl<ed  him,  whether  he  had  ever 
feen  a  rain-bow  ?  he  replied.  He  had  often,  and  could.  . 
diftinguilh  the  different  colours;  meaning  only,  that  it 
was  compofedof  different  colours,  for  he  could  not  tell" 
what  they  were. 

"  I  then  procured,  and  fliowed  him  a  piece  of  rib- 
bon :  he  immediately,  and  without  any  difficulty,  pro- 
nounced it  a  ftriped,  and  not  a  plain,  ribbon.  He 
then  attempted  to  name  the  different  ftripes:  the  fe- 
veral  flripes  of  white  he  uniformly  and  without  hefi- 
tation called  white  :  the  four  black  ftripes  he  was  de- 
ceived in  ;  for  three  of  them  be  thought  brown, 
though  they  were  exaftly  of  the  fame  lliade  with  the 
other,  which  he  properly  called  black.  He  fpoke, 
however,  with  diffidence,  as  to  all  thofe  ftripes  ;  and 
It  muft  be  owned,  that  the  black  was  not  very  dl- 
ftlnft :  the  light  green  he  called  yellow  ;  but  he  was 
not  very  pofitive  :  he  faid,  "  I  think  this  is  what  you 
call  yellow."  The  middle  ftripc,  which  had  a  flight 
tinge  of  red,  he  called  a  fort  of  blue.  But  he  was  mofl: 
of  all  deceived  by  the  orange  colour:  of  this  he  fpoke 
very  confidently,  faying,  "  This  is  the  colour  of  grafs, 
this  is  green."  I  alfo  ftiowed  him  a  great  variety  of 
libbons,  the  colour  of  which  he  fometimes  named  right- 
ly, and  fometimes  as  differently  as  poffible  from  the 
true  colour. 

"  I  afl<ed  him,  whether  he  imagined  it  [)oflIble  for 
all  the  various  colours  he  faw  to  be  mere  difference  of 
light  and  fhade  ;  and  that  all  colours  could  be  compo- 
fed  of  thefe  two  mixtures  only  ?  With  fome  hefitation  - 

he. 


Colour. 


COL  [15 

Coldur.    he  replied,  No,  he  did  imagine  there  was  fome  other 
"■    v'"~~'  difTerence. 

"  It  is  proper  to  add,  that  the  experiment  of  the 
ftriped  ribbon  was  made  in  the  day-time,  and  in  a  good 
light." 
1  CoLOVRS  for  Jlalnlng  difci-ent  I'mds  of  Stonet.      See 

Chemistry,  n°  753. 

Colour,  in  dyeing.     See  Dveing. 

CoLOtjR  of  Plants,  is  an  attribute  found  to  be  very 
variable.  Different  colours  are  obferved,  not  only  in 
different  individuals  of  the  fame  fpecics,  but  likewife  in 
different  parts  of  the  fame  individual.  Thus,  marvel 
of  Peru,  and  fweet-Willlam,  have  frequently  petals  of 
different  colours  on  the  fame  plant.  Three  or  four 
different  colours  are  frequently  found  upon  the  fame 
leaf  or  flower ;  as  on  the  leaves  of  the  amaran- 
th us,  tricolor,  and  the  flowers  of  the  tulip,  auricula, 
three-coloured  violet,  and  others.  To  produce  the 
moll  beautiful  and  ftriking  variety  of  colours  in  fuch 
flowers,  is  the  principal  delight  and  bullnefs  of  the 
'  florlft. 

The  primitive  colours,  and  their  intermdiate  (hades 
or  gradations  enumerated  by  botanifls,  are  as  follow. 

Water-colours,  hyalinus. 

White. 
Lead-colour,  c 'menus. 

Black,  w/ffr. 
'Brovfn^fufcus. 
Pitch-black,  ater. 

Yellow,  luteus. 
Straw-colon  r,^aTw^.  - 

Flame-colour,_/"H/iiaj. 
Iron-colour,  gi/vus. 

Red. 
"Fleih-colourj^ncarnaius, 
Scarlet,  coccineus. 

Po&ple. 
Violet-colour,  citruleo-purpureus. 

Blue,  cerukusl. 

Green. 

Thefe  colours  feem  to  be  appropriated  to  particular 
parts  of  the  plant.  Thus,  white  is  molt  common  in 
roots,  fweet  berries,  and  the  petals  of  fpring  flowers. 
Water-colour,  in  the  filaments  and  ftyles.  Black,  in 
the  roots  and  feeds ;  rarely  in  the  feed  veflel,  '■-ad 
fcarce  ever  to  be  found  in  the  petals.  Yellow  is  fre- 
quently in  the  antherre  or  tops  of  the  (lamina  ;  as  like- 
wife  in  the  petals  of  autumnjl  flowers,  and  the  com- 
pound legulated  flowers  of  Linnseus.  Red  is  common 
in  the  petals  of  fummci  flov/-rs,  and  in  the  acid  fruits. 
Blue  and  violet-colour,  in  the  petals.  Green,  in  the 
leaves  and  calyx,  bu  rarely  in  the  petals.  In  the  in- 
terchanging of  colours,  which  in  plants  is  found  to 
depend  upon  differences  in  heat,  climate,  foil,  and  cul- 
ture, a  fort  of  eleftive  attraftion  is  obferved  to  take 
place.  Thus,  led  is  more  eaCly  changed  into  white 
and  blue  ;  blue  into  white  anci  yellow  ;  yellow  Into 
■white  ;  and  white  into  purple.  A  red  colour  is  often 
changed  into  a  white,  in  the  flowers  of  heath,  mother 
of  thyme,  betony,  pink,  vifcous  campion,  cucuhahs, 
trefoil,  orchis,  fox-glove,  iLiftk,  cudweed,  faw-wort, 
rofe,  popjiy,  fimitory,  and  geranium.  Red  paflTcs  in- 
to bli;*  in  pimpernel.  Blue  is  changed  into  white  in 
bell-flower,  greek- valerian, bindweed,  columbine,  violet, 

N'84. 


2     ]  COL 

vetch,  milk-wort,  goat's  rue,  viper's  buglofs,  comfrey,    Col  w, 

borrage,  hylTop,   diagon's-bead,   fcabious,  blue-bottle, v— 

and  fuccory.  Blue  is  chang'cd  into  yellow  In  crocus. 
Yellow  pafles  tafily  intd^vliite  in  ruelilot,  agrimony, 
mullein,  tulip,  blatlar'ia,  01  moth- mullein,  and  corn 
marigold.  White  is  changed  into  purple  in  wood-foi'rel, 
thorn-apple,  peafe,  and  daify. 

Although  plants  are  fometimes  obferved  to  change 
their  colour  upon  being  moillened  with  coloured  juices, 
yet  that  quality  in  vegetables  feems  not  fo  n.uch 
owing  to  the  nature  of  their  nourifhmcnt,  as  to  the  ac- 
tion of  the  internal  and  external  air,  heat,  light,  and 
the  primitive  organifation  of  the  parts.  In  fnpport 
of  this  opinion,  we  may  obferve  with  Dr  Grew,  that 
there  is  a  far  lefs  variety  in  the  colours  of  roots  than 
of  the  other  parts  of  the  plant;  the  pulp,  within  the 
(liin,  being  ufually  white,  fometimes  yellow,  rarely 
red.  That  this  effeft  is  produced  by  their  fmall  in- 
tercourfe  with  the  external  air  appears  from  this  cir- 
cumflance,  that  the  upper  parts  of  roots,  when  they 
happen  to  fland  naked  above  the  ground,  are  often 
dyed  with  feveral  colours :  thus  the  tops  of  fon  tl 
roots  turn  red  ;  thofe  of  turnips,  mullein,  and  radiflies, 
purple  ;  and  many  others  green  :  wliild  thofe  parts  of 
the  fame  roots  which  lie  more  under  ground  are  com- 
monly white.  The  green  colour  is  fo  proper  to  leaves, 
that  many,  as  thole  of  fage,  the  young  fprouts  of  St 
John's  wort,  and  others  which  are  reddiih  when  in  the 
bud,  acquire  a  perfedl  green  upon  being  fully  expand- 
ed. In  like  manner,  the  leaves  of  the  fea-lidc  grape, 
polygonum,  which  when  young  are  entirely  red,  become, 
as  they  advance  in  growth,  perfefily  green,  except  the 
middle  and  tranfvcrfe  ribs,  which  retain  their  former 
colour. 

As  flowers  gradually  open  and  are  expofed  to  the 
air,  they  throw  off  their  old  colour,  and  acquire  a  new 
one.  In  fail,  no  flower  has  its  proper  colour  till  it  is 
fully  expanded.  Thus  the  purple  ftock-july flowers 
are  white  or  pale  in  the  bud.  In  like  manner  ba- 
chelor's buttons,  blue-bottle,  poppy,  red  daifies,  and 
many  other  flowers,  though  of  divers  colours  when 
blown,  are  all  white  in  the  bud.  Nay,  many  flowers 
change  their  colours  thrice  fucceffively ;  thus,  the  very 
young  buds  of  lady's  looklng-glafs,  buglofs,  and  the 
like,  are  all  white  ;  the  larger  buds  purple,  or  murrey  ; 
aird  the  open   floiA'ers  blue. 

With  refpeft  to  the  colours  of  the  juices  of  plants, 
we  may  oblerve,  tliat  moll  reflnous  gums  are  tindtured; 
fome,  however,  are  limpid  ;  that  which  drops  from  the 
dom^'ilic  pine  is  char  as  rock- water.  The  milk  of 
fome  pla.us  is  pale,  as  in  burdock  ;  of  others  white,  as 
in  dandelion,  euphorbium,  and  Icorzonera  ;  and  of 
others  yel!  )W,  as  in  lovagc,  and  greater  celandine. 
Mofl  mucilages  have  little  colour,  talle,  or  fmell.  Of 
all  the  colours  above  enumerated,  green  is  the  mofl  com- 
mon to  plants,  black  the  moil  rare. 

Colour  being  a  quality  in  plants  fo  apt  to  change, 
ought  never  to  be  -jriployed  in  dillinguifhini;  their 
fpecies.  Thefe  ought  to  be  charafterifed  fnm  cir- 
cumftanccs  not  liable  io  alteration  by  culture  or  other 
accidents.  Tiie  fame  incunitancy  ot  colour  ib.civsd 
in  the  flowers,  is  likewife  to  be  tound  in  the  other 
parts  of  plants.  Berries  frf  r;uently  ch.,::ige  from  green 
to  red,  and  fiom  red  to  white.  Even  in  ripe  fruits, 
the  colour,  whether  white,  red,  or  blue,  is  apt  10  vary  ; 

particularly 


COL 


r   I 


particularly  in  apple,  pear,  plum,  and  cherry  trees. 
Seeds  are  more  conltant  in  point  of  colour  than  the 
vefTtl  wliich  contains  tliem.  In  the  feeds,  however, 
of  the  poppy,  (uits,  pea,  bean,  and  kiJney-benn,  va- 
riations are  frequently  obferved.  The  toot,  too,  al- 
tliough  not  remarkably  fiibjtft  to  change,  is  found  to 
vary  in  fome  fpecies  of  carrot  and  radi(h.  Leaves 
frequently  become  fpotted,  as  in  a  fpecies  of  orchis, 
hawk-weed,  ranunculus,  knot-grafe,  and  lettuce  j  but 
feldom  relinquifh  their  green  colour  altogether.  Thofe 
of  fome  fpecies  of  amaranthus,  or  fiowtr-crentle,  are 
beautifully  coloured.  The  fpots  that  appear  on  the 
furface  of  the  leavss  are  of  different  coU>urs,  liable  to 
vary,  and  not  fcldom  difappear  altogether.  The 
leaves  of  officinal  lung-wort,  and  fome  fpecies  of  fow- 
bread,  forrel,  trefoil,  and  ranuncnlus,  are  covered  with 
white  fpots.  Thofe  of  dog's-tooth  violet,  with  purple 
and  white.  Thofe -of  feveral  fpecies  of  ranunculus,  and 
orchis,  with  black  and  purple.  Thofe  of  amaranthus,  tri- 
color, with  green,  red,  and  yellow.  Thofe  of  ranunculus 
acris,  and  a  fpecies  of  bog-bean,  with  red  or  purple.  The 
under  furface  of  the  leaves  of  fome  fpecies  of  pimpernel 
and  the  fea- plantain  is  marked  with  a  number  of  dots  or 
points  ;  a  white  hne  runs  through  the  leaves  of  Indian 
reed,  black-berried  heath,  and  a  fpecies  of  Canary 
grafs :  and  the  margin  or  brim  of  the  leaf,  in  fome  fpe- 
cies of  box,  honey-fuckle,  ground-ivy,  and  the  ever- 
green oak,  is  of  a  fdver- white  colour.  The  whole  plant 
is  often  found  to  affume  a  colour  that  is  unnatural  or 
foreign  to  it.  The  varieties  in  fome  fpecies  of  ciyngo, 
mug-wort,  orrach,  amaranthus,  purflane,  and  lettuce, 
f\irnifh  examples. 

Such  being  the  inconftancy  of  coloru'  in  all  the  pails 
of  the  plant,  fpecific  names  derived  from  that  quality 
are,  very  properly,  by  Linnieus,  deemed  erroneous  ; 
whcth«r  they  refpedl  the  colour  of  the  fiower,  fruit, 
feeds,  root,  leaves,  or  exprefs  in  general  the  beauty 
or  deformity  of  the  entire  plant,  with  a  particiJar 
view  to  that  circumftaace.  Of  this  impropriety  com- 
mitted by  former  botanills,  Linnxus  himfelf  is  not  al- 
ways guiltlefs.  Thus  the  two  fpecies  oi  ftirnuena,  or 
the  fide-faddle  flower,  are  diflinguilhed  by  the  colour 
of  their  petals  into  the  yellow  and  purple  farracena  ; 
although  the  fhapes  and  figure  of  the  leaves  afforded 
much  more  conflant  as  well  as  ftriking  charafters.  The 
fame  may  be  faid  of  his  lupinus  albus  and  lutcus  ;  re- 
feda  alba,  glauca,  and  lutea  ;  angelica  atro-pui-purea  ; 
didlamnus  albus ;  lamium  album;  felago  coccinca  ;  fida 
alba  ;  palTiflora  rubra,  lutea,  incarnata,  and  cccrulea  ; 
and  of  many  others,  in  which  the  fpecific  name  is  de- 
rived from  a  charadler  or  quality  that  is  fo  liable  to  vary 
in  the  fame  fpecies. 

We  fliall  conclude  this  article  with  obferving,  that 
cf  all  fenfVble  qualities,  colour  is  the  leaft  ufeful  in  in- 
dicating the  virtues  and  powers  of  vegetables.  The 
following  general  pofitions  on  this  fubjcct  are  laid  down 
by  Linnxus,  and  feem  fufliciently  confirmed  by  ex- 
periment. A  yellow  colour  generally  indicates  a  bitter 
tafle;  as  in  gentian,  aloe,  celandine,  turmeric,  and  other 
yellow  flowers.  Red  indicates  an  acid  or  four  tafle  ; 
as  in  cranberries,  barberries,  currants,  rafpberries, 
mulberries,  cherries ;  the  fruit  of  the  rofe,  fea-buck- 
tliorn,  and  fervice-trec.  Herbs  that  turn  red  towards 
autumn,  have  likewife  a  four  tafte  ;  as  forrel,  wood- 

VoL.  V.  Part  I. 


53     1  COL 

forrel,  and  bloody  dock.  Green  indicates  a  crude  ij-  Colmr. 
kaline  talle,  as  in  leaves  and  unripe  fruits.  A  pale  co- 
lour denotes  an  inlipid  talte,  as  in  endive,  afparagus, 
and  lettuce.  White  promifes  a  fvveet  luftious  tafle  5 
as  in  white  currants  and  plums,  fvveet  apples,  &c. 
Laflly,  black  indicates  a  harfh,  naufcous_,  dilagreeable 
tafle  ;  as  in  the  berries  of  deadly  niglitfliade,  myrtle- 
leaved  fumach,  herb-chriflopher,  and  others  ;  many  of 
which  are  not  only  unpleafant  to  the  tafle,  but  perni- 
cious and  deadly  in  their  efFeifts. 

To  be  afcertaincd  of  the  acid  or  alkaline  property 
of  any  plant,  exprefs  fome  of  the  juice,  and  rub  it  up- 
on a  piece  of  blue  paper  ;  which,  if  the  plant  in  que- 
ftion  is  of  an  acid  nature,  will  turn  rtd  ;  if  of  an  alka- 
line, green.  For  the  methods  of  extrafting  colours  from 
the  different  parts  of  plants,  fee  the  article  Colour- 
Making. 

Colour  of  the  Human  Spala,  Difference  of.  See 
Complexion. 

Colour,  in  heraldry.  The  colours  generally  ufed 
in  heraldry  are,  red,  blue,  b'ack,  green,  and  purple  ; 
whicli  the  heralds  call^H/rt,  az,un;  fible,  vert  or  /inople, 
and  purpiire;  tenne,  or  tawny,  and  fanguine,  are  not 
fo  common  :  as  to  yellow  and  white,  called  or  and  ar- 
gent,  they  are  metals,  not  colours. 

The  metals  and  colours  are  fometlmes  exprefTed  in 
blazon  by  the  names  of  precious  ftones,  and  fometimej 
by  thofe  of  planets  or  liars.     See  Blazoning. 

CEnomaus  is  faid  lirfl  to  have  Invented  the  dlfllnc- 
tion  of  colours,  to  diflinguifli  the  gundillae  of  comba- 
tants of  the  Circenfian  games  ;  the  green  for  thofe 
who  reprefented  the  earth,  and  blue  for  thofe  who  re- 
prefented  the  fea. 

Colours,  in  the  military  art,  include  the  banners, 
flags,  enfigns,  &c.  of  all  kinds,  borne  in  the  army  or 
fleet.     See  Flag  and  Standard. 

Colours,  in  the  Latin  and  Greek  churelies,  arc 
ufcd  to  dillinguifh  feveral  mylleries  and  fcalls  celebra- 
ted therein. 

Five  colours  only  are  regularly  admitted  into  the 
Latin  church  :  thefe  are  white,  green,  red,  violet,  and 
black.  The  white  is  for  the  myfterles  of  our  Saviour, 
the  feafl  of  the  Virgin,  thofe  of  the  angels,  fiiints,  and 
confefFors  ;  the  red  Is  for  the  myfleries  and  foleinnlties 
of  the  holy  facrameat,  the  feafls  of  the  apofUes  and 
martyrs ;  the  green  for  the  time  between  pentecoft:  and 
advent,  and  from  epiphany  to  feptuagefima  ;  the  violet 
in  advent  and  Chriflmas,  in  vigils,  rogations,  &c.  and 
in  votive  maffes  in  time  of  war  ;  laftly,  the  black  is  for 
the  dead,  and  the  ceremonies  thereto  belonging. 

In  the  Greek  church,  the  ufe  of  colours  is  almoft 
abolifhed,  as  well  as  among  us.  Red  was,  in  the  Greek 
church,  the  colour  for  Chrillmas  and  the  dead,  as  black 
among  us. 

To  Colour  Stranger's  Goods,  is  when  a  freeman  al- 
lows a  foreigner  to  enter  goods  at  the  cuflom-houfe  in 
his  name. 

Colour- Making,  the  art  of  preparing  the  diflerent 
kinds  of  colours  ufed  In  painting. 

This  art  properly  belongs  to  chemlilry  ;  and  is  one 
of  the  mofl;  curious,  though  leail  uuderflood,  parts  of 
it.  The  principles  on  which  colour-making  depends 
are  entirely  different  from  thofe  on  wlileh  the  theory 
of  other  parts  ofchcmillry  is  founded  ;  and  tlie  pradi- 
U  c5l 


COL 


[     154    ] 


COL 


Eivil'ion  of 
colours  in- 
to opaqi.e 
and  tranf- 
pareiit. 


Oil  and  wa 
%sr  colours 


SlmjiTe  and 

compound 

«ncs. 


True  and 
fa!fe  co- 
lours. 


cal  pnrt  being  in  the  hands  of  thofc  who  find  it  their 
intereft  to  conceal  their  methods  as  much  as  polTiljIe, 
it  thence  happens,  that  there  is  not  only  no  diilintl 
theor)'  of  this  art,  but  fcarce  a  fingle  good  receipt  for 
making  any  one  colour  hath  ever  appeared. 

The  firft  general  divition  of  colours  is  into  opaque 
and  tranfparent.  Ey  the  firll  arc  meant  fuch  colours 
as,  when  laid  over  paper,  wood,  &c.  cover  them  fully 
fo  as  to  efiace  any  ether  painting  or  ftain  that  might 
have  been  there  before ;  the  others  are  of  fuch  a  na- 
ture as  to  leave  the  ground  on  which  they  are  laid 
rilible  through  them.  Of  the  firft  kind  are  white- 
lead,  red-lead,  vtrinilion,  &c.  ;  of  the  latter  kind  arc 
the  colours  ufed  for  ilhuninating  maps,  &c. 

Another  diviilon  is  into  oil-colours  and  water-co- 
lours ;  by  which  is  meant,  fuch  as  are  appropriated  to 
painting  in  oil  and  in  water.  Moll  of  thofe  which 
are  proper  for  painting  in  water,  are  alfo  proper  for 
being  ufed  in  oil.  There  is,  however,  this  remarkable 
difference  betwixt  colours  when  mixed  with  water  and 
v.ith  oil,  that  fuch  as  are  quite. opaque  in  water  will 
become  perfectly  tranfparent  in  oil.  Thus,  blue  ver- 
diter,  though  exceedingly  opaque  in  water,  if  ground 
with  oil,  feems  totally  to  diffolve,  and  will  become 
very  tranfparent.  The  fame  thing  happens  to  fuch 
colours  as  have  for  their  bafis  the  calx  of  tin,  alabaftcr, 
or  calcareous  earth.  The  moll  peifeftly  opaque  co- 
lours in  oil  are  fuch  as  have  lead,  mercury',  or  iron,  for 
their  balls  :  to  the  latter,  however,  Prufiian  blue  is  an 
exception  ;  for  though  the  bafis  of  that  colour  is  iron, 
it  proves  quite  tranfparent  when  ground  with  oil.  In 
water-colours,  thofe  prepared  from  metals,  Prufiian 
blue  alone  excepted,  are  always  opaque  ;  from  vege- 
tables or  animals,  tranfparent.  Coals,  however,  whe- 
ther vegetable  or  animal,  are  opaque  both  in  water  and 
oil. 

Colours  again,  may  be  confidered  as  either  fimple  or 
compound.  The  fimple  ones  are  fuch  as  require  no- 
thing to  be  fuperadded  to  them,  in  order  to  make  a 
full  ft rong  colour,  without  regarding  whether  they  are 
formed  of  many  or  few  ingredients  ;  and  in  this  view, 
white -lead,  red-lead,  vermilion,  calces  of  iron,  &c.  are 
fimple  colours.  The  compound  ones  are  formed  by 
tlie  union  of  two  or  more  colouring  fubflances  ;  as  blue 
and  yellow  united  together  to  form  a  green,  red  and 
yeUow  to  form  an  orange,  a  white  earlh  or  calx  with 
the  red  colour  of  cochineal  or  brazil  to  form  a  lake, 
Sec.  ;  and  thus  carmine,  lake,  rofe-pink,  Dutch-pink, 
Enghfh-pink,  &c.  are  compound  colours. 

The  lail  and  moll  important  divifion  of  colours  is 
into  true  and  falfe.  By  the  former  are  meant  thofe 
which  retain  their  colour  under  ever)'  poffible  variety 
of  circuraftances,  without  fading  In  the  Itaft :  the  others 
are  fuch  as  do  not  ;  but  cither  lofe  their  colour  alto- 
gether, or  change  to  fome  other.  AVhat  is  chiefly  apt 
to  affcft  colours,  is  tlicir  being  expofcd  to  the  fun  in 
fumm.er,  and  to  the  cold  air  in  winter  :  but  to  this 
there  is  one  exception,  I'/r.  white-lead  ;  which,  when 
ground  with  oil,  retains  its  wLitcnefs  If  expofcd  to  the 
weather,  but  degenerates  into  a  brownlfli  or  yellowlfii 
colour  if  clofe  kept.  In  water  this  fubilance  is  very 
apt  to  lofe  its  colour,  whether  expofed  to  the  air  or 
not.  The  great  defideratiim  in  colour-making  is  to 
produce  the  firft  kind  of  colours,  "viz.  fuch  as  will  not 
fade  by  expofure  to  the  weather ;  and  indeed  it  is  to 


Colnafi 
makitig. 


be  regretted,  that  the  mod  beautiful  are  in  general  the 

lead  permanent.     It  may,  for  the  moll  part,  however, 

be  expeded,  that  the  more  fimple  any  colour  is,  the  ~~"^''~~' 

lefs  liable  will  it  be   to  change  upon  expofure  to  the 

air. 

The  great  difficulty  of  knowing  .i  priori  whether  a 

colour  v/iU  fade  or  not,  is  owing  to  our  ignorance  ccm- 

cerning  the  nature  of  colouring  fubftanccs.     With  all 

our  dliadvantages,    however,    we  may   obferve,    that 

whatever  change  of  colour  is  produced  in  any  fubilance 

by  expofure  to  the  fun  and  air,  that  colour  to  which 

It  changes  will    bid   fair    for  being  permanent,    and 

therefore  ought  to  be  employed  where  it  can  be  done. 

Of  thefe    chan'res    the    inliances   are  but  ver\'  rare.  r„(i,'       r 
/->        ■    •       i_  1        /•    1  ■  1  •  1      Vr-         .  inliances  of 

Une  is  in  the  purple  ot  the  ancients,  which  anumed  co  cur-pro- 

its  colour  by  expofure   to  the  fun,  and  confequently  Juccd  by 
was  exceedingly  permanent.     Another  is  in  the  folu-  ^''l"/"'^ '» 
tion  of  filver;  which,  being  mixed  with  chalk,   thej;^  ""*'"' 
precipitate  turns  to  purplifli  black  where  It  is  expofcd 
to  the  fun.     A  third  is  in  folutions  of  indigo  by  alka- 
line fubflances,  which  conftantly  appear  green  till  ex- 
pofed to  the  air  by  fpreading  them  vei-y  thin,  upon 
which  they  become   almoll  inftantaneoully  blue,  and         g 
continue  fo  ever  after.     Sometimes,   though  liill  more  By  the  niii- 
rarely,  a  very  .remarkable  change   of  colour  happens,  ""'''=  "f',"» 
upon  mixing  two  vegetable  juices  together.     Alinoil:  .*'7'^'*''* 
the  only  inftance  of  this  we  have  on  the  authority  of 
Mr  George  -Foriler,  who  Informs  us,    that  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Otaheite  dye  their  cloth  of 'a  crimfou  colour, 
by  mixing  together  the  yellow  juice  of  a  fmall  fpecies 
of  fig  with  the  greenilh  juice  of  a  kind  of  fern.    13ut  the 
moft  remarkable  alterations  of  colour  are  effedled  by 
different  metallic  and  faline  folutions  mixed  with  certain 
animal  or  vegetable  fubllances  ;  and  with  thefe  the  co- 
lour-maker will  be  principally  converfant.  . 

It  is  a  common  obfervation  in  chemilhy,  that  acids  E.Tcfis  of. 
mixed  with  blue  vegetable  juices  turn  them  red,  and  •'"<^°.*"'* 
alkalies  green.  It  is  equally  certain,  though  not  fo^'j^-'^soa 
generally  known,  that  acids  of  all  kinds  gcner.dly  tend 
to  heighten  red  colours,  fo  as  to  make  them  approach 
to  the  Icarlet  or  tuie  crimfon;  and  alkalies  to  darken, 
or  make  them  approach  to  blue  or  purple.  Mixed 
with  yellow  colours,  acids  alfo  univerfally  tend  to 
brighten  the  j-cllow ;  and  alkalies  to  turn  it  to  an 
orange,  and  make  it  become  more  dull.  But  though 
this  is  very  generally  the  cafe,  we  are  not  to  expedl 
that  all  acids  are  equally  powerful  in  this  refpecl.  The 
nitrous  acid  is  found  to  heighten  the  moft  of  any,  and 
the  marine  acid  the  leaft  of  the  mineral  ones.  The 
vegetable,  as  might  be  expefted,  are  lefs  powerful 
than  the  mineral  acids.  Thus,  if  with  a  tintlure  of 
cochineal,  either  in  water  or  fpirit  of  wine,  is  mixed 
the  pure  njtrous  acid,  it  will  change  the  colour  to  an 
exceeding  high  orange  or  flame  colour,  which  it  will 
impart  to  cloth.  If  the  vitriolic  acid  is  ufed,  a  full 
fcarlet,  inclining  to  ciyrifon  rather  than  orange,  is 
produced.  With  marine  acid  a  true  crimfon  colour, 
bordering  on  purple,  is  the  confequence.  Alkalies, 
both  fixed  and  volatile,  change  the  colour  to  a  puiple, . 
which  is  brighter  with  the  volatile  than  the  fixed  al- 
kalies. S 

Htre  it  is  obvious,  that  whatever  colours  are  pro- P^rmancn- 
duced  by  the  mixtures  of  different  fubftances  together,  J^J^  °^  j^^ 
the  permanency  of  thefe  colours  can  only  be  in  pro- „ ^.jt  ,ie'tcr 
portion  to  the  ability  of  fuch  mixtures  to  refift  the  mined. 

weather. 


CO].  [I 

Col'iar-  wcallicr.  Thus,  fiippofe  a  hijh  fcarlet  or  orange  co- 
miking.  ]m,r  is  produced  by  means  of  fpirlt  of  nitre,  it  is  plain 
^  "  tliat,  was  fuch  a  colour  expofed  to  the  air,  it  could  re- 
main no  longer  than  the  fpirit  of  nitre  which  produced 
it  remained.  In  proportion,  therefore,  as  the  fpirit 
of  nitre  was  exhaled  into  the  air,  or  otherwife  dellroyed, 
it  behoved  the  colour  to  fade,  and  at  lall  to  be  totally 
dellroyed;  andthua,  in  proportion  to  the  dellruftibiiity 
of  the  fubllaiices  by  wiiieh  colours  are  produced,  will 
be  the  difpofition  of  fuch  colours  to  fade,  or  the  con- 
trary. In  this  refpeft  alkalies  are  much  more  deftruc- 
tible  than  acids,  and  confequently  lefs  proper  for  the 
preparation  of  colours.  With  regard  to  acids,  the  ni- 
trous feems  moil  dcftruftlble,  the  vitriolic  Icfs  fo,  and 
the  murine  the  leall  of  all.  From  the  extreme  fixity 
of  the  phofphorine  acid  and  feditive  fait,  perhaps  they 
might  be  of  fervice  in  preferring  colours. 

As  ail  colours,  whether  derived  from  the  animal  or 
vegetable   kingdom,   mull  be  extradled  either  by  pure 
water  or  fome  other  liquid  menltruum,  they   cannot 
be  ufed  for  the  purpofes  of  painting  till  the  colouring 
fublhince  is  uniced  with  fome  earthy  or  folid  natter, 
Opaque  or   capable  of  giving  it  a  boihi  as  the   workmen  call  it  ; 
ranfpareiit  and  accoiding  to  the  nature  of  tliis  fubdance,  the  co- 
rnUiurs,       jgyj.    ^yjij    jjg    tranfparent    or  otherwife.     This  bafis 
hiiw  form-  ^^^.j^j.   ^^  y^^  ^^  ^1,^  jj^qJJ^  (i-ani  and  durable  nature  ; 
unalterable  by  the   weather,  by  acids,  oi-  by  alkalies. 
It  ought  alfo  to  be  of  a  pure  white  colour,  and  eafily 
reducible  into  an  impalpable  powder.     For  this  reafon 
all  earthy  fubftances  iliould  be  avoided  as  being  afted 
upon  by  acids  ;  and  therefore,   if  any  of  thcfe  were 
added  to  heighten   the  colour,  they  would  not  fail  to 
be  dellroyed,  and  their  efFecl  totally  loll.     Precipitates 
of   lead,  bifmuth,    &c.   though  exceedingly  fine  and 
white,  ought  alfo  to  be  avoided,  as  being  ajjt  to  turn 
DaU- of  tin,  black  by  expofure.     The  only  fubllance  to  be  chofen 
:he  molt      in    preference  to  all  others,  is  calx  of  tin,  prepared 
;"'OFr''^''s either  by  fire  or  the  nitrous  acid.     This  is  lo  exceed- 
or  fine  co-  j^^j^  refraftory  as  not  only  to  be  unalterable  by  al- 
kahes,  acids,    or  the  fun  and  weather,   but  even  by 
the  focus  of  a  veiy  large  burning  mirror.     It  is  be- 
fides  w'hite  as  fnow,  and  capable  of  being  reduced  to 
an  extreme  degree   of   finenefs,    infomuch  that  it  is 
made  life  of  for  polllliing  metalline  fpeculums.      For 
thcfe  reafons,  it  is  the  moll  proper  balls  for  all  fine  co- 
Precipitate  lotirs.      For  coarfe  ones,   the  white  precipitate  of  lead, 
ofleadmoft mentioned  under  the  article  Chemistry,  n°  703,  will 


liiaUir^. 


■ro;-er  for 
:oarfe  ones. 


■Jcneral 


anfwer  very  well.  It  hath  a  very  ftrong  body,  i.  e.  is 
very  opaque,  and  will  cover  well ;  may  be  eafily 
groimd  fine,  and  is  much  kfs  apt  to  turn  black  than 
white  lead  ;  it  is  befides  very  cheap,  and  may  be  pre- 
pared at  the  fmall  cxpence  of  3  d.  per  poiuni. 

If  what  we  have  juft  now  obierved   is  attended  to, 
method  of  the    general  method  of  extradling  colours  from  any 
:ireparing    vegetable  or  animal  fubllance,  and  fixing  them  on  a 
:o)our8.       proper  bafis,    mull  be  very  eafily  underltood.       For 
this  purpofe,  a  quantity  of  calx  of  tin  is  to  be  procu- 
red  in  proportion  to   the  quantity  of  colour  defired; 
'  This  mull  be  weU  rubbed  in  a  glafs  mortar,  with  a 

little  of  the  fubllance  defigned  for  brightening  the  co- 
lour, as  alum,  cream  of  tartar,  fpirit  of  nitre,  &c. 
after  which  it  mull  be  dried,  and  left  for  fome  time, 
that  the  union  between  the  two  fubftances  may  be 
as  perfeft  as  poflible.  If  the  colour  is  to  be  a  very 
^le  one,  fuppofe  from  cociiincal,  the  colouring  mat- 


13 


55     1  COL 

ter  mull  be  extracled  with  fpirit  of  wine  without 
heat.  When  the  fpirit  is  fufiiciently  impregnat<-d,  it 
is  to  he  poured  by  little  and  little  upon  the  calx,  rub- 
bing it  conitantly,  in  order  to  dilhibate  the  colour 
equally  through  all  parts  of  the  calx.  The  fpirit  foon 
evaporates,  and  leaves  the  calx  coloured  with  the  co- 
cliineal.  More  of  the  tiniture  is  then  to  be  poured 
on,  rubbing  the  mixture  conllaiuly  as  before  ;  and 
thus,  with  proper  management,  may  very  beautiful 
colours,  not  inferior  to  the  bell  carmine,  be  prepared 
at  a  moderate  expence.  If,  in  Head  of  cochineal,  we 
fubllitute  brazil-wood,  turmeric,  logwood,  &c.  differ- 
ent kinds  oi"  red,  yellow,  and  purple,  will  be  produced. 
For  the  coarfer  colours,  aqueous  decoAions  are  to  be 
ufed  in  a  fimilar  manner ;  only  as  thefc  are  much 
longer  of  evaporating  than  the  fpirit  of  wine,  very 
little  mull  be  poured  on  at  a  time,  and  the  colours 
ought  to  be  made  in  large  quantity,  on  account  of  the 
tedioufncfs  of  the  procefs. 

Hitherto  we  have  conlidered  only  tlie  eflefts  of  the  KfTefts  of 
pure  and  fimple  falts,  -u/'j   acids  and  alkalies,  on  differ- ^'f*^''''^"' 
cat  colours;  but  by  combining  the  acids  with  alka- l'']''"^* " 
lies,  earths,    or  metals,   thefe  elTects    may  he   varied- 
almoli  In  injtnitiim ;  neither  is  there  any  rule  yet  laid 
down  by  which  vve  can  judge  a  priori  of  the  changes 
of  colour  that  will  happen  on  the  admixture  of  this  or 
that  particular  fait  with  any  colouring  fubllance.     In 
general,  the   perfe(ft   neutrals  adl  weakly  ;  the  imper- 
feCl  ones,  efpecially  thofc  formed  from  metals,  much 
more  poxyerJully,     Alum  and  fal  ammoniac  confider- 
ably  heighten  the  colour  of  cochineal,   brazil,  turme- 
ric, tullic,  madder,  logwood,  &c.     The  fame  thing 
is  done,    though  in  a  lefs  degree,   by  common  fait, 
Glauber's   Ldt,    faltpetre,    and   many  other  neutrals. 
Solutions  of  iion  in  all  the  acids  llrike  a  black  with 
every  one    of   the  above-mentioned   fubllances ;    and 
hkcwife  with  fumach,    galls,    and    other  alhingents. 
Solutions   of  lead,  or  faceharum  faturni,    univerfally  • 
debale    red    colours  to  a  duU    purple.       Solution  of 
popper  changes  the  purple   colour  of   logwood  to  a 
pretty  good  blue-;  and,  in  general,  folutions  of  this 
metal  are  friendly  to  blue  colours.      The   effeCls  of 
folutions  of  gold,    filver,    and   mercury,    are,  not  fo 
well  known  ;  they  feem   to   produce  dark  colours  of 
no  great  beauty.     The  moll  powerful  foIutioB,  how-  c.  ,    -■*      t 
ever,  with   regard   to  a  great   number  of  colours,    is  tin  the  molt 
that  of  tin,  made   in  aqua-regia.      Hence  we  may  fee  powerful, 
the  fallacy  of  Mr  Delaval's  hypothefis  "concerning  co- 
lours *,  that  the   leall  refrangible  ones  are  produced  *  See  C/t^. 
by  the  moll  denfe  metals:  for  tin,  which  hath  the  leall  """'Vj, 
dcniity  of  any  metal,  hath  yet,  in  a  Hate  of  folution,""'* 
the  moil  extraordinary  cfFeAs   upon  the  leall  refran- 
gible colours  as  well  as  thofe  that  are  moll  fo.     The 
colour  of  cochineal   is  changed   by  it  into  the  moll 
beautiful  Icarlet  ;  a  fimilar  change  is  made  upon  the 
colouring  matter  of  gum-iic.      Brazil-wood  is  made 
to  yield  a  fine  purpliHi  crimfon  ;  logwood,  a  beautiful 
dark  purple  ;  turmeric,  fuftic,  wtld,  and  all   yellow, 
colouring  woods  and  flowers,  are  made  to  communicate 
colours  far  more  beautiful  than  can  be  got  from  them 
by  any  other  method.     The  blue  colour  of  the  flowers 
of  violets,  eye-bright,  iris,  occ.  are  heightened  fo  as  to 
equal,  if  not  excel,  the  blue  produced  by  a  folution  of 
copper  in  volatile  alkali.     In  Ihort,  this  folution  feems 
to  be  of  much  more  extenfive  ufe  in  colour-making, 
U  2  when 


Cnfour- 


15 
Direiftions 
f  jr  the 
choice  of 
cnlo;Ting 
Siiteriju. 


COL  [     i^ 

when  ]iroperIy  applied,  than  any  thing  hitherto  thought 
of.  It  is  not,  liowcvcr,  univerfally  ferviccable.  The 
colour  of  madder  it  totally  deftmys,  and  likevvife  that 
of  faf- flower,  changing  them  both  to  a  dull  orange. 
It  likewife  fpolls  the  colour  of  archil;  and  what  is 
very  nmavkablc,  the  fine  red  coh')ur  of  tinfturc  of  rofes 
made  with  oil  of  vitriol,  is  by  folutlon  of  tin  changed 
to  a  dirty  green. 

The  moft  important  confideration  in  colour  making 
is  to  make  choice  of  fuch  materials  as  produce  the 
inolt  durable  colours  ;  and  if  ihcfc  can  be  procured, 
an  ordinary  colour  from  them  is  to  be  preferred  to 
a  bright  one  from  thofe  which  fade  fooner.  In  what 
the  ditforence  coahlls  between  the  colours  that  fade 
and  thofe  which  do  not,  is  not  known  with  any  de- 
vice of  certainty.  From  fome  appearances  it  would 
feem,  that  thofe  fubllances  which  are  moil  remarkable 
for  keeping  their  colour,  contain  a  vifcous  glutinous 
matter,  fo  combined  with  a  relinous  one  as  to  be  fo- 
luble  both  in  water  and  fpirit  of  wine.  The  moll  du- 
rable red  colour  is  prepared  from  gum-lac.  This  is 
very  ftrongly  refmous,  though  at  the  fame  time  fo 
far  glutinous,  that  the  colouring-matter  can  be  ex- 
trafted  from  it  by  water.  Next  to  gum-lac  are  mad- 
der roots  and  cochineal.  The  madder  is  an  exceed- 
ingly penetrating  fubftance,  infomuch  that,  when 
given  to  animals  along  with  their  food,  it  tinges  their 
bones  of  a  deep  red  colour.  Its  colouring-matter  is 
foluble  both  in  water  and  fpirit  of  wine.  Along  witli 
the  pure  rtd,  however,  there  is  in  madder  a  kind  of 
vifcous  aflringent  fubftance,  of  a  dark  brown  colour, 
which  feems  to  give  the  durability  to  the  whole.  The 
colouring-matter  of  cochineal,  tliough  foluble  both  in 
water  and  fpirit  of  wine,  is  very  tenacious  and  muci- 
laginous, in  which  it  bears  fome  refemblance  to  the 
purpura  of  the  ancients,  which  kept  its  colour  exceed- 
ingly well.  Where  the  colours  are  fugitive,  the  tinging 
fubltance  feems  to  be  too  reiinous  or  too  mucilagi- 
nous. Thus  the  colours  of  brazil,  tuiineric,  &c.  are 
very  rtfinous,  efpecially  tlie  latter ;  infomuch  that 
the  colouring-matter  of  turmeric  can  fcarcely  be  ex- 
trafted  by  water.  Both  thefe  are  perilhable,  though 
fceautitul  colours  ;  and  much  more  are  the  red,  purple, 
and  blue  flowers,  commonly  to  be  met  with.  Thefe 
feem  to  be  entirely  mucilaginous  without  the  leait 
quantity  of  refmous  matter.  The  yellow  flowers  are 
different,  and  in  general  keep  their  colour  pretty 
■well.  Whether  it  would  be  poifible,  by  adding  occa- 
Conally  a  proper  quantity  of  gum  or  refm,  to  make 
the  fugitive  colours  more  durable,  hath  not  yet  been 
Mr Hellot's tried,  but  feenvs  to  have  fome  probability.  What 
inctliod  of  tends  a  little  to  confirm  this,  is  a  procefs  given  by  Mr 
improving  Hcllot  for  imparting  durability  to  the  colour  of  bra- 
zil. It  confifts  only  in  letting  deco&ions  of  the  wood 
ftand  for  fome  time  in  wooden  calks  till  they  grow 
ftale  and  ropy.  Pieces  of  woollen  cloth  now  dyed  in 
the  liquor  acquired  a  colour  fo  durable,  that  they 
were  not  in  the  leaii  altered  by  expofure  to  the  air 
during  four  months  in  the  winter  ieafon.  Whether 
this  change  in  the  durability  of  the  colour  was  effec^td 
bv  the  ropinefs  following  the  fermentation,  or  by 
fome  other  caufe,  or  whether  the  experiment  «an  be 
17         at  all  depended  upon,  mull  be  referred  to  future  ob- 

^x^uT&i   ''"■nation- 

ferent  cu-        Having  thus  coUeAed  all  that  can  as  yet  be  de- 

loMTi. 


56    3 


COL 


T« 


tlie  durabi 
lity  of  bra 
ail-wood. 


pended   upcn  for  ellabliihing  a  general  theory  of  co-     Colour 
lour-inaking,  we  fliall  now  proceed  to  give  an  account     '"■''"I'l?'- 
of  the  different  pigments  generally  to  be  met  witli  in         v— ^ 
the  colour-fhops. 

I.  Black.  Thefe  are  lamp-black,  ivory-black,  blue- L^n,„_ 
black,  and  Indian-ink.  The  hrft  is  the  fincll  of  what  blatk. 
are  called  the  foot-blacks,  and  is  more  ufed  tlitin  any 
other.  Its  preparation  is  defciibed  in  the  Swedifh 
Tranfadlions  for  the  year  17J4,  as  a  procefs  dcjicndcnt 
on  the  making  of  common  rciiii:  the  impure  relinou3 
juice  collected  from  incilions  made  in  pine  and  fir 
trees,  is  boiled  down  with  a  little  water,  and  Itrained 
whim  hot  through  a  bag :  tlie  dregs  and  pieces  of 
bark  left  in  the  llrainer  are  burnt  in-  a  low  oven, 
from  which  the  fmoke  is  conveyed  thi'ough  a  long 
pafTage  into  a  fquare  chamber,  having  an  opening  on 
the  top  on  which  is  a  large  faek  made  of  tiun  woollen 
ftuff:  the  loot,  or  lamp-black,  concretes  partly  in  the 
chamber,  from  whence  it  is  fwept  out  once  in  two  or 
three  days,  and  partly  in  the  fack,  which  is  now  and 
then  gently  ilruck  upon,  both  for  /haking  down  the 
foot,  and  for  clearing  the  interltices  betwixt  the 
threads,  fo  as  to  procure  a  fufl&cicnt  draught  of  air 
through  it.  In  this  manner  lamp-black  is  prepared  at 
the  turpentine  houles  in  England,  from  the  dregs  and 
refufe  of  the  reiinous  matters  which  are  there  manu- 
fadui-cd. 

On  this  fubjeft  Dr  Lewis  hath  fome  curious  obfer-pr  i.cwIsV 
vations.  "  The  foot  (fays  he)  aiiling  in  common fbfei-va- 
chimneys,  from  the  more  oily  or  rehnous  woods,  as  the  "^"*- 
fir  and  pine,  is  oblcrved  to  contain  more  diltoluble 
matter  than  that  from  the  other  woods:  and  this  dif- 
foluble  matter  appears,  in  the  former,  to  be  more  of 
an  oily  or  refmous  nature  than  in  the  latter  ;  fpirit  of 
wine  extratliiig  it  moft  powerfully  from  the  one,  and- 
water  from  the  other.  The  oilyncfs  and  folubility  of 
tlie  foot  iteming  therefore  to  depend  on  thofe  of  the. 
fubjcdt  it  is  made  from,  it  has  been  thought  that  lamp^ 
black  mult  poifefs  thefe  qualities  in  a  greater  degree 
than  any  kind  of  common  loot.  Neverthclels,  on  ex- 
amining feveral  parcels  of  lamp-black,  procured  from- 
different  Ihops,  I  coiUd  not  find  that  it  gave  any  tinc- 
ture at  all,  cither  to  fpirit  or  to  water. 

♦'  Sufpedting  fome  milhike  or  fophillication,  or  that 
the  lamp-black  had  been  burnt  or  charred,  as  it  is  to 
fit  it  for  fome  particular  ufes,  I  prepared  myfclf  fome 
foot  from  linieed  oil,  by  hanging  a  large  copper  pan 
over  the  flame  of  a  lamp  to  receive  its  fmoke.  In  this 
manner  the  more  curious  artifts  prepare  lamp-bl.ick 
for  the  nicer  purpofes  ;  and  from  this  collection  of  it 
from  the  flame  of  a  lamp,  the  pigment  probably  recei- 
ved its  name.  The  loot  fo  prepared  gave  no  tindture 
either  to  water  or  to  ipirits,  any  more  than  the  com- 
mon lamp-black  of  the  fliops.  I  tried  different  kinds 
of  oily  and  reiinous  bodies  with  the  lame  event  ;  even 
the  foots  obtained  from  filh-oilsand  tallow  did  not  ap- 
pear to  differ  from  thofe  of  the  vegetable-oils  and  re- 
fins.  They  were  all  ol  a  finer  colour  than  the  lamp- 
black commonly  fold. 

"  Some  foot  was  collefted  in  like  manner  from  fir 
and  other  woods,  by  burning  fmall  pieces  of  them 
flowly  under  a  copper-pan.  AU  the  foots  were  of  a 
deeper  black  colour  than  thofe  obtained  from  the  fame 
kinds  of  woods  in  a  common  chimnej  ;  and  very  httle, 
if  at  all,  inferior  to  thofe  of  the  oils :  they  gave  only 


COL 


r  157  ] 


COL 


a  jufl  difcernibis  tincture  to  water  and  fpirit,  while 
the  foots  of  the  cliimney  impurted  a  (troiia;  deep  one 
to  botli.  The  foot  of  mineral  bitumens,  in  this  clofe 
w;iy  of  burir'nj^,  appears  to  be  of  the  fame  qualities 
with  thofe  uf  woods,  oils,  and  refins  :  in  fome  parts 
of  Germany,  great  qunntitics  of  good  lamp-black  are 
prepared  from  a  kind  of  pit-coal. 

"  It  appears,  therefore,  that  the  differences  of  foots 
do  not  depend  altogether  on  the  qualities  of  tlie  fub- 
jefts,  but  in  a  great  meafure  on  the  manner  in  which 
the  fubjeft  is  burnt,  or  the  foot  caught.  The  foots 
produced  in  common  chimneys,  from  different  kinds  of 
wood,  relinous  and  not  refinous,  dry  and  green,  do 
not  differ  near  fo  much  from  one  another,  as  thofc 
which  are  produced  from  one  kind  of  wood  in  a  com- 
mon chimney,  and  in  the  confined  way  of  burr.ing 
above  mtationcd." 

Ivory-black  is  prepared  from  Ivory  or  bones  burnt 
in  a  clofe  velfel.  Tliis,  when  finely  giTiund,  forms  a 
more  beautiful  and  deeper  colour  than  lamp-black  ; 
but  in  the  common  methods  of  manufafturing,  it  is  lo 
much  adulterated  with  charcoal  duff,  and  fo  grofsly  le- 
vigated, as  to  be  unfit  for  ufe.  An  opaque  deep  black 
for  water-colours,  is  made  by  grinding  ivory-black 
with  gum-water,  or  with  the  liquor  which  fettles  from 
the  whites  of  eggs  after  they  have  been  fuffered  to 
ftand  a  little.  Some  ufe  gum-water  and  the  whites 
of  eggs  together,  and  report,  that  a  fmall  addition  of 
the  latter  Briakes  tKe  mixture  flow  more  freely  from 
the  pencil,  and  improves  its  gloffinefs.  It  may  be  ob- 
fei-ved,  however,  that  though  ivory-black  makes  the 
deepeft  colour  in  water  as  well  as  in  oil-painting,  yet 
it  Is  not  on  this  account  always  to  be  preferred  to 
other  black  pigments.  A  deep  jet-black  colour  is  fel- 
dom  wanted  in  painting  ;  and  in  the  lighter  (hades, 
whether  obtained  by  diluting  the  black  with  white 
bodies,  or  by  applying  It  thin  on  a  white  ground,  the 
particular  beauty  of  the  Ivory  black  is  in  a  great  mea- 
fure loft. 

Blue-black  is  fald  to  be  prepared  from  the  burnt 
llalks  and  tendrils  of  the  vine.  Thefe,  however,  the 
colour-makers  feldom  give  themfelves  the  trouble  of 
procuring,  but  fubilitute  in  its- place  a  mixture  of  ivory- 
black  and  the  common  blue  ufcd  for  clothes. 

Indian-ink  is  an  excellent  black  for  water-colours. 
It  hath  been  difcovered  by  Dr  Lewis  to  confiil  of  a 
mixture  of  lamp-black  and  ccranion  glue.  I-vory-black, 
or  charcoal,  he  found  to  anfwer  equally  well,  provided 
they  were  levigated  to  a  fufficient  degree  of  finenefs, 
which  indeed  requires  no  fmall  trouble. 

2.  Whits.  The  white  colours  commonly  to  be  met 
with  are,  white-flake,  white-lead,  calcined  hartfliorn, 
pearl-white,  Spanilh-white,  egg-(hcll  white,  and  magi- 
llery  of  bifmuth.  The  flake-white  and  white-lead  are 
properly  the  fame.  The  preparation  of  the  former  is 
kept  a  fecrct ;  the  method  of  preparing  the  latter  is 
defcrlbed  under  Chemistry,  n-  875.  Thefe  are  die 
only  whites  that  can  be  ufed  In  oil,  all  the  reft  being 
tranfparent  unlefs  they  are  laid  on  with  water.  Cal- 
cined hartftiorn  is  the  moft  ufeful  of  the  earthy  whites, 
as  being  tlie  leall  alkaline.  Spanllh-whitc  is  only 
finely  prepared  chalk.  Pearl-white  is  made  from 
oyller-fiiells ;  and  egg-lhell  white  from  the  ftiells  of 
fggs.  AU  thefe,  by  their  attraftion  for  acids,  muft 
Kceffarlly  deftroy  f  jch  colours  as  liavc  any  acid  qv 


mctaUic  fait  in  their  compofition.  The  magiftery  of  Colour- 
blfmuth  is  apt  to  turn  black,  as  are  alfo  flake-white  "'^'''"g- 
and   white-lead,    when   ufed    in    water.       The  white  " 

precipitate  of  lead  recommended  under  CutMisTRV, 
n^  703,  is  greatly  fuperlor  as  a  water-colour  to  all 
thefe;  being  ptrfeAly  free  of  any  alkaline  quality,  and 
not  at  all  apt  to  lofe  its  own  colour,  or  to  injure  that 
of  other  fubllances.  24 

3.  Reil.  The  red  colours  ufed  in  painting  are  of  ^'^'^  "*- 
two  forts  ;  viz,,  thofe  which  incline  to  the  purple,  and  '""'** 
fuch  as  are  of  a  full  fcarlct  and  tend  rather  to  the 
orange.  The  f-ift  are  carmine,  lake,  rofe-pink,  red- 
ochre,  and  Venetian-red.  The  fccond  arc  veimilion,. 
red-lead,  fcarlet-ochre,  common  Indiau-red,  Spanilh- 
brown,  and  terra  dl  Sienna,  burnt. 

We  have  already  (11°  12.)  laid  down  fome  general 
rules  for  the  preparation  of  carmine  and  lake.  Particu- 
lar receipts  have  been  delivered  with  the  greateft  con- 
fidence for  making  thefe  iine  colours  ;  but  all  of  them 
muft  neceflarily  prove  InefFcftual,  becaufe  an  earthy 
bafis  is  recommended  for  ftriking  the  colour  upon : 
from  the  principles  of  chemillry,  however,  we  are  cer- 
tain, that  if  aquafortis,  or  folution  of  tin.  Is  made  ufe  of 
for  brightening  a  colour  made  with  any  earthy  bafis.  It 
muft  infallibly  be  deftroyed  by  that  balls,  by  reafon  of 
its  alkaline  quality.  Carmine  is  the  brighteil  and  moft 
beautiful  red  colour  known  at  prefent ;  the  beft  comes 
from  France.  Lake^  diflcrs  from  it  in  being  capablc- 
of  mixture  with  oil  ;  which  carmine  is  not,  unlefs  with 
great  difficulty.  The  former  is  alfo  much  more  In- 
clined to  purple  than  carmine.  This  laft  quality,  how- 
ever. Is  reckoned  a  defcft  ;  and  accordingly,  the  more 
that  lake  approaches  to  the  fcarlet  or  true  crinifon,  the 
more  it  is  valued.  On  dropping  folution  of  tin  into 
an  aqueous  tiufture  of  brazil-wood,  a  beautiful  preci- 
pitate falls,  of  a  purplilh  crimfon  colour.  This  may 
be  very  well  fubllituted  In  place  of  the  dearer  lakes  on 
many  occafions. 

Rofe-pink  is  a  very  beautiful  colour,  inclining  more 
to  the  purple  than  fcarlet.  It  fcenis  to  be  made  of  chalky, 
coloured  with  a  decodlion  of  brazil-wood,  heightened- 
by  an  alkaline  fait ;  for  which  reafon  It  Is  exceedingly, 
perifliable,  and  but  little  cfteeined.  The  colour  might 
be  made  much  more  durable  as  w^ll  as  better,  by  em- 
ploying for  a  bafis  the  white  precipitate  of  lead  above— 
meutiuiicd,  and  brightening  it  with  folution  of  tin. 

Red  oclue  and  Venetian  red  differ  in  nothing  from: 
the  colcothar  ofvitiLJ  ucll  calcined.  The  calces  of 
Irvii  may  be  made  to  appear  either  puiplKh,  or  In- 
eliuing  to  the  fcarlet,  according  to  the  manner  in  which- 
tlie  calcination  Is  performed.  If  die  matter  is  per- 
fectly deprived  of  its  phlogilloa,  and  fubjefted  to  an- 
intenle  lire.  It  always  turns  out  red  :  but  the  mixture 
of  a  fmall  quantity  of  inflam.mable  matter  gives  It  a 
purpllfli  caft.  Hence  vailous  paints  are  kept  in  the 
Ihops  under  different  names,  which  ytt  diflTer  from 
each  other  only  in  the  flight  circumftance  above  men- 
tioned :  and  fuch  are  the  Icarlet-ochre,  Spanifh-brown, 
and  terra  dl  Sienna  burnt.  It  is  remarkable,  that  the 
calces  of  iron  nevor  fhow  dieir  colour  till  they  become 
cold.  Colcothar  (/f  vitriol,  while  hot,  always  appears 
of  a  very  dark  dulky  purple. 

Of  the  preparation  oi  vermilion  and  red  lead,  an  ac- 
count is  given  under  the  article  Chemistry,  no  1213,. 
14C4.     Thefe  are  very  durable  coloarsi  the  hrft  Is  the 

btft 


COL 


Co'<  «r- 
nialting. 


25 
Orai:ge  co- 
lours. 


46 

Yellow  CO. 
lours. 


bcfl  red  ufcd  in  oil  painting,  but  does  not  nufwer  well 
in  water  ;  the  other  is  rather  an  or.nge  ;  and,  like 
other  preparations  of  lead,  is  in  fome  cafes  apt  to  turn 
black. 

4.  Orange.  The  only  true  orange-coloured  paints 
are  red  orpiment  and  orange  lake.  The  fi'.-ft  is  a  fub- 
iimate  formed  of  arfenic  and  fulphur  ;  the  other  may 
be  prepared  from  turmeric  infufed  in  fpirit  of  wine, 
having  its  colour  ftriick  tipon  calx  of  tin,  and  bright- 
ened by  a  folution  of  that  metal.  All  the  fhades  of 
orange,  however,  may  be  extemporaneoufly  prepaied 
by  mixing  red  and  yellow  colours  together,  in  due 
proportions. 

5.  Telloiv.  The  yellow  paints  mod  commonly  in 
life  are,  king's-yellow,  Naples-yellow,  Dutch-pink, 
Englifh-pink,  mafticot,  common  orplnient,  yellow- 
ochre,  terra  di  Sienna  unbuvnt,  and  Turbith-mineral. 

King's-yellow  is  evidently  an  arfenical  preparation. 
Its  colour  is  exceedingly  beautiful,  but  apt  to  fade  ; 
on  which  account,  and  its  great  price,  it  is  feldom 
ufed. 

Naples-yellow  was  for  a  long  time  thaught  to  be  a 
preparation  of  arfenic,  but  is  now  difcovered  to  have 
lead  for  its  bafis.  It  Is  therefore  apt  to  turn  black 
and  lofe  its  colour,  which  makes  it  the  Icfs  valuable. 
It  is  neverthelefs  ufed  in  preference  to  king's-yellow, 
on  account  of  its  inferiority  in  price.  This  colour  is 
particularly  liable  to  be  fpoilcd  by  iron  when  moift, 
and  therefore  fhould  never  be  touched  by  that  metal 
riiileffi  previouHy  ground  in" oil. 

Dutch-pink  is  faid  to  be  prepared  by  ilriking  the 
colour  of  yellow  berries  upon  finely  levigated  chalk. 
But  of  tljis  there  is  great  reafon  to  doubt;  the  bafis 
of  Dutch-pink  feems  much  more  hard  and  gritty  than 
chalk,  and  its  colour  more  durable  than  thofe  ihuck 
upon  that  earth  ufually  are.  Very  good  yellows  may 
be  prepared  with  the  white  precipitate  of  lead,  foi'- 
merly  mentioned,  by  ufing  either  yellow  hemes,  fuftic, 
or  any  other  fubftance  capable  of  yielding  that  colour. 
EngliHi  pink  is  paler  than  the  Dutch,  and  keeps  its 
colour  greatly  worfe. 

Maflicot  is  prepared  by  calcining  white-lead  till  it 
affumes  a  yellowilh  colour.  It  is  not  apt  to  change, 
but  the  colour  is  fo  dull  that  it  is  feldom  ufed  either 
in  oil  or  water. 

Common  orpiment  is  a  pretty  bright  greenlHi-yel- 
low,  prepared  by  fubliming  arfenic  with  fulphur.  Its 
naufeous  fmell,  which  is  greatly  increafed  by  grinding 
in  oil,  makes  it  very  difagreeable  ;  nor  does  it  keep  its 
colour  for  any  length  of  time.  That  kind  of  orpi- 
ment lead  inclined  to  green  is  to  be  preferred  for  the 
purpofes  of  painting. 

Yellow-ochre  and  terra  di  Sienna,  are  ferruginous 
earths,  capable  of  becoming  red  by  calcination.  Green 
vitriol  precipitated  by  lime  may  be  advantageoufiy  fub- 
flituted  to  either  of  them.      See  Chemistry,  n°  699. 

Turbith  mineral  is  but  little  ufed  in  painting,  though 
jts  fine  yellow  colour  feems  greatly  to  recommend  it. 
This  preparation  is  in  all  probability  very  durable  ; 
and  fliould  feem  therefore  worthy  of  a  preference  either 
to  king's  or  Naples  yellow.  The  method  of  preparing 
it  is  defcribcd  under  Chemistry,  no  705. 

Gamboge  is  a  paint  that  can  only  he  ufed  in  water, 
and  is  the  moll  common  yellow  made  ufe  of  for  co- 


[       158       1 


COL 


louring  maps,   &c.  but  for  this  it  is  not  very  proper,     Colour- 
being  neither  quite  tianfparent,  nor  vei-y  durable.  making. 

6.  Grcn.     The  only  fimple  green  colour  that  hath  ~""~^'"*^ 
a  tolerable  degree  of  brightnefs  is  verdigreafe,  or  pre-  Green  co- 
parations  of  it.     This,   however,  though  a  very  beau-  lours, 
tiful  colour,  is  far  from  being-  durable.      It  is  improved 
in  colour,  though  not  in  durability,  by  dilTolution  and 
cryftallization  in  dilliUed  vinegar  ;  in  which  llate  it  is 
called  iTiJliUed   verdigreafe.      A    more    durable    water- 
colour  is  made  by  difFolving  the  verdigreafe  in  cream  of 
tartar,  or  rather  the  pure  tartarous  ;icid  ;  but  in  oil, 
this  is  found  to  be  equally  fugitive  with  the  verdigreafe 
itfelf.     For  ail  account  of  thefe  preparations,  fee  Che- 
mistry, n'^  894. 

Compound  greens  are  either  made  of  Pruflian  or 
fome  other  blue,  mixed  with  yellow  ;  but  in  whatever 
way  thefe  colours  can  be  compounded,  the  beauty  of 
the  green  produced  is  greatly  inferior  to  diililled,  or 
even  common, -verdigreale.  The  tartarous  folution  of 
verdigreafe,  mixed  with  a  little  gamboge,  is  the  bed 
tranfparent  green  water-colour  we  have  had  an  oppoi>" 
tunlty  of  trying  ;  and  a  mixture  of  Pruflian-blue  and 
turbith-mineral  is  probably  the  bed  opaque  one. 

Sap-green  is  a  fimple  colour,  but  oxceedingly  infe- 
rior to  diililled  verdigj-eafe,  or  even  to  the  tartarous 
folution  of  verdigreafe  with  gamboge.  It  is  prepared 
from  the  juice  of  unripe  buckthorn  berries  evaporated 
to  the  confidence  of  agum.  Its  gieen  colour  is  greatly 
inclined  to  ■yellow.  A  kind  of  cumoound  jjrecn  has 
been  fometimes  ufed,  called  Piuffian-greai,  which  con- 
fids  only  of  Pruflian  blue  and  yellow-ochre.  It  has 
no  beauty,  nor  is  it  durable.  It  is  prepared  as  Pruf- 
fian-bhie,  only  not  pouring  on  any  fpirit  of  fait  to  dif- 
folve  the  ochreous  fedimcnt  which  falls  at  the  fame 
time. 

Another  green  fometimes  ufed  is  called  terra  -verle. 
This  is  a  native  earth,  probably  impregnated  with 
copper.  It  is  of  a  bluilh  green  colour,  much  of  that 
taint  c<i&cdLj'ea-green.  It  is  gritty,  and  therefore  mud 
be  well  levigated  before  it  is  ufed.  Its  colour  is  du- 
rable, but  not  very  bright. 

7.  Blue.  The  blue  colours  are  ultramarine,  Pruf-  ■^\^^  ^^ 
fian-bliie,  verditer,  fmalt,  bice,  and  indigo.  Of  thefe  lours, 
the  ultramarine  is  the  fined,  but  its  great  price  hin- 
ders its  being  much  ufed.  It  is  a  preparation  from 
lapis  lazuli  ;  is  an  exceeding  bright  colour,  and  never 
fades  with  whatever  fubdance  it  is  mixed.  It  is  now, 
however,  in  a  great  meafure  fuperfeded  by  Pruflian 
blue,  to  the  difadvantage  of  painting  in  general ;  as 
Pruflian  blue,  though  very  beautiful,  is  far  from  being 
durable.  For  an  account  of  its  preparations  fee  the 
article  Ultramarine. 

The  procefs  for  making  Pruflian  blue  is  defcribed, 
and  its  nature  fully  confidered,  under  Chemistry, 
n'^  1163  :  fo  that  it  is  fufhcient  here  to  obferve,  that 
Pruflian  blue  is  to  be  accounted  of  the  bed  quality 
when  it  is  deep,  bright,  and  not  inclined  to  purple. 
It  ought  to  be  tried  by  mixture  with  white  lead,  as 
the  brightnefs  of  the  colour  will  appear  much  more 
when  diluted  than  when  concentrated  in  the  lumps  of 
the  blue  itfelf. 

The  preparation  of  blue  verdites  is  kept  a  lecret,  and 
the  bed  chemids  have  been  puzzled  to  find  out  the 
method.     The  colour  is  exceedingl)-  bright,  and  has  a 


;«e  Zaffre 
d  Smalt. 


19 
irplt  co- 

JIS. 


30 
own  co- 

urs. 


3' 
■  Lewis's 


ncerning 


COL  [     X 

confiderable  tinge  of  green.  A  method  of  preparing 
a  colour  eqmlly  beautiful,  and  agreeing  in  all  refpcfts 
with  what  is  fold  in  the  Ihops,  except  that  of  elFer- 
vefcing  with  acidp,  we  have  found  to  be  as  follows : 
DiiTolve  copper  in  llrong  caullic  alkali,  until  the  liquid 
has  alTumed  a  very  deep  blue  colour  ;  and  the  dee]3er 
this  colour  is,  the  finer  will  your  verditer  be.  \Vi\cn 
the  menlli-uum  has  diflolved  as  much  of  the  metal  as  it 
can  take  up,  it  is  to  be  poured  out  into  a  broad  and 
well  glazed  earthen  pan,  held  over  a  very  gentle  fire ; 
and  from  the  moment  it  is  put  on  the  liquor  is  to  be 
continually  agitated  with  a  wooden  fpatula,  fo  that  tlie 
liquor  may  be  heated  as  equally  as  poCible.  The 
whole  fecrct  confifls  in  properly  regulating  the  degree 
of  heat  ;  tor  if  it  exceeds  the  due  proportion  ev^r  fo 
httle,  the  verditer  will  turn  out  of  a  dirty  green.  The 
proper  degree  is  about  90"  of  Fahrenheit's  thermome- 
ter. In  this  gentle  heat  the  alkali  flowly  evaporates  ; 
and  in  proportion  to  its  doing  fo  the  verditer  falls  to 
the  bottom.  After  it  is  once  formed,  freed  from  the 
alkaline  liquor,  and  dried,  it  can  bear  the  afFufion  of 
boiling  water  without  the  leall  injury.  Dr  PrielUey, 
in  his  fixth  volume,  takes  notice,  that  folution  of  cop- 
per in  volatile  alkali  affords  a  blue  precipitate  by  heat, 
but  without  taking  notice  of  the  requilites  for  its  fuc- 
eefs.  In  making  this  preparation,  it  is  neceffary  to 
diffolve  copper  in  its  mttallic  ftate;  for  the  folution  of 
any  calx  will  not  yield  a  blue  but  a  green  colour. 
This  colour  is  durable  in  water,  but  diffolves  in  oil, 
and  has  then  all  the  inconveniences  of  verdigreafe  above 
mentioned. 

Smalt  is  glafs-coloured  with  zaffre,  a  preparation 
from  cobalt*.  It  is  comn-.only  fo  grofsly  powdered 
that  it  cannot  be  ufed  in  painting,  and  its  texture  is  fo 
hard  that  it  cannot  eafily  be  levigated.  Its  colour  is 
exceedingly  bright  and  durable  ;  fo  that  when  finely 
levigated  it  is  ufed  inftead  of  ultramarine.  The  moil 
proper  materials  for  levigating  this  fubftance  feeni  to 
be  the  plates  of  M.  Reaumur's  porcelain  recommended 
by  Dr  Lewis.  See  Chemistry,  n°  592,  599.  For 
the  preparation  and  qualities  of  bice,  fee  the  articles 
^R  MEN  us  Lapis  and  Bice. 

Indigo  is  but  little  ufed  in  painting  either  in  oil  or 
water,  on  account  of  the  dulnefs  of  the  colour.  It  re- 
quires no  other  .preparation  than  being  wafhed  over. 
Its  goodnefs  is  known  by  the  darknefs  and  brightnefs 
of  the  colour.     See  Indigo. 

8.  Purple.  The  only  fimple  colour  of  this  kind 
ufed  at  prefent  is  colcothar  of  vitriol.  A  beautiful 
purple  lake  may  be  prepared  from  logwood  by  means 
of  folution  of  tin  ;  but  this  method  of  preparing  co- 
lours is  veiy  little  known  as  yet. 

9.  BroiLtn.  The  brown  colours  are,  biflre,  brown- 
ochre,  Cologne-earth,  umbre,  and  brown-pink.  Under 
the  article  Bistre  is  given  a  procefs  for  making  that 
colour,  by  infufing  foot  in  water,  pouring  off  the  tinc- 
ture, and  then  evaporating  it  to  an  extradl ;  but  Dr 
Lewis  is  of  opinion,  with  Mr  Landois  in  the  French 
Encyclop'die,  that  the  foot  is  either  boiled  in  water, 
or  ground  with  a  little  liquid  of  fome  kind  into  a  fmooth 
pafte  ;  it  is  then  diluted  with  more  water,  and  after 
ftanding  for  about  half  an  hour  till  the  groffer  fub- 
ftance of  the  foot  has  fettled,  the  liquor  is  poured  off 
into  another  veffel,  and  fet  by  for  two  or  three  days, 
that  the  finer  parts  may  fall  to  the  bottom,  and  this. 


59    ] 


COL 


fine  matter  is  the  biftre.     This  is  a  very  ufeful  colour    Ci'our- 
in  water,  being  exceedingly  fine,  durable,  and  not  apt    '"'''""''^•'. 
to  fpoil  any  other  colours  with  which  it  is  mixed.   The         * 
brown  pink  is  faid  to  confilt  of  chalk  tinged  with  the 
colouring  matter  of  fullic,  heightened    by  fixed  alka- 
line falts.    It  is  therefore  very  pcrilhable,  and  is  fcldom 
ufed.     The    other   browns    are    a    kind  of  ochreous 
earths ;  for  a  defcription  of  which  fee  their  proper  ' 
articles.  ,j 

Having  now  confidered  mod  of  the  colouring  fub-  Atttmpis 
flances   ufually  to  be  met  with  in  the  (hops,  we  fliall'"  "^'''"^  , 
next  take   notice  of  fome  attempts    that   have   been  [^^jgy,*^ "'' 
made   to  produce  all  the  di  Jerent   colours  from  vege- 
tables, after  the  rainncr  of  hJka  ;  which,  though  the 
methods   hitherto  tried  have  for  the  moft   part    failed 
of  fuccefs,  may  perhaps  fome  time  or  other  be  found 
appicable  to  valuable  purpofes. 

From  infufions  of  attriugent  vegetables  mixed  with  BlaclV  from 
green  vitiiol,  is  produced  a  deep  black  liquor  of  veiyaftringentj. 
extenfive  ufe  in  dyeing-|-.  The  fubllauces  which  pro- 1.  3^;,  ^, ,, 
diice  the  deepeft  blacks  are  galls  and  log^vood.  Whenm.r, 
a  decoction  or  infufion  of  the  galls  is  dropped  into  a 
folution  of  the  vitriol  largely  diluted  with  water,  th« 
firll  drops  produce  bluilh  or  purplilh  red  clouds,  which 
foon  mingliug  with  the  hquor,  turn  it  uniformly  of 
their  own  colour.  It  feems  to  be  on  the  quality  of 
the  water  that  this  difference  in  the  colour  depends. 
With  diftilled  water,  or  the  common  fpring-waters, 
the  mixture  is  always  blue.  If  we  previoufly  diffolve 
in  the  water  the  moll  minyte  quantity  of  any  alkaline 
fait,  too  imall  to  be  difcovered  by  aiiyof  the  common 
means  by  which  waters  »are  ufually  tried,  or  if  the 
water  is  in  the  leaft  putrid,  the  colour  of  the  mixture 
proves  purple  or  reddlfh.  Rain-water,  caught  as  it 
falls  fiom  the  clouds  in  an  open  field  in  clean  glafa- 
veffels,  gives  a  blue  ;  but  fuch  as  is  collected  from  the 
tops  of  the  houfes,  grows  purple  with  the  mixture  of 
vitriol  and  galls  :  from  whence  it  may  be  prefumed,. 
that  this  laft  has  contrafted  a  putrid  tendency,  or  re- 
ceived an  alkaline  impregnation,  though  fo  flight  as 
not  to  be  fenfible  on  other  ways  of  trial. 

Both  the  purple  and  blue  liquors,  on  adding  more 
of  the  aftringeut  infufion,  deepen  to  a  black,  more  or 
lefs  iutenfe  according  to  the  nature  of  dilution  :  if  the 
mixture  proves  of  a  deep  opaque  blackncfs,  it  again 
becomes  bluifli  or  purphfh  when  further  diluted.  If 
fuffered  to  ftand  in  this  diluted  ftate  for  two  or  three 
days,  the  colouring  matter  fettles  to  the  bottom  in 
form  of  a  fine  black  mud,  which  by  (lightly  (linking 
the  veffel,  is  diffufed  again  through  the  liquor,  and 
tinges  it  of  its  former  colour.  When  the  mixture  is  of 
a  full  blacknefs,  this  feparation  does  not  happen,  or  in 
a  far  left  degree  ;  for  though  a  part  of  the  black  mat- 
ter precipitates  in  ftanding,  yet  fo  much  remfins  dif- 
folved,  that  the  liquor  continues  black.  This  fufpen- 
fion  of  the  colouring  fubftance,  in  the  black  liquid, 
may  be  attributed  in  part  to  the  gummy  matter  of  the 
aftringent  infufion  increafing  the  confiftence  of  the 
watery  fluid  ;  for  the  feparation  is  retarded  in  the 
diluted  mixture  by  a  fmall  addition  of  gum  Arabic. 
If  the  mixture  either  in  its  black  or  diluted  ftate  is- 
poured  into  a  filter,  the  liquor  paffes  through  colour- 
ed ;  only  a  part  of  the  black  matter  remaining  on  the 
filter.  The  filtered  liquor  on  ftanding  for  fome  time 
becomes  turbid  and  full  of  fine  black  flakes ;  being 

freed... 


Col'  ur- 
making. 


iher  CO' 
ieurs. 


COL  [ 

freed  from  tlicfe  by  a  fccond  filtration,  it  again  puts 
^^^  on  the  fame  appearance  ;  and  thus  ri.peatcJI)-  till  all 
the  colouring  parts  arc  fcparated,  and  the  hquor  huj 
become  colourlefs. 

Dr  Lewis,  from  whofe  Philofophical  Commerce  of 
Arts  this  account  is  taken,  further  informs  us,  that  this 
colouring  matter,  when  feparated  from  the  liquor  and 
dried,  appeared  of  a  deep  black,  which  did  not  feem 
■to  have  fuffercd  any  change  from  the  air  by  expofure 
for  upwards  of  four  months.  Made  red-hot,  it  glowed 
and  burnt,  but  did  not  flame,  and  became  a  rufty 
brown  powder,  which  was  readily  attracted  by  a  mag- 
netic bar ;  thougli  in  its  black  ilate  the  magnet  had 
110  aftion  upon  it.  The  vitriolic  acid,  diluted  with 
water  and  digefted  on  the  black  powder,  diflolvcd  the. 
greateft  part  of  it,  leaving  only  a  very  fmall  quantity 
of  whitifh  matter.  Solution  of  pure  fixed  alkaline 
fait  diflblved  very  little  of  it  :  the  liquor  received  a 
■  reddifh  brown  colour,  and  the  powder  becam.e  blackifli 
brown.  This  refiduuin  was  attracted  by  the  magnet 
after  being  i-ed-hot,  though  not  before  :  the  alkaline 
tincture,  pafled  through  a  filter,  and  mixed  with  a 
folution  of  green  vitriol,  ilruck  a  dcep'brownifh  black 
colour,  nearly  the  fame  with  th.at  which  rclults  from 
mixing  with  the  vitriolic  folution,  an  alkaline  tincture 
, .  of  galls. 
Black  from  It  hath  alfo  been  attempted  to  produce  black  from 
a  combina-  a  combination  of  other  colours  ;  as  green  may  be  pro- 
tion  of  0-  (juced  from  a  mixture  of  blue  and  yellow.  Mr  le  Blon, 
in  his  Harmony  of  Colours,  gives  a  method  of  forming 
black,  by  mixing  together  the  three  colours  called 
primitive,  viz.  blue,  red,  and  yellow ;  and  Mr  Callel, 
■in  his  Optique  des  Coiikurs,  pubhfhed  in  1740,  fays 
that  this  compound  black  has  an  advantage,  in  paint- 
ing, above  the  fimple  ones,  of  anfv.-ering  better  for 
■the  darkening  of  other  colours.  Thus,  if  blue,  by  the 
addition  of  black,  is  to  be  darkened  into  the  colour 
called  llue-bl.ick,  the  Ximple  blacks,  according  to  him, 
if  ufed  in  fufficient  quantity  to  produce  the  requifite 
deepnefs,  conceal  the  blue,  while  the  compound  blacks 
leave  it  dilHnguifhable.  Le  Blon  does  not  mention 
the  proportions  of  the  three  colours  necefTary  for  pro- 
ducing black.  Callel  directs  15  parts  of  blue,  live  of 
red,  and  three  of  yellow  ;  but  tiikes  notice,  that  thefe 
proportions  arc  rather  fpeculatively  than  practically 
juft,  and  that  the  eye  only  can  be  the  true  judge  ;  our 
colours  being  all  very  imperfecl:,  and  our  pigir.ents  or 
other  bodies  of  one  denomination  of  colour  being 
very  unequal  in  their  degree  ot  intenfity.  He  ob- 
ferves,  that  the  pigments  ftiould  all  be  of  the  deepeft. 
and  darkeil  kind  :  and  that,  inftead  of  taking  one  pig- 
ment for  each  colour,  it  is  better  to  take  as  many  as 
can  be  got  ;  for  the  greater  difcord  there  is  of  hete- 
rogeitfous  and  difcordant  drugs,  the  more  true  and 
beautiful,  he  fays,  will  the  black  be,  and  the  more 
capable  of  uniting  with  all  other  colours,  without 
fuppreffing  them,  and  even  without  makir.g  them 
tawney. 

Dr  Lewis  acquaints  us,  that  by  mixing  different 
blue,  red,  and  yellow  colours,  he  has  not  been  able  to 
produce  a  perfeil  black  ;  but  has  often  obtained  from 
them  very  dark  colours,  fuch  as  may  be  called  hrotvn- 
blacls,  or  grey-hlachs  ;  fuch  as  we  commonly  fee  in  the 
dark  parts  of  paintings,  and  fuch  as  the  charcoal  and 
foot  blacks  appear  when  diluted  a  httle.  The  ingre- 
N°  84. 


160     ]  COL 

dients  being  each  of  a  dark  deep  colour  is  a  vriy  ne- 
ceffary  condition  ;  for  bilght  blues,  bright  reds,  and 
bright  yellows,  mixed  in  fuch  proportions  that  neithir 
colour  prev.iiled,  produced  only  a  grey.  In  cffert, 
all  compofitions  of  this  kind,  phyfically  coiifidered.^can 
be  no  other  than  greys,  or  lome  of  the  intermediate 
teints  between  whitenefs  and  darknefs;  and  thefe  greyi 
will  be  fo  much  the  lighter  or  darker  as  the  compo- 
ponent  colours  of  themlelves  are  bright  or  dark. 

With  regard  to  the  extraftion  of  the  colouring 
matter  from  the  different  kinds  of  vegetables  com- 
monly to  be  met  with  of  all  colours,  tliis  woiJd  cer- 
tainly be  a  very  valuable  acquifition,  could  the  colours 
fo  procured  be  made  durable.  On  thi«  fubjedl  nothing 
hath  ■yet  appeared  more  fatisfaftovy  than  what  is  de- 
livered by  Ur  Lewis  in  his  notes  on  Neunaann's  che- 
miftry.  His  obfervations  are  curious,  but  promife  very 
little  fuccefs  to  any  who  thall  attempt  to  fix  thefe  ve- 
getable colours. 


Col  on  r. 

niai;inz. 


35    ., 
"  Among  the  Infinite  variety  of  colours  (fays  he),  ^    .^*"  ' 
which  glow  In  the  flowei'S  of  plants,   there  are  very  niems  on 
few   which   have    any   durability,    or  wliofe    fugitive  "■  -tiihle 
beauty  can  be  arrellcd  by  art,  fo  as  to  be  applied  to  ':olo"r»- 
any  valuable  pui-pofes.     The  only  permanent  ones  are 
the  yellow,  the  red,  the  blue;  and  all  tJie  intermediate 
(hades  of  purple,  crimfon,  violet,    &c.  are  extremely 
perKhable.      Many  of  thefe   flowers  lofe   their  colours 
on   being  barely   dried ;   efpecially   if  they   are   dried 
flowly,  as  has  been   uiually  direiSted,  in  a  fliadv,  and 
jiot  warm  place.     The  colours  of  all  of  them  perilh 
on    keeping   even   in   the   clofeil  veffels.     The    more 
haitily  they  are  dried,    and  the    more    perfeftly  they 
are  fccured   from  the  air,   tlie  longer  they  retain  their 
beauty..       The    colouring    m.atter    extrafted    and  ap- 
plied on  other  bodies  is  ilill  more  periihable :  often- 
times it  is  cliangcd  or  dellroyed  in  the  hands  of  the 
operator. 

"  The  colour  of  many  blue  flowers  is  extraftcd  by 
infufion  in  water;  but  there  are  fome  from  which  water 
gains  only  reddifh,  or  purplilh  blue.  Of  thole  that  have 
been  tried  tliere  is  not  one  which  gives  any  blue  tinc- 
ture to  fpirituous  liquors  :  fome  give  no  colour  at  all, 
and  fome  a"  reddifh  one.  The  juice  preffed  out  from 
the  frelh  flowers  is  for  the  moft  part  blue.  The  blue 
juices  and  infufions  are  changed  red  by  ;dl  acids.  The 
marine  acid  feems  to  llrike  the  moll  florid  red.  The 
flowers  themlelves,  macerated  in  acid  liquors,  impart 
alfo  a  deep'  red  tintture.  Alkalies,  both  fixed  and 
volatile,  and  lime-wateu,  change  them  to  a  green. 
Thole  infufions  of  the  juices  which  have  nothing  of 
the  native  colour  of  the  flowers,  fufFcr  the  fame  changes 
from  the  addition  of  acid  and  alkaline  liquors:  even 
when  the  flowers  have  been  kept  till  their  colour  is 
lofl,  infufions  made  from  them  acquire  flill  a  red  co- 
lour from  the  one,  and  a  green  from  the  other,  though 
in  a  lefs  degree  than  when  the  flowers  were  frefli. 
The  red  colour  produced  by  acids  is  fcarcely  more 
durable  than  the  original  blue  :  applied  upon  other 
bodies  and  expofed  to  the  air,  it  gradually  degenerates 
into  a  faintilh  purple,  and  at  length  difappears,  leaving 
hardly  any  flain  behind.  The  green  produced  by 
alkaUes  clianges  to  a  yellow,  which  does  not  fade  fo 
foon.  The  ^reen,  by  lime-water,  is  more  permanent 
and  more  beantiful :  green  lakes,  prepared  from  thefe 
flowers  by  lime-water,  have  been  ufed  as  pigments  by 
4  the 


COL  [     i6r 

the  painter.  The  flowers  of  cyaniis  have  been  greatly 
rtcommcnJed,  as  affording  elegant  and  durahle  blue 
■  pigments  ;  but  I  have  never  been  able  to  extradt  from 
them  any  blue  colour  at  all.  They  retain  their  colour 
indeed,  when  hallily  dried,  longer  than  fome  other 
blue  flowers  :  but  they  communicate  nothing  of  it  to 
any  kind  of  menilnuim.  Infufions  of  them  in  watery, 
fpirltuoiis,  and  oily  liquors,  are  all  of  them  more  or 
Icfs  of  a  reddifii  call,  without  any  tendency  to  bine. 
Alum,  which  is  laid  to  heighten  and  preferve  their 
blue  colour,  changes  it,  Hke  that  of  other  blue  flowers, 
to  a  purplifli  red ;  acids  to  a  deep  red  ;  alkalies  and 
lime-water  to  a  green  ;  folution  ot  tin  added  to  the 
watery  infnfion,  turns  it  of  a  fine  crimfon;  on  Hand- 
ing, a  beautiful  red  fscula  fublides,  but  it  lofcs  all 
its  colour  by  the  time  it  is  diy.  The  wateiy  infufion, 
infpiflated  to  the  confidence  of  an  extraft,  appears  of 
a  dark  reddilh  brown  :  an  extract  made  vi'ith  rectilied 
fpirit  is  of  a  purplifli  colour.  The  colour  of  both  ex- 
tracts fpread  thin  and  expofed  to  the  air  quickly 
fades.  The  fioweis  employed  in  thefe  experiments 
were  thofe  of  the  common  blue-bottle  of  the  corn- 
fields. 

"  Red  flowers  readily  communicate  their  own  red 
colour  to  watery  menltrua :  among  thofe  that  have 
been  tried,  there  is  not  one  exception.  Thofe  of  a 
full  red  colour  give  to  reftified  fpirit  alfo  a  deep  red 
tinfture,  bi-ightei-,  tliough  fomewhat  paler,  than  the 
watery  infufion  :  but  the  Ughter  red  flowers,  and 
thofe  which  have  a  tendency  to  purplifh,  impart  very 
little  colour  to  fpirit,  and  feera  to  partake  more  of  the 
nature  of  the  blue  flowers  than  of  the  pure  red.  Infu- 
fions of  red  flowers  are  fuppofed  to  be  heightened  by 
Ecids,  and  turned  green  by  alkalies,  like  thole  of  the 
blue  ;  but  this  is  far  from  being  univerfal.  Among 
thofe  I  have  examined,  the  rofe-colours  and  purplifh 
reds  were  changed  nearly  in  the  fame  manner  as  the 
blues  ;  but  the  full  deep  reds  were  not.  The  deep 
infufion  of  red  poppies  is  changed  by  alkalies,  not  to  a 
green,  but  to  a  dufky  purple. 

"  The  colours  of  yellow  flowers,  whether  pale  or 
deep,  are  in  general  durable.  Many  of  them  are  as 
much  fo,  perhaps,  as  any  of  the  native  colours  of  ve- 
getables. The  colour  is  extraiSled  both  by  water  and 
by  fpirit.  The  watery  infufions  are  the  deepefl.  Nei- 
ther alkalies  nor  acids  alter  the  fpecies  of  the  colour, 
though  both  of  them  vaiy  its  (hade;  acids  rendering 
it  paler,  and  alkalies  deeper :  alum  likewife  confide- 
rably  heightens  it,  though  not  fo  much  as  alkalies.  An 
infufion  of  the  flowers,  made  in  alkaline  ley,  precipi- 
tated by  alum,  gives  a  durable  yellow  lake.  In  iome 
of  the  deep  reddilh  yellow,  or  orange-coloured  flowers, 
the  yellow  matter  fecms  to  be  of  the  fame  kind  with 
that  of  the  pure  yellow  Bowel's,  but  the  red  to  be  of 
a  different  kind  from  the  pure  red  ones  ;  water)'  men- 
Hrua  take  up  only  the  yellow,  and  leave  the  red, 
which  may  afterwards  be  extratled  by  reftified  fpirit 
of  wine,  or  by  water  acuated  by  fixed  alkaline  fait. 
Such  particularly  are  the  faifron-coloured  flowers  of 
carthamus.  Thefe,  after  the  yellow  matter  has  been 
extrafted  by  water,  are  faid  to  give  a  red  tiuiSlure  to 
ley;  from  which,  on  Handing  at  rell  for  fome  time,  a 
deep  bright  red  fecula  fubfidcs;  called  from  one  of  the 
names  of  the  plant  which  produces  it,  fqfjiutuer  ;  and 
from  the  countries  whence  it  is  commonly  brought  to 
Voi,.  V.  Part  I. 


] 


COL 


us,  Spiwijl-reJ,  and  China-lake.  This  pigment  >m-  Colotrr- 
pregnates  fpirit  of  yvine  with  a  beautifiJ  red  tinfturc,  '"»'<'»?• 
but  communicates  no  colour  to  water.  I  have  cndea-  ~-^v— ' 
voured  to  feparatc,  by  the  fame  treatment,  the  red 
matter  of  fome  of  the  other  reddilh  yellow  flower-,, 
as  thofe  of  garden  marigold,  but  without  fuccefs. 
Plain  water  extradled  a  yellow  colour,  and  alkaline 
ley  extrafted  afterwards  only  a  paler  yellow  :  though 
the  digeftions  were  continued  till  the  flowers  had  loft 
their  colour,  the  tinthires  were  no  other  than  yellow, 
and  not  fo  deep  as  thofe  obtained  from  the  pure  yel- 
low flowers.  I'he  little  yellow  flofculi,  which  in 
fome  kinds  of  flowers  are  collefted  into  a  compaft 
round  difc,  as  in  the  daify  and  corn-marigold,  agree, 
fo  far  as  they  have  been  examined,  with  the  expand- 
ed yellow  petala.  Their  colour  is  afFeded  in  the  fame 
manner  by  acids,  by  alkalies,  and  by  alum  ;  and  e- 
qually  extracted  by  water  and  by  fjiirit.  But  the  yel- 
low farina,  or  fine  dull,  lodged  on  the  tips  of  the  fta- 
mina  of  flowers,  appears  to  be  of  a  different  kind.  It 
gives  a  fine  blight  yellow  to  fpiiit,  and  a  duller  yel- 
low to  water  ;  the  undiffolved  part  proving  in  bolli 
cafes  of  a  pale  yellowilh  white.  Both  the  watery  and  " 
fpirituous  tiuetures  were  heightened  by  alkaline  li- 
quors, turned  red  by  acids,  and  again  to  a  deep  yel- 
low on  adding  more  of  the  alkali  :  I  know  no  other 
vegetable  yellow  that  is  turned  red  by  acids. 

"  White  flowers  are  by  no  means  deftitute  of  co- 
louring matter.  Alkaline  lixivia  extrad  from  fome 
of  them  a  green  tinduie,  and  change  their  colourlefs 
expreffed  juices  to  the  fame  colour;  but  I  have  not 
obferved  that  they  are  turned  red  by  acids.  ,Thc 
flow.crs  of  the  common  wild  convolvulus  or  bind-weed, 
which  in  all  their  parts  are  white,  give  a  deep  yellow 
or  orange  tinfture  to  plain  water;  which,  hke  the 
tin6hires  of  flowers  that  are  naturally  of  that  colour, 
is  rendered  paler  by  acids,  heightened  a  little  by  alum, 
and  more  confiderably  by  alkaline  falts.  The  vapours 
of  the  volatile  vitriolic  acid,  or  of  burning  fulphur, 
which  whiten  or  deftroy  the  colour  of  the  coloured 
flowers,  make  no  change  in  the  white.  ,f 

"  The  red  juices  of  fruits,  as  currants,  mulberries.  Col  )"urs 
elder-berries,  morello,  and  black  cherries,  y<;.  gentlvf^o"!  fru'M- 
iiifpiffated  to  drynefs,  diffolve  again  almoll  totally  kn 
water,  and  appear  nearly  of  the  fame  red  colour  as  at 
lirft.  Redified  fpirit  extrads  the  tinging  particles, 
leaving  a  confiderable  portion  of  mucilaginous  matter 
undiffolved ;  and  hence  the  fpirituous  tindure  proves 
of  a  brighter  colonr  than  the  watery.  The  red  folu- 
tions,  and  the  juices  themfelves,  are  fometimes  made 
dull,  and  fometimes  mote  floiid,  by  acids,  and  gene- 
rally turned  purj)Ufh  by  alkalies.  The  colours  of  thefe 
juices  are  for  the  mofl;  part  penTnable.  They  refift, 
indeed,  the  power  of  fermentation,  and  continue  al- 
mofl  unchanged,  after  the  liquor  has  been  converted 
into  wine;  but  when  the  juice  is  fpread  thin  upon  o- 
ther  bodies,  exficcated,  and  expofed  to  the  air,  the 
colour  quickly  alters  and  decays:  the  bright  lively  red. 
changes  the  fonneft  :  the  dark  dull  red  ft.ain  from  the 
juice  of  the  black  cherry,  is  of  confiderable  durability. 
The  fruit  of  the  American  opuntia  or  prickly  pear, 
the  plant  upon  which  the  cochineal  infed  is  produced, 
is  perhaps  an  exception  :  This  bright  red  fruit,  ac- 
cording to  Labat,  gives  a  beautiful  red  dy?.  Some 
experiments,  however,  made  upon  the  juice  of  that 
X  fruit. 


[ 


_Colonr- 
makin;,- 


•  See  An- 


^,37 
Colours 
from 
leaves. 


COL 

fniit,  as  brought  into  England,  did  not  promife  to  be 
of  any  great  advantage  :  but  the  particulars  I  cannot 
now  recollciSl. 

"  The  ripe  berries  of  buckthorn  ftain  paper  of  a 
green  colour.  From  thcfe  is  prepared  the  fiilillance 
called  fdp-green,  a  pigment  fufficiently  durable,  rea- 
dily foluble  in  water,  but  not  mifcible  with  oil.  The 
berries  dried  while  grten,  and  macerated  in  alum- 
water,  are  faid  to  yield  a  yellow  pigment ;  and  when 
they  have  grown  over  ripe  fo  as  to  fall  off  fpontane- 
oufly,  a  purple  one.  It  is  faid  that  the  berry  of  the 
heliotropium  tricoccum,  which  grows  wild  about  Mont- 
pelier,  ilains  paper  of  a  green  colour,  and  that  this 
green  turns  prefeutly  to  a  blue:  that  the  common  blue 
paper  receives  its  colour  from  this  juice  :  and  that  the 
red  rags  called  tunifol,  employed  for  colouring  wines 
and  other  liquors,  are  tindlured  by  tlie  fame  juice 
turned  red  by  acids.  According  to  M.  NifTole  of  the 
French  academy  of  fciences  (as  quoted  by  Savary  in 
his  Diftionaire  de  Commerce),  the  colouring  juice  is 
obtained  not  from  the  berries,  but  from  tops  of  the 
plant  gathered  in  Auguit,  ground  in  mills,  and  then 
committed  to  the  prefs.  The  juice  is  expofcd  to  the 
fun  about  an  hour,  the  rags  dipt  in  it,  dried  in  the 
fun,  mojftened  by  the  vapour  which  arifes  during  the 
flaking  of  quicklime  with  urine,  then  dried  again  in 
the  fun,  and  dipped  again  in  the  juice.  The  Dutch 
and  others  are  ;faid  to  prepare  turnfol  rags,  and  turn- 
fol  in  the  mafs,  from  different  ingredients,  among 
which  archil  is  a  principal  one. 

"  In  fome  plants,  peony  for  inftnnce,  the  feeds  at 
a  certain  point  of  maturity  are  covered  with  a  line 
fliining  red  membrane.  The  pellicles  of  the  feeds  of 
a  certain  American  tree  afford  the  red  maffes  brought 
into  Europe  under  the  names  of  annolto,  orlcan,  and 
raticou*.  Mr  Pott,  in  the  Berlin  Memoirs  for  the 
year  1752,  mentions  a  very  extraordinary  property 
of  this  concrete.  '  With  the  vitriolic  acid  it  pro- 
duces a  blue  colour,  of  extreme  beauty ;  but  with  this 
capital  defect,  that  all  falls  and  liquors,  and  even  com- 
mon water,  deftroy  it.'  The  fpeclmen  of  annotlo,  which 
I  examined,  was  not  fenfibly  adled  upon  by  fpirit  of  vi- 
triol ;  it  received  no  change  in  its  own  colour,  and 
communicated  none  to  the  liquor.  Nor  did  any  vi- 
fible  change  enfue  upon  dropping  the  acid  into  tinc- 
tures of  annotto  made  in  water,  or  in  fpirit. 

"  The  green  colour  of  the  leaves  of  plants  is  ex- 
traded  by  rectified  fpirit  of  wine  and  by  oils.  The 
fpirituous  tindlures  are  generally  of  a  fine  deep  green, 
even  when  the  leaves  themfelves  are  dull-coloured,  or 
yellowiih,  or  hoary.  The  colour,  however,  feldom 
abides  long  even  in  the  liquor ;  much  Icfs  when  the 
tinging  matter  is  feparated  in  a  folid  form,  and  expo- 
fed  with  a  large  furface  to  the  air.  The  editor  of  the 
Wirtemberg  Pharmacopeia  obferves,  that  the  leaves 
of  acanthusv  brankuifme,  or  bear's-breach,  give  a 
more  durable  green  tinfture  to  fpirit  than  thofe  of  any 
other  herb.  Alkahes  heighten  the  colour  both  of  the 
tinftures  and  green  juices  ;  acids  weaken,  deftroy,  or 
change  it  to  a  brownifh  :  lime-water  improves  both 
the  colour  and  durability  :  by  means  of  lime,  not  in- 
elegant green  lakes  are  procurable  from  the  leaves  of 
acanthus,  lily  of  the  valley,  and  feveral  other  plants. 
There  are  very  few  herbs  which  communicate  any 
iharc  of  their  green  colour  to  w^terj  perhaps  none 


162     1  COL 

that  give  a  green  of  any  confiderable  deepnefs.  It  !s 
faid,  however,  that  the  leaves  of  fome  plants  give  a 
green  dye  to  woollen,  without  the  addition  of  any 
other  colouring  m.atter  ;  particularly  thofe  of  the  wild 
chervil,  or  cow-weed,  the  common  ragwort,  and  de- 
vil's-bit.  The  leaves  of  many  kinds  of  herbs  and 
trees  give  a  yellow  dye  to  wool  or  woollen  cloth  that 
has  been  previoudy  boiled  with  a  lohition  of  alum  and 
tartar.  Weld,  in  particular,  affords  a  fine  yellow, 
and  is  commonly  made  ufe  of  for  this  pui-pofe  by  the 
dyers,  and  cultivated  in  large  quantity  in  fome  parts 
of  England.  There  is  no  colour  for  which  we  have 
fuch  plenty  of  materials  as  for  yellow.  Mr  Hellot 
obferves,  that  all  leaves,  barks,  and  roots,  which  on 
being  chewed  difcover  a  flight  ailringency,  as  the 
leaves  of  the  almond,  peach,  and  pear-trees,  afh-bark 
(eipecially  tliat  taken  off  after  the  firft  riling  of  the 
fap  in  the  fpring),  the  roots  of  wild  patience,  Ijfc. 
yield  durable  yellows,  more  or  Icfs  beautiful  accor- 
ding to  the  length  of  time  that  the  boiling  is  con- 
tinued, and  the  proportions  of  alum  and  tartar  in  the 
preparatory   liquor :    that   a    large   quantity  of   alum 


Colnur- 
nuking. 


makes  thefe  yellows  approach  to  the  elegant  yellow 
of  weld :  that  if  the  tartar  is  made  to  prevail,  it 
inclines  then  to  an  orang^e  :  that  if  the  roots,  barks, 
or  leaves,  be  too  long  boiled,  the  yellow  proves  tar- 
nifhcd,  and  acquires  fhades  of  brown."     See  the  ar- 

tice  DvEING. 

TJie  moil   capital  preparations   from  the  leaves  of 
plants,  are  thofe  of  indigo  and  w-eld  ;  which  are  both 
vei-y  much   ufed   in  dyeing,   though   the   firll   only  in 
painting*.      Both   the  indigo   and  woad  plants  give  •  See /mfo 
out   their  colour,  by  proper  management,  to  water,  and  Wojd. 
in  form  of  a  blue  fecula  or  lake.      Mr  Hellot  fufpefts        38 
that  a  likj  blue  fecula  is  procurable  from  many  other  ^fj^^jj^^ 
vegetables.      Blue  and  yellow  blended  together,  com- accounted 
pofe  a  green.      He  fuppofes  the  natural  greens  in  ve-for. 
getables  to  be  compounded  in  like  manner  of  thefe 
two  colours ;  and  that  the  blue  is  oftentimes  the  mefl 
permanent,  fo  as  to  remain  entire  after  the  putrefac- 
tion or  dellruClion  of  the  yellow.     The  theory  is  fpe- 
cious,  and  perhaps  juft  :  we  know   of  no   other  that 
accounts  in  any  degree  for  the  produ<ftion  of  the  indi- 
go and  woad  blue.      Dr  Lewis,  however,  informs  us, 
that  he   never  was  able  to  produce  the  leaft  appear- 
ance of  either  blue  or   yellow   from  any  of  the  plants 
he  tried  by  treating  them  in  the  manner  ufed  for  the 
preparation  of  indigo.  ,- 

There  are  fundry  mofTes,  which  in  their  naturalcolours 
ftate,  like  the  indigo  and  woad  plants,  promife  nothing  from 
of  the  elegant  colours  that  can  be  extracted  from  them  "*''"'^'' 
by  art.  The  mofl  remarkable  of  thefe  is  archil ;  for 
the  preparation  of  which,  and  the  colours  that  may 
be  produced  from  it,  fee  the  article.  Linnxiss  fu- 
fpefts  that  there  are  feveral  other  more  common 
moffes  from  which  valuable  colours  might  be  extract- 
ed :  a  quantity  of  fea-mofs,  having  rotted  in  heaps  on 
the  fhore,  he  obferved  tlie  liquor  in  the  heaps  to  be 
as'  red  as  blood ;  the  fea-water,  the  fun,  and  the 
putrefaftion,  having  brought  out  the  colour.  Mr 
Kalm,  in  an  appendix  to  Linnseus's  paper,  in  1745, 
mentions  tvm  forts  of  molTes  actually  employed  in 
Sweden  for  dyeing  woollen  red:  one  is  the  Lichenoides 
coralliforme  apicibus  coccineis  of  Ray's  Synopfis;  the 
other  the  Lichenoides  tartareum,  farinaccum,  fcutel- 

larum 


COL 


[     163     ] 


COL 


Colt. 


Colour-    larum  umbone  fufco,  of  Dlllenius.   This  laft  is  a  white     making,  which  folution  of  tin  cannot  bear  to  be  mixed    Colotir- 
naiinj;.    fuhitance  like  meal  cletted  together,  found  on  the  lides     with.     Thele  are  principally  fugar  of  lead  and  cream    m^ikiDg 

"""^ '  and  tops  of  hills.      It  13  (haved  off  from  the  rocks  af-     of  tartar,  as  well  as  all  the  calcareous  earths  and  alka- 

ter  rain,  purified  from   the   ilony  matters   intermixed     line  ("alts.      With  alum  it  may  be   mixed   very    fafely, 
amonjT  it  by  walhing  with    water,  then   diied   in   the     and  is  in  many  cafes  the  better   for  it.     The  roots  of       41 
fun,  ground  in  mills,  and  again   waihed  and  dried  ;   it     plants,  however,  feem  to  promife  more  durability  of  co- Cjiourj 
is  then  put  into  a   vefTel  with  urine,  and  fet  by  for  a     lour  than   the  upper  parts.      We  have  feen  a  blue  co- ^'°'"  """'• 
month  :   a  little  of  this  tinfture   added  to  boiling  wa-     lour  of  confiderable  durability  and  brightnefs  prepared 
ter  makes  the  dyeing  colour.   In  the  fame  Tranfaftions     from  the  roots  of  common  radifhes  by  expreifing  the 
for  the  year  1754,  there  is  an  account  of  another  mofs    juice,  combining  it  with  tobacco-pipe  clay,  and  bri-Th- 
which,    prepared    with    urine,    gives  a  beautiful    and     tening  it  with  a  little  alum.      The  root  of  the  red  beet  '    ' 

durable  red  or  violet  dye  to  wool  and  illk.  This  is  is  alfo  faid  to  yield  a  durable  colour  of  a  beautiful  red, 
the  lichen  foliaceons  umbilicatus  fubtus  lacunenfis,  Linn,  inclining  to  fcarlet ;  but  this  we  cannot  afErm  from  our 
flor.  Suec.      It  grows  upon   rocks,  and  is  readily  dif-     own  experience.  ^j 

tinguifliable  from  others  of  that  clafs,  by  looking  as  if  With  regard  to  liquid  colours  for  maps,  &c.  we  Colours 
burnt  or  parched,  confilling  of  leaves  as  thin  as  pa-  apprehend  there  can  be  very  little  difficulty  of  pre- ''"'  '"^-''' 
per,  convex  all  over  on  the  upper  fide,  with  corre-  paring  all  the  poffible  varieties  of  them,  if  what  we 
(ponding  cavities  underneath,  adhering  firmly  to  the  have  above  laid  down  is  attended  to.  The  only  co- 
Itones  by  a  little  root  under  the  leaves,  and  coming  lour  with  which  there  can  be  any  difficulty  is  b!u: ; 
afunder,  when  dry,  as  foon  as  touched.  It  Is  gather-  but  the  common  folutions  of  indigo  in  alkalies  or  acids 
ed  after  rain,  as  it  then  holds  beft  together,  and  parts  may  be  made  to  anfwer  this  purpofe,  though,  on  ac- 
eafieil  from  the  ftone.  In  France,  a  cruftaceous  mofs,  count  of  their  flrongly  faline  quality,  they  are  not 
growing  upon  rocks  in  Auvergne,  Is  prepared  with  very  proper.  A  very  curious  method  of  procuring 
lime  and  urine,  and  employed  by  the  dyers  as  a  fuc-  a  beautiful  tranfparent  blue  colour  is  by  extracting  the 
Cedaneum  for  the  Canary  archil,  to  which  it  Is  faid  to  colouring  matter  from  Pruflian  blue,  by  means  of  a 
be  very  little  inferior.  Mr  Hellot  relates,  that  he  caudle  alkali.  This  when  laid  upon  paper  appears  of 
has  met  with  feveral  other  moffes,  which,  on  being  a  diity  brown  colour ;  but  if  wafhed  over  with  a  weak 
prepared  in  the  fame  manner,  acquire  the  fame  co-  folution  of  green  vitriol,  Is  Inllantly  changed  to  a  moll 
lour.  The  moft  expeditious  way,  he  fays,  of  trying  beautiful  blue.  This  feems  to  afford  a  method  of  pro- 
whether  a  mofs  will  yield  an  archil  or  not,  Is  to  molll-  curing  blue  tranfparent  colours  of  greater  beauty  than 
en  a  little  of  it  with  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  fpl-  they  are  ufually  met  with. — See  fpeclmens  of  tranf- 
rlt  of  fal  ammoniac  and  ftrong  lime-water,  and  add  parent  colours  prepared  according  to  the  above  rules, 
a  fmall  proportion  of  crude  fal  ammoniac.  The  glafs  on  the  Chart  fubjoined  to  History. 
is  then  to  be  tied  over  with  a  piece  of  bladder,  and  COLOURING,  among  painters,  the  manner  of  ap- 
fct  by  for  three  or  four  days.  If  the  mofs  Is  of  the  Paying  and  conducting  the  colour  of  a  pifture  ;  or  the 
proper  kind,  the  little  liquor  which  runs  from  it  upon  mixtures  of  light  and  fhadows,  for.ned  by  the  various 
inclining  the  ve.Tel,  will  appear  of  a  deep  crlmfon  colours  employed  In  painting.  See  Painting. 
colour;    and    this    afterwards  evaporating,    the   plant  Colouring  of  Glafs.     See  Glass. 

itfelf  acquii'cs  the  fame  colour.      Dr  Lewis  informs  us.         Colouring  of  Porcelain.      See  Porcelaik. 
that    he   has  tried   a   good    number   of  the    common  COLT,   in   zoology,  a  general  name  for  the  young 

moffes,  many  both  of  the  cruftaceous  and  follaceous    of  the  hoi  fe-kind  ;  the  male  being  likewife,  for  diflinc- 
kind,  and  not  a  few  of  the  fungi;  as  alfo  the  herbs  cha-     tion's  fake,  called  ihorfe-colt ;  the  female,  a  filly. 
momile  and  milfoil,  which  yield  a  blue  efR-ntial  oil ;  and         After  the  colts  have  been  foaled,  you    may  fuffsr  ,^j,ori/'man'i 
thyme,  whofe  oil  becomes  blue  by  digellion  with  vola-    them  to    run    with  the  mare  till  about  Michaelmas,  Diahnary, 
tile  (pints;  but  never  met  with  any  that  yielded  a  co-     fooner  or  later,  according  as  the  cold  weather  comes  In  • 
lour    like    archil.       Molt   of  them    gave  a  yellow  or    then  they  muft  be  weaned;  though  fome  perfons  are  for 
reddlfh  brown    tinfture.      A  few   gave  a  deep  red  co-     having  them  weaned  after  Martinmas,  or  the  middle  of 
lour  to  the  liquor  :   but,  when  diluted,  it  (howed  a  yel-     November.     Tne  author  of  the  Complete  Horfeman  is  of 
lowlfli  caft,  and  when  appHed  on  cloth  it  gave  only  a    opinion,  that  the  reafon  why  moft  foals  advance  fo  flow- 
yellowifh  red.  ly,   and  are  not  capable  of  fervice  till  they  are  fix  or 

To  thefe  obfervatlons  we  fhall  only  add,  that  though,  feven  years  old,  is  becaufe  they  have  not  fucked  lonff 
roi,^^'^^  in  general,  the  blue  colours  of  flowers  are  exceeding-  enough;  whereas,  if  they  had  fucked  the  whole  winter 
icld  per-  ly  perilhable,  there  ftem  to  be  at  leaft  two  exceptions  over,  they  would  be  as  good  at  four  or  five  years  old 
lanent  CO- to  this  rule;   for  the   blue   flowers  of  iris,   or   flower-     as  they  are  now  at  eight. 

""•  de-luce,  and  thofe  of  columbine,    wlien   treated  with         They  ought  now  to  be  kept  in  a  convenient  hoiife 

folution  of  tin,  yielded  a  colour  tolerably  permanent,  with  a  low  rack  and  manger  for  their  hay  and  oats 
Indeed,  when  experiments  are  made  with  a  view  to  which  mult  be  fweet  and  good  ;  with  a  little  wheate.i 
extraft  the  colour  from  any  part  of  a  vegetable,  it  bran  mixed  with  the  oats  to  caufe  them  to  drink,  and 
will  always  be  proper  to  try  whether  it  can  bear  a  to  keep  their  bodies  open.  But,  fince  there  are  fome 
mixture  with  this  lolutlon.  If  the  colour  is  not  de-  who  allege  that  oats  make  foals  become  blind  or 
ftroyed  by  it,  there  is  a  very  great  probability  that  the  their  teeth  crooked  ;  the  fame  author  is  of  opinion, 
folution  will,  by  proper  management,  prelerve,  and  that  oats  will  wear  their  teeth,  and  make  them  the 
give  a  durability  to  it,  which  could  fcarce  be  obtained  fooner  to  change,  and  alfo  to  raze  ;  therefore  he 
by  any  other  method.  It  muft,  however,  be  obfer-  judges  it  to  be  the  beft  way  to  break  them  in  a  mil], 
ved,  that  there  are  feveral  fubftances  ufcd  in  colour-    becaufe  that  by  endeavouring  with  their  jaws  to  brulfc 

X  2  and 


COL 


[     164    1 


COL 


Colt,      and  chew  tliem,  they  ftretch  and  fwell  their  eye  and    flrain,  nor  a  pad  of  draw  ;  but  only  a  common  faddfe, 
'    *    '  '  nether-jaw  vtiiis,  which  fo  attract  the  blood  and  hu-     and  a  common    caveflbn  on  his  nofe,  fuch  aj  other' 
mours  that  they  fall  down  upon  the  eyes,  and  frequent-     horfes  are  ridden  with  ;  but  it  ought  to  be  we'll  lined 


Coft. 


lyoccalion  the  Io!sof  them  :  fo  that  it  is  not  the  heat- 
ing quality  of  the  oats,  but  the  difficulty  in  chewing, 
that  is  the  caufe  of  their  blindncfs. 

Further,   collfe  thus  fed  with  grain   do   not    grow 
thickifli  upon  their  legs,  but  grow  broader  and  belter 


with  double  leather  ;  and  if  you  pleafe  you  may  put  on 
his  mouth  a  watering  bit,  but  without  reins,  only  the 
head-llall,  and  this  but  fir  a  few  days  ;  and  then  put 
on  luch  a  bit  as  he  (liould  be  always  ridden  with  :  aiid 
be  fure   not  to  ufe  fpurs  for  tome  tin^e  after  backing. 


knit  than  if  they  had  eaten  nothing  but  hay  and  bran,     Take  notice,  that  as  yearlings  mail  be  kept  abroad  to- 


and  will  endure  fatigue  the  better.  But  above  all, 
they  raufl  be  kept  from  wet  and  cold,  which  are  hurt- 
ful to  them,  nothing  being  more  tender  than  }hey  are. 
For  proof  of  this,  take  a  Spaniih  ftallion,  and  let  him 
cover  two  mares,  which  for  age,  beauty,  and  comeli 


gether,  fo  thofe  of  two  years  old  together  ;  the  like  for 
thofe  of  three  yearlings:  which  ordering  is  raoft  agree- 
able to  them. 

In  order  to  make  him  endure  the  faddle  the  better, 
the  way  to  make  it  familiHr  to  him  will  be  by  chip- 


nefs  may  admit  of  no  difference  between  them ;  and  ping  the  faddle  with  your  hand  as  it  (lands  upon  hi» 
if  they  produce  both  horfe-colts,  or  both  fiUies,  which  back,_  by  llriking  it,  and  fwaying  upon  it,  dangling 
is  one  and  the  fame  thing,  let  one  tun  abroad,  and  the  the  (lirrups  by  his  fidef,  rubbing  them  as^ainll  his  fides, 
other  be  houfed  every  winter,  kept  warm,  and  ordinari-  and  making  much  of  them,  and  bringing  him  to  be  fa- 
ly  attended  ;  and  that  colt  that  has  been  kept  abroad  miliar  with  all  things  about  him  ;  as  ilrainlng  the 
fhal!  have  large  flefhy  (lioulders,  flabby  and  gouty  legs,  crupper,  faftening  and  loofening  the  girths,  and  taking 
weak  pafterns,  and  ill  hoofs  ;  and  (hall  be  a  dull  heavy  up  and  letting  out  the  ftirrups.  Then  as  to  the  mo- 
jade,  in  comparifon  to  the  other  which  is  hcufed,  and  tion  of  him,  when  he  will  trot  with  the  faddle  obe- 
orderly  kept;  and  which  will  have  a  fine  forehead,  diently,  you  may  wa[h  a  trench  of  a  full  mou'.h,  and 
be  fine  (haped,  and  have  good  legs  and  hoofs,  and  be  put  the  fame  into  his  mouth,  throwing  the  icins  over 
of  good  ftrength  and  fpirit :  by»which  you  may  know,  the  forepart  of  the  faddle,  fo  that  he  may  have  a  full 
that  to  have  the  fincit  ftallion,  and  the  beautifuUeft  feeling  of  it ;  then  put  on  a  martingale,  buckled  at 
mare,  is  nothing  if  they  are  fpoiled  in  the  breeding  fuch  a  length  that  he  may  but  juft  feel  it  when  he 
up.  It  is  worth  obfervation,  that  fon;e  foals,  under  jerks  up  his  head ;  then  take  a  broad  piece  of  leather, 
fix  months  old,  though  their  dams  yield  plenty  of  milk,  and  put  it  about  his  neck,  and  make  the  ends  of  it 
yet  decay  daily,  and  have  a  cough,  proceeding  from  fail  by  plaiting  of  it,  or  fome  other  way,  at  the  withers, 
certain  pellicles   or  (tiins  that  breed  in  their  ftomachs,  and  the   middle  part  before  his   weafand,  about  two 


■which  obftruft  their  breathing,  and  at  lail  dellroy 
them  entirely.  To  remedy  this  malady,  take  the  bag 
wherein  the  colt  was  foaled,  dry  it,  and  give  him  as 
much  of  it  in  milk  as  you  can  take  up  with  three  fin- 
gers:  but  if  you  have  not  preferved  the  bag,  procure 
the  lungs  of  a  young  fox,  and  ufe  it 
aforefaid  powder. 

It  will  be  proper  to  let  the  colts  play  an  hour  or 
two  in  fome  court-yard,  &c.  when  it  is  fair  weather, 
provided  you  put  them  up  again  carefully,  and  fee 
that  they  take  no  harm.  When  the  winter  is  fpent, 
turn  them  into  fome  dry  ground,  where  the  grafs  is 
ftiort  and  fweet,  and  w-here  there  is  good  water, 
that  they  may  drink  at  pleafure :  for  it  is  not  necef- 
fary  that  a  colt  (hould  fill  his  belly  immediately,  like 
a  horfe  that  labours  hard.  The  next  winter  you  may 
take  them  into  the  houfe,  and  ufe  them  juft  as  you  do 
your  other  horfes ;  but  let  not  your  horfe-colts  and 
fillies  be  kept  together  after  the  firft  year.  This  me- 
thod may  be  obferved  every  fummer  and  winter  till 
you  break  them,  which  you  may  do  after  they  have 
been  three  years  old  ;  and  it  will  be  a  very  eafy  thing, 
if  you  obferve  the  aforefaid  method  of  houfing  them  : 
for  ordering  them  the  fecond  year  as    you   do  your 


handfuls  below  the  thropple,  betwixt  the  leather  and 
his  neck  ;  let  the  martingale  pafs  fo,  that  when  at  any 
time  he  oifers  to  duck,  or  throw  down  his  head,  the 
cavefTon  being  placed  upon  the  tender  griftle  of  his  nofe, 
may  corredl  and  pur.ilh  him  ;  which  will  make  him 
inftead  of  the  bring  his  head  to,  and  form  him  to  an  abfohite  rein  : 
trot  him  abroad,  and  if  you  find  the  reins  or  martingale 
grow  (lack,  llraiten  them,  for  when  there  is  no  feehng 
there  is  no  virtue. 

CoLT-E'vil,  among  farriers.  See  Farriery, 
J  xxviii.  4. 

CoLT-Tamlng,  is  the  breaking  of  a  cc'.t  fo  as  to  en- 
dure a  lider.  Colts  are  moft  e?.fily  broke  at  thves 
or  four  years  of  age  ;  but  he  who  will  have  patience 
to  fee  his  horfe  at  full  five,  will  have  him  much  more 
free  of  difeafes  and  infirmities  than  if  he  was  broke 
fooner. 

Preparatory  to  their  breaking  for  the  faddle,  they 
(hould  be  ufed  to  familiar  aftions,  as  rubbing,  clawing, 
haltering,  leading  to  water,  taking  up  their  feet, 
knocking  their  hoofs,  &c.  In  order  to  bridle  and 
faddle  a  colt,  when  he  is  made  a  little  gentle,  take  a 
fwett  watering  trench,  waflicd  and  anointed  with 
honey  and  fait,  which  put  into  his  mafli,  and  fo  place 


other  horfes,  they  will   be    fo  tame  and  gentle,  that    it  that  it  may  hang  about  his  tufii  ;  then  offer  him  the 


you  need  not  fear  their  leaping,  plunging,  kicking, 
or  the  like  ;  for  they  will  take  the  faddle  quietly.  As 
for  all  thofe  ridiculous  methods  of  beating  and  cowing 
them,  they  are  in  efFeft  (polling  them,  whatever  they 
Gall  it,  in  ploughed  fields,  deep  ways,  or  the  like  ; 
inftead  of  which,  let  the  rider  drive  to  win  them  by 
gentle  ulage,  never  correfting  them  but  when  it  is 
neceffary,  and  then  with  judgment  and  moderation. 
You  will  not  ueed  a  cavcfiuu  of  cord,  which  is  a  head 


faddle,  but  take  care  not  to  fright  him  with  it.  Suf- 
fer him  to  fmell  at  it,  to  be  rubbed  with  it,  and  then 
to  feel  it ;  after  that,  fix  it  and  gird  it  faft  ;  and  make 
that  motion  the  moft  fam.iiiar  tohim  to  which  he  feem.s 
moft  aveife.  Being  thus  faddled  and  bridled,  lead 
him  out  to  water  and  bring  him  in  again  :  when  he 
has  ftood  reined  upon  the  trench  an  hour  or  more, 
take  off  the  bridle  and  faddle,  and  let  him  go  to  his- 
meat  till  the  evening,  and  tlien  lead  him  out  as  be- 
fore 


COL  Li 

Coltie,     fore  :  and  when  you  carry  him  In  again  to  fet  him  np, 

Coluber,    ^g]^^  ofFhis  faddle  gently,  clothing  him  for  all  thenight. 

""T^-^      COLTIE,  a  term  ufed  by  timher-merchants,  for  a 

defeft  or  blemifh   in  fome  of  the  annular  circlea  of  a 

tree,  whereby  its  value  is  much  dimlni(hed. 

COI>UBER,  in  loology,  a  p;.;nus  oF  ferpents  be- 
lont^ing  to  the  order  of  amphibia.  The  charailers 
are  thefe  :  they  have  a  number  of  fcuta  or  hard  crults 
on  the  belly  ;  and  fcutelliE  or  fcales  on  the  tail.  Lin- 
naeus enumeratts  no  lefs  than  97  fpecies  under  this 
name,  diftinguidied  folely  by  the  number  of  fcuta  and 
fcutella;.     The  mod  remavkabli  are  the  following. 

1.  The  Vipera,  or  common  viper  of  the  (hops,  has 
118  fcuta,  and  only  22  fcutellas.  Tlie  body  is  very 
(hort,  and  of  a  pale  colour,  with  browniOi  fpots  ;  and 
the  head  is  gibbous,  and  covered  with  final!  fcales.  It 
is  a  native  of  Egypt,  and  other  warm  countries.  It 
has  always  been  remarkable  for  its  poifonous  nature  ; 
infomuch  that  vipers,  when  numerous,  have  often  been 
thought  the  rainifters  of  divine  vengeance,  like  the 
plague,  famine,  and  other  national  calamities.  A  no- 
tion alfo  prevailed  among  the  ancients,  that  few  or 
none  of  the  paits  of  a  viper  were  free  from  poifon  ; 
for  which  reafon  they  made  no  c,xperin\ents  or  dif- 
coveries  concerning  the  nature  of  thefe  creatures. 
It  is  now,  however,  proved,  by  undoubted  experi- 
ments, that  the  poifon  of  vipers,  as  wull  as  of  all 
other  ferpents  whole  bite  is  hurtful,  h'es  in  a  bag  at 
the  bottom  of  their  two  greater  teeth  or  fangs.  Thefe 
teeth  are  perforated  ;  and  when  -the  creature  bites, 
the  compreflion  of  the  bag  forces  out  a  little  drop 
of  the  poifon  into  the  wound,  where  it  produces 
its  mifchievous  effefls.  The  purpofe  anfwered  by 
this  poifonous  liquor  to  the  creatures  themfelvcs,  is 
probably  the  dsitruftion  of  their  prey  ;  for  as  fer- 
pents frequently  feed  upon  animals  of  very  confider- 
able  magnitude  and  ftrength,  they  would  often  un- 
doubtedly make  their  efcape,  did  not  the  poifonous 
juice  inllilled  into  the  wounds  made  by  the  ferpents 
teeth  almofl  inftantly  deprive  them  of  life,  or  at  leafl 
of  all  power  to  ftruggle  with  their  enemy.  For  an 
account  of  the  fymptoms  produced  by  the  bites  of  vi- 
pers and  other  venomous  ferpents  in  the  human  body, 
together  with  the  bed  methods  of  ci.'re,  fee  the  /n- 
<Je.\  fubjoined  to  MtDiciNE.  After  the  viper  is  de- 
prived of  thofe  bags  which  contain  its  poifon,  it  is  en- 
tirely harmlefs  :  nay  the  flefh  of  it  is  highly  nutritive, 
and  juftly  efleemtd  a  great  reftorative.  It  hath  been 
much  recommended  in  fcrophulous,  leprous,  and  other 
obftinate  chronical  diforders  ;  but,  to  anfi^'er  any  good 
purpofe,  it  muft  undoubtedly  be  ufed  for  a  confiderable 
time  as  food.  The  dried  flelh  which  comes  to  this 
country  from  abroad,  is  juftly  efteemed  by  Dr  Lewis 
to  be  totally  iiifitfnificant.  A  volatile  fait  was  former- 
ly drawn  froin  vipers,  and  fold  at  a  great  price,  as  a 
foveieign  remedy  agaiiill  the  bites  of  vipers  and  other 
poifonous  animals  ;  bu:  it  is  now  found  not  to  be  ma- 
terially different  from  the  volatile  alkaline  falls  pro- 
cured by  dlftiUing  other  animal, fubllanccs. 

2.  The  berus,  or  common  Britifh  viper,  is  found  in 
many  countries  of  Europe.     They  fwarm  in  the  lie- 


6s     ]  COL 

brides,  or  weftern  Britifh  ifles,  and  abound  in  many  Coluber, 
parts  of  Britain  ;  particularly  in  the  dry,  llony,  and  ' 
chalky  counties.  According  to  Mr  Pennant  and  other 
naturalilla,  they  are  viviparous,  but  proceed  from  an 
internal  egg.  The  eggs  are,  as  it  were,  chained  to- 
gether ;  and  each  about  the  fi/.e  of  the  egg  of  a  black- 
bird. This  viper  feldom  grows  longer  than  two  feet  ; 
though  Mr  Pennant  tells  us  he  once  lay  a  female 
(which  is  nearly  a  third  larger  than  the  male)  almoll 
thi-ee  feet  long.  The  ground  colour  of  the  male  is  of 
a  dirty  ytllow,  that  of  the  female  deeper.  Its  back  is 
marked  the  whole  length  with  a  feries  of  rhomboidal 
black  fpots,  touching  each  other  at  the  points  ;  tlie 
fides  with  triangular  ones ;  the  belly  entirely  black.  It 
hath  146  fcuta,  and  39  fcuttllx.  There  is  a  variety 
wholly  black  ;  but  the  rhomljoid  marks  are  very  con- 
fpicuous  even  in  this,  being  of  a  deeper  and  more  glol- 
fv  hue  than  the  reft.  The  head  of  the  viper,  fays  Mr 
Pennant,  is  inflated,  which  dillinguiflies  itfrom  the  com- 
mon fnake.  Mr  Catelby  affures  us,  that  the  dl.Teience 
between  the  vipers  and  fnakes  or  other  ferpents  is,  that 
the  former  have  long  hollow  fangs,  or  tull<s,  with  an 
opening  near  the  point;  the  neck  is  fmall,  the  head 
broad,  the  cheeks  extending  wide,  fcales  rough,  the 
body  for  the  moft  part  flat  and  thick  ;  they  are  (low 
of  motion  ;  fwell  the  head  and  neck  when  irritated,  and 
have  a  terrible  and  ugly  alpeiSl."  Another  material 
difference,  hov/ever,  confifts  in  the  production  of  their 
young  :  the  viper  hatches  its  eggs  within  itfelf,  and 
then  dileharges  the  young  ;  whereas  the  fnake  depo- 
fits  its  eggs,  which  are  therefore  externally  hatched. 
The  tongue  is  forked,  the  teeth  fmall ;  the  four  canine 
teeth  are  placed  two  on  each  fide  the  upper  jaw  :  thefe 
inftruments  of  poifon  are  long,  crooked,  and  move- 
able ;  capable,  like  thofe  of  the  former  fpecies,  of  be- 
ing raifed  or  deprefled  at  the  pleafure  of  the  animal, 
and  they  inftil  their  poifon  in  the  fame  manner.  The 
vipers  are  faid  not  to  arrive  at  their  full  growth  till  they 
are  fix  or  feven  years  old  ;  but  they  are  capable  of  en- 
gendering at  two  or  three.  They  copulate  in  May, 
and  go  about  three  months  with  their  young.  Mr 
White  informs  us  ^,  that  a  viper  which  he  opened  had  t  •^'i/'-  V 
in  it  15  young  ones  of  tlie  fize  of  earth-worms,  about  '°'"''' 
7  inches  long.  This  little  fry  iffued  into  the  world'' 
with  the  true  viper-fpirit  about  them.  They  twilled 
and  wriggled  about  with  great  alertnefs  ;  and  when 
touched,  they  erefted  themfelves,  and  gaped  very  wide, 
fhowing  immediate  tokens  of  menace  and  defiance,  tho' 
no  fangs  could  be  perceived  even  with  llie  help  of  glaf- 
fes :  which  the  author  remarks  as  an  inftance  among 
others  of  that  wonderful  Inftinft  which  imprefles  yoimg 
animals  with  a  notion  of  the  fituation  and  ufe  of  their 
natural  weapons  even  before  thefe  weapons  are  formed. 
Mr  Pennant  tells  us,  that  he  has  been  affured  of  a  fa£l 
mentioned  by  Sir  Thomas  Brown  *,  who  was  far  from  >  /';.,',.-.rr 
being  a  credulous  writer  (a),  that  the  young  of  the  ./^'iiir;,. 
viper,  when  terrified,  willrun  down  the  throat  of  the  P  *'+• 
parent,  and  fcek  for  ihclter  in  its  belly,  in  the  fame 
manner  as  the  young  of  the  opoffum  retire  into  the 
ventral  pouch  of  the  old  one.  From  this  fome  have 
imagined  that  the   viper  is  fo  unnatural  as  to  devour 

its 


(a)  The  viper  catchers,  however,  infift,  that  no  fuch  thing  ever  happens.  See'  IV/.'ik's  Nat.  Hif.  of  SelbornT, 


COL  C 

Coliilier.  its  own  young  :  but  the  aflertion  deferves  no  credit  ; 
•"— v~— '  it  being  well  known  that  the  food  of  thefe  ferpents  is 
frogs,  toads,  lizards,  mice,  and,  according  to  Dr 
Mead,  even  an  animal  fo  largeas  a  mole,  which  they  are 
able  to  fwallow  entire,  their  thioat  and  neck  being  ca- 
pable of  great  diltenfion.  It  is  alfo  faid,  from  good 
authority,  that  vipers  prey  on  young  birds  ;  but  whe- 
ther on  fuch  as  neftle  on  the  ground,  or  whether  they 
climb  up  trees  for  them,  as  the  Indian  ferpents  do,  is 
quite  uncertain  ;  the  faft,  however,  ib  very  far  from  be- 
ing recent ;  for  Horace  tells  us, 

.  Ut  affidens  mplumibus  pull'u  avis 

Scrpaitium  alLiJifis  timet.  Epod.  I. 

Thus  for  its  young  the  anxious  biid 

The  gliding  i'erpent  fears. 
The  viper  is  capable  of  fupporting  very  long  ab- 
ftinence  ;  it  being  known,  that  fome  have  been  kept 
in  a  box  fix  months  without  food,  and  yet  did  not  a- 
bate  of  their  vivacity.  They  feed  only  a  fmall  part 
-of  the  year,  but  never  during  their  confinement  ;  for 
if  mice,  their  favourite  diet,  fliould  at  that  time  be 
thrown  into  their  box,  though  they  will  kill,  yet  they 
never  will  eat  them.  The  violence  of  their  poifon 
decreafes  in  proportion  to  the  length  of  their  confine- 
ment, as  dots  alfo  the  virtue  of  their  flelh  whatever 
it  is.  The  animals,  when  at  liberty,  remain  torpid 
throughout  the  winter;  but,  when  confined,  have  ne- 
ver been  obferved  to  take  their  annual  repofe.  The 
method  of  catching  them  is  by  putting  a  cleft  ftick  on 
or  near  their  head  ;  after  which  they  are  feized  by 
the  tail,  and  inllantly  put  into  a  bag.  The  viper- 
catchers  are  very  frequently  bit  by  them  in  the  pur- 
fuit  of  their  bufinefs,  yet  we  very  rarely  hear  of  their 
bite  being  fatal.  Salad  oil,  if  apphed  in  time,  is  faid 
to  be  a  certain  remedy.  The  fleih  of  the  Britifh  vi- 
per has  been  celebrated  as  a  rtllorative,  as  well  as  that 
of  the  foreign  kind.  Mr  Keyfler  relates,  that  Sir 
Kenelm  Digby  ufed  to  feed  his  wife,  who  was  a  moft 
beautiful  woman,  with  capons  fattened  with  the  llefh 
of  vipers. 

3.  The  punftatus  of  LInna:us,  by  Mr  Catefby  cal- 
led the  luater-viper,  is  a  native  of  Carolina.  Accord- 
ing to  Linnseiis  it  is  afh-coloured,  variegated  with 
yellow  fpots.  Mr  Catcihy  informs  us,  that  the  head 
and  back  of  this  fei-pent  are  brown  ;  the  beL'y  marked 
tranfverfely  with  yellow,  and  alfo  the  fides  of  the 
fleck.  The  neck  is  fmall,  the  head  large,  and  the 
mouth  armed  with  the  deilruttive  fangs  of  the  viper 
or  rattle-fnake,  next  to  which  it  is  reckoned  the  lar- 
gefl  ferpent  in  this  countr)'.  Contrary  to  what  is  ob- 
ferved in  moft  other  vipers,  thefe  are  very  nimble  and 
aftive,  and  very  dexterous  in  catching  filh.  In  fum- 
mer,  great  numbers  are  feen  lying  on  the  branches  of 
trees  hanging  over  rivers  ;  from  which,  on  the  ap- 
proach of  a  boat,  they  drop  into  the  water,  and  of- 
ten into  the  boat  on  the  mens  heads.  They  lie  in 
wait  in  this  manner  to  furprife  either  birds  or  filh  :  af- 
ter the  latter  they  plunge  with  furprifing  fwiftnefs, 
and  catch  fome  of  a  large  fize,  which  they  bring  a- 
'fhorc  and  fwallow  whole.  The  tail  of  this  animal  is 
fmall  towards  the  end,  and  teiminates  in  a  blunt  homy 
point  about  half  an  inch  long.  This  harmlefs  little 
honi  hath  been  the  occafion  of  many  terrible  reports  ; 
as,  that  by  a  jerk  of  its  tail,  the  animal  is  capable 
.of  inllantly  deilroying  both  men  and  beads ;  that  a 


166     ]  COL 

tree  llruck  with  this  terrible  horn,  in  a  fliort  time   Colutiw,' 
grows    biack,    withers,    and    dies,    &c.  but   all  thefe         v  '■ 
Mr  Catelby  affures  us  have  not  the  lealt  foundation  in 
fac't, 

4.  The  cherfea  is  a  native  of  Sweden,  where  it  is 
called  afp'mg.  It  is  a  fmall  reddilh  ferpent,  whofc 
bite  is  faid  to  be  mortal.  Concerning  this  fpecies  Mr 
Pennant  aflcs,  "  Is  it  pofiible  that  this  could  be  tlie 
fpecies  which  has  hitherto  efcaped  the  notice  of  pur 
naturaliils  ?  I  the  rather  fufpect  it,  as  I  have  been  in- 
formed that  there  is  a  fmall  fnake  that  lurks  in  the 
low  grounds  of  Galloway,  which  bites  and  often  proves 
fatal  to  the  inhabitants." 

5.  The  prerter  of  Linnxus,  or  black  viper  of  Mr 
Catelby,  is  a  native  of  Carohna  and  Virginia.  It  is 
fliort  and  thick,  flow  of  motion,  fpreads  its  head  fur- 
pritingly  when  irritated,  veiy  flat  and  thick,  threat- 
ening with  a  horrid  hifs.  They  are  very  poifenous  ; 
their  bite  being  as  deadly  as  that  of  the  rattlefnake. 
They  frequent  the  higher  lands,  and  are  of  a  rully 
black  colour. 

6.  The  coluber  luridus  of  Forftcr,  called  by  Mr  Ca- 
telby the  brown  viper;  is  a  native  of  the  fame  countries 
with  the  preceding.  It  is  about  two  feet  long,  and  large 
in  proportion  ;  very  flow  in  its  motion,  even  when 
threatened  with  danger :  notwithltanding  which,  it 
defends  itfelf  very  fiercely  when  attacked,  and  its  bite 
is  as  venomous  as  any.  They  prey  upon  efts,  lizards, 
and  other  animals  of  that  kind. 

Befides  thefe  fpecies  of  which  we  have  a  particular 
defcriptlon,  the  following  are  alfo  reckoned  among  the 
poifonous  ferpents,  %n%.  7.  The  atropos,  with  131  Icuta 
and  22  fcuteiloe.  It  is  a  native  of  America,  the  body 
white,  and  the  eyes  brown,  with  a  white  iris.  8.  The 
leberis,  \\'ith  1 10  fcuta  and  50  fcutells?,  is  a  native  of 
Canada,  and  has  many  black  linear  rings.  g.  The 
ammodites,  with  142  fcuta  and  32  fcut^llx,  is  a  na- 
tive of  the  Eall.  It  is  about  fix  inches  long,  and  has 
a  flelhy  protuberance  on  its  nofe.  lo.  The  afpis, 
with  146  fcuta  and  46  fcutellse,  is  a  native  of  France; 
and  is  of  a  reddifh  colour,  with  dulky  fpots  on  the 
back.  1 1.  The  lebetinus,  with  155  fcuta  and  46  fcu- 
tcllx,  is  a  native  of  Afia,  and  is  of  a  cloudy  colour, 
with  red  fpots  on  the  belly.  I2.  The  feverus,  with 
I  70  fcuta  and  42  fcutells,  is  likewife  a  native  of  Afia, 
and  is  a(h-coloured  with  white  belts.  13.  The  ilollatus, 
with  143  fcuta  and  76  fcutellx,  is  a  native  of  Afia, 
and  is  of  a  greyilh  colour,  with  two  white  fillets.  14. 
The  lacteus,  with  203  fcuta  and  32  fcutellas,  is  a  na- 
tive of  the  Indies.  Its  colour  is  white,  with  black  fpots. 
15.  The  naja,  with  193  fcuta  and  60  fcuteli;^,  is  a  na- 
tive of  the  Eall  Indies,  and  is  reckoned  the  moft  poi- 
fonous of  all  ferpents.  The  root  of  the  lignum  colu- 
brinum  (ophiorrhi^a)  is  faid  to  have  been  pointed  out 
to  the  Indians  as  an  antidote  againft  the  bite  of  this 
ferpent  by  the  viverra  ichneumon,  a  creature  which 
fights  with  this  ferpent,  and  cures  itfelf  by  eating  of 
this  plant  when  w-ounded.  The  Indians,  when  bit, 
iiirtantly  chew  it,  fvi-allow  the  juice,  and  apply  the 
mafticated  root  to  the  puncture.  It  is  killed  by  the 
ichneumon.  16.  The  atrox,  with  196  fcuta  and  69 
fcutellx,  is  a  native  of  Afia.  It  is  of  a  hoaiy  colour, 
and  the  head  is  comprefTed  and  covered  with  fmall 
fcalcs.  17.  The  niveus,  with  209  fcuta  and  62  fcu- 
lellx,  is  d  native  of  Africa.  It  is  white,  and  with- 
5  cut 


COL  [     1 

out  any  fpots.  1 8.  The  corallinus,  with  193  fcuta  and 
'  82  fcutcllae,  is  a  native  of  Afia.  It  is  greyiih,  with 
three  brown  fillets.  19.  The  dipfas,  with  152  fcuta 
and  135  fcutella;,  is  a  native  of  America.  It  is  of  a 
bluifh  cjloiir,  with  the  margiiis  of  the  fcales  white. 
20.  The  mytleriz.rns,  with  192  fcuta  anr!  167  fcutel- 
lae,  is  a  native  of  America.  It  is  of  a  bluifli-green  co- 
lour, hath  a  ilrstched  out  triangular  fnout.  Inhabits 
trees,  and  lives  on  inlefts. 

.  The  above  20  fpecies  are  all  the  ferpents  of  the 
genus  of  coluber  that  are  reckoned  poifonous.  Of  the 
reft  we  ihall  only  mention  the  following,  which  are  the 
moft  remarkable. 

21.  The  erythrogaller  of  Forfler,  called  by  Mr  Ca- 
tefby  the  copper-beiiied  fnaie,  is  a  native  of  Carolina, 
and  grows  foractimes  near  to  the  fizc  of  a  rattlefnake. 
It  is  of  a  brown  colour  in  all  parts  of  its  body,  except 
the  belly,  which  is  of  a  red  copper  colour.  They  fre- 
quent water,  and  piobably  prey  on  iilh  ;  but  they  will 
alfo  devour  birds  and  fuch  other  animals  as  they  are 
able  to  overcome.  They  are  bold  and  attive,  frequent- 
ly entering  poultry -houles,  devouring  the  fowls  and 
fucking  their  eggs. 

22.  The  conlhittor,  or  black  fnake,  is  a  native  of 
feveral  parts  of  America.  They  are  very  long,  fome- 
timcs  meafuring  fix  feet,  and  are  all  over  of  a  fhining 
black.  This  fpecies  is  not  only  perfcdtly  harmlefs,  but 
extremely  ufeful  in  clearing  the  houfes  of  rats,  which  it 
puifues  with  wonderful  agility  to  the  vei'y  roofs,  and 
all  parts  of  barns  and  outhoufes,  for  which  good  fer- 
vices  it  is  cherilhed  by  the  generality  of  Americans. 
It  is  alfo  faid,  that  it  will  dellroy  the  rattlefnake,  by 
twifting  round  it,  and  whipping  it  to  death.  In 
the  time  of  copulation  it  is  extremely  bold  and  fierce, 
and  will  attack  mankind;  but  its  bite  has  no  more  ef- 
feft  than  a  fcratch  with  a  pin.  It  is  fo  fwift  that 
there  is  no  efcaping  its  purfuit.  Many  ridiculous 
frights  have  happened  from  this  innocent  reptile.  As 
every  one  in  America  is  full  of  the  dread  of  the  rat- 
tlefnake, they  are  apt  to  fly  at  the  fight  of  any  of  the 
ferpent  kind.  This  purfues,  faon  overtakes,  and  by 
twilling  round  the  legs  of  the  fugitive,  loon  brings 
him  to  the  ground  :  but  he  happily  receives  no  hurt, 
but  what  may  refidt  from  this  fright  :  all  the  mif- 
chief  this  fpecies  does  is  to  the  houlewives,  for  it  will 
fldm  their  milk-pans  of  the  cream,  and  rob  their  hen- 
roofts  ef  all  the  eggs. 

23.  The  annulatus,  or  little  brown  bead-fnake,  is 
always  fmall,  and  is  fcldora  found  above  ground,  but 
commonly  dug  up,  and  found  twilling  about  the  roots 
of  fhrubs  and  plants.  AU  th^  back  and  other  parts  of 
the  body  have  tranfverfe  fpots  of  brown  and  white  fo 
difpofed  as  to  have  fonie  referablance  to  a  firing  of 
Engliih  beads  ;  whence  probably  it  takes  it  name.  It  is 
quite  harmlefs,  and  is  a  native  of  Virginia  and  Carolina. 

24.  The  flagelUnn,  or  coach-whip  fnake,  is  of  a 
brown  colour,  very  long,  (lender,  and  aftive.  It  runs 
fwiftly,  and  is  quite  inottenfive;  but  the  Indians  imagine 
it  is  able  to  cut  a  man  m  two  with  a  jerk  of  its  tad. 

25.  The  fulvius,  or  corn  fnake,  is  beautifully  mark- 
ed with  red  and  white,  refembling  a  fpecies  of  Indian 
corn,  whence  its  name.  It  is  harmlefs  as  to  its  bite, 
but  frequently  robs  hen-roofts. 

26.  The  aeltivus,  or  green  fnake,  is  all  over  of  a 
green  colour.     It  inhabits  Carolina  ;   where  it  lives 


Sj    ^  COL 

among  the  branches  of  trees  on  flies  and  other  Infefts.   C'Tumb- 
It  is  of  a  fmall  fi/.c,  and   eaiily  becomes  tame  and  fa-  _,  ^    i 
miUar,  infomuch  that  fome  people  will  carry  them  in     '     '        , 
their  bofom. 

27.  The  fafciatus,  or  wampum  fnake,  derives  its 
name  from  its  refemblance  to  the  Indian  wampum.  It 
fomctimes  grows  to  the  length  of  five  feet  ;  and  like 
other  large  Inakes,  is  very  voracious,  but  its  bite  is 
not  venomous.  The  back  is  of  a  dark  blue,  the  belly 
finely  clouded  with  fpots  of  a  brighter  blue  ;  the  head 
is  fmall  in  proportion  to  the  rell  of  the  body.  See 
further  the  article  Serpent. 

COLUMB-KILL.     See  Jona. 

COLUMBA,  the  Pigegon,  in  ornithology,  a  genus 
belonging  to  the  order  of  paffercs.  The  charatlers 
of  this  genus  are  as  follow :  The  bill  is  ftrait,  and  de- 
fcends  towards  the  point ;  the  noftrils  are  oblong,  and 
half  covered  with  a  foft  tumid  membrane  ;  and  the 
tongue  is  entire,  /'.  e.  not  cloven.  There  are  about 
70  fpecies,  all  natives  of  different  countries.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  moll  remarkable. 

1.  The  ocnas,  or  domellic  pigeon,  and  all  its  beau- 
tiful varieties,  derive  their  origin  from  one  fpecies, 
the  llock-dove  ;  the  Engll.Ti  name  implying  its  beinn- 
the  Hock  or  ilem  from  whence  tlie  other  domellic 
birds  fpring.  Thefe  birds,  as  Varro  obferves,  take 
their  Latin  name,  colwnha,  from  their  voice  or  coo- 
ing :  and,  had  he  known  it,  he  might  have  added 
the  Britifli  alfo;  for  k'lommen,  lylobmsn,  kulm,  and  kohtt, 
fignify  the  fame  bird.  They  were,  and  ftill  are,  to 
be  found  in  moll  parts  of  our  ifland  in  a  ftate  of  na- 
ture;  but  probably  the  Romans  firll  taught  the  Britons 
how  to  conllrutl  pigeon-houfes,  and  make  the  birds 
domeflic.  The  characlers  of  the  domellic  piireon  are 
the  following.  It  is  of  a  deep  bluifh  afli-colour  ;  the 
breall  dafhed  with  a  fine  changeable  green  and  purple  ; 
the  fides  of  the  neck  with  Ihining  copper-colour;  its  ■ 
wings  marked  with  two  black  bars,  one  on  the  coverts 
of  the  wings,  the  other  on  the  quill  feathers;  the  back 
white,  and  the  tail  barred  near  the  end  with  black. 
They  weigh  14  ounces".  In  the  wild  ftate  it  breeds 
in  holes  of  rocks  and  hollows  of  trees  ;  for  '..'hich  rea- 
fon  fome  people  ftyle  it  columba  caivrnalis,  in  oppo- 
fition  to  die  ring- dove,  which  makes  its  neft  on  the 
boughs  of  trees.  Nature  always  preferves  fome  a- 
greement  in  the  manners,  chara6lers,  and  colours  of 
birds  reclaimed  from  their  wild  ftate.  This  fpecies 
of  pigeon  foon  takes  to  build  in  artificial  cavities,  and 
from  the  temptation  of  a  ready  provifion  becomes 
eafily  domefticated.  Multitudes  ef  thefe  wild  birds 
are  obfcrved  to  migrate  into  the  fouth  of  England  ; 
and,  while  the  beech-woods  were  fufTered  to  cover 
large  Irafts  of  ground,  they  ufeiTto  haunt  them  in  mv- 
riads,  reaching  in  ftrings  a  mile  in  length,  as  thev 
went  out  in  the  morning  to  feed.  They  vifit  Britain 
the  lateft  of  any  bird  of  pafTage,  not  appearino-  till 
November,  and  retiring  in  the  fpring.  Mr  Pennant 
imagines,  that  the  fummer  haunts  of  thefe  creatures 
are  in  Sweden,  as  Mr  Eckmark  makes  their  retreat 
thence  coincide  with  their  arrival  in  Britain.  Num- 
bers of  them,  however,  breed  on  cliffs  of  the  coall  of 
Wales,  and  of  the  Hebrides.  The  varieties  produ- 
ced from  the  domeftic  are  very  numerous,  and  ex- 
tremely elegant  ;  they  are  diftinguiflied  by  names  ex- 
prcflive  of  their  feveral  properties,    as  tuntl/kn,  car- 

rUrsy 


COL  [     I 

C«lumV.a.  rien,  jacollne!,  croppers,  poiutcrt,  runts,  fiiriits,  ntuls, 
'  nuns.  Sec,  The  moll  ccltbratiid  of  thtfe  is  the  car- 
rier, of  which  an  account  is  already  given  under  the 
article  CAKRiFR-Pl^eon.  The  nature  of  pigeons  is  to 
be  gregarious  ;  to  lay  only  two  eggs,  and  to  breed  ma- 
ny times  in  the  year.  So  quick  is  their  increafe,  that 
the  author  of  the  "  Oeconomy  of  Nature"  obfervcs, 
that  in  the  fpace  of  four  years,  14,760  pigeons  rnay 
con-.e  from  a  Angle  pair.  They  bill  during  their  court- 
ship :  the  male  and  female  fit,  and  alfo  feed  their  young, 
by  turns  :  they  caft  provilion  out  of  their  craw  into 
the  young  one's  mouth  ;  and  drink,  not  by  fipping, 
like  other  birds,  but  by  continued  draughts  like  qua- 
drupeds, and  have  mournful  or  plaintive  notes. 

2.  The  palumbus,  or  ring-dove,  is  a  native  of  Eu- 
rope and  Afia.  It  is  the  largeft  pigeon  we  have,  and 
might  be  diftinguifhed  from  all  others  by  its  fize  alone. 
Its  weight  is  about  20  ounces;  its  length  18,  the 
breadth  3c,  inches.  The  head,  back,  and  covers  of 
the  wings,  are  of  a  bluilh  afli  colour  :  the  lower  fide 
of  the  neck  and  breaft  are  of  a  purplifli  red,  dafiied 
with  afh-colour.-  on  the  hind  part  of  the  neck  is  a  fe- 
micircular  line  of  white  ;  above  and  beneath  that,  the 
feathers  are  glolTy,  and  of  changeable  colours  asoppo- 
fed  to  the  light.  This  fpecies  forms  its  neft  of  a  few 
dry  flicks  in  the  boughs  of  trees.  Attempts  have  been 
made  to  domedicate  them  by  hatching  their  eggs  un- 
der the  common  pigeon  in  dove-houfes  ;  but  as  foon 
as  they  could  fly,  they  always  took  to  their  proper 
haunts.  In  the  beginning  of  winter  they  aflemble  in 
great  flocks,  and  leave  off  cooing,  which  they  begin 
in  March  when  they  pair. 

3.  The  turtur,  or  turtle-dove,  js  a  native  of  India. 
The  length  is  12  inches  and  a  half;  its  breadth  21  ; 
the  weight  four  ounces.  The  irides  are  of  a  fine  yel- 
low, and  the  eye-lids  encompafled  with  a  beautiful  crim- 
fon  circle.  The  chin  and  forehead  are  whitiih  ;  the 
top  of  the  head  adi-coloured,  mixed  with  olive.  On 
€ach  fide  of  the  neck  is  a  fpot  of  black  feathers  pret- 
tily tipi.  with  wh;le:  tb.c  back  i.ih- coloured,  bordered 
with  oiivebrowu  ;  the  fcapulars  and  coveits  of  a  red- 
difti  brov  -t  fpotted  with  black  :  the  bread  of  a  light 
purpli.li  ri  J,  having  the  vprge  of  each  feather  yellow: 
the  belly  wh'ts.  The  tail  is  three  inches  and  a  half 
long;  thf  two  rriddle  feathers  of  a  duflcy  brown; 
the  otheio  black,  -vitK  vhite  lips  ;  the  end  and  exte- 
rior fide  cf  the  outrnolt  featiiers  wholly  white.  In  the 
breeding  feaiun  thefe  birds  are  fo'jnd  in  Buckingham- 
fhlre,  Gloucefterihire,  Shropfhire,  and  the  well  of 
England.  They  are  very  fny  and  retired,  breeding  In 
thick  woods,  generally  of  oak  :  in  autumn  they  mi- 
grate into  other  countries. 

4.  The  raiferina,  or  ground-dove  of  Carolina,  is 
about  the  fize  of  a  lark.  The  bill  is  yellow,  and 
black  at  the  end;  the  iris  red  ;  thu  breaft  and  whole 
front  of  a  changeable  purple,  with  dark  purple  fpots ; 
the  large  qalll-fealhers  are  of  a  ruddy  purple  ;  the  legs 
and  feet  of  a.  dirty  yellow  ;  but  the  whole  bird  has  fucli 
a  compofition  of  colourb  in  it,  that  a  very  particular 
defcription  is  impoffible.  They  fly  many  of  them  to- 
gether, and  make  ftioit  flights  from  place  to  place,  ge- 
nerally lighting  on  the  ground. 

5.  The  migratoria,  or  pigeon  of  paffage,  is  about 
the  fize  of  an  Englifli  wood-pigeon  ;  the  bill  black  ; 
iris  red ;    the  head  of  a  dufi<y  blue  ;  the  breaft  and 

N=  85. 


68     ] 


COL 


belly  of  a  faint  red  j  above  the  fhoulder  of  the  wing  Col: 
there  is  a  patch  of  featliers  (hining  like  gold  ;  the  wing  """" 
is  coloured  like  the  head,  having  f.jme  few  fpots  of 
black  (except  that  the  larger  feathers  of  it  are  dark 
brown),  with  fome  white  on  the  exterior  vanes  ;  the 
tail  is  very  long,  and  covered  with  a  black  feather, 
under  which  the  left  are  white  ;  the  legs  and  feet  aie 
red.  They  come  in  prodigious  numbers  from  the 
north,  to  winter  in  Virginia  and  Carolina.  In  thefe 
countries  they  rooft  upon  one  another'^  backs  in  fuch 
quantities  that  they  often  break  down  the  limbs  of  oaks 
which  fupport  them,  and  leave  their  dung  fome  inches 
thick  below  the  trees.  In  Virginia  Mr  Catefby  has 
feen  them  fly  in  fuch  continued  trains  for  three  days 
fuccefllvely,  that  they  were  not  loft  fight  of  for  the 
leaft  interval  of  time,  but  fomewhere  in  the  air  thty 
were  feen  continuing  their  flight  fouthward.  They 
breed  in  rocks  by  the  fides  of  rivers  aud  lakes  far  nortti 
of  St  Lawrence.  They  fly  to  the  fouth  only  in  hard 
winters,  and  are  never  known  to  return. 

6.  The  coronata,  or  great  crowned  pigeon,  a  very 
large  fpecies,  the  fize  of  a  turkey.  The  bill  is  black,  , 
and  two  inches  long  ;  the  irides  are  red  ;  the  head, 
neck,  breaft,  belly,  fides,  thighs,  and  under  tail  co- 
verts, cinereous  blue  ;  the  head  is  crefted  ;  the  back, 
rump,  fcapulars,  and  upper  tail  coverts,  are  of  a  deep 
afti-colour,  with  a  mixture  of  purplilh  chefnut  on  the 
upper  part  of  the  back  and  fcapulars ;  the  wing-coverts 
are  afli-coloured  within,  and  purplifli  chefnut  on  the 
outfide  and  tip  ;  quills  deep  blackifti  afli-colour  ;  tail 
the  fame,  but  of  a  light  afli-colour  at  the  tip  ;  the  legs 
are  blackifli.  This  Ipecies  inhabits  the  Molucca  iflcs 
and  New  Guinea,  and  has  been  brought  to  England 
alive.  BufFon  mentions  five  having  been  at  once  alive 
in  France.  In  fize  it  far  exceeds  any  of  the  pigeon 
tribe  ;  but  its  form  and  manners  tell  us  that  it  can  be- 
long to  no  other.  Indeed  Brifibn  has  placed  it  with 
the  pheafants ;  ind  the  p/unches  en'timinees  have  copied 
that  name  ;  but  whoever  has  obferved  it  cannot  doubt 
in  the  leaft  to  which  ic  belongs.  Its  note  is  cooing  and 
plaintive,  like  that  of  other  pigeons,  only  more  loud 
in  proportion.  The  mournful  notes  of  thefe  birds 
alarmed  the  crew  of  B  ingainville  much,  when  In  the 
neighhouihood  of  them,  thinking  they  were  the  cries 
of  the  human  fpecies.  In  France  they  were  never  ob- 
ferved to  lay  eggs,  nor  in  Holland,  though  they  were 
kept  for  fome  time;  but  Scopoli  alTures  us,  that  the 
male  approaches  the  female  with  the  head  bent  into 
the  breaft,  making  a  nolfe  more  like  lowing  th?.n  coo- 
ing ;  and  that  they  not  only  made  a  neft  on  trees,  in 
the  menagery  where  they  were  kept,  but  laid  eggs. 
The  neft  was  compofed  of  hay  and  ftalks.  The  fe- 
male never  fat,  bat  flood  upon  the  eggs  ;  and  he  fup- 
pofed  it  was  from  this  caufe  alone  that  there  was  no 
produce.  They  are  faid  to  be  kept  by  fome,  in  the 
Eaft  Indies,  in  their  court-yards,  as  doraeftic  poultry. 
The  Dutch  at  the  Moluccas  call  them  cruivn-vogel. 
M.  Sonnerat,  as  well  as  Dampler,  found  thete  in  plenty 
at  New  Guinea ;  and  it  is  probable  that  they  were 
originally  tranfported  from  that  place  into  Banda,  from 
whence  the  Dutch  chiefly  now  procure  them. 

Among  the  great  number  of  other  fpecies  of  colum- 
ba,  there  are  fome  very  fmall,  not  larger  than  a  wood- 
lark.     The  Malacca  pigeon  defcribed   by  Sonnerat   is 
L'ttle  bigger  than   the   hcufe-fparrow.     It   is  a  moft 
1  beautiful 


mba 


COL 


Oilumba.  beautiful  fpecies,  and  the  flcfli  fald  to  he  extremely  cle- 
^—"v         licate.     It  li:isbeen  tranfported  into  the  ifle  of  France, 
where  it  has  multipHed  exceedingly. 

Pig-cons,  beliues  being  elleemed  as  a  deh'cacy  for  the 
table,  arc  of  value  on  other  accounts.      Their  dung  is 
thoi!ght    to   be   fo  good  amendment  for  fome  kinds  of 
land,  that   it  has  been  fetched  i6  miles,  and  a  load  of 
coals  has  bi  en  given    for   a   load   of  it  :   it  is  alfo  ufed 
for  tanning  the  upper-leathers  of  flioes,  as  well   as  ap- 
plied as  a  cataplafm  to  this  day.     Indeed  formerly  falt- 
petre  was  collected  from  it.     The   greatelt  ufc  of  pi- 
geons is  at  Ifpahan  in  Pcifia,  where   there  are  record- 
ed to  be  above  3000  pigeon-houfes,   and  thefe  kept  by 
the  Turks  alone,  as  Chriftians  are  not  allowed  to  ke<?p 
any.      Dr  Pococke  mentions  the  frequency  of  pigeon- 
houfes   in   Egypt  ;    adding,  that  the   pigeon  houfe   is 
reckoned   a   great  part  of  the  eftate  of  the  hulband- 
man  :  and  the  common  proverb  in  thofe  parts  is,  that 
a  man  who    has  a   pigeon-houfe   need   not  be   careful 
about   the,  difpofnl   of  his    daughter.     Tavernier  fays 
that   their  dung  is  ufed  to  fmoke  melons.     The  ufual 
way  taken  to  entice  pigeons  to  re.nain  where  they  ai'e 
intended,  is  to  place  what  is  called  ^ fall-cat  near  them; 
this   is   compofed  of  loam,   old   rubbilTi,  and  fait,  and 
will  fo  effeftually  anfwer  the  purpofe  ai  to  decoy  them 
from  other  places,  and  is  therefore  held  illegal. 

CoLUMBA  (St),  in  allu'rou  to  whofe  name  the  if- 
land  of  Jona  (one  of  the  Hebrides)  received  its  name; 
jfona  being  derived  from  a  Hebrew  word  fignifying 
a  dove.  This  holy  man,  infligated  by  his  zeal,  left 
his  native  country,  Ireland,  in  the  year  565,  with  the 
pious  defign  of  preaching  the  gofpel  to  the  Pifts.  It 
appears   that   he   left  his  native  foil  with  warm  refent 


[        169       1 


COL 


he  died  in  Jona  in  the  arms  of  his  difciples  ;  was  in- 
terred there,  but  (as  the  Irift  pretend)  in  after  times 
tranflated  to  Dowrr  ;  where,  according  to  tl;c  epitaph, 
his  remains  were  dcpofrted  with  thofe  of  St  Bridget 
and  St  Patrick. 

Hi  trcs  in  Bum  timmln  tuniiilantur  in  uno; 
/IrijriJ,!,   P,:lricws,  arqne  Col:imia  piUS. 

But  this  is  totally  denied  by  the  Scots  ;  who  aHirm, 
that  the  contrary  is  fliown  in  a  life  of  the  faint,  ex- 
tr-afted  out  of  the  pope's  library,  and  tranflatcd  out 
of  the  Latrn  into  Erfe,  by  Father  CaU  0  horan  ;  which 
dccrdes  in  favour  of  Jona  tlie  momentous  difpute. 

COLUMBANUS,  a  faint  and  a  poet,  was  born  in 
Ireland,  and  bi-ought  up  to  a  religious  life  among  the 
dilciples  of  St  Columba.  He  made  uncommon  pr-o- 
grefs  rn  learning  ;  and  very  early  in  life  diftinguillied 
hrmfelf  for  poetical  abilities,  by  the  compofition  of  a 
book  of  pfalms,  and  a  number  of  moral  poems,  intend- 
ed alfo  to  be  fct  to  mufic.  Jonas,  a  writer  of  eccle- 
fiaftical  hillory,  mentions,  that  Columbanus  belonged 
orrgrnally  to  a  monaftery  of  the  na;r.e  of  Benchor. 
Ihe  fame  monaftery  is  mentioned  by  St  Bernard  in  his 
life  of  his  friend  St  Malachi ;  and  he  relates  that  It  fent 
out  a  great  number  of  monks,  who  fpread  over  Eu- 
rope. Columbanus  pafled  from  Britain  into  France, 
and  founded  the  monallery  of  Luxeville  near  Bcfari9on. 
He  had  been  kindly  received  and  patronifed  by  king 
Childebert;  but  he  was  afteru-ards  expelled  out  of 
France  by  the  wicked  queen  Brunichild.  He  retired 
to  Lombar-dy  in  Italy,  and  was  well  received  by  king 
Arxulphus.  In  Lombardy  he  again  founded  the  mo- 
naftery of  Bobio.  The  Regula  CmioblaUs  and  Peni- 
teiularts,  which   he   eftabbihoi  irr  that  monaftery,   have 


He   was   cotemporary   with    St 
in   the    year   589  he   went   into 


nient,  vowing  never  to  make  a  fettlement  withiir  tight     been  publifhed  in  the  Codex  Remilanim  compiled  bv  the 
_r  .u..  u_..j  :/i_..:,       T^.  _...u.-.  ,-,L  .-.,..  r>  learned    Hohlenius.       "  f  y 

Benediift.       It   was 
France. 

COLUMBARIA  (anc.  geog.),  an  ifland  like  a 
rock  on  the  weft  of  Sicily,  oppi.fite  to  Diepanum  ; 
faid  by  Zonaras  to  have  been  taken  from  the  Cartha- 
ginians by  Numeriu-  Fabius  the  conful.  Now  Colum- 
hara,  with  a  very  ftrong  and  almoft  impregnable  cita- 
del (Cluverius). 

COLUMBINE,  in  botany.     See  Aquilfgh. 

COLUMBO-ROOT,  an  article  lately  introduced  in- 
to the  raatei-ia  medrca,  the  natural  hiilory  of  which  is 
not  yet  well  known.     According   to  Dr  Perclval's  ac^ 


of  that  hated  ifland.  He  made  his  firft  trial  at  Gran- 
fay  ;  and  finding  that  place  too  near  to  Ireland,  fuc- 
ceeded  to  his  wifh  at  Hy^  for  that  was  the  name  of 
Jona  at  the  time  of  his  arrival.  He  repeated  here  the 
experiment  on  feveral  hills,  erefting  on  each  a  heap 
of  ftones  :  and  that  which  he  laft  afcended  is  to  this 
day  called  Cjrnan-cbul-reh-E'irwn,  or  "  The  eminence 
of  the  back  turned  to  Ir'eland." 

Cclumba  was  foon  diftingiu'fhed  by  the  fanftity  of 
his  mnnnei-s  :  a  miracle  that  he  wrought  fo  operated 
on  the  Piftifli  king  Bradeus,  that  he  immediately  made 
a  prefent  of  the  little  ifle  to  the  faint.  It  feems  that 
his  niajefty  had  refuftd  Columba  an  audience  ;  and 
even  proceeded  fo  far  as  to  order  the  palace-gates  to  be 
fhut  againft  liinl  :  but  the  faint,  by  the  power  of  his 
word,  inftantly  caufed  them  to  fly  open.  As  foon  as 
he  was  in  poffefTion  of  Jona,  he  foirnded  a  cell  of  mqnks, 
borrowing  his  inilitutions  from  a  cer-tain  oriental  mo- 
•naftic  order.  It  is  faid  that  the  firft  religious  were 
■canons  regular,  of  whom  the  founder  was  the  firft 
-abbot;  and  that  his  mo-ks,  till  the  year  716,  differ-ed 
■from  thofe  of  the  church  of  Rome,  both  in  the  obfer- 
'vation  of  Eauer  and  in  the  clerical  tonfirr^e  Columba 
■led  her-e  an  exemplary  life,  and  was  highly  relpeded 
for  the  fanflity  of  his  manners  for  a  ctinfidei-able  num- 
ber of  years.  H-j  is  the  firft  on  record  who  had  the 
faculty  oi  Jixondjight,  for  he  told  the  v-ftory  of  AiJan 
over  the  Pids  ar:d  Saxons  on  the  very  inftant  it  hap- 
pened. He  had  the  honour  of  burying  in  his  ifland, 
Conrallius  and  Kinnatil,  two  kings  of  Scotland,  and 
of  crowning  a  third.     At  length,  worn  out  with  age, 

Vol.  V.    PartL 


count  it  grew  originally  on  the  continent  of  America; 
from  whence  it  was  tranfplanted  to  Cokimbo,  a  town 
in  Ceylon,  which  gives  name  to  it,  and  fupplies  all 
India  with  it.  The  inhabitan;s  of  thefe  countries  have 
for  a  long  time  ufed  it  in  diforder  s  of  the  ftomach  and 
bowels.  They  carry  it  about  with  them,  and  take  it 
diced  or  fcraped  in  Madeira  v/ine.  Tnis  rojt  comes 
to  us  in  circular  pieces,  which  are  from  half  an  inch 
or  an  inch  to  three  inches  in  diameter  ;  and  divided  in- 
Uifnijia,  which  mealu.e  fi-om  two  irrches  to  one  quar- 
ter of  an  inch.  The  fides  are  covered  with  a  thick 
corrirgated  b.ir-k,  of  a  dark  bruwn  hue  on  its  external 
furface,  but  intern.-illy  -^f  a  light  yellow  colour.  The 
fur  faces  of  the  tranfverf;  I'eftiorrs  appear  very  unequal, 
higheft  at  the  edges,  and  forming  a  concavity  cwaids 
the  centre.  On  feparallrrg  tin's  furface,  the  r-oot  is 
obferved  to  confift  of  three  lamina,  viz.  the  cortical, 
which,  fn  the  larger  roots,  is  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
Y  thick ; 


Cclumba. 

nus 

II 

C  r'lrinbo. 


COL 


[     170    ] 


COL 


CoWmbo.  thick  ;  the  ligneous,  about  half  an  inch  ;  and  the  me- 

•— V '  d'lllary,  which  forms   the   centre,  and  is  near  an  inch 

in  diimeter.     This  laft   13  much  foftcr  than  the  other 
parts,  and,  when  chewed,  feems  mucilaginous  ;  a  num- 
ber of  fmall   libies  run  InngltudinaUy  throuo;h  it,  and 
appear  on  the  furface.      The  conical  and  ligneous  parts 
are   divided  by  a  black  circular  line.      All  the  triicker 
pieces   have  fmall   holes  drilled  through  them,  for  the 
convenience  of  drying.      C'dumboroot  has  an   aioma- 
tic  fmell;    but  is  difagreeably  bitter,   and  flij,':litly  pun- 
gent to  the  tafte,  foniewhat    refembllng  mullard-ieed, 
when  it  has  loft,  by  long  keeping,  pait  of  its  tlTential 
oil.      Yet,   though  ungrateful  to  the  talle,  when  recei- 
ved into   the  ftomach,   it    appears   to   be    corroborant, 
antifeptic,    fedative,    and   powerfully   aritiemetic.      In 
the  cholera    morbus   it  alleviates   the   violent  tormina, 
checks  the  purging  and  vomiting,  corredts  the  putrid 
tendency  of  the  bile,  quiets  the  inordinate  motions  of 
the  bowels,  and  fpeedily  recruits  the  exhauiled  llrength 
of  the  patient.     It  was  adminiftered  to  z  great  number 
of  patients,  fometimes  upwards  of  20  in  a  day,  afiiift- 
ed   with   the  cholera  morbus,  by  Mr  Johnfon  of  Che- 
fler,  in  l  756.     He  generally  found  that  it  foon  flopped 
the  vomiting,  which  was  the  moll  fatal  fymptom,  and 
that   the   purging   and   remaining   complaints  quickly 
yielded  to   the   fsme  remedy.     The  dole  he  gave  was 
from  half  a  drachm   to  two  drachms  of  the  powder, 
every  three   or   four  hours,  more  or  Icfs  according  to 
the  urgency   of  the   fymptoms.     Though  this  medi- 
cine poffefrcs  little   or  'no  aftringency,  it  has  been  ob- 
ferved  to  be  of  great  fcrvice  in  diarrhoeas  and  even  in 
the    dyfencery.      In  the   firft   ftage  of  thefe  diforders, 
where    aftringents   would   be    hurtful,    Columbo-rool 
may  be   prefcribed   with   fafety  ;  as,  by  its   antifpaf- 
modic  powers,  the  irregular  aftions  of  the  prims  vice 
are  correfted.     But  as  a  cordial,  tonic,  and  antifeptic 
remedy,  it   anfwers   better  when  given  towards  their 
decline.      Its  efficacy   has  alfo   been  obferved   in   the 
vomitings  which  attend  the  bilious  cholic  ;  and  in  fuch 
cafes,  where  an  emetic  is   thought  neceffary,  after  ad- 
miniftcring  a  fmall  dofe  of  ipecacuan,  the  ftomach  may 
be  wafhed  with  an   infufion   of  Columbo-root.     This 
will  tend  to  prevent  thofe  violent  and  convuhive  reaeh- 
ings  which  in  irritable  habits  abounding  with  bile   are 
fometimes  excited   by  the   mildeft  emetic.      In  bilious 
fevers,    15  or  20  grains  of  this  root,  with  an  equal  or 
double  quantity  of  vitriolated  tartar,   given  every  four, 
five,    01    fix   hours,    produce    very    beneficial    cffefts. 
From  its  efficacy  in  thefe  bilious  difeafes  of  this  coun- 
try, it  is  probable  that  it  may  be  ufeful  in  the  yellow 
fever  of  the   Weft  Indies,  which   is  always  attended 
with   great   fickncfs,   violent  reachings,  and  a  copious 
difcharge   of  bile.      The   vomiting   recurs   at  (hort  in- 
tervals, often  becomes  almoil  incefiant,  and  an  incre- 
dible quantity  of  bile   is   fometimes  evacuated  in  a  few 
hours.      Childven  during  dentition  are  often  fubjedl  to 
fevcre  vomitings   and   diarrhoeas.      In   thefe   cales  the 
Columbo-root  is  an  ufeful  remedy,  and  hath  often  pro- 
cured almort  inflant  relief,  when  other  efficacious  reme- 
dies have  been  tried  in  vain.     This  root  is  alfo  extreme- 
ly beneficial  in  a  languid  ftate  of  the  ftomach,  attend- 
ed with  want  of  appetite,  indigeftion,  naulea,  and  fla- 
tulence.     It   may  be  given   either  in  fubftance,  with 
fome  grateful  aromatic,  or   infufed   ir    Madeira  wine. 
Habitual  vomiting,  when  it  proceeds  from  a  weakncfs 


or  irritability  of  the  ftomach,  from  an  irregular  gout,  Columlin 
acidities,  acrimonious   bile,    or  an    incrcafcd   and   de-  '-'"'""'bii  ■ 
praved  fecretion  of  the   pancreatic  juice,  is  greatly  re-         ' 
lieved  by  the  ufe  of  Culumbo-root,  in  conjunftion  with 
aromatics,  chalybeates,  or  the  tcftaceous  powders.      In 
the  naufca  and  vomiting  occafioned   by  pregnancy,  an 
infufion    of   Gohimbo-root    fucceeds   better   than    any 
other  medicine  that  hath  been  tried. 

From  Dr  Pcrcival's  experiments  on  this  root,  it  ap- 
pears, that  rtftified  fpirit  of  wine  extrafts  its  virtues 
in  the  greateft;  perftttion.  The  watery  infufion  is 
more  pcrifhable  than  that  of  other  bitters.  In  24 
hours  a  copious  precipitation  takes  "place  ;  and  in  two 
days  it  becomes  ropy,  and  even  multy.  The  addltio« 
of  orange  peel  renders  the  infufion  of  Cohunbo-root 
lefs  ungrateful  to  the  palate.  An  ounce  of  the  powder- 
ed root,  half  an  ounce  of  orange-peel,  two  ounces  of 
French  brandy,  and  14  ounces  of  water,  macerated  12 
hours  without  heat,  and  then  filtered  through  paper,, 
afford  a  fufficiently  flrong  and  tolerably  plcalant  in- 
fufion. The  extraft  made  flrll  by  fpirit  and  then 
with  water,  and  reduced  by  evaporation  to  a  pilular 
confiftencc,  is  found  to  be  equal  if  not  fuperior  in  ef- 
ficacy to  the  powder.  As  an  antifeptic,  Columbo-root 
is  inferior  to  the  bark  ;  but  as  a  correftor  of  putrid 
gall,  it  is  much  fuperior  to  the  bark  ;  whence  alio  it 
is  probable  that  it  would  be  of  fervice  in  the  Wed 
India  yellow  fever.  It  alfo  reftrains  alimentary  fer- 
mentation, vvithout  impairing  digeition  ;  in  which  pro- 
perty it  refembles  mullard.  Hence  its  great  fervice 
in  preventing  acidities.  It  hath  alfo  a  remarkable 
power  of  neutralizing  acids  already  formed.  It  doth 
not  appear  to  have  the  leaft  heating  quality  ;  and 
therefore  may  be  ufed  with  propriety  and  advantage  in 
the  phthifis  pulmonalis  and  iu  heftical  cafes,  to  correft 
acrimony  and  ftrengthen  digeftion.  It  occafions  no 
diilurbance,  and  agrees  very  well  with  a  milk  diet,  as 
it  abates  flatulence,  and  is  indifpofed  to  acidity. 

CoLUMBO,  a  maritime  town  of  the  ifland  of  Ceylon 
in  the  Eaft  Indies,  feated  on  the  fouth-weft  part  of  its 
coaft,  and  fubjeft  to  the  Dutch.  E.  Long.  68.  10. 
N.  Lat.  7.  5. 

COLUMBUS,  or  Congregation  of  St  Columbus,  a  fo- 
ciety  of  regular  canons,  who  formerly  had  100  abbeys 
or  monafteries  in  the  Britlfh  ifles. 

Columbus  (Chriftopher),  a  Genoefe,  the  celebra- 
ted navigator,  and  firit  difcoverer  of  the  ifiands  of 
America,  was  a  fubjecfl  of  the  republic  of  Genoa. 
Neither  the  time  nor  the  place  of  his  birth,  however,, 
are  known  with  certainty  ;  only  he  was  defcended  of 
an  honourable  family,  who,  by  various  misfortunes, 
had  been  reduced  to  indigence.  His  parents  were 
fea-faring  people  ;  and  Columbus  having  difcovered,  in 
his  early  youth,  a  capacity  and  inclination  for  that 
way  cf  life,  was  encouraged  by  them  to  follow  the 
fame  profeffion.  He  went  to  fea  at  tjie  age  of  14: 
his  firlt  voyages  were  to  thofe  ports  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean frequented  by  the  Genoefe  ;  after  wiiich  he 
took  a  voyage  to  Iceland  ;  and  proceeding  ftill  further 
north,  advanced  feveral  degrees  within  the  polar 
circle.  After  this,  Columbus  entered  into  the  fer\'Ice 
of  a  famous  fea-captain  of  his  own  name  and  family. 
This  man  commanded  a  fmall  fquadron,  fitted  out  at 
his  own  expence  ;  and  by  cruifing,  fometimes  againft 
the  Mahometens  and  fometimes  againft  the  Venetians, 

the 


COL  [     I 

'olumbus  the  livals  of  his  country  in  trade,  had  acquired  both 
-  1  ''  wealth  and  reputation.  With  him  Cohimbus  conti- 
nued for  leveral  years,  no  lefs  dilliuginlhed  for  his 
courage  than  his  experience  as  a  failor.  At  length,  in 
an  obllinate  engagement  off  the  coaft  of  Portugal, 
with  fome  Venetian  caravals  returning  richly  laden 
from  the  Low  Countries,  the  vefTcl  on  board  which  he 
ferved  took  fire,  together  with  one  of  the  enemies  (hips 
to  which  it  was  fall  grappled.  Columbus  threw  him- 
ftlf  into  thefea;  laid  Jiuld  of  a  floating  oar;  and  by  the 
fupport  of  it,  and  his  dexterity  in  fwimming,  he  reach- 
ed the  fiiore,  though  above  two  leagues  dillant. 

After  this  difaller,  Columbus  repaired  to  I^iibon, 
where  he  married  a  daughter  of  Bartholomew  Pere- 
ftrello,  one  of  the  captains  employed  by  Prince  Henry 
'in  his  early  navigations,  and  who  had  difeovered  and 
planted  the  illands  of  Porto  Santo  andMadeira.  Having 
got  poiTeffion  of  the  journals  and  charts  of  this  experi- 
enced navigator,  Columbus  was  feized  with  an  irrefdlible 
dcfire  of  vifiting  unknown  countries.  In  order  to  in- 
dulge it,  he  made  a  voyage  to  Madeira,  and  continued 
during  fcveral  years  to  trade  with  that  illand,  the  Ca- 
naries, Azores,  the  fettlements  in  Guinea,  and  all  the 
other  places  which  the  Poituguefe  had  difeovered  on 
the  continent  of  Africa. 

By  the  experience  acquired  in  fuch  a  number  of 
voyages,  Columbus  now  became  one  of  the  moft  (kll- 
ful  navigators  in  Europe.  At  tliis  time,  the  great  ob- 
jeft  of  difcovery  was  a  paffage  by  fea  to  the  Eaft 
Indies.  This  was  attempted,  and  at  laft  accomplifhed 
by  the  Portugucfe,  by  doubling  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  The  danger  and  tedioufnefs  of  the  paffage, 
however,  fuppofing  it  to  be  really  accomplifhed,  which 
as  yet  it  was  not,  fet  Columbus  on  conlldering  whe- 
ther a  fhorter  and  more  direft  paffage  to  thefe  regions 
might  not  be  found  out ;  and,  after  long  confideration, 
he  became  thoroughly  convinced,  that,  by  failing 
acrofs  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  diretlly  towards  the  weft, 
new  countries,  which  probably  formed  a  part  of  the 
vail  continent  of  India,  mufl  infallibly  be  difeovered. 
His  reafons  for  this  were,  in  the  firll  place,  a  know- 
ledge he  had  acquired  of  the  true  figure  of  the  earth. 
The  continents  of  Europe,  Afia,  and  Africa,  as  far  as 
then  known,  form  but  a  fmall  part  of  the  globe.  It 
was  fultable  to  our  ideas,  concerning  the  wifdom  and 
beneficence  of  the  Author  of  nature,  to  believe,  that 
the  vaft  fpace,  ftill  unexplored,  was  not  entirely  co- 
vered by  a  wafle  and  barren  ocean,  but  occupied  by 
countries  fit  for  the  habitation  of  man.  It  appealed 
llkewife  extremely  probable,  that  the  continent  on 
this  fide  the  globe  was  balanced  by  a  proportional 
<}uantity  of  land  in  the  other  hemifphere.  Thefe 
conicftures  were  confirmed  by  the  obfervatlons  of  mo- 
dern navigators.  A  Portugucfe  p'lot  havmg  ftretch- 
ed  farther  to  the  weft  than  w<is  ufual  at  that  time, 
took  up  a  piece  of  timber,  artificially  carved,  floating 
upon  the  fea;  and  as  it  was  driven  towards  him  by  a 
weflerly  wind,  he  concluded  that  it  came  from  fome 
unknown  land  fituated  in  that  quarter.  Columbus's 
brother-in-law  had  found  to  the  well  of  the  Madeira 
jfles  a  piece  of  timber  fafhioned  in  the  fame  manner, 
and  brought  by  the  fame  wind  ;  and  had  feen  alfo 
canes  of  an  enormous  fize  floating  upon  the  waves, 
which  refembled  thofe  defcribed  by  Ptolemy,  as  pro- 
d«<Sions  peculiaj  to  the  Eall  Indies.     After  a  courfe 


I        1 


COL 


of  weflerly  winds,  trees   torn   up   by  the  roots  were  Columbus 

often   driven   upon   the  coaft  of  the  Azores;  and  at ' f^"*. 

one  time  the  dead  bodies  of  two  men,  with  fin'mlar 
features,  which  refembled  neither  the  inhabitairts  of 
Europe  nor  Africa,  were  caft  afhore  there.  The  mofl 
cogent  reafon,  however,  was  a  miflaken  notion  of 
the  ancient  geographers  concerning  the  immenfe  ex- 
tent of  the  continent  of  India.  Though  hardly  any  of 
them  had  penetrated  beyond  the  river  Ganges,  fome 
Greek  writers  had  ventured  to  defcribe  the  provinces 
beyond  that  river,  which  they  reprefented  as  regions 
of  an  lunnenfe  extent.  Ctefias  affirmed  that  India 
was  as  large  as  all  the  reft  of  Afia.  Oneficritus,  whom 
Pliny  the  naturalill  follows,  contended  that  it  was  equal 
to  a  third  part  of  the  habitable  earth.  Nearchus  af- 
ferted  that  it  would  take  four  months  to  march  from 
one  extremity  of  it  to  ihe  other  in  a  rtralght  line.  The 
journal  of  Marco  Polo,  who  travelled  into  Afia  in  the 
13th  century,  and  who  had  proceeded  towards  the  eaft 
far  beyond  the  hmits  to  which  any  European  had  ever 
advanced,  fecmed  alfo  fo  much  to  confirm  thefe  ac- 
counts, that  Columbus  was  perfuaded,  that  the  diftancc 
from  the  mofl  welterly  part  of  Europe  to  the  mofl 
eallerly  part  of  Afia  was  not  very  confiderable  ;  and 
that  the  fhorteft,  as  well  as  moft  direft  courfe  to  the 
remote  regions  of  the  eaft,  was  to  be  found  by  failing 
due  weft. 

In  1474,  Columbus  communicated  his  ideas  on  this 
fubjedl  to  one  Paul  a  phyfician  in  Florence,  a  man 
eminent  for  his  knowledge  in  cofmography.  He 
approved  of  the  plan,  fuggefted  feveral  facls  in  con- 
firmation of  it,  and  warmly  encouraged  Columbus 
to  perfevere  in  an  undertaking  fo  laudable,  and  which 
muil  redound  fo  much  to  the  honour  of  his  country 
and  the  benefit  of  Europe.  Columbus,  fully  fatisfied 
of  the  truth  of  his  fyftem,  was  impatient  to  fet  out  on 
a  voyage  of  difcovery.  The  fiift  ftep  towards  this 
was  to  fecure  the  patronage  of  fome  of  the  confider- 
able powers  of  Europe  capable  of  undertaking  fuch  an 
enterprife.  He  applied  firft  to  the  republic  of  Genoaj 
but  his  countrymen,  ftrangers  to  his  abihtics,  incon- 
fiderately  rejected  his  propofal  as  the  dream  of  a  chi- 
merical projector,  and  thus  loft  for  ever  the  opportu- 
nity of  reftoring  their  commonwealth  to  its  ancient 
luftre.  His  next  application  was  to  the  court  of  Por- 
tugal, where  King  John  II.  hftened  to  him  in  the  moll 
gracious  manner,  and  referred  the  confideration  of 
his  plan  to  Diego  Ortiz,  bifliop  of  Ceuta,  and  two 
Jewifh  phyficians,  eminent  cofmographers,  whom  he 
was  accuftomed  to  confult  in  matters  of  this  kind. 
Unhappily  thefe  were  the  perfons  wlio  had  been  the 
chief  direftors  of  the  Portugucfe  navigations,  and  had 
advif'ed  to  fearch  for  a  paffage  to  India  by  ftcering  a 
courfe  dircClly  oppolite  to  that  which  Columbus  had 
recommended  as  fhorter  and  mere  certain.  They 
could  not  therefore  approve  of  his  propofal,  without 
fubmittlng  to  the  double  mortification  of  condemning 
their  own  theory,  and  of  acknowledging  his  fuperio- 
nty.  The  refult  of  their  conferences  w.is,  that  they 
advifcd  the  king  to  fit  outavelfel  privately,  in  order  to 
attempt  the  propofed  difcovery,  by  following  exaftly 
the  courfe  which  Columbus  fecmed  to  point  out.  John, 
forgetting  on  this  occafion  the  fentiments  of  a  monarch, 
meanly  adopted  this  perfidious  counfel.  Hut  the  pilot 
chofen  to  execute  Columbus's  plan  had  neither  the  ge- 
^    2  nlus 


COL  [17 

Cohimtu!.  niu»  nor  fortitude  of  its  author.    Contrary  winds  arofe; 
»  no  fign  of  approaching  land  appeared  ;  liis  courage 

failed;  and  he  returned  to  l.ilbon,  extcrating  the  pro- 
ject as  equally  extravagant  and  dangerouf. 

On  difcovering  this  diflionourable  tranfaction,  Co- 
lumbus immediately  quitted  Portugal,  and  applied  to 
the  king  of  Spain;  but  lell  he  ihould  he  here  again  dif- 
appointed,  he  fent  his  brother  Bartholomew  into  Eng- 
land, to  whom  he  had  fully  communicated  his  ideas, 
in  order  that  he  might  negotiate  at  the  fame  time 
with  Henry  VII.  who  was  reckoned  one  of  the  moll 
fagacious  as  well  as  opulent  princes  of  Europe.  Bar- 
tholomew was  very  unfortunate  in  his  voyage  :  he 
fell  into  the  hands  of  pirates,  who  llripped  him  of 
every  thing,  and  detained  him  a  prifoner  for  feveral 
years.  At  laft  he  made  his  efcape,  and  arrived  in 
London,  but  in  fuch  extrtine  indigence,  that  he  was 
obb'ged  to  employ  himfelf,  during  a  confiderable  time, 
in  drawing  and  felling  maps,  in  order  to  pick  up  ai 
much  money  as  would  purchafe  a  decent  drcfs  ia 
which  he  might  venture  to  appear  at  court.  The 
propcfals  were  received  by  Heniy  with  more  approba- 
tion than  by  any  monarch  to  whom  they  had  hitherto 
been  prefented. 

,,  Columbus  himfelf  made  his  propofals  to  the  king  of 
Spain,  not  without  many  doubts  of  fuccefs,  which 
foon  appeared  to  be  well  founded.  True  fcience  had 
as  yet  made  fo  little  progrefs  in  the  kingdom  of  Spain, 
that  molt  of  thofe  to  whom  the  confideration  of  hii 
pi  in  was  referred  were  utterly  ignorant  of  the  fird 
principles  on  which  he  founded  his  hopes.  Some, 
fj-om  miftaken  notions  concerning  the  dimenfions  of 
the  globe,  contended  that  a  voyage  to  thofe  remote 
regions  of  the  Eall  which  Columbus  expefted  to  dif- 
cover,  could  not  be  performed  in  lefs  than  three 
years.  Others  concluded,  that  either  he  would  find 
the  ocean  of  infinite  extent,  according  to  the  opinion 
of  fome  ancient  philofophers  ;  or  that  if  he  fhould  per- 
fift  in  fteering  weilwards  beyond  a  certain  point, 
the  convex  figure  of  the  globe  muft.  infallibly  pre- 
vent his  return,  and  he  mult  perifh  in  the  vain  at- 
tempt to  unite  the  two  oppofite  hemifpheres,  which 
nature  had  for  ever  disjoined.  Even  without  deign- 
ing to  enter  into  any  particular  difcuflion,  fome  re- 
jected the  fcheme  in  general,  upon  the  credit  of  a 
maxim  made  ufe  of  by  the  ignorant  in  all  ages,  "  That 
it  is  prefumptuous  in  any  perfon  to  fuppofe  that  he 
alone  poffefles  knowledge  luperior  to  all  the  reft  of 
mankind  united."  By  continual  difappointments 
and  delays,  he  was  at  laft  wearied  out,  and  refolved 
to  repair  to  the  court  of  England  in  perfon,  in  hopes 
of  meeting  with  a  favourable  reception  there.  He 
had  already  made  preparations  for  this  purpofe,  and 
taken  nieafures  for  the  difpofal  of  his  children  during 
his  abfence,  when  Juan  Perez,  the  prior  of  the  mo- 
naftery  of  Rabida  near  Palos,  in  which  they  had  been 
educated,  earneftly  folicited  him  to  defer  his  journey 
/or  a  fhort  time.  Perez  was  a  man  of  confiderable 
learning,  and  fome  credit  with  Queen  Ifabella.  To 
her  therefore  he  applied ;  and  the  confequence  of  his 
application  was  a  gracious  invitation  of  Columbus  back 
to  court,  accompanied  with  the  prefent  of  a  fmall 
fum  to  equip  him  for  the  journey.  Ferdinand,  how- 
ever, ftill  r/garded  the  projeA  as  chimerical;  and  liad 
the  addrefs  to  employ,  in  this  new  negociatian  with 


2     ]  COL 

him,  fome  of  the  perfons  who  had  formerly  pro-  Columbut 
nounccd  his  fcheme  to  be  imprafticable.  To  their '  v  -• 
aftonidiment,  Columbus  appeared  before  them  with 
the  fame  confident  hopes  of  fuccefs  as  formerly,  and 
infilled  on  the  fame  high  recompence.  He  propofed 
that  a  fmall  fleet  Ihould  be  fitted  out,  under  his  com- 
mand, to  attempt  the  difcovery  ;  and  demanded  to 
be  appointed  perpetual  and  hereditary  admiral  and 
vicen)y  of  all  the  feas  and  lands  which  he  fiioiild  diico- 
ver ;  and  to  have  the  tenth  of  the  profits  arifing  from 
them  fettled  irrevocably  upon  him  and  his  defccndents 
for  ever.  At  the  fame  time  he  offered  to  advance 
the  eightli  part  of  the  fum  ncceffary  for  accompliihing 
his  defign,  on  condition  that  he  (hould  be  intitled  to  a 
proportional  fliare  in  the  adventure.  If  the  enterprife 
ihould  totally  miscarry,  he  made  no  ftipulation  for  any 
reward  or  emolument  wliatever.  'i'heie  demands 
were  thought  unreafonable  ;  Ifabella  broke  off  the 
treaty  fhc  had  begun,  and  Columbus  was  once  more 
difappointed.  He  now  refolved  finally  to  leave  Spain; 
and  had  actually  proceeded  fome  leagues  on  his  jour- 
ney, when  he  was  overtaken  by  a  meflcnger  from 
Ifabella,  who  had  been  prevailed  upon  by  the  argu- 
ments of  ,Quintanilla  and  Santangel,  two  of  Colum- 
bus's  patrons,  again  to  favour  his  undertakings.  The 
negociation  now  went  forward  with  all  manner  of  fa- 
cility and  difpatch  ;  and  a  treaty  with  Columbus  was 
figned  on  the  1 7th  of  April  1492.  Tlie  chief  articles 
of  it  were,  that  Columbus  Ihould  be  conftituted  high 
admiral  in  all  the  feas,  illands,  and  continents  he  ihould 
dilcover,  with  the  fame  powers  and  prerogatives  that 
belonged  to  the  high  admiral  of  Caftile  within  the  li- 
mits of  his  juriidiciion.  He  was  alfo  appointed  vice- 
roy in  all  thofe  countries  to  be  dilcovered  ;  and  a 
tenth  of  the  produfts  accruing  from  their  produftions 
and  commerce  was  granted  to  him  for  ever.  All  con- 
troverfies  or  law-fuits  with  refpttf  to  mercantile  tvanf- 
adlions  were  to  be  determined  by  the  fole  authority  of 
Columbus,  or  of  judges  to  be  appointed  by  him.  He 
was  alfo  permitted  to  advance  one  eighth  pait  of  the 
expence  of  the  expedition,  and  of  carrying  on  com- 
merce with  the  new  countries  ;  and  was  intitled,  ia 
return,  to  an  eighth  part  of  the  profit.  But,  though 
the  name  of  Ferdinand  was  joined  with  Ifabella  in  tliis 
tranfattion,  his  dillruil  of  Columbus  was  ftill  fo  violent, 
that  he  refafed  to  take  any  part  in  the  enterprifc  as 
king  of  Arragon  ;  and  as  the  whole  expence  of  the 
expedition  was  to  be  defrayed  by  the  crown  of  Caftile, 
Ifabella  referi-ed  for  her  fubjedts  of  that  kingdom  an 
exclufive  right  to  all  the  benefits  which  might  accrue 
from  its  fuccefs. 

At  laft  our  adventurer  fet  fail  with  three  fmall  fliips, 
the  whole  expence  of  wiiich  did  not  exceed  L.  4000. 
During  his  voyage  he  met  with  many  difficulties  from 
the  mutinous  and  timid  difpofition  of  his  men.  He 
was  the  firft  who  obferved  the  variation  of  the  com- 
pafs,  which  threw  the  failors  into  the  utmoll  terror. 
For  this  phenomenon  Columbus  was  obliged  to  invent 
a  reafon,  which,  though  it  did  not  fatisfy  himfelf,  yet 
ferved  to  difpcl  their. fears,  or  filence  their  murmurs. 
At  laft,  however,  the  failors  loft  all  patience  ;  and 
the  admiral  was  obliged  to  promife  folemnly,  that  in 
cafe  land  was  not  difcovered  in  three  days  he  Ihould 
return  to  Europe.  That  very  night,  however,  the 
iiland  of  San  Salvador  was  difcovered,  wliicii  quickly 

put 


ke  Hlf- 
thla. 


C     G    L  [I 

)l;imtv.5.  put  an  end  to  all  their  fears.  The  failors  were  then 
"~*^~~  as  extravagant  in  the  praife  of  Columbus  as  they  had 
before  betn  infolent  in  reviling  and  threatening  him. 
They  threw  themfsrlves  at  his  feet,  implored  his  par- 
don, and  pronounced  him  to  be  a  perfon  inQjircd  by 
heaven  with  more  than  human  fagacity  and  fortitude, 
in  order  to  accomplifh  a  delign  fo  tar  beyond  the  ideas 
and  eonccption  of  all  former  ages.  Having  viiited  fe- 
veral  of  the  Well  India  ifiaJids,  and  fettled  a  colony  in 
Hifpauiula*,  he  again  fct  fail  for  Spain;  and  after  ef- 
caping  great  dangers  from  violent  tempells,  arrived  at 
the  port  of  Palos  on  the  15th  of  March  1493. 

As  foon  as  Columbus's  (liip  was  dilcovcred  ap- 
proaching, all  the  inhabitants  of  Palos  ran  eagerly 
to  the  fliore,  where  they  received  the  admiral  with 
royal  honours.  The  court  was  then  at  Baicelona, 
and  Columbus  took  care  immediately  to  acquaint 
the  kinw  and  queen  of  liis  arrival.  They  were  no 
lefs  delighted  than  aftoniflied  with  this  unexpefted 
event.  They  gave  orders  for  conducting  liim  into 
the  city  with  all  imaginable  pomp.  They  received 
him  clad  in  their  royal  robes,  and  feated  on  a  throne 
under  a  magnificent  canopy.  When  he  approached, 
they  Hood  ud  ;  and,  raifmg  him  as  he  kneeled  to  kii's 
their  hands,  commanded  him  to  take  his  feat  upon  a 
chair  prepared  for  him,  and  to  give  a  cireumllantial 
account  of  his  voyage.  When  he  had  finiihed  his  ora- 
tion, which  he  delivered  with  much  modelly  and  fim- 
plicity,  the  king  and  queen,  kneeling  dov.m,  offered 
up  folcnin  thanks  to  God  for  the  difcovery.  Every  pof- 
fible  mark  of  honour  that  could  be  fuggeiled  by  gra- 
titude or  admiration  was  conferred  on  Columbus;  the 
former  capitulation  was  confirmed,  his  family  was  en- 
nobled, and  a  fleet  was  ordered  to  be  equipped,  to 
enable  him  to  go  in  queil  of  thofe  more  opulent  coun- 
tries which  he  Hill  confidently  expetled  to  find. 

Notwithftanding  all  this  refpeit,  however,  Colum- 
bus was  no  longer  regarded  than  he  was  fuccefsfu). 
The  colonlfts  he  cairied  over  with  him  were  to  the 
laft  degree  unreafonable  and  unmanageable  ;  fo  that 
he  was  obliged  to  ufe  fome  feverities  with  them  ;  and 
complaints  were  made  to  the  court  of  Spain  againll 
him  for  cruelty.  On  this,  Francis  de  BovadiUa,  a 
knight  of  Calatrava,  was  appointed  to  inquire  into  the 
conduA  of  Columbus  ;  with  orders,  in  cafe  he  found 
the  charge  of  maladminillration  proved,  to  iupericde 
him,  and  a(rume,the  ofiice  of  governor  of  Hifpaniola. 
The  confequence  of  this  was,  that  Columbus  was  fent 
to  Spain  in  chains.  From  thefe,  however,  he  was 
freed  immediately  on  his  arrival,  and  had  an  opportu- 
nity granted  him  of  vindicating  his  innocence.  He 
was,  however,  deprived  of  all  power  ;  and  notwith- 
ftanding his  great  fervices,  a^d  the  folcmnity  of  the 
agreement  betvseen  him  and  Ferdinand,  Columbus  never 
could  obtain,  the  fulfilment  of  any  part  of  that  treaty. 
At  laft,  difgufled  with  the  ingratitude  of  a  monarch 
whom  he  had  ferved  with  fuch  fidelity  and  fuccefs,  and 
exhaulled  with  fatigues,  he  ended  his  life  on  the  29th 
of  May  1506. 

Columbus  (Bartholomew),  brother  to  Chrlftopher, 
famous  for  his  marine  charts  and  fpheres,  which  he  pre- 
fented  to  Henry  VH.  of  England.   He  died  in  1514. 

Columbus  (Don  Ferdinand),  fon  of  Chriftopher, 
and  writer  of  his  life.     He  entered  into  the  ecclefiafti- 


73     ]  COL 

cal  ftate  ;  and  founded  a  library,  which  he  bequeathed  C.Jumelb 

to  the  church  of  Seville,  to  this  day  called  the  Coliim-    „  ," 
,■      ri  -u     '■   J  ■  ^  Column. 

owe  liirary.     rit  aied  m  1560.  f 

COLUMELLA  (Lucius  Junius  Moderatus),  a  Ro- 
man philofopher,  was  a  native  of  Cadiz,  and  lived  un- 
der the  einperor  Claudius  about  the  year  42.  He  wrote 
a  book  on  agriculture  intitled  De  Re  rujlka,  and  ano- 
ther De  Arianbus. 

COLUMEY,  a  town  of  Red  Ruflia  in  Poland,  feat- 
ed on  the  river  Pruth,  towards  the  confines  of  Mol- 
davia, about  38  miles  from  Haliez,  and  63  fouth  of 
Leopol.  This  town  has  been  veiy  ill  tieatcd  by  the 
CofFacks,  infomuch  that  it  is  now  inconfiderable,  tho' 
there  are  feveral  mines  of  fait  in  its  dillrift.  E.  Long. 
16.  25,  N.  Lat.  48.  45. 

COLUMN,  in  architecture,  a  round  pillar  made 
to  fupport  and  adorn  a  building,  and  compofed  of  a 
bafe,    a    fliaft,    and    capital.       See  Architecture, 

n°33- 

Columns,  ilenom'tnated  frmn  their  ufe. — Aftronomi- 
cal  column  is  a  kind  of  obfervator)',  in  form  of  a  veiy 
higli  tower  built  hollow,  and  with  a  fpiral  afcent  to  an 
armiUary  fphere  placed  a-top  for  obferving  the  motions 
of  the  heavenly  bodies.  Such  is  that  of  the  Doric 
oi'der  erefted  at  the  Hotel  de  Soiflbns  at  Paris  by  Ca* 
thaiine  de  Medicis  for  the  obfervations  of  Orontius  Fi- 
neus,  a  celebrated  altronomer  of  that  time. 

Chronological  Column,  that  which  bears  fome  hifto- 
rical  infcription  digeiled  according  to  the  order  of  time; 
as  by  I'lllres,  olympiads,  falli,  epochas,  annals,  &c. 
At  Athens,  there  were  columns  of  this  kind,  whereon 
were  infcribed  the  whole  hlftory  of  Greece  digefted 
into  olympiads. 

Funeral  Column,  that  which  bears  an  urn,  vvhereia 
ate  fuppofed  to  be  inclofed  the  allies  of  fome  deceafed 
hero  ;  and  whofe  ftiaft  is  fometimes  overfpread  with 
tears  and  flames,  which  are  fymbols  of  grief  and  of 
immortality. 

GnoiiWiiic  Column,  a  cylinder  whereon  the  hour  of 
the  day  is  reprefcnted  by  the  ftiadow  of  a  llile.  See 
DrAL. 

Hiflorieal  Column,  is  that  whofe  fliaft  is  adorned  with 
a  baiTo-relievo,  running  in  a  fpiral  line  its  whole  length, 
and  containing  tlie  hiitory  of  fome  great  perfonage : 
fuch  are  the  Trajan  and  Antonine  columns  at  Rome. 

HiiHcw  Column,  that  which  has  a  fpiral  ilair-cafe 
withinfide  for  the  covenience  of  afcending  to  the  top  ; 
as  the  Trajan  column,  the  ttair-cafe  whereof  confifls  of 
1 85  fteps,  and  is  illuminated  by  43  little  windows,  each 
of  which  is  divided  by  tambours  of  white  maible.  The 
monument,  or  fire-column,  at  London,  has  alfo  a 
Itair-cafe ;  but  it  does  not  reach  to  the  top.  Thefe 
kinds  of  columns  are  alfo  called  columns  eoclicJed,  or  cosh- 
lidea. 

IiiiUcatlve  Column,  that  which  ferves  to  fliovv  the 
tides,  &c.  along  the  fea-coafts.  Of  this  kind  there  \i 
one  at  Grand  Cairo  of  marble,  whereon  the  over- 
flov>'ings  of  the  Nile  are  exprefled  :  by  this  they  form 
a  judgment  of  the  fucceeding  feafon  ;  when  the  water, 
for  inilance,  afcends  to  23  feet,  it  is  a  fign  of  great 
fertility  in  Egypt.      See  Nilomcter. 

Injtruil'tve  Column,  that  ralfed,  according  to  Jofe- 
phus,  lib.  i.  cap.  3.  by  the  fons  of  Adam,  whereou 
were  engraven    the   principles  of   arts    and   fcience?. 


COL 


[     174    ] 


G    t)     L 


Colunm.  Baudelot  tells  us,  that  the  fon  of  Pififtratus  ralfed  ano- 
'~~V— ^  ther  of  this  kind,   of  ftone,  containing  the  rules  and 
precepts  of  agriculture. 

Itinerary  Coivmk,  a  column  with  feveral  faces,  pla- 
ced in  the  crofs  ways  in  large  roads  ;  ferving  to  fhow 
the  different  routs  by  infcriptions  thereon. 

Ladary  Column,  at  Rome,  according  to  Feftus,  was 
a  column  erefted  in  the  heib-maiket,  now  the  place 
Montanara,  which  had  a  cavity  in  its  pcdeilal,  wherein 
young  children  abandoned  by  their  parents,  out  of  po- 
verty or  inhumanity,  were  expoled,  to  be  brought  up 
at  the  public  expence. 

Legal  C01.UMS.  Among  the  Lacedemonians  there 
were  columns  raifed  in  public  places,  whereon  were 
engraven  the  fundamental  laws  of  the  Hate. 
.  Lim'ilrophous  or  Boundary  Colums,  that  which  (hows 
the  limits  of  a  kingdom  or  country  conquei-ed.  Such 
was  that  which  Pliny  fays  Alexander  the  Great  eredled 
at  tlie  extremity  of  the  Indies. 

Manubiary  Coli'mk,  from  the  Latin  manubitt,  "  fpoils 
of  the  enemy  ;"  a  column  adorned  with  trophies  built 
in  imitation  of  trees,  whereon  the  fpoils  of  enemies  were 
anciently  hung.     See  Trophy. 

Memorial  CoirM.v,  that  raifed  on  occafion  of  any 
gemarkable  event ;  as  the  monument  of  London,  built 
to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  the  burning  of  that  city 
in  1666.  It  is  of  the  Doric  order,  fluted,  hollow,  with 
a  winding  ftair-cafe  ;  and  terminated  a-top  with  wa- 
ving flames.  There  is  alfo  another  of  the  kind,  in 
fonn  of  an  obeliik,  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine  in  the 
Palatinate,  in  memory  of  the  famous  paflage  of  that 
river  by  the  great  Gutlavus  Adolphus  and  his  army. 

Jllenian  Column,  any  column  which  fupports  a  bal- 
cony or  meniana.  Tlie  origin  of  this  kind  of  column, 
Suetonius  and  Afcanius  refer  to  one  Menias ;  who  ha- 
ving fold  his  houfe  to  Cato  and  Flaccus,  confuls,  to  be 
converted  into  a  public  edifice,  referved  to  himfelf  the 
right  of  raifing  a  column  withontfide,  to  bear  a  balcony, 
vlience  he  might  fee  the  fhews. 

MilUary  Column,  was  a  column  of  marble  raifed 
by  ordei-  of  Augullus  in  the  middle  of  the  Roman  fo- 
rum ;  from  whence,  as  a  centre,  the  diftances  of  the 
feveral  cities,  &:c.  of  the  empire  were  reckoned,  by 
other  milliary  columns  difpofed  at  equal  dillances  on 
all  the  grand  roads.  This  column  was  of  white  mar- 
ble, the  fame  with  that  which  is  now  feen  on  the  bal- 
luftrade  of  the  perron  of  the  capital  at  Rome.  Its 
proportion  is  maifive,  being  a  (hort  cylinder,  the  fym- 
bol  of  the  globe  of  the  earth.  It  was  called  miU'mrium 
aureuni,  as  having  been  gilt,  at  leaft  the  ball,  by  order 
of  Augullus.  It  was  reftored  by  the  emperors  Vefpa- 
fian  and  Adrian,  as  appears  by  the  infcriptions. 

M'Jilary  Column,  among  the  Romans,  a  column 
whereon  was  engraven  a  lift  of  the  forces  in  the  Roman 
army,  ranged  by  legions,  in  their  proper  order  ;  with 
defign  to  preferve  the  memory  of  the  number  of  fol- 
diers,  and  of  the  order  preferved  in  any  military  ex- 
pedition. They  had  another  kind  of  military  column, 
which  they  called  ce'iimiia  bellka,  ilandihg  before  the 
temple  of  Janus  ;  at  the  foot  whereof  the  conful  decla- 
red war,  by  throwing  a  javelin  towards  the  enemies 
countries. 

Sepulchral  Column,  anciently  was  a  column  ereifled 
on  a  tomb  or  fepulchre,  with  an  infcripiion  on  its  bafe. 


Thofe  over  the  tombs  of  perfons  of  diftinAfon  were 
very  large  ;  thofe  for  the  common  people  fmall :  thcfe 
lad  3Xi  called_/?(/.f  and  app'r^  ^_ 

Statuary  Column,  that  which  fupports  a  ftatue.  Such 
was  that  ere£led  by  Pope  Paul  V.  on  a  pcdeilal  before 
the  church  of  St  Maiia  at  Rome  ;  to  fupport  a  ftatue 
of  the  Virgin,  which  is  of  gilt  brafs.  This  column 
was  dug  up  in  the  temple  of  peace  ;  its  (haft  is  a  lingle 
block  of  white  marble  49r  feet  high,  and  five  feet  eight 
inches  diameter,  of  the  Corinthian  order. 

The  term  Jlatuary  column  may  likewife  be  applied 
to  Caryatides,  perllans,  termini,  and  other  human  fi- 
gures, which  do  the  ofRce  of  columns  ;  and  which  Vi- 
truvius  calls  telomones  aaAatlanla.  See  Architecture, 
n^  54. 

Triumphal  Column,  a  column  erefted  among  the  an- 
cients in  honour  of  an  hero  ;  the  joints  of  the  ftones, 
or  courfcs  whereof,  were  covered  with  as  many  crowns 
as  he  had  made  different  military  expeditions.  Each 
crown  had  its  particular  name,  as  •ualiaris,  which  was 
befet  with  fpikes,  in  memory  of  having  forced  a  pali- 
fade.  Mural'is,  adorned  with  little  turrets  or  battle- 
ments, for  having  mounted  an  aflault.  Navalis,  of 
prows  and  beaks  of  veffsk ;  for  having  overcome  at 
fea.  Ohfdionales,  or  gramlnales,  of  grafs  ;  for  having 
raifed  a  fiege.  Ovaiu,  of  myrtle ;  which  expreffed 
an  ovation,  or  little  triumph  ;  and  trlumphalu,  of  lau- 
rel, for  a  grand  triumph.      See  Crown. 

COLUMNARIUM,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  heavy 
tribute,  demanded  for  every  pillar  of  a  houfe.  It  was 
firft  laid  on  by  Julius  Cxfar,  in  order  to  put  a  (lop  to 
the  extravagant  expences  laid  out  on  fumptuous  build- 
ings. 

COLUMNEA,  in  botany  :  A  genus  of  the  angio- 
fpermia  order,  belonging  to  the  didynamia  clafs  of 
plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
40th  order,  Perfonati.  The  calyx  is  quinquepartite  ; 
the  upper  lip  of  the  corolla  arched  and  entire  ;  gibbous 
above  the  bafe  ;  the  antherte  convex  ;  the  capfule  bi- 
locular  There  is  but  one  fpecies,  a  native  of  Marti- 
nico,  of  which  we  have  no  particular  defcription. 

COLUMNIFERI,  in  botany,  an  order  of  plants 
in  x)n.t  frcigmenta  nielhodi  naturalis  of  Linnaeus,  in  which 
are  tlie  following  genera,  viz.  bixa,  corchorus,  helio- 
carpus,  kiggelaria,  microcos,  muntingia,  thea,  tilea, 
turnera,  tnumfetta,  ayenia,  grevia,  helifteres,  klcin- 
hovia,  adanfonia,  alcaea,  althaea,  bombax,  camellia, 
gofypium,  hermannia,  hibifcus,  lavatera,  malope,  mal- 
va,  melochia,  napaea,  pentapetes,  fida,  ftewartia,  theo- 
broma,  urena,  waltharia. 

COLURES,  in  aftronomyand  geography,  two  great 
circles  fuppofed  to  interfett  each  other  at  right  angles 
in  the  poles  of  the  world,  and  to  pafs  through  the  fol- 
ftitial  and  equinoftial  points  of  the  ecliptic.      See  Geo- 

GRAPHV. 

COLURI,  a  little  ifland  in  the  gulph  of  Engia,  in 
the  Archipelago,  formerly  called  Salamis.  The  prin- 
cipal town  is  of  the  fame  name,  and  feated  on  the  fouth 
fide,  at  the  bottom  of  the  harbour,  which  is  one  of  the 
fined  in  the  world.  The  famous  Grecian  hero,  Ajax, 
who  makes  fuch  a  figure  in  Homer's  Iliad,  was  king 
of  this  ifland.  It  is  now,  however,  but  a  poor  place  ; 
its  commodities  confift  of  wheat,  barley,  tar,  rofin, 
pit-coal,  fponges,  and  pot-aflies,  which  they  carr)'  to 

Athens. 


Column 

II 
Coluri.  . 


COL 


f     175     ] 


COL 


>Iutea     Alliens.     It  is  fevcn  milcs  fuuth  from  Athens,  and  is 
II         feparated  from  the  continent  by  a  (liait  about  a  mile 


jlymbus. 


over. 

COLUTEA,  BASTARD-SENA,  in  botany:  A  pcnus 
of  tlie  dccandria  order,  belonging  to  the  diadt-lphia 
clafs  of  plants;  and  in  the  natuial  mtthod  ranking 
under  the  3  2d  order,  Pafd'ionaccit.  The  calyx  is  quin- 
quelid  ;  tlie  legumen  inflated,  opening  at  the  upper 
part  of  the  bafe.  There  are  three  fpecies,  all  of  them 
deciduous  flowering  fhrubs,  adorned  with  many-lobtd 
leaves,  and  butterHy-fhaped  flowers,  of  a  deep  ytUow 
or  red  colour.  They  aie  propagated  both  by  feeds 
and  layers,  and  are  hardy  enough,  tliough  they  fonie- 
times  require  a  little  fhclter  when  the  weather  id  very 
cold. 

COLYBA,  cr  CoLYBUs;  a  term  in  the  Greek  li- 
turgy, fign'fying  an  offering  of  corn  and  boiled  pulfe, 
made  in  honour  of  the  faints,  and  for  the  fake  of  the 
dead. 

Balfamon,  P.  Goar,  Leo,  AUatius,  and  others,  liave 
written  on  the  fubjeft  ai  colyhtt ;  the  fubilance  of  wliat 
they  have  faid  is  as  follows  :  The  Greeks  boil  a  quan- 
tity of  wheat,  and  lay  it  in  little  heaps  on  a  plate  ; 
adding  beaten  peas,  nuts  cut  fmall,  and  grape-lloncs, 
which  they  divide  into  fcveral  compartments,  fepa- 
rated  from  each  other  by  leaves  of  parflcy.  A  little 
heap  of  wheat,  thus  feafoned,  they  call  x'^"'^.  They 
have  a  particular  formula  for  the  benediftion  of  the 
(olyla  :  wherein,  praying  that  the  children  of  Babylon 
may  be  fed  with  pulfe,  and  that  they  may  be  in  better 
condition  tliA  other  people,  they  deilre  God  to  bkfs 
thofe  fruits,  and  ihofe  who  cat  them,  becaufe  offered 
to  his  glory,  to  the  honour  of  fuch  a  faint,  and  in  nie- 
moiy  of  the  faitliful  dcccafed.  Balfamon  refers  the 
inftitution  of  this  ceremony  to  St  Athanafins  ;  but 
the  Greek  Synaxary  to  the  time  of  Julian  the  apo- 
flate. 

COLYMBUS,  in  ornithology,  a  genus  belonging  to 
fhe  order  of  anferes.  The  bill  has  no  teeth,  is  fubu- 
lated,  ftraight,  and  firarp-pointed  ;  the  teeth  are  in  the 
throat  ;  the  nollrils  are  linear,  and  at  the  bafe  of  the 
bill ;  and  the  legs  are  unfit  for  walking.  This  genus 
includes  the  divers,  guillemots,  and  grebes  ;  of  which 
the  following  are  the  moft  remarkable  fpecies. 

i.ThegrylkjOr  black  guillemot,  is  in  length  14  inch- 
es, in  breadth  22  ;  the  bill  is  an  inch  and  an  half  long, 
ftraight,  {lender,  and  black ;  the  infide  of  the  mouth  red  ; 
on  each  wing  is  a  large  bed  of  white,  which  in  young 
birds  is  fpotted  ;  the  tips  of  the  lefler  quill-feathers,  and 
the  coverts  of  the  wings,  are  white  :  except  thofe,  the 
whole  plumage  is  black.  In  winter  it  is  faid  to  change 
to  white;  and  a  variety  fpotted  with  blitck  and  white 
is  not  uncommon  in  Scotland.  The  tail  confuisof  12 
feathers  ;  the  legs  are  red.  Thefe  birds  are  found 
on  the  Bafs  ifle  in  Scotland;  in  the  ifland  of  St  Kilda; 
and,  as  Mr  Ray  imagines,  in  the  Farm  Iflands  off  the 
coafl  of  Northumberland.  It  has  alfo  been  fcen  on  the 
rocks  of  Llandidno,  in  Caernarvonfhire,  in  Wales. 
Except  in  breeding-time  it  keeps  always  at  fca  ;  and 
is  very  difficult  to  be  fhot,  diving  at  the  flalh  of  the 
pan.  The  Welfh  call  this  bird  cafcan  loiigur,  or  "  the 
Jailor's  hatred,"  from  a  notion  that  its  appearance 
forebodes  a  florm.  It  vifits  St  Kilda's  in  March;  makes 
iU  neft  far  under  ground  ;  and  lays  a  grey  egg,  or,  as 


Steller  fays,  whitidi  and  fpotted  with  rufl,  and  fpcckltd  Cely.T.lus. 
with  a(h-colour.  '         "v 

2.  The  troile,  or  foolilh  guillemot,  we:ghs  24  ounces : 
its  length  is  17  inches,  the  breadth  zyi- ;  the  bill  is  three 
inches  long,  bl.iek,  ilraight,  and  iharp-pointed ;  near  tlie 
end  of  the  hiwrr  mandible  is  a  fmall  procefs ;  the  infide 
of  the  mouth  yellow  ;  the  feathers  on  the  upper  part  of 
the  bill  are  ihort  and  foft  like  velvet ;  from  the  eye  to 
the  hind  part  of  the  head  is  a  fmall  divifion  of  the 
feathers.  The  head,  neck,  back,  wings,  and  tail,  arc 
of  a  deep  moufe-colour  ;  the  tips  of  the  leflTer  quilU 

•feathcrs  white  ;  the  whole  under  part  of  the  body  is 
of  a  pure  white;  the  fides  under  the  wings  marked 
wlih  duiky  lines.  Immediately  above  the  thighs  are 
fome  long  feathers  that  curl  over  them.  The  legs  are 
dulky.  They  are  found  in  amazing  numbers  on  the 
high  clifts  of  feveral  of  the  Dritiih  avails,  and  appear 
at  the  fame  time  with  the  ank.  They  are  very  fimpie 
birds:  for  notwithllanding  they  are  (hot  at,  and  i'l  e 
their  companions  killed  by  them,  they  will  not  q\iit 
the  rock.  Like  the  auk  they  lay  only  one  egg,  which 
is  very  large  :  fome  are  of  a  line  pale  blue  ;  others 
white,  fpotted,  or  moll  elegantly  Iheaked  with  linca 
crofiing  each  other  in  all  dircdtions.  They  continue 
about  the  Orkneys  the  whole  winter.  The  chief 
places  they  are  known  to  breed  in  are  the  uninhabited! 
ifle  of  Pricitholm,  near  the  ifle  of  Anglcfy;  on  a  rock 
called  Godreve,  not  far  from  St  Ives  in  Cornwall  ;  the 
Farn  ifles,  near  the  coail  of  Northumberland  ;  and  the 
clifts  about  Scaiborough  in  Yorkfhire.  They  are  alfo 
found  in  moll  of  the  northern  parts  of  Europe,  to 
Spitsbergen,  the  coaft  of  Lapmark,  and  along  the 
white  and  icy  fe?.  quite  to  K.imtfchatka.  Is  frequent- 
ly met  with  on  the  coails  of  Italy  in  the  winter.  It 
is  alio  known  in  Newfoundland,  and  in  a  few  parts  of 
the  continent  of  North  America,  but  has  not  hitheito 
been  talked  of  as  common.  Our  lall  voyagers  met 
with  it  on  the  coaft  north  of  Nootka  Sound.  It  is 
known  by  feveral  names ;  by  the  Welch,  gui/kni  ;  at 
Northumberland  and  Durham,  ^W/.'fWO/  o\  fia-hen  ;  in 
Yorkfliire,  ifcout ;  by  the  Cornifli,  h'uldab  ;  in  the  fou- 
thern  parts,  'iniHock ;  and  in  Kamtfchatka,  aru  or  kara. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  lall  kill  them  in  numbers  for 
the  fake  of  their  flefh,  though  it  is  certainly  very 
tough  and  ill  tailed  ;  but  more  efpecially  for  their 
flcins,  of  which,  as  of  other  fowls,  they  make  gar- 
ments :  the  eggs  are  alfo  accounted  a  great  deli- 
cacy. 

3.  The  feptentrionalis,  or  red-throated  diver,  is 
more  elegantly  fhaped  than  the  others.  It  weighs 
three  pounds.  The  length  to  the  end  of  the  tail  is 
two  feet ;  to  the  toes  two  feet  four  inches:  the  breadth 
three  feet  five  inches.  The  head  is  fmall  and  taper, 
the  bill  ftraight  ;  the  head  and  chin  are  of  a  fine  uni- 
form grey  ;  the  hind  part  of  the  neck  marked  with 
dufl<y  and  white  lines  pointing  downwards;  the  throat 
is  of  a  dull  red  ;  the  whole  upper  part  of  the  body, 
tail,  and  wings,  of  a  deep  grey,  alraoft  dulky ;  but  the 
coverts  of  the  wings  and  the  back  are  marked  v\  ith  a 
few  white  fpots  ;  the  under  fide  of  the  body  is  white  j 
the  legs  dulky.  This  fpecies  breeds  in  the  northern 
parts  of  Scotland,  on  the  borders  of  the  lakes.  It  is 
found  alfo  in  Ruflia,  Siberia,  and  Kamtfchatka  ;  but 
does  not  haunt  the  inland  lakes.  It  is  comaion  in  Ice- 
%  Und 


COL 


r  17 


C'otymbus.  land  antl  Greenland,  wlicre  it  breeds  in  June,  and  lays 

*~"^^ '  two  aili-coloured  ti;y;s,  marked  with  a  fewblick  fpols; 

it  makes  its  ncll  in  the  grafs  on  tlie  fhores,  compofcd 
of  mofs  and  grafs,  and  placed  contiguous  to  the  water. 
It  fwims  and  dives  well,  and  flies  admirably,  and  while 
flying  is  very  noify.  It  feeds  on  fmal!  frlli,  crabs,  and 
fea  infefts.  In  the  fummer,  it  inhabits  the  rivers  of 
■Hudfon's  bay,  appearing  as  foon  as  the  rivers  are 
open.  Here  it  lays  in  June,  and  lines  the  neft  with  a 
little  down  from  its  own  brcaft  ;  the  young  fly  before 
ihe  end  of  Auguft,  and  they  all  depart  in  September. 
They  are  called  by  the  natives  cffce-moqua.  They 
prey  much  on  the  iifli  entangled  in  the  nets ;  but  are 
often  thereby  caught  themfelves. 

4.  Theardicus,  or  black-throated  diver,  isfomewhat 
larger  than  the  lafl:  :  the  bill  is  black,  and  alfo  the  front ; 
the  hind  part  of  the  head  and  neck  cinereous  ;  the  fides 
of  the  neck  marked  with  black  and  white  lines  pointing 
downwards  ;  the  fore-part  of  a  gloffy  variable  black, 
purple,  and  green.  The  back,  fcapulars,  and  coverts  of 
tlie  wings,  are  black,  marked,  the  twofirft  with  fquare, 
the  lall  with  round  fpols  of  white;  the  quill- feathers 
duflcy  ;  the  breaft  and  belly  white  ;  the  tail  fiiort  and 
black ;  legs  partly  dufl:y,  and  partly  reddifh.  This 
fpecies  is  now  and  then  found  in  England,  but  is  not 
'common.  It  is  fufficiently  plenty  in  the  northern 
parts  of  Europe,  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark. 
Frequent  in  the  inland  lakes  of  Siberia,  efpecially  thofe 
of  the  arftic  regions;  in  Iceland,  Greenland,  and  the 
Ferroe  Ifles  ;  and  in  America  at  Hudfon's  bay.  It  is 
fuppofed  to  cry  and  be  verj-  relllefs  before  rain,  making 
a  great  noife  :  hence  the  Norwegians  think  it  impious 
to  deftroy  this  fpecies  ;  but  the  Swedes,  lefs  fuperfti- 
tious,  drefs  their  (Ivins,  which,  hke  all  of  this  genus, 
are  exceedingly  tough,  and  ufe  them  for  gun-cafes  and 
facings  for  v%-inter  caps. 

5.  The  glacialis,  or  northern  diver,  is  three  feet  live 
inches  in  length  ;  the  breadth  four  feet  eight ;  the  bill  to 
the  corners  of  the  mouth  four  inches  long,  black  and 
ftrongly  made.  The  head  and  neck  are  of  a  deep  black  ; 
the  hhid  part  of  the  latter  is  niarked  with  a  large  femi'lu- 
nar white  band;  immediatelyunder  the  throat  is  another; 
both  marked  with  black  oblong  ftrokes  pointing  down  : 
tlie  Iqwer  part  of  the  neck  is  of  a  deep  black,  glofTed 
■with  a  rich  purple  ;  the  whole  under  fide  of  the  body 
is  white  ;  the  fides  of  the  breaft  marked  with  black 
lines  ;  the  back,  coverts  of  the  wings,  and  fcapulars, 
are  black  marked  v.itli  v.hite  fpots  ;  thofe  on  the  fca- 
pulars are  very  large,  and  of  a  fquare  fhape  ;  two  at 
the  end  of  each  feather.  The  tail  is  veiy  fliort,  and 
almoft  concealed  by  the  coverts,  which  are  dul]<y, 
fpottcd  v.'ith  white  ;  the  legs  are  black.  This  fpecies 
inhabits  feveral  parts  of  the  north  of  Europe,  but  is 
not  very  frequent  on  our  fliores  ;  nor  ever  feen  fouth- 
w^rd  except  in  very  fevere  winters.  It  is  feldom  met 
with  on  land,  being  for  the  moft  part  on  the  open  fea, 
where  it  is  continually  diving  for  filli,  which  it  does 
with  great  agilitv,  and  flies  high  and  well.  It  is  com- 
mon in  Iceland  and  Greenland,  where  it  breeds,  and  at 
that  time  frequcr.ts  the  frefh  waters.  It  is  fufficieritly 
plentiful  in  Norway,  and  all  along  the  arftic  coafts,  as 
far  as  the'  river  Ob,  in  the  RuiTian  dominions.  The 
Barabinzians,  a  nation  fituated  between  that  river  and 
the  Irtifch,  tan  the  breafts  of  this  and  other  water-fowl; 
whofe  fliins  they  prepare  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  pre- 

N°  85.  '  2 


6     ]  COL 

fervc  the  down  upon  them  ;  and  fewing  a  number  of  Colymbc 
them  together,  their  hufljands  fell  them,  to  make  pel- '— v~~ 
lices,  caps,  iS;c.  Garments  made  of  thefe  aie  very 
warm,  never  imbibing  the  leaft  moifture;  and  are  more 
lafting  than  could  be  imagined.  It  is.  alfo  met  with 
among  the  lakes  of  Hudfon's  bay.  The  natives  of 
Greenland  ufe  the  fl<ins  for  cloathing  ;  and  the  In- 
dians about  Hudfon's  bay  adorn  their  heads  with  cir- 
clets  of  their  feathers.  At  the  lall  place  it  is  known 
by  the  name  of  alhmue-moqua.  As  tliey  are  feldom 
feen  on  the  fea-coafts,  but  chiefly  among  the  lakes, 
they  are  called  by  the  Indians  Inland  loor.s. 

6.  The  immcr,  or  embcr-goofe,  is  fuperior  in  fize 
to  a  common  goofe.  The  head  is  du(l;y ;  the  back, 
coverts  of  the  wings,  and  tail,  clouded  witli  lighter 
and  darker  fiiades  of  the  fame.  The  primaries  and 
tail  are  black  ;  the  under  fide  of  the  neck  fpotted  with 
dull^y  ;  the  breaft  and  belly  iilvery  :  the  legs  black. 
They  inhabit  the  feas  about  the  Orkney  Iflands;  but 
in  fevere  winters  vlfit  the  fouthern  parts  of  Great  Bri- 
tain. They  are  found  alfo  in  Iceland,  and  moft  parts 
of  northern  Europe  ;  llkewife  in  Kamtfchatka  ;  but 
not  in  any  parts  of  Sibei-ia  or  Ruifia.  It  likewife  in- 
habits Switzerland,  particularly  on  the  lake  Conftance, 
where  it  is  known  by  the  name  oi Jliider.  It  is  faid 
to  dive  wonderfully  well,  and  to  rife  at  an  amazing 
diftance  from  the  place  where  it  plunged.  The  female 
makes  its  neft  among  the  reeds  and  flags,  and  places 
it  in  the  water  ;  fo  that  it  is  continuall)' wet,  as  in 
fome  of  the  grebe  genus.  It  is  difficult  to  be  taken, 
either  on  land  or  fwimming  on  the  water;  but  is  not 
unfrequently  caught  under  the  water  by  a  hook  baited 
with  a  fmall  fifli,  its  ufual  food. 

7.  The  Chinefe  diver,  dcfcribed  by  Mr  Latham  ; 
the  fize  uncertain,  but  in  the  drawing  the  length  was 
14  inches.  The  bill  du.Ocy  :  irides  afti-colour  :  the 
upper  parts  of  the  head,  neck,  body,  wings,  and  tail, 
du.Ocy  greenilli  brown ;  the  middle  of  the  feathers  much 
darker  :  the  fore  part  of  the  neck  the  fame,  but  con- 
fiderably  paler :  chin  pale  rufous  :  breaft  and  under 
parts  of  the  body  pale  rufous  white,  marked  with  dufl^y 
rufous  fpots  :  the  quills  and  tail  are  plain  brown,  the  " 
lall  ftiort  :  legs  afti-colour.  Suppofed  to  inhabit  Chi- 
na, as  Mr  Latham  faw  it  among  other  wed  painted 
drawings  at  Sir  Jofeph  Banks's;  it  was  in  the  attitude 
of  fiftiing,  with  a  brafs  ring  round  the  middle' of  the 
neck,  in  the  manner  of  the  figure,  Plate  CXXVI. 
From  the  various  and  uncertain  accounts  of  authorsj 
we  are  not  clear  what  birds  the  Chinefe  ufe  for  cafch- 
ing  filh  ;  the  cuftom,  however,  of  doing  it  is  manifeft, 
from  the  relations  of  many  travellers.  The  bird  ufed 
for  this  purpofe  has  a  ring  fattened  round  the  middle 
of  the  neck,  in  order  to  prevent  its  fwallowing  ;  be- 
fides  this  it  has  a  flender  long  ftring  fattened  to  it  ; 
and,  thus  accoutred,  is  taken  by  its  matter  into  his 
fifliing-boat,  from  the  edge  of  which  it  is  taught  to 
plunge  after  the  fiih  as  tiiey  pafs  by ;  and  as  the  ring 
prevents  their  paffing  further  downwards,  they  are 
taken  from  the  mouth  of  the  bird  as  faft  as  they  arc 
catight.  In  this  manner  fometimes  a  great  many  art 
procured  in  the  courfe  of  a  few  hours.  When  the 
keeper  of  the  bird  has  taken  fufficient  for  himlclf,  the 
ring  is  taken  off,  ar^d  the  poor  flave  fuffered  to  fatisfy 
its  own  hunger.  We  do  not  here  give  this  bird  as  the 
one  moft  commonly  ufed  for  the  above  purpofe  ■;  but 

have 


COL 


[     I 


rmbas.  hnve  tlioiiglit  right  to  fijrure  it,  as  a  fpcoits,    if  not 
'^~~    new,  at  Icall  as  not   generally  known  ;  and  piohably, 
from  the  circumftance  of  its  iitualion  in   the  painting, 
may  prove  one  of  the  birds  ufed  on  this  occalion. 

8.  Thi:  ilellatus,  or  fpeckled  diver,  a  fpecics  Icfs  than 
the  former,  wetj^hs  two  pounds  and  a  half :  and  is  27 
inches  in  length  and  three  feet  nine  in  breadth.  The 
bill  is  three  inches  long,  bending  a  trifle  upwards;  and 
is  of  a  pale  horn-colonr,  the  top  of  the  upper  mandi- 
ble dndcy,  the  head  is  dniky,  dotted  with  grey;  hind 
part  of  the  neck  plain  duiky ;  the  fides  under  the  eye, 
the  chin,  and  throat,  white;  fore  part  of  the  neck  very 
pale  adi-colonr  ;  back  dulky,  marked  with  ov;d  fpots 
t-f  white  ;  fides  of  the  hreaft  and  body  the  fame,  but 
fmaller  ;  the  fpots  or.  the  rump  and  tail  minute  ;  bread 
and  under  parts  white  ;  quills  duflcy  ;  legs  brown  ; 
webs  and  claws  pale.  This  bird  is  pretty  frequent  in 
England  ;  fufficicntly  fo  on  the  river  Thames,  where 
it  is  called  by  the  fiihermen _^ra/  loon,  being  often  fcen 
in  vaft  muribers  among  the  iboals  of  that  fifh,  diving 
after  them,  and  frequently  approaching  very  near  the 
boats  while  filbing.  It  is  common  about  the  Baltic 
and  the  White  Sea,  but  not  obferved  in  other  parts  of 
Ruffia,  yet  is  a  native  of  Kamtfchatka.  It  lays  two 
eggs,  in  the  grafs,  on  the  borders  of  lakes  not  far  from 
the  fea  ;  they  are  exacily  oval,  the  f;/e  of  tliofe  of  a 
goofe,  dnflcy,  marked  with  a  few  black  fpots.  Thcfe 
are  alfo  frequent  about  the  fiib  ponds  in  France,  cx- 
tept  they  are  frozen,  when  they  betake  themfelvts  to 
tlie  rivers.  litis  and  the  two  lad  vifit  New  York  in 
winter,  but  return  very  tar  north  to  breed. 

9.ThecryRatus,crclled  diver,or  cargoofe,weighstwo 
pounds  and  an  half.  Its  length  is  2  I  inches,  the  breadth 
30;  the  bill  is  two  inches  and  a  quarter  long,  red  at  the 
bafe,  and  black  at  the  point  ;  between  the  bill  and  the 
eyes  is  a  ilripe  of  black  naked  fiiin  ;  the  irides  are  of 
a  fine  pale  red;  the  tongue  is  a  third  part  (horter  than 
the  bill,  {lender,  hard  at  the  end,  and  a  little  divided  ; 
on  the  head  is  a  large  duflcy  crelt,  ftparated  in  the 
middle.  The  checks  and  throat  are  fiirrounded  with 
along  pendent  ruff,  of  a  bright  tawncy  colour,  edged 
vith  black  ;  the  chin  is  white;  from  the  bill  to  the 
eye  is  a  black  line,  and  above  that  a  white  one  ;  the 
hind  part  of  the  neck  andtke  back  are  of  a  footy  hue  ; 
the  rump,  for  it  wants  a  tail,  is  covered  with  long  folt 
down.  The  covert-feathers  on  the  fecond  and  third 
joints  of  the  wing,  and  the  under  coverts,  are  white  ; 
all  the  other  wing-feathers,  except  the  fecondarits, 
are  du(l<y,  thofe  being  white  ;  the  bread  and  belly 
are  of  a  moll  beautiful  filvery  white,  glolfy  as  fattin  : 
the  outfide  of  the  legs  and  the  bottom  of  the  feet  are 
duflty ;  the  infide  of  the  legs  and  the  toes  of  a  pale 
green,  Thefe  birds  frequent  the  meres  of  Shrop- 
(hire  and  Chtfhire,  where  they  breed  ;  and  the  great 
fen  of  Liucolnftiire,  where  they  aic  called  gaunis. 
Their  fliins  are  made  into  tippets,  and  fold  at  as  high 
a  price  as  thofe  which  come  from  Geneva.  This  fpe- 
cies  lays  four  eggs  of  a  white  colour,  and  the  fame 
fi7.e  with  thofe  of  a  pigeon.  The  neft  is  formed  of 
the  roots  ot  bugbane,  ilalks  of  water-lily,  pond-weed, 
and  water-violet,  floating  independent  among  tiie  reeds 
and  flags  ;  the  water  penetrates  it,  and  the  bird  fits 
and  hatches  the  eggs  in  that  wet  condition  ;  the  nci'l 
IS  fomeiimes  blown  fiom  among  the  flags  into  the 
•middle  of  the  water  :  ia  thefe  circumftanccs  the  fable 
,    VoL.V.  Parti. 


7     ]  '        C     O     !\I 

of  the  halcyon's  neft  may,  in  fome  me.ifurc,  \te  vindi-  CJymlim, 
cated.  It  is  a  careful  nuifc  of  its  young;  being  ob-  ^""''  ^ 
fcrvcfl  to  feed  them  moll  afiiduoully,  commonly  witii 
favall  eels  ;  and  when  the  infant  brood  arc  tired,  the 
parent  wQl  carry  them  either  on  its  back  or  under  its 
wings.  It  preys  on  fifh,  and  is  ahnoil  perpetually  di- 
ving ;  it  does  not  (how  much  more  than  the  head  a- 
Love  water  :  and  is  very  difficult  to  be  fhot,  as  it  darts 
down  on  the  lead  appearance  of  danger.  It  is  never 
fcen  on  land  ;  and,  though  didurbed  ever  fo  often, 
will  not  fly  farther  than  the  end  of  the  lake.  Its  fkiu 
is  out  of  fcafon  about  February,  lofing  then  its  bright 
colour  ;  and  in  the  breeding  time  its  bread  is  almoit 
bare.     The  fledi  is  exctflively  rank. 

10.  The  urinator,  or  tippct-grebe,  thought  by  Mr 
Latham  not  to  be  a  different  fpecies  from  the  former, 
being  only  fomewhat  lefs,  and  wanting  the  crefl  and 
ruff.  The  fides  of  the  neck  are  flriped  downwards  from 
the  head  with  narrow  lines  of  black  and  white  :  in  other 
rcfpeifts  the  colours  and  marks  agree  with  that  bird. 
This  fpecies  has  been  (hot  on  Roltein  Mere  in  Chefhire. 
It  is  rather  fcarce  in  England,  but  is  common  in  the 
winter  time  on  the  lake  of  Geneva.  They  appear 
there  in  flocks  of  lo  or  I2;  and  are  killed  for  the 
lake  of  their  beautiful  ikins.  The  under  fide  of  them 
being  dreffcd  with  the  feathers  oh,  are  made  into 
muffs  and  tippets  :  each  bird  fells  for  about  14  fliillings. 

I  I.  T!ieauritus,eared  grebe, or  dob-chick,isin  length 
one  foot  to  the  rump  ;  the  extent  is  2  ?.  inclies  ;  the  bill 
black,  flcnder,  and  flightly  rccurvated  ;  the  irides 
crimfon  ;  the  head  and  neck  are  black  ;  the  throat 
fpotted  with  white;  the  whole  upper  fide  of  a  blackifh 
brown,  except  the  ridge  of  the  wing  about  the  firft 
joint,  and  the  fecondary  feathers,  which  aie  white; 
the  breall,  belly,  ajtd  inner  coverts  of  the  wings  are 
white  ;  the  fubaxillary  feathers,  and  fome  on  the  iide 
of  the  rump,  ferruginous.  Behind  the  eyes,  on  each 
fide,  is  a  tuft  of  long,  loofe,  ruft  coloured  feathers 
hanging  backwards  ;  tlie  legs  are  of  a  dullry  green. 
They  inhabit  the  fers  near  Spalding  where  they 
breed.  No  external  difference  is  to  be  obferved  be- 
tween the  male  and  the  female  of  this  fpecies.  They 
make  their  ned  not  unlike  that  of  the  former;  and 
lay  four  or  five  fmall  eggs. 

12.  The  homed  grebe,  is  about  the  fir.e  of  a  teal; 
weight,  one  pound  ;  length,  one  foot;  breadth,  16 
inches.  Bill  one  inch,  du.'^cy  ;  head  very  full  of  fea- 
thers, and  of  a  gloffy  deep  green,  nearly  black  :  thro' 
each  eye  is  a  itreak  of  yellow  feathers,  elongated  into 
a  tuft  as  it  palTcs  to  the  hind  head  :  the  upper  part  of 
the  neck  and  back  is  a  duil:y  brown  ;  the  fore  part  of 
the  neck  and  bread,  datk  orange  red  :  the  leffer  wing 
coverts,  cinerous  ;  the  greater  and  uuiUs,  black  ;  mid- 
dle ones,  white  :  belly,  gh'ily  white  ;  legs,  cinerous 
blue  before,  pale  behind. —  It  inhabites  Hudfou's  bay; 
and  fird  appears  in  May,  about  the  frefh  waters.  It 
I.iys  Irom  two  lo  four  white  eggs  in  June,  among  the 
aquatic  plants  ;  ar.d  is  faid  to  cover  theem  when  abroad. 
It  retires  fouth  in  autumn  ;  appears  then  at  New  York, 
Haying  till  fpring,  when  it  returns  to  the  north.  For 
its  vail  quicknefs  in  diving,  it  is  called  the  ivater-tvitch. 
At  Hudfon's  bay,  it  is  known  bv  the  name  oi  fiekeep. 
See  Plate  CXLIII. 

COM,  a  town  of  Afia  in  the  empire  of  Perfia,  and 

province  of  Itacagemi.     It  is  a  large  populous  place, 

Z  but 


C     O     IM 


Coma 


[        178        ] 


COM 


but  has  AifFered  greatly  by  the  civil  wars.     E.  Long. 
49.  I    N.  Lat.  34.0. 

COMA,  or  CoMA-viGii.,  a  preternatural  propen- 
fity  to  fleep,  when,  neverthtlef?,  the  patient  does  not 
fleep,  or  if  he  doe?,  awakes  immediately  without  any 
relief.      See  ME'\ciNV-Imfex. 

CoM.n  Bcmices,  Berenice's  hair,  in  aftronomy,  a 
modern  conftellation  'f  the  northern  hemifphere,  com- 
pofed  of  unformed  ft:irs  between  the  Lion's  tail  and 
Bootes.  This  conftellation  is  faid  to  have  been  form- 
ed by  Conon,  an  ailronomer,  in  order  to  confole  the 
queen  of  Ptolemy  Evergetes  for  the  lofs  of  a  lock  of 
her  hair,  which  was  ftolen  out  of  the  temple  of  Venus, 
where  (he  had  dedicated  it  on  account  of  a  viftory  ob- 
tained by  her  hufband.  The  ilars  of  this  conltella- 
tion,  in  Tycho's  Catalogue,  are  fourteen;  in  Hevelius's, 
twenty-one;  and  in  the  Britannic  Catalogue,  forty-three. 

Coma  Somnolentum,  is  when  the  patient  continues  in 
a  profound  fleep  ;  and,  when  awakened,  immediately 
relapfes,  without  being  able  to  keep  open  his  eyes. 

COMARUM,  marsh-cinquefoil:  A  genus  of 
the  polygynia  order,  belonging  to  the  icofandria  clafs 
of  plants;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under 
the  35th  order,  Senticof.3.  The  calyx  is  decemfid  ; 
the  petals  five,  Icfs  than  the  calyx  ;  the  receptacle 
of  the  feeds  ovate,  fpongy,  and  perfiiling.  There 
is  but  one  fpecies,  a  native  of  Britain.  It  rifes  about 
two  feet  high,  and  bears  fruit  fomewhat  like  that 
of  the  ftrav.'berry.  It  gi-ows  naturally  in  bogs,  fo  is 
not  eafily  preferved  in  gardens.  The  root  dves  a 
dirty  red.  The  Irilh  rub  their  milking  pails  with  it, 
and  it  makes  the  milk  appear  thicker  and  richer. 
Goats  eat  the  herb ;  cows  and  ihcep  are  not  fond  of 
it  ;  horfes  and  fwine  refufe  it. 

COMB,  an  in'ilrument  to  clean,  untangle,  and  drefs 
flax,  wool,  hair,  &c. 

Combs  for  wool  are  prohibited  to  be  imported  into 
England. 

Comb  is  alfo  the  crcll,  or  red  flefliy  tuft,  growing 
upon  a  cock's  head. 

COMBAT,  in  a  general  fenfe,  denotes  an  engage- 
ment, or  a  difference  decided  by  arms.     See  Battle. 

Combat,  in  our  ancient  law,  was  a  formal  trial  of 
feme  doubtful  caufe  or  quarrel,  by  the  fvrords  or 
baftons  of  two  champions.  This  form  of  proceeding 
was  very  frequent,  not  only  in  criminal  but  in  civil 
caufes  ;  being  built  on  a  fuppofitlon  that  God  would 
never  grant  the  victory  but  to  him  who  had  the  bed 
right.  The  laft  trial  of  this  kind  in  England  was  be- 
tween Donald  lord  Ray  appellant,  and  David  Ram- 
fay,  Eiq;  defendant,  when,  after  many  formalities,  the 
matter  was  refeiTed  to  the  King's  pleafure.  See  the 
article  Battle. 

COMBER,  or  Cumber  (Thomas),  an  eminent  di- 
vine born  at  Weftram  in  Kent,  in  1645,  was  educated 
at  Cambridge  ;  created  dodlor  of  divinity  ;  and,  after 
fcveral  preferments  in  the  church,  was  made  dean  of 
Duriiam.  He  was  chaplain  to  Anne  princefs  of  Den- 
mark, and  to  king  William  and  queen  Mar)-.  He 
was  anther  of  feveral  works,  viz.  I.  A  fcliolallical 
hiftory  of  the  primitive  and  general  ufe  of  Liturgies. 
2.  A  Companion  to  the  Altar.  3.  A  brief  difcourfe 
upon  the  offices  of  baptifm,  catechifm,  and  conlirma- 
tion.     He  died  in  1699,  aged  ^^. 

COMBINATION,  properly  denotes  an  affemblage 
of  fciieral  things,  two  by  two. 


Combination,  in  mathematics,  is  the  variation  or  Cjmbin 
alteration  of  any  number  of  quantities,  letters,  or  the  ''""• 
like,  In  ail  the  diiierent  manners  pollible.  SeeCHANC^s.         ' 

ylphorifms .  I.  In  all  combinations,  if  irom  an  arith- 
metic decreafing  feries,  whofe  firft  term  is  the  number 
out  of  which  the  combinations  are  to  be  formed,  and 
whole  common  difference  is  I,  there  be  taken  as 
many  terms  as  there  are  quantities  to  be  combined, 
and  thefe  terms  be  multiplied  into  each  other  ;  and  if 
from  the  feries  i,  2,  3,  4,  &c.  there  may  be  taken 
the  fame  number  of  terms,  and  they  be  multiplied  in- 
to each  other,  and  the  firft  product  be  divided  by  the 
fecond  ;  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  combina- 
tions required.  Therefore,  if  you  would  know  how 
many  ways  four  quantities  can  be  combined  in  feven, 
multiply  the  fii-ft  four  terms  of  the  feries,  7,  6,  5,  4, 
&c.  together,  and  divide  the  product,  which  will  be 
8^0,  by  the  produft  of  the  firft  four  terms  of  the  fe- 
ries, I,  2,  3,  4,  &c.  which  is  24,  and  the  quotient 
35  will  be  the  combinations  of  4  in  7.  II.  In  all 
permutations,  if  the  leries  1,  2,  3,  4,  S:c.  be  con- 
tinued to  as  many  terms  as  there  are  quantities  to  be 
changed,  and  thofe  terms  be  multiplied  into  each  o- 
ther  ;  the  produft  will  be  the  number  of  permutations 
fought.  Thus,  if  you  would  know  how  many  permu- 
tatioi'vs  can  be  formed  with  five  quantities,  multiply 
the  terms  I,  2,  3,  4,  5,  together,  and  the  product  120 
will  be  the  number  of  all  the  permutations. 

Problems.  I.  To  find  the  number  of  changes  that 
mav  be  rung  on  1 2  bells.  It  appears  by  the  fecond 
aphorlim,  that  nothing  is  more  neceffary  here  than 
to  multiply  the  numbers  from  I  to  12  continually  into 
each  other,  in  the  following  manner,  and  the  lull  pro- 
duct will  be  the  number  fought. 

I 

2 

2 

?L 

'6 

_4 

24 

_1 
120 

6 
720 

7 


5040 
8 

40320 

9 

362880 

10 

3628800 

II 

39916800 

13 

479,001,600 

II.  Suppofe  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  to  be  wrote 
fo  fmall  that  no  one  of  them  (liall  take  up  more  fpace 
than  the  hundredth  part  of  a  fquare  inch  :  to  find  how- 
many  fquare  yards  it  would  require  to  write  all  the 
permutations  of  the  24  letters  in  that  fize.  By  fol- 
lowing the  fame  method  as  in  the  laft  problem,  the 
number  of  permutations  of  the  24  Utters  will  be  found 


COM 


imWiiB-  to  be  62,044,840,173,323,943,936,000.  Now  tlie 
'"'"■  inches  in  a  fquare  yard  being  1296,  tliat  number  mul- 
-y^^^  tiplied  by  i-oo  gives  I  29,600,  vvliieh  is  the  niiniber  of 
letters  each  fquare  yard  will  contain  ;  therefore  if  we 
divide  62,044,840,173,323,943,936,000  by  129600 
the  quotient,  which  \s  478,741,050,720,092,160,  will 
be  the  number  of  yards  required,  to  contain  the 
above  mentioned  number  of  permutations.  But  as 
all  the  24  letters  are  contained  in  every  permuta- 
tion, it  will  require  a  fpace  24  times  as  large  ;  that  is, 
11,489,785,217,282,211,840.  Now  the  number  of 
fquare  yards  contained  on  the  furface  of  the  whole 
earth  is  but  617,197,^35,008,000,  therefore  it  would 
require  a  furface  18620  times  as  large  as  that  of  the 
earth  to  wi-ite  all  the  purmutations  of  the  24  letters  in 
the  fize  above  mentioned. 

III.  To  find  how  many  different  ways  the  eldefl 
hand  at  piquet  may  take  in  his  five  cards.  The  eldell 
hand  having  1 2  cards  dealt  him,  there  remain  20 
cards,  any  five  of  which  may  be  in  thofe  he  takes  in  ; 
conftquently  we  are  here  to  find  how  many  ways  five 
cards  may  be  taken  out  of  20.  Therefore,  by  apho- 
rifm  I.  if  we  multiply  20,  19,  18,  17,  16,  into  each 
other,  which  will  make  1860480,  and  that  number  be 
divided  by  i,  2,  3,4,  5,  muiliplied  into  each  other, 
which  make  120,  the  quotient,  which  is  15504,  will 
be  the  number  of  ways  live  cards  may  be  taken  out  of 
20.  From  hence  it  follows,  that  it  is  15503  to  i,  that 
the  eldeft  hand  does  not  take  in  any  five  certain  cards. 

IV.  To  find  the  number  of  deals  a  perfon  may  play 
at  the  game  of  whift,  without  ever  holding  the  fame 
cards  twice.  The  number  of  cards  played  with  at 
whill  being  52,  and  the  number  dealt  to  each  perfon 
being  13,  it  follows,  that  by  taking  the  fame  me- 
thod as  in  the  lafl  experiment,  that  is,  by  multiplying 
52  by  51,  50,  &c.  fo  onto  41,  which  will  make 
3,954,242,643,911,239,680,000,  and  then  dividing 
that  fum  by  1,  2,  3,  &c.  to  13,  which  will  make 
^),2  2  7,C20,8oo,theciuoticnt,vvhichis635,oi3,559,6oo 
will  be  the  number  of  different  ways  13  cards  may  be 
taken  out  of  52,  andainfequently  the  number  fought. 

(J    "    o  ^     CC^    Ol^  .f.  U>    N    M 


L    179    1 


COM 


The 


Com  biiia- 


C) 

?o 

tJ 

3 

n 

-^  p^-„ 

> 

c 

►.^  p 

9  „i 

0 

-! 

CO 

^ 

H 

^"  - 

to 

ffi 

■    ;>;»    0 

OD  CO 

p\ 

g 
M 
H 

-1  ■-~'    ' 
vo    P    " 

OS 
...     .     OJ 

^ 
"v 

■P- 

-5 

w   !-   (^ 
■r  4-  w 

CA-a    • 
•     0 

.-     •     Oj 
CA^    ■ 

CO           '-' 
GO 

0 

M     * 

P     „ 
P 

-  > 

c 

to 

" 

w 

s 

0 

> 
0 

p^^ 

vp    ^ 

0.^  - 

t* 

!                    F^  _  P 

""■ 

M 

The  con(trui5\ion  of  this  table  is  very  fimple.  ^  ..v  ^■ 
line  A  (7  ccmfifts  of  the  firft  12  numbers.  The  line  u—^^ 
A  f>  confiH?  every  where  of  units  ;  and  fccond  term  3, 
of  the  line  B  c,  is  compofcd  of  the  two  terms  i  and  2 
in  the  preceding  rank  :  the  third  term  6,  in  that  line, 
is  formed  of  the  two  terms  3  and  3  in  the  preceding 
rank:  and  fo  of  the  reft;  every  term,  after  the  firfi, 
being  compafed  of  the  two  next  terms  in  the  preced- 
ing rank  :  and  by  the  fame  method  it  may  be  conti- 
nued to  any  number  of  ranks.  To  find  ly  lliis  tabic 
how  often  any  number  of  things  can  be  combined  in 
another  number,  under  13,  as  fuppofe  5  cards  out  of 
8  ;  in  the  eighth  rank  look  for  the  fifth  term,  which  is 
56,  and  that  is  the  number  req'u'red. 

Though  we  have  Ihown  in  the  foregoing  problems 
the  manner  of  finding  the  combination  of  all  numbeis 
whatever,  yet  as  this  table  anfweis  the  fame  purpofe, 
for  fmall  nnmbeis,  by  infpediion  only,  it  will  be  found 
ufeful  on  many  occafions  ;  as  will  appear  by  the  fol- 
lowing examples. 

V.  To  find  how-many  different  founds  may  be  pro- 
duced by  llriking  on  a  harpfichord  two  or  more  of 
the  feven  natural  notes  at  the  fame  time.  i.  The 
combinations  of  two  in  feven,  by  the  foregoing  tri- 
angle are  ... 

2.  The  combinations  of  3  in  7,  are 

3.  The  combinations  of  4  in  7,  arc 

4.  The  combinations  of  5,  are 

5.  The  combinations  of  6,  are 

6.  The  feven  notes  all  together  once 
Therefore  ttie  number  of  all  the  founds  will  be       120 

VI.  Take  four  fquare  pieces  of  pafleboard,  of  the 
fame  dimenfion,  and  divide  them  diagonally,  that  is 
by  drawing  a  line  from  two  oppofite  angles,  as  In  the 
figures,  into  8  triangles ;  paint  7  of  thefe  triangles 
with  the  primitive  colours,  red,  orange,  yellow,  green, 
blue,  indigo,  violet,  and  let  the  eighth  be  white.  To 
find  how  many  chequers  or  regular  four-fided  figures, 
different  either  in  form  or  colour,  may  be  made  out 
of  thofe  eight  triangles.  Firft,  by  combining  two  of 
thefe  triangles,  there  may  be  formed  either  the  trian- 
gular fquare  A,  or  the  inclined  fquare  B  called  a  i-homb. 
Secondly,  by  combining  four  of  the  triangles,  the  large 
fquare  C  may  be  formed  ;  or  the  long  fquare  D,  cal- 
led 3l  panillelogram. 


21 

3? 
iS 
21 

7 
1 


Now  the  firft  two  fquares,  con fifllng  of  two  parts 
out  of  8,  they  may  each  of  them,  by  the  eighth  rank 
of  the  triangle  be  taken  28  different  ways,  which 
makes  56.  And  the  la(l  two  fquares,  confifting  of 
four  parts,  may  each  be  taken  by  the  fame  rank  of  the 
triangle  70  times,  which  makes  140 

To  which  add  the  foregoing  number  -  56 

And  the  number  of  the  different  i'quares  that 

may  be  formed  of  the  8  triangles,  will  be  196 

Z  2  VII. 


C     O     M 


[     180     ] 


COM 


VII.  A  man  has  1  2  different  forts  of  flowers,  and  a 
large  number  of  each  fort.  He  is  dufirous  of  fetting 
them  in  beds  or  flourUhcs  in  his  j,-,rt-nL-  :  Six  flowers 
in  foine,  7  in  others,  and  8  in  others  ;  fo  as  to  have 
the  greateft  variety  pofTible  ;  tlie  flowers  in  no  two 
beds  to  be  the  fame.  To  find  how  many  beds  he 
muft  have.  i.  The  combinations  of  6  in  1 3  by  the 
lail  rank  of  the  triangle,  are  924 

2.  The  combinations  of  7  in  12,  are  792 

3.  The  combinations  of  8  in  12,  are  495 
Therefore  the  number  of  beds  mult  be                   22 1 1 

Vm.  To  find  the  number  of  chances  that  may  be 
thrown  on  two  dice.     As  each  die  has  6  faces,  and  as 


It  ii  a  matter  of  indifference  what  numbers  are  made  0->mk;n«. 
ufe  of  in  foirning  thefe  tables.     We  fltall  here  confine       "°"- 

ourfclves  to  fucli  as   are  applicable  to  the   fubfequent         ' 
experiment^.     Any  one  may  conftruft  them  in  fuch 
manner  as  is  agreeable  to  the  purpofcs  he  intends  they 
fliall  anfwer. 

To  make  them,  for  example,  con-efpond  to  the 
nine  digits  and  a  cipher,  there  mull  be  ten  cards,  and 
at  the  top  of  nine  of  them  mull  be  written  one  of  the  ■ 
digits,  and  on  the  tenth  a  cipher.  Thefe  cards  muft 
be  placed  upon  each  other  in  the  regular  order,  the 
number  l  being  on  the  firll,  and  the  cipher  at  bottom, 
You  then  take  the  cards  in  yoiir  left  hand,  as  is  com- 


every  face  of  one  die  may  be  combined  with  all  the  '"°-^'y  done  ,n  (huffl.ng,  and  takmg  oft  the  two  top 
faces  of  the  other,  it  follows,  that  6  multiplied  by  6,  f^"-^^'  '  ^'"^  ^'  Y""  pl^ce  the  two  tollov.-.ng,  3  and  4, 
that  is  36,  will  be  the  number  of  aU  the   chances  ;  as     "P°"  '^em  ;  and  under  thofe  four  cards  the  three  fol- 


is  alfti  evident  from  tlie  foHowing  table  ; 


Points. 

2  ll.I 

3  h-i 
2.2 
4.1 


3-3 
6.1 

4-4 
6-3 


1.2 

3-1 
1.4 


2-3 
4.2 


1.65.22.5 
6.2j2.6'5.3 
3-6:5-4'4-5l 


^•4| 

4-3:3-4 

3-51 


Numb. 

cf         Numli 

of 

chances.             yo'wis- 

I 

* 

2 

2 

6 

3 

12 

4 

20 

sr 

30 

6 

42 

J 

■40 

4 

36 

3 

30 

2 

" 

I 

12 

36 

^53 

io!5.5j6-4  4-6r 

ii:6.5]5.6( 

i2'6.6l 


It  appears  by  this  table,  t .  That  the  number  of 
chances  for  each  point  continually  incrtafes  to  the 
point  of  feven,  and  then  continually  decreafes  til!  12  : 
therefore  if  two  points  arc  piopofed  to  be  thrown, 
the  equality,  or  the  advantage  of  one  over  the  other, 
is  clearly  vifible  (a).  2.  The  whole  number  of  chances 
on  the  dice  being  252,  if  that  number  be  divided  by 
36,  the  number  of  different  throws  on  the  dice,  the 
quotient  is  7  :  it  follows  therefore,  that  at  every  throw 
there  is  an  equal  chance  of  bringing  feven  points. 
3.  As  there  are  36  chances  on  the  dice,  and  only  6 
of  them  doublets,  it  is  5  to  i,  at  any  one  throw,  a- 
gainft  throwing  a  doublet. 

By  the  fame  method  the  number  of  chances  upon 
any  number  of  dice  may  be  found  :  for  if  36  be  mul- 
tiplied by  6,  that  produft,  which  is  216,  will  be  the 


lowing  5,  6,  and  7  :  at  the  top  yau  put  the  cards  S 
and  9,  and  at  the  bottom  the  card  marked  o  ;  con- 
ilantly  placing  in  fucceffion  2  at  top  and  3  at  bottom  : 
And  they  will  then  be  in  the  following  jidcr  : 

8.9..3.4..1.2...5.6.7..0 
If  you  ftiu/Re  them  a  feccnd  time,   in   the  faiiie  man- 
ner, they  will  then  Itand  in  this  order  ; 
6.7..3.4..8.9..1.2.5..0 
Thus,  at   evei-y  new  IhufBe,  they  will  have  a  diffe- 
rent order,  as  is  expreffed  in  the  following  lines : 

1  (huffle  8.9.3.4.1.2.5.6.7.0 

2  ■  6.7.3.4.8.9.1.2.5.0 

3  2.5.3.4.6.7.8.9.1.0 

4  9.1.3.4.2.5.6.7.8.0 

5  7.8.3.4.9,1.2.5.6.0 

6  5.6.3.4.7.8.9.1.2.0 

7  1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.0 

It  is  a  remarkable  property  of  this  number,  that 
the  cards  return  to  the  order  in  which  they  were  iiril 
placed,  after  a  number  of  ihuffies,  which  added  to  the 
number  of  coluiTUis  that  never  change  the  order,  U 
equal  to  the  number  of  cards.  Thus  the  number  of 
Ihuffies  is  7,  and  the  number  of  columns  in  which  the 
cards  marked  3,  4,  &c.  never  change  their  places  is  3, 
which  are  equal  to  10,  the  nun/jer  of  the  cards.  This 
property  is  not  common  to  all  numbers ;  the  cards 
fometimes  returning  to  the  firll  order  in  a  lefs  number, 
and  fometimes  in  a  greater  number  of  Ihuifles  than  that 
of  the  cards. 

TABLES  of  COMB INJ TIO NS, 
Conflruiled  on  the  foregoing  principles. 
I.     Fur  ten  numbers. 


chances  on  3  dice  ;  and  if  that  number  be  multiplied         ^    ^^  f,,^^  j    ,.       '^^^^  ^^  ^^^j_  ^^^^^  [^     ^   ^,„  ,^^   ^, 


by  6,  the  produdl  will  be  the  chances  on  4  dice,  d:c 

CoMBiNAfiONS  of  the  Cards.  The  following  expe- 
riments, founded  on  the  doftrine  of  combinations, 
may  pofiibly  amufe  a  number  of  our  readers.  The 
tables  given  are  the  bafis  of  many  experimeats,  as  well 
on  numbers,  letters,  and  other  fubjefts,  as  on  the  cards  j 
but  the  effect  produced  by  them  with  the  laft  is  the 
moil  furprifing,  as  that  which  Ihould  feem  to  prevent 
any  collulion,  that  Is  the  fhufBIng  of  the  cards,  is  on 
tiie  contrary  the  caufe  from  whence  it  proceeds. 


I 
2 
3 

4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 
o 


8 

9 
3 
4 
I 

2 

5 
6 

7 
o 


6 
7 
3 
+ 
8 

9 
I 
2 

5 

o 


5 
3 
4 
6 

7 
8 

9 
I 

o 

I'luf^ 


(a)  It  is  eafy  from  hence  to  determine  whether  a  bett  propofed  at  hazard,  or  any  other  game  with  the  dice, 
be  advantageous  or  not  ;  if  the  dice  be  true  (wliich,  by  the  way,.  Is  rarely  the  cafe  for  any  long  time  toge-^ 
ther,  as  it  h  fo  eafy  for  thofe  that  are  poiTeffed  of  a  dexterity  of  hand  to  change  the  Ir'.ie  dice  for  falfe). 


COM 


[     i8i     ] 


ombina-       Tliefe  tables,  and  the  following  examples  at  piquet 
tion.      except  the   36th,  appear  to  have   been  compoled  by 
•         M.  Guyot. 

II.      For  l-wenty-fiur  nu.f.hrs. 
Order  before  dcj'.ing.  After  lil  deal.  After  the  jd.  After  the  3d. 


I 

2 

3 

+ 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 
10 

!  I 

12 

J3 

1+ 
15 
16 

17 
18 

»9 

20 
21 
22 
23 
24 


23 

24 
18 
19 
»3 
14 
8 

9 
3 
4 
I 
2 

5 
6 

7 

10 
II 
12 

15 
16 

17 
20 
21 

22 


21 
22 
12 

^5 
5 
6 

9 

3 

18 

19 
23 
24 

13 

J4 

8 

4 
I 

2 

7 
10 
ii 
j6 

17 
20 


17 

20 

2 

7 
«3 

14 

3 

18 

12 

15 
21 
22 

5 
6 

9 
19 
23 
24 

8 

4 

I 

10 

1 1 

i6 


III.      For  ttventy-feven  number r. 
prJerbcftredeahiig.  After  ifl  deal.  ..\fter  the  sd.  After  the  3d. 


t 

2 

3 

A- 

5 
6 

7 
8 

9 
ro 
II 
12 
^3 
H 

j; 

17 

18 

19 

20 
21 

22 

23 

24 

25 
26 
27 


23 
24 

18 

>9 

13 

J4 
8 

9 

3 

I 

5 
6 

7 

10 
i  I 

13 

15 

16 

17 
20 
21 
22 

2J 

26 

27 


21 

22 
12 

15 

5 
6 

9 
3 

18 

19 
23 
24 
13 
•4 
8 

4 
r 
2. 

7 

10 
1 1 
16 

17 
20 

25 
26 
27 


»7 

20 

*> 

7 
13 

14 

3 
J8 
12 
16 

21 
22 

5 

6 

9 
'9 
23 
24 

8 

4 
I 
10 
1 1 
16 

25 
26 

27 


I 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

T 
8 

9 

10 

II 

12 

J  3 
J4 
15 
i6 

J7 
18 

19 
20 

21 
22 

23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 

3* 

3* 


c 

0     M 

•  f/j/V()'- 

two  nximbtt 

r  ladea 

1.  .Uicr  the-. 

zS 

26 

29 

27 

23 

17 

24 

20 

18 

10 

>9 

il 

13 

t 

•4 

2 

8 

H 

9 

8 

3 

23 

4 

24 

I 

28 

2 

29 

5 

18 

6 

19 

7 

'3 

IQ 

9 

II 

3 

12 

4 

15 

S 

16 

6 

17 

7 

20 

12 

21 

15 

22 

16 

35 

21 

26 

22 

27 

25 

30 

30 

31 

31 

32 

32 

22 
25 

7 
12 

9 

3 

28 

29 
2 

'4 
17 
20 
26 

27 

10 

II 

I 

23 

24 

18 

19. 

13 

4- 

5 

6 

15 

16 
21 
30 
3t 
32 


CcmLitm- 
tion. 


1.  "  Several  letters  that  contain  no  meaning,  being 
"  written  upon  cards,  to  make  them,  after  they  have 
"  been  twice  fhuffltd,  give  an  anfwer  to  a  queftion 
•'  that  ftall  be  propofcd ;  as,  for  example,  What  is 
"  love  ?"  Let  24  letters  be  written  on  as  many  cards 
which,  after  they  have  been  twice  fliuffled,  (hall  give 
the  following  anfwer : 

yl  dream  of  joy  that  fcon  is  o'er. 

Firft,  write  one  of  the  letters  in  that  line  on  each, 
of  the  card3(.B).  Then  write  the  anfwer  on  a  paper,, 
and  alTign  one  of  the  24  firft  numbers  to  each  card, 
in  the  following  order  : 

ADREAMOFJOY   THAT  SOON 

I  23456  7  8  9  10 Ji  12 13 1415 1617  1819 

I  S  O'ER. 

20 21  22  23  24 

Next,  write  on  another  paper  a  line  of  numbers, 
from  I  to  24,  and  looking  in  the  table  for  24  combi- 
nations, you  wul  fee  that  the  firll  number  after  the  fe- 
cond  (huffle  is  2  I  ;  therefore  the  card  that  has  the  firll 
letter  of  the  anfwer,  which  is  A,  muft  be  placed 
againft  that  number,  in  the  line  of  numbers  you  have- 
juft  made(c).  In  like  manner  the  number  22  being  the 
fecond  of  the  fame   column,  indicates   that  the  card. 

which.. 


(b)  Thefe  letters  (Iiould  be  written  in  capitals  on  one  of  the   corners  of  each  card,  that  the   words  may  be 
eafily  legible  when  the  cards  are  fpread  open. 

(c)  For  the  fame  reafon,  if  you  would  have  the  anfwer  after  one  (huffle,  the  cards  midl  be  placed  according 
to  the  lirft  column  of  the  table;  or  if  after  three  (hulHes,  according  to  the  third  column. 


COM  f     1 

Conibiiia-  whicli  anfwera  to  the  fccond  letter  D  of  the  anfwer, 
,     "''"•      mull  be  placed  againft  thnt  number  ;  and  fo  of  the  reft. 
TIm:  cards  will  then  ftand  in  the  following  order: 
I    2   3  45   6789  10  II   12  13  1415  16  17  18  19 
OOF  SAMNTO  1    S    R  H  A  E    O  'E   J    O 
20  21  22  23  24 
R  A  U  Y  T 
Froni  whence  it  follows,  that  after  thcfe  cards  have 
been  twice  fluiffled,  they  muft  infallibly  itand  in  the 
order  of  the  letcrs  in  the  anfwer. 

Obferve  l.  You  fliould  have  feveral  queftions,  with 
their  anfwers,  confiiHng  of  24  letters,  written  on  cards  : 
thefe  cards  fliould  be  put  in  cafes,  and  numbered,  that 
you  may  know  to  which  queftion  each  anfwer  belongs. 
You  then  prefent  the  queftions;  and  when  any  one  of 
them  is  chofen,  you  pull  out  the  cafe  that  contains  the 
anfwer,  and  fhowing  that  the  letters  written  on  them 
anake  no  fenfe,  you  then  ftiuffle  them,  and  the  anfwer 
becomes  obvious. 

2.  To  make  this  experiment  the  more  extraordi- 
nary, you  may  have  three  cards,  on  each  of  which  an 
anfwer  is  written  ;  one  of  which  cards  muft  be  a  little 
wider,  and  another  a  little  longer,  than  the  others. 
You  give  thcfe  three  cards  to  any  one,  and  when  he 
has  privately  chofen  one  of  them,  he  gives  you  the  o- 
tlier  two,  which  you  put  in  your  pocket  without  look- 
ing at  them,  having  difcovered  by  feeling  which  he 
has  chofen.  You  then  pull  out  the  cafe  that  contains.the 
cards  that  anfwer  to  his  queftion,  and  perform  as  before. 

3.  You  may  alfo  contrive  to  have  a  long  card  at 
the  bottom,  after  the  fecond  (liuffle.  The  cards  may 
be  -then  cut  feveral  times,  till  you  perceive  by  the 
touch  that  the  long  card  is  at  bottom,  and  then  give 
the  anfwer ;  for  the  repeated  cuttings,  however  often, 
will  make  no  alteration  in  the  order  of  the  cards. 

The  fecond  of  thefe  obfervations  is  applicable  to 
fome  of  the  fubfequent  experiments,  and  the  third  may 
be  praftifed  in  almoft  all  experiments  with  the  cards. 
You  fliould  take  rare  to  put  up  the  cards  as  foon  as 
the  anfwer  has  been  ftiown  ;  fo  that  if  any  one  fhould 
defire  the  experiment  to  be  repeated,  you  may  offer 
another  queftion,  and  pull  out  thofe  cards  that  contain 
the  anfwer. 

Though  this  experiment  cannot  fail  of  exciting  at 
all  times  pleafure  and  furprife,  yet  it  muft  be  owned 
that  a  great  part  of  the  applaiife  it  receives  arifes  from 
the  addrefs  with  which  it  is  performed. 

II.   "  The  24  letters  of  the  alphabet  being  written 
"  upon  fo  many  cards,  to  fliulBe  them,  and  pronounce 
"  the  letters  fhall  then  be  in  their  natural  order  ;  but 
"  that  not  fucceeding,  to   ftuiffle  them  a  fecond  time, 
"  and  then  fhow  them  in  proper  order."     Write  the 
24  letters  on  the  cards  in  tlie  following  order  : 
1234567S9101112 
R  S  H  QJ^  F  T  P  a  U  X  C 
13  1415  1617  1S1920ZI  2223  24 
N  O  D  Y  Z    I   K  &  A  B  E  M 

The  cards  being  difpofed  in  this  manner,  fhow  tliem 
upon  the  table,  that  it  may  appear  they  are  promif- 
cuoutly  marked.  Then  fliuffle  and  lay  them  again  on 
the  table,  pronouncing  that  they  will  be  then  in  alpha- 
betical order.  Appear  to  be  furprifed  that  you  have 
failed  ;  take  them  up  again  and  give  them  a  fecond 
fhuf^le,  and  then  counting  them  down  on  the  table  they 
Viil!  all  be  in  their  natural  order. 


8i     ]  COM 

III.    "  Several  letters  being  written  promifcuoufly  Comlilna. 
"  upon  32   cards,  after  they  have  been  once  fhufflcd,       ''°"- 
"  to   fmd   in   a  part  of  them  a  quedion  ;   and  then '~~^'~*' 
"   fliufiling  the  remainder  a  fecond  time,  to  fliow  the 
"  anfwer.      Suppofe  the  queftion  to  be,  IVhat  is  each 
"   Briion's  boajl  ?  and  the  anfwer.   His  lihcrly  ;  which 
"  taken  together  contain  32  letters." 

After  you  have   written   thofe  letters  on  32  cards, 
write  on   a  paper  the  words,  his  liberly,   and  annex  to 
the  letters  the  lirft  ten  numbers  tluis : 
H  I  S  L  I  B  E  R  T  Y 
123456789  10 
Then  have  recourfe   to  the   table   of  combinations 
for  ten  numbers,  and  apply  the  refpeftive  numbers  to 
them  in  the  fame  manner  as   in  experiment  I.  taking 
the  firft  column,  as  thefe  are  to  be  fhufHed  only  once, 
according  to  that  order. 

123  456789  10 
IBS  EERTHIY 
This  is  the  order  in  which  thefe  cards  muft  ftand 
after  the  whole  number  32  has  been  once  fliuffled,  fo 
that  after  a  fecond  ftuiffle  they  may  ftand  in  their  pro- 
per Older.  Next  difpofe  the  whole  number  of  letters 
according  to  the  firft  column  for  32  letters:  the  lalt 
ten  are  to  be  here  placed  in  the  order  above  ;  as  fol- 
lows, 

WHAT  IS  EACH  BRITON'S 
1    2    3  4  56   7    891011121314151617 
BOAST? 
18  19  20  21  22 
IBSLERTHIY 
23  24  25  26  27   28  29  30  31  32 
Therefore,  by  the  lirfi  column   of  the  table,  they 
will  next  ftand  thus  : 

I    2   3   4  5  6   7   8   9   10111213141516 
I  T  B  R  O  N  S  C  li  B  O  A  E  A  S   T:  long  card. 
17  18  192021  2223  24252627  28  29  ^031  32 
I    I    SB    S  L  I    B  E  R  T  AV  H  H   I  Y 
You  muft  obferve,  that  the   card   here   placed   the 
1 6th  in  order,  being  the  laft  of  the  queftion,  is  a  long 
card  ;  that  you  may  cut  them,  or  have  them  cut,  after 
the  firft  fhuffle,  at  that  part,  and  by  that  means  fepa- 
rate   them   from   the  otlier  ten  cards  that  contain  the 
anfwer. 

Your  cards  being  thus  difpofed,  you  ftiow  that  they 
make  no  meaning  ;  then  fhufHe  them  once,  and  cut- 
ting them  at  the  long  card,  you  give  the  firft  part  to 
any  one,  who  reads  the  queftion,  but  can  find  no  an- 
fwer in  the  others,  which  you  open  before  iiim  ;  you 
then  fhufHe  them  a  fecond  time,  and  fhow  the  anfwer 
as  above. 

IV.  "  To  write  32  letters  on  fo  many  cards,  then 
"  iliufHe  and  deal  them  by  twos  to  two  perfons,  in 
•'  fuch  manner,  that  the  cards  of  one  fliall  contain  a 
"  queftion,  and  thofe  of  the  other  an  anfwer.  Sup- 
"  pofe  the  queftion  to  be.  Is  nothing  cerlaiii  ?  and  the 
"     anfwer,  Tcs-,  ilifappoiniment." 

Over  the  letters   of  this  queftion  and  anfwer,  write 
_  the  following  numbers,  which  correfpond  to  the  order 
in  which  the  cards  are  to  be  dealt  by  two  and  two. 
IS    NOTHING    CERTAIN? 
31  32  27  28  23  24  19  20  15    16  II  12    7     8    34 
YES,    D   I   S  A  P  O  I  N  T  M  E  N  T. 
29  30  25    26  21  22  17  18  13  14  9  10   5    61     2  ■ 
Then  have  recourfe  to  the  firll  column  of  the  table 
5  for 


COM 


I     183     1 


COM 


C  O  U  R  AG  E 

32  2722 17  1 2  7   2 
RICHES 
29241914  9  4 


>mbina-  for  32  nunnbers,  and  difpofc  thefc  32  cards  in  the  fol- 
tion.      lowing  order,  by  that  colcinin. 
•     "         123    4   5   6   7    891011111 3  14  i5'i6 
O  I  E  R  G  C  A  N  r  P    I   N   t  A   I    S 
17  18  19  20  21  22  23  2+2?  2627  2S29  30  31  32 
TMEHSDINNOYNTE    IS 
The   cards  being  thus  diCpofed,   fhuffle  them  once, 
and  deal  thcn:i  two  and  two  ;   when  one  of  the  parties 
will  receflarily  have  the  quellion,  and   the   other  the 
anfwer. 

Inilead  of  letters  yon  may  write  words  upon  the 
32  cards,  1 6  of  which  may  contain  a  queltion,  and  the 
remainder  the  anfwer  j  or  what  other  matter  you 
pleafe.  If  there  be  found  difficulty  in  accommodating 
the  words  to  the  number  of  cards,  there  may  be  two 
or  moie  letters  or  fyllabk-s  written  upon  one  card. 

V.  "  The  five  beatitudes."  The  five  blelTings  we 
will  fuppofe  to  be,  i.  Science,  2.  Courage,  3.  Health, 
4.  Riches,  and  5.  Virtue.  Thefe  are  to  be  found 
upon  cards  that  you  deal,  one  by  one,  to  five  per- 
fons.  Firfl:  write  the  letters  of  thefe  words  fuccef- 
fively,  in  the  order  they  (land,  and  then  add  the  num- 
bers here  annexed  to  them. 

SCIENCE 
31  26  21  16  1 1  6  I 
HEALTH 
28  2-<  iS  13  8    5 
VIRTUE 
3025  20  15  10  5 
Then  range   them  in   order  agreeable  to  the  firft  co- 
lumn of  the  table  for  32  numbers,  as  in  the  laft  expe- 
riment.    Thus, 

1    2    3  4  5    6   7   8   9  10  1 1  12  1 3    14  15   i6 
LHNATEREUA   CRG    T    I    U 
171S  192021  22  23242J  2627  28  29  30  31  ^2 
EECI    ICHSOHREEVSC 
Next,  take  a  pack  of  cards,  and  write  on  the  four 
firft   the  word   Science ;  on  the  four   next  the  word 
Courage  ;   and  fo  of  the  reft. 

Matters  being  thus  prepared,  you  (liow  that  the 
cards  on  which  the  letters  are  written  convey  no  mean- 
ing. Then  take  the  pack  on  which  the  words  are 
written,  and  fpreading  open  the  firft  four  cards,  with 
their  backs  upward,  you  defire  the  firft  perfon  to 
choofe  one.  Then  clofe  thofe  cards  and  fpread  the 
next  four  to  the  fecond  perfon  ;  and  fo  to  all  the  five; 
tcUing  them  to  hold  up  their  cards  left  you  fhould  have 
a  confedei-ate  in  the  room. 

You  then  fhufHe  the  cards,  and  deal  them  one  by 
one,  in  the  common  order,  beginning  with  the  perfon 
who  chofe  the  fiitt  card,  and  each  one  will  find  in  his 
hand  the  fame  word  as  is  written  on  his  card.  You  will 
cbferve,  that  after  the  fixth  round  of  dealing,  tliere 
will  be  two  cards  left,  which  you  give  to  the  fiift  and 
fecond  perfons,  as  their  words  contain  a  letter  more 
than  the  others. 

VI.  "  The  cards  of  the  game  of  piquet  being  mixed 
together,  after  ftiiifBing  them,  to  bring,  by  cutting 
them,  all  the  cards  of  each  fuit  together."  The  order 
in  which  the  cards  muR  be  placed  to  produce  theeffeft 
defired  being  eftablifiicd  on  the  fame  pi'inciple  as  that 
explained  in  the  experL-nent  II.  except  that  the  (huf- 


fling  is  here  to  be  repeated  three  times,  we  think  It  Comb-na- 
wlll  be  fufliciLiit  to  give  the  order  in  which  they  are  to  "'^"'  . 
be  placed  before  the  firft  fliuflle.  ' 


} 


diamonds 


1  Ace 

2  Knave 

3  Eight    ; 

4  Seven    5 
wide  card 

5  Ten  clubs 

6  Eight  7   r    J 

7  Seven   \  ^P="^^* 
wide  card 

8  Ten 

9  Nine 

10  Qn^een 

1 1  Knave 
J  2  Queen  clubs 
I  3  Eight  ~ 

14  Seven 
wide  card 

15  Ten    I    r     , 

i  XT.       f    Ipades 

16  Nine  i     "^ 


Order  of  the  Cards, 
clubs 


17  King  clubs 

18  Ten    7    , 

.„  XT-       r    heart! 

19  Nme  3 

20  Seven  clubs 


diamonds 


hearts 


2  I  Ace  diamonds 
2  2  Knave  fpades 

23  Queen  hearts 

24  Knave  hearts 

25  Ace  fpades 

26  King  diamonds 

27  Nine  clubs 

28  Ace    I  ,       ^ 
_„  ,^-       >•  hearts 

29  King  J 

30  Eight  clubs 
32  Queen  ^     "     ^ 


You  then  (hufHe  the  cards,  and  cutting  at  the  wld-: 
card,  which  will  be  the  feven  of  hearts,  you  lay  the  eight 
cards  that  are  cut,  which  will  be  the  fuit  of  hearts,  dowu 
on  the  table.  Then  (liuiHing  the  remaining  cards  a  fe- 
cond time,  you  cut  at  the  fecond  wide  card,  which 
will  be  the  feven  of  fpades,  and  lay,  in  like  manner, 
the  eight  fpades  down  on  the  table.  You  fliuffle  the 
cards  a  third  time,  and  offering  them  to  any  one  to 
cut,  he  will  naturally  cut  them  at  the  wide  card  (d), 
which  is  the  feven  of  diamonds,  and  confequently 
divide  the  remaining  cards  into  two  equal  parts,  one  of 
which  will  be  diamonds  and  the  other  clubs. 

VII.  "The  cards  at  piquet  being  all  mixed  together, 
to  divide  the  pack  into  two  unequal  parts,  and  name 
the  number  of  points  contained  in  each  part."  Yon 
are  firft  to  agree  that  each  king,  queen,  and  knave  fhall 
count,  as  ufual,  10,  the  ace  i,  and  the  other  cards  ac- 
cording to  the  number  of  the  points.  Then  difpofe 
the  cards,  by  the  table  for  32  numbers,  in  the  following 
order,  and  obferve  that  the  laft  card  of  the  firft  divi- 
fion  muft  be  a  wide  card. 


Order  of  the  cards  before  fliuffllng. 

I  Seven  hearty 

17  Nine  diamonds 

2  Nine  clubs 

18  Ace  fpades 

3  Eight  hearts 

19  Ten  c  ubs 

4  Eight   ^ 

20  Knave      ") 

5  Knave  S-  fpades 

21  Eight      V    diamonds 

6  Ten      J) 

22  King        S 

9  Ace  hearts 

23  Seven  fpcdes 

24  Seven       f    ,.           , 

25  Queen    |  diamonds 

wide  card 

10  Nine  hearts 

26  Knave  hearts 

1  1  Queen  fpades 

27  King  clubs 

1 2  Knave  clubs 

28  Nine  1    r     J 

29  King  j   ^P*'^" 

13  Ten  diamonds 

14, 


(d)  You  muft  take  particular  notice  whether   they  be  cut  at  tlie   wide  card,  and   if  they  are  not,  you  lauft 
liave  Uiem  cut,  or  cut  them  again  yourlelf. 


C     O     M 


1S4     ] 


COM 


Combina- 
tion. 


(4  Ten     ")  30  Ace  diamonds 

isKmg   C  hearts  -V  ^^"S"  Ulob? 

16  Qu^eenJ  32  Eight  5 

You  then  fiiuffle  them  carefully,  acrording  to  the 
method  before  defcribed,  and  they  will  ftand  in  the 
following  order. 


Cards. 


1  Nine    y 

2  King  C  fpadcs 

3  Seven  j 
.4.  Seven  diamonds 
5  Ace  fpades 

carried  up 

1 1  Eight  hearts 

12  Eight  fpades 
1  •^  Seven  hearts 
14  Nine  clubs 

17  Queen  clubs 

18  Nine  hearts 

19  Queen  fpades 

20  Knave  clubs 

21  King  hcaits 


Numbers.  Cards.  Nuinbere. 

brought  up  3  + 

6  Ten  clubs  10 

7  Ten  diamonds  10 

8  Ten  hearts  10 

9  Ace  clubs  t 
I  o  Ace  heartsfwide  card)   i 

total     66 


9 

10 

7 
7 
I 


34 


7 

9 

10 

10 

10 

9 

10 
10 
10 


carried  up  101 


Brought  Up 

22  Queen  hearts 

23  Nine      ■} 

24  Knave  J 

25  Eight       diamonds 

26  King      p 

27  Queen    ^ 

28  Knave  hearts 

29  King  clubs 

30  Ace  diamonds 

5 1  Seven  7   1  1. 
■     T--  L    ?  clubs 
32  Eight  3 

total 


101 
iO 

9 
10 

8 

10 

10 

10 

10 

I 


'94 


When  the  cardi  are  by  fliuflllng  difpoftd  in  this  or- 
der, you  cut  them  at  the  wide  card,  and  pronounce 
that  the  cards  you  have  cut  off  contain  66  points,  and 
confequently  the  remaining  part  194. 

VlII.  "  The  Inconceivable  Repiqiie  (e)."  AVlien  you 
\TOuld  perform  this  experiment  with  tbe  cards  ufed  in 
the  laft,  you  muft  obfcrvT  not  to  diforder  the  firft  10 
cards  in  laying  them  down  on  the  table.  Putting 
thofe  cards  together,  in  their  proper  order,  tliercforc, 
you  (huffle  them  a  fccond  time  in  the  fame  manner, 
and  offer  them  to  any  one  to  cut,  obftrving  carefully 
if  he  cut  them  at  the  wide  card,  which  will  Lc  llie  .ice 
of  hearts,  and  will  then  be  at  top;  if  not,  you  mull 
make  him,  under  fome  pretence  or  other,  cut  tbem 
till  it  is ;  and  tbe  cards  wiil  then  be  ranged  in  fuch  or- 
der that  you  will  repique  the  perfon  agaiuft  whom  you 
play,  though  you  let  him  choofe  (even  after  he  has 
cut)  in  what  fuit  yon  fhall  make  the  repique. 

Order  of  the  cards  after  they  have  been  ftu.llcd  and 
cut. 


1  Eight  hearts 

2  Eight  1 

3  Knave  J-  fpades 

4  Ten     J 

5  Qii^^n  I  clubf 

6  Knave  3 

7  King   7  , 

'  f'    S  hearts 

8  Queen  \ 


:  diamonds 


diamonds 


1 7  Nine 

18  Knave 

1 9  Nine  hearts 

20  Queen  fpades 
2  I  Seven  hearts 
2  2  Nine  clubs 

23  Ten  hearts 

24  Ace  clubs 

2  5  Seven  fpades 

26  Seven  diamonds- 

27  Nine  fpades 


N°  85. 


} 


clubi 


1 3  Seven 

14  Eight    ( 

15  Knave  hearts 

16  King  cliibs 


Kmtr  7  r      1 
Ace    i    ' 


28 
29 
30  Ten  clubs 


tintl. 


;i  Ten  diainonls 


32  Ace  hearts  (wide  caid) 

The  cards  being  thus  difpofcd,  yau  afli  your  adver- 

fary  in  wh.it  fuit  you  fliall   repique  him  ?  If  he  fay  in 

clubs  or  diamonds,  you  muft  deal  the  card>  by  thiees, 

and  the  hands  will  be  ae  follows. 

Elder  Younger. 

Hcaits,  king  Clubs,  ace 

queen  k'ng 

knave  queen 

nine  — — —  knave 

eight  nine 

feven  Diamonds,  ace 

Spades  queen  king 

knave  queen 

eight  ■ knave 

nine 


Diamond!^,  eight 
Clubs,  eight 

feven 

Rentree,  or  take  in  of 
the  elder. 


Spades,  ten 
Hearts,  ten 
Rentree  of  the  youngef. 


Ten  clubs 
Ten  diamonds 
Ace  hearts 


Seven  fpades 
Seven  diamonds 
Nine  p 
King  ^  fpades 
Ace     ) 

If  he  againll  whom  you  play,  who  is  fiippofcd  to  be 
elder  hand,  has  named  thibs  for  the  repique,  and  has 
taken  in  five  cards,  you  mull  then  lay  out  the  queen, 
knave,  and  nine  of  diamonds,  and  you  will  have,  with 
the  three  cards  you  take  in,  a  fixiem  major  in  clubs, 
and  quator/.e  tens.  If  he  leave  one  or  two  cards,  you 
moft  difcard  all  the  diamonds. 

If  he  require  to  be  repiqucd  in  diamonds,  tlien  d'f- 
card  the  quetn,  knave,  and  nine  of  clubs:  or  all  the 
dubs,  if  he  leave  two  cards;  and  you  will  then  have  a 
hand  of  the  fame  ftrength  as  before. 

Note,  If  the  adversary  fliouIJ  difcard  five  of  hij 
heart,-:,  you  will  not  repique  hnn,  as  he  will  then  have 
a  feptiem  in  fpades:  or  if  he  only  take  one  card:  but 
neither  of  thcfe  any  one  can  do,  who  has  the  lead 
knowledge  of  the  game.  If  the  perfon  againft  whom 
you  plav  would  he  repiqued  in  hearts  or  fpades,  you 
mufl  deal  the  cards  by  twos,  and  the  game  will  Hand 
thus  : 


diamonds 


Elder  hand. 
King 

Knave  ( 

Nine 

Eight 

Queen  "1 

Knave  I 

Nine     )■  clubs 

Eight  I 

Seven  J 

Ein'ht  7  ,        . 
TT  ^       }■  hearts 
beven  i 

Eight  fpades 

Rentree. 


Younger  hand. 

,,-.         S  clubs 
King    i 

Ace      7  ,.  , 

^  i-  diamonds 

Queen  > 

Q^een  1 

Knave  ^  fpades 

Ten     3 

King    -] 

Queen  | 

Knave  J-  hearts 

Ten       I 

Nine    J 

Rentree. 


(e)  This  nianauvre  oi  piquet  was  invented  by  the  counteis  of  1.  -- 
by  her  to  M.  Guyot, 


(a  I'rsnch  lady),  and  communicated 

4 


C     O     M 


■  Seven  {padea  Ten  clubs 

Seven  diamond*  Ten  diamond* 

Nine   )  Ace  licarts 

King  >fpadc3 
Ace   3 

If  he  require  to  be  repiqucd  in  hearts,  you  keep  tlic 
quint  to  a  king  in  hearts,  and  the  ten  of  fpades,  and 
lay  out  which  of  the  reft  you  pleafe:  then,  even  if  he 
fliould  leave  two  cards,  you  will  have  a  fixlem  major 
in  hearts,  and  quatorze  tens,  which  will  make  a  rc- 
pique. 

But'  if  he  demand  to  be  repiqued  in  fpades ;  at  the 
end  of  the  deal  you  muft  dexteroully  pafs  the  three 
cards  that  are  at  the  bottom  of  the  ilock  (that  is,  the 
ten  of  clubs,  ten  of  diamonds,  and  ace  of  hearts)  to 
the  top  (f),  and  by  that  means  you  referve  the  nine, 
king,  and  ace  of  Ipades  fur  yourfelf :  fo  that  by  keep- 
ing the  quint  in  hearts,  though  you  fliould  be  obliged 
to  lay  out  four  cards,  you  will  have  a  fixiem  to  a  king 
in  fpades,  with  which  and  the  quint  in  hearts  you 
mull  make  a  repique. 

Obferve  here  likewife,  that  if  the  adverfary  lay 
out  only  three  cards,  you  will  not  make  the  repique  : 
but  that  he  will  never  do,  unlefs  he  be  quite  ignorant 
of  the  game,  or  has  fome  knowledge  of  your  inten- 
tion. 

This  lafl.  ftroke  of  piquet  has  gained  great  applaufe, 
when  thofe  that  have  pubhcly  performed  it  have 
known  how  to  conduft  it  dcxteroudy.  Many  perfons 
who  underiland  the  nature  of  combining  the  cards, 
have  gone  as  far  as  the  palling  the  three  cards  from 
the  bottom  of  the  ftock,  and  have  then  been  forced  to 
conftfs  their  ignorance  of  the  manner  in  which  it  was 
performed. 

IX.  "  The  Metamorphofed  Cards."  Provide  32 
cards  that  are  differently  coloured  ;  on  which  feveral 
different  words  are  written,  and  different  objefts  pain- 
ted. Thefe  cards  are  to  be  dealt  two  and  two,  to 
four  perfons,  and  at  three  diflcrent  times,  fhuffiing 
them  each  time.  After  the  firft  deal,  every  one's  cards 
are  to  be  of  the  fame  colour ;  after  the  fecond  deal, 
they  are  all  to  have  objedts  that  are  fimilar;  and  after 
tlic  third,  words  that  convey  a  fentimcnt. 

Difpofe  'of  the  cards  in  the  following  order. 


[       185       1 


COM 


Cards. 

C-l  urs. 

Objefts. 

Wor.Is. 

t 

Yellow 

Bird 

I  find 

2 

Yellow 

Bird 

In  you 

3 

Green 

Flower 

Charming 

4 

Green 

Flower 

Flov.'ers 

5 

White 

Bird 

To  hear 

6 

White 

Orange 

Beauty 

7 

Red 

Butterfly 

My 

8 

Red 

Flower 

Notes 

9 

Red 

Flower 

In 

10 

Red 

Butterfly 

Shepherdefs 

II 

Green 

Butterfly 

Lover 

1  2 

Green 

Butterfly 

Your 

13 

White 

Flower 

Of 

H 

W^liite 

Flower 

an  inconftant 

"5 

Yellow 

Orange 

Image 

Vol.  ^ 

'.   Part  I. 

16 

Yelh^w 

«7 

White 

iS 

Yellow 

»9 

Yellow 

20 

White 

21 

Red 

22 

Red 

23 

Green 

24 

Green 

25 

Green 

26 

Green 

27 

Yellow 

28 

Red 

29 

Red 

30 

Yellow 

31 

White 

32 

WTiite 

Flower 

Enchanting 

Orange 

Ardour 

Butterfly 

My 

Butterfly 

I'hvUis 

Bird 

Birds 

Orange 

Sing 

Orange 

Dear 

Orange 

and  fweetnefs 

Orange 

The 

Bird 

Of 

Bird 

Prefcnt 

Flower 

As 

Bird 

Changes 

Bird 

Bofom 

Orange 

Me 

Butterfly 

Your 

Butterfly 

I  long 

Cnnihini- 
tim. 


The  cards  thus  coloured,  figured,  and  tranfcribed, 
are  to  be  put  in  a  cafe,  in  the  order  they  here  Hand. 

When  you  would  perform  this  experiment  you  take 
the  cards  out  of  the  cafe,  and  flww,  without  changing 
the  order  in  which  they  were  put,  that  the  colours, 
objefts,  and  words  are  all  placed  promifcuouily.  You 
then  ihufile  them  in  the  fame  manner  as  before,  and 
deal  them,  two  and  two,  to  four  perfons,  obfervinw 
that  they  do  not  take  up  their  cards  till  all  are  deal", 
nor  mix  them  together  :  and  the  eight  cards  dealt  to 
each  pcrfon  will  be  found  all  of  one  colour.  You  then 
take  each  perfon's  cards,  and  put  thofe  of  the  fecond 
pcrfon  under  thofe  of  the  firft,  and  thofe  of  the  fourth 
perfon  under  thofe  of  the  third.  After  which  yoit 
fiiuffle  them  a  fecond  lime,  and  having  dealt  them  in 
the  fame  manner,  on  the  firft  perfon's  cards  will  be 
painted  all  the  birds ;  on  the  fecond  perfon's  cards, 
all  the  butterflies  ;  on  thofe  of  the  third,  the  oranges; 
and  on  thofe  of  the  fourth,  the  flowers.  You  take 
the  cards  a  fecond  time,  and  obferving  the  fame  pre- 
cautions, flmffle  and  deal  them  as  before,  and  then 
the  firft  perfon,-  who  had  the  laft  time  the  birds  in  his 
hand,  will  have  the  words  that  compofe  this  fentence  : 
Srn^,  dear  birds  ;   I  long  to  hear  your  encharj'wg  notes. 

The  fecond  perfon,   who  the  laft  deal  had  the  but> 
terflies,  will  now  have  thefe  words: 
Of  an  inconftant  lover  your  changes  prefent  me  the  image. 

The  third,  who  had  the  oranges,  will  have  this  fen- 
tence : 

As  in  my  Phyllis,  I  find  in  you  beauly  and  fiveelnfs. 

The  fourth,  who  had  the  flowers,  will  have  thefe 
words  : 

Charming  flowers,  adorn  the  bofom  of  my  fhcpherdefs. 

It  feems  quite  unnecefTary  to  give  any  further  de- 
tail, as  they  who  underftand  the  foregoing  experiments 
will  eafily  perform  this. 

Among  the  different  purpofes  to  which  the  doftrlne 
of  combinations  may  be  applied,  thofe  of  writin"  in 
cipher,  and  deciphering,  hold  a  principal  place.  Sec 
the  article  Cipher.  , 

COMBINATION,  in  chemiftr>-,  fignifies  the  union 
A  a  '  of 


(r)  The  manner  of  doing  this  is  explained  in  the  article  Legerdemain. 


COM 


r  186  ] 


COM 


of  two  bodies  of  illfTevent  natures,  from  wliith  a  new 
compound  body  rcfults.  For  example,  when  an  acid 
is  united  with  an  alkali,  we  fay  that  a  combination  be- 
twixt thefe  two  faline  fubllances  takes  place ;  becaufe 
fiom  this  union  a  neutral  fait  refults,  which  is  compo- 
fed  of  an  acid  and  an  alkali. 

COMBUST,  in  aftronomy.  T^Tien  a  planet  is  in 
conjunftion  with  the  fun,  or  not  diftant  from  it  above 
half  its  diflc  ;  it  is  faid  to  be  combult,  or  in  com- 
buftion. 

According  to  Argol,  a  planet  is  combuft,  or  in 
combuftion,  when  not  above  eight  degrees  and  thirty 
minutes  diftant  from  the  fun,  either  before  or  after 
him. 

COMBUSTIO  PECUNIAE,  the  ancient  way  of  trying 
mixed  and  corrupt  money,  by  melting  it  down,  upon 
payments  into  the  Exchequer.  In  the  time  of  king 
Henry  II.  a  conftitution  was  made,  called  the  trial  by 
combiijf'wn;  tl>e  practice  of  which  differed  little  or  no- 
thing from  the  prefent  method  of  aflaying  filver.  But 
whether  this  examination  of  money  by  combuftion  was 
to  reduce  an  equation  of  money  only  of  Sterling,  viz. 
a  due  proportion  of  alloy  with  copper,  or  to  reduce  it 
to  pure  fine  filver,  does  not  appear.  On  making  the 
conftitution  of  trial  it  was  confidered,  that  though  the 
money  did  anfwer  nuniero  el  pondere,  it  might  be  de- 
ficient in  value  ;  becaufe  mixed  with  copper  or  brafs, 
&c. 

COMBUSTION,  a  term  denoting  the  operation  of 
fire  upon  any  inflammable  fubftance,  by  which  it 
fmokes,  flames,  and  is  reduced  to  afties. 

There  is  not  a  phenomenon  in  nature  by  which 
the  attention  of  philofophers  has  been  more  engaged, 
nor  which  has  puzzled  them  more  to  account  for,  than 
this  very  common  operation.  To  explain  it,  theories 
have  been  invented  the  moft  oppcfite  and  contradicto- 
ry to  one  another  that  can  be  imagined  ;  and,  till  very 
lately,  the  ftate  of  fcience  did  not  afford  data  fufficient 
I  to  explain  it  in  a  rational  manner. 

Theories  of  3y  former  chemifts  it  was  fuppofed,  that  the  parts 
*^^^"'<^'^^-of  the  combnftible  body  itfelf  were  converted  into 
fire.  Accordingly  Sir  Ifaac  Newton  propofes  it  as 
a  query,  whether  grofs  bodies  and  light  are  not  con- 
vertible into  one  another  ?  and  many  chemifts  of  a 
more  modern  date  have  determined  this  qucftion  in  the 
affirmative,  by  maintaining  that  the  light  of  the  fun  is 
or  contains  phlogifton.  The  interference  of  the  air, 
hovrever,  in  moft  cafes  of  combuftion  known  to  us, 
proved  a  difficulty  in  this  theory  almoft,  if  not  to- 
tally, unfurmoun table  ;  for  if  the  fire  proceeds  entirely 
from  the  combuftible  body,  what  occafion  is  there  for 
any  third  fubftance  diftinft  both  from  the  fire  and 
that  body  to  produce  combuftion  ?  This  naturally 
excited  a  conjefture,  that  the  fire  by  which  the  com- 
buftible body  is  confumed,  proceeds  in  reality  from 
the  air,  and  not  fromthe  body  itfelf.  And  hence  we 
fee  that  Mr  Hutchinfon's  fyftem  of  fire  and  air  being 
convertible  into  one  another,  might  have  paflTed  as  a 
a  rational /'j/ni7«  theory,  if  he  had  not  attempted  to  force 

Tri  e  prin-  it  upon  mankind  as  a  divine  revelation.  Tlie  modern 
ciple  on  difcoveries  in  aerology,  however,  have  entirely  dif- 
huOioTiivP''^^"^'^  '^'^'^  hypothefis  with  regard  to  our  atmofphere 
be  cjciilam-  conPdcred  as  a  whole,  at  the  fame  time  that  they  point 
ed.  out  the   true  method,  as  far  as  our  faculties  feem  ca- 

pable of  comprehending  it,  by  which  this  myfterious 


operation  is  performed.      It  Is  now  almoft   imivcrfallv    C<mbu- 
known,  that  the  air  we  breathe   is  compofed   of  two      ftu'fi 
kinds  of  elaftic  fluids,  only  one  of  which  (called  ihfhlo-         '"""^ 
g'ljlkaled,  pure,  enipyreaL  or  vital  air)  contributes  to  the 
fupport  of  flime,  as  well  as   of  animal    hfe;   and   t!  is 
part  is  found  to  be  by  far  the  leaft  in  quantity  of  the 
atmofphere  we  breathe.     It  is  computed   from   good 
obfervations,  that,  among  the  various  component  parts 
of  our  atmofphere,  there  is  about  one-fourth,  -^  ac- 
cording to  Mr  Scheele,  or  one-fifth  according  to  Mr 
Cavcndifli,  contained  in  it ;  and  to  this  fmall  part  alone 
is  owing  the  combuftion  of  inflammable  bodies.  , 

Since  the  eftabliftiment  of  this  impoi-lant  hA,  fe-  M  Lavot- 
veral  theoiics  of  combuftion  have  been  formed.  Ac- '''-''■'"'>"'- 
cording  to  M.  Lavoifier,  dephlogifticated  air  is  a  com-"^*' 
pound  of  two  fubllances  intimately  combined;  one  is 
called  by  him  the  osj^'nous  p-'iir'ipk,  and  the  oth«rr 
Jpecljic  elementary  Jin.  Daring  the  combuftion  of  firl- 
phur,  phofphorus,  inflammable  air,  or  any  other  fub- 
ftance of  that  kind,  the  oxygenous  principle  of  the  , 
dephlogifticated  air,  according  to  him,  conrbines  with 
thefe  bodies,  to  which  it  his  a  ftrong  attraftion,  and 
forms  new  compounds  of  falts  and  other  bodies ;  at 
the  fame  time  that  the  elementary  fire  contained  in 
thefe  is  fet  loofe,  and  becomes  fenfible,  producing  heat 
and  flame,  according  to  circumftances.  Thus  the  fire 
produced  in  combuftion  does  not  proceed  from  the 
burned  body,  but  from  the  decompofition  of  the  de- 
phlogifticated air,  in  which  it  is  contained  in  a  latent 
and  infenfible  ftate ;  while  its  oxygenous  principle 
combines  with  the  fulphur,  phofphorus,  or  inflam- 
mable air,  and  forms  vitriolic  and  phofphoric  acids,  or 
pure  water.  In  like  m.anner  it  is  alfo  fuppofed  by  this 
theory,  I.  That  metals  are  fubftances  abfohitely  fimple. 

2.  That  metallic  calces  are  true  compounds  formed  by  | 
the  oxygen  us  par-t  of  pure  air  with  the  metallic    par- 
ticles ;  and,  3.  That  pure  water  is  a  fimilar  compotind 

of  the  fame  principle  with  inflammable  air. 

According  to  Fourcroy,  combuftible  bodies  are  pourcroy** 
thofe  which  have  a  ftrong  attraftion  to  com.bine  oriheorj. 
unite  with  pui-e  or  dephlogifticated  air ;  and  com- 
buftion is  nothing  elfe  but  the  aft  of  that  combina- 
tion. This  affertion  is  founded  on  the  following  fafts: 
I.  That  no  fubftance  can  be  burnt  without  air;  2. That 
the  purer  this  air  is,  the  more  rapid  is  the  combuftion; 

3.  That  in  combuftion,  an  abforption  or  wafte  of  air 
always  takes  place  ;  and,  4.  That  the  refiduum  con- 
tains often  a  very  fenfible  quantity  of  that  pure  air 
which  it  abforbed,  and  which  may  fometimes  be  ex- 
trafted  from  it.  5 

In  Mr  Scheele's  new  theory  of  heat,  fire,  light,  andScheek's 
phlogifton,  he  confiders  heat  and  hght  themfclves  as^"^°'5'' 
compound  fubftances.  The  former,  according  to  him, 
confifts  of  phlogifton  and  empyreal  air.  The  calces  of 
gold,  reducible  by  heat  alone,  in  a  retort,  fliow  that 
phlogifton  is  contained  in  heat  ;  becaufe  it  combines 
with  the  calces  to  revive  them,  and  the  deplilogifti- 
cated  air  is  found  in  the  receiver.  The  precipitate 
per  fe  of  mercury,  if  revived  in  this  manner,  affords, 
according  to  our  author,  another  inltance  of  the  truth 
of  his  doftrine  :  •'  If  phlogifton  alone  (fays  he)  could 
pafs  through  the  retort,  there  would  not  be  found  the 
empyreal  air  in  the  receiver,  and  the  ignoble  metals 
might  be  revived  in  the  fame  manner." 

Light,  according  to  Mr  Scheele,  is  a  compound 

containing 


C    O     M 


L    187   ] 


COM 


C  mbu-    containing  phlogillon  and  heat,   from  wliich  both  may 
ilioM.      fepari^te  thtmfelvcs  in  proper  tircumllanccs.     A  lulu- 
"^  tion  of  fiNcr  in  nitrous   acid   mixed   witli  chalk,   and 

expofed  to  the  funfhine,  is  revived  into  a  metallic  form 
by  the  phlogifton  of  light.  Nitrous  acid  alfo  in  a 
giafs  veflel,  receives  phlogifton  from  light,  and  becomes 
of  an  orange  colour:  but  if  the  glafs  be  painted  black, 
the  acid  receives  the  heat,  not  the  phlogifton.  Even 
the  various  coloured  rays  of  light,  according  to  our 
author,  contain  unequal  fliares  of  phlogifton  ;  fince  the 
violet  rays  part  more  eafily  with  their  phloi^ifton  to 
revive  metals  than  any  other.  When  light  is  not  flop- 
ped in  its  paffage,  no  heat  is  perceived  ;  but  if  (lopped 
in  its  courfe,  the  oppofing  body  receives  heat,  and 
fometimes  phlogifton.  Light  feems  therefore  to  be 
the  matter  of  heat,  loaded  with  a  fuperabundant  quan- 
tity of  phlogifton.  That  which  comes  out  from  a  fur- 
nace, produces  heat  on  the  furrounding  bodies,  which 
afceiids  with  the  rarefied  air;  proceeds  forwaid  in 
ftraight  lines  ;  and  may  be  rcfledled  trom  poliihtd  fur- 
faces,  with  this  peculiarity,  that  a  concave  glafs  mir- 
ror retains  the  heat,  wliilft  it  refletts  the  light  ;  for  al- 
though its  focus  is  bright,  yet  it  is  not  warm.  A 
pane  of  glafs  alfo  put  before  a  burning  mirror,  re- 
tains the  heat,  and  allows  the  light  to  pafs  through 
it. 

Fire  is  the  more  or  Icfs  heated,  or  more  or  lefs  lu- 
minous ftate  of  bodies,  by  which  they  are  refolved  into 
their  conftituent  parts,  and  entirely  deftroycd.  It  re- 
quires, that  they  be  previoufly  heated  in  contaft  with 
air  :  for  to  every  combullible  body  a  certain  quantity 
of  heat  muft  be  communicated,  in  order  to  fet  it  in  the 
fiery  commotion. 

Combuftion  is  the  aftion  of  heat  penetrating  the 
pores  of  bodies,  and  deftroying  their  cohefion  :  in  this 
cafe  the  body  parts  with  its  phlogifton,  provided  there 
be  a  fubftance  prefent  which  has  a  ftrong  attraftion 
for  the  inflammable  principle.  If  the  heating  be  per- 
formed in  open  air,  the  empyreal  part,  on  account  of 
its  ftronger  attraiftion,  unites  with  the  inflammable 
principle,  which  is  thus  fet  at  liberty  ;  from  which 
union  the  heat  is  compounded  ;  and  fcarcely  is  this 
heat  generated,  when  the  combuftlble  body  is  ftill 
more  expanded  by  it  than  in  the  beginning,  and  its 
phlogifton  more  laid  open.  The  more  the  heat  is  in- 
creafed,  the  more  minute  are  the  particles  into  which 
the  combuftlble  body  is  diflblved.  The  empyreal  air 
meets  more  fni faces;  confequently  comes  in  contaft 
with  more  phlogifton  ;  and,  according  to  its  nature, 
forms  an  union  with  a  greater  quantity  of  it,  which 
produces  a  radiant  heat.  At  this  moment  the  coHftltu- 
ent  parts  of  the  combuftlble  body  are  fo  much  difunited 
by  the  ftill  increafing  heat,  that  the  empyreal  air,  con- 
tinuing to  pour  in  upon  it  in  ftreams,  attraiEls  the 
phlogifton  in  ftill  greater  quantities  ;  and  hence  the 
moft  elaftic  fubftance,  light,  is  compofed  ;  which,  ac- 
cording to  the  quantity  of  combuftlble  matter,  fliows 
5         various  colours. 

Craw-  The  laft  theory  we  fhall  here  take  notice  of  is  that 
i'stheo-of  Dr  Crawford. —  He  has  by  a  great  number  of  ex- 
periments endeavoured  to  ftiow,  that  bodies  which  con- 
tain a  large  portion  of  phlogifton,  poffiifs  but  a  fmall 
fhare  of  Ipecific  heat  or  fire;  on  the  contiary,  that 
thofe  with  a  great  ftiare  of  this  laft,  contain  but  little 
phlogifton  ;  and  laftly,  thofe  which  are  deprived   of 


phlogifton,  increafe  their  capacity  for  fpecific  fire.  ComlvJ- 
Th\i.^,  when  regulus  of  antimony  is  deprived  of  its  phlo-  ^'°"'  . 
gifton,  by  calcination,  which  is  then  called  diaphoretic  ' 
atitimony,  it  nearly  triples  its  fpecific  fire.  The  fame 
change  takes  place  in  croais  mar/is  and  in  iron.  This  fail 
is  generally  true,  whatever  be  the  nature  of  the  fub- 
ftance :  and  even  the  aeriform  ones  are  in  the  fame 
cafe,  for  phlogifticated  air  has  very  little  fpecific  fire, 
common  air  has  more  of  it,  and  dephlogifticatcd  air 
fliows  a  moft  prodigious  quantity.  From  thefe 
fafts  it  is  clear,  that  phlogifton  and  fire  are  diftinti:, 
and  incompatible  fubftances  ;  fo  that  when  one  enters 
into  the  compofition  of  any  body,  the  other  of  courfe 
is  expelled  from  it.  Th\is  metals  are  calcined  in  con- 
fequence  of  a  double  attraftion,  by  which  the  metal 
imparts  its  phlogifton  to  the  air,  while  the  air  commu- 
nicates its  fire  to  the  metallic  calces  ;  which  is  further 
confirmed  by  the  air  that  is  found  In  metallic  calces, 
whofe  increafed  weight  by  calcination  correfponds  to 
the  air  that  is  expelled  from  them  by  their  reduction  to 
a  metallic  ftate. 

All  combuftlble  bodies  are  abfolutely  in  the  fame 
cafe.  By  thefe  are  meant  fuch  bodies  as  contain  a 
large  quantity  of  phlogifton  in  their  compofition,  but 
loofely  adherent  to  them.  Dephlogifticatcd  air,  which 
is  greatly  loaded  with  fpecific  fire,  has  at  the  fame 
time  a  ftrong  attraftlon  for  phlogifton  ;  and,  in  the  aft 
of  combuftion,  communicates  its  fire  to  the  combu- 
ftlble body,  whilft  the  air  becomes  phlogifticated  or 
loaded  with  phlogifton.  Thus  we  find,  that  fulphur 
contaminates  the  air,  when  burned,  by  the  phlogifton 
it  throws  into  it,  and  the  produced  vitriolic  acid,  if 
any,  becomes  impregnated  with  the  fame. 

In  forne  cafes  the  moft  intenfe  heat  or  fenfible  fire  is 
produced  in  the  combuftion  ;  but  in  otheis  it  is  very 
moderate.  This  variation  generally  depends  on  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  the  vapours  produced  during 
the  combuftion  :  when  thefe  are  very  inconfiderable, 
and  the  refiduum  cannot  abforb  the  fire  which  is  emit- 
ted by  the  air,  the  remainder  is  precipitated,  or  dif- 
fufedall  around,  and  produces  a  very  fenfible  heat.  On 
the  contrary,  if  the  vapours  are  capable  of  abforling 
it,  very  little  heat  is  produced.  We  know,  by  the 
moft  certain  experiments,  that,  for  inftance,  the  vapour 
of  water  abforbs  about  800  degrees  of  heat  beyond 
that  of  its  boiling  ftate  ;  from  whence  it  follows,  that, 
whenever  there  is  a  quantity  of  watery  vapours  produ- 
ced by  combuftion,  very  little  fenfible  fire  muft  be  felt. 
So  when  fpirits  of  wine  are  fired,  the  heat  then  produ- 
ced by  the  combuftion  is  very  inconfiderable,  the  great- 
er part  being  abforbed  by  the  watery  vapours  that  are 
then  produced  :  but  when  the  phofphorus  of  Kunkel 
is  fet  on  fire,  the  heat  is  very  ftrong  ;  there  being  but 
a  fmall  quantity  of  acid  to  carry  off  the  fpecific  fire  that 
is  let  loofe. 

Thefe  are  the   principal  theories  of  combuftion  that  M.  Magcl- 
have  appeared.      M.  Magellan,   from   whofe   notes  on  '^"''  fe- 
Cronftedt's  Mineralogy   the  above   account  is   taken,  ""''''*• 
objefts  to  M.  Lavoifier's  opinion,  that   the  oxyrrenous 
principle  cannot  be  ftiown  to  our  fenfcs,  nor  is  it  better 
demonftrated  than  ihe phlo^i/lon  fuppofed  by  the  gt-eat 
Stahl  and   his    followers.      M.    Fourcroy's   fyftem  he 
fuppofes   to  be  Icfs  objeAionable  :   but  to  Scheele  he 
objefts  from  Mr  KIrwan,  i.That  in  no  inftance  it  ap- 
pears  that   phlogifton   penetrates  glafs,    much  lefs  a 
A  a  2  compound 


C    O     M 


[     188     1 


C    O    IM 


8 
Oticfliors 
to  M.  Four- 
croy's  theO' 

rj. 


.    9 

To   Mr 
Scbeclc's 


10 
To  Mr 
Craw- 
ferd's, 


compound  of  pure  air  and  phlogillon  ;  and,  ziMy,  Tliat 
if  Mr  Schi-ek's  notions  w tre  true,  then  other  mttallic 
calces,  or  at  kalt  black  raaiigancfc,  would  be  ie<luced 
by  heat  alone  :  for  this  calx  dcplilogillicatcs  nitrous 
acid,  ami  has  a  ftionger  affinity  with  pldogiiljn 
than  it  ;  and  therefore  ought  to  decompofe  the  heEt 
with  as  great  facility  as  the  nitrous  acid,  or  even  with 
greater  on  account  of  its  greater  attraction.  The 
former  objeflion  M.  Magellan  does  not  fuppofe  to  be 
aitOs;cther  concliifivc,  as  there  are  many  combinations 
(he  fays)  of  two  or  more  fubftances  that  pafs  through 
bodies,  each  of  which  would  he  (lopped  before  they 
were  combined  ;  and  what  Mr  Scheele  has  faid  on 
light  feeuis  to  prove  that  glafs  is  not  alway  quite  im- 
pervious to  phlogillon  ;  but  the  latter  he  deems  altoge- 
ther unsnfwerable. 

Having  thus  rcjtded  three  of  thefe  theories,  he  ac- 
quiefces  in  that  of  Dr  Crawford,  which,  he  tells  us, 
"  is  the  moll  fatisfaftofy  concerning  the  nature  and 
procefs  of  comb'iflible  bodies  and  of  their  combullion^ 
fo  far  as  the  prefent  ftate  of  our  kuowled'^e  h?.s  opened 
the  field  of  oar  views  into  the  operations  of  nature." 
Before  fuch  a  full  affent,  however,  is  given  to  any 
theory,  it  is  altogether  neceflary  that  it  fhould  be  con- 
fiflent  w'lh  every  known  faft,  as  far  as  that  faft  can 
be  inveft'gated  by  us  in  our  prefent  ftate  of  knowledge  ; 
and  that  this  is  not  the  cafe  with  the  theories  either 
of  Fourcroy,  Scheele,  or  Crawford,  will  appear  from 
the  following  confiderations. 

I.  With  regard  to  that  of  Fourcroy,  it  is  evidently 
•deficient  in  one  of  the  efTential  requifites  to  produce 
corabuftion,  even^rf  itfelf;  for  if  combuftion  depends 
only  on  the  ailraSion  between  combullible  bodies  and 
pure  air,  then  it  ought  to  take  place  on  all  occafions 
wherever  pure  air  and  combullible  bodies  are  prefented 
to  each  other.  But  this  is  not  the  cafe  ;  for  though 
we  put  a  piece  of  unlighted  chatcoal  into  ajar  full  of 
dephlogifticated  air,  no  combulHon  will  enfue.  To 
produce  this  it  is  neceflary  that  the  charcoal  be  already, 
in  part  at  lead,  in  a  Hate  of  combuftion,  or  that  fire 
be  applied  to  it  from  without.  This  theoiy  there- 
fore, inftead  of  explaining  the  matter,  gives  uot  the 
fir.alleft  infight  into  it ;  Cnce  we  are  perpetually  left  to 
fcek  for  the  caufe  of  the  fire  which  produced  that  in 
queftion:  for  the  combination  of  a  combullible  body 
with  air  is  the  effcS  of  combiillion,  not  the  caufe. 

IL  Mr  Scheele's  theory  is  fo  exceedingly  contrary  to 
the  common  notions  of  mankind,  that  it  can  fcarce 
ever  be  ferioufly  believed.  The  pure  light  of  the  fun 
can  never  be  fuppofed  by  any  mortal  to  confift  princi- 
pally of  a  fubftance  as  grofs  as  the  foot  of  our  chim- 
neys, without  a  degree  of  evidence  of  which  the  fubjeft 
is  quite  incapable. 

III.  Under  the  article  Chemistry,  Dr  Crawford's 
theory  of  heat  is  fully  confidered,  and  found  to  be  in- 
fufficient.  It  is  there  {hown  that  the  degree  of  fpe- 
cific  heat  contained  in  bodies  cannot  be   meafured  by 


any  method  yet  known  to  us ;  that  the  phrafe,  quanti- 
ty of  heat,  fo  frequently  made  ufe  of  by  Dr  Crawford 
and  others,  is  vigue,  inaccurste,  and  improper;  as  ex- 
preffing  only  the  degree  of  fenfible  heat  c>:tricaliil, pro- 
ihiced,  generated,  or  which  becomes  perceptible  in  cer- 
tain cireumllances  by  us,  without  regard  to  the  real 
quantify  contained  in  the  body  itielf.  cither  originally, 
or  after  it  hns  pirted  with  that  in  quellion.  Thus  all 
experiments  founded  on  the  qunnlilies  of  (pecific  heat 
contained  in  different  bodies  muft  be  fallacious  and  in- 
conchifive.  Not  to  infi-l,  however,  on  thefe  general  ar« 
guments,  it  is  contrary  to  facl,  that  "  bodies  which 
contain  a  large  portion  of  phlogifton  contain  but 
a  fmall  flinre  of  fpecific  heat,"  and  -Sice  verfa,  as  the 
DoSor  alTerts ;  which  will  appear  from  the  following 
confiderations. 

1.  The  only  methods  by  which  we  can  meaHire  thj 
quantity  of  any  material  fubftance  is  either  by  its  bulk 
or  weight. 

2.  Whatever  occupies  fpace,  and  refills  the  touch, 
we  have  a  right  to  call  a  material  fubftance,  whe- 
ther we  can  fee  it  and  weigh  it  or  not.  Thus  air, 
which  is  invifihle,  and  not  very  eafily  ponderable, 
is  univerfally  allowed  to  be  a  fuljlance  and  not  a 
qualily. 

3  In  cafes  where  we  cannot  conveniently  meafure 
the  weight  of  any  fubftance,  itrf  quantity  muft  always 
be  judged  of  by  its  bulk.  Thus  the  quantity  of  air 
contained  in  a  bladder,  or  in  a  bellows,  is  always 
judged  of  by  the  degree  of  expanfioji  of  eii-her. 

4.  Heat,  which  is  ftiU  more  fubtile  than  air,  is  mea- 
fured in  this  way,  as  Dr  Crawford  himfelf  acknow- 
ledges ;  for  the  expanfions  of  mercury  are  in  an  arith- 
metical progrcffion  expreffive  of  the  real  degrees  of 
heat. 

5.  Applying  this  rule  to  bodies  in  general,  we  mufl 
conclude,  that  the  expanfions  of  all  bodies  will  be  iti 
proportion  to  the  degrees  of  heat  which  they  con- 
tain. Thus,  if  a  body  is  expanded  by  heat  to  double 
its  bulk,  and  in  this  ftate  remains  even  when  the  heat- 
ing caufe  is  witlidrawn,  we  msy  then  lay  with  juftice, 
that  this  body  contains  double  the  quantity  of /arfR/ 
or  fpecific  heat  that  it  did  before,  and  to  on  (a). 

6.  As  the  vapour  of  water  is  found  to  abforb  a  vaft 
quanity  of  heat,  and  likewi'e  to  become  prodigioully 
expanded  in  comparifon  with  the  water  from  whence 
it  is  produced,  we  may  juftly  conclude,  that  the 
quantity  of  heat  abforbed,  or  oi  fpecific  heat  contained  ia 
the  fteam,  is  to  the  fpecific  heat  contained  in  the  wa- 
ter as  the  bulk  of  the  fteam  is  to  that  of  the  water. 
It  is  difficult  indeed  to  determine  how  much  fteam 
exceeds  in  bulk  the  water  from  which  it  is  derived : 
but  from  fome  experiments,  Dr  Black  concludes, 
that  it  is  augmented  in  bulk  between  1600  and  1700 
times;  and  from  the  great  quantity  of  heat  emitted  by 
fteam  during  its  condenfation,  which  in  fome  cafes  ex- 
ceeds 1 000  degrees  of  Fahrenheit,  we  have  reafon  to 

believe 


Corr.Iftj. 
Itioii. 


(a)  This  is  not  contradiftory  to  the  obfervation  that  the  expanfions  of  all  bodies  are  not  in  proportion 
to  the  degree  with  which  they  are  heated,  nor  equal  at  different  times.  It  is  the  degree  of  lieat  abforbed 
and  entangled  among  the  panicles  of  the  bady  which  expands  it,  not  that  which  flows  out  from  it,  and  affetts 
our  fenfes  or  the  ih°eTmometer.  Thus,  though  a  body  is  heated  to  too  degrees,  it  may  abforb  only  10;  aad 
after  it  has  done  fo,  it  may  require  300  or  400  degrees  more  to  caufe  it  abforb  other  ten. 


apply  this  then  to  the  prd'ent  cafe.  In  Dr  Priedley's 
cxpcrimcnto  on  the  coavcrfion  uf  charcoal  into  infla^n- 
jnablc  air,  he  found,  that  cne  grain  of  charcoal,  dif- 
perfcd  by  the  heat  of  the  fun  in  •vacuo,  gave  fix 
ounce  meafnres  of  inflammable  air.      In   another   ex- 


COM  [     189    ]  COM 

believe  that  the  quantity  of  its  expanfion  is  proportion-  mixed,  combuftion  ought  immediately  to  enfue.  But    Comhu- 

able  to  that  of  the  heat  abforbed.  this  is  not  the  cafe.     A  candle,  a  fpark  of  ckftricity, ,    "'""'    . 

7.  As  wc  thus  are  afcertained,  by  the  gneat  expan-  or,  in  a  word,  fome  body  already  in  ajlatt  of  comlujlion, 

iion   of  aqueous  vapour,    that   it   has   abforbed   a  vail  mull   be  applied  before  we  can   produce  the  effect  in 

quantity  of  heat,   it  will   evidently   follow,   that   from  queftlon.      We   mult  therefore   feck   for   the  caafe  of 

the   expaniion  of  oJ.her   fubflances  w;  oupht  alio  to  combuftion  in  the  burning  body  applied,  which  will  be 

know  tlic  quantity   of  heat  abforbed    by  thi-m.     To  found  equally  inexplicable  :  and  thus  wf  cannot  proceed 

'■""'"■  a  fnigle  ilcp   in  real  knowledgi.*,  though  afllfted  by  all 

that  D'-  Crawtoid  has  ad"anced.  ,j 

ic.  The  theory  of  M.  Ijai'oifier,  notwithlland- X!  Lavoi. 
in,T  M.  Maq;ellan'3  criticifm,  feems  to  come  much'""^'''"''eo- 
nearer  the  truth  than  that  of  Dr  Crawford.  With  re- [[i^',„^''j^^ 
perinnent,  he  found  liiat  2;  grains  of  charcoal  gave  gard  to  the  exitlence  of  what  La voifier  calls  the  oxy-f(„n,£i-^ 
I  c-j- ounce  nieaiuresof  the  fame  kind  of  air.  But  from  gf  nous  principle,  it  is  certainly  eilablifhed  on  as  fure 
a  computation  of  the  weight  of  the  air  fo  produced,  grounds  as  thatof  any  inviiible  fubftance  can  be.  M.  Ma- 
it  appears,  that  at  leal't  an  equal  quantity  of  water  gellan  complains,  without  reafon,  that  it  "  cannot  be 
with  that  of  the  charcoal  goes  to  the  con-^poiition  of  (hown  to  our  fenfcs."  It  has  not  yet  indeed  been 
the  aerial  fluid.  In  meafuring  this  expanfion,  therefore,  made  vr/iMe,  per  fe  ;  but  it  is  found  to  increafe  the 
we  may  allow  one-half  for  tliat  of  the  water  requifite  weight  of  bodies  very  fenfibly.  Perhaps,  indeed,  it 
to  form  the  inflammable  air;  and  hence  the  grain  of  may  not  be  an  o^ygetwuJ  or  acidifying  principle;  per- 
charcoal,  properly  Ipeaking,  abforbs  only  three  ounce  haps  it  may  be  water,  or  fome  other  fubftance  ;  but 
meafures  of  fire.  That  this  expanfion  was  the  eft'ed.  of  ilill  it  is  fomethin^  which,  by  being  combined  with  ele- 
fire  is  very  evident:  foi  there  was  nothing  elle  prcfent  mei.taiy  fire,  is  expanded  into  a  vaft  bulk,  and  which, 
tut  fire,  or  the  concentrated  light  of  the  lun  ;  the  ex-  by  being  deprived  of  this  fire,  ftirinks  into  its  former 
periment  being  performed  by  n.cans  of  a  burning  glafs  dimeniions.  Thus  it  manifefts  itfelf  to  be  a  real  fub- 
in  vacuo.  It  cannot  be  a  fadl  then,  as  Dr  Crawford  ftance;  and  not  only  fo,  bvit  a  terreftrial  gravitating  fub- 
afktta,  that  a  phlogiftic  body  contains  but  a  fmall  ftance  ;  and  which,  even  when  lightened  by  a  mixture  of 
quantity  of  fpecihc  heat  ;  for  here  io  fmall  a  quantity  charcoal  fo  as  to  conftitule  the  folid  part  of  fixed  air, 
as  one  gcain  of  charcoal  was  made  to  contain  as  much  has  been  fhown  nearly  to  equal  the  dcufity  of  gold.  In 
fpecific  tire  as  is  equivalent  in  bulk  to  three  ounce  this  refpeft,  therefore,  M.  Lavoifier's  theory  is  fault- 
meafures.  It  appears  therefore,  that  the  quantity  of  L-fs,  as  vkW  as  in  that  which  afHrms  that  in  the  act  of 
fpecific  file  contained  in  bodies  is  not  determined  by  combullion  the  dephlogiilicated  air  parts  with  its  fire  : 
tneir  being  conibuitible  or  not,  or  by  their  containing  but  it  is  imperfeft  in  this  refpeCl,  that  he  does  not  con- 
philoglllon  or  not :  much  Icfs  can  we  believe  that  heat  fider  the  quantity  of  fire  contained  in  the  inflam.mable 
and  phlogiilon  are  fo  incompatible  with  one  ant.ther,  body,  which  is  thrown  out  at  the  fame  time,  nor  the 
that  where  "  one  enters  into  the  compofition  of  any  occafion  there  is  for  fome  body  in  a  (late  of  aftual  in- 
body  the  other  is  of  courfe  expelled  from  it ;"  fince  flammation  to  begin  the  combullion.  That  the  coin- 
here  we  find  the  pureil  fire  we  know  united  in  vi'l  biuations  mentioned  by  him  do  aftually  take  place  is 
quantity  with  the  pureil  phlogiilon  we  know,  and  not  denied  ;  but  they  are  undoubtedly  coafeijnences  of 
both  together  conftituting  one  ot  the  moll  inflammable  the  combuftion,  not  caufes  of  it,  as  they  are  generally 
fubllanccs  in  nature,  viz.  inflammable  aii.  fuppofed.      To  underftand  this  fuojedi  fully,  therefore, 

8.  In  like  manner  mud  the  lalt  part  of  the  Doftor's  it  will  ttill  be  necefTary  to  confider  farther,  IS 
theory   be   erroneous,  viz.  that  "in  the  a£l  of  com-          11.   Under  the  article  Chemistry,  already  quoted,  Another 
bullion  the  dcphlogillicatcd  air  communicates  its   fire  it  is  ihown  that  heat  and  cold  are  not  efientially  diilinA'"'^'"'?' 
to  the  combultibie  body."      In  the  inllance  jult  now  from  one  ahother,  but  that  htat  conlills  in  the  motion 
adduced,  the  combultibie    fubltance,  inflammable  air,  of  a  certain  fubtle  and  invifible  fluid  froin  a  centre  to- 
contains  already  as  mucrt  fire  as  it  can  hold ;  and  ac-  wards  a  circumference,  and    that  cold  confifts   in   the 
cording  to  the  general  rule  in  thefe  cafes,  if  it  was  to  atlion  of  the  fame  fluid  from  a  circumference  to  a  cen- 
ablorb  more  fire,  it  ought  to  become  lliU  more  expand-  tre.      In  other  words,  when  elementary  fire  afts  from 

ed.      But  inllcad  of  this,  when  dephlogifticated  and  in-  anybody  outwards,  we  fay  that  body  is  hot,   becaufe  it 

flammable  air  mixed  together  in  due  proportion,  are  fet  heats  other  bodies  ;  but  when  it  flows  from  others  into 

on  fire,  they  Ihrink  in  a  manner  into  nothing  ;  fo  that  any  particular  body,   we  call  the  latter  coU,   as  depri- 

it  is  plain,  inllcad  of  one  communicating  its  fire  to  the  ving  the  neighbouring  bodies  of  part  of  their  relative 

other,  both  of  them  throw  out  almoft.  all  the  fire  ihey  quantity  of  heat.      We    may  farther  illullrate   this  by 

contain  ;  fo  that  they  are  no  longer  air,  but  water,  or  the  example  of  eleftricity,  where  the  fluid  rufliing  out 

fome  other  fubllance  about  which  philofophers  are  not  from  any  body  produces  a  kind  of  eleftricity  called 

yet  agreed.  pofttive;  but,  when  entering  into  it,  produces  another, 

9.  Dr  Crawford's  theory  of  combuftion  is  liable  to  oppofite  in  many  refpeCls  to  the  former,  called  nega- 
the  very  fame  objection  with  that  of  Fourcroy,  viz.  that  tive  elcflricity.  In  hke  manner  all  bodies  in  the  adt  of 
it  fets  afide  the  neceffity  of  any  external  caufe  to  fet  on  throwing  out  elementary  Ere  are  hot,  and  in  the  aft 
fire  the  combuftiide  bodies.  If  dephlogifticated  air  at-  of  abforbing  it  cold.  Vapours  of  all  kinds,  therefore, 
traits  the  phlogitton  of  the  combuilibic  body,  and  the  ought  to  be  naturally  cold:  and  experience  fliows  that 
phlogifton  in  the  latter  attradls  the  fiie  of  the  dephlo-  they  really  are  fo  ;  for,  by  means  of  evaporation,  very 
gifticated  air,  the  conltquence  of  which  is  combullion;  intenfe  degrees  of  cold  may  be  produced.  See  Colo 
then,  wherever  dephlogifticated  and  inflammable  air  are  and  Evaporation. 

2  13.  Ill; 


COM  [     I 

T2.  In  moft  terreftrial  bodies  the  heat  eafily  flows 
,  out  from  one  to  another,  and  therefore  they  are  in  a 
manner  iiuh'fTercnt  as  to  the  ftate  of  being  either  hot  or 
co:d:  but  in  vapouis,  the  heat,  having  once  flowed  in- 
to them,  continues  to  have  a  tendency  to  do  fo  without 
regard  to  the  external  temperafire  ofbodiea.  Hence 
thefe  fluids  are  naturally  cold  to  the  touch  ;  and  thofe 
who  have  been  immerfed  in  clouds  on  the  tops  of  high 
mountains  or  otherwife,  have  uniformly  related  that 
they  found  the  vapour  exceflively  cold  ;  and  thus  our 
atmofphere,  unlefs  fupplied  by  the  powerful  infla- 
ence  of  the  fun-beams,  not  only  becomes  extremely 
cold  itfelf,  but  likewife  cools  to  an  extreme  degree 
the  furface  of  the  earth  and  every  thing  upon  it. 

13.  In  all  cafes  therefore,  where  a  quantity  of  va- 
pour, whetlier  inflammable  or  not,  is  colItAcd  into  one 
place,  there  is  a  conftant  influx,  or  at  lead  a  conftant 
preflfure  inwards  of  the  elementary-  fire  exifting  invifi- 
bly  all  around  :  which  prelTure  muft  continue  until  by 
fome  meanj  or  other  the  flow  or  prcflure  of  ethereal 
fluid  be  reverfed,  and  inflcad  of  tending  from  without 
inwards,  is  made  to  tend  from  within  outwards. 

14.  One  method  of  reverfing  this  influx  is  by  exter- 
nal prefTure,  or  by  any  other  means  bringing  the  par- 
ticles of  vapour  nearer  to  one  another.  On  this  fub- 
jeft,  a  treatife  has  been  written  by  Dr  Webfter  of 
Edinburgh,  in  which  he  endeavours  to  eftablifh  the 
doftrine,  that  condenfation  is  in  all  cafes  the  caufe  of 
heat.  That  it  really  is  the  immediate  caufe,  in  a  great 
many  cafes,  is  very  certain  ;  but  it  is  equally  evident 
that,  even  in  thefe  cafes,  the  caufe  of  coniienfatlm  mull 
be  the  ultimate  caufe  of  heat.  Thus,  If  a  quantity  of 
air  be  violently  comprefTcd  in  an  air-gun.  It  Is  found 
to  become  hot ;  but  though  the  compreflion  be  the 
immediate  caufe,  the  force  by  which  the  compreflion  is 
occafioned  mull  be  the  ukimate  caufe  of  the  heat. 
The  immediate  agent,  however,  by  which  tlie  heat  is 
produced,  is  neither  the  compreffing  caufe  nor  the 
condenfation,  but  the  efflux  of  elementary  fire  from  the 
air,  by  bringing  the  particles  of  the  latter  nearer  to  each 
other.  In  like  maniief,  when  iron  is  hammered  until  it 
becomes  hot,  the  metal  may  probably  be  fuppofed  to  be 
condenfed,  and  the  elementary  fire  to  be  fqueezed  out 
of  It  as  water  from  a  fponge ;  but  it  is  neither  the  ac- 
tion of  the  hammer,  nor  the  approximation  of  the  par- 
ticles to  each  other,  that  is  the  caufe  of  heat,;  but  the 
flux  of  elementary  fire  directed  from  the  iron  every 
where  from  within  outwards. 

15.  Thus  we  may  now  at  once  explain  the  aftion  of 
combuflion  ;  to  do  which,  we  fhall  take  the  example 
of  a  mixture  of  Inflammable  and  dephloglfticated  air 
already  mentioned.  'Wlien  thefe  are  mixed  together, 
there  Is  a  conftant  preflure  of  the  elementary  fluid  in- 
wards from  all  quarters  into  the  aerial  vapours,  by 
which  their  elaftlcity  and  form  as  airs  are  prtfeived  ; 
and  this  prefFure  will  continue  as  long  as  we  let  them 
remain  undKlurbed.  But  when  a  burning  body  is 
brought  Into  contact  with  them,  the  Influx  of  the  ele- 
mentary fire  is  not  only  prevented  but  reverfed  In  that 
part  which  comes  in  contaft  with  the  burning  body. 
Thus  the  whole  conftitutlon  of  both  inflammable  and 
dephlogifticated  airs  is  deftroyed  In  a  moment ;  for  the 
fubtle  fluid,  feeling  (if  we  may  ufe  the  expreffion)  that 
the  preflurejs  leflfenedln  one  place,  inftantly  dircfts  its 
whole  force  thither  ;  and   the  preflure  inwards  being 


90       ] 


COM 


thus  reverfed  in  this  part  inlVantly  becomes  fo  In  every  Crnihu. 
other,  and  the  whole  fluid  contained  in  both  is  difchar-  "'""• 
ged  with  a  bright  flafh  and  loud  expLfion.  '   - 

16.  In  a  fimilar  manner  may  wc  explain  the  com- 
buflion of  folid  bodies.  None  of  thtfe  can  be  ignited 
without  the  afliftance  of  external  fire.  This  In  the 
firft  place  rarefies  fome  part  of  them  Into-  vapour  ; 
which  by  means  of  dephloglfticated  air  is  decompofed 
in  the  manner  already  mentioned ;  while,  by  means  of 
the  lieat  thrown  out,  a  frefh  quantity  of  vapour  Is  raifed, 
at  the  fame  time  that  the  fire  is  augmented,  and  would 
continue  to  be  fo  in  infinhum^  as  long  as  fuel  could  be  fup- 
plied. When  no  more  inflammable  vapour  can  be  rai- 
fed, the  combuftion  ceafes  of  couile;  and  the  remain- 
der becomes  charcoal,  aflies,  flag,  &c.  according  to  its 
diflTerent  nature,  or  the  combinations  it  is  capable  of  af- 
fuming  with  the  terreftrial  or  gravitating  part  of  the 
pure  air  by  which  the  fire  was  fupplied.  ^ 

17.  It  raajr  now  be  aflced.  If  the  caufe  of  combu- Objeclior 
ftion  be  merely  the  reverfing  of  the  influx  of  elemen-aufwereJ 
tary  fire,  why  cannot  Inflammable  vapours  be  fired  in 
•vacuo,  by  means  of  heat  applied  to  fome  part  of  them 
externally  ?  Thus,  as  Inflammable  air  has  a  conftant 
Influx  of  elementary  fire  Into  it,  why  may  not  this  in- 
flux be  reverfed,  and  a  flame  produced,  not  fo  violent 
indeed  as  with  dephlogifticated  air,  but  fufBcIent  to 
authorife  us  to  fay  that  fuch   a  body  was  adlually  In 

the  ftate  of  combuftion  ?   But  this,  we  know,  cannot 
be  the  cafe   unlefs   fome   pure   air  be  admitted  ;   for  a 
ftream   of  inflammable-  air,  if  nothing   elfe  be  admit- 
ted, will  as  efftftually  put  out  a  fire  as  a  ftream  of  wa- 
ter.    Here,  however,   we  may  reply,  that  this  would 
fuppofe  inflammable   air  to  be   deftioycd   by  the  very 
power  bv  which  It  was  produced.      It  feems   to  be  the 
nature  of  all  vapours  to  abforb   heat  without  any  li- 
mitation, as  Is  evident  by  the   Incieafe  of  tlaftlclty  In 
them   by  an  increafe  of  heat.      Elementary  fire  Is  one 
of  the  component  parts  of  vapour,  and  no  fubftance  can 
be  decompofed  merely  by  the  adlion  of  one  of  its  com- 
ponent parts.     Something  heterogeneous  muft  there- 
fore be  added,  on  which  one   or  both  of  the  compo- 
nent parts  may  aft  ;  and  then   the   vapour  will  be  de- 
compofed in  'Vacuo   as   well  as  in  the  open  air,  though 
with  kls  obvious  circumftances.     Thus  charcoal  once 
difperfed  by  heat   Into   inflammable  air  cannot  be  de- 
compofed merely  by  heat,  becaufe  Its  tendency  Is  always 
to  abforb  this  element :   But   if  into   a  jar  full  of  in- 
flammable air  we  Introduce  a  quantity  of  calx  of  lead, 
and  then  heat  it,  the  piefllire  of  the  fluid  is  interrupt- 
ed  in   that   part  where   the  calx  is,  and  prefently  be- 
comes reverfed  by  means  of  the  additional  heat  there, 
which,  at  the  fame  time  that  It  furnifliesno  more  char- 
coal, aflbrds   a   fubftance  with  which   the  charcoal  In 
the   Inflammable   air   may  unite.     The  air  is  therefore 
decompofed,    thoUL;h    too  flowly   to    produce    atlual 
flame.      For  combuftion,  therefore,  it  Is  nectlfary  that 
the  following   circumftances  fhould   concur:     I.  The 
mixture  of  two  vapours  containing  a  great  quantity  of 
fpeclfic  fire  each.       2.   That   the   terreftrial  bafes   of 
thefe   vapours   fliould   be   capable  of  afting  upon  one 
another;  but  no  third  fubftance  capable  of  immedi- 
ately  abforbing   the  fire   fliould   be  prefcnt.      3.  The 
prefence  of  actual  fire  in  fome  part,  to  leflen  the  pref- 
fure  of  the  elementary  fluid,  fel  It  In  motion,  and  re- 
verfe  it.     This  is  the  cafe  when  inflammable  and  de- 
phlogifticated 


Combii- 
(lion 

II 
.'oniedy. 


COM 

pfilogiftlcated  aiis  are   mixed  together. 


contsui  fpecific  fire  in  great  quantity.  The  bafis  of 
the  one,  known  to  be  charct  ^I.  is  capable  of  being 
united  by  means  of  heat  to  the  bafis  of  dephlogilli- 
cated  air,  and  of  forminiT  with  it  in  fome  cafes  fixed 
air,  in  others  water,  or  fome  other  fubftanre,  according 
to  their  various  proporiioiis  ;  and  after  this  anion  is 
formed,  there  is  no  third  fabft:i'jc  by  which  the  ele- 
mentary fire  may  be  abforbed.  i'le  inflaMied  body  by 
which  they  are  fet  on  fire  firjl  leffcns  the  invard  pref- 
fure  of  the  elementary  fire  on  one  part,  by  which  ttie 
bafes  are  allowed  to  approach  nearer  each  other,  and 
to  form  a  chemical  union  according  to  the  general  ob- 
fervation  :  But  this  union  cannot  be  effefled  without 
the  emiffidn  of  part  of  the  elementary  fire,  which  be- 
ing contained  in  the  mixture  in  great  quantity,  pro- 
duces a  blight  (lame.  This  lelTens  the  preffiire  ftill 
more  ;  a  new  chemical  union  and  a  new  flame  are  pro- 
duced ;  and  fo  on  as  long  as  any  of  the  materials  re- 
main. 

When  all  thefe  circumftances  concur,  it  is  not  a 
property  peculiar  to  dephlogilticated  air  to  fupport 
flame,  though  it  feems  to  be  fo  to  preferve  animal  life. 
It  is  well  known  that  pyrophorus  will  burn  in  com- 
mon nitrous  air,  and  a  candle  will  burn  with  an  en- 
larged flame  in  that  kind  called  d'.phlog'ijlicatcd  nitrous 
air.  But  where  any  of  the  concurrent  circumftances 
above  mtntioncd  is  wanting,  nocombuftlon  will  be  pro- 
duced. Thus,  though  the  itram  of  water  contains  a 
vaft  quantity  of  fpecific  fire,  and  though  it  is  decom- 
pofed  by  paffing  over  red-hot  iron,  yet  no  combuflion 
is  produced  ;  becaufe,  in  the  very  moment  of  extrica- 
tion, the  elementary  fire  finds  a  quantity  of  phloglfton 
either  in  the  iron,  the  water  itfelf,  or  both,  with  which 
it  combines,  and  forms  inflammable  air,  but  without 
any  flame. 

With  regard  to  the  fubftances  which  have  the  pro- 
perty of  taking  fire  fpontaneoufly,  as  Phosphorus 
and  Pyrophorus,  fee  thele  articles. 

COMEDY,  a  fort  of  dramatic  poetry,  which  gives 
a  view  of  common  and  private  life,  recommends  vir- 
tue, and  corrcfts  the  vices  and  follies  of  mankind  by- 
means  of  ridicule.      See  the  article  Poetry. 

This  lall  kind  alone  was  received  among  the  Ro- 
mans, who  nevertheltfs  made  a  new  fiibdivifion  of  it 
iiito  ancient,  middle,  and  new,  according  to  the  vari- 
ous periods  of  the  commonwealth.  Among  the  anci- 
ent comedies  were  reckoned  thofe  of  Llvius  Androni- 
cus  ;  among  the  middle  thofe  of  Pacuvius  ;  and  among 
the  new  ones,  thofe  of  Terence.  Thev  likewife  di- 
ftinguiihed  comedy  according  to  the  quality  of  the 
perfons  repreltntcd,  and  the  drefs  they  wore,  into 
togats,  prastextatre,  trabeatje,  and  tabernari-.e,  which 
laft  agrees  pretty  nearly  with  our  farces.  Among  us, 
comedy  is  diftinguilhed  from  farce,  as  the  former  re- 
prefents  nature  as  (lie  is  ;  the  other  diftorts  and  over- 
charges her.  They  both  paint  from  the  life,  but  with 
different  views :  the  one  to  make  nature  known,  the 
other  to  make  her  ridiculous. 

COMENIUS  (John  Amos),  a  grammarian  and 
Proteftant  divine,  born  in  Moravia  in  1592.  He  was 
eminent  for  his  dcfign  to  introduce  a  new  method 
of  teaching  languages  ;  for  which  purpofc  he  publilh- 
ed  fome  eifays  in  1616,  and  had  prepared  fome  others, 
when  the  Spaniards  pillaged  his  library,  after  having 


[     191     3  COM 

Both  tliefe  taken  the  city  of  Fulnec,  where  he  was  minillcr  and 
mafter  of  the  fchool.  Comenius  fled  to  Lcfna,  a  city 
of  Poland,  and  taught  Latin  there.  The  book  he  pu 
bliffied  in  1 63 1,  undor  the  title  oi  Jamia  Lhi^wanm 
rcferata,  gained  him  a  prodiri  us  reputation,  inlomuch 
that  he  was  off"fred  a  conimiflion  for  regul.it'ug  all  the 
fchoo's  in  Poland.  The  parliament  of  England  dt fi- 
red his  affiflanc'e  to  regulate  the  fchools  in  that  king- 
dom. He  arrived  at  London  in  l64f  ;  and  would 
have  been  received  by  a  committee  to  hear  his  plan 
had  not  the  patliament  been  taken  up  with  other  mat- 
ters.    'He    therefore  went   to  Sweden,    being   invited 


by  a  generous  patron,  who  fettled  a  (tipend  upon  him 
that  delivered  him  from  the  fatigues  of  teaching  ;  and 


In 


now  ;;e  employed  himftlf  wliolly  in  difcovering 
neral  methods  for  thofe  who  indrufted  youth. 
1657  he  publidied  the  different  parts  of  his  new  me- 
thod of  teaching.  He-  was  not  only  taken  up  with  the 
reformation  of  fchools ;  but  he  alio  filled  his  brain  with 
prophecies,  the  fall  of  Antichrill,  Millennium,  &c.  At 
lall  Comenius  took  it  into  his  head  to  addrefs  Louis 
XIV.  of  France,  and  to  fend  him  a  copy  of  the  pro- 
phecies of  Drabicius ;  infinuating  that  it  was  to  this 
monarch  God  proraifed  the  empire  of  the  woild.  He 
became  fenfible  at  laft  of  the  vanity  of  his  labours, 
and  died  in  167  I. 

COMET,  an  opaque,  fphcrical,  and  folid  body  like 
a  planet,  performing  revolutions  about  the  fun  in  ellip- 
tical otbits,  which  have  the  fun  in  one  ot  tticir  foci. 

There  is  a  popular  divifion  of  comets  inte-  t.'iJleil, 
bearded,  and  hairy  comets:  though  this  divifion  rather 
relates  to  the  different  circumlfances  of  the  lame  co- 
met, than  to  the  phenomena  of  feveral.  Thus  when 
the  light  is  weftward  of  the  fun,  and  fets  after  it,  the 
comet  is  faid  to  be  tailed,  becaufe  the  train  follows  it 
in  the  manner  of  a  tail  :  when  the  comet  is  eaftward 
of  the  fun,  and  moves  from  it,  the  comet  is  faid  to  be 
beariQd,  becaufe  the  light  marches  before  it  in  the 
manner  of  a  beard.  Laftly,  when  the  comet  and  the 
fun  are  diametrically  oppofite  (the  earth  between 
them),  the  train  is  hid  behind  the  body  of  the  comet, 
except  a  little  that  appears  round  it  in  form  of  a  bor- 
der of  hair :  and  from  this  laft  appearance  the  word 
comet  is  derived  ;  as  ""/^nrBf,  cometa,  comes  from  «»/"", 
coma,  hair.  But  there  have  been  comets  whofe  diflc 
was  as  clear,  as  round,  and  as  well  defined,  as  that  of 
Jupiter,  without  either  tail,  beard,  or  coma.  See  A- 
ST  R  ON  o  M  Y- Index, 

COMETARIUM,  a  curious  machine,  exhibiting 
an  idea  of  the  revolution  of  a  comet  about  the  fun. 
See  AsTRONOM Y-/«(7i':«. 

COMETEAN,  a  town  of  Bohemia  in  the  circle  of 
Saltz,  with  a  handforae  town-houfe.  It  was  taken  by 
florm  in  1421,  and  all  the  inhabiiaiits,  men,  women, 
and  children,  put  to  the  fword.  It  is  feated  in  a  fer- 
tile plain,  in  E.  Long.  13.  25.  N.  Lat.  50.  30. 

COMETES,  in  botany  :  A  genus  of  the  monogy. 
nia  order,  belonging  to  the  tetrandria  clafs  of  plants.- 
'^^^^   'ivolucrum  is   tetraphyllous  and  trlflorous ;  the 


Th: 


calyx  tetraphyllous  ;  the  capfule  tricoccou 

COMFR.EY.     See  Symphytum. 

COMINES  (Philip  de),  an  excellent  hiflorian, 
born  of  a  noble  family  in  Flanders  In  144.6.  He  lived 
ill  a  kind  of  intimacy  with  Charles  the  Bold,  duke  of. 


Burgundy,  for  about  eight  years  ; 


but  being  fcduced 
to- 


C     O     M 


r  192  3 


COM 


II . 

Coniitia, 

^_    ,--, '  gociations, 


to  fV.<  couit  of  I'Vance  by  Louis  XT.  lie  was  Mghly 
promoted  by  him,  and  executed  fcvcral  fuixefsfu!  nc- 
gociations.  After  this  king's  death  he  experienced 
many  troubles  on  account  of  being  a  foreigner,  by  the 
envy  of  other  coiutiera,  and  lay  long  in  pi-ifon  before 
be  was  difcharged  :  he  died  in  1509.  Comines  was 
a  man  of  more  natural  abilities  than  learning  ;  he 
fpoke  fcveral  living,  but  knew  nothing  of  the  dead 
languages  ;  he   has  left   beliind   him  foinc  memoirs  of 


The  power   of  calling  thefe  affemblies  belonged  at   Conit;; 
fiift.  only  to  the  kings;  but  upon  the  eilabliftiment  of'""  V" 
the  democracy,  the  lame  privikge  was  allowed  to  moll 
of  the   chief  magiftrates,  and  lomeumes  to   the  pon- 
tificcs. 

The  perfons  who  had  the  liberty  of  voting  here 
were  luch  Roman  cili/.ens  as  belonged  to  the  cuiix  ; 
or  fuch  as  aflually  lived  in  the  city,  and  conformed 
to  the  culloms   and   rites  of  their   proper  curia:  ;  all 


his'own  times,  that  arc  admired  by  all  true  judges  of  thofe  being  excluded  who  dwelt  without  the  bound* 
hiftory.  Catherine  de  Medicis  ufed  to  fay,  that  Co-  of  the  city,  retaining  the  ceremonies  of  their  own 
mines  made  as  many  heretics  in  politics  as  Luther  had    country,  chough  they  had  been  iionoured  with  the  jw 

c'lvitatis,    or  admitted   free  citizens  of    Rome.      The 
place  where  the  curia:   met  was  the  comklum,  a  part  of 


in  religion 

CoMiNF.s,  a  town  of  French  Flanders  on  the  lines 
which  the  French  have  inade  to  defend  their  country 
againft  the  Auftrian  Netherlands.  It  is  fituated  on 
the  river  Lis,  in  E.  Long.  3.  I.   N.  Lat.  50.  30. 

'  COMITATUS,  in  law<  a  county.  Ingulphus  tells 
VIS,  that  England  was  firlt  divided  into  counties  by 
king  Alfred ;  and  the  counties  into  hundreds,  and 
thefe  again  into  tythini^s  :  and  Fortcfcne  writes,  that 
■regtium  An^lix  p(r  comiUitus,  vt  n^num  Franck  ptr  l/i'Jli- 
vatm  dill'mgvitur.     Sometimes  it  is  taken  for  a  territory 


the  forum  :  No  fet  time  was  appointed  for  the  hold- 
ing thefe,  or  a'ly  other  of  the  comitia,  but  only  as 
bufmefs  required. 

The  people  being  met  together,  and  confirmed  by 
the  report  of  good  omens  from  the  augurs  (which  was 
ncceflary  in  all  the  affemblies),  the  rogatio,  or  bufinefs 
to  be  propofed  to  them,  was  publicly  read.  After 
this  (if  none  of  the  magiftrates  interpofcd),  upon 
the   order  of  him   that  prcfided   in   the   comitia,  the 


or  iurifdialon  of  a  particular  place  ;  as  in  Mat.  Paris,     People  divided  into   their  proper  curias,  and  confulted 
anno  12;?4.     See  Coustv.  of  '''«  matter  ;  and  then   the  curias  bemg  called  out, 

COMl TLA.,  in  Roman  antiquity,  were  general  af- 


as  it  happened   by  lot,  gave   their  votes  man  by  man, 


femblies  of  the  people,  lawfully  called   by  fomc  ma-    i"  ancient  times  viva  wee,  and   afterwards  by  tablets  ; 
nioinment  or  prohibition  of  any  thing    the  moll  votes  in  every  curia  going  for  the  voice  of  the 


giftrate  for  the  e 
by  their  votes. 

The  proper  comitia  were  of  three  forts ;  cur'iata, 
■  einluriahi,  and  trilnua ;  with  reference  to  the  three 
grand  divifions  of  the  city  and  people  into  curity  cen- 
turi^,  and  Irik's  :  For,  by  comitia  caiata,  which  we 
fometimea  meet  with  in  authors,  in  elder  times  were 
meant  all  the  comitia  in  general  j  the  word  ci^lala 
•from  ^i'-i".  or  calo,  being  their  common  epithet  ;  though 
it  was  at  laft  rellrained  to  two  forts  of  affemblies,  thofe 
for  the  creation  of  priefts,  and  thofe  for  the  reguktion 
of  laft  wills  and  tellaments. 

The  comilia  curiala  owe  their  origin  to  the  divifion 
which  Romulus  made  of  the  people  into  30  cur!^  ; 
ten  beino-  contained  in  every  tribe.  They  anfwered 
in  moll  refpefts  to  the  pariflies  in  our  cities,  bring  not 
only  feparated  by  proper  bounds  and  limits,  but  di- 
ftinguiihed  too  by  their  different  places  fet  apart  for 
the  celebration  of  divine  fei  vice,  which  was  performed 
by  particular  piieits  (one  to  every  curia),  with  the 
name  of  curknes 

Befor 


whole  curia,  and  the   mod  curiae  for  the  general  con- 
fent  of  the  people. 

in  the  ti»e  of  Cicero,  the  comitia  curiata  were  fo 
much  out  of  fafttion,  that  they  were  formed  only  by 
30  liftors  reprefenting  the  30  curia:  ;  whence,  in  his 
ferond  oration  againlt  Rullus,  he  calls  them  comitia 
adumbrala. 

The  comitia  centiirlata  were  inflituted  by  Serviuj 
TuUius :  who,  obliging  every  one  to  give  a  true  ac- 
count of  what  be  was  worth,  according  to  thofe  ac- 
counts, divided  the  people  into  fix  Kinks  or  clalTes, 
which  he  fubdividcd  into  193  centuries.  The  firlt 
clalfis,  containing  the  equites  and  richeft  citizens, 
conlilled  «f  98  centuries.  l  he  fecund,  taking  in  the 
tradcfmen  and  mechanics,  confifted  of  zz  centuries. 
The  third,  20.  The  fourth,  22.  The  lifth,  3c. 
Tiie  fixth,  filled  up  with  the  poorer  fort,  but  one 
century  :  and  this,  though  it  had  the  fame  name  with 
the  reft,  yet  was  feldom  regarded,  or  allowed  any 
Hence  it  is  a  common  thin 


power  in  public  matters.     Jrience  it  is  a  common  thing 

^.,„..  the  inllitutlon  of  the  comilia  centuriata,  all    with  the  Roman  authors,  when  they  fpeakof  the  claffes, 

the  grand  concerns  of  the  ftate  were  tranfafted  in  the    to  reckon   no    more  than  five,    the   fixth   not  being 

BlTembly  of  the  curiae  ;  as  the  eleftion   of  kings  and     wortli  their  notice.     This  laft  claflis  or  order  was  di- 


nbly 
other  chief  officers,  the  making  and  abrogating  of 
laws,  and  the  judging  of  capital  caufes.  After  the  cx- 
pulfion  of  the  kings,  when  the  commons  had  obtained 
the  privilege  to  have  tribunes  and  Kdiles,  they  elefted 
them  for  fome  time  at  thefe  aflimblies  t  but  that  ce- 
remony being  at  length  trantferred  to  the  comitia  tri- 
buta,  the  curlx  were  never  convened  to  give  their 
voien,  except  now  and  then  upon  account  of  making 
fome  particular  law  relating  to  adoptions,  wills,  and 
teftaments,  or  the  creation  of  officers  for  an  expedi- 
tion ;  or  for  elefting  fome  of  the  priefts,  as  the  Jlaml- 
nes,  and  the  curio  maxlmus,  or  luperintendant  of  the 
curiones,  who  were  thimfelvcs  chofen  by  every  parti- 
cular curia. 
N'  8j. 


vidcd  into  two  parts,  or  orders  ;  the  pro/ttaril  and  the 
capi/c  tcnjl.  The  former,  as  their  name  implies,  were 
dcfigned  purely  to  llock  the  republic  with  men,  fince 
tiiey  could  fupply  it  with  fo  little  money  ;  and  the 
latter,  who  pyid  the  lowefl  tax  of  all,  were  rather, 
counted  and  marrtialled  by  their  heads  than  by  their 
eftates. 

Perfons  of  the  firft  rank,  by  reafon  of  their  pre-emi- 
nence, had  the  name  oi  clajjicl;  whence  ca.me  the  name 
of  clafici  aulhons  for  the  moft  approved  writers.  All 
others,  of  what  clalfis  foever,  were  laid  to  be  infra 
chijfem.  The  afl'cmbly  of  the  people  by  centuries  was 
held  for  the  electing  of  confuls,  cenfors,  and  praetors  ; 
a»  alfo  for  the  judging  of  perfons  ascufcd  of  what  they 

called 


COM 


[     '93     ] 


COM 


called  crimen  perdiielliotih,  or  aftlons  by  which  the  party 

■^  had  fhovved  himfclf  an  enemy  to  the  ibtc,  and  for  the 

confirmation  of  all  fuch   laws  as  were  propofed  by  tlie 

chief  macjiftrates,  who  had  the  privilege  of  callhig  thefe 

-  alFemblies. 

The  place  appointed  for  their  meetinjr  was  the  cam- 
pus martius  ;  becaufe  in  the  primitive  times  of  the  com- 
monwealth, when  they  were  under  continual  appre- 
henfions  of  enemies,  the  people,  to  prevent  any  lud- 
den  affault,  went  armed,  in  martial  order,  to  hold  thefe 
aflemblics ;  and  were  for  that  reafon  forbidden  by  the  laws 
to  meet  in  the  city,  becaufe  an  army  was  upon  no  ac- 
count to  be  marflialled  within  the  walls  :  yet,  in  latter 
ages,  it  was  thought  fufficient  to  place  a  body  of  fol- 
diers  as  a  guard  in  the  janiculum,  where  an  imperial 
Jlandard  was  erefled,  the  taking  down  of  which  deno- 
ted the  conclufion  of  the  comitia. 

Though  the  time  of  holding  thefe  comitia  for  other 
matters  was  undetermined  ;  yet  the  magillrates,  after 
the  year  of  the  city  601,  when  they  began  to  enter  on 
their  place,  on  the  kalends  of  January,  were  conllantly 
dtfi^v.ed  about  the  'end  of  July  and  the  beginning  of 
Auguft. 

All  the  time  between  their  cleifllon  and  confirmation 
they  continued  as  private  perfons,  that  inquifition 
might  be  made  into  the  eleilion,  and  the  other  candi- 
dates might  have  time  to  enter  objeftions,  if  they  met 
with  any  fufplcion  of  foul  dealing.  Yet,  at  the  elcftion 
of  the  cenfors,  this  cullom  did  not  hold ;  but  as  foon 
as  they  were  elefted,  they  were  immediately  inverted 
V  ith  the  honour. 

By  the  inrtitution  of  thefe  comitia,  Servius  Tullius 
fecretly  conveyed  the  whole  of  the  power  from  the 
commons :  for  the  centuries  of  the  lirft  and  richcft 
clafs  being  called  out  firft,  who  were  three  more  in 
number  than  all  the  reft  pat  together,  if  they  all  agreed, 
as  generally  they  did,  the  buiinefs  was  already  deci- 
ded, and  the  other  claifes  were  needlefs  and  infignifi- 
cant.  However,  the  three  laft  fcarce  ever  came  to 
Vote. 

The  commons,  in  the  time  of  the  free  ftate,  to  re- 
medy this  difadvantage,  obtained,  that  before  they 
proceeded  to  voting  any  matter  at  thefe  comitia,  that 
century  fliould  give  their  fuffrages  firtl  upon  whom  it 
fell  bv  lot,  vi'ith  the  name  oi  centuria  prern^jrativa ;  tlie 
reft  being  to  follow  according  to  the  order  of  their 
clafTes.  After  the  conttitution  of  the  35  tribes  into 
which  the  clafles  and  their  centuries  were  divided,  in 
the  firft  place,  the  tribes  caft  lots  which  (liould  be  the 
prerogative  trite ;  and  then  the  centuries  of  the  tribes 
for  the  honour  of  being  a  prerogative  century.  All 
the  other  tribes  and  centuries  had  the  appellation  of 
jure  I'ocata,  becaufe  they  were  called  out  according  to 
their  proper  places. 

The  prerogative  century  being  chofen  by  lot,  the 
chief  magiftrate,  fitting  in  a  tent  in  the  middle  of  tlie 
campus  martius,  ordered  that  century  to  come  out  and 
give  their  voices  ;  upon  which  they  prefently  feparated 
from  the  reft  of  the  multitude,  and  came  into  an  inclo- 
fed  apartment,  which  they  ttrmed  fe/>ta,  or  nvilia,  paf- 
llng  over  the  pontes  or  narrow  boards  laid  there  for  tlie 
oceafion  ;  on  which  account,  de  poiite  dejid  figniiies  to 
be  denied  the  privilege  of  voting,  and  perfons  thus  dealt 
with  are  called  depontan't. 

At  the  hither  end  of  the  pontes  flood  the  dirilkores 
VouV.  Till  I. 


(a   fort  of  under  officers  fo  called  from  their  marfhal-    Comitij. 

ling  the   people),  and  delivered  to  every  man,  in  the  *~~^ 

election  of  magiftratcs,  as  many  tables  as  there  ap- 
peared candidates,  one  of  whofe  names  was  written 
upon  every  tablet.  A  proper  number  of  great  cherts 
were  fet  ready  in  the  fepta,  and  every  body  threw  in 
which  tablet  he  pleafed. 

By  the  chefts  were  placed  fome  of  the  public  fer- 
vants,  who  taking  out  the  tablets  of  every  century, 
for  every  tablet,  made  a  prick  or  a  point  in  another 
tablet  which  they  kept  by  them.  Thus,  the  bufinefs 
being  decided  by  moft  points,  gave  oceafion  to  the 
phrafe  omne  tulit  pundum,  and  the  like. 

The  fame  method  was  obferved  in  the  judiciary  pro- 
cefs  at  thefe  comitia,  and  in  the  confirmation  of  laws  ; 
except  that,  in  both  tiiefe  cafes,  only  two  tablets  werS 
offered  to  every  perfon  ;  on  one  of  which  was  written 
Ui  R.  and  on  the  other  A,  in  capital  letters:  the  two 
firft  ftanding  for  utl  rngas,  "  be  it  as  you  defirc,"  rela- 
ting to  the  magiftrate  who  propofed  the  queftion;  and 
the  laft  for  antiquo,  or  "  I  forbid  it." 

It  is  remarkable,  that  though  id  the  eleftion  of 
magiflrates,  and  in  the  ratification  of  laws,  the  votes 
of  that  century,  whofe  tablets  were  equally  divided, 
figniiied  nothing  ;  yet  in  trials  of  life  and  death,  if  the 
tablets^;-*)  and  on  were  the  fame  in  number,  the  per- 
fon was  aftually  acquitted. 

The  divifion  of  people  into  tribes  was  an  invention 
of  Romulus,  after  he  had  admitted  the  Sabines  into 
Rome  ;  and  though  he  conftituted  at  that  time  only 
three,  yet  as  the  ftate  increafed  in  power,  and  the 
city  in  number  of  inhabitants,  they  rofe  by  degrees  to 
35.  For  a  long  time  after  this  inftitution,  a  //*  fig- 
nifled  no  more  than  fuch  a  fpace  of  ground  with  its  in- 
habitants. But  at  laft  the  matter  was  quite  altered, 
and  a  tribe  was  no  longcr/i^jrj-  urhts,  hwt pars c'rvitath  ;  not 
a  quarter  of  the  city,  but  a  company  of  citizens  living 
where  they  pleafed.  This  change  was  chiefly  occa- 
fioned  by  the  original  difference  between  the  tribes  in 
point  of  honour.  For  Romulus  having  committed  all 
fordid  and  mechanic  arts  to  the  care  of  ftrangers, 
flaves,  and  libertines  ;  and  referved  the  more  honcit 
labour  of  agriculture  to  the  freemen  and  citizens,  who 
by  this  aftive  courfc  of  life  might  be  prepared  for 
martial  fcrvice  ;  the  tribus  riijiice  were  for  this  rea- 
fon efteemcd  more  honourable  than  the  trtbiis  urlana:. 
And  now  all  perfons  being  defirous  of  getting  into  the 
more  creditable  divifion  ;  and  there  bemg  feveral  ways 
of  accomphlliing  their  wilhes,  as  by  adoption,  by  the 
power  of  cenfors,  or  the  like  ;  that  ruftic  tribe  which 
had  the  moft  worthy  names  in  its  roll,  had  the  prefe- 
rence to  all  others,  though  of  the  fame  general  de- 
nomination. Hence  all  of  the  fame  great  family, 
bringing  themfelves  by  degrees  into  the  fame  tribe, 
gave  the  name  of  their  family  to  the  tribe  they  ho- 
noured ;  whereas  at  firft  the  generality  of  the  tribes 
did  not  borrow  their  names  from  perfons  but  from 
places. 

The  firft  affembly  of  the  tribes  we  meet  with  is 
about  the  year  of  Rome  263,  convened  by  Sp.  Sici- 
nius,  tribune  of  the  commons,  upon  account  of  the  trial 
of  Coriulanus.  Soon  after,  the  tribunes  of  the  com- 
mons were  ordered  to  be  eleded  here;  and  at  laft, 
all  the  inferior  magiftratcs,  and  the  collegiate  pricfts. 
The  fame  comitia  fcrved  for  the  enading  of  laws  re- 
^  b  latinr 


COM  [     19 

Comitialis  lating  to  war  and  peace,  ami  all  others  propofed  by 
II         the  tribunes  and  plebeian  officers,  though  they  had  not 

.  Comma.  p,.j,pgfjy  j],g  name  of  le^c,  but  pUbifcila.  They  were 
'  generally  convened  by  the  tribunes  of  the  commons ; 
but  the  fame  privilege  was  allowed  to  all  the  chief 
magiftrates.  They  were  confined  to  no  place  ;  and 
therefore  fomctimes  we  find  them  held  in  the  comitium ; 
fometimes  in  the  eamptu  martius,  and  now  and  then 
in  the  capitol.  The  proe^'edings  were  in  moil  refpeCts 
anfwerable  to  thofe  already  defcribed  in  the  account 
of  the  other  comitia,  and  therefore  need  not  be  infill- 
ed on.  Only  v.e  may  farther  obferve  of  the  comitia 
in  general,  that  when  any  candidate  was  found  to  have 
mod  tablets  for  a  niagiftracy,  he  was  declared  to  be 
defigncd  or  elefted  by  the  prefident  of  the  affembly ; 
and  this  they  termed  rsnunciari  conful,  prator,  or  the 
like  ;  and  that  the  lall  fort  of  the  comitia  only  could 
be  held  without  the  confent  and  approbation  of  the 
fenate,  which  was  neccffary  to  tlie  convening  of  the 
other  two. 

COMITIALIS  M06.BUS,  an  appellation  given  to 
the  Epilepsy,  bv  reafon  the  comitia  of  ancient  Rome 
were  diflblved  if  any  pcrfon  in  the  alfembly  happened 
to  be  taken  with  this  diltemper 


+       ] 


COM 


COMITIUM,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  large  hall  in 
the  forum,  where  the  Comitia  were  ordinarily  held. 

COM^IA,  among  grammarians,  a  point  or  charac- 
ter marked  thus  (  ,  ),  ferving  to  denote  a  fliort  ilop, 
and  to  divide  the  members  of  a  period.  Different  au- 
thors define  and  ufe  it  diflerently.  According  to  F. 
Buffier,  the  comma  ferves  to  diltinguiih  the  members 
of  a  period,  in  each  of  which  is  a  verb  and  the  nomi- 
native cafe  of  the  verb  :  thus,  "  That  fo  many  people 
are  pleafed  with  trifles,  is  owing  to  a  weaknefs  of 
mind,  which  makes  them  love  things  eafy  to  be  com- 
prehended." Bcfides  this,  the  comma  is  ufed  to  diftin- 
guifh,  in  the  fame  member  of  a  period,  feveial  nouns- 
fubftantivc,  or  nouns-adjeclive,  or  verbs  not  united  by 
a  conjunftion  :  thus,  "  Virtue,  wit,  knowledge,  are 
the  chief  advantages  of  a  man  :"  or,  "  A  man  never 
becomes  learned  without  iludying  conflantly,  methodi- 
cally, with  a  guft,  application,  &c."  If  thofe  words 
are  united  in  the  fame  phrafe  witli  a  conjunclion,  the 
comma  is  omitted :  thus,  "  the  imagination  and  the 
judgment  do  not  always  agree." 

The  ingenious  author  of  the  traft  De  ratione  inter- 
pungendi,  printed  with  Voffius's  Element.  Rhetor. 
Lond.  1724,  lays  down  the  ufe  of  a  comma  to  be,  to 
diilinguifh  the  fimple  members  of  a  period  or  fentence ; 
i.  e.  fuch  as  only  confill  of  one  fubjeft,  and  one  defi- 
nite verb.  But  this  rule  does  not  go  throughout ;  the 
fame  author  inllancing  many  particular  cafes  not  yet 
included  herein,  where  yet  the  comma  is  advilable. 
See  Punctuation. 

It  is  a  general  rule  that  a  comma  ought  not  to  come 
between  a  nominative  and  a  verb,  or  an  adjeftive  and 
fubllantive,  when  thefe  are  not  otherwife  disjoined  : 
thus,  in  the  fentence,  God  ruklh  luith  'ir.fin'ile  "j.-ifdom,  a 
comma  between  God  and  ruklh,  or  between  injinite  and 
•wi/dcni,  would  be  abfurd.  But  to  this  exceptions  may 
occur ;  as  when  not  a  fingle  word,  but  a  fentence, 
happens  to  be  the  nominative  ;  thus,  in  the  example 
firft  above  given,  where  the  fentence  t/.'al  fo  many  peop/e 
tre  pknfid  ivith  trifles,  forms  the  nomir.ative  to  the 
verb  is,  a  comma  at  tri/Ics  is  proper,  both  for  the  feke 


of  perfpicuity,  and  as  coinciding  with  a  flight  natural  Comniaij. 
paufe.  ^""'» 

Comma,  in  mufic.     See  Interval,  Commen 

COMMANDINUS  (Frederic),  born  at  Urbino  in  dam.  * 
Italy,  and  dei'cended  from  a  very  noble  family,  in  tlie  —— v  * 
1 6th  century.  To  a  Vait  Ikitl  in  the  mathematics,  he 
had  added  a  great  knowledge  in  the  Greek  tongue, 
by  which  he  was  well  qualified  to  trauflate  the  Greek 
mathematicians  into  Laiin  :  accordingly  he  tranflated 
and  publiflied  fevcral,  v*hich  no  writer  till  then  had  at- 
tempted ;   as  Arcliimedes,  j^-pollonius,  Euclid,  3ic. 

COMMANDRY,  a  kind  of  benefice  or  fixed  reve- 
nue belonging  to  a  militai-y  order,  and  conferred  on 
ancient  knights  who  had  done  confiderable  ferviccs  to 
the  order. 

There  are  llrid.  or  regular  commaridries,  obtained  in 
order,  and  by  merit  ;  there  are  others  of  grace  and 
favour,  conferred  at  the  pleafure  of  the  grand  mailer  ; 
there  are  alfo  commandries  for  the  religious,  in  the  or- 
ders of  St  Bernard  and  St  Anthony.  The  kings  of 
France  have  converted  feveral  of  the  holpitals  for  kpets 
into  commandries  of  the  order  of  St  Lazarus. 

The  commandries  of  Malta  are  of  different  kinds  ; 
for  as  the  order  confifts  of  knights,  chaplains,  and  bro- 
thers-fervitors,  there  are  peculiar  commandries  or  re- 
venues attached  to  each.  The  knight  to  whom  one 
of  thefe  benefices  or  commandries  is  given  is  called 
commander :  which  agrees  pretty  nearly  with  the 
prKpofitus  fet  over  the  monks  in  places  at  a  dillance 
from  the  monallei-y,  whofe  adminiftration  was  called 
cbedier.tia ;  becaufe  depending  entirely  upon  the  abboL 
who  gave  him  his  commilfion.  Thus  it  is  with  the 
fimple  commanders  of  Malta,  v>ho  arc  rather  farmers 
of  the  order  than  beneficiaries;  paying  a  certain  tiibute 
or  rent,  called  refponjio,  to  tlie  conunon  treafure  of  the 
order. 

COMMELINA;  in  botany  :  A  genus  of  the  mo- 
nogynia  order,  belonging  to  the  triandria  clafs  of 
plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under 
the  6th  order,  Enfut<s.  The  corolla  is  hexapeta- 
lous ;  there  are  three  nedlaria,  of  a  cruciform  figure, 
and  inferted  into  their  proper  filaments.  There  are 
ten  fpecies,  all  of  them  natives  of  warm  climates. 
They  are  iitrbaceous  plants,  rifing  from  two  to  four 
feet  high,  and  adorned  with  blue  or  yellow  flowers. 
Their  culture  diifers  in  nothing  from  that  of  the  com- 
mon exotics. 

COMMEMORATION,  in  a  general  fenfe,  the  re- 
membrance of  any  perfon  or  thing,  or  the  doing  any 
thing  to  the  honour  of  a  pcifon's  memory,  or  in  re- 
membrance of  any  paft  event.  Thus,  the  eucharift  is  a 
commemoration  of  the  fufferings  of  Jefus  Chrill. 

COMMENDAM,  in  the  ecclefiaitical  law,  the  trull 
or  adminiftration  of  the  revenues  of  a  benefice,  given 
either  to  a  layman,  to  liold  by  way  of  depofitum  for 
fix  months,  in  order  to  repairs,  &c.  or  to  an  ecclefia- 
llic  or  beneficed  perfon,  to  perform  the  pailoral  duties 
thereof,  till  once  the  benefice  is  provided  with  a  regu- 
lar incumbent. 

Anciently  the  adminiftration  of  vacant  biflioprics 
belonged  to  the  nearell  neighbouring  bilhop  ;  which  is 
Hill  piadtil'ed  between  the  aichbiihopric  of  Lyons  and 
the  bilhopric  of  Autun  :  on  this  account  they  wcie 
called  commntdalory  li/hops. 

This  culloin  appears  to  be  vtrj-  ancient  S.  Atha- 
9  uafius 


COM 


[     » 


95 


IJenvneii'  nnfliH  fiiye  of  liimfelf,  according  to  Nicephorus,  thai 
dar.i,  there  had  been  given  him  in  coniKiindam,  i.  c.  in  admi- 
datu7°'  niftration,  anotlicr  church  befidcs  that  of  Alexandria 
V,.,-y—  «vliereof  he  was  ftatod  hilbop. 

The  care  of  churches,  it  fcems,  which  had  no  pa- 
ftor,  was  committed  to  a  bilhop,  till  they  were  provi- 
ded of  an  ordinary :  the  regilUr  of  Pope  Gregory  I. 
is  full  of  thefe  commilTions,  or  com.nendams,  granted 
dwing  the  abfence  or  ficknefs  of  a  biihop,  or  the  va. 
cancy  of  the  fee. 

Some  fay,  that  Pope  I-eo  IV.  6rft  fet  the  modern 
commendams  on  foot,  in  favour  of  ccclefiaftics  who  had 
been  expelled  their  benefices  by  the  Saracens ;  to 
vhorn  the  adminiilration  of  the  vacant  churchts  was 
committed  for  a  time,  in  expechation  of  their  being  re- 
flored  ;  though  S.  Gregory  is  faid  to  have  ufed  tbc 
fame,  while  tl-.e  Lombards  defolated  Italy. 

In  a  little  time  the  practice  of  commendams  was  ex- 
cecd'nglv  abufed  ;  and  the  revenues  of  monalleries 
given  to  laymen  for  their  fubfi Hence.  Tlie  bilhops  alfo 
procured  feveral  benefices,  or  even  bilhoprlcs,  in  com- 
men-.hm,  \i  hlch  ferved  as  a  pretext  for  liolJing  tiiem  all 
ivltliout  direftly  violating  the  canons.  Part  of  the 
shufe  has  been  retrenelied;  but  the  ufe  of  commendams 
is  ftill  retained  as  an  expedient  to  take  off  the  incom- 
patibility of  the  pcrfon  by  the  nature  of  the  benefice. 

When  a  parfon  i.s  made  bifhop,  his  parfonage  be- 
comes vacant?  but  if  the  king  give  him  power,  he  may 
ftill  hold  it  in  comtnenihim. 

COMMENDATUS,  one  who  lives  under  the  pro- 
tection of  a  great  man.  Commer.dati  homines,  were 
perfons  who,  by  voluntary  homage,  put  themfelves 
iinder  the  protettion  of  any  fuperior  lord  :  for  ancient 
homage  was  either  predial,  due  for  fome  tenure  ;  or 
ferjonal,  which  was  by  compulllon,  as  a  fign  of  nccef- 


1  COM 

fary  fubjeftion  j  or  voluiitaiy,  witli  u  defirc  of  protcc-  CommeU' 
tion  i  and  tliofe  who,  by  voluntary  homage,  put  them»     furiljii 
felves  under  the  proteAion  of  any  man  of  power,  were  c..mmcn' 
fometiines  calletl  huminei  ejus  CLinmcudcli,  as  often  oc-       tary. 
curs  in  Dooml'dajr.    Comntemlati  dimiJii  were  tliofe  whu  ■— ■ 
depended  on   two  feveral  loixls,  and  paid  one-half  of 
their   homage  to  each ;  and  fub-Lommenduti  were  like 
under-tenants  under  the  command  of  perfons  that  were 
themfelves  under  the  command  of  fome  fuperior  lord  : 
alfo  thci'C  were  dimidiiftib'Cmnmi-ndM:,  wlio  bore  a  double 
relation  to  fuoh  depending  lords.     This  phrafe  feems 
to  be  Hill  in  ufe  in  the  ufual  compliment  "  Comend  me 
to  fuch  a  friend,"   &c.   which  is  to  let  him  know,  "  I 
am  his  humble  fcrvaut." 

COMMENkSURABLE,  among  geometricians,  an 
appellation  given  to  fuch  quantities  as  are  raenfured  by- 
one  and  the  fame  common  mcafure. 

CoMMi'.Nsuk.iiu.i!  Nuirihrs,  wlictlicr  integers  or  frac- 
tion), are  fuch  as  can  be  meafured  or  divided  by  fome 
other  number  without  any  remainder :  fuch  are  iz  and 
J  8,  as  being  meafured  by  6  and  3. 

CoMMEh'svR.inLE  III  Po'ujer,  is  faid  of  right  lines,  when 
their  fqiiares  are  meafured  by  one  and  the  fame  fpacc 
or  fuperlicies, 

CoMMSNiURjBLE  Surds,  thofc  that  being  reduced  to 
their  leaft  terms,  become  true  figurative  quantities  of 
their  kind ;  and  are  therefore  as  a  rational  quantity  to 
a  rational  one, 

COiNlMENTARY,  or  Comment,  In  matters  of  li- 
tevature,  an  illufhation  of  the  difficult  or  obfcure  paf- 
fages  of  an  author. 

Commentary,  or  Commentaries^  likewife  denotes  a 
kind  of  hillory,  or  memoirs  of  certain  tranfadtions, 
wherein  the  author  had  a  coniiderable  hand ;  fuch  arc 
the  Commentaries  of  Csefar, 


O       M       M 


R 


E 


Is  an  operation  by  which  the  wealth,  or  work,  either 
of  individuals  or  of  focieties,  may  be  exchanged 
by  a  fet  of  men  caUed  merchants,  for  an  equivalent,  pro- 
per for  fupplying  evciy  want,  without  any  interruption 
to  indullry,  or  any  check  upon  confumption. 

Chap. I.     History  ofCoMMERCE. 

f  I .     Gcmrnl  Hiflory, 

It  is  a  point  as  yet  undecided  by  the  learned,  to 
wliat  nation  the  invention  and  fiill  ufe  of  commerce 
brionged ;  fome  attribute  it  to  one  people,  fome  to 
another,  for  reafons  that  are  too  long  to  be  difcuifed 
here.  But  it  feems  moft  probable  that  the  inhabitants 
of  Arabia  were  thofe  that  firft  made  long  voyages. 
It  muft  be  allowed,  that  no  country  was  fo  happily 
feated  for  this  purpofe  as  that  which  they  inhabited, 
bfing  a  peninfula  wafhed  on  three  fides  by  three  fa- 
mous feas,  the  Arabian,  Indian,  and  Perfian.  It  is 
alfo  certain,  that  it  was  very  early  inhabited  ;  and  the 
firit  notice  we  have  of  any  confiderable  trade  refers 
if.  to  the  Ilhmaelites,  who  were  fettled  in  the  hither 
cart  of  Aiabia.  To  them  Jofeph  vras  fold  bv  his 
brethrtn,  when  they  were  going  down  with  their  ca- 


mels to  Egypt  with  fplcery,  balm,  and  myrrh.  ft 
may  feem  llrange  to  Infer  from  hence,  that  commerce 
was  already  pratliftd  by  this  nation,  iince  mention  is 
here  made  of  camels,  or  a  caravan,  which  certainly 
implies  an  inland  trade  ;  and  it  muft  be  likewife  al- 
lowed, that  balm  and  myrrh  were  the  commodities  of 
their  country.  But  wlience  had  they  the  fpiceryr  Or 
how  came  Arabia  to  be  fo  famous  in  ancient  times  for 
fpices  ?  Or  whence  proceeded  that  miftake  of  many 
great  authors  of  antiquity,  that  fpices  aChially  grew 
there  J  Moft  certainly,  becaufe  thefe  people  dealt  in 
them  i  and  that  they  dealt  in  them  the  firit  of  any 
nation  that  we  know  of,  appears  from  this  very  in- 
ftance.  Strabo  and  many  other  good  authors  allure 
us,  that  in  fucceeding  times  they  were  very  great 
traders  ;  they  tell  us  particularly  what  ports  they  had  ; 
what  prodigious  magazines  they  kept  of  the  richcll 
kinds  of  goods,  what  wonderful  we;dtli  they  obtained; 
in  what  prodigious  m.agnificence  they  hved,  and  into 
what  excelfes  tiiey  fell  in  refpeft  to  their  expences  for 
carving,  building,  and  ftatues.  AiX  tiiis  fliows  that 
they  were  very  great  traders  :  and  it  alfo  ftiows,  that 
they  traded  to  the  Eaft  Indies ;  for  from  thence  only 
they  could  have  their  fpices,  tiieir  rich  gums,  their 
fweet-fcented  woods,  and  theii  ivory,  all  which  it  is 
B  b  2  exprefsly 


196  C     O     M     M 

exprffsly  faid  that  they  had  in  the  greatell  abundance. 
This  therefore  proves,  that  tliey  had  an  cxtenfive  and 
flourilhing  commerce ;  and  that  they  had  it  earhcr 
than  any  other  nation,  feems  evident  from  their  deal- 
ing at  that  time  in  fpices.  Befides,  there  is  much  lefs 
difficulty  in  fuppoling  that  they  firll  difcovered  the 
route  to  the  Indies,  than  if  we  afcribe  that  dilcovery 
to  any  other  nation  :  fur  in  the  firft  place  they  lay 
ncarcfl,  and  in  the  next  they  lay  molt  conveniently  ; 
to  which  we  may  add,  thirdly,  that  as  the  iituation 
of  their  country  naturally  incliried  them  to  navigation, 
fo  by  the  help  of  the  monfoons  they  might  make  regu- 
lar voyages  to  and  from  the  Indies  with  great  facility; 
nor  is  it  at  all  unlikely  that  this  difcovery  might  be  at 
firft  owing  to  chance,  and  to  fome  of  their  veflcls  be- 
ing blown  by  a  ftrong  gale  to  the  oppofite  coart,  from 
whence  they  might  take  the  courage  to  return,  by  ob- 
ferving  the  regularity  of  the  vvindb  at  certain  feafons. 
All  thefe  reafons  taken  together  feem  to  favour  this 
opinion,  that  commerce  flouriihed  lirft  among  them  ; 
and  as  to  its  confequences  in  making  them  rich  and 
happy,  there  is  no  difpute  about  them. 

We  find  in  the  records  of  antiquity  no  nation  cele- 
brated more  early  for  carr)'ing  all  arts  to  perfedtion 
than  the  inhabitants  of  Egypt  ;  and  it  is  certain  alfo, 
that  no  art  was  there  cultivated  more  early,  with 
more  affidiiity,  or  vi'ith  greater  fuccefs,  than  trade. 
It  appears  from  the  foregoing  inftance,  that  the  richeft 
commodities  were  carried  there  by  land  ;  and  it  is  no 
lefs  certain,  that  the  moil  valuable  manufaftures  were 
invented  and  brought  to  perfection  there  many  ages 
before  they  were  thought  of  in  otlier  countries  :  for, 
as  the  learned  Dr  Warburton  very  juftly  obferves,  at 
the  time  that  Jofeph  came  into  £gypt,  the  people 
were  not  only  poflefTed  of  all  the  conveniences  of 
life,  but  were  remarkable  alfo  for  their  magnificence, 
their  politencfs,  and  even  for  their  luxuiy  ;  which  ar- 
gues, that  traffic  had  been  of  long  Handing  amongit 
them.  To  fay  the  truth,  the  great  advantages  deri- 
ved from  their  country's  lying  along  the  Red  Sea,  and 
the  many  benefits  that  accrued  to  them  from  the  Nile, 
^  which  they  ver^-  emphatically  called  77v  R'mer,  or  The 

River  of  Egvpt,  and  of  which  they  knew  how  to  make 
ail  the  uies  that  can  be  imagined,  gave  them  an  op- 
portunity of  carrying  their  inland  trade  not  only  to  a 
greater  height  than  in  any  countiy  at  that  time,  but 
even  higher  than  it  has  been  carried  any  where,  Chi- 
na only  excepted  ;  and  fome  people  have  thought  it 
no  trivial  argument  to  prove  the  defcent  of  the  Chi- 
nefe  from  the  Egyptians,  that  they  have  exa6tly  the 
fame  fort  of  genius,  and  with  wonderful  induftry  and 
care  have  drawn  fo  many  cuts  and  canals,  that  their 
country  is  almoft  in  every  part  of  it  navigable.  It 
was  by  fuch  methods,  by  a  wife  and  well-regulated 
government,  and  by  promoting  a  fpirit  of  induftjy 
amongft  the  people,  that  the  ancient  Egyptians  be- 
came fo  numerous,  fo  rich,  fo  powerful ;  and  that 
their  country,  for  large  cities,  magnificent  ftruftures, 
and  perpetual  abundance,  became  the  glor)-  and  won- 
der of  the  old  world. 

The  Phoenicians,  though  they  poficffed  only  a  nar- 
row flip  of  the  coail  of  Afia,  and  were  furrounded  by 
nations  fo  powerful  and  fo  warlike  that  they  were 
never  able  to  extend  themfelvcs  on  that  fide,  became 
famous,  by  eretting  the  firft  naval  power  that  ma^es 


E     R     C     E. 

any  figure  in  hiftory,  and  for  the  raifing  of  which  they 
took  the  raoft  prudent  and  tlTeftual  meafurcs.  In  or- 
der to  this,  they  not  only  availed  themfelvcs  of  all  the 
creeks,  harbours,  and  ports,  whicii  nature  had  bellow- 
ed very  liberally  on  their  narrow  teiritory,  but  im- 
proved them  in  fuch  a  manner,  that  they  were  no  lefs 
remarkable  for  their  llrength  than  confiderable  for 
their  conveniency  ;  and  fo  attentive  they  were  to, 
whatever  might  contribute  to  the  incrcafe  of  their 
power,  that  they  were  not  more  admired  for  the  vaft 
advantages  thej-  derived  from  their  commerce,  than 
they  were  formidable  by  their  fleets  and  armies. 
They  were  likewife  celebi-^ted  by  antiquity  as  the  in- 
ventors of  arithmetic  and  allronomj' ;  and  in  the  laft 
mentioned  fcience  they  mull  have  been  very  confider- 
able proficients,  fliice  they  had  the  courage  to  under- 
take long  voyages  at  a  time  when  no  other  nation 
(the  Arabians  and  Egyptians  excepted)  durft  venture 
farther  than  their  own  coafts.  By  thefe  arts  Tyre 
and  Sidon  became  the  moft  famous  marts  in  the  uni- 
verfe,  and  were  refoited  to  by  all  their  neighbours, 
and  even  by  people  at  a  confiderable  diftance,  as  the 
great  ftorehoufes  of  the  world.  We  learn  from  the 
Scriptures  how  advantageous  their  frien<ilhip  and  sl- 
liance  became  to  the  two  great  kings  of  lirael,  David 
and  Solemon  ;  and  we  fee,  by  the  applicatioii  of  the 
latter  for  architeds  and  artlils  to  Hiram  king  of  Tyre, 
to  what  a  prodigious  height  they  had  carried  raanu- 
faftures  of  every  kind. 

It  is  ver)-  certain  that  Solomon  made  ufe  of  their 
alTiftauce  in  equipping  his  fleets  at  Elath  and  Ezionge- 
ber  ;  and  ii  is  ve:y  probable  that  they  put  liim  upon 
acquiring  thofe  ports,  and  gave  him  the  firft  hints  of 
the  amazing  advantages  that  miglit  be  derived  trom 
the  polTeffion  of  them,  and  from  the  commerce  he 
might  from  thence  be  able  to  carry  on.  Thefe  ports 
were  moft  commodioufly  fitua:ed  on  the  Arabian 
gulph  ;  and  from  thence  his  vcfFcls,  manned  chiefly  by 
Phoenicians,  failed  to  Ophir  and  Tharfis,  where-ever 
thofe  places  were.  Some  writers  will  needs  have 
them  to  be  Mexico  and  Peru,  which  is  certainly  a 
wild  and  extravagant  fuppofilion  ;  others  believe  that 
we  are  to  look  for  Ophir  on  the  coaft  of  Africa, 
and  Tharfis  in  Spain  ;  but  the  moft  probable  opinion^ 
is,  that  they  were  both  feated  in  the  Eaft  Indies, 
By  this  adventurous  navigation  he  brought  into  his 
country  curiofiiies  not  only  unfeen,  but  unheard  of  be- 
fore, and  riches  in  luch  abundance,  that,' as  the  Scrip- 
ture finely  exureftes  it,  "  He  made  filver  in  Jerufalem 
as  ftones,  and  cedar-trees  as  fycamores  that  grow  m  the 
plains."  The  mttaphor  is  very  bold  and  emphatical ; 
but  when  we  confider  that  it  is  recorded  in  this  Hi- 
ftory, that  the  return  of  one  voyage  only  to  Ophir 
produced  450  talents  of  gold,  which  makes  51,328 
pounds  of  our  Troy  weight,  we  cannot  doubt  of  the 
immenfe  profit  that  accrued  from  this  commerce.  It. 
is  alfo  obfervable  that  the  queen  of  Shcba,  or  Saba, 
which  lies  in  that  part  of  Arabia  before  mentioned, 
furprifed  at  the  reports  that  were  fpread  of  the  mag- 
nificence of  this  prince,  made  a  journey  to  hi?  court 
on  purpofe  to  fatisfy  heifelf,  whether  fame  had  not 
exaggerated  the  fadt  ;  and  from  the  prefents  (lie  made- 
him  of  12c  talents  of  gold,  of  fpices  in  great  abun- 
dance, and  precious  ftones,  we  may  ditcern  the  true 
reafon  of  her  cwiofity,  which  proceeded  from  an  opi- 
nion 


COMMERCE, 

nion  that  no  country  could  be  fo  rich  as  her  own.  no  power  could  refill.  The  druggie  (he  madf,  Iiow- 
And  ihcre  is  another  circuaillance  veiy  remarkabit,  ever,  though  unfucctUfiil,  was  great,  and  very  much 
and  whicli  teems  (Iroiigly  to  fortify  what  we  have  ad-  to  the  lionour  of  her  inhabitants  :  it  mull  be  owned, 
vanced  in  the  begiiining  of  this  fttrion  ;  it  is  added,  that  the  Greek  hero  found  it  more  diffieuk  to  mailer 
"  neither  were  there  any  fuch  iplces  a.s  the  .queen  of  this  fmgle  place,  than  to  overcome  the  whole  power  of 
Sheba  gave  to  king  Solomon  ;"    wliich   feems  to  inti-     Perlia. 

The  views  of  the, Macedonian  prince  were  beyond 
ctni.parifi.n  more  extenfive  lha:i  his  eoncjutfts  ;  and 
whoever  confiderS  A!e.\aiider's  phui  of  power,  and 
enteis  into  it  thoroughly,  will  think  him  more  a  poli- 
tician than  iiC  was  a  conqueror.  He  framed  in  his 
own  mind  an  idea  of  univerfal  monarchy,  which  it 
was  indeed  impoflible  to  accomplilh  ;  but  the  very  no- 
tion of  it  does  him  far  greater  honour  than  all  his  vic- 
tories.     He  thought  of  placing  his  capital  in  Arabia  ; 


197 


mate,  that  the  Arabians  had  penetrated  farther  into 
the  Indies  tlian  even  the  fleets  of  this  f.'.nious  prince, 
and  brought  from  thence  other  fpices  (pirhaps  nut- 
megs and  clovss)  tlian  had  ever  been  leen  ijefore.  it 
was  by  his  wifdom,  and  by  his  ileady  'applicaiiou  to 
the  arts  of  peace,  all  of  which  mutually  fuppoit  each 
other,  as  they  aie  ali  driven  on  b'y  the  wheel  of  com- 
merce, which  fupplies  every  want,  and  converts  every 
Aiperfluity   into  merchandile,  that  this  monaich  laifed 

his  lubjects  to  a  condition  much  Inperior  to  that  of  and  of  difpofing  things  in  fuch  a  manner,  as  to  have 
any  of  their  neighbours,  and  rendered  tlie  land  of  If-  commanded  the  mofl  remote  parts  ol  the  Indies,  at 
rati,  while  he  governed  it,  the  glory  and  wonder  of  the  iame  time  that  he  maintained  a  conneftion  with 
the  Ealt.  He  made  gieat  acquifilions  without  making  tlie  moll  diilant  countries  in  Europe.  He  was  for 
wars;  and  his  fucceflor,  by  making  wais,  loll  thole  making  ufe  of  force  to  acquire,  but  he  very  well 
acquilitions.  It  was  his  policy  to  keep  all  his  people  knew,  that  commerce  only  could  preferve  an  empire, 
employed  ;  and,  by  employing  them,  he  provided  e-  that  was  to  have  110  other  limits  than  thofe  which  na- 
qually  for  the  extenfion  of  their  happinefs,  and  his  ture  had  afPigned  the  world.  He  defired  to  be  ma- 
own  power :  but  the  following  kings  puifued  other  fter  of  all  ;  but  at  the  fame  time  he  was  willing  to  be 
mcafures,  and  other  confequences  attended  them,  a  wife  and  gracious  mailer,  and  to  place  his  happinefs 
The  trade  of  Judea  funk  almoll  as  fuddenly  as  it  role,  in  that  of  his  people,  or  rather  in  making  all  the  na- 
and  in  procefs  of  time  they  loll  thole  ports  oa  the  tions  of  the  earth  but  one  people.  A  vail,  an  extra- 
Red  Sea,  upon  which  their  Indian  commerce  depend-  vagant,  an  imprafticable  fcheme  it  was,  of  which  he 
ed.  lived  not  long  enough  to   draw   the  outlines ;  but  the 

The  whole  trade  of  the  univerfe  became  then,  as  fample  he  left  in  his  new  city  ot  Alexandria  fufficiently 
it  were,  the  patrimony  of  the  Phoenicians  and  the  (hows  hov/ jull  and  how  corredl,  his  notions  were,  and 
Egypiians.  The  latter  monopolized  that  of  the  In-  how  true  a  judgement  he  had  formed  ol  what  might 
dies,  and,  together  with  her  corn  and  manufadures,  be  effetted  by  thofe  methods  upon  which  he  depended, 
brought  fuch  a  prodigious  balance  of  wealth  continu-  I'hat  city,  which  he  might  be  faid  to  defign  with  his 
ally  into  the  country,  as  enabled  the  ancient  monarchs  own  liand,  and  which  was  built,  as  it  were,  under  his 
of  E;4ypt  to  compafs  all  thole  memorable  woiks  that  eye,  became  in  fucceeding  times  all  that  he  expeded, 
in  fpite  of  time  and  barbarous  conquerors  lemaln  the  the  glory  of  Egypt,  and  the  centre  of  commerce  tor 
iTionuments   of  their  wifdom   and  power,  and  are  like     feveral  ages. 

to  remain  fo  as  long  as  the  world  iubhlls.      The  Phcc-  While  Tyre  was  in  the  height  of  her  glory,  and  had 

nicians   drew    from  Egypt  a   great   part  of  thofe  rich     no  rival  in    the   empire  of  the   fea,    (lie   founded   her 
commodities  and    valuable   manufaftutes   which    they     noble  colony  of  Carthage  on  the  coaft  of  Africa.   The 
exported   into  all    the  countries    between  their  own     fituation  of  the  city  was  every  where  admirable  ;  whe- 
and    the    Mediterranean   fea  ;    they    drew    likewlfe   a     ther  confidered  in  the   light  of  a  capital,   of  a   ftron^ 
Taft  refjrt  to  their  own  cities,   even   from  countries  at     fortrefs,  or   of  a   commodious  port.      It  was  equally 
a  great  diftance  ;  and   we   need   only  look   into  the     didant  from  all  the   extremities  of  the   Mediterranean 
prophets  Ifaiah  and   Ezekiel  in  order  to  be  convinced     fea,  had  a  very  fine  country  behind  it,  and  was  not  in 
that  thefe  governments,   founded   on  trade,  were  in  ft-     the  neighbourhood  of  any  power  capable  of  rellraining 
nitely  mote  glorious   and   more  ftable  than  thofe  that     its  commerce  or  its  growth.      It  is  almoll  inexpreifibk 
were  erefted  by  force.      All  this  we  find  likewife  con-     how   foon  its   inhabitants  became  not  only  numerous 
firmed  by  profane  hillories  ;  and  by  comparing  thefe,      and  wealthy,  but  potent  and  formidable.      By  degrees- 
it  is  evident,   that  the  indullry   of  the   inhabitants  of     they  extended  themlelves  on   all   lides,  conquered    the 
this  fmall  country  triumphed  over  all  obilacles,  procu-     bell  part  of  Spain,  and  eredeil  there  a  new  Cailhage  ; . 
red  the  greatell  plenty  in    a   barren  foil,  and  immenfe     the    illands    of   Sicily    and    Sardinia,  or    at   lead  the 
riches,  where,  without  indullry,  there  mull  have  been     bell  part  of  them,   luhmitted  likewife  to   their  yoke, 
the  greatell  indigence.      It  is  true,  that  old  Tyre  was     Their  conquclls,   however,   were  inconliderable  in  ex- 
dedroyed   by    Nebuchadnezzar,   but   not   till  ihe  had     tent,  when  compared  with  their  navigation.     On  one 
flonrilhed  for  ages;  and  even   then   (he  fell  with  dig-     fide   they  llretched   as   far   weftward  as   Britain;  and 
Dity,_  and  after   a   relillance   that  ruined  the  army  of     the    Scilly  iflands,   which   arc   now   lo  inconfiderahle, 
the  Great  Conqueror  of  Afia.      Out  of  the  alhes  of     were  to  them  an  Indies,  the  route  to  which  they  ulcd 
this  proud  city  the  great  Ipirit  of  its  inhabitants  pro-     the   utmoll  ir.djdry  to  conceal.      On  the  other  hand, 
du.:ed  a  Phcenlx,  little,  if  at  all,  inferior  in  beauty  to     they  diicovered  a  great  part  of  the  coait  of  Afiica, 
its  parent.     New  Tyre  was  fitualed  on  an  illand  ;  and     the   Canary  illsnds  ;  and   lome   there  are  v  ho  believe 
though  her  bounds  were  very  narrow,  yet  (lie  became     they   (iid   found   the  way  to    America.     While  they 
quickly  the  midiefs  of  the  fea,  and  held  that  fupreme     confined  themfelves  to   trade,   and   the  arts  which  be- 
dcminion  till  lubdued  by  Alexander  the  Great,  whom,     longed  theieto,    their  povitr   wae  continually  increa- 

fiiig;- 


ipS  C    O    M    M 

fing  ;  but  wlicn  iiuliiftry  gave  way  to  luxi-.ry,  and  a 
fpirit  of  ambition  br.nilhed  their  old  maxims  of  fiuga- 
!ity  and  labour,  their  acquiiitions  remained  at  a  Hand. 
The  Romans  began  to  grow  jealons  of  their  naval 
power,  which  it  coll  them  two  obltinate  wars  of  40 
years  continuance  to  humble.  When  (be  ivas  at  length 
(ieilroyed,  her  very  ruins  were  maje'.lic  ;  for  at  the 
beginning  of  the  third  fatal  Punic  war,  this  city  con- 
tained 7CO,coo  inhabitants  alone,  and  had  300  cities 
in  Africa  under  her  dominion.  Such  was  the  empire 
of  Carthage,  raifed  entirely  by  commerce  ;  and  to 
which,  if  Ihe  had  been  content  to  have  applied  her- 
felf  with  the  fame  fteadinefs  in  her  highcll  profpcrity 
as  in  her  early  beginnings,  there  is  no  doubt  ihe  had 
prefcrvcd  her  freedom  much  longer  than  ihe  did  ;  for 
as  thrift,  and  diligence,  and  good  faith,  are  the  pillars 
of  a  commercial  Itate  ;  fo  when  thefe  are  once  (haken, 
it  is  net  only  natural  that  fhe  fnould  decline,  but  uiia- 
voidrble  alfo. 

The  Ptolemies,  who  were  the  fucceffors  of  Alex- 
ander in  Egypt,  entered  deeply  into  that  hero's  fchcme, 
ar.d  reaped  the  benefit  of  his  wife  cilablilbment.  Pto- 
lemy Philadelphus,  by  encouraging  trade,  made  his 
fubjeCts  immenfely  rich,  and  himfelf  inexpreffibly 
powerful.  We  are  told  by  an  ancient  author,  that  he 
h!d  120  gillies  of  war  of  an  e  lovmous  fize,  and  up- 
wards of  4000  other  veifels,  fmall  and  great.  This 
would  appear  incredible,  if  other  wonders  were  not 
related  of  him,  which  fecm  to  explain  and  confirm 
thefe.  He  raifed  a  new  city  on  the  coaft  of  the  Red 
Sea  ;  he  was  at  an  immenfe  txpence  in  opening  har- 
bours, conftruftin^  quays,  in  railing  inns  at  proper 
dlllances  on  the  road,  and  in  cutting  a  canal  from  fea 
to  fea.  A  prince  who  comprehended  the  importance 
of  commerce  to  a  degree  that  induced  him  to  dare 
fuch  expenccs  as  thefe,  might  have  what  treafures, 
what  armies,  what  fleets  he  pkafed.  In  his  time, 
Alexandria  appeared  in  pomp  and  fplendor.  She 
owed  her  birth  to  Alexander  ;  but  it  was  Ptolemy, 
who  caught  a  double  portion  of  his  mailer's  fpirit, 
which  raifed  her  to  that  magniiicence  that  ages  could 
not  deface.  We  may  guefs  at  what  Ihe  was  in  her 
gloiy,  by  what  we  are  told  was  the  produce  of  her 
cuiloms,  which  fell  little  fliort  of  two  millions  of  our 
money  annually  ;  and  yet  we  cannot  fuppofe  that 
Ptolemy,  who  underftood  trade  fo  well,  would  cramp 
it  by  high  duties,  or  extravagant  impofitions.  When 
the  revenue  of  the  prince  from  a  iingle  port  was  fo 
great,  what  mult  have  been  the  riches  of  his  fub- 
jeds! 

But  what  fliows  us  Alexandria  in  the  higheft  point 
of  light,  is  the  credit  (he  maintained  after  Egypt  funk 
from  an  empire  into  a  province.  The  Romans  them- 
felves  were  ftruck  with  the  majefly  of  her  appearance; 
and  though  till  then  they  had  little  regarded  traffic, 
yet  they  were  not  long  before  they  comprehended 
the  advantages  of  fuch  a  port,  and  fuch  a  mart  as 
Alexandria  ;  they  confirmed  her  privileges,  they  pro- 
tefted  her  inhabitants,  they  took  every  meafure  pofli- 
ble  to  preferve  her  commerce;  and  this  with  fo  good 
an  cfFcCl,  that  Ibe  ailiially  preferved  it,  longer  than 
Rome  herfclf  could  preferve  her  power.  She  follow- 
ed, indeed,  the  fortune  of  the  empire  ;  and  became  aV. 
laft  dependent  upon  Conftantijioplc,  when"  its  founder 
removed  thitlier  the  capital  of  the  empire  ;  and  his 


¥.    ^     C    t. 

fucceflor  found  means  to  transfer  alfo  a  part  of  thi; 
trade  of  Alexandria  to  the  fame  pli*;e.  Yet  this  cily 
continued  Ibll  to  hold  up  her  head,  and  thougli  fii« 
funk  under  the  barbarous  power  of  the  Arabs,  yet 
tliey  grew  polilhtd  by  degrees  ;  by  degrees  llie  reco- 
vered fomevvhat  of  her  ancient  pre-eminence  ;  and 
though  ihe  never  rofe  to  any  thing  like  her  former 
liillre,  yet  (he  remained  the  centre  of  what  little  trado 
there  v.'as  in  the  world  ;  which  is  more  than  can  bo 
fald  of  alraoll  any  place  that  has  fallen  under  the  Mo- 
hammedan power. 

When  the  Roman  empire  was  over-run  by  barbari- 
ans, and  arts  and  feiences  funk  with  that  power  which 
had  cultivated  and  protedlcd  them,  commerce  alfo  vi- 
i'lbly  declined  ;  or,  to  fpcak  with  greater  propriety, 
was  overwhelmed  and  loll.  When  that  irruption  ot 
various  nations  had  driven  the  Roman  policy  out  of 
the  grentcll  part  of  Europe,  fome  draggling  people, 
either  forced  by  neceflity,  or  led  by  inclination,  took 
fiielter  in  a  few  ftraggling  ifianda  that  lay  near  the 
ccail  of  Italy,  and  which  would  never  have  beea 
thought  worth  inhabiting  in  a  time  of  peace.  This 
was  in  the  6th  centmy  ;  and  at  their  lirlt  fixing  there 
they  had  certainly  nothing  more  in  view  than  livine  in 
a  tolerable  ftate  of  freedom,  and  acquiring  a  fubliftenoe 
as  well  as  they  could.  Thefe  iflands  being  divided 
from  each  other  by  narrow  channels,  and  thofe  chan- 
nels fo  encumbered  by  (hallows  that  it  was  impoffibk 
for  grangers  to  navigate  them,  thefe  refugees  foiuul 
themfclves  tolerably  iafe  ;  and  uniting  amongd  thcm- 
fclves  for  the  fake-  of  improving  their  condition,  and 
augmenting  their  fecurity,  they  became  in  the  8ih 
century  a  well-fettled  government,  and  alfumed  the 
form  of  a  republic. 

Simple  and  mean  as  this  relation  may  appear,  vet  it 
is  a  plain  and  true  account  of  the  rife,  progrcfb,  and 
eitablifhment  of  the  famous  and  potent  republic  of  Ve- 
nice. Her  beginnings  were  indeed  weak  and  flow  ; 
but  when  the  foundation  was  once  well  laid,  her 
growth  was  quick,  and  the  increafc  of  her  power  a- 
mazing.  She  extended  her  commerce  on  all  fides ; 
and  takin'g  advantage  of  the  barbarous  maxims  of  the 
Mohammedan  monarchies,  (lie  drew  to  herfelf  the 
profits  of  the  Indian  trade,  and  might,  in  fome  fenfe, 
be  (aid  to  make  Egypt  a  prpvince,  and  the  Saracena 
her  fubjefts.  By  this  means  her  traffic  fwelled  beyond 
conception  ;  (he  became  the  common  mart  of  all  na- 
tions; her  naval  power  arrived  at  a  prodigious  height; 
and,  making  ufe  of  every  favourable  conjcfture,  Ihe 
ftretched  her  conqueft  not  only  over  the  adjacent  Ter- 
ra Firma  of  Italy,  but  through  the  iilands  of  the  Archi- 
pelago, fo  as  to  be  at  once  miftrefs  of  the  fea,  of 
many  fair  and  fruitful  countries,  and  of  part  of  the 
great  city  of  Conftantinople  itfclf.  But  ambition,  and 
the  defire  of  lording  it  over  hci-  neighbours,  brought 
upon  her  thofe  evils  which  lirll  produced  a  decay  of 
trade,  and  tlica  a  declenfiou  of  power.  General  hi- 
ftories  indeed  afcribe  this  to  the  league  of  Cambray, 
when  all  the  great  powers  in  Europe  combined  againll 
this  republic ;  and  in  truth,  from  that  period  the 
finking  of  her  power  is  truly  dated ;  but  the  Venetian 
writers  very  juftly  obferve,  that  though  this  effect 
followed  the  league,  yet  there  wis  another  more  la- 
tent, but  at  the  fame  time  a  more  effectual  caufe, 
which  was,   the  falling  off  of  their  commerce  j  and 

they 


COMMERCE. 


tlicy  have  ever  fince  been  more  indebted  to  their 
wildom  than  their  power  ;  to  the  prudent  concealing 
of  their  own  weaknefs,  and  taking  advantage  of  the 
errors  of  their  enemies,  than  to  any  other  cuufc,  for 
tlieir  keeping  up  that  part  which  they  dill  bear,  and 
which  had  been  loll  long  ago  by  any  other  nation  but 
themfelves. 

At  the  fame  time  that  Venice  rofe,  as  it  were,  out 
of  the  fea,  another  republic  was  creded  on  the  coafl 
of  Italy.  There  could  not  well  be  a  worfe  fituation 
than  the  narrow,  raarfhy,  unprofitable,  and  unwhole- 
fome  idands  in  the  Adriatic,  except  the  rocky,  barren, 
and  inhofpitable  fltorcs  of  Liguria  ;  and  yet  as  com- 
merce railed  Venice  the  Rich  on  the  one,  fo  (lie  erect- 
ed Genoa  the  Pioud  on  the  other.  In  fpite  of  ambi- 
tious and  warlike  neighbours,  in  fpite  of  a  confined 
and  unproducing  country,  and,  which  were  tllll  great- 
er impediments,  in  fpite  of  perpetual  fatlions  and 
fucccffive  revolutions,  the  trade  of  Genoa  made  her 
rich  and  great.  Her  merchants  traded  to  all  countries, 
and  throve  by  carrying  the  commodities  of  the  one  to 
the  other.  Her  fleets  became  formidable  ;  and,  be- 
lides  the  adjacent  idand  of  Cojiica,  fhe  made  larger 
and  important  conquells.  She  fixed  a  colony  at  Caffa, 
and  \va;;  for  fomc  time  in  pofTeflion  of  the  coafts  on 
both  fides  of  the  Black  Sea.  That  emulation  which 
is  natural  to  neighbouring  nations,  and  that  jealoufy 
which  rifcs  from  the  purfuit  of  the  fame  mitlrefs,  com- 
merce, begat  continual  wars  between  ihefe  rival  re- 
publics; v>'hic!i,  after  many  oblHiiate  and  bloody  bat- 
tles, were  at  lall  terminated  in  favour  of  Venice, 
by  that  famous  vidloiy  of  Chiozza  gained  by  her  doge 
Andrew  Contarini,  from  which  time  Genoa  never 
pretended  to  be  miftrefs  of  the  fea.  Thefe  quarrels 
were  fatal  to  both  ;  but  what  proved  more  immedi- 
ately deftruftive  to  the  Genoefc,  was  thtir  avarice, 
which  induced  them  to  abandon  the  fair  profits  of 
trade  for  the  fake  of  that  vile  method  of  acquiring 
wealth  by  ufury. 

But  we  muft  now  look  to  another  part  of  the  world. 
In  the  middle  age  of  the  German  empiie,  that  is, 
about  the  middle  of  the  13th  century,  there  was 
formed  a  confederacy  of  many  maritime  cities,  or  at 
leaft  tif  cities  not  far  from  the  fea.  This  confederacy 
folely  regarded  commerce^  which  they  endeavoured 
to  promote  and  extend,  by  interfiling  therein  a  great 
number  of-perfons,  and  endeavouring  to  profit  by 
their  different  views  and  different  lights.  Though  the 
fillcs  of  Germany  held  tiie  principal  rank  in  the  Teu- 
tonic Hanfe,  they  did  not  however  forbear  afTociating 
many  other  cities,  as  well  in  France  as  in  England  and 
ill  the  low  countries ;  the  whole,  however,  without 
hurting  the  authority,  without  prejudice  to  the  rights, 
of  the  fovereign  on  whom  they  depended.  This  confe- 
deracy had  its  lav.'s,  its  ordinances,  and  its  judgments, 
which  were  obferved  with  the  fame  refpedl  as  the  ma- 
ritime code  of  the  Rhodians,  who  pafiing  for  the  ab- 
lell  feanien  in  all  antiquity,  their  eonititutions  were 
obfen'ed  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  The  Teutonic 
Hanfe  grew  in  a  fiiort  time  to  fo  high  a  rank  in  power 
and  authority  by  the  immenfe  riches  it  acquired,  that 
princes  themfelves  rendered  it  a  fincere  homage  from 
principlts  of  eftecm  and  admiration.  Thofe  of  the 
noilh  principally  had  frequent  occafion  for  their  cre- 
dit, and  borrowed  of  them  coafiderable  fums.     The 


grand  mailers  of  the  Teutonic  order,  who  were  at 
that  time  fovereigns  of  Livonia,  declared  themfelves 
confcrvators  of  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  Hanfe  : 
all  fucceeded,  not  only  to,  bat  beyond  their  withes  ; 
and  Germany,  charmed  with  their  progrefs,  looked 
on  them  with  the  fame  eyes  as  a  curious  gardener 
does  on  certain  rare  plants,  though  not  of  Ids  own 
raifing  and  culture.  The  kings  of  France  and  Eng- 
land granted  alfo  various  |)rivileges  to  the  Teutonic 
confederacy ;  they  exempted  their  vefiels  in  caie  of 
fhipwreck  from  all  demands  vi'hatfocver  from  the  ad- 
miralty, or  from  private  perfons;  they  foibade  any 
dillurbanee  to  their  navigation  at  all  tinies,  and  even 
when  France  was  at  war  with  the  emperor,  or  the 
princes  of  the  north.  In  fine,  during  the  courfe  of 
thofe  uuhap])y  wars  which  were  flylcd  Croifacles,  the 
Hanfe  was  iVgnally  confulttd,  and  gave  always  puif- 
fant  tuccours  in  money  and  in  flu'ps  to  the  Chrilliana 
oppretl'ed  by  infidels.  It  is  aftonilhing,  that  cities  at  fo 
great  a  diftancc  from  each  other,  fubjeft  to  different 
kings,  fometimes  in  open  war,  but  always  jealous  of 
their  rights,  fhould  be  able  to  confederate  and  hve  to- 
gether in  fo  Ihidl  an  union.  But  when  this  union  had 
rendered  them  very  rich  and  powerful,  it  cannot  feeni 
at  all  Ifrange,  that  on  the  one  hand  they  grew  arro- 
gant rand  overbearing,  took  upon  them  not  only  to 
treat  with  fovereigns  on  the  foot  of  equality,  but  e- 
ven  to  make  war  with  them,  and  more  than  once  with 
fuccefs.  It  will,  on  the  other  hand,  appear  llill  lefs 
ftrange,  that  fuch  behaviour  as  this  awakened  various 
princes  to  a  more  particular  view  of  the  dangers  that 
fuch  a  league  might  produce,  and  the  advantages  that 
would  naturally  flow  to  their  refpetlive  ftates,  by  re- 
covering tlieir  trade  thus  made  over,  at  leall  in  fome 
part  to  others,  entirely^  to  themfelves  ;  and  thefe,  in 
few  words,  were  the  caufes  of  the  gradual  declenfiun 
of  the  Hanfiatic  alliance;  which,  however,  is  not  to- 
tally diffolved  at  this  day;  the  cities  of  Lubeck,  Ham- 
burgh, and  Bremen,  maintaining  fifficient  marks  of  that 
fplendor  and  dignity  with  which  this  confederacy  was^ 
cnce  adorned. 

We  mull  now  turn  our  eyes  to  Portugal  and  Spain, 
where  in  the  fpace  of  about  50  years  there  happen- 
ed a  train  of  events  which  gradually  led  on  to  fuch  dif- 
coveries  as  changed  the  whole  face  of  aflFairs  in  the 
commercial  world,  and  gave  to  the  knowledge  of  latei" 
ages  what  for  fome  thcufand  years  had  been  kept  fe- 
crct  from  all  mankind,  we  mean  a  perfeil  and  ddlinct 
notion  of  t!;at  terraqueous  globe  which  they  inhabit. 
The  kingdom  of  Portugal  was  fmall,  but  well  cultiva- 
ted, very  populous,  and  bleffed  with  a  variety  of  good 
ports;  all  which,  however,  had  flood  them  in  little 
flead,  if  they  had  not  had  a  fuoceffion  of  wife  princes, 
who,  inftead  of  involving  themftlves  in  war  with 
their  neighbours  to  gratify  their  ambition,  endeavour- 
ed to  extend  the  happinefs  and  wealth  of  their  fuljjecls, 
and  by  fo  doing  their  own  power,  in  the  fofter  and 
more  fuccefsful  method  of  proteding  arts  and  fciences, 
encouraging  indufiiry,  and  favouring  trade.  This,  with 
the  convenient  fituation  of  their  country,  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  15th  centur)',  prompted  foiue  lively  fpirits 
to  attempt  dlicoveries;  and  thefe,  countenanced  by  an 
heroic  young  prince,  pufhed  on  their  endeavours  with 
fuch  fuccefs,  that  flep  by  Hep  the  coafl  of  Africa  was 
furveyed  as  far  as  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  to  which 

they 


199 


200  CO     M     M 

they  gave  that  name.     Tiie  point  they  had  in  vie\v 
was  a  new  route  to  the  Eall  Indies,  which  Vafqueze 
de  Gama  happily  difcovercd  ;  and  in  a  (hoit  fpace  of 
time    Portugal,    from    one  of   the    lead   confiderable, 
grevz  to  be  one  of  the  richell  powers  in  Europe,  gain- 
ed prodigious  dominions   in  Alia  and  Africa,  and  rai- 
fed  a  naval  power  fuperior  to  any  thing  that  had  been 
fcen  for  many  ages  before. 
•  g^g  Co/™-       But  while  thi's  was  doing,  Chriftopher  Columbus,  a 
bu!  (Cbri/ld-  Genoefe  of  great  capacity,  though  of  almoll  unknown 
^*"'0  original,  who  had  been  bred  to  the  fea  from  his  youth, 

and  who  had  carefully  ihidied  what  others  made  a 
trade,  formed  in  his  mind  the  amazing  projed  of 
counterafting  experience,  and  faihng  to  the  Indies  by 
-a  weft  courfe.  He  offered  this  projeft  to  tlie  Portu- 
guefe,  by  whom  it  was  confidered  and  rejcfted  as  a 
chimera.  He  propofed  it  aftenvards  to  other  ttates, 
but  with  no  better  fortune;  and  at  laft  owed  the  dif- 
covery  of  the  New  World  to  the  high  fpirit  of  a  he- 
roine, the  famous  Ifabella  queen  of  Caftile,  who  al- 
moll at  her  own  expence,  and  with  very  little  coun- 
tenance from  her  hulband,  who  yet  was  ftyled  FerJi- 
Tir.nd  the  fViJl;,  furnilhed  the  adventurous  Columbus 
with  that  poor  fquadron,  with  which  at  once,  in  fpite 
of  all  the  difficulties  that  the  envy  of  his  officers,  and 
the  obftinacy  of  his  mutinous  crew,  threw  in  his  way, 
he  perfefted  his  defign,  and  laid  open  a  new  Indies, 
though  in  reality  he  aimed  at  the  difcovei7  of  the  old. 
Neither  was  this  noble  effort  of  his  matehkfs  under- 
ftandinT  defeated;  for  after  his  deceafe,  Ferdinand 
Magellan,  a  Portuguefe,  propofed  to  the  ernperor 
Charles  V.  the  difcovery  of  a  paifage  to  the  fpice  illands 
by  the  South  Seas,  which  was  what  Columbus  aimed 
at ;  and  though  Magellan  lived  not  to  return,  yet  in 
one  voyage  the  difcovery  was  perfefted.  It  is  incon- 
ceivable almoft  how  many  and  how  great  benefits 
accrued  to  Europe  from  thefe  difcovcries  ;  of  which, 
however,  it  is  certain,  that  the  Portuguefe  made  a 
very  indifferent,  and  the  Spaniards  much  woi'fe,  ufe  ; 
the  former  making  flaves  of,  and  the  latter  rooting 
out,  the  natives.  This,  as  it  was  a  moll  ungrateful 
return  to  divine  Providence  for  fo  high  a  bleffing  ;  fo 
it  might  have  been  eafjly  forefeen  it '  would  prove,  as 
experience  has  Ihown  it  did  prove,  highly  prejudicial 
to  thtir  own  intcrells,  by  depopulating  very  fiue  coun- 
tries, which  have  been  thereby  turned  into  defarts  : 
and  though  on  their  iiril  difcovery  infinite  treafures 
were  returned  from  them,  which  were  coined  in  the 
mints  of  Spain  ;  yet  by  an  obhinate  purfuit  of  this 
falfe  policy,  the  Spanifti  illands  in  the  Weft  Indies  are 
now  brought  fo  low  as  to  be  fcarce  worth  keeping. 
The  cor.fequences  that  naturally  followed  on  the  dif- 
covery of  a  paffage  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and 
of  a  fourth  part  of  the  glebe  in  the  weftern  hem.i- 
fphere,  were,  as  it  has  been  already  hinted,  the  caufe 
of  an  entire  change  in  the  ftate  of  Europe,  and  produ- 
ced, not  only  in  Portugal  and  Spain,  but  in  moll  other 
nations,  a  defire  of  viliting  thefe  remote  parts,  of  e-- 
ftablilhing  coloni.-s,  of  fetting  nianufaeluies  on  foot, 
of  eXDorting  and  importing  commodities,  and  of  rai- 
fmg,  fettling,  and  prcitefting  new  manufaftures.  By 
this  means,  as  the  reader  cannot  but  perceive,  not  only 
*  particular  nations  brought  about   fignal  advantages  to 

themfelves,  but   Europe  in  general  received  a  lafting 


E     R     C     E. 

and  invaluable  benefit:  for  its  potentates  made  thetn* 
fclves  formidable,  and  even  terrible,  in  thofe  diftant 
parts  of  the  earth,  where  their  fame  had  hardly 
reached  before.  It  is  however  true,  that  this  has  not 
been  carried  on  as  high  as  it  might  have  been  ;  for 
though  there  was  room  enough  fur  every  nation  to 
have  had  its  fhare,  and  though  it  might  be  demonftra- 
ted  that  the  good  of  the  whole  would  have  contribu- 
ted fuifieiciitly  to  the  profit  of  every  ftate,  the  fubjefta 
of  wliieh  had  engaged  in  this  traffic  ;  yet,  inllead  of 
profeeutiiig  fo  natural  and  fo  equitable  a  nieafurc, 
they  have  taken  a  quite  contraiy  courfe  ;  and  by  de- 
crying, attacking,  and  dellroying  each  other,  have 
very  much  leffened  that  prodigious  reverence  which 
the  Afiatics,  Africans,  and  Americans,  at  firll  had  for 
the  inhabitants  of  Europe. 

The  naval  power  of  the  Portuguefe  received  an  in- 
curable wound  by  falling  under  the  power  of  the  Spa- 
niards :  and  though  human  policy  would  have  fug- 
gefted,  that  this  alone  muft  have  railed  the  latter  to 
the  monopoly  of  commerce,  and  the  univerfal  domi- 
nion of  the  fea  ;  yet  the  very  purfuit  of  a  deliga  fo 
vilibly  detiiment:d  to  the  intereft  of  mankind,  proved 
very  quickly  their  ruin  alio.  For  the  Spaniards,  from 
the  natural  haughtinefs  of  their  temper,  milled  by  the 
boundlefs  ambition  of  their  princes,  and  endeavotiring 
to  become  the  lords  of  Europe,  forced  other  nations  in 
their  own  defence  to  make  a  much  quicker  progrefs 
in  navigation  than  otherwife  thev  could  have -done; 
For  the  Eiiglllh  and  Dutch,  who  till  this  time  feemed 
blind  to  the  advantages  of  their  fituation,  had  their 
eyes  opened  by  the  injuries  they  received  ;  and  by 
degrees  the  paffion  of  revenge  infplred  them  with  de- 
figns  that  poffibly  public  fpirit  had  never  excited.  In 
fhort,  the  pains  taken  by  Spain  to  keep  all  the  riches 
that  flowed  froni  thefe  dil'coveries  to  lierfelf,  and  the 
dangerous,  deteftable,  and  deftruilive  purpofes  to 
which  file  applied  the  immeufe  wealth  that  flowed  in 
upon  her  from  them,  produced  effeits  directly  oppofite 
to  thofe  which  (he  propofed,  and  made  her  enemies  rich, 
great,  powerful,  and  happy,  in  proportion  as  her  com- 
merce dwindled  away,  and  as  her  naval  power  funk  and 
crumbled  to  pieces,  merely  by  an  improper  difplay,  an 
ill-managed  exertion,  and  a  wrong  application  of  it. 

It  was  from  hence  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  Seven 
Provinces,  whom  her  oppreflion  had  made  poor,  and 
her  feverities  driven  mad,  became  firll  free,  then  po- 
tent, and  by  degrees  rich.  Their  dillrejfes  taught 
them  the  neceffity  of  cflablifhing  a  moderate  and  equal 
government ;  the  mildnefs  of  that  government,  and 
the  blcftings  which  it  procured  to  its  lubjefts,  railed 
their  number,  and  elevated  their  hopes.  The  confe- 
quences  became  quickly  vilible,  and  in  a  fliort  fpace  of 
time  amazing  both  to  friends  and  enemies;  every  fifii- 
ing  village  improved  into  a  trading-town  ;  their  lit  tie 
towns  grew  up  into  large  and  magnificent  cities ; 
their  inland  buroughs  were  filled  with  nianufafturcs  ; 
and  in  lefs  than  half  a  century  the  dillieffed  States  of 
Holland  became  high  and  mighty  ;  nay,  in  fpite  of 
the  danger  and  expences  which  attended  a  war  made 
all  that  time  againll  a  fuperior  force,  thefe  people, 
furrounded  with  enemies,  loaded  with  taxes,  expofed 
to  perfcnal  fervice,  and  to  a  thouland  other  difad- 
vantages,  grew  up  to  fuch  a  flrength  as  not  only  made 

4  'the 


COMMERCE. 


201 


tlie  Spaniards  defpair  of  reducing  them  any  more  un- 
der their  diimiiiion,  but  Inclined  them  to  vvilh,  and  at 
laft  forced  them  to  feek,  their  friendfhip. 

This,  ac'leaft  as  far  as  either  ancient  or  modern  hl- 
ftories  inform  us,  was  the  quicked  and  ftrongeft  of  all 
the  produftions  of  commerce  that  the  world  has  ever 
feen.  For  it  is  out  of  difpute,  that  the  republic  of  the 
United  Provinces  owes  her  freedom,  her  power,  and 
her  wealth,  to  indullry  and  trade  entirely.  The 
greateft  part  of  the  country  is  far  from  being  fer- 
tile ;  and  what  is  fo,  produces  not  enough  to  fuffice 
the  tenth  part  of  its  inhabitants  for  the  tenth  patt  of 
the  year :  the  climate  is  rather  tolerable  than  whole- 
fome  ;  and  its  havens  are  rather  advantageous  from 
the  difficulty  of  entering  them,  than  from  their  com- 
modioufnefs  in  any  other  refpetl.  Native  commo- 
dities they  have  few  or  none  ;  timber  and  maritime 
ftores  are  entirely  wanting  ;  their  country  cannot 
boaft  fo  much  as  of  a  coal-mine  ;  and  yet  thefe  pro- 
vinces, upon  which  nature  has  bellowed  fo  httle,  in 
confequence  of  an  extenfive  trade,  are  enriched  with 
all  things.  Their  ftorehoufcs  are  full  of  corn,  even 
when  the  harvefl;  in  corn-countries  fails  ;  there  is  no 
commodity,  how  bulky  foever,  or  however  fcarce  and 
hard  to  come  at,  which  may  not  be  had  from  their 
magazines.  The  iliipping  of  Holland  is  prodigious  ; 
and  to  fee  the  quantities  of  naval  ftores  with  which 
their  yards  and  ports  abound,  aftonilhes  thofe  who  are 
unacquainted  with  the  vigour  of  that  caufe  which  pro- 
duces this  abundance.  But  above  all,  the  populouf- 
nefs  of  this  country  is  the  greateft  miracle.  That  men 
fiiould  refort  to  a  Canaan,  and  defire  to  live  in  a  land 
flowing  with  milk  and  honey,  is  nothing  ftrange  ;  but 
that  they  ftiould  make  it  their  choice  to  force  nature, 
to  raife  palaces,  lay  out  gardens,  dig  canals,  plant 
woods,  and  ranfack  all  the  quarters  of  the  earth  for 
fruit  and  flowers,  to  produce  an  artificial  paradife  in  a 
dead  plain,  or  upon  an  ingrateful  heath  in  the  midft  of 
fogs  and  ftanding  lakes,  would,  in  fo  critical  an  age  as 
this,  pafs  for  a  fable,  if  the  country  did  not  lie  fo  near 
trs,  as  to  put  the  truth  of  it  out  of  queftion. 

§  2.     Briiljli  Hi/lory. 

We  may  eafily  conceive,  that  foreign  commerce 
by  the  natives  of  this  ifland  muft  have  been  a  woi-k 
of  time ;  for  men  think  firft  of  necetfaries,  then  of 
conveniences,  and  laft  of  fupcrfluities.  Thofe  who 
came  originally  from  the  continent  might  have  better 
notions  of  things  ;  but  as  it  muft  be  pvefumed  that 
either  fear  or  indigence  drove  them  hither,  fo  it  is 
eafy  to  apprehend  that  fucceeding  generations  muft 
for  feme  time  fink  much  below  their  anccftors,  in  their 
notions  of  the  commodities  of  life  ;  and,  deriving  their 
maryiers  from  their  circumftances,  become  quite  ano- 
ther fort  of  people.  But  thofe  on  the  oppofite  conti- 
nent, knowing  that  this  ifland  was  inhabited,  and  ha- 
ving the  ufe,  though  in  ever  fo  imperfedt  a  degree, 
of  velTels,  and  of  foreign  traffic,  came  over  hither, 
and  bartered  their  goods  for  the  raw  commodities  of 
the  Britons,  till  by  degrees  perhaps  they  taught  the 
latter  to  make  fome  improvement  in  thofe  flight  lea- 
ther and  wicker  boats,  which  they  ufed  for  paffing 
their  own  rivers,  and  creeping  along  their  coails,  till 
at  laft  they  ventured  themfelves  over  to  Gaul,  and  en- 
tered upon  fome  kind  of  corrtfpondence  with  tlieir 
neighbours.  All  this  is  fo  deducible  from  the  laws  of 
Vol.  V.  Part  I. 


nature,  that  we  might  have  divined  thus  much  by  the 
light  of  rcafon,  if  wc  had  not  the  commentaries  of 
Casfar  to  guide  us,  and  to  ftrengthen  by  the  authority 
of  hiftory  the  fac'ls  that  might  have  been  found  out  by 
the  force  of  rational  conjecture. 

Things  were  precifcly  in  this  fituatlon  when  the 
Romans  invaded  Britain  ;  and  there  is  no  doubt  that 
our  anceftors  falling  under  the  power  of  that  empire, 
and  under  its  power  at  a  time  when  with  refpeft  to 
arts  and  fciences  it  was  in  a  moft  flouriftring  condition, 
was  a  great  advantage  to  them ;  and  though  from 
their  love  of  civil  liberty,  which,  when  under  the  di- 
reftion  of  reafon,  is  the  moft  natural  and  laudable  of 
all  paffions,  they  made  a  long  and  vigorous,  and  in 
fome  fenfe  a  noble  and  glorious  refiflance ;  yet  by 
degrees  they  caught  the  manners  and  cuftomj  of  their 
conquerors,  and  grew  content  to  be  happy  rather  than 
free.  With  learning  and  politenefs  the  Romans  in- 
troduced foreign  commerce ;  and  according  to  the 
nature  of  their  policy,  as  they  made  high  roads  through 
the  ifland,  eftabliflied  colonies  in  proper  places,  and 
fixed  ftanding  camps,  which  were  a  kind  of  for- 
trcffes,  where  they  thought  proper ;  fo  they  were  no 
lefs  careful  with  regard  to  marts  or  emporiums  for 
the  convenieucy  of  traders,  and  of  which  what  they 
found  is  uncertain  :  but  that  they  left  many,  is  with- 
out queftion  ;  and  amongft  the  reft  London,  which  is 
not  more  famous  for  her  prefent  extenfive  trade,  than 
venerable  for  her  unrecorded  antiquity. 

When  the  Romans  unwillingly  left  Britain,  and  the 
Britons   as   unwillingly   made  way  for  the   Saxons,  a 
new  deluge   of  barbarity  overflowed    this  ifland  :  al- 
moft  all  the  improvements  of  our  civilized  conquerors 
were  defaced  ;   and,  upon  the  eftablifliment  as  it  were 
of  a    new    people,   things    were    all   to   begin   again. 
This  ncceflarily  took  up   a  great  deal  of  time  ;    and 
before  they  were  in  any  tolerable  pofture,  the  Saxons 
found   themfelves  diftreffed  by  fr-efh  fwarms  of  barba- 
rians.    Yet  there  iliU  remains  fome  evidences  of  their 
having  been  acquainted  with,  inclined  to,  and,  if  their 
iiircumftances   would   have  permitted,  moft   certainly 
lyould  have  entered   upon    and   carried    foreign   com- 
merce to  a  great  height.     We  have  authentic  tefti- 
monies,  that  Alfred  the  Great  formed  projefts  of  vail 
difcoveries  to  the   North,  as  he  aftually  lent  perfons 
of  great  prudence  and  abilities  into  the  Eail ;  and  the 
curiofities  which  they  brought  Irome  were  for   many 
ages  preferved  in  the  treafury  of  the  church  of  Salifljury. 
As  for  the  Danes,  they  were  not  long  our  matters: 
but    as   they  became  fo  by  a  maritime  force,  and   as 
their  countrymen  had  ettablifhed  themfelves  not  only 
on  the  oppofite  ftiore  of  France,  but  in   (.■ther  parts  of 
Europe  ;   fo  it  is  reafonable  to  believe  that  they   held 
fome    correfpondencc    with    tliem    fro.-n    hence ;     and 
that,  if  their  dominion  had  lafted   longer,  this   might 
have   been   better  r'egulated,  and  produAive  of  many 
advantages.     But  they  had  foon  to  do  with  their  bre- 
thren in  another  way  :  for  the  Normans,  men  of  the 
fame  race,  but    better  eflablidied  in  another  country, 
difpoffefied    them    here ;  and  partly  under    colour  of 
right,  partly  by  force,  eledted  that  monarchy,  which, 
not  without    various  alterations  and  change's,  fubfirts 
even  to  our  times,   and   to   the   fubfifttnce   of  which, 
with   the  help  of  thofe  changes  and  alterations,  we 
owe   tiiat    happy  conftitution   irnder  which    we  live ; 
that  uuiverfal  improvement  which  adorns  the  face  of 
C  c  our 


^02 


C    O    M     M 

our  country  ;  that  domeflic  trade  which  nouriflies  fo 
numerous  a  people,  by  pltntifuHy  rewardinpf  their  in- 
dullry  ;  and  that  extenfivc  commerce  which  is  at 
once  the  fource  of  our  wealth  and  the  fupport  of  our 
liberty. 

It  cannot  be  expefted,  that,  in  a  work  like  this,  we 
fliould  attempt  to  trace  the  progrefs  of  trade  through 
every  reign,  {how  how  it  was  encouraged  and  pro- 
tefted,  or  difcountcnanced  and  checked  ;  what  occa- 
fions  were  luckily  feizcd,  or  what  opportunities  un- 
forunately  lofl.  It  may  be  fufficient  for  us,  after 
vfhat  has  been  already  faid,  to  obfeive,  that  the  opi- 
nion commonly  entertained,  of  onr  having  little  or  no 
trade  before  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth,  is  very  far 
from  being  well  founded. 

In  fatl,  the  reign  of  that  princefs  was  great  and 
glorious,  in  whatever  light  we  confider  it  ;  but  it  was 
moft  fo  in  this,  that,  under  Providence,  it  became 
great  and  glorious  by  the  wifdom  and  prudence  of  the 
queen  and  her  minifters.  The  Englifh  nation  never 
was  in  fo  defperate  a  condition  as  at  her  p.cceflion. 
The  crown  was  in  debt,  the  treafury  empty,  the  na- 
tion involved  in  a  foreign  war  direftly  againft  her 
own  interefts,  her  coafts  naked  ;  in  a  ivord,  without 
credit  abroad,  and  without  concord  at  home,  no  fet- 
tled religion,  the  great  men  fplit  into  f;ftions,  and 
the  common  people  diflrafted  and  dcjefled.  Sad 
circamflances  thefe  !  and  yet  from  hence  arofe  the 
grandeur  of  that  reign,  and  the  eilabliflimerrt  of  our 
commerce.  The  queen  found  l.erfelf  obliged  to  aft 
■with  great  caution,  to  derive  affiftr.nce  from  every 
quarter,  to  employ  it  faithfully,  and  to  promote  to 
the  utmoft  of  her  power  the  welfare  of  her  fuhjetls, 
whom  nothing  but  the  public- fpiritednefs  of  her  go- 
vernment could  enable  to  grow  rich  enough  to  fupport 
the  necefiary  expences  of  the  crown.  It  was  this 
gave  a  popular  turn  to  her  councils.  She  encouraged 
her  fubjeCls  to  arm  agalnil  the  Spaniards,  that  they 
might  be  accuflomed  to  the  fea,  and  acquire  that 
knowledge  in  navigation,  with  which,  till -then,  they 
had  been  unacquainted.  She  pafled  many  laws  for 
the  public  good,  erefted  feveral  companies,  and  faw 
that  thofe  companies  purfued  the  ends  for  which  they 
were  erefteJ;  in  (liort,  (he  did  every  thing  that  could 
be  espedted,  during  the  whole  courfe  of  her  reign, 
to  excite  and  encourage  induilry  at  home,  and  to 
enable  us  to  make  a  proper  figure  abroad.  In  a  word, 
llie  furnifhed  us  with  ilock  and  credit,  put  us  upon 
improving  our  commodities  and  manufaftures,  brought 
the  art  of  fhipbuilding  araongft  us,  filled  our  ports 
with  able  feamen,  (howed  a  juft  refpeft  to  Englifh 
merchants,  reduced  Ireland  fo  as  to  render  it  bene- 
ficial to  IJritain,  and  approved  our  fending  colonies 
into  America  ;  and  thus  the  feeds  of  Britifh  wealth 
were  fown  in  her  time,  though  the  harveft  was  reap- 
ed in  the  days  of  her  fucceflbrs.  See  the  articles 
CoALERY,  Colony,  Fisheries,  Manufactures, 
Shipping,  and  Trade. 

Chap.II.     Principles  ^Commerce. 
J  I .      Origin  of  Trade. 
The  mod  fimple  of  all  trade  is  that  which  is  car- 
ried on  by  bartering  the   necefiary  articles  of  fubfift- 
cnce.     If  we  fuppcfe  the  earth  free  to  the  firft  pof- 


E     R     C     E. 

fcffor,  this  pcrfon  who  cultivates  it  will  firft  draw 
from  it  his  food,  and  the  furplus  will  be  the  objeft  of 
ba'ter:  he  will  give  this  in  exchange  to  any  one  who 
will  fupply  his  other  wants.  This  naturally  fuppofes 
both  a  lurplus  quantity  of  food  produced  by  labour, 
and  alfo  free  hands ;  for  he  who  makes  a  trade  of 
agriculture  cannot  fupply  himfclf  with  all  other 
necfifaries,  as  well  as  food  ;  and  he  who  makes  a 
trade  of  fupplying  the  farmers  with  fuch  neceffaries, 
in  exchange  for  his  furplus  of  food,  cannot  be  employ- 
ed in  producing  that  food.  The  more  the  neceffities 
of  man  increafc,  the  more  free  hands  are  required  to 
fupply  thc-m;  and  the  more  free  hands  are  required, 
the  more  furpiub  food  muft  be  produced  by  additional 
labour,  to  fupolv  tiieir  demand. 

This  is  the  leaft  complex  kind  of  trade,  and  may  be 
carried  on  to  a  greater  or  kfs  extent,  in  different 
countries,  according  to  the'  different  degrees  of  the 
wants  to  be  fupplied.  In  a  country  where  there  is  no 
mon-'y,  nor  any  thing  equivalent  to  it,  the  wants  of 
mankind  will  be  contintd  to  few  objefts;  to  wit,  the 
removing  the  inconveniences  of  hunger,  thirtt,  cold, 
heat,  danger,  and  the  like.  A  free  man,  who,  by  his 
indullry,  can  procure  all  the  comforts  of  a  fimple  life, 
will  enjoy  his  reft,  and  work  no  more  :  and,  in  ge- 
neial,  all  increafe  of  work  will  ceafe,  fo  foon  as  the 
demand  for  the  purpofes  mentioned  comes  to  be  fatis- 
fied.  There  is  a  plain  reafon  for  this.  When  the 
free  hands  have  procured,  by  their  labour,  where- 
withal to  iupply  their  wants,  their  ambition  is  fatis- 
fied  :  fo  foon  as  the  hufbandmen  have  produced  the 
neceifary  furplus  for  relieving  theirs,  they  woik  no 
more.  Heie  then  is  a  natural  flop  put  to  induftry, 
confequcntly  to  bartering. 

The  next  thing  to  be  examined  ij,  how  bartering 
grows  into  trade,  properly  fo  called  and  underftood, 
according  to  the  definition  given  of  it  above  ;  how 
trade  comes  to  be  extended  among  men  ;  how  ma- 
nufaftures, more  ornamental  than  ufcful,  come  to  be 
eftablifhed  ;  and  how  men  come  to  fubmit  to  labour, 
in  order  to  acquire  what  is  not  abfolutely  neceffary 
for  them. 

Thl^,  in  a  free  fociety,  is  chiefly  owing  to  the  in- 
Iroduftion  of  money,  and  a  tafle  for  fuperfiuities  in 
thofe  who  poffcfs  it. 

In  ancient  times,  money  was  not  wanting  ;  but  the 
tafte  for  fuperfiuities  not  being  in  proportion  to  it, 
the  fpecie  was  locked  up.  This  was  the  cafe  in  Eu- 
rope four  hundred  years  ago.  A  new  tafle  for  fuper- 
fluity  has  drawn,  perhaps,  more  money  into  circula- 
tion, from  our  own  treafures,  than  from  the  mines  of 
the  new  world.  The  poor  opinion  we  entertain  of 
the  riches  of  our  forefathers,  is  founded  upon  the 
modern  way  of  eflimating  wealth,  by  the  quantity  of 
coin  in  circulation,  from  which  we  conclude,  that  the 
greatefl  part  of  the  fpecie  now  in  our  hands  mufl  have 
come  from  America. 

It  is  more,  therefore,  through  the  tafte  of  fuper- 
fluity,  than  in  confequence  of  the  quantity  of  coin, 
that  trade  come?  to  be  eftablifhed  ;  and  it  is  only 
in  confequence  of  trade  that  we  fee  induftry  carry 
things  in  our  days  to  fo  high  a  pitch  of  refinement  and 
delicacy.  Let  us  illuftrate  this,  by  com.paring  toge- 
ther the  different  operations  of  barter,  fale,  and  com- 
merce. 

When 


C     O     M     M 

When  reciprocal  wants  are  fupplied  by  barter, 
tliere  ib  not  fine  fmallell  occafion  for  money  :  this  is 
the  mod  fimpk  of  all  combinations. 

When  wants  ai'e  multiplied,  bartcri'ig  becomes  more 
difficult  ;  upon  this  money  is  intvodiiced.  This  is  the 
common  price  of  all  things  :  it  is  a  proper  equivalent 
in  the  haiuh  of  thofe  who  vv.ant,  pcrfeftly  cakulfltal 
to  lupply  the  occafions  of  thofe  who,  by  induilry,  can 
relieve  them.  Tiiis  operation  of  buying  and  fellini^  is 
a  little  more  complex  than  the  formei  ;  but  dill  we 
have  here  no  idea  of  trade,  becaufe  we  have  not  in- 
troduced the  merchant,  by  whofe  indnftry  it  is  car- 
ried on. 

Let  this  third  perfon  be  brought  into  play,  and  the 
whole  operation  becomes  clear.  What  before  we 
called  tvatits,  is  here  reprcfentcd  by  the  confumer  ; 
what  we  called  iiuliiflry,  by  the  mauufaAurer ;  what 
we  callei!  money,  by  the  merchant.  The  merchant 
here  reprefents  the  money,  by  fubllituiing  credit  in 
its  place  ;  and  as  the  money  was  invented  to  facili- 
tate barter,  fo  the  merchant,  with  his  credit,  is  a  new 
rtlinemcnt  upon  the  life  of  money.  This  renders  it 
ftill  more  effeftnal  in  performing  the  operations  of 
buying  and  fellintr.  This  operation  is  trade  :  it  re- 
lieves both  parties  of  the  whole  trouble  of  tranfpor- 
tation,  and  adjufting  wants  to  wants,  or  wants  to 
money;  the  merchant  reprefents  by  turns  both  the 
confumer,  the  raaniitadlurer,  and  the  money.  To 
the  confumer  he  appears  as  the  whole  body  of  manu- 
faftuiers;  to  the  manufafturers  as  the  whole  body  of 
confumei  s  ;  and  to  the  one  and  the  other  dafs  his  credit 
fupplies  the  ufe  of  money.  This  is  fufficient  at  pre- 
^fent  for  an  illulf  ration.  We  now  return  to  the  finiple 
operations  of  money  in  the  hands  of  the  two  contrac- 
ting parties,  the  buyer  and  the  feller,  in  order  to  fliow 
Jiow  men  come  to  fubmit  to  labour  in  order  to  acquire 
fuperfluilies. 

So  foon  as  money  is  introduced  into  a  country,  it 
becomes  an  univerfal  object  of  want  to  all  the  inhabi- 
tants. 

The  confequence  is,  that  the  free  hands  of  the  ftate, 
vho  before  Itopt  working,  becaufe  all  their  wants 
were  provided  for,  having  this  new  objett  of  ambi- 
tion before  their  eyes,  endeavour,  by  refinements 
upon  their  labour,  to  remove  the  (mailer  inconve- 
niences which  refult  from  a  fimpllcity  of  manners. 
People,  who  formerly  knew  but  one  fort  of  clothing 
for  all  feafons,  willingly  part  with  a  Utile  money  to 
procure  for  themfelvcs  different  forts  of  apparel  pro- 
perly adapted  to  furamer  and  winter,  which  the  inge- 
nuity of  manufa&urers,  and  their  defire  of  getting 
money,  may  have  luggdled  to  their  invention. 

Indeed  thcfe  refinements  feem  more  generally  ow- 
ing to  the  induilry  and  invention  of  the  manufatlu- 
rtrs  (who  by  their  ingenuity  daily  contrive  means  of 
loftening  or  relieving  inconvei.iences,  which  mankind 
feldora  perceive  to  be  fiich,  till  the  way  of  removing 
them  is  contrived),  than  to  the  tafle  of  luxury  in  the 
rich,  who,  to  indulge  their  cafe,  engage  the  poor  to 
become  indulhious. 

Let  any  man  make  an  experiment  of  this  nature 
upon  himfelf,  by  entering  into  the  tiril  (hop.  He  will 
no  where  fo  quickly  difcover  his  wants  as  there.  Every 
thing  he  fees  appears  either  necelTary,  or  at  leaft  highly 
convenient ;  and  he  begins  to  wonder  how  he  could 


E     R     C     E. 

have  been  fo  long  without  that  which  the  ingenuity  of 
the  workman  alone  had  invented,  in  order  that  from 
the  novelty  it  might  excite  his  deiire  ;  for  perhaps 
when  it  is  bought,  he  will  never  once  think  of  it  more, 
nor  ever  apj)ly  it  to  the  ufe  for  which  it  at  (irll  ap- 
peared fo  necelTary. 

Here  then  is  a  reafon  why  mankind  labour  though 
not  in  want.  They  become  defnous  of  pofleffing  the 
very  inllrumcnts  of  luxury',  which  their  avarice  or 
ambition  prompted  them  to  invent  for  the  ufe  of 
others. 

What  has  been  faid  reprefents  trade  in  its  infancy, 
or  rather  the  materials  with  which  that  great  fabric 
is  built. 

We  have  formed  an  idea  of  the  wants  of  mankind 
multiplied  even  to  luxury,  and  abundantly  fupplied  by 
the  employment  of  all  the  free  hands  fet  apart  for  that 
purpofe.  But  if  we  fuppofe  the  workman  himfelf  dif- 
pofmg  of  his  work,  and  purchafing  with  it  food  from 
the  farmer,  cloaths  from  the  clothier  ;  and,  in  general, 
feeking  for  the  fupply  of  every  want  from  the  hands 
of  the  perfon  diredtly  emph)yed  for  the  purpofe  of  re- 
lieving it  ;  this  will  not  convey  an  idea  of  trade  ac- 
cording to  our  definition. 

Trade  and  commerce  are  an  abbreviation  of  this 
long  procefs  :  a  fcheme  invented  and  fet  on  foot  by 
merchants,  from  a  principle  of  gain,  fupported  and  ex- 
tended among  men,  from  a  principle  of  general  utility 
to  every  individual,  rich  or  poor,  to  every  fociety, 
great  or  fmall. 

Inllead  of  a  pin-maker  exchanging  his  pins  with  50 
different  perfons,  for  whofe  labour  he  has  occafion,  he 
fells  all  to  the  merchant  for  money  or  for  credit ;  and, 
as  occafion  offers,  he  purchafes  all  his  wants,  either 
direttly  from  thofe  who  fupply  them,  or  from  other 
merchants  who  deal  with  manufacturers  in  the  fame 
way  his  merchant  dealt  with  him. 

Another  advantage  of  trade  is,  that  induftrious  peo- 
ple in  one  part  of  the  country,  may  fupply  cullomers 
in  another,  though  diftant.  They  may  eilablifh  them- 
felvcs in  the  moll  commodious  places  for  their  refpec- 
tive  bufinefs,  and  help  one  another  reciprocally,  with- 
out making  the  dillant  parts  of  the  country  luffer  for 
want  of  their  labour.  They  are  likewife  expofed 
to  no  avocation  from  their  work,  by  feeking  for  cuf- 
tomers. 

Trade  produces  many  excellent  advantages;  it  marks 
out  to  the  manufadlurers  when  their  branch  is  under  or 
overftocked  with  hands.  If  it  is  underllocked,  they 
will  find  more  demand  than  they  can  anfwer  :  if  it  is 
overftocked,  the  fale  will  be  (low. 

Intelligent  men,  in  every  profellion,  will  eafily  dif- 
cover wht'u  thefe  appearances  are  accidental,  and  when 
they  proceed  from  the  real  principles  of  trade. 

Ports,  and  correfpondcnce  by  letters,  are  a  confe- 
qiience  of  trade  ;  by  the  means  of  wliich  merchants  are 
regularly  informed  of  every  augmentation  or  dnni- 
nution  of  induilry  in  every  branch,  in  every  part  of 
the  country.  From  this  knowledge  they  regulate  the 
prices  they  offer  ;  and  as  they  are  man) ,  they  ferve  aa 
a  check  upon  one  another,  from  the  principles  of  com- 
petition. 

From   the  current  prices,  the  manufafturers  are  as 

well    informed,    as  if  they   kept   the  correfpondcnce 

themfelvcs ;  the  Itatefman  feels  perfedly  inhere  hands 

C  c  2  arc 


205 


204  COM     M 

are  wanting,  and  young  people  deftined  to  induftry, 
obey,  in  a  manner,  the  call  of  the  public,  and  fall  na- 
turally in  to  fiipply  the  demand. 

Two  great  affi'lances  to  merchants,  efpecially  in  the 
infancy  of  trade,  are  public  markets  for  collecting  the 
work  of  fmall  dealers,  and  large  undertakings  in  the 
manufadluring  way  by  private  hands.  By  thefe  means 
the  merchants  come  at  the  knowledge  of  the  quantity 
of  work  in  the  market,  as  on  the  other  hand  the  ma- 
nufafturers  learn,  by  the  fale  of  the  goods,  the  extent 
of  the  demand  for  them.  Thefe  two  things  being 
juftly  known,  the  price  of  goods  is  eafily  fixed. 

Public  fales  ferve  to  correft  the  fmall  inconveni- 
ences which  proceed  from  the  operations  of  trade.  A 
fet  of  manufadlurers  got  all  together  into  one  town, 
and  entirely  taken  up  with  their  induftry,  are  thereby 
as  wel)  informed  of  the  rate  of  the  market  as  if  every 
one  of  them  carried  thither  his  work  ;  and  upon  the 
arrival  of  the  merchant,  who  readily  takes  it  off  their 
hands,  he  has  not  the  leall  advantage  over  them  from 
his  knowledge  of  the  ftate  of  demand.  This  man 
both  buys  and  fells  in  wliat  is  called  ivholcfole  ;  and 
from  him  retailers  purcliafe,  who  dilbibute  the  goods 
to  every  confu'.ner  throughout  the  country.  Thefe 
lall:  buy  from  wholefale  merchants  in  eveiy  branch,  that 
proportion  of  evtry  kind  of  merchandize  which  is 
fuitable  to  the  demand  of  their  borough,  city,  or  pro- 
vince. 

Thus  all  inconveniences  are  prevented,  at  fome  ad- 
ditional coft  to  the  confumer,  who  muft  naturally  re- 
imburfe  the  whole  expence.  The  dill-nce  of  the 
manufafturer,  the  obfcurity  of  his  dwelling,  the  ca- 
price in  felling  his  work,  are  quite  removed  ;  the  re- 
tailer lias  all  in  his  lliop,  and  the  public  buys  at  a  cur- 
rent price. 

^  2 .  How  the  prices  of  Goods  are  determined  by  Trade. 

In  the  price  of  goods,  two  things  muft  be  confider- 
ed  as  really  exifting,  and  quite  different  from  one  an- 
other ;  to  wit,  the  real  value  of  the  commodity,  and 
the  profit  upon  alienation. 

I.  The  firll  thing  to  be  known  of  any  manufafture, 
when  it  comes  to  be  fold,  is,  how  much  of  it  a  perfon 
can  perform  in  a  day,  a  week,  a  month,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  work,  which  may  require  more  or 
lefs  time  to  bring  it  to  perLftion.  In  making  fuch 
eftiraates,  regard  is  to  be  had  only  to  what,  upon  an 
average,  a  workman  of  the  country  in  general  may 
perform,  without  fuppoCng  him  the  bed  or  the  woril 
in  his  profeffion,  or  having  any  peculiar  advantage  or 
difndvautage  as  to  the  place  where  he  works. 

Hence  tlie  reafon  why  fome  people  thrive  by  their 
induftry,  and  others  not  ;  why  fome  manufactures 
floorifli  in  one  place,  tmd  not  in  another. 

II.  The  fecond  thing  to  be  known  is,  the  value  of 
the  workman  s  fubfiftence,  and  neceflary  expence,  both 
for  fupplying  his  perfonal  wants,  and  providing  the 
inftruments  belonging  to  his  profeffion,  which  muft  be 
taken  upon  an  average  as  above ;  except  when  the 
nature  of  the  work  requires  the  prefence  of  the  work- 
man in  the  place  of  confumption  ;  for  "although  fome 
trades,  and  almoft  every  manufafture,  may  be  carried 
en  in  places  at  a  diftance,  and  therefore  may  fall  under 
ene  general  regulation  as  to  prices  ;  yet  others  there 


E     R     C     E. 

are,  which,  by  their  nature,  require  the  prefence  of 
the  workman   in  the  place  of  confump;.ion  ;  and  in 
that  cafe  the  prices  muft  be  regulated  by  circumilances 
relative  to  every  particular  place. 

III.  The  third  and  laft  thing  to  be  known,  is  the 
value  of  the  materials,  that  is,  the  firft  matter  employ- 
ed by  the  workman  ;  and  if  the  objeft  of  his  induftry 
be  the  manufafture  of  another,  the  fame  procefs  of  in- 
quiry mull  be  gone  through  with  regard  to  the  firft  as 
with  regard  to  the  fecond :  and  thus  the  molt  complex 
manufatlures  may  be  at  laft  reduced  to  the  greateSr 
fimpllcity. 

Thefe  three  articles  being  knovi-n,  the  price  of  ma- 
nufafture  is  determined.  It  cannot  be  lower  than  the 
amount  of  all  the  three,  that  is,  than  the  real  value; 
whatever  it  is  higher,  is  the  manufafturer's  profit. 
This  will  ever  be  in  proportion  to  demand,  and  there- 
fore will  fluftuate  according  to  circumftances. 

Hence  appears  the  neceffity  of  a  great  demand,  in 
order  to  promote  flouriftiing  manufailures. 

By  the  extenfive  dealings  of  merchants,  and  their 
conftant  application  to  the  fludy  of  the  balance  of 
work  and  demand,  all  the  above  circumftances  are 
known  to  them,  and  are  made  known  to  the  induftri- 
ous,  who  regulate  their  living  and  expence  according 
to  their  certain  profit. 

Employ  a  workman  in  a  countiy  where  there  is 
little  trade  or  induftry,  he  proportions  his  price  al- 
ways to  the  urgency  of  your  want,  or  your  capacity 
to  pay  ;  but  feldom  to  his  own  labour.  Employ  an- 
other in  a  counti-y  of  trade,  he  will  not  impofe  upon 
you,  unlefs  perhaps  you  be  a  ftranger,  which  fuppofes 
your  being  ignorant  of  the  value  ;  but  employ  the 
fame  workman  in  a  work  not  ufual  in  the  country, 
confequently  not  demanded,  confequently  not  regu- 
lated as  to  the  value,  he  will  proportion  his  price  as  ia 
the  firll  fnppofition. 

We  may  therefore  conclude,  from  what  has  been 
faid,  that  in  a  c^juntry  where  trade  has  been  eftablifti- 
ed,  manufaftures  muft  flourifli,  from  the  ready  fale,  the 
regulated  price  of  work,  and  the  certain  profit  refult- 
ing  from  induftry.  Let  us  next  inquire  into  the  con- 
fequences  of  fuch  a  fituation. 

§  3.  Hctv  foreign  Trade  opens  to  an  indiiflrious  People, 
and  thd  Confequences  of  it  to  the  Merchants  who  fet  it 
on  foot. 

The  firft  confeqnence  of  the  fituation  defcribed  in 
the  preceding  feftion  is,  that  wants  are  eafily  fuppUed 
for  the  adequate  value  of  the  thing  wanted. 

The  next  confeqnence  is,  the  opening  of  foreign 
trade,  under  its  two  denominations  of  pafiive  and 
a^ve.  Strangers  and  people  of  diftant  countries, 
finding  the  difficulty  of  having  their  wants  fupplied  at 
home,  and  the  eafe  of  having  them  fupplied  from  this 
country,  immediately  have  recourfe  to  it.  This  is  paf- 
five  trade.  The  atiive  is  when  merchants,  who  Jiave 
executed  this  plan  at  home  with  fucccfs,  begin  to  tran- 
fport  thi-  labour  of  their  countrymen  into  other  re- 
gions, which  either  produce,  or  are  capable  of  produ- 
cing fuch  articles  of  confumption,  proper  to  be  manu- 
factured, as  are  moft  demanded  at  home  ;  and  con- 
fequently will  meet  with  the  readielt  fale,  and  fetch 
the  largeft  profits. 

Here 


C     O     M     M 

Here  then  is  the  opening  of  foreign  trade,  under  its 
two  denominations  of  adlive  and  paffive. 

What  tht-n  are  the  confcquences  of  this  new  com- 
merce to  our  merchants,  wlio  have  left  their  homes  in 
queft  of  cjain  abroad  ? 

The  firfl  's,  tliat,  arriving  in  any  new  country,  they 
find  themftlves  iii  the  fame  fituation,  with  regard  to 
the  inhahltant?,  as  the  woikman  in  the  countiy  of  no 
trade,  wi  h  regard  to  thofe  wlio  employ  him  ;  that 
is,  they  projjortion  the  price  of  their  goods  to  the 
eageinefs  of  acquiring,  or  the  capacity  of  paying,  in 
the  inhabitants,  but  never  to  their  real  vaUie. 

The  firft  profits  then,  upon  this  trade,  muft  be  very 
confiderablc  ;  and  the  demand  from  fuch  a  country 
will  be  h}gh  or  loiv,  gnat  or  fmall,  according  to  the 
fpiiit,  not  the  real  wants  of  the  people  :  for  thefe  in 
all  countries  mud  firft  be  fiipplitd  by  the  inhabitants 
thtmfelves,  before  they  ceafe  to  labour. 

If  the  people  of  this  not-trading  country  be  abun- 
dantly furuifhtd  with  commodities  ufeful  to  the  traders, 
they  will  eafily  part  with  them,  at  firil,  for  the  inllru- 
mirnts  of  luxury  and  eafe  ;  but  the  great  profit  of  ihe 
traders  will  iiifenfibly  iucreafe  the  demand  for  the  pro- 
ductions of  their  new  correfpondents ;  this  will  have 
the  effect  of  producing  a  competition  between  them- 
felves,  and  thereby  throwing  the  demand  on  their  fide. 
This  is  perpetually  a  dlfadvantage  in  traffic;  the  moft 
iinpolifhed  nat  oiis  in  tlie  world  quickly  perceive  the 
eftedits  of  it ;  and  are  taught  to  profit  bv  the  difeovery, 
in  Ipitc  of  the  addrefs  of  thofe  who  are  the  moft  ex- 
pert in  crmmerce. 

The  traders  will  therefore  be  very  fond  of  falling 
upon  every  method  and  contrivance  to  infpire  this 
people  with  a  talle  of  refinement  and  delicacy.  A- 
bundance  of  -fine  prefents,  confifting  of  every  inftru- 
ment  of  luxury  and  fupcrflulty,  the  bell  adapted  to  the 
genius  of  the  people,  will  be  given  to  the  prince  and 
leading  men  among  them.  Workmen  will  even  be 
en.jiloyed  at  home,  to  ftudy  the  tafte  of  the  llrangers, 
and  to  captivate  their  dcfires  by  every  poffible  means. 
The  more  eager  they  are  of  prefents,  the  more  lavilh 
the  traders  will  be  in  beftowing  and  diverfifying  them. 
It  is  an  animal  put  up  to  fatten;  the  more  he  eats,  the 
fooner  he  is  fit  for  llaughter.  When  their  tafte  for 
fiiperfluity  is  fully  formed,  when  the  relifh  for  their 
former  fimplicity  is  fophiillcated,  poifoned,  and  obli- 
terated, then  they  are  fure'y  in  the  fetters  of  the 
traders,  and  the  deeper  they  go,-  the  lefs  pofiibiiity 
there  is  of  their  getting  out.  The  prefents  then  will 
die  awav,  having  ferved  their  purpofe  ;  and  if  after- 
wards they  are  found  to  be  continued,  it  will  probably 
be  to  fupport  the  competition  againll  other  nations, 
who  will  incline  to  fliare  of  the  profits. 

If,  on  the  contrary,  tliis  not-trading  nation  does  not 
abound  with  commodities  uftful  to  the  traders,  thefe 
will  make  little  account  of  trading  with  them,  whatever 
their  turn  may  be  ;  but,  if  we  fuppofe  this  country  in- 
habited by  a  laborious  people,  who,  having  taken  a 
talle  for  refineraent  from  the  traders,  apply  themfclves 
to  agriculture,  in  order  to  produce  aiticles  of  fub- 
fiftence,  they  will  folicit  the  merchants  to  give  them 
part  of  their  mcmufatlures  in  exchange  for  thofe  ;  and 
this  trade  will  undoubtedly  have  the  effett  of  multiply  ir>g 
uumbcis  in  the  tradlsg  nation.     But  if  food  cannot  be 


E     R     G     E. 

furniihed,  nor  any  other  branch  of  produftion  found 
out  to  fupport  the  correfpondence,  the  tafte  for  refine- 
ment will  foon  die  away,  and  trade  will  ftop  in  this 
quarter. 

Had  it  not  been  for  the  furs  in  thofe  countries  ad- 
jacent  to  Hudfon's  Bay,  and  in  Canada,  the  EuiopcanS 
never  would  have  thouglit  (f  fupplying  Inftiumeiits  of 
luxury  to  thofe  nations  ;  and  if  the  iiiliabitar.ts  ot  thofe 
regions  had  not  taken  a  tafte  for  the  iiiftiuments  of 
luxury  furnlftied  to  them  by  the  Eniopeans,  ihey  ne- 
ver would  have  become  fo  indef  itigable  nor  fo  dex- 
terous hunters.  At  the  fame  time  we  aie  not  to  fuppofe, 
that  ever  tlicfe  Americans  would  have  come  to  Eutcpe 
in  queft  of  our  manufaftures.  It  is,  therefore,  owing 
to  our  merchants,  that  thefe  nations  arc  become  in  any 
degree  fond  of  refinement  ;  and  this  tafte,  in  all  pioba- 
bilily,  will  not  foon  exceed  the  proportion  of  the  pro- 
duitions  of  their  country.  From  thefe  beginnings  of 
foreign  trade  It  is  eafy  to  trace  its  ircreafe. 

One  ftep  towards  this,  is  the  eftablifhlhg  correfpon- 
dences  in  foreign  countries  ;  and  thtfe  are  more  or  lefs 
neceftary  in  proportion  as  the  country  where  they  are 
eftablllhed  is  more  or  leis  pollflicd  or  acquainted  with 
trade.  They  fupply  the  want  of  pofts,  and  point  out 
to  the  merchants  what  proportion  the  produftions  of 
the  country  bear  to  the  demand  of  the  inhabitants  ior 
manufadlures.  This  communicates  an  idea  of  com- 
merce to  the  not  trading  nation,  and  they  infenfibly 
begin  to  fix  a  determined  value  upon  their  own  pro- 
ductions, which  peihaps  bore  no  determined  value  at 
all  before. 

Let  us  trace  a  little  the  progrefs  of  this  refinement 
In  the  favages,  in  oiderlo  fliow  how  it  has  the  cft'eft  of 
throwing  the  demand  upon  the  traders,  and  of  creacing 
a  competitie.n  among  them,  for  the  productions  of  the 
niw  ci  uiitry. 

Expeiience  (hows,  that.  In  a  new  difcovered  coun- 
try, merchants  conftanlly  find  fome  aniclc  or  other  of 
its  produfllons,  which  runi  out  to  a  great  account  ir» 
commeice;  and  we  fee  that  the  longer  fucli  a  trade 
fubfills,  and  the  more  tiie  inhabitants  take  a  tafte  for 
European  manufadutes,  the  more  their  own  produc- 
tions rife  in  their  value,  and  the  lefs  profit  is  mide  by 
trading  with  them,  even  in  cales  where  the  iiadc  is  car- 
ried on  by  companies  ;  which  is  a  very  wife  inftitutioti. 
for  one  reafon,  that  it  cuts  off  a  competition  between  our 
merchants.  ' 

This  is  the  beft  means  of  keeping  prices  low  In  fa- 
vour of  the  nation  ;  however  it  may  work  a  conirary 
elfeft  with  refpedl  to  individuals  who  muft  buy  from 
tliefe  monopolies. 

When  companies  are  not  eftablilhed,  and  when  trade 
is  open,  our  merchants,  by  their  eagcrnefs  to  profit  by 
the  new  trade,  betray  the  fccrets  of  it;  they  enter  inta 
competition  for  the  purchafe  of  the  foreign  produce  ; 
and  (his  raifis  prices,  and  favours  the  commerce  of  the 
moft  ignorant  favages. 

§  4.  Confequences  of  the  IntroduS'ion  of  a  pq/Jive  fo- 
reign Trade  among  a  People  ivhu  live  in  SimpHcitf  and 
Llknefs. 

Wt  now  fuppofe  the  arrival  of  traders,  all  in  one 
intertft,  with  infttumcnts  of  luxury  and  refinement,  at 
a  port  in  a  country   of  great  fimphcity  of  manners, 

abtmdantly> 


20;; 


206  .      ^       ^       ^'^       ^^ 

abundantlyprovided  bynatureVith  great  advantages  for 
commerce,  and  peojiled  by  a  nation  capable  of  adopt- 
■  ing-  a  tafte  for  fiiperfluities. 

The  firft  thing  the  merchants  do  is,  to  expofe  their 
goods,  and  point  out  the  advantages  of  many  thing!?, 
either  agreeable  or  ufeful  to  mankind  in  general,  fuch 
ss  wines,  fpirits,  inflruments  of  agriculture,  arms  and 
ammunition  for  hunting,  nets  for  fifhing,  maiiufaftures 
for  clothing,  and  the  like.  The  advantages  of  thefe 
are  prefently  perceived,  and  fuch  commodities  are  eager- 
ly fought  after. 

The  natives,  on  their  fide,  produce  what  they  moft 
cfteem,  generally  fomething  fuperfluous  or  ornamen- 
tal. The  traders,  after  examining  all  circumftances, 
determine  the  objedl  of  their  demand,  giving  the  leaft 
quantity  poflible  in  return  for  this  fupcrfluity,,in  order 
to  imprefs  the  inhabitants  with  a  high  notion  of  the 
value  of  their  own  commodities  ;  but  as  this  parfimony 
may  do  more  hurt  than  good  to  their  intereft,  they  are 
very  generous  in  making  prefents,  from  the  principles 
mentioned  above. 

\Vhen  the  exchange  is  completed,  and  the  traders 
depart,  regret  is  commonly  mutual  ;  the  one  and  the 
other  are  forry  that  the  fuperfluities  of  the  country  fall 
fhort.  A  return  is  promifed  by  the  traders,  and  alTu- 
rances  are  given  by  the  natives  of  a  better  provifion 
another  time. 

What  are  the  firfl.  confcquences  of  this  revolution  ? 
It  r»<^vident,  that,  in  order  to  fupply  an  equivalent 
for  this  new  want,  more  hands  mull  be  fet  to  work 
than  formerly.  And  it  is  evident  alfo,  that  this  aug- 
mentation of  indullry  will  not  effentially  increafe  num- 
bers :  Why  ?  Becaufe  the  produce  of  the  induilry  is, 
in  this  cafe,  intended  to  be  exported.  But,  if  we 
can  find  out  any  additional  confumption  at  home,  even 
implied  by  this  new  trade,  it  will  have  the  efftft  of  aug- 
menting numbers.     An  example  will  make  this  plain. 

Let  us  fuppofe  the  fnperfluity  of  this  country  to  be 
the  flcins  of  wild  beafts,  not  proper  for  food  ;  the  ma- 
nufaflure  fought  for,  brandy.  The  brandy  is  fold  for 
furs.  He  who  has  furs,  or  he  who  can  fpare  time  to 
Jiimt  for  them,  will  drink  brandy  in  proportion  :  but 
there  is  no  reafon  to  conclude  from  this  fimple  opera- 
tion, that  one  man  more  in  the  country  mull  necelTa- 
rily  be  fed,  or  that  any  augmentation  of  agriculture 
mull  of  confequence  enfue  from  this  new  traffic. 

But  let  us  throw  in  a  ciicnmftance  which  may  imply 
an  additional  confumption  at  home,  and  then  examine 
the  confequences. 

A  poor  creature  who  has  no  equivalent  to  offer  for 
food,  who  is  milerable,  and  ready  to  perilh  for  want 
of  fubfiftence,  goes  a  hunting,  and  kills  a  wolf;  he 
comes  to  a  farmer  with  the  Ikin,  and  fays.  You  are 
.well  fed,  but  yon  have  no  brandy;  if  you  will  give 
ine  a  loaf,  I  will  give  you  this  fliin,  which  the  ftran- 
'/ers  are  fo  fond  of,  and  they  will  give  you  brandy. 
But,  fays  the  farmer,  I  have  no  more  bread  than  what 
is  fufficient  for  my  own  family.  As  for  that,  replies 
the  other,  I  will  come  and  dig  in  your  ground,  and 
you  and  I  will  fettle  our  account  as  to  the  fmall  quan- 
tity I  defire  of  you.  The  bargain  is  made  ;  the  poor 
fellow  gets  his  loaf,  and  lives  at  leaft  ;  perhaps  he 
marries,  and  the  farmer  gets  a  dram.  But  had  it  not 
been  for  this  dram,  that  is,  this  new  want,  which  was 
purchafed  by  the  indullry  of  this  pour  fellow,  by  what 


E    R     C    E. 

argument  could  he  have  indwced  the  farmer  to  part 
with  a  loaf? 

Here  the  fentiment  of  chaiityis  excluded.  This 
alone  is  a  principle  of  miilliplitiniun  ;  but  as  true  it  is, 
on  the  other  hand,  that  could  the  poor  fellow  have  got 
bread  by  begging,  he  would  uot  probably  have  gone  a 
hunting. 

Here  then  it  appears,  that  the  very  dawning  o£ 
trade,  in  the  moll  uupohnu'd  countries,  implies  a  m\d- 
tiplication.  This  is  enough  to  point  out  the  firftfttp, 
and  to  conneft  the  fubjeft  of  our  prefent  inquiries  with 
what  has  been  already  difcufled  in  relation  toother  cir- 
cumftances. 

So  foon  as  all  the  furs  are  difpofed  of,  and  a  tafte  for 
fnperfluity  is  introduced,  both  the  traders  and  the  na- 
tives will  be  equally  intercftcd  in  the  adifancement  of  in- 
duftry  lu  this  country.  Many  new  objcfts  of  profit 
for  the  firllvviU  be  difcovered,  which  the  proper  employ- 
ment of  the  inhabitants,  in  reaping  the  natural  advan- 
tages of  their  foil  and  climate,  will  make  cffedlual. 
The  traders  will  therefore  endeavour  to  fet  on  foot  ma- 
ny branches  of  indullry  among  the  favages,  and  the 
allurements  of  brandy,  arms,  and  clothing,  will  animate 
thefe  in  the  purfuit  of  thcni. 

When  once  this  revolution  is  brought  about  ;  when 
thofc  who  formerly  lived  in  fimplicky  become  induftrl- 
ous ;  manners  put  on  a  new  face. 

That  is  to  fay,  we  now  find  two  trading  nations 
Inftead  of  one,  with  this  difference,  however,  that  as 
hitherto  we  have  fuppofed  the  merchants  all  in  one 
intereft,  the  compound  demand,  that  is,  the  competi- 
tion of  the  buyers,  has  been,  and  muft  ftill  continue  on 
the  fide  of  the  natives.  This  Is  a  great  prejudice  to 
their  intereft  :  but  as  It  is  not  fuppolcd  fufficient  to 
check  their  indullry,  nor  to  reftrain  their  confumption 
of  tire  manufaftures,  let  us  here  examine  a  little  more 
particularly  the  confequences  of  the  princi|)le  of  de- 
mand in  fuch  a  fituation  ;  for  although  we  allow,  that 
it  can  never  change  fides,  yet  it  may  admit  of  different 
modifications,  and  produce  different  tffefts,  as  we  ftiall 
prefently  perceive. 

The  merchants  we  fuppofe  all  in  one  intereft,  confe- 
qufutly  there  can  be  no  competition  among  them;  con- 
fequcntly  no  check  can  be  put  upon  their  raifing  their  , 
prices,  as  long  as  the  prices  they  demand  are  complied 
with.  So  foon  as  they  are  railed  to  the  full  extent  of 
the  abilities  of  the  natives,  or  of  their  /inclination  to 
buy,  the  merchants  have  the  choice  of  three  things, 
which  are  all  ptrfeiilly  In  their  option  ;  and  the  pre- 
ference to  be  given  to  the  one  or  the  other,  depends 
entirely  upon  themfclves,  and  upon  the  circumftances 
we  are  going  to  point  out. 

Firll,  they  may  fuppcrt  their  /.'ig/j  demand  ;  that 
is,  not  lower  their  price  ;  which  will  prelerve  a  high 
eillmation  of  the  manufactures  in  the  opinion  ot  the 
inhabitants,  and  render  the  profits  upon  their  trade 
the  grcateft  poftible.  This  part  the-y  may  pcffibly 
take.  If  they  perceive  the  natives  doubling  their  dili- 
gence, in  order  to  become  able,  in  time,  to  purchafe 
confiderable  cargoes  at  a  high  value  ;  from  which  fup- 
pofition  is  implied  a  iioug  difpofition  In  the  people  to 
become  luxurious,  fince  nolhing  but  want  uf  ability 
prevents  them  from  couiplying  with  the  highell  de- 
mand :  but  ftill  another  circumftance  muft  concur,  to 
engage  the  merchants  not  to  lower  their  price.     The 

great 


COMMERCE. 


preat  proportion  of  the  goods  they  feek  for  in  re- 
turn, miift  be  found  in  the  hands  of  a  few.  This  #111 
be  the  cafe  if  flavery  be  ellabh(hed  ;  for  then  tliere 
mun;  be  many  poor  and  few  rich  :  and  they  are  com- 
monly the  rich  confumeis  who  proportion  the  price 
the^'  offer,  rather  to  their  defires,  than  to  the  value  of 
the  thinjT. 

The  fecond  thing  which  may  be  done  is,  to  open  the 
door  to  a  s;reat  demand  ;  that  is  to  lower  their  prices. 
This  will  fink  the  value  of  the  manufaftures  in  the  opi- 
nion of  the  inhabitants,  and  render  profits  lefs  in  pro- 
portion, although  indeed,  upon  the  voyage,,  the  pro- 
fit? may  be  greater. 

This  part  they  will  take,  if  they  perceive  the  in- 
habitants do  not  incline  to  confumc  great  quantities  of 
the  merchandize  at  a  high  value,  either  for  want  of 
abilities  or  inclination  ;  and  alfo,  if  the  profits  upon 
the  trade  depend  upon  a  large  confumption,  as  is  the 
cafe  in  mcrchandi/ecf  a  low  value,  and  fuited  chiefly  to 
the  occafions  of  the  I'-wer  fort.  Such  motives  of  ex- 
pedicncv  will  be  fufficient  to  make  them  negleft  a  high 
demand,  and  piefer  a  great  one  ;  and  the  more,  when 
there  is  a  likelihood  chat  the  confumption  of  low- priced 
goods  in  the  beginning  may  beget  a  talle  for  others  of 
a  higher  value,  and  thus  extend  in  general  the  tafle  of 
fupeifiuity. 

A  third  part  to  be  taken,  is  the  leaft  politic,  and 
perhaps  the  moft  familiar.  It  is  to  profit  by  the  com- 
petition between  the  buyers,  and  encourae-c  the  ri- 
iing  of  demand  as  long  as  poflible  ;  when  this  comes 
to  a  ilop,  to  make  a  kind  of  aiiftion,  by  firll  bringing 
down  the  prices  to  the  level  of  the  higheft  bidders, 
and  fo  to  defcend  by  degrees,  in  proportion  as  de- 
mand finks.  Thus  we  may  fay  with  propriety,  that 
demand  commonly  becomes  great,  in  proportion  as 
prices  fink.  By  this  operation,  the  traders  will  profit 
as  much  as  poflible,  and  fell  off  as  muchlof  their  goods 
as  the  profits  will  permit. 

But  this  plan,  in  a  new  difcovered  country,  is  not  por 
I'jic,  as  it  both  dUcovers  a  covetoufnefs  and  a  want  of 
faith  in  the  merchants,  and  alfo  throws  open  the  ftcrcts 
of  their  trade  to  ihofe  who  ought  to  be  kept  ignorant 
of  them. 

Let  us  next  fuppofe,  that  the  large  profits  of  our 
merchants  fhall  be  difcovered  by  others,  who  arrive  at 
the  fame  ports  in  a  feparate  intercft,  and  who  enter  into 
no  combination  which  might  prevent  the  natural  effefts 
of  competition. 

Let  the  Rates  of  demand  among  the  natives  be  fup- 
pofed  the  fame  as  formerly,  both  as  to  height  and  great- 
uefs,  in  confequence  of  the  operation  of  the  different 
principles,  which  might  ha've  induced  our  merchants 
to  follow  one  or  other  of  the  plans  we  have  been  de- 
fcribing  ;  we  muff,  however,  iUll  fuppofe,  that  they 
have  been  careful  to  prefeive  confiderable  profits  upon 
every  branch. 

If  we  fuppofe  the  inhabitants  to  have  increafed  in 
numbers,  wealth,  and  tafte  for  fuperfluity,  fince  the 
laft  voyage,  demand  will  be  found  rather  on  the  ri- 
fing  hand.  Upon  the  arrival  of  the  merchants  in  com- 
petition with  the  former,  both  will  offer  to  fale  :  but 
if  both  (land  to  the  fame  prices,  it  is  very  natural  to 
fuppofe,  that  the  former  dealers  will  obtain  a  prefer- 
ence ;  as,  ctleris  paribus,  it  is  always  an  advantage  to 
know  and  to  be  known.     The  laR  comers,  therefoie, 


have  no  other  way  left  to  counterbalance  this  advan- 
tage, but  to  lower  their  prices. 

This  is  a  new  phenomenon  :  here  the  fall  of  prices 
is  not  voluntary  as  formerly  ;  nor  confented  to  from 
expediency;  not  owing  to  a  failure  of  demand,  but 
to  the  influence  of  a  new  principle  of  commerce,  to 
wit,  a  double  competition,  which  we  fhaU  now  exa- 
mine, 

§  ^.     Of  double   Competilion, 

When  competition  is  much  ftroTiger  on  one  fide 
of  the  contraft  than  on  the  other,  it  is  called  fimpk. 
This  is  the  fpecies  of  e^'^mpetition  which  is  implied  in 
the  term  high  demand,  or  when  it  is  faid  that  demand 
raifes  prices. 

Double  competition  is,  when,  in  a  certain  degree,  it 
takes  place  on  both  fides  of  the  contract  at  once,  or 
vibrates  alternately  from  one  to  the  other.  This  13 
what  reftrains  prices  to  the  adequate  value  of  mer- 
chandize. 

Tiie  great  difficulty  is  to  difllnguifh  clearlv  between 
the  principles  of  i/c-wan^/  and  thofe  oS.  competition  :  here 
then  follows  the  principal  differences  between  the  two, 
relatively  to  the  effofts  they  produce  feverally  in  the 
mercantile  contraft  of  buying  and  felling,  which  wc 
here  exprefs  fhortly  by  the  word  ro,i//Wt?. 

Simple  demand  is  what  brings  the  quantity  of  a 
commodity  to  market.  Many  demand,  who  do  not 
buy  ;  many  offer,  who  do  not  fell.  This  demand  is 
called  great  ax  Jmall ;  it  is  faid  to  increafe,  to  augment, 
to  fwell;  and  is  expreffed  by  thcfe  and  other  fynoni- 
mous  terms,  which  mark  an  augmentation  or  diminu- 
tion of  quantity.  In  this  fpecies,  two  people  never  de- 
mand the  fame  thing,  but  a  part  of  the  fame  thing,  or 
things  quite  alike. 

Compound  demand  is  the  principle  which  raifes  prices, 
and  can  never  make  them  fink  ;  becaufe  in  this  cafe 
more  than  one  demands  the  very  fame  thing.  It  is 
foleiy  applicable  to  the  buyers,  in  relatit  •.  to  the  price 
they  offer.  This  demand  is  called  high  or  hiiv,  and  is 
faid  to  rife,  to  fall,  to  mount,  to  fink,  and  is  expreffed 
by  (hefe  and  other  fynonlmous  terms. 

Simple  cotnpetltlon,  when  between  buyers,  is  the  fame 
Zi  compound  or  high  demand i  but  differs  from  it  in  fo- 
far,  as  this  may  equally  take  place  among  fellers,  which 
compound  demand  cannot ;  and  tlien  it  works  a  con- 
trary effeft  :  it  makes  prices  fink,  and  is  fynonlmous 
with  low  demand :  it  is  this  competition  which  over- 
turns the  balance  of  work  and  demand. 

Double  competition  is  what  is  underftood  to  take 
place  in  almoll  every  operation  of  trade;  it  is  this 
which  pervents  their  exctfTive  rife  of  prices;  it  is  this 
which  prevents  their  exceffive  fall.  While  double 
competition  prevails,  the  balance  is  perfed,  trade  and 
indullry  flourifh. 

The  capital  diftinftion,  therefore,  between  the  terms 
demand  znA  competition  is,  that  f/ewflwrf  is  conflantly  re- 
lative to  the  buyers  ;  and  when  money  is  not  the  price, 
as  in  barter,  then  it  is  relative  to  that  fide  upon  which 
the  greateil  competilion  is  found. 

We  therefore  fay,  with  regard  to  prices,  demand  13 
high  or  loiu.      With  recard  to  the  quantity  of  merchandize, 
demand  h  great  ox  fmall.      With  regard  to  competition,  it" 
is  always  called  great  ox fniall ,  firong  or  lueak. 

Competition   is,  with  equal  propriety,  applicable  to 

Uoth 


207 


2o8 


COMMERCE. 


both  parties  in  the  contraft.  A  competition  among 
buyers  is  a  proper  expreffion  ;  a  competition  among  fel- 
lers, who  have  the  merchandize,  is  fully  as  eafily  under- 
ftood,  though  it  be  not  quite  lo  ftriking',  for  rcafons 
which  an  example  will  make  plain. 

You  come  to  a  fair,  where  you  find  a  great  variety 
of  every  kind  of  merchandize,  in  the  poficffion  of  dif- 
ferent merchants.  Thefe,  by  offering  their  goods  to 
fale,  conftitute  a  tacit  competition  ;  every  one  of  them 
wifhes  to  fell  in  preference  to  another,  and  at  the  fame 
time  with  the  beft  advantage  to  himfelf. 

The  buyer  begins,  by  cheapening  at  every  fhop. 
The  firft  price  aflced  marks  the  covetoufnefs  of  the 
feller;  the  firft  price  offered,  the  avarice  of  the  buyer. 
From  this  operation  competition  begins  to  work  its 
effects  on  both  fides,  and  fo  becomes  double.  The 
principles  which  influence  this  operation  are  now  to 
be  deduced. 

It  is  impoffible  to  fuppofe  the  fame  degree  of  eager- 
nefs,  either  to  buy  or  fell,  among  feveral  merchants  ; 
becaufe  the  degree  of  eagernefs  is  exaftly  in  propor- 
tion to  their  vitws  of  profit;  and  as  thefe  muft  necefiarily 
be  influenced  and  regulated  by  different  circumftances, 
that  buyer,  who  has  the  beft  profpeft  of  felling  again 
with  profit,  obliges  him,  whofe  ptofpeft  is  not  fo  good, 
to  content  himfelf  with  lefs  ;  and  that  feller,  who  has 
bought  to  the  beft  advantage,  obliges  him,  who  has 
paid  dearer  for  the  merchandize,  to  moderate  his  de- 
fire  of  gain. 

It  is  from  thefe  principles,  that  competition  among 
buyers  and  fellers  muft  take  place.  This  is  what  con- 
fines the  fluftuation  of  prices  within  limits  which  are 
compatible  with  the  reafonable  profits  of  both  buyers 
and  fellers  ;  for  we  muft  conftantly  fuppofe  the  whole 
operation  of  buying  and  felling  to  be  performed  by 
merchants ;  the  buyer  cannot  be  fuppofcd  to  give  fo 
high  a  price  as  that  which  he  expeds  to  receive 
■when  he  diftributes  to  the  confumers,  nor  can  the 
feller  be  fuppofed  to  accept  of  a  lower  than  that  which 
he  paid  to  the  manufafturer.  This  competition  is 
properly  called  double,  becaufe  of  the  difficulty  to  de- 
termine upon  which  fide  it  ftands ;  the  fame  merchant 
may  have  it  in  his  favour  upon  certain  articles,  and 
againft  him  upon  others  ;  it  Is  continually  In  vibration, 
and  the  arrival  of  every  poft  may  lefs  or  more  pull  down 
the  heavy  fcale. 

In  every  tranfaftion  between  merchants,  the  profit 
rcfulting  from  the  fale  muft  be  exaftly  diftinguiflied 
from  the  value  of  the  merchandize.  The  firft  may 
vary,  the  laft  never  can.  It  is  this  profit  alone  which 
can  be  influenced  by  competition  ;  and  it  is  for  that 
reafon  we  find  fuch  unifoimity  every  where  In  the  prices 
of  goods  of  the  fame  quality. 

The  competition  between  fellers  does  not  appear 
fo  ftriking  as  that  between  buyers;  becaufe  he  who 
offers  to  fale,  appears  only  pafQve  in  the-  firft  opera- 
tion ;  whereas  the  buyers  prefent  themfelves  one  af- 
ter another ;  they  make  a  demand  when  the  mer- 
chandize is  refufed  to  one  at  a  certain  price  ;  a  fccond 
either  offers  more,  or  does  not  offer  all :  but  fo  foon 
as  another  feller  finds  his  account  in  accepting  the  price 
the  firft  had  refufed,  then  the  firft  enters  into  compe- 
tition, providing  his  profits  will  admit  his  lowering  the 
firft  price;  and  thus  competition  takes  place  among  the 

N°  8"6. 


fellers,  until  the  profits  upon  their  trade  prevent  prices 
froifi  falling  lower. 

In  all  markets  thi3  competition  is  varying,  though 
inftnfibly,  on  many  occafions ;  but  in  others  the  vi- 
brations are  very  perceptible.  Sometimes  it  is  found 
ftrongeft  on  the  fide  of  the  buyers ;  and  in  proportion 
as  this  grows,  the  competition  between  the  fellers  di- 
tninlfties.  When  the  competition  between  the  former 
has  raifed  prices  to  a  certain  ftandard,  it  comes  to  a 
ftop  ;  then  the  competition  changes  fides,  and  takes 
place  among  the  fellers,  eager  to  profit  of  the  highelt 
price.  This  makes  prices  fall ;  and  according  as  they 
fall,  the  competition  among  the  buyers  diminilhes. 
They  ft  ill  wait  for  the  loweft  period.  At  laft  it  comes  ; 
and  then  perhaps  fome  new  circumftancej  by  giving 
the  balance  a  kick,  difappoints  their  hopes.  If  there- 
fore it  ever  happens,  that  there  is  but  one  Intereft  up- 
on one  fide  of  the  contraft,  as  in  the  example  in  the 
former  feftion,  where  we  fuppofed  the  fellers  united, 
you  perceive,  that  the  rife  of  the  price,  occafioned  by 
the  competition  of  the  buyers,  and  even  its  coming  lo 
a  ftop,  could  not  poffibly  have  the  effect  of  producing 
any  competition  on  the  other  fide  ;  and  therefore.  If 
prices  come  afterwards  to  fink,  the  fall  muft  have  pro- 
ceeded from  the  prudential  confiderations  of  adapting 
the  price  to  the  faculties  of  thofe  who,  from  the  height 
of  it,  had  withdrawn  their  demand. 

From  thefe  principles  of  competition,  the  foreftalling 
of  markets  is  made  a  crime,  becaufe  It  diminifhes  the 
competition  which  ought  to  take  place  between  dif- 
ferent people,  who  have  the  fame  merchandize  to  of- 
fer to  fale.  The  foreftaller  buys  all  up,  with  an  in- 
tention to  fell  with  more  profit,  as  he  has  by  that  means 
taken  other  competitors  out  of  the  way,  and  appears 
with  a  fingle  intereft  on  one  fide  of  the  contraft,  In 
the  face  of  many  competitors  on  the  other.  Tiiis  per- 
fon  is  puniihed  by  the  ftate,  becaufe  he  has  prevented 
the  price  of  the  merchandize  from  becoming  juftly 
proportioned  to  the  real  value  ;  he  has  robbed  the  pub- 
lic and  enriched  himfelf;  and  in  the  punifhment  he 
makes  reftltution.  Here  occur  two  queftions  to  be  re- 
folved,  for  the  fake  of  illuftration. 

Can  competition  among  buyers  poflibly  take  place, 
when  the  provifion  made  is  more  than  fufficient  to  fupply 
the  quantity  demanded  ?  On  the  other  hand,  can  compe- 
tition take  place  among  the  fellers,  when  the  quantity 
demanded  exceeds  the  total  provifion  made  for  it  ? 

We  think  It  may  in  both  cafes  ;  becaufe  In  the  one 
and  the  other,  there  is  a  competition  implied  on  one 
fide  of  the  contraft,  and  the  very  nature  of  this  com- 
petition implies  apoflibillty  of  its  coming  on  the  other, 
provided  feparate  interefts  be  found  upon  both  fides. 
But  to  be  more  particular  : 

r.  Experience  (hows,  that  however  juftly  the  pro- 
portion between  the  demand  and  the  fupply  may  be 
determined  in  faft,  It  is  ftill  next  to  impoffible  to  dif- 
cover  it  exaftly,  and  therefore  the  buyers  can  only  re- 
gulate the  prices  they  offer,  by  what  they  may  reafon- 
ably  expeft  to  fell  for  again.  The  fellers,  on  the 
other  hand,  can  only  regulate  the  prices  they  expeft, 
by  what  the  merchandize  has  coft  them  when  brought 
to  market.  We  have  already  fiiown,  how,  under 
fuch  circumftances,  the  feveral  interefts  of  individuals 
affeft  each  other,  and  make  the  balance  vibrate. 


C    O     M     M 

2.  The  proportion  between  the  fupply  and  the  de- 
mand is  fc-lilom  other  than  relallve  among  merchants, 
who  are  fuppofed  to  buy  and  ftll,  not  from  nectfilty, 
but  from  a  view  to  profit.  What  we  mean  by  rela- 
tive is,  that  their  demand  is  p-eat  or  fmall  according 
to  prices ;  there  may  be  a  jrreat  demand  for  jfrain  at 
_!;  5  s.  per  quarter,  and  no  demand  at  all  for  it  at  40  s.  ; 
that  is,  among  merchants. 

It  is  tflential  to  attcr.d  to  the  finalkft  circumftance 
in  matters  of  this  kind.  The  circiimllance  we  mean, 
is  the  difference  we  find  in  the  cffeil  of  competition, 
when  it  takes  place  purely  among  merchants  on  both 
fiJes  of  the  contiaft,  and  when  it  happens,  that  either 
the  confumers  mingle  themfclves  with  the  merchant- 
buyers  or  the  manufafturers,  that  is,  the  furnidn-rs, 
mingle  themfelvcs  with  the  merchant- fellers.  This 
combination  we  fliall  ilhiftrate  by  the  folution  of  ano- 
ther quefllon,  and  then  conclude  with  a  few  rcfledlions 
upon  the  whole. 

Can  there  be  no  cafe  formed,  where  the  competi- 
tion upon  one  fide  m^y  fubfill,  witiiout  a  poffibility  of 
its  taking  place  on  the  other,  although  there  fhould  be 
fcparate  interefts  upon  biiih  ? 

The  cafe  is  hardly  fuppofable  among  merchants,  who 
buy  and  fell  with  a  view  to  profit ;  but  it  is  abfolutely 
fuppofable,  and  that  is  all,  when  the  dircft  confumers 
arc  the  buyers  ;  when  the  circumllances  of  one  of  the 
parties  is  perfcftly  known  ;  and  when  the  competition 
is  fo  (Ircng  upon  one  fide,  as  to  prevent  a  polFibility 
of  its  becoming  double,  before  the  whole  provifion  is 
fold  off,  or  the  demand  fatisfied.  Let  us  have  re- 
courfe  to  examples. 

Grain  arriving  in  a  fmall  qukntity,  at  a  port  where 
the  inhabitants  are  ftarving,  produces  fo  great  a  com- 
petition among  the  confumers,  who  are  the  buyers, 
that  their  neceflity  becomes  evident  ;  all  the  grain  is 
generally  bougjit  up  before  prices  can  rife  fo  high  as 
to  come  to  a  Hop  ;  becaiife  nothing  but  want  of  mo- 
ney, that  is,  an  imjioflibility  of  complying  with  the 
prices  demanded  by  the  nieichants,  can  reftrain  them  : 
but  if  you  fiippofe,  cv^n  here,  that  prices  come  natu- 
rally to  a  (lop  ;  or  that,  after  fome  time,  they  fall 
lower,  from  prudential  coniiJerntions ;  then  there  is 
a  poflibility  of  a  competition  taking  place  among  the 
fellers,  from  the  principles  above  deduced.  If,  on  the 
contrary,  the  iic-  p  is  not  natural,  but  occafioned  by  the 
intf  rpofition  of  the  magillrate,  from  humanity,  or  the 
like,  there  will  be  no  competition,  becaufe  then  the 
principles  cf  commerce  are  lidpended  ;  tiie  fellers  are 
reftrained  en  one  fide,  and  they  rellrain  the  buyers  on 
the  other.  Or  rather  indeed,  it  is  the  magillrate,  or 
companion,  who  in  a  manner  fixes  the  price,  and  per- 
forms the  office  of  both  buyer  and  feller. 

A  better  example  ilill  may  be  fimnd,  in  a  competi- 
tion among  fellers  ;  where  it  may  be  fo  ftiong  as  to 
render  a  commodity  in  a  manner  of  no  value  at  all,  as 
in  the  cafe  of  an  uncommon  and  uncxpetted  draught 
of  fi(h,  in  a  place  of  fmall  confumption,  when  no  pre- 
parations have  been  made  for  faking  tiiem.  There 
can  be  th?n  no  competition  among  the  buyers  ;  be- 
caufe the  market  cannot  lalt,  and  they  find  themlelvts 
entirely  matters,  to  give  what  price  they  pleafe,  be- 
ing fure  the  fellers  mud  accept  of  it,  or  lofe  their  mer- 
chalidize.  In  the  firft  example,  humanity  commonly 
flops  the  activity  of  the  principle  of  competition  j  ia 

Vol..  V.  Part  I. 


E     R     C     F. 

the  other,  it  Is  flop  led  by  a  certain-degree  of  fair  deal- 
ing,  which  forbids  tlie  accepting  of  a  merchandize  for 

nothing. 

In  proportion  therefore  as  the  rifing  of  prices  can 
(lop  demand,  or  the  fir.king  of  prices  can  increafe  it, 
in  the  fame  proportion  will  competition  prevent  either 
the  rife  or  the  fall  from  being  carried  beyond  a  certain 
length  :  and  if  fucli  a  cafe  carr  be  put,  Vv-htie  the  rifing 
of  prices  cannot  (lop  demand,  nor  the  lowering  of 
prices  augment  it,  in  fuch  cafes  double  competition  ha» 
no  effedl  ;  becaufe  thefe  circumftancf  s  unite  the  mod 
feparate  interells  of  buyers  and  fellers  in  the  mer- 
cantile contraft  ;  and  when  upon  one  fide  there  is 
no  feparate  intereft,  there  can  then  be  no  competi- 
tion. 

From  what  has  been  faid,  we  may  form  a  judgment 
of  the  various  degrees  of  competition.  A  b<iok  not 
worth  a  (hilling,  a  firti  of  a  few  pourrds  weight,  are 
often  fold  for  confiderable  fums.  The  buyers  here  are 
not  merchants.  When  an  amhaflTador  leaves  a  coitrt  ia 
a  hurry,  things  are  fold  for  lei's  than  the  half  of  their 
value  :  he  is  no  merchant,  and  his  fituation  is  known. 
When,  at  a  public  market,  there  are  found  confumers, 
who  make  their  provifion  ;  or  manufafturers,  wl:o  dif- 
pofe  of  their  goods  for  prefent  fubfillence  ;  the  mer- 
chants, who  are  refpectively  upon  the  oppofitc  lide  of 
the  contrail  to  thefe,  profit  of  their  compttiiiuu  ;  and 
thofe  who  are  refpeftively  upon  the  fame  fide  with 
them,  (land  by  with  patience  until  they  have  finiihed 
their  bufinefs.  Then  matters  come  to  be  c.irricd  on 
between  merchant  and  merchant,  and  then  profits  may 
rife  and  fall,  in  the  proportion  of  quintiy  to  demand; 
that  is  to  fay,  if  the  provifioir  is  lefs  than  the  'i  insnd, 
the  competition  among  the  demanders,  or  the  life  of 
the  price,  wrll  be  in  the  compound  proportiorr  of  the 
falling  (hort  of  the  commodity,  and  of  the  profpetl  of 
felling  again  with  profit.  It  is  this  combinali:<ir. which 
regulates  the  competition,  anJ  keeps  it  within  bounds. 
It  can  affeft  but  the  profits  upon  the  tranfadlion  :  the 
intrinfic  value  of  the  commodity  (lands  immoveable  : 
nothing  is  ever  fold  below  the  real  value  ;  nothing  is 
ever  bought  for  more  than  it  may  piobably  bring. 
We  mean  in  general.  V/nereas,  fo  foon  as  confumers 
and  needy  marrufafturers  mingle  in  the  operation,  all 
pr-oportlon  is  1  rA.  The  competition  between  them  is 
too  llrong  for  the  merchants ;  the  balance  vibrates  by 
jerks.  In  fuch  mai-kets  merchants  feldom  appear  :  the 
principal  objects  there,  are  the  fruitj  and  prududlions 
of  the  earth,  and  a.ticles  o!  the  firll  n.ccility  for  life, 
not  manufidlures  ftridlly-fo  called.  A  poor  fellow 
often  I'clls  to  purchafe  bread  to  eat ;  not  to  pay  what 
he  did  eat  while  he  was  employed  in  the  work  he  dif- 
pofes  of.  The  confumer  oftcrr  meafures  the  value  of 
what  he  is  about  to  purchafe,  by  the  weight  of  his 
purfe,  and  his  dcfire  to  confume. 

§  6.    Of  what  is  callcil  Expence,  Profit,  and  Lofs, 

The  term  M/OTff,  when  fimply  exprefTed,  without 
any  particular  r-clation.  Is  alwiys  undeillood  to  be  re- 
lattve  to  money.  This  kind  is  dillingui(hed  under  the 
three  heads  of  private,  public,  and  national. 

I.  Private expeiice  Is  what  a  private  pcrfon,  or  pri- 
vate fociety,  lays  o  it,  either  t«  provide  articles  of  con- 
fumption, or  fome'hing  nrore  permanerrt,  which  may 
be  conducive  to  their  ea('e,  eonvenience,  or  advantao-e. 
D  d  Thu, 


209 


210  C    O    M    M 

Thus  we  fay,  a  large  domejllc  expaice,  relative  to  one 
who  fpends  a  great  income.  We  fay,  a  merchant  has 
bej:n  at  great  expetice  for  magazined,  for  4iving,  for 
clerks,  &c.  but  never  that  he  has  been  at  any  in  buy- 
ing goods.  In  tlie  fame  way  a  manufafturer  may  ex- 
pend for  building,  machines,  liorfes,  and  carriages,  but 
never  for  the  matter  he  m-muFaftures.  When  a  thing 
is  bought  in  order  to  be  (old  again,  the  fum  employ- 
ed is  called  money  advanced ;  when  it  is  bought  not 
to  be  fold,  it  may  be  faid  to  be  expended. 

2.  Public  expence  is  the  employment  of  that  money 
which  has  been  contributed  by  individuals  for  the  cur- 
rent fervice  of  the  ftate.  The  contribution,  or  ga- 
thering it  togeiher>  reprefents  the  effefts  of  many  ar- 
ticles of /m'fl/^  £x/<rn«  ,•  the  laying  it  out  when  col- 
lefted,  is  public  expence, 

3.  National  expence  is  what  is  expended  out  of  the 
country;  this  is  what  diminilhes  national  wealth.  The 
principal  diftiuftion  to  be  here  attended  to  is  between 
public  expence,  or  the  laying  out  of  public  money,  and 
national  expence,  wliich  is  the  alienating  the  nation's 
wealth  in  favour  of  ftrangcrs.  Thus  the  greatell  pub- 
lic expence  imaginable  may  be  no  national  expence  ; 
becaufe  the  money  may  remain  at  home.  On  the  o- 
ther  hand,  the  fmallell  public,  or  even  private  expence, 
may  be  a  national  expence  ;  becaufe  the  money  may 
go  abroad. 

Profit  and  lofs  is  divided  into  pijllive,  relative^  and 
compound.  Poftive  profit  implies  no  lofs  to  any  body  ; 
it  refults  from  an  augmentation  of  labour,  induftry,  or 
ingenuity,  and  has  the  effeft  of  fwelling  or  augment- 
ing the  public  good. 

Pofitive  lofs  implies  no  profit  to  any  body  ;  it  is  wliat 
refults  from  the  ceffation  of  the  former,  or  of  the  ef- 
fefts refulting  from  it,  and  may  be  faid  to  diminilh  the 
public  good. 

Relati-ve profit  is  what  implies  a  lofs  to  fomebody  ; 
it  marks  a  vibration  of  the  balance  of  wealth  betu'een 
parties,  but  implies  no  addition  to  the  general  ftock. 

Relative  lofs  is  what,  on  the  contrary,  implies  a  pro- 
fit to  fomebody  ;  it  alfo  marks  a  vibration  of  the  ba- 
lance, but  takes  nothing  from  the  general  Hock. 

The  compound  is  eafily  underllood ;  it  is  that  fpecies 
of  profit  and  lofs  which  is  partly  relative  and  partly 
pofitive. 

4  7.  The  general  confquences  refulting  to  a  trading 
Nation,  upon  the  opening  of  an  active  foreign  Com- 
merce, 

A  NATION  which  remains  paffive  in  her  commerce 
is  at  the  mercy  of  thofe  who  ate  aftive,  and  muft  be 
greatly  favoured  indeed  by  natural  advantages,  or  by 
a  conllant  flux  of  gold  and  filvcr  from  her  mines,  to 
be  able  to  fupport  a  correfpondence  not  entirely  hurt- 
ful to  the  augmentation  of  her  wealth. 

When  we  look  upon  the  wide  field  which  here  opens 
to  our  view,  we  are  perplexed  with  too  great  a  variety 
of  objefts.  In  one  part,  we  fee  a  decent  and  comely 
beginning  of  induftry  ;  wealth  flowing  gently  in  to  re- 
compence  ingenuity  ;  numbers  both  augmenting,  and 
every  one  becoming  daily  more  ufeful  to  another  ;  agri- 
culture proportionally  extending  itfelf;  no  violent  re- 
volutions; no  exorbitant  profits;  no  infolence  among 
tlie  rich  ;  no  exceffive  mifery  among  the  poor  ;  multi- 
tudes employed  in  producing;  great  economy  upon 


E    R    C    E. 

confumption  ;  and  all  the  Inftruments  of  luxury,  daily 
produced  by  the  hands  of  the  diligent,  going  out  of 
the  country  for  the  fervice  of  llrangers  ;  not  remaining 
at  home  for  tlie  gratification  of  fcnfuality.  At  latt 
the  augmentaticns  come  infenfibly  to  a  flop.  Then 
thefe  rivers  of  wealth,  which  were  in  briflc  circulation 
thiciUgh  the  whole  world,  and  which  returned  to  tliis 
trading  nation  as  blood  returns  to  the  heart,  only  to 
be  thrown  out  again  by  new  sulfations,  begin  to  be 
obflrufted  in  their  courfc  ;  and  flowing  abroad  more 
flowly  than  before,  come  to  form  ftagnations  at  home. 
Thefe,  impatient  of  reflraint,  foon  burll  out  into  do- 
mefl.ic  circulation.  Upon  this  cities  fwell  in  magni- 
ficence of  buildings  ;  the  face  of  the  country  is  adorn- 
ed with  palaces,  and  becomes  covered  with  groves; 
luxury  fliiiies  triumphant  in  evei^  part ;  inequality  be- 
comes more  linking  to  the  eye  v  and  want  and  mifery 
appear  more  deformed,  from  the  contraft  :  even  for* 
tune  grows  more  whimflcal  in  her  inconftancy  ;  the 
beggar  of  the  other  day  now  rides  in  his  coach  ;  and 
he  who  was  born  in  a  bed  of  ftate,  is  feen  to  die  in  a 
goal  or  in  an  alms-houfe.  Such  are  the  effefts  of 
great  domellic  circulation. 

The  ftatefman  looks  about  v/ith  amazement  ;  he 
who  was  wont  to  confider  himfelf  as  the  firft  man  ia 
the  fociety  in  every  refpeft,  perceives  himfelf,  per- 
haps, eclipfed  by  the  luftre  of  private  wealth,  which 
avoids  his  grafp  when  he  attempts  to  feize  it.  This 
makes  his  government  more  complex  and  more  diffi- 
cult to  be  carried  on  ;  he  muft  now  avail  himfelf  of 
art  and  addrefs,  as  well  as  of  power  and  force.  By 
the  help  of  cajoling  and  intrigues,  lis  gets  a  little  into 
debt  ;  this  lays  a  foundation  for  public  credit,  which, 
gi-owing  by  degrees,  and  in  itsprogrefs  affuming  many 
new  forms,  becomes,  from  the  moft  tender  begin- 
nings, a  moft  formidable  monfter,  ftiiking  terror  into 
thofe  who  cherifhed  it  in  its  infancy.  Upon  this,  as 
upon  a  triumphant  war-horfe,  the  ftatefman  gets  a- 
ftride  ;  he  then  appears  formidable  a-new  ;  his  head 
turns  giddy  ;  he  is  choaked  with  the  duft  he  has  rai- 
fed  ;  and  at  the  moment  he  is  ready  to  fall,  to  his  ut- 
ter aftonifhment  and  furpiife,  he  finds  a  ilrong  mo- 
nied  intereft,  of  his  own  creating,  which,  inftead  of 
fwallowing  him  up  as  he  apprehended,  flies  to  his 
fupport.  Through  this  he  gets  the  better  of  all  oppo- 
fition,  he  eftablifties  taxes,  multiplies  them,  mortgages 
his  fund  of  fubfiftence  ;  either  becomes  a  bankrupt, 
and  rifes  again  from  his  afties  ;  or  if  he  be  lefs  auda- 
cious, he  ftands  trembling  and  tottering  for  a  wliile  on 
the  brink  of  the  political  precipice.  From  one  or  the 
other  of  thefe  perilous  fituations,  he  begins  to  difcover 
an  endlefs  path,  which,  after  a  multitude  of  windings,, 
flill  returns  into  itfelf,  and  continues  an  equal  courfe 
through  this  vaft  labyrinth. 

It  is  now  full  time  to  leave  off  rhapfody,  and  re- 
turn to  reafoning  and  cool  enquiry,  concerning  the 
more  immediate  and  more  general  effefts  and  revolu- 
tions produced  by  the  opening  of  a  foreign  trade  in  a 
nation  of  induftry. 

The  firft  and  moft  fenfible  alteration  will  be  an  in- 
creafe  of  demand  for  manufafturers,  becaufe  by  fup- 
plying  the  wants  of  ftrangers,  the  number  of  confu- 
mers  will  now  be  confideiably  augmented.  What  a- 
gain  will  follow  upon  this,  muft  depend  upon  circum- 
llances. 

If 


C    O     M     M 

If  tin's  revolution  in  the  ftnte  of  demand  flioald 
prove  too  violent,  the  confequence  of  it  will  b^  to 
raife  demand  ;  if  it  fkould  prove  gradual,  it  will  in- 
creafe  it.  This  dillinftion  is  well  underftood,  and  the 
confequence  appears  juft  :  for,  if  the  fupply  do  not 
increafe  in  proportion  to  the  demand,  a  competition 
will  enfue  aniong  the  demanders ;  which  is  the  com- 
mon effcA  of  fuch  fudden  revolutions.  If,  on  the  o- 
ther  hand,  a  gentle  increafe  of  demand  fhould  be  ac- 
companied with  a  proportional  fupply,  the  whole  in- 
dullrious  fociety  will  grow  in  vigour,  and  in  whole- 
fome  (lature,  without  being  fenfiblc  of  any  gieat  advan- 
tage or  inconveniency  ;  the  change  of  their  circum- 
flances  will  even  be  imperceptible. 

The '  immediate  effedts  of  the  violent  revolution 
will,  in  this  example,  be  flattering  to  fome  and  difa- 
greeable  to  others.  Wealth  will  be  found  daily  to 
augment,  from  the  rifing  of  prices,  in  many  branches 
of  inualtry.  This  will  encourage  the  indullrious  claf- 
fes,  and  the  idle  confumers  at  home  will  complain. 
We  have  already  dwelt  abundantly  long  upon  the  ef- 
fefl  refulting  from  this  to  the  lower  claffes  of  the 
people,  in  providing  them  with  a  certain  means  of 
fubfiftence.  Let  us  now  examine  in  what  refpcdl 
even  the  hiafher  claflVs  will  be  made  llkewife  to  feel 
the  good  elTecls  of  this  genera!  change,  although  at 
firft  they  may  fuffer  a  temporary  inconveniency  from 
it. 

Farmers,  as  has  been  obferved,  will  have  a  greater 
difficulty  in  finding  fervants,  who,  inftead  of  labouring 
the  ground,  will  chufe  to  turn  themfelves  to  manufac- 
tures. This  we  have  confidered  in  the  light  of  pur- 
ging the  lands  of  fuperfliious  mouths  ;  but  every  con- 
fequence in  this  great  chain  of  politics  draws  other 
confequences  after  it,  and  as  they  follow  one  another, 
things  put  on  different  faces,  which  affeft  clalTes  dif- 
ferently. The  purging  of  the  land  is  but  one  of  the 
firft  ;  here  follows  another. 

The  defertion  of  the  lands  employed  in  a  trifling 
agriculture  will  at  firft,  no  doubt,  embarrafs  the  far- 
mers ;  but  in  a  little  time  every  thing  becomes  balan- 
ced in  a  trading  nation,  becaufe  here  every  induflrious 
man  muft  advance  in  profperity,  in  fpite  of  all  general 
combinations  of  circumllances- 

In  the  cafe  before  us,  the  relative  profits  upon  farm- 
ing muft  foon  become  greater  than  formerly,  becaufe 
of  this  additional  expence  which  mull  affeft  the  whole 
clafs  of  farmers  ;  confequently,  this  additional  expence, 
inftead  of  turning  out  to  be  a  lofs  to  either  landlord  or 
farmer,  will,  after  f  ime  little  time,  turn  out  to  the 
advantage  of  both  ;  becaufe  the  produce  of  the  ground, 
being  indifpenfably  neceflary  to  every  body,  muft  in 
every  article  increafe  in  its  value.  Thus  in  a  fhort 
time  accounts  will  be  nearly  balanced  on  all  hands  ; 
that  IS  to  iay,  the  fame  proportion  of  wealth  will, 
celiris  paribus,  continue  the  fame  among  the  induf- 
lrious. We  fay  among  the  induftrious  ;  for  thofe 
who  are  either  idle,  or  even  negligent,  will  be  great 
lofers. 

A  proprietor  of  land,  inattentive  to  the  caufes  of  his 
farmer's  additional  expence,  may  vei-y  imprudently 
fuffer  his  rents  to  fall,  inftead  of  afliftinghim  on  a  pro- 
per occafion,  in  order  to  make  them  afterwards  rife 
the  higher. 

Thofe  who  live  upon  a  detenmined  income  in  mo 


E     R     C     E. 

ncy,  and  who  arc  nowife  employed  in  tralHr-,  nor  in 
any  fcheme  of  induftiy,  will,  by  the  augmentation 
of  prices,  be  found  in  worfe  circumftanccs  than  be- 
fore. 

In  a  trading  nation  every  man  muft  turn  his  talents 
to  account,  or  he  will  undoubtedly  be  left  behind  in 
this  univcrfal  emulation,  in  which  the  moft  induftrious, 
the  muft  ingenious,  and  the  moft  frugal,  will  coiillantly 
carry  off  the  prize. 

This  confideration  ought  to  be  a  fpur  to  every 
body.  The  richeft  men  in  a  trading  nation  have  no 
fceurity  agahift  poverty  ;  we  mean  proportionid  po- 
verty ;  for  though  they  diminifli  nothing  of  their  in- 
come, yet,  by  not  increaling  it  in  proportion  to  others, 
they  lofe  their  rank  in  wealth,  and  from  the  firil  clafs 
in  which  they  ftood  they  will  Hide,  infenfibly  down  to 
a  lower. 

There  is  one  confequence  of  an  additional  benefi- 
cial trade,  which  raifes  demand  and  iucreafes  wealth  ; 
but  if  we  fuppofe  no  proportional  augmentation  of 
fupply,  it  will  prove  at  beil  but  an  airy  dream  which 
lafts  for  a  moment ;  and  when  the  gilded  fcene  is 
paffed  away,  numberlefs  are  the  inconveniences  which 
are  fcen  to  fuUow. 

We  fliall  now  point  out  the  natural  confequences  of 
this  augmentation  of  wealth  drawn  from  foreign  na- 
tions, when  the  ftatefman  remains  inattentive  to'  in- 
creafe the  fupply  both  of  food  and  manufaftures,  in 
proportion  to  the  augmentation  of  mouths,  and  of  the 
demand  for  the  produce  of  induftry. 

In  fuch  a  fituation  profits  will  daily  fwell,  and  every 
fcheme  for  reducing  them  within  the  bounds  of  mo- 
deration, will  be  looked  upon  as  a  hurtful  and  unpo- 
pular meafure  :  be  it  fo  ;  but  let  us  examine  the  con- 
fequences. 

We  have  fald,  that  the  rife  of  demand  for  manu- 
failures  naturally  increafes  the  value  of  work  :  novr 
we  muft  add,  that  under  fuch  circumftanccs,  the  aug- 
mentation of  riches  in  a  countiy,  eltlier  not  capable 
of  improvement  as  to  the  foil,  or  where  precautions 
have  .not  been  taken  for  facilitating  a  multiplica- 
tion of  inhabitants,  by  the  importation  of  fubfift- 
ence, will  be  produdlive  of  the  moft  calamitous  confe- 
quences. 

On  one  fide,  this  wealth  will  effeftually  diminifh 
the  mafs  of  the  food  before  produced  ;  and  on  the 
other,  will  Increafe  the  number  of  ufelefs  confuirrers. 
The  firft  of  thefe  circumftanccs  will  raife  the  demand 
for  food  ;  and  the  fecond  will  diminifh  the  number 
of  ufeful  free  hands,  and  confequently  raife  the  price 
of  manufadlures  :  here  are  fiiortly  the  outlines  of  this 
progrefs. 

The  more  rich  and  luxurious  a  people  are,  the  more 
delicate  they  become  in  their  manner  of  living  ;  if 
they  fed  on  bread  formerly,  they  will  now  feed  on 
meat  ;  if  they  fed  on  meat,  they  will  I'ow  feed  on 
fowl.  The  fame  ground  which  feeds  a  hundred  with 
bread,  and  a  proportional  quantity  of  animal  food, 
will  not  maintain  an  equal  number  of  delicate  livers. 
Food  muft  then  become  more  fcarce  ;  demand  for  \t- 
rifes ;  the  rich  are  always  the  ilrongcft  in  tiie  mar- 
ket ;  they  confume  the  food,  and  the  poor  are  forced 
to  ftarve.  Here  the  wide  door  to  modern  dittrefs 
opens ;  to  wit,  a  hurtful  competition  for  fubfiftence. 
Farther,  when  a  people  become  rich,  they  think  lefs 
D  d  2  of 


211 


212 


COMMERCE. 


cf  economy  ;  a  mimbcr  of  ufclefs  fervants  are  hired, 
to  become  an  additional  dead  weight  on  confumption  ; 
and  vvhea  their  ftsrvlng  countrymen  cannot  fupply  the 
extravpgance  of  the  nth  fo  cheaply  as  other  nations, 
they  either  import  indrumerts  of  foreign  luxui^,  or 
feek  to  enioy  them  out  of  their  own  country,  and 
thereby  make  reftitution  of  their  gains. 

Is  it  not  therefore  evident,  that  if,  before  things 
come  to  this  pafs,  additional  fubfdlence  be  not  provi- 
ded by  one  method  or  other,  the  number  of  inhabi- 
tants mull  diminilh  ;  although  riches  may  daily  in- 
creafe  by  a  balance  cf  additional  matter,  fuppofcd  to 
be  brought  into  the  country  in  confequence  of  the  hi- 
therto beneficial  foreign  trade  ?  This  is  not  all-  We 
fay  farther,  that  the  beneficial  trade  will  laft  for  a 
time  only.  For  the  infallible  confequence  of  the  rife 
of  prices  at  home  will  be,  that  thofe  nations  which  at 
firli  conlumed  your  nianufaftures,  perceiving  the  gra- 
dual increafe  of  their  price,  will  begin  to  work  for 
thcmfelvcs ;  or  finding  out  your  rivals  who  can  fup- 
plv  them  cheaper,  will  open  their  doors  to  them. 
Tliefe  again,  perceiving  the  great  advantages  ga'ned 
by  yourtraders,  will  begin  to  fupply  the  market  ;  and 
fmce  every  thing  mull  be  cheaper  in  countries  where 
we  do  not  fuppofe  the  concurrence  of  ail  the  circum- 
ttances  mentioned  above,  thefe  nations  will  fupplant 
you,  and  be  enriched  in  their  turn. 

Here  comes  a  new  revolution.  Trade  is  come  to 
»  flop  :  what  then  becomes  of  all  the  hands  which 
were  fomierly  employed  ia  fupplying  the  foreign  de- 
mands? 

Were  revolutions  fo  fudden  as  we  are  obliged  to 
rcprefent  them,  all  would  go  to  wTeck;  in  proportion 
as  they  happen  by  quicker  or  flower  degrees,  the  in- 
conveniences are  gi-eater  or  fmaller. 

Prices,  we  have  -faid,  are  made  to  rife  by  compe- 
tition. If  the  competition  of  the  ftrangers  was  what 
raifcd  them,  the  dillrefs  irpon  the  manufafturers  will 
be  in  proportion  to  the  fiiddennefs  of  their  deferting 
the  market.  If  the  competition  was  divided  between 
the  ftrangers  and  the  home-confumers,  the  inconve- 
niences which  enfue  will  be  lefs  ;  becaufe  the  defer- 
tion  of  the  ftrangers  will  be  in  fome  meafure  made  up 
by  an  increafe  of  home-confumption  which  will  follow 
upon  the  fall  of  prices.  And  if,  in  the  third  cafe,  the 
natives  have  been  fo  imprudent,  as  not  only  to  fup- 
port  a  com.petition  with  the  ftrangers,  and  thereby 
difguft  them  from  coming  any  more  to  market,  but 
even  to  continue  the  competition  between  themfelves, 
the  whole  lofs  fuftained  by  the  revolution  will  be  na- 
tion;J.  Wealth  will  ccafe  to  augment  ;  but  the  in- 
conveniences, in  place  of  being  felt  by  the  manufac- 
turers, will  only  affeil  the  ftate  ;  thofe  will  continue 
in  affluence,  extolling  the  generofity  of  their  coun- 
trj'men,  and  defpifing  the  poverty  of  the  ftrangers  who 
had  enriched  them. 

Domeftic  luxury  will  here  prove  an  expedient  for 
prefei-ving  from  ruin  the  induftrious  part  of  a  people, 
•who  in  fubfifting  themfelves  had  enriched  their  coun- 
try. No  change  will  follow  in  their  condition ;  they 
will  go  on  with  a  painful  afilduity  to  labour :  and  if 
the  confequences  of  it  become  now  hurtful  to  one  part 
of  the  Itate,  they  muft  at  leaft  be  allowed  to  be  ef- 
fentially  neceffaiy  for  tlie  fupport  of  the  other. 

Bat  that  luxury  is  no  necclTarj-  concomitant  of  fo- 


reign trade,  in  a  nation  where  the  true  principles  of 
it  are  underftood,  will  appear  very  plain,  from  a  con- 
traft  we  are  now  going  to  point  out,  in  the  example 
of  a  modern  ftate,  renowned  for  its  commerce  and 
frugality.     The  country  is  Holland 

A  fct  of  induftrious  and  frugal  people  were  affem- 
blerl  in  a  country  by  nature  fiibjecl  to  many  inconve- 
niences, the  removing  of  whijh  nectfTarily  employed 
abundance  of  hands.  Their  fituation  upon  the  conti- 
nent, the  power  of  their  former  mafters,  and  the  am- 
bition of  their  neighbours,  obliged  them  to  keep  great 
bodies  of  troops.  Thefe  two  articles  added  to  the 
numbers  of  the  community,  without  either  enriching 
the  ftate  by  their  labour  exported,  or  producing  food 
for  themfelves  or  countrymen. 

The  fcheme  of  a  commonwealth  was  calculated  to 
draw  together  the  induftrious ;  but  it  has  been  ftil! 
more  ufeful  in  fubfifting  them  :  the  republican  fomv 
of  government  being  there  greatly  fubdivided,  vefts 
authority  fufEcient  in  ever)'  part  of  it,  to  make  fuitable 
provifion  for  their  own  fubfiftence  ;  and  the  tie  which 
unites  them,  regards  only  matters  of  public  concern. 
Had  the  whole  been  governed  by  one  fjivereign,  or  by 
one  council,  this  important  matter  never-  coidd  have 
been  effeftuated. 

It  would  be  impofTihle  for  the  moft  able  minifter 
that  ever  lived,  to  provide  nourifhment  tor  n  country' 
fo  extended  as  France,  or  even  as  England,  fuppo- 
fing  thefe  as  fully  peopled  as  Holland  is;  even  althougli 
it  fhould  be  admitted  that  a  fufiicient  quantity  of  food 
might  be  found  in  other  countries  for  their  fubfiftence. 
The  enterprife  would  be  too  great,  abufes  would  mul- 
tiply ;  the  confequence  would  be,  that  the  inhabitants, 
would  die  for  want.  But  in  Holland  the  cafe  is  dif- 
ferent :  every  little  town  takes  care  of  its  ovi'n  inha- 
bitants ;  and  this  care  being  the  objeft  of  application 
and  profit  to  fo  many  perions,  is  accomj-lilhed  with 
fuccefs. 

Wiien  once  it  is  laid  down  as  a  maxim  in  a  coun- 
try, that  food  muft  of  necefilty  be  got  from  abroad  In 
order  to  feed  the  inhabitants  at  home,  the  corn-trade 
becomes  confiderable,  and  at  the  fame  time  certain,  re- 
gular, and  permanent.  This  was  the  cafe  in  Holland: 
as  the  inhabitants  were  induftrious,  the  neceffaiy  con- 
fequence has  been,  a  vei-y  extraordinary  multiplica- 
tion; and  at  the  fame  time  fuch  an  abundance  of  grain, 
that,  inftead  of  being  in  want  themfelves,  they  often 
fupply  their  neighboin-s.  There  are  many  examples 
of  England's  being  fupplied  with  grain  from  thence  ; 
and,  which  is  ftill  more  extraordinary,  from  the  le- 
exportation  of  the  very  produce  of  its  own  fruitful 
foil. 

It  is  therefore  evident,  that  the  only  way  to  fup- 
port induftry,  is  to  provide  a  fupply  of  fubfiftence, 
conftantly  proportional  to  the  demand  that  may  be 
made  for  it.  This  is  a  precaution  indifpenfably  ne- 
ctfTary  for  preventing  hurtful  competition.  This  is 
the  particular  care  of  the  Dutch  ;  fo  long  as  it  can  be 
effeftual,  their  ftate  can  fear  no  decline;  but  when- 
ever they  come  to  be  diftrefTed  in  the  markets,  upon 
which  they  depend  for  fubfiftence,  they  will  fink  into 
ruin.  It  is  by  mere  dint  of  fmgality,  cheap  and  par- 
fimonious  living,  that  the  navigation  of  this  induftri- 
ous people  is  fupported.  Conftant  employment,  and 
an   accumulation  of  almoft  imperceptible  gains,   fill 

their 


C     O     M     M 

their  cofTcrs  with  wealth,  in  fpite  of  the  large  outgo- 
ings to  which  their  own  proper  noiirinimcnt  yearly 
forces  them.  The  large  profits  upon  indiiftry  in  other 
countries,  which  are  no  proof  of  generofity,  but  a  fa- 
tal effeift  of  a  fcaiity  fiibfitlencc,  is  far  from  dazzling 
their  eyes.  The)-  fcldom  are  found  in  the  lill  of 
competitors  at  any  foreign  port  ;  if  they  have  their 
cargo  to  difpofe  of,  they  wait  with  pleafiu'e  in  their 
own  veflels,  confuming  their  own  provifion?,  and  at 
lalt  accept  of  what  others  have  left.  It  may  be  faid, 
that  many  other  circumilances  concur  in  favour  of  the 
Dutch,  bcfides  the  article  of  fubliilence.  Witliout  dif- 
puting  this  matter,  it  may  be  obfcrvcd,  that  if  a  com- 
putation be  made  of  the  hands  employed  in  providing 
fubliilence,  and  of  thofe  wlio  are  feverally  taken  up 
in  fupplying  every  other  want,  their  numbers  will  be 
found  nearly  to  balance  one  another  in  the  mod  luxu- 
rious countries.  From  this  we  may  conclude,  that 
the  article  of  food,  among  the  lower  claifes,  mu'l  bear 
a  very  high  proportion  to  all  the  other  articles  of  their 


E     R     C     E. 

confumption  ;  and  th.-refore  a  dimi.iutlon  upon  the 
price  of  fubfillencc,  muft  be  of  infinite  coiifeqaencc  to 
manufafturers  who  are  obliged  to  buy  it.  From  this 
confideration,  let  us  judge  of  the  confequcnce  of  fuch 
augmentations  upon  the  price  of  grain  as  are  familiar 
to  us  ;  30  or  40  per  cent,  fcems  nothing.  Now  this 
augmentation  operates  upon  two-thirds,  atleaft,  of  the 
whole  expencc  of  a  labouring  man  :  let  any  one  who 
lives  in  tolerable  affluence  make  the  application  of  this 
to  himfelf,  and  examine  how  he  would  manage  hi» 
affairs,  if,  by  accidents  of  rains  or  winds,?  his  expencei 
were  to  rife  30  per  cent,  without  a  pofiibility  of  rc- 
ftraiuing  them;  for  tliis  is  unfortunately  the  cafe  with 
all  the  lower  claffes.  From  whence  it  may  be  con- 
cluded, that  the  keeping  food  cheap,  and  ilill  more  the 
preferving  it  at  all  times  at  an  equal  ftandard,  is  the 
fountain  of  the  wealth  of  Holland  ;  and  tiiat  any  hurt- 
ful competition  in  this  article  muft  beget  a  diforder 
wliich  will  affeCl  the  whole  of  the  mauufadlurcrs  of  a 
(late. 


213 


COM 

!  COMMERCY,  a  bandfome  town  of  France  in  the 
duchy  of  Bar,  with  the  title  of  a  principality,  and  a 
magnificent  calUe.  It  is  feated  on  tiie  river  Menie,  in 
J  E.  Long.  5.  24.  N.  Lat,  48.  20. 

COMMERSONIA,  in  botany:  A  genus  of  the 
pentagynia  order,  belonging  to  the  penlandria  clafs  of 
plants.  The  calyx  is  a  ^nonophyllous,  five-parted, 
corolliferous  periaiithium,  with  (harp  ovated  fegments; 
the  corolla  has  five  linear  petals  ;  the  ftamina  are  five 
very  fliort  filaments  at  the  bafes  of  the  petals  ;  the 
pericarpium  a  globular,  hard,  quinquelocular  nut,  with 
two  ovated  feeds  in  each  divifion. 

COMMINATION,  an  office  in  the  liturgy  of  the 
church  of  England,  appointed  to  be  read  on  Afh- 
Wednefday,  or  the  firft  day  of  Lent-  It  is  fubftitu- 
ted  in  the  room  of  that  godly  difilpllne  in  the  priimtive 
church,  by  which  (as  the  introduction  to  the  office 
expreffes  it),  "  fuch  perfons,  as  Hood  convifted  of  no- 
torious fins,  were  put  to  open  penance,  and  punilhcd 
in  this  world,  that  their  fouls  might  be  faved  in  the 
day  of  the  I>ord  ;  and  that  others,  admoniflied  by 
their  example,  might  be  the  more  afraid  to  offend." 
This  difcipline,  in  after  ages,  degenerated,  in  the 
church  of  Rome,  into  a  formal  confciTion  of  fins  upon 
Afli-Wednefday,  and  the  empty  ceremony  of  fpriuk- 
ling  afhes  upon  the  heads  of  the  people.  Our  refor- 
mers wifely  rejefted  this  ceremony,  as  mere  fhadow 
and  fhow;  and  fubftituted  this  office  in  its  room,  which 
is,  A  denunciation  af  GocPs  anger  and  judgment  nga'mjl 
finners ;  that  the  people,  being  apprized  of-  God's 
wrath  and  indignation  againft  fin,  may  not,  through 
■want  of  difcipline  in  the  church,  be  encouraged  to 
follow  and  purfue  them  ;  but  rather  be  moved  to 
fupply  that  difcipline  to  themfelves,  and  fo  to  a- 
void  being  judged  and  condemned  at  the  tribunal  of 
God. 

COMMINATORY,  an  appellation  given  to  wliat- 
ever  threatens  punifhment,  or  fome  penalty.  Thus, 
in  France,  when  an  exile  is  enjoined  not  to  return  un- 
der pain  of  death,  it  is  deemed  a  comminatory  penal- 
ty J  lince,  if  he_do  return,  it  is  not  ftriftly  executed  ; 


COM 

but  a  fecond  injunction  is  laid  on  him,  which  is  more  Coniminge* 

than  comminatory,   and,   from   the   day  of  the   date   „     H  ., 
-1,         r   ■  .     1     »i       -.1.      .  I  Comniif- 

thereot,  miports  death  without  remedy.  ^ 

COMMINGES,  a  province  of  France,  45  miles  in  ' 

length,  and  15   in  breadth;  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Gafcony,   on  the  fouth  by  Catalonia,  on   the  eaft  by  • 
Coudcraus,  and  on  the  weft  by  Bigorra.      Its  princi- 
pal trade  confifts  in  cattle,  mules,  and  corn.     St  Ber- 
trand  is  the  capital  town. 

COMMINUITON, denotes  the  breaking,  or  rather 
grinding,  a  body  to  ver)-  fmall  particles. 

COMMIRE  (John),  a  celebrated  Latin  poet,  born 
at  Amboife  in  1623',  entered  into  the  fociety  of  the 
Jtfuits,  and  taught  polite  literature  and  divinity.  He 
died  at  Paris  in  1702.  We  have  a  volume  of  his 
Latin  poems,  and  a  colleftion  of  his  pofthumous 
works.  His  odes  and  fables  are  more  particularly  ad- 
mired. 

COMMISSARY,  In  the  ecclefiaftical  law,  an  offi- 
cer of  the  bKhop,  who  exerclfes  fpiritual  jurifdiclion  in 
pkoes  of  a  dioctfe  fo  far  from  the  Ejiifeopal  fee,  that 
the  chancellor  cannot  call  the  people  to  the  bifhop's 
principal  confiftory  court,  without  giving  them  toi> 
much  inconvenicncy. 

CoMMiss.-ikr-Court,  in  Scotland,  a  court  original- 
ly conftituted  by  the  bilhops  for  executing  in  their 
name  an  ufurped  jurlfditlion  ;  and  was  anciently  cal- 
led the  bijljopi's  court,  curia  Chriflianilatis,  or  confijlorial 
court.  This  court  was  modelled  by  queen  Mary  at 
the  Reformation,  and  continues  till  this  day. 

Commissary,  in  a  military  fenfe,  is  of  different 
forts.  ^4e 

CoMMissARr-Genera!  of  the  Mvjlers,  an  officer  ap- 
pointed to  mufter  the  army,  as  often  as  the  general 
thinks  proper,  in  order  to  know  the  ftrength  of  each, 
regiment  and  company,  to  receive  and  infpeft  the 
mufttr-rolls,  and  to  keep  an  exacSl  ftate  of  the  ftrength 
of  the  army. 

CoMMiiSARr  of  Horfes,  an  officer  in  the  artillery, 
appointed  to  have  the  infpeftion  of  the  artillery-horfes, 
to  fee  them  jnuftered,  aiid  to  fend  fuch  orders  as  he 

receive* 


COM 


[     214    ] 


COM 


BlaciJIcne' 
Comment, 


receives  from  the  commanding  officer  of  the  aitillery, 
by  feme  of  the  conduftors  of  horfes,  of  which  he  has 
a  certain  number  for  his  aflillants. 

CoMMiis.iRr  of  ProvlJioris,  an  officer  who  has  the 
charge  of  furniniing  the  army  with  provifions. 

Commissary  of  Stores,  an  officer  in  the  artilleiy,  who 
has  the  charge  of  all  the  llores,  for  which  he  is  ac- 
countable to  the  office  of  ordnance. 

COMMISSION,  in  common  law,  the  warrant  or 
letters  patent,  which  all  perfons  exercifing  jurifdidion 
have  to  empower  them  to  hear  or  determine  any  caufe 
or  fuit,  as  the  commiffion  of  the  judges,  iSjc. 

Commission  of  Bankruptry,  is  the  commiffion  that 
iffiies  from  the  lord  chancellor,  on  a  perfon's  becom- 
ing a  bankrupt  within  any  of  the  ftatutes,  direfted  to 
certain  commiffioners  appointed  to  examine  into  it, 
and  to  fecure  the  bankrupt's  lands  and  effeds  for  the 
fatisfaftion  of  his  creditors.  See  the  article  Bank- 
rupt. 

The  proceedings  on  a  commiffion  of  bankrupt  may 
be  divided,  i.  Into  thofe  which  affeft  the  bank- 
rupt himfeif.  2.  Into  thofe  which  afFeft  his  pro- 
perty. 

I.  As  to  thofe  ot  the  former  kind,  there  muft  in 
the  firft  place  be  a  petition  to  the  lord  chancellor  by 
one  creditor  to  the  amount  of  L.  1 00,  or  by  two  to 
the  amount  of  L.  150,  or  by  three  or  mere  to  the 
amount  of  L.  200  ;  upon  which  he  grants  a  commif- 
fion to  fuch  difcreet  perfons  as  to  liim  (hall  fccm  good, 
who  are  then  ftyled  commiffioners  of  bankrupt.  The 
petitioners,  to  prevent  malicious  applications,  muft  be 
bound  in  a  fecurity  of  L.  200,  to  make  the  party  a- 
mends,  in  cafe  they  do  not  prove  him  a  bankrupt.  And 
if,  on  the  other  hand,  they  receive  any  money  or  ef- 
feds  from  the  bankrupt,  as  a  recorapenfe  for  fuing 
out  the  commiffion,  fo  as  to  receive  more  than  their 
rateable  dividends  of  the  bankrupt's  eftate,  they  forfeit 
not  only  what  they  Ihall  have  fo  received,  but  their 
whole  debt.  When  the  commiffion  is  awarded  and  if- 
fued,  the  commiffioners  are  to  meet  at  their  o\vn  ex- 
pence,  and  to  take  an  oath  for  the  due  execution  of 
their  commiffion,  and  to  be  allo%ved  a  fum  not  exceed- 
ing 20s. far.  diem  each,  at  every  fitting.  And  no  com- 
miffion of  bankruptcy  Ihall  abate  or  be  void  on  any  de- 
mife  of  the  ciown. 

\Vlien  the  commiffioners  have  received  their  com- 
miffion, they  are  firft  to  receive  proof  of  the  perfon's 
being  a  trader,  and  having  committed  fome  aft  of 
bankruptcy;  and  then  to  declare  him  bankrupt,  if  pro- 
ved fo;  and  to  give  notice  thirreof  in  the  gazette,  and 
at  the  fame  time  to  appoint  three  meetings.  At  one 
of  thefe  meetings  an  eleftion  muft  be  made  of  af- 
fignees,  or  perfons  to  whom  the  bankrupt's  eflate  fhall 
be  affigned,  and  in  whom  it  fhall  be  vefted  for  the  be- 
nefit of  the  creditors ;  which  affignees  are  chofen  by 
the  major  part,  in  value,  of  the  creditors  who  ihall 
then  have  proved  their  debts  ;  but  may  be  originally 
appointed  by  the  commiffioners,  and  afterwards  ap- 
proved or  rejeAed  by  the  creditors  :  but  no  creditor 
fhall  be  admitted  to  vote  in  the  choice  of  affignees, 
■whofe  debt,  on  the  balance  of  accounts,  does  not 
amount  to  L.  10.  And  at  the  third  meeting  at  far- 
theft,  which  muft  be  on  the  42d  day  after  the  adver- 
tifement  in  the  gazette,  the  bankrupt,  upon  notice  al- 
fo  perfonally  ferved  upon  hiin,  or  left  at  his  ufual 


place  of  abode,  tnuft  furrender  himfeif  perfonally  to  Commif. 
the  commiffioners,  and  muft  thenceforth  in  all  refpects       "°"' 
conform  to  the  directions  of  the  ftatutes  of  bankrupt-         ' 
cy  ;  or,  in  defau't  tliereof,  fliall  be  guilty  of  felony 
without  benefit  of  clergy,  and  ftiall  fuScr  death,  and 
his  goods  and  eftate  Ihall  be  divided  among  his  credi- 
tors. 

In  cafe  the  bankrupt  abfconds,  or  is  likely  to  run 
away  between  the  time  of  the  commiffion  iftued  and 
the  laft  day  of  furrender,  he  may,  by  warrant  from 
any  judge  orjuftice  of  the  peace,  be  apprehended  and 
committed  to  the  county  gaol,  in  order  to  be  forth- 
coming to  the  commiffioners,  who  are-  alfo  empower- 
ed immediately  to  grant  a  warrant  for  feizing  his 
goods  and  papers. 

When  the  bankrupt  appears,  the  commiffioners  are 
to  examine  him  touching  all  matters  relating  to  his 
trade  and  effects.  They  may  alfo  fummon  before  them, 
and  examine,  the  bankrupt's  wife,  and  any  other  per- 
fon  whatfoever,  as  to  all  matters  relating  to  the  bank- 
rupt's affairs:  And  in  cafe  any  of  them  fliall  refufe  to 
anfwer,  or  fliall  not  anfwer  fully,  to  any  lawful  quef- 
*tion,  or  fliall  refufe  to  fubfcribe  fuch  their  examina- 
tion, the 'commiffioners  may  commit  them  to  prifon 
without  bail,  till  they  make  and  fign  a  full  anfwei  ; 
the  commiffioners  fpecifying  in  their  warrant  of  com- 
mitment the  queftion  fo  rcfufed  to  be  anfwered.  And 
any  gaoler,  permitting  fuch  perfun  to  efcape  or  go  out 
of  prifon,  ftiall  foifeit  L.  500  to  the  creditors. 

The  bankrupt,  upon  this  examination,  is  bound,  up- 
on pain  of  death,  to  make  a  full  difcovery  of  all  his 
eftate  and  effetls  as  well  in  expeftancy  as  pofleffion, 
and  how  he  has  difpofed  of  the  fame ;  together  with 
all  books  and  writings  relating  thereto:  and  is  to  de- 
liver up  all  in  his  power  to  the  commiffioners  (ex- 
cept the  n^ceflary  apparel  of  himfeif,  his  wife,  and 
his  children)  ;  or,  in  cafe  he  conceals  or  embezzles 
any  effefts  to  the  amount  of  L.  20,  or  with-holds  any 
book  or  writings,  with  intent  to  defraud  his  credi- 
tors, he  ffiall  be  guilty  of  felony  without  benefit  of 
clerg)'. 

After  the  time  allowed  the  bankrupt  for  fuch  difco- 
very is  expired,  any  other  perfon  voluntarily  difco- 
vering  any  part  of  his  eftate  before  unknown  to  the 
affignees,  ffiall  be  intillcd  to  five  per  cent,  out  of  the 
efteds  fo  difcovered,  and  fuch  farther  reward  as  the 
affignees  and  commiffioners  ffiall  think  proper.  And 
any  truftee  wilfully  concealing  the  eftate  of  any  bank- 
rupt, afttr  the  expiration  of  42  days,  (hall  forfeit 
L.  100,  and  double  the  value  of  the  eftate  concealed, 
to  the  creditors. 

Hitlierto  eveiy  thing  is  in  favour  of  the  creditors ;  • 
and  the  law  fecms  to  be  pretty  rigid  and  fevere  againft 
the  bankrupt;  but,  in  cafe  he  proves  honeft,  it  makes 
him  full  amends  for  all  this  rigour  and  feverity.  For, 
if  the  bankrupt  hath  made  an  ingenuous  difcovery, 
hath  conformed  to  the  direclions  of  the  law,  and  hath 
acted  in  all  points  to  the  fatisfatlion  of  his  creditors  ; 
and  if  they,  or  four  parts  in  five  of  them  in  number 
and  value  (but  none  of  them  creditors  for  lefs  than 
L.  20),  w^iU  fign  a  certificate  to  that  purport;  the 
commiffioners  are  then  to  authenticate  fuch  certificate 
under  their  hands  and  feals,  and  to  tranfmit  it  to  the 
lord  chancellor  :  and  he,  or  two  judges  whom  he  ffiall 
appoint,  on  oath  made  by  the  bankrupt  that  fuch  cer- 
tificate 


COM  [2 

Commlf-   tiflcate  was  'obtained  without  fraud,  may   allow   the 
'"'"•       fame  ;  or  difallow  it,  upon  caufe  fliown  by  any  of  the 
]~      »  creditors  of  the  bankrupt. 

If  no  caufe  be  lliown  to  the  contrary,  the  certifi- 
cate is  allowed  of  courfe  ;  and  then  the  bankrupt  is 
intitled  to  a  decent  and  reafonable  allowance  out  of 
liis  eff>:6ts,  for  his  future  fupport  and  maintenance, 
and  to  put  him  in  a  way  of  honeft  indullry.  This  al- 
lowance is  alfo  in  proportion  to  his  former  good  be- 
liavi(  ur,  in  the  early  difcovery  of  the  decline  of  his 
affairs,  and  thereby  giving  his  creditors  a  larger  di- 
■vidi^nd.  For  if  his  efl'efts  will  not  pay  one  half  of  his 
debts,  or  los.  in  the  pound,  he  is  left  to  the  difcretion 
of  the  commiffioners  and  afPignees,  to  have  a  compe- 
tent fmn  allowed  him,  not  exceeding  ^  per  cent.  ;  but 
if  they  pay  los.  in  the  pound,  he  is  to  be  allowed 
5  per  cent.  ;  if  12s.  and  6d.  then  yi  per  cent.  ;  and  if 
13s.  in  the  pound,  then  the  bankrupt  fiiaU  be  allow- 
ed 10  per  cent,  ;  provided  that  fuch  allowance  do  not 
in  the  firll  cafe  exceed  L.  200,  in  the  fecond  L.250, 
and  in  the  third  L.  300. 

Befides  this  allowance,  he  has  alfo  an  indemnity 
granted  him,  of  being  free  and  difcharged  for  ever 
from  all  debts  owing  by  him  at  the  time  he  became  a 
bankrupt;  even  though  judgment  fhall  have  been  ob- 
tained againft  him,  and  he  lies  in  prifon  upon  execution 
for  fuch  debts  ;  and,  for  that  among  other  purpofes, 
all  proceedings  on  commifTion  of  bankrupt,  are,  on  pe- 
tition, to  be  entered  on  record,  as  a  perpetual  bar 
againft  aftions  to  be  commenced  upon  this  account  : 
though,  in  general,  the  produttion  of  the  certificate 
properly  allowed  (hall  be  fufiicient  evidence  of  all  pre- 
vious proceedings.  Thus  the  bankrupt  becomes  a 
clear  man  again  ;  and,  by  the  afilltance  of  his  allow- 
ance and  his  own  indullry,  may  become  a  ufeful  mem- 
ber of  the  commonwealth  :  which  is  the  rather  to  be 
expefted,  as  he  cannot  be  intitled  to  thefe  benefits, 
but  by  the  teftimony  of  his  creditors  thenifelves  of 
Lis  honell  and  ingenuous  diipofition  ;  and  unlefs  his 
failures  have  been  owing  to  misfortunes,  rather  than 
to  mifconduft  and  extravagance. 

2.  As  to  the  proceedings  which  aifeft  the  bankrupt's 
property. 

By  virtue  of  the  Itatutes  before  mentioned,  all  the 
pcrfonal  eftate  and  effedts  of  the  bankrupt  are  con- 
fidered  as  veiled,  by  the  aft  of  bankruptcy,  in  the 
future  afiignees  of  his  commiffioners,  whetlier  they  be 
goods  in  aftual  poffefiion,  or  debts,  contrafts,  and  o- 
ther  chofes  in  aftion  ;  and  the  commiiTioners  by  their 
warrant  may  caufe  any  houfe  or  tenement  of  the 
bankrupt  to  be  broke  open,  in  order  to  enter  upon 
and  feize  the  fame.  And  when  the  affignees  are  cho- 
fen  or  approved  by  the  creditors,  the  comraifiioners 
are  to  alfign  every  thing  over  to  them  ;  and  the 
property  of  every  part  of  the  eftate  is  thereby  as 
fully  vefted  in  them  as  it  was  In  the  bankrupt  him- 
felf,  and  they  have  the  fame  remedies  to  recover  it. 

The  prop.rty  vetted  in  the  afiignees  is  the  whole 
that  the  bankrupt  had  in  himfelf^  at  the  time  he  com- 
mitted the  firft  aft  of  bankruptcy,  or  that  has  been 
vefted  in  him  fmce,  before  his  debts  are  fatisfied  or 
agreed  for.  Therefore  it  is  ufually  faid,  that  once  a 
bankrupt,  and  always  a  bankrupt:  by  which  is  meant, 
that  a  plain  dircft  aft  of  bankruptcy  once  committed, 
cannot  be  purged,  or  explained  away,  by  any  fubfe- 


15     ]  COM 

quent'conduft,  as  a  dubious  equivocal  aft  may  be;  but   Comniif- 
that,  if  a  conunifiiou  is  afterwards  awarded,  the  com-  ,     ^'°"'     . 
miffion  and  the  property  of  the  afiignecti  fiiall  have  a  re-  ' 

lation,  or  reference,  back  to  the  firft  and  original  aft  of 
bankruptcy.  Infomuch  that  all  tranfaftions  of  the 
bankrupt  are  from  that  time  abfolutely  null  and  void, 
either  with  regard  to  the  alienation  of  liis  property,  or 
the  receipt  of  his  debts  from  fuch  as  are  privy  to  his 
bankruptcy  ;  for  they  are  no  longer  his  property,  or 
his  debts,  but  thofe  of  the  future  affignees.  And  if  an 
execution  be  fued  out,  but  not  ferved  and  executed 
on  the  bankrupt's  effefts  till  after  the  aft  of  bank- 
ruptcy, it  is  void,  as  againft  the  afiignees.  But  the 
king  is  not  bound  by  this  fiilitious  relation,  nor  is 
within  the  ilatutes  of  bankrupts;  for  if,  after  the  aft 
of  bankruptcy  committed,  and  befoi-e,  the  afilgnment 
of  his  effefts,  and  extent  ifiiies  for  the  debt  of  the 
crown,  the  goods  are  bound  thereby.  In  France  this 
doftrine  of  relation  is  carried  to  a  very  great  length  ; 
for  there,  every  aft  of  a  merchant,  for  10  days  prece- 
dent to  the  aft  of  bankruptcy,  is  prelumed  to  be  frau- 
dulent, and  is  therefore  void.  But  with  us  the  law 
flands  upon  a  more  reafonable  footing  :  for  as  thefe 
afts  of  bankruptcy  may  fomctimes  be  fecret  to  all  but  • 

a  few,  and  it  would  be  prejudicial  to  trade  to  carry 
this  notion  to  its  utmoft  length,  it  is  provided  by  ftat. 
19  Geo.  II.  c.  32.  that  no  money  paid  by  a  bankrupt 
to  a  bonajicle,  or  real,  creditor,  in  a  courfe  of  trade, 
even  after  an  aft  of  bankruptcy  done,  ftiall  be  liable 
to  be  refunded.  Nor  by  flat,  i  Jac.  I.  c.  15.  fhall  any 
debtor  of  a  bankrupt  that  pays  him  his  debt  without 
knowing  of  his  bankruptcy,  be  liable  to  account  for  it 
again.  The  intention  of  this  relative  power  being 
only  to  reach  fraudulent  tranfaftions,  and  not  to  dil- 
trefs  the  fair  trader. 

The  pfiignees  may  purfue  any  legal  method  of  re- 
covering this  property  fo  vefted  in  them,  by  their  own 
authority;  but  cannot  commence  a  fuit  In  equity,  nor 
compound  any  debts  owing  to  the  bankrupt,  nor  refer 
any  matters  to  arbitration,  without  the  confent  of  the 
creditors,  or  the  major  part  of  them  in  value,  at  a- 
meeting  to  be  held  in  purfuance  of  notice  in  the  ga- 
zette. 

When  they  have  got  In  all  the  effefts  they  can  rea- 
fonably  hope  for,  and  reduced  them  to  ready  money, 
the  affignees  muft,  within  12  months  after  the  com- 
mlfiion  IflTued,  give  21  days  notice  to  the  creditors  of 
a  meeting  for  a  dividend  or  diftribution  ;  at  which 
time  they  muft  produce  their  accounts,  and  verify 
them  upon  oath,  if  required.  And  then  the  commif- 
fioners ihall  direft  a  dividend  to  be  made,  at  fo  much 
in  the  pound,  to  all  creditors  who  have  before  proved, 
or  fliall  then  prove,  their  debts.  This  dividend  niuil 
be  made  equally,  and  in  a  rateable  proportion,  to  all 
the  creditors,  according  to  the  quantity  of  tlieir  debts; 
no  regard  being  had  to  the  quality  of  them.  Mort- 
gages, indeed,  for  which  the  creditor  has  a  real  fecu- 
rity  in  his  own  hands,  are  entirely  fafe;  for  the  com- 
miffion  of  bankrupt  reaches  only  the  equity  of  re- 
demption. So  ar-e  alfo  perfonal  debts,  where  the  cre- 
ditor has  a  chattel  In  his  hands,  or  a  pledge  or  pawn, 
for  the  payment,  or  has  taken  the  debtoj-'s  lands  or 
goods  in  execution.  And,  upon  the  equity  of  the 
ftat.  8  An.  c.  14  (which  dircfts,  that  upoir  all  execu- 
tions of  goods  being  on  any  premlfles  dcmifed  to  a  te- 
3.  nant, 


COM 


[     216     1 


C     O     M 


Conin'.if- 

fion, 

Comniif- 

fioiicr 


nniit,  one  yeai's  rent  and  no  more  Aiall,  if  due,  be 
paid  to  t!ie  landlord)  it  iiath  alio  bctn  held,  that,  under 
a  commiffion  of  banknapt,  which  is  in  the  nature  of  a 
ilatate  execution,  tlie  landlord  fliall  be  allowed  his  ar- 
rears of  rent  to  the  fame  amount,  in  preference  to  o- 
ther  creditors,  even  though  he  hath  neglctted  to  dif- 
trein  while  the  goods  remained  on  the  premiffcs  : 
vhich  he  is  otherwife  intitlcd  to  do  for  his  entire 
rent,  be  the  quantum  what  it  may.  Cut  otherwife 
judgments  and  recognizances  (both  which  are  debts 
of  record,  and  therefore  at  other  times  have  a  pri- 
ority), and  alfo  bonds  and  obligations  by  deed  or  fpe- 
cial  inflrument  (which  are  called  debts  by  fpecialty, 
and  are  ufually  the  next  in  order),  thefe  are  all  put  on 
a  level  with  debts  by  mere  fimple  contraft,  and  all 
paid  part  jxiffti.  Nay,  fo  far  is  tliis  matter  carried, 
that,  by  the  exprefs  provifion  of  the  ftatutes,  debts 
not  due  at  the  time  of  the  dividend  made,  as  bonds 
or  notes  of  hand,  payable  at  a  future  day,  (hall  be 
paid  equally  with  the  reft,  allowing  a  difcount  or 
drawback,  in  proportion.  And  infurances,  and  obli- 
gations upon  bottomry  or  refpondcntia,  bona  JiJe, 
made  by  the  bankrupt,  though  forfeited  after  the 
commiffion  is  awarded,  fhall  be  looked  upon  in  the 
fame  light  as  debts  contracted  before  any  aCl;  of  bank- 
ruptcy. 

Within  1 8  months  after  the  commiffion  iifued,  a 
fecond  and  final  dividend  (hall  be  m.ade,  unlets  all  the 
cfTtfts  were  exhauHed  by  the  iirft.  And  if  any  fnrplus 
remains,  after  paying  every  creditor  his  full  debt,  it 
fliall  be  reftored  to  the  bankrupt.  This  is  a  cafe 
which  fometimes  happens  to  men  in  trade,  who  invo- 
luntarily, or  at  leaft  unwarily,  commit  aCls  of  bank- 
ruptcy, by  abfconding  and  the  like,  while  their  effefts 
are  more  than  fufficient  to  pay  their  creditors.  And 
if  any  fufpicious  or  malevolent  creditor  will  take  the 
advantage  of  fuch  afts,  and  fue  out  a  commiffion,  the 
bankiupt  has  no  remedy,  but  mull  quietly  fubmit  to 
the  effetls  of  his  own  imprudence  :  except  th  it,  upon 
fatisfattion  mfde  to  all  the  creditors,  the  commiffion 
.  may  be  fuperfcded.  Tiiis  cafe  may  alfo  happen  when 
a  knave  is  defn-ous  of  defrauding  his  creditors,  and  is 
compelled,  by  a-  commiffion,  to  do  them  that  juttice 
which  otherwife  he  wanted  to  evade.  And  there- 
fore, though  the  ufual  rule,  is,  that  all  intereft  on  debts 
carrying  intereft  ft'.all  ceafe  from  the  time  of  iffuing 
the  commiffion,  yet  in  cafe  of  a  furphis  left  after  pay- 
ment of  every  debt,  fuch  intereft  lliall  again  revive, 
and  be  chargeable  on  the  bankrupt  or  his  reprefenta- 
tives. 

CoMMissroff  of  Lvvary,  iffi.ies  out  of  the  court  of 
chancery,  whether  a  pcrfon  reprefented  to  be  a  luna- 
tic, be  fo  or  not.     See  Lukacy. 

Commission  oflehids,  a  court  at  Edinburgh,  which 
came  in  place  of  a  committee  of  the  Scottidi  parlia- 
ment, for  erefting  new  parifties,  and  valuing  teinds 
for  the  fupport  of  the  clergy.  It  is  vefted  in  the  Lords 
of  feffion.      See  Law,  n'' clix.  11. 

CoMMiisioN  0/J'hu:rs.     See  Officers.    • 

CoMMi'.xic'K,  in  commerce.     See  Factorage. 

COMMISSIONER,  a  perfon  authorifcd  by  com- 
miffion, letters  patent,  or  other  lawful  warrant,  to 
examine  any  matters,  or  execute  any  lawful  commif- 
f:on. 

N"  86. 


Commissioner  in  tfje  General  ^JfvmUy  of  the  church  01 
Scotland.      See  Assembly  (General). 

Commissioners  of  the  Cufioms.     See  Customs. 

Commissioners  of  Exc'fe.     See  Excise. 

Commissioners  of  the  Navy.     See  Navy. 

Lords  Commissioners  of  the  Treifury.  Sec  Trea- 
sury and  Exchequer. 

COMMISSUIIE,  a  term  ufed  by  fome  authors, 
for  the  fmall  meatufes  or  intcrftices  of  bodies  ;  or  the 
little  clefts  between  the  particles;  efpeciallv  when  thofo 
paiticles  are  broadilh  and  flat,  and  lie  cor.tiguous  to 
one  another,  like  thin  plates  or  lamella.  The  word 
literally  fignifies  a  joining,  or  connefting  of  one  thing 
to  another. 

Commissure,  in  architedlure.  Sec.  denotes  the  joint 
of  two  ftones,  or  the  application  of  the  furface  of  the 
one  to  that  of  the  other.      See  Masonry. 

Among  anatomiils,  commifiure  is  fometimes  alfo  ufed 
for  a  future  of  the  cranium  or  IkuU.      See  Suture. 

COMMITMENT,  in  criminal  law,  is  the  fending 
to  prifon  a  perfon  who  hath  teen  guilty  of  any  crime. 
This  takes  place  where  the  offence  is  not  bailable,  or 
the  party  cannot  find  bail  ;  muft  be  by  proper  war- 
rant, containing  the  caufe  of  the  commitment ;  and 
continues  till  put  an  end  to  by  the  courfe  of  law 
(fee  Trial)  ;  imprifonment  being  intended  only  for 
iate  cuftody,  and  not  fur  puniftiment  (See  ^^.rrest- 
MENT  and  Bail).  In  this  dubious  interval  between 
the  commitment  and  trial,  a  prifoner  ought  to  be  ufed 
with  the  utmoll  humanity ;  and  neither  be  loaded 
with  needlefs  letters  or  fubjefted  to  other  hardftiips 
than  fuch  as  are  abfolutely  requifite  for  the  purpofe  of 
confinement  only  :  though  what  are  fo  requifite  muft 
too  often  be  left  to  the  difcretion  of  the  gaolers  ;  who 
are  frequently  a  mercikfs  race  of  men,  and,  by  being 
converlant  in  fcenes  of  mifery,  fteeled  againft  any  ten- 
der fenfation. 

COMMITTEE,  one  or  more  perfons  to  whom  the 
confideration  or  ordering  of  a  matter  is  referred, 
either  by  fome  court,  or  by  the  confent  of  parties  to 
whom  it  belongs. 

Committee  of  Parliament,  a  certain  number  of  mem- 
bers appointed  by  the  houfe  for  the  examination  of  a 
bill,  making  a  report  of  an  inquiry,  procefs  of  the  houfe, 
&c.      See  Parliament. 

Sometimes  the  whole  houfe  is  refolvcd  into  a  com- 
mltte  ;  on  which  occalion  each  perion  has  a  right  to 
fpeak  and  reply  as  much  and  as  often  as  he  pleafes  :  an 
expedient  they  ufually  have  recourfe  to  in  extraordinaiy 
cafes,  and  where  any  thing  is  to  be  thoroughly  can- 
vafl'ed.  When  the  houfe  is  not  in  a  committee,  eacli 
gives  his  opinion  regularly,  and  is  only  allowed  to  fpeak 
once,  unlcfs  to  c:;plain  himlelf. 

The  ftandiiig  committees,  appointed  by  every  new 
parliament,  are  thofe  of  privileges  and  elections,  of 
religion,  of  grievances,  of  courts  of  juftice,  and  of 
trade;  though  only  the  former  aft. 

COMMIXTION,  in  Scots  law,  is  a  method  of  ac- 
quiring property,  by  mixing  or  blending  together  dif- 
ferent fubllances  belonging  to  diflcrent  proprietors. 
See  Lav/,  Part  III.  N-  clxil.  8. 

COINLMODATE,  Commodatum,  in  the  civil  ju- 
rifprudence,  the  loan  or  free  conceffion  of  any  thing 
moveable  or  immoveable,  for  a  certain  time,  on  con- 
2  ditioo 


COM 


[     317     1 


COM 


common. 


Conunoili-  altt'on  of  reftorinp  again  the  fome  Individual  after  a 
anus  certain  term.  The  commodate  is  a  kind  of  loan  : 
there  is  this  difference,  however,  between  a  loan  and 
a  commodate,  that  the  latter  is  gratis,  and  docs  not 
transfer  the  property  :  the  thing  mnil  be  returned  in 
cffence,  and  without  impairment  :  fo  that  things  which 
confume  by  tife  or  time  cannot  be  objefts  of  a  com- 
modate, but  of  a  loan  ;  in  regard  tliey  may  be  return- 
ed in  kind,  though  not  in  identity.  See  Law,  Part  III. 
N°  dxxiii.  8. 

COMMODIANUS  (Gazreus),  a  Ch.iflian  author 
in  the  4th  century,  who  wrote  a  work  in  Latin  verfe, 
intitled  Inftruftions  ;  the  moral  of  which  is  excellent, 
but  the  verfe  extremely  heavy.  M.  Davles  publiflied 
a  fine  edition  of  it  in  171 1,  at  the  end  of  Minucius 
Felix. 

COMMODITY,  in  a  general  fenfe,  denotes  all 
forts  of  wares  and  merchandises  wliatfoever  that  a  pcr- 
fon  deals  or  trades  in. 

Staple  CoM.MODiTiFS,  fiich  wares  and  merchandizes 
as  are  commonly  and  readily  fold  in  a  market  or  ex- 
ported abroad  ;  being  for  the  moil  part  the  proper 
produce  or  manufaflure  of  the  country. 

COMMODORE,  a  general  officer  in  the  BritiHi 
marine,  invclled  with  the  command  of  a  detachment  of 
fliips  of  war  deitined  on  any  particular  enterprlfe, 
during  which  time  he  bears  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general  in  the  army,  and  is  diHinguiihed  from  the  in- 
ferior fhips  of  his  fquadron  by  a  broad  red  pendant 
tapering  towards  the  outer  end,  and  fomctimes  fork- 
td.  I'he  word  is  corrupted  from  the  Spanilh,  comen- 
dador. 

Commodore  is  alfo  a  name  given  to  fome  felecT:  lliip 
in  a  fleet  of  merchantmen,  who  leads  the  van  in  time 
of  war,  and  caries  a  light  in  his  top  to  conduct  the  rell, 
and  keep  them  together.  He  is  always  the  oldett  cap- 
tain in  the  fleet  he  commands. 

COMMODUS  (L.  Aurelius  Antoninus),  fon  of 
M.  Antoninus,  fucceeded  his  father  in  the  Roman 
empire.  He  was  naturally  cruel  and  fond  of  indul- 
ging his  licentious  propenfilies.  He  willied  to  be  cal- 
led Hercules ;  and,  like  that  hero,  he  adorned  his 
fliouldcrs  with  a  lion's  flvin,  and  armed  his  hand  with 
a  knotted  club.  He  publicly  fought  yviih  the  gladi- 
ators, and  boalled  of  his  dexterity  in  killing  the  wild 
bealls  in  the  amphitheatre.  He  required  divine  ho- 
nours from  the  fenate,  and  they  were  granted.  He 
vas  wont  to  put  fuch  an  immenfe  quantity  of  gold 
dull  In  his  hair,  that  when  he  appeared  bare-headed  in 
the  funfliine,  his  head  glittered  as  if  furrounded  with 
fun-beams.  Martia,  one  of  his  concubines,  whofe 
death  he  had  prepared,  poifoncd  him  ;  but  as  the  poi- 
fon  did  not  quickly  operate,  he  was  ftranglcd  by  a 
wrelller.  He  died  in  the  31ft  year  of  his  age,  and 
the  13th  of  his  reign.  It  has  been  obfcrved,  that  he 
never  truded  himfelf  to  a  barber  ;  but  always  burnt 
his  beard,  in  imitation  of  the  tyrant  Dionyfius. 
A.  D.  192. 

COMMON,  Communis,  fomething  that  belongs  to 
all  alike ;  is  ow  ned  or  allowed  by  all ;  and  not  confined 
to  this  more  than  that.     In  which  fcnft,  camutan  Hands 

Vol.  V.    Part  I. 


oppofed  to  proper;;  peeutiar,  Sec.     Thus,  the  earth  is  Gjmmon, 

faid  to  be  our  common  motlier ;  in   the   firfl:  or  golden  »""--' 

age  all  things  were  in  common,  as  well  as  the  fim  and 
elements  :  the  name  animal  is  common  to  man  and  beaft  j 
that  of  fubllance  to  body  and  fpirit. 

Common,  Commiiiiia,  (i.  e.  rjiioJ  ad  omnes perlwet ) ,  in 
law,  fignifies  that  foil,  the  ufe  whereof  is  common  to  a 
paiticular  town  or  lorddu'p  ;  or  it  is  a  profit  that  a  man 
hath  in  the  land  of  another  perfon,  ufually  in  commoii 
with  others;  or  a  right  which  a  perfon  hath  to  put  his 
cattle  to  pafture  into  ground  that  is  not  his  own. 
And  there  is  not  only  common  of  pafture,  but  alfo 
common  of  pifcary,  common  of  eftovcrs,  common  of 
turbary,  &c.  And  In  all  cafes  of  common,  the  law 
doth  much  refpeft  the  cuftom  of  the  p'ace  ;  for  there 
the  rule  is,   confuctudo  loci  ejl  ohfcrvanda.     Sec  CoK- 

MONXy. 

Common  Council.     See  Council. 

Common  Law,  that  body  of  law  received  as  ruJes 
in  thefe  kingdoms,    before    any   ftatute   was    enafted 
in  parliament  to  alter  the  fame.     See  Law,  Part  II 
n=  36. 

CoMMON-PL/icE  Bool,  Is  a  rcglftcr  of  what  things 
occur,  worthy  to  be  noted,  in  the  courfe  of  a  man's 
thinking  or  iludy,  fo  difpofed  as  that  among  a  num- 
ber of  fubjefts  any  one  may  be  eafily  found.  The  ad- 
vantages of  making  a  common-place  book  are  many  : 
it  not  only  makes  a  man  read  with  accuracy  and  at- 
tention, but  induces  him  infenfibly  to  think  for  him- 
felf, provided  he  confiders  it  not  fo  much  as  a  regiiler 
of  fentiments  that  llrike  him  In  the  courfe  of  reading, 
but  as  a  regifter  of  his  own  thoughts  upon  various  fub- 
jeds.  Many  valuable  thoughts  occur  even  to  ir.eu  of 
no  extraordinary  genius.  Thefe,  without  the  afTiil- 
ance  of  a  common-place  book,  are  generally  loll 
both  to  himfelf  and  others.  There  are  various  me- 
thods of  arranging  common-place  books  ;  that  of  Mr 
I^ocke  Is  as  good  as  any  that  have  hitherto  been  con- 
trived. 

The  firft  page  of  the  book  you  intend  to  take  down 
their  common-place  in,  is  to  ferve  as  a  kind  of  index 
to  the  whole,  and  to  contain  references  to  every  place 
or  matter  therein  :  In  the  commodious  contrivance  of 
which  index,  fo  as  It  may  admit  of  a  fufficicnt  copia  or 
variety  of-^materlals,  without  any  confufion,  all  the  fe- 
cret  of  the  method  confiils. 

In  order  to  this,  the  firil  page,  as  already  mention- 
ed, or,  for  more  room,  the  two  firll  pages  that  front 
each  other,  are  t.-  be  divided,  by  parallel  lines,  into 
25  equal  parts ;  whereof  every  fifth  line  is  to  be  diltln- 
guiflied  by  its  colour  or  other  circumftance.  Thefe 
lines  are  to 'be  cut  perpendicularly  by  others,  drawn 
from  top  to  bottom;  and  in  the  fcveral  fpaces  thereof, 
the  feveral  letters  of  the  alphabet,  both  capital  and  mi- 
nufcle,  arc  to  be  duly  wrote. 

The  fomi  of  the  lines  and  dlvifions,  both  horizontal 
and  perpendicular,  with  the  manner  of  writing  the  let- 
ters therein,  will  be  conceived  from  the  following  fpe- 
clmen  ;  wherein,  what  Is  to  be  done  in  the  book  for 
all  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  Is  here  iliovvn  in  the  » 
firft  four,  ^,  B,  C,  and  JD. 


Common. 


c 

0 

M 

;   2i8 

] 

c 

0 

M 

A 
B 

a 

c 

D 

a 

e 

i 

i 

0 

0 

u 

u 

a 

a 

e    2.  3- 

e 

/ 

I 

0 

0 

u 

u 

Common, 
Conimocat. 


The  index  of  the  common-place  book  thus  formed, 
matters  are  ready  for  the  taking  down  any  thing 
therein. 

In  order  to  this,  confider  to  what  head  the  thing 
you  would  enter  is  mod  naturally  referred  ;  and  un- 
der which  one  would  be  led  to  look  f  r  fuch  a  thing  : 
in  this  head,  or  word,  regard  is  had  to  the  initial  let- 
ter, and  the  firft  vowel  that  fellows  it  ;  which  are  the 
tharafteriftic  letters  whereon  all  the  ufe  of  the  index 
depends. 

Suppofe  fe.gr.  J  I  would  enter  down  a  paffage  that 
refers  to  the  head  leaii/y-  B,  I  confider,  is  the  initial 
letter,  and  e  the  lirft  vowel  :  then,  looking  upon  the 
index  for  the  partition  B,  and  therein  the  line  e 
(which  is  the  place  for  all  words  whofe  firll  letter  is  i, 
and  full  vowel  e;  as  beauty,  lencficence,  bread,  breed- 
ing, b/eini/Jxs),  and  finding  no  numbers  already  down 
to  direft  me  to  any  page  of  the  book  where  words  of 
this  charafteviftic  have  been  entered,  I  tiun  forward 
to  the  firft  blank  page  I  find  (which,  in  a  freih  book, 
as  this  is  fuppofed  to  be,  will  be  page  id),  and  here 
write  what  I  have  occafion  for  on  the  head  bcaulj ; 
beginning  the  head  in  the  margin,  and  indenting  all 
the  other  fubfervient  lines,  that  the  head  may  Hand 
out  and  Ihow  itfelf :  this  done,  I  enter  the  page  where 
it  is  wrote,  t)/z.  2,  in  the  index  i :  the  fpace  Be;  from 
which  time,  the  clafs  be  becomes  wholly  in  pofTeffion 
of  the  2d  and  3d  pages,  which  are  configned  to  letters 
of  this  charafleriftic. 

Had  I  found  any  page  or  number  already  entered 
in  the  fpacc  B  e,  1  mutt  have  turned  to  the  page,  and 
have  wrote  my  matter  in  what  room  was  left  therein  : 
fo,  if  after  entering  the  pafiage  on  beauty,  I  fliould 
have  occafion  for  benevolence,  or  the  like,  finding  the 
number  2  already  pofrefTcd  of  the  fpace  of  this  cha- 
rafteriftic,  I  begin  the  paffage  on  benevolence  in  the 
remainder  of  the  page,  which  not  containing  the  whole, 
I  carry  it  on  to  page  3d,  which  is  alfo  for  be;  and  add 
the  number  3  in  the  index. 

Common  Pleas  is  one  of  the  king's  courts  now  held 
conftantly  in  Weftminfter-hall,  but  in  former  times  was 
moveable. 

All  civil  caufes,  as  well  real  as  perfonal,  are,  or 
were  formerly,  tried  in  this  court,  according  to  the 
ftrift  law  of  the  land.  In  perfonal  and  mixed  actions 
it  has  a  concurrent  jurifdiAion  with  the  king's  bench, 
but  has  no  cognizance  of  pitas  of  the  crown.  The 
aftions  belonging  to  the  court  of  common  pleas  come 
thither  by  original,  as  arretts  and  outlawries  ;  or  by 
privilege,  or  attachment  for  or  againft  privileged  per- 
Ibns  ;  or  out  of  inferior  courts,  not  of  record,  by  pone, 
renrdarit  accedas  ad  curiam,  writ  of  falfe  judgment,  &c. 


The  chief  judge  of  this  court  is  called  lord  chief  jujl'ice 
of  the  common  pleas,  who  is  affilled  by  three  other  judges. 
I'he  other  officers  of  the  court  are  the  cujlos  brevium, 
who  is  the  chief  clerk  ;  three  prothonotaries,  and  their 
fecondaries ;  the  clerk  of  the  warrants,  clerk  of  the 
elToins,  14  Blazers,  4  exigentors,  a  clerk  of  the  juries, 
the  chirographer,  the  clerk  of  the  king's  iilver,  clerk 
of  the  trcafury,  clerk  of  the  ftal,  clerk  of  tlie  outlaw- 
ries, clerk  of  the  inrohnent  of  fine;  and  recoveries,  and 
clerk  of  the  errors. 

CoMMON-Pra)cr  is  the  liturgy  in  tlie  church  of  Eng- 
land: (See  Liturgy.)  Clergymen  are  to  ufe  thepubhc 
form  of  prayers  prelcribed  by  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer;  and  refufing  to  do  fo,  or  ufing  any  other  pub- 
lic prayers,  are  punilliable  by  ftat.  i  Ehz.  c.  ii. 

Common,  in  grammar,  denotes  the  gender  of  nouns 
which  are  equally  applicable  to  both  fexcs:  thus,  parenf, 
"  a  parent,"  is  of  the  common  gender. 

Common,  in  geometry,  is  applied  to  an  angle,  line, 
or  the  like,  which  belongs  equally  to  two  figures. 

Common  Uivifor,  a  quantity  or  number  wliich  exadlly 
divides  two  or  more  other  quantities  or  numbers,  with- 
out leaving  any  remainder. 

COMMONALTY,  the  lower  of  the  two  divifions 
of  the  civil  ftate.      See  Cirii  State. 

The  commonalty,  liKe  the  nobility,  are  divided  into 
fevcral  degrees :  and  as  the  lords,  though  different  in 
rank,  yet  all  of  them  are  peers  in  refpect  of  their  no- 
bility ;  fo  the  commoners,  though  fome  are  greatly 
fuperior  to  others,  yet  all  are  in  law  commonalty,  in 
refpcfl  of  their  want  of  nobility. 

1.  The  firft  name  of  dignity  next  beneath  a  peer 
was  anciently  tlmt  oE  vidaii/es ,  vice-ilomini,  or  valvafors: 
who  are  mentioned  by  our  ancient  lawyers  as  viri  mag- 
Hd:  dignitatis  ;  and  Sir  Edward  Coke  fpeaks  highly  of 
them.  Yet  they  are  now  quite  out  of  ufe  ;  and  our 
legal  antiquarians  are  not  agreed  upon  even  their  ori- 
ginal or  ancient  office. 

2.  Now,  therefore,  the  firft  perfonal  dignity  after  the 
nobility  is  a  knight  of  the  order  of  St  George,  or  of 
the  garter,  firfl  inflituted  by  Edw.  III.  A.  D.   1344. 

3.  Next  (but  not  till  after  certain  official  dignities, 
as  privy-counfellors,  the  chancellors  of  the  exchequer 
and  duchy  of  Lancafter,  the  chief  juftice  of  the  king's 
bench,  the  mailer  of  the  rcll:,  and  the  other  Englilh 
judges),  follows  a  knight  iaanerct ;  who  indeed,  by 
ftatu:es  5  Richard  II.  itat.  2.  c.  4.  and  14  Richard  IL 
c.  1 1,  is  ranked  next  after  barons;  and  his  precedence 
before  the  younger  fons  of  vifcounts  was  confirmed  to 
him  by  order  of  King  James  I.  in  the  tenth  year  of  his 
reign.  But  in  order  to  intitle  him  to  this  rank,  he 
mull  have  been  created  by  the  king  in  perfun,   in  the 

field,. 


C     O     M 


[    219    T 


COM 


Commonal-ficlJ,  under  the  royal  banners,  in  time  of  open  war  ; 

'y-       elfe  he  ranks  after 
Commoner.      ^_  Baronets;  whoaie  the  next  in  order:  which  title 
is  a    dignity  of  inheritance,  created  by  letters  patent, 
and  ufually  defcendible  to  the  ilTiie-niale.     See  Baro- 
nets. 

c.  Next  follow  iiiig/jts  of  the  Bath.     See  Bath. 

6.  The  laft  of  thefe  inferior  nobility  are  hv^hts  ba- 
thelars ;  the  moR  ancient,  thongh  the  loweft,  order  of 
knighthood  amongft  ns.     See  Bachelor. 

7.  The  above,  with  thofe  enumerated  under  the  ar- 
ticle Nobility,  Sir  Edward  Coke  fays,  are  all  the 
names  oi  dignity  in  this  kingdom;  cfquires  anA  gentlemen 
being  only  names  of  •worjijip.  But  before  thefe  lad  the 
heralds  rank  all  colonels,  ferjeants  at  law,  and  dotlors 
in  the  three  learned  profcffions. 

8.  Ef quires  and  gentlemen  are  confounded  together 
by  Sir  Edward  Coke  ;  who  obferves,  that  every  ef- 
quire  is  a  gentleman,  and  a  gentleman  is  defined  to 
be  one  gm  anna  gerit,  "  who  bears  coat-armour  ;"  the 
grant  of  which  adds  gentiUty  to  a  man's  family  :  in 
like  manner  as  civil  nobility  among  the  Romans  was 
founded  in  the  jus  imagintim,  or  having  the  image  of 
one  ancellor  at  leall  who  had  borne  fome  curule  of- 
fice. It  is  indeed  a  matter  fomewhat  unfettled  what 
conftitutes  the  diftinftion,  or  who  is  a  real  efquire  ; 
for  it  is  not  an  eftate,  hov\'ever  large,  that  confers  this 
rank  upon  its  owner.  Camden,  who  was  himfelf  a 
herald,  diftinguifhes  them  the  moft  accurately;  and  he 
reckons  up  four  forts  of  them:  ift.  The  eldell  fons  of 
knights,  and  their  eldcft  fons,  in  perpetual  fuccefRon. 
2dly,  The  eldeft  fons  of  younger  fons  of  peers,  and 
their  eldeft  fons,  in  like  perpetual  fucceflion  :  both 
vhich  fpecies  of  efquires  Sir  Henry  Spelman  intltles 
crmigeri  luilalitn,  3dly,  Efquires  created  by  the  king's 
letters  patent,  or  other  inveftiture  ;  and  their  eldeft 
fons.  4thly,  Efquires  by  virtue  of  their  office  ;  as 
juftices  of  the  peace  and  others  who  bear  any  ofFue 
of  truft  under  the  crown.  To  thefe  may  be  added 
the  efquires  of  the  knights  of  the  bath,  each  of  whom 
conftitutes  three  at  his  inftallation  ;  and  all  foreign, 
tiay,  Irilh  peers;  for  not  only  thefe,  but  the  eldeft  fons 
of  peers  of  Great  Britain,  though  frequently  titular 
lords,  are  only  efquires  in  the  law,  and  mull  be  fo 
named  in  all  legal  proceedings. 

g.  As  for  gentlemen,  fays  Sir  Thomas  Smith,  they 
be  mnde  good  cheap  in  this  kingdom  :  for  whofoever 
ftudieth  the  laws  of  the  realm,  who  ttudieth  in  the  u- 
niverfities,  who  profefteth  literal  fciences,  and  (to  be 
(liort)  who  can  live  idly  and  without  manual  labour, 
anthwi'l  bear  the  part,  charge,  and  countenance  of  a 
genlhman,  he  ftiall  be  called  mailer,  and  fliall  be  taken 
for  a  gentleman. 

10.  A  yeoman  is  lie  that  hath  free  land  of  40  s.  by 
the  year ;  who  is  thereby  qualified  to  ferve  on  juries, 
vote  for  knights  of  the  ftiire,  and  do  any  other  adl 
where  the  law  requires  one  that  is  probus  et  hgal'is 
homo. 

1  I.   The  reft  of  the  commonalty  are  trade/men,  arli- 

Jicers,  and  labourers ;  who  (as  well  as  all  others)  muft,  in 

purfuance  of  the  ilatute  i  Henry  V.  c.  5.  be  ilyled  by 

the  name  and  addition  of  their  eftate,  degree,  or  niyfte- 

ry,  ill  all  aftions  and  other  legal  proceedings. 

COMMONER,  or  Gentleman-Commoner,  in 
the  uniT:rfities.  a  ftudent  entered  in  a  certain  rank. 


COMMONS,  or  House  of  Commons,  a  denomina-  Common", 
tion  given  to  the  lower  houfe  of  pailiament.    See  Par-  Comnionty. 

LIAMENT.  » 

The  commons  confift  of  all  fuch  men  of  any  pro- 
perty ill  the  kingdom  as  have  not  feats  in  the  lioufe 
of  lords,  every  one  of  whom  has  a  voice  in  parlia- 
ment, either  perfonally  or  by  liis  reprefentatives. 
In  a  free  ftate,  every  man,  who  is  fuppofed  a  free  a- 
gent,  ought  to  be  in  fome  meafure  his  own  gover- 
nor ;  and  therefore  a  branch  at  leaft  of  the  legifia- 
tive  power  ftiould  refide  in  the  whole  body  of  the 
people.  And  this  power,  when  the  territories  of  the 
ftate  are  fmall,  and  its  citizens  eafily  known,  ftiould  be 
exercifed  by  the  people  in  their  aggregate  or  collec- 
tive capacity,  as  was  wifely  ordained  in  the  petty  re- 
publics of  Greece,  and  the  firft  rudiments  of  the  Ro- 
man ftate.  But  this  will  be  highly  inconvenient  when 
the  public  territory  is  extended  to  any  confiderable 
degree,  and  the  number  of  citizens  is  increafed.  Thus 
when,  after  the  focial  war,  all  the  burghers  of  Italy 
were  admitted  free  citizens  of  Rome,  and  each  had  a 
vote  in  the  public  afteniblies,  it  became  impoftible  to 
diilinguini  the  fpurious  from  the  real  voter,  and  from 
that  time  all  cleiftions  and  popular  deliberations  grew 
tumultuoLis  and  diforderly  ;  which  paved  the  way  for 
Marius  and  Sylla,  Pompey  and  Csfar,  to  trample  on 
the  liberties  of  their  country,  and  at  laft  to  diflolve 
the  commonwealth.  In  fo  large  a  ftate  as  ours,  there- 
fore, it  is  very  wifely  contrived,  that  the  people  ftiould 
do  that  by  their  reprefentatives  which  it  is  imprac- 
ticable to  perform  in  perfon  ;  reprefentatives  chofen 
by  a  number  of  minute  and  feparate  diftridts,  where- 
in all  the  voters  are  or  may  be  eafily  diftinguifhed. 
The  counties  are  therefore  reprefented  by  knights, 
eledled  by  the  proprietors  of  lands  ;  the  cities  and  bo- 
roughs are  reprefented  by  citizens  and  burgefies,  cho- 
fen by  the  mercantile  or  fuppofed  trading  intereft  of 
the  nation  ;  inucli  in  the  fame  manner  as  the  burghers 
in  the  diet  of  Sweden  are  chofen  by  the  corporate 
towns,  Stockholm  fending  four,  as  Lor.don  dies  with 
us,  other  cities  two,  and  lome  only  one.  The  num- 
ber of  Englilh  reprefentatives  is  513,  of  Scots  45  ;  in 
all  558  ;  and  every  member,  though  chofen  by  one 
particular  diftrift,  when  elefted  and  returned,  ferves 
for  the  whole  realm  :  for  the  end  of  his  coming  thi- 
ther is  not  particular,  but  general ;  not  barely  to  ad- 
vantage his  conftituents,  but  the  commonwealth  ;  to 
advife  his  majefty,  as  appears  from  the  writ  of  fum-  ■ 
mons,  "  de  communi  confilio  fuper  negotiis  quibuf- 
dam  arduis  et  urgentibus,  regem,  ftatum,  ct  defenfio- 
nem  regni  Angliie  et  ccclefix  Anglicans  concer- 
nentibus."  And  therefore  he  is  not  bound,  like  a  de- 
puty in  the  United  Provinces,  to  confult  with,  or  take 
the  advice  of,  his  conftituents  upon  any  particular 
point,  unlefs  he  himfelf  thinks  it  proper  or  prudent  fo 
to  do. 

The  peculiar  laws  and  cnftoms  of  the  houfe  of  com- 
mons relate  principally  to  the  raifing  of  taxes,  and  the 
eleftions  of  members  to    ferve  in  parliament.       See    • 
Taxes  and  Elections. 

Doctors  Commons.     See  College  of  Civilians. 

Prudur  of  the  Commons.     See  Proctor. 

COMMONTY,  in   Scots  law,  fometimes  fignlfies 

linds   beloiigii'g    to   two   or  more  ommon    propiie- 

tors ;  fometiincd  a  heath  01  muir  though  it  ftiould  be- 

E  e  2  lon^ 


COM  [     c 

Cnmmon-  long  in  property  to  one,  if  there  has  been  a  promifcu- 

wealth     Q^g  poflVffion  upon  it  by  paflurage  ;  and  the  ail  1695, 

Commu-   mentions  commonties   belonging    in  property    to   the 

tii.n.      kincr  and   to  royal  boroughs.     See  Law,  Part  III. 

' / N'^'clxxv.   I!^. 

COMMONWEALTH.     See  Republic. 

COMMOTE,  an  ancient  tern:i  in  Wales,  denoting 
half  a  cantred,  or  hundred  ;  containing  50  villages. 
See  Hundred.  Wales  was  ancietit'y  divided  into 
three  provinces  ;  each  of  thefe  fubdividcd  into  can- 
treds,  and  every  cantred  into  two  connnnotes  or  hun- 
dreds. Sllvefter  Girald,  however,  tells  us  in  his  iti- 
nerary, that  a  commote  is  but  a  quarter  of  a  hundred. 

COMMUNES,  in  bot:u^Yi  the  name  of  a  clafs  iu 
Linnscus's  methodus  Calyrlua,  conGfting  of  two  plants 
wiiich,  like  teazel  a.nd  dandelion,  have  a  calyx  or  flow- 
er-cup cornnnon  to  many  flowers  or  florets.  Thefe 
are  tlie  aggregate  or  compound  flowers  of  other  fy- 
ftcms. 

COMMUNIBUS  i-ocis,  a  Latin  term,  in  frequent 
ufe  among  philofophical,  &c.  writers  ;  implying  lome 
medium,  or  mean  relation,  between  feveral  places. 
Dr  Keil  fuppofes  the  ocean  to  be  one  quarter  of  a  mile 
deep,  cominuniius  hcls,  q.  d.  at  a  medium,  or  taking 
one  place  with  anrther. 

CouMVUiBvs  jlniiis,  has  the  fame  import  with  re- 
gard to  years,  that  ammuniius  loc'is  has  with  regard 
to  places.  Mr  Derham  obferves  that  the  depth  of 
rain,  ccrrmunlLus  annis,  or  one  year  with  another, 
were  it  to  ftagnate  on  the  earth,  would  amount  in 
Townley  in  Lancalhire,  to  424-  inches;  at  Upminfter 
in  Effcx,  to  19-  ;  at  Zurich,  32^  ;  at  Pifa,  43I ;  and 
at  P.-iris  to  19  inches. 

COMMUNICATING,  In  theology,  the  aft  of  re- 
ceiving the  facrament  of  the  eucharift.  Thofe  of  the 
reformed,  and  of  the  Greek  church,  communicate  under 
both  kinds  ;  thofe  of  the  Romilli,  under  only  one.  The 
oriental  communicants  receive  the  fpecles  of  wine  by  a 
fpoon,  and  anciently  they  fuckvd  it  throug^h  a  pipe, 
SS  has  been  obferved  by  Beat.  Rheanus  on  Tertullian. 

COMMUNICATION,  in  a  general  fenfe,  the  ad 
of  imparting  fomething  to  another. 

Communication  is  alfo  ufed  for  the  connexion  of 
one  thing  with  another,  or  the  pafFage  from  one  place 
to  another  :  thus  a  gallery  is  a  communication  be- 
tween two  apartments. 

Communication  of  motion,  the  aft  whereby  a 
body  at  reft  is  put  into  motion  by  a  moving  body  ;  or, 
it  is  the  acceleration  of  motion  in  a  body  already  mo- 
ving. _  ;  _ 

Lines  of  Communication,  in  military  matters, 
trenches  made  to  continue  and  preferve  a  fafe  corre- 
fpondence  between  two  forts  or  poft;s  ;  or  at  a  fiege, 
between  two  approaches,  that  they  may  relieve  one 
another. 

Canal  of  Communication.     See  Canal. 

COMMUNION,  in  matters  of  religion,  the  being 
united  in  doftrine  and  difcipline  ;  in  which  fenfe  of 
the  word,  different  churches  are  faid  to  hold  commu- 
nion with  each  other. 

In  the  primitive  Chriftian  church,  every  bifhop  was 
obliged,  after  his  ordination,  to  fend  circular  letters 
to  foreign  churches,  to  fignifj'  that  he  was  in  commu- 
nion with  them.  The  three  grand  communions  into 
which  the  C'hrillian  church  is  at  prek.it  divided,  i» 


20     1  COM 

that  of  the  church  of  Rome,  the  Greek  church,  and    Cnmmu- 
the   Protcftant  church  :   but  originally  all    CiirKlians       ^'■^^'"■ 
were  in  communion  with  each  other,  having  one  com-  ' 

moil  faith  and  difcipline. 

Communion  is  alfi  ufed  for  the  aft  of  communi- 
cating the  facrament  of  the  eucharill,  or  the  Lord's 
flipper. 

The  fourth  council  of  Lnteran  decrees,  that  every 
believer  fliall  receive  the  communion,  at  Icaft,  at  Eafter; 
which  fecms  to  import  a  tacit  deure,  that  they  fliould 
do  it  oftener  ;  as,  in  efFcft,  they  did  it  much  oftener 
in  the  primitive  days.  Gratian,  and  the  malter  of  the 
fentences,  prefcribe  it  as  a  rule  for  the  laity,  to  com- 
municate three  times  a-year,  at  Ealter,  Whitfuntide, 
and  Chriltmas.  But  in  the  1 3th  ceutur^',  the  praflicc 
was  got  on  foot,  never  to  apptoach  the  cuchaiilt  ex- 
ce])t  at  Eafter  ;  and  the  council  thought  fit  to  enjoin 
it  then  by  a  law,  left  their  coldneis  and  remiiuiefj 
fhould  go  farther  ftill.  And  the  council  of  Trent  re- 
newed tlie  fame  injunction,  and  recommended  fre- 
quent communion  vvithout  enforcing  it  by  an  expref* 
decree. 

In  the  ninth  centur,',  the  communion  was  ftiU  re- 
ceived by  the  laity  in  both  kinds  ;  or,  rather,  the  fpe- 
cles of  bread  was  dipped  in  the  wine,  as  is  owned  by 
the  Romanifts  themielves.  (Afta  SS.  Benedicl:.  Saec. 
HI.)  M.  de  Marca  obferves,  that  they  received  it  at 
firft  in  their  hands,  Hift.  de  Beam,  and  believes  the 
communion  under  one  kind  alone  to  have  had  its  rife  in 
the  W^ell  under  pope  Urban  II.  in  1096,  at  the  time 
of  the  conqueft  of  the  Holy  Land.  And  it  was  more 
folemnly  enjoined  by  the  council  of  Conftance  in  1414. 
The  twenty-eighth  canon  of  the  council  of  Clermont 
enjuins  the  communion  to  be  received  under  both 
kinds,  dillinftly  ;  adding,  however,  two  exceptions  ; 
the  one  of  ncceiilty,  the  other  of  caution,  r.'tfi  ptr  mcef- 
fitatem  ef  cautelam  ;  the  firft  in  favour  of  the  fick,  the 
fecond  of  the  abftemious,  or  thofe  who  had  an  aver- 
Con  for  wine. 

It  was  formerly  a  kind  of  canonical  punifhment,  for 
clerks  guilty  of  any  crime,  to  be  reduced  to  lay  commu- 
nion, i.  e.  only  to  receive  it  as  the  laity  did,  viz.  under 
one  kind. 

They  had  another  punifiiment  of  the  fame  nature, 
though  under  a  different  name,  c2X[t&  foreign  commu- 
nion;  to  which  the  canons  frequently  condemned  their 
bilhops  and  other  clerks.  This  punifhment  was  not 
any  excommunication,  or  depofition  ;  but  a  kind  of 
fufpenfion  from  the  funftion  of  the  order,  and  a  de- 
giadation  from  the  rank  they  held  in  the  church. 
It  had  its  name  becaufe  the  communion  was  only 
granted  to  the  criminal  on  the  foot  of  a  foreign  clerk, 
i.  e.  being  reduced  to  the  loweft  of  his  order,  he  took 
place  after  all  thofe  of  his  rank,  as  all  clerks,  &c.  did 
in  the  churches  to  which  they  did  not  belong.  The 
fecond  council  of  Agda  orders  every  clerk  that  abfents 
himfclf  from  the  church  to  be  reduced  to  foreign  i 
communion. 

CoM.vuNio.v  Serxice,  In   the  liturgy  of  the  church 
of  England,  the  office  for  the  adminitlration  of  the  ho- 
ly facrament,  extrafted  from  feveral  ancient  h'turgies,. 
as  thofe  of  St  Bafil,  St  Ambrofe,  &c. 

By  the  lall  rubric,  part  of  this  fervice  Is  appointed 
to  be  read  every  Sunday  and  holyday,  after  the  morn- 
iog  prayer,  even  though  there  be  no  communicants. 

COM. 


Companion ! 


COM  [     : 

Commu-  COMMUNITY,  denotes  a  fociety  of  men  livincj 
'"'y  in  tfie  lame  place,  under  the  lame  laws,  the  lame  re- 
,gulati<ins,  and  the  fame  ciilloms. 

COMMUTATION,  in  law,  the  cliange  of  a  penal- 
ty or  punidiment  from  a  greater  to  a  Icfs ;  as  when 
death  Is  cornmutcd  foi  banKhmcnt,  Sec. 

COMNENA  (Ann)  daughter  of  Alexns  Comnenus 
emperor  of  the  Eaft  ;  memorable  for  her  great  learn- 
ina;  and  virtue,  and  for  her  Hlllory  of  the  life  and  ac- 
tions of  her  lather,  which  is  highly  efteemed.  She 
flouriOied  about  the  year  Jliy.  The  hillory,  which 
is  in  tj  books,  >vas  tirtt  publiJhed  very  imperleflly  by 
Hefche'.lus  in  1610;  and  afterwards  printed  in  the 
folleftion  'of  the  Byziintine  hlllorians,  with  a  diflufe 
and  incjricft  Latin  verfu'n  by  the  Jefuit  Poffimus,  but 
with  excellent  notes  tiy  the  learned  Du  Frefne. 

COMO,  a  llrong  and  populous  town  of  Italy,  in  the 
duchy  of  Milan,  and  in  the  Comal'co,  with  a  bifliop's 
fee.  It  was  taken  by  the  Imptrialitls  in  1706,  and  is 
feated  on  a  lake  of  the  fame  name  in  E.  Long.  8.  57. 
N.  Lat.  :,5,  45. 

CoMO,  the  lake  fo  called.  Is  the  largeft  In  Italy.  It 
is  fituated  in  the  duchy  of  Milan  In  the  Comafco,  on 
the  confines  of  Swiflerland  and  the  Grifons.  It  is  US 
miles  in  circumference,  yet  is  not  above  6  miles  over 
in  any  part. 

COMORA  iflands,  lie  between  the  north  end  of  the 
ifland  of  Madagafcar  and  the  coalt  of  Zanguebar, 
from  10  to  15  degrees  fouth  latitude.  Authors  differ 
greatly  with  regard  to  their  number,  fome  fpeaking 
of  three,  others  of  five,  and  fome  of  eight  of  theie 
iflands.  They  all  abound  In  horned  cattle,  (heep,  hogs, 
and  a  variety  of  fruits  common  in  warm  countries. 
They  are  faid  alfo  to  produce  a  kind  of  rice  which 
turns  of  a  violet  colour  when  boiled.  The  mod  re- 
markable of  them,  and  which  the  Europeans  are  beft 
acquainted  with,  is  the  ifland  of  Johanna.  See  that 
article. 

COMORIN,  or  Cape  Comorin,  the  mod  foutherly 
promontory  of  the  Hither  India,  lying  north-weft  of 
the  ifland  of  Ceylon. 

COMORRA,  a  handfome  and  large  town  of  Lower 
Hungary,  and  capital  of  a  territory  of  the  fame 
came.  It  is  fo  well  fortified,  that  the  Turks  could 
never  take  it.  The  greateft  part  of  the  inliabitants 
are  Hungarians  or  Ruffians,  who  are  very  rich,  and 
are  cf  the  Greek  religion.  It  is  feated  on  the  river 
Danube,  in  the  ifland  of  Sihut.  E.  Long.  18.  25. 
N.  Lat.  47.  50. 

COMOSjE,  in  botany,  from  Coma.  An  order  of 
plants  in  the  former  editions  of  Linnacus's  Fragments 
of  a  Natural  Method,  confifting  of  the  fplked  willow 
or  fpirxa  frutex,  dropvvort,  and  greater  meadow- 
fweet.  Thefe,  though  formerly  diitinft  genera,  are 
by  Linnssus  coUefted  into  one,  under  the  name  oi fbi- 
rxa.  The  flowers  growing  in  a  head,  refemble  a  buHi, 
or  tuft  of  hair,  which  probably  gave  rife  to  the  epithet 
GomofiE. 

COMPACT,  in  phllofophy,  is  faid  of  bodies  which 
Ere  of  a  dole,  denfc,  and  heavy  tc^.ture,  with  ftw  pores, 
and  thofe  very  fmall. 

Compact,  in  a  legal  fenfe,  fignlfies  an  agreement, 
orcontraft  ftlpulsted  between  feveral  parties. 

COMPANION,  one  with  whom  a  man  frequently 
converfes.. 


M     1  COM 

As  the  human  mind  cannot  always  be  on  the  Companion 
flretch,  nor  the  hands  always  employed  in  labour,  re-  *~"~^'~~^. 
creation  becomes  both  agreeable  and  ntccfl'ary.  Of 
all  recreations,  that  of  the  company  of  a  few  chofrn 
companions  muft  be  allowed  to  be  the  moft  manly  and 
moll  improving  :  but  as  in  thofe  hours  of  recreation  wc 
are  moll  in  danger  of  being  .milled,  being  generally  at 
fuch  feafons  more  off  our  guard  than  ufual,  the  grcat- 
eit  care  flionld  be  taken  in  making  choice  of  which  to 
affociate  with  ;  for  according  to  our  choice  of  them, 
both  our  charafter  and  difpofiilon  will  receive  a  tinc- 
ture, as  waters  paffing  through  mincv;ds  partake  of 
their  tade  and  efficacy.  This  is  a  truth  fo  unlverfally 
received,  tl.at  it  is  become  a  proveib  both  in  tlie  natu- 
ral and  moral  world.  That  a  man  Is  known  by  his 
company.  As  by  chemlftry  wc  learn,  that  ililcoidant 
mlxtiires  produce  nothing  but  broil  and  fermentation 
till  one  of  them  gets  the  afcendency  of  the  reft  ;  fo 
from  fcripture  we  learn,  that  two  cannot  walk  toge- 
ther except  they  be  agreed.  From  which  we  may  fee, 
how  impoflible  it  is  for  anyone  to  be  thought  a  perfon  of 
real  goodnefs  and  integrity,  whilll  he  choofeth  for  his 
conipanlons  the  abandoned  and  licentious. 

By  herding  with  luch,  he  will  not  only  lofe  his 
charafter,  but  his  virtue  ;  for  whatever  fallacious  dl- 
llindtion  he  may  be  pleafed  to  make  between  the  men 
and  their  vices,  in  the  end  the  firtl  generally  qualifies 
the  lalt ;  and  by  ceafing  to  hate  them  he  will  foon  learn 
both  to  love  and  praflife  them.  In  Ihort,  the  fociety 
of  fenfual  men  Is  peculiarly  enfnarlng.  The  malignity 
of  their  contagion  doth  not  appear  all  at  once.  Thtir 
frolics  firft  appear  harmlefs  ;  then,  when  partaken  of, 
they  leave  a  longing  relifli  behind  them  ;  and  one  ap- 
pointment makes  way  for  another,  one  expence  leads 
on  to  a  fecond;  and  fo  time  and  fortune  aie  wafted 
away  to  very  bad  purpofe.  Then  one  appetite  craves, 
and  another  muft  be  gratified,  till  all  become  too  im- 
portunate to  be  denied  ;  which  verifier  what  the  wifeft: 
of  men  long  fince  faid,  "  That  the  beginning  of  fin  is 
like  the  breaking  forth  of  waters,  which  when  it  once 
maketh  an  entrance,  carrleth  all  before  it  with  rufliing 
impel uofity."  Some  pangs  of  removfe  may  be  felt  by 
the  infatuated  creature  on  his  firft  degeneracy,  and 
fome  faint  refolutions  againft  being  feduced  any  more  ; 
which  will  no  fooner  be  difcovered  by  thofe  leaders  to 
deftrudion,  but  all  arts  will  be  uled  to  allure  him 
back  to  bear  them  company  in  the  broad  beaten  path 
to  ruin.  Of  all  which  methods,  none  is  more  to  he 
dreaded  than  raillery  ;  for  this  is  generally  exerclfed 
with  all  its  force,  and  too  often  pioves  fatal.  An- 
other method  ufed  to  miflead  the  young  novice  not 
yet  hackneyed  in  vice,  and  no  lefs  dangerous  than  the 
other,  is  to  call  evil  good,  and  good  evil.  Luft  and  fen- 
fuality  muft  pafs  for  love  and  gallantry;  revenge  and- 
malice,  for  heroifm.  But  Utadlnefs  fl^ould  be  Ihowii,  by 
holding  fuch  pefts  of  fociety  in  derifion,  and  looking  on 
them  with  contempt;  by  appearing  unmoved  by  their 
ill  founded  banters,  and  unftung  by  their  impious 
jetts. 

Upon  the  whole,  in  order  to  efcape  the  danger 
which  attends  the  keeping  of  evil  company,  let  llior.; 
you  aflbciate  with  be  perfons  as  carefully  educated 
and  as  honeftly  difpofcd  as  yourfelf ;  of  a  good  moral. 
charaAer,  not  given  to  any  known  vice ;  whofe  lives 
are  temperate,  and  whofe  exp.ences  are  moderate  :  with 

fuch 


COM  [22 

Company,  fud,  company  as  thefe,  you  will  neiilier  get  difcredit, 
•  nor  degenerate  into  exctfs.     You    will  be   a   mutual 

check  to  eacli  other  ;  and  your  reputation  will  be  fo 
eftablifhed,  that  it  will  be  the  ambition  of  others  to  be 
admitted  members  of  your  fociety.  Seleft  thofe  for 
yoiu"  companions  who  are  men  of  good  fcnfe  and  un- 
dtftanding  ;  and,  if  pufTible,  who  excel  in  fome  art, 
fcience,  or  accompliflimeiit ;  that  fo,  in  the  courfe  of 
your  acquaintance,  your  very  hours  of  amufement  may 
contribute  to  your  improvement ;  and  for  the  moll 
part  fuch  are  open  and  communicative,  and  take  as 
much  pleafure  in  being  heard  as  you  to  be  informed. 
By  purfuing  fuch  a  conduft,  you  will  be  an  ornament 
and  ufeful  member  of  fociety. 

COMPANY,  a  coUeftive  term,  underftood  of  feve- 
ral  perfons  aflembled  together  in  the  fame  place,  or 
Vvith  the  fame  defign.  The  word  is  formed  of  the 
French  compixgnie,  and  that  of  companio,  or  companies, 
which,  Chifflet  obferves,  are  found  in  the  Salic  law, 
tit.  66.  and  arc  properly  military  words,  underftood  of 
foldiers,  who,  according  to  the  modern  phrafe,  are 
comrades  or  mefs-males,  i.  e.  lodge  together,  eat  toge- 
ther, &c.  of  the  Latin  ram  "with",  3.n&  punh  "bread." 
It  may  be  added,  that  in  fome  Greek  authors  under 
the  weftern  empire,  the  word  x»,uTa.i!t  occurs  in  the 
fenfe  of  fociety. 

Company,  in  a  familiar  or  fadiionable  fenfe,  is  ufed 
for  an  aflemblage  of  perfons  met  for  the  purpofe  of  con- 
verfation,  paftime,  or  feftivity. 

The  love  of  company  and  of  focial  pleafures  is  na- 
tural, and  attended  with  fome  of  the  fweeteft  fatisfac- 
tions  of  human  life  ;  but,  like  every  other  love,  when 
it  proceeds  beyond  the  limits  of  moderation,  it 
ceafes  to  produce  its  natural  efFeft,  and  terminates 
in  dilguftful  fatiety.  The  foundation-ftone  and  the 
pillar  on  which  we  build  the  fabric  of  our  felicity, 
mull  be  laid  in  our  own  hearts.  Amufement,  mirth, 
agreable  variety,  and  even  improvement,  may  be  fome- 
times  fought  in  the  gaiety  of  mixed  company,  and  in 
the  ufual  diverfions  of  the  world  ;  but  if  we  found 
our  general  happinefs  on  thefe,  we  fhall  do  little 
more  than  raife  callles  in  the  air,  or  build  houfes  on 
the  fand. 

To  derive  the  proper  pleafure  and  improvement  from 
company,  it  ought  to  be  fcleft,  and  to  confill  of  per- 
fons of  charafter,  rcfpedable  bota  for  their  morals  and 
their  undetftandings.  Mixed  and  undiftinguidied  fo- 
ciety tends  only  to  diffipate  our  ideas,  and  induce  a 
laxity  of  principles  and  praftice.  The  pleafure  it  af- 
fords is  of  a  coarfc,  mixed,  noify,  and  rude  kind.  In- 
deed, it  cramonly  ends  in  wearinefs  and  difguft,  as 
even  they  are  ready  to  confefs  who  yet  conllantly 
purfue  it,  as  if  their  chief  good  confilled  in  living  in  a 
crowd. 

Among  thofe,  indeed,  who  are  exempted  by  their  clr- 
cumftances  frr.in  profcfTional  ai'd  official  employments, 
and  who  profcfTcdly  devctt  theral'clves  to  a  life  of  plea- 
fure, little  ell'  r-t.ras  to  conftitutc  the  idea  of  it,  but  an 
upceafing  ficceniun  of  company,  public  or  private.  The 
drcfs,  and  other  circumftar.ces  preparatory  to  the  enjoy- 
ment of  this  pleafure,  fcarcely  leave  a  moment  for  re- 
flefticn.  Day  after  day  is  fpent  in  the  fame  toilfome 
round,  till  a  habit  is  formed,  which  renders  diiTipation 
necefT?;-':  to  cxiftence.  One  week  without  it  would  pro- 
bably induce  a  lownefs  of  fpirits,  which  might  termi- 


1 


COM 


nate  in  defpair  and  fuicidc.  When  the  mind  has  no  Company, 
anchor,  it  will  fufFer  a  kind  of  (hipwreck  ;  it  will  fink*~~~v  '^ 
in  whirlpools,  and  be  dafhed  on  rocks.  What,  indeed, 
is  life  or  its  enjoyments  without  fettled  principles,  laud- 
able purpofcs,  mental  exertions,  and  internal  comfort  ? 
It  is  merely  a  vapour,  or,  to  drop  the  language  of  figure 
on  fo  ferious  a  fubjeft,  U  is  a  ftate  worfe  than  non-entity, 
fince  itpolTenVs  a  relllefs  power  ofaftion,  produftive  of 
nothing-  but  mifcry. 

It  is  recommended,  therefore,  to  all  who  widi  to 
enjoy  their  exillence  (and  who  entertains  not  that 
Willi  ?),  that  they  (hould  acquire  a  power  not  only  of 
bearing,  but  of  taking  a  pleafure  in,  temporary  folitude. 
Every  one  mud,  indeed,  fometimes  be  alone.'  Let  him 
rot  repine  when  he  is  alone,  but  learn  to  fet  a  value  on 
the  golden  moments.  It  is  then  that  he  is  enabled  to 
ftudy  himfelf  and  the  world  around  him.  It  is  then 
that  he  has  an  opportunity  of  feeing  things  as  they  are, 
and  of  removing  the  deceitful  veil,  which  almoft  every 
thing  afTumes  in  the  bufy  fcene  of  worldly  employ- 
ments. The  loul  is  enabled  t)  retire  into  herfelf,  and 
to  exert  thole  energies  which  are  always  attended  with 
fnblime  pleafure.  She  is  enabled  to  fee  the  dependent, 
frail,  and  wretched  llate  of  man  as  the  child  of  nature  ; 
and  incited  by  her  difcovery,  to  implore  grace  and  pro- 
tcftion  from  the  Lord  of  the  unlverfe.  They,  in- 
deed, who  fly  from  folitude,  can  feldom  be  religious; 
for  religion  requires  meditation.  They  may  be  faid 
to  "  live  without  God  in  the  world  ;"  not,  it  is  true, 
from  atheillical  principles,  but  from  a  carele/Tnefs  of 
dlfpofition  ;  a  truly  deplorable  ftate,  the  confcloufn-  fs 
of  which  could  not  fail  to  cloud  the  gaiety  of  thofe  hal- 
cyon beings  who  fport  in  the  funfhine  of  unremitted 
pleafure. 

There  is  no  doubt  but  that  man  is  made  for  aflion, 
and  that  his  duties  and  pleafures  are  often  moft  nume- 
rous and  moft  important  amldft  the  bufy  hum  of  men. 
Many  vices,  and  miny  corrupt  dlfpofiilons,  have  been 
foftered  in  a  foUtaty  life.  Monkery  is  not  favourable 
to  human  nature  or  human  happinefs  ;  but  neither  is 
unlimited  dllTipation. 

In  (hort,  lei  there  be  a  f»^'eet  interchange  of  retire- 
ment and  afTociation,  of  repofe  and  aifllvlry.  A  few^ 
hours  fpent  every  day  by  the  votaries  of  pleahire  in 
ferious  meditation,  would  render  their  pleafure  pure, 
and  more  unmixed  with  mifery.  It  would  give  tliem 
knowlcdt^e,  fo  that  they  would  fee  how  far  they  might 
advance  in  their  purfuit  without  danger ;  and  refolu- 
tion,  fo  that  they  might  retreat  when  danger  approach- 
ed. It  would  teach  them  how  to  live,  a  knowledge 
which  indeed  they  think  they  poflefs  already  ;  and  it 
would  alfo  teach  them,  what  they  are  often  too  little 
folicitous  to  learn,  how  to  die. 

C0MP.INY,  in  a  commercial  Liife,  is  a  fociety  of 
merchants,  mechanics,  or  other  traders,  joined  together 
in  one  common  intereft. 

When  there  are  only  two  or  three  joined  In  this 
manner,  it  is  called  a  partnerfliip ;  the  term  company 
being  rcftrained  to  focleties  confifting  of  a  confidtrable 
num.ber  of  members,  afiociated  together  by  a  charter 
obtained  from  the  prince. 

The  mechanics  of  all  corporations,  or  towns  incor- 
porated, are  thus  cretled  into  companies,  which  have 
charters  of  privileges  and  large  immunities. 

Company  feems  more  paiticiJarly  appropriated  to 

thofe 


COM 


[     223     ] 


C     O     i\l 


Comrany.  thofe  gi-and  aflbciations  fet  on  foot  for  the  comttierce 
^~"'  of  the  remote  parts  of  the  world,  and  vcfted  by  char- 

ter with  peculiar  privileges. 

Wlien  cciiiipaiiies  do  not  trade  upon  a  joint  ftock, 
but  are  obliged  to  admit  any  perfon,  properly  qua- 
lified, upon  paying  a  certain  fine  and  agreeing  to  iub- 
mit  to  the  regulations  of  the  company,  eacli  mem- 
ber trading  upon  his  own  ftock  and  at  his  own  rilk, 
they  arc  called  Re^uL'ticA  Ccn'htin'us.  When  they  trade 
upon  a  joint  Hock,  each  member  iharing  in  the  com- 
mon profit  or  lofs  in  proportion  to  his  fliare  in  this 
ftock,  they  are  called  Joint-Jlock  Companies.  Such  com- 
panies, whether  regulated  or  joint-ftock,  fometimes 
have,  and  fometimes  have  not,  exclufive  privileges. 

However  irjuiious  companies  with  joint-ftock,  and 
incorporated  with  excluiive  privdeges,  may  at  this  time 
be  reckoned  to  the  nation  in  general,  it  is  yet  certain 
that  they  were  the  general  parent  of  all  our  foreign 
commerce  ;  private  traders  being  dilcouraged  ft^jin  ha- 
zarding their  fortunes  in  foreign  countries,  until  the 
f  method  of  traffic   had  been    firft  fettled  by  joint-ftock 

companies.  But  fince  the  tiade  of  this  kingdom  and 
the  number  of  traders  have  increaled,  and  the  methods 
of  afllirance  of  Ihipping  and  merchandize,  a.'.d  the  navi- 
gation to  all  parts  of  the  kr.ov,  n  world,  have  become  fa- 
miliar to  ui.,  thefe  companies,  in  the  opinions  of  moft 
men,  have  been  looked  upon  in  the  light  of  monopo- 
lies ;  their  privileges  have  therefore  been  lefteneu  fiom 
time  to  time,  in  order  to  favi,ur  a  f.ec  and  general 
trade  :  and  experience  r.as  ftiown,  that  the  trade  of 
the  nation  has  advanced  in  piopoition  as  monopolies 
have  been  difcouragcd.  In  ftioit,  as  all  relliictic  ns  cf 
trade  are  found  to  be  hurtful,  nothing  can  be  more 
evident,  than  that  no  company  whatloever,  whetlier 
they  trade  in  a  joint  fto  k  or  only  under  rej;ulation, 
can  he  for  the  public  good,  except  it  may  bt  ealy  for 
all  or  any  of  his  majefty's  fubjeds  to  be  admitted  into 
all  or  any  of  the  laid  companies,  at  any  tiaiL,  and  for 
a  veiy  inconllderable  fine. 

I.  REGrfLATEnCompanies  refemble,  in  every  refpcfl, 
the  corporations  of  trades,  fo  common  in  the  cities 
and  towns  of  all  the  different  countries  of  Europe;  and 
are  a  fort  of  enlarged  monopolies  of  the  fame  kind. 
As  no  inhabitant  o'f  a  town  can  exercife  an  incorpo- 
rated trade,  without  flrft  obtaining  his  freedom  in 
the  corporation  ;  fo  in  moft  cafes  no  fubjeft  of  the 
ftate  can  lawfully  carry  on  any  branch  of  foVeign  trade, 
for  which  a  regulated  company  is  cftabliftied,  without 
firft  becoming  a  member  of  that  company.      The  mo- 


der  to  confine  the  competition  to  as  fmall  a  number  Company. 
of  perfons  as  poflible,  endeavoured  to  fubjed  the  trade  —"v— ' 
to  many  burdenfume  regulations.     When  the  law  has 
rcftrained  them  fioni  doing  this,  they  have  become  al- 


together ufelefs  arid  inlignilicant. 


fo 


The  regulated  comjjanies  Jor  foreign  commerce, 
wliich  at  prefent  fubfiR  in  Great  Britain,  are.  The 
Hamburgh  Company,  I'lie  Ruliiu  Company,  the  Eaft- 
land  Company,  the  Turkey  Company,  and  the  Afri- 
can Company. 

1.  The  Ihimhurgh  Company  is  the  oldeft  trading  cfta- 
blilhment  in  the  kingdom  ;  though  not  always  known 
by  that  name,  nor  reftrained  to  thofe  narrow  bounds 
under  which  it  is  now  confined.  It  was  firft  called 
the  Company  of  mtrchants  trading  to  Calais,  HollunJ, 
Zealand,  Brabant,  and  Flanders  :  then  it  acquired  the 
general  title  of  Merchant-adventurers  of  England ;  as 
being  compofed  of  all  the  Enghih  merchants  who  tra- 
ded to  the  Low  Countries,  the  Baltic,  and  the  Ger- 
man ocean.  Laftly,  it  was  called  the  Company  of 
Merchant-adventurers  of  England  trading  to  Hamhmgh. 

This  company  was  firft  incorporated  by  Edward  I. 
in  1296;  and  eilablilhcd  again,  by  charter,   in  1406, 
under  the  reign  of  king  Henr)  IV.     It  was  afterwards 
confirmed,  and  .uigmentcd  with  divers  privileges,  by- 
many  of  his  fucceiiors.      Before  the  charter  of  Hen- 
ry IV.  all  the    Englifh   merchants  who  trafficked   out 
of  the  realm,  were  left  to  their  own  difcretion,  and 
managed   their  affairs   with  foreigners     as   might  be 
moft   for    their  refpeftive  interefts,    without  any  re- 
gard to  the  general  commerce  of  the  nation.      Henry, 
obferving  this  diforder,  endeavoured  to  remedy  it,  by 
luiiling  all  the  merchants  in  his  dominions  into  one 
body;  wherein,  without  lofing  the  liberty  of  trading 
each  for  himfelf,  they  might  be  governed  by  a  com- 
pany   dill  fubfifting  ;    and  be   fubjeti  to  regulations, 
which  fliould  fecure  the  general  intereft  ol   the  nation- 
al commerce,  w^itliout  prejudice  to  the  intereft  of  par- 
ticulars.      With   this  view,  he  granted   all   the   mer- 
chants of  his  ftates,  particulaily  thofe  of  Calais,  then 
in  his   hands,  a  power  of  aifociating  themfelves  into 
a  body  pulitic,  with  direftors  and  governors,  both  iii 
England  and  abroad  ;  to  hold  affemblies,  both  for  the 
diredion  of  bufinefs  and   the  deciding  of  controver- 
fies  among  merchants;  make  laws;  punidi  delinquents;, 
and  impofe   moderate   duties  and  taxes  on  merchan- 
dizes, and  merchants,   to  be  employed  in  the  fervice 
of  the  corporation.      Thefe  few  articles  of  the  char- 
ter of  Henry  IV.  were  afterwards    much  augmented 
nopoly  is  more  or  lefs  ftrifl:  according  as  the  terms  of    by  Henry  VII.  who  firft  gave  them  the  title  o{  Mer- 
admifiion  are  more  or  lefs  difficult  ;  and  according  as     ckant-ad%'enlurers  to  Calais,  Holland.   &c.  gave   them  a 
the  direftors  of  the  company  have  more. or  lefs  autlio-     power  of  proclaiming  and  continuing  free  fairs  at  Ca- 
rity,  or  have  it  more  or  lefs  in  their  power  to  manage     lais  ;  and  ordered,  that  to  be   reputed  a  member  of 
in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  confine  the  greater  part  of  the     the  fociety,  each  perfon  pay  twenty  marks  ilerlin»- ; 
trade  to  themfelves. and  their  particular  friends.      In     and  that  the  feveral  members  fliould  attend  the  General 
the  moft  ancient  regidated  companies  the  privileges  of    meetings,  or  courts,  appointed  by  the  direftors,  whe- 
apprenticefliip  were  the  lame  as  in  other  corporations  ;     ther  at  London,  Calais,  or  elfewiiere. 
and  intitled  the  perfon  who  had  ferved   his  time  to  a         A  petition  being  made  to  queen  Ehzabeth,  in  1^:64,. 
member  of  the  company,  to  become  himfelf  a  mem-     for  an  explanation  of  certain  articles  in  the  charter  of 
ber,  either  without  paying  any  fine,  or  upon  paying     Henry  VII.  and  a  confirmation  of  the  re.l  granted  by 
a  much  fmaller  one  than  what  was  exaded  of  other     other  kings  ;  that  princefs,  by  a  charter  of  tiie  fame 


people.  The  ufual  corporation  fpirit,  wherever  the 
law  docs  not  reftrain  it,  prevails  in  all  regulated  com- 
panies. When  they  have  been  allowed  to  aft  accord- 
ing to  their  natural  genius,  they  Iiave  always,  in  or- 


ycar,  declares,  that  to  end  all  dilputes,  they  fliall'  be 
incorporated  anew,  under  the  title  of  tlie  Company  of 
Mtrehant-adventurers  of  England;  that  all  who  were 
members  of  the  former  company  fhould,  if  they  de- 
4  •  iiied 


COM  [22 

Company,  fired  it,  be  admitted  members  of  this ;  that  they  (hould 
•  have  a  common  fcal ;  that  they  fliould  admit  into  their 
foclety  what  other  pcrfons,  and  on  what  tentis,  ihcy 
plfj'fcd,  and  expel  them  again  on  mifbchaviour  ;  that 
the  city  of  Hamburgh  and  neighbouring  cities  fliould 
be  reputed  within  their  grant,  together  with  thofe  of 
the  Low  Countries,  &c.  in  that  of  the  former  com- 
p:iny  ;  that  no  member  (hould  marr)'  out  of  the  king- 
dom, nor  purchafe  lands.  Sec.  in  any  city  beyond  fea; 
and  that  thofe  who  do,  fliall  be,  ipfo  fa&o,  excluded 
for  ever.  Twenty-two  years  after  this  lirft  charter, 
queen  Elizabeth  granted  them  a  fecond  ;  confirming 
the  former,  and  further  granting  them  a  privilege  of 
exclufion ;  with  a  power  of  erefting  in  each  city 
■within  their  grant  a  Handing  council. 

The  revolutions  which  happened  in  the  Low  Coun- 
tries towards  the  end  of  th^  fixtecnth  centuiy,  and 
■which  laid  the  foundation  of  the  republic  of  Hol- 
land, having  hindered  the  company  from  continuing 
their  commerce  with  their  ancient  freedom  ;  it  was 
obliged  to  turn  it  almoft  wholly  to  the  fide  of  Ham- 
burgh, and  the  cities  on  the  German  ocean  :  from 
which  change,  fome  people  took  occalion  to  change 
its  name  to  that  of  the  Hamburgh  Company ;  though 
the  ancient  title  of  Ahrchant-adventurcrs  is  llill  retain- 
ed in  all  their  writings. 

About  the  middle  of  the  lall  century,  the  fine  for 
admiffion  was  fifty,  and  at  one  time  one  hnndred 
pounds,  and  the  conduA  of  the  company  was  faid  to 
be  extremely  opprcffive.  In  1643,  i"  '^45'  ''"'^  '" 
1661,  the  clothiers  and  free  traders  of  the  weft  of 
England  complained  of  them  to  parliament,  as  of  mo- 
nopolills  who  confined  the  trade  and  oppreffcd  the  ma- 
nufactures of  the  countrj-.  Though  thofe  complaints 
produced  no  aCl  of  parliament,  they  had  probably  in- 
timidated the  company  fo  far,  as  to  oblige  them  to 
reform  their  conduit.  The  terms  of  admiffion  are 
now  faid  to  be  quite  eafy ;  and  the  direftors  either 
liave  it  not  in  their  power  to  fubjecl  the  trade  to  any 
burdenfome  rcflraint  or  regulations,  or  at  Itaft  have 
not  of  late  exerciftd  that  power. 

2.  T^he  Rtijfia  Company  was  firft  projefted  low-ards 
the  end  of  the  reign  of  king  Edward  VL  executed  in 
the  firft  and  fecond  years  of  Philip  and  Mary;  but  had 
not  its  perftftion  till  its  charter  was  confirmed  by  act 
of  parliament,  under  queen  Elizabeth,  in  Ij66.  It 
had  its  rife  from  certain  adventurers,  who  were  fent 
in  three  vcflTels  on  the  dlfcovery  of  new  countries;  and 
to  find  out  a  north-eaft  palTage  to  China  :  thefe,  fall- 
■ing  into  the  White  Sea,  and  making  up  to  the  port 
of  Archangel,  were  exceedingly  well  received  by  the 
Mufcovites  ;  and,  at  their  return,  folicited  letters  pa- 
tent to  fecure  to  themfelves  the  commerce  of  Ruffia, 
for  which  they  had  formed  an  alfociation. 

By  their  charter,  the  afTociation  was  declared  a  bo- 
'dy  politic,  under  the  name  of  the  Company  of  Merch- 
ant-ad-uenturers  of  England,  for  the  dfcovery  of  lands 'hr- 
ir'ilvr'ies,  ijlands,  l^c.  uninowii,  or  unfrequented.  Their 
privileges  were,  to  have  a  governor,  four  confuls,  and 
twenty-four  aflittants,  for  their  commerce  ;  for  their 
policy,  to  make  laws,  inflicl  penalties,  fend  out  Ihips 
to  make  difcoverles,  take  pofrefPion  of  them  in  the 
icing's  name,  fet  up  the  banner  royal  of  England, 
plant  them  ;  and  laftlv,  the  exclufive  privilege  of  tra- 

>'"  85.  '  5 


4    ]  COM 

ding  to  Archangel,  and  other  ports  of  Mufcovy,  not  Cotrp-iny, 
yet  frequented  by  the  Englilh.  — "y     ^ 

This  charter,  not  being  fufficiently  guarded,  was 
coiifinncd  by  parliament  in  the  eighth  yrar  of  queen 
Eliiabclh  ;  wherein  It  was  inaAed,  that  in  regard  the 
former  name  was  too  long,  they  fliould  now  be  called 
Company  of  EngUjh  Merchants  for  df covering  ne-w  trades; 
under  v\  hich  name,  they  fliould  be  capable  of  acqui- 
ring and  holding  all  kind  of  lands,  manors,  rents,  S;c. 
not  exceeding  a  hundred  marks  ^i-r  ann.  and  not  held 
of  her  majcfty;  that  no  part  of  the  continent,  ifland, 
harbour,  &c.  not  known  or  frequented  before  the  firih 
enterprize  of  the  merchants  of  their  company,  fituatcd 
to  the  north,  or  north-well,  or  north-eaft  of  London ; 
nor  any  part  of  the  continent,  iflands,  &c.  under  the 
obedience  of  the  emperor  of  RufTia,  or  in  the  coun- 
tries of  Armenia,  Media,  HjTcania,  Petfia,  or  the 
Cafpian  fea,  (hould  be  vlfited  by  any  fubjefls  of  Eng- 
land, to  exercife  any  commerce,  without  the  convent 
of  the  faid  company,  on  pain  of  confiication.  The 
faid  company  fliall  ufe  no  fhips  in  her  new  commerce 
but  thofe  of  the  nation  ;  nor  tranfport  any  cloths, 
ferges,  or  other  woollen  fluffs,  till  they  have  been 
dyed  and  prefTed.  That  In  cafe  the  company  difcon- 
tinue  of  itfelf  to  unload  commodities  in  the  road  of  tiic 
abbey  of  S.  Nicolas,  In  RulTia,  or  forae  other  port,  on 
the  north  coails  of  RufTia,  for  the  fpace  of  three  years, 
the  other  fubjcfls  of  England  fhall  be  allowed  to  traf- 
fic to  Naiva,  while  the  faid  company  difcontinues 
its  commerce  into  Ruffia,  only  uiing  Englllh  vefl'els. 

This  company  fubfifted  with  reputation  almoft  a 
whole  century,  till  the  time  of  the  civil  wars.  It  is 
faid,  the  czar  then  reigning,  hearing  of  the  murder 
of  king  Charles  I.  ordered  all  the  Englifli  in  his  ftates 
to  be  expelled  ;  which  the  Dutch  taking  the  advan- 
tage of,  fettled  in  their  room.  After  the  Reftoration, 
the  remains  of  the  company  re-eftab!i(Iied  part  of  their 
commerce  at  Archangel,  but  never  with  the  fame  fuc- 
cefs  as  before  ;  the  Ruffians  being  now  well  accullom- 
ed  to  the  Dutch  merchants  and  merchandize. 

This  company  fubtills  llill,  under  the  liireSIon  of 
a  governor,  four  confuls,  and  affidants.  By  the  lolh 
and  nth  of  William  III.  c.  6.  the  fine  fur  admiffion 
■was  reduced  to  5I. 

■5.  The  Eajlland  Company  was  incsrporated  by  queen 
Elizabeth.  Its  charter  Is  dated  in  the  year  1579.  By 
the  firil  article  the  company  Is  eredled  into  a  body  po- 
litic, under  the  title  of  the  Company  of  Lhrehants  of  the 
Enfl ;  to  confift  of  Engliihnien,  all  real  merchants,  who 
have  exercifed  the  bufinefs  thereof,  and  trafficked  thro' 
the  Sound,  before  the  year  156S,  Into  Norway,  Swe- 
den, Poland,  Livonia,  Pruffia,  Pomerania,  &c.  as  alfo 
Revel,  Coningfoerg,  Dantzick,  Copenhagen,  &c.  ex- 
cepting Narva,  Mufcovy,  and  its  dependencies.  Moft 
of  the  following  articles  grant  them  the  ufual  prero- 
gatives of  fuch  companies  ;  as  a  feal,  governor,  courts, 
laws,  &c. 

The  privileges  peculiar  to  this  company  are,  that 
none  fhall  be  admitted  a  member  who  is  already  a 
member  of  any  other  company  ;  nor  any  retail-dealer 
at  all.  That  no  merchant  qualified  be  admitted  with- 
out paying  fix  pounds  thirteen  Ihillings  and  fix-pence. 
That  a  member  of  another  company,  defiring  to  re- 
nounce the  privileges  thereof,  ami  to  be  received  into 

that 


C     O     M 


I      225     ] 


C     O     M 


company,  that  of  the  Ea(l,  (hall  be  admitted  jra.'iV;  provided  he 
"~"v-~—  procures  ihe  fame  favour  for  a  merchant  of  the  Eaft 
willing  to  fill  his  plaee.  That  the  merchant-adven- 
turers who  never  dealt  in  the  l'2aft,  m  the  places  ex- 
preffed  in  the  charter,  may  be  received  as  members  of 
the  comnany  on  paying  forty  marks;  that,  notvvitii- 
ftanding  this  union  of  the  Adventurers  of  England 
with  the  Company  of  the  Eaft,  each  fliall  retain  its 
rights  and  privileges.  That  they  fliall  export  no 
cloths  but  what  are  dyed  and  pretTed,  except  a  hun- 
dred pieces  ^cr  aiitiiim,  which  are  allowed  ihcm  gratis. 
This  charter  was  confirmed  by  Charles  II.  in  1^29, 
with  this  addition,  that  no  perfon,  of  what  quality 
foever,  living  in  London,  (lioulJ  be  admitted  a  member, 
\inlefs  he  were  free  of  the  city.  This  company  was 
complained  of  as  a  monoj>oly,  and  firft  curtailed  by 
legal  authority  in  1672;  and  fince  the  declaration  of 
rights  in  i68y,  exift  only  in  name  ;  but  ftill  continue 
to  eleft  their  annual  ofiicers,  who  are  a  governor,  a 
deputy,  and  twenty-four  afliilants. 

^.  The  Tiirhy  or  Levant  Company,  had  its  rife  under 
queen  Elizabeth,  in  1 58 1.  James  I.  confirmed  its 
charter  in  1605,  adding  new  piiviliges.  During  the 
civil  wars,  there  happened  fome  innovations  in  the  go- 
vernment of  the  company  ;  niHiiy  perfons  having  been 
admitted  members,  not  qualified  by  the  charters  of 
queen  Elizabeth  and  king  James,  or  that  did  not  con- 
form to  the  regulations  piffcrlbed.  Charles  II.  upon 
his  reftoration,  endeavoured  to  fet  it  vipon  its  ancient 
bafis  ;  to  which  end,  he  gave  them  a  charter,  con- 
taining not  only  a  confirmation  of  their  old  one,  but 
alfo  leveral  new  articles  of  reformation.  By  this,  the 
company  is  erefted  into  a  body  politic,  capable  of 
making  laws,  &c.  under  the  title  of  the  Crmipaiiy  of 
AhrclHiiils  of  r.i'.glur.d  trcul'ing  to  ihe  feas  of  the  Le'unnt. 
The  nu\nber  of  mtmbers  is  not  limited,  but  is  ordi- 
narily about  three  hundred.  Tlie  jn-incipal  qualifi- 
cation required  is,  that  the  candidate  be  a  freeman  of 
London,  and  a  wholefale  merchant,  either  by  family  or 
by  ferving  an  '  apprentlceihip  of  feven  years.  Thofe 
under  twenty-five  years  of  age  pay  25I  fterling  at  their 
admifiion  ;  thofe  above,  twice  as  much.  This  fine 
was  reduced  by  aft  of  parliament,  in  1753,  '•°  20I. 
and  the  privilege  of  admifiion  extended  to  eveiy  Bri- 
tilh  fubject.  Each  makes  oath  at  his  entrance  not  to 
fend  any  merchandizes  to  the  Levani  but  on  his  own 
account ;  and  not  to  confign  them  to  any  but  the 
company's  agents  or  faftors.  This  reflrittion  is  like- 
wife  enlarged  by  the  above  mentioned  ftatute. 

The  company  has  a  court  or  board  at  London,  which 
is  compofed  of  a  governor,  deputy-governor,  and  fif- 
teen directors  or  afliilants;  who  are  all  aftually  to  live 
in  London  or  the  fuburbs.  They  have  alfo  a  deputy- 
governor  in  every  city  and  port,  where  there  arc  any 
members  of  the  company.  The  aflembly  at  London 
fends  out  the  vcficls,  regulates  the  tariff  for  the  price 
at  which  the  European  merchandizes  fent  to  the  Le- 
vant are  to  be  fold,  and  for  the  quality  of  thofe  return- 
ed. It  raifes  taxes  on  merchandizes,  to  defray  impo- 
filions,  and  the  common  exptnces  of  the  company  ; 
prefents  the  ambaffador  which  the  king  is  to  kripat 
the  Porte,  eltfls  two  confuls  for  Smyrna  and  Con- 
ilantinople,  &c. 

One  of  the  beft  regulations  of  the  company  is,  not 
to  leave  the  confuls,  or  even  ambafiador,  to  Jix  the  Im- 
VoL.  V.  Part  I. 


pofition  on  vefTels  for  defraying  the  common  cxpenceii  CompanT. 
(a  thing  fatal  to  the  companies  of  moft  othrr  nations)  ;  ^— v—^ 
but  to  allow  a  pcnfion  to  tin.-  ambafiador  and  confuls, 
and  even  to  the  chief  officii s,  as  fecretary,  ch;iplain, 
interpreters,  and  janizaries,  that  there  may  not  be  any 
pretence  for  their  raifingjiuy  fum  at  all  on  the  mer- 
chants or  merchandizes. 

In  extraordinary  cafes,  the  confuls,  and  even  the 
ambafiador,  have  recourfe  to  two  deputies  of  the  com- 
pany, refiding  in  the  Levant  ;  or,  if  the  affair  be  very 
important,  they  alTemble  the  whole  body.  Here  are 
regulated  the  prefents  to  be  given,  the  voyages  to  be 
made,  and  evei-y  thing  to  be  deliberated  ;  and  on  the 
refohuions  here  taken,  the  deputies  appoint  the  trca- 
furer  to  furnifh  the  moneys,  &:c.  required. 

The  ordinary  commerce  of  this  company  employs 
from  20  to  2J  vtffels,  can^ying  from  25  to  50  pieces 
of  cannon.  The  merchandizes  exported  thither  are, 
cloths  of  all  kinds  and  colours,  pewter,  lead,  pepper, 
cochineal,  and  a  great  deal  of  filver,  which  they  take 
up  at  Cadiz:  the  returns  are  in  raw  filk,  galls,  camlets, 
Wools,  cottons,  Morocco  leather,  allies  for  making 
glals  and  foap,  and  feveral  gums  and  medicinal  drus;^. 
The  commerce  to  Smyrna,  Conftantinople,  ard  Scan- 
deroon,  is  not  clleemed  much  Icfs  conliderable  than 
that  of  the  Eaft  India  company  ;  but  is,  doubtleft., 
more  advantageous  to  Britain  ;  becaufe  it  takes  off 
much  more  of  the  Britilh  manufaftures  than  the  other, 
which  is  chiefly  carried  on  in  money.  The  places  re- 
ferved  for  the  commerce  of  this  company  are,  all  the 
ftates  of  Venice,  in  the  gulph  of  Venice  ;  the  flate  of 
Ragula  ;  all  the  Hates  of  the  grand  feignior,  and  the 
ports  of  the  Ijcvant  and  Mediterranean  ;  exceptinor 
Carthagena,  Alicant,  Barcelona,  \''alencia,  Ivlarfeilles, 
Toulon,  Genoa,  Leghorn,  Civita  \'ecchia,  Palermo, 
Melllna,  Malta,  Majorca,  Minorca,  and  Corfica-;  and 
other  places  on  the  coafts  of  France,  Spain,  and 
Italy. 

5.  The  Company  of  Merchants  trading  to  Africa,  ella- 
blifhed  in  1 7  Jo.  Contrary  to  the  former  pradlice  with 
regard  to  regulated  companies,  who  were  reckoned 
unfit  for  fuch  fort  of  fcrvice,  this  company  was  fub- 
jeftcd  to  the  obligation  of  maintaining  forts  and  garri- 
fons.  It  was  exprefsly  charged  at  firit  with  the  main- 
tenance of  all  the  Britilh  foits  and  garrifons  that  lie 
between  Cape  Blanc  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and 
afterwards  with  that  of  thofe  only  vvh'cli  lie  bi.tween 
Cape  Rouge  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  adt 
which  ellablilhes  this  company  (the  23d  of  George  If. 
c.  31.)  feems  to  have  had  twodillinft  objects  in  view; 
firll,  to  reiirain  efiedlually  the  oppreflive  and  monopo- 
lizing fpirit  which  is  natural  to  the  direftors  of  a  regu- 
lated company;  and,  fccondly,  to  force  them  as  much 
as  poflible  to  give  an  attention,  which  is  not  natural  to 
them,  towards  the  maintenance  of  forts  and  garri- 
fons. 

For  the  firft  of  thefe  purpofcs,  the  fine  for  admifiion 
is  limited  to  forty  fhillings.  The  company  is  pro- 
hibited fiom  trading  in  their  corporate  capacity,  or 
upon  a  joint  Hock;  from  borrowing  money  upon  ccrn- 
nion  feai,  or  from  laying  any  refliainti  upon  the  trade 
wliich  may  be  cariied  on  freely  from  all  places,  and  by 
all  peifons  being  Britifli  iubjct'ts,  and  paying  the  fine. 
The  governm.ent  is  in  a  com.mittee  of  nine  ptrfons  who 
meet  at  London, -but  who  arc  chofcn  auaually  by  ihe 
F  f  frccmo 


COM 


[    2^6    ] 


COM 


Cprrp^ny.  freemen  of  the  company  at  London,  Briilol,  anil  Li- 
*  " «"~~"  veipool ;  three  from  each  place.  No  committee-man 
can  be  continued  in  office  for  more  than  three  years 
together.  Any  committee-man  might  be  removed  by 
tlie  board  of  trade  and  plantations ;  now  by  a  com- 
mittee of  council,  after  being  heard  in  his  own  defence. 
1'he  committee  are  forbid  to  export  negroes  from 
Africa,  or  to  import  any  African  goods  into  Great 
Britain.  But  as  they  are  charged  with  the  mainte- 
nance of  forts  and  ganifons,  they  may  for  that  pnrpofe 
export  from  Great  Britain  to  Africa  goods  and  llores 
of  dilTcrent  kinds.  Out  of  the  money  which  they 
fhall  receive  from  tlie  company,  they  are  allowed  a  fum 
not  exceeding  eight  hiuidred  pounds  for  the  falarit's  of 
their  clerks  and  agents  at  London,  Briilol,  and  Livei-^ 
pool;  the  houfe-rent  of  their  office  at  London;  and 
all  other  expences  of  management,  commiflion,  and  a- 
gency,  in  England.  What  remains  of  this  fum,  after 
defraying  thofe  different  expences,  they  may  divide 
among  themfclves,  as  compenfation  for  their  trouble, 
in  what  manner  they  think- proper.  "  By  this  confti- 
tution,  it  might  have  been  expected  (Dr  Smith  ob- 
ferves),  that  the  fpirit  of  monopoly  would  have  been 
effeftually  reftrained,  and  the  firll  of  thefe  purpofts 
fufficiently  anfwered.  It  woiJd  feem,  however,  that 
it  had  not.  Though  by  the  4th  of  George  IIL  c  20. 
the  fort  of  Senegal,  with  all  its  dependencies,  had  been 
veftcd  in  the  company  of  merchants  trading  to  Africa-, 
yet  in  the  year  following  (by  the  5th  of  George  IIL 
C.44.),  not  only  Senegal  and  its  dependencies,  but  the 
whole  coaft  from  the  port  of  Sallee,  in  South  Barbary, 
to  Cape  Rouge,  was  exempted  from  the  jurifdidion  of 
that  company,  was  veiled  in  the  crown,  and  the  trade 
to  it  declared  free  to  all  his  majefty's  fubjefts.  The 
company  had  been  fufpefted  of  reftraining  the  trade, 
and  of  eftablifhing  fome  fort  of  improper  monopoly. 
It  is  not,  however,  very  eafy  to  conceive  how,  under 
the  regulations  of  the  23d  George  II.  they  could  do 
fo.  From  the  printed  debates  of  the  houfe  of  com- 
mons (not  always  the  mod  authentic  records  of  truth), 
it  appears,  however,,  that  they  have  been  accufed  of 
this.  The  members  of  the  committee  of  nine  being, 
all  merchants,  and  the  governors  and  faftors,  in  thtir 
different  forts  and  fettlements,  being  all  dependent 
upon  them,  it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  latter  might  have 
jriven  peculiar  attention  to  the  confignments  and  com- 
inifTions  of  the  former,  which  would  eftablilh  a  real 
monopoly." 

For  the  fecond  purpofe  mentioned,  the  maintenance 
of  the  forts  and  garrlfons,  an  annual  fum  has  been  al- 
lotted to  them  by  parliament,  generally  about  13,000!. 
For  the  proper  application  of  this  fum,  the  committee 
is  obliged  to  account  annually  to  the  curfitor  baron  of 
exchequer  ;  which  account  is  afterwards  to  be  laid 
before  parliament.  "  But  parliament  (continues  our 
author),  which  gives  fo  little  attention  to  the  applica- 
tion of  millions,  is  not  likely  to  give  much  to  that  of 
13,0001.  a-year  ;  and  the  curfitor  baron  of  exchequer, 
from  his  profcffion  and  education,  is  not  Jikely  to  be 
profoundly  fl:illed  in  the  proper  expence  of  forts  and 
garrifons.  The  captains  of  his  majefty's  navy,  indeed, 
or  any  other  commiffioned  ofScers,  appointed  by  the 
board  of  admiralty,  may  enquire  into  the  condition  of 
the  forts  and  garrifons,  and  report  their  obfervations 
to  that  board.     But  that  board  feems  to  have  no  di- 


rt&  jurifdii^ion  over  the  committee,  nor  any  author!.  Company; 
ty  to  correft  thofe  whofe  conduft  it  may  thus  enquire ' 
into;  and  the  captains  of  his  majelly's  navy,  belides, 
are  not  fuppofed  to  be  always  deep!)-  learned  in  the 
fcience  of  fortilication.  Removal  from  an  office,  which  - 
can  be  enjoyed  only  for  the  term  of  three  years,  and  of 
which  the  lawful  emoluments,  even  during  that  term, 
are  fo  very  fmall,  feems  to  be  the  utmoil  punifhment 
to  which  any  committee-man  is  liable  ;  for  any  fault, 
except  direft  malverfation,  or  embez'/lement  either  of 
the  public  money  or  of  that  of  the  company,  and  the 
fear  of  that  punifhment,  can  never  be  a  motive  of  fuffi- 
cient  weight  to  force  a  continual  and  careful  attention 
to  a  bufinefs  to  which  he  has  no  other  interell  to  at- 
tend. The  committee  are  accufed  of  having  fent  out 
bricks  and  ftones  from  England  for  tl'.e  reparation  of 
Cape  Coaft  C'afile  on  the  coaft  of  Guinea,  a  bufinefs 
for  which  parliament  had  fevcral  times  granted  an  ex- 
traordinary fum  of  money.  Thefe  bricks  and  ilones 
too,  which  had  thus  been  fent  upon  fo  long  a  voyage, 
were  faid  to  have  been  of  fo  bad  a  quality,  that  it  was 
neceffary  to  rebuild  from  the  foundation  the  walls 
which  had  been  repaired  with  them.  The  forts  and 
garrifons  which  lie  north  of  Cape  Rouge,  are  not  only 
mamtained  at  the  expence  of  the  flatt,  but  are  under 
the  immediate  government  Oi  the  executive  power;  and 
why  thofe  which  lie  fouth  of  that  Cape,  and  which  too 
are,  in  part  at  leail,  maintained  at  the  expence  of  the 
ftate,  fhould  be  under  a  difltrent  government,  it  feems 
not  very  eafy  even  to  imagine  a  good  reafon." 

The  above  company  fucceeded  that  called  T7:e 
Royal  African  Company,  which  traded  upon  a  joint  ftock 
with  an  excluiive  privilege.  Though  England  began 
to  trade  to  Africa  as  early  as  the  year  1536,  and  fcve- 
ral  voyages  were  made  to  Guinea  in  1588,  and  fome 
following  years,  for  the  impoi^tatlon  of  gold  and  ele- 
phants teeth,  nothing  like  a  company  was  formed  till' 
the  year  1588,  when  queen  Ehzabeth  granted  a  patent 
of  exclufive  privilege  to  certain  perfons  for  ten  years. 
In  1 618,  king  James  I.  eftabllfhed  a  company  by  char- 
ter, which  was  foon  dilfolvcd.  Another  company  was 
ercfted  by  charter  of  Charles  I.  in  1 63  I ,  which  met 
with  little  fuccefs  ;  but  the  deinand  for  negroes  in  the 
Englilh  American  plantations  increafmg,  a  third  com- 
pany was  eftablilhed  by  a  charter  granted  1662,  in 
favour  of  the  duke  of  York  ;  fecuring  to  him  the  com» 
merce  of  all  the  country,  coafts,  illands,  Jjc.  belonging 
to  the  crown  of  England,  or  not  poflefled  by  any  other 
Chriitian  prince  ;  from  Cape  Blanco  in  20°  N.  Lat.  to 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  34°  34'  S.  Lat.  The  char- 
ter was  foon  after  returned  into  the  king's  hands  by  the 
duke,  and  revoked,  by  confent  of  the  parties  affocia- 
ted  with  him  in  the  enterprize  ;  in  confequence  of 
which,  the  fourth  and  laft  exclufive  company  was  efta- 
bllfhed and  incorporated  by  letters  patent  in  1672, 
under  the  title  of  the  Royal  African  Company.  A  ca- 
pital was  foon  raifed  of  1 1 1,000  1.  and  this  new  com- 
pany improved  their  trade,  and  increafed  their  forts  ; 
but  after  the  Revolution  in  1689,  this  trade  was  laid' 
open.  In  1698,  all  private  traders  to  Africa  were 
obliged  by  ftat.  9  and  10  Will,  to  pay  ten  per  cent,  in 
order  to  affift  the  company  in  maintaining  their  forts 
and  factories.  But  notwithflanding  this  heavy  tax, 
the  company  were  ftill  unable  to  maintain  the  com- 
petition J  their  ftock  and  credit  gradually  dechned. 

La. 


C     O     M 


[     227     ] 


COM 


tJompany.  In  '  7  I  2,  tlieir  dtbts  Imd  become  fo  c^i'eat,  tluit  a  parli- 
*""%  ciilar  aft  of  parliament  was  thouglit  neccn.aiy,  both  for 

tlicir  fcciirity  and  for  that  of  their  creditors.  It  was 
enabled,  that  tlie  refokition  of  two-thirds  of  thcfe  cre- 
ditors in  number  and  vahie,  flioidd  bind  the  veil,  both 
with  regard  to  the  time  which  flioiild  be  allowed  to 
tlie  company  for  the  payment  of  their  debts,  and 
w  ith  regard  to  any  other  agreement  which  it  might  be 
thought  proper  to  make  with  them  concerning  thofe 
debts.  In  1730,  their  aftairs^  were  in  fo  great  difor- 
der,  that  they  were  altogether  incapable  of  maintain- 
ing their  forts  and  garrifons  ;  the  fole  purpofe  and  pre- 
text of  their  inftitution.  From  that  year  till  their 
final  diflTolutlon,  tlie  parliament  judged  it  neceflary  to 
allow  the  annual  fiim  of  ten  thoufand  pounds  for  that 
purpofe.  In  1732,  after  having  been  for  many  years 
lofers  by  the  trade  of  carrying  negroes  to  the  Weft 
Indies,  they  at  laft  refolved  to  give  it  up  altogether  ; 
to  fell  to  the  private  traders  to  America  the  negroes 
which  they  purehafed  upon  the  coaft  ;  and  to  employ 
their  fervants  in  a  trade  to  the  inland  parts  of  Africa 
for  gold  duft,  elephants  teeth,  dyeing  drugs,  &c.  But 
their  fuccefs  in  this  more  confined  trade  was  not  great- 
er than  in  their  former  extenfive  one.  Their  affairs 
continued  to  go  gradually  to  decline,  till  at  laft  being 
in  every  refpedt  a  bankrupt  company,  they  were  dif- 
folved  by  aft  of  parhament,  and  iheir  forts  and  gar- 
rifons vefted  in  the  prefent  Regulated  Company  of  Mer- 
chants trading  to  Africa. 

II.  Joint-Stock  Companies,  eftabliflied  either  by 
royal  charter  or  by  aft  of  parliament,  differ  in  feveral 
refpefts,  not  only  from  regulated  companies,  but  from 
pi-ivate  copartneries.  I.  In  a  private  copartneiy,  no 
partner,  without  the  confent  of  the  company,  can 
transfer  his  (liare  to  another  perfon,  or  introduce  a 
new  member  into  the  company.  Each  member,  how- 
ever, may,  upon  proper  warning,  withdraw  from  the 
copartnery,  and  demand  payment  from  them  of  his 
(hare  of  the  common  ftock.  In  a  joint-llock  company, 
on.  the  contrai'y,^no  member  can  demand  payment  of 
his  fhare  from  the  company  ;  but  each  member  can, 
without  their  confent,  transfer  his  (hare  to  another 
perfon,  and  thereby  introduce  a  new  member.  The 
value  of  a  fl\are  in  a  joj'nt-ftock  is  always  the  price 
which  it  will  bring  in  the  market  ;  and  this  may  be 
cither  girattr  or  lefs,  in  any  proportion,  than  the  fum 
which  its  owner  Hands  credited  for  in  the  ilock  of  the 
company.  2.  In  a  private  copartnery,  each  partner  is 
bound  for  the  debts  contracted  by  the  company  to  the 
whole  extent  of  his  fortune.  In  a  joint-ftock  com- 
pany, on  the  cimtrary,  each  partner  is  bound  only  to 
the  extent  of  his  ftiare. 

The  trade  of  a  joint-ftock  company  is  always  ma- 
naged by  a  court  of  direftors.  This  court  indeed  is 
frequently  fubjeft,  in  many  refpefts,  to  the  controul 
of  a  general  court  of  proprietors.  But  the  greater 
part  of  thofe  proprietors  feldom  pretend  to  underftand 
any  thing  of  the  bulinefs  of  the  company  ;  and  when 
the  fpirit  of  faction  happens  not  to  prevail  among 
them,  give  thenifelves  no  trouble  about  it,  but  receive 
contentedly  fuch  half  yearly  ux  yearly  dividend  as  the 
direftors  think  proper  to  make  to  them.  This  total 
exemption  from  trouble  and  from  rilk,  beyond  a  limi- 
ted fum,  encourages  many  people  to  become  adven- 
turers in  joint-ftock  companies,  who  would  upon  no 


account  hazard  their  fortunes  in  any  private  eopart-  Company. 

nery.      Such  companies,  therefore,  commonly  draw  to   •<~—* 

thcmfelves  much  greater  ftocks  than  any  private  co- 
partnery can  boaft  of.  The  trading  ftock  of  the 
South  Sea  company,  at  one  time,  amounted  to  upwards 
of  thirty- three  millions  eight  hundred  thoufand  pounds. 
The  direftors  of  fuch  companies,  however,  being  th;: 
managers  rather  of  other  peoples  money  than  of  their 
own,  it  cannot  well  be  expefted  that  they  (liould  watch 
over  it  with  the  fame  anxious  vigilance  with  which  the 
partners  in  a  private  copartnery  frequently  watth  over 
their  own.  Like  the  ftewards  of  a  rich  man,  they  are 
apt  to  confider  attention  to  fmall  matters  as  not  for 
their  mafter's  honour,  and  vei-y  eafdy  give  themfelves 
a  difpenfation  from  having  it.  Negligence  and  pro- 
fufion,  therefore,  muft  always  prevail,  m-ore  or  lefs,  in 
the  management  of  the  affairs  of  fuch  a  company.  It 
is  upon  this  account  that  joint-ltock  companies  for  fo- 
reign trade  have  feldom  been  able  to  maintain  the  com- 
petition againft  private  adventurers.  They  have,  ac- 
cordingly, very  feldom  fucceeded  without  an  exclufive 
privilege ;  and  frequently  have  not  fucceeded  with 
one.  Without  an  cxclufiee  privilege  they  have  com- 
monly mifmanaged  the  trade.  With  an  excluhve  pri- 
vilege they  have  both  mifmanaged  and  conhned  it. 

The  principal  joint-ftock  companies  prefently  fub- 
fifting  in  Great  Britain  are,  the  South  Sea  and  the  Eajl 
India  companies  ;  to  which  may  be  added,  though  of 
very  inferior  magnitude,  the  Hudfon's  Bay  company. 

I.  7he  South-Sea  Company.  During  the  long  war 
with  France  In  the  reign  of  queen  Anne,  the  payment 
of  the  failors  of  the  royal  navy  being  ncglefted,  they  re- 
ceived tickets  inltead  of  money,  and  were  frequently  ob- 
liged, by  their  neeeffities,  to  fell  thefe  tickets  to  avarici- 
ous men  at  a  diftount  of  40  and  fometlmes  ^o per  cent. 
By  this  and  other  means,  the  debts  of  the  nation  un- 
provided for  by  parliament,  and  which  amounted  to 
9,471,3211  fell  into  the  hands  of  thefe  ufurers.  On 
which  iVir  Harley,  at  that  time  chancellor  of  the  Ex- 
chequer, and  afterwards  earl  of  Oxford,  propofed  a 
fcheme  to  allow  the  proprietors  of  thefe  debts  and  de- 
ficlences  6/f/-  cent,  per  annum,  and  to  incorporate  them 
for  the  purpofe  of  carrying  on  a  trade  to  the  South 
Sea  ;  and  they  were  accordingly  Incorporated  under 
the  title  of  "  the  Governor  and  Company  of  Merch- 
ants of  Great  Britain  trading  to  the  South  Seas,  and 
other  parts  of  America,  and  for  encouraging  the  Filh- 
ery,"  &c. 

Though  this  company  feem  formed  for  the  fake  of 
commerce,  the  miniftry  never  thought  ferioufly,  du- 
ring the  courfe  of  the  war,  about  making  any  fettle- 
ment  on  the  coaft  of  South  America,  which  was  what 
flattered  the  expeftations  of  the  people  ;  nor  was  it 
ever  carried  into  execution  by  this  company. 

Some  other  fums  were  lent  to  the  government  in 
the  reign  of  queen  Anne,  at  6  per  cent.  In  the  third 
of  George  I.  the  intereft  of  the  whole  was  reduced  to 
5  per  cent,  and  the  company  advanced  two  millions 
more  to  the  government  at  the  fame  intereft.  By  the 
ftatute  of  the  6th  of  (korge  I.  it  was  declared,  that 
they  might  redeem  all  or  any  of  the  redeemable  na- 
tional debts  ;  in  conlideratlon  of  which,  the  company 
were  empowered  to  angnuiit  their  capital  according 
to  the  fums  they  fliould  diicharge  :  and  for  enabling 
tliem  to  raife  fuch  fums  for  purchafing  annuities,  ex- 
i   f  2  changing 


COM  [     228     1  COM 

Company,  changiiio-  for  ready  money  new  exchequer  bills,  car-  French  companies,  who  had  enjoyed  it  upon  the  fame  C  miany-. 

*~~v~~  rying  on  their  trade,  &:c.  they  might,  by  fuch  means  terms  before  them,  having  been  ruined  by   it,   they  « — ^ 

as  they  (hould  think  proper,  raife  fuch  fums  of  money  were  allowed,  as  compenfatiun,    to   fend  annually    a 
as  in  a  genend  court  of  the  company  Ihould  be  judged  fliip  of  a  certain  burden  to  ti-ade  direiitly  to  the  Spa- 
neceifaiy.       The  company  were  alfo    empowered    to  niih  Weft  Indies.     Of  the  ten  voyages  which  this  an- 
ralfe  money  on  the  contrafts,   bonds,  or  obligations  nual  fliip  was  allowed  to  make,  they  are  faid  to   have 
under  their  common  feal,  on  the  credit  of  their  capi-  gained  confiderably  by  one,  th:it  of  the   Royal  Caro- 
tal  llock.      But  if  the  fub-governor,  deputy-governor,  line  in  1731,  and  to  have  been  lofe.s,  more  or  lef:;,  by 
or  other  members  of  the  company,  (hould   purchafe  almoll:  all  the  reft.     Their  lU  fuccefs  was  imputed,  by- 
lands  or  revenues  of  the  crown  upon  account  of  the  their  fadors  and  agents,  to  the  extortion  and  op;.icr- 
corporation,  or  lend  money  by  loan  or  anticipation  on  fion  of  the   Spanifti  government  ;  but  was,  perhaps, 
any  branch  of  the  revenue,  other  than  fuch  part  only  principally  owing  to  the  profufion   and  depredations 
on  which  a  credit  of  loan  was  granted  by  parhament,  of  thofe  very  faftors  and  agtnts;  fome  of  whom  ar^ 
fuch  fub-governor,  or  other  member  of  the  company,  faid  to  have  acquired  great  fortunes  even  in  one  year, 
ihould  forfeit  treble  the  value  of  the  money  fo  lent.  In  1734,  the  company  petitioned  the  king,  that  they 
The  fatal  South  Sea  fcheme,  tranfaftcd  in  the  year  might  be  allowed  to  difpofe  of  the  trade  and  tunnage 
1-20,  was  executed  upon  the  lall  mentioned  ftatute.  of  their  annual   ftiip,   on  account  of  the  little  proiit 
The  company  had  at   lirft  fet  out  with  good  fuccefs,  which  they  made  by  it,  and  to  accept  of  fuch  cquiva- 
and  the  value  of  their  ftock,  forthefirft  five  years,  had  lent  as  they  could  obtain  from  the  king  of  Spain, 
rifenfafter  than  that  of  any  other  company;  and  his  In  1724,  this  company  had  undertaken   the  whale- 
majefty,   after  purchafing   io,00ol.  ftock,  had  conde-  fiftiery.      Of  this,  indeed,  they  had  no  mojiopoly  ;  but 
fcended  to  be  their  governor.      Things  were  in  this  ft-  as  long  as  they  carried  it  on,  no  other  Britiih  fubjecls 
tuatioii,  wlien,  taking  advantage  of  the  above  ftatute,  appear  to  have  engaged  in  it.     Of  the  eight  voyages 
the  South   Sea  bubble  was  projedled.     The  pretence  which  their  fiiips  made  to  Greenland,  they  were  gain- 
was,  to  raife   a  fund  for  carrying  on  a  trade  to  the 
South  Sea,  and  purchallng  annuities,  &c-  paid  to  the  o- 
ther  companies:  and  propofals  were  printed  and  diftribu- 
ted,  ftiowing  the  advantages  of  this  defign.     The  fum 
neceffaiy  for  carrying  it  on,  together  with  the  profits 
that  were  to  arife  from  it,   were  divided  into  a  certain 
num.ber  of  Iharcs,  or   fubfcriptions,  to  be   purchafed 
by  perfons  difpofed  to  adventure  therein.      And  the 
better  to  carry  on  the   deception,  the  direclors  enga- 
ged to  make  very  large  dividends  ;  and  actually  de 


ers  by  one,  and  lofers  by  all  the  reft.  After  their 
eighth  and  lail  voyage,  when  they  had  fold  their  ihips, 
ftores,  and  utenfils,  they  found  that  their  whole  lots, 
upon  this  branch,  capital  and  intereft  included,  a- 
niounted  to  upwards  of  L-  237,000. 

In  1722,  th's  company  petitioned  the  parliament  to 
be  allowed  to  divide  their  immenfe  capital  of  more 
than  L  33,800,000,  the  whole  of  wiiich  had  been 
lent  to  government,  into  two  equal  parts:  The  one 
half,  or  upwards  of  L.  16,900,000,  to  be  put  upon  the 


Sared,  that  every  lool.^original  ftock  would  yield  50I.  fame   footing   with  other  government   annuities,  and 

pa-  annum  ;  which  occaftoned  fo  great  a    rife  of  their  not  to  be  fubjeft  to  the  debts  contracled,  or  loffes  in- 

llock,  that  a  ftiare  of  100  1.  was   fold   for  upwards  of  currcd,  by  the  directors  of  the   company,  in  the  pro- 

800 1.     This  was  in  the  month  of  July;  but  before  fecution  of  their   mercantile  projeds  ;  the  otlier  h:Jf 

the  end  of  September  it  fell  to  150I.  by  which  midti-  to  remain,  as  before,  a  trading  ftock,  and  to  be  fub- 

tudes  were  ruined,  and  fuch  a  fcene  of  diftrefs  occa-  jed.  to  thofe  debts  and  lofTes.     The  petition  was  too 

fwned,  as  is  fcaixely  to  be  conceived.     But  the  con-  reafonable  not  to  be  granted.     In  1733,  they  again 

fequences  of  this  infamous  fcheme  are  too  well  known ;  petitioned  the  pathament,  that  three-fourths  of  their 

moft  of  the  direclors  were    feverely  fined,  to  the  lofs  trading  ftock  might  be  turned  into  annuity  ftock,  and 

of  nearly  all  their  property  ;  fome  of  them   had   no  only  one-fourth  remain   as  trading  ftock,  or  expofed 

hand  in  the  deception,   nor   gained  a   farthing  by  it ;  to  the   hazards   aiifing   from  the  bad  management  of 

but   it  was  agreed,  thty  ought  to  have  oppofed  and  their  diredlors.     Both  their  annuity  and  trading  ftocks 

prevented  it.  had,  by  this'time,been  reduced  more  than  L.  2,000,000 

The  South  Sea    company  never  had  any  forts  or  each,  by  feveral  different  payments  from  government; 

"arrlfons  to  maintain,  and  therefore  were  entirely  ex-  fo  that   this  fourth'  amounted  only  to  L.  3,662,784, 


cmpted  from  one  great  expence,  to  which  other  joint- 
llock  companies  for  foreign  trade  are  fubjeft.  But 
they  had  an  immenfe  capital  divided  among  an  im- 
menfe number  of  proprietors.  It  was  naturally  to  be 
expcded-,  thei-efore,  that  folly,  negUgence,  and  pro 


8s.  6  d.  In  1748,  all  the  demands  of  the  company 
upon  the  king  of  Spain,  in  confequence  of  the  Al- 
fiento  contratt,  were,  by  the  treaty  of  Ais-Ia-Chapelle, 
given  up  fur  what  was  fuppofed  an  equivalent.  An 
end  was  put  to  their  trade  with  the  Spanllh  Weft  In- 


fufion,  flrould  prevail  In  the  whole  management  of  their     dies,  the  remainder  of  their  trading  ftock  was  turned 


affairs. 

Their  ftock-jobbing  fpeculations  were  fucceeded  by 
mercantile  projefts,  which,  Dr  Smith  obferves,  were 
not  much  better  conduced.  The  firft  trade  which 
they  engaged  in,  was  that  of  fupplying  the  Spanifh 
Weft  Indies  with  negroes,  of  which  (in  confequence 
of  what  was  called  the  Afiiento  contrail  granted  them 
by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht)  they  had  the  exclufive  pri- 
vilege. But  as  it  was  not  expcded  that  much  piofit 
voald  be  roade  by  this  trade,  both  the  Portuguefe  and 


into  an  annuity  ftock,  and  the  company  ceafed  in  e- 
very  reipeft  to  be  a  trading  company. 

Thiscompany  is  under  the  directionof  a  governor,  fub- 
governor,  deputy  governor,  and  2  I  direSors;  but  noper- 
fon  is  quahfied  to  be  governor,  his  majefty  excepted,  un- 
Icfsfuch  governor  has,in  his  own  nameandright,L. 5000 
in  the  Iradingftock ;  the  fub-goveinor  is  to  have  L.4000, 
the  deputy-governor  L.  3000,  and  a  direftor  L.  2000, 
in  the  fame  ftrock.  In  every  general  court,  every 
member  having  in  his  own  name  and  right  L.  500  in. 

trading 


COM 


[ 


Compa;  y.  trading  (lock,  lias  oce  vote  ;  if  L.  2000  two  votes  ;  if 
'■'     *       '  L.  30CO  three  votes  ;  and  if  L.  5C00  four  votes. 

2.    The  Eajl  hiliii  Cotnpany.     The   firft,  or  as  it   is 
*  called  the  Old  Ea'l  India  Company,  was  eftabliflied  by 

a  charter  from  Q_'ieen  Elizabeth  in  1600;  but  for 
fome  lime  th«  partners  fcem  to  have  traded  with  fe- 
parate  ftocks,  though  only  in  the  Ihips  beionging  to 
the  whole  a>.npany.  In  1 6  1  2,  they  joined  ihelr  ftocks 
into  one  common  capital  ;  and  though  their  charter 
was  not  as  yet  conurmed  by  acl  of  parliament,  it  was 
looked  upon  in  that  early  period  to  be  fulhciently  va- 
lid,' and  no  body  ventured  to  interfere  with  their 
trade.  At  this  time  their  capital  amounted  to  about 
1^.740,000,  and  the  fiiares  were  as  low  as  L  50  ;  their 
trade  was  in  general  fuccefsful,  notwithtianding  fome 
htavy  loflTes,  chiefly  fuilained  through  the  malice  of  the 
Dutch  Eaft  India  company.  In  procefs  of  time, 
however,  it  came  to  be  underltood  that  a  royal  char- 
ter could  not  by  itfelf  convey  an  exclufive  privilege  to 
traders,  and  the  company  v>fas  reduced  to  diftrcls  by 
reafon  of  the  multitude  of  interlopers  who  carried  oft" 
the  moll  of  their  trade.  This  continued  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  the  whole  of 
that  of  James  II.  and  part  of  William  III.  when  in 
169.8  a  propofal  was  made  to  parliament  for  advancing 
the  fum  of  L.  2,000.000  to  government,  on  condition 
of  ere<!;\ing  the  fubfcribers  into  a  new  company  with  ex- 
clufive privileges.  The  old  company  endeavoured  to 
prevent  the  appearance  of  fuch  a  formidable  rival,  by 
offcring'government  L.  700,000,  nearly  the  amount  of 
their  capital,  at  that  time  ;  but  fuch  w-ere  the  exigen- 
cies of  the  ftate  at  that  time,  that  the  larger  fum,  tho' 
at  eight  p^  cent,  intereft,  was  preferred  to  the  finaller 
at  one  half  the  cxpence. 

Thus  were  two  Eaft  India  Companies  erefted  in 
the  fame  kingdom,  which  could  not  but  be  very  pre- 
judicial to  each  other.  Through  the  negligence  of 
thofe  who  prepared  the  aft  of  parliament  alfo,  the 
new  company  were  not  obliged  to  unite  in  a  joint-ftock. 
The  confequence  of  this  was,  that  a  few  private  trader.=, 
whofe  fubfcriptions  fcarce  exceeded  L.  7200,  infifted  on 
a  right  of  trading  feparately  at  their  own  riik.  Thus  a 
kind  of  third  com.pany  was  eftablilhcd  ;  and  by  their 
mutual  contentions  with  one  another,  all  the  three  were 
brought  to  the  brink  of  ruin.  Upon  a  iubftquent  occa- 
lion,  in  1730,  a  propofal  was  made  to  parliament  for 
putting  the  trade  under  the  management  of  a  regula- 
ted company,  and  thus  laying  it  in  fome  meafure  open. 
This,  however,  was  oppofed  by  the  company,  who  re- 
prefented  in  ftrong  terms  the  mifchiefs  likely  to  arife 
from  fuch  a  proceeding.  "  In  India  (they  faid),  it 
raifed  the  price  of  goods  fo  high,  that  they  were  not 
worth  the  buying  ;  and  in  England,  by  overftocking 
the  market,  it  funk  the  price  to  fuch  a  degree,  that 
no  profit  could  be  made  of  them."  Here  Dr  Smith 
remarks,  that  by  a  more  plentiful  fupply,  to  the  great 
advantage  and  convenicncy  of  the  public,  it  muft  have 
reduced  very  much  the  price  of  India  goods  in  the 
Englilh  markcl,  cannot  well  be  doubted  ;  but  that  it 
ftiould  have  nufed  veiy  much  their  price  in  the  Indian 
market,  feems  n(it  veiy  probable,  as  all  the  extraordi- 
nary demand  which  that  competition  could  occafion, 
muft  have  been  but  as  a  drop  of  water  in  the  immenfe 
ocean  of  Indian  commerce.  The  increafe  of  demand, 
adds  he,  though  in  the  beginning  it  may  fnmetimes 


Sm'ith*! 
H'cclti  0/ 

vol.  iii,  ji, 
Ij4. 


22g     1  CO     xM 

raife  the  price  of  goods,  never  faih  to  lower  it  in  the  Compary. 
long  run.      It  encourages  production,  and  liiereiiy  in-  »       ^ 

creafes  the  competition  of  the  producers,  iviio,  in  or- 
der to  unJerfeil  one  an<.thcr,  have  recourfe  to  new  di- 
vifions  of  kbour  and  new  improvements  of  art,  which 
might  never  otherwife  have  been  thought  of.  The 
milerable  eftecfls  of  which  the  company  ctmiplained, 
were  the  cheapnefs  of  confumptlon  and  the  encourage- 
ment given  to  produftion,  precifely  the  two  effedtij 
which  it  isthebufinels  of  political  economy  to  promote. 
The  competition,  however,  of  which  they  gave  this 
doleful  account,  had  not  been  allowed  to  continue 
long.  In  1 702  the  two  companies  were,  in  fome 
meafure,  united  by  an  indenture  tripartite,  to  v.hlch 
the  queen  was  the  third  party;  and,  in  1708,  they 
were,  by  aft  of  parliament,  perfeftly  confolidated  into 
one  company  by  their  prefcnt  name  of  The  United 
Company  of  Merchants  trading  to  the  Eaft  Indies. 
Into  this  aft  it  was  thought  worthy  to  iufert  a  claufe, 
allowing  the  fcparate  traders  to  continue  their  traffic 
till  Micliaelmas  1711,  but  at  the  fame  time  empower- 
ing the  direftors,  upon  three  years  notice,  to  redeem 
their  capital  of  L.  72CO,  and  thereby  convert  the 
whole  capital  of  the  company  into  a  joint-ftock.  By 
the  fame  aft,  the  capital  of  the  company,  in  confe 
qucnce  of  a  new  loan  to  government,  was  augmented' 
from  L.  2,oco,000  to  L.  3,200,000.  In  1743,  ano- 
ther million  was  advanced  to  government.  But  this 
being  raifed,  not  by  a  call  upon  the  proprietors,  but 
by  felling  annuities  and  contracting  bond-debts,  it  did 
not  augment  the  ftock  upon  which  the  proprietors 
could  claim  a  dividend.  Thus,  however,  their  trading 
ftock  was  augmented  ;  it  being  equallv  liable  with  the 
other  L.  3,200,000,  to  the  lofles  fuftaiued,  and  debts 
contrafted,  by  the  company  in  the  profeculion  of 
their  mercantile  projefts.  From  1708,  or  at  leaft 
from  1711,  this  company  being  freed  from  all  com- 
petitors, and  fully  ellablllhed  in  the  monopoly  of  the 
Englifh  commerce  to  the  Eaft  Indies,  carried  on  a 
fuccefsful.  trade  ;  and  from  their  profits  made  annually 
a  moderate  dividend  to  their  proprietors.  Unhappily, 
however,  in  a  ftiort  time,  an  inclination  for  war  and 
conqueft  began  to  take  place  among  thefr  fervants ; 
which,  though  it  put  them  in  pofleiiion  of  extenfive 
territories  and  vaft  nomiHal  revenues,  yet  embarraffed 
their  aftalrs  in  fuch  a  manner,  that  they  have  not  to 
this  day  been  able  to  recover  themfelves.  The  parti- 
culars of  thefe  wars  are  given  und.r  the  articles  Bri- 
tain, and  Indostan.  Here  it  will  be  fufficient  tO' 
obferve,  that  they  originated  during  the  war  in  1  741 
through  the  ambition  of  M  Dupleix  the  French  go- 
vernor of  Pondicherry,  who  involved  the  company  in 
the  politics  and  dlfputcs  of  the  Indian  princes.  Af- 
ter carrying  on  hoftillties  for  fome  time  with  various 
fuccefs,  they  at  laft  loft  Madras,  at  that  time  the  prin- 
cipal fettlemcnt  in  the  Eaft  Indies,  but  it  was  reftored 
by  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  During  the  war 
of  I  755,  they  acquired  the  revenues  of  a  rich  and  ex- 
tenfive territoiy,  amounting,  as  was  thc;i  faid,  to  near 
L.  3,000,000  per  cntnim. 

For  feveral  years  they  remained  in  quiet  pofllffion 
of  the  revenue  arlfiiig  from  this  territory,  though  it 
certainly  never  aiifwered  the  expeftjtiors  that  had 
been  formed  concerning  it.  But  In  1767  the  Brltiih 
miniftrjr  laid  claim  to  the  territorial  poffelTions  of  the 

company,. 


COM 

C  mp-ny.  company,  and  the   revenue  avifing 
'  ■      >i  I'gfit  belonging   to  the  crown  ;   and  the  company,   ra- 

.  ther   than   yield   up   their   territories   in    this  manner, 
agreed  to  pay  government  a  yearly  fum  of  L. 400,000. 
They  liad  before  this  gradually  augmented   their  divi- 
dend from  about  fix  to  ten  per  ant. ;  that  is,  on  their 
capital    of    L.  3,200,000,    they   had    raifcd    it    from 
L.  192,000  to  L.  320,000  a-year.     About  this   time 
alfo  they  were  attempting  to  raife  it  flill  further,  viz. 
from  10  to  \2i:  per  cetil.  ;  but  from  this  they  were  pre- 
vented by  two  fuccefGve  a<£ls  of  parliament,  the  defign 
of  which  was  to  enable  them    to   make  a  more  fpcedy 
payment  of  their  debts,  at  this  time  eilimated  at  more 
than  fix  or  feven  millions  Sterling.     In  1769  they  re- 
newed their  agreement  wiih  government  for  five  years 
more,  ftipulating,  that  during   the  courfe  of  that  pe- 
riod they  fhould  be  allowed  gradually  to  augment  their 
dividend  to  12^  per  cent.  ;  never  increafing  it,  howe^'^r, 
more  than  one /c;- r«;/.  annually.     Thus   their  annual 
payments  could  only  be  augmented  by  L.  6c 8,000  be- 
yond what   they  had   been   before  their  late  territorial 
acquifitions.      By   accounts   from   India    in    the   year 
1768,  this  revenue,  clear  of  all  deductions  and  military 
charges,  was  ftated  at   L. 2,048,747.     At   the  fame 
time  tl.ey  were  laid  to  poflcfs  another  revenue,  arifing 
partly  ftom  lands,  but   chiefly  from   the  cullonis  ella- 
blifhed  at   their   difRrent  fettlements,    amounting   to 
about  L. 439,000-     The   protics   of  their   trade,  too, 
according  to  the  evidence  of  their  chairman  before  the 
houle  of  coramonr,,  amounted  to  at   leait  L.  400,000 
per  annum  ;  their  accountant  made  it  L.  500,000  ;  and 
the  lowcft  account  ilated  it  at  lead  equal  to  the  high- 
ttt  dividend  paid  to  their  proprietors.     Notwithlland- 
ing   this  apparent  wealth,  however,  the  affairs  of  the 
company  from  this   time  fell  into  diforder  ;  infomuch 
that  in  1773  their  debts  were  augmented  by  an  arrear 
to  the  trc:dury  in   the  payment  of  the  L.  400,000  fti- 
pulated  ;  by  another  to  the  cuftomhoufe  for  duties  un- 
paid ;  by  a  large  fum   borrowed  from   the  bank  ;  and 
by  bills  drawn  upon   them  from    India  to  the  amount 
of  more  than  L.  1,200,000.     Thus  they  were  not  on- 
ly obliged   to   reduce  their  dividend  all  at  once  to  fix 
per  cent,  but  to  apply  to  government  for  affiitance.     A 
particular  account  of  this  tranfaftion  is  given  luider  the 
article  Britain.    Here  it  may  be  mentioned  in  general, 
that   the  event   proved  very  inifavourable  to  the  com- 
pany, as   they  were  now  fubjetted  to  an    interference 
of  government  altogether   unknown   before.      Several 
important  alterations  were  made  in   their   conltitution 
both  at  home  and  abroad.     The  fettlements  of  Madras, 
Bombay,  and  Calcutta,  which  had  hitherto  been  entirely 
independent  of  one  another,  were  iubjefted  to  a  gover- 
nor-general, affilled  by  a  council  of  four  aflelTors.      The 
nomination  of  the  firll  governor  and  council,  who  were 
to  refide  at  Calcutta,  was  afiumed  by  parliament  ;   the 
power  of  the  court  of  Calcutta,  which   had  gradually 
extended  its  jurifdiclion  over  the  rell,  was  now  redu- 
ced and  confined  to  the  trial  of  mercantile  caul'es,  the 
purpofe   for   which   it   was   originally  inftituted.      In- 
Itead  of  it  a  new  fupreme  court  of  judicature  was  efta- 
blifned,  con  filling  of  a   chief  jullice   and  three  judges 
to  be  appointed   by  the  crown.     Befides  thefe  altera- 
tions, the  ilock  neccffary  to  intitle  any  proprietor  to 
vote   at   the   general  courts  was  raifed  from  L.  500  to 
L.  icco.     To  vote  on  this  qualification,  too,  it  was 


[     230     ]  COM 

from  them,  as  of  neccfTary  that  he  (liould  have  poffcfTcd  it.  If  acquired  Cunipsry. 
by  his  own  purchafe  and  not  by  inheritance,  for  at  —— v— ^ 
Icall  one  year,  intlead  of  fix  months,  the  term  requi- 
fite  formerly.  The  court  of  24  direttora  had  before 
been  chofen  annually  ;  but  it  was  now  enacted,  that 
each  director  fiiould  for  the  future  be  cliofcn  for  four 
years  ;  fix  of  them,  however,  to  go  out  of  oflice  by 
rotation  every  year,  and  not  to  be  capable  of  being  re- 
chofen  at  tne  election  of  the  fix  new  directors  for  the 
enfuing  year.  It  was  cxpefted  that,  in  confequence  " 
of  thefe  alterations,  the  courts  both  of  the  proprie- 
tors and  directors  would  be  likely  to  adt  with  more 
dignity  and  fteadinefs  than  formerly.  But  this  was 
far  from  being  the  cafe.  The  company  and  its  fer- 
vants  (howed  the  utmoft  indifference  about  the  happi- 
nefs  or  mifery  of  the  people  who  had  the  misfortune 
to  be  fubjefted  to  their  jurildidtion.  This  indifference, 
too,  was  more  likely  to  be  increafed  than  diminlfiied 
by  fome  of  the  new  regulations.  The  houfe  of  com- 
mons, for  inftance,  had  refolved,  that  when  the 
L.  1,600,000  lent  to  the  company  by  government  fhould 
be  paid,  and  their  bond-debts  reduced  to  L.  1,500,000, 
they  might  then,  and  not  till  then,  divide  eight  ^i-r 
cent,  upon  their  capital  ;  and  that  whatever  remained 
of  their  revenues  and  nett  profits  at  home  fiiculd  be 
divided  into  four  parts  ;  three  of  them  to  be  paid  into 
the  exchequer  for  the  ufe  of  the  pubhc,  and  the  fourth 
to  be  rcferved  as  a  fund,  either  for  the  further  reduc- 
tion of  their  bond-debts,  or  for  the  difcharge  of  other 
contingent  exigencies  which  the  company  raight  la- 
bour under.  But  it  could  fcarce  be  expeifted  that,  if 
the  company  were  bad  llewards  and  bad  fovereigns 
when  the  whole  of  their  nett  revenue  and  profits  be- 
longed to  themfeUes,  they  would  be  better  when  three- 
fourths  of  thefe  belonged  to  other  people.  The  regu- 
lations of  1773,  therefore,  did  not  put  an  end  to  the 
troubles  of  the  company.  Among  other  inilitutions, 
it  had  been  at  this  time  enafted,  that  the  prefidency 
of  Bengal  fhould  have  a  fuperiority  over  the  other  prc- 
fidencies  in  the  country  ;  the  falaiy  of  the  chief  jultice 
was  fixed  at  L..S000 per  annum,  and  thofe  of  the  other 
judges  at  L..6000  each.  In  confequence  of  this  a6t. 
Sir  Elijah  Impey,  who  was  created  a  baronet  on  the 
occafion,  fet  fail,  with  three  other  judges,  for  India 
in  the  year  1774.  The  powers  with  which  they  weie 
inverted  were  very  extraordinary.  They  had  the  title 
of  His  Majeily'o  Supreme  Court  of  Judicature  in  In- 
dia. Civil  law,  common  law,  ecckliallical,  criminal, 
and  admiralty  jurifdiCtion,  belonged  of  right  to  them. 
They  were  empowered  to  try  Europeans  on  perlonal 
attions,  and  to  affefs  damages,  without  a  jury.  Every 
native,  either  diredtlyor  indirectly  in  the  fervice  of  the 
company,  or  in  their  territories,  was  made  lubjeft  to 
their  jurildiftion,  with  a  view  to  prevent  the  Euro- 
peansJrom  eluding  jultice  under  the  pretence  of  em- 
ploying natives  in  the  commiffion  of  their  criipes  ;  fo 
that  in  faCt  they  were  abfolute  lords  and  fovereigns  of 
the  whole  country. 

Such  exccfTive  and  unlimited  powers  conferred  on 
any  imall  niuiiber  of  men,  could  not  but  be  extremely 
dilagreeable  to  the  Europeans,  who  had  been  accullom- 
ed  to  enjoy  a  liberty  almoll  equally  unbounded  before ; 
nor  was  it  to  be  fuppofed  that  the  judges,  thus  fud- 
denly  raifed  from  the  rank  of  fubjedts  to  the  height  of 
defpotifm,  would  always  ufe  their  power  in  an  unexcep- 
tionable 


COM 


[     231     ] 


COM 


Company,  tlonable  manner.  The  defign  of  the  eftabllfliment  was  to 
»  prefcrve  the  commerce  and  rtvenuesof  the  company  from 
depredation,  by  fubjefting  its  fervants  to  the  controul 
of  the  court  ;  to  reheve  the  fubjeift  from  opprtflion  by 
facilitating  the  means  of  redrefs  ;  and  to  fix  a  regular 
couife  of  jiillice  for  the  fecurity  of  liberty  and  proper- 
ty. Inftead  of  confidering  the  circiimllances  of  the 
conntry,  however,  or  the  manners  and  culloms  of  the 
natives,  the  judges  now  precipiuitcly  Introduced  the 
Biitifh  laws  in  their  full  extent,  without  the  lead  mo- 
dification to  render  them  agreeable  to  the  Afiatics, 
who  had  been  accuftomcd  to  others  of  a  quite  diffe- 
rent nature  ;  nor  did  they  even  pay  the  lead  regard  to 
the  religious  Inftitutions  or  habits  to  which  the  Indians 
are  fo  obllinately  attached,  that  they  would  fooner 
part  with  life  itfelf  than  break  through  an  article  of 
them. 

Defides  this  it  was  faid,  that,  on  the  fii  ft  arrival  of  the 
judges,  they  endeavoured  to  extend  their  authority  be- 
yond even  what  the  Bi  itilh  legiflature  had  allowed  them. 
Hence  they  were  frequently  at  variance  with  the  council; 
and  complaints  of  their  cor.du<3;  were  repeatedly  fent  to 
England  by  the  fervants  of  the  company.  Thefe  pro- 
duced a  letter  in  1777  from  the  directors  to  Lord  Wey- 
mouth, fecretary  of  ilate  for  the  fouthern  department. 
Ill  this  they  dated,  that  the  fuprerae  court  of  India 
had  extended  its  jurifdiftion  to  thofe  whom  it  did  not 
appear  to  have  been  the  intention  of  the  king  or  par- 
liament to  fubjedl  to  its  authority.  It  had  alfo  taken 
cognizance  of  matters  whicli,  they  apprehended,  be- 
longed properly  to  other  courts.  That  the  judges  ccn- 
fidercd  the  criminal  law  of  England  as  in  force,  and 
binding  on  the  natives  of  Bengal,  though  utterly  re- 
pugnant to  the  laws  and  cudoms  by  which  they  had 
hitherto  been  governed  ;  and  that  the  jurifdiftion  ex- 
ereifed  by  the  fupreme  court  was  incompatible  with 
the  poweis  given  bv  parliament  to  the  governor-gene- 
ral and  council,  obdrufted  the  adminidration  of  go- 
vernment, and  tended  to  alienate  the  minds  of  the  na- 
tives ;  all  which  they  feared  would  prevent  the  eftablilh- 
ment  of  the  government  of  India  upon  any  fettled  or 
perr^anent  foundation. 

This  letter  not  having  produced  any  effeS,  the  dif- 
eontents  of  India,  both  in  the  Europeans  and  natives, 
continued  and  increafed.  The  deeifions  of  the  judges 
were  fuch  as  by  no  means  did  them  honour.  A  num- 
ber of  adventurers  had  alfo  emigrated  along  with  them, 
in  hopes  of  enriching  themfelves  under  the  new  con- 
ftitution.  Some  of  thefe  were  of  the  lowed  fort  of 
people,  who  had  rendered  it  in  a  manner  inrpoffible 
for  them  to  remain  in  England  on  account  of  their 
vices  or  extravagance.  Many  fuch  perfons  had  en- 
rolled themfelves  among  the  domeftics  of  the  judges, 
or  had  become  their  immediate  dependents ;  and 
fome  of  thefe  were  permitted  to  alTume  the  charac- 
ters of  attorneys,  court-officers,  under-dieriffs,  and 
bailiffs.  It  may  eafily  be  fuppofed,  that  people  of 
fuch  charaflers  would  find  it  for  their  intered  to  pro- 
mote fuits  in  the  fupreme  court ;  and  in  this  fome  of 
them  employed  themfelves  with  great  fuccefs.  The 
confequence  of  all  this  was,  that  on  the  4th  of  De- 
cember 1780,  a  petition  was  prefented  againd  the  fu- 
preme court  by  a  great  number  of  Britifh  inhabitants 
in  the  kingdoms  of  Bengal,  Bahar,  and  Orixa.  In 
tliis,  complaint  was  made  of  tlie  indifcriminate  man- 


ner in  which  the  judges  of  the  fupreme  court  attempt-  Compmr. 

ed  to  exercife  the  Englifh  laws  in  that  country,  at  the ''~^. 

fame  time  that  they  refufed  the  undoubted  right  of 
every  Britifh  fubjeft,  viz.  that  of  trial  by  jury.  They 
intreatcd  the  houfe  "  to  refleft  on  the  innumerable 
haidfliips  which  mud  enfue,  and  the  univerfal  confu- 
fion  which  mud  be  occafioned,  by  giving  to  the  volu- 
minous laws  of  England  a  boundlefs  retrofpeclive  pow- 
er in  the  midd  of  Afia,  and  by  an  application  of  thofe 
laws  made  for  the  freed  and  mod  enlightened  people 
on  earth,  the  principle  of  whofe  conftitutlon  was  found- 
ed on  virtue  and  liberty,  to  tranfaftions  with  the  na- 
tives of  India,  who  had,  from  time  immemorial,  lived 
under  a  defpotic  governirient  founded  on  fear  and  re- 
draint.  What  mud  be  the  terrors  of  individuals  to 
find  their  titles  to  property,  and  their  tranfaftions  with 
the  natives  previous  to  the  ellablidiment  of  tliis  court 
of  judicature,  tried  by  the  dandard  of  the  Englifli 
law,  and  by  men  educated  under  its  forms,  and  una- 
voidably imbibing  its  prejudices,  when  no  fuch  laws 
could  be  known  to  or  praftifed  by  natives  or  Euro- 
peans then  refiding  in  the  country,  and  that  at  a  time 
when  there  were  few  perfons  of  legal  knowledge  in 
the  country  to  advife  or  alTid  them  ?  No  tyranny  could 
be  more  fatal  in  its  confequences,  than  that  a  court, 
inveded  with  all  the  authority  of  one  of  the  fird  courts 
in  England,  fhould  alfo  poflefs  undefined  powers  and 
jnrifdiftion,  of  which  its  judge-,  were  the  fole  interpre- 
ters, and  at  fuch  an  immerife  diftaiicefiom  the  mother 
country.  This  was  in  truth  the  fituation  of  the  Bri- 
tilh  fubjeifts  in  India  at  that  time  ;  for  the  judges  of 
the  fupreme  court  could  at  pleafure  determine  on  the 
denomination  of  a  civil  jury,  the  degree  of  guilt  in- 
curi-ed  by  any  offence,  the  datute  by  which  it  diould 
be  tried,  what  penalties  diould  be  iufliaed,  as  well  as 
who  were  and  who  were  not  amenable  to  the  jurifdic- 
tion  of  the  court. 

"  Befides  their  other  powers  alfo,  the  judges  of  the  fu- 
preme court  were  allowed  to  fit  as  a  court  of  chancery, 
and  in  that  capacity  to  revife,  correft,  refcind,  or  con- 
firm the  decilious  paded  by  themfelves  as  a  court  of 
law  ;  and,  by  another  part  of  their  conditution,  they 
were  allowed  to  dop  execution  in  criminal  cafes  until 
his  Majefty-'s  pleafure  was  known.  The  petitioners 
conceived,  that  there  mud  be  fome  fundamental  error 
in  that  inditution,  which,  required  a  move  than  ordi» 
nary  degree  of  temper,  integrity,  and  ability,  to  carry 
its  purpofes  into  execution  ;  and  they  did  not  hefitate 
to  declare,  that  to  adminilter  the  powers  appertaining 
to  the  inditution  of  the  fupreme  court,  without  com- 
mitting'flagrant  afts  of  iiijudiee,  and  doing  great  de- 
triment to  the  public,  required  more  equity,  modera- 
tion, difcernmcnt,  and  enlightened  abilities,  than  they 
could  hope  to  find  in  any  fet  of  men."  They  con- 
cluded with  earnedly  foliciting  parliament,  that  a  trial 
by  jury  might  be  granted  to  the  Britilh  fubjefts  in 
Bengal,  in  all  cafes  where  it  was  edablidied  by  law  in 
England  ;  that  the  retrofpeftive  powers  of  the  fu- 
preme court  might  be  limited  to  the  time  of  its  eda- 
blidiment  in  Bengal ;  that  it  diould  be  defined  beyond 
the  power  of  difcretional  didinftion,  who  the  perfons 
were  that  properly  came  under  the  jurifdiAion  of  the 
court,  and  who  did  not ;  that  it  diould  be  exprefsly 
declared  what  datutes  diould,  and  what  (liould  not,  be 
in  force  in  Bengal ;  that  diiVmSt  and  fej.arate  judgss 
2  ion 


C     O     M 


■Comj'imy.  for  the  law  and  equity  fiies  of  the  court  fhould  be  ap- 
*~    '  pointed  ;  and  that  a  p6\ver  of  delaying;  executions  in 

criminal  cufes  vmtil  his  Majcfty's  pleafure  was  known, 
ftiould  l.e  lodged  in  the  governor  and  council. 

Tliis  petition  was  foon  followed  by  another  figned 
by  Warren  Haftings,  Efq;  gov^Tnor-general,  Philip 
Francis  and  Edward  Wliecler,  Efqs;  counfellors  for  the 
government  and  prefidency  of  Fort-William  in  Ben- 
gal ;  in  which  they  rcprcfcntcd,  "  that,  though  the  ju- 
rifdiftion  of  the  fupreme  court  of  judicature  at  Cal- 
cutta, as  wtU  as  the  powers  granted  to  the  governor- 
general  and  council,  were  clearly  limited  by  parlia- 
ment and  the  king's  letters  patent,  yet  the  chief 
jullice  and  judges  of  that  court  had  exercifed  authori- 
ty over  perfons  not  legally  within  their  jurildiftion, 
and  had  illfgally  and  improperly  advifed  and  admitted 
fuits  againfl  the  governor-general  and  council ;  that 
they  had  attempted  to  execute  their  writs  upon  natives 
of  hio-h  rank  in  the  kingdom  of  Bengal,  who  were  not 
within  their  jurifdiftion  :  the  governor  and  council 
tlierefore  had  found  themfelves  under  a  neceifuy  of 
-oppofing  them,  and  of  affording  protection  to  the 
country  and  people,  who  were  placed  under  their  own 
immediate  infpeftion,  and  freeing  them  from  the  terrors 
of  a  new  and  ulurped  dominion.  They  had  even  been 
obliged  to  make  ufe  of  a  militaiy  force,  in  order  to  re- 
fill the  proceedings  of  the  judges  and  their  officers  : 
And  they  declared,  thst  no  other  conduit  could  have 
favcd  thofe  provinces  and  the  Intereils  of  the  company, 
or  of  the  Britifh  nation  itfelf,  from  the  ruin  with  which 
thev  were  threatened.  Thev  alfo  declared  themfelves 
to  he  of  opinion,  that  the  attempt  to  extend,  to  the 
inhabitants  of  thefe  provinces,  the  jurifdittion  of  the 
fupreme  court  of  judicature,  and  tlie  authority  of  the 
Englilh  law,  which  were  ftill  more  intolrrable  than 
the  law  itfelf,  \\ould  be  fuch  a  conftraint  on  the  minds 
of  the  people  of  thofe  provinces,  by  the  difference  of 
fuch  laws  and  forms  from  their  laws,  that  they  might 
at  left  inflame  them,  notwithflanding  their  known 
niildnefs  and  patience,  into  an  open  rebellion."  The 
petition  was  concluded,  by  foliciting  an  indemnity 
from  the  legal  confequences  of  the  refiftance  they  had 
been  obliged  to  make  to  that  court. 

AVhile  the  Britifh  were  thus  exprefiing  their  dif- 
pleafure  againfl  the  conduft  of  thefe  judges,  the  na- 
tives were  thrown  into  the  utmoft  conllernation  and 
defpair  by  the  afts  of  opprefliou  and  violence  com- 
mitted bv  them.  A  profecntion  for  forgery  had  been 
commenced  ngainft  Ntuidcomar,  a  bramin  of  the 
firft  rank  in  Bengal.  The  cime  was  not  capital  by 
the  law's  of  Indoftan,  and  had  been  committed  many 
years  before  ;  yet  with  fhe  utmoll  cruelty  and  in- 
jullice  was  this  man  condemned  and  executed  on  the 
Britifh  ftatute,  by  which  forgery  is  made  capital  ;  a  fta- 
tute  which,  at  the  commiffion  of  the  crime,  he  had 
never  heard  of,  nor  could  ever  dream  that  he  would  be 
fubjefted  to  its  power.  What  rendered  this  execution 
the  more  remarkable  was,  that,  at  the  very  time  when 
charge  of  forgery  was  brought  againil  him,  Nund- 
comar  h?d  been  employed  in  exhibiting  an  acculation 
againft  Mi  FJaftings.  This,  together  with  the  hur- 
ry in  which  the  court  were  to  have  him  put  to  death 
(for  the  cowt  refufed  to  allow  him  a  refpite  till  his 
Majefty's  pleafure  was  knov.n),  made  the  natives  con- 
clude, that  he  was  executed,  not  on  account  of  the 
N°86. 


[       23^       1 


C     O     M 


forgery,  but  for  having  ventured  to  prefer  an  accufa-  Comranfy 
tion  againil  an  Englilh  governor.      In   other  rcfpeftj  *— -v-~-^ 
they  were  territied  to  fuch  a  degree,  tliat  many  of  them 
ran   into  the   river  on   feeing  a  bramia   put  to  death 
with  fuch  circumftances  of  ignominy. 

The  alarm  excited  by  the  execution  of  Nundcomar 
was  kept  up  by  frefh  decifions  of  the  lujuxme  court. 
Among  thofe  the  Patna  caufc,  as  it  is  commonly 
called,  was  one  of  the,  moll  remavkable.  An  adven- 
turer, named  Shahaz  Beg  Cawn,  had  come  from  Ca- 
bid  in  Pcifia  to  Bengal,  where  he  entered  him f elf  la- 
the fervlce  of  the  company,  and  was  preferred  to  the 
command  of  a  body  of  horfe.  Having  pained  a  com- 
petent fortune,  and  obtained  from  the  Mogid  a  grant 
of  lands  called  an  Ul!umghaw  in  the  province  of  Bahar, 
he  retired  from  the  army,  and  fettled  in  Patna. 
About  this  time,  when  advanced  in  years,  he  marri.;d 
a  woman  of  low  rank,  named  Nadara  liegum,  by  whom 
he  had  no  children.  His  brother,  Allum  Beg,  came 
likewife  to  Patna  ;  and  en  his  leaving  the  place  iorac 
time  after,  committed  the  care  of  one  of  his  funs, 
named  Behader  Be^,  to  his  brother  Shahaz  Beg  Cawu. 
On  the  death  of  the  latter  in  1776,  a  dlfpute  enfaed 
concerning  the  inheritance  betwfxt  the  widow  and 
Behader  Beg.  The  widow  having  taken  pofiTeirion 
of  the  whole  property  of  Shahaz,  the  nephew,  as 
adopted  fon  and  heir,  gave  in  a  petition  to  the  provincial 
council  at  Patna,  on  the  2d  of  Januar)-  1777,  fetting 
forth  his  claim.  In  this  petition  he  Hated,  that  the 
widow  was  removing  and  fecreting  the  effefts  of  the 
deccafed ;  and  concluded  with  a  prayer,  that  orders 
(liould  be  given  to  prevent  their  removal ;  to  recover 
iuch  as  had  already  been  carried  away  ;  and  that  the 
cadi  or  Indian  judge  llionld  be  direiiled  to  afcertam 
his  right.  As  the  parties  were  Mahometants,  the 
council  of  courfc  referred  the  caule  to  the  cadi  and 
two  mufties,  the  proper  officers  for  determining  it  ac- 
cording to  the  ellabliihed  laws  of  the  country.  Thefe 
having  inquired  into  the  matter,  reported,  that  the 
title-deeds,  on  which  the  widow  pretended  to  found 
her  right,  appeared  to  be  fo'-ged  ;  and  that,  even  if 
they  had  appeared  in  the  life-time  of  Shahaz,  they 
were  ftill  informal,  on  account  of  a  point  of  the  Mj- 
hometan  law,  which  requires,  that  to  make  deeds  of 
gift  valid,  poiTefiion  ftiould  be  entered  into  at  the  time 
of  executing  or  delivering  them  over;  but  that,  as  no 
pofTcflion  of  this  kind  had  been  given,  tiie  cftate  ought 
to  be  divided  according  to  the  Mahometan  law  ;  viz. 
onc-fouith  to  the  wife,  and  three-fourths  to  the  ne- 
phew, as  the  reprefcatative  of  his  father  Allum  Beg, 
who  was  conlidcred  as  the  moie  immediate  heir  of  the 
deceafed.  This  decifion  was  confirmed  by  the  coun- 
cil of  Patna,  with  the  following  exception  in  favour  of 
the  widow,  that  the  heir  at  law  ftiould  pay  her  one- 
fourth  of  the  rents  of  the  ultumghaw,  or  royal  grant, 
for  her  fupport  during  life.  The  widow,  however, 
refufed  to  fubmit  to  the  decifton,  or  to  deh'ver  up  the 
elFetii  of  her  huftjand  ;  in  confequence  of  which  com- 
pulfatory  methods  were  ufed  ;  when,  by  the  advice  of 
fome  Englilh  lawyers,  an  attion  of  trefpafs  was  broi:ght, 
according  to  the  law  of  England,  againft  the  caai  and 
two  mufties  for  their  proceedings  againft  her,  laying 
the  damages  at  about  66,000 1.  Sterhng.  This  procefs 
being  brought  btfore  the  fupreme  court,  was  by  them 
conducted  in  fuch  a  manner  as  muft  entail  everlalling 
I  ,  infamy 


COM 


t     233     1 


COM 


Comply,  inf-imy  on  tlic  aftors.     They  began  witli  obliging  the 

— "V cadi  and  muflics  to  find  bail  in   no   Itfs  than  40,000 

pounds  for  their  appearance,  which  was  immediately 
given  by  the  council  at  Patna.  The  fupreme  court 
then  having  entered  into  the  merits  of  the  caufe,  and 
decided  the  matter  in  the  moft  rigorous  manner,  ac- 
cording to  all  tlie  forms  of  Engllfli  law,  afTeffed  the 
cadi  and  niuftics  in  damages  no  lefs  than  30,000!. 
Sterling.  Their  houfes  and  effefts  were  feized  by  the 
flierlff's  officers,  and  publicly  put  up  to  fale  :  the  cadi, 
who  was  upwards  of  60  years  of  age,  and  had  been  in 
office  for  many  years  with  great  applaufe,  died  on  .his 
■way  to  the  common  gaol  at  Calcutta,  to  which  the 
nephew  and  two  mufties  were  conveyed,  being  a  dif- 
tance  of  no  lefs  than  400  miles  from  their  former  re- 
fidcnce  at  Patna.  A  fuit,  however,  was  commenced 
againft  the  widow,  on  account  of  having  forged  the 
title-deeds  by  which  (lie  claimed  her  husband's  ellate  ; 
but  it  was  fuppreflcd  on  account  of  fome  infor- 
mality. 

Another  decifion,  by  which  the  fupreme  court  like* 
wife  incurred  much  cenfure,  was  that  againft  Jagger- 
naut,  the  principal  public  officer  of  a  Mahometan  court 
at  Dacca.  The  aftion  was  brought  at  the  inftigation 
of  an  Englifh  attorney,  in  behalf  of  one  Khyne,  a  fer- 
vant  or  mtflcnger,  who  had  been  fined  and  imprifoned 
for  a  mifdemeanor,  in  which  Jaggernaut  had  concur- 
red in  virtue  of  his  office  as  judge  of  the  Nizamut 
(the  name  of  the  Mahometan  court  juft  mentioned). 
The  (heritf-officers  attempted  to  arrcft  the  judge  as 
lie  fat  on  the  tribunal;  which  could  not  fail  to  produce 
much  difturbance.  Jaggernaut,  vi'ith  his  oflicers,  de- 
•  nied  the  authority  of  the  fupreme  court  over  the  Niza- 
mut, and  refufed  to  comply  with  the  writ.  The  Eng- 
lifli  IherifF-officcrs  proceeded  to  force  ;  and  a  violent 
fcuffle  enfuing,  Jaggernaut's  father  was  wounded  in 
the  head  with  a  fword  by  one  cf  the  under-fhei iff '3  at- 
tendants, while  his  brother-in-law  was  very  dange- 
roudy  wounded  with  a  piftol  bullet  by  the  under-fiierilf 
himfelf.  The  immediate  coufcquenct  of  thi^  was  an 
abfolutc  rifufal  uf  the  judge  to  take  cognizance  of  any 
criminal  matters  ;  and  this  was  intimated  in  a  letter 
from'the  council  at  Dacca  to  the  Euglifli  governor 
and  council  of  India  ;  wherein  they  declared  that  all 
criminal  juftice  was  at  a  iland. 

The  fupreme  court,  having  proceeded  in  this  arbi- 
tral y  and  opprefTive  manner  for  fome  time,  at  length 
attempted  to  extend  their  jutifdiftion  over  the  heredi- 
tai-y  Zemindars  of  Bengal.  Thefc  are  a  kind  of  tri- 
butary lords,  or  great  landholders,  who  are  anfwerable 
to  the  company  for  the  revenues  or  rents  of  the  dl- 
llrifts  ;  and  excepting  the  circumftauce  of  remitting 
their  revenues  to  the  company,  have  not  the  leall  con- 
nection with  the  Englitli  in  any  refpecl.  At  the  time 
we  fpeak  of,  however,  a  writ,  upon  an  atlion  of  debt, 
was  ifl'ued  out  to  arreft  one  of  thcfe  Zemindars  in  his 
palace.  Timely  notice,  however,  was  given,  by  one 
of  the  company's  collectors,  of  this  attempt  to  the 
governor  and  council,  and  application  made  to  protect 
a  man  of  inch  quality  from  tiie  difgrace  of  an  arrell. 
They  being  unanimoufly  of  opinion  that  the  Zemin- 
dar was  not  within  the  jurifditlion  of  the  court  of 
Calcutta,  dcfired  him  to  pay  no  regard  to  the  writ. 
The  court,  however,  determined  to  enforce  their  pro- 
cefs  by  a  writ  of  fequeftiatron ;  upon  whici  the  na- 
X'oL.  V.   Part  I. 


tivcs,  who  are  fupcrnilioufly  attached  to  their  Zemin-  <?ampanr. 
dars,  rofe  in'  his  defence,  and  infulted  the  fiicriff's  of« 
ficcrs.  The  latter  having  obtained  a  reinforcement, 
the  Zemindar's  palace  was  entered  by  86  men  armed 
with  bludgeon.s,  cutlaflls,  and  mufl<ets)  the  apartment 
of  his  women,  always  held  inviolalily  facrcd  by  the 
Afiatics ;  was  broken  open  ;  his  temple  profaned;  and 
the  image,  which  was  the  objertof  his  wordiip,  put  in- 
to a  baflcet,  and  carried  off  witli  fome  common  lum* 
ber.  This  routed  the  attention  of  the  governor  ami 
council  ;  who,  from  a  full  conviftion  of  the  ruinous 
tendency  of  thefe  proceedings,  determined  at  lail  to 
oppofed  force  by  force.  They  accordingly  fent  a  par- 
ty of  military  to  apprcphend  the  Sheriff's  people,  and 
they  were  all  conduced  prifoners  to  Calcutta.  The 
judges  ordered  attachments  againft  the  officer  who 
commanded  the  troops,  and  againft  two  other  fervants 
of  the  company  ;  while  the  governor  and  council  en- 
deavoured to  juftify  their  proceedings,  by  writing  to 
England  as  already  mentis 'ned. 

Befides  all  this,  the  natives  themfelves  teftified  their 
difapprobation  of  the  conduft  of  the  fupreme  court  in 
very  ilrong  terms.  A  petition  to  his  Britannic  ma- 
jelly  was  fent  by  the  natives  of  Patna  ;  in  which  are 
the  following  remarkable  pafTages:  "  When  the  ordi- 
nances of  this  court  of  judicature  were  iflTued,  as  they 
were  all  contrary  to  ihe  cuftoms,  modes,  ufages,  and 
inftitutions,  of  this  countiy,  they  occafioned  tenor  in 
us  ;  and  day  by  day,  as  the  powers  of  this  court  have 
become  more  ellabhlhed,  our  ruin,  uneafinefs,  diilio- 
nour,  "and  difcredit,  have  accumulated  ;  till  at  laft  we 
are  reduced  to  fuch  a  iituation,  that  we  confider  death 
to  us  as  infinitely  preferable  to  the  dread  we  entertain 
of  the  court :  for  from  this  court  no  credit  or  charac- 
ter is  left  to  us,  and  we  arc  now  driven  to  the  laft  ex- 
tremity. Several  who  pofleffed  means  and  ability, 
deeming  flight  as  their  only  fecurity,  have  banilhcd 
themfelves  from  the  country ;  but  bound  as  we  are  by 
poverty  and  inability,  and  lettered  by  the  deareft  ties 
of  confanguinity,  we  do  not  all  of  uipoflcfs  the  means 
of  flight,  nor  have  we  power  to  abide  the  opprtflion  of 
this  court." — "  If,  which  God  forbid  !  it  fiiould  fo 
happen,  that  this  our  petition  fliould  not  be  accepted, 
and  fhould  be  rejefted  at  the  chamber  of  audience, 
thofe  amongll  us  who  have  power  and  ability,  difcard- 
ing  all  aiiection  for  our  families,  will  fly  to  any  quar- 
ter we  can  ;  whilft  the  remainder,  who  iiave  no  means 
or  ability,  giving  themfelves  up  with  ])ious  refignation 
to  their  fate,  will  fit  down  in  expectation  of  death." 

Thefe  repeated  complaints  could  not  but  be  taken 
notice  of  in  parliament.  On  the  uth  of  February 
1781,  General  Smith  made  a  motion  in  the  houfe  of 
commons,  that  the  petition  from  the  Britifli  inhabi- 
tants of  Bengal,  Bahar,  and  Orifi'a,  fhould  be  taken 
into  confideration  by  a  feledl  committee,  confiftincr  of 
I  5  perfons,  chokn  by  ballot.  In  the  introduction  to 
his  motion,  he  ftatcd  briefly  the  bad  conduft  of  the 
fupreme  court  in  the  particulars  already  related  ;  and 
concluded,  that  the  affairs  of  Bengal  required  the  im- 
mediate attention  and  confideration  of  parliament.  The 
matter  was  accordingly  debated  ;  when,  after  various 
propofals,  a  motion  was  at  length  made  by  General 
Smith,  for  leave  to  bring  in  a  bill  "  to  explain  and 
amend  fo  much  of  an  aft  pafled  in  the  1 3th  year  of  his 
prcfcnt  majefty,  for  the  better  regulation  of  the  Eaft 
G  g  India 


C     O    M 


[     234     ] 


COM 


Company.  India  compnny,  as  iclated  to  the  ajmiiiiftration  of  ju- 
*— V—  lUce  in  Bengal ;  and  alfo  to  indemnify  the  governor 
and  council  of  Bengal  fot  having  refilled  br  force  of 
arms  the  execution  of  an  order  of  the  fupreme  court 
of  judicature  in  that  kingdom."  Leave  was  according- 
ly given  to  bring  in  the  bill.  The  houfe  having  refol- 
ved  itfelf  into  a  committee,  Lord  North  obferved,  "that 
it  had  been  much  his  wirti  that  an  agreement  for  the 
renewal  of  the  company's  charter  had  been  made  in  an 
amicable  manner;  and  that  voluntary  propofitions 
flioulJ  have  come  from  thcmfelves,  offering  terms  for 
the  benefit  of  the  exelufive  trade  and  the  territorial  ac- 
quifitions.  No  fuch  terms,  however,  had  been  pro- 
pofed,  nor  any  agreement  made.  A  negociation  had 
indeed  taken  place  between  him  and  the  chairman  and 


tear  from  the  company  by  force  what  was  not  ftipula-  Cflmjiariy 
ted  in  any  aft  of  parliament,  would  be  a  breach  of  '— — v— " 
public  faith  difgraceful  to  the  nation,  and  fuch  as 
■would  damp  the  fpirit  of  enterprize  and  adventure 
which  had  been  produftive  of  fuch  happy  effefts. — 
Notwithftanding  thefe  remonftrances,  however,  the  bill 
was  at  laft  pafTed  into  a  law;  only  with  this  mitigation, 
that  the  company  fliould  pay  only  L.  400,000,  inftead 
of  L.  600,000  demanded  originally  by  the  miniiler. — 
Another  bill  was  alfo  pafTed  the  fame  year,  in  confe- 
quence  of  the  motion  made  by  General  Smith.  This 
aft  declared,  that  the  governor-general  and  council  of 
Bengal  were  not  fiibjeft  to  the  jurifdiction  of  the  fu- 
preme court,  and  inde^mniticd  the  former  for  the  re- 
fiftance  they  had  made  to  the  orders  of  that  court.     It 


deputy-chairman  ;  but  the  propofitions  made  by  them      enafted  alfo,  that  no   perfon   ihoiild  be  fubjeft  to  the 


were  neither  fuch  as  the  public  might  expeft,  nor  had 
tlie  company  any  right  to  them.  With  regard  to  the 
territorial  poffefiions,  he  was  clearjy  of  opinion,  that 
they  of  right  belonged  to  the  public  ;  though  how  far 
it  mi"ht  be  proper  to  allow  the  revenue  of  them  to  re- 
main in  the  pofieffion  of  the  company  was  quite  ano- 
ther matter.  In  his  opinion,  it  would  be  proper  to 
allow  it  to  remain  in  their  hands  as  long  as  they  pof- 
fefled  an  exelufive  trade,  but  he  never  would  confent 
to' forego  the  claim  of  the  public.  He  made  a  mo- 
tion, therefore,  that  it  was  the  opinion  of  the  com- 
mittee, that  three-fourths  of  the  furplus  of  the  net  pro- 
fits of  the  Eaft  India  company,  ^vtr  fince  the  compa- 


jurikhftion  of  that  court  on  account  of  his  being  a 
landholder  or  farmer  of  land  in  the  provinces  of  Ben- 
gal, Bahar,  or  Orixa  ;  that  no  judicial  olHcers  in  the 
country  courts  (hould  be  liable  to  aftions  in  the  fu- 
preme court  for  their  decifions  ;  and  the  two  mufties, 
with  Bchader  Beg,  who  were  then  in  prifon,  in  con- 
fequcncc  of  the  decifion  of  that  court  in  the  Patiia 
caufe,  were  ordered  to  be  fet  at  liberty. 

The  debates  on  this  fubjeft  were  attended  with  the- 
moft:  violent  charges  ngainll  the  miniiler,  and  affertions 
the  moft  humiliating  and  difgraceful  to  the  BritilTi  na- 
tion. Mr  Townlhend  affirmed,  that  it  was  from  the 
minifter's  fcreenlng  the  delinquents  who  came  from  In- 


ny's  bond-debt  was  reduced  to  L.  1,500,000,  and  the  dia  that  all  the  evils  in  that  quarter  had  originated; 
company's  di\idends  had  been  t\g\i\.  percent,  per  annum,  and  If  matters  were  fuffered  to  go  on  in  that  country 
belong  to  the  public;  and  that  L. 600,000  in  lieu  there-     as   they  liad  done  for  fome  time  pad,  the  conduft  of 


of,  and  in  dlfcharge  of  all  claims  on  the  part  of  the 
public,  be  paid  into  his  majeity's  exchequer  by  inllal- 
ments,  in  fuch  manner,  and  at  fuch  times;,  as  fliall  be 
agreed  on."  This  propofal  wa.s  vehemently  cppofed  by 
the  minority.  Mr  Burke  called'it  the  daring  effort  of 
a  miniiler  determined  on  rapine  and  plunder,  without 
regard  to  truth,  honour,  or  judice.  Mr  Iluffey  re- 
probated the  idta  of  taking  L. 6co,coo  from  the  com- 
pany in  their  circumtlances  at  that  time.  He  produ- 
ced a  paper  full  of  arithmetical  calculations,  which  he 
read  to  the  houfe;  afTcrting  that  they  contained  an  ex- 
c;ft  ftatc  of  the  amount  of  the  company's  expoits  and 
imports,  the  expences  of  their  trade  at  home,  and  the 
balance  of  profit  of  each  year,  for  many  years  pall,  di- 
llinguiihing  the  territorial  from  the  commercial  income 
and  expences.  From  thefe  he  fhcvved,  that  the  com- 
mercial and  territorial  revenues  of  the  corrpany  had, 
upon  an  average  for  16  years,  conllitutcd  a  lum  cqui- 
■valent  to  a  proportion  of  16 per  cent.;  that  <)  per  cent. 
of  this  had  arifen  from  tlie  commercial  profits  accruing 
to  the   company  ;  and  therefore,  that  there  had   not 


the  Britiih  in  the  Eaft  Indies  muft  be  viewed  in  a  light 
ilill  more  deteftable  than  that  of  the  Spaniards  in  A- 
merica.  It  was  reported,  that  the  nabob  of  Arcot  had 
fevcral  members  in  the  houfe  of  commons  !  If  it  were 
true,  that  by  fending  over  a  fum  of  money  to  Eng- 
land he  could  feat  eight  or  ten  members  in  that  hou4e, 
then  Mr  Townfliend  declared,  that  in  his  opinion  they 
were  tlie  moll  abjeft  and  contemptible  beings  in  the 
world. — The  bill  for  regulating  the  powers  of  the  fu- 
preme court,  alfo,  though  fo  evidently  fou.nded  in  rea- 
fon  and  jufllce,  did  not  pafs  without  oppofition,  par- 
ticularly from  Mr  Dunning  ;  who  was  thought  on  this 
occafion  to  have  allowed  his  regard  for  his  friend  Sir 
Elijah  Impey,  the  chief  juftice,  to  bias  him  too 
much. 

The  regulatfons  juft  mentioned  did  not  yet  put  an 
end  to  the  troubles  of  the  Eaft  India  company,  nor 
allay  the  ferment  which  had  been  fo  effcftually  excited. 
Their  affairs  were  ftill  a  fubjeft  of  parliamentar)'  dif- 
cuffion  ;  and  in  the  month  of  April  I  782,  a  motion  was 
made  by  Mr  Dundas,  then  Lord  Advocate  of  Scotland, 


been  8  per  cent,  divided  upon  that  part  of  the  profits  to  for  taking  into  confideration  the  feveral  reports  concern- 

which  the  public  had  any  claim    or  pretenfion.      The  ing  affairs,  which  had  been  made  by  the  fecret  commit- 

acceffiou   of  territorial  pofFeffions,    he   obferved,    had  .tee  appointed  to  inquire  into  them  during  the  laft  and 

brought  along  with   it  additional   expences;  and  the  prefent  fefTion  of  parliament.      In  his  fpeech  on  this  oc- 

public  had   already  received  a  very  large  fliare  of  the  cafion,  he  remarked,  tliat  the  opinion  of  Lord  Clive 

company's  profits.     He  declared  it  to  be  his  opinion,  had  been   agalnft  keeping  too  extenfive  a  territory   in 

that  the  company  fliould  always  make  it  a  rule  to  give  that  country.      Inftead  of  this,  he  had  reftored  Sujah 

as  ample  and  full  relief  to  the  public  burdens  as  their  Dowlali  to  the  poffelTion  of  his  country  ;  confidering 

fituation  would  allow  ;  and  if  they  did  this,  he  faw  no  the  Britifh  territories  in  Hiudoftan,  with  thofe  on  the 

reafon  why  the  minifter  flioidd  expeft  anv  more.      Mr  coafts  of  Coromaudel  and  Bombay,  as  fufficient  for  all 

Dempfter  reminded  the  houfe  of  the  confequences  of  the  pui-pofes  by  which  this  country  could  be  benefited; 

violating  the  American  charters ;  and  added,  that  to  but  inftead  of  adhering  to  the  maxims  of  found  policy 

5  laid 


COM  [ 

Compai')'.  lalj  down  by  his  Lordlhip,  they  huJ  bci-'ome  fo  ambi- 
'  ^— —  tious  of  extending  their  territories,  that  they  had  in- 
volved theinfelves  in  a  war  with  almoll  all  India.  He 
then  conlidered  the  finances  of  the  company.  The  re- 
venue of  Bombay,  he  faid,  fell  rtiort  of  the  neceffary  civil 
and  military  eftabliihment  by  L.  200,000  a-year,  which 
was  annually  drawn  from  Bengal.  With  regard  to  tliat 
of  Madras,  it  appeared,  on  an  average  ot  12  year^, 
from  1767  to  1779,  that  there  had  been  eight  years 
of  war  and  only  four  of  peace  ;  and  that,  during  the 
whole  time  of  war,  the  revenue  had  not  been  able  to 
fnpport  the  civil  aud  military  eftabiilhiueiUs  ;  though, 
in  time  of  peace,  it  was  able  to  do  nearly  one-half 
.more.  Bengal,  however,  ^v•aj  the  moll  lucrative  of  all 
the  Eall  India  fettleraents  ;  but  fuch  had  been  the  tx- 
pences  of  the  Mahratta  war,  that  the  govevnor-genentl 
had  been  obh'ged  to  contract  a  very  large  debt,  info- 
much  that  it  was  doubtful  whether  the  iuveftments  for 
England  fhould  be  wholly  or  partially  fufpenJed.  Mr 
HalUngs,  he  faid,  had  in  many  inftances  proved  him- 
fclf  a  very  meritorious  fervant  :  but  he  wiilied  that 
every  one  of  their  fervants  would  confider  hinifelf  as 
hound  in  the  iirll  place  to  prove  a  faithful  fteward  to 
.  the  company  ;  not  to  fancy  that  he  was  an  Alexander 
or  Aureng/.cbe,  and  prefer  frantic  military  exploits  to 
the  improvement  of  the  tiade  and  commerce  of  his 
country. —  General  Smith  obferved,  that  by  the  evi- 
dence produced  to  the  committee,  it  appeared  that 
there  had  been  a  variety  of  great  abufcs  in  India.  Sir 
Elijah  Impey,  his  majelly's  chief  julHce  in  that  coun- 
try, bad  fo  far  derogated  from  the  character  of  a  judge, 
as  to  accept  of  a  place  from  the  company  ;  by  which 
means  he  was  brought  under  their  controul,  and  con- 
fequently  allowed  himfelf  to  be  deprived  of  that  inde- 
pendence which  he  ought  to  pollcfs  as  a  judge.  Ju- 
iUce  had  been  fo  partially  adminillered,  that  feveral 
worth  I-  and  refpedtable  perfons  had  been  imprifoned, 
fome  had  been  ruined,  and  others  died  in  jail.  From 
all  which  conliderations  he  moved,  that  the  affairs  of 
the  company  ought  to  be  taken  into  confuleration 
by  a  committee  of  the  whole  houie.  Some  hints 
Were  thrown  out  by  Mr  Dundas,  that  the  territorial 
pciTeflions  iu  the  Eaft  ought  to  be  taken  from  the 
company  entirely,  and  put  under  the  diredlion  of  the 
crown  ;  but  this  was  oppofed  by  Mr  Fox,  as  furnifh- 
ing  minifters  with  fuch  ample  means  of  corruption  and 
undue  influence,  as  might  overthrow  the  conllitution 
entirely.  For  this  reafon,  he  thought  it  would  be 
more  prudent  to  leave  the  appointment  of  its  own  fer- 
Tants  to  the  company  ;  but  at  the  fame  time  to  keep 
a  watchful  eye  over  them,  in  order  to  be  able  to  pu- 
nidi  and  remove  thofe  who  fliould  be  found  delin- 
quent. 

The  houfe  having  refolved  itfelf  into  a  committee, 
a  motion  was  made  by  General  Smith,  "  That  Warren 
Haflings,  Efq;  governor-general  of  Bengal,  and  Sir 
Elijah  Impey,  the  chief  juftice,  appear  to  have  been 
<:oncerned,  the  one  in  giving,  the  other  in  receiving, 
an  office  not  agreeable  to  the  late  acl  for  regulating 
the  company's  affairs  ;  which  unjuftifiable  tranfaCiion 
was  attended  with  circumllances  of  evil  tendency  and 
example."  Refolutions  were  alfo  palled  for  afcertain- 
•jng  more  diftinftly  the  powers  of  the  governor-general 
and  council  of  Bengal;  and  votes  of  cenfure  againft 
Laurence  Sullivan,  Efq;  ch^rman   of  the  Ealt  India 


COM 


■ji      J 

company,  fur  liaviug  ncglcdled  to  tranfrnit  to  India  an  Co^p.-my, 
aft  lor  explaining  and  amending  the  ad  for  regulating  "*•">  '  "', 
the  affairs  of  the  company,  and  for  the  relief  of  certain 
perfons  imprifoned  at  Calcutta.  Among  the  number 
of  this  gentleman's  tranlgreifions,  alfo,  was  liis  impo- 
fing  an  oath  of  fecrecy  on  Mr  Wilkes,  one  of  the 
company's  clerks  ;  and  efpecially  his  redraining  hint 
froni  giving  information  to  a  felect  committee  of  the 
houie  of  commons. 

Mr  Duudas    having    made    feveral   motions    tend- 
ing to   criminate    Sir    Thomas     Kumbold,     formerly 
govcrnor    of    Bengal,  a    bill    was    brought    in,     aiid 
pafl'ed  into  a  law,  for  reftraining  him  and   Peter  Pcr- 
ring,   Efq;  from  going    out  of  the   kingdom   for  the 
fpaee   of  one  year,   for   dlfcovcrlng  their  ellates,  &c. 
An  addrefs  was  alfo  prefented  to  the  king,   requeiliiiT 
him  to  recal  Sir  Elijah  Impey  from  India,  in  order  to 
anfwer  for  high  crimes  and  mifdemeanors.     A  num- 
ber of  other  refolutions  wcie  now  paffed  by  the  houfe, 
in  confequencc  of  motions  by  Mr  Dundas,  and  which 
were    founded    on  the    reports  of   the   Seciet  Com- 
mittee.    Among  thefe  it  was  refolved,  "  That  the 
orders  of  the  Court  of  Directors  of  the  Ealt   India 
Company,    which    have    conveyed    to    their    fervants 
abroad  a  prohibitory  condemnation  of  all  fchemes   of 
conqucll  and  enlargement  of  dominion,  by  prclcribing 
certain  rules  and  boundaries  for  the  operation  of  their 
mditary  force,  were  founded  no  lefs  in  wifdom  and  po- 
licy   than    in    juftice  and    moderation.       That    every 
tranfgreffion  of  thefe  orders,  without  evident  nccefilty, 
by  any  of  tlie  feveral  governments  in  India,  has  been 
highly  reprehenfible,  and  tended  in  a  great  degree  to 
weaken  the  force  and  influence,  and  to   diminifh   the 
influence  of  the  company  in  thofe  parts.      That  every 
interference  of  the  company  as  a  party  iu  the  domeitic 
or  national  quarrels  of  the  country  powers,  and  all 
new  engagements  with  them  in  offenfivc  alliance,  have 
been  wifely  and  providentially  forbidden  by  the  com- 
pany in  their  commands  to  their  adminiflrations  in  In- 
dia.    That   every    unneeelfary    deviation    from    thefe 
rules  fhould  be  feverely  reproved  and  puniflied.     That 
the  maintenance  of  an  inviolable  character  for  modera- 
tion,  good    faith,    and    fcrupulous  regard   to    treaty, 
ought  to  have   been  the  fimple  groimds  on  which  the 
Britifli  government  fhould  have  endeavoured  to  efta- 
blifh  an  extenfive  influence,  fuperior  to  that  of  other 
Europeans  ;  and  that  the  danger  and  difcredit  arifing 
from  the  forfeiture  of  this  pre-eminence,  could  not  be 
compenfated  by  the  temporary  luccefs  of  any  plan  of 
violence  and  injuflice.    That  fhould  any  relaxation  take 
place,  without  l\ifficient  caufe,  in  thofe  principles  yf 
good  government  on  the  partof  ihe  directors  themfelves, 
it  would  bring  upon  them,  in  a  heavier  degree,  thd  re- 
fcntment   of  the   legiflative  power  of  their  country. 
That  the  conduit  of  the  company,  and  their  fervante 
in  India,  in  var'ous  inftances  fpecified,   was  contrary 
to  policy  and  good  faith  ;  the  company's  fervants,  in 
their  prefidency  of  Bombay,  had  been  guilty  of  notori- 
ous inftancts  of  difobedience  to  the  ordersof  their  em- 
ployers,  particularly   in  forming  an  alliance  witli  Ra- 
gobah,  or  Ragonaut  Row :   that  they  had  undertaken, 
without  any  adequate  military  force,  or  certainty  of  a 
fufficient  revenue,  and  without  proper  communication 
witli  the   fuperior  government  upon  whicli  they  were 
to  depend  for  fanftion  and  fupport,  to  reinflate  the 
G  g  2  ufurpcr 


COM  [     236    ]  CO    M 

Ccmpany.  ufurper  above  mentioned,  and  thereby  to  involve  them-     India  ought  to  have  preferved  the  ftrifteft  obedience  to  Company. 
^~~v~-  felves  in  a  war  with  the  ruling  minillers  of  the  Mahrat-     that  of  Britain  ;  yet,  being  at  fo  great  a  diftance  from         """*'. 

ta  flate,  while  Ragobah  himfelf  was  not  in  the  mean 

time  able  to  give  the  company  any  fecure  pofTcffion  of 


the  grants  he  had  made  to  them  for  the  purchafc  of 
their  affiftancc.     Tliat  it  was  the  opinion  of  the  houfe, 
that  all  the  difafters  in  which  the  Britilh  empire  in  the 
Eaft  were  involved,  hau  proceeded  from  the  unjuftifi- 
ablc  manner  In  which   the  Mahrattas  had  beentreated, 
and  the  conduft  of  the  Madras  prefidency  in  other  re- 
fpecis  fpcciiied.     That  it  is  the  opinion  of  this  houfe, 
that  it  muft  be  reckoned  among  the   additional  mif- 
chiefs  arifing  chiefly   fiom  the   improvident   war  with 
the  Mahi-attas,  that  the  military  force  of  the  Carnatic 
had  been  weakened  by  reinforcements  fent  to  the  Ma- 
labar coaft  :  that  the  Bengal  government  had  been  un- 
der a  neceflity  of  fupporting,  on  their  confines,  the  ar- 
my  of  a  power  confederated  againll  them  (a):  that 
they  had  been  under  the  neceffity  of  fuing  for  the  me- 
diation of  the  fame  power  ;  had  fubmitted  to  a  refu- 
•  fal,  and  purchafed  at  lail  an  uncertain,  becaufe  appa- 
rently an  unauthorifed,  treaty,  on  mod  extravagant  and 
difhonourable  conditions,  with   Chimnagee  the  rajah 
of  Bcrar's  fon  :  and,  finally,  that  being  burdened  with 
the  expences  of  a  variety  of  diftant   expeditions,  while 
their  allies  were  in  diftrefs,  and  their  tributaries  under 
oppreflion,  there  was  alfo  an  alarming  deficiency  in  the 
refources  of  revenue  and  commerce,  by  the  accumula- 
tion of  their  debt,  and  the  reduftion  of  their   infeft- 
ment.     That  it  was  the  opinion  of  the  houfe,  that  an 
attempt  made  by  the  government-general,   in  the  be- 


the  feat  of  fupreme  authority,  and  being  poiTelTed  of 
endlefs  means  of  abufe,  it  had  become  corrupt  in  an 
extreme  degree.  Inftead  of  being  fubfcrvient  to  go- 
vernment at  home,  the  adminlftration  of  India  aftcc- 
ted  independence.  The  maxims  of  Mr  Hallino-s  were 
arbitrary  ;  and  he  feemed  to  have  no  inclination  to 
obey.  He  treated  with  favereign  contempt  the  au- 
thority of  the  Court  of  Diredors  ;  and  the  confufion 
produced  by  the  dlfputes  between  them  were  folter- 
ed  by  the  body  of  India  proprietors,  who  were  dif- 
pofed  to  aft  as  a  check  upon  the  directors.  The 
neceflity  of  new  regulations  in  the  governmeut  of  In- 
dia was  univerfally  admitted ;  and  a  bill  for  t;iis 
purpofe  was  accordingly  brought  in  by  Mr  Dun- 
das.  His  propofitions  were,  that  the  governor  and 
council  of  Bengal  Ihould  have  a  controulln.;  power 
and  jurifdiftion  over  the  inferior  prefidencies  of 
India  ;  and  he  was  of  opinion,  that  the  gm'erm.i -ge- 
neral fliould  be  inverted  with  a  power  to  aft  even  an-ainil 
the  will  and  opinion  of  the  council,  whenever  he 
fliould  imagine  that,  by  fo  doing,  he  could  contribute 
to  the  public  good  ;  though,  in  thefe  cafes,  he  alone 
fliould  be  refponfible  for  the  event.  With  regard  to 
the  inferior  governors,  though  he  did  not  think  it  pro- 
per that  they  fliould  be  authorifed  to  aCl;  contrary  to 
the  advice  of  the  council,  he  was  of  opinion,  that  they 
ought  to  have  a  right  of  negativing  every  propofition, 
until  application  was  made  to  the  governor-general  and 
council  of  Bengal.     With  regard  to  the  Zemindaries, 


o-inning  of  January  1781,10  form   an   engagement  of     and  other  tenures  of  land,  he  obferved,  that  when  Hin 
""     "  .    ,  r     .-  ■>   .,     T-^   .   1    T-  n      doftan  had  been  conquered  by  the  Moguls,  a  tribute 

was  impofed  upon  the  Zemindars ;  and  while  they 
continued  to  pay  this  tribute,  they  accounted  them- 
felves  to  be  the  real  proprietors  and  mailers  of  the 
lands  they  pofl'efled.  The  people  called  Ryols,  to  whom 
thefe  Zemindaries  were  let  out,  confidered  themfclves 
likewife  as  fecure  in  their  poflcliions,  while  they  per- 
formed the  articles  of  their  refpedlive  contrafts.      Of 


alHance,  ofFenfive  and  defenfive,  with  the  Dutch  Eaft 
India  company,  in  the  manner  ftated  by  the  proceed- 
ings of  their  council,  was  unwarranted,  impolitic,  ex- 
travagant, and  unjufl;. 

Thefe  fevere  cenfures  extended  even  to  the  dircAors 
themfelves,  whofe  conduft  on  fome  occafions  was  de- 
clared to  be  indefenfible,  as  well  as  that  of  their  fer- 
vants  and  agents.      It  was  alfo  refolved,  "  That  War 


ren  Haftings,  Efq;  governor-general  of  Bengal,  and  late,  however,  thefe  lights  had  been  infringed  ;  and 
Wilham  Hornfl^y,  Efq;  prefi'dent  of  the  council  of  the  Mogul  came  to  confidcr  himfelf  as  the  abfolute 
Bombay,  having,  in  fundi-y  inllances,  aftcd  in  a  man- 


ner repugnant  to  the  honour  and  policy  of  this  nation 
and  thereby  brought  great  calamities  on  India,  and 
enormous  expences  on  the  India  company,  it  was  the 
duty  of  the  direftors  to  purfue  all  legal  and  efFeftual 
means  for  the  removal  of  the  faid  governor-general 
and  prefident  from  their  offices,  and  to  recal  them  to 
Britain." 

The  commons  having  thus  ferioufly  entered  into  a 
confideration  of  Eall  India  affairs,  foon  found  flill 
more  abundant  reafon  for  cenfure.  It  was  difcover- 
td,  that  corruption,  fraud,  and  injuftice,  ha<l  pervaded 
every  department.  It  had  become  an  objeft  with  the 
fervants  of  the  company  to  opprefs  the  natives  by  every 


matter  of  all  the  foil  of  Indoftan  :  which  maxim  he 
was  inclined  to  deftroy,  and  ereft  upon  it  another,  that 
might   fecure     the    land- holders     in    their    property. 


the  land- holders  in  their 
He  propofed  to  fecure  the  nabob  of  Arcot  and  rajah 
of  Tanjore  in  their  territories,  by  making  an  aft  of 
parliam.ent  in  favour  of  the  latter;  but  was  of  opi- 
nion, that  the  debts  of  thefe  princes  ought  not  to  be 
too  nicely  inquired  into,  as  the  greateft  part  of  them 
originated  in  corruption.  He  was  clearly  of  opinion, 
however,  that  Governor  Haftings  ought  to  be  recall- 
ed ;  and  that  Heps  ought  to  be  taken  to  prevent  the 
court  of  proprietors  from  prefuming  to  aft  in  contra- 
didlion  to  parliament.  Lord  Cornwallis  appeared  to 
be  the   moft  proper  fucceflor  to   Mr   Haftings.      His 


poflible  method.     They  monopolized  ever)-  article  of  perfonal  honour,  and  that  of  his  anceftors,  were  pled- 

trade,  and  feemed  to  have  no  other  principle  of  com-  ges  for  his  good  behaviour  ;   and  being  independent  in 

merce   but  lawlefs  violence:  the  Court  of  Direftors  his  fortune,   he   could  have  no   view   of  repairing  his 

fent   out  inftruftions  ;  but  for  the  moft  part  without  eftate  out  of  the  fpoib  of  India  ;  and  from  his  profef- 

any  effeft.     Though  the  delegated,  adminiftjation  of  Con,  he  could  add  to  the  charafter  of  governor  that  of 


(a)  The  power  here  alluded  to  was  Movdajee  Boofla,  Rajah  of  Berar.     See  Indost,in. 


COM 


ICompany.  commander  in  chief;  he  would  not,  however,  infill  on 

— ""V his  name  biing  filled  up  in  the  bill,  as  that  would  rell 

more  properly  with  government. 

Mr  Hallings  was  defended  by  Governor  Johnftonc, 
who  endeavoured  to  ridicule  the  arguments  and  pro- 
polals  of  Mr  Dundas.  He  obferved,  to  the  ho- 
nour of  the  former,  that  he  had  been  able  to  conclude 
a  peace  with  the  Mahrattas ;  andvihilehe  enlarged  on 
his  talents  for  negociatlon,  he  admired  the  refources 
with  which  he  had  fupplied  the  expences  of  the  war. 
It  ought  to  be  conlidered,  that  Mr  Hallings  was  in  a 
fituation  the  moll  difficult,  and  that  no  man  could  have 
fullained  it  with  more  fortitude  and  ability.  His  ene- 
m.ies  had  dealt  in  infinuation  and  inveftive;  but  when 
thehouv  of  trial  came,  they  wouldfind  that  their  charges 
would  he  refuted  with  equal  eafe.  He  was  defended  alfo 
by  Mr  Dempiler,  who  advifed  the  houfe  ferioully  to 
think  before  ihey  paHTcd  a  vote  for  the  removal  of  Mr 
Haftings.  His  exertions  had  been  extracu'dinary ;  and  it 
would  then  be  as  ridiculous  to  fuperfede  him,  as  it 
would  have  been  to  recal  General  Elliot,  when  the 
Spanilh  batteries  were  playing  a^;ain(l  Gibraltar.  He 
was  not,  however,  an  advocate  for  all  the  meafures  of 
Mr  Haftings  ;  his  errors  might  be  numerous  :  but  no 
ccnfure  of  him  (hould  be  eftabliihed  before  they  were 
pointed  out  and  explained. 

Mr  Dundas  having  now  obtained  leave  to  bring 
In  his  bill,  another  was  moved  for  by  Sir  Henry  Flet- 
cher, "  That  leave  be  given  to  bring  in  a  bill  to  dif- 
charge  and  indemnify  the  united  company  of  mer- 
chants trading  to  the  Eaft  Indies,  from  all  damages, 
interell,  and  lolTis,  in  refpeft  to  their  not  making  re- 
gular payment  of  certain  fnms  due  to  the  public,  and 
to  allow  farther  time  for  fuch  payment ;  to  enable  the 
company  alio  to  Ijorrow  a  certain  fum  of  money,,  and 
to  make  a  dividend  to  the  proprietors  of  iour per  cent, 
at  midlummer  1783."  He  endeavoured  to  fliow, 
that  the  public  had  derived  very  confiderable  advan- 
tages from  the  company  ;  that  their  dividend  had  been 
L.  8,  4s.  annually  during  the  time  of  peace,  and 
L.  7,  15s.  per  cent,  during  war;  they  were  by  no 
means  in  a  ftate  of  infolvency,  as  fome  members  had 
endeavoured  to  prove,  their  prefent  application  pro- 
ceeding only  from  a  temporary  embarrafl'ment.  A 
new  difpute  took  place  concerning  Mr  Hallings,  wlio 
was  warmly  attacked  by  Mr  Burke,  and  defended  by 
Governor  Johnftone.  The  former  enlarged  on  the 
bloodfted,  ravages,  and  rapacity,  which  had  taken 
place  in  India.  The  eftablifhed  fyftem  of  the  fervants 
of  the  company,  he  faid,  was  rapine  and  robbery.  The 
Mahratta  war  was  occafioned  by  their  refufal  to  be 
robbed  ;  the  famine  at  Madras  was  occafioned  by  the 
niifcondutt  of  the  Englilh  government  in  India  ;  and 
hefet  forth  in  ftrong  colours  the  manner  in  which  the 
Indian  princes  and  princefTes  had  been  plundered.  He 
inftanced,  that  Mr  Hallings  had  raifed  L.  800,000  in 
Bengal  by  private  loan ;  and  ufed  it  as  an  argum.ent, 
that  the  company  had  ceafed  to  exiil,  and  that  their 
commerce  was  nothing  more  than  an  inftrument  for 
procuring  inmienfe  fortunes  to  individuals,  totally  deili- 
tute  of  confcience  or  principle. 

All  this  was  exculed  by  Governor  Johnftone.  He 
regarded  the  fum  of  L.  000,000  as  merely  trifling, 
when  the  number  of  civil  and  military  fervants  on  the 
Bengal   government  was   confidered.     The  famiue  at 


C     237     ]  COM 

Madras  was  o\\  ing  to  the  modes  of  war  which  prevail-  Company. 


ed  in  the  Eaft  ;  as  the  enemy  there  marked  their  """V" 
courfe  by  defolation.  He  concluded  with  cenfuring 
the  manner  in  which  Mr  Haftings  had  been  fpoken  of; 
and  infifted  that  his  high  reputaiion  ought  to  have 
guarded  him  from  fuch  intuits.  Mr  Burke  replied  by 
an  iutimation  of  his  delign  to  impeach  Mr  Hallings  on 
his  return  ;  whom  he  called  tke  greateft  delinquent 
that  had  ever  violated  in  India  the  rights  of  humanity 
and  juftice. 

It  was  obferved  by  Lord  John  Cavendifti,  that  the 
territorial  acquiiitions  of  the  company  were  a  fruitful 
fource  of  grievance  ;  and  it  would  have  been  more  for 
their  advantage  to  have  confined  thcmlelves  to  their 
original  charaiter  of  merchants.  However,  as  the 
territorial  acquiiitions  had  been  ob".  lined,  it  was  pro- 
per to  take  means  for  their  prefervation  ;  aj  otherwife 
they  would  not  revert  to  the  natives,  but  fall  into  tha 
hands  of  our  natural  enemies  the  French. 

In  the  houfe  of  peers  the  caufe  of  the  company  was 
ably  defended  by  Earl  Fitzwilliani.  He  maintained, 
ti\at  their  fituation  was  defperate,  and  bankruptcy  ine- 
vitable, unlefs  relief  was  iuftanily  afforded.  A  report 
of  their  being  in  an  infolvent  ftate  had  gone  abroad; 
and  nothing  was  better  calculated  to  preferve  and  fup- 
p  -rt  their  credit  than  a  large  dividend  famftioned  by 
aft  of.  parliament.  The  expenditure  on  their  fettle- 
ments  had  far  exceeded  their  revenue  ;  of  confequence 
their  fervants  had  drawn  bills,  which  they  were  unable 
to  anfwer  without  a  temporary  fupply.  Thus  the 
exillence  of  the  company  might  be  faid  to  depend  on 
the  bill ;  and  he  h.oped  no  objeflions  could  be  raifed 
ftrong  enough  to  detlroy  it. 

On  the  i.Sth  of  November  1783,  Mr  Fox  propofed 
his  celebrated  Eaft  India  bill,  which  for  fome  time" 
attrafted  the  attention  of  the  nation  at  large  in  a  very 
confiderable  degree.  By  this  it  was  intended  to  take 
from  the  India  proprietors  and  diredlors  tlie  entire  ad- 
miniftration  of  their  territorial  and  commercial  affairs. 
It  cook  from  them  alfo  their  houfe  in  Leadeiihall- 
ftreet,  togetlier  with  all  books,  papers,  and  documents, 
veiling  the  entire  management,  the  appointment  of  all 
officers  and  fervants,  the  rights  of  peace  and  war,  and 
the  difpolal  of  the  whole  revenue,  in  the  hands  of  cer- 
tain commiifioners.  Thefe  were,  in  the  firft  inftancc, 
to  be  appointed  by  the  whole  legiikture,  but  after- 
wards by  the  crown  ;  and  were  to  hold  their  offices  by 
the  fame  tenure  as  the  judges  in  England,  viz.  during 
their  good  behaviour;  and  could  be  removed  only  by 
an  addrefs  from  one  of  the  houfes  of  parliament.  They 
were  required  to  come  to  a  decifion  upon  every  que- 
ftion  within  a  limited  time,  or  to  allign  a  fpecific  rea- 
fon  for  their  delay.  They  were  never  to  vote  by  bal-  . 
lot  ;  and,  almoft  in  every  cafe,  were  to  enter  the  rea- 
fon  of  their  vote  in  their  journals.  They  were  alfo  to 
fubmit,  once  evci-y  fix  months,  an  exaft  ftate  of  their 
accounts  to  the  court  of  piopiietors  ;  and  at  the  be- 
ginning of  every  feflion,  a  ftate  of  their  accounts  and 
eilablifhments  to  both  houfes  of  parhament.  Their 
nmnber  was  limited  to  i'even  ;  but  they  were  to  be  af- 
filed by  a  board  of  nine  perfons,  each  of  them  poffef- 
fcd  of  L..  2000  company's  llock  ;  who,  as  well  as  the 
commiffioners,  were  to  be  appointed  in  the  firft  in- 
ilance  by  parliament,  and  ever  afterwards  by  the  court; 
of  prc^jrietors.     They  were  rjfo  to  be  remuvcable  at 

the 


C     O     M 


■C-^mrany.  the  pltf.fuio  of  any  fme  commifilonevs,  and  were  dif- 
'■'~~''~~'  (jualilled  from  fitting  in  die  houfe  of  commons.     Tlie 
%vhole  fyftem  of  government  thus  jiropofjd,  was  to  con- 
tinue for  the  fpacc  of  three  or  i\\i  years. 

Tliis  was  accompanied  with  another  bill,  tlie  pro- 
■ftlTcd  defijrn  of  which  was  to  preclude  all  arbitrary  and 
defpotic  proceedings  from  the  admiulilration  oi  the 
■company's  territorial  potfcffions.  By  this  the  powers 
of  tlie  governor-general  and  fupreme  council  were  af- 
certained  more  exactly  than  had  hitherto  been  done  ; 
it  deprived  the  governor-general  of  all  power  of  acl- 
ing  independent  of  his  council ;  profcribed  the  dele- 
gation of  any  truft  ;  and  declared  every  Britiih  power 
in  the  Eall  incompetent  to'  the  acquiiition  or  exchange 
of  any  tenitory  in  behalf  of  the  company,  to  the 
acceding  to  any  treaty  of  partition,  the  hiiing  out  of 
the  company's  troops,  the  appointing  to  office  any 
perfon  removed  for  mifdemeanour,  or  to  the  hiring 
out  any  property  to  a  civil  ftrvant  of  the  company. 
By  tills  alfo  monopolies  were  entirely  abolinied  ;  and 
illegal  prefents  recoverable  by  any  perfon  for  his  fole 
benefit.  The  principal  part  of  the  bill,  however,  re- 
lated to  the  Zemindars,  or  native  landlioldeis,  who 
were  now  to  be  fccurcd  by  evenr  pofiible  means  in  the 
polRfn.on  of  their  refpective  inheritances,  and  defend- 
ed in  all  cafes  from  oppreflion.  Laitly,  a  mode  was 
prefented  for  terminating  the  difputes  between  the 
nabob  of  Arcot  and  the  rajah  of  Tanjour ;  difquali- 
fying  every  perfon  in  the  fervice  of  the  company  from 
fitting  in  the  Houfe  of  Commons  during  his  continu- 
ance in  their  fervice,  and  for  a  ceitain  fpecilied  time 
after  his  demifTion. 

During  the  courfe  of  the  debates  on  this  biU,  Mr 
Fox  fet  forth  the  afi'airs  of  the  company  as  in  the  moll 
defperate  fituation.  They  had  afl^cd  leave,  he  faid, 
the  year  before,  to  borrow  L.  500,000  upon  bonds  ; 
had  petitioned  for  L.  300,000  in  exchequer  bills  ;  and 
for  the  fufpenfion  of  a  demand  of  L.  700,000  due  to 
government  for  cuRoms.  He  took  notice  alfo,  that, 
according  to  an  aft  of  parliament  lliU  in  force,  the 
direftors  could  not,  by  their  own  authority,  accept 
bills  to  the  amount  of  more  than  L.  300,000  ;  under 
which  circumllances  it  would  no  doubt  furprife  the 
houfe  to  be  informed,  that  bills  were  now  coming  o- 
ver  for  acceptance  to  the  amount  of  L.  2,000,00c. 
It  was  evidently,  therefore,  and  indifpenfably  neccffary, 
that  government  fhould  interfere  in  the  afiairs  of  the 
company  to  fave  them  from  certain  bankruptcy.  He 
Jlated  their  aftnal  debt  at  no  lels  than  L.  1 1,200,000, 
while  their  ftock  in  hand  did  not  exceed  L.  3,200,000. 
There  was  therefore  a  deficiency  of  L.  8,oco,ooc ;  a 
raoft  alarming  fum  when  compared  with  the  compa- 
ny's capital.  Unlefs  fpeedily  affiiled,  therefore,  they 
mull  inevitably  be  ruined  ;  and  the  ruin  of  a  company 
of  merchants  fo  extenfive  in  their  concerns,  and  of 
fuch  importance  in  the  eyes  of  all  Europe,  could  not 
but  give  a  very  fevere  blow  to  the  national  credit. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  requifite  afliftance  was  a  matter 
of  very  extenfive  coniideration.  It  woiJd  be  abfolutely 
neceflary  to  permit  the  acceptance  of  the  bills  to  the 
above  mentioned  amount  ;  and  to  do  this  without  re- 
gulating their  affairs,  and  reforming  the  abufes  of  their 
c;overnment,  would  only  be  to  throw  away  the  pubUc 
money. 

The  conduft  of  the  company's  fervants,  and  of  the 


[       238       ] 


COM 


company  itfel^  was  now  anaigned  by  Mr  Fox  in  the  Conuimi', 
moil  levere  terms  ;  and  their  mifoonducls  were  point-  ~~~v  "^ 
cd  out  under  the  following  heads  : 

I.  With  regard  to  Mr  Hallings. — The  chairman 
of  the  committee  had  moved  in  the  houfe  of  com- 
mons, that  it  was  the  duty  of  the  company  to  recal 
that  gentleman  ;  to  which  motion  the  houle  had  a- 
grecd.  In  obedience  to  this  refolution,  the  diretlors 
had  agreed  that  Mr  Mailings  fhould  be  recalled  :  but 
fuppofing  this  to  be  a  matter  rather  beyond  their  ju- 
rifdiftion,  they  had  fubmitted  their  determination  to 
a  court  of  proprietors,  who  refcinded  the  refolution  of 
the  direftors  ;  and  after  this  the  whole  affair  came  to 
be  laid  before  the  houfe  of  commoiVj.  In  the  mean 
time  eveiy  thing  was  anarchy  and  confufion  in  the 
Eall,  owing  to  this  unfettled  conduft  with  regard  to 
the  governor ;  as  the  whole  continent  had  been  made 
acquainted  with  the  refolution  of  the  houfe  for  recal- 
ling hinr,  while  that  of  the  proprietors  for  continuing 
him  in  his  office  was  kept  a  fecret.  The  proprietors 
had  alfo  been  guilty  of  another  coiitradiftion  in  this 
rcfpeft,  as  they  had  voted  thtii  thanks  to  Mr  Halt- 
ings  for  his  conduft  in  India.  Hence  Mr  Fox  was 
led  to  com.ment  on  the  nature  of  the  company's  con- 
neftions  with  their  fervants  abroad,  as  well  as  en  the 
charafter  of  the  company  themfelves.  Among  the 
former,  he  faid,  there  were  a  few,  who,  being  pro- 
prietors themfelves,  endeavoured  to  promote  the  trade 
of  the  company,  and  increafe  its  revenues.  The  views 
of  the  reft  were  othenvife  direfted  ;  and  from  the  dif- 
ference in  fpeculation  between  the  two  parties,  the 
former  were  inclined  to  fupport  that  governor  who 
enabled  them  to  make  large  dividends  ;  and  who,  for 
that  reafon,  after  having  peculated  for  his  own  advan- 
tage, was  obliged  to  do  the  fame  for  the  benefit  of 
the  proprietors.  The  latter,  thei  efore,  could  not  bet- 
ter gratify  their  willies,  than  by  fupporting  a  governor 
who  had  in  his  power  fo  many  opportunities  of  pro- 
viding for  his  friends. 

2.  The  next  charge  was  againll  the  fervants  of  the 
company,  whom  he  accufed  of  a  regular  and  fyftema- 
tic  difubedience  to  the  orders  of  the  proprietors. — 
The  fupreme  council  of  Bengal,  he  faid,  had  refolvtd, 
in  oppofition  to  Mr  Hallings,  to  fend  two  gentlemen, 
Jlr  Towke  and  Mr  Briftow,  the  one  to  refide  with 
the  Nabob  of  Oude,  the  other  at  Benares.  Mr  Haft- 
ings,  however,  refufed  to  fend  them  :  the  direclors 
tranfmitted  the  moll  pofitive  orders  to  carrj-  the  vote 
of  the  fupreme  council  into  execution  ;  but  ilill  Mr 
Haftings  difobeyed  ;  alleging  in  his  defence,  that  he 
could  not  employ  perloiis  in  whom  he  had  ne  confi- 
dence. Afterwards,  however,  Mr  Haftings  feemed 
to  contradift  hinifelf  in  a  very  curious  manner.  He 
granted  Mr  Fowke  a  contract,  with  a  commiflion  of 
I  ^  per  cent.  ;  which,  he  obferved,  was  a  great  fuin, 
and  might  operate  as  a  temptation  to  prolong  the  war. 
"  But  (added  he)  the  entire  confidence  I  have  in  the 
integrity  and  honour  of  Mr  Fowke,  amounts  to  a  tuU 
and  perfect  fecurity  on  that  head." 

To  this  Mr  Fox  added  fome  other  inftanccs  of  a 
fimilar  kind  ;  but  though  he  fupported  thefe  and  the 
projeCled  bill  with  all  the  argument  and  eloquence  for 
which  he  is  fo  remarkable,  he  found  it  impolTible  to 
make  his  fcheme  agreeable  to  the  majority  of  the 
houfe.     The  ftrongeil  opponent  was  Mr  William  Pitt, 

who 


COM  [ 

e.inpsny.  who  infifted  chiefly  on  the  two  following  topics.    I. 


Its 


infringement,  or  rafher  annihilation  of  tlie  company's 
charter  ;  and,  2.  The  new  and  unconiUtiitional  in- 
fluence it  tended  to  create. — He  owned  indeed,  thnt 
India  Hood  in  need  of  a  reform,  but  not  fuch  a  one 
as  broke  through  every  principle  of  juilice  and  reafon. 
The  charter  of  the  company  was  a  fair  purchafe  from 
the  public,  and  an  equal  compa<f>  for  reciprocal  advan- 
tages between  the  pioprietors  and  the  nation  at  large; 
but  if  it  was  infringed  in  the  manner  propofed  by  the 
hill,  what  fecurity  could  other  trading  companies  have 
that  they  ihould  not  be  treated  in  the  fame  manner  i' 
nay,  what  fecurity  could  there  be  for  Magna  Charta 
itfclf  ?  The  bill,  he  faid,  amounted  to  a  confifcation 
of  property.  It  had  been  fuggefted  indeed,  that  it 
was  not  a  bill  of  disfranchifcnient,  becaufe  it  did  not 
take  from  the  proprietots  their  right  to  an  exclufive 
trade  ;  but  this  was  not  the  only  franchife  of  the  pro- 
prietors. A  freehold  might  have  a  franchife  annexed 
to  it,  the  latter  of  which  might  be  taken  away,  and 
yet  the  property  of  the  former  remain  ;  in  whicli  cafe 
it  could  not  be  denied  that  the  freeholders  would  have 
great  caiife  to  complain.  The  cafe  was  exaftly  pa- 
rallel with  the  India  ilock.  Perfons  poflTeficd  of  this 
to  a  certain  amount,  were  intitled  to  a  vote  upon  eveiy 
important  queltion  of  the  company's  affairs  ;  and  on 
this  accc^unt  the  purchafe-money  was  more  'confide- 
rable.  But,  by  the  bill  in  queftion,  this  privilege  was 
to  be  taken  away  ;  which  plainly  amounted  to  a  dif- 
franchifement. 

The  great  objeflion  to  this  bill,  however,  fcemed  to 
be  a  fufpicion  that  it  was  a  fcheme  of  Mr  Fox  to  gra- 
tify^ his  own  perfonal  ambition  as  a  miiiiller,  he  being 
at  that  time  fecretary  of  ftate.  On  this  account  he 
was  deferted  even  by  the  patriotic  members,  who,  up- 
on former  occafions,  had  io  ftrenuoufly  fupported  bis 
caufe. —  Mr  Dundas  accufed  him  of  attempting  to 
create  a  fourth  eftate  in  the  kingdom,  the  power  and 
influence  of  wliich  might  overturn  the  crown  and  fub- 
vert  the  conftitution  of  Britain.  A  petition  was  pre- 
fented  from  the  proprietors,  and  another  from  the  di- 
reftors  of  the  company,  reprefenting  the  bill  as  fub- 
verfive  of  their  charter,  and  connfcating  their  pro- 
perty, without  either  charge  of  delinquency,  trial,  or 
conviftion.  Thty  prayed,  therefore,  that  the  atts  of 
delinquency  prefumed  againft  them  might  be  flated  in 
writing,  and  a  reafonable  time  allowed  them  to  deliver 
in  their  anfwer  ;  and  that  they  might  be  lieard  by 
counfel  againft  the  bill.  About  the  fame  time  the 
directors  gave  in  a  ftate  of  the  company's  affairs,  dif- 
fering in  the  moft  extraordinary  manner  from  that 
given  by  Mr  Fox.  In  tiiis  they  reprefented  the  creditor 
iide  of  the  account  as  amounting  to  L.  14,31  1,1  7-5, 
and  they  brought  themfelves  in  debtors  to  the  amount 
of  L.  10,342,692  ;  fo  that  of  confequonce  there  was 
a  balance  in  their  favour  of  L. 3,968,481.  This  was 
vehemently  contefted  by  the  fecretaiy,  who  faid  he 
could  bring  objeftions  to  the  ftatcment  of  the  direc- 
tors to  the  amount  of  more  than  L.  12,000,000  Ster- 
ling. He  then  entered  into  a  particular  difcuffion  of 
the  articles  ftated  in  the  directors  account,  and  made 
good  his  alTertion.  Objeftions  to  his  method  of  cal- 
culation, however,  were  made  on  the  part  of  the  com- 
pany ;  fo  that  nothing  could  certainly  appear  to  the 
public-but  that  the  company  were  at  that- time  much 


39    1  CO     M 

diftreffcd,  and   would   fail   entirely   unl»  fs   powcrfullv  Co:i,j>aiij'. 
fupported  by  government.  *— — ~/     '  ' 

Mr  Fox    now  proceeded  to  a   particular  refutation 
of  the  arguments  brought  againll  the   bill;    in   which 
indeed   he  difplayed  an  aftonilhing  force  of  argument 
and   acutencfs   of   reifoning.       The    objedion  drawn 
from  the  validity   of  the  company's  charter,   he  fet  a- 
fide,   by  fliowing   that   the   company  had  abufed  their 
power,  and  that   it  was  therefore   necefTary  to   take  it 
from  them.     This  he  faid  always  had  been   the  cafe, 
and  muft  be  the  cafe,  in  a  free  nation  ;  and  he  brought 
the  example   of  James  II.   who,  on  aceoimt  of  the  a- 
bufe  of  his  power,  had  been  deprived  of  it  by  the  na- 
tion at  large.     The  cafe  was  the  fame  with  the  com- 
pany.    They  had  made  a  bad  ufe  of  their  power,  and 
therefore  the   nation  at  large  ought  to  deprive  them 
of  it.     It  had  been  objedlad  by  the  country  gentle- 
men, that  the  bill  augmented  the  influence  of  tlie  croivn 
too  much  ;  and  by  Mr  Dundas,  that  it  reduced  it  to 
nothing.   Both  thefe  objections,  he  faid,  were  overturn- 
ed by  the  circumftance  of  making  the  commilTioucri 
hold  their  ofiice  only  during  good  behaviour.      Thiii., 
when  confcioiis  that  they  were  liable  to  punifliment  if 
guilty,   but   fecure   in    cafe  they  faithfully  difcharged 
their  trull,  they  would  be  liable  to  no  feduiition,  bu: 
would  execute   their   functions  with   glory   to    them- 
elves,  and  for  the  common  good  of  their  country  and 
of  mankind.      He   then   drew  a  comparifon  betwixt 
his   own  bill,  and    that  of  Mr  Dundas's  already  men- 
tioned.    The  bill  of  the  latter,  he  faid,  had  created 
a  defpotic  authority  in  one  man  over  fome  millions  of. 
hii  fellow-creatures  ;  not  indeed  in  England,  where  the 
remedy  againft  oppreifion  was  always  at  hand  ;  but  in 
the  Eaft  indies,  where    violence,   fraud,    and   mifchief 
every  where  prevailed.      Thus  the  bill  propofed  by  Mr 
Dundas  afforded  the   moft  extenfive  latitude  for  mal- 
verfation,  while  his  own  guarded  againft  it  with  every 
poffible  care  ;  as  was  inftanced  in  its  confiding  in  no 
integrity  ;  trufting  in  no  charatler  ;  and  annexing  re- 
fponlibil:ty  not  only  to  every  aftion,  but  even  to  the 
iiiaclion  of  the  powers  it  created. 

After  having  expatiated  for  a  confiderable  time,  the 
fecretary  was  feconded  by  Mr  Burke,  whofe  force  (;f. 
oratory  was  chiefly  dircftcd,  as  indeed  it  ufuallv  has 
been  when  fpeaking  of  India  affairs,  on  the  monf- 
trous  abufe  of  the  company's  power  in  that  quarter. 
He  affirmed  that  there  was  not  in  India  a  fingle  prince, 
llate,  or  potentate,  with  whom  the  company  had 
come  inlo  conlc.3,  \\  horn  they  had  not  fold  ;  that  there 
was  not  a  fingle  treaty  they  had  ever  made  which  tliey 
had  not  broken ;  and  that  there  was  not  a  fingle  prince 
or  ftate  that  had  ever  put  any  confidence  in  the  com- 
pany who  had  not  been  ruined.  With  regard  to  the 
firft  article,  Mr  Burke  inftanced  the  fale  of  the  Great 
Mogul  himfelf;  of  the  Rohillas;  the  nabob  of  Bengal; 
the  polygars  of  the  Mahratta  empire  ;  Ragobah  the 
pretender  to  that  empire  ;  and  the  Subah  of  Decan. 
- — The  fecond  article  was  proved  by  a  review  of  the 
tranfaftions  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  Mah- 
ratta war.  With  regard  to  the  third,  wz.  the  ruin 
of  fuch  princes  as  put  any  confidence  in  the  company 
or  their  fervants,  he  defired  them  to  look  into  the 
hiftory  and  fituation  of  the  nabob  of  Oude.  In  the 
year  1779,  this  country  had  been  vifited  by  a  famine;  . 
a  calamity  which  had  been  known  to  relax  the  feve- 

ricy 


COM 

Company,  rity  even  of  the  itioft  rigorous  government 
^**^'"~~^  this  fituation  the  prcfident  of  Bengal  had  put  an  ab- 
folute  negative  upon  the  reprefcntation  of  the  prince  ; 
adding,  that  perliaps  expedients  might  be  found  for 
affording  him  a  gradual  relief ;  but  their  efiltl  mull 
be  dillant.  This  diflant  relief,  however,  never  arri- 
ved, and  the  country  was  ruined. 

Our  limits  cannot  allow  a  particular  detail  of  the 
charges  againft  the  company  on  the  one  hand,  or  the 
defences  on  the  other.  In  general,  it  muft  appear, 
that  fuch  fevere  and  heavy  charges  could  not  be  ad- 
vanced without  feme  foundation,  though  perhaps  they 
may  have  been  confiderably  exaggeiated  by  the  ora- 
tors who  brought  them.  The  pifture  drawn  by  Mr 
Burke  on  this  occafion  indeed  was  fhocking.  "  The 
Aiabs,  Tartars,  and  Perfians,  had  conquered  Indoflan 
with  vaft  effufion  of  blood  ;  while  the  conquefts  of  the 
Englifh  had  been  acquired  by  artifice  and  fraud,  ra- 
ther than  by  open  force.  The  Afiatic  conquerors, 
however,  had  foon  abated  of  their  ferocity,  and  the 
Ihoit  life  of  man  had  been  fufficient  to  repair  the  wafte 
they  had  occafioncd.     But  with  the  Enghfli  the  cafe 


had  been  entirely  different.  Their  conquells  were 
ftill  in  the  fame  ftate  they  had  been  20  years  ago. 
They  had  no  more  fociety  with  the  people  than  if 
they'  Hill  refided  in  England  j  but,  with  the  view  of 
making  fortunes,  rolled  in  one  after  another,  wave  af- 
ter wave  ;  fo  that  there  was  nothing  before  the  eyes 
of  the  natives  but  an  endlefs  profpeft  of  new  flights  of 
birds  of  prey  and  pafTage,  with  appetites  continually 
renewing  for  a  food  that  was  continually  wafting.  E- 
very  rupee  gained  by  an  Englifiiman  in  India  vi'as  for 
ever  loll  to  that  country.  With  us  there  were  no  re- 
tributory  fuperilitions,  by  which  a  foundation  of  cha- 
rity compenfated,  for  ages,  to  the  poor,  for  the  in- 
juftice  and  rapine  of  a  day.  With  us  no  pride  erec- 
ted ftately  monuments,  which  repaired  the  mifchiefs 
pride  had  occafioncd,  and  adorned  a  country  out  of 
its  own  fpoils.  England  had  erefted  no  churches,  no 
hofpitals,  no  palaces,  no  fchools  (the  trifling  founda- 
tion at  Calcutta  excepted)  ;  England  had  built  no 
bridges,  made  no  high-roads,  cut  no  navigations,  dug 
no  refen'oirs.  Eveiy  other  conqueror  of  eveiy  other 
defcription  had  left  fome  monument  either  of  ftate 
or  beneficence  behind  him  ;  but  were  we  to  be  driven 
out  of  India  this  day,  nothing  would  remain  Xo  tell 
that  it  had  been  po{ren"ed,  during  the  inglorious  pe- 
riod of  our  dominion,  by  any  thing  better  than  the 
ouran  outang  or  the  tiger  !" 

All  this  eloquence,  however,  was  at  prefent  entire- 
ly ineffeftual,  and  the  bill  was  finally  rejected  :  much 
confufion  and  altercation  enfued,  which  terminated  in 
a  change  of  miniftry  and  din"oIution  of  parhament.  On 
the  26th  of  May  1784  a  petition  from  the  company 
was  prefented  to  the  houfe  of  commons,  praying  for 
fuch  relief  as  the  nature  of  their  affairs  might  feem  to 
demand.  This  was  followed  on  the  24th  of  June  by 
a  bill  for  aUowing  the  company  to  divide  tour  per  cent. 
for  the  half  year  concluding  with  midfummer  1784. 
This  having  pafTcd,  after  fome  debate,  a  new  bill  was 
propofed  by  Mr  Pitt  for  relieving  the  company  in  the 
mean  time,  and  regulating  their  affairs  in  time  to 
come.  A  bill  to  this  puipoft  had  been  brought  in 
during  the  laft  feflion  of  the  former  parliament  by 
the  fame  gentle  man,  which  he  wi'hed  to  bring  to  a 
comparifon  with  that  of  Mr  Fox,  of  which  an  ac- 
N  86.-  • 


[     240    ]  COM 

yet  in     count  ha?  already  been  given.     In  this  bill  he  began  Company, 

with  laying  it  down   as  a   principle,  that  "  the  civil  1-— ' 

and  mihtary  government  of  India,  or,  in  other  words, 
the  imperial  dominion   of  our  territories  in  the  Eaft, 
ought  to  be  placed  under  other  controul  than  that  of 
the  merchants  in  Leaden-hall  llreet;  and  this  controul 
could  be  no  other  than  the  executive  branch  of  the 
conllitution.     The  commerce  of  the  company,  how- 
ever, ought  to  be  left  as  free  from  reftriftions  as  pof- 
fible ;  and,  lailly,  capricious  effefts  from  the  govern- 
ment of  India  upon  the  confl;itution  of  Britain,  were 
to  be  carefuUy  avoided.     A  controul  in  the  executive 
branch  of  the  legiflature  over  the  government  of  India 
had    indeed    been    ellabhflied  by    the    regulation   bill 
of  1773  ;   but  the    former   interference    of  miniilers 
had  not   been    beneficial,    becaufe    it    had    not    been 
aftive    and   vigilant.      He   now   propofed,   therefore, 
that    a  board  (hould  be  inftituted    exprefsly   for  the 
purpofe.       This   board   was   to  be  appointed  by  the 
king,  and  to  confift  of  the   fecretar)-  of  ftate  for  the 
home  department,    the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer, 
and  a  certain  number  of  the  privy  council.     To  this 
board  the  difpatches  of  the  company  were  to  be  fub- 
mitted,  and  were   not  to  be  fent  to  India  until  they 
were  counterfigned  by  them.      To  prevent  queftions 
concerning  the   commercial   and  political  concerns  of 
the  company,  it  was  propofed,  that  the  difpatches  up- 
on the  former  fubjeft  Ihouldbe  fubmitted  to  the  board; 
and  that,  in  cafe   of  any  dift'erence,  an   appeal  lliould 
be  made  to  the  king  in  council.     Though  he  (Mr  Pitt) 
had  not  thought  proper  to  accept  of  the  propofal  of 
the   company  to    yield    the    appointment    of  foreign 
councils  to   the   crown,  he   was  neverthelefs  clearly  of 
opinion,  that  the  commander  in  chief  ought  to  be  ap- 
pointed by  the  king.       He  propofed  alfo    that  this 
commander  fliould  liave  a  vote  in  council  next  to  the 
prefident  ;  that  the  king  (liould  be  empowered  to  be- 
llow the  reverfion  of  his  office  ;  that  the  king  might 
i-ec:d  the   governor-general,    the    prefidents,  and  any 
members  of  their  councils.      He  yielded  the  appoint- 
ment of  all  officers,  witli  the  fingle  e:?ceptions  he  had 
ftated,  to  the  couit  of  directors,  fiibjeft,  however,  to 
the  approbation  of  the   king  ;  and  that,  in  cafe  of  a 
negative,    the    diredlors   fliould   proceed  to    a   fecond 
choice,  and  fo  on.      He  deprived  the  court  ofproprie- 
tors  of  their  privilege  of  refcinding  or  altering  the 
pi-ocecdings  of  their  court  of  direftors  ;  and  with  re- 
fpedl  to  the  foreign  government,  he  was  of  opinion,  that 
their  authority  fliould  compiife  in  it  a  confiderable  dif- 
cretion,  accompanied  with  the   reftraint   of  refponfi- 
bilitv.      He  propofed,   that  there  ihould  be   a  rcvifion 
of  the  cflablilhments  in  India  with  a  view  to  retrench- 
ments ;  that   appointments  ihould   take  place  by  gra- 
dation;  and  that  a   new  and  fummary  tribunal  Ihould 
be  ereclcd  for  the  trial  of  offences  committed  In  th;tt 
country.      With  regard  to  the  Zemindarlcs,  though  he 
could  not   help  paying  a  compliment  to  Mr  Fox,  on 
his  intention  of  reftoring  them  to  their  proper  own- 
ers, he  yet -thought    that    a  general  and  indlfcriml- 
nate  reftitution  was  as  bad  as  an  indifcrlmlnate  con- 
fifcation.      He    therefore   propofed,  that    an   inquiry 
fliould  be  inftituted  for  the  purpofe  of  reftoring  fuch 
as  had  been  irregularly  and  unjullly  deprived,  and  that 
they  fliould   in   time  to  come  be  fecured  iigainll  vio- 
lence. 

In  the  bill  of  1784  few  alterations  were  made;  and 

thefe 


COM  [2 

Company,  thefe  uniformly  tended  to  enlarge  the  powers  of  the 
'  '  T  board  of  controul.  They  were  permitted,  in  cafes  of 
emergency,  to  concert  original  meafures,  as  well  as  to 
revife,  correcl,  and  alter  thofe  of  the  direftors.  In 
matters  relative  to  peace  or  war,  where  fecrecy  was  a 
principal  objeft,  they  were  allowed  to  fend  their  otders 
direftlyto  India,  without  any  communication  with  the 
direflors ;  to  the  commander  in  chief,  without  any 
communication  with  the  prefidencies;  and  the  number 
of  perfons  conftituting  the  different  councils  of  Bens^al, 
Fort  St  George,  and  Bombay,  was  determined. — The 
governor-general  and  council  of  Bengal  were  to  have 
an  abfoKite  power  to  originate  orders  to  the  inferior 
prefidencies,  in  fuch  cafes  as  did  not  interfere  with  the 
direftions  already  received  from  Britain  ;  adding  a 
power  of  fufpenfion  in  cafe  of  difobedience.  The  fu- 
preme  council  were  forbidden,  unlefs  any  of  the  Indian 
princes  (hould  have  fiift  commenced  or  meditated  hof- 
tilites,  to  enter  upon  war,  or  form  an  offcnfive  treaty, 
without  orders  from  home.  The  inferior  councils  were 
forbidden  in  all  cafes  to  form  alliances;  and  in  cafes  of 
urgency,  were  commanded  to  infert  a  provifional  claufe, 
rendering  the  permanency  of  the  alliance  dependent  on 
the  confirmation  of  the  governor-general. 

Various  falutary  regulations  were  propofed  concern- 
ing the  behaviour  of  the  company's  fervants,  againft 
whom  fo  great  complaints  had  been  made.  Inquiry 
was  ordered  to  be  made  by  the  different  prefidencies 
into  the  expulfions  that  might  have  been  made  of  any 
of  the  hereditary  farmers,  and  of  the  oppreffive  rents 
and  contributions  that  mijjht  have  been  extorted  from 
them  ;  and  meafures  were  direfted  to  be  taken  for  their 
relief  and  future  tranquillity.  A  fimilar  examination 
was  ordered  into  the  different  eftablUhments  in  the 
Indian  fettlements  ;  a  report  of  which  was  to  be  laid 
annually  before  parliament.  The  company  were  pro- 
hibited from  fending  out  a  greater  number  of  cadets  or 
writers  than  what  were  abfolutely  neceffary;  and  It  was 
likewife  provided,  that  the  age  of  fuch  as  were  fent 
out,  lliould  not  be  lefs  than  i  y,  nor  more  than  22  years. 
It  was  likewile  provided,  that  promotions  fhould  be 
made  in  the  order  of  ferii  ''ty,  unlefs  in  extraordinary 
cafes;  for  which  the  prefidencies  fhould  make  them- 
fclves  fpecifically  refpopfible.  Crimes  committed  by 
Enghfli  fubjefts  in  any  part  of  India,  were  made  amen- 
able to  every  Brltifii  court  of  juftice,  in  the  fame  man- 
ner as  if  they  had  been  committed  in  Britain.  Pre- 
fcnts,  unlefs  fuch  as  were  abfolutely  ceremonial,  or  given 
to  a  counlellor  at  law,  a  phyfician,  a  furgeon,  or  a 
chaplain,  were  abfolutely  prohibited,  under  the  penalty 
of  contifcation  of  the  prefent,  and  an  additional  fine  at 
the  dircr.;tion  of  the  court.  Difobedience  of  orders, 
unlefs  abfolutely  neceffary,  and  pecuniary  tranfadlions 
prejudicial  to  the  interells  of  the  company,  were  de- 
clared to  be  high  crimes  and  mifdcmeanors.  The  com- 
pany were  forbidden  to  interfere  In  favour  of  any  per- 
fon  legally  convitled  of  any  of  the  above  crimes,  or  to 
employ  him  in  their  fervlce  for  ever.  The  governors 
of  the  diffcient  prefidencies  were  alfo  permitted  to  im- 
prifon  any  perfon  fufpefted  of  illicit  correl'pondence, 
and  were  ordered  to  fend  them  to  England  with  all 
convenient  fpeed.  Every  perfon  ferving,  or  who  fliould 
hereafter  ferve,  in  India,  was  alfo  required,  on  his  return 
to  England,  to  give  an  exact  account,  upon  oath,  to 
the  court  of  excliequer,  of  his  property,  within  two 
VoL.V.  Part  1. 


41     ]  COM 

months  after  his  arrival ;  one  copy  of  which  was  to  be  Comrsry. 
kept  in  the  court  of  exchequer,  and  the  other  at  the  '-""^f^ 
India-houfe.  The  board  of  controul,  the  court  of  di- 
reftors,  or  any  three  of  the  proprietors  whofc  Hock 
fliould  amount  together  to  1000 1.  were  allowed  to 
move  the  court  of  exchequer  to  examine  the  validity 
of  the  account.  In  cafe  of  an  apparently  well  founded 
accufation,  the  court  of  exchequer  were  allowed  to  ex- 
amine the  party  upon  oath,  and  even  to  imprifon  Iiim 
until  the  interrogatories  propofed  to  him  (hould  be  an- 
fwered.  The  whole  property  of  a  perfon  who  (houl.l 
negledl  to  give  in  fuch  an  account  within  the  time  li- 
mited, or  who  fliould  have  been  guilty  of  a  mifrcpre- 
fcntation  in  that  account  to  the  amount  of  2000 1.  Ilcr- 
llng,  was  ordered  to  be  confifcated  ;  ten  per  cent,  to  be 
paid  to  the  accufer,  and  the  remainder  to  be  equally 
divided  between  the  public  and  the  company.  Every 
perfon  who  had  once  been  employed  in  India,  but  had 
afterwards  refided  in  Europe  for  five  years,  unltfs 
fuch  refidence  had  been  exprefsly  on  account  of  his 
health,  was  declared  Incapable  of  ever  being  fent  out  to 
India  again. 

Asa  farther  curb  on  the  company's  fervants,  the 
attorney-general  or  court  of  diretloi-s  was  authovlfed 
to  file  an  information  In  the  court  of  King'sbencli  a- 
gainft  any  perfon  for  crimes  committed  in  India.  Tliat 
court  was  empowered  alfo  to  imprifon  or  admit  the 
accufcd  to  bail  Immediately.  It  was  then  ordered, 
that  within  30  days  a  certain  number  of  peers  fliould 
be  chofen  by  the  houfe  of  lords,  and  of  the  members 
of  the  houfe  of  commons  by  that  houfe,  to  conlHtute 
a  court  for  the  trial  of  the  accufed.  The  court  was 
finally  to  confift  of  three  judges  appointed  by  the 
crown,  four  peers,  and  fix  merubers  of  the  houfe  of 
commons  ;  and  the  accufed  had  a  right  to  a  peremp- 
tory challenge.  From  this  court  there  was  no  appeal ; 
and  it  was  empowered  to  adjudge  the  party  incapable 
of  ever  ferving  the  company  ;  to  punifli  by  fine  or  im» 
prifonment  ;  and  in  order  to  proportion  the  fine  to 
the  property  of  the  convlft,  the  court  of  exchequer 
might,  at  the  requifitlon  of  the  attorney-general,  or  of 
the  company,  examine  him  upon  oath  concerning  the 
fum  he  was  worth.  A  refufal  to  anfwer  was  to  be 
punifiied  with  confifcation  of  property,  and  imprifon- 
ment  during  pleafure. 

With  regard  to  the  treatment  of  delinquents  in  In- 
dia, Mr  Pitt  obfen'ed,  that  at  that  time  we  had  it  not 
in  our  power  to  punifli  them.  Either  a  new  pi-ocefr. 
muft  therefore  be  iiifl:ituted,  or  offences,  equally  fliock- 
ing  to  humanity,  and  contrary  to  every  principle  of 
religion  and  juftice,  mull  be  permitted  to  continue  un^ 
checked.  Every  perfon  tliercfore  who  went  hereafter, 
would  know  the  predicament  in  which  he  flood  ;  and 
would  underiland,  that  by  fo  doing  he  agreed  to  give 
up  fome  of  the  mofl;  valuable  privileges  of  an  Enirllfli- 
man  :  yet  in  this  he  would  do  no  more  than  a  vcrv 
numerous  and  honourable  body  of  men,  the  mllitarv, 
did  daily,  without  the  leall  hefitatloii,  or  the  finalkit 
impeachment  of  their  charafter. 

This  bill,  fo  tremendous  in  its  appearance  to  the 
company's  fervants,  was  vehemently  oppofed  by  the 
minority.  Mr  Francis  obfervcd,  lliat  it  went  upon 
two  principles,  -via.  the  abufe  of  power  abroad,  and 
the  want  of  it  at  home.  To  renudy  thefe.  Mi  Pitt 
had  progofed  to  augment  the  power  abroad,  and  to 
H  h  diinliu'lh 


COM 


[     242     ] 


COM 


r>ti  p.nr.  (iJijiniilh  tlif.t  at  home.  He  condemned  the  unliTiteJ 
*—~y-'-'  porvcr  of  tlie  cominifTioneri,  and  evtn  pretended  to 
Uippofe  that  there  muil  have  been  fome  miftake  in  the 
ilriidiiic  of  the  claiife  ;  it  being  iinpoffible  to  think 
that  it  was  intended  to  fet  afide  the  dirtclors  at  home 
End  the  government  abroad,  in  order  to  throw  the 
whole  power  into  the  hands  of  a  military  commander. 
Though  he  approved  of  the  claufe  by  which  fchemes 
of  conquell  and  extcnlion  of  territory  were  condemned, 
he  remarked,  that  it  was  eiTentially  defective  in  other 
refpefts ;  as  alluding  to  fads  and  offences  which  were 
not  dtfcribed,  and  to  criminals  whom,  fo  far  from  pu- 
nifliing,  it  did  not  venture  to  dcfcrlbe.  With  refpeft 
to  the  affair  of  prefents,  he  confeflTed  that  his  opinion 
was  rather  iingular.  He  was  for  an  unlimited  pro- 
hibition to  men  in  high  llatious ;  but  in  the  ordinary 
tranfadions  of  bulincfs,  he  was  of  opinion  that  they 
were  ufeful,  without  giving  room  for  any  juft  fppre- 
heniions.  The  government  of  India,  as  it  wa?  now 
conftituted,  was  a  government  of  favour,  and  not  of 
jullice  ;  and  nothing  would  be  done  for  the  natives 
unlefs  the  perfons  who  forwarded  their  alFairs  were 
gratilied.  In  the  mean  time,  however,  the  exception 
in  favour  of  prefents  of  ceremony  was  founded  upon 
ideas  which  he  knew  to  be  fallacious,  and  was  even 
calculated  to  render  the  prohibition  itfelf  ufelefs  and 
incffeftual.  For  the  purpofe  of  receiving  prefents  of 
cerenionj-,  all  occafions  would  be  fufhciently  foiemn. 
He  warmly  cenfured  alfo  the  power  of  imprifonment 
"iven  to  the  refpcctive  prelidcncies,  and  he  condemned 
the  inlUtut-on  of  the  new  court  of  judicature  as  unne- 
eelfary,  ar!)itrary,  and  dangerous. 

By  Isir  Fox  the  bill  was  fo  highly  disapproved  of, 
that  he  objefted  to  the  houfe  going  into  a  committee 
upon  it.  He  endeavoured  to  lliow,  that  inttead  of 
dimini(hing,  it  was  calculated  to  incrcafc  the  calamities 
of  the  Eaft  ;  and  inlkad  of  reforming,  to  perpetuate 
the  ab'.ifes  fo  mtich  complained  of.  The  board  of 
controul,  he  faid,  provided  for  a  weak  government  at 
home  by  a  divifion  of  power  ;  and  if  there  were  a  re- 
ceipt or  a  nollrum  for  making  a  weak  government,  it 
was  by  giving  the  power  of  contriving  meafures  to  one, 
and  the  nomination  of  the  perfons  who  were  to  execute 
them  to  another.  The  negative  ^iven  to  the  com- 
miffioners  operated  as  a  complete  annihilation  of  the 
company,  and  the  chartered  rights  fo  much  vaunted  of. 
The  bill  was  a  fcheme  of  dark  and  dclufive  art,  and 
took  away  the  rights  of  the  company  by  flow  and  gra- 
dual fap.  The  firll  ftep  v.'as  originally  to  contrive 
meafures  without  tlie  knowledge  of  the  company ;  and 
the  next,  to  convey  orders  fccretly  to  India,  at  the 
very  time  perhaps  that  the  commiffiontrs  were  openly 
giving  countenance  to  orders  of  a  quite  different  ten- 
dency fent  from  the  diredovs.  With  regard  to  the 
new  tribunal,  he  confidered  it  as  in  truth  a  fcreen  for 
dehnquents  ;  fince  no  man  was  to  be  tried  but  on  the 
accufatlon  of  the  company  or  of  the  attorney -general ; 
in  which  cafe  he  had  only  to  conciliate  government  in 


upon  this  fubjeft,  Mr  Dcmpfter  exprelTed  a  widi  that  Companpi 
the  king  could  be  requelled  to  fond  over  one  of  his  "~~v  -' 
fons  to  become  fovereign  of  that  country.  We  might 
then  enter  into  a  federal  union,  and  enjoy  all  the  bene- 
fits that  could  be  derived  from  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Eail  by  Europeans,  -viz.  thofe  of  commerce.  The 
claufes  relative  to  the  native  princes  and  hercdirary 
fai-mers  were  all  withdrawn  at  the  motion  ofMr  JDun- 
das  ;  and  under  the  head  of  prefents,  the  exception  in 
favour  of  thofe  of  ceremony  was  withdrawn.  That 
claufe,  which  infilled  on  all  perfons  returning  from 
India  to  give  an  account  of  the  value  of  their  edates 
upon  oath,  was  fevercly  cenfured  by  Mr  Dempder 
and  Mr  Eden;  and  after  fome  debate  was  entire- 
ly withdrawn,  as  was  alfo  the  idea  of  making  the  per- 
fon  take  the  oath  when  required  bv  the  board  of  con- 
troul.  j\Ir  Pitt  then  propofed,  that  perfons  who  had 
railed  five  years  in  India,  and  aociunulatcd  no  more 
than  E.  5C00  for  tliat  time,  or  double  that  fum  for  the 
next  five  years,  fliould  be  exempted  from  all  profecu- 
tion  on  the  fcore  of  their  fortunes.  But  on  a  fusf- 
gellion  by  Mr  Atxmfon,  that,  in  cafe  of  ficknefs,  it 
might  not  be  practicable  for  a  perfon  arriving  from 
India  to  give  in  an  account  upon  oath  in  the  fpace  oF 
two  months;  on  which  fuggeilion,  a  power  was  grant- 
ed to  the  court  of  exchequer  for  extending  the  term 
from  time  to  time  as  th«y  fliould  think  proper.  It 
had  been  the  original  idea  of  the  chancellor,  that  this 
iurlldicllon  fliould  take  place  in  twelve  months  ;  and 
it  had  been  oJjjcfted,  that  thus  perfi^ns  would  be  de- 
prived of  the  trial  by  jury,  without  time  being  granted 
them  to  choofe  whether  they  would  fubmit  to  the  con- 
dition. Mr  Pitt  now  moved,  that  no  account  upc.ii 
oath  fliould  be  required  of  any  perfon  who  (hould  ar- 
rive from  India  before  the  nrll;  orjanuary  17S7.  This 
amiendment  was  likewlfe  cenfured  by  ,oppofition,  as 
holding  out  an  indemnity  to  peculators,  and  a  warning 
for  them  to  return  within  the  affigned  period.  It 
was  remarked  by  Mr  Sheridan,  that  by  the  bill  before 
the  houle,  a  perfon  who  took  the  oath  would  be  liable 
all  his  lifetime  to  aprofecutlon  for  perjury.  He  could 
therefore  make  nofettlemer»if  his  fortune;  he  could  not 
fell  or  mortgage  his  eftaie,  as  nobody  would  have  any 
thing  to  do  with  a  property  which  was  llill  liable  to- 
coiUeil  aixl  forfeiture.  This  reprefentatlon  produced 
another  amendment,  limiting  the  commencement  of  a 
profecutlon  to  the  period  of  three  yeai'S.  The  claufe 
prohibiting  the  return  of  any  perfon  to  India  under 
certain  conditions,  was  alfo  mitigated  by  two  amend- 
ments from  the  chancellor ;  one  of  them  exempting 
the  ofiicers  of  the  king  from  its  operation  ;  and  the 
other  permitting  the  reftoration  of  any  perfon  with 
the  confent  of  the  diredlors,  and  three-fourths  of  the 
court  of  proprietors. 

With  thefe  amendments  the  bill  finally  paffed  the 
houfe  of  commons  on  the  28th  of  July.  On  being^ 
carried  up  to  the  houfe  of  lords,  it  met  with  a  very  vi- 
gorous opposition  ;  the  pi-inclpal  fpeakers  agalnll  it 
belnjj  Lord  Stormont ,  and  the  Earl  of  Carllfle.      The 


order  to  remain  in  perfett  fccurity  „ 

The  oppofiti'on  of  Mr  Fox's  party  againft  this  bill  former  aniraadveited   upon  the   principle  of  feniority 

proved  as  fruitlefs  as  their  cifo!ts  had  been  in  favour  ertabllflied  by  it  ;  which  he  faid  was  particularly  lU- 

of  the   other.     The  houfe  divided   on  the    fpeaker's  fuited  to  the  critical  pofture  of  affairs  and  our  prefent 

kavinrr  the  chair;  when  the  motion  was  carried  by  a  fituation   in   India;  and  he  afferted,  that  had  fuch  a 

majority  of  215.      Still,  however,  all  parts  of  the  bill  claufe  been  in  effect  at  the  time  that  Lord  Cllve  firfi: 

were  warmly  debated.     In  the  couife  of  converfation  entered  into  the  company's  fervice,  there  would  not 

c  ■                                                                                liav« 


C    O    M 


[ 


Crn'r'nV'  ''^^""^  '^^'^f  '"'  '"ch'of  tlie  ttnltorial  poITifnons  at 
'—— V—  preicnt  bflongiiig  to  iliis  country.  It  would  damp 
tlic  ardour  of  emulation,  check  the  riling  fpirit  of 
the  youth  now  in  Afia,  and  that  at  a  time  when  the 
moil  extraordinary  talents  were  iieceifary  to  raiie  us 
from  our  inaufpicious  and  ruined  condition.  He  oh- 
jeiSed  alfo  to  the  power  of  recal  in  the  board  of  cou- 
troul ;  whicli,  he  faid,  was  by  no  means  a  fufficient 
check  upon  the  company's  fervants  in  India.  The 
ditlaiice  of  lime  and  place,  he  faid,  were  fo  great, 
that  a  recal  from  India  could  not  have  the  leail  ef- 
fert.  But  tliefe  remonflrances  had  very  little  weight 
with  the  lioufe  ;  the  bill  being  llnally  pailed  on  the 
9th  of  Augult. 

Some  years  after  tiiis,  however,  a  declaratory  law  was 
found  ncccffary,  in  confequence  of  a  controverfy  which 
lind  arifen  between  the  board  ofcontroul  and  the  com- 
pany. It  had  been  refolved,  in  the  month  of  Odtobcr 
17S7,  when  his  Majelly  had  reafon  to  be  alarmed, 
and  to  look  vith  more  than  common  anxiety  to  the 
fafetv  and  prefervation  of  every  part  of  the  Britiili 
dominions,  to  fend  out  four  additional  regiments  for 
the  better  protedlion  of  our  Indian  poileffions ;  nor 
was  the  delign  taken  up  as  a  temporary,  but  with  a 
view  to  a  permanent,  ellabh'flimcnt  of  his  Majelly's 
troops  in  India.  At  that  time,  no  unwillingncfs  to 
receive  the  regiments  on  boaid  the  company's  flu'ps, 
and  provide  for  their  fupport  in  India,  had  been  inti- 
mated by  the  court  of  directors  ;  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  meafure  had  been  confidered  as  a  wife  one, 
and  the  fuggeilion  of  it  had  given  imiveiial  fatisfac- 
tion.  Since,  however,  the  threatening  llorm  had  been 
difpcrfed,  far  different  fentiments  prevailed.  Some  of 
the  direftors,  at  leafl,  were  of  opinion,  that  unlefs 
they  made  a  requifition  to  government  for  further  mi- 
lltai-j'  afliilance,  they  had  it  in  their  option  to  bear,  or 
to  refute  to  bear,  the  expence  of  any  additional  regi- 
ments of  his  Majefty's  array  which  miglit  be  fent  to 
India  ;  and  this  opinion  ieemcd  to  be,  in  a  great  mea- 
fure, grounded  on  the  aft  of  1 78 1,  by  which  tlie  Eaft 
111  Jia  company  were  bound  to  pay  for  fuch  of  his  Ma- 
ieft''''s  troops  as  had,  by  their  lequifition,  been  fent  to 
India.  This  idea  had  been  much  agitated  without  doors, 
and  the  direftora  had  thought  proper  to  confult  differ- 
ent counfel  of  eminence  on  tlie  lubjett. 

In  this  bufuiefs  two  qu^'llions  naturally  arofe — Firft, 
Whether  the  king  had  a  right  to  fend  his  troops  to 
any  part  of  his  dominions  ?  and,  fecondly.  If  he  fent 
them  to  India,  who  ought  to  defray  the  expence  ? 
That  his  Majelly  had  an  undoubted  right,  by  hisroval 
prerogative,  to  direft  tlie  diilribution  of  )iis  army,  no 
one  could,  with  any  colour  of  reafon,  difpute.  The  mi- 
iv  j)oint,  therefore,  which  offered  itfelf  for  difcufllon 
was,  v\'hether,  if  his  Majelly,  by  virtue  of  his  preroga- 
tive, thought  proper  to  lend  four  additional  regiments 
to  India,  the  expence  of  fending  them,  and  their  fup- 
port, ought  to  be  provided  for  out  of  the  revenues  of 
India,  which  they  protecled .'  It  was  certainly  the 
opinion  of  minilters,  that  by  the  aft  of  1  784,  the  autho- 
^  rity  and  power  of  the  court  of  directors,  touching  the 

military  and  political  concerns  of  India,  and  alio  the 
colleftion,  management,  and  application  of  the  revenues 
of  the  territorial  poffclFions,  was  transferred  to  the 
board  of  controul,  which  might  direft  the  appropria- 
tion of  thefe  revenues  in  the  manner  that  to   them 


43     ]  COM 

Ihould  appear  to  be  moll  for  the  public  advantage  ;  C  miimny. 
but  as  doubts  had  been  entertained  by  others,  and  the  . 
opinions  of  counfel,  confirming  thofe  doubts,  had  been 
taken,  all  of  which  had  gone  abroad  into  the  world, 
it  was  confidered  as  a  necefiary  meafure  to  call  iijion 
the  different  branches  of  the  legiflature  to  remove  thole 
doubts  in  the  molt  eifeftual  way  by  a  bill.  It  was 
certainly  very  evident,  that,  on  tht?  prefent  occafion, 
the  four  regiments  might,  on  board  the  company's 
fliips,  be  fent  out  to  India  at  a  very  inconhderable  ex- 
pence  ;  whereas,  if  tranfports  had  been  fpeciallv  pro- 
vided lor  that  purpofe,  the  expence  mult  have  been 
enormous.  To  oblige  the  company,  therefore,  to  pay 
tlie  expence  out  of  their  Indian  revenues,  as  had  al- 
ready been  intimated  to  them  by  the  commiflioners  of 
controul,  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  moved,  on 
the  5th  of  February  I  7S8,  "  That  leave  be  given  to 
bring  in  a  bill  for  removing  any  doubts  rtfpefting  the 
power  of  the  commifTioners  for  the  affairs  of  India." 

In  explanation  of  tliis  bill,  and  in  anfwcr  to  the  re- 
maiks  of  oppshtion,  Mr  Pitt  defired  to  remind  the 
houfe  that  he  had  provoked  the  diicufFion  of  the  bill,  ■ 
and  had  earneltly  foiicitcd  them  to  brit^g  it  to  the  tcit 
of  the  mofl  fevere  and  fcrupulous  InvelUgatirvn.  He 
found  that  it  would  be  difputed,  whether  by  the  aft 
of  1 7 84  the  board  of  cont.'oul  had  any  light  of  I'u- 
perintcndence  over  the  revenue  ?  Would  it  be  cor.tend- 
ed  that  parliament  meant  to  leave  the  finances  in  the 
hands  of  the  company,  v^ho  had  been  declared  unfit 
to  be  truded  with  them  ?  Was  it  likely,  that,  when 
they  provided  for  the  better  management  of  the  poli- 
tical and  military  concerns,  they  had  paid  no  atten- 
tion to  the  circ'iniilance  upon  wliich  thefe  concerns  iu- 
fep?.rably  depended  ?  The  board  of  controul  had  al- 
ready proceeded  to  reduce  the  enormous  eflabll(h:nents 
in  India  ;  their  right  of  interference  in  that  rcfpeft 
had  never  been  quellioned  ;  and  what  indeed  would  be 
the  confequence  of  denying  this  right  ?  The  court  of 
direftors,  if  they  had  it  in  their  power,  as  tlie  expi- 
ration of  their  charter  drew  near,  and  it  was  doubt- 
ful whtther  their  monopolv  would  lie  renewed,  would 
certainly  make  it  their  tirlt  objtft  to  fwell  tht  amou'it 
of  their  impoits,  and  Would  iicgk-ct  the  care  of  the 
territorial  and  political  Hate  of  India.  The  duty  of 
adminiftiation  was  to  look,  lirll,  to  the  profperity  and 
happinefs  of  the  natives ;  fecondiy,  to  the  fecurity  of 
the  territorial  polT^fiiint  ;  thirdly,  to  the  difcharge  of 
the  debts  due  to  the  perfons  who  had  advanced  their 
money,  and  enabled  the  company  to  flruggle  with  th;ir 
late  difTiculties ;  and,  in  the  la!l  place,  to  the  com- 
mercial benefit  of  the  proprietors.  Was  it  probal)Ic 
that  the  court  of  direftors  would  aft  upon  that  fcale  ? 
Could  it  have  been  intended  to  confide  in  their  difcre- 
tion  ?  It  had  been  faid,  that  the  powers  attributed  to 
the  board  of  controul  were  the  fame  in  fubflance  as 
had  before  been  given  to  the  /^cretaries  of  Hate  and 
the  lords  of  the  treafury.  But  tlie  faft  was  other- 
wile.  The  court  of  direftors  had  been  obliged  to 
communicate  their  difpatchcs  previous  to  their  o-oing 
to  India  ;  but  thijre  was  no  obligation  upon  the  Secre- 
tary of  flate  to  give  any  direftions  concerning  them. 
The  refponfibility  had  ordinarily  retted,  under  the  for- 
mer government,  with  the  court  of  dircftois  ;  under 
the  prefent  it  was  wholly  vetted  with  the  board  of 
controul. 

H  h  2  An 


C     O     M 


[     244     ] 


COM 


Company.  An  objeAion  had  been  ftated,  that  the  declaratory  That  no  increafe  of  falary  {hould  be  given  to  any  of  Ccmranfi 
^— V—  bill  conveyed  to  the  king  the  power  of  maintaining  the  fervar.ts  of  the  company,  without  the  difpatches  — y— ^ 
an  army  without  the  conlent  of  parliament.     No  pro-     for  that  purpofe  being  laid  before  both  houfes  of  par- 


army 
pofition  (Mr  Pitt  obferved)  could  be  more  adverle  to 
his  intentions  than  that  which  was  thus  imputed  to 
him.  But  in  reality  the  troops  in  quellion  had  already 
been  recogniled  by  parliament  when  they  voted  the 
eilimate  for  raifin^'  them  ;  and  the  number  of  king's 
regiments  lerving  in  India  would  always  be  to  be 
afcevtained  by  the  comp;iny  belonging  to  each,  which 
remained  in  England  for  the  purpofe  of  recruiting, 
and  the  expence  of  which  would  be  to  be  provided  for 
by  pailiament. 

Mr  Pitt  acknowledged,  that  it  had  been  the  objea 
of  the  att  of   1784  to   affume   the   power  of  fuperin- 
tendence  and  controul,   without  affuming  the  power  of 
pationage.      In  the  prefent  bill  he  declared,  that  every 
thing  had  been  done  which  his  undcillanding^had  fug- 
gelled   for  the  diminuiion   of  patronage.     The   regi- 
ments in  quellion  belonged  to  the  crown  ;  and  of  courle 
it  could  not  be  fuppoled   that  the   fovereign  could  en- 
tirely depart  from    his   prerogative  of  naming  his  own 
officers.     But   the  king  had  aCttd  with  the  moll  gra-^ 
cious  attention  to  the  company,  and   to  the  merits  of 
the  ofBctrs  who  had  grcwn  grey  in  their  fervice  ;  ha- 
ving rclinquldicd  nearly  half  the   patronage  of  the  re- 
giments, and  leaving  the  diipolal  of  thefe  commiflions 
to   the  couit  of  directors.     The   company  indeed   al- 
leged that  they  had  600  officers  unemployed  ;   but  the 
king  could  not   foiget  that  he  had  2S00  ofBcers  upon 
half-pay,  not  perhaps  more  meiitorioub,  but  certainly 
not  lefs  fo,  than  thole   in    the   company's  fervice,   and 
many  of  whom  had  aftudlly  fervcd  with  diftinclion  in 
India.      Such  had  been  the  foibearance  he  had  thought 
it  proper   to  exercife  upon  the  iubjeft  of  pationage. 
But  if,  by  the  objection  that  had  been  flarled,  it  was 
intended  to  refer  to  the  great  political  patronage,  this 
he  «Jid  not  deny  that   he   had   at  all  times  intended  to 
aifume.     Men  who  were   refponfible   for  the  govern- 
ment  of  a   country,  ought   undoubtedly  to   have   the 
appoint!i\ent  of  thofe  whom  they  were  to  eniruft  with 
the  execution  of  their  orders.      But   it  would   be  ad- 
mitted  that   the   patronage   lefc   to  the  company  was 
very  confiderable,  when    the  great  extent  cf  their  mi- 
litary eftablifliment  was  properly  recollected.     Mr  Pitt 
added,  that  the   objtdtions  that   were   ilarted  on  this 
head  would  poffibly  throw  difiiciikies  in  the  way  of  the 
confolidalion  of  the   two  armies   in    India  ;  an   objedl 
on  many  accounts   dcfirable,  and   which    in  iorae  way 
or  other  muft  be  attempted.      If  it   fhould  be  thought 
advifable  to  make  the  whole  army  royal,  tlien  undoubt- 
edly the  patronage  of  the  crown  would  be  greatly  in- 
creafed.     He  believed,  however,  that  the  meafuie  was 
neceflary  ;  and  there  was  fcaicely  any  thing  to  which 
he  would  not   alTent,  to   remove  the  apprehenfions  of 
the  nation  refpedting  the  undue  ufe  of  this  patronage. 
Por  the   bill  now  before  the  houle,   Mr  Pitt  profeffcd 
himf;!f  ready  to  propnfc  claui'es  that  Ihould  annihilate 
«verv  fufpicion  of  danger. 

The  fpttch  of  Mr  Pitt  produced  a  favourable  effeft 
vipon  the  country  gentlemen  ;  and  the  claufes  which  he 
had  alluded  to  being  moved,  were  received  without  any 
debate.  'Ihefe  provided.  That  no  king's  troops,  be- 
yond the  number  which  was  now  propoled,  fliould  be 
fest  to  India  under  the  authority  of  any  exilling  law  : 

I 


liainent  thirty  dpys  previous  to  their  being  fcnt  ;  and 
that  no  gratuity  (hould  be  given,  the  propofal  for 
which  did  not  originate  with  the  court  of  dirc£lors. 
A  fourth  claufe  was  added  to  thele  by  the  minillcr, 
which  had  not  prccifely  the  fame  objcdt :  it  direct- 
ed, that  an  account  of  the  revenues  and  difburle- 
ments  of  the  company  fiiould  be  laid  beiore  parlia- 
ment at  a  certain  alfigned  period  in  the  courle  of  every 
year. 

The  bill  was  carried  up  to  the  houfe  of  lords  or> 
the  14th  of  March,  read  a  fiill  time  on  the  following 
day,  which  was  Saturday,  and  propofed  for  a  lecond 
reading  on  the  cnfuing  Monday.  This  prccipitaliou 
was  made  the  lubjeCt  of  a  petition,  offered  by  certain 
proprietors,  and  prefented  to  the  houle  by  the  Duke 
of  Norfolk,  in  which  they  requtlled  a  delay  ot  three 
days,  till  a  general  metting  could  be  held  of  the  pro- 
prietors of  the  Eaft  India  company.  To  this  fugge- 
ition  it  was  objcfted  by  Lord  Thurlow  and  Lord 
Hawkefbury,  that  the  Ihips  of  the  Eall  India  com- 
pany were  now  detained  in  port  at  the  enormous  ex- 
pence  of  three  or  four  hundred  pounds />«•  iliem.  By 
Lord  Stormont  and  Lord  Loughboiough  it  was  re- 
plied, that  no  expence,  howcvergreat,  ought  to  weigh 
in  the  conlideratlon  of  the  prclcnt  quellion.  The  bill 
decided  upon  a  matter  of  private  right,  and  parha- 
ment  could  not  jullly  refufc  to  hear  the  petitioners. 
The  houle  divided  upcn  the  quellion,  contents  32, 
not  contents  75.  A  motion  ot  Lord  Porchcfter  was 
rejcded  by  a  limilar  majority,  for  referring  a  quellion 
to  the  twelve  judges  rcfpedting  the  true  meaning  and 
intent  of  the  ad  of  1784. 

The  Duke  of  Richmond  faid,  that  he  was  peculiar- 
ly circumllanced  on  the  prelent  occafion,  fince  he  had 
never  been  pleafed  with  any  of  the  bills  for  the  go- 
vernment of  India  that  had  yet  been  brought  into 
parliament.  He  had  ever  been  of  opinion,  that  the 
concerns  of  the  Eall  were  trulled  in  the  belt  hands 
when  they  were  veiled  in  the  company  itlelt.  He  had 
oppolcd  the  bill  of  17^3,  becaufe  it  flagrantly  violated 
the  charter  of  tlie  company,  and  placed  an  immenfe 
power  in  the  hands  01  a  commiffion,  that  was  not  re- 
fponfible, fo  far  as  he  could  find,  either  to  the  king 
or  the  parliament.  He  had  oppofed  the  aCt  of  I7!>4, 
becaufe  it  gave  to  the  crown  an  enormous  addition  ot 
power.  But  he  could  not  admit  that  that  act  was  ill 
any  degree  fo  violent  and  delpotical  as  the  bill  which 
preceded  it.  'Phe  declaratory  meafure  now  under  con- 
lideratlon mufl  neccffarily  have  his  complete  approba- 
tion. It  conlilled  of  two  dilUnft  paits;  its  expoli- 
tion  of  the  aft  of  1784,  and  certain  enading  claufea 
containing  checks  and  rcftrairits  upon  the  cxtenlive 
patronage  that  the  government  of  the  Eall  naturally 
gave.  To  tlie  former  part  he  mull  inevitably  agree. 
That  the  aft  of  17S4  gave  to  the  board  ot  controul 
complete  authority,  had  always  been  his  opinion.  For 
that  reafon  he  had  oppoled  it:  but,  enteitaining  that 
opinion,  he  muft  juflily  the  prefent  bill,  which  in  his 
mind  was  a  true  declaration  of  the  faft.  He  could 
not  but  equally  approve  of  the  reftraints  that  were 
propcfcd  upon  the  exercile  of  patronage.  Patronage 
was  infeparable  from  power.     But  when  he  faw  the 

in-- 


COM 


[     245     1 


COM 


Comrany,  indiiftry  with  whicli  it  was  limited,  and  minifters  were 
'~"~v~~-' titd  down  from  the  abvife  of  it;  when  he  faw  that 
it  was  not  to  bf  ufed  otherwife  than  for  the  good  of 
the  fervije,  he  could  not  view  the  prefcnt  mcaiure 
with  the  fame  jeiiloufy  with  which  he  was  aceultomed 
to  reijard  propoiuions  for  extending  the  powtr  ot  the 
crown. 

The  bill,  however,  underwent  a  fevere  dlfci'.fiion  in 
this  as  it  had  done  in  the  oihcr  houfe  ;  but  at  length 
paifed. 

In  M?V  following  a  petition  was  prefented  to  the 
houfe  of  commons  by  the  company,  Itating  certain 
pecuniary  cmbarraflments  which  they  appreliendcd  to 
take  place  on  the  fiift  of  March  1790,  owing  to  the 
arrears  of  the  war,  to  the  government  claim  of 
L..Joo,ooo,  to  the  debt  incurred  in  China,  and  to 
the  advances  neccffary  to  be  made  for  the  purpoles  of 
the  China  trade.  In  compliance  with  their  peti- 
tion, Mr  Pitt  moved  on  the  following  day  that  they 
fiiould  be  empowered  to  borrow  a  lum  not  exceeding 
L.  1,200,000.  He  at  the  fane  time  obfcrved,  that 
in  all  probability  the  company  in  1 79 1  would  have  up- 
wards of  L.  3,000,000  Sterling  more  than  fuiScient  to 
difcharge  their  debts.  The  meafure  was  carried  thro' 
both  houfcs  without  oppoCtion. 

3.  Hudfon's  Bay  Company.  Thevaft  countries  which 
furr-ound  Hudfon's  Bay  abound  with  aninials  whole 
furs  and  fivins  are  excellent,  being  tar  fuperior  in  quality 
to  thofe  found  in  lefs  northerly  regions.  In  1670, 
a  charter  was  granted  to  a  company,  which  does  not 
confrll  of  above  nine  or  ten  per  Ions,  for  the  exclufive 
tr-ade  to  this  bay  ;  and  they  have  adtcd  under  it  ever 
frnce  with  great  benefit  to  thcmfelves.  The  company 
employ  four  Iliips  and  130  feamen.  They  have  ieve- 
val  forts,  ni'iz.  Prince  of  Wales's  fort,  Chirrchill  river, 
Nelfon,  New  Severn,  and  Albany,  which  Hand  on  the 
well  irde  of  the  bay,  and  are  garrifoned  by  186  men. 
The  French,  in  May  1782,  took  and  deilroyed  thefe 
forts,  and  the  fettleritcnts,  &c.  valued  at  500,000!. 
They  export  commodities  to  the  value  of  16,000 1. 
aird  bring  home  returns  to  the  valrre  of  29,340!. 
which  yield  to  the  revenue  3734I.  This  includes  the 
fillrery  in  Hudfon's  Bay.  This  commerce,  fmall  as  it 
is,  affordo  imnjenfe  pr-olits  to  the  conrpany,  and  even 
fome  advantages  to  Great  Bi  itain  in  general  ;  for  the 
commodities  we  exchange  with  the  Indians  for  their 
Jkins  and  furs,  are  all  manufaiSured  in  Britain;  and  as 
the  Indians  are  not  very  nice  in  their  choice,  fuch 
things  are  fent  of  which  we  have  the  greateft  plenty, 
and  which,  in  the  mercantile  phrafe,  are  drugs  with 
us.  Though  the  workmanihip  too  happens  to  be  in 
many  refpetls  fo  deficient  that  no  civihzed  people 
would  take  it  off  our  hands,  it  may  be  admired  among 
the  Indians.  On  the  other  hand,  the  fl<ins  and  furs 
we  br-ing  from  Hudfon's  Bav,  enter  largely  into  our 
manirfattur'cs,  and  afford  us  materials  for  trading  with 
many  nations  of  Eur'ope  to  great  advantage.  Thefe 
circumftances  tend  to  prove  incontellahly  the  immeufe 
benefit  that  wordd  redound  to  Great  Bi  itain,  by  throw- 
irrg  open  the  trade  to  Hudfon's  Bay,  fince  even  in  its 
prefcnt  relh'ained  ftate  it  is  fo  advantageous.  This 
company,  it  is  probable,  do  not  find  their  trade  fo  ad- 
vantageous now  as  it  was  before  we  got  pofleiTron  of 
Canada.     The  only  attempt  made  to  trade  with  La- 


brador has  been  direfted  towards  the  fuller)',  the  annual  Company, 
pr-oduce  of  which  exceeds  ,\<j,OQo\.  v       ■' 

The  above  are  the  principal  trading  companies  prc- 
fently  fubClting  in  Great  Britain ;  but  to  the  number 
might  have  been  added  one  of  vufl  importance,  the 
Scouh  Ij.incn  Company,  had  it  not  been  for  the  crooked 
and  pulillanimous  policy  of  the  Englilh  minillry  at  the 
time.     For  an  account  of  which,   fee  the  article  Da- 

RIEN. 

Greenland  Co.up.ixr.     See  Greenland. 
Banking  Comi'.iNies.      See  Bank. 

Of  eftablilliments  fimilar  to  the  above  in  other  coun- 
tries, the  following,  beloi-ging  to  the  Dutch  and  French, 
may  be  mentioned  as  the  moll  important. 

,1.  Dutch  Companies.  1.  Tlieir  Fail  India  com- 
pany had  its  rife  in  the  midll  of  the  tlrirggle  which 
that  people  had  for  their  hberty  :  for  the  Spaniards 
having  forbidden  all  commerce  with  them,  and  ihut  up 
all  their  ports,  necefllty  iirfpirxd  fomeZealanders  to  feek 
a  new  noith-eall  paffage  to  China. 

This  enterprise  proving  unfuccefsful  to  thi'ee  feve- 
ral  armaments  in  1594,  1595,  and  1596,  a  fecond  com- 
pany was  formed,  under  the  name  of  the  Company  of 
remote  Parts:  which,  in  1595,  took  the  ordinai-y  route 
of  the  Portuguefe  to  the  Indies,  and  returned  in  two 
years  and  a  half's  time  with  little  gain  but  good 
hopes. 

This  company,  and  a  new  one  juff  eftabliflied  at 
Amfter-dam,  being  united,  equipped  other  fleets  ;  and 
thefe  occafioned  other  companies  at  Amller-dam,  Rot- 
terdam, in  Zealand,  &c.  infomuch  that  the  Hates  foon 
began  to  apprehend  they  might  be  prejirdicial  to  each 
other.  Under  this  concern,  they  called  all  the  direc- 
tor's of  the  fevcral  companies  together,  who  allconfent- 
ed  to  an  union,  the  treaty  whereof  was  confirmed  by 
the  States  in  1602  ;  a  very  remarkable  epocha,  as  being 
that  of  the  mod  folid  and  celebrated  cllabUlhment  of 
commerce  that  ever  was  in  the  world. 

Its  firil  capital  was  fix  millions  fix  hundred  thoufand 
guilders.  It  had  fixty  diixtlor-s,  divided  into  feveral 
chambers  ;  twenty  in  that  of  Amflerdam,  twelve  in 
that  of  Zealand,  fourteen  in  that  of  Delft  and  Rot- 
ter-dam, and  a  like  number  iir  thofe  at  Sluys  and  Hor'n. 
As  each  grant  expires,  the  company  is  obliged  to  pro- 
cure a  rrew  orre,  which  it  has  already  done  five  times 
fince  the  firll,  paying  a  confiderable  furrr  each  trme. 
The  lad  application  was  in  1773,  when  the  company, 
after  ftating  that  its  trade  had  declined,  folicited  the 
ftatcs-gener-al  to  grant  a  diminution  of  the  fum  for- 
merly paid  for  the  renewal  of  the  charter.  Upon  this 
reprefentation,  their  high  mightinefies,  in  order  to 
have  time  to  inquire  into  the  matter-,  prolonged  the 
charter-  for  three  year-s,  upon  the  old  eilablilhment  } 
and  finding,  upon  exai:iination,  that  the  company  had 
really  fullained  great  loffes,  and  its  trade  confiderably 
declined,  they  atled  with  the  fpirit  of  a  wife  commer- 
cial commonwealth,  by  complying  \Vith  the  company's 
requelt.  They  ihei-efore,  in  1776,  granted  them  a 
new  charter  for  30  years,  on  the  fame  terms  as  the 
former,  on  the  immediate  payment  of  2,000,000  of 
florins,  inllead  of  3,000,000  which  they  paid  before, 
and  the  fum  of  360,000  florins  yearly;  which  annuaV- 


C     O     IM  I     246     ]  .COM 

Company,  payment  tliev  were  allowed  to  make  either  in  money  to  little  purpofe.     At  length,  things  not  being  difpo-  Com;innf, 

^— Y— -<  or  merchandize.     In  conrequence  of  this  indidgence,  led  for  a  new'Eaft  India  co-npany,  nor  mnch  good  to  — ~v— ^ 

the  flock  of  the  company  rofc  in' a  Ihort  time  no  kfs  be  expected  from  the  old  one,  in  1708   tiie  ,mlniHry 

than  10  per  cent.     ~        •  allowed  the  directors  to  treat  v.'ith  the  rich  traders  of 

Their  faftories,  refidences,  &c.  in  the  Eaft  Indies,  St  Malo,  and  religu  to  them  their  privilege  under  cer- 

arc  very  numerous  ;  reaching  from  the  Periian  gulpli  tain  conditions.     In  the  hands  of  thefe  Lilt,  the  com- 

to  the  coalt  of  China  :  the  principal  is  that  of  Batavia,  pany  began  to  flourilh.     See  India  Company,  below, 
the  centre  of  their  commerce  :   here  rcfides  their  gene-  Its  chief  fattory  is  at  Pondicherry,  on  the  coalt  of 

ral,  with  the  llate  and  fplendor  of  a  fovercign  priace  ;  Coror.-.andcl.      This  is  the  refidence  of  the  dlrettor-ge- 

invikin'^  war  and  peace  with  the  ealtern  kings  and  era-  ncral;  the  other  fa£torIes  are  inconliderable.  The  mer- 

peiors  at  pleafure.  chandi/.es  which  the  company  brings  into  France  are, 

The  other  more  confidcrable  faftories  are,  Taiouam  iilxs,  cottons,  fpices,  coffee,    rice,    fahpetre  ;    feveral 

on  the  coatl  of  China,   Nangifac   in  Japan,   Malacca,  kinds  of  gums  and  drugs,    wood,  wax,  printed  cali- 

Surat,  Arnboyna,  Banda,  Siam,  Moluccas,  &c.^feveral^  coes,  muUins,  &c. 


on  the  coalt  of  Coromandcl,  and  at  Ifpahan,  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  &c.  in  all,  they  r.umber  40  fattories  and 
25  fortrelFes.  They  liave  the  whole  tiade  of  the 
fpicery  in  their  own  liands. 


2.  Tiieir  Jt'i-ft  I'tdia  Company  was  eftablifiicd  in 
1664.  Their  charter  gave  them  the  property  and 
fclgniory  of  Canada,  Acadia,  the  Antilles  idands,  lile 
of  Cayenne,  and  the  Terra  Firma  of  Ameiica,  from  the 


2.  Their  Il^/l  Iml'ui  Companyw:^^  cftablifliedin  1621,  river  of  the  Amazons  to  that  of  Oroonoko  ;  with  an 
vith  an  exchiiive  privilege  to  trade  24  years  along  the  exclufive  privilege  for  the  commerce  or  thofe  places,  as 
coafts  of  Africa,  between  the  tropic  of  Cancer  and  the  alfo  of  Senegal  and  the  coalts  of  Guinea,  for  40  years. 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  ;'and  in  America  from  the  fouth  only  paying  half  the  duties.  The  Itock  of  the  coni- 
i>oiiit  of  Newfoundland,  through  the  ftraits  of  Ma-  pany  was  fo  confiderable,  that  in  lefs  than  fix  months 
gellau,  that  of  Le  iilnirc,  or  other-^  to  the  Itraits  of  45  vefTcls  were  equipped  ;  wherev.ith  they  took  pollei- 
Anian,  both  in  the  North  and  South  Sea.  The  di-  fion  of  all  the  places  in  their  grant,  and  fettled  a  com- 
redtors  are  divided  into  five  chambers  (as  in  the  Ealt  merce  :  yet  this  only  fubhlted  nine  years.  In  1674,  -- 
India  company),  out  of  which  19  are  chofen  for  the  the  grant  was  revoked,  and  the  countries  above  re- 
general  direiitiou  of  affairs.  In  1647,  the  company  united  to  the  king's  dominions  as  before;  the  kuig 
renewed  its  grant  for  25  years  ;  but  it  was  fcarce  able  reimburling  the  actions  of  the  adventurers.  This  re- 
to  hold  out  the  term,  on  account  of  its  great  loffes  and  vocation  was  owing  partly  to  the  poverty  ot  the  com- 
expences  in  taking  the  bav  of  Todos  los  Santos,  Fer-  pany,  occalioned  by  its  lolfes  in  the  wars  with  Eng- 
Tiambuc  and  the  o-reateit  liart  of  Bralil,  from  the  Por-  land,  which  had  neceffitated  it  to  borrow  above  a  mil- 
teguefe.  The  weakncfs  of  this  company,  which  had  lion,  and  even  to  alienate  its  exclulive  privilege  for 
feveral  times  in  vain  attempted  to  be  joined  to  that  of  the  coafis  of  Guinea  :  and  partly  to  its  having  in  good 
the  Eaft  Indies,  occafioned  its  chfToiutlon  at  the  ex-  meafurc  anfwered  its  end  ;  which  was  to  r-ecover  the 
piration  of  its  ^rant.  commerce   of  the   ^Vell  Indies  from  the  Dutch,  who 

In  lO'^A,  a  new  comppnv,  compofed  of  the  ancient  had  torn  it  fi-om  them  :  for  the  French  merchants,  bc- 

proprietors   and  their    creditors,    was    fettled    in   the  ing  now  accuilomed  to  traffic  to  the  Antilles,  by  pei"- 

fame  ris^hts  and  eilabhlhment  with   the   former;  and  million  of  the  company,  were  fo  attached  to  it,  that 

illU  ful:ilifts,thou"-h  confiderably  decayed.      Their  lirll  it  was  not  doubted  they  would  fupport  the  commerce 

capital  was  about  !ix  millions  of  florins.      Its  principal  after  the  dillblution  of  the  company, 
ettablifliments  are,  one  at  Cape  Verd,  another  on  the  3.  Their  M'tjjlfqft  Company  was  firft  eftablilhed  in 


Gold  Coait  of  Africa,  at  Tobago,  Curalfao,  &:c.  in 
America. 

II.  French  Companies,  i.  Their  7s^  hidla  Cctm- 
/ar/ji  was  eltablilhed  in  1O64,  with  an  exclufive  privi- 
lege to  trade  for  50  years  in  all  the  feas  of  the  Ealt 
Indies  and  South  Sea.  No  adventurer  to  be  ad- 
mitted without  1000  livres  in  ftock  ;  and  foreigners 
^vho  have  20,000  livres  in  ftock  to  be  reputed  |regni- 
coles. 

The  patent  grants  them  the.ifland  of  Madagafcar  ; 


1684  in  favour  of  the  Chevalier  de  la  Salle  ;  who  ha- 
ving prcjeiited  it  in  1 660,  and  being  appoii:ted  gover- 
nor of  the  fort  of  Frontignac  at  the  month  of  that  ri- 
ver, travelled  over  the  country  in  the  year  1683,  and 
returned  to  France  to  folicit  the  ellablilhmcnt.  This 
obtained,  he  fet  fail  for  his  new  colony  with  four  vet- 
fcls  loadcn  with  inhabitants,  &c.  but  entering  the 
Gulph  of  Mexico,  he  did  not,  it  feem.s,  know  the  ri- 
ver that  had  coll  him  fo  much  fatigue,  but  fettled  on 
another  river  unkuown,  wheie  his  colony  periihed  by 


and  the  king  to  be  at  one-fifth  of  the  expcnce  of  the  degrees  ;  fo  that  in  1685  ihere  were  not  100  perloiis 
thi-ee  firlt  armamenis,  without  interelt :  the  principal  reiiiaiiiing.  Making  feveral  expeditions  to  find  the 
to  be  refunded  in  ten  years;  or,  if  the  company  find  MiflifTippi,  he  was  killed  in  one  of  them  by  a  paity 
it  lofes  on  the  whole,  the  lofs  to  fall  on  the  king's  v^ho  mutinied  againil  him  ;  whereupon  the  colony  was 
{■j(jg_  difperfcd  and  loll.  M.  Hiberville  afterwards  fuccecd- 
The  capital  fund  of  the  company,  which  was  moftly  cd  better.  He  found  the  Miififfippi,  built  a  tort,  and 
furniflied  bv  the  king,  was  feven'or  fight  millions  of  fettled  a  French  colony  there  ;  but  he  being  poifoned, 
livres,  but  wa;;  to  have  been  fifteen  millions.  it  is  faid,  by  the  intrigues  of  the  Spani^ards,  wlio  fear- 
In  efTcft,  though  no  means  were  wanting  to  fapport  cd  fucU  a  neighbour,  in  1712  M.  Crozat  had  the 
the  company,  yet  it  IllU  drooped  and  Hill  llruggled  ;  whole  property  of  trading  to  the  French  territories  call- 
till  having  fublilied  ten  years  without  any  change  in  ed  Lowjtana  granted  him  for  15  years, 
its  form,  and  being  no  longer  able  to  difeharge  its  en-  4.  Company  of  the  IVeJl.  Iri  1717,'the  Sieur  Crozat 
TaTements,  there  were  new  regulations  concerted,  but  furrendered  his  grant ;  and  in  the  fame  year  a  new 
°  °  com-' 


COM  [2 

Compan)'.  company  was  erefted  under  the  title  of  Company  of  the 
""''^^~~  I'/ejh  to  whic'a,  beliJes  every  thing  granted  to  the 
former  company,  was  added  tlie  commerce  of  beaver, 
enjoyed  by  the  Canada  company  from  the  year  1  706, 
but  expiring  in  1717.  In  this  cllabhlhmtnt,  an  equal 
view  was  had  to  the  finances  and  the  commerce  of  the 
nation  ;  and,  accordingly,  part  of  the  conditions  of  its 
eftah'lilhment  regarded  the  fettling  a  colony,  a  trade, 
&c.  the  other  the  vending  part  of  the  bills,  called  hiUs 
cfjlafs,  whicli  could  no  longer  fiibfal  on  iheir  preL-nt 
footintr.  The  former  are  no  more  than  are  ufu.d  in 
fnch  eltabliihments  :  for  the  latter,  the  actions  are 
fixed  at  500  livres,  each  payable  in  bill*  of  ilatc  ;  the 
actions  to  be  elleemed  as  merchandize,  and  in  that 
quality  to  be  bought,  fold,  and  trafficked.  The  bills  of 
ttate,  which  make  the  fund  of  the  aftions,  to  be  con- 
certed into  yearly  revenue.  To  put  the  finilhlng  hand 
to  the  company,  in  1717  its  fund  was  fixed  at  au  hun- 
dred millionsof  livrcs;  which  being  Idled,  the  caili  was- 
ihut  up. 

c.  Irulia  Comfanf.  The  junction  of  the  former  com- 
pany with  that  of  Canada  was  inimediately  followed 
t>y  its  union  with  that  of  Senegal,  both  in  the  year 
I  7  I  b,  by  an  arret  of  council ;  which  at  the  fame  time 
"■ranted  the  new  company  the  commerce  of  beavers,  and 
made  it  miilrefs  of  the  negro  or  Guinea  trade  to  the 
I'rench  colonics  in  America. 

Nothing  was  now  wantiiig  to  its  perfetlion  but  an 
union  with  the  Eaft  India  company,  and  with  thofe 
of  China  and  St  Domingo  ;  which  was  etfefted,  with 
the  two  firll  in  1 719,  and  with  the  third  in  1720. 
This  union  of  the  Ealt  India  and  China  company  with 
the  company  of  the  Weil,  occafioned  an  alteration  of 
the  name;  and  it  was  henceforth  called  the  Inilia  Crjm- 

The  reafons  of  the  union  were,  the  inability  of  the 
'  two  former  to  carry  on  their  commerce  ;  the  immenfe 
dibts  they  had  coHtrailed  in  the  Indies,  efpecially  the 
Eall  company,  complaints  whereof  had  been  lent  to 
conrt  by  the  Indians,  which  difcredited  the  company 
fo  that  they  durll  not  appear  any  longer  at  Sural ; 
the  little  care  they  took  to  difcharge  their  en- 
gagements ;  and  tlieir  having  transferred  theii  privi- 
■JH-  lege  to  the   private  traders  of  St  Male,   in  confidera- 

™  tion  of  a  tenth  in   the  profits   ot  the   returns  of  their 

ihips. 

The  ancient  actions  of  the  company  of  the  Weft, 
v/hich  were  not  at  pai"  when  this  engraftment  was  pro- 
jected, before  it  was  completed,  were  rifen  to  300  per 
cent.;  which  unexpefted  fuccefs  gave  occafion  to  con- 
chide  the  new  actions  of  the  united  companies  would 
not  bear  kfs  credit.  The  concourfe  of  fubfcribers  was 
fo  great,  that  in  a  month's  time  there  were  above  fifty 
m.illions  fubfcribed  for:  the  firll  twenty-five  million 
aitions  whicli  were  granted  to  the  India  company,  be- 
yond the  hundred  millions  of  ftock  allowed  the  com- 
pany of  tltt  Weil,  being  filled  as  foon  as  the  books 
v.'ere  opened  ;  to  fatisfy  the  earnellncfs  of  the  fubfcri- 
bers, the  flock  was  increafcd  by  leveral  arrets  to  tiiree 
hundred  millions.  Credit  Hill  increafing,  the  new-ac- 
tions rofe  to  1200  per  cent,  and  thofc  of  the  ancient 
company  of  the  Weil  to  i  goo  per  cent. ;  an  exorbitant 
price,  to  which  no  other  company  ever  rofe.  Its  con- 
dition Vvas  now  fo  flourifuiiig,  that  in  171 9  it  offered 
the  king  to  take  a  leafe  of  all  Lis  farms  for  nine  years, 


47     ] 


COM 


at  the  rate  of  three  millions  five  hundred  thonfand  Hvrcs  Company. 

ptr  anmmi  more  than  had  been  given  before  ;  and  alio  v ' 

to  lend  his  majelly  twelve  hundred  millions  of  livrcs  to 
pay  the  debts  of  tiie  Hate.  Thefe  offers  were  acccp- 
ted  ;  and  the  king,  in  confidcratiou  hereof,  granted 
them  all  the  privileges  of  the  fevcral  grants  of  the  com- 
panies united  to  that  company  to  the  year  1770;  on 
tondltiou,  however,  of  difcharging  all  the  debts  of  the 
old  Ealh  India  company,  without  any  deduction  at  all. 
The  loan  of  twelve  hundred  millions  not  being  fuffi- 
cient  for  the  occafions  of  the  Hate,  was  augmented, 
three  months  afterwards,  with  three  hundred'' inillion-i 
more  ;  which,  with  the  former  loan,  and  another  of 
one  hu:idred  millions  before,  made  fixteeii  hundred  mil- 
hons,  for  which  thu;  king  was  to  pay  intercll  at  the 
rate  of  three /«•  cent. 

The  Duke  of  Orleans,  in  February  1720,  did  the 
company  the  honour  to  prelide  in  their  affeir.bly,  where 
he  made  fe\'eral  propofals  to  them,  on  the  part  of  ths 
king:  the  principal  of  thefe  was,  that  they  lliould  take 
en  them  the  charge  aiid  adminillratioii.  of  the  royal 
bank.  This  was  accepted  of ;  and  Mr  Law,  comptrol- 
ler-general of  the  finances,  was  named  by  the  ki/ig 
iiilpector-gcneral  of  the  India  company  and  bank 
united. 

This  union,  v.'hieh,  it  was  propofcd,  (liould  have 
been  a  mutual  help  to  both  thofe  famous  ellnbli/liments,, 
proved  the  fatal  point  from  Vv-hence  the  fall  of  botli 
commenced  :  from  this  time,  both  the  bank  bills  and 
the  actions  of  the  company  began  to  fall.  In  eiTeiSt, 
the  firll  pcrilhed  abfolutely,  and  the  other  had  been 
drawn  along  with  it  but  for  the  prudent  precautions 
taken  for  its  fupport. 

The  lirll  precaution  was  the  revoking  the  OiTice  of 
iiifpedlor-general,  and  tht;  obliging  Mr^Law  to  quit 
the  kingdom  :  the  ancient  directors  were  difcarded,. 
and  new  ones  fubflituted  ;  and,  to  find  the  bottom  of 
the  company's  affairs,  it  was  ordered  tiiey  fhoiild  give 
an  account  of  what  they  had  received  and  diiburfed, 
both  on  the  accotmt  of  the  company  and  of  the  bank, 
which  they  had  had  the  management  of  ncara  year.  A- 
nother  precaution  to  come  at  the  ilate  of  the  company- 
was,  by  endeavouring  to  diilingiii(h  the  lawful  attion- 
aries  from  the  Miililfippi  extortioners  ;  whofe  immenfe 
riches,  as  well  as  their  ciiminal  addi-efs  in  realizinjj 
their  aftrons  either  into  fpecie  or  merchandize,  wcrV 
become  fo  fatal  to  the  ftate  ;  in  order,  if  poffible,  ta 
fecure  the  honeil;  adventurers  in  their  ftock.  To  thia 
end,  an  inquifition  was  made  into  their  books,  &c.  by 
perlbns  appointed  by  the  king  ;  and  the  new  directors, 
or,  as  they  were  called,  re^ijfeurs,  began  ferioufty  to  look 
about  for  their  commerce  abroad.  Their  affairs,  how- 
ever, declined,  and  at  length  funk  into  a  ruined  and 
bankrupt  ftatc  about  the  year  1769.  The  king  iniine- 
diaicly  lufpended  their  exclufive  privileges,  and  laid  the 
trade  to  the  eaft  open  to  all  his  fubjeCts  ;  conligning, 
at  the  fame  time,  the  affairs  of  the  company  to  the 
care  of  the  miniftry  to  adjuft  and  fettle.  But  the  va- 
rious fcheraes  v/hich  were  then  formed  for  the  rellora- 
tion  of  the  old  company,  and  the  eftabhihmeiit  of  a  new 
one,  were  accompanied  with  fuch  unfurmountable  dif- 
ficulties, as  to  prove  wholly  insffectual.  Nor  was  the 
laying  open  of  the  trade  attended  immediately  with  the 
fuccefs  that  was  expected  ;  the  merchants  being  very 
liow   in  engaging  in  it,  though  the  king,  by  way  of 


COM 


[     248     ] 


C     O    M 


Company,  encouragement,  lent  them  fome  of  his  own  fhips  to 
'*"  V  '  convey  their  commodities  to  the  Eaft  ;  and  the  garri- 
fon  and  civil  eilablidiments  continued  to  be  fupportcd 
in  their  exifting  form  by  the  crown.  The  meafure, 
however,  proved  in  time  fuccefsful  ;  fo  that  for  a 
couvfe  of  years  previous  to  1 785,  the  annual  importa- 
tion from  India  was  confiderably  greater  than  during 
any  former  period.  But  whether  it  were  that  they  re- 
garded this  profperity  as  precarious ;  or  that  they 
aimed  at  a  more  extenfive  fuccefs  ;  or  that  they  wifh- 
•  cd,  in  imitation  of  Britain,  for  territorial  acquifitions 
in  that  climate,  and  believed  an  incorporated  fociety 
the  beft  inllrument  of  obtaining  them  ;  the  French 
court  was  induced  to  hften  to  propofals  for  eftablidimg 
a  new  Eaft  India  company.  Their  privilege  was  for 
feven  years,  with  the  fpecial  proVifo,  that  years  of  war 
which  might  occur  in  the  interim  fliould  be  excluded 
from  the  computation. 

In  the  preamble  of  the  aft  of  the  14th  April  1 785, 
by  which  the  fcheme  was  adopted,  it  was  alleged,  "  that 
the  commodities  of  Europe  not  having  of  late  years 
been  regulated  by  any  common  ftandard,  or  propor- 
tioned to  the  demands  of  India,  had  on  the  one  hand 
fold  at  a  low  price  ;  while,  on  the  other,  the  compe- 
tition of  the  fubjefls  of  France  had  raifed  the  price  of 
the  objefts  of  importation  :  that,  upon  their  return 
home,  a  want  of  fyftem  and  afibrtment  had  been  uni- 
verfally  complained  of,  the  market  being  glutted  with 
one  fpecies  of  goods,  and  totally  deftitute  of  another  : 
that  thefe  defefts  mull  neceflarily  continue  as  long  as 
the  trade  remained  in  private  hands;  and  that,  on  their 
account,  as  well  as  that  of  the  capital  required,  the 
eilabli(hment  of  a  new  company  was  abfolutely  necef- 
fary." 

Thefe  reafonings  did  not  appear  altogether  fatisfac- 
tory  to  the  perfons  principally  interefted.  France  has 
been  fo  far  enlightened  by  the  difcufTions  of  the  excel- 
lent wi iters  (he  has  produced  upon  queftious  of  poli- 
tics and  commerce,  as  not  to  be  prepared  to  behold 
the  introduftion  of  monopolies  with  a  very  favourable 
eye.  By  many  perfons  it  was  remarked,  that  the  ar- 
guments of  the  preamble  did  not  apply  more  to  the 
trade  of  India  than  to  any  other  trade  ;  and  that,  if 
they  were  admitted  in  their  entire  force,  they  were 
calculated  to  give  a  finifliing  blow  to  the  freedom  of 
commerce.  The  capital  of  the  new  company,  which 
amounted  to  L.  830,000,  was  ridiculed  as  altogether 
inadequate  to  the  magnitude  of  the  undertaking.  The 
privileges  with  which  it  was  indulged  were  treated  as 
enormous.  The  monopoly  of  Eall  India  goods  im- 
ported into  France  from  any  part  of  Europe,  was 
granted  to  them  for  two  years,  as  well  as  the  mono- 
poly of  Eaft  India  goods  imported  from  the  place  of 
their  growth.  It  was  faid,  that  during  that  period 
they  would  ht  out  no  adventures  for  India;  that  they 
hoped  to  obtain  a  prolongation  of  this  injurious  indul- 
gence ;  and  that,  of  confequence,  their  incorporation. 
was  in  reality  a  tonfpiracy  to  prevent  all  future  com- 
munication between  France  and  the  fources  of  com- 
merce in  Afia.  A  provifion  in  the  aft,  direttir.g  that 
the  prices  of  Eaft  India  goods  in  the  illands  of  Mauri- 
tius and  Bourbon  (hould  be  regulated  by  a  tariff  to  be 
fixed  by  the  court  of  Verfeilles,  excited  Hill  louder  ex- 
clamations. In  this  inftance,  it  was  faid,  the  firit 
principles  of  commerce  were  trampled  upon  in  a  n;an- 
N°87. 


ner  the  moft  wanton  and  abfurd.  Inftead  of  fuffering  Company, 
it  to  find  its  own  level  by  the  mutual  colliiion  of  the  — v— ' 
wants  of  one  party  and  the  labour  of  another,  it  was 
arbitrarily  to  be  fadiioned  by  a  power  whofe  extreme 
diftance  mull  neceffarily  render  its  decifions  ill-timed 
and  inapplicable.  The  very  mode  in  which  the  mono- 
poly was  introduced  was  a  fubjett  of  complaint.  It 
was  determined  by  a  refolution  of  the  king  in  council ; 
a  proceeding  totally  inadequate  to  the  importance  of 
the  fubjett,  and  which  was  to  be  regarded  as  clandef- 
tine  and  furreptitious.  In  all  former  inftances  fuch 
meafures  aflumed  the  form  of  edifts,  and  were  regifter- 
ed  in  the  parliaments.  It  was  the  prerogative  of  thefe 
courts  to  verify  them;  that  is,  to  inquire  into  the  fadts 
which  had  led  to  their  adoption.  The  injured  parties 
had  an  opportunity  of  being  heard  before  the  privilege 
affumed  the  form  of  a  law  ;  not  privately  by  the  mini- 
ilers  of  the  fovereign,  but  publicly  by-the  moll  confl- 
derable  bodies  in  the  kingdom,  and  in  the  face  of  the 
nation. 

The  aft  of  coimcil  eftablilhing  a  new  Eaft  India 
company,  was  followed  on  the  tenth  of  July  by  ano- 
ther declaration,  intended  Hill  farther  to  promote  their 
intereft  ;  by  which  it  was  exprefsly  forbidden  to  im- 
port cottons,  printed  linens,  and  muflins,  except  thro' 
the  medium  of  the  company.  The  arret  proceeds  up- 
on the  fame  principles  of  monopoly  as  in  the  former 
inftance.  It  fets  out  indeed  with  a  declaration,  "  that 
nothing  can  appear  more  defirable  to  the  king,  or  bet- 
ter accord  with  the  fentiments  of  his  heart,  than  a  ge- 
neral liberty,  that  freeing  at  once  the  circulation  of 
commodities  from  every  fpecies  of  rellraint,  fhould 
feem  to  make  of  all  the  people  of  the  world  but  one 
nation  with  refpeft  to  commerce."  But  it  adds,  "  that 
the  period  of  this  liberty  is  not  yet  arrived  :  that  it 
it  muft  either  be,  with  refpeft  to  the  nations  of  Eu- 
rope, unlimited  and  reciprocal,  or  tliat  it  cannot  be 
admitted  :  that  the  revocation  of  the  former  indul- 
gence refpefting  cottons  and  linens  was  become  necef- 
iary  on  account  of  the  opportunities  it  created  for  con- 
traband trade;  and  becaufe  the  competition  of  the  Eaft 
Indifl  company  and  private  traders  would  occafron  a 
furplus  in  the  market,  and  the  adirriffion  of  foreign 
manufaftures  would  decreafe  and  annihilate  the  national 
induftry." 

The  provilrons  that  were  made  for  carrying  this  law 
into  effett  were  conildered  as  unjuil  and  ievere.  The 
merchants  poffeffing  any  of  the  prohibited  commodi- 
ties were  allowed  twelve  months  to  dilpofe  of  them  ; 
but  upon  the  exprcfs  condition,  tlrat  the  commodities 
were  to  bear  a  ftamp,  importing  that  they  were  ven- 
dible only  to  a  certain  period,  a  circumilance  that  muft 
neceffarily  depi'eciate  their  value.  It  was  alfo  enafted, 
that  the  houfe  of  any  trader  might  be  entered  by  day 
or  by  night,  at  the  folicitation  of  the  directors,  to 
fearch  for  prohibited  goods,  which  were  to  be  conlif- 
cated  to  the  ufe  of  the  company.  Thefe  kinds  of  vi- 
fi'.s  of  the  officers  of  revenirc,  hitherto  unauthorifed  in 
France,  were  rcpreferrttd  as  peculiarly  obnoxious,  wIkii 
they  were  made  for  the  fole  benefit  of  a  privileged  mo- 
nopoly. 

Company,  in  military  affairs,  a  fmall  body  of  foot, 
commanded  by  a  captain,  who  has  und?r  him  a  lieutL- 
nant  and  enfign. 

The 


C    O    M 


[     249     1 


COM 


Ci^Ttirnn.y.       The  number  of  ccntiiiLls  or  private  foldicrs  in  a  com- 
'  paiiyis  from  jo  to  lOo;  ;inj  a  Irittaliuii  or  regiment  coii- 

iills  of  9,  10,  or  II,  fucli  companies :  me  ot  which  is 
always  grenadiers,  and  polled  on  the  right;  next  tlieni 
Itands  the  colonel's  company,  and  on  the  left  the  liglit 
infantry  company.  Companies  not  incorporated  into  re- 
giments are  called  irregulars,  or  inJcpcndtnt  companies. 
Artillery  CoswANr.  See  Artillery. 
CoMTAUx  of  Ships,  a  fleet  of  merchantmen,  who  make 


a  charter  party  among  themfelvcs ;  the  principal  con-  Comp-.ny. 

ditions  wliereof  ufiially  are,  that  certain  vcflels  Ihall  he  /— ' 

acknowledged  ailmiral,  vice-admiral,  and  rear-admiral; 
that  fuchand  fiicli  llgnals  Ihall  be  obferved;  that  thofc 
>\hich  bear  no  guns  Ihall  pay  fo  much  per  cent,  of  their 
cargo  ;  and  in  cafe  they  be  attacked,  that  what  da- 
nwges  arefullaluLd  lliall  bercimbuifcd  by  the  company 
in  general.  In  the  Mediterranean,  fuch  companies  arc 
called  confcrves. 


COMPARATIVE    Anatomy, 


Is  that  branch  of  anatomy  which  confiders  the  fecon- 
dary  ohjcfts,  or  the  bodies  of  other  animals  ;  fer- 
ving  for  the  more  accurate  diltinftions  of  Itfveral  parts, 
and  fupplying  the  defeA  of  human  fubjects. 

It  is  olherwife  called  the  anatomy  nj  beajls,  and  fome- 
times  aootomy;  and  Hands  in  contradittinttion  to  human 
anatomy,  orth.at  branch  of  the  art  whicii  confiders  the 
human  body  the  primary  objetl  of  anatomy.  See 
Anatomy. 

J  Introduction. 

Theufefof  The  principal  advantages  of  comparative  anatomy 
Compara-  ^^^  the  following:  Firft,  it  furnilhes  us  with  a  fufRcicnt 
tonn  knowledge  of  the  different   parts  of  animals,  to  pre- 

vent our  being  impofed  upon  by  thofe  authors  who 
have  delineated  and  defcribed  feveral  parts  from  brutes 
as  bcloiigliig  to  the  human  body.  Secondly,  it  helps 
us  to  iniderltand  feveral  paflages  in  the  ancient  writers 
in  medicine,  who  have  taken  many  of  their  defcrip- 
tions  from  brutes  and  realfined  from  them.  The  tiiird 
and  great  ufe  we  reap  from  this  fcience,  is  the  light  it 
calls  on  feveral  funtlions  in  the  human  economv, 
about  which  there  have  been  fo  many  diiputes  among 
2  anatoniills 

Hnw  tlie  In  this  view  it  is  altogether  needlefs  to  infill  on  thofe 

*'^''°"  "^  parts  whole  ufe  is  ufnally  underllood  when  once  their 
determi  ei.'  *t™'^ti"'C  is  unravelled  :  Thus,  for  inllance,  if  we  be 
acquainted  with  the  action  of  the  mufcles  in  general, 
it  will  not  be  diificult  to,  determine  the  ufe  of  any  par- 
ticular mufcle  whofe  origin  and  infertion  is  known, 
if  we  at  the  fame  time  confider  the  various  connec- 
tions of  the  bones  to  which  it  is  fixed,  and  the  differ- 
ent degree  of  mobility  they  have  wi'Ji  rcfpeft  to 
each  other.  In  the  fame  manner,  if  we  know  the  ufe 
of  llie  nerves  in  general,  we  can  eafily  afiign  the  ufe 
of  thofe  nerves  which  aic  diftributed  to  any  paiticular 
pait.  There  is  then  no  occaiion  for  a  complete  olleo- 
logy,  myology,  &c.  of  the  feveral  animals  we  Ihall  treat 
of,  nor  need  we  trouble  ourfelves  about  the  ftrufture  of 
any  (,f  the  parts,  unlefs  when  it  fcrves  to  illullratc  fome 
of  the  fore-mentioned  purpofes. 

That  the  firll  ufe  we  propofed  from  examining  the 
flrurture  of  the  parts  in  brutes  is  real  and  of  confe- 
t)ucnce,  is  -evident  from  looking  into  the  works  of 
fome  of  the  carlictt;  and  greatcft  mailers  of  anatomy, 
who  for  want  of  human  fubjetls  have  often  borrowed 
their  defcriptions  from  other  animals.  The  gicat  \'e- 
falius,  altliough  hejuftly  rcpro\cs  Galen  for  this  fault, 
is  guilty  of  the  fame  himfelf,  as  is  plain  from  his  deli- 
iteations  of  thekidnevs,  uterus,  the  mufcles  of  the  eye. 
Vol.  V.   Part  I.   ' 


and  fome  other  parts.  Nor  is  antiquity  only  to  be 
charged  with  this,  lince  in  Willis's  y/z/^Mm/Vz  Cerebri  [tht 
plates  of  which  were  revifed  by  that  accurate  anatomill 
Dr  Lower)  theie  are  feveral  of  the  pictures  taken  from 
diflerent  brutes,  efpecially  the  dog,  beiides  thofe  he 
owns  to  be  fuch.  We  (hall  give  feveral  examples  of  the 
fcGond  ufe  in  the  fequel  of  the  woi'k. 

I'he  animal  kingdom,  as  well  as  the  vegetable,  con-  The  varic- 
tains  the  moil   furprifing  variety,  and  the  defcent  in  fy  and  unT- 
each  is  fo  gradual,  that  the  little  tranfitions  and  devia- f"™"''y  "''" 
lions  arc  almoil  imperceptible.      The  bat  and  flying-  nj"„je'^  '" 
fquirrel,  though  quadrupeds,  have  wings  to  buoy  them- 
felvcs up  in  the  air.      Some  birds  inhabit  the  waters  ; 
and  there  are  iiflies  that  have    wings,    and    are    not 
ftrangers  to  the  airy  regions  :   the  amphibious  animals 
blend  the  terrellrial  and  aquatic  too-ether. 

As  there  is  then  fuch  a  valt  variety,  it  is  not  only 
needlefs,  but  impoifible,  to  confider  all  of  them  particu- 
hirly.  We  fliall  take  only  fome  of  the  moft  remark- 
able genera;  and  hope,  from  what  will  be  faid  of 
them,  any  of  the  intermediate  degrees  may  be  under- 
ilood. 

In  treating  of  quadrupeds,  we  Iliall  divide  them  into  oivlfion  of 
the  carnivorous,  :.  ^.  thofe  that  feed   indifferently   onan.mahin- 
animal  and  vegetable  fubllanccs,  and  granivorous  :  ast'quadru- 
an  inllance  of  thefe  laft  we  Ihall  take    the   ruminant  P.;'^*'J°''- 
kind.     The  fowls  we  fliall  alfo  divide  into   thofe  that  a,l"i,ff^a;' 
feed  on  grain,   and   thofe    that   feed    on    flefli.      The 
diilindion  we  fliall  make  in  treating  of  fiflies,  fliall  be 
of  thole^  that  have  lungs,  and  thofe   that   have  them 
not.      The  firll   indeed   are   with   difficulty  procured, 
and  at  the  fame  time  differ  very  little  from  quadrupeds. 
The  llructure  of  infetls  and  worms  is  fo  very  minute, 
that  httle  aliiltance  for  the  ends  propofed  by  the  pre- 
feiit  fubjed  has  been   expected  from  their  anatomical 
mvelligation.     As  they  conltitiitc,  however,  one  of  the 
great  claifes  into  which  animals  arc  divided,  and  as  every 
advance  in  knowledge,  with  refptft  to  the  ftrufture  of 
any  one  animal,  mull  either  direttly  or  indiredly  call 
fome  light  on  the  ilrudture  of  fome  pait  of  every  other, 
we  have  thought  proper  to  add  a  few  particulars  con- 
cerning thein. 

In  inquiring  into  the  llruAure  of  difrarent  animals, 
we  ought  to  be  prcvioufly  acquainted  with  the  form 
of  their  body,  manner  of  l,fc,  kind  of  food;  or,  in 
Ihort,  with  their  natural  hiilory ;  which  will  lead  us 
to  account  for  the  rtafon  of  their  different  ftnidure-, 
and  hence  cxplaai  the  aftions  of  the  human  body. 
Of  all  thofc  particulars  a  detail  will  be  found  under  the 
titles  of  the  diti'erent  fubjects  in  their  alphabedcal  order. 
I  i  Chap. 


COMPARATIVE     Anatomy.  Chap.  I. 


Whether 
Iran  is  iiS' 
tural!y  a 
lipe<!  or  a 


Chap.  I.     Am^tcmy  of  ^adrupcds. 

Sect.  I.      General  Oijervations. 

A  QUESTION  has  been  darted  by  fome  fanciful  phi- 
lofophers,  "  Whether  man  is  naturally  a  iipal  or  a 
quadruped?"  and  much  ingenuity  has  been  emplojrd 
quadruped,  to  eftablifh  the  latter  opinion.  But  it  is  pvefumed 
that  few  of  their  readers  have  been  made  converts  to 
fuch  an  opinion,  and  that  not  many  of  ours  will  require 
much  argument  to  perfuade  them  of  their  ereft  defti- 
nation.  It  may  therefore  fuffice  to  obferve,  that  this 
ereft  pofition  is  beft  adapted  to  the  conformation  of 
the  human  head,  and  the  ponderous  quantity  of  hu- 
man brains : — that  the  articulation  of  the  os  nccipilis 
with  the  firft  vertebra  of  the  neck,  is  differently  con- 
Jlrufted  from  that  of  quadrupeds,  with  the  obvious 
defign  that  man  {hould  be  able  to  move  his  head  in 
every  direction  with  the  greatcft  facility  :  —  that  the 
human  fpecies  (and  alfo  monkics)  are  deftitute  of  that 
itrong  ligament  or  tendinous  aponeurofis,  vulgarly 
called  yJffATit'j.v,  which  quadrupeds  poiTefs  (as  a  kind  of 
fiay-tafe),  to  prevent  the  head  &om  finking  to  the 
earth  ;  to  which,  from  its  natural  pofition,  it  muft  be 
very  prone  : — and  that  our  eyes  and  ears  are,  fortunate- 
ly, not  placed  as  thofe  of  the  quadrupeds.  The  axis  of 
the  human  eve  is  nearly  perpendicular  with  a  vertical 
fcftion  of  the  head  ;  whereas,  in  the  brute  creation 
(the  larger  ape  excepted),  the  pofition  of  the  eyes 
forms  an  acute  angle  :  —  nature  l>as  alfo  furniflied  other 
animals  ivlth  zfyfjiiifonuni  oculi,  a  mufcle  which  the  creS 
attitude  renders  needlefs,  though  highly  neceffary  in 
the  prone;  confequently,  whoever  tries  the  experi- 
ment will  find  that,  in  the  inclined  direftion,  both  his 
eyes  and  his  ears  arc  in  the  moft  unfavourable  fit  nation 
poflible  for  quick  hearing  or  extenfive  vifinn.  In  fine, 
the  fhape,  breadth,  ftrength  of  the  vertebnE  of  the 
back  and  loins,  are  all  coincident  with  the  ereft  atti- 
tude of  the  trunk. 


All  quadrupeds  have  a  covering  of  hair,  wool,  &c. 
to  defend  them  from  the  injuries  of  the  weather,  which 
varies  in  thicknefs  according  to  the  feafon  of  the  year 
and  difference  of  the  climate  :  thus  in  Ruffia  and  the 
northern  countries,  the  furs  are  very  thick  and  warm, 
while  the  httle  Spanifh  lap-dogs,  and  Barbary  cows, 
have  little  or  no  hair  at  all. 

The  cutis  and  cuticula  in  quadrupeds  are  difpofed 
much  in  the  fame  way  as  the  hitman,  only  more  claf- 
■  tic  ;  immediately  under  this,  there  is  a  vei-y  thin  cu- 
taneous mufcular  fubftance  called  pcmfiiculus  carnofus, 
which  is  common  to  all  quadrupeds,  the  porcine  kind 
excepted  ;   this  principally  covers  the  trunk,  fcrving 


6 

Cuticula,' 
cuti*:,  jan- 
niculus  car 
Dofus. 


1 
\\Tience 
jhe  notion 
of  the  pan- 
iticu!us  car- 
uofus,  &c. 


Why  mofl 


to  flirivel  the  (kin,  in  order  to  drive  off  infefts,  thtir 
tails  and  heads  not  being  fufficient  for  this  purpofe, 
while  their  extremities  are  employed  in  their  fupport 
and  progreffion. 

It  has  probably  been  from  obferving  fome  mufcles 
of  the  human  body,  fuch  as  the  platyfina  myoides,  cre- 
mafter,  and  frontales,  and  the  collapfed  tunica  cellulofa 
of  emaciated  fubjeifts,  to  refemble  this  thin  mufcle,  that 
fome  of  the  older  anatomifts  reckoned  fuch  a  pannicu- 
lus  amonw  the  common  teguments  of  the  human  body. 
This  Carolus  Stephanus  has  well  obferved. 

Moft^art   of  quadnipeds    want  clavicles,  whereby 


quadrupeds  ,  -"^^""-t""-  "'  .,^..^..i..-„  ..      „.....„,...... „^ 

want  da-    their  anterior  exUemiUes  fall  upon  their  chell,  fo  as 
vjdes. 


to  make  their  thorax  proportionally  narrower  than  the    Of  Qua-  ~ 
human.     This   fmaU  dillaiice  of  their  anterior  extre-    '■■'"i"^"''- 
mities  is  very  neceflary  for  their  uniform  progreffion  :         » 
apes  indeed  and  fquirrels  have  clavicles  to  allow  them 
a  more  full  ufe  of  their  extremities   in  climbing ;  but 
when   they  walk   on   all-fours,   they  move  but  indif- 
ferently. 

Sect.  II.  Of  the  Orang  Outang. 

While  fome  philofophers,  as  above  noticed,  have 
endeavoured  to  level  man  to  the  rank  of  quadrupeds, 
others  have  attempted  to  elevate  certain  of  the  biute 
creation  to  the  fame  clafs  with  their  reputed  lords. 
The  orang  oulimg\i  ranged  by  I..inna;us  as  congenerous 
with  man,  (See  Homo);  and  fome  theorills  have  e\cn 
confidered  him  as  the  original  (lock  of  the  human  race, 
pretending  that  he  has  been  the  man  of  the  -woods  for 
many  ages  before  gardens  were  ever  thought  of.  His 
claims  to  humanity  are  founded  on  his  being  able  to 
walk  upright  occafionaliy,  being  funiifntd  with  a  com- 
petent ihare  of  mufcles  rcquifite  for  the  purpofe.  The 
form  of  his  heart,  lungs,  bread,  brains,  inteftines,  are 
funilar  to  thufe  of  men  ;  the  citctim  has  alfo  its  appendix 
■vermiformls  :  he  can  fit  upright  with  great  eafe  ;  fliuws 
more  dcfign  in  his  plans  than  his  aflociates  in  the  fo- 
refts;  and  can  handle  a  ftick  on  occafion  with  tolerable 
'  dexterity.  His  difquahlications  are  the  following  : 
The  pofition  of  ihc  furamen  magnum  occiputs,  which  is 
farther  backward  than  in  the  human  fpecies,  and  the 
fockets  of  his  lower  javv,  made  to  receive  the  denies  in- 
clfores  of  the  upper,  indicate  his  relationlhip  to  the 
monley  breed.  He  has  alfo  thirteen  ribs  on  each  fide  ; 
his  arms,  feet,  and  toes,  are  much  longer  than  thofe  of 
the  human  fpecies,  etc.  and  although  his  foot  doc3 
not  fo  clofely  refemble  a  hand  as  that  of  tlie  ape,  )ct 
the  pollex  pedis,  or  the  great  toe,  is  placed  at  a  greater 
dillance  from  the  other  toes,  which  gives  it  the  ap- 
pearance and  ufes  of  a  thumb.  Thefe  diiL-rences  indi- 
cate, that,  although  the  ouran  can  occafionaliy  a.&.  the 
biped,  yet  he  is  much  better  qualified  to  walk  on  his 
fore-feet,  and  to  climb  trees,  than  the  generality  of 
the  modern  race  of  men.  But  an  objection  to  his 
claims,  ftill  weightier  than  any  of  the  differences  dated 
above,  arlfes  from  his  want  of/peech.  For  there  is  no 
nation  of  men,  hov/ever  favage,  that  is  deditute  of 
fpeech ;  though  individuals,  fecluded  from  fociety, 
may  in  time  lofe  the  faculty.  No  inilances  are  known 
in  which  a  company  often  or  twelve  men  have  been 
without  a  language  ;  but  upwards  of  thirty  of  the 
orang  fpecies  have  been  found  in  a  herd,  without 
fliowing  the  fmalled  traces  of  this  faculty.  It  has 
been  fuggefted  by  Rouffca.u,  that  tliey  may  have  loil 
the  power  from  their  neglect  of  ufing  it  ;  but'  it 
is  very  fingular  that  they  alone  fltoiUd  lofe  this  power, 
and  nat  that  race  of  men  to  whom  they  are  fuppot'ed 
to  be  fo  nearly  related,  This  point,  however,  has  been 
completely  decided  by  the  difcoveries  of  profcffor 
Camper  ;  who  in  a  paper  In  the  Philofophical  Tranfac- 
tions-j-  has  demonflrated,  by  an  anatomical  diffeftion  of+  Vol.Uix. 
the  organ  of  tlie  voice,  that  articulation  is  rendered  Hart  i. 
impoflible  in  thefe  animals  in  confcquence  of  the  ftruc-"'-  '■♦♦ 
ture  of  that  organ.  From  the  nature  and  fituation  of 
thofe  parts  in  the  orang  (as  well  as  in  the  ape  and  in 
the  monkey)  he  has  proved,  that  no  modulation  of  the 
voice  refembling  human  fpeech  can  he  produced  in 
thefe  creatures ;  becaufe  the  air,  pafiiiig  through  the 

rima 


Chap.  T.                        C  O  M  P  A  R  A  T  I  V  E     A  N  A  T  o  M  y.  251 

Of  Qua-    r'lma  ghit'iilis,  is  immediately  loft  in  two  ventricles  or  bling  the   human  in  its  (hape,  is  fomewhat  differently  Of  Qua- 
hollow  bags  in  the  neck   (which  are  fometimts  united  fituated.      It  lies  more  longitudinal,  as  indeed   all  the  "P        , 
into  ore),  with  which  all  theic  animals  arc  furnillied,  other  vifcera  do,  to   accommodate   themftlv..s  to   the 


drupfds. 


fhape  of  the  cavity  in  which  they  are  contained  ;  that  v^ntricu- 
is,  its  inferior  oriftce  is  much  farther  down  with  refpcdllus. 
to  the  luperior  than  the  human  :  bv  this  means  the 
profii  food  has  an  ealier  palfa^e  into  the  duodenum. 
Again,  the  fundus  of  tiie  liuman  ftomach,  when  dif- 
lended,  Hands  almoll  direclly  forwards,  which  is  oc- 
cafioned  by  the  little  omentum  tying  it  fo  clofe  down 
We  may  firft  obferve  of  this  animal,  as  indeed  of  mol     to  the  back-bone,   &c.    at   its  two  orifices  ;  but  it  not 


and  wliich  have  a  communication  with  tlie  mouth 
throu,c;h  the  faid  rima  or  flit  ;  fo  that  the  air  mull  re- 
turn fnmi  thence,  without  any  force  or  melody,  with- 
in the  throat  and  mouth  of  thefe  creatures. 

StCT.  III.      The  Anatomy  nf  a  Dn^. 


quiuliuj>t<h,  that  its  logs  are  much  fhortcr  in  propor- 
tion to  its  trunk  than  in  man,  the  length  of  whofe  Heps 
depends  entirely  on  the  length  of  his  interim'  extremi- 
ties ;  however,  to  balance  this,  the  trunk  of  the  animal  is 
proportionally  longer  and  fmallcr,  his  fpine  more  flex- 
ible, by  which  he  is  :''Je  at  each  flep  to  biing  his  po- 
llerior  extremities  nearer  to  his  anterior.  His  com- 
mon teguments  are  much  a- kin  to  thofe  of  other  qua- 
drupeds, only  they  allow  little  or  no  paflage  for 
fweat;  but  when  he  is  over-heated,  the  fuperfiuous 
matter  finds  an  exit  by  the  falivary  glands,  for  he 
lolls  out  his  tongue  and  (lavers  plentifully.  We  are 
rot,  however,  to  fuppofe,  that  becaufe  a  dog  does  not 
fweat,  he  has  no  infenfible  perlpiration.  Tliat  a  dog 
perlpires  is  evident,  becaufe  one  of  thefe  animals  can 
trace  another  by  the  fcent  of  his  footfteps  ;  which 
could  not  happen  if  a  large  quantity  of  perfpirable 
matter  was  not  conftantly  going  off. 
AlidoiTicn  The  pyramidal  mi'.fcles  are  wanting,  to  fupply  which 
mifculi  py-the  reftus  is  inferted  floliy  into  the  os  pubis, 
ram-  The  omentum  leaches  down  to  the  os  pubis,  which 

r,     '°         confiderinsj  the  poftuie  of  the  animal  we   will   find  to 
Omentum.  ,  .,-    "       .,S        .         .        ,    .  .  ., 

be  a  wife  provilion,  hnce  its  uie  is  to  ieparate  an  oily 

liquor  for  lubricating  the  guts  and  facilitating  their 
periftaltic  motion  ;  fo  in  our  ereft  pofture  the  natural 
gravity  of  the  oil  will  determine  it  downward,  but  in 
■the  horizontal  pofition  of  thefe  creatures,  if  all  the  in- 
teftines  were  not  covered,  there  would  be  no  favout- 
able  derivation  cf  the  fluid  to  the  guts  lying  in  the  po- 
fterior  part  of  the  abdomen,  which  is  the  highell  ;  and 
bcfides,  had  the  omentum  reached  much  farther  down 
in  us,  it  would  not  only  have  fupplied  too  great  a  quan- 
tity of  oil  to  the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen,  but  we 
would  have  been  in  continual  danger  of  hernias;  and 
even   at  prefetit  the   omentum  frequently  paffes  down 


being  fixed  in  that  manner  in  the  dog,  the  fundus  re- 
maiiis  always  pollerior  :  this  alio  anfwers  very  well  the 
(hape  of  the  difl'eient  cavities,  the  diftance  betwixt  the 
cardia  and  fundus  being  greater  than  that  betwixt  the 
two  fides.  It  leems  to  be  much  larger  in  proportion 
to  the  bulk  of  the  animal  than  the  human,  that  it 
might  contain  a  greater  quantity  of  food  at  once  ; 
which  was  very  neceflTaiy,  lince  this  animal  cannot  at 
any  time  get  its  fuftenance  as  men  do.  The  turbillion 
is  not  fo  larcre,  nor  is  there  any  coarilion  forming  the 
antrum  IVillcfii,  as  in  the  ftomach  of  man.  It  is  conli- 
derably  thicker  and  more  mufcular  than  ours,  for 
breaking  the  cohefion  of  their  food,  which  they  fwal- 
low  without  fulncient  chewing.  Hence  it  is  evident 
the  force  of  the  ftomach  is  not  fo  great  as  fome  would 
have  it,  nor  its  contratlion  fo  violent  :  othervvife  that 
of  dogs  would  be  undoubtedly  wounded  by  the  (harp 
bones,  &c.  they  always  take  down  ;  for  the  contrac- 
tion here  is  ftdl  greater  than  in  the  human  lloniach, 
which  is  niiich  thinner.  The  ruga;  of  the  tunica  vil- 
lofa  are  neither  fo  large,  nor  fituated  tranfverfely,  as 
in  the  human,  but  go  from  one  orifice  to  the  other : 
the  reafon  of  which  difference  is,  perhaps,  that  they 
might  be  in  Itfs  danger  of  being  hurt  by  the  hard  fub- 
ftances  this  creature  frequently  feeds  upon  ;  and  for 
the  fame  reafon  there  is  not  the  like  coar6tion  at  their 

Pyl""'^-.         ...  .  " 

The.inteftinesof  this  animal  are  proportionally  much  Inteftinej. 

fhorter  than  outs  ;  for  the  food  wliich  thefe  creatures 
moflly  ufe,  foon  diffolves,  and  then  putrifies;  on 
which  account  there  was  no  occafion  for  a  long  tradl  of 
inteltines,  but  on  the  contrary  that  it  fliould  be  quick- 
ly thrown  out  of  the  body.  The  fame  is  to  be  obfer- 
ved  of  all  tlie  carnivorous  animals.  The  mufcular  coat 
of  the  inteftines  is   alfo  thicker  and  ilronger  than  the 


with   fome  of   the  other   vifcera,  and  forms  piirt  of    human,  to  protrude   the  contents  quickly  and   accu- 
thefe  tumors.     To  thefe,  however,    the   dog   is   not     rately. 


fubjedl,  as  his  vifcera  do  not  prefs  fo  much  on  the  rings 
of  the  abdominal  mufcles,  and  befides  are  prevented 
from  palling  through  by  a  pendulous  flap  of  fat,  men- 
tioned n^  35.  The  inferior  and  anterior  lamella  of 
the  omentum  is  fixed  to  the  fpleen,  fundus  of  the  fto- 
mach, pylorus,  liver,  &c.  in  the  fame  way  as  the  hu- 
man ;  but  the  fuperior  having  no  colon  to  pafs  over, 
goes  direftly  to  the  back-bone.  This  ferves  to  ex- 
plain the  formation  of  the  fmall  omentum  in  the  hu- 
man body  ;  which  is  nothing  but  the  large  omentum, 
having  loft  its  fat,  pafTing  over  the  ftomach  and  colon, 
where   it  reaffumes   its  pinguedo,  fo  proceeds,  and  is 


The  valvulss  conniventes  are  lefs  numerous,  and  in 
a  longitudinal  direftion  ;  and  the  whole  traA  of  the 
alfmentary  canal  is  covered  with  a  flime,  which  lubri- 
cates the  inteftines,  faves  them  from  the  acrimony  of 
the  excrementilious  part,  and  facilitates  its  paflage.  j, 

Tlie  dtiocieniim  differs  confiderably  in  its  fituation  Duodenum^ 
from  the  human.  For  in  man  it  firft  mounts  from  the 
pylorus  upwards,  backwards,  and  to  the  right-fide  ; 
then  paffes  down  by  the  gall-bladder  ;  and,  marching 
over  the  right  kidney  and  fuperior  part  of  the  pfoas 
mufcles,  makes  a  curvature  upwards ;  and  paffes  over 
the  back-bone  and  vena  cava  inferior,  to  the  left  hypo- 


firmly  attaclied  to  the  liver,  fpine,  &c.  The  ftrije  of  chondrium,  where  it  gets  througli  the  omentum,  me- 
fat  are  pretty  regularly  difpofed  throitgh  it,  accompa-  fentery,  and  mefocolon,  to  commence  the yi^uni/m,  being 
nying  the  diftribution  of  the  blood-veffels  to  guard  firmly  tied  down  all  the  way,  the  biliary  and  pancreatic 
them  from  the  prcffure  of  the  fuperincumbent  vifcera.  dufls  entering  at  its  moft  depending  part :  Whereas, 
This  animal's  ftomach,  though   pretty  much  refem-    in  the  dog,  the  duodenum  is  fixed  at  the  pylorus  to  the 

I  i  2  concave 


'4 
Jejunum- 


COMPARATIVE    Anatomy.  Chap.  I, 

mals  which  h've  on  vepetablee,  ic  has  long  convolutionfi,    Of  Qua. 
fo  that  the  food  milll  be  lodged  in  it  for  a  long  time.    J^icds. 
Thua,  probably,  fome  change  tr.kes  place  in  the  food,         •     -* 
which  requires  a  cc  iifidcrable  •.icif  lo  efitftiiate,  and, 
thougii  unknown   to  os,  raay  anfwcr  very  iifeful  pur- 
pof'S  to  the  animal. 


15 

Inteftina 
teiiuia. 


16 

Appendix 
Vfrmifor- 
VU9. 


concave  fuiface  of  the  liver,  and  hangs  loofe  and  pen- 
dulous with  the  mefentcry  backwatus  into  the  cavity 
of  the  abdomen  ;  then  turnings  up  again,  is  fixed  to  the 
back  bonf,  where  it  ends  in  tlie  jc-junum  ;  the  bile  and 
pancreatic  jiiicc  are  poured  into  it  at  the  moft  dcpeud- 
ini'  part.  Thertfure  the  fame  intention  feems  to  have 
been  had  in  vitw  in  the  fcrrr.ation  of  this  part  in  both, 
viz.  the  giving  the  chyle,  after  the  liquors  of  the  liver 
and  pancreas  are  poured  into  it,  a  difadvantageous 
courfe,  that  fo  it  might  be  the  more  intimately  bWnded 
with  the  humours  btfoie  its  entry  into  the  jejunum, 
where  the  lafteals  are  vtry  nume/oiis  :  And  thus,  by 
reafon  of  thfii  different  p>>!iuie,  the  fame  dcfign  (tho' 
by  a  very  different  order  of  the  parts)  is  brought  about 
in  both. 

The  other  fmall  guts  are  much  the  fame  with  ours, 
only  fliorter.  The  ijreat  guts  are  alfo  fliorter  and  Iffs 
capacious  than  in  the  human  body  ;  and  we  take  it  for 
a  general  rule,  that  all  animals  that  live  on  vegetable 
food,  have  not  only  their  fmall  guts  confidcrably  long- 
er, but  alfo  their  great  gr^ts  more  capsi  ious,  than  iuch 
creatures  as  feed  on  other  animals.  Hence  man,  from 
this  form  of  his  inteftines,  a'.id  that  of  the  teeth,  leems 
to  have  been  originally  defigned  for  (ceding  on  vege- 
tables chiefly  ;  and  Hill  the  moil  of  his  food,  aad  all 
bis  drink,  is  of  that  clafs. 

The  reafon  of  this  difference  feems  to  be,  that  as 
animal  food  is  not  only  much  more  eafily  reduced  in- 
to chyle,  but  alfo  more  ptnne  to  putrefaftion,  too  long 
a  remora  of  the  juices  might  occalion  the  worft  confe- 
quences.  So  it  was  neceflary  that  their  receptacles 
fhould  not  be  too  capacious  ;  but  on  the  contrary,  be- 
ing ftiort  and  narrow,  might  conduce  to  the  feafonable 
diicharge  of  their  contents.  Whereas  vegetable  food 
being  more  difScultly  diffulved  and  convened  into  an 
animal  nature,  there  was  a  neceflity  for  fuch  creatures 
as  fed  on  it  to  be  providtd  with  a  long  inteilinal  canal, 
that  this  food  in  its  paffage  might  be  confiderably  re- 
tarded, and  have  time  to  change  its  indoles  into  one 
more  agreeable  to  our  nature.  Befides  which  there  is 
another  advantage  which  accrues  to  man  in  particular, 
from  having  his  great  guts  very  capacious :  for  as  he 
is  a  rational  being,  and  moftly  employed  in  the  func- 
tions of  focial  life,  it  would  have  been  very  inconve- 
nient as  well  as  unbecoming  for  him  to  be  too  fre- 
quently employed  in  fuch  ignoble  exercifes  ;  fo  that, 
having  this  large  refervoir  tor  his  fseces  alvinje,  he 
can  retain  them  for  a  confiderable  time  without  any 
trouble. 

The  appendix  ■vermiformis  juftly  enough  deferves  the 
name  of  an  intejllimm  ciecum  in  this  fubjeft,  though  in 
the  human  body  it  does  not  ;  and  it  has  probably  been 
from  the  largenefs  of  this  part  in  this  and  fome  other 
animals,  that  the  oldeft  anatomifts  came  to  reckon  that 
fmall  appendicle  in  man  as  one  of  the  great  guts.  On 
its  internal  furfacc  we  obferve  a  great  number  of  mu- 
cous glands.  As  all  thefe  throw  out  fiime,  their  prin- 
cipal office  would  feem  to  be  the  procuring  a  fufficient 
quantity  of  that  matter  for  the  purpofes  above  men- 
tioned. Still,  however,  there  feems  to  be  fome  un- 
known ufe  for  this  organ  in  other  animals  ;  for  the  ap- 
pendicula  vermifoniiis  in  them  is  either  of  great  fize 
or  of  great  length.  In  a  rat,  it  is  rather  larger  than 
the  ftomach  ;  in  others,  as  fwine,  and  fome  of  the  ani- 


Thc  cr.lcii  has  no  longitudinal  ligaments  ;  and  confe- 


17 
Culoiu 


l3 


quently  this  gut  is  not  purfcd  up  into  different  bags 
or  cells  as  the  human  :  nor  does  this  inteiline  make 
any  ciicular  turn  round  the  abdomen  ;  but  paffes  di- 
rectly acrofs  it  to  the  top  of  the  os  facrum,  where  It 
gets  the  name  of  reffiim. 

At  the  extremity  of  the  ititi-fiiium  ndurn,  or  verge  Redum, 
of  the  anus,  there  are  found  two  bags  or  pouclies, 
which  contain  a  moft  abominable  fetid  mucus  of  a  yel- 
low colour",  for  which  we  know  no  rrfc,  unlefs  it  ferves 
to  lubricate  the  ftraincd  extrc  . 'ty  of  the  rettum,  and 
defend  it  againil  tire  afpcrity  ot  the  feces,  or  to  fepa- 
rate  iome  liquor  that  might  otherwifc  prove  hurtful  to 
their  bodief..  There  is  nothing  analogous  to  tliofe 
£acs  in  the  human  fubjeA,  unlefs  v.-e  reckon  the  nurci- 
laginous  glands  that  ar'e  found  mi.ll  fivquerit  and  lar- 
gtlt  aborrt  the  lower  part  of  the  reClum. 

The  Kiifinftry  is  confiderably  longer  than  in  the  hn-  Mcferrterr, 
man  body  ;  that,  in  his  horizontal  frtuation,  the  iirte- 
ftines  may  reft  fecurely  on  the  foft  cufhinn  of  the  ab- 
dominal mufclcs.  The  fat  is  here  difjiofcd  in  the  fame 
way,  and  for  the  fanve  reafon,  as  in  the  omentum. 
The  iiitei-ftices  betwixt  the  fat  aie  filled  with  a  fine 
membrane.  Inftead  of  a  great  number  of  glandule  jg 
vagae  to  be  found  in  the  human  mefentery,  we  find  l'ancrcai> 
the  glands  few  in  nurrrber,  and  thofe  are  clofely  con-  ■-'"''• 
ncdted  together  ;  or  there  is  only  one  large  gland  to 
be  obfervcd  in  the  middle  of  the  mefentery  of  a  dog, 
which,  from  its  imagined  refemblance  to  the  pancreas 
and  the  name  of  its  difcoverers,  is  called  pancreas  Afel- 
lii ;  but  the  refemblance,  if  there  is  airy,  depends 
chiefly  on  the  conneftion,  the  ttru<ftui-e  being  entire- 
ly difterent.  The  reafon  why  this  in  man  is  as  it  wer'e 
fubdividcd  into  many  fmaller  ones,  may  polTrbly  be, 
that  as  the  grrts  of  a  huriran  body  are  proportionally 
much  longer  than  thofe  of  this  creature,  it  would  have 
been  inconvenient  to  have  gathered  all  the  laSea  prhm 
generis  into  one  place  ;  wher-eas,  by  coUefting  a  few 
of  thefe  veffels  into  a  neighbouring  gland,  the  fame 
effc£l  is  procrrred  much  nror-e  eafily.  Whether  the 
food  in  this  animal  needs  lefs  preparation  in  its  paf- 
fage through  thefe  glands,  is  a  matter  very  much  un- 
known to  us  ;  though  it  is  certain  that  fome  clianges 
really  do  take  place.  ^j. 

The  pancreas  in  man  lies  acrofs  the  abdomen,  tied  Pancreas, 
down  by  the  peritonKum  ;  but  the  capacity  of  this 
creature's  abdomen  not  allowing  of  that  frtuation,  it  is 
difpofed  more  longitudinally,  being  tied  to  the  duode- 
num, which  it  accompanies  for  fome  way.  Its  dircl 
enters  the  duodenum  about  an  inch  and  a  half  below 
the  duftus  comiTurnist  n 

The  Jp/ee/i  of  this  animal  differs  from  ours  very  much,  S|ileen. 
both  in  figure  and  fituation.  It  is  much  more  oblong 
and  thin,  and  lies  more  according  to  the  length  of  the 
abdomen,  like  the  pancreas.  Though  the  fpleen  of 
this  creature  is  not  firmdy  tied  to  the  diaphragm  (which 
was  neceffar-y  in  our  erett  pofture  to  hinder  it  from 
falling  downwards),  yet  by  the  animal's  prone  pofi- 

tion. 


I. 


COMPARATIVE    Anatomy. 


■2! 

Liver 


tion,  tts  pnflcn'or  parts  being  rather  higher  than  the 
'    anterior,  it  coints  to   be  always  contigiiouB   lo   this 
mufcle,  and  is  as  cffcftually  fiibjcCtfd  to  an  hUernate 
prelTurc  from  its  aftiou  as  the  bnman  I'plcrn  is. 

The  human  liver  ha5  no  fifTurcs  or  diviiions,  imlefs 
von  pkafc  to  reckon  that  fniall  one  betwixt  the  two 
' J)v/ir,  where  the  large  vtfi'els  enter:  Whereas  in  a  dog, 
end  all  other  creatures  that  have  a  large  flexion  in  their 
fpine,  as  lions,  leopards,  cats,  &c.  the  liver  and  limgs 
are  divided  into  a  great  many  lobes  by  deep  feftions, 
reaching  the  large  bio  d-vefTels,  which  in  great  motions 
of  the  back-bone  may  eafily  iTiufHe  over  one  another; 
and  fo  arc  in  much  Icfs  danger  of  being  torn  or  brui- 
fed,  than  if  they  were  formed  of  one  entire  piece,  as 
we  really  fee  it  is  in  horfes,  cows,  and  fuch  creatures 
as  have  their  backbone  ftiif  and  immoveable.  There 
is  here  no  li^jmeiilum  laliim  connecting  the  liver  to  the 
diaphragm,  which  in  our  iituatiou  was  necefTary  to 
keep  the  vifcus  in  its  place  :  Whereas  in  this  creature, 
it  natmally  gravitates  forwards,  and  by  the  horizon- 
tal polition  of  the  animal  is  in  no  danger  of  preffing 
againfl  the  \-ena  cava  ;  the  preventing  of  which  is  one 
life  generally  afligned  to  this  ligair.ent  in  man.  Had 
the  liver  of  the  dog  been  tluis  connected  to  the  dia- 
phragm, the  relpiralion  mull  necefiarily  have  fuffer- 
ed ;  for,  as  we  ilialj  fee  afterwards,  this  mufcle  is 
here  moveable  at  the  centre  as  well  as  at  the  fides  : 
But  in  man  the  liver  is  fixed  to  the  diaphragm,  moll- 
ly  at  its  tendinous  part  ;  that  is,  where  the  pericar- 
diimi  is  fixed  to  it  on  the  other  fide  ;  fo  that  it  is  in 
no  danger  ol  im]>e'iing  the  refciration,  being  fufpend- 
ed  by  the  mediaRinum  and  bones  ci  the  thorax.  In 
confcquence  of  this  vifcus  being  divided  into  fo  many 
lobes,  it  follows,  that  the  hepatic  dutts  cannot  pof- 
fibly  join  into  one  common  trunk  till  they  are  quite 
out  of  the  fubllance  of  tlse  liver;  becaufe  a  bianch 
comes  out  from  eveiy  lobe  of  the  liver  ;  all  of  which, 
by  their  union,  form  the  hepatic  dudt :  whence  we 
are  led  to  conclude,  tliat  the  hepato-cyftic  dufts,  men- 
tioned by  former  authors,  do  not  exill.  The  gall- 
bladder itlelf  is  wanting  in  feveral  animals,  fuch  as  the 
deer,  the  horfe,  the  afs,  &c.  ;  but  in  place  of  It,  in 
fuch  animals,  the  hepatic  duft,  at  its  beginning,  is 
widened  into  a  refervoir  of  confiderable  fne,  which 
may  anfwer  the  fame  purpofe  in  them  that  the  gall- 
bladder does  in  otliers 

We  come  nest,  after  having  examined  the  chylo- 
poietic  vifcera,  to  difcourfe  of  thofe  organs  that  ferve 
for  the  fecrttion  and  excretion  of  urine.  And  firft  of 
the  kidneys  :  Which  in  this  animal  are  fituated  much 
in  the  fame  way  as  in  the  hunuin  fubjeft ;  but  have  no 
fat  on  their  inferior  furface,  where  they  face  the  abdo- 
men, and  are  of  a  more  globular  form  than  the  lui- 
«nan.  The  reafon  of  thefe  differences  will  eafily  ap- 
pear, if  you  compare  their  fituation  and  poiture  in  this 
animal  with  thofe  in  a  man  who  walks  credl.  They 
are  placed  in  this  fubjeft  in  the  inferior  part  of  the 
body,  fo  are  not  fubjeft  to  the  prefiure  of  the  vifcera, 
which  feems  to  be  the  principal  caufe  of  the  fatnefs  of 
thofe  organs  in  us,  and  perhaps  may  likewife  be  the 
caufe  of  our  being  more  fubjecl  to  the  ilone  than  o- 
ther  animals.  Hence  there  is  no  need  of  any  cellular 
fubllance  to  ward  off  tlus  pieffure  where  there  would 
neceflarily  be  fat  collected  ;  but  the  fuperior  part  of 
their  kindneys  is  pretty  well  covered  with  fat,  lell  they 


id 
Ptlvii, 


(hould  fufTer  any  comprcflioii  fiom  the  aftion  of  the    Of  Qua- 
ribb  and  fpine.  /^'"P"^'-^ 

In  the  internal  ftnufture  there  is  dill  a  more  confi- 
derable difference  :  For  tlie  papUU  do  not  here  fend  PapiUx, 
out  fingle  the  feveral  liiliili  tuinifcri;  but  being  all  u- 
nited,  they  hang  down  in  form  of  a  loofe  pendulous 
flap  in  the  middle  of  the  pelvis,  and  form  a  kind  of 
feptum  nicdlum  ;  fo  that  a  dog  has  a  pelvis  formed 
within  tlie  fubllance  of  the  kidney.  Tlie  only  thing 
tliat  is  properly  analogous  to  a  pelvis  in  man  is  that 
fac  or  dilatation  of  the  ureters  formed  at  the  union  of 
the  diiNiis  nni/ift-ri.  The  external  part  of  the  kidney 
of  a  dog  fomcwhat  rcfe;iibles  one  of  the  lobes  of  the 
kidney  of  a  human  foetus  :  but  in  a  human  adult  the 
appearance  is  very  different  ;  becaufe,  in  man,  from 
the  continual  preffure  of  the  furroundirig  vifcera,  the 
lobes,  which  in  the  fictus  are  quite  dillinft  and  fepa- 
rated,  concrete,  but  the  original  conical  fubllance  is 
Hill  prcfei-ved  in  the  internal  parts  of  the  kidney.  The 
reafon  of  thefe  particularities  may  probibly  be,  that 
the  liquors  of  this  animal,  as  of  all  thofe  of  the  car- 
nivorous kind,  being  much  more  acrid  than  thofe  that 
live  on  vegetable  food,  its  urine  mull  incline  much  to 
an  alkalefcency,  as  indeed  the  fmell  and  tafte  of  t-hat 
liquor  in  dogs,  cats,  leopards,  &c.  evidently  flio\",  be- 
ing fetid  and  pungent,  and  tiierefore  not  convenient 
to  be  long  retained  in  the  body.  For  this  end  it  was 
proper  that  the  fecerning  organs  Ihould  have  as  lit- 
tle impediment  as  poffiblc  by  preffure,  lic.  in  the  per- 
forming their  fiuiftions  ;  and  for  that  defign,  the  me- 
chanlfm  of  their  kidneys  feems  to  be  excellently  a- 
dapted  :  We  have  mod  elegant  piftures  in  Euilachius 
of  the  kidneys  of  brutes,  delineated  as  fuch,  with  a 
view  to  fhow  Vcfahus's  error  in  painting  and  dcfcribing 
them  for  the  liuman. 

The  glanduLe  or  capfula  atrahilarls  are  thicker  and  Capfulx  a- 
rounder  than  the  human,  for  the  fame  reafon  as  the  trabifarije. 
kidneys. 

The  ureters  are  more  mufcular  than  the  human,  be-    ,,  '^^ 
caufe  of  the  unfavourable  paffigc  the  urine  has  through 
them;  they  enter  the  bladder  near  its  fundus. 

The  bladder  of  urine  differs  confiderably  from  the  Vefica  uri- 
human  ;  and  firll  in  its  form,  which  is  pretty  much  nana, 
pyramidal  or  pyriform.  This  Ihape  of  the  dog's  blad- 
der is  likewife  common  to  all  quadrupeds,  except  the 
ape  and  thofe  of  an  creft  po^iuie.  In  man  it  is  by  no 
means  pyriform,  but  has  a  large  fac  at  its  poiteriorand 
inferior  part:  this  form  depends  entirely  on  the  urine 
gravitating  in  our  ereit  poilure  to  its  bottom,  which 
it  wiU  endeavour  to  protrude  ;  but  as  it  cannot  yield 
before,  being  contiguous  to  the  os  pubis,  it  will  na- 
turally ftretch  out  where  there  is  the  leall  refillance, 
that  is,  at  the  poilerior  and  lateral  parts  ;  and  were  it 
not  for  this  fac,  we  could  not  fo  readily  come  at  the 
bladder  to  extradl  the  flone  either  by  the  leffer  or  Li- 
teral operation  of  lithotomy.  Moll  anatomills  liave 
delineated  this  wrong  :  fo  much,  that  I  know  of  none 
who  have  jullly  painted  it,  excepting  Mr  Cowper  in 
his  Myotomia,  and  Mr  Butty.  It  has  certainly  been, 
from  obferving  it  in  brutes  and  young  children,  that 
they  have  been  led  into  this  millake.  The  fame  caufe, 
•ul%.  the  gravity  of  the  urine,  makes  the  bladder  of 
a  different  form  in  brutes  :  In  their  horizonial  pofi- 
tion  the  cervix,  from  which  the  urethra  is  continued^ 
is  higher  thaii  its  fundus ;  the  urine  tnuJl  therefore 

dijC 


47 


254 

Of  Qiia- 


Connec- 
tion. 


Why  the 
human 
bladder  but 
in  psrr  co- 
vered by 
the  |.erito- 
seum. 


3» 
A  ftin-.ulr.s 

proved  to 
be  a  i-Tin- 
cipal  caufe 
of  the  eva- 
cup.tion  of 
the  bladder. 


Caufes  af- 
figned  for 
the  rabies 
canina,  &c 


C  O  M  P  A  R  A  T 

diftcnd  and   dilate   the   moft   depending   part  by  its 
weight. 

As  to  its  connexion,  it  I3  fadened  to  the  abdominal 
miifcles  by  a  procefs  of  the  peritoneum,  and  that  mem- 
brane is  extended  quite  ever  it ;  whereas  in  us  its  fu- 
peiior  and  pofterior  parts  are  only  covered  by  it:  hence 
in  man  alone  the  high  operation  of  lithotomy  can  be 
performed  without  hazard  of  opening  the  cavity  of  the 
abdomen.  Had  the  peritoneum  been  fpread  over  the 
bladder  in  its  whole  extent,  the  weight  of  the  vifcera 
in  our  ereft  pofture  woiJd  have  fo  bore  upon  it,  that 
they  would  not  have  allowed  any  confiderable  quantity 
of  urine  to  be  collctled  there  ;  but  we  mull  have  been 
obliged  to  difcharge  its  conlenfs  tco  frequently  to  be 
confident  with  the  funftions  of  a  focial  life  :  Whereas 
by  means  of  the  peritoneum,  the  urine  is  now  collect- 
ed in  fufficient  quantity,  the  vifcera  not  gravitating 
this  way. 

It  may  be  taken  for  a  general  rule,  that  thofe  crea- 
tures that  feed  upon  animal-food  have  their  bladder 
more  mufcular  and  confiderably  ftronger,  and  lefs  ca- 
pacious, than  thofe  tliat  live  on  vegetables,  fuch  as 
horfes,  cows,  fwine,  &:'c.  whofe  bladder  of  urine  is  pev- 
feftly  membranous,  and  very  large.  This  is  wdely 
adapted  to  the  nature  of  their  food:  For  in  thefe  iirft, 
as  all  their  juices  are  more  acrid,  fo  in  a  particular 
manner  their  urine  becomes  exalted  ;  which,  as  its  re- 
mora  might  be  of  very  ill  conftquence,  muft  neceflari- 
ly  be  quickly  expelled.  This  is  chiefly  effefted  by  its 
fiimulating  this  vifcus  more  (Irongly  to  contract,  and 
fo  to  difcharge  its  contents,  though  the  irritation  does 
not  altogether  depend  upon  the  fbretching,  but  likeviife 
arifes  from  thi  quality  of  the  liquor.  That  a  ftimulus 
is  one  of  the  principal  caufes  of  the  excretion  of  urine, 
we  learn  from  the  common  fahne  diuretic  medicines 
that  are  given,  which  are  dlffolved  into  the  ferum  of 
the  blood,  and  carried  down  by  the  kidneys  to  the 
.bladder:  The  fame  appears  like  wife  from  the  appli- 
cation of  cantharides  ;  or  without  any  of  thefe,  when 
the  parts  are  made  more  fcnfible,  as  in  an  excoriation 
of  the  bladder,  there  is  a  frequent  defire  to  make  wa- 
ter. Accordingly  we  find  thefe  animals  evacuate  their 
urine  much  more  frequently  than  man,  or  any  other 
creature  that  lives  on  vegetable  food.  And  if  thefe 
creatures,  whofe  fluids  have  already  a  tendency  to  pu- 
trefaftion,  are  expofed  to  heat  or  hunger,  the  liquids 
muft  for  a  confiderable  time  undergo  the  aAions  of 
the  containing  velTels,  and  frequently  perform  the 
courfe  of  the  circulation,  without  any  new  fupplies 
of  food;  by  which  the  fluids  becoming  more  and  more 
acrid,  the  creature  is  apt  to  fall  into  feverifli  and  pu- 
trid difcafes :  And  in  fact,  we  find  that  fatal  and  me- 
lancholy difl-emper  the  rabies  canina,  •vulpina,  iSc.  fre- 
quent in  thefe  animals;  whereas  thofe  that  feed  on  ve- 
getable food  feldom  or  never  contraft  thofe  difeafes 
but  by  infeAion. 

That  the  caufes  commonly  afligned  for  the  rabies 
canina  are  infufficient  to  produce  it  in  dogs  and  other 
animals  of  that  kind,  is  denied  in  a  diifertation  on  this 
difeafe  by  DrHeyfliam.  That  heat  is  infufficient,  he 
proves  from  the  difeafe  being  totally  unknown  in  South 
America,  where  the  heat  is  much  greater  than  in  this 
country.  Putrid  aliment  he  alfo  fays  is  taken  in  great 
quantity  by  dogs  without  any  inconvenience  ;  and  as 
it  feems  in  this  ftate  to  be  moft.  agreeable  to  them, 


I  V  E     Anatomy.  Chap.  I. 

the  rabies  canina  cannot  with  any  probability  be  afcri-   Of  Qiia- 
bed  to  it.     As  to  want  of  water,  he  obftrvcs  that  the    •^''^pcrf'- 
difeafe  often   originates  among  dogs  that  are  pltnti-         ■    '   , 
fully  fupplicd  with  that  element,  while  others  long  de- 
prived of  it  have  remained  perfedHy  free.     In  fliort, 
Dr  Heylham  totally  denies,  not  only  the   efficacy  of 
the  caufes  commonly  afligned   for  the  rabies   canina, 
but  the  nature  of  the  diilemper  itfelf;  and  conjectures 
that  the  caufe  of  it  is  not  1l  pulrejcency  but  an  acidity  of 
the  fluids.  , . 

Their  fpermatic  lytjjch  are    within   the   peritoneum,  Vafa  f;ier- 
which  is  fpread  over  them,  and  from  which  they  have  ""''"• 
a  membrane  like  a  mefentery,   fo   hang  loofe  and  pen- 
dulous in  the  abdomen  :   whereas,  in  us,  thev  are  con- 
tained in  the  cellular  part  of  the  peritoneum,  which  is 
tenfely  ftretched  over  them.     At  their  paHage  out  of       35 
the  lower  belly,  there  appears  a  plain  perforation,  or  ^j^.  '^^r 
holes  ;  hence  the  adult  quadruped,  in  this  refptcl,  re-  nutmn  .of 
fembles  the  human  foetus.     And  from   obferving  thisheniiaor 
in  quadrupeds,   has  arifen  the  falfe  notion  oi  hernia  01 ''"i""'''' 
rupture   among   authors.     This  opening,  which  leads 
down  to  the  tefticle,  is  of  no   difadvautage  to  them, 
but  evidently    would   have  been  to  us  ;  for  from  the 
weight  of  our   vifcera,  and  our   continually   gravita- 
ting upon  thefe  holes,  we  mufl;  have  perpetually  labour- 
ed under  enteroceles.     This  they  are   in  no  hazard  of, 
fnice  in  them  this  pafiage  is  at  thehigheit  part  of  their 
belly,  and,  in  their  horizontal  pofture,  the  vifcera  can- 
not bear  upon  it  :      And,  to  prevent  even  the  fuiallell 
hazard,  there  is  a  loofe  pendulous  femilunar  flap  of  fat ; 
which  ferves  two  ufes,  as  it  both  hinders  the  inteftines 
from  getting  into  the  pafl'ag-e,   and  alfo  the  courfe  of 
the  fluids  from   being  Hopped  in  the   vtlfels,  which  is 
fec'ired  in   us  by  the  cellular  fubilance  and  tenfe  peri- 
toneum :   And  it  may  be  worth  while  to  obferve,  that 
this  procefs  remains  almofl;  unaltered,  even  after  the 
animal  has  been  almoft  exhauftcd  of  fat. 

There  is  next  a  paflage  quite  down  into  the  cavity 
where  the  tefticles  lie.  Had  the  fame  ftruclure  ob- 
tained in  man,  by  the  conftant  drilling  down  of  the  li- 
quor which  is  fecerned  for  the  lubricating  of  the  guts, 
we  fliould  always  have  laboiu'ed  under  an  hydrocele ; 
but  their  pofture  fecures  them  from  any  hazard  of  this 
kind  :  indeed  your  very  fat  lap-dogs,  who  confequent- 
ly  have  an  overgrown  omentum,  are  fometimes  trou- 
bled with  an  epiplocele.  ,g 

The  yi"j  w'u??/  is  (horter  and  not  fo  pendulous  as  the   Scrotum, 
human  in  all  the  dog  kind  that  want  the  Tcficul^  femi- 
nales,  that  the  feed  at  each  copulation  might  the  foon- 
er  be  brought  from  the  teftes,  thus   in  fome  meafure 
fupplying  the  place  of  the  •vejtcult  femiimles  ;  for 
courfe  of  the  feed  through  the  -vafa  deferemia  is  thus  cul^  femi- 
Ihortened,  by  placing  the  fecerning  veflels  nearer  the  nales,  howj 
excretoiy   organs.      Perhaps    its   paflage    is    Hkewife '"Pi'''^'*'! 
quickened  by  the  mufcular  power  of  the  vafa  dcferen- 
tia,  which  is   ftronger  in  this  creature  than  in   man. 
The   want  of  •uejtcula  femineles  at  the   fame  time  ex- 
plains the  reafon  why  this  creature  is  fo  tedious  in  co- 
pidation.      But  why  thefe  bodies  are  abfent  in  the  dog 
kind  more  than  in  other  animals,  is  a  circuniftance  we 
know  nothing  of. 

The  fl;rudture  of  the  tejlides  is  much  the  fame  with 
the  human  ;  as  are  likewife  the  corpus  pyramidah,  va- 
ricofum,  or  pampinifonm:,  and  the  epidiiiymis  or  excre- 
tory vefl"el  of  the  tefticle.     The  vafa  deferentia  enter 

the 


the       ^^ 
The  vefi- 


38 
Teftes. 


'hap. 


39 
Penis. 


40 
Coitus, 


I.  ,      C  O  M  P  A  R  A  T 

Of  Qiia-  the  abdomen  where  the  blood- vcdcls  come  out ;  and, 
dru,eh.  p^ffmg  along  the  upper  pait  of  the  bladder,  are  iufert- 
*  ed  a  little  below  the  bulbous  part  of  the  urethra. 

The  prxputliim  has  two  mufclcs  fixed  to  it  :  one 
that  aiifes  from  the  fphinfter  ani,  and  is  infcrted  all 
along  the  penis  ;  and  this  is  called  retrutlor  prtepiiUi  : 
But  the  other,  whofe  office  is  direftly  contrary  to  this, 
is  cutaneous;  and  fcems  to  take  its  origin  from  the 
tpufcles  of  the  abdomen,  or  rather  to  be  a  produdtion 
of  their  tunica  carnofa.  The  corpora  cavcrriri/'a  rife 
much  in  llie  fame  way  as  the  human  :  but  thefe  foon 
terminate;  and  the  reilis  fupphed  by  a  triangular  bone, 
in  the  inferior  part  of  which  there  is  a  groove  excava- 
ted for  lodfring  the  urethra.  There  are  upon  the  penis 
two  protulierant  bulbous  flcfiiy  fubftancts,  refembling 
the  glans  penis  in  man,  at  the  back  of  wiiich  are  two 
veins,  which  by  the  ereSores  penis  and  other  parts  are 
comprcffed  in  the  time  of  coition  ;  and  tlie  circulation 
beino-  ilopped,  the  blood  dillends  the  large  cavernous 
bodies.  After  the  penis  is  thus  fwelled,  the  vagina 
by  its  contraftiou  and  fwclliug  of  its  corpus  cavcrno- 
funi,  which  is  confiderably  greater  than  in  other  ani- 
mals, gripes  it  clofely  ;  and  fo  the  male  is  kept  in  ac- 
.tion  fome  time  contrary  to  his  will,  till  time  be  given 
fur  bringing  a  quantity  of  feed  fufiicient  to  impregnate 
tlie  female  :  and  thus,  by  that  orgafinus  veiuris  of  the 
female  organs,  the  want  of  the  ntijicuht  fcmitiales  are  in 
fome  meafure  fupplied.  But  as  it  would  be  a  very 
luieafy  pofture  for  the  dog  to  fupport  himfclf  folely  up- 
on his  hinder  feet,  and  for  the  bitch  to  fuppoit  the 
weight  of  the  dog  for  folong  a  time;  therefore,  as  foon 
as  the  bulbous  bodies  are  fufficiently  filled,  he  gets  off 
and  turns  averfe  to  her.  Had,  then,  ihc  penis  been  pli- 
able as  in  other  animals,  the  urethra  mull  of  neceflity 
have  been  compreffed  by  this  twilling,  and  confequent- 
ly  the  courfe  of  the  feed  intercepted;  but  this  is  wife- 
ly provided  againft  by  the  urethra's  being-  formed  in 
the  hollow  of  the  bone.  After  the  emilfion  of  the 
feed,  the  parts  turn  flaccid,  the  circulation  is  reftored, 
and  the  bulbous  parts  can  be  eafily  extracled. 

The  prcjiata  feems  here  divided  into  two,  which  are 
proportiouably  Inrper  than  the  human,  and  afford  a 
greater  quantity  of  that  liquid. 

The  uterus  of  multiparous  animals  is  little  elfe  but  a 
continuation  of  their  vagina,  only  feparated  from  it  by 
a  fmall  ring  or  valve.  From  the  uterus  two  long  canals 
mount  upon  the  loins,  in  which  the  fcetus  are  lodged  : 
thefe  are  divided  into  different  facs,  which  are  Ilrongly 
conftricled  betwixt  eacli  fietus;  yet  the fccoarctions  give 
way  in  the  time  of  birth.  From  thefe  go  out  the  tubtc 
FallopiarKe,  fo  tiiat  the  ovaria  come  to  lodge  pretty 
near  the  kidneys. 

We  ought  next  to  examine  the  (Irufture  of  the  tho- 
rax and  its  contents.  But  firft  it  may  not  be  amifs  to 
■  -  remark  of  the  diuphrogm  in  its  natural  fituation,  that 
Ciap  "gmjj  jg  j|-|  gtjigral  more  loofe  and  free  than  the  human  ; 
which  is  owing  to  its  conneftion  with  the  neighbour- 
ing parts  in  a  different  manner  from  ours.  The  human 
diaphragm  is  connedled  to  the  pericardium ;  which 
again,  by  the  intervention  of  the  mediaftinum,  is  tied 
to  the  fternum,  fpine,  &c.  but  here  there  is  fome  di- 
ftance  between  the  diaphragm  and  pericardium.  We 
obferve  further,  that  its  middle  part  is  much  more 
moveable,  and  the  tendinous  parts  not  fo  large.  And 
indeed  it  was  neceffary  their  diaphragm  fliould  be  fome- 


41 

Pruflata. 


41 
Uctrus. 


43 


I  V  E     Anatomy. 

what  loofe,  they  making  more  ufc  of  it  In  difficult  re- 
fpiration  than  man.  This  we  may  obferve  by  tlic  llrong 
heaving  of  the  flanks  of  an  horfe  or  dog  when  out  of 
breath ;  which  conefponds  to  the  rifing  of  the  ribs  in  us. 

The  difpofition  and  fituation  of  the  mivnmx  vary  as 
they  bear  one  or  more  young.  Thofe  of  the  uniparous 
kind  have  them  placed  between  the  poilerior  extremi- 
ties, which  in  them  is  the  highell  pai't  of  their  bodies, 
whereby  their  young  get  at  them  without  the  inconve- 
nience of  kneeling:  Neverthelcfs,  when  the  creatures  are 
of  no  great  fize,  and  their  breall  large,  as  in  iheep,  the 
young  ones  are  obliged  to  take  this  polture.  In  multi- 
parous animals,  they  mull  have  a  gieat  number  of  nip- 
ples, that  their  fevcral  young  ones  may  have  room  at 
the  fame  time,  and  tliefe  difpofed  over  both  thorax 
and  alidomen  ;  and  th.;  creatures  generally  lie  down  when 
the  young  are  to  be  fuckled,  that  they  may  give  thera 
tlie  moll  favourable  fituation.  From  this  it  does  not 
appear  to  be  from  any  particular  fitnefs  of  the  veffels 
at  certain  places  for  giving  a  proper  nourishment  to 
the  child,  that  the  brealls  are  fo  placed  in  women  as 
we  find  them,  but  really  from  that  fituation  being  the 
moll  convenient  both  for  mother  and  infant. 

Th<^ Jlerruim  is  veiy  narrow,  and  conlifts  of  a  great 
number  of  fmall  bones,  moveable  every  way  ;  which 
always  happens  in  creatures  that  have  a  great  mobihty 
in  their  fpine.  The  ribs  are  llraighter,  and  by  no 
means  fo  convex  as  the  human  ;  whereby  in  refpira- 
tion  the  motion  forward  will  very  little  enlarge  their 
thorax,  wliieli  is  compenfated  by  the  greater  mobility 
ot  tjicir  diaphragm  :  lo  our  thorax  is  principally  enlar- 
ged according  to  its  breadth  and  depth,  and  theirs 
according  to  its  length.  The  want  of  clavicles,  and 
the  confcquent  falling  in  of  tlie  anterior  extremities 
upon  the  chell,  may  contributefomewhat  to  the  ftraight- 
nefsof  the  ribs. 

The  med'iajl'mum  in  this  creature  is  pretty  broad. 
The  peiicardium  is  not  here  contiguous  to  the  dia- 
phragm, but  there  is  an  inch  of  dillance  betwixt  them, 
in  wiiich  place  the  fmall  lobe  of  the  lungs  lodges;  and 
by  this  means  the  liver,'  &c.  of  this  animal,  though 
continually  preffing  upon  the  diaphragm,  yet  cannot 
dillurb  the  heart's  motion. 

The  heart  is  iituated  with  its  point  almofl:  directly 
downwards,  according  to  the  creature's  poilure,  and 
is  but  very  little  inclined  to  the  left  fide.  Its  point  is 
much  (liaiper,  and  its  fhape  more  conoidal,  than  the 
human.  Here  the  names  of  right  and  left  ventricles 
are  proper  enough,  though  not  fo  In  the  human;  which 
ought  rather  to  be  called  anterior  znA  pojlerior,  ar  fupe- 
rior  and  inferior.  The  animal  has  the  'uemi  cava  of  a 
confider.ib'e  length  within  the  thorax,  having  near  the 
whole  length  of  the  heart  to  run  over  ere  it  gets  at  the 
fmus  Loweriauus  dexter.  In  men,  as  foon  as  it  pierces 
the  diaphragm,  fo  foon  it  enters  the  pericardium,  which 
is  firmly  attached  to  ii,  and  immediately  gets  into  the 
funis  Lo-dserianus  ;  which  finus,  in  th^  human  fubjeiil, 
by  the  oblique  fituation  of  the  heart  is  almofl.  conti- 
guous to  the  diaphragm  :  and  by  tliis  we  difcover,  that 
feveral  authors  have  taken  their  delineations  of  the  hu- 
man heart  from  brutes  ;  which  is  eafily  detedled  by 
the  fhape  and  fituation  of  the  heart,  and  long  vena  ca- 
va, within  the  thorax.  This  was  one  of  the  faults  of 
the  curious  wax-work  that  were  fliown  at  London  and. 
Paris,  which  were  plainly  taken  from  a  cow. 
a,  Tliis. 


44 
Thorax. 

45 
Mammx. 


4« 
Sternum. 


47 
Cefta. 


48 
Mediaili. 
num. 


49 
Cor. 


50 
Vena  cava 


256 

Of  Qu3- 
drupci!s. 

Aorta  af- 
cendcna, 
improperly 
io  calkd. 


COMPARATIVE    Anatomy.  Chap.  I. 

four  dllliii(ft  trunks  from  the  arch  of  the  aorta ;  but  Of  Qua. 
no  appearance  of  this  kind  has  ever  been  obtcrvcd  in  ""pcds, 
fuch  bodies  as  have  been  examined  for  this  purpofe  ;  ' 
th^iugh  indeed  ihcfe  have  been  but  few,  and  more  ex- 
perience might  throw  greater  light  on  the  fiibjeft.  53 
The  ll'ymus  of  this  creature  is  proportionably  much  "hymus. 


A  mcdianl- 
ca)  account 
cf  tiie  fu- 
j^cfior 
i^rcngth  of 
the  light 
arm,  l,g, 


Tills  fitualion  of  the  heart  of  the  creature  agrees  bcft 
wiih  tlie  iliape  of  its  thorax,  which  is  lower  than  the 
abdomen. 

The  e;-:;i-efs  of  the  large  blood-vefl'cls  from  the  heart 
is  fomewhat  different  from  tlie  human  :  For  here  the 
right  fubclavian  comes  off  firil  :  and  as  a  large  trunk 
runs  fourc  wav  upwards  before  it  gives  off  the  left  ca- 
rotid, <ind  fpliis  into  the  carotid  and  fubclavian  of  the 
right  fide,  then  the  left  fubclavian  is  fent  off.  So  that 
neither  here,  properly  fpcaklng,  is  there  an  aorla  afcen- 
<Lns,  more  than  in  the  humin  ;  but  this  name  has  pro- 
bably been  impofed  upon  it  from  obferving  this  in  a 
cow,  where  indeed  there  is  an  afcending  and  defcend- 
ing  aorta. 

From  this  fpecialty  of  the  dlPaibution  of  the  veffels 
of  the  right  fide,  which  happens,  though  not  in  fo  great 
a  degree,  in  the  human  fubjeift,  we  may  perhaps  in 
fome  meafure  account  for  the  general  greater  ftrencjth, 
readinefs,  or  facility  of  motion,  which  is  obfervable  in 
the  right  arm.  Upon  meafuring  the  fides  of  the  vef- 
fels, the  furface  of  the  united  trunk  of  the  ri::;ht  fub- 
clavian and  carotid  is  lefs  than  that  of  the  left  hibcla- 
vian  and  carotid,  as  they  are  feparated.  If  fo,  the  re- 
finance to  the  blood  mull  be  lefs  in  that  common  trunk 
than  in  the  left  fubclavian  and  carotid  :  But  if  the  re- 
fillance  be  fmaller,  tlie  abfolute  force  with  which  the 
blood  is  fent  from  tlie  heart  being  equal,  there  muft 
neceffarily  be  a  greater  quantity  of  blood  fent  through 
them  in  a  given  time  ;  and  as  the  llrength  of  the 
mufcles  is,  Creteiis  par'tlus,  as  the  quantity  of  blood  fent 
into  them  in  a  given  time,  thofe  of  the  right  arm  will 
be  llronger  than  thofe  of  the  left.  Now  children,  be- 
ing confeious  of  this  fuperior  llrength,  ufe  the  right 
upon  all  occafions;  and  thus  from  ufe  comes  that  great 
difference  which  is  fo  obfervable.  That  this  is  a  fuffi- 
cient  cnufe,  feems  evident  from  faft  ;  for  what  a  dif- 
ference is  there  betwixt  the  right  and  the  left  arm  of  one 
who  has  played  irnich  at  tennis?  View  but  the  arms  of 
ablackfmith  and  legs  of  a  footman,  and  you  will  foon 
be  convi  iced  of  this  efieft  arifing  from  ufing  them. 
But  if  by  any  accident  the  right  arm  is  kept  from  ac- 
tion for  fome  time,  the  other  from  being  ufed  gets 
the  better  ;  and  ihofe  people  are  left-handed  :  For  it 
is  not  to  be  imagined,  that  the  fmall  odds  in  the  origi- 
nal formation  of  the  veffels  (liould  be  fufficlent  to  reiift 
the  cffeft  of  ufe  and  habit  (iiidances  of  the  contrary 
occur  every  day)  ;  it  is  enough  for  our  prefent  argu- 
ment, that  where  no  means  are  ufed  to  oppofe  it,  the 
odds  are  fuffieient  to  determine  the  choice  in  favour  of 
the  right.  Now  becaufe  it  is  natural  to  begin  with 
the  leg  correfpondiiig  to  the  hand  we  have  moll 
power  of,  this  is  this  what  gives  alfo  a  fuperiority  to  the 
fight  leg. 

This  difference  I"S  not  peculiar  to  man,  but  is  (litl 
more  obfervable  in  thofe  creatiu-es  in  whom  the  fame 
mechanifm  docs  obtain  in  a  greater  degree.  Do  but 
obferve  a  dog  at  a  trot,  how  he  bears  forward  with  his 
right  fide  ;  or  look  at  him  when  a-fcraping  up  any 
thing,  and  you  will  prcfently  fee  that  he  ufes  his  right 
much  oftcuer  than  he  does  his  left  foot.  Something 
analogous  to  this  may  be  obferved  in  horfes.  It  lias 
been  the  opinion  of  iome  anatomills,  that  left-handed 
people,  as  well  as  thofe  diftinguidied  by  the  name 
of  amb'uUxkr  (who  ufe  both  hands  ahke),  have 
the  two  carotid  aiid  fub*;laviau  aiteries  coming  off  in 

N°  87. 


larger  than  ours:  whereas  the  glandula  ihyroidca  isf;!^^^,]^ 
much  lefs,  and  is  divided  into  two  diffir.Cl  parts,  orthjroidca, 
there  are  two  fcparate  glands ;  which  is  not  the  cafe  in 
man.  The  reafon  of  this  difference  is  unknown,  as  is 
likevvife  the  ufe  of  the  gland  itfelf.  It  is  generally  re- 
marked, that  thefe  two  glands  do  thus  always  fupply 
the  place  of  each  other  ;  that  is,  in  fucli  animals  as 
have  a  large  thymus,  the  glandula  thyroidea  is  Imaller, 
and  'vire  •verfj.  Hence  we  are  natundly  led  to  afcribe 
the  fame  ufe  to  both,  11/1.  the  feparation  of  a  thin  lymph 
for  diluting  the  chyle  in  the  thoracic  dutl  before  it  be 
poured  into  the  blood  ;  then  if  we  confider  the  differ- 
ent formation  of  the  tiiorax  in  both,  we  fliall  readily 
account  for  the  variety  in  the  bulk  of  thefe  two  glands. 
Refpiration  being  chiefly  performed  in  man  by  the  wi- 
dening of  the  cheil,  the  lungs  at  every  infpiration  mull 
prefs  upon  the  thymus,  and  confequently  diminifli  it  : 
but  the  diaphragm  yielding  more  in  the  dog's  infpira- 
tion, this  gland  is  not  fo  much  preffed  by  the  lungs, 
and  fo  will  be  larger;  and  hence  the  glandula  thyroidea 
will  be  proportionably  lefs.  Again,  from  the  polture 
of  this  creature,  we  ihall  fee  that  it  was  much  more 
convenient  for  a  dog  to  have  the  moft  part  of  the  di- 
luting lymph  fupplied  by  the  thymus,  lince  the  neck 
being  frequently  in  a  defceuding  poilure,  the  lymph 
of  the  thyroid  gland  would  have  a  very  difadvantage- 
ous  courfe  to  get  to  the  thoracic  du£l:  whereas  in  the 
human  body,  the  thymus  is  really  below  the  lacleal  ca- 
nal, where  it  makes  its  curvature  before  it  opens  into 
the  fubclavian  ;  and  confequently  there  is  a  neceffity 
of  a  conllderable  (hare  of  the  diluting  hquor  being  fur- 
nilhed  by  the  thyi-oid  gland,  which  is  iituated  much 
higher  ;  fo  that  its  lymph  has  the  advantage  of  a  per- 
pendicular defcent.  , 

We  may  here  obferve,  that  ^i)[lt  thoracic  duS  in  a  dogpuiiu, 
has  no  curvature  before  it  enters  the  fubclavian  vein,  thoracicus. 
the  horizontal  pofition  of  this  animal  allowing  a  favour- 
able enough  courfe  to  the  chyle,  fo  as  not  to  need  tliat 
turn  to  force  its  paffage  into  the  blood.  It  may  like- 
wife  be  obferved,  that  fuch  animals  as  walk  horizon- 
tally have  tlie  valves  of  the  thoracic  diitl  fewer  in  num- 
ber than  others.  The  horfe  has  only  a  fingle  pair  ; 
while,  on  the  contraiy,  the  ape  refcmbles  man  in  ha- 
ving leveral  valves.  'I'lius  the  lymph  is  not  only  for- 
warded in  its  paffage,  but  the  weight  of  the  column  is 
diminilhed.  The  lungs  of  this  creatui'e  are  divided  in- 
to more  numerous  lobes,  and  deepe'r,  than  they  are  in 
man,  for  the  fame  reafon  as  the  liver.  The  left  fide 
of  the  thorax  in  this  animal  beans  a  greater  proportion 
to  the  right  than  in  man;  the  one  being  nearly  as  three 
to  two,  the  other  as  four  to  three.  In  quadrupeds,  as 
well  as  in  man,  the  lungs  are  clofely  applied  to  the 
containing  parts;  although  this  has  been  denied  by  fome. 

We  look  on  it  as  a  general  riJe,  that  all  quadrupeds, 
as  having  occafion  to  gather  their  food  from  the  ground, 
?.ve  provided  with  longer  necks  than  man  :  but  as  a 
long  neck  not  only  gives  the  advantage  of  toojong  a 
lever  to  the  weight  of  the  head,  but  alio,  when  the  ani- 
mal is  gathering  his  food,  makes  the  brain  in  danger 
2  of 


Neck. 


57 
Jaws. 


5S 
Teeth. 


Chap.I.  C  O  M  P  A  R  A  T 

OfQiiadru- of  being  opprefTed  with  loo  great  a  quantity  of  blood, 
I"ds.       j,y  {i,g  liquor  in  thefe  arteries  having  the  advantage  of 

^—-^y—~  a  defccnt,  while  that  in  the  veins  mull  remount  a  con- 
Cderable  way  contrary  to  its  own  gravity  ;  it  was 
therefore  necclHuy  that  a  part  of  the  length  of  the  neck 
(liouM  be  fupph'ed  by  the  length  of  the  jaws.  Thus  we 
fee  liorfis,  cows,  &c.  who  have  no  occalion  for. open- 
ing their  mouths  very  wide,  yet  have  long  jaws.  liuU- 
degs,  indeed,  and  fuch  animals  as  have  occafion  for 
very  ftrong  jaws,  mull  of  neccfiity  liave  them  fliort  ; 
becaufe  the  longer  they  are,  the  rtfiilance  to  be  over- 
come afts  with  a  longer  lever.  Another  exception  to 
this  general  rule,  is  fuch  animals  as  are  furn^ed  with 
fometliing  analogous  to  hands  to  convey  their  food  to 
their  mouths,  as  cats,  apes,  &c.  The  teeth  of  this 
creature  plainly  fliow  it  to  be  of  the  carnivorous  kind  ; 
for  there  are  none  of  them  made  for  grinding  its 
food;  but  only  for  tearing  and  dividing  it.  It  has  fix 
remarkable  (harp  teeth  before,  and  two  very  long  tufl<s 
behind  ;  both  of  which  the  ruminating  animals  want. 
Thefe  are  evidently  calculated  for  laying  very  firm 
hold  of  fubftances,  and  tearing  them  to  pieces  ;  and 
the  vaft  ilrength  of  the  mufcles  inferted  into  the  lower 
jaw,  affills  greatly  in  this  atlion  ;  while  the  molares 
have  (hai-p  cutting  edges,  calcidated  for  cutting  flefh, 
and  breaking  the  harded  bones.  Even  its  pofterior 
teeth  are  not  formed  with  rough  broad  furfaces  as  ours 
are  ;  but  are  made  confiderably  fliarper,  and  prefs  over 
one  another  when  the  month  is  fluit,  that  fo  they  may 
^  take  the  firmer  hold  of  whatever  comes  betwixt  tliem. 

ToDi'uc.  The  tongue,  in  coufetjueiice  of  the  length  of  the 
taws,  is  much  longer  than  ours  ;  and  as  this  creature 
feeds  with  his  head  in  a  depending  pollure,  the  bolus 
would  always  be  in  danger  of  falHng  out  of  the  mouth, 
were  it  not  for  fcveral  prominences  or  papillas  placed 
m.ollly  at  the  .root  of  the  tongue,  and  crooked  back- 
wards in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  allow  any  thing  to  pafs 
eafily  down  to  the  jaws,  but  to  hinder  its  return.  By 
the  papilUe  alfo  tlie  fnrface  of  the  tongue  is  iucreafed, 
and  a  ilronger  imprtfiion  is  made  on  the  fcnfation  of 
talle.  In  fome  animals  who  feed  on  living  creatures, 
thefe  tenter-hooks  are  ilill  more  confpicuous ;  <rs  in  fe- 
Aeral  large  fifiies,  where  they  are  almoll  as  large  as 
their  teeth  in  the  forepart  of  their  mouth,  and  near  as 
^^         firm  and  ftrong. 

Amygdals.  When  we  open  the  mouth,  we  fee  the  amygdals 
very  prominent  in  the  poilerior  part  of  it  ;  fo  that  it 
would  appear  at  firft  \iew,  that  thefe  were  inconve- 
niently placed,  as  being  continually  expofed  to  injuries 
from  the  liard  fubftances  this  creature  fwallows  :  but 
upon  a  more  narrow  fcrutinv,  we  find  this  provided 
for  by  two  membranous  capfulte,  into  which  the  amyg- 
dala, when  prefTed,  can  efcape,  and  remove  thcmfelvcs 
^j         from  fuch  injuries. 

Velum  ]-en-      The  ivhm  pendulwn  palali  is  in  this  creature  confi- 

Jiilum  fa-    ileralily  longer  tlian  in  man,  to  prevent  the  food  from 
■"'■  getting  into  his  nofe  ;  vthlch  would  happen  more  fre- 

queiitl)-  in  tliic  animal  than  in  man,  bccaul'e  cf  its  fitua- 
tion  while  feedins;. 

In  this  fubjeCt,  as  wt'l  na  in  other (Uiadrupeds,  there 
is  no  uvula;  but  then  the  f/j^^/oWw,  wlieu  preffed  down, 
Ep'glottis.  covers  the  whole  rir.ia  entirely,  and  naturally  continues 
fo  :  there  is  therefore  a  ligament,  or  rather  mufcle, 
that  comes  frcm  the  os  hyoidcs  and  root  of  tiie  tongue, 
lliat  is  inferted  into  thrt  paift  of  the  epiglottis  wliere  it 
•■    Vol.  V.   Part  I. 


I  V  E   Anatomy. 


257 


is  articulated  with  the  cricoid  cartilage,  which  fervcs  to  Of  Qundru 
raife  it  from  the  rima,  though  not  fo  flrongly  but  that      ^  , 


6a 

G  ottis. 

6; 


it  may  with  a  fiuall  force  be  clapped  down  again.  . 

It  may  be  adied,  however,  V/hy  the  uvula  is  want-  ^hc  ufe  of 
ing  here,   and   not  in   man?     This  feems  to  be,    that  the  uvula  in 
(piadrnpcds,    who  fwaliow  their  food  in   an   li(.rizon-  ""!'• 
tal  fituation,  iiave   no  occafion  for  an  uvula,  though 
it  is  neceflarj-  in  man   on  account  of  his   eredl  fitua- 
tion. ' 

In  the  upper  part  of  the  pharynx,  behind  the  cricoid 
cartilage,  tliere  is  a  pretty  large  gland  to  be  found, 
which  ferves  not  only  for  the  feparation  of  a  mucous 
liquor  to  lubricate  the  bolus  as  it  palTes  this  way,  but 
alfo  fupplies  the  place  of  a  valve,  to  hinder  the  food 
from  regurgitating  into  the  mouth,  which  it  would  be 
apt  to  do  by  realon  of  the  defcending  fituation  of  the 
creature's  head.  In  m.an,  the  mufcle  of  the  epiglottis 
is  wanting,  its  place  being  fnpplied  by  the  ylalllcity  of 
the  cartilage.  (^^ 

The  afophagus  is  formed  pretty  much  in  the  fame  way  Oefoplii- 
as  the  human.  Authors  indeed  generally  allege,  thatg*^'' 
quaduipeds  have  their  gullet  compofed  of  a  double  row 
of  fpiral  fibres  decuffating  one  another  ;  but  this  is  pe- 
culiar to  -uminating  animals,  who  have  occafion  for 
fuch  a  deculfation  of  fibres.  The  action  of  thefe  you 
may  eailly  obferve  in  a  cow  chewing  her  cud.  (,6 

The  nofi;  is  generally  longer  than  in  man,  and  Its  ex-  Oipanof 
ternal  pafiage  much  narrower.  The  internal  flrudlure'^""^ 
is  alfo  better  adapted  for  an  acute  fmclh'ng,  having  a 
larger  convoluted  furface  on  w-hich  the  membr.jUii  fiha- 
ileriana  is  fpread  ;  and  this  is  to  be  obfervcd  In  moll 
quadrupeds,  who  have  the  ofia  fponglofa  commonly 
large,  and  thefe  too  divided  into  a  great' number  of 
cxcelTively  fine  thin  lamelLe.  The  fenfibllity  feem^  to 
be  Increafed  in  proportion  to  the  furface;  and  this  will 
alfo  be  found  to  take  place  in  all  the  other  fenfes.  The 
elephant,  whicli  has  a  head  pretty  large  in  pioportion 
to  its  body,  has  the  greatell  part  of  it  taken  up  with 
the  cavity  of  the  nofe  and  frontal  finufes  ;  which  lall 
extend  almoft  over  their  whole  head,  and  leave  but  a 
fmall  cavity  for  their  brains.  A  very  nice  fenfe  of 
fmelling  was  not  fo  abfohitely  neccffaryforman,  who  has 
judgment  and  experience  to  direft  him  In  the  choice 
of  his  food;  whereas  brutes,  who  have  only  their  fenfes, 
mull  of  necclTity  have  thefe  acute,  fome  having  one 
fenfe  in  greater  perfection  than  others,  according  to 
their  different  way  of  life.  We  not  only  conclude  a 
priori  fiom  tlie  large  expanded  membrana  fcheiderlana, 
that  their  fenfe  of  fmelling  is  very  acute,  but  we  find 
it  fo  by  cows  and  horfes  dillinguiniing  fo  readily  be- 
twixt noxious  and  wholcfome  herbs,  vvliitli  they  do 
principally  by  this  fenfe.  , 

The  external  ear  in  different  quadrupeds  is  differ-  Auris. 
ently  framed,  but  always  calculated  to  the  creature's 
manner  of  life.  In  (hape  it  ccrimonly  rcfembles  the 
oblique  fedlion  of  a  cone  from  near  the  apex  to  the 
bafis.  Hares,  and  fuch  other  animals  as  are  daily  ex- 
pofed to  Infiilts  from  beafts  of  prey,  have  large  ears  di- 
reftedbackv/aids,  their  eyes  warning  them  of  any  dan- 
ger before;  rapacious  animals,  on  the  other  hand,  have 
their  ears  placed  direilly  forwards,  as  we  fee  In  the 
lion,  cat,  &c.  The  fiow  hounds,  and  other  animals 
that  are  defigned  to  hear  moft  dKlimflly  the  founds 
coming  from  below,  have  their  ears  hanging  down- 
wards ;  or  their  cars  are  flexible,  becaufe  they  move 
K  k  '  '   their 


nidlituns. 


258  C  O  M  P  A  R  A  T 

OfQuadrii-tJieir  head  forth*  moft  part  with  greater  difficulty  than 
.    *^  man.      Man,  again,  who  mi:ft  equally  hear  founds  co- 

ming from  all  quarters,  but  efpecially  fuch  as  are  feiit 
from  about  his  own  height,  has  his  external  ear  placed 
in  a  vertical  manner,  lomewhat  turned  forward.  In 
Ihort,  wherever  we  fee  a  fpecialty  in  the  make  of  this 
organ  in  any  creature,  we  (hall,  with  veiy  little  reflec- 
tion, difcoverthis  form  to  be  more  convenient  for  that 
creature  than  another.  The  animal  alfo  has  the  power 
of  directing  the  cone  of  the  ear  to  the  fonorous  body 
■without  moving  the  head.  There  are  fome  diflerences 
to  be  obfcrved  in  tlie  ttrufture  of  the  internal  ear  in 
different  animals  ;  but  we  know  fo  very  little  of  the 
life  of  the  particular  parts  of  that  organ  in  the  human 
fubjecl:,  that  it  is  ultogether  imponihle  to  adign  reafons 
6S  for  thcfe  vari;itions  in  other  creatures. 
Memhrara  All  qiiadr\ipeds  have  at  the  internal  cantluis  of  the 
eye  a  ilroiig  linn  membrane 'with  a  cartilaginous  edge, 
which  may  be  made  to  cover  foitie  part  of  tlieir  eye  ; 
and  this  is  greater  or  lefs  in  different  animals  as  their 
eves  are  more  or  lefs  expofed  to  dangers  in  icarching 
after  their  food.  This  inendirana  tiicl'iUins,  as  it  is 
called,  is  not  very  large  in  this  animal.  Cows  and 
horfes  have  it  fo  large  as  to  cover  one  half  of  the  eye 
like  a  curtain,  and  at  the  fame  time  is  tranfjiarent 
enough  to  allow  abundance  of  the  rays  of  light  to 
pafs  through  it.  Fifties  have  a  cuticle  always  over 
their  eyes,  as  they  are  ever  in  danger  in  that  ineon- 
ftant  element.  In  this  then  we  may  alfo  obferve  a  fort 
of  gradation. 

All  quadrupeds  have  a  feventh  nmfcle  belonging 
to  the  eye,  called  fufpc-'iforiu.t.  It  funounds  almoit 
the  whok  optic  nerve,  and  is  fixed  into  the  fclerotic 
coat  as  the  others  are.  Its  ufe  is  to  fuftain  the 
weight  of  tlie  globe  of  the  eye,  and  prevent  the  optic 
nerve  from  being  too  much  ftrttclied,  without  obli- 
ging the  four  (Iraight  muleles  to  be  in  a  continual  con- 
tra&ion,  w-liich  would  be  inconvenient  ;  at  the  fame 
time  this  mufcle  may  be  brought  to  ailill  any  of  the 
other  four,  by  caufing  one  particular  portion  of  it  to 
aft  at  a  time. 

The  next  thing  to  be  remarked  is  the  figure  of  the 
pup/,  which  is  different  in  different  animals,  but  always 
exactly  accommodated  to  the  creature's  way  of  life,  as 
well  as  to  the  different  fpecies  of  objects  that  are  view- 
ed. Man  has  it  circular,  for  obvious  reafons  :  an  ox 
has  it  oval,  with  the  longell:  diameter  placed  tranlverfe- 
ly,  to  take  in  a  larger  view  of  his  iood  :  cats,  again, 
have  theirs  likewife  oval,  but  the  longell  diameter 
placed  perpendicularly ;  they  can  either  exclude  a 
bright  liglil  altogether,  or  admit  only  as  much  as  is 
necelTary.  The  pupil  of  different  animals  varies  in 
widenefs,  according  as  the  internal  organs  of  vifion 
are  more  or  lefs  acute  :  Thus  cats  and  owls,  who  feek 
their  prey  in  the  night,  or  in  dark  places  (and  confe- 
quentiy  mull  have  their  eyes  fo  formed  as  that  a  few 
rays  of  light  may  make  a  lively  imprelfion  on  the  re- 
tina), have  their  pupils  in  the  day-time  contrafted  in- 
to a  very  narrovi-  fpace,  as  a  great  number  of  rays 
would  opprefs  their  nice  organs ;  while  in  the  night, 
or  where  the  light  is  faint,  they  open  the  pupil,  and 
%-ery  fully  admit  the  rays.  In  the  fame  way,  when  the 
retina  is  ioflamed,  a  great  number  of  rays  of  light 
would  occaCon  a  painfid  fenfation;  therefore  the  pupil 
is  contracted  :   ou  the  coutiary,  in  dying  people,  or  in 


69 

Mufcuius 
fulf.c.'.fo- 
rii.b. 


70 
Pupilb. 


IVE   Anatomy.  Chap.  I. 

a  beginning  amaurofis,  it  is  generally  dilated,  as  the  Of  QuaJru- 
eyes  on  fuch  occafions  are  very  difficultly  affeikd,  and       l^'''^- 
as  it  were  infenfible.  • 

The  poiterior  part  of  the  choroid  coat,  which  is  TaJajnu 
called  tapetitin,  is  of  different  colours  in  different  crea- 
tures. For  oxen,  feeding  moilly  on  grafs,  have  this' 
membrane  of  a  green  colour,  that  it  may  reficft  upon 
the  retina  all  the  rays  of  light  which  come  from  objects 
of  that  colour,  while  other  rays  are  abforbcd  :  Thns  the 
animal  fees  its  food  better  tiian  it  does  other  objeits. 
Cats  and  owls  have  their  tapetum  of  a  wiiitilh  colour  ; 
and  for  the  fame  reafons  have  the  pupil  very  dilatable, 
and  their  organs  of  vifion  acute  :  And  we  (hall  (ind, 
that  all  animals  fee  more  or  lefs  dillinctly  in  tlie  dark, 
according  as  their  tapetum  apwoaches  nearer  to  a 
white  or  black  colour.  Thus  dogs,  who  have  it  of  a 
greyidi  colcujr,  diltinguilh  olijccts  better  in  the  nielic 
tlian  man,  whofe  tapetum  is  dark  brown;  and  who,  it  is 
believed,  fees  woril  in  the  dark  of  any  creature  :  it  being 
originally  deligusd  that  he  Ihould  veil  from  all  kinds 
of  employment  in  the  nitht-time.  The  difference 
then  of  the  colour  of  the  tapetum,  as  indeed  the  fabric 
of  any  other  part  in  different  creatures,  always  de- 
pends on  fome  particular  advantage  accruing  to  the 
animal  in  its  pccuhar  manner  of  life  from  this  iingu- 
larit^^ 

VVe  (hall  now  proceed  to  the  brain,  which  we  re-  n  y.  ro 
mark  in  the  iiril  place  is  proportionally  much  fmaller 
in  all  quadrupeds  than  the  human  ;  but,  as  in  man,  it 
is  divided  into  cerebrum  and  cerebellum,  and  thefe  two 
parti  bear  neaily  the  fame  proptn-fion  to  one  another 
as  in  us.  There  was  no  fuch  oceafion  for  fo  great  a 
quantity  of  brain  in  thofe  animals  as  in  man;  feeing  ia 
them  all  its  energy  is  employed  in  their  progrcffion, 
while  man  has  a  great  waffe  of  fpirits  in  the  exercife  of 
his  reafon  and  iutellcttual  faculties.  And  b^'fides  all 
this,  a  great  bulky  brain  would  be  incouvei-'ent  to 
thele  creatines,  in  fo  far  as  it  would  add  conhdernbly 
to  the  weight  of  the  head  ;  which  having  the  advantage 
of  a  long  lever  to  a£t  witli,  would  require  a  much 
greater  force  to  fiipport  it  than  now  it  does  ;  for  the 
heads  of  the  greatell  part  of  quadrupeds  are  not  near 
fo  heavy  as  they  would  at  fighi  feem  to  be,  from  the 
Jiiius  J'rontulfs  being  produced  a  great  way  upwards  to 
enlarge  the  organs  of fmelling. 

The  pits  in  the  anterior  part  of  their  fkulls  are  much 
more  coulpicuous  than  in  the  human  cranium;  which 
may  be  occafioued  by  the  depending  pollure  of  thefe 
creatures  heads  vdiilethey  gather  their  food:  the  brain 
at  this  time  gra\itating  much  on  the  hemes  while  they 
are  as  yet  foft,  will  gradually  make  imprelTions  upon 
them  at  thefe  places  where  it  rifes  into  eminences. 
This  is  prevented  in  man  moilly  by  his  ereft  po- 
ilure.  «, 

The  falx  is  not  near  fo  large  in  quadrupeds  as  in  Fall, 
man,  as  they  have  little  ocealion  to  lie  on  either  fide, 
and  the  two  hemifpheres  of  the  brain  are  in  a  great 
meafure  lu'ndered  fionr  julUing  againll  one  another  in 
violent  motions,  by  the  brain's  iniiuuating  itfelf  into, 
the  abo\"e  mentioned  pits. 

The  fecond  procefs  of  the  dura  mater,  or  lenlorium- 
ci-i'ebello  fubcr-espanfum,  is  confiderably  thicker  and 
iironger  in  moil  quadrupeds  than  in  man  ;  efpecially 
in  fuch  of  them  as  arc  very  fwlft  of  foot,  as  hares  and 
rabbits,  and  that  moll  when  they  are  old.  This  mem- 
bra ue. 


Ghap.  I 

■ox  Quadru- 
peds. 


74 
ProccfTns 
inaii.illi.ri- 


Nate? 
leftes. 


Ret<?  niira- 
biic  Gaicrii 


77 


C  O  M  P  A  R  A  T 

brane  Is  genciT.lIy  onilied,  or  we  (ind  the  place  of  it 
fLipplird  by  a  bono,  th:it  it  may  the  more  circtlually 
ketpofFthe  fupeiineunibent  biain  fri)m  tlie  cerebet- 
kim  in  their  rapid  metions,  which  otherwife  would 
be  of  bad  conleqiience. 

The  olfai'Joi-)-  nervts  are  very  large,  and  jullly  de- 
fer>'c  the  name  of /)/-5(:(^w  miiniilhircs.  They  are  hol- 
low, and  eonfill  of  a  medullary  and  cineritious  fub- 
ftance,  and  at  full  %lit  appear  to  be  the  anterior  vcn- 
trleks  of  the  brain  produecd  ;  but  in  man  they  are 
fmall,  and  without  any  diiceniiblc  cavity.  The  reafon 
of  this  is  pretty  evident,  if  wc  confider  how  this  ani- 
mal's head  is  fituated  ;  for  the  lymph  continually  gra- 
vitating upon  the  inferior  part  of  the  ventricles,  may 
th-.is  elongate  and  produce  them  ;  but  from  this  ver)' 
inferior  part  the  olfactory  nerves  rife,  and  are  fent  im- 
inedintely  tlu-ough  the  os  cthmoides  into  the  nofe. 
Hence  the  ancients,  tiiinking  they  were  ftontinued  hol- 
low into  the  nofe,  believed  they  were  the  cniunclories 
of  the  brain:  in  the  brain  of  iheep,  which  by  its  tirm 
texture  is  the  beft  fubjefl  of  any  for  fearching  into 
the  fbruAure  of  this  part,  we  evidently  fee,  that  the 
name  of  x\\t  Jlgmutd  cavUy  was  very  properly  appllc:d 
by  the  ancients  to  the  lateral  ventricles  of  the  brain  ; 
which  are  really  of  a  greater  extent  than  they  are 
ordinarily  painted  bv  the  anatomiils,  reaching  far- 
ther backwards,  and  forwards  again  under  the  fnb- 
Ilance  of  the  brain.  The  cortical  and  medullary  parts, 
as  well  as  the  corpii,;  callofuui,  are  fimilar  to  thole 
parts  in  man. 

The  nates  and  tc/les  dcferve  this  name  much  better 
here  than  in  the  human  body,  with  relpetl  to  each 
other.  They  are  larger  in  the  quadruped;  aiid  hence 
we  perceive  that  there  is- no  great  reafon  tor  alerlbing 
the  diB'crent  operations  to  any  particular  fi/.e  or  Ihape 
of  thcfe  parts.  They  are  here  alfo  of  dilferent  eok)urs; 
the  niitfs  being  of  the  coloiu-  of  the  cortical,  and  the 
li/ks  oi  the  medullary  fubllance  of  the  brain  ;  where- 
as in  man  they  are  both  of  one  colour.  The  realon 
of  thcfe  diflcrences,  and  others  of  the  like  nature  to  be 
met  with,  we  fhall  not  pretend  to  determine  ;  for  we 
have  hitherto  fuch  an  imperfeA  knowledge  of  the 
br.iin  itfclf,  that  we  are  entirely  ignorant  of  the  va- 
rious uics  of  its  different  parts.  We  may  in  general 
conclude,  that  the  vaiying  in  one  anim;d  from  wliat  it 
is  in  another,  is  fitted  to  the  creature's  particular  way 
of  living. 

The  rete  immlih-  Gnhvi,  fituated  on  each  fide  of  the 
fclhi  /unliii,  about  which  there  lias  been  fo  much  dif- 
pute,  is  very  remarkable  in  moil  quadrupeds.  Tfiis 
plexus  of  vefFels  is  nothing  elfe  than  a  continuation  of 
the  internal  carotid  arteries,  which,  entering  the  Ikull, 
divide  into  a  vail  number  of  minute  branches  riiniiing 
along  the  fide  of  the  fella  turcica  ;  and,  uniting  after- 
wards, are  fpent  on  the  brain  in  the  common  way. 
Galen  feems  with  juftice  to  fuppofe,  that  this  plexus 
of  vculls  ferves  "for  checking  the  impetuolity  of  the 
blood  deltined  for  the  brain. 

The  llruclure  -of  the  brain  differing  but  very  little  in 
all  quadrupeds,  it  v\  ill  be  necdlefs  to  examine  it  in  any 
other. 

SiiCT.  IV.  T/x  Anatomy  of  a  Cow. 

The  next  fpecies  of  quadrupeds  we  propofed  to 
cojifider  was  the  rmiiinant  kind,  of  which  wc  h;4vc  an 


ITie.  uf. 
79 


I  V  E    Anatomy.  25'> 

example  in  a  cow;  and  accordingly  fiiall  take  the  foc-Of Qil^Jf"- 
Ins  of  the  animal  in  utcro,  that  we  may  full  remark  ,  P'' ''• 
foine  things  that  are  peculiar  to  it  in  that  (late,  and  af- 
terwards proceed  to  examine  its  vifccra  as  a  ruminant 
animal.  l'"irli,  then,  as  a  foetus.  —  However,  before  wc 
begin  our  enquiry,  it  may  be  worth  our  obfervation, 
that  from  the  ovarium  fomethiug  ed'tiitially  necefOay 
for  the  produclion  of  the  fcetus  is  derived,  as  well  as  I.t 
the  human  fpeclcs. 

The  form  of  a  cow's  ulcni.!  diders  from  the  human, 
in  having  two  pretty  large  corniia.  This  is  common 
to  it  with  other  brutes  ;  for  a  bitch  has  two  long  cor-  Coniuj  u- 
nun  uteri:  But  thefe  again  ditlcr  (as  being  multiparous  ^'^"• 
and  uiiiparous)  in  this,  that  in  the  bitches  cornua  the 
firtus  are  contained  ;  whereas  here  there  is  only  par; 
of  the  fccuiullnes,  being  moilly  the  allantois  with  tlio 
included  llcjuor.  The  inufcular  lilires  of  the  uterus  arc 
more  ealiiy  dilcovercd  ;  its  iuteinal  iurface  has  a  great 
number  of  fpongy^,  oblong,  protuberant,  ghiidular  bo- 
dies fixed  to  it.  Tliefe  are  compofed  of  vcfTels  of  the 
uterus  terminatiug  liere.  In  an  impregnated  uterus, 
we  can  eafily  prefs  out  of  them  a  chylous  mucilaglnoas 
liquor ;  they  are  compofed  of  a  great  many  procefTcB 
or  digituli,  and  deep  caverns,  aafwering  to  as  many 
caverns  and  procclles  of  the  placenta.  Their  refcr.i- 
blaiicc  has  occaiioned  the  name  oi papilU  to  be  gtven 
them  ;  and  hence  it  was  that  Hippocrates  was  induced 
to  believe  that  tlie  fa-tus  fucked  in  utero.  The  papilLe 
are  found  in  all  the  diiTerent  llages  of  life,  in  the  va- 
rious flages  of  pregnancy,  and  likewife  in  the  unim-  g^, 
pregnatcd  llutc.  It  is  not  eafy  to  determine  whether  Uter, ,5  ;f 
the  uterus  grows  thicker  or  thinner  in  the  time  of  gef-  'I'ld^r  m 

tation.      Tlie  m>;mbranes,  it  is  plain  f  by  the  fhetch- a""^  "^  ^" 

c     \  \  11  T       1  •  t  Icatiun. 

ingot    the  parts),    muil  be   made   tfunner  ;  but   then 

it  is  as  evident,  that  the  vePiels  are  at  that  time  enlar- 
ged, upon  which  principally  the  tliicknefs  of  any  part 
depends;  fo  there  feems  to  be  as  much  gained  the  oue 
way  ;is  loll  the  other.  • 

The  OS  uteri  Is  entirely  flint  up  by  a  glutinous  muci- 
laginous iubtlancc,  that  is  common  to  the  females  of 
all  creatures  when  with  young :  by  this  the  external 
air  is  excluded,  whicli  would  foon  make  the  liquors 
corrupt:  it  alfo  prevents  the  inflammation  of  the  inem- 
braues,  and  the  hazard  of  abortion.  By  this  means 
alfo  the  lips  of  the  womb  are  kept  from  growing  to- 
gether, which  otherwife  they  would  certainly  at  this 
time  do.  There  are  mucous  glands  placed  here  to 
fccern  this  gluten,  which  on  the  breaking  of  the  mem- 
branes with  the  contained  waters  make  a  fapo  that  lu- 
bricates and  wafhes  the  parts,  and  makes  them  eafily 
yield.  The  firft  of  the  proper  involucra  of  the  fatus 
is  the  chorion.  gj 

The  chorion  is  a  pretty   flroug  firm  membr.me,  on     Chuiion. 
vrhofe  external  furface  are  difperfed  a  great  many  red 
flcfhy  bodies  of  the  fame  number,  fize,  and  flrutture, 
with  the  papilhe,  with  which  they  are  muluaUy  indent-        S2 
cd.     Ihey  have  been   called   cotvkilones,   from   Kot-u>.i,,  Cot;  Ied«« 
"  cavity."      This   is   greatly    difputed    by  fome   as   a™*' 
name  very  improper;  but  wc  think  without  reaion,  fince 
the  furface  that  is  connected  to  th;  papilhe  is  concave, 
though  when  feparated  it  appears  rall-.er  convex.     To 
fliun  all  difpute,   they  may  be  called  pro]>erly  enongU 
JihuentuU,  lince  they  feiAe  the  fame  ufe  as  the  placen- 
ta in  women.     The  feparation  of  thefe  from  the  pa- 
pilla: without  any  kceration,  and  our  nut  beiur-  able 
K  k  2  to 


2  6o 


COMPARATIVE    Anatomy. 


OfQuadru-to  injcS:  coloured Hqiiors  from  the  vefuls  of  the  glands 
^'^^      of  the  uterus  into  the  placentuls,   feem  to  prove  be- 
'         yond  a  reply,  that  there   can  be  here  no  anaftomofcs 
betwixt  the  veflcls ;  on  their  coats  run  a  great  number 
of  veffels  that  are  fent  to  the  feveral  placenlulse,  on  the 
external  fide  next  to  the  uterus ;  whereas  in  creatures 
that  have   but  one  placenta,  as  in  the  human  fubjetl, 
cats,  dogs,  &c.  the  adheriou  is  fomcwhat  lirmer  :   The 
placentae  are  likewife  joined  to  the  papilla;  in  the  cor- 
nua  uteri.     We  fhaU  next  give  the  liillory  of  the  «/- 
g,         lantois. 
AliaDtnis.'      This  is  a  fine  tranfparent  membrane  contiguous  to 
the  former.      It  is  not  a  general  i.i7olucrum  of  the  foe- 
tus in  the  mother,  for  it  covers  only  a  fmall  part  of  the 
amnios.      It  is  moRIy  lodged  in  the  cornua  uteri.      In 
mares,  bitches,  and  cats,  it  furrounds  the  amnios,  be- 
ing every  where  interpofed  betwixt  it  and  the  chorion. 
,  In  fheep  and  goats  it  is  the  fame  as  in  this  animal ;  and 

in  fwine  and  rabbits  it  covei-s  ilill  lefs  of  the  amnios. 
This  fac  is  probably  formed  by  the  dilatation  of  the 
urachus,  which  is  connected  at  its  other  end  to  the 
fundus  of  the  bladder,  through  which  it  receives  its 
contents  ;  and  a  great  quantity  of  urine  is  commonly 
found  in  it.  The  membrane  is  doubled  at  the  extre- 
mity of  the  canal,  to  hinder  the  return  of  tlie  urine 
back  into  the  bladder.  Its  veffels  are  fo  excefTively 
fine  and  few,  that  we  cannot  force  an  injeClcd  liquor 
fartlicr  than  the  beginning  of  this  coat.  This  mem- 
brane is  fo  far  analogous  to  the  cuticula,  as  not  to  be 
liable  to  corruption,  or  eafily  irritated  by  acrid  liquors, 
g  The  exiftence  of  this  membrane  in  women  has  been 

The  aiHii-  very  warmly  difputed  on  both  fides.  Thofe  who  are 
irif-nts  f'T  againft  its  exiftence  deny  they  could  ever  find  it;  and, 
'"''^;-;^"'^  allowing  it  were  fo,  allege,  that  fince  the  urachus  is 
allantois''  impervious,  as  appears  by  our  nqt  being  able  to  tlirovv 
liquors  from  the  bladder  into  it,  or  -vic-e  verfa,  it  can- 
not ferve  the  ufe  that  is  agreed  by  all  It  does  ferve  in 
beads;  and' therefore  in  the  human  body  there  is  no 
fuch  thing.  Bui  if  we  confider,  on  the  other  hand, 
firll,  that  there  feems  to  be  the  fame  neceiTity  for  fuch 
a  nfervoiv  in  man  as  in  other  animals  :  fecondly,  that 
we  afturlly  find  urine  cor.tainej  in  the  bladder  of  the 
human  fcstus  :  thiidly,  that  urine  has  been  evacuated 
at  the  navel  when  the  urethra  was  flopped,  which  urine 
without  this  conduit  v.ould  have  fallen  into  the  cavity 
tjf  the  abdomeii :  fourthly,  that  midwives  have  pre- 
tended to  remark  two  different  forts  of  waters  come 
away  at  the  time  of  birth  :  and,  laftly,  that  Dr  Littre 
and  Dr  Hale  have  given  in  this  membrane  of  an  hu- 
man fubjeft,  with  all  the  other  fecundines  curiouHy 
prepared,  the  one  to  the  royal  academy  at  Paris,  the 
other  to  the  royal  focicty  at  London ;  by  which  fo- 
cieties  their  refpeftive  accounts  are  atteiled  ;  not  to 
mention  Veiheycn,  Heijler,  Keill,  &c.  who  affirm 
their  having  fcen  it  ;  and  Mr  Albinus,  that  famous 
anatomil!,  profeflbr  at  Leyden,  is  faid  to  have  fliown 
to  his  college  every  year  a  preparation  of  it  :  On  all 
thefe  accounts  it  feems  moil  probable,  that  there  is 
fuch  a  membrane  in  the  human  body. 
.  *^^  The  third  proper  intep;ument  of  the  fi-etus  is  the  am- 

niof.  It  IS  thumcr  and  hrmer  tlian  the  chorion;  it  n:^s 
numerous  n.mitjcations  of  the  umbilical  veffels  Xprcad 
imori  it,  the  lateral  branches  of  which  fcparate  ahqucr 
into  its  ca"ity.     This  is  the  proger,  liq^uor  of  the  ai:i- 


Cliap.  I. 

nios  :  which  at  firll  is  in  a  fmall  quantity,  afterwards  Of  Quadru- 
increafcs  for  fume  months,  then  again   decreafes  ;  and       '  '^~^*- 
in  a  cow  near  her  time,  the  quantity  of  this  liquor  is         ' 
not  above  a  pound.     This  membrane  does  not  enter 
the  cornua  uteri  in  this  creature,  being  confined  to  the 
body  of  the   uterus  ;  whereas  the  allantois  occupies 
chielly  its  cornua.      But   for  wliat  further  relates   to 
the  llrufture  of  th.e  involucra,  with   the  nature  of  th; 
liquors  contained  in  them,  we  muft;  refer  to  the  feconJ 
volume  of  Medical  Effays,  from  page  I2i,  where  yoa 
have  the  fum  of  all  we  know  cf  tliis  matter. 

There  are  here  two  -m/iic  umh'iUcahs ,  and  but  one  ia 
the  human  fubjeft;  becaufe  the  extreme  branches  co- 
ming from  the  feveral  placentuloe  coidd  not  unite  lb 
fooa  as  they  would  have  done  had  they  come  all  fi^ni 
one  cake  as  in  the  hinnau. 

There  is  a  fmall  round  flefhy  body  that  fv.'iras  in  the 
urine  of  this  creature,  mares,  &c.  vv-liich  is  the  h:ppa- 
man:s  of  the  ancients.  Several  idle  opinions  and  whims 
have  been  entertained  as  to  its  ufe  ;  but  that  feems  to 
be  ftill  unknown,  or  how  it  is  generated  or  nourllhed, 
for  it  has  no  connedlloii  with  the  ftetus  or  placentuL^. 

Having  thus  confidcred  the  feveral  involucra  of  this 
animal  in  a  fcetus  ftate,  le.t  us  next  obferve  the  fpecia- 
lities  in  its  internal  ilrutlure  peculiar  to,  a  foetus.  '     g^ 

The  umbilical   vein  joins  the  ■Vdita  portarum  .in  the  Ven:i  \inibi- 
capfula   Gl'iffomaiia,  without   fending  off  any  brandies' "^^''^ 
as  it  does  in  the  human  fubjecl.  -  This  vein  fi)on  after 
birth  turns  to  a  lig;unent  ;  yet  there  are  fome  inltan- 
ces  where  It  has  remained  pervious  for   feveral  years 
after  birth,  and  occifioned  a  lueraorrhage.     We  may        g^ 
next  obferve   the    duct   c;ii»cd   cana'h   vcnofiis,    going  Cinalis  ve- 
ihaight  from  the  capfulr.  Gl'iffoniana  to  the  tisna  cava  ;'^-'^''^- 
this  turns  alfo  afterwards  to  a  ligament.     The  umbili- 
cal arteries  rife  at  acute  angles  from  the  internal  ihacs, 
whatever  fome  may  fay  to  tiie  contrary;  thffe  alio  be- 
come impervious. 

The  pulmonary  artery  coming  from  the   right  ven- 
tricle of  the  heart  divides  into  two;  the  largeft,  called 
ciTtui'is  nrt^rkfus,  opens  into  the  defcending  aorta  ;  the 
other  divides  into  two,  to  ferve  the  lungs  on  each  fide.         jn 
T\\s  foramen  ovale  is  placed  in   the   partition  betuixt  Fonin;en 
the  right  end  left  auricles.     At  the  edge  of  the  hole^v^ile. 
is  fixed  a  membrane,  which  when  much  ilrttchcd  will 
cover  it  all  over ;  but  more  eafily  yields  to  a  force  that 
afts  from  the  right  auricle  to  the  left,  than  from  the 
left  to  the  right.     After  what  has  been  fa!d,  we  may 
eafily  underftand  how  the  circulation  is  performed  in  a        g 
fcetus.     The  blood,  being  brought  from  the  placenta-r.'.e  ci  cj- 
of  the  mother,   is  liirown  into  the  capfula  Glipfuniar:a,h6o\..  invo, 

where  it  Is  intimately  blended  with  the  blood  in   the  perf »  mid 
1  ri'i,       1  j-ni;na  j<e:u&, 

vena  portarum  :  then  part  oi  this  blood  goes  directly 

into  the  vena  cava  by  the  diiSLS  venafus ;  the  reft  paffes 
through  the  liver.  Firfl,  then,  the  whole  is  fent  from 
the  vena  cava  into  the  right  auricle,  from  whence  part 
of  it  is  fent  by  the  foramen  ovale  into  the  left  auricle  ; 
the  reft  paffes  into  the  right  ventricle,  then  into  the 
pulmonary  artery  ;  then  the  grcatcft  fiiare  it  receives 
is  fent  immediately  into  tlie  defcending  aorta  by  the 
ciinclis  artcriofus,  and  tlie  remainder  circulates  thro.igh 
the  lur.gs,  and  is  fent  back  by  the  pulmcnr.iy  veins 
iato  the  left  auricle  ;  which,  with  the  blood  bi-oight 
there  by  the  foramen  ovale,  is  fent  into  t-ke  Ictl  ven- 
tricle, from  whence  it  is  driven  by  the  aorta  through 

the 


Chap.  I. 


COMPARATIVE    Anatomy. 


161 


Of  tiv"i.'ru-tlie  body.     The  great  defign   of  this   mechanifin   is, 

I^'''-       that  thi;  whoU-  niaij  of  blood  might  not  pafs  through 

'       '         the  collapfed  lungs  of  the  foetus  ;  but  that  part  of  it 

might  pafs  through  the  fuiamen  o-v.ilt  and  ciuials  artc- 

rhfus,  without  circulating  at  all  through  the  lungs. 

MrlTie  irs         This   was  the  opinion  that   univerfally  prevailed  till 

M(rv  riii-.l    the  end  of  ihe  laft  LV'  tury,  v.-hrn  it   was  violently  op- 

Wmlii'v,     pof(;(]  by  Morfuur  Mcrv,  wlu>  is  very  fingiilar  in  leve- 

''•on  "'/it  "^  ^'"  ''■'''  "P'"'"-'-'-  H=  "'"  '"''  """"  '''"^  ''"^  '"'"■^' 
esanni.td.  '"<^i  "vale  trai^lmits  blood  froir.  the  right  to  the  left 
•  auricle,  but  on  the  cootravy  from  the  left  to  the  right  ; 
and  tiiat  for  no  otliei  rcafon  but  bccaule  he  oblerved 
the  pulmonary  artery  in  a  foetus  larger  than  the  aorta. 
Mr  Window  endeavours  to  reconcile  thcfe  two  opi- 
nions, by  faying  the  blood  may  pafs  either  way,  and 
that  it  is  here  as  it  were  blended ;  his  reafon  i?,  that  on 
]inttinfj  che  heart  in  water,  the  foramen  ovale  tra-fmits 
it  ativ  wav.  Mr  R-^hault,  profeifor  of  anatomy  at  Tu- 
rin, ar.il  .onr.rily  one  i..f  Meij's  fcholars,  ftvongly  de- 
fends lu's  matter,  and  criu'ciilf  Mr  Window.  AVnat 
he  princip;illy  baiUk  on,  is  the  apj-earancc  this  tura- 
n-.i.n  has  in  fonie  diied  prepr.rt. lions  :  This  Mr  Wi::n>-AV 
will  not  allow  as  a  proof.  After  .t'.l,  the  common  opniioii 
feems  moit  probable  ;  and  that  for  the  following  rea- 
fons  :  Firft,  the  pulmonary  artery  beintr  lanrer  figni'ies 
noliiiag,  fmcc  its  Coats  are  not  only  tiumier  and  will  be 
more  ealily  dillended,  but  alfo  the  refiiliimt  to  the 
blood  in  the  pulmomry  artery  from  thtj  coildp(-J  lungs 
is  greater  than  the  refillance  to  the  blood  in  the  aorta 
Secondly,  if  we  fiioukl  allow  any  of  thefe  two  uncom- 
mon opinions,  we  HioulJ  have  \\\'  rigb.t  ventricle  vail- 
!y  mere  capacious  than  the  left :  For  if  we  fugpule  the 
Jlranu'ii  Ofu.'e  to  be  capable  of  tranfmitting  one-third  of 
the  whole  tnafs  of  hlrod  in  any  given  time,  and  the 
Ciitinih  nrier'iofus  as  much  in  the  fa^ne  time,  then  you 
win  find,  that,  according  to  Mr  Mery's  opinion,  the 
wiiole  mafs  of  blood  being  driven  from  the  right  ven- 
tricle into  the  pulmonary  artery,  one-third  pafTesby  the 
canalis  arferiojus  into  the  defctnding  aorta,  two  thirds 
paffi::;f  throuj^h  the  lungs  and  retnining  into  the  left 
■auricle;  one-haif  of  which  portion,  or  cne-third  of  the 
whole  mafs,  paff^s  by  the  foranwi:  ovale  into  the  tight 
aaiiclc;  and  the  other,  or  the  lad  third,  wiil  be  fent 
into  the  left  ventrld?,  and  thence  expelled  into  the 
aorta  ;  which  third,  with  that  fiom  the  pulmonary  ar- 
tery by  the  ianulis  artcr'tofus,  circulating  through  the 
body,  are  returned  into  the  richt  auricle,  where  meet- 
ing with  the  other  thiid  from  xV.t  foramen  (rjah,  with 
it  ll'ey  are  fent  into  the  right  ventricle  to  undergo  the 
fame  courfe.  Thus  the  whole  mafs  is  expelled  by  th^ 
light  ventricle,  and  only  one-third  by  the  left.  If  this 
WIS  the  cafe,  why  is  not  the  right  ventricle  three  times 
as  large  and  (Ironrr  as  the  lc'"t? 

Trien  if,  according  to  Mr  WinHow's  fyftem,  theyi- 
rumcn  ovale  tianlinits  equal  quantities  from  both  auricles, 
this  comes  to  the  fame  as  if  there  was  no  foramen  ovals 
at  all  :  thtt  is  to  fay,  the  wh"ole  mafs  goiag  from  the 
right  auricle  into  the  right  ventricle  and  pulinonary 
artery,  one-third  of  the  whole  mafs  pafTes  into  the  aor- 
ta through  the  c.iniilis  ar.'eriofus  ;  the  other  two-thirds, 
paiTmg  through  the  lungs,  return  to  the  left  auricle  and 
vcntiicle.  Thus  the  ri;-:ht  ventricle  expels  the  whole 
mafs  ;   the  left,   only  f.vo-thirdf. 

But  if,  accoiding  to  the  common  opinion,  we  fuppofi 
ihefaramct!  cvak  tc  convey  the  bLod  from  the  riglit  to 


llie  left  auricle,  then  one-third  pafTes  this  way  into  tlieOf  Qiiadru- 
left  ventricle;  the  ether  two-thirds  are  fent  by  the  right      f^'^^'     . 
ventricle  into  the  pulmonary  artery:  from  whence  one-         ' 
thiid   pafles  by  the  canalis  arkriofus   into  the  aorta  de- 
fcendcns  ;   the  other  third  circulates  through  the  lungs, 
and  Is  returned  into  the  left  ventiicle  ;   where   meeting 
with   that   from   the  foramen  ovals,   it  is  therewith  ex- 
p.-llfd  into  the  aorta,  and  with  the  one-third  tranfmit- 
ted  by  the  canalis  arlcrhftis  returns  into  the  right  auricle 
to  run  the  fame  race   as  before.     Thus  we  conclule, 

.  that  two-thiuls  are  exi>elled  by  each  ventricle,  and  the 
whole  circulates  through  the  body  ;  and  hence  they 
come  to  be  of  pretty  equal  dimenlions.  In  sU  this  calcu- 
lation no  regard  "has  lieeii  had  to  the-  blood  difcharged  ' 
from  the  umbilical  vcffels  ;  but  the  greater  quantity  re- 
turned by  the  veins,  than  fent  out  by  the  arteries,  ftlll 
argues  for  the  common  opinion.  , 

The  kidneys    in  the  fcetus  are  compofed  of  different  The  ludi 
lobes,   whii'li  ferve  to  give  us  an   idea  of  the   kidneys '-cys. 
being   a   congeries  of  different  glands;  tliele  lobes  be- 
ing kept   contiguous   by  the   external  membrane,  are 
pu-ired  by  the  other  vifcira,  till  at  length  tliey  imitc. 

We  (low  come  to  confider  the  creature  as  a   riuni- Tlij  li'ftcry 
nant  animal.      There  are  no  denies  indfores   in  the  up- of  it  i.s  a 
per  JTw  ;  but  the  gums  are  pretty  hard,  and  the  tongue  r'"_"""^nt 
rough.      This  roughnefs  is  oecalioned  by  long  fliarp  ^ ' 
pointed  papIUas,  \v'iih  which  the  whole  fubftance  of  it 
is   covered.      Thefe   papilla    are    turned  towards   the 
throat  ;  fo  that  by  their  means'  the  food,  having  once 
got  into  the  mouth,  is  not   eafily  pulled  back.      The 

■  animals  therefore  fupply  the  defeil  of  teeth  by  wrap- 
pii;;;  their  tongue  round  a  tuft  of  grafs  ;  and  fo,  pref- 
fmg  it  againft  the  upper  jaw,  keep  it  ilretched,   and 
cut  it  with  -the  teeth  of  the  under  jaw  ;  then,  without 
chewing,  throw  it  down  into  tlie  ^fophagus,  which  in 
thefe  creatures  confilis  of  a  double  row  of  fpiral  fibres 
decuffating  one  another.      All  animals  which  ruminate 
rnui't  have  more  ventricles  than  one  ;  foine   have  two, 
fome  three  ;  our  prefent  fubjeifl  has  no  lefs  than  four.  ](  |,;,s  f,„;r 
The  food  is  carried  dirtcily  down  into  the  firll,  whicli  '.oniachs. 
lies  upon  the  left  fide,  and  is  the   largcfl   of  all  ;  it  is        „ 
called  >i;nf.  %<enfrittdt/s,  and  y-«'ia,  by  way  of  eminence.  Their 
It  is  what  is  called  by  the  genend  name  oi  paunch  by  nsmcsand' 
the  vulgar.      There  are  no  rug^e  upon  its  internal  fm-.  eleicriptioQ. 
face;  but  inftead  of  thefe  there  arc  a  vaft  number  of 
fmall  blunt-pointej  proceffes,  by  which  the  whole  has 
a  general  roughnefs,  and  the  fuiface  is  extended  to  fe- 
veral  timeS  the  fize  of  the   paunch   itfelf.      The  food,, 
by  the  force  of  its  mufcular  coat,  and  the  liquors  pour- 
ed in  here,  is  fufHeiently  macerated  ;  after  which  it  is 
forced  up  hence  by  the  offophagus   into   the   mouth, 
and  there    it   is  made   very  fmall  by  maflication  ;  this 
is  what  is  properly  called  chewing  the  cud,  or  rumination; 
for  which  purpofe  the  d.entcs  molares   are   exceedingly 
v.ell  fitted  ;  for  infi.ead  of  being  covered  with  a  thin 
crull,  the   enamel   on    them   confiRs   of  pcrpelidicular 
plates,  between  which  the  bore  is  bare,  and  con'iantly 
wearing  faller  than  the  enamel,  fo  that  tlie  tooth  re- 
mains good   to   extreme  old-age;  and  by  means   of 
thefe   teeth  the  rumination  is   carried  on   for  a  long 
tiine  without  any  danger  of  fpoiling  them.     After  ru- 
mination, the   food  is   fent  down    by  the  gullet    into 
the   fecond  flomach  ;  for  the  a-fophi'gus  opens  indif- 
ferently into  boti).,    It   ends   cxaftly   where   the  two> 
llomachs  meet ;  and  there  is  a  fmooth  gutter  with  ri-- 
4  fing. 


262  C  O  M  P  A  R  A  T  I  V  E    A  N  A  T  o  M  Y.  CLap.  T. 

Of  Quailru- fine  edges  \vli!cl\  leads  into  t'lc  fccoiid  ftomacti,  from  jioilioiuilly  than  a  dog's  are,  being  convoluted  as  die  Of  Quadru. 

j.^a.i.       tlieuce  to  the  third,  and  alfo  to  the  foir.th  :   however,  fiiuiU  gats  are.     The  carciinl  is  verj-  large  and  long.       1^''^; 

•■"""'  the  creature  has  a  power  to  direil  it  into  which  It  will.  The  digellion  of  the  cow,  as  well  as  fome  other  ani-         * 

Kjome  tell  us,  that  tlie  drink  goes  into  the  fecond  ;  but  mals,  is  accompanied  with  a  peculiar  kind  of  action 

that  mi'TJit  be  eafily  determined  by  making  them  drink  called  niminatlr.n  ;  the  intention  of  which  feems  to  be, 

before  rtau"-hter.     The  fecond  llomach,  which  is  the  that   the   food   may  be  fulliciently   comminuted,   and 

unlcrior  and  fmaller,  is  called  y-i/.gvpxKo(,  rtl'iculiim,  ho-  thus  more  fully  atted  upon   by  the  llomacli  :   for  it  is 

t:ryconih,  the   boitiict,  or  kiw's-h'joil.       It  conhlls  of  a  not  obfei-ved  that  a  calf  ruminates  as  long  as  it  is  fed 

threat  number  of  cells  on  its  internal  furface,  of  a  regii-  only  upon  milk,  though  the  action  takes  place  as  foon 

)ar  pentagonal  figine,  like  to  a  honeycmnb.     Here  the  as  it  begins  to  eat  folid  food.    But  it  is  to  be  obferved, 

food  is  farther  macerated  ;  from  which  it  is  protruded  that  as  long  as  a  calf  feeds  only  upon  milk,  the  food 

into  the  third,  called  ■;i;'-->   or  uiiiafrm,  vulgo  the  niatiy-  defceuds  immediately  into  the  fi)urth  ftomach  (which,  !■ 

plief,  becaufe  the  internal  fiu-face  rifes  up  into  a  great  as  has  been  already  mentioned,   feems  only  capable  of  il 

many  pliers  or  folds,  zin&Jlratwn  fiipcr  Jlralum,  accord-  performing  the  operation  of  digellion)   without  ftop 

in"  to  the  leniah  of  this  ihnnaeh.      Some  of  thefc  pli-  ping  in  any  of  the  firil   three.     The  rumination  doe; 


ci  are  farther  produced  into  the  ilomacli  than  others; 
i.  e.  fivil  tuo  long  ones  on  each  fide,  and  within  thcfe 
two  Ihoiter  in  the  middle,  6:c.  There  are  numberlefs 
glandidar  grains  like  millet-feeds  difperfed  on  its  plicpe, 
from  which  fome  auLJiors  call    tliis   llomach  the   millet. 


not  take  place  till  alter  the  animal  has  eaten  a  pretty 
large  quantity  :  after  which  llic  lies  down,  if  Ihe  can 
do  it  conveniently,  and  begins  to  cliew  ;  though  the 
operation  wdl  take  place  in  a  Handing  poiti'.re,  if  flic 
can.iot  lie  down.      In  this  action  a  bull  is  obferved  to 


From  this  it  partes  into  the  fourth,  whofe  names  are  rife  from  the  llomach  with  great  velocity,  almoll  as  if 
,tvi.ff)v  aloma/j'ttm,  caille,  or  the  red,  which  is  the  nanio  (hot  from  a  mulket.  This  ball  the  anlntal  chews  very- 
it  commonly  has  becaufe  t>f  its  colour.  This  much  accurately,  and  then  fwallows  it  again,  and  fo  on  al- 
refembles  the  human  llomach,  or  that  of  a  dog ;  only  tcrnately,  till  all  the  food  (he  has  eaten  has  undergone 
the  inner  folds  or  phca;  are  longer  and  loofer :  and  it  this  operation.  This  is  ealily  explained  from  the 
may  alfo  be  obferved,  that  in  all  animals  there  is  only  ilruclure  of  the  oefophagus,  which  has  one  fet  of  fibrej 
one  di'^eftive  ftcmiach,  and  that  has  the  fame  coagula-  calculated  for  bringing  up  the  grafs,  and  another  for 
ting  power  in  the  fa-tus  as  the  fourth  llomach  in  this 
animal  ;  whence  this  might  not  improperly  be  called 
the  ordv  true  Ibjmach.  Caille  I'lgDilies  curtUeil ;  and 
hence  the  French  have  given  that  as  a  name  to  this 
fourth  llomach,  becaufe  any  milk  that  is  taken  down 
by  young  calves  is  there  curdled.  It  is  this  fourth 
fl'omach,  with  the  milk  curdled  in  it,  that  is  common- 
ly taken  for  inaking  runnet  ;  but  after  the  bile  and 
pancreatic  juice  cnlci-,  this  coagulation  is  not  to  be 
found,  which  (hows  the  life  of  tliefc  litjuors.  There 
are  other  creatures  which  ufe  the  fame  food,  that  have 
not  fuch  a  mechanifm  in  their  digellive  organs.     Hor- 


taking  it  down. 

By  means  of  rumination,  the  cow  extracts  a  n\\vA\ 
larger  proportion  of  noinilhmcnt  from  her  food  th  in 
thofe  animals  which  do  not  ruminate  ;  and  hence  (lie 
is  contented  with  much  worfe  fare,  and  fmaller  ([uan- 
tities  of  it,  than  a  horfe  ;  hence  alio  the  dung  of 
cuws,  being  much  more  exhaufted  of  its  fine  parts 
than  horfe-dung,  p;x)vei  much  inferior  to  it  as  a 
manure. 

The  fplem  differs  not  much  either  in  figure  or  fitua- 
tlon  from  that  of  a  dog's  ;  but  it  is  a  little  more  firm- 
ly fixed  to   the   diaphragm,    there    not   being  here  fo 


fes    afUs,  S.:c.   have  but  one  llimiach,   where  grafs  is     much  danger  of  this  vifcus's  being  hurt  in  the  fle.\ions 
macerated,  and  a  liquor  for  their  nourilhment  extract-     of  the  fpine. 

The  liver  is   not   fpllt   into   fo   many   lobes   in  this 
creature  as  either  in   a  man  or  dog  ;  which  depends 


95 

llitcftinn 


95 

BuoQC- 

(uun. 


ed,  and  the  remainder  fent  out  by  the  anus  very  little 
altered.  From  this  different  llruclnre  of  the  llomach 
in  thefe  creatures,  a  ruminant  animal  will  be  ferved 
vith  cne-thiid  Icfs  food  than  another  of  equal  bulk  : 
graficrs  are  fufficiently  acquainted  with  this.  The 
reafon  is,  that  ruminating  animals  have  many  and 
ftrong  digeftive  organs  ;  all  their  food  is  fully  prepa- 
red, and  almoll  wholly  converted  into  chyle  :  but  a 
horfe's  llomach  Is  not'  fitted  for  this  ;  fo  that  he  re- 
quires a  much  greater  quantity  of  food  to  extract  the  Img  it  fo  fi 
fame  nourifliment.  ■  ' ' 

The  guts  of  thefe  creatures  are  of  a  confiderable 
length  in  proportion  to  the  bulk  of  the  body  ;  and 
this  confirms  what  we  fald  formetly  on  the  fubjctl  of 
the  intellines  of  a  dog,  viz.  that  the  length  and  capa- 
city of  the  guts  were  different  in  different  animals,  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  their  food. 


97     . 


9«     . 
Liver> 


99 
Bladder. 


on  the  fmall  motion  this  creature  enjoys  in  its  fpine, 
which  made  fueh  a  divilion  needlefs.  This  alio  con- 
firms what  v\-e  formtily  advanced  on  this  head. 

Their  v:fica  urimtna  is  of  a  pyramidal  ihape.  It  is 
very  large,  and  more  membranaceous  :  for  the  urine 
of  thefe  creatures  nut  being  fo  acrid  as  that  of  carni- 
vorous animals,  there  was  no  lucli  oecafion  for  expel- 


rhe  male  is  provided  with  a  loofe  pendulousy-rci/wm.  Scrotum, 
and   confequcntlv  v/ith  "DejiniU  femhiales.      Tlie  femaU  Vt;riciil;E.feJ 
organs  differ  from  thofe  Jf  a   bitch,  mcftly   as   to  the  >nin^l". 
form  of  the  cornua  uteri,  which   are   here  contorted 
in  form  of  a  fnail.      In  this,  and  all  uniparous  animals, 
thev   contain   only   part    of    the   fecundlnes ;    but   In 
bitches,    and    other    multiparous  animals,    they   run 


The'^/iW.'/wm  is  formed  here  much  the  fame  way  as     llraight  up   In   the  abdomen,   and  contain  the  foctue 
don-,  and  the  general  Intention   kept  in  view  with     themfeives. 


regard  to  the  mixture  cfabe  bile  and  panel eatic  lymph. 
The  great  guts  here  hardly  dirfer\-e  that  name,  their 
diameter  difi'ering  very  little  from  that  of  the  fmall 
ones;  but  to  compenfate  this,  they  aic  much  longer  pro- 


rhe  fituation  of  the  heart  Is  pretty  much  the  fame 
with  that  of  a  dog,  only  its  point  is  rather  fliarper  : 
In  us,  the  heart  beating  continually  againll  the  ribs, 
and  both  ventricles  going  equally  far  dowu  to  the  con- 

ftitution 


lOI 

Cor. 


10^ 

'heir  co- 


:hap.  ir.  C  O  M  P  A  R  A  T 

Ol  Fowis.  ftltution  of  thf  ape-<,  it  is  vei-y  obtiife  :   but  here  the 
— ~v— -  apex  is  made  up  only  of  the  left  venln'ekj  fo  is  more 

,oj        acute.  .  _  ... 

loita  af-       -  The  aorta  in  this  creature  is  juftly  divided  nto  a- 

cii.kn^        fccuJing  and  defcendhtg,  thoJgh  this  divifion  is  illfound- 

iid  defcen- ^^  either  in  a  Aog  or  man  ;  and  it  has  certainly  been 

*■'"'■  from   this  fubjeft  that  the  older  anatomifts  took  their 

defcriptions   when   they   made  this  divifion  ;  for  here 

the  aorta  divides  into  two,  the  ufcending  and  delcend- 

ing. 

Chap.  II.  Of  Fowls. 
The  next  clafs  of  animals  we  come  to  confider  are 
of  the  feathered  kind  ;  which  are  divided  into  tlie 
granlvorous  and  curinvorous.  But  before  we  go  on  to 
coniider  the  fpecialtle-s  in  the  vifccTa  ot  each  kind,  we 
muil  oblerve  what  both  fpeeies  agree  u>. 

Skct.  I.   Of  Fwwls  in  ^eiicrj!. 

Fowls  have  a  particular  coveriny  of  feathers  dlife- 
vent  from  all  other  creatures,  but  exaftly  well  fulted 
to  their  manner  of  life  :   for  it  not  only  protedls  them, 
from  the  injinics  of  tlie    weather,  but  lerves  them  in 
their  progrelTion  through  that  thin  aerial  element  they 
are  for  the  moll  part  employed  in  ;  and  as  fome  fowls 
live  much  in  the  water,  their  feathers  being  continual- 
ly befmeared  with  an  oily  liquor,  keeps  the  water  from 
foaking  into  their  (l<ins,  and  fo  prevents  the   bad  ef- 
fefts  which  it  would  infallibly  otherwife  produce. 
Fowls  have  the  (Irongell  mufcles  of  their  whole  bo- 
.gi,  howdv  inferted  into  their  wings  ;   whence  by  the  way  we 
-rnifted.     j^^j^y  obfetve,  that  it   is  altogether  impofiible  for  man 
to  buoy  himfelf  up  into  the  air  like  birds,  even  though 
he  had  proper  machines  in  place  of  wings,  unlefs  Fie 
were  likewife  provided  with  mufcles  ftrong  enough  for 
moving  them,  which  he  has  not.      In   the  next  place, 
their  wings  are  not  placed  in  the  middle  of  their  bo- 
le  n.iddle  dies,  but   a  good  deal   further   forwards  ;   whence  it 
the  bo-     w-ould  at   firlt  view  appear,  that  their  heads  would  be 
*  erccf,  and  their  poderior  parts   moft   depending  when 

raifed  in  the  air  :  but  by  llretching  out  their  heads 
which  aft  upon  the  lever  of  a  long  neck,  they  alter 
their  centre  of  gravity  pretty  much  i  and  alfo  by  til- 
ling the  facs  or  bladders  in  the  infide  of  their  abdomen 
with  air,  and  expanding  their  tail,  they  come  to  make 
the  pofterior  p;ut  of  their  bodies  conliderably  higher; 
"  and  thus  they  fly  with  their  bodies  nearly  in  an  hori- 

zontal  fituation.  Hence  we  find,  that  if  their  necks 
ai-e  kept  from  being  itretched  out,  or  if  you  cut  a- 
way  their  tails,  they  become  incapable  of  flying  any 
confiderable  way. 

The  largenefs  of  tlie  wings  in  different  fowls  varies 
according  to  the  occafions  of  the  creature.  Thus  birds 
of  prey,  who  muft  fly  a  confiderable  way  to  provide 
their  food,  have  large  ftrong  wings  ;  whereas  domeftic 
birds,  who  find  their  nouriihment  almoll  every  where, 
have  very  fliort  and  but  fmall  wings.  Their  tail  is  of 
ufe  in  afiifting  to  raife  them  in  the  air ;  though  the 
chief  purpofe  of  it  is  to  fcrve  as  a  rudder  in  guiding 
their  flight,  vvhillt  they  ufe  their  wings  as  we  do  oars 
in  putting  forward  a  boat.  Tlie  bell  account  of  this 
manner  of  progrefhon  of  fowls  is  given  by  Alfonfas 
Borellus,  in  his  treatife  Ue  Motu  jtrilmalium  ;  and  in  the 
Rtl'igloiis  Phdojuphcr  we  have  Borelli's  dodlrine  ftripjicd 
pretty  much  of  its  niatheraatical  fonn.     The  pollerior 


TVE    Anatomy. 


263 


104 

"heir 


105 
(fhy  not 
laced  in 


extremities  are  fitiiated  fo  far  back,  as  to  make  us  at  0''  ^owU. 
firll  think  they  would  be  in  continual  hi-iard  of  falling  ''"*" 

down  forwards  when  they  walk:  but  this  is  prevcnled 
by  their  holding  up  their  heads  and  neck,  fo  as  to 
mikc  the  centre  of  gravity   fall   upon   the   feet ;  and'  > 

when  they  have  occafion  for  climbing  up  a  fteep  place, 
they  ilretch  out  their  heads  and  necks  forward,  efpc-- 
cially  if  they  are  fliort-legged,  the  better  to  prefervc' 
properly  the  Ijalance  of  the  body.  Thus  we  may  ob- 
ierve  a  goofe  entering  a  barn-door,  where  generally 
there  is  an  afcending  ftep,  to  ttretch  out  its  neck, 
which  before  was  raifed,  and  incline  its  body  forwards. 
This  is  laughed  at  by  the  common  people,  who  afcribc 
it  to  a  piece  of  folly  in  the  goofe,  as  if  afraid  of 
knocking  its  head  againft  the  top  of  the  door.  ro^i 

Caniivi'ious  animals  art  provided  with  llrong  crook- -^  peculnr 
cd  claws  for  the  catching  their  prey  :  water-fowls  ufe  ""V'l",  '^ 
them  lor  Iwiminmg  :  and,  principally  tor  this  purpolcj^f  f^,y,i;, 
h.ave  a  ftrong  firm  membrane  interpoftd  betwixt  the 
toes.  There  is  a  beautiful  mechanitm  to  be  obferved 
ill  the  toes  of  fowls,  which  is  of  coufideiable  ufe  to 
them.  For  their  toes  are  naturally  drawn  together, 
or  bended,  when  the  foot  is  bended  :  this  is  owing  to 
the  (hortntfs  of  the  tendons  of  the  toes,  which  paf» 
over  them,  which  is  analogous  to  our  heel  ;  and  that 
the  toes  are  fet  in  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  as  our 
fingers  aie  :  Hence,  when  the  foot  is  bended,  the  ten- 
dons muft  confequently  be  much  llretched  ;  and,  fince 
they  are  inferted  into  the  toes,  muft  of  neceflity  bend 
them  when  the  foot  is  bended  ;  and  when  the  fool  ia- 
extended,  the  flexors  of  the  toes  are  again  relaxed,, 
and  they  therefoie  expanded.  This  is  alfo  of  great 
ufe  to  diffrrent  kinds  of  fowls :  thus  the  hawk  rie- 
fcending  with  his  legs  and  feet  extended,  fpreads  his 
talons  over  his  prey  ;  and  the  weight  ot  his  body  bend- 
ing his  feet,  the  toes  are  coutraCled,  and  the  prey  is- 
feized  by  the  talons.  This  is  alfo  of  great  ufe  to  wa- 
ter-fowls :  for  had  there  been  no  fucli  contrivance  aa 
this,  they  muil  have  loft  as  much  time  when  they  pull- 
ed their  legs  in  as  they  had  gained  by  the  former 
ftroke  ;  but,  as  the  parts  are  now  framed,  whenever 
the  creature  draws  in  its  foot,  the  toes  are  at  the  fame 
time  bended  and  contrafled  into  lefs  fpace,  fo  that  the 
refiftance  maile  agaiuft  the  water  is  not  near  fo  great 
as  before;  on  tlic  contrary,  when  they  ftreteh  their 
foot,  their  toes  are  extended,  the  membrane  betwixt 
them  expanded,  and  confequently  a  greater  relillance' 
made  to  the  water.  Again,  luch  fowls  as  live  moftly 
in  the  air,  or  have  occafion  to  fuftain  themfelves  on 
branches  of  trees  in  windy  weather,  and  evi;n  in  the 
night-time  when  alleep,  while  all  their  mufcles  are 
fuppofed  to  be  in  a  ftate  of  relaxation  ;  fuoh  have' 
no  mere  to  do  but  lean  down  the  weiglit  of  their  bo- 
dies, and  their  toes  continue  bended  without  any 
mufcles  being  in  aftion  ;  and  whenever  they  would, 
dilentangle  themfelves,  chey  raife  up  their  bodies,  by 
which  their  feet,,  and  confequently  their  toes,  are  ex- 
tended. _  j^^ 

The  roftrum,  bill,   or  beak  of  fowls,  is  compnfed  ofi'hc  variety 
two  mandibula:;   and,  as  in  quadrupeds,  the  upper  one  in  ikc  beaks 
has  no  motion  but  what   it   polfefl'es   in   common  with  j'"'-'^^''' 
the  head.      But  parrots  are  an  exception  to  this  rule  ;  ' 

for  they  can  move  the  upper  mandible  at  pleafare  : 
this  is  exceeding  convenient,  as  it  enables  them  to  lay 
hold  of  whatever  eomes  in  their  w.iy.     Carnivorous 

fowls 


264 


COMPARAT 


108 

Oefopha- 

gliS 

Insluvies. 


Of  fowls,  fowls  have  their  beaks  long-,  fliarp,  and  crooked  ;  the 
^"~v~~  domeftic  fowls,  fiich  as  the  hen-kind,  &c.  have  ilrong 
(hort  beaks,  commodioufly  fitted  to  dig  up  and  break 
their  food  ;  the  water-fowls,  ajfain,  have  long  or  very 
broad  fcoop-like  beaks,  which  is  moll  convenient  for 
them.  The  fternum  of  fowls  is  much  larger  propor- 
tionally than  the  human,  and  has  a  rid;je  rifing  in  its 
middle  for  the  more  commodious  origin  of  the  niufcles 
that  move  the  wings.  It  is  alfo  Icfs  moveable  than 
ours  ;  for  had  it  been  very  moveable,  a  great  deal  of 
the  force  employed  for  moving  the  wings  would  at 
every  contraftion  of  the  mufclcs  have  been  loft,  or 
elfe  fome  other  mufcles  muft  have  conie  in  play  to  keep 
firm  the  fternum  ;  but  this  additional  weight  would 
have  been  inconvenient  for  tiitir  proirreflion. 

Wliat  other  things  are  molt  remarkable  in  the  ftruc- 
ture  of  tlxe  feveral  vifcera,  we  Ihall  confider  in  that 
common  domtftic  animal  the  cock  or  hen,  and  after- 
wards obfjrve  the  difference  of  their  vifcera  chylouoie- 
tica  from  a  carnivorous  fowl. 

Sect.  II.   Anatomy  of  the  Domejlic  Cod. 

Though  this  kind  of  birds  live  upon  food  fome- 
what  fimilar  to  that  of  man,  yet  as  they  have  no  teeth 
to  feparate  or  break  down  this  food,  we  would' expeCl 
to  find  fomething  to  compenfue  for  the  want  of  teeth, 
fomething  remarkable  in  the  organs  of  digeftion  :  we 
fliall  therefoie  begin  with  thefe  parts. 

The  afophagus  of  this  creature  runs  down  its  neck, 
fomewhat  inchneJ  to  the  right  fide  ;  and  terminates  in 
a  pretty  large  membranous  fac,  which  is  the  ingluvics 
or  crop,  where  the  food  is  maccrattd  and  diffolved  by 
a  liquor  feparated  by  the  glands,  which  are  eaiily  ob- 
ferved  every  where  on  the  internal  furface  of  this  bag. 
The  efFeft  of  this  maceration  may  be  very  well  obfer- 
ved  in  pigeons,  who  are  fomelimes  in  danger  of  being 
fuffocated  by  the  pcafe,  &c.  they  feed  upon,  Iwelling 
to  fuch  an  immenfe  bulk  in  their  ingluvies,  that  they 
can  neither  get  upwart  s  nor  downwards  If  it  be  a 
favouiite  fowl,  it  might  be  preferved  by  opening  the 
fac,  taking  out  the  pealV-,  and  fewing  up  the  wound. 
Ventriculus  The  food  getting  out  of  this  fac  goes  down  by  the 
fuccent  ri-  remaining  part  of  the  oefop..'"gus  into  the  ■ventrkuliis 
""° '■"''"  fumiitiiriatus,  or  w/unMulum  Pejeri,  which  is  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  gullet  with  more  numerous  glands, 
which  leparate  a  liquor  to  dilute  the  food  tlill  more, 
which  at  lenjth  gets  into  the  true  Itomach  or  gizzard, 
•veiitiiculus  callofiis,  which  confifts  of  two  very  ftrong 
mufcles  covered  extern.dly  with  a  tendinous  aponeuro- 
fis,  and  lined  on  the  infide  by  a  very  thick  lirm  mem- 
brane, which  we  evidently  difcover  to  be  a  pioduftion 
of  the  cuticula.  This  might  have  been  proved  in  fome 
meafure,  a  priori,  from  taking  notice,  that  this  mem- 
brane, which  in  chicks  is  only  a  thin  flight  pellicle,  by 
degi'-es  turns  thicker  and  ftronger  the  more  attrition  it 
fuffers  :  but  there  is  no  other  animal-fubftancc,  fo  far 
as  we  kn  v.v,  which  grows  more  haid  and  thick  by  be- 
mr  fubjetled  to  attrition,  excepting  the  cuiicula. — 
Epidermis  Hence  nay  be  drawn  fome  kind  of  proof  of  what 
iiiveftsthc  jjjg  {jpj^  affirmed  duu-trning  the  tunica  vcUofa  of  the 
'  """'  ftomach  and  inteilines  in  the  human  body,^  viz.  that  it 
v.'as  in  part  a  continuation  of  the  epidermis  ;  nay,  all 
the  hollow  parts  of  the  body,  even  arteries,  veins,  &c. 
feem  to  be  lined  with  a  produfiion  of  this  membrane, 
or  one  analogous  to  it.  The  ufe  of  the  internal  coat 
N^87. 


109 


acu 

fiindibu 

lum. 


ii.ternal 
fiifface  of 
all  the  c.i- 
vities  and 
veCbls  of 
the  human 
body. 


I  V  E    A  i^  AT  0  M  Y.  Chap.  II» 

of  tlie  ftomach  of  fowls  is   to  defend  the  more  tender  Of  Fowls.' 

parts   of  that  vifcus  from  the   hard   grains  and  little    v— ^ 

ftones  thole  creatures  take  down.  The  ufe  of  the 
gizzard  is  to  compenfate  for  the  want  of  teeth  ;  and  it 
is  well  fitt'.'d  for  this  purpofe  from  the  great  ftrength 
it  pofRnes. 

The  digeftion  of  thefe  animals  is  performed  merely 
by  attrition,  as  is  evinced  by  many  experiments;  and 
it  IS  further  afhited  by  the  hard  bodies  they  fwallow. 
We  lee  them  daily  take  down  confideiable  numbers  of 
the  moft  folid  rugged  little  flints  they  find  ;  and  thefe 
can  fetve  for  no  other  puipofe  than  to  help  the  tiitura- 
^tion  of  their  ali.Tients.  After  thefe  pebbles,  by  be- 
coming fmooth,  are  unfit  for  this  office,  they  are 
thrown  up  by  the  mouth.  Hence  fowls  that  are  long 
confined,  though    ever  fo  well  fed,  turn  lean  for  want  1 

of  thefe  Hones  to  help  their  digeftion.  This  was 
put  beyond  all  difpute  by  Mr  Tauviy,  who  gave  a  fpe- 
cies  of  metal  to  an  oftrich,  convex  on  one  fide  and 
concave  on  the  other,  but  carved  on  both  ;  and  open- 
ing the  creature's  body  fome  time  after,  it  was  found, 
that  the  carving  on  the  convex  fide  was  all  obl.'terated, 
while  the  engraved  charaftcr  remained  the  fame  as  be- 
fore on  the  concave  fide,  which  was  not  fubjefted  to 
the  ftomach's  prefTiire  :  which  could  not  have  happen- 
ed had  digeftion  been  performed  by  2  menfttuum,  or 
any  other  way  whatfoever ;  but  may  be  cafily  folved 
by  allowing  a  fimple  mechanical  preflure  to  take  place. 
We  arc,  however,  by  no  means  to  conclude  from  this, 
as  fome  have  too  raftily  done,  that  in  the  human  body 
digeftion  is  performed  by  (imple  attrition  ;  otherwife 
we  may,  with  equal  ftrength  of  reafon,  by  as  good 
arguments  drawn  from  what  is  obferved  in  lifhes,  prove 
that  the  aliments  are  diffolved  in  our  ftomachs  by  the 
aftion  of  a  menftruum.  But  this  mcthcd  of  reafon- 
ing  is  very  faulty  ;  nor  C2n  it  eirer  bring  lis  to  the  true 
folution  of  any  philofophical  or  medical  problem.  It 
is  very  pbin,  fince  the  ftruclure  of  the  parts  of  the 
human  flomach  !ire  fo  very  different  from  that  of  this 
creature,  that  it  is  foolifli  and  unreafonable  to  imagine 
both  of  them  capable  of  producing  the  fame  effects. 
At  each  end  of  the  ftomach,  there  are  as  it  were  two 
particular  facs  of  a  different  texture  from  the  reft 
of  the  ftomach,  not  confifting  of  ftrong  mufcular 
fibres  ;  they  feem  to  be  receptacles  for  the  ftones 
(efpeciallv  at  the  end  which  Is  fartheft  from  the  ori- 
fice), while  the  digefted  ali.ment  is  protruded  into  the 
inteftine?. 

Spallanzani,  however,  has  lately  found,  that  pebbles 
are  not  at  all  neceft'ary  to  the  trituration  of  the  food 
of  thefe  animals.  At  the  f?.me  time,  he  <loes  not  de- 
ny, that  when  put  in  motion  by  the  gaftiia  mufcles, 
they  are  cspable  of  producing  fome  effect  on  the  con- 
tents of  the  ftomach  ;  but  is  inclined  to  believe,  that 
they  are  not  fou'/ht  for  and  feledted  by  defign,  as  ma- 
ny fuppofe,  but  becaufe  they  frequently  happen  to  be 
mixed  with  thefood.  m 

Till-  (hioikivim  beains  pretty  near  the  fame  pl.icc  at  Duodcn'mi; 
which  the  t  ophagus  enters;  yet  notwlthftandirg  the 
vicinity  of  thefe  two  tubes,  the  aliments  arc  in  no  dan- 
ger of  getting  cut  before  they  are  perfeftly  digfited, 
by  reafon  of  a  protuberance,  orfip.'wn  nMlium,  betwixt 
the  orifices  ;  and  in  thofe  creatures  who  have  fuch  a 
ftrong  mul"cular  ilor.iach,  it  is  a  matter  of  great  indif- 
ference wirether  the  entry  of  the  cefophagus  or  pylorus 


lit 

DuiSlvis 

choledo- 

(hU3. 


"3 

Inttftina 
tenuia. 


ii6 

Pancreai. 


Chap.  ir.  C  O  M  P  A  R  A  T 

Of  Fowls,  be  hiffhed,  provided  that  the  entry  from  the  afopha- 

'■   '  ' gu8  dots  not  allow  the   food   to   regurgitate,  fiiice  the 

force  of  the  (lomach  can  eafily  protrude  it  towards  the 
duodenum.  This  gut  is  moftly  in  the  right  fide,  and 
hangs  pendulous  in  their  abdomen,  having  its  two  ex- 
tremities fixed  to  the  liver.  Tlie  tluSus  choledocbus 
enters  near  its  termination,  where  it  mounts  up  again 
to  be  fixed  to  the  liver ;  and  left,  by  the  contraction 
of  the  inteflines,  the  bile  ftiould  pafs  over  without  be- 
ing intimately  blended  with  the  chyle,  that  duft  enters 
downwards,  contrary  to  the  courfe  of  the  food,  and 
contrary  to  what  is  obferved  in  any  of  the  animals  we 
have  yet  mentioned.  But  Hill  the  general  intention  is 
kept  in  view,  in  allowing  thefe  juices  the  fairell  chance 
of  being  intimately  blended  with  the  fjod. 

The  fmall guts  are  proportionally  longer  than  thofe 
of  carnivorous  birds,  for  the  general  caufe  already  af- 
fipned.  At  the  end  of  the  ilium  they  have  two  large 
iniejl'ina  cica,  one  on  each  fide,  four  or  five  inches 
long,  coming  off  from  the  fide  of  the  reflum,  and  a- 
fcending  ;  and  we  find  them  containing  pait  of  the 
food  :  Thefe  ferve  a»  refervoirs  to  the  feces  ;  which, 
after  fome  remora,  there  regurgitate  into  what  foon 
becomes  the  reftum  ;  which,  together  with  the  excre- 
tories  of  urine  and  organs  of  generation,  empties  itfelf 
into  the  common  cloaca.  The  fmall  intellines  are 
connefted  by  a  long  loofe  mefentery,  which  has  little 
or  no  fat  accompanying  the  blood-velTels,  there  being 
no  hazard  of  the  blood's  being  flopped. 

The  pancreas  in  the  creature  lies  betwixt  the  two 
folds  of  the  duodenum,  and  fends  two  or  three  dufts 
jj.  into  this  gut  pretty  near  the  biliary. 
The  fpleen.  The  fph en  is  here  of  a  round  globular  figure,  fitua- 
ted  between  the  hver  and  flomach  ;  and  betwixt  thefe 
and  the  back-bone  it  enjoys  the  fame  properties  as  in 
otlicr  animals,  viz.  large  blood-veffels,  &c.  All  its 
blood  is  fent  into  the  vena  portarum,  and  has  a  perpe- 
tual conquaffition.  It  has  no  excretory,  as  far  as  we 
know.  Their  liver  is  divided  into  two  equal  lobes  by 
a  pellucid  membrane,  running  according  to  the  length 
of  their  body  :  and  hence  we  may  oblervc,  tliat  it  is 
not  proper  to  that  bowel  to  lie  on  the  right  fide  ;  which 
is  rtill  more  confirmed  by  what  we  obferve  in  filhes, 
where  the  greateft  part  of  it  lies  in  the  left  fide. 

The  (liape  of  their  gall-bladder  is  not  much  different 
from  that  of  quadrupeds  ;  but  is  thought  to  be  longer 
in  proportion  to  the  fize  of  the  animal,  and  is  farther 
removed  from  the  liver. 

The  principal  difference  to  be  remarked  In  their 
heart,  is  the  want  of  the  luthmla:  tricufpides,  and  their 
place  being  fupplied  by  one  fleiliy  flap. 

The  lungs  are  not  loofe  within  the  cavity  of  the  tho- 

thcir  rtruc-  rax,  but  fixed   to   the  bone   all  the  way  ;  neither  are 

ture  and      tb^.y  divided  Into  lobes,  as  in  thofe  animals   that   have 

a  large  motion  In  their  fpine.     They  are  two  red  fpon- 

gy  bodies,  covered  with  a  membrane  that  is  pervious, 

121        and  which  communicates  with  the  large  veficles  or  alt- 

The  ufe  of  bags  that   are   difperfed   over  their   whole  abdomen  ; 

h"^  v.^'  which  veficles,  according  to  Dr  Monro,  ferve  two  very 

confiderable  ufes.     The   one  is   to  render  their  bodies 

fpecifically  light,  when  they  have  a  mind  to  afcend  and 

buoy  themfelves   up  when    flying,   by  diilcnding   their 

lungs  with  air,  and   alfo   flrallen   their   trachea  arteria, 

and  fo  return  the  air.      Secondly,  they  fupply  the  place 

of  a  mnfcular  diaphragm  and  llrong  abdominal  mulcks  j 

Vol.  V.  Part  I. 


iiver. 


119 

Vefica  fcl- 
Us. 


Cor. 


Ill 

Tulmone^'. 


domer. 


IVE   Anatomy.  265 

producing  the  fame  efTefts  on  the  fcveral  contained  vlf-  Of  Fowlb. 

ceia,  as   thefe  mufcles  wouhl   have  done,  without  the  ^       ' 

inconvcniency  of  their  additional  weight  ;  and  condu-xu  '!•■' 
cing  as  much  to  the  exchifion  of  tlie  egg  and  feces.       pluagai, 
Dr  Hunter  hath  lately  made   fome  curious  difcove-h'^"' 'up- 
ries  relativi;  to  thefe   internal    receptacles  of  air  in  thcP'"'^'^* 
bodies  of  birds.      Some   of  them   are   lodged  in    the 
flefhy  parts,  and  fome  in  the  hollow  bones ;  but  all  of 
them  communicate  with   the   lungs.      He   informs  us, 
that  the  aii-cells  which  are  found  in  the  foft  parts  have 
no  communication  with  the  cellular  membrane  which 
is  common  to  birds  as  well  as  other  animals.      Some  of 
them  communicate  immediately  with  each   other ;  but 
all  of  them  by  the  intervention  of  the  lungs  as  a  com- 
mon centre.      Some  of  them  are  placed  in  cavities,  as 
the   abdomen  ;   others   in   the  interfticcs  of  parts,  as 
about  the  breaft.      The  bones  which  receive  air   are  of 
two  kinds ;   fome  of  them  divided   into  innumerable 
cells  ;  others  hollowed  out  into  one  large  canal.      They 
may  be  dillinguifhed  from  fuch    as  do    not  receive  air, 
by  having  Icfs  fpeclfic  gravity  ;  by  being  lefs  vafcular  ; 
by    containing  little  oil ;  by   having   no   marrow  nor 
blood  in  their  cells ;   by  having  lefs  hardnefs  and  firm- 
nefs  than  others ;  and  by  the  paflage  for  the  air  being 
perceivable. 

The  mechanifm  by  which  the  lungs  are  fitted  for 
conveying  air  to  thefe  cavities  is,  their  being  attached 
to  the  diaphragm,  and  connefted  alfo  to  the  ribs  and 
fides  of  the  vertebra;.  The  diaphragm  is  perforated 
in  fcveral  places  by  pretty  large  holes,  allowing  a  free 
p'jffage  of  air  into  the  abdomen.  To  each  of  thefe 
holes  is  attached  a  dilllntl  membranous  bag,  thin  and 
tranfparent.  The  lungs  open  at  their  anteiior  part  in- 
to membranous  cells,  which  lie  upon  the  fides  of  the 
pericardium,  and  communicate  with  the  cells  of  the 
ilernum.  The  fuperior  parts  of  the  lungs  open  into 
cells  of  a  loofe  net-work,  through  which  the  trachea 
and  oefophagus  pafs.  When  thefe  cells  are  dillended 
with  air,  it  indicates  paffion,  as  in  the  cafe  of  the 
turky-cock,  pouting-pigeon,  &c. 

Thefe  cells  communicate  with  others  in  the  axilla, 
and  under  the  large  pedoral  mufcle  ;  and  thofe With 
the  cavity  of  the  os  humeri,  by  means  of  fmall  open- 
ings in  the  hollow  furface  near  the  liead  of  that  bone. 
Laftly,  The  polterior  edges  of  the  lungs  have  open- 
ings into  the  cells  of  the  vertebrse,  ribs,  os  facium, 
and  other  bones  of  the  pelvis,  from  which  the  air  finds- 
a  paffage  to  the  cavity  of  the  thigh  bone. 

Concerning  the  ufe  of  thefe  cavities  the  doftor  con- 
jeflures,  that  they  are  a  kind  of  appendage  to  the 
lungs  ;  and  tha',  hke  the  bags  continued  thioiigh  the 
bellies  of  amphibious  animals,  they  ferve  as  a  kind  of 
refervoirs  of  air.  They  affill  birds  during  their  fliglit, 
which  niuft  be  apt  to  render  frequent  refpiration  diffi- 
cult. He  farther  infinuate?,  that  this  conftiuctlon  of 
the  organs  of  refpiration  may  aihll  birds  in  finging  ; 
which,  he  tliiiiks,  may  be  inferred  from  the  long  con- 
tinuance of  long  between  the  breathings  of  a  capary- 
bird.  On  tying  the  trachea  of  a  cock,  the  animal 
breathed  through  a  canula  introduced  into  his  belly  ; 
anotl'.er  through  the  os  humeri,  wheu  cut  acrofs  ;  and 
a  hawk  through  the  os  femoris.  In  all  thefe  cafes  the 
animals  foon  died.  lu  the  fiift,  the  doctor  alcribes 
tlie  death  to  an  inflammation  of  the  bowels ;  but  in 
the  laft,  he  owns  it  was  owing  to  diflkuk  breathing, 
L  1  What 


266 


COMPARATIVE    Anatomy. 


Of  Fowls.  Wl;al  took  place,  however,  was  fufficient  to  fhow  tliat 
^~'>~~-  the  animals  really  did  hieaihe  through  the  bone. 

When  w€  examine  the  upper  end  of  the  trachea,  we 
obferve  a  rima  glcllic'h  with  miifcular  fides,  which  may 
aft  in  preventing  the  food  or  drink  from  pafllng  into 
the  lungs ;  for  there  is  no  epiglottis  as  in  man  and  qua- 
T14       driipeds. 
Trachea  ar-      The  Iraciea  arteriii,   near   where  it  divides,  is  very 
tcrria.  much  coHtrafted ;  and  their  voice  is  principally  owing 

to  this  coarftation.  If  you  liften  attentively  to  a  cock 
crowinp,  you  will  be  fenfible  that  the  noife  docs  not 
proceed  from  the  throat,  but  deeper  ;  nay,  this  very 
pipe,  when  taken  cut  of  the  body,  and  cutoff  a  little 
after  its  divifion,  and  blown  into,  will  make  a  fqueak- 
ing  noife,  fomething  like  the  voice  of  thefe  creatures. 
On  each  fide,  a  little  higher  than  this  contraction, 
there  is  a  mufcle  ariiing  from  their  llernum,  which 
dilates  the  trachea.  The  cartilages,  of  which  the  pipe 
is  compofed  in  this  animal,  go  quite  round  it;  where- 
as in  men  and  quadrupeds  they  are  difcontinued  for 
about  one-fourth  on  the  back-part,  and  the  interme- 
diate fpace  is  filled  up  by  a  membrane.  Neither  is  the 
trachea  fo  firmly  attached  to  their  vertebrae  as  in  the 
other  creatures  we  have  examined.  This  ftrufture  we 
fhall  find  of  great  fervice  to  them,  if  we  confider,  that 
had  the  fame  flruclure  obtained  in  them  as  in  us,  their 
breath  would  have  been  in  hazard  of  being  ftopped  at 
every  flexion  or  twilling  of  their  neck,  which  they  are 
frequently  obliged  to.  This  we  may  be  fenfible  of  by 
bending  our  necks  confiderably  on  one  fide,  upon 
which  we  (hall  find  a  great  itraitnefs  and  difficulty  of 
breathing;  whereas  their  trachea  is  better  fitted  for 
following  the  fleftions  of  the  neck  by  its  loofe  connec- 
tion to  the  vertebrae. 

In  place  of  a  mufcular  diaphragm,  this  creature  has 
nothing  but  a  thia  membrane  connefted  to  the  pe- 
ricardium, which  feparates  the  thorax  and  abdo- 
men. But  befides  this,  the  whole  abdomen  and  tho- 
rax are  divided  by  a  longitudinal  membrane  or  me- 
d'lajl'inum  connefted  to  the  lungs,  pericardium,  liver, 
ftoinaeh,  and  to  the  fat  lying  over  their  ftomach  and 


Chap.  II. 

teals  from  the  other  fmall  inteftines,  which  vefTels  ac-  Of  Fowls, 
company  the  lower  mclenteric  aitery;  but,  before  "~~\  '' 
they  join  thofe  from  the  duodenum,  receive  from  the 
reftum  a  lymphatic,  which  runs  from  the  blood- veifeh 
of  that  gilt.  Into  this  lymphatic  fome  fmall  vefiela 
from  the  kidneys  feem  to  enter  at  tlie  root  of  the  cae- 
liac  artery.  The  lymphatics  of  the  lower  extremities 
probably  join  thofe  from  the  inteftines.  At  the  root 
of  the  caliac  artery  and  contiguous  part  of  the  aorta,  a 
net-work  is  formed  by  the  vcflels  above  defcribed. 
From  this  network  arife  two  thoracic  dufts,  of  which 
one  lies  on  each  iide  of  the  fpine,  and  runs  obliquely 
over  the  lungs  to  the  jugular  vein,  into  the  infide  of 
which  it  terminates,  nearly  oppofite  to  the  angle  form- 
ed by  the  vein  and  this  lubclavian  one.  The  thoracic 
dutt  of  th;  left  fide  is  joined  by  a  kii-ge  lymphatic,  which 
runs  upon  the  cefophagus.  The  thoracic  dufts  are  joined 
by  the  lymphatics  of  the  neck,  and  probably  by  thofe 
of  the  wings  where  they  open  into  the  jugular  veins.  The 
lymphatics  of  the  neck  generally  confiil  of  two  large- 
branches,  on  each  fide  of  the  nick,  accompanying  the 
blood -veifels;  and  thtfe  two  branches  join  near  the  lower 
part  of  the  neck,  and  form  a  trunk  which  runs  clofe 
to  the  jugular  vein,  and  opens  into  a  lymphatic  gland; 
from  the  oppofite  fide  of  this  gland  a  lymphatic  comes 
out,  which  ends  in  the  jugular  vein. 

On  the  left  fide,  the  whole  of  this  lymphatic  joins 
the  thoracic  duft  of  the  fame  fide  :  but,  on  the  right 
one,  part  of  it  goes  into  the  infide  nf  the  jugular  vein 
a  little  above  the  angle;  whillt  another  joins"  the  tho- 
racic duft,  and  with  that  duct  forms  a  common  trunk,, 
which  opens  into  the  infide  of  the  jugular  vein,  a  little 
below  the  angle  which  that  vein  makes  with  the  fub- 
clavian.  This  fyftem  in  birds  differs  moll  from  that  of 
quadrupeds,  in  the  chyle  being  tranfparent  and  colour- 
lefs,  and  in  there  being  no  vifib'e  lymphatic  glands, 
neither  in  the  cou.fe  of  the  latteals,  nor  in  that  of  the 
lymphatics  of  the  abdomen,  nor  near  the  thoracic  du<Sls.         xid 

The  kklneys  lie  in   the   hollow  excavated  in  the  fide  Ki  Ineys. 
of  the  back-bone,  from  which  there  is  fent  out  abluifh- 
coloured  canal  running  along  by  the  fide  of  the  "oas  de- 


TIJ 
lymphatic 
fyfter.i. 


ca.     This  is  the  ureter,  which  opens  by  a 
pertiue  of  its  own,   and  not  at  the  penis. 


guts,  which  is  analogous  to  an  ometttum,  and  fupplies   feretis,   and   terminating  direftly  in  the  common  cloa 
its  place. 

The  I jmphatic  fyfem  In  biids  confifts,  as  in  man,  of 
ladltal  and  lymphatic  vtflcls,  with  the  thoracic  duft. 

The  lafteals  indeed,  in  die  ftrifteft  fenfe,  are  the 
lymphatics  of  the  inteftines ;  and,  like  the  other  lym- 
phatics, carry  only  a  tranfparent  lymph  ;  and  inftead 
of  one  thoracic  duft,  there  are  two,  which  go  to  the 
jugular  vein?.  In  thefe  circumftances,  it  would  feem 
that  birds  differ  from  the  human  fubjeft,  fo  far  at  leafl 
as  we  may  judge  from  the  difftftlon  of  a  goofe,  the  com- 
mon fubjeft  of  this  inquiry,  and  from  which  the  fol- 
lowing defcription  is  taken. 

The  lafteals  run  from  the  inteftines  upon  themcfen- 
teric  veflels :  thofe  of  the  duodemam  pafs  by  the  fide 
of  the  pancreas  ;  afterward  they  get  upon  the  ca:liac 
arter)',  of  which  the  fupcrior  mefenteric  is  a  branch 


peculiar  a- 
Fowls  ha- 
ving no  vefica  urinaria,  it  was  thought  by  fome  they 
never  palfed  any  urine,  but  that  it  went  to  the  nou- 
rilhment  of  the  feathers:  but  this  is  falfe  ;  for  that 
whitifh  fubflance  that  you  fee  their  greenilh  faeces  co- 
vered with,  and  which  turns  afterwards  chalky,  is  their 
urine.  Let  us  next  confider  the  organs  of  generation 
of  both  fexes,  and  firft  thofe  of  the  male'.  j^^ 

The  tejlicks  are  fituated  one  on    eacii  fide  of  the  The  organs 
back-bone  ;  and  are  proportionally  very   large  to  the  "/  eenera- 
creature's  bulk.      From  thefe  run  out  the  "vafa  Jemini-  !',°^."' 
fera ;  at  firft  ftraight ;  but  after  they  recede  farther 
from  the  body  of  the  teiticle,  they  acquire  an  undu- 
lated or  convoluted  form,  as  the  epididymis  in  man. 
Thefe  convolutions  partly  fupply  the  want  of  vejicule 


Here  they  are  joined  by  the  lymphatics  of  the  hver,  fsminaks,  their  coition   being   at   the  fame   time  very 

and  then  they  form  a  plexus  which  furrounds  the  cse-  fhort:  Thefe  terminate  in  the  penis,  of  which  the  cock 

liac  artery.      Here  alio  they  receive  a  lymphatic  from  has  two,  one   on   each   fide   of  the   common   cloaca, 

the  gizzard,  and   foon   after  another  from  the  lower  pointing  direftly  outwards.     They  open  at  a  dillance 

part  of  the  cefophagus.     At  the   root   of  the  cxhac  from  each  other,  and  are  very  fmall  and  (liort;  whence 

artery  they  are  joined  by  the  lymphatics  from  the  they  have  efcaped  the  notice  of  anatomifts,  who  have 

irlandulK  renales,  and  tear  the  fame  part  by  the  lac-  often  denied  their  cxiftecce.     In  birds  there  is  no  pro- 

°  ftate 


Vitcllofi 
urn. 


Uie  us. 


150 
The  want 


Giap.  IT.  C  O  M  P  A  R  A  T  I 

Of  Fowls    ftate  glan.-J.     This  is  what  is  chiefly  remarkabL'  in  the 
■^       organs  of  the  male. 
"  The  rucimus  ■vilellonm,  being  analogous  to  tlie  ova- 

ria  in  the  human  fubjett,  are  attached  by  a  proper 
membrane  to  the  back-bone.  Tliis  is  very  line  and 
thin,  and  continued  dijv.-n  to  the  uterns.  Its  orifice  is 
averfe  with  refpeft  to  the  ovarin  ;  yet  nonvithlland- 
iiig,  hy  the  force  of  the  orgnfnnis  venereum,  it  turns 
r  und  and  grafps  the  •viklhu,  which  in  its  pafl'age 
through  this  duifk,  called  the  tnfur.dlbulum,  receives  a 
thick  gelatinous  liquor,  fecreted  by  certain  glands. 
This,  with  what  it  receives  in  the  uterus,  compofesthe 
white  of  the  egg.  By  this  tube  then  it  is  caiTied  into 
the  uterus.  The  (hell  is  lined  with  a  membrane  ;  and 
in  the  large  end  there  is  a  bag  full  of  air,  from  which 
there  is  no  outlet. 

The  uterus  is  a  large  bacr,  placed  at  the  end  of  the 
infuiidiiuliim,  full  of  wrinkles  on  its  infide  ;  here  the 
egg  is  completed,  receiving  its  lall  invokicrum,  and  is 
at  lall  pulhed  out  at  an  opening  on  the  fide  of  the  com- 
mon cloaca.  From  the  teftes  in  the  male  being  fo 
very  large  in  proportion  to  the  body  of  the  creature, 
there  mull  necelTarily  be  a  great  quantity  of  femen  fc- 
cerned  ;  hence  the  animal  is  falacious,  and  becomes 
capable  of  impreirnating  many  females.      The  want  of 

of  the  vefi-  [hi  veficuU  fcmliidLs  is  in  fome  m,eafure  fupplitd  by  the 

«uls  femi-   convolutions   of  the  vafa  dii'eretilla,  and  by  the  fmall 

nalc,  how    ,.„  ,         .         ,       .■>       J  '  ' 

lui  plieJ.      dillance  betwixt  the  iecerning  and  excretory  organs. 

The  two  /enw  contribute  alfo  very  much  to  their  lliort 

coition  ;  at  which  time  the  opening  of  the  uterus  into 

the  cloaca  is  vei-y  much  dilated,  that  the  effeft  of  the 

femen  on  the  vitelli  may  be  the  greater. 

A  hen  will  of  herfelf  indeed  lay  eggs  ;  but  thefe 
are  not  impregnated,  and  yet  appear  entirely  com- 
plete, except  that  the  fmall  black  fpot,  which  comes 
afterwards  to  be  the  rudiments  of  the  chick,  is  not 
here  to  be  obferved. 

After  having  obferved  the  contents  of  the  abdomen 
and  thorax,  we  next  proceed  to  examine  the  parts  a- 
bout  the  neck  and  head. 

Thefe  creatures,  as  was  obferved  of  fowls  in  gene- 
ral, have  no  teeth.  Some,  indeed,  have  an  appear- 
ance of  teeth  ;  but  thefe  are  only  fmall  proceifcs  or 
ferrx  rifing  out  from  the  mandible,  without  any  foc- 
ket,  &c.  which  would-  have  been  needlefs,  as  they 
ft.fwallow  their  food  entire.  But  their  tongue  is  made 
pretty  firm,  lelt  it  ill.  uld  be  hurt  by  the  Iharp  points 
■of  the  grain  they  feed  on.  It  is  of  a  triangular  fi- 
gure, and  poiatid  hefoie  ;  and  as  by  their  depending 
poilure  their  meat  is  in  hazard  of  falling  out  of  their 
mouths,  to  prevent  this  there  are  feveral  fmall  point- 
ed papilla;  (landing  out  upon  their  tongue  and  pa- 
late, with  their  points  inclined  backwards,  allowing 
an  cafy  pafiage  to  the  food,  but  hindering  it  to  re- 
turn. 

We  have  here  no  m/um  piiltifinum,  uvula,  or  cp'iglot- 
tis  ;  and  in  place  of  two  large  holes  opening  into  the 
nofe,  there  is  only  a  long  narrow  rima  fupplied  with' 
pretty  ftrong  mufcles,  and  fuch  another  fupplies  the 
place  of  a  glottis.  The  creature  has  a  power  of  (hut- 
ting both  at  pleafure  ;  and  the  nature  of  their  food 
feems  not  cnly  to  exempt  them  from  the  hazard  of  its 
getting  into  the  nofe  or  trachea,  but  its  fliarp  points 
v.ould  huit  an  uvula,  or  epiglottis,  if  they   had  any. 


Ttii-.guf 
form. 


V    E      A  N  A  T  O  M  Y.  267 

Mence  we  fee  with  what  difficulty  ih'ry  fwallow  Of  Fowls, 
dougli  or  other  fori  of  food  that  can  be  eafilj-  moulded  '""^ 
into  any  form.  When  we  examine  the  upper  end  of 
the  trachea,  we  obferve  a  rima  gluttidis  with  mufcular 
fides,  which  may  att  in  preventing  the  Kjoil  or  drink 
from  pafiing  into  the  lungs,  for  there  Is  no  epiglottis 
as  in  man  and  quadrupeds.  j^j, 

Their  c/v//;/'«h;  is  more  cellular  and  Cavernous  than  Cranium, 
ours.  By  this  means  their  heads  are  light,  yet  llrong 
enough  to  refill  external  injuries;  for  the  enlarging 
the  diameter  of  bones  contributes  .to  their  ftrenglh. 
By  tills  cavernous  cranium  the  organ  of  fmelling  is 
fuppofed  to  be  confiderably  enlarged  ;  and  further, 
finging  birds,  as  is  obferved  by  Mr  Ray  and  Mr  Der- 
ham,  have  this  cavernous  ilrutlure  of  the  brain  Hill 
more  obfervable  ;  and  we  are  told  that  the  cavity  of 
the  tympanum  communicates  with  the  cells:  but  this 
feems  rather  founded  on  theory  than  matter  of  faft. 
Their  brain  is  covered  with  the  common  membranes, 
but  its  external  lurfaee  is  not  formed  into  fo  many 
gyroe  or  convolutions  as  ours.  Its  anterior  part  is  quite 
folid,  of  a  cineritious  colour,  and  fo  far  has  a  refcm- 
blance  of  the  corpora Jlnata  as  to  give  rife  to  the  ol- 
factory nerves.  The  whole  of  it  appears  to  us  as  im- 
perfecl,  and  we  can  fcarce  determine  whether  there  be 
any  thing  analogous  to  a  third  or  fourth  ventricle:  nei- 
ther the  corpus  callofuin,  fornix,  nates,  or  tejles,  isfc.  can 
be  obferved  here  ;  which  parts  therefore  cannot  be 
imagined  as  abfolutely  neceflary  for  the  fundlons  of 
life,  fince  wc  find  thefe  creatures  perform  them  fuf- 
ficiently  well.  We  may  perhaps  think  thtfe  ferve  a 
particular  ufe  in  man,  who  is  a  rational  creature  ;  but 
then  quadrupeds  enjoy  them  in  common  with  men. 
Thefe  protubiirances,  &c.  feem  rather  to  depend  on 
the  different  difpofition  of  the  feveral  parts,  being  va- 
rioufly  conncfted  and  meeting  in  different  direftions 
in  different  places,  than  their  being  abfolutely  necef- 
fary  for  any  particular  ufe  ;  and  the  ufes  that  have 
been  afTigned  to  different  parts  of  the  brain  by  authors, 
ftem  to  have  no  foundation  but  in  the  author's  fancy. 

Their  organ  oi fmelling  is  very  large,  and  well  pro-  The  nr^an 
vided  with  nerves;  hence  they  have  this  feiifatlon  very  of  fmcll- 
acute.      Ravens  and  other  birds  of  prey  give  a   fure  '"a- 
proof  of  this,  by  their  being  able  to  find  out  their  prey, 
though  concealed  from  their  fight  and  at  a  confider- 
able  diftance. 

Thofe' birds  that  grope  for  their  food  in  the  waters, 
mud,  &:c.  have  large  nerves,  which  ruM  quite  to  the 
end  of  their  bills,  by  which  they  find  out  and  dillin- 
(Tuifh  their  food. 

The  anterior  part  of  their  eyes  (iuftcad  of  having'  the      Eye; 
fclerotic  coat  continued,  fo  as  to  make  near  a  fphere  a? 
in  us)  turns    all  of  a   fuddt-n    flat  ;  fo   that   here  the 
fclerotic  makes  but  half  a  fphere  ;  and  the  cornea  rifes 
up  afterwards,  being  a  portion  of  a  very  fmall  and  di-' 
Hindi  fphere  :  fo  that  in  thefe  creatures  there  is  a  much 
greater  difierence  betwixt  the  fclerotic  and  cornua  than 
in  us.     Hence  their  eyes  do  not  jut  out  of  their  heads, 
as  in  man  and  quadrupeds.      As  moll  of  thefe  creatures 
are  continnally  employed  in  hedges  and  thickets,  there-  * 
fore,  that  their  eyes  might  be  lecured  from  thefe  inju- 
ries, as  well  as  from  too  much  light  when 'flying  in  the 
face  of  the  fun,   there  is  a  very  elegant  mechanifrn  in 
their  eye.'!.     A  membrane  rifes  from  the  internal  can- 
1.  !  2  thus, 


^68 


COMPARAT 


und  ul'cs. 


Of  Fowls,  thus,  which  at  pleafuie,  like  a  curtain,  can  be  made  to 
.*~~~v^— '  cover  the  whole  eye  ;  and  this  by  means  of  a  proper 
mufcle  that  rifes  from  the  fclerotic  coat,  and  paffing 
round  the  optic  nerves,  runs  through  the  mufcuhs  ocult 
atloHens  (by  which  however  the  optic  nerves  are  not 
comprefTed)  and  palptbra,  to  be  inferted  into  the  edge 
of  this  membrane.  Whenever  this  mufcle  ceafes  to 
act,  the  membrane  by  its  own  elafticity  again  difcovers 
the  eye.  This  covering  is  neither  pellucid  nor  opaque, 
both  which  would  have  been  equally  inconvenient;  but, 
being  fomevvhat  tranfparcnt,  allows  as  many  rays  to  en- 
ter as  to  make  any  objeft  juft  vifible,  and  is  fufficient 
to  direft  them  in  their  progreffion.  By  means  of  this 
membrane  it  is  that  the  eagle  is  faid  to  look  at  the  fun. 
Quadrupeds  alfo,  as  we  mentioned  before,  have  a  fmall 
l';5  mcmhrana  niSitans. 
Boiirfe  Befides,  all  fowls  have  another  particularity,  the  ufe 

sioirc.  Its  J-  ^.jj;j,jj  jj  j^gj  fg  ^,gjl  underftood ;  and  that  is,  a 
pretty  long  black  triangular  purle,  riimg  irom  tlic 
bottom  of  their  eye  juft  at  the  entry  of  the  optic 
nerve,  and  ftretched  out  into  their  vitreous  humour, 
and  one  would  imagine  it  gave  fome  threads  to  the 
ci'yftalline.  To  this  the  French  (who  probably  were 
the  firft  who  took  notice  of  it  in  their  dilTedions  be- 
fore the  Royal  Academy )  gave  the  name  of  boiirfe  noire. 
This  may  poffibly  ferve  to  fuffocate  fome  of  the  rays 
of  light,  that  they  may  fee  objedls  more  diftindlly  with- 
out hurting  their  eyes.  It  has  a  conneftion  with  the 
vitreous,  and  feems  to  be  joined  alfo  to  the  cryllallinc, 
humours.  If  we  fuppofe  it  to  have  a  power  of  con- 
traftion  (which  may  be  as  well  allowed  as  that  of  the 
iris),  it  may  fo  alter  the  pofition  of  the  vitreous  and 
cryftalline  humours,  that  the  rays  from  any  body  may 
not  fall  perpendicularly  upon  the  cryllalline  ;  and  this 
feems  to  be  neceflary  in  them,  fince  they  cannot  change 
the  figure  of  the  anterior  part  of  their  eye  fo  much  as 
we  can  do  :  and  as  this  animal  is  expofed  often  to  too 
great  a  number  of  rays  of  light,  fo  they  have  no 
tapetum,  but  have  the  bottom  of  their  eye  wholly  black 
on  the  retina  ;  and  in  confequence  of  this,  fowls  fee 
very  ill  in  the  dark. 

They  have  no  external  ear ;  but  in  place  thereof  a 
tuft  of  very  fine  feathers  coveinng  the  meatus  audito- 
>vW,  which  eafily  allows  the  rays  of  found  to  pafsthem, 
and  likewlfe  prevents  duft  or  any  infeft  from  getting 
in.  An  external  ear  would  have  been  inconvenient  in 
their  pafling  through  thickets,  and  in  flying,  &c.  A 
liquor  is  feparated  in  the  external  part  of  the  ear,  or 
meatus  audhorius,  to  lubricate  the  paflage,  and  further 
prevent  the  entrance  of  any  infefts,  &c.  The  tnem- 
Irana  tvmpam  is  convex  externally ;  and  no  mufcles 
:u-e  fixed  to  the  bones  of  their  ear,  which  are  rather  of 
a  cartilaginous  confillence  :  any  tremulous  motions 
impreffed  on  the  air  are  communicated  in  thefe  crea- 
tures merely  by  the  fpring  and  elailicity  of  thefe  bones  ; 
fo,  probably,  the  membrane  is  not  fo  llretched  as  in  the 
human  ear  by  mufcles.  The  feraicircular  canals  are 
very  diftinft,  and  eafily  prepared. 

Sect.  III.  Anatomy  of  a  Carnl-uorous  Bird. 
We  come  next  to  the  birds  of  prey,  and  for  an  ex- 
ample fhall  take  a  ftanncl  or  fmall  hawk.  The  princi- 
pal dificience  to  be  obfcrved  in  them,  is  in  their  chy- 
lopoietic  vifcera,  which  m.ay  be  accounted  for  from 
liitii  di&rent  way  of  life. 


T36 
Orp;an  of 
hearing. 


IVE    Anatomy.  Chap.  II. 

Immediately  under  their  clavicles,  you  will  obferve  Of  Aqueou* 
the  oefophagus  expanded  into  their  iiigluvles,  which  is   f^ni'i^als. 
proportionally  lefs  than  in  the  granivorous  kind,  fince 
their  food  docs  not  fwell  fo  much  by  maceration ;  and  ,     i'''^ 
for  the  fame  reafon,  there  is  a  lefs  quantity  of  a  mcn- 
ftruum  to  be  found  here.  „ 

They  have  alfo  a  I'enlriculus  faccenlur'iatus,  plentiful- Vemriculu* 
ly  ftored  with  glands,  fituated  immediately  above  their  rucccmuri- 
ftomach,  which  we  fee  here  is  thin  and  mufculo-mem-^'"'- 
branous,  otherwife  than  in  the  granivorous  kind  :  and 
this  difference,  which  is  almoft  the  only  one  we   (hall 
find  betwixt  the  two  different  fpecies  of  fowls,  is  eafi- 
ly accounted  for  from  the  nature  of  their  food,  which 
requires  lefs  attrition,  being  eafier   of  digeftion  than 
that  of  the  other  kind  ;  neverthelefs,  it  feems  requifite 
it  fliould  be  llronger  than  the  human,  to  compenfate 
the  want  of  abdominal  mufcles,  which  are  herr  very 
thin.  r.?9 

The  fame  mechanifm  obtains  in   this  creature's  f/uo-'nteftin*. 
denum  that  we  have  hitherto  obferved.      As   being  a  , 

carnivorous  animal,  its  guts  are  proportionally  fhorter 
than  thofe  of  the  granivorous  kind  ;  for  the  reafon  firft 
given,  viz.  its  food  being  more  liable  to  corrupt,  there- 
fore not  proper  to  be  long  detained  in  the  body  ;  ;ind 
for  that  reafon  it  has  no  intejl'ina  caca,  of  which  the 
other  fpecies  of  fowls  have  a  pair.  The  difference  in 
their  wings,  backs,  and  claws,  are  obvious  ;  and  have 
been  already  in  fome  meafure  obferved. 

Chap.  III.     The  Anatomy  of  Aqueous  Animals. 

Sect.  I.     Of  the  Amphibious  Tribe. 

Aqueous  animals  are  generally  divided  into  fuch  j^,, 
as  have  lungs,  and  fuch  as  want  them.  The  firft  fpe- 
cies differ  fo  inconfiderably  from  an  ox  or  any  other 
quadruped,  that  a  few  obfervations  may  be  fufficient  to 
give  an  idea  of  their  internal  ftrufture  ;  for  this  pur- 
pofe,  we  fhall  firft  examine  that  fpecies  of  them  which 
moll  rcfembles  man  in  the  internal  ftrufture,  the  tor- 
toife.  141 

I.  Torloife.  The  covering  of  this  animal  is  com- Their  Ihell 
pofed  of  a  ftiell  fo  remarkably  hard  and  firm  in  its  tex-°^':o"'«'inB. 
ture,  that  a  loaded  waggon  may  go  over  it  without 
hurting  the  fhell  or  the  animal  within  it.  In  the 
young  animal,  this  (hell  grows  harder  in  proportion 
as  its  contents  expand;  and  this  creature  never  changes 
its  fiiell  as  fome  others  do :  hence  it  was  neceflary 
for  it  to  be  made  up  of  different  pieces  ;  and  thefe  are 
more  or  lefs  diftindf  in  different  animals.  Their  feet 
are  fmall  and  weak ;  and  they  are  exceedingly  flow  in 
motion. 

It  has  neither  tongue  nor  teeth ;  to  make  up  for 
which,  their  lips  arc  fo  hard  as  to  be  able  to  break  al- 
moft the  hardeft  bodies. 

The  alimentaiy  canal  veiy  much  referables  that  of 
the  former  clafs. 

The  principal  difference  is  in  the  circulation  of  the 
blood.  The  heart  has  tv.'o  dlftinft  auricles,  without 
any  communication  ;  and  under  thefe,  there  is  the  ap- 
pearance of  two  ventricles  fimilar  in  fliape  to  thofe  of 
the  former  clafs :  but  they  may  be  confidered  as  one 
cavity  ;  for  the  ventricle  fends  out  not  only  the  pul- 
monary arter)',  but  likewife  the  aorta;  for  there  is  a 
paflage  in  the  feptum,  by  which  the  ventricles  com- 
municate freely,  and  the  blood  pafTes  from  the  left 

iste 


Chap.  III.  COMPARAT 

Of  Aqxou- into  the  right  one.  From  the  aorta  the  blood  re- 
Aniinals  turns  into  the  right  auricle,  while  that  from  the  pulmo- 
^'~"''~~'  n.iry  artery  returns  to  the  left  auricle,  from  which 
it  is  fent  to  the  left  ventricle,  &c.  fo  chat  only  a  part 
of  the  blood  is  fent  to  the  lungs,  the  re(l  going 
immediately  into  the  aorta  ;  hence  the  animal  is  not 
under  the  neccffity  of  breathing  fo  often  as  otherwife 
it  would  be. 

From  the  bafe  of  the  right  ventilcle  goes  out  the 
pulmonary  artery  and  aorta.  The  pulmonary  ar- 
tery is  fpcnt  upon  the  lungs.  The  aorta:  may  be 
fald  to  be  three  in  number :  for  the  aorta  hniftra  af- 
cends  through  tlie  pcricaidium  in  company  with  the 
pulmonary  artery  ;  and  afterwards  turns  down,  and 
fends  off  a  confidcrable  branch,  which  fplits  into 
two  ;  one  of  which  joins  the  right  aorta,  while  the 
other  is  dillributcd  upon  the  liver,  llomacli,  inte- 
ftines,  &c.  What  remains  of  this  aorta  runs  to  the 
kidneys  or  poilerior  extremities  of  that  hde.  An  aor- 
ta deicendens,  Sic.  after  piercing  the  pericardium,  runs 
down  and  communicates  with  the  branch  already  men- 
tioned, is  dillributed  upon  the  right  kidney  and  infe- 
rior extremity,  and  alfo  upon  the  bladder  and  parts  of 
generation.  An  aorta  afcendens,  after  getting  out  of 
the  pericardium,  fupplies  the  fore-legs,  neck,  and 
head.  The  blood  in  the  fuperior  part  of  the  body  re- 
turns to  the  right  auricle  by  two  jugular  veins,  which 
unite  after  perforating  the  pericardium.  From  the 
inferior  part,  it  returns  to  the  fame  auricle  by  two 
large  veins  ;  one  on  the  right  fide  receives  the  blood 
in  the  right  lobe  of  the  liver  ;  the  other  on  the  left  fide 
receives  the  blood  in  the  left  lobe,  and  alfo  a  trunk 
which  corrtfponds  with  the  inferior  vena  cava  in  other 
animals.  The  pulmonary  vcfl'els  run  in  the  left  auricle 
in  the  common  way. 

The  abforbent  fyllem  in  the  turtle,  like  that 
in  the  former  clafs,  confills  of  latleals  and  lym- 
phatics, with  their  common  trunks  the  thoracic  dutls; 
but  differs  from  it  in  having  no  obvious  lymphatic 
glands  on  any  part  of  its  body,  nor  plexus  formed  at 
the  termination  in  the  red  veins. 

The  laBeals  accompany  the  blood-veflels  upon  the 
mefentery,  and  form  frequent  net-works  acrofs  thefe 
veffels  :  near  the  root  of  the  mefentery  a  plexus  is 
formed,  which  communicates  with  the  lymphatics 
coming  from  the  kidneys  and  parts  near  the  anus.  At 
the  root  of  the  mefentery  on  the  left  fide  of  the  fplne, 
the  lymphatics  of  the  fpleen  join  the  lafteals  ;  and  im- 
mediately above  this  a  plexus  is  formed,  which  lies 
upon  the  right  aorta.  From  this  plexus  a  large  branch 
arifes,  which  paffes  behind  the  right  aorta  to  the  left 
fide,  and  gets  before  the  left  aorta,  where  it  affills  in 
forming  a  veiy  large  receptaculum,  which  lies  upon 
that  artery. 

From  this  receptaciJum  arifc  the  thoracic  dufts. 
From  its  right  fide  goes  one  trunk,  vviiich  is  joined  bv 
tliat  large  branch  that  came  from  the  plexus  to  the  left 
fide  of  the  right  aorta,  and  then  paffes  over  the  fpine. 
This  trunk  is  the  thoracic  duft  of  the  right  fide  ;  for 
having  got  to  the  right  fide  of  the  fpine,  it  runs  up- 
wards, on  the  infide  of  the  right  aorta,  towards  the 
right  fubclavian  vein  ;  and  when  it  has  advanced  a 
little  above  the  lungs,  It  divides  into  branches,  which 
near  the  fame  place  are  joined  by  a  large  branch,  that 
eomes  up  ou  the  outlidc  of  thi  aorta.     From  this  part 


IVE    Anatomy.  269 

upwards,  thofe  veffcls  divide  and  fubdivide,  and  are  Of  Aqueous 
aftewards  joined  by  the  lymphatics  of  the  neck,  which  •'^"''"'  ^' , 
likewife  form  branches  before  they  join  thofe  from  be-  ' 

low.  So  that  betvvecn  the  thoracic  duft  and  the  lym- 
phatics of  the  fame  fi'le  of  the  neck,  a  very  intricate 
net-work  is  formed  ;  from  which  a  branch  goes  into 
the  angle  between  the  jugular  vein  and  the  lower  part 
or  trunk  of  the  fubclavian.  I'his  branch  lies  therefore 
on  the  infide  of  the  jugular  vein,  whil  •  another  gets  to 
the  outfide  of  it,  and  fcems  to  terminate  in  it,  a  little 
above  the  angle,  between  that  vein  and  the  fubcla- 
vian. 144 

Into  the  above  mentioned  receptaculum  the  lym-  I.yitiiilia- 
phatics  of  the  ftomach  and  duodenum  likewife  enter.''"* 
Thofe  of  the  duodenum  run  by  the  fide  of  the  pan- 
creas, and  probably  receive  its  lymphatics  and  a  part 
of  thofe  of  the  liver.  The  lymphatics  of  the  ilomach 
and  duodenum  have  very  numerous  anaftomofes,  and 
form  a  beautiful  net-work  on  the  artery  which  they 
accompany.  From  this  receptaculum  likewife  (befidcs 
the  trunk  already  mentioned,  which  goes  to  the  right 
fide)  arife  two  other  trunks  pretty  equal  in  fize  ;  one 
of  which  runs  upon  the  left  fide,  and  the  other  upon 
the  right  fide  of  the  left  aorta,  till  they  come  within 
two  or  three  inches  of  the  left  fubclavian  vein  ;  where 
they  join  behind  the  aorta,  and  form  a  number  of  ' 
branches  which  are  afterwards  joined  by  the  lympha- 
tics of  the  left  fide  of  the  neck  ;  fo  that  here  a  plexus 
is  formed  as  upon  the  right  fide.  From  this  plexus  a 
branch  Iffues,  which  opens  into  the  angle  between  the 
jugular  and  fubclavian  vein.  145 

2.  Serpent  and  Crocodile.    The  circulation  In  thefe  isCiicilttion 
fimilar  to  that  of  the  turtle  ;  but  we  find  only  one  ven- '"  'erpents,. 
tricle.     TIk  blood  goes  from  the  right   auricle  to  the 
ventricle  which  lends  out  the  pulmonary  artery  and  aor- 
ta ;  the  blood  from  the  pulmonary  artery  returns  to  the 

left  auricle,  that  from  the  aorta  going  to  the  right  au- 
ricle, and  both  the  auricles  opening  into  the  ventricle. 

3.  Frog  and  Lizard.  Thefe  differ  from  the  former 
animals,  in  having  only  one  auricle  and  a  ventricle  : 
and  befides,  the  ventricle  fends  out  a  fingle  artery, 
which  afterwards  fplits  into  two  parts  ;  one  to  fupply 
the  lungs,  the  other  runs  to  all  the  reft  of  the  body  i- 
from  the  lungs  and  from  the  other  parts,  the  blood  re- 
turns into  the  auricle. 

Sect.  II.     Anatomy  of  F'lfljcs.  c. 

Of  thefe  we  may  firft  obferve,  that  they  have  a  veryCutuuIa; 
ftrong  thick  cuticle,  covered   with   a   great  number  of'''''"''*  '°' 
fcales,  laid  one  on    another   like  tl?e   tiles  of  houfes. "'' '"""^"' 
This  among  other  arguments  is  fuppofed  to  prove  the 
human  epidermis  to  be  of  a  fqaamous  ftrutture  :  but 
the  fcales  refemble  the  hairs,  wool,  feathers,  &c.  of  the 
creatures  that  live  in  air  ;   and  below  thefe  we  obferve 
their  proper  cuticula  and  cutis. 

The  generality  of  filhes,  pai'ticularly  thofe  fliaped 

like  the  cod,  haddock,  &c.  have  a  line  running  on 

each  fide.     Thefe  lines  open •  externally  by  a  number 

of  dudts,  which  throw  out  a  mucous  or  filmy  fubllance 

that  keeps  them   foft  and  clammv,  and  feems  to  ferve       ^.^ 

the  fame  purpofe^with  the  mucous  glands  or  dutls  which  Swimniing, 

are  placed  within  many  of  our  internal  organs.  Imw  P"r- 

lu  the  next  place,  thefe  creatures  have  neither  ante-  .""',•  , 

n      •  .         •  •  1  I  1  r      I      •Several  ufej- 

nor  nor  poltenor  exlremilies,  as  ([uadrupeds  and  fowls ;,,(■  ^-^^-^^ 

for  their  progreffiori  is  perfonued   in  a  different   way.iins.tail  air- 

fiomli.'ii*>  '^'- 


COMPARATIVE     Anatomy. 


Chap.  1(1. 


-of  .Vqiicousfrom  eitlier  of  tiiofe  fpecies  of  animals  :  for  this  pur- 
j\n!niaU  i-^  ^\^^y  g^e  provided  w  itli  machines,  properly  conliit- 
♦~~~"  ing  of  a  great  number  of  elallic  beams,  connected  to 
one  another  by  firm  membranes,  and  with  a  t^il  of  the 
fame  texture  ;  their  fpinc  is  very  moveable  towards  the 
polkrior  part,  and  the  llrongetl  mufcks  of  their  bodies 
arc  inferted  there.  Their  tails  are  fo  framed  as  to 
contrad  to  a  narrow  fpace  when  drawn  together  to  ei- 
ther fiJe,  and  to  expand  ag:iin  when  drawn  to  a  flrai  ^ht 
line  with  their  bodies  ;  fo,  by  the  afiillance  of  tliis 
troad  tail,  and  the  fins  on  their  fides,  they  make  their 
progreflion  mucli  in  the  fame  way  as  a  boat  with  oars 
im  its  fides  and  rudder  at  is  ftern.  The  perpendicu- 
lar finsfituated  on  the  fuperior  part  of  their  body  keep 
them  in  enuilihrio,  hindering  the  belly  from  turning 
uppeimoft  :  which  it  would  readily  do,  becaufe  of  the 
air-bag  in  the  abdomen  rendering  their  belly  fpecifical- 
ly  li^'-hter  than  their  back  ;  but  by  the  refinance  thefe 
fins  meet  with  when  inclined  to  either  fide,  they  are 
kept  with  their  backs  always  uppermoft. 

The  bell  account  of  this  matter,  we  have  in  the  trea- 
tife  before  mentioned,  viz.  Bordtius  de  Mntii  Anhnaliiim., 
cap.  23. 

It  may  be  next  obferved,  that  thefe  creatures  have 
nothing  that  can  be  called  a  nech,  leeing  they  feek 
their  food  in  an  horizontal  way,  and  can  move  their 
bodies  either  upwards  or  downwards,  as  they  have 
occafion,  by  the  contrsdion  or  dilatation  of  the  air- 
bag;  a  long  neck,  as  it  would  hinder  their  progreflion, 
would  be  very  difadvantageous  in  the  element  they 
live  in. 

The  ii'iJomm  is  covered  on  the  inferior  part  with  a 
Mack-coloured  thin   membrane   refembhng  our  perito- 
neum.     It  is  divided  from  the  thorax  by  a  thin  mem- 
branous partition,  wliich  has  no  mufcular  appearance  ; 
fo  that  we  have  now  feen'two  different  forts  of  animals 
j^3        that  have  no  mufcular  diaphragm. 
T^eth  for        Thefe  creatures  are  not  provided  with  te/A  proper 
what  made  fjr  breaking  their  aliment  into  fmall  morfels,  as  the 
food  they  ufe  is  generally  fmall  fi(hcs,  or  other  animals 
that  need  no  trituration  in  the  mouth,  but  fpontaneouf- 
■ly  and  gradually  difiolve  into  a  liquid  chyle.      Their 
teeth  ferve  to  grafp  their  prey,  and  hinder  the  creatures 
they  have  once  catched  from  efcaping  again.     For  the 
fame  purpofe,  the  internal  cartilaginous  bafis  of  the 
bronchi,  and  the  two  round  bodies  lituated  in  the  po- 
fterior  part  of  the  jaws,  have  a  great  number  of  tenter- 
hooks fixed  into  them,  in  futh  a  manner  as  that  any 
thing  can  eafily  get  down,  but  is  hindered  from  getting 
back.      The  watc*  that  is   neceffarily  taken  in  along 
with  their  food  in  too  great  quantities  to  be  received 
into  their  jaws  in  deglutition,  puifes  betwixt  the  inter- 
lliccs  of  the  bronchi  and  the  flap  that  covers  them. 
The  comprcfiion  of  the  water  on  the  bronchi  is  of  con- 
fiderable  ufe  to  the  creature,  as  we  ihall  explam  by 
and  by. 
Dieellion         The  rfrjphngvs  in  thefe  creatures  is  veiy  fliort,  and 
peiformeil    fcarcely  diftinguidied  from  their  ftoraach,  feeing  their 
(bldyb)'  a   f„o(j  iJeg  almolt  equally  In  both.    The  ftomach  is  of  an 
nieiiflru-      „v,io„g  figure.     There  are  commonly  found  fmall  fiihcs 
in  the  ftomach  of  large  ones  llill   retaining  their  na- 
tural form  ;  but  when  touched,  they  melt  down  into  a 
Jelly.      From  this,  and  xhe  great  quantity  of  liquors 
uoui'ed  into  their  (lomachs,  we  may  conclude,  tliat  di- 
geilion  is  folely  brought  about  in  them  by  the  diflolving 


power  of  a  mcnftruum,  and  that  no  trituration  happens  Of  Atjueoia 


here. 


An.uul*. 


The  guts  in  thefe  animals  are  very  (hoit,  making  only 
three  turns  ;  the  lall  of  which  ends  in  the   common  inuftmi. 
cloaca  for  the  feces,   urine,   and  femen,  fituated  about 
the  middle  of  tlie  inferior  part  of  their  bodies. 

To  what  we  a^  pancreas,  fome  give  the  name  of /'«- p^ncf j,^ 
t.jl'iiiuJa  cica  :  it  conhfts  of  a  very  grc^it  number  of 
fmall  threads,  like  fo  many  little  worms,  which  all  ter- 
minate at  lail  in  two  Utrger  canals  that  open  into  the 
firll  gut,  and  pour  into  it  a  vifeous  liquoi  much  about 
the  place  where  the  biliary  ducts  enter.  That  kind  of 
pancreas  formed  of  intellinula  cica  is  peculiar  to  a  cer- 
tain kind  of  filhes  ;  for  the  cartilaginous,  broad,  and 
flat  kind,  as  the  Ikate,  fole,  flounder,  &c.  have  a  pan- 
creas refembling  that  of  the  former  clafs  of  animals. 
Their  inteilines  are  connected  to  the  back-bone  by  a 
membrane  analogous  to  a  mefentery. 

Their  liver  is  very  large,  of  a  whitifh  coloilV,  and  lies  Liver"",  call- 
almolt  in  the  left  fide  wholly,  and  contains  a  great  deal  bladder, 
of  fat  or  oiL  and  their 

T!ie  gall-bladder  is  fituated  a  confiderable  way  from  ^ 
their  liver  ;  and  fends  out  a  canal,  the  cyftic  duCf, 
which  joins  with  the  hepatic  dudt  jull  at  the  entry  into 
the  gut.  Some  fibres  being  obferved  llretched  from 
the  liver  to  the  gall-bladder,  but  without  any  apparent 
cavity,  the  bile  was  iuppoled  not  to  be  carried  into  the 
gall-bladder  in  the  ufual  way,  but  that  it  mud  either 
be  fecerned  on  tlie  fides  of  the  fac,  or  regurgitate  into 
it  from  the  canalis  cholcdochus.  It  is  certain,  however, 
that  hepato-cyllic  dufts  exift  in  fifh  as  well  as  in  fowls. 
This,  for  example,  is  very  obvious  in  the  falmon,  where 
large  and  diftintt  dutfs  run  from  the  biliary  dudls  of 
the  fiver,  and  open  into  the  gall-bladder.  ,  ., 

The  fpleen  is  placed  near  the  back-bone,  and  at  a  Sjlce:!,  its 
place  where  it  isfuLjefted  to  an  alternate  preffure  fromsie  dr  w-n 
the  conilriClion  and  dilatation  of  the  air-bajt,  which  is  ,   ""  °°*' 
fituated  in  the  neighbourhood.      Since,  in  all  the  dif-    ° 
fercnt  animals  we  have  diflected,  we  find  the  fpleec  at- 
tached to  fomewhat  that  may  give  it  a  conquaflatlon  ; 
as  in  the  human  fubjcft  and  quadrupeds,  it  is  contigu- 
ous to  the  diaphragm  ;  in   fowls,  it  is  placed  betwixt 
the  back-bone,    the  liver,  and  ftomach  ;  in  filhes,  it 
lies  on  the  faccus  aerius  :  and  fince  we  find  it  fo  well 
ferved  with  blood-veffcls,  and  all  its  blood  returning 
into  the  liver;  we  muft  not  conclude  the  fpleen  to  be 
an  inutile  pondus,  only  to  lei-. e  as  a  balance  to  the  ani- 
mal pro  dtquilibrio,  but  particularly  djfigned  for  prepa- 
ring the  blood  to  the  liver.  ,, . 

The  only  organs  of  generation  in  this  animal  are  two  Organs  rf 
bags  fituated  in  the  abdomen  uniting  near  the  podex.  ^tneration. 
Thefe  in  the  male  are  filled  with  a  whltifn  firm  fub- 
ftance  called  the  mil! ;  and  in  the  female  with  an  infi- 
nite number  of  little  ova  cluftcred  together,  of  a  red* 
difii  yellow  colour,  called  the  roc.  Both  thefe  at 
fpawning-tirne  we  find  very  much  dillended  ;  whereas 
at  another  time  tlie  male  organs  can  fearce  be  dilliu- 
guilhed  from  the  female  ;  nor  is  there  any  proper  in- 
ftrument  in  the  male  for  throwing  the  feed  into  the  or- 
gans of  the  female,  as  in  other  crea.ures.  We  (hall  not 
take  upon  us  to  determine  the  way  whereby  the  female 
fperm  is  impregnated :  but  we  find  that  the  fpawn  of 
frogs  confiits  in  the  fmall  fpecks  wrapped  up  in  a  whi- 
tiih  glutinous  liquor ;  theft  fpecks  are  the  rudiments 
of  the  young  frogs,  which  are  nojriihed  in  that  liquor 

till 


:hap.  Iir.  COMPARAT 

3f  Aqueou*  till  they  are  able  to  go  in  ftarch  of  their  food.  In  the 
Animals  fgnie  wav,  the  ova  of  filhes  are  thrown  out  and  depofi- 
""""  ted  in  the  land,  the  male  being  fur  the  moll  part  ready 

to  impregnate  them,  and  they  arc  incubated  by  the 
heat  of  the  fun.  It  is  curious  enough  to  remark  wiili 
what  care  they  feek  for  a  proper  place  to  depofite  their 
ova,  bv  fwimming  to  the  (liallow,  where  they  can  better 
enjoy  the  fun's  rays,  and  (liun  the  large  jaws  of  other 
filhes.  The  river-fiflies,  again,  fpawn  in  fome  creek 
free  from  the  hazard  of  the  impetuous  ftreara.  But 
w  hether  tliis  mixture  be  brought  about  in  filhes  by  a 
fmiple  application  of  the  genitals  to  each  otlier,  or  if 
both  of  them  throw  out  their  liquors  at  the  fame  time 
in  one  place,  and  thus  bring  about  the  dclired  mixture, 
it  is  not  cafy  to  determine.  Spallanzaiii  has  found, 
that  the  eggs  of  frogs,  toads,  and  water  mewts,  are 
not  fecundated  in  the  body  of  the  female  ;  that  the 
male  emits  his  femen  upon  the  fpawn  while  it  is  flowing 
from  the  female  ;  and  that  the  fatus  pre-exifts  in  the 
body  of  the  female  :  but  whether  impregnation  takes 
place  in  the  fan-,e  manner  in  fillies,  he  has  not  yet  been 
able  to  determine,  thougl»-he  fcems  to  think  it  pro- 
bable. Thtfe  creatures  are  fo  Ihy,  that  we  cannot 
eafily  get  to  obfcrve  their  way  of  copulation,  and  are 
confequently  but  little  acquainted  with  thtir  natural 
hillory.  Frogs,  it  is  very  evident,  do  not  copulate  ; 
at  leall  no  farther  than  to  allow  both  fexes  an  oppor- 
tunity of  thi-owing  their  fperm.  Early  in  the  fpring 
the  male  is  found  for  feveral  days  in  dole  contaft  upon 
the  back  of  the  female,  with  his  fore  legs  round  her 
bod)"  in  fuch  a  manner  that  makes  it  veiy  difficult  to 
feparate  them,  but  there  is  no  communication.  At 
this  time  the  female  lays  her  fpawn  in  fome  place  that 
is  molt  fecin-e,  while  the  male  emits  his  fperm  upon  the 
,j,  female  fpawn. 
The  air-  After  raifing  up  tl^e  black  peritoneum  in  fidies,  there 

bladder,  comes  in  view  an  oblong  white  membranous  bag,  in 
anil  its  which  there  is  nothing  contained  but  a  quantity  of 
elaftic  air.  This  is  the  Jivhnnnng-Uaillcr :  it  li(;3  clofe 
to  the  back- bone  ;  and  has  a  pretty  ftrong  mul'cular 
coat,  whereby  it  can  contraft  itfelf  By  contrafting 
this  bag,  and  condcniing  the  air  within  it,  they  can 
make  their  bodies  Ipecifically  heavier  than  water,  and 
fo  readily  fall  to  the  bottom  ;  whereas  the  mufcular 
fibres  ceafmg  to  aft,  the  air  is  again  dilated,  and  they 
become  fpeeitically  lighter  than  water,  and  fo  fwim 
above.  According  to  the  different  degrees  of  contrac- 
tion and  dilatation  ot  this  bladder,  they  can  keep  high- 
er'or  lower  in  the  water  at  pleafure.  Hence  flounders, 
foles,  raia  or  fliate,  and  fuch  other  filhes  as  want  this 
lac,  are  found  alv.'ays  groveling  at  the  bottom  of  the 
water:  it  is  owing  to  this  that  dead  filhes  (unlcfs  this 
membrane  has  been  previoufly  broke)  are  found  fwim- 
ming a-top,  the  mufcular  fibres  then  ceafing  to  aft, 
and  that  with  their  bellies  uppermoft  ;  for  the  back- 
^  bone  cannot  yield,  and  the  dillended  fac  is  protruded 
into  the  abdomen,  and  the  back  is  confequently  hea- 
■»ielt  at  its  upper  part,  according  to  thtir  pofture. 
There  is  here  placed  a  glandular  fubllance,  containing 
156  a  good  quantity  of  red  blood  ;  and  it  is  very  probable 
Itsprocef-   that  the  air  contained  in  the  fwimming  bladder  is  de- 

",''i^/,°"|'' lived  from  this  fubftance.  From  the  anteiior  part  of 
jiiuiiicaiion    ,       ,  ^  ,.,.', 

with  tl  e      '"S  oag  go  out  two  proce[jes  or  appendices,  which,   ac- 

vcntriculus. cording  to  the  gentlemen  of  the  Ficnch  academy,  ter- 


I    V    E     A  N  A  T  O  M  V.  271 

miaate  in  their  fauces  :  In  a  variety  of  other  fi(hes  weOfAqueou» 
find  communications  wiih  iome  parts  of  the  alimentary  ^''"'"^•^ 
canal,   pailiculaiiy  the  ccfophagus  and  itomach.      The  ' 

falmon  has  an  opening  from  the  fore  end  of  tlie  air-bag 
into  the  ccfophagus,  which  is  fui rounded  by  a  kind  of 
mufcuhir  fibres.  The  herring  has  a  funnel-like  paflage 
leading  fiom  the  bottom  of  the  flomach  into  the  air- 
bag  ;  but  it  is  not  determined  whether  the  air  enters 
the  air-bag  by  this  opening,  or  comes  out  by  it :  the 
latter,  however,  feems  to  be  the  more  probable  opi- 
nion, as  the  glandular  body  is  found  in  all  filhes, 
whereas  there  are  feverul  without  this  paffage  of  com- 


munication. 


157 


At  the  fuperior  part  of  this  bag  there  are  other  red-  tirctcrs  va- 
coloured  bodies  of  a  glandular  nature,  which  are  con-  "^'^  ""iia. 
nefted    with  the   kidneys.      From  them  the  iircUrs  go  .'.  '  . 
down  to  their  infertion  in  ihe  vefira  vr'iruiria,  which  lies 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen  ;  and  the  urethra  is 
there  produced,  which  terminates  in  the  podcx. 

Thele  hll-mentioned  parts  have   not   hitherto  been 
obferved  in  fome  fpecles  of  fifhes  ;  whence  authors  too 
hall)Iy  denied   them  in  all.      Thefe  creatures  have  a        j  g 
mcmhratwia  diapl>rcigm,   which  forms  a  fac  in  which  the  Diaphragm 
heart  is  contained.     It   if  very  tenfe,  and  almoft  per-^ 
pendicularto  the  vertebrx,  ,jg 

The  heart  is  of  a  triangular  form,    with    its    bafe  The  heart 
downwards,    and   its  apex  uppermoft  ;  which  fiiuation  has  buc  one 
it  has  becaufe  of  the  Iranchlde.      It  has  but  one  fl«r;V/f  ^'■"'''^""'^ 
and  one  •ventricle,   becaufe   they  want  lungs;  and  oncj^ji-ig^^ 
great  artery.      The  fize  of  the  auiicle  and  that  of  the 
ventricle  are   much   the   fame  ;     the  artery  fends  out 
numberlefs  branches  to  the  branchiae  or  gills.     And 
what  is  rather  curious,   this  artery,  inllead  of  fupport- 
ing  all  parts  as  in  the  frog,    is  diflributed  entirely  up- 
on the  gills  ;   every  branch  terminating  there,  and  be- 
coming fo  extremely  fmall  as  at  lall  to  el'cape  the  na- 
ked eye.  ...  .  '     iffo 

The  branch]^  lie  in  two  large  flits  at  each  fide  of  Th;  hran- 
thtir  heads,  and  feem  to  be  all  they  have  that  bears '^'"^ 
any  analogy  to  lungs.  Their  form  is  '^"^'circular  ;  ^^jl^'^j^j'"^'* 
they  have  a  vaft  number  of  red  fibrillo:  ftanding  out  on  ufe. 
eacb  fide  of  them  like  a  fringe,  and  very  muchrefemble 
the  vane  of  a  feather.  Thefe  branchise  are  perpetually 
fubjcfted  to  an  alternate  motion  and  prclTare  from  the 
water  ;  and  we  may  here  itmark,  that  we  have  not 
found  any  red  blood  but  in  places  fubjcfted  to  this  al- 
ternate prtflurc.  This  obfcrvation  will  help  us  in  ex- 
plaining the  atlion  of  the  lungs  upo'i  the  blood.  Over 
thefe  gills  there  is  a  large  flap,  allowing  a  communica- 
tion externally;  by  which  the  water  they  are  obliged  to 
take  into  their  mouths  with  their  food  finds  an  exit 
witliout  palling  into  their  flomach:  it  is  owing  to  thefe 
flaps  coming  fo  far  down  that  the  heart  is  faid  com-^ 
monly  to  be  fituated  in  their  heads.  The  blood  is  col- 
lefted  again  from  the  gills  by  a  vaft  number  of  fmall' 
veins,  fomewhat  in  the  fame  manner  as  in  our  pulmo- 
nary vein  ;  but  inflead  of  going  back  to  the  heart  a. 
fccond  time,  they  immediately  unite,  and  form  an  aor- 
ta defcendens,  without  the  intervention  of  an  auricle 
and  ventricle.  Hence  a  young  anatomill  may  be 
puzzkd  to  find  out  the  power  by  which  the  blood  is- 
propelltd  from  the  gills  to  the  different  parts  of  the 
body;  but  the  difficulty  will  be  confiderably  kffened, 
when  v/e  coafidcr  the  manner  in  which  the  blood  is. 
2  carricdi 


272 


COMPARAT 


T_yniphatic 
vcflcii. 


Of  Aqueom  carried  through- the  liver  from  the  inteftines  in  man 
Animals,  jpj  quadruped?.  The  aorta  in  fifhes  fends  oft  branch- 
*  es  which  fiipply  al!  the  parts  ot  the  body  excepting  the 
gills.  From  the  extremity  of  thofe  branches  the  blood 
returns  to  the  heart  fomewhat  in  the  fame  manner  as  in 
the  former  clafs  of  animals  ;  only  there  are  two  infe- 
rior venre  cavae,  whereas  the  former  has  but  one. 

jibforknt  Syjlem  in  Fi/lx'S.  We  fhall  take  the  had- 
dock as  a  general  example  ;  for  the  othei  fifties,  parti- 
cularly thofe  of  the  fame  fliape,  will  be  found  in  gene- 
ral to  agree  with  it. 

On  the  middle  of  the  belly  of  a  haddock,  immedi- 
ately below  the  outer  il<in,  a  lymphatic  veficl  runs  up- 
wards from  the  anus,  and  receives  branches  from  the 
parietes  of  the  belly,  and  from  the  fin  below  the  anus  : 
near  the  head  this  lymphatic  pa.Tes  between  the  two 
pedoral  fins ;  and  having  got  above  them,  it  receives 
their  lymphatics.  It  then  goes  under  the  fymphyfisof 
the  two  bones  which  form  the  thorax,  where  it  opens 
into  a  network  of  very  large  lymphatics,  which  lie 
clofe  t»  the  pericardium,  and  aim  lil  entirely  furrounds 
the  heart.  This  net-work,  befides  tliat  part  of  it  be- 
hind the  heart,  has  a  large  lymphatic  on  each  fide, 
which  receives  lymphatics  from  the  kidney,  runs  upon 
the  bone  of  the  thorax  backwards;  and  when  it  has  got 
as  far  as  the  middle  of  that  bone,  it  fends  off  a  large 
branch  from  its  infide  to  join  the  thoracic  duft.  After 
detaching  this  branch,  it  is  joined  by  the  lymphatics 
of  the  thoracic  fins,  and  foon  afcer  by  a  lymphatic 
which  tuns  upon  the  fide  of  the  fi(h.  It  is  formed  of 
branches,  which  give  it  a  beautiful  penniforra  appear- 
ance. 

Befides  thefe  branches,  there  is  another  ftt  deeper 
V'hich  accompanies  the  ribs.  After  the  large  lympha- 
tic has  been  joined  by  the  above-mentioned  veflels,  it 
receives  lymphatics  from  the  gills,  orbit,  nofe,  and 
mouth.  A  little  below  the  oibit,  another  net- work 
appears,  confiding  in  part  of  the  vefTels  above  defcribed, 
and  of  the  thoracic  duft.  This  net-work  is  very  com- 
plete, fome  of  its  vefFels  lie  on  each  fide  ot  the  muicles 
of  the  gills  ;  and  fiom  its  internal  part  a  trunk  is  lent 
out  which  terminates  in  the  jugular  vein. 

The  lafteals  run  on  each  iide  of  the  mefenteric  ar- 
teries, anaftomofing  frequently  acrofs  thofe  veffels.  The 
receptaculum  into  which  they  enter  is  very  large,  in 
proportion  to  them;  and  confifts  at  its  lower  part  of 
two  branches,  of  which  one  lies  between  the  duode- 
r.um  andftomach,  and  runs  a  liltle  way  upon  the  pan- 
creas, receiving  the  lymphatics  of  the  liver,  pancreas, 
thofe  of  the  lower  part  of  the  ftomach,  and  the  ladeals 
fiom  the  greateil  part  of  the  fni;ill  int=llines.  The 
other  branch  of  the  receptaculum  receives  the  lym- 
j.hatics  from  the  reft  of  the  alimentary  canal.  1  he  re- 
ceptaculum formed  by  thefe  two  bi. inches  lies  en  the 
right  fide  of  the  upper  part  of  the  llomach,  and  is  join- 
ed by  fom.e  lymphatics  in  that  part,  and  alfo  by  lome 
from  the  found  and  gall-bladder,  which  in  this  fifh  ad- 
heres to  the  receptaculum.  This  thoracic  dud  takes 
its  rife  from  the  receptaculum,  and  lies  on  the  right 
fide  of  the  oefophagus,  receiving  lymphatics  from  that 
part ;  and  running  up  about  half  an  inch,  it  divides 
into  two  dufts,  one  of  which  pa(Tes  over  the  cclo- 
phagus  to  the  left  fide,  ^nd  the  other  goes  itraig'.it 
upon  the  right  fide,  paiTes  by  the  upper  part  of  the 
tidney,  from  which  it  receives  Ijine  fmali  branches, 
i«J=  87.  I 


Thcladleals 


IVE   Anatomy.  Chap.  Ill, 

and  foon  afterwards  is  joined  by  a  branch  from  the  Of  aiucou* 
large  lymphatic  that  lies  above  the  bone  of  the  tlio-    Animali. 
rax,  as   formerly   mentioned  :   near  this  part   it   like-  * 

wife  feuds  off  a  branch  to  join  the  duft  of  the  oppofite 
fide  ;  and  then,  a  little  higher,  is  joined  by  thofe  large 
lymphatics  from  the  upper  part  of  the  gills,  and  from 
the  fauces. 

The  thoracic  duft,  after  being  joined  by  thefe  vef- 
fels, communicates  with  the  net. work  near  the  orbit, 
where  its  lymph  is  mixed  with  that  of  the  lymphatic* 
from  the  pollerior  part  of  the  gills,  and  from  the  fupe- 
rior  fius,  belly,  Sec.  and  then  from  this  net-work,  a  vef- 
fel  goes  into  the  jugular  vein  Jull  below  the  orbit.  This 
laft  vefTel,  which  may  be  called  the  termination  of  the 
whole  fyftem,  is  very  fmall  in  proportion  to  the  net- 
work from  which  it  rifcs  ;  and  indeed  the  lymphatics 
of  the  part  are  fo  large,  as  to  exceed  by  far  the  fize  of 
the  fanguiferous  veffels. 

The  thoracic  duft  from  the  left  fide,  having  pafied 
under  the  ocfi)phagus  from  the  right,  runs  on  the  iu- 
fide  of  the  vena  cava  of  the  left  fide,  receives  a  branch 
from  its  fellow  of  the  oppofite  fide,  and  joins  the  large 
lymphatics  which  he  on  the  left  fide  of  the  pericar- 
dium, and  a  part  of  thofe  which  lie  behind  the  heart  ; 
and  afterwards  makes,  together  with  the  lymphatics 
from  the  gills,  upper  fins,  and  fide  of  the  filh,  a  net- 
work, from  which  a  veffel  paffes  into  the  jugular  vein 
of  this  fide.  In  a  word,  the  lymphatics  of  the  left  fide 
agree  exaftly  with  thofe  of  the  right  fide  above  defcri- 
bed. Another  part  of  the  fyllem  is  deeper  feated,  ly- 
ing between  tlie  roots  of  the  fpinal  procefles  of  the 
back-bone.  This  part  confifts  of  a  large  trunk  that 
begins  from  the  lower  part  of  the  fifii,  and  as  it  afcends 
receives  branches  from  the  dorfal  fins  and  adjacent 
parts  of  the  body.  It  goes  up  near  the  head,  and  fends 
a  branch  to  each  thoracic  duft;  near  its  origin.  jg. 

The  brain  in  filhes   is  formed   pretty  much  in  the  Cerebrum, 
fame  way  as  that  of  fowls  ;  only  we  may  obferve,  that 
the  poftcrior  lobes   bear  a  greater  proportion  to  the 
anterior.  164 

Their  organ  of fme/ling  h  large;  and  they  have  aOrpanof 
power  of  coutrafting  and  dilating  the  entry  into  their  f"^"^"- 
nofe  as  they  have  occafion.  It  feems  to  be  moftly  by 
their  acute  fmell  that  they  difcover  their  food  :  for 
their  tongue  feems  not  to  have  been  defigncd  for  a 
very  nice  fcnfation,  being  of  a  pretty  firm  cartilagi- 
nous fubftance;  and  common  experience  evinces,  that 
their  fight  is  not  of  fo  much  ufe  to  them  as  their  fmell 
in  fearching  for  their  nourifhment.  If  you  throw  a 
frelh  worm  into  the  water,  a  fifn  fiiall  diftiiiguifh  it  at 
a  confidcrable  dillance;  and  that  this  is  not  done  by 
the  eye,  is  plain  from  obfcr\ing,  that  after  the  fame 
worm  has  been  a  confiderable  time  in  the  water  and 
loft  its  fmell,  no  fifties  will  come  near  it  :  but  if  you 
take  out  the  bait,  and  make  fcveral  little  inciiions  into 
it,  fo  as  to  let  out  more  of  the  odoriferous  effluvia,  it 
fliall  have  the  fame  effeft  as  formerly.  Now  it  is  cer- 
taiuj  had  the  creatures  difcovcrcd  this  bait  with  their 
eyes,  they  would  have  come  equally  to  it  in  both  ca- 
fes. In  confequence  of  their  fmell  being  the  principal 
means  they  have  of  difcovering  their  food,  we  may  fre- 
quently obferve  their  allowing  themfelves  to  be  canied 
down  with  the  ftream,  that  they  may  afcend  again 
Icifurely  againft  the  current  of  the  water;  thus  the  o- 
.    doriferous  partitlei  fwimming  in  that  medium,  being 

ap- 


165 
Optic 
nerves. 


I'm 
rhe  en' 


[!;hap.  in. 

)f  Aq:rous  applied  more  forcibly  to  tlie'r  fmtlling  organs,  produce 
^'J""^'"-,  a  Itronga-  fcnfation. 

The  optic  nerves  in  thcfi  animals  are  not  confounded 
with  one  another  in  their  middle  progrefs  betwixt  their 
oriorin  and  the  orbit,  but  the  one  pafTes  over  the  other 
without  any  communication  ;  fo  that  the  nerve  that 
comes  from  the  left  fide  of  the  brain  goes  diftinftly  to 
the  right  eye,  and  I'ire  -ocrfa. 

Indeed  it  would  fccm  not  to  be  ncceffary  for  the 
optic  nerves  of  fi(hes  to  have  the  fame  kind  of  connec- 
tion with  each  other  as  thofe  of  man  have:  for  their 
eyes  are  not  placed  in  the  fore-part,  but  in  the  fides  of 
their  head;  and  of  confeqnence,  they  cannot  fo  con- 
veniently look  at  any  object  with  both  eyes  at  the  fame 
time. 

The  lens  cryf.all'wa  is  here  a  complete  fphere,  and 
hlline  hu-  more  denfe  than  in  terrellrial  animals,  that  the  rays  of 
nour  a  light  coming  from  water  might  be  fufficiently  refracted. 
:omplcat  ^^  fiflics  are  continually  expofcd   to  injuries  in   the 

J,j,,,_  '  uncertain  element  they  live  in,  and  as  they  are  in 
perpetual  danger  of  becoming  a  prey  to  the  larger 
ones,  it  was  neccifary  that  their  eyes  Ihould  never 
be  (hut ;  and  as  the  cornea  is  fufficiently  wafhed  by 
the  element  they  live  in,  they  are  not  provided 
with  palpebrae :  but  then,  as  in  the  current  itfelf  the 
eye  ruil  be  expofed  to  feveral  injuries,  there  was  a  ne- 
ccffity  it  fhould  be  fufficiently  defended  ;  which  in  tf- 
fctt  it  is  by  a  firm  pellucid  membrane,  that  feems  to  be 
a  continuation  of  tlie  cuticula^  being  ilretched  over 
here.  The  epidermis  is  very  proper  for  this  purpofe, 
as  being  inlenfible  and  dellitute  ot  veflels,  and  confe- 
quentlv  not  liable  to  obltruttions,  or,  by  that  means,  of 
bccomiu"'  opaque.  In  the  eye  of  the  ftate  tribe,  there 
is  a  dit'ited  curtain  which  hangs  over  the  pupil,  and 
may  fhut  out  the  light  when  the  animal  relts,  and  it  is 
fimilar  to  the  tunica  adnata  of  other  animals. 

Alt)\ough   it   was  formerly  much  doubted  whether 
fi(hes  pofleffed  a  fenfe   of  hearing,   yet   there  can  be 
little    doubt   of  it  now ;  fince  it   is   found  that  they 
have  a  complete  organ  of  hearing  as  well  as  other  ani- 
mals, and  likewife  as  the  water  in  which  they  live  is 
proved  to  be   a  good   medium.      Fidies,  particularly 
thofe  of  the   (Icate  kind,   have  a  bag  at  fome  diftance 
behind  the  eyes,  which  contains  a  fluid  and  a  foft  cre- 
trceous  fubftance,   and  fupplies  the  place  of  veftihule 
and  cochlea.     There   is   a   nerve  diilributed   upon   it, 
fimilar  to  the  portio  mollis  in  man.      They  have  three 
i'emicircular  canals,  which  are  filled  with  a   fluid,  and 
communicate  with  the  bag  :  they  have  likewife,  as  the 
prefent  profeffor  of  anatomy  at  Edinburgh  has  lately 
difcover<-d,  a  meatus  exterims,  which  leads  to  the  in- 
ternal ear.     The    cod    filh,  and   others  of  the   fame 
fliape,   have  an  organ  of  hearing  fomewhat  fimilar  to 
the  former  ;  but  inftead  of  a  foft  fubllance  contained 
in  the  bag,   there  is  a  hard  cretaceous  (lone       In  this 
kind   of  fifli   no   meatus  externus  has   been  yet  obfer- 
ved  :   And  Dr  Monro   is   inclined    to   think  that  they 
really  have   not   one,  from  the  confideration  that  the 
common  canal  or  veilibule,  where  the  three  femicircu- 
lar  canals  communicite,  is  feparatcd   from  the  cavity 
of  the  cranium  by  a  thin  membrane  only;  that  this  ca- 
vity, in  the  greater  number  of  fifhcs,  contains  a  watery 
liquor    in    confiderable    quantity  ;    and   that,   by    tlie 
lliinnefs  of  the   cranium,  the  tremor  excited  by  a  fo- 
norous   body    may  readily  and  ealily  be  tranfmitted 
Vol.  y.  Part  I. 


C  O  M  P  A  11  A  T  I  V  E    Anatomy.  275 

through  the  cranium  to  the  water  within  It,  and  fo  to  Of  Infcas 


the 


167 
3"jraii? 
lej.iriL' 


Chap.  IV.    The  Anatomy  of  InfeSls. 


As  infefls  and  worms  are  fo  exceedingly  nume- 
rous, it  would  be  endlefs  to  examine  all  the  different 
kinds,  nor  wcmld  it  ferve  any  ufeful  purpofe  to  the 
anatoniift.  We  fliall  therefore  be  content  with  making 
a  few  general  obfervations,  and  thefe  chiefly  on  the 
ihuClure  of  their  body  ;  leaving  the  variety  of  their 
colour,  fhape,  &c.  to  the  uaturalllls.  Infects  differ 
from  tlie  former  clades,  by  their  bodies  being  covered 
with  a  hard  cruft  or  feale,  by  their  having  feelers  or 
anttnnx"  ariilng  from  their  head,  and  many  of  them 
breathing  the  nir  thi-ough  lateral  poivs.  As  to  the 
fiiape  of  their  bodies,  though  it  fomewhat  differs  from 
that  of  birds,  being  in  general  not  fo  fharp  before  to 
cut  and  make  way  through  the  air,  yet  it  is  will  adap- 
ted to  their  manner  of  life.  The  bafe  of  their  bodies 
is  not  formed  of  bone,  as  in  many  other  animals,  but 
the  hard  external  covering  fei-ves  them  for  f]<in  and 
bone  at  the  fame  time.  Their  feelers,  befide  the  ufc 
of  cleaning  their  eyea,  are  a  guard  to  them  in  their 
walk  or  flight.  Their  legs  and  wings  arc  well  fitted 
for  their  intended  fervice  ;  but  the  latter  vary  fo  much 
in  different  infefts,that  from  them  naturalifts  have  giveri 
names  to  the  feveral  orders  of  the  elafs.     As,  firll,  the 

Coltopiera,  or  beetle  tribe,  which  have  acr\iflaceous 
elytra  or  fliell,  that  Ihuts  together,  and  forms  a  long-i- 
tudinal  future  down  their  back. 

Hiivnptera  -  as  in  cimex,  cockroach,  bug,  S:c.  which 
have  the  upper  wings  half  cruftaceous  and  half  meni« 
branaceous  ;  not  divided  by  a  longitudinal  future,  but 
incumbent  on  each  other. 

Lepidoptera — as  the  butterfly,  have  four  wings,  co- 
vered with  fine  fcales  in  the  form  of  powder. 

Neuroptera — as  the  dragon-fly,  fprlng-fly,  S:c.  have 
four  membranaceous  tranfparent  naked  -wings,  gene- 
rally reticulated. 

Hymenopiera~zi  wafps,  bees,  &c.  have  four  mem- 
branaceous wings,  and  a  tall  furniflied  with  a  lling. 

Dlptera — as  the  common   houfe-fiy,  have  only  two  i 
wings. 

/iptera — as  the  lobfter,  crab,  fcorpion,  fpider,  ucc. 
have  no  wings. 

The  ilructure  of  the  eye  in  many  infefls  is  a  moft 
curious  piece  of  mechanifm.  The  outer  part  is  re- 
markably hard,  to  guard  againft  injuries ;  and  has 
commonly  a  reticular  appearance,  or  the  whole  may 
be  looked  upon  as  an  alfembiage  of  fmaller  eyes  ;  but 
whether  they  fee  objedts  multiplied  before  them,  has 
not  yet  been  determined. 

Llnu^us,  and  feveral  others  following  him,  deny 
the  exiftence  of  a  brain  in  thefe  creatures.  But  it  is 
certain,  that  at  lead  a  number  of  the  larger  kinds,  as 
the  lobfter,  crab,  &c.  have  a  foft  fubltance  fimilar  to 
the  brain,  from  which  the  optic  and  other  nerves  take 
their  rife  ;  befides,  when  this  fubltance  is  irritated,  the 
animal  is  thrown  into  convulfions  :  hence  we  would 
conclude,  that  infects  have  a  brain  as  well  as  the  for- 
mer clafits,  although  this  is  fmaller  in  propjrtion  to 
their  bodies. 

Their  ear  has  been   lately  difcovered  to  be  placed 

at  the  root  of  their  antennae  or  feelers,  and  can  be 

M  m  di- 


274 


C  O  M  P  A  R  A  T 


Of  Infefl^.  diftinftly  fcen  In  fome  of  the  larger  kinds,  as  the  lob- 

They  have  a  ftonnch,  and  other  organs  of  digeftion  ; 
and  it  is  curious,  that  in  ibme,  as  the  lobfter,  the  teeth 
are  found  in  the  ftoinach. 

They  have  a  heart  and  blood-vcffcls,  and  circulation 
in  carried  on  in  them  fome-.vhat  as  in  the  former  clafs  ; 
but  the  blood  is  without  red  globules  ;  or,  as  natu- 
lalifts  fpeak,  is  coloutlefs.  In  the  lobiler,  and  others 
of  the  larger  kind,  when  a  piece  of  the  fhell  is  bro- 
ken, the  pulfation  of  the  heart  is  feen  diilindly,  and 
that  fometimes  for  fcveral  hours  after  it  has  been  laid 
bare. 

Lungs.  The  exiftence  of  thefe  by  feme  lias  been 
denied.  But  late  experiments  and  obfervations  Ihow, 
that  no  fpecies  want  them,  or  at  lead  fomething  fir.ii- 
Lir  to  them  ;  and  in  many  infcfts,  thev  are  larj^er  in 
proportion  than  in  other  animals  :  in  moll  of  them 
they  lie  on  or  near  the  furface  of  their  body  ;  and  fend 
out  lateral  pores  or  traclieje,  by  which,  if  the  animal 
is  bifmeared  with  oil,  it  is  inftantly  fuffocated. 

Generation.  The  fame  difference  in  fex  exiils  in  in- 
fects as  in  other  animals,  and  they  even  appear  more 
difpofed  to  increafe  their  fpecies;  many  of  them,  when 
become  perfect,  feeming  to  be  created  for  no  other 
purpofe  but  to  propagate  their  like.  Thus  the  filk- 
worm,  when  it  arrives  at  its  perfeft  or  moth-llate,  is 
incapable  of  eating,  and  can  hardly  fly;  it  endeavours 
only  to  propagate  its  fpecies  :  after  which  the  male 
immediately  dies,  and  fo  does  the  female  as  foon  as  (lie 
has  depofited  her  eggs. 

Befides  thofe  of  the  male  and  female,  a  third  fex 
exiils  in  fome  infeiils,  which  wc  call  neuter.  As  thefe 
have  not  the  dillinguilhing  parts  of  either  fex,  they 
may  be  confidered  r^s  eunuchs  or  infertile.  We  know 
of  no  indance  of  this  kind  in  any  other  clafs  of  ani- 
mals ;  and  it  is  only  found  among  thofe  infefts 
which  form  themfelves  into  focieties,  as  bees,  wafps, 
and  aunts:  and  here  thefe  eunuchs  are  real  (laves,  as 
oirthem  lies  the  whole  buGnefs  of  the  economy.  No 
hermaphrodites  have  as  yet  been  difcovered  among  in- 
fers. 

Many  have  imagined  that  the  generality  of  infefts  ' 
were  merely  the  produdion  of  putrcfaftion,  becaufe 
they  have  been  oblerved  to  arife  from  putrelied  fub- 
fiances :  but  a  contrary  opinion  is  now  more  generally 
adopted  ;  and  it  is  pretty  certain,  that  if  putrid  bo- 
dies be  (hut  up  in  a  clofe  velTel,  no  infefts  are  ever  ge- 
nerated unlefs  their  ova  have  been  orisjinally  depofited 
there.  They  are  oviparous  animals,  and  lay  their  eggs 
in  places  moil  convenient  for  the  nouiiihment  of  their 
young  ;  fome  in  water,  others  in  fle(h  ;  fome  in  fruit 
and  leaves :  while  others  make  nefts  in  the  earth  or  in 
■wood,  and  fometimes  even  in  the  hardeft  (tone.     The 


I  V  E   Anatomy.  Chap,  V. 

eggs  of  all  inftdls  firll  become    (Linvi)  caterpillar  orOI  \rormj. 
maggot-;  from  which   they  are   changed   into  l^pupa)  v      "^ 

chiyfalis  or  aurelia,  fo  named  from  their  being  inclo- 
fed  in  a  cafe  ;  and  thefe  dying,  or  feeming  to  die,  the 
{imago)  fly,  or  butterfly  or  perfect  (late,  fucceeds;  and 
during  each  of  thefe  changes  their  appearance  diffcrt 
wonderfully. 

Chap.  V.    Of  Worm!. 

With  refpeft  to  this  clifs  of  animals,  they  have 
characflers  correfponding  with,  thofe  of  the  former 
tribe,  but  are  dillinguiflied  from  them  in  having  no  an- 
tenna, and  in  being  furnidied  with  tentacula. 

Many  of  them,  particularly  thofe  without  (hells,  are 
remarkably  tenacious  of  life,  fometimes  capable  of  be- 
ing new  formed  from  a  part  which  may  have  been  fe- 
parated.  By  much  the  greater  number  of  them  are  dc- 
llitute  of  head,  ears,  nofe,  eyes,  and  feet. 
,  Some  of  thofe  in  the  firll  order,  as  the  common 
round  worms,  have  a  vafciJarand  nervous  fyllem,  witli 
the  parts  of  generation,  which  can  be  dillintlly  feen. 
Some,  as  the  cuttle  filh,  form  a  kind  of  conneftio;; 
between  filhes  and  worms,  in  poflefiing  gills  but 
wanting  (ins,  &c.  while  others,  as  thofe  of  the  lowed 
order,  or  zoophyta,  join  the  properties  of  the  ajiimal 
and  vegetable  kingdom  together. 

The  clafs  is  divided  by  Linnreus,  Sec.  into  tlis  fol- 
lowing orders,  viz. 

Intejlina — as  the  earth  worm,  leech,  &c.  which  arc 
the  mod  iimple  animals,  being  perfectly  naked,  and 
without  limbs  of  any  kind. 

M'lllufcd  —  ^'i  the  naked  finil,  fca-ftar,  cuttle  fifh  ; 
which  are  likewife  (imple  animals  without  any  (hell, 
but  they  are  brachiatcd  or  furnifiied  with  a  kind  of 
limbs.  ' 

Tejlacea — as  tlie  fnail,  oyfter,  &c.  which  have  the 
fame  charafters  as  the  former  order,  but  are  covered 
with  a  (hell,  and  include  the  greater  part  of  what  we 
commonly  caWjhell-JiJh. 

Lilh^'phyla  —  as  corals,  madrepors,  &c.  which  are 
compound  animals  lixed  upon  a  calcareous  bafe,  con- 
llrufted  by  the  creatures  themfelves. 

Zoophyta — as  the  fponge,  polypus,  &c.  Tiiefe  are 
likewife  compound  animrds,  furnilhed  with  a  kind  of 
flowers,  and  having  a  vegetiiting  root  and  item. 

Some  of  thefi  creatures  inhabit  the  earth,  others 
live  on  the  reil  of  the  animal  or  on  the  vegetable  king- 
dom, and  many  are  found  in  tlie  hardcd  Hones ;  while 
an  innumerable  tribe  of  them  live  in  the  waters.  In 
general,  they  are  faid  to  be  of  the  hermaphrodite  and 
oviparous  kind  ;  while  the  lowed  clafs,  as  the  polypi, 
in  a  great  meafure  refemble  the  vegetable  kingdom  in 
their  manner  of  growtlu 


C     O     M 

C'jMf.iR.-irii'E  Degree,  among  grammarians,  that  be- 
tween the  pofitive  and  fupcrlative  degrees,  expreiling 
any  particular  quality  a'love  or  beneath  the  level  of 
another. 

COMPARISON,  in  a  general  fenfe,  the  confidera- 
tion  of  the  relation  between  two  perfons  or  things, 


COM 

when  oppofed  and  let  againft  each  other,  by  which  we 
judge  of  their  agreement  or  difference. 

CoMr.iRnoN  of  Ideas,  an  aft  of  the  mind,  whereby 
it  compares  its  ideas  one  with  another,  in  refpeft  of 
extent,  degree,  time,  place,  or  any  other  circuraftan^ 
ces.     See  Idea,  ' 

Brutea 


COM  [2 

>»"-  Brutes  feem  not  to  have  this  faculty  in  any  ereat 
'•  degree :  they  have,  probably,  feveral  ideas  diftiiiil 
enoiip;h  ;  but  cannot  compare  them  farther  than  as  to 
[o::.e  fenfible  circumftances  annexed  to  the  objcifls 
themfclves ;  the  power  of  comparing  general  ideas, 
wliich  we  obfcrve  in  men,  we  may  pnib.ibly  coi}jeitu.e 
they  have  not  at  all. 

Comparison,  in  grammar,  llie  Iiifl.ftion  of  the 
Corrparau've  degree.      See  Gram  mar. 

Comparison,  in  rhetoric,  is  a  figure  whereby  two 
things  are  confiJered  with  regard  tofiine  third,  which 
is  common  to  them  both. 

luftruciion  is  the  pri;icipal,  but  not  the  only  end  of 
comparifon.  It  may  be  employed  with  fucctfs  in  put- 
ting a  fubj-ifl  ill  a  ftrong  point  of  view.  A  lively  idea 
is  formed  of  a  man's  courage  by  likening  it  to  that  of 
a  lion  ;  and  eloquence  is  c.-ialtcd  in  our  imagination 
comparing  it  to  a  river  ovei flowing  its  bank,  and  in- 
v-ilving  all  in  its  impetuous  courfe.  The  fame  cffeft 
is  produced  by  contrail  :  a  man  in  profperity  becomes 
more  fenfible  of  his  happmtfs,  by  comparing  his  con- 
dition with  that  of  a  perfon  in  want  of  bread.  Thus 
comparifon  is  fubfcrvier.t  to  poetry  as  will  as  to  phi- 
lofophy. 

Comptirifons  ferve  two  purpofcs  :  when  addrefLd  to 
the  finderllanJlng,  their  purpofe  is  to  inftruft  ;  when 
to  the  heart,  their  purj.cfe  is  to  pleafe.  Various  means 
contribute  to  the  latier  :  ifl,  the  fuggefting  fome  un- 
lie  n(\^?\  refemblance  or  contrail*  ;  2d,  the  fetting  an  ob- 
jeit  in  the  llrongeft  light;  3d,  the  affociating  an  ob- 
jedl  with  others  that  are  agreeable  ;  4th,  the  elevating 
.  an  objcft  ;  and  5th,  the  deprefiing  it.  And  that  com- 
parifons  may  give  plcafure  by  thefe  various  means,  will 
be  made  evident  by  examples  which  Ihall  be  given,  after 
premifing  fome  general  obfcrvations. 

Objefts  of  di.Terent  fenles  cannot  be  compared  to- 
gether ;  for  fuch  objefts  are  totally  feparnted  from 
each  ether,  and  have  no  circuniftance  in  common  to 
admit  either  refemblance  or  contrail.  Objefts  of  hear- 
ing may  be  compared  together,  as  alfo  of  talle,  of 
fmcll,  and  of  touch:  but  the  chief  fund  of  comparifon 
are  objedls  of  fight ;  becaufe,  in  writing  or  fpeaking, 
things  can  only  be  compared  in  idea,  and  the  ideas  of 
fight  are  more  diftincl  and  lively  than  thofe  of  any 
ether  fenfe. 

When  a  nation  emerging  out  of  barbarity  begins  to 
think  of  the  fine  arts,  the  beauties  of  language  cannot 
long  lie  concealed  ;  and  when  difcovered,  tliey  are 
generally,  by  the  force  of  novelty,  carried  beyond  all 
bounds  of  moderation.  Thus,"  in  the  earllell  poems 
of  every  nation,  we  find  metaphors  and  fimilies  found- 
ed on  the  (lighted  and  ir.oll  diftant  reftmblancef, 
which,  lofing  their  grace  with  their  novelty,  wear 
gradually  out  of  lepute;  and  now,  by  the  improve- 
ment of  tafte,  no  metaphor  nor  firaile  is  admitted  into 
any  polite  compofition  bnt  of  the  moll  ftriking  kind. 
To  illuftrate  this  oblervation,  a  fpecimen  lliallbe  given 
afterward  of  fuch  metaphors  as  we  have  been  deicri- 
bing :  with  refpeft  to  fimiles  take  the  following 
fpecimen  : 

*'  Behold,  thoB  art  fair,  my  love:  thy  hair  is  as 

"  a  flock  of  goats  that  appear  from  Mount  Gilcnd: 

■**  thy  teeth  are  like  a  flock  of  fheep  from  the  wafh- 

**  ing,  everyone  bearing  twins:  thy  lips  are  like 

"  a  thread  of  fcavlet ;   thy  ucck  like  the  tower  ef 


75     ] 


COM 


biu"It  for  an  armoury,    whereon  hftn>  a   Pomp'ff- 
m1  fhield;i  of  mighty  men  :  thy  two  hrca!U       ^""'     . 


"  David 

"  thoufand  fhield;i  of  mighty  men  :  thy 

"  like  two  young  roes  tliat  are  twins,   which  feed 

"   among  the  lilies  :  thy  eyes  hke  the  fdh-pools  in 

"   Heflwn,  by  the  gate  of  Bath -rabbin  :   thy  nofe 

'•  like  the  tower  of  Lebanon,  looking  toward  Da- 

"  mafcus."  Sung  0/ SdowoK. 

"  Thou  art  llico  fnow  on  the  heath;  thy  hair  like 

"   the  mill  of  Cromla,   when  it   curls  on  the  rocks 

"  and  fliines  to  the  beam  of  the   well :   thy  breafis 

"  are  hke  two  fmooth  rocks  feen  from  Branno  of 

"  the  ih-eams  :   thy  arras  like  two  vhite  pillars  in 

"  the  hall  of  tlie  mighty  Fingal."  Fhiga!. 

It  has  no  good  efFcA  to  compare  things  by  way  of 

fimile  that  are  of  the  fame  kind;  nor  to  contraft  things 

of  different  kinds.      The  reafon  is  given  in  tlie  article 

above  cited  on  the  margin,  and  (liall  be  here  illuitra- 

ted  by  examples.     The  firll  is  a  comparifon  built  upon 

a  refemblance  fo  obvious  as  to  make  little  or  no  im- 

prcfTion.     Speaking  of  the  fallen   angels  fearching  for 

mines  of  gold  : 

A  numerous  brigade  haflcn'd:  as  when  bands 
Of  pioneers  with  fpade  and  pitk-ax  arm'd, 
Forerun  the  royal  camp  to  trench  a  field 
Or  call  a  rampart.  IJl'diti. 

The  next  is  of  things  conlrafled  tliat  are  of  different 
kinds. 

^h-eti.      What,  is  my  Richard   both  in   fiiape  and 

mind 
Transform'd  and  weak?  Hath  Bolingbroke  depos'J 
Thine  intellect  I  Hath  he  been  in  thy  heart  ? 
The  lion,  dying,  thrufteth  forth  his  paw. 
And  wounds  the  earth,  if  nothing  elfe  with  rage 
To  be  o'erpower'd:  and  wilt  thou,  pupil  hke. 
Take  thy  corredlion  mildly,  kifs  the  tod, 
And  fawn  on  rage  with  bafe  humility  ? 

Rkkiidll.  ad.  ^.fc.  I. 
This  comparifon  has  fcarce  any  force ;  a  ;vi?n  and 
a  lion  are  of  diflerent  fpecies,  and  therefore  •..!.'  pro- 
per fubjefts  for  a  fimile  ;  but  there  is  no  fucii  r  i'cm- 
Llauce  between  them  in  general,  as  to  prcjivjany 
ftrong  effctl  by  contrafting  particular  attributes  or  cir- 
cumftances. 

A  third  general  obfervation  is.  That  abflrait  tonus 
can  never  be  the  fubjeft  of  comparifon,-  otiurwife 
than  by  being  perfonlfied.  Shakefpear  compares  ad- 
verfity  to  a  toad,  and  flander  to  the  bite  of  a  croco- 
dile; but  in  fuch  comparifons  thefe  abflrafl  terms  muil 
be  imagined  fenfible  beings. 

To  have  a  juft  notion  of  comparifons,  they  muft  be 
diflinguiflied  into  two  kinds;  one  common  and  fami- 
har,  as  where  a  man  is  compared  to  a  hon  in  courage, 
or  to  a  horfe  in  fpeed  ;  the  other  more  diilant  and  re- 
fined, where  two  things  that  have  in  themfelves  no 
refemblance  or  oppofitioii,  are  compared  i\  ith  lefpeA 
to  their  effecls.  There  is  no  refemblance  between  a 
flower-plot  and  a  cheerful  fong ;  and  yet  they  may  be 
compared  with  refpefl  to  their  effefts,  the  emotions 
they  produce  in  the  mind  being  extremely  fimilar. 
There  is  as  little  refemblance  between  fraternal  con- 
cord and  precious  ointment  ;  and  yet  obferve  how  fnc- 
cefsfuUy  they  are  compared  with  refpedl  to  tlie  impref- 
Cons  tliey  make. 

"   Behold,  how  good  and  how  plcafant  it  is- for 

»'  brethren  to  dwell  together  in  unity.     It  is  like 

M  m  2  '<  the 


COM 


[     276    -J 


fon. 


'•  tlie  precious  ointment  upon  the  head,  that  ran 
"  down  upon  Aaron's  beard,  and  defcendej  to  the 
"  Ikirts  of  his  garment."  /'/1/W133. 

For  illuilrating  this  fort  of  comparifor,  we  ihall  add 
fome  more  examples : 

"  Dthgh'.ful  is  thy  prefeiice,  O  Fingal  !  it  is  like 
"  tlie  fun  on  l.Vomla,  wlicu  the  hunter  mourns  his 
",  abfence  for  a  fcafon,  and  fees  him  between  the 
"  clouds. 

"  Did  not  Offian  hear  a  voice?  or  is  it  the  found 
"  of  day;  that  are  no  more?  Often,  like  the  evening- 
"  fun,  comes  the  memory  of  former  times  on  my 
"  foul. 

"  His  coimtenance  is  fettled  from  war ;  and  is 
"  calm  as  the  evening-beam,  that  from  the  cloud 
"  of  the  weft  looks  on  Cona's  fdent  vale."     Fingal. 

We  now  proceed  to  illuftrate,  by  particular  inftan- 
ces,  the  different  means  by  which  comparifons,  whe- 
ther of  the  one  fort  or  the  other,  can  afford  pleafure  ; 
and,  in  the  order  above  ellablifhed,  we  (hall  begin  with 
fuch  in  (lances  as  are   agreeable,  by  fuggefting  fome 
unufual  refemblance  or  contrail. 
Sweet  are  the  ufes  of  Adverfity, 
Which,  like  the  toad,  ugly  and  venomous, 
Wears  yet  a  precious  jewel  in  her  head. 

As y^;t  like  it,  a£l  Z.fc.  I. 
See,  how  the  Morning  opes  her  golden  gates, 
And  takes  her  farewel  of  the  glorious  fun  ; 
How  well  refembles  it  the  prime  of  youth, 
Trimm'd  hke  a  yonker  prancing  to  his  love. 

SnoridPart  Henry  VI.  oS.  i.fc.  I. 
Thus  they  their  douljtful  confultations  dark 
Ended,  rejoicing  in  their  matchhls  chief: 
As  when  from  mountaui  tops,  the  dufity  clouds 
Afcending,  while  the  Nurth-wind  fieeps,  o-'erfpread 
Heav'ns  cheerful  face,  the  lowering  element 
Scowls    o'er    the    darken'd    landfcape,    fnow,   and 

fhower ; 
If  chance  the  radiant  fun  with  farewel  fweet 
Extends  his  ev'ning-beam,  the  fields  revive. 
The  birds  their  notes  renew,  and  bleating  herds 
Attell  their  joy,  that  hill  and  valley  rings. 

Paradife  Lojl,  booh.  2. 
None  of  the  foregoing  fimiles  tend  to  illuftrate  the 
principal  fubjeCl:  and  therefore  the  chief  pleafure  they 
afford  muft  arife  from  fuggelling  refemblances  that 
are  not  obvious  :  for  undoubtedly  a  beautiful  fubjeit 
introduced  to  fonn  the  fimile  aflords  a  feparate  plea- 
fure, which  is  felt  in  the  fimiles  mentioned,  particular- 
ly in  that  cited  from  Milton. 

The  next  e3e£l  of  a  comparifon  in  the  order  men- 
tioned, is  to  place  an  objeft  in  a  flrong  point  of  view  ; 
which  effett  is  remarkable  in  the  following  Cmiles. 

As  when  two  fcales  are  charg'd  with  doubtful  loads, 
From  fide  to  fide  the  trembling  balance  nods, 
(While  fome  laborious  matron,  juft  and  poor. 
With  nice  exaftnefs  weighs  her  woolly  ftore),. 
Till  pois'd  aloft,  the  relting  beam  fufpcnds 
Each  equal  weight ;  nor  this  nor  that  defcends  t 
So  flood  the  war,  till  Hedlor's  matchlefs  might, 
With  fates  prevailing,  turn'd  the  fcale  of  fight. 
Fierce  as  a  whirlwind  up  the  wall  he  flies, 
And  fires  his  hoft  with  loud  repeated  cries. 

Iliad,  ^.  xii.  pi. 


COM 

-She  never  told  her  love  ; 


But  let  concealment,  like  a  worm  i'  th'  bud, 

Feed  on  her  damafk  cheek  :   Ihe  pin'd  in  thought  ; 

And  with  a  green  and  yellow  melancholy, 

She  fat  like  patience  on  a  monument. 

Smiling  at  grief.  Twelfth  Night,  ad.  Z-fi.  6. 

"  There  is  a  joy  in  grief  when  peace  dwells  with 
"  the  forrowful.  But  they  are  wailed  with  mourn- 
"  ing,  O  daughter  of  Tofcar,  and  their  days  are 
"  few.  They  fall  away  like  the  flower  on  which 
"  the  fun  looks  in  his  flrengtli,  after  the  mildew 
"  has  paffed  over  it,  and  its  head  is  heavy  with  the 
"  drojis  of  night."  Fit:gal. 

Out,  out,  brief  candle  ! 
Life's  but  a  walking  flradow,  a  poor  player. 
That  fh'uts  and  frets  his  hour  upon  the  llage, 
And  theu  is  heard  no  more. 

Macltalb,  ait  5.  /.  5. 
O  thou  goddefs. 

Thou  divine  nature  !  how  thyfelf  thou  blazcn'H 
In  thefe  two  princely  boys  !  they  are  as  gentle 
As  zephyrs  blowing  below  the  violet. 
Not  w'agging  his  fweet  head  ;  and  yet  as  rough 
(Their  royal  blood  inchaf 'd)  as  the  rud'Il  wind. 
That  by  the  top  doth  take  the  mountain-pine. 
And  make  him  floop  to  th'  vale. 

Cyn-.bilir.e,  a9  4.  fc.  4. 

" 'Why  did  not  I  pafs  away  in  fccret,  like  r'.ic 
"  flower  of  the  rock  that  lifts  its  fair  head  unfeeii^^ 
"  and  flrows  its  withered  leaves  on  the  blall  ?" 

Fingal, 
As  words  convey  but  a  faint  and  obfcure  notion  of 
great  numbers,  a  poet,  to  give  a  hvely  notion  of  the 
object  he  dcfcribes  with  regard  to  number,  does  well 
to  compare  it  to  what  is  familiar  and  commonly  known. 
Thus  Homer  compares  the  (irecian  army  in  point  of. 
number  to  a  fwarm  of  bees  :  in  another  pafiage  he 
compares  it  to  that  profulion  of  leaves  and  flowers 
which  appear  in  the  fpring,  or  of  infciils  in  a  fummer's- 
evening  :  And  Milton, 

As  when  the  potent  rod 

Of  Amram's  fori  in  Egypt's  evil  day 
Wav'd  round  the  coail,  up  call'd  a  pitchy  cloud 
Of  loculls,  warping  on  the  eallern  v.'iiid, 
That  o'er  the  realm  of  impious  I'haraoh  hung 
Like  night,  and  darken'd  all  the  land  of  Nile  ;. 
So  numberlefs  were  thofe  bad  aiigtls  feen, 
Ilov'ring  on  wing  under  the  cope  of  hell, 
_     'Twixt  upper,  nether,  arid  lurrounding  tires. 

Fiiradife  Lojl,  hook  1. 

Such  comparifons  have,  by  fome  writers,  been  con- 
demned for  the  lownefs  of  the  images  introduced  : 
but  furely  witliout  reafon  ;  for,  with  regard  to  num- 
bers, they  put  the  principal  fubjeifl  in  a  Itrong  light. 

The  foregoing  comparifons  operate  by  refemblance  } 
others  have  the  fame  effect  by  contraft. 

York.     I  am  the  lail  of  noble  Edward's- fons. 
Of  whom  thy  father,  prince  of  Wales,  was  firft } 
In  war,  was  never  lion  rag'd  more  fierce  ; 
In  peace,  was  never  gentle  lamb  more  mild  ; 
Than  was  that  young  and  princely  gentleman.  " 
His  face  tliou  hafl,  for  even  fo  look'd  he, 
Aiivvmpiiih'd  with  the  number  of  thy  hours.    ' 

But 


f.,n. 


COM  [ 

But  when  he  frown'd,  it  was  againft  the  French, 
And  not  againll  his  friends.     His  noble  hand 
Did  will  what  he  did  Ipend  ;  and  fpent  not  that 
Which  his  triumphant  father's  hand  had  won. 
His  hands  were  guilty  of  no  kindreds  blood, 
But  bloody  with  the  enemies  of  his  kin. 
Oh  Richard,  York  is  too  far  gone  with  grief. 
Or  die  he  never  would  compare  between. 


77 


Richard  II. 


.fc. 


Milton  has  a  peculiar  talent  in  embellifliing  the  prin- 
cipal fubject,  by  alTociating  it  with  others  that  are 
agreeable  ;  which  is  the  third  end  of  a  comparifon. 
Similes  of  this  kind  have,  beiide,  a  feparate  effect ; 
they  diverllfy  the  narration  by  new  images  that  are 
not  ftrictly  neccffary  to  the  comparifon  :  they  are 
fliort  t-pifudes,  v/hich,  without  drawing  us  from  the 
principal  fubjcdt,  afford  great  delight  by  their  beauty 
and  variety. 

He  f'carce  had  ceas'd,  when  the  fuperior   fiend 
Was  moving  toward  the  Ihore  ;  his  pond'rous  flileld, 
Ethereal  temper,  maffy,  large,  and  round. 
Behind  him  call  ;  the  broad  circumference 
ilung  on  his  Ihoulders  like  the  moon,  whofe  orb 
Through  optic  glafs  the  Tnftan  artiil  views 
At  ev'ning  from  the  top  of  Fefole, 
Or  in  Valdarno,  to  defcry  new  lands, 
Kivers,  or  mountains,  in  her  fpotty  globe. 

Milton,  booi,,  I. 

Thus  far  chefe  beyond 

Compare  of  mortal  prowefs,  yet  ohferv'd 
Their  dread  commander.      He,  above  the  reft, 
In  Ihape  and  ftature  proudly  eminent, 
Stood  like  a  toA-'r;  his  form  had  not  yet  loft 
All  her  original  brightnefs,  nor  appear'd 
Lefs  than  archangel  ruiu'd,  and  th'  excefs 
Of  glory  obfcur'd  :   as  when  the  fun  new-rifen 
Looks  through  the  horizontal  milly  air 
Shorn  of  his  beams ;  or,  from  behind  the  moon- 
In  dim  eclipfe,  dilallrous  twilight  iheds 
On  half  the  nations,  and  with  fear  of  change 
Perplexes  raonarchs.  Milton,  book  i. 

As  when  a  vulture  on  Imaus  bred, 

Whofe  fnowy  ridge  the  roving  Tartar  bounds, 

Diflodging  from  a  region  fcdrce  of  prey 

To  gorge  the  flelh  of  lambs,  or  yeanling  kids, 

On  hills  where  flocks  are  fed,  flies  toward  the  fprings 

Of  Ganges  or  Hydaipes,  Indian  flieams. 

But  in  his  way  lights  on  the  barren  plains 

Of  Sericana,  where  Chinefes  drive 

\Vith  fails  and  wind  their  cany  waggons  light  : 

So  on  this  windy  ft  a  of  land,  the  fiend 

VValk.'d  up  and  down  alone,  bent  on  his  prey. 

jRIilton,  book  3 . . 

Next  of-  comparlfons  that  aggrandife  or  elevate-. 
Thele  affect  us  more  than  any  other  fort  :  the  reafon 
of  which  will  be  evident  from  the  following  inllan- 
ccs : 

As  when  a  flame  the  winding  valley  fills, 
And  runs  on  crackling  Ihriibs  between  the  hills, 
Then  o'er  the  flubble  up  the  mountain  flies, 
Fires  the  high  woods,  and  blazes  to  the  fldeii. 
This  way  and  that,  the  fpreading  torrent  roars ; 
So  fweeps  the  heio  through,  the  wjklUd  fhores. 


]  COM 

Around  him  wide,  immenfe  detlruftion  pours,' 
And  earth  is  delug'd  with  the  fanguine  Ihow'r.-*.         |_ 

Iliad.  XX.  $C>(}. 
Mcthinks,  king  Richard  and  myfelf  ihould  meet 
With  no  lefs  terror  than  the  elements 
Of  fire  and  water,  when  their  thund'ring  fhock. 
At  meeting,  tears  the  cloudy  checks  of  heaven. 

R'lLirdU.  atl.  ^.fc.  5. 
"  As  ruilielh  a  foamy  ilream  from  the  dark  ihady 
'•'  ftcep  of  Cromla,  when  thunder  is  rolling  above, 
"  and  dark  brown  niglit  reils  on  the  hill  :  fo  fierce, 
"  fo  vail,  fo  terrible,  rufh  forward  the  fons  of  Erin. 
"  The  chief,  like  a  whale  of  ocean  followed  by  all 
"  ics  billows,  pours  valour  forth  as  a  ffream,  rolling 
"  its  might  along  the  Ihoie."  Flt:gal,  booh  1. 

"  As  roll  a  thoufand  waves  to  a  rock,  fo  Swa- 
"  ran's  hoft  came  on  ;  as  meets  a  rock  a  thoufand 
*'   waves,  fo  luisfail  met  Swaran."  Ibid, 

The  lafl  article  mentioned,  is  that  of  lefTening  or 
deprelilng  a  hated  or  difagreeable  objedl ;  which  is 
effectually  done  by  rel'embling  it  to  any  thing  low  or 
difpicable. 

Thus  Milton,  in  his  defcriplion  of  the  rout  of  the  re- 
bel-angels, happily  ex'preffes  their  terror  and  difmay 
In  the  following  fimile  : 

As  a  herd 

Of  goats  or  timorous  flock  together  throng'd 
Drove  them  before  him  thundcr-llruck,  purfu'd- 
With  terrors  and  with  furies  to  the  bounds 
And  cryilal  wall  of  heav'n,  which  op'ning  wide, 
Roll'd  inward,  and  a  fpacious  gap  difclos'd 
Into  the  waUcfiil  deep  ;  the  monflrous  fight 
Struck  tliem  with  horror  backward,  but  far  worfe 
Urg'd  them  behind  ;  headlong  themfelves  they  threw 
Down  from  the  verge  of  heiv!u. 

Milton,  look  6. 
By  this  time  the  different  purpofcs  of  comparifoti, 
and  the  various  impreflions  it  makes  on  the  mind,  are 
iufEciently  illullrated  by  proper  exarrvples.  This  was 
an  eafy  work.  It  is  more  difficult  to  lay  down  rules 
about  the  propriety  or  impropriety  of  comparifons  ; 
in  what  ciicumltances  they  may  be  introduced,  and  ir> 
what  circumflancea  they  are  out  of  place.  It  is  evi- 
dent  that  a  comparifon  is  not  proper  upon  every  oc- 
cafion  :  a  man  in  his  cool  and  fedate  moments,  is  not 
difpofed  to  poetical  flights,  nor  to  facrifice  truth  and 
reality  to  the  delufive  operations  of  the  imagination  : 
far  lefs  is  he  fo  difpofed,  v/hen  opprefFed  with  care, 
or  interefted  in  fome  important  tranlaftion  that  occu- 
pies him  totally.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  obfervable, 
that  a  man,  when  elevated  or  animated  by  any  paf- 
fion,  is  difpofed  to  elevate  or  animate  all  his  fubjefts : 
he  avoids  familiar  names,  exalts  objeAs  by  circuinlo- 
ciilion  and  metaphor,  and  gives  even  life  and  voluntary 
aftion  to  inanimate  beings.  In  this  warmth  of  miud, 
the  higheft  poetical  flights  are  indulged,  and  the 
boldell  fimiles  and  metaphors  relifhed.  But  without 
foaring  fo  high,  the  mind  is  frequently  in  a  tone  to' 
relifli  chafle  and  moderate  ornament  ;  fuch  as  com- 
parifons that  fet  the  principal  objeft  in  a  llrong  point 
of  view,  or  that  erabellifh  and  diverflfy  the  narration. 
In  general,  v/hen  by  any  animating  palTion,  whether 
plcafajit  or  painful,  an  irr.pulfe  is  given  to  the  imagi- 
nation;. 


Compari- 
fon. 


Um. 


.Jc. 


COM  I     278 

Comparl-  nation  ;  we  are  in  that  condition  dlfpofcd  to  every 
fort  of  figuratire  exprefTion,  and  in  particular  to  cor.i- 
parifons.  This  in  a  great  niiafurc  is  evident  from 
the  comparifans  ahvady  ni'^ntioncd  ;  and  fhall  be  fur- 
-t!ier  ill\iilrated  by  other  iiillancfs.  Love,  for  example, 
in  iis  infancy,  roiiling  the  imap;indtion,  prompts  the 
lieart  to  difplay  itfilf  in  figurative  languiige,  and  in 
dimiles  : 

Troiltis.     Tell  me,  Apollo,  for  thy  Daphne's  love, 
What  Creffid  is,  what  Paiidar,  and  what  we  ? 
Her  bed  is  India,  there  (lie  lies  a  pearl  : 
■  Between  our  Iliunn,  and  where  (lie  refides. 
Let  it  be  call'd  tlis  wild  and  wandering;  fljcd  ; 
Ourfelf  the  merchant,  and  this  failing  Pandat 
Our  doubtful  hope,  our  convoy,  and  our  bark 
Tro'iliis  and  Crejfula,  a8.  I 

Apain  : 

Come,  gentl-:  night ;    come,  loving   black-brow'd 

night ! 
Give  me  my  Romeo;  and,  when  he  (hall  die. 
Take  him,  and  cut  him  out  in  little  ftars,    ■ 
And  he  will  make  the  face  of  "ae'.v'n  fo  fine. 
That  all  the  woild  '.hall  he  in  love  with  night. 
And  pay  no  worlhip  to  the  garifh  fun. 

Romeo  and  j^u/itt,  a&  ^•fc-  4. 
But  it  will  be  a  better  illuftration  of  the  prefeut 
head,  to  give  examples  where  comparifons  are  impro- 
perly introduced.  Similes  are  not  the  language  of  a 
man  in  his  ordinary  ftate  of  mind,  difpatching  his 
daily  and  ufual  work  :  for  that  reafon,  the  following 
fpeech  of  a  gardener  to  his  fervant  is  extremely  im- 
proper : 

Go  bind  thou  up  yon  dangling  apricots, 
Which,  like  unruly  children,  make  their  fire 
Stoop  with  oppreffion  of  their  proriigal  weight : 
Give  fome  fupportance  to  the  bending  twigs. 
Go  thou,  and,  like  an  executioner. 
Cut  off  the  heads  of  too-faft  growing  fprays. 
That  look  too  lofty  in  our  commonwealth  : 
All  muft  be  even  in  our  government. 

Rkkardll.  aa.  7,.  fc.  7. 
The  fertility  of  Shakefpeare's  vein  betrays  hiia  fie- 
quently  into  this  error. 

Rooted  grief,  deep  anguilh,  terror,  remorfe,  de- 
fpair,  and  all  the  fevere  difpiriting  pafTions,  are  decla- 
red enemies,  perhaps  not  to  figurative  language  in  ge- 
neral, but  undoubtedly  to  the  pomp  and  folemnity  of 
comparifon.     Upon  this  account,  the  fimile  pronoun- 


]  COM 

And  I  am  faint  and  cannot  fly  their  fury. 

The  fands  are  numbei'd  that  make  up  ray  life  ;         ^ 

Here  mutt  I  flay,  and  here  my  life  muft  end. 

Third  part  Henry  Vl.iul  l.fc.  6. 
Similes  thus  nnfeafonably  introduced   are  finely  ri- 
diculed in  the   Rehearfal. 

«'  Dayes.     Now  here  (he  muft  make  a  fimile. 
"  Smith.     Where's  the  neceffity  of  that,  Mr  Bayes? 
"   Bayes.     Becaufe  flic's  furprifed  ;  that's  a  gcne- 
•'  ral  rule  ;  you  muft  ever  make  a  fimile  when  you 
"  are  furprifed  ;  'tis  a  new  way  of  writing." 
A  comparifon  is  not  al^'ays  faultlefs,  even  where  it 
is  properly  introduced.      A  comparifon,  like  other  hu- 
man productions,  may  fall  fliort  of  its  end  ;  of  which 
defeft  inftances  are  not  rare  even  among  good  writers  : 
and  to  complete  the  prefent  fubjeft,   it   will  be  nectf- 
fary  to  make  fome  obfervations  upon  fuch  faulty  com- 
parifons.    Nothing  can  be  more  erroneous  than  to  in- 
llitute  a  comparifon    too  faint :   a  diftant  rtfemblance 
or  contrail  fatigues  the  mind  with  its  obfcuvity,  inllea  1 
of  ainufing  it ;  and  tends  not  to  fulfil  any  one  end  of 
a  comparifon.     The  following  fimiles  feem  to  labojr 
under  this  defedl. 

K.  Rich.     Give  me   the  crown.  —  Here,  coufi  i, 
ieize  the  crown, 
Here,  on  this  fide,  my  hand  ;  on  that  fide,  thine. 
Now  is  this  golden  ciown  like  a  deep  well. 
That  owes  t*o  buckets,  filling  one  another  ; 
The  emptier  ever  dancing  in  the  air. 
The  other  down,  unfeen,  and  full  of  water  ; 
That  bucket  down,  and  full  of  tears,  am  1, 
Drinkirg  my  griefs,  whilil  you  mount  up  on  high. 
Richard  H.  att.  \.  fc  3. 
A',  ^(jhn.    Oh  !  coufin,  thou  art  come  to  let  mine 

■       '>'^' 
The  tackle  of  my  heart  is  crack'd  and  burnt  ; 

And  all  the  fhrouds  wherewith  my  lire  (hould  fail, 

Are  turned  to  one  thread,  one  httle  hair : 

My  heart  hath  one  poor  firing  to  flay  it  by, 

Wliicli  holds  but  till  tliy  nevys  be  uttered. 

King  yjm,  aCl  $.fc.  IC. 

Torh.     My  uncles  bcth  are  llain  in  refcuing  me  : 

And  all  my  followers  to  the  eager  foe 

Turn  back,  and  fly  like  fhips  before  the  wind, 

Or  lambs  purfu'd  by  hunger- ftarved  wolves. 

Third  part  Henry  \l.  ali  l.fc.  6. 

The  latter  of  the  two  fimiles  is  good  :  the  former, 

becaufe  of  the   faintnefs  of  the  refemblance,  produces 

ced  by  young  Rutland,  under  terror  of  death  from  an     no  good  effcft,  and  crouds  the  narration  with  an  u!e- 

jnveterate  enemy,  and  praying  mercy,  is  unnatural  :         lefs  image. 


Cjmjiari- 
f.m. 


So  looks  the  pent-up  lion  o'er  the  wietch 
That  trembles  under  his  devouring  paws  ; 
And  fo  he  walks  infulting  o'er  his  prey, 
And  fo  he  comes  to  rend  his  limbs  afunder. 
Ah,  gentle  Clifford,  kill  me  with  thy  fword 
And  not  with  fuch  a  cruel  threat'ninij  look. 

Third  part  Henry  VL  aS  l.fc.  5. 


In  an  epic  poem,  or  in  any  elevated  fubjeft,  a  wii- 
ter  ought  to  avoid  railing  a  fimile  upon  a  low  image, 
which  never  fails  to  bring  down  the  principal  lubjeit. 
In  general,  it  is  a  rule,  that  a  grand  objedl  ought  ne- 
ver to  be  lefembled  to  one  that  is  diminutive,  how- 
ever delicate  the  refemblance  may  be  :  for  it  is  the 
peculiar  charafter  of  a  grand  objedl  to  fix  the  atten- 


A  man  fpent  and  difpirited  after  lofing  a  battle,  is  tion,  and  fwell  the   mind;  in   whJch  ftate,  it  is  dila- 

Tiot  difpofed  to  heighten  or  illuftrate  his  difcourfe  by  grecable  to  contraft  the  mind  to  a  minute  objeft,  how- 

fimiles.  ever  elegant.     The  refembling  an  objedl   to  one  that 

Tori.  With  this  we  charg'd  again  ;  but  out !  alas,  is  greater,  has,  on  the  contrary,  a  good  efTeiS,   by  rai- 

We  bodg'd  again  ;  as  I  have  feen  a  fwau     .  fingor  fwelhng  the  mind  :  for  one  palTes  with  fatisfac- 

With  bootlefs  labour  fwim  againft  the  tide,  tion  from  a  fmall  to  a  great  objeft  ;  but  cannot  be 

And  fpend  her  ftrength  with  over-matching  waves,  drawn  down,  without  reluftance,  from  great  to  fraall. 

Ah  1  hark,  the  fatal  followers  do  purfue ;  Hence  the  following  fimiles  are  faulty. 

Meanwhile 


COM 


[ 


Commit. 
foil. 


Meanwliile  the  "troops  beneath  Patroclus'  care, 
""•  Invade  the  Trojans,  anj  commence  the  war. 

"'^  As  wafps,  provok'd  by  children  in  their  play. 

Pour  from  their  manlinns  by  the  broad  highway, 

In  fwarni'S  the  (juiltlefs  traveller  engafre, 

Wliet  all  their  itiiigs,  and  call  forth  all  their  tage  ; 

All  rife  in  arms,  and  with  a  general  cry 

Afl'crt  their  waxen  donu'j  and  b'jzzing  prnpjeny  : 

Thus  from  the  tents  the  fervent  le^jion  Iwirms, 

So  luud  their  clamours,  and  fo  keen  their  aims. 

I/iad,  xvi.  312. 
So  burn'?  the  vengeful  hornet  (f  nil  all  o'er) 
ReprlsM  in  vain,  and  thii  ily  ilill  of  gore  ; 
(Ijold  fon  ol  ail"  and  heat)  on  angry  wings 
IJiitam'd,  uiitird,  he  turns,  attacks,  and  llings. 
Fir'd  with  like  ardour,  fierce  Atridts  flew. 
And  fent  his  foul  with  cv'ry  lance  he  threw. 

IUmI,  xvli.  642. 
An  error  oppofite  to  the  former,  is  the  introducing 
a  refembling  image,  fo  elevated  or  great  as  to  bear 
no  proportion  to  the  principal  fubjrft.  Their  re- 
markable difparity,  being  the  mofl  ilriking  circum- 
llancc,  feizes  the  mind,  and  never  fails  to  depiefs  the 
principal  fubjedl  by  contrail,  inftead  of  railing  it  by 
refemblance  :  and  if  the  difpatity  be  exceeding  great, 
the  fimile  takes  on  an  air  of  burlefque  ;  nothing  being 
more  ridiculous  than  to  force  an  objcft  out  of  its  pro- 
per rank  in  nature,  by  equalling  it  with  one  grfatly 
fuperior  or  greatly  inferior.  This  will  be  e\idcnt  fioin 
the  following  coraparifon. 

Loud  as  a  bull  makes  hill  and  valley  ring, 
Soroar'd  the  lock  when  it  releai'ikthe  fpring. 

Such  a  fiinile  upon  the  finnpleft  of  all  actions,  that  of 
opening  a  lock,  is  pure  burlefque. 

A  writer  of  deUcacy  will  avoid  drawing  his  compa- 
rifons  from  any  image  that  is  naufeouf,  ugly,  01  re- 
markably difagreeable ;  for  howe,ver  ftrong  the  re- 
femblance may  be,  mare  will  be  loft  than  gained  by 
fuch  companion.  Therefore  v/e  cannot  help  con- 
demning, though  with  fome  reluttancy,  the  following 
fimile,  or  rather  metaphor. 

O  thou  fond  many!   v/ith  what  loud  applaufe 
Didft  thou  beat  htav'n  with  Lleflhig  Bohngbroke 
Before  he  was  what  thou  would'lt  have  him  be.' 
And  now  being  triinm'd  up  in  thine  own  defires, 
Thou,  beaftly  feeder,  are  fo  full  of  him. 
That  thou  provok'ft  thyfclf  to  caft  him  up. 
And  fo,  thou  common  dog,  didft  thou  difgorge 
Thy  glutton  bofom  of  the  royal  Richard, 
And  now  thou  would'ft  eat  thy  dead  vomit  up. 
And  hov^Pll  to  find  it. 

Sa-oncI  Part  Henry  IV.  aa  \.fc.6. 
The  ftrongeft  objetlion  that  can  lie  againft  a  com- 
parifon  is,  that  it  confifis  in  words  only,  not  in  fenfc. 
Such  falfe  coin,   or  baflard-wit,  does  extremely  well 
in  burlefque  ;  but  it  is  far  below  the   dignity  of  the 
epic,  or  of  any  ferious  compofition. 
The  noble  filler  of  Poplicola, 
The  moon  of  Rome  ;  chafte  as  the  icick 
That's  curdl'd  by  the  froft.  from  pureft  fnow, 
And  hangs  on  Dian's  temple. 

Coriolanus,  a8  ^.fc.  ^. 
There  is  evidently  no  refemblance  between  an  icicle 
and  a  woman,  chafte  or  unchaftc  :  but  chaftity  is  cold 


79    ]  COM 

in  a  metaphorical  fenfe,  and  an  icicle  is  cold  in  a  pro-  Comparl- 
per  fenfe  ;  and  this  verbal  refemblance,   in   the  hurry  _      ''*'   . 
and  glow  or  compoling,  has  been  thought  a  iumcient      ,;;,„ 
foundation  for  the  fimile.     Such  phantom  fimilcs  arc  — ^       J 
mere  witticifms,    which   ought  to   have   no   quarter, 
except  where  purpofely  introduced  to   provoke  laugh- 
ter.    Lucian,  in  his  diflertat;on  upon   hillury,  talkiiijj 
of  a  certain  author,    makes  the  following  comparifoii, 
which  is  verbal  merely. 

"  This  author's  dcfcriptions  are  fo  cold,  that  thry 

"  furpafs  the  Cafpian  fnow,  and  all  the  ice  of  tha 

"  north." 

But  for  their  fpirits  and  fouls 

This  vrord  riMlion  had  froze  tliem  up 

As  hlh  are  in  a  pond. 

Sicond  Part  Henry  IV.  a3  I .  ff.  j. 
Pope  has  feveral  fimiles  of  the  fame  ilainp. 

And  hence  one  mailer  pailion  in  the  bicaft. 

Like  Aaron's  ferpent,  f«a!lows  up  the  reft. 

Epi/l.  2.  /.  1.3 1. 
And  again,  talking  of  this  fame  ruling  or  mailer  paf- 
fion ; 

Nature  its  mother.  Habit  is  its  nurfc  ; 

Wit,  fpirit,  facidtiea,  but  make  it  wotfe  ; 

Reafon  itlelf  but  gives  it  edge  and  pcw'r^ 

As  hcav'n's  blefs'd  beam  turns  vinc2:ar  more  four. 

o 

Ib'ul.  I.  145,- 
Where  the  fuhjecl  is  burlefque  or  ludicrous,  fuch 
fimiles  are   far  from   being  improper.      Horace  fays 
ple:aantly, 

j?iuwrjt/,t!i!  til  lev'ior  ccrike.  JLib.  ^-  od.  9. 

And  81iakefpeare, 

In  breaking  oaths  he's  ftronger  than  Hercules. 
Aud  this  leads  to  obferve,  that  befides   the  fore- 
going comparifons,    which  are  all   ferious,  there  is  a 
ipecies,   the   end  and  purpofe   of  which   is  to  excite 
gaiety  or  mirth.     Take  the  following  examples. 
FaUlafF  fpeaking  to  his  page  : 

"  I  do  here  walk  before  thee,  like  a  fow  that 
"  Iiatii  overwhelmed  all  her  litter  but  one." 

Sicoml part  Henry  IV.  aCl  l-fc.  lo. 
"  I  think  he  is  not  a  pick-purfe,  nor   a  horfc- 
"  ftealer  ;  but  for  his  verity  in  love,  I  do  think  him 
"  as  concave  as  a  covered  goblet,  or  a  worm-eaten 
"  nut."  As  you  like  it,  aS  $•/€.  10. 

This  Iword  a  dagger  l^ad  his  pagq, 
That  was  but  little  for  his  age'; 
And  therefore  waited  on  him  fo, 
As  dwarfs  upon  knights-errant  do. 

Hudtbras,  canto  l  ,■ 

"  Books,  like  men,  their  authors,  have  but  one 

"  way  of  coming  into   the  world  ;  but  there   are 

"  ten  thoufand  to  go  out  of  it,  and  return  no  more." 

Tale  of  a  Tub. 

"  The  moft  accoraplilhcd  way  of  ufing  books  at 

"  prefent  is,   to  ferve  them  as  fome  do  lords,  learn 

"  their  iitlej,  and  then  brag  of  their  acquaintance." 

Ibtd. 
"  He  does  not  confider,  that  fincen'ty  in  love  is 
"  as  much  out  of  fafliion  as  fweet.  fnulf ;  no  body 
"  takes  it  now."  CarcleJ's  Hujhand. 

COMPARTITION,  in  architcfture,  denotes  the 
ufeful  and   graceful  difpoCtion  of  the  whole  ground- 
plot  of  an  edifice,  into  rooms  of  office,  and  of  recep- 
tion or  ectcrtainment. 
1  COMPARTMENT, 


COM  i_ 

Gompart-       COMPARTMENT,  In  gcncni!,  Is  a  dcfign  compo- 
ment,      f^.j  ^f  f^vcral  different  firiircs,  diipoftd  with  fymme- 
.       J^        try,  to  adoin  a  parterre,  a  ceiling-,  &c. 

A  compartment  of  tiles  or  bricks,  is  an  arrangement 
of  them,  of  different  colours,  and  varnifhcd,  for  the 
decoration  of  a  building.  Compartments  in  garden- 
ing, are  an  affemblage  of  bed<:,  plots,  borders,  walks, 
S:c.  difpofcd  in  the  nioft  advantagcoiis  manner  that 
the  ground  will  adriiit  of.  Corapartnants  in  heraldry, 
r.re  otherwife  called /jcMwnx. 

COMPASS,  or  Marwer's  Steerin^tr  Comf.^ss,  is  an 
inftrument  ufcd  at  fea  by  pilots  to  direA  and  afcertain 
the  courfe  of  their  (hips.  It  confills  of  a  circular  brafs 
box,  which  contains  a  paper  card  with  the  32  pfiints 
of  the  compafs,  fixed  on  a  magnetic  needle  that  always 
turns  to  the  north,  excepting  a  fmall  declination  va- 
riable at  diiferest  places.     See  Variation. 

The  needle  with  the  card  turns  on  an  upright  pin 
fixed  in  the  centre  of  the  bo:4.  In  the  centre  of  the 
needle  is  fixed  a  brafs  conical  focket  or  cap,  whereby 
the  card  hanging  on  the  pin  turns  freely  round  the 
■centre. 

The  top  of  the  box  is  covered  with  a  glafs,  that  the 
card's  motion  may  not  be  difturbed  by  the  wind.  The 
whole  is^nclofe-d  in  ano'her  box  of  wood,  where  it  is 
fufpended  by  brafs  hoops  or  gimbals,  to  prefer  ve  the 
card  horizontal.  The  compafa-box  is  to  be  fo  placed 
in  the  fhip,  that  the  middle  feftion  of  the  box,  parallel 
to  its  fides,  may  be  parallel  to  the  middle  fe<ftion  of 
the  lliip  along  its  keel. 

The  compafs  being  of  the  utmofl  confequence  to 
navigation,  it  is  reafonable  to  exp.dt  that  the  greateft 
attention  ihouldbe  ufcd  in  its  conilruftion,  and  every 
attempt  to  improve  it  carefully  examined,  and,  ii  pro- 
per, adopted.  But  fo  careleis  are  the  generality  of 
commanders  of  this  moff  ufefiil  inilrur.ient,  that  almoft 
all  the  compaffes  ufed  on  board  merchant-fliips  have 
their  needles  formed  of  two  pieces  of  ileel-wire,  each 
of  which  is  bent  in  the  niidjle,  fo  as  to  form  an  ob- 
tufe  angle  ;  and  their  ends,  being  applied  together, 
make  an  acute  one ;  fo  that  the  whole  reprefents  the 
form  of  a  lozenge  ;  in  the  centre  of  which,  and  of 
the  card,  is  placed  the  brafs  cap.  Now,  if  we  exa- 
mine a  number  of  thefe  cards,  we  fliall  rarely,  if  ever, 
find  them  all  in  the  fame  direftion,  but  they  will  all 
vary  more  or  lefs,  not  only  with  regard  to  the  true 
direction,  but  from  one  another. 

Thefe  irregularities  are  owing  to  the  ftiuclure  of 
the  needle  ;  for  the  wires  of  which  it  is  compofed  are 
only  hai-dened  at  the  ends;  now,  if  thefe  ends  are  not 
equally  hard,  or  if  one  end  be  hardened  up  higher 
than  the  ether,  when  they  come  to  be  put  together, 
in  fixing  them  to  the  card,  that  end  which  is  hardell 
will  deftroy  much  of  the  virtue  of  the  other;  by  which 
means  the  hardeft  end  will  have  the  moft  power  in 
direding  the  card,  and  confequently  make  it  vary  to- 
ward its  own  direction  :  and,  as  the  wires  are  difpo- 
fed  in  the  form  of  a  lozenge,  thefe  cards  can  hsve  but 
little  force,  fo  that  they  will  often,  when  drawn  afidc, 
iland  at  the  dillancc  of  feveral  degrees  on  either  fide 
the  point  from  whence  they  are  drawn  :  for  all  mag- 
netical  bodies  receive  an  additional  ilrer.glh  by  being 
placed  in  the  direftion  of  the  earth's  magnetifm,  and 
u&  propoi-tionablv  lefs  vigoroufly  when  turned  out  of 
it :  wherefore,  wh<;n  thefe  kind  of  needles  are  drawn 
Nf»  87. 


280    ]  COM 

afide  from  their  true  point,  two  of  the  parallel  ndes  Ccmpsfs. 
of  the  lozenge  will  confpire,  more  diivftly  than  be- 
fore, with  the  earth's  magnetifm  ;  and  the  other  two 
will  be  lefs  in  that  direftion  :  by  which  means  the 
two  fides  will  very  much  impede  its  return  ;  and 
the  two  latter  will  have  that  impediment  to  over- 
come, as  well  as  the  friction,  by  their  own  force 
alone. 

To  remove  thefe  inconveniences,  fume  needles  are 
made  of  one  piece  of  fteel  of  a  fpring  temper,  and 
broad  towards  the  ends,  but  tapering  towards  the 
middle,  where  a  hole  is  made  to  receive  the  cap.  At 
the  ends  thev  terminate  in  an  angle,  greater  or  Icf? 
according  to  the  ikill  or  fancy  of  the  workman.  Thefe 
needles,  though  infinitely  preferable  to  the  other,  are, 
however,  far  from  being  pertcft  ;  for  every  needle 
of  this  form  hath  fix  poles  inllead  of  two,  one  at  each 
end,  two  where  it  becomes  tapering,  and  two  at  the 
hole  in  the  middle;  this  is  owing  to  their  (hape  ;  for 
the  middle  part  being  very  (lender,  it  has  not  fub- 
ftance  enough  to  condudl  the  magnetic  Ifream  quite 
through,  from  one  end  to  the  other :  all  thefe  poles 
appear  very  diftinCtly,  when  examined  with  a  glafs 
that  is  fprinklcd  over  with  magnetic  f?nd.  This  cir- 
cumilance,  however,  docs  not  hinder  the  needle  from 
pointing  true  ;  but  as  it  has  lefs  force  to  move  the  card 
than  when  the  magnetic  ftream  moves  in  large  curves 
from  one  end  to  the  other,  it  is  certainly  an  imper- 
feftlon. 

Thefe  inconveniences  Induced  the  ingenious  Dr 
Knig'nt  to  contrive  a  new  fea-compafs,  which  came  in- 
to ufe  on  board  all  tlie  (hips  of  war.  The  needle  in 
this  inllrument  is  quite  Itraight,  and  fqiiare  at  the 
ends ;  and  confequently  has  only  two  poles,  though 
about  the  hole  in  the  middle  the  curves  are  a  little 
confufed.  Needles  of  this  conlhuclion,  after  vibra- 
ting a  long  time,  will  always  point  exaftly  in  the 
fame  dircftion  ;  and  if  drawn  evi-r  fo  little  on  one 
fide,  will  return  to  it  again,  without  any  fenfible  dif- 
ference. We  may  therefore  conclude,  that  a  regtilar 
parallelopiped  is  the  beft  form  for  a  needle,  as  well  as 
the  fimplell,  the  holes  tor  the  caps  being  as  fmall  as 
poffible. 

And  as  the  weight  fhould  be  removed  to  the  great- 
eft  diltance  from  the  centre  of  motion,  a  circle  of 
biais,  ofthe  fame  diameter  of  the  card,  may  be  ad- 
ded, which  will  (crve  alfo  to  fupport  the  card,  which 
may  then  be  made  of  thin  paper,  without  any  thiag 
to  iliffen  it.  This  ring  being  fixed  below  the  card, 
and  the  needle  above  it,  the  centre  of  gravity  is  pla- 
ced low  enough  to  admit  ofthe  cap  being  put  under 
the  needle,  whereby  the  hole  in  the  needle  becomes 
unnecelfaiy. 

The  above  obfervations  will  be  eafily  undcrftood 
from  viewing  t'.ie  leveial  parts  of  the  inlfrumeat  as 
reprefcnled  on  Plate  CXLIV.  where  fig.  6.  Is  the  card, 
with  the  needle  KL,  and  its  cap  M,  fixed  upon  it, 
being  one  third  of  tlie  diameter  ofthe  real  caid.  Fig.  8. 
Is  a  perrpertive  view  of  the  backfide  ot  the  card,  where 
AB  reprclencs  the  cuining  down  of  the  brafs  edge,  C 
the  under  part  ofthe  cap,  D  a  id  E  two  (iiJing  wtights 
to  balai.ce  the  card,  and  F,  C),  two  fceus  tl.at  fix 
the  brafs  eda;e,  &c.  to  the  needle.  Fig.  7.  is  the  pe- 
dedal  that  fupports  the  card,  containing  a  Icrcwi  ig 
needle,  fj*"'!  i"  '"''">  fwall  grooves  to  veceive  it,  by 
^  means 


COM  [     cSi     ] 

Compaf!.   means  of  the  collet  C,  in  ihe  niJiiincraf  a  poit-crayon. 
^——w—^  X),  the  ftera,  is  filed  into  an  ottafjon,   that  it  may  be 
the  more  eafily  unfcrewed.     For  its  further  illuftration 
and  application  to  ulV-  fee  Navigation. 

The  invention  of  the  comp.nfs  is  nfiuilly  afcribed  to 
Flavio  da  Mtlfi,  or  Flavio  Gioia,  a  Neapolitan,  about 
the  year  1302  ;  and  hence  it  is,  that  the  territory  of 
Principato,  which  makes  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Na- 
plts,  where  he  wa«  born,  has  a  compaCs  for  its  arms. 
Others  fay  that  Marcus  Paulus,  a  Venetian,  making 
a  journey  to  China,  brought  back  the  invention  with 
him  in  1260.  AVhat  confirms  this  conjtfture  is,  that 
at  firft  they  ufed  the  compafs  in  the  fame  manner  as 
the  Chinefe  ftill  do  ;  i.  e.  ihcy  let  it  float  on  a  little 
piece  of  cork,  inflead  of  fufperidinjr  it  on  a  pivot.  It 
is  added,  that  their  emperor  Chiningus,  a  celebrated 
;!'h-oIoger,  had  a  knowledge  of  it  11 20  years  before 
Chriil.  The  Chinefe  only  divide  their  compafs  into  24 
p  lints.  Fauchette  relates  fome  verfes  of  Guoyot  de 
Provence,  who  lived  in  France  about  the  year  12C0, 
which  feem  to  make  mention  of  the  compafs  under  the 
name  of  marine/if,  or  maiiiier's  Jlone ;  which  (how  ic 
til  have  been  ufed  in  France  near  100  years  before  ei- 
ther the  Mcllite  or  Venetian.  The  French  even  lay 
claim  to  the  invention,  from  theJJeur  de  lys  vvherew it!i 
all  nations  ihall  diRinguidi  the  north  point  of  the  card. 
With  as  much  reafon  Dr  Wallis  afci  ibes  it  to  the  Eng- 
liih,  from  its  name  compafs,  by  which  name  moil  na- 
tions call  it,  and  which  he  obfcrves  is  ufed  in  many 
parts  of  England  to  fignify  a  circle. 

Though  the  mariner's  compafs  has  been  long  in  ufe, 
the  beft  conftruftion  of  it  was  attended  with  many  in- 
conveniences, till  the  late  improvement  which  it  has 
received  from  the  invention  and  experiments  of  Dr 
GowiJi  Knight,  and  the  farther  emendation  of  Mr 
Smealon,  as  has  been  defcribed  under  the  ailicle  Azi- 
muth (Vol.  II.) 

The  compafs  hath  fometimes  been  obferved  to  be 
difturbed  by  the  eltdtricity  of  its  glafs  cover  ;  and 
this  from  fo  (light  an  application  of  the  finger  as  was 
baiely  nece(raiy  to  wipe  ofl'  a  little  dulh  The  fame 
glafs,  rubbed  a  little  more  with  the  finger,  a  bit  of 
rauflin,  or  paper,  would  attratl  either  end  of  the  needle, 
fo  as  to  hold  it  to  the  glafs  for  feveral  minutes,  far  out 
of  the  due  direction,  according  to  that  part  of  the 
glafa  which  was  mollexcited.  And  when  the  needle,  af- 
ter adhering  to  the  glafs,  has  dropped  loofe,  and  made 
Vibrations,  thcfe  would  not  be  bifefted  as  ufuai  by 
th.it  pulut  where  the  needle  (houid  rell,  but  would  ei- 
ther be  made  all  on  one  fide,  or  be  very  unequally  di- 
vided, by  means  of  fomc  remains  of  tledlrleal  virtue  in 
that  part  of  the  glafs  which  had  attracted  the  needle, 
until  at  length,  after  15  minutes  or  more,  all  the  elec- 
tricity being  dilcharged,  the  magnetical  power  took 
place.  The  remedy  for  this  inconvenience  Is  to  mol- 
•  ften  the  furlace  of  the  glafs;  a  wet  finger  will  do  it  im- 
mediately and  effedtually.  The  mariner's  compafs  with 
a  chart  is  much  le(s  dangeroufly  moved  than  the  com- 
mon compafs  with  a  bare  needle  :  and  the  deeper,  or 
farther  diltant,  the  needle  hangs  below  the  glafs,  the 
lefs  dlllurbance  it  is  likely  to  receive. 

Notwithllinding  the  various  contrivances  that  have 

been  made  to  prevent  the  card   from  being  much  af- 

fefted  by  the  motions  of  the  fliip,  -they  have   always 

been  found  too  delicate  to  encounter  the  (liocks  of  a 

Vol.  V.  Pdrt  I. 


COM 


temptlluous  fen.     Improved  fea-compalTes  have  lately  Conipari. 

been  conltrutlcd  by   Mr  M'CulIoch   of  London  (and  ^^~~- 

for  which  he  has  ibtained  a  patent),  that  are  reported 
to  be  the  bell  of  any  yet  ufed.  The  particulars  arc 
as  follow  : 

Fig.  I.  is  a  feftion  of  the  fleering  compafs.  Atann,  ,PJ*"' 
The  common  wooden-box,  with  its  lid.  l>b,  The  brafs  '-^^^'« 
coinpafs-box.  cc,  The  glafs  cover  to  ditto.  M,  l"he 
hollow  conical  bottom,  e,  The  prop  upon  which  the 
compafs  is  fupported  inftead  of  gimbals ;  the  fphericai 
top  of  which  is  finely  poliflied,  and  the  apex  of  the  hol- 
low cone  is  fitted  in  a  peculiar  manner  to  receive  it. 
fj\  A  quantity  of  lead  run  round  the  bottom  and  cone 
of  the  compafs  box,  to  balance  and  keep  it  ileadily 
horizontal.  gg.  The  card  and  the  magnetic  needle, 
bent  in  fuch  a  manner  that  the  point  of  the  conical 
pivot  on  which  it  moves  and  is  fupported,  may  be 
b:  ought  very  near  to  the  centre  of  gravity,  as  well  as 
to  the  centre  of  motion,  hh.  Two  guards,  which  by 
means  of  two  pins  U,  aiBxed  to  the  compafs  box, prevents 
it  from  turning  roimd  and  deceiving  the  fteerfman. 

Fig.  3.  a  perfpeftive  view  of  the  (leering  compafs, 
with  the  lid  elf  and  the  front  laid  open,  hh.  The 
guards,  b,  The  compafs-box.  e.  The  prop,  &c.  as 
in  fig.  I, 

Fig.  3.  a  view  of  the  azimuth  compafs.  /•,  The 
compafs-box.  h.  One  of  the  guards,  e.  The  prop, 
as  in  fig.  I.  and  z.  with  this  difference,  that  in  the  azi- 
muth  compaf?,  inllead  of  being  fcrcwed  to  the  bottom 
of  the  wood-box,  (lands  in  a  brafs  focket,  and  may  bo 
turned  round  at  pkafurc.  i.  A  brafs  bar,  upon  which 
the  fight  vanes  are  fixed.  2.  A  da*rk  glafs,  wbicli 
moves  up  or  down  on  3.  the  fight  vane.  4.  A  mag- 
nifying glafs,  which  is  alfo  moveable  on  the  other  vane. 
5.  The  nonius  or  vernier.  6.  A  Aide  for  moving  the 
vernier  fo  as  to  (lop  the  card  in  taking  the  azimuth. 
7.  A  double  convex  glaff,  by  which  the  divifious  on 
the  vernier  may  be  read  with  accuracy. 

Fig.  4.  is  a  fedlion  reprelenting  another  appUcation 
of  the  magnetic  needle  and  card,  <;onftrti£ted  by 
Mr  M'Cullocli.  Aaaa,  The  common  wood-box.  hb-^ 
The  biafs  compafs-box.  cc.  The  brafs  fup;- .irt  for  the 
circle  and  pendulum,  r/.  The  pendulum.  (^,  The  agate, 
ff.  The  magnetic  needle  and  card,     gg.  The  brafs  cir-  » 

cle.  /jA,  The  glafs  cover  and  brafs  ling.  /,  The  lead 
weight.  jV.  B.  All  the  centres  of  motion  are  in  the 
fame  plane. 

"  la  one  particular  this  patent  compafs  is  confidered 
as  an  improvement  on  the  common  corapaffes,  in  as  far 
as  the  needle  is  both  longer  and  broader  ;  hence  its 
inagiietifm  mull  be  (Ironger,  and  of  courfe  the  line  of 
its  magnetic  diredllou  correfpondent  with  the  card.  In 
another  particular,  in  order  to  prevent  the  motions  of 
tlie  vefiel  from  aftL-ftlng  the  needle,  which  is  the  moil 
defiiable  oljeil,  the  patent  compafs-box,  iiidead  of 
fwinging  in  gimbals  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  is 
fupported  in  its  very  centre  upon  a  prop  ;  and  what- 
ever; motion  the  other  parts  of  the  box  may  have,  this 
centre  being  in  the  vertex  of  the  hollow  cone,  may  be 
confidered  as  relatively  at  rell ;  and  therefore  gi-j-es 
little  or  no  dlllurbance  to  the  needle.  Again,  the  pi- 
vot or  centre  upon  which  the  needle  turns,  is  fo  con- 
trived as  to  (land  always  perpendicular  over  the  centre 
of  the  compafs-box,  or  apex  of  the  hollow  cone,  as 
upon  a  fixed  point ;  and  is  therefore  ilill  lefs  affeded 
N  n  by 


COM  [2 

Compaft  by  the  motions  of  the  vefTel.  Thus  the  centres  of 
*''-''y~~  motion,  gravity,  and  of  magnetifm,  are  brought  almofl 
all  to  the  fame  point ;  the  advantages  of  vvhich  will  be 
readily  perceived  by  any  perfon  acquainted  with  me- 
chanical principles.  Experience  therefore  will  afcer- 
tain  the  utility  of  this  improvement."  M'Cu//och's 
Account. 

Of  Dr  Knight's  y^-iimut/j  Compafs,  as  improved  by 
Mr  S^Tieaton,  a  defcription  was  given  under  the  article 
Azimuth,  and  a  figure  in  Plate  LXXVII.  The 
life  of  the  azimuth  compafs  is  for  finding  the  fun's 
magnetical  azimuth,  or  amplitude  ;  and  thence  the  va- 
riation of  the  compafs.  If  the  obfervation  be  for  an 
amplitude  at  fun-rifing,  or  for  an  azimuth  before  noon, 
apply  the  centre  of  the  index  on  the  weft  point  of  the 
card,  within  the  box;  fo  that  the  four  lines  on  the 
edge  of  the  card,  and  thofe  on  the  infide  of  the  box, 
may  meet.  If  the  obftrvation  be  for  the  fun's  am- 
plitude fetting,  or  an  azimuth  in  the  afternoon,  turn 
the  centre  of  the  index  right  againll  the  eaft  point  of 
the  card,  and  make  the  lines-  within  the  box  concur 
■with  thofe  on  the  card :  the  inltrument  thus  fitted 
for  obfervation,  turn  the  index  be  towards  the  fun,  till 
the  fhadow  of  the  thread  ae  fall  diredtly  on  the  flit  of 
the  fight,  and  on  the  line  that  is  along  the  middle  of 
the  index:  then  will  the  inn^T  edge  of  the  index  cut 
the  degree  and  minute  of  the  fun's  magnetical  azimuth 
from  the  north  or  fouth.  But  note,  that  if,  when  the 
compafs  is  thus  placed,  the  azimuth  is  Icfs  than  45° 
from  the  fouth,  and  the  index  turned  towards  the  fun, 
it  will  pafs  off  the  divifionsof  the  limb:  the  inftrument 
therefore  in  this  cafe  muft  be  turned  jull  a  quarter  of 
the  compals,  i.  e,  the  centre  of  the  index  muft  be 
placed  on  the  north  or  fouth  point  nf  the  card,  accord- 
ing as  the  fun  ts  from  you  ;  and  then  the  edge  will 
cut  the  degree  of  the  magnetic  azimuth,  or  the  fun's 
azimuth  from  the  north,  as  before. 

The  fun's  magnetical  amplitude  thus  found,  the  va- 
riation of  the  needle  is  thus  determined.  Being  out 
at  fea  the  15th  of  May  1717,  in  45°  north  latitude, 
the  tables  give  me  the  fun's  latitude  19"  north,  and 
his  eaft  amplitude  27'  25'  north:  by  the  azimuth  com- 
pafs, 1  find  the  fun's  magnetical  amplitude  at  his  ri- 
ling and  fetting  ;  and  find  he  rifes,  t.  gr.  between  the 
62(1  and  63d  degree,  reckoning  from  the  north  towards 
the  eaft  point  of  the  compafs,  ;'.  e.  between  the  27th 
gnd  28th  degree,  reckoning  from  the  eaft.  The  mag- 
retical  amplitude,  therefore,  being  here  equal  to  the 
true  one.  the  needle  has  no  variation  ;  but  if  the  fun 
at  his  vifing  fhoirld  have  appeared  between  the  5 2d  and 
53d  degree  from  the  nortli  towards  the  eaft  ;  his  mag-- 
netical  amplitude  woidd  then  have  been  between  37 
and  38  degrees,  i.  e.  about  10  degrees  greater  than 
the  true  amplitude  :  therefore,  the  needle  would  vary 
about  10  degrees  north-cafterly.  If  the  magnetical 
eaft  amplitude  found  by  the  inftrum'  nt  ftiould  be  lefs 
than  the  true  amplitude,  their  difference  would  ftiow 
the  variation  of  the  needle  eaftei"ly.  If  the  true  eafl 
amplitude  be  fouthward,  as  alfo  the  magnetical  ampli- 
tude, and  this  laft:  be  the  greater  ;  the  variation  of  the 
needle  will  be  north-weft  ;  and  vice  ivrfa. 

What  has  been  faid  of  north-eaft  amplitudes  holds 
alfo  of  fonth-wcft  ;  and  what  of  fouth-eaft  amplitudes 
holds  of  north-weft  amplitudes.  Laftly,  if  ampli- 
tudes be  found,  of  different  denominations,  -v.  gr.  if 


82     1  COM 

the  true  amplitude  be  fix  degrees  north,  and  the  maj;-   Compafi. 
netical  amplitude  five  degrees   fouth  ;  the    variation,  ""^V"" 
which  in  this  cafe   is  north-weft,  will  be  equal  to  the 
fum  of  the  magnetical  and  true  amplitudes :  underftand 
the  fame  for  wefl  amplitudes. 

The  variation  may  likewife  be  found  from  the  azi- 
muth :  but  in  that  cafe,  the  fun's  declination,  latitude 
of  the  place,  and  his  altitude,  muft  be  given,  that  his 
true  azimuth  may  be  found. 

This  inifrument  is  alfo  ufeful  in  fettling  the  fliip's 
wake,  in  order  to  find  the  lee-way  ;  and  alfo  to  find 
the  bearings  of  head-lands,  and  other  objects. 

Compass  is  alio  an  inftrument  of  confiderableufe  in 
furveying  land,  dialing,   &c. 

Its  ftrufture,  in  the  main,  is  the  fame  with  that  of 
the  mariner's  compafs  ;  confifting,  like  that,  of  a  box 
and  needle :  the  principal  difference  cnnfifts  in  thin, 
that  inftead  of  the  needle's  being  fitted  into  the  card, 
and  playing  with  it  on  a  pivot,  it  here  plays  alone  ; 
the  card  being  drawn  on  the  bottom  of  the  box,  and  a 
circle  divided  in  360  degrees  on  the  limb.  Sse  fig.  y,  Plate 
This  inftrument  is  of  obvious  ufe  to  travellers,  to  di-  CXLIV, 
reft  them  in  their  road;  and  to  miners,  to  (how  them 
what  way  to  diij,  with  other  confiderable  ufes. 

1 .  To  take  the  ckcrmatii}n  of  a  luall  by  the  Compafs. 
Apply  that  fide  of  the  compafs  whereon  the  north  is 
marked  along  the  fide  of  the  wall  ;  the  number  of  de- 
grees over  which  the  north  end  of  the  needle  fixes 
will  be  the  declination  of  the  wall,  and  on  that  fide  ; 
•V.  gr.  if  the  north  point  o^  the  needle  tends  towards 
the  north,  that  wall  may  be  fhone  on  by  the  fun  at 
noon;  if  it  fix  over  fifty  degrees,  counting  from  the 
north  towards  the  eaft,  the  declination  is  fo  many  de- 
grees from  north  towards  eaft. 

But  Cnce  the  needle  itfelf  declines  from  the  north 
towards  the  weft,  with  us,  13°  ;  it  muft  be  noted, 
that  to  retrieve  the  irregularity,  13O  are  always  to  be 
added  to  the  degrees  fhowu  by  the  needle,  when  the 
declination  of  the  wall  is  towards|the  eafl ;  on  the  con- 
trary, when  the  declination  is  towards  the  weft,  the  de- 
clination of  the  needle  is  to  be  fubtrafted. 

2.  Tf  take  an  angle  luith  the  Compafs.  Suppofe  the 
angle  required  be  DAE,  fig.  4.  apply  that  fide  of  the 
compafs  whereon  the  north  is  marked  to  one  of  the 
lines  AD  ;  when  the  needle  refts,  obferve  the  degrees 
at  which  its  north  poiut  ftands,  which  fuppole  80:  (o 
many  degrees  does  the  line  decline  from  the  meridian. 
In  the  fame  manner  take  the  declination  of  the  line 
AE,  which  fuppofe  215°;  fubtraft  80°  from  215, 
the  remainder  is  135  ;  which  fubtrafted  from  iSo, 
there  will  remain  45°  ;  the  quantity  of  the  angle  re- 
quirrd.  But  if  the  difference  between  the  declination 
of  the  two  lines  exceed  1 80°  ;  in  that  cafe,  1 80°  muft  be 
fubtrafted  from  that  difference  ;  the  remainder  then  is 
the  angle  required. 

In  meafuring  angles  by  the  compafs,  there  need* 
not  any  regard  be  had  to  the  variation;  that  being  fup- 
pofed  the  fame  in  all  the  lines  of  the  angles. 

3.  To  take  a  plat  of  a  JieU  by  the  Compafs.  Suppofe 
the  field  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  fig.  10.  for  the  greater 
accuracy  let  there  be  two  fights  fitted  to  the  meridiaiv 
line  of  the  compafs,  place  it  horizontal,  and  through 
the  fights  look  along  the  fide  AB,  or  a  line  parallel  to 
it  ;  applying  the  eye  to  the  fight  at  the  fouth  point 
of  the  compafs.     Draw  a  rough  Iketch  of  the  field  bj» 

the 


COM  [2 

Compara,  tKe  eye,  and  on  the  conefponding  line  enter  down  the 
vCompaflef.jg^^g^.  j^  ^yhich  the  needle  points,  whicli  fuppofe  90  ; 
'         meafuie  the  length  of  the  fide,  and  enter  that  too, 
which  fuppofe  10  chains. 

In  this  manner  proceed  with  all  the  reft  of  the  fides 
and  angles  of  the  field  ;  the  fides,  which  fuppofe  70, 
65,  70,  44,  50  fathom  ;  and  the  angles,  which  fup- 
pofe 30,  100,  130,  240,  300,  degrees.  Toprotraft 
the  field,  fet  down  the  feveral  angles  obferved,  one 
after  another,  and  fubtraft  the  leffer  from  the  next 
greater  :  thus  will  you  have  the  quantity  of  the  feveral 
angles,  and  the  length  of  the  lines  that  include  thera. 
For  the  reft,  fee  Geometry. 

Note,  All  the  angles  of  the  figure  taken  together, 
muft  make  twice  as  many  right  angles;  abating  two 
if  no  miftake  has  been  committed. 

jlzimuth  CoMfjis.     See  Azimuth. 

CoMF.iss-Dials,  are  fmall  horizontal  dials,  fitted  in 
bvafs  or  filver  boxes,  for  the  pocliet,  to  (how  the  hour 
of  the  day,  by  the  direftion  of  a  needle  that  indicates 
how  to  place  them  right,  by  turning  the  dial  about  till 
the  cock  or  ttyle  (land  direftly  over  the  needle  ;  but 
thefe  can  never  be  very  exa<!'.t,  becaufe  of  the  variation 
of  the  needle  itfclf.     See  Compass,  and  Dialisg. 

COMPASSES,  or  Pair  of  Compasses,  a  mathe- 
matical inftrument  for  defcribing  circles,  meafuring 
figures,  lye. 

The  common  compaffes  confift  of  two  (harp-pointed 
branches  or  legs  of  iron,  fteel,  brafs,  or  other  metal, 
joined  together  at  the  top  by  a  rivet,  whereon  they 
move  as  on  a  centre.  Thofe  compaffes  are  of  the 
bed  fort  in  lAhich  the  pin  or  axle  on  which  the  joint 
turns,  and  alfo  half  the  joint  itfelf,  is  made  of  fteel,  as 
the  oppofite  metals  wear  more  equable.  The  perfec- 
tion of  them  may  be  known  by  the  eafy  and  uniform 
opening  and  fhutting  of  their  legs;  one  of  which  is 
fometimes  made  to  take  in  and  out,  in  order  to  make 
room  for  two  other  points  to  defcribe  with  ink,  black- 
lead,  or  other  materials. 

There  are  now  ufed  compalfes  of  various  kinds  and 
contrivances,  accommodated  to  the  various  ufes  they 
are  intended  for  ;  as, 

Compasses  of  three  Legs,  or  "Triangular  Compares, 
are,  fetting  afide  the  excefs  of  a  leg,  of  the  fame  ftruc- 
ture  with  the  common  ones :  their  ufe  being  to  take 
three  points  at  once,  and  fo  to  forA  triangles ;  to 
lay  down  three  poiitlons  of  a  map,  to  be  copied  at 
once,  i^c. 

Beam  Compasses  confift  of  a  long  branch,  or  beam, 
made  of  brafs  or  wood,  carrying  two  brafs  curfors, 
the  one  fixed  at  one  end,  the  other  Aiding  along  the 
beam,  with  a  fcrcw  to  fatten  it  on  occafion.  To  the 
cuifors  may  be  fcrewed  points  of  any  kind,  whether 
fteel  for  pencils,  or  the  like.  It  is  ufed  to  draw  large 
circles,  to  take  great  extents,  f  r.  To  the  fixed  curfor 
is  fometimes  applied  an  adjulting  or  micrometer 
fcrew,  by  which  an  extent  is  obtained  to  extreme 
nicety.  Mr  Jones  of  Holborn  has  made  beam  com- 
pa(res  to  adjuft  to  the  j^g^^dth  of  an  inch. 

Caliber  Compassfs.     See  Calibi-r. 

Clockmaier's  Compasses  are  joined  like  the  com- 
mon compafles,  with  a  quadrant,  or  bow,  like  the  fpring 
compaffes  ;  only  of  different  ufe,  ferving  here  to  keep 
the  inftrument  firm  at  any  opening.  They  arc  made 
very  ftrong.,  with  the  points  of  their  legs  of  well  tem- 


plate 
CXMV^ 

fig-  y- 


83     ]  COM 

pered  fteel,  as  being  ufed  to  draw  lines  on  pafteboard  Compifles. 
or  copper.  u— ^,— ._/ 

Cylindrical  and  Spherical  CoMPA^stts,  eoi\fift  of  four 
branches,  joined  in  a  centre,  two  of  which  are  circular, 
and  two  flat,  a  little  bent  on  the  ends :  their  ufe  is  to 
take  the  diameter,  thicknefs,  or  caliber  of  round  or 
cylindric  bodies  ;  fuch  as  cannons,  pipes,  ^c. 

Elliptic  Compasses.  Their  ufe  is  to  draw  ellipfes, 
or  ovals  of  any  kind :  they  confift  of  a  beam  A  B 
about  a  foot  long,  bearing  three  curfors  ;  to  one  of 
which  may  be  fcrewed  points  of  any  kind  :  to  the 
bottom  of  the  other  two  are  rivited  two  Aiding  dove- 
tails, adjufted  in  grooves  made  in  the  crofs  branches  of 
the  beam.  The  dove-tails  having  a  motion  every  way. 
by  turning  about  the  long  branch,  go  backwards  and 
forwards  along  the  crofs  ;  fo  that  when  the  beam  has 
gone  half-way  about,  one  of  thefe  will  have  moved  the 
whole  length  ofone  of  the  branches;  and  when  the  beam 
has  got  quite  round,  the  fame  dove-tail  has  got  back. 
the  whole  length  of  the  branch.  Underftand  the  fame 
of  the  other  dove-tail. 

Note,  the  diftance  between  the  two  Aiding  dove-tails 
is  the  diftance  between  the  two  foci  of  the  ellipfis  ;  fo 
that  by  changing  that  diftance,  the  clh'pfis  will  be  round- 
er or  tenderer.  Under  the  ends  of  the  branches  of  the 
crofs  are  placed  four  fteel  points  to  keep  it  faft. 

The  ufe  of  this  compals  is  eafy ;  by  turning  round 
the  long  branch,  the  ink,  pencil,  or  other  point,  will 
draw  the  ellipfis  required.  Its  figure  ftiows  both  its 
ufe  and  conftruclion. 

German  Compasses  have  their  legs  a  little  bent  out- 
wards, towards  the  top  ;  fo  that  when  (hut,  the  points 
only  meet. 

Hair  Compasses  are  fo  contrived  within  fide  by  a 
fmall  adjufting  fcrew  to  one  of  the  legs,  as  to  take  an 
extent  to  a  hair's  breadth. 

Lapidary's  Compasses  are  a  piece  of  wood,  in  form 
of  the  fliaft  of  a  plane,  cleft  at  top,  as  far  as  half  its 
length  ;  with  this  they  meafure  the  angles,  ^c.  of 
jewels  and  precious  ftones,  as  they  cut  them.  There 
is  in  the  cleft  a  little  brafs  rule,  faftened  there  at  one 
end  by  a  pin  ;  but  fo  that  it  may  be  moved  in  the  man- 
ner of  a  brafs  level :  with  this  kind  of  fquare  they  take 
the  angles  of  the  ftones,  laying  them  on  the  (haft  as 
they  cut  them. 

Proportional  Compasses  are  thofe  whofe  joint  lies  be- 
tween the  points  terminating  each  leg :  they  are 
either  fimple  or  compound.  In  the  for-mer  fort  the 
centre  is  fixed,  fo  that  one  pair  of  thefe  ferves  only  for 
one  proportion. 

Compound  proportional  Compasses  confift  of  two  parts 
or  fidts  of  brafs,  which  lie  upon  each  other  fo  nicely 
as  to  appear  but  one  when  they  ar-c  (liut.  Thefe  fides 
eafily  open,  and  move  about  a  centre,  which  is  itfelf 
moveable  in  a  hollow  canal  cut  through  ihe  gi-eateft 
part  of  their  length.  To  this  centix  on  each  tide  is 
affixed  a  Aiding  piece  A  of  a  fmall  length,  wiih  a  fins 
line  drawn  on  it  ferving  as  an  index,  to  be  fet  againft 
other  lines  or  divifions  placed  uporr  tlie  compalfes  on 
both  fides.  Thefe  lines  are,  1.  A  line  of  lines.  2.  A 
line  of  fuperficits,  areas,  or  planes.  3.  A  hne  of  folids. 
4.  A  line  of  circles,  or  I'ather  of  polygons  to  be  in- 
fcribed  in  circles.  Thefe  lines  are  all  unequally  di- 
vided ;  the  three  firft  from  i  to  20,  the  laft  from  6  to 
20.     Their  ufes  are  as  follow  ; 

N  n  2  By 


Plate 
CXLV. 
%.6. 


COM 


[     28 


Coirpaft.        By  the  line  of  lines  you  divide  a  given  line  into  any 

*- — v^ '  number  of  tqua!  parts  ;  for  by   placing  the   index  A 

againll  l,  and  fcitwirg  it  fall,  if  you  open  the  com- 
paiFcs,  then  the  diilante  between  the  points  at  each  end 
will  be  equal.  If  you  place  the  index  againil  2,  and 
open  the  compafTes,  the  diflance  between  the  points  of 
t!ie  longer  legs  15  B,  will  be  twice  tlie  diftance  be- 
tween the  fhorter  ones  CC  ;  and  thuB  a  line  is  bifefted, 
or  divided  into  two  equal  parts.  If  the  index  be  placed 
againft  3,  and  the  compafics  opened,  the  diltances  be- 
tween the  points  will  be  as  3  to  l,  and  fo  a  line  is  di- 
vided into  three  equal  parts  ;  and  fo  you  proceed  for 
any  other  number  of  parts  under  10. 
"  The  numbers  of  the  line  of  planes  anfwer  to  the 
fquares  of  thcfe  in  the  line  of  lines  ;  for  beciufe  fuper- 
ficits  or  pljints  are  to  ei'.ch  other  as  the  fqiiares  of  their 
like  fid^'s  ;  therefore,  if  the  index  be  placed  againft 
2  in  the  li;:*;  of  planes,  then  the  diftance  between  the 
fmall  points  will  be  the  fide  of  a  plane  whofc  aiea  is 
one  ;  but  the  dilbnce  of  tlie  larger  points  will  be  the 
like  fide  of  a  plane  whofe  area  is  two  ;  or  twice  as 
large.  If  the  index  be  placed  at  3,  and  the  compafTes 
opened,  the  diftances  between  the  points  at  each  end 
Ti'ill  be  the  like  fide  of  planes  whofe  area  are  as  i  to  3  ; 
and  fo  of  others. 

The  numbers  of  the  line  or  folids  anfwer  to  the 
cubes  of  thofe  in  the  line  of  lines  ;  becaufe  all  fol'ds 
are  to  each  other  as  the  cubes  of  their  lides  or  diame- 
ters :  therefore,  if  the  index  be  placed  to  number  2,3,4, 
Sec.  in  the  line  of  fclids,  the  diftance  between  the  lefTer 
and  larger  points  will  be  the  like  fides  of  folids,  which 
are  to  each  otlier  as  i  to  2,  i  to  3,  i  to  4,  Sec.  For 
example  :  If  the  index  be  placed  at  10,  and  the  com- 
paffes  be  opened  fo  that  the  fmall  points  may  take  the 
diameter  of  a  bullet  whofe  weight  is  one  ounce,  ths 
diftance  between  the  large  points  will  be  the  diameter 
tf  a  bullet  or  globe  of  10  ounces,  or  which  is  10  times 
as  large. 

Lallly,  The  numbers  in  the  line  or  circles  are  the 
fides  of  polygons  to  be  infcribed  in  a  given  circle,  ■or 
by  which  a  circle  may  be  divided  into  the  equal  parts, 
from  6  to  20.  Thus,  if  the  index  be  placed  at  6, 
the  points  of  the  compafles  at  either  end,  when  opened 
to  the  radius  of  a  given  circle,  will  contain  the  fide 
of  a  hexagon,  or  divide  the  circle  into  fix  equal 
parts.  If  the  index  be  placed  againft  7,  and  the  com- 
pafTes opened  fo  that  the  larger  points  may  take  in  the 
radius  of  the  circle,  then  the  fhorter  points  will  divide 
the  circle  into  fcven  equal  paits  for  infciibing  a  hep- 
tagon. Again,  placing  the  index  to  8,  and  opening 
the  ccmpalTes,  the  larger  points  will  contain  the  radius, 
and  the  IcfTer  points  divide  the  circle  into  eight  equal 
parts  for  infcribing  an  oftagon  or  fquare.  And  thus 
you  may  proceed  for  others. 

Proportional  Compasses  'ui'tth  the  feSor  lines.  The 
flrutlure  of  thefe  is  fo  like  that  of  the  common  propor- 
tional compafles,  only  a  little  nicer,  that  it  needs  no 
particular  defcription.  The  lines  on  the  firft  face  are 
the  line  of  lines,  marked //W;  it  is  divided  into  J  00 
equal  parts,  every  tenth  nujubercd  :  and  the  line  of 
chords,  which  goes  to  60°,  is  marked  chords.  On  the 
other  face  are  a  line  of  fines  to  90°,  and  a  line  of 
tangents  to  45''.  On  one  fide  are  the  tangents  from 
45°  to  7 1°  34'  \  on  the  other,  fccants  from  o"  to 
70°  30'. 


4-     ]  COM 

For  the  ufe  of  thefe  compafles  :  i.  To  divide  a  line  Compaf* 
into  any  number  of  equal  parts  lefs  than  100:  divide  — v— '^ 
ICO  by  the  number  of  parts  required  ;  flip  the  curfi  r  till 
the  line  on  the  iliding  dove-tail  be  againft  the  quotient 
on  the  line  of  lines :  then,  the  whole  line  being  taken 
between  the  points  of  the  compafles  moft  remote  from 
the  centre,  the  aperture  of  the  other  will  fhov^  the  di- 
vifion  required.  2.  A  right  line  given,  fuppofed  to  be 
divided  into  lOO  parts,  to  take  any  number  of  thofe 
parts  ;  flip  the  line  on  the  Aiding  dove-tail  to  the  num- 
ber of  parts  required  :  the  whole  line  being  taken  be- 
tween the  poini?  faitheft  from  the  centre,  the  aperture 
of  the  other  two  will  include  the  number  of  divilions 
required.  3.  The  radius  being  given,  <q  find  the 
chord  of  any  aich  under  60^;  fl'p  the  line  on  the  Aid- 
ing dove-tail  to  the  degrees  required  on  the  li:ic  of 
cnords  :  the  radius  being  taken  between  the  points  far- 
theft  from  the  centre  of  the  curfor  ;  the  aperture  of 
the  other  line  will  b?  the  chord  required,  provided  the 
number  of  degrees  be  greater  than  29;  if  it  be  lefs, 
the  aperture  taken  from  the  radius  will  leave  the  chord 
required.  4.  If  the  chord  of  an  arch  under  60*^  be 
given,  and  the  radius  required  ;  ilip  the  line  on  the 
dove- tail  to  the  degrees  given  on  the  line  of  chords : 
the  given  chord  being  taken  between  the  two  points 
next  the  curfor,  the  aperture  of  the  other  will  be  the 
radius  required.  5.  The  radius  being  given,  to  find 
the  line  of  any  number  of  degrees;  fiip  the  line  on 
the  dove-tail  to  the  deeree  on  the  line  of  fines  whofe 
fine  is  required  :  the  radius  taken  between  the  points 
furtheift  from  the  curfor,  the  aperture  of  the  other  will 
give  the  line  of  the  angle  required.  But  if  the  fine 
fought  be  lefs  than  30'',  the  difference  of  the  apertures 
of  the  oppofite  points  will  be  the  fine  required.  6.  The 
radius  being  given,  to  find  the  tangent  of  any  number 
of  degrees  under  71  :  if  the  tangent  required  be  under 
26  •  30',  then  Aip  the  line  on  the  dovetail  to  the  de- 
gree propofed  on  the  tangent  line  ;  the  radius  taken 
between  the  points  fartheft  from  the  curfor,  the  aper- 
ture of  the  others  will  be  the  tangent  of  the  degrees 
required:  if  the  tangent  required  be  above  zCP  30', 
but  under  45°,  the  line  on  the  curfor  muft  be  Aipped 
to  the  degrees  given  on  the  tangent  line  :  then  the  ra- 
dius being  taken  between  the  points  furtheft  from  the 
curfor,  the  aperture  of  the  others  will  be  the  tangent. 
If  the  tangent  required  be  greater  than  45°,  but  lefs 
than  56°  20',  Aip  the  notch  on  the  tangent  fide  of  the 
turned  cheek  to  the  degree  o  in  the  tangent  line  on 
the  fide  of  the  compafs ;  the  radius  taken  between  the 
points  fartheft  from  the  curfor  ;  the  difference  between 
the  aperture  of  the  other  and  thefe,  added  together, 
will  be  the  tangent  required.  Thus,  for  the  tangents 
of  other  degrees  under  71.  After  the  like  mariner 
may  the  fecant  of  any  number  of  degrees  under  71  be 
found. 

Mr  Heath,  a  mathematical  inftrument-maker  in 
L.ond<.n,  conftrutled  a  pair  of  proportional  compaiTes, 
in  1746,  with  a  curious  and  ufeful  contrivance  for  pre- 
venting the  fliorter  legs  from  changing  their  pofilion, 
when  thefe  compafTes  were  ufed.  It  confifted  of  a 
fmall  beam  foldered  to  a  fcrew,  and  running  parallel  to 
the  leg  of  the  compaflTes,  nearly  of  the  length  of  the 
groove  ;  in  this  beam  a  flit  was  m.ade,  which  admitted, 
of  a  Aiding-nut,  the  other  end  of  which  fell  into  a  hole 
in  the  bottom  of  the  fcrew,  belonging  to  the  great  nut 

.o£ 


C  OTNIX  (; . 


Plate  CXLIV 


y       4''        (^>        s7i         7ooJ-',<f/i. 


c  o  ^i  r  A  s  s  . 


ii:M^//,'/iy'n.//,iAA\(^i/r>i/>^tf .   ^ 


COM 


T 


Compafs     of  the  compafTi's.     Tht  fcrew-pin  of  the  beam  pafle  i 
II  through  an  adjufter,  by  means  of  which  the  mark  on  th- 

flider  might  bi;  brought  exaftly  to  any  divifion.  But 
the  proportional  compafTes  have  been  much  out  of  ufe 
fince  the  invention  of  the  feftor. 

Spring  CoMPjtssfs,  or  dividers ;  thofe  with  an 
arched  head,  wliich  by  its  fprinjr  opens  the  legs  ;  the 
opening  being  dirc£ted  by  a  circular  fcrew  fa!lened  to 
one  of  the  legs,  and  let  thvoucrh  the  other,  worked 
with  a  nut.  Thtfe  compaffts  are  made  of  hardened 
ftcel. 

Tiift^ing  Compasses  confift  of  two  central  rules, 
and  an  arch  of  a  circle  of  120  degrees,  immoveable, 
with  its  radius;  wliich  is  failened  with  one  of  the 
central  rules  like  the  two  legs  of  a  iedor,  tluit  the  cen- 
tra! rule  may  be  carried  through  all  the  points  of  the 
circumference  of  the  arch.  The  radius  and  rule  Ihould 
be  as  thin  as  polEble  ;  and  the  nile  faflened  to  the  ra- 
dius flujuld  be  hammered  cold,  to  attain  the  greater 
elailicity  ;  and  the  breadth  of  the  central  rule  ihould 
be  triple  that  of  the  radios  :  there  muft  alfo  be  a  groove 
in  this  rule,  with  a  dove-tail  failened  on  it  for  its  mo- 
tion, and  a  hole  In  the  centre  of  each  rule.  ITie  ufe  of 
this  inflrument  is  to  facilitate  the  trifedfion  of  angles 
geometrically  ;  and  it  is  faid  to  have  been  invented  by 
^I.  Tarragen  for  that  purpofe. 

Turn-up  Compasses.  The  body  of  this  inftrument 
is  like  the  common  compafles :  but  towards  the  bot- 
tom of  the  legs,  without-fide,  are  added  two  other 
points  befides  the  ufual  ones;  the  one  whereof  carries 
a  dtawinJ  pen  point,  and  the  other  a  port-crayon, 
boih  adjufted  fo  as  to  turn  round,  and  be  in  the  way  of 
ufe,  or  out  of  it,  as  occafion  requires.  Thefe  com- 
pafles have  been  contrived  to  fave  the  trouble  of  chan- 
ging the  points. 

COMPASSION,  or  Commiseration,  in  ethic,  a 
mixed  paffion,  compounded  of  love  and  forrow,  and 
excited  by  the  fight  or  recital  of  diflrefs.  Hobbs 
makes  this  a  merely  felfifli  paffion,  and  defines  it,  as 
being  fear  for  ourfclves  ;  Hutchefon  rcfolves  it  into 
iiiflinft  ;  but  Dr  Butler  much  more  properly  confiders 
compalTion  as  an  original,  diftinft,  particular  afFeftion 
in  human  nature. 

COMPATIBLE,  fomething  that  may  fuit  or  con- 
fift  with  another.      See  Incompatible. 

COMPEIGNE,  a  handfome  town  of  the  ifle  of 
France,  in  the  county  of  Senlis,  with  a  palace,  or 
caftle,  where  the  king  often  refidcs.  The  maid  of  Or- 
leans was  taken  prifoner  here  in  1430.  It  is  feated 
on  the  river  Oife,  near  a  large  foreft.  E.  Long.  3.  12. 
N.  Lat.  49.  25. 

COMPENDIUM,  in  matters  of  literature,  denotes 
much  the  fame  as  epitome  or  abridgement.  See 
Abridgement. 

COMPENSATION,  in  a  general  fenfe,  an  adion 
whereby  any  thing  is  admitted  as  an  eqitivalent  to 
another. 

Compensation,  in  law.  Where  the  fameperfonis 
debtor  and  creditor  to  another,  the  mutual  obligations, 
if  they  are  for  equal  fums,  are  extinguiihed  by  com- 
penfation  ;  if  for  unequal,  the  leflcr  obligation  is  ex- 
tinguifiied,  and  the  greater  diminifhed,  as  far  as  the 
concourfe  of  debt  and  credit  goes. 

COMPETENCE,  or  Competency,  in  a  general 
fenfe,  fuch  a  quantity  of  any  thing  as  is  fufficient. 

5 


tence 

jl 
Comi'lex. 


85     ]  COM 

Competence,  In  law,  the  right   or  authority  of  a    Compe 
judge,  whereby  he  takes  cognizance  of  any  thing. 

COMPETENTES,  an  order  of  catechumens,  in  the 
primitive  Chriltian  church,  being  the  immediate  can- 
didates for  baptifm.     See  Catechumen. 

COMPETITION,  in  a  general  fenfe,  is  the  fame 
with  rivalfhip,  or  when  two  or  more  perfons  contend 
for  tiie  fame  thing. 

Competition,  in  Scots  law.  In  efclieats,  fee  Law, 
Part  III.  N-^clxvi.  17,  Isfc.  In  confirmations  by  the 
iuperior,  in  refignations,  and  in  pcrfonal  rights  of 
lands,  il'tJ.  clxviii.  5 — 9.  In  inhibitions,  in  adjudica- 
tions, amonTfl;  aflignees,  arreilcrs,  and  poinders,  ibid. 
clxxi.  6.  cixxii.  3.  clxxvii.  2.  clxxviii.  8,  9,  10.  A- 
nion/ll  creditors  of  a  dcfunft,  clxxxi.  19. 

COMPITALIA,  or  CoMPiTALiTA,  feaflshelda- 
mong  the  ancients  in  honour  of  the  lares.     The  word 
comes  from  the  Latin  rompntum,  a  crofsway  ;  by  rea- 
fon  the  feall  was  held  in  the  meeting  of  fevera!  roads. 
The  ccmpitalia  are  more  ancient  than  the  building  of 
Rome.      Dionyfius  Halicarnaffeu.?,  and  Pliny,  indeed, 
fay,    they  were  infiituted  by  Servius  Tullus  ;  but  this 
only  figniiies    that    they  were    then    introduced   into 
Rome.      The  feall   being  moveable,  the  day  whereon 
it  was  to  be  obferved  was  proclaimed  every  year.      It 
was  oidinariiy  held  on   the  4th  of  the  nones  of  Fe- 
bruary, /.  c.   on  the   2d  of  that  month.       Macrobius 
obferved,    that    they  were   held    not    only   in  honour 
of  the  Imrs,  but  alfo  of  mania,  madnefs.     The  prieils 
who   officiated   at  them  were   flaves   and  liberti,  and 
the  facrifice   a  fow.     They  were  re-ellabhfhed,  after 
a  long  negleft,  by  Tarquin   the  Proud,  on   occafion 
of  an  anfwer    of  the   oracle,    that  they  Jhould  facrifice 
heads  for  heads  ;   i.  e.  that  for  the  health  and  profpe- 
rily  of  each  family,    children  were  to  be   facrificed  : 
but  Brutus,  after  expelling  the  kings,  in  lieu  of  thofe 
barbarous  viftims   fubftituted   the  heads  of  garlic  and 
poppy  ;   thus  fatisfying  the  oracle  which  had  enjoined 
capita.,  heads.      During   the   celebration   of  this  feaft, 
each    family  placed  at  the    door  of  their  houfe    the 
llatue  of  the   goddefs  Mania  :  they  alfo  liung  up  at 
their  doors    figures    of   wool,    reprefenting    men  and 
women  ;  accompanying  them  with  fupplications  that 
the  lares  and  mania  would  be  contented  with  thofe  fi- 
gures, and  fpare  the  people  of  the  houfe. 

COMPLEMENT,  in  geometry,  is  what  lemainsof 
the  quadrant  of  a  circle,  or  90",  after  any  certain  arch 
has  been  taken  away  from  it.  Thus,  if  the  arch  ta- 
ken away  be  40°,  its  complement  is  50 ;  becaufe 
50-f-40:=90.  The  fine  of  the  complement  of  an 
arch  is  called  the  cofine,  and  that  of  the  tangent  the 
co-tangent,  Isfc. 

COMPLETUS  FLOS,  in  botany.  A  flower  is  faid 
to  be  complete,  which  is  provided  with  both  the  co- 
vers, r;'^.  the  calyx  or  flower-cup,  and  the  petals.  The 
term  was  invented  by  Vaillant,  and  is  fynonymous  to 
calycuhitiis  JIos  in  Linnseus.  Berkenhout  erroneoufly 
contounds  it  with  the  auSa/  and  calyculatus  calyx  of  the 
fame  author. 

COMPLEX,  in  a  more  general  fenfe,  a  term  fy- 
nonymous with  compound  ;  though  in  ftriftnefs  of 
fpeech  there  is  fome  difl'erence. 

Complex  is  properly  applied  where  a  thing  contains 
divers  others,  or  confilis  of  divers  parts  not  really  di- 
ftindi  from  each  other,  but  only  imaginarily,  or   in 

our 


COM 


[     286    ] 


COM 


complex,  our  conceptions.     In  this  fenfe  the  foul  may  be  faid 
Conipkn-  (Q  bg  complex,  in  refpeft  of  the  undfrftandinij   and 
^    "'"•        will,  which  are  two  things  that  our  reafon  alone  dilUn- 
guifhes  in  it. 

CoMF/.FX  Term  or  Itfea,  is  a  term  compounded  of  fe- 
vcral  fimpk  or  incomplex  ones.  Thus  in  the  propofi- 
tion,  /}  jii/i  God  caimnt  leave  crimes  iirpunijhed ;  the  fiib- 
jctt  of  this  propofition,  viz.  ajuji  God,  is  a  complex 
term,  or  ftands  for  a  complex  idea  coinpofed  of  two 
limple  or  incomplex  ones,  viz.  Godandjujl. 

COMPLEXION,  among  phyficians,  the  tempera- 
ment, habitude,  and  natural  difpofition,  of  the  body  ; 
but  more  often  the  colour  of  the  face  and  ftin. 

Few  quellions  in  philofophy  have  engaged  the  at- 
tention of  naturaliits  mote  than  the  diverfities  among 
the  human  fpecies,  among  which  that  of  colour  is  the 
moft  remarkable.  The  great  differences  in  this  refpeft 
have  given  occafion  to  feveral  authors  to  alfert,  that 
the  whole  human  race  have  not  fprung  from  one  origi- 
nal ;  but  that  as  many  different  fpecies  of  men  were  at 
fiift  created,  as  there  are  now  different  colours  to  be 
found  among  them.  Under  the  article  America,  n°  8 1 
— 100.  we  have  (liown  that  all  the  arguments  which 
can  be  brought  for  fpecific  differences  among  man- 
kind, whether  drawn  from  a  diflerence  of  colour,  fta- 
tnre,  or  difpofition,  muil  neceflarily  be  inconclufive. 
It  remains,  however,  a  matter  of  no  fmall  difficulty  to 
account  for  the  remarkable  variations  of  colour  that 
are  to  be  found  among  different  nations.  On  this  fub- 
jeiSl  Dr  Hunter  hath  publillied  a  thefis,  in  which  he 
cunfidera  the  matter  more  accurately  than  hath  com- 
monly been  done,  and  determines  abfoluteiy  againft  any 
fpecific  difference  among  mankind.  He  introduces  his 
fubjeft  by  obferving,  that  when  the  queflion  has  been 
agitated,  whether  all  the  human  race  conflitute  only 
one  fpecies  01  not,  much  confufion  h^s  arifcn  from  the 
fenfe  in  which  the  lam fpecki  has  I,  ; ..  auopted.  He 
therefore  thinks  it  necdfaiy  to  fet  out  with  a  defini- 
tion of  the  term.  He  includes  under  the  fame  fpecies 
all  thofe  animals  which  produce  iffue  capable  of  pro- 
pagating others  referobling  the  original  flock  from 
whence  they  fprung.  This  definition  he  illuflrates  by 
having  recourfe  to  the  human  fpecies  as  an  example. 
And  in  this  fenfe  of  the  term  he  concludes,  that  all  of 
thera  are  to  be  confidered  as  belonging  to  the  fame 
fpecies.  And  as,  in  the  cafe  of  plants,  one  fpecies 
comprehends  feveral  varieties  depending  upon  climate, 
foil,  culture,  and  fimilar  accidents ;  fo  he  confiders  the 
diverfities  of  the  human  race  to_be  merely  varieties 
.of  the  fame  fpecies,  produced  by  natural  caufes.  Of 
the  different  colours  obfervable  among  mankind,  he 
gives  the  following  view: 

J3lack.     Africans  tuider  the  line. 

Inhabitantsof  New  Guinea. 
Iidiabitants  of  New  Holland. 
Swarthy.     The  Moors  in  the  northern  parts  of 
Africa. 
The  Hottentots  in  the  fouthern  parts 
of  it. 
Copper-coloured.     The  Eaft  Indians. 
Red-coloured.     The  Americans. 
J5rown-coloi'xed.     Tartars. 
Perfians. 
Arabs. 


Brown-colouredj    Africans  on  the  coaft  of  the  Complex. 
Mediterranean.  ,     '""• 

Chinefe.  ^~V~^ 

Brownish.     Tiie  inhabitants  of  the  fouthern  parts 
of  Eui'ope ;  ai 
Sicilians, 
Abyffinians, 
Spaniards, 

Turks,  and  likewife  the   Samoiedes 
and  Laplanders. 
White.     Moft  of  the  European  nations ;  as 
Swedes, 
Danes, 
Englilh, 
Germans, 
Poles,  iifc. 
Ivabardinflvi, 
Georgians, 

Inhabitants  of  the  illands  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean. 

In  attempting  to  inveffigate  the  caufes  of  thefe  dif- 
ferences, our  author  obferves,  that  there  can  be  no 
difpute  of  the  feat  of  colour  being  placed  in  the  f]<in  ; 
that  it  is  not  even  extended  over  the  whole  of  this, 
but  confined  to  that  part  named  the  cuticle,  confifling 
of  the  epidermis  and  reticulum  ;  and  that  it  chiefly 
occupies  the  latter  of  thefe.  .  The  cuticle  is  much 
thicker  and  harder  in  black  people  than  in  white  ones; 
the  reticulum  in  the  latter  being  a  thin  mucus,  in  the 
former  a  thick  membrane.  He  concludes  that  this 
feat  of  colour  in  whites  is  tranfparent,  and  cither  to- 
tally deprived  of  veffels,  or  only  furnifhed  with  very- 
few  ;  as  the  yellow  colour  appearing  in  jaundice  va- 
nifhes  on  the  caufe  of  the  difeafe  being  removed  ; 
which  is  not  the  cafe  with  flains  in  the  cuticle  from 
gunpowder,  or  fimilar  caufes.  He  next  points  out 
three  caufes  deftroying  the  pellucidity  of  the  cuticle, 
giving  it  a  brown  colour,  and  rendering  it  thicker. 
Thefe  are,  accefs  of  air,  naftinefs,  and  the  heat  of  the 
fun.  The  influence  of  each  of  thefe  he  proves  by 
many  examples ;  and  from  thefe  he  is  incli:ied  to  con- 
fider  the  lafl  as  by  much  the  moft  powerful.  If,  how- 
ever, it  be  admitted  that  thefe  caufes  have  this  effcft, 
he  thinks  that  all  the  diverfity  of  colour  which  is  to 
be  obfervcd  among  mankind,  may  be  tluis  accounted 
for.  He  remarks,  that  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  tor- 
rid zone  incline  more  or  lefs  to  a  black  colour.  When 
we  obferve  the  differences  which  occur  amongft  them, 
we  muft  at  the  fame  time  remember,  that  a  black  co- 
lour is  not  referred  to  heat  alone,  but  to  the  other 
caufes  alfo  :  and  when  we  attend  to  the  diverfity  of 
temperature  that  occurs  even  in  the  torrid  zone,  the 
exiflence  of  a  white  nation  there  would  by  no  means 
deflroy  the  argument.  He  is  farther  of  opinion,  that 
the  exiftence  of  a  brown  colour,  and  of  confiderable 
vaiieties  from  white,  in  the  northern  and  coldell  parts 
of  Europe,  may  very  eafily  be  explained.  This  he 
accounts  for  froni  the  manner  of  life  of  the  inhabi- 
tants, by  which  they  are  either  expofed  to  the  incle- 
mency of  the  air,  or  to  conftant  natlinefs  from  fmokjr 
houfes. 

Having  thus   attempted  to  account,   from  natural 
caufes,  for  the  varieties  which  occur  among  mankind 

with 
1 


COM 


[     287     ] 


C     O     M 


Coiiip'"^-  ^vith  rcfpe^i  to  colour,  our  author  obferves,  that,  to  all 
'""•  this  rcafoning,  an  objetlion  will  naturally  be  made, 
•  from  conlideiing  that  infants  bring  thefe  marks  into 

the  world  along  with  them,  before  they  can  be  expo- 
fed  to  any  fuch  caufes.  Dr  Hunter  imagines,  how- 
ever, that  this  may  readily  be  explained  upon  the 
fuppofition  that  many  peculiarities  acquired  by  parents 
are  traufmitied  to  their  poUerity  ;  and  of  this,  he 
thinks,  no  one  can  entertain  the  leaft  doubt  who  at- 
tends to  hereditary  difeafes.  Thus,  gout,  fcrophuln, 
mania,  and  many  other  affections,  although  at  firil  in- 
duced by  particular  accidents,  will  continue  to  affeft 
families  for  many  generations.  In  the  fame  manner, 
a  parent  expofed  to  caufes  deftroying  the  natural 
whitenefs  of  his  complexion,  will  beget  fwarthy  chil- 
dren ;  and  the  fame  caufes  continuing  to  operate  upon 
the  fon,  the  blacknefs  will  be  increafed.  Thus  all  the 
different  (liades  may  have  been  at  firft  induced,  and  af- 
tcrwaids  continued. 
'  The  objection  here  obviated,  however,  might  have 

been  (hortly  anfwered  by  denying  the  faft  ;  for  it  is 
now  generally  known,  that  the  children  of  the  black- 
eft  negroes  are  abfolutely  lorn  nubit;,  as  will  be  after- 
wards noticed. 

This  fubjcft  of  complexion  has  been  very  well  illuf- 
trated  by  Mr  Clarkfon,  in  a  differtation  introduced  in 
his  Effay  on  the  commerce  and  flavery  of  the  human 
fpecies.  The  firft  point  that  occurs  to  be  afcertained, 
is,  '  What  part  of  the  fl:in  is  the  feat  of  colour?'  The 
old  anatomiits  ufually  divided  the  flcin  into  two  parts 
or  laminas;  the  exterior  and  thinneft,calledby  the  Greeks 
epidermis,  by  the  Romans  cuticvla,  and  hence  by  us 
cuticle ;  and  the  interior,  called  by  the  former  derma, 
and  by  the  latter  cutis,  or  truejhin.  Hence  they  mult 
neceff:.Tily  have  fuppofed,  that,  as  tlie  true  ikin  was 
In  every  refpeft  the  lame  in  all  human  fubjefts,  how- 
ever various  their  exteinal  hue,  fo  the  feat  of  colour 
muft  have  exiftcd  in  the  cuticle  or  upper  fuvface. 

Malpighi,  an  eminent  Italian  phyfician  of  the  laft 
century,  was  the  firft  petfon  who  dlfcovered  that  the 
fkln  was  divided  into  thiee  lamins  or  parts;  the  cu- 
ticle, the  true  (Icin,  and  a  certain  coagulated  fubftance 
fituated  between  bo-tb,  which  he  dlftinguifhed  by  the 
titlr- of  jv/f  mucofum:  which  coagulated  fuhftance  ad- 
hered fo  fiimly  to  the  cuticle,  as,  in  all  former  anato- 
mical preparations,  to  have  come  off  with  it;  and, 
from  this  circumftance,  to  have  led  the  ancient  ana- 
toniifts  to  believe,  that  there  were  but  two  laminae,  or 
divifible  portions  in  the  human  fl-tin.  See  Anatomy, 
n'="74— 76. 

This  difcovery  was  fufficient  to  afcertain  the  point 
in  queftlon  :  for  it  appealed  afterwards  that  the  cu- 
ticle, when  divided  according  to  this  difcovery  fi-om 
the  other  lamina,  was  femitranfparent ;  that  the  cu- 
ticle of  the  blackeft  negroe  was  of  the  fame  tranfpa- 
rency  and  colour  as  that  of  the  pureft  white;  and 
hence  tlie  true  fl<;ins  of  both  being  invariably  the  fame, 
that  the  rete  mucofum  was  the  feat  of  colour. 

This  has  been  farther  confirmed  by  all  fubfcquent 
anatomical  experiments ;  by  which  it  appears,  that, 
■whatevei  is  the  colour  of  this  intermediate  coagulated 
fubftance,  nearly  the  fame  is  the  apparent  colour  of 
the  upper  furface  of  the  fliin.  Neither  can  it  be  o- 
therviife;  for  the  cuticle,  from  its  tranfparency,  muft 
nticeffarily  tiaufiiiit   the   colour  of  the  fubftance  be- 


neath it,  in  the  fame  manner,  though  not  in  the  fame  Comrlcx- 
degree,  as  the  cornea  tranfmits  the  colour  of  the  ii  13  '°"'  ^ 
of  the  eye.  This  tranfparency  is  a  matter  of  ocular  ' 
demonftration  In  white  people.  It  is  confpicuous  in 
every  blufti  ;  for  no  one  can  imagine  that  the  cuticle 
becotr.es  red  as  often  as  this  happens :  nor  is  it  lefs  dif- 
coverable  in  the  veins,  which  are  fo  eafy  to  be  dif- 
cerned  ;  for  no  one  can  fuppofe  that  the  blue  ftreaks, 
which  he  conlt-antly  fees  in  the  fa'reft  complexions,  are 
painted,  as  it  were,  on  the  furface  of  the  upper  fKin. 
From  thefe,  and  a  variety  of  other  obfervations,  no 
maxim  is  more  true  in  phyfiology,  than  that  on  the 
rete  mucofum  depends  the  colour  of  the  human  bo- 
dy;  or,  in  other  words,  that  the  rete  inucofum  being 
of  a  different  colour  in  different  inhabitants  of  the 
globe,  and  appearing  through  the  cuticle  or  upper 
furface  of  the  flvin,  gives  them  that  various  appearance 
which  ftrikes  us  fo  forcibly  in  contemplating  the  hu- 
man race. 

As  this  can  be  incontrovertibly  afcertained,  it  is  e-  ' 
vident,  that  whatever  caufes  co-operate  in  producing 
this  different  appearance,  they  produce  it  by  ailing 
upon  the  rete  mucofum  ;  which,  from  the  almoft  in- 
credible manner  in  which  the  cuticle  Is  perforated,  is 
as  acceffible  as  the  cuticle  itfclf.  Thefe  caufes  are  pro- 
bably thofe  various  qualities  of  things,  which,  com- 
bined with  the  influence  of  the  fun,  contribute  to  form 
what  we  call  climate.  For  when  any  perfon  confiders, 
that  the  mucous  fubftance  before  mentioned  is  found  to 
vary  in  its  colour,  as  the  climates  vary  from  the  equa- 
tor to  the  poles,  his  mind  muft  be  inftantly  ftruck  with 
the  hypothefis,  and  he  muft  adopt  it,  without  any  he- 
fitation,  as  the  genuine  caufe  of  the  phenomenon. 

This  faft,  of  the  variation  of  the  mucous  fubftance, 
according  to  the  fituation  of  the  place,  has  been  clear- 
ly afcertained  in  the  numerous  anatomical  experiments 
that  have  been  "i;?de  ;  In  wliich  fubjeiTit.' of  all  nations 
have  come  uim.  ■  .nnfideratlon.  The  natives  of  many 
of  the  kingdoms  and  Illes  of  Afia  are  found  to  have 
their  rete  mucofum  black ;  thofe  of  Africa,  fituated 
near  the  line,  of  the  fame  colour;  thofe  of  the  mari- 
time parts  of  the  fame  continent,  of  a  dufliy  brown, 
nearly  approaching  to  it  ;  and  the  colour  becomes 
lighter  or  darker  in  proportion  as  the  diftance  from 
the  equator  is  either  greater  ;or  lefs.  The  Europeans 
are  the  faireft  inhabitants  of  the  world.  Thofe  fitua- 
ted in  the  moft  fouthern  regions  of  Eui-ope,  have  in 
their  rete  mucofum  a  tinge  of  the  dark  hue  of  their 
African  neighbours  :  hence  the  epidemic  complexion, 
prevalent  among  them,  is  neatly  of  the  colour  of  the 
pickled  Spanifti  olive;  .while  in  this  country,  and  thofe 
fituated  nearer  the  north  pole,  it  appears  to  be  nearly,, 
if  not  abfolutely,  white. 

Thefe  are  fafts  which  anatomy  has  eftablidied  ;  and 
we  acknowledge  them  to  be  fuch,  that  we  cannot  di- 
,veft  ouriclves  of  the  idea,  that  climate  l-,as  a  confide- 
rablc  fhare  in  producing  a  difference  of  colour. 

The  ciily  objeftlon  of  any  conftquence  that  has  eve- 
been  made  to  the  hypotlieiis  of  climate,  is  this,  that 
people  under  the  fame  parallels  are  not  exattly  of  the 
fame  colour.  But  this  is  no  objeftion  in  laft;  for  it 
does  not  follow  that  thofe  countries  which  are  at  ai 
equal  diftance  from  the  equator,  ftould  have  their 
climates  the  fame.  Indeed  nothing  is  more  contrary 
to  experieuce  than  this.     Climate  depends  upon  a  vo, 

riety- 


C     O     M 


[     288     ] 


COM 


'Com-  riety  of  accidents.  Hierh  mountains  in  the  neighbour- 
T'*"^'-""-  hood  of  a  place  make  it  cooler,  by  chilling  the  air  that 
'  is  carried  over  them  by  the  winds.  Large  fpreading 
fucculent  plants,  if  among  the  produclions  of  the  toll, 
have  the  lame  elfeft  ;  they  afford  agreeable  cooling 
fliade"!,  and  a  moift  atmofphere  from  their  continual 
oihalations,  by  which  the  ardour  of  the  fun  is  conii  • 
dcrably  abated.  While  the  foil,  on  the  other  hand, 
if  of  a  fandy  nature,  retains  the  heat  iji  an  uncommon 
degree,  and  makes  the  fummers  confiderably  hotter 
than  thofe  which  are  found  to  exiil  in  the  fame  lati- 
tude where  the  foil  is  different.  To  this  proximity  of 
what  may  be  termed  burtiing finds,  and  to  the  lulphu- 
reous  and  metallic  particles  which  are  continually  ex- 
haling from  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  is  afcribed  the 
different  degree  of  bkicknefs  by  which  fome  African 
nations  are  diftinguifliable  from  each  other,  though 
under  the  fame  parallels.  To  thefe  obfsrvalions  we 
may  add,  that  though  the  inhabitants  of  the  fame  pa- 
rallel are  not  exaitly  of  the  fame  hue,  yet  they  differ 
only  by  (hades  of  the  fame  colour ;  or,  to  fpeak  with 
more  precifion,  that  there  are  no  two  people,  in  fuch 
a  fituation,  one  of  whom  is  white  and  the  other  black. 

To  fu.m  up  the  whole ^Siippole  we  were  to  take  a 

common  globe  ;  to  "begin  at  the  equator;  to  paint  e- 
very  country  along  the  meridian  line  in  fucceffion  from 
thence  to  the  poles ;  and  to  paint  them  with  the  fame 
colour  which  prevails  in  the  refpecfive  inhabitants  of 
each,  we  fhould  fee  the  black,  with  which  we  had 
been  obliged  to  begin,  infenfibly  changing  to  an  olive, 
and  the  olive,  through  as  many  intermediate  colours, 
to  a  white:  and  if,  on  the  other  hand,  we  fhould 
complete  any  one  of  the  parallels  according  to  the 
fame  plan,  we  fhould  fee  a  difference  perhaps  in  the 
appearance  of  fome  of  the  countries  through  which  it 
ran,  though  the  difference  would  cotifilt  wholly  in 
fhadcs  of  the  fame  colour. 

The  argument,  therefore,  which  is  brought  againft 
the  hypothefis,  is  fo  far  from  being  an  objeftion,  that 
it  may  be  confidered  as  one  of  the  tirft  arguments  in  its 
favour  :  for  if  climate  has  really  an  influence  on  the 
mucous  fubftance  of  the  body,  it  is  evident,  that  we 
muft  not  only  expe£l  to  fee  a  gradation  of  colour  in 
the  inhabitants  from  the  equator  to  the  poles,  but  al- 
fo  different  fliades  of  the  fame  colour  in  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  fame  parallel. 

To  this  argument  may  be  added  one  that  is  uncon- 
trovertible, which  is,  that  when  the  black  inhabitants 
of  Africa  are  tranfplanted  to  colder,  or  the  white  in- 
habitants of  Europe  to  hotter  climates,  their  children, 
born  there,  are  of  a  different  colour  from  themfelves  ; 
that  is,  lighter  in  the  tirft,  and  darker  in  the  fccond 
inftance. 

As  a  proof  of  the  flrft,  we  fhall  give  the  words  of 
the  Abbe  Raynal,  in  his  admired  publication.  "  The 
children,"  fays  he,  "  which  they  (the  Africans)  pro- 
create in  America,  are  not  fo  black  as  their  parents 
•.vere.  After  each  generation  the  difference  becomes 
more  palpable.  It  is  pofTible,  that  after  a  numerous 
fucceffion  of  generations,  the  men  come  from  Afn'ca 
would  not  be  dillingiiilhed  from  thofe  of  the  country 
•into  v.-hich  they  may  have  been  ti-anfplantcd." 

This  circumllance  v,-e  have  had  the  pleafure  of  hear- 
ing confirmed  by  a  variety  of  perfons  who  have  been 
witneffcs  of  the  facl ;  but  particularly  bv  many  intel- 


ligent  Africans,  who  have  been  parents  themfelves  in      Om. 
America,  and  who  have  declared,  that  the  difference     I'l^'i^n- 
is  fo  palpable  in  the  northern  provinces,  that  not  only  • 

they  themfelves  have  conilantly  obferved   it,  but  tlmt 
they  have  heard  it  obferved  by  oihers. 

Neither  is  this  variation  in  the  children  from  the 
colour  of  their  parents  improbable.  The  children  of 
the  blackeft  Africaos  are  born  white.  In  this  ftate 
they  continue  for  about  a  month,  when  they  change 
to  a  pale  yellow.  In  procefs  of  time  they  become 
brown.  Their  Ikin  ftill  continues  to  iucreale  in  dark- 
nefs  Vi'ith  their  age,  tiU  it  becomes  of  a  dirty  fallow 
black  ;  and  at  length,  after  a  certain  period  of  years, 
gloffy  and  fhining.  Now,  if  climate  has  any  influence 
on  the  mucous  fubftance  of  the  body,  this  variation  in 
the  children  from  the  colour  of  their  parents  is  an  e- 
vent  which  mutV  be  reafonably  expeftcd  :  for  being 
born  white, and  not  having  equallypowerfulcaufes  to  act 
upon  them  in  colder,  as  their  parents  had  in  the  hotter 
climates  which  they  left,  it  mull  neceffarily  follow, 
that  the  fame  effeft  cannot  poffibly  be  produced. 

Hence  alfo,  if  the  hypothefis  be  admitted,  may  be 
deduced  the  reafon  wliy  even  thofe  children  who  have 
been  brought  from  their  country  at  an  early  age  into 
colder  regions,  have  been  obferved  to  be  of  a  lighter 
colour  than  thofe  who  have  remained  at  home  till  they 
arrived  at  a  ftate  of  manhood.  For  having  undergone 
fome  of  the  changes  which  we  mentioned  to  have  at- 
tended their  countrymen  from  infancy  to  a  certain 
age,  and  having  been  t::ken  away  before  the  reft  could 
be  completed,  thefe  farther  changes,  which  would 
have  taken  place  had  they  remained  at  home,  feem 
either  to  have  been  checked  in  their  progrefs,  or 
weakened  in  their  degree,  by  a  colder  climate. 

We  come  now  to  the  fecond  and  oppofite  caie  ;  for 
a  proof  of  which  v.-c  fhall  appeal  to  the  words  of  Dr 
MitcheD  in  the  Philofophical  Tranfaciions,  n''476. 
feft.  4.  "  The  Spaniards  who  have  inhabited  Ameri- 
ca under  the  torrid  zone  for  any  time,  are  become  as 
dark  coloured  as  our  native  Indians  of  Virginia,  of 
which  I  myfelf  have  been  a  witnefs ;  and  were  they 
not  to  intermarry  with  the  Europeans,  but  lead  ths 
fame  rude  and  barbarous  lives  with  the  Indians,  it  is 
very  probable,  that,  in  a  fucceffion  of  many  genera- 
tions, they  would  become  as  dark  in  complexion." 

To  this  inftance  we  fliall  add  one,  which  is  men- 
tioned by  a  late  writer,  who,  defcribing  the  African 
coaft  and  the  European  fettlements  there,  has  the  fol- 
lowing paffage.  "  There  are  federal  other  fmall  Por- 
tuguefe  fettlenients,  and  one  of  fome  note  at  Mitom- 
ba,  a  river  in  SieiTa  Leon.  The  people  here  called 
Porlvgusfe,  are  principally  perfons  bred  from  a  mixture 
of  the  tirft  Porluguefe  difcoverers  with  the  natives,  and 
now  become,  in  their  complexion  and  woolly  quality 
of  their  hair,  perfeft  negroes,  retaining,  however,  a 
fmattering  of  the  Portugucfe  language."  ^ 

Tiiefe  fa<fts  with  refpedt  to  the  colonifts  of  the  Eu-  ^ 

ropeans  are  of  the  hlghell  importance  in  the  prefent 
cafe,  and  deferve  a  ferious  attention.  For  v\  hen  we 
know  to  a  certainty  from  whom  they  are  defcenJed  ; 
when  we  know  that  they  were,  at  the  time  of  their 
tranfplantatisn,  of  the  fame  colour  as  thofe  fom  whom 
they  feverally  fprung  ;  and  when,  on  the  otlier  hand, 
we  are  credibly  informed  that  they  have  changed  it  for 
the  native  colour  of  the  place  wliich  they  now  inhabit; 

the 


COM  [2 

Tom-  the  evidence  in  fupport  of  thefe  fadls  is  as  great  as  if  a 
pltxicin.  peifopj  on  the  removal  of  two  or  three  i'amiHes  into 
'  another  chmate,  had  dttumintd  to  afceitain  the  cir 
ciimllance  ;  as  if  lie  had  ^Dne  with  them  and  watched 
their  children  ;  as  if  he  had  communicated  his  obluiva 
tions  at  his  death  to  a  fuccctlor ;  as  if  his  fucctlfor  Ijad 
profeculed  the  plan  :  a^.d  thus  an  uninttriupted  chain 
of  evidence  had  been  kept  up  from  their  firll  removal  to 
any  determined  period  of  fucceeding  time. 

But  though  thefe  fatts  fecm  fufTieient  of  themfclves 
to  con5rm  our  opinion,  tliey  are  not  the  only  fafts 
which  can  be  adduced  in  its  fupport.  It  can  be  fhown, 
that  the  members  of  the  very  lame  family,  when  divid- 
ed from  each  other,  and  removid  into  different  coun- 
tries, have  not  only  changed  their  family  complexion, 
but  that  they  have  changed  it  to  as  many  different  co- 
lours as  they  have  gone  into  diffeient  regioiis  of  the 
world.  We  cannot  have,  perhaps,  a  more  llriking  in- 
flance  of  tlu's  than  in  the  Jev/s.  Tl.efe  people  are  tcat- 
tered  over  the  face  of  the  whole  earth.  They  have 
preferved  themfelves  diftindf  from  tiie  reft  of  the  world 
by  their  religion  ;  and  as  they  never  intermarry  with 
any  but  thofe  of  their  own  fcdl,  fo  they  have  no  mix- 
ture of  blood  in  their  veins  that  they  fnould  differ  frosi 
each  other :  and  yet  nothing  is  more  true,  than  tlut 
the  EngHlh  Jew  is  white,  the  Portuguefe  fwarthy,  the 
Armenian  olive,  and  the  Arabian  copper  ;  in  fhcrt, 
that  there  appear  to  be  as  many  different  fpecics  of 
Jews  as  there  are  countries  in  which  they  rchde. 

To  thefe  fads  we  ffiall  add  the  following  obferva- 
tion,  that  if  we  can  give  credit  to  the  ancient  hillori- 
ans  in  general,  a  change  from  the  darkcil  black  to  the 
pureft  white  muR  have  aftually  been  accomplidied.  One 
in  (lance,  perhaps,  may  be  thought  fuificient.  Herodo- 
tus relates,  that  the  Colchi  were  black,  and  that  they 
had  crifped  hair.  Thefe  jieople  were  a  detachment  of 
the  Ethiopian  army  under  Scfoftris,  who  followed  him 
in  his  expedition,  and  fettled  in  that  part  of  the  world 
where  Colchis  is  ufually  repreieuted  to  have  been  fitua- 
ted.  Had  not  the  fame  author  informed  us  of  this 
circumllance,  we  lliould  have  thonirht  it  ftrange  that 
a  people  of  this  defcription  fliould  have  been  found  in 
fuch  a  latitude.  Now  as  they  were  undoubtedly  fettled 
there,  and  as  they  were  neither  fo  totally  dcltroyed, 
nor  made  any  fuch  rapid  conquells,  as  that  hilfcry 
fliould  notice  ;he  event,  there  is  great  reafon  to  pre- 
fume  that  their  delceiidants  continued  in  the  fame,  or 
fettled  in  the  adjacent,  counti-y  ;  from  whence  it  will 
follow,  that  they  mull  have  changed  their  complexion 
to  that  which  is  obftrvid  in  the  inhabitants  of  this  par- 
ticular region  at  the  prcfcat  day  ;  or,  in  other  Words, 
that  the  black  inhabitants  of  Colchis  mu(l  have  been 
■changed  into  the  fair  Circaflian.  Suppofe,  without 
the  knowledge  of  any  hiilorian,  they  had  made  fuch 
confiderable  corqucfts.  as  to  have  fettled  themfclves  at 
the  diftance  of  iolO  miles  in  any  one  direftion  from 
I  Colcliio,  Hill  ihLy  mull  have  changed  their  colour  :   For 

had  they  gape  in  an  eaflern  or  weilern  dircftion,  they 
mud  have  b-.n  of  the  fame  colour  as  the  Circaflians  ; 
if  to  the  north,  whiter  j  if  to  the  fouth,  of  a  copper. 
Theieare  no  peopk  within  that  diftance  of  Colchis  who 
are  black. 

From  the  whole  of  the  preceding  obfervations 
en  the  fubjeCt,  we  may  conclude,  that  as  all  the 
inhabitants  of  the   earth   cannot    be   olheivvife    than 

Vol.  V.  Fart  I. 


89       ] 


C     O     M 


the  children  of  the  fame  parents,  and  as  the  Jiffercncc     Coni- 
of  their  appearance  uuid  have  of  courfe  piocccdcd  from  I''"'™- 
incidental  caufts,  thefe  caufes  are  a   combinition   of  '~"»'~" 
thofe  qualities  which  we  call  iliinate:  that  llie  black- 
nefs  of  the  Africans  is  fo  far  engnifled  in  their   conlli- 
tution,  in   a   courfe  of  many   generations,   that   theii- 
children  wholly  inherit  it  if  brought  up  in  the  fame 
fpot ;  but  that  it  is  not  fo  wholly  intenvoven  in  their 
nature,  that  it  cannot  be  removed  if  they  are  born  and 
fettled  in  another. 

The  fame  principles  with  the  above  we  find  adopted 
and    further   illuftrated   by  Profeffor  Zimmerman   of 
Brunfwick,    in  his  celebrated  work    T/je  Gcv^mp/jical 
Hylory  of  Man,  &.C.      He  there  proves  in  the  moil  fa- 
tisfai^tory  manner.  That  the  complexion  of  the  human 
fpecics  is  uniformly  correfpondent  with  the   degree   of 
heat  or  cold  to  which  they  are  habitually  expofed.    In 
maintaining  this  pofition,  he  makes  a  very  proper  di- 
flinition   with   regard  to  climate.      By  climates  we  are 
to  undcrftand,  not  fimply  or  folely  thofe  dillinguillieJ 
by  the  geogiaghical  divifions  of  the  globe,  to  the  cx- 
clufion  of  what  he  terms pLy/icul  climate,  or  that  which 
depends  on  the  changes  produced  in   any  given   lati- 
tude  by  fuch   adventitious  circumlLances  as  the  lower 
or  more  elevated  fituations  of  a  country,   its  being  en-  ' 
compaffed  by  water  or  large  trails  of  land,  overfpread 
or  furrounded  with  forells,  placed  in  an  extenfive  plain, 
or  environed  by  lofty  mountains.     Peculiarities  of  the 
like  kind,  as  has  been  already  noticed,  frequently  pre- 
vent the  phyjical  climate  from  correfponding  entirely 
with  \.\\t  geographical,  as  a  country  influenced  by  them 
is  otten  much  wanner  or  colder  than  other  regions  pla- 
ced under  the  fame  degree  of  latitude.      The  influence 
of  thefe  fecondary  or  modifying  circumllances  has  been 
already  adverted  to,  and  need  not  be  further  enlarged 
upon  :  we  Ihall  here  only  obferve,  that  the  erroneous 
reafoning  of  Lord  Kames  on  this  fubjeft  feenis  to  have 
been  owing  to  his  inattention  to  the  diflerence  above 
mentioned.     At  Senegal,  and   in   the  adjacent  lands, 
the  thermometer  is  often  at  i  1 2  or  1 1 7  degrees  in  the 
{hade;  and  here  we  find  the  inhabitants  jet  black,  with 
woolly  hair.      The  heat  is  equally  great  in  Congo  and 
Loango,  and  thefe  count)  ies  are  inhabited  by  negroes 
only ;  whereas  in   Morocco,  to  the  north  of  thefe  re- 
gions, and  at  the  Cape  of  Good  PIe)pe,  to  the  fouth,  ~ 
the  heat  is  not  fo  intenfe,   nor  are  the  inhabitants  of  lb 
deep  a  hue.     Lord  Kames  afl<s,  Wheref  .re  are  not  the 
AbyfTmians  and  the  inhabitants  of  Zaara  of  as  dark  a 
comi)lcxion   as  the   Moors   on   the  coall  of  Guinea  ? 
M.  Zimmerman   anfwers,    that   '•  thefe  countries  are 
much  cooler.     The  defert  is  not  only  farther  from  the 
equator,  but  the  winds  blowing  over  the  Atlas  moun- 
tains, which  like  the  Alps  are  covered  with  fnow,  and 
the  weflerly  wind  coming  from  the  fea,  mult  confider- 
ably  iTiitigate  the  heat.     Nor  is  Abyfiinia  fo  warm  ae 
eithei  MoruPiOLupa  or  Guinea.     The  north-eall  winds 
from  the  fide  of  Pcrfia  and  Arabia  are  cooled  by  their 
palTage  over  the   Red  Sea  ;  tiie  northern  winds  from 
Egypt  lofe  much  of  their  heat  on  the  chain  of  moun- 
tains that    is   extended   between   the  countries :    the 
winds  from  the  foulh  and  the  well  are  lea-winds.     Thus 
the   only  qn.irter  from  which  they  can  derive  txceflive 
heat  is  from  the  well,  as  the  air  on  this  fide  mullpafs 
over  trads  of  heated  huids."     For  a  firailar  reafon  it  13 
that  negroes  are  not  found  either  in  Alia  or  South  A- 
Oo  ineiica 


C     O     M 


[     290     ] 


COM 


merica  under  the  equator.  The  fituations  of  thefe 
countries,  our  author  oblerves,  cxpofe  them  to  fea- 
breezes  and  coolinjr  winds  from  the  continent.  He 
confirms  this  hypothefis  by  obftrving,  that  the  moun- 
taineers of  warm  ch'mates,  as  in  Barbai^y  and  Ceylon, 
arc  much  fairer  than  the  inliab'tants  of  the  valleys : 
that  the  Saracens  and  Moors,  who  conquered  the 
Tiorth-eaft  part  of  Africa  in  1 700,  from  being  brown, 
are  become  like  the  negroes  near  the  equator  :  that 
the  Portuguefe,  who  fettled  at  Senegal  in  1400,  be- 
came blacks ;  and  Tudela  the  Jew  aflerts,  that  his 
countiymen  in  Abyfliuia  acquired  the  dark  complexion 
of  the  original  natives. 

Upon  the  whole  :  Colour  and  figure  may  be  ftyled 
habits  of  the  body.  Like  other  habits,  they  are  cre- 
ated, not  by  great  and  fudden  impreflions,  but  by  con- 
tinual and  almod  imperceptible  touches.  Of  habits 
both  of  mind  and  body,  nations  are  fufceptible  as  well 
as  individuals.  They  are  tranfmitted  to  offspring,  and 
augmented  by  inheritance.  Long  in  growing  to  ma- 
turity, national  features,  like  national  manners,  become 
fiXed  only  after  a  fucceffion  of  ages.  They  become, 
however,  fixed  at  laft  ;  and  if  we  can  afcertain  any  ef- 
feft  produced  by  a  given  Hate  of  weather  or  of  cli- 
inate,  it  requires  only  repetition  during  a  fufficient 
length  of  time  to  augment  and  imprefs  it  with  a  per- 
manent character.  The  fanguine  countenance  will, 
for  this  reafon,  be  perpetual  in  the  hightll  latitudes  of 
the  temperate  zone  ;  and  we  (hall  for  ever  find  the 
fwarthy,  the  olive,  the  tawny,  and  the  black,  as  we 
defcend  to  the  foutli. 

The  uniformity  of  the  efi'eft  in  the  fame  climate, 
and  on  men  in  a  fimilar  ftate  of  fociety,  proves  the 
power  and  certainty  of  the  caufe.  If  the  advocates  of 
different  human  fpecies  fuppofe  that  the  beneficent 
Deity  hath  created  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth  of  dif- 
ferent colours,  becaufe  thefe  colours  are  bed  adapted 
to  their  refpeftive  zones  ;  it  furcly  places  his  benevo- 
lence in  a  more  advantageous  light  to  fay,  he  has  given 
to  human  nature  the  power  of  accommodating  itfelf  to 
every  zone.  This  pliancy  of  nature  is  favourable  to 
the  unions  of  the  mod  diilant  nations,  and  facilitates 
the  acquifition  and  the  extenfion  of  fcience,  which 
would  otherwife  be  confined  to  few  objcfts  and  to  a 
very  limited  range.  It  opens  the  way  particularly  to 
the  knowledge  of  the  globe  which  we  inhabit  ;  a  fub- 
jeft  fo  important  and  interefting  to  man.  It  is  veri- 
fied by  experience.  Mankind  are  for  ever  changing 
their  habitations  by  conquefts  or  by  commerce ;  and 
we  find  them  in  all  climates',  not  only  able  to  endure 
the  change,  but  fo  alTimilated  by  time,  that  we  cannot 
fay  with  certainty  whofe  anceilor  was  the  native  of  the 
clime,  and  whofe  the  intruding  foreigner. 

All  the  foregoing  obfervations  have  been  well  reca- 
pitulated, ilKiftrated  by  new  faiSls,  and  enforced  by 
additional  reafoning  founded  on  experience,  by  the 
Reverend  Dr  S.  S.  Smith,  profeffbr  of  moral  philofo- 
phy  in  the  college  of  New  Jtrfey,  in  his  EJj'ay  011  the 
Caufcs  of  the  Variety  of  Complexion  and  Figure  in  the  Hu- 
vian  Species;  to  which  the  reader  who  wifhes  for  fur- 
ther fatisfaditm  on  the  fubjeft  is  referred. 

COMPLEXUS  ;  and  Compiexi/s  Minor,  or  Tra- 
belo-mcJlaiiUiis :  two  mufclcs  in  the  pofterior  part  of 
the  trunk.     See  Anatomy,  Table  of  the  Mufcles. 

COMPLICATION,  in  general,. denotes  the  bknd- 


Compofi. 
tion. 


ing,  or  rather  interweaving,  of  feveral  different  things    Compline 
together  :   thus,  a  perfon  afflided  with  feveral  diforders 
at  the  fame  time,  is  faid  to  labour  under  a  complica- 
tion of  diforders. 

COMPLINE,  the  laft  divifion  of  the  Romifh  bre- 
viary. It  was  inftituted  to  implore  God's  protedion 
during  the  night,  as  the  prime  is  for  the  day.  It  is 
recited  after  fun-fet;  and  is  fo  called,  becaufe  it  com- 
pletes the  office  for  the  24.  hours. 

COMPLUTENSIAN  bible.   See  Bible  (GreeiJ. 

COMPONE,  or  Componed,  or  Gobony,  in  heral- 
dry. A  bordure  compone  is  that  formed  or  compofed 
of  a  row  of  angular  parts,  or  chequers  of  two  colours. 

COMPONED,  or  Composed,  is  alio  ufed  in  gene- 
neral  for  a  bordure,  a  pale,  or  a  fefs,  compofed  of  two 
different  colours  or  metals  difpofcd  alternately,  fepa- 
rated  and  divided  by  fillets,  excepting  at  the  corners  ; 
where  the  juntlures  are  made  in  form  of  a  goat's 
foot. 

COMPOSITE,  in  general,  denotes  fomething  com- 
pounded, or  made  up  of  feveral  others  united  together: 
thus, 

CoMTOsiTE  Niimlers,  are  fuch  as  can  be  meafured 
exaftly  by  a  number  exceeding  unity  ;  as  6  by  2  or 
3,  or  10  by  5,  &c.  fo  that  4  is  the  lowell  compofite 
number.  Compofite  numbers,  between  themfelves, 
are  thofe  which  have  fome  common  meafure  befides 
unity  ;  as  12  and  15,  as  being  both  meafured  by  3. 

CoMfOiiTR  Order,  in  architefture,  die  lall  of  the 
five  orders  of  columns;  fo  called  becaufe  its  capital  is 
compofed  out  of  thofe  of  the  other  columns,  borrow- 
ing a  quarter-round  from  the  Tufcan  and  Doric,  a  row 
of  leaves  from  the  Corinthian,  and  volutes  from  the 
Ionic.  Its  corniche  has  fimple  modilHons  or  dentils. 
It  is  alfo  called  the  Roman  or  Italic  order,  as  having 
been  invented  by  the  Romans.  By  moll  authors  it  is 
ranked  after  the  Corinthian,  either  as  being  the  next 
richell,    or  the  laft  invented.     See  Architecture, 

COMPOSITION,  in  a  general  fenfe,  the  uniting 
or  putting  together  feveral  things,  fo  as  to  form  one 
whole,  called  a  compound. 

CoMTOiiTioN  of  Ideas,  an  aft  of  the  mind,  whereby 
it  unites  feveral  fimple  Ideas  into  one  conception  or 
cofnplex  idea. 

When  we  are  provided  with  a  fufficient  flock  of 
fimple  Ideas,  and  h;vve  by  habit  and  ufe  rendered  them 
familiar  to  our  minds,  they  become  the  component  parts 
of  other  ideas  lllll  more  complicated,  and  form  what 
we  may  ca'l  a  fccoiid  order  of  compound  notions.  Tills 
procels  may  be  continued  to  any  degree  of  compofition 
we  pleafe,  mounting  from  one  llage  to  another,  and 
enlarging  the  number  of  combinations. 

Composition,  in  grammar,  thejoining  of  two  words 
together;  or  prefixing  a  particle  to  another  word,  to 
augment,  diminlih,  or  change  its  iignification. 

Composition,  in  logic,  a  method  of  reafoning, 
whereby  we  proceed  from  fome  general  felf-evidciit. 
truth  to  other  partlcuLir  and  fingular  ones. 

In  difpefing  and  putting  together  our  thoughts,  there 
are  two  ways  of  proceeding  equally  within  our  choice;, 
for  we  may  fo  fuppofe  the  trutiis,  relating  to  tmy  part 
of  knowledge,  as  they  prefented  themfelves  to  the, 
mind  In  the  manner  of  inveiligation  ;  carrying  on  the 
feries  of  procfj  i:i  a  reverfe  order,  till  they  at  laft  ter- 

aalDate. 


I 


Conipofi- 
tiun. 


COM  [2 

mlnate  in  firft  principles :  or  beginning  with  thcfe  pn'n- 
■  ciplcs,  we  may  take  the  contrary  way;  and  from  them 
deduce,  by  a  direft  tr;>In  of  rcafoning,  all  the  fevcral 
propofitions  we  want  to  eftablifh. 

This  diverfity  in  the  manner  of  arranjjing  our 
thou/fhts  gives  rife  to  the  twofold  divilion  of  method 
eftabliHitd  among  logicians  ;  the  one  called  analytic 
method,  or  the  method  of  refoliition,  inafmuch  as  it 
traces  things  back  to  their  fource,  and  refolves  know- 
ledge Into  its  firil  and  original  principles.  This  me- 
thod ftands  in  contradiftindion  to  the  method  of  com- 
polltion  ;  or,  as  it  is  otherwife  called,  the  fyntbetic 
inttliod  :  for  here  we  proceed  by  gathering  together 
the  iVveral  fcattcred  parts  of  knowledge,  and  combi- 
ning them  into  one  fyllem,  in  fuch  a  manner  as  that 
tlie  underllanding  is  enabled  dillinClly  to  follow  truth 
through  all  the  ditferent  (lagcs  of  grHdation. 

Composition,  in  mufic,  is  the  art  of  inventing  and 
writing  airs  ;  of  accompanviug  them  with  a  fuitable 
harmony ;  in  fhort,  of  forming  a  complete  piece  of  ma- 
fic ill  all  its  parts. 

The  knowlege  of  melody,  harmony,  and  its  rules, 
is  the  foundation  of  compofition.  Without  doubt, 
it  is  neceffary  to  know  in  what  manner  chords  fhould 
be  filled,  how  to  prepare  and  refolve  diffonances, 
how  to  iind  the  fundamental  bafs,  and  how  to  put  in 
prafiice  all  the  other  minutiae  of  elementary  know- 
ledge ;  but  with  the  mechanical  rules  of  harmony  alone, 
one  is  by  no  means  better  qualified  to  underlland  the 
art,  and  operate  in  the  practice  of  compofition,  than 
to  form  himfelf  for  eloquence  upon  all  the  rhetorical 
precepts  exhibited  in  grammar.  We  need  not  fay,  that 
bclides  this,  it  is  neceffary  to  underlland  the  genius 
and  compafs  of  voices  and  inftruments;  to  judge  what 
airs  may  be  of  eafy,  and  what  of  difficult,  execution  ; 
to  obferve  what  will,  and  what  will  not,  be  produc- 
tive of  any  effeft  ;  to  feel  the  charailer  of  different 
movements,  as  well  as  that  of  different  modulations, 
that  both  may  be  always  fuitably  applied  ;  to  know 
the  different  rules  eftablifhed  by  convention,  by  tafle, 
by  caprice,  or  by  pedantry,  as  fugues,  imitations,  or 
in  pieces  where  the  fubjeft  is  cor.tincd  to  uniform 
laws  in  its  harmony,  melody,  ihithmus,  &c.  All  thcfe 
acquifjtions  are  flill  no  more  than  preparatives  for 
compofition  :  but  the  compofer  mull  find  in  his  own 
genius  the  fources  of  beautiful  melody,  of  fublime  har- 
mony, the  pifturcfque,  and  the  expreffive  in  mufic  ; 
he  muft,  in  fhort,  be  capable  of  perceiving,  and  of 
forming,  the  order  of  the  whole  piece ;  to  follow  the 
relations  and  aptitudes  of  which  it  is  fufceptible  in 
every  kind  ;  to  inflame  his  foul  with  the  fpirit  and  en- 
thufiafm  of  the  poet,  rather  than  childifhly  amufe  him- 
felf with  punning  in  harmony,  or  adapting  the  mufic 
to  each  particular  word.  It  is  with  reafon  that  our 
muficians  have  given  the  name  of  ivords  to  the  poems 
which  they  fet  to  mufic.  It  appears  evident  from 
their  manner  of  expreffing  them,  that,  in  their  appre- 
henfion,  they  feemed  words,  and  words  alone.  One 
would  be  tempted  to  imagine,  particularly  during  fome 
of  thefe  laft  years,  that  the  rules  for  the  formation 
and  fucceffion  of  chords  have  caufed  all  the  refl  to  be 
neglefttd  or  forgot ;  and  that  harmony  has  made  no 
acquifitions  but  at  the  expence  of  what  is  general  and 
effential  in  the  mufical  art.  All  our  artifts  know  how 
to  fill  a  chord  with  its  conilituent  founds,  or  a  piece  of 


gt     ]  COM 

harmony  with  its  conftituent  parts ;  but  not  a  foul 
amonglt  them  feels  a  ray  of  compofition.  As  to  what 
remains,  though  the  fundamental  rules  of  counter- 
point, or  mufic  in  parts,  continue  Hill  the  fame,  they 
are  more  or  lefs  rigorous  and  inflexible  in  proportion 
as  the  parts  increafe  in  number  ;  for  according  as  the 
parts  are  multiplied,  the  difiiculty  cf  compofition  is 
heightened,  and  the  rules  are  lets  ftvere. — Compofi- 
tions  in  two  parts  are  called  thisttos  when  the  two  per- 
formers fing  equally  ;  that  is  to  fay,  when  tlie  fubject 
is  no  further  extended,  but  divided  between  them  :  but 
if  the  fubjeiit  is  in  one  part  alone,  and  the  fubordinatc 
harmony  no  more  than  an  accompanyment,  the  firft  part 
is  then  either  called  a  mitcilive ov  ixfo/o;  and  the  other 
an  accompanyment,  or  continued  bafs,  if  it  is  a  bafs.  It 
is  the  fame  cafe  with  the  trio,  with  compofitions  iu  three, 
in  four,  or  in  five  parts. 

The  name  of  compofition  is  likewife  given  to  fuch 
pieces  of  mulic  themfelves  as  are  formed  according  to 
the  rules  of  the  art.  For  this  reafon  the  duetts,  trios, 
quuricltos,  which  liave  juil  been  mentioned,  are  called 
compu/ttions , 

Compofitions  are  either  formed  for  the  voice  alone, 
or  for  inftruments,  or  for  voices  and  inftruments  join- 
ed. Full  chorufes  and  fongs  are  the  only  compofitions 
principally  intended  for  the  voice,  though  fonictimes 
inftruments  are  joined  with  it  to  fupport  it.  Compo- 
fitions for  inftruments  are  intended  to  be  executed  by 
a  band  in  the  orcheflra,  and  then  they  are  called 
fymphonics,  concertos ;  or  for  fome  particular  fpecies 
of  inftruments,  and  then  they  are  called  pieces  or  fo- 
natas. 

Such  compofitions  as  are  deftined  both  for  voices 
and  inftruments,  have  been  generally  divided  into 
two  capital  fpecies,  iiiit,.  the  facrcd  and  the  fecidar. 
The  compofitions  deftined  for  the  church,  whether 
pfalms,  hymns,  anthems,  or  refponfives,  are  in  gene- 
ral diflinguifhed  by  the  name  of  church -mufic,  and 
charatleri/.ed  by  their  intention  to  be  fung  with  words. 
Secular  mufic  in  general  may  likewife  be  divided  into 
two  kinds  ;  theatrical  and  chamber  mufic.  Of  the  firft 
kind  is  that  ufed  in  the  operas ;  the  fubdivifions  of  the 
fecond  are  endlefs.  Solos,  concertos,  cantatas,  fongs, 
and  airs,  almofl  of  every  kind,  which  are  not  adapted 
to  the  church  or  the  llage,  may  be  included  in  the  idea 
of  chamber-mufic. 

In  general,  it  is  thought,  that  facred  mufic  requires 
deeper  fcience,  and  a  more  accurate  obfervation  of 
rule's;  the  fecular  fpecies  gives  more  indulgence  to  ge- 
nius, and  fubfifts  in  greater  variety. 

But  we  muft  here  obferve,  that  the  ecclefiaftical 
mufic  now  ufed,  or  rather  profaned  and  murdered, 
amongfl  us,  though  regular  in  its  harmony,  is  limple 
in  its  compofition,  and  demands  not  that  profound 
knowledge  in  the  art,  either  to  form  or  comprehend 
it,  which  Rouffeau,  whom  till  now  we  have  followed 
in  this  article,  feems  to  imagine.  His  affcrtion  can 
only  be  applicable  to  the  church-mufic  of  Italy.  That 
which  is  now  eflabUlhed  amongfl  us  feems  not  to  be 
indigenous,  but  transfer! ed  with  the  Calviniflical  li- 
turgy from  Geneva;  and  as  it  is  intended  for  popular 
ufe,  it  can  by  no  means  be  eftcemed  an  high  exertion 
of  the  mufical  art :  yet,  however  fimple,  it  is  pleafing; 
and,  when  properly  performed,  might  elevate  the  foid 
to  a  degree  of  devotion,  and  even  of  rapture,  which 
Oo  2  at 


Compftfi- 
tion. 


COM  [       2( 

Cnmpofi-  at  prtff nt  we  are  fo  far  from  feeling,  that  we  rathtr 
'■""■  feein  to  fleep  or  to  howl,  th?.n  to  fing  the  praLfe  of 
'  God.  Perhaps  our  clergy  may  iind  more  advantage  in 
cultivating  their  farms ;  but  they  would  furely  feel  a 
higher  and  divinei-pleafure  in  cultivating  the  taftes  and 
voices  of  their  people.  The  one,  however,  is  not  in- 
compatible Avith  the  other.  An  hour  of  relaxation  in 
a  winter  evening  might  ferve  for  the  accomplifliment 
of  this  pious  purpofe  ;  and  one  Ihould  imagine,  that, 
independent  of  religious  confiderations,  the  fpirit  of 
the  craft  might  diAate  fuch  a  meafure  as  calculated  to 
produce  popular  entertainment  and  gain  popular  <if- 
fedion. 

In  compofition,  the  author  cither  confines  himfelf, 
as  a  fubjeft,  to  the  mere  mechanical  modulations  and 
arrangements  of  found ;  and,  as  his  end,  to  the  pleafure 
of  the  ear  alone ;  or  otherwife  he  foars  a  nobler  height ; 
he  afpires  to  imitative  mufic  ;  he  endeavours  to  ren- 
der the  hearts  and  fouls  of  his  auditors  duftile  by  his 
art,  and  thus  to  produce  the  nobleft  emotions  and 
mod  falutai-y  effefts.  In  the  firft  view,  it  is  only 
necefiai-y  that  he  fhould  look  for  beautiful  founds  and 
agreeable  chords  ;  but  in  the  fecond,  he  ought  to  con- 
fider  mufic  in  its  conformity  with  the  accents  of  the 
human  voice,  and  in  the  expreflive  powers  of  notes 
harmonically  combined  to  fignify  or  paint  fuch  objccls 
as  are  fufceptible  of  imitation.  In  RoulTeau's  article 
Opera,  fome  ideas  may  be  found  by  which  the  art  may 
he  ennobled  and  elevated,  by  forming  mufic  into  a 
language  more  powerful  and  pathetic  than  eloquence 
itfelf.     See  Opera. 

Composition,  in  literature,  the  art  of  forming 
and  arranging  fcntiments,  and  cloathing  them  with 
language  fuitable  to  the  nature  of  the  fubject  r  dif- 
courfe.  See  the  articles  Language,  Oratory,  Po- 
etry, Dialogue,  Epistle,  and  History. 

Composition,  in  chemiftry,  is  the  union  and  com- 
bination of  feveral  fubftances  of  different  natures,  from 
\vhich  a  compound  body  refults.  From  this  union  of 
bodies  of  different  natures,  a  body  is  formed,  of  a  mix- 
ed nature,  which  Becker  and  Stahl  have  called  a  mix- 
ture, and  which  may  be  called  ?i  combination,  or  chemical 
(ompofition,  to  avoid  the  equivocal  fenfe  of  the  word 
inixtitre.  By  this  lafl,  we  underhand  only  a  mere  ap- 
pofition  of  parts;  and  which  would  therefore  give  a 
very  falfe  idea  of  chemical  compofition,  in  which  a 
mutual  adhefion  takes  place  between  the  combined 
fubftances. 

Composition,  in  painting.  Includes  the  invention 
as  well  as  difpofition  of  the  figures,  the  choice  of  at- 
titudes,  &c. 

Compofition,  therefore,  confifts  of  two  parts  ;  one 
of  which  finds  out,  by  means  of  hillory,  proper  ob- 
jetls  for  a  pifture;  and  the  other  difpofes  them  to  ad- 
vantage.    See  Painting. 

Composition,  in  pharmacy,  the  art  or  aft  of  mix- 
ing divers  ingredients  together  into  a  medicine  fo  as 
they  may  zdTill  each  other's  virtues,  fupply  each  other's 
defcfts,  or  correft  any  ill  qualities  thereof.  See  Phar- 
macy. 

Composition,  in  commerce,  a  contraft  between 
an  infolvent  debtor  and  his  creditors,  whereby  the 
latter  accept  of  a  part  of  the  debt  in  Compofition  for 
the  whole,  and  give  a  general  acquittance  accord- 
ingly. 


] 


C    O    M 


CoMPOSiTioK,  *n  printing,  commonly  termed  «m- 
pofmg,  the  aiTanging  of  feverul  types  or  letters  in  the 
compofing-ilick,  in  order  to  foiTn  a  line;  and  of  fe- 
veral lines  ranged  in  order>  in  the  galley,  to  make  a 
page ;  and  of  feveral  pages  to  make  a  form.  See 
Printing. 

COMPOSITE,  in  botany.  The  name  of  a  clafs 
in  Herraannus  and  Royeu  ;  as  likewife  of  an  order  in 
Linnjeus's  fragments  of  a  natural  metliod,  confifting 
in  general  of  the  plants  which  have  the  characters 
enumerated  in  the  following  article.  A  particiJar 
defcription  of  this  order  is  given  under  the  article 
Syngenesia,  which  includes  all  the  compound 
flowers. 

COMPOSITUS  FLOS,  in  botany,  an  aggregate 
flower  compofed  of  mzny  Jhjluii  fejjiles,  on  a  common 
entire  receptacu'um,  with  a  common  perianthium,  and 
whofe  anthers  being  five  in  number  unite  in  the  form 
of  a  cylinder  ;  the  flofcull  are  monopetalous,  and  under 
each  of  them  is  a  monofpermous  gcrmen.  Compound 
flowers  arc  either  ligulali,  tubulqfi,  or  radiat'u 

COMPOST,  in  agriculture,  denotes  a  certain  kind 
of  mixture  deiigned  to  alfill  the  foil  in  t  'e  way  of  ve- 
getation, inllead  of  dung.  The  requifites  for  a  com- 
poft  are,  i.  That  it  ought  to  be  cheaper  than  the 
quantity  of  dung  required  for  an  equal  extent  of  foil.. 
2.  It  ought  to  be  Icfs  bulky  j  and,  3.  It  ought  to  pro- 
duce equal  cffefts. 

Under  the  article  Agriculture,  we  have  endea- 
voured to  fhow,  that  the  true  vegetable  food  confifts 
in  reality  of  the  putiid  effluvia  proceeding  from  de- 
cayed animal  and  vegetable  lubilances.  If  this  theory 
is  admitted,  the  hope  of  making  compofts  as  a  fucce- 
daneum  for  dung  is  but  very  fmall,  unlefs  they  arc 
made  of  putrefied  animal  and  vegetable  fiibllances  ;  in 
which  cafe,  unlefs  in  very  fingular  circumllauces,  they 
will  prove  much  dearer  than  dung  itfelf.  Several  at- 
tempts, however,  have  been  made  by  thofe  who  had 
other  views  concerning  the  nature  of  the  true  vege- 
table food.  An  oil-compoft  is  recommended  in  the 
Georgical  Effays,  upon  a  fuppofition  that  the  food  of 
vegetables  is  of  an  oily  nature.  It  is  made  as  follows  : 
"  Take  of  North  American  potafii  1 2  lb.  Break  the  fait 
into  fmall  pieces,  and  put  it  Into  a  convenient  veffel 
with  four  gallons  of  water.  Let  the  mixture  Hand  48 
hours;  then  add  coarfe  train  oil  14  gallons.  In  a  few 
days  the  fait  will  be  diffolved,  and  the  mixture,  upon 
ftirring,  will  become  nearly  uniform.  Take  I4buflrels 
of  fand,  or  20  of  dry  mold;  upon  thefe  pour  the  above 
liquid  ingredients.  Turn  this  compofition  frequently 
over,  and  in  fix  months  it  will  be  fit  for  ufe.  When 
the  liquid  ingredients  are  put  co  one  or  two  hogfheads 
water,  a  liquid  compoft  will  be  formed,  which  muft  be 
ufed  with  a  water  cart." 

This  compoft,  however,  the  inventor  himfelf  owns 
to  be  inferior  to  rotten  dung,  as  indeed  may  very  na- 
turally be  fuppofed  ;  yet  In  fome  cafes  it  feems  ca- 
pable of  doing  fervice,  as  will  appear  from  fome  of 
the  following  experiments  which  we  extraft  from  the 
effays  above  mentioned. 

Exp.  I.  By  the  author  of  the  effays.  "  I  took  four 
pots,  h°  I,  2,  3,4.  N  1.  contained  I2lb.  of  barreo 
fand,  with  i  oz.  of  the  fand  oil  compoft.  N^  2.  con- 
tained I2lb.  of  fand  without  any  mlxtiu-e.  N"  3.  had 
jzlb.  of  fand  with  half  an  ounce  of  flaked  lime.   N"  +. 

had 


Compufi- 
tion 

II 
Compf'ft. 


COM  [ 

Compod-  bad  I  all),  of  fatid  wiih  407.  of  the  fand  oll-compoll. 
^  "' Jii  tlie  month  of  March,  1  put  fix  grains  01  wheat  in- 
to eacli  pot,  and  during  the  fummer,  I  occafionally 
watered  the  plants  witli  filtrated  water.-  All  the  time 
the  plants  were  confuming  the  farina,  I  could  obferve 
veiy  little  difl'erence  in  their  appearance.  But  after 
cue  month's  growth,  I  remarked  that  n°  I.  was  the 
belt  ;  n''  2.  the  next  ;  n°  3,  the  next;  and  n°  4.  much 
the  worfl."  The  fame  differences  were  obferved  in 
Aiigult,  when  n"  i.  the  belt,  had  tive  fmall  cars,  which 
contained  a  few  poor  grains  of  wheat. 

J'ix/i.  II.  By  the  fame.  "  In  the  month  of  June,  I 
ftlcfted  four  lands  of  equal  goodnefs  in  a  field  in- 
tended for  turnips.  The  foil  was  aliglit  fund,  witli  a 
tolerable  quantity  of  vegetable  earth  amougll  it.  It 
was  ploughed  out  of  fward  in  November,  and  had  not 
home  a  crop  for  many  years.  I  (liall  dillinguifli  my 
experimental  lands  by  n''  I,  2,  3,  4.  N"  I.  was  ma- 
nured witli  rotten  dung;  n°2.  with  oil-compoft  ;  n°  3. 
with  lime  ;  n°  4.  was  left  without  any  dreffing.  On 
the  20th  of  June  they  were  all  fown  with  turnip-feed 
broad-call,  and  during  the  courfe  of  the  feafon  were 
twice  hoed.  In  November  I  viewed  the  field,  and  made 
the  following  remarks.  N'  I.  the  bell;  n""^  2.  t-lie  next; 
n°  3.  the  woVll ;  n°  4.  better  than  n°3."  Here  the 
oil-compoft  appears  in  a  favourable  light  ;  but  other 
trials,  made  with  equal  accuracy,  ftem  rather  to  prove, 
that  it  is  not  proper  for  turnips,  barley,  or  quick 
growing  vegetables.  It  requires  being  meliorated  by 
the  atmofphere,  and  therefore  is  better  adapted  for 
winter  crops. 

Ex/>.  III.  by  the  fame.  "  In  the  month  of  May, 
I  planted  I  2  alleys  that  lay  between  my  afparagus  beds 
with  cauliflower  plants.  Each  alley  took  up  about  30 
plants.  One  of  the  aDeys  I  fet  apart  for  an  experi- 
ment with  the  oil-corapoil,  prepared  according  to  the 
direftions  already  given.  About  an  handful  of  the 
compoll  was  put  to  the  root  of  each  cauliflower  plant. 
In  all  other  refpefts  the  alley  was  managed  like  the 
veil.  The  plants  in  general  flowered  veiy  well ;  but 
tliofe  to  which  I  applied  tiie  compoft  fprung  up  hafti- 
ly  with  fmall  ftalks,  and  produced  vei'y  poor  flowers. 
I  imputed  this  unfavourrjble  appearance  to  the  frefli- 
nels  of  the  conpoll,  which  was  only  a  few  weeks  old. 
In  the  September  following  this  unfuccefsful  expe- 
riment, I  planted  the  fame  alleys  with  eaily  cab- 
bages. The  necelTity  of  meliorating  the  compoll  was 
in  this  trial  fully  confirmed.  For  the  cabbages  that 
grew  upon  the  alley,  which  in  May  had  received  the 
compoll,  were  larger  and  in  all  refpedls  finer  than  the 
others." 

£xp.  IV.  by  James  Stovin,  Efq;  of  DoncaHer. 
"  In  the  year  1769,  I  made  the  following  trial  with 
the  oil-compoft,  prepared  as  above  directed.  One  acre 
fown  with  barley,  and  manured  with  oil-compoft  at 
18  s.  produced  five  quarters  five  bufhels.  An  acre 
adjoining,  fown  with  barley,  and  manured  with  12 
loads  of  rotten  dung  at  3I.  produced  four  quarters 
three  bufhels  and  two  pecks.  The  compoll-barley 
was  bolder  and  better  corn  than  the  other.  In  the 
year  1770,  the  dunged  acre  produced  of  rye,  three 
quarters.  The  compofl  acre  of  ditto,  two  quarters 
fix  bufhels.  In  the  ye;ir  1771,  the  fame  lands  were 
fown  with  oats,  and  the  produce  was  greatly  in  fa- 
voiw  of  the  dunged  acre.     Tbtfe  txperimental  lands 


293     ]  COM 

were  in  a  common  field  that  had  been  long  under  the  Comport, 
plough."  f       ' 

£xj>.  V,  by  Richard  Townly,  Efq.  of  Belfield. 
"  In  the  fpring  1770,  I  prepared  a  piece  of  ground 
for  onions.  It  was  laid  out  into  fix  beds  of  the  fame 
fi/.e,  and  which  were  all  fown  at  the  fame  time.  Over 
two  of  them,  the  oil  compoll  was  fcattered  in  a  very- 
moderate  quantity.  Over  otlier  two,  pigeon's  dung  ; 
and  over  the  remaining  two,  fome  of  my  wecd-compojl 
(fanned  of  putrefied  vegctabks),  v/hich  I  efteem  one 
of  the  beft  manures,  for  mofl  vegetables,  that  cjn  be 
made.  The  onions  came  up  very  well  in  all  the  beds; 
but,  in  about  fix  weeks,  thofe  that  were  fed  with  the 
oil-compoft,  plainly  difcovered  the  advantage  they  had 
over  the  reft,  by  their  luxuriancy  and  colour,  and  at 
the  end  of  the  fummer  perfected  the  finell  crop  I  had 
ever  feen,  being  greatly  fuperior  to  the  others  both  in 
quantity  and  lize.  The  fame  fpring  I  made  an  expe- 
riment upon  four  rows  of  cabbages,  fet  at  the  diftance 
of  four  feet  every  way.  Two  were  manured  with  oil- 
compoft,  and  two  with  my  own.  All  the  plants  were 
unluckily  damaged,  juft  before  they  began  to  form,  by 
fome  turkies  getting  into  the  field  and  Iplucking  off 
the  greateft  part  of  the  leaves.  However,  they  fo  far 
recovered,  in  the  September  following,  from  22  to 
2Slb.  a-piece.  The  rows  proved  fo  equal  in  goodnefs, 
that  I  could  not  determine  which  had  the  advantage. 
The  fame  year,  one  part  of  a  field  of  wheat  expofed  to 
the  north-eaft  winds,  which,  that  fpring,  continued  to 
blow  for  a  month  or  five  weeks,  appeared  very  poor 
and  languid  at  the  time  of  tillering.  Over  it  I  order- 
ed fome  of  the  oil-compofl  to  be  fown  with  the  hand  ; 
which  not  only  recovered,  but  alfo  pufhed  forwards 
the  wheat  plants  in  that  part  of  the  field,  fo  as  to 
make  them  little  inferior,  if  any,  to  the  reft.  The  fame 
fpring,  I  made  a  compaiiitlve  experiment,  upon  four 
contiguous  lands  of  oats,  between  the  oil-compoll 
and  my  own  weed-compoll.  The  latter  had  manifeft- 
ly  the  advantage,  though  the  otjier  produced  a  very 
large  and  fine  crop.  I  alfo  tried  the  cil-coinpofl  up- 
on carrots,  and  it  anfwered  excceilingly  well.  I 
did  the  fame  this  year  (1771)  both  upon  them  and 
my  onions,  and  have  the  finell  crops  of  tliefe  vege- 
tables I  ever  faw  any  whei'e  upon  the  fame  compafs 
of  gi-ound." 

Exp.  V'l.  by   Mr  J,  Broadbent  of  Berwick,  in  El- 
met  near  Leeds.- "  On  the  fidl  of  Oftober  1771,. 

I  fowed  two  acres  of  a  light  channelly  foil  with  wheat, 
and  harrowed  in  the  compoft  with  the  grain.  Being 
at  a  confidei-able  diftance  from  a  large  town,  we  find 
it  very  difficnlt  and  expenfive  to  procure  rotten  dung 
in  fufficient  quantity  for  our  tillage  lands,  for  whlcli 
reafon  we  have  recourfe  to  land-dreffmgs  both  for  our 
winter  and  fpring-coru.  Rape-dull  and  foot  are  prin- 
cipally ufed  ;  but  the  prefent  price  of  both  thefe  ar- 
ticles is  a  heavy  tax  upon  the  farmer.  To  obviate  that 
inconvenience,  I  refolved  to  make  trial  of  the  oil- 
compoft  ;  and  from  what  I  have  obferved  in  this  one 
experiment,  I  ain  encom'aged  to  make  a  moi'c  exten- 
fivc  ufe  of  it  the  next  year.  Being  well  acquainted 
with  the  nature  and  efficacy  of  foot,  I  am  fatisfied,. 
that  the  above  two  acres  produced  as  good  a  crop  of 
wheat  as  if  they  had  been  drcfled  with  that  excellent 
manure." 

On  ibe  fuppofltion  that  vegetables  are  fiipported  by 

mattersL 


COM  [29 

Compi  ft.  matters  of  a  faline  nature,  compolls  formed  of  difie- 
^  rent  forts  of  falts  have  been  contrived,  hut  with  lefs 
fuccefs  than  the  one  above  treated  of.  A  famous  com- 
pofition  of  this  kind  was  lately  fold  by  pntcnt,  under 
the  name  of  Baron  J'^an  Huak's  compnjl.  The  follow- 
ing expevinient  is  mentioned  in  the  Georgical  Effays, 
as  made  with  a  view  to  determine  the  virtues  of  it 
compared  with  the  oil-compoil  and  foot  mixed  with 
alhes. — "  In  the  beginning  of  April  1773,  an  acre  of 
land  was  fown  with  forward  oats.  I  pitched  upon  one 
land  in  the  middle  of  the  piece,  which  I  elleemed  bet- 
ter than  any  of  the  reft,  and  upcSn  this  I  fcattered  Ba- 
ron Van  Haak's  compoft,  in  the  quantity  direfted  in 
his  inllruiftions.  On  one  fide  I  manured  a  land  with 
the  oil-compoft,  but  rather  with  a  Itfs  quantity  than 
direfted;  and,  on  the  other  fide,  I  manured  two  lands 
with  dry  coal-aflies  fifted  fine,  and  an  equal  quantity 
of  foot.  The  lands  upon  which  this  experiment  was 
made,  were  much  worn  out  with  a  long  fucceflion  of 
crops.  The  lands  which  had  the  benefit  of  the  afties 
and  foot,  produced  an  exceeding  fine  crop  ;  the  oil- 
conipoll  produced  a  tolerable  good  one  ;  but  that 
■which  had  only  the  aiTiftance  of  the  baron's  com- 
poft, produced   a   very  poor  one.      It  could  not  have 

^  been  worfe  had  it  been  left  deftitute   of  every  affift- 

ance." 

Comports,  made  with  putrefied  animal  fubftances, 
will  no  doubt  anfwcr  much  better,  in  moft  cafes,  than 
any  other  kind  of  manure,  but  they  are  diflicult  to  be 
procured.  The  following  is  recommended  by  Dr  Hun- 
ter of  York. — "  Take  a  fufficient  quantity  of  faw- 
duft,  incorporate  it  with  the  blood  and  offal  of  a 
ilaiighter-houie,  putting  a  layer  of  one  and  a  layer  of 
the  other  till  the  whole  becomes  a  moift  and  fetid  com- 
pofilion.  Two  loads  of  this  compoft,  mixed  with 
three  loads  of  earth,  will  be  fufficient  for  an  acre  of 
wheat  or  fpring-corn.  Being  a  kind  of  top-di-effing, 
it  (hould  be  put  on  at  the  time  of  fowing,  and  har- 
rowed in  with  the  grain.  The  pi'efent  year  I  have  a 
field  of  wheat  manured  in  this  manner,  and  have  the 
pleafure  to  fay,  that  it  is  extremely  clean,  and  has  all 
the  appearance  of  turning  out  an  excellent  crop.  As 
this  kind  of  compoft  lies  in  a  fmall  compais,  it  fecms 
well  adapted  for  the  ufe  of  fuch  farmers  as  are  obliged 
to  bring  their  manures  from  a  diftance.  It  is  befidcs 
extremely  rich,  and  will  probably  continue  in  the  land 
much  longer  than  fold-yard  or  ftable-dung.  I  appre- 
hend that  it  is  c.ipable  of  reftoring  worn  out  land  to 
its  original  fredmefs;  and  I  am  induced  to  be  of  that 
opinion,  from  the  appearance  of  the  above  crop,  which 
is  now  growing  upon  land  much  impoverillied  by  bad 
management." 

Another  compoft,  prepared  from  whales  flcfti,  is 
recommended  by  Mr  Charles  Chaloner.— "  I  have  a 
particular  pleafure  (fays  he)  in  defcribing  and  ma- 
king public  the  beft  method  of  forming  a  compoft 
from  whales  flefh,  as  recommended  to  me  by  Dr  Hun- 
ter. Having  marked  out  the  length  and  breadth  of 
your  intended  dung-hill,  make  the  firft  layer  of  eai  th 
about  a  foot  in  thickncfs.  Moor-earth,  or  fuch  as  is 
taken  from  ant-hills,  is  the  beft  for  this  purpofe.  O- 
ver  the  earth  lay  one  layer  of  long  litter,  from  the 
f<tld-yard  or  ftable,  about  12  inchnefs  in  thicknefs, 
then  a  layer  of  whale-flefti,  and  over  that  another  layer 
of  dung.     Repeat  the  op.erations  till  the  heap  be  rai- 


4     ] 


COM 


led  about  fix  feet,  then  give  it  a  thick  covering  of 
earth,  and  coat  the  heap  with  fods.  In  this  manner 
each  layer  of  flefli  will  be  placed  between  two  layers  of 
dung.  In  about  a  month  turn  the  wIujIc  in  the  ufual 
manner,  which  will  occafion  a  ftrong  degree  of  heat 
and  fermentation.  When  turned,  coat  with  earth  ag 
before,  with  a  view  to  confine  the  putrid  fteam  which 
would  otherwife  efcape.  In  a  month  or  two  the  heap 
will  be  found  to  be  confiderably  fallen,  wlien  it  fhould 
have  a  fecond  turning  as  before.  The  operation  of 
turning  mull  be  repeated  at  proper  intervals,  till  the 
whole  becomes  an  uniformly  putrid  mafs.  The  whale- 
fltfh  Is  of  different  degrees  of  firmnefs,  fome  of  it  be- 
ing almoft  liquid  ;  and,  in  proportion  to  its  firmnefs, 
the  heap  will  become  fooncr  or  later  fit  for  ufe.  In 
general,  the  compoft  ftiould  not  be  ufed  till  12  months 
old;  but  that  depends  upon  circumftances.  Guard  the 
heap  from  dogs,  pigs,  badgers,  and  vermin,  as  thefe 
animals  are  remarkably  fond  of  whale-flclh.  This  ani- 
mal compoft  may  with  great  advantage  be  applied  to 
all  purpoles  where  good  rotten  dung  is  required.  I 
have  uied  it  with  great  fuccefs  for  cabbages,  and  find 
it  an  excellent  drelCng  for  mesdow-ground.  Accord- 
ing to  the  bell  computation,  one  hogftiead  of  whale 
refufe,  will  make  eight  loads  of  dung,  which,  when  wc 
confider  the  great  facility  with  which  this  bnfis  of  our 
dung-hill  may  be  carried,  Is  a  momentous  concern  to 
fuch  farmers  as  lie  remote  from  a  large  town."  See 
Manure. 

Compost,  In  gardening,  Is  a  mixture  of  feveral 
earths,  earthy  fubitances,  and  dungs,  either  for  the 
improvement  of  the  general  foil  of  a  garden,  or  for 
that  of  fome  particular  plants.  Almoft  every  plant  de- 
lights in  lome  peculiar  mixture  of  foils  or  compoft, 
in  which  it  will  thrive  better  than  In  others.  The 
moft  remarkable  and  generally  ufeful  of  thefe,  are 
taken  notice  of  under  the  defcrlption  of  the  feveral 
botanical  articles,  as  they  occur  in  the  order  of  the 
alphabet. 

COMPOSTELLA,  a  celebrated  town  of  Spain, 
and  capital  of  Galicia,  with  an  archbifhop's  fee,-  and 
an  univcrfity.  'ihe  public  fquarcs,  and  the  churchej, 
particularly  the  Metropolitan  church,  are  very  magni- 
ficent. It  has  a  great  number  of  monafteries,  'for 
both  fcxes,  and  about  2000  houfes.  It  Is  pretended 
that  the  body  of  St  James  was  buried  here,  which 
draws  a  great  number  of  pilgrims  from  moft  parts  of 
Chrlilendom.  They  walk  In  proceffioti  to  the  church, 
and  vifit  his  wooden  image,  which  ftands  on  the  great 
altar,  and  is  Illuminated  with  40  or  50  wax-candles. 
They  kifs  It  three  times  with  a  very  refpeftful  devo- 
tion, and  then  put  their  hats  on  Its  head.  In  the 
church  there  are  30  filver  lamps,  always  lighifed,  and 
fix  chandeliers  of  filver,  five  feet  high.  The  poor  pil- 
grims are  received  Into  an  hofpital,  built  for  that  pur- 
pofe, which  ftands  near  the  church;  and  round  it  are 
galleries  of  free  ftone,  fupported  by  large  pillars.  The 
archbifliop  is  one  of  the  richeft  prelates  in  Spain,  ha- 
ving 70,000  crowns  a  year.  From  this  town  the  mi- 
litary order  of  St  Jago,  or  St  James,  had  its  original. 
It  is  feated  In  a  penlnfula,  formed  by  the  rivers  '^.':.;n- 
bra  and  Ulla,  In  a  pleafant  plain.  W.  Long.  7..  17. 
N.  Lat.  42.  54. 

Nclu  Comiostfll.1,  a  town  of  North  America,  m 
New  Spain,  and  proviace  of  Xalifco,  built  in  IJS'- 

It 


Compoft, 
Cuni^jo- 


Conipref- 
fion. 


COM  [2 

Compnund  It  is  feated  near  the  South  Sea.     W.  Long.  110.  12. 
N.  Lat.  21.0. 

COMPOUND,  in  a  general  fcnfe,  an  appellation 
.,  given  to  whatever  is  compofed  or  made  up  of  diffe- 
rent things  ;  thus  we  fay,  a  compound  word,  com- 
pound found,  compound  talle,  &c. — Compound  differs 
from  complfx,  and  (lands  oppofcd  lofimple.  See  Com- 
plex and  SiMPi-E. 

Compound  Floiver.     See  Compositus  Flos. 

CoMforND  Interejli  called  alfo  tntcreji  upon  mferejl, 
IS  that  which  is  reckoned  not  only  upon  the  principal, 
but  upon  the  inteitft  ilfelf  forborn  ;  which  hereby  be- 
comes a  fort  of  fecondary  principal.      See  Interest. 

Compound  Motion,  that  motion  which  is  effedled  by 
feveral  confpiring  powers.  Powers  are  faid  to  confpire 
if  the  direftion  of  the  one  be  not  quite  oppolite  to 
that  of  the  other  ;  as  when  the  radius  of  a  circle  Is 
conceived  to  revolve  about  a  centre,  and  at  the  fame  time 
a  point  to  move  ftiaight  along  it. 

Compound  Niimhers.,  thofe  which  may  be  divided 
by  fome  other  number  befides  unity,  without  leaving 
any  remainder ;  fuch  are  18,  20,  &c.  the  firll  being 
meafured  by  the  numbers  2,  6,  or  9  ;  and  the  fecond 
by  the  numbers  2,  4,  5,  10. 

Compound  ^ainlities.     See  Algebra. 

Compound  Ratio,  is  that  which  the  piodnft  of  the 
antecedents  of  two  or  more  ratios  lias  to  the  produft 
of  their  couftquents.  Thus,  6  to  72  ii  in  a  ratio  com- 
pounded of  2  to  6,  and  of  3  to  12. 

Compound  (fubftantive),  the  rcfult  or  effeft  of  a 
compofition  of  diff<;rent  things  ;  or  a  mafs  formed  by 
the  union  of  many  ina;redients. 

COMPREHENSION,  in  Engllfh  church-hidory, 
denotes  a  fcheme  propofed  by  Sir  Orlando  Bridgman 
in  1667-8,  for  relaxing  the  terms  of  conformity  in 
behalf  of  prottftant  dilTenters,  and  admitting  them 
into  the  communion  of  the  church.  A  bill  for  this 
purpofc  was  drawn  up  by  Lord  Chief-Baron  Hale,  but 
difallowed.  The  attempt  was  renewed  by  Tillotfon 
and  Stillingfleet  in  1674,  and  the  terms  were  fettled 
to  the  fatisfaftion  of  the  nonconformifts  ;  but  the  bi- 
fliops  rcfufed  their  affent.  This  fcheme  was  llkewife 
revived  again  immediattly  after  the  Revolution  ;  the 
king  and  queen  exprelTed  their  deiire  of  an  union  : 
however  the  dcfign  failed  after  two  attempts;  and  the 
aft  of  toleration  was  obtained. 

Comprehension,  in  mttaphyfics,  is  that  aft  of 
the  ir.ind  whereby  it  apprehends  or  knows  any  objeft 
that  is  prefented  to  it,  on  all  the  fides  whereon  it  is 
capable  of  being  apprehended  or  known.  To  com- 
prehend a  thing  h  defined  by  the  fchoolmen,  rem  ali- 
quani  lotam  el  tolaliler  cognofcere. 

Comprehension,  in  rhetoric,  a  trope  or  figure 
whereby  the  name  of  a  whole  Is  put  for  a  part  ;  or 
that  of  a  part  for  a  whole  ;  or  a  definite  number  of 
any  thing  for  an  indefinite. 

COMPRESS,  in  furgery,  a  bolder  of  foft  linen 
cloth,  folded  in  feveral  doubles,  frequently  applied  to 
cover  a  plafter,  i  1  order  not  only  to  preferve  the  part 
fi-om  the  external  air,  but  alfo  the  better  to  retain  the 
drefiings  or  medicines. 

COMPRESSION,  the  aft  of  prefTing  or  fqueezlng 

fome  matter  together,  fo   as  to   fet  its  parts  nearer  to 

each  other,  and  i^^ke  it  poffefs  lefs  fpace.     Compref- 

Jion  properly  dif  '.  from  cdndenfation,  in   that  the  lat- 

3, 


95     ] 


COM 


ter  is  performed  by  the  aftion  of  cold,  the  former  by 
fome  external  violence. 

COMPROMISE,  a  treaty  or  contraft,  whereby  two 
contending  parties  ellablidi  one  or  more  arbitrators  to 
judge  of  and  terminate  their  difference  in  an  anu'cable 
manner. 

COMPTON  (Henry),  biHiop  of  London,  was  the 
youngeit  fon  of  Spencer  Earl  of  Northampton,  and 
born  in  1632.  After  the  rclloration  of  Charles  II.  he 
became  cornet  of  a  regiment  of  horfe  :  but  foon  after 
quitting  the  army  for  the  church,  he  was  made  bifnop 
of  Oxford  in  1674;  and  about  a  year  after  tranflattd 
to  the  fee  of  London.  He  waa  entrufted  with  the 
education  of  the  two  princeffcs  Mary  and  Anne,  vvhom 
he  alfo  afterwards  married  to  the  princes  of  Orange 
and  Denmark  :  and  their  firmnefs  in  the  Proteilant 
religion  was  in  a  great  mealure  owing  to  their  tutor, 
to  wliom,  when  popery  began  to  prevail  at  court,  io 
was  imputed  as  an  unpardonable  crime.  He  was  fuf« 
pended  from  his  eccIefiallicHl  function  by  James  II. 
but  was  redored  by  him  again  on  the  prince  of  Orange's 
invafion.  He  and  the  biihop  of  Biillol  made  the  ma- 
jority for  filling  the  vacant  throne  with  a  king  :  he 
performed  the  ceremony  of  the  coronation  ;  was  ap- 
pointed one  of  the  commiffioners  for  raifing  the  litur- 
gy ;  and  laboured  with  much  zeal  to  reconcile  diffen- 
ters  to  the  church.  His  fpirit  of  moderation  made 
him  unpopular  with  the  clergy,  and  in  all  probability- 
checked  his  farther  promotion.  He  died  In  1713  ;. 
but,  living  in  bufy  times,  did  not  leave  many  writings 
behind  him. 

Comptroller.     See  Controller. 

COMPULSOR,  an  officer  under  the  Roman  em- 
perors,  difpatched  from  court  into  the  provinces,  to 
compel  the  payment  of  taxes,  &c.  not  paid  within  the 
time  preferibcd.  The  word  is  formed  of  the  verb 
compclhre,  "  to  oblige,  conftrain."  Thefe  were  char- 
ged with  fo  many  exaft^ons,  under  colour  of  their 
office,  that  Honorius  cafhieted  them  by  a  kw  in  412. 

The  laws  of  the  Vifigoths  mention  military  com- 
ptilfors  ;  which  were  officers  among  the  Gotlis,  whofe 
bufinels  was  to  oblige  the  tardy  foldiers  to  go  Into  the 
fight,  or  t.i  run  to  an  attack,  &c. 

Caffian  mentions  a  kind  of  monadic  compulfors, 
whofe  bufinefs  was  to  declare  the  hours  of  canonical 
office,  and  to  take  care  the-  monks  went  to  church  at 
thofe  hours. 

COMPUNCTION,  in  theology,  an  inward  grief 
in  the  mind  for  having  offended  God.  The  word  comes 
from  co?»puvgere,  of  pungere,  "  to  prick." — The  Ro- 
manlfts  own  their  confeffion  infignificant  unlefs  attend- 
ed with  compunftion  or  pricking  of  heart. 

Among  fpirltualilto,  compunftion  bears  a  more  cx- 
tenfive  fijnilHcatlon  ;  and  implies  not  only  a  grief  for 
having  offended  God,  but  alfo  a  pious  fenfaiion  of 
grief,  forrow,  and  difpleafure,  on  other  motives. 
Thus,  the  miferles  of  life,  the  danger  of  being  loll 
in  the  world,  the  bllndnefs  of  the  wicked,  &c.  are  to 
pious  people  motives  of  compunftion. 

COMPURGATOR,  one  that,  by  oath,  juftlfies  an- 
other perfon's  Innocence.  Compurgators  were  intro- 
duced as  evidences  In  the  jurifprudence  of  the  middle 
ages.  Their  number  varied  according  to  the  import- 
ance of  the  fubjeft  in  difpute,  or  the  nature  of  the 
criiae  with  which  a  perfon  was  charged. 

COJSl^ 


Coni'TO- 
mirc 

II 

Conipur- 

gat.ir. 


C    O     M  t     296     ]  C    O 

COMPUTATION,  in  a  general  fenfe,  th?  manner     relativt  to  that  manner  of  paintintr. 
of  ellimating  time,  weights,  meaiure,  montys,  or  quan- 
tities of  any  kind. — The  word  is   I'ometimes  alio  ufed 
amonor  mathematicians  in  tiie  like  feiiie  as  calculation. 

COMUM  (anc.  geof^.),  a  town  of  the  OroUi,  of 
an  ancient  ftandin'T,  and  formerly  povveiful,  daring  to 
difpute  with  the  Romans:   Comeitfef,  the  people  ;   Co 


M 

At  his  return  to 
Naples  with  Solimen.i,  he-  was,  if  polTible,  lllll  more 
adldiious  to  improve  liimfelf  to  the  utmolt ;  and  en- 
tered on  a  projeiA  that  might  at  once  advance  his  in- 
come, and  add  to  his  expertntfs  in  his  profeffion.  That 
project  was,  to  paint  portraits  in  a  fmall  lize  and  at  a 
low  rate  ;  by  which  fcheme  all  ranks  of  perlons  crowd- 


Conca. 


men/is  A"er.,  the  epithet.     It  became  afterwards  no  in-*  ed  to  him  ;  and  befide  the  pecuniary  advantages  refult 


confiderable  municipium,  to  whicli  Julius  Cxfar  added 
5000  new  colonills  (Sttabo)  ;  whence  it  was  general- 
ly called  Novocmmim,  and  the  people  Novotemenfis.  But 
in  time  it  recovered  its  ancient  name,  Comum  ;  Pliny 
the  Younger,  a  native  of  that  place,  calling  it  by  no 
other  name.  Now  Conio,  in  the  duchy  of  Milan,  at 
the  fouth  end  of  the  lake  of  that  name.  E.  Long. 
9.  35.  N.  Lat.  46. 

COMUS,  in  mythology,  the  god  of  jollity  or  fefti- 
vity.  There  is  great  realon  to  believe  he  was  the  Cha- 
mos  of  the  Moabites  ;  Beel-Phegor,  Baal-Peor,  Pria- 
pus,  and  Bacchus.  He  is  icprefented  under  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  young  man,  with  an  inflamed  red  coun- 
tenance, his  head  inclined,  and  crowned  with  flowers ; 
his  air  drovvly  ;  leaning  on  a  'hunifmaa's  fpear  in  his 
left  hand,  and  holding  an  inverted  torch  in  his  right. 
His  ftatue  was  placed  at  the  chamber  doors  of  new 
married  perfons ;  his  pedeftal  crowned  with  flowers. 
CON,  or  CoND.  See  COND. 
CONANT  (Drjohn),  a  learned  Englifli  divine, 
born  in  160S.  He  took  his  degrees  at  Exeter  College 
Oxford  ;  was,  by  the  parliament,  conftituted  one  of 
the  aiTembly  of  divines,  though  he  feldom,  if  ever,  fat 
with  them  ;  and  in  1657  was  admitted  vice-chancellor 
of  the  univerfity.  On  the  reftoration  he  was  one  of 
the  commifiionerf,  and  aflilled  at  the  conferences  in 
the  Savoy  ;  but  was  deprived  by  the  aft  of  uniformi- 
ty :  after  eight  years  he  was  confirmed,  and  vi'as  made 
arch-deacon  of  Norwich,  and  prebendary  of  Worcef- 
tcr.  In  1686  he  loft  his  fight  ;  and  died  in  1693  ; 
leaving  a  number  of  admired  fermons,  afteiwaids  pu- 
blifned  in  fix  volume!. 

CONARION,  or  CoNOiDEs,  a  name  for  the  pineal 
gland.     See  An  atom  v,  n''  132. 

CONATUS,  a  term  frequently  ufed  In  philofophy 
and  mathematics,  defined  by  fome  to  be  a  quantity  of 
motion,  not  capable  of  being  exprefled  by  any  time 
or  length  ;  as  the  conatus  recedendi  ah  axe  motus,  is 
the  endeavour  whicha  body,  moved  circularly,  makes 
to  recede,  or  fly  oil  from  the  centre  or  axis  of  its  mo- 
tion. 

CONCA  (Sebaftian),  called  Cavalier,  a  celebrated 
hlllory  and  portrait  painter,  was  born  at  Gaeta  in 
1679,  and  placed  as  a  difclple  with  Francefco  Solime- 
na,  an  incomparable  mailer.  Under  his  direftlon 
Conca  exerted  his  utmofl  Induflry  to  obtain  a  proper 
knowledge  of  the  true  principles  of  the  art  of  paint- 
ing ;  nor  did  he  permit  any  kind  of  araufement  to 
withdraw  his  attention  from  his  ftudies.  Swlimena 
foon  perceived  in  his  difclple  fuch  talents,  and  fuch  a 
difpofition,  as  would  qualify  him  to  make  a  very  great 
progrefs  ;  and  on  that  account  he  conceived  fo  ftrong 
an  affeftlon  for  him,  that  he  not  only  aiiardcd  him  tlte 
betl  Inllruftions,  but  often  employed  him  to  fl<eich  af- 
ter his  own  dtfigns  ;  took  him  along  with  him  to 
Monte  Caffino,  where  he  was  to  paint  a  chapel  in  fref- 
co  ;  and  there  made  Conca  acquainted  with  every  thing 


ing  from  it,  he  acquired  an  extraordinary  freedom  of 
hand  in  penciling  and  colouring  ;  a  good  habit  of  imi- 
tating nature  with  an  elegant  choice  ;  and  likewife 
great  diveifity  of  airs  of  heads,  which  were  of  extra- 
ordinary ufe  to  him  in  his  future  beautiful  compcjfitlons. 
As  he  had  a  great  defire  to  fee  Rome,  he  obtained 
permlffion  from  Sollmena  to  indulge  his  inclination  ; 
and  although  he  was  near  thirty  years  of  age  when  he 
vifi'.ed  th.-.t  city,  yet  he  fpent  eight  years  in  conftant 
ftudy  after  the  antiques,  after  Buonaroti,  Raphael, 
and  the  Caracci,  and  perfected  hinifelf  in  every  part 
of  his  profeffion.  The  fame  of  his  works  foon  fpread 
throughout  Rome,  and  procured  him  the  patronage  of 
Cardinal  OttobuonI,  who  was  a  princely  encourager 
of  artifts  ;  and  Conca  having  (hown  an  elegant  proof 
of  his  abilities  in  a  compofition  reprcfenting  Herod 
inquliing  of  the  wife  men  the  place  of  the  birth  of 
the  Meffiah,  the  figures  being  as  large  as  life,  the  Car- 
dinal thought  it  io  excellent  a  performance  that  he 
rewarded  lum  in  a  munificent  manner,  enteitaiin.d  him 
in  his  own  palace,  and  introduced  him  to  Pope  Cle- 
ment XI.  who  appointed  Conca  to  paint  the  pifture  of 
the  prophet  Jeremiah  in  the  church  of  S.  John  Late- 
ran  ;  which  he  executed  with  univerfal  applaufe.  On 
that  occafion  the  pope  was  defirous  to  give  him  fome 
particular  mark  of  his  efteem ;  and  therefore,  in  a  ge- 
neral afftmbly  of  the  academicians  of  St  Luke,  he 
conferred  on  him  the  order  of  knighthood,  and  the 
cardinal  prefented  him  with  a  rich  diamond  crofs, 
which  Conca,  out  of  refpeft  to  his  patron,  always 
wore  at  his  bofom.  From  that  time  he  was  inceflant- 
ly  ernployed,  and  his  works  were  folicited  by  moft  of 
the  princes  of  Europe.  Tiie  churches  and  chapels  of 
every  part  of  Italy  are  enriched  with  fome  of  his  com- 
pohtions  ;  of  which  he  painted  an  incredible  number, 
as  he  lived  to  a  very  advanced  age,  and  never  difcon- 
tltiued  his  labours.  He  was  earneltly  invited  by  Phi- 
lip V.  of  Spain  to  vifit  his  court,  but  he  could  not  be 
prevailed  on  to  leave  Rome.  He  pai<!t;d  two  admi- 
rable pictures  for  the  king  of  Poland,  with  figures  as 
large  as  hie  ;  in  one  was  reprefenicd  Alexander  pre- 
fenting  Bucephalus  to  Philip,  after  he  had  managed 
him  ;  a  grand  compofition,  with  a  multitude  of  fi- 
gures, coireftly  deligned,  and  charmingly  grouped 
and  dlfpoled  ;  the  whole  biing  adorned  with  moil  ele- 
gant aithittftuie,  in  tiue  and  beautiful  perfpedlve. 
The  other  was  the  marriage  of  Alexander  with  Roxa- 
na,  the  d.'.ughtcr  of  Daiius,  which  was  in  every  re- 
fpeft equal  io  the  former.  He  was  at  laft  fo  ftrong- 
ly  prefltd  to  go  to  Naples,  that  he  undertook  the 
journey  ;  and  was  received  in  that  kingdom  with  all 
the  rclpeft  and  honour  due  to  his  merit  ;  and  there  he 
finlfted  feveral  nuble  defigns,  as  alfo  at  Gaeta  his  na- 
tive city.  While  he  continued  at  Naples,  he  received  ' 
b  the  royal  prefcnce  a  fnuiT-box  of  very  great  value, 
prefented  to  him  in  the  king's  name  by  the  marquis  of 
Tanucci,  at  that  time  prime  miiiifte, ;  and  in  the  year 

I7J7> 


CON 


[     297     ] 


CON 


Conrale  17^7,  the  kinjj  was  pleafed  to  ennoble  him  and  all  his 
defcendants.  At  that  time  he  was  78,  and  it  is  con- 
fidently faid  that  he  died  in  1761  aged  82,  which  is 
very  probable,  though  not  pofitivcly  certain.  He  iin- 
derftood  perfpeftive  and  architefture  thoronghly,  and 
added  to  it  a  fine  underllanding  of  the  chiaro-fcuro. 
His  flyle  of  compofition  is  grand  and  elegant  ;  his  de- 
fign  very  correft  ;  his  difpofition  ingenious  ;  his  atti- 
tudes and  expreflion  full  of  truth,  nature,  and  variety  ; 
and  his  colouring  is  excellent.  The  hiitory  of  Diana 
and  Aftaeon,  by  Conca,  is  in  the  pofleirion  of  the  earl 
of  Peinhioke  at  Wilton. 

CONCALE  BAY,  is  on  the  coaft  of  France  in  Brit- 
tany, where  the  Englifli  forces  landed  in  June  1758, 
in  order  to  go  to  St  Maloes  j  which  they  did,  and 
burnt  all  the  fiiips  in  that  harbour,  which  were  above 
100,  of  all  forts.  Concale  is  the  town  which  gives 
name  to  the  bay,  and  is  famous  for  oyfters.  It  is  18 
miles  eaft  of  St  Maloes,  and  197  well  of  Paris.  W. 
Long.  I.  47.  N.  Lat.  48.  41. 

CONCARNEAU,  a  town  of  France,  in  Bretagne, 
with  a  harbour  and  a  caftle.     E.  Long.  3.  45.  N.  Lat. 

47-  55- 

CONCATENATION,  a  term  chiefly  ufed  in  fpeak- 
ing  of  the  mutual  dependence  of  fecond  caufes  upon 
each  other. 

CONCAVE,  an  appellation  ufed  in  fpeaking  of  the 
inner  furface  of  hollow  bodie 
fpherical  ones. 


CoNc.ii'E  Glajfes,  fuch  as  are  ground  hollow,  and 
are  ufually  of  a  fpherical  figure,  though  they  may  be 
of  any  other,  as  parabolical,  &c.  AH  objeiSs  feen 
through  concave  glaifes  appear  ereft  and  diminifhed. 

CONCENTRATION,    in   general,    fi^mifies    the 


elapfed  ;    after  this,  or  betiveen   the   fecond  or  third    Concep. 

months,  but  generally  about  the  third,  the  motions  of      ^'""- 
the  embryo  become  perceivable  to   the  mother  ;   who  " 

hereupon  becomes  troubled  with  a  naufea,  vomiting, 
loathing,  longing,  &c.  About  this  time  the  brealb 
begin  to  fwell,  grow  hard  and  painful,  and  contain  a 
little  milk  ;  the  nipples  alfo  become  larger,  firmer,  and 
darker  coloured,  a  livid  circle  appearing  round  them: 
the  eyts  feem  funk  and  hollow.  During  the  two  firft 
months  of  pregnancy,  the  woman  grows  thinner  and 
flonderer  ;  the  abdomen  being  alfo  depreffcd  ;  though 
it  afterwards  diftends,  and  grows  gradually  larger. 

The  manner  wherein  conception  is  efFetled  is  thus 
laid  down  by  the  modern  writers  :  In  the  fuperficies  of 
the  ovaiies  of  women,  there  are  found  little  pellucid 
fpherules,  confiding  of  two  concentric  membranes  fill- 
ed with  a  lymphatic  humour,  and  connefted  to  the 
furface  of  the  ovaria,  underneath  the  tegument,  by  a 
thick  calyx,  contiguous  to  the  extremities  of  the  mi- 
nute ramifications  of  the  Fallopian  tubes. 

Thefe  fpherules,  by  the  ufe  of  veneiy,  grow,  fwell, 
raife  and  dilate  the  membrane  of  the  ovary  into  the 
form  of  papillae  j  till,  the  head  propending  from  the 
ftalk,  it  is  at  length  feparated  from  it  ;  leaving  be- 
hind it  a  hollow  cicatrix  in  the  broken  membrane  of 
the  ovary ;  which,  however,  foon  grows  up  again 
Now,  in  thefe  fpherules,  while  ftill  adhering  to  the 
but  more  efpecially  of  ovjry,  foetufes  have  been  frequently  found  ;  whence  it 
appears,  that  thefe  are  a  kind  of  ova,  or  eggs,  deriving 


their  ftrutlure  from  the  veflels  of  the  ovary,  and  their 
liquor  from  the  humours  prepared  therein. 

Hence  alfo  it  appears,  that  the  Fallopian  tubes  be- 
ing fvcUed  and  ftifFened  by  the  aft  of  venery,  with 
their  mufcular  fimbriae,  like  fingers,  may  embrace  the 


bringing  things  nearer  a  centre.    Hence  the  particles  of    ovaries,  comprefs  them,  and   by   that   comprefiion  ex- 


falt,  in  fea- water,  are  faid  to  be  concentrated  ;  that 
is,  brought  nearer  each  other,  by  evaporating  the  wa- 
tery part. 

CONCENTRIC,  in  mathematics,  fomething  that 
has  the  fame  common  centre  with  another :  it  Hands 
in  oppofition  to  excentr'ic. 

CONCEPTION,  in  logic,  the  fimple  apprehenfion 
or  perception  which  we  have  of  any  thing,  without 
proceeding  to  affirm  or  deny  any  thing  about  it.  Some 
writers,  as  Lord  Karnes,  dillinguifii   between  concep- 


pand  their  own  mouths  :  and  thus  the  eggs,  now  ma- 
ture, and  detached  as  before,  may  be  forced  into  their 
cavities,  and  thence  conveyed  into  the  cavity  of  the 
uterus ;  where  they  may  either  be  cheriihed  and  re- 
tained, as  when  they  meet  with  the  male  fefed  ;  or,  if 
they  want  that,  again  expelled. 

Hence  the  phenomena  of  falfe  conceptions,  abor- 
tions, foetufes  found  in  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen,  the 
Fallopian  tubes,  &c.  For  in  coition,  the  male  feed, 
abounding;   with   livinsr  animalcules,    agitated    with   a 


tl-on  and  perception  ;  making   the  latter  to  denote  the  great  force,  a  briflc  heat,  and   probably  with  a  great 

confcioufnefs  of  an  objeft  when  prefent,  or  to  include  quantity  of  animal  fpirits,  is  violently  impelled  through 

the  reality  of  its  objeft  ;  whereas  conception  exprefles  the   mouth  of  the   uterus,  which   on   this    occafion  is 

the  forming  an   idea   of  an  objcft  whether  prefent  or  opener,  and  through  the  valves  of  the  neck  of  the  ute- 

abfcnt,  or  without  any  convittion  of  its  reality.  rus,    which  on  this  occafion  are  laxer  than  ordinary, 

Co.sCEPTiON,    in   medicine,    denotes   the    firft   for-  into  the  uterus  itfelf;  which  now,  in  like  manner,  be- 

mationofthe  embryo,  or  foetus,   in  the  womb.  comes  more  aftive,  turi/id,  hot,  inflamed,   and  moift- 

Conccption  is  no  other  than  fuch  a  concourfe  and  ened  with   the  flux  of  its  lymph  and  fpirits,  by  means 

commixture  of  the  prolific  feed  of  the  male  with  that  of  the  titillation  excited  in  the  nervous  papillae  by  the 

of  the  female,   in   the  cavity  of  the  uterus,  as  imme-  attrition  againft  the  rugx  of  the  vagina, 
diately  produces  an  embryo.  The  femen  thus  difpofed  in  the  uterus,  is  retained, 

The    fymptoms  of   conception  or    pregnancy  are,  heated,  and  agitated,  by  the  convulfive  conl'.riftion  of 

when,  in  a  few  days  after  the   conjugal   aft,  a   fmall  the  uterus  itfelf ;  till  meeting  with  the  ova,   the  fineft 


pain  is  perceived  about  the  navel,  and  is  attended  with 
fume  gentle  commctions  in  the  bottom  of  the  abdo- 
men ;  and  within  one,  two,  three,  or  even  four, 
months,  the  menfes  ceafe  to  flow,  or  prove  in  lefs 
quantity  than  ufual.  Upon  the  firft  failure  of  this 
kind,  the  woman  begins  to  count  the  feries  of  her 
weeks,  without  taking  any  notice  of  the  lime  before 
■     Vol.  V.  Fait  I. 


and  moft  animated  part  enters  through  the  dilated 
pores  of  the  mcmbranula  of  the  ovum,  now  become 
glandulous  ;  is  there  retained,  nuurifhed,  dilated;  grows 
to  its  umbilicus,  or  navel ;  ftiflcs  the  other  lefs  lively 
animalcules  ;  and  thus  is  conception  eflfefted. 

Hence  it  appears,  that  conception  may  happen  in 

any  part  where  the  femtn  meets  with  an  ovum  :  thus 

P  p  whether 


CON 


[     298     ] 


CON 


Conrtp-    whether  it  be  carried   through  the   Fallop'an  tube   to 
,     *'°°-       the  ovary,  and  there  caft  upon  the    ovum  ;  or  whethe.r 
'  it  meet   with   it  in   fome  recefs  of  the  tube  itfelf;  or, 

laftly,  whether  it  join  it  in  the  cavity  of  the  uterus,  it 
may  ftill  have  the  fame  etfeft,  as  it  appears  from  obfer- 
■vation  aftually  to  have  done.  But  it  is  probable,  that 
conception  is  then  mod  perfeft  when  the  two,  viz.  the 
feraen  and  ovum,  are  carried  at  the  fame  time  into  the 
Uterus,  and  there  mixed.   Sec. 

Other  anatomifts  choofe  to  fuppofe  the  male  feed 
taken  up,  before  it  arrives  in  the  uterus,  by  the  vtins 
which  open  into  the  va;;ina,  &c.  and  thus  mixed  with 
the  blood  ;  by  which,  in  the  courfe  of  circulation,  it  is 
carried,  duly  prepared,  into  the  ovary,  to  impregnate 
the  eggs.  r         ,      ■ 

It  has  been  advanced  by  feveral  writers,  that  women 
may  pnffibly  conceive  iu  their  deep,  and  be  with  child 
without  any  knowledge  of  the  occalion  of  it.  As  ri- 
diculous and  abfurd  as  this  dcftrlue  may  appear  to  the 
generality  of  the  world,  no  lefs  an  author  than  Gen- 
fili  has  thought  it  worthy  a  particular  diflertation. 

CoNCFPTios  Immacultite  of  the  Holy  fiigin,  is  a 
feail  eftablifiied  in  honour  of  the  holy  virgin,  particu- 
larly with  regard  to  her  having  been  conceived  and 
born  Immaculate,  i.  e.  without  original  fin,  held  iu 
the  Romiih  cliurch  on  the  8th  of  Decemlj^r.  The 
immaculate  conception  is  the  great  head  of  controvcr- 
fy  between  the  Scotlfts  and  Thorallls  ;  the  former 
maintaining,  and  the  latter  impugning  it.  In  the  three 
Spanlfh  mlhtary  orders,  of  St  James  of  the  fword,  Cala- 
trava,  and  Alcantara,  the  knights  take  a  vow  at  their 
admiffion  to  defend  the  immaculate  conception.  This 
refohition  was  firft  taken  in  1652.  Peter  d'Alva  has 
publldied  48  huge  volumes  in  foho  on  the  myfteries  of 
the  conception. 

Conception,  an  epifcopal  town  of  Chili  in  South 
America.     It  is  fituated  in  W.  Long.  79.  12.  S.  Lat. 
^6.  43;  and  is  the  oldell  European  fctllement  iu  Chili, 
and   the   fecond   in   point  of  dignity.      On  their  lirll 
fetdement  here,   the  Spaniards  were  repeatedly  driven 
off  by  the  Indians,  fo  that  they  Were  obliged  to  take 
up  their  refidence  at  St  Jago.      Since   that  time  both 
the  cities   of  Conception  and  St  Jago  have  been  fre- 
quently dtftroyed  by  earthquakes.      In  the  year  1 750 
both  of  ihem  were  laid  in  ruins  by  a  dreadful  Ihock, 
the  firR  concuITions  of  which  were  attended  with  an  un- 
ufual  fwelliug  of  the  fea,  that  overturned  the  few  houfes 
which  had   efcaped  the  ravages  of   the  earthquake. 
The  harbour  Is  good,  and  pretty  much  frequented ;  on 
which  account  the  city  is  regarded  as  a  place  of  con- 
fequence.     The  king  allows  annually  350,000  pieces 
of  eight  for  the  fupport  of  a  garrlfon  of  3500  men  ;  a 
corps  that  is  feldom  complete.     None  of  the  fortifica- 
tions are  confiderable  ;  but  thofe  towards  the  land  are 
wretched.     The  Spaniards  now  live  In  tolerable  fecu- 
rity  with  refpe6\  to  the  Indians,  and  have  no  notion 
of  any  attack   from  the  land  fide.     It  is  faid  indeed, 
that  not  only  this  but  all  the  fettlements  in  Chili  and 
Peru  would  fall  an  eafy  prey  to  the  attacks  of  a  foreign 
enemy  ;  the  fortifications  being  In  ruins,  and  the  gar- 
rlfons  fcaice  half  the  number  required  by  the  king: 
owing  to  the  avarice,  ignorance,  and  fupine  negligence 
of  the  governors,  who  ftudy  nothing  but  to  enrich 
Shemfelves. 

Conception,  a  town  of  North  America,  in  New 


Spain,  and  in  the  Audience  of  Guatimall.    It  is  feated    Concert 
near  the  fea-coaft,  100  miles  weft  of  Porto-bcUo,  and 
a  fmall  river  that  runs  into  the  fea.     W,  Long.  83.  5. 
N.  Lat.  ID.  o. 

CONCERT,  or  Concerto,  in  mufic,  a  number 
or  company  of  miriicians,  playing  or  finging  the  fame 
piece  of  mufic  or  fong  at  the  fame  time. 

CONCERT ATO  intimates  the  piece  of  mufic  to  be 
compofed  In  fuch  a  manner,'  as  that  all  the  parts  may 
have  their  recitatives,  be  it  for  two,  three,  four,  or 
more  voices  or  Inilruments. 

CONCERTO  GROssi,  the  grand  chorus  of  a  con- 
cert, or  thofe  places  where  all  the  feveral  parts  per- 
form or  play  together. 

CONCESSION,  in  general,  fignifies  either  the  aft 
of  granting  or  yielding  any  thing,  or  the  thing  itfelf 
which  is  fo  granted  or  yielded. 

Concession,  in  rhetoric,  a  figme,  whereby  fome- 
tliiiig  is  freely  allowed,  tliat  yet  might  bear  difpute, 
to  obtain  fomething  that  one  would  have  granted  to 
him,  and  which  he  thinks  cannot  fairly  be  denied,  as 
in  the  following  concefiion  of  Dido,  in  Virgil : 

"  The  nuptials  he  difclaims,  I  ur^je  no  more  ; 
"  Let  him  pnifue  the  j  ro:.  ii'd  Latian  ihore. 
"  A  (liiirt  (ielay  is  all  I  afk  him  now ; 
*•  A  paufe  uf  grief,  a:i  interval  from  wo." 

CONCHA,  in  zoology,  a  fynonime  of  the  Mvti- 
Lus,  SoLEN,  and  other  fhell-filh. 

CONCHES,  a  town  of  Normandy,  with  a  Bene- 
dlftlne  abbey,  which  carries  on  a  confiderable  trade. 
It  is  feated  on  the  top  of  a  mountain.  In  the  territory 
of  Ouche,  45  miles  north-weft  of  Paris.  E.  Long. 
O.  51.  N.  Lat.  48.  58. 

CONCHITES  MARMOR,  a  name  given  by  the  an- 
cients to  a  fpecies  of  marble  dug  near  Megara,  and 
remarkable  for  containing  a  great  number  of  fea-fhells, 
and  other  marine  bodies  immerfed  in  it. 

CONCHOID,  in  geometry,  the  name  of  a  curve, 
given  to  It  by  its  inventor  NIcomedes.  See  Fluxions. 

CONCHYLIA,  a  general  name  for  all  petrified 
(hells,  as  limpets,  cochlese,  nautili,  conchae,  lepades,  &c. 

CONCIATOR,  In  the  glafs  art,  is,  for  the  cryftal- 
glafs,  what  the  founder  is  at  the  green-glafs  houfes. 
He  is  the  perfon  that  weighs  and  proportions  the  fait 
on  afiies  and  faud,  and  works  them  with  a  ftrong  fire 
till  they  run  into  lumps  and  become  white  ;  and  if  the 
metal  be  too  hard,  and  confequently  brittle,  he  adds 
fait  or  afhes,  and  if  too  foft,  fand  ;  ftill  mixing  them 
to  a  fit  temper,  which  is  only  known  by  the  working. 

CONCINNOUS  INTERVALS,  in  mufic,  are  fuch  as 
are  fit  for  mufic,  next  to,  and  in  combination  with 
concords  ;  being  neither  very  agreeable  nor  dlfagree- 
able  in  themfelves ;  but  having  a  good  effedl,  as  by 
their  oppofitlon  they  heighten  the  more  eflential  prin- 
ciples of  pleafure  :  or  as,  by  their  mixture  and  combi- 
nation with  them,  they  produce  a  variety  neeeffary 
to  our  being  better  pleafed. 

CoNciNNous  Sv/lim,  in  mufic.  A  fyftem  Is  faid 
to  be  concinnous,  or  divided  concinnoudy,  wh^n  its 
paits,  confidered  as  fimple  intervals,  are  concinnous  ; 
and  are  befides  placed  in  fuch  an  order  between  the 
extremes,  as  that  the  fucceffion  of  founds,  from  one 
extreme  to  the  other,  may  have  an  agreeable  effetl. 

CONCLAMATIO,  in  antiquity,  a  ihout  raifed 
by  thofe  prefent  at  burning  the  dead,  before  they  fet 

fire. 


CON 


r  299  ] 


CON 


Concord. 


Conclave  fire  to  the  funeral  pile.  See  Shout.  The  word  was 
alfo  apph'ed  to  the  fignal  given  to  the  Roman  foldiers 
to  decamp,  whence  the  expreffion  conchmuve  ihifa;  and 
concliivmn  armn,  was  a  fipial  for  battle.  It  was  like- 
wife  ufed  for  a  praftice  of  calhng  to  a  perfon  deceafed 
three  times  by  his  name;  and  when  no  reply  was  re- 
turned, they  thus  expreffed  his  deceafc,  eonclamalum  ejl. 
Whence  the  fame  term  was  afterwards  applied  to  the 
ccfTation  of  the  Roman  empire. 

CONCLAVE,  the  place  in  which  the  cardinals  of 
the  Romilh  church  meet,  and  are  (hut  up,  in  order  to 
the  eleftion  of  a  pope.      "* 

The  conclave  is  a  range  of  fmall  cells,  10  feet  fquare, 
made  of  wainfcot:  thefe  are  numbered,  and  drawn 
for  by  lot.  They  ftand  in  a  line  along  the  galleries 
and  hall  of  the  Vatican,  with  a  fmall  fpace  between 
each.  Every  cell  has  the  arms  of  the  cardinal  over  it. 
The  conclave  is  not  fixed  to  any  one  determinate  place, 
for  the  conftitutious  of  the  church  allow  the  cardinals 
to  make  choice  of  fuch  a  place  for  the  conclave  as  they 
think  moil  convenient  ;  yet  it  is  generally  held  in  the 
Vatican. 

The  conclave  is  very  flviftly  guarded  1.-.-  troops  : 
neither  the  cardinals,  nor  any  perfon  fliut  up  in  tl»e 
conclave,  are  fpoke  to,  but  at  the  hours  allowed  of, 
and  then  in  Italian  or  Latin  ;  even  the  provlfions  for 
the  conclave  are  examined,  that  no  letters  be  convey- 
ed by  that  means  from  the  minifters  of  foreign  powers, 
or  other  perfons  who  may  have  an  intereft  in  the  elec- 
tion of  the  pontiff. 

Conclave  is  alfo  ufed  for  the  affemhly,  or  meet- 
ing, of  the  cardinals  fiiut  up  for  the  eleftion  of  a  pope. 

CONCLUSION,  inlogic,  the  confequcnce  or  judge- 
ment drawn  from  what  was  afferted  in  the  premifts ; 
or  the  previous  judgments  in  reafonfng,  gained  from 
combining  the  extreme  ideas  between  themfelves. 

CONCOCTION,  in  medicine,  the  change  which 
the  food  undergoes  in  the  ftomach,  lijc.  to  become 
chyle.     See  Chyle. 

CONCOMITANT,  fomething  that  accompanies  or 
goes  along  witli  another. 

CONCORD,  in  grammar,  that  part  of  conftruftion 
called  j5'"'''^'>  in  which  the  words  of  a  ientence  agree  ; 
that  is,  in  which  nouns  are  put  in  the  fame  gender, 
number,  and  cafe  ;  and  verbs  in  the  fame  number  and 
perfon  with  nouns  and  pronouns.     See  Grammar. 

Concord,  in  mufic,  the  relation  of  two  founds  that 
are  always  agreeable  to  the  ear,  whether  applied  in 
fuccefiion  or  confonance. 

Form  of  CoKCOKD,  in  ecclefiaftical  hiftory,  a  flandard- 
book  among  the  IjUtherans,  compofed  at  Torgaw,  in 
1576,  and  thence  called  the  Book  of  Torgaw,  and  re- 
viewed at  Berg  by  fix  Lutheran  doftors  of  Geimany, 
the  principal  of  whom  was  James  Andrea;.  This 
book  contains  in  two  parts,  a  fyftem  of  dottrine,  the 
fubfcriplion  of  which  was  a  condition  of  communion, 
and  a  formal  and  very  fevere  condemnation  of  all  who 
differed  from  the  compilers  of  it,  particularly  with  rc- 
fpeft  to  the  majefty  and  omniprefence  of  Chriil's  body, 
and  the  real  manducation  of  his  flefli  and  blood  in  the 
eucharift.  It  was  firll  impofed  on  the  Saxons  by  Au- 
gullus,  and  occafioncd  great  oppofition  and  difturbance. 
The  difpute  about  it  was  revived  in  Switzerland  in  1 7 1 8, 
■when  the  magitlratcs  of  Bern  publi/hej  an  order  for 


adopting  it  as  the  rule  of  faith ;  the  confequcnce  of  Coneord- 
which  was  a  conteft,  that  reduced  its  credit  and  autho-       *"^^ 
rity.  •' 

CONCORDANCE,  a  diftionary  or  index  to  the*^!!!^^^ 
Bible,  wherein  all  the  leading  words,  ufed  in  the  courfe 
of  the  infpired  writings,  arc  langed  alphabetically; 
and  the  v.irious  places  where  they  occur  referrfd  to; 
to  afhil  in  finding  out  paffages,  and  comparing  the  fe- 
veral  fignifications  of  the  fame  word. 

Cardinal  Hugo  de  St  Charo,  is  faid  to  have  employ" 
ed  500  monks  at  the  fame  time  in  compiling  a  Latin 
concordance  :  befides  which,  we  have  feveral  other 
concordances  in  the  fame  language  ;  one,  in  particu- 
lar, called  the  concortlance  of  England,  compiled  by  J. 
Darlington,  of  the  order  of  Predicants  ;  another  more 
accurate  one,  by  the  Jefuit  de  Zamora. 

R.  Mordecai  Natlian  has  furnifhed  us  with  a  He« 
brew  concordance,  firft  printed  at  Venice  in  1523, 
containing  all  the  Hebrew  roots  branched  into  their 
various  fignifications,  and  under  each  fignification  all 
the  places  in  fcripture  wherein  it  occurs  :  but  the  bell 
and  moft  ufcful  Hebrew  concordance  is  that  of  Bux- 
torf,  piinted  at  Bafil  in  1632. 

Dr  Taylor  publilhed,  in  1754,  a  Hebrew  concord- 
ance in  two  volumes  folio,  adapted  to  the  Englirti 
Bible,  and  difpofed  after  the  manner  of  Buxtorf. 

The  Greek  concordances  are  only  for  the  Nevr 
Tellament :  Indeed  we  have  one  of  Conr.  Kircher's  on 
the  Old  ;  but  this  is  lather  a  concordantial  dictionary 
than  a  concordance  ;  containing  all  tiie  Hebrew  words 
in  an  alphabetical  order  ;  and  underneath  all  the  in- 
terpretations or  fenfes  the  LXX.  give  thenr;  and  in 
each  interpretation,  all  the  places  where  they  occur  in 
that  verfion. 

In  1718,  Trommius  pubhflied  his  Greek  concord- 
ance for  the  Septuagint  at  Amiterdam,  in  two  volumes 
folio  ;  and  Schuuduis  improving  on  a  limilar  work  of 
H.  Stephen,  has  given  an  excellent  Greek  concordancj 
for  the  New  Tettament,  the  bell  edition  of  which  is 
that  of  Leipfic,  an.  171 7. 

Calafius,  an  Italian  Cordelier,  has  given  us  concord- 
ances of  the  Hebrew,  Latin,  and  Greek,  in  two  co- 
lumns :  the  firft,  which  is  Hebrew,  is  that  of  R.  Mor- 
decai Nathan,  word  for  word,  and  according  to  the 
order  of  the  books  and  chapters  :  in  the  other  column 
is  a  Latin  interpretation  of  each  paffage  of  fcripture 
quoted  by  R.  Mordecai  ;  this  interpretation  is  Cala- 
fius's  own  ;  but  in  the  margin  he  adds  that  of  the 
LXX.  and  the  Vulgate,  when  different  from  his.  The 
work  is  in  4  vols  folio,  printed  at  Rome  in  162  I. 

We  have  feveral  very  copious  concordances  in 
Englifh,  as  Newmann's,  &c.  but  the  lall  and  bcil 
eileemed,  Is  that  in  4to.  by  Alex.  Cruden. 

CONCORDANT    virses,    fuch    as  have   feveral 

words   in   common  ;  but  which,  by  the  addition    of 

other  words,  convey  an  oppofite,  at  leafl  a  -different 

meaning.     Such  are  thofc, 

r.     f  earns   \    ■    rt       f  -venatur  1   r^         .    C  ferniat. 
■^'^   ^    I  I,       f   injilva  <  .,       '(   <S  omnia  <  •'     „ 

{^  lupus   i       -^  I  mitnttir  3  ^   'vqjlafj 

CONCORDAT,  in  the  Canon  law,  denotes  a  cove- 
nant or  agreement  concerning  fome  beneficiary  mat- 
ter, as  a  refignation,  permutation, promotion,  or  thelike. 

The   council   of  Trent,  -i'eff.  vi.   de  reform,  cap.  4, 

fpeakiug  of  concordats  made  without  the  authority 

Pp  2  aad 


CON 


[     300     ] 


CON 


Cnreor-    and  approbation  of  tlie  pope,  calls  them  concordiai  qua 

••*'        tantum  fuos  ollignnt  auBores,  non  fucceffores.      And  the 

f,      "   •      congregation  of  cardinals,  who  have  explained  this  de- 

^°        '    "  cree,  declares  alfo  that  a  concordat  cannot  be  vahd  lo 

as  to  bind  fucceffors,  unlefs  confirmed  by  the  pope. 

Concordat  is  alfo  ufed,  abfoluttly,  among  the 
French,  for  an  agreement  concluded  at  Bologna  in 
r5i6,  between  pope  Leo  X.  and  Francis  I.  of  France, 
for  retjulating  the  manner  of  nominating  to  benefices. 
The  concordat  ferves  in  lieu  of  the  Pragmatic  lanc- 
tion,  which  has  been  abrogated  ;  or,  rather,  it  is  the 
pragmatic  fandion  foftened  and  reformed.  The  con- 
cordat between  the  pope  and  the  repubUc  of  Venice 
refembles  the  former. 

There  is  alfo  a  German  concordat,  made  between 
the  emperor  Frederic  III.  and  the  princes  of  Germa- 
ny, in  1448,  relating  to  beneficiary  matters,  confirmed 
bv  pope  Nicholas  V.  ' 

'  CONCORDIA,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  duchy  of 
Mirandola ;  feated  on  the  river  Sechia,  5  miles  weft 
of  Mirandola,  and  15  miles  fouth-eail  of  Mantua; 
fubjecl;  to  the  houfe  of  Auftria.  E.  Long.  11.  22. 
N.  Lat.  44.  J  2. 

Concordia  (anc.  geog  ),  atown  of  the  Veneti,  fitu- 
ated  at  the  confluence  of  the  rivers  Romatinus  Major  and 
Minor,  3 1  miles  to  the  weft  of  Aquileia,  (Pliny,  Ptole- 
my, Antonine)  ;  a  colony  furnamed  Julia.  Its  rums  ftill 
go  by  the  name  of  Concordia. — Another  Concordia 
(Ptolemy),  of  Lufitania,  to  the  north-weft  of  Trajan's 
bridge,  on  tlie  Tagus.  — A  third  of  the  Nemetes  in 
Belgica,  on  the  weft  fide  of  the  Rhine;  a  Roman 
fortrefs,  fituated  between  Brocomagus  ar.d  Novioma- 
gus.  Now  Drufenhcim,  in  Alface.  E.  Long.  8^,  Lat. 
48'  40'. 

Concordia,  a  Pagan  divinity  of  the  Romans.  She 
had  a  temple  on  the  declivity  of  the  capitol ;  another 
in  the  portico  of  Livia  ;  and  a  third  on  Mount  Pala- 
tine, built  of  brafs  by  Cn.  Flavius,  on  account  of  a 
vow  made  for  reconciling  the  fenate  and  people.  She 
was  piftured  with  a  cup  in  her  right  hand ;  in  her 
left  was  fometimes  a  fceptre,  and  fometimes  2.  cornu- 
copia. Her  fymbols  were  two  hands  joined,  as  is  feen 
In  3  coin  of  Aurehus  Venus,  and  another  of  Nero  ;  alfo 
two  ftrpcnts  twifting  about  a  caduceus.  She  was  ad- 
drefled  to  promote  the  peace  and  union  of  famihes  and 
citizens. 

CONCOU,  in  botany,  a  name  given  by  the  people 
cf  Guinea  to  an  herb,  which  is  in  great  eftcem  among 
them  for  killing  that  troublefome  fort  of  worm  called 
the  Guinea-'worvi,  that  breeds  in  their  fte(h.  They 
bruife  the  leaves,  and  mixing  them  with  oil,  apply 
them  in  form  of  a  cataplafm. 

CONCRETE,  in  the  fchool-philofophy,  an  affcm- 
blage  or  compound. 

Concrete,  in  natural  philofophy  and  chemiftry, 
fipnifies  a  body  made  up  of  different  principles,  or  any 
mixed  body  :  thus,  foap  is  a  factitious  concrete,  mix- 
ed together  by  art ;  and  antimony  is  a  natural  con- 
crete, or  a  mixed  body  compounded  in  the  bowels  of 
die  earth. 

CONCRETION,  the  uniting  feveral  fmall  particles 
of  a  natural  body  into  fenfible  malTes  or  concretes, 
•ftherebv  it  becomes  fo  and  fo  figured  and  determined, 
and  is  endued  with  fuch  and  fuch  properties. 

Concretion  is  alfo  the  aft  whcrebjr  foft  bodies  are 


rendered  hard  ;  or  an  infenfible  motion  of  the  particles  Concubi. 
of  a   fluid  or  foft  body,  whereby  they  come  to  a  con-      nage. 
fiftence.    It  is  indifterenty  ufed  for  induration,  conden-  "~~"v~" 
fation,  congelation,  and  coagulation. 

CONCUBINAGE  fometimes  exprefles  a  criminal 
or  prohibited  commerce  between  the  two  lexes  ;  in 
which  fenfe  it  comprehends  adultery,  inceft,  and  liinple 
fornication. 

In  its  more  reftrained  fenfe,  concubinage  is  ufed  for 
a  man's  and  a  woman's  cohabiting  together  in  the  way 
of  marriage,  without  having  paffed  the  ceremony 
thereof. 

Concubinage  was  anciently  tolerated :  the  Roman 
law  calls  it  an  allawed  cuftom,  Ikita  confuetudo.  When 
this  exprtflion  occurs  in  the  conftitutions  of  the 
Chrillian  emperors,  it  fignifies  what  we  now  call  a 
marr'uige  hi  conjc'unce. 

The  concubinage  tolerated  among  the  Romans  in 
the  time  of  the  republic,  and  of  the  heathen  emperors, 
was  that  between  pcrfons  not  capable  of  contracting 
marriage  together:  nor  did  they  even  rciufe  to  let  in- 
heritances dcfcend  to  children  which  fpiting  from  fuch 
a  tolerated  cohabitance.  Concubinage  between  fuch 
perfons  they  looked  on  as  a  kind  of  marriage,  and  even 
allowed  it  feveral  privileges  ;  but  then  this  concubinage 
was  confined  to  a  fingle  perfon,  and  was  of  perpetual 
obligation  as  much  as  marriage  itfelf.  Hottoman  ob- 
ferves,  that  the  Roman  laws  had  allowed  of  concubi- 
nage long  before  Julius  Csefar  made  that  law  whereby 
every  one  was  allowed  to  marry  as  many  wives  as  he 
pleafed.  The  emperor  Valentinian,  Socrates  tells  us, 
allowed  every  man  two. 

Concubinage  is  alfo  ufed  for  a  marriage  performed 
with  Icfs  folemuity  than  the  formal  marriage  ;  or  a 
marriage  with  a  woman  of  inferior  condition,  and  to 
whom  the  hulband  does  not  convey  his  rank  or  qua- 
lity. Cujas  obferves,  that  the  ancient  laws  allowed  a 
man  to  efpoufe,  under  the  title  of  ccncuhhie,  ccrtaia 
perfons,  fuch  as  were  eftemed  unequal  to  him,  on  ac- 
count of  the  want  of  fome  qualities  requifite  to  fuftain 
the  full  honour  of  marriage.  He  adds,  that  though 
concubinage  was  beneath  marriage,  both  as  to  dignity 
and  civil  tffedts  ;  yet  was  concubine  a  reputable  title, 
very  different  from  that  of  mi^lrefs  among  us.  The 
commerce  was  efteemed  fo  lawful,  that  the  concubine 
might  be  accufed  of  adultery  in  the  fame  manner  as  a 
wife. 

This  kind  of  concubinage  is  ftiUin  ufe  in  fome 
countries,  particularly  in  Germany,  under  the  title  of 
a  half-marriijge,  morgengahie  marr'uige,  or  marriage  lulih  the 
left-hand;  alluding  to  the  onannerof  its  being  contracted, 
viz.  by  the  man's  giving  the  woman  his  left  hand  in- 
ftead  of  the  right.  This  is  a  real  marriage,  though 
without  folemiilty :  the  parties  are  both  bound  for 
ever  ;  though  the  woman  be  thus  excluded  from  the 
common  rights  of  a  wife  for  want  of  quality  or  for- 
tune. 

The  children  of  cojKubines  were  not  reputed  either 
legitimate  or  baftards,  but  natural  cliildren,  and  were 
capable  only  of  donations.  They  were  deemed  to 
retain  the  low  rank  of  the  mother  ;  and  were  on  tliis 
ground  unqualified  for  inheriting  tlie  efFetls  of  the 
father. 

CoNcuBiNAGi,  in  a  legal  fenle,  is  ufed  as  an  excep-- 
tion  againft  her  that  fue^  for  dower,   alleging  there- 

4  ^y-j- 


CON 


[     301     ] 


CON 


Cencnbine  by,  that  die  was  not  a  wife  lawfully  married  to  the  par- 
II  ty,  in  whofe  lands  fhc  feeks   to   be  endowed,   but  his 

^J^"''^■  _    concubine. 

•  CONCUBINE,  a  woman  whom  a  peiTon  takes  to 

cohabite  with  him,  in  the  manner,  and  under  the  cha- 
rafter,  of  a  wife,  without  being  authorized  thereto  by 
a  legal  marrage. 

CoNCUBisr.  is  alfo  uftd  for  a  real,  legitimate,  and 
only  wife,  dillinguilhed  by  no  other  circumilance  but 
a  difparity  of  birth  or  condition  between  her  and  the 
hufband.  Du  Cange  obferves,  that  one  may  gather 
from  feveral  paffages  in  the  epiftles  of  the  popes,  that 
they  anciently  allowed  of  fuch  concubines.  The  fe- 
ventecnth  canon  of  the  firll  council  of  Toledo  declares, 
that  he  who,  with  a  faithful  wife,  keeps  a  concubine, 
is  excommunicated  ;  but  that  if  the  concubine  ferved 
hirrv  as  a  wife,  fo  that  he  had  only  one  woman,  under  the 
title  of  concubine,  ne  (hould  not  be  rejefted  from  com- 
munion :  which  (hows  that  there  were  leg  itunate  wives 
under  the  title  of  concubines. 

In  effeft,  the  Roman  laws  did  not  allow  a  man  to 
efpoufe  waor.\  he  plealed  ;  there  was  reqiured  a  kind 
of  parity,  or  proportion,  between  the  conditions  of  the 
contrafting  p:irtics  :  but  a  woman  of  inferior  condi- 
tion, who  could  uot  he  efpoufed  as  a  wi.'e,  might  be 
kept  as  a  concubine  ;  and  the  laws  allowed  of  it,  pro- 
vided the  man  had  no  other  wife. 

It  is  certain  the  patriarchs  had  a  great  number  of 
wives,  ami  that  thefe  did  not  all  hold  the  fame  rank  ; 
fome  being  fubaltern  to  the  principal  wife  ;  which 
were  what  we  call  coMiiiines  or  half- wives.  The  Ro- 
mans prohibited  a  plurahty  of  concubines,  and  only 
had  regard  to  the  children  ilTuing  from  a  fingle  concu- 
bine, bccaufe  Ihe  might  become  a  legitimate  wife. 
Solomon  had  7C0  wives  and  300  concubines :  the 
emperor  of  China  has  fometimes  two  or  three  thonfand 
concubines  in  his  palace.  Q^Curtius  obferves,  that 
Darius  was  followed  in  his  army  by  365  concubines, 
all  in  the  equipage  of  queens. 

CONCUPISCENCE,  according  to  divines,  an  ir- 
regular appetite,  or  luft;  after  carnal  things,  inherent 
in  the  nature  of  man  ever  fince  the  fall. 

CONO,  Cox,  or  Conn,  in  fea  language,  fignifies 
to  guide  or  conduft  a  Ihip  in  her  right  courfc.  He 
that  cons  her,  Hands  aloft  with  a  compafs  before  him, 
and  gives  the  word  of  direction  to  the  man  at  t^e  helm 
bow  he  is  to  (leer.  If  the  fliip  go  before  the  wind, 
or,  as  they  call  it,  betwixt  the  Iheets,  the  word  is  either 
ftarboard,  or  port  the  helm  ;  according  as  the  conder 
would  have  the  helm  put  to  the  right  or  left  fide  of 
the  fhip,  upon  which  the  fliip  always  goes  the  contrarv 
way.  If  he  fays,  helm  a  mid-fliip,  he  would  have  the 
fliip  to  go  right  before  the  wind,  or  dirett'v  between 
her  tv.o  fheets.  If  the  (liip  fail  by  a  wind,  or  on  a 
quarter  wind,  the  word  is,  aloof,  keep  your  luff,  fall 
not  ofl,  veer  no  more,  keep  her  to,  touch  the  wind, 
have  a  care  of  the  lee-latch  :  all  which  expreffions  are 
of  the  fame  import,  and  imply  that  the  fteerfman 
(hould  keep  the  fhip  near  the  wind.  On  the  contrary, 
if  he  would  have  heT  fail  more  large,  or  more  before 
the  wind,  the  word  is,  eafe  the  helm,  no  near,  bear 
up.  If  he  cries  Ready,  it  means,  keep  her  fiom  go- 
ing  in  and  out,  or  making  yaws  (as  they  call  it),  how- 
iozyei  Ihe  fails,  whether  large  or  before  a  wind :  and 


when  he  woiJd  have  her  go  juft  as  ihe  does,  he  cries,    Condite, 
keep  her  thus,  thus,  ice.  Conde. 

CONDATE  (anc.  geog.),  a  town  of  Armorica  in  ' 
Gaul:  called  Civitiis  Rhciknum,  in  theNotitia  ;  after- 
wards Redo/me;  Redonica  Regio,  the  dillricl.  Hence 
the  modern  name  Rciiiies,  in  Brittany.  W.  Long.  1.45. 
Lat.  48.  5.  Another  Condate  of  Britain  (Antonine)  J 
now  thought  to  be  Conglcton,  in  Yorklhire  ;  others 
fay  in  Lancadiire. 

CONDE  (Lewis  de  Bourbon  prince  of),  was  born 
at  Paris  Sept.  7. 1621.  He  was  ftyled  Duke  d'Enguicn, 
till  he  fucceeded  to  the  title  of  Prince  of  Conde  by  his 
father's  death  in  1646  As  he  was  'of  a  tender  and 
delicate  conllitution,  the  prince  lent  him  to  the  cafUe 
of  Montrond  in  Beny,  that  he  might  breathe  a  more 
pure  and  falutary  air.  Here  he  w^as  educated  in  his 
infancy  by  fome  experienced  and  prudent  citizens 
wives.  When  he  was  of  a  proper  age,  the  prince 
took  upon  hirafclf  the  taflc  of  governor,  and  appointed 
for  his  afiiftant  M.  de  la  Boulfieres,  a  private  gentle- 
man, a  man  of  honour,  fidelity,  and  good  nature, 
and  who  made  it  a  rule  to  obierve  inviolably  the  or- 
ders that  were  given  him.  Two  Jefuits  diftinguifhed 
for  their  genius  and  knowledge  were  alfo  given  him 
for  preceptors.  He  formed  him  a  houfehold  of  1 5  or 
20  officers,  all  men  of  the  greateft  virtue  and  difcre- 
tioji. 

V/ith  thefe  attendants  the  duke  d'Enguien  went  to 
fett'e  at  Bourges,  where  he  frequented  the  college  of 
Jeluits.  Here,  bciides  the  ordinary  ftiidies,  he  was 
taught  ancient  and  modern  hilfory,  mathematics,  geo- 
graphy, declamation  ;  alfo  riding  and  dancing,  in 
which  lalt  he  foon  excelled.  He  made  fuch  a  fui-pri- 
fing  progrefs,  that  before  the  age  of  13  he  defended 
in  public  fome  quellions  in  philofophy  with  incredible 
applaufe.  At  his  return  from  Montrond,  he  had  for 
his  tutor  M.  de  Merille  ;  a  man  deeply  verfed  in  the 
knowledge  of  common  law,  of  ancient  and  modern, 
laws,  of  the  holy  fcriptures,  and  of  the  mathematics. 
Under  his  direftion  the  duke  went  through  that  new 
courf,.'  with  prodigious  fuccefs.  He  acquired  a  criti- 
cal tulle  in  the  arts  and  fciences,  which  he  retained  all 
his  life  ;  he  never  fuffcred  a  day  to  pafs  without  de- 
dicating two  or  three  hours  at  leafl  to  reading  ;  his 
thirll  for  knowledge  was  univerfal,  and  he  endea- 
voured to  fearch  every  thing  to  the  bottom.  His 
chief  incHnation,  however,  lay  towards  the  mihtary 
art;  and  at  the  age  of  18  he  obtained  permifTion  to 
make  his  firfl  campaign  as  a  volunteer  in  the  army 
commanded  by  M.  de  la  Meilleraye.  This  cainpaign 
was  unfortunate  ;  and  the  duke  d'Enguien  was  only  a 
witnefs  of  the  marlhal's  imprudence  and  difgrace.  Ne- 
verthelcfs,  in  t'nis  campaign  he  laid  the  foundation  of 
that  renown  which  made  him  afterwards  confidered  as 
the  greatefl  general  of  his  age. 

On  his  return  to  Paris,  the  duke  waited  upon  car- 
dinal Richelieu  at  Ruel.  That  minifter  was  fo  pleafed 
with  his  convt-rfation,  that  he  foon  after  made  pro- 
pofals  of  an  alliance  with  the  prince  of  Coude,  by 
marrying  the  duke  d'Enguien  to  Cluire  Cleraence 
dc  MaiUe  Breza,  the  cardinal's  niece.  The  duke 
confented  to  this  match  out  of  obedience  to  his  fa- 
ther ;  but  the  force  he  put  upon  himfelf  by  yield- 
ing to  it  was  fo  great,  that  he  fell  dnngerouHy  ill.     It 


CON 


[     302     ] 


CON 


Conde".     was  long  before   he  got  the  better  of  his  dillcinper; 

"""< but  at  length  he  not  only  recovered,  but  became  lo 

ftrong  as  afterwards  to  bear  the  greateft  fatigues  with 
■eafe. 

The  duke  made  two  more  campaigns  as  a  volun- 
teer ;  the  one  under  the  marfhal  de  la  MeiUeraye,  the 
other  in  the  army  of  Louis  XIII.  which  conquered 
RoulTiUon.  In  1643,  at  the  age  of  22,  he  obtained 
from  the  king,  at  the  perfuafion  of  cardinal  Mazarine, 
the  command  of  the  army  deftined  to  cover  Cham- 
paigne  and  Picardy  ;  which  command  was  confirmed 
to  him  after  the  king's  death  by  the  queen  regent, 
Anne  of  Aullria,  to  whofe  interell  he  was  ilrongly 
devoted.  In  this  llation,  though  he  never  had  been 
prefent  at  any  battle,  he  foon  gave  fuch  a  fpecimen  of 
his  abilities  as  crowned  him  with  glory.  The  Spa- 
niards, who  threatened  France  with  an  invailon,  were 
defeated  by  kim  at  Rocroi  ;  and  this  fignal  vidory 
made  him  from  that  time  confidered  as  the  guardian 
genius  of  his  country.  He  next  formed  the  projeft 
.of  befieging  Theonville,  and  propofcd  it  to  the  coun- 
cil of  regency.  They  confented  with  fear  and  dif- 
trull ;  but  the  duke  carried  it  into  execution  with 
fuch  flcill,  aftivity,  and  courage,  that  he  became  julUy 
the  fubjedl  of  general  admiration.  In  two  months 
time  Theonville  furrendered.  At  length,  haring  co- 
vered Alface  and  Lorrain  from  the  enterprizes  of  the 
Imperialifts,  the  duke  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  ob- 
tained the  government  of  Champaigne,  and  of  the 
city  of  Stenai. 

The  three  following  years  were  little  more  than  a 
feries  of  military  operations.  The  three  battles  of 
Fribourg,  in  which  the  duke  d'Enguien  triumphed 
over  Velt  Marlhal  count  de  Mercy,  the  greatell  ge- 
neral in  all  Germany;  the  taking  of  Philiplbourg,  and 
a  great  number  of  other  places,  which  rendered  hira 
mailer  of  the  palitinate,  and  of  the  whole  courfe  of 
the  Rhine  ;  the  vitlory  of  Nortlinguc,  by  which  he 
revenged  the  vifcount  du  Turenne's  defeat  at  Mari- 
endal  ;  the  fiege  and  conquefl  of  Dunkirk  ;  the  good 
and  bad  fuccefs  of  his  amis  in  Catalonia,  where,  though 
he  was  forced  to  raife  the  fiege  of  Lorida,  he  kept 
the  Spaniards  in  awe,  and  cut  to  pieces  their  rear 
guard  ;  thefe  are  the  principal  events  which  dillin- 
guilh  the  campaigns  of  1644,  1645,  and  1646. 

The  victories  of  the  duke  d'Enguien,  his  great  re- 
putation and  efteem  with  the  people,  began  now  to 
give  umbrage  to  Mazarin.  The  cardinal's  dillike  to 
hira  appeared  on  tlie  death  of  the  duke  de  Breze,  ad- 
miral of  France.  Tiie  prince  of  Conde  earncftly  de- 
manded for  his  fon  the  duke  de  Breze's  places.  But 
Mazarin,  afraid  of  increafing  the  wealth  and  power 
of  a  prince  whom  his  viAories  and  the  love  and  con- 
fidence of  the  people  and  the  army  had  already  ren- 
dered too  formidable  to  him,  evaded  his  requeil,  by 
perfuading  the  queen  to  take  the  adnviialty  to  herfelf. 
.On  tlie  diath  of  his  father,  the  miniller's  diflike  to  the 
young  prince  of  Conde  became  ftill  more  apparent. 
By  the  miniller's  perfuafion  he  had  accepted  of  the 
command  of  the  army  in  Catalonia  ;  but,  on  his  arii- 
■val  at  Barcelona,  he  found  neitlier  troops,  money,  ar- 
tillery, provifions,  nor  ammunition.  Enraged  at  this 
xleception,  he  vented  his  refeutment  in  bitter  cora- 
jphints  and  fevere  threats ;  but  by  the  refourcci  that 


he  found  in  this  dilemma,  the  prince  added  hew  luftre 
to  his  glory.  ' 

The  campaign  of  1 648  was  as  glorious  to  Conde  as 
thofe  which  preceded  it  had  been.  To  difconcert  at 
once  the  projefts  of  the  arch-duke  Leopold,  the  prince 
reiolved  to  attack  him  even  in  the  heart  of  the  Low 
Countries  ;  and  notwithilanding  the  confiderable  dif- 
ficulties which  he  had  to  furmount,  he  befieged  the 
important  city  of  Ypres,  and  took  it  in  fight  of  all  the 
enemies  forces. 

Notwithilanding  this  fuccefs,  Conde  faw  himfelf  at 
the  point  of  experiencing  the  greateft  reverfe  of  for- 
tune. His  army  was  a  prey  to  fcarcity,  to  naked- 
nefs,  contagious  diftempers,  and  defertion.  For  eiglit 
months  it  received  no  fupply  from  the  miniiler,  but  half 
a  muiler.  Every  thing  was  fupplied  by  the  prince 
himfelf;  he  lavilhed  his  money,  and  borrowed  r.iore 
to  lupply  his  troops.  When  it  was  reprefentcd  to 
him  that  he  was  in  danger  of  ruining  himfelf  by  fuch 
an  enonuous  expence,  he  replied,  that  "  fince  he  every 
day  ventured  his  life  for  the  fervice  of  his  country,  he 
could  very  well  facrifice  his  fortune  to  it.  Let  but  the 
government  exill  (added  he),  and  I  Ihall  want  for  no- 
thing." 

The  French  army  having  been  reinforced  by  4000 
of  the  troops  of  VVeimar,  Conde  attacked  the  Spa- 
niards advantageoufiy  encamped  near  Lens,  and  gained 
a  complete  vidory  over  them,  which  difabled  them 
from  attempting  any  thing  more,  and  even  from  fup- 
porting  themlelves.  Afterwards  he  befieged  Furnes, 
the  garrifon  of  which,  500  men,  furrendered  them- 
felves  prifoners  of  war.  But  the  prince  was  wound- 
ed there  in  the  trenches  by  a  muiket-lhot  above  the 
right  hip  ;  and  the  contufion  was  fo  great,  that  he 
was  forced  to  fubmit  to  feveral  inclfions. 

The  French  court,  animated  with  the  vidoiy  at 
Lens,  thought  this  a  proper  time  to  take  vengeance 
on  the  factions  which  for  fome  time  had  violently 
agitated  the  kingdom  ;  and  accordingly  imprifoned 
Broufiel  and  Blancmenil,  two  of  the  principal  leaders 
of  the  country  party.  This  vigorous  proceeding,  how- 
ever, occafioned  a  general  revolt.  Two  hundred  thou- 
fand  men  took  arms  in  Paris,  barricaded  the  ftreets, 
inverted  the  palais-royal,  and  demanded  the  prifoners. 
It  was  neceflary  to  releafe  them  ;  but  from  that  time 
the  regal  autliority  was  annihilated  ;  the  queen  was 
expofed  to  a  thoufand  infults,  and  Mazarin  dared  no 
longer  venture  out  of  the  palais-royal.  In  thfs  em- 
barrailment  the  queen  recalled  the  prince  of  Conde, 
as  the  only  one  from  whom  (he  could  hope  for  fup- 
port.  He  retired  to  Ruel,  whither  the  regent  had 
gone  with  the  young  king  and  Mazarin.  Anne  of 
Aullria  propofed  to  him  the  reducing  of  Paris  by  force 
of  arms  :  but  he  c;Jmed  the  refentments  of  that  prln- 
cefs;  and  inllead  of  being  acceflary  to  her  vengeance, 
he  directed  all  his  views  to  pacify  the  kingdom,  and 
at  length  brought  about  an  accommodation  between 
the  parties,  who  deiirrd  it  with  equal  ardour.  But 
new  incidents  foon  rekindled  the  combulliiMi.  The 
treaeheiT  of  Mazarin,  and  the  artifices  of  llie  leaders 
of  the  country  party,  occafioned  new  cabals  and  frelh 
troubles.  Conde  was  carelfed  by  the  leailers  of  both 
parties  ;  but  at  lail,  enraged  at  the  arrogance  of  tlie 
malcontents,  who  every  day  formed  new  pretciilions, 

he 


CON  [3c 

he  took  part  openly  with  the  court,  though  he  thought 
'  it  ungrateful,   and  protefled  the  miniller,  though  he 
did  not  efteeni  him. 

The  royal  f:irnilv,  the  duke  of  Orleans,  Conde,  and 
Mazarin,  left  Paris  privately  in  the  night  between  the 
rth  and  6th  of  January  1649,  and  went  to  St  Ger- 
mains.  The  paiHament  fent  deputies  to  leain  from 
the  queen  herfelf  the  rcafons  of  her  departure,  and 
to  beg  her  to  nanae  the  citizens  whom  Ihe  fufpeftcd, 
that  they  might  be  tried.  Mazarin  had  the  impru- 
dence to  difmifs  them  without  any  anfwer.  Exafpe- 
rated  at  this,  the  people  again  took,  up  arms  in  order 
to  defend  themfelves  againft  the  enterprizes  of  the 
court,  who  had  determined  to  block  up  and  to  ftarve 
the  capital,  in  order  to  fupprcfs  the  party  of  malcon- 
tents. With  7  or  8000  men,  the  broken  relics  of  the 
lafl.  campaign,  the  prince  of  Conde  formed  a  dcfign  of 
reducing  above  500,000  intrenched  behind  walls.  He 
had  neither  money  nor  magazines  ;  he  faw  himielf  in 
the  depth  of  a  molt  fevere  winter;  neverthtlefs  he 
ti  iumphed  over  Paris,  and  this  great  fuccefs  completed 
his  glory.  It  did  him  fo  much  the  more  honour, 
as  during  the  fiege  he  couilantly  defeated  the  troops 
of  the  malcontents ;  he  prevailed  on  the  army  that 
marched  to  their  affiftance  under  Tutenne,  to  aban- 
don that  general ;  he  Hopped  the  progrefs  of  the  duke 
de  LongueviUe,  who  had  caufed  an  infuincftion  in 
Normandy  ;  and  got  the  ftart  of  the  Spaniards,  who 
were  advancing  to  give  him  battle. 

Condi  de  Retz,  co-adjutor  of  Paris,  and  afterwards 
cardinal,  was  the  life  and  foul  of  the  revolters,  and 
direfted  all  their  motions.  He  had  taken  Catiline 
for  his  model ;  and  was  equally  intrepid  and  capable 
of  the  greateft  attions ;  of  an  exalted  genius,^  but  go- 
verned Isy  his  ambition.  He  diftinguifhed' his  hatred 
to  Mazarin  by  arming  the  malcontents  :  and  he  him- 
felf  raifed  at  his  own  expence  a  regiment  which  Ive 
called  the  regiment  of  Corinth  :  as  foon  as  this  corps 
took  the  field  during  the  blockade  of  Paris,  it  was  de- 
feated and  difpcrfed.  This  check  was  called  thefrjl 
to  the  Corinthians.  The  peace  was  figned  at  St  Ger- 
mains  ;  but  neither  party  carried  its  point,  and  fcarce 
any  one  but  Conde  acquired  glory  by  this  war.  After 
the  conclufion  of  the  treaty,  the  prince  repaired  to  the 
capital,  and  traverfed  all  the  ftreets  in  his  coach  alone. 
All  perfons  of  any  confequence  paid  their  compU- 
ments  to  him,  and  the  parhament  fent  a  folemn  depu- 
tation to  thank  him  for  the  peace  to  which  h.;  had  fo 
powerfully  contributed.  The  people,  however,  made 
loud  complaints  on  account  of  the  king's  abfence  (for 
the  court  was  not  yet  returned  to  Paris),  and  the 
malcontents  gave  reafon  to  apprehend  a  new  infurrec- 
tion.  Conde  encouraged  the  king  and  queen  to  re- 
turn ;  and  at  length  brought  them  to  Paris,  amidft  the 
acclamations  and  bleffings  of  the  public. 

The  important  fervice  which  Conde  had  juft  done 
the  court  intitled  him  to  the  acknowledgements  of  the 
queen,  and  efpecially  of  Mazarin  ;  but  the  dark  foul 
of  that  cardinal  only  remembered  it  to  punirti  a  too 
fortunate  and  too  powerful  protedor.  He  privately 
fwore  the  prince's  deftruftion  ;  at  Icaft  that  he  Ihould 
give  the  whole  kingdom  a  pattern  of  fubmilhon  and 
dependence  on  his  will.  However,  not  to  excite  the 
public  indignation,  he  ftill  kept  up  appearances  with 
the  prince,  while  he  fecretly  fpreadiibout  him  difgufts, 


3     1  CON 

fufpicions,  fnares  of  every  kind,  and  the  moll  heinous 
calumnies.  The  ungrateful  minilk-r  deceived  the  " 
prince  by  making  him  the  mofl  flattering  propofals  ; 
and  wlih  the  molt  alluring  proniifes  which  he  always 
found  means  to  avoid  fulfilling.  The  enraged  prince 
defpiied  the  minltter,  and  treated  him  with  difdaln. 
After  this  they  were  reconciled  again  only  to  be  again 
at  variance.  Each  of  them  in  their  turn  courted  the 
country  party,  in  order  to  make  it  fubfervient  to  their 
dcfigns.  At  laft  Mazarin  thought  of  an  expedient, 
which  but  too  effectually  anfwered  his  purpofe,  of  ma- 
king an  irreconcileable  quarrel  between  that  party 
and  the  prince.  There  was  among  the  malcontents 
one  marqnis  de  la  Boulale,  a  naan  of  an  infamous  cha- 
ratler,  who  had  obtained  the  confidence'  of  the  party 
by  falfe  appearances  of  hatred  to  the  cardinal,  but  wha 
fecretly  kept  up  a  corrcfpondence  with  him.  It  is- 
pretended  that  he  made  him  an  offer  of  pnvately  kill- 
ing Conde.  Mazarin  was  charmed  with  the  propofal; 
yet  he  only  required  Boulaie  to  exhibit  all  the  proofs 
of  an  aflaflination,  and  to  aft  in  fuch  a  manner  that 
every  thing  might  concur  to  render  the  country  party 
fufpetted  of  that  crime.  He  was  punftually  obeyed  ; 
the  coach  was  llopped  ;  fome  piftols  were  fired  at  it ; 
by  which  two  of  the  footmen  were  dangeroufly  wound- 
ed ;  and,  after  that  (hameful  exploit,  la  Boulaie  took, 
refuge  in  the  hotel  of  the  duke  of  Beaufort,  who  was. 
the  hero  of  the  party,  in  order  no  doubt  to  counte- 
nance the  prince's  fufpicion  of  the  malcontents.  Lucki- 
ly Csnde  was  not  in  his  coach  when  it  was  llopped  ; 
the  cardinal  had  fpread  the  report  of  his  intended  af- 
faffination  ;  and  in  concert  with  tlie  queen  and  the 
prince  he  had  prevailed  to  have  the  coach  fent  away 
empty,  to  prove  the  reality  of  the  attempt.  Mazarin^ 
counterfeited  a  zeal  for  the  prince's  Ufe  ;  he  furroufly 
declaimed  againll  the  malcontents,  who,  he  pretended, 
had  made  an  attempt  on  a  hfe  fo  precious  to  the  ftate;. 
and  he  inflamed  Conde's  refehtment  againft  the  duke 
of  Beaufort  and  the  coadjutor,  whom  he  fuppofed  to 
be  the  authors  of  this  heinous  outrage.  The  prince 
was  fo  ftrongly  prejudiced,  that  he  refufed  to  heav 
them  when  they  appeared  before  him  to  juftify  them- 
felves.  He  demanded  juftice  againft  them  of  the  king ; 
he  formally  accufed  them  before  the  parliament,  and 
remained  inflexible  in  fpite  of  the  pains  wMch  the 
leaders  of  the  party  took  to  demonftrate  to  him  that 
he  had  been  impofed  upon.  However,  the  affair  was 
brought  before  the  parliament ;  the  accufed  defended 
themfelves,  and  the  coadjutor,  who  had  difcovcied 
the  cardinal's  fecret,  unmaflced  him  fo  well,  that  the 
prince  agreed  to  a  private  negociation  with  the  mal- 
contents ;  he  required  nothing  more  tlian  the  coad- 
jutor's leaving  Paris,  but  with  the  rank  of  ambaffador 
to  Rome  or  Vienna.  That  prelate  would  have  con- 
fented  to  it,  to  fatisfy  Conde,  if  Mazarin,  fome  days 
after,  had  not  given  him  the  choice  of  any  recora- 
pence,  in  order  to  engage  his  concurrence  in  the 
prince's  deftruftlon.  Affairs  were  now  in  fuch  a  dan- 
gerous fituatlon,  that  the  cardinal  faw  clearly  it  was 
neceffary  to  haften  to  the  winding  up  of  the  plot. 
Mafter  of  the  queen's  mind,  which  he  guided  as  he 
pleafed  ;  and  fure  of  having  inflamed  againft  Conde 
all  the  refentment  of  the  malcontents  ;  he  fought  and 
obtained,  by  means  of  tiie  duchefs  Chevreufe,  the  fup- 
port  of  that  powerful  faction,  which  coimeded  itfelf 
5;  the- 


Conde. 


CON  [     304     ]  CON 

CoikJc.     tiie  more  readily  with  him,  in  hopes  that  the  pnnce'a  reconcile  the  duke  of  Orleans,  the  coadjutor,  and  the     Conde, 
■~~V~~-  fall  would  foon  enable  it  to  crufh  without  difficulty  the  malcontents,  with  the  friends  of  the  prince,  and  united ''°'"^'^'""** 
cardinal  himfelf.     The  coadjutor  had  private  confe-  their  efforts  againft  the  cardinal.     Tne  parliament,  on        '    '   j 
rences  with  the  queen  and  the  miniller.     Conde  had  the  other  fide,  loudly  demanded  the  releafe  of  the  pri- 
notice  of  it  ;  and  in  order  to  difcover  if  it  were  true,  foners.     All  the  orders  of  the  ilate  united  in  foliciling 
he  endeavoured   to    fuiprife   it   from   Mazarin's    own  it,  infomuch  that  the  queen  was  at  lall  prevailed  on  to 
mouth.     "  Cardinal  (faid  he,  one  day),  it  is  publicly  give-her  confent.      A.I  this  news,  Mazarin  was  fo  con- 
reported  that  you  have  nightly  meetings  with  the  co-  founded,  that  he  fled  in  the  difguife  of  a  trooper,  and    - 
adjutor,  difguifed  like  a  trooper."     He  accompanied  arrived  at  the  gates  of  Richlieu,  where  a  body  of  horfe 
this  fpeecb  with  a  quick   and  penetrating  look:  but  waited  for  hi:n.     The  parliament,    informed   by   the 
the  cardinal,  who  was  a  perfeA  mailer  of  diifimulation,  queen  of  his  flight,  thundered  foith  an  arret,  by  which 
anfwered  him  in  fucli  a  free,  arllefs  like  manner,  that'  he  was  obliged  to  leave  the  kingdom,  with  his  family 
he  entirely  removed   Conde's   apprehenfions ;  and  he-  and  foreign  iervants,  in  the   fpace  of   15  days,   under 
flirrhted  the   information   he  had  received,  of  the  plot  the  penalty  of  being   expoied   to   a  criminal  profccu- 
forming  agaiuft  him.  tiun.    The  queen  delired  to  tollow  him  with  the  king  ; 

Mazarin  wanted  nothing  but  the  fupport  of  the  duke  but  the  nobles  and  burghers  inverted  the  palais-royal, 

of  Orleans;  and  at  lall  found  means,  by  the  duchefs  of  and   prevented   the  execution  of  this   projett,    which 

Chevreufe,  to  inflame  the  jealoufy  of  that  fickle  and  would  have  kindled  a  civil  war.     Mazarin,  therefore, 

inconftant  prince,  and  to  engage  him  to  confent  to  the  perceiving  that  it  was  impollible  for  the  queen  to  join 

imprifonment  of  Conde.      Having  thus  united  all  par-  him,  determined  to  go   himfelf  to  rellore  the  princes 

ties,  and  fearing  no  other  obllacle,  this  ungrateful  and  to  their  liberty,  and   to  get  the  ftait  of  the  deputies 

perfidious  minifter  made  preparations  for  privately  ar-  who  were  coming  to   acquaint  them  with  it.     On  his 

refting  the  prince;  the  order  for  it  was  figned  January  arrival  at  Havre,  he   informed  the  princes  that  they 

1 8th  1650.     Conde  having  that  day  repaired  as  ufual  were  fiee;  he  entreated  Conde's  friendfhip  ;  and  was 

to  the  palais-royal,  to  affift  at  council  with  the  prince  fo  abjeft  as  to   proftrate   himfelf  at  the  feet  of  him 

of  Conti  and  the  duke  of  Longueville,  the  queen  gave  whom  he  had  fo  bafely  opprefl'ed.     Conde  gave  him 

orders  to  arreft  them  all  three,  and  convey  them  with-  a  polite  reception,  and  fpoke   to  him  in   a  free  and 

■out  any  noife  to  the  caftle  of  Vincennes.      She  was  in-  cheerful   tone;   but  tired  with  the   mean   fubmillions 

ftantly  obeyed,  and  the  princes  were  llriclly  gniarded  which  the  cardinal  lavifhed  upon  him,    he  left   him 

in  that  prifon.  without   making   any    promife,    and    fet    out  on   his 

In  this  unexpefted  reverfe  of  fortune,  the  fortitude  return  to  Paris,  which   he  entered  as   it  were  in  tri- 

and  greatnefs  of  Conde's  mind  appeared  only  the  more  umph,  amidft  the  acclamations  of  all  orders  of  men, 

remarkable.  Confined  with  the  other  two  princes  in  and  the  demonllrations  of  a  moil  fmcere  and  general 
the  tower  of  Vincennes,  where  neither  fupp-jr,  furni- 
ture, nor  beds,  were  provided,  he  contented  himfelf 
■with  two  new  laid  eggs,  and  threw  himfelf  in  his 
cloaths,  on  a  trufs  of  ftraw,  ivhere  he  flept  1  2  hours 
without  waking.  He  ftill  letained  his  checifulnefs, 
and  dedicated  the  greateft  part  of  his  time  to  readin 


joy. 

After  this  a  civil  war  enfued,  in  which  the  prince 
of  Conde  fided  with  the  malcontents.  Being  prtlfed 
by  the  king's  army,  he  retired  into  the  fuburbs  of 
St  Anthony,  wliere  he  behaved  with  the  utmoft  bra- 
very ;   when    the   citizens  opened  their  gates  and  re- 


the  reft  to  eonverfation,  playing  at  battle-door  and  ceived  him  in  ;  and  a  peace  enfued  foon  after.  His 
fliuttle-cock,  to  bodily  exercifes,  and  the  cultivation  of  hatred  of  the  cardinal,  however,  made  him  quit  Pa- 
flowers,  ris,  and  take  refuge  among  the  Spaniards,  who  made 
Mazarin  triumphed  at  the  difgrace  of  the  princes,  him  generaliifimo  of  their  forces  ;  and  he  took  Ro- 
profcribed  all  th)fe  who  were  attached  to  Conde,  and  croi.  The  peace  of  the  Pyrenees  reftured  him  to 
behaved  in  the  nioft  infolent  and  arbitraiy  manner,  his  country  ;  and  he  again  fignalized  himielf  at  the 
The  prince's  friends,  however,  notwithllandini  their  head  of  the  king's  armies.  Being  afflicted  with  the 
being  ftrictly  watched,  found  means  to  keep  up  a  punc-  gout,  he  refufed  the  command  of  the  army  in  1676, 
tual  correfpondence  with  him.     They  made  various  at-  and  retired  to  Chartilley,  where  he  was  as  much  e 


tempts  to  releafe  him:  they  raifed  foops;  in  particu- 
lar, the  dukes  of  Bouillon  and  Rochefocault,  and  the 
vifcount  de  Turenne.  The  princefs  of  Conde  engaged 
the  province  of  Guienne  to  declare  m  his  favour;  the 
made  war,  in  crder  to  force  ihv  cotlrf  to  releafe  him  ; 


fteemed  for  the  virtues  of  peace,  as  he  had  been  be- 
fore for  his  military  ones.  He  died  in  16S6,  at  Fon- 
tainbleau. 

CoNDP,    a    town    of  the  French    Netherlands,    ia 
the  province  of  Hainhault,  with  the  title  of  a  prin- 


at  length  the  parlizans  of  the  prince  figned  a  treaty  cipality,    and  a    caftle.       It   is    one  of  the   ftrongeft 

with  the   Spaniards,   to  labour  in  concert  for  his  en-  towns  in  this  country,  and  feated  near  the  confluence 

largrinent.      But  all  thefe  eflPorts  would,  perhaps,  have  of  the   rivers  Haifne   and  Scheld.       E.  Long.  3.  29. 

been  ineffeAual,  if  other  more  powerful  refources  had  N.  Lat.  50.  27. 
not  been  employed.  Cosde,  a  town  of  France,  in  Normandy,  and  m 

In  that  gallant  and  warlike  age,  every  thing  was  the  Beffin,    which   carries   on  a    confiderable    trade  ; 

managed  by  the   pafTions   and   intrigues  of  five  or  fix  feated  on  the  river  Nereau.      W.  Long.  o.  37.  N.  Lat. 

women,  who  pofTefled  the  confidence  of  the  leaders  of  48.  50. 

the  ftate,  and  of  the  various  parties.     iThe  princefs  of         CONDEMNATION,  the  aft  of  giving  judgment, 

Mantua,  wife  to  one  of  the  fens  of  the  elector  Pala-  palling  or  pronouncing  fentence  aganiil  a   perfon  iub- 

line,  king  of  Bohemia,  pr!i:c!pally  directed  the  conn-  jefted  thereby  to  fome  penalty  or    puniflmicnt,  cither 

fels  in  the  party  of  the  princes.     She  found  means  to  in  refped  of  life,  reputation,  or  fortune. 

N"  88.  C'ON- 


CON  [     505     ]  CON 

CONDENSATION,  the  aft  wliereby  a  body  is        CONDORMIENTES,  in  cUui-ch-hlftory.rclijftous    QphJot- 

The  woid     feftarii-s,  who  take  their  name  from  lying  all  together,    *"""'«» 


"°"       rendered  more  denfe,  cnmpaft,  and  heavy 
Conclor, 


is  commonly  applied  to  the  converfion  of  vapour  into 
water,  by  dirtillation,  or  naturally  in  tlic  clouds.  Tlie 
way  in  which  vapour  commonly  condenfes,  is  by  the 
application  of  fome  cold  fubftance.  On  touching  it, 
the  vapour  parts  with  its  heat  which  it  had  before  ab- 
forbed ;  and  on  doing  fo,  it  immediately  lofes  the  pro- 
per charafteriftics  of  vapour,  and  becomes  water.  But 
though  this  is  the  moft  common  and  ufual  way  in 
which  we  obferve  vapour  to  be  condenfed,  nature 
certainly  proceeds  after   another   method :    iince   we 


men  and  women,  young  and  old.  They  arofe  in  the 
13th  century,  near  Cologne;  where  they  are  fald  to 
have  woHhipped  an  image  of  Lucifer,  and  to  have 
received  anfwers  and  oracles  fvom  liirn. 

CONDRIT.U,  a  town  of  Lyonnois  in  France,  re- 
markable for  its  excellent  wines.  It  is  feated  at  the 
foot  of  a  hill  near  the  river  Rhone,  E.  Lon?.  4..  ii, 
N.Lat.45.28.  ^*" 

CONURUSII,  (anc.geog.),  a  peo{)le  of  Bclgica, 
originally  Germans,  dwelling  about  the  Mat  fe.    Their 


C'ouefli. 


often  obferve  the  vapours  moft  plentifully  condenfed  country  is   now  called  Condrotv,,  in  the   bidiopric   of 

when   the   weather    is    really  warmer   than    at   other  Liege,  between  Luxemburg  and  the  Macfe. 

times.     See  the  articles  Cloud,  Evaporation,  &c.  CONDUCTOR,  in  furgery,  an  inftrument  which 

CONDENSER,  a  pneumatic   engine,  or  fyringe,  ferves  to  conduift  the  knife  in  the  operation  of  cutting 

whereby  an  uncommon  quantity  of  air  may  be  crowd-  for  the  ftone,  and  in  laying  up  finufes  and  fiftulas. 
ed   into  a  given   fpacc  ;   fo  that  fometimes  ten   atmo-  Conbuctors,   in  eltftrical  experiments,  are   thofc 

fpheres,  or  ten  times  as  mucli.air  as  there  is  at  the  fame  bodies  that  receive  and  communicate  eltftricity  ;  and 

time  in  the   fame  fpace,   without  the  engine,  may  be  thofe  that  repel  it  are  called  non-conduSurs.    See  Elec- 

thrown  in  by  means  of  it,  and  its  egrefs  prevented  by  TRicrrv. 
valves  properly  difpofed.    See  Plate  CXLVL  CONDUIT,  a  canal  or  pipe  for  the  conveyance  of 

It  confills  of  a  brafs  cylinder,  wherein  is  a  moveable  water,  or  other  fluid, 
pifton  ;  which  being  drawn  out,  the  air  rufhes  into  the         There  are   feveral  fubterraneous  conduits   through 

cylinder  through   a  hole    provided    on  purpofe  ;  and  which  the  waters  pafs  that  form   fprings.     Artificial 

when  the  pifton  is  again  forced  into  the  cylinder,  the  conduits  for  water  are  made  of  lead,  ftone,  caft-iron, 

is  driven  into  the  receiver  through  an  orifice,  fur  potter's  earth,  timber,  l^c. 


niftied  with  a  valve  to  hinder  its  getting  out. 

The  receiver  or  veflel  containing  the  condenfed  air, 
fhould  be  made  veiy  ftrong,  to  bear  the  force  of  the 
air's  fprjng  thus  increafed ;  for  which  reafon  they  are 
generally  made  of  brafs:  its  orifice  is  fitted  with  a  fe- 
male fcrew  to  receive  the  male  fcrew  at  the  end  of  the 
condenfer. 


CONDYLOID  and  Coronoid  proceffes.     See  A- 

N ATOMY,  n^  26. 

CONDYLOMA,  in  medicine,  a  tubercle,  or  cal- 
lous eminence,  which  arifes  in  the  folds  of  the  anus,  or 
rather  a  fwelling  or  hardening  of  the  wrinkles  of  that 
part. 

CONDYLUS,    a  name  given  by  anatomies   to   a 


If  glafs  be  ufed  for  a  condenfer,  it  will  not  fufFer  fo  knot  in  any  of  the  joints,  formed  by  the  epiphyfis  of 

great   a  degree  of  condenfation  ;  but  the  experiment  a  bone. 

will  be  more  entertaining,  fince    the  fubjedl  may  be         CONE,  in  geometry,  a  folid  figure,  having  a  circle 

viewed  in  the  condenfed  air.  for  its  bafe,  and  its  top  terminated  in  a  point  or  ver- 

CONDITION,  in  the  civil  law,  a  claufe  of  obliga-  lex.     See  Conic  Sections. 
tion  ftipulated  as  an  article  of  a  treaty  or  a  contraft  ;  Meltivg  Cone,  in  chemiftry,   is  a  hollow  cone  form- 
er in  a  donation  of  a  teftament,  legacy,  l^c.  in  which  ed  of  copper  or  brafs,  with  a  handle,  and  with  a  flat 
laft  cafe  a  donee  does  not    lofe  his  donative  if  it  be  bottom  adjoining  to  the  apex  of  the  cone,  upon  whicli 
charged  with  any  difhonett  or  impoflible  conditions.  it  is  intended  to  reft.      Its  ufe  is  to   receive  a  mafs  of 

CONDITIONAL,    fomething    not  abfolute,    but  one  or  more  metals  melted  together,   and  call  into  it. 


fuhjeit  to  conditions. 

CoKDiTioNAi.  ConjimB'wns,  in  grammar,  are  thofe 
which  fenT  to  make  propofitions  conditional;  as  if,  «;;- 
lifi, provided^  i^t. 

CoNviTiovAL  Pnfrjttiom,  in   logic,    fuch  as  confift 
of  two  parts  connected  together  by  a  couditii 
tide. 


inal 


par- 


This  mafs,  when  cold,  may  be  eafily  (hook  out  of  the 
veffel,  from  its  figure.  Alfo,  if  a  melted  mafs  con- 
firting  of  two  or  more  metals,  or  other  fubflanccs  not 
combined  together,  be  poured  into  this  veffel,  the  co- 
nical figure  facilitates  the  feparation  of  thcfe  fubftances 
according  to  their  rcfpcclive  denilties.  The  cone 
ouglit  to  be  well  heated  before  the  melted  mafs  is 
CoxDJTroK  11.  Syllngrfin,  a  fyllogifm  where  the  major  thrown  into  it  ;  that  it  may  not  contain  any  moifture, 
is  a  conditional  propolltion.     Thus,  which  would  occafion  a  dangerous  cxplofion.    It  ouo-lit 

If  there  is  a  God,  he  ought  to  be  worfhipped,  alfo  to  be   greafed  internally  with  tallow,  to  prevent 

But  there  is  a  God  ;  the  adhefion  of  the  fluid  matter. 

Therefuie  he  ought  to  be  worfhipped.  CohE   of  Rays,  in   optics,   inchiJes   all   the   feveral 

CONDIVICNUM,  (iinc.geog.),  the  capital  of  the     rays  which   fall  from  any  radiant  point  upon  the  fur- 
Namnetes,  in  Armorica.      Now  Nants  in  Brittany,  on     face  of  a  glafs. 


the  Loire,  from  its  name  Cmitas  Numaelum.    W.  Long. 
I.  30.  Lat.  47.  15. 

CONDOM,  a  town  of  Gafcony  in  France,  capital 

■of  the  Condomois,  with  a  bifliop's  fee.     It  is  but  a 

poor  place,   and   the  trade  is  very  fmall.      It  is  feated 

on  the  river  Gelift'e,  in  E.  Long.  o.  22.  N.  Lat.  44. 

CONDOR,  orCoNTOR,  inorhithology.  SeeVutTUR, 

Vot.  V.  Part  L 


Cone,  in  botany.      See  Con  us. 

CONESSI,  a  fort  of  baik  of  a  tree,  which  grows 
on  the  Coroniandel  coaft  in  the  Eaft  Indies.  It  is  re- 
commended in  a  letter  to  Dr  Monro,  in  the  Medical 
ElTays,  as  a  fpecific  in  diarrliccas.  It  is  to  be  finely 
pulverized,  and  made  into  an  eleduary  with  fyrup  of 
oranges.     I'he  bark  ftionld  be  fieih,  and  the  cleftua- 


CON  I     3°^ 

Confarre-  ry  new  made  every  day,  or  fecond  day,  otherwife  it 
atijn      jgfgj  jjg  auftere  but  grateful  bitternefs   on  the  palate, 
Confeffion  »"d  its  proper  effefts  on  the  mteftiiies. 
■  CONFARREATION,  a  ceremony  among  the  an- 

cient Romans,  ufed  in  the  marriage  of  perfons  whofe 
children  were  deftined  for  the  honour  of  the  prieft-hood. 

ConfaiTeation  was  the  moft  facred  of  the  three 
modes  of  contraifting  marriage  among  that  people  ; 
and  confifted,  according  to  Servius,  in  this,  that  the 
pontifex  maximus  znAJlumen  liiiiUs  joined  and  contrafted 
the  man  and  woman,  by  making  them  eat  of  the  fame 
cake  of  faked  bread  :  whence  the  term,  far  fignifying 
m^al  oxjlour. 

Ulpian  fays,  it  confiiled  in  the  offering  up  of  feme 
pure  wheaten  bread  ;  relicarfing,  withal,  a  certain  for- 
mula, in  prefcnce  of  ten  witnelTes.  Dionyfius  Hali- 
carnaffeus  adds,  that  the  hutband  and  wife  did  eat  of 
the  fame  wheaten  bread,  and  threw  part  onthe  viftims. 

CONFECTION,  in  pharmacy,  fignifies,  in  general, 
any  thing  prepared  with  fugar :  in  particidar  it  im- 
ports fomcthing  preferved,  efpecially  dry  fubftances. 
It  alfo  fignifies  a  liquid  or  foft  eleftuary,  of  which 
there  are  vai-ious  forts  diredled  in  difpenfatories.  See 
Pharmacy. 

CONFECTOR,  among  the  ancient  Romans,  a 
fort  of  gladiator,  hired  to  fight  in  the  amphitheatre 
againll;  beads  ;  thence  alfo  denominated  befl'mfius. 

The  cor.JeBores  were  thus  called  a  confiaendls  bejl'ih, 
from  their  difpatching  and  killing  beads. 

The  Greeks  called  them  -Ta,c.iS.>.>.  q.  d.  daring, rajh, 
defperate ;  whence  the  Latins  bonowed  the  appella- 
tions/■crafo/iini  and  faralrAarii.  The  Chrillians  were 
fometimes  condemned  to  this  fort  of  combat. 

CONFECTS,  a  denomination  given  to  fruits,  flow- 
ers, herbs,  roots,  &c.  when  boiled  or  prepared  with 
fugar  or  honey,  to  difpofe  them  to  keep,  and  render 
them  m.ore  agreeable  to  the  tafte, 

CONFEDERACY,  in  law,  is  when  two  or  more 
perfons  combine  to  do  any  damage  to  another,  or  to 
commit  any  unlawful  act.  Confederacy  is  punidiable, 
though  nothing  be  put  in  execution  ;  but  then  it  muft 
have  thefe  four  incidents  :  i.  That  it  be  declared  by 
fome  matterof  profecution,  as  by  making  of  bonds  or 
promifes  to  one  another  ;  2.  That  it  be  malicious,  as 
for  unjuft  revenge  ;  3.  That  it  be  falfe,  /.  e.  againil 
the  innocent ;  and,  laftly,  That   it  be  out  of  court, 

vcluntarv- 

CONFERVA,in  botany  :  A  genus  belonging  to  the 
cryptogamia  clafs  of  plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  me- 
thod ranking  under  the  57th  order,  j^lg<e.  The  tu- 
bercles are  of  different  fizes,  on  capillary,  very  long 
fibres.  There  are  21  fpecies,  molt  of  them  growing 
on  ftones  in  flow  ftreams,  on  the  fides  of  cifterns,  or 
in  ponds. 

CONFESSION,  in  a  civil  fenfe,  a   declaration  or 
acknowledgement  of  fome   truth,  though  againft  the 
intereil  of  the  party  who  makes  it ;  whether  it  be  in 
a   court  of  juftice  or  out   of  it.      It  is  a  maxim,  that 
\  in  civil  matters,  the  confeffion  is  never  to  be  divided, 

but  always  taken  entire.  A  criminal  is  never  con- 
demned on  his  fimple  confeffion,  without  other  colla- 
teral proofs ;  nor  is  a  voluntary  extrajudicial  confef- 
fion admitted  as  any  proof.  A  perfon  is  not  admit- 
ted to  accufe  himfelf,  according  to  that  rule  in  law, 
"  Nan  ttuditur perire  wient.     See  Arraignment. 


1  .  CON 

Confession,  among  divines,  the  verbal  acknow- Confeffio* 

ledgement  which  a  Chriftian  makes  of  his  fins.  jJ 

Among  the  Jews  it  was  the  cuftom,  on  the  annual  jj.^ 
feaft  of  expiation,  for  the  high-prieit  to  make  confef-  -_y— ii 
fion  of  fins  to  God  in  the  name  of  the  whole  people  : 
befides  this  general  confeffion,  the  Jews  were  enjoin- 
ed, if  their  fins  were  a  breach  of  the  fird  table  of  the 
law,  to  make  confeffion  of  them  to  God  ;  but  viola- 
tions of  the  fecond  table  were  to  be  acknowledged  to 
their  brethren.  The  confeffion  of  the  primitive  Chri- 
dians  were  all  voluntaiy,  and  not  impolcd  on  them  by 
any  laws  of  the  church  ;  yet  private  confeffion  was 
not  only  allowed,  but  encouraged. 

The  Romifh  church  requires  confeffion  not  only  as 
a  duty,  but  has  advanced  it  to  the  dignity  of  a  latra- 
ment  :  this  confeffion  is  made  to  the  pried,  and  is 
private  and  auricular ;  and  the  pried  is  not  to  reveal 
them  under  pain  of  the  highed  punilTiment. 

CoNFRisioN  of  Faith j  a  lid  of  the  fevei-al  articles  of 
belief  in  any  church. 

CONFESSIOI^AL,  or  Confessionary, -a  place 
in  churches  under  the  great  altar,  where  the  bodies  of 
deceafed  faints,  martyrs,  and  confeflbrs,  were  depofited. 

This  word  is  alfo  ufed  by  the  Romanids  for  a  deilc 
in  the  church  vvheie  the  confeffi^r  takes  the  confeffions 
of  the  penitents. 

CONFESSOR,  a  Chridian  who  has  made  a  folemn 
and  refolutc  profeffion  of  the  faith,  and  has  endured 
tontients  in  its  defence.  A  mere  faint  is  called  a  confcf- 
for,  to  didinguidi  him  from  the  roll  of  dignified  faints  ; 
fuch  as  apodles,  martyrs,  &c.  In  ecclcfiadical  hidory,  we 
frequently  find  the  word  confeflbrs  ufed  for  martyrs  : 
in  after-times,  it  was  confined  to  thofe  who,  after  ha- 
ving been  tormented  by  the  tyrants,  were  permitted 
to  five  and  die  in  peace.  And  at  lad  it  was  alfo  ufed 
for  thofe  who,  after  having  lived  a  good  life,  died 
imder  an  opinion  of  faniEtity.  According  to  St  Cy- 
prian, he  who  prefcnted  himfelf  to  torture,  or  even  to 
martyrdom,  without  being  called  to  it,  was  not  called 
a  coifejfor  but  a  profefflr  :  and  if  any  out  of  a  want  of 
courage  abandoned  his  country,  and  became  a  volun- 
tary exile  for  the  fake  of  the  faith,  he  was  called  ex- 
terrb. 

Confessor  is  alfo  a  pried,  in  the  Romilli  church, 
W'ho  has  a  power  to  hear  finners  in  the  facrament  of 
penance,  and  to  give  them  abfolution.  The  church 
calls  him  in  Latin  confijfarius ,  to  didinguifh  him  from 
confeiTor,  which  Is  a  name  confecrated  to  faints.  The 
confclfors  of  the  kings  of  France,  from  the  time  of 
Henry  IV.  have  been  condantly  Jefults :  before  him 
the  Dominicans  and  Cordeliers  (hared  the  office  be- 
tween them  The  confeflbrs  of  the  houfe  of  Audria 
have  alfo,  ordinarily,  been  Dominicans  and  Cordeliers  ; 
but  the  latter  emperors  have  all  taken  Jefuits. 

CONFIGURATION,  the  outward  figure  which 
bounds  bodies,  and  gives  them  their  external  appear- 
ance ;  being  that  which,  in  a  great  meafure,  condi- 
tutcs  the  fpeclfic  difference  between  bodies. 

CONFIRMATION,  in  a  general  fenfe,  the  ad  of 
ratifying  or  rendering  «  title,  claim,  report,  or  the 
like,  more  fure  and  Indifputable. 

Confirmation,  in  law,  a  conveyance  of  an  edate, 
or  right  in  ejfe,  from  one  man  to  another,  whereby  a 
voidable  edate  is  made  fure  and  unavoidable,  or  a  par- 
ticular eftaie  is  increafed,  or  a  pofieffion  made  perfeft. 

Com- 


\ 


Corfifca- 
tion, 
'Conflagra- 
tion. 


CON  [3 

CoMFiRMATioN,  in  theology.the  ceremony  oflaying 
on  of  hands,  for  the  conveyance  of  the  Holy  Ghoft. 

The  antiquity  of  this  ccrcmoay  is,  by  all  ancient 
writers,  carried  as  high  as  the  apoftles,  and  founded 
upon  their  example  and  pradlice.  In  the  primitive 
church,  it  ufed  to  be  given  to  Chriftians  immediately 
after  baptifm,  if  the  biHiop  happened  to  be  prefent  at 
the  fulemnity.  Among  the  Greeks,  and  throughout 
the  Eaft,  it  Itill  accompanies  baptifm  :  but  the  Roma- 
nifts  make  it  a  dilUnft  independent  facrament.  Seven 
years  is  tlie  Hated  time  for  confirmation  :  however, 
they  are  fometimes  confirmed  before,  and  fometimes 
after,  that  ag"..  The  perfon  to  be  confirmed  has  a 
god-father  and  god-mother  appointed  him,  as  in  bap- 
tifm. The  order  of  confirmation  in  the  cluirch  of 
England,  does  not  determine  the  precife  age  of  the 
perfons  to  be  confirmed. 

CONFISCATION,  in. law,  the  adjudication  of 
goods  or  effedls  to  the  public  treafury  ;  as  the  bodies 
and  effedls  of  criminals,  traitors,  &c. 

CONFLAGItATION,  the  general  burning  of  a 
city,  or  other  confiderable  place. 

This  word  is  commonly  applied  to  that  grand  pe- 
riod or  cataftrophe  of  our  world,  when  the  face  of  na- 
ture is  to  be  changed  by  fire,  as  formerly  it  was  by 
water.  The  ancient  Pythagoreans,  Platonills,  Epi- 
cureans, and  Stoics,  appear  to  have  had  a  notion  of 
the  conflagration  :  though  whence  they  fliould  derive 
it,  unlefs  from  the  facred  books,  is  difficult  to  con- 
ceive ;  except,  perhaps,  from  the  Phoenicians,  who 
themfelves  had  it  from  the  Jews.  Seneca  fays  ex- 
prefsly,  Tempus  advetieril  quo  Jidtra  Jiderilus  incurrent, 
i^  omni  Jlngrante  maleria  imo  ig'ie,  quicqmd  nunc  ex 
depofiio  lucet,  ardebit.  This  general  diffolution  the 
Stoics  call  ti-rvfiuci;,  ecpyrojis.  Mention  of  the  con- 
flagration is  alfo  made  in  the  books  of  the  Sybils,  So- 
phocles, Hyitalpes,  Ovid,  Lucan,  l^c.  Dr  Burnet, 
after  F.  Tachaid  and  others,  relates  that  the  Siamefe 
believe  that  the  earth  will  at  laft  be  parched  up  with 
heat  ;  the  mountains  melted  down  ;  tho  earth's  whole 
furface  reduced  to  a  level,  and  then  confumed  with 
fire.  And  the  Bramins  of  Siam  do  not  only  hold  that 
the  world  (hall  be  deilroyed  by  fire  ;  but  alfo  that  a 
new  earth  fhall  be  made  out  of  the  cinders  of  tlie  old. 

Various  are  the  fentiments  of  authors  on  the  fubjedl 
of  the  conflagration  ;  the  caufe  whence  it  is  to  arife, 
and  the  effefts  it  is  to  produce.  Divines  ordinarily 
account  for  it  metaphyfically ;  and  will  have  it  take 
its  rife  from  a  miracle,  as  a  fire  from  heaven.  Phi- 
lofophers  contend  for  its  being  produced  from  natural 
caufes  ;  and  will  have  it  efFeJtcd  according  to  the  laws 
of  mechanics.  Some  think  an  eruption  of  the  central 
fire  fuffieient  for  the  purpofe  ;  and  add,  that  this  may 
be  occalioned  feveral  ways,  "U/'a.  either  by  having  its 
intcnfion  increafcd ;  which  again,  may  be  eftetted 
either  by  being  driven  into  lels  fpace  by  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  fuperlicial  cold,  or  by  an  increafe  of  the 
intlammability  of  the  fuel  whereon  it  is  fed  ;  or  by 
having  the  reliflance  of  the  imprifoning  earth  weak- 
ened ;  which  may  happen,  either  from  the  dim.iuu- 
tion  of  its  matter,  by  the  confumption  of  its  central 
parts,  or  by  weakening  the  cohellon  of  the  conftitu- 
cnt  parts  of  the  mafs  by  the  excefs  of  the  defedt  of 
moillure.  Others  look  for  the  caufe  of  the  condagra- 
tion  in  the  atmofphere  ;  and  fuppofc,  that  fume  of  the 


07    ]  CON 

meteors  there  engendered  in  unufual  quantities,  and  Confluent 

exploded  with  unufual  vehemence,  from  the  concur-  _    J'  . 

*  J.         .  .  ,,  a?  n.    •  •  t      Confucius, 

rence   ox  various   circumltaoces,  may  eriect   it,   with-  ,,  ( 

out  feeking  any  further.     The  aftrologers  account  for  ' 

it  from  a  conjundtion  of  all  the   planets  in  the   figii 

Cancer ;  as  the  deluge,   fay  they,   was  occafioned  by 

their  conjundlion  in  Capricorn.     Lallly,  others  have 

recourfe  to  a  ftiU  more  effcftual  and  flaming  machine, 

and  conclude  the  world  is  to  undergo  its  conflagration 

from  the  near  approach  of  a  comet  in  its  return  from 

the  fun. 

CONFLUENT,  among  phyficians,  &c.  an  appel- 
lation given  to  that  kind  of  Small-pox  wherein  the 
puftules  run  into  each  other. 

CONFLUENTES  (anc.geog),a  place  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Rhine  and  Molelle,  luppoled  to  be  oiiii 
of  the  yo  forts  eredted  by  Drufus  on  the  Rhine,  in  ^ 

Gallia  Belgica  :  Now  Cobknt-x,,  a  town  of  Triers.     E. 
Long.  7.  15.  Lat.  50.  30W. 

CONFORMATION,  the  particular  coiififtencc  and 
texture  of  the  parts  of  any  body,  and  their  difpolitioii 
to  compofe  a  whole. 

Conformation,  in  medicine,  that  make  and  con- 
ftrudlion  of  the  human  body  which  is  peculiar  to  every 
individual.  Hence,  a  viala  conformatio  fignifies  fc>me 
fault  in  the  firft  rudiments ;  whereby  a  perfon  comes 
into  the  world  crooked,  or  with  fome  of  the  vifcera  or 
cavities  unduly  framed  or  proportioned.  Many  are 
fubjedt  to  incurable  allhmas,  from  a  too  fmall  capacity 
of  the  thorax,  and  the  like  vitious  conformations. 

CONFORMITY,  in  the  fchools,  is  the  congruency, 
or  relation  of  agreement  between   one  thing  and  ano- 
ther; as  between  the  meafure  and  the  thing  mealured,  ♦ 
the  objedl  and  the  underllanding,  the  thing  and  the 
divifion  thereof,  &c. 

CONFRONTATION,  the  aft  of  bringing  two 
perfons  in  prefence  of  each  other,  to  difcover  the  trutli 
of  fome  fadl  which  they  relate  diflerenlly. 

The  word  is  chiefly  ufed  in  criminal  matters  ;  where 
the  witnelfcs  are  confronted  with  the  'accuied,  the 
accufed  with  one  another,  or  the  witnefl'es  with  one 
another. 

CONFUCIUS,  a  Chinefe  philofopher,  who  lived 
about  500  years  before  our  Saviour's  birth,  in  the 
kingdom  of  Lu,  now  called  the  province  of  Xaiitimg. 
His  wit  and  judgment  |got  him  a  reputation  from  his 
very  youth  ;  and  being  a  mandarin,  and  employed  in 
tlie  government  of  the  kingdom  of  I..U,  his  profound 
knowledge  of  morals  and  politics  made  him  be  greatly 
admired.  Notwithllanding  his  care,  his  prince's  court 
was  much  diiordered  ;  and  Confucius  finding  the  king 
would  not  lillen  to  his  advice,  quitted  the  court,  and 
taught  moral  philofophy  with  fueh  applaufe  that  he 
foon  had  above  3000  fcholars,  whereof  72  fiirpaffed 
the  reif  in  learning  and  virtue,  for  whom  the  Chinefe 
have  Hill  a  particular  veneration.  He  divided  hi<! 
dodlrine  into  four  parts,  and  his  fcholars  into  four 
clafies  :  the  firft;  order  was  of  thofe  who  iludied  to  ac- 
quire virtue  ;  the  2d,  thofe  who  learned  the  art  of 
reafoniiig  well;  the  3d  fludied  tl>e  government  of  the 
ffatc  and  the  duty  of  magillrates  ;  the  4tlv  were 
wholly  taken  up  in  noble  difcourfes  of  all  that  concern- 
ed morals.  In  fpite  of  all  his  pains  to  eltablilh  pure 
morality  and  religion,  he  was  nevcrthelefs  the  iiiiio- 
cenf  caufe  of  their  corruption.  It  is  faid,  that  when 
Q^q  2  he 


CON  [30 

Confufwn.  he  was  complimented  upon  the  excellency  of  his  phi- 

'"— \ lofophy,  he   replied,  that  he  fell  greatly  (hort  of  the 

perfeft  degree  of.  virtue  ;  but  that  in  the  well  the 
moil  holy  was  to  be  found.  This  made  a  ftrong  im- 
prefTion  on  the  learned  ;  and  in  the  66th  year  after 
ChrllVs  birtti,  the  emperor  Mon-ti  fent  ambafFadors 
toward  the  weft  to  feek  tliis  holy  man.  They  flop- 
ped at  an  ifland  near  the  Red  Sea,  and  found  a  famous 
idol  named  Fohi,  reprefenting  a  philolopher  that  lived 
500  years  before  Confucius.  They  carried  this  idol 
back  with  them,  with  inilruftions  concerning  the 
•worfhip  rendered  to  it  ;  and  fo  introduced  a  fuperlli- 
tion  that  abolillied  in  fcveral  places  the  maxims  of 
Confucius.  His  tomb  is  in  the  academy  where  he 
taught,  near  the  town  Xio-fu,  upon  the  banks  of  the 
river  Xu.  This  philofopher  has  been  in  great  venera- 
tion in  China  above  2000  years;  and  is  ftill  loeileemed, 
that  each  town  has  a  palace  confecrated  to  his  memory. 
There  was  one  of  his  dtfcendants  who  was  very  confi-  ' 
derable  in  the  kingdom  in  1646,  whom  Xanchi  king 
of  Tartary,  who  then  conquered  China,  received  with 
a  great  deal  of  honour.  AH  thofe  of  his  family  are 
mandarins  by  birth;  and  have  a  privilege  common  with 
the  princes  of  the  blood,  not  to  pay  any  tribute. 

CONFUSION,  in  a  general  fenl'e,  is  oppt.fed  to 
enter,  in  a  perturbation  whereof  confufion  confills  ; 
e.  gr.  when  things  prior  in  nature  do  not  precede,  or 
pofterior  do  not  follow,   &c. 

In  a  logical  fenfe,  confniion  isoppofed  todiftinftnefs 
or  perfpicnity  ;  and  may  happen  either  in  words,  as 
when  mifcontrived  or  mifapplled;  or  in  ideas,  as  when 
the  idea  of  any  thing  prefents  fomething  along  with  it, 
which  does  not  properly  belong  to  that  thing.  See 
Idea  and  Notion. 

In  a  phyfical  fenfe,  confufion  is  a  fort  of  union  or 
mixtuie  by  mere  contiguity.  Such  is  that  between 
fluids  of  contraiy  nature,  aa  oil  and  vinegar,  &c. 

Confusion,  in  Scots  law,  is  a.method  of  fufpend- 
ing  and  exlinguiihing  obligations.  See  Law,  Part  III. 
N°  clxxvi.  8. 

CoNrvswN  of  Tongues,  in  the  hiftory  of  mankind,  is 
a  memorable  event,  which  happened  in  the  one  hundred 
and  firft  year  according  to  the  Hebrew  chronology, 
and  the  four  hundred  and  firft  year  by  the  Samaritan, 
after  the  flood,  at  the  overthrow  of  Babel ;  and  which 
was  providentially  brought  about  in  order  to  facilitate 
the  difperfion  of  mankind  and  the  population  of  the 
earth.  Until  this  period  there  had  been  one  common 
language,  which  formed  a  bond  of  union  that  prevent- 
ed the  feparation  of  mankind  into  diilinft  nations;  and 
fome  have  fuppofed,  that  the  tower  of  Babel  was  erec- 
ted as  a  kind  of  fortrefs,  by  which  the  people  intended 
to  defend  tliemfclves  againll  that  feparation  which  Noah 
hid  projefted. 

There  has  been  a  confiderable  difference  of  opinion 
as  to  the  nature  of  this  confufion,  and  the  manner  in 
which  it  was  effefted  Some  learned  men,  prepolfeflcd 
with  the  notion  that  all  the  different  idioms  now  in  the 
world  did  at  firil  arife  from  one  original  language  to 
which  they  may  be  reduced,  and  that  the  variety 
among  them  is  no  more  than  muft  naturally  have  hap- 
pened in  a  long  courfe  of  time  by  the  mere  feparation 
of  the  builders  of  Babel,  have  maintained,  that  there 
were  no  new  languages  formed  at  the  confufion  ;  but 
'  that  this  event  was  accomplifhed  by  creating  a  mifun- 


8     ] 


CON 


derftanding  and  rariaBce  among  the  bvilders  without  Cm  fuCon. 
any  immediate  influence  on  their  language.     But  this  ~~V'""-' 
opinion,  advanced  by  Le  Clerc,   &c.   feems  to  be  di- 
redily  contrary  to   the  obvious  mtanlng  of  the   word 
r-EU',  Jliajiha,    "  lip,"    ufed   by   the   faered    hiftorian. 
Others  have  imagined,  that  this  was  brought  about  by 
a  temporary  confufion  of  their  fpecch,  ot  rather  of  their 
apprehenfions,  caiifing  th>;m,  whilft  they  continued  to- 
gether and  fpoke  the  fame  language,  to  underftand  the 
words  differently.    Scaliger  is  of  this  opinion.     Others, 
again,  account  for  this  event  by  the  privation  of  all 
language,  and  by  fuppofing  that  mankind  were  under 
a  ncceflity  of  afTviciating  together,  and  of  impofing  new 
names  on  things  by  common  conlent.      Another  opi- 
nion afcribes  the  confufion  to  fuch  an  indiilinft  remem- 
branc.  of  the  original  language  whiih  they  fpoke  be- 
fore, as  made  them   fpeak  it  very  differently  ;  fo  that 
by  the  various  inflexions,  terminations,  and  pronun- 
ciations of  divers  dialedis,  thty  could  no  more  under- 
ftand one   another,  than  they   who   underftand  Latio 
can  underftand  thofe   who  fpeak   French,    Italian,  or 
Spanifli,  though   all   thefe  languages  arife  out  of  it. 
Tfiis  opinion  is  adopted  by  Caufahon,   and  by  Bifhcp 
Patrick  in  his  Commentary /n  loc.  and  is  certainly  much, 
more   probable  than   either  of  the   former.      And  Mr 
Siiuckford   maintains,   that  the  confufion   arofe   from 
imall  bcgiimings,  by  the  invention  of  new  words  in  ei- 
ther of  the  three  families  of  Shem,  Ham,  and  J-.iphet, 
which  might  contribute  to  feparate  them  from  one  ano- 
ther ;  and  that  in  each  family  new  differences  of  fpeecb 
might  gradually  arife,  fo   that   each   of  thefe   families 
went  on   to  divide  and   fubdivide  among  themfelves. 
Others,  again,   as  Mr  J)f  M;de  and  Dr  Wotton,  &c. 
not  fatislied  with  either  of  the   foretfoinir  methods  of 
accounting  for  the  diverfity  of  languages  among  man- 
kind, have   recourfe  to  an  extraordinary  interpofition 
of  divine  power,  by  which  new  languages  were  framed 
and  communicated  to  different  families  by   a   fuperna- 
tural  infufion  or  infpiratlon  ;  which  languages  have  been 
the  roots  and  originals  from  which  the  feveral  dialefts 
that  are,  or  have  been,  or   will   be  fpoken,  as  long  as 
this   earth   fhall   lall,  have  aiifen,  and  to  which  tfiey 
may  with  eafe  be  reduced.     As  to  the  number  of  lan- 
guages   thus    introduced,    many   opinions    have    been 
adopted.      If  there  were  nojnore  than  there  were  na- 
tions or  heads  of  nations,  then  the  number  would  be 
fevcn  for  Japhet,  four  for  Ham,  and  five  for   Shem  ; 
but  if  there  were  as  many  as  there  were  families,  which 
is  the  more  probable  opinion,  their  number  cannot  be 
certainly  afligncd.      Howtver,  the  Hebrews  fancy  they 
weie   70,   becaufe  the   defcendents   from  the  fons  of 
Noah,  tiuimerated  Genefis  x.  were  julf  fo  many.     Al- 
lowing,  then,  the  languages  of  the  chief  families  to 
have  been  fundamentally  different  from  each  other,  the 
fub-languages  and  dlalcdls  within  each  branch  would 
probably  have  had  a  mutual  affinity,   greater  or  lefs  as 
they  fettled  nearer  or  farther  from  each  other.      But 
whichfoever  of  thefe  hypothcfes  is  adopted,  the  primary 
objeft  of  the  confufion  at  Babel  was  the  feparation  and 
difperfion  of  mankind. 

Dr  Bryant,  in  the  third  volume  of  his  Analyfis  of 
Ancient  Mythology,  has  advanced  a  Angular  hypothe- 
cs, both  with  refpect  to  the  confufion  of  tongues  and 
the  difperfion.  He  fuppofes  that  the  confufion  of  lan- 
guage was  local  and  partial,  and  limited  to  Babel  only. 

By 


-CON  [ 

By  »iKn"!3,  Gen.  xi.  i.  and  8,  which  our  trahflatori 
rentier  the  whole  earth,  lie  undcrdHiidti  every  repon:  and 
by  the  fame  words  in  ver.  9.  the  "whole  region  or  pro- 
vince. Tliis  confufion  was  occafioncd,  as  he  iuppufes, 
by  a  labial  failure  ;  lb  that  the  people  could  not  arti- 
culate. Thus  their  fpeech  was  confounded,  but  not 
altered  ;  for,  as  foon  as  tliey  feparated,  they  recovered 
ihcir  true  tenor  of  pronunciation,  and  the  language  oi 
the  earth  continued  for  fome  ages  nearly  the  fame. 
The  interviews  between  the  Htbicws  and  other  na- 
tions, recorded  in  Scripture,  were  condufted  without 
an  interpreter ;  and  he  farther  obfervcs,  that  the  vari- 
ous languages  which  fubfill  at  this  day  retain  fufficient 
relation  to  lliow,  tliat  they  were  once  dialctts  from  the 
fame  matrix,  and  that  their  variety  was  the  eft'eft  of 
time.     See  Dispersion. 

CONFUTATION,  in  rhetoric,  &c.  a  part  of  an 
oration,  wherein  the  orator  fcconds  his  own  arguments 
and  ftrengthens  his  caufe,  by  refelling  and  deftroy- 
ing  the  oppofite  arguments  ot  the  antagonill.  This  is 
done  by  denying  what  is  apparently  falfe,  by  deteAing 
fome  flaw  in  the  reafoning  of  the  adverle  party,  by 
granting  their  argument,  and  Ihovving  its  invalidity,  or 
retorting  it  upon  the  adveiiary. 

CONGJi,  in  the  French  law,  a  licence,  or  petmif- 
fion,  granted  by  a  fuperior  to  an  inferior,  which  gives 
him  a  difpenfation  from  fome  duty  to  which  he  vras 
before  obliged.  A  woman  cannot  obligate  hcrfelf 
without  the  conge  or  licence  of  her  hufband  ;  a  monk 
cannot  go  out  of  his  convent,  w.thout  the  coiige  of  his 
fuperiors. 

Co\GE'  Je  lire,  in  eccleiiallical  policy,  the  king's 
permiflion  royal  to  a  dean  and  chapter  in  the  time  of  a 
vacancy,  to  choofe  a  biihop  ;  or  to  an  abbey,  or  priory, 
of  his  own  foundation,  to  dioofe  their  abbot  or  prior. 

The  king  of  England,  as  fovereign  patron  of  all 
archbifiioprics,  biihoprics,  and  other  ecclchaifical  be- 
nefices, had  of  ancient  time  free  appointment  of  all 
eccleiiallical  dignities,  whenfoever  they  chanced  to  be 
void ;  invciliug  them  hrft  per  hacculum  Isf  annulum, 
and  afterwards  by  his  letters-patent;  and  in  courfe  of 
time  he  made  the  election  over  to  others,  under  cer- 
tain forms  and  limitations,  as  that  they  fliould  at  eve- 
ry vacation,  before  they  choofe,  demand  the  king's 
<;onge  de  lire,  and  after  the  eletfion  crave  his  royal  af- 
feut,  i^c. 

Conge',  in  architefture,  a  mould  in  form  of  a 
quarter  round,  or  a  cavetto,  which  ferves  to  fepaiate 
two  members  fiom  one  another;  fuch  as  that  which 
joins  the  fhaft  of  the  column  to  the  ciutlure,  called  al- 
fo  apophyge. 

Conges  are  alfo  rings  orferrels  formerly  ufed  in  the 
extremities  of  wooden  pillars,  to  keep  them  from  fpht- 
ting,  afterwards  imitated  in  llone-work. 

CONGELATION,    fignifies  the    paffing  of  any 

body  from  a  fluid  to  a  fohd  ftate :  fo  that  the  term  is 

thus  applicable  to  metals  when  they  refume  their  folid 

form  after  being    heated,  to  water  when  it  freezes, 

to  wax,  fpermaceti,  &c.  when  they  become  foUd  after 

)ifrrrs        having  been  rendered  fluid  by  heat  ;  and  in  general  to 

:om  cry-     all  procefles,  where  the  whole  fubftance  of  the  fluid  is 

tallizauon.  converted  into  a  fohd  :  but  it  differs  from  cryftalliza- 

tion  ;  becaufe   in   the  latter   procefs,  though  the  fait 

paffes  from  a  fluid  tc  a  fclid  itate,  a  cooiiderable 


MrBraaOt 


309     ]  CON 

quantity  of  liqufd  is  always  left,  fo  that  the  ttrm  con- 

gelatlun  is  never  applied  in  this  cafe. 

Th«  procefs  of  congelation  in  all  cafes  depends  upon, 
or  at  leail  is  accompanied  with,  the  emiffion  of  heat,  as 
has  been  evinced  by  experiments  made  not  only  in  wa- 
ter, but  on  fpermaceti,  wax,  &c.  for  in  all  of  thcfe,  tho' 
the  thermometer  iminerfed   in   them  while  fluid  conti-         » 
nued  to  delcend  gradually  till  a  certain  period,  yet  it  fs  always 
wasas  conllaiitly  obferved  to  remain  llatioHary,  or  even  ^''^,"°''" 
to  alcend  while  the  congelation  went  on.      1  he  pnnci-  i^jfljon  ^f 
pie  on  which  the  phenomenon  depends  is  thus  afcertain-  heat. 
ed;  but  w'hy  this  heat  ihould  be  emitted,  is  a  quellion 
which  has  not  yet  been  thoroughly  inveltigated.  Some 
coniedlures  relative  to   this  are  indeed   mentioned  in 
the  article  Chemtstry,  when  treating  of  elementary 
fire,  though  experiments  are  ftill  to  be   wifhed  for  on 
the  fubjeft. 

It  is  not  known  whether  all  kinds  of  fluids  are  na- 
turally capable  of  congelation  or  not  ;  though  we  are 
certain  that   there   are   veiy  great   differences   among         , 
them  in  this  refpeft.      The  molt  difficult  of  allthofe  ofCungela- 
which  tlie  congelation  has  been  aftually  afcertained  ia"°"  "f 
quicklilver.      This  was  long  thought  capable  of  refill- 1""'''''''''' 
ing  any  degree  of  cold  whatever;  and  it  is  only  v/itliin 
a  few  years  that  its  congelation  by  artiiicial  means  was 
known,  and  lllll  more   lately  that  fome  climates  were 
found  to  be  fo  levere  as  to  congeal  this  fluid  by  the  cold 
of  the  atmofphere.  ^ 

The  congelation  of  quickfilver  was  firft  afcertained  by  Experi- 
M.  Jofeph  Adam  Braun  prQfefl!"or  of  philofophy  at  Pe-  'JT^^'^°f„ 
terfiiu  g.  He  had  been  employed  in  making  thermome- 
tricul  experiments,  not  with  a  view  to  make  the  difcovery 
he  adlually  did,  but  to  fee  how  many  degrees  of  cold  he 
could  produce.  An  excellent  opportunity  for  this  oc- 
curred on  the  14th  of  December  1  759,  when  the  mer- 
cury ilood  naturally  at  — 34,  which  iji  now  known  to 
be  only  five  or  fix  degrees  above  its  point  of  congela- 
tion. Mr  Braun,  having  determined  to  avail  himfelf 
of  this  great  degree  of  natural  cold,  prepared  a  free- 
zing mixture  ot  aquafortis  and  pounded  ice,  by  means 
of  which  his  thermometer  was  reduced  to  — 69.  Part 
of  the  qnickfilver  had  now  really  congealed ;  yet  fo  far 
was  M.  Braun  from  entertaining  any  fufpicion  of  the 
truth,  that  he  had  almoft  defiiled  from  further  at- 
tempts, being  fatisfied  with  having  fo  far  exceeded  all 
the  philofophers  who  went  before  him.  Animated, 
however,  by  the  hopes  of  producing  a  ftill  greater  de- 
gree of  cold,  he  renewed  the  experiment  ;  but  having 
expended  all  his  pounded  ice,  he  was  obliged  to  fub- 
lliuite  fnow  in  its  place.  With  this  frelh  mixture  the 
mercury  funk  to  — 100,  240,  and  352''.  He  then 
fuppofed  that  the  thermometer  was  broken  ;  but  on 
taking  it  out  to  obferve  whether  it  was  fo  or  not,  he 
found  the  quickfilver  fixed,  and  continuing  fo  for  12 
minutes.  On  repeating  the  fame  experiment  with  an- 
other thermometer  which  had  been  graduated  no.lower 
than  — 220,  all  the  mercury  funk  into  the  ball,  and 
became  folid  as  before,  not  beginning  to  reafcend  till 
after  a  ftill  longer  interval  of  time.  Hence  the  profef- 
for  concluded  that  the  quickfilver  was  really  frozen, 
and  prepared  for  making  a  decifive  experiment.  This 
was  accompHlhed  on  the  25th  of  the  fame  month,  and 
the  bulb  of  the  thermometer  broken  as  foon  as  the 
jnetal  was  congealed.     The  mercury  was  now  conveit- 


tion. 


CON  .    [     31 

ed  into  a  folid  and  (hining  metallic  mafs,  which  extend- 
ed under  the  ftrokes  of  a  peftle,   in  hardnefs  rather  in- 

*"""'  ferior  to  lead,  and  yielding  a  dull  found  like  that  me- 
tal. Profeffor  Spinas  made  fimilar  experiments  at 
the  fame  time,  employing  both  thermometers  and 
tubes  of  a  lai'ger  bore  ;  in  which  laft  he  remarked,  that 
the  quickfilver  fell  fenfibly  on  being  frozen,  afTuming 
a  concave  furface,  and  likewifc  that  the  congealed 
pieces  funk  in  fluid  mercury. 

The  faft  being  thus  eftabliflied,  and  fluidity  no 
longer  to  be  confidered  as  an  effential  property  of 
quickfilver,  Mr  Braun  communicated  an  account  of 
his  experiments  to  the  Peterfhurg  Academy,  on  the 
6th  of  September  1 760  ;  of  which  a  large  extraft  was 
inferted  in  the  Philofophical  Tranfaftions,  vol.  lii. 
p.  156.  Five  years  afterwards  he  publifhed  another 
treatife  on  the  fame  fubjeft,  under  the  title  of  Supple- 
ments to  his  former  dilTertation.  In  thefe  he  declared, 
that,  fince  his  former  publication,  he  had  never  fuffer- 
ed  any  winter  to  elapfe  without  repeating  the  experi- 
ment of  congealing  quickfilver,  and  never  failed  of 
fuccefs  when  the  natural  cold  was  of  a  fufficient 
flrength  for  the  purpofe.  This  degree  of  natural  cold 
he  fuppofes  to  be — 10  of  Fahrenheit,  though  fome 
commencement  of  the  congelation  might  be  percei- 
ved when  the  temperature  of  the  air  was  as  high 
as  •\-2.  The  refults  of  all  his  experiments  were,  that 
with  the  abovementioned  frigorific  mixtures,  and  once 
with  reftilied  fpirits  «nd  fnow,  when  the  natural  cold 
was  at  — 28°,  he  congealed  the  quickfilver,  and  dif- 
covered  that  it  is  a  real  inetal  which  melts  with  a  very 
fmall  degree  of  heat.     Not   perceiving,  however,  the 

,  neceflary  confequence  of  its  great  contraftion  in  free- 

zing, he,  in  this  work,  as  well  as  in  the  former,  con- 
founded its  point  of  congelation  with  that  of  its 
greateil  contradtion  in  freezing,  and  thus  marked  the 
former  a  great  deal  too  low  ;  though  the  point  of  con- 
gelation was  very  uncertain  according  to  him,  various 
difficulties  having  occurred  to  his  attempts  of  finding 
the  greateft  point  of  contraftion  wliile  freezing. 

OfMrBlu-      The  experiments  of  M.  Braun  were  not   repeated 

menbach.  by  any  perfon  till  the  year  '.774,  when  Mr  John  Fre- 
deric Blumenbach,  then  a  ftudent  of  phyfic  at  Got- 
tingen,  performed  them  to  more  advantage  than  it  ap- 
pears M.  Braun  had  ever  done.  He  was  encouraged 
to  make  the  attempt  by  the  exceffive  cold  of  the  win- 
ter that  year.  "  I 'put  (fays  he),  at  five  in  the  even- 
ing of  January  nth,  three  drachms  of  quickfilver  into 
a  fmall  fugar-glafs,  and  covered  it  with  a  mixture  of 
fnow  and  Egj'ptian  fal-ammoniac.  This  mixture  was 
put  loofe  into  the  glafs,  fo  that  the  quickfilver  lay  per- 
feiSlly  free,  being  only  covered  with  it  as  by  pie- 
ces of  ice :  the  whole,  together  with  the  glafs, 
'  weighed  fomewhat  above  an  ounce.  It  was  hung  out 
at  a  window  in  fuch  a  pofition  as  to  expofe  it  freely  to 
the  northwcit  ;  and  two  drachms  more  of  fhl-ammo- 
niac  mixed  with  the  fnow  on  which  it  Hood.  The 
fnow  and  fal-amnioniac,  in  the  open  air,  foon  froze 
into  a  mafs  like  ice  :  no  fenfible  change,  however,  ap- 
peared in  the  quickfilver  that  evening  ;  but  iit  one  in 
the  morning  it  was  found  frozen  folid.  It  had  divided 
into  two  large  and  four  fmaller  pieces  :  one  of  the 
former  was  hemifpherical,  the  other  cylindrical,  each 
feemingly  rather  above  a  drachm  in  weight ;  the  four 
fmall  bits  might  amount  to  half  a  fcruple.  They  were 
all  witli  their  flat  ijdc  frozen  haid  to  tlie  glafs,  auJ  no 


I 


o    1  CON 

whereimmediately  touched  by  the  mixture  5  their  co-  Omgel* 
lour  was  a  dull  pale  white  with  a  bluilh  caft,  like  r.inc,  'I''"' 
very  different  from  the  natural  appearance  of  quickfil-  ' 
ver.  Next  morning  about  feven  o'clock  I  found  that 
the  larger  hem  ifphere  began  to  melt,  perhaps  becaufe 
it  was  mofl  expofed  to  the  air,  and  not  fo  near  as  the 
others  to  the  fal-ammoniac  mixture  which  lay  be- 
neath. In  this  ilate  it  refembled  an  amalgam,  finking 
to  that  fide  on  which  the  glafs  was  inclined;  but  with- 
out quitting  the  furface  of  the  glafs,  to  which  it  was 
yet  firmly  congealed  :  the  five  other  pieces  had  not 
yet  undergone  any  alteration,  but  remained  frozen  hard. 
Toward  eight  o'clock  the  cylindrical  piece  began  to 
foften  in  the  fame  manner,  and  the  other  four  foon 
followed.  About  eight  they  fell  from  the  furface  of 
the  glafs,  and  divided  into  many  fluid  fliining  globules, 
which  were  foon  loft  in  the  interfcices  of  the  frozen 
mixture,  and  reunited  in  part  at  the  bottom,  being  now 
exatUy  like  common  quickfilver."  At  the  time  this 
experiment  was  made,  the  thermometer  flood  at  — 10" 
m  the  open  air.  . 

The  circumftances  attending  this  experiment  are  flill Remaiki 
unaccountable  ;  for,  in  the  firfl  place,  the  natural  cold  on  this  ei- 
was  fcarcely  fufficient,  along  with  that  of  the  artificial  perinicut, 
mixture,  which  produces  32°  more,  to  have  congealed 
the  quickfilver ;  which  yet  appears  to  have  been  very 
effedtually  done  by  the  length  of  time  it  continued 
folid.  2.  It  is  not  eafy  to  account  for  the  length  ot 
time  required  for  congealing  the  quickfilver  in  this  ex- 
periment, fince  other  frigorific  mixtures  begin  to  aft 
almofl  immediately  ;  and,  3.  There  was  not  at  laft 
even  the  appearance  of  action,  which  confills  in  a  fo- 
lution  of  the  fnow,  and  not  in  its  freezing  into  a  mafs. 
"  The  whole  experiment  (fays  Dr  Blagden*)  remains*  ^^''• 
involved  in  fuch  obfcurity,  that  fome  perfons  have  fup-  'f "■/.'■ 
pofed  the  quickfilver  itfelf  was  not  frozen,  but  only 
covered  over  with  ice  ;  to  which  opinion,  however, 
tliere  are  great  objeiflions.  It  is  worthy  of  remark, 
that  Gottingen,  though  fituated  in  the  fame  latitude  as 
London,  and  enjoying  a  temperate  climate  in  general, 
.  becomes  fubjctt  at  times  to  a  great  fevcrity  of  cold. 
This  of  I  itli  of  January  1774  is  one  inilance  :  I  find 
others  there  where  the  thermometer  funk  to  —  I  2°, — 16^, 
or  — 19°  ;  and  at  Cattlenburg,  a  fmall  town  about  two 
German  miles  dillant,  to  — 30^.  By  watching  inch  ex- 
traordinary occafions,  experiments  on  the  freezing  of 
quickfilver  might  eafily  be  performed,  in  many  places, 
where  the  poflibility  of  them  is  at  prefent  little  fuf- 
pedled.    The  cold  obferved  at  Glafgo\\^in  1780  would  ^^ 

have  been  fully  fuflrcicnt  for  that  purpofe."  ^H 

In   confequence  of  the  publication  of  Mr  Braun's  ^* 

Experiments,  the  Royal  Society  defired  their  late-fe- 
crelary  Dr  Maty  to  make  the  neceflary  application  to 
the  lludfon's  Bay  company,  in  order  to   repeat  the 
experiment  in  that  country.      Mr  Hutchins,  who  wasg^peri- 
then  at  London,  and  going   out  with  a  commifiion  asm^ntsof 
governor  of  Albany  Fort,  offered  to  undertake  the  ex-  M'-  Hut- 
periments,  and  executed  them  very  completely,  freezing  '  ''?*'     -  ^ 
quickfilver  twice   in  the  months  of  Januaiy  and   Fe- 
bruary 1775.     The  account   of  his  fuccefs   was  read 
before  the  Royal  Society  at  the  commencement  of  the 
feverefl  winter  that  had  been  known  for  many  years  in 
Europe  ;  and  at  this  time  the  experiment  was  repeated 
by  two  gentlemen  of  different  countries.     One  was 
Dr  Lambert  Bicker,  fecretary  to  the  Batavian  fociety 
at  Rotterdam  J  who  on  the  2Sth  of  January  1776,  at 


CON 


[     3 


ConfteI»-  eight  in  the  morning,  made  an  experiment  to  try  how 
*'""•  low  he  could  bring  tlie  thermometer  by  artificial  cold, 
'  the  temperature  of  the  atmofphere  being  then  +2'. 
He  could  not,  however,  bring  it  lower  than  —94  ,  at 
which  point  it  Hood  immoveable  ;  and  on  breaking 
the  thermomet.T,  part  of  the  quicklilver  was  found  to 
have  loft  its  fluidity,  and  was  thickened  to  the  con- 
firtence  of  an  amalgam.  It  fell  out  of  the  tube  in 
little  bits,  which  bore  to  be  flattened  by  prefl"urc,  with- 
out running  into  globules  like  the  inner  fluid  part. 
The  experiment  was  repeated  next  day,  when  the 
thermometer  ftood  at  -f-S'^j  hut  the  mercury  wovdd  not 
then  defcend  below — 80°  ;  and  as  the  thermometer 
was  n;it  broken,  it  could  not  be  known  whether  the 
mercury  had  congealed  or  not.  All  that  could  be  in- 
ferred from  thefe  experiments  therefore  was,  that  the 
congealing  point  of  mercury  was  not  below  — 94  of 
Fahrenheit's  thermometer.  The  other  who  attempt- 
ed the  congelation  of  this  fluid  was  the  late  Dr  An- 
thony Fothergill  ;  but  it  could  hot  be  determined 
whether  he  fncceeded  or  nijj.  An  account  of  his 
experiment  is  inferted  in  the  Philofophical  Tranfao- 
tions,  Vol.  Ixvi. 

No  other  attempts  were  made  to  congeal  quicklilver 
until  the  year  178',  when   Mr  Hntchins  refumed  the 


8 

Point  of 
:on.!ela 


ion  deter-  fubjeft  with  great  lucceis,  inlomuch  tliat  from  his  ex- 
m"^  H  t  h  pcriments  the  freezing  point  of  mercury  is  now  almoft 
P5_  as  wtU  fettled   as   that   of  water.     Preceding  philofo- 

phers,  indeed,  had  not  been  altogether  inattentive  to 
this  ful'jcft.  Proftffor  Braun  himfelt  had  taken  great 
pairs  to  iiiveftigate  it  ;  but  for  want  of  paying  the  re- 
qulfite  attention  to  the  difi"erence  betwixt  the  contrac- 
tion of  the  fluid  mercury  by  cold  and  that  of  the 
congealing  metal  by  freezing,  he  could  determine  no- 
thing certain  concerning  it.  Others  declared  it  as 
their  opinion,  that  nothing  certain  could  be  determi- 
ned by  merely  freezing  mercury  in  a  thermometer 
filled  with  that  fluid.  Mr  Cavendifh  and  Dr  Black 
firft  fuggelled  the  proper  method  of  obviating  the  dif- 
3r  Black's  ficnities  on  this  fnbjeft.  Dr  Black,  in  a  letter  to  Mr 
Jircelions  Hutchins,  dated  Ottubei  5.  1779,  gave  the  following 
or nukmif  djieftjons  for  iiiakinff  the  experiment  with  accuracy 
:he  experi-  ,,    t-.       •  .         r  •  r  .    /i  .  .-     .  .         .  \~ 


xperi- 


Provlde  a  few  wide  and   (liurt   tubes  of  thin   glafs, 
fealcd  at  one  end  and  open  at  the  other  ;  the  widenefs 
of  thefe  tubes  may  be    from   half  to   three  quarters  of 
an  inch,  and   the   length   of  thtm  about  three  inches. 
Put  an  inch   or   an   Inch  and  a  half  depth  of  meicnry 
into  one  of  thefe  tubes,  and  plnnfring  the  bulb  of  the 
thermometer  into  the  mercury,  fet   the  tube  with  the 
mercury  and  the  thermometer  in  it  into  a  freezing  mix- 
ture, which  fliouM  be  made  for  this  purpofe  in  a  com- 
mon tumbler  or  water-glafs  :   and,  A'^  B.  in  making  a 
freezing   mixture  with    fnow   and   fpirit    of  nitre,  the 
quantity  of  the  acid  flibuld  never  be  fo  great  as  to  dif- 
folve  the  whole  of  the  fnow,  but   only  enough  to   re- 
duce   it   to    the  confiftence  of   panada.      When    the 
mercury  in    the   wide    tube   is' thus  fet   in    the   free- 
zing mixture,  it  mrft  be   ftirred  gently  and  frequent- 
ly  with   the    bulb  of  the   thermometer ;    and   if   the 
cold  be  fufficiently  ihony,  it  will  congeal  by  becoming 
thick  and  broafy  like  an  amalgam.     As  foon  as  this  is 
obferved,  the  thermometer   fiiould  be  examined  with- 
out  lifting   it  out   of  the  congealing  mercury  ;  and  I 
have   no  doubt  that  in   every  experiment   thus  made, 
with  the  fame  mercury,  the  inllrument  ■will  always 


n     1  CON 

point  to  the  fame  degree,  provided  it  has  been  made    CongtU- 
and  graduated  with  accuracy."  ''""•   * 

The  apparatus  recommended  by  Mr  Cavendifli,  and  ^^ 
which  M.-  Hutchins  made  ufe  of,  confifled  of  a  fmall  A|  .laratus 
mercurial  liiermometer,  the  bulb  of  winch  reached  f'  m- 
about  24  inches  below  the  fcale,  and  was  inciofed  in '"'^"<'^^**''y 
a  glafs  cylinder  iwelled  at  the  bottom  into  a  ball,  which  ,'^'j^ '^*^'^"* 
wlien  ufcd  was  filled  with  quickfilver,  fo  that  the  bulb 
of  the  thermometer  was  entirely  covered  with  it.  If 
this  cylinder  be  im  nerled  in  a  freezing  mixture  till 
great  part  of  the  quickfilver  in  it  is  frozen,  ic  is  evi- 
dent that  the  degree  fliown  at  that  time  by  the  incio- 
fed tifermometer  is  the  precile  point  at  which  mercury 
freezes  ;  for  as  in  this  cafe  the  ball  of  ihe  thermome- 
ter mull  be  furrounded  for  fome  time  with  quickfilver, 
part  of  which  is  atlually  frozen,  it  feems  impoffible 
that  the  thermometer  fliould  be  fenfibly  above  that 
point  ;  and  while  any  of  the  quickfilver  in  the  cylin- 
der remains  fluid,  it  is  impoffible  that  it  ftiould  fink 
fenfibly  below  it.  ^The  diameter  of  the  bulb  of  the 
thermometer  was  rather  lefs  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch, 
that  of  the  fwilled  part  of  the  cylinder  two-thirds; 
and  as  it  was  eafy  to  keep  the  thermometer  conft.antly 
in  the  middle  of  the  cylinder,  the  thicknefs  of  quick- 
filver betwixt  It  and  the  glafs  could  never  be  much  lefs 
than  the  fixth  part  of  an  inch.  The  bulb  of  the  ther- 
mometer was  purpofely  made  as  fmall  as  it  convenient- 
ly could,  in  order  to  leave  a  fufficlent  fpace  between 
it  and  the  cylinder,  without  making  the  fwelled  part 
larger  than  necefiary,  which  would  have  caufed  more 
difficulty  in  freezing  the  mercury  in  it. 

The  firft  experiment  with  this  apparatus  was  made  iccounis 
on  the  15th  of  December  1781  ;  the  thermometer  had'fthe  ex. 
fl;ood  the  evening  before  at  — 18°.     A  bottle  of  fpiri-  periments. 
tus  nitri  fortis  was  put  on  the  houfe-top,  in  order  to 
cool    it   to    the  fame   temperature.     The  thermome- 
ters made  ufe  of  had  been  hung  up  in  the  open  air  for 
thi^e  weeks,  to  compare  their  fcales.     On  the  morn- 
ing of  the  experiment    they   were    about   23°   below 
o. — In    making    it,  the   thermometer  of  the    appa- 
ratus was  fufpended    in    the   bulb  of  the    cyhnder  bv 
means  of  fome  red   worfted    wound  about  the   upper 
part  of  its  ftem,  to  a  fufficlent  thicknefs,  to  fill  the  up- 
per part   of  its  orifite  ;  and  a  fpace  of  nea^  half  an 
inch    was    left    empty    between    the   quickfilver    and 
worfted. 

The  apparatus  was  placed  in  the  open  air,  on  the 
top  of  the  fort,  with  only  a  few  deer  fklns  fewed  to- 
gether for  a  flicker;  the  fnow  lay  18  inches  deep  on 
the  works,  and  the  apparatus  was  iluck  into  the  fnow, . 
in  order  to  bring  it  the  fooner  to  the  tempci-atui-e  of 
the  air.  The  inllruments  were  afterwards  placed  in 
three  freffi  freezing  mixtures,  in  hopes  of  being  able 
by  their  means  to  produce  a  greater  degree  of  cold, . 
but  without  cff'edt ;  nor  was  any  greater  cold  produ- 
ced by  adding  more  fpirit  of  nitre.  The  mercury, 
however,  was  very  completely  frozen,  that  in  the  ther- 
mometer defcending  to  448^  On  plunging  the  mer- 
cury into  the  freezing  mixture,  itdefcended  in  lefs  than 
one  minute  to  40    below  o. 

The  fecond  experiment  was  made  the  day  follow- 
ing ;  and  the  fame  quantity  of  quickfilver   employed 
that  had  been   ufed  in  the  former.     As  too  fmall  a 
quantity  of  the   freezing   mixture,   however,  had  been  > 
originally  made,  it  was  necefl'ary  to  add  more  duiing 

the 


CON  [3 

C6Bgit3-  the  optration  of  conjjelation  )  hy  wliidi  means  the 
'•' "•  fpirit  of  nitre,  in  pouring  it  upon  tlie  fnow,  fonietimes 
"*  touched  the  bulb  of  the  thermometer,  and  inilanlly 
raifed  it  much  higher  ;  nor  did  the  mercury  ever  dc- 
fcend  below  206^,  which  was  not  half  as  far  as  it  had 
done  the  day  before,  though  the  tempeiature  of  the 
atmofphere  had  been  this  day  at  —  34°  before  the 
commencement  of  the  operation.  That  in  the  appa- 
ratus, however,  funk  to  — 95'.  The  apparatus  was 
taken  out  of  the  mixture  for  half  a  minute,  in  order 
to  examine  whether  the  mercury  was  perfeftly  congeal- 
ed or  not,  and  during  that  time  it  fliowed  no  fign  of 
liquefaftion. 

The  third  experiment  was  made  the  fame  day,  and 
vith  the  freezing  mixture  ufed  in  the  laft.  By  it 
the  point  of  congelation  was  determined  to  be  not  be- 
low 40'. 

The  fourth  experiment  was  made  January  7th 
1782  ;  aiid  in  it  he  obferved,  that  the  mercury  in  the 
apparatus  thermometer,  after  Handing  at  42  and  414- 
for  a  confiderable  time,  fell  to  77,  not  gradually,  but 
at  once  as  a  weight  falls. 

In  the  fifth  experiment  the  weather  was  exctflively 
fevere,  fo  that  it  ought  to  have  frozen  the  metal  in  the 
open  air  j  but  this  did  not  then  happen. 

At  the  lime  of  making  the  fixlh  experiment,  the 
quickfilvcr  in  the  open  air  ftuod  at  44  below  o  ;  and 
Mr  Hutchins  refolved  to  make  ufe  of  this  opportunity 
to  obferve  how  far  it  was  poiTible  to  make  it  dcfcend 
by  means/of  cold,  obferving  the  degrees  at  the  fame 
time  with  a  fpirit  thermometer  made  by  Nalrne  and 
Blount,  with  which  he  had  been  furiiilhed  by  the 
royal  fociety  in  1774.  In  this,  however,  he  did  not 
fucceed  ;  for  the  mercury  never  fell  below  438,  nor 
the  ftandard  48.  It  flood  at  27-!-  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  experiment.  The  reafon  of  this  was  fup- 
pofed  to  be,  that  the  atmofphere  was  too  cold  for 
making  this  kind  of  experiments,  by  reafon  of  its 
freezing  the  thread  of  qulckfilver  in  the  ftem  of  the 
thermometer,  fo  that  it  became  incapable  of  contrac- 
tion along  with  that  in  the  bulb.  In  other  experi- 
ments, though  the  metal  in  the  bulb  became  folid,  yet 
that  in  the  ilom  always  remained  fluid  ;  and  thus  was 
enabled  to  fublide  to  a  great  degree  by  the  dlralnu- 
tion  of  bulk  in  the  iolid  mercury.  That  this  was  real- 
ly the  cafe,  appeared  from  the  quickfilver  falling  at 
once  from  —  86  to  —  434;  when  the  cold  of  the  freez- 
ing mixture  dimlnilhtd,  and  the  temperature  of  the  air 
becoming  about  the  fame  time  fomewhat  milder,  melt- 
ed the  congealed  part  in  the  llem,  which  thus  had  li- 
berty to  defcend  to  that  point.       , 

In  this  experiment,  alio,  the  mixtures  were  made  in 
double  quantity  to  thofe  of  the  former  ;  thefe  being 
only  in  common  tumblers,  but  tlie  mixtures  for  this 
experiment  in  piut-bafoiis.  It  was  obferved  that  they 
liquefied  faller  than  in  other  experiments.  He  had_ 
ufually  made  them  of  the  conlillence  of  pap  ;  but 
though  he  added  fnow  at  different  times,  it  had  very 
little  efiecl  in  augmenting  the  cold,  but  rather  de- 
creafed  it.  The  congealed  pieces  of  metal  fell  to  the 
bottom,  as  might  naturally  have  been  expedled  from 
its  great  contracllon  in  becoming  folid. 

From  this  experiment  Mr  Hutchins  concluded,  that 
the    nearer   the  temperature   of  the  atmofphere    ap- 
proached to  the  congciiling  poiat  of  mercury  (fo  that 
W  88.  2 


12     ]  CON 

a  great  degree  of  cold  might  be  communicated  to  the   CorpcU. 
bulb  of  a  thermometer,  and  yet  the  quickfilver  in  the      ''""• 
tube  remain  fluid),  he  might  make  the  experiment  of         ■  " 
afcertaining   the    gri'ateil   contraftion   of  mercury  to 
more  advantage.     With  this  view,  he  made  another  ex- 
periment, when  the  temperature  of  feme  of  his  ther- 
mometers ftood  as  low  as  —  37°;  and  after  an  hour's 
attendance    he  perceived   the   mercury  had  fallen    to        jj 
1367;  but  the   thermometer  unluckily   was    broken.  The  ther- 
and  its  bulb  thrown  away  with  the  mixture.      Profcl-  "">  n^tert 
for  Braun  had  likewife  obferved,  that  his  thermometers   '''^^"  "1 
were  always  broken  when  the   mercury  defcended  be-  (^nij, 
low  600. 

The  eighth  experiment  was  made  with  a  view  to 
try  whether  quickfilver  would  congeal  when  in  con- 
taiA  with  the  freezing  mixture.  For  this  purpofe,  he 
did  not  ufe  the  apparatus  provided  for  other  experi- 
ments, but  filled  a  gallipot  made  of  flint  Itone  (as  be- 
ing thinner  than  the  common  fort),  containing  about 
an  ounce,  half  full  of  quickfilver,  into  which  he  in- 
fcrted  a  mercurial  thermometer,  employing  another 
as  an  index.  Thus  he  hoped  to  determine  exadfly 
when  the  quickfilver  was  congealed,  as  he  had  free 
accefs  to  it  at  all  times,  which  was  not  the  cafe  when 
it  was  inclofed  in  the  cylindrical  glafs,  the  worlled 
wound  round  the  tube  of  the  thermometer  to  exclude 
the  air  being  equally  effectual  in  excluding  any  in- 
flrument  from  being  Introduced  to  touch  the  quickfil- 
ver. He  then  made  a  kind  of  fliewer,  with  a  flat 
blunt  point,  of  dried  cedar  wood,  on  account  of  its 
lightnefs,  which  he  found  would  remain  in  the  gela- 
tinous freezing  mixture  at  any  depth  he  chofe  ;  but, 
when  infertcd  into  the  quickfilver,  the  great  difference 
betwixt  the  fpeclfic  gravity  of  it  and  that  ponderous 
fluid,  made  it  always  rebound  upward  ;  and  by  the 
degree  of  refillance,  he  could  always  know  whether 
it  proceeded  from  fluid  or  folid  metal.  At  this  time, 
however,  the  experiment  did  not  fuccedd  ;  but,  at 
another  trial,  having  employed  about  j^ths  of  a  pound  of 
metal,  and  let  it  remain  a  confiderable  time  immeifed 
in  the  fame  mixture  which  hadjuft  now  been  fuppofed 
to  fail,  he  found  tliat  part  ot  it  was  congealed  ;  and, 
on  pouring  o^  the  fluid  part,  no  lefs  than  two-thirds 
remained  fixed  at  the  bottom.  ^ 

The  laft  experiment  which  has  been  publiflied  con-  Mr  Cnven- 
cerning  the    congelation    of  quickfilver  by  means  ofd'fii'^cx- 
fnow  is  that  of  JVIr  Cavendlfh,  and  of  which   he  gives  P'"'"^""* 
an  account  in  the   Phil.   Tranfaft.   Vol.  Ixxiii.  p.  325. 
Here,  fpeaking   of  the  cold  of  freezing  mixtures,  he 
fays,  "  There  is  the  utmoft  reafon  to  think  that    Mr 
Hutchins  would  have  obtained  a  greater  degree  of  cold 
by  ufing  a  weaker  nitrous  acid  than  he  did.      I  found        '4 
(fays  he)  by  a.lJing  fnow  gradually  to   fome  of  thi^ j';'^'^'/''^'^_'* 
acid,   that   the   addition  of  a  fmall  quantity  produced  (ju^j.;)  (,„ 
heat  inftead  of  cold  ;  and  it  was  uot  until  fo  much  was  .-aiding 
added   as  to  iucreafe  the   heat    from  28  to  5  1  °,  that  fnow  to 
the  addition  of  m;;re  fnow  began  to  produce  cold  ;  the  'f.'"' 
quantity  of  fnow  required  for  this  purpolc  being  pret- 
ty exaAly  one  quarter  of   the  weight  of  tlie   fpirit  of 
nitre,  and  the  beat  of  the  fnow,  and  air  of  the  room, 
as  well  as  of  the  acid,  being  28''.     The  realon  of  this 
is,  that  a  great  deal  of  heat  is  produced  by  mi.sing  wa- 
ter with  fpirit  of  nitre  ;  and  the  ftronger  the  fpirit  is, 
the  greater  is  the  heat  produced.      Now    it    appears 
from  this  experiment,  that    before  the    acid   was   di- 
luted, 


C     O'    N 


[     3 


Cengda-  lutcJ,  tilt  heat  produced  by  its  union  with  the  wa- 
tion.  (g|.  formed  from  the  melting  fnow,  was  greater  than 
"'~'^~~~  the  cold  produced  by  the  fame  ;  and  it  was  not  un- 
til it  was  "diluted  by  the  addition  of  one  quarter  of 
its  weight  of  that  fubftance,  that  the  cold,  generated 
by  the  h.ttcr  caufe,  began  to  exceed  the  heat  gencnited 
by  the  former.  From  what  has  been  faid,  it  is  evi- 
dent, that  a  freezing  mixture  made  with  undiluted 
acid  will  not  begin  to  generate  cold  until  fo  much 
fuow  is  difTolved  as  to  increafe  its  heat  from  28  to  5  I "  ; 
fo  that  ro  greater  cold  will  be  produced  than  would 
be  obtained  by  mixing  the  diluted  acid  heated  to  51" 
with  fnow  of  the  heat  of  28''.  This  method  of  ad- 
ding fiiov.'  gradaally  is  much  the  beft  way  I  know  of 
finding  what  llrength  it  ought  to  be  of,  in  order  to 
produce  the  greatell  effeft  poilible.  By  means  of  this 
acid  diluted  in  the  above  meiitionedproportion,  I  froze 
quickiilver  in  the  thermometer  called  G  (a)  by  iVIr 
Hutchius,  on  the  26th  of  February  [782.  I  did  not 
indeed  break,  the  thermometer  to  examine  the  ftate  of 
the  qiiicklilt-er  therein  ;  for,  as  it  funk  to  — 110,  it 
certainly  muil  have  been  in  part  frozen  ;  but  immedi- 
ately took  it  out,  and  put  the  fpirit  thermometer  in 
its  room,  in  order  to  find  the  cold  of  the  mixture.  It 
funk  only  to  —  30*^ ;  but  by  making  allowance  of  the 
fpirit  in  the  tube  being  not  fo  cold  as  that  in  the 
b?ll,  it  appears,  that  if  it  had  not  been  for  this 
caufe,  it  would  have  funk  to  —  35°  (b);  which  is  6° 
below  the  point  of  freezing,  and  is  within  one  degree 
of  as  great  a  cold  as  that  pioduced  by  Mr  Hutchius. 

"  In  this  experiment  the  thermometer  G  funk  very 
rapidly  ;  and,  as  far  as  I  could  perceive,  without  Hop- 
ping at  any  intermediate  point  till  it  came  to  the  above 
mentioned  degree  of  —  110°,  where  it  ftuck.  The 
materials  ufed  in  making  the  mixture  were  previuufly 
cooled,  by  means  of  fait  and  fnow,  to  near  nothing; 
the  temperature  of  the  air  was  between  20^  and  25°  ; 
the  quantity  of  acid  ufed  was  4-^  oz  ;.  and  the  glafs  in 
which  the  mixture  was  made, was  furrounded  with  wool, 
and  placed  in  a  wooden  box,  to  prevent  its  lofing  its  cold 
fo  fall  as  it  would  otherwife  have  done.  Some  weeks 
before  this  I  made  a  freezing  mixture  with  feme  fpirit 
of  nitre  much  ftronger  than  that  ufed  in  the  foregoing 
experiment,  though  not  quite  fo  ilrong  as  the  undi- 
luted acid,  in  which  the  cold  was  lefs  intenfe  by  4^". 
It  is  true  the  temper  of  the  air  was  much  lefs  cold, 
namely  35°,  but  the  fpirit  of  nitre  was  at  leall  as  cold, 
and  the  fnow  not  much  lefs  fo. 

The  cold  produced  by  mixing  oil  of  vitriol,  pro- 
produced  perly  diluted  with  fnow,  is  not  fo  great  as  that  produ- 
ced by  fpirit  of  nitre,  though  it  does  not  differ  from 
it  by  fo  much  as  8' ;  for  a  freezing  mixture,  prepared 
with  diluted  oil  of  vitriol,  whofe  fpecific  gravity,  at 
60°  of  heat,  was  l  ,5642,  funk  in  the  thermometer  G  to 
■^37°,  theexperiment  being  tried  at  the  fame  time,  and 
with  the  fame  precautions,  as  the  foregoino-.  It  was 
previoufly  found,  by  adding  fnow  gradually  to  fome 
of  this  acid,  as  was  done  by  the  nitrous  acid,  that  it 
was  a  little,  but  not  much  llronger,  than  it  ought  to 
be,  in  order  to  produce  the  greateft  effedt." 
VoL.V.  Parti. 


■      15 

Of  the  cold 


15     ]  CON 

The  experiment  made  by  Mr  Walker,   in  wliich  he   Congela- 
congealed  quickfilver  by  means  of  fpirit  of  nitre  and  ,     ''""•    , 
Glauber's  fait,  without  any  fnow,  concludes  the  hifto-         * 
ry  of  the  artificial  congelation  of  mercury.     See  the 
article  Colo.     It  now  remains  that  we  fay  fomething 
of  the  congelation  of  it  by  the  natural  cold  of  the  at- 
mofphere.  j^ 

Dr  Blagden,  from  whofe  paper  in  the  PhilofophicalCotij^ela- 
TranfaAions,  vol.  Ixxiii.  this  account  is  taken,  obferves,  ""."."i. 
that  it  was  not  till  near  the  year  1730  that  thermo- fjy'j'jjj'jjj'" 
meters  were  made  with  any  degree  of  accuracy ;  and  in  cold, 
four  or  five  years  after  this,  the  firll  obfervations  were 
made  which  prove  the  freezing  of  quickfilver.  On 
the  acceflion  of  the  Emprefs  Anne  Ivanouna  to  the 
throne  of  Ruflla,  three  profe.Tors  of  the  Imperial 
academy  were  chofen  to  explore  and  defcribe  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  her  Afiatic  dominions,  and  to  inquire 
into  the  communication  betwixt  Afia  and  America. 
Thefe  were  Dr  John  George  Graelin,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  natural  hiftory  and  chemilby  ;  M.  Gerard 
Frederic  MuUer,  as  general  hilloriographcr;  and  M. 
Louis  de  I'Ifle  de  la  Croyere,  for  the  department  of 
allronomy  ;  draughtfmen  and  other  proper  aihllants 
being  appointed  to  attend  them.  They  departed  from 
Peteifburgh  in  1733  •  '^^'^  ^i^eh  as  furvived  did  not  re-  < 
turn  till  ten  years  after.  The  thermometrical  obferva- 
tions were  communicated  by  Profelfor  Gmehn,  who 
firll  publifhed  them  in  his  Flora  Sibirica,  and  after- 
wards more  fully  in  the  Jounnl  of  his  Travels.  An  ab- 
ftracl  of  them  was  likewife  inferted  in  the  Peterfourg 
Commentaries  for  the  years  1756  and  1765,  taken, 
after  the  profeflbr's  death,  from  his  original  difpatches 
in  poiTeflion  of  the  imperial  academy. 

In  the  winter  of  1734  ^^'^  '735>  Mr  Gmehn  being 
at  Yenefeilk  in  jSi'^  N.  I.at.  and  92°  E.  Long,   from 
Greenwich,  firft  obferved  fuch  a  defcent  of  the  mercu- 
ry, as  we  know  mull  have  been  attended  with  conge-      •,, 
lation.      "  Here   (fays  he)  we  firll  experienced  theExceflive 
truth  of  what  various  travellers  have  related  with  re-'^°''^  ofSi- 
fpeft  to  the  extreme  cold  of  Siberia  ;  for,  about  the  ''*"*• 
middle  of  December,  fuch  fevere  weather  fet  in,  as  we 
were  fure  had  never  been  known  in  our  time  at  Pe- 
terfburg.     The  air  feemed  as  if  it  were  frozen,   with 
the   appearance   of  a   fog,    which   did  not  fulFer  the 
fmoke  to  afcend  as  it  ilFued  from  the  chiranies.     Bird*  ~ 
fell  down  out  of  the  air  as  dead,  and  froze  immediately, 
unlefs  they  were  brought  into  a  warm  room.  Whenever 
the  door  was  opened,  a  fog  fuddenly  formed  round  it. 
During  the  day,   Ihort  as  it  was,  parhelia  and  haloes 
round  the  fun  were  frequently   feen  ;  and  in  the  night 
mock  moons,   and  haloes  about  the  moon.     Finally, 
our  thermometer,   not  fubjeft  to  the  fame   deception 
as  the  fenfes,  left  us  no  doubt  of  the  exceffive    cold  ; 
for  the  quickfilver  in   it  was  reduced,   on   the  5th  of 
January   O.  S.  to — 120°  of  Fahrenheit's  fcale,  low- 
er than  it   had  ever  hitherto   been   obferved   in  iia- 
tuie." 

The  next  inilance  of  congelation  happened  at  Ya- 
kutll<,  in  N.  l>at.  62.  and  E.  Long.  130.     The  wea- 
ther here  was  unufually  mild  for  the  climate,  yet  the 
R  r  ther- 


(a)  This  was  a  fmall  mercurial  thermometer,  made  by  Nairne  and   Blount,    on  an   ivory   fcale,  divided  at 
every  five  degrees,  and  reaching  from  215"  above  to  250°  below  the  cypher. 

(b)  This  is  to  be  underllood  of  a  fpirit  thermometer,  whofe  —  29"  =  40**  of  Fahrenheit's  mercurial. 


CON  [31 

thormometer  fell  to  72";  and  one  ppi-fon  informed 
the  piofeffbv  Ly  a  note,  that  the  mercury  in  his  baro- 
nieter  was  frozen.  He  hallcned  immediately  to  his 
houfe  to  behold  fiich  a  furpriiuig  phenomenon  ;  but 
thoucrh  he  was  witnefs  to  the  fuft,  the  prejudice  he  en- 
tertained agaiuft  the  poffibilily  of  the  congelation, 
wt  uld  not  allow  him  to  believe  it.  "  Not  feeling, 
(fays  he),  by  the  way,  the  fame  effects  of  cold  as  I 
had  experienced  at  other  times  in  leis  diftances,  I  be- 
gan, before  my  arrival,  to  entertain  fufpicions  about 
the  congelation  of  his  quickfiWer.  In  fatl,  I  fawthat 
it  did  not  continue  in  one  column,  bnt  was  divided  in 
different  places  as  into  little  cylinders,  which  appear- 
ed frozen  ;  and,  in  fome  of  thefe  divifions  between  the 
<iuicklilver,  I  perceived  like  the  appearanceof  frozen  moi- 
iture.  It  immediately  occurred  to  me,  that  the  mercury 
might  havebeen  cleaned  with  vinegar  and  fait,  and  not 
fiiffieiently  dried.  The  perfon  acknowledged  it  had  been 
purified  in  that  manner.  This  fame  quickfdver,  taken 
out  of  the  barometer,  and  well  driid,  would  not  freeze 
again,  though  expofed  to  a  much  greater  degree  of 
cold,  as  fhown  by  tlie  thermometer." 

Another  fet  of  obfervations,  in  the  courfe  of  which 
the  mercury  frequently  congealed,  were  made  by  Pro- 
feffor  Gmelin  at  Kirenga  fort,  in  574-  N.  Lat.  108. 
E.  Long. ;  his  thermometer,  at  different  times,  Handing 
at  — 108°,  — 86°,  — 100%  —  1 13°,  and  many  other  in- 
termediate degrees.  This  happened  in  the  winter  of 
1737  and  1738.  On  the  27th  of  November,  after  the 
thermometer  had  been  Handing  for  two  days  at  — 46 ', 
he  found  it  funk  at  noon  to  108 '.  Sufpefting  fome 
miftake,  after  he  had  noted  down  the  obfervation,  he 
inllantly  ran  back,  and  found  it  at  102°;  but  afcend- 
ing  with  fuch  rapidity,  that  in  the  fpaee  of  half  an 
hour  it  had  rifen  to — ig°.  This  phenomenon,  which 
appeared  fo  furprifing,  undoubtedly  depended  on  the 
expanlion  of  the  mercury  frozen  in  the  bulb  of  the 
thermometer,  and  which  now  melting,  forced  up- 
wards the  fmall  thread  in  the  ftem. 

A  fimilar  appearance  was  obferved  at  the  fame  fort 
a  few  days  after  ;  and  on  the  29th  of  December,  O.  S. 
he  found  the  mercury,  which  had  been  Handing  at 
—40°  in  the  morning,  funk  to  — 100^  at  four  in  the 
afternoon.  At  this  time,  he  fays,  he  "  faw  fome  air 
in  the  thermometer  feparating  the  quickfilver  for  the 
fpaee  of  about  fix  degrees."  He  had  taken  notice  of 
a  fmiilar  appearance  the  preceding  evening,  excepting 
that  the  air,  as  he  fuppofed  it  to  be,  was  not  then  col- 
lefted  into  one  place,  but  lay  fcattered  in  feveral. 

Thefe  appearances  undoubtedly  proceeded  from  a 
congelation  of  the  mercury,  though  the  prejudice  en- 
tertained againft  the  pofUbility  of  this  phenomenon 
would  not  allow  the  profeffor  even  to  inquire  into  it  at 
•dU.  Several  other  obfervations  were  made  ;  fom.e  of 
which  were  loll,  and  the  rell  contain  no  farther  in- 
formation. 

The  fecond  inllaBce  where  a  natural  congelah'on  ot 
mercury  has  certainly  been  obferved,  is  recorded  in  the 
tranfa&ions  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  at 
Stockholm.  The  weather,  in  January  1760,  was  re- 
markably cold  in  Lapland  ;  fo  that,  on  the  5th  of  tliat 
month,  tlie  thermometers  fell  to — 76°, — 128°,  or 
lower;  on  the  23d  and  following  days  they  fell  to 
— ^8^, — 79°, — 92°,  and  below — 238°  entirely  into 
the  ball.     This  was  obferved  at  Tornca,  Sotnbio,  Ja.- 


4    1  CON 

kafierf,  and  Utfioki,  four  places  in  Lapland,  fitualed 
bct'Areen  the  65th  and  7 Hth  degrees  of  N.  Lat.  and  the 
2 1  It  and  28th  of  E.  Long.  The  perfon  who  obi'er- 
ve  J  them  was  M.  Andrew  Hellant,  who  makts  the 
following  remarks,  of  themfelves  fufficient  to  fliow 
that  the  quickfilver  was  frozen.  <'  During  the  co'd 
weather  at  Sombio  (fays  he),  as  it  was  chrar  fuu-lhine, 
though  fcarccly  the  whole  body  of  the  fu'i  appeared 
above  the  low  woods  that  covered  our  horizon,  I  took 
a  thermometer  which  was  hanging  before  in  the  fliade, 
and  expofed  it  to  the  rifing  fun  about  eleven  in  the 
forenoon,  to  fee  whether,  when  that  luminary  was  fo 
low,  it  would  have  any  effift  up  in  the  iullrument. 
But  to  my  great  furprile,  upon  looking  at  it  about 
noon,  I  found  that  the  mercurj'  hr.d  entirely  fubfided 
into  the  ball,  thourjh  it  was  ftandinj  as  higli  as  61° 
at  II  o'clock,  and  thefcalei-eached  down  to  23H  'below 
O."  On  bringing  the  inftrument  near  a  fire,  it  pref'cntly 
rofe  to  its  ufual  height  ;  and  the  reafon  of  its  fubhding 
before  was  its  being  fomewhat  warmed  by  the  rays  of 
the  fun  ;  which,  feeble  as  they  were,  had  ret  fufficient 
power  to  melt  the  fmall  thread  of  congealed  mercury 
in  the  Hem  of  the  thermometer,  and  allow  it  to  fubfide 
along  with  the  rcH.  Mr  Hellant,  however,  fo  little 
underltood  the  reafon  of  this  phenomenon,  that  he  fre- 
quently attempted  to  repeat  it  by  bringing  the  ther- 
momtter  near  a  fire,  when  the  cold  was  only  a  few  de- 
grees below  the  freezing  point  of  water,  but  coidd  ne- 
ver fucceed  until  it  fell  to  — 58=',  or  lower,  that  is, 
until  the  cold  was  fufficiently  intenfe  to  congeal  the 
metal  Tlie  only  feeming  difficulty  in  his  whole  account, 
is,  that  when  the  mercury  had  fubfided  entirely  into 
the  ball  of  the  thermometer,  a  vacuum  or  empty  fpot 
appeared,  which  run  round  the  cavity  like  an  air 
bubble,  on  turning  the  initrument  ;  but  this  proceed- 
ed from  a  partial  liquefaftion  of  the  mercur)',  which 
muH  neceifarily  melt  firH  on  the  outfide,  and  thus  e.\- 
liibit  the  appearance  juH  mentioned. 

The  moH  remarkable  congelation  of  mercury,  which 
has  ever  yet  been  obferved,  was  that  related  by  Dr 
Peter  Simon  Pallas,  who  had  btenfentby  the  Emprefs 
of  Ruffia,  with  fome  other  gentlemen,  on  an  expedition 
fimilar  to  that  of  Dr  Gnehn.  He  did  not,  howtvjr, 
fpend  the  winters  in  which  he  was  in  Siberia  in  the 
coldeH  parts  of  that  country  ;  that  is  about  the  middle 
of  the  northern  part.  Twice  indeed  he  rcfided  at. 
Krafnoyarflt,  in  N.  Lat.  s^^i^'  E.  Long.  93°;  where, 
in  the  year  1772,  he  lisd  an  opportunity  of  obierving 
the  phenomenon  we  fpeak  of.  "  The  winter  (fays 
he)  fet  in  early  this  year,  and  was  felt  with  uncommon 
feverity  in  December.  On  the  6th  and  7th  of  tfiat 
month  happened  the  greateft  cold  I  have  ever  experien- 
ced in  Siberia ;  the  air  was  calm  at  the  time,  and 
feemingly  thickened ;  fo  that,  though  the  Iky  was  in 
other  refpefts  clear,  the  fun  appeared  as  through  s 
fog.  I  had  only  one  fmall  thermometer  left,  in  which 
the  fcale  went  no  lower  than — 7° ;  and  on  the  6th  in 
the  morning,  I  remarked  that  the  quickfilver  in  it 
funk  into  the  ball,  except  fome  fmall  columns  which 
fluck  faH  in  the  tube. — When  the  ball  of  the  thermos 
meter,  as  it  hung  in  the  open  air,  was  warmed  by 
being  touched  with  the  finger,  the  quickfilver  rofe  ;, 
and  it  could  plainly  be  feen,  that  the  folid  columns 
Huck  and  refiHed  a  good  while,  and  were  at  length 
pufl:ed  upward  with  a  fort  of  violence.     la  the  mean 

'  time 


i 


Rpniark- 
nlile  ex;  cr{> 
iiicnts  of 
Dr  Paliis,, 


CON 


C     3'5     J 


CON 


ti'ill 


10 

^on  Kltcr- 
lin's  expe- 
icrimeat. 


lime  I  placed  upon  the  gallery,  on  tlie  riOrlh  fide  ot 
rny  houfe,  about  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  clean  and  dry 
qiuckfilver  in  an  open  bowl.  Witliiii  an  hour  I  found 
tlie  edgc3  and  furface  of  it  frozen  fohd,  and  lome  mi- 
nutes afterwards  the  whole  wascondenfed  by  the  natural 
cold  into  a  foft  mafa  very  much  like  tin.  Wliile  the 
inner  j*rt  was  ftill  fluid,  the  fiozcn  furface  exhibited 
a  great  variety  of  branched  wrinkles  j  but  in  general  it 
remained  pietty  fmooth  in  freezing,  as  did  alfo  a  lar- 
ger quantity  which  I  afterwards  expofed  to  the  cold. 
The  congealed  mercury  was  more  flexible  than  lead  ; 
but  on  being  bent  fliort,  it  was  found  more  brittle  than 
tin  ;  and  when  hammered  out  thin,  it  feemed  fomewhat 
granulated.  If  the  hammer  had  not  been  perfedlly 
cooled,  the  quickfdver  melted  away  under  it  in  drops; 
and  the  fame  thing  happened  when  the  metal  was 
touched  with  the  finger,  by  which  alfo  the  finger  was 
immediately  benumbed.  In  our  warm  room  it  thawed 
t)n  its  furface  gradually,  by  drops,  like  wax  on  the 
fire,  and  did  not  melt  all  at  once.  'W'hen  the  fro- 
zen mafs  was  broken  to  pieces  in  the  cM,  the  frag- 
ments adhered  to  each  other  and  to  the  bowl  on  which 
they  lay.  Although  the  froil  feemed  to  abate  a  little 
towards  night,  yet  the  congealed  quickfiher  remained 
unaltered,  and  the  experiinent  with  the  thermometer 
could  Hill  be  repeated.  On  the  yth  of  December,  I 
had  an  opportunity  of  making  the  fame  obfetvations 
all  day  ;  but  fome  hours  after  funfet,  a  northweit  wind 
fprung  up,  which  raifed  the  thermometer  to — 46=", 
when  theraafs  of  quickiilver  began  to  melt. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  year  1780  M.  Von  Elterlcin, 
■  of  Vytegra,  a  town  of  Ruffia,  in  Lat.  61'='.  E.  Long.  36. 
froze  quickfilver  by  natural  cold  ;  of  which  he  gives 
the  following  account.  "  On  the  4th  of  January 
17S0,  the  cold  having  increafed  to  —34°  that  evening 
at  Vytegra,  I  expofed  to  the  open  air  three  ounces  of 
very  pure  quickfilver  in  a  china  tea-eup,  covered  with 
paper,  pierced  full  of  holes.  Next  day,  at  eight  in 
the  morning,  I  found  it  lolld,  and  looking  like  a  piece 
of  call  lead,  with  a  confiderable  deprefliun  in  the  middle. 
Oil  at!.empting  to  loufen  it  in  the  cup,  my  knife  raifed 
Ihi^'Ings  from  it  as  if  it  had  been  lead,  which  remained 
ftiekliig  up ;  and  at  length  the  metal  feparated  from  the 
bittoai  of  the  cup  in  one  mafs.  I  then  took  it  in  my 
hand  to  try  if  it  would  bend  :  it  was  ftiff  like  glue, 
and  broke  into  two  pieces  ;  but  my  fingers  immediate- 
ly loit  all  feeling,  and  could  fcarcely  be  reftored  in  an 
hour  and  an  half  by  rubbing  with  fnow.  At  eight 
o'clock  a  thermometer,  made  by  Mr  Lcxmann  of  the 
Aeadcmy,  Itood  at — jy-";  by  half  after  nine  it  «as 
rifen  to — 40';  and  then  the  two  pieces  of  mercury 
which  lay  in  the  cup  had  loH  fo  much  of  their  hard- 
nefs,  that  they  could  no  longer  be  broken,  or  cut  into 
fhavings,  but  refemblcd  a  thick  amalgam,  which, 
though  it  became  fluid  when  prcfled  by  the  fingers, 
immediately  afterwards  relumed  the  confiftence  of  pap. 
With  the  thermometer  at — 39^,  the  quickfilver  be- 
came fluid.  The  cold  was  never  Icfs  on  the  5th  than 
—28^,  and  by  nine  in  the  evening  it  had  increafed 
agai'i  to— 330. 

An  iaftaiice  of  the  natural  congelation  of  quickfilver 
alfo  occurred  in  Jemtland,  one  of  the  provinces  of 
Sweden,  on  the  ift  of  January  1782  ;  and  laftly,  on 
the  26th  of  the  fame  month,  Mr  Hutchins  obferved 
the  fame  effeft  of  the  cold  at  Hudfou's  bay.     "  The 


fubjeft  of  this   curious  phenomenon  (fays  he),   was  Congela- 
quickfilver  put   into   a  common  two-ounce  vial,  and       ""■'■     , 
corked.     The  vial  was  about  a  third  part  full,  and  had         * 
conftantly  been  Handing   by  the   thermometer  for  a.^^^°_ 
month  pall.     At  eigl.t  o'clock   this  morning  I  ob-mcrtof\tr 
ferved  it  was  fiozen  rather  more  than. a  quarter  of  anHutcbins. 
inch  thick  round  the  fides  and  bottom  of  the  via!,  the 
middle  part  continuing  fluid.      As  this  was  a  ccrtafiT 
method  of  finding  the   point  of  congelation,   I  intro- 
duced a   mercurial  and  a  fpirit  thermometer  into  the 
fluid  part,  after  breaking  off  tlie  top  of  the  vial,  anl 
they  rofe  direftly  and  became  ftationary  ;  the  former  at 
40"  or  40^4-,  the  latter  at  29^,  botli  below  the  cypher. 
Having  taken   thcfe  out,   I   put   in   two  others,  G  a 
mercurial  one  formerly  defcribed,  and  a  fpirit  thermo. 
meter ;  the  former  of  which  became  ftationary  at  40'' 
and  the  latter  at  30°.    I  then  decanted  the  fluid  quick- 
filver, to  examine  the  internal  furface  of  the  frozen 
metal,  which  proved  very  uneven,    with  many  radii 
going   acrofs ;    fome   of   which    refembled   pin-heads. 
Urgent  bufincfs  called  me  away  an  hour.      On  my  re- 
turn I  found  a  fmall  portion  only  had  liquefied  in  my 
abfence.     I  then  broke  the  vial  entirely,  and  with  a 
hammer  repeatedly  Itnick  the  quickiilver.      It  beat  out 
flat,  yielded  a  deadilh  found,  and  became  fluid  in  lefs 
than  a  minute  afterwards." — It  may  be   worth  remark- 
ing, that  the  quickfilver  in  one  of  the  thermometers, 
which  had  funk  to  very  near  500,  and  was  then  at 
444,  ver)'  readily  run  up  and  dov>  n  the  tube  by  eleva- 
ting either  end  of  the  inllrument." 

I'hefe  are  all  the  well  authenticated  accounts  of  the 
congelation  of  mercury  by  the  natural  cold  of  the  at- 
mofphere.  Some  others  have  been  publiihed;  but  being 
either  lefs  Important,  or  not  fo  well  authenticated,  wc 
forbear  to  mention  them.  A  very  confiderable  con- 
firmation is  obtained  from  the  above  hlllory,  of  the 
theory  of  congelation  delivered  by  Dr  Black,  and 
which  is  fully  explained  under  the  article  Chemistrv. 
On  Mr  Hutchins's  experiments,  and  on  congelation 
in  general,  Mr  Cavendifli  makes  many  valuable  re- 
marks ;  the  fubftance  of  which  is  as  follows.  „  j 

"  If  a  veflcl  of  water,  with  a  thermometer  in  it,  beMrCaven. 
expofed  to  the  cold,  the  thermometer  will  fink  feveral '^'''''*  '^'■-- 
degrees  below  the  freezing  point,  efpecially  if  the  wa-'"^'^'"j!" 
ter  be  covered  up  fo  as  to  be  defended  from  the  wind,  tkTn^'^ 
and  care  taken  not  to  agitate  it ;  and  then  on  drop- 
ping in  a  bit  of  ice,  or  on  mere  agitation,  fpiculi  of 
ice  ihoot  fuddenly  through  the  water,  and  the  inclo- 
fed  thermometer  rifes  quickly  to  the  freezing  point, 
wirere  it  remains  ftationary."  In  a  note  he  fays,  that 
though  in  conformity  to  the  common  opinion  he  has 
allovred  that  "  mere  agitation  may  fet  the  water  a 
freezing,  yet  fome  experim.ents  lately  made  by  Dr 
Blagden  feem  to  Ihow,  that  it  has  not  much,  if  any, 
effeiil  of  that  kind,  otherwife  than  by  bringing  the 
water  in  contact  with  fome  fubftance  colder  than  it- 
felf.  Though  in  general  alfo  the  ice  (hoots  rapidly, 
and  the  inclofed  thermometer  riles  very  quick ;  yet 
he  once  obferved  it  to  rife  very  flowly,  taking  up  not 
lefs  than  half  a  minute,  before  it  afcended  to  the 
freezing  point ;  but  in  this  experiment  the  water  was 
cooled  not  more  than  one  or  two  degrees  below  free- 
zing ;  and  it  fliould  feem,  that  the  more  the  waUt  is 
cooled  below  the  freezing  point,  the  more  rapidly  the 
ice  ft-ioots  and  the  inclofed  thermometer  rifcs." 

R  r  2  Mr 


tion. 


J2 

On  metals 
when  be- 
giariing  to 
turn  lolid. 


CON  [3 

Mr  Cavendifli  then  obfervcs,  "  that  from  the  fore- 
going experiments  we  learn  that  water  is  capable  of  be- 
ing cooled  confiderably  below  the  freezing  point,  with- 
out any  congelation  taking  place;  and  that,  as  foon 
as  by  any  means  a  fmall  part  of  it  is  inade  to  freeze, 
the  ice  fpreads  rapidly  through  the  wliole  of  the  wa- 
ter. The  caufe  of  this  rife  of  the  thermometer  is, 
that  all,  or  almoft  all  bodies,  by  changing  from  a  fluid 
to  a  folid  ftate,  or  from  the  ftate  of  an  elaftic  to  that 
of  an  unelaftic  fluid,  generate  heat ;  and  that  cold  is 
produced  by  the  contrai-y  procefs.  Thus  all  the  cir- 
cumftances  of  the  phenomenon  may  be  perfectly  well 
explained  ;  for,  as  foon  as  any  part  of  the  water  free- 
zes, heat  will  be  generated  thereby  in  confequence  of 
the  above-mentioned  law,  fo  that  the  new  formed  ice 
and  remaining  water  will  be  warmed,  and  nmft  con- 
tinue to  receive  heat  by  the  freezing  of  frelh  portions 
of  water,  till  it  is  heated  exadlly  to  the  freezing  point, 
imlefs  the  water  coidd  become  quite  folid  before  a  fuf- 
ficient  quantity  of  heat  was  generated  to  raife  it  to 
that  point,  which  is  not  the  cafe  :  and  it  is  evident, 
that  it  cannot  be  heated  above  the  freezing  point;  for 
7.5  foon  as  it  comes  thereto,  no  more  water  will  freeze, 
and  confcquently  no  more  heat  will  be  generated. — 
The  reafon  why  the  ice  fpreads  all  over  the  water,  in- 
ttead  of  forming  a  folid  lump  in  one  part,  is,  that,  as 
foon  as  any  fmall  portion  of  ice  is  formed,  the  water 
in  contaft  with  it  will  be  fo  much  warmed  as  to  be 
prevented  from  freezing,  but  the  water  at  a  little  dif- 
tance  from  it  will  ftill  be  below  the  freezing  point, 
and  will  confcquently  begin  to  freeze. 

"  Were  it  not  for  this  generation  of  heat,  the  whole 
of  any  quantity  of  water  would  freeze  as  foon  as  the 
procefs  of  congelation  began  ;  and  in  like  manner  the 
cold  is  generated  by  the  melting  of  ice  ;  which  is  the 
caufe  of  the  long  time  required  to  thaw  ice  and  fnow. 
]t  was  formerly  found  that,  by  adding  fnow  to  warm 
water,  and  ftirring  it  about  until  all  was  melted,  the 
water  was  as  much  cooled  as  it  would  have  been  by 
the  addition  of  the  fame  quantity  of  water  rather  more 
than  150^  degrees  colder  than  the  fnow;  or,  in  other 
•words,  fomewhat  more  than  150"  of  cold  are  genera- 
ted by  the  thawing  of  the  fnow  ;  and  there  is  great 
reafon  to  believe  that  }uft  as  much  heat  is  produced 
by  the  freezing  of  water.  The  cold  generated  in  the 
experiment  juil  mentioned  was  the  fame  whether  ice  or 
fnow  was  ufed. 

"  A  thermometer  kept  in  melted  tin  or  lead  till 
they  become  folid,  remains  perfeflly  ftationary  from 
the  time  the  metal  begins  to  harden  round  the  fides  of 
the  pot  till  it  is  entirely  folid  ;  but  it  cannot  be  per- 
ceived at  all  to  fink  below  that  point,  and  rife  up  to 
it  when  the  metal  begins  to  harden.  It  is  not  unlike- 
ly, however,  that  the  great  difference  of  heat  between 
the  air  and  melted  metal  might  prevent  this  cfleft  from 
taking  place  ;  fo  that  though  it  was  |not  perceived  in 
thefe  experiments,  it  is  not  unlikely  that  thofe  metals, 
as  well  as  water  and  quickfilver,  may  bear  being  cool- 


16       ] 


CON 


ed  a  little  below  the  freezing  or  hardening  point  (for  Con^sli- 
the  hardening  of  melted  metals,  and  freezing  of  watc- ,       "''"• 
feems  exactly  the  fame  procefs),  without  beginning  to  "~~^""~" 
lofe  their  fluidity." 

"  The  experiments  of  Mr  Hutcliins  prove,  that 
quickfilver  contrails  or  diminirties  in  bulk  by  freezing  j 
and  that  the  very  low  degrees  to  which  the  thermo- 
meters liave  been  made  to  fink,  is  owing  to  this  con- 
traftion,  and  not  to  the  cold  having  been  in  any  de» 
gi-ee  equal  to  that  ihown  by  the  thermometer.  lu  the 
fourth  experiment,  one  of  the  thermometers  funk  to 
450-,  tliough  it  appeared,  by  the  fpirit  thermome- 
ters that  the  cold  of  the  mixture  was  not  more  than 
five  or  fix  degrfes  below  the  point  of  freezing  quick- 
filver. In  the  firll  experiment  alfo,  it  funk  to  44.8, 
at  a  time  when  the  cold  of  the  mixture  was  only  2 1--  be- 
low that  point ;  fo  that  it  appears,  that  the  contrac- 
tion of  quickfilver  by  freezing,  mull  be  at  leaft  equal 
to  its  expanfion  by  4G4  degrees  of  heat,  (a)  This, 
however,  is  not  t!ie  whole  contraction  that  it  fuffers  ; 
for  it  appears  by  an  extraft  from  a  meteorological 
journal  kept  by  Mr  Hutchins  at  Albany  fort,  that 
his  thermometer  once  funk  to  490°  below  o  ;  though 
it  was  known  by  a  fpirit  thermometer,  that  the  cold 
fcarcely  exceeded  the  point  of  freezing  quickfilver. 
There  are  two  experiments  alfo  of  Profeffor  Braun, 
in  which  the  thermometer  funk  to  544  and  556"  be- 
low nothing  ;  which  is  the  greateft  defcent  he  ever 
obferved  without  the  ball  being  cracked.  It  is  not 
indeed  known  how  cold  his  mixtures  were;  but  from 
Mr  Hutchins's  experiments,  there  is  great  reafon  to 
think  they  could  not  be  many  degrees  below  40°.  If 
fo,  the  contraftion  which  quickfilver  fulTers  in  free- 
zing, is  not  much  lefs  than  its  expanfion  by  500"^ 
or  510"  of  heat,  that  is,  almoil  ^^  of  its  whole  bulk  ; 
and  in  all  probability  is  never  much  more  than  that, 
though  it  is  probable  that  this  contraftion  is  not  al- 
ways determinate :  for  a  confiderable  variation  may 
frequently  be  obferved  in  the  fpecific  gravity  of  the 
fame  piece  of  metal  call  different  times  over;  and  al- 
moil  all  call  metals  become  heavier  by  hammering. 
Mr  Cavendilh  oblerved,  that  on  calling  the  fame  Variation 
piece  of  tin  three  times  over,  its  denfity  varied  from  of  the  dcit- 
7.252  to  7.294,  though  there  was  great  reafon  to '^^'V  "f  ""'- 
think  that  no  hollows  were  left  in  it,  and  that  only  /  T 
a  fmall  part  01  this  ditterence  could  proceed  Irom  the  ing. 
error  of  the  experiment.  This  variation  of  denfity  is 
as  much  as  is  produced  in  quickfilver  by  an  alteration 
of  66  of  heat;  and  it  is  not  unlikely,  that  the  de- 
fcent of  a  thermometer,  on  account  of  the  contraftion 
of  the  quickfilver  in  its  ball  by  freezing,  may  vary  as 
much  in  different  trials,  though  the  whole  mafs  of 
quickfilver  is  fiozen  without  any  vacuities. 

"  The  cold    produced    by   mixing    Ipirit  of    nitre  of  freeiin= 
with   fnaw   is  entirely  owing  to   the   melting   of    the  mixtures, 
fnow.     Now,   in  all  probability,  there  is  a  certain  de- 
gree  of  cold   in  which  the  fpiiit  of  nitre,  fo  far  from 
diCTulving  fnow,  will  yield  part  of  its  own  water,  and 

fuf- 


(a)  "The  numbers  here  given  are  thofe  Ihown  by  the  thermometer  without  any  correftionl;  but  if  a  proper 
allowance  is  made  for  the  error  of  that  inllrument,  it  will  appear,  that  the  true  contraftion  was  25"  lefs  than 
kere  fet  down  ;  and'from  the  manner  in  which  thermometers  have  been  ufually  adjufted,  it  is  likely  that  in  the 
5th  experiment  of  Mr  Hutchins,  as  wtll  as  in  thofe  of  Profeilbr  Biaun,  the  true  contraftion  might  equallj;  fail 
&ort  of  that  by  obfervation." 


CON  [3 

fufFer  that  to  freeze,  aj  is  the  cafo  with  fulutloiis  of 
common  fait  ;  fo  that  if  the  cold  of  t.he  materials  be- 
'  fore  mixing  is  equal  to  this,  no  additional  cold  can  be 
produced.  If  the  cold  of  the  materialti  is  Ids,  fome 
increafe  of  cold  will  be  produced  ;  bu:  the  total  cold 
will  be  lefs  than  in  the  former  cafe,  fiiice  the- addition- 
al cold  cannot  be  generated  without  fome  of  tlic  Inow 
being  dilTolved,  and  thereby  weakening  the  acid,  and 
making  it  lefs  able  to  diflolve  moie  fnow  ;  but  yet  the 
lefs  the  cold  of  the  materials  is,  the  greater  will  be 
the  additional  cold  produced.  This  is  conformable  to 
Mr  Hutchins's  experiments  ;  for,  in  the  fifth  experi- 
ment, in  which  the  cold  of  the  materials  was  — 40", 
the  additional  cold  produced  was  only  5'.  In  the  fiill 
cxpeiiment,  in  which  the  cold  of  the  materials  was 
only  — 23^,  an  addition  of  at  leaft  19°  of  cold  was 
obtained  ;  and  by  mixing  fome  of  the  fame  fpirit  of 
nitre  with  fnow  in  this  climate,  when  the  heat  of  the 
materials  was  -^-26'^,  Mr  Cavendilh  was  able  to  fmk 
the  thermometer  to  — 29^,  fo  that  an  addition  of  ^^ 
degrees  of  cold  was  produced. 

'<!i)It  is  remarkable,  that  in  none  of  Mr  Hutchins's 
experiments  the  cold  of  the  mixture  was  more  than  6° 
of  the  fpirit  thermometer  below  the  freezing  point  of 
quickfilver,  which  is  fo  little,  that  it  miglit  incline 
one  to  think  that  the  fpirit  of  nitre  ufed  by  him  was 
weak.  This,  however,  was  not  the  cale  ;  as  its  fpe- 
cific  gravity  at  58°  of  heat  was  1,4923.     It  was  able 

to  diflblve    its  weight  of  marble,  and  contained 

1.42 

very  little  mixture   of  the   vitriolic  or  marine  acid  :  as 

well  as  could  be  judged  from  an  examination  of  it,  it 

was   as   little   phlogillicated   as  acid  of  that  llrength 

ufually  is." 

Acids,  efpecially  thofe  of  the  mineral  kind,  power- 
fully reiilt  congelation.  There  is,  however,  a  peculi- 
arity with  regard  to  that  of  vitriol.  Mr  Chaptal,  a 
foreign  cheinift,  obferved  that  it  condenfed  by  the 
Cfjld  of  the  atmofphere,  and  the  cryibds  began  to  melt 
only  at  +70*  of  his  thermometer  ;  which,  if  Reau- 
mur's, corrcfponds  to  about  47°  of  Fahrenheit.  The 
cryftals  were  undtuous  from  the  melting  acid,  and  they 
felt  warmer  than  the  neighbouring  bodies  :  the  form 
was  that  of  a  prifin  of  fix  iides,  flatted  and  terminated 
by  a  pyrara'd  of  fix  fides;  but  the  pyramid  appeared 
on  one  end  only;  on  the  other,  the  cryftal  was  loft  in 
the  general  mafs.  The  pyiamid  refulted  from  an  af- 
femblage  of  fix  ifofccles  triangles  :  the  oil  when  the 
cryftal  was  melted  was  of  a  yellowift  black  ;  on  redi- 
ftilling  it  in  a  proper  apparatus,  no  peculiar  gas  came 
ovei.  M.  Chaptal  repeated  his  experiraenrs  with  the 
highly  concentrated  acid,  but  fonnd  that  it  did  not 
freeze  ;  that  the  deniity  of  the  acid  wliich  he  thought 
froze  moft  eafily  was  to  the  oil,  of  the  ufual  ftrength 
for  fale,  as  from  63  and  65  to  66  ;  and  the  neceffi^'-y 
degree  of  cold  ab(,nit  19  of  Fahrenheit.  Oil  of  vi- 
triol once  melted  will  not  cryftallize  again  with  the 
fame  degree  of  cold. 

M.  More,  a  confiderable  manufafturer  of  oil  of  vi- 
ti'iol  at  Hadimont  near  Vervier,  in  the  duchy  of  Lim- 
bourg  in  Germany,  attributes  this  congelation  to  the 
addition  of  nitrons  air.  The  acid  of  vitriol  is  ufually 
feparated  from  fulphur  by  burning  it  in  clofe  vcffcls  ; 
and  the  air  is  fupplied  by  adding  to  the  fulphur  a 
little  nitre.     He  found,  tliat  by  mixing  the  acid,  ca- 


17    ]  GO    N 

pable*  of  being  congealed,  with  water,  or  employing   Contre'i* 
it  for  other  purpofes,  orange-coloured  fumes,  and  the       """•    , 
fmell    of    the    true   nitrous  acid,    were  very   evident.         " 
When  this  gas  was  deftroyed,  no  degree  of  cold  would 
congeal  the  acid,  whatever  was  its  degree  of  concen- 
tration ;  and   the   congelation   was   generally  obferved 
immediately  after   the   procefs   by  which   the  acid  was 
obtained. 

Mr  Macquer  relates,  in  the  fecond  edition  of  his 
Chemical  Diilionary,  article  Vhriulic  ylchi,  that  the 
l)uke  d'Aycn  h:\d  oblerved  the  congelation  of  con- 
centrated vitiiolic  acid,  which  had  been  expofed  to  a 
cold  exprefi'ed  by  13  or  14  degrees  below  o  on  Reau- 
mur's thermometer  ;  but  that  mixtures,  confifting  of 
one  part  of  the  above  mentioned  concentrated  acid, 
with  two  or  more  parts  of  water,  could  not  be  frozen 
by  the  cold  to  which  he  expofed  them,  till  he  had  di- 
luced  the  acid  fo  much  that  its  denfity  was  to  that  of 
water  as  104^  to  96  ;  in  which  latter  cafe  of  congela- 
tion it  is  probable  that  the  water  only  was  frozen,  a» 
is  the  calc  in  dilute  folutions  of  lalts.  Similar  experi- 
ments were  made  by  M.  dc  Morveau,  and  with  equal 
fuccefs.  Having  produced  an  intenfc  cold  by  pouring 
fpirit  of  nitre  on  pounded  ice,  he  congealed  a  part  of 
fome  vitriolic  acid  which  had  been  previoudy  concen- 
trated ;  but  he  obferved,  that  though  a  very  intenfe 
cold  had  been  made  uft  of  to  congeal  the  acid  at  firlt, 
it  neveithelefs  lemaincd  congealed  in  much  fmaller  de- 
grees of  cold,  and  that  it  thawed  very  flowly.  This 
coincides  with  the  obfervations  of  M  Chaptal ;  though 
the  latter  obferves,  that  there  is  fome  difference  be- 
tween ftrong  oil  of  vitriol  lowered  with  water,  and 
that  produced  of  a  given  ftrength  by  reilification. 
The  latter  always  has  fome  colour;  and  it  will  not 
dilfolve  indigo  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  carry  the  colour 
into  the  ftuff,  though  the  ftronger  oil,  diluted  to  the 
fame  degree,  fucceeds  very  well.  Some  obfervations 
were  alio  made  by  Mr  M-Njb  at  Hudlon's  Bay,  an- 
account  of  which  is  given  in  the  Phil.  Tranf  for  1 786 
by  Mr  Cavendilh,  at  whofe  defire  they  had  been  made. 
From  them  it  appears,  that  a  vitriolic  acid,  whofe  fpe- 
cific  gravity  was  to  that  of  water  as  1843  to  1000,. 
froze  when  expofed  to  a  cold  of  — 15°  of  Fahrenheit'*- 
fcale  ;  that  another  more  dilute  vitriolic  acid,  confi'l- 
ing  of  629  parts  of  the  former  concentrated  acid,  and 
351  parts  of  water,  congealed  in  a  temperature  oF 
— 36;  and  that,  when  farther  diluted,  it  was  capable 
of  fuftaining  a  much  greater  degiee  of  cold  without 
freezing  at  all.  In  thefc  experiments,  as  well  as  in 
thofe  of  Mr  Morveau,  it  appeared  that  the  whole  of 
the  acid  did  not  congeal,  but  that  part  of  it  retained 
its  fluidity  ;  and  on  examining  the  ftrength  of  that 
which  remained  fluid,  Mr  Cavendilfi  found  that  there 
was  very  little  difference  between  it  and  the  other  ; 
whence  he  was  led  to  fuppofe,  that  the  rcafo>4  of  this 
congelation  does  not  arife  from  any  diflTereroe  in- 
ftrength,  but  on  fome  lefs  obvious  quality,  and  fuch 
as  conftltutes  the  difference  between  common  and  icyr 
oil  of  vitriol. 

In  all  the  experiments  hitherto  made,  however,  Mr 
Cavendilh  had  found  fome  uncertainty  in  determining 
the  point  of  eafieft  freezing  ;  neither  could  he  deter- 
mine whether  the  cold  neceffary  for  congelation  does 
not  increafe  without  any  limitation  in  proportion  to 
the  ftrength  of  the  acid.  A  new  fit  of  txpeiiments- 
■  3.  we** 


CON 


tiuu. 

Mr  Kier's 

exjieri- 

tiicnts. 


Were  therefore  irade  by  Mr  Ktir  to  determine  tin's 
point.  He  had  obferved,  after  a  icxcn  froll  at  t!ie 
cud  of  the  year  1784  and  beginning  of  1785,  that 
fome  vitriolic  acid,  contained  in  a  corked  pliial,  had 
congealed,  v.ihilc  other  bottles  containing  the  fame, 
fome  (Ironger  and  fome  weaker,  retained  their  fluidity. 
As  the  congelation  was  natuially  imputed  to  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  cold,  he  was  afterwards  fmprifed  to 
find,  when  the  froll  ceafed,  that  the  acid  remained 
congealed  for  many  days,  when  the  temperature  of  the 
atmofphere  was  fometimes  above  40''  of  Fahrenheit  ; 
and  when  the  congealed  a'  id  was  brought  into  a  warm 
room  oa  purpofc  to  thawit,athermometei  placed  incon- 
tadlwith  it  during  its  thawing  eontinuedftatiinavyat45''. 
Hence  he  concluded,  that  the  freezing  and  thawing 
point  of  this  acid  was  nearly  at  45°  ;  and  accordingly, 
on  expofing  the  liquor  which  had  been  thawed  to  the  air 
at  the  temperature  of  30°,  the  congelation  again  took 
place  in  a  few  hours.  From  the  circumftance  of  other 
parcels  of  the  fame  acid,  but  of  different  ftrengths, 
remaining  fluid,  though  they  hau  been  expofed  to  a 
much  greater  degree  of  cold,  he  was  led  to  believe 
that  there  mud  be  fome  certain  llrtngth  at  which  the 
acid  is  more  difpofed  to  congeal  tnan  at  any  other. 
The  fpecliic  gravity  of  the  acid  which  had  frozen  was 
to  that  of  water  nearly  as  tSoo  to  1000,  and  that  of 
the  ftroriger  acid  which  had  not  frozen  was  as  1  846 
to  1000,  which  I3  the  common  denfity  of  that  ufually 
fold  in  England  ;  and  there  was  not  the  lead:  differ- 
ence, excepting  in  point  of  Ilrength,  between  the  acid 
which  had  frozen  and  that  which  had  not  ;  Mr  Keir 
having  taken  the  acid  fome  weeks  before  with  his  own 
hand?  from  the  bottle  which  contained  the  latter,  and 
diluted  it  with  water,  till  it  became  of  the  fpecitic 
gravity  of  1800. 

To  render  the  experiment  complete,  Mr  Keir  im- 
mei'fcd  feveral  acids  of  different  lirengths  in  melting 
fnow,  inllead  of  expofing  them  to  the  air  ;  the  tem- 
perature of  which  was  variable,  wheieas  that  of  melt- 
ing inow  was  certain  and  invariable.  Thofe  which 
would  not  freeze  in  melting  fnow  were  afterwards  im- 
merfed  in  a  mixture  of  common  fait,  fnow,  and  wa- 
ter ;  the  temperature  of  which,  though  not  fo  con- 
flant  and  determinate  as  that  of  melting  fnow,  gene- 
rally remained  for  feveral  honrs  at  iS%  and  was  fome- 
times feveral  degrees  lower.  The  intention  of  adding 
water  to  the  fnow  and  fait  was  to  lelfen  the  Intenfuy 
of  the  cold  of  this  mixture,  and  to  render  it  more 
permanent  than  if  the  fnow  and  fait  alone  were  mixed. 
The  acids  which  had  frozen  in  melting  fnow  were  five 
in  nuii.ber  ;  which  being  thawed  and  brought  to  the 
temperature  of  60°,  were  found  on  exa  :  ination  to 
hfAc  the  following  fpeclfic  gravities,  viz.  1786,  1784, 
J780,  1778,  1775.  Thofe  w.hlch  had  not  congealed 
with  the  anelting  fnow,  but  which  did  fo  with  the  mix- 
ture of  fnow,  fait,  and  water,  were  fouiid,  when 
brought  to  the  temperature  of  60°,  to  be  of  the  fol- 
lowing fpecific  gravities,  viz.  1814,  1810,  1804,  1794, 
1790,  1770,  1759,  1750.  'I'hofe  which  remained, 
and  would  freeze  neither  in  melting  fnow  nor  in  the 
mixtuie  of  fnow,  fait,  and  water,  were  of  the  gra- 
vities 1846,  1B39,  1815,  1745,  '720,  1700,  1610, 
155 1.  From  the  hrfl  of  thefe  it  appears,  that  the 
medium  denfity  of  the  acids  which  froze  with  the  na- 


[     3'8     3 


CON 


tural  cold  was  17S0;  and  from  tiic  fecond,  that  at  the  Cone«Ia» 
denfitics  of  179J  and  1770  the  acid  had  been  incapa- ,  """  , 
ble  t)f  freezing  with  that  degree  of  cold.  Hence  it  ' 
follows,  that  1780  is  nearly  the  degree  of  ftrength  of 
eafiell  fieezing,  and  that  an  iiicreafe  or  diminution  of 
that  denfity  equal  to  TT-gt'"  of  l^''^'  whole,  renders  the 
acid  incapable  of  freezing  with  the  cold  of  melting 
fnow,  though  this  cold  is  fomething  above  the  tVeezIng 
point  of  the  moll  congealable  acid.  Fiom  the  fecond 
it  appears,  that  by  applying  a  more  intenfe  cold,  viz. 
that  produced  by  a  mixture  of  fnow,  fait,  and  water, 
the  limits  of  the  denfities  of  acids  capable  of  congela- 
tion Were  extended  to  about  TTfth  above  or  below  the 
pfjint  of  eafiell  freezing  :  and  there  feems  little  reafon 
to  doubt,  that,  by  greater  augmentations  of  cold, 
thefe  limits  may  be  further  extended  ;  but  in  what  ra- 
tio thefe  augmentations  and  extenlions  proceed,  can- 
not be  determined  without  many  obfervations  made  in 
difFerent  temperatures. 

"  But  (fays  Mr  Keir)  though  it  is  probable  that 
the  moll  concentrated  acids  may  be  frozen,  provided 
the  cold  be  fufficiendy  intenfe,  yet  there  feems  reafoti 
to  believe,  that  fome  of  the  congelations  which  have 
been  obferved  in  highly  concentrated  acids,  have  been 
cffedled  in  confequence  of  the  denfity  of  thefe  acids 
being  1  educed  nearly  to  the  point  of  ealy  freezing  by 
theii  having  abloibed  m.oillure  from  the  air  :  for  the 
Duke  d'Ayen  and  M.  de  Morveau  expofed  their  acids 
to  the  air  in  cups  or  open  veficls  ;  and  the  latter  even 
acquaints  us,  that  on  examining  the  fpecific  gravity 
of  the  acid  which  had  frozen,  he  found  it  to  that  of 
water  as  i  29  to  74  ;  which  denfity  being  lefs  than 
that  of  eafiell  freezing,  proves  that  the  acid  he  em- 
ployed, and  which  he  had  previoufly  concentrated, 
had  been  aftually  weakened  during  the  experiment. 
I  have  feveral  times  expofed  concentrated  oil  of  vitriol 
in  open  veffels  in  froily  weather  ;  and  I  have  fome- 
times, but  not  always,  obferved  a  congelation  to  take 
place.  Upon  feparating  the  congealed  part,  and  on 
examining  the  fpecific  gravity  of  the  latter  after  it 
had  thawed,  I  found  that  it  had  been  reduced  to  the 
point  of  eafiell  freezing.  When  the  congealed  acid 
was  kept  longer  expofed  it  gradually  thawed,  even 
when  the  cold  of  the  air  increaled  ;  the  realon  of  which 
is  not  to  be  imputed  to  the  heat  produ^ijed  by  the 
molfture  of  the  air  mixing  with  the  acid,  but  princi- 
pally to  the  dimiuutlon  below  the  point  of  eafiell  free- 
zing, which  was  occafioned  by  the  continued  ablorp- 
tion  of  moiHure  from  the  air,  and  which  rendered  the 
acid  incapable  of  continuing  frozen  without  a  great  In- 
creafe  of  cold. 

"  It  appears,  then,  that  the  concentration  of  M.  de 
Morveau's  acid,  at  the  time  of  its  congelation,  from 
which  circumftance  Mr  Cavendifli  infers  generally  that 
the  vitriolic  acid  fieezes  more  eafilyas  it  is  moredenfe, 
is  not  a  true  premife  ;  and  that  therefore  the  inference, 
though  jnftly  deduced,  is  invalid.  On  the  contrary, 
there  feems  every  reafon  to  believe,  that  as  the  denlity 
of  the  acids  increales  beyond  the  point  of  eafiell  fiee- 
zlng,  the  facility  of  tliC  congelation  diminilhes  ;  at 
leall  to  as  great  denfity  as  we  have  ever  been  able  to 
obtain  the  vitriohc  acid  :  for  if  it  were  pofTible  to  di- 
vell  it  entirely  of  water,  it  would  probably  alTume  a 
folid  form  in  any  temperature  of  the  air. 
4  •'  The 


CON  .   .    t     3 

"  Th'^  cryilallization  of  the  vitriolic  acid  is  mori:  or 
Icfs  dillinft,  accort'iiig  to  the  ilowuefs  of  the  fovma- 
tioii  of  fht;  cryltals  and  other  favourable  circumrtaiiccs. 
Sonvetimes  they  are  very  large,  diltinftly  fhaped,  and 
hard.  Their  lliape  is  like  thofe  of  the  common  mi- 
neral alkali  and  fclenite  fpav,  but  with  angles  different 
in  diracnfions  from  either  of  thefe.  They  are  folid, 
conlilling  of  ten  faces  ;  of  which  the  two  largell  are 
equal,  parall.l,  and  oppoiite  to  each  other  ;  and  are 
oblique-angled  parallelograms  or  rhomboids,  whofe 
an  des  are,  as  near  as  could  be  meafured,  of  105  and 
75  degrees.  Between  thefe  two  rhomboidal  faces  are 
placed  eight  of  the  form  of  trapeziums  ;  and  thus  each 
cryllnl  may  be  fuppoftd  to  be  compounded  of  two 
equal  and  funilar  fruilums  of  pyramids  joined  together 
by  their  rhomboidal  bafes.  They  always  funk  in  the 
fluid  acid  to  the  bottom  of  the  veflel,  which  fliowed 
that  their  dcnfity  was  increafed  by  congelation.  It 
was  attempted  to  determine  their  fpecific  gravity  by 
adding  to  this  fluid  fome  concentrated  acid,  which 
fliould  make  tliem  float  in  the  liquor,  the  examination 
of  whofe  fpecific  gravity  fiiould  afcertain  that  of  the 
floating  ci-yflals  ;  but  they  were  found  to  fink  even  in 
the  mod  concentrated  acid,  and  were  conftquently 
denfer.  Some  of  the  congealable  acid  previoully  brought 
to  the  freezing  temperature  was  then  poured  into  a 
graduated  narrow  cylindrical  glafs,  up  to  a  certain 
mark,  which  indicated  a  fpace  equal  to  that  occupied 
by  200  grains  of  water.  The  glafs  was  placed  in  a 
mixture  of  fnow,  fait,  and  water  ;  and  when  the  acid 
was  frozen,  a  mark  was  made  on  the  part  of  the  glafs 
to  which  it  had  funk.  Having  thawed  the  acid  and 
emptied  the  glafs,  it  was  filled  with  water  to  the  mark 
to  which  it  had  funk  by  freezing;  and  it  was  then  found 
that  15  grains  more  of  water  were  required  to  raife  it 
to  the  mark  expreffing  200  grains  ;  which  fhows,  that 
the  diminution  of  bulk  fuflained  by  the  acid  in  freezing 

had  been  equal  to — —  of  the  whole.    Computing  from 

■3-3 
this  datum,  we  fhould  eftltnate  the  fpecific  gravity  of 
the  congealed  acid  to  have  been  1924;  but  as  it  cvi- 
tiently  contained  a  great  number  of  bubbles,  its  real 
fpecific  gravity  mufl  have  been  conlidcrably  greater 
tlcan  the  above  calculation,  and  cannot  eafily  be  deter- 
mined on  account  of  thefe  bubbles.  By  w-ay  of  com- 
pariion,  Mr  Keir  oBfervcd  the  alteration  of  bulk  which 
water  contained  in  the  fame  cylindrical  veirel  would 
fufTer  by  freezing  ;  and  found  that  its  expauJlon  was 
equal  to  about  r-oth  of  its  bulk.  The  water  tiad  been 
previoufly  boiled,  but  neverthelefs  contained  a  great 
number  of  air  bubbles  ;  fo  that  in  this  refpcfi  there  is 
a  confiderable  difference  between  tlie  congelations  of 
water  and  tlie  vitriolic  acid  ;  though  perhaps  it  may 
arife  principally  from  the  bubbles  of  elaflic  fluid 
being  in  greater  proportion  in  the  one  than  the 
other. 

"  Greater  cold  is  produced  by  mixing  fnow  or 
pounded  ice  with  the  congealed  than  with  the  fluid 
vitriolic  acid,  though  the  quantify  is  not  yet  deter- 
inined.  The  greatetl  cold  produced  by  Mr  M'Nab  at 
Hndfon's  Bay,  was  effedicd  by  mixing  fnow  with  a 
vitriolic  acid  which  had  been  prevloufly  congealed  ; 
and  to  this  circuraflance  Mr  Cavendifh  imputes  the  in- 
tenfity  of  the  cold,  as  the  liquefaction  both  of  the 
acid  and  the  fnow  had  concurred  in  producing  the 


19     ]  CON 

fame  effei^t  ;  while  in  mixing  fluid  acids  with  fnow, 
the  thawing  of  the  fnow  is  probably  the  only  produc- 
tive caufe. 

"  To  compare  the  times  requifite  for  the  liquefac- 
tion of  ice  and  of  congealed  oil  of  vitriol,  two  equal 
and  fimilar  glaffes  were  ftllcd,  one  with  the  congealable 
vitriolic  acid,  the  other  with  water  ;  aud  after  having- 
immerfed.  them  in  a  freezing  mixture  till  both  were 
congealed  and  i-educed  to  the  temperature  of  28°,  the 
glaffes  were  withdrawn,  wiped  dry,  and  placed  in  z 
room  where  the  thermometer  flood  at  62°.  The  ice 
thawed  in  40  minutes,  and  the  acid  in  95  ;  at  the 
end  of  which  time  the  thermometer,  which  flood  near 
the  glaffes,  had  rifcn  to  64*.  Hence  it  appears  that 
the  congealed  acid  requires  more  than  twice  the  time 
for  its  liquefaction  that  ice  does,  though  it  cannot 
thence  be  fairly  inferred,  that  the  c  dd  generated  by 
the  liquefaftion  of  the  ice  and  of  congealed  acid  are  in 
the  aijove  proportions  of  the  times,  from  the  following 
coafiderations,  viz.  that  as,  during  the  liquefaiilion  of 
the  ice,  its  temperature  remains  flationaVy  at  32',  and 
during  the  liqiiefadlion  of  the  acid,  its  temperature  re- 
mains about  44  or  45^^,  it  appears,  that  the  ice  being 
confiderably  colder  than  the  acid,  will  take  the  heat 
from  the  contiguous  air  much  fafter.  By  this  expe- 
riment, however,  we  know  that  a  confiderable  quantity 
of  cold  is  generated  l>y  the  liquefaftion  of  the  acid  ; 
and  hence  it  appears  probable,  that  in  producing  cold 
aitifielally,  by  mixing  fnow  with  acids  in  very  cold 
temperatures,  it  would  probably  be  uftful  to  employ  a 
vitriolic  acid  of  the  proper  dcnfity  for  congelation,  and 
to  freeze  it  prevloufly  to  its  mixture  with  fnow.  It 
muft  not,  however,  be  imagined,  that  the  cold  gene- 
rated by  the  mixture  of  thefe  two  frozen  fubftances  is. 
nearly  equal  to  the  furas  of  the  colds  generated  by  the 
feparate  liquefaftions  of  the  congealed  acid  and  ice, 
when  fnigiy  txpofed  to  a  thawing  temperature  ;  for 
the  mixture  refulting  from  the  liqutfaftion,  conflfting 
of  the  vitriolic  acid  and  the  water  of  the  fnow,  appears 
from  the  generation  of  lieat  which  occurs  fronv  the 
mixture  of  thefe  ingredients  in  a  fluid  flate,  to  be  fub- 
jeft  to  different  laws  than  tliofe  which  rule  either  of 
the  ingredients  fejiarafely. 

*'  The  vitriolic  acid,  like  water  and  other  fluids,  is- 
capable  of  retaining  its  fluidity  when  cooled  confider- 
ably below  its  freezing  point.  A  phial  containing 
fome  congealable  vitriolic  acid  being  placed  in  a  mix- 
ture of  fait,  fnow,  and  water,  a  thennometer  was  foon. 
afterwards  immrrfed  in  it  while  the  acid  was  yet  fluid, 
on  which  it  quickly  funk  frony^o  to  ^9'^.  On  moving 
the  thermometer  in  the  fluid,  to  make  It  acquire  the 
exail  temperature,  the  mercury  was  obferved  fuddenly 
to  rife  ;  and  on  looking  at  the  acid,  numberlcfs  fmall 
cryflals  were  obferved  floating  in  It,  which  had  been 
fuddenly  formed.  The  degree  to  which  the  mercury 
then  rofe  was  46 1'"';  and  at  another  time,  while  the 
acid  was  freezing,  it  flood  at  45^." 

-From  thefe  experiments  our  author  infers,  "  i.  That 
the  vitriolic  acid  has  a  point  of  eafieft  freezing,  and* 
that  this  is  when  its  fpecific  gravity  is  to  that  of  watet 
as  1780  to  icoo.  2.  That  the  greater  or  lefs  difpo- 
fition  to  congelation  does  not  depend  on  any  other 
ciicumftance  tiian  the  ftrength  of  the  acid.  3.  That, 
the  freezing  and  thawing  degree  of  the  mod  congeal- 
able acid  is  about  45°  of  Fahrenheit's  fcale.     It  is,, 

however^ 


Congtiz- 
«  . 

Ccngctiei 


CON  [32 

however,  to  be  obferved,  tliat  this  degree  is  Inferred 
from  the  temperature  indicated  by  the  thermometers 
iinmerftd  in  the  freezing  and  thawing  acids  ;  but  tlic 
congelation  of  the  fluid  acid  could  never  be  accom- 
pliihed  without  expofing  it  to  a  greater  degree  of  cold, 
either  by  expofing  it  to  the  air  in  frofty  weather  or  to 
the  cold  of  melting  fnow.  4.  Like  water,  this  acid 
poffefTes  the  property  of  retaining  its  fluidity  when 
cooled  fcveral  degrees  below  the  freezing  point ;  and 
ofrifing  fuddenly  to  it  when  its  congelation  is  pro- 
moted by  agitation,  or  by  contaA  even  with  a  warmer 
therniDrneter.  5.  That,  liive  water  and  other  congela- 
ble  fluids,  the  vitriolic  acid  generates  cold  by  its  lique- 
faftion,  and  heat  during  its  congelation,  though  the 
quantity  of  this  heat  and  cold  remains  to  be  deter- 
mined by  future  experiments.  6.  That  the  acid,  by 
cor.gelation,  when  the  circumflances  for  diftinft  cry- 
ftallization  are  favourable,  affumes  a  regular  cryllalline 
form,  a  confiderable  folidity  and  hardnefs,  and  a  den- 
iity  much  greater  than  it  poffeffed  in  its  fluid  llate." 

Befides  this  fpecies  of  congelation,  the  vitriolic  acid 
is  fubjetl  to  another,  probably  the  fame  defcribed  by 
Bafd  Valentine  and  fome  of  the  older  chemills.  This 
is  cfFefted  in  the  ordinary  temperature  of  the  air,  even 
Piil.  Ti-an/.in  (ummer  ;  and,  according  to  Mr  Keir*,  is  peculiar 
vol.  Ixxvii.  to  diat  fpecies  of  oil  of  vitriol  which  is  diftilled  from 
P-  '^7'  green  vitriol,  and  which  is  poflefFed  of  a  fmoking  qua- 
lity in  a  high  degree  ;  "  for  not  only  the  authors 
(fays  Mr  Keir),  by  whom  this  congelation  has  been 
obferved,  have  given  this  defcription  of  the  acid  em- 
ployed, but  alfo  the  late  experiments  of  Mr  Dollfufs, 
feem  to  (how  that  this  fmoking  quality  is  efl'ential  to 
the  phenomenon  :  for  neither  the  acid  obtained  from 
vitriol,  when  deprived  by  reftification  of  its  fmoking 
quality,  nor  the  Engllfli  oil  of  vitriol,  which  is  known 
to  be  obtained  by  burning  fulphur,  and  which  does 
not  fmoke,  were  found  by  his  trials  to  be  fufceptible  of 
this  fpecies  sf  congelation.  It  may,  however,  be 
worth  the  attention  of  thofe  chcmiils  who  have  an  op- 
portunity of  feeing  this  iVji  oil  of  vitriol,  as  it  is  called, 
to  obferve  more  accurately  than  has  yet  been  done,  the 
freezing  temperature  and  the  denfity  of  the  congealable 
acids  ;  and  to  examine  whether  the  denfity  of  this 
fmoking  acid  alfo  is  connected  with  the  glacial  pro- 
perty. It  feems  alfo  further  deferving  of  invefl;iga- 
tion,  whether  there  be  not  fome  analogy  between  the 
congelation  of  the  fmoking  oil  of  vitriol  and  the  very 
curious  cryftaUization  which  Dr  Priellley  obferved  in 
a_  concentrated  vitriolic  acid  faturated  with  nitrous 
acid  vapours ;  and  whether  this  fmoking  quahty  does 
not  proceed  from  fome  marine  or  other  volatile  acid, 
'  which  may  be  contained  in  the  martial  vitriol  whence 

the  vitriolic  acid  is  obtained." 

Mr  Keir  alfo  obferves, .  that  M.  Cornatter  has  ef- 
feftcd  the  cryilallization  of  vitriolic  acid,  by  diftiUing 
it  with  nitrous  acid  and  charcoal ;  and  we  can  add 
from  our  own  experience,  that  a  cryilallization  in- 
ftantly  takes  place  on  allowing  the  fumes  of  the  ni- 
trous and  vitriolic  acids  to  mix  together  ;  and  this, 
whether  the  former  be  procured  from  martial  vitriol  or 
fulphur,  and  whether  it  be  in  a  phlogifticated  ftate  or 
not,  concentration  in  both  acids  is  here  the  only  re- 
(juifite. 

CONGER,  in  zoology.     See  Mur^ena. 
CONGERIES,  a  Latin  word,  fometimes  ufed  in 
N*"'  S8. 


o    1  CON 

our  language  for  a  coUeflion  or  heap  of  fcveral  par- CongtOi.n 
tides  or  bodies  united  into  one  mafs  or  aggregate.  „  H 

CONGESTION,  in  medicine,  a  mafs  or  colleftion  .'  f 

of  humours,  crowded  together  and  hardened  in  any 
part  of  the  body,  and  there  forming  a  preternatural 
tumor. 

Congeflion  is  effefled  by  little  and  little  :  in  which 
it  differs  from  dcftutlioti,  which  is  more   fuddeii. 

CONGIARIUM,  CoNGiARv,  among  medalifts,  a 
gift  or  donative  reprcfented  on  a  medal.  The  word 
comes  from  the  Latin  corgius  ;  becaufe  the  firft  pre- 
feiita  made  to  the  people  of  Rome  confided  in  wine 
and  oil,  which  were  meafured  out  to  them  in  congri. 
The  congiary  was  properly  a  prefent  made  by  the  em- 
perors to  the  people  of  Rome.  Thofe  made  to  the 
foldiers  were  not  called  corigiaries  but  dmnti-ves.  The 
legend  on  medals  rcprefenting  cotigiaries,  is,  Coiighirium 
or  Liberaliias.  Tiberius  gave  a  congiary  of  three  hun- 
dred pieces  of  money  to  each  citizen  :  Caligula  twice 
gave  three  hundred  fefterces  a  head:  Nero,  whofe  con- 
giaries  are  the  lirll  that  we  find  reprefented  on  medals, 
gave  four  hundred. 

CONGIUS,  a  liquid  meafure  of  the  ancient  Ro- 
mans, containing  the  eighth  part  of  the  amphora,  or 
the  fourth  of  the  urna,  or  fix  fextaiii.  The  cimgius 
in  Englifh  meafure  contains  2,070,676  folid  inches  ; 
that  is,  feven  pints,  4,942  folid  inches. 

CONGLOBATE  gland.     See  Anatomy. 

CONGLOMERATE  gland.     IbiJ. 

CoNGLOMTRATR  Flu-wers ,  are  thofe  growing  on  a 
branching  foot-ftalk,  to  which  they  are  irregularly 
but  clofely  connefted.  This  mode  of  Inflorefe^nee, 
as  LInniBus  terms  it.  Is  oppofed  to  that  in  which  the 
flowers  are  irregularly  and  loofely  fupporttd  on  their 
foot-ftalks,  hence  termed  a  diffv[e  panicle  *.  The '  See  Pa' 
term  is  exemplified  in  feveral  of  the  grafies,  particu- "'"''• 
laily  in  fome  fpecies  of  tlie^sa,  fefcue  grafs,  and  a- 
groilis. 

CONGLUTINATION,  the  gluing  or  faftening 
any  two  bodies  together  by  the  intromlflion  of  a  third, 
whofe  parts  are  unftuous  and  tenacious,  in  the  nature 
of  glue.     See  Glue. 

CONGO,  a  kingdom  of  Africa,  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  river  Zair,  or  Zarah,  which  divides  It 
from  Loanga;  on  the  fouth  by  the  river  Danda,  which 
feparates  it  from  Angola  ;  on  the  eaft  by  the  king- 
doms of  Fungono  and  Metamba,  and  the  burnt  moun- 
tains of  the  fun,  tliofe  of  chryilal  or  falt-petre  and  fil- 
ver,  or  (according  to  Anthony  Cavazzi,  a  late  travel-  i 
ler  into  thofe  parts)  by  the  mountains  of  Coanza,  Ber-  Extent, 
bela,  and  the  great  mountain  of  Chilandia  or  Aqui- 
londa  ;  and  on  the  well  by  that  part  of  the  Atlantic 
ocean  called  the  Ethiopic  fea,  or  the  fea  of  Congo.  Ac- 
cording to  thefe  limits,  Congo  Proper  extends  about 
three  degrees  from  north  to  fouth;  lying  between  6* 
and  9°  S.  Lat.  ;  but  widens  in  its  breadth  inland, 
by  the  courfe  of  the  river  Zair,  which  runs  winding 
above  two  degrees  more  to  the  north.  Its  length 
from  eaft  to  weft  is  very  uncertain,  as  no  oblervatlons 
have  been  taken  of  the  exaft  fituation  of  thofe  moun- 
tains which  bound  it.  »       _ 

The  hiftory  of  this  kingdom  affords  but  few  inte- Hiftory  uM 
refting  particnilars.      Before  its  difcovery  by  the  For-  ^^'''*'"  *"" 
tuguefe,  the  hiftory  is  altogether  uncertain  and  fabu 
lous,  as  the  inhabitants  were  totally  unacquainted  with 

letters 


I 


fabulous.. 


Conpo. 


3 
he  coun 


CON  [3 

letters  and  learning.  So  little  were  thejr  acquainted 
with  clironology,  that  it  is  faid  thoy  did  not  even  di- 
llinguidi  between  day  and  night ;  much  k-fs  could  they 
compute  their  time  by  moons  or  years  ;  and  tlievefore 
could  remember  paft  tranfaftions  only  by  faying  they 
happened  in  fuch  a  king's  reign.  , 

The  country  was  difcovcred  by  the  Portuguefe  in 
ydifcovtr- 1484.  The  difcoverer  was  named  Diego  Cam,  an 
'  ^^  '^\  expert  and  bold  failor.  He  was  very  well  received 
"  ^*  "by  the  natives,  and  fent  fome  of  his  men  with  pre- 
fents  to  the  king  ;  but  they  being  detained  by  unex- 
pefted  accidents  beyond  the  promifed  time  of  their 
return.  Cam  was  obliged  to  fail  away  without  them, 
and  took  with  him  four  young  Congoefe,  as  hoftages 
for  the  fafety  of  his  countrymen.  Thefe  he  taught 
the  Portuguefe  language,  in  which  they  made  fuch 
progrefs  that  king  John  was  highly  pleafed,  and  fent 
them  back  next  year  to  Congo  witli  rich  prefents  ; 
charging  them  to  exiiort  their  monarch,  in  his  name, 
to  become  a  convert  to  the  Chriftian  religion,  and  to 
permit  it  to  be  propagated  through  his  dominions.  A 
firm  alliance  was  concluded  between  the  two  monarchs, 
which  continues  to  this  day,  though  not  without  fome 
interruptions,  to  which  the  Portuguefe  themfelves  have 
^  given  occafion  more  than  the  natives, 

ivazzi's         Any  particular  account  we  have  of  this  kingdom, 
:oiint  of  refts  almoft  entirely  on  the  credit  of  Anthony  Cavaz- 
'"S"'        zi,  the  traveller  above   mentioned.      He  was  a  capu- 
chin-friar, a  native  of  the  duchy  of  Modena,   and  was 
fent  miiiionary  into   thofe  parts  lie  propaganda  JiJe,  in 
the  year  1654,  and  arrived  at  Congo  the  fame   year. 
During  his  itay  tliere,  his  zeal  to  make  converts  made 
him  travel  through  all  thefe  different  kingdoms  ;   and 
the  credit  he  gained,  as  well  as  the  great  employments 
he  was  intrujled  with,  gave  him  an  opportunity  of  in- 
forming himfclf  of  every  thing  relating  to  them  with 
great   cxaftnefs.      The   extent  and  fituation,  however, 
J  he  could  not  poffibly  afcertain,  for  want  of  inftrumeiits ; 

tent  lef-   nor  iiath  this  defeft  been   fmce  fupplied.      According 
ed  lincc  to  him,  the  dominions  of  Congo  extended  a  great  deal 
■  '"■"■■      further  eaftward  and    foutliward   before  the  introduc- 
tion of  Chrillianity  than  afterwards;  a  great  number 
of  the  Hates  that  were  under  the  Congoefe  monarchs, 
either    as    fubjedts,    or    tributary,    having   withdrawn 
their  allegiance  out  of  diflike  to  them  on  that  account. 
Not  content  with   oppofing  the    officers  and   troops 
that  came   annually  to-  raife   the   tribute   impofed   by 
the  king,  they  made   fuch   frequent   and  powerful  in- 
curfions  into  his  dominions,   that  they  obliged  him  to 
•  draw  his  forces   nearer  the  centre  of  Congo  to  pre- 
vent an  invafion;  by  which  means  the  kingdom,  from 
an  extent  of  600  leagues,  was  reduced  to  lefs  than  one 
6         half, 
count  of       Congo  Proper  being  fituated  within  the  torrid  zone, 
u'^^'^  is  liable  to  excefhve  heats  :   as  it   lies  on   the  fouthern 
'■fide  of  the  equinoctial,  the  feafons  are  of  courfe  oppo- 
site to  ours.     Tliey  reckon  only  two  principal  feafons, 
the  fummer  and  winter;  the  former  begins  in  Odtober, 
ami  continues  till  February  or  March;  during  which 
time  the   fun's  rays  dart  with  fuch  force,  that  the  at- 
mofphere  appears  to   an  European   to   be  in  a  flame. 
The  exceffive  lieat,  however,  is  mitigated  by  the  equal 
length  of  the  days  and  nights,  as  well  as  by  the  winds, 
breezes,  rains,   and  dews.      "The  winter  takes  up  the 
other  part  of  the  year ;  and  is  faid  by  the  natives  to 
Vol.  V.  Part  I. 


intn 
dlion  of 
Lrilhani- 


21     1  CON 

be  proportionally  cold,  though  to  an  European  it  would     Congo, 
appear  hot.      Thefe   two  feafons  they  divide  into   fix  '— v^—-' 
leiftr  ones,  viz..  MafTan/a,  Neafu,  Ecundi,  Quitombo, 
Quibifo,  and  Quibangala. 

-Maffanza  begins  with  the  month  of  Oftober,  which 
is  the  beginning  of  their  fpring.  The  rains  begin  to 
fall  at  that  time,  and  continue  during  the  next  two, 
and  fometimcs  three,  months.  When  they  do  fo,  the 
low  lands  are  commonly  overflowed  by  the  extraor- 
dinai-y  floods,  and  all  their  corn  carried  off.  A  dif- 
after  of  this  kind  is  commonly  followed  by  a  famine  ; 
for  the  lazy  inhabitants  take  no  care  to  lay  up  any 
provifions,  although  fuch  misfortunes  happen  very  fre- 
quent',  .  1'his  firft  feafon  they  reckon  commences  at 
the  time  the  plants  begin  to  fpring. 

The  iecond  feafon,  Neafu,  begins  about  the  end  of 
January,  when  the  produce  of  their  lands  has  arrived 
at  its  full  height,  and  wants  but  a  few  days  of  beiiio- 
ripened  for  harvcft.  This  firll  crop  is  no  fooner  ga- 
thered in,  than  they  fow  their  fields  afrefli,  their  land 
commonly  yielding  them  two  harvcfts. 

The  third  and  fourth  feafons,  called  Ecuridl  and 
Sli'itombo,  are  frequently  blended  together  towards 
the  middle  of  March,  when  the  more  gentle  rains  be- 
gin to  fall,  and  continue  to  do  fo  till  tiie  month  of 
May.  Thefe  two  feafons  are  diftinguifhed  by  the 
greater  or  lefler  quantity  of  rain  that  falls  during  that 
interval.  During  the  reft  of  the  time,  the  air  is  either 
very  clear,_ hot,  and  dry;  or  the  clouds  being  over- 
charged with  eleftrlc  matter,  burft  out  into  the  mod 
terrible  thunders  and  lightnings,  witliout  yielding  the 
lead  drop  of  rain,  though  they  feem  loaded  with  it. 

The  two  laft,  ■viz..  the  Quibifo  and  Quibangala, 
make  up  their  (liort  winter,  which  confifts  not  in  froft 
or  fnow,  but  in  dry,  blading  winds,  which  ftiip  the 
earth  of  all  its  verdure,  till  the  next  Maifanza  begins 
to  reftore  them  to  their  former  bloom. 

They  now   divide    their    year   into    twelve    lunar 
months,  and  begin  it  in  September.     They  have  alfo 
weeks   confifting  of  four  days  only,  the  la(l  of  which 
is  their  fabbath  ;  and  on  it  they  religioully  abHain  from 
every  kind  of  work.     This  pradice,   the  compilers  of 
the  Univerfal  Hiftory  conjeiture  to  have  arifen   from  Natives  c\-- 
the  extreme   lazinefs   for   which  this  people,   and  in- "^Tively  In- 
deed all  the  African  nations,  are  fo  remarkable.     To'^"'^'-'- 
this  fhameful  indolence  alfo  is  to  be  afcribed  the  little 
produce  they  reap  from  their  lands,   while  the  Portu- 
guefe fettled  among  them,  who  are   at   more   pains  in 
the  cultivation  of  theirs,  enjoy  all   manner   of  plenty. 
The  natives,  however,   had  rather  run  the  rid;,  of  tlie 
moil  terrible  famines,  than  be  at  the  tenth  part  of  the 
labour  they  fee  the  Portuguefe  take.     They  feem  to 
think   it  below  them   to    ufe  any  otlier  extrclfcs  than' 
thofe  of  dancing,  leaping,  hunting,  (hooting,  S:c. ;  the 
reft  of  their  time  they   fpend    in   fmoking,  and  down- 
right idlencfs,  committing  the  laborious  part  of  ihcir 
houfehold  affairs  to  their  flaves,  or,  in  want   of  them, 
to  their  wives.      Nothing  is  nnore  common  than  to  fee 
diefe  poor  creatures  toiling  in   the   fields   and  woods 
with  a  child  tied   to  their   backs,   and   faintuif  under 
their  exccfilve   labour  and   heavy   burdens,   01   (which 
is  ftillw-crfc)   hunger  and   thirl't.      What  is  yet  more 
furprifingly  {hameful  is,  that  though  they  have  plcntv 
of  domeftic  animals  which  they  might  eafily  make  ufe 
of  for  cultivating  their  ground's,  and  for  oihcr  labi^n- 

•S  S  UPS 


CON  ^    .32 

Congo.    009  fervlces,  and  though  they  fee  the  Portuguefe  Jo  it 

' V— — '  every  day  to  great  advantage  ;  yet  they  will  rather  fee 

their  tendf-r  females  fink  under  their  toil   and  labour, 
th-m  be  at  the  trouble  of  breeding  up  any  of  thefe  ufe- 
g  ful  creatures  to  their  affiftancc. 

Ve>ifable«       The  ground  produces  variety  of  grain,  but  no  corn 
pro.t.iccJ  in  or  rice  except  what  is  cultivated  by  the   Puituguefe. 
Ccrgo.        Xheir  maize,  or  Indian  wheat,  grows  very  ftrong,  and 
is  well  laden.     This,  being   well   ground,  they  make 
into  bread,  or  boil  with  water  into  a  kird  of  pap.    Of 
thij  they  have   four  kinds  ;  one   of  which  refcmbling 
what  we   call   French  wheat,  is  produced   in  plenty, 
and  makes  fonie  ame!:ds  for  the  wart  of  iiidulby   in 
the  people.     They  cultivate  alfo  a  variety  of  the  peafe 
and  bean  kind  :   but   what  they   chiefiy  live  upon,  as 
moll  fuitable  to  their  lazy  difpolilion,  is  a  kind  of  nut, 
like  our  filbtrds,   which  fall  to  the  jrround  of  them- 
fclves,   and  are  to  be  found  every  where  ;  every  nut 
that  falls   to  the  ground  producing  a  new  (hrub  next 
year.     They  have  fcarcely  any  fruit-trees  but   what 
have  been  brought  thither  by  the  Portuguefe.     They 
have  various  forts  of  palm-trees,  ufeful   both  by  their 
fruit,  leaves,  and  their  juice,  which  is  ealily  converted 
into  wine  ;  alfo  by  affording  a  kind  of  oil  with  which 
they  drefs  their  viftuals,  though   the  Europeans  ufe  it 
only  to  burn    in   their  lamps.      They  have  al'o  a  yaft 
nuinber  of  plants  and  fhrubs,   which  it  would  be  im- 
poffible  to  defcribe  or  enumerate.     Whea:  is  the  only 
thina;  that  the   ground   will   not   produce.      It  puihcs 
forth,  indeed,  the  ftraw  and   tiie   ear ;   the   former  of 
which  grows  high  enough,  we  are  told,  to  hide  a  man 
on  horlcback,  but  the  latter  is  empty,  without  one  grain 
St  for  ufe.     Father  Labat,  however,  who  had  lived  a 
confiderable   time  in   fome   of  the   American  iflands, 
where  he  had  obferved  the  fame   thing,   tells   us,  that 
he  had  the  curiofity  to  examine  thofe  ears  more  care- 
fully, and  had   found   fome  few  grains  ;  and  that,  ha- 
ving fowed  them  afrelli,  they  produced  very  long  ears, 
full   cf  large  heavy  grain.     Whence   he  conjcftures, 
that  if  the  Portugiiefe  had  tried  the  fame  expeiiment 
in  their   African  fettlements,   it  might   perhaps  have 
been  attended  with  the  fame  fuccefs. 
Hae^dous       In  the  low  lands  the   grafs  grows    fo   high,   rank, 
travelling,   and  thick,  that  it  becomes  one  of  the  mofl  dangerous 
receptacles  for  wild  beads,  ferpeiit?,  and  other  venom, 
ous  infeds :  on  this  account   travelling   is  exceedmg- 
}y  hazardous,  as  they  have   few  beaten  roads  in  the 
whole  country,  and   travellers  are  obliged   to  march 
over  it  through  vaft  plains,  in  continual  danger  of  be- 
ing devoured   or   ftung  to  death  ;  to   fay    nothing  of 
the  manifold  difeafes  produced  by  the   unwholefome 
dews  with  which  ihe  grafs  is  covered  during  fome  part 
of  the  day.     The  only   method   of  guarding   againft 
all  thefe  evils  effeftually,  is  by  fetling  fire  to  the  grafs 
in  the  hot  weather,  when   it   is    quite  parched  by  the 
heat  of  the  fun  :  but  even  this  cannot   be  done  with- 
out the  greateil  danger  ;  becaufe  both  the  wild  bealls 
and  venomous    reptiles,    being    roufed  out    of   their 
places  of  retirement,   will  fly  furioufly   at  thofe   who 
happen   to  be   in  the   way.      In  this  cafe  there  is  no 
poffibllity  of  efcaping,  but  by  climbing  up  the  highelt 
trees,  or  defending   one's  fclf  by   fire-arms   or   other 
•weapons.     In   fuch   emergencies,   the   natives  have  a 
Hiuch  better  chance  than  the   Europeans ;  the  former 
iieing  able  to  climb  trees  with  furprifing  fwiftnelji  i 


]  CON 

while  the  latter  mud  be  affiled   with  rope-ladder*,     Cong^. 
which  they  commonly  caufe  theit  blacks  to  carry  about  ~~~<       ^ 
with  them,  and  to  go  up  and  faftea  to  one  of  the 
branches.  ^ 

The  flowers  are  here  exceedingly  beautiful  and  nu-  Great  va- 
merous.  Almoft  every  field  and  grove  yields  a  muchriety  if 
nobler  profpeft  than  the  European  gardens  can  boall^°"'*"' 
of,  not\vithilanding  the  pains  beftowcd  on  their  culti- 
vation. The  flowers  are  remarkable,  not  only  for 
the  prodigious  variety  of  their  colours,  but  the  valt 
quantity  of  heads  which  grow  upon  one  ftalk.  In 
the  day-time,  indeed,  they  feem  to  have  loll  their  na- 
tural fragrancy  ;  that  being  in  fome  meafure  exhaled 
by  the  heat  of  the  fun  :  but  this  is  amply  comoenfatcd 
after  its  fetting,  and  mure  efpecially  a  little  'efore  its 
rifuig,  when  their  fweetnefs  is  again  condenfcd,  and 
revived  by  the  coldnefs  and  dews  of  the  night,  after 
\7hich  th"y  exhale  their  vaiious  rcfielhing  Icents  in  a 
much  higher  degree  than  ours.  The  hhes,  which  there 
grow  naturally  in  the  fields,  valleys,  and  woods,  excel 
thoie  of  our  gardens,  not  only  in  their  extreme  whitc- 
ntfs,  but  much  more  in  a  delightful  fragrancy,  without 
offending  the  head,  as  the  European  lilies  do  by  their 
faintifli  fweetnefs.  The  tulips  which  there  grow  wild, 
though  generally  called  Perfic,  have  fomething  fo  fur- 
prifingly  charming  in  the  variety  and  combination  of 
their  colours,  that  they  dazzle  the  eyes  ol  an  intenfe 
beholder:  neither  do  their  flowtrs  grow  fingly  as 
with  us,  but  ten  or  twelve  upon  ere  Italk ;  and  with 
this  double  advantage,  that  they  diifure  a  very  revi- 
ving and  agreceable  fweetnefs,  and  continue  much  long- 
er in  their  full  bloom.  Of  the  fame  nature  are  their 
tuberofes,  hyacinths,  and  other  native  flowers  ;  whick 
fpring  up  in  vafl  gioups  of  too  and  200  from  one 
root,  though  fomewhat  fmaller  than  ows  ;  fome  of 
them  finely  variegated,  and  all  of  them  yielding  aa 
agreeable  fmtll.  The  rofes,  jeflaraines,  and  other 
exotics  brought  thither  from  Europe  or  America,  com^ 
up  likewife  in  great  perfettion  ;  but  require  a  conitant 
fupply  of  water,  and  diligent  attendance,  to  prevent 
thtm  from  degenerating.  The  American  jcflamine, 
in  particular,  inllcad  of  fingle  flowers,  will  grow  up  bf 
dozens  in  a  bunch  ;  fome  of  them  of  an  exqulfite  white, 
and  others  of  the  colour  of  the  moil  vivid  fire.  jj 

A  vail  variety  of  animals  of  different  kinds  are  Animals  »l 
found  in  the  kingdom  of  Congo;  the  chief  of  which '^iSTef"'' 
are  the  elephant.  This  creature  is  moftly  found  in  the  ** 
provir.te  of  Bamba,  which  abounds  with  woods,  pa- 
fturc,  and  plenty  of  water  ;  the  elephants  delighting 
much  to  bathe  themftlves  during  the  heat  of  the  day. 
They  commonly  go  in  troops  of  an  hundred  or  more  ;. 
and  fome  of  them  are  of  fuch  a  raonllrous  fize,  ihat 
we  are  told  the  print  of  their  hoof  hath  meafured 
four,  nay  /Jivn,  fpans  in  diameter.  From  the  hair  of 
their  tails,  and  that  of  fome  other  animals,  the  na- 
tives, efpecially  the  women,  weave  themftlves  col- 
lars, bracelets,  girdles,  &c.  with  variety  of  devices 
and  figures,  which  denote  their  quality  ;  and  are  in 
fuch  efteem,  that  the  hair  of  two  elephavs^ts  tails  i» 
fufhcitnt  to  buy  a  flave.  The  reafon  of  this  is,  that 
the  natives  have  not  the  ait  of  taming  them,  but  are 
obliged  to  fend  fome  of  their  braveft  and  lloutelt  men 
to  hunt  them  in  the  woods  ;  which  is  not  done  with- 
out great  labour  and  danger,  they  being  here  ex- 
ceedingly fierce.     The  moft  eomiaoa  way  of  hunting 

theia 


Csng'i. 


Birds. 


^3 

Ants  very 
diDgerous. 


CON  [3 

them  U  by  digging  deep  holes  in  tlie  ground,  the  top 
■  of  which  thf  y  cover  with  branches  and   leaves,   as  is 
praftifcd  in  moil  parts  of  Afia. 

Lioiis,  leopards,  tigorf,  wolves,  and  other  heads  of 
prey,  abound  here  in  great  plenty,  and  do  much  da- 
mage. Here  are  alfo  a  vaft  vaiiety  of  monkeys  of  all 
fizes  and  lliapes.  The  zehia,  well  known  for  its  ex- 
treme beauty  and  fwiftnefs,  is  alfo  met  with  in  this  coiui- 
try.  They  have  alfo  a  variety  of  buffaloes  and  wild 
afles ;  but  tlie  (/ante  feems  to  be  an  animal  peculiar  to 
this  kingdom.  It  is  fliaped  and  coloured  much  like  an 
<)X,  though  not  fo  large.  Its  fkin  is  commonly  bought 
by  the  Portuguefe,  and  fent  into  Germany  to  be  tan- 
ned and  made  into  targets,  which  are  then  called  danles. 
The  natives  make  ule  of  their  raw  hide  dried  to 
make  their  (hiehls  ;  which  are  fo  tough  that  no  arrow 
or  dart  can  pierce  them  ;  and  they  are  alfo  large 
enough  to  cover  the  v/hole  body.  The  creature  is 
daftly  fwift ;  and  when  wounded,  will  foil  )W  the  fcent 
or  fmoke  of  the  gunpowder  with  fuch  fury,  that  the 
hunter  is  obliged  to  climb  up  a  tree  with  all  poffiblc 
fpeed  ;  and  this  retreat  he  always  takes  care  to  fecurc 
before  he  ventures  to  lire.  The  wounded  beaft  finding 
its  enemy  out  of  its  reach,  Hays  for  him  at  the  foot 
of  the  tree,  and  will  not  ftir  from  it  ;  of  wliich  the 
hunter  taking  the  advantage,  dilpatches  it  wltli  re- 
peated (hots.  The  forells  of  Congo  alio  fwarm  with 
wild  dogs,  who,  like  the  wolves,  prey  upon  the  tame 
cattle,  and  are  fo  fierce  that  they  will  attack  armed 
men.  Their  teeth  are  eKceediiig  keen  and  (liarp  ; 
they  never  bark,  but  make  a  dreadful  howling  when 
famifhed  or  in  purfuit  of  their  prey. 

Tliis  country  alfo  abounds  with  all  the  different 
kinds  of  birds  that  are  to  be  found  In  other  warm  cli- 
mates. One  fort,  which  they  call  birds  of  mupc,  is 
greatly  tfteemed,  infomuch  that  jierfons  of  the  higheft 
rank  have  from  time  immemorial  taken  the  greateft 
delight  in  keeping  th.m  in  cages  and  aviaiies  for  the 
fake  of  their  furpiifiiig  melody.  On  the  other  hand,  as 
the  Congoefe  are  fuperltitious  to  the  lall  degree,  there 
are  feveral  kinds  of  birds  which  they  look  upon  as 
ominous,  and  are  fo  terrific-^  at  the  fight  or  hearing 
of  them,  that  if  they  were  going  to  enter  upon  ever  fo 
momentous  an  expedition,  if  they  were  met  in  coun- 
cil, or  going  to  engage  an  enemy  with  evef  fo  great 
an  advantage,  the  flight  or  cry  of  fuch  birds  would 
throw  them  into  a  general  panic,  and  difperfe  them  in 
the  utmoll  halle  and  confnfion.  The  moll  dreadful  of 
the  ominous  kind  are  the  crows,  ravens,  bats,  and 
owls.  The  great  owl  is  the  moll  terrible  of  all,  and 
to  him  they  give  the  name  of  iitriam  f-embi,  by  which 
words  they  liicewile  denote  the  devil. 

Filh  of  different  kinds  abound  on  the  coafls  of  Con- 
go in  great  numbers  ;  but  the  inland  parts  are  infeiled. 
with  fuch  numbers  of  ferpents,  fcorpions,  and  other 
venomous  infefts,  as  are  perhaps  lufhcient  to  overba- 
lance every  natural  advantage  we  have  yej  mentioned. 
The  mod  pernicious  and  dangerous  kind  are  the  ants  ; 
of  which  they  reckon  no  lefs  than  fix  feveral  foecies  of 
different  colours  and  fizes  ;  all  of  them  formidable  on 
account  of  their  prodigious  niunbers,  and  the  mifchief 
they  do  not  only  to  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  but  to  men 
iind  beafts;  whom  they  will  funound  in  the  night  time, 
and  devour  even  to  the  very  bone.  It  is  a  common 
pra^ice,  we  are  told,  to  condemn  perfons  guilty  of 


] 


CON 


fome  atrocious  crimes  to  be  ftripped  naked,  tied  hand     Ci>n!t>. 
and  foot,  and   thrown  into  a  hole  where  thefe  iiifefta  "— v~°" 
fwann  ;  where   they  are  lure  to  be  devoured   by  tliein 
iu  lefs  than   24  hours  to  the  very  bones.      But  crimi- 
nals  arc   not  the  only  perfona  who  arc  in  danger  from 
the  jaws  of  ihcfe  little  devouring  infefts.     People  may 
be  attacked  by  them,  as  we  have  already  hinted,  in  the 
night  time,  and  while  they  arc  fleeping  in  their  beds. 
This    obliges    the    natives   to  be  careful   where  they 
lie  down,  and  to  kindle  a  fmall  fire,  or  at  leall  to  have 
a  circle  of  burning  hot  embers  lound  their  beds.     Thia 
cai'tion   is  flill   more  neceffary  in  the  country  villagei 
and  hamlets,  where  perfons  are  otherwife  in  danger  of 
being  attacked  by  millions  of  them  in  the  dead  of  the 
night.    In  fuch  a  cafe,  the  only  expedient  to  fave  one'g 
felf  is  to  jump  up  as foon  as  one  feels  the  bite,  to  biufK 
them  off  with  all  pofTible  fpeed,  and  then  at  once  to  fet 
the  houfe  on  fire.      The   danger  is  Hill   greater  in  tra- 
velling through  the  country,    where   a  perfon  is  often 
obliged  to  take  up  his  lodging  on  the  bare  ground  , 
and  may  be  overtaken  during  the  heat  of  the  day  with 
fuch  profound  fl.'ep,   as  rot  to  be  awaked  by  thefe  di» 
minutive  animals  till  they  have  made  their  way  through 
the  fl<in;  and  in  fuch  a  cafe  nothing  will  prevent   their 
devouring  a  man  alive,    though    there    were   ever   fo 
many  hands  to  aflill  him:   in  fuch  incredible  quantities 
do  thefe  creatures  abound,  noiwithftaiiding  the  great 
numbers  of  monkeys  who  are  continually  fetreting  the 
ants  out  of  their   retreats,  and  feed   upon  them   with 
the  utmoft  avidity.     Tltis  can  only  be  afcribed  to  the 
natural    lazinefs    and    indolence    of    the   inhabitants  ; 
which  is  fuch,  that  they  not  only  neglect  to  rid  their 
lands  of  them  by  proper  cultivation,  but  will  fuffer  their 
houfes,  nay  even  their  very  churches,  to  be  undermined 
by  them.    Another  kind  of  thefe  deflruftive  vermin  lie 
fo  thick  upon  the  paths  and  highways,  that  a  pet  fen 
cinnot   walk   without   trading  upon,   and    having   his 
legs  and  thighs  almoft  devoured  by  them..   A  third  fort 
of  a  vvliite  and  red  colour,  but   very  fmall,   will  gnaw 
their  way  througli  the  hardefl  wood,  penetrate   into  a 
ftrong  chelt,    and    in   a    little    while  devour   all    the 
clothes,  linen,  and  every  thing  that  is  in  it.      A  fourth 
fort,  fmall  and   black,  leave  a  moll   intolerable  ftencli 
upon   every   thing    they    toucli    or  ciawl   over,    whe- 
ther clothes  or  houfehold-flutf,   which  are  not  eafily 
fweetened   again  ;  or  if  they  pafs  over  victuals,  they 
are  entirely  fpoiled.      A   fifth  foit  harbour  chiefly  on 
the  leaves  and  branches  of  trees ;   and  if  a  man  chance 
to  climb  up  thither  to  fave  liimfelf  from  a  wild  bead, 
he  is  fo  tormented  by  them,  that  nothing  but  the  fear 
of  the  jaws  of  the  one  could  make  him  endure  the 
flings  of  the  other.     A  fixlh  fort  is  of  the  flying  kind; 
and  is  probably  one  of   the  former  kinds,    that  live 
wholly  under  ground,  till  nature  furnifhes  them  with 
wings.     After  this,  they  rife  in  fuch  fwarms  as  darken 
the    air,    and  would    make  terrible  havoc  among  all 
kinds  of  vegetables,    did    not    the  natives  come  out 
againfl  them  in  whole  companies,  and  by  dint  of  flaps, 
anil  other  flat  weapohs,  knock  them  down  by  myriads, 
and  then  laying  them  in  heaps,  fct  fire  to  their  wings, 
which  hall  broils  them   for  food,      Amidll  all  this  va- 
riety  of  pernicious  infefts,    however,    they  have  one 
fpecies  of  a  more  friendly  and  profitable  kind,    vix. 
the  induftrious  bee,    which  furnilhes   the  inhabitants 
with  honey  and  wax  in  fuch    plenty,    that   there  i« 
S  s  2  ics.rcc 


CON 


[     324    ] 


CON 


Congo,    fcarce  a  hollow  tree,  clift  of  a  rock,  or  chop  of  the 
'"""^ —  earth,  in  which  their  combs  arc   not  found  in  great 

14        quantities. 
Congo  very      With  refpeft  to  the  populoufnefs  of  the  kingdom  of 
populous.    Congo,  fome  authors,  writing  either  from  mere  conjec- 
ture, or  at  bell  precarious  inferences,  have  reprefented 
it  33  thinly  peopled.     The  accounts  of  the  mifiionaries 
and    Portuguefe,    however,    are    direftly    oppofite   to 
thefe.     They  found  the  country  for  the  moll  part  co- 
vered with  t  )Wns  and  viUacjes,  and  thefe  fwarming  with 
inhabitants  ;   the  cities  well  filled   with   people,  parti- 
cularly the  metropolis,  whicli   is  faid  to  contain  above 
50,000   fouls.       The   provinces,    though   not   equally 
populous,  yet  in  the  whole  make  up  inch  an  amount, 
as   plainly  proves,  that    what  is   wanting  in  the  one  is 
amply  made   up  by  the  other.     We  are  told,  that  the 
duchy  of  Bamba  is  flill  able  to  raife   200,000  fighting 
men,  and  was  formerly  in  a  condition   to  raife  double 
that  number;  and  that  the  army  of  the  king  of  Congo, 
in  the  year  1(165,   confiHed  of  900,000  fighting  men, 
who  were  attended  by  an  infinite  number  of  women, 
children,  and  flaves.      The   numbers  of  the  Congoefe 
will   appear  the  more   credible,  when  we  confidcr  the 
extreme  fecundity  of  their  women,  the  hardinefs  with 
which  they  bring  up  their  children,  and  the   ftoutnefs 
and  healthinefs  of  their  men.      In  fome  villages,   if  the 
mifiionaries  are  to  be  credited,  the  number  of  children 
is   fo  great,  that   a   father  will  part  with  one  or  two, 
for  any  commodity  he  wants,  or  even  for  fome  crifling 
bawble  he  fancies ;  fo  that  the  number  of  flaves  they 
fell  abroad  feldom  amounts,  communibus  annis,  to  lefs 
thaii  15,000  or  i6,ooo. 
Congoefe         There  is  fcarce  a  nation  on  earth  that  have  a  higher 
bave  a  high  opinion  of  themfelves  or  their  country,  than  the  Con- 
opinion  of  goefe,  or  that  is  more  hardened  againll  all  conviftion 
themfelves.  ^^  jj^g  contrary,  from  reafon,   experience,  or  the  mod 
impartial  comparifon    with  other  countries  in  Europe 
or  Afia.     Indeed,  it  is  impoffible  they   fliould  think 
otherwife,  when  it  is  one  of  the  fundamentals  of  their 
belief,  that  the  refl:  of  the  world  was  the  work  of  an- 
bcIp,  but  that  the  kingdom  of  Congo,  in  its  full  and 
ancient  extent,  was  the  handywork  of  the   Supreme 
ArchiteA ;  and  mull  of  courfe  have  vaft  prerogatives 
and  advantages  over  all  others.     When  told  of  the 
magnllicence  of  the  European  and  Afiatic  courts,  their 
immenfe  revenues,  the  grandeur  ot  their  palaces  and 
edifices,  the  richefs  and  happinels  of  their  fubjefts,  the 
great  progrefs  they  have  made  in  the  arts  and  fciences 
to  which  their  country  is  wholly  a  ftranger,  they  cool- 
ly anfwer,  that  all  this  comes  vaftly  Ihort   of  the  dig- 
nity and  fplendor  of  the  kings  and  kingdom  of  Congo; 
and  that  there  can  be  but  one  Congo  in  the  world,  to 
the  happinefs  of  whofe  monarch  and  people  all  the 
left  were  created  to  contribute,  and  to  whofe  trealury 
the  fea  and  rivers   pay  their  conllant  tribute  of  'zim- 
bis  (or  fliclls,  which  are  thLlr  current  coin);  whilft  other 
princes  mull  condefcend  to  enrich  themfelvts  by  dig- 
ging through  rocks  and  mountains,  to  come  at  the  ex- 
crements of  the   earth,    fo  they   llyle  gold  and  filver 
■which  are  in  fuch  requell  among  other  nations.     Ac- 
cordingly, they  imagine,  that  the  nations  which  come 
to  traffic  with  them,  are  forced  to  that  fervile  employ- 
ment by  their  poverty  and  the  badnefs  of  their  coun- 
try, rather  than  induced  to  it  by  luxury  or  avarice ; 
whilft  they  themfelves  can  indulge  their  natural  indo- 


lence or  floth,  though  attended  with  the  moft  pinching     Congo, 
poverty,  rather  than  difgrace  the  di^'nity  of  their  blood   "~^/~  "^ 
by  the   leaft  effort  of  indullry,  which,  how  laudable  •|M,gif(]oth 
and  beneficial  focver,  is  looked  upon  by  them  as  only  pride,  &c. 
a  lefTer  degree  of  flavery.     But  though  they  (renerally 
efteem  it  fo  much  below  their  dignity  to  apply  to  any 
ufetul  work,  they  think  it  no  difgrace  to  beg  or  ileal. 
With  refpetl  to  the  firft,  they  are  faid  to  be  the  moft 
fliamelefs  and  importunate  beggars  in  the  world.  They 
will  take  no  denial,  fpare  no  crouching,  lying,  prayers, 
to  obtain  what  they  want,  nor  curfes  and  ill  language 
when  fent  away  without  it.     With  retrard  to  the  lall, 
they  deem   no  theft   unlawful  or  fcandalous,  except  it 
be  committed  in  a  private  manner,  without  the  know- 
ledge of  the   perfon  wronged.     It  is  eileemed  a  piece 
of  bravery   and   gallantry  to  wrench  any  thing   tiom 
another  by  violence  ;  and  this  kind  of  theft  is  fo  com- 
mon, not  only  among  the  vulgar,  but  alfo  among  the 
great  ones,  that  they  make  no  fcruple,  in  their  travels 
from  place  to  place,  to  feize   not   only   upon  all  the 
provifions  they  meet  with  in   towns  and  villages,  but 
upon  every  thing  elfe  that  falls  in   their  way.      Thefe 
violences  oblige  the  poor  people  to  conceal  the  few  va- 
luables  they    have,  in   fome   fecret  place   out   of  the 
knowledge  and  reach  of  thole  harpies  ;  and  they  think 
themlelvcb  well  off  if  they  can  elcape  a  fcvere  baftona- 
ding,  or  other   cruel  ulage  frequently  inflided   upon 
them,  in  order  to  make  them  dilcover  the  place  of  their 
concealment.  j^ 

The  complexion  of  the  natives,  both  men  and  wo- Ccmplexi- 
men,  is  black,  though  not  in  the  fame  degree;  fome ""■ '^'^"^'^ 
being  of  a  much  deeper  black  than  otners.  Their  n"^' *"""«,- 
hair  IS  black  and  finely  curled  ;  lome  have  it  alio  of  a 
dark  fandy  coloui  :  their  eyes  are  molUy  of  a  fine 
lively  black  ;  but  fome  are  of  a  dark  lea  colour.  They 
have  neither  flat  nofes  nor  thick  lips  like  the  Nubians 
and  other  negroes.  Their  llature  is  mollly  of  the 
middle  fize ;  and,  excepting  their  black  complexion, 
they  n.uch  lelemble  the  Portuguefe.  In  their  temper 
they  are  miftrullful,  envious,  jealous,  and  treacherous; 
and  where  they  once  take  a  diftafte  or  affront,  will 
fpare  no  pains,  nor  ftick  at  any  means,  how  ever  bale, 
to  be  avenged  of,  and  ciulh  their  enemy  under  their 
feet.  There  is  no  fuch  thing  among  them  as  natural 
affeftioH.  A  hufband,  if- an  Heathen,  may  take  as 
many  wives  as  he  pleafes;  and  if  a  Chriilian,  may  have 
any  number  of  concubines,  whom  he  may  di voice  at 
pleafure,  or  even  fell  them  though  with  child.  So 
little  regard  have  they  for  their  children,  that  tliere  is 
fcarce  one  among  them  who  will  not  fell  a  fon  or  a 
daughter,  or  perhaps  both,  for  a  piece  of  cloth,  a  col- 
lar or  girdle  of  coral  or  beads,  and  often  for  a  bottle 
of  wine  or  brandy.  jg 

The  religion  of  the  Congoefe  in  many  parts  is  down-.  Religioa. 
right  idolatry,  accompanied  with  the  moll  ridiculous 
iuptrllitions,  and  the  moft  ablurd  and  deteftable  lites 
invented  by  their  gangas  or  priefts;  and  even  in  thofe 
parts  where  Chrillianity  is  profeffed,  it  is  fo  darkened 
by  fuperftitions  of  one  kind  or  other,  that  we  may 
jullly  queftion  whether  the  people  ate  any  gainers  by 
the  exchange.  jp 

-  The  government  of  this  kingdom  is  monarchical,  Govern- 
and  as  defpotic  as  any  in  Afia  or  Africa.     Tiie  kings  mem. 
are  the  folc  proprietors  of  all  the  lands  within  their 
dominions ;  and  thefe  they  can  difpofe  of  to  whom 

they 


20 

Commerce, 


CON 

Congo,  tliey  plcafe,  upon  condition  tliey  pay  a  certain  tribute 
Congrcgi-  om  of  them  :  upon  failuie  of  the  payment  of  whicli, 
""'  or  any  other  ncgltd,  tliey  turn  them  out.  liven  the 
'  princes  of  the  blood  are  fubjctted  to  the  fame  law  ;  fo 
that  there  is  no  perfon  of  any  rank  or  quality  what- 
ever that  can  bequeath  a  foot  of  land  to  his  heire  or 
fucceffors  ;  and  when  thefe  owners  ur.der  the  crown 
die,  the  lands  immediately  return  to  it  again,  whether 
they  were  in  their  poffeilion,  or  had  been  left  to  ever 
fo  many  tenants  under  them  ;  fo  that  it  entirely  de- 
pends on  the  prince  whether  thefe  lands  fhall  be  conti- 
nued in  the  fame,  or  be  difpofed  into  other  hands. 
The  Portugucfe,  however,  fmce  their  iettling  in  thcfe 
parts,  have  prevailed  upon  the  monarchs  to  permit  the 
heirs  and  fucceffors  to  continue  in  the  quiet  polfelfion 
of  fuch  lands,  in  order  to  avoid  the  contuiions,  or  even 
lebcllions,  which  the  alienation  and  deprival  of  them 
frequently  occafioned,  and  to  oblige  the  tenants  of 
them  to  pay  their  tribute  more  exaAly  and  readily 
than  they  did  before. 

St  Salvador  is  the  chief  place  of  traffic  the  Portu- 
guefe  and  other  Europeans  have  in  this  counti-y. 
There  are  thought  to  be  about  4000  of  them  fettled 
here,  who  trade  with  molt  parts  of  the  kingdom. 
The  chief  commodities  they  bring  thither  are  cither 
the  produdt  of  Brazil  or  liuropean  nianufadluies. 
The  former  confift  chiefly  of  grains,  fruits,  plants,  &c. ; 
the  latter  of  Turky  carpets,  Englilh  cloth,  and  other 
iluffs  ;  copper,  brals  vellcls,  fome  kinds  of  blue  ear- 
then ware,  rings,  and  ornaments  of  gold,  filver,  and 
other  bafer  metals  ;  coral,  glafs-beads,  bugles,  and 
other  trinkets  ;  light  Iluffs  made  of  cotton,  woollen, 
and  linen,  for  cloathing  ;  and  a  great  variety  of  tools 
and  other  utenhls.  In  return  tor  thefe,  they  carry  off 
a  great  number  of  flaves,  amounting  to  15,000  or  i6,ooo 
annually,  as  we  have  already  obferved.  Formerly 
they  ufed  alfo  to  carry  away  elephants  teeth,  furs, 
and  other  commodities  of  the  country  ;  but  thefe 
branches  of  commerce  are  now  greatly  decayed,  aud 
the  flave-trade  is  what  the  Portuguefe  merchants  prin- 
cipally depend  on. 

Cong  ',  a  term  applied  to  tea  of  the  fecond  qua- 
lity. 

CONGREGATION,  an  affembly  of  feveral  eccle- 
fiaftics,  united  lo  as  to  conilitute  a  body. 

The  term  is  principally  ufed  for  affemblies  of  cardi- 
nals appointed  by  the  pope,  and  dillributed  into  feve- 
ral chambers,  for  the  dilcharge  oj  certain  functions 
and  juvifdiclions,  after  the  manner  of  our  offices  and 
courts.  The  firit  is  the  congregation  of  the  holy  of- 
fice, or  the  inquifition  :  tlie  fecond,  that  of  jurifdic- 
tion  over  bifhops  and  regulars:  the  third,  that  of  coun- 
cils ;  this  has  power  to  interpret  the  council  of  Trent: 
the  fourth,  that  c-f  cuftoms,  ceremonies,  precedences, 
canonizations,  called  the  congregation  of  liles:  the  fifth, 
that  of  St  Peter's  fabric,  wliich  takes  cognizance  of 
all  caufes  relating  to  piety  and  charity^,  part  whereof 
is  due  to  the  church  of  St  Peter:  the  lixth,  that  of 
■waters,  rivers,  roads  :  the  fevcnth,  of  fountains  and 
f.reets  :  the  eighth,  that  of  the  index,  which  examines 
the  books  to  be  printed  or  corrected  :  the  ninth,  that 
of  the  council  ot  Itate,  for  the  management  of  the 
territories  belonging  to  the  pope  and  church  (fee 
Camerlingo)  :  the  tenth,  ile  bono  regimhte;  of  which 
two  lall  the  cardinal-nephew  is  chief :  the  eleventh, 


Conjreve. 
>/— ^ 


[     325     ]  CON 

that  of  money  :  the  twelfth,  that  of  bifhops,  wherein  Conp;  rcg»» 
thofe  who  are  to  be  promoted  to  biflioprics  in  Italy 
are  examined  ;  this  is  held  before  the  pope  :  the  thir- 
teenth, that  of  conllitorial  matter*  ;  the  chief  whereof 
is  the  cardinal-dean  :  the  fourteenth,  a  congregation 
for  propagating  the  faiLh  (ice  College)  :  and  the 
fifteenth,  that  of  ecclefiailicvj  imnuinilN,  for  fettling 
fuits  agdinll  churchmen.  Tliere  is  alfo  a  congrega- 
tion of  alms,  which  takes  care  of  eveiy  thing  that  re- 
lates to  the  fubhltence  of  Rome  and  the  ftate  of  the 
church. 

CoMGREGATioN  is  alfo  ufed  for  a  company  or  fo- 
ciety  of  religious  cantoned  out  of  this  or  that  order  ; 
and  making,  as  it  were,  an  inferior  order,  or  a  fubdi- 
vilion  of  the  order  itfelf.  Such  are  the  congregationa 
of  the  oratory,  and  thofe  of  Cluny,  &c.  among  the 
Benedictines. 

The  word  is  alfo  ufed  for  affemblies  of  pious  perfons 
in  manner  of  fraternities,  frequent  among  tlie  Jefuits 
in  honour  of  the  Virgin,  &c.  It  is  likewife  applied  to 
the  audience  in  a  chuicli,  particularly  as  conUiting  of 
the  inhabitants  of  the  fame  parilli. 

CONGREGATIONALIS  rs,  in  church-hiftory, 
a  ieCt  of  Protellants  who  lejeA  all  church-government, 
except  that  of  a  fingle  congregation  under  the  direction 
of  one  pallor. 

CONGRESS,  in  political  affairs,  an  affembly  of  com- 
miffioneis,  envoys,  deputies,  &c.  from  feveral  courts 
meeting  to  concert  matters  for  their  common  good. 

Congress,  in  America,  is  the  affembly  of  delegates 
from  the  United  States.     See  America. 

Congress,  in  a  judicial  fenfe,  the  trial  made  by 
appointment  of  a  judge  before  furgeons  and  matrons,  in 
order  to  prove  whether  or  no  a  man  be  impotent,  be- 
fore fentence  is  pafl'ed  for  the  diffolution  of  a  marriage 
folicited  upon  fuch  a  complaint. 

Neither  the  civil  nor  canon  law  makes  any  mention 
of  the  trial  of  virility  by  congrefs.  It  had  its  origin 
in  France  from  the  boldnefs  of  a  young  fellow,  who,  in 
open  court,  having  been  hard  preffed  by  his  wife,  de- 
manded the  congrefs.  The  judge,  furprifed  with  the 
novelty  of  the  demand,  found  it  could  not  be  denied, 
as  being  the  fureil  evidence  that  the  cafe  could  admit 
of.  In  time  it  became  a  branch  in  the  French  jurifpru- 
dence,  and  was  authorifed  by  decreets  and  arrets.  It 
obtained  for  about  1 20  years  ;  and  k\-as  annulled  by  an 
arret  ot  parliament  in  1677,  as  being  found  precarious; 
fome  having  failed  under  the  experiment  out  of  mere 
modeily  and  ffiame,  which  is  found  to  have  the  fame 
effect  with  adtual  impotency. 

CONGREyE-( William),  a  younger  brother  of  aa 
ancient  family  in  Staffoidlhire.  His  father  was  employ- 
ed in  the  ffcvvardlhip  of  the  great  effate  of  the  Earl  of 
Burlington  in  Ireland,  where  he  reiidcd  many  years ;  and 
our  aulhui  was  born  there  in  1672.  Mr  Concrcve  en- 
tered into  the  Ivliddle-Temple  when  he  came  10  Eng- 
land, and  began  to  lludy  the  law  ;  but  his  bias  was 
toward  polite  liteiature  and  poetry.  His  tiiil  perfor- 
mance was  a  novel,  intituled,  Jncogni/u,  or  Love  anil 
Duty  reconciledi  He  foon  after  began  his  comedy  of 
the  Old  Bachelor  ;  which  was  the  amufement  of  fome 
leifure  hours  during  a  flow  recovery  from  a  ht  of  ilhiefs 
foon  after  his  return  to  England  ;  yet  was  in  itlelf  fo 
perfefl,  that  Mr  Dryden,  on  its  being  ffiowu  to  hint, 
declared  he  bad  never  in  his  hfe  feeu  fuch  a  full  play. 

When 


CON  [32 

<;oi\^rev(.  V>Tien  broaghl  on  the  ftage  in  11^93,  it  met  with  fuch 
.*~""V^  univerfal  approbation,  that  Mr  Congrcve,  though  he 
was  but  19  years  old  at  the  time  of  his  writing  it,  be- 
came now  confidercd  as  a  prop  to  the  declining  ftage, 
and  a  riling  genius  in  dramatic  poeti-)'.  The  next  year 
he  produced  the  Douhle  Dealer ;  which,  for  what  rea- 
fon  is  not  obiious,  did  J-Jt  meet  with  fo  much  fuccefs 
as  the  former.  The  merit  of  liis  tird  play,  however, 
had  obtained  him  the  favour  and  patronage  of  Lord 
Halifax,  and  fome  peciJiar  mark  of  dilHndion  from 
Queen  Mar)' ;  on  w  hofe  death,  which  happened  in  the 
clofe  of  this  year,  he  wrote  a  very  elegant  elegiac  pa- 
ftoral.  In  1695,  when  Bclterton  opened  tlie  new 
houfe  in  Lincoln's-Inn  Fields,  Mi  Congreve  joining 
with  him,  gave  him  his  comedy  of  L.ove  for  Love,  with 
which  the  company  opened  their  campaign  ;  and  which 
iTiet  with  fuch  fuoccfs,  that  tliL-y  immediately  offered 
the  author  a  Ihare  in  the  management  of  the  houfe,  on 
condition  of  his  furnilhing  them  with  one  play  yearly. 
This  offer  he  accepted  ;  but  whether  through  indo- 
lence, or  that  correclnefs  which  he  looked  upon  as  ne- 
ceffary  to  his  works,  his  Mimrriitig  Br'uh-  did  not  come 
outtlli  i697,nor  liis/^'(7_v5/'//'£'  //"orW  till  two  years  after 
that.  The  indifferent  fucccfs  this  lall  mentioned 
plav,  though  an  exceeding  good  one,  met  with  fiom 
the  public,  completed  that  difguft  to  the  theatre, 
which  a  long  contcft  with  Jeremy  Collier,  who  had 
attacked  the  immoralities  of  the  Englifh  llage,  and 
more  efpecially  fome  of  his  pieces,  had  begun,  and  he 
determined  never  more  to  write  tor  the  ftage.  How- 
ever, though  he  quitted  dramatic  writing,  he  did  not 
lay  down  the  pen  entirely ;  but  occafionally  wrote 
many  little  pieces  both  in  profe  and  verfe,  all  of  which 
ftand  on  the  records  of  literary  fame.  It  is  very  pof- 
fible,  however,  that  he  might  not  fo  foon  have  gisen 
way  to  this  difguft,  had  not  the  eafinefs  of  his  cir- 
cumftances  rendered  any  fubfervience  to  the  opinions 
and  caprice  of  the  town  abfolutely  unneccfl'ary  to  him. 
For  his  abilities  having  veiy  early  in  life  railed  him  to 
the  acquaintance  of  the  Earl  of  Halifax,  who  was 
then  the  Mscenas  of  the  age  ;  that  nobleman,  defirous 
of  railing  fo  promlfing  a  genius  above  the  neceffity  of 
too  hafty  productions,  made  him  one  of  the  commif- 
fioners  for  Ucenfing  hackney-coaches  ;  or,  according  to 
Coxeter,  a  commifiioner  of  the  wine-licence.  He  foon 
■after  beftowed  on  him  a  place  in  the  pipe-office  ;  and 
not  long  after  gave  him  a  port  in  the  cuftoms  woith 
600  1.  per  annum.  In  the  year  I'l^t  he  was  appoint- 
ed fecretary  of  Jamaica  ;  fo  that,  with  all  together,  his 
income  towards  the  later  part  of  his  life  was  upwards 
of  1200I.  a-year. 

The  greateft  part  of  the  laft  20  years  of  his  life 
was  fpent  in  cafe  and  retirement ;  and  he  either  did 
not,  or  affefted  not  to  give  himfelf  any  trouble  about 
reputation.  Yet  fome  part  of  that  conduft  might  pro- 
ceed from  a  degree  of  pride  ;  to  which  purpofe,  T. 
Cibber,  in  his  lives  of  the  poets.  Vol.  IV.  p.  93.  re- 
lates the  following  anecdote  of  him  :  "  When  the  ce- 
lebrated Voltaire  was  in  England,  he  waited  upon  Mr 
Congreve,  and  paffed  fome  compliments  upon  the  me- 
rit and  reputation  of  his  works.  Congrcve  thanked 
him  ;  but  at  the  fame  time  told  that  ingenious  fo- 
reigner, that  he  did  not  choofe  to  be  confidered  as  an 
author,  but  only  as  a  private  gentleman,  and  in  that 
light  expefted  to  be  vifited.     Voltaire  anfwcrcd,  that 


6    ]  CON 

if  he  had  never  been  any  thing  but  a  private  gentle-  Cinpruity, 

man,  in   all  probability   he  hiid   never  been  troubled    r—-' 

with  that  vifit."  He  obferves,  in  his  own  account  of 
the  tranfaclion,  that  he  was  not  a  little  difgultcd  with 
fo  unfeafonable  a  piece  of  vanity. 

Towards  the  clofe  of  his  life  he  was  much  afBifted 
with  the  gout ;  and  making  a  tour  to  Bath  for  the  be- 
nefit of  the  waters,  was  unfortunately  overturned  in 
his  chariot  ;  by  which,  it  is  fuppofed,  he  got  fome 
inward  bruile,  as  he  ever  after  complained  of  a  pain 
in  his  fide  ;  and,  on  his  return  to  London,  continu- 
ed gradually  declining  in  liis  health,  till  the  19th  of 
January  1729,  when  he  died,  aged  J7  ;  and,  on  the 
z6th  following,  was  buried  in  WcHminfter  Abbey, 
the  pall  being  fupported  by  perfons  of  the  hrit  di- 
rtinttion. 

CONGRUITY,  a  fuitablenefs  or  relation  of  agree- 
ment between  things. 

The  terms  co.i^rui/y  znd  propriety  are  not  applicable 
to  any  fiiigle  objeft  :  they  imply  a  plurality,  and  ob- 
vioufly  fignify  a  particular  relation  between  different 
objects.  Thus  we  currentlv  fay,  that  a  decent  garb  is 
fuitable  or  proper  for  a  judge  ;  modell  behaviour  for  a 
young  woman  ;  and  a  lofty  ftyle  for  an  epic  poem  : 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  that  it  is  uufuitable  or  incon- 
gruous to  fee  a  little  woman  funk  in  an  overgrown  far- 
thingale, a  coat  richly  embroidered  covering  coarfe  and 
dirty  linen,  a  moan  fubjecl  in  an  elevated  ityle,  an  ele- 
vated fubjecl  in  a  mean  ityle,  a  firft  miuifter  darning 
his  wife's  (locking,  or  a  reverend  prelate  in  lawn  fleeveS 
dancing  a  hornpipe. 

The  perception  we  have  of  this  relation,  which 
feems  peculiar  to  man,  cannot  proceed  front  any  other 
caufe,  but  from  zfenfe  of  congruity  or  propriety  ;  for, 
fuppofing  us  dellitute  of  that  fenfe,  the  terms  would 
be  to  us  unintelligible. 

It  is  a  matter  of  experience,  that  congruity  or  pio- 
prietv,  wherever  perceived,  is  agreeable  ;  and  that  in- 
conpuity  or  impropriety,  wherever  perceived,  is  dif- 
agreeable.  The  only  difficulty  is,  to  afcertain  what  are 
the  particular  objefts  that  in  conjunction  luggeil  thefe 
relations;  for  there  are  many  obj'tts  that  do  not  :  the 
fea,  for  example,  viewed  in  conjunction  with  a  pic- 
ture, or  a  man  viewed  in  conjunction  with  a  moun- 
tain, fuggell  not  eit'icr  congruity  or  incongruity.  It 
feems  natural  to  infer,  what  will  be  found  true  by  In- 
duiftlon,  that  we  never  perceive  congruity  nor  incon- 
gruity but  among  things  that  are  connected  together 
bv  fome  relation;  fueii  as  a  man  and  his  aciions,  a 
principal  and  his  acceffories,  a  fubjecl  and  its  orna- 
ments. We  are  indeed  fo  framed  by  nature,  as,  a- 
mong  things  fo  connefted,  to  require  a  certain  fuit- 
ablenefs or  coriefpondence,  termed  congruity  or  pro- 
prkti/ ;  and  to  be  difpleafed  when  we  find  the  oppolite 
relation  of  iiicongniily  or  impropriety. 

If  things  conneflcd  be  the  fubjeft  of  congruity,  it 
is  reafonable  before-hand  to  expeft,  that  a  degree  of 
congruity  (hould  be  required  proportioned  to  the  de- 
gree of  the  connexion.  And  upon  examinadon  we 
find  thi'f  to  hold  in  fact  :  wliere  the  relation  is  inti- 
mate, as  between  a  caufe  and  its  effeft,  a  whole  and 
its  parts,  we  require  the  ilritteft  congruity  ;  but 
where  the  relation  is  flight,  or  accidental,  as  among 
thingsjumbled  together  in  the  fame  place,  we  require 
little  or  no  congruity:  tbe  ftrideft  propriety  is  re- 
c  quired 


CON  [32 

Coneriiitjr  quired  In  behaviour  and  manner  of  living  ;  becaufc  a 
*— ~v~"~  man  is  connefted  with  thtfe  by  the  rtlation  of  caufe 
and  tffed  :  the  relation  between  an  edifice  and  the 
ground  it  (lands  upon,  is  of  the  molt  intimate  kind  ; 
and  tliercfore  the  iltuatioii  of  a  great  lioufe  ought  to 
be  lofty  ;  its  relation  to  neighbouring  hills,  rivers, 
planes,  being  that  of  propinquity  only,  demands  but 
a  I'mall  (liare  of  congruity  :  among  members  of  the 
fame  club,  the  congruity  ought  to  be  confulerab'e, 
as  well  as  among  things  placed  for  (how  in  the  fame 
niche :  among  paiTengera  in  a  Itage-coach,  we  re- 
quire very  little  congruity  ;  and  lefs  (liE  at  a  public 
fpctlaclc. 

Congruity  is  fo  nearly  allied  to  beauty,  as  com- 
mouly  to  be  held  a  fpccies  of  it  ;  and  yet  they  differ 
fo  eiTentinlly  as  never  to  coincide  :  beauty,  lilte  colour, 
is  placed  upon  a  tingle  fubjedt  ;  congruity  upon  a  plu- 
rality :  further,  a  thing  beautiful  in  itfelf,  may,  v.-ith 
relation  to  other  things,  produce  the  Itrongell  lenle  of 
incongruity. 

Congruity  and  'propriety  are  commonly  reckoned 
fvnonymous  termi  ;  but  they  are  dillinguilhable  ;  and 
the  precife  meaning  of  each  mud  be  afcertnined.  Con- 
gruity is  the  genus  of  which  propriety  is  a  fpecies  ; 
for  we  call  nothing  propriety,  but  that  congruity  or 
fuitablenefs  which  ought  to  fubfill  between  fenfible  be- 
ings and  their  thoughts,  words,  and  atlions. 

In  order  to  give  a  full  view  of  thefe  lecondary  rela- 
tions, we  fhaU  trace  them  through  fome  of  the  moft 
conliderable  primary  relations.  The  relation  of  a  part 
to  the  whole,  being  extremely  intimate,  demands  the 
utmoft  degree  of  congruity;  even  the  flightell  devia- 
tion is  difguliful. 

Examples  of  congruity  and  incongruity  are  furnilh- 
ed  in  plenty  by  the  relation  between  a  fubjeCl  and  its 
ornaments.  A  literary  performance  intended  merely 
for  amufement,  is  fulceptible  of  much  ornament,  as 
well  as  a  muJic-room  or  a  play-houfe  ;  for  in  gaiety, 
the  mind  hath  a  peculiar  rclilh  for  (liow  and  dccora- 
t-ion.  The  moft  gorgeous  appaiel,  however  improper 
in  tragedy,  is  not  unfuitable  to  opera-aclors  :  the  truth 
is,  an  opera,  in  its  prefent  form,  is  a  mighty  fine 
thing  ;  but  as  it  deviates  from  nature  in  its  capital  cir- 
cumftances,  we  look  not  for  nature  nor  propriety  in 
thofe  which  are  accelTory.  On  the  other  hand,  a  ferious 
and  important  fubjeCt  admits  not  much  ornament  ;  nor 
a  fubjeft  that  of  itfelf  is  extremely  beautiful  :  and  a 
fubjedt  that  fills  tl»e  mind  with  its  loftlnefs  and  gran- 
deur, appears  belt  in  a  drefs  altogether  plain. 

To  a  perfon  of  a  mean  appearance,  gin'geous  appa- 
rel is  undutable  ;  which,  btiidcs  the  incongruity,  has  a 
tad  eft'edt ;  for  by  contrail  it  Ihows  the  meannefs  of 
appearance  in  the  ftrongeft  light.  Swectnefs  of  look 
and  manner,  requires  fiinplicity  of  drefs,  joined  with 
the  greatelt  elegance.  A  (lately  and  majcllic  air  re- 
ijuires  fumptuous  apparel,  which  ought  not  to  be 
gaudy,  nor  crowded  with  little  ornaments.  A  woman 
of  confummate  beauty  can  bear  to  be  highly  adorned, 
and  yet  (hows  bell  in  a  plain  drefs : 

'  ' F'lr  lovelinefs 

NeeJ^  n^it  the  forci«tn  aid  of  ornarntnf. 
But  is  whe:i  unadiini'd,  adiirnM  the  mnft. 

Thomfon's  .t'jlimn,  2o8. 

Congruity  regulates  not  only  the  quantity  of  orna- 
meBt,  but  alfo  the  kind.     The  ornaaieuts  that  em- 


7    ]  CON 

bellilh  a  dancing-room  ought  to  be  all  of  them  gay.  Conorr'iiry. 
No  pifture  is  proper  for  a  church  but   what  has  reli-         '    '   . 

gion  for  its  fuhjeCl.  All  the  ornaments  upon  a  fliicld 
ought  to  relate  to  war;  and  Virgil,  with  great  judg- 
ment, confines  the  carvings  upon  the  (liield  of  vlineas 
to  the  military  hiflory  of  the  Kontans  :  but  this  beau- 
ty is  overlooked  by  Homer  ;  for  the  bulk  of  the  fcnlp- 
ture  upon  the  (hitld  of  Achilles,  is  of  the  arts  of  peac 
in  general,  and  of  joy  and  fellivity  In  particular  :  the 
author  of  Tcleiliachus  betrays  the  fame  inattention,  in 
defci-ibing  the  (hield  of  that  young  hero. 

In  judging  of  propriety  w.th  regard  to  ornaments, 
we  mutt  attend,  not  only  to  the  nature  of  the  fubjeft 
that  is  to  be  adorned,  but  alfo  to  the  circumftances  in 
which  it  is  placed  :  the  ornaments  that  arc  proper  for  a 
ball,  will  appear  not  altogether  lb  decent  at  public  wor- 
fiiip  ;  and  the  fame  perfon  ought  to  drefs  differently 
for  a  marriage- fead  and  for  a  burial. 

Nothing  is  more  intimately  related  to  a  man,  than 
his  lentiments,  words,  and  actions  ;  and  therefore  we 
require  here  the  (Irifted  conformity.  When  we  find 
what  we  thus  requli-e,  we  have  a  lively  fenfe  of  pro- 
priety :  when  we  find  the  contrary,  our  ienfe  of  im- 
propriety is  not  lefs  lively.  Hence  the  univerfal  dif- 
taite  of  affectation,  which  confiils  in  making  a  (how  of 
greater  delicacy  and  refinement  than  is  fuited  either  to 
the  charaeter  or  circumitance  of  the  perfon. 

Congruity  and  propriety,  wherever  perceived,  ap- 
pear agreeable  ;  and  every  agreeable  object  produceth 
in  the  mind  a  pleaf.mt  emotion  :  incongruity  and  im- 
propriety, on  the  other  hand,  ?.re  difagreeable  ;  and 
of  courle  produce  painful  emotio.ij.  Thefe  em.o- 
tions,  whether  pleafant  or  painful,  fometimes  vanifh 
without  any  coufequenee  ;  but  more  frequently  oc- 
cafion  other  emotions,  which  we  proceed  to  exem- 
plify. 

When  any  flight  incongruity  is  perceived  in  an  ac- 
cidental combination  of  perfons  or  things,  as  of  paf- 
fcngers  in  a  ftage-coach,  or  of  individuals  dining  at 
an  ordinary  ;  the  painful  emotion  of  incongruity,  after 
a  momentary  exillence,  vanilheth  without  producing 
any  effeft.  But  this  is  not  the  cafe  of  propriety  and 
impropriety:  voluntary  atts,  whether  words  or  deeds, 
are  imputed  to  the  author  ;  when  proper,  we  reward 
him  with  our  efteem  ;  when  improper,  we  punifh  him 
with  our  contempt.  Let  us  (uppofe,  for  example,  a 
generous  action'  fuited  to  the  chai'aftcr  of  the  author, 
which  raifes  in  him  and  In  every  fpeitatm-  the  pleafant 
emotion  of  propriety  :  this  emotion  generates  In  the 
author  both  felf  efteem  and  joy  ;  the  former  when  he 
coiifiders  the  relation  to  the  action;  and  the  latter  when 
he  conhders  the  good  opinion  that  others  will  entertain 
of  him:  the  fame  emotion  of  propriety  produceth  in 
the  Ipectators  elleem  for  the  author  of  the  attion;  and 
when  they  think  of  themfelves,  it.  alfo  produceth,  by 
means  of  contrail,  an  emotion  of  humility.  To  difco- 
ver  the  effetts  of  an  unfuitable  aitlon,  we  mud  invert 
each  of  thefe  circumftances-:  the  painful  emot.on  of 
impropriety  generates  in  the  author  of  the  action  both 
humility  and  fhame  ;  the  former  when  he  confiders 
his  1  elation  to  the  action,  and  the  latter  when  he  con- 
fiders what  others  will  think  of  him  :  the  fame  emo- 
tion of  Impropriety  produceth  In  the  fpeftators  con- 
tempt for  the  author  of  the  aftlon  ;  and  it  alfo  pro- 
duceth, by  means   of  contrail^   wheu  they  think  o£ 

them.- 


CON  [3 

Coni'i'viiiy.  themfclves,  an  emotion  of  felf-eftcem.     Here  tlicn  are 
^"    V  many  different  emotions,  derived  from  the  fame  aftion, 

confidered  in  different  views  by  different  perfons  ;  a 
machine  provided  with  many  fprings,  and  not  a  little 
complicated.  Propriety  of  adtion,  it  would  jfeem,  is 
a  Lhitf  favourite  of  nature,  when  fuch  care  and  foli- 
c:itude  is  bcftowed  upon  it.  It  is  not  left  to  our 
own  choice ;  but,  like  juftice,  is  required  at  our 
bands  ;  and,  like  juftice,  is  enforced  by  natural  re- 
wards and  punifhments  :  a  man  cannot,  with  impunity, 
do  any  thing  unbecoming  or  improper ;  he  fuffers  the 
thaftifement  of  contempt  infliftcd  by  others,  and  of 
{hame  inflicled  by  himfelf.  An  apparatus  fo  compli- 
cated, and  fo  fingular,  ought  to  roufe  our  attention  : 
for  nature  doth  nothing  in  vain  ;  and  we  may  con- 
clude with  great  certainty,  that  this  curious  branch  of 
the  human  conftitution  is  intended  for  fome  valuable 
purpofe. 

A  grofs  impropriety  is  puniflied  with  contempt  and 
indignation,  which  are  vented  againft  the  offender  by 
correfponding  external  expreflions  :  nor  is  even  the 
flightell  impropriety  fuffered  to  pafs  without  fome  de- 
gree of  contempt.  But  there  are  improprieties,  of 
the  flighter  kind,  that  provoke  laughter ;  of  which 
we  have  examples  without  end,  in  the  blunders  and 
abfurdities  of  our  own  fpecies  ;  fuch  improprieties  re- 
ceive a  different  punifhment,  as  will  appear  by  what 
foUows.  The  emotions  of  contempt  and  of  laughter 
occafioned  by  an  impropriety  of  this  kind,  uniting  in- 
timately in  the  mind  of  tlie  fpeftator,  are  expreffed 
externally  by  a  pecidiar  fort  of  laugh,  terined  a  laugh 
cf  dtr'ifion  or  /corn.  An  impropriety  that  thus  moves 
not  only  contempt,  but  laughter,  is  diilinguilhed  by 
the  epltliet  of  ridiculous  ;  and  a  laugh  of  derifion  or 
fcorn  is  the  piniifhment  provided  for  it  by  nature.  Nor 
ought  it  to  efcape  obfervation,  that  we  are  fo  fond  of 
infliftlng  this  punifhment,  asfometlmes  to  exert  it  even 
againft  creatures  of  an  Inferior  fpecies  :  wltnefs  a  tur- 
kycock  fwelllng  with  pride,  and  flruttlng  with  difplay- 
cd  feathers;  a  ridiculous  ob'ieft,  which  in  a  gay  mood 
is  apt  to  provoke  a  laugh  of  derifion. 

We  muft  not  expeA,  that  thefe  different  impro- 
prieties are  feparated  by  dlftlnft  boundaries  :  for  of 
improprieties,  from  the  fllghteil  to  the  moft  grofs, 
from  the  mofl  rifible  to  the  moft  ferious,  there  are  de- 
grees without  end.  Hence  it  is,  that  in  viewing  fome 
unbecoming  atlions,  too  rifible  for  anger,  and  t(^o  fe- 
rious for  derifion,  the  fpetlator  feels  a  fort  of  mixt 
emotion,  partaking  both  of  derifion  and  of  anger ; 
which  accounts  for  an  expreffion,  Common  with  refpetl 
to  the  impropriety  of  fome  aftlons,  .that  we  know  not 
whether  to  laugh  or  be  angry. 

It  cannot  fall  to  be  obfcrved,  that  in  the  cafe  of  a 
rifible  impropriety,  which  is  always  flight,  the  con- 
tempt we  have  for  the  offender  is  exttemcly  faint,  tho' 
derifion,  its  gratification,  is  extremely  pleafant.  This 
difproportion  between  a  pafllon  and  Its  gratification, 
feems  not  confurmaljlc  to  the  analogy  of  nature.  In 
looking  about  for  a  folution,  we  mafl  refleft  upon 
what  is  laid  down  above,  that  an  Improper  aition  not 
only  moves  our  contempt  for  the  author,  but  alio,  by 
means  of  contraft,  fwells  the  good  opinion  we  have 
jof  ourfelves.  This  contributes,  more  tlian  any  other 
article,  to  the  plcafure  we  have  in  ridiculing  follies 
and  abfurditles  ;  and  accordingly,  it  is  well  known, 
■     ihat  they  who  put  the  greatell  value  upon  thenifelves 

N'  89.  J 


23     1  CON 

are  the  moft  prone  to  laugh  at  others.  Pride,  which  is  Conpruify. 
a  vivid  paffion,  pleafant  in  itfelf,  and  not  lefs  fo  in  ^— v— ' 
its  gratification,  would  fingly  be  fufficient  to  account 
for  the  pleafure  of  ridicule,  without  borrowing  any 
aid  from  contempt.  Hence  appears  the  reafon  of  a 
noted  obfervation,  That  we  are  the  moft  dlfpofed  to 
ridicule  the  blunders  and  abfurditles-  of  others,  when 
we  are  in  high  fplrits ;  for  in  high  fpirits,  felf-concelt 
difplays  itfelf  with  more  than  ordinary  vigour. 

With  regard  to  the  final  caufes  of  congruity  and 
impropriety;  one,  regarding  congruity,  is  pretty  ob- 
vious, that  the  fenfe  of  congruity,  as  one  principle  of 
the  fine  arts,  contributes  in  a  rcmaika'ole  degree  to 
our  entertainment.  Congruity,  indeed,  with  refpeft 
to  quantity,  coincides  with  proportion  :  when  the 
parts  of  a  building  are  nicely  adjufted  to  each  other, 
it  may  be  fald  indifferently,  that  it  is  agreeable  by  the 
congruity  of  its  parts,  or  by  the  proportion  of  its  parts. 
But  propriety,  which  regards  vuluntaiy  agents  only, 
can  never  be  the  fame  with  proportion  :  a  very  long 
nofe  is  dlfproportloned,  but  cannot  be  termed  impro- 
per. In  fome  inftances,  it  is  true,  impropriety  coin- 
cides with  difproportion  in  the  fame  fubjeft,  but  never 
in  the  fame  refpeft;  for  example,  a  very  little  man 
buckled  to  a  long  toledo:  confidering  the  man  and  the 
fword  with  refpeft  to  fize,  we  perceive  a  difpropor- 
tion ;  confidering  the  fword  as  the  choice  of  the  man, 
we  perceive  an  impropriety. 

The  fenfe  of  Impropriety  with  refpeft  to  miftakes, 
blunders,  and  abfurditles,  is  happily  contrived  for  the 
good  of  mankind.  In  the  fpettators,  it  is  produftive 
of  mirth  and  laughter,  excellent  recreation  in  an  in- 
terval fiom  bulinefs.  But  this  is  a  trifle  in  refpeif  oP 
what  follows.  It  is  painful  to  be  the  fubjeft  of  ridi- 
cule ;  and  to  punlfli  with  ridicule  the  man  who  is' 
guQty  of  an  abfurdity,  tends  to  put  him  more  upon  his' 
guard  in  time  coming.  Thus  even  the  mofl  innocent 
blunder  is  not  committed  with  impunity ;  becaufe, 
were  errors,  licenftxi  where  they  do  no  hurt,  inatten- 
tion would  grow  into  a  habit,  and  be  the  occallon  of 
muclvhurt. 

The  final  caufe  of  propriety  as  to  moral  duties,  is 
of  all  the  moft  illuftrious.  To  have  a  juft  notion  of 
it,  the  moral  duties  that  refpcft  others  muft  be  nillin-- 
gulfhed  from  thofe  that  refpeft  ourfelves.  Fidelity, 
gratitude,  and  the  forbearing  injury,  are  examples  of 
the  firft  fort  ;  temperance,  modefty,  firmnefs  of  mind, 
are  examples  of  the  other  :  the  former  arc  made  duties 
by  tlie  fenfe  of  Jutlice  ;  the  latter  by  the  fenfe  of  pro-- 
prlety.  Here  is  a  final  caule  of  the  fenfe  of  pro- 
priety, that  muil  roufe  our  attention.  It  is  undoubt- 
edly the  intereft  of  every  man,  to  fult  his'  behaviouH 
to  the  dignity  of  his  nature,  and  to  the  ftation  allotted 
him  by  Providence  ;  for  fuch  rational  conduft  con-' 
tributes  in  every  refpedl  to  happine's,  by  preferving 
health,  by  procuring  plenty,  by  gaining  the  efteem  of 
others,  and,  which  of  all  is  the  greatefl  bleffing,  by 
gaining  a  juftly-founded  felf-cfteem.  But  in  a  matter 
fo  etfential  to  our  well-being,  even  felf-lntereft  is  not 
relied  on  ;   the  powerful  authority  of  duty  is  fuperad-  . 

ded  to  the  motive  of  intereft.  The  God  of  nature,  in 
all  things  eflentlal  to  our  happinefs,  hath  obferved  one 
uniform  method:  to  keep  us  fleady  in  our  conduft,  he 
hath  fortified  us  with  natural  laws  and  principles, 
which  prevent  many  aberrations,  that  would  daily  hap- 
pen were  we  totally  furrendered  to  fo  fallible  a  guide  as 

human 


CON 


[     3-9    1 


CON 


humnn  icafon.  Propriety  cannot  rightly  be  conlldered 
in  another  hglit,  than  as  the  natural  la^v  that  regulates 
our  conduft  with  refpeft  to  ouvfelves ;  as  juftiee  is  the 
natural  law  that  regulates  our  conjuft  with  refpeil  to 
others.  We  call  propriety  a  law,  not  lefs  than  jullice  ; 
becaufe  both  are  equally  ruLs  of  condurt  that  ought 
to  be  obeyed  :  propriety  includes  this  obligation  ;  for 
to  fay  an  aftion  is  proper,  is,  in  other  words,  to  fay, 
that  it  ought  to  be  performed  ;  and  to  fay  it  is  impro- 
per, is,  in  otlier  words,  to  fay  that  it  ought  to  be  for- 
borne. It  is  this  very  chnrafter  of  ought  and  Jl.iouIJ 
that  makes  julHce  a  law  to  us  ;  and  the  fame  charac- 
ter is  applicable  to  propriety,  though  perhaps  more 
faintly  tlian  to  juftiee  :  but  the  difference  is  in  degree 
only,  not  in  kind  ;  and  we  ought,  witliout  hefitation 
or  reluetance,  to  fubmit  equally  to  the  government  of 
both. 

But  it  muft,  in  the  next  place,  be  obferved,  that  to 
the  fenfe  of  propriety,  as  well  as  of  jullice,  are  annexed 
the  fani"tions  of  rewards  and  puniniments  ;  which  evi- 
dently jjrove  the  one  to  be  a  law  as  well  as  the  other. 
The  falisfaftion  a  man  hath  in  doing  his  duty,  joined 
with  the  eileem  and  good-will  of  others,  is  the  reward 
that  belongs  to  both  equally.  The  punifhments  alfo, 
thougli  not  the  fame,  are  nearly   allied  ;  and  differ  in 


degree  more  tlian  in  quality.  Difobedience  to  the  law  Corgruity, 
of  juftiee,  is  punithed  with  remorfe  ;  difobedience  to  ,  ^""''  . 
the  law  of  propriety,  with  fhame,  which  is  rcmurfe  in  • 
a  lower  degree.  Every  traufgrelHon  of  the  law  of  ju- 
ftiee raifes  indignation  in  the  beholder ;  and  fo  doth 
every  flagrant  tranfgreflion  of  the  law  of  propriety. 
Slighter  improprieties  receive  a  milder  puniihment : 
they  are  always  rebuked  with  fome  degree  of  con- 
tempt, and  frequently  witli  derifion.  In  general,  it  is 
true,  that  the  rewards  and  punidiments  annexed  to  tlie 
fenfe  of  propriety,  are  {lighter  in  degree  tlian  thole 
annexed  to  the  fenfe  of  jullice  :  which  is  wifely  or- 
dered, becaufe  duty  to  others  is  ftill  more  effenlial  to 
fociety  than  duty  to  ourfelves  ;  for  focicty  could  not 
fubllft  a  moment  were  individuals  not  protefted  from 
the  he.idllrong  and  turbulent  palTion  of  their  neigh- 
bours. 

CONI,  a  ftrong  town  of  Italy  in  Piedmont,  and  ca- 
pital of  a  territoiy  of  that  name,  with  a  good  citadel. 
The  town  being  divided  into  two  failions,  it  furrender- 
ed  to  the  French  in  1641  ;  but  was  reftored  to  the 
Duke  of  Savoy  foon  after.  It  is  fealed  at  the  con- 
flaence  of  the  rivers  Grefle  and  Sture.  E.  Long.  7. 
29.  N.  Lat.  44.  23. 


CONIC     SECTIONS 


ARE  curve  lines  formed  by  the  interfeftions  of  a 
cone  and  plane. 

If  a  cone  be  cut  by  a  plane  through  the  vertex, 
the  f^aion  will  be  a  triangle  ABC,  Plate  CXLVI. 
fig.  I. 

If  a  cone  be  cut  by  a  plane  parallel  to  its  bafe,  the 
feftion  will  be  a  circle.  If  it  be  cut  by  a  plane  DEF, 
fig.  I.  in  fuch  a  direftion,  that  the  fide  AC  of  a  tri- 
angle paffing  through  the  vertex,  and  having  its  bafe 
BC  perpendicular  to  EF,  may  be  parallel  to  DP,  the 
feCtion  is  a  parabola;  if  it  be  cut  by  a  plane  DR, 
fig.  2.  meeting  AC,  the  feftion  is  an  tllipfe  ;  and  if  it 
be  cut  by  a  plane  DMO,  fig.  3.  which  would  meet  AC 
extended  beyond  A,  it  is  an  hyperbola. 

If  any  line  HG,  fig.  i.  be  drawn  in  a  parabola  per- 
pendicular to  DP,  the  fqiiarc  of  HG  will  be  to  the 
fquare  of  EP,  as  DG  to  DP ;  for  let  LHK  be  a  fec- 
tion  parallel  to  the  bafe,  and  therefore  a  circle,  the 
redtangle  LGK  will  be  equal  to  the  fquare  of  HG, 
and  the  reftangle  BPC  equal  to  the  fquare  of  EP ; 
therefore  thefe  fquares  wiU  be  to  each  other  as  their 
reftangles;  that  is,  as  BP  to  LG,  that  is  DP  to  DG. 

Sect.  I.     Dffcnption  of  Conk  Ssdwiis  on  a  Plane. 
I.  PARABOLA. 

"  Let  AB,  fig.  4.  be  any  right  line,  and  C  any  point 
*'  without  it,  and  DKF  a  ruler,  which  let  be  placed  in 
*'  the  fame  plane  in  which  the  right  line  and  point  are, 
"  in  fuch  a  manner  that  one  fide  of  it,  as  DK,  be  ap- 
"  plied  to  the  right  line  AB,  and  the  other  fide  KF 
"  coincide  with  the  point  C ;  and  at  F,  the  extremi- 
"  ty  of  the  fide  KF,  let  be  fixed  one  end  of  the  thread 
"  FNC,  whofe  length  is  equal  to  KF,  and  the  other 
"  extremity  of  it  at  the  point  C,  and  let  part  of  the 
"  thread,  as  EG,  be  brought  clofe  to  the  fide  KF  by 
"  a  fmall  pin  G  ;  then  let  the  fquare  DKF  be  moved 

Vol.  V.  Part  I. 


"  from  B  towards  A,  fo  that  all  the  while  its  fide  DK 
"  be  applied  clofe  to  the  line  BA,  and  in  the  mean 
"  time  the  thread  being  extended  will  always  be  ap- 
"  plied  to  the  fide  KF,  being  ftopt  from  going  from 
"  it  by  means  of  the  fmall  pin  ;  and  by  the  motion  of 
"  the  fmall  pin  N  there  will  be  defcribed  a  certain 
"  curve,  which  is  called  a.  fcmi-paralola. 

"  And  if  the  fquare  be  brought  to  its  firft  given  po- 
"  fition,  and  in  the  fame  manner  be  moved  along  the 
"  line  AB,  from  B  towards  H,  the  other  femi-para- 
"  bola  will  be  defcribed." 

The  line  AB  is  called  the  dire&rix  ;  C,  the  focus ; 
any  line  perpendicular  to  AB,  a  diameter;  the  point 
where  it  meets  the  curve,  its  vertex  ;  and  four  times 
the  diftance  of  the  vertex  from  the  dlredlrix,  its  latus 
reiftum  or  parameter. 

2.  ELLIPSE. 

"  If  any  two  points,  as  A  and  B,  fig.  3'.  be  taken 
"  in  any  plane,  and  in  t!iem  are  fixed  the  extremities 
"  of  a  thread,  whofe  length  is  greater  than  the  dif- 
"  tance  betvi-een  the  points,  and  tlie  thread  extended 
"  by  means  of  a  fmall  pin  C,  and  if  the  pin  be  moved 
"  round  from  any  point  until  it  return  to  the  place 
"  from  vv-hence  it  began  to  move,  the  thread  being 
"  extended  during  the  whole  time  of  the  revolution, 
"  the  figure  which  the  fmaU  pin  by  this  revolution 
"   defcribes  is  called  an  ellipfe" 

The  points  AB  are  called  the  foci ;  D,  the  centre  ; 
EF,  the  trnnfverfe  axis  ;  GH,  the /cfcr  axis  ;  and  any 
other  line  paffing  through  D,  a  diameter. 

3.  HYPERBOLA. 

"   If  to  the  point  A,   fig.  6.  in  any  plane,  one  end 

"  of  the  rule  AB  be  placed,  in  fuch  a  manner,  that 

"  about  that  point,  as  a  centre,  it  may  freely  move  ; 

T  t  "  and 


33° 


CONIC      S   E 

"  ind  if  to  the  other  end  B,  of  the  rule  AB,  be  fixed 
"  the  extremity  of  the  thread  BDC,  whofc  length  is 
•'  fmallerthan  the  rule  AB,  and  the  other  end  of  the 
"  thread,  being  fixed  in  the  point  C,  coinciding  with 
"  the  !ide  of  the  rule  AB,  which  is  in  the  fame  plane 
"  with  the  given  point  A;  and  let  part  of  the  thread, 
"  as  BD,  be  brought  tlofe  to  the  fide  of  the  rule  AB, 
"  by  means  of  a  fmall  pin  D  ;  then  let  the  rule  be 
"  moved  about  the  point  A,  from  C  towards  T,  the 
"  thread  all  the  while  being  extended,  and  the  re- 
"  raaining  part  coinciding  with  the  fide  of  the  rule 
"  being  ftopt  from  going  from  it  by  means  of  the 
"  fmall  pin,  and  by  the  motion  of  the  fmall  pin  D,  a 
•'  certain  figure  is  dcfcribed  which  is  called  the  feml- 
"  hyperbola." 

The  other  femi-hyperbola  is  defcribed  in  the  fame 
way,  and  the  oppofite  HKF,  by  fixing  the  ruler  to 
C,  and  the  thread  to  A,  and  defcribing  it  in  the  fame 
manner.  A  and  C  are  called _/oc;';  the  point  G,  which 
bifefts  AC,  the  centre;  KE,  the  tranfverfe  axis;  a  line 
drawn  through  the  centre  meeting  the  hvperbolas,  a 
tranfverfe  diameter;  a  line  drawn  through  the  centre, 
perpendicular  to  the  tranfverfe  axis,  and  cut  off  by 
the  circle  MN,  whofe  centre  is  E,  and  radius  equal  to 
CG,  is  called  thefecond  axis. 

If  a  line  be  drawn  through  the  vertex  E,  equal  and 
parallel  to  the  fecond  axis  GP  and  GO  be  joined,  they 
are  called  ajfymptctes.  Any  line  drawn  through  the 
centre,  not  meeting  the  hyperbolas,  and  equal  in 
length  to  the  part  of  a  tangent  parallel  to  it,  and  in- 
tercepted betwixt  the  affymptotes,  is  called  z  fecond 
diameter. 

An  ordinate  to  any  feftion  is  a  line  bifcfted  by  a 
diameter  and  the  abfcifla,  the  part  of  the  diameter  cut 
off  by  the  ordinate. 

Conjugate  diameters  in  the  ellipfe  and  hyperbola 
are  fuch  as  mutually  bifeiit  lines  parallel  to  the  other  ; 
and  a  third  proportional  to  two  conjugate  diameters 
is  called  the  latuj  reBum  of  that  diameter,  which  is  the 
firll  in  the  proportion. 

In  the  parabola,  the  lines  drawn  from  any  point  to 
the  focus  are  equal  to  perpendiculars  to  the  diredlrix  ; 
being  both  equal  to  the  part  of  the  thread  feparated 
from  the  ruler. 

In  the  ellipfe,  the  two  lines  drawn  from  any  point 
in  the  curve  to  the  foci  are  equal  to  each  other,  being 
equal  to  the  length  of  the  thread ;  they  are  alfo  equal 
to  the  tranfverfe  axis.  In  the  hj-perbola  the  difference 
of  the  lines  drawn  from  any  point  to  the  foci  is  equal, 
being  equal  to  the  difference  of  the  lengths  of  the  ru- 
ler and  thread,  and  is  equal  to  the  tranfverfe  axis. 

From  thefe  fundamental  properties  all  the  others  are 
derived. 

The  ellipfe  returns  into  itfelf.  The  parabola  and 
hyperbola  may  be  extended  without  limit. 

Every  line  perpendicular  to  the  direftrix  of  a  pa- 
rabola meets  it  in  one  point,  and  falls  afterwards 
within  it ;  and  every  line  drawn  from  the  focus  meets 
It  in  one  point,  and  falls  afterwards  without  it.  And 
every  line  that  paffes  through  a  parabola,  not  perpen- 
dicular to  the  direftrix,  will  meet  it  again,  but  only 
once. 

Every  line  paffing  through  the  centre  of  an  ellipfe 
IS  bifeded  by  it ;  the  tranfverfe  axis  is  the  grcatcft  of 


G  T  I   O  N  S.  Sea.  II. 

all  thefe  lines  j  the  leffer  axis  the  lead  ;  and  thefe  near- 
er the  tranfverfe  axis  greater  than  tliofe  more  remote. 

In  the  hyperbola,  every  line  paffuig  through  the 
centre,  is  bliectcd  by  the  oppofite  hyperbola,  and  the 
tranfverfe  axis  is  the  lealt  of  all  thefe  lines  ;  alfo  the 
fecond  axis  is  the  leall  of  all  the  fecond  diameters. 
Every  line  drawn  from  the  centre  within  the  angle 
contained  by  tlie  affymptotes,  meets  at  once,  and  falls 
afterwards  within  it  ;  and  cveiy  line  drawn  through 
the  centre  without  that  angle,  never  meets  it;  and  a 
line  which  cuts  one  of  the  affymptotes,  and  cuts  the 
other  extended  beyond  the  centre,  will  meet  both  the 
oppofite  hyperbolas  in  one  point. 

If  a  line  GM,  fig.  4.  be  drawn  from  a  point  in  a 
parabola  perpendicular  to  the  axis,  it  will  be  an  ordi- 
nate to  the  axis,  and  its  fquare  ^^^ll  be  equal  to  the 
rtftangle  under  the  abfciffa  MI  and  latus  reCtum;  for, 
bccaufe  GMC  is  a  right  angle,  GM""  is  equal  to  the 
difference  of  GC''  and  CM ' ;  but  GC  is  equal  to  GE, 
which  is  equal  to  MB  ;  therefore  GM'^  is  equal  to 
BM1— CM';  which,  becaufe  CI  and  IB  are  equal,  is 
(8  Euc.  2.)  equal  to  four  times  the  rectangle  under  MI 
and  IB,  or  equal  to  the  redlangle  under  MI  and  the 
latus  rectum. 

Hence  it  follows,  that  if  different  ordinates  be 
drawn  to  the  axis,  their  fquares  being  each  equal  to 
the  reftangle  under  the  abfciffa  and  latus  reftum,  will 
be  to  each  other  in  the  proportion  of  the  abfciffas, 
which  is  the  fame  property  as  was  rtiown  before  to 
take  place  in  the  parabola  cut  from  the  cone,  and 
proves  thofe  curves  to  be  the  fame. 

This  property  is  extended  alio  to  the  ordinates  of 
other  diameters,  whofe  fquares  are  equal  to  .the  rec- 
tangle under  the  abfciffas  and  parameters  of  their  re- 
fpeftive  diameters. 

In  the  elhpfe,  the  fquare  of  the  ordinate  is  to  the 
reftangle  under  the  fegments  of  the  diameter,  as  the 
fquare  of  the  diameter  parallel  to  the  ordinate  to  the 
fquare  of  the  diameter  to  which  it  is  drawn,  or  as  the 
firft  diameter  to  its  latus  reftum  ;  that  is,  LK'  fig.  5. 
is  to  EKFasEpi  to  GH". 

In  the  hyperbola,  the  fquare  of  the  ordinate  is  to 
the  reftangle  contained  under  the  fegments  of  the  dia- 
meters betwixt  its  vertices,  as  the  fquare  of  the  dia- 
meter parallel  to  the  ordinate  to  the  fquare  of  the  dia- 
meter to  which  it  is  drawn,  or  as  the  firft  diameter 
to  its  latus  reftum;  that  is,  SX""  is  to  EXK  as  MN*! 
to  KE". 

Or  if  an  ordinate  be  drawn  to  a  fecond  diameter, 
its  fquare  will  be  to  the  fura  of  the  fquares  of  the  fe- 
cond diameter,  and  of  the  line  intercepted  betwixt 
the  ordinate  and  centre,  in  the  fame  proportion  :  that 
is,  RZ1  fig.  6.  is  to  ZG"  added  to  GMS  as  KEi  to 
MN"".  Thefe  are  the  moft  important  propeities  of 
the  conic  feclions  ;  and,  by  means  of  thefe,  it  is  de- 
monftrated,  that  the  figures  are  the  fame  defcribed  on 
a  plane  as  cut  from  the  cone  ;  which  we  have  demon- 
ftrated  in  the  cafe  of  the  parabola. 

Sect.  II.  Equations  of  the  Conic  SeBions 

Are  derived  from  the  above  properties.  The  equa- 
tion of  any  curve,  is  an  algebraic  expreflllon,  \vhich 
denotes  the  relation  betwixt  the  ordinate  and  abfciffa ; 
the  abfciffa  being  equal  to  *,  and  the  ordinate  equal  toy. 

If 


II.  C  O  N  I  C     S 

If/  be  the  parameter  of  a  parabola,  thtn;!'  ~p-<  S 
which  is  an  equation  for  all  parabolas. 

If  a  be  the  diameter  of  an  ellipfe,  p  its  parameter  ; 

P       

then  y':  ax—K«  :  :  p  :  a;  and  _).'=—  X ax— .v.v;    an 

equation  for  all  ellipfes. 

If  a  be  a  tranfvcrfe  diameter  of  a  hyperbola,  p  its 
parameter ;  then  7'  :  a  x-\-xx   :   :  p  :  a,  and  y     = 

P    ■ 

— %ax-\-KX. 
a 
Via  be  a  fecond  diameter  of  an  hyperbola,  then  y'  = 

aaJfX«''-P'-  "''  3"^  y^  =-jX«a4-Kx;   which  are  e- 

quations  for  all  hyperbolas. 

As  all  thefe  equations  are  expreffed  by  the  fecond 
powers  of  .\-  and  j',  all  conic  feftions  are  curves  of  the 
fecond  order  ;  and  convcrfely,  the  locus  of  every 
quadratic  equation  is  a  conic  feftion,  and  is  a  parabola, 
ellipfe,  or  hypeibola,  according  as  the   form   of  the 


E  C  T  I  O   N  S, 

MG,  that  is,  tlie  fquare  of  PE  is  to  the  fqnare  of  GE, 
as  the  fquarts  Z(i  and  the  fquare  of  f.IG  together, 
to  the  fquare  of  SZ  or  QX :  and  the  fquares  of  RX 
and  GX  are  in  tlie  fame  proportion,  bc<:aufe  the  tri- 
angles RXG,  PEG  are  equiangular  ;  therefore  the 
fquares  ZG  and  MG  are  equal  to  the  fquare  of  RX  ; 
from  which,  taking  the  equal  fquares  of  SX  and  ZG, 
there  remains  the  redangle  RSV,  equal  to  the  fquare 
of  MG. 

3.  Hence,  if  right  lines  be  drawn  parallel  to  the  fe- 
cond axis,  cutting  an  hyperbola  and  its  afTymptotes, 
the  reftangles  contained  betwixt  the  hyperbola  and 
points  where  the  lines  cut  the  aifymptotes  will  be  e- 
qual  to  each  other  ;  for  they  are  feverally  equal  to 
the  fquare  of  the  fecond  axis. 

4.  If  from  any  points,  (/and  S,  in  a  hyperbola,  there 
be  drawn  lines  parallel  to  the  afTymptotes  da  SQ^and 
%b  dc,  the  rectangle  under  d  a  and  d  c  will  be  equal  to 
the  reftangle  under  QS  and  Si;  alfo  the  parallelo- 
grams da,   G  c,  and  SQG  b,  which   are  equiangular, 


351 


equation   correfponds  with   the   above  ones,  or  witlr^  gpj  confequently   proportional   to  the   reftangles,  are 
fome  other  deduced  from  hues   drawn  in  a  different 


manner  with  refpedl  to  the  fcftion. 

Se£l.  III.      General  Properties  of  Conic  Sedions. 

A  tangent  to  a  parabola  bifefts  the  angle  contain- 
ed by  the  lines  drawn  to  the  focus  and  diredtrix ;  in 
an  ellipfe  and  hyperbola,  it  bifefts  the  angle  contained 
by  the  lines  drawn  to  the  foci. 

In  all  the  feftions,  hues  parallel  to  the  tangent  are 
ordinatcs  to  the  diameter  paffing  through  the  point  of 
contatl  ;  and  in  the  ellipfe  and  hyperbola,  the  diame- 
ters parallel  to  the  tangent,  and  thofe  paffing  through 
the  points  of  contatt,  are  mutually  conjugate  to  each 
other.  If  an  ordinate  be  drawn  from  a  point  to  a  di- 
ameter, and  a  tangent  from  the  fame  point  which 
meets  the  diameter  produced  ;  in  the  parabola,  the 
part  of  the  diameter  betwixt  the  ordinate  and  tan- 
gent will  be  bifeAed  in  the  vertex  ;  and  in  the  ellipfe 
and  hyperbola,  the  femi-diameter  will  be  a  mean  pro- 
portion betwixt  the  fegments  of  the  diameter  betwixt 
the  centre  and  ordinate,  and  betwixt  the  centre  and 
tangent. 

The  parallelogr'am  formed  by  tangents  drawn  thro' 
the  vertices  of  any  conjugate  diameters,  in  the  fame 
ellipfe  or  hyperbola,  will  be  equal  to  each  other. 

Sect.  IV.    Properties  peculiar  to  tie  Hyperhula. 

As  the  hyperbola  has  fome  curious  properties  ari- 
fing  from  its  afTymptotes,  which  appear  at  tirll  view 
almoft  incredible,  we  Ihall  briefly  demonArate  them, 

1.  The  hyperbola  and  its  afTymptotes  never  meet  : 
if  not,  let  them  meet  in  S,  fig.  6.  ;  then  by  the  pi'o- 
perty  of  tlie  curve  the  rectangle  KXE  is  to  SX*"  as 
GE'i  to  GMi  or  EPi ;  that  is,  as  GX"  to  SX"  ;  where- 
fore, KXE  will  be  equal  to  the  fquare  of  GX  ;  but 
the  reftangle  KXE,  together  with  the  fquare  of  GE, 
is  alfo  equal  to  the  fquare  of  GX  ;  which  is  abfurd. 

2.  If  a  line  be  drawn  through  a  hyperbola  parallel 
to  its  fecond  axis,  the  rectangle,  by  the  fegments  of 
that  line,  betwixt  the  point  in  tire  hyperbola  and  the 
afTymptotes,  will  be  equal  to  the  fquare  of  the  fecond 
axis. 

For  if  SZ,  fig.  6.  be  drawn  perpendicular  to  the  fe- 
cond axis,  by  the  property  of  the  curve,'  the  fquare  of 


equal. 

For  draw  YW  RV  parallel  to  the  fecond  axis,  the 
reftangle  Y  ^  W  is  equal  to  the  redtangle  RSV'; 
wherefore,  WD  is  to  SV  as  RS  is  to  dX .  But  be- 
caufe  the  triangles  RQS,  A  YD,  and  GSV  cd\N,  are 
equiangular,  W  </  is  to  S  V  as  ;:  ^  to  Si,  and  R  S  is  to 
DY  as  SQto  d  a  ;  wherefore,  d  c  is  to  S  i  as  SQto 
da:  and  the  redlangle  d  c,  d  a,  is  equal  to  the  rea- 
angle  QS,  S  h. 

5,  The  aflymptotes  always  approach  nearer  the  hy- 
pei"bola. 

For,  becaufe  the  reftangle  under  SQ__and  S  h  or 
QG,  is  equal  to  the  reftangle  under  </ li  and^c,  or 
AG,  and  QG  is  greater  than  a  G ;  therefore  a  d  is 
greater  than  QS. 

9.  The  afTymptotes  come  nearer  the  hyperbola  than 
any  afiignable  diftance. 

Let  X  be  any  fmall  line.  Take  any  point,  as  d,  in 
the  hyperbola,  and  dr-aw  d  a,  d  c,  parallel  to  the  af- 
fymptotcs  ;  and  as  X  is  to  ^  a,  fo  let  a  G  be  to  GQ^ 
Draw  QS  parallel  to  ad,  meeting  the  hypei'bola  in  S, 
then  QS  will  be  equal  to  X.  For  the  redlangle  SQG 
will  be  equal  to  the  reftangle  d  a  G  ;  and  confequently 
SQ^is  to  J  fl  as  AG  to  GQ^ 

It  any  point  be  taken  in  the  aiTymptote  below  Q, 
it  can  eafily  be  fhown  that  its  dillance  is  lefs  than  the 
line  X. 

Sect.  V.  Areas  contained  by  Conic  Ssdions. 

The  area  of  a  parabola  is  equal  to  \  the  area  of  a 
circumfcribed  parallelogram. 

The  area  of  an  ellipfe  is  equal  to  the  area  of  a  circle 
whofe  diameter  is  a  mean  proportional  betwixt  its 
greater  and  IcflTer  axes. 

If  two  lines,  a  «' and  QS,  be  drawn  parallel  to  one  . 
of  the  afTymptotes  of  an  hyperbola,  the  fpace  a  QS  d, 
bounded  by  thefe  parallel  lines,   the   affyinptotts  and 
the  hyperbola  will  be   equal  to  the  logarithm  of  a  Q, 
whofe  module  is  a  d,  fuppofing  a  G  eqiral  to  unity. 

Sect.  VI.   Curvature  of  Copic  Sedions. 

The  curvature  of  any  conic:  feftion,  at  the  vertices 
of  its  axis,  is  equal  to  the  curvature  of  a  circle  whofe 
diameter  is  equal  to  the  parameter  of  its  axis. 

T  t  2  If 


33^ 


CONIC     S  E 

If  a  tangent  be  drawn  from  any  other  point  of  a 
conic  feftion,  the  curvature  of  the  feftion  in  that  point 
will  be  equal  to  the  curvature  of  a  circle  to  which  the 
fame  line  is  a  tangent,  and  which  cuts  oif  from  the 
diameter  of  the  feftion,  diawn  through  the  point,  a 
part  equal  to  its  parameter. 

Sect.  VII.    Ufcs  of  Conic  Secllons.- 

Any  body,  projected  from  the  furface  of  the  earth, 
defcribes  a  parabola,  to  wliicli  the  diretlion  wherein 
it  is  projeAed  is  a  tangent :  and  the  diilance  of  tlie 
direftrix  is  equal  to  the  height  from  which  a  body 
rnuft  fall  to  acquire  the  velocity  wherewith  it  is  pro- 
je£tcd  :  hence  the  properties  of  the  parabola  are  the 
foundation  of  gunnery. 

All  bodies  aftcd  on  by  a  central  force,  which  de- 
creafes  as  the  fquare  of  tlie  diftanccs  increafes,  and 
impreffed  with  any  projeAlle  motion,  making  any 
angle  with  the  direftion  of  the  central  force,  muft  de- 
fcribe  conic  fettions,  having  the  central  force  in  one 
of  the  foci,  and  will  defcribe  parabohs,  ellipfes,  and 
hyperbolas,  according  to  the  proportion  betwixt  the 
central  and  projeftile  force.  This  is  proved,  by  diredl 
demonltration. 


C  T   I   O  N  S.  Sea.  VIII. 

The  great  principle  of  gravitation  a£ls  in  this  man- 
ner ;  and  all  the  heavenly  bodies  defcribe  conic  fec- 
tions  having  the  fun  in  one  of  the  foci  ;  the  orbits  of 
the  planets  are  elJipfes,  whofe  tranfverfe  and  Icfler 
diameters  are  nearly  equal  :  it  is  uncertain  whether 
tlie  comets  defcribe  ellipfes  with  very  unequal  axes, 
and  fo  rLTurn  after  a  great  number  of  years  ;  or  whe- 
ther they  defcribe  parabolas  and  hyperbolas,  in  which 
cafe  they  will  never  return. 

Sect.  VIII.     Ufis  of  Conk   Sedions  in   the  Solution  of 
Geemelrical  Problems, 

Many  problems  can  be  folved  by  conic  feflions  that 
cannot  be  fulved  by  right  hues  and  circles.  The  fol- 
lowing theorems,  vvliieh  follow  from  the  fimpler  pro- 
perties of  the  fcClions,  will  give  a  fppcimen  of  this. 

A  point  equally  diftant  from  a  given  point  and  a  gi- 
ven line,  is  fituated  in  a  given  parabola. 

A  point,  the  fum  of  whole  diftanccs  from  two  given 
points  is  given,  is  fituated  in  a  given  ellipfe. 

A  point,  the  difterence  of  whofe  dillances  from  two 
given  points  is  given,  is  fituated  in  a  given  hyper- 
bola. 


ConJclitliy 
^odomes 

.11 
CnnliTalx. 


CON 

-  CONICHTin'ODONTES,  or  Plectronit^e,  in 
natural  hiftory,  one  of  the  three  names  the  tolTile  teeth 
of  fifhes  aie  known  by. 

I  CONIFERjE,  in  botany,  an  order  of  plants  in  the 
Fragmenta  melhodi  naturalis  of  Linnatus,  containing  the 
following  genera,  viz.  cuprelTus,  ephedra,  equiltliim, 
juniperus,  pinus,  taxus,  thuja. 

CONIFEROUS  trees,  fuch  as  bear  hard  dry  feed- 
veffels  of  a  conical  figure  ;  confifting  of  feveral  woody 
parts,  being  moflly  fcaly,  adhering  clofely  together, 
and  feparatir.g  when  lipt. 

CONIMBRICA  (anc.  geog.),  a  town  of  Lufita- 
nia,  on  the  fouth  fide  of  the  river  Monda  ;  from  the 
ruins  of  which  arofe  Coimbra,  in  its  neighbourhood,  a 
city  of  Portugal.      W.  Long.  9.  5.   Lat.  40.  16. 

CONINGSECK,  a  town  of  Suabia  in  Germany, 
and  capital  of  a  county  of  the  fame  name.  E.  Long. 
9.  23.   N.  Lat.  47.  50.- 

CONJOINT,  in  a  general  fenfe,  fignlfies  united  or 
conntftcd. 

Conjoint  Degrees,  in  mufic,  two  notes  which  fol- 
low each  other  iittmediately  in  the  order  of  the  fcale, 
as  ut  and  re. 

Conjoint  Tetrachords,  two  tetrachords,  or  fourths, 
where  the  fame  chord  is  the  highefl.  of  one  and  the 
Ibwtft  of  the  other. 

CONISSALZE,  in  natural  hiftory,  a  clafs  of  foffils 
naturally  and  efFcntially  compounded,  not  inflammable, 
nor  foluble  in  water,  found  in  detached  mafles,  and 
formed  of  cr)'[lalline  matter  debafed  by  earth. 

Of  this  clafs  there  are  two  orders,  and  of  each  of 
thefe  only  one  genus.  Coniftalae  of  the  firft  order  are 
found  in  form  of  a  naturally  regular  and  uniform  pow- 
der; all  the  genuine  particles  of  which  are  nearly  of 
one  determinate  fhape,  appearing  regularly  concreted, 
and  not  fragments  of  others  once  larger.     ConiiTalse  of 


CON 

the  fecond  order  arc  found  in  form  of  a  rude,  irregu- 
lar, and  ftiapelcfs  powder,  tlie   particles  of  which  are 
never    of   any  determinate  figure,    but  feem  broken  , 
fragments  of  once  laiger  mafles. 

To  the  former  genus  belong  the  different  kinds  of 
fand  ;   and  to  the  latter  the  faburrse,  or  gritts. 

CONJUGATE  DiAMBTER,  or  Axis,  of  an  FJlipfts, 
the  fhortell  of  the  two  diameters,  or  that  bilecting 
the  axis. 

CONJUGATION,  in  grammar,  a  regular  diftri- 
bution  ol  the  feveral  inflexions  of  verbs  in  their  differ- 
ent voices,  moods,  tcnfes,  numbers,  and  perlons,  fo  as 
to  diftinguifli  them  from  one  another.  See  Grammar 
and  Language. 

CONIUM,  HEMLOCK  :  A  genus  of  the  digynia  or- 
der, belonging  to  the  pentandria  clafs  of  planes  ;  and 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  45th  order, 
Un.ltlLUir.  The  partial  invoiucra  are  halved,  and  moll- 
ly  tiiphyllous  ;  the  fruit  fubgloUoie  and  qulnqne-ftria- 
ted,  the  ftrlae  cienated  on  each  fide.  The  fpecles  are 
three  ;  1 .  The  maculatum,  or  greater  hemlock,  grows  na- 
turally on  tlie  fides  of  banks  and  roads  in  many  parts 
of  Britain.  It  is  a  biennial  plant  which  perifties  after 
it  has  ripened  its  feeds.  It  hath  a  long  taper  root 
like  a  parlnip,  but  fmaller.  The  flalk  is  Imoolh,  fpot- 
ted  with  purple,  and  rifes  from  four  to  upwards  of  fix 
feet  high  ;  branching  out  toward  the  top  into  feveral 
fmaller  llalks,  garniflied  with  decompounded  leaves, 
whofe  lobes  are  cut  at  the  top  into  three  parts  ;  thefe 
are  of  a  lucid  green,  and  have  a  difagreeable  fmell. 
The  ft;alks  are  terminated  by  umbels  of  white  flowers, 
each  being  compofed  of  about  ten  rays  or  fmall  um- 
bels, and  have  a  great  number  of  flowers,  which  fpread 
open,  each  fitting  upon  a  diftinft  footftalk  ;  the  feeds 
are  fmall  and  channelled,  and  like  thofe  of  anifeed. 
It  flowers  in  June,  and   the  feed*  lipen  in  autumn. 

a.  The 


Conjujatt 

II 

Conium. 


CON 


[     333     ] 


CON 


Conium  2.  The  tenuifoUum,  with  ftriated  feeds,  differs  from  the 
[I  firft.  in  having  taller  llalks,  which  are  not  fo  much 
Conjiira-  fp^jf^j  'Vhi  leaves  are  much  narrower,  and  of  a 
'  paler  green  ;  and  this  difference  is  conflant.  It  is  a 
biennial  plant,  and  grows  naturally  in  Germany.  3. 
The  africaniim,  with  prickly  feeds,  is  a  native  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  plant  rarely  grows  above 
nine  inches  high  ;  the  lower  leaves  are  divided  like 
thofe  of  tl»e  fmall  wild  rue,  and  are  of  a  greyilh  co- 
lour ;  thofe  upon  tlie  ftalk  are  narrower,  but  of  the 
fame  colour  ;  tiiefe  are  terminated  by  umbels  of  wliite 
flowers,  each  of  the  larger  umbels  bting  compofed  of 
three  fmall  ones  ;  the  invohicrum  hath  three  narrow 
leaves  lituated  under  the  umbel.  This  flowers  in  July 
and  lipens  feed  in  autumn,  loon  after  which  the  plants 
decay. 

Medicinal  Ufes,  The  firft  fpecies  is  fometimes  ap- 
plied externally,  in  the  form  of  decoftlon,  infufion, 
or  poultice,  as  a  difcutient.  Thefe  are  apt.  to  exco- 
riate, and  their  vapour  is  to  fome  particularly  dlfa- 
greeable  and  hurtful.  The  (talks  are  inllgnihcant, 
and  the  roots  very  virulent.  With  regard  to  its  vir- 
tue when  taken  internally,  it  has  been  generally  ac- 
counted poifonous  ;  which  it  doubtlefs  is,  in  a  high 
degree,  wlien  ufed  in  any  conliderable  quantity.  But 
Dr  Stocrk  has  lately  found,  that  in  certain  imall  dofes 
it  may  be  taken  with  great  fafety  ;  and  that,  without 
at  all  difordering  the  conllltution,  or  even  producing 
any  feniible  operation,  it  fometimes  proves  a  powerful 
refolvent  in  many  obllinate  dilorders.  In  fciirhus,  the 
internal  and  external  ufe  of  hemlock  has  been  found 
tu'eful,  but  then  mercury  has  been  generally  ufed  at 
the  fame  time.  In  open  cancer,  it  often  abates  the 
pains,  and  is  free  from  the  conftipating  effefts  of  opi- 
um. It  is  likewife  ufed  in  fcrophnlous  tumors  and  ul- 
cers, and  in  other  ulcers  that  are  only  defined  by  the 
term  ill-conditioned.  It  is  alfo  recoinmended  by  feme 
in  chincough,  and  various  other  difeafcs.  Its  com- 
mon, and  perhaps  belt  form,  is  ihat  of  the  powdered 
leaves,  in  the  dofe  at  tirft  of  two  or  three  grains  a-day, 
which  in  fome  caies  has  been  gradually  increafed  to 
upwards  of  two  ounces  a-day,  without  producing  gid- 
dinefs.  An  txtraS  from  the  feeds  is  faid  to  produce 
giddinefs  fooner  tfian  that  from  the  leaves.  Hence, 
while  both  the  London  and  Edinburgh  colleges  have 
given  a  place  to  the  fuccus  ipiffatus  ciculx,  into  the 
pharmacopoeia  of  the  latter  an  extracium  feminum  ci- 
cutae  is  alfo  introduced. 

CONJUNCT,  in  a  general  fenfe,  fignifies  conjoin- 
ed, concurrent,  or  united. 

Conjunct  Rights,  in  Scots  law.  See  X,Aw,  Part  III. 
n°clxxx.  15,  &c. 

Conjunct,  or  Coiifidertt  Perfons,  in  Scots  law. 
Ibid.  n°  clxxxiii.  8. 


ter  in  a  particular  manner,  and  fprinkling  it  over  the 
poff^ffed,    with   a  number  of  conjurations  and   cxor- 

cifms. 

Some  authors  make  the  difference  between  conju- 
ration and  witchcraft  to  confill  in  this  ;  that  the  for- 
mer efFe£ts  its  end  by  prayers  and  invocation  of  God's 
name,  iic.  to  compel  the  devil  to  do  what  is  dcfircd  ; 
fo  that  the  conjurer  is  fuppofed  to  be  at  war  with  the 
devil,  and  that  evil  fplrit  to  aft  merely  out  of  con- 
ftraint  :  whereas  the  latter  attains  its  end  by  an  im- 
mediate application  to  the  devil  himfell  ;  and  the  de- 
vil's complaifancf  is  fuppofed  to  be  the  conftquence  of 
fome  compaft  between  them,  fo  that  the  devil  and  the 
witch  have  a  good  underitanding  together.  Both  thefe, 
again,  differ  fio.n  enchantment  and  forcery  ;  in  that 
thefe  latter  operate  ftcrclly  and  fl.iwly  by  fpells,  charms, 
&c.  without  ever  calhng  on  the  devil,  or  having  any 
conference  with  him. 

Conn.      See  Cond. 

CONNAUGHT,  one  of  the  four  provinces  of  Ire- 
land, bounded  on  the  eall  by  that  of  Ltinller,  on  the 
well  by  the  ocean,  on  the  north  and  north-well  by 
part  of  the  ocean  and  province  of  Ullier,  and  on  the 
fouth  and  eall  by  IMunller.  It  is  about  130  miles  in 
length,  and  84  in  breadth.  It  has  no  rivers  of  any 
great  note  betides  the  Shannon.  It  has  feveral  con- 
venient bay.s  and  creeks,  and  is  fertile  in  many  places. 
It  had  feveral  dangerous  bogs,  over-tun  with  woods, 
which  are  now  in  fome  meafure  cleared  away.  This 
province  produces  abundance  of  cattle,  fheep,  deer, 
hawks,  and  honey  ;  but  the  inhabitants  being  lazy,  it 
is  the  leaft  cultivated  of  all  the  four  provinces.  It 
contains  I  arehblfhopric,  5  blflioprics,  6  counties,  7 
market-towns,  8  places  of  trade,  10  boroughs  that  fend 
members  to  parliament,  47,256  houfts,  24  old  cailles, 
belides  fortreffes  that  have  been  erefled  of  late,  and 
330  parifhes.      The  principal  town  is  Galway, 

CONNARUS,  CtvLON  SUMACH  :  A  genus  of  the 
decandria  order,  belonging  to  the  monodelphia  clafs  of 
plants;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  with  thofe 
of  which  the  order  is  doubtful.  The  ftlgma  is  limple, 
the  capiule  bivalved,  unilocular,  and  monofpermous. 
There  is  but  one  Ipecies,  viz.  the  monocarpus.  This 
is  a  native  of  India,  and  rifes  with  a  ligneous  flalk 
eight  or  ten  feet  high,  which  is  hard,  rigid,  and  co- 
vered with  a  black  bark,  and  divides  upward  into  two 
or  three  branches  garniihed  with  trifoliate  leaves,  ha- 
ving long  footllalks  placed  alternate.  It  is  propagated, 
by  cuuings,  and  is  to  be  treated  in  the  fame  manner 
with  other  tender  exotics. 

CONNECTICUT,  a  large  river  in  New  England, 
which  gives  name  to  one  of  the  five  colonics  of  that 
province  (fee  the  next  article).  It  riles  in  a  fwamp 
on   the   height   of  land,   in  Lat.  45.  10.   Long.  4.  E. 


Corn 


CONJUNCTION,  in    adronomy,  the   meeting  of    After  a  flecpy  courfe  of  eight  or  ten  miles,   it  tumbles 


two  or  more  liars  or  planets  in  the  fame  degree  of  the 
zodiac. 

Conjunction,  In  grammar,  an  indeclinable  word 
or  particle,  which  ferves  to  join  words  and  fentences 
together,  and  thereby  fhows  their  relation  or  depend- 
ence upon  one  another.      See  Grammar. 

CONJURATION,  magic  words,  charafters,  or  ce- 
remonies, whereby  evil  ipirits,  tempefts,  &c.  are  fup- 
pofed to  be  raifed,  or  driven  away.  The  Romifh 
prlefts  pretend  to  expel  devils,  by  preparing  holy  wa- 


over  four  leparate  falls,  and  turning  well  keeps  dole 
under  the  hills  which  form  the  northern  boundary  of 
the  vale  through  which  it  runs.  The  Amonoofuck 
and  Ilrael  rivers,  two  principal  branches  of  Connefti- 
cut  river,  fall  into  it  from  the  eafl,  between  the  lati- 
tudes 44°  and  45°.  Between  the  towns  of  Walpole 
on  the  eall,  and  Wellminfler  on  the  well,  fide  of  the 
river,  are  the  great  Falls.  The  whole  river,  compref- 
fed  between  two  rocks  fcarcely  30  feet  afunder,  fhoots 
with  amazing  rapidity  into  a  broad  bafon  below.   Over 

thefe 


CON 


[     334    1 


CON 


thffe  fall?,  a  Virldge  \6o  Feet  in  Icngtli,  was  built  in 
1784,  under  which  the  higheft  floods  may  pafs  with- 
out detriment.  This  is  the  firll  bridge  that  was  evtr 
ereAed  over  this  noble  river.  Above  Detrfield  in  Maf- 
fachufcts  it  receives  Dcei field  river  from  the  wcfl, 
and  Miller's  river  from  the  eatl,  after  which  it  turns 
wellerly  in  a  finuous  courfe  to  Fighting  falls,  and  a 
little  after  tumbles  over  Deerfield  falls,  which  are  im- 
paflable  by  boats.  At  Windfor  in  Connecticut  it  re- 
ceives Farmington  river  from  the  well  ;  and  at  Hart- 
ford meets  the  tide.  From  Hartford  it  pafTes  on  in  a 
crooked  courfe,  until  it  falls  into  L.ong  Ifland  found, 
between  Saybrook  and  Lyme. 

The  length  of  this  river,  in  a  ftraight  line,  is  near- 
ly ^00  miles.  Its  general  courfe  is  feveral  degrees  weft 
of  fouth.  It  is  from  80  to  1 00  roods  wide,  130  miles 
from  its  mouth.  At  its  mouth  is  a  bar  of  fand  which 
confiderably  obftrufts  the  navigation.  Ten  feet  water 
at  full  tides  is  found  on  this  bar,  and  the  fame  depth 
to  Middleton.  The  dillance  of  the  bar  from  this 
place,  as  the  river  runs,  is  36  miles.  Above  Middle- 
ton  are  feveral  (hoals  which  ftretch  quite  acrofs  the  ri- 
ViT.  Only  fix  feet  water  is  found  on  the  (hoal  at  high 
tide,  and  here  the  tide  ebbs  and  flows  but  about  eight 
inches.  About  three  miles  below  Middleton  the  river 
is  contrafted  to  about  40  roods  in  breadth  by  two  high 
mountains.  Almoll  every  where  elfe  the  banks  are 
low,  and  fpread  into  line  extenfive  meadows.  In  the 
fpring  floods,  which  generally  happen  in  May,  thefe 
meadows  are  covered  with  water.  At  Hartford  the 
water  fometimes  rifes  20  feet  above  the  common  fur- 
face  of  the  river,  and  having  all  to  pafs  through  the 
above-mentioned  ftrait,  it  is  fometimes  two  or  three 
weeks  before  it  returns  to  its  ufual  bed.  Thefe  floods 
add  nothing  to  the  depth  of  water  on  the  bar  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  ;  this  bar  lying  too  far  off  in  the 
found  to  be  affefled  by  them. 

On  this  beautiful  river,  whofe  banks  are  fettled  al- 
moft  to  its  fource,  are  many  pleafant,  neat,  well-built 
towns.  On  its  weftern  bank,  from  its  mouth  north- 
ward, are  the  towns  of  Saybrook,  HiidJam,  Middle- 
ton,  Weathersfield,  Haitford,  Windfor,  and  SufStld, 
in  Connefticut  ;  Weft  Springfield,  Northampton,  Hat- 
field, and  Deei  field,  in  Maflachufets  ;  Guilford,  Brat- 
tleborough,  in  which  is  Fort  Dummcr,  Wcftminfter, 
Windfor,  Hartfsrd,  Fairlee,  Newbury,  Brunfwick, 
and  many  others  in  Vermont.  Crofling  the  river  into 
New  Harnplhirc,  and  travelling  on  the  eaftern  bank, 
you  pals  through  Woodbury  nearly  oppofite  to  Brunf- 
wick, Northumberland,  the  Coos  country,  Lyman, 
Orford,  Lyme,  Hanover,  in  which  is  Dartmouth  Col- 
lege, Lebanon,  Corniili,  Clermont,  Charlefton,  or 
N""  4,  Ciiefttrficld,  and  many  others  in  New  Hamp- 
fhire,  Sunderland,  Hadlcy,  Springfield,  Long  Meadow, 
in  MafTachufetts ;  and  in  Connefticut,  Enfield,  Eaft 
Windlor,  Eaft  Hartford,  Glailenbuiy,  Eaft  Haddam, 
and  Lyme. 

This  liver  is  flavigable  to  Hartford,  upwards  of  50 
miles  from  its  month,  and  the  produce  of  the  country 
for  200  miles  above  is  biought  thither  in  boats.  The 
boats  which  are  ufed  in  this  bufincfs  are  flat-bottomed, 
long,  and  narrow,  for  the  convenience  of  going  up 
ftrcam,  and  of  fo  light  a  make  as  to  be  portable  in 
carts.  They  are  taken  out  of  the  river  at  three  dif- 
ferent carrying  places,  all  of  which  make  15  miles. 


Sturgeon,  falmon,  and  (had,  are  caught  In  plenty  ConneAU 
in  their  leafon,  from  the  mouth  of  the  river  upwards,  '"'•  , 
excepting  ilurgeon,   which   do   not   afcend   the    upper  ' 

falls  ;  befides  a  vaiiety  of  fmall  fifli,  fuch  as  pike,  carp, 
pearch,  &c. 

From  this  river  are  employed  three  brigs  of  180 
tons  each,  in  the  European  trade  ;  and  about  60  fail 
from  60  to  150  tons,  in  the  Weft  India  trade  ;  be- 
fides a  few  fifhermen,  and  40  or  50  coafting  veflels. 

Connecticut,  one  of  the  five  ftates  of  New 
England  in  America  ;  bounded  on  the  north  by  Maf- 
fachufets ;  on  the  eaft  by  Rhode  Ifland  ;  on  the 
fouth,  by  the  found,  which  divides  it  from  Long  Ifland; 
and  on  the  weft,  by  the  province  of  New  York. 

The  divifional  line  between  Connedlicut  and  Maf- 
fachufets,  as  fettled  in  1713,  was  found  to  be  about 
72  miles  in  length.  The  line  dividing  Connefticut 
from  Rhode  Ifland  was  fettled  in  172S,  and  found  to  be 
about  45  miles.  The  fea  coaft,  from  the  mouth  of 
Paukatuk  river,  which  forms  a  part  of  the  eaftern 
boundary  of  Conneftlcut,  in  a  dirctl  fouthweftwardly 
line  to  the  mouth  of  Byram  river,  is  reckoned  at  about 
90  miles.  The  line  between  Connefticut  and  New 
York  runs  from  latitude  41.  o.  to  latitude  42.  2.  ;  72 
miles.  Connefticut  contains  about  4674  fquare  miles  ; 
equal  to  about  2,960,000  acres.  j 

This  ftate  is  watered  by  feveral  fine  rivers,  the  prin-  Riven, 
cipal  of  which  are,  Conncdicut  defcribed  in  the  pre- 
ceding article,  Houfatonik,  and  the  Thames.  One 
branch  of  the  Houfatonik  rifes  in  Lanefborough,  the 
other  in  Windfor,  both  in  Berkfliire  county  in  Maf- 
fachufets.  It  paffes  through  a  number  of  pleafant 
towns,  and  empties  into  the  found  between  Stratford 
and  Milford.  It  is  navigable  12  miles,  to  Derby.  A 
bar  of  fliells,  at  its  mouth,  obllrudls  its  navigation  for 
large  veflels.  In  this  river,  between  Salifljury  and  Ca- 
naan, is  a  cataraft,  where  the  water  of  the  whole  ri- 
ver, which  is  150  yards  wide,  falls  about  fixty  feet 
perpendicularly,  in  a  perfeftly  wLite  fheet.  A  copi- 
ous mill  arifes,  in  which  floating  rainbows  are  feen  in 
various  places  at  the  fame  time,  exhibiting  a  fcene  ex- 
ceedingly grand  and  beautiful. 

The  Thames  empties  into  Long  Ifland  found  at 
New  London.  It  is  navigable  14  miles,  to  Norwich 
Landing.  Here  it  lofes  its  name,  and  branches  into 
Shetucket  on  the  eaft,  and  Norwich  or  Little  river  on 
the  weft.  The  city  of  Norwich  ftands  on  the  tongue 
of  land  between  thefe  rivers.  Little  river,  about  a 
mile  from  its  mouth,  has  a  remaikable  and  very  ro- 
mantic cataradl.  A  rock  10  or  i  z  feet  in  perpendi- 
cular hel;,'hc,  extends  quite  acrofs  the  channel  of  the 
river.  Over  this  the  whole  river  pitches,  in  one  entire 
flieet,  upon  a  bi;d  of  rocks  below.  Here  the  river  is 
comprelfcd  intoa  very  narrow  channel  between  two  crag- 
gy cliffs,  one  of  which  towers  to  a  confiderable  height. 
The  channel  defcends  gradually,  is  very  crooked,  and 
covered  with  pointed  rocks.  Upon  thefe  the  water 
fwiftly  tumbles,  foaming  with  the  moft  violent  agita- 
tion, ij  or  20  rods,  into  a  broad  bafon  which  fpreads 
before  it.  At  the  bottom  of  the  perpendicular  falls, 
the  rocks  are  curiouflyexcavated  by  theconllant  pouring 
of  the  water.  Some  of  the  cavities,  which  are  all  of  a 
circular  form,  are  five  or  fix  feet  deep.  The  fmoothnefs 
of  the  water  above  its  dcfcent — the  regularity  and 
beauty  of  the  perpendicular  fall — the  tremendous 
2  roughnefs 


cupied  by  Lathrop's  milb,  are  perhaps  not  exceeded  by 
any  in  the  world.  Acrofs  the  moiuh  of  this  river  is 
a  broad,  commodious  bridge  in  the  form  of  a  wharf, 
built  at  a  great  cxpence. 

Shetucket  river,  the   other  branch  of  the  Thames, 


CON  i     ass     1  CON 

roughnefs  of  the  other,  and  the  craggy,  towering  cliff    clear   and  ferene  temperature   of  the   fky,  however-,  Connedi- 
which  impends  the  whole,  prefent  to  the  view  of  the     makes  amends  for  the  feveriiy  of  the  weather,  and  is       '"'•     . 
fpedtatnr  a  fccne  indefcribably  delightful  and  majellic.     favourable  to  health  and  longevity.   Connetliciit  is  ge-         •    '    -■ 
On  this  river  are  fome  of  the  fined  mill  feats  in  New     nerally  broken  land,  made   up  of  mountains,  hills,  and 
England,  and   thofe  immediately   below  the  falls,  oc-     valleys ;  and  is  exceedingly  well  watered.     Some  fmall 

parts  of  it  are  thin  and  barren.  It  liea  in  the  fifth  and 
fixth  northern  climates,  and  has  a  ftrong  fertile  foil. 
Its  princlpjl  productions  are  Indian  corn,  rye,  wheat 
in  many  parts  of  the  ilate,  oats  and  barley,  which  ar» 
heavy  and  good,  and  of  late  buck-wheat — flax  in  large 
four  miles  fiom  its  mouth,  receives  Qkiinnabog,  which  quantities — fome  hemp,  potatoes  of  feveral  kinds, pump- 
has  its  fource  in  Brimfield  in  Maflachufecs  ;  thence  kins,  turnips,  peas,  beans,  &c.  &c.  fiuits  of  all  kinds, 
paffiiig  through  SiUrbridge  and  Dudly  in  Malfachu-  which  are  common  to  the  climate.  The  foil  is  very 
fcts,  it  crollss  into  Connecticut,  and  divides  Pomfret  well  calculated  for  pallure  and  mowing,  which  enables 
from  Killingly,  Canterbury  from  Phinfield,  and  Lifbon  the  farmers  to  feed  large  numbers  of  neat  cattle  and 
from  Prefton,  and  then  mingles  with  Shetucket.  In  horfes.  Aftual  calculation  has  evinced,  that  any  given 
pafiing  through  this  hilly  country,  it  tumbles  over  quantity  of  the  beft  mowing  land  in  Connedlicut,  pro- 
many  falls,  and  affords  a  vaft  number  of  mill  feats,  duces  about  twice  as  much  clear  profit  as  the  fame 
The  fource  of  the  Shetucket  is  not  far  from  that  of  quantity  of  the  bed  wheat  land  in  the  date  of  New 
Quinnabog.  It  has  the  name  of  Willamantik  while  York.  Many  farmers,  in  the  eaftern  part  of  the  date, 
paffing  throucfh  Stafford,  and  between  Tolland  and  have  lately  found  their  advantage  in  raifing  mules, 
Willington,  Coventry  and  Mansfield.  Below  Wind-  which  are  cariied  from  the  ports  of  Norwich  and  New 
ham  it  takes  the  name  of  Shetucket,  and  empties  as  London  to  the  Wed  India  iflands,  and  yield  a  hand- 
above.  Thefe  rivers  are  fed  by  numberlefs  brooks  fome  profit.  The  beef,  pork,  butter,  and  cheefe  of 
from    every   part   of  the   adjacent  country.      At   the      Counc£l!cut,  are  equal  to  any  in  the  world.  » 

mouth  of  Shetucket  is  a  bridge  of  timber  124  feet  in  The   trade   of  Connefticut   is  principally  with   the     Trade. 

length,  fupported  at  each  end  by  pillars,  and  held  up  Wed  India  iflands,  and  is  carried  on  in  veffels  from  60 
in  the  middle  by  braces  on  the  top,  in  the  nature  of  to  140  tons.  The  exports  confid  of  horfes,  mules, 
an  arch.  oxen,  oak  daves,  hoops,  pine  boards,  oak  planks,  beans, 

The  two  principal  harbours  are  at  New  London  and  Indian  corn,  fifh,  beef,  pork,  &c.  Horfes,  live  cattle. 
New  Haven.  The  former  opens  to  the  fouth.  From  and  lumber,  are  permitted  in  the  Dutch,  Danidi,  and 
the  light-houfe,  which  dands  at  the  mouth  of  the  har-  French  ports.  Beef  and  fidi  are  liable  to  fuch  heavy 
bour,  tothe  town,  is  about  three  miles;  the  breadth  is  duties  in  the  French  iflands,  as  that  little  profit  arifes 
three  quarters  of  a  mile,  and  in  fome  places  more.  The  to  the  merchant  who  fends  them  to  their  ports.  Pork 
harbour  has  from  five  to  fix  fathoms  wattrr — a  clear  and  flour  are  prohibited.  As  the  ordinance  makin? 
bottom — tough  ooze,  and  as  far  as  one  mile  above  the  free  ports  in  the  French  Wed  India  ifl^.nds  extends  to 
town    is    entirely   fecure    and   commodious  for    large      all  foreigners,  the  price  of  molafles  and  other  articles 

has  been  greatly  enhanced  by  the  Englifh  purchafes 
for  Canada  and  Nova  Scotia  ;  fo  that  the  trade  of  Con- 
necticut with  the  French  Wed  India  iflands  is  not  pro- 
fitable. Cotton,  cocoa,  indigo,  and  fugais,  arc  not 
permitted  to  be  brought  away  by  Americans.  The 
feveiity  with  which  thefe  pruhibltory  laws  are  ad- 
minldered  is  fuch,  as  that  thefe  articles  cannot  be 
fmuggled. 

Connedlicut  has  a  large  number  of  eoading  velFels 
employed  in  carrying  the  produce  of  the  date  to  other 
dates — To  Rhode  Ifland,  Madachufets,  and  New 
Hampfhire,  they  carry  pork,  wheat,  corn,  and  rye.  To 
North  and  South  Carolinas  and  Georgia,  butter,  cheefe, 


Ihips.  New  Haven  harbour  is  greatly  inferior  to  that 
of  New  London.  It  Is  a  bay  which  lets  up  northerly 
from  the  found  about  four  miles.  Its  entrance  is  about 
half  a  mile  wide.  It  has  very  good  anchorage,  and  two 
and  an  half  fathoms  at  low  water,  and  three  fathoms  and 
four  feet  at  common  tides.  The  whole  of  the  lea 
coad  is  indented  with  harbours,  many  of  which  are  fafe 
and  commodious,  but  are  not  fufficiently  ufed  to  merit 
a  defcrlption. 

Connefticut,  though  fubjeft  to  the  extremes  of  heat 
and  cold  in  their  feafons,  and  to  frequent  fudden 
changes,  is  very  healthful.  As  many  as  one  in  46 
of  the  inhabitants  of  ConneAicut,  who  were  living  in 


1774,  were  upwards  of  70  years  old.  From  accurate  falted  beef,  cyder,  apples,  potatoes,  hay,  &c.  and  re- 
calculation  it  is  found,  that  about  one  in  eight  live  ceive  in  return  rice,  indigo,  and  money.  But  as  New 
to  the  age  of  70  years  and  upwards;  one  in  13  to  York  is  nearer,  and  the  date  of  the  markets  always  well 
the  age  of  80  years,  and  one  in  about  30  to  the  age  known,  much  of  the  produce  of  Conneftlciit,  efpecially 
of  90.  of  the  weftern  parts,  is  carried  there  ;  particularly  pot 
In  the  maritime  towns  the  weather  is  variable,  ac-  and  pearl  adies,  flax-feed,  beef,  pork,  cheefe,  and  but- 
cording  as  the  wind  blows  from  the  fea  or  land.  As  ter,  in  large  quantities.  Mod  of  the  produce  of  Con- 
you  advance  into  the  country,  the  fea  breezes  have  lefs  nefticut  river,  from  the  parts  of  Mafllichufcts,  New 
effeft  upon  the  air,  and  confequently  the  weather  is  Hampfliire,  and  Vermont,  as  well  as  of  Connefticur 
lefs  variable.  The  fliorted  day  is  8  hours  and  58  which  are  adjacent,  goes  to  the  fame  market.  Con- 
minutes,  and  the  longed  15  hours.  The  northwed  fiderable  quantities  of  the  produce  of  the  eadern  parts 
winds,  in  the  winterfeafon,  are  often  extremely  fevere  of  the  date  are  marketed  at  Bodon  and  Providence, 
and  piercing,  occafioned  by  the  great  body  of  fnow  The  value  of  the  whole  exported  produce  and  com- 
which  lies  concealed  from  the  diflolving  influence  of  modities  from  this  date,  before  the  year  1774,  was 
fun  in  the  imiaenfs  forefts  north  and  noitliwelL  The  then  cdimated  at  about  L.  2  00,000  lawful  money  an- 
nually. 


CON 


r   z:>^  ] 


CON 


Manufac- 
tiues. 


nually.  Since  this  time  no  accurate  edi^nate  has  been 
made,  fo  that  it  is  imprfiible  to  icll  whether  the  amount 
has  lince  been  increafed  or  diminifhcd. 

In  1774,  the  number  of  fhipping  in  Connefticut 
was  180;  their  tonage  10,317;  feafaring  men  1162; 
belides  upwards  of  20  fail  of  coalliag  veffels,  which 
employed  about  90  feamen.  This  ftate  has  not  yet 
fully  recovered  the  confulion  in  which  it  was  involved 
by  the  late  war ;  fo  that  the  number  of  fhipping,  &c. 
has  not,  at  any  period  fince  1774,  been  afcertained  with 
accura'^y.  It  is  probable,  however,  confidering  the 
lolTcs  fullaincd  by  the  war,  the  decay  of  the  (hip-build- 
irg  buP.nefs,  and  the  number  of  unfortunate  (hip- 
wrecks,  and  lofTes  by  hurricanes  in  the  Weft  Indies, 
that  the  fhipping  and  feamen  are  not  now  fo  numerous 

as  in  1774- 

The  n\imber  of  (hipping  from  the  port  of  New  Lon- 
don employed  in  1788  in  the  European  and  Weft  India 
trade,  was  fcur  (hips,  one  fnow,  54  brigantincs,  32 
fchooners,  and  45  (loo[  s.  The  number  of  horfes  and 
cattle  exported  from  the  dilliift  round  New  London, 
from  the  lolh  of  January  1787  to  the  10th  of  Ja- 
nuary 1  788,  was  69  I  7  ;  befides  jack-affes  imported  and 
exported,  not  included.  From  1786  to  1787,  the 
number  was  6671  ;  fo  that  the  laft  year  exceeded  the 
other  246.  From  March  1787  to  January  1788,  1454 
horfes,  700 oxen,  and  23  cows,  were  exported  from  the 
port  of  Middleton. 

The  farmers  in  Connefticut  and  their  families  are 
moftly  clothed  in  plain,  decent,  homcfpun  cloth.  Their 
linens  and  wollens  are  manufaftured  in  the  family  way  ; 
and  although  they  are  generally  of  a  coarfer  kifid, 
they  are  of  a  ftronger  texture,  and  much  more  durable 
than  thofe  imported  from  France  and  Great  Britain. 
Many  of  their  cloths  are  fine  and  handfome. 

In  New  Haven  is  a  linen  manufaftory  which  flou- 
rifhes,  and  one  for  cotton  is  about  to  be  eftabli(hed. 
In  Fail  Hartford  is  a  glafs-work,  a  fnuff  and  powder 
mill,  and  an  iron-work  and  flitting-mill.  Iron  works 
are  elfablidied  alfo  at  Salilbury,  Norwich,  and  other 
parts  of  the  ftate.  At  Stafford  is  a  furnace  at  which 
is  made  large  quantities  of  hollow  ware  and  other  iron- 
mongery, fufficient  to  fupply  the"ivhole  ftate.  Paper 
is  manufaftured  at  Norwich,  Hartford,  New  Haven, 
and  in  Litchfield  county.  Nails  of  every  fize  are  made 
in  almoft  every  town  and  village  in  Connefticut  ;  fo 
that  confiderable  quantities  can  be  exported  to  the 
neighbouring  ftates,  and  at  a  better  rate  than  they  can 
be  had  from  Europe.  Ironmongery,  hats  of  the  beft 
kinds,  candles,  leather,  ftioes,  and  boots,  are  manu- 
faftured in  this  ftate.  We  muft  not  omit  to  mention 
wooden  dilhes  and  other  wooden  ware,  which  are 
made  in  vaft  quantities  in  Suflield  and  fome  few  other 
places,  and  fold  in  almoft  every  part  of  the  eallern 
ftates.  Oil-mills,  of  a  new  and  very  ingenious  con- 
ftruftion,  have  been  erefted  in  feveral  parts  of  the 
ftate.  .  . 

It  appears  from  experiments  made  formerly  in  this 
ftate,  that  a  bulhel  of  fun-flower  feed  yields  a  gallon 
of  oil  ;  and  that  an  acre  of  ground  planted  with  the 
feed  at  three  feet  apart,  will  yield  between  forty  and 
fifty  buflicls  of  the  feed.  This  oil  is  as  mild  as  fweet 
oil,  and  is  equally  agreeable  with  fallads,  and  as  a  me- 
dicine. It  may,  moreover,  be  ufed  with  advantage  in 
paints,  varnifhes,  and  ointments.  From  its  being  ma- 
N°  89. 


nufaftured  in  our  own  country,  it  may  always  be  pro-  ConnecSf-  1 

cured  and  ufed  in  a  frefh  ftate.    The  oil  is  preffed  from        "'"     . 

the  feed  in  the  fame  manner  that  cold  drawn   linfeed  * 

oil  is  obtained  from  flax-feed,  and  with  as  little  trouble. 

Sweet   olive  oil  fells  for  fix  (hillings  a  quart.      Should 

the  oil  of  the  fun-flower  fell  for  only  two-thirds  of  that 

price,  the  produce  of  an  acre  of  ground,   fuppofing  it 

to  yield   only  40  bulhels  of   the   feed,  will  be  L.  32, 

a  fum  far  beyond  the  produft  of  an  acre  of  ground  in  \ 

any  kind  of  grain.     The  feed  is  raifed  with  very  little 

trouble,  and  grows  in  land  of  moderate  fertility.      It 

may  be  gathered  and  (lielled,  fit  for  the  extraftion  of 

the  oil,  by  women  and  children.  ^ 

Connefticut  is  divided  into  eight  counties',  to's.  Hart-  Civil  divi. 
ford,  New  Haven,  New  London,  Fail-field,  Windham,  f'"-"  =>"'' 
Litchfield,  Middlefex,   and  Tolland.      The   cauntitsP"!'"'"'"'?*' 
are  fubdivided  into  upwards  of  So  townfhips;  each  of 
which   is  a  corporation,  inverted  with  power  to  hold 
lands,   choofe  their  own  town-officers,  to   make  pru- 
dential laws,   the  penalty  of  tranlgreffion  not   to  ex- 
ceed 20  s.  and  to  choofe  their  own  reprefentativcs  to 
the  gtneral   afferably.      The  townlhips  are  generally 
divided  into  two  or  more  parilhes,  in  each  of  which  is 
one  or  more  places  for  public  worftiip. 

Connefticut  is  the  moft  populous,  in  proportion  to 
its  extent,  of  any  of  the  thirteen  ftates.  It  is  laid  out 
in  fmall  farms  from  50  to  300  or  400  acres  each,  which 
are  held  by  the  farmers  in  fee  fimple  ;  and  are  gene- 
rally cultivated  as  well  as  the  nature  of  the  foil  will 
admit.     The  ftate  is  chequered  with  innumerable  roads  . 

or  highways,  croffing  each  other  in  every  direftion. 
A  traveller  in  any  of  thefe  roads,  even  in  the  moft  un- 
fettled  parts  of  the  Ifate,  will  feldom  pafs  more  than 
two  or  three  miles  without  finding  a  houfe  or  cottage, 
and  a  farm  under  fuch  improvements  as  to  afford  the 
neceffaries  for  the  fupport  of  a  family.  The  whole 
ftate  refembles  a  well-cultivated  garden  ;  which,  with 
that  degree  of  induftry  that  is  ntceffary  to  happinefs, 
produces  the  neceffaries  and  conveniences  of  life  in 
great  plenty. 

In  1756,  the  number  of  inhabitants  in  Connefticut 
was  130,611;  in  1774,  there  were  197,856  fouls.  In 
18  years,  the  increafe 'was  67,245;  from  1774  to 
1782,  the  increafe  was  but  11,294  perfons.  This 
comparatively  fmall  increafe  of  inhabitants  may  be  fatis- 
faftorily  accounted  for  from  the  dcftruftion  of  the  war, 
and  the  numerous  emigrations  to  Vermont,  the  weftern 
parts  of  New  Hampfhire,  and  other  ftates. 

I'he  inhabitants  are  almoft  entirely  of  Englifh  de- 
fcent.  There  are  no  Dutch,  French,  or  Gei-mans, 
and  very  few  Scotch  or  Irifh  people,  in  any  part  of 
New  England.  _ 

In  addition  to  what  has  been  already  faid  on  thefe  Chara<!lcr, 
particulars  under  New  England,  it  may  be  obferved,  manners, 
that  the  people  of  Connefticut  are  remarkably  fond  of  • 
having  all  their  difputes,  even  thofe  of  the  moft  tri- 
vial kind,  fettled  according  to  law.  The  prevalence 
of  this  litigious  fpirit  affords  employment  and  fupport 
for  a  numerous  body  of  lawyers.  The  number  of  ac- 
tions entered  annually  upon  the  feveral  dockets  in  the 
ftate,  juftifies  the  above  obfervatfons.  That  party 
fpirit,  however,  which  is  the  bane  of  political  happi- 
nefs, has  not  raged  with  fuch  nolence  in  tliis  ftate  as 
in  Maftachufets  and  Rhode-Ifland.  Public  proceed- 
ings have  been  conduftcd,  generally,  and  efpecially  of 
3  late, 


1 


CON 


[    :!>:^7   ] 


CON 


late,  with  mwch-calmnefs  and  candour.  The  people 
are  well  informed  in  regard  to  their  rights,  and  judi- 
cious in  the  mtthods  they  adopt  to  fecurc  them. 

The  clcrfify,  who  are  nunuroua,  and,  as  a  body, 
very  refpeOrtable,  have  hitlicrto  preferved  a  kind  of  a- 
rillocratical  balance  in  the  very  dcmocraiical  govern- 
ment of  the  Hate  ;  whicli  has  happily  operated  as  a 
check  upon  the  overbearing  fpirit  of  repiiblicanihn. 
It  has  been  lamented  tliat  the  unluqipy  religious  dif- 
putes  which  have  too  much  prevailed  among  fome  of 
the  clergy,  and  the  too  great  attention  that  others 
have  paid  to  their  temporal  concerns,  to  the  negleft 
of  their  flocks,  and  an  inattention  to  the  qualifica- 
tions of  thofe  who  have  been  admitted  to  the  facred 
ofiiee,  have,  heretofore,  conllderably  diminiflied  their 
influence.  It  is  a  plealing  circumftance  that  the  tage 
for  theological  difputation  is  abating  ;  and  greater 
ilriftnef'j  is  obferved  in  the  admifl'ion  of  candidates  to 
the  minillry.  Their  influence  is  on  the  increafe  ;  and 
it  IS  no  doubt  to  be  attributed,  in  part,  to  their  in- 
creafmg  influence,  that  an  evident  reformation  in  the 
manners  of  the  people  of  this  Hate  has  taken  place 
hnce  the  peace.  In  regard  to  learning  and  abilities, 
the  clergy,  at  the  prefent  day,  are  equal  to  their  pre- 
deceflbrs  at  any  former  period. 

As  to  ecclefiallical  government  and  difeipline,  each 
church  is  a  feparate  jurifdiftion,  and  claims  authority 
to  choofe  their  own  miaifter,  to  exercife  government, 
and  to  enjoy  gofpel  ordinances  within  itfelf.  The 
churches,  however,  are  not  independent,  of  each  other; 
they  are  aflibciated  for  mutual  benefit  and  convenience. 
The  aflbciations  have  power  to  licence  candidates  for 
the  miniftry,  to  confult  for  the  general  welfare,  and 
to  recommend  meafures  to  be  adopted  by  the  churches, 
but  have  no  authority  to  enforce  them.  When  dif- 
putes  arii'e  in  churches,  councils  are  called,  by  the  par- 
ties, to  fettle  them  ;  but  their  power  is  only  advifory. 
There  are  as  many  adociations  in  the  llate  as  there 
are  counties  ;  and  they  meet  twice  in  a  year.  Thefe 
are  all  combined  in  one  general  aflbciation,  who  meet 
annually. 

All  religions  that  are  confiflent  with  the  peace  of 
fociety  are  tolerated  in  Connefticut  ;  and  a  fpirit  of 
libeiality  and  catholicifra  is  increafing.  There  are 
very  few  religious  fc£ts  in  this  Hate  ;  the  bulk  of  the 
people  are  congregationalifts.  Befides  thefe  there 
are  epifcopalians  and  baptifts ;  and  formerly  there  was 
a  fociety  of  Sandimanians  at  New-Haven  ;  but  they 
are  now  reduced  to  a  very  fmall  number.  The  epif- 
copalian  churches  are  refpectable,  and  are  under  the 
fuperlntendance  of  a  bifhop.  There  were  29  con- 
gregations of  the  baptifls  in  1784.  Thefe  congrega- 
tions, with  thofe  in  the  neighbouring  ftates,  meet  in 
aJ.fociatlons,  by  delegation,  annually. 

There  are  a  great  number  of  very  pleafant  towns, 
both  maritime  and  inland,  in  Connedticut.  It  con- 
tains live  incorporated  towns  or  cities.  Two  of  thefe, 
Hartford  and  New  Haven,  are  the  capitals  of  the 
ftate.  The  general  affembly  is  holden  at  the  former 
in  May,  and  at  the  latter  in  Ociober,  annually.  See 
Hartford  and  A't-ic-HAvr.K. 

In  no  part  of  the  world  is  the  education  of  all  ranks 

of  people  more  attended  to  than  in  Connecticut.     Al- 

,  moft  every  town  in  the  Rate   is   divided  into  dillrifts, 

and  each  diftriet  has  a  public  fchoolkept  in  it  a  greater 

Vol.  V.  Part  I. 


or  Icfs  part  of  every  year.     Somewhat  more  than  one  Conneai- 
third  of  the  monies  arifing  from  a  tax  on  the  polls  and       '"'• 
rateable  eftate  of  the  inhabitants,  is  appropriated  to  the  "~~v-— ^ 
fupport  of  fchools,  in  the  feveral  towns,  for  the  educa- 
tion  of  cliildren  and  youth.     The  law  direfts  that   a 
grammar   fchool  fliall  be  kept  in   every  county   town 
throughout  the  ftate. 

There  is  a  grammar  fchool  at  Hartford,  and  ano- 
ther at  New  Haven,  fnpported  by  a  donation  of  go- 
vernor Hopkins.  This  venerable  and  benevolent  (Gen- 
tleman, in  his  laft  will,  dated  1657,  left  in  the  hands 
of  Tlieophilus  Ei.ton,  Efq;  and  three  others,  a  legacy 
of  I...  1324,  "  as  an  encouragement,  in  thefe  foreign 
plantations,  of  breeding  up  hopeful  youths  both  at 
the  grammar  fchool  and  college."  In  1664,  'his  le- 
gacy was  equally  divided  between  New  Haven  and 
Hartford  ;  and  grammar  fchools  were  erefted,  which 
have  been  fupported  ever  fincc. 

At  Greenfield  there  is  a  refpeftable  academy,  un- 
der the  care  and  inilruftion  of  the  Rev.  l)r  Dwight. 
At  Plainfield  is  another,  under  the  care  of  the  Rei . 
Mr  Benedict.  This  academy  has  fiouriihed  for  feve- 
ral  years,  and  furniflied  a  number  of  ftudenls  for  Yale 
and  Dartmouth  colleges.  At  Norwich  and  Windham, 
likewife,  are  academies  furniflied  with  able  inftruftors; 
each  of  thefe  academies  have  60  or  70  fcholars. 

Yale  College  was  founded  in  1700,  and  remained 
at  Killingworth  until  J  707 — then  at  Saybrook  until 
I  716,  when  it  was  removed  and  fixed  at  New  Haven. 
See  New  Haven.  ,j 

On  the  bank  of  Connecticut  river,  two  miles  from  Min:;s,  mi- 
Middleton,  is  a  lead  mine,  which  was  wrought  during  """''''*•  *"<* 
the  war,  at  the  cxpence  of  the  ftate,  and  was  produc-  "  "''• 
live.     It  is  too  expenfive  to  work  in  time   of  peace. 
Copper  mines  have  been  difcovered  and  opened  in  fe- 
veral  parts  of  the  ftate,  but  have  proved  unprofitable, 
and  are   much   neglected.      Iron  mines  are  numerous 
and   productive.       Steel   ore    has   been   found   in    the 
mountains  between    Woodbury    and    New     Milford. 
Talcs  of  various   kinds,  white,  brown,  and  chocolate 
coloured   cryftals,   ^ink  or   fpclter,   a   femimetal,   and 
feveral  other  foflils  and  metals,  have  been  found  in  Con- 
necticut. ,j 

All  freeholders  in  the  ftate  ave  required  by  law  to  Mode  of 
give  in  lifts  of  their  polls  and  rateable  eftate,  to  per-  k^'y'M 
fons  appointed  in  the  refpective  towns  to  receive  them,  '^''"• 
on  or  before  the  20th  of  Auguft  annually.     Thefe  are 
valued  according  to  law,  arranged  in  proper  order,  and 
fcnt  to  the  general  affembly  annually  in  Mav. 

The  fum  total  of  the  lift  of  the  polls  and  rateable 
eftate  of  the  inhabitants  of  Connefticut,  as  brought 
into  the  general  affembly  in  May  1787,  were  as  fol- 
lows : 

Sum  total  of  the  fiiigle  lift         L.  i,48j,9oi    6  44- 
Affeihuents,  -  -      -    -  47,790  2  9 

One  quarter  of  the  fourfolds,         -         1,176  9  4 

Total,  -  I..  1,533,867  18  5-1 
On  tliis  fum  taxes  are  levied,  fo  much  on  the  pound, 
according  to  the  fum  propofed  to  be  raifed.  A  tax 
of  two-pence  on  the  pound  would  raife  L. 12, 782,  43. 
The  ordinary  annual  expences  of  government  be- 
fore the  war  amounted  to  near  L.  40CO  Sterling,  tx- 
clufive  of  that  which  was  appropriated  to  the  fupport 
of  fchools.     The  expences  have  fince  iucreafed. 

U  u  At 


Conncfli- 
cut. 

13 

Mineral 
fpriiigs. 

14 
Conftiti;- 
tion    £nd 
courts  of 
jullice. 


CON                    [     333     ]  CON 

At  Stafford  is  a  medicinal  fpring,  which  is  faid  U>  quiet  and  peaceable  behaviour,  a  civil  converfation,  and 

be  a   fcvereign  remedy  for  fcorbiitic,  cutsueoiu,    and  freehold  tllate  to  the  value  of  forty  fhill''ngs/>i'r  ««;(««, 

other  difordcrs.     At  Guilfoid  is  a  fprinj;,  whofe  \va-  or  iorty  pounds  pcrfonal  eftate  in  the  hll,  certified  by 

ter,  it  is  faid,  when   feparated    from  the  foimtnin,  will  the  feleft    men  of  the  town  ;   it  is  necciTary  alfo  tliat 

evaporate   even  when   put   i.ito   a  bottle  and  tightly  they   take  the  oath   of  fidelity  to   the   llate.     Their 

corked.  names  arc  enrolled  in  the  town  clerk's  of&ce,  and  they 

It  is  difficult  to  fay  what  is  the  conftitution  of  this  continue  freemen  for  life,   unlefs  disfranchifcd  by  fen- 

ftate.     Contented  with  the  form  of  government  which  tence  of  the  fuperior  court,  on  conviftion  of  mifde- 

originated  from  the  charter  of  Charles  II.  granted  in  meanor. 

1662,  the  people  have  not  been   difpofed  to  run  the  Tne    conrts   are  as  follows:    The  juftices  of  the 

hazard  of  framing  a  new  conftitution  fince  the  flecla-  peace,  of  whom  a  number  are  annually  appointed  in 

ration    of  independence.     They  hate  tacitly  adopted  each  town  by  the  general  affembly,  have  authority  to 

their  old  charter  as  the   ground  of  civil   government,  hear  and  determine  civil  actions,  where  the  demand 

fo  far  as  it  is  applicable  to  an  independent  people.  docs  not  exceed  four  pounds.      If  the  demand  exceeds 

Agreeable  to  this    charter,  the  fupreme  legiflative  forty   Ihillings,   an  appeal  to   the    county   is  allowed, 

authority  of  the  ftate  is  veiled  in  a  governor,  deputy-  They  have  cognizance  of  fmall  offences,  and  may  pu- 


Conneili" 
cut. 


governor,  twelve  afiiilants  or  counfcllors,  and  the  re- 
prefcntatives  of  the  people,  ft  vied  the  G:;ieml  ylJJ'cmbly. 
The  governor,  deputy-governor,  and  afTiftants,  are  an- 
mially  chofen  by  the  freemen  i«  the  month  of  May. 
The  reprefentatives  (their  number  not  to  exceed  two 
from  each  town)  are  chofen  by  the  freemen  twice  a- 
year,  to  attend  the  two  annual  feffions,  on  the  fccond 
Thurfdays  of  May  and  Odober.     This  aftcmbly  has 


nilh  by  fine  not  exceeding  forty  fliiliings,  or  whip- 
ping not  exceeding  ten  Itripes,  or  fitting  in  the  ftocks. 
There  ate  eight  county  courts  in  tlie  ftate,  held  in 
the  feveral  counties  by. one  iudge  and  four  julUccs  of 
the  quorum,  who  have  jurifdiction  of  all  criminal  cafes, 
arifing  within  their  refpeClive  counties,  where  the  pu- 
nilhment  does  not  extend  to  life,  limb,  or  baniftimcnt. 


They  have  original  jurildidlion  of  all  civil  actions 
power  to  erect  judicatories,  for  the  trial  of  caufes  civil  which  exceed  the  jurifdiclion  of  a  juftice.  Either 
and  criminal, and  to  ordain  and  eftablifti  laws  for  fettling  party  may' appeal  to  the  fuperior  court,  if  the  demand 
the  forms  and   ceremonies  of  government.      By  thefe     exceeds   twenty  pounds,    except   on   bonds   or    notes 


laws  the  general  affcmbly  is  divided  into  two  branches, 
called  the  upper  and  lower  houfes.  The  upper  houfe 
is  compofed  of  tlie  governer,  deputy-governor,  and  af- 
fiftants;  the  lower  houfe,  of  thereprcfentativesof  people. 
No  law  can  pafs  withouttheconcurrence  of  bothhoufes. 
The  judges  of  the  fuperior  comt  hold  their  offices  du- 
ring the  pleafure  of  the  general  affembly.  The  judges 
of  the  county  courts,  and  juftices,  are  annually  ap- 
pointed. Sheriffs  are  appointed  by  the  governor  and 
council,  without  limitation  of  time.  Tlie  governor 
is  captain-general  of  the  militia,  the  deputy-governor 
lieutenant-general.      All  other  military  offices  are  ap' 


vouched  by  two  witnefTes. 

There  are  feveral  courts  of  probate  in  each  county, 
confifting  of  one  judge.  The  peculiar  province  of 
this  court  is,  the  probate  of  wills,  granting  adminiftra- 
tion  ofintellate  eftates,  ordering  diilribution  of  them, 
and  appointing  guardians  for  minors,  &:c.  An  appeal 
lies  from  any  decree  of  this  coiirt  to  the  fuperior. 
court. 

The  fuperior  court  confifts  of  five  judges.  It  has 
authority  in  all  criminal  cafes  extending  to  life,  limb, 
or  banifliment,  and  other  high  crimes  and  mifderaea- 
nors,  to  gant  divorces,  and  to  hear  and  determine  all 


pointed  by  the  affembly,  and  commifGoned  by  the  go-  civil  actions  brought  by  appeal  from  the  coimty  courts, 

vernor.  *■  or  the  court  of  probate,  and  to  corretl  the  errors  of  all 

The  mode  of  elefting  the  governor,   deputy  gover-  inferior  courts.     This  is  a  circuit  court,  and  has  two 

nor,  afiiilants,   treafurer,  and  fecretary,  is  as  follows  :  ftatcd  fcflions  in  each  county  annually.     The  fuperior 

The  freemen  in  the  feveral  towns  meet  on  the  Monday  and  county   courts  try  matters  of  fa£t  by  a  jury,  or 

next  after  the   firft  Tuefday   in  April,  annually,   and  without  if  the  patties  will  agree. 

give  in  their  votes  for  the  perfons  they  choofe  for  the         There  is  a  fupreme  court  of  errors,  confifting  of  the 

faid  offices  refpeftively,  with  their  names  written  on  a  deputy  governor  and  the  twelve  afiiftants.     Their  fole 

piece  of  paper,  which  are  received  and  fealed  up  by  a  bufinefs  is  to  determine  writs  of  error  brought   oa 

conftable  in  open  meeting,  the  votes  for  each  office  by  judgments  of  the  fuperior  court,  where  the  error  com- 

themfelves,  with  the  name  of  the  town  and  office  writ-  plained  of  appears  on   the  record.      They  have  two 

ten  en  the  outfide.     Thefe  votes,  thus  fealed,  are  fent  ftated  fcfiions   annually,  T/a.   on  the  Tuefdays  of  the 

to  the  general  affembly  in  May,  and  there  counted  by  weeks  preceding  the  ftated  feflions  of  the  general  af- 

a  committee  from  both  houfes.     All  freemen  are  eli-  fembly. 

gible  to  any  office  in  government.     In  choofing  affift-         The  county  court  is  a  court  of  chancery,  empowered, 
ants,  twenty   perfons  are  nominated,   by  the  vote  of  to   hear  and   determine    cafes    in   equity,  where    the 
each  freeman,  at  the  freemen's  meeting  for  choofing  matter  in  demand  does  not  exceed  one  hundred  pounds, 
reprefentatives  in   September  annually.     Thefe  votes  The  fuperior  court  has  cognizance  of  all  cafes  where 
are  fealed  up,  and  fent  to  the  general  aflfembly  in  Oc-  the  demand  exceeds  that  fum.     Error  may  be  brought 
tober,  and  are   there  counted  by  a  committee  of  both  from  the   county  to  the  fuperior  court,  and  from  the 
houfes,   and  the  tvirenty  perfons  who   have    the  moil  fuperiort  court  to   the   fupreme   court   of  errors,   on. 
votes  fland  in   nomination  ;  out  of  which  number  the  judgment  in  cafes  of  equity  as  well  as  of  law. 
twelve  who   have  the  grcatcft  ntmtbe.r  of  votes,  given  The  general  affembly  only  have  power  to  grant  par- 
ty the  freemen  at  their  meeting  in  April,  are  in  May  dons  and  reprieves,  to  grant  commiffions  of  bankruptcy, 
declared  affiftants    in   the  manner    above    rnentioned.  or   proteiSl   the   perfous   and  eftates   of   unfortunate 
The  qualifications  of  freemen  are,  maturity  in  years,  debtors. 

The 


CON 


[     339     ] 


G     O     N 


^'-  The  common  law  of  England,  fo  far  as  it  is  appli- 
cable ti)  tliis   country,  is  coiiiidered   as   the  common 

""  law  of  this  llato.  The  reports  of  adjudication  in  the 
courts  of  king's  bem.h,  common  picas,  and  chancery, 
are  read  in  the  courts  of  this  (late  as  authorities  ;  yet 
the  judijts  do  not  confider  them  as  conclufively  bind- 
ing', unlefs  founded  on  iolid  reafons  which  will  apply 
in  this  Hate,  or  fanftioned  by  concurrent  adjudications 
of  their  own  courts. 

The  feudal  fyftem  of  defcents  was  never  adopted  In 
this  ilate.  All  the  real  eilate  of  intcftates  is  divided 
equally  among  ihe  children,  males  and  females,  except 
that  the  eldell  fon  has  a  double  portion.  And  all 
ellates  given  in  tail,  mull  be  given  to  fomc  perfon  then 
in  being,  or  to  their  immediate  iffiie,  and  fliall  become 
fee-fimple  eltates  to  the  iifue  of  the  firll  donee  in 
tail.  The  widow  of  an  inteftate  is  intltlcd  to  a  third 
part  of  the  perfonal  eltate  for  ever,  and  to  her  dower, 
or  third  pai  t  of  the  houfes  and  lands  belonging  to  the 
inteftate  at  the  time  of  his  death,  during  her  life, 
of  The  praftice  of  law  in  this  ftate  has  more  fimplicity, 
but  lefs  precifion,  than  in  England.  Aiilftants  and 
judges  are  iinpowered  to  iffue  writs  through  the  ilate, 
and  juftices  tlirough  their  refpedlive  counties.  In 
thefe  writs,  the  fubllance  of  the  complaints  or  the  de- 
clarations mull  be  contained  ;  and  if  neither  of  the 
parties  fliow  good  reafoji  for  delay,  the  caufes  are 
heard  and  determined  the  fame  term  to  which  the  vi'rits 
are  returnable.  Few  of  the  ficlions  of  law,  fo  com- 
mon in  tlie  Englilh  piartice,  are  known  in  this  (late. 
The  plaintiff  always  has  his  elcftion  to  attach  or  fum- 
mon  the  defendant.  Attoriiies  are  admitted  and  cpia- 
litied  by  the  county  courts.  Previous  to  their  ad- 
miflion  to  the  bar,  they  mull  ftudy  two  years  with  a 
praftifrng  attorney  in  the  Ilate,  if  they  have  had  a  college 
education,  and  three  years  if  they  have  not ;  their 
inorals  mufl  be  good,  and  their  charafters  unblemilhed; 
and  they  mull  fuftain  an  examination  by  the  attorneys 
of  the  court  of  the  county  where  they  are  admitted, 
and  be  by  them  recommended  to  the  court.  When 
admitted  to  the  county  court,  they  can  practice,  with- 
out other  qualifications,  in  any  court  in  the  ftate. 
There  are  upon  an  average  about  thirteen  attornies  to 
each  county,  one  hundred  and  four  in  the  ftate;  a  very 
great  proportion  for  the  real  exigencies  of  the  people. 
Yet  from  the  litigious  fpirit  of  the  citizens,  the  inoft 
of  them  find  employment  and  fupport.  There  Is  no 
attorney  general,  but  there  is  one  attorney  to  the  ftate 
in  each  county. 

y.  The  prefent  territory  of  Connecticut,  at  the  time 
of  the  firft  arrival  of  the  Englifh,  was  poflciTed  by  tiie 
Pequot,  the  Mohegan,-  Podunk,  and  many  other  fmall- 
er  tribes  of  Indians. 

The  Pequots  were  nrrmerous  and  warlike.  Their 
country  extended  along  the  fca  coaft  from  Paukatuk 
to  Connefticut  river.  ■  About  the  year  1630,  this 
powerful  tribe  extended  their  conquells  over  a  confi- 
derable  part  of  Conneftlcut,  over  all  Long  Ifland,  and 
part  of  Narraganfet.  Saftacus,  who  was  the  grand 
monarch  of  the  whole  country,  was  king  of  this  na- 
tion. The  feat  of  his  dominion  was  at  New  London ; 
the  ancient  Indian  name  of  which  was  Peauot. 

The  Mohegans  were  a  numerous  tribe,  and  their 
territory  extenfive.     Their  ancient  claim,  which  was 


furveyed  and  fettled  by  commiflioners  from  queen  Anne  C'lnneiJli- 
in  I  705,  comprehended  all  New  London  county,  ex-       '"*; 
cept  a  narrow  drip  of  about  eight  miles  wide,  on  the  ~"  ' 
fea  coaft,  almoil  the  whole  of  the  county  of  Windham, 
and  a  part  of  the   counties  of  Tolland  and  Hartford. 
Uncas,  dlilinguiftred  for  his  friendftiip  to  the  Englifti, 
was  the  Sachem  of  this  tribe. 

The  Podunks  inhabited  Eaft  Hartford,  and  the  cir- 
cumjacent country.  The  firft  Sachem  of  this  tribe, 
of  whom  the  Englifti  had  any  knowledge,  was  Ta- 
tanimoo.  He  was  able  to  bring  into  the  field  more 
than  200  fighting  men.   ' 

The  firft  grant  cf  Connecticut  was  made  by  the 
Plymouth  council  to  the  carl  of  Warwick,  in  1630, 
and  confirmed  by  his  majcily  in  council  the  fame  year. 
This  grant  comprehended  all  *hat  part  of  New  Eng- 
land which  lies  weft  from  Narraganfett  river,  izomilcf 
on  the  fea  coatl,  from  thence,  in  latitude  and  breadth 
aforefaid,  to  the  fouth  fea.  The  year  following,  the 
earl  aflTigned  this  grant  to  lord  Say  and  Seal,  lord 
Brook,  and  nine  others. 

No  Enghlh  fettlements  were  attempted  in  Connec- 
ticut until  the  year  1633.,  when  a  number  of  Indian 
traders,  having  purchaftJ  of  Zequaflon  and  Natawa- 
nute,  two  principal  Sachems,  a  tract  of  land  at  the 
mouth  of  Little  river  in  Windfor,  built  a  houfe  and 
fortified  it,  and  ever  after  maintained  their  right  of 
foil  upon  the  river. 

The  fame  year,  a  little  before  the  arrival  of  the 
Engliih,  a  company  of  Dutch  traders  came  to  Hart- 
ford, and  built  a  houfe  which  they  called  the  Hlrfc  of 
Good  Hope,  and  erected  a  fmall  fort,  in  which  they 
planted  two  cannon.  The  remains  of  this  fettlement 
are  ftill  vifible  on  the  bank  of  Connefticut  river.  This 
was  the  only  fettlement  of  the  Dutch  in  Connecticut 
in  thefe  ancient  times.  The  Dutch,  and  after  them 
the  province  of  New  York,  for  a  long  time  claimed  as 
far  call  as  the  weftern  bank  of  Connecticut  river.  It 
belongs  to  the  profefted  hillorlan  to  prove  or  difprove 
thejuftice  of  this  claim.  Douglas  fays,  "  The  par- 
tition line  between  New  York  and  ConneClicut,  as 
eftablilhed  December  I.  1664,  run  from  the  mouth 
of  Mcmoroncok  river,  a  little  weft  from  Byram  river, 
N.  N.  W.  and  was  the  ancient  enjierly  limits  of  Neiu 
?"or/',  until  November  23.  1683,  when  the  line  was 
run  nearly  the  fame  as  it  is  now  fettled."  If  Douglas 
is  right,  the  New  York  claim  could  not  have  been  well 
founded. 

In  1634,  Lord  Say  and  Seal,  &c.  feut  over  a  fmall 
number  of  men,  who  built  a  fort  at  Saybrook,  and  held 
a  treaty  with  the  Pequot  Indians,  who  in  a  formal 
manner  gave  to  the  Englifti  their  right  to  Connedllcut 
river  and  the  adjacent  country. 

In  1 635,  the  Plymouth  council  granted  to  the  Duk; 
of  Hamilton,  all  lands  between  Narraganfett  and  Con- 
nefticut  rivers,  and  back  into  the  country  as  far 
as  Maffachulcts  fouth  line.  This  covered  a  part  of 
the  Earl  of  Warwick's  patent,  and  occafioned  fome 
difputes  In  the  colony.  There  were  Icveral  attempts  to 
revive  the  HamHton  claim,  but  were  never  profecuted. 

In  October  of  this  year,   about  fixty  perfons  fi-om 

Newtown,  Dorchefter,  arid  Walertown,  in  Maffachu- 

ftts,  came  and  fettled  at  Hartford,  Wethersfield,  and 

W^indfor,  in  Connedticut ;  and  the  June  following  the 

U  u  2  fa- 


CON 


famous  Ml-  Hooker  and  his  company  came  and  fettled 
at  Hartford,  and  was  a  friend  and  father  to  the  colony 
to  the  day  of  his  death. 

The  fnll  court  held  in  Connefticut  was  at  Hartford, 
April  26.  1636. 

The  year  1 63  7  was  diilinguifhcd  by  ihc  war  with 
the  Pequots.  This  warlike  nation  had,  for  fome  time, 
been  troublefome  neighbouis.  They  follcited  the  Nar- 
raganfctts  to  join  them  in  extiipating  the  Engliili. 
They  had  furprized  and  killed  fcveral  of  the  Enghfli 
upon  ConneClicut  river.  Thcfe  threatening  appearan- 
ces and  aftual  hoftilities  iii-Jueed  the  three  colonies 
of  Maflachufets,  Plymouth,  and  Connecticut,  to  com- 
bine their  forces,  to  carry  the  war  into  their  country, 
and  to  attempt  the  entire  dellruiftion  of  the  whole 
tribe.  Myantonomo,  the  Narraganfet  Sachem,  and 
Uncas,  Sachem  of  the  Mohegans,  fent  to  the  Englifh 
and  offered  their  fervicc  to  join  with  them  againft  the 
Pequots.  Forces  were  accordingly  raifed  in  all  the 
colonies  ;  but  thofe  of  Connefticut,  on  account  of 
their  vicinity  to  the  enemy,  were  firll  in  aftion.  Cap- 
tain Mafon,  with  80  Engliih  and  loo  Indians  from 
Connecticut  river,  proceeded  by  water  to  the  Narra- 
ganfett's  country,  where  200  of  that  tribe  joined  him. 
On  the  24th  of  May,  they  began  their  march  for  Saf- 
facus  fort  on  Pequot,  now  Thames  river.  They  af- 
terwards determined  firll  to  affault  Myftic  fort,  which 
was  fituated  between  them  and  Pequot  river.  On  the 
morning  of  the  26th  of  May  the  attack  was  made.  . 
The  Indians,  after  a  midnight  revel,  were  buried  in  a 
deep  fleep  At  the  moment  of  their  approach,  the 
centinel  happened  to  be  gone  into  a  wigwam  to  light 
his  pipe.  The  barking  of  a  dog  gave  the  alarm.  The 
Indians  awoke,  feized  their  arrows,  and  began  their 
hideous  yell.  They  were  joined  in  their  tremendous 
noife  by  the  Indians  in  the  Englifli  army,  who  were 
in  the  rear  and  afraid  to  approach.  The  battle  was 
warm  and  bloody,  and  the  vicitory  complete.  The 
fort  was  taken — about  70  wigwams  burnt — 50  or  60 
of  the  Indians  were  killed — many  were  wounded  and 
taken,  and  the  reft  efcaped.  Saffaeus  and  his  warriors 
at  Pequot,  ilruck  with  terror  at  the  news  of  this  de- 
feat, demolirtied  their  principal  fort,  burnt  their  wig- 
wams, and  fled  to  the  wellward.  Capt.  Stoughton, 
with  160  men  from  MafTachnfets,  had  by  this  time 
arrived  at  Saybrook.  He  with  his  forces  joined  Cap- 
tain Mafon  and  pnrfued  the  Indians,  and  overtook  and 
furrounded  them  in  a  great  fwanip  near  Fairfield.  A 
Sachem  and  ninety-nine  women  and  children  came  out 
and  delivered  thcmfelves  up  to  their  purfuers.  Terms 
of  peace  were  offered  to  the  reft  :  but  after  a  ftiort 
parley  they  determined,  that  as  they  had  lived  they 
would  die  together.  There  were  about  80  who 
made  this  refolution.  Part  of  thefe  efcaped  by  means 
of  the  darknefs  of  the  night.  Tlie  reft  were  either 
killed  or  taken.  In  this  aftion  the  Indians  had  guns, 
which  is  the  firft  account  of  their  having  ufed  them. 
Saffaeus  fled  to  the  Mohawks,  by  whom  it  is  reported 
he  was  murdered  ;  but  it  is  more  probable  that  he  and 
his  company  incorporated  with  them.  Many  of  the 
Indian  captives  were  unjiiftifiably  fent  to  Bermudas  and 
fold  for  riavcs.  The  Pequot  tribe  was  wholly  extin- 
gniflied.  This  fuccefsful  expedition  ftruck  the  Indi- 
ans that  remained  with  fuch  terror,  as  rcftrained  them 
from  open  hoililities  for  near  forty  years  after. 


[    340    3 


CON 


The  Englifli  thus  obtained  the  country  eafl;  of  the  Conn^ai- 

Dutch  fettlements,  by  right  of  conqueft.     The  pur-       ^' 

fuit  of  the  Indians  led  to  an  acquaintance  with  the  ' 
lands  on  the  fea  coaft  from  Saybrook  to  Fairfield.  It 
was  reported  to  be  a  very  fine  country.  This  favour- 
able report  induced  Meffrs  Eaton  and  Hopkins,  two 
very  refpetlable  London  merchants,  and  Mr  Daven- 
port, a  man  of  diftinguiflKd  piety  and  abilities,  wiih 
their  company,  who  arrived  this  year  (1637)  from 
London,  to  think  of  this  part  of  the  country  as  the 
place  of  their  fettlement.  Their  friends  in  Maffachu- 
fets,  forry  to  part  with  fo  valuable  a  company,  dif- 
fuaded  them  from  their  purpofe.  '  Influenced,  how- 
ever, by  the  promifing  profpctts  which  the  country  af- 
forded, and  flattering  themfelves  that  they  (hould  be 
out  of  the  juiifdidtion  of  a  general  governor,  with 
which  the  country  was  from  time  to  time  threatened, 
they  determined  to  proceed.  Accordingly,  In  March 
1638,  with  the  confent  of  their  friends  on  Connecti- 
cut river,  they  fettled  at  New  Haven,  and  laid  the 
foundation  of  a  flouriftiing  colony,  of  which  Quinnl- 
piak,  now  New  Haven,  was  the  chief  town.  The 
firft  public  worfliip,  in  this  new  plantation,  was  at- 
tended on  Lord's  day,  April  iS.  1638,  under  a  large 
fpreading  oak.  The  Rev.  Mr  Davenport  preached 
from  Matt.  Hi.  i.  on  the  temptations  of  the  wildcrnefs. 
Both  colonies,  by  voluntary  compatt,  fonned  them- 
felves into  diftlnct  commonwealths,  and  remained  fo 
until  their  union  in  1665. 

In  1639,  the  three  towns  on  Connefticut  river,  al- 
ready mentioned,  finding  themfelves  without  the  li- 
mits of  any  jurifdiftion,  formed  themfelves  into  a  body 
politic,  and  agreed  upon  articles  of  civil  government. 
Thefe  articles  were  the  foundation  of  Connefticut 
charter,  which  was  granted  in  1662.  The  fubilance 
of  the  articles,  fo  far  as  they  refpeft  the  holding  of 
affemblies,  the  time  and  manner  of  eletting  magiftrates 
and  other  civil  officers  (except  that  in  the  old  con- 
federation no  perfon  was  to  be  chofen  governor  more 
than  once  in  two  years),  and  the  extent  of  legldatlve 
powers,  was  transferred  into,  and  eftabliflied  in  faid 
charter. 

The  firft  church  was  gathered  in  New  Haven  this 
year,  and  confifted  of  feven  members.  Thefe  were 
chofen  by  the  fcttlers  after  Mr  Davenport  had  preach- 
ed from  the  words  of  Solomon,  '  Wifdoin  hath  build-  j 
'  ed  her  houfe,  flie  hath  hewed  out  her  feven  pillars.'  j 
Thefe  men  were  indeed  the  pillars  of  the  church,  to 
whom  the  reft  were  added  as  they  became  qualified. 
They  were  alfo  the  court  to  try  all  civil  aftions. 

The  firft  fettlers  in  New  Haven  had  all  things  com- 
mon; all  purchafes  were  made  in  the  name  and  for  the 
ufe  of  the  whole  plantation  ;  and  the  lands  were  ap- 
portioned out  to  each  family  according  to  their  num- 
ber and  original  ftock. 

At  their  firft  election,  in  October  1639,  Mr  Theo- 
phllus  Eaton  was  chofen  governor  for  the  firft  year. 
Their  eleftions,  by  agreement,  were  to  be  annual  ; 
and  the  word  of  God  their  only  rule  in  conducting 
the  affairs  of  government  in  the  plantation. 

In  1643,  the  articles  of  confederation  between  the 
four  New  England  colonies,  mentioned  under  the  ar- 
ticle New  England,  were  unanimoufiy  adopted  by 
the  colonies  of  New  Haven  and  Connefticut. 

The  Englifli  fettlement  on  Delaware,  which  was 

irndei 


CON 


[ 


Conneiai-  under  tlie  jurifdiftion  of  New  Haven,  was  furpn'zed 
cut.  by  the  Swedes,  and  the  people  put  in  irons,  under  a 
""""v  falfe  pretence  that  they  were  entering  into  a  contiji- 

lacv  with  the  Indians  to  extirpate  the  Swedes. 

I'he  general  conrt  of  Nev/  Haven,  this  year,  eRa- 
bliftied  it  as  a  fnndamental  article  not  to  be  difputed. 
That  none  be  admitted  as  free  burgeffes  but  church 
members,  and  that  none  but  fuch  Ihould  vote  at  elec- 
tions. They  alfo  ordained.  That  each  town  choofc 
from  anionir  thenifelves  judges  (church  members)  to  be 
a  court,  to  have  cognizance  of  all  civil  aib'ons  not  ex- 
ceeding twenty  pounds  ;  and  of  criminal  caufes,  where 
the  punifhment  was,  fitting  in  the  ilocks,  whipping, 
and  fining  not  exceeding  five  pounds.  There  was  li- 
berty of  appeal  from  this  to  the  court  of  magiftratcs. 
The  court  of  magillrates  confiiled  of  all  the  magi- 
ftratcs throughout  the  colony,  who  were  to  meet  twice 
a-year  at  New  Haven,  for  the  trial  of  all  capital  cau- 
fes. Six  made  a  quorum.  The  general  court  was  to 
confifl  of  the  governor,  deputy-governor,  magillrates, 
and  two  reprefcntatives  from  each  town.  The  annual 
cletlion  of  ofHcers  of  government  was  at  this  time  efta- 
bliilicd,  and  has  ever  fince  continued. 

The  unfettltd  ftate  of  the  colony  had  liitherto  pre- 
vented their  eilablilhing  a  code  of  laws.  To  fupply 
this  defedt,  the  general  court  ordered,  '  Thut  the  ju- 
dicial laws  of  God,  as  they  were  delivered  to  Mofes, 
and  as  they  are  a  fence  to  the  moral,  being  neither 
typical  nor  ceremonial,  nor  having  any  reference  to 
Canaan,  fliall  be  accounted  of  moral  equity  and  gene- 
rally bind  all  offenders,  and  be  rule  to  all  the  courts 
in  this  jurifdittion  in  their  proceedings  againft  offen- 
ders, until  they  be  branched  out  into  particulars  here- 
after.' 

About  this  time  a  war  broke  out  between  the  Mo- 
liegan  and  Narraganiett  Indians.  A  perfonal  quarrel 
between  Myantonomo,  fachem  of  the  Narraganfetts, 
and  Uncas  fachem  of  the  Mohegans,  was  the  founda- 
tion of  the  war.  Myantonomo  raifed  an  army  of  900 
warriors,  and  marched  towards  the  Mohegan  country. 
Uncas  by  his  fpies  received  timely  notice  of  their  ap- 
proach. His  feat  of  refidence  was  in  fome  part  of 
Norwich.  He  quickly  collefted  600  of  his  braveil 
warriors,  and  told  them,  '  The  Narraganfetts  muft 
not  come  into  our  town ;  we  muft  meet  them.'  They 
accordingly  marched  about  three  miles  to  a  large  plain, 
where  the  two  armies  met,  and  halted  within  bow-lhot 
of  each  other.  A  parley  was  propofed  by  Uncas,  and 
agreed  to  by  Myantonomo.  The  fachems  met,  and 
Uncas  addreffed  his  enemy  as  follows.  '  You  have  a 
great  many  brave  men  :  fo  have  I.  You  and  I  have 
quarrelled  ;  but  thefe  warriors,  what  have  they  done  ? 
Shall  they  die  to  avenge  a  private  quarrel  between  us  ? 
No.  Come  like  a  biave  man,  as  you  pretend  to  be, 
and  let  us  fight.  If  you  kill  mc,  my  men  fliall  be 
yours;  if  I  kill  you,  your  men  lliall  be  mine.'  Myan- 
tonomo replied.':  '  My  men  came  to  fight,  and  they 
fhall  fight.'  Uncas,  like  an  experienced  warrior,  a.- 
ware  of  the  refult  of  the  conference  from  the  fuperior 
force  of  his  enemy,  had  previoufly  fignificd  to  his  men, 
that  if  Myantonomo  refufed  to  fight  him  in  tingle 
combat,  he  would  immediately  fall,  which  was  to  be 
the  fignal  for  them  to  begin  the  attack.  As  foon 
thei-efore  as  Myantonomo  had  linifhed  his  laconic 
jjecch,,  Uncas  dropped  :  his  men  inftantly  obeyed  the 


341     ]  CON 

fignal,  and  poured  in  a  fliower  of  arrows  upon  the  un-  Conreifli- 
fufpecting  Narraganfetts,  and  rufliing  on  with  their  ^"''  . 
horrid  yells  and  favage  fiercenefs,  put  them  to  flight.  """Y-""^ 
Many  were  killed  on  the  fpot,  the  rell  were  clofely 
purfued,  and  fome  were  precipitately  driven  down 
craggy  precipices,  and  dafhed  in  pieces.  At  a  place 
called,  from  this  event.  Sachem's  pLihi,  Uncas  over- 
took and  feized  Myantonomo  by  the  flioulder.  They 
fat  down  together;  and  Uncai  with  a  hoop  called  in 
his  men,  and  the  battle  ceafed.  Doubtful  what  to  do 
with  the  royal  prifoner,  Uncas  and  his  warriors,  in 
council,  determined  to  carry  him  to  the  governor  and 
council  at  Hartford,  and  be  advifed  by  them.  Thither  he 
was  accordingly  condudted.  The  governor  liaving  advi- 
fed with  his  council,  told  Uncas,  that  the  Enghlh  were 
not  then  at  war  with  the  Narraganfetts,  and  of  courfc 
that  it  was  not  proper  for  them  to  intermeddle  in  the 
matter.  Uncas  was  left  to  do  with  him  as  he  picafed. 
Myantonomo  was  conducted  back  to  the  plain  where 
he  was  taken,  and  put  to  death  by  Uncas  himfelf. 
The  tragic  fcene  did  not  end  with  his  death.  Uncas, 
after  the  manner  of  the  Indians,  with  his  tomahawk 
cut  off  a  large  piece  of  flcfh  from  the  fiioulder  of  his 
fiaughtered  enemy,  broiled  and  eat  it,  faying,  with 
an  air  of  favage  triumph,  '  It  is  the  fweeteft  meat  I 
ever  eat.  It  makes  me  have  a  ftout  heart.'  His  body 
was  afterwards  buried,  and  a  pillar  erefted  over  it, 
the  remains  of  which  are  vifible  to  this  day. 

The  Narraganfetts  were  greatly  enraged  at  the  death 
of  their  prince,  and  refolved  to  take  vengeance  on  the 
Mohegans.  The  united  colonies  interpofed  to  pre- 
vent a  war  between  them,  but  in  vain.  The  Naira- 
ganfttts  refolutely  declared,  they  would  continue  the 
war  until  they  had  Uncas's  head.  But  as  Uncas  had 
ever  been  a  friend  to  the  Englifh,  they  joined  him  a- 
gainft  his  enemies,  and  were  viftorious.  Such,  how- 
ever, was  the  enmity  of  the  Narraganfetts  to  the  Eng- 
hfh,  that  they  afterwards  fent  fome  of  their  men  to 
Uncas,  with  large  prefents,  to  induce  him  to  join  with 
them  in  a  war  with  the  colonies.  Uncas  replied, 
"  Go  tell  your  king  that  I  will  go  to  Norwich,  and 
advife  with  Major  John  Mafon  and  Mr  Fitch  ;  if  tiicy 
tell  me  to  join  him  and  fight  againft  tiie  Englilli,  I 
will  join  him."  In  the  war  that  happened  foon  after, 
Uncas  alTifted  the  Englifh,  and  the  Narraganfetts  were 
fubdued,  and  never  after  were  formidable. 

In  confidcration  of  the  fuccefs  and  increafe  of  the 
New  England  colonics,  and  that  they  had  been  of  no 
charge  to  the  nation,  and  in  profpeft  of  tlieir  being 
in  future  very  ferviceable  to  it,  the  Englilli  parlia- 
ment, March  10.  1643,  granted  them  an  exemp- 
tion from  all  cuiloms,  fubfidies,  and  other  duties,  until 
further  order. 

In  1644,  the  Connefticut  adventurers  purchafcd  of 
Mr  Feiuvick,  agent  for  I^ord  Say  and  Seal,  and  Lord 
Brook,  their  right  to  the  colony  of  Connecticut,  for 
L.  1600. 

Tiie  hiftory  of  Connefticut  is  marked  with  traces 
of  the  fame  fpirit  which  has  been  mentioned  as 
charaderillic  of  the  Malfachufets,  in  different  ftnges 
of  their  hiftory.  Indeed,  as  Maifachufets  was  the 
ftock  whence  Connefticut  pruixeded,  this  is  to  be  ex- 
pected. 

The  colonies  of  Conncfticut  and  New  Haven,  from 
their  firft  fctllement,  ihcreafed  rapidly;  trafts  of  land 

►were 


CON 


[     .H2     ] 


CON 


Connefll-  were  purchafed  of  the  Indians,  and  new  towns  fettled 
'^"'-       from  Stamford  to  Stoiiiiij^toii,  and  far  back  into  tl)e 
*        '  country,  wlien,  in  1661,   Major  John  Mafon,  as  agent 
for  the  colony,  bought  of  the  natives  all  lands  which 
had  not  before  been  purcbafed  by    particular  towns, 
and  made  a  ^lublic  fuvrender  of  them  to  the  colony,  in 
the  piofLUce   of  the  general  affembly.     Having  done 
thefe  things,  the  colonies  petitioned  King  Charles  II. 
for  a  charter,  and    their   petition    was   granted.      His 
Majefty,  on   the  23d  of  April  \66z,  iffued  his  letters 
patent  under  the  great  feal,   ordaining  that  tlie  colony 
of  Conneclicut  Ihould  fur  ever  hereafter   be  one  body 
corporate  and  politic,  in  fact  and  in  name,  confirming  to 
them  their  ancient  grant  and  purchafe,  and  fixing  their 
boundaries  as  follows,  viz.  "  All  that  part  of  his  Ma- 
jelty's  dominions  in  New  England,  in  i^mcrica,  hound- 
ed call  by  Narraganfett  river,  commonly  called  Narra- 
ganfett  hay,  whete   the   river  faUtth   into  the  iea  ;  and 
on  the   north  by  the   line   of  Malfachufcts  plantation, 
and  on  the  fouth  by  the  fea,  and  in  longitude   as  the 
line  of  the  Maflachufets  colony,  running  from  eaft  to 
weft,  that  is  to  fay,  from  the  faid  Narriiganfttt  bay  on 
the  eaft,  to  the  foutli  fea  on  the  weil  parr,  with  the 
jflands  thereunto  belonging."     This  charter  has  ever 
lince  remained  the  balls   of  the  government  of  Con- 
neftlcut. 

Such  was  the  ignorance  of  the  Europeans  refpecSl- 
ing  the  geography  of  America,  when  they  lirft  alfumed 
the  right  of  giving  away  lands  which  the  God  of  na- 
ture had  long  before  given  to  the  Indians,  that  their 
patents  extended  they  knew  not  where,  many  of  them 
were  of  doubtful  conftruftion,  and  very  often  covered 
each  other  in  part,  and  have  produced  innumerable 
tlifputes  and  mifchiefs  in  the  colonies,  fome  of  which 
are  not  fettled  to  this  day.  Connefticut  conftrued  her 
charter  literally,  and  paffing  over  New  York,  which 
was  then  in  poffefrion  of  the  fubjefts  of  a  Chrlillan 
prince,  claimed,  in  latitude  and  breadth  mentioned 
therein,,  to  the  South  Sea.  Accordingly  purchafes 
were  made  of  the  Indians,  on  the  Delaware  river,  weft 
of  the  wcilern  bounds  of  New  York,  and  vilthin  the 
fuppofed  hmits  of  Connecticut  charter,  and'fettle- 
ments  were  made  thereon  by  people  from,  and  under 
the  jurlfdliSlIon  of,  Conneftieut.  The  charter  of  Penn- 
fylvania,  granted  to  William  Perm,  in  1681,  covered 
thefe  fetthments.  This  laid  the  foundation  for  a  dif- 
pute,  which  for  a  long  time  w?.s  maintained  with 
warmth  on  both  fides.  The  matter  was  at  laft  fub- 
mitted  to  gentlemen  choftn  for  the  purpofe,  who  de- 
cided the  difpute  in  favour  of  Pennl.lvania.  Many, 
however,  ftiU  afTert  the  julliee  of  the  Connecticut 
claim.  The  ilate  of  Connecticut  has  lately  ceded  to 
Congrefs  all  their  lands  weft  of  Pennfylvania,  except  a 
referve  of  20  miles  fquare.  This  ceffion  Congrefs  ha\'e 
accepted,  and  thereby  Indubitably  eftabliihed  the  rig  lit 
of  Connecticut  to  the  referve. 

The  colony  of  New  Haven,  though  unconneCt- 
jed  with  the  colony  of  Connefticut,  was  compre- 
hended within  the  limits  of  their  charter,  and,  as 
they  concluded,  within  their  jurlfdICtion..  But  New 
Haven  reraonftrated  againtt  tlieir  claim,  and  refufcd  to 
unite  with  them  until  they  Ihould  hear  from  Eng- 
land. It  was  not  until  the  year  1665,  when  it  was  be- 
lieved that  the  king's  commllhoners  had  a  defign  upon 
the  New  England  chaiterc,  that  thefe  two  colonies 


formed  a  union,  which  has  ever  fince  amicably  fubfifted  ConreAI- 
between  them.  '■^'■ 

In  1672,  the  laws  of  the  colony  were  rcvifed,  and  »    '"^ 

the  general  court  ordered  them  to  be  printed;  and  al- 
fo,  that  "  every  family  fhould  buy  one  of  the  \\\<i 
books  ;  fueh  as  pay  in  filver,  to  have  a  book  for  I  2  d. 
fuch  as  pay  In  wheat,  to  pay  a  peck  and  half  a  book  ; 
and  fueh  as  pay  in  peafe,  to  pay  2  s.  a  book,  the  peafe 
at  3  s.  the  buftiel."  Perhaps  it  is  owing  to  this  early 
and  univerlal  fprcad  of  law  books,  that  the  people  of 
Connefticut  are  to  this  day  fo  fond  of  the  law.  In 
1750,  the  laws  of  Connecticut  were  again  revifed,  and 
publKhed  in  a  fmall  folio  volume  of  258  pages.  Ur 
Douglas  obfervts,  that  they  were  the  moft  natural,  e- 
quitable,  plain,  and  concife  code  of  laws  for  plantations 
hitherto  extant."  There  has  been  a  revifiun  of  them 
fmce  the  peace,  in  which  they  were  greatly  and  vei-y 
judicloufly  iimplified. 

The  years  1675  and  1676  were  diftlngulflied  by 
the  wars  with  Philip  and  his  Indians,  and  with  the 
Narraganfi'tts,  by  which  the  colony  was  thrown  into 
great  diftrels  and  confufion.  The  Inroads  of  the  en- 
raged lavages  were  marked  with  cruel  murders,  and 
with  fire  and  devaftation. 

In  J  6S4,  the  charter  of  MalTachufets  bay  and  Ply- 
mouth were  taken  away.  In  eonfequence  of  Quo 
warrantos  which  had  been  Hfued  agalnft  them.  The 
charter  of  Conneftlcut  would  have  fharedthe  fame  fate, 

had  it  not  been  for ^N'adfworth,   Efq;  who, 

having  very  artfully  procured  It  wlien  It  was  on  the 
point  of  being  delivered  up,  buried  It  under  an  oak 
tree  in  Hartford,  where  it  remained  until  all  danger 
was  over,  and  then  was  dug  up  and  reaifumeJ. 

Connecticut  has  ever  made  rapid  advances  in  popu- 
lation. There  have  been  more  emigrations  from  this 
than  from  any  of  the  other  ftates,  and  yet  it  is  at  pre- 
fent  full  of  inhabitants.  This  increafe,  under  the  di- 
vine benedlftion,  may  be  afcrilied  to  -feveral  caufes. 
The  bulk  of  the  inhabitants  are  Induftrious,  iagaelous 
hufbandmcn.  Tlieir  farms  furnilh  them  with  ail  the 
neceiTaries,  moft  of  the  conveniences,  and  but  few  of 
the  luxuries,  of  life.  They  of  courfe  are  generally  tem- 
perate, and,  if  they  choofe,  can  fubfift  with  as  much 
independence  as  is  conliftent  with  happlnefs.  The  fiib- 
fiftence  of  the  farmer  Is  fubltantial,  and  does  not  de- 
pend on  incidental  clrcumilances,  like  that  of  moft  o- 
ther  profefiior.s.  There  is  no  neceffity  of  ferving  an 
a[!prenticelhip  to  the  bufinefs,  nor  of  a  large  Itoek  erf 
mo!iey  to  commence  it  to  advantage.-  Farmers,  who 
deal  much  in  barter,  have  lefs  need  of  money  than  any 
other  clafs  of  people.  The  "eafe  with  which  a  com- 
fortable fubfiftcuee  is  obtained.  Induces  the  huftjand- 
man  to  m.-irry  young.  The  cultivation  of  his  farm 
makes  him  lliong  and  healthful.  He  toils  cheerfully 
through  the  day  —  eats  the  fruit  of  his  own  labour  with 
a  gladfome  heart  —  at  night  devoutly  thanks  his^ boun- 
teous God  for  his  daily  blellings — retires  to  reft,  and 
his  fleep  is  fweet.  Such  clrcumilances  as  thefe  have 
greatly  contributed  to  the  amazing  increafe  of  inhabi- 
tants in  this  ttate. 

Befidcs,  the  people  live  under  a  free  government, 
and  have  no  fear  of  a  tyrant.  There  are  no  overgrown 
cllates,  with  rich  and  ambitious  landlords,  to  have  an 
undue  and  pernicious  Influence  in  the  cledtlon  of  civil 
officers.    Property  is  equally  enough  divided,  apd  muft 

continue 


CON 


[     343     1 


CON 


C'innor. 


Connc(3i-  continue  to  be  fo  as  long  as  eftates  defcend  as  tlicy  now 
'"^  do.  No  perlbh  is  prohibited  from  voting,  or  from 
being  elefted  into  office,  on  account  of  his  poverty, 
i  He  who  has  the  moft  merit,  not  he  who  has  the  mofl 
money,  is  generally  chofen  into  public  office.  As  in- 
ftan.-es  of  this,  it  is  to  be  obferv^d,  that  many  of  the 
citizens  of  Connefticut,  from  the  humble  walks  of  life, 
have  arifen  to  the  firil  offices  in  the  (late,  and  filled 
them  with  dignity  and  reputation.  That  bnfc  bufinefa 
of  elcAioneeiing,  which  is  fo  dircAly  calculated  to  in- 
troduce wicked  and  defigning  men  into  office,  is  yet 
but  little  known  in  Connecticut.  A  man  who  wilhcs 
to  be  chofen  into  office,  aits  wifely  for  that  end,  when 
he  keeps  his  dcfires  to  himfelf. 

A  thirit  for  learning  prevails  among  all  ranks  of 
people  in  the  ftate.  More  of  the  young  men  in  Con- 
neftictit,  in  proportion  to  their  numbers,  receive  a 
public  education,  than  in  any  of  the  Hates.  Dr  Frank- 
lin and  other  literary  charailers  have  honoured  this 
ftate  by  faying,  that  it  is  the  Athens  of  America. 

The  revolution,  which  foeffentially  afFetled  the  go- 
vernments of  moft  of  the  colonies,  produced  no  very 
perceptible  alteration  in  the  government  of  Connecti- 
cut. While  under  the  jurifdiclion  of  Great  Britain, 
thev  elected  their  own  governors,  and  all  fubordinate 
civil  officers,  and  made  their  own  laws  iu  the  fame 
manner  and  with  as  little  control  as  they  now  do. 
ConneClicut  has  ever  been  a  republic,  and  perhaps  as 
perfect  and  as  happy  a  republic  as  has  ever  cxiftod.. 
While  other  ftates,  more  monarchical  in  their  govern- 
ment and  manners,  have  been  under  a  neceffity  of  un- 
dertaking the  difficult  tafk  of  altering  their  old,  or 
forming  new  conftitutions,  and  of  changing  their  mo- 
narchical for  republican  manners,  Connecticut  has 
uninterruptedly  proceeded  in  her  old  track,  both  as  to 
government  and  manners;  and  by  thefe  means  has  a- 
voided  thofe  convulfions  which  have  rent  other  ftates 
into  violent  parties. 

CONNECTION,  or  Connexion,  the  relation  or 
dependence  of  one  thing  upon  another. 

Connection,  or  Conhp.uity,  in  the  drama,  confifts 
in  the  joining  of  the  feveral  fcenes  together. 

The  connection  is  faid  to  be  obferved,  when  the 
fcenes  of  an  aCt  fucceed  one  another  immediately, 
and  aie  fo  joined  as  that  the  ftage  is  never  left 
emptv. 

CONNECTIVES,  in  grammar,  one  of  the  four 
fpecles  under  which,  according  to  Mr  Harris,  all  words 
may  be  included.  They  are  of  two  kinds;  and  as  they 
conneCl  fentences  or  words,  are  called  by  the  different 
mvnes  of  conjiniSions  and  prepofitioti;.     See  Grammar. 

CONNIVENT  VALVES,  in  anatomy,  thofe  wrin- 
kles, cellules,  and  vafcules,  which  are  found  in  the  in- 
fide  of  the  two  inteitines  ilium  and  jejunum.  See  A- 
NATOMY  n°  9^.  et  feq. 

CONNOISSEUR,  a  French  term,  of  late  ufcd  in 
Znglinr  :  it  literally  denotes  a  perfon  well  vcrfed  5n  any 
thing  ;  being  formed  of  the  verb  comioitre,  "  to  know, 
underftand."  Hence  it  comes  to  be  ufed  in  our  lan- 
guage for  a  critic,  or  perfon  wlio  is  a  thorough  judge 
or  mafter  in  any  way,  particularly  in  matters  of  paint- 
ing and  fculpture. 

CONNOR  (Bernard),  a  learned phyfician,  was  bom 
in  the  county  of  Kerry,  in  Ireland,  about  the  year 
l66G.  Having  determined  to  apply  himfelf  to  the  fludy 


of  phyfic,he  went  toFrance,and  re!idcd  fomctimeinihe    Cor.nnr 

univerfity  of  Montpelier.  Afterwards  he  went  to  Paris;    ^    'i 

1  L       I      •       1  n  -11    •  ,•   ■  Con  pi 

where   he  obtained  great   iltil]  in  medicine,  anatomy, . 

and  chemi'lry.  From  thence  he  travelled  to  Vciiice, 
with  the  two  Ions  of  the  high-chancellor  of  Poland  ; 
and  then  taking  a  tour  through  great  pan  of  Ger- 
many, went  to  Warfaw,  where  he  was  made  phyfi- 
cian to  king  John  Sobieflvi.  In  1695,  he  came  to 
England,  read  a  courfe  of  lectures  in  London  and 
Oxford,  and  became  member  of  the  Royal  Society  and 
College  of  Phyficians  ;  afterwards,  being  invited  to 
Cambridge,  he  read  pubh'c  leCturcs  there,  and  made 
various  experiments  in  cliemiitry.  He  lias  rendered  , 
himfelf  memoraLle  for  a  philofophical  and  medical  trea- 
tife  in  Latin,  entitled  Exvingdlum  Mcilid,  i.  e.  "  tlic 
Phyfician's  Gofpel  ;"  tending  to  explain  the  miracles 
performed  by  Chrill  as  natural  events,  upon  the  prin- 
ciples of  natural  philofophy.  He  wrote  alfo  a  hilloiy 
of  Poland;  and  died  in  1698,  aged  32. 

Connor,  a  city  of  Ireland,  in  the  county  of  An- 
trim and  province  of  Ulfter.  W.  Long.  6.  30.  N. 
Lat.  54.  50. 

CONOCARPUS,  button-wood:  A  genus  of  the 
monogynia  order,  belonging  to  the  pentandria  clafs  of 
pb.nts  ;  and  in  the  natural  metliod  ranking  under  the 
4Sth  order,  Aggregate.  The  corolla  is  pentapeta- 
lous;  the  feeds  naked,  folitary,  inferior  ;  the  floweis 
aggregate.  There  are  two  fpecies,  the  ereCta  and 
procumbens,  both  nativ-es  of  the  Weft  Indies.  They 
rife  to  the  height  of  about  16  feet,  but  are  trees  of  no 
beauty,  nor  is  the  wood  of  them  ufed  for  any  mechanic 
purpol'e  in  the  countries  where  they  grow  naturally. 
They  are,  however,  prefervcd  in  fome  botanic  gardens 
in  Britain  for  the  fake  of  variety 

CONOID,  in  geometry,  a  folid  body,  generated 
by  the  revolution  of  a  conic  feCtion  about  its  axis.  See 
Conic  SeSwns. 

CONOIDES,  in  anatomy,  a  gland  found  in  the 
third  ventricle  of  the  brain,  called  pimalis,  from  its 
refeniblance  to  a  pine-apple.      See  Anatomv,  n"^  132. 

CONON,  the  renowned  Athenian  general  and  ad- 
miral, flourifhed  394  years  before  Chrift.  See  Atti- 
ca, n°  162,  163.  After  his  defeat  by  Lyfander,  he 
fled  to  Evagoras  king  of  Cyprus  :  after  which  he  put 
himfelf  under  the  protection  of  Artaxerxes  king  of 
Perfia  ;  with  whofe  army  he  delivered  Athens  from 
the  oppreffion  of  ftrangers,  and  rebuilt  its  walls.  In 
the  36cth  year  of  Rome,  he  beat  the  Lacedemonians 
in  a  fea-fight  near  Cnidus  upon  the  coaft  of  Afia,  de- 
prived them  of  the  fovereign  rule  they  had  on  fea  ever 
fince  the  taking  of  Athens,  and  had  fome  other  confi- 
derable  advantages  over  them:  but  falling  into  the 
hands  of  Teribazus  a  Perfian,  who  envied  his  glory,  he 
was  put  to  death. 

CONOPS,  in  zoology  ;  a  genus  of  infeCts  belong- 
ing to  the  order  diptera,  the  charaCters  of  which  are ; 
The  roftrum  is  porreCted,  and  jointed  like  a  knee.  The 
antennae  terminate  by  a  flat  and  folid  articulation,  re- 
fenibling  the  bowl  of  a  fpoon,  with  a  lateral  briftle, 
which  when  cloftly  examined  appears  to  be  very  hairy. 
Of  this  genus  there  are  feveral  fpecies.  i.  The 
ca'citrans  is  to  be  found  every  where,  efpecially 
in  autumn,  when  it  haraffes  the  liorfcs,  and  draws 
blood  from  them  with  its  fting.  2.  The  macroce- 
phala  might  at  firft  fight  be  miltakcn  for  a  fpecies  of 

waff).  , 


CON 


[     344    ] 


CON 


C'lmovhim  wafp.       It   is   fmooth ;   the    forepart   of  tlw  licad   is 

II         lemon-colour,  as  are  the  poifers ;   the   feet  arc  dun- 

^  Conni-1.    gy]g„rj.j.      TJie  thorax  is  variegated  with  black  and 

*     '  "    icddilh   dun.     'i'he   fame   takes  place  with  lefpeft  to 

tlie  legments  of  the  abdomen;  fome  of  wliich  are  edged 

with  lemon-colour,    chiefly    the   fecond,  and  part   of 

the  third,   towards  the   fides.     The  wings  arc  brown, 

watered,  and  clouded.     This  beautiful  cop.ops  is  found 

in  meadows.      There   are  eleven  or  twelve  other  fpe- 

cies. 

CONOVIUM,  (anc.  geog.)  a  town  of  the  Ordo- 
vices,  in  Britain.  From  its  ruins  arofe,  at  the  di- 
ftance  of  four  miles,  Alerconwey,  the  mouth  of  the 
Conwey,  in  Caernarvoafhire  ;  and  on  the  fpot  where 
Conovhim  ilood  is  a  hamlet,  called  Ctcrbeaii,  the  old 
town,  (Camden.) 

CONQl^EST,  in  civil  jurifprudence,  is  the  ac- 
quifiticm  of  property  in  common  by  a  number  of  per- 
fons. 

In  fome  countries  they  confound  acquifition  with 
ccnqueft  ;  but,  according  to  the  mod  general  accep- 
tation, acquifition  is  the  gaining  of  unappropriated 
goods  before  the  ellablilhrnent  of  a  community  : 
whereas  by  the  term  conqueft,  is  ordinarily  intended 
whatever  ia  acquired  by  a  number  of  perlons  in  com- 
munity ;  or  by  fome  one  for  all  the  others. —As  it  is 
more  cfpeclally  in  the  union  of  peifous  by  marriage 
that  a  community  of  property  takes  place  ;  fo  it  is  ia 
reference  to  them  that  we  frequently  ufe  the  word 
cotiqiiejl.  There  are  neverthclefs  conquefts  alfo  among 
other  perfons'who  are  In  a  tacit  community  or  fuciety; 
fuch  as  obtain  by  particular  local  cuftoms.  Accord- 
ing to  this  fenfe  of  the  word,  it  has  been  contended  by 
feveral,  that  William  I.  claimed  this  kingdom  ;  that 
is,  not  by  right  of  arms,  but  by  right  of  conqueft  or 
acqueft  ;  under  promife  of  fucccffion  made  by  Edward 
the  Confeffbr,  and  a  contract  entered  into  by  Harold 
to  fupport  his  pretenfions  to  that  fuccefiion  :  and  by 
old  writers,  conqiujlus,  acquiffio,  and  perqwftio,  are 
frequently  ufed  as  fynonymous  terms. 

CoNCiUEST,  in  the  law  of  nations,  Is  the  acquifi- 
tion of  fovcreignty  by  force  of  arms,  by  fome  fo- 
reign prince  ;  who  reduces  the  vanquifiied  under  his 
empire.  The  right  of  conqueft  is  derived  from  the 
laws  of  war  ;  and  when  a  people  is  fubjefted,  the  con- 
duft  of  the  conqueror  is  regulated  by  four  kinds  of 
law.  Firft,  the  law  of  nature,  whicli  diclates  what- 
ever tends  to  fclf  prefervation  ;  fecondly,  our  reafon, 
which  teaches  us  to  ufe  others,  as  we  would  be  treat- 
ed ourfelves;  thirdly,  the  laws  of  political  fociety,  to 
which  nature  has  not  aJTigncd  any  precife  boundary; 
laftly,  the  law  which  is  derived  from  the  particular  cir- 
eumftanccs  attending  the  conqueft.  Thus,  a  ftate 
conquered  by  another  will  be  treated  in  one  of  the 
four  methods  following:  Either  the  conqueror  will 
continue  it  under  its  own  laws,  and  will  only  claim  the 
txerclfe  of  civil  and  ecelefiuftieal  fovereignty  ;  or  he 
will  impofe  a  new  form  of  government ;  or  he  willde- 
llro)-  the  frame  of  their  fociety,  and  incorporate  the 
inhabitants  with  others;  or  he  will  exterminate  them. 

CONIvAD  II.  eletted  emperor  of  Germanyin  1004. 
He  was  obliged  to  take  the  field  againft  moft  of  the 
German  dukes  who  had  revolted  from  him  ;  and  he 
j!ut  Erncft  duke  of  Suabia  under  the  ban  of  the  cm- 


pire.  This  being  one  of  the  earlieft  inftances  of  fuch  a 
profcription,  the  formula  is  inferted  here  for  its  fingu- 
larity,  •'  We  declare  thy  wife  a  widow,  thy  children 
orphans  ;  and  we  fend  tliee,  in  the  name  of  the  devil,  ^i 
to  the  four  corners  of  the  world."  It  was  in  the  reign 
of  this  prince  that  the  German  fiefs  became  hereditary. 
He  died  in  1039. 

Conrad  III.  emperor  of  Germany  in  1138.  The 
duke  of  Bavaria  oppofcd  his  eleftion,  and  being  put 
under  the  ban  of  the  empire,  and  deprived  of  his  du- 
chy, he  could  not  furvive  his  difgrace.  The  margrave 
of  Auftria  was  ordered  by  the  Emperor  to  take  pof- 
feffion  of  Bavaria;  but  Welfti,  uncle  to  the  deeeafed 
Duke,  attacked  lilm,  and  was  defeated  near  the  caftle 
of  Winftjurgh  :  the  battle  fought  upon  this  occafion  is 
famous  in  hiftory,  as  having  given  rife  to  the  party  names 
of  Guelphs  and  GMellncs,  afterwards  afiumed  in  Italy. 
The  parole  of  the  day  with  the  Bavarians  was  //'«///, 
from  the  name  of  their  general  ;  that  of  the  Imperia- 
lifts  JFt-rhliri^en,  from  a  fmall  village  where  Frederic 
Duke  of  Suabia,  their  commander,  had  been  nur- 
fed  :  by  degrees  thefe  names  fcrved  to  diftinguifli 
the  two  parties  ;  and  the  ItaKans,  who  coiJd  not  ac- 
cuftom  themfelves  to  fuch  rough  words,  formed  from 
them  their  Guelphs  and  Gibbelines.  He  died  in 
1152. 

Conrad  of  Lichtenau,  or  Abbas  Ufpergenfis,  was 
author  of  an  Univerfal  Chronology  from  the  creation 
to  1229,  continued  by  an  anonymous  writer  to  Cha.V. 
He  collected  a  fine  library,  and  died  about  the  year 
1240. 

CONRADIN,  or  Conrad  junior,  fon  of  Con- 
rad IV.  was  acknowledged  Emperor  by  the  Gibbe- 
lines, who  received  him  in  triumph  at  Rome  :  but 
Pope  Alexander  IV.  had  publilhed  a  crufade  again'! 
this  orphan  ;  and  Urban  VII.  his  fuccelTor,  gave  the 
empire  to  Charles  of  Anjou,  brother  to  Louis  IX. 
king  of  France  ;  and  the  unfortunate  youth,  though 
powerfully  fupported  even  by  the  Turks,  loft  a  battle, 
in  which  he  was  taken  prifoner,  and  was  beheaded,  by 
order  of  his  bafe  opponent,  publicly  at  Naples  in  1229, 
in  the  iSth  year  of  his  age.  In  him  ended  the  race  of 
the  Dukes  of  Suabia,  which  had  produced  feveral 
kings  and  emperors. 

CONSANGUINITY,  or  Kindred,  is  defined  by 
the  writers  on  thefe  fubjefts  to  be,  vmciiliwi  prrfona- 
rum  ah  eodsm JViptU  defcemL-nnum ;  "  t!ie.  conutiJlion  or 
relation  of  perfons  defcended  from  the  fame  flock  or 
common  anceftor."  This  confanguinity  is  either  lineal 
or  collateral. 

h'meal  confangu'inily  is  that  which  fiibfifts  between 
perfons  of  whom  one  is  deleended  in  a  direCl:  line  from 
the  other ;  as  between  John  Stiles  (the  propoftus  in 
the  table  of  confanguinity)  and  his  fatlier,  gi'andfa- 
ther,  great-grandtather,  and  fo  upwards  in  the  diretl 
afcending  line  ;  or  between  John  Stiles  and  his  fon, 
grand-fon,  grcat-grandfon,  and  fo  downwards  in  the 
direct  defcending  line.  Every  generation,  in  this  di- 
rect lineal  confanguinity,  conftitutes  a  different  de- 
gree, reckoning  either  upwards  or  downwards  :  the 
father  of  John  Stiles  is  related  to  him  in  the  fnlj:  de- 
gree, and  io  likewife  is  his  fon  ;  lus  grandiire  aud 
grandfon,  in  tlie  fecond;  his  great  grandfire  andgreat- 
grandfon  in  tlie  third.     This  is  the  only  natural  way  of 

reckoning 


C'-.nrad 
II 
Confangui- 
nity. 


C  O  IN  1 C      .■>  ±:  ( '  T  I  ()  is"  ?• 

'A. 


ri.-.u-  cxi^A'j. 


y{..'/^<//,yW,iJf,r/'.t  l,r'//,/ry /.'i'/ . 


CON  [     .345     ]  CON 

Cciirangu!  reckoning  the  degrees  in  the  dlrcdlline;  and  therefore  merous   iffue  :    both  thefe  iffiies  are  lineally  dcfcended  Confangu;- 

""y-      univti{;illy  obtains,  as  well  in  the  civil  and   canon,   as  from  Jolin  Stiles  as  their  common  anceifor  ;  and  they       ""/• 

*'     V     •-  in  the  common  law.  ....  are  collateral  kinfmtn  to  each  other,  becaufe  they  arc  """*'"""' 

The  dodrine   of  lineal  confanguinity  is  fufficiently  all  Jefcended  from  this  common  anceftor,  and  all  have 

plain   and  obvious  ;  but  it  is,  at  the   firft   view,  ado-  :i   portion   of  his  blood  in  their  veins,  which  denomi- 

nifliing  to  confider   the    number    of   lineal  anceilors  nates  them  confanpiim-ous. 

which  every  man  has,  within  no  very  great  number         We  muft  be  careful  to  remember,  that  the  very  be- 

of  degrees  :  and   fo   many  different   bloods  is  a  man  ing  of  collateral  confimguinity  confifts  in  this  dcfcent 

faid  to  contain  in  his  veins,  as   he   hath   lineal  ance-  from  one  and  the  fame  common   ancellor.      Thus  Ti- 

ftors.    Of  thefe  he  hath  two  in  the  firft  defcending  de-  tius  and  his  brother  are  related  ;  why  ?  becaufe  both 

prree  ;  his  own  parents :  he  hath  four  in  the  feco'nd  ;  are  derived  from  one  father  :    Titius  and  his  firll  cou- 

the  parents  of  his  father,  and  the  parents  of  his  mo-  fin  are  related  ;  why  ?  becaufe  both  defcend  from  the 

ther  :  he  hath  eight  in  the  third,  the   parents  of  his  fame  grandfather;    and  his  fccond  coufln's  claim  to 

two  grandiathers ,  and  of  his  two  grandmothers  :  and,  confanguinity  is  this,  that  they  are  both  derived  from 

by  thefame  rule  of  progrtfTion,  he  hath  128  in  thefe-  one   and  the  fame  great-grandfather.       In   lliort,    as 

venth  ;    1024  in  the  tenth  ;   and  at  the  20th  degree,  or  many  ancedors  as  a  man  Jias,  fo  many  common  flocks 

the  didance  of  20  generations,  every  man  hath  above  he  has  from  which  collateral  kinfmcn  may  be  derived. 

a  million  of  anceflors,  as  common  arithmetic  will  de-  And  as  we  are  taught  by  holy  writ,  that  there  is  one 

.  monrtrate    (a).      This  Imeal  confanguinity,  we  may  couple  of  common  anceflors  belonging  to  us  all,  from 

obferve,    falls   ftriflly   within    the   definition    of  vin-  whom  the  whole  race  of  mankind  is  defccndcd    the 

culum  pnpmarum  ah  eodem  Jlipite  Jtfccndentium ;  fince  li-  obvious  and  undeniable  conftquence  is,  that  all  men 

neal  rehitions   are  fuch  as  defcend  one  from  the  other,  are  in  fome  degree  related  to  one   another.      For    in- 

and  both  of  courfe  from  the  fame  common  anceftor.  deed,  if  we  only  fuppofe  each  couple  of  our  anceflors 

Colhileral  kindrc/l  anfwers  to  the  fame  dclciiption  :  to  have  left,  one   with  another,  two   children  •    and 

collateral   relations  agreeing   with   the  lineal   in  this,  each  of  thofe  children  to  liave  left,  on  an  average,  two 

that  they  defcend  from  the  fame  flock   or  anceflor ;  more  (and  without  fuch  a  fuppofition  the  human  fpe- 

bul  difTering  in  this,  that  they  do  not  defcend  the  one  cies  muft  be  daily  diminifliing)  ;  we  fliall  find  that  all 

from  the  other.     Collateral  kinfmen,  then,  are  fuch  as  of  us  have  now  fubfilling  near  270  millions  of  kindred 

lineally  fpringfrom  one  and  the  fame  anceftor,  who  is  in  the  15th  degree,  at  the  fame  diftance  from  the  feve- 

the  flips,  or  "  root,"  the  Jllpei,  "  trunk,"  or  common  ral  common  anceftors  as  we  ourfelves  are;  befides  thofe 

(lock,  from  whence  thefe  relations  are  branched  out.  that  are  one  or  two  degrees  nearer  to  or  farther  from 

As  if  John  Stiles  hath  two  fons,  v^'ho  have  each  a  nu-  the    common    ftock,    who  may  amount    to  as  many 

Vol.  V.   Part  I.  X  x 


more. 


(a)  This  will  feem  furprifing  to  thofe  who  are  unacquainted  with  the  increafing  power  of  progrefHve 
numbers  ;  but  is  palpably  evident  from  the  following  table  of  a  geometrical  progrefTion,  in  which  the  firft 
term  is  2,  and  the  denominator  alfo  2  :  or,  to  fpeak  more  intelligibly,  it  is  evident,  for  that  each  of  us  has 
two  anceftors  in  the  firft  degree,  the  number  of  whom  is  doubled  at  every  remove  ;  becaufe  each  of  our  ance- 
flors has  alfo  two  immediate  anceftors  of  his  own. 


3 

4 

6 

T 


4 
S 

16 

3* 
64 

128 

2jS 


9      512 

10  1024 

1 1  2048 

12  .409'5 

13  '8192 

14  16384 

15  32768 

16  6S536 

17  131072 

18  262144 

19  524288 

20  1048576 

A  fhorter  way  of  finding  the  number  of  anceftors  at  any  even  degree,  Is  by  fquarlng  the  number  of  an- 
ceftors at  half  that  number  of  degrees.  Thus,  16,  the  number  of  anceftors  at  4  degrees,  is  the  fquare 
of  4,  the  number  of  anceftors  at  two ;  256  is  the  fquare  of  16  ;  65536  of  256;  and  the  number  of  ance- 
ftors at  40  degrees  would  be  the  fquare  of  1,048,576,  or  upward*  of  a  million  of  millions* 


CON 


[     346     ] 


CON 


CcrfangTii-inore  (b).     And  if  this  calculation  fliould  appear  iti' 
"''''•      compatible  with  the  humbcr  of  inhabitants  on  the  earth, 
"  it  is  becanfe,  by  intermarriages  among  the  fcveral  de- 

fcendcnts  from  the  fame  anceftor,  a  hundred  or  a  thou- 
fand  modes  of  confanguinily  may  be  confolidated  i.i 
one  perfon  ;  or  he  may  be  related  to  us  a  hundred  or 
a  thoufand  diflerent  ways. 

The  method  of  computing  thefe  degrees  in  the  ca- 
non law,  which  we  have  adopted,  is  as  follows.  We 
begin  at  the  common  anceftor,  and  reckon  downwards; 
and  in  whatfoever  degree  the  two  perfons,  or  the 
mofl.  remote  of  them,  is  diftant  from  the  common  an- 
ceftor, that  is  the  degree  in  which  they  are  related  to 
each  other.  Thus,  Titius  and  his  brother  are  related 
in  the  firft  degree  ;  for  from  the  father  to  each  of 
them  is  counted  only  one  :  Titius  and  his  nephew  are 
related  in  the  fecond  degree  ;  for  the  nephew  is  two 
degrees  removed  from  the  common  anceftor,  viz.  his 
own  grandfather,  the  father  of  Titius  :  or  (to  give 
a  more  illuftrious  inftance  from  the  Englilh  annals) 
King  Henry  VII.  who  flew  Richard  III.  in  the  battle 
of  Bofworth,  was  related  to  that  prince  in  the  fifth 
degree.  Let  the  propofitns,  therefore,  in  the  table  of 
confanguinity,  reprefentKing  Richard  III.  andtheclafs 
marked  e.  King  Heniy  VII.  Now  their  coramoaftock 


or  anceftor  was  King  Edward  III.  the  ahavui  in  the  ConrangBR 
fame  table  :  from  him  to  Edmund  Duke  of  York,  the  "">'•  , 
froavus  is  one  degree;  to  Richard  Earl  of  Cambridge,  ' 

the  avus,  two  ;  to  Richard  Duke  of  York,  the  pater, 
three;  to  King  Richard  III.  \.\\i  propofi.ui,  four;  and 
from  King  Edward  III.  to  John  of  Gant  (  a  )  is  one  de- 
gree ;  to  John  Earl  of  Somerfet  (b)  two;  to  John 
Duke  of  Somerfet  (c)  three;  to  Margaret  Countefs 
of  Richmond  (d)  four;  to  King  Henry  \TI.  (h)  five. 
Which  laft-mentioned  prince,  being  the  farthell  re- 
moved from  the  common  itock,  gives  the  denomination 
to  the  degree  of  kindred  in  the  canon  and  municipal 
law.  Though  according  to  the  computation  of  the 
civilians  (who  count  upwards  from  either  of  tlie  per- 
fons related,  to  the  common  ftock,.  and  then  down- 
wards again  to  the  other;  reckoning  a  degree  for  each 
^perfon  both  afcending  and  defcending)  thefe  two 
princes  were  related  in  the  ninth  degree  :.  for  from 
King  Richard  III.  to  Richard  Duke  of  York  is  one 
degree ;  to  Richard  Earl  of  Cambridge  two  ;  to  Ed- 
mund Duke  of  York  three  ;  to  King  Edward  III.  the 
common  anceftor,  four  ;  to  John  of  Gant  five  ;  to 
John  Earl  of  Somevfet  fix  ;  to  John  Duke  of  So- 
merfct  feven  ;  to  Margaret  Countefs  of  Richmond 
eight ;    to  King  Henry  VH.  nine.     See  the  Table  of    * 

Confanguinity 


( B )  This  will  fweU  more  confiderably  than  the  former  calculation :  for  here,  though  the  firft  term  is  but  i ,  the 
denominator  is  4;  that  is,  there  is  one  kinfman  (a  brother)  in  the  firft  degree,  who  makes,  together  with  the 
propcfitiis,  the  two  defcendents  from  the  firft  couple  of  anceftors ;  and  in  every  other  degree,  the  number  of 
kindred  muft  be  the  quadruple  of  thofe  in  the  degree  which  immediately  precedes  it.  For  fince  each  couple  of 
anceftors  has  X^o  defcendents  who  increafe  in  a  duplicate  ratio,  it  will  follow,  that  the  ratio  in  which  all  the 
defcendents  increafe  downwards,  muft  be  double  to  that  in  which  the  anceftors  increafe  upwards  :  but  we  have 
feen,  that  the  anceftors  increafe  in  a  duplicate  ratio  :  therefore  the  defcendents  muft  increafe  in  a  double  duplL^ 


cate  J  that  is,  in  a  quadruple  ratio. 


Collateral  Degrees. 
I 

3 

4 

5 
6 

7 
8 

9 

10^ 


Numler  of  Kindred. 
I 

4 

16 

64 

256 


1024 

4096 

16384 

65536 

262144 

11  1048576 

12  4194304 

13  16777216 

14  6710^864 

15  268435456 

16  1073741824 

17  4294967296 

18  17179869184 

19  68719476736 

20  274877906944 

Tills  calculation  may  alfo  be  formed  by  a  more  compendious  procefs,  Wz.  by  fquarmg  the  couples,  or  half 
the  number  of  anceftors,  at  any  given  degree  ;  which  will  furnifh  us  with  the  number  of  kindred  we  have  in  the 
fame  degree,  at  equal  diftance  with  ourfclves  from  the  common  ftock,  befides  thofe  at  unequal  diftances.  Thus, 
in  the  tenth  lineal  degree,  the  mimbcr  of  anceftors  is  1024  ;  its  half,  or  the  couples,  amount  to  5  12  ;  the  num- 
ber of  kindred  in  the  tenth  collateral  degree  amounts  therefore  to  262 144,  or  the  fquare  of  5 1 2.  And  if  we 
will  be  at  the  trouble  to  recoUeft  the  ftate  of  the  feveral  families  within  our  own  knowledge,  and  obferve  how 
far  they  agree  with  this  account  ;  that  is,  whether,  on  an  average,  every  man  has  not  one  brother  or  fifter,  four 
firft-coufins,  fixteen  fecond-coufins,  and  fo  on  j  we  fhall  find,  that  the  prefent  calculation  is  very  far  from  be- 
ing overcharged. 


CON 


[     347     1 


CON 


Confingiii 

rity, 
Conlcicj'.cc 


-Conranguinity  (Plate  CXLVI),  wherein  all  the  <le- 
frrces  of  coUatci-al  kindred  to  the  profrjiius  arc  com- 
puted, as  far  as  the  tenth  of  the  eivihans  and  the 
f.vcnth  of  the  canonills  inchifive  ;  the  former  being 
diltinguilhcd  by  the  numeral  letters,  the  latter  by  the 
common  cijihcrs. 

Consanguinity  and  yJ^/;/'/)'  (degrees  of ),  forbid- 
den in  marriage.  Se;  Marriage  ;  and  Law,  Part 
III.  N    clx.  4. 

Consanguinity  and  y^H/'(V,  an  objeftion  againfl 
a  judge.  See  Law,  Part  III.  N^  clvi.  12.  Agaii.ll 
a  witnefs,  ib'ul.  el.-ixxiv.  1  2. 

CONSCIENCE,  a  fecret  teftimony  of  the  foul, 
whereby  it  gives  its  approbatii  n  to  things  that  are 
iiatuially  g  lod,  and  condemns  ihofe  that  arc  evil.  See 
MoKAL  Phikjophy. 

A  man  of  integrity  will  never  liften  to  any  reafon,or 
give  way  to  any  meafurc,  or  be  mifled  by  any  induce- 
ment, againll  confcicnce. — The  inhabitants  of  a  great 
town  offered  Marlhal  de  Tunrnne  1  oo,oco  crowns, 
upon  condition  he  would  take  another  road,  and  not 
march  his  troops  tht'ir  way.  He  anfwered  thtm,  "  As 
your  town  is  not  on  the  road  I  intend  to  march,  I 
cann  't  accept  the  money  you  otler  m;." — The  Earl 
of  Derby,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  njaking  a  de- 
fcent  III  Guienne,  carried  by  ftorm  the  town  of  Ber- 
gerac,  and  gave  it  np  to  be  plundered.  A  Welch 
knight  happened  by  chance  to  light  upon  the  receiver's 
cfScc.  He  found  there  fuch  a  quantity  of  money 
that  he  thouaht  himfelf  obliged  to  acquaint  his  gene- 
ral with  it,  imagining  that  fo  great  a  booty  natuially 
belonged  to  him  But  he  was  agreeably  furprifed 
when  the  carl  told  him,  with  a  pleafant  countenance, 
that  he  willied  him  joy  of  his  good  fortune  ;  and  that 
he  did  not  make  the  keeping  of  his  word  to  d<pend 
upon  the  great  or  little  vaUie  of  the  thing  he  had  pro- 
niifed. —  In  the  fieg;"  of  Falifci  by  Camillus  general  of 
the  Romans,  the  Ichoolmafter  of  the  town,  wlxo  had 
the  children  of  the  fenators  under  hl,s  care,  led  them 
abroad  under  the  pretext  of  recreation,  and  carried 
them  to  tiic  Roman  csmp,  laying  to  CamiUui,  that 
by  this  artilice  lie  had  dchvered  Falifci  into  liis  hands. 
CamillUb  abhorring  this  treachery,  obfervtd,  "  That 
there  were  laws  for  war  as  well  as  for  peace  ;  and 
that  the  Romans  were  taught  to  make  war  with  inte- 
grity not  lefs  than  with  courage."  He  ordered  the 
fchoolmalier  to  be  ilri])ped,  liis  hands  to  be  bound  be- 
hind his  back,  and  to  be  delivered  to  the  boys  to  be 
laihcd  back  into  the  town.  The  Falcriaiis,  fornu-ily 
obftinate  in  refiltance,  ftruck  with  an  aft  of  ju'Uco  fo 
iiluilrious,  delivered  themlelves  up  to  the  Romans  ; 
con-,  inced  that  they  would  be  far  better  to  have  the 
Romans  for  their  allies  than  their  enemies. 

It  is  a  faying.  That  no  m.in  evtr  offiiided  his  own 
confcience,  but  fiiit  or  laft  it  was  rcvenetd  upon  him. 
The  power  of  confcience  indeed  has  been  lemarked  In 
all  a)?,cs,  and  the  examples  of  it  ujjon  rec>)rd  aie  innu- 
merable.  The  follow  ii:g  is  related  by  Mr  Fordyce, 
in  his  Dialogues  on  Ediic(!lion\,  as  a  rtal  occurrence 
which  happened  in  a  neighbouring  ttaco  not  many 
vcars  ago  A  jeweller,  a  man  of  good  charaiiler  and 
cor.fiderable  v.eakh,  having  occafion  in  the  way  of  tiis 
bufinefs  to  traxcl  at  fome  dillancc  from  the  place  of 
his  abode,  took  along  with  him  a  fervant,  in  order  to 
take  care  of  his  oortmanttau.     He  had  with  him  fome 


of  his  bed  jewels,  and  a  large  fiim  of  money,  to  which  Confeicnce 
his  fervant  whs  likewife  privy.  The  mafler  having  oc-  '  H 
cafion  to  diimount  on  the  road,  the  fervant  watching  Caiifcript. 
his  opportunity,  took  a  pillol  from  his  mailer's  faddle  ""^ 
and  fliot  him  dead  on  the  fpot  ;  then  rifcd  him  of  hij 
jewels  and  money,  and  hanging  a  large  ftone  to  his 
neck,  he  threw  him  into  the  neaiell  canal.  With  this 
booty  he  made  off  to  a  dllla:it  part  of  the  country, 
where  he  had  reafon  to  believe  that  neither  he  nor  his 
mailer  were  known.  There  he  began  to  trade  in  a 
very  hnv  way  at  lirll,  that  his  obfcurity  might  fcreeii 
hiin  from  obfervalion,  and  in  the  courfe  of  a  crood 
many  years  feemed  to  rife,  by  the  natural  progrefs  of 
bulinefs,  into  wealth  and  conlideration  ;  fo  that  his 
good  fortune  appeared  at  once  the  cffeCl  and  reward 
of  induftry  and  virtue.  Of  thcfe  he  couutei-fcited  the 
appearance  fo  well,  that  he  grew  into  great  credit, 
mariied  into  a  good  family,  and  by  laying  out  his  fud- 
den  ftorcs  difcreetly,  as  he  faw  occalion,  and  joining 
to  all  an  univeifal  affability,  he  was  admitted  to  a 
fliare  of  the  government  of  the  town,  and  rofe  from 
one  poll  to  another,  till  at  length  he  was  chofen  chief 
magillrate.  In  this  ofBce  he  maintai:ied  a  fair  cha- 
radltr,  and  continued  to  fill  it  with  no  fmall  applaufe, 
both  as  a  governor  and  a  judge  ;  till  one  day  as  he  fat 
on  the  bench  with  fome  of  his  brethren,  a  criiiinal 
was  brought  before  him  who  was  accufed  of  murder- 
ing his  mailer.  The  evidence  came  out  full,  the  jury 
brought  in  their  verdidl  that  the  prifoner  was  guilty, 
and  the  whole  affembly  waited  the  fentence  of  the  pre- 
fident  of  the  court  (which  he  happened  to  be  that 
day)  with  great  fufpence.  Mean  while  he  appeared 
to  be  in  unufual  dilorder  and  agitation  of  mind,  and 
his  colour  changed  often  ;  at  length  he  arofe  from  his 
feat,  and  coming  down  fioin  the  bench,  placed  him- 
felf juft  by  the  unfortunate  man  at  the  bar.  "  You 
fee  before  you  (fa:d  iie,  addrclUiig  iiimlelf  to  thofe 
who  had  fat  on  the  bench  with  him),  a  ilriking  in- 
llance  of  the  jull  awards  of  heaven,  which  this  day, 
after  30  years  concealment,  prefents  to  you  a  greater 
criminal  than  the  man  jull  now  found  guilty."  Then 
he  made  an  ample  conteffion  of  his  guilt,  and  of  all 
its  aggravations.  "  Nor  can  I  feel  (continued  he) 
any  relief  from  the  agonies  of  an  awakened  confcience, 
but  by  requiring  that  jullice  be  forthwith  done  againll 
me  in  the  moll  public  and  folemn  in;riner."  We  may 
eafily  fuppole  the  amazement  of  all  the  affembly,  and 
eipccially  of  his  fellow-judges.  However,  they  proceed- 
ed, upon  this  confeffiuu,  to  pafs  fentence  upon  him,  and 
he  died  with  all  the  fymptoms  of  a  penitent  mind. 

Courts  of  Coh'SCif.NCE,  are  courts  for  recovery  of 
fmall  debts,  conftitutcd  by  adl  of  parliament  in  Lon- 
don, W^ellminller,  &c.  and  other  pjipulous  and  trading 
diftrldls. 

CONSCIOUSNESS.  Maaphyiicians,  in  lieu  of 
the  woid  ccnfcience,  which  feenis  appropriated  to  theo- 
logical or  moral  matters,  oidinarily  ufe  that  of  cun- 
fcioujnefs  ■;  wiiereby  they  mean  an  inner  fcntiment  of  a 
thing,  whereof  one  n,ay  have  a  clear  and  diftinCl  no- 
tion. In  this  fenfe  they  lay  that  we  do  n,-:it  know 
our  own  foul,  nor  are  affnred  of  the  exillence  of  our 
o«i'n  thoughts,  otherwile  than  by  f;]f  confcioufncfa. 
See  MEiiiPHYsics. 

CONSCRIPT",  in  Ro:n;ui  antiquity,  an  appellation 

given  to  the  fenators  of  Rome,  who  were  called  con- 

X  X  2  fcri^ 


CON 


[     348     ] 


CON 


Conrecra-  fcr'ipt  fathers,  on   account  of  their  names  being  all  en- 
tcicd  in  oiif  rciriller. 

CONSECRATION,  the  aft  of  devoting  any  thing 
to  the  feivicc  and  worfhip  of  God.  The  Mofaical 
law  ordainL-d,  that  all  the  firft-born,  both  of  man  and 
bead,  fhould  be  (anftitied  or  conftcrated  to  God.  We 
find  alfo,  that  Jofliiia  confccratcd  the  Gibeonitcs,  as 
Solomon  and  D  ivid  did  the  Nelhinims,  to  the  fervice 
of  the  temple  ;  and  that  the  Hebrews  fometimes  con- 
fecrated  their  fields  and  cattle  to  the  Lord,  after  which 
tbey  were  no  longer  in  their  power. 

Among  the  ancient  Chrittians,  the  confecration  of 
churches  was  performed  with  a  great  deal  of  pious  fo- 
lemnity.  In  what  manner  it  was  done  for  the  three 
firft  ages,  is  uncertain  ;  the  authentic  accounts  reach- 
ing no  higher  than  the  fouith,  when,  in  the  peaceable 
reign  of  Conftantine,  churches  were  every  where  built, 
and  dedicated  with  great  folemnity.  Some  think  the 
confecration  confided  in  fetting  up  the  fign  of  the 
crofs,  or  in  placing  a  communion-table  in  the  church  ; 
and  others,  that  no  more  vas  done  than  preaching  a 
panegyrical  fermon  in  commemoration  of  the  founder, 
and  that  then  they  proceeded  to  prayers,  one  01  which 
was  compofed  on  purpofe  for  the  church  to  be  confe- 
crated.  The  Romanills  have  a  great  deal  of  pious 
foppery  in  the  ceremonies  of  confecration  ;  which  they 
beftow  on  almoft  every  thing,  as  bells,  candles,  books, 
water,  oil,  alhco,  palms,  Iwords,  banners,  pictures, 
croffes,  agnus-dei's,  rofes,  childrens  clouts,  &c. 

In  England,  churches  have  been  always  confecrated 
with  particular  ceremonies,  the  form  of  which  was 
left  to  the  difcrelion  of  the  bifhop.  That  obferved 
by  billiop  Laud,  in  confecrating  St  Catherine  Creed 
church,  in  London,  gave  great  offence. 

Consecration  is  particularly  ufcd  for  the  benedic- 
tion of  the  elements  in  the  eueharift. 

Consecration,  among  medaliits,  is  the  ceremony 
of  the  apotheoiis  of  an  emperor,  or  his  tranflation  in- 
to heaven  and  reception  among  the  gods.  On  medals 
the  confecration  is  thus  reprefented  :  on  one  fide  is 
the  emperor's  head,  crowned  with  laurel,  fometimes 
■veiled  ;  and  the  infcription  gives  him  the  title  of  dii-us  : 
on  the  reverfe  is  a  temple,  a  bultum,  an  altar,  or  an 
ea'flc  taking  its  flight  towards  heaven,  either  irom  off 
the  altar,  or  from  a  cippus :  at  other  times  the  em- 
peror is  feen  in  the  air,  b)rne  up  by  the  eagle;  the 
infcription  always,  nr.fecratto.  Thefe  are  the^  uUial 
fymbols :  yet  on  the  reverfe  of  that  of  Antoninus  is 
the  Antonine  co!umn.  I:i  llie  apotheufis  of  emprefles, 
inftead  of  an  ea^le  there  is  a  peacock.  As  t )  the  ho- 
nours rendered  thefe  princes  aftei  death,  thjy  were  ex- 
plained by  the  words  confecratio,  pater,  dimus,  and  (Lus. 
Sometimes  aroui;d  the  temple  or  altar  are  put,  inenwria 
felix,  or  memorise  sterr.e  :  for  princefles,  ie!fi-ml<is,  and 
Jidcr'ilus  recepta  ;  on  the  fide  of  the  head,  dea,  or  e.a, 

CONSENT,  in  a  general  fenfe,  denotes  much  the 
fame  with  Assent. 

Consent  of  Paris,  in  the  animal  economy,  an  a- 
greenient  or  fympathy,  whereby  when  one  pait  is  im- 
mediately affefted,  another  at  a  diflance  becomes  af- 
feded  in  the  fame  manner. 

This  mutual  accotd  or  confent  is  fuppofcd  to  be  ef- 
fefted  by  the  commerce  of  the  nerves,  and  their  art- 
ful diflnbution  and  ramification  throughout  the  body. 
The  cffcft  is  fo  fcnfible  as  even  to  come  under  the 


Confervi- 

tor. 
„— * 


phyfician's  cognizance  :  thus,  the  ftone  in  the  blad-  Conrcnte* 
dcr,  by  vellicating  the  fibres  there,  will  pain  and  draw 
them  fo  much  into  tpafms,  as  to  affedt  the  coats  of  the 
bowels,  in  the  fame  manner,  by  the  intermediation  of  . 
ners'ous  threads,  and  make  a  colic  there  ;  and  alfo  ex- 
tend tlieir  twitches  fometimes  as  far  as  the  llomach, 
and  occsfion  grievous  vomitings  :  the  remedy,  there- 
fore, in  fuch  cafes,  is  to  regard  the  part  originally 
affefied,  how  remote  and  grievous  foever  may  be  the 
confequences  and  fymptoms  in  other  places. 

The  fifth  conjugation  of  nerves  branched  to  the 
parts  of  the  eye,  the  ear,  thofe  of  the  mouth,  cheeks, 
prEcordia,  and  parts  adjacent,  &c.  is  fuppofed  by  na- 
turallfts  to  be  the  inllrument  of  that  particular  and 
extraordinaiy  confcnt  between  thofe  parts.  Hence  it 
is,  that  a  favour/  thing  feen  or  fmelled  excites  the 
appetite,  and  affefts  the  glands  and  parts  of  the 
mouth  ;  that  a  (hameful  thing  feen  or  heard  affects 
the  cheeks  with  Wufhes  ;  on  the  contrary,  if  it  pleafe, 
it  afFetts  the  prrecordia,  and  excites  the  mufcles  of  the 
mouth  and  face  to  laughter ;  if  it  grieve,  it  affects 
the  glands  of  the  eyes,  fo  as  to  occafion  tears,  and 
the  mufcles  of  the  face,  putting  them  into  an  afpefl 
of  crying.  Dr  Willis,  quoted  by  Mr  Derham,  im- 
putes the  pleafure  of  killing,  and  its  cfTctls,  to  this 
pair  of  nerves  ;  which  being  branched  both  to  the  lips 
and  the  genital  parts,  when  the  former  are  afteCled 
an  irritation  is  occafioned  in  the  latter.  Sec  Sympa- 
thy. 

CONSENTES,  the  name  which  the  Romans  gave 
to  the  12  fuperior  gods,  the  Dii  niajorum  gentium. 
The  word  fignifies  as  much  as  confentientes ;  that  is, 
who  confented  to  the  deliberations  of  Jupiter's  council. 
They  were  t*-tlve  in  number,  whofe  name  Eunius  has 
briefly  expreffed  in  thefe  lines, 

yuno,  yejluy   Mirtfri'at  C^rei,  Diana,  f^cnus.  Mars, 

CONSEQLTENCE,  In  logic,  the  conclufion,  or 
what  refults  from  reafon  or  atgument.  See  Conclu- 
sion. 

The  confequence  is  that  other  propofuion  in  which 
the  extremes  or  premifes  of  a  fyllogilm  are  joined,  or 
feparated  ;  and  is  gained  from  what  was  aiTeitcd  in 
the  premifes. 

This  word,  in  a  more  reftrained  fenfe,  is  ufcd  for 
the  relation  or  connexion  between  two  propofuions, 
whereof  one  is  inferred  from  the  other. 

CONSEQUENT,  fomething  deduced  or  gathered 
from  a  former  argumentation.  But,  in  a  more  pre- 
cife  fenfe,  it  is  uled  for  the  propofilion  which  contains 
the  conclufion,  confidered  in  itfelf,  without  any  regard 
to  the  antectdcnt :  in  which  fenfe  the  confequent  may 
be  true,  though  the  confequence  be  falfe.  See  the 
preceding  article. 

CONSERVATOR,  an  officer  ordained  for  the  fe- 
curity  and  prefervjtion  of  the  privileges  of  fume  citits 
and  communities,  having  a  commiffion  to  Judge  of  and 
determine  the  differences  among  them. 

In  ftioll  catholic  univerfities  there  are  two  conferva- 
tors  ;  the  confervator  of  royal  privileges,  or  thofe 
granted  by  kings ;  and  the  confervator  of  apotlolical 
privileges,  or  thofe  granted  by  the  pope.  The  firft 
takes  cognizance  of  perfonal  and  mixed  caufes  between 
the  regents,  ftudents,  &c.  and  the  latter  of  fpiritual 
matters  betwecp  ecclefialUcs. 

Anciently 


CON 


[     349     ] 


CON 


Conferva- 
tor 


Anciently  there  were  appointed  confervators  cf  trea- 
ties of  peace  between  princes  ;  which  confervators  be- 
came judges  of  the  iiifraftions  made  on  a  treaty,  and 
were  charged  with  procuring  fatisfadlion  to  be  made. 
Thefe  weie  ufually  the  feudatories  of  the  fevcral  pow- 
ers. In  lieu  of  conf.;rvators,  princes  now  have  recourfe 
to  other  indifferent  princes  to  guarantee  their  treaties. 

CoMCKi^ATOR  cf  Sccts  Privileges,  at  Campvere,  is  an 
officer  bclongintT  to  the  royal  boroughs  of  Scotland, 
who  takes  care  of  the  mercantile  aflairs  ot  Scotland, 
agreeable  to  the  (laple  contra£t  between  them  and  the 
States-  General. 

CoNSFKfATOR.  of  ihe  Peace,  in  the  ancient  Englifh 
cuftoms,  was  a  perfon  who  had  an  efpecial  charge,  by 
virtue  of  his  office,  to  fee  the  king's  peace  kept.  Till 
the  erection  of  juftices  of  the  peace  by  king  Ed- 
ward III.  there  were  feveral  perfons  who  by  common 
law  were  intereftcd  in  keeping  the  lame  :  fome  having 
that  charge  as  incident  to  other  offices  ;  ^>-d  others 
flmpiy,  or  of  iilelf,  called  cujloda,  or  confervators  of 
the  peace.  The  chamberlain  of  Chtfter  is  dill  a  con- 
fervator  in  that  county  ;  and  petty  conflables  are,  by 
the  common  law,  conlervators,  &c.  in  the  firfl  fenfe, 
within  their  own  jiuifdiction  :  fo  are  alfo  the  coroner 
and  the  (hcriff  witliin  their  own  county.  The  king 
is  the  principal  confervator  of  the  peace  within  all  his 
dominions :  the  lord  chavicelhir,  lord  treafurcr,  lord 
high  llcward,  lord  mai'lhnl,  lord  high  conllable,  all  the 
jultices  of  the  court  of  king's  bench,  by  their  office, 
and  the  mailer  of  the  rolls,  by  prefcription,  are  gene- 
ral confervators  of  the  peace  through  the  whole  king- 
dom, and  may  commit  breakers  of  the  peace,  and  bind 
them  in  recognifanccs  to  keep  it. 

CoNSER-yjiTOR  of  the  Truce,  and  Safe  Conducls,  was 
an  officer  appointed  in  every  lea-port,  under  the  king's 
letters  patent.  His  charge  was  to  inquire  of  all  of- 
fences committed  againll  the  Iking's  truce,  and  fafe 
coudufts  upon  the  main  fea,  oiit  of  the  franchifes  of 
the  cin<{ue-ports,  as  the  admirals  were  wont  to  do, 
and  fuch  other  things  as  are  declared  anno  3  Hen.  V. 
cap.  6 

GONSERVATORIOS,  are  mufical  fchools  eQa- 
blifhed  for  the  inftruttion  of  children  in  the  profcffion 
of  mufic.  There  are  four  of  theft  at  Venice,  deiign- 
cd  for  the  education  of  girls,  and  three  at  Naples,  for 
the  education  of  boys.  It  has  been  fuggcfted  that 
the  operation  of  caftration  was  performed  in  the  con- 
fervatovios  ;  but  the  praftice  is  abfolutely  prohibited  ; 
and  the  young  caftiati  are  bro\ight  from  Lucia  in  Pug- 
lia  :  but  before  the  operation  is  performed,  their  voices 
are  tried  in  a  confervatorio.  The  fcholars  of  the  Ve- 
netian confervaton'cs  have  been  chiefly  Cf.lebratfd  for 
taile  and  neatnefs  of  execution  ;  and  thofe  of  Naples 
have  had  the  reputation  of  being  the  fir'.l  contrapnnl'ijls, 
or  compofers,  in  Europe. 

CONSERVATORY,  a  term  fometimes  ufcd  for  a 
green-houfe  or  ice-houfe. 

CONSERVE,  in  pharmacy,  a  form  of  medicine 
contrived  to  prcferve  the  flowers,  herbs,  roots,  or 
fruits  of  feveial  fimples,  as  near  as  pofCble  to  what 
they  are   when  frefli  gathered.     See  Pharmacy. 

CONSIGNMENT,  in  law,  the  depofiting  any 
fum  of  money,  bihs,  papers,  or  commodities,  in  good 
hands  ;  either  by  appointment  of  a  court  cf  juilice,  in 


order  to  be  delivered  to  the  perfons  to  whom  they  are   Confign- 
adjudged  ;  or  voluntarily,  in  order  to  their  being  re-     "^"j"' 
mitted  to  the   perfons  they  belong  to,  or  fcnt  to  the  confu'lory. 
places  they  are  defigned  for.  __y.— _i 

Consignment  of  Goods,  in  commerce,  is  the  de- 
livering or  making  them  over  to  another  :  thus,  goodi 
are  faid  to  be  configned  to  a  faclor,  when  they  are 
fent  to  iiim  to  be  fold,  &c.  ;  or  when  a  faftor  fends 
back  goods  to  his  principal,  they  are  faid  to  be  con- 
figned  to  him. 

CONSISTENCE,  in  phyfics,  that  Rate  of  a  body 
wherein  its  component  particles  are  fo  connecled  or 
entangled  among  themfelves,  as  not  to  feparate  or 
recede  from  each  other.  It  differs  from  continuity  in 
this,  that  it  implies  a  regard  to  motion  or  reft,  which 
continuity  does  not,  it  being  fufiicient  to  denominate 
a  thing  continuous  that  its  parts  arc  contiguous  to  each 
other. 

CONSISTENTES,  in  church-hillory,  a  kind  of  pe- 
nitentswho  were  allowed  to  affift  at  prayers,  but  who 
could  not  be  admitted  to  receive  the  faoianient. 

CONSISTORY  {Conjffiorium),  lignitics  as  much 
as J/ratorium,  a  tribunal:  it  is  commonly  ufed  for  a 
council-hoiife  of  ecclefiaftical  perfons,  or  place  of  ju- 
ilice in  the  fpiritual  court;  a  ftlFioii  or  affembly  of  pre- 
lates. And  every  archbifhop  and  bifhop  of  every  dio- 
cefe  hath  a  confillo'.-y  court  held  before  his  chancellor 
or  commiffary  in  his  cathedral  church,  or  other  conve- 
nient place  of  hisdiocefe,  for  eccleiiaftical  caufes.  Tlie 
billiop's  chancLllor  is  the  judge  of  this  court,  fuppofcA 
to  be  (IcIUed  in  the  civil  and  canon  law;  and  ia  places 
of  the  diocefe  far  remote  from  the  billiop's  conlillory, 
the  bifliop  appoints  a  commiflary  to  judge  in  all  caufes 
within  a  certain  dillrift,  and  a  regillcr  to  enter  his  de- 
crees, &c. 

Consistory,  at  Rome,  denotes  the  college  of  car- 
dinals, or  the  pope's  fcnate  and  council,  before 
whom  jnJiciaiy  caui'es  are  pleaded.  Du-Cange  derives 
the  word  from  confiliorium  ;  i.  e.  locus  ubl  cunfjlltur ; 
ufcd  chiefly  for  a  vellibule,  gallery,  or  ami- chamber, 
where  the  courtiers  wait  for  aduiifliim ;  and  called 
a  confijiente  mvhitudluc. 

The  confillory  is  the  firft  court,  or  tribunal  of 
Rome  :  it  never  meets  but  when  the  pope  pleafes  to 
convoke  it :  the  pope  prefides  in  it  in  perfnn,  mount- 
ed on  a  magnific.nt  throne,  and  habited  in  his  pontifi- 
calia ;  on  the  light  are  the  cardinal-bifliops  and  prieils, 
and  on  the  left  the  cardinal  deacons.  The  place  where 
it  is  held,  is  a  large  hall  in  the  apoltolical  palace, 
wUere  princes  and  ambafladors  of  kings  are  received. 
The  other  prelates,  prothonotaries,  auditors  of  the  ro- 
ta, and  other  officers,  are  fcated  on  the  Heps  of  the 
throne  :  the  courtiers  fit  on  the  ground  ;  ambafTadors 
on  the  right,  and  confiftorial  and  fifcal  advocates  be- 
hind the  cardinals. 

Befides  the  public  confidory,  there  is  alfo  a  private 
one,  held  in  a  retired  chamber,  called  the  chamber  cf 
papegay  ;  the  pope's  throne  here  being  only  raifed  two 
Iteps  high.  Nobody  is  here  admitted  but  tliC  cardinals, 
whofe  opinions  are  collcfted,  and  called  fntences. 
Here  are  firft  propofed  and  palfed  all  bulls  for  bHhop. 
ricks,  abbeys,  &c.  Hence  biftiopricks  and  abbeys 
are  faid  to  be  confiftorial  benefices;  in  regard,  they 
mufl.  be  propofed  in  the  confiftory,  the  annates  be  paid 

i  tfiL- 


CoiiCftory 

li 
Confpiracy 


CON  [35 

to  the  pope,  and  his  bulls  taken.  Anciently  they  wc le 
elective  ;  but  by  the  concordat,  which  abolifhes  elec- 
tions, they  are  appointed  to  be  collated  by  the  pope 
alone,  on  the  nomination  of  the  prince. 

Consistory  was  alfo  the  name  of  a  court  under 
Coaibntine,  where  he  fat  in  pcrfon,  and  heard  caufes  : 
the  members  of  this  couit  were  called  com'ites. 

Consistory  is  alfo  ufcd  among  the  reformed,  for 
a  council  or  aflembly  of  minillers  and  elders,  to  regu- 
late their  affairs,  dil'cipline,  &c. 

Consistory,  or  court  Chriftian  in  the  Englifhlawa, 
is  a  council  of  ecclefiaftical  perfons,  or  the  place  of 
juftice  in  an  ecclefiaftical  or  fpiriiual  court.  Every 
archbilTiop  and  bilhop  has  a  confillory-court,  held  be- 
fore his  chancellor  or  commifTar)^,  either  in  his  cathe- 
dral, in  fome  chapel,  aifle,  or  portico,  belonging  llieic- 
to  ;  or  In  fon:ie  other  convenient  place  of  his  diocefe,  for 
eccltfiadical  caufes.  The  fpiritual  court  was  anciently, 
in  the  time  of  the  Saxons,  joined  with  the  county  or 
hundred  court ;  and  the  original  of  the  confiflory  court, 
as  divided  from  thofe  co'jrts,  is  found  in  a  law  of  the 
conqueror,  q'Uted  by  lord  C  >ke.  From  this  court 
there  lies  an  appeal  to  the  archbiftiop  of  each  province 
vefpeAively. 

CONSOLATION,  one  of  the  places  in  rhetoric 
wherein  the  orator  endeavours  to  abate  and  moderate 
the  grief  or  concern  of  another. 

CONSOLE,  in  architeflure,  an  ornament  cut  upon 
the  key  of  an  arch,  which  has  a  projefture,  and  on 
occafion  feives  to  fupport  little  corniches,  figures,  bulls, 
and  vafes. 

CONSOLIDATION,  in  law,  the  combining  and 
jinitlnsi  two  benefices  into  one.  The  term  is  borrowed 
from  the  civil  law  ;  where  it  properly  fignifies  an  union 
cf  the  pofleflion,  or  occupation,  with  the  propeity. 
Thus,  if  a  man  have  by  legacy  ufwn  fruOum  fwut'i,  and 
afterwards  buv  the  property,  or  fee-finiple,  of  the 
heir  ;   this  is  called  a  conJoMathn. 

CoNso;.inATioN,  in  medicine,  the  aftion  of  uniting 
brokf  n  bone3,  or  the  lips  of  wounds,  by  means  of  con- 
Jol'ulnl'ing  laiifclies,  as  they  are  called  ;  which  cleanfing 
with  a  moderate  heat  and  force,  taking  corruption  out 
of  the  wounds,  and  preferving  the  temperature  of  the 
parts,  caufe  the  nourifhment  to  be  fi,tly  applied  to  the 
part  affeciled. 

Among  the  many  inftanccs  of  the  confolidating 
power  of  blood  and  taw  fltdi,  we  have  a  very  re- 
markable one  in  Bartholine's  Medical  Obitrvations. 
A  man  being  condemned  to  have  hi.s  nofe  cut  off  by 
the  hand  of  the  common  executioner,  the  friends,  who 
were  to  be  prefciit,  provided  a  new  loaf  of  warm  bread, 
which  was  cut  in  the  middle,  and  the  nofe  received  in 
it  as  it  fell  from  the  face  ;  the  nofe  was  after  this  nicely 
placed  on  the  face  again  ;  and,  being  fewed  on,  the 
whi.lc  in  time  ccmfolidated,  and  left  no  othfr  marks 
of  the  ignominy  than  the  fear  round  the  whole  nofe, 
sr.d  the  tr;!ces  of  the  Hitches. 

CONSONANCE,  in  mufic      See  Interval. 
CONSONAN  r,  a  letter   that   cannot   be  founded 
without  loine  fingle  or  double  vowel  before  or  after  it  ; 
is  b,  c,  d,  &c. 

CONSORT,  Sh'cen  Consort.     See  Queen. 
CONSPIRACY,  in  law,  fignifies  an  agreement  be- 
tween tivo  or  raoie,  falfely  to  inditt,  or  procure  to  be 
iuJicled,  an  Innocent  perfcn,  of  felony. 


o     ]  CON 

CONSPIRATORS  are,  by  ftatilte,  defined  to  be  Confi^ira- 
fuch  as  bind  themleiv'ea  by  oath,  covenant,  or  other  al-       '  rs, 
liance,  to  aflift  one   another  falfely  and  inallcioufly  to  CjMljble. 
indict  perfons,  or  falfely  to  maintain  pleas.  * 

Confpirators  in  treafon,  are  thofe  that  plot  againll 
the  kin<r  and  the  government. 

CONSTABLE,  according  to  fome,  is  a  Saxon 
word,  compounded  oi  eoning,  "  king,"  and_y?i7^/if,  which 
fignifies  the  "  ftay  01  fupport  of  the  king."  But  as 
we  borrowed  the  name  as  well  as  the  office  of  Conjiable 
from  the  Fiench,  Sir  William  Blackllone  is  rather  in- 
clined to  deduce  it,  with  Sir  Henry  Spelman  and  Dr 
Cowel,  from  that  language ;  wherein  it  is  plainly  de- 
rived from  the  Latin  comes  Jliibtili,  an  officer  well 
known  in  the  empire ;  fo  called,  becaufe,  like  the 
great  conllable  of  France,  as  well  as  the  lord  high 
con  liable  of  England,  he  was  to  regulate  all  matters 
of  chivalry,  tilts,  tournaments,  and  feats  of  arms,  which 
were  perf^irmed  on  horfeback. — The 

Lord  High  CoNSTABLR  of  Etigland  is  the  feventh 
great  officer  of  the  crown  ;  and  he,  with  the  earl 
marlhal  of  England,  were  formerly  judges  of  the  court 
of  chivalry,  called  in  king  Henry  IV.'s  time  Curia 
MiUtaris,  and  now  the  court  of  honour.  It  is  the 
fountain  of  the  martial  law,  and  anciently  was  held  in 
the  king's  hall.  The  power  of  the  lord  high  con- 
llable was  formerly  10  great,  and  of  which  fo  improper 
a  life  wa«  made,  that  fo  early  as  the  1 3th  ol  king  Rich- 
ard II.  a  Ilatute  paffed  for  regulating  and  abridging 
the  fame,  together  with  the  power  of  the  earl  mailhal 
of  England  ;  and  by  this  (latute,  no  plea  could  be  tri- 
ed by  them  or  their  courts,  that  could  be  tried  by  the 
common  law  of  the  realm.  The  office  of  conilable 
exitled  before  the  conqueft.  After  the  conqueft,  the 
office  went  with  Inheritance,  and  by  the  tenure  of  the 
manors  of  Hailefield,  Newman,  and  Whitenhurd,  in 
Gloucelldrfhire,  by  grand  ferjeanty  in  the  family  of 
the  Bohuns  ear!  of.  Htreford  and  Effcx,  and  after- 
wards in  line  of  Sefford  as  heirs-general  to  them  ;  but 
in  I  52  I,  this  gre?t  office  became  forfeited  to  the  king 
in  the  perfon  of  Edward  Stafford  dnke  of  Bucking- 
ham, who  was  that  year  attainted  for  hiL;li  treafon ;  and 
in  confideratlon  of  its  extenfive  power,  dignity,  and 
large  authority,  both  in  time  of  war  and  peace,  it  has 
never  been  granted  to  any  peifon,  othcrwife  than  hac 
■vice,  and  that  to  attend  at  a  coronation,  or  trial  by 
combat.  In  France,  the  fame  office  Was  alfo  fnppreffed 
about  a  century  after  by  an  edlA  of  Louis  XIII ; 
though  it  has  been  exerclfed,  in  the  command  of  the 
Marshals,  by  the  firft  offictr  in  the  army. 

Lord  high  conllable  of  Scotland  was  an  office  of 
great  antiquity  and  dignity.  The  firft  upon  record  is 
Hugo  de  Morvelle  in  the  reign  of  David  I.  He  had 
two  grand  prerogatives,  viz.  Fiill,  the  keeping  of  the 
king's  Iwoid,  whlcii  the  king,  at  his  promotion,  when 
he  fwears  fealty,  delivers  to  him  naked;  Hence  the 
badge  of  the  conftable  is  a  naked  fword. — Second,  The 
abfolute  and  unlimited  comm.aiid  of  the  king's  armies 
while  in  the  fields  in  the  abfence  of  the  king;  but 
this  command  does  not  extend  to  caltles  and  garilfons. 
He  v/?is  likewlfe  judge  of  all  crimes  comtaictcd  within 
two  leagues  of  the  king's  houfe,  which  preclnft  was 
cA\<&  xS\<i  Chalmer  of  Peace.  Though  his  jurlldidllon 
came  at  .hft  to  be  exercifed  only.as  10  crimes  during 
the  time  of  parliament,  which  forae  extended  likewife 
2    -  to 


CON.  [     .-JSi     1  CON 

This  office  was  conferred         There  are  alfo   cotiflables  denominated  from  parti-  CoriftaMc. 
cular  places,  as  conllable   of 


Conflable.  to  all  gehe'ral  conventions, 

*~~~v~-  lieritably  upon  the  ncbk  family  of  Err.>l,  by  king  Ro- 
bert Bruce  ;  and  with  them  it  ftill  remains,  being  ex- 
prt  filly  referved  by  the  treaty  of  un'oii. 

Inferior  CoNSTAPi.Es.  From  the  great  office  of 
hip;h  conRable  is  derived  that  inferior  order,  firce 
called  thv  con/ial,ks  of  hundreds  and  franrhifes  ;  thcfe 
ivcre  tjril  ordained  in  the  13th  year  of  Kdvvard  I.  by 
tlie  ilatiite  of  Winchtfter  ;  which,  for  the  confcrva- 
tion  of  the  peace,  and  view  of  armour,  appointed  that 
two  conftobles  flioidd  be  choftn  in  every  hundred  and 
fi  aiichife.  Tht  fe  are  what  wc  now  c3\\coi:J}alidarii  ciipitaks 
or  h:gh  conflables  ;  becaufe  continuance  of  lime,  and  in- 
crtafe  of  ptople,  &c.  have  occafioned  others  of  like  na- 
ture, but  inferior  authority,  in  cvtiy  town,  called /tV/y 
tonjicibks,  or,  fub-coiifiirbiddrii,  fiiil  inllituted  about  the 
reign  of  Edward  111. 

•The  former,  or  modern  high  lonjialh-s,  are  appoint- 
ed at  the  coilrt-leets  of  the  franchife  or  hundred  over 
which  they  prefide  ;  or,  in  default  of  that,  by  the 
juftices  at  their  quarter-fcfiions  ;  and  are  rtmoveable 
by  the  fr.me  authority  that  appoints  them.  The/rf/j 
eonJiclL's  have  two  oflices  united  in  them,  the  one  an- 
cient, and  the  other  modern.  Their  ancient  office  is 
that  of  head-borough,  tlthing-nian,  or  borfliolder  ; 
|L-  who  are  as  ancient  as  the  tim'e  of  king  Alfred  :  their 

B  more  m.odcrn  office  is  that  of  conllable  merely  ;  which 

K  was  appointed  fo  lately  ?s  the   reign   of  Edward  III. 

jf"  in  order  to  afiift  the  high-conflable.     And  in  general 

the  ancient  head-boroughs,  tithing-men,  and  borfhold- 
ers,  were  made  nfe  of  to  ferve  as  petty  conftables  ; 
though  not  fo  generally,  but-that  in  many  places  they 
ftill  continue  diitinCt  officers  from  the  conftables. 
They  are  all  chofen  by  the  jury  at  the  court-leet ;  or 
if  no  court-leet  be  held,  are  appointed  by  two  juftices 
of  the  peace. 

The  general  duty  of  all  conftables,  both  high  and 
petty,  as  well  as  of  the  other  officers,  is  to  keep  the 
king's  peace  in  their  feveral  diftrifts  ;  and  to  that  pur- 
pofe  they  are  armed  with  very  large  powers  of  ar- 
refting  and  imprifoning,  of  breaking  open  houfes,  and 
the  like  :  of  the  extent  of  which  powers,  confidering 
what  manner  of  men  are  for  the  nioft  part  put  upon 
thtfe  offices,  it  is  perhaps  ver)-  well  that  they  are  ge- 
nerally kept  in  ignorance.  One  of  their  principal 
duties  arifing  from  the  ftatute  of  Winchefter,  which 
appoints  them,  is  to  keep  watch  and  ward  in  their  re- 
fpedlive  jurifdiftions.  Ward,  guard,  or  cuflodia,  is 
chiefly  intended  of  the  day-time,  in  order  to  appre- 
hend rioters,  and  robbeis  on  the  highways  ;  the  man- 
ner of  doing  which  is  left  to  the  difcretion  of  the  juf- 
tices  of  the  peace  and  the  conftable  :  the  hundred  be- 
ing, however,  liable  for  all  the  robberies  committed 
therein  byday-light,  for  having  kept  negligent  guard. 
Watch  is  properly  applicable  to  the  night  only,  (being 
called  among  the  Saxons  wach't  or  lun^ii)  ;  and  it  be- 
gins when  ward  ends,  and  ends  when  that  begins  : 
for,  by  the  ftatute  of  Winchtfter,  in  walled  towns  the 
gates  fhall  be  clofed  from  fun-fetting  to  fun-vinng  ; 
and  watch  fliall  be  kept  in  every  borough  and  town, 
efpecially  in  the  fummer  feafon,  to  apprehend  all 
logues,  vagabonds,  and  night-walkers,  and  make  them 
give  an  account  of  themfvlves.  The  conftable  may 
appoint  watchmen  at  his  difcretion,  regulated  by  the 
cuftom  of  the  place;  and  thefe,  being  his  deputies,  have, 
for  the  time  being,  the  authority  of  their  principal. 


the  Tower,  of  Dover 
caftle,  of  Windfor  caftle,  of  the  caftle  of  Caernarvon, 
and  many  other  of  the  caftles  of  Wales  ;  whofe  office 
is  the  fame  with  that  of  the  caftellani,  or  governors  of 
caftles. 

CoNST.^BLF.s  of  Lor.dcn.  The  city  of  London  is  di- 
vided into  26  wards,  and  the  wards  into  precindls,  in 
each  whereof  is  a  conftable.  They  are  nominated  by 
the  inhabitants  of  each  precinA  on  St  Thomas's  day, 
and  confirmed,  or  otherw  ife,  at  the  court  of  wardmote. 
After  co^lirmation,  tlity  are  fworn  into  their  offices 
at  a  court  of  aldermen,  bn  the  next  Monday  after 
Twelfth  day.  Such  as  are  chofen  into  the  office,  are 
obhged  to  place  the  king's  arms,  and  the  arms  of  the 
city,  over  their  doors  ;  and  if  they  relide  in  alleys,  at 
the  ends  of  fuch  alleys  toward  the  ftreets,  to  fignify 
that  a  conftable  hves  there,  and  that  they  may  be  the 
more  eafily  found  when  wanted. 

Coi\STAniss  to  yiijlkes  of  the  Prace,  in  Scotland, 
are  the  proper  officers  for  executing  their  orders. 
They  have  powers  to  fupprefs  tumults,  and  to  ap- 
prehend delioquents  and  thofe  who  can  give  no  good 
account  of  thtmfelves,  and  carry  them  to  the  next 
juftice. 

CONSTANCE,  a  ftrong  town  of^ermany,  in  the 
circle  of  Suabia,  with  a  bifliop's  fee,  whofe  hifnop  is  a 
prince  of  the  empire.  It  has  a  handfome  brid.Te,  and 
feveral  fine  ftruftures,  as  well  facred  as  profane.  It 
carries  on  a  great  trade,  and  is  well  fortified ;  and 
though  it  pretends  to  be  an  imperial  town,  the  Auf- 
tiians  keep  a  garrifon  here.  It  is  famous  for  a  coun- 
cil held  here  in  15 14,  when  there  were  three  popes  ; 
but  they  were  all  depofed,  and  Martin  V.  was  elefted 
in  their  room.  The  council  caufcd  Jerom  of  Prague 
to  be  burnt,  though  the  emperor  Sigifmund  had  given 
him  a  fafeionduft  ;  in  purfuance  of  this  maxim,  "  that 
no  faith  is  to  be  kept  with  heritics."  They  likewife 
condemned  the  doctrine  of  Wickiiff,  and  ordered  his 
bones  to  be  burned'  40  years  after  he  w^as  dead. 
However,  the  inhabitants  now  are  Proteftants.  It  is 
feated  on  a  lake  of  the  fame  name.  E.  Long.  9.  12. 
N.  Lat.  47.  35. 

Constance,  a  great  lake  of  Germany,  between 
Suabia  and  Swiflerland.  It  is  30  miles  in  length,  and 
S  in  breadth.  It  is  croffed  by  the  river  Rhine  ;  and 
there  are  feveral  towns  on  its  banks. 

CONSTANCY,  in  a  general  fenfc,  denotes  immu- 
tablility,  or  invariablenefs. — In  ethics,  or  when  applied 
to  the  human  mind,  the  term  Implies  refolution  or  ftea- 
dinefs,  particularly  under  fufferings  and  the  trials  of 
advcrfity. 

It  was  the  faying  of  a  heathen  philofopher,  That 
there  cannot  be  imagined  upon  earth  a  fpeitacle  more 
worthy  the  regard  of  the  Creator  intent  on  his  works, 
than  a  brave  man  fuperior  to  his  fufferings.  Nothing 
indeed  can  be  more  noble  or  honourable  than  to  have 
courage  enough  to  execute  the  commands  of  reafon 
and  confciencc  ;  to  maintain  the  dignity  of  our  na- 
ture, and  the  ftation  affigned  us  ;  and  to  be  proof  a- 
gainft  poverty,  pain,  and  death  itfelf,  fo  far  as  not  to 
do  any  thing  that  is  fcandalous  or  finful  to  averid  them. 
To  be  thus,  is  to  be  great  above  title  and  fortune.  This 
argues  the  foul  of  an  heavenly  extraction,  and  is  worthy 
the  offspring  of  the  Deity. 

Of  this  viitue  the  following  example,  related  in 

En^lifti 


CON 


C    352    ] 


CON 


ConftaUc.  Englifh  hlftory,  is  here  feleftcd,  as  fuperior  perhaps,  ah 
•■  '    »~—  circuirftances  confidered,  to  any  other  upon  record. 

Sir  William  A(l<ew  of  Kellay,  in  Lincolnniire,  had 
fcveral  daughters.  His  fecond,  named  ylnns,  had  re- 
ceived a  genteel  education  ;  which,  with  an  agreeable 
figure  and  good  underftandine^,  rendered  her  a  very 
proper  perfon  to  be  at  the  head  of  a  family.  Her  fa- 
ther, regardlefs  of  his  daughter's  inclination  and  hap- 
pinefs,  obliged  her  to  mai  ry  a  gentleman  who  had  no- 
tl;inj  to  recommend  him  but  his  foitune,  and  who  was 
a  mod  bigoted  Papift.  No  fooner  was  he  convinced 
of  his  wife's  regard  for  the  doctrines  of  the  reforma- 
tion from  popery,  than,  by  the  iniligation  of  the 
pricds,  he  violently  drove  her  from  his  houfe,  though 
(lie  had  born  him  two  children,  and  her  condiiA  was 
unexceptionable.  Abandoned  by  her  hufband,  {be- 
came up  to  London,  in  order  to  procure  a  divorce, 
and  to  make  herfelf  Jcnown  to  that  part  of  the  court 
who  either  profefied  or  were  favourers  of  Proteftan- 
tifm  :  but  as  Henry  VIII.  with  confent  of  parlia- 
ment, had  juft  enatled  the  law  of  the  fix  articles,  com- 
monly called  the  hloody Jlatule,  (he  was  cr jelly  betrayed 
by  her  own  hufband  ;  and,  upon  his  information,  taken 
into  cuftody,  and  examined  concerning  her  faith.  The 
aft  above-mentioned  denounced  death  againft  all  thofe 
who  (hould  deny  the  doftrlne  of  tranJubJlan'iaUon  ;  or, 
that  thebtead  and  wine  made  ufc  of  in  the  facrament 
was  not  converted  after  confecration  into  the  real  bo- 
dy and  blood  of  Chrift;  or,  maintain  the  nfceflity  of 
receiving  the  facrament  iu  both  kinds  ;  or  affirm,  that 
it  was  lawful  for  priefls  to  marr)-;  that  the  vows  of  ce- 
libacy might  be  broken  ;  that  private  mafles  were  of  no 
avail  ;  and  that  auricular  confeffion  to  a  prieft  was  not 
neccfTary  to  falvation.  Upon  thefe  articles  (lie  was 
examined  by  the  inquifitor,  a  priell,  the  lord- mayor  of 
London,  and  the  biihop's  chancellor;  and  to  all  their 
queries  gave  proper  and  pertinent  anfwers  ;  but  not 
being  fuch  as  they  approved,  fhe  was  fent  back  to  pri- 
fon,  where  fhe  remained  eleven  days  to  ruminate  alone 
on  her  alarming  fituation,  and  was  denied  the  fmall 
confolation  of  a  friendly  vifit.  The  king's  council 
being  at  Greenwich,  (he  was  once  more  examined  by 
chancellor  Wriotheflcy,  Gardiner  bilhop  of  Winche- 
fter,  Dr  Cox,  and  Dr  Robinfon ;  but  not  being  able 
to  convince  her  of  her  fuppofed  errors,  fhe  was  fent  to 
the  Tower.  Mr  Strype,  from  an  authentic  paper, 
gives  U3  the  following  fhort  account  of  her  examina- 
tion, which  may  not,  perhaps,  be  unentertaining  or 
iifelefs  to  the  reader :  "  Sir  Martin  Bowes  (lord 
mayor)  fitting  with  the  council,  as  moft  meet  for  his 
wifdom,  and  feeing  her  ftand  upon  life  and  death,  I 
pray  you,  quoth  he,  my  lords,  give  me  leave  to  talk 
to  this  woman  ?  Leave  was  granted.  Lord  Mayor. 
Thou  foolilh  woman,  fayeft  thou  that  the  piicft  can- 
not make  the  holy  body  of  Chrift  ?  A.  yijie'w.  I  fay  fo, 
my  lord  :  for  I  have  read  that  God  made  man  ;  but 
that  man  made  God  I  never  read;  nor  I  fuppofe  ever 
/hall  read  it.  Lord  Alayor.  No!  Thou  foolifh  wo- 
man, after  the  wotds  of  confecration,  is  it  not  the 
Lord's  body  ?  Jt.  AJle'w.  No:  it  is  but  confccrated 
bread,  or  facramental  bread.  Lord  Mayor.  What  if  a 
moufe  eat  it  after  confecration  ;  what  fhall  become  of 
this  moufe  ?  what  fayeft  thou,  thou  foolifh  woman? 
A.  AJhc'iv.  What  fhall  become  of  her,  fay  you,  my 
lord  ?  Lord  Mayor.  I  fay,  that  the  moufe  is  damned. 
N"  89. 


A-  AjlfM.  Alack,  poor  moufe!"  Perceiving  that  CondaWe, 
fome  could  not  keep  in  their  laughing,  the  council  *--  "ft»n"a. 
proceeded  to  the  butchery  and  (laughter  ihat  they  In-         '    '    . 

tended  before  they  came  there It   was   Itrongly  fu- 

fpi;cled  that  Mrs  Afkew  was  favoured  by  fonie  ladies 
of  high  rank  ;  and  that  (he  carried  on  a  religious  cor- 
refpondence  with  the  queen.  So  that  the  chancellor 
AViiotheflcy,  hoping  that  he  might  difcover  fomething 
that  would  afford  matter  of  impeachment  againft  that 
princefs,  the  Earl  of  Hertford,  or  his  Countefa,  who 
all  favoured  reformation,  ordered  her  to  be  put  to  the 
rack:  but  her  fortitude  in  fuffering,  and  her  refolution 
not  to  betray  htr  friends,  was  proof  againft  that  dia- 
bolical invention.  Not  a  groan,  not  a  word,  could  he 
extorted  from  her.  The  chancellor,  provoked  with 
what  he  called  her  obllinacy,  augmented  her  tortures 
with  his  own  hands,  and  with  unheard  of  violence  :  but 
her  courage  and  conftancy  were  invincible  ;  and  thefc 
barbarians  gained  nothing  by  their  cruelties  but  cver- 
lafting  dilgrace  and  infamy.  As  loon  as  (he  was  taken 
from  the  rack,  fhe  fainted  away  ;  but  being  recovered, 
fhe  was  condemned  to  the  flames.  Her  bones  we.-^e  dif- 
located  in  fuch  a  manner,  that  they  were  forced  to  car- 
ry her  in  a  chair  to  the  place  of  execution.  While  (he 
was  at  the  ftake,  letters  weie  brought  her  from  the 
lord  chancellor,  offering  her  the  king's  pardon  if  (lie 
would  recant.  But  fhe  refulcd  to  look  at  them  ;  tell- 
ing the  melfenger,  that  "  (he  came  n-,)t  thither  to  deny 
her  Lord  and  Mafter."  The  fame  letters  were  alio 
tendered  to  three  other  perfons  condemned  to  the  lame 
fate;  and  who,  animated  by  her  example,  refuled  to 
accept  them.  Wherei'.pon  the  lord- mayor  command- 
ed the  fire  to  be  kindled  ;  and  with  favage  ignorance 
cried  oat,Fiutju/?itia,  "Letjuftice  take  its  courfe."  The 
faggots  being  lighted,  fhe  commended  her  foul,  with 
the  utmoft  compofure,  into  the  hands  of  her  Maker  ; 
and,  like  the  great  founder  of  the  religion  (he  profefs- 
ed,  expired,  praying  J-^r  her  murderers,  July  16.  1546, 
about  the  2  5ih  year  of  her  age. 

CONSTANTIA,  a  diftrift  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  confifting  of  two  farms,  which  produce  the 
well-known  wine  fo  much  prized  in  Europe,  and 
known  by  the  name  of  Cape  or  Coiijlant'ia  wine.  This 
place  is  (ituated  at  the  diftance  of  a  mile  and  a  half 
from  Alphcn,  in  a  bending  formed  by  and  nearly  un- 
der the  ridge  of  hills,  which  comes  from  Meuifen- 
mountain,  and  juft  where  it  ftrikes  off  towards  Hout- 
bay.  One  of  thefe  farms  is  called  Little  Conftantia. 
Here  the  white  Conftantia  wine  is  made.  The  other 
produces  the  red.  According  to  M.  De  la  Call's  ac- 
count, not  more  than  60  figgars  of  red,  and  90  of  the 
white  Conftantia  wine  are  made,  each  figgar  being 
reckoned  at  600  French  pints,  or  about  150  Swedi/h 
cans  ;  fo  that  the  whole  produce  amounts  to  22,500 
cans.  As  the  company  are  ufed  to  keep  one  third 
of  this  for  themfelves,  the  remainder  is  always  be- 
fpokc  by  the  Europeans  long  before  it  is  made.  At 
the  Cape  this  wine  is  feldom  feen  at  table,  partly  be- 
caufe  it  is  dear,  and  partly  becaufe  It  Is  the  produce 
of  the  country.  The  red  Conftantia  wine  fells  for 
about  60  rlxdollars  the  half  awin;  but  the  white  is 
ufually  to  be  purchafed  at  a  more  reafonable  rate. 
The  genuine  Conftantia  wine  is  undeniably  a  very 
racy  and  delicate  defert  wine,  and  has  fomething  pe- 
culiaily  agreeable  in  the  flavour  of  it.     That  its  fu- 

periority» 


CON 


Conftaiuii  perioiity,  however,  is  not  owing  to  any  thing  peculiar 
in   the  manner  of -prepaiin<^  it,  fccms  extremely  pro- 
liable  ;  for  then,  without  doubt,  a  great  deal  more  of 
it  would  be  made.     In  faift,  Dr  Sparniann  informs  us, 
that  the  grnuiue  wine  can  only  be  produced  by  certain 
particular  foils.     The  dillritts  that  lie  next   to  thefe 
yield  merely  the  common  Cape  wine,  notwithflanding 
that   they  have  been  planted  with  vine-ftocks  taken 
from   this,  as  well  as  with   fomc   brought   from  the 
banks   of  the    Rhine,   whence  it  is  fuppofed  that  the 
true  Canftantia  fort  originally  comes  ;  nay,  even  tho' 
all  the  vineyards  about   Conftantia   feem   to  have  the 
fame  foil.     We  have  inftances  at  the  Cape,  as  well  as 
in  Europe,  that  good  grapes  fomctimes  produce  a  bad 
wine;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  bad  grapes  will  yield  a 
good  fort  of  wine  :  therefore,  towards  making  wine  of  a 
certain  quality,  befides  finer  materials,  there  mult  be 
certain  conditions  and  circumftances,  which,  by  a  di- 
ligent  and   rational   inveftigation,   might  probably  be 
explored  to  the  great  benefit  of  mankind. 

Such  as  are  apprized  in  what  quantities  C&nftantia 
wine  is  confumed  in  Europe,  will  perhaps  think  the 
above  calculation  of  the  produce  too  limited.  This, 
however,  Dr  Sparmann  afTures  us,  is  by  no  means  the 
cafe  ;  the  overplus  being  the  produce  of  avarice,  which, 
goaded  on  by  the  defire  of  gain,  will  always  hit  upon 
fome  method  of  fatisfying  the  demands  of  luxury  and 
fenfuality.  The  votaries  of  thefe,  accullomed  to  be 
put  off  with  empty  founds,  do  not  feldom  drink  with 
the  highed  relith  an  imaginary  Conftantia,  with  which, 
however,  this  liquor  has  nothing  in  common  befides 
the  mere  name.  It  is  therefore  advifable,  even  at 
the  Cape  itfelf,  to  take  care,  that  whilft  one  has  a  ge- 
nuine fample  given  one  to  tafte,  one  is  not  made  to 
pay  for  a  made-up  red  Conftantia,  which  etherwife  is 
in  general  fold  for  half  the  price.  When  a  wine  of 
this  kind  has  been  (as  it  ufually  is)  meliorated  by  a 
voyage,  and  at  the  fame  time  chrillened  with  the  pom- 
pous name  of  genuine  Conftantia,  of  which  it  has  in- 
deed in  fome  meafure  the  flavour,  it  eafily  fells  for  fuch 
in  Europe. 

CONSTANTINA,  a  ftrong  and  confiderable  town 
of  Africa,  in  the  kingdom  of  Algiers,  and  capital  of  a 
territory  of  the  fame  name.  It  is  the  largeft  and 
ftrongeft  place  in  all  the  eaftern  parts;  and  it  is  feated 
on  the  top  of  a  great  rock.  There  is  no  way  to  it 
but  by  fteps  cut  out  of  the  rock  ;  and  the  iifual  way 
of  puniftiing  criminals  here  is  to  throw  them  down 
the  cliff".  Here  area  great  many  Roman  antiquities, 
particularly  a  triumphal  archi  E.  Long.  7.  12.  N. 
Lat.  36.  4. 

CoNSTANTiNA,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  Andalufia,  and 
capital  of  a  fmall  territory  of  the  fame  name,  with 
a  caftle  feated  on  a  mountain.  W.  Long.  5.  jj. 
N.  Lat.  37.  40. 

CONSTANTINE,  a  kingdom  of  Barbary  of  that 
name,  in  Africa.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Mediterranean,  on  the  eaft  by  the  kingdom  of  I'unis, 
on  the  fouth  by  Bildulgerid,  and  on  the  weft  by  the 
yiver  Sufegmar,  which  feparates  it  from  the  kingdom 
of  Bugia.  The  country-  is  the  new  Numidia  of  the 
anc.us,  and  had  its  own  king  :  but  it  is  now  a  pro- 
vince to  AI,;iers. 

CoNSTAN.-iNE  the  Grcat,  the  firft  emperor  of  the 
Vol.  V.  Part  I. 


C     3SS     ] 


CON 


Romans  who  embraced  Chriftianity.  His  father,  Con- 
ftantius  Chlorus,  rendered  himfelf  famous  by  his  vic- 
torious expeditions  to  Germany  and  Britain  :  upon  the 
abdication  of  Dioclefian,  he  Ihared  the  Roman  empire 
with  Galerius  Maximinus  in  30J,  and  was  at  that  time 
at   Ybrk,  where  he  died  in  306  ;  having  firft  caufed 
his  fon  Coiiftantine  the  Great  to  be  proclaimed  empe- 
ror by  his  army,  and  by  the  Englifli.     Galerius  at  firft 
rcfufcd  to  admit  Coiiftantine  to  his  father's  ftiare  in  the 
imperial  throne  ;  but  after  having  loft  feveral  battles, 
he  confented  in  308.     Maxentius,  who  fucceeded  Ga- 
lerius, oppofed  him  :  but  was  defeated,  and  drowned 
himfelf  in    the   Tyber.       The    fenate    then   declared 
Conftantine  chief  o^  frjl  Aiiguftus,  and  Licinuis  his  fe- 
cond  affocidte  in   the  empire,   in  313.      Thefe  princes 
publiflied  an  edift,  in  their  joint  names,   in  favour  of 
the  Chriftians  ;  but  foon  after  Liclnius,  jealous  of  Con- 
ftantine's  renown,  conceived   an  Implacable  hatred  a- 
galiift  him,  and  renewed  the   perfeeutions  agalnft  the 
Chriftians.     This  brought  on  a  rupture  between  the 
emperors  ;    and  a   battle,   in  which   Conftantine   was 
vlftorious.     A  fhort  peace   enfued  :  but  Licinius  ha- 
ving iliamcfuUy  violated  the  treaty,  the   war  was  re- 
newed ;  when   Conftantine   totally  defeating  him,  he 
fled  to  NIcomedia,  where  he  was  taken   prifoner  and 
ftrangled  in  323.     Conftantine,  now  become  fole  ma- 
fter  of  the  wcttern  and  eaftern  empires,  immediately 
f(n-mcd  the  plan  of  eftablllhing  Chriftianity  as  the  reli- 
gion of  th.e   ftate ;  for   which   purpofe,   he   convoked 
feveral  ecclefialtlcal  councils:    but  finding  he  was  like- 
ly to  meet  with  great  oppofition    from  the  Pagan  in- 
tercrt  at  Rome,  he  conceived  the  delign  of  founding  a 
new  city,  to  be  the  capital  of  his  Chrlftlan  empire  ;  fee 
Constantinople.      The  glory  Conftantine  had  ac- 
quired by  eftablllhing  the  Chriftiaii  religion,  was  tar- 
nlftied  by  the  part  he  took  in  the  perfeeutions  carried 
on  by  the  Arians,  towards  the  clofe   of  his  reign,  a- 
gainft    their  Chrlftlan    brethren    who    dllfered    from 
them  :  fcduced  by  Eufebius  of  NIcomedia,  he  banllh- 
td  feveral  eminent  prelates;  foon  after  which,  he  died  in 
337,  the  66th  year  of  his  age,  and  3lftof  his  reign. 

As  to  the  charafter  of  Conftantine,  he  was  chafte, 
pious,  laborious,  and  Indefatigable  ;  a  great  general, 
fuccefsful  in  war,  and  deferving  his  fuccefs  by  his 
iliining  valour  and  by  the  brightnefs  of  his  genius  ;  a 
protector  of  arts,  and  an  encourager  of  tliem  by  his 
beneficence.  If  we  compare  him  with  Auguftus,  we 
fliuU  find  that  he  ruined  idolatry,  by  the  fame  precau- 
tions and  the  fame  addrefs  that  the  other  ufed  to  de* 
ftroy  liberty.  Like  Auguftus,  he  laid  the  foundation 
of  a  new  empire  ;  but  lefs  flillful,  and  lefs  polite,  he 
could  not  give  it  the  fame  ftabllity  :  he  weakened  the 
body  of  the  ftate  by  adding  to  it,  in  fome  meafuie,  a 
ftcond  head  in  the  lour.iatlon  of  Conftantinople  ;  and 
tranfporting  the  centre  of  motion  and  ftrength  too 
near  the  eaftern  extremity,  he  left  without  heat,  and 
almoft  without  life,  the  weftcrn  parts,  which  foon  be- 
came a  prey  to  the  barbarians.  The  Pagans  were 
too  much  his  enemies  to  do  him  juftice.  Eutiopiux 
fays,  that  in  the  former  part  of  his  reign  he  was  equal 
to  the  moft  accomphfhed  princes,  and  in  the  latter  to 
the  meaneft.  The  younger  Viftur,  who  makes  him 
to  have  reigned  more  than  31  years,  pretends,  that  in 
the  firll  10  years  he  was  ahcio  ;  in  the  12  fucceeding 
y  7  ones 


Condan- 

tine. 


CON 


Ccr.fi:iii-    ones  a  robber  ;  and  in  the  lo  lad  a  fpeiuVihiift.     It  is 

"' ''      eafy  to  perceive,  with  icipcA  ta  thel'e  two  rcpioaclies 

timvilc."  ofViftor's,  that  the  one  relates  to  the  riches  which 

u— ^ Couliantine  to"k  from  idolatry,  and  the  other  to  thofe 

with  which  he  loaded  the  chnrch. 

CoMSTANTiNK  empcror  of  the  Eaft  in  looz,  left 
the  care  of  the  empire  to  his  wife  Helena,  who  load- 
ed the  p'.'ople  with  taxes,  and  fold  all  the  offices  in 
cliurth  and  ftate  to  the  highell  bidders;  while  tlie 
emperor  emploved  himfclf  in  reading,  writing,  and 
the  fine  arts,  till  he  became  as  good  an  arcliitect  and 
painter  as  he  was  a  bad  prince  :  he  wrote  feveral 
biographical  and  geographical  works,  which  would 
have  done  honour  to  his  name,  if  he  had  not  neglec- 
ted his  dlity  to  compofe  them.     He  died  in  959.  , 

CoNSTANTiNE  (Dracofes),  the  fon  of  Emmannel 
Paleolo'^us,  was  placed  on  the  throne  by  fnltan  Amu- 


354    3  CON 

nnmbers  of  Chriftians  in  their  mailer's  dominions,  Conftan- 
Conllanline  wrote  a  letter  in  their  behalf  to  the  Per- ''""f  "'''a* 
fum  monarcli.  ^"--"'Lu 

Nest  year,  the  Sarmatiaiis  being  again  attacked  by 
the  Goths,  found  themfelves  obliged  to  fet  at  liberty 
and  arm  their  flaves  againft  them.  By  this  means 
they  indeed  overcame  the  Goths  ;  but  the  victorious 
fiaves  turning  their  arms  againft  their  mailers,  drove 
them  out  of  the  countiy.  This  misfortune  obliged 
them,  to  the  number  of  300,000,  to  apply  for  relief  to  h,;  taJas  ' 


the  Roman  emperor,  who  incorporated  with  his  le- number  of 
gions  fuch  as  were  capable  of  fervice  ;  and  gave  fettle-  ^'"■"^'"113 
ments  to  the  reft  in  Thrace;  Scythia,  Macedon,  and' 
Italy.  This  w-as  the  lalt.  remarkable  attion  of  Con- 
ftantine  the  Great.  He  died  on  May  25.  ^f  7,  having  pj.^  f  ,  - 
divided  the  empire  among  his  children  and  nephews,  and  ciivi-  ' 
in  the  following  manner.      Conitantine,  his  eldeft  fon,  lion  of  the 


I  iiiti)  Ins 
army. 

6 


rath  in"i4).8.      But  Mahomet  II.  his  fucceiTor,  p.'fol-  •.  had   Gaul,   Spain,  and   Britain;  Conllantius,  the  fe  "-"•'■I'ire- 


tht  Aveftern 
cmpje; 


vjng  to  detiivoiie  him,  laid  hcge  to  Conllanlinople  b)- 
■  fea  and  land,  and  took  it  by  affliult  in  1453,  after  it 
had  held  out  58  diiys.  The  unfortunate  emperor  fee- 
_  ing  the  Turks  enter  the  breaches,  threw  himftlf  into 
the  midft  of  the  enemv,  and  was  cut  to  pieces  ;  the 
children  of  the  imperial  houfe  were  madacrcd  by  the 
foldiers  ;  and  the  women  referved  to  gratify  the  Lid 
of  the  conqueror  :  and  thus  terminated  the  dynaily  of 
the  Conftantines,  1123  years  after  its  ellablifiiment  at 
Conftuntlnople. 

CoNSTANTiNE  (Robert),  a  learned  phyfician  born 
at  Caen,  taught  polite  literature  in  that  city  ;  and  ac- 
quired great  reputation  by  his  ikill  in  the  Greek  lan- 
p;uage,  in  hiilorv,  and  in  medicine.  He  died  in  1  603, 
a^ed  103.  He  wrote  a  diftionary  in  Greek  and  Latin 
»  and  otlicr  works,  which  are  eftecmed. 

Removing        CONSTANTINOPLE,  the  modern  name  of  the 
'.  p'"j,""city  of  Bv/ANTioM  in  Thrace.      It  was  enlarged  and 
tl.is  city  ti.e  beautified    by    the   Roman   emperor   Conltan-ine   the 
taiife  of  r)ie  Great,  in  the  year  330.     At  the  fame  time  he  traiif- 
'.'"'■'"^r"*^    ferred  thitber  the  feat  of  the  empire  ;   and   this  remo- 
val IS  generally  thought  to  havt  been  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal caufes  of  the  fudden  decline  of  the   weftern  em- 
pire after  this  period. 
Confiantine      In  the  year  332,  the  Sarmatians  implurcd  Conftan- 
tifftatbthe   tine's  afSllance  againft  the  Goths,   who  iiad  made  an 
Gotiis,         irruption   into  their    territories,    and  deftroyed  every 
tiling  with  fire  and  fword.   The  emperor  readily  grant- 
ed   their    rcqueft,     and    gained    a    complete    vittory. 
Near  ioo,coo  of   the    enemy  perilhed,  either  in   the 
battle,   or  after  it  with  hunger  and  cold.      In  confe- 
quence  of  this  overthrow,  the  Goths  were  obliged  to 
fue  f^r  peace  ;  but  the  ungrateful  Sarmatians  no  foon- 
er    found    themfelves    delivered    from    thoir    enemies, 
3  than  they  turned  their  arms  againft  their  benefactor, 

And  the       and  ravaged  the  provinces  of  Mitfia  and  Thrace.   The 
Sarmatians.  ffnp^.i.Qr,  receiving  intelligence  of  this  treachery,  re- 
turned v/ith  incredible  expedition,  cut   great  numbers 
of  them  in  pieces,  and  obliged  the   reft   to  fubmit  to 
what  terms  he  was  plcafed  to  impofe. 

Conftantlne  feems  to  have  been  a  prince  very  highly 
refpcdled,  even  by  far  diftant  nations.  In  333,  ac- 
cording to  Eufcbius,  ambafladors  arrived  at  Conftanti- 
nople  from  the  Blemyes,  Indians,  Ethiopians,  and  Pcr- 
fians,  courting  his  iriendfliip.     They  were  received  in 


4 
Is  liljrhly 
rel'pecled. 


a  muft  obliging  manner;  and  le; 


rniug  from  the  arabaf- 


fadots  of  Sapor  kinjj  of  Pcrfia,  that  there  were  great 


cond,  had  Alia,  Syria,  and  Egypt ;  and  Couilans,  the 
youngeft,  Illyricuni,  Italy,  and  Africa.  To  his  ne- 
phew Dalmatius,  he  gave  Thrace,  Macedon,  and 
Achaia;  and  to  king  Aunibalianus,  his  other  newhew, 
Armenia  Minor,  Pontus,  Cappadoela,  and  the  city  of 
Ca;farca,  which  he  dcfired  mlglit  be  the  capital  of  his 
kingdom. 

After    the    death    of  Conftantlne,    th?   army    and  All  I.isrela. 
feiiate   proclaimed   his   three   fons  emperors,   without  ti-'ns  mur. 
taking  any  notice  of  his  two  nephewi,  who  were  foon        'J'^''" 
after  nrurdered,   with   Julius  Conftantius  the  late  em- [},r^j  !„„, 
peror's  brother,  and  all  their  friends  and  adherents.  auJ  two 
Thus  the  family  of  Conftantlne  was  at  once  reduced  ^'Cf  hews, 
to  his  three  fons,  and  two  nephews  Gallus  and  Julian, 
the  fons  of  Julius  Conftantius :  and  of  thefe  the  former 
owed  his  Hfe-  to  a  malady,  frem  whicli-  no  one  thought 
he  could  recover ;  and  the  latter  to  his  infancy,  being 
then   at   moft   about   fcven   years  of  age.     The  three 
brothers  divided  among  themfelves  tht  dominions  of  the 
decealed  princes  ;  but  did  not  long  agree  together.   In 
3J0,  Conftantlne  having  in  vain  folicited  Conftans   to,-,     n    .■ 
yield  part  01  Italy  to  nim,   railed  a  coniiderable  army  ;  uivjdcs  the 
and  under  pretence  of  marching  to  the  affiftance  of  hisdoa.iaions 
brother  Conftantius,  who   was   then   at   war  with  the"'  '-'""" 
Pcrlians,  made  himfelf  mafter  of  feveral  places  in  Italy.    ^°°' 
Hereupon  C(mftans  detached  part  of  his  anny  againft 
him  ;  and  Conftantlne,  being  drawn   into  an   ambiif- 
cade  near  Aquileia,  was  cut  off'  with  his  whole  forces,  is  iletLated 
His  body  was  thrown  into  the  river  Anfa  ;  but  being a:iJ  killed- 
aflerwards  difcovered,  was  fent  to  Conftantliiople,  and 
interi  ed  there  near  the  tomb  of  his  father. 

By  the  defeat  and  death  of  his  brother,  Conftans  re-  gonftans 
malned  lole  mafter  of  all  the  weftern  part  of  the  em-  fole  mailer 
plre,  in  the  quiet  polleffion  of  which  he  continued  till  "1  the  Weft, 
the  year  350.  This  year,  Magnentius,  the  fon  of  one  .  ^' 
Magnus,  a  native  of  Germany,  finding  Con llans  de- ,i^|j '^^^"^jj 
fpifed  by  the  army  on  accoant  of  his  indolence  and  in- againft hiia. 
aftivlty,  refolved  to  murder  him,  and  fet  up  for  him- 
felf. Plaving  found  means  to  gain  over  tlie  chief  of- 
fleers  of  the  army  to  his  defigns,  he  feized  on  the  Im- 
perial palace  at  Autun,  and  dillributed  among  the  po- 
pulace what  fums  he  found  there  ;  which  induced  not 
only  the  city,  but  the  neighbouring  country, to  cfpoufe 
his  caufe.  But  Conftans  being  informed  of  what  had 
paficd,  and  finding  himfelf  unable  to  refift  the  ufurp»' 
cr,  Hed  towards  Spain.  He  was  overtaken,  however, 
by  Gaifo,  whom  Magnentius  had  fent  after  him  with  a 

chofen 


1 


CON  [     ., 

Cc4iA)m-    cliofen  b  idv  of  troops,  who  dlfpaloIieJ  with    many 
tim>Folit?.n  „.^„i|,js  tlie'iiiiluippy  priiu-c  at  Hrlciia,  a  finall  village 
iituated  near  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees. 


55     1 


CON 


liiftoi  y. 


,  J  Thus  Conilantiiis  acquired  a  right  to  the  whole  Ro- 

Conftaiis      man  empire;  though  one  half  of  it  wasfeized  hy  Mag- 
muriicrea.    neiitius  after  the   murder  of  ConHans,     The  fonner 
liad    been   engaged    in   a  war  with   the   Perfians,    in 
wliich  little  advantage  was  gained  on  either  fide;  but 
the  Perfians  now  giving  no  more  dillurbaiiee,  the  em- 
13        peror  marched  againll  tiie  ufiirpcrs  lu  the  weft.      V>e- 
Tlirce  pre-  fides  Magnentius,  there  were  at  this   time  two  other 
fciukrs  to    pi-^-tenders  to   the  wefteru  emiiire.      Veteranio,  eene- 
ral  ot  the  toot  in  Pannonia,    had,  on  the  lull  news  ot 
the  dtath  of  Conllans,  caiifed  himfelf  to  be  proelaiitied 
cnipt  ;\)r  by  the  legions  under  his  command.      He  was 
a  native  of  Upper  Miefia,  and  advanced  in  years  when 
he  ufurped  the  fiivtreignty  ;  hut  fo  illiterate,  that  he 
then  firH  learned  to  read.      The   third  pretender  was 
Flavius  Popilius  Nepotianus,  fun  of  E'^tropia  the  filler 
of  Conftantine  the  Great.      Having  airembled  a  com- 
pany of  gladiators  and  men  of  defperate    fortunes,  he 
afiiirned  the  purple  on  the  ?d  of  June   350,   and    in 
that  attire  prefented  himfelf  before  the  gates  of  Rome. 
'I'he  prefeft  Anicetus,  who  commanded  there  for  Mag- 
nentius,  lallied  out   againll  him   with  a  body  of  Ro- 
J4        mans;  who  were  foon  driven  back  into  the  city.     Soon 
Ncpotian-js  after  Nepotianus  made   himfelf  mafter  of  the  city    it- 
nal.-es  liini-  f^jf^  ^vhich  he  filled  with  blood  and  ilauirhter.      Mai'-- 
fi'll  niaucr  •        1-        ■    r  ir      1,111  ir 

of  Rome      n'-'ntuis   being  mtormed   ot  what  had  happened,  fent 

againll   this   new   competitor  his  chief  favourite  and 
prime  miniller  Maicellinus.     Nepotianus  received  him 
with  great  refolutioii ;  a  bloody  battle  enfned  between 
the  foldiers  of  Magnentius  and  the   Romans  who  had 
efpoufed  the  caiife  of  Nepotianus  ;  but  the  latter  bcinn- 
,.        betrayed  by  a  fenator,  named  Heraclitiis,  his  men  were 
He  is  (le-     put  to  flight,  and  he  himfelf  killed,  after  having  euiov- 
fcMcd  anl    ed  the  fovereignty  only  28  days.      Maivellinus  ordered 
^^^•-"-  his  head  to  be  carried  on  the  point  of  a  lance  through 

the  principal  llreets  of  the  city  ;  put  to  death  all  thole 
who  had  declared  for  him;  and  under  pretence  of  prc- 
jg  venting  dillurbances,  commanded  a  general  mafikcre 
Tyranny  efof  all  the  relations  of  Conftantine.  Socjii  after,  Mag- 
nentius liimftlf  came  to  Rome  to  make  the  necelTaiy 
preparations  for  refilling  Conllautius,  who  was  exert- 
ing himlelf  to  the  utmoft  in  order  to  reveno-e  the 
death  of  his  brother.  In  tlie  city  he  behaved  moll 
tyiannically,  putting  to  death  many  perfons  of  dif- 
tinttion,  in  order  to  feize  their  cftates  ;  and  ob'io-cd 
the  reft  to  contribute  half  of  what  they  were  worth 
towards  the  expence  of  the  war.  Having  by  this 
means  raifed  great  turns,  he  afTembled  a  mighty  ar- 
my eompofed  of  Romans,  Germans,  Gauls,  Franks, 
Britons,  Spaniards,  Sec.  At  the  fame  time,  however, 
dreading  the  uncertain  ilTues  of  war,  he  dlfpatched 
ambafiaJors  to  Conllaiuius  with  propofals  of  accom- 
modation. Conilaiitius  let  out  from  .\iitloch  about  the 
beginning  of  autumn  ;  and,  pafiing  through  Conftanti- 
nople,  arrived  at  Hcraelea,  where  he  was  met  by  tlie 
•lepnties  from  Magnentius,  and  others  from  Veteranio, 
who  had  agreed  to  fupport  each  other  in  cafe  the  em- 
peror would  hearken  to  no  terms.  The  deputies  of 
Magnentius  propofcd  in  his  name  a  match  between  him 
and  Conftantia,  or  rather  Conllantina,  the  filter  of 
Conllaiuius,  and  widow  of  Anniballanus;  offering,  at 
tJie  fame  time,  to  Conilaiitius  the  filler  of  Masueiitius. 


MagiicH' 
tius. 


.      «7 
Sends  pro 

P'.falsnf 

peace  to 
Cotillaii. 
tius. 


At  firll  the  eniperor  woitlj  hearken  to  no  terms  ;  but  Conftan- 
afterwards,  that   he   might   not   have  to  oppoie  two*'"'.'''"'"'"" 
■enemies    at    once,  concluded    a   feparate  treaty  with    '"'"'"""• 
Veteranio,  by  which   he  agreed  to  take  him  for  his         ^'""^ 

partner  in  the  empire.  But  when  Veteranio  afcend- 
ed  the  tribunal  along  with  Coiiflantius,  the  foldiers 
pulled  him  down  from  thence,  crying  out,  That  they 
would  acknowledge  no  other  emperor  than  Conflan- 
this  alone.  On  this  Veteranio  threw  himfelf  at  tUs 
emperor's  feet,  and  implored  his  mercy.  Conllantius 
received  him  with  great  kiiiduefs,  and  fent  him  to 
Prufia  in  Bithynla,  where  he  allowed  him  a  main- 
tenance fuitable  to  his  quality. 

Conllantius,  now  mafter  of  all   Illyi-icum,  and  of 
the  army  commanded  by  Veteranio,  refolved  to  march 
againft  Magnentius  witliout  delay.    In  the  mean  time,,,  „  ^\ 
liowever,_  on    advice  that    the    Perlians   were    prepa-,?,,"^  ti^ 
ring  to   invade  the  eaftern   provinces,  he  married  his  I'uluuii,. 
fifter  Conftantina  to  his  coufin-german  Gallus  ;  created 
him  Ciefar  OH  the  rjth  of  March;  and  allotted  hlin 
for   his   Ihare    not   only    all    the    Eaft,    but    likewife 
Thrace  and    Conftantlnople.      About  the   fame    time 
Magnentius   gave   the   title   of  Ca-lar  to   hib  brother 
Decentiiis,  whom  he-   dlfpatched  into  Gaul  to  defend 
that  country  agalnil  the   barbarians  who  had  invaded 
it;  for-Conftantius  had  not  only  ftirred  up  the  Franks  Conm'rlus 
and  Saxons   to   break   into  that    province  by  promi-  fti-s  up  tha 
fiug  to  relinquifli   to  them   all  the  places  they  lliould  *■'"'■'"  'o 
conquer,  but  had  fent  them  large  fupplies  of  men  andQ^yj'*^ 
arras  for  that  purpofe.     On  this  encouragement  tlie 
barbarians  invaded  Gaul  with  a  mighty   aimy,  over- 
threw Decentius  in  a  pitched  battle,  committed  every 
where  dreadful  ravages,  and  reduced    the   country  to 
a  mott  deplorable   fituation.      In  the  mean  time  Mag- 
nentius having  afl'embled  a  numerous  army,  left  Italy, 
and  croliing   the   .Alps,   advanced  into  the   phins   of 
Pannonia,  where    Coiiftantius,   wliofe    main    ftrength 
conliiled  in  cavalry,    was  waiting  for  him.      Magiien- 
tuis,   hearing  that  his  competitor  was  encamped  at  a 
Imall  diftauce,.in\ited  him  by  a  mefTenger  to  the  ex- 
teniiye  plains  of  ,!.'4';;„  on  the  Save,   there   to  decide y,  defratci 
which  ot  them  had  the  ti^ll  title  to  the  empire.     This  by  M^^. 
challenge    was   by    Coiiftantius    received    with    great  "«'"'"»• 
joy  ;  but  as  his  troops  marched  towards  Scilcia  in  dif- 
order,  they  fell  into  an   arabufcade,  and  were  put  to 
flight  with  great  llaughter.     With  this  fuceefs,  Mag- 
nentius  was  fo   elated,  that  he  rejctled  all  tcrm.s  of 
pe.-,ce  which    were   now  offered  by   Conftantius ;  but 
after    tome    time,   a    general    engagement    enfued    at 
IVIurfa,  in    which   Magnentius  was  entirely  defeated,  Majnen- 
vviih  the  lots   of  24,000   meli.      Conftantius,    thou'di  tius'^ctcfeat- 
viCtor,   is  faid  to  have  loft  30,000,  which   feema  ini- 'datM;;!;*. 
probable.   All  authors,  however,  agree,  that  the  battle™  .  "    , 
of   Murfa    proved  fatal  to  the   weftern  empire,    and  i^l"^?  !„*  k^ 
greatly  contributed  to  Us  fpeedy  dechne.  empire. 

After  his  defeat  at  Murfa,  Magnentius  retired  into 
Italy,  where  he  recruited  his  ihatlered  forces  as  well 
as  he  could.  But  the  beginning  of  the  following  year 
352,  Conftantius,  having  afTembled  his  troops,  furpri- 
fed  and  took  a  ftrong  caftie  on  the  Julian  Alps,  belong- 
ing to  Magnentius,  wiiiiout  the  lots  of  a  man.  After 
this  the  eniperor  advanced  in  order  to  force  the  reft  • 
upon  which  Magnentius  was  ftruck  with  fucli  terror' 
that  he  Immediacely  abandoned  Aquileia,  and  ordered 
the  troops  that  guarded  the  other  paftes  of  the  Alps  to 
Yy  2  follow 


tinnp'i'itaii 
h'lftnr}-. 


«3 
Magnen- 
tius  at- 
tempts ro 
get  Gallus 
murdered. 


24 
Magnen- 
tiiis  dcfcac- 
td  a  feccmd 
time,  k-Us 
a!l  hU  fa- 
mily and 


*5 
Conftaii'iiis 
fcle  malter 
of  the  e:H- 
pire. 


26 

Many  g  rie- 
vou»  cala- 
mities. 


CON  I     35 

follow  him.  Thus  Conftantiiis  entering  Itsly  without 
opp'^fition,  made  himfclf  mailer  of  Aquileia.  From 
theijcc  he  advanced  to  Pavia,  where  Magaer.tius  gain- 
ed a  ccnliderable  advantage  over  him.  Notwith- 
fvanding  this  lofs,  however,  Conftantiiis  reduced  the 
v.hole  country  bordering  on  the  Po,  and  Magnentius's 
men  dtferted  to  hi:n  in  whole  troops,  delivering  up 
to  him  the  places  they  had  garrifoned  ;  by  which  the 
tyrant  was  i'o  diflieartened,  that  he  left  Italy,  and  reti- 
red with  all  his  forces  Into  Gaul.  Soon  after  this,  Afri- 
ca, Sicilv,  and  Spain,  declared  for  Conflantius  ;  upon 
■which  M.'gnentiiis  fent  a  fenator,  and  after  him  fome 
bifhops,  to  treat  of  a  peace  ;  but  the  emperor  treated 
the  fenator  as  a  fpy,  and  fent  back  the  bifliops  with- 
out any  anfwtr. — Magnentius  now  finding  his  affairs 
defperate,  and  that  there  were  no  hopes  of  pardon, 
recru'ted  liis  army  in  the  beft  manner  he  could,  and 
difpatched  an  afTaiTm  into  the  Eaft  to  murder  Gallus 
Ca;far ;  hoping  that  his  death  would  oblige  the  empe- 
ror to  withdraw  his  forces  from  Gaul,  and  march  in 
perfon  to  the  defence  of  the  Eallern  provinces,  which 
were  threatened  by  the  Ferfians.  The  afi'aflin  gained 
over  fome  of  Gallus's  guards  ;  but  the  plot  being  dif- 
•eovered  before  it  could  be  put  in  execution,  they  were 
all  feizcd  and  executed  as  traitors. 

In  353,  the  war  againft  Magnentius  was  canied  on 
«-ith  more  vigour  than  ever,  and  at  lall  happily  ended 
by  a  battle  fought  in  the  Higher  Dauphiuy-  Mag- 
nentius, being  defeated,  took  flulter  in  Lyons ;  but 
the  few  foldiers  who  attended  him,  defpairing  of  any 
further  fuccefs,  lefolved  to  purchafe  the  emperors  favour 
by  delivering  up  to  him  his  rival,  the  author  cf  fu  ca- 
lamitous a  war.  Accordingly  they  furrounded  the 
houfc  where  he  lodged  ;  upon  which  the  tyrant,  in 
defpair,  flew  with  las  own  hand  his  mother,  his  bro- 
ther Defderius  whom  he  had  created  Caefar,  and  fuch 
ofhii  friends  ard  relations  as  were  with  him;  and 
then,  fixing  his  fvvord  in  a  wall,  threw  himfelf  upon  it, 
in  order  to  avoid  a  more  fhameful  death  which  he  had 
reafon  to  apprehend. 

After  the  death  of  Magnentius,  his  brother  Decen- 
tius  Ccefar,  who  was  marching  to  his  aflillance,  and 
had  already  reached  Sens,  finding  himfelf  fuiTOunded 
on  all  fides  by  the  emperor's  forces,  chofe  rather  to 
ftrangle  himfelf  than  fall  alive  into  the  hands  of  his 
enemies.  Thus  Conftantius  was  left  fole  mailer  of 
the  Roman  empire.  His  panegyrills  tell  us,  that  after 
his  viftory  he  behaved  with  the  greateil  humanity, 
forgiving  and  receiving  into  favour  his  greateil  ene- 
mies;  but  other  hiftorians  differ  confiderably  from 
them,  and  tell  us  that  Conftantius  now  became  haugh- 
ty, imperious,  and  cruel,  cff  which  many  inftances  are 
given. 

This  year  the  empire  was  fubjefled  to  very  grie- 
vous calamities.  Gaul  was  ravaged  by  the  barbarians 
beyond  the  Rhine,  and  the  difbandcd  troops  of  Mag- 
nentius. At  Ronie,  the  populace  rofe  on  account  of 
a  fcarcity  of  provifions.  In  Afia,  the  Ifaurian  rob- 
bers over-ran  Lycaonia  and  Pamphylia;  and  even  laid 
fiege  to  Seleucia,  a  city  of  great  ftrength;  which,  how- 
ever, they  were  not  able  to  make  themfelves  mailers 
of.  At  the  fame  time,  the  Saracens  committed  dread- 
ful ravages  in  Mefopotaniia,  the  Perfians  alfo  invaded 
the  province  of  Anthemufia  on  the  Euphrates.  But 
the  Eallern  provinces  were  not  fo  much  haraffed  by 


6     ]  CON 

the  b:«barians  as  by  Gallus  Csefar  himfelf,  who  ought  Conftan- 
to  have  protedled  them.  That  prince  was  naturally  """f"-''-" 
of  a  crusl,  haughty,  and  tyiannical  difpofitiou  ;  but  °'^'^'  . 
being  elated  with  his  fucccftes  againft  the  Perfians,  he 
at  Jail  behaved  more  like  a  tyrant  and  a  madman  thauTyrjnnynf 
a  governor.  Plis  natural  cruelty  is  faid  to  have  been  ti-iliaj. 
heightened  by  the  inlligations  of  his  wife  Cor.llautina, 
who  is  by  Ammianus  flyled  the  Megtern,  or  "  fury,  of 
her  fex;"  and  he  adds,  that  her  ambition  was  equal  to 
her  cruelty.  Thus  all  the  provinces  and  cities,  in  the 
Eall  were  lifted  with  blood  and  flaughter.  No  man, 
howevt-r  innocent,  was  fure  to  live  or  enjoy  his  eftate 
a  whole  day;  for  GrJliUL.'s  temper  being  equally  fufpi- 
cious  and  cruel,  thofe  who  had  any  private  enemies 
took  care  to  accufe  them  of  crimes  agaiull  the  date, 
and  with  Gallus  it  was  the  fame  thing  to  be  accufed 
aral  condemned.  At  lall  the  emperor  being  informed 
from  all  quarters  of  the  evil  conduit  of  his  brother-in- 
law,  and  being  at  the  fame  time  told  that  he  afpired 
to  the  fovereignty,  refolved  upon  his  ruin.  For  this 
end  he  wrote  letters  to  Gallus  and  Conllantina,  invi- 
ting them  both  into  Italy.  Though  they  had  both  fuf- 
fieient  reafon  to  fear  the  worft,  yet  they  durft  not 
venture  to  difobey  the  emperor's  exprefs  command. 
Conllantina,  who  was  well  acquainted  with  her  bro- 
ther's temper,  and  hoped  to  pacify  him  by  her  artful 
iniinuations,  fet  out  ftiil,  leaving  Gallus  at  Antioch  ; 
but  flie  had  fcarce  enteitd  the  province  of  Bithynia, 
when  flie  was  feized  with  a  fever  which  put  an  end 
to  her  life.  Gallus  now  defpairing  of  being  able  to 
appeaie  his  fovereign,  thought  of  openly  revolting  ; 
but  moft  of  his  friends  deferted  him  on  account  of  his 
inconftant  and  cruel  temper,  fo  that  he  was  at  lall  ob- 
liged to  fubmit  to  the  pleafure  of  Conftantius.  He  ad- 
vanced therefore,  according  to  his  orders;  but  at  Pe- 
tavium  was  arrefted,  and  ftripped  of  aU  the  enfigns  of 
his  dignity.  From  thence  he  was  carried  to  Flanona, 
now  FianoTie  in  Dalmatia,  where  he  was  examined 
by  two  of  his  moft  inveterate  enemies.  He  confeftcd 
moft  of  the  crimes  laid  to  his  charge;  but  urged  as  an 
excufe  the  evil  counfcls  of  his  wife  Conftantina.  The 
emperor,  provoked  at  this  plea  which  reflected  on  hisu  •' 
filler,  and  iniligated  by  the  enemies  of  Gallus,  hgnedtoj^atii. 
a  warrant  for  his  execution,  which  was  performed  ac- 
cordingly.    _  . 

All  this  time  the  emperor  had  been  engaged  in  a  War  witli> 
war  with  the  Germans  :  he  had  marched  againft  themtne  Ger- 
in  perfon  ;  and  though  he  gained  no  advantage,  the  "••'"^ 
barbarians  thought  proper  to  make  peace  with  him.. 
This,  however,  was  but  ihort-lived.  No  fooner  was 
the  Roman  army  withdrawn,  than  they  began  to  make 
new  inroads  into  the  empire.  Againft  them  Con- 
ftantius difpatched  Arbetio  with  the  flower  of  the 
army  ;  but  he  fell  into  an  ambufcade,  and  was  put  to 
flight  with  the  lofs  of  a  great  number  of  men.  This 
lofs,  however,  was  foon  retrieved  by  the  valour  of 
Armtbeus,  who  became  famous  in  the  reign  of  Va- 
lens,  and  of  two  other  oflScfers,  who  falling  upon  the 
Germans,  without  waiting  the  orders  of  their  general^, 
put  them  to  flight,  and  obliged  them  to  leave  the  Ra- 
man territories. 

The  tranquillity  of  the  empire,  which  enfued  on- 
this  repulfe  of  the  Germans,  was  foon  interrupted  by 
a  pretended  conipiracy,  by  which  in  the  end  a  true 
OHe  was  produced.     Sylvanus,  a  leading  man  among 

the 


i 


CON 


[     357     ] 


CON 


Arbetio. 


He  i  fo-- 
cet!  to  re- 
volt. 


\<  murder- 
ed. 

Gaiil  rava- 
ged by  tho 
barbanai)!>. 


Cnnd'.n-  the  Franks,  commande.l  in  Gaul,  and  had  Uiere  per- 
linipr^'itin  foi-m^.fl  great  exploits  ajjiinll  the  barbarians.  He  had 
^  '  ^"^^  been  raifcd  to  this  poll  by  Arbetio  ;  but  only  with  a 
30  deiign  .  1  remove  him  trom  the  emperor's  preCence, 
5ylvaiins  in  order  to  accomplilh  his  ruin,  wliich  he  did  in  the 
'"''[■■'y!^'' ''y  following  manner  :  One  Dynames,  l^eeper  of  the  em- 
peror's mu]i.-s,  leaving  Gaul,  begged  ot  Sylvanus  letters 
of  recommendation  to  his  friends  at  court  ;  which 
bein:;  granted,  the  t  aitor  erafed  all  but  the  fubfcrip- 
tion.  He  then  inferted  direftions  to  the  friends  of 
Sylvanus  f  r  the  carrying  on  a  confpiracy  ;  and  de- 
livering thefe  forged  letters  to  the  prefett  Lanipri- 
dius,  they  were  by  him  ihowed  to  tlie  emperor.  Tlius 
Sylvanus  was  firccd  to  revolt,  and  caufe  himfelf  to  be 
proclaimed  emperor  by  the  troops  under  his  command. 
In  the  mean  time,  however,  Dynames  having  thought 
proper  to  forge  another  letter,  the  fraud  was  diico- 
vered,  and  an  enquiry  fet  on  foot,  which  brought  to 
light  tlie  whole  matter.  Sylvanus  was  now  declared 
jimocent,  and  letters  lent  to  him  by  the  emperor  con- 
firming him  in  his  pod  ;  but  thefe  were  fcsrce  gone, 
when  certain  news  arrived  at  the  court  of  Sylvanus  ha- 
ving revolted,  and  caufed  himlelf  be  proclaimed  em- 
peror. Conftantins,  thunderftaick  at  this  news,  dif- 
patched  againlt;  him  Urficinus,  an  officer  of  great  in- 
tegrity, as  well  as  valour  and  experience  in  war ;  who 
forgetting  his  former  character,  pretended  to  be  Syl- 
vanus's  friend,  and  tlvus  found  means  to  cut  him  off  by 
treachery. 

The  barbarians,  who  had  been  hitherto  kept  quiet 
by  the  brave  Sylvanus,  no  fooner  heard  of  his  death, 
than  they  broke  into  Gaul  with  greater  fury  than 
ever.  They  took  and  pillaged  above  forty  cities,  and 
among  the  reft  Cologne,  which  they  levelled  with 
the  ground.  At  the  fame  time  the  Quadi  and  Sar- 
matians  entering  Pai'.nonia,  deftroycd  every  thing  with 
fire  and  fword.  The  Perfians  alfo,  taking  advantafe 
of  the  abfence  of  Urficinus,  over-ran,  without  oppo- 
fition,  Armenia  and  Mefopotamia;  Profper  and  Mau- 
fonianus,  who  had  fuccerded  that  brave  commander  in 
the  government  of  the  Eaft,  being  more  intent  upon 
pillaging  than  defending  the  provinces  committed  to 
their  care.  Conftantins,  not  thmking  it  advifable  to 
leave  Italy  himfelf,  icfolvcd  at  lall  to  raife  his  coufin 
Julian,  the  brother  of  Gallus,  to  the  dignity  of  Ccefar. 
ited  Cafar.  Julian  feems  to  have  been  a  man  of  very  extraordi- 
nary talents  ;  for  though  before  this  time  he  had  been 
entirely  buried  in  obfcurity,  and  converfed  only  with 
books,  no  fooner  was  he  put  at, the  head  of  an  army 
than  ne  behaved  with  the  fame  bravery,  conduft,  and 
experience,  as  if  he  had  been  all  his  life  bred  up  to 
the  art  of  war.  He  was  appointed  governor  of  Gaul; 
but  before  he  fet  out,  Conftantius  gave  him  in  mar- 
riage his  fifter  Helena,  and  made  him  many  valuable ' 
prefents.  At  the  fame  time,  however,  the  jealous 
emperor  greatly  limited  his  authority ;  gave  him  writ- 
ten^  inllruftions  how  to  behave  ;  ordered  the  o-eneraJs 
who  ferved  under  him  to  watch  all  his  aftions  no  lefs 
than  thofe  of  the  enemy  ;  and  ftridly  enjoined  Julian 
himfelf  not  to  give  any  largefiTes  to  the  foldiery. 

Julian  fet  out  from  Milan  on  the  ill  of  December 
35  J,  the  eiiiperor  himfelf  accompanying  him  as  far  as 
Pavia,  from  whence  he  purfued  his  journey  to  the 
Alps,  sttendcd  only  by  360  foldiers.  On  his  arrival 
at  Turin  he  was  lirft.  acquainted  with  the  lofs  of  Co- 


.  ''3 
luliaii  ere- 


logne,  which  had  been   kept   concealed   from  the   em-    tfonfan- 
pcror.      He  arrived  at  Vienne  before  the  end  of  the  ''n?r"'''="i 
year,  and  w as  received  by  the  people  of  tliat  city  and         "'^'^ 
the  neighbourhood  with  extraordinary  joy. 

In  356,  the   barbarians  befieged  Aiitm  ;  to  relieve  He  fctt  out 
which    place,  Julian    marched  with    what    forces    he  for  Gaul, 
could  raife.     When  he  came  there,  he  found  the  fierce 
raifed:   on  which  he  went  in  purfuit  of  the  barbarians 
to  Auxcrre,  croffing  with  no  iinall  danger  tliiqk  woods 
and  forefts,  from  Auxerre  to   Troies.      On  his  march 
he  was  furrounded  on  all  fides  by  the  barbarians,  who 
moved  about  the  country  in  great  bodies  ;   but  he  put 
them  to  flight  with  an  handful  of  men,  cut  great  num-         iS 
bers  of  them  in  pieces,  and  took  fome  prifoners.    From '-'''^'*'?''^* 
Troies  he  hallened  to  Rheims,  wliere   the  main  body ''^'^'^"""'* 
of  tlie  army,   commanded    by   Marcellus,  waited   his 
arrival.      Leaving   Rheims,  he  took  his  route  towards 
Decempagi,   now  Dimze,    on   the    Seille  in  Lorrain, 
with  a  defign  to  oppofe  the  Germans  who  were  bufy 
in  ravaging  that  province.      But  the  enemy  attacking. 
his  rear  unexpeftedly,  would  have  cut  off  two  legions, 
had  not  the  reil  of  the  army,  alarmed  at  the  fudden 
noife,   turned   back  to   their  afliitance.     A  few  da)s 
afterwards  he   defeated   the    Germans,    though    with  * 

great  lofs  to  his  own  army  ;    the    vidory,  however, 
opened  him  a  way  to  Cologne.     This  city  he  found 
abandoned  by   the  barbarians.      They   had  negledted 
to  fortify  it  :   but  Julian  commanded  the  ancient  for-         ^5 
tifications  to  be  repaired  with  aU  p,  ihble  expedition,  r.^fica-^* 
and^the  houfes  to   be  rebuilt;  after  which  he  retired  tlonl  of 
to  Sens,  and  there  took  up  his  winter-quarters.     This  Cologne, 
year  alio  Conilantius  entered  Germany  on  .the  fide  of 
Rha=tia,   laid  wafte  the  country    far  and   wide  ;    and. 
obliged  the   barbarians  to  fue   for  peace,  which  was         ,y 
readily  granted.      The  fame  year  he  enatted  two  laws;  Molatry 
by  one  of  which  it  was  declared  capital  to  facrifice  '•'^i^'areii 
or  pay  any  kind  of  worQiip,  to  idols;   the  other,  grant-  "onftan' 
mg^  the   eitecls  of  condemned   perfons   to    belong  to  tius! 
their  children   and  relations  within   the  third  degree, 
except  in  cafes  of  magic  and  treafon;  but  thislalt  one 
he  revoked  two  years  after. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  year  357,  the  barbarians  be- 
fieged Juhan  a  whole  month  in  Sens ;  Marcellus,  the 
commander  in  chief,  never  once  offering  to  afiill  him. 
Julian,  however,  fo  vahantly  defended  himfelf  with 
the  few  forces  he  had,  that  the  barbarians  at  lall  re- 
tired.' After  this,  Conftantius  declared  Julian  com- 
mander in  chief  of  all  the  forces  in  Gaul ;  appointing 
under  him  one  Sevenis,  an  officer  of  great  experience 
and  of  a  quite  different  difpofition  from  Marcellus. 
On  his  arrival  in  Gaul,  Julian  received  him  with  ■^reat 
joy,  raifed  new  troops,  and  fuppjied  them  with  arms 
which  he  luckily  found  in  an  old  arfenal.  The  em- 
peror, refolving  at  all  events  to  put  a  ftop  to  the  ter- 
rible devaftations  committed  by  the  barbarous  nations 
cliiefly  by  the  Alemans,  wrote  to  Julian  to  march  di- 
rectly againft  them.  At  the  fame  time  he  fent  Bar- 
batio,  who  had  been  appointed  general  in  place  of  Svl- 
yanus,  with  a  body  of  25  or  30,000  meii,  out  of  Italy,, 
in  order  to  jnclofe  the  enemy  between  two  armies. 
The  Leti,  however,  a  German  nation,  paffing  between 
the  armies,  advanced  as  far  as  Lyons,  hoping  to  fur- 
prife  that  weak'-y  city  ;  but  meeting  with  a  warmer 
reception  than  they  expedled,  contented  themfelves 
with  ravaging  the  country  all  round  it.  On  the  firll 
4  notice- 


CON  r     35 

Conflan-    notice  of  this  expedition,  Juliun  detached  (Irong  par- 
*' vf."'^"  tics  to  guard  the  padages  through  which  he  knew  the 
1    '  '"'''     harbai-ians  ruull  return.     Thws  they  were  all  cut  off 
5        except  tliofo  who  marched  near  the  camp  of  Barbatio  ; 
Tae  l.eti  ^  who  was  fo  far  from  cutting  i)fF  their  retreat,  that  he 
c"t  rffby    complained  by  a  letter  to  Conftantiiis  of  fome  officers 
Jii.iaii.         for  attemping  it.     Thefe  ofTicers,  among  whom  was 
Viikntinian  afterwards  emperor  of  the   Welt,  were, 
by  the  orders  of  Conftantius,  cafiilered  for  their  dif- 
obtdience.  The  other  barbarians  either  fortified  them- 
felves  in  the  countries  which   they  had  feized,  ftop- 
pinfj  up  all  the  avenues  with  huge  trees,  or  took  (bel- 
ter in  the  iflards  formed  by  the   Rhine.     Julian  re- 
folved  firll  to  attack  the  latter  ;  and  with  tliis  view 
demanded  fome  boats  of  Barbatio  :  but  he,  inftead  of 
complying  with  his  juil  requeft,  immediately  burnt  all 
his  boats,   aj  he  did  on  another  occafion  the  pro\irious 
wliidi  had  been  fcnt  to  both  armies,  after  he  had  plen- 
tifully fiipplied  hi;  own.      Julian,  not  ii!  the  leall  dif- 
hi'arlcned  with   this   unaccountable    conduct,   perfua- 
dcd  fome  of  the  moit  ref  lute  of  his  men  to  wade  over 
to  one  of  the  iflands.     Here  they  killed  aU  the  Ger- 
,39        mans  who  had  taken  fhelter  in  it.     They  then  feized 
t'le  barlu-   tbeir  boats,  and  purfued  the  {laughter  in  feveral  other 
ridns  to  a-   iflands,  till  the  enemy  abandoned  them  all,  and  retired 
baiiduM  the  to   their   refpective   countries    witli    their    wives   and 
')!"pt>°*^     what  booty  they   could  carry.     On  their  departure, 
Barbatio  attempted  to  lay  a  bridge  of  boats  over  the 
Rhine  ;  but   the    enemy,    appriftd   of   his    intention, 
threw  a   great  number  of  huge   trees  into  the  river, 
which  being  carried  by  the  itream  againft  the  boats, 
funk  feveral  of  them,  and  parted  the  relt.     The   Ro- 
man general  then  thought  proper  to  retire  ;  but  the 
barbarians  falling  unexpedtedly  upon  him  in  his  re- 
treat,  cut  great  numbers  of  his  men  in  pieces,   took 
molt  of  his  baggage,  laid  vvalte  the  neighbouring  coun- 
try, and  leturned  in  triumph  loaded  witli  booty.     E- 
Jated  with  this  fuccefs,  they  aflembled  in  great  num- 
bers under  the  command  of  C/moJomnrius,  a  prince  of 
great  renown  among  them,  and  fix  other  kings.    They 
encamped  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Strasbourg.    Here 
they  were  encountered  by  Julian  ;  who  put  them  to 
flight,  with  the  lofs  of  6  or  Sooo  of  their  men  ilain  in 
the  field,  and  a  vaftly  greater  number  drov.ncd  in  the 
river ;    while    Julian    himfclf  loft    only    243    private 
men  and   four  tribunes.      In  thlsaftion  Chnodomani.s 
was  taken,   and   feat  to  Rome,   where   he  foon    after 
died. 

After  the  battle,  Julian   advanced  with  all  his  army 

to  Mayence,  where  he  built  a  biidge  over  the  Rhine 

Heeniers     and  entered  Germany,  having   with  diincuky  prevailed 

Germany     upon  his  army  to   follow  him.      Here  he  ravaged  the 

and  con-      country  till  the  time  of  the  autumnal  equinox,  when 

eludes  a       ^.gjng  prevented  by  fnow  from  advancing  any  further, 

theharba-    he  began  to  repair  the  fort  of  Triijan,  by  lome  fuppo- 

tians.  fed  to  be  the  caille  of  Cromburgh,  about  three  or  four 

leagues   from    Frankfort.      The   barbarians  were  now 

fo  much  alarmed,  that  they  fent  deputies  to  treat  ot  a 

peace  ;    but  this  Julian    rtfufcd  to  grant  them  upon 

any  terms.     He  confenied,  however,  to  a  truce  for  fe- 

41        ven  months,  upon  their  promifing  to  llore  with  provi- 

Reniarka-    fjons  the  fort  he  was  building  in  their  country.      This 

ble  laws  of       ^j.  Conftantius  made  fome  remarkable  laws.      By  one 

,:„.        "      he   punilhed  with  confifcation  fnch  as  renounced  the 

Ch.nftian  for  the  Jewilh  religion  ;  and  by  another,  ad- 


8     ] 


CON 


49 

Entirely 
c'efea's 
them  at 
Strulboure. 


dreffed  to  Fcli:-:  birtiop  of  Rome,  he  exeroptcd  all  mer-  Condan- 
chandizlng  ecclefialtics,  with  their  wives,  children,  and  "'j'tP"'"*"' 
domeftics,  fiom  ev.;ry    impofition   ordinary  and  extra-  J'^  j 

ordinary  ;   fuppofing  the  gains  they  made  to  be-applicd 
by  them  to  the  relief  of  the  poor. 

In  358,  as  foon  aj  the  feafon  was  fit  for  adioii,  Ju- julUn'^cor. 
llan  took  the  fisld  againft  tiie  Franks,  with  a  defign  toqucrstho 
conquer  them  before  the  truce  he  had  concluded  vilh^""'"- 
the  Alemans  was  expired.     The  Franks  were  at  that 
time  divided  into  feveral  tribes,  the  moft   powerfjl  of 
which  Were  the  Sulii  and  Chainavi.     The  firll  of  thele 
fent  deputies,  intreating  that  he  would  fuffcr  theti  to 
remain  as  friends  to  the  empire  in   the  country  tliey 
pofRfTed.      But  Julian,  without  paying  any  regard  to 
this    deputation,    entered  tlieir  country,  and  nbhVed 
them  to  fubmit ;  after  which  he  allotted  them  lands  ia 
Gaul,   incorporating  great  nnmhers  of  them  into  his 
cavalry.     He  next  marched  againft  the  Chainavi,  whorn 
he  defeated  and  obliged  to   retire   beyond  tlie  Rhine. 
Afterwards  he  rebuilt  three  forts  on  the  river  Miufe, 
whicli  had  been  dtllroyed  by  the  barbarians;  but  want- 
ing provifions  in  a  coiuury  fo  often  ravaged,  he  order- 
ed 6  or  800  vtlTels  to   be  built  in  Biitalu  for  the  con- 
veying corn  from  thence  into  Gaul.     Julian  continued 
in  the  country  of  tlie  Chamavi  till  the  expiration  of 
his  truce  with  the  Alemans  ;  and  then  laying  a  b:idge 
of  boats  over  tiie  Rhine,  he  entered  tiieir  country-,  put- 
ting all  to  fire  and  fword.     At  lalt  two  of  their  kings  Granlfa 
came  in  pcrfon   to  him  to  fue  for  peace:   which  Julian  pe.icc  to  the 
granted,  upon  their  proiiu'fing  to  fet  at  hberty  the  cap- '^'=™i^"*' 
tives  thty   had   taken;  to  f.ipply  a  cei  tain  quantity  of 
corn  wlien  required  ;  and  to   turnifli  wood,  iron,  and 
carriages,  for  repairing  the  cities  they  had  ruined.  The 
prifoners  whom  he  at  this  time  rcleafed,  amounted  to 
upwards  of  20,000.  , 

Soon  after  the  vernal  equinox  of  this  year  358,   Con-  Expcdlrfon 
llantius  maiched  in  perlon  agalnil  the  Quadi  and  Sar- "/  *-f>'nOan- 
matians,  whofe  country  lay  beyond  the  Danube.     Ha- '""'  ^^t''  ^ 
ving  crofTed  tliat  river  on  a  biidge  of  boats,  he  laidnra,,"",;^!  " 
walle  the  territories  of  the  Sarmatians;  who  thereupon  tiins. 
catne  in  great  numbers,  together  «ith  the  Quadi,  pre- 
tending to  fue  for  peace.      Their   true  defi^-n   was  to 
furpriie  the   Romans  ;  but  the  latter  nilpecting  it,  fell 
upon  them  fword  in  hand,   and  cut  them  all  in  pieces. 
This  obliged  the  icil  to  Ine  for  peace  in  good  carne'.l, 
which  was  granted  on  tl'.e  delivery  ot  ho(iaois.     The 
emperor  then  marched  ae^ainll  the  Limiganfes,  that  is, 
the  llaves  who,  in  334,  liad  driven  the  Sarmatians  out 
of  their  country,  and  feized  it  for  themfclvei  *.    They 
uftd  the  lame  artifice  as  the  Sarmatiansand  Quaui  had 
done,  conung  u)  great  numbers  under  pretence  of  fub- 
mitting,  but  prepared  to  fail  upon  him  unexpectedly  if 
opportum'ty    offered.      The  emperor,   ohlerviiig  their 
furly  looks,  and  diftrutting  them,  caufed  his  troops  fur- 
round  them  infenfibly  while  he  was  fpeaking.   The  Li- 
migantes  then  dlfpleafed  with  the  conditions  be  offered 
them,  laid    tlieir    hands   on    their  fwords  :  on   which 
they  were    attacked- by  the  Roman  loldiers.      Finding 
it  impoffible   to   make  their  efcape,   they  made   with 
great  fury  towards  the  tribunal,  but  were  rcpulfed  by 
the  guards  forming  themfelves  into  a  wedge,  and  every 
one  of  them  cut  in   pieces.     After  this,   the  emperor  He  espel* 
ravaged  their  country  to  fuch  a  degree,  that  they  were'''^  ^'""" 
in  the  end  obliged  to  fubmit  to  the  only  condition  he*'''"'''*. 
thought  proper  to  allow  them,  which  was  to  quit  their 

country, 


4 


See  n  5^ 


4« 


Cnnflan- 

tInop')lit;\n 

hillory. 

47 
Hau.'hty 
embafl'y 
from  S-^por 
kine  of 
Peri'u. 


48 
A  law  a- 


49 

Prfacliery 
.ftheLi- 
nigaiites. 


50 
hey  Rre 
1  cut  oft". 


CON  [3 

country,  and  rstire  toamore  diftant  place.  The  coun- 
try was  then  rellored  to  the  Sarmatians  who  were  its 
ori<rinal  poflefrirs. 

This  year  is  alfo  remarkable  for  a  very  haughty 
enib-iffy  from  S-tpor  king  of  Perils.  The  ainb^.Ti- 
dor,  named  A'ar/is,  brought  a  letter,  in  whLcli  the  Pcr- 
fian  monarch  tlyled  himfclf  "king  of  kings,  brotlier 
of  tlie  fun  and  moon,"  See.  He  acquainted  t!ie  em- 
peror that  he  mi2;ht  lawfully  inlift  on  having  all  tl\e 
coiuitrics  beyond  the  river  Strym.in  in  Mactdon  deli- 
vered up  to  him  ;  but  hill  his  demands  fhouk!  feem 
unrealonable,  he  would  be  contented  with  Armenia 
and  Mefopotamia,  which  had  been  mod  unjoflly  taken 
from  his  grandfather  Narfes.  He  added,  that  unlefs 
jufticc  was  done  him,  he  was  refolved  to  aflert  hi& 
ri^Iit  by  force  of  arms.  This  letter  was  prefented  to 
Conilantius  wrapped  up  in  a  piece  of  white  fi'k  ;  but 
he,  without  enteiing  into  any  neg/iciation  with  the 
ambafi'ador,  wrote  a  letter  to  Sapor,  in  which  he  told 
him,  lh;;t  as  he  had  raaititained  the  Roman  dominions 
in  their  full  extent,  when  he  was  poffefTed  only  of  the 
Eaft,  he  could  not  fufFer  tham  to  be  curtailed  now 
when  he  vv;is  mailer  of  the  whole  empire.  In  a  few 
days,  however,  he  fent  another  letter  with  rich  pre- 
fems  ;  being  very  dcfirous  at  lead  to  pot  off  the  war 
till  he  had  fecured  the  northern  provinces  againll  the 
incurfions  ofthe  barbarians,  that  he  might  th^n  employ 
all  the  forces  of  the  empire  againll  fo  formidable  an 
enemy.  This  embaffy  proved  unfuccefsful,  as  did  al- 
fo another  which  was  fent  foon  after.  The  lall  nm- 
baffadors  were  imprifoned  as  fpies,  but  afterwards  dif- 
miffed  unhurt.  By  a  law  of  Conllantius  dated  in  35^, 
all  magicians,  augurs,  aftrohigers,  and  pretenders  to 
the  art  of  divination,  were  declared  enemies  to  man- 
kind ;  and  fuch  of  them  as  were  found  in  the  court 
cither  of  the  emperor  or  of  Julian,  he  commanded  to 
be  put  to  the  torture,  and  fpecilled  what  torments  they 
were  to  undergo. 

In  •559,  Julian  continued  his  endeavours  for  relie- 
ving the  province  of  Gaul,  which  had  fuffered  fo  much 
from  the  Incurfions  of  the  barbarians.  He  erefted 
magazines  in  different  places,  vifited  the  cities  which 
had  fufiertd  mofl,  and  gave  orders  for  repairing  their 
walls  and  fortifications  properly.  He  then  croffed  the 
Rhine,  and  purfued  the  war  in  Germany  with  great 
fuccefs,  infomuch  that  the  barbaiians  fubmitted  to  fuch 
terms  as  he  pleafed  to  impofe.  In  the  mean  time  the 
emi)eror,  having  received  intelligence  that  the  Limi- 
games  had  quitted  the  country  in  which  he  had  placed 
them,  haftened  to  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  in  order 
to  prevent  their  enteiing  Panuonia.  On  his  arrival 
he  fent  deputies,  defiring  to  know  what  had  induced 
them  to  abandon  the  country  which  had  been  allotted 
them.  The  Limlgantes  anfwered,  in  appearance  with 
the  grcateil  fubmlffiou  imaginable,  that  they  were  will- 
ing to  live  as  true  fubjefts  of  the  empire  in  any  other 
place  ;  b\it  that  the  coimtry  he  had  allotted  them  was 
quite  uninhabitable,  as  they  could  demonftrate  if  they 
were  but  allowed  to  crt.fs  the  river,  and  lay  their  com- 
plaints before  him.  This  requefl  was  grar.ted  ;  but 
while  he  afccndcd  his  tribunal,  the  barbarians  unex- 
peftedly  fell  upon  his  guards  fwoid  in  hand,  killed 
feveral  of  them,  and  the  emperor  with  difSculty  faved 
himfclf  by  flight.  The  rell  ol  the  troops,  however, 
foun  took  tilt  alarm,  and  furrcunCing  the  Limlgantes, 


19     1 


CON 


cut  them  all  off  to  a  man.     This  year  Conllantius   I'ti-    Conflan- 
flituted  a  court  of  inquifition   againll  all  thofe  who  ""°1'"'''"° 
con.fulted    heathen   oracles.     Paulus   Catena,  a  noted  ,  ^'""''V-  ^ 
and  cruel   informer,  was  dlfpatched   into  the  Etfl  to 
profccute  them;   and  iModeilus,  then  count  of  the  Eiit,  The  hea- 
and  equally  remarkable  for  his  cruelty,  wa;  appointed  thcns  crueU- 
judge.     His  tribunal  was   ercfled   at    Scythopolis  in '>'P''''^'^" 
"Pnldllne,    whither     perfons    of  both    fexes,    and   of"""^' 
every  rank  and  condition,  were  daily  dragged  in  crowds 
from   all   parts,  and  either   confined  in  dungeons,  or 
corn  in  pieces  in  a  moll  cruel  and  barbarous  manner  by 
racks,  or  publicly  executed.  ^j 

In  359,  Sapor  king  of  Perfia  began  hollilities,  be-ThePerfi- 
ing  encouraged  thereto  by  the  abfence  of  Urficinus,  ^"*  !'^'?'" 
whom  the  emperor  had  recalled,  and  appointed  in  iif^  h"'^'^"". 
room  one  Sabinianus,  a  perfon  very  unfit  for  fuch  an 
office.  During  this  campaign,  iiovvever,  he  made 
very  little  progrefs  ;  having  only  taken  two  Roman 
forts,  and  dellroyed  the  city  of  Amida,  the  fiege  of 
which  is  laid  to  have  coll  him  30,000  men.  On  the 
fn-ft  news  of  the  Peifian  invafion,  Conllantius  had 
thought  proper  to  fend  Urficinus  into  the  Eall  ;  but  his 
enemies  prevented  him  from  receiving  the  fupplics 
ncceiTary  for  carrying  on  the  war,  fo  that  he  found 
it  impoflible  to  take  any  effetlual  means  for  Hopping 
the  progrefs  of  the  I'crfians.  On  his  return,  he  was 
une.xpedicdiy  charged  with  the  lofs  of  Amida,  and  all 
the  difallers  that  had  happened  during  the  campaign. 
Two  judges  were  ap[)ointed  to  inquire  into  his  con- 
duiSt ;  but  they,  being  creatures  of  his  enemies,  left 
the  matter  doubtful.  On  this  Uificiiius  was  fo  much 
exal'peratcd,  that  he  appealed  to  the  emperor,  and  iri 
the  heat  of  paffion,  let  fall  fome  unguarded  expref- 
iions,  vrliich  being  immediately  carried  to  the  em- 
peror, the  general  was  deprived  of  all  his  employ- 
ments. 

Conilanliu';  rtfolved  to  march  next   year  in  perfon  Couftamji;3 
againll  the  Perllans  ;  but  in  the  mean  time,  dreading  marches  ii» 
to  encounter  fo  formidable  an  enemy,  he  applied  him-l":r'"''  ^- 
felf  wholly  to  the  afilmbling  of  a  mighty  army,  by  o^'"^''^''"' 
which  he  might  be  able  fully  to  cope  with  them.     For 
this  purpcfe  he  wrote  to  Julian  to  fend  him  part  of 
his  forces,  without  confidering  that  by  fo  doing  he 
left   the  province  of  Gaul   expofed  to  the  ravages  of 
the  barbarians.     Julian  reioKed  immediately  to  com- 
ply with   the   emperor's  orders  ;  but  at  the  fame  time 
to  abdicate  the   dignity   of  Cslar,  that  he  might  not 
be  blamed  for  the  lofs  of  the  province.     Accordingly 
he  fuffered  the  beft  foldiers  to  be  draughted  out  of  his 
army.      They  were,  however,    very  uuwilllnir  to   leaver  v  ^'^ 

mi,  and  a.,  lalt  proclaimed  hnn  emperor.  Whether  chlnieac-in. 
this  was  done  abfulutely  againll  Julian's  confeni  or  notpcror. 
is  uncertain  ;  but  he  wrote  to  the  emperor,  and  perfua- 
ded  the  whole  army  alfo  to  feud  a  letter  along  with  his, 
in  which  they  acquainted  Conllantius  with  what  had 
ha;i..fncd,  and  entreated  him  to  acknowledge  Julian  as 
his  jjartner  in  the  empire.  But  this  was  pofitivdy  re- 
fufed  by  Conllantius,  who  began  to  prepare  for  war. 
Julian  then,  defigning  to  be  before  hand  with  the  em- 
peror, caufed  his  troops  take  an  oath  of  allegiance  to 
himfclf,  and  with  furprifing  expedition  made  hlmftlf 
mafler  of  the  whole  country  of  Illyricum,  and  the 
important  pafs  feparating  that  country  from  Thrace. 
Conllantius  was  thunder-flruck  with  this  news  ;  but 
hearing  that  the  Perfiaiis  had  retired,  he  marched 
5  wiui 


CON 


[ 


'CtihSan-   witli  all  his  forces  againd  his  competitor.     On  his  nr- 
^'mftoly'"  ""^^  ^^  "^'-''^^^^  '"    Cilicia,  he  was  feizcd  with  a  feve- 
I  rifh   dlftempev,   occafioned   cliiefly  by    the   uneafinefs 
and  perplexity  of  his   mind.      He  puifued  his  march, 


5.5 


56 
Julian  re- 
(tore-  the 
heathen  re- 
ligion. 


Conftaiitius  however,  to  Mopfucrene,  a  place  on  the  borders  of 
marches  a-  Cilicia,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Taurus.  Here  he  was 
iu't"d  e  '"''  "^''g^'^  '°  ft°P  ^Y  the  violence  of  his  diforder,  which 
increafed  every  day,  and  at  laft  carried  him  off  on  the 
13th  of  November  361,  in  the  45  th  year  of  his  age. 

By  the  d:ath  of  Conftantius  Julian  now  became 
mailer  of  the  whole  Roman  empire  without  a  rival. 
He  had  been  educated  in  the  Chrillian  religion  ;  but 
fecretly  apoftatized  from  it  long  before,  and  as  foon  as 
he  faw  himfelf  mailer  of  Illyricum,  openly  avowed 
his  apoftafy,  and  caufed  the  temples  of  the  gods  to  be 
opened.  When  the  meffengers  arrived  at  Naiffiis  in 
Illyricum,  where  he  then  was,  to  acquaint  him  with 
his  being  fole  mailer  of  the  empire,  they  found  him 
confulting  the  entrails  of  viftims  concerning  the  event 
of  his  journey.  As  the  omens  were  uncertain,  he  was 
at  that  time  very  much  embarrafled  and  perplexed  ; 
but  the  arrival  of  the  meffengers  put  an  end  to  all  his 
fears,  and  he  immediately  fee  out  for  Conilantinople. 
At  Heraclea  he  was  met  by  almoft  all  the  inhabitants 
of  this  metropolis,  into  which  he  made  his  public  en- 
try on  the  J  Ith  of  December  361,  being  attended  by 
the  whole  fenate  in  a  body,  by  all  the  magidrates,  and 
by  the  nobility  magnificently  dieffed,  every  one  telli- 
fying  the  utmoft  joy  at  feeing  fuch  a  promifing  young 
prince  raifed  to  the  empire  without  bloodflied.  He  was 
again  declared  emperor  by  the  fenate  of  Conilanti- 
nople ;  and  as  foon  as  that  ceremony  was  over,  he  caufed 
the  obfequies  of  Conftantius  to  be  performed  with  great 
pomp. 

The  firft  care  of  Julian  was  to  inquire  into  the  con- 
fomc  of  the(Ju£^  of  the  late  emperor's  minillers.  Several  of  thefe, 
having  been  found  guilty  of  enormous  crimes,  were 
condemned  and  executed  ;  particularly  the  noted  in- 
former Paulus  Catena,  and  another  named  Apoclamus, 
were  fentenced  to  be  burnt  alive.  Along  with  thefe, 
however,  was  put  to  death  one  Urfula,  a  man  of 
unexceptionable  charafter,  and  to  whom  Julian  him- 
felf was  highly  indebted.  He  had  been  fupplied 
with  money  by  Urfula  unknown  to  the  emperor,  at 
the  time  when  he  was  fent  into  Gaul  with  the  title 
of  C^far,  but  without  the  money  neceffary  for  the 
fupport  of  that  dignity.  For  what  reafnn  he  was 
now  put  to  death,  hiftorians  do  not  acquaint  us.  Ju- 
lian himfelf  tells  U3,  that  he  was  executed  without  his 
knowledge. 

The  emperor  next  fet  about  reforming  the  court. 
As  the  vaft  numb'r  of  offices  was  in  his  time  become 
an  intolerable  burden,  he  difchargcd  all  thofe  whom 
he  thought  ufclefs.  He  reduced,  among  the  reft,  the 
ofiiccrs  called  agcntcs  in  rebus,  from  1 0,000  to  1 7  ; 
and  difcharged  tlioufands  of  cooks,  barbers,  &c.  -  ho 
by  their  large  lalaries  drained  the  exchequer.  The 
curiofi,  whofe  office  it  was  to  inform  the  emperor  of 
what  had  paffed  in  the  different  provinces,  were  all 
difcharged,  and  that  employment  entirely  fu])preffed. 
Thus  he  was  enabled  to  eafe  the  people  of  the  heavy 
taxes  with  which  they  were  loaded  :  and  this  he  did  by 
abating  a  fiftL  part  of  all  taxes  and  impofts  throughout 
the  kingdom. 

As  to  religious  matters,  Julian,  as  before  obferved, 
N°S9. 


560     ]  CON 

was  a  Pagffl,  and  immediately  on  his  accefiion  to  the    ronflun- 
thi one,  riftored  the  heathen  religion.      He   invited   to""''.''"''"" 
court  the  philofophers,  magicians,  &c.   from  all  parts;       '  '"^''  ^ 
nevei  thelels  he  did  not  raife   any  perfecution  agalnft 
the  Chriftians.      On  the  contrary,  he  recalled  from  ba-  Rccals  the 


Condemn 


lare  cmpe 
ror's  mini- 
fiers. 


!8 
Rcfortna 
the  court. 


iiilhment   all   the  orthodox  bilhops  who  had  been  fent ph^iffu- 
into    exile  during  the    forpier  rtign  ;  but  with  a  de- 1*'^''*.  ma- 
fign,  as  is  obferved  both  by  tho   Chriftlan   and    Pagan  *^"^"'"''' 
writers,  to  raife  difturbances  and  fow  diffenfions  in  the 
church.  fQ 

As  the  Perfians  were  now  preparing  to  carry  on  Marches  ». 
the  war  with  vigour,  Julian  found  himfelf  under  a  S''!'"- the 
neceftity  of  marchin?  againll  them  in  perfon.  But  '''^^■■"^"»' 
before' he  fet  out,  he  enriched  the  city  of  Conftanti- 
nople  with  many  valuable  gifts.  He  formed  a  large 
harbour  to  flielter  the  (liips  fiom  the  fouthwind,  Luilt 
a  raagnifjcent  porch  leading  to  it,  and  in  another  porch 
a  ftately  library,  in  wl.ich  he  lodged  all  his  books.  In 
the  month  of  May,  A.  D  362.  he  fet  out  for  Antioch; 
ami  on  the  firft  of  January  renewed  in  that  city  the 
facrificea  to  Jupiter  for  the  fafety  of  the  empire,  which 
had  been  fo  long  omitted.  During  his  ftay  in  this  ci- 
ty, he  continued  his  preparations  tor  the  Perfidn  war, 
erecting  magazines,  making  new  levies,  and  abov-  all 
conlulting  the  oracles,  arufpices,  magicians,  Isfc.  The 
oracles  of  Delphi,  Delos,  and  Dodcna,  affnred  him  of 
victory.  The  arufpices,  indeed,  and  moft  of  his  cour- 
tiers and  officers,  did  all  that  lay  in  their  power  to  di- 
vert him  from  his  intended  expedition  ;  but  the  de- 
ceitful anfwers  of  the  oracles  and  magicians,  and  the 
defii-e  of  adding  the  Pcrfian  monarch  to  the  many 
kings  he  had  already  fcen  humbled  at  his  feet,  prevail- 
ed over  all  other  coi:riderations.  Many  nations  fent  • 
deputies  to  him  offei-ing  their  affiftance  ;  but  thefe  of- 
fers he  rejefted,  telling  them  that  the  Romans  were  to 
affift  their  allies,  but  ftood  in  no  need  of  any  affiil- 
ance  from  them.  He  likewife  rejefted,  and  in  a  very 
dilobliging  manner,  the  offers  of  the  Saracens  ;  an- 
fwerlng  them,  when  they  compbined  of  his  llo])pino- 
the  penfion  paid  them  by  other  emperors,  that  a  war- 
like prince  had  fteel,  but  no  gold  ;  which  they  refent-  ] 
ing,  joined  the  Perfians,  and  continued  faithful  to  them 
to  the  laft.  How.ever,  he  wi'ote  to  Arfaces  king  of 
Armenia,  enjoining  him  to  keep  his  troops  in  readinefs 
to  execute  the  orders  he  (Tiou'd  foon  tranfmit  to  him. 

Having  made  the  neceffary  preparations  for  io  im-  CwifTes  the 
portant  an  entevprife,  Julian  fent  orders  to  his  troops  Euphrate*! 
to  crofs  the  Euphrates,  defigning  to  enter  the  enemy's 
country  before  they  had  the  leaft  notice  of  his  march; 
for  which  purpofe  he  had  placed  guards  on  all  the 
roads.  From  Antioch  he  proceeded  to  Litarba,  a  place 
about  15  leagues  Jiftant,  which  he  reached  the  fame 
day.  From  thence  he  v/ent  U>  Beroea,  where  he  halted  ' 
a  day,  and  exhorted  the  council  to  teftoie  the  vvoilhip 
of  the  gods  ;  hut  this  exhortation,  it  feems,  was  com- 
plied with  but  by  few.  From  Berssa  he  proceeded  to 
Batiite  ;  and  was  better  pleafcd  with  the  inhabitants  of 
the  latter,  becaufe  they  had,  before  his  arrivnl,  re- 
flored  the  worfhip  of  the  gods.  I'here  he  offered  fa- 
crifices  ;  and  having  immolated  a  great  number  of  vic- 
tims, he  purfued  the  next  day  his  journey  to  Hiera- 
polis,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Eiiphratefiana, 
which  he  leached  on  the  oth  of  march.  Here  he 
lodged  in  the  houfe  of  ore  for  whom  he  had  a  parti- 
cular eftcem,  cliicfiy   becaufe  neither  Conildntiin   nor 

Gallus, 


6t 


Condan- 

tinopolitivn 

liillory. 


fi3 
^ayi  wafte 
I  UTyria. 


CON  [     361     ]  CON 

Galliis,  who  had  both  lodged  in  his  houfe,  had  been    pofed  by  the  enemy.     But  Julian  pafTed  tlmt  river  in  Conftan- 
able   to  make  him  renounce  the  worfliip  of  his  idols,     fpite  of  their  utmolt   efFortG,  and  drove  them  into  the  ""^f"!"-''' 
,  As  he  entered  this  city,  jo  of  his  foldiers  were  killed     city  with  the  lofs  of  a  j^rcat  number  of  their  men,  he  ,  ''  f 

by  the  fall  of  a  porch.     He  left  HierapolisOn  the  13th     himfeU,  in  the  mean  time,  lofing  only  70  or  75.  gj 

of  March  ;  and  having  palTed  the  Euphrates  on  a  bridge         Julian  had  now  advanced  fo  far  into  the  enemy's  Be;;ins  hi« 
of  boats,  came   to  Batnx  a  fmall  city  of  Ofrhoene,     country,  that  he  found  it  ncceffary  to  think  of  a  re-  retreat,  hut 
about  10  leagues  from  HIerapolis;  and  here  50  more  of    treat,  as  it  was   impofliblc  for  him  to  winter  in  Pcr-'"^''^'''-'''^'' 
his  foldiers  were  killed  by  the  fall  of  a  (lack  of  ftraw.     fia.     For  this  reafon  he  made   no  attempt   on  Ctefi- pfoyiggn. 
From  Batnre  he  proceeded  to  Carrhos  ;  where,  in  the     phon,  but  began  to  march   back  along  the  banks  of 

famous  temple  of  the  moon,  it  is  fald  he  facrificed  a  the  Tigris,  foon   after  he  had   pafTed  that  river.      In 

woman  to  that  planet.  the  mean  time  the  king   of  Perfia  was  aflembling  a 

While  Julian  continued  in  this  city,  he  received  ad-  formidable  army,  with  a  defign  to  fall  upon  the  Ro- 
vice  that  a  party  of  the  enemies  horfe  had  broke  into  niaus  in  their  march;  but  being  defirous  of  putting  an 
the  Roman  territories.  On  this  he  refolved  to  leave  end  to  fo  deftrucllve  a  war,  he  fent  very  advantage- 
an  army  in  Mefopotamia,  to  guard  the  frontiers  of  the  ous  propofals  of  peace  to  Julian.  Thefe  the  Roman 
empire  on  that  fnie,  while  he  advanced  on  the  other  emperor  very  imprudently  rejected;  and  foon  after, 
into  the  heart  of  the  Perfian  dominions.  This  army  deceived  by  treacherous  guides,  he  quitted  the  river, 
confifted,  according  to  feme,  of  20,000,  according  to  and  entered  into  an  unknown  country  totally  laid  wafte 
others,  of  30,000  chofen  troops.  It  was  commanded  b"  the  enemy,  and  where  he  was  continually  harafled 
by  Procopius,  and  Sebaftian  a  famous  manichean  who  by  "ftrong  parties,  who  In  a  manner  furrounded  his  ar- 
had  been  governor  of  Egypt,  and  had  perfecuted  there,  my,  and  attacked  him  fometimes  in  the  front,  and 
with  the  utmoft.  cruelty,  the  orthodox  Chrillians.  fometimes  in  the  rear.  A  lUIl  worfe  ftep  he  was  per- 
Thefe  two  were  to  join,  if  poflible,  Arfaces  king  of  fuaded  to  take'  by  the  treacherous  guides  already  men- 
Armenia,  to  lay  wafte  the  fruitful  plains  of  Media,  tioned;  and  this  was  to  burn  his  fleet,  left;  it  ftiould  fall 
and  meet  the  emperor  in  Aflyrla.  To  Arfaces  Julian  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy. .  As  foon  as  the  fleet  was 
himfelf  wrote,  but  in  the  moft  difobllging  manner  ima-  fet  on  fire,  the  whole  army  cried  out,  that  the  emperor 
ginable,  threatening  to  treat  him  as  a  rebel  if  he  did  was  betrayed,  and  that  the  guides  were  traitors  em- 
not  execute,  with  the  utmoft  punftuallty,  the  orders  ployed  by  the  enemy.  Julian  ordei-ed  them  inimedi- 
given  him  ;  and  at  the  conclufion  told  him,  that  the  alelyto  be  put  to  the  rack,  upon  which  they  confefTcd 
God  he  adored  would  not  be  able  to  fcreen  him  from  the  treafon  ;  but  it  was  too  late.  The  fleet  was  al- 
his  indignation.  ready  in  flames  ;  they   could  by  no  means   be  extin- 

There  were  two  roads  leading  from  Carrhae  to  Per-  gulflied;    and    no   part  was   faved  except    12   vefTcls, 

fia  ;  the  one  to  the  left  by  Nifibls  ;  the  other  to  the  which  were  defigned  to  be  made  ufe  of  In  the  building 

right  through  the  province  of  Aftyrla,  along  the  banks  of  bridges,  and  far  this  purpofe  were  conveyed  over 

of  the  Euphrates.     Julian  chofe  the  latter,  but  caufed  land  in  waggons. 

magazines  to  be  erefted   on  both  roads;    and,  after         The  emperor  thus  finding  himfelf  In  a  ftrange  coun- 

having  viewed  his  army,  fet  out  on  the  25th  of  March,  try,   and  his  army  greatly  difpirited,  called  a  council 

He  pafTed  the  Abora,  which  feparated  the  Roman  and  of  his  chief  officers,  in  which   It  was  refolved  to  pro- 

Perfian  dominions,  near  its  conflux  with  the  Euphra-  ceed  to  Corduene,  which  lay  fouth  of  Armenia,  and 

tes  ;  after  which  he   broke  down  the  bridge,  that  his  belonged  to  the  Romans.     With  this  view,  they  had 

troops  might  not  be  tempted  to  dtfeit,  feeing  they  not  proceeded  far  when   they  were  met  by  the  king 

could  not  return  home.    As  he  proceeded  on  his  march,  of  Perfia,  at  the  head   of  a  very  numerous  army,  at- 

a  foldier  and  two  horfes  were  ftruck  dead  by  a  flafli  tended  by  his  two  fons,  and  all  the  principal  nobility 

of  lightning;  and  a  lion  of  an  extraordinary  fize  pre-  of  the  kingdom.      Several  ftiarp  encounters  happened, 

fenting  himfelf  to  the  army,    was  in  a  moment  dif-  in  which,  though  tlie   Perfians   were  alwavs  defeated, 

patched  by  the  foldiers  with  a  fliower  of  darts.    Thefe  yet  the  Romans  reaped  no  advantages  from  their  vic- 

omens  occafioned  great   difputes  between  the  phllofo-  tones,  but  were  reduced  to  the  laft  extremity  for  want 

phers  and  arufplces  :   the  Utter  looking  upcm  them  as  of  provifions.      In  one   of  thefe   flclrmiflics,  when  the        ^'^ 

inaufplclous,  advii^ed   the   emperor  to  return  ;  but  the  Romans  were  fuddenly  attacked,  the  emperor,  eager  J^<,")°j"|''' 

former  refuted  their  arguments  with  otheis  more  agree-  to  repulfe  the  enemy,  haftened  to  the  field  of  battle hl^'afudden 

able  to  Julian's  temper.  without  his  armour,  when  he  received  a  mortal  wound^'^ckby 

Having  pafted  the  Abora,  Julian    entered   Afl'yria,  by  a  dart,  which,  through  his  arm  and  fide,  pierced '"^"^ '''=''• 

which   he  found  very   populous,  and  abounding  with  his  vei7  liver.      Of  this  wound  lie  died  the  fame  niirht, '''""' 

all   the  neceflarles  of  life  ;  but  he  laid  it  wafte  far  and  the  26th  of  June  36?,  in  the  32d  year  of  his  a^c^ nfl 

near,  dellroying   the  magazine*   and   provifions  which  tcr  having  reigned  fcarce  20  month's  from  the  time  he 

he  could  not  carry  along  with  him  ;  and   thus  he  put  became  fole  mafter  of  the  Roman  empire. 
it   out  of_  his  power  to  return  the  fame  way  he  came  ;         As   Julian  had  declined   naming  any  fuccefTor,  the        ^'7 

a  ftep  which  was   judged    very  impolitic.      As  he  met  choice  of  a  new  emperor  devolved  "on  the  arm.y.   They  ^"r'j" 

with  no  army  in  the  field  to  oppofe  him,  he  advanced  unanimoufly   chofe  Jovian,    a    vtn'   able  commander, [he  di.'pirc 

to  the  walls  of  Ctcliphon,   the  metropolis  of  the  Per-  whole  father  had  lately  refigned  the  poll  of  corns  do- 

fian  empire;  havlnfr  reduced   all   the  ftrong  holdh  that  vujJkorum,  in   order   to  lead  a  retired  life.      The  va- 

lay  in  his  way.      Here,  having  cauCed  the  canal  to  be  lour   and   experience    of  Jovian,    however,    were    not 

cleared,  which  was  formerly  dug  by  Trajan  between  fufficlent  to  extricate  the  Roman  army  from  the  difli- 

thefe  two  rivers,  he  conveyed  his  fleet  from  the  former  cultles  In  which  they  had  been  plunged  by  the  impru- 

to  the  latter.     On  the  banks  of  the  Tigris  he  was  op-  dence  of  his  nredeceffor.     The  fajiiine  raged  la  the  ■ 

Vol.  V.Paul.  Z,  can.p 


hi/lory. 

68 

Concludes 
a  peace 
with  the 
PuCans. 


69 


partner. 


CON  [36 

("onftnii-  camp  to  fuch  a  degree,  that  not  a  fingle  man  would 
^inipoUtan  j,^yg  ^^^^  j^.^^  ^jj^^,^  y.^^  „m  j],g  Perfians  uiiexpefledly 
font  propofals  cf  peace.  Thefe  were  now  received 
with  the  utmoft  joy.  A  peace  was  concUidcd  for  30 
years  ;  the  terms  of  which  were,  that  Jovian  (hould 
rLftore  to  the  Perfians  the  five  provinces  which  had 
been  taken  from  them  In  the  reign  of  Dioclefian,  with 
feveral  cailles,  and  the  cities  of  Niiibis  and  Singara. 
After  the  conclufion  of  the  treaty,  Jovian  purfued  his 
march  without  molellation.  When  lie  arrived  at  An- 
tioch,  he  revoked  all  the  laws  that  had  been  made  in 
the  former  reign  agalnil  Chrlftianity  and  in  favour  of 
pagan  Ihn.  He  efpoufed  alfo  the  caufe  of  the  ortho- 
dox Chriftiansacfainft  the  Arians;  and  recalled  all  thofe 
who  had  been  foi-merly  banldied,  particularly  Athana- 
fius,  to  whom  he  wrote  a  very  obliging  letter  with 
his  own  hand.  It  is  generally  believed  alfo  that  Atha- 
nafius,  at  the  defire  of  Jovian,  now  compofed  the 
creed  which  ftlll  goes  by  his  name,  and  is  fubfcribed 
by  all  the  bldiops  in  Europe.  But  this  emperor  Sild 
not  live  to  make  any  gieat  alterations,  or  even  to  vi- 
fit  his  capital  as  emperor  ;  for  in  his  way  to  Conftan- 
His  death,  tinople  he  was  found  dead  in  his  bed,  on  the  1 6th  or 
J 7th  of  Februa:^  364,  after  he  had  lived  33  years, 
Jo  and  reigned  feven  months  and  40  days. 
Valentinian  .  After  the  death  of  Jovian,  Valentlnian  was  chofen 
chofenem-  emperor.  Immediately  on  his  acceflion,  the  foldiers 
chodf'  Vn  niutinicd,  and  with  great  clamour  required  him  to 
lens  for  his  choofe  a  partner  in  the  fovereignty.  Though  he  did 
not  inftantly  comply  with  their  demand,  yet  in  a  few 
days  he  chofe  his  brother  Valens  for  his  partner  ;  and, 
as  the  empire  was  threatened  on  all  fides  with  an  In- 
vafion  of  the  barbarous  nations,  he  thought  proper  to 
divide  it.  This  famous  partition  was  made  at  Mcdiana 
in  Dacia  ;  when  Valens  had  for  his  (hare  the  whole  of 
Afia,  Egypt-,  and  Thrace  ;  and  Valentinian  all  the 
Weft;  that  is,  Illyrlcum,  Italy,  Gaul,  Spain,  Britain, 
and  Africa. 

After  this  partition,  Valens  returned  to  Conftanti- 
nople,  where  the  beginning  of  his  reign  was  difturbed 
by  the  revolt  of  Procopius,  a  lelation  of  Julian.  On 
the  death  of  that  emperor,  he  had  fled  into  Taurica 
Cherfonefus  for  fear  of  Jovian  ;  but  not  trufting  the 
barbarians  who  inhabited  that  country,  he  returned  in 
difguife  into  the  Roman  territories,  where  having 
gained  over  an  eunuch  of  great  wealth,  by  name  Eu- 
gcnius,  lately  difgraced  by  Valens,  and  fome  officers 
who  commanded  the  troops  fent  againft  the  Goths, 
he  got  himfelf  proclaimed  emperor.  At  fiift  he  was 
joined  only  by  the  loweft  of  the  people,  but  at  length 
he  was  acknowledged  by  the  whole  city  of  Conftantl- 
nople.  On  the  news  of  this  revolt,  Valens  would 
have  abdicated  the  fovereignty,  had  he  not  been  pre- 
■vented  by  tlie  importunities  of  his  friends.  He  there- 
fore difpatehcd  fome  troops  againft  the  ufurpcr ;  but 
thefe  were  gained  over,  and  Procopius  continued  for 
fome  time  to  gain  ground.  It  is  probable  he  would 
finally  have  fucceeded,  had  he  not  become  fo  much 
elated  with  his  good  fortune,  that  he  grew  tyranni- 
cal and  infupportable  to  his  own  party.  In  confe- 
?s  defeated  quence  of  this  alteration  in  his  difpofitlon,  he  was  firft 
and  put  to  abandoned  by  fome  of  his  principal  officers;  andfoon  af- 
death.  jgr  defeated  in  battle,  taken  prifoner,  and  put  to  death. 
'^  •  ■  This  revolt  produced  a  war  betwixt  Valens  and  the 
the^Coths.  Golks.    Tlie  latter,  having  been  folicited  by  Proco- 


1 


CON 


Procopius 
revolts. 


7» 


pius,  had  fent  3000  men  to  his  aflillance.     On  hear-  Conftan. 
lug  the  news  of  the   ufurper's   death,  they  marched  tiofpohtan 
back;  but  Valens  detached   againft  them   a  body  of ,  '"'*"'y-^ 
troops,  who  took  them   all  prifoiicrs  notwithftanding  ' 

the  vigorous  refiftance  tliey  made.     Athanaric,  king 
of  the   Goths,  expoftulattd   on   this  proceeding  with 
Valens  ;    but   that    emperor  proving    obftinate,    both 
parties  prepared  for  war.      In   367    and  369,  Valens 
gained  great   advantages  over  his   enema's ;  and   ob- 
liged them  to  fue  for  peace,  which  was  concluded  up- 
on terms  very   advantageous    to  the    Romans.     The 
reft  of  this  reign  contains  nothing  remarkable,  except 
the  cruelty  with  which   Valens   perfecuted  the  ortho- 
dox clergy.     The  latter  fent  80   of  their  niunberto„|  ,'''• 
him,  In  order  to  lay  their  complaints  before  him  ;  butthodox 
he,  inftead  of  giving  them  any  relief,  determined  to  cleigy  ec- 
put  them  all  to  death.      But  the  perfon  who  was  or-  cieliafticj 
dered  to  execute  this  fentence,  fearing  left  the  pub-  Jj"'  [°' 
lie  execution  of  fo  many  ecclefiaftics  might  ralfe   dif-  ' 

turbances,  ordered  them  all  to  be  put  on  board  a  (hip, 
pretending  that  the   emperor  had  ordered  them  only 
to  be.  fent  into  banilhment ;  but  when  the  veflel  was 
at  fome  diftance  from  land,   the  mariners  fet  fire  to  it, 
and  made  their  own  efcape  in  the  boat.     The  ftiip  was 
driven   by  a  ftrong  wind   into  an  harbour,   where  it        ., 
was  confumed  and  all  that  were  in  it.      A  perfecution  Magicians' 
was  alfo  commenced  againft  magicians,  or  thofe  whal^^f^ut^d. 
had  books  of  magic  in  their  cuftody.     This  occafioned 
the  deftrudion  of  many   innocent  perfons  ;  for  books 
of  this  kind   were  often   conveyed   into  libraries   un- 
known to  the  owners  of  them,  and  this  was  certainly 
followed  by  death  and  confifcation  of  goods.     Here- 
upon perfons  of  all  ranks  were  feized  with  fuch  terror 
that   they  burnt   their   libraries,   left   books  of  magic 
fhould   have   been    fecretly  conveyed   In  amongft    the 
others.     In  378,  the  Goths,  whom  Valens  had  admit- 
ted into  Thrace,  advanced  from  that  piovince  to  Ma- 
cedon  and  Theflaly,  where  they  committed  dreadful  ra 
vages.     They  afterwards  blocked  up  the  city  of  Con- y,'     . 
ftantinople,  plundered  the  fuburbs,  and  at  laft  totally  featcd'awl? 
defeated  and  killed  the  emperor  himfelf.     The  day  af  killed  by 
ter  the  battle,  hearing  that  an  immenfe  treafure  was''^'^  Goth* 
lodged  in  Adrlanople,  tlie  barbarians  laid  fiege  to  that 
place:  but  being  quite  ftrangers  to  the  art  of  bcfieging 
towns,  they  were  repulfed  with  great  flaughter  ;  up- 
on which  they  dropped  that  enterprife,  and  returned 
before   Conftantinople.      But   here  great   numbers  of 
them  were  cut  in  pieces  by  the  Saracens,  whom  Maria 
their  queen  had  fent  to  the  affiftance  of  the  Romans; 
fo  chat  they  were  obliged  to  abandon  this  defign  like- 
wife,  and  retire  from  the  neighbourhood  of  that  city.. 

By  the  death  of  Valens,  the  empire  once  more  fell 
into  the  hands  of  a  fingle  perfon.  This  was  Gratian,  Gratian 
who  had  held  the  empire  of  the  Weft  after  the  death 'akesTheo- 
of  Valentinian.  He  repulfed  many  barbarous  "^'^'^ns  ^is  armeri 
who  threatened  the  empire  at  that  time  with  diflblu- 
tlon  ;  but  finding  himfelf  prefled  on  all  fides,  he  foon 
refolved  to  take  a  colleague,  in  order  to  eafe  him  of 
fome  part  of  the  burden.  Accordingly,  on  the  19th. 
of  January  379,  he  declared  Thcodofius  his  partner  in 
the  empire,  and  committed  to  his  care  all  the  provin- 
ces which  had  been  governed  by  Valens. 

Theodofius  is  greatly  extolled  by  the  hiftoriana  of 
thofe  ages  on  account  of  his  extraordinary  valour  and 
piety  J  and  fo?  thefe  qualifications  has  been  honoured 
2  ,  with 


77 


CON  [3^3 

with  tlic  firname  of  the  Great.     From  tlie  many  perfe- 


CON 


iropol-tbin  cuting  laws  ,liowevcr,  made  in  liid  time,  it  would  letm 
^"'  "11_  that  his  pitty  was  at  Itaft  very  much  mif>;uided  ;  and 
'"'^         that  if  he  was  nnttually  of  a  hiinnne  and  comp;;iTionate 
difpofuion,  fuperltiiion   and   paffion   had  often  totally 
obfcured  it.      He  ccrt;'iiily  was  a  man  of  great   con- 
duA  and   experience   in   war,  and    indeed   the  prefent 
o         ftate  of  the  cmpiic  called  for  an  exertion  of  all  his  abl- 
»Iiferable    lities.     Ti;e  provincfs  of  Dacia,  Thrace,  and    Illyri- 
tatd  oftlic  cum,  were   already  loft;  the   Golhs,    Taifali,  Alans, 
11  liirc  on   gj,^  Hunns,  were  mafters  of  the  greateft  part  of  thcfe 
lis  acccl-    pfQvinces,  and   had   ravaged   and  hid   walie  tlie  rtft. 
The  Iberians,  Armenians,  and  Perfians,  were  likewife 
up  in  arms,  and   ready  to  take  advantage  of  the  dif- 
traft'-d  ftate  of  the  empire.     The   few   foldiers,  who 
had  fur\'ived  the  late  defeat,  kept  within   the  llrong 
holds  of  Thrace,   without  daring  fo  much  as  to  lock 
abroad,  much  Icfs  face  the  victorious  enemy,  who  mo- 
ved about  the  country  in  great  bodies.      But  notwith- 
ftanding  this  critical  fituation,  the  hiftorians  of  thofe 
times  give  us   no  account  of  the  tranfaftlons  of  the 
year    379.     Many   great   battles  indeed   are    faid    to 
have  been  fought,   and  as  many  victories  obtained  by 
Theodofius ;    but    the  accounts   of  thefe  are   fo  con- 
fufed  and  contradictory,  that  no  ftrefi  can  be  laid  up- 
on them. 

In  the   month  of  February   380,   Theodofius   was 
feized  with  a  dangeri  us  malady,  fo  that  Gratian  found 
himfelf  obliged  to  carry  on  the   war  alone.     This  em- 
peror, apprehending  that  the  neighbouring  barbarians 
might  break   into  fome  of  the  provinces,  concluded  a 
peace  with  the  Goths,  which  was  confirmed  by  Theo- 
dofius on  his  recovery.     The  treaty  was  very  advan- 
tageous to  the   barbarians ;  but  they,  difregarding  all 
their  engagements,  no  foorer  heard  that  Gratian  had 
left  Illyricum,  than  they  paffed  the  Danube,  and  break- 
ing into  Thrace  and  Pannonia,  advanced  as  far  as  Ma- 
yt,         cedon,  deflroying  zJl  with  fire  and  fword.    Theodofius, 
The  Goth";  however,  drawing  togedier  his  forces,  matched  againil 
rK^^'^''  ''y  them  ;  and,  according  to  the  moft  refpeftable  authori- 
Qyj       '     ties,   gained  a  complete  viftory;    though  Zoilmus  re- 
lates, that  he -was  utterly  defeated. 

The  following  year,  Athanaric,  the  moft  powerful 
of  all  the  Gothic  princes,  being  diiven  out  by  a  faction 
at  home,  recurred  to  Theodofius,  by  whom  he  was 
received  vviih  great  tokens  of  friendftiip.  The  em- 
peror himfelf  went  out  to  meet  him,  and  attended 
him  with  his  numerous  retinue  into  the  city.  The 
Gothic  prince  died  the  fame  year  ;  and  Theodofius 
caufed  him  to  be  buri<  d  after  the  Roman  mariner  with 
fuch  pomp  and  folcmniiy,  that  the  Goths,  who  attend- 
ed him  in  bis  flight,  returned  home  with  a  relolution 
never  to  moleft  the  Romans  any  more.  Nay,  out  of 
gratitude  to  the  emperor,  they  took  upon  them  to 
guard  the  hanks  of  the  Danube,  and  prevent  the  em- 
pire from  being  invaded  on  that  fide. 

In  383,  one  Maximus  revolted  agalnft  Gratian  in 
Britain  ;  and  in  the  end,  having  got  the  unhappy  em- 
peror into  his  power,  caufed  him  to  be  put  to  death, 
and  afTumed  the  empire  of  the  Weft  himfelf.  Gra- 
tian had  dividtd  his  dominions  with  his  brother  Va- 
Icntiuian,  whom  he  allowed  to  reign  in  Italy  and  Weft 
Illyricum,  referving  tlie  reft  to  himfelf.  Maximus 
therefore,  immediately  after  his  ufurpation,  fent  de- 
puties to  Theodofius,  affiiring  liim  that  he  had  no  de- 


Ae  Theodofius   .Ccnftin- 


So 
Jratian 
lurdercdi 
y  Maxi- 
lus, 


figns  on  the  dominions  of  Valcntinian.    ... . 

at  that  time  found  himfelf  in  danger  from  the  barba-   '|,|Aof.. 
rians,  he  not  only  forliure  to  attnck  Maximus  after  __^__j 
this  declaration,   but  even  acknowledged  him  for  his        81 
partner  in  tlie  empire.     It  was  not  long,  however,  be- "'''"  "j" 
fore  the  ambition  of   the    ufurper  prompted  him  to  "„,;[,; j,',8 
break  his  promife.     In  387,  he  paftcd  the  Alps  on  a,,)  Vak'nti- 
fuddtn  ;  and  meeting  with  no  oppofition,  marched  to  nan. 
Milan  where  Valentinian  ufually  rcfided,     Tlic  young 
prince  fled  firft  to  Aquileia;  and  from  thence  to  Thef- 
falonica,    to    implore  the    protcftion  of   Theodofius. 
The  latter,  in  anfwer  to  Valentinian's  letter,  inform- 
ed him,  that  he  was  not  at  all  fui-prifcd  at  the  pro- 
grefs  Maximus  had  made,    becaufe   the  ufurper  had 
protefted,  and  Valentinian  had  perfecuted,  the  ortho- 
dox Chriftians.     At  laft  he  prevailed  on   the  young 
prince  to  renounce  the  Arian  herefy  which  he  had  hi- 
therto maintained ;  after  which   Theodofius  promifcd 
to  afiitl  hiin  with  all  the  forces  of  the  Eaft.     At  firft, 
however,    he  fent  meflengers   to  Maximus,    earneftly 
exhorting  him  to  refiore  the  provinces  he  had   taken 
from   Valentinian,    and   content    himfelf   with  Gaul, 
Spain,  and   Britain.     But  the  ufurper  would  hearken        St 
to  no  terms.     This  very  year  he  befieged  and  took  "" '"'■'^"^' 
Aquileia,  Quaderna,  Bonouia,  Mutina,  Rhegium,  Pla- 
centia,  and  many  other  cities  in  Italy.     The  following 
year  he  was  acknowledged  in   Rome,  and  in  all  the 
provinces  of  Africa.     Theodofius,  therefore,  finding  a 
war   inevitable,    fpent  the  remaining  months  of  this 
and  the  beginning  of  the  following  year  in  making  the 
neceffary  preparations.     His  army  confifted  chiefly  ot 
Goths,  Huns,  Alans,  and  other  barbarians,  whom  he 
was  glad   to  take  into  the  ftivice  in  order  to  prevent        g, 
their  raifing  dillurbances  on  the  frontiers.     He  defeat- Defeated 
ed  Maximus  in  two  battles,  took  him  prifoner,  and  put  and  put  Co 
him  to  death.     The  ufurper  had  left  his  fon  Vidtor,  ^'^^^^^^V 
whom  he  created  Auguftus,  in  Gaul,  to  awe  the  inhabi-  ^^^^ 
tants  in  his  abfence.     Againft  him  the  emperor  dif- 
patched  Arbogalles,  who  took  him  prifoner  after  having 
difperfed  the  troops  that  attended  him,  and  put  him  to 
death.     The  victory  was  ufed  afterwards  by  Theodo- 
fius with  great  clemency  and  moderation.  „ 

In  389,  Theodofius  took  a  journey  to  Rome;  and, -p[,g  ^^m. 
according  to  Prudentius,  at  this  time  converted  the  pies  in  A- 
fenate  and  people  from  idolatry  to  Clu  iftianity.      The  lexandha, 

next  year  was  remarkable  for  the  dcftruitlon  of  the  ^J"'     .     . 
iL^jx         I        ro         ••       ^l  1-  L-i     throuehout 

celebrated  temple  ot  herapis   in  Alexandria  ;  which,  ^n  E^vpt 

according  to  the  defcription  of  Ammianus  Marcelliuus,  ddUiiyed. 
furpaffed  all  others  in  the  world,  that  of  Jupiter  Capi- 
tolinus  alone  excepted.  The  reafon  of  its  being  now 
dertroyed  was  as  follows.  Theophilus,  bifliop  of  Alex- 
andria, having  begged  and  obtained  of  the  emperor 
an  old  temple,  formerly,  confecrated  to  Bacchus,  but 
then  ruined  and  forfaken,  with  a  dcfign  to  convert  it 
into  a  church,  the  workmen  found  among  the  rubbiftl 
feveral  obfcene  figures,  which  the  bifhop,  to  ridicule 
the  fuperrtition  of  the  Heathens,  c'..fed  to  be  expofed 
to  public  view.  This  provoked  the  Pagans  to  fuch  a 
degree,  that  they  flew  to  arms  ;  and  falling  unexpec- 
tedly upon  the  Chrillians,  cut  great  numbers  of  them 
in  p.vces.  The  latter,  however,  foon  took  arms  in 
their  own  defence  ;  and  being  fupported  by  the  fewr 
foldiers  who  were  quartered  in  the  city,  began  to  re- 
pel force  by  force.  Thus  a  civil  war  was  kindled, 
and  no  day  pafltd  without  fome  encounter.  The  Pa- 
VC  z  2  gang 


CON  [ 

Ct)na»n-  gans  ufed  to  retire  to  the  temple  of  Serapia  ;  _„- 
'^Xry!''  ^^^""^^  fallying  out  unexpeaedly  feized  on  fuch  Chri 
■  ftians  as  they  met,  and,  dragging  them  into  the  tem- 

ple, either  forced  them  by  the  moll  exquifite  torments 
to  facrifice  to  their  idol,  or,  if  they  refufed,  racked 
them  to  death.  As  they  foon  expeded  to  be  attacked 
by  the  emperor's  troops,  they  chofe  a  phllofopher 
named  Olympvi  for  their  leader,  with  a  defign  to  de- 
fend themfelves  to  the  lait  extremity.  The  emperor, 
however,  wotild  not  fufFer  any  punifhment  to  be  inflic- 
ted upon  them  for  the  lives  of  thofc  they  had  taken 
away,  but  readily  forgave  them :  however,  he  ordered 
all  the  temples  of  Alexandria  to  be  immediately  puOed 


down,  and  commanded  the  bilhop  to- fee  his  orders  put 
in  execution.     The  Pagans  no  fooner  heard  that  the 
emperor  was  acquainted  with  their  proceedings  than 
they  abandoned  the  temple,  which  was  {in  a  Ihort  time 
deftroyed   by  Theophilus ;  nothing  being   left  except 
the  foundations,  which  could  not  be  removed  on  ac- 
count of  the  extraordinary   weight   and   fize   of  the 
ftones.  Not  fatisfied  with  the  deftrudlion  of -the  Alexan- 
drian temples,  the  zealous  bilhop  encouraged  the  people 
to  pull  down  all  the  other  temples,  oratories,  chapels, 
and  places  ftt  apart  for  the  worfhip  'f  the  Heathen 
gods  throughout  Egypt,  and  the  llatues  of  the  gods 
themfelves  to  be  either  burnt  or  melted  down.     Of 
the  innumerable  ftatues  which  at  that  time  were  to  be 
found   in  Egypt,  he  is  faid  to  have  fparcd  but  one, 
■viz.  that  of  an  ape,  in  order  to  expofe  the  Pagan  re- 
ligion to  ridicule.     On  his  return  to  Conftantinople, 
Theodofius  ordered  fuch  temples  as  weie  yet  ftanding 
to  be  thrown  down,  and  the  Arians  to  be  every  where 
g,         driven  out  of  the  citlesi 
Valentinian      In   392,    Valentinian,    emperor  of  the  Weft,  was 
murJertd    treacheroufly   murdered   by   Arbogallts   his   general  ; 
by  Arbi>-     yvho,  though   he  might  afterwards  have  eafily  feized 
raifesEu-     °"   "'^  fovereignty  hmilelt,   chole  to  confer  it  upon 
gcn;u,  to     one  Eugenius,  and  to   reign  iu  his  name.     This  new 
the  tmpire.  ufurper,  though  a  Chriftian,  w^as  greatly  favouied  by 
the  Pagans,  who  were  well  apprized  that  he  only  bore 
the  title  of  emperor,  while  the  whole  power  lodged  in 
Arbogaftes,  who  pretended  to  be  greatly  attached  to 
their  religion.     The  arafpices  began  to  appear  anew, 
and  informed  him  that  he  was  detlined  to  the  em- 
pire of  the   whole  world  ;  that   he  would  foon  gain 
a  complete  viftory  over  Theodofius,  who  was  as  much 
hated  as  Eugenius  was  beloved  by  the  gods,  &c.     But 
though  Eugenius  fcemed  to  favour  the  Pagans,  yet  in 
the  very  beginning  of  his  reign  he  vviote  to  St  Am- 
brofe.     The  holy   man  did  not  anfwer  his  letter  till 
,  he  was  prefled  by  fome  friends  ti5  recommend  them  to 
the  new  prince  ;  and  then  he  wrote  to  this  infamous 
ufurper  with  all  the  refpecl  due  to  an  emperor.     Soon 
after  his  acctffion  to  the  empire,  Eugenius  fent  depu- 
ties to  Theodolius  ;  and  they  are  faid  to  have  been  re- 
ceived by  him  in  a  very   obliging  manner.      He  did 
loL,  however,  int^ijid  to  enter  into  any  alliance  with 
this  ufurper,  but  immediately  began  his  military  pre- 
parations.     In  394,  he   fet   our  from  Conftantinople, 
and  was  at  Adrlanople  on  the  15111  of  June  that  year. 
He  bent  bis  march  through  Dacia,  and  the  other  pro- 
finces  between  Thrace  and  the  Julian  Alps,  with  a 
defign  to  force  the  paflcs  of  thefe  mountains,  and  break 
into  Italy  before  the  army  of  Eugenius  was  in  a  con- 
dition to  oppofe  him.     On  his  airival  at  the  Alps,  he 


364    ]  CON 

and    foundthefepaftesgtiardedbyFlavianusprefecl  of  Italy,    ConHa». 
at  the  head  of  a  confiderable  body  of  Roman  troops,  ""^pulitau 
Thefe   were   utterly   defeated  by   Theodofius,    who    '"'^"""y-  j 
thereupon   crofted  the  Alps  and  advanced  into  Italy.  ' 

He  was  foon  met  by  Eugenius  ;  and  a  bloody  battle 
enfued,  without  any  decilive  advantage  on  either  fide. 
The   next  day  the  emperor  led  his  troops  in   perfon 
againft  the  enemy,  utterly  defeated  them,  and  took 
their  cairlp.     Eugenius  was  taken  prifoner  by  his  own  £,,geniut  • 
men,  and  brought  to  Theodolius,  who  reproached  iiim  dejeatcd, 
with  the  murder   of  Valentinian,   with  the  calamities 'aken  pri- 
he   had   brought  on  the   empire  by   his  unjuft  ufur-  f""^''>  *'»1 
pation. 


87 
irbigaftes; 


I 


and  with  putting  his  confidence  in  Plercules,  1",  ,C 
and  not  in  the  true  God  ;  for  on  his  chief  ftandard  he 
had  difplayed  the  image  of  that  fabulous  hero.  Euge- 
nius begged  earncftly  for  his  life;  but  while  he  lay  pro- 
ftrate  at  the  emperor's  feet,  his  own  fuldiers  cut  off 
his  head,  and  caiTying  it  about  on  the  point  of  a  ipear, 
ftiowed  it  to  tliofe  in  the  camp,  who  had  not  yet  fubmit- 
tcd  to  Theodofius.  At  this  they  were  all  thunderftruck ; 
but  being  infermed  that  Theodolius  was  ready  to  receive 
them  into  favour,  they  threw  down  their  arms  and 
fubmitted.  After  this,  Arbogalles,  defpairing  of  par-  ^  _ 
don,  fled  to  the  mountains  ;  but  being  informed  that  lay?  vio 
diligent  fearch  was  made  for  him,  he  laid  violent  hands  '<="'  hands 
on  himfelf.  His  children,  and  thofe  of  Eugenius,  °" '""'''='^'* 
took  fanifluary  in  churches:  but  the  emperor  not  only 
pardoned,  but  took  the  opportunity  of  converting  them 
to  Chrillianity,  reftored  to  them  their  paternal  eltates, 
and  raifed  them  to  confiderable  employments  in  the 
ftate.  Soon  after  this,  Theodofius  appointed  his  fon. 
Honorius  emperor  of  the  Weft,  afQgning  him  for  his 
ihart  Italy,  Gaul,  Spain,  Africa,  and  Welt  Illyricum. 
The  next  year,  as  he  prepared  for  his  return  to  Con--j.,  ;  «„' 
ftautinople,  he  was  feized  with  a  dropfy,  owing  to  the  die,_ 
great  fatigues  he  had  undergone  during  the  war.  As 
foon  as  he  perceived  himfelf  to  be  in  danger,  he  made 
his  will ;  by  wliich  he  bequeathed  the  empire  of  the 
Eaft  to  Arcadius,  and  confirmed  Honorius  in  the  pof- 
fefQon  of  the  Weft.  He  likewife  confirmed  the  pardon 
which  he  had  granted  to  all  thofe  who  had  borne  arms 
againft  him,  and  remitted  a  tribute  which  had  proved 
very  burdenfome  to  the  people ;  and  charged  his  two 
foils  to  fee  thefe  points  of  his  will  executed.  He  died 
at  Milan  on  the  17th  of  Januaiy  395,  in  the  1 6th  of 
his  reign  and  50th  of  liis  age.  ^ 

From  the  time  of  Theodofius  to  the  time  when  the  Empire  uj 
Roman  empire  in  the  Welt  was  totally  deftroyed  by  l"iii|ied  hy 
the  Goths,  we  find  but  very  little  remarkable  in  tlie  Bafililcuj. 
hiftory  of  Conftantinople.  At  this  time  the  eaftern 
tmpite  was  uiurpcd  by  Bafililcus,  who  had  driven  out 
Zeno  the  lawful  emperor;  being  affifted  in  his  conlpi- 
racy  by  the  emprefs  Verina  his  filler.  Zeno  fled  in- 
to Ifauria,  whither  he  was  purfued  by  lUus  and  Tre- 
condes,  two  of  the  ufurper'a  generals  ;  who  having 
eafily  defeated  the  few  troops  he  had  with  him,  for- 
ced the  unhappy  prince  to  fhut  himfelf  up  in  a  cattle, 
which  they  immediately  invelted.  But  in  a  fliort 
time  Bafihfcus  having  difobliged  the  people  by  his  cru- 
elty, avarice,  and  other  bad  qualities,  for  which  he  was 
no  Icfs  remarkable  than  his  predeceflf'r  had  been,  his 
generals  joined  with  Zeno,  whom  they  rcltored  to  the 
throne.  After  his  reftoration,  Zciio  having  got  Bafilil- 
cus into  his  power,  confined  him  in  a  caftlc.ol  C;ippado- 
cia  together  with  his  wile  Zenonides,  where  they  both 

perilhed 


CON 


Gonftan- 

tin'  politan 

hiftery. 

It  f)a:-vca 
to  deiih 

Great  fire 
at  CmuUn- 
tinopk. 


9*      . 
Dectne  of 

the  Roman 
empire,  to 
what  ow- 
ing. 


It  revives 
Under  Ji.f- 
tin  and  JuU 

tinian, 


,  Juuitiian  5 
'  wur  wi:h 
I  the  ?er- 


peri/hed  with  Lungsr  and  Cold.  This  happened  in  the 
year  467,  after  Baiilifcus  had  reigned  about  20  months. 
During  the  time  of  this  ufurpation  a  dreadful  fire  hap- 
pened at  Conftantinople,  which  confumed  great  part 
of  the  city,  with  the  library  containing  120,000  vo- 
lumes; among  which- weic  the  works  of  Homer, 
written,  as  is  faid,  on  the  great  gut  of  a  dragon  1 20 
feet  long. 

The  misfortunes  which  Zeno  had  undergone  did 
not  work  any  reformation  upon  him.  He  itill  conti- 
nued the  fame  vicious  eourfes  which  had  given  occa- 
fion  to  the  ufurpation  of  Bafilifcas.  Other  c«;ifpira- 
cies  were  formed  againft  him,  but  he  had  the  good 
fortune  to  efcape  them.  He  engaged  in  a  war  with 
the  Oftrogoths,  in  which  he  proved  unfuccefsful,  and 
was  obliged  to  yield  the  provinces  of  Lower  Dacia 
and  Ma-iia  to  them.  In  a  ihort  time,  however,  Thco- 
doric  their  king  made  an  irruption  into  Thrace,  and 
advanced  withtn  15  miles  of  Conftantinople,  with  a  de- 
fign  to  befiege  that  capital:  but  the  following  year,  485, 
they  retired  in  order  to  attack  Odoacer  kinij  of  Italy; 
of  which  country  Theodoric  was  proclaimed  king  in 
493.  The  emperor  Zeno  died  in  the  year  491,  in  the 
65th  year  of  his  age,  and  1  7th  of  his  reign. 

The  Roman  empire  had  now  for  a  loner  time  been 
on  the  decline ;  the  ancient  valour  and  military  difci- 
pline  which  had  for  fuch  a  long  time  rendered  the  Ro- 
mans fuperior  to  other  nations,  had  greatly  degeneia- 
tecj ;  fc  that  they  were  now  by  no  means  fo  powerful  as 
formerly.  The  tumults  and  dilorders  which  had  hap- 
pened in  the  empire  from  time  to  time  by  the  many 
ufurpations,  had  contributed  a!fo  to  weaken  it  very 
much.  But  what  proved  of  the  greateft  detriment 
■was  the  allowing  vait  fwarms  of  baibarians  to  fettle 
in  the  different  provinces,  and  to  ferve  in  the  Reman 
empire  in  feparaie  and  independent  bodies.  This  had 
proved  the  immediate  caufe  of  the  diffolution  of  the 
weftern  empire  ;  but  as  it  affected  the  eaftern  parts 
kfs,  the  Conitantinopohtan  empire  continued  for  up-' 
wards  of  900  years  alter  the  wellern  one  was  totally 
dilFolved.  The  weak  and  imprudent  adminillration  of 
Zeno,  and  Ar.aftafius  v^ho  lucceeded  him,  had  reduced 
the  eaftern  empire  ItiU  more  ;  and  it  might  pofGbly 
have  expired  in  a  (hort  tir.:e  alter  the  wefiern  one, 
had  not  the  «ile  and  vigorous  conduct  of  Juflin,  and 
his  partner  Juftinian,  revived  in  fomg  meafure  the  an- 
cient martial  fpirit  which  had  originally  railed  the  Ro- 
man empire  to  its  higheft  pitch  of  grandeur. 

Jurtin  afcended  the  throne  in  jiS.  In  521  he  en- 
gaged in  a  war  with  the  Perfians,  who  had  all  along 
been  very  formidable  enemies  to  the  Roman  name. 
Againft  Uiem  he  employed  the  famous  Belifarius;  but 
of  him  we  hear  nothing  remarkable  till  after  the  ac- 
cciTion  of  Juilinian.  This  prince  was  the  nephew  of 
Juftin,  and  was  by  him  taken  as  his  partner  in  the  em- 
piie  in  527  ;  and  the  fame  year  Juilin  died,  in  the 
77th  year  of  his  age  and  9th  of  his  reign.  Juilinian 
being  now  fcle  mafter  of  the  empire,  bent  his  whole 
force  againft  the  Pcrfians.  The  latter  proved  fuccefs- 
ful  in  the  Efft  engagement;  but  were  foon  after  utterly 
defeated  by  Behlarius  on  the  frontieis  of  Periia,  and 
liken ifc  by  another  general  named  Dorotiius  in  Ar- 
menia. The  war  continued  with  various  fuccefs  du- 
ring the  fiift  five  years  of  JuAinian's  reign.  In  the 
lixth  year  a  peace  was  coccluded  upon  the  following 


E    3C5    ] 


CON 


terms:    I.  That  the  Reman  emperor  fhould  pay  to   Conftan- 
Cofrhoes,  the  king  of  Perfia,   1000  pounds  weight  of ''""^"1'"" 
gold.     2.  That  both  princes  fliould  reilore  the  places         _       • 
they  had  taken  during  the  warn,     3.  That  the  com- 
mander of  the  Roman  forces  (hould  no  longer  rcfide 
at  Dara»on  the  Perfian  frontiers,  but  at  a  place  called 
Con/iant'ma  in  Mcfopotamia,  as  he  had  formerly  done. 
4.  That  the  Iberians,  who  had  fided  with  the  Romans, 
Ihould  be  at  liberty  to  return  to  their  own  country  or 
iiay  at  Conftantinople.    This  peace,  concluded  in  ^li> 
was  ftyled  -eternal j  but  in   the   event  proved  of  very 
Ihoi't  duration. 

About  this  time  happened  at  Conftantinople  the  Great  tc- 
greateft  tumult  mentioned  in  hiftoiy.  It  began  among  n-dt  in 
the  different  factions  in  the  circus,  but  ended  in  an  Cor.ftin- 
open  rebellion.  The  multitude,  highly  diffatibfied  with^^^P*'" 
the  conducl  of  John  \he pr^fedus pr^laiio,  and  of  Tre- 
bonianus  then  queftor,  forced  Hypatius,  nephew  to  the 
emperor  Anaftafius,  to  accept  the  empire,  and  pio- 
claimed  him  with  great  folemnity  in  the  forum.  Ae 
the  two  above-mentioned  minifttrs  were  greatly  ab- 
horred by  the  populace  on  account  of  their  avarice, 
Juftinian  immediately  difcharged  them,  hoping  by 
that  means  to  appeafe  the  tumult :  but  this  was  io  far 
from  anfA-ering  the  purpofe,  that  the  multitude  only 
grew  the  more  outrageous  upon  it ;  and  moll  of  the 
ftnators  joining  them,  the  emperor  was  fo  much  alarm- 
ed, that  he  had  thoughts  of  abandoning  the  city  and 
making  his  efcape  by  fea.  Irf  this  dilemma  the  em- 
prefs  Theodora  encouraged  and  perfuadcd  him  rather 
tu  pait  with  his  life  than  the  kingdom  ;  and  he  at  lait 
refolved  to  defend  himfelf  to  the  utmoil,  with  the  few 
fenators  who  had  not  yet  abandoned  him.  In  the 
mean  time,  the  rebels  having  attempted  in  vain  to 
foice  the  gates  of  the  palace,  carried  Hypatius  in  tri- 
umph to  the  circus  ;  where,  wh'de  he  was  beholding 
the  fports  from  the  imperial  throne,  amidlt  the  ftiouts- 
and  acclamations  of  the  people,  Belifarius,  who  had 
been  recalled  from  Pcrfia,  enieied  the  ciiy  with  a 
confiderablc  body  of  troops.  Being  then  apprifed  ot 
the  ufurpation  of  Hypatius,  he  marched  ftraight  to  the 
circus ;  fell  fword  in  hand  upon  the  difarmed  multi- 
tude ;  and  with  the  affiftance  of  a  band  of  Heruli, 
headed  by  Mundus  governor  of  Illyricuin,  cut  about 
50,cco  of  them  in  pieces.  Hypatius  the  u'urpcr,  and 
Pompeius  another  of  the  nephews  of  Anaftafius,  were 
taken  prifoners  and  carried  to  the  emperor,  by  whole 
orders  they  were  both  beheaded,  and  their  bodies  caft 
into  the  fea.  Their  eftates  were  contiicated,  ana  like- 
wile  the  eftates  of  fuch  fenators  as  had  joined  with 
them;  but  the  emperor  caufed  great  pait  of  their 
lands  and  effects  to  be  afterwards  rellored,  together 
with  their  honours  and  dignities,  to  their  children. 

Juftinian  having  now  no  other  enemy  to  contend 
■with,  turned  his  arms  againft  the  Vandals  in  Africa, 
and  the  Goths  in  Italy  ;  both  which  provinces  he  re- 
covered out  of  the  hands  of  the  barbarians  *.   But  be-  •  See  Sar- 
fore  his  general  Belifarius  had  time  to  cftablilli  fully  «irv  and 
the  Roman  power  in  Italy,  he  v/as  recalled  in  order  to  ^°'^'' 
carry   on   the  war   againit  Cofrhoes   king   of  Periia,  A,,o?h-,. 
who,  in  defiance  of  the  treaty  fonncily  concluded  in  wj-  w.xtr 
532,  entered  the  Roman  dominions  at  the  head  of  a  the  Pw- 
powcrful  anny.      The  fame  year,  however,  a   peace  ''"'^*" 
was  concluded  between  the  two  nations  upon  the  fol- 
lowing  conditions  :    t.  That  the  Romacs  ihould,  with- 


t;no:»oiit2n 
hiftorv. 


9? 

Peace  con- 
cluaed. 


♦  See  Sell, 
/atius. 


5,8 
Decline  of 
the  empire 
^frer  Juili- 
luon. 


«■  See  Ara- 


C    O    N_  [5 

in  two  months,  pay  to  the  Perliaii  king  yooo- pounds 
weight  of.gold,  and  an  annual  penlion  of  500.  2.  That 
the  Perfians  Ihould  relinqiiifh  all  claim  to  the  fortreis 
of  Daras,  and  maintain  a  body  of  troops  to  guard  the 
Cafpian  gates,  and  prevent  the  barbarians  from  break- 
ing into  the  empire.  3.  That  upon  payment  of  the 
above-mentiooed  fum,  Colrhoej  Ihould  im.mediately 
withdraw  his  troops  from  the  Roman  dominions.  The 
treaty  being  figned,  and  the  llipulated  fum  paid,  Coi- 
rhoes  began  to  march  back  again  ;  but  by  the  way 
plundered  feveral  cities  as  if  the  war  had  llill  conti- 
nued. Hereupon  Juftinian  refolvcd  to  purfue  the  war 
with  the  utmoR  vigour  ;  and  for  that  purpofe  dif- 
patched  Bclifarius  into  the  eaft.  But  foon  after  he 
was  obliged  to  r-fcal  him  in  order  to  oppofe  the  Goths 
who  had  gained  great  advantages  in  Italy  after  his  de- 
parture. The  Periian  war  was  then  carried  on  with 
indifferent  fuccefs  till  the  year  558,  when  a  peace  was 
concluded  upon  the  emperor  again  paying  an  immenfe 
fum  to  the  enemy.  The  fame  year  the  Huns,  pafT- 
ing  the  Danube  in  the  depth  of  winter,  marched  in 
two  bodies  directly  for  Conllantinople  ;  and  laying 
v.-alle  the  countries  through  which  they  paffed,  came, 
v.ithout  meeting  the  lealt  oppofition,  within  150  fur- 
longs of  the  city.  But  Belifarius  marching  out  agalnil 
them  with  an  handful  of  men,  put  them  to  flight;  the 
emperor,  however,  to  prevent  them  from  invading  the 
empire  anew,  agreed  to  pay  them  an  annual  tribute, 
upon  their  promiiing  to  defend  the  empire  againll  all 
other  barbarians,  and  to  ferve  in  the  Roman  armies 
when  required.  This  was  the  laft  exploit  performed 
by  Belifarius,  who  on  his  return  to  Conftantinople  was 
difgraced,  dripped  of  all  his  employments,  and  con- 
fined to  his  houfe,  on  pretence  of  a  confpiracy  againft 
the  emperor  *.  In  the  year  565  a  real  confpiracy  was 
formed  againft  Jullinian,  which  he  happily  efcaped, 
and  the  confpirators  were  executed  ;  but  the  emperor 
did  not  long  furvive  it,  being  carried  off  by  a  natural 
death  in  566,  in  the  39th  year  of  his  reign. 

During  the  reign  of  Juillnian,  the  majefty  of  the 
Roman  empire  fcemed  to  revive.  He  recovered  the 
provinces  of  Italy  and  Africa  out  of  the  hands  of  the 
barbarians,  by  whom  they  had  been  held  for  a  number 
of  years  ;  but  after  his  death  they  were  foon  loft,  and 
the  empire  tended  fall  to  diflblution.  In  569  Italy 
was  conquered  by  the  Lombards,  who  held  it  for  the 
fpace  of  200  years.  Some  amends,  however,  was 
made  for  the  lofs  b^'  the  acquilition  of  Pcrfurmenia  ; 
the  inhabitants  of  which,  being  perfecuted  by  the  Per- 
fians  on  account  of  the  Chrillian  religion  which  they 
profcffed,  revolted  to  the  Romans.  This  produced  a 
war  between  the  two  nations,  who  continued  to  wea- 
ken each  othei',  till  at  laft  the  Periian  monarchy  was 
utterly  overthrown,  and  that  of  the  Romans  greatly 
reduced  by  the  Saracens  \.  Thefe  new  enemies  at- 
tacked the  Romans  in  the  year  632,  and  purfued  their 
conquefts  with  incredible  rapidity.  In  the  fpace  of 
four  years  they  reduced  the  provinces  of  Egypt,  Sy- 
ria, and  Paleftine.  In  648  they  were  alfo  mailers  of 
Mefopotamia,  Phccnicia,  Africa,  Cyprus,  Aradus, 
and  Rhodes;  and  having  defeated  the  Roman  fleet, 
commanded  by  the  emperor  Conftanl  in  perfon,  they 
concluded  a  peace  on  condition  of  keeping  the  vaft  ex- 
tent of  territory  they  had  feized,  and  paying  for  it 
j-ooo  minimi  a-vear. 


66     1  C    O     N 

-An  expedition  againfl  the  Lombards  was  about  this    Conftan- 
time  undertaken,   but  with  very  little  fuccels,  a  body  ■"i<'r'"''tan 
of  JO, 000  Romans  being  almoll  entirely  cut  off  by  one      ''""''  ■ 
of  the   Lombard  generals.     In  671   the  Saracens  ra- 
vaged feveral  provinces,  made  a  defcent  in  Sicily,  took  u  f?^  ^f;. 
and  plundered  the  city  of  Syracufe,  and  over-ran  thefvil  e.xpsJ'- 
whule   ifland,    dellroying  every   thi.ng   with   lire  and''^'' ■'E-'inft 
fword.     In   like   manner  they  laid  wafte  Cilicia  ;  and!     f""""" 
having  palled  the    winter    at   Smyrna,    they  entered       j^q 
Thrace  in  the   winter  of  the  year  672,  and  laid  Cege  Co- rtantj- 
to  Conftantinople  itfelf.     Here,  however,  they  were  "oi '<=  •>«- 
repulfe.i  with  great  lofs :  but  next  fpring  they  renew-  ,  ;  ^     ' 
ed  their  attempt,  in  which   they  met  with   the  fame^.^.^^ 
bad  fuccefs  ;  many  of  their  fhips  being  burnt  by  the 
Jea-Jire,  as  it  was  called,  becaufe  it  burnt  under  water ; 
and  in  their  return   home  their  fleet  was  wrecked  off 
the  Scyllsan  promontory.      At  laft  a  peace  was  con- 
cluded for  30  j'eai's,  on  condition   that  the   Saracens 
fhould  retain  all  the  provinces   they  had  feized  ;  and 
that  they  fhould  pay  to  the  emperor  and  his  fuccefTors 
3000  pounds  weight  of  gold,  jo  flaves,  and  as  many 
choice  horfes.  j^j 

This  peace  was  fcarce  concluded,  when  the  empire  Empire  in- 
was  invaded  by  a  new  enemy,  who  proved  very  trouble-  ^'adei  by 
fome    for  a   lonar   time.     Thefe  were  tlie  Bul'iarians ;'.'"     "^  3*' 
who  breaking  into  Thrace,  defeated  the  Roman  army 
fent  againft  them,  and  ravaged  the  country  far  and 
wide.     The  emperor  confented  to  pay  them  an  annual 
penfion,  rather  than  continue  a  doubtful  war  ;  and  al- 
lowed them  to  fettle  in  Lower Mcefia,  which  from  them 
was  afterwards  called  Bulgaria.     In  687,  they  were  at- 
tacked  by   Juftinian  II.  who  entered    their   country 
without  provocation,  or  regarding  the  treaties  former- 
ly concluded  with  them.     But  they  falling  fuddenly 
upon  him,  drove  him  out  of  their  country,  and  obli- 
ged him  to  reftore  the  towns  and  captives  he  had  ta- 
ken.    In  697,  this  emperot  was  depofed  ;  and  in  his 
exile  fled  to  Trebelis  king  of  the  Bulgarians,  by  whom 
he  was  kindly  entertained,  and  by  vvhofe  means  he  was 
reilored  to  his   throne  ;  but   foon   forgetting  this  fa- 
vour, he  invaded  the  country  of  the  Bulgarians,  with 
a  detign  to  wreft  from  them  thote  provinces  which   he 
had  yielded  to  them.      He  was  attended   in  this  expe-.,,.  '^^ 
dition  by  no  belter  fuccefs  than  his  ingratitude  defer-  f  .^,  i-ait;. 
ved,  his  army  being  utterly  defeated,  and  he  himfelf  nian  II. 
obliged  to  make  his  elcape  in  a  light  veflVl  to  Conftan- 
tinople.    Tue  Bulgarians  continued  their  inroads  and 
ravages  at  diffeient  times,  generally  defeated  the  Ro- 
mans who  ventured  to  oppole  them,  till  the  year  800, 
the  Icventh  of  the  reign  of  Nicephorus,  Vf  hen  they  fur- 
prifed  the  city  of  Sardica  in  Mosfia,  and  put  the  whole 
garrifon,  conlifting  of  6000  men,  to  the  Iword.     Tlie 
emperor  marched  againft  them  with  a  conliderable  ar- 
my :   but  the  enemy  retired  at  his  approach  ;  and  he, 
inftead  of  purfuing  them,   re:urned  to  Conftantinople. 
Two  years  after,  he  entered  Bulgaria  at   the   head  of  j-j^gij j.(,„„, 
a  powerful  army,  dellroying  every  thing  with  fire  and  try  cruelly 
fvord.     The  king  offered  to   conclude  a   peace  with  riyaged  by 
him  upon  honourable  terms  ;  but   Nicephorus,  rcjedl-     "'"" 
ing  his  propofals,  continued  to  wafte  the  country,  de- 
ftroying  the   cities,   and   putting   all  the  inhabitants, 
without  diftinftion  of  fex  or  age,  to  the  fword.     The 
king  was  fo  much  afTeCted  with  thefe  cruelties  which 
were    exercifed    on   his    fubjecls,    that   he  fent  a   fe- 
coad    embaffy    to  Nicephorus,   offering    to   conclude 


CON 


t     367     ] 


CON 


by  Ba( 
liusll 


Conrtan-  »  prace  with  him  upon  any  terms,  provided  he  would 
tiiiop'ilitan  qj,j[  j^jj  country.  But  Nicephonis  dlfmifTnif^  the  am- 
.  "^    ,  bafTadors  with  fcorn,  the  Buljjarian   monurch  attacked 

unexpcftedly  the  Roman  camp,  forced  it,  and  cut  off 
Who  U  cutahnoft  the  whole  army,  with  the  emperor  himftlf,  and 
cfFvvith  hisa  great  number  of  patricians.  His  fucceffor  Michael 
wheic  ar-  Jikewife  engaged  in  a  war  with  the  Bulgarians;  but 
'"^'  being  utterly  defeated,  he  was  fo  grieved  that   he  re- 

figned  the  empire.  After  tliis  the  Bulgarians  conti- 
I05  nued  to  be  very  formidable  enemies  to  the  empire,  till 
Theircoun- fbe  year  979,  when  they  were  attacked  by  Bafiliusll. 
''"''"''y.''  The  Bulgarians  were  at  that  time  governed  by  a  king 
named  Samuel ;  who  having  ravaged  the  Roman  terri- 
tories, as  was  the  common  praftice  of  his  nation,  Ba- 
filius  fent  againit  him  one  Nicephorus  Uranus  at  the. 
head  of  a  powerful  army.  Uranus,  leaving  his  bag- 
gage at  Lariffa,  reached  by  long  marches  the  Sper- 
chiuR,  and  encamped  with  his  whole  army  over  againft 
the  enemy,  who  lay  on  the  oppofite  bank.  As  the  ri- 
vet was  greatly  fwelled  with  the  heavy  rains  that  had 
lately  fallen,  Samuel,  not  imagining  the  Romans  would 
attempt  to  pafs  it,  fuffered  his  troops  to  roam  in  large 
parties  about  the  country  in  queft  of  bootv.  But  Ura- 
rus  having  at  length  found  out  a  place  where  the  river 
was  fordable,  paffed  it  in  the  dead  of  the  night  with- 
out being  perceived.  He  then  fell  upon  the  Bulgari- 
ans who  were  left  in  the  camp,  and  lay  for  the  moft 
part  afleep  ;  cut  great  numbers  of  them  in  pieces  ; 
took  a  great  number  of  prifoners,  with  all  their  bap;- 
gagi  ;  and  made  himfelf  mailer  of  their  camp.  Sa- 
muel and  his  fon  were  dangeroudy  wounded  ;  and 
would  have  been  taken,  had  they  not  all  that  day  con- 
cealed themfelves  among  the  dead.  The  next  night 
they  ftole  away  to  the  mountains  of  jEtola,  and  from 
thence  made  their  efcape  into  Bulgaria.  The  follow- 
ing year  the  emperor  entered  Bulgaria 'at  the  head  of 
a  numerous  and  well-difciplined  army  ;  defeated  Sa- 
muel in  a  pitched  battle,  and  took  feveral  ftrong  ci- 
ties. The  emperor  himfelf,  however,  at  laft,  nar- 
rowly efcaped  being  cut  off  with  his  whole  army  ;  be- 
ing unexpeAcdIy  attacked  by  the  Bulgarians  in  a  nar- 
row pafs.  From  this  danger  he  was  relieved  by  the 
arrival  of  Nicephorus  XIphias,  governor  of  Philpopo- 
lis,  with  a  confiderable  body  of  troops  ;  who  falling 
upon  the  enemies  rear,  put  them  to  flight.  Bafilius 
purfued  them  clofe  ;  and  having  taken  an  incredible 
number  of  captives,  caufed  their  eyes  to  be  pulled  out, 
leaving  to  every  hundred  a  guide  with  one  eye,  that 
he  might  conduft  them  to  Samuel.  This  Ihocking 
fpeftacle  fo  affcfted  the  unhappy  king,  that  he  fell  in- 
to a  deep  fwoon,  and  died  two  days  after.  The  Ro- 
man emperor  purfued  his  conquefts,  and  in  the  fpace 
of  two  years  made  himfelf  mafter  of  moft  of  the  ene- 
mies ftiong  holds.  He  defeated  alfo  the  fncceflbr  of 
The  coun-  Samuel  in  feveral  engagements  ;  and  having  at  laft 
try  fubdu-  killed  him  in  battle,  the  Bulgarians  fubmitted  them- 
*''•  felves   without   referve.     The   vail   treafures  of  their 

princes  were  by  Bafilius  dillributed  among  his  fol- 
diers  by  way  of  donative.  Soon  after,  the  widow 
of  the  late  king,  with  her  fix  daughters  and  three  of 
her  fons,  furrendered  themfelves  to  the  Roman  empe- 
ror, by  whom  they  were  received  with  the  utmoll  civi- 
lity and  refpeft.  This  obliging  behaviour  encouraged 
ihe  three  other  fons  of  the  late  king,  and  n^oil  of  the. 


106 

His  moi'. 
ftrous  cri. 
elty. 


princes  of  the  blood,  who  had  taken  fhelfer  in   the   Conrtan- 
mountains,  :o   fubmit,   and   throw  themfelves   on  the  ''"^pol't^i 
emperor's  mercy.  hiftory. 

Ihatzes,  however,  a  perfon  nearly  allied  to  the  royal        108 
family,  who  had  dilb'nguilhed  himlclf  in   a  very  emi- 't^f^es  a- 
nent  manner  during  the  whole  courfe   of  the  war,  re- '""^ '^''^'^' 
fufcd  to  fubmic,  and  fled  to  a  ileep  and  craggy  moun- °'"' 
tain,   with  a   delign  to  defend  himfelf  there  to  the  laft 
extremity.      Balilius  endeavoured   to  caufe  him  fubmit 
by  fair  means,  but  he  equally  defpifed  both  threats  and 
promifes.      At    laft    Eullathius   Daphnomelns,    whom  He  is  take* 
Bafilius  had  lately  appointed   governor  of  Achridus,  by  a  ftrata- 
the   chief  city  of  Bulgaria,  undertook    to  fecure  himS""- 
by  a  moft  defperate  and  improbable  fcheme.    Without 
communicating  his  defign   to   any,  he  repaired,  with 
two  perfons  in  whom  he  could   confide,    to  the  moun- 
tain on  which  Ibatzes  had  fortified   himfelf.      He  ho- 
ped  to  pafs  undifcovered   among  the  many  ftrangers 
who  flocked  thither  to  celebrate  the  approaching  feafl: 
of  the  Virgin  Mary,  for  whom  Ibatzes  had  a  particu- 
lar veneration.    In  this  he  found  himfelf  miftaken;  for 
he  was  known  by  tlie  guards,  and  carried  before  the 
prince.  To  him  he  pretended  to  ha\t  fomething  of  im- 
portance to  communicate  ;  but  as  foon  as  Ibatzes  had 
retired  with    him    into  a  remote   place,   DaphnomeluS 
threw  himfelf  fuddenly  upon  him,  and  with  the  affift- 
ante  of  the  two  men  whom  he  had  brought  with  him,, 
pulled  out  both  his  eyes,  and  got  fafe  to  an  abandoned 
caille  on  the  top  of  the   hill.     Here  they  were  imme- 
diately   furroundcd    by    the   troops    of    Ibatzes ;  but 
Daphnomelus  exhorting  them    now   to  fubmit  to  the 
emperor,  by  whom  he  affured  them  they  would  be  well 
received,  they  congratulated  Daphnomelus  on  his  fuc- 
cefs,  and  fulTered  him  to  conduft  the  unhappy  Ibatzes 
a  prifoner  to  Bafilius.     The  emperor  was  no  lefs  fur- 
prifed  than  pleafed  at  the  I'uccefs  of  this  bold  attempt; 
and    rewarded  Daphnon^.elus  with   the  government  of 
Dyrrhachium,  and   all  the  rich  moveables  of  his   pri- 
foner.    After  this,  having  accomplifhcd  the  entire  re- 
dudion  of  Bulgaria,  he  returned   to   Conftantinople 
with  an  incredible   number  of  captives ;  where  he  was 
received  by  the  fenate  and  people  with  all  pofliible  de- 
monftrations  of  joy. 

All  this  time  the   Saracens  had  at  intervals  invaded' 
the   Roman   dominions,  and   even  attempted  to  make 
themfelves  matters  of  Conftantinople.      Their  internal; 
divifions,  however,  rendered  them  now  much  lefs  for- 
midable enemies  than  they  had  formerly  been;   fo  that 
fome  provinces  were  even  recovered  for  a  time  out  of 
their  hands  ;   though   the  weak  and  diftrafted  ftate  of 
the  empire  rendered  it  impoffible  to  preferve  fuch  con- 
quefts.    But  in  1041,  the  empire  was  invaded  by  an-ph^'" 
enemy,  not  very  powerful  at  that  time  indeed,  but  whopiremva- 
by  degrees  gathered   ttrength  fufficient  to  overthrow^ed  by  the 
both  the  Roman  and  Saracen  empires.     Thefe  were  the  '^"'^''°' ' 
Turks;  who  having  quitted  their  ancient  habitations  Account  of 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  mount  Caucafus,    and  pafledthem, . 
the   Cafpian   ftraits,  fettled  in  Armenia  Major,  about 
the  year  844.     There  they  continued  an  unknown  and 
defpicable  people,  till  the  inteftine  warsof  the  Saracens 
gave  them  an  opportunity  of  aggrandizing  themfelves. 
About  the  year  1030,  Mohammed  the  fon  ofSambrael. 
fultan  of  Perfia,  not  finding  himfelf  a  match  for  Pifa- 
ris  fukan  of  Babylon,  with  whom,  he  waa  at  war,  had 

rt.- 


CON 


[     368     ] 


CON 


IIZ 


Coiiftan-  recourfe  to  the  Turks,  who  fent  him  jooo  men  under 
'  h'l)"'  '^^  command  of  one  Tangrolipix,  a  leading  man  among 
1  :'  ,  them.     By  their  afliftance  Mohammed  defeated  his  ad- 

verfary  ;  but  when  the  Turks  defired  leave  to  return 
home,  he  refnfed  to  part  with  them.  Upon  this  they 
withdrew  without  his  confent  to  a  neighbouring  de- 
fart;  and  being  there  joined  by  feveral  difcjntented 
Perfians,  began  to  make  frequent  inroads  into  the 
fultan'fl  territoiies.  _  Againfl  them  Mohammed  imme- 
diately difpatched  an  army  of  20,000  men  ;  who,  be- 
ing furprifed  in  the  night,  were  utterly  defeated  by 
Tangrolipix.  The  fame  of  this  viftory  drew  multi- 
tudes to  him  from  all  parts;  fo  that  in  a  fiiort  time 
Tangrolipix  faw  himfelf  at  the  head  of  50,000  men. 
Upon  this  Mohammed  marched  againfl  them  in  per- 
fun,  but  was  thrown  from  his  horfe  in  the  beginning  of 
the  engagement,  and  killed  by  the  fall ;  upon  which 
Ills  men  thiew  down  their  arms,  and  fubmitted  to  Tan- 
grolipix,     _       _       , 

After  this  vjftory  the  Turkifh  general  made  war 
jipon  the  fultan  of  Babylon  :  whom  he  at  length  flew, 
and  annexed  his  dominions  to  his  own.  He  then  fent 
his  nephew,  named  Cutlu-Mojes,  againft  the  Arabians; 
but  by  them  he  was  defeated,  and  forced  to  fly  to- 
feat  the  Ro.  wards  Media.  Through  this  province  he  was  denied 
a  paflage  by  Stephen  the  Roman  governor;  upon  which 
Cutlu-Mofes  was  obliged  to  force  a  paflage  by  en- 
countering the  Roman  army.  Tbefe  he  put  to  flight, 
took  the  governor  himfelf  prifoner,  and  without  any 
further  oppofition  reached  the  confines  of  Perfia, 
where  he  fold  Stephen  for  a  flave.  Returning  from 
thence  to  Tangrolipix,  he  excufed,  in  the  bell  manner 
he  could,  his  defeat  by  the  Arabians;  but  at  the  fame 
time  acquainted  him  with  his  viftory  over  the  Romans 
in  Media,  encouraging  him  to  invade  that  fertile  coun- 
try, which  he  faid  might  be  eafily  conquered,  as  it  was 
inhabited  by  none  but  women,  meaning  the  Romans. 
At  that  time  Tangrolipix  did  not  hearken  to  his  ad- 
vice, but  marched  againft  the  Arabians  at  the  head  of 
a  numerous  army.  He  was,  however,  attended  with 
no  better  fuccefs  than  his  nephew  had  been  ;  and 
therefore  began  to  refle£l  on  what  he  had  told  him. 
Soon  after  he  fent  Afan  his  brother's  fon  with  an  army 
of  20,000  men  to  reduce  Media.  Purfuant  to  his  or- 
ders, the  young  prince  entered  that  country,  and 
committed  every  where  dreadful  ravages:  but  being  in 
the  end  drawn  into  an  ambufh  by  the  Roman  generals, 
he  was  cut  off  with  his  whole  army.  Tangrolipix,  no 
They  iigain  ^yay  difcouraged  by  this  misfortune,  fent  a  new  army 
invade  the  -^^^^^  Media  near  100,000  ftrong;  who  after  having  ra- 
vaged the  country  without  oppolition,  laid  fiege  to 
Artza  a  place  of  great  trade,  and  therefore  reckoned 
the  moft  wealthy  in  thofe  parts.  Not  being  able  to  re- 
duce it  by  any  other  means,  they  fet  it  on  fire  ;  and 
thus  in  a  fliort  time  it  was  utterly  deftroyed  :  the 
buildings  being  reduced  to  aflies,  and  150,000  of  the 
inhabitants  peridiing  either  by  the  flames  or  the  fword. 
After  this  Abraham  Halim,  half  brother  to  Tangro- 
lipix, heniing  that  the  Romans,  reinforced  with  a  bo- 
dy of  troops  under  the  command  of  Lipariles  governor 
of  Iberia,  had  taken  the  field,  marched  againft  them, 
and  offered  them  battle  ;  which  they  not  declining, 
tlje  two  armies  engaged  with  incredible  fury.  The 
■  g.igeu.ent.  vi(^ory  continued  long  doubtful;  but  at  length  inclined 
to  the  Romans;  who  neveithelefa  did  not  think  pto- 
N^  90. 


in 
A  Tuikifli 
army  en- 
tirely cut 
off, 


114 


empire. 


11? 

An  obfti- 
natc  co- 


per to  purfue  the  fugitives,  as  their  general  Liparltei   Cnnflaii- 
was  taken  prifoner.     The  emperor,  greatly  concerned  "n''P"lii«» 
for  the  captivity  of  Liparites,  difpatched  ambalTadors  ,   '  _    '  . 
with  rich  prefents,  and  a  large  fum  of  money  to  re-        ' 
deem  him,  and  at  the  fame   time  to  conclude  an  al- 
liance with  Tangrolipix.    The  fultan  received  the  pre- 
fents; but  generoufly  returned  them  together  with  the 
money  to  Liparites,  whom   he  fet  at  liberty  without 
any  ranfom  ;  only  requiring  him,  at  his  departure,  ne- 
ver more  to   bear  arms  againll  the  Turks.     Not  long 
after,  Tangrolipix  fent  a  perfon  of  great  authority  a- 
mong  the  Turks,  with  the  charafter  of  ambaflador,  to 
Conftanlinople  ;  who  having  arrogantly  exhorted  the 
emperor  to  fubmit   to  his   mafter,  and   acknowledge 
himfelf  his  tributary,   was  ignominioufly  driven  out  of 
the  city. 

Tangrolipix,  highly  affronted  at   the  reception  his 
ambaflador   had  met  with,  entered  Iberia   while   the 
emperor  Conftantlne  Monomachus  Jwas   engaged   in   a 
war  with  the  Patzinacse,  a  Scythian  nation.     Having       ri6 
ravaged  that  country,  he  returned  from  thence  to  Me- '^''.'^  Turk* 
dia,  and  laid  fiege  to  Mantzichierta,  a  place  defended  ^  ^^"^-  i- 
by  a  numerous  garrifon,  and  fortified  with  a  triple  wall  grta. 
and  deep  ditches.     However,  as  it  was  fituated  in  an 
open  plain   country,  he  hoped  to  be  mafter  of  It  in  a 
fliort  time.    But  finding  the  befieged  determined  to  de- 
fend themfelves  to   the  laft  extremity,  he  refolved  to 
raife  the  fiege,  after  he  had  continued  it  30  days.  One 
of  his  officers,  however,  named  Alcan,  prevailed  on  him 
to  continue  it  but  one  day  longer,  and  to  commit  the 
management  of  the  attacks  to  hini.    This  being  grant- 
ed, Alcan  difpofed  his  men  with  fuch  flcill,  and  fo  en- 
couraged them  by  his  example,  that,  notwithftanding 
the  vigorous  oppofition  they  met  with,  the  place  would 
have  probably  been  taken,  had  not  Alcan  been  flain  as 
he  was  mounting   the   wall.     The   befieged,  knowing 
him  by  the  richnefs  of  his  armour,  drew  him  by  the 
hair  Into  the  city,  and   cutting  ofi"  his   head  threw  It 
over  the  wall  among  the  enemy  ;  which  fo  difliearten- 
ed  them,  that  they  gave  over  the  aflault  and  retired. -j-jj^,'};^. 
The  next  fpring  Tangrolipix  returned,  and  ravaged  I- raifed. 
beria  with  the  utmoft  cruelty,  fparing  neither  fex  nor 
age.     But  on   the  approach  of  the  Roman  army  he 
retired  to  Tauris,  leaving  30,000  men  behind  him  to 
Infeft  the  frontiers  of  the  empire.     This  they  did  with 
great  fuccefs,  the  borders  being   througli  the  avarice 
of  Monomachus  unguarded.    Till  the  time  of  this  em- 
peror, the    provinces   bordering   on    the  countries  of 
the  bsr-barlans   had   maintained,  at  their  own  charge, 
forces  to  defend  them  ;  and  were  on  that  account  ex- 
empted from  paying  tribute :  but  as  Monomachus  ex- 
acted from  them  the  fame  fums  that   were  paid  by  o- 
thers,  they  were  no  longer  in   a  condition  to  defend 
themfelves. 

In  1063   died  the  emperor  Conftantlne  Ducas,  ha- 
ving left  the  empire  to  his  three  fons,  Michael,  An- 
dronicus-,  and  Conftantlne  :  but  as  they  were  all  very       ^  » 
young,  he  appointed  the  emprefs  Eudocia  regent  du-  The  em- 
ring  their  minority,  after  having  required  of  her  an  prefs  Eudo- 
oath  never  to  marry  ;   which  oath  was  with  great  fo- "a  forced 
lemnity  lodged  In  the  hands  of  the  patriarch.  Helike- j|^^j  j^^ 
wife  obliged  the  fenators  folemnly  to  fvvear  that  they  will  never 
would  acknowledge  none   for  their  fovereign  but  hismairy.  , 
three  fons.     No   fooner,  however,  was  he  dead,  than 
the  Turks,  hearing  that  the  empire  was  governed  by 


CON 


[     369     1 


CON 


tinojolitjn 
hillory. 


119 

The  iin- 
prefs  dttcr- 
tnii'es  to 
brc"i!i  her 
oath. 


no 
She  reco- 
vers rhe 
wririiitr  in 
whiih  it 
was  con- 
tained, 


III 

And  niar- 
"ies  Roma- 
i.is  Dioge- 
les. 


>vcr  into 


it  defeats 
he  ru,L-. 


a  woman,  broke  into  Mefopotamia,  Cilicia,  at>d  Cnp- 
j)adoc!a,  ddlioyiifg  all  with  fire  and  fwovd.  The  tm- 
prcfs  was  no  way  in  a  condition  to  oppofe  them,  the 
greater  part  of  the  army  having  been  difbanded  in  her 
hufliand's  life-time,  and  the  troops  that  were  dill  on 
foot  being  undifciplined,  and  altogether  imfit  for  fer- 
vice.  The  concern  which  this  gave  the  emprcfs  was 
aggravated  by  the  feditious  fpeeches  of  a  difeontented 
party  at  home,  wlio  repeated  on  all  occafions  that  the 
prefent  Hate  of  affairs  required  a  man  of  courage  and 
addrefs  at  the  helm,  inftead  of  a  weak  and  helplefs 
■woman  ;  and  as  they  imagined  the  emprefs  woidd  ne- 
ver think  of  marrying,  in  confequence  of  the  oath  (he 
had  taken,  they  hoped  by  thefe  fpeeches  to  induce  the 
people  to  revolt,  and  choofe  a  new  emperor.  This  Eu- 
docia  was  aware  of;  and  therefore  determined  to  pre- 
vent the  evils  that  threatened  heifelf  and  her  family, 
by  marrying  fonie  pcrfon  of  merit  who  was  capable  of 
defeating  her  enemies  both  at  home  and  abroad.  At 
this  time  one  Romanus  Diogenes,  a  pcrfon  of  a  moll 
beautiful  afpcft,  extraordinary  parts,  and  illullrious 
birth,  being  accufed  of  afpiring  to  the  empire,  tried 
and  convifted,  was  brought  forth  to  receive  fenttnce 
of  death.  But  the  emprefs,  touched  with  compaffion 
at  his  appearance,  gently  upbraided  him  with  his  am- 
bition, fet  him  at  liberty,  and  foon  after  appointed 
him  commander  in  chief  of  all  her  forces.  In  this  fta- 
tion  he  acquitted  himfelf  fo  well,  that  the  emprefs  re- 
folved  to  marry  him  if  fhe  could  but  recover  the  wri- 
ting in  which  her  oath  was  contained  out  of  the  hands 
of  the  patriarch.  In  order  to  this,  fhe  applied  to  a  fa- 
vourite eunuch;  who  going  to  the  patriarch,  told  him, 
that  the  emprefs  was  fo  taken  with  his  nephew  named 
Bardcu,  that  fhe  was  determined  to  marry  and  raife 
him  to  the  empire,  provided  the  patriarch  abfulved 
her  from  the  oath  fhe  had  taken,  and  convinced  the 
fenate  of  the  lawfuhiefs  of  her  marriage.  The  pa- 
triarch, dazakd  with  the  profpeCf  of  his  nephew's 
promotion,  readily  undertook  to  perform  both.  He 
iirft  obtained  the  confent  of  the  fenate  by  reprefer.ting 
to  them  the  dangerous  (fate  of  the  empire,  and  ex- 
claiming againil  the  rafh  oath  which  the  jealoufy  of 
the  late  emperor  had  extorted  from  the  emprefs.  He 
then  publicly  difcharged  her  from  it ;  rellored  the 
writing  to  her  ;  and  exhorted  her  to  marry  fome  de- 
ferving  object,  who  being  entrulled  with  an  abfolute 
authority,  might  be  capable  of  defending  the  empire. 
The  emprefs,  thus  difcharged  from  her  oath,  married 
a  few  days  after  Romanus  Diogenes  ;  who  was  there- 
upon proclaimed  emperor,  to  the  great  ditappointmeat 
of  the  patriarch. 

As  the  new  emperor  was  a  man  of  great  aftivity 
and  experience  in  war,  he  no  fooner  faw  himfelf  veil- 
ed with  the  fovereign  power,  than  lie  took  upon  him 
the  command  of  the  army,  and  pafTed  over  into  Afia 
with  the  few  forces  he  could  aflemble,  recruiting  and 
inuring  them  on  his  march  to  military  difclpline,  which 
had  been  utterly  neglected  in  the  preceding  reigns. 
On  his  arrival  in  this  continent,  he  was  informed  tliat 
the  Turks  had  fiupriled  and  plundered  the  city  of'Neo- 
c;efarea,  and  were  retiring  with  their  booty.  On  this 
news  he  l-.alleued  after  them  at  the  head  of  a  chofen 
body  of  hght  armed  troops,  and  came  up  with  them. 
01)  the  thii-d  day.  As  the  Turks  were  marching  in 
difcrtler,  -without  the  Ie»ft  appreheniion  of  an  enemv, 

V-o:.  V.   Parti. 


ilS 


Romanus  cut  great  niunbors  of  them  in  pieces,  and  ConOan- 
eafily  recovered  the  booty  ;  after  which  he  purfued  his  ''I^Xr'"" 
maich  to  Aleppo,  which  he  retook  from  them,  toge-  ■ 

ther  with  Hicrapolis,  where  he  built  a  ttrong  callle.  ,^4 

As  he  was  returning  to  join  the  forces   he  had  left  Cans  a  fe- 
behind  him,  he  was  met  by  a  numerous  body  of  Turks,  c""<l  ""^^y- 
who  attempted  to  cut  off  his  retreat.     At  firll  he  pre-'*'" 
tended  to  decline  an   engagement    through   fear;  but 
attacked  them  afterwards  with  fuch  vigour  when  they 
leaft  expeded  it,  that  he  put  them  to  flight  at  the  firil 
onfet,  and  might  have  gained  a  complete  viftory  had 
he  thought  proper  to  purfue  them.     After  this,  feve- 
lal  towns  fubmittcd  to  him  ;  but  the  feafon  being  now 
far  fpent,  the  emperor  returned  to  Conllantinople.   The 
following  year  he  pafTed   over  into   Afia   early  in  the 
fpring;  and  being  informed  that  the  Turks  had  facked 
the  rich  city  of  Iconium,  befides  gaining  other  con- 
fiderable    advantages,    he    marched   in   perfon    againil 
them.      Bat  the   Turks,  not  thinking  it  advifable  to  rhey  are 
wait  his  coming,  retired   in  great  haile.      The  Arme-ayani  dc- 
nians,  however,  encouraged   by  the  approach  of  the '^'^''''^'-'• 
emperor's  army,  fell  upon   the  enemy  in  the  plains  of 
Tarfus,   put  them  to  flight,  and  dripped  them  botV  of 
their  baggage  and  the  booty  they  had  taken.     'I'lie 
fpring  following  the  emperor  once   more  entered  Afia 
at  the  head  of  a  confiderable  army  which  he  had  raifed, 
and  with  Incredible  pains  difciplined  during  the  win- 
ter.    When  the  two  armies  drew  near  to  each  other, 
Axan,  the   Turklfii    Sultan,    and  fon   of  the  famoui 
Tangroliplx,  fent  propofals  to  Romanus  for  a  lafting 
and  honourable  peace.    Thcfe  were  imprudently  rcjec-Tlic  Ko- 
ted,  and  a   defperate  engagement  cnfued,    when,    innunSdc- 
fpite  of  the  utmoll  efforts  of  the  emperor,  his  army ''^''^'^  ^"'^ 

was  routed,  and  he  hiwrclf  wounded  and  taken  pri- ''''^  .^T"^^" 
r  Ti-L         1  •  11  .  '^i     rsr  taken, 

loner.      W  hen   this   news  was   brought  to  Axin,   he 

could  fcarcely   believe  it  ;  but  being  convinced  by  the 
appearance  of  the  royal  captive  in  his  preferics,  he  ten- 
derly embraced  him,  and  addre^ed    him   in  an  affec- 
tionate manner:    "  Grieve  not  (laid  he),  nioit  noble 
empernr,  at  your  misfortune;   for  fuch  is   the  chanc;; 
ot   war,  foraetimes  overwhelming  one,  and  fometimes 
another :  you  fiiall  have   no  occa.lon   to  complain  of 
your  captivity  ;  for  I  will  not  ufe  you  as  my  prifoner, 
but  as  in  emperor."     The  Turk   was  as  good   as  his 
word.      He  lodged  the  emperor   in   a  royal  pavilion  ; 
afligned  him  attendants,  with  an  equipage  fultable  to 
his  quality  ;,  and  difcharged    fuch    prifoners  as  he  de- 
fired.     After  he   had   for  fome  days   entertained  hit) 
royal  captive   with  extraordinary  magnificence,  a  per- 
petual peace    was   concluded   betwixt  them,    and  the' 
emperor  difmlffed  with  the  greateft  marks  of  honour 
imaginable.      He  then   fet   out  with  the  Turkilh  am- 
baffador  for  Conllantinople,  where  the  peace   was  to 
be. ratified  ;  but  by  the  way  he  was  Informed  that  Eu- 
docia  had   been  driven   from  the   throne  by  John  the 
brother  of  Conllantine   Ducas,  and   Pfellus  a  leading  Emjo^fj  jj. 
man  In  the  fenate,   who  had  confiiied  her  to  a  monaf- jioltrd  anj 
tery,  and  proclaimed  her   elded  fon,  Michael  Ducas, '""''"'^'^  ■" 
emperor.      On  this   Intelligence,   Romanus  retired  to  * '"'^"*'**" 
a  ftrong  callle  near  Theodofiopolls,  where  he  hoped  in  ^' 
a  Ihort   time  to  be  joined   by  great  numbers   of  his 
friends  and  adherents.     But  in  the  mean  time  John, 
who  had  taken   upon  hira  to  a6l  as  guardian   to  the 
young  prince,  difpatched  Andronicus  with  a  confide- 
rable army  againft  him.     Andronicus_having  eafily  de- 
3  A  feated 


hiflory. 


CON  I     37 

Conftm-  feated  the  fmall  army  which  Romanus  had  with  him, 
''hitior""  obliged  liim  to  fly  to  Adana  a  city  in  Cilicia,  where 
he  was  cleftly  bcfieged,  and  at  lall  obliged  to  faneii- 
der.  Andronii.us  carried  hia  prifoner  into  Phrygia, 
where  he  fell  dangeroufly  ill,  being,  as  was  fufpetled, 
fecretly  polfoned.  But  the  poifon  being  too  flow  in 
its  o>p:ralion,  John  ordered   his  eyes  to   he  put  out  ; 


•128 
Roiuanus 
f  ut  to 
desth. 


I29 
The  Turks 


the  Ko- 
issns. 


tory. 


v-iiich  was  done  with  fueh  cruelty  that  he  died  loon  af- 
ter, in  the  year  1067,  having  reigned  three  years  and 
eight  months. 

Axan  was  no  fooner  informed  of  the  tragical  end  of 
af.am  in-  j-  f,  j  j,j  ^^^  g]]  .  ^jj^,,  ^^  refolv^^d  to  invade  the 
va.le  the  .  ,  •''  .  ,     ,   ,    .  ,   .^        , 

empire.        empire  anew;  and  that  not  with  a  aelign  only  to  plun- 

130  der  as  formerly,  but  to  conquer,  and  keep  whst  he 
rhey  tlcfe.it  1)3(1  once  conquered.  The  emperor  difpatched  aijainft 
him  Ifaac  Comnenus,  with  a  confiderable  army  ;  but 
he  wa;  utterly  defeated  and  taken  prifoner  by  Axan. 
Another  army  was  quickly  fent  oft  under  the  com- 
mand of  John  Ducas  the  emperor's  uncle.  He  gained 
at  fiift  fome  advantages,  and  vould  probably  have  piit 
a  flop  to  their  conquells,  had  not  one  Rufelius,  or 
Urfclius,  revolted  with  the  troops  he  had  under  his 
command,  caufed  himfelf  to  be  proclaimed  emperor, 
and  reduced  feveral  cities  in.  Phrygia  and  Cappadocia. 
Againft  him  John  marched  with  all  his  forces,  dif- 
fering the  Turks  in  the  mean  time  to  purfue  their  con- 
quefls;  but  coining  to  an  engagement  with  the  rebels, 
iji  his  army  was  entirely  defeated,  and  himfelf  taken  pri- 
They  gain  afoner.  Notwithftanding  this  viftory,  Rufelius  was  fo 
fccoud  VIC-  ^y(,ij  alarmed  at  the  progrefs  of  the  Turks,  that  he  not 
only  rtleafed  his  prifoner,  but  joined  with  him  againll 
the  common  enemy,  by  whom  they  were  both  defeat- 
ed and  taken  piifoners.  Axan,  however,  was  for  fome 
time  prevented  from  purfuing  his  conquefts  by  Cntlu- 
Mofes,  nephew  to  the  late  Tangrolipix.  He  had  re- 
volted againll  his  uncle  ;  but  being  defeated  by  him  in 
a  pitched  battle,  had  taken  refuge  in  Arabia,  whence 
he  now  returned  at  the  head  of  a  confiderable  army, 
in  order  to  difpute  the  fovereignty  with  Axan.  But 
while  the  two  armies  were  preparing  to  engage,  the 
kalif  of  Babylon,  who  was  llill  looked  upon  as  the  fuc- 
eeffor  of  the  great  prophet,  intcrpofed  his  authority. 
He  reprelVnted  the  dangers  of  their  inteftine  diffen- 
fions;  and  by  his  mcdiatitin,  an  agreement  was  at  lad 
concluded,  on  condition  that  Axan  (hould  enjoy  undif- 
turbed  the  monarchy  lately  left  him  by  his  father,  and 
Cutlu-Mofcs  (hould  pofTcfs  fuch  provinces  of  the  Ro- 
man empire  as  he  01  his  fons  (hould  in  piocefs  of  time 
conquer. 

After  this  agreement,    both  the    Turkifh   prin<:e3 

turiied  their  forces  againil  the  empire;    and  before  the 

332        year    1077,    made   thcmfelves  mailers   of  all    Media, 

They  con-   Lycaonia,  Cappadocia,  and  Bithynia,  fixing  the  capital 

wTorov'B-  '■^^y  "*"  their   empire  at  Nice  in  the   latter  province. 

ces.  During  all  this  time,  the  emperors  of  Conilantinople, 

as  Well  as  their   fubjtdts,  feemed  to  be  in  a  manner 

infatuated.      No  notice   was  taken   of  the   great   pro- 

grtfs  made  by  lliefe  barbarians.     The  generals  were 

ambitious  only  of  feizing  the  tottering  empire,  which 

feemed  ready  to  fall  a  prey  to  the  Turks ;  and,  after 

it  was  obtained,  fpent  their  time  in  oppreffing  their 

fobjefts,  rather  than  in  making  any  attempts  to  repulfe 

tke  enemy. 

At  laft  Alexins  Comnenus,  having  wrelled  the  em- 
pire from  Niceghoru   Botoniates,  in  1077,  began  to 


o     1  CON 

prepare  for  oppofing  fo  formidable  an   enenfty.     But   Cnnftan-' 

before  he  fet  out,  as  hijfoldiers  had  committed  gvfat ''''°P"''**' 

outrages  on  his  aoeeffion  to   the  empire,  he   refolved         °'^^'  . 

to  make  confcflion  of  his  fins,  and  do  open  penance 

for  thofe  he  had  fuffered  his  army  to  commit.     Ac- Alexius 

cordingly  he  appeared  in   the  attire  of  a  penitent  be- (-^onincnuB 

fore  the  patriarch   and   feveral   other  ecclefiaftics,  ac-  '^T'  '''''f 

knowledged  himfelf  guilty  of  the  many  difordcrs  that '^'"^"^^ '" 

had  been  committed   by  his  foldiers,  and   begged  of 

the  patriarch  to  impofe  upon  him  a  penance  luitable 

to  the  greatnefs  of  his  crimes.     The  penance  enjoined 

him  and  his  adherents  by  the  patriarch  was  to  fad,  lie 

upon  the  ground,   and  praftife  feveral  other  auderitiet 

fcr  the  fpace  of  40  days.    Tiiis  command  was  religiouf- 

ly  obeyed,  and  the  emperor  then  began  to  prepare  for 

war  with  fo  much  vigour,  that  Solyman,  the  Turkilh 

fukan,  fon  and  fucceffor  to  Cultu-Mofes,  difpatched 

ambaffadors  to  Alexius  with  propofals  of  peace.     Thefe 

were  at  firll  rtjeffed;   but  the  emperor  was  at  laft  glad 

to  accept   them  on   certain  advice,  that  Robert  Guif- 

chard,  duke  of  Puglia  and  Calabria,  was  making  great 

preparations  againll  him  in  the  Wefl.  j^. 

To  this  expedition,   Robert  was  incited  by  Michael  Robert 

Ducas.      That  prince   had  been  d-?pofed  by  Nicepho- '-'"'''^^^'■'^'* 

ru  Botoniates,  and   towards  the  end   of  the  ufurper's^"' •  A'.l 

rt    1   ■  1     tiT  •      t  1     agaiiut  the 

reign  fled  into  the  Welt,   where   he   was  received  by  emperor. 

Robert,  who  was  prevailed  upon  to  favour  his  caufe. 
For  this  purpofe,'  Robert  made  great  preparations ; 
and  theie  were  txmtinued  even  after  the  depolltion  of  i,^ 
Botoniates.  He  failed  with  all  his  forces  from  Brun-He  jjalTej- 
dufium  ;  and  landing  at  Buthrotum  in  Epirus,  made  "^c  '"W 
himfelf  mailer  of  that  place,  while  his  fon  Bahemond^P^i^'J"* 
with  part  of  the  aimy  reduced  Anion,  a  celebrated  pyrrhaclii- 
port  and  city  in  the  country  now  called  jilhania.  uin.. 
From  thence  they  advanced  to  Dyrrhachium,  which 
they  invefled  both  by  fca  and  land  ;  but  met  with  a 
moll  vigorous  oppolltion  from  George  Paleologus,- 
whom  the  emperor  had  entrulled  with  the  defence  cf 
that  important  place.  In  Ipite  of  the  utmoll  efforts  of 
the  enemy,  this  commander  held  out  till  the  arrival  of 
the  Venetian  fleet,  by  whom  Robert's^  navy  command- 
ed by  Bohemond  was  utteily  defeated,  the  admiral 
himfelf  having  narrowly  efcaped  being  taken  prifoner. 
After  this  viftory,  the  Venetians  landed  without  lofs 
of  time,  and  being  joined  by  Paleologus's  men,  fell  up- 
on Robert's  troops  with  fuch  fury,  that  they  dellroy- 
ed  their  works,  burnt  their  engines,  and  foiced  them 
back  to  their  camp  in  great  difoider.  As  the  Vene- 
tians were  now  maflers  at  fea,  the  befieged  were  fup- 
plied  with  plenty  of  provifions,  while  a  famine  began 
to  rage  in  the  camp  of  the  enemy  ;  and  this  calamity 
was  foon  followed  by  a  plague,  which  in  the  fpace  of 
three  months  'S  faid  to  have  deftroyed  ten  thoufand 
men.  Nothwithllanding  all  thele  difaflers,  however, 
Robert  did  not  abandon  the  fiege:  having  foundmeaua 
to  fupply  his  familhed  troops  with  provifions,  he  con- 
tinued it  with  fuch  vigour,  that  the  courage  of  the  be- 
fieged began  at  lall  to  fail  them  ;  and  Paltologus  fent 
repeated  meffages  to  the  emperor,  acquainting  him 
that  he  would  be  obliged  to  furrender  unlefs  very 
fpeedily  affifted.  On  this  Alexius  marched  in  perfoa 
to  the  relief  of  the  city,  but  was  defeated  with  great 
lofs  by  Robert.  The  whole  right  wing  cf  Alexius's 
army,  finding  thcmfelves  hard  preffed  by  the  enemy, 
fled  tQ  a  church  dedicated  to  St  Michael,  imagining 

they.  ^ 


i 


CON 


The  ci-y 


Conftin-  they  would  tliere  find  thcmftlves  in  a  place  of  fafcty  ; 
tinopoliian  (j^  j|,g  viftorious  army  purfuing  them,  fee  fire  to  the 
._  '"^^'  ,  church,  which  was  burnt  to  aihes  with  all  who  were 
in  it.  The  emperor  himfelf  with  jrreat  difficulty  made 
his  efcape,  leaving  the  enemy  nailers  of  his  camp  aiid 
a'l  his  badjgage.  Soon  after  this  defeat,  the  city  fur- 
rendered ;  and  Alexis  being  dt Hitute  of  refourcej  for 
carrying  on  the  war,  feized  on  tlie  wealth  fif  churches 
and  monallt  ries,  whii.li  gave  much  offence  to  the  clergy, 
and  had  like  to  have  occafioned  great  dillurbances  in 
the  Impel ial  city.  At  the  fame  time,  Alexius  enter- 
■  ing  into  an  alliance  wirh  Hrnry  emperor  of  Germany, 
perfuadtd  him  to  invade  the  dominions  of  Robert  in 
Italy.  At  iirll  Henry  met  witb  great  fucccfs  ;  but 
was  foon  overcome,  and  driven  out  of  that  country  by 
Robert.  Bohemond,  in  the  mean  time,  reduced  fe- 
veral  places  in  Illyricum;  and,  having  defeated  Alexius 
in  two  pitched  battles,  entered  Theflaly,  and  fat  down 
before  Lnriffa.  This  place,  being  defended  by  an  of- 
ficer of  great  courage  and  experience  in  war,  held  out 
till  the  emperor  came  to  its  leliL-f.  Soon  after  his  ;;r- 
fuircndeis.  rival,  he  found  means  to  draw  a  llrong  party  of  Bohe- 
mond's  men  into  an  ambufcade,  and  cut  them  off  al- 
moft  entirely.  Hovfevtr,  in  the  battle  which  was 
fought  a  few  days  after,  Bohemond  h-'d  the  advan- 
tage ;  but  his  troops  mutinying  and  refufing  to  carry 
en  the  war,  he  was  obliged  to  return  to  Italy.  Alexi- 
us taking  advantage  of  his  abfcnce,  recovered  feveral 
cities;  and  being  infoimed  that  Robert  u as  making 
great  prepaiations  againil  him,  he  had  recourfe  once 
more  to  the  Venetians.  By  them  he  was  aflilttd  with 
a  powerful  fleet,  which  defeated  tliat  of  Robert  in  two 
engagements  ;  but  being  foon  after  furprifcd  by  him, 
they  were  defeated  with  the  lofs  of  almoft  their  whole 
navy.  Robert  is  faid  to  have  ufed  his  viftcry  with 
great  barbarity,  putting  many  of  his  prifoners  to  death 
with  unheard-of  torments.  The  Venetians  equipped 
a  fecond  flett  ;  and  joining  that  of  the  emperor,  fell 
unexpeAedly  upon  Robert's  navy,  who  were  riding 
without  the  leall  apprchenfion  in  Ctithrotum,  funk 
moft  of  his  fhips.  and  took  a  great  number  of  prifon- 
ers, his  wife  and  younger  fons  having  narrowly  efca- 
ped  falling  into  their  bands.  Robert  made  great  pre- 
parations to  revenge  this  defeat  ;  but  was  prevented 
the  death  of  by  death  from  executins;  his  defigns  :  and,  after  his 
Robert.  deceafe,  his  fon  Roger  did  not  think  proper  to  puifue 
fo  dangeious  and  experlive  a  war.  He  therefore  re- 
called his  troops,  and  the  places  which  had  been  con- 
quered by  Robert  and  Bohemond  fubmitted  anew  to 
the  emperor. 

This  war  was  fcarcc  ended,  when  the  Scythians 
paffing  the  Danube  laid  wafle  great  part  of  Thrace, 
committing  every  where  the  gieateft  barbarities.  A- 
gainft  them  the  emperor  difpatched  an  army  under 
the  command  of  Pacurianus  and  Branas.  The  latter 
infilled  upon  engaging  the  enemy  contrary  to  the  opi- 
nion of  his  colleague;  and  his  ralhnefs  caufed  the  lofs 
of  the  greater  part  of  the  army,  who  were  cut  off  by 
the  Scythians,  together  with  the  two  generals.  TaU- 
dui,  an  officer  who  had  fignalized  himfelf  on  many 
occafions,  was  appointed  to  command  the  army  in 
their  room.  He  fell  upon  the  enemy  as  they  lay  fe- 
curely  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Philippopohs,  cut  great 
nnmbers  of  them  in  pieces,  and  obliged  the  reft  to  re- 
tire in  great  confufion.     The  following  fpring,  how- 


[     3/1     ] 


CON 


1.57 
The  war 
ended  by 


The  Scy- 
tWan  war. 


ever,  they  returned  in  fuch  numbers,  that  the  empe-  Conft.in- 
ror  refolved   to  march   againll  them  in  pcrfon.      A^.t'i'^rohtan 
cordingly  lie  fct  out  for  Adrianople,  and  from  thence      ''  "''^'  ^ 
to  a  place  called /-<»•</.■.;.     Here,  contrary  to  the  ad-       ,„ 
vice  of  his  beft  officers,  he  ventured  a  battle;  in  which  The  tto., 
he  was  utterly  defeated  with  the  lofs  of  vaft  numbers  "'an*  <lc- 
of  his  men,  he  hiinftif  efcaping  with  the  utmoll  diffi-'^"''''^''- 
culty.     The   next  year  he  was  attended  with  no  bet- 
ter fucccfs,  his  army  being  entirely  defeated  with  the       j^,, 
lofs  of  lu's  camp  and  baggage.      In  the  year  following, They  at 
loS.].,   the' emperor  retrieved  his  credit;   and  gave  the '''^ ''^f^^^* 
Scythians  fuch  an  overthrow,  that  very  few  efcaped  ^  ^  ^'^'*'" 
the  general  daughter.      Notwithftanding  this  difailer, 
however,   they   again  invaded  the    empire    in    1093, 
To  this   they  were  encouraged  by  an  iinpoflor  called 
Let),  who  pretended  to  be  the  elded  fon  of  Romanu.? 
Diogenes.     The  young   Prince   had  been   flain    in  a 
battle  with  the  Turks;  but  as  the  Scythians  only  want- 
ed a  pretence  to  renew  the   war,   they  received   the 
impoilor  with   joy.      By  a  ftratagem,  however,   Ia-o 
was   murdered  ;  and  the   Scythians   being   afterwards 
overthrown  in  two  great  battles,  were  obliged  to  fub- 
mif  on  the  emperor's  own  terms.  j. 

-'Since  the  year  10S3,  the  war  had  been  carried  on  The  Holy 
with  the  Ttn-ks  with  various  fiiccefs  ;  but  now  an  af-  War. 
fociation  was  formed  in  the  Well  againll  thefe  infidels, 
which  threatened  tlie  utter  ruin  of  the  Turkilh  nation. 
This  was  occafioned  by  the  fuperilition  of  the  Chrifti- 
ans,  who  thought  it  a  meritorious  aftion  to  venture 
their  lives  for  the  recovery  of  the  Holy  Land,  poffef- 
fed  at  that  time  by  the  Turks  and  Saracens.  Had  the 
weftern  princes  been  properly  affifted  by  the  empe-  ~ 
rors  of  the  Ea(l  in  this  undertaking,  the  Turks  had 
undoubtedly  been  unable  to  refill  them  ;  but  fo  far 
from  this,  the  Latins  were  looked  upon  by  them  as 
no  lefs  enemies  than  the  Turks ;  and  indeed  whatever 
places  they  took  from  the  infidels,  they  never  thoun-ht 
of  reftoring  to  the  emperors  of  Conftantinople,  to 
whom  they  originally  belonged,  but  eretled  a  number 
of  fmall  independent  principalities;  which  neither  ha- 
ving fufficicnt  ftrength  to  defend  themfelves,  nor  be- 
ing properly  fupported  by  one  another,  foon  became 
a  prey  to  the  Turks.  In  the  year  1203,  happened  a  Drer.ilful 
dreadful  fire  at  Conftantinople,  occafioned  bv  fome  fi^'e  at  Con- 
Latin  foldiers.  Thefe  had  plundered  a  mofque,'  which '*^'''''"°i''*" 
the  Turks  refiding  in  Conftantinople  had  been  fuffered 
to  build  there.  For  this  reafon  they  were  attacked 
by  the  infidels  ;  who  being  much  fuperior  to  them  in 
number,  the  Latins  found  themfelves  oblired  to  fet 
fire  to  fomehoufes,  in  order  to  make  their  efcape  with 
lafety.  The  liame  fpreading  in  an  inilant  from  ftreet 
to  ftreet,  reduced  in  a  ihort  time  great  part  of  the  city 
to  affics,  with  the  capacious  ftore-houfes  which  had 
been  built  at  a  vaft  expence  on  the  quay.  The  late 
emperor  Ifaac  Angelus,  who  had  been  rellored  to  his 
throne  by  the  Latins,  died  foon  after  their  departure 
from  Conftantinople,  leaving  his  fon  Alexius  fole  raa- 
fter  of  the  empire.  The  young  prince,  to  difcharge 
the  large  fums  he  had  promifed  to  the  French  and  Ve- 
netians for  their  affiftance,  was  obliged  to  lay  heavy 
taxes  on  his  fubjefts ;  and  this,  with  the  great  eftcem 
and  friendlhip  (howed  to  his  deliverers,  raifed  a  general 
difcontent  among  the  people  of  Conftantinople,  who 
were  fworn  enemies  to  the  Latins.     This  encouraged  ^ 

John  Dticas,  furnamed  Murtzuphlut,  from  his  joined 
3  A  2  antf 


finoj-ol'tan 
h!fti>ry- 

'43 
Muitzu- 
['Mu-  firan 
p'os  'he  em 
l«for. 


144 
The  city 
ta'tcn  and 
plundered 
by  the  La- 


•^C    O    N  .     r     37 

and  thic'i  eyebrow?,  to  attempt  the  I'overclgnty. 
Unh.ipuily  he  found  n!-:.ins  to  put  h!s  treacherous  de- 
figiis  in  exccu'.iin;  and  ibangled  the  young  prince 
with  his  own  hands.  After  this  he  prtlcnted  himfelf 
to  tlie  people  ;  tolJ  them  what  he  had  done,  which  he 
pretended  was  in  order  to  fecure  their  liberties  ;  and 
earneftly  intrtated  them  to  choofe  an  emperor  who 
had  courage  enough  to  defend  them  againll  the  La- 
tins that  were  ready  to  opprefs  and  enflave  them.  On 
this  he  was  inftantly  fainted  emperor  by  the  ir:onitant 
multitude  ;  but  this  ulurpation  proved  the  ruin  of  the 
city.  The  Latins  immediately  refolved  to  revenge 
the  death  of  the  young  prince  ;  and,  as  they  had  been 
fo  often  betrayed  and  retarded  in  their  expeditions  to 
the  Holy  Land  by  the  emperors  ot  Conltantinople, 
to  make  thenjfelves  mailers  of  that  city,  and  feize  the 
empire-  for  themfelves.  In  confcquence  of  this  refot- 
lulion  they  muftered  all  their  forces  in  Afia,  and 
having  crolTed  the  (Iraits,  laid  fiege  to  Conftantinople 
by  fea  and  land.  The  tyrant,  who  was  a  man  of  great 
courage  and  experience  in  war,  made  a  vigorous  de- 
fence. The  Latins,  however,  after  having  battered 
the  walls  for  fcveral  days  together  with  an  incredible 
Dumber  of  engines,  gave  a  general  affault  on  the  8th 
of  April  I  204.  The  attack  lafted  from  break  of  day 
till  three  *n  the  afternoon,  when  they  were  forced  to 
retire,  after  having  lo!t  fome  of  their  engines,  and  a  great 
number  of  nien.  The  affault  was  neverthelels  renewed 
four  days  after  ;  when,  after-  a  warm  difpute,  the 
French  planted  their  llandard  on  one  of  the  towers  ; 
which  the  Venetians  obferving,  they  quickly  made 
themfelves  mailers  of  four  other  towers,  where  they 
Ekiwife  difplayed  their  enfigns.  In  the  mean  time 
three  of  the  gates  being  broke  down  by  the  battering 
rams,  and  thofe  who  had  fcalcd  the  walls  having  killed 
the  guards,  and  opened  the  gates  between  the  towers 
they  had  taken,  the  whole  army  entered,  and  drew 
up  in  battle  aiTay  between  the  walls.  The  Greeks 
fled  up  and  down  in  the  greateft  confufion  ;  and  fe- 
veral  parties  were  by  the  Latins  difpatchcd  to  fcour 
the  ftreets,  who  put  all  they  met  to  the  fword,  with- 
out dillinftion  of  age  or  condition.  Night  put  a 
ilop  to  the  dreadful  liaughter,Vhen  the  princes  found-  • 
ing  the  retreat,  placed  their  men  in  different  quarters 
of  the  city,  with  orders  to  be  upon  their  guard,  not 
doubting  bat  they  ihould  be  attacked  early  next 
morning.  They  were  furprifed,  however,  at  that  time 
by  the  entire  fubmifTion  of  the  Greeks  ;  to  whom 
they  promifed  their  hves,  but  at  the  fame  time,  order- 
ing them  to  retire  to  their  houfes,  they  gave  up  die 
dty  to  be  plundered  by  the  foldiers  for  that  day. 
They  ftridtly  enjoined  their  men  to  abftain  from 
flaughter,  to  prefer\'e  the  honour  of  the  women,  and 
to  bring  the  whole  booty  into  one  place,  that  a  juft 
diftribution  might  be  made  according  to  the  rank  and 
in;rit  of  each  individual.  The  Greeks  had  undoubt- 
edly concealed  their  moft  valuable  effefts  during  the 
night;  many  perfons  of  the  firll  rank  had  efcaped,  and 
carried  along  with  them  immenfe  treafures ;  the  fol- 
diers had  probably,  as  is  ufual  in  all  fuch  cafes,  refer- 
ved  things  of  great  value  for  themfelves,  notwitiiftand- 
ing  all  prohibitions  to  the  contrary;  and  yet  the  booty, 
without  the  llatues,  pictures,  and  jewtls,  amounted  to 
a  fum  ahnoft  incredible.  As  for  Murtzuphlus,  he  made 
Lis  efcape  in  the  night ;  embark:  :ig  oa  a  fraall  veffcl 


] 


CON 


'AS 


with  .SvjS.'rr/jr:?,  the  wife  of  A!ex':us  Ai^clus  a  lite  CcLlijii. 
ufurp-'r,  and  h;r  diughler  Eithxiz,  for  whofe  fake  he  "'"f''''"" 
had  abandoned  his  lawful  wife.  J^  ""7- 

Conilantinople  continued  fubjecl  to  the  Latins  till 
the  year  1261,  when  they  were  expelled  by  onexhe'l 
A!t>:ius  Sirategopuliis.  He  was  a  perfon  of  an  illj(lii-cx,.eileJ. 
ous  family  ;  and,  for  his  eminent  fervices,  di!bn  ■■uilhed 
with  the  title  of  Csfar.  He  had  been  fent  againll 
Alexius  Angelus  defpot  of  Epirus,  who  no>v  attempted 
to  recover  fome  places  in  Tiicflaly  and  Greece  from 
Michael  Paleologus,  one  of  the  Greek  emperors,  that, 
fince  the  capture  of  Conftantinoplc,  had  kept  their 
court  at  Nice  ;  and  to  try  whether  he  could  on  his 
march  furprife  the  iuiperial  city  itfelf.  Alexius,  havino- 
paffed  the  llraits,  encamped  at  a  place  called  Rhcgium, 
where  he  was  infonned  by  the  natives  that  a  flron-<- 
body  of  the  Latins  had  been  fent  to  the  fiegc .  of 
Daphiiufa,  th.'.t  the  garrifon  was  in  great  want  of 
provifions,  and  that  it  would  be  no  difficult  matter  to 
furprife  the  city.  Hereupon  the  Greek  general  refol- 
ved  at  all  events  to  attempt  it  ;  in  which  he  was  en- 
couraged by  fome  of  the  inhabitants,  who,  coming  pri- 
vately to  his  camp,  ofi'ered  themfelves  to  be  his  guides. 
He  approached  the  walls  i.i  the  dead  of  the  night, 
which  fome  of  his  men  fcaled  without  being  obkrvcd; 
and,  killing  the  Gentries  whom  they  found  a(lc^-p, 
opened  one  of  the  gates  to  the  relt  of  the  army. 
The  Greeks  runiing  in,  put  all  they  met  to  tlie  fword; 
and  at  the  fame  time,  to  create  more  terror,  fet  tire 
to  the  city  in  four  different  places.  The  Latins, 
concluding  from  thence  that  the  enemy's  forces  were 
far  more  numerous  than  they  really  were,  did  not  fo 
much  as  attempt  either  to  drive  them  out,  or  to  ex- 
tingui(h  the  flames.  In  this  general  confufion,  the 
emperor  Baldwin,  quitting  the  enfigns  of  majelly,  fled 
with  Julllnian  the  Latin  patriarch,  and  fome  of  his 
intimate  friends,  to  the  fea-fide  ;  and  there,  embark- 
ing on  a  fmall  vefl'el,  failed  firll  to  Euboea,  and  after- 
wards to  Venice,  leaving  the  Greeks  in  full  poircifion 
of  Conllantinople.  When  news  of  tills  furprillng  and 
altogether  unexpected  fuccefs  of  Alexius  were  firll 
brought  to  Paleologus,  he  could  fcarce  give  credit  to 
it  ;  but  receiving  foon  after  letters  from  Alexius  him- 
felf,  with  a  particular  account  of  fo  memorable  an. 
event,  he  ordered  public  thanks  to  be  returned  in  all 
the  churches,  appeared  in  public  in  his  imperial  robes, 
attended  by  the  nobility  in  their  bed  apparel,  and 
ordered  couriers  to  be  difpatched  with  the  agreeable 
news  into  all  parts  of  the  empire. 

Soon  after,  having  fettled  his  affairs  at  Nice,   he  fet£;,t™  gf 
out  fop  Conllantinople  with  the  emprefs,   his  fon  An-  Michael 
dianlcus,   the  fenate,   and  nobility,  to  take  poiTefTion Paleogolu*. 
of  the  imperial  city,  and  fix  his  relidence  in  that  place'"'" 
that  had   originally  been  defigned  for  the  feat  of  the     ' ' 
eallern    empire.       Having    paffed   the  ftraits,    he  ad- 
vanced to   the  golden  gate,  and   continued  fome   daj'S 
without  the  walls,  while  the  citizens  were   bufied  ia . 
making  the  neceffary  preparations  to  receive  him  with 
a  magnificence  fuitable  to  the  occafion.     On  the  day 
appointed,  the  golden  gate,  which  had  been  long  (hut 
up,   was  opened,  and   the   CiAperor  entering  it  amidfl 
the  repeated  acclamations  of  the  multitude,  marched 
on  foot  to  the  great  palace.   He  was  preceded  by  the 
bilhop  of  Cyzicus,  who  carried  aa  image  of  the  Virgin 
Miry,  f'.ippofed  to  have  been  done  by  St. Luke,  and 

foK 


145 


CON 


[     373     ] 


CON 


followtd    by  all  the  great  oflRc-ers,   nobility,   and  chief    municatcd  him  ;  and  lie  would  in  all  probability  have  .'•""^^"' 
citizens,  pompnuny  drfffcd.    Public  thanks  were  again     bien  driven  from  the  throne  by  a  combination  of  '^><^ "^"ftor'y* 


,  return;d  in  the  church  of  St  Sophia,  at  which  thj  em-  wcllern  prii^Ts,  had  he  not  engaged  p'>pe  Urban  IV. 

peior  aflilled  in  peifon,   with   the   clergy,   the   fenate,  to  efpoufe  his  c-nife,   by  promifing  U>   fubmit   himfelt       ,_j^ 

and  nobility.      Thefe  cxercifcs  were    fucceeded  by  all  and  his  dominions  to  the  ],atiii  c-hurch.   Thus,  indeed,  Union  of 

forts  of  rojoieings  ;  aficr  which  the  emperor  care  fiilly  he  diverted    the    prefent    Itorm  ;  but  this  proceeding  the  Greek 

:,furveyed  the   imperial  city.      This  furvey    gready   al-  caufed  the  greatcll  dillurbances,   not  only  in  Conftan- ^»^^J*J^" 

layed  his  joy.      He  faw  the  ftately  palaces  and  other  tinople,   but  throughout   the   whole  empire,  nor  was 

'magnificent  buildings  of  the  Roman  emperors  lying  in  Pjlcologiis  able  to  reconcile  his  fubje&s  to  this  union.       ^.^ 
ruins;  the   many   capacious   buildings  that   had  been  In  I2^<3  Michael  died,  and  was  fucceeded  by  hisfon   Diffulvcd- 

ereded   by  his  predecefTors,   at    an   immcnfe  charge,  Andronicus.     His  firft  (lep  was  W  reftore  the  ancient 

dellroyed  by  fire,  and  other  unavoidable   accidents  of  Greek  ceremonies,  thinking  he  could  not  begin  his 

war;  feveral  ftreets  abandoned  by  the  inhabitants,  and  reign  with  a  more  popular  aft.     But  thus  he  involved 

chnakcd  up  with  rubbiili,  &c.     Thefe  objcAs  gave  the  himfelf  in  dlHiculties  Hill  greater  than  before.  Though 

emperor  no  fmall  concern,  ^nd  kindled  in  him  a  defire  Michael  had  not  been  able  fully  to  reconcile  his  Greek 

of  relloiing  the  city  to  its  former  luftre.     In  the  mean  fubjefls  to  the   Latin  ceremonies,  yet  he  had  in  fome 

time,  looking  upon  Alexius  as  the  rtftoter  of  his  coun-  degree  accompliflied  his  purpofe.     The  Latins  had  got 

try,   he  caufed   him  to    be  clad   in  magnificent  rob.s  ;  a  confidcratjlc    footing  in  the  city,  and  defended  their 

placed   with    his  own   hand  a  crown  on  his  head  ;  or-  ceremonies   wiih   great  obltinacy  ;   fo  that  the  empne 

dcred  him  to  be  conduced  througti  the  city,  as  it  were  was  again   thrown   into  a  ferment  by  this  imprudent 

in  triumph  ;  decreed  that  for  a  whole  year  the  name  Rep.  ,,j 

of  Alexius  fhould  be  joined  in  trie  public  prayers  with         All  this  time  the  Turks  had  been  continuing  their  u'ar  wiih- 

his  own  :   and,  to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  fo  great  encroachmehls  on  the  empire,  which  had  it  not  been  the  Turks. 

■  and  glorious  an  adion,  he  commanded  his  ftatue  to  be  for"  the  crufades   publiflicd  againll  them  by  the  Pope, 

eredted  on  a  ftately  pillar  of  marble  before/the  church  they  wouW    in  all  probability  have  made  themfelves 

of  the  Apoftles.      His  next  care  was  to  re-people  the  mailers  of  before   this  time.     They  were  now,  how- 

citv,   many  Greeek   families  having  withdrawn  from  it  ever,   very   fuccefsfully    oppofed    by    Conftantine    the 

while   it   was   held   by   the    Latins,    and    the    Latins  emperor's  brothe!  :   but    his   valour  rendered  him  fuf- 

now  preparing  to  return  to  their  refpeftive  coinitries.  ptdted  by  the  emperor;  in  confequence  of  which  he  was. 

The   former   were    recalled  home;    and   the  latter,  in  thrown  into  prifon,  along  with  feveral  perfons  of  great 

regard  of  the  gi  eat  trade   they   carried    on,   were    al-  dilllnC^ion.     On  the  removal  of  this  brave  commander, . 

lowed  many  valuable  privileges,  which  induced  them  the  Turks,  under  the  tamons  Olhoman,  made  them- 
felves mailers  of  leveral  places  in  Phrygia,  Caria,  and 
Bithynia  ;  and,  among  the  relt,  of  the  city  of  Nice. 
To  put  a  it  op  to  their  conquelts,  the  emperor  difpatch- 

tiade   without   paying  culloms  or  taxes  of  any    kind,  ed  againll  them  Philauihiopenus  and  Libadarius,  two 

Great   privileges  were  likewife  granted  to  the  natives  officers    of   great    experience    in    war.       Tlie    former 

of  Venice  and   Pila,  which   encouraged   them   to  lay  pained    fome   advantages  over  the  enemy  ;  but  being 

afide  all  thoughts  of  removing,  and   the  trade  they  elated  with  his  fuccefs,  caufed  himfelf  to  be  proclaim- 

Garried  on   proved  afterwards  highly  advantageous  to  ed  emperor.     This  rebellion,  however,  was  loon  fup- 

the  llate.  prelied,    Pliilanthropenus  being  betrayed  by   his   own 

It  was  not  long,  however,  before  thefe  regulations  men  :  but  the  Turks  taking  advantage  of  thefe  intcf- 

were  altered..    The  emperor  being  foon  after  informed  tine  commotions,   not   only  extended  their  dominions 

that  Baldwin,  lately  expelled  from  Conftantinople,  had  in  Alia,  but  conquered  moil  of  the  iflands  in  tlie  Me- 

married  his  daughter  to   Charles  king   of  Sicily,  and  diterranean  ;  and,  being   matters  at    fea,   infelled  the 

given  him,  by  way  of  dowry,  the  imperial  city  itfelf,  coalts  of  the  empire,  to  the   uiter  ruin   of  trade   and 


not  to  remove.  The  Greeks  were  allowed  to  live  in 
one  of  the  moft  beautihil  quarters  of  the  cily,  to  be 
governed  by  their  own  laws   and   magiltrates,  and  to 


he  ordered  the  Genorle,   who  were  become   very  nu 
merous,  to    remove   tivil  to   Heraclea,  and  afterwards 
to  Galata,-  where  they  continued.     As  for  the  Pifans 
and  Venetians,,  who  were  not  fo  numerous  and   weal- 


commerce. 

From  this  time  the  Roman  empire  tended  fail  to 
diffolution.  After  the  revolt  of  Philanthropenus,  the 
emperor  could  no  longer  trull  his  fubjefls,  and  there- 
thy,  they  were  allowed  to  continue  in  the  city.  Pa-  fore  hired  the  Maflagetes  to  aflill  him:  but  they,  be-. 
leologus,  though  he  had  caufed  himiclf  to  be  pi oclaim-  liaving  in  a  carelefs  manner,  were  firfl  defeated  by 
ed  emperor,  and  was  pofleffed  of  abfolute  fovereignty,  their  enemies,  and  afterwards  turned  their  arms  a- 
was  as  yet  only  guardian  to  the  young  emperor  John  gainll  thofe  they  came  to  aflilt.  He  next  applied  to 
Lafcaria,  then  about  12  years  of  age.  But  having  now  the  Catalans,  who- behaved  in  the  fame  manner  ;  and 
fettled  the  Hate,  and  having  gained  the  affcdions  both  having  ravaged  the  few  places  left  the  emperor  in 
of  natives  and  foreigners,  he  began  to  think  of  fecu-  Afia,  returned  into  Europe,  and  called  the  Turks  to 
rmg  himfelf  and  his  pollerity  in  the  full  enjoyment  of     theii  affillance. 

the  empire  ;  and  for  this  reafon  cruelly  ordered  the         This  happened  in  the  year  1292,  and  was  the  firft  jj,  ^■^^/i. 
eyes   of  the  young  prince   to  be  put  out,  pretending     appearance  of  the  Turks  in  Europe.     This  enterprize,  appearance 
that  none  but  himfelt  had  any  right  to  the  city  or  em-     however,  was   unfucccfsful.  Having  loaded  themfelves !'•  Euioj;;. 
pire  of  Conftantinople,   which  he  alone  had  recovered     with  booty,  they  olfered  to  depart  quietly  if  they  were 
out  of  the  hand  of  the  Latins.  allowed  a  fafe  pailage,  and  Ihips  to  tranfport  them  to 

This  piece  of  treachery  and  inhumanity  involved  him     Alia.    "To  this  the  emperor,  willing  to  get  rid  of  fuch 
in  great  troupes.     The  patriarch  unmediattly  excora-     txoubkfume  guefts,  readily  confcntcd,  and  ordered  the 

4-.  '  vefTcls. 


CON 


^3 


m 

They  are 
all  cut  in 
piee",  or 
taken. 


M4 

Adriarople 
takfn  by 
the  'I'urks. 


ve/Ttls  to  be  got  ready  with  all  pofTibte  expedltioR. 
But  the  Greek  officers  obferving  the  immenfe  booty 
wi\h  which  they  were  loaded,  refolved  to  fall  upon 
them  ill  the  night,  and  cut  them,  all  off  at  once.  This 
fcheme,  however,  was  not  managed  with  fuch  fecrecy 
but  that  the  Turks  had  notice  of  it,  and  therefore  pre- 
pared for  their  defence.  They  firll  furprifed  a  (Irong 
callle  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  then  found  means  to 
acquaint  their  countrymen  in  Afia  with  their  daager- 
ous  fituation.  Their  brethren,  enticed  with  the  hopes 
of  booty,  were  not  long  of  coming  to  their  aflillance  ; 
and  having  crofTed  the  HeUefpout  in  great  numbers, 
ravaged  !he  adjacent  coimtry,  making  excurfions  to 
the  very  gates  of  Conllantinople.  Ac  lall  the  empe- 
ror determined  to  root  them  out  ;  and  accordingly 
inarched  againil  them  with  all  his  forces,  the  country 
people  flocking  to  hiin  from  all  quarters.  'Ilie  Turks 
at  firil  gave  themftlves  over  for  loft  ;  but  finding  the 
Greeks  negligent  of  difcipline,  they  attacked  their  array 
unexpeAediy,  utterly  defeated  it,  and  made  themfelves 
mafters  of  the  camp.  After  this  unexpected  viftory, 
they  continued  for  two  years  to  ravage  Thrace  in 
the  moft  terrible  manner.  At  lad,  however,  they 
were  defeated  ;  and  being  afterwards  (hut  up  in  the 
Chtrfonefu',  they  were  all  cut  in  pieces  or  taken. 

Soon  after  new  commotions  took  place  in  this  un- 
happy empire,*  cf  which  the  Turks  did  not  fail  to  take 
the  advantage.  In  1327  they  made  therafclvcs  ma- 
fters of  moft  of  the  cities  on  the  Moeander  ;  and,  a- 
mong  the  reft,  of  the  ftrong  and  important  city  of 
Prufa  in  Bllhynia.  The  next  year,  however,  Otho- 
raan,  who  may  juftly  be  tlylcd  the  founder  of  the 
Turkifh  monarchy,  being  dead,  the  emperor  laid  hold 
of  that  opportunity  to  recover  Nice,  and  fome  other 
important  places,  from  the  infidels.  But  thcfe  were 
loft  the  year  following,  together  with  Abydus  and 
Nicomedia  :  and  in  1330  a  peace  was  concluded  upon 
condition  that  they  (hould  keep  all  their  conquefts. 
This  peace  they  obferved  no  longer  than  fervtd  their 
own  purpofes  ;  for  new  commotions  breaking  ouc  in 
the  empire,  they  purfued  their  conquefts,  and  by  the 
year  1 35 7  had  reduced  all  Afia.  They  next  paifed  the 
Hellefpont  under  the  conduft  of  S  lyman  the  fon,  or 
as  others  will  have  it,  the  brother  of  Otchanes,  the  fuc- 
cefTor  of  Othoman,  and  feized  on  a  (Irong  cattle  on  the 
European  fide.  Soon  after  the  Turkifh  fiiltan  died,  and 
was  fucceeded  by  Amurath.  He  extended  the  con- 
quefts of  his  predecefTors,  and  in  a  fhort  time  reduced  all 
Thrace,  making  Adrianople  the  feat  of  his  empire.  A- 
murath  was  flain  by  treachery  in  a  little  time  after,  and 
was  fucceeded  by  his  fon  Bajazet.  This  prince  greatly 
enlarged  his  dominions  by  new  conquefts.  In  a  Ihoit 
time  he  reduced  the  countries  of  Theffaly,  Macedon, 
Phocis,  Ptloponnefus,  Myfia,  and  Bulgaria,  driving 
ont  the  defpots  or  petty  princes  who  ruled  there.  E- 
laied  with  his  frequent  viftories,  he  began  to  look  up- 
«n  the  Greek  emperor,  to  whom  nothing  was  now 
left  but  the  city  of  Conftantinople  and  the  neighbour- 
ing country,  as  his  vaffal.  Accordingly  he  fent  him 
an  arrogant  and  haughty  meflage,  commanding  him  to 
pay  a  yearly  tribute,  and  fend  his  fon  Manuel  to  at- 
tend him  in  his  military  expeditions.  This  demand 
the  emperor  was  obliged  to  comply  with,  but  died  foon 
~»fter  in  the  year  1392. 

Manuel  no  fooner  heard  of  his  father's  death  than 


C     374     ] 


CON 


he  hafteneJ  to  Conftantinople,  without  taking  leave  of  CiMiIlan. 
the  fultan,  or  acquainting  him  with  the  reafons  of  his"!'??"'"^ 
fudden  departure.  At  this  Bajazet  was  fo  highly  of-  '  '"^'  . 
fended,  that  he  paffed  with  great  expedition  out  of 
Blthynla  into  Thrace,  ravaged  the  country  adjoining  Bajazet  bs- 
to  Conftantinople,  and  at  laft  invelled  the  city  itfelffieses  Con. 
both  by  fea  and  land.  In  this  extremity  Manuel  had  "^"""'^P'*' 
recourfe  to  the  weftern  princes;  who  fent  him  an  army 
of  130  000  men,  under  the  command  of  Sigifmund 
king  of  Hungary,  and  John  count  of  Nevets.  Bui 
though  the  weftern  troops  proved  at  firil  fuccefsful, 
they  were  in  the  end  defeated  with  great  flaughter 
by  Bnjsz-t,  who  then  returned  to  the  fiege  with 
greater  vigour  than  ever.  As  he  found,  however, 
that  the  citizens  were  determined  to  hold  out  to  the 
laft,  he  applied  to  John,  the  fon  of  Manuel's  elder  bro- 
ther, who  had  a  better  title  to  the  crown  than  Ma- 
nuel himfelf.  With  him  he  entered  into  a  private 
agreement,  by  virtue  of  which  Bajazet  was  to  place 
John  upon  the  throne  of  Conftantinople  ;  on  the  other 
hand,  John  was  to  deliver  up  the  city  to  the  lurks, 
and  remove  the  imperial  feat  to  Peloponntfus,  which 
the  fultan  promifcd  to  relinquifh  to  him  and  his  pofte- 
rity.  At  the  fame  time  he  fent  deputies  to  the  inha- 
bitants of  Conftantinople,  offering  to  withdraw  his 
army,  and  ceafe  from  further  hoftilliies,  provided  they 
expelled  Manuel  and  placed  John  upon  the  throne. 
This  propolal  rent  the  city  into  two  faftions  ;  but 
Manuel  prevented  the  railchiefs  which  were  leadyto 
enfue,  bv  a  voluntary  relignation,  upon  condition  that 
he  fhould  be  allowed  to  retire  to  whatever  place  he 
thought  proper  with  his  wife  and  children. 

With  this  condition  John  readily  complied  ;  and 
Manuel  having  received  him  into  the  city,  and  con- 
dufted  him  to  the  palace,  fet  fail  for  Venice.  From 
thence  he  went  to  the  courts  of  all  the  weftern  prin- 
ces to  folicit  their  afTiftance  againft  the  Turks,  whofe 
power  was  grown  formidable  to  all  Eui'ope.  He  was 
every  where  received  with  the  greatetl  demonftra- 
tions  of  efteem,  and  promifed  large  fupplies  ;  all  Chri- 
ftendom  being  now  alarmed  at"  the  progrefs  of  the  in- 
fidels. 

In  the  mean  time  Bajazet  did  not  fail  to  put  John 
in   mind  of  his  promife  ;  but  the  citizens  refufing  to 
comply  with  fuch  a   fcandalous  treatj",  the  fiege  was 
renewed,  and  the  city  affaulted  with  more   fury  than 
ever.     V\'"hen  it  was  already  reduced  to  the  laft  extre- 
mity, news  were  brought  the  fultan  that  Tamerlane,     ' 
the  victorious  Tartar,    having  over-run  all  the   Eafl 
with   incredible  celerity,    had    now  turned  his   arms         ' 
againft  the  Turks,  and   was  preparing  to  break  into 
Syria.     Bajazet,  alarmed  at  the  danger  that  threatened 
him,  raifed  the    fitge   in  great   hafte,    and   advanced       ,,{ 
againft  Tamerlane  with  a  very  numerous  and  welldif-  He  is  do- 
ciplined  army  ;  but  the  Tartar  totally  defeated  and  took^eated  and 
him  prifoner,  after  having  cut  moft  of  his  men  in  pieces  :  f^^ j"]^'"" 
and  thus  Conftantinople  was  prefer"  ;d  for  the  prefeiit.  xamerlane.' 

But  this  relief  was  of  (hort  duration.     In  1424  the       157 
city  was  again  befieged  by  Amurath  II.     The  inha- Amurath 
bitants  defended  themfelves   with   great  bravery  ;  but  ^^^^jj^^jj^ 
muft  in  the  end  have  fubmitted,   had  not  the  emperor ^^pie. 
prevailed   upon   the  prince  of  Caramania  to   counte- 
nance an  impoftor  and  pretender  to  the  Tuvkilh  throne.       1^% 
This  obliged  Amurath  to   raife  the  fiege,  and  march  The  ficg« 
with  all  his  forces  againft  the  ufurper,  whonj  he  foon  railed. 

reduced. 


' 


CON 


C     375     ] 


CON 


liifto.y. 


I. TO 
Succels  nf 
John  Hun- 
niailes  a- 
paiuft  the 
Tuiks. 


1 60 


Conftan  reduced.  Having  then  no  other  enemies  to  contend 
tiuopolitan  ^,[i\^^  Jjg  entered  Maccdon  at  the  head  ol  a  powerful 
army  ;  and  having  ravaged  the  country  far  and  near, 
he  took,  and  pUindered  ThefTKlonica,  as  he  did  alio 
maft  of  the  cities  of  jEtolia,  Phocis,  and  Ba-otia. 
From  Greece  he  marched  into  Sen'ia  ;  which  country 
he  foon  reduced.  He  next  broke  into  the  dominions 
of  the  king  of  Hungary,  and  belieged  the  flrong  city 
of  Belgrade  ;  but  here  lie  met  with  a  vigorous  repulfe, 
no  fewer  than  15,000  Turks  being  flain  by  the  Chri- 
ftians  in  one  fally,  which  obliged  the  fultan  to  drop  the 
eaterprize  and  retire. 

In  his  retreat  he  was  attacked  by  the  celebrated 
John  Hunniades,  who  cut  great  numbers  of  his  men 
in  pieces,  and  obliged  the  rcit  to  fly  with  precipita- 
tion. Not  long  after  he  gained  a  ftill  more  complete 
viftory  over  the  enemy  in  the  plains  of  Tranfyluania, 
with  the  iofs  of  only  30C0  of  his  own  men,  wliereas 
20,000  of  the  Turks  were  killed  on  the  field  of  battle, 
andalmoft  an  equal  number  in  the  purfuit.  Amurath, 
who  was  then  at  Adrianople,  fent  an  army  into  Tran- 
fylvania  far  more  numerous  than  the  former  ;  but 
they  were  attended  with  no  better  fuccefs,  being  cut 
off  almoft  to  a  man  by  the  brave  Hungarian.  He 
gained  feveral  other  viftories  no  lefs  remarkable  ; 
He  is  atbft  but  was  at  lail  entirely  defeated  in  1448;  and  with 
defeated.  this  defeat  ended  all  hopes  of  preferving  the  Roman 
empire.  The  unhappy  emperor  was  now  obliged  to 
pay  an  annual  tribute  of  300  coo  afpers  to  the  fultan; 
•  and  to  yield  up  to  him  I'ome  llrong  holds  which  he 
ftill  held  on  the  Euxine  Sea.  However,  as  he  doubt- 
ed not  but  Amurata  would  fuon  attempt  to  become 
mailer  of  the  city  itfelf,  he  renewed  the  union  between 
the  Greek  and  Latin  churches,  hoping  that  this  would 
induce  the  weftcrn  princes  to  affift  him  in  the  defence 
of  the  city  againft  the  Turks.  This  union  produced 
great  dilturbanccs,  which  the  emperor  did  not  long 
furvive,  but  died  in  1448,  leaving  the  empire,  now 
confined  within  the  walls  ol  Conllantinople,  to  his  bro- 
ther Conftantine. 

Amurath  the  Turkifh  fultan  died  in  1450,  and  was 
fucceeded   by  his  fon  Mohammed.      In   the  beginning 
of  his  reign  he  entered  into  an  alliance  with   Conftan- 
tine, and  pretended  a  great  defire  to  live  in  friend- 
Ihip  with  him  and  the  other  Chiillian  princes  ;  but  no 
fooner  had  he  put  an  end  to  a    war  in   which   he   was 
engaged   with    Ibrahim,  king   of  Caramania,   than    he 
built  a  ftrong  fort  on  the  European  fide  of  the  Bofpho- 
rus,  oppofite  to  another  in  Afia  ;   in  both  of  wiiicb  he 
placed  ftrong  garrifons.     Thefe  two  cadlts  command- 
ed the  Straits;  and  the  former  being  but  five  miles 
from  the  city,  kept  It  in  a  manner  blocked  up.     This 
foon  produced  a  mifundcrftanding  between   him   and 
,         the   emperor,  which  ended  in  the  fiege  of  the  city. 
Conftanti-    The   fiege   commenced   on   the  fixth   of  April   1453. 
nople  befie-  Mohammtd'e  numerous   forces  coveting  the  plains  be- 
I  pd  by  Mo- fore  it  on  the  Jand-fide,  and  a  fleet  of  3C0  fail  block- 
hammed,     ^g  if  jjp  [jy  f£2_     yijg  emperor,  however,  had  taken 
care  to  fccure  the  haven,  in  which   were  three  large 
(hips,  20  fmall  ones,   and  a  great  number  of  galleys, 
by  means  of  a  chain  drawn  crofs  the  entrance.     Mo- 
hammed began  the  fiege  by  planting  batteries  as  near 
the  city  as  he  could,  and  raifing  mounts  in  feveral  pla- 
ces as  high  as  the  walls  themfclvts,  whence  the  be- 
fieged  were  inccflantly  galled  with  /I.owers  of  arrows. 


Ho  had  in  his  camp  a  piece  of  ordnance  of  prodigious   Conflao- 

fize,  which  is  faid  to  have  carried  a  ball  of  100  pounds  """P^'^'"" 

weight   made  of  hard  black   ftone  brought  from  the         "'^'  • 

Euxine   Sea.     With  this  vaft  piece   the  enemy  made 

feveral   bleaches   in  the  walls  ;   which,  however,  were 

repaired   with   incredible  expedition  by  the  befieged. 

But    Mohammed,  the    better   to   carry  on    the    fiege, 

caufed  new  levies  to  be  made  throughout  his  cxteniive 

dominions,  by  which  his  arm.y  was  foon  increaied  tty 

near  400,000  men  ;  while  the  garrifon  confilled  only 

of  9000  regular  troops,  viz.   6000  Greeks  and  3OC0 

Genoefe  and  Venetians.     As  the  enemy  continued  to 

batter  the  walls  day  and  night  without  Interminion,  a 

great  part  of  them  was  at  laft  beaten  down  ;   but  while 

the  Turks  were  bufy  in  filling  up  the  ditch,  in  order 

to  give  the  alfdult,  a  new  wall  was  built.     This  threw 

the  tyrant  into  a   prodigious  rage,  which  was  greatly 

heightened  when  he  faw  his  whole  fleet  worfted  by  fivc- 

fliips,  four  of  which  were  laden  with  corn  from  Pelo- 

ponnefus,  and  the  others  with  all  manner  of  provifiona 

from  the  i(le  of  Chios.     Thele   opened  themfelves  a 

way  through   the  whole   Turkilh  fleet;    and,   to  tine 

inexpreffible  joy  of  the  ChrilUans,  at  laft  got  fafe  into 

the  harbour.  j^. 

The  Turks  attempted  feveral  times  to  force  the  ha-  He  coni-eys 

ven  ;  but  all  their  efforts  ^iroving  ineffeftual,  Muham- ^°.g'*'''=>*' 

med  formed  a  defign  of  conveying  80  srallevs  over  land  ?'"  'u"f 
r       .1      r  r     •    L         -i      •         •        ^i,  •■  into  the  lia- 

lor  the  Ipace  ot  eight   miles  into  u.      This  he  accom- ven. 

plilhtd  by  means  of  certain  engines,  the  contrivance  of 
a  renegado  ;  and  having  then  either  taken  or  funk  all 
the  fhips  contained  in  it,  he  caufed  a  bridge  to  be  built 
over  if  with  furprifing  expedition.  By  this  means  the 
city  was  laid  open  to  an  affault  from  that  fide  like- 
wife.  The  place  v/as  now  alTaulted  on  all  fides ;  and 
Conftantine  being  well  apprifcd  that  he  could  not  lon^ 
hold  out  againft  fuch  a  mighty  fleet  and  fo  numerous 
an  army,  fent  deputies  to  Mohammed,  offering  to  ac- 
knowledge himftlf  his  vafTal,  by  paying  bim  yearly 
what  tribute  he  (hould  think  proper  to  impofe,  provi- 
ded he  raifcd  the  fiege  and  withdrew.  The  tyrant 
anfwered  that  he  was  determined  at  all  events  to  be- 
come mafter  of  the  city  :  but  if  the  emperor  deliver- 
ed it  up  forthwith,  he  would  yield  up  to  him  Pelopon- 
nefus,  and  other  provinces  to  his  brothers,  which  they 
(liouid  enjoy  peaceably  as  his  friends  and  allies:  but  if 
he  held  out  to  the  laft  extremity,  and  fuffered  it  to  be 
taken  by  affault,  he  would  put  him  and  the  whole  no- 
bility to  the  Isvord,  abandon  the  city  to  be  plunder- 
ed by  his  foldiers,  and  carry  the  inhabitants  into  cap- 
tivity. 

This  condition  was  lalhly  rejefted  by  the  emperor  }, 
who  thereby  involved  himfelf  and  all  his  fubjee'ls  in  the 
moll   terrible  calamity.     The  fiege  was  renewed  with 
more  vigour  than  ever,  and  continued  till  the  25th  of 
May ;  when  a  report  being  fpread  in  the  Turkilh  camp        ">■" 
that  a  mighty  army  was  advancing  in  full  march  to  the  [^^  "h""^"' 
relief  of  the  city  under  the  condud  of  the  celebrated TuikW 
John   Hunniades,  the  common  foldiers,  fcized  with  a  ""'P' 
panic,  began   to   mutiny,  and  prefs  Mohammed  in  a 
tumultuous  manner  to  break  up  the  fiege.     Nay,  they 
openly  threatened  him  with  death,  if  he  did  not  imme- 
diately abandon   the   enterprizc  and  retire  from  before 
the  city,  which  they  defpaired  of  being  able  to  reduce 
before  tlie  arrival  of  the  fuppofed  fuccours.     Moham- 
med  was  ugon  the  point  of  complying  with  their  de- 

jnandy 


ConftiU- 

(inopf'litati 
hlftory. 


164 
A  ge-  eral 

aiTauit  gi- 
ven. 


c   o   n  [   375   ]  CON 

mand,  wlien  he  was  adviud  by  Zagan,  a  Tuvkini  of-     means  to  make  theit  efcape  while  the  Tmks  were  bu-    CbnO«n» 
ficer  of  great  intrepidity,  and  an  irreconcikablc  enemy     fied  in  phiiidering  the  city„    Thefo  embarking  on  five  """P"'''aH 
to  the  Chrillian  name,  to  give  \vithout  lofs  of  time  a     fliips  then  in  the  liarbour,  arrived  fafe  in  Italy;  where,       ^       ''•  . 
een-nil  affault.     To  this  he  faid  the  foldicry,  how-    with  the  Ihidy  of  the  Greek  tongue,  they  revived  the         * 
ever  mutinous,  would  not  be  averfe,  provided  the  ful-     liberal  fcieiices,  which  had  long  been  neglected  in  the 
tan  folemnly  promifed  to  abandon  the  city  to  be  phm-     Weft.     After  the, expiration  of  three  days,  Moham- 
dered  bv  them.     As  fuch  an  advice  bell  fuited  the  hu-     mcd  commanded  his  loldiers  to  forbear  all  further  ho- 
mour  of  Mohammed,   he   readily   embraced  it  ;    and     itilitics  on  pain  of  death  ;   and  then  put   an  end  to  ss 
caufed  a  proclamation  to  be  publilbed  throughout  the     cruel  a  pillage  and  maffacre  as  any  mentioned  in  Li- 
camp   declaring,  that  he  gave  up  to  his  foldiers  all  the     ilory.     The  next  day  he  made  his  public  and  trium- 
vealth  of  that  opulent  city,  requiring  to  himfelf  only     phal  entiy  into  Conltantinople,  and  chofe   it  for  the 
the  empty  houfes.  feat  of  the  Turkifli  empire,  which  it  has  continued  to 

The  defire   of  plunder  foon  got  the  better  of  that     be  ever  fined  j^l   »' 

fear  which  had  foiled  the-Turkilh  army;  and  they  un-         This  city  is  nowr  called  by  the  Turks  IJlampol,  and  Prefent 
animoufly  defire'd  to  be  led  on  to  the  attack.     Here-    by  the  Greeks  IJlampoli' or  StampolL     It  is  feated  at  iUteofthe 
upon  Conftaniine  was  fummoned  for  the  laft  time  to     the  eallern  extremity  of  Romania,  on  a  fmall  neck  of'")'' 
deliver  up  the  city,  with  a  promife  of  his  life  and  li-     land  which  advances  towards  Natolia,  fioin  which   it 
bertv  •  but  to  this  he  anfwered,   that  he  was  unalter-     is  feparated  by  a  channel  of  a  mile  in  breadth.     The 
ablv  determined  either  to  defend  the  city  or  to   pcrilb     fea  of   Marmora  vvalhes  its  walls  on  the  fouth,  and  a 
with  it.     The  attack  began  at  three  in  the  morning     gulph  of  tne  channel  of  Conftantinople  does  the  fame 

'  "  on  the  north.  It  is  delightfully  htuated  between  the 
Black  Sea  and  the  Archipelago,  from  whence  it  is  fup- 
plicd  witii  all  neceliaries.  The  grand  fcignior's  pa- 
lace, called  the  Seraglio,  is  feated  on  the  iea-fide,  and 
is  furrounded  with  walls  flanked  with  towers,  and  fe* 
parated  from  the  city  by  canals.  It  is  faid  the  harbour 
will  eafily  hold  1200  ihips.  The  number  of  houfes 
_  mull  needs  be    prodigious,    iince   one  fire  has  burnt 

lution  twice  repulfed  the  enemy  :  but  being  in  the  down  30,000  in  a  day,  without  greatly  changing  the 
end  quite  fpent,  they  were  no  longer  able  to  ftand  afpeft  of  the  city.  However,  in  general,  they  are 
their  sxround  ;  fo  that  the  enemy  in  feveral  places  but  mean,  efpecially  on  the  outiide,  where  there  ai-e 
broke  into  the  city.  In  the  mean  time  Juftiniani,  the  few  or  no  windows ;  and  the  llreets  being  narrow, 
commander    of   the    Genoefe    and    a    fcleft  body  of    gives  them   a  melancholy  look.      They  reckon  that 


on  Tuefday  the  29th  of  May ;  fuch  troops  were  firit 
employed  as  the  fultan  valued  leail,  and  deiigncd  them 
for  no  other  purpofe  than  to  tire  the  Chriltians,  who 
made  a  prodigious  havock  of  that  diforderly  multi- 
tude. After  the  carnage  had  latted  fome  hours.,  the 
Janizaries  and  other  frefh  troops  advanced  in  good  or- 
der and  renewed  the  attack  with  incredible  vigour. 
The  Chriftians,  fummoning  all  their  courage  and  rcfo- 


Greeks,  having  received  two  wounds,  one  in  the 
thigh  and  the  other  in  the  hand,  was  fo  diflieartened, 
that  he  caufed  himfelf  to  be  conveyed  to  Galata,  where 
he   foon   after  died  of  grief.      His  men,  difmayed  at 


165 
Bravery  of 
the  empe- 
ror. 


166 
He  is  kil- 
led. 


167 
The  towi 
plundered 
and  the  in- 
habirarits 
nulfacred. 


there  are  3770  ftreets,  fmall  and  great:  but  they  are 
feldom  or  never  ckan  ;  and  the  people  are  iiiftfted 
with  the  plague  almoil  ever)'  year.  The  inhabitants 
are  half  Turns,  two-thirds  of  tlr^  other  half  Chrillians, 

the  fudden  flight  of  their  general,  immediately  quitted  and  the  rell  Jews.      Here  are  a  great  number  of  an- 

their  polls  and  fled  in   the  utmoft  confunon.      How-  cicnt  monuments  illU  remaining,  and  particularly  the 

ever   the  emperor,  attended  with  a  few  of  the  moil  re-  fuperb  temble  of  Sophia,  which  is  turned  into  a  mofque. 

folute  among  the  nobility,  ftill  kept  his  polt,  ilriving  and  far  luipaffes  all  the  relL     The  ftreet  called  j'idri 

with  unparalleled  refolution  to  oppofe  the  multitude  anople  is  the  longelt  and  broadeft  in  the  city  ;  and  the 

of  barbarians  that  now  broke  in   from  every  quarter,  bazars,  or  bezefteins,  are  the  markets  for  felling  all 

But  bcinff  in  the  end  overpowered  with  numbers,  and  forts  of  merchandize.    The  old  and  the  new  are  pretty 

feeinc  all  his  friends  lie  dead  on  the  ground,  "  What!  near  each  other  ;  and  are  large  fquare  buildings,  co- 

(cricd  he  aloud),  is  there  no  Chriftian  left  aHve  to  ftrike  vered  with  domes,  and  fupported  by  arches  and  pila- 

ofF  my  head  ?"     He  had  fcarce  uttered  thtfe  words,  fters.     The   new  is  the  bell,  and  contains  all  forts  of 

when  one  of  the  enemv,   not  knowing  him,  gave  him  goods  which  are  there  expofcd  to   fale.     The  market 

a  deep  cut  acrcfs  the  face  with  his  fabre ;  and  at  the  for  ilave:^,  of  both  fexes,  is  not  tar  off;  and  the  Jews 

fame  time,  another  coming  behind  him,   with  a  blow  are  the  principal   merchants,   who  bring  them  here  to 

on  the  back  part  of  his   head  laid  him   dead   on  the  be  fold.     There   are   a   great  number  of  young  girls 

ffround.      After  the   death  of  the  emperor,  the  few  brought  from  Hungary,  Greece,  Candia,  Ruflia,  Min- 

Chriilians  that  were  left  alive  betook  themfelves  to  grelia,    and  Georgia,    for  the  fervice  of  the  Turks, 

flitrht  •  and  the  Turks,  meeting  with  no  further  oppo-  who  generally  buy  them  for  their  feraglios.     The  great 

fitton,  entered  the  city,  which  they  filled  with  blood  fquare,  near  the  mofque  of  fultan  Baja/et,  is  the  place 

and  fiau-rhter".    They  gave  no  quarter,  but  put  all  they  for  public  diverfions,  where  the  jugglers  and  mounte- 

met  to  the  fword,  without  diilindion.     Many  thou-  banks  play  a  great  variety  of  tricks.     The  ciicuinfe- 

fands  took  refu"-e  in  the  church  of  St  Sophia,  but  they  rtnce  of  this  city  is  by  fome  faid  to  be  15  miles,  and 

were  all  maflacred  in  their  afylum  by  the  enraged  bar-  by  Mt  Tournefort  23  miles  ;  to  which  if  we  add  the 

barians  ;  who,  promprid  by  their  natural  cruelty,  the  fuburbs,  it  may  be  34  miles  in  compafs.     The  luburb 

defire  of  revenue,  and  love  of  bootv,  fpared  no  place  called  Pera  is  charmingly  fituattd  ;  and   is  the   place 

nor  pcrfon.    Molt  of  the  nobihty  were,  by  the  iultan's  where   .he  ambalTadors  of  England,  France,  Venice, 

orders,  cut  off,  and  the  reit  kept  for  purpofes  more  and  Holland,  refide.      This  city  is  built  in  tiie  form  of 

grievous  than  death  itfelf.     Many  of  the  inhabitants,  a  triangle  ;  and  as  the  ground  rifes  gradually,  there  is 

amonff  whom  were  fome  ".ea  of  great  ler.rr.ing,  found  a  view  uf  the  whole  town  from  the  fea.     The  public 


among  ' 


buildings, 


CON 


buildings,  fuch  as  the  palaces,  the  mofques,  bagnios, 
and  caravanfaries  for  the  entertainment  of  ftrangers, 
are  many  of  them  very  magniliccnt.     E.  Long.  29.  20. 
,  N.  Lnt.  41.4, 

CONSTAT,  in  law,  the  name  of  a  certificate  which 
the  clerk  of  the  pipe  and  auditors  of  the  exchequer 
make  at  the  rcqueft  of  any  perfon  who  intends  to  plead 
or  move  in  that  court  for  the  difcharge  of  any  thing  ; 
and  the  effeft  of  it  is,  the  certifying  what  does  conjlare 
upon  record  touching  the  matter  in  qucltion. — A  con- 
ftat  is  held  to  be  fuperior  to  a  certificate  ;  becaufe  this 
may  err  or  fail  in  its  contents ;  that  cannot,  as  certify- 
ing nothing  but  what  is  evident  upon  record. 

Alfo  the  exemplification  under  the  great  feal  of  the 
inrolment  of  any  letters  patent  is  called  a  conjlat. 

CONSTELLATION,  in  aftronomy,  a  fyllera  of 
feveral  ftars  that  are  feen  in  the  heavens  near  to  one 
another.  Aftronomers  not  only  mark  out  the  ftars, 
but,  that  they  may  better  bring  them  into  order,  they 
dillinguifh  them  by  their  fituation  and  pofition  in  re- 
fpedl  to  each  other ;  and  therefore  they  diihibute 
them  into  allerifms  or  conftellations,  allowing  feveral 
ftars  to  make  up  one  conftellation  :  and  for  the  better 
diftinguifhing  and  obferving  them,  they  reduce  the 
conftellations  to  the  forms  of  animals,  as  men,  bulls, 
bears,  &c. ;  or  to  the  images  of  fome  things  known,  as 
of  a  crown,  a  harp,  a  balance,  &c.  ;  or  give  them  the 
names  of  thofe  whofe  memories,  in  confideration  of 
fome  notable  exploit,  they  had  a  mind  to  tranfmit  to 
future  ages. 

The  divifion  of  the  ftars  by  images  and  figures  is  of 
great  antiquity,  and  feems  to  be  as  old  as  aftronomy 
itfelf :  for  in  the  moft  ancient  book  of  Job,  Orion, 
Arftuius,  and  the  Pleiades,  are  mentioned  ;  and  we 
meet  with  the  names  of  many  of  the  conftellations  in 
the  writings  of  the  firft  poets,  Homer  and  Hefiod. 

The  ancients,  in  their  divifion  of  the  firmament, 
took  in  only  fo  much  as  came  under  their  notice,  dif- 
tributlng  it  into  4S  conftellations  ;  but  the  modern 
aftronomers  comprehend  the  wholly  ftarry  firmament, 
dividing  it  into  three  regions.  See  Astronomv- 
Iiukx. 

CONSTERNATION  is  defined  by  ethical  writers 
to  be  an  excefs  of  horror,  owing  to  the  ill  government 
of  our  admiration  and  fear  :  or  fuch  an  immoderate 
degree  of  fear  as  confounds  the  faculties,  and  incapa- 
citates a  perfon  for  confultation  and  execution. 

CONSTIPATION,  in  medicine,  a  hardnefs  of  the 
btUy,  with  great  coflivenefs.    See  Costiveness. 

CONSTITUENT  part,  in  phyfiology,  an  eflfen- 
tial  part  in  the  compufition  of  any  thing,  difft-iing 
little  from  what  is  olherwife  called  element  or  pr'in- 
ciple. 

CONSTITUTION,  in  matters  of  policy,  fignlfies 
the  form  of  government  eftablifhed  in  any  country  or 
kingdom. 

Constitution  alfo  denotes  an  ordinance,  decifion, 
regulation,  or  law,  made  by  authority  of  any  fuperior, 
eccItfiafticHl  or  civil. 

Vol.  V.  Part  I. 


[     377     3 


CON 


/ipojlolical  Cousfirvttous,  a  colleftion  of  rcgnla- 
tions  attributed  to  the  apoftles,  and  fuppofed  to  have 
been  colleAed  by  St  Clement,  whofe  name  they  hke- 
wife  bear. 

It  is  the  general  opinion,  however,  that  thejr  are 
fpurious,  and  that  St  Clement  had  no  hand  in  them. 
They  appeared  firft  in  the  4th  age,  but  have  been 
much  changed  and  corruptee  fince  that  time.  They 
are  divided  into  eight  books,  confifting  of  a  great 
number  of  rules  and  precepts,  relating  to  the  duties  of 
Chiillians,  and  particularly  the  ceremonies  and  dif- 
cipline  of  the  church.  Mr  Whifton,  in  oppofition  tr> 
the  general  opinion,  aflerta  them  to  be  a  part  of  the 
facred  writings,  diftated  by  the  apoftles  in  their  me<'t- 
ings,  and  written  down  from  their  own  mouth  by  St. 
Clement ;  and  intended  as  a  fupplement  to  the  New 
Teitament,  or  rather  as  a  fyftem  of  Chriftian  faith 
and  polity.  The  reafon  why  the  Conftitutions  are 
fufpeifled  by  the  orthodsx,  and  perhaps  the  reafon  a!- 
fo  why  their  genuinenefs  is  defended  by  Mr  Whiftooi 
is,  that  they  feem  to  favour  Arianifm. 

Constitution,  in  a  phyfical  fenfe,  fignlfies  tHc 
particular  temperature  of  the  body. 

It  is  curious  to  obferve,  fays  Dr  Perclval,  the  revo- 
lution which  hath  taken  place,  within  this  century,  in 
the  conftitutions  of  the  inhabitants  of  Europe.  Inflam- 
matory difeafes  more  rarely  occur,  and,  in  general, 
are  much  lefs  rapid  and  violent  in  their  progrefs  than 
formerly(A) ;  nor  do  they  admit  of  the  fameantiphlogi- 
ftic  method  of  cure  that  waspraftifed  with  fucccfs  loc 
years  ago.  The  experienced  Sydenham  makes  40 
ounces  of  blood  the  mean  quantity  to  be  drawn  in  the 
acute  rheumatifm  ;  whereas  this  difeafe,  as  it  now  ap- 
pears in  the  London  hofp.itals,  will  not  bear  above  half 
that  evacuation.  Vernal  intermittents  are  frequently 
cured  by  a  vomit  and  the  bark,  without  vcnefedtio.-  ; 
wliich  is  a  proof  that  at  prefent  they  are  accompanied 
with  fewer  fymptoms  of  inflammation  than  they  were 
wont  to  be.  This  advantageous  change,  however,  is 
more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  intioduftion  of  a 
numerous  clafs  of  nervous  ailments,  in  a  great  raea-  * 
fure  unknown  to  our  anceftors  ;  but  which  now  prevail 
univerfally,  and  are  complicated  with  almoft  every  o- 
ther  diftemper.  The  bodies  of  men  are  enfeebled 
and  enervated  ;  and  it  is  not  uncommon  to  obferve 
very  high  degrees  of  irritability,  under  the  external 
appearance  of  great  ftrength  and  rohuftnefs.  The 
hypochondria,  palfies,  cachexies,  dropfies,  and  all  thofe 
difeafes  which  arife  from  laxity  and  debility,  are  in 
our  days  endemic  every  wliere ;  and  the  hyfterics, 
which  ufed  to  be  peculiar  to  the  women,  as  the  name 
itftlf  indicates,  now  attack  both  fexes  indifcrimlnate- 
ly.  It  is  evident  that  fo  great  a  revolution  could  not 
be  eficfted  without  a  concurrence  of  many  caufes  ;  but 
amongft  thefe  (according  to  Dr  Percival),  the  pre- 
fent general  ufe  of  tea*  holds  the  firft  and  principal  '  S^e  '/«. 
rank.  The  fccond  place  may  perh.ips  be  allowed  to 
excefs  in  fpiiituous  hquors.  This  pernicious  cuftom, 
in  many  inftances  at  leall,  owes  its  life  to  the  former, 
3  B  which. 


(a)  The  decreafe  in  the  violence  of  inflammatory  difeafes  may  perhaps  in  part  be  afcribed  to  the  prefent 
improved  method  of  treating  them.  Moderate  evacuations,  cool  air,  acefcent  diet,  and  the  hberal  nfc  of  fa- 
lijie  and  antimonial  medicines,  are  better  adapted  to  check  the  progrefs  of  fevers,  tliaii  copious  bleedings,  ftj- 
mulating  purgatives,  and  gprofufe  fweats  excited  by  theriaea  and  mithridatc. 


CON 


•Confualia. 


Confti  iiftor  which,  by  the  lownefs  and  depreffion  of  fpirits  it  oc- 
cafions,  renJcra  it  almoil  neceffary  to  have  rccourfe  to 
foxethina;  cordial  and  exhilarating.  And  hence  pro- 
ceed thofe  odious  and  difgract-ful  habits  of  intempe- 
rance, with  which  many  of  the  fofter  fex  are  now,  alas ! 
charg-eaWe 

CONSTRICTOR,  an  appellation  given  to  fevcral 
mufcks,  on  accnmt  of  '.he-r  conllringing  or  cloiing 
fome  of  the  orifices  of  the  body. 

CONSTRICTION,  in  geomary,  is  the  di  awing 
fuch  lines,  !"ucli  a  figure,  &c.  as  are  previoiifly  necef- 
fary  for  making  any  deraonftration  appear  more  plaia 
and  undeniable. 

CoKSTKVcTion  of  Equct'iont.     See  Equations. 
Construction,   in  grammar  ;  fyr.tax,  or   the   ar- 
ranging-and  conntcling  tie   words  of  a   fentence  ac- 
cr>rdirr.j  to  the  rules  of  the  language-      See  Grammar, 
ahd  Language. 

The  coiiilniciion  is  generally  more  (imple,  eafy,  and 
direft,  in  the  modern  tongues  than  in  the  ancient  : 
we  have  very  few  of  thofe  inverfions  which  occafion 
fo  much  embarraflVnent  and  obfcurlty  in  the  Latin  ; 
our  thoughls  are  ufu.dly  delivered  in  the  fame  order 
wherein.the  imagination  conceives  them  :  the  nomina- 
tive cafe,  for  iullance,  always  precedes  the  verb,  and 
the  verb  goes  before  the  oblique  cafes  it  governs. 

The  Greeks  and  La  I'.s,  M.  St.  Evremont  obferves, 
ufually  end  their  periods,  where,  in  good  fenfe  and 
reafon,  they  fhould  have  begun  ;  and  the  elegance  of 
their  language  confiils,  in  forae  meafure,  in  this  capri- 
cious arrangement,  or  rather  in  this  tranfpofal  and  dif- 
order  of  the  words.     See  Language. 

Construction  of  Statutes,  among  lawyers.  See  Law, 
Part  II.  n°  49 

CONSUALIA,  in  antiquity,  feafts  which  were 
b.'ld  among  the  ancients,  in  honour  of  the  god  Confus 
i  e.  Neptune  ;  different  from  thofe  other  ftalls  of  the 
fame  deity  called  Neptunalia.  They  were  introduced 
with  a  magnificent  cavalcade,  or  procL-ffion  on  horfe- 
back  ;  becaufe  Neptune  was  rrpuled  to  have  firtt 
'  taught  men  the  ufe  of  horfes  ;  whence  his  furname  of 
•I^n-i'.i,  EqiicJ})-is. 

Evander  is  faid  to  have  firll  inftituted  this  feaft  :  it 
was  re-ellabli(hed  by  Romulus,  under  the  name  of 
Confus  ;  becaufe  it  was  fome  god  under  the  denomina- 
tion of  Confus,  that  fuggefted  to  him  the  rape  of  the 
Sabines.  It  is  faid,  that  it  was  with  a  view  to  this 
rape  tliat  he  made  that  eftablilhment.  This,  however, 
is  certain,  that  it  was  to  this  feaft  all  his  neighbours 
■were  invited  ;  when,  takirig  advantage  of  the  folem- 
nities  and  facrifices,  he  feiztd  the  women.  To  draw 
the  greater  concouife  of  people,  he  gave  out,  that  he 
had  found  an  altar  hid  under  ground,  which  he  in- 
tended to  confecrate.  with  facrifices  to  the  god  to 
whom  it  had  been  originally  ereftt  d.  Thofe  who  take 
upon  them  to  explain  the  myfteries  of  the  heathen 
theology,  fay,  that  the  altar  hid  under  ground,  is  a 
fymbnl  of  the  fecret  defign  of  Romulus  to  feize  his 
neighbours  wives. 

The  confualia  were  of  the  number  of  feafts  called 
facred  ;  as  being  confecrated  to  a  divinity. —  Originally 
they  were  not  diilinguiflitd  from  thofe  of  the  Circus : 
whence  it  is,  that  Valerius  Maximus  fays,  that  the 
rape  of  the  Sabines  was  effcdled  at  the  games  of  the 
Circus.. 


[       378       1 


CON 


Plutarch  obfervea,  that  during  the  days  of  this  fo-  Confuhftan- 
lemnity,  horfes  and  affes  were  left  at  rell,  and  were 
dreifed  up  with  crowns,  &c.  on  account  of  ics  being 
the  feail  of  Neptunus  Equeltris.  —  Feilus  fays,  the  ca- 
valcade was  performed  with  mules  ;  it  being  an  opi- 
nion, that  this  was  tiie  firft  animal  ufcd  to  draw  the 
car. 

Servius  gives  us  to  underftand,  that  the  confualia 
fell  on  the  13th  of  Auguil  ;  Phuaich,  in  the  life  of 
Ron'.ul':s,  places  them  on  the  1 8th,  and  the  old  Ro- 
man cjiendar  on  the  2  1  It  of  that  month. 

CONSUB^^TANTIAL,  in  theology,  a  term  of 
like  inrport  wiih  co-eiientral ;  denotins^  fomethintj  of 
the  fame  fiibftance  with  another.  The  orthodox  be- 
lieve the  Son  of  God  to  be  confubllantial  with  the  Fa- 
ther. 

The  term  ■f'^<r'o;.  confui/fctiiial,  was  firft  adopted  by 
the  fathers  of  the  councils  of  Antioch  and  Nice,  to  ex- 
prcls  the  orthodox  doftrine  the  more  preciis-ly,  and  to 
ferve  as  a  barrier  and  precaution  againft  the  errors  and 
fubtleties  of  the  Arians  ;  who  owned  every  thing  ex- 
cepting the  confubftantiality. 

The  Arians  allowed,  that  the  word  was  God,  as 
having  been  made  God  ;  but  they  denied  that  he  was 
the  fame  God,  and  of  the  fame  lubllance  with  the  Fa- 
ther :  accordingly  they  exerted  themlelves  to  the  ut- 
moft  to  aboliih  the  ufe  of  the  word.  The  emperor 
Conftantine  ufed  all  his  authority  with  the  bifhops  to 
have  it  expunged  out  of  the  fymbols  ;  but  it  ftill 
maintained  itlelf,  and  is  at  this  day,  as  it  was  then,  th? 
dillingui(hing  criterion  between  an  Athanalian  and  aa 
Arian. 

Sandius  will  have  it,  that  the  word  confubftantial 
was  unknown  till  the  lime  of  the  council  of  Nice  ;  but 
it  is  certain  it  had  been  before  pn-rpofed  to  the  coun- 
cil of  Antioch,  wherein  Paulus  Samofatenus  had  been 
condemned  ;  though  it  had  there  the  fortune  to  be 
rejefted.  Curcellseus,  on  the  other  hand,  maintains, 
that  it  was  an  innovation  in  doftrine  in  the  council  of 
Nice,  to  admit  an  expreflion,  the  ufe  whereof  had 
been  abolifhed  by  the  council  of  Antioch. 

According  to  St  Athanafius,  the  word  confubftan- 
tial was  only  condemned  in  the  council  of  Antioch, 
inafmuch  as  it  implied  the  idea  cf  a  pre-exiftent  mat» 
ter,  prior  to  the  tilings  formed  thereof:  now,  in  tliis 
fenfe,  it  is  certain,  the  Father  and  the  Son  are  not 
confubllantial,  there  having  been  no  pre-exiftent  mat- 
ter. 

CONSUBSTANTIATION,  a  tenet  of  the  Lu- 
theran church  with  regard  to  the  manner  of  the  change 
made  in  the  bread  and  wine  in  the  eucharift.  The  di- 
vines of  that  profeffion  maintain,  that  after  cr)nfecra- 
tion,  the  body  and  blood  of  our  Saviour  are  fubftan- 
tially  prefent,  together  with  the  fubftance  of  the  bread 
and  wine,  which  is  called  cunfubftantiation,  or  impa- 
nation. 

CONSUL,  the  chief  magiftrate  of  the  Roman  com- 
monwealth, invciled  with  regal  authority  tor  the  fpace^ 
of  one  year.  They  were  two  in  number,  called  confuls 
a  confulenJo,  and  annually  chofen  in  the  Campus  Mar- 
tins. The  two  firft  confuls  were  L.  Jun.  Brutus,  and 
L.  Tarquinius  GoUatinus,  chofen  in  the  year  of  Rome 
244,  after  the  expulfion  of  the  Tarquins.  In  the  firft 
times  of  the  republic  the  two  confuls  were  always  cho- 
fen from  FaUrician  families  or  noblemen,  but  the  peo> 

pie: 


CON 


[     379     1 


CON 


Conful.  pie  obtained  the  privilege  in  the  year  of  Rome  388, 
~~~^~~*  of  eledtint,'-  one  of  tlie  conliils  from  their  own  body, 
and  lomctim.  s  both  were  plebeians.  The  firft  conful 
nmonj^  the  plebeians  was  L.  Scxtius.  It  was  required 
that  every  candidate  for  the  confuKhip  (hould  be  43 
years  of  age,  called   legUinuim  tempus.      He  was  always 


fulemnly  profefted  that  they  had  done  nothing'  apaind 
the  laws  or  interc-ft  of  their  country,  but  had  faith- 
fully and  diligently  t-ndcnvoured  t"  promote  the  pveat- 
nels  and  welfare  of  the  ilate.  No  'iian  could  be  con- 
ful two  following  years  ;  ytt  this  inftitution  was  fome- 
times  broken,  and   we    find    M.irius  reclefted   conful 


Conful 

(I 

Contagion, 


to  appear   at   the  eleftion  as  a  private  man  without  a  after  the  expiration   of  his  office  during  the  Cimbrian 

retinue,  and    it    was   requifjte  before   he  canvaffcd  for  war.     The   office  of  conful,  fo   dignified    during  the 

the  office  to  have  difcharged  the  fundlons  of  quasllor,  times  of  the  commonwealth,  became   a  mere  title  un- 

cdile,    and    prxtor.       Sometimes   thtfe    qualifications  der  the  empeiors,  and  retained  nothing  of  Its  authority 

were  difregardcd.     Val.  Corvinus  was   made  a  conful  but  the   ufelefa  enfign.i  of  original  dignity.      Even  the 

in  his  23d  year,   and  Scipio  in  his  24th.      Young  Ma-  duration  of  the  office,  which  was  originally  annual,  was 

rius,  Pompey,  and  Auguftus,  were  alfo  under  the  pro-  reduced  to  two  or  three  months  by  J.  Caefar ;  but  they 

per   age   when  they  were  invciled  with  the  office,  and  who  were  admitted   on   the  firft  of  January  denomina- 

Pompey  had  uevtr  been  quasllor  or  piastor.      The  pow-  ted  the  year,  and  were  called  ordinarii.      Their  i'ucccf- 

er  of  the   confuls  was  unbounded,  and   they  knew  no  fors  during  the  year  were  dillinguifticd  by  the  name  of 

fup-rior  but  the  gods  and  the  laws  ;  but  after  the  ex-  ft'Jpcli.     Tiberius  and  Claudius   abridged   the    time  of 

pirstion  of  their  office  their  conduft  was  minutely  fcru-  the  confuifiilp  ;  and  the  emperor  Commodus   made  no 

tinized  by  the  people,  and  miftehaviour  was  often  pu-  lefs   than    25  confuls   in    one   year.      Conllantine   the 

nilhed  by  the  laws.     The   badges   of  their   office   was  Great  renewed   the  original  inllitution,  and  permitted 

the  pi\ttexta,  a   robe   fringed  with   purple,  afttrwaids  them  to  be  a  whole  year  in  office. 

exchanged  for  the   toga  p'lSa  or  pahnata.     They  were  Consul,  at  prcfent,    is  an  officer  eftablifhed  by  vir- 

preceded  by  12  liftors  carrying  ihefafcc-s  or  bundles  of  tue  of  a  commifiion  from  the  king  and   other  princcj, 

llick«,  in  the  middle  of  which  appeared  an  axe.      Tlie  in  all   foreign   countries   of  any  confiJerable  trade,  to 


axe,  as  being  the  charafteriftic  rather  of  tyranny  than 
of  freedom,  was  taken  away  from  the  fufces  by  Vale- 
rius Poplicola,  but  it  was  reftored  by  his  lucceflor. 
They  took  it  by  turns  monthly  to  be  preceded  by  the 
liiftors  while  at  Rome,  left  the  appearance  of  two  pcr- 
fons  with  the  badges  of  royal  authority  (hould  railc 
apprehenfions  in  the  multitude.     While   one  appeared 


facilitate  and  difpatch  bufinefs,  and  proctdt  the  mer- 
chants of  the  nation.  The  conluls  are  to  keep  up  a 
corrcfpondence  with  the  minifters  of  England  refiJing 
in  the  courts  whereon  their  conlulate  depends.  They 
are  to  fupport  the  commerce  and  the  interell  of  the 
nation  ;  to  dilpofe  of  tlie  fums  given  and  thi  prefents 
made  to  the  lords   and   principals  of  places,  to  obtain 


publicly  in  ilate,  only  a  crier  walked  before  tlie  other,  their  proteftion,  and  prevent  the  infults  of  the  natives 

and   the   littars  followed   behind   without   the   fafces.  on  the  merchants  of  the  nation. 

Their  authority  was  equal  ;  yet  the  Valerian  law  gave  CONSUMMATION,  the  end,  period,  or  comple- 
the  right  of  priority  to  the  older,  and  the  Julian  law  tioii  of  any  work.  Thus,  we  fay,  the  confummafioii  of 
to  him  who  had  moll  children  ;  and  he  was  generally  all  things,  meaning  the  end  of  the  world.  By  the  in- 
called  conful  major  or  prior.  As  their  power  was  ab-  cavnaeion,  all  the  prophecies  are  faid  to  be  confummated. 
folute,  they  prctided  over  the  fenate,  and  could  con-  See  Prophecy,  and  Accomplishment. 
vene  and  difmifs  it  at  pleafure.  The  fenators  were  Consummation  of  Marriage,  denotes  the  laft  aft  of 
their  cnunfellors  ;  and  among  the  Romans  the  manner  marriage,  which  makes  its  accomplifhment  ;  or  the 
of  reckoning  their  ycats  was  by  the  name  of  the  con-  mo'l  intimate  union  between  the  married  pair,  &c. 
fuis,  and  by  M.TuU.  Cicerone  et  L.  Antoim  Confullbtis ,  CONSUMPTION,  in  medicine,  a  word  of  very 
for  inftance,  the  year  of  Rome  689  vyas  always  under-  extenfive  figriilication,  implies  all  diforders  that  bring 
Hood.  This  cullom  l?.(led  from  the  year  of  Rome  244  any  decay  or  v/afte  upon  the  conllitntion  ;  but  is  moft 
till  the  1294,  or  541ft  year  of  ihe  Chrillian  era.  In  commonly  ufed  for  X.\\e phthlfis pulmoiialls:  See  M1.DI- 
public  affemblies  the   confuls   fat   in   ivory  chairs,  and  cine  Index. 

held  in  their  hand   an  ivoi  y  wand  caWei  fctplo  eburm-us.  Consumption,  in  fatriery.   See  Farriep.y,  §  viii. 

which  had  an  eagle  on  its  top  as  a  fign  of  dignity  and  CONSUS,  the  pagan  god  of  counfel.     He  had  an 

power.     When  they  had   drawn   by  lot   the  provinces  altar  under  ground    in   the   great   circus   at  Rome,  to 

over  which  they  were   to   prefide   during  their  conful-  (liow  that  counlel  ought  to  be  kept  fecret.      Sec  Con- 

ffiip,  they  went   to  the  capitol  to  offer  their  prayers  to  sualia. 

the  gods,  and  intreat  them   to   protedl  the   republic  ;  CONTACT,  is  when  one  line,  plane,  or  body,  is 

after  this  they  departed  from   the  city  arrayed  in  their  made  to  touch  another  ;   and   the    pans   that   do  trhus 

militaiy  drefs  and  preceded  by  the  liiiors.      Somelimea  touch  arc  called  l\\e  points  or  places  of  contaQ. 


CONTAGION,  in   phylic,  the  communicating  a 

difeafe   from   one   body  to  another.     In  fome  dileafes 

only  effected   by  an  immediate  contadl  or  touch. 


the  provinces  were  affigncd  them  without  drawing  by 
lot,  by  the  will  and  appointment  of  tlit  fenators.  At 
their  departure  they  were  provided  by  the  Hate  with 
wiiatever  was  reqnlfile  during  their  expedition.  In 
their  provinces  tiiey  were  both  attended  by. the  12  lic- 
tors,  and  equally  invcfted  w;th  regal  authoriiiy.  Tiiey 
were  not  peimitted  to  return  to  Rome  ivithont  the 
fpecial  command  of  the  fenate  ;  and  they  always  re- 
mained in  the  pnvince  till  the  ariival  of  their  iuccef- 
for.     At  their  return  they  harangued  the  people,  and     though  this  has  been  difputed 

3^2 


as  the  venom  of  the  pox  ;  in  others  it  is  conveyed  by 
infected  clothes,  as  the  itch  ;  and  in  others  it  is  fup- 
pofed  to  be  traufmitted  through  the  air  at  a  conlider- 
able  dillance,  by  means  of  lleanis  or  effluvia  exlpiring 
from  the  fick,  as  in  the  plague  and  other  pettilentlal 
dilorders,  in  v,'hich  cale  the  air  is  laid  to  be  contagious. 


CON- 


ConiempU 
lioa 

tl 
Continence 


Jjvy^  Vat* 
tic. 


CON  [38 

CONTEMPLATION,  an  ad  of  the  mind,  where- 
by it  applies  itfelf  to  confider  and  refleil  upon  the 
works  of  God,  nature,  &c. 

CONTEMPORARY,  or  Cotemporary,  a  per- 
fon  or  thing  that  exifted  in  the  fame  age  with  another. 
Thus,  Socrates,  Plato,  and  Ariftophanes,  were  con- 
temporaries. 

CONTEMPT,  in  a  general  fenfe,  the  aa  of  de- 
fplfing,  or  the  Kate  of  being  defpifed. 

CoxTKMpf,  in  law,  is  a  difobedience  to  the  rules 
and  orders  of  a  court,  which  hath  power  to  piinilh  fuch 
offence  ;  and  as  this  is  fometimes  a  greater,  and  fome- 
tinies  a  lefTcr  offence,  fo  it  is  puniihed  with  greater 
or  lefs  punifhment,  by  fine,  and  fometimes  by  impri- 
fonment. 

CONTENT,  in  geometry,  the  area  or  quantity  of 
matter  or  fpace  included  in  certain  bounds. 

CONTESSA,  a  port-town  of  Turkey  in  Europe, 
in  the  province  of  Macedonia,  fituated  on  a  bay  of  the 
Archipelago,  about  200  miles  weft  of  Conftantinople. 
E.  Long.  2;.  o.   N.  Lat.  41.0. 

CONTEXT,  among  divines  and  critics,  that  part 
of  icripture  or  other  writing  which  lies  about  the  text, 
before  or  after  it,  or  both.  To  take  the  full  and  ge- 
nuine fenfe  of  the  text,  the  context  fhould  be  regard- 
ed. 

CONTEXTURE,  a  word  frequently  ufed  in  fpeak- 
ing  both  of  the  works  of  nature  and  art  ;  and  deno- 
ting the  difpofition  and  union  of  the  conllituent  parts 
with  rtfpe<El  to  one  another. 

CONTI,  a  town  of  Picardy  in  France,  with  the 
title  of  a  principality.  It  is  feattd  on  the  river  Seille, 
in  E.  Long.  2.  17.   N.  Lat.  49.  54. 

CONTIGUITY,  in  geometry,  is  when  the  furface 
of  one  body  touches  that  of  another. 

CONTIGUOUS,  a  relative  term  underftood  of 
things  difpofed  fo  near  each  other,  that  they  join  their 
furfaces  or  touch.  The  houfes  in  ancient  Rome  were 
not  contiguous  as  ours  are,  but  all  infulated. 

CONTINENCE,  in  ethics,  a  moral  virtue,  by 
which  we  relift  concupifcence.  It  (hould  feem  that 
there  is  this  dillinftion  between  chaftily  and  continence, 
in  that  it  requires  no  effort  to  be  challe,  which  refults 
from  conftitutiori ;  whereas  continence  appears  to  be 
the  confeqiience  of  a  viftory  gained  over  ourfelves. 
The  verb  cor.tlnere,  in  the  Latin,  fignifies  "  to  re- 
flrain."  The  term,  however,  is  moft  ufually  applied 
to  men  ;  as  chnjiity  is  to  women.     See  Chastity. 

Continence  is  a  virtue  that  makes  but  an  inconfider- 
able  figure  in  our  days.  However,  we  ought  not  to 
lofe  our  ideas  of  things,  though  we  have  debauched 
our  true  reliiTi  in  our  pradice  :  for,  after  all,  folid  vir- 
tue will  keep  its  place  in  the  opinion  of  the  wife  and 
fenfible  part  of  mankind.  And  though  cultom  has 
not  made  it  fo  fcandalous  as  it  ought  to  be  to  infnare 
innocent  women,  and  triumph  in  the  faliehood  ;  fuch 
aftions  as  we  ftiall  relate  mull  be  accounted  true  gal- 
lantry, and  rile  higher  in  our  efteem  the  farther  they 
are  removed  from  our  imita;  ion, 

I.  Scipio  ihe  Younger,  when  only  24  years  of  age, 
was  appointed  by  the  Roman  republic  to  the  command 
of  the  army  againll  the  Spaniards.  His  wifdom  and 
valour  would  have  done  honour  to  the  moll  experienced 
general.  Determined  to  ftrike  an  important  blow,  he 
forms  a  dcfign  of  btfieging  Carthagena,  tlien  the  ca- 


o     ]  CON 

pital  of  the  Carthaginian  empire  in  Spain.  His  mea-  Contmenrei 
fares  were  fo  judicioufly  concerted,  and  with  fo  much  »  -• 
courage  and  intrepidity  purfued,  both  by  fea  and  land, 
that  notwithftanding  a  bold  and  vigorous  defence,  the 
capital  was  taken  by  dorm.  The  plunder  was  im- 
menfe.  Ten  thoufand  free-men  were  made  prifoners ; 
and  above  300  more,  of  both  fexes,  were  received  as 
hoftages.  One  of  the  latter,  a  very  ancient  lady,  the 
wife  of  Mandonius,  brother  of  Indibilis  king  of  the 
Ilergetes,  watching  her  opportunity,  came  out  of  the 
crowd,  and,  throwing  herfelf  at  the  conqueror's  feet, 
conjured  him,  with  tears  in  her  eyes,  tc  fetommend 
to  thofe  who  had  the  ladies  in  their  keeping  to  have 
regard  to  their  fex  and  birth.  Scipio,  who  did  not 
iinderftand  her  meaning  at  firll,  afTured  her  that  he 
had  given  orders  that  they  (hould  not  want  tor  any 
thing.  But  the  lady  replied,  "  Thofe  conveniences 
are  not  what  affetk  us.  In  the  condition  to  which  for- 
tune hath  reduced  us,  with  what  ought  we  not  to  be 
contented  ?  I  have  many  other  appreheniions,  when  I 
confider,  on  one  fide,  the  licentioufnefs  of  war  ;  and, 
on  the  other,  the  youth  and  beauty  of  the  princeffcs 
which  you  lee  here  before  us ;  for  as  as  to  me,  ray  age 
proteds  me  from  all  fear  in  this  refpeft."  She  had 
with  her  the  daughters  of  Indibilis,  and  feveral  other 
ladies  of  high  rank,  all  in  the  flower  of  youth,  who 
confidered  her  as  their  mother.  Scipio  then  compre- 
hending what  the  fubjedt  of  her  fear  was,  "  My  own 
glory  (fays  he),  and  that  of  the  Roman  people,  are 
concerned  in  not  fuffering  that  virtue,  which  ought 
always  to  be  refpetled  wherever  we  find  it,  ihould  be 
expofed  in  my  camp  to  a  treatment  unworthy  of  it. 
But  you  give  me  a  new  motive  for  being  more  ilritt 
in  my  care  of  it,  in  the  virtuous  folicitude  you  fhow 
in  thinking  only  of  the  prefervation  of  your  honour,, 
in  the  midli  of  fo  many  other  objefts  of  fear."  After 
this  converfation,  he  committed  the  care  of  the  ladies 
to  fome  officers  of  experienced  prudence,  ftriftly  com- 
manding that  they  (hould  treat  them  with  all  the  re- 
iptft  they  could  pay  to  the  mothers,  wives,  and  daugh- 
ters, of  their  allies  and  particular  friends.  It  was  not 
long  before  Scipio's  integrity  and  virtue  were  put  10  the 
trial.  Being  retired  in  his  camp,  fome  of  his  officers, 
brought  hira  a  young  virgin  of  fuch  exquifite  beauty, 
that  fhe  drew  upon  her  the  eyes  and  admiration  of  every 
body.  The  young  conqueror  ftarted  from  his  feat 
with  confufion  and  furprize  ;  and,  like  one  thunder- 
ftruck,  feemed  to  be  robbed  of  that  prefence  of  mind 
and  felf-poffeffion  fo  neceflary  in  a  general,  and  for 
which  Scipio  was  remarkably  famous.  In  a  few  mo- 
ments, having  rallied  his  draggling  fplrits,  he  inquired 
of  the  beautiful  captive,  in  the  moil  civil  and  polite 
manner,  concerning  her  country,  birth,  and  connec- 
tions;  and  finding  that  (he  was  betrothed  to  a  Celti- 
berian  prince  named  AUucius,  he  ordered  both  him 
and  the  captive's  parents  to  be  fent  for.  The  Spanifli 
prince  no  fconer  appeared  in  his  prefence,  than,  even 
before  he  fpoke  to  the  father  and  mother,  he  took  hint 
afide  ;  and,  to  remove  the  anxiety  he  might  be  in  on 
account  of  the  young  lady,  he  addreffed  him  in  thefe 
words  :  "  You  and  I  are  young,  which  admits  of  my 
fpeaking  to  you  with  more  liberty.  Thofe  who  brought 
me  your  future  fpoufe,  afTured  me,  at  the  fame  time, 
that  you  loved  her  with  extreme  tendernefs  ;  and  hes 
beauty  left  me  no  room  to  doubt  it.     Upon  which- 

re- 


CON  [     381     ]  CON 

Continence,  reflecling,  that  if,  like  you,  I  had  thought  on  making    engraven  on  a  filver  fhield,  which  he  prtfented  to  Scipio  jContinenccj 
^"^  an  enjjagemeiit,  and   were   not   wholly  engroffed  with     a  prefent  infinitely  more  cftimable  and  glorious  than  all  """^ 

the  affairs  of  my  country,   I   ihauld  defire  that  fo  ho-     his  treafures  and  triumphs.    This  buckler,  which  Scipio 


rourable  and  le^jitimate  a  paflion  (hould  find  favour, 
I  think  myfelf  happy  in  the  prefent  conjundture  to  do 
you  this  fcrvice.  Though  the  fortune  of  war  has  made 
me  your  maUcr,  I  defire  to  be  your  friend.  Here  i» 
your  wife  :  take  her,  and  may  the  gods  blefs  you  with 
her.  One  thing,  however,  I  would  have  you  be  fully 
aiTurcd  of,  that  ihe  has  been  amongft  us  as  Ihe  would 
have  been  in  the  houfe  of  her  father  and  mother.  Far 
be  it  from  Scipio  to  purchafe  a  loofe  and  momentaiy 
pleafure  at  the  expence  of  virtue,  honour,  and  the 
happincfs  of  an  hontll  man.  No  ;  [  have  kept  her 
for  you,  in  order  to  make  you  a  prefent  worthy  of 
you  and  of  me.  The  only  gratitude  I  require  of  you 
for  this  ineilimable  gift  is,  that  you  would  be  a  friend 
to  the  Roman  people."  Alhicius's  heart  was  too  full 
to  make  him  any  anfwer  :  but  throwing  himfclf  at  the 
general's  feet,  he  wept  aloud.  The  captive  lady  fell 
into  the  fame  polhirc  ;  and  remained  fo,  till  the  father 
burft  out  into  the  following  words  :  "  Oh  !  divine 
Scipio  !  the  gods  have  given  )ou  more  than  human 
virtue  !  Oh  !  glorious  leader  !  Oh  1  wondrous  youth  f 
does  not  that  obliged  virgin  give  you,  while  !hc  prays 
to  the  gods  for  your  profperity,  raptures  above  all  the 


carried  with  him  when  he  returned  to  Rome,  was  loil, 
in  pafling  the  Rhone,  with  part  of  the  baggage.  It 
continued  in  that  river  till  the  year  1665,  when  fome 
fiiliermen  found  it.  It  is  now  in  the  king  of  France's 
cabinet. 

2.  The  circumflarce  which  raifes  Alexander  the 
Great  above  many  conquerors,  and,  as  it  were,  above 
himielf,  is  the  ufe  he  made  of  his  viftory  after  the 
battle  of  liTiis.  This  is  the  mod  beautiful  incident  in 
his  life.  It  is  the  point  of  view  in  which  it  is  his  in- 
terert  to  be  confidercd  ;  and  it  is  inipoflible  for  him 
not  to  appear  truly  great  in  that  view.  By  the  vidc- 
ly  of  lifus  he  became  poifeiTed  of  the  whole  Perliar» 
empire  ;  not  only  Syfigambis,  Darius's  mother,  wa? 
his  captive,  but  alfo  his  wife  and  daughters,  princeffcs 
whofe  beauty  was  not  to  be  equalled  in  all  Alia.  A- 
Itxander,  like  Scipio,  was  ia  the  bloorn  of  life,  a  con- 
queror, free,  and  not  yet  engaged  in  matiimony:  nc- 
verthelefs,  his  camp  was  to  thofe  princclTcs  a  facred 
afylum,  or  rather  a  temple,  in  which  their  challity 
was  fecured  as  under  the  guard  of  virtue  itfelf;  and 
fo  highly  revered,  that  Darius,  in  his  expiring  mo- 
ments, hearing  the  kind  treatment  they  had  met  with, 


tranfpoits  you  could  have  reaped  from  the  poITeflion  of    could  not  help  lifting  up  his  dying  hands  towards  hea- 
her  injured  perfon  ?"  ven,andwifhingfuccefstofowifeandgenerousa  conquer- 


The  relations  of  the  young  lady  had  brought  with 
them  a  very  confiderable  funi  for  her  ranfom  :  but 
when  they  faw  that  fhe  was  reftored  to  them  in  fo  ge- 
nerous and  godlike  a  manner,  they  intreated  the  con- 
queror, with  great  earneftncfs,  to  accept  that  fura  as 
a  prefent  ;  and  declared,  by  his  complying,  that  new 
favour  would  complete  their  joy  and  gratitude.  Scipio, 
not  bting  able  to  refill^ fucli  warm  and  earneft  lolicita- 
tions,  told  them  that  he  accepted  the  eift,  and  order- 
ed it  to  be  laid  at  his  feet  :  then  addrefling  hlmfelf  to 
Allucius,  "  I  add  (lays  he)  to  the  portion  which  you 
are  to  receive  from  your  father-in-law  this  fum  j  which 
J  delire  you  to  accept  as  a  marriage- prefent." 

If  we  confider  that  Scipio  was  at  this  lime  in  the 
prime  of  life,  unmarried,  and  under  no  reilraint,  we 
cannot  but  acknowledge,  that  the  conqueft  he  made 
of  aimlelt  was  far  more  gl-nious  than  that  of  the  Car- 
thaginian empire  :  and  though  his  treatment  of  this 
captive  prince  was  not  more  d-,-licate  and  generous  than 
what  might  juftly  be  expected  from  a  peifon  endowed 
with  reafon  and  refleftion  ;  yet  ccnfidering  how  few 
there  are  ia  his  circumltances  who  would  have  atted 
as  he  did,  we  cannot  but  applaud  his  conduct,  and 
propole  him  as  a  fuitable  example  to  future  ages.  Nor 
■was  his  virtue  unrewarded.  The  young  prince,  charm- 
ed with  the  liberality  and  polltenefs  of  Scipio,  went 
into  his  country  to  publilh  the  praifes  of  fo  generous 
a  vielor.  lie  cned  out,  in  the  tranlports  ol  his  gra- 
titude, "  That  there  v/as  come  into  Spain  a  young 
hero  like  the  gods  ;  who  conquered  all  things  Icfs  by 
the  force  of  his  arms  than  the  charms  of  his  viune 
and  the  greatnefs  of  his  beneficence. "  Upon  this  re- 
poit  all  Ccltiberia  fubmitted  to  the  Romans;  and  Al- 
lucius returned  in  a  (hout  to  Scipio,  at  the  head  of 
1400  cholen  horfe,  to  facilitate  his  hiture  conquelb. 
To  render  the  marks  of  his  gratitude  Hill  more  durable, 
AJlucius  cauf;d  the  attion  we  have  jufl  related  to  be 


or,  who  could  govern  his  paflions  at  fo  critical  a  time. 
Plutarch  informs  us  more  particulaily,  that  the  prin- 
ceifes  lived  i'o  retired  in  the  camp,  aev;ording  to  their 
own  defire,  that  they  were  not  feen  by  any  perfon  ex- 
cept their  own  attendants  ;  nor  did  any  other  perfon 
dare  to  approach  their  apartments.  After  the  firil  vi- 
fit,  whi  h  was  a  refpedful  and  ceremonious  one,  A- 
lexander,  to  avoid  expofing  himfelf  to  the  dangers  of 
human  frailty,  made  a  folemn  refolution  never  to  vifit 
Darius's  queen  any  more.  He  himfelf  informs  us  of 
this  memorable  circumftance,  in  a  letter  written  by  him 
to  Parmenio,  in  which  he  commanded  him  to  put  to  Plutarch. 
death  certain  Macedonians  who  had  forced  the  wives 
of  fome  foreign  foldiers.  In  this  letter  was  the  fol- 
lowing paragraph  :  "  For  as  to  myfelf,  it  will  be  found 
that  I  neither  faw  nor  would  fee  the  wife  of  Darius  ; 
and  did  not  fuffcr  any  one  to  fptak  of  her  beauty  be- 
fore me." 

3.  Hocrates  informs  us,  that  Nicocles,  king  of  Sa- 
lamin,  gloried  in  never  having  known  any  woman  bc- 
fides  his  wife  ;  and  was  amazed  that  all  other  contrad^-i 
of  civil  fociety  ihould  be  treated  with  due  legaid,  whihl 
that  of  marriage,  the  mod  facred  and  inviolable  of 
obligations,  was  broken  through  with  impunity;  and 
that  men  Ihould  not  blulli  to  commit  an  infidelity  with 
refpeft  to  their  wivea,  of  which,  ihould  iheir  wives  be 
guilty,  it  would  throw  them  into  the  utmofl  anguilli 
and  tury, 

4.  Henry  VI.  king  of  England,  though  unhappy  in 
his  famdy  and  government,  was  nevetthelefs  poffefTed 
of  many  virtues.  He  was  fo  remarkable  for  his  cha- 
itity,  tnat  before  his  marriage  he  would  not  allow  any 
lady  of  a  fufpicious  charafter  and  unguarded  ccndui't 
to  frequent  the  court :  and  having  oblerved  one  day 
ioine  ladies  with  their  bofoms  uncovered,  he  turned 
away  his  eyes  from  the  indecent  object,  and  reprimand- ^j..^., 
ed  thetn  fmartly  in  the  funple   dia'edl  of  the  times  ; 

"  Fy» 


CON  [ 

Continencf"  Fy,  fy  (faid  he),  for  fhdme  ;    forfooth  ye  be  to 
^     .11        blame." 

^°r'7'!''  5-  I"  tli«  '^'g"  °f"  ^'"S  Charles  I  [.  when  licentiouf- 
-  '  '  nefs  was  at  its  liclght  in  Britain,  a  yeoman  of  the 
guards  refilled  the  millrefs  of  a  king.  The  lady,  who 
was  diiTatiafied  with  her  noble  lover,  had  fixed  her  eyes 
upon  this  man,  and  thought  (he  had  no  more  to  do 
than  fpeak  her  pleafure.  He  got  out  of  her  way. 
He  refnfed  to  underlland  her  ;  and  when  flie  preffed 
him  further,  lie  faid,  "  I  am  married."  The  ftory 
readied  the  king,  with  all  its  circumllances  :  but  they 
who  expefted  an  extravagant  laugh  upon  the  occafion 
were  difappointed.  He  fent  for  the  perfon  :  he  found 
bim  a  gentleman,  though  reduced  to  that  mean  fta- 
tion  ;  and  "  Odds  fifli,  man  (fays  he),  though  I  am 
not  honeft  enough  to  be  virtuous  myfelf,  I  value  them 
that  are."  He  gave  him  an  appointmtnt,  and  refpecl- 
ed  him  for  life. 

6.  The  extreme  parts  of  Scotland,  whofe  people 
we  defpife  fur  their  poverty,  are  honelt  in  this  rcfpeft 
to  a  wonder ;  and  in  the  Swede's  dominion,  towards 
the  pole,  there  is  no-  name  for  adultery.  They  thought 
it  an  oftence  man  could  not  commit  againft  man  ;  and 
have  no  word  to  exprefs  it  in  their  language.  The 
unpoli(hed  Lapland  peafant,  with  thefe  thoughts,  is, 
as  a  human  creature,  much  more  refpeftable  than  the 
gay  Briton,  whofe  heart  is  ilained  with  vices,  and  e- 
Itranged  from  natural  affeftion  ;  and  he  is  happier. 
The  perfedl  confidence  mutually  repofed  between  him 
and  the  honeft  partner  of  his  breaft,  entails  a  fatisfac- 
tion  even  in  theloncil  poverty.      It   gilds  the  humble 


382     ]  CON 

many  men,  fo  much  money,  and  munition,  for  his  con-  ConimmJ  ■ 

tingent.  _     "        ' 

CONTINUED,  or  Continual,  in  a  general  fenfe,     ""  °'^  ""j 
means  iiiceffimt,  or  proceeding  without  interruption. 

CoNTiKunD  Fever,  is  fuch  a  one  as  fometimes  re- 
mits, but  never  intermits  or  goes  entirely  off  till  its 
period. 

Continued  Bafs,  in  mufic,  thus  called,  fays  Rouf- 
feau,  becaufe  it  is  continued  through  the  whole  piece. 
Its  principal  ufe,  befides  that  of  regulating  the  harmo-  1 

ny,  ib  to  fupport  the  voice  and  preferve  the  tone. 
They  pi-etend  that  it  was  one  Luduvko  A7a/;a,  of  whom 
a  treatife  ftill  remains,  who  towards  the  end  of  the 
lall  century  firfl  put  the  continued  bafs  in  prac- 
tice. 

Continued  Proportion,  in  arithmetic,  is  that  where  \ 

the  confequent  nf  the  firft  ratio  is  the  fame  with  the 
antecedent  of  the  fecond  ;  as  4  :  8  :  :  8  :  16  ;  in  con- 
tradiftindlion  to  difcrete  proportion. 

CONTINUITY,  is  defined  by  fome  fchoolmen  the 
immediate  cohefion  of  parts  in  the  fame  quantum  ;  by 
others,  a  mode  of  body,  whereby  its  extremities  be- 
come one  ;  and  by  others,  a  Hate  of  body  refulting 
from  the  mutual  implication  of  its  parts.  There  are 
two  kinds  of  continuity,  mathematical  and  phyfical. 
The  firft  is  merely  imaginary,  fince  it  fuppoles  real  or 
phyfical  parts  where  there  are  none.  The  other,  or  phy- 
fical continuity,  is  that  ftate  of  two  or  more  particles, 
in  which  their  parts  are  fo  mutually  implicated  as  to 
conftitute  one  uninterrupted  quantity  or  continuum. 
CONTINUO,  in  mufic,  fignifies  the  thorough  bafs, 


heart,  and  lights  the   cabin  ;   their   homely  meal  is  a  ,  as    bojo   amthnio    is    the    continual  or  tliorough   bafs. 


facrifice  of  thanks,  and  every  breath  of  fmoke  arifes 
in  incenfe.  If  hand  be  laid  upon  hand,  it  is  lure  af- 
feAion  ;  and  If  fome  infant  plays  about  their  knees, 
they  look  upon  him  and  upon  each  other  with  a  de- 
light that  greatnefs  feldom  knows,  becaufe  it  feels 
diftruft. 

CONTINENT,  in  general,  an  appellation  given  to 
things  continued  without  Interruption  ;  in  which  fenfe 
we  fay,  continent  fever,  &c. 

Continent,  in  geography,  a  great  extent  of  land 
not  interrupted  by  feas,  in  contradillinftion  to  ifland 
and  peninfula,  &c.  See  Geography.  —  Sicily  is  faid 
to  have  been  anciently  torn  from  the  continent  ot  Ita- 
ly ;  and  it  is  an  old  tradition,  which  fome  of  our  an- 
tiquaries ftiU  have  a  regard  to,  that  Britain  was  for- 
merly a  part  of  the  continent  of  France. 

The  world  is  ufually  divided  into  two  great  con- 
tinents, the  old  and  the  new.  Whether  there  exifts 
in  the  fouthern  hemifphcre  another  continent,  or  the 
whole  be  only  an  immenfe  watery  region,  is  a  quef- 
tion  that  for  near  three  centuriei  has  engaged  the  at- 
tention of  the  learned  as  well  as  the  commercial 
world,  and  given  rife  to  many  interefting  voyages 
and  difcoveries  ;  concerning  which,  fee  the  aiticle 
South  Sea. 

CONTINGENT,  fomething  cafual  or  unufual. 
Hence  future  contingent,  denotes  a  conditional  event 
which  may  or  may  not  happen,  according  as  circum- 
ilances  fall  out. 

Contingent,  is  alfo  a  term  of  relation  for  the 
quota  that  falls  to  any  perfon  upon  a  divjfion.  Thus 
each  prince  of  Germany  in  time  of  war  is  to  furnilh  fo 


which  is  fometimes  marked  In  mufic-books  by  the  let- 
ters B.  C. 

CON TOBABDITES,  a  feft  in  the  fixth  century. 
Their  firft  leader  was  Severus  of  Antioch  ;  who  was 
fucceeded  by  John  the  grammarian  furnamed  Philo- 
ponus,  and  one  Theodofius  wliofe  followers  were  alfo 
called  Theoclofums.  Part  of  them,  who  were  willing  to 
receive  a  book  compofed  by  Theodofius  on  the  Tri- 
nity, made  a  feparate  body,  and  were  called  Conto- 
labdites,  from  fome  place,  which  Nicephorus  does  not 
mention,  but  which  muft  appirenily  aave  been  the 
place  where  they  held  their  aflemblies.  The  Conto- 
babdites  allowed  of  no  biihops  ;  which  is  the  only  cir- 
cumftance  given  us  concerning  them. 

CONl'OR,  Condor,  or  Cundur,.  the  American 
name  of  a  fpecies  of  Vultur. 

CONTORSION,  in  general,  fignifies  the  action  of 
twifting  or  wreiling  a  member  of  the  body  out  of 
its  natural  fituition.  Rope-dancers  accullom  themlelves 
to  contorfions  of  their  limbs  from  their  youth,  to  render 
the  fibres  of  their  articulations  lax,  and  hippie  to  all 
kinds  of  poftures. 

CoNTORSioN,  In  medicine,  has  many  fignificationa. 
I.  It  denotes  the  iliac  paifiun.  2.  An  incomplete  dif- 
location,  when  a  bone  is  in  part,  but  not  entirely,  for- 
ced from  its  articulation.  3.  A  dillocation  of  the  ver- 
tebra of  the  back  fide-ways,  or  a  crookedncls  of  thefe 
vertebras.  And,  4.  A  diforder  of  the  head,  in  which 
it  is  drawn  towards  one  fide,  either  by  a  fpalmodic  con- 
traftion  of  the  raufcles  on  the  fame  fide,  or  a  paify  of 
the  antagonift  mufcles  on  the  other. 

CONTO RT.1E,  the  name  of  the  3othordci  in  Lln- 

nxus's 


CON 


[     3S.3     1 


CON 


Contour  nseus's  Fragments  of  a  natural  method,  confifling  of 
"  plants  wlii'ch  have  a  fingle  petal  that  is  twilled  or 
""'^  bent  to  one  fide.  This  order  contains  the  fcllowing 
genera,  viz.  cchites,  cerbera,  gaxdenia,  genipa,  nii- 
crocnemiim,  ncrium,  pcripltic:!,  rawolfn,  taberiixmon- 
tana,  vinca,  apocyniim,  afckpiiis,  comeiaria,  ceropegia, 
cymiichiim,  phimeria,  ftapelia. 

CONTOUR,  in  painting,  the  outline,  or  that  which 
defines  a  figure. 

A  2;reat  part  of  the  flo'll  of  the  painter  lies  in  mana- 
ging the  contours  well.  Contour,  with  the  Italian 
painters,  fi^r.ifics  the  lineaments  of  the  face. 

CONTOURNE,  in  heraldry,  is  ufcd  when  a  bea.1  is 
reprel'ented  (landing  or  running  with  its  face  to  the  fi- 
nlfler  fide  of  the  efcutcheon,  they  being  always  fiippofed 
to  lonk  to  the  tiyht,  if  not  otherwife  expreffed. 

CONTOURNIATED,  a  term  among  antiquaries 
applied  to  medals,  the  edges  of  which  appear  as  il  turn- 
ed in  a  lath.  This  fort  of  work  feems  to  have  had  its 
origin  in  Greece  ;  and  to  have  been  defigned  to  perpe- 
tuate the  memories  of  great^  men,  particularly  thofe 
who  had  bore  away  the  prize  at  the  folemn  games. 
Kuch  are  thofe  remaining  of  Homer,  Solon,  Euclid, 
Pythagoras,  Socrates,  and  feveral  athletse. 

CONTRABAND,  in  commerce,  a  prohibited  com- 
modity, -or  merchandife  bought  or  fold,  imported  or 
exported,  in  prejudice  to  the  laws  and  ordinances  of  a 
ftate,  or  the  public  prohibitions  of  the  fuvtreign.  Con- 
traband goods  are  not  only  liable  to  confifcation  them- 
fclves,  but  alio  fubjeft  all  other  allowed  merchandile 
found  with  them  in  the  fame  box,  bale,  or  parcel,  to- 
gether with  the  horfes,  waggons,  &c.  which  coiiduft 
them.  There  are  contrabands  likewife,  which,  befides 
the  forfeiture  of  the  goods,  are  attended  with  feveral 
penalties  and  dlfabilities. 

CONTRAC  r,  in  a  general  fenfe,  a  mutual  confent 
of  two  or  more  parties,  who  voluntarily  promifc  and 
oblige  themfcKes  to  do  fomething  ;  pay  a  certain  fum, 
or  the  like.  All  donations,  exchanges,  leafes,  &c.  are 
fo  many  different  contrafts. 

Contract  is  particularly  ufed  in  common  law,  for 
an  agreement  or  covenant  between  two,  with  a  law- 
ful confideralion  or  caufe.  As,  if  I  fell  my  horfe  for 
money  ;  or  covenant,  in  confideralion  of  L.  20,  to 
make  you  a  leafe  of  a  farm  ;  thefe  are  good  contrafts, 
becaufe  there  is  quid  pro  quo. 

Ufurlous  Contract,  is  a  contraft  to  pay  more  in- 
terelt  for  money  than  the  laws  allow.     See  Usury. 

Thofe  contrafts  are  faid  to  be  null  which  the  law 
prohibits  the  making  of;  fnch  are  all  contrails  be- 
tween perfons  incapable  of  contracting,  as  minors, 
religious,  lunatics,  wives  without  confent  of  their  huf- 
bands,  &c. 

Contract  is  alfo  ufed  for  the  inftrument  in  writing, 
which  ferves  as  a  proof  of  the  confent  granted,  and  the 
obligation  paflcd  between  the  parties. 

Among  the  ancient  Romans,  contra<fts,  and  all  vo- 
luntary ails,  were  written,  either  by  the  parties  them- 
'  felves,  or  by  one  of  the  witneffes,  or  by   a  domeftic 

fecretary  of  one  of  the  parties,  whom  they  called  a 
notary,  but  who  was  no  public  perfon  99  among  us. 

Tfie  contraft,  when  finifhed,  was  carried  to  the 
magiflrate,  who  gave  it  a  public  authority  by  receiv- 
ing it  inter  aSa,  into  the  number  of  afts  under  his  ju- 


Contraft. 


riCdiftlon  ;  giving  each  of  the  parties  a  copy  theirof,  Contrai<liIe 
tranfcribed  by   his    clerks  or  doiii'ftic   regi 'ert-,    and  ' 

fcaled    with    his    feal.       W   ich    jjradticc    paff  d 
France,   where  it  obtained  a  long  time. 

CONTRACTILE  force,  i;  at  property  or  power 
inherent  in  certain  bodies,  whercbv,  whcu  extended, 
they  are  enabled  to  draw  themfelvcs  up  again  to  their 
former  dimenficns. 

CONTRACTION,  in  phyfics,  the  dlrrinldiing 
the  extent  or  dimenfions  of  a  body,  or  the  caufing  its 
parts  to  approach  nearer  to  each  other;  in  which 
fenfe  it  Hands  oppofed  to  dilatation  or  expanfion. 

Contraction  is  frequently  ufcd,  by  anatomical 
writers,  to  exprefs  the  flirinkind  up  of  a  fibre,  or  an 
aff'-mblage  of  fibres,  when  extended. 

Conviilfions  and  Ipafnis  proceed  from  a  preternatural 
contraftion  of  the  fibres  of  the  mufclcs  of  the  part  con- 
vulfed.  On  the  contrary,  paralytic  di'.ordtrs  generally 
proceed  from  a  too  great  laxnefs  of  the  fibres  of  the 
parts  affefted  ;  or  from  the  want  of  that  degree  of 
contraftion  neceffary  to  perform  the  natural  motion  or 
aftion  of  the  part.  In  the  firft,  therefore,  the  animal 
fpirits  are  fuppofed  to  flow,  either  in  too  great  a  quan- 
tity, or  irregularly  ;  and,  in  the  lafl,  the  animal  fpirits 
are  either  denied  a  free  paffage  into  the  part  affefted, 
or  the  tenfion  of  the  fibrillae  is  fuppofed  infufficient  to 
promote  the  circulation. 

Contraction,  in  grammar,  is  the  reducing  of 
two  fyllables  into  one,  as  cant  for  cannot,  Jhould'Jl  for 
Jhouldejl,   Sec. 

CONTRADICTION,  a  fpecies  of  direft  oppofi- 
tion,  wherein  one  thing  is  found  diametrically  oppo- 
fite  to  another. 

CONTRADICTORY  propositions,  are  oppo- 
fites,  one  of  which  imports  a  mere  and  naked  denial 
of  the  other. 

Seeming  contradiftories  is  when  the  members  of  a 
period  quite  difagree  in  appearance  and  found,  but 
perfeftly  agree  and  are  confillent  in  ftnfe  :  thus, 

"   Cnwards  die  many  times  before  their  death  ; 
"  The  valiant  never  taflc  of  death  but  once." 

Suakespe.ire, 

CONTRAFISSURE,  in  furgery,  a  kind  of  frac- 
ture, or  filfure,  in  the  cranium,  which  fometimes  hap- 
pens on  the  fide  oppofite  to  that  which  received  the 
blow,   or,  at  lead,   at  tome  diftancc  from  it. 

CONTRAINDICATION,  in  medicine,  is  an  in- 
dication  which  forbids  that  to  be  done  which  the  maia 
fcope  of  a  difeafe  points  out. 

Suppofe,  e.  gr.  in  the  cure  of  a  difeafe  a  vomit 
were  judged  proper  ;  if  the  patient  be  fubjeft  to  a  vo- 
miting of  blood,  it  is  a  fufficient  contraindication  as  to 
its  exhibition. 

CONTRARIETY,  an  oppofition  between  two 
things,  which  i.Tiports  their  being  contrary  to  one 
another  ;  and  confifts  in  this,  that  one  of  the  terms 
implies  a  negation  of  the  other,  either  mediately  or 
immediately;  fo  that  contrariety  may  be  faid  to  be 
the  contraft,  or  oppofition  of  two  things,  one  of 
which  imports  the  abfcnce  of  the  other,  as  love 
and  hatred. 

CONTRAST;  oppofition  or  didimilitude  of  figuresi, 
by  which  one  contributes  to  the  vifibility  or  effeft  of 
the  others.     See  Resemblance. 
5  Contrast, 


CON 


[     3i 


Cjntrift 

II 
CaiUroller, 


Contrast,  in  painting  and  fculpturt,  expicfTca  an 
oppofition  or  difference  of  pofition,  attitude,  l^c.  of 
two  or  more  figures,  contrived  to  make  variety  in  a 
painting,  Iffc.  as  where,  in  a  groupe  of  three  figures, 
one  is  fhown  before,  another  behind,  and  another  fide- 
vavi,  thty  are  fnid  to  be  in  contrail. 

"i'he  contrail  is  not  only  to  be  obferved  in  the  poG- 
tion  of  fevcral  figures,  but  alfo  in  that  of  the  feveral 
members  of  the  fame  figure  :  thus,  if  the  right  arm 
advance  fartheft,  the  right  leg  is  to  be  hindermoft;  if 
the  eye  be  directed  one  way,  the  arm  to  go  the  con- 
trary way,  (d'c.  The  contrail  mull  be  purfued  even  in 
the  drapery. 

Contrast,  in  architedlure,  is  to  avoid  the  repe- 
tition of  the  fame  thing,  in  order  to  pleafe  by  va- 
riety. 

CONTRATE-WHEEL,  in  watch-work,  that  next 
to  the  crown,  the  teeth  and  hoop  whereof  lie  contrary 
to  thofe  of  the  other  wheels,  from  whence  it  takes  its 
name.      See  W.\tc n-Maiing. 

CONTRAVALLATION,  or  th^  Line  Con-tra- 
VALLATiON,  in  fortification,  a  trench  guarded  with 
t»  parapet,  and  ufually  cut  round  about  a  place  by  the 
befiegeis,  to  fecure  therafclves  on  that  fide,  and  to 
Hop  the  fallies  of  the  garrifon.  See  Fortifica- 
tion. 

CONTRAVENTION,  In  law,  a  man's  failing  to 
difcharge  his  word,  obligation,  duly,  or  the  laws  or 
cuftoms  of  the  place. 

CONTRAYERVA,  in  botany.    See  Dcrstenia. 

CONTRE,  in  heraldry,  an  appellation  given  to  fe- 
veral bearings,  on  account  of  their  cutting  the  fhield 
contrary  and  oppofite  ways :  thus  we  meet  with  con- 
tre-bend,  contre-chevton,  contre-pale,  £5*r.  when  there 
are  two  ordinaries  of  the  fame  nature  oppofite  to  each 
other,  fo  as  colour  may  be  oppofed  to  metal,  and  me- 
tal to  colour. 

CONTRIBUTION,  the  payment  ofeacli  perfon's 
quota  of  the  part  he  is  to  bear  in  fome  impofition,  or 
common  expence.  See  CoNTiNGtNT,  (3'':. — Contri- 
butions are  either  involuntary,  as  thofe  of  taxes  and 
impoRs  ;  or  voluntary,  as  thofe  of  expences  f.)r  carry- 
ing on  fome  undertaking  for  the  intereft  of  the  com- 
munity. 

Contributions,  in  a  military  fenfe,  are  impofi- 
tlons  paid  by  frontier  countries  to  fecure  themfelves 
from  being  plundered,  and  ruined  by  the  enemy's 
army.  The  peafants  till  their  ground  under  the  faith 
of  contributions,  as  fecurely  as  in  time  of  profound 
peace, 

CONTRITION,  in  theology,  a  forrow  for  our 
fins,  refulling  from  the  refleftlon  of  having  offended 
God,  from  the  fole  confideratlon  of  his  goodaefs,  with- 
out any  regard  to  the  punifliment  due  to  the  trefpafs, 
and  attended  with  a  fincere  refolution  of  reforming 
them.  The  word  is  derived  from  the  Latin  conlererc,  to 
break  or  bruife. 

CONTROL  is  properly  a  double  rcgifter  kept  of 
afts,  iflTues,  &c.  of  the  officers  or  commiifioners  in  the 
revenue,  army,  &c.  in  order  to  perceive  the  true  ilate 
thereof,  and  to  certify  the  truth,  and  the  due  keeping 
®f  the  afls  fubjedl  to  the  enregiftennent. 

CONTROLLER,  an  officer  appointed  to  control 

or  overfee  the  accounts  of  other  officers  ;  and,  on  oc- 

N"  90.  J 


4     ]  CON 

cafion,  to  certify  whether  or  no  things  have  beets  con-  Controller 
trolled  or  examined.  II 

In  Britain  we  have  feveral  officers  of  this  name  ;      ."n""*' 
as  controller  of   the  king's  houfe,  controller  of  the  r 

navy,   controller  of   the    cuftoms,    controller  of   the 
mint,  &c. 

Controller  of  /he  Hanaper,  an  officer  that  attends 
the  lord  chancellor  dally,  in  term  and  in  feal-time,  to 
take  all  things  fealed  in  leathern  bags  from  the  clerks 
of  the  hanaper,  and  to  make  the  number  and  effect 
thereof,  and  enter  them  in  a  book,  with  all  the  du- 
ties belonging  to  the  king  and  other  officers  for  the 
fame,  and  fa  chai-ge  the  clerk  of  the  hanaper  with 
them. 

Controller  of  the  HoufehoU,  the  fecond  officer  un- 
der the  lord  fleward.  The  name  of  his  office  comes 
from  the  French  word  contrerouler.  His  office  is  to 
control  the  accounts  and  reckonings  of  the  Green 
Cloth,  of  which  board  he  is  always  a  member.  He 
carries  a  white  ftafF,  and  is  always  one  of  the  privy- 
council.  He  has  L.  toy:  17:6  a-year  wages,  and 
L.  1092  :  2  ;  6  board-wages. 

Controller  of  the  Pipe,  an  officer  of  the  exchequer, 
tliat  makes  out  a  fummons  twice  every  year,  to  levy 
the  farms  and  debts  of  the  pipe.  See  Pipe  and  Ex- 
chequer. 

Controllers  of  the  Pells,  two  officers  of  the  exche- 
quer, who  are  the  chamberlain's  clei-ks,  and  keep  a 
control  of  the  pell  of  receipts,  and  goings  out. 

CONTUMACY,  in  law,  a  refufal  to  appear  in  court 
when  legally  fummoned,  or  the  difobedience  to  the 
rides  and  orders  of  a  court  having  power  to  punilk 
fuch  offence. 

CONTUSION,  in  medicine  and  furgery,  any  hurt 
of  the  body  that  is  inflifted  by  a  blunt  inftrumcnt. 
See  SuRGERv. 

CONVALESCENCE,  in  medicine,  the  infenfible 
recovery  of  health  ;  or  that  ftate  in  which,  after  the 
cure  of  a  difoider,  the  body  which  has  been  reduced, 
has  not  yet  regained  its  vigour,  but  begins  to  refume 
its  powers.  Propel'  aliments  conduce  to  the  re-efta- 
bliihment  of  the  languid  faculties  ;  but  as  the  tone  of 
the  bowels  is  weakened,  the  digeftive  faculty  is  not 
equal  to  its  office,  which  is  fliown  by  light  fweats  over 
the  whole  body  ;  and  the  fmalkfl  excefs  in  this  re- 
fpeft  is  oftentimes  the  occafion  of  dangerous  relapfes. 
A  perfon  in  this  ftate  is  like  a  taper  relumineJ,  which 
the  leaft  degree  of  wind  is  fufficient  to  cxtinguifli. 

CONVALLARIA,  or  Lily  of  the  Valley,  in  bo- 
tany, a  genus  of  the  monogynia  order,  belonging  to 
the'  hexandria  clafs  of  plants ;  and  in  the  natural 
method  ranking  under  Sarmentacex,  or  i  ith  order. 
The  corolla  is  fcxfid  ;  the  berry  fpotted  and  trilocu- 
lai-.  The  fpecies  are  eight,  three  of  which  are  natives 
of  Britain,  tIz.  the  malalis,  or  may-lily  ;  the  multi- 
flora,  or  folomon's-feal  ;  and  the  polygonatum,  ot 
fwect-fmelllug  folomon's-feal.  They  ai"e  plants  of  con- 
fideiable  beauty,  and  may  eafily  be  propagated  by  their 
creeping  roots. 

CONVENARUM  urbs,  or  Lugdvnum,  (anc. 
geog.)  a  town  of  the  Convenae,  a  people  of  Gallia 
Narbonenfis,  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees.  Its  origin 
was  owing  to  the  Sertorian  war,  Pompey  compelling 
the  robbera  of  the  Pyrenees  and  fugitive  llaves  to  fet- 

Ue 


ON  [     3S5     ]  C    G     N 

It  ftood  nsar  the  head  of  the  Ga-     or  in  jioflcirion  of  benefices  depL-nJing  on   tlic  houfe.  Convcntiis 


tie  there,  (Pliny) 

ronne.     Now  St  Iki  tnind,  in  Gnfcony.    E.  Lonj.  30', 

Lnt.  4f  15'. 

CONVENTICI,E,  a  diminutive  of  convent  ;  de- 
'  noting,  propel ly,  a  cabal,  or  fccret  affembly,  of  a  part 
of  the  monks  of  a  convent,  to  make  a  brigue  or  p:irty 
in  the  eleftion  of  an  abbot.  From  the  ill  ufe  of  tliefe 
affemblies,  the  word  is  come  into  difrepute  ;  and  now 
flands  for  anv  mifchievous,  fedltious,  or  irrejjular  af- 


See  ^I()NK.  _         - 

CONVKNTUS  jL'RiDici,   were   courts  of  jiiftice       [ifp 

tllablillied  in  tlie  lloman  provinces ;  witli  a   refort   or  ^— — ^ 

extent  of  jurlfJiflion,  circumfcribed  r.nJ  coniined 
within  certain  limits  of  dillriil,  whither  all  who  were 
of  tlie  refort  were  to  repair  for  jullicc.  The  unfea- 
fonable  affeilation  of  changing  forms  of  war  into  I'orms 
of  civil  courts,  proved  tlic  ruin  of  Varus  and  of  three 


fembly.      F.  Doucine  obferves,  the  occidentals  always     legions  in  Germany,  (Florus).      Conventum  agere,  is  to 

eiteemed  the  fifth  general  counLil  an  unlawful  conven-     hold  a  court  of  jullice. 

CONVERGING  or  Convlrgent  Lines,  in  geo- 
metry, are  fuch  as  continually  approach  nearer  one 
another,  or  whefe  diftances  become  illll  lefs  and  lefs. 
Thefe  are  oppofed  to  divergent  lines,  the  dillances  of 
which  become  continually  greater :   ihofe  lines  which 


tide. 

The  term  conventicle  is  fald,  by  fome,  to  have  been 
firfl;  applied  in  England  to  the  feliools  of  WieklifF,  and 
has  been  lince  ufed  to  fignify  the  religious  afrcmblies 
of  all  in  that  counti-y  who  do  not  conform  to  the  efta- 
blifhed  dodlrines  and  worihip  of  the  church  of  Eng- 
Umd. 

By  22  Car.  II.  cap.  I.  it  is  enaft'i.  That  if  any 
perfons  of  the  age  of  i6  years,' fubje^ls  of  this  king- 
dom, fliall  be  prefent  at  any  conventicle,  where  there 
are  five  or  more  affembled,  tlicy  ihall  be  fined  5  s.  for 
the  firll  offence,  and  10  s.  for  the  fecond  ;  and  per- 
fons preaching  incur  a  penalty  of  L.  20.     Alfo  fuffer 


converge  one  way,  diverge  the  other. 

CoNFEkGiNG  Riiys,  in  optics,  tliofe  rays  that,  ilTuing 
from  divers  points  of  an  objeft,  incUne  towards  ano- 
ther, till  at  lall  they  meet  and  crofs,  and  then  be-< 
come  diverging  rays. 

CONVERSATION,  or  discourse,  fignifies  an 
interlocution  between  two,  or  among  more  perfons  ; 
with  this  diftinction,  that  converfation  is  ufed  for  any 


ing  a  meeting  to  be  held  in  a  houfe,  &c.  is  liable  to  genera!  intercourfe  of  fentiments  whatevtr,  whereas  a 
L.  20  penalty.  Juflices  of  peace  have  power  to  enter  difcourfe  means  a  converfation  limited  to  fome  parti- 
fuch  houfes,  and  feize  perfons  affembled,  3cc.      And  if     cular  fubjeft 


they  negleft  their  duty,  they  fiiall  forfeit  L.  100.  And 
if  any  conltable,  &c.  know  of  fuch  meetings,  and  do 
not  inform  a  juflice  of  peace,  or  chief  magillrate,  &c. 
he  Ihall  forfeit  L.5.  But  the  iff  W.  and  M.  cap  18. 
ordains,  that  protellant  diffenters  (liaU  be  exempt  from 
penalties :  though,  if  they  meet   in  a   houfe  with  the 


There  is  no  part,  perhaps,  of  focial  hfe  which  af- 
fords more  real  fatisfattion  than  thofe  hours  which 
one  paffes  in  rational  and  luuefcrved  converfation. 
That  converfation,  however,  may  anfwer  the  ends  for 
which  it  was  defigned,  the  parties  who  are  to  join  in 
it  muil  come  tosjether  with  a  determined  refolution  to 


doors  locked,  barred,   or  bolted,   fuch   diffenters  fliall     pleafe,  and  to  be  pleafed. 


have  no  benefit  from  i  W.  and  M.  Officers  of  the 
government,  &c.  prefent  at  any  conventicle,  at  which 
there  (hall  be  ten  perions,  if  the  royal  family  be  not 
pray-ed  for  in  exprcis  words,  fliall  forfeit  L.40  and  be 
difabled  ;  (Stat.  10  Anne,  cap.  2.) 

CONVENTION,  a  treaty,  contract,  or  agreement 
between  two  or  more  parlies. 

Convention  is  alfo  a  name  given  to  an  extraordi- 
nary affembly  of  parliament,  or  the  efl:ates  of  the  realm, 
held  without  the  king's  writ.  Of  this  kind  was  the 
convention  parliament  whiclrreflored  Charles  II.  Thii 
parliament  met  above  a  month  before  his  return,  and 
fat  full  feven  months  after  his  rcftoration,  and  ena(Etcd 
feveral  laws  it  ill   in   force,    which   were   confirmed  by 


In  the  conduft  of  it,  be  not  eager  to  interrupt  o- 
thers,  or  uneafy  at  being  yourfelf  interrupted  ;  fince 
you  ipeak  either  to  amufe  or  inilruct  the  company,  or 
to  receive  thofe  benefits  from  it.  Give  all,  therefore, 
leave  to  fpcak  in  turn.  Hear  with  patience,  and  an- 
fwer with  precifion.  Inattention  is  ill  manners ;  it 
fliows  contempt  ;  and  contempt  is  never  forgiven. 

Trouble  not  the  company  with  your  own  private 
concerns,  as  you  do  not  love  to  be  troubled  with  thofe 
of  others.  Yours  are  as  little  to  them  as  theirs  are  to 
you.  You  will  need  no  other  rule  whereby  to  judge 
of  this  matter. 

Contrive,  but  with  dexterity  and  propriety,  that 
each  perfon   may  have   an    opportunity  of  difcourfing 


Hat.  13  Car.  II.  c.  7.  and  c.  14.      Such  alfo  was  the  on  the  fnbjert  with  which  he  is  bell  acqur.inted.      He 

convention  of  efl.ates  in  1688,  who,  upon  the  retreat  vvill  be  pleafed,  and  you  will  be  informed.      By  obfer- 

of  king  James  II.  came  to   a   conclufion  that  he  had  ving  this  rule,  every  one  has  it  in  liis   power  to  affift 

abdicated  the  throne,  and  that  the  right  of  fuccefiion  in  rendering  converfation   agreeable ;   fince,  though  he 

devolved  to   king  William  and  queen   Mary  ;  where-  niay  not  choofe,  or  be  qualified,  to  fay  much  himfelf, 

upon  their  affembly  expired  as  a  convention,  and  was  he  can  propofe  queftions  to  thofe  who  are  able  to  an- 

converted   into  a  parliament.  fwer  them. 

Co\rE!'TiON  of  FJhita,   in  Scotland,  was  partly  of         Avoid  llories,  unkfs  fliort,  pointed,  and  quite  <z-^;-a- 

the  nature  of  a  parliament ;  but  differing  in  this,  that  pos.     He  who  deals   in  them,  fays  Swift,  muft.  either 

the  former  could  only  lay  on  taxes,  while  parliament  have  a  very  large   ftjck,  or  a  good  memory,    or  mull 

could  both  iin]>ofe  taxes  and  make  laws.  often  change  his  company.      Some  have  a  fet  of  them 

CONVENTUAL,  fomething  belonging  to  a  con-  Ilrung  together   like   onions  ;   they  take  poffefaon  of 

vent  or  monallery.     See  Monastery,  and  Coeno-  tlie  converfation  by  an  early  introdaClion  of  one,   and 

BITE.  then  you  mull  have  the  whole   rope  ;  and  there  is  an 

Conventual   is   particularly  ufed   for   a   religious  end   of  every   thing   elfe,   perhaps,   for  t'lat  meeting, 

who  aftually  relides  in  a  convent  ;  in  contradiftlndion  though  you  irfay  have  heard  all  tv.mty  times  before. 


to  thofe  who  are  only  gutfts,  or  are  entertained  there, 
Vol.  V.  Tan  I. 


Tallc  often,  but  not  long.     The  talent  of  harangu- 
3   C  ing 


CON  [386 

ing  private  company  is  infuppovtahle.  Senators  and 
barrifters  are  apt  to  be  guilty  of  this  fault  ;  and  mem- 
bers who  never  liarangue  in  the  houfe,  will  often  do 
it  out  of  the  houfe.  If  the  majority  of  the  company 
be  naturally  filent,  or  cautious,  the  converfation  will 
flag,  unlels  it  be  often  renewed  by  one  among  them 
who  can  (lart  new  fubjefts.  Forbear,  however,  if  pcf- 
fihle,  to  broach  a  ftcond  before  the  firft  is  out,  leit 
your  ilock  fliould  not  lafl,  and  you  fhould  be  obliged 
to  come  back  to  the  old  barrel.  There  are  thofe  who 
will  repeatedly  crofs  upon  and  break  into  the  conver- 
fation  with  a  frefli  topic,   till  they  have  touched  upon 


1  CON 

Converts,  in  a  monaftic  fenfe,  are  lay-friars,  or 
brothers,  admitted  for  the  fervice  of  the  houfe  ;  with- 
out orders,  and  not  allowed  to  fiiig  in  the  choir.  Till 
the  eleventh  century,  the  word  was  ufed  for  perfons 
who  embraced  the  monkifh  life  at  the  age  of  difcre- 
tion  ;  by  which  they  were  diilinguiflied  from  thofe  de- 
voted in  their  childhood  by  their  parents,  called  ohiuti. 
But  in  the  eleventh  century,  when  they  began  to  re- 
ceive into  monafteries  illiterate  perfons,  incapable  of 
being  clerks,  and  only  dellined  for  bodily  labour,  the 
fignirication  of  the  word  was  neceffkrily  changed. 
F.  Mabillon  obferves,  that   it   was  John   full  abbot  of 


Convert* 

II 
Conviaion, 


all,  and  exhaufled none.    Economy  here  is  ntceffary  for     Vallombrofa  who   firft  introduced  thefe  brother-con- 


itioft  people 

Laugh  not  at  your  own  wit  and  humour  ;  leave  that 
to  the  company. 

When  the  converfation  is  flowing  in  a  ferious  and 
ufeful  channel,  never  interrupt  it  by  an  ill-timed  j^ft. 
The  ftream  is  fcattered,  and  cannot  be  again  collefrt- 
ed. 

Difcourfe  not  in  a  vihifper,  or  half-voice,  to  your 
next  neighbour.  It  is  ill-breeding,  and,  in  fome  de- 
gree, a  fraud ;  converfation-ftock  being,  as  one  has 
well  obferved,  a  joint  and  common  property. 

In  refleftions  on  abfent  people,  go  no  farther  than 
you  would  go  if  they  were  prefcnt.  "  I  refolve  (fays 
bifhop  Beveridge)  never  to  fpeak  of  a  man's  virtues  to 
his  face,  nor  of  his  faults  behind  his  back  :" — A  gol- 
den rule  !  the  obfcrvation  of  which  would,  at  one 
itroke,  banilh  flattery  and  defamation  from  the 
earth. 

CONVERSE,  in  mathematics.  One  propofition  is 
called  the  converfe  of  another,  when,  after  a  conclu- 
fion  is  drawn  from  fomething  fuppofed  in  the  converfe 
propofition,  that  concluiion  is  fuppofed  ;  and  then, 
that  which  in  the  other  was  fuppofed,  is  now  drawn 
as  a  conclufion  from  it  :  thus,  when  two  fides  of  a  tri- 
angle are  equal,  the  angles  under  tliefe  fides  are  equal; 
and,  on  the  converfe,  if  thefe  angles  are  equaJ,  the  two 
fides  are  equal. 

CONVERSION,  in  a  moral  fenfe,  implies  a  re- 
pentance for  a  temper  and  conduft  unworthy  our  na- 
ture, and  unbecoming  our  obligations  to  its  Author, 
and  a  refolution  to  aft  a  wifer  and  a  better  part  for 
the  future. 

Conversion,  in  war,  a  military  motion,  whereby 
the  front  of  a  battalion  is  turned  where  the  flank  was, 
in  cafe  the  battalion  Is  attacked  in  the  flank. 

CoNi'FKno.v  of  Equations,  ihe  fame  with  reduftion 
of  equations  by  multiplication.      See  Algebra. 

CONVERT,  a  perfon  who  has  undergone  a  con- 
verfion. 

Convert  is  chiefly  ufed  in  refpeft  of  changes  from 
one  religion,  or  religious  fc(?t,  to  another.  Converts 
with  relation  to  the  religion  turned  to,  ate  denominated 
apojlaies  with  regard  to  that  they  have  relinquifhed. 

The  Jews  formerly  converted  to  Chriftianity  in  Eng- 
land, were  called  converfos.  Henry  III.  built  them  a 
houfe  in  London,  and  allowed  them  a  competent  fub- 
fiftence  for  their  lives  ;  which  houfe  was  called  domus 
coiwerforum.     But  the  number  afterwards  increafinfc. 


verts,  diftinguiflied  by  their  ftate  from  the  monks  of 
the  choir,  who  were  then  either  clerks  or  capable  of 
becoming  fo. 

CONVEX,  an  appellation  given  to  the  exterior  fur- 
face  of  gibbous  or  globular  bodies ;  in  oppofition  to 
the  hollow  inner  furface  of  fuch  bodies,  which  is  called 
concave:  thus  we  fay,  a  convex  frieze,  lens,  mirror, 
fuperlicies,  I'^c. 

CONVEXITY,  the  exterior  furface  of  a  convex,. 
2.  c  gibbous  and  globular  thing  ;  in  oppofition  to  con- 
cavity, or  the  inner  furface,  which  is  hollow  or  de- 
prelTcd.     See  Concave. 

The  word  is  of  particular  import  in  catoptrics  and 
dioptrics  ;  where  it  is  applied  to  mirrors  and  lenfes. 

A  convex  mirror  reprefents  its  images  fmaller  than 
the  objefts;  as  a  concave  one  reprefents  them  larger: 
a  convex  mirror  rcflefts  the  rays  from  it,  diverging ; 
and  therefore  difperfes  and  weakens  their  effect  :  as 
a  concave  one  reflects  them  converging,  fo  as  they 
concur  in  a  point,  and  have  their  eiTedt  increafed;  and 
by  how  much  the  mirror  is  a  portion  of  a  fmaller 
fphere,  by  fo  much  does  it  diminifh  the  objedls,  and 
difperfe  the  rays  the  more.     See  Mirror. 

A  convex  lens  is  cither  convex  on  both  fides,  called 
a  convexo-convex ;  or  it  is  plain  on  one  fide  and  con- 
vex on  the  other,  called  a  plano-convex ;  or  concave 
on  one  fide  and  convex  on  the  other,  called  a  con- 
vexo-concave, or  concavo-convex,  as  the  one  or  the, 
other  fuface  prevails,  /.  e.  as  thin  or  that  is  a  por- 
tion of  a  fmaller  fphere.  All  convex  lenfes  infleft  the- 
rays  of  light  in  their  paflage,  /'.  e.  fend  them  out  from 
their  convex  furface  converging,  fo  as  that  they  con- 
cur in  a  point  or  focus.  Hence  all  convex  lenfes  mag- 
nify, i.  e.  reprcfent  their  images  larger  than  their  o-b- 
jcfts ;  and  this  the  more  as  they  are  portions  of  fmal- 
ler fpheres. 

CONVEYANCE,  in  law,  a  deed  or  Inftrument  that 
pafTes  land,  &c.  from  one  perfon  to  another. 

CONVICT,  in  common  law,  a  perfon  that  is  found 
guilty  of  an  off^ence  by  the  verdift  of  a  juiy.  See 
the  following  article. 

CONVICTION,  in  law.  When  a  jury  has  given  a 
verdlft  upon  trial,  finding  the  prifoner  guilty,  he  is 
faid  to  be  convicted  of  the  crime  whereof  he  Hands  in- 
didted.     See  Trial. 

When  the  offender  is  thus  convifted,  there  are  two 
collateral  circumftances  that  immediately  arile.  i.  On 
a  convLdlion  in  general  for  any  felony,  the  reafonable 


they  grew  a  binden  to  the  crown;  upon  which  they  expences  of  profecution  are  by  llatiiVe  25  Gco.II.  c.  36. 
were  diftributed  among  the  monafleries  :  and  after  the  to  be  allowed  the  profecutor  out  of  the  county-ft;ock, 
expu'iion  of  the  Jews  under  Edward  III.  the  donnis  if  he  petitions  the  judge  for  that  purpofe  ;  and  by 
(onvajhrum  v^as  given  for  keeping  of  the  rolls.  iiatute  27  Geo.  II.  c.  3.  poor   perfons,  bound  over 

3  ^-o 


ft     C    O     N  [     387     ]  CON 

>nv!<Sion.  to  give  evidence,  are  likevvife  intitlcd  to  be  paid  their  this  means  too  frequently  commenced,  ratlier  for  pri-  ConviAion 

— V '  charge?,  as  well  without  conviaion  as  with  it.      2.  On  vatc  lucre   than    for  the  peat  ends  of  public  iiifticc  H 

a  conviaion  of  larciny   in  particular,  the  profccutor  Above  all,  it   rtiould  never  be  fuffcred,   where  the  tt-    ^"'?^°'"- 

fhall  have   rcftitution   of  his  goods  by   virtue  of  the  llimony  of  the  profccutor  himfelf  is  ncceflTary  to  con-       """' 

ftatute  21  Hen.  VHI.  c.  1 1.      For  by  the  common  lavsr  vid  the  defendant  :   for  by  this  means  the  rules  of'^ovi-  ' 

there  was  no  reftitution  of  goods  upon  an  iudiftraent ;  deuce  are  entirely  fubvertcd  ;   the  profccutor  becomes 

becaufe  it  is  at  the  fuit  of  the  king  only;  and  tliere-  in  efled  a  plaintiff,  and  yet  is  fuffered  to  bear  witncfs 

fore   the   party  was   enforced  to  bring  an   appeal  of  for  himfelf.      Nay,  even  a  voluntary  forgivencfs  by  the 

robbery,   in  order   to  have  his  goods  again.      But,  it  paity  injured,  ought  not,  in  true  policy,  to  intercept 

being  confidered  that  the  party  proferuting  the  offen-  the  Ihoke  of  juflice.      "  This  (fays  an  elegant  writer 

der   by   indiftment,   deferver.  to  the  full   as  much  en-  who   pleads  with  equal    tlrength  for  the  certainly     as 

comagement  as  he  who  profecutes  by  appeal,  this  ila-  for  the  lenity  of  punifiiment),^may  be  an  aft  of  (rood 

tute  was  made,   which  enafts,  that  if  any  perfon  be  nature  and  humanity,  but  it  is  contrary  to  the  ^ood  of 

convidid  of  larciny  by  the  evidence  of  the  party  rob-  the  public.      For  although  a  private    citizen  may  dif- 

bcd,  he  lliall  have  full  rellitution  of  his  money,  goods,  penfe  with  fatisfadion  for  his  private  injury    he  can- 

and  chattels,  or  the  value  of  them  out  of  the  oflend-  not    remove   the    neceffity  of  public   examiile       The 

er's  goods,  if  he  ha?  any,  by  a  writ  to  be  granted  by  right  of  punlihing  belongs  not  to  any  one  individual 

the  juftices.     And  the  conftrudion  of  this  ad  having  in  particular,  but  to  the  focitty  in  general    or  to  th- 

been  in   great  meafure  conformable   to  the  law  of  ap-  fovereign    who  repiclcfits   that   lociety  ;    and   a   min 


peals,  it  has  therefore  in  pradicc  fuperfeded  the  ufe 
of  appeals  of  larciny.  For  indance,  as  formerly  up- 
on appeals,  fo  now  upon  indidments  of  larciny,  this 
writ  of  reilltution  (hall  reach  the  goods  fo  llolen,  iiot- 
wit|ilbuiuing  the  property  of  them  is  endeavoured  to 
be  altered  by  fale  in  market  overt.  And  though  this 
may  feem  fomewhat  hard  upon  the  buyer,  yet  the 
rule  of  law  is,  that  fpolialus  Jebet  ante  omnia  rejlhui, 
efpecially  when  he  has  ufed  all  the  diligence  in  his 
power  to  ct)nvid  the  felon.  And,  fince  the  cafe  is 
reduced  to  this  hard  neceflity,  that  either  the  owner 
or  the  buyer  muft  fuffer ;  the  law  prefers  the  right 
of  the  owner,  who  has  done  a  meritorious  ad  by  pur 


ety 
may  renounce  his  ovvn   portion   of  this  right,  but  he 
cannot  give  up  that  of  others." 

Conviction,  in  theology,  expre.Tes  the  firft  de- 
gree of  repentance,  wherein  the  fmner  becomes  fen- 
lible  of  his  guilt,  of  the  evil  ur.ture  of  lin,  and  of  the 
danger  of  his  own  ways. 

CONVOCATION,  an  afTcmbly  of  the  clergy  of 
l-ngland,  by  their  reprefentatives,  to  confult  of  eccle- 
fiaftical  matters.  It  is  held  during  the  feffion  of  par- 
haiuent,  and  coiifiils  of  an  upper  and  a  lower  houfe 
In  the  upper  fit  the  bifliops,  and  in  the  lower  the  in-' 
ferior  clergy  who  are  rcprefented  by  their  prodors  ; 
conhlbng   of  aU  the  deans  and  archdeacons,  of  one 


fuing  a  felon  to  condign  puniiliment,  to  the  right  of  prodor  for  every  chapter,  and  two  for  the  clergy  of 
the  buyer,  whofe  merit  is  only  negative,  that  he  has  every  diocefe,  in  all  143  divines;  w'a.  22  deans  c 3 
been  guilty  of  no  unfair  tranfadion.^  And  it  is  now  archdeacoHS,  24  prebendaries,  and  44  prodors  of  the 
ufual  for  the  court,  upon  the  convldion  of  a  felon,  to  diocelian  clergy.  The  lower  houfe  choofes  its  nrol 
order,  without  any  writ,  immediate  reftitution  of  fuch  cutor  ;  whoTe  bufinefs  it  is  to  take  care  that  the  mem- 
goods  as  are  brought  into  court,  to  be  made  to  the  bers  attend,  to  colled  their  debates  and  votes  and  to 
feveral  profecutors.  Or  elfe,  fecondly,  without  fuch  carry  their  refolutions  to  the  upper  houfe.  The  con- 
writ  of  reftitution,  the  party  may  peaceably  retake  his  vocation  is  fummoned  by  the  king's  writ,  direcled  to 


goods  wherever  he  happens  to  fnid  them,  uulefs  a  new  the  archbifhop  of  each  province,  requiring  him  to  fum^ 
property  be  fairly  acquired  therein.  Or,  laftly,  if  the  mon  all  bifliops,  deans,  archdeacons,  .Sec. 
felon  be  convided  and  pardoned,  or  be  allowed  his  The  power  of  the  convocation  is  limited  by  a  (la- 
clergy,  the  party  robbed  may  bring  his  adion  of  tro-  tute  of  Henry  VIII.  They  are  not  to  make  any  ca- 
ver againft  him  for  his  goods,  and  recover  a  fatisfac-  nons  or  eccleiiattlcal  laws  without  the  king's  licence  • 
tion  in  damages.  But  iueh  adion  lies  not  before  pro-  nor,  when  permitted  to  make  any,  can  they  put  themi 
fecution ;  for  fo  felonies  would  be  made  up  and  healed :  in  execution,  but  under  feveral  reftridions.    They  hav  - 


and  alfo  recaption  is  unlawful,  if  it  be  done  with  in- 
tention to  fmother  and  compound  the  larciny ;  it  then 
becoming  the  heinous  offence  oi  theft-bote. 

It  is  not  uncommon,  when  a  perfon  is  convided  of 
a  mifdemeanour,  which  principally  and  more  immedi- 
ately affeds  fonie  individual,  as  a  battery,  imprifon- 
ment,  or  the  hke,  for  the  court  to  permit  the  defen- 
dant   to  fpsak  ivith  the  profecutor,   before  any  judge 


,  .   .  ,         ^    .  -  liey  have 

the  examining  and  cenfurmg  all  heretical  and  fchifma- 
tical  books  and  perfons,  &c.  but  there  lies  an  appeal  to 
the  king  in  chanceiy,  or  to  his  delegates.  The  clergy 
in  convocation,  and  their  fervants,  have  the  fame  pri- 
vileges as  members  of  parliament. 

Since  the  year  1665,  when  the  convocation  of  the 
clergy  gave  up  the  privilege  of  taxing  themfelves  to 
the  houfe  of  commons,  they  feldom  have  been  allowed 


ment   is   pronounced  •,  and  if  the  profccutor  declares     to  do  any  bufinefs ;  and  are  generally  prorogued  from 
himfelf  fatisiied,    to  infljd^  but  a  trivial  puiiKhment.     time  to  time  till  diffolved,  a  new  one  being  generally 

The  only  equi- 


This  is  done  to  reimburfe  the  profccutor  his  expences, 
and  make  him  fome  private  amends,  without  the 
trouble  and  circuity  of  a  civil  adion.  But  it  is  furely 
a  dangerous  pradice  :  and,  though  it  may  be  entruft- 
ed  to  the  prudence  and  difcretion  of  the  judges  in  the 
fuperior  courts  of  record,  it  ought  never  to  be  allow- 
ed in  local  or  inferior  jurifdidions,  fuch  as  the  quar- 
ter-feflions :  where   profecutious  for  affaults  are   by 


called  along  with  a  new  parhament. 
valent  for  giving  up  the  privilege  of  taxing  themfelves, 
was  their  being  allowed  to  vote  at  eledlons  for  mem- 
bers to  the  houfe  of  commons,  which  they  had  not 
before. 

CONVOLUTION,  a  winding  motion,  proper  to 
the  trunks  of  fome  plants,  as  the  convolvulus,  or  bind- 
weed ;  the  clafpers  of  vines,  bryony,  &c. 

3  ^  2  CON- 


CON 


r  388  1 


CON 


Gi'.nvo'viv 
lus 


CONVOLVULUS,  bikd-v/eed:  A  f^cnus  of  the 
pcntandria  order,  belonging  to  the  monogynia  clafs  of 
plants ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
29th  order,  Campanacur.  The  corolla  is  campanulaced 
and  plaited  ;  there  are  two  (Ugraata  ;  the  capfule  is 
bilocular,  and  the  cells  are  difpermous.  Of  this  genus 
there  is  a  great  number  of  fpecits,  the  moil  remarkabk 
of  which  are  the  following. 

"  I.  The  fej-iuin,  or  large  white  bind- weed,  is  often 
a  troublcfome  weed  in  gardens,  when  its  roots  are  in- 
terwoven with  tliofe  of  trees  and  fhrubs,  or  under 
hedges,  as  every  fmall  piece  of  root  is  apt  to  grow. 
It  flourifliea  under  moift  hedges,  and  hath  white  or 
purplilh  bloffoms.  2.  The  fcammoriia,  or  Syrian  bind- 
weed, grows  naturally  in  Syria.  The  roots  are  thick, 
run  deep  into  the  ground,  and  are  covered  with  a 
dark  bark.  The  branches  extend  on  every  fide  to 
ihe  diftance  of  10  or  12  feet;  they  are  flender,  and 
trail  on  the  ground,  and  are  garnifhed  with  narrow, 
arrovz-poiutcd  leaves.  The  flowers  are  of  a  pale 
yellow,  and  come  out  from  the  fide  of  the  branches, 
two  fitting  upon  each  long  footftalk  :  thefe  are  iuc- 
ceeded  by  roundifii  feed-veffels,  having  three  cells  fil- 
led with  feeds.  3.  The  purpureas,  or  convolviJus 
major,  is  an  annual  plant  growing  naturally  in  Afia 
and  America,  bat  has  been  long  cultivated  in  the  Eri- 
tilTi  gardens.  If  thefe  plants  are  properly  fuppovtcd, 
they  will  rife  10  or  12  feet  high  in  warm  fiimmers. 
There  are  three  or  four  lafting  varieties  :  the  moll 
common  hath  a  purple  flower ;  the  others  have  a 
■white,  a  red,  or  a  whitifh-blue  flower,  which  lall  hath 
■white  feeds.  They  flower  in  June,  Jdy,  and  Augufl:, 
and  their  feeds  ripen  in  autumn.  4.  The  nil,  or  blue 
bind- weed,  rifes  with  a  tv.'ining  ft;alk  8  or  10  feet  high, 
garniflied  with  heart-fliaped  leaves,  divided  into  three 
lobes,  which  end  in  fliarp  points.  Thcfe  are  woolly,  and 
ftand  upon  long  foot-ilalks.  The  flowers  alfo  come  out 
on  long  foot-ftalks,  each  fuftaining  two  flowers  of  a  very 
deep  bluecolodr,  whence  their  name  of  anil  or  indigo. 
This  is  one  of  the  moft  beautiful  plants  of  the  genus  : 
it  flowers  all  the  latter  part  of  the  fiunmer  :  and  in 
good  feafons  the  feeds  ripen  very  well  in  the  open  air. 
5.  The  battatas,  or  Spanifli  potatoes,  hath  efculent 
roots,  which  are  annually  imported  from  Spain  and 
Portugal,  where  they  are  greatly  cultivated  for  the 
table  ;  but  they  are  too  tender  to  thrive  in  the  open 
air  in  Britain.  Their  roots  are  like  the  common  po- 
tato, but  require'  much  more  room  :  for  they  fend  out 
many  trailing  ftalks,  which  extend  fix  or  eight  feet 
every  way  ;  and  at  their  joints  fend  out  roots  which 
in  warm  countries  grow  to  be  very  large  bulbs;  fo  that 


cultivated  in  the  gardens  of  this  country.  It  is  an  an-  Convo!*a. 
n'lal  plant,  which  hath  feveral  thick  herbaceous  flialks  '"* 
growing  about  two  feet  long,  which  do  not  twine  like  ' 
the  other  forts,  but  decline  toward  the  ground,  upon 
which  many  of  the  lower  blanches  lie  pro:trate  ;  they 
are  garniftied  with  fpear-(haped  leaves,  which  fit  clofe 
to  tile  branches :  the  footdalks  of  the  flowers  come 
out  jull  above  the  leaves  of  the  fame  joint,  and  at  tlie 
fame  fide  of  the  ftalks.  They  are  about  two  inches 
long,  each  fuftaining  one  large  optii  btU-liiaped  flower, 
which  in  fome  is  of  a  fine  blue  colour  with  a  white 
bottom  ;  in  others  they  are  pure  white,  and  fome  are 
beautifully  variegated  with  both  colours.  The  white 
flowers  are  fuccceded  by  white  feeds,  and  the  blue 
by  dark-coloured  feeds ;  which  diiTerence  is  pretty 
conllant.  8.  The  foldanella,  or  fea-biudweed,  ftyled 
alfo  brajjica  niurhia,  grows  naturally  on  the  fea-beaches 
in  many  parts  of  England,  but  cannot  be  long  pre- 
ferved  in  gardens.  It  hath  many  fmall  white  ftriiigy 
roots,  which  fpread  wide  and  fend  out  feveral  weait 
trailing  branches.  Thefe  twine  about  the  neighbour- 
ing plants  like  thofe  of  the  common  bindweed,  gar- 
niihed  with  kidncy-fliaped  leaves  like  thofe  of  the  lef- 
fer  Celandine.  The  flowers  are  produced  on  the  fide 
of  the  brandies  at  each  juint.  Tliey  are  of  a  reddilh 
purple  colour,  and  appear  in  July.  They  are  fuc- 
ceedcd  by  round  capfules,  having  three  cells,  each  con- 
taining one  black  feed.  9.  The  turpethum  is  a  native 
of  the  ifland  of  Ceylon.  This  hath  fleftiy  thick  roots 
which  fpread  far  in  the  ground,  and  abound. with  a 
milky  juice  that  flows  out  when  the  roots  are  broken 
or  wounded,  and  foon  hardens  into  a  rcfinous  fubftance 
when  expofed  to  the  fun  and  air.  From  the  root  fhoot 
forth  many  twining  branches,  which  twiil  about  each 
other,  Cr  the  neighbouring  plants,  like  the  common 
bindweed.  They  are  garuilhed  with  heart-ftiaped 
leaves  that  are  foft  to  the  touch,  like  thofe  of  the 
marllimallow.  The  flowers  aie  produced  at  tlie  joints 
on  the  fide  of  the  ftalks,  feveral  ftanding  together  on 
the  fame  footftalk  :  they  are  white,  and  fiiaped  like 
thofe  of  the  common  great  bindweed,  and  are  fucceed- 
ed  by  round  capfules,  having  three  cells  containing 
two  feeds  each.  10.  The  jalappa,  or  jalap,  ufed  in 
medicine,  is  a  native  of  Haleppo  in  Spanifli  America, 
fituated  between  La  Vera  Cruz  and  RIexico.  It  hath- 
a  large  root  of  an  oval  form,  which  is  full  of  a  milky 
juice;  from  which  come  cut  many  herbaceous  twining 
ftalks  rifing  eight  or  ten  feet  high,  garniflied  with  va- 
riable leaves  ;  fome  of  them  being  heart-fliaped,  (others 
angular,  and  fome  oblong  and  pointed.  They  are 
fmooth,  and  ftand  upon  long   footftalks  :  the   flowers 


from  a  Angle  root  planted  40  or  50  large  potatoes  are     are  ftiaped  like  thofe  of  the  common  greater  bindweed, 


produced.  6.  The  canarienfis,  with  foft  woolly  leaves, 
is  a  native  of  the  Canaries  ;  but  hath  long  been  pre- 
ferved^in  the  Britifli  gardens.  It  hath  a  ftrong  fibrous 
root,  from  whence  arife  feveral  twining  woody  ftalks, 
which,  where  they  have  fupport,  will  grow  more  than 
20  feet  high,  garniflied  with  oblong  heart-fliaped 
leaves,  which  arc  foft  and  hairy.  The  flowers  are  pro- 
duced from  the  wings  of  the  leaves,  feveral  fl^nding 
upon  one  footftalk.  They  are  for  the  moft  part  of  a 
pale  blue;  but  there  is  a  variety  with  white  flowers. 
They  appear  in  June,  July,  and  Aiiguft,  and  fome- 
times  ripen  feeds  here.  7.  The  tricolor,  or  convolvu- 
lus minor,  is  a  native  of  Portugal  j  but  hath  long  been 


each  footftalk  fupporting  only  one  flower. 

Culture.  The  firft  and  fecond  forts  are  propagated 
by  feeds,  which  muft  be  fown  on  a  border  of  light 
earth.  The  ftcond  fort  muft  have  fome  tall  ftakes 
placed  near  them  for  their  branches  to  twine  about, 
otherwife  they  will  fpread  on  the  ground  and  make  a 
bad  appearance.  The  third  fort  is  annual,  and  mull 
be  propagated  by  feeds  fown  on  a  hot-bed  in  the 
fpriiig,  and  towards  tlie  end  of  May  they  fnould  be 
planted  out  in  warm  borders,  and  treated  in  the  fame 
manner  with  the  former.  The  fourth  fpccies  is  fome- 
times  propagated  in  this  country.  The  roots  muft  be 
planted  on  a  hot-bed  in  the  fpring ;  and  if  the  plants 


coo 


I  389  1 


coo 


Coiwolvu-  are  covered  in  bad  weather  with  glafTcf ,  they  will  pro- 


duce flowers  and  fome  fmall  bulbs  from  the  joints  of 
the  llalks :  but  if  they  are  cxpofcd  to  the  open  air,  they 
f<;Id(>m  grow  to  any  i'r.'.e.  The  fiftli  is  propagated  by 
layin;^  down  the  young  fhoots  in  the  fpriiig,  which 
gfntially  put  out  roots  in  three  or  four  months  :  they 
ni  ly  then  be  taken  from  the  old  plnnts,  and  each  pla- 
CL'd  ill  a  fcpnrate  pot,  which  is  to  be  fet  in  the  (hade 
till  they  have  taken  new  root  ;  after  which  they  may 
be  placed  with  other  hardy  green-houfe  plants  till  au- 
t\min,  when  they  ihouM  be  removed  into  the  green- 
houfe,  and  aftervvarcr.  treated  iu  the  fame  manner  as 
myrtles  and  other  green-houfe  plants,  n^he  turbith 
and  ja'ap  are  too  ten  'er  to  live  in  this  country,  unlefs 
they  are  conilantlv  kept  in  a  ftovc.  The  other  fpe- 
cies  require  no  particular  diieftions  for  their  cultiva- 
tion. 

U/fS.  The  root  of  the  fir!l  fort  is  a  vei-y  acrid  pur- 
gative to'the  human  race,  but  is  tateii  by  hog's  in  large 
/jiuintitics  without  any  detriment.  The  iufpifTatcd  juice 
()f  the  fecond  fpecies  is  ufed  in  medicine  as  a  llrong 
purgative;  as  are  alfo , the  roots  of  the  jalappa  and 
turpetlium.  The  ft.ldanclla  has  like  wife  been  ufed 
with  the  fame  intention.  Half  an  ounce  of  the  juice, 
or  a  drachm  of  the  powder,  is  an  acrid  purge.  The 
leaves  applied  externally  are  faid  to  dirainifh  drojficai 
fwelllngs  of  the  feet.      See  Scammony,  Jalap,   and 

TuRPETH. 

CONVOY,  in  naval  affairs,  one  or  more  fliips  of 
war,  eniDh)yed  to  accompany  and  protect  merchant 
fhips,  and  prevent  their  being  infulted  by  pirates,  or 
the  enemies  of  the  ftate  in  time  of  war. 

CovvoY,  in  military  matters,  a  body  of  men  that 
guard  any  fupply  of  men,  money,  ammunition,  or  pro- 
vifions,  conveyed  by  land  into  a  town,  army,  or  the 
like,  in  time  of  war. 

CONUS,  a  CONE,  in  botany  :  a  fpecits  of  fruit  or 
fcaly  feed-vefiel,  fo  termed  by  Touiitcfort  and  other 
botanifts.  Linnxus  has  fubftituled  sTROBn-trs  in  its 
place. 

CONVUIjSION,  a  preternatm-al  and  violent  con- 
traAion  of  the  membranous  and  mufcular  parts  of 
the  body.      .See  (the  Index  fubjoined  to)  Mei»,cine. 

CONWAY,  a  market-town  of  Caernarvoulhire  in 
North  Wales,  fituatcd  near  the  mouth  of  a  river  of 
the  fame  name,  15  miles  weft  of  St  Afajih.  AV.  Long. 
3.  50.   N.  Lat.  53.  20. 

CONYZA,  FLEABANE  ;  a  genus  of  the  polyga- 
mia  fuperflua  order,  belonging  to  the  fyngcnefia  clafs 
of  plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under 
the  49th  order,  Compiptii.  The  pappus  is  fimple,  the 
calyx  imbricated  and  roundilh,  the  coroUulx-  of  the 
radius  trilid.  There  are  1 9  fpecies,  none  of  which  me- 
rit any  particular  defcription. 

CONZA,  a  town  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples  In  I- 
taly,  fituated  on  the  farther  principate,  on  the  river 
Offanto,  50  miles  fouth-eaft  of  the  city  of  Naples. 
li.  Long.  16.  o.  N.  Lat.  41.  o.  It  is  the  fee  of  an 
archbilhop. 

COOK  (Sir  Anthony),  defccnded  from  Sir  Tho- 
mas Cook  lord  mayor  of  London,  was  born  in  ,1506, 
and  fuppofed  to  have  been  educated  at  Cambridge.  He 
was  fo  eminent  for  his  learning,  piety,  and  prudence, 
that  the  guardians  of  king  Edward  VI.  appointed  him 


to  be  his  chief  Inftruflor  in  learning,  and  to  form  his 
manners.  He  had  four  daughters  ;  and  being  refol- 
vcd  to  have  fons  by  educatijn,  left  he  fhould  have 
none  b)-*birth,  he  taught  his  daugiiters  thofe  leffons  by 
night  that  he  had  iufidlcd  into  the  prince  by  day  :  he 
was  happy  in  his  endeavours,  as  they  proved  learned 
in  Greek  and  Latin,  and  equally  diflinguilhcd  by  vir- 
tue, piety,  and  good  fortune.  Mildred  was  married 
to  the  great  lord  Burleigh  ;  Ann  to  Sir  Nicholas  Ba- 
con, lord  keeper  of  the  great  feal  ;  Elifabeth  to  Sir 
John  RufTel,  fon  and  heir  of  Francis  earl  of  Bedford  ; 
and  Catharine  to  Sir  Henry  Killigrew.  He  hved  in 
exile  diiring  the  Marian  perfccution  ;  and  returning 
on  the  acceffion  of  queen  Elizabeth,  fpent  the  reft  of 
his  days  in  peace  and  honour,  dying  in  1576. 

COOK  (Captain  James),  one  of  the  moft  cclebi-a- 
ted  navigators  ever  produced  by  Britain  or  any  other 
country,  was  the  fon  of  James  Cook,  fuppofed  to  have 
been  a  native  of  the  county  of  Northumberland.  His 
ttation  was  no  higher  than  that  of  a  fervant  in  hufban- 
dry,  and  he  was  married  to  a  woman  in  his  own  fphere 
of  life  at  Morton,  a  village  in  the  North  riding  of 
YorkOiIre.  Irom  this  place  they  removed  to  another 
village  in  the  fame  riding  named  Martoti,  whfle  Cap- 
tain Cook  was  born  on  the  27th  of  Odiober  1728. 
He  was  one  of  nine  children,  all  of  whom  are  now 
dead  except  a  daughter,  who  married  a  liflierman  of 
Rcdcar.  He  received  the  firft  rudiments  of  educa- 
tion from  the  fehoolmiitrefs  of  the  village  ;  and  after- 
tei wards,  on  his  father's  removal  to  Great  Ayton,  he 
was  put  to  a  day  fchool,  at  the  expence  of  Mr  Skot- 
tow,  his  father's  employer,  where  he  was  inftrucled  in 
writing  and  in  a  few  of  the  fiift  rules  of  arithmetic. 
Before  the  age  of  thirteen  he  was  bound  apprentice  to 
Mr  W.  Sandcrfon,  a  haberdaflier  or  (hopkeeper  at 
Stiaiths,  about  ten  miles  from  Whitby  :  but  fome 
difagreement  taking  place  between  him  and  his  mafter, 
he  indulged  his  own  inclination  in  binding  himfelf  ap- 
prentice to  Mtffrs  Walkers  of  Whitby,  who  had  fe- 
veral  velfels  in  the  coal  trade  ;  and  after  ferving  a  few 
years  longer  in  the  fituation  of  a  common  failor,  he 
was  at  length  raifed  to  be  mate  of  one  of  Mr  Walker's 
(hips.  During  all  this  period  it  is  not  recoUedled  that 
he  exhibited  any  thing  peculiar  either  in  his  abilities 
or  conduft. 

Early  in  the  year  1755,  when  hoftilities  broke  out 
between  France  and  England,  Cook  entered  on  board 
the  Eagle  of  (ixty  guns,  to  which  veifel  Sir  Hugh  Pal- 
lifer  was  foon  after  appointed,  who  foon  diftinguifhed 
him  as  an  ailive  and  diligent  feaman ;  and  his  promo- 
tion was  forwarded  by  a  letter  of  recommendation 
which  was  written  by  Mr  Ofhaldefton,  member  for  Scar- 
borough, at  the  requeft  of  fevcral  neighbours,  in  Mr 
Cook's  favour.  On  the  ijthofMay  1759,  he  was 
appointed  mafter  of  the  Mercury,  which  foon  after 
failed  to  America,  and  joined  the  fleet  under  Sir 
Charles  Saunders  at  the  memorable  ficge  of  Qu^ebec. 
His  interell  with  the  admiralty  appears  even  then  to 
have  been  vei'y  llrong  ;  for  on  Mr  Ofbaldefton's  letter 
he  was  appointed  mafter  of  the  Grampus  (loop  ;  but 
the  proper  m.aftev  having  unexpectedly  rctiu'ued  to 
her,  the  appointment  did  not  take  place.  Four  day* 
after  he  was  made  mailer  of  the  Garland  ;  when  upon 
inquiry  it  was  foimd  that  he  could  not  join  her,  as  the 

vcUel. 


CwiK. 


coo 


fcience.  In 
thumbeiland, 
land  ;  and  in 


Cook.      vefTel  had  already  failed;  and  the  next  day,  May  15th 

■ — V 17J9,  he  was  made  mafter  of  the  Mercury.     On  this 

occafion  he  was  recommended  by  Captain  Pallifer  to  a 
difficult  and  dangerous  ftrvice,  -viz.  to  take  the  found- 
ings of  the  river  St  Lawrence,  between  the  ifland  of 
Orleans  and  the  north  (hore,  which  he  performed  in  the 
moil  complete  manner  ;  and  foon  afterwards  he  was 
employed  to  furvey  the  moft  dangerous  parts  of  the 
river  below  Quebec  :  thcfe  were  his  firft  efforts  with 
the  pencil.  After  this  expedition  he  was  appointed, 
•  on  the  2  2d  of  September,  mafter  o(  the  Northumber- 
land, ftationed  at  Halifax,  where  he  firft  read  Euclid, 
and  applied  to  aftronomy  and  other  branches  of 
the  year  1762  he  was  with  the  Nor- 
alfifting  at  the  recapture  of  Newfound- 
the  latter  end  of  the  fame  year  he  re- 
turned to  England,  and  married,  at  Barking  in  Ef- 
fex,  Mifs  Elizabeth  Batts.  Early  in  1763,  when  ad- 
miral (then  Captain)  Greaves  was  appointed  governor 
of  Newfoundland,  Mr  Cook  went  out  with  him  to 
furvey  the  coafts  of  that  ifland.  At  the  end  of  tlie 
feafon  he  returned  to  England  ;  but  in  the  beginning 
of  1764,  Sir  Hugh  Palhfer  being  appointed  governor 
of  Newfoundland  and  Labradore,  Mr  Cook  accom- 
panied him  in  the  fame  capacity  of  furveyor,  and  had 
the  Grenville  fchooner  to  attend  him  on  that  buiinefs; 
in  this  fituation  he  continued  till  1767. 

While  Mr  Cook  remained  on  this  ftation,  he  had  an 
opportunity  of  exhibiting  pubhcly  a  fpecimen  of  his 
progrefs  in  the  ftudy  of  aftronomy,  by  a  (hort  paper 
printed  in  the  57th  volume  of  the  Philofophical  Tranf- 
aftions,  intitled  "  An  obfervation  of  an  eclipfe  of  the 
fun  at  the  ifland  of  Newfoundland,  Auguft  5.  1^66, 
with  the  longitude  of  the  place  of  obfervation  de- 
duced from  it."  Mr  Cook's  obfervation  was  made  at 
one  of  the  Burgeo  iflands  near  Cape  Ray,  in  N.  Lat. 
47°  56'  19",  and  by  the  comparifons  of  it  made  by 
Mr  Mitchel  with  an  obfervation  of  Dr  Hornft>y  at 
Oxford,  it  appeared  to  have  been  accurately  done  : 
and  Mr  Cook  at  that  time  obtained  the  character  of 
an  able  aftronomer. 

In  the  mean  time  a  fpirlt  for  geographical  difco- 
veries,  which  had  gradually  declined  fince  the  begin- 
ning of  the  I  7th  centur)-,  began  to  difcover  itfclf  anew. 
Two  voyages  of  this  kind  had  been  performed  in  the 
reign  of  George  II.  the  one  under  Captain  Middleton, 
the  other  by  Captains  Moore  and  Smyth,  with  a  view 
to  difcover  a  northweil  paflage  through  Hudfon's  Bay 
to  the  Eaft  Indies.  Two  others,  under  Captains  By- 
ron, Wallis,  and  Carteret,  had  been  undertaken  foon 
after  the  conclufion  of  thepeace  in  1763  by  order  of 
his  prefent  Majefty  ;  and  before  the  return  of  thefe  na- 
vigators, who  were  ordered  to  fail  round  the  world, 
another  voyage  was  refolved  upon  for  aftronomical  pur- 
pofes.  It  having  been  calculated  that  a  tranfit  of  Ve- 
nus over  the  fun's  dillt  would  happen  in  1769,  a  long 
memorial  to  his  Majefty  was  prefented  by  the  Royal 
Society  ;  in  which  they  fet  forth  the  great  importance 
cf  making  proper  obfervations  on  this  phenomenon,  the 
regard  that  had  been  paid  to  it  by  the  different  courts 
of  Europe  ;  and  iutreating,  among  other  things,  that  a 
veffcl  might  be  fitted  out,  at  the  expence  of  government, 
for  conveying  proper  perfons  to  fome  of  the  Friendly 
Iflands,  in  order  to  make  the  neceffary  obfervations. 
.  This  being  complied  with  on  the  part  of  his  Majefty, 


[       390       ] 


COO 


Alexander  Dalrytnple,  Efq;  an  eminent  member  of  the 
Royal  Society,  was  appointed  to  take  the  command 
of  the  bark  appropriated  for  the  purpofe.  In  the  ex- 
ecution of  the  project,  however,  an  unexpefted  diffi- 
culty occurred.  Mr  Dalrymple,  fenfible  of  tlie  im- 
pofTibility  cf  guiding  a  veffet  through  unknown  and 
dangerous  feas  without  any  pi-oper  command  over  the 
crew,  demanded  a  brevet  commiffion  as  captain  of  the 
veffel,  in  the  fame  manner  as  had  formerly  been  grant- 
ed to  Dr  Halley  in  a  voyage  of  difcovery  made  by 
him.  This  commiflion  iiir  Edward  Hawke  abfo- 
lutely  refufed  to  fign  ;  declaring,  when  preffed  upon 
the  fubjecT:,  that  he  would  rather  fuffer  his  right  hand 
to  be  cut  off  than  truft  any  of  his  Majefty's  (hips  to  a 
perfon  wlio  had  not  been  properly  bred  to  the  fervice  : 
and  in  this  proceeding  he  feemed  to  be  juftified  by  the 
mutinous  behaviour  of  Dr  Halley's  crew  ;  who,  deny- 
ing the  legahty  of  his  authority  over  tlicm,  had  in- 
volved him  in  a  very  difagreeable  dilpute,  and  which 
was  attended  with  pernicious  confequences.  Mr  Dal- 
r)-mple,  on  the  other  hand,  being  equally  determined 
in  his  refufal  to  proceed  without  the  authority  in  que- 
ftion,  there  was  a  neceifity  for  finding  out  fome  per- 
fon of  fcience  who  might  alfo  be  free  from  the  ob- 
jection made  by  Sir  Edward  Hawke.  Mr  Cook  there- 
fore was  propofed  by  Mr  Stephens;  and  his  recom- 
mendation being  feconded  by  Sir  Hugh  Pallifer,  he 
was  immediately  appointed  to  direct  the  expedition ; 
and  on  this  occafion  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
lieutenant  in  his  Majefty's  fervice. 

Mr  Cook's  commiffion  as  lieutenant  was  dated  May 
25.  176S  ;  a  veffel  of  370  tons,  named  the  Eihicavour, 
was  provided  for  him  ;  and  while  the  neccfl'aiy  pre- 
parations were  making  for  the  voyage,  Captain  Wallis 
returned.  It  having  been  recommended  to  this  gentle- 
man to  fix  upon  a  proper  place  for  making  the  aftrono- 
mical obfei'vations,  he  had  accordingly  chofen  the  ifland 
named  by  him  George's  IJland,  but  fince  known  by  the 
name  of  Oto'jrt'/t?;  judging  alio  thatPoit  Royal  haibourin 
it  would  afford  an  eligible  fituation.  This  propofai  being 
accepted,  diredtious  for  the  purpofe  were  accordingly 
given  to  Mr  Cook,  with  whom  Mr  Charles  Green  was 
joined  in  the  aftronomical  part  ;  the  latter  having  been 
affiltant  to  Dr  Bradley  in  the  Royal  Obfervatory  at 
Greenwich,  and  thus  judged  to  be  every  way  qualified 
for  the  office.  The  lieutenant  was  likewife  accompa- 
nied by  Mr  Banks,  now  Sir  Jofeph  Banks,  Dr  So- 
lander,  &c.  The  principal  defign  of  the  voyage  was, 
as  has  already  been  hinted,  to  make  obfei-vations  on 
the  tranfit  of  Venus  ;  but  this  being  done,  Mr  Cook 
was  directed  to  make  further  difcoveries  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean  ;  and  on  the  30th  of  July  1768  he  fet  fail  on 
his  expedition.  An  account  of  the  voyage,  and  the 
difcoveries  made  during  the  time  of  it,  is  given  in  the 
next  article :  here  it  is  fufficient  to  obferve,  that 
throughout  the  whole  Mr  Cook  approved  himfelf  an 
able  feaman;  and  from  his  behaviour  both  to  his  own 
people  and  to  the  favage  nations  he  occalionally  met 
with,  fhowed  a  moll  exadt  regard  to  the  rules  both  of 
juftice  and  humanity.  On  his  firll  arrival  at  Otaheite, 
tlie  following  regulations  were  drawn  up  for  his  peO' 
pie,  which  he  took  care  fhould  be  punctually  obeyed  : 
I.  To  endeavour,  by  every  fair  means,  to  cultivate  a 
friendftiip  with  the  natives,  and  to  treat  them  with  all 
imaginable  humanity.     2.  A  proper  perfon  or  perfous 

to 


Coolt. 


coo  [     391     ] 

Cook,     to  be  appointed  to   treat  with  the  natives  for  provi-     terpreter, 
"^  lions,  fruits,   Sec,  and   no   other   pcrfon  belonging  to 

the  fliip  to  do  fo  without  lenve.      3.   Every  pcrfon  on 
fhore  to  attend  punftually  to  his  duty,  and  to  pay  pro- 
per attention  to  his  tools  or  arms  ;   and  if  loll  throujjh 
negligence,  to  have  the  full  value  charged  againll  his 
pay,   with  fuch  farther  puniihment  inflided  as  occa- 
fion  might  require.     4.  The   fame  penalty  to  be  in- 
flitted  on  every  one  who  Ihould  embezzle,  trade  with, 
or  offer  to  trade  with,  any  part  of  the  (hips  (lores;  and, 
5.   No  iron  to  be  given  in  exchange  for  any  thing  but 
provifions.      His   rigid   adherence  to  thefe   rules  was 
manifelled  in  feveral  inllanccs,  particularly  by  feverely 
punifhing  the  (hip's  butcher,  who  had  thraitened  the 
life  of  a   woman,  wife   to  one   of  the   chiefs    of  the 
ifland,  for   refufing   a  (lone    hatchet   on  the  terms  he 
propofed.     On  eredling  their  obfervatory.  In  corder  to 
go   through   the  allronomical  operations,  an  accident 
happened    which   had   like  to   have   difconcerted  the 
whole  fcheme.      This  was -the  lofs  of  their  quadrant, 
which  had  been  llolen  by  fome  of  the    natives  ;  but, 
chiefly  through  the  exertions  of  Mr  Banks,   it  ivas  re- 
covered,    and    the     ebfervations    made     accordingly. 
Scarce  was  this  accomplifhed,.  however,  before  ano- 
ther theft  of  the  natives  demanded  the  moll  ferious 
conlideration  of  the  commander.      Some  of  them  ta- 
king advantage  of  the  attention  of  the  officers  being 
otherwife  engaged,  took  the  opportunity  of  breaking 
into  one  of  the  llore-rooms,   and  Healing  from  thence 
a  bag  of  fpike  nails  of  no  lels  than  an  hundred  weight. 
This  was  a  moil  important  alfair  ;  for  as  thofe   nails 
were  of  great  eftimation  among  the  Indians,   the  pof- 
feflion  of  fuch  quantity  mull  undoubtedly  have  much 
leffened  their   value,  and   thus   rendered  provifions  of 
evei-y  kind  greatly  dearer  on   the   ifiand  than  before. 
One  of  the  thieves  therefore  being  difcovereJ,  was  pu- 
ni(hed  with  200  ladies;   notwithflanding  which  he  ob- 
llinately   refufed  to  difeover  any   of  his  accomplices. 
Repeated  thefts  committed  afterwards  required  all  the 
wifdom  and  refolution  of  Mr  Cook  to   conduct   hlm- 
fclf  in  a  proper  manner.     After  due  conlideration,  he 
judged  it  to  be  a  matter  of  importance  to  put  an  end 
to  thefe  praftices  at  once,  by  doing  fomelhing  which 
might  engage  the  natives  themfelvcs  to  prevent  them 
for  their   common   interefl.      Thi:^,  however,  he  was 
not  at  prefent  able  to  accompli(h  ;  nor  indeed   did  it 
feem    polfible  to   prevent   them   without    ufing    fire- 
arms, which  from   motives  of  humanity  he  ftill  deter- 
mined to  avoid.     At  lall,  after  a  flay  of  three  months, 
when   preparing  to  take  his  leave,   the  moft  difagree- 
able  adventure  took  place   that   he   had   hitherto  met 
with.     This  was  the  defertion  of  two   of  his  people, 
who  having  married  young  women  of  the  country,  de- 
termined to  take  up  their  relidence  in  it.      Mr  Cook 
was  now  obliged  to  feize  fome  of  the  chiefs,  and  to  in- 
form them  that  they  could  not  obtain  their  liberty  un- 
lefs  the  deferters  were  recovered.      This  at  lafl  piodu- 
.  ced  the   defired  effeft;  the   deferters  were  given   up, 
and  Mr  Cook   fet  fail,  along  v/ith   Tupia   (who  had 
formerly  been  the  prime  minifler  to  Oberea,  a  princefs 
of  the  ifland)    and   a   boy  of  13   years  of   age,  both 
of  whom  were  defirous  of  accompanying  him  to  Eng- 
land. 

While   Mr   Cook   proceeded  to  vifit  others  of  the 
South  Sea  Iflands,  Tupia  oocafionally  fcrved  as  an  iu- 


COO 

On  his  arrival  in  New  Zealand,  Mr  Cook 
found  the  people  extrenielv  hoflile  and  infolcnt.  At 
tiieir  very  tirlt  meeting,  one  of  the  natives  having 
threatened  to  dart  his  lance  into  the  boat,  was  (hot 
dead.  Another,  having  carried  ofFMr  Green's  hanger, 
was  fired  at  with  fmall  (liot,  and  upon  his  Hill  refufmo- 
to  reltore  it,  was  fired  at  with  ball  and  killed.  This, 
however,  produced  very  little  effeft  on  the  red,  who 
offered  to  make  an  attack  upon  them,  till  feveral  muf- 
kets  were  fired  with  fmall  fhot,  wliich  wounded  three 
or  four  more.  Next  day  the  commander,  having  de- 
termined to  force  fome  of  the  natives  on  board,  in  or- 
der to  conciliate  their  afl'cftions  by  kind  treatment, 
directed  his  men  to  follow  two  canoes  whom  he  per- 
ceived under  way  before  him.  One  made  her  efcape, 
but  the  otiier,  not  oblerviug  the  boats  in  purfuit,  was 
overtaken  ;  on  which  the  favages  plied  their  oars  fo 
brilkly,  that  the  Ihip's  boats  were  not  able  to  keep  up 
with  them.  I'upia,  vvhofe  language  the  New  Zealan- 
ders  underftood,  called  to  them  to  return,  with  affu- 
rances  that  no  hurt  Ihould  be  done  them  ;  but  tliey  con- 
tinued their  ilight  without  minding  him.  A  niullcet 
was  then  fired  over  their  heads  with  a  view  to  intimidate 
them,  but  upon  this  they  prepared  to  fight  ;  and  on 
the  coming  up  of  the  boats  began  the  attack  with  fo 
much  vigour,  that  the  lieutenant's  people  were  obli- 
ged to  fire  upon  them  with  ball,  by  which  four  out  of 
feven  that  were  in  the  boat  were  killed,  and  the  other 
three  jumped  into  the  water,  and  were  taken  on 
board. 

This  part  of  Mr  Cook's  condutl  fcems  inconfiflent 
with  that  humanity  for  which  he  was  in  general  fo 
eminently  dilUnguilhed  ;  he  was  aware  of  the  cenfure, 
and  makes  tlie  following  apology.  "  Thefe  people 
certainly  did  not  deferve  death  for  not  choofingto  con- 
fide In  my  promlfes,  or  not  confenting  to  come  on 
board  my  boat,  even  if  they  had  apprehended.no  dan- 
ger :  but  the  nature  of  my  fervlce  required  me  to  ob- 
tain a  knowledge  of  their  country,  which  I  could  no 
otherwife  obtain  but  by  forcing  Into  It  in  an  hoftile 
manner,  or  gaining  admlfTion  through  the  confidence 
and  good  will  of  the  people.  I  had  already  tried  the 
power  of  prefents  without  effevS;  ;  and  I  was  now 
prompted  by  my  defire  to  avoid  farther  hoflihties,  to 
attempt  to  get  fome  of  them  on  board  ;  the  only  me- 
thod we  had  left  of  convincing  them  that  we  intended 
them  no  harm,  and  had  It  in  our  power  to  contribute 
to  their  gratification  and  convenience.  Thus  far  my 
intentions  certainly  were  not  criminal  ;  and  tho'  in  the 
contcft,  which  I  had  not  the  leafl  reafon  to  expedl,  our 
victory  might  have  been  complete  without  fo  great  an 
expence  of  life  ;  yet  in  fuch  fituations,  when  the  com- 
mand to  fire  has  once  been  given,  no  man  can  pretend 
to  reflrain  its  excefs,  or  prefcribe  its  effecl." 

Notwithflanding  the  difafterjufl  mentioned,  to  which 
the  three  New  Zealanders,  who  were  taken  on  board, 
had  been  witneffes,  they  were  foon  conciliated,  and 
began  to  fing  with  a  degree  of  talle  that  furprifed  the 
Engllfh  gentlemen.  They  were  boys,  the  oldcft  about 
19  and  the  youngeft  about  11  ;  but  no  kindnefs 
which  could  be  fhown  them  was  in  any  degree  effec- 
tual to  bring  about  a  reconciliation  with  the  rell.  On 
the  contrary,  having  perceived  the  fhip  in  fome  di- 
ftrefs,  they  inflantly  (bowed  a  difpofition  to  make  aa- 
attatk  J  aud  from  this  they  were  only  prevented  by 

the 


C^r)^, 


coo 


Cook      tlie  firing  of  a  four-pounder  charged  with  grape  ihot. 
"— ^'  Even  this  did  not  produce  any-  periniment  effect ;  ano- 

ther attack  was  deteiTnined  upon,  and  would  undoubt- 
edly have  been  made,  had  not  Tupia  informed  them, 
that  if  they  periifted  in  the  attempt,  the  arms  of  their 
adverfdries,  like  thunder,  would  deftroy  every  one  of 
them.  This  was  enforced  bv  the  fire  of  another  four- 
pounder  with  grape  ihot,  which  fpreadir.g  wide  in  the 
water,  tenified  them  to  fuch  a  degree  that  they  be- 
gan to  paddle  away  as  faft  as  pofuble.  Notwithlland- 
ing  this,  however,  fome  intercourfe  began  to  take 
place  ;  but  in  evei-y  inftance  the  New  Zealanders  ma- 
nifclled  their  hoftility  and  treachery  in  fuch  a  manner 
as  ftiowed  that  they  were  not  to  be  gained  by  fair 
means.  At  lail  an  attempt  to  caiTy  off  Tayeto,  Tu- 
pia'"s  boy,  rendered  it  abfolutely  neceffary  to  fire  upon 
them  in  order  to  refcue  him  from  certain  deftruftion, 
fome  of  the  tivages  having  got  him  into  a  canoe, 
where  they  held  him  down  by  violence.  In  confe- 
quence  of  this  one  of  the  favages  was  killed  on  the 
fpot,  and  leveral  more  wounded,  by  the  difcharge  of 
muil-cets  from  the  boats  ;  Tayeto  recovered  his  liberty, 
jumped  into  tfie  water,  and  fuam  to  the  fliip.  Some 
partial  intercom fe  again  took  place  :  but  ftill  it  ap- 
peared that  the  innate  rancour  of  thefe  favages  was 
neither  to  be  fubdued  by  fair  means  nor  foul ;  and  it 
was  only  by  the  powerful  arguments  of  cannon  and 
rauftetry  that  they  could  be  kept  from  attempting  to 
do  mifchief. 

From  the  account  of  this  voyage  publifhed  by  Dr 
Hawkefworth,  indeed,  it  appears,  that  a  confiderable 
number  of  favages  peiiflicd  in  a  manner  fimilar  to  that 
above  mentioned,  and  they  fcem  to  have  manifefted  a 
more  hoflile  behaviour  than  afterwards  :  on  thofe  me- 
lancholy occafions,  however,  it  is  obfer\-ed  to  the  ho- 
nour of  Mr  Cook,  that  his  humanity  was  eminently 
confpicuous  beyond  that  of  the  common  people,  who 
cU  along  lliowed  as  much  inclination  to  deftroy  the 
Indians  as  a  fportfman  does  to  kill  the  game  he  pur- 
fues. 

While  Mr  Cook  coafted  the  illands  of  New  Zealand, 
he  was  fometimes  in  the  moft.  imminent  danger  of  be- 
ing (hipwrecked.  In  the  latitude  of  35°  louth,  and 
in  the  midll  of  furamer  in  that  climate,  he  met  with 
fuch  a  gale  of  wind  as  he  fcarce  ever  experienced  be- 
fore ;  fo  that  he  vi-as  no  lefs  than  three  weeks  in  get- 
ting ten  leagues  to  the  wellward,  and  two  move  before 
he  could  get  30  leagues  farther.  Fortunately,  how- 
ever, they  were  all  this  time  a  confiderable  way  from 
land,  othenvifc  it  is  probable  that  the  ftorm  muil  have 
proved  tatal. 

Mr  Cook  having  fpent  fix  months  in  circumnaviga- 
ting and  fully  exploring  the  itlands  of  New  Zealand,  he 
failed  from  thence  on  the  3  I  ft  of  March  I  770.  It  muil 
be  obfervcd,  however,  that  the  extreme  hoftility  ma- 
nifcftcd  by  the  inhabitants  in  that  part  of  ths  Illand 
where  he  firft  arrived,  was  not  univerfalh-  difTufed,  but 
tl\at  a  friendly  intercourfe  was  for  a  long  tijne  main- 
tained«ith  thofe  about  Queen  Charlotte's  Sound.  From 
Kew  Zealand  he  proceeded  to  New  Holland,  and  on 
the  28th  of  April  came  in  fight  of  Botany  Bay.  Here 
all  their  endeavours  to  induce  the  natives  to  have  any 
intercourfe  with  them  proved  inetfeftual,  tho'  happily 
there  was  no  blood  fpilt  in  any  quarrel. 

During  their  navigation  round  New   Holland,  the 

'    K"  99.  2 


[     392     ]  COO 

coafts  of  which  are  full  of  dangerous  rocks  and  fnoaU, 
our  navigators  were  brought  into  a  more  perilous  fitua-  "" 
tion  than  ever  ;  and  from  wliiclt  the  efcape  was  fo  ex- 
traordinary, that  it  defetves  a  particular  relation. 
This  happened  on  the  loth  of  June  1770,  as  they 
purfued  their  couifc  from  Trinity  Bay,  and  nearly  ia 
the  latitude  afligned  to  the  itlands  difcovered  by  Qui- 
ros.  At  that  time  they  had  the  advantage  of  a  fine 
breeze  and  a  clear  moonlight  ;  and  In  ftanding  off 
from  fix  till  near  nine  o'clock,  the  fiiip  had  deepened 
her  water  from  14  to  2 1, fathoms;  but  while  the  na- 
vigators were  at  fupper,  it  fuddenly  fhoalcd  to  12,  to, 
and  8  fathoms,  in  the  fpace  of  a  few  minutes.  Every 
thing  was  then  ready  for  putting  the  {hip  about,  when 
they  fuddenly  got  into  deep  water  again,  and  continued 
in  20  and  2 1  fathoms  for  fome  time,  fo  that  the  gentle- 
men went  to  bed  in  perfetl  fecurity.  A  little  before 
eleven,  however,  the  water  ftioaled  at  once  from  20  to 
I  7  fathoms  ;  and  before  the  lead  could  be  heaved  again, 
the  (hip  llruck,  and  remained  immoveable,  excepting 
as  far  as  fhe  was  heaved  up  and  down  and  dallied 
againft  the  rocks  by  the  furge.  The  alarm  was  now 
univerfal,  and  not  indeed  without  the  greateft  reafon. 
It  appeared  that  the  VLlfcl  had  been  lifted  over  the 
l':dge  of  a  rock,  and  lay  in  a  hollow  within  it,  where 
there  were  in  fome  places  from  three  to  four  fathoms 
water,  and  in  others  Icarce  as  many  feet :  the  fiieath- 
ing  boards  were  disjoined,  and  floating  round  the  fliip 
in  great  numbers  ;  and  at  laft  the  falie  keel  alfo  was 
deftroyed,  while  the  rock  kept  grating  her  bottom 
with  luch  force  as  to  be  heard  in  the  fore  ii:ore-room.  It 
was  now  neceffary-  to  lighten  the  Ihip  as  much  as  pof- 
fible  ;  and  tliis  was  done  with  all  expedition  to  the 
amount  of  more  than  50  tons.  In  the  morning  of  the 
nth  of  June  they  difcovered  the  land  at  about  eight 
leagues  dillance,  without  any  ifiand  between,  on  which 
they  could  have  been  fent  aihore  in  the  eveit  of  the 
fliip  going  to  pieces,  that  fo  they  might  have  been  car- 
ried to  the  main  land  by  turns.  To  add  to  their  dif- 
trefs,  the  fliip  drew  fo  much  water,  that  it  could  fcarce 
be  kept  under  by  three  pumps.  Lailly,  It  appeared, 
that  even  the  rifing  of  the  tide,  on  v.hich  tney  had 
utltiraately  depended  for  lelitf,  was  inlufRcient  to 
anfwer  the  purpofe,  as  the  day  tide  fell  confidcrably 
(hort  of  that  in  the  night-time.  Having  therefore 
lightened  the  iliip  ftiU  farther,  by  throwing  out  every 
thing  that  could  poilibly  be  fpared,  they  waited  with 
patience  for  the  next  tide  ;  when,  after  incredible  ex- 
ertion, the  fhip  righted,  and  they  got  her  over  the 
ledge  of  the  rock  into  deep  water.  By  continual  la- 
bour, however,  the  men  were  at  laft  fo  much  exhaufted, 
thattthty  could  not  ftand  to  the  pumps  more  than  five 
or  fix  cilnv.tes  at  a  time ;  after  which  they  threw 
themftlves  flat  on  tlie  deck,  though  a  ftream  of  wa- 
ter between  thice  and  four  inches  deep  ran  over  it ; 
and  in  this  fituation  they  lay  till  others,  exhauiled 
as  well  as  themfelves,  took  their  places,  on  which  they 
Carted  up  again,  and  renewed  their  esertions.  In 
this  dreadful  extremity  Mr  Monkhoul'e,  a  niidihlpman, 
projHjfed  the  expedient  of  iothering  the  fiilp,  as  it  is 
cal  cd,  by  which  means  lie  faid  tliat  he  had  feen  a  mer- 
chant fliip  brought  from  Virginia  to  London  after  flie 
had  fprung  a  leak  that  admitted  more  than  four  feet 
water  in  an  hour.  The  expedient  being  approved  of, 
it  was  put  in  execution  in  the  following  manner.     He 

took 


.C.,.*, 


coo 


C     39 


(•.lok  took  a  lower  (ludding-fail,  and  liaving  mixed  a  larffc 
— -, —  quantity  of  oakum  and  wool  togilhfr,  ftitchcd  them 
down  by  handfuh  as  lightly  as  polliblc;  the  whole  be- 
ine  afterwards  fpread  over  with  the  dung  of  the  ftieep 
and  other  fdth.  The  fail  was  then  hauled  under  tiie 
fhip's  bottom  by  means  of  ropes  which  kept  it  ex« 
tended.  When  it  came  under  the  leak,  the  wool  and 
oakum,  with  part  of  the  fail,  were  forced  inwards  by 
the  prefTure  of  the  water,  which  thus  prevented  its 
own  ingrefs  in  fuch  an  cfFeAual  manner,  that  one 
pump,  inftead  of  three,  was  now  fufHcient  to  keep  it 
under.  Thus  they  got  the  fliip  into  a  convenient  port 
on  the  coaft  of  New  Holland,  where  there  was  an  op- 
portunity of  fully  repairing  her  defeits.  Here  they 
difcovered  that  their  prefervation  had  not  been  owing 
entirely  to  the  expedient  above  mentioned  ;  for  one  of 
'the  holes  was  in  a  great  meafure  filled  up  by  a  piece 
of  rock  which  had  broken  off  and  ftuck  in  it ;  and 
this  hole  was  fo  large,  that  had  it  not  been  filled  up 
in  the  manner  juft  mentioned,  they  muft  undoubtedly 
have  perifhed  notwithftanding  all  the  afuilance  that 
could  have  been  derived  from  the  pumps. 

The  dangers  they  fuftained  in  navigating  this  coaft 
were  innumerable,  infomuch  that  for  very  near  three 
months  they  were  obliged  to  have  a  man  conftantly 
in  the  chains  heaving  the  lead.  They  were  always 
entangled  among  rocks  and  Ihoals,  which  could  not 
have  failed  to  deilroy  a  lefs  experienced  navigator  ;  and 
even  Mr  Cook,  with  all  his  fagacity,  could  not  iome- 
times  have  extricated  himfelf,  had  ii  not  been  for  the 
favourable  interpofition  of  fome  natural  events,  which 
no  human  penetration  could  forefee  or  have  the  Icaft; 
dependence  upon.  Of  this  we  fhall  only  give  the  fol- 
lowing inilance.  Having  at  lart,  as  they  thought, 
got  iafely  over  the  vaft  recefs  of  funk  rocks  with 
which  the  coart  of  New  Holland  is  furrounded,  they 
flattered  themfelves  that  all  danger  was  parted,  and 
the  vait  fwcll  of  the  water  convinced  them  that  they 
were  now  in  the  open  ocean.  The  remembrance  of 
former  dangers,  however,  induced  them  frequently  to 
take  the  precaution  of  founding ;  notv/ithftanding 
which,  in  the  latitude  of  about  I4t"  S.  they  found 
themfelves  one  morning  only  about  a  mile  diltaut  from 
the  moll  hideous  breakers,  though  the  fea  all  around 
was  unfathomable.  Their  fituation  was  rendered  the 
wore  dreadful  by  its  being  a  dead  calm,  at  the  fame 
time  that  they  were  carried  towards  the  rock  with 
fuch  rapidity,  that  by  the  time  they  had  got  the  fnip's 
head  turned  by  means  of  the  boats,  ihe  was  fcarcely 
lOO  yards  diftant  from  it.  Their  only  refource  then 
was  to  tow  the  fhip,  if  poffible,  by  means  of  the  boats 
and  pinnace,  out  of  a  fituation  fo  very  perilous  ;  but 
all  their  efforts  would  have  been  unluccefsfiil,  had  not 
a  breeze  of  wind  fprung  up,  which,  though  too  light 
to  have  been  noticed  at  any  other  time,  was  found  to 
fecond  their  efforts  fo  effedtually,  that  the  fliip  began 
to  move  perceptibly  from  the  reef  in  an  oblique  di- 
reftion  :  during  the  time  that  this  breeze  lalled, 
%«hich  was  not  more  than  ten  minutes,  they  had  made 
a  confidtrable  way.  A  dead  calm  fucceeding,  they 
"began  to  lofe  ground,  and  in  a  little  time  were  dri- 
ven within  200  yards  of  the  rocks  :  but  fortunate- 
ly the  breeze  returned,  and  lalled  ten  minutes  more  ; 
■during  which  time  a  fmall  opening  was  perceived  in 
the  reef  at  the  dillance  of  about  a  (Quarter  of  a 
Vol.  V.  Part  I.  4 


3     1  COO 

mile.  The  mate  being  fent  out  to  examine  this  Cook. 
opening,  reported  that  it  was  not  more  than  the  "~"'^'"~ 
length  of  the  (hip  in  breadth,  but  that  there  was 
fmooth  water  within.  On  this  it  was  determined 
to  pufh  into  it  by  all  means.  The  attempt  fail* 
ed  of  fucccfs;  as,  juft  when  they  had  brought  the 
fhip  with  great  labour  to  the  mouth  of  the  opening, 
they  found  a  cun-ent  fetting  out  from  it  by  reafon  of 
the  tide  now  beginning  to  ebb.  But  though  their 
hopes  were  difappointed  in  getting  through  the  open- 
ing, they  were,  by  the  current  fetting  out  from  it,  dri- 
ven in  a  very  fhort  time  to  the  diftance  of  a  quarter  of 
a  mile  from  the  rocks  ;  and  by  dint  of  towing  and  other 
exertions,  they  were  got  by  noon  to  the  diftance  of 
two  miles.  This  temporary  deliverance,  howeveri 
afforded  but  fmall  profpedl  of  being  ultimately  re- 
lieved. They  had  ftiU  no  other  expeiflation  than 
of  being  forced  back  into  their  former  fituation  by 
the  return  of  the  tide  ;  but  happily  they  now  per- 
ceived another  opening  about  a  mile  to  the  weft- 
ward.  Mr  Hicks  the  lieutenant  being  fent  to  exa- 
mine this  opening,  returned  with  an  account  of  its  be- 
ing narrow  and  hazardous,  but  capable  of  being  paf- 
fed.  To  this  place  therefore  the  (liip  was  directed  by 
every  poflible  means;  and  a  light  breeze  happening  to 
fpring  up,  they  fortunately  reached  it,  and  were  ia- 
ttantly  hurried  thrcrugh  with  great  rapidity  by  the  cur- 
rent of  the  returning  tide  ;  which,  had  it  not  been  for 
this  opening,  would  undoubtedly  have  dafhed  them  to 
pieces  againft  the  rocks. 

From  the  time  they  quitted  the  coaft  of  New  Hol- 
land till  their  arrival  at  Batavia  in  the  idand  of  Java, 
our  navigators  met  with  no  other  danger  but  what  13 
common  In  fea-voyagcs.  'I'hey  were  obliged  to  ftay 
for  fome  time  at  this  place  to  repair  their  damages; 
aiid  on  viewing  the  condition  of  tlie  ftiip,  found  they 
had  more  reafon  than  ever  to  admire  the  manner  in 
which  th-:y  had  been  prefervcd.  Both  the  falfe-ket" 
and  main-ktel  were  greatly  injured  ;  great  part  of  the 
ftieathing  was  torn  off;  feveral  of  the  planks  were  mucli 
damaged,  and  among  thefe  there  were  two,  and  half  of 
another,  which  for  fix  feet  in  length  were  not  above 
the  eighth  part  of  an  inch  in  thicknefs,  befides  being 
penetrated  with  worms  quite  to  the  timbers.  Here 
the  crew  were  exceffively  annoyed  by  ficknefs,  which 
obliged  them  to  remain  much  longer  than  they  would 
otherwifc  have  done  :  and  it  is  worthy  of  notice,  that 
every  one  of  the  crew  was  ill  excepting  the  fail-maker, 
an  old  man  between  70  and  80  years  of  age,  and  who 
was  drunk  every  night.  Poor  Tupia,  with  his  boy 
Taycto,  fell  facrlfices  to  the  unhealthinefs  of  the  cli- 
mate, as  well  as  the  furgcon,  three  feamen,  and  Mr 
Green's  fervant.  Nor  did  the  evil  ftop  here  ;  for  on 
their  fetting  out  from  Batavia,  the  feeds  of  difeafe 
which  had  been  received  there  broke  out  in  the  moft 
violent  and  fatal  manner,  infomuch  that  in  the  courfe 
of  about  fix  weeks  there  died  one  of  Mr  Banks's  af- 
fiftants,  by  name  Mr  Sporing,  Mr  Parkingfon  his  na- 
tural hiftory  painter,  Mr  Green  the  aftronomtr,  the 
boatfwain,  carpenter,  and  mate  ;  Mr  Monkiioulv-  the 
midfiiipman,  the  corporal  of  the  marines,  two"  of  the 
carpenter's  crew,  and  nine  feamen.  Even  the  jolly  old 
fail  maker  could  now  hold  out  no  longer;  but  whe- 
ther his  death  might  not  in  fome  meafure  be  attributed 
to  his  being  lefs  plentifully  fupplied  with  liquors  thai} 
3  D  formerly, 


coo 


Cook,  formerly,  might  have  defcrved  inquirj'.  Thcfe  unfor- 
■"~v—  tunate  events  probably  made  a  coiifiderablc  iiiiprcflioii 
on  Mr  Cook's  mind ;  and  perhapa  induced  him  to 
dirett  his  attention  to  thole  methods  of  preferving  the 
health  of  feamen  which  he  afterwards  put  in  execu- 
tion with  fo  much  fuccefs.  After  touching  at  St 
Helena,  they  continued  their  voyage  for  England, 
where  they  arrived  on  the  nth  of  June  1771  ;  and 
on  the  29th  of  Auguft  the  fame  year,  his  Majelly 
teftified  his  approbation  of  Mr  Cook's  condud  by  ap- 
pointing him  a  captain  in  the  navy.  On  this  occafion 
Mr  Couk  wifhed  to  have  been  advanced  to  the  rank  of 
poft-captain,  which,  though  not  more  profitable  than 
the  other,  is  more  honourable  ;  but  this  being  incon- 
fiftent  with  the  rules  of  preferment  in  the  navy,  the 
earl  of  Sandwich,  at  that  time  at  the  head  of  the  ad- 
miralty, could  not  agree  to  it. 

Captain  Cook  was  not  allowed  to  remain  long  in- 
aftive.  The  idea  of  a  fouthern  continent  had  long 
been  entertained,  and  Mr  Dalrymple  had  renewed  the 
attention  of  the  public  towards  tlie  qucftion,  by  his 
liiftorical  collection  of  voyages  to  the  Paciiic  Ocean, 
publifhed  in  two  quarto  volumes,  one  in  1770,  the 
other  in  1771.  To  determine  the  matter  finally.  Cap- 
tain Cook  was  again  fent  out :  and  the  objttl  of  this 
voyage  was  not  merely  to  fettle  the  qweftion  jull  men- 
tioned, but  to  extend  the  geography  of  the  globe  to 
its  utmoft  limits.  That  the  imdertaking  might  be 
carried  on  with  the  greater  advantage,  it  was  deter- 
mined to  employ  two  (liips,  on  the  choice  and  equip- 
ment of  which  the  utmoft  attention  was  beftowed. 
The  fuccefsful  voyage  which  had  already  been  made 
in  the  Endeavour,  fuggefted  the  idea  of  that  Ihip  be- 
ing a  proper  mode!  for  the  two  which  were  to  be  fent 
out ;  and  the  opinion  of  Lord  Sandwich  concurring 
with  the  general  idea,  two  veffcls,  confi;ruftcd  by  the 
fame  perfon  who  had  built  the  Endeavour,  were  pur- 
chafed  for  the  voyage.  Thefe  were  about  14  or  16 
months  old  at  the  time  they  were  purchafed  ;  and  in 
the  opinion  of  Captain  Cook,  were  as  fit  for  the  pur- 
pofe  as  if  they  had  been  but  newly  built.  The  larger 
of  tlie  two,  of  462  tons  burden,  was  named  the  Rcfo- 
lution  ;  the  fmaller,  of  336  tons,  had  the  name  of  the 
Adventure :  the  complement  of  men  on  board  the 
former,  of  which  Captain  Cook  was  commander,  be- 
ing 1 1 2 ;  on  the  latter,  commanded  by  Mr  Tobias  Fur- 
neaux,  81.  In  their  equipment,  every  article  that 
could  be  fuppofed  neced'ary,  however  much  out  of  the 
common  line,  was  procured,  and  every  circumftance 
that  could  be  fuppofed  to  contribute  to  the  fuccefs  of 
the  voyage  was  attended  to  in  the  moft  fcrupulous 
manner.  Befides  the  ufual  ftores  and  provifions,  all 
of  which  were  of  the  beft  kinds,  the  fliips  vs^ere  fur- 
iiilhed  with  malt,  four-kiout,  faked  cabbage,  portable 
foup,  falop,  muftard,  marmalade  of  carrots,  beer,  and 
infpiifated  wort.  Mr  Hodges,  an  excellent  landfcape 
painter,  was  engaged  to  make  drawings  and  paintings 
of  fuch  objefts  as  required  them.  Mr  John  Reinhold 
Forfter,  with  his  fon,  were  both  engaged,  in  order  to 
explore  and  coiled  the  natural  hiftory  of  the  countries 
through  which  they  palled  ;  and  lailly,  that  nothing 
mi'^ht  be  wanting  to  render  the  voyage  as  complete  as 
poilible,  Mr  William  Wales  and  Mr  William  Bayley 
were  engaged  by  the  board  of  longitude  to  naake  ce- 
ktUal  obfervations.     They  were  furnifhed  with  the 


t     39+     1 


COO 


beft  inftruments  of  every  kind,    and  among  the  reft 
with    four    time-pieces  ;     three    conftrudtcd    by    Mr  ' 
Arnold,   and   one  by  Mr  Kendal  on  Mr  Harrifon's 
principles. 

At  Plymouth  Captain  Cook  received  his  inftruc- 
tions  ;  which  were  not  only  to  fail  round  the  globe, 
but  to  fail  round  it  in  high  fouthern  latitudes,  and  to 
make  fuch  travcrfes  as  might  finally  refolve  the  queftion 
concerning  the  fouthern  continent.  In  purfuance  of 
thefe  inftruftions  he  fel  fail  on  the  13th  of  July  1772, 
and  on  the  29th  of  the  lame  month  reached  the  iVIa- 
dciras.  As  he  proceeded  afterwards  in  his  voyage,  he 
made  three  puncheons  of  beer  from  the  infpilTatctl  wort 
carried  out  along  with  him,  and  found  it  excellency 
to  anfwer  the  purpofe,  provided  the  material  could 
have  been  kept  without  fermentation  in  its  ififpilTated 
ftate  ;  but  as  this  was  found  impoffible,  the  expedient 
feems  to  have  failed.  In  this  voyage,  however,  the 
Captain  ufed  with  the  grcateft  fuccefs  fuch  methods  as 
appeared  likely  to  contribute  to  the  prefervation  of  the 
health  of  his  men.  In  rainy  weather,  he  took  care 
that  the  fliip  fhould  be  aired  and  dried  by  means  of 
fires  made  between  the  decks,  the  damp  places  were 
fmoked,  and  the  people  were  ordered  to  air  their  bed- 
ding, and  walh  and  dry  their  clothes,  whenever  an  op- 
portunity offered.  Thus  he  reached  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  without  having  a  fingle  man  iick.  Having  left 
it,  and  kept  on  his  courfe  to  the  fouthward,  he  foon 
began  to  meet  with  cold  and  Uormy  weather,  by  which 
he  loft  almoft  the  whole  of  his  live  ftock  of  flieep,  hogs, 
and  geefe.  The  bad  effefts  of  this  ftormy  weather  up- 
on the  men  were  guarded  againft  by  an  addition  to 
their  clothing,  and  giving  them  a  dram  on  particular 
occafions.  On  the  fixlh  of  December,  being  in  the 
latitude  of  50°  40',  he  fell  in  with  iflands  of  ice,  and 
continued  among  them  in  various  latitudes  till  the 
1  7th  of  January  1773;  when  he  fet  fail  for  New  Zea- 
land, which  he  reached  on  the  27th. 

The  reception  of  our  navigator  by  the  New  Zealan- 
ders  was  now  much  more  friendly  than  in  the  former 
voyage,  fo  that  there  were  no  contetts  with  the  na- 
tives ;  nor  did  Captain  Cook  obferve  any  one  of  thofe 
whom  he  had  feen  before,  neither  was  there  the  fmal' 
left  remembrance  of  former  hoftilities.  Having  ftaid 
in  this  country  till  the  7th  of  June,  our  navigators  fet 
fail  for  Otaheite  ;  but  during  the  voyage  the  crews  of 
both  fhips  were  attacked  by  the  fcurvy.  Thofe  of  the 
Adventure  were  in  a  very  fickly  ftate  ;  the  cook  was 
dead,  and  20  of  her  beft  men  incapable  of  duty.  On 
board  the  Refolution  matters  were  much  better  ;  and 
the  only  reafon  that  could  be  conjeftured  for  the  dif- 
ference was,  that  the  people  of  the  Adventure  had 
been  in  an  habit  of  body  more  inchned  to  the  fcurvy 
than  thofe  of  the  Refolution,  and  had  eat  fewer  vege- 
tables. Here  it  was  obferved,  that  the  averfion  of  fea- 
men to  a  change  of  diet  is  fo  great,  that  it  can  only 
be  overcome  by  the  fteady  and  perfcvering  example  of 
a  commander.  While  he  remained  at  New  Zealand, 
the  Captain  had  difcovered  a  tree  which  greatly  le- 
fembled  the  American  black  fpiuce.  Perfuaded', 
therefore,  that  it  would  be  attended  with  effefts 
equally  falutary  on  the  health  of  the  people,  he  em- 
ployed them  in  brewing  beer  from  it.  This  was 
done  while  they  continued  at  Dufl<y  Bay,  in  order  to 
fupply  the  want  of  vegetables,  which  were  not  to  be 
5  procured- 


Cnok. 


coo 


Conic 


procured  there  ;  but  on  removinp;  to  Queen  Charlotte's 
.Smind,  they  were  more  fortunate.  Captain  Cook 
liimfclf  went  to  look  out  for  antifuorbutic  vegetables  ; 
and  returned  in  a  very  fhort  time  with  a  boat-load  of 
fcurvy-grafs,  celery,  &c.  Thefe  were  boiled  with  the 
peas  and  wheat  ;  and  though  fome  of  the  people  dif- 
liked  them  at  firft,  they  foon  became  fo  fenfible  of 
their  good  efFefts,  that  they  cheerfully  followed  the 
example  of  the  reft  ;  and  the  freedom  of  the  crew  from 
the  fcurvy  and  other  dillempers  was  by  every  one  at- 
tributed to  the  New  Zealand  fpruce  beer  and  vege- 
tables. From  this  time  forward  the  Captain  had  fcarce 
occafion  to  give  orders  for  gathering  vegetables  when 
they  came  to  any  land. 

During  this  voyage  Captain  Cook  experienced  ano- 
ther narrow  efcape  from  fliipwreck.  Being  becalmed 
at  the  diftance  of  half  a  league  from  a  reef  of  rocks 
near  Ofnaburg  Ifland,  it  was  found  necelTaiy  to  order 
out  the  boats  to  tow  off  the  fliips ;  but  this  was  found 
impolTible.  The  calm  continuing,  and  the  fituation 
of  our  navigators  becoming  every  moment  more  dan- 
gerous, the  Captain  attempted  to  get  through  an 
o])ening  in  the  reef  which  he  had  judged  practicable : 
but  on  approaching  it,  found  that  there  was  not  fuf- 
ficient  depth  of  water;  at  the  fame  time  that  the 
draught  of  the  tide  through  it  forced  the  ftiip  thither  in 
a  manner  fcarce  to  be  refiitcd.  One  of  the  warping  ma- 
chines, with  about  400  fathoms  of  rope,  was  then  or- 
dered out,  but  did  not  produce  any  effcft.  They  were 
within  two  cables  length  of  the  breakers,  and  no  bot- 
tom could  be  found  for  calling  anchor.  Having  no 
other  refource,  however,  they  did  drop  an  anchor  ; 
but  before  it  took  hold,  the  Refolution  was  in  lefs 
than  three  fathoms  water,  and  llruck  at  evei-y  fall  of 
the  fea,  which  broke  violently  clofe  under  her  ilern, 
threatening  deftniftion  to  every  one  on  board.  At 
lall  the  tide  ceafmg  to  aft  in  the  fame  direftion,  the 
boats  were  ordered  to  try  to  tow  off  the  veflel  ;  in 
which  being  affifted  by  the  land-breeze,  which  fortu- 
nately fprung  up  at  that  inftant,  they  with  much  labour 
fucceedtd. 

Having  fpent  a  confiderable  time  in  the  South  Sea 
iflands.  Captain  Cook  returned  to  New  Zealand,  and 
from  thence  fet  fail  for  the  fouthern  part  of  the  conti- 
nent of  America.  Here  he  explored  all  the  iflands  in 
the  neighboiuhood,  and  then  returned  to  England, 
where  he  arrived  in  lafety  on  the  30th  of  July  1774, 
having  been  abfcnt  three  years  and  18  days  ;  and  in  all 
that  time  loft  only  one  man,  who  died  of  a  confump- 
tion  probably  begun  before  he  fet  out  on  the  voy- 
age- 

The  reception  our  navigator  now  met  with  wasfuit- 
ed  to  his  merit.  He  was  immediately  raifed  to  the 
rank  of  pofl-captain,  and  foon  after  luianimouOy  elec- 
ted a  member  of  the  Royal  Society  ;  from  wliom  he 
received  the  prize  of  the  gold  medal  for  the  belt  expe- 
rimental paper  that  had  appeared  throughout  the  year. 
It  was  the  cuftom  of  Sir  John  Pringle,  at  the  delivery 
of  this  medal,  annually  to  make  an  elaborate  difcourfe, 
containing  the  hiftory  of  that  part  of  fcience  for  which 
the  medal  was  given  ;  and  as  the  fubject  of  Captain 
Cook's  paper  (the  means  of  prefcrving  the  health  of 
feamen)  was  analogous  to  the  proftlTion  of  Sir  John 
Pringle  himfelf  as  a  phyfician,  he  had  the  greater  op- 
portunity of  difplaying  his  tlog^uence  on  the  occafion. 


r  '39^  ] 


coo 


The  fpecch  he  made  was  in  the  highell  degree  honour- 
able to  Captain  Cook.  He  remarked,  that  the  Society 
had  never  more  mcrltorioufly  beftowcd  the  medal  than 
on  the  pcrfon  who  now  received  it.  "  If  (fays  he) 
Rome  decreed  the  civic  crown  to  him  who  faved  the 
life  of  a  fingle  citizen,  what  wreaths  arc  due  to  the 
man  who,  having  himfelf  faved  many,  perpetuates  in 
your  Tranfaftions  the  means  by  which  Britain  may 
now,  on  the  molt  diftant  voyages,  prcfcive  numbers  of 
her  intrepid  fons,  her  mariners  ;  wlio,  braving  every 
danger,  have  fo  liberally  contributed  to  the  fame,  to 
the  opulence,  and  to  tlic  maritime  empire  of  the  coun- 
try i"  Thefe  honourable  teftinionies  of  the  public  re- 
gard, however,  Captain  Cook  did  not  receive,  being 
already  embarked  on  another  voyage,  from  which  he 
never  returned. 

The  third  voyage  of  this  celebrated  navigator  was 
not  undertaken  by  any  exprefs  command  of  his  Ma- 
jefty.  Captain  Cook  had  already  done  fo  much,  that 
it  was  thought  but  reafonable  he  ihould  now  fpend  the 
remainder  of  his  life  in  quiet  ;  and  in  order  to  enable 
him  to  do  this  in  the  more  comfortable  manner,  befides 
his  rank  of  poft-captain  in  the  navy,  he  was  alfo  made 
a  captain  in  Greenwich.  Still,  however,  there  were 
fome  points  in  the  fcience  of  geography  which  had  very- 
much  engaged  the  attention  of  the  public,  and  were  in- 
deed of  fuch  importance  as  to  become  a  national  concern. 
Thefe  were  to  difcover  the  connexion  between  Alia  and 
America,  and  to  detennine  whether  there  was  not  a  pof- 
fibillty  of  fliortening  the  padage  to  the  Eaft  Indies  by 
failing  round  the  northern  parts  of  the  continents  of 
Europe  and  Afia.  Many  attempts,  indeed,  had  already 
been  made  by  various  navigators  of  different  nations  ; 
but  all  of  tliem  had  failed,  and,  what  was  worfe,  had 
left  the  point  Hill  undetermined.  An  aCl  of  parlia- 
ment had  been  pafted  in  i  745,  by  which  a  reward  of 
L.  20,000  was  held  out  to  the  fhlps  of  any  of  his  Ma- 
jefty's  fubjefls  for  accompliftiing  this  important  voy- 
age, but  without  mentioning  any  thing  of  thofe  be- 
longing to  his  Majefly  ;  and  this  reward  was  further 
confined  to  the  finding  out  of  the  north-well  pafTage 
to  the  Eaft  Indies  through  Hudfon's  Bay.  In  the 
year  1776,  however,  both  the  errors  juft  mentioned 
were  correcled.  It  was  now  enafted,  "  That  if  any 
fhip  belonging  to  any  of  his  Majelly's  fubjefts,  or  to 
his  Majefly,  fliall  find  out,  and  fail  through,  any  paf- 
fage  by  fea  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans, 
in  any  diredlion  or  parallel  of  the  northern  hemifphere, 
to  the  northward  of  the  ;id  degree  of  northern  lati- 
tude ;  the  owners  of  fuch  fhips,  if  belonging  to  any 
of  his  Majefly's  iubjecls,  or  the  commanders,  officer.'!, 
and  feamen,  of  fuch  fliip  belonging  to  his  Majefty, 
fhall  receive,  as  a  reward  for  fuch  difcovery,  the  fnca 
of  L.  2  0,000. 

It  was  not,  as  has  already  been  hinted,  now  deem- 
ed proper  to  folicit  Captain  Cook  to  undergo  frefh 
dangers  by  undertaking  a  voyage  of  tliis  kind;  ne- 
verthclefs,  as  he  was  univerfally  looked  upon  to  be 
the  fittell  perfon  in  the  kingdom  for  the  purpofe,  the 
eyes  of  every  perfon  were  tacitly  fixed  upon  him  :  he 
was  confulted  on  every  thing  relating  to  it,  and  foli- 
cited  to  name  the  perfon  whom  he  judged  moil  proper 
to  conduft  it.  To  determine  this  point.  Captain  Cook, 
Sir  Hugh  Pallifer,  and  Mr  Stephens,  were  invited  to 
tlie  houfe  of  Lord  Sandwich  to  dinner;  where,  befides 
3  D  2  the 


Cook. 


coo 


<3'oV.  the  conSdeMtion  of  the  proper  offi«r  for  cotidiitting 
"■~i~~  thf  cxpijdition,  many  things  were  faid  concerning  the 
nature  of  the  defign.  They  enlarged  upon  its  gran- 
deur and  dignity,  its  confequerices  to  navigation  and 
fcitnce,  and  the  completenefs  it  would  give  to  the 
whole  fyllem  of  difcoveries;  until  at  lad  Captain  Cook 
was  f()  much  inflamed  by  the  repreftntation  of  the  im- 
portance of  the  voyage,  that  he  ftarted  up,  and  declared 
that  he  would  condnA  it  himfelf.  This  was  what  the 
parties  prefent  had  defired,  and  probably  expctted  ; 
his  offer  was  therefore  inftantly  laid  before  the  king, 
and  Captain  Cook  appointed  commander  of  the  Ex- 
pedition by  the  loth  of  February  1 776.  At  the  fame 
time  it  was  agreed,  that  on  his  return  from  the  voyage 
he  (hould  be  reftored  to  his  place  at  Greenwich  ;  and 
if  no  vacancy  occurred  during  the  interval,  the  officer 
who  fucceeded  him  was  to  refign  in  his  favour.  The 
inftrudlions  he  now  received  were,  that  he  fliould  at- 
tempt the  high  latitudes  between  the  continciits  of 
Afia  and  America,  and  if  pofllblc  return  to  England 
ulong  the  northern  coafts  of  Afia  and  Europe.  This 
vas  mod  probably  the  refult  of  the  Captain's  own  de- 
liberations, and  what  had  been  fuggefted  by  him  toLord 
Sandwich  and  other  people  in  poAver.  He  was  par- 
ticularly defired  to  fail  firft  into  the  Pacific  Ocean  thro' 
the  chain  of  newly  difcovered  ifiands  which  he  had 
lately  vifited.  After  having  crofled  the  equator,  and 
paffed  into  the  northern  parts  of  the  ocean  jull  men- 
tioned, he  was  then  to  hold  fuch  a  courfe  as  might 
tend  to  fettle  many  interefting  points  of  geography, 
and  produce  fome  intermediate  difcoveries,  before  be 
arrived  at  the  main  fcene  of  operation.  With  regard 
to  this  principal  objeft,  he  was  ordered,  immediately 
on  his  arrival  on  the  coaft  of  New  Albion,  to  proceed 
northward  as  far  as  the  latitude  of  65  degrees,  without 
lofing  any  time  in  exploring  creeks  or  rivers  previous 
to  his  arrival  in  that  latitude  :  and  for  his  further  en- 
couragement, the  aft  of  1745,  offering  a  premium  for 
the  difcovery  of  the  paffage,  was  amended  in  the  man- 
ner above  mentioned.  That  nothing  miglit  be  want- 
ing which  could  promote  the  fuccefs  of  the  *grand  ex- 
pedition, I.,ieutenant  Pickerfgill  was  ftntout,  in  1776, 
with  direftions  to  explore  the  coafts  of  Baffin's  Bay  ; 
and  the  next  year  Lieutenant  Young  was  commiflioned 
not  only  to  examine  the  weftern  parts  of  that  bay,  but 
to  endeavour  to  find  a  paffage  on  that  fide  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Nothing,  however,  was 
performed  by  either  of  thefe  gentlemen  which  in  the 
leaft  coidd  promote  Captain  Cook's  fuccefs.  Two 
Vefftls  were  provided  as  in  the  former  voyage,  viz.  the 
Refolution  and  the  Difcovery  ;  the  command  of  the 
former  being  given  to  Captain  Cook,  and  of  the  latter 
ko  Captain  Charles  Cleike.  The  only  thing  in  which 
the  appointment  of  the  Difcovery  differed  from  that 
»f  the  Refolution  was,  that  ihe-formcr  had  no  marine 
'officer  on  board.  Every  degree  of  attention  was  be- 
ftowed,  as  in  the  former  voyage,  upon  the  proper 
yiftualling  and  other  neceffaries  for  the  two  (hips  ; 
and  that  the  inhabitants  of  thofe  countries  which  our 
tiavigator  intended  to  vifit  might  derive  fome  perma- 
Tient  benefit  from  the  intercourfe  they  had  with  him, 
it  was  detemlncd  to  fend  abroad  a  breed  of  domeflic 
animals,  and  likewife  a  quantity  of  ufcful  feeds,  to  be 
left  in  proper  places.  With  this  view,  a  bull,  two 
.••i)ws  with  their  calves,  and  feverzl  flietp,  with  hay  and 


[        396       1 


COO 


corn  for  their  fubfiflence,  were  taken  on  boar-!;  arid 
it  was  hkewifo  purpofed  to  take  in  others  at  the  Capo 
of  Good  Hope.  A  large  affortment  of  iron  tools  and 
trinkets  was  alio  iint  out  ;  and,  in  (hort,  every  tliinor 
that  could  be  judged  proper  either  to  conciliate  the 
good  will  of  the  natives  or  to  prove  ferviceable  to 
them,  was  providi:d  for  the  voyage,  as  wcH  as  every 
convenience  for  the  (hips  companies.  In  the  former 
voyage  Captain  Cook  had  brought  along  with  hirn  a 
native  of  one  of  the  South  Sea  iilands,  named  Omai, 
who  refided  in  England  during  the  interval  between 
the  fecond  and  third  voyages,  and  was  now  happy  at 
getting  an  opportunity  of  returning  to  his  ovni  coun- 
tr)'.  Though  he  could  by  no  means  complain  of  the 
entertainment  he  had  met  with  in  England,  the  idea 
of  returning  home  loaded  with  treafure,  which  mi"lit 
enable  him  to  make  a  figure  among  fiis  countrj-men, 
foon  overcame  ail  unealy  fenfations  which  the  leavinif 
of  his  Englilh  friends  might  excite.  His  majcfty  had 
taken  care  to  furnilh  him  with  every  thing  that  could 
poflibly  be  of  ufe  when  he  came  to  his  native  country; 
and  he  had  befides  received  feveral  valuable  prefents 
from  Lord  Sandwich,  Sir  Jofeph  Banks,  and  feveral 
ladies  and  gentlemen  of  his  acquaintance  ;  fo  that 
nothing  was  omitted  which  could  poffibly  be  done  to- 
convey,  by  his  means,  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  South 
Sea  iflands  an  idea  of  the  Britilh  power  and  great- 
nefs. 

Every  thing  being  prepared  for  the  voyage,  our  na^ 
vigator  fet  fail  from  the  Nore  on  the  25th  of  Jun« 
1776;  but  by  reafon  of  fome  delay  in  receiving  his  in- 
ftruftions,  did  not  leave  Plymouth  till  the  12th  of  July. 
He  had  not  been  long  at  fea  before  he  began  his 
operations  for  preferving  the  health  of  his  people  ; 
which  were  found  equally  efficacious  in  this  as  in  the 
former  voyage.  Finding  his  ftock  of  provender  for 
the  animals  on  board  likely  to  run  Ihort,  he  touched 
at  Tencriffe,  in  order  to  procure  a  fupply,  having- 
judged  that  to  be  a  more  proper  place  than  Madeira 
for  the  purpofe.  On  failing  from  thence  he  ran  a^ 
great  rifk  of  running  upon  fome  funk  rocks  on  the. 
ifland  of  Bonavifta ;  but  in  this,  as  well  as  on  other 
occafions  of  danger,  he  behaved  with  the  feme  judge- 
ment, coolnefs,  and  prefence  of  mind,  that  dillinguifhed 
him  throughout  the  whole  courfe  of  his  life.  On  the 
1 2th  of  Augufl  he  arrived  before  Port  Praya,  in  one 
of  the  Cape  de  Verde  iflands  named  St  jfago  ;  but  not 
finding  it  neceffary  to  go  in  there,  he  continued  his 
voyage  to  the  fouthward.  The  weather  now  be- 
coming gloomy  and  rainy,  required  a  continuance  of 
the  methods  he  had  already  praftifed  for  preferving 
the  health  of  his  people ;  and,  as  formerly,  they  were, 
attended  with  the  greateft  fuccefs.  la  this  voyage, 
the  effeft  of  thefe  precautions  was  the  more  remark- 
able, as  at  this  time  the  feams  of  the  vefTel  were  opened 
to  fuch  a  degree  as  to  admit  the  rain,  fo  that  fcarce 
any  perfon  on  board  could  lie  dry  in  fiis  bed  ;  and  all 
the  officers  in  the  gun-room  were  driven  out  of  their 
cabbins  by  the  water  which  came  through  the  fides. 
Such  was  the  humanity  of  the  commander,  however,, 
that  while  the  fhips  continued  at  fea,  he  would  not 
truil  the  workmen  over  their  fides  to  repair  the  de- 
fers, though  caulkers  were  employed  in  the  infide  as 
foon  as  fettled  weather  returned.  On  the  ill  oi 
September  our  navigators  crolTed  the  equator,  and  00 

the 


coo  [397 

eo"It.      the   t?th  of  Oftober  anchored   in  Table  Bay  at   the     ty 

— "V Cape  of  Good  Hope.     Here  they  met  with  a  violent 

teinpcft,  the  effcdts  of  which  were  fek  both  on  fea  and 
land.  It  hfted  three  days,  and  the  Refoliition  was 
the  only  fliip  in  the  bay  tliat  roje  out  the  ftonii  with- 
out dragging  her  anchors.      On   fhore   the  tents   and-   cers  as  conld  be  depended  upon.    The  New  Zealanders 


]  COO 

He  waj,  however,  particularly  careful  that  no 
opportunity  (hould  now  be  given  the  favages  of  com- 
mitting fuch  an  aftloii  with  impunity;  and  with  this 
view  a  boat  waj  never  fent  on  fliore  witlio'ut  being  well 
armed,  and  the  m-jn  under  thi  command  of  fuch  offi- 


Colli:-. 


obfcrvatory  were  dellroyed,  and  the  aftronomicul  qua- 
drant narrowly  eicaped  irreparable  damage.  The  Dif- 
covery,  which  had  been  lome  time  later  in  failing 
from  England,  was  driven  off  the  coaft,  and  did  not 
arrive  till  the  loth  of  November. 

While  they  remained  in  this  place,  a  difafter  happen- 
ed which  threatened  the  lofs  of  mod  of  their  live  liock. 
The  bull  and  two  cows  had  been  put  afhore  to  graze 
among  other  cattle  ;  but  Captain  Cook  had  been  advi- 
fed  to  keep  the  iheep,  1 6  in  numl;tr,  near  the  tents, 
where  they  were  penned  in  every  night.  Some  dogs 
having  got  in  among  them  in  the  night-time,  killed 
four,  and  difperfed  the  rell.  Six  of  them  were  reco- 
vered the  next  day,  but  the  two  rams  and  two  of  the  ti- 
rell  ewes  in  the  fiock  were  mifhng.  The  captain  applied 
to  Baron  PlttteEbnrg  the  governor  ;  but  all  his  endea- 
vours were  unfuccefsful,  until  he  employed  fome  of  the 
meanefl  and  loweft  of  the  people,  fellows  whofe  cha- 
ratter  was,  that  for  a  ducatoon  they  would  cut  their 
fnafter'a  throat,  burn  die  houfe  over  his  head,  and  bury 
him  and  his  v/hole  family  in  alhes.  This  is  mentioned  as 
an  inftnnce  how  far  ilx;  boafttd  policy  of  the  Dutch  go- 
vernment at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  falls  (hoit  of  its 
allcg«d  ptrfeftion.  After  all,  two  of  the  finelt  ewes 
in  the  flock  were  niifhng,  and  never  could  be  recover- 
ad.  The  captain,  thereforey  to  repair  this  lofs,  and 
to  make  an  addition  to  his  original  ftock,  purchafed 
two  young  bulls,  two  ftone  horfes,  two  mares,  two 
heifers,  two  rams,  feveral  ewes  and  goats,  with  fome 
rabbits  and  poultry  ;  when,  having  finifhedall  his  bu- 
finefs,  he  fet  fail  on  the  30th  of  November,  though.it 
was  not  till  the  3d  of  December  that  he  got  clear  of 
land.  Soon  after  his  putting  to  fea,  he  had  the  mif- 
fejrtune  to  lofe  feveral  of  the  goats,  efpecially  the  males, 
together  with  fome  fheep  ;  and  it  was  with  the  utmoll 
difficulty  that  the  reft  of  the  cattle  were  preferved,  by 
reafon  of  the  (hip  tofling  and  tumbling  about  in  a  very 
heavy  fea.  Having  explored  fome  defolate  iflands  in  the 
fouthern  feas,  Captain  Cook  fet  fail  for  New  Zealand. 
During  this  part  of  the  voyage,  our  navigators  were 
hivolved  in  fo  thick  a  fog,  that,  according  to  the  au- 
thors of  Captain  Cock's  life,  "  they  failed' 300  leagues 
in  the  dark."  1'he  tirit  land  they  afterwards  reached 
was  New  Holland ;  where,  having  remained  till  the  30th- 
of  January  I  777,  they  fet  failfor  New  Zealand,  and  on 
the  12th  of  February  they  anchored  in(^eenChailutte's 
Sound.  Here  the  people  were  fty  and  timorous,  on 
account  of  their  having  formerly  deftroyed  10  of  Cap- 
tain Furneaux's  people,  who  had  been  fent  afhore  to 
gather  vegetables.  The  caufe  of  the  quarrel  could  not 
be  known,  as  none  of  the  party  were  left  alive  to  tell 
the  news.  Lieutenant  Burney,  who  went  alhore  in 
queft  of  them,  found  only  fome  fragments  of  their  bo- 
dies ;  from  which  it  appeared  that  they  had  been  kill- 
ed and  eaten  by  the  favages.  It  was  not  the  intention 
of  Captain  Cook,  at  this  diftance  of  time,  to  refeiit  the 
injury  ;  he  even  refufed  to  put  to  death  a  chief  named 
Kahoora,  who,  as  he  was  informed  by  the  natives  them- 
felves,  had  killed  Mr  Ruwe  the  commandsr  of  die  par- 


were  no  fooner  affured  of  Captain  Cook's  pacific  dif- 
pofition,  than  they  threw  afide  their  fears  and  fufpi- 
cions,  and  entered  into  a  commercial  intercourfe  with 
the  people.  It  would  have  been  the  lefs  excufable  in 
Captain  Cook  to  have  revenged  at  this  time  the  maf- 
f.tcre  of  Mr  Rowe's  party,  as  he  was  allured  that  the 
quarrel  originated  from  fome  petty  thefts  of  the  favages, 
which  were  too  haftily  refeiited  on  the  part  of  the  Bri- 
tlfli  ;  and  had  it  not  been  lor  this,  no  mifchief  would 
have  happened. 

On  the  25th  of  February  our  navigator  left  New 
Zealand,  taking  with  him,  at  the  requeft  of  Omai, 
two  boys,  the  eldell  about  18  and  the  youngeft  about 
10.  Thcfe  were  foou  cured  of  their  paihon  for  tra- 
velling, being  both  violently  fea-fick  :  but  as  it  waa 
then  too  late  to  repent,  they  expreffed  their  grief  in 
loud  and  almoft  continual  lamentation  ;  and  this  in  a 
kind  of  long  which  feemed  to  con  fid  of  the  praifes  of 
their  native  country,  whence  they  were  now  to  be  fe- 
parated  for  ever.  By  degrees,  however,  the  fea-fick- 
nefs  abated,  their  lamentations  became  lefs  frequent, 
and  at  lall  ceafed  entirely  ;  their  native  country  was 
forgotten,  and  they  appeared  to  be  as  firmly  attached 
to  their  new  friends  the  Englifli  as  if  they  had  been 
born  among  them. 

So  much  time  was  now  fpent  in  failing  up  and  down 
:n  the  Pacific  Ocean,  where  feveral  new  illands  were 
difcovered,  that  Captain  Cook  judged  it  impofilble  to 
accomplilh  any  thing  for  this  year  in  the  high  northern 
latitudes  ;  fur  which  reafon  he  determined  to  bear  a- 
way  for  the  Friendly  Iflands,  in  order  to  fupply  him- 
felf  with  thofe  neceffaries  which  he  had  found  impof- 
fible  to  be  got  at  any  of  the  iflands  which  he  had  jufl 
difcovered.  In  his  run  thither  feveral  new  iflands  were 
vihted  ;.  and  in  profecuting  thefe  difcoveries  our  navi- 
gator once  more  narrowly  efcaped  being  fliipwrecked. 
The  danger  at  this  time  arofe  from  a  low  fandy 
ifland,  which  the  Rcfohition  was  very  near  running  upon. 
From  this  flie  was  only  faved  by  the  circuniftance  of 
all  the  men  having  been  accidentally  called  upon  deck 
to  put  the  vefTel  about,  and  mofl  of  them  being  at 
their  ftations  when  tiie  danger  was  difcovered.  Soon 
after  this  both  ihips  flruck  upon  fome  funk  coral 
rocks,  but  happily  were  got  off  without  damage. 

After  a  flay  of  between  two  and  three  months, 
Captain  Cook  took  leave  of  the  Friendly  Iflands  on  the 
13th  of  July  1777  ;  and  on  the  12th  of  Auguft 
reached  Otaheite,  where  he  introduced  Omai  to  his 
country  people,  and  whofe  reception  by  them  is  par- 
ticularly related  under  the  next  article.  Here  thc. 
Captain  found  the  people  of  Otaheite  ready  to  engage 
in  a  war  with  thofe  of  Eimeo  ;  but  though  ftrongly 
folicited  by  the  former  to  affifl  them  in  an  expedition 
againft  their  enemies,  he  refufed  to  take  any  concern 
in  the  affair,  alleging,  by  way  of  excufe,  that  the 
people  of  Eimeo  had  never  offended  him.  This  feeined 
to  fatisfy  mofl  of  the  chiefs;  but  one,  named  Towha, 
was  fo  much  difpleafed,  that  Captain  Cook  could  ne- 
ver regain  his  favour.     He  even  threatened,  that  as- 

Jo  on- 


coo 


[  398  ] 


coo 


.Co--k.  foon  as  the  Captain  ftiould  be  gone,  he  would  make 
»  war  upon  Otoo,  one  of  the  princes  of  thefe  iflands  whom 
he  knew  to  be  in  UnA  friendfhip  with  him  ;  but  from 
this  he  was  deterred  by  the  Captain's  threatening  to 
return  and  chaiHfe  him  if  he  made  any  fuch  attempt. 
As  a  mark  of  Otoo's  friendfliip,  lie  gave  our  naviq;a- 
tor  a  canoe,  which  he  delired  him  to  cany  to  the  king 
of  Britain,  having  nothing  elfe,  as  he  faid,  woith  his 
acceptance. 

From  Otahcite  Captain  Cook  procect'ed  to  Eimeo, 
where,  on  account  of  fome  thefts  committed  by  the 
natives,  he  was  obhged  to  commence  hoftilities,  by 
burning  a  number  of  their  war  canoes  and  even  fome 
houfes.  Thefe  tranfaflions  gave  him  much  concern  ; 
and  the  more  that  he  had  been  fo  much  folicited  to 
make  war  on  thefe  people  by  his  friends  at  Otalieite, 
■to  whofe  entreaties  he  had  refufed  to  liften.  From 
£imeo  he  proceeded  to  Huaheine,  where  he  faw  Omai 
■finallv  fettled,  and  lef.  with  him  the  two  New  Zealand 
youths  already  mentioned.  The  youngeft  of  thefe  was 
fo  much  attaclied  to  the  Englilh,  that  it  was  neceffaiy 
to  carry  him  out  of  the  fhip  and  put  liim  ailiore  by 
force.  Daring  his  ftay  on  this  ifland,  the  Captain  was 
■obliged  to  punilh  a  thief  with  greater  feverity  than  he 
hzd  ever  done  before,  viz.  by  caufing  his  head  and 
beard  to  be  fhaved,  and  his  ears  cut  off.  Some  other 
difagreeable  tranfaftions  took  place,  particulary  the 
defertion  of  two  of  his  people,  who  vi'tre  not  recovered 
■without  the  greatcft  difficulty.  In  the  courli;  of  his 
exertions  for  their  recoverj',  he  found  it  neceflary  to 
detain  the  fon,  daughter,  and  fon-in-law,  of  the  chief 
-of  an  ifland  named  Otalia.  This  had  almoft  produced 
very  ferious  confequences,  the  natives  having  formed 
a  plot  for  carrj'ing  off  Captain  Cook  himfelf,  as  well 
as  Captain  Clerke  and  Mr  Gore.  With  regard  to  the 
commander,  they  \vere  difappolnted  by  his  own  cau- 
tion and  vigilance  ;  but  Meffrs  Clerke  and  Gore  were 
in  particular  danger  :  and  it  was  only  owing  to  the 
circumftance  of  one  of  them  having  a  piftol  in  his  hand, 
as  they  walked  together  on  fliore,  that  they  were  not 
feized. 

Having  left  the  Society  Iflands,  and  difcover- 
■ed  a  new  group,  which,  in  honour  of  his  patron 
the  Earl  of  Sandwich,  our  commander  named  the 
Saniliukh  JJles,  he  fet  out  on  the  2d  of  January  1778 
on  his  voyage  northward.  In  this  he  was  very  fuc- 
cefsful,  afcertaining  the  vicinity  of  the  continents  of 
Afia  and  America,  wliich  had  never  been  done,  or  but 
very  imperfectly,  before.  From  thefe  defolate  regions 
he  returned  to  the  ifland  of  Oonalathka  ;  whence  ha- 
ving refitted  and  taken  in  provifions,  he  returned  to 
the  fouthward,  and  on  the  26th  of  November  reached 
the  Sandwich  Mands,  where  he  difcovered  a  new  one 
named  Alr.vee,  and  on  the  30t!i  of  the  fame  month 
another  of  much  larger  extent,  named  O-ivl.y-hee.  Se- 
ven weeks  were  fpent  in  exploring  the  coafts  of  this 
ifland  ;  and  during  all  this  time  he  continued  to  have 
the  moft  friendly  intercourfe  with  the  people,  who, 
however,  appeared  to  be  much  more  nnmcions  and 
powerful  than  thofe  of  any  ifland  our  navigators  had 
yet  touched  at.  Several  of  the  chiefs  and  principal 
people  had  attached  themlclvcs  greatly  to  tlic  com- 
mander, and  in  general  the  people  appeared  to  be 
much  more  honeft  in  their  difpofitions  than  any  whom 
he  had  ever  viuted.     But  by  the  time  he  had  tinilhed 


his  circumnavigation  of  the  ifland,  and   caft   anchor 
in  a  bay  called  Karakalooa,  matters  were  greatly  al-  "" 
tered.      An  univerfal  difpofition  to  theft  and  plunder 
had  now  taken  place;  and  in  this  it  was  evident  that 
the  common  people   were  encouraged  by  their  chiefs, 
who  fliared  the  booty  with  them.      Still,   however,  no 
hoftilities  were  commenced:   the  greateft  honours  were 
paid  to  the  commander  ;   and,  on  his  going  afliore,  he 
was  received  with  ceremonies  little  ftiort  of  adoration. 
A   vaft  quantity  of  hogs  and   other   provilions   were 
procured   for   the  fliips  ;  and  on  the  4th  of  February 
1779,  they  left  the   ifland,   not  without  moft  magni- 
ficent prefents  from  the  chiefs,  and  fuch  as  they  had 
never  before  received  in  any  part  of  the  world.      Un- 
luckily they  met  with  a  ftorm  on  the  fixth  and  feventh 
of   the    fame    month;    during    which  the    Refolution 
fprung  the  head  of  her  foremaft  in  fuch  a  manner  that 
they  were  obliged    to    return  to    Karakakoa   bay   to 
have   it  repaired.      As    they  returned.   Captain  Cook 
had  an   opportunity  of  fliowing  his   humanity  to  the 
people  by  the  relief  he  afforded  to  fome  of  their  canoes 
ivhich  had  fuffered  in  the  ftorm.      The  fame  friendly 
intercourfe  which  had  formerlv  been  held  with  the  nai- 
ti-«s  now  commenced,  and  Captain  Cook  was  treated 
with  the  ufual  honours  ;  but  on  the  13th  of  this  month 
it  was  unhappily  brokerr  off  on  the  following  account. 
One  of   the    natives   being    dete£led    in   ftealing  the 
tongs  from  the  armourer's  forge  in  the  Difcover)',  was 
difmiffed  with  a  pretty  fevere  flogging;  but  this  example 
was  fo  far  from  being   attended  with  any  good  effeft, 
that  in  the  afternoon  another,  having  fnatchcd  up  the 
tongs  and  a  chifTcl,  jumped   overboard  with  them  and 
fwam  for  the  fhore.    The  mafler  and  midlhlpman  were 
inftantly  difpatched  in  purfuit  of  him ;  but  he  efcaped  on 
board  a  canoe,  which  paddled  away  fo  quickly  that  the 
cutter  could  not  come  near  it.  A  chief  named  Pareah, 
who  was  at  this  time  on  board  the  Refolution,  uuder- 
ftanding  what  had  happened,  promifcd  to  go  afliore 
and  get  back  the  ftolen  goods  ;  but  before  tliis  could 
be  done  the  thief  had  made  his   efcape  into  the  coun- 
try.     Captain   Cook,  who   was  at  that    time   aihore, 
had  endeavoured  to   intercept  the  canoe  when  it  land- 
ed, but  was  led  out  of  the   way  by  fome  of  the  na- 
tives who  pretended  to  be  his  guides.      The  tongs  and 
chiffel,  however,  were  brought  back  to  the  mailer  as 
he  advanced  to  the  landing  place  ;  but  he  being  now 
joined  by  fome  of  the   reft  o{  the  people  in  tiie   pin- 
nace, could  not  be  fatisficd  with  the   recovery  of  the 
ftolen  goods,  but  infilled  upon  having  the  thief  or  the 
canoe  whicli   carried  him  by    way   of  repnfal.       On 
his  preparing  to  launch  this  lall  into  the  water,  he  \vas 
interrupted  by   Parcali,  who  infifted.  that  it  was  his 
properly,  and  that  he  r.iould   not  take  it  away.     As 
the  officer  paid  no  regard  to   his  remonftrances,  Pa- 
reah, who  fecms  to  have  been  a  very  ftrong  man,  fei- 
zed  him,  pinioned  his   arms   behind,    and  held   him 
fall  by  the  hair  of  the  head.    On  this  one  of  the  fallors 
ftiuck  the   chief  with  an  oar,  on  which,  quitting  the 
officer,  he  inftantly  fnatched  the  oar  out  of  the  man's 
hand,   and  broke  it  in  two  acrofs  his  knee.     The  In- 
dians then  attacked  the  failors  with   ftones,  and  foon 
drove  them  to  their  boats,  to  wliich  they  were  forced 
to  fwim,  as  they  lay  at  fome  ditlance  from  the  fliore. 
The  officers   who   could  not  fwim  retired   to   a  fmall 
rock,  where  they  were  clofcly  purfued  by  the  Indians ; 

and 


Cootc. 


Coolc. 


COO  [     399     1 

and  here   the   mnller  narrowly  efcaped   with   his  hfc,     tiiemfclvcs 


COO 


■    till  Pareah  returned   and   obh'ged  tlie   Indians  to  give 
over  their  attacks.     The  gentlemen,   fenfible  that  Pa- 
reah's  prefence  alone   could    proteft  tlicm,  entreated 
him  to  remain  with  them   till  they  could  be  brought 
oft'  in  the  boats.  -   On  his  rtfufal,  the  mafter  fet  out  to 
the  place  where  the  obfervatorics  had  been  ereftcd,  for 
farther  airiftance;  but  Pareah,  who  met  him,  and  fuf- 
pefted    his  errand,   obliged    him   to    return.      In   the 
mean  time  the  multitude  had  begun  to  break  in  pieces 
the  pinnace,  after  having  taken  every  thing  out  of  her 
that  was  loofe  :    on   the  return  of  Pareah,  however, 
they  were   again   difperfcd,  aud  iome  of  tlie  oars  re- 
ftored,  after  which  the  gentlemen  were  glad  to  get  off 
in  fifety.      Before  they  reached  the  fliip   Pareah  over- 
took them  in  a  canoe,  and  delivered  the  midfliipman's 
cap  which  had  been  taken  from  him  in  the  fculHe  ;  he 
alfo  ioined  nofes  with  them  in  token  of  friendfliip,  and 
deiircd  to  know  whether  Captain  Cook  would  kill  him 
on  account   of  what   had  happened.       They  affured 
liim  that  he  would  not,  and  made  figns  of  reconciha- 
tion  on   their  part.      On  this  he  left   them,  and  pad- 
dled over  to  the  town  of  Kavaroah  ;  and  that  was  the 
lail  time  that  he  was  feen  by  the  Englilh.    In  the  night- 
time the  fentinels  were   much   alarmed   by   {liril!  and 
melancholy  founds  from  the   adjacent  villages,  which 
they  took  to  be  the  lamentations  of  the  women.   Next 
day  it  was  found  that   the  large   cutter  of  the  Difeo- 
very  had  been  carried  off  in  the  night-time  ;  on  which 
Captain  Cook  ordeicd  the  launch  and  fmall  cutter  to 
go  under  the  command  of  the  lecond  lieutenant,  and 
to  ly  off  the  eaft  point  of  the  bay  in  order  to  intercept 
all  the   canoes  that  might  attempt  to  get  out,  and  if 
neceffary  to  fire  upon  them.     The  third  lieutenant  of 
the  Refolution  was  difpatched  to  the  weftern  part  of 
the  bay   on   the   fame   fervice  ;  while  the  mafter  was 
fent  in  purfuit  of  a  large  double  canoe  already  under 
fail,  and  making  the  bell  of  her  way  out  of  the  har- 
bour.    He   foon  came   up  with  her,  and  by  firing  a 
few  fiiots,  obliged  her  to  run   on    (hore,  and  the  In- 
dians to  leave  her.      This  was  the  canoe  belonging  to 
a  chief  named   Omea,  whofe  perfon   was  reckoned  e- 
qually  facred   with  that  of  the    king,  and  to   the  ne- 
gle£l  of  fecuring  him  we  may  attribute  the  fucceeding 
difafter.     Captain  Cook  now  formed  the  refolution  of 
going  in  perfon  to  felze  the  king  himfelf  in  his  capi- 
tal of  Kavaroah  ;   and  as  there  was  reafon  to  fuppofe 
that  he   had  fled,  it  was  his  defign  to  fecure  the  large 
canoes,  which  on  that  account  he  caufed  to  be  hauled 
up  on  the  beach.     With  this  view  he  left  the  (liip  a- 
bout  feven  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  Sunday  the  14th 
of  February,  being  attended  by  the  lieutenant  of  ma- 
rines, a    ferjeant,    corporal,    and    feven    private   men. 
The  crew  of  the  pinnace,  under  the  command  of  Mr 
Roberts,  were  alfo  armed;  and  as  they  rowed  towards 
the  fliore,  the  captain  ordered  the  launch  to  leave  her 
llation  at   the  oppcfite   point  of  the  bay,  in  order  to 
aflilt  his  own  boat.     Having  landed  with  the  marines 
at  the  upper  end  of  the  town,  the   Indians   flocked 
round  him,  and  proftrated  themfclves  before  him.    No 
fign  of  hoflility,  nor  even  much  alarm,  appeared  ;  the 
king's  fons  waited  on  the  commander  as  foon  as  he 
fent  for  them,  and  by  their  means  he  was  introduced 
to  the  king,  who  readily  confented  to  go  on  board  ; 
but    in   a    little   time    the    Indians    began   to    arm 


with    long    fpcars,    clubs,    and    daggers, 
and  to  put   on  thick    mats   which '  they  ufe  as  defen- 
five  armour.       Tiiis    holile    appearance    was    greatly 
augmented   by  an   unlucky  piece  of  m  ws   whicii  was 
jiilt  now  brought  by  a  canoe,   -viz.  that  one  of  the  In- 
dian chiefs  had  been   killed  by  the   people  in  the  Dif- 
coveiy's  boats.    On  this  the  women,  who  l\ad  nitiierto 
fat   on   the   beach   converfing   familiarly,    and   taking 
their  breakfafts,   removed,   and  a  confufed  murmur  ran 
tlirough  the  crowd.    An  old  priell  now  appi;ared  with 
a   cocoa-nut  in  his  hand,  whicli  lie   held  out  as  a  pre- 
fent  to  Captain  Cook,   finging  all  tJie  while,  and  ma- 
king a  moll  troubleforae  noife  as  if  he  meant  to  divert 
the  attention  of  the   Captain   and  his  people  from  ob- 
ferving  the  motions  of  the  Indians,  who  were  now  e- 
very  where  putting  on  their  armour..     Captain  Cook 
beginning  to   think  his  fituation  dangerous,  ordered 
the  lieutenant  of  the  marines  to   march  towards  the 
fhore,  as  he  himfelf  did,  having  all  the  while  hold  of 
the  king's  hand,  who   very  readily  accompanied  him, 
attended  by   his  wife,    two   .Qjus,  and    feversl  chiefs. 
The  Indians  made  a  lane  for  them  to  pafs ;  and  as  the 
dillance   they   had   to   go   was  only  about   50  or   60 
yards,  and  the   boats  lay  at  no  more  than   five  or  fix 
yards  dillance  from  land,  there  was  not  the  leail  appre- 
hcnlion  of  the  catallrophe  which  enfued.      The  king's 
youngell  fon  Keowa  went  on  board  the  pinnace  with- 
out tlie  leail   hefitation,    and   the   king  was  about  to 
follow,   when  his  wife  threw  her  arms  about  his  neck, 
and,  with  the   affiftance  of  two  chiefs,  forced  him  to 
fit  down.      Tl'e  Captain   might   now  have  fafely   o-ot 
aboard, ,  but  did  not  im.mediatcly  relinquifli  the  defign 
of  taking  the  king  along  with  him.      Finding  at  la!t, 
however,   that  this  could   not  be    accomplilhed  with- 
out a  great  deal  of  bloodflied,  he  was  on  the  point  of 
giving  orders  for  the   people   to  relmbark,  when  one 
of  the  Indians  threw  a  flone  at  him.      This  Infult  was 
returned  by  the  Captain,  who  had  a  double  barrelled 
piece,  by  a  difcharge  of  fmall  fliot  from  one  of  the  bar- 
rels.    This  had  little  efteft,  as  the  man  had  a  thick 
mat  before  him  ;  and  as  he  now  brandilhcd  his  fpear, 
the  Captain  knocked  him  down  with  his  muflict.  The 
king's  fon,   Keowa,  ftill  remained  in  the  pinnace,  and 
the  detaining  him  would  have  been  a  great  check  up- 
on the  Indians;    but  unluckily  Mr  Roberts,  who  com- 
manded the   pinnace,  fet  him  afiiore  at  his  own   re- 
quell  foon  after  the  firfl;  fire.      In  the  mean  time  ano- 
ther Indian  was  obferved  in  the  adl  of  brandilhing  his 
fpear  at  the  commander  ;  wlio  thereupon  was  obliged 
to   fire  'upon   him   in   his   own  defence.     Miffing   his 
aim,  however,  he  killed  one   clofe  by  his  fide;  upon 
whicli  the  ferjeant  obferving   that   he  had  mifTed  the 
man  lie  aimed  at,   received  orders  to  fire  alfo,  which 
he  did,  and   killed   him   on   the  fpot.     This  repreffcd 
the  foremoll  of  the  Indians,  and  made  them  fall  back 
in  a  body;  but  they  were  urged  on  again  by  thofe  be- 
hind, and  difcliarged  a  volley  of  Hones  among  the  ma- 
rines, who  immediately  retur.ried  it   by  a  general  dif- 
charge of  their  mufl<ets;  and  this  was  Inftantly  follow- 
ed by  a  fire  from  the  boats.     Captain  Cook  exprefled 
his   aftonifhment  at   their  firing,  waved  his  hand  to 
them  to  ceafe,  and-  called  to  the  people  in  the  boats 
to  come  nearer  to  receive  the  marines.     This  order 
was  obeyed  by  Mr  Roberts;  but  the  lieutenant  who-' 
commanded  the  launch, .  inftead  of  coming  nearer,  put 

off- 


Coft,- . 


coo 


I    400   ] 


COG 


Cook      off  to  a  greater    diftancp  ;  and  by   this   prepolU-rous 
""■v—  conduft  deprived  the  unfortunate  commander  of  the 
only  chance  he  had  for  hishfe:   for  now  the  Indians, 
CKafperatcd  by  the  fire  of  the  marines,  rudied  in  upon 
them  and  drove  them  into  the  water,  leaving  the  Cap- 
tain alone  upon  the  rock.     A  fire  indeed  was  kept  up 
by  both  boats  ;  but  the  one  was  too  far  off,  and  the 
other  crowded  with   the  marines,  fo  that  thfy;Could 
not  dircft  their  fire  with  proper  effcdt.     Captain  Cook 
was  then  obferved  making   for  the  pinnace,  carrying 
his  muilctt  under  his  arm,   and  holding  his  other  hand 
on  the  back-part  of  his  head  to   guard  it  from  the 
ftones.      An  Indian  was  feen  following  him,  but  with 
-marks  of  fear,  as  he  (lopped  once  or  twice  feemingly 
■undetermined  to  proceed.     At  laft  he  (truck  the  Cap- 
tain on  the  back  of  the  head  with   a  club,  and  then 
precipitately  retreated.  The  latter  daggered  a  few  paces, 
and  then  fell  on  his  hand  and  one  knee,  and  dropped  his 
lnu(l<;et.      Before  he  could  recover  hirafelf  another  In- 
dian llabbed  him  with  a  dagger  in  the  neck,  though 
ftill  without  putting  an  end  to  his  hfe.   He  then  fell  into 
a  pool  of  water  knee-deep,  where  others  crowded  up- 
on  him  ;  but  ftill  he  ftrugglcd   violently  with  them, 
got  up  his  head,  and  looked  towards  the  ;pinnace  as 
if  foUciting  ainilance.     The  boat  was  not  above  five 
or  fix  yards  diftance;  but  fuch  was  the  confufed  and 
crowded  ftate  of  the  crew,  that  no  alTiltance  could  be 
given  him.     The  Indians  then   got  him  under  again, 
but  in  deeper  water,  though  he  (till  continued  to  ftrug- 
t^le,  and  once  more  got  his  head  up  ;  but  being  quite 
fpent,  he   turned  towards  the  rock    as   if  to  fnpport 
himfelf  by  it,  when  a  favage  ilruck  him  with  a  club, 
-which  probably  put  an  end  to  his  life,  as  he  was  never 
feen  to  ftruggle  any  more.     The   favages  hauled  his 
lifclefs  body  up  on  the  rocks,  and  ufed  it  in  the  moll, 
barbarous  manner,  fnatching  'the  daggers  out  of  one 
anothers    hands,    in    order   to   have    the    pleafure    of 
mangling  it.     If  any  thing  could  add  to  the  misfor- 
tune of  this  celebrated  navigator's  death,  it  was,  that 
even  his  mangled  remains    were    not  faved  from  the 
hands  of   the    barbarians.       The    lieutenant    already 
mentioned,  who,  by  his  removing  to  a  dillance  when 
he  ought  to  have  come  on  (liore,  fecmed  to  have  been 
the  occafion  of  his  death,  returned  on  board  without 
making  any  attempt  to  recover  his  body  ;  though  it 
appeared  from  the  tcftimonies  of  four  or  five  mldfhip- 
men   who    arrived  fooa  after  at  the  fatal  fpot,  that 
the  beach  was  almoll  deferted  by  the  Indians,  they 
having  a:  laft  yielded  to   the   continual  fire  from  the 
boats.     The  officer  alleged  in  his  own   excufe  for  re- 
moving at   firft  from   the   (hore,  that  he  miftook  the 
fignals ;  but  be  this  as  it  will,  the  complaints  againil 
him  were  fo  many  and  fo  great,  that  Captain  Clerke 
■was  obliged  publicly  to  take   notice  of  them,  and  to 
take  the  depofitions  of  his  accufers  in  writing. — Thefe 
papers,  however,  were  not   found,  and  it  is  fuppofed 
that  the  Captain's  bad  (late  of  health  had  induced  him 
to  deftroy   them.     After   all   we  are   informed,  that, 
in  the  opinion  of  Captain  Philips,  who   commanded 
the  marines,  it  is  vei7  doubtful  whether  any  effetlual 
relief  could  have  been  given  to  the  commander,  even 
if  no  miftake  had  been  committed  on  the  part  of  the 
lieutenant.     The  author  of  all  the  mifciiief  was  Pa- 
reah,  the  chief  already  mentioned,  who  had  employ- 
ed people  to  fttal  the  boat  in  the  night-time.     Tie 
N  9^. 


.;ing  was  entirely  innocent  both  of  the  theft  and  tlie 
murder  of  Captain  Cook  ;  but  the  latter  was  perpe-  " 
trated  by  fome  chiefs  who  were  his  near  relations. 
The  chief  who  firft  Ilruck  him  with  a  club  was  na- 
med Karimans  rnhii,  and  he  who  ftabbed  him  with  the 
dagger  was  called  Nooah.  The  latter,  Mr  Samwell, 
from  whofe  narrative  this  account  is  taken,  obferves, 
w.;s  ftout  and  tall,  had  a  fierce  look  and  demeanour, 
and  united  in  his  pcrfon  the  two  pvo])Crties  of  ftrength 
and  agility  more  than  he  had  ever  obterved  in  any  o- 
ther  perfon. — Both  of  them  were  held  in  great  e'li- 
mation  by  their  countrymen  on  account  of  the  hand 
they  had  in  his  death. 

By  reafon  of  the  barbarous  difpofition  of  the  Indians, 
it  was  found  impolTible  to  recover  Captain  Cook's  body 
after  the  ilrd  opportunity  already  mentioned  was  loll.  By 
dint  of  threats  and  negociations,  however,  fome  of  the 
principal  parts  were  procured  with  great  difficulty;  by 
which  means  the  navigators  were  enabled  to  perform 
the  laft  offices  to  their  much  refpecled  commander. 
Thefe  being  put  into  a  coffin,  and  the  fervice  read  o- 
ver  them,  were  committed  to  the  deep  with  the  ufual 
military  honours  on  the  21ft  of  February  I  779.  Soon 
after  his  death  a  letter  was  iffued  by  M.  de  Sartine, 
fecretary  to  the  marine  department  of  t'rance,  and  fent 
to  all  the  commanders  of  French  (hips,  importing, 
that  Captain  Cook  (liouldbe  treated  as  the  commander 
of  a  neutral  and  allied  power  ;  and  that  all  captains 
of  armed  velTels  who  mi^ht  meet  with  him,  fhould 
make  him  acquainted  with  the  king's  orders,  but  at 
the  fame  time  let  him  know,  that,  on  his  part,  he 
muft  refrain  from  hoftilities.  This  humane  and  gene- 
rous proceeding,  with  regard  to  France,  originated 
from  M.  Turgot ;  but  the  thought  feeras  firft  to  have 
ftruck  Dr  Franklin.  Thus  much  at  leaft  is  certain, 
that  the  doftor,  while  ambaffador  from  the  United 
States,  wrote  a  circular  letter  to  the  American  naval 
commanders  fometliing  to  the  purport  of  that  already 
mentioned  :  but  tn  this  he  was  not  fupported  by  Con- 
grefs  ;  for  an  edi£l  was  inftantly  ilfued,  that  fpecial  care 
fhoulj  be  taken  to  feize  Captain  Cook  if  an  oppor- 
tunity of  doing  it  occurred.  The  Spaniards  proceed- 
ed in  the  fame  manner,  and  both  aclcd  on  a  princi- 
ple equally  mean  and  abfurd,  that  the  obtaininuf  d 
knowledge  of  the  weftern  coall  of  America,  or  of  a. 
northern  palTage  into  the  Pacific  Ocean,  might  be  at- 
tended with  fome  bad  confequence  to  their  refpeftive 
ftates. 

Captain  Cook  was  a  man  of  plain  addrefs  and  ap- 
pearance, but  well  looked,  and  upwards  of  fix  feet 
high.  His  head  was  fmall,  and  he  wore  his  hair, 
which  was  brown,  tied  behind.  His  face  was  full  of 
expreffion  ;  his  nofe  exceedingly  well  (haped  ;  his  eyes, 
which  were  fmall  and  of  a  brown  caft,  were  quick, 
and  piercing  ;  his  eye-brows  prominent,  which  gave 
his  countenance  altogether  an  air  of  aufterity.  Not- 
withllanding  this,  it  was  impoffible  for  any  one  to  eK- 
ccl  him  in  humanity,  as  is  evident  from  the  whole  te- 
nor of  his  behaviour  both  to  his  own  people  and  the 
many  favage  nations  with  whom  he  had  occafion  to  in- 
terfere. This  amiable  property  difcnvered  itfelf  even  in 
the  final  cataftrophe  of  his  life  ;  his  utmoft  care  being 
direfted  to  the  prefervation  of  his  people,  and  the  pro- 
curing them  a  fafe  retreat  to  their  boats.  And  it  can- 
not be  enough  lametited,  that  he  who  took  fo  much 

care 


Co  .It. 


coo 


[    401    1 


coo 


caie  of  otliers,  flioiiKl  have  perillied  in  fucli  a  mifcrable 
■'  manner  for  want  of  being'  properly  fupported  by  them. 
The  prrfeverance  with  which  lie  purUied  every  objeCl 
which  happened  to  be  pointed  out  as  his  duty  was  un- 
equalled. Nothinpr  ever  could  divert  him  from  what 
he  had  once  undertaken  ;  and  he  perfevered  in  the 
midll  of  dangers  and  diificuhies  which  would  have  dif- 
heartened  perfons  of  vtry  confiderable  ftrenglh  and 
firmncfs  of  mind.  For  this  he  was  adapted  by  nature, 
having  a  ilrong  conftitution,  inured  to  labour,  and  ca- 
pabli'  of  undergoing  the  grcatell  hardlhips.  His  fto- 
mach  bore  without  difficulty  the  coarfefl.  and  mod 
ungrateful  food;  and  he  fubmitted  to  every  kind  of 
ftlf  denial  with  the  greateil  indifference.  To  this 
(hength  of  conftitution  he  joined  an  invincible  forti- 
tude of  mind,  of  which  the  circumnavigation  of  New 
Holland,  and  his  voyage  towards  the  South  Pole, 
furnifli  innumerable  inllances.  He  was  mailer  of  him- 
fclf  on  every  trying  occalion  ;  and  the  greater  the  e- 
mergency.  the  greater  always  appeared  his  calmncfs 
and  recollefton  ;  fo  that  in  the  moll  dangerous  fitua- 
tions,  after  giving  proper  dirtttions  to  his  people,  he 
could  lleep  foundly  the  hours  that  he  had  allotted  to 
himfelf.  That  he  pofFcfTed  genius  in  an  eminent  de- 
gree cannot  be  quefl.ionLd;  his  invention  was  ready, 
and  capable  not  only  of  fuggefling  the  moft  noble  ob- 
jefts  of  purfuit,  but  the  mod  proper  methods  of  at- 
taining them.  His  knowledge  of  his  own  profeflion 
was  unequalled  ;  and  to  this  he  added  a  very  confide- 
rable proficiency  in  other  fciences.  In  aft:ronomy,  he 
became  fo  eminent,  that  he  was  at  length  enabled  to 
take  the  lead  in  making  the  aftronomical  obfervations 
during  the  courfe  of  his  voyages.  In  general  learning 
he  likewife  attained  to  fuch  a  proficiency  as  to  be  able 
to  cxprefs  himfelf  with  cleainefs  and  propriety  ;  and 
thus  became  refpeftable  as  the  narrator,  as  well  as  the 
performer,  of  great  aftions.  He  was  an  excellent 
huftiaud  and  father,  fincere  and  fteady  in  his  friendfhip, 
and  pofreffed  of  a  general  fobrietyand  virtue  of  character. 
In  converfation  he  wasunaffeftedandunafluming;  rather 
backward  in  pufhing  difcourfe,  but  obliging  and  com- 
municative to  thofe  who  wifhed  for  information ;  and  he 
was  dittinguiflied  by  a  fimplicity  of  manners  almofl;  uni- 
verfaliy  the  attendant  of  truly  great  men.  With  all  thefe 
amiable  qualities,  the  Captain  was  occafionally  fubjeft  to 
an  haftinefs  of  temper,  which  has  been  fet  forth  in  its 
utmoft  extent,  if  not  exaggerated  by  fome,  though  but 
few,  who  are  not  his  friends :  but  even  thefe,  as  well 
as  others,  when  taking  a  general  view  of  his  charac- 
ter, are  obliged  to  acknowledge  that  he  was  undoubt- 
edly one   of  the  greateft  men  of  his  age. 

CaptainCookisdiftinguiihed  as  an  author  byan  account 
©f  his  fecond  voyage  written  by  himfelf.  His  tirll  voy- 
age, as  well  as  that  of  feveral  other  navigators,  had  been 
recorded  by  Dr  Hawkefworth  ;  but  on  the  prefent  oc- 
calion it  was  not  judged  neceflary  to  have  recourfe  to 
any  other  than  the  pen  of  the  author  himfelf;  and  his 
journal,  with  a  few  occafional  alterations,  and  being 
divided  Into  chapters,  was  fufficient  for  the  purpofe. 
The  ftyle  Is  clear,  natural,  and  manly  ;  and  It  Is  not  Im- 
probable that  even  a  pen  of  more  ftudied  elegance 
could  not  have  made  it  appear  to  more  advantage. 
When  It  appeared,  which  was  not  till  fome  time  after 
the  author  had  left  England,  the  book  was  tecommend- 
VoL.  V.  Part  II. 


ed  by  the  accuracy  and   excellency  of  its  charts,  and      Co^k 
by  a  numeious  colleftlon  of  fine  engravings  done  from  — v— 
the  original  drawings  of  Mr  Hodges. 

We  cmnot  conclude  this  article  without  taking  fome 
notice  of  the  honours  paid  to  our  celebrated  navigator 
after  his  death,  both  by  his  own  countrymen  and  thofe 
of  other  nations.      Perhaps  indeed  it  may  be  faid  with 
juftice,  that  foreigners  hold   bis  memory  In  an  clllma- 
tion  unequalled  even    in   this   country  ;  a   remarkable 
proof  ot  which  occurs  in  the  eulogy  upon  hira  by  Mi- 
chael Angclo  GianettI,  read    in   the  Florentine  acade- 
my  on  the  9th  of  June  1785,  and  publilhed  at  Flo- 
rence the  fame  year.     It  Is  faid  alio,   that  one  of  the 
French  literary  academies  propofed  a  prize  for  the  beft 
tulogium   on    Captain  Cook  ;   and  many  poetical  tefti- 
monies  of  his   merit   appeared   in    our   own   language. 
The  Royal  Society  of  London  refolved  to  teftify  their 
refpeft  to  him  by  a  medal,  for  which  purpofe  a  volun- 
tary fubfcriptlon  was  opened.      A  gold  medal  was  gi- 
ven to   fucli   of  the   fellows  as  fubfcribed  2C  guineas, 
and  a  filver  one  for  thofe  who  fubfcribed  fmaller  fuma-; 
and  each  of  the  other  members  received  one  of  bronze. 
Thofe   who   fubfcribed    30  guineas   were.    Sir  Jofeph 
Banks  prefident,    the  Prince   of  Anfpach,  the   Duke 
of  Montague,  Lord  Mulgrave,  and   MefTrs  CavendKh, 
Peachcy,  Perrin,   PjII,  and  Shuttleworth.      Many  de- 
figns  were  propofed  on  the  occafion  ;  but  the  following 
was  that  which  was  aftually  llruck.      On  one  fide  was 
the  head  ol  Captaiji  Cook  In  profile,  with  this  infcrlp- 
ti(m   round  it,  J.ic.  Cook  oceani  investigator  a- 
CERRiMus  ;  and   on   the  exergue,   Reg.  Soc.  Lond. 
SOCIO  suo.     On  the  reverfe  is  a  reprefentation  of  Bri- 
tannia holding  a  globe,  with  this  Infcriptlon  round  her. 
Nil  iNTENTATUM  NosTRi  LiQUERE  ;  and   on  the  ex- 
ergue,   Auspiciis  Georgii  hi.      One  of   the   gold 
medals  llruck   on   this  occafion   was   prefented   to  the 
king,  another  to  the  queen,  and  a  third  to  the  prince 
of  Wales.     Another  was  fent   to  the  French  king  on 
account  of  the  proteftion  he  had  granted  to  the  (hips ; 
and  a  fecond  to  the  emprefs  of  Ruffia,  in  whofe  domi- 
nions they  had  been   treated  with  every  expreffion   of 
friendfhip  and  kindnefs.     Both  thefe  great  perfonages 
condefcended   to   accept  of  the  prefent  with  marks  of 
fatisfaftion.     The  French  king  wrote  a  handfome  let- 
ter to  the  Society,  figned  by  himfelf,  and  underfigned 
by  the  Marquis  de  Vergennes  ;  and   the    Emprefs  of 
Ruffia  commiffioned   Count  Ofterman  to  fignify  to  Mr 
FItzherbert  the  fenfe  file  had  of  the  value  of  the  pre- 
fent, and  that  Ihe  had  caufed  it  to  be  depofited  in  the 
mufeum  of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences.     As  a 
further  teftimony  of  the  pleafure  flie  derived  from  it, 
the  emprefs   prefented  to   the    Royal  Society  a  large 
and  beautiful   gold  medal,  containing  on  one  fide  the 
effigies  of  herfclf,  and  on  the  other  a  reprefentation  of 
the  ftatue  of  Peter  the  Great.     After  the  general  af- 
fignment  of  the  medals,  which  took  place   in    1784, 
there  being  a  furplus  of  money  ftlU  remaining,  it  was 
refolved  by  the  prefident  and  council,  that  an  addition- 
al number  of  medals  (hould  be  thrown  off,   to  be   dlf- 
pofed  of  in   prefents  to  Mrs  Cook,  the  Earl  of  Sand- 
wich, Dr   Benjamin   Franklin,    Dr  Cooke  provoft  of 
King's  College  Cambridge,  and    Mr  Planta.     At  the 
fame  time  it  was  agreed  that  Mr  Aubert  fliould  be  al- 
lowed to  have  a  gold  medal  of  Captain  Cook  on  his 
3  E  paying 


coo 


Cfo'i. 


payinpr  fov  tlie  gold  and  the  expence  of  ftrlking  it,  in 
■*  conlideration  of  his  intention  to  piefent  it  to  the  King 
of  Poland. 

During  the  two  vlfits  of  the  fhips  at  Kamtfuhatka, 
Colontl  Duhm,  the  commandant  of  tliat  province,  hud 
btilowed,  in  the  moll  liberal  manner,  every  kind  of 
r  Alliance  which  it  was  in  his  power  to  bellow  ;  and 
Inili  was  the  fenfe  entertained  by  the  lords  of  the  ad- 
liiiraky  of  the  kindnefs  he  had  ihowed,  that  they  de- 
termined to  make  him  a  piefent  of  a  magnificent  piece 
of  plate,  with  an  infcription  exprcffive  of  his  humane 
ajid  (generous  conduft.  The  infcription  was  drawn  up 
by  Dr  Cocke,  and  afterwards  fubmitted  to  the  opi- 
nion and  correction  of  fome  gentlemen  of  the  firft  eiTii- 
iience  in  clafllcal  tafte. 

Sir  Hugh  Pallifer,  who  had  all  along  difplayed  an 
uncommon  rcfpcft  and  kindnefs  for  Captain  Cook,  like- 
wife  difplayed  his  i-ejTaTd  for  his-memory  inti  moll  emi- 
nent manner.  On  his  ellate  in  Buckinghamlhire  he 
conftrntied  a  fmp.H  buildini;  with  a  pillar,  containing 
the  charafter  of  Captain  Cook,  which  is  given  at  the 
end  of  the  introduftion  to  the  laft  voyatre.  This  was 
drawn  up  by  the  Honourable  Admiral  Forbes,  admi- 
ral of  the  fleet  and  general  of  the  marines,  to  whotn 
Captain  Cook  was  known  only  by  his  merit  and  extra- 
ordinary aftions. 

Amidll  all  thefe  expreffions  of  unavailing  praife,  it 
■was  not  forgotten  to  fhov/  fome  effential  fervice  to  the 
widow  and  family  of  our  celebrated  navigator.  A 
memorial  for  a  penlion  of  "L.  zoo  per  annum  was  given 
in  to  the  king  from  the  commiffioners  of  the  admiralty, 
and  figned  by  the  Earl  of  Sandwich,  Mr  Butler,  the 
Earl  of  Lilbiirne,  Mr  Penton,  Lord  Mulgrave,  and 
Mr  Mann.  His  Majelly  complied  with  the  requeft  of 
the  memorial,  and  the  grant  was  padcd  through  the 
ufual  forms  with  all  pofllble  fpeed.  By  this  L.  200 
per  annum  were  fettled  on  the  widow  during  life  ;  and 
L..2K  a-year  on  each  of  her  three  fons.  After  her 
death  the  L.200  was  to  be  divided  between  her  chil- 
dren ;  a  fourth  was  allotted  to  Captain  King,  and  the 
remaining  fourth  to  Mr  Bligh  and  the  reprefentatives 
of  Captain  Clerke. 

The  laft  honour  paid  to  the  memory  of  Captain 
Cook  was  the  granting  a  coat  of  arms  to  the  family, 
which  was  done  by  patent  on  the  3d  of  September 
J  785  ;  and  of  this  we  have  the  following  defcription. 
Azure,  between  the  two  polar  ftars  :  Or,  a  fphei^e  on 
the  plane  of  the  meridian,  north  pole  elevated,  circles 
of  latitude  for  every  ten  degrees,  and  of  longitude  for 
every  1  5  ;  fliowing  the  Pacific  Ocean  between  60^  and 
240°  weft,  bounded  on  one  fide  by  America  and  on 
the  other  by  Afia  and  New  Holland  ;  in  memory  of 
the  difcoveries  made  by  him  in  that  ocean,  fo  very  far 
beyond  all  former  navigators.  His  track  thereon  is 
marked  with  red  lines  ;  and  for  crcft,  in  a  wreath  of 
the  colour  is  an  arm  imbowed,  vefted  in  the  uniform  of 
a  captain  of  the  Royal  Navy.  In  the  hand  is  the 
Union  Jack,  on  a  ftaff  proper.  The  arm  is  encircled 
by  a  wreath  of  palm  and  laurel. 

Cook's  Difcoveries.  The  number  of  countries  dlf- 
covered  by  Captain  Cook,  and  which  had  never  before 
been  vifited  by  any  European,  is  very  confiderable  ; 
but  it  was  a  remarkable  property  of  our  celebrated  na- 
vigator, that,  wherever  he  touched,  every  thing  relative 
to  the  plaice  was  determined   with   fuch  accuracy  and 

2 


[       402       ] 


COO 


preclfion,  that  all  former  accounts   feemed   to  go  for     Coolt'» 
nothing,  and  the  difcovery  to  Lelong  entirely  to  Cap-    Dikovc. 
tain  Cook.     Thus  it  was  ijot  unufual  with  him  to  make  ,     '^"^'     . 
difcoveries  in  places  already  well  known  ;  and  thus  his 
voyages  have  conveyed   a   vaft  fund  of  knowledge  per- 
feftly  original.     Th.ough  the  accounts  of  the  "different 
places,  therefore,  at  which  he  touched,  are  particular- 
ly given  under  their  names    in   the  order  of  the  alpha- 
bet, we  fliall  in  this  article  endeavour  to  join  the  whole 
together  in   fuch   a   manner  as  to  give  the  r-eader  fome 
idea  of  the  bcntGt  which  has  accrued   to  fcience  from 
voyages  attended    not  only  with  much  expence  and  la- 
bour,  but   even   with   the   lofs  of  the  celebrated  navi- 
gator's life.  , 

When  he  fet  out  in  the  Endeavour  in  the  year  I  7^)8,  Madiera, » 
the   fiill   place  touched   at   was  Madeira.      Here  Mr  y"''-^^nic 
Banks  and  Dr  Solander,  befidcs  fome  additions  to  the '  """• 
fcience  of  botany,  difcovered  undoubted  marks  of  the 
ifland  having  a  volcanic  origin.      On  leaving  this  place 
they  found  it  neceftary  to  touch  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  for 
provifions  ;  and  during  the  lun  thither  the  commander 
had  an   opportunity  of  determining   the   caufe  of  the 
luminous  appearance  of  the  fea.      On  the  29lh  of  Oc- Luminoiir 
tober  they  obferved   that  the  water  frequently  emitted  spr'^^r'^nce 
flalhes  like  lightning,  though  much  Im.aller  ;  but  luoh  "' '''5 '*■"*, 
was  their  trcqiiency,  that   eight   or   tenet  them  were  j,       j^^jj 
vifiblc  almoft   at  the  fame  moment.      This   appearance 
they  found,  both  at  this  time  and  afterwards,  to  arife 
from  a  fmall  kind  of  animal   with  which   the  water  a- 
bounded.     While   ftaying  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  a  melan- 
choly obfervation  was  made  of  the  prodigious  walle  of 
human  lives   with   which   the   workI;ig  of  the  Portu- 
guefe  gold  mines  was  attended,  no  fewer  than  40,000  Vaft  ntim- 
negroes  being  annually  imported  for  this  purpofe,  none'":''  of  .le- 
of  whom,  it    feems,  furvive  the  labour   of  the  year  ;  ^''""^  "^j" 
and   our  navigator  was   informed,  that  in    1766  this  ,1,^  „„..]j. 
number  was   fo   far  (liort,  that    they  were   obliged  to  inj;  the  gold 
draught  20,cco  more  from  the  town  of  Rio  itfelt.    Pro-  mines, 
ceedingfrom  thence  to  the  fouthern  coafts  of  America, 
he   had  an   opportunity  of  determining  a   queftion  of        4 
great  importance  to  navigation,   viz.  whether,   in    fail-  Eefl  paf- 
ing  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  it  is  better  to  pafs  through'''?''""?, 
the  flraits  of  Magellan,  or  to  double  Cape  Horn  andQ^^.^,, 
fail  through  thofe  of  Le  Maire  ?    From  Captain  Cook's  ihmiij^h  the 
voyage  it  appears,  contrary  to  the   opinion  of  former  ^"i" -its  le 
navigators,  that   the  latter  is   the  preferable   paffage.  '"^n"^- 
Through  this  he  was  only  ^3  days  in  coming  round  the 
land  of  Terra  del  Fuego  from  the  eaft  entrance  of  the 
ftrait  of  Le  Maire  till  he   had  advanced  about  12  de- 
grees .to   the   weilward,  and  three   and  a  half  to  the 
northward,    of    Magellan's   ftraits.       During   all  this 
time  the  (hip  fcarcely  received  any  damage,   though  if 
he  had  pafltd  the  other  way  he  could  not  have  accom- 
pliflied  his  palTage    in   lefs  than   three  months,   befides 
immenfe  fatigue  to  his  people  and  damage  to  the  flrip.         , 
In  thefe   llormy  regions,  however,  he  experienced  the  E.xceilive 
fame  inconveniences  felt   by  other  navigators  ;   fuch  a '^"r  nis  an  J 
fea  being  met  with  oft"  Cape  Diego,  that  the  fliip  f  e  '      , 
quently  pitched   her  bowfprit  under  water.      Herealfo. 
the  exceflive   cold   and    mutability  of  weather  in  thefe 
fouthern    regions  was  experienced  in  fuch  a  manner  as 
had  nearly  proved  fatal  to  fome  of  the  gentlemen  who 
failed    along  with  him.      Dr  Solardrr,  Mr  Banks,  Mr 
Monkhoufe  the  furgeon,  and  Mr  Green  the  allronomer, 
with  their  attendants  and  ftivants,  fet  out  oa  a  botani- 
cal 


cnK:  in  the 
t();:thei 
*  giou*. 


coo  .  C   403 

cal  expeilitlon  while  the  (hip  lay  at  anchor  in  the  bay  Mr 
of  Good  Siiccefs.  It  was  then  tlic  middle  of  fummcr, 
and  the  morning  on'  whicli  they  fct  out  wa8  as  nil!d 
and  w  arm  as  it  ulually  is  in  the  month  of  May  in  Eng- 
land I  Init  having  afcended  a  mountain  for  the  pnrpote 
of  botanizing,  they  were  furprifed  by  fnch  llorms  of 
fnow  and  hail  that  tL:y  could  not  get  back  that  night. 
Dr  Solander,  who  warned  them  of  their  danpjer,  that 
people  when  about  to  perlfli  with  cold  were  feized  with 
a  violent  inclination  to  deep,  war,  the  firft  who  leemcd 
likely  to  fall  a  viftim  to  it ;  and  it  was  not  hi  the  pow- 
er of  his  companions  to  keep  him  from  fitting  down 
for  that  puipofe.  He  was  awaked  in  a  few  miuutts  ; 
but  during  this  fliort  interval  his  feet  had  become  fo 
much  diminilhed  by  the  contraction  of  the  veffels,  that 
his  fiioes  fell  off  from  them  whtn  he  was  again  made 
to  rife.  Even  thefe  dreary  regions,  however,  are  not 
without  inhabitants,  whom  our  voyagers  juftly  conclu- 
ded to  be  the  lowtft  of  the  human  Ipecies.  Indeed, 
li.iif  of  il-.cconlideiing  the  little  convenience  tlity  have,  it  is  won- 
natives.       <'.erful  how  they  can  refill    the   feverity  of  the  climate. 


MIfcrable 


in„na-  dif- 
covcred  he 


Horn  and 
Ouheite 


lor  they  are  almoil  without  clothing  ;  they  dwell  in 
miferable  hovels,  which  ad^nit  both  the  wind  and  fnow 
or  rain  ;  and  tliey  have  not  any  utenlilfor  diefilng  their 
food.  Neverthtlefs,  thefe  miferable  creatures,  as  they 
appeared  to  our  navigators,  feemed  to  have  no  wilh  to 
pofi'cfs  more  thnn  they  enjoyed  ;  and  they  were  abfo- 
lutely  inditftrcnt  about  every  thing  that  was  offered 
them,  except  large  beads  which  they  would  take  as 
ornaments.  Hence  Dr  Hawkefworth,  who  wrote 
the  account  of  the  voyage,  concludes,  that  thefe  peo- 
ple may  be  on  a  level  wilh  ourfelves  with  lefpcft  to 
the  real  liapninefs  they  enjoy. 

On  the  26th  of  January  1769  our  navigators  left 
Cape  Horn  ;  and  from  that  time  to  the  lirll  of  March, 
twecn  C^jejyiijjg  j^hich  they  run  no  lefs  than  660  leagues,  met 
with  no  current  by  which  the  fhip  was  aflctted.  Hence 
it  is  probable,  that  during  all  this  time  they  had  never 
been  near  any  land,  the  currents  of  the  ocean  being 
ufually  met  with  in  the  neighbourhood  of  iflands.  Se- 
veral iflands,  however,  were  difcovered  before  they 
reached  Otaheite,  on  which  they  bellowed  the  names 
of  Lagoon  Ifland,  Thrumb-cap,  Bow  Ifland,  the 
Groups,  Bird  I.land,  and  Chain  Ifland.  All  thefe 
feemed  to  be  inhabited,  and  were  covered  wilh  a  moil 
delightful  verdure  ;  which  appeared  to  the  greater  ad- 
vantage, as  our  navigators  had  for  a  long  time  feeu  no 
land  but  the  dreary  hills  and  watles  of  Terra  del  Fue- 
go.  Having  arrived  at  Otaheite,  they  fet  about  ob- 
ferving  the  tranfit  of  Venus  over  the  fun,  which  indeed 
was  the  main  purpofe  for  which  the  voyage  had  been 
undertaken.  The  anxiety  which  they  underwent  when 
the  time  of  the  expetltd  phenomenon  approached  may 
eafilv  be  imagined,  as  the  whole  depended  on  the  cir- 
cumitanct  ot  a  clear  (ley,  which  though  more  readily  to 
be  expedled  in  that  climate  than  one  more  to  the  noi  th- 
ward,  was  Hill  a  matter  of  unceitainty.  In  confcqnence 
of  fome. hints  which  had  been  given  by  the  Earl  of 
Morion,  Captain  Cook  determined  to  fend  out  two  par- 
tics  to  diffeienc  places  to  make  the  oblervations;  by  which 
means  there  would  be  a  chance  of  fuccefs,  even  if  thoie 
at  Otaheite  fliould  fail.  For  this  purpofe  he  fent  Mr 
Gore  in  the  long-boat  to  Eimeo,  a  neighbouring  illand, 
plong  with  Mr  Monkhoufc,  Mr  Banks,  and  Mr  Spo- 
riiig,  who  wtre  furnifhed  with  proper  inftrumente  by 


8 

Tra:  fit  r.f 
Venus  ob- 
fcrved. 


]  COO 

Green  the  aftronomcr.  Mefl'is  Hick*,  Gierke, 
PIcktrfgill,  and  Saunders,  were  fent  in  the  pinnace  to 
a  convenient  foot  to  the  tallward  of  the  main  obferva- 
tory,  where  they  were  h'kewifc  ordered  to  make  obfer- 
vations  with  luch  inllruments  as  they  had.  The  day 
on  which  the  tranfit  happened  was  the  3d  of  June 
1769,  when  they  had  the  fatisfaction  to  fee  the  fun 
rife  without  a  cloud  ;  and  as  the  weather  continued 
equally  clear  throughout  the  day,  there  was  the  bell 
opportunity  of  making  the  oblervat'ons  in  a  prf>per 
manner.  All  of  them  fliw  an  atmofphere  or  dullty 
cloud  round  the  planet,  which  dillurbed  their  obfervi- 
tion,  and  probably  caufed  them  to  ditfrr  from  cacii 
other  more  confiderably  than  they  would  otlierwile 
have  done.  According  to  Mr  Gieen,  the  times  of 
ingrcfi  and  egrefs  of  the  planet  were  as  follow  : 

Morning.  h.  min.  fee. 


D.fcove- 
rics. 


[3] 


Firll  external  contact,               -               -  9      25  42 

Firll  internal  contadt,  or  total  immerfion,  9^4  4 

Afternoon. 

Second  internal  contaft,                 -  3      14  8 
Second  external   contatl,  or  end  of  the 

tranfit,               -               -               -  3      32  lo 

From  thefe   obfervations   the  latitude  of  the  obfer- 
vatory  was  found  to  be  17^  29'  15''  S.    and   the  longi- 
tude 149^  32'  30'  W.  of  Greenwich.      Several  curious 
remarks  were  made  both  on  the  country  itfelf  and  on 
the  inhabitants.      Mr  Banks,  in   an   excurfion   up   theotaheit^ 
country,  difcovered   many  traces  of  volcanic  fire  ;  the  i  volcanic 
Hones,  like  thofe   of  Madeira,  had  evidently  the  ap-'''*""^' 
pearance  of  being  burnt,  and  the  very  clay  on  the  hills        . 
liad   the  fame  appearance.     The   natives,  though  ad-  Account  of 
dieted  to  thieving,  appeared   in   general   harmkfs  and  the  natives, 
friendly,  and   very   ready   to    fupply  the  fhip  wilh  ne- 
ceiTarits  in  exchange  for  fuch   things  as   they  wanted. 
The  articles  on  which  they  fet  the  greatell  value  were 
hatchets,  axes,  large  nails,  fpikes,  looking  glaffts,  and 
beads.     They   wtre  alfo   fond   of  fine   linen,  whether 
white  or  printed  ;   but  an   axe   of  the  value  of  half  a 
crown  would  buy  more  provifions  than  a  piece  of  cloth 
of  the  value  of  20  Ihillings.     They  are  very  fickle  and 
inattentive  ;  lo  that  it  was  not  poflible  to  engage  them 
to  pay  any  regaid  to  the  worfliip  of  the  Deity  which 
they  faw  performed   before  theni  ;  nor  would  they  at- 
tend to  any  explanation  of  it   that  was  given  them. 
They  are  not,  however,  dellitute  of  a  religion  of  their 
own  ;  and  are   particularly  careful   of  the  rcpofitories 
of  the  dead,  which  they  will  not  allow  to  be  violated 
on  any  account.      Of  this   Captain    Cook   had  an  in- 
ftance,  when  fome  of  his  people  offered  to  take  down 
an  inclofure  of  one  of  thefe  rcpofitories.     They  were 
violently  oppofed  by  the  natives,  who  fent  a  mefTtnger 
to  acquaint  thtm  that  they  would  never  fiifTer  any  fuch 
thing  ;  and  the  only  infult  that  ever  was  offered  to  an 
Englifhman  by  the  people  of  this  ifland  was  on  a  fimi- 
lar  account.      From   Otaheite   our  navigators   carried 
with  them  Tupia,  formerly  high-priell  of  the  country 
and  prime  minilter  to  Q_ucen  Oberea.      From  his  prac- 
tice it  appeared  that  the  priells  of  Ota'ieite,  as  well  aa 
eilewhcre,  take  care   to   place  thenifclves  a  Hep  nearer 
the  D.:iiy  than  the  common  people,  and  to  ufe  the  de- 
ceptions too  frequently  put  in  piattice  by  fuch  media- 
tors.    While  on   board  the  Ent'eavour,  he  fiequently 
prayed  to  his  god  Tane  for  a  wind  ;  and  according  to 
3  £  2  hia 


coo 


Cook's 
Difcove- 


[        404        1 


COO 


10 
Society 
Idands  dif- 
co%-ered. 


Wretched 
appearance 
of  tlie  king 
of  Solabo- 
la. 


11 

Oheteroa 
ifland  dif- 
csxred.. 


>3 

Comet  of 
1769  oh- 
ferved. 


his  own  accouat  never  failed  of  fuccefs.  This,  how- 
ever, he  took,  care  to  enfure  ;  for  he  never  began  his 
prayers  till  he  perceived  the  breeze  already  on  the  wa- 
ter, and  fo  near  that  it  mud  reach  the  (hip  before  they 
could  well  be  ended.  It  was  obferved  likcwife  of  the 
people  of  Otahcite,  that  thty  had  their  barjs  or  min- 
ilrels,  ■  who  went  about  the  country  with  mufical 
inftruments.  The  band  whom  they  law  at  this  time 
confifted  of  two  players  on  flutes  and  three  drummers  ; 
the  latter  accompanying  the  flutes  with  their  voices. 
Their  fongs  were  made  extempore,  and  the  Englifli 
themfelves  were  generally  the  fubject. 

From  Otaheite  our  navigators  failed  towards  a  neigh- 
bouiing  ifland  named  Tctlruroa  ;  but  finding  it  fmall, 
low,  and  without  any  fettled  inhabitants,  the  Captain 
chofe  rather  to  diredl  his  courfe  towards  Huahcine  and 
Ulietea,  which  he  was  informed  were  well  inhabited. 
Thefe  had  never  been  vifited  by  any  European  fliip  : 
but  the  inhabitants,  though  peaceable  and  friendly, 
vere  very  flow  and  cautious  in  trading,  fo  that  the 
Captain  was  obliged  to  bring  out  his  hatchets  to  niaiket; 
a  commodity  which  he  had  hoped  might  have  been 
concealed  from  thofe  who  had  never  feen  an  European 
fhip  before.  On  his  arrival  at  Ulietea  he  found,  by 
the  difcourfe  of  Tupia,  that  the  inhabitants  of  a 
reighbouring  ifland  named  Bolabola  were  of  fuch  a 
martial  difpolition  as  to  be  the  terror  of  thofe  of  Hua- 
heine,  Ulietea,  and  others,  iafomuch  that  he  appre- 
hended great  danger  to  our  navigators  fliould  they 
touch  at  an  ifland  which  the  Bolabola  men  had  lately 
conquered.  This,  however,  had  fo  little  efleft  upon 
Captain  Cook,  that  he  not  only  landed  on  the  ifland 
already  mentioned,  but  took  pofleflion,  in  his  Majefty's 
name,  of  Bolabola  itfelf,  together  with  Ulietea,  Hua- 
heine,  and  another  named  Otaha,  which  were  all  vi- 
fible  at  once.  During  their  ftay  here  they  paid  a  villi 
to  Opoony,  the  formidable  monarch  cf  Bolabola  ; 
whom,  to  their  furprifc,  they  found  a  feeble  wretch, 
withered  and  decitpid,  half  blind  with  age,  and  fo 
ftupid  that  he  feemed  fcarce  to  be  pofTcfled  of  a  com- 
mon degree  of  underftanding.  About  thefe  iflands 
they  fpent  fix  weeks,  bellowing  upon  them  the  name 
of  the  Society  IJIes,  on  account  of  their  being  fo  near 
to  each  other.  They  are  fix  in  number,  Ulietea,  Hua- 
beine,  Bolabola,  Otaha,  Tubai,  and  Maurna.  The 
fmaller  ones  in  their  neighbourhood  are  Tethuroa,  Ei- 
meo,  Tapoamanao,  Oatara,  Opui  uru,  Tamou,  Tua- 
hoatu,  and  Whennuaia. 

Leaving  the  Society  Iflands,  which  are  fituated  be- 
tween Lat.  l6>  10.  and  16.  55.  S.  and  between  150. 
57.  and  152.  W.  from  the  meridian  of  Greenwich, 
tliey  fell  in  with  the  ifland  of  Oheteroa,  fituated  in 
S.  Lat.  22.  27.  and  W.  Long.  150.  47.  ;  but  this 
was  found  to  be  deflitute  of  any  harbour  or  fafe  an- 
chorage, and  the  difpofiticn  of  the  inhabitants  fo  ho- 
ftile  that  they  could  not  by  any  means  be  conciliated, 
fo  that  no  attempts  were  made  to  land.  From  Tupia 
Captain  Cook  learned  that  there  were  feveral  iflands 
in  the  neighbourhood,  which  our  navigator  conjeftured 
to  be  Bofcawen  and  Keppel's  Iflands,  dilcovered  by 
Captain  Wallis  ;  but  without  fpending  more  time  in 
exploring  thefe,  he  fet  fail  to  the  foulhward  in  fearch 
of  a  continent. 

Our  voyagers  left  Oheteroa  on  the  15th  of  Auguft 
1769,  and  on  the  30th  had  a  view  of  the  comtt  which 


appeared  that  year  ;  its  tail  fubtending  on  an  angle  of    Cook'j 
42  degrees.     This  proved  a  new  fouice  of  apprehen-  I'''"^ove- 
fion  to  Tupia,  who  inflantly  cried  out,  that  as  foon  as  ,     '^'"'  ^  t. 
it  was  feen   at    Bolabola,   the   people  of  that   country 
would  attack  thofe  of  Ulietea,  who  would  undoubtedly 
be  obliged  to  fly  with   precipitation  to  the   mountains 
to  fave  their  lives.     On  the  6th  of  O^^ober  they  dif- 
covercd  land,   which  from   its   fize,  and  the   enormous 
mountains  obfervable  on  it,  was  fuppofed  by  the  gen- 
tlemen on  board  to  be  part  of  Tcira  ylujlralh  hicognlla;         j. 
but  on  farther  examination  it   was  found  to  be  part  of  They  ar- 
New  Zealand.      Here  the  inhabitants   were   found   to  rive  at  Nc»r 
fpeak  a  dialeft  of  the  language  of  Otaheite,  fo  that  ^"'^"'^' 
they   could    underft.and  Tupia,   and   he   them  ;  yet  fo 
extremely  hoftile    were  their  difpofitions,  that  not  the 
fmallcft   intercourfe   could   be    held   with   them  ;    nor 
could   any    thing   neccflary  for  the  fliips   be    procured 
excepting  wood  :    fo    that  the  name   Captain  Cook 
thought  proper  to  beftow  on  this  part  of  the  country 
was  Poverly-Bay.      By  the  natives  it  is  called  Taoncroa, 
and  lies   in   S.  Lat.   38.  42.   and  W.Long.  181.  36. 
During  the  time  of  his  flay  in   this  part  of  the  world 
the  Captain  circumnavigated  almoft.  the  whole  country 
of  New  Zealand,   which  he  found    to  conlift  of  two 
iflands  feparated  from  each  other   by  a   narrow  ftrait, 
which,  fro:r,  its  difcoveier,   has  obtained  the  name  of 
Coofs  Strait.      In  fome  places  thedifpofition  of  the  in- 
habitants was  as  favourable  as  could  be  wiftied;  fo  that 
Dr  Solander,  Mr  Banks,  and  other  gentlemen,  had  an 
opportunity  of  exploring  the  country  in  fume  degree,         x; 
with  a  view  to   difcover   its  natural  productions.      luRock  of  ?4i 
one  of  tlieir  excurfions,   as  they  pafled  through  a  val-  '^'""°''"- 
ley,  the  hills  on  each   Gde  of  which  were  very  fteep, 
they  were  fuddenly  ftruck  with  the  fight  of  a  very  ex- 
traordinary natural  curiofity.     It  was  a  rock  perfora- 
ted through  its  whole  fubllancc,  fo  as  to  form  a  rude 
but  It'jpendous  arch  or  cavern,  opening  dirtftly  to  the 
fca.     This  aperture  was  75  feet  long,   27   broad,  and 
45  in  height,  commanding  a  view  of  the  bay  and  the 
hills  on  the  other  fide,   which   were   feen   through  it ; 
and  opening  at  o[;ce  on   the  view,  produced  an   effeft         ,5 
far  fuperior   to  any  of  the  contrivanees  of  art.      On  Natural 
that  part  of  the  coaft,  which,  from  having  obferved  aP''oJ"'^*''P 
tranfit   of  Mercury,  they  named  Mercury  bay,  oyilers'''' '^°"°" 
were  found  in  fuch  plenty,  that  they  might  have  load-  ^^' 
ed  not  only  their  boats  but  even  their  fliip  with  them. 
They  were  about  the  fame  fize  with  thofe  met  with  in 
this  country  ;  and  on  account  of  their  being  f<.  und  in. 
fuch  plenty,   and  likewife   that  the  adjacent  country 
abounds  with  conveniences,  Captain  Couk  was  at  great 
pains  to  point  out  the  fituation  of  the  place.      By  his 
obfervdtions,   the  latitude  of  Mercury  bay  is   36°  4S' 
28"  S. 

Leaving  this  bay  our  commander  proceeded  to  ex- 
plore other  parts  of  the  country,  which  by  their  ac- 
count feems  to  abound  with  rivers.  Two  large  ones 
were  met  with  in  Mercury  bay  ;  one  of  which,  from 
the  abundance  of  oyfters  found  at  its  moutli,  was  cal- 
led Oyflcr  river ;  the  other  they  named  Mangrove  ri- 
■ver,  fiom  the  number  of  mangrove  trees  growing  there. 
A  third,  which  they  called  Thames,  was  met  with  in 
that  part  called  the  Bay  of  Iflands,  up  which  they  fail- 
ed 14  miles.  Its  banks  were  every  where  adorned 
with  lofty  trees,  which  they  had  likewife  obferved  iQ 
otbft  parts  of  the  country.     They  were  too  heavy  for 


coo 


C   405   ] 


coo 


mafts,  but  would  make  the  fineft  planks  imaginable  ; 
and  as  they  refembltd  the  pitch  pine,  the  timber  of 
which  is  lightened  by  'appiiig,  the  carpenter  was  of 
opinion  that  they  might  thus  be  rendered  more  pro- 
per for  mails   than   any  European   timber.     One   of 


The  inhabitants  of  New  Zealand  are  in  a  very  bar-     Cor  fc'j 
barous  ftatc,  and  have  a  degree  of  ftrocity  uiknown    Difc.we- 

to    the   inhabitants  of  the   South-Sea  iflands,  though ""^^ 

they  feem  to  have  the  fame  origin.      During  their  re-  '     ~ 


fidence  there,  our  navigators  had  tlic  mod  convincing  a 


•9 

ccn.nt  of 


thefe  trees  meafuted  19  ftet  8  inches  in  circumference    evidences  of  their  being  cannibals,  and  accuilomed  tothcinhab 


at  the  height  of  fix  feet  from  the  ground,  and  was  no 
lefs  than  89,  with  very  little  taper,  to  the  branches  ; 
fo  that  the  lieutenant  fuppofcd  it  muft  contain  356 
feet  of  folid  timber.  In  Qiieen  Charlotte's  Sound, 
the  country  was  little  otlier  than  one  vail  foreft,  with 
plenty  of  excellent   water,  and    the   coaft  abounding 


devour  the  bodies  of  ther  ilain  enemies.  Notwith-' 
Handing  thefe  barbarous  praftices,  however,  they 
feemed  to  enjoy  a  (late  of  uninterrupted  health.  In 
all  the  vifits  made  to  their  towns,  none  was  ever  per- 
ceived who  had  the  lead  bodily  complaint,  not  even 
the    fliglitefl   eruption  on    the   (Icin.       This   extraos- 


with  lifh.  As  the  fliip  lay  at  the  diilance  of  only  a  dinary  degree  of  healtli  was  likewiie  manifelled  by  the 
quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  fiiore,  they  were  agreeably  eafe  with  which  tlieir  wounds  were  healed  without  the 
entertained  with  the   finging  of  an   infinite  number  of    fmallcll  application,  as  well  as  by   the   number  of  old 


fmall  birds,  which  formed  a  melody  greatly  fupcrior  to 
any  thing  they  had  ever  heaid  before.  The  mufic  of 
thefe  little  chorillers  fccmed  to  be  like  fmall  bells,  moll 
fxquifitely  tuned,  though  probably  the  diilance  and 
intervention  of  the  water  had  a  confiilcrable  elfe£l  in 
heightening  it.  They  began  to  fing  about  two  in  the 
morning,  and  continued  their  fong  till  fun-rife,  after 
which  they  were  filcnt  all  the  day,  relembling  in  this 
refpedl  the  nightingales  of  our  own  country. 

The  time  which  Capt.  Cook  fpent  in  exploring  the 

jefcription  coafts  of  New  Zealand   was   not  lefs   than  fix  months. 

>ftliecoun-  By  his  refearches  it  was  fhown  to  confill  of  two  laige 


•  7 

Ccnneral 


U-y. 


iflands,  the  mod  northerly  of  which  is  called  Eahelno- 
mauwe,  and  the  mofl  foutherly  Tovy,  or  Tavai  Poe- 
vammoo ;  though  it  is  not  certain  whether  the  whole 
fouthern  ifland  or  only  a  part  of  it  is  comprehended  un- 
der this  name.  This  ifland  feems  to  be  barien  and 
mountainous,  but  jEa/jeiiiomatiwe  \\3i  a  much  better  ap- 
pearance ;   and  it  was  univerfally  believed  by  the  gen- 


men  with  which  the  illand  abounded.  Many  cf  thefe, 
by  the  lofs  of  their  hair  and  teeth,  feemed  to  be  ex- 
tremely old,  but  none  of  them  were  decrepid  ;  and 
though  inferior  in  flrength  to  the  young  men,  they 
came  not  behind  them  in  the  lead  with  regard  to 
cheerfuhufs  and  vivacity.  The  univerfal  and  only- 
drink  of  the  New  Zealanders  is  water. 

Oar  navigator  had  now  explored  three-fourths  of  that 
pare  of  the  globe  where  the  loutliern  continent  was  fup- 
poled  to  lie,  without  being  able  to  find  it  ;  and  his  voy- 
age had   demonllrated,  that  the  lands  feen   by  former 
navigators  could  not  have  been  parts  of  fuch    a  conti« 
nent,  though,  as  he  had  never  proceeded  farther  to  the 
fouthward  than  40  degrees,  the  arguments  for  it  were 
not  as  yet  entirely  overthrown.      Mr  Cook,  however,  oifj.,*^°. 
did  not  at  this  lime  proceed  farther   in  the   fearch  of  ries  at  New 
fuch  a  continent,  but  failed  from  New  Zealand  to  the  H'llind. 
coails  of  New  Holland,  where  he  anchored  in  Botany 
Bay  on  the  20th  of  April.      Here  he  found  a  fev/  fa- 


tlemen  on  board,  that  all  kinds  of  European  grain,  as    vage  inhabitants  more  barbarous  and  degenerate  than 


well  as  garden  plants  and  fruit,  would  flourilh  in  the 
greatelt  abundance  and  perfcftion  ;  and  from  the  ve- 
getables found  here  it  was  concluded  that  the  winters 
are  not  more  fevere  than  thofe  of  England,  and  it  was 
known  by  experience,  that  the  fummer  was  not  hotter, 
though  the  heat  was  more  equal  than  in  this  country. 
Here  are  no  quadrupeds  except  dogs  and  rats;  and  the 
latter  are  fo  fcarc.e,  that  they  efcaped  the  notice  of 
many  on  board.  The  buds  are  not  numerous,  and  the 
gannet  is  the  only  one  of  the  European  kind  that  was 
obferved.     The  infefts  are  equally  fcarce  ;  but  the  fea 


'roper 
lice  for 
:tciii4g  a 
>lony 
icre. 


any  that  had  yet  been  obferved.     Their  language  was 
harih  and  difibnant,  totally  unintelligible  even  to  Tu» 
pia  ;   they  appeared  to  have  little  cuiiofity,  and  fet  no 
value   upon   any  prefent    that  could   be   made   them. 
The   moll   remarkable    circuniftance   in   this    country 
feems  to  be  its  extreme  fcarcity  of  water  ;  not  a  fingle 
ftream  of  any  confeqnence  having  ever  been  obfervtd 
by  any  navigator.      Some  wei-e  of  opinion  indeed,  that 
Moreton's  Bay,    in  S.  Lat.    26.  56.  and   W.  Long. 
2c6.  28.  opens  into  a  rivet;  though  the  only  reafon  they 
had  for  this  opinion  was,  that  the  fea  looked  paler  in 
makes  abundant  recompence  for   this  fcarcity  of  land    that  part  than  ufual,  and  the  land  at  the   bottom  part 
animals;  every  creek  fwarms  with  fifh,   equally   deli-     of  the  bay  could  not  be  feen.     At  this  time,  however, 
cious  with  thofe   in  this  country.     The  forells  are  of    the  matter  could   not   be  determined   by  experiment, 
vail  extent,  and  filled  with  excellent  timber  trees,  the    on  account  of  the  wind  being  contrary.      The  fcarcity 
largeft,  ftraighteft,  and  cleaned  that  Mr  Cook  had  ever    of  water  here  is  the  more  furprifing,  on  account  of  the 
feen.      Inhere  is  here  one  plant  which  anfwers  the  pur-     vad  extent  of  the  country,  and   likewife   its  having  a- 
pofcs  of  both  hemp  and  flax,  and  excels  all   other  of    bundance  of  tolerable  high  hills.     In  this  ifland  there 
the  kind  that  has  been  met  with  in  other  parts  of  the    were  found  many  curious  plants   and  animals  ;   and  it,-    ^^ . 
world.   If  the  fettling  of  New  Zealand  therefore  fliould    was  found,  that  in  feveral  places  the  magnetical  needle  ,J^di"'J"^ 
ever  be  deemed  an   objeft  worthy  of  the   attention  of    wae  affetled  to  fuch  a   degree  as   to   vary  its  pofition  prilingly »C. 
Great  Britain,  Captain  Cook  was  of  opinion,  that  the    even    to    30   degrees.      At  onetime  it   varied  no  lefs  l'e6lta. 
bed  place  tor  edablilhing  a  colony  would  be  either  on    than  two  points  on  being  removed  to  the  dittance  of  only 
the  banks  of  the  Thames  or  in  the   Bay  of  Iflands;     14  feet.     Some   of  the   loofe   ftones  being  taken  up 
each  of  thefe  places  having  the  advantage  of  an  excel-    and  applied  to  the  needle  produced  no  effeft  ;  but  Mr 
lent  harbour.     Settlements  might  be  extended,  and  a    Cook  was  of  opinion  that  the  whole  phenomenon  was 
communication    made    with  the  inland    parts  of    the     to  be  afcribed  to  iron  ore   in   fome  of  the  mountains^ 
country  by  means  of  the  river  ;  and  vefiels  eafily  con-     and  of  which  traces  had  been  elready  met  with.     This 
ftrufted  of  the  excellent  timber  with  which,  the  coun-     irregularity  continued  in  fome  degree  even  at  fea  ;  for 
try  every  where  abounds.  when  the  fliip  was  clofe  under  Cape  Upftart,  the  vati- 

i  ation. 


coo  [4c 

Cn^lc's     atirn  of  ihe  needle  in  the  evening  of  the  4.th  of  June 
was  9.  Ead,  and  next  morning  only  5.  35.  ;  and  this 
was  in   like  manner  accounted   for  from  iron  ore,  or 
fome   magnctical   maiter    below    the    furface    of   the 
ground.     The  great  iHand  has  m^ny  other  fmall  ones 
round  it  ;  fcverF.l  of  which  wore  vifited  by  our  navita- 
Pi-t't  n-Hs  tors.      One  of  tliem  named  Eii^lj  Jjliiul,  Icemed  to  be 
Ql  an  im-     inhabited   by  a   monftrous  kind    of  birds,   the  nell  of 
liitnfe  lize.  j,ne  of  which  mcafured  no  Ids  than  26  feet  in  circum- 
ference and  two  feet  eight  inches  in  height  ;  and  in  the 
I'hilofophical    Tranfattions,  vol.   xx.   there   is  an  ac- 
count of  one  of  thefe   ncils  ftill  larger  ;  but  the  bird 
to  which  it   belonged  was  not  feen.     That  which  our 
navigators  faw  was  built  of  ftleks,   and  lay  upon   the 
*3  ■      ground. 
V;if[  extent      The  counti")'  which  goes  by  the  name  of  New  Hal- 
cf -.he  c^ur.-r /^„^  ;jj  {jy  f^r  the  largell  "iland  in  the  world.      Its  ea- 
''^'  ftern  part,   called  Kcji   South  Wales,  now  firll  explo- 

red by  Captain  Cook,  extendj  upwards  of  2000  miles 
in  length,  if  the  coail  were  reduced  to  a  ftraight  line. 
Though  inhabited,  as  we  have  already  faid,  by  very 
barbarous  favages,  their  number  appears  to  bear  no 
proportion  to  the  extent  of  their  territory.  The 
intercourfe  they  had  with  our  navigators  was  fo 
fmall,  that  they  could  pick  up  but  a  few  words  of 
their  language.  As  a  Britifh  fettlement,  however,  is 
•now  made  in  that  country,  there  is  no  doubt  that  much 
moi'S  exaiii  and  accurate  accounts  will  foon  be  obtain- 
ed than  even  the  diligence  and  attention  of  Captain 
2 ,  Cook  could  collect  ou  fuch  a  tranlient  vifit. 
Separated  In  this  voyage  our  navigator,  belide?  exploring  the 
!>)•  Uraits  eaftern  part  of  the  iiland,  which  had  never  been  done 
Irom  New  j^  f,^^g  dlicovered  that  it  was  ftparated  from  the  ifland 
of  i\ew  Cumea,  to  which  it  had  lo-inerly  been  thought 
to  ioin.  The  two  countries  are  feparated  by  a  Ihait 
to  which  the  commander  gave  the  name  of  Endeavour 
Strait.  The  north  entrance  of  this  lies  in  S.  Lat. 
10.  39.  and  W.  Long.  zi8.  36.  the  palTage  is  form- 
ed by  the  main  land  and  a  congeries  of  illands  to  the 
north,  on  which  our  navigator  bellowed  the  name  of 
Prince  of  IVales's  I/lands.  Thcfe  are  very  different 
both  in  height  and  extent ;  and  the  Captain  was  of 
opinion  that  feveral  pa0ages  might  be  found  out  among 
them.  Ou  the  coall  of  New  Holland  oppofite  to  New 
Guinea  are  found  cockles  of  an  imraenfe  lize  ;  fome  of 
them  being  as  much  as  two  men  could  move,  and  con- 
taining 20  pounds  of  good  meat.-  In  thefe  fcas'as  well 
as  on  x\\i  coails  of  Brazil,  our  navigators  found  the 
furface  of  the  water  covered  with  a  kind  of  fcum,  call- 
ed bv  the  iixilon  fea-fpii'-Mn.  It  was  examined  by  Mr 
Banks  and  Dr  Solander  ;  but  they  could  determine 
nothing  farther  than  that  it  was  of  vegetable  origin. 
The  nativ'^es  of  New  Guinea  were  fo  hoitile  that  no 


«5 

_Coc1tles  uf 
vaft  lize, 
fea  fcum, 
&c. 


26 

Uraccount 
able  me- 


difcoveries  of  any  confequence  co\dd  be  made.      They 
thud  .if  t!ie  refembled  the  New  Hollanders  in  iiature,  and  having- 
natives  r  f    (hort  cropped   hair.      Like  them  too  they  were  abfo- 
letring  off   lutely  naked,  but  fomevvhat  lefs  black  and  dirty.   They 
•  had  a  furprifing  method  of  letting  off  a  kind  of  fires, 

exactly  reicmbling  the  flafnes  of  fire-arms,  but  with- 
out any  exrilofion.  It  was  not  known  in  what  manner 
this  was  done,  as  they  were  never  near  enough  to 
make  a  particular  obfcrvation.  Thofe  who  difchargcd 
them  had  a  (liort  piece  of  (lick  which  they  fwung  fide- 
ways  from  them,  upon  which  there  IITued  the  fire  and 
fmokejuft  mentioned.     This  feems  to  have  been  in- 


o     ]  C    O   -O 

tended  as  a  defiance  ;  for  they  had  no  dX:^  as  ofTcn-     Cook's, 
five  weapiins,  and  others  were  armed   with  bows  and  l^ifi"ve. 
arrows.    The  country  .ippcareil  extremely  phafant  and    ^  ""'•  _,. 
fertile.      The    place    at   whioh  th-y   touched  lies  in         ' 
S.  Lat.  6.  15. 

As  the  condition  of  the  Endeavour  was  now  ver)' 
much  (battered  by  having  failed  io  long  in  thefe  dan- 
gerous feas,  the  commander  detei mined  to  make  tlie 
bell  of  his  way  for  Batavia  in  ord;r  to  refit.  In  this 
voyage  he  firll  paffed  two  unknown  illands  without 
touching  at  either  of  them.  They  were  fuppofed  to 
belong  to  the  Aurora  iflarids  ;  but  if  this  be  the  cafe, 
the  latter  muil  be  laid  dewn  at  too  great  a  diltanc.- 
from  New  Guinea.  The  Weafel  Illes,  laid  down  by 
former  navigators  at  about  20  or  25  leagues  from  the 
coalt  of  New  Holland,  were  not  feen;  for  wiiich  reafiiu 
Mr  Cook  is  of  opinion  that  they  are  erroneously  laid 
down. 

PalTmg  by  the  iflands  of  Timor,  Tirnor-lavet,  Rot- 
ta,  and  Seinan,  they  next  arrived  at  the  ifldiid  of  S  i- 
vu,  vi-hcre  a  fettlement  had  lately  been  made  by  the 
Dutch.  In  this  voyage  they  had  the  fatisiactlon  of  ^y 
obferving  the  aurora  auftralii,  which  here  feemed  to  A.ur(ia.\o. 
differ  in  fome  refpecls  from  that  in  th.e  northern  he-'^"''*- 
mifphere.  It  conlilled  of  a  dull  reddilh  light  extend- 
inif  abi-)Ut  20  degrees  above  the  horizon  :  and  though 
it  vaned  at  fome  times  in  extent,  it  was  never  Itfs 
than  eight  or  ten  degrees.  From  this  general  mafs  of 
light  there  fonictimes  ifTued  rays  of  a  brighter  colour, 
which  vanilhed  and  were  renewed  like  thofe  of  the  au- 
rora borealls,  but  without  any  of  that  tumultuous  mo- 
tion obferved  In  the  aurora  borcilis.  The  body  of  the 
light  bore  S.  S.  E.  from  the  fliip,  and  coatinucd  with- 
out any  diminution  of  its  brightnefs  from  10  to,  12  at 
night.  ig 

The  middle  part  of  the  ifland  of  Savu  lies  in  10"  Excellent 
35'  fouth,  and  237^  30'  wefl  longitude,  and  afforded  a "^^^J*"^!" 
moll  beautiful  profpeC^  from  the  ihlp.    The  people  are  hifants  of 
remarkable  for  the  purity  of  their  morals,  which  areSavu. 
faid  to   be   irreproachable,  even  on   the  principles  of 
Chriflianitv.     Though  no  man  is  allowed  to  have  more 
than  one  wife,  inftances  of  illicit  commerce  betwixt 
the    fexes    are   fcarce   known  among  them.     Inftan- 
ces of  theft  are  likewife  very  rare  ;  and  fo  far  are  they 
from    revenging   a   fuppofed   injury   by  murder,  that 
v.-hen  any  differences  arife  among  them,  they  are  im- 
mediately and  implicitly  referred  to  the  determination 
of  the  king.      They  will  not  even  make  It  the  fubjec\ 
of  private  debate,  leil  they  fliould  be  provoked  to  re- 
fenlment  and  ill-nature  ;  and  the  delicacy  and  cleanli- 
ncfs  of  their  perfons  are  faid  to  be  proportionable  to 
the  purity  of  their  morals.  j^ 

"On  the  arrival  of  the  Endeavour  at  Batavia,  our  na-  Good  ef- 
vlgator  had  an  opportunity  of  obferving   the  good  ef-  f-'^* '}  '''■'^ 
fects  of  the  electrical  chains  applied  to  ihips  in  f^ci'''ing^j^'^j^j|jj'^^ 
them  from  the  effl-fts  of  lightning.     A  dreadud  flonn  ,,'j,eierviiig 
of  thundiT  happened  one  evening,   during  which  the  fr,,m  the 
main-mail  of  one   of  the  Dutch   Eaft  India-men  was'^ff-"'."^ 
fplit  and  carried  away   clofc  by  the  deck,  the  main   S  •'■"'S' 
top-maft,   and  top-gallant-maft   being  fliivcred  to  pie- 
ces.    This  fl^p  kiy  fo  near  the  Endeavour,   that  the 
latter  would  probably  have   (hared   the  fame  fate,  had 
it  not  been  for  the  conducting  chain  which  fortunate- 
ly was  juft  put  up.     The  explofion  fhook  her  like  ai> 
earthquake,  the  chain  at  the  fame  time  appearing  like 

a 


coo 


C    4C7     ] 


COO 


a  line  of  fire.  The  flroke  fcemed  toliavi  been  direft- 
ctl  to  the  Dutch  vcHel  by  an  iron  fpIniUc  at  tlic  mad 
Iliad  ;  which  praftice  our  commander  difcommends, 
but  ilror  g]y  advifcs  the  nic  vi  tlie  elettrical  chain. 

On  their  landing  at  Batavia,  Tupia  was  confined  by 
iickntfs,  fo  that  he  appeared  quite  liftlefs  and  dcjefted 
when  put  into  llie  boat  ;  but  on  his  anival  at  laud  re- 
covered his  fpirits  furpiifnigly.  The  fcene,  to  him  fo 
new  and  extraordiiiaiy,  fecmed  to  prodvice  an  effeft 
fimilar  to  what  is  afcribed  to  enchantment.  His  at- 
tention was  partieulaily  engajijed  by  the  various  drefTes 
of  the  people  ;  and  being  informed  tliat  at  Batavia  e- 
very  one  appeared  in  the  drefs  of  his  own  country,  he 
exprefiVd  a  dellre  of  likewife  appearinc;  in  the  gaib  of 
Otaheite.  Having  therefore  been  furnilbed  vvilli  South 
Sea  cloth  from  the  fliip,  he  equipped  himfelf  with 
great  quickncfs  and  dexterity.  After  the  firfl  flow 
of, fpirits  had  fubfided,  however,  he  foon  began  to 
feci  the  fata!  tfTefts  of  tlie  climate  ;  and  his  boy  Tay- 
eto,  whofe  fpirits  liad  been  ftill  more  elevated  on 
his  arrival,  was  attacked  with  an  inflammation  of 
the  lungs,  -and  in  a  little  lime  fell  a  viftim  to  the  dif- 
eafe.  Tupia  himfelf  did  not  long  furvivc  him,  and  his 
death  was  not  attributed  entirely  to  the  unwholefome- 
iiefs  of  the  climate.  Having  been  accuftoraed  from 
his  infancy  to  fuhfift  chiefly  upon  vegetable  food,  and 
particularly  on  ripe  fruit,  he  had  foon  contracted  the 
diforders  incident  to  a  fealife,  and  covdd  Icarce  have 
been  expeeted  to  reach  England,  even,  if  the  un- 
vholefome  climate  of  Batavia  had  been  out  of  the 
qiielHon. 

Tlie  Endeavour  left  Batavia  on  the  27th  of  De- 
cember 1770,  and  on  the  5th  of  January  1771  reach- 
ed Prince's  Ifland.  This  place  had  been  formerly 
much  frequented  by  the  India  fhips,  but  of  late  en- 
tirely deferted  on  account  of  the  fuppofed  bad  qua- 
lity of  the  water  :  but  this  our  navigator  has  difcovcr- 
cd  to  be  a  millake  ;  and  that  though  the  water  near 
the  fea  isbrackilli,  it  may  be  had  of  excellent  quaUty 
by  going  a  little  way  up  the  country.  He  is  of  opi- 
nion that  this  ifland  is  a  more  proper  place  for  fliips  to 
touch  at  than  either  North  Ifland  or  New  Bay,  be- 
caufe  neither  of  thefe  can  afford  other  refrefliments 
which  may  be  had  at  Prince's  Ifland. 

The  rell  of  this  voyage  afi^ords  little  intercfting 
matter.  The  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  whicli  was  their 
next  flage,  has  been  fo  fully  dcfcribed  by  former  na- 
vigators that  tliere  was  little  room  for  addition.  At 
St  Helena  the  commander  made  fome  remarks  on  the 
rigorous  treatment  of  the  flaves,  which  was  reprefent- 
ed  as  worfe  than  that  of  the  Dutch  either  at  Batavia 
or  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  In  the  account  ,of  his  fc- 
cimd  voyage,  however,  this  accufation  was  retradted. 

CaptaiuiCook's  fccond  voyage  was  undertaken  in 
an  efpecial  manner  to  determine  finally  the  qiieilion 
concerning  the  cxiftence  of  a  fouthern  continent.  It 
ccmmenced  in  the  year  1772  ;  and,  as  in  the  former, 
he  proceeded  firft  to  Madeira.  From  thence  he  pro- 
ceeded to  St  Jago,  one  of  the  Cape  de  Verde  Iflands  ; 
where  an  opportunity  was  taken  of  delineating  and  gi- 
ving luch  a  defcription  of  P>  rt  Praya,  and  the  fupplies 
to  be  there  iiblained,  as  might  be  of  ufe  to  future  navi- 
gators. On  the  8th  of  September  he  croflTed  the  line 
in  S'wefl.  longitude,  and  had  the  fatisfaiftion  to  meet 
with  good  wtalhcr,  though  he  had  been  informed  that 


h:  had  failed  at  an  improper  time  of  the  year,  in  con-     Cnr.U'* 

fequence  of  which   he  would  probably  be  becalmed,   l^'f'^"^^- 

From  his  account,  however,  it  appears,  that  though  in  f. 

fome  years  fuclt  weather  maybe  expedcd,  it  is  by  no  , 

means   univerfally  the   cafe.      In   this  part    of  the  o-  Calm's  mt 

cean  he  had  alfo  an  oppo;timity  of  obferving  the  caufe  alviys  to 

of  the  luminous  property  of  fea-water,  which  in  h is '>«  f«'" "•"'i 

former  voyage  had  been  attributed  to  infecto.    Mr  For-  '^,'''^[„']'^ja|. 

fter  being  of  a  didercnt  opinion,  the  matter  was  again 

particularlv  inquired  into,   but  the  refult  was  entirely  ,       •?* 

r  liir  1  ••  ^  .  l.nn-.inons 

contormable  to  tlic  tormer  determmation.      Some  buc-quali-y  (f 

kets  of  v.'ater  being  drawn  up  from  along  fide  the  fiup,fca. water 

vere  found  to  be  Idled  with  thofe  infeCls  of  a  globular f""'"'  ''■'- 

form,  and  about  the  fize  of  a  fmaU  pin's  head.      No ''-'^''■""'''^• 

life  indeed  could  be  perceived  in  them ;  but  Mr  Foifler 

was  thoroughly  convinced  of  their  being  living  animals 

when  in  their  proper  element.  .^5 

Proceeding  louthward  in  queft  of  a  continent,  they '"^"^  iCinJ*. 
fell  in  with  Ice  Iflands  in  S.  Lat.  50.  40.  and  two 
degiees  of  longitude  eaft  from  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  One  of  thefe  was  fo  much  concealed  by  the 
hazinefs  of  the  weather,  tint  it  could  not  be  fecn  at 
the  dillance  of  more  than  a  mile.  Captain  Cook  judged 
it  to  be  about  50  feet  in  height  arid  half  a  mile  in  cir- 
cumference ;  Its  fides  rifing  in  a  perpendicular  direc- 
tion, and  the  fea  breaking  againft  them  with  great  vio- 
lence. Two  days  after,  they  paflcd  fix  others,  fome  of 
which  were  two  miles  in  circumference  and  60  feet  in 
height;  yet  fuch  was  the  ftrength  and  violence  of  the 
waves  that  the  fea  broke  quite  over  them.  On  the  14th 
they  were  flopped  by  a  vail  field  of  low  ice,  of  which 
they  could  perceive  no  end.  In  diflVrent  parts  of  this 
field  there  were  feen  Iflands  or  hills  of  ice  like  thofe 
already  defcribed,  and  fome  of  the  people  imagined 
that  -they  faw  land  over  them  ;  but  upon  a  narrow  ex- 
amination this  was  found  to  be  a  miftake.  On  gcttino- 
clear  of  the  field  of  ice  they  again  fell  in  with  loofe 
Iflands  ;  and  as  it  was  a  general  opinion  that  thefe  are 
only  formed  in  bays  and  rivers,  our  navigators  con- 
cluded that  they  could  not  be  at  a  great  diftance  from 
land.  They  were  now  in  the  latitude  of  55°  40'fouth; 
and  as  they  had  failed  for  more  than  30  leagues  along 
the  edge  of  the  Ice  without  finding  any  opening,  the 
Captain  determined  to  run  30  or  40  leagues  farther  to 
the  eaftward,  in  hopes  of  then  getting  to  the  fouth- 
ward.  If  in  this  attempt  he  met  with  no  land  or  other 
impediment,  his  defign  was  to  ftretch  behind  the  ice 
altogether,  and  thus  determine  the  matter  at  once.  In 
a  tbort  time,  however,  it  became  evident  that  the 
field  of  ice  along  which  they  had  failed  fo  long  did 
not  join  with  any  land  5  and  tlie  Captain  now  came  to 
a  relolntlou  of  running  as  far  to  the  wcfl  as  the  meri- 
dian of  Cape  Circumclfion.  In  the  profecutlon  of  tsl.'«  • 
defign  he  met  with  a  very  fevcre  llor.ni,  which  was  ren- 
dered the  more  dangerous  by  the  ])iects  of  loofe  ice 
among  which  they  were  ibll  entangled,  and  a  vail 
field  of  which  they  could  njt  perceive  the  boundaries, 
about  three  miles  to  tlie  northward.  Of  tliis  they" 
could  not  get  clear  without  receiving  fome  fevere 
flrokes  ;  and  after  afl,  when  they  arrived  at  the  place 
where  they  ought  to  have  found  Cape  CIrcumcifion, 
It  could  hot  be  difcovered  ;  fo  that  the  Captain  con- 
cluded that  what  Bouvet  took  for  land  could  have  been 
nothing  but  ice. 

During  this  run  the  fallacy  of  the  general  opinion 

kid 


36 
Ice  not  al- 
ways found 
in  the  via- 
nity  of 
Uod. 


37 
Irregulari- 
ty of  the 
magnetic 
needle . 


COO  [  408   ]  coo 

had  been  difcovered,  that  the  ice  witli  which  the  polar     Is  covered  with  trees,  among  which  is  the  true  fprucc, 

regions  abound  has  been  formed   in   the  vicinity  of    which  was  found  to  be  of  great  ufe 

land.     It  was  found  Hkewifc,  that  the  water  produced 

from  the  melting  of  ice,   even  thou^'h  formed  in  tlie 

ocean,  was  perfeftly  fweet  and  well  tailed.     Of  this 

circumilance  the  Captain  took  advantage  to  fupply 

himfelf  with  water  ;  and  gave  it  as  his  opinion,  that  it 

■was  the  moll  expeditious  method  of  watering  he  had 

ever  known.      He  had  likewife  an  opportunity  of  de- 

tefting  another  popiJar  error,  W'X.  that  penguins,  al- 

batroffes,   and  other  birds  of  that  kind,  never  go  far 

from  land.     This  indeed  may  be  the  cafe  in  open  feas, 

but  in  fuch  as  are  coveied  with  ice  it  is  vtiy  different ; 

for  they  then  inhabit  the  Ice  iOands,  and  float  out  with 

them  to  fea  to  a  great  diilance. 

When  in  the  latitude  of  49.  13.  S.  fome  figns  of 
land  were  perceived;  but  as  the  wind  did  not  admit  of 
any  fearch  being  made  in  the  direftion  where  it  was 
fuppofed  to  he,  the  Captain  proceeded  in  his  voyage 
to  the  eaftvvard.  A  very  remarkable  alteration  in  the 
dlreftion  of  the  needle  was  now  perceived,  and  which 
could  not  be  fuppofed  owing  to  the  vicinity  of  any 
magnetic  matter,  as  it  happened  while  the  fhips  were 
far  out  at  fea.  The  circumilance  was,  that  when  the 
fun  was  on  the  ftarboard  fide  of  the  fliip  the  variation 
was  leaft,  but  greateft  when  on  the  oppofite  fide.  An 
a'jrora  aullralis  was  again  obferved,  which  broke  out  in 
fpiral  or  circular  rays,  and  had  a  beautiful  appearance; 
but  did  not  feem  to  have  any  particular  direAion,  be- 
ing confplcuous  at  various  times  in  different  parts  of 
the  heavens,  and  diffufing  its  light  over  the  wliole  at- 
mofphere. 

The  extreme  cold  and  ftormy  weather  which  now 


It  was  remark- 
ed, that  though  a  vaft  quantity  of  rain  fell  during  the 
time  of  refidence  here,  it  was  not  attended  with  any 
bad  effecVs  on  the  health  of  the  people;  which  furnilhes 
an  additional  argument  of  the  healthiwefs  of  the  place. 
Duflcy  Bay  is  reckoned  by  Captain  Cook  to  be  the 
mo'l  proper  place  in  New  ZeaLuid  for  the  procuring 
of  refredunents,  tho>igh  it  is  attended  with  fome  difa- 
greaable  circumltances,  particularly  being  infefted  with 
great  numbers  of  black  fand-flies,  which  were  trouble- 
fome  to  an  extreme  degree.  The  natives  feen  at  Duficy 
Bay  were  apparently  of  the  fame  race  with  thofe  feen 
in  other  parts  of  the  countr\%  and  led  a  wandering  life, 
without  any  appearance  of  being  united'  in  the  bonds 
of  fociety  or  friendfhip. 

From  Duflvy  Bay  the  Captain  proceeded  to  Queen 
Charlotte's  Sound,  where  he  met  with  the  Adventure, 
which  had  been  feparated  from  the  Refolution  for 
above  14  weeks.  In  his  pafFage  thither  he  had  an  op- 
portunity of  obferving  fix  water-fpouts,  one  of  which 
pafTed  within  50  yards  of  the  Refolution.  It  has  been 
a  common  opinion,  that  thefe  meteors  are  diffipated  by 
the  firing  of  a  gun,  and  the  Captain  was  forry  he  had 
not  made  the  experiment;  but  he  acknowledges,  that 
though  he  had  a  gun  ready  for  the  purpofe,  and  was 
near  enough,  his  attention  was  fo  much  engaged  in 
viewing  them,  that  he  forgot  to  give  the  neceffary 
orders. 

Having  planted  another  garden  in  this  part  of  the 
countr)',  and  left  two  goats,  two  breeding  fows  and  a 
boar,  in  as  private  a  fituation  as  poffible,  that  they 
might  be  for  fome  time  out  of  the  reach  of  the  natives. 


40 

Water 
fpuuts. 


3S 
Eitrenie 
told  of  the 
fouthern 
{as. 


began  to  take  place,  determined  Captain  Cook  not  to     the   Captain  fet   fail  for  Otaheite.     During  the  long 


39 
Farther  ac- 
count of 
New  Zea- 
land. 


crofs  the  antardlic  circle  a  fecond  time  as  he  had  once 
defigned.  His  obfervations  confirmed  the  accounts  of 
former  navigators,  that  the  cold  of  the  fouthern  feas  is 
much  more  intenfe  than  in  equal  latitudes  in  the  nor- 
thern hemifphere ;  but  at  the  fame  time  it  (howed 
that  this  cold  cannot  be  owing  to  the  vicinity  of  a  con- 
tinent, as  had  formerly  been  imagined.  On  the  con- 
trary, it  was  now  determined  beyond  difpute,  that  if 
any  fuch  continent  exilled  in  the  eallern  part  of  the 
fouthern  ocean,  it  mull  be  confined  within  the  latitude 
of  60  dei^rees.  No  farther  difcoverics  therefore  being 
prafticabie  in  higher  latitudes,  as  the  winter  feafon 
was  approaching,  the  commander  fteered  for  New 
Zealand,  where  he  anchored  in  Dufky  Bay  on  the  25th 
of  March,  having  been  at  fea  117  days  without  once 
.coming  in  fight  of  land.  Here  the  time  was  fpent  in 
procuring  proper    refrelhments   for  the   people,    and 


abfence  of  the  Adventure,  Captain  Furneaux  had  vi- 
fited  the  coaft  of  New  Holland,  and  difcovered  that 
there  was  no  probability  of  Van  Diemen's  land  being 
feparated  from  it  by  llraits  :  he  had  likewlfe  found 
additional  proofs  that  the  natives  of  New  Zealand 
were  accultomed  to  eat  human  flefli.  Captain  Cook 
alfo  remarked  with  concern,  that  the  morals  of  the 
New  Zealanders  were  by  no  means  mended  by  the 
vifit  he  had  formerly  paid  them.  At  that  time  he 
looked  upon  the  women  to  be  more  challe  than  thofe 
of  molt  of  the  nations  he  had  vifited  ;  but  now  they 
were  ready  to  proilitute  themfelves  for  a  fpikenail,  and 
the  men  to  force  them  to  fuch  an  infamous  traf&c, 
whether  agreeable  to  the  inchnations  of  the  females  or 
not. 

In  the  run   from  New  Zealand  to   Otaheite,  our 
commander  palTed  ver)-  near  the  fituation  alTigned  by 


4T 
Difcoveriet 

nl  Captain 
Furneaux. 


exploring  the  fea-coaft  and   country  for  the  benefit  of    Captain  Carteret  to  Pitcairn's  ifiand,  difcovered  by  him 

r  •       .  XT     ^ j.._  v_  ,         :..    ._/:_     u....    „..•.! *    u,r „U1„     *^    JZ-J   :^      -1 K 


future  navigators.  Nor  was  our  commander  unmind 
ful  of  the  inhabitants.  Here  he  left  the  five  geefe 
which  yet  remained,  choofing  for  them  a  place  where 
^there  were  no  people  at  the  time  to  difturb  them;  and 
as' they  had  there  great  plenty  of  food,  he  had  no  doubt 
of  their  breeding,  and  in  a  ihort  time  fpreading  over 
the  country.  Some  days  after  a  piece  of  ground  was 
cleared  by  fetting  fire  to  the  topwood,  after  which  it 
was  dug  up  and  fowed  with  garden  feeds.  Dulky  Bay 
is  fituated  in  the  weftcrn  ifland  of  New  Zealand,  called 
Tava'ipoenammoo,  which,  as  has  already  beeii  faid,  is 
lefs  fertile  than  the  other.  The  inland  part  is  full  of 
nigged  mountains  of  a  vaft  height :  but  the  fea-coaft 
N°  91. 


in  1767,  but  without  being  able  to  find  it,  though 
a  fight  of  it  would  have  been  ufeful  for  correfting  its 
longitude  as  well  as  that  of  others  in  the  neighbour- 
hood ;  but  there  was  not  at  prefent  any  time  to  fpend 
in  fearching  for  it.  Proceeding  farther  on  in  his  voy- 
age, however,  he  fell  in  with  a  duller  of  iflands  fup- 
pofed to  be  the  fame  difcovered  by  M.  Bougainville, 
and  named  by  him  the  Dangerous  Archipelago.  To 
four  of  thefe  Captain  Cook  gave  the  names  of  Refo- 
lution, Doubtful,  Furneaux,  and  jlilventure  Iflcnds.  Re- 
folution Ifland  is  fituated  in  S.  Lat.  1  7.  24.  W.  Long. 
141.  39.  Doubtful  Ifland  in  S.  Lat.  I  7.  20.  W.  Long. 
141.  38.    Furneaux  Ifland  in  S.  Lat.  17.5.  W.  Long. 

143- 


4* 
Newiflandl 
difcovered. 


coo  [   409   ]  coo 

143.  iC.  ami  Adventure  Ifland  in  S.  Lat.  17.  4.  and  preferable,  equalling  thofc  of  Europe  in  their  fize,  and     CmW'i 

W.  Long,  144.  30.  even  preferable  in  refpeft  of  the  goodnefs  of  their    '^ ' 

No  diicovery  of  any  great  confcquence  was  made  at  fielh. 
the  illaiid  of  Otaheite  or  thofc  in  its  neighbourhood.         On  tlie  7th  of  Odlober  Captain  Cook  left  the  ifland 

excepting  that   tlie   Captain    had   an  opportunity   of  of  Amilerdam,  with  a  defign  to  pay  anotlicr  vifit  to 


corrctliiig  the  opinion  which  till  now  had  prevailed, 
of  the  exceUivt!  difTolutenefs  and  immodclly  of  the 
women  of  Otaiieite  ;  and  wlu'ch  had  been  enlarged 
upon  by  Dr  Hawkefworth  more  than  feemed  to  be 
confillcnt  with  decency.  Tlie  charge,  however,  ac- 
cording to  the  accounts  of  this  fecond  voyage,  is  far 
fiom  bting  indifcriminately  true,  even  of  the  unmar- 
ried females  of  the  lower  clafs.  Some  additions  were 
made  to  the  knowledge  of  the  geography  of  thofe 
iflands ;  and  from  Huaheine  Captain   Furnea\ix   took 


New  Zealand,  in  order  to  take  in  wood  and  water  for 
his  voyage  in  queit  of  a  fouthern  continent.     Thc'dav 
after  he  left  Amfterdam,  he  fell  in  with  the  ifland  of 
PillVart,  formerly  difcovered  by  Tafman,  and  fituated 
in  S.  Lat.  26',  W.  Long.  175="  59',   32  leagues  diilant 
from  the  eail  end  of  Middleburg.      On  his  arrival  at         ** 
New  Zealand,  he  exerted  himfelf  as  much  as  poflible  to  ^(it^j'^M 
leave  a  proper  afTurtment  of  vegetables  and  animals  for  ZealanJ. 
the  benelit  of  the  inhabitants.      One  of  the  firlt  things 
he  did,  therefore,  was  to  make  a  prefent  to  a  chief. 


on  board  his  fliip  one  of  the  natives  of  Ulietea  named  who  had  come  off  in  a  canoe,  of  a  quantity  of  the  moil 
Om.j:,  afterwards  fo  much  fpoke  of  in  England.  Cap-  ufcfid  garden  feeds,  fuch  as  cabbage,  turnips,  onions, 
tain  Cook  at  firll  appeared  dillatislied  with  his  choice  carrots,  parfnips,  and  yams;  together  witli  fome  wheat, 
of  this  youth,  as  being  inferior  in  rank  to  many  others,  French  and  kidney  beans,  and  peale.  With  the  fame 
and  having  no  particular  advantage  in  fliape,  hgure,  or  perlon  he  kft  alio  two  boars,  two  fows,  four  hens, 
complexion  ;  however  he  had  afterwards  reafon  to  be  and  two  cocks.  This  prefent,  however  valuable  in  it- 
better  pleafcj.  During  the  Captain's  refidence  at  felf,  fcems  to  have  been  but  indifferently  received  ;  for 
Otaheite,   he   ufed  his   utmoft  endeavours  to  difcover  the  chief  was  much  better  fatisfied  with  a  fpikenail  half 


44 
larvcy's 
Hand  dlf- 
uvered. 


whether  the  venereal  difeafe  was  endemic  among  them, 
or  whether  it  had  been  imported  by  Europeans:  but  in 
this  he  could  not  meet  with  any  perfeffly  fatisfaftory 
account ;  though  it  was  univerfally  agreed,  that  if  it  had 
been  introduced  by  Europeans,  it  muit  have  been  by  the 
French  under  M.  Bougainville. 

Captain  Cook  having  left  Ulietea  on  the  i-th  of 
September  1773,  directed  his  courfe  wcftward,  with 
an  inclination  to  the  foutli.  In  this  courfe  he  difco- 
vered land  in  S.  Lat.  19.  S.  and  W.  Long.  158.  54.  to 


the  length  of  his  arm  than  with  all  the  reft:  ;  notwith- 
llanding  which,  he  protnifed  to  take  care  of  the  feeds, 
and  not  to  kill  any  of  the  animals.  On  inquiring 
about  thofe  animals  left  in  the  country  in  the  former 
part  of  his  voyage,  the  Captain  was  informed,  that 
the  boar  and  one  of  the  fows  had  been  feparated, 
but  not  killed.  The  other  he  faw  in  good  condition, 
and  very  tame.  The  two  goats,  he  was  informed, 
had  been  killed  by  a  native  of  the  name  of  Gau- 
biah.     The  gardens  had  met  with  a  better  fate  ;  all 


which  he   gave   the  name  of  Harvey'   Ijland.      From     the  articles  being  in  a  very  flourifhing  condition,  thougll 
thence  he  proceeded  to  the  illand  of  Middleburg,  where     left  entirely  to  nature,  excepting  the  potatoes.     Cap- 


he  was  treated  in  the  moll  hofpitable  manner  poffible 
To  fuch  an  excefs  did  the  people  carry  their  geiie- 
rofity,  that  they  feemed  to  be  more  fond  of  giving 
away  their  goods  than  in  receiving  any  thing  for  them; 
infomuch  that  many,  who  had  not  an  opportunity  of 
coming  near  the  boats,  threw  over  the  heads  of  others 
whole  bales  of  cloth,  and  then  retired  without  either 
waiting  or  alking  for  any  thing  in  return.  From 
Middleburg  he  proceeded  to  Amilerdam  Ifland,  where 
the  beauty  and   cultivation  of  the  ifland  afforded  th 


45 

nith  Sea 
I  andsge- 
I  Tally  fur- 
i,  lunded  hy 

ral  rocks. 


tain  Cook,  however,  Itill  determined  to  fupply  thefe 
iflanderswithufeful  animals, put  on  flioreaboar,  a  young  ^ 
fow,  two  cocks  and  two  hens,  which  he  made  a  pre- 
fent of  to  the  adjacent  inhabitants.  Three  other  fows 
and  a  boar,  with  two  cocks  and  hens,  he  ordered  to 
be  left  in  the  country  without  the  knowledge  of  the 
Indians.  They  were  carried  a  little  way  into  the 
woods,  and  there  left  with  as  much  food  as  would 
ferve  them  for  10  or  12  days,  in  order  to  prevent  them 
from  coming  down  to  the  coafl  in  qucllof  it,  and  thus 
moft  enchanting  profpecl.  There  was  not  an  inch  of  being  difcovered. 
wafle  ground  ;  the  roads  were  no  wider  than  what  was  A  fecond  fcparation  with  the  Adventure   iiad   now         47 

abfolutely  neceffary,   and   the   fences   not   above  four     taken  place  ;    notwithflanding  which,  Captain  Cook  ^''■y'^!''"  •'" 
inches  thick.      Even  this  was  not  abfolutely  loft  ;  fur     fet  out  alone  with  liis  veifel  in  quell  of  a  foulhtrn  con-3""'^  "'^^ 
many  of  thefe  contained  ufeful  trees  or  plants.  tinent  ;   and  fuch  was  the  confidence  put  in  liirn  by  thccontiiient. 

It  is  obfervable  of  the  iflcs  of  Middleburg  and  Am-  failors,  that  all  of  them  exprefTed  as  much  fatisfaclion 
fterdam,  as  well  as  of  moft  others  in  the  South  Sea,  and  alacrity  as  if  not  only  tlie  Adventure,  but  ever  fo 
that  they  are  guarded  from  the  waves  by  a  reef  of  co-     many  fliips  had  been  in  company. 

ral   rocks   which  extend  about   one  hundred  fathoms  On  the  26th  of  November  the  Captain  fet  fail  from 

from  the  fliore.  Thus  they  are  efTedlually  fecurcd  New  Zealand  ;  and  on  the  12th  of  iJecemijer  began  to 
from  the  encroachments  of  the  ocean;  by  which  they  fall  in  with  the  ice,  but  confiderablyfurther  to  the 
would  probably  foon  be  fwallowed  up,  as  moll  of  them  fouthward  than  they  had  met  with  it  in  the  former  part 
are  mere  points  in  comparifon  of  the  vafl  quantity  of  of  his  voyage  ;  b.-ing  now  in  the  latitude  cf  62°  10'  S. 
water  which  furrounds  them.  Here  he  left  a  quantity  and  I  72°  AV.  Long.  As  they  proceeded  fouthward, 
of  garden  vegetable  feeds  and  pulfe,  whitli  it  was  nut  the  number  of  ice  iflands  increafed  proJigionfly  ;  and 
doubted  would  be  taken  care  of  by  the  indullrious  in-  in  Lat.  67=  31' and  VV.  Long.  142"  54,  they  all  at 
habitants.  In  the  lall  mentioned  iflands  our  naviga-  once  got  in  among  fuch  a  clulUr  of  thefe  iflands,  that 
tors  found  no  animals  liut  hogs  and  fowls;  the  former  it  became  a  matter  of  the  ulmoll  difficulty  and  danger 
being  of  the  fame  kind  with  thofe  tdually  feen  in  the  to  keep  clear  of  them.  Finding  it  impiiffible,  there- 
other  iflands  of  the  South  Sea  ;  but  the  latter  greatly  force,  to  get  any  farther  to  the  fouthward  at  prefent. 
VoL.V.  Part  II.  3  F  the 


coo 


[    410    ] 


coo 


Is  flopped 
by  ice. 


49 

Nutritive 
j!»operty  of 
dog's  flefli. 


VUit^Eader 


the  Captain  determined  to  explore  a  confiderable  trafl 
of  fea  to  the  north  of  his  prt  fent  fituation,  and  then 
again  to  ftnnj  to  the  foulh.  But  in  this  he  was  lliU 
unfucceffful ;  no  land  being  difcovered  either  in  fail- 
ing northward,  eaftward,  weftward,  or  fouthward  ; 
though  he  proceeded  as  far  in  the  laft  direftion  as 
71.  10.  S.  Lat.  and  106.  54.  W.  It  was  nowimpof- 
fible  to  proceed ;  and  the  opinion  of  the  Captain  himfelf, 
as  well  as  of  moft  of  the  gCntlenrien  on  board,  was,  that 
the  ice  by  which  they  were  now  ilopped  extended  as  far 
as  the  pole.  As  there  was  ftlll  room,  however,  in  parts 
of  the  ocean  entirely  unexplored,  for  very  large  iflands, 
our  Commander  determined  not  to  abandon  the  pur- 
fuit  in  w  hich  he  was  engaged  until  there  (hould  not  be 
any  pofTibility  of  doing  more  ;  and  beGdes  the  poifi- 
bility  of  making  new  difcoveries,  he  was  coufcious 
that  many  of  the  iflands  already  difcovered  were  fo 
obfcurelv  known,  that  it  was  of  confequence  to  pay 
them  a  fecond  vifit.  With  this  view  he  propofed  to 
go  in  quefl  of  Eafter  or  Davis's  Ifland  ;  the  fituation 
of  which  was  known  with  fo  little  certainty,  that  none 
of  the  attempts  lately  made  to  difcover  it  had  been 
fuccefsful.  He  next  intended  to  get  within  the  ti'o- 
pic,  and  then  to  proceed  to  the  well,  touching  at  any 
iflauds  he  might  meet  with,  and  fettling  their  fitua- 
tions,  until  he  fliould  arrive  at  Otaheite,  where  it  was 
neceflary  for  him  to  make  fome  ftay  in  order  to  look 
for  the  Adventure.  It  was  part  of  his  c'efign  alfo  to 
run  to  the  wtftern  as  far  as  Terra  Auftial  del  Efpl- 
ritu  Sanclo,  difcovered  by  Quiros,  and  which  M. 
Bougainville  had  named  Tie  Great  Cyclatles.  From 
this  land  he  propofed  to  fail  to  the  fouthward,  and 
from  thence  to  the  eaft  between  the  latitude  of  50° 
and  60°.  In  the  execution  of  this  defign,  he  deter- 
mined if  poflible  to  reach  Cape  Horn  during  the  en- 
fuing  November,  vi'hen  he  would  have  the  beil  part  of 
the  fummer  before  him  to  explore  the  fouthern  part  of 
the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

In  purfuing  his  coiu'fe  to  the  northward,  it  had  been 
part  of  his  defign  to  find  out  the  land  faid  to  have  been 
difcovered  by  Juan  Fernandez  in  about  the  latitude  of 
38'^ ;  but  he  was  foon  convinced,  that  if  any  fuch 
land  exifted,  it  could  only  be  a  very  fmall  ifland  :  but  the 
profecution  of  the  defign  was  for  fome  little  time  inter- 
rupted by  a  violent  bilious  diforder  by  which  the  Cap- 
tain was  attacked.  In  this,  when  he  began  to  recover, 
as  there  was  no  freili  meat  on  board,  he  was  obliged  to 
have  recourfe  to  dog's  flefli ;  and  a  favourite  animal 
belonging  to  Mr  Forller  was  facrificed  on  the  oceafion. 
The  Captain  was  able  to  eat  not  only  of  the  broth 
made  of  this,  but  likewife  of  the  flefh,  when  his  fto- 
mach  could  bear  nothing  clfe.  On  the  i  ith  of  March 
they  arrived  at  Ealter  Ifland,  before  which  time  the 
Captain  was  tolerably  recovered.  Here  they  made 
but  few  difcoveries  farther  than  determining  the  fitua- 
tion of  it  to  be  in  S.  Lat.  27°  5'  30 ',  and  W.  Long. 
109°  46'  20".  The  ifland  itfelf  was  foiuid  barren  and 
defolate,  having  every  appearance  of  being  lately  ruin- 
ed by  a  volcanic  eruption  ;  without  either  wood,  fuel, 
or  frefll  water  vi^orth  taking  on  board.  The  inhabi- 
tants were  few  in  number  ;  and  the  women  in  very 
fmall  proportion  to  the  men,  but  remarkable  for  their 
lewdnefs.  A  number  of  gigantic  ftatucs  were  obferved, 
which  liad  alfo  been  taken  notice  of  by  Commodore 


Roggewein,  and  the  origin  of  which  could  not  be  ac- 
counted for. 

On  leaving  Eafter  Ifland,  Captain  Cook  was  again 
attacked  by  his  bilious  diforder  ;  but  happily  recover- 
ed before  he  reached  the  Marqueiiis,  wiiich  they  did  And  the 
on  the  6th  and  7th  of  April.  One  of  thefe,  being  Manjuefas.! 
a  new  difcover)',  received  the  name  of  Hood's  IjLuui, 
from  the  young  gentleman  by  whom  it  was  firll  obfer- 
ved. Thefe  are  five  in  number ;  fituated  between  9 
and  10  degrees  of  fouth  latitude,  and  between  138.  47. 
and  139.  13.  of  weft  longitude.  They  were  difcovered 
by  Mendana  a  Spaniard  ;  and  their  names  are.  La 
Magdalena,  St  Pedro,  La  Dominica,  Santa  Chriilina, 
and  Hood's  Ifland.  The  inhabitants  are,  witiiout  ex- 
ception, the  fineft  race  of  people  in  the  South  Sea, 
furpafling  all  others  in  that  part  of  the  world  in  the 
fymmetry  of  their  pcrfons  and  regularity  of  their  fea- 
tures. Their  origin,  however,  from  the  affinity  of 
language,  was  evidently  the  fame  with  that  of  Ota- 
heite. It  was  in  St  Chiiilina  that  our  commander  ancho- 
red ;  and  he  has  left  partlcidar  direiSlioiis  for  finding  a 
particular  cove  in  Rcfolution  Bay  in  that  ifland,  which 
is  the  moft  convenient  for  procuring  wood  and  water. 

In  the  palfage  from  the  Marquefas  to  Otaheite,  our 
navigators  palfed  feveral  low  aud  fmall  iflands  connec- 
ted together  by  reefs  of  coral  rocks.     One  of  thefe, 
named  by  the  inhabitants  Tiookea,  was  vifited  by  Lieu-         5^ 
tenant  Cooper.     It  was  difcovered  and  vifited  by  Cap-  IHand 
tain   Byron;   and   is   fituated  in  S.   Lat.  27.  30.  W.  T'""'"^*- 
Long.   144.  56.      The  inhabitants  are  much  darker  iu 
their  complexions,  and  fcem  to  be  of  a  fiercer  difpofi- 
tion   than  thofe   of  the   neighbom-ing  iflands.      They 
have  the  figure  of  a  fifli  marked  upon  their  bodies  ;  a 
very  proper  emblem  of  their  profeifion,  deriving  their 
fubfiftence  almoil  entirely   from  the  fea.      Faffing  by 
St  George's  Iflands,  which  had  been  alfo  difcovered 
and  named  by  Captain   Byron,  our  Commander  now 
difcovered    four    others,     which    he    named   P alllj'er' s         ^3 
IJlands.     One   of  thefe  is  fituated  in  S.  Lat.  15.  26.  P^'^iii-r's- 


146.  20.  another  in   S.  Lat.  15.  2'; 


Iflands, 


and  W.   Long. 

and  W.  Long.  146.  3.  They  were  inhabited  by 
people  refembling  thofe  of  Tiookea,  and  like  them 
were  armed  with  long  pikes.  Here  our  navigator  ob- 
ferved, thit  from  W.  Long.  138°  to  i48-'or  150°,  the 
fea  is  fo  fifll  of  fmall  low  iflands,  that  one  cannot  pro- 
ceed with  too  much  caution. 

On  his  arrival  in  Otaheite,  provifions  were  met  with         54 
in  great  plenty;  and  they  were   now  very  acceptable.  Arrival  at 
by  reafon   of  the  long  time  the  fhip  had  been   at  fea  O"''"''"- 
wlthout    obtaining    any    confiderable    fupply.       Two 
goats  wliich  had  been  given  by  Captain  Furneaux  to  a  s 

chief  named  Otoo,  appeared  to  be  in  a  very  promifing 
fituation.     The  femJe  had  brought  forth  two  kids,  , 

which  weie  almoft  large  enough  to  propagate;  and  as 
fhe  was  again  with  kid,  there  was  little  doubt  that  the 
ifland  would  foon  be  flocked  with  thefe  ufeftfl  annnals  ; 
though  it  was  otherwife  with  the  flieep,  all  of  whicb 
had  died  except  one.  On  this  oceafion,  alfo,  the  Capr 
tain  furnlflied  die  natives  with  cats,  of  which  he  gava 
away  twenty;  fo  that  there  was  little  danger  of  the  ftock 
of  thefe  animals  decaying.  During  his  refidence  at 
this  time,    he  had  an   opportunity   of  making  fome  ' 

computation  of  the  number  of  inhabitants  on  the  ifland». 
which  he  fuppofed  to  be  no  lefs  than  200,000.  , 

4_  Hiiaheiner  ' 


coo 


I    4ti     J 


COO 


Huaheine  and  Ulkloa  Iflands  were  next  vlfited,  but 
without  any  rcmarkal)lc  occurrence.  From  the  latter 
our  Commander  Tct  fail  on  the  jtli  of  June  1774  ;  and 
next  day  came  in  fight  of  Howe  Ifland,  difcovcred  by 
Captain  Wallis,  and  fituated  in  S.  Lat.  if).  46.  and 
W.  Long.  I  J4.  8.  On  the  1 6th  a  new  ifland,  named 
Piilmerjioiis  IJliuid,  was  difcovered  in  S.  Lat.  18.  4. 
W.  Lonfj.  163.  10.  ;  and,  four  days  after,  another 
was  obferved  in  S.  Lat.  19.  I.  W.  Lonij.  169.  37. 
As  it  was  evidently  inhabited,  the  Captain  determined 
to  land  ;  but  found  the  people  fo  extremely  hoftile, 
that  no  intercourfe  could  be  had  :  nay,  he  himfelf  was 
in  danger  of  lofing  his  life  by  a  lance  thrown  by  one 
of  the  natives,  which  paJTed  clofe  over  his  (lioulder. 
From  the  extreme  hoilility  of  the  people  of  this  ifland, 
it  was  named  by  Captain  Cook  Savage  Ifland.  It  is 
of  a  round  fllape,  pretty  high,  and  has  deep  water  clofe 
to  the  Ihore,  but  has  no  good  harbour. 

Fading  by  a  number  of  fmall  iflands,  Captain  Cook 
next  anchored  at  that  of  Anamocka  or  Rotterdam, 
difcovered  by  Tafman.  It  is  fituated  in  20.  15.  S.  Lat. 
and  174.  31.  W.  Long.  Its  form  is  triangular,  each 
fide  extending  about  three  and  a  half  or  four  miles. 
From  the  north-weft  to  the  fouth  it  is  encompaffed  bv 
a  number  of  fmall  iflands,  fand  banks,  and  breakers  ; 
of  which  no  end  can  be  feen  from  the  ifland  on  the 
northern  fide,  and  may  poflibly  be  as  far  extended  as 
Amllerdam  or  Tongataboo.  While  the  Captain  re- 
mained on  this  ifland,  he  learned  the  names  of  more 
than  20  cf  the  adjacent  ifles,  fome  of  which  were  in 
light  between  the  north-wefl  and  north-eafl.  Two  of 
thefe,  which  lie  more  to  the  weftward  than  the  others, 
are  named  ylmat'afoa  and  Oghao.  They  are  remarkable 
for  their  height ;  and  from  a  great  fmoke  vifible  about 
the  middle  of  Amattafoa,  it  was  fuppofed  to  have  a 
volcaiio.  The  ifland  of  Rotterdam,  Middleburg  or 
F.aoowe,  with  Pilftart,  form  a  group  extending  aljout 
three  degrees  of  longitude  and  two  of  latitude.  The 
whole  group  was  named  The  Friendly  Ijlcs  by  Captain 
Cook,  on  account  of  the  friendfhip  which  I'eemed  to 
fubfift  among  the  inhabitants,  and  their  courteous  be- 
haviour to  ftrangers.  The  people  of  Rotterdam  Ifland 
are  fimilar  to  thofc  of  Amllerdam  ;  but  the  ifland  is 
not  in  fuch  a  ftate  of  high  cultivation  as  Amfteidam, 
nor  do  its  fruits  come  to  fuch  perfeftion.  It  Is  alfo 
inferior  in  the  articles  of  cloth,  matting,  &c.  which  are 
accounted  the  we.ilth  of  thefe  parts. 

From  Rotterdam  Ifland  our  navigator  continued  his 
courfe  to  the  weftward,  where  he  firil  difcovered  a 
fmall  ifland  in  S.  Lat.  19.  48.  W.Long.  178.  2.  It 
was  named  Turtle  Ifland,  from  the  gi-eat  number  of 
thefe  animals  found  upon  it.  Sixteen  days  a'ter  he 
fell  In  with  the  cluiler  of  iflands  named  by  M.  Bou- 
gainville the  Great  Cyclades.  The  tuft  ifland  on  which 
he  landed  was  MallicoUo,  where,  though  the  people 
were  at  fiift  very  hoftile,  they  were  foon  conciliated, 
and  :'  friend!)'  Intercourfe  took  place.  The  language 
of  chelc  people  Is  confiderably  different  from  that  of 
the  other  South-fea  Iflands ;  they  are  diminutive  In  their 
perfons,  and  of  ugly  fcatuies  ;  their  hair  black  or 
brown,  fliort  and  curling,  but  lefs  foft  than  that  of  the 
negroes.  They  had  no  name  for  a  dog  in  their  lan- 
guage, and  had  never  feen  the  animal  ;  fo  that  they 
were  extremely  fond  of  a  dog  and  bitch  of  which 
Captain  Cook  made  them  a  preftnt.     The  harbour  in 


Dircove- 
rics. 


(•60 
Volcano. 


this  ifland,  in  which  tlie  flilp  came  to  an  anchor,  was 
named   Sandwich   harbour,  and  lies  on  the  north-eaft 

fide  in  S.  Lat.   16.  25.  20.  E.  Long  167.  57.  53.    It 

is   veiy   commodious  for   the  carrying  on  any  opera-  ' 

tions  at  land,  having  a  good  depth  of  water,  and  many 
other  advantages. 

The  next  difcovcry  was  that  of  the  Group  named ,.,  ^^  ,, 
Shepl.h'rd's  IJIes,  in  honour  of  Dr  jShepherd,  Plumian  iflj,^""' 
profeffor  of  aftronomy  at  Oxford.  Numbers  more 
were  ever)'  day  obferved  ;  of  which  one  peaked  rock, 
named  the  Monument,  was  uninhabited,  being  appa- 
rently inaccelFible  to  any  other  creature  but  birds. 
Sandwich  ifland  is  of  confiderable  extent,  and  exhibits 
a  moft  beautiful  profpedt.  It  is  furrounded  with  o- 
ther  fmaller  Iflands,  the  principal  of  which  were  na- 
med Montague  and  Hinchinbrook.  At  Erromango  they 
found  the  people  hoftile  and  treacherous  ;  and  from  a 
flilrmifli  they  had  with  them  near  a  promontoi-y  on  the 
north-eaft  point  of  the  ifland.  It  was  named  Traitor's  Head. 
Its  fituatlon  is  In  S.  Lat.  10.  43.  E.  Long.  169.  28. 

From  Erromango  our  navigator  proceeded  to  Tan--, 
na,  an  ifland  they  had  formerly  difcovered  at  a  dl-i(]j„^ 
ftance,  and  which  is  furrounded  by  fome  others,  three 
of  which  are  named  Jmmer,  Footaona  or  Erronan,  and 
Anatom.  At  Tanna  they  flald  for  fome  time,  on  ac- 
count of  their  wanting  fome  quantity  of  wood.  A 
volcano  was  feen  about  the  middle  of  this  ifland,  which 
burned  with  great  violence,  particularly  in  moill  and 
wet  weather  :  but  notvvlthftanding  the  friendly  terms 
on  which  they  wei-e  with  the  natives,  the  latter  would 
never  allow  them  to  approach  this  mountain.  There 
were  iomc  fpots  on  the  fea-coall  which  emitted  an  hot 
and  fulpliureous  fmoke  ;  and  the  people  alfo  cxprefled 
much  uneafinefs  when  thefe  were  approached  or  med- 
dled with.  The  port  which  the  Ihip  entered  in  this 
ifland  was  named  Refolution  Harbour,  and  is  fituated  In 
S.  Lat.  19.  32,  254.  E.  Long.  169.  44.  35.  It  Is  a 
fmall  creek  three  quarters  of  a  mile  long,  and  about 
half  as  broad.  It  is  extremely  convenient,  having 
plenty  of  wood  and  water  clofe  to  the  fhore.  Among 
the  vegetable  produftlons  of  this  ifland,  there  is  reafon 
to  fufptiS  the  nutmeg-tree  to  be  one,  a  pigeon  ha- 
ving been  fliot.  In  the  craw  of  which  was  a  wld 
nutmeg.  The  inhabitants  are  two  diftlnft  races 
of  people,  and  fpeak  two  different  languages ;  one 
that  of  the  Friendly  Iflands,  the  other  peculiar  to 
Tanna  and  thofe  in  the  nclghbouihood.  The  people  61 
are  very  expert  In  the  ufe  of  their  weapons  ;  on  which '^^^'^"'5'"^ 
Mr  Wales  makes  the  following  remarks:  "  1  muft jj,*;'j',"'|',^^j"g 
confefs  I  have  often  been  led  to  think  the  feats  uie  of  tlieir 
which  Homer  reprefents  his  heroes  as  performing  with  lances, 
their  fpcars  a  little  too  much  of  the  marvellous  to  be 
admitted  in  an  heroic  poem,  I  mean  when  confined 
within  the  ftr^ilt  flays  of  Arlftotle;  nay,  even  fo  great  an 
advocate  for  him  as  Mr  Pope  acknowledges  them  to 
be  furprifing  :  but  fince  I  have  feen  what  thefe  people 
can  do  with  their  wooden  fpears,  and  them  badly 
pointed,  and  not  of  an  hard  nature,  I  have  not  the  leail 
exception  to  any  one  paffage  in  that  great  poet  011  this 
account.  But  if  I  fee  fewer  exceptions,  I  can  find  in- 
finitely more  beauties  in  him,  as  he  has,  I  think, 
fcarcely  an  aftlon,  circumftance,  or  defcrlption  of  any 
kind  whatever  relating  to  a  fpear,  which  I  have  not 
feen  and  recognifed  among  thefe  people  ;  as  their 
whirling  motion  and  whlftling  noilc  as  they  fly  ;  their 
3  F  2  quivering 


Kew  Cale- 
do:)ia  dif- 
covercd. 


Norfolk 
IfUiid. 


COO  [41 

quivering  motion  in  the  ground  when  they  fall ;  their 
meditating  their  aim  when  they  are  going  to  throw  ; 
and  their  ihaking  them  in  their  hand  as  they  go  along." 
The  Arcliipelago,  in.  which  Captain  Cook  had  now 
remained  a  confiderable  time,  is  fituated  between  14. 

29.  and  20.4.  S.Lat. and  between  166.  41.  and  170.  21. 
E.  Long,  extending  125  leagues  in  the  diredlion  of 
N.  N.  W.  i  W.  and  S.  S.  E  i-  E.  The  principal 
iflands  are  the  Peak  of  the  Etoile,  Tierra  del  Efpiri- 
tu  Santo,  MaliicoUo,  St  Bartholomew,  the  Ifle  of  Le- 
pers, Aurora,  Whitfuntide  Ifle,  Ambrym,  Paoom, 
Apee,  Three  Hills,  Sandwich,  Erromango,  Tanna, 
Lnmcr,  and  Anatom.  They  were  firft  difcovercd  in 
1 606  by  Quires,  wlio  fnppofed  them  to  be  part  of  a 
fouthern  continent  ;  nor  were  they  vifited  from  that 
time  till  the  year  1768,  when  M.  Bougainville  bellow- 
ed upon  tliem  the  name  of  the  Great  Cyclaiks,  as  al- 
ready mentioned.  This  gentleman,  however,  belldes 
landing  in  the  Ifle  of  Lepers,  only  difcovered  that  the 
country  was  not  connctled,  but  confided  of  iflands. 
Captain  Conk  examined  the  w'.tole  m  fuch  an  accu- 
rate manner,  afceitalning  the  filuation  of  many  of 
the  iflands,  and  difcovering  fuch  numbers  of  new  ones, 
that  he  thought  he  had  an  undoubted  right  to  impofe 
a  new  name  upon  them  ;  and  therefore  called  them  the 
NcM  Hebrides. 

From  the  New  Hebrides  Captain  Cook  fet  fail  for 
New  Zealand,  in  order  to  profecute  his  voyage  in 
fearch  of  a  foutliern  continent,  but  in  three  days  dif- 
covered a  large  ifland,  which  he  named  Ne'w  Caledo- 
7iia  ;  and  which,  next  to  New  Zealand,  is  the  largell 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean.     It  hcs  between  19.  37.  and  22. 

30.  S.  I-at.  and  between  163.  37.  and  167.  14.  E. 
Long,  lying  N.  W.  4-  W.  and  S.  E.  4-  £•  extending 
about  87  leagues  in  that  direftion,  though  its  breadth 
does  not  any  where  exceed  10  leagues.  The  natives 
are  llrong,  aiStive,  well  made,  and  ieem  to  be  a  middle 
race  between  thole  of  Tanna  and  the  Friendly  Ifles ; 
and  the  women  were  more  chafte  than  thoie  of  the 
iflands  farther  to  the  eaftward.  The  ifland  afforded  a 
confiderable  variety  of  plants  for  the  botanills,  and 
fome  excellent  timber  of  the  fpecies  of  the  pitch-pine, 
for  mails  and  fpars.  The  wood  is  clofe-grained,  white, 
and  tough  ;  and  very  fit  for  the  purpofe.  One  of  the 
fmall  iflands  furrounding  the  large  one  was  named  the 
JJle  of  Pines,  fiom  the  o,uantity  of  thefe  trees  found 
upon  it  ;  and  another,  from  the  number  and  variety  of 
plants  it  afforded,  had  the  name  of  Botany  Ifland.  The 
coall,  however,  was  fo  dangerous,  that  our  navigator, 
having  no  more  time  to  fpare,  was  obliged  to  leave 
fome  part  of  it  unexplored,  though  the  extent  was  de- 
tennined,  as  has  been  already  related.  Mr  Forfterwas 
of  opinion,  that  the  language  of  this  people  is  totally 
different  from  that  of  any  of  the  other  South  Sea 
iflands. 

Proceeding  from  New  Caledonia,  our  navigator  next 
fell  in  with  an  ifland  about  five  leagues  in  circumfe- 
rence, and  of  a  good  height,  fituated  in  S.  Lat.  29. 
2.  30.  and  E.  Long.  168.  16.  ;  on  which  he  beflowed 
the  name  oi Norfolk  Ifland.  It  was  entirely  iminhabited. 
Various  trees  and  pl.-mts  common  at  New  Zealand  were 
obferved  here,  particularly  the  flax-plant,  which  is  more 
luxuriant  in  this  ifland  than  in  any  part  of  New  Zea- 
land. The  chief  produce  of  the  ifland  is  a  kind  of 
fpruce  pine,   many  of  the  trees  of  which  are  10  or  12 


2     ]  COO' 

feet  in  circumference.  The  palm-cabbage  likewife 
abounds  here  ;  and  the  coafls  are  well  flocked  with 
excellent  filh.  On  the  1 8th  of  Odlober  they  arrived 
at  Queen  Charlotte's  Sound  in  New  Zealand  ;  the  fi- 
tuation  of  which  was  now  afcertained  by  Mr  VVales/rrivalat 
with  the  utmofl  accuracy,  its  latitude  being  found  41,  Zealand; 
5.  564-.  S.  and  its  longitude  174.  i^.  ']\  E.  On  ex- 
amining the  gardens  which  had  been  made,  it  was  found 
that  they  were  in  a  thriving  condition,  though  they 
had  been  entirely  neglected  by  the  natives.  Some  of 
the  cocks  and  hens  were  fuppofed  to  be  flill  in  exift- 
ence,  as  a  new  laid  hen's  egg  was  found,  though  none 
were  feen. 

On  the  roth  of  November  Captain  Cook  fet  fail 
from  New  Zealand  in  fearch  of  a  fouthern  continent  ; 
but  having  traveriid  a  vafl  extent  of  fca  for  17  davs, 
from  S.  Lat.  43.  o.  to  55.  4b.  l.e  gave  up  all  thoughts 
of  finding  any  more  land  in  this  part  of  ilx  ocean, 
and  therefore  determined  to  fleer  direft'.y  for  the  well 
entrance  of  the  flraits  of  Magellan,  with  a  defign  of 
coafling  the  foutliern  part  of  Terra  del  Fuego  quite 
round  Cape  Horn  to  Le  Maire's  Straits.  As  the 
world  had  hitherto  received  but  very  imperfedl  accounts 
of  this  ccail,  he  thought  a  furvey  of  it  would  be  of 
more  advantage  to  navigation  and  geography  than 
any  thing  he  could  expeft  to  meet  with  in  a  higher  ^ 
latitude.  On  the  17th  of  December  he  reached  the  At  Terra 
coall  of  Terra  del  Fuego,  and  in  three  days  more  an-  del  Fucgo. 
chored  in  a  place  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Chrifi- 
mas  Sound,  The  land  appeared  dcfolate  beyond  any 
thing  he  had  hitherto  experienced.  It  fetms  to  be 
entirely  compofed  of  rocky  mountains  without  the 
leafl  appearance  of  vegetation.  Thefe  mountains  ter- 
minate in  horrid  precipices,  the  craggy  fummits  of 
which  fpire  up  to  a  vail  height  ;  fo  that  fcarcely  any 
thing  in  nature  can  have  a  more  barren  and  tavage 
afpedt  than  the  whole  of  the  country.  In  the  courfe 
of  his  voyage  along  this  coall,  he  could  not  but  ob- 
fcrve,  that  at  no  time  had  he  ever  made  one  of  fuch 
length  where  fo  little  occurred  of  an  interefling  na- 
ture. Barren  and  dreary,  however,  as  the  coaft  was, 
it  was  not  totally  deftitute  of  accommodations  about 
Chriilmas  Sound.  Frefh  water  and  wood  for  fuel 
were  found  about  ever)-  harbour;  and  the  country 
every  where  abounds  with  fowl,  particularly  geele. 
A  confiderable  number  of  plants  were  alfo  found  upon 
it,  almofl  every  fpecies  of  wliich  was  new  to  the  bo- 
tanills. In  pafllng  by  Cape  Horn,  it  was  wifhed  to 
determine  whether  it  belonged  to  the  land  of  Ter- 
ra del  Fuego  or  to  a  fmall  ifland  fouth  from  it  ;  but 
this  was  found  impradticable  on  account  of  the  fog- 
gy weather  and  dangerous  fea.  Its  latitude  was 
now  determined  to  be  ^^.  58.  S.  and  its  longitude 
67.  46.  W.  The  coall  appeared  lefs  dreary  here  than 
on  the  weflern  fide  of  Terra  del  Fuego  ;  for  though 
the  fummits  of  fome  of  the  hills  were  rocky,  the  fides 
and  valleys  feemed  covered  with  a  green  turf  and  wood-  g^ 
cd  in  tufts.  In  paSng  this  cape  a  remark  was  made  Remarks  on 
by  the  Captain,  that  if  he  were  on  a  voyage  round  a  voyage 
Cape  Horn  to  the  weft,  and  not  in  want  of  wood  or''™''^  ''"P'^ 
water,  or  any  other  thing  wliich  might  make  it  necef-  """ 
fary  to  put  into  port,  he  would  fail  a  confiderable  way 
to  the  fouthward,  fo  as  to  be  out  of  the  reach  of  land 
akogether.  By  tliis  method  he  would  avoid  the  cur- 
rents, whofe  force,  he  was  of  opinion,  would  be  broken 

a: 


GOO 


COO 


[     41.3     ] 

at  to  or  12  leagues  didiince  from  the  ftorc,  and  far-  Cook  was  undetermined  whether  it  was  a  group  of 
tluT  off  would  lie  cntiiily  dedroyed.  The  extfut  of  idanda  or  part  of  a  continent  lying  near  the  pole,  as 
Terra    del    Fiicgo,  and    confcquently  of    Mi^gcllan's     after  all  his  difappointmtiits  he  itill  was  inclined  to 


«7 
inrprirmt; 
rtiicord  ijf 


Straits,  was  found  to  be  Icfs  than  what  is  commonly 
laid  down  in  maps  and  charts,  and  the  coall,  in  j(»."ne- 
ral,  lefa  dangerous  than  has  been  ufualiy  reprtfent- 
ed  ;  though  this  muft  «ndoubtedly  have  been  owing 
in  a  girat  :i  fiifine  tc  the  weaiher,  which  happened  to 
be  reinp.ik'ihlv  temperate.  In  one  of  the  fmall  Iflands 
near  .St?tcn  Land,  and  which,  from  their  being  diTco- 
he  animals ^"-'''^'^  ""  "^'^  year's  day,  were  called  Afw  Ttai's  IJUs, 
11  thclc  a  re.Tiark.ible  harmony  was  obfti  vcd  among  the  ani- 
larts.  mals  of  diiferent  fpecies  with  which  thtfe  dtfolate  re- 

gions abound.  The  fea-lions  occupy  the  grcatell  part 
of  the  fc3-coall  ;  the  bears  occujiy  the  ifland  ;  the 
ftags  are  polled  in  the  hightft  clifts  ;  the  penguins  iu 
fuch  places  as  have  the  belt  accefs  to  and  from  the  fea  ; 
and  the  other  birds  choofe  more  retired  pl.ices.  Oc- 
caiionally,  however,  all  tliefe  animals  were  feen  to  mix 
together  like  domLllic  cattle  and  poultry  in  a  farm- 
yard, without  one  attempting  to  hurt  the  other  in  the 
lead.  Even  the  eagles  and  vultures  were  frtquent- 
ly  obferved  litting  together  on  the  hills  among  tlic 
ihags,  while  none  of  liie  latter,  either  old  or  young, 
appeared  to  be  dilUirbed  at  their  profence.  It  is  pro- 
bable, therefore,  that  thefe  birds  of  prey  fnbfift  by 
feeding  on  the  carcafes  of  the  animals  which  die  natu- 
rally or  by  various  accidents,  and  which  muft  be  very 
Tiumerous  flora  the  immenfe  quantity  cxifting  on  the 
itiand. 
68  Our  navigator  now  fet  out  in  quell  of  that  extenllve 

irtlicrdif-  coall  laid  down  in  Mr  Dalrymple's  chart,  ardin  which 
'TCmt  '^  "larked  the  Gulph  of  St  Scballian  ;  but  when  he 
n  regions,  came  into  the  place  where  it  is  fnppoftd  to  lie,  neither 
land  nor  any  certain  figns  of  it  coidd  be  met  with. 
Some  idands,  however,  were  difcovered,  particuhiily 
AVillii's  ifland,  in  S.  Lat.  54.  o.  W.  Long.  38  2  ;  ; 
another  named  B'lni  IJIaml  and  South  Georgia,  fituated 
between  53.  57.  and  54.  57.  S.  Lat.  and  between 
38.  13.  and  ^5.  34.  W.  Lcng.  All  thefe  were  co- 
vered with  fnowand  ice  to  a  great  height.  Not  a  tree 
was  to  be  fceu,  not  even  a  fiiiub,  nor  were  there  any 
rivtilets  or  flreams  of  water  ;  the  only  vtgetaLliS  to  be 
met  with  were  a  coarfe  llrong  bladed  gtals,  wild  bur- 
net,  and  a  kind  of  mofs.  A  coniiderable  quantity  of 
feals  and  ptnguiiis  were  met  with,  whofe  flelh,  though, 


think  that  fuch  a  continent  has  an  exillcnce,  on  ac- 
count of  the  vail   quantity  of  ice   met  with  in  the 
fouthernfeasjand  which  from  its  great  height  appears 
to  be  formed  in  bays  and  gulphs  of  the  land,  and  not 
in  the  ocean  itfelf.     The  greateil  part  of  this  fouthern 
continent,  however,  if  it  has  any   cxiflciice,  mult  be 
within  the  polar  circle,  where  the  fea  is  fo  incumbered 
with  ice,  that  the  land  muft  be  inaccelTible.     So  great 
is  the  danger  in  navigating  thefe    fouthern   feas,  that 
Captain  Cook  affetts  on  the  mod  piobable  grounds  in 
the  world,  that  fuch  lands  as  lie  to  the  fouthward  of 
his  difcoveries   could    not   be  explored;  and  that  no 
man  would  ever  venture   farther  than  he    had   doiie. 
Thick  fogs,  fnow-ftonns,  intenfe  cold,  and  every  thing 
that  can  render  navigation  diflicult  or  dangeroue,  mult 
be    cncoiintered ;    all    which    difficulties   ate   greatly 
heightened  by  the   incxpreflibly   horrid  afpefi  of  the 
country  iifelf.      It  is  a  part  of  the  world  deemed  by- 
nature  never  once  to  feel  the  warm.th  of  the  fun's  rays, 
but  to  be  buried  irr  everlaftirg  friow  and  ice.      What- 
ever ports  there  may  be  on  the  coall,  they   are  almoft 
entirely  covered  with  frozen   fnow  of  a  vafl  thicknefs. 
If,  however,  any  of  them  fliould  be  fo  far  open   as  to 
Invite  a  (hip  into  it,  fhe  would  run  the  rifle  of  beino- 
fixed  there  for  ever,  or  of  coming  out  in  an  ice  ifland. 
To  this  it  may  be  added,  that  the  iflands  and  floats  on 
the  coafl,  the  great  falls  from  the  ice-cliffs  in  the  port, 
or  a  fudden  Inow-florm,  might  be  attended  with  equal- 
ly fatal  effefts.     For  thefe  reafons  our  commander  de- 
termined to  abandon  the  puri'uit  of  a  land  whofe  ex- 
illence  was  focqm'vocal,  but  whofe  inutility,  if  it  fl  ould 
be  dilcovered,  was  certain.      One  thing  only  remained 
to  complete  what  he   wifhed   to  accomplifh,  and  that 
was  to  determine  the  exillence  of  Bouvet's  land.      In^      ■     - 
this  ipqciiy  he  fpent  16  days;   but  having  run  for  13  ij.rei'fif '" 
of  thete  direitly  in  the  latitude  afngned  to  that  land,  liouvet's 
and  found  no  appearance  of  it,  or  of  Cape  Circumoi- i*""!- 
fion,  he  concluded,  that  neither  of  them  had  any  ex- 
illence,    but  that  the  navigators  had  been  deceived 
by  the  appearance  of  ice   iflands.     Two  days   mere 
wtie  fpent  in  quell  of  fome  land  which  had  been  ob- 
ferved more  to  the  fouthwaid,  but  with  the  like  bad 
fuccefs :  after  which  our  commander  abandoned  all  far- 


7<? 


very    coarfe,    was   preferred  by    the    flilp's  company,     ther  thoughts  of  fouthern  difcoveries,  and  prcpar-ed  for 
''      '"     '-   -  '^'   '-  '  •    '■"^    .     .L     r  1.  r  returning  to  England.     On  his  way  home,  however, 

he  determined  to  direct  his  courfe  in  fuch  a  manner  as 
to  fall  in  with  the  ifles  of  Denia  and  Marfevecn.     Tlitfe, 


the 
ftence 
i  fouih- 
conti- 

it. 


even  by  Captain  Cook  hiinfelf,  to  the  fait  provifi 
which  were  now  greatly  decayed.  Ti-ie  moll  fouthcrly 
land  difcovered  by  our  navigator  was  that  on  which  he 
bellowed  the  name  of  Southern  Thule,  and  which  is 
Irtuated  in  S.  Lat-  59"^  13'  30',  W.  Long.  27"  45'. 
This  was  ftill  more  defolate  than  Soiitli  Georgia>  be- 
ing forfaken  even  by  the  feals  and  penguins  which 
aborrnded  on  it.  Not  a  finglc  herb  of  any  kind  was 
feen  upon  it,  but  vail  high  and  barren  mouirtains, 
the  tops  of  fome  of  which  reached  above  the  clouds  ; 
and  it  maybe  remarked,  lliat  tins  feerna  to  be  the  only 
part  of  the  world  hitherto  difcovered,  eirtlrcly  uttfit 
for  the  fiijiport  of  animal  lire. 

Southern  Thule  was  difcovered  on  the  31(1  of  Ja- 
nuary 1775;  and  from  this  to  the  6th  of  February 
feveral  other  lands  were  difcovtied,  and  named  Cape 
BriJloU  Cope  Mo7>ta;^ue,  Saunter's  IJle,  Candhmas  IJhs, 
and  Samlni.'ich's  Latul.  With  regard  to  ihislait,  Captain 


7: 

are  laid  down  in  Dr  Halley's   variation   chart  in   the^fD'^enia" 

latitude  of  4ii.  S.  and  about  4.  o.  E.   from  the  me- and  Ma-'e- 

ridianofthe   Cape  of  Good   Hope.      None   of  thefe  ^■'^"• 

iflands  could  be  Ibund  ;  and  therefore  our  commander 

having  vety  little  Mnie  to  ipare  cither  in  iVarchiiig  for 

them  or  attempting  to  difprove  their  exillence,  made 

the  beil  of  his  way  to  the  Cape  of  GcSod  Hope,  and 

fiom   thviiee   to    England.      In   his  palfage  thither  lie 

vifited  the  iflesof  St  PIclena,  Afcenfion,  and  Fernando 

de  Noionha.     An  experiment  was  made  on  the  ufe  of        "^ 

the  ftlU  for  procuring  frefli  water  at  fea  ;  the  refult  oi?X%  l['~ 

which  was,  that  though  the  invention  was  ufcful  upondi!lilii"i;^r 

the  whole,  yet  it  would  not  by  any  means  be  advilable'ea  "-i;- 

to  truft  entirely  to  it.     Provided  indeed  that  there  was 

not  a  fcarcily  of  fuel,  and  that  the  toppers  were  good. 


coo 


[   414   ] 


coo 


33  much  might   thus  be  procured  as   would   fiipport     a  good  harbour  there.     In  hio  pafTage  to  it  feveral  new 


idands  were  difcoveied  ;  to  one  wl'.ich  Kcrgaelen  had 
given  the  name  of  the  IJland  of  Rendezvous,  Cap- 
tain Cook,  on  account  ot  its  Aiap,-,  changed  it  to  that 
of  Blight's  Clip.  It  18  fituated  in  iS.  Lat.  48.  29.  E. 
LonjT.  68.  40.  and  is  a  high  round  rock,  inaccefllble 
to  all   creatures  but  birds.      N;xt   day  he   fell  in   with  D,.f(;/i?tion 


?3 
Third  voy- 
age- 


74 
Vifits  the 
ineof  Te. 
ccriffe. 


'5  , 
Tea-Ilirub. 


76 


life  ;  but  that  no  efforts  would  be  fufficient  to  procure 
the  quantity  neceffary  for  the  prefervation  of  health, 
cfpecially  in  hot  climates.  He  was  likewife  convinced 
that  nothing  contiibutes  more  to  the  health  of  feamon 
than  having  plenty  of  frefli  water.  His  lad  llage  in 
this   fecond  voyage  before  his  arrival  in  England  was 

at  Fayal,  one  of  the  Azores  iflands  ;  and  his  only  de-     Kerguelen's  land,  at  firft  thought  to  be  a  part  of  the,,)  that 

fign  in  ftoppinghere  was  to  give  Mr  Wales  an  o^por-     fouthern  continent,  but  afterwaids  found  by  Kergue-  iflauj. 

tunity  of  finding  the  rate  of  the  watches  going,  that     len  himfelf  to   he  an  ifland.     The  extent  of  it,   how- 

fo  he  might  be  enabled  to  find  the  longitude  of  thcle     ever,  was  not   determined   either  by  the  French  navi- 

iflands  with  the  greater  certainty.  gator  or  by  Captain   Cook.      The  former  reckons  it 

In  our  commander's  third  voyage  he  touched  at  the     at   200    leagues   in   circumference,  but  Captain  Cook 

illand  of  Tenerlffe  inftead  of  Madeira,  looking  upon     eflimates  it   at   much  lels.     Our  navigator  could  not 

the  former  to  be  a  better  place  for  procuring  refrefh-     get  any  extenfive  view  of  it  on   account  of  the  fog- 

ments  ;   and  was  convinced  of  the  jullnefs  of  his  con-     gy  weather;  but  as  far  as  could  be  difcovercd,  it  was 

jefture  by  the  facility  with  which  provifions  of  all  kinds     barren  and  defolate,  infomuch  that  there   was  neither 

were  obtained.     The  air  of  the  country  is  exceedingly     food  nor  covering  for  cattle  of  any  kind,  fo  that  they 

healthy  and  proper  for  thofe    fubjeft  to    pulmonary     would   inevitably  perifh  if  any  were  left.     Even  the 

complaints.     This  was  accounted  for  by  a  gentleman     fea-coaits  were  in   a   great   meafure   deftitute  of  filh  ; 

of  the  place  from  the  gieat  height  of  the  ifland,  by     but  the  fhore  was  covered  with  innumerable  multitudes 

which  it  was  in  the  power  of  any  perfon  to  chansje  the     of  fcals,  together  with  penguins  and  other  birds ;  all 

tcmperatureof  thcair  ashe  pleafed;  andheexpretftdhis     of    which   were  fo    void   of  fear,    that    any    quantity 

furprize  that  phyficians,  inftead  of  fending  their  patients     whatever  might  be  killed  without  any  ditficulty.     Not 

to  Nice  or  Lifbon,  did  not   fend   them   to  Teneriffe.     a  iingle  tree   nor   fhrub  could  be  feen,  nor  a  piece  of 

From  the  fame  gentleman  it  was  learned,  that  tlie  tea-     drift  wood  on  the  fliore ;  and  herbage  of  every  kind 

fhrub  grows  in  that  ifland  as  a  common  weed,  which  is     was  likewife  very  fcarce.  A  prodigious  quantity  oi  the 

conftantly  exterminated    in    large    quantitits.      The     fea-weed,   called  by  Sir  Jofeph  Banks  yi/n/x  _f/^(!nto/r, 

Spaniards,  however,  fometimes  ufe  it  as  lea,  and  afcribe     was  found  in  one  of  the  bays.      Tfie  whole  variety  of 

to  it  all  the  qualities   of  that  bt'  ught  from  the  Eaft     plants   found   in    this  ifland   did   not  exceed  16  or  18 

Indies.     They  give  it  alfo  the  name  of  tea,  and  lay     fpecies.      The  harbour  in   which  our  navigator  made 

that  it  was  found  in  the  country  when  the  iflands  were     his  longefl  ftay  on  this  defolate  coaft  was  named  Pmi 

firll  difcovered.     Another   botanical   curiofity   is  the     PaHlfer,  and    is  fituated    in  S.   Lat.  49.  3.   E.  Long. 

Impregna-   fruit  called  the  impregtmted  lemon,   which  is  a  petfeft     69    37.      In   this   voyage   our   navigator  undoubtedly 

tedlemon.    and  dittinft   lemon   inclofed   within   another,   and  dif-     dilplayed  fuperior  nautical  abilities  to  chofc  of  M.  Ker- 

fering    from  the  outer  only    in   being  a  little    more     guclen,  who  in   two  voyages  to  the  place  had  never 

globular.  been  able  to  bring  his  fhipe  to   anchor  on  any  part  of 

~»  From  Teneriffe   Captain    Cook    proceeded    to  the     the  coaft. 

Prince  Ed-  Cape  of  Good  Flope,  and  from  thence  to  the  fouth-  From  Kerguelen's  land  our  navigator  proceeded  to 

ward''         ward,  where  he  fell  in  with  two  iflands,   the  larger  of    the  coaft  of  New  Holland,   where  he  now  touched  at  j-,|         , 

Iliani;- dif-   which  is  about  15  leagues  in   circuit,  and   the  fmaller     the  foutliern  part  called  Van  Dtemen's  land,  where   he  [juj. 

about   nine  ;  their  diflance    from   one    another  being     anchored  in  Adventure  Bay.      Here  they  found  plenty 

about  five  leagues.      The  one  of  thefe  iflands   lies  in     of  wood  and  water,  with  abundance  of  grafs,coarfe  in- 

S.  Lat.  46.  53.  and   E.  Long.  37.  46;  the  other  in     deed,    where   they   went  firll   alhore,    but  afterwards 

S.  Lat.  46.  4.   E.  Long.  38.  8.     As  the  fhips  pafTed     much  finer  and  pioper  foi  the  cattle.      Here,  as  every 

through  between  them,  they  could   not   difcern   either     where  elfe,   the   latiiudes  and  longitudes  were  fettled 

tree  or  fhrub  upon  any  of  ihem  even  with  the  affiftance     with  the  greatell  exactnefs.     The   bottom   of  Adven- 

of  theii  befl  glaffcs.     The  fliore  feemed  to  be  bold  and     ture  Bay  was  found   to  lie  in  S.  Lat.   43"  21'  6"  ;  E. 

rocky,  their  internal  parts  full   of  mountains,  whofe     Long.  147'^  29.     The   inhabitants  vifited  them   in  a 

fides  and  fummits  were  covered  with  fiiow.  Thefe  two,     friendly  manner,  but  leemed  as  ilupid  and  infenfible  as 

■with   four   others,   which    lie  from  9  to  12  degrees  of    thofe  thty  had  formerly  feen.     They  feemed  to  be  to- 

longitude  more  to  the  eaft,  and  nearly  in  the  fame  la-     tally  ignorant  of  the  ufe  of  iron,  and  fet  no  value  up- 

tit^di,  had  been  difcovered  in  the  year  1772  by  Cap-     on  any  thing  in  the  ornamental  way  excepting  beads; 

tains  Marion  du  Frefne  and  Cr>  zet,  tv*o  French  navt-     nor  did  they  feem  to  be  acquainted  even  with  the  ufe 

gat"rs,  in  their  paffage  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope     of  flfti  hooks.      Here  they  found  the  ftories  of  the  an- 

tothe  Philippines.     As  no  names  had  been  affigned  to     cient  fauns  and   fatyrs  livuig  in  hollow  trees  realized. 

them  in  a  chart  of  the  S  nthern  Ocean  communicated     Some  huts  covered  with  bark,  and  of  a  moft  wretched 

to  Captain  Cook  in  1 77 j,  the  two  larger  ones  were  by     conftruAion,  were  indeed   found   near  the  fhore  ;  but 

him    dlflinguiflied   by    the   name  of  Prince  Edward's     the    moft    commodlou;  habitations   were   afforded    by 

JJlands,  in   honour  of  his   Majefty's   fourth   ion  ;  the     the  largeft   trees.     Thefe  had   their  trunks   hillowed 

other  four,  with  a  view  to  commemorate  the  dilcove-     out  by  fire   to   the   height  of  fix   or  (even  feet  ;  and 

ries,  were  called  Marian'i   and  Crozet's  Iflands.  there  was  room   enough  in  one  of  them  for  three  or 

From  thefe  oui  commander  fteered  10  the  huithwavd     four  peifons  to  fit  round  a   hearth  made  of  clay;  and 

in  fearch  of  Kirguelen's  land,  which  he  had  been  in-     it  may  juftly  feem  uirprifing,  that  notwithftanding  the 

len'eiand.   ftrufted  to  touch  at,  in  older  to  difcover,  if  poflible,    extreme  violence  offered  to  the  vegetative  powers  of 

the 


I 

1 


80 

Of  Van 


covered. 


7«  . 
V'^v^ge  in 

q".    '   of 


coo 


[     4 


looVs     the  trei;  by  forminj^  this  habitation,  it  dill  continued  to 
^fcovc     fl.inrilh   in   confeqiience   of  one   fide  being  left  entire. 

"_ ,  The   people,   notwitiiltanding  their  extreme  barbarity, 

were  fuppofed  to  proceed  from  the  fame  Itock  with 
th'ile  of  the  South  Sea  Klands.  As  in  one  of  their 
vifits  the  natives  had  feized  upon  two  pigs  whicii  had 
been  brought  afliore,  apparently  with  an  intention  to 
kill  th-Ti,  the  commander  determined  to  make  them 
a  pref;nt  of  thefe  animals  ;  though  from  their  exoeflive 
ftupidity  and  inattention  there  was  no  probability  of 
their  allowing  them  to  propagate,  if  ;hey  had  b^-en 
put  direAIy  into  their  hands.  To  prevent  this,  Cap- 
tain Cook  ordered  the  two  they  had  attempted  to 
feize,  being  a  boar  and  fow,  to  he  carried  about  a  mile 
within  the  head  of  the  bay,  and  faw  them  left  by  the 
fide  of  a  frefh  water  rivulet.  He  was  prevented  from 
leaving  any  other  fpecies  by  a  conlideration  of  the  bar- 
„  barity  of  the  inhabitants, 

'ifit  tf)  From  New  Holland  our  navigator  proceeded  to  New 

t'-vf  Zca-    Zealand,  where   he  arrived  on   the  1 2th  of  February 
;nd.  177")   atid    anchored    in    Queen    Charlotte's    Soimd. 

Here  he  was.defirous  of  leaving  a  further  fupply  of  ani- 
mals ;  but  the  inhabitants  had  hitherto  fliown  fuch 
carelefTnefs  about  thofe  which  had  been  left,  that  he 
durfl  not  venture  to  leave  any  other  than  two  goats,  a 
male  and  a  female  with  kid,  and  two  hogs,  a  boar 
and  fow.  He  was  informed,  however,  that  one  chief 
had  feveral  cocks  and  hens  in  his  pofleinon,  fo  t'lat 
there  was  fome  probability  of  thefe  animals  being  al- 
lowed to  multiply  ;  and  as  ten  or  a  dozen  hogs  had  at 
different  times  been  left  by  Captain  Cook,  befides 
thofe  pur  on  iTiore  by  Captain  Furneaux,  it  feems  alfo 
to  be  likely  that  this  race  of  creatures  will  increafe  ei- 
ther in  a  wild  or  domeitic  ftate,  or  both.  The  gardens 
had  flill  been  almoft  totally  neglefted,  and  fome  of 
them  deftroyed.  Thofe  which  remained,  however, 
produced  cabbages,  onions,  leeks,  pnrflains,  radiihes, 
and  a  few  potatoes.  Thefe  laft  had  been  brought  from 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  were  fo  greatly  melio- 
rated by  the  chan'ge  of  foil,,  that  with  proper  cul- 
tivation they  feemed  to  bid  fair  for  excelling  thofe  of 
mod  other  countries. 

Our  navigator's  next  courfe  was  towards  the  Ifland 
of  Otaheite  ;  in  the  run  to  which  he  difcovered  the 
IHand  of  Mangea,  fituated  in  S.  Lat.  22.  57.  E. 
'xtia'jrdi-  Long.  301.  53.  From  thence  he  proceeded  to  Wa- 
laryprc-  teoa,  wliere  Omai,  now  on  his  way  home,  recogiu'zed 
;rva.tion  of  three  of  his  countrymen,  natives  of  the  Society 
ime  of  the  iflj^ds,  who  had  arrived  here  by  the  following  acci- 

lativts  01,  Ai  irri  -  r 

Jtsheite  dent.  About  12  years  beiore,  20  01  the  natives  01 
Otalieite  had  embarked  in  a  canoe,  in  order  to  vifit  the 
neighbouring  ifland  of  Ulietea.  A  violent  ftorm  arofe, 
which  drove  them  out  of  their  courfe,  and  they  fuffered 
incredible  hardlhips  by  famine  and  fatigue,  fo  that  the 
greateft  pait  of  them  peiidied.  Four  men  continued 
hanging  by  the  fide  of  the  vefTel  for  four  days  after  it 
WES  overfet,.  when  they  were  at  laft  brought  within 
fight  of  the  people  of  this  ifland.  The  latter  imme- 
diately fent  out  their  canoes,  and  brought  them  a- 
fhoTO,  treating  them  afterwards  with  fo  much  kindnefs, 
tha  the  three  who  now  furvived  exprefled  no  defire 
of  icturning  t.  their  own  country,  though  they  had 
now  an  opportunity,  but  cliofe  rather  to  remain  where 
they  were.  This  ifland  is  fi'.u:-.ted  in  S.  Lat.  20.  I.  E. 
Lon.  20 1 .  45.  and  is  about  fix  leagues  in  chcumference. 


15     ]  COO 

The  inhabitants  arc  faid  to  be  equally  amiable  in  their     C"ok'» 
perfons  and  dUpofitions.  Difcove- 


Vlfiting  a  Imall   ifland  named   Wcnnooa-ete,  or  Ota-  ^^ 


lootma,   fituated  in  S.  Lat.  19.  1  J.  and  E   Long.  201. 
37.  our  commander  found  it  without  inhabitants,  tho* 
there. were  undoubted  marks  of  its   being  occaiionally 
frequented.       Harvey's    Ifland,  which   In    his    former 
voyage    had    been    deftitute  of  inhabitants,   was  now 
found  to  be  well  peopled ;  but   the  inhabitants  fhowed 
fuch  an  hoftile  difpofition  that  no  refrefli  nents  couM  be 
procured  ;  for  which  realon  it  was  determined  to  (leer 
for  the  Fiiendlv  Klands,  where  there  was  a  certainty 
of  meeting  with  an  abundant  fupply.      lu  his  way  thi- p,]p,^^j^ 
ther  he  touched  at  Pahnerfton  Ifland,   from  a  imall  ifle  Idand  a  pro- 
near  which  a  fupply  of  j;oo  cocoa  nuts  were  ootalned,  per  ))l,nce 
belides   abundance  of  filh  and  bivdsof  various  kinds.  °     '''"5^^" 
Had  the  ifland  been  capable  of  furnilliing  u'atcr,  the^.j,^,Jy^ 
Captain  would  have  preferred  it  to  any  of  the  inhabited  water, 
ones  for  the  purpofe  of  procuring  icfrenimento,  as  they 
could  be  had  in  any.quantity  without  moleftdtlon  from 
the  petulance  of  the    inhabitants.      As   water   at  this 
time  happened  to  be  a  fcarce  article,  our  navigator  was 
ohligeil  to  fupply  himfelf  from  the  fltowers  which  fell, 
and  which  afforded  as  much  In  an  hour  as  he  could  pro- 
cure by  dillillation  In  a  month. 

During  the  time  of  refideuce  at  the  Friendly  Iflands 
our  navigator  vifued  one  named  Hepaec,  at  which  no 
European  (hip  had  ever  touched  before.  Here  he  was 
entertained  in  a  friendly  manner,  fupplled  with  re- 
frefiiments,  and  left  fome  ufeful  animals ;  great  addi- 
tions were  made  to  the  geography  of  thefe  iflands,  and 
many  curious  remarks  made  on  the  Inhabitants  and  na- 
tural produfls.  It  was  obferved  by  Mr  Anderfon,  that 
the  people  had  very  proper  notions  of  the  Immateria- 
lity and  immortality  of  the  human  foul,  and  bethought 
himlelf  authorifed  to  affcrt,  that  they  did  not  worlhip 
any  part  of  the  vilible  creation.  g-^ 

Pafling  by  a  fmall  ifland  named  Toohmial,  about  five  Reception 
or  fix  miles  In  extent,   and  fituated  in  S.  Lat.  23.  z^.of  Omaiat 
E.  Long.  2,10.  37.  our  navigator  now  arrived  at  Ota-    '^  '"^" 
heite.     Here  Omai  met   witli  his   relations,  fome  of 
whom  received   him   with  apparent  indifference  ;  but 
his  meeting  with  an  aunt  and  a  fifter  was  marked  with 
exprefiions  of  the   mcil  tender  regard.      It  was  Hua- 
h.elne,   however,  that  was  deftined  for  the  place  of  O- 
mai's  final  refideuce,  and  thither  the  Captain  repaired 
on    purpofe  to  fettle   him.     The  affair  was   couduft- 
ed   with  great  folemnlty ;    and   Omai    brought    with 
him   a   fuitable   aflbrtnient  of  prefents  to   the  chiefs, 
went  through   a  great  number  of  religious   ceremo- 
nies,   and  made  a  fpeech,  the  fubjeft  of  which  had 
been    diftated  to   him   by  Captain    Cook.      The  re-         85 
fult  of  the  negociatlon  was,  that  a  fpot  of  ground  was '^^ '*  *<=' 
afiigned    him,  extending  about  2&0  yards  along  theu"'-')"  ^''*" 
fhore   of  the  harbour,  with  a  proportionable    part  of 
an  adjacent  hill.     The  carpenters  of  both  flilps  were 
then  employed   In   conftruAIng  an  houfe  for  him,  in' 
which    he    might  fecure  his    European  commodities.. 
At    the    fame  time  a  garden   was  made  for  his  ufe,  In 
which  were  planted  fliaddocks,   vines,  pine-apples,  me- 
lons, and    leveral  other  garden  vegetables.      Here  he 
met  with  a  brother,  filler,  and  fifter-in-law,  by  whom 
he  was  very  affectionately  received  :   but  it   was  difco- 
vered  with   concern,  that   none  of  his   relations  were, 
able  to  protefl  him  in  cafe  of  anjr  attack  on  his  perfon 

or. 


CnoVs 

Difcove- 

ri««. 


2<, 
Remaikson 

the  .Society 


Chrittmas 
llUndaif- 
covered. 


8S 
Tandwich 


COO  [4 

or  property  ;  fo  that  there  was  too  much  reafon  to 
fear  that  hi  would  be  plundered  immediately  on  the 
departure  of  tVe  Engli(h.  To  prevent  this,  if  pof- 
fible,  Captain  Cook  advifed  him  to  conciliate  the  fa- 
vour and  en^a^e  the  patrona;^?  and  proteftion  of  fome 
of  tlie  mod  powerful  chiefs  by  proper  prefcnts;  at  the 
fame  time  that  he  hlmfelf  took  every  opportunity  of 
letting  the  inhabitants  know  that  it  was  his  intention 
to  return  to  the  idand  again,  and  if  he  did  not  find 
Omai  in  the  fame  ftate  of  fecurity  in  which  he  left 
him,  thofe  by  whom  he  had  beeii  injured  would  cer- 
tainly feel  the  weight  of  his  refentment.  About  a 
fortnight  after  leaving  Huaheine,  the  Captain  had  a 
meffage  from  Omai  ;  in  which  he  informed  him  that 
tvery  thintj  went  well,  only  that  his  goat  had  died  in 
kidding,  for  which  he  defired  another  might  be  fent ; 
and  accompanied  this  requell  with  another  for  two 
axes,  which  were  fent  along  with  a  couple  of  kids, 
mile  and  female.  On  taking  his  final  leave  of  the  So- 
ciety Illands,  Captain  Cook  obferves,  that  it  would 
have  been  far  better  for  thefe  poor  people  never  to 
have  known  the  fuperiority  of  the  Europeans  in  fuch 
arts  as  render  life  comfortable,  than  after  once  being 
acquainted  with  it  to  be  again  abandoned  to  their  ori- 
ginal incapacity  of  improvement;  as,  if  the  inlercourfe 
between  them  and  us  (hould  be  wholly  difcontinued, 
they  could  not  be  reftored  to  that  happy  ftatc  of  me- 
diocrity in  which  they  were  found.  It  uemed  to  him 
that  it  was  become  in  a  maimer  incumbent  on  the  Eu- 
ropeans to  vlfit  thefc  iilandsonce  in  three  or  fouryears, 
in  order  to  fupply  them  with  thofe  conveniences  of 
which  they  have  taught  them  the  ufe.  It  is  indeed  to 
be  apprehended,  that  by  the  time  the  iron  tools  which 
were  then  among  them  arc  worn  out,  they  will  have 
forgot  the  ufe  of  their  own  ;  as  in  this  lail  voyage  it 
was  obferved  that  the  ufe  of  their  former  tools  was  al- 
moft  totally  abolifhed. 

Having  left  the  Society  Iflands,  Captain  Cook  now 
proceeded  to  the  northward,  croffing  the  equator  on 
the  2 2d  and  23d  of  December  ;  and  on  the  24th  dif- 
covered  a  low  uninhabited  illand  about  15  or  20 
leagues  in  circumference.  Here  the  longitude  and  la- 
titude were  exaftly  determined  by  means  of  an  tclipfe 
of  the  fim.  The  welt  fide  of  it  where  the  eclipfe  was 
obferved,  lies  in  N.  Lat.  I.  59.  E.  Long.  202.  30. 
From  the  time  of  its  difcovery  it  obtained  the  name  of 
Chri/lmas  Jjland.  Plenty  of  turtle  were  found  upon  it, 
and  the  Captain  caufed  the  feeds  of  the  cocoa-nut, 
yams,  Jnd  melons,  to  be  planted. 

Proceeding  ftlll  to  the  northward,  our  navigator 
next  fell  in  with  five  idands,  to  which  he  gave  the  ge- 
neral name  of  Sand-wich  IJles,  in  honour  of  his  patron. 
Their  names  in  the  language  of  the  country  are  Woa- 
hoo,  Atooi,  Oueeheow,  Oreehoua,  and  Tehoora. 
They  are  fituated  in  the  latitude  of  zi.  30.  and  22.  15. 
North,  and  between  199.  20.  and  20I.  30.  E.  Long. 
The  longitude  was  deduced  from  no  fewer  than  72  fets 
of  lunar  obfcrvations.  The  lavgell  irf  thefe  illands  is 
Atooi,  and  does  not  in  the  leall  icfemble  the  other 
iflands  of  the  South  vSta  formerly  vifited  by  our  na- 
vigator, excepting  only  that  it  has  hills  near  the 
centre,  which  (lope  gradually  towards  the  fea-lide. 
The  only  domeftic  animals  found  upon  it  were  hogs, 
dogs,  and  fowls.  Captain  Cook  defigned  to  have 
jiiade  the  inhabitants  of  this  iflanj  a   prefent  of  fome 

N-  9'- 


16       ] 


COO 


others ;  but  being  driven  out  of  it  by  ftrcfs  of  wea- 
ther, he  was  obliged  to  land  them  upon  a  fmaller  one 
named  Oneelieiow.  They  were  a  he  goat  with  two  fo- 
males,  and  a  boar  and  fow  of  the  Englilh  breed, 
which  is  much  fuperior  to  that  of  the  South-Sea 
Iflands.  He  left  alfo  the  feeds  of  melons,  pumkina, 
and  onions.  The  foil  of  this  ifland  feemed  in  general 
to  be  poor  :  it  was  obfeivable  that  the  ground  was  co- 
vered with  (hrubs  and  plants,  fome  of  which  had  a 
more  delicious  fragrancy  than  had  been  experienced 
before.  The  inhabitants  of  thefe  ifl.iuds  are  much 
commended,  notwithftanding  their  horrid  cuilom  of  eat- 
ing human  flefh.  In  every  thing  manufactured  by  thera 
there  Is  an  ingenuity  and  neatnefs  in  an  uncommon  de- 
gree ;  and  the  elegant  form  and  polifli  of  fome  of  their 
filhing-hooks  could  not  be  exceeded  by  an  European 
artilt,  even  aP.uted  by  all  his  proper  tools.  From  what 
was  feen  of  their  agriculture  alfo,  it  apptatcd  that  they 
were  by  no  means  novices  in  that  art,  and  that  the 
quantity  and  goodnefs  of  their  vegetable  produftlons 
might  v.ith  propriety  be  attributed  as  much  to  their 
fnilful  culture  as  to  the  fertility  of  the  foil.  The  lan- 
guage of  the  Sandwich  Ifles  is  almoll  identically  the 
fame  with  that  of  Otaheite.  g 

Proceeding  farther  to  the  northward,  our  navigators  American 
difcovered  the  coall  of  New  Albion  on  the  7th  of  March  coaft  difco' 
177?.  Its  appearance  was  very  different  from  that  of*' 
the  countries  with  which  they  had  hitherto  been  convcr- 
fant.  The  land  was  full  of  mountains,  the  tops  of  which 
were  covered  with  fnow  ;  while'  the  valleys  between 
them,  and  the  grounds  on  the  fea-coaft,  high  as  well 
as  low,  were  covered  with  trees,  which  formed  a  beau- 
tiful profpetl  as  of  one  vail  foreft.  The  place  where 
they  landed  was  fituated  in  N.  Lat.  44.  33.  E.  Long. 
235.  20.  At  firft  the  natives  feemed  to  prefer  iron 
to  every  other  article  of  commerce  ;  but  at  lall  they 
fhowed  fuch  a  prediledtiori  for  biafs,  that  fcarcely  a  bit 
of  it  was  left  in  the  fhips  except  what  belonged  to  the 
neceffary  infttuments.  It  was  obferved  alfo,  that  thele 
people  were  much  more  tenacious  of  their  proporty 
than  any  of  the  favage  nations  that  had  hitherto  been 
met  with,  infomuch  that  they  would  part  neither  with 
wood,  water,  grafs,  nor  the  mod  trilling  article,  with- 
out a  compenfation,  and  were  fometimes  very  unrca- 
fonable  in  their  demands;  with  which,  however,  the 
Captain  always  complied  as  far  as  was  in  his  power. 

The  place  where  the  Refolution  was  now   anchored  Neotki 
was  by  our  navigator  called  St  Georg'c^s  Suuiui,  but  he  SounJ.     ' 
afterwards  undcrttood  that  the  natives  gave  it  the  name 
of  Nootia.     Its  entrance  is  fituated  in  the  eaft  coi^ner 
of  Hope  Bay,  in  N.  Lat.'  49.  33.  E.   Long.  233    12. 
The  climate,  as  far  as  they  had  an  opportunity  of  ob-  Mildnefsof 
ferving  it,   was  much  milder   than  that  on  the  eaftern  the  climate. 
coaft  of  the  American  continent  in  the  fame  parallel  of 
latitude  ;  and  it  was  remarkable  that  the  thermometer, 
even  in  the  night,  nevtr  fell  lower  than  42 ',  while  in 
the  day-time  it  frequently  rofe  to  60'.    The  trees  met 
with  here  are  chiefly  the  Canadian  pine,  white  cyprels, 
and  fome  other  kinds  of  pine.      There  ieemed  to  be  3 
fcarclty  of  birds,  wliich  are  much  haraffed  by  the  natives', 


1 


who  ornament  their  clothes  with  the  feathers,  and  ufe 


9« 


the  fleflt  for  foiid.      The  people  are  no  llrangeisto  the  Nitivesac- 

ufe  of  metals,  having  iron  tools  in  general  ufe  anionjj  1"^'"', 
i_  J  aV    <-.  J  .         1-1         ■  c     with  the 

them;  and  Mr  Oore  procured  two  lilver  Ipoons  ot  ayfjofme. 

conftruftion  fimilar  to  what  may  be  obferved  in  fjnie  ,a^, 

I  Flemifh 


coo 


[     4t7     ] 


COO 


Fleniilli  piiftures,  from  a  native  who  wore  them  round 
his  neck  as  an  ornament.  It  is  mod  probable  that 
thefe  metals  have  been  conveyed  to  them  by  the  way 
of  Hudfon's  Bay  and  Canada  ;  nor  is  it  improbable 
that  fome  of  them  may  have  been  inttoduced  from  the 
north-weftern  parts  of  Mexico. 

While  Captain  Cook  failed  along  this  coaft,  he  kept 
always  at  a  diftance  from  land  when  the  wind  blew 
ftronply  upon  it ;  whence  leveral  large  gaps  were  left 
unexplored,  particularly  between  the  latitudes  of  jo" 
and  55".  The  exaft  fituation  of  the  fuppofed  ftraits 
of  Anian  was  not  afcertained,  though  there  is  not  the 
leaft  doubt,  that  if  he  had  lived  to  return  by  the  fame 
wav  in  i  779,  l>e  would  have  examined  every  part  with 
hi^J  uTual  accuracy.  On  departing  from  Nootka  Sound, 
our  navigator  lirft  fell  in  with  an  ifland  in  N.  Lat.  59. 
49.  E.  Long.  216.  58.  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of 
/{ay's  IJlaiul.  Several  others  were  difcovered  in  the 
neighbourhood  ;  and  the  fliip  came  to  an  anchor  in  an 
inlet  named  by  the  Captain  Prince  liniliam's  Sound. 
Here  he  had  an  opportunity  of  making  feveral  obferva- 
tionj  on  the  inhabitants,  as  well  as  on  the  nature  of 
the  countiy.  From  every  thing  relative  to  the  former, 
it  was  concluded,  that  the  inhabitants  were  of  the  fame 
race  with  the  Efquimaux  or  Greenlanders.  The  ani- 
mals were  much  the  fame  with  thofe  met  with  at  Noot- 
ka, and  a  beautiful  fkin  of  one  animal,  which  feemed  to 
be  peculiar  to  the  place,  was  offered  for  fale.  Mr  An- 
derfon  was  inclined  to  think  that  it  was  the  fame 
to  which  Mr  Pennant  has  given  the  name  of  the 
cafan  marmot.  The  alcedo,  or  great  king's- fiflier,  was 
found  here,  having  very  fine  and  bright  colours.  The 
humming-bird  alio  came  frequently,  and  flew  about  the 
(hip  while  at  anchor  ;  though  it  ia  fcarce  to  be  fuppo- 
fed that  it  can  live  throughout  the  winter  on  account 
of  the  extreme  cold.  The  water-fowl  were  in  confi- 
derable  plenty  ;  and  there  is  a  fpecies  of  diver  which 
feemed  to  be  peculiar  to  the  place.  Almofl.  the  only 
kinds  of  fifh  met  with  in  the  place  were  torfli  and  ha- 
libut. The  trees  were  chiefly  the  Canadian  and  fpruce 
pine,  fome  of  which  were  of  a  confiderable  height  and 
thicknefs.  The  Sound  is  judged  by  Captain  Cook  to 
occupy  a  degree  and  a  half  of  latitude  and  two  of 
longitude,  exclufivcly  of  its  arms  and  branches,  which 
were  not  explored.  There  was  every  reafon  to  believe 
that  the  inhabitants  had  never  been  vifited  by  any  Eu- 
ropean veflel  before  ;  but  our  navigator  found  them  in 
pofleffion  not  only  of  iron  but  of  beads,  which  it  is 
probable  are  conveyed  to  them  acrofs  the  continent 
from  Hudfon's  Bay. 

Soon  after  leaving  Prince  William's  Sound,  our  na- 
vigators fell  in  with  another  inlet,  which  it  was  ex- 
pefted  would  lead  either  to  the  northern  fea  or  to 
Hudfon's  or  Baffin's  bay;  but  upon  examination  it 
was  found  to  end  in  a  large  river.  This  was  tra- 
ced for  210  miles  from  the  mouth,  as  high  as  N.  . 
Lat.  61.  30.  and  promifes  to  vie  with  the  moft  con- 
fiderable ones  already  known,  as  it  lies  open  by  means 
of  its  various  branches  to  a  very  confiderable  inland 
communication.  As  no  name  was  given  by  our  com- 
mander to  this  river,  it  was  ordered  by  Lord  Sand- 
wich to  be  named  Cook's  River.  The  inhabitan'^s 
feemed  to  be  of  the  fame  race  with  thofe  of  Prince 
William's  Sound  ;  and  like  them  had  glafs  beads  and 
knives,  thev  were  alfo  clothed  in  very  fine  furs.j  fo  that 
Vol.  V.  Part  IL 


riu. 


it  feemed  probable  that  a  valuable  fur-trade  might  be  Cook's 
carried  on  from  that  country.  Several  attempts  have  I*""^""- 
accordingly  been  made  from  the  Britilh  fettlements  in  _ 
the  Eall  Indies  to  eftablilh  a  traffic  of  that  kind  ;  but 
little  benefit  accrued  from  it  except  to  the  proprictori 
of  the  firft  veflel,  her  cargo  havinir  greatly  lowered 
the  price  of  that  commodity  in  the  Cliinefe  market.  It 
mull  be  obferved,  that  on  the  weftern  fide  of  the  Ame- 
rican continent,  the  only  valuable  flvins  met  with  are 
thofe  of  the  fea-ottcr;  thofe  of  the  other  animals,  cfpc- 
cially  foxes  and  martins,  being  of  an  inferior  quality  to 
luch  as  are  met  with  in  other  parts.  „. 

Proceeding  farther  to  the  northward,  our  navigator  They  fall 
now  fell   in  with  a  race  of  people  who  had    evidently',"  with  the 
.been  viiited  by  the  Ruflians,  and  ft-emed  to  have  adopt- '"'^'"''.''jf" 
eti  trom   them   lome  improvements  in   dreis,   Sec.      In  the  Ruf- 
the  profecution  of  this  part  of  their  voyage,  it  appeared fians. 
that  they  had  been  providentially  conveyed  in  the  dark 
through  a  paflage  fo  dangerous,  that  our  commander 
would    not   have  ventured   upon   it   in    the   day  time. 
They  were  now  got  in  among  thofe  iflands  which  had 
lately  been  difcovered   by  Captain  Beeiing  and  other 
Ruflian  navigators,  and  came  to  an  anchor  in  an  har- 
bour of  Oonalaflika,  fituated  in  N.  Lat.  53.  jr.  E. 
Long.  193.  30.     Here  it  was  remarked,  that  the  inha- 
bitants  had  as  yet  profited   very  little  by  their  inter- 
courfe  with  the    Ruffians ;  fo  that  they  did  not  even 
drefs  the  fifh  they  ufed  for  their  food,  but  devoured 
tliein  quite  raw. 

From  Oonalaflika  our  navigator  proceeded  again  to- 
wards the  continent,  which  he  continued  to  trace  as  far 
as  poffible  to  the  northward.  In  the  latitude  of  54.  48.  qs 
E.  Long.  195.  45.  N.  Lat.  is  a  volcano  of  the  fliape  of  A  volcano, 
a  perfccf  cone,  having  the  crater  at  the  very  fummit. 
On  the  coaft  farth.er  to  the  north  the  foil  appears  very 
barren,  producing  neither  tree  nor  flirub,  though  the 
lower  grounds  are  not  deftitute  of  grafs  and  fome  other 
plants.  To  a  rocky  point  of  confiderable  height,  fi- 
tuated in  N.  Lat.  58.  42.  E.  Long.  197.  36.  our  com- 
mander gave  the  name  of  Cape  Neiunham. 

Here  Mr  Anderfon,   the  furgeon  of  the  Refolution, 
died  of  a  confumption  under  which  he  had  laboured  for 
more  than  twelve  months.    Soon  after  he  had  breathed 
his  laft,  land  beingr  feen  a.f.a  diftance,  it  was  named  j4ii- 
derfon's  Ifland ;  and  on  the  9th  of  Auguft  the  fliip  an- 
chored under  a  point  of  the  continent,  which  he  na-        nr 
med  Cape  Prince  of  Wales.     This  is  remarkable  for  be-  CapePrince 
ing  the  moft  wefterly  point  of  the  American  continent  °^  W*'^'* 
hitherto  known.     It  is  fituated  in  N.  Lat.  6^.  46.  E. 
Long.  191.  45.     It  is  only  39  miles  diftant  from  the         » 
eaftern  coaft  of  Siberia;  fo  that  our  commander  had  vicinity  of 
the  pleafure  of  afcertaining   the  vicinity  of  the  twothecomi- 
continents  to  each  other,  which  had  only  been  imper-"^""  "f 
fedlly  done  by  the  Ruffian  navigators.     Setting  fail  ■'^''*  "."'* 
from  this  point  next  day,  he  fttercd  to  the  weft  and  •^'""""*' 
north,  when  he  foon   fell  in  with   the  country  of  the 
Tfchutflii,  which   had  been   explored  by  Beering   in 
1728.     Here  he  had  an  opportunity  of  correfting  M. 
Stffihlin's  map,  who  had  placed  in  thefe  feas  an  ima- 
ginary ifland,  on  which  he  beftowed  the  name  of  A- 
lafchka.     Being  convinced  that  the  land  he  had  now 
reached  was  part  of  the  Afiatic  continent,  our  com- 
mander directed  his  courfe  eaftward,  in  order  to  fall 
iA  with  that  of  America;  and   on  the   17th  reached 
the  latitude  of  70.  33.  and  E.  Long.  197.  41.     Here 
3  G  they 


GOO 


[     4^8     1 


COO 


9? 
Th?  pro- 

p  re  fs  north 
vv:;rd  Oop- 
jed  by  ice. 


loo 
Arrival  at 
Oonaladi 
ka. 


they  began  to  perceive  that  biijflitnefa  in  the  horizon 
called  by  ma:ii;crB  the  Ulr.l  of  the  ic: ;  ainl  iu  70.  ^.i. 
they  had  got  quite  up  to  it,  fo  that  no  farther  pro- 
grefs  could  be  made.  Next  liuy  they  made  a  (hift  to 
gel  as  far  as  70.  44  ;  but  the  ice  was  now  as  compadl 
as  a  wall,  and  about  ten  or  twelve  feet  in  height.  Itj 
furfnce  was  extremely  rugged,  and  fiirther  to  the  ' 
northward  appeared  much  higher.  Its  farface  was 
covered  with  pools  of  water  ;  and  great  niimhers  of 
lea-Iiono  lay  upon  it,  whole  flelh  they  weie  now  glad 
to  ufe  a?  food.  Ourcommandcr  continued  to  tra- 
verfe  th.e  Icy  Sea  till  the  29th  ;  but  the  obflruftions 
becoming  every  diy  greater  and  greater,  it  was 
thought  proper  to  givo  over  all  further  atte.tipts  of 
findin'.r  a  pafTage  to  Europe  for-  that  year.  He  did 
i!ot,  however,  omit  the  i.nvcftigntion  of  the  Afi?tic  and 
American  ccafls  until  he  had  I'tilly  ascertained  the  ac- 
curacy of  Captain  Btering's  accuunts  as  fat  as  lie  went, 
and  correAed  the  errors  of  M.  S'xhlin.  Great  addi- 
tions were  thus  made  to  the  geogiaphical  knowledge 
of  this  part  of  the  globe,  and  Mr  Coxe  obferves,  that 
"  it  refltfts  no  fmall  honour  upon  the  Britifh  name, 
that  our  great  navigator  extended  his  difcoveries  much 
farther  in  one  expedition,  and  at  fo  great  a  dillance 
from  the  point  of  his  departure,  than  the  Rufiians  ac- 
complilhed  in  a  long  fcries  of  years,  and  in  parts  be- 
longing or  contiguous  to  their  own  empire." 

An  end  of  this  celebrated  navigate r's  difcoveries, 
however,  was  now  at  hand.  From  Beering's  Itraits 
he  failed  for  Oonalatlika,  where  he  arrived  on  the 
2d  of  Oilober,  and  ttaid  for  fome  time  in  order  to 
repair  his  ihips.  While  the  carpenters  were  employed 
in  this  work,  one  third  of  the  people  had  permiffion 
logo  on  Ihore  by  turns,  in  order  to  gather  berries,  with 
which  the  ifiaud  abounds,  and  which,  though  now 
beginning  to  decay,  wereof  great  fervice,  in  conjunction 
with  the  fpruce-beer,  to  pvefeive  the  people  from  the 
fcilrvy.  Such  a  quantity  of  fifh  was  likewife  procured, 
as  not  only  fcrved  to  fuppl'y  the  {hips  for  the  prefent,  but 
likewife  allowed  a  great  number  to  be  carried  out  to  fea; 
fo  that  hence  a  conliderable  faving  was  made  of  the  pro- 
vifionsofthe  fhips,  which  was  an  article  of  very  confi- 
derable  confequence.  On  the  eighth  cf  the  month 
our  commander  received  a  very  fmgular  prefent  from 
fome  perfons  unknown,  by  the  hands  of  an  Oonalafh- 
ta  man  named  Dcrran>.oiiJJ:L  It  confifted  of  a  rye- 
loaf,  or  rather  a  falmon  pye  in  the  form  of  a  loaf,  and 
highly  feafoned  with  pepper.  This  man  had  the  like 
prefent  for  Captain  Gierke,  and  each  of  them  was  ac- 
companied with  a  note  which  none  on  board  could 
underftand  :  a  few  bottles  of  rum,  with  fome  wine 
and  porter,  were  fent  in  exchange;  it  being  fup- 
pofed  that  fuch  a  prefent  would  be  more  acceptable 
than  ar.y  other  thing  that  could  be  fpared.  Corporal  Le- 
dlard  of  the  marines,  an  intelligent  man.  Was  at  the 
fame  time  direfted  to  accompany  Derramoulhk,  fir  the 
juirpofe  of  sjaining  a  more  fatisfaftory  account  of  the 
country.  On  the  tenth  of  the  month  he  returned  with 
three  Ruffian  feamen  or  furriers,  who,  with  feveral  o- 
thers,  refided  at  Egoocdiac,  where  they  had  a  dwell- 
ing houfe,  fome  ftore-houfcs,  andafloop  about  jO  tons 
burden.  One  of  theie  people  was  either  mafter  or 
mate  of  the  vefiVl,  and  all  of  them  were  very  fober 
and  decent  in  their  beltaviour.     The  greateft  difficul- 


ty atof;  from  the   want  of  an  interpreter  ;  for  which     Cook'* 

rvafon  the  converfation  was  carried  on  by  ligns.  How-   Uifcovc 

ever,  the  Captain  obtained  a  fight  of  two  fea  charts,       '"^^ 

both  of  which  he  was  allowed  to  copy.     One  of  them         ' 

included   the  fea  of  Penfliliiflc,  part  of  the  coill  of 

Tartary  down  to  the  latitude  of  41";  the  Kurile  If- 

lands,   and  the  peninfula  of  Kanufchatka.      The  otht:r 

comprehended  ail  the  dil'covcries  that  had  been  made 

from,  the  time  of  Captain   Beering  to  the  year  1777  ; 

but  thefe  were  found   to  be   vciy  trifling.      Iiideed  our 

navigator  was  affurcd  by  all  the  Ruffians  whom  he  had 

occafion   to  f_e,  that  they  knew  of  no  other   Illmds 

than  thofe   laid   dov/n   in   the  charts  juil    mentioned, 

and  that  none  of  them  liad  ever  fccn  any  part  of  ths 

Arneiican  continent   exceoting   what   lies  oppoiite  to       j^r 

tlie  country  of  the  TYchutlKi.      With  regard  to  the  na- Characfler 

lives  of  Oonalaihka,  they  are  to  appearance  the   moil "' '"^ '•'- 

in-ifTrnlive  and  pcaceisble   people  in  the   world,  not  to''^^"*'"'* 

he  in  a  Itate  of  civilization  ;  though  perhaps  this  may 

be  owing  in  fome  meafure  to  the  conn.;iticn  they  have 

long  had   with  the   Rufiians.     From   the  affinity  cb- 

fcrved  between  the  1  inguage  of  the  Efqnimaux,  Gretn- 

landers,  and  thofe  of  Norton's  Sound  in  N.  Lit.  64.  5  j. 

there  is  great  reafon  to  iielieve  that   all    thofe  nations 

are  of  the  fame  extrKiftion  ;  and  if  that  be  the  cafe,       io» 

there  is   little  reafon  to  doubt  that   a   communication  A  ctniMui- 

by  fea  exlfts  between  the  eaftcrn  and  welltrn  lides  of ""-"■;"f" 
.1        \  •  .  I'll*  pr  'biMe 

t.ae  ^American   continent;   which,   however,   may  ^ervj^      j^^^ 

piobably  be  fliut   up  by  ice   in  the  winter  time,   or  e-  ihc  c.il 

ven  for  the  mod  part  throughout  the  year.  and  wrfl 

The  return  of  Captain   Cook   to  the   Sandwich  If."i=f1»of 
lands,   with   the  lamentable    cataftrophe    thnt  enlued,  " 

have  been  already  related  under  the  former  article.  We  Conftquen- 
(hall  now  briefly  enumerate  the  coniequeiices  of  his  ccs  ot  Cap- 
difcoveries  with  refpect  to  the  advancement  of  fcieuce. '■;'"  t-'ol" 
Thefe  are  principally  his  having  overthrown  the  hy-  "'■""^""^ 
pothefis  of  a  fouthern  continent  of  iramenfe  extent, 
ufually  fpoken  of  under  the  name  of  Terra  auJiraUs  in- 
cognita ;  his  demonilration  of  the  imprafticability  of  a 
northern  paflage  either  by  Afia  or  America  to  the 
Eall  Indies  ;  and  his  having  ellabhflitd  a  fure  method 
of  prefcrvlng  the  health  of  feamen  through  the  long- 
eft  fea-voyages.  It  is  remarked  by  the  bifhop  of 
CarlKle,  that  one  great  advantage  rtfulting  fiom  the 
■late  furveys  of  the  globe,  is  the  refutation  of  fanciful 
theories  too  likely  to  give  birth  to  iraprafticable  un- 
dertakings. The  ingenious  reveries  of  fpeculative 
philofophers  will  now  be  obliged  to  fubmil,  perhaps 
with  reiu6tance,  to  the  fober  diftates  of  truth  and  ex- 
perience ;  nor  is  it  only  by  difcouraging  future  unpro- 
ll table  fearclies  that  tlie  late  voyages  are  likely  to  be- 
of  fervice  to  mankind,  bu^  likewife  by  leffcning  the 
dangeis  and  diftrefTes  formerly  experienced  in  thofe 
feas  which  are  within  the  aAual  line  of  commerce  and 
navigation. 

The  interefts  of  fcience,  as  well  as  of  commerce, 
are  highly  indebted  to  the  labours  of  our  Illuftrious 
navigator.  Before  his  time  almoll  half  the  (urface  of 
the  globe  was  involved  in  oblcurity  and  conhifion:  but 
now  fuch  improvements  have  been  made,  that  geogra- 
phy has  alfiimed  a  ne-w  face,  and  become  in  a  manner 
a  new  fcience  ;  having  attained  fuch  completenefs  as 
to  leave  only  lome  fefs  important  parts  to  be  explored 
by  future  voyagers.     Other  fciences  btfides  geography 

ha.vc 


coo 


[     4^9     1 


COO 


have  been  advanced  at  ttie  fame  time.  Nautical  aftro- 
nomy,  wliich  was  in  its  infancy  when  the  late  voyages 
were  uiidenaken,  is  now  brought  to  much  greater  ptr- 
feitiun  ;  and,  during  Captain  Cook's  lail  expedition, 
many  even  of  the  petty  ollicers  conld  talie  the  dillarlcc 
of  the  moon  from  the  fun  or  from  a  Itar,  the  molt  de- 
licate of  all  oblcrvations,  with  fufficient  accuTacy  ;  and 
the  otTiccrbof  luperior  rank  would  have  been  afliamcd  to 
have  it  thought  that  ihcy  did  not  know  how  to  obferve 
for,  and  compute,  the  time  at  fca;  a  thing  before  hardly 
mentioned  among  feamcn.  It  nuiil,  however,  be  rc- 
inerrbcrcd,  that  a  great  part  of  the  merit  in  this  re- 
fpeA  is  due  to  the  board  of  longitude.  In  confequence 
of  the  -itlention  of  that  bonrd  to  the  important  object 
juil  mentioned,  liberal  rewards  have  been  given  to  ma- 
thematicians tor  perfedting  the  hmar  tables  and  facili- 
tating calculations  ;  and  nrlills  have  been  amply  en- 
couraged in  tiie  conflrtiiftion  of  watches,  and  other  in- 
fitiimciits  bctlcr  adapted  to  the  pui poles  of  navigation, 
than  any  that  tonieily  exiilcd. 

A  vatf  adiiition  of  knowledge  lias  been  gained  with 
jrefpctt  to  the  ebbing  and  flowing  of  the  tides  ;  the  di- 
rt ition  and  foice  cf  the  cunenis  at  fca  ;  the  nature  of 
the  polarity  of  the  needle,  and  the  caufe  of  its  vaiia- 
lions.  Natural  knowledge  has  been  incieafcd  by  ex- 
pcrin;ents  on  tlie  effedls  of  gravity  in  diflerent  and  very 
diltant  places  ;  and  from  Captain  Cook's  having  pene- 
trated fo  far  into  the  fouthern  regions,  it  is  now  afcer- 
tained,  that  the  phenomenon  ufually  called  the  aurora 
lorcalis,  is  not  peciilar  to  high  northern  latitudes,  but 
belongs  equally  to  all  cold  cliraatcE,  whether  north  or 
fouth. 

No  fcience,  however,  perhaps  (lands  more  indebted 
to  thefe  voyages  than  that  ot  botany.  At  le.ill  1200 
iie;v  fpecies  of  planis  have  been  added  to  thofe  former- 
ly known  ;  and  every  other  department  of  natural 
liiftory  has  received  large  additions.  Befides  all  tiiis, 
there  have  been  a  valf  many  opporiunities  of  obltrving 
human  nature  in  its  diflerent  lilnetions.  The  iflaiids 
vilited  in  the  n.iddleof  the  Pacific  Ocean  are  inhabited 
by  people,  who,  as  far  as  could  be  obferved,  have  con- 
tinued unmixed  with  any  diflerent  tribe  fince  their  (irll 
(tttlenient.  Hence  a  variety  of  iiapottant  fiCis  may 
be  collefted  with  refp;ft  to  the  attainments  and  defi- 
ciencies of  the  human  race  in  an  uncultivated  flate,  and 
in  certain  periods  of  fociety.  Even  the  curloiities 
brought  from  the  newly  difcovcred  iflands,  and  which 
enrich  the  Britilh  muieum  a:,d  the  late  Sir  Alhton  Le- 
ver's, (now  Mr  Parkinlon's)  repolitoiy,  may  be  conii- 
dtrtd  as  a  valuable  acquilitioii  to  this  country,  and  af- 
fording no  fmall  fund  of  iiillrudion  and  tntcrtjinment. 

There  are  ftw  inquiries  more  generally  iiitercllmg 
than  thofe  which  relate  to  the  migiations  of  the 
various  colonies  by  vhich  the  different  parts  of  the 
earth  have  been  peopled.  It  was  known  in  general, 
that  the  Afiatic  nation  called  the  Malaynns  pod'eflcd  in 
former  times  much  the  greatcft  trade  of  the  Indies, 
and  that  their  fiiips  frequented  not  only  all  the  coafts 
cf  Afia,  but  even  thoie  of  Africa  hkev\ife,  and  parti- 
cularly the  large  iflaud  of  Madagafcar :  but  that  fiom 
Madagafcar  to  the  Marqiiefas  and  Ealler  llland,  that 
ie,  neaily  from  the  cali;  lide  of  Africa  till  wc  approach 
the  welt  codll  of  America,  a  fpace  including  almolt 
half  the  circumfererice  of  the  globe,  the  fame  nanon 
of  the  oriental   world  (lioiild   have  made  their  lettlc- 


ments,  .ird  founded  colonics  tliroughotit  almoft  every 
intermediate  llage  of  this  immcnfe  tr^A,  in  iflands  at 
amazing  diihmces  from  the  mother-continent,  is  an  !ii- 
itoriial  fact  that  bcfoie  Captain  Cook's  voyages  could 
not  he  known,  or  at  leall  but  very  imperfecfly.  This 
is  proved,  not  only  by  a  fimilaiity  of  manners  and  cu- 
Itoms,  but  likewife  by  the  alHnlty  of  language  ;  and 
the  collections  of  words  which  have  been  made  from  all 
the  widely-diffulcd  iflands  and  countries  vifited  by 
Captain  Cook,  cannot  fail  to  throw  much  light  on  the 
origin  of  nations,  and  the  manner  in  which  the  earth 
was  at  (irll  peopled. 

llelidcs  this,  information  has  been  derived  concern- 
ing another  family  of  the  earth  formerly  very  much 
unknown.  This  was  the  nation  of  the  Elquimaux  or 
Gieenlanders,  who  had  formerly  been  known  to  exift 
only  ou  the  north-eallern  f-art  (if  the  American  conti- 
nent. From  Captain  Cook's  accounts,  howevei,  it  ap- 
pears, that  thefe  people  now  inhabit  alfo  tlie  coalU  and 
ifkinds  on  the  weft  fide  of  America  o])polite  to  Kaml- 
tciiatka.  From  thefe  accounts  it  appears  alfo,  that  the 
people  we  ipeak  of  have  extended  their  migrations  to 
Norton  Sound,  Oonalafhka,  and  Prince  William's 
Sound  ;  that  is,  nearly  to  the  diflance  of  1500  leagues 
from  their  itations  in  Greenland  and  the  coall  of  JLa- 
bradore.  Nor  does  this  cuiious  faft  rell  merely  on  the 
evidence  anting  fror.i  the  fimllitude  of  manners  ;  for  ic 
Hands  contirmtd  by  a  table  of  words,  exhibiting  fuch 
an  affinity  of  language  as  mull  remove  every  doubt  froin 
the  mind  of  the  molt  fcrupulous  iiiquiier. 

From  the  full  confirmation  of  tlie  vicinity  of  the 
two  great  contuients  of  Afia  and  America,  it  can  :.o 
longer  be  fuppofcd  ridiculous  to  belitve,  that  the  latter 
received  its  inhabitants  frara  the  former;  and  by  the 
facts  recently  dlfcovered,  a  degree  of  further  evidence 
is  added  to  thole  which  might  formerly  be  deiived  from 
nature  concerning  the  autiicnticity  of  the  Mofaic  ac- 
C')unts.  It  M  not  indeed  to  be  doubted,  that  the  in- 
Ipiied  wi kings  will  ftand  the  tell  of  the  moil  rigorous 
invclligation  ;  nor  will  it  ever  be  found,  that  true  philo- 
fophy  and  Divine  Revelation  can  militate  againll  each 
other."  The  rational  friends  of  religion  are  lo  far  from 
dieading  the  fpirit  of  ii.quiiy,  that  they  wifh  for  no- 
thing more  than  a  candid  and  inqiaitial  examination  of 
the  lubjecl,  according  to  i.11  tlie  lights  wlilch  the  im- 
proved reafoii  and  enlarged  fcience  of  man  can  af- 
ford. 

Another  goad  cffeft  of  the  voyages  of  Captain  Cook 
is,  that  they  have  excited  in  other  nations  a  zeal  tor 
funilar  undertakings.  Bv  order  of  the  French  govern- 
ment, Melfrs  dc  la  Peyroufe  and  de  Langle  failed  from 
Brell  in  Augult  I7i>5,  in  the  frigates  Bonflole  and 
Aflroloobe,  on  an  enterprize,  the  purpofe  of  which  was 
to  improve  geography,  altronomy,  natural  hiltory,  and 
philolophy,  and  to  culleft  an  account  of  the  cuiloms 
and  manners  of  different  nations.  For  the  more  ef- 
ftitual  prolecution  of  the  defign,  feveral  gentlemen 
were  appointed  to  go  out  upon  the  voyage,  who  were 
known  to  excel  in  difitnnt  kinds  of  literature.  '1  he 
ofTicl'rs  of  the  Bouffole  were  men  of  the  beft  informa- 
tion and  lirmell  rclolution  ;  and  the  crew  contained  a 
number  of  artifictis  in  vaiious  branches  of  mechanics. 
Marine  watches,  &c.  v*'ere  provided,  and  M.  Dagtiet 
the  aftronomer  was  particularly  directed  to  make  ob* 
Icrvations  with  M.  Condamine's  invaiiable  pendulum* 
3  G  2  to 


Difcovc- 


coo 


[   420   ] 


coo 


Cook's    to  determine  the  ditfercnces  in  gravity,  and  to  afcer- 
Difcove-   jjiji^  jjjg  j|.yg  proportion  of  the  equatorial  to  the  polar 
^  '     .  diameter  of  the  eartli.      It  has  likewil'e  been  made  evi- 

dent, that  notw'ithftanding  all  that  has  been  done  by 
Captain  Cook,  there  Is  dill  room  for  a  farther  invel- 
tigation  of  the  geography  of  the  northern  parts  of  the 
world.  The  objeft  accordingly  was  taken  up  by  the 
Emprefs  of  RufTia,  who  committed  tjie  care  of  the 
enterprize  to  Captain  Billings  an  Engliihman  In  her 
majeliy's  fervice.  We  fhall  only  make  one  obferv-a- 
tion  more  concerning  the  benefits  likely  to  accrue  from 
the  voyages  of  Captain  Cook,  and  that  is  relative  to 
the  fettlement  in  Botany  Bay.  Whatever  may  be 
fuppofed  to  accrue  to  the  nation  itfelf  from  this  fettle- 
ment, it  mud  undoubtedly  give  the  higheft  fatisfaftinn 
to  every  friend  to  humanity  to  be  informed,  that  thus 
a  number  of  unhappy  wretches  will  be  cffeftually  pre- 
vented from  returning  to  their  former  fcenes  of  temp- 
tation and  guilt,  which  may  open  to  them  the  means 
of  indullrious  fubfiftence  and  moral  reformation.  If 
the  fettlement  be  condufted  with  wifdom  and  prudence, 
indeed  it  is  hard  to  fay  what  beneticial  confequences 
may  be  derived  from  it,  or  to  what  height  it  may  a- 
rlfe.  Ro:r.e,  the  greatell  empire  the  world  ever  faw, 
proceeded  from  an  origin  little,  if  at  all,  fuperior  to 
Botany  Bay.  For  an  account  of  this  fetlement  fee 
the  article  Nc'-j.'-Holland. 

One  other  objeft  remains  only  farther  to  be  confi- 
dered  with  regard  to  thefe  voyages,  and  that  Is  the  ad- 
vantages which  may  refult  from  them  to  the  difcovered 
people.  Here,  however,  it  may  perhaps  be  difficult  to 
iettle  matters  with  precifion.  From  the  preceding  ac- 
counts, it  mull  be  evident  that  the  intentions  of  Cap- 
tain Cook  were  in  the  higheft  degree  benevolent  ;  and 
if  at  any  time  the  people  were  the  fufferers,  it  mull 
have  been  through  their  own  fault.  In  one  inilance 
indeed  it  might  be  otherwife,  and  that  is  with  refpeft 
to  the  venereal  difeafe.  The  evidence  in  this  cafe  cannot 
be  altogether  fatisfaftory.  Mr  Samwell,  who  fucceeded 
Mr  Anderfon  as  furgeon  of  the  Refolution,  has  endea- 
voured to  fhow,  that  the  natives  of  the  lately  explored 
parts  of  the  world,  and  efpecially  of  the  Sandwich 
iflands,  were  not  injured  by  the  Englifli ;  and  it  was 
the  conftant  care  and  foKcitude  of  Captain  Cook  to 
prevent  any  infeftion  from  being  communicated  to  the 
people  where  he  came.  But  whether  he  was  univer- 
fally  fuccefsful  in  this  refpe6l  or  not,  it  is  evident  that 
the  late  voyages  were  undertaken  with  a  view  exceed- 
ingly different  from  thofe  of  former  times.  The  horrid 
cruelties  of  theSpaniih  conquerors  of  America  cannot  be 
remembered  without  concern  for  the  caufe  of  religion 
and  human  nature_;  but  to  undertake  expeditions  with  a 
defign  of  civilizing  the  world,  and  meliorating  its  condi- 
tion, is  certainly  a  noble  objeft.  From  the  long  continu- 
ed intercourfe  betwixt  this  country  and  the  South  Sea 
iflands,  there  cannot  be  any  doubt  that  fome  degree  of 
knowledge  muft  already  have  been  communicated  to 
them.  Their  Hock  of  ideas  mult  naturally  be  enlar- 
ged by  the  number  of  uncommon  obfervations  which 
have  been  prefenled  to  them,  and  new  materials 
futnilhed  for  the  exercife  of  their  rational  faculties. 
A  confiderable  addition  muft  be  made  to  their  im- 
mediate comfort  an.-i  enjoyment  by  the  Introduftlon 
jpf  ufeful  animals  aru  vegetables;  and  if  the  only  be- 
»efit  they  (hoold  ever  receive  from  Britain  (hould  be 


the  having  obtained  frefh  means  of  fubfifleree,  this  of     C<wk'» 
itfelf  mull  be    confidcred  as    a    valuable  acqulfition.    ^''fove* 
Greater  confequences,  however,  may  foon  be  exptifted.       '^'~^\,.i 
The  connt  ftion  formed  with  thefe  people  may  be  con- 
fidered  as  the  firft  ftep  towards  their  improvement;  and 
thus  the  blcllings  of  civihzation  may  be  fpread  among 
the   various   tribes   of  Indians   in    the    Pacific  Ocean, 
which   in  time  may  prepare  them  for  holding  an  ho- 
nourable place  among  the  nations  of  the  earth.  j 

As  a  fiipplcment   to   this  account  of  the  difcoveries  Account  of 
made  by  Captain  Cook  himfelf,  we   fhall  here  fubjoin  Captain 
a  narrative   of  the   fubftquent   part  of  the  voyage  by  ^''''"^'* 
Captains  Clerke,  &c.   until  the  return  of  the   (hips   to   °^''^''' 
England.     At  the  time  of  Captain  Cook's  death,  the 
great  point  of  a  north-weil  puflage   remained   in  fome 
meafure  to   be  ftill  determined  :   for   though,  by  the 
event  of  the   former   attempt,  it  had  been    rendered 
highly   improbable  that  they  (hould  fucceed  in  this,  it 
was   ftill   refolved  to   try  whether  or   not,  at  certain 
feafons   of  the   year,  the   ice  might  not  be  more  open 
than  they  had  hitherto  found  it.     The  firft  objeft  that  jyj  *u  ^. 
naturally  occurred,  however,  was  the  recovery  of  Cap- taken  for 
tain  Cook's  body  ;   for  which  Mr  King  was  of  opinion  the  reco- 
that  fome  vigorous  meafure  ought  inftantly  to  be  pur-  '^''^''y  ?^ 
fued.      His  motives  for  this,  befides   the   perfonal   re- p^'^'I^.'" 
gard  he  had  for  the  Captain,  were  to   abate  the  con-  body. 
fidence  which   muft   be   fuppofed  to  enfue  on  the  part 
of  the  natives,  which  would   probably  incline  them  to 
dangerous  attempts  ;  and   this   the   more  particularly, 
as  they  had  hitherto  difcovered  much  lefs  fear  of  the 
fire-arms  than  other  favage  nations  were  accuftomed  to 
do.     Mr  Samwell  alfo  takes  notice  of  the  intrepidity 
of  the  natives  in  this  refpeft  ;  but  afcribes  it,  in  the  firft 
inftance,  to  ignorance  of  their  efFetts ;  and  in  the  next, 
to  a  notion,  that  as  the  cfTeftsof  thefe  arms  were  occafioned 
by  fire,  they  might  be  counteratStedby  watet.    For  this 
purpofe  they  dipped  their  war-mats  In  water  ;  but  find- 
ing themftlves  equally  vulnerable  after  this  n.ethod  had 
been  purfucd,  they  became  more  timid  and  cautious. 

As  matters  flood  at  prefent,  there  was  even  reafon  to 
dread  the  confequences  of  a  general  attack  upon  the 
(hips ;  and  therefore  Mr  King  was  the  more  confirmed 
in  his  opinion  of  the  neceffity  of  doing  fomething  to 
convince  them  of  the  'prowefs  of  their  adverlaries.  In 
thefe  apprehenfions  he  was  feconded  by  the  opinion  of 
the  greater  part  of  the  officers  on  board  ;  and  nothing 
feemed  more  likely  to  encourage  the  iflanders  to  make, 
the  attempt  than  an  appearance  of  being  inclined  to 
an  accommodation,  which  they  would  certainly  attri- 
bute to  weaknefs  or  fear.  Captain  Clerke,  however, 
and  thofe  who  were  in  favour  of  conciliatory  meafures, 
urged,  that  the  mifchief  was  already  irreparable  ;  that 
the  natives,  by  reafon  of  their  former  friendlhip,  had 
a  ftrong  claim  to  the  regard  of  the  Engliih  ;  and  that 
the  more  particularly,  as  the  late  calamitous  accident 
did  not  appear  to  have  taken  its  rife  from  any  preme-- 
ditated  defign :  they  urged  alfo  the  ignorance  of  the  king 
concerning  the  theft,  and  the  miftake  of  the  Ilianders 
who  had  armed  themfelves  on  a  fuppofuion  that  lome  at- 
tempt would  be  made  to  carry  off  the  king.  To  all  this 
was  added,  that  the  (hips  were  in  want  of  refreihments, 
particularly  water;  that  the  Refolution's  foremaft  would 
require  feven  or  eight  days  before  it  could  be  properly, 
repaired  ;  and  as  the  fpring  was  faft  advancing,  the 
fpeedy  profectilion  of  the  voyage  to  the  northward 

ought. 


V 


coo 


[  421    ] 


coo 


ought  now  to  be  the  only  objert  ;  that  ;>  virdic^i've  con- 
telt  with  the  natives  miglit  not  only  jullify  an  Imputa- 
tion of  needlefs  cruelty,  but  would  occalion  great  de- 
lay in  the  equipment  uf  the  (hips. 

In  confequence  of  tlie  prevalence  of  thefe  fentiments 
lenient  meafures  were  adopted,  though  the  behaviour 
of  tlie  natives  continued  to  be  very  infoleat.  A  great 
body  rtiU  kept  pofiefiion  of  the  (hore  ;  many  of  whom 
came  off  in  their  canoes  within  piftolfhot  of  the  fliips, 
and  provoking  the  people  by  every  kind  of'  inlult  and 
defiance.  A  train  of  negociations  for  Captain  Cook's 
body  took  place  ;  in  which  the  natives  (howed  the  moft 
holUle  and  treacherous  difpofition,  and,  as  afterwards 
appeared,  had  cut  the  flefli  fiom  the  bones  and  burnt 
it.  A  piece  of  about  ten  pounds  weight  was  brought 
by  two  natives  at  the  hazard  of  their  lives,  who  gave 
information  that  the  reft  had  been  burnt,  and  that  the 
bones  were  in  the  poflclFion  of  the  king  and  fome  of  the 
principal  chiefs.  Information  was  given,  at  the  fame 
time,  that  the  chiefs  were  very  defirous  of  war  in  or- 
der to  revenge  the  death  of  their  countrymen. 

Thus  it  appeared  that  the  pacific  plan  had  anfwered 
no  good  purpofe.  No  fatisfaftory  anlwer  had  been 
given  to  the  demands  made  of  the  bodies  of  the  flain  ; 
nor  was  any  progrefs  made  in  the  great  work  intended, 
viz.  a  reconciliation  with  the  natives  ;  they  ftill  re- 
mained on  ihore  in  an  hoillle  polhire,  as  if  determined 
to  oppofe  any  endeavours  that  might  be  made  by  our 
people  to  land  ;  at  the  fame  time  that  a  landing- 
was  become  abfolutely  necedary,  in  order  to  complete 
the  ftock  of  water.  Had  this  fpirltlefs  conduft  been 
perfilled  in,  there  is  not  the  leaft  doubt  that  neither 
this  purpofe  nor  any  other  could  have  been  effcfted. 
The  infolence  of  the  natives  became  every  day  greater 
and  greater  ;  infomuch  that  one  of  them  had  the  au- 
dacity to  come  within  muflcet-lhot  of  the  Refolution, 
and,  after  throwing  feveral  ftones,  waved  Captain 
Cook's  hat  over  his  head,  while  his  countrymen  on 
fhore  were  exulting  and  encouraging  his  audacity.  By 
this  infult  the  people  were  fo  highly  enraged,  that, 
coming  on  the  quarter-deck  in  a  body,  they  begged 
that  they  might  no  longer  be  obliged  to  put  up  with 
fuch  reiterated  provocation,  but  might  be  allovved  to 
make  ufe  of  the  firlt  opportunity  of  revenging  the 
death  of  their  Captain.  The  necefQty  of  more  vi- 
gorous meafures,  therefore,  being  now  apparent,  a 
few  difchargcs  of  the  great  guns,  -with  the  burning  of 
a  village  and  fome  other  adls  of  feverity,  at  lall  pro- 
duced the  mangled  remains  of  Captain  Cook.  They 
were  wrapped  up  in  a  bundle,  in  which  were  found 
both  his  hands  entire,  which  were  eafily  known  by  a 
fear  in  one  of  them  dividing  the  fore-linger  from  the 
thumb  the  whole  length  of  the  metacarpal  bone.  A- 
long  with  thefe  was  the  (kull,  but  with  the  fcalp  fepa- 
rated  from  it,  and  the  bones  of  the  face  wanting ;  the 
fcalp,  with  the  ears  adhering  to  it,  and  the  hair  cut 
fliort ;  the  bones  of  both  the  arms,  with  the  flcin  of 
the  fore-arms  hanging  to  them  ;  the  bones  of  the  thighs 
and  legs  joined  together,  but  without  the  feet.  The 
ligaments  of  the  joints  were  obferved  to  be  entire  ;  the 
whole  fhowing  evident  marks  of  having  been  in  the 
fire,  except  the  hands,  which  had  the  flefh  remaining 
upon  them,  and  were  cut  in  feveral  places  and  cram- 
med with  fait,  moft  probably  for  the  purpofe  of  pre- 
ferving  tbera.     The  fltull  was  not  frattured ;  but  the 


Dilcov: 


fcalp  hnd  a  cut  in  the  back  part  of  it.     The  lower  jaw 

and  feet  were  wanting,  having   been  feized  by   ditlcr- 

ent  chiefs.  f 

Having  accompliflied   the  purpofes   of  their  flay  in       ,j 

this  place.  Captain  Clerkc  fet  fail  from  Karakakooabay  Uiifiuccft- 

in  Owhy-hee  towards  Mowec,  with  adcfign  to  explore  fulattcmiJt* 

the  coalls  of  that  iiland  more  fully  than  had  been  done,'"  '"     , ^ 

but  were  unable   to  accomplllh  tlieir  nurpofe  :  nor  in-  '"^'  "   ' " 
.      ,  ....  r  /r,  i-r  covenei.. 

Qeed  was  it  in  their  power  to  accomplilh  :iny  dilcovery 

of  confequence  among  thefe  illands.  The  only  intel- 
ligence worth  mentioning  which  they  were  able  to  pro- 
cure was,  that  wars  had  enfued  about  the  property  of 
the  goats  which  were  left  by  Captain  Cook  on  iho 
ifland  of  Oneehow,  as  has  been  already  mentioned, 
and  that  during  the  conteft  all  thefe  poor  animals,  who- 
had  already  begun  to  multiply,  were  deltroyed  ;  fo 
that  the  benevolent  attempts  of  our  illullrious  naviga- 
tor in  favour  of  thefe  iilauders  had  proved  abortive. 

On  quitting  the  ifland  of  Oneehow  our  na'ngator3 
fet  fail  for  another  named  Modoopajoappa,  which  they 
were  affuved  by  the  natives  lay  within  five  hours  fail- 
ing of  Tahoora,  a  fmall  ifland  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Oneehow.  In  this  they  proved  unfuccefsful  ;  oa- 
which  it  was  determined  to  fleer  for  the  coaft  of  Kamt- 
fchatka.  In  the  palTage  thither  they  arrived  at  that 
place  where  de  Gama  is  faid  to  have  difcovered  a  great-, 
extent  of  land  ;  but  of  this  they  could  difcover  no  ap- 
pearance. This  imaginary  continent  is  faid  to  have 
been  difcovered  by  a  navigator  called  yohn  de  Cama,. 
but  who  feems  alfo  to  have  been  imaginary,  as  no  per-  . 
fon  can  find  out  either  the  country  where  he  lived  or 
the  time  when  he  made  the  difoovery.  We  are  in- 
formed by  Muller,  that  the  firlt  account  of  it  was  pub- 
lifhed  by  Texeira  in  a  chart  in  1649,  who  places  it  be- 
tween the  latitude  of  44.  and  45  degrees,  and  about 
160'^  E.  Long,  and  calls  it  "  land  teen  by  John  de 
Gama,  in  a  voyage  from  China  to  New  Spain."  By 
the  French  geographers  it  is  removed  five  degrees  far- 
ther to  the  eaft.  When  they  arrived  at  Kamtfchatka  T^eir  a. 
they  were  entertained  in  the  moft  hofpitable  manner,  vouraWe 
and  furniilied  with  every  thing  that  could  be  procured '''^'^'J''"" 
in  that  defart  and  barren  region.  "  In  this  wretched  ?^ '^^'"'" 
extremity  of  the  earth  (fays  the  narrator  of  the  voy- 
age), beyond  conception  baibarous  and  inhofpitable, 
out  of  the  reach  of  civilization,  bound  and  barrica- 
doed  with  ice,  and  covered  with  fummer  fnow,  we  ex- 
perienced the  tendcrelt  feelings  of  humanity,  joined  to 
a  noblenefs  of  mind  and  elc-ation  of  fentiment  which 
Would  have  done  honour  to  any  clime  or  nation."  From 
Major  Behm,  In  particular,  they  received  fo  many  and 
fo  great  obligations,  that  an  handfome  acknowledge- 
ment was  made  him  by  the  Royal  Society,  as  has  been 
already  obferved.  Even  the  failors  were  fo  ftruck  with 
his  gratitude,  that  they  voluntarily  requefted  that  their 
allowance  of  grog  might  be  with-held,  in  order  to. 
compliment  the  garrifon  of  Bolchetetfli  with  the  fpi- 
rits  ;  faying,  that  they  knew  brandy  was  extremely 
fcarce  in  that  country,  the  foldlers  on  fhore  having  of- 
fered four  roubles  a  bottle  for  it.  The  officers,  how- 
ever, would  not  allow  them  to  fuffer  by  their  genero- 
fity  in  this  inclement  country  and  feafon  of  the  year 
(the  month  of  March  not  being  yet  expired}  ;  but, 
in  room  of  the  fmall  quantity  of  brandy  which  Major 
Behm  confented  to  accept,  fubftituted  au  equal  quan- 
tity of  rum- 
It 


coo 


[  422  ] 


coo 


the  Fm- 
prefb. 


Co'i):^  It  is  worth  obfeiv'rj,  that  the  kindnefs  with  which 

Difcove-    jjjg  cmpi'.fo  had  orticrcd  the   Biililli  navijrators  to  be 
.  treated    in   this   part  of  her  dominions  was  amply  re- 

j  warded,  even  with   no  lefs  thrn  iht-  addition  of  a  new 

Tfcli  .tfki  kingdom  to  the  Ruffian  empire,  which  hitherto  her 
fulmit  to  arms  had  not  been  able  to  lubdue.  Among  the  noith- 
crn  Afiaiics  none  had  been  able-  to  maintain  their  in- 
dependence except  the  Tfcliir. ri<i,  who  inhabit  the 
noith-eallern  extremity  of  the  continent.  No  attempt 
to  lubdue  thefe  people  Iiad  be;n  made  fir.cc  the  ytar 
1750,  when  the  Rnfllan  forces  had  at  laft  been  obliged 
to  retreat,  after  havinjj  loft  tiieir  commHndiug  oificer. 
The  lli.nians  afterwards  removed  their  frontier  fortrefs 
from  the  tiver  Anadyr  to  the  Iiigiga,  which  runs  in- 
to the  northern  extremity  of  the  fca  of  Okot/lc,  and 
gives  its  name  to  a  gulf  to  the  welt  of  llic  fea  of  Pen- 
ihinik.  On  the  day  that  Cuptains  Clerlje  and  G;>re 
arrived  at  Bolcharetfl;,  Mnjor  Bchm  received  dilpatclies 
from  tlits  fort,  acquainting  him  that  a  parly  uf  the 
Tfchuifci  had  been  there  ivlth  voluntary  offer?  ot  friend- 
{hip  and  a  tiibute.  That  on  afking  tlie  rciiton  of  fuch 
an  unexpected  alteration  in  their  fentimenti,  they  had 
acvpiainted  his  people,  that  two  large  Ruilian  boats 
had  viiiteJ  them  towaids  the  end  cf  the  preceding- 
funimer  ;  that  ihey  had  been  Jliown  the  greatell  kiiiu- 
iitfs  by  the  people  who  were  in  them,  and  had  entered 
into  a  league  of  amity  with  them  ;  and  that,  in  confe- 
quence  of  this,  thev  came  to  the  Riiflian  fm  t  in  order  to 
fettle  a  treaty  upon  terms  agreeable  to  both  nations. 
This  incident  had  occafioned  much  Ipeciilation,  and 
could  never  have  been  underftood  without  the  afTilt- 
ance  of  thofe  v\bo  were  now  prefcnt  ;  the  large  V^';/- 
Jian  boats  having  been  in  truth  no  other  than  the  Rcfulu- 
JJ3  tion  and  Diieovery,  under  Captains  Cook  and  Gierke. 
Vatt  quan-  About  the  middle  of  May  the  Inow  began  to  melt 
tirj  of  filh.  Yg;-y  f^fl  in  this  urihofpitable  region,  and  the  fhips  be- 
ing now  on  their  paflage  northwaid,  met  with  an  ex- 
cellent opportunity  of  fupplying  themfelves  with  fifh. 
The  beach  was  cleared  of  ice  on  the  15th  of  the 
month  ;  from  which  time  vaft  quantities  came  in  from 
cveiy  quarter.  Major  Bchm  had  ordered  all  the  Kamt- 
fehadales  to  employ  themfelves  in  the  fervice  ot  the 
Englifh  fhips  ;  fo  that  often  they  found  it  impollible 
to  take  on  board  the  quantities  that  were  fent.  They 
chiefly  confiiled  of  herrings,  trout,  flat  tilh,  and  cod. 
Thefe  fidi  were  heie  found  in  fuch  plenty,  that  once 
the  people  of  the  Difeovery  furrounded  fuch  an  ama- 
zing quantity  with  the  feine,  that  they  were  obliged 
to  throw  out  a  ver)'  conlideiable  number,  leif  the  net 
fhould  have  been  broken  to  pieces;  and  the  cargo  was 
ftill  fo  abundant,  that,  befides  having  a  flock  for  im- 
fnediate  ufe,  they  filled  as  many  calks  as  they  could 
conveniently  fpare  for  faking;  and  after  fending  on 
board  the  Refolution  a  tolerable  quantity  for  the 
fame  puipofc,  they  left  behind  feveral  bufliels  upon  the 
TIT  beach. 
Spirituous  While  they  remained  in  this  country  an  opportu- 
liijtiors  (..cr- j^jf  offered  of  obfcrvinE-  the  lu-rnicious  cffeds  of  fpi- 
jucious  in       .    '         ,.  .  ,°.  1      r      r  /\  11     e 

ntuous  liquors  in   producing  the  fea-lcurvy.     All  ttie 

Ruflian  foldiers  were  in  a  greater  or  lefTer  degree  af- 
flittcd  with  that  dlloider,  iome  of  them  being  in  the 
laft  ftage  of  it  ;  and  it  was  particularly  obfeived  that  a 
ferjcant,  with  whom  our  people  had  kept  up  a  moll 
friendly  intercourfe,  had,  in  the  cntrje  of  a  fctv  ihivs, 
brought  upon    hlmfclf   the    moft    alarming   feorbutic 


the  fea- 
fcurvy. 


fymptom'?,  by  drinking  too  freely  of  the  liquors  with     C»o1;'j 
which  he  had  been  prefcnted  by  the  Englifli.     Captain   U'lf"ve- 
Clerke  foon  relieved  them,  by  putting  them  under  the      """"'^    | 
care  of  the  furgeons  of  the  Ihips,  and  fupplying  them 
with    fonr-krout  and  malt  for  fwcet  wort.      In  confe-. 
quence  of  this  a  furpriling  alteration  v.'as  foon  ejbferved 
ill  the  figures  of  moll  of  them;  and  their  fpeedy  re- 
covery was  principally  attributed  to  the  fweet  wort.  m 

On  the  12th  of  June  they  began  to  proceed  north- Eruj.cma 
ward  along  the  coall  of  Kamtfchatka,  and  three  days"f  ■*  ^"l- 
after  had  an  opportunity  of  obferving  an  eruption  of '■""'■ 
one  of  the  volcanoes  of  that  peninliila.  On  the  15th, 
before  day  light,  they  were  furprilcd  with  a  rumbling 
Boife  like  dillant  thunde^;  and  when  the  day  appear- 
ed, found  the  decks  and  fides  of  the  fhips  covered  neat 
an  inch  thick  with  fine  duft  like  emerv.  The  air  was 
at  the  fame  time  loaded  and  obfcuretl  with  tills  fab- 
ilancc  ;  and  in  the  neighbouihood  of  the  volcano  it- 
felf,  it  was  fo  thick  that  the  body  of  the  hill  could  not 
be  dilcovertd.  The  explofiens  became  more  loud  at 
I  2  o'clock  and  during  the  afternoon,  being  fucceed- 
ed  by  fho\vers  of  cinders,  generally  of  the  fize  of  jicafe, 
though  fome  were  as  large  as  ha/.zlc-nuts.  Along 
with  thefe  there  alfo  fell  fome  fmall  Hones  which 
had  undergone  no  alteration  from  the  aCiioii  of  the 
fire.  In  the  evening  there  were  dreadful  claps  of  thun- 
der with  bright  flalhes  of  lightning,  which,  with  the 
darknels  of  the  iky,  and  the  fulphureous  fmell  of  the 
air,  produced  a  moft  awful  and  tremendous  cffert. 
The  fhips  were  at  this  time  about  24  miles  dillant 
from  the  volcano  ;  and  it  appeared  that  the  volcanic 
fhower  had  been  carried  to  a  ftill  greater  diftance,  as 
they  next  day  found  the  bottom  of  the  fea  to  confill 
of  fucH  fmull  llones  as  had  fallen  upon  the  decks  of  the 
fhips.  The  mountain  was  flill  obferved  to  be  in  a  ftatc 
of  eruption  on  the  18th.  ,,, 

For  fome  time  Cajitain  Gierke  kept  the  coaft  of  Voyage  *o 
Kamtfchatka  in  view,  with  a  defign  to  make  an  accu-'l>c  r.Dixh- 
rate  fuivey  of  it ;  but  in  this  he  was  dllappointed  by  ^"' 
foggy  and   fqually  weather  ;  however,  he  determined 
the  pofition  of  fome  remarkable  promontories,  and  at 
laft  finding  the   fcafon  too  far  advanced  to  accomplilh 
his  defign,  fet  fail  for  Beering's  Straits,  chieily  with  a' 
view  to  afcertain  the  lituation  of  the  projefting  points 
of  the  coaft. 

On  the  3d  of  July  our  navigators  came  In  fight  of 
the  ifiand  of  St  LaVrence,  and  another  which  was 
fuppofed  to  lie  between  it  and  Anderfon's  ifiand.  The 
latter  being  entirely  unknown  to  Captain  Gierke,  he 
was  inclined  to  have  approached  it,  but  was  unable  to 
effcft  his  purpofe.  All  thefe  ifiauds,  as  well  as  the  coall 
of  the  Tfchutiki  on  the  continent,  were  e-ovcrcd  with 
fnow,  and  had  a  difmal  appearance. 

In  the  preceding  year  Captain  Cook  had  determined 
the  lituation  of  the  Iflands  of  StDiomede  to  be  in  65*^ 
48  latitude  ;  but  now  being  fomewhat  at  a  lofs  to  re* 
concile  this  with  the  pofition  of  the  continent,  they 
ftcod  for  fome  time  over  to  the  latter,  till  fully  con- 
vinced of  the  accuracy  of  the  fiirmer  obiervation.  At 
tli'S  time  they  approached  within  two  or  three  leagues 
of  the  eaftcrn  cape  of  Afia,  which  is  an  elevated 
round  head  of  land  extending  about  five  miles  from 
north  to  fouth,  and  forms  a  peninfula  connected 
with  the  continent  by  a  narrow  illhinus  of  lowr 
land.     It  has  a  bold  fhor«,  and  three  lofty  detached 


coo 

fpirnl  rocks  are  feen  oft'  its  nortliern  par 
eiicoinpiilTeJ  with  ice,  and  is  covt-rcd  vvitli  fiiow.  Here 
tliey  found  a  ftrong  currtiit  fetn'ng  to  the  northward, 
wliich  at  noon  had  occalioned  an  error  in  the  compu- 
tation of  the  Intitude  of  no  lefs  than  20  miles.  A  fi- 
milar  eifeft  had  been  obferved  the  preceding-  year  in 
pafiing  this  ftrait.  On  (leering-  to  the  north-eall  the 
weatlicr  cleared  up,  fo  that  they  had  a  view  of  the 
eaftern  cape  of  Afia,  Cape  Prince  of  Wales  on  the 
vvcllcrii  coafl  of  America,  vvitli  a  remarkable  ptakcd 
liiU  on  the  latter,  and  tlie  two  iflands  of  St  Diomede 
lylnp- between  tlum.  Here  they  met  with  great  niim- 
)ijii  ben  of  very  fmall  hawks,  having  a  compreiled  bill  ra- 

,  ther  large  in  proportion  to  the  body  ;   the  colour  dark 

brown,  or  ratlicr  blf.ck,  the  brealt  whitilh,  and  towards 
114        tlie  abdomen  of  a  rcddiih  hue. 
ic  rtop-         Q,i  tlie  <5th  cf  July  at  12  o'clock,  the  flu'ps  were  in 
.1  ty  tl.e  j^^  i_m,  67.0.  E.  Long.  191.  6.   when  having  already 
paffed  many  large  pieces  of  ice,  and  obferved  that  in 
feveral  places  it  adhered  to  the  continent  of  Alia,  they 
were  fuddenly  flopped  about  three  in  the  afternoon  by 
an  extenfive  body,  which  ibetchcd  towards  the  weft. 
By  this  their  hopes  of  reaching  any   higher  latitude 
than  what  had  been  attained  laft  year  were  coniiderably 
diminillied  ;  but  finding  the  courfe  obftrufted  on  the 
Afiatic  lide,  they  proceeded  to  the  north  eallward,  in 
order  to  explore  the  continent  of  A-merica,  betvi'ccn  the 
latitudes  of  68^  and  69";  which  had  lall  year  been  found 
impracticable  on  account  of  the  foggy  weather  :   but 
in  this  alfo  they  were  partly  difappointed ;  for  on  the 
7th,  about  fix  in  the  morning,  they  met  with  another 
larg-e  body  of  ice  Hretching  from  iiorth-weil  to  fonth- 
eaft  ;  but   not  long  afterwards,  the   horizon  becoming 
clear,  they  had  a  view  ef  the  American  coail  at  the 
dillance  of  about  ten  leagues,  extending  from  north- 
caft  by  tail  to   eaft,  and  lying   betweert  N.  Lat.  63" 
and  68''  20'.     As  the  ice  was  not  very  high,  the  view 
extended  a  great  vjay  over  it,   fo  that  they  could  per- 
ceive it  exhibiting  a  compaft  folid  furface,   and  appa- 
rently adlierlng  to  the  land.      Soon   after  the  weather 
became  hazy,  fo  that  thev  loft  fight  of  the  land  ;   and 
it  being  impoflible  to  get   nearer,  they  continued  to 
ftcer   nortliward  clofe  by  the   fide   of  the   ice.     This 
courfe  was  continued  till  next  morning,  during  which 
time  the  fliips  pafTed  fome  drift-wood  ;  but  the  morning 
foils'  wing,  thevviiid  ihifting  to  the  north,  theywcre  obli- 
ged to  Hand  to  the  weftward.    At  two  in  the  afternoon 
they  w-ere  again  clofe   to  an  immenfe  expanfe  of  ice  ; 
which  from  the  maft  head   feemed   to   confill   of  very 
large   compact  bodies,    luiited    towards    the    exterior 
edge,  tho'  in  the  interior  parts  fome  pieces  floated  in 
the  water  ;  it  extended  from  weft  fouth-weft  to  nonh- 
eaft  by  north.     There  was  now  a  necefiity  for  fleering 
towards  the  fouth,   as  the  ftrong  northerly  winds  had 
dtifted  down  inch  numbers  of  loofe  pieces,  that  they 
had  encompafled  the  ftiips  for  fome  time,  and   it  was 
ia-.pofliblc   to  a-.oid  very  fcvere  ftrokes  v,-hilc  failing  a- 
mong  thera.      Thus,  however,   they  reached  the  lati- 


ii;; 


vuig 


tude  of  69.  12.  and  E.  Long.  188.  5.  ;  but  ha 
aow  failed  almoft  40  leagues  to  the  weft  along  the 
edge  of  the  ice  v/ithout  perceiving  any  opening,  Cap- 
tain Clerke  determined  to  bear  away  fouth  by  eaft,-  the 
only  quarter  which  was  clear  at  prefent,  and  to  wait 
till  the  leafon  was  foracwhat  faitfier  advanced  before 
any  farther  attampta  were  made.     The  intermediate     comina-nd, 


[     4^^     ]  COO 

It  was  ftill     time  he  propofed  to  employ  in  furvcying  the   bav  (if 
St  Lawrence,  and  the  coalt  fituattd  to  tiie  foiitliward 
of  it.;  as  it  muft   be  a  great  fati.rfaction   to  have  an  , 
harbour  fo  near  in  cafe  of  the  Ihips  receiving  any  da- 
mage from  the  ice  ;  and  the  Captain  was  alfo  defirous 
of  paying  another  vifit  to  tlic  lYchutlki,  efpeci-dlly  in 
confecjucnce  of  the  accounts  of  them  that   had  been 
given  by   Major  Behm.    In  this  navigation  tiiey  killed  R^^^^k- 
feveral   fea-horfes,  and  had  an   opportunity  of  obfer- able  am-c- 
ving  the  rtrengtli  of  parental  pft'cction   in  thofe  mon- "o" 'f 'ha 
ftrous  am'nials.      On  the  approach  of  the  boats  towards''-"^  ''"'/'''>, 
the  ice,   all  of  them  took  tlieir  young  ones  under  their „„""'*' '' 
fins,  and  attempted  to  make  their  efcape  with  them  into         '^ 
the  fea.     Some,  whofc   cubs  were  killed  or  wounded, 
and   kft   flo-atiug  upon  the  furface  of  the  water,  rofe 
again,  and  carried  them  down,  fometimes  jult  as  they 
-were  on  the  point  of  being  taken  into  the  boat  ;  and 
could  be  traced  bearing  them  to  a  coiifiderable  diftance 
through  the    water,    which    was    ftained    with    tiieir 
blood.     They  were  afterwards  obferved  bringing  them 
at  inten-als  above  the  furface,  and  again  plunging  un- 
der its  furface  with  an  horrid  bcUo-iving  ;  and  one  fe- 
male, whofe  young  one  had  been   killed  and  taken  on 
board,  became    fo   furiou.^,   that   ftic   fti-iick  her  tulks 
through  the  bottom  of  the  cutter. 

Our  navigators  lldl  found  themfelvesdifappointed  In  TJic  lli'ip^ 
their  attempts.      On   approaching    the    coaft    of  the  (i  lally  ft.p- 
TfchutOfi  they  met  witli  a  large  and  coiripait  body  of  P'-"'*  h'  ''^6' 
ige,  extending  to  t!ie  northcaft,  fouth-wcli,  and  fouth- 
ea(t,  as  far  as  the  eye  could   reach  ;  fo  tliat  they  were 
again  obliged  to  iai!  back  to  the  northward.    Ilere  al- 
fo their  courfe  was  foon   llopped  ;  for,  011   the  I  ^th, 
being  in  N.  Lat.  69.  37.  and  about  the  middle  of  tlie 
channel   between  the  two  continents,  they  once  nviv. 
fell  in   with   a  compnC't   body  of  ice,  of  which    thev 
could  perceive  no  lin-u't.     Captain  Clerke  therefore  de. 
termined  to  make  a  final  attempt  on  the  coaft  of  Ai 
merica,    the  paflage    northward    having-  been    found 
jail  year  prad'licable  much  farther  on  that  than  the  A' 
fiatic  fide.      Thus  they  attained  the  latitude  of  70.  8. 
at  tiie  diftance,  as  was  fuppofed,   of  25  leagues  from 
the  coaft  of  America  ;    and  fome  days  after  got  about 
tliree  minutes  farther  to  the  northward,  about  the  di- 
ftance of  feven  or   eight   leagues  from  the  Icy  Cane, 
This,  however,  was  the  utmoil  limit  of  the  vova-ff  ti> 
the  north-eail  ;  and  they  were   foon   obliged  to  relin- 
quilli  all  hopes  of  proceeding  farther  on  the  Anie- 
lican  fide.      Another  tftoit   was   ftill  rcfolved   on   to 
try  the  praflicabillty  of  a  north- weft  paiTage;  and  for 
this  purpofe  our  navigators  altered  their  direclion  o;i 
the  2  I  ft  of  July,  paffing  through  a  great  quantity  of 
loofe  Ice.      About  ten  at  night  the  m:i!ii  body  was  dil- 
covered  at  a  very  fmall  diitance,  fo  that  they  were  ob- 
liged to  proceed  to  the  fonthward.     During  this  peri--,    "' 
lous  navigation,  the  Ulfcovery,  after  having  almoft  tr'ot  fitL'''t?'"1' 
clear  out  from  the  ice,  became  fo  entangled  by  feveral  the  Difco- 
laige  pieces,  that  her  progrefs  was  ftopped,  and  (he  very, 
immediately  dropped  to  leeward,  falling  broadfide  fore- 
moft  on   the   edge  of  a  confiderable  body  of  ice,  on 
which  llic  ftruck  with  violence,  there  being  an  open, 
fea  to  windward.     At  length  the  mafs  was  either  bro- 
ken or  moved  fo  far,   that  the  crew  had  an  opportu- 
nity of  making  an  effort  to  efcape.     But  unluckily', 
before  the   thip  gathered  way  fulticiert  to  be  under 
file  fell  to  le.-ward  a  lecond  time  upon  aii- 

otl-i.er 


coo 


[     4H    1 


COO 


other  piece  of  ice ;  and  the  fwell  rendenng  it  unfafe 
to  He  to  windward,  and  finding  no  profped  of  get- 
tint'  clear,  they  pulhed  into  a  fmall  opening,  and.made 
the^veflll  fall  to  the  ice  vvltli  hooks.  Here  the  Refo- 
hition  for  fome  time  loft  %ht  of  her  confort,  which 
occafioned  no  fmall  uneafinef's  in  both  vedcls  ;  but  at 
length,  on  a  change  of  wind,  the  Difcovery,  fetting 
all  her  fails,  forced  a  paffage,  though  not  without  lo- 
fing  a  confiderable  part  of  her  (heathing,  and  be- 
^on^ing  very  leaky  by  reafon  of  the  blows  /he  had  re- 
ceived. 

Thus  the  two  vefTels  continned  to  make  every  effort 
to  penetrate  through  the  imnienfe  quantities  of  ice 
with  which  thofe  feas  are  filled  winter  and  fumnier, 
but  without  fuccefs.    Captain  Gierke  therefore  finding 


fuppofing  the  coaft.  to  bend  round  to  the  north  and 
nortli-eaft  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  fornv  a  large  pro- 
montory. — Mr  Coxe,  whofe  accurate  refearches  into 
this  matter  muft  give  great  weight  to  his  opinion, 
thinks,  that  tlie  extremity  of  the  promontory  was 
never  doubled  by  any  perfon  except  Defhneff  and  his 
party  ;  who  failed,  in  the  year  1648,  from  the  river 
Kovyma,  and  are  imagined  to  have  got  round  to  the 
river  Anadyr.  The  account  of  this  voyage,  however, 
gives  no  geographical  deliutatlon  of  the  coail,  fo  that 
its  figure  muft  be  determined  by  other  circumftances ; 
and  from  thefe  it  evidently  appears,  tliat  the  Tfchu- 
kotfl;oI  Nofs  of  Delhneff  is  in  reality  the  Eaft  Cape  of 
Captain  Cook.  Speaking  of  this  Nofs,  he  fays,  that  a 
pcrlon,  with   a  favourable  wind,    may  fail  from  the 


that  it  was  impotnble  either  to  get  to  the  northward,     illhmus  to  the  Anadyr  in  three  days  and  three  nights 


ii8 
Of  the  ex- 
tent of  the 
Afiatic  con 
tircnt  to 
the  north- 
ward.J 


or  even  to  reach  the  Afiatic  continent,  the  ihips  being 
alfo  greatlydamaged,  determined  to  proceed  fouthward 
to  the  bay  of  Awatflo,  on  the  Kamtfchadale  coaft,  to 
refit,  and  afterwards  take  a  fin-vey  of  the  coafts  of  Ja- 
pan before  the  winter  firould  fet  in. 


This  agrees  entirely  with  the  fituation  of  the  Eaft  Cape, 
whicli  is  about  1 20  leagues  from  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Anadyr ;  and  there  lieing  no  other  Ifthmus  to  the 
north  between  that  and  the  latitude  of  69',  it  feems  evi- 
dent, that  by  this  dcfcription  he  certainly  means  cither 


Dui  ing  this  navigation,  two  general  conclufions  were     the  Eaft  Cape  or  fome  other  fituated  to  the  fouthward 
adopted  relative  to  the  extent  of  the  Afiatic  coaft,  in     of  it.      In  another  place   he  fays,  that   oppofite  to 


opp'ofition  to  the  opinion  of  Mr  Muller.  One  is,  that 
the  promontory,  called  the  Eq/l  Cape,  Is  in  reality  the 
moft  eafterly  point  of  Afia  ;  and  thac  no  part  of  that 
quarter  of  the  globe  extends  farther  than  the  longitude 
of  iqC  22'  E.  The  other  conclufion  is,  that  the 
latitude  of  the  moft  north-eafterly  point  of  Afia  does 
not  exceed  70°  N.  but  is  rather  fomewhat  below  It. 
As  the  prefent  difcoveries,  however,  were  terminated 
on  the  Afiatic  fide  in  the  69th  degree  of  latitude,  the 


the  ifthmus  there  are  two  lilands,  upon  which  fome 
of  the  Tfchutfl<i  nation  were  obferved,  having  pieces 
of  the  teeth  of  fea-horfes  fixed  in  their  hps  ;  and  this 
exaftly  coincides  with  the  two  iflands  that  lie  to  the 
fouth  eaft  of  the  Eaft  Cape.  Our  navigators  indeed 
did  not  obferve  any  inhabitants  up.on  thefe  iflands  ; 
but  it  is  by  no  means  improbable,  that  fome  of  thofe 
from  the  American  coaft,  whom  the  above  defcription 
perfed\ly  fuits,  might   have  accidentally  been  there  at 


probable  direftlon  of  the  coaft  afterwards  can  only  be     the  time,  and  been  miftaken  for  a  tribe  of  Tfchutflci, 


conieftured.     The  only  fources  of  knowledge  In  this 
cafe  are  the  Ruffian  charts  and  journals ;  and  thefe  in 
general  are  fo  defeftlve   and  contradlftory,  that  the 
particulars  of  their  real  difcoveries  can  fcarce  be  col- 
lefted.      Hence  the   Ruffian   geographers  are   greatly 
divided  in  their  opinions  concerning  the  extent  and  fi- 
gure of  the  peninfula  of  the  Tfchut(l<i.      Mr  Muller, 
in  a  map  publlihed  in  1  754,  fuppofes  it  to  extend  nortii- 
eaft  as  far  as  the  latitude  of  75",  and  E.  Long.  19°, 
ending  Ii'i  a  round  cape  which  he  calls  Tfc/nd-oljioi  Nofs. 
To  the  fouthward  of  this  cape  he  fuppofes  the  coaft  to 
form  a  bay  to  the  weft,  bounded  in  the  latitude  of 
67°    18'  by  Serdze  Kamen,  the  moft  northerly  point 
t>bferved  by  Beering   In  his  expedition  in  172-8.     A 
new  form  is  given  to  the  whole  peninfula  In  a  map 
publifhed  by  the  academy  at  Peterfburg  In  1776.   Here 
its  moft  north-eafterly  extremity  Is  placed  in  N.   Lat. 
7^°,  E.  Long.  1780  30' ;  and  Its  moft  eafterly  point 
iii  N.  Lat.  65°,  E.Long.  189*  30'.      All  the  other 
maps  vary  between  thefe  two  fituations ;  and  the  only 
thinn-  in  which  all  of  them  agree  is  the  pofition  of  the 
eaft  'cape  in   N.  Lat.  66=.      The  form  of  the  coaft, 
however,  is  very  erroneous  in   the   map   publilhed  by 
the  academy,  and  may  be  entirely  difregarded.     In 
Mr  Muller's  map,  the  northern  part  of  the  coaft  has 
fome  refemblance  to  that  laid  down  in  Captain  Cook's 
and  Clerke's  furvey,  as  far  as  the  latter  extends  ;  only 
that  Mr  Muller  does  not  make  it  trend  fufhciently  to 
the  weft,  but  fuppofes  It  to  recede  only  five  degrees 
of  longitude  between  the  latitudes  of  66°  and  69°  ; 
whereas  it  really  recedes  almoft  ten. 

We  muft  next  examine  Mr  Muller's  authority  for 
J^c  91.  3 


Other  circumftances,  though  lefs  declfive  than  thofe 
juft  mentioned,  concur  in  the  fame  proof.  DeftinefF 
fays,  that  in  failing  from  the  Kovj-ma  to  the  Anadyr, 
a  great  promontory,  which  projeds  far  into  the  fea, 
muft  be  doubled  ;  and  that  this  promontory  extends 
between  north  and  north-eaft.  From  thefe  expreflions, 
perhaps,  Mr  Muller  was  Induced  to  reprefent  the 
country  of  the  Tfchutflci  in  the  form  we  find  in  his 
map  ;  but  if  he  had  been  acquainted  with  the  pofition 
of  the  Eaft  Cape  as  determined  by  Captain  Cook,  and 
the  ftriking  agreement  between  that  and  the  promon- 
tory or»ifthmus  in  the  circumftances  above  mentioned, 
it  Is  moft  probable  that  he  would  not  have  deemed 
thefe  expreffions  of  fufficient  weight  to  authorife  his 
extending  the  north-eaftern  extremity  of  Afia  either 
as  far  to  the  north  or  to  the  eaft  as  he  has  done. 

Another  authority  ufed  by  Mr  Muller  feems  to  have 
been  the  depofilion  of  the  ColTac  PopofF,  taken  at 
the  Anadirflvoi  Oftrog  in  1 71 1.  Popoff  was  fent  by 
land.  In  company  with  feveral  others,  to  demand  tri- 
bute of  the  independent  Tichutfkl  tribes,  who  inhabi- 
ted the  country  about  the  Nofs.  In  the  account  of 
this  journey,  the  diftance  betwixt  Anadlrilc  and  Tfchu- 
kotiiiol  Nofs  Is  reprefentcd  as  a  journey  of  ten  weeks 
with  loaded  rein-deer.  From  fuch  a  vague  account, 
indeed,  we  can  judge  but  very  little ;  but  as  the  di- 
ftance between  the  Eaft  Cape  and  Anadirlk  docs  not 
exceed  200  leagues,  and  confequendy  might  be  accom- 
plilhed  in  the  fpace  above  mentioned  at  the  rate  of  12 
or  14  miles  a-day,  we  cannot  reckon  PopofPs  account 
of  its  fituation  Inconfiftent  with  the  fuppofition  of  Its 
being  the  Eaft  Cape.     It  may  likewife  be  obferved, 

that 


coo  [4 

that  PopofPs  rout  lay  along  the  foot  of  a  rock  named 
Matkol,  fituated  at  the  bottom  of  a  fpacious  gulf, 
which  Muller  fuppofes  to  have  been  the  bay  he  lays 
'  down  between  the  latitudes  of  66^  and  72*;  and  he 
accordingly  places  the  rock  Matkol  in  the  centre  of  it : 
but  it  feems  more  probable,  that  it  might  be  a  part  of 
the  gulf  of  Anadyr,  which  they  would  undoubtedly 
pafs  in  their  journey  towards  the  Eaft  Cape. 

But  what  feems  to  put  the  matter  beyond  all  doubt, 
and  to  prove  that  the  cape  which  Popoff  vifited  cannot 
be  to  the  northward  of  69°  Lat.  is  that  part  of  his 
depofition  which  relates  to  an  ifland  lying  off  the  Nofs, 
from  whence  the  oppofite  coaft  might  be  difcerned  ; 
for  as  the  oppofite  continents,  in  the  latitude  of  69°, 
diverge  fo  far  as  to  be  upwards  of  100  leagues  diftant, 
it  is  highly  improbable  that  the  Afiatic  coaft  (liould 
again  trand  eaftward  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  come  al- 
moft  in  fight  of  that  of  America.  As  an  additional 
proof  of  the  pofition  in  queftion,  we  may  obferve,  that 
the Tfchukotflioi Nofs  is  conftantlylaiddown  as  dividing 
the  fea  of  Kovyma  from  that  of  Anadyr;  which  could 
not  poffibly  be  the  cafe  if  any  large  cape  had  projected 
to  the  north-eaft  in  the  higher  latitudes. 

The  next  queftion  to  be  determined  is,  to  what  degree 
of  latitude  the  northern  coaft  of  Afia  extends  before  it 
inclines  direftly  weftward  ?  Captain  Cook  was  always 
ftrongly  inclined  to  beheve,  that  the  northern  coaft  of 
this  continent,  from  the  Indigirka  eaftward,  has  hi- 
therto been  ufually  laid  down  above  two  degrees  to  the 
northward  of  its  true  fituation  ;  for  which  reafon,  and 
on  the  authority  of  a  map  that  was  in  his  pofleflion, 
as  well  as  from  intelligence  received  at  Oonalaflika,  he 
placed  the  mouth  of  the  Kovyma  in  the  latitude  of  68 
degrees.  Should  he  be  right  in  his  conjefture,  it  is 
probable  that  the  coaft  of  Afia  does  not  any  where 
extend  beyond  the  latitude  of  70  degrees  before  it 
trends  to  the  weft  ;  and  confequently  our  navigators 
muft  have  been  only  one  degree  from  its  northern  ex- 
tremity. This  feems  to  be  confirmed  by  the  filcnce  of 
the  Ruffian  navigators  concerning  any  extent  of  conti- 
nent to  the  northward  of  Shelatlkoi  Nofs  ;  nor  do 
they  mention  any  remarkable  promontory,  except 
the  Eaft  Cape,  between  the  Anadyr  and  the  Kovy- 
ma. Another  particular  which  Dtftineff  relates  may 
perhaps  be  deemed  a  farther  confirmation  of  this 
opinion,  I'l-z.  that  he  met  with  no  obftruftiou  from 
ice  in  failing  round  the  north-eaftern  exiiemity  of 
Afia ;  though  he  adds,  that  this  fea  is  not  at  all 
times  fo  free  of  it,  which  indeed  appears  evidently 
to  be  the  cafe.  That  part  of  the  continent  which  lies 
between  Cape  North  and  the  mouth  of  tlie  Kovyma  Is 
about  125  leagues  in  extent.  A  third  part  of  this 
fpace,  from  Kovyma  eaftward,  was  explored  In  the 
year  1723  by  Feodot  AmofTofF,  who  Informed  Mr 
MuUer  tliat  its  direftion  was  eafterly.  Since  that  time 
it  has  been  furveyed  witli  fome  accuracy  by  Shalauroff, 
whofe  chart  makes  it  trend  nm-th-caft-by-eaft  as  far 
as  Shelatflcol  Nofs,  which  he  places  at  the  diftance  of 
about  43  leagues  eaft  of  the  Kovyma.  Tlie  fpace 
therefore  between  the  Nofs  and  Cape  North,  fimiewhat 
more  than  80  leagues,  is  the  only  part  of  the  Ruffian 
■dominions  now  remaining  unexplored.  But  if  the 
Kovyma  be  erroheoufly  laid  down  in  point  of  longitude 
as  well  as  latitude,  a  fuppofitlon  far  frtim  being  impro- 
bable, the  extent  of  the  undifcovered  coaft  will  be  con- 
VoL.  V.  Part  II. 


25     1  COO 

fiderably  diminifhed.  The  followincf  are  the  reafnns 
why  it  may  be  fuppofed  that  the  mouth  of  the  Kovyma 
is  placed  too  far  to  the  weftward  in  the  Ruffian  charts: 
I.  Becaufe  the  accounts  that  have  been  given  of  the 
navigation  of  the  Frozen  Ocean  from  that  river  round 
the  north-eaftern  extremity  of  Afia  to  the  Gulf  of 
Anadyr,  do  not  agree  with  the  fuppofed  diftance  be- 
tween thofe  places.  2.  Becaufe  the  diftance  from  the 
Anadyr  to  the  Kovyma  over  land  is  by  fome  Ruffian 
travellers  reprefented  as  a  journey  of  no  very  great 
length,  and  eafily  performed.  3.  Becaufe  the  coaft 
from  the  Shelatflcol  Nofs  of  Shalauroff  appears  to  trend 
direftly  fouth>-eaft  towards  the  Eaft  Cape.  From  all 
which  it  may  be  Inferred,  with  fome  degree  of  proba- 
bility, that  only  60  miles  of  the  northern  Afiatic  coaft 
remain  to  be  explored. 

With  regard  to  a  north-weft  paftage  from  the  At- 
lantic into  the  Pacific  Ocean,  it  is  highly  probable 
that  no  fuch  thing  exifts  to  the  fouthward  of  the  jCth 
degree  of  latitude.  If,  in  reality,  it  exifts  any  where, 
it  muft  certainly  be  either  through  Baffin's  Bay,  or 
by  the  north  of  Greenland  in  the  weftern  hemifphere, 
or  in  the  eaftern  through  the  frozen  fea  to  the  north 
of  Siberia  ;  fo  that  In  whichever  continent  it  is  feated 
the  navigator  mull  pafs  through  Beering's  Straits. 
All  that  remains  now  to  be  confidereJ  therefore  is, 
the  impraftlcability  of  penetrating  into  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  through  thefe  Straits.  From  the  voyages  of 
our  navigators  it  appears,  that  the  fea  to  the  northward 
of  Beering's  Straits  is  more  free  from  ice  in  Auguft 
than  In  July,  and  perhaps  may  be  ftiU  more  fo  in  fome 
part  of  September.  But  after  the  autumnal  equinox, 
the  length  of  the  day  diminlflies  fo  faft  that  no  farther 
thaw  can  be  expefted  ;  and  It  would  be  unreafonable 
to  attribute  fo  great  an  tffeft  to  the  warmth  of  the 
laft  fortnight  of  September  as  to  imagine  it  capable  of 
difperfing  the  ice  from  the  moft  northern  parts  of  the 
American  coaft.  Eveu  admitting  this  to  be  poffible, 
it  muft  at  leaft  be  allowed  that  It  would  be  highly  im- 
prudent to  endeavour  to  avoid  the  Icy  Cape,  by  run- 
ning to  the  known  parts  of  Baffin's  Bay,  a  diftance  of 
about  1260  miles,  in  fo  ftiort  a  time  as  thatpaflage  can 
be  fuppofed  to  be  open.  On  the  fide  of  Afia  tiiere 
appears  ftill  lefs  probability  of  fuccefs,  as  appears  from 
the  teftlmony  of  the  Ruffian  as  well  as  the  Engllih  na- 
vigators. The  voyage  of  Deftuicff  indeed  proves  the 
poffibillty  of  circumnavigating  the  north-eaftern  ex- 
tremity of  Afia  ;  but  even  this  affords  a  very  flender 
foundation  to  hope  for  any  great  benefit,  as  no  perfon 
befides  himfelf  appears  to  have  fucceeded  In  the  at- 
tempt, though  more  than  a  century  and  an  half  has 
now  elapfed  fince  the  time  of  his  voyage.  But  even 
fuppofing  that,  in  fome  very  favourable  feafon,  this 
cape  might  be  doubled,  ftlll  the  Cape  of  Taimura  re- 
mains, extending  as  far  as  the  78th  degree  of  latitude, 
and  ruund  whkh  none  pretend  ever  to  have  failed. 

Theie  arguments  feem  conclufive  again  ft  any  ex- 
pedtatlon  of  a  north-weft  or  north-eaft  palTage  to  the 
Eaft  Indies,  unlcfs  on  the  fuppofitlon  of  an  open  fea 
very  near  the  polar  regions.  The  jirobability  of  gel- 
ting  into  the  polar  feas  is  confidered  under  the  article 
Pole  ;  and  indeed  from  what  has  already  been  ad- 
vanced muft  appear  very  little.  Weaving  this  fubjeci' 
therefore  at  prefent,  we  fliall  relurri  to  the  remarks 
made  by  our  navigators  during  their  fccond  voyage. 
3  H  ■        lo 


Coot'* 

Difcove- 

ric!. 


Impiaetcca- 
biliiy  I'f  a 
mrth-weft 
or  rorth- 
caft  pafTage 
into  the 
Pacific  O- 
cean. 


coo 


I  426  ] 


coo 


Captain 
Clerke  to- 

varcU  ll;e 
Icy  Hta. 


In  til's  tliey  did  little  more  than  confirm  what  had 
been  obferved  during  the  firft  ;  for  it  never  was  in 
their  power  to  approach  the  continent  of  Afia  in  any- 
higher  latitude  than  67°,  nor  that  of  America  in  any 
part,  excepting  a  few  leagues,  between  68^  and  63-  20', 
durlnj;  the  which  they  had  not  fcen  before.  In  both  years  the 
voyage  of  j^.^  ^^^^  ^^^  ^j^j^  fooner  on  the  Afiatic  than  the  A- 
merican  coaft  ;  but  in  1779  they  met  with  it  in  lower 
latitudes  than  in  1778.  As  th.-y  proceeded  north- 
ward, the  ice  was  found  univerfally  more  compadl  and 
fohd,  though  theywere  afcertained  at  the  famelime  that 
the  grtateil  pait  of  what  they  met  with  was  moveable. 
Its  height  on  a  medium  was  eRimated  at  eiglit  or  ten 
feet;  though  fome  of  the  highell  might  he  about  16 
or  18.  The  currents  were  generally  at  the  rate  of  one 
mile  in  the  hour,  and  more  generally  fct  from  the 
fouth-wcll  than  from  any  other  quarter.  Their  force, 
however,  was  fo  inconfiderable,  whatever  their  direc- 
tion might  be,  that  no  conclufion  could  poffibly  be 
drawn  from  them  concerning  the  exiftence  or  non- 
exiftence  of  a  northern  pafTage.  With  regard  to  the 
temperature  of  the  weather,  July  was  found  much 
colder  than  Auguft.  In  the  former,  the  thermometer 
was  once  at  28^,  and  veiy  frequently  at  30";  whereas 
during  the  lad  year  it  was  very  uncommon  in  Auguft 
to  have  it  as  low  as  the  freezing  point.  High  winds 
were  experienced  in  both  feafons,  all  of  which  blew 
from  the  fouth-wefl.  The  air  was  foggy  whenever 
the  weather  became  calm;  but  the  fogs  were  obfer^ed 
to  accompany  foutherly  winds  much  more  than  others. 

The  ilraits,  in  the  neareft  approach  of  the  conti- 
nents to  each  other,  in  the  latitude  of  66°,  are  about 
1 3  leagues  over  ;  beyond  which  they  diverge  to  N. 
E.  by  E.  and  W.  N.  W. ;  fo  that  in  the  latitude  of 
69°,  their  diftance  from  each  other  is  about  300  miles. 
A  great  refcmblance  is  obferved  betwixt  the  continents 
on  both  fides  of  the  Ilraits.  Both  are  deftitute  of 
wood  ;  the  fhores  are  low,  with  mountains  further  in- 
land, rifing  to  a.'great  height.  The  foundings  in  the 
mid  way  between  them  were  from  29  to  30  fathoms, 
gradually  decreafing  as  either  continent  was  approach- 
ed; with  this  difference,  however,  that  the  water  was 
fomewhat  fhallower  on  the  coaft  of  America  than  that 
of  Afia,  at  an  equal  diftance  from  land.  The  bot- 
tom, towards  the  middle,  was  a  foft  flimy  mud  ;  and 
near  either  ftiore  was  a  brownifh  fand  intermixed  with 
a  few  fhells  and  fmall  fragments  of  bones.  There 
was  but  little  tide  or  current,  and  what  there  was  came 
from  the  weft. 

Before  the  fliips  could  reach  the  peninfula  of  Kamt- 
fchatka,  Captain  Clerke  expired  ;  in  confequence  of 
which  the  command  devolved  upon  Mr  King,  Cap- 
tain Gore  being  now  the  fuperior  officer.  On  the 
return  to  Kamtfthatka,  Captain  Clerke  was  buried  in 
the  fpot  on  which  a  church  was  to  be  ereiSled  ;  it  ha- 
ving been  his  own  defire  to  be  interred  in  the  church. 
By  ihs  time  they  anived  at  this  peninfida,  the  face 
Kam'tfchat- of  tl^s  country  was  greatly  improved  ;  the  fields  being 
ka,  with  a  covered  with  the  moft  lively  verdure,  and  every  plant 
dcfcripticn  ;„  the  moft  flourifhing  ftate.  The  eruption  of  the 
"f  A^  t ''  ■^'"''-■2'^°  which  they  had  obferved  on  their  laft  depar- 
Jka.  t"ic  from  Kamtfchatka,  had  done  little  or  no  damage 

noiwithftanding  its  violence.  Several  ftones  had  fallen 
about  the  fize  of  a  goofe's  egg,  but  none  larger.  At 
this  vifit  ii  was  obferved  by  our  navigators,  that  the 


151 

Death  of 

Captain 
Clerl;e. 
See  Clciie. 


122 
Return  to 


complexions  of  the  Rullians  feemed  to  be  much  more     Co(>U'» 
unhealthy  and  fallow  than  when   they  faw  them  for-    Difcovs- 
nierly  ;  and  the  Ruffians  made  the  fame  obfervalion       ""'     f 
upon  the  complexions  of  their  gutfts.     As  no  certain 
caufc  for  this  alteration  could  be  perceived,  the  blame 
was  by  both  parties  laid  on  the  verdure  of  the  coun- 
try ;  which,  by  contrafting  itfelf  with  the  colour  of  the 
people,  made  the  latter  appear  to  difadvantage. 

Having  repaired  as  well  as  they  could  the  damages 
fullained  by  the  fliips  among  tlie  ice,  our  navigators 
now  began  to  proceed  Oil  their  voyage  fouthward  ; 
but  the  ftiatttrtd  condition  of  their  vcfTtls,  with  the 
little  time  they  had  now  to  fpare  on  voyages  of  dif- 
covei)',  after  having  been  fo  long  at  fea,  now  render- 
ed them  much  lefs  futcefsful  than  fonmrly.  Before 
leaving  the  peninfula,  however,  they  took  care  to  give 
fuch  a  difcription  of  the  bay  of  Awatika  as  muft  be 
of  great  fervice  to  future  navigators.  1  his  bay  lies 
in  52.  51.  N.  Lat.  and  158.48.  E.  Long,  in  the 
bight  of  another  bay  formed  by  Cape  Gavareea  to  the 
fouth,  and  Cheepemflcoi  Nc^'s  to  the  north.  The  lat- 
ter of  thefe  bears  from  the  former  N.  E.  by  N.  and  is 
32  leagues  diilant.  From  Cape  Gavareea  to  the  en-, 
trance  of  Awalflo  bay  the  coaft  takes  a  northeily  di- 
redion,  and  extends  about  1 1  leagues.  It  conCfts  of 
a  chain  of  ragged  cliffs  and  rocks,  and  in  many  parts 
prefents  an  appearance  of  bays  or  inlets  ;  but  on  a 
nearer  view,  low  grounds  were  percei\ed  by  which  the 
headlands  were  connefted.  From  the  entrance  of 
Awatil<a  bay,  Cheeponilcoi  Nofs  bears  E.  N.  E.  diftant 
1 7  league's.  The  fliore  on  this  fide  is  flat  and  low, 
with  hills  behind  gradually  rifing  to  a  confiderable 
height.  The  latitude  of  Cape  Gavareea  is  52.  21.- 
By  this  remarkable  difference  of  the  land  on  both  fides- 
the  Cape,  navigators  may  be  direftcd  in  their  courfe 
towards  it  from  the  fouthward.  When  they  approach 
it  from  the  northward,  Cheeponfkoi  Nofs  becomes 
very  confpicuous  ;  it  being  a  high  projcfling  hetdland, 
and  united  to  the  continent  by  a  large  extent  of  level 
ground  lower  than  the  Nofs ;  and  prefents  the  fame 
appearance  whether  viewed  from  the  north  or  fouth. 
Should  the  weather  happen  to  be  fufficiently  clear  to 
admit  a  view  of  the  mountains  both  on  the  fea  coaft 
and  in  the  neighbourhood,  the  fituation  of  Awatllca 
bay  may  be  known  by  the  two  high  ones  to  the  fouth 
of  it.  That  neareft  the  bay  is  in  the  form  of  a  fugar 
loaf,  the  other  flat  at  top  and  not  quite  fo  high.  Three 
very  confpicuous  mountains  appear  on  the  north  fide 
of  the  bay  ;  of  which  that  to  the  weft  appears  to  be 
the  higheft ;  the  next,  being  a  volcano,  is  readily 
known  by  the  fmoke  which  it  emits  ;  the  third  is  the 
moft  northerly,  and  might  properly  be  called  a  duller 
of  mountains,  us  it  prefents  feveral  flat  tops  to  view. 
'Wlien  got  within  the  capes,  the  entrance  of  the  bay 
of  Awatfka  to  the  north  is  pointed  out  by  a  ligUt- 
houfe  on  a  perpendicular  head-land.  Many  funken 
recks  lie  to  the  eailward  of  this  head-land,  ftrctching 
two  or  three  miles  into  the  fea  ;  and  which  with  a 
moderate  fea  or  fwell  w  ill  always  fliow  themfelves.  A 
fmall  round  ifland  lies  four  miles  to  the  fouth  of  the 
entrance,  principally  conipofed  of  high  pointed  rocks,, 
one  of  which  is  very  remarkable.  The  entrance  into 
the  bay  is  at  firft  about  three  miles  wide,  and  one  and 
an  half  in  the  narroweft  part  ;  the  kngth  is  four  miles 
ill  a  north-weft  dircdion.      Wiiliin  the  mouth  is  a. 

noble 


coo 


[     4 


Tn'.ile  bafon  about  25  miles  In  circumference;  in  which 
are  the  harbours  of  Rakoweera  to  tlie  call,  Tarcinlka 
to  the  weft,  and  St  Peter  and  St  Paul  to  the  norlli. 

On  leaving  Kamtfchaka,  it  was  unanimoudy  judged 
improper  to  make  any  attempt  to  navigate  the  feas 
between  the  continent  of  Afia  and  Japan.  Inllead  of 
this,  it  was  propofed  to  ftecr  to  the  eaftward  of  that 
idand,  and  in  tlie  way  tliither  to  fail  along  the  Ku- 
riles  ;  examining  particularly  thofe  that  are  fituated 
neareft  to  the  northern  coaft  of  Japan,  which  are  faid 
to  be  confiderable,  and  neither  fubjett  to  the  Ruffians 
nor  Japancfe.  In  cafe  they  fliould  have  the  good  for- 
tune tP  meet  with  fomc  fecure  and  commodious  har- 
bours iu  any.of  thefe  iflands,  it  was  fuppofed  that  they 
might  prove  of  confiderable  importance,  as  convenient 
places  of  (helttr  for  fubfequent  navigators,  who  might 
be  employed  in  exploring  tlie  feas  as  the  means  of  pro- 
ducing a  commercial  intercourfe  among  the  adjacent 
dominions  of  the  two  above  mentioned  empires.  The 
next  objeft  was  to  take  a  fui'vey  of  the  coafts  of  the 
iflands  of  Japan  ;  after  which  they  defigned  to  fail 
for  the  coaft  of  China  as  far  north  as  pofiible,  and 
then  fail  along  it  fouthvvard  to  Macao. 

In  purfuance  of  this  plan,  they  failed  along  the 
coaft  of  Kamtfchatka,  till  they  came  to  the  fouthern 
point  called  Cii/n-  Lofci/la,  whofe  fituation  they  deter- 
mined to  be  in  Lat.  5 1.  o.  E.  Long.  156.  45.  To  the 
north-weft  they  obferved  a  very  lofty  mountain  whofe 
fummit  wai  loft  in  the  clouds  ;  and  the  fame  inftant 
the  firft  of  the  Kurile  iflands,  named  Shoam/ia,  made 
its  appearance  in  the  direction  of  weft,  half  fouth. 
The  paffage  betwixt  the  fouthern  extremity  of  Cape 
Lopatka  and  the  ifland  of  Shoomflia,  though  only 
one  league  in  breadth,  is  extreniely  dangerous,  both 
on  account  of  the  rapidity  of  the  tides,  and  of  the  funk 
rocks  which  lie  oft'  the  Cape.  In  the  courfe  of  this 
voyage,  they  had  occafion  to  obferve,  that  a  violent 
fwell  from  the  north-eaft  frequently  took  place,  though 
the  wind  had  been  for  fome  time  in  the  wcftcrn  quartei  ; 
a  circumftance  for  which  they  feem  to  have  been  al- 
together unable  to  account. 

The  tempeftuous  weather  which  now  occurred,  pre- 
vented any  diicoveries  from  being  made  among  the 
Kurile  Ifles  ;  however,  they  again  failed  over  the  fpace 
afiigned  to  the  land  of  De  Gama,  without  being  able 
to  find  it  ;  and  from  comparing  feveral  accounts  of 
the  Ruflian  navigators  with  one  another,  it  was  judged 
extremrly  probable,  that  the  land  of  Jefo,  fo  frequent- 
ly laid  down  In  former  maps,  is  no  other  than  the  moft 
foutherly  of  the  Kurile  Ifles.  On  coming  In  view  of 
the  coaft  of  Japan,  tliey  had  the  mortification  to  find 
that  they  could  not  approach  the  land  by  reafon  of 
the  tempeftuous  weather  and  bad  ftate  of  the  fliips;  the 
foafts  of  thefe  illands  being  extremely  dangerous.  Faf- 
fing from  thence  in  queft  of  the  Balhee  iflands,  they 
found  amazing  quantities  of  pumice-ftone  floating  in 
the  fca  ;  fo  that  they  feemed  iuellned  to  believe,  with  Mr 
Mull-! ,  that  if  there  had  formerly  been  any  part  of  the 
continent,  or  large  ifland,  called  the  Land  of  yejo,  it 
muft  have  difappeared  in  a  volcanic  convulfion;  which 
alfo  muft  have  been  the  cafe  with  that  called  the  Com- 
pany's Land  and  Stnten  Ifland.  Though  they  had  not 
the  good  fortune  to  find  the  Bafliee  Iflands,  they  dif- 
covered  one  la  24.  48.  N.  Lat.  141.  20.  E.  l^ong. 
which  from  its  appearance,  aud  the  fulphureous  fmeli 


Cooper, 


27     ]  COO 

emitted  by  it,  they  named  Sulphur  Ijland.  After  this  Coojtsry 
nothing  remarkable  occurred  till  their  'arrival  at  Can- 
ton in  China,  where  ha\ing  ftaid  for  fome  time  in  or-  , 
der  to  put  their  flilps  in  repair,  they  at  laft  fet  fail  for 
Britain  ;  but  througli  ftrtfs  of  weather  were  driven  as 
far  north  as  Stromnefs  in  Orkney.  From  tlience  Cap- 
tain Gore  feut  a  difpatch  to  the  Lords  of  the  Admi- 
ralty to  inform  them  of  his  arrival  ;  and  on  the  4tli  of 
Ottober  1780  the  ftiips  reached  the  Nore,  after  an  ab- 
fence  of  4  years  2  months  and  22  days. 

COOKERY,  the  art  of  preparing  and  dreffrng 
viaTials  for  the  table  :  An  art.  In  its  fimpleft  and  ordi- 
nary modes,  fuflficienlly  familiar  to  every  lioufekeeper; 
and.  In  Its  luxurious  refinements,  too  copioufly  detailed 
in  manuals  and  direftories  publlflitd  for  the  purpofe  to 
require  any  enlargement  here,  were  it  even  a  topic  that 
at  all  defervcd  confideration  in  a  work  of  this  nature. 

COOLERS,  in  medicine,  thofe  remedies  which 
produce  an  immediate  fenfe  of  cold,  being  fuch  as  liave 
their  parts  in  lefs  motion  than  thofe  of  the  organs  of 
feeling  ;  as  fruits  and  all  acid  liquors.  Or  they 
are  fuch  as,  by  a  particular  vifcldity  or  grolfnefs  of 
parts,  give  the  animal  fluids  a  greater  confiftency  than 
they  had  before,  and  confequently  retard  their  motion, 
having  lefs  of  that  inteftine  force  on  which  their  heat 
depends  :  of  this  fort  are  cucumbers  and  all  fubftance* 
producing  vifcidity. 

COOM,  a  term  applied  to  the  foot  that  gathers 
over  an  oven's  mouth  ;  alfo  for  that  black,  greafy  fub- 
ftance,  which  works  out  of  the  wheels  of  carriages. 

COOMB,  or  Comb,  of  Corn,  a  dry  meafure  con'- 
taining  4  bufliels,  or  half  a  qrrarter. 

COOP,  in  hufljandry,  a  tumbrel  or  cart  inclofed 
with  boards,   and  ufed  to  carry  dung,  grains,   &c. 

Coop  is  alfo  the  name  of  a  pen,  or  enclofed  place> 
where  lambs,  poultry,  &c.  are  fliut  up  in  order  to 
be  fed. 

COOPER,  a  tradefman  who  makes  caflcs,  tubs, 
and  barrels,  for  holding  liquors  or  other  commodities. 
Every  cuftom-houfe  and  excife  office  has  an  officer 
called  Kbg' i- cooper  ;  and  every  fl:ip  of  burden  has  a 
cooper  on  board. 

CoOPLR  (Anthony-Afhiey),  fiift  earl  of  Shaftef- 
bury,  a  moft  able  ftatefman,  was  the  fon  of  Sir  John 
Cooper,  Bart,  of  Rockborn  in  Hampfliire,  and  was 
born  in  1621.  He  was  elcfted  member  for  Tewkef- 
bury  at  19  years  of  age,  in  the  fliort  parliament  that 
met  April  13.  1640.  He  feems  to  have  been  well  af- 
fciled  to  the  king's  fervice  at  the  beginning  of  the  civil 
wars  ;  for  he  repaired  to  the  king  at  Oxford  with  offei-s 
of  affiftance  :  but  prince  Maurice  breaking  articles  to  a 
town  In  Dorfetlhire  that  he  had  got  to  receive  him, 
fuinrfhcd  him  with  a  pi-etence  for  going  over  to  the 
parliament,  from  wlilch  he  accepted  a  commlflion. 
When  Richard  Cromwell  was  dcpofed,  and  the  Rump 
come  again  Into  power,  they  nominated  Sir  Anthony 
one  of  their  council  of  ftate,  and  a  ct>mmiflroner  for 
managing  the  army.  At  that  very  time  he  had  eno-a- 
ged  in  a  fccret  coriefpondence  for  reftoring  Charles  IL 
and,  upon  the  king's  coming  over,  was  fworn  of  his 
privy  coirncil.  He  was  one  of  the  commiffioners  for 
the  trial  of  the  regicides  ;  was  foon  after  made  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer,  then  a  corrmiffioner  of  the 
trcafuiy;  in  16/2  was  created  earl  of  Shaftefl)iiry  ; 
and  fowl  after  was  railed  to  the  poll  of  lord  chancel- 
3  H  2  lor. 


coo 


C   428    ] 


coo 


Cooper,  lor.  He  filled  this  office  with  great  ability  and  inte- 
'•"'v^—  grity  ;  and  though  the  ihort  time  he  was  at  the  helm 
was  in  a  tempeftuous  feafon,  it  is  doing  him  juftice  to 
fay,  nothing  could  either  diftraft  or  affright  him. 
The  ?reac  leal  was  taken  from  him  in  1673,  '^  montlis 
after  his  receiving  it  ;  but,  though  out  of  office,  he  Hill 
made  a  dillinguilhed  figure  in  parliament,  for  it  was 
not  in  his  nature  to  remain  inaftive.  He  drew  upon 
himfelf  the  implacable  hatred  of  the  duke  of  York,  by 
fleadily  promotiug,  if  not  originally  inventing,  the  fa- 
mous projeft  of  an  exclufion-bill.  When  his  enemies 
came  into  power,  he  found  it  neceffary  to  confult  his 
fafety  by  retiring  into  Holland,  where  he  died  fix 
weeks  after  his  arrival,  in  1683.  While  his  great  a- 
bilities  are  confefTed  by  all,  it  has  been  his  misfortune 
to  have  his  liiftory  recorded  by  his  enemies,  who  itu- 
died  to  render  him  odious.  Butler  has  given  a  very 
fevere  character  of  him  in  his  Hudibras. 

C00PF.R   (Anthony  Alhley),   earl  of  Shaftefl-ury, 
was  fon  of  Anthony  earl  of  Shaftcibury,  and  graodfon 
of  Anthony  fiift  earl  of  Shafiefbury,  lord  high  chan- 
cellor of  England.     He  was  born  in  167 1,  at  Exeter- 
houfe  in   London,   where  liis  grandfather  lived,  v/ho 
from  the  time  of  his  birth  conceived  fo  great  an  affec- 
tion for  him,  that  he  undertook  the  care  of  his  edu- 
cation ;  and  he  made  fo  good  a  progrefs  in  learning, 
that  he  could  read  with  ea(e  both  the  Latin  and  Greek 
languages  when  only   11  years  old.     In  16S3,  his  fa- 
ther carried  him  to  the  fchool  at  Winchefter,  where  he 
was  often  infulted  on  his  grandfather's  account,  whofe 
memory  was  odious  to  the  zealots  for  defpotic  power : 
he  therefore  prevailed  with  his  father  to  confent  to  his 
defire  of  going  abroad.     After  three  years  flay  abroad, 
he  returned  to  England  in    1689,  and  was  offered  a 
feat  in  parliament  in  fome  of  thofe  boroughs  where  his 
family  had  an  intereft.      But  this  ofter  he  did  not  now 
accept,  that  he  might  not  be  interrupted  in  the  courfe 
of  his  fludies,    which  he  profecuted  five  years  more 
with  gieat  vigour  and  fuccefs  ;  till,  on  Sir  John  Tren- 
chard's  death,  he  was  eleftcd  burgels  for  Pool.     Soon 
after  his  coming  into  parliament,  he  had  an  opportu- 
nity given  him  of  exprtfTing  that  fpirit  of  liberty  by 
which  he  uniformly  dircfted  his  conduft  on  all  occa- 
fions.     It  was  the  bringing  in  and  promoting  "  the 
aft  for  regulating  trials  in   cafes   of    high    treafon." 
But  the  fatiiiues  of  attending  the  houfe  of  coirrmons, 
in  a  few  years  fo  impaired  his  health,  that  he  was  ob- 
liged to  decline  coming  again  into  parliament  after  the 
diffolution  in  169H.      He  then  went  to  Holland,  where 
the  converfation  of  Mr  Bayle,  Mr  le  Clerc,  and  feve- 
ral  other   harned  and  ingenious  men,  induced  him  to 
refide  a  twelvemonth.     During   this   time,  there  was 
printed    at    London,  in   Svo.  an  imptrfeft  edition  of 
lord  Alhley's  Inquiry  concerning  Viri.ue.     It  had  been 
furreptitioiifly  taken  from  a  roirgh  draught,  fl^etched 
w'lien  he  was  no  more  than  20  years  of  age.     His  lord- 
{hip,  who  was  greatly  chagrined  at  this  event,  immedi- 
ately bought  up  the  imureflion  before  many  books  were 
fold,    and   fet    about    co  npleting    the    treatife,     as  it 
afterwards  appeared  in  the  fecond  volume  of  the  Cha- 
lafteriftics.      6oon  after  lord   Alhley's  return  to  Eng- 
land, he   became,  by  the  deceale  of  his  father,  earl  of 
Shaftcfbury.       But    his    own  private  affairs  hindered 
him    from    attending    the   houfe  of  lords  till  the  fe- 
cond year  of  his  peerage,  when  he  was  very  earneft 


to    fupport    king  William's  meafures,    who    was    at  ICbopey. 

that    tims    projeAing  the  grand  alliance.     So  much  * 

was  he  in  favour  with  king  William,  that  he  had 
the  offer  of  fecretary  of  ftate  ;  but  his  declining  confti- 
tution  woOld  not  allow  him  to  accept  it.  Though  he 
was  difabled  from  engaging  in  bufinefs,  the  king  con- 
fulted  him  on  matters  of  very  high  importance  ;  and 
it  is  pretty  well  known  that  he  had  the  greateft  (hare 
in  compofing  that  celebrated  lafl  fpsech  of  king  Wil- 
liam, December  31.  1701.  On  Queen  Anne's  ac- 
ceffion  to  the  throne,  he  returned  to  his  retired  man- 
ner of  life,  being  no  longer  advifed  with  concerning 
the  public  ;  and  was  then  removed  from  the  vice-ad- 
miralty of  Dorfet,  which  had  been  in  the  family  for 
three  generations.  In  1703,  he  made  a  fecond  jour- 
ney to  Holland,  and  returned  to  England  the  year  fol- 
lowing. The  French  prophets,  foon  after  this,  having 
by  their  enthufiallic  extravagancies  made  a  great  noife 
throughout  the  nation,  and,  among  different  opinions, 
fome  advifing  a  prolecution,  the  lord  Shaftelbury  ap- 
prehended that  fuch  meafures  tended  rather  to  inflame 
than  to  cure  the  difeale.  This  was  the  origin  of  his 
Letter  concerning  Enthufiafm,  which  he  fent  to  lord 
Somers,  then  prefident  of  the  council;  and  which,  being 
approved  of  by  that  nobleman  and  other  gentlemen  to 
whom  it  was  Ihown,  was  pubhlhed  in  1 708,  tho'  without 
the  name  of  the  author,  or  that  ofthep^rfon  to  whom  it 
was  addreffed.  His  Morallft,  a  phllofophical  Rhapfody, 
being  a  recital  of  certain  converfatlons  on  natural  and 
moral  fubjefts,  appeared  in  Jan.  1709;  and  in  the  May 
following  hioSc-rifus  Communis,  an  Effay  upon  the  Freedom 
of  Wit  and  Humour,  in  a  Letter  to  a  Friend.  It  was  in 
the  fame  year  that  he  entered  into  the  marriage  ftate 
with  Mrs  Jane  Ewer,  the  youngeft  daughter  of  Tho- 
mas Ewer,  Efq;  of  Lee  in  Hertfordfhire.  By  this 
lady,  to  whom  his  lordfhip  was  related,  he  had  an  only 
fon,  Anthony  the  late  Earl  of  Shaftelbury.  In  1710, 
his  Soliloquy,  or  Advice  to  an  Author,  was  pub- 
li  filed  at  London  in  8vo.  While  he  was  thus  employ- 
ing himfelf  in  literary  compofition,  his  health  declined 
fo  fall,  that  it  was  recommended  to  him  to  feek  afliftancs 
from  a  warmer  climate.  Accordingly,  in  July  1711, 
he  fet  out  for  Naples,  and  purfuing  his  journey  by  way 
of  Fiance,  was  obliged  to  pafs  through  the  Duke  of 
Berwick's  army,  which  at  that  time  lay  encamped  near 
the  borders  of  Piedmont.  Here  he  was  entertained  by 
that  famous  general  in  the  moft  friendly  manner,  and 
every  afBltance  was  given  him  to  conduft  him  in  fafety 
to  the  Duke  of  Savoy's  dominions.  Our  noble  au- 
thor's removal  to  Italy  was  of  no  fervice  to  the  re- 
eftablifhment  of  his  health  ;  for  after  having  refided  at 
Naples  about  a  year  and  a  half,  he  departed  this  life 
on  the  4th  of  February,  O.  S.  1712-13,  in  the  42d 
year  of  his  age.  The  oirly  pieces  which  he  finifhed  afr 
ter  he  came  to  this  city,  were  the  Judgment  of  Her"- 
cules,  and  the  Letter  concerning  Defign,  which  lafl 
was  added  to  that  imprefTion  of  the  CharaAeriftics 
which  appeared  in  1732.  It  was  in  17  1  I  that  the  firft 
edition  was  publilhed  of  all  the  Charaderillics  toge- 
ther, and  in  the  order  in  which  they  now  ftand.  But 
this  publication  not  being  entirely  to  his  lordlhip's  fa- 
tisfaftion,  he  chiefly  employed  the  latter  part  of  his 
life  in  preparing  his  writings  for  a  more  elegant  edi- 
tion ;  which  was  given  to  the  world  in  17  13,  foon  af- 
ter his  deceafe.     The  fevexal  prints  that  were  then  firl 


coo 


[   429   3 


coo 


rooper.    fnterfperfed  through  the  volumes  were  all  invented  by 

-"' himft  If  and  di  lis^ned  uiiLier  his  immediate  infpeftion  ; 

and  for  thi*puipofc  he  was  ;it  the  pains  of  drawinj^  np 
a  moft  accurate  let  of  inftrudions,  the  matiufcript  of 
whicli  is  (till  prclerved  in  the  family.  That  no  mif- 
takes  might  be  committed,  the  Erul  did  not  leave  to 
any  other  hands  fo  much  as  the  drudgery  of  correfting 
the  prefs.  In  the  three  volumes  of  the  Charafterillics 
of  Men,  Manners,  Opinions,  and  Times,  he  com- 
pleted the  whole  of  his  works  which  he  intended  for 
the  public  eye.  Not  long  before  his  death  he  had 
fi  rmcd  a  fcheme  of  writing  a  difcourfe  on  painting, 
fctilpture,  and  the  other  arti  of  defign,  which,  if  he 
had  lived  to  have  fini{hed  it,  might  have  proved  a  very 
pleafing  and  uleful  work,  as  he  had  a  fine  tafte  in  fub- 
jetlj  of  that  kind  :  but  his  premature  deceafe  prevent- 
ed his  makinsf  any  great  ptogrefs  in  the  undertaking. 
The  Earl  of  Shafteibury  had  an  efteem  for  the  works 
of  the  bed  Engllih  divines  ;  one  remarkable  inllance 
of  which  was  difplaycd  in  hi.s  writing  a  Pieface  to  a 
volume  of  Dr  Wliicticot's  Sermons,  publUhed  in  169S. 
Copies  of  thele  lermons  had  been  taken  in  Ihort-hand, 
as  they  were  delivered  from  the  pulpit  ;  and  the  Earl 
had  fo  high  an  opinion  of  them,  that  he  not  only  in- 
troduced them  to  the  world  by  his  Preface,  but  had 
them  printed  under  his  own  particular  infpeclion.  In 
his  Letters  to  a  Young  Man  at  the  Univerfity,  he  fpeaks 
of  Bilhop  Burnet  and  Dr  Hoadly  in  terms  of  great 
applaiife,  and  has  done  jullice  to  the  merits  of  Tillot- 
fon,  Barrow,  Chllllngworth,  and  Hammond,  as  the 
chief  pillars  of  the  church  againft  fanaticifm.  But 
whatever  regard  his  lordfliip  might  have  for  fome  of 
our  divines,  it  was  to  the  writings  of  antiquity  that  his 
admiration  was  principally  diretled.  I'hcfe  were  the 
conftant  cbjeils  of  his  iludy,  and  from  them  he  formed 
his  fyftem  of  phiiolophy,  which  was  of  the  civil,  focial, 
and  thclftic  kind. 

Of  Lord  Shaftefbury's  charafter  as  a  writer,  differ- 
ent reprcfcntacions  have  been  given.  As  one  of  his 
greatelt  admirers,  maybe  mentioned  Lord  Monboddo  ; 
who,  fpeaking  of  his  Rhapfodift  in  particular,  does  not 
hefitate  to  pronounce  it  not  only  the  beil  dialogue  in 
Engliih,  out  of  all  degree  of  comparilon,  but  the 
fubllmeft  philofophy  ;  and.  If  we  will  join  with  it  the 
Inquiry,  the  completed  fyftcm  both  of  morality  and 
tlieology  that  we  have  in  our  language,  and,  at  the 
fame  time,  of  the  greateH  beauty  and  elegance  for  the 
flyle  and  corap')fitlon. 

Even  feveral  of  the  authois  who  have  diftinguiilied 
themfelves  by  their  direft  oppofition  to  many  of  the  fen- 
timents  which  occur  in  the  Cliarafteriftlcs,  have  never- 
tlielefs  mixed  no  fmall  degree  of  applaufe  with  their  cen- 
fures.  "  I  have  again  perufed,  with  frefli  pleafure  and 
frcfti  concern  (fays  Mr  Balguy,  in  his  Letter  to  a  Delft), 
tlie  volumes  of  CharaCteriltics — I  heartily  wifli  the  noble 
author  had  been  as  unprejudiced  in  writing  as  I  was  in 
reading.  If  he  had,  I  am  perfuaded  his  readers  would 
have  found  double  pleafure  and  double  inftruflion.  It 
feems  to  me,  that  his  lordfhip  had  little  or  no  tempta- 
tiiin  to  purine  any  fingi'iarities  of  opinion  by  way  of  di- 
llinfijon.  HI3  fine  genkis  would  fufficienlly  have  dlllin- 
guilhtd  him  from  vulgar  authors  in  the  high  road  of 
truth  and  good  fenfe  ;  on  which  account  his  deviations 
fcem  the  more  to  be  lamented.  The  purity  and  polite- 
nc£s  of  his  ftyle,  and  the  delicacy   of  his  fentinients, 


are  and  mud  be  acknowledged  by  all  readers  of  tafte  Cooper 
and  fincerity.  But  neverthelefs,  as  his  beauties  are  '  < 
not  eafy  to  be  overlooked,  fo  neither  are  his  blemifh- 
es.  His  works  appear  to  be  Uained  with  fo  many  grofs 
errors,  and  his  fine  thoughts  are  fo  often  mingled  with 
abfurdities,  that  however  we  may  be  charmed  with  the 
one,  we  are  forced  to  condemn  the  other."  Mr  Bal- 
guy  hath  farther  obferved,  with  regard  to  the  Inquiry 
concerning  Virtue,  which  is  the  immediate  objeft  of 
hia  animadverfion,  that  though  he  cannot  agree  in  every 
particular  contained  in  it,  he  finds  little  more  to  do 
than  to  tell  how  much  he  admires  It ;  and  that  he  thinks 
it  indeed,  in  the  main,  a  performance  fo  juft  and  exaft 
as  to  delerve  higher  praifes  than  he  is  able  to  give  it. 

Dr  Brown,  in  his  Effay  on  the  Charafteriftics,  ob- 
ferves,  that  the  Earl  of  Shaftelbuty  hath  in  that  per- 
formance mingled  beauties  and  blots,  faults  and  excel- 
lencies, with  a  liberal  and  unfparing  hand.  At  the 
fame  time,  the  Doftor  applauds  that  generous  fpirit  of 
freedom  which  fhlnes  throughout  the  whole.  Another 
direA  antagonill  of  the  Earl  of  Shafteibury,  Dr  Le- 
land,  has  obferved,  that  no  impartial  man  will  deny 
him  the  praife  of  a  fine  genius.  "  The  quality  of  the 
writer  (continues  the  DoAor),  his  lively  and  beautiful 
imagination,  the  dehcacy  of  tafte  he  hath  fliown  in 
many  inftances,  and  the  graces  and  embelliihments  o£ 
his  Uyle,  though  perhaps  fometimes  too  affefted,  have 
procuted  him  many  admirers.  To  which  may  be  add- 
ed his  refined  fentiments  on  the  beauty  and  excellency 
of  virtue,  and  that  he  hath  often  fpoken  honourably 
of  a  juft  and  good  Providence,  which  minifters  and 
governs  the  whole  in  the  beft  manner;  and  hath  ftrong- 
ly  afferted,  in- oppofition  to  Mr  Hobbes,  the  natural 
difference  between  good  and  evil ;  and  that  man  was 
originally  formed  fur  focicty,  and  the  exercife  of  mu- 
tual kindnefs  and  benevolence  ;  and  not  only  fo,  but 
for  religion  and  piety  too.  Thefe  things  have  very- 
much  prejudiced  many  perfons  in  his  favour,  and  pre- 
pared them  for  receiving-,  almoft  implicitly,  whatever 
he  hath  advanced."  Dr  Johnfon,  as  we  are  informed 
by  Sir  John  Hawkins,  bore  no  good-will  to  Lord 
Shaftcfbury  ;  «'  neitner  did  he  feem  at  all  to  rehlh  the 
cant  of  the  Shaftelburian  fchool,  nor  inclined  to  ad- 
mit the  pretenfions  of  thofe  who  profcffcd  it,  to  taftcs 
and  perceptions  which  are  not  common  to  all  men  ;  a 
tafte  in  morals,  in  poetry,  and  profe  writing,  in  paint- 
ing, in  fculptuie,  in  mulic,  in  architecture,  and  in 
government  !  A  tafte  that  cenfurcd  evciy  produftion, 
and  induced  them  to  reprobate  every  eftoit  of  genius 
that  fell  ihort  of  their  own  capricious  ftandard." 

The  grand  point  in  which  our  noble  author  has  ren- Slog.E, 
dered  himfelf  julily  obnoxious  to   the   friends  of  reli-'>'"'-iv- 
gion,  is  his  having  interfperfed  through  the  CharaAer- 
iftics  a  number  of  infinuations  that  appear  to  be  unfa- 
vourable to  the  caufe  of  revelation.     There  have  not 
however,  been  wanting  many  among  his  admirers,  who 
have  thought  that  he  ought  not  to  be  reckoned  among 
the  dcillical  writers.      The   author  of  Animadverfions 
upon  Dr  Brown's  three  Effays  on  the  Chaiaftciillica 
obfcives,  that   it   is  "  imprudent,  to  fay  no  worfc,  irj 
fome   fincere  advocates  for  ChriUianity,  to  rcjtti  the 
friendly  advice  ard  affjllance  of  fo  mallerly  a  writer  as 
the  Lord  Shaftefbury,  and  to  give  him  up  to  the  deifts^ 
as  a  patron  of  infidehty."     But  it   is    matter  of  faift,. 
and  not  confiderations  of  prudence  or  imprudence,  than- 

mult 


.  Jprl'/,- 


coo  [43 

Cnoper.  mud  determine  the  queftion.  In  fiipport  of  his  Lord- 
""^Y— '  (hip's  having  been  a  bdievcr  in  our  holy  religion,  may 
be  alleged,  his  Preface  to  Whichc.^t's  Sermons,  and  his 
Letters  to  a  Student  at  the  Univerfiiy  :  in  both  which 
works  he  conllantly  exprelTes  hinifclt  in  fuch  language 
8s  fecms  to  indicate  that  he  was  really  a  Chriltiaii. 
And  with  legard  to  the  Letters  it  may  be  remarked, 
that  they  were  written  in  1707,  1708,  and  1709,  not 
many  years  before  his  lordiliip's  death.  Nevcrlhelefs, 
there  are  in  the  Charadeiillics  l"o  many  fceptical  paf- 
fages,  that  he  mud  be  coiifidered  as  having  been  a 
doubter  at  leaft,  if  not  an  abfolute  dilbeliever,  with 
refpeft  to  revelation.  But  if  he  mull  be  ranked  a- 
mongft  the  deiUs,  we  agree  with  the  obfervation  of 
one  of  his  biographers,  that  he  is  a  very  different  dcill 
from  numbers  who  have  appeared  in  th'at  cliarailer  ; 
iiis  (Teneral  principles  being  much  lefs  exceptionable. 

The  ftyle  of  Lord  Shaftcfbury's  compolitions  is  alfo 
a  point  upon  which  various  and  contradidlory  fenti- 
ments  have  been  entertained.  But  for  the  fulled  and 
mod  judicious  criticifm  that  has  appeared  upon  that 
fubjed,  we  may  refer  the  reader  to  Dr  Blair's  Lec- 
tures on  Rhetoric  and  Belles  Ltttres,  Vol.  I.  p.  1 92, 
193,  207,  208,  234,  i63,  and  396—398.   ' 

CoofER  (Samuel),  a  ver/  eminent  Englidi  minia- 
ture painter,  born  in  1 609,  and  bred  under  the  care  of 
Ms  uncle  John  Hoikins.  He  derived,  however,  his 
principal  excellence  from  a  dudy  of  the  works  of  Van 
Dyck,  in  whofe  time  he  lived  ;  inforanch  that  he  was 
commonly  ftyled  "  Van  Dyck  in  little."  His  pencil  was 
chiefly  confined  to  the  head,  in  which,  with  all  its  de- 
pendences, efpccially  the  hair,  he  was  inimitable  ;  but 
if  he  defcended  lower,  his  incorreClnefs  was  noto- 
rious. He  died  in  1672;  and  his  pieces  are  univerfally 
admired  all  over  Europe,  felling  for  incredible  prices. 
He  had  a  brother,  Alexander,  likewife  a  good  mini- 
ature painter,  who  became  hmncr  to  Chridina  queen 
of  Sweden. 

Cooper  (Thomas),  a  pious  and  learned  prelate  in 
the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth,  was  born  at  Oxford  a- 
bout  the  year  15 17.  He  was  educated  in  the  fchool 
adjoining  to  Magdalene  college,  of  which  he  was  a  choi- 
rlder;  where  alfo,  in  1539,  he  was  elefted  probation- 
er, and  fellow  in  the  following  year.  About  the  year 
1546,  quitting  his  fellowfliip,  he  applied  himfelf  to  the 
ftudy  of  phyfic,  in  1556  took  the  degree  of  bachelor  in 
that  faculty,  and  pradtifed  as  phyfician  at  Oxford.  Be- 
ing inclined  to  the  Protedant  religion,  probably  this  was 
only  a  prudent  fufpenfion  of  his  final  intentions  diu-ing 
the  Popidi  reign  of  queen  Mary  :  for,  on  the  accelfion 
of  Elizabeth,  lie  refumed  the  dudy  of  divinity  ;  be- 
came a  celebrated  preacher,  was  made  dean  of  Chrid- 
church  and  vice  chancellor  of  the  univerlity,  having 
accumulated  the  degrees  of  bachelor  and  dotlor  in 
divinity.  In  1569  he  was  made  dean  of  Gloucedcr ; 
and,  the  year  following,  blfhop  of  Lincoln  :  whence, 
in  1584,  he  was  tranflated  to  the  fee  of  Wincheder  ; 
in  which  city  he  died  on  the  29th  of  April  1594.,  and 
was  buried  in  the  cathedral  there,  on  the  fouth  fide  of 
the  choir.  The  feveral  writers  who  have  mentioned 
"  Dr  Cooper,  unanimoufly  give  him  the  character  of  an 
eloquent  preacher,  a  learned  divine,  and  a  good  man. 
He  had  the  misfortune  while  at  Oxford  to  mairy  a 
lady  whofe  gallantries  became  notorious:  neverthelefs 
he  would  not  be  divorced  from  her ;  knowing  that  he 


o    3  coo 

could  not  live  without  a  wife,  he  did  not  choofe  "  to 
charge  hie  confcience  with  the  fcanilal  of  a  fecond  ' 
marriage."—  He  wrote,  1.  The  Epitome  e»  Chronicles 
from  the  17th  year  after  Chrid  to  1540,  and  thence 
after  to  1560.  2.  Thefaurus  lingux  fvomanje  et  Bri- 
tannica:.  This  dictionary,  which  is  an  improvement 
upon  Elyot's,  was  much  admired  by  queen  Ehzabcth, 
who  thence  forward  determined  to  promote  tlie  au- 
thor. 3.  A  brief  expofition  of  fuch  chapters  of  the 
Old  Tedament  as  uiually  are  read  in  the  church,  at 
common  prayer,  on  Sundays  throughout  the  year. 
4.  An  admonition  to  the  people  of  England.  5.  Ser- 
mons. 

Cooper  (John-Gilbert),  a  polite  writer  of  the 
prefent  age,  was  born  in  1723;  and  was  defcended 
from  an  ancient  family  in  the  county  of  Nottingham, 
whofe  fortune  was  injured  in  the  1  ill  century  by  their 
attachment  to  the  principles  of  monarchy.  He  refidcd 
at  Thu'garton  prioiy  in  Nottingiiamdilre,  which  was 
granted  by  King  Henry  VIII.  to  William  Cooper,  one 
of  his  ancedors.  This  manficwi  Mr  Cooper  inherited 
from  his  father,  who  in  1739  was  high-lheriff  of  the 
county  ;  and  tranfmittcd  it  to  his  fon,  who  filled  the 
fame  refpectable  office  in  1783.  After  paffing  through 
Wedminder  fchool  under  Dr  John  Nicoll,  along  with 
the  late  Lord  Albemarle,  Lord  Buckinc^hamftiire,  Ma- 
jor Juhnlon,  Mr  George  Afliby,  and  many  other  emi.- 
nent  and  ingenious  men,  he  became  in  1743  a  Fellow- 
Commoner  of  Trinity-college,  Cambridge,  and  refided 
there  two  or  three  years  ;  but  quitted  the  univcrfity 
on  his  marriage  with  Sulanna  the  daughter  of  William 
Wrighte,  Efq;  fon  to  the  Lord  Keeper  of  that  name, 
and  Recorder  of  Leiceder  1729  — 1763.  In  the  year 
1745  he  commenced  author  by  the  publication  of  The 
Power  of  Harmony,  a  poem  in  4to  ;  and  in  :  7^6  and 
1747  he  produced  fcvcral  Effays  and  Poems  under  the 
fignature  of  Philalelhes,  in  a  periodical  wo.k  called 
The  Mufeum,  publidied  by  MrDodfley.  In  the  fame 
year  he  came  forward  as  an  author,  witli  his  name,  by 
a  work  which  received  mucli  affidance  from  his  fricud 
the  Reverend  John  Jackfon  of  Leiceder,  who  commu- 
nicated feveral  learned  notes,  in  which  he  contrived  to 
manifed  his  diilike  to  his  formidable  antaffonid  Mr 
Warburton.  It  was  intitled  The  Life  of  Socrates, 
collected  from  the  Memorabilia  of  Xenophon  and  the 
Dialogues  of  Plato,  and  illudiated  farther  by  Ari- 
deillc,  Diodorus  Siculus,  Cicero,  Proclus,  Apuleius, 
Maximus  Tyrius,  Bocthius,  Diogenes  Laerlius,  Au- 
his  Gellius,  and  others,  1 749,  8vo.  In  this  work  Mr 
Cooper  gave  evident  marks  of  fuperior  genius  ;  wann, 
impetuous,  and  impatient  of  redraint.  In  1754,  Mf 
Cooper  publldied  his  Letters  on  Tade,  8vo  ;  an  ele- 
gant little  volume,  on  which  no  fmall  (liare  of  his  re- 
putation is  founded;  and  in  1 755,  The  Tomb  of 
Shakefpeare,  a  Vifion,  4to;  a  decent  performance,  but 
in  wl-.ich  thei-e  is  more  of  wit  and  application  than  of 
nature  or  genius.  In  1756  he  affilted  Mr  Moore,  by 
writing  fome  numbers  of  The  World  ;  and  attempted' 
to  roule  the  indignation  of  his  countrymen  againd  the 
Hedians,  at  that  junfture  brought  over  to  defend  the 
nation,  in  a  poem  called  The  Genius  of  Britain,  ad- 
dreded  to  Mr  Pitt.  In  1758,  he  publilhed  Epidles  to 
the  Great,  from  Aridippus  in  Retiremsnt,  410  ;  and 
The  Call  of  Aridippus,  Epidle  IV.  to  Mark  Aken- 
fide,  M.  D.  Alfo,  A  Father's  Advice  to  liii  Son,  in  4to. 

la 


COP 


[  431  1 


In'the  Annual  Regifter  of  the  fame  yearishisTran/laiion 
of  An  Epiftle  from  the  King  of  Pruffia  to  Monlieur  Vol- 
taire. In  1759,  he  publiflied  \'cr  Vert;  or,  the  Nun- 
nery Parrot;  an  Heroic  Poem,  in  four  cantos;  infcribej 
to  the  Abbefs  of  D***;  tranllated  from  the  Frencli 
of  MonTicur  GrLlTot,  410  ;  reprinted  in  the  firll  vo- 
lume of  Dilly's  Repolitory,  1777;  and,  in  1764, 
Poems  on  feveral  Subjefts,  by  the  Author  of  the  Lite 
of  Socraes;  with  a  prefiitory  Advtrtifement  by  Mr 
Dodfley.  In  this  little  volume  were  included  all  the 
feparate  poetical  pieces  which  have  been  already  men- 
tioned, excepting  Ver  Vert,  which  is  a  fprightly  com- 
pofition.  Mr  Cooper  died  at  his  father's  houfe  in  May- 
Fair,  after  a  long  and  cxciiicialing  illncfs  arifuig  from 
the  ilone,  April  14.  1769. 

CO-ORDiNA  TE,  fomcthing  of  equal  order,  rank, 
or  degree,  with  another. 

COOT,  in  ornithology.      See  Fulica. 

COOTWICH  (John),  doaurof  laws,  was  born  at 
Utrecht,  and  fpent  great  part  of  his  life  in  travelling. 
He  publilhed  in  Latin,  in  1619,  an  account  of  his  jour- 
ney from  Jerufalem  and  from  Syria;  wliich  is  very  fcarce 
and  in  high  elleem.     Time  of  his  death  unceitain. 

COPAIBA,  or  Baljam  of  Cce.-iiBJ,  a  liquid  refi- 
nous  juice,  flowing  from  inciiions  made  in  the  trunk 
of  the  copaifera  baliamum.  See  the  following  article. 
This  juice  is  clear  and  tranfparent,  of  a  whitifh  or  pale 
yellowiih  colour,  an  agreeable  fmell,  and  a  bitterifli 
pungent  tafte.  It  is  ufually  about  the  confiftence  of 
oil,  or  a  little  thicker  :  when  long  kept,  it  becomes 
nearly  as  thick  as  honey,  retaining  its  cltarnefs  ;  but 
has  not  been  obferved  to  grow  dry  or  folid,  as  moft  of 
the  other  refinous  juices  do.  We  fometimes  meet 
with  a  thick  fort  of  baifam  of  copaiba,  which  is  not  at 
all  tranfparent,  or  much  lefs  fo  than  the  foregoing,  and 
generally  has  a  portion  of  turbid  watery  liquor  at  the 
bottom.  This  fort  is  probably  either  adulterated  by 
the  mixture  of  other  fubftances,  or  has  been  extrafted 
by  coftion  from  the  bark  and  branches  of  the  tree  :  its 
fmell  and  tafte  are  much  lefs  pleafant  than  thofe  of  the 
genuine  baifam.  Pure  baifam  of  copaiba  diiTolves  en- 
tirely in  reftified  fpirit,  efpecially  if  the  menftruum  be 
previouily  alkalized;  the  folution  has  a  very  fragrant 
fmell.  Diftilled  with  water,  it  yields  a  large  quantity 
of  a  limpid  efiential  oil ;  and  in  a  ftrong  heat,  without 
addition,  a  blue  oil. 

The  baifam  of  copaiba  is  an  ufeful  corroborating  de- 
tergent medicine,  accompanied  with  a  degree  of  irri- 
tation. It  ftrengthens  the  nervous  fyttem,  tends  to 
loofen  the  belly,  in  large  dofes  proves  purgative,  pro- 
motes urine,  an-d  cleanfes  and  heals  exulcerations  in 
the  urinary  paflages,  which  it  is  fuppofed  to  perform 
more  effeCluaUy  than  any  of  the  other  balfams.  Fuller 
obferves,  that  it  gives  the  urine  an  intenfcly  bitter 
tafte,  but  not  a  violet  fmell  as  the  turpentines  do. 

This  baliam  has  been  principally  celebrated  in  gkets 
and  the  fluor  Jbus,  and  externally  as  a  vulnerary.  The 
author  above  mentioned  recommends  it  likewife  in  dy- 
fcnteries,  in  fcorbutic  cachexies,  in  diftafes  of  the 
brealt  and  lungs,  and  in  an  acrimonious  or  piitrefcent 
Itate  of  the  juices:  he  fays,  he  has  known  very  danger- 
ous coughs,  which  manifeftly  tlireatened  a  confump- 
tion,  cured  by  the  ufe  of  this  baifam  alone  ;  and  that, 
Botwithftanding  its  being  hot  and  bitter,   it  has  good 


Coparce- 
ners. 


COP 

cffefts   even   in    he<Hic   cafes.     Moil  phyficians  feem  Copaifcri 
now,   however,   to  confider  balfams  and  refms  too  fti- 
mulant  to  be  ventured  on  in  phthilical  atfeftions. 

The  dofe  of  this  medicine  raiely  exceeds  20  or  30  ——^  -  J 
drops,  though  fome  dirtrt  60  or  more.  It  may  be 
conveniently  taken  in  the  form  of  an  ela;ofaccharum,  or 
in  that  of  an  emullion,  into  which  it  may  be  reduced  by 
triturating  it  with  almonds,  or  rather  with  a  thick  mu- 
cilage of  gum-arabic,  till  they  are  well  incoi-porated,  and 
then  gradually  adding  a  proper  quantity  of  water. 

COPAIFERA,  in  botany:  A  genus  of  the  mono- 
gj'uia  order,  belonging  to  the  decandria  clals  of  plants; 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  thofe  of 
which  the  order  is  doubtful.  There  is  no  calyx  ;  there 
are  four  petals  ;  the  legumen  ovate  ;  one  feed  with  an 
arillas  or  coat  refembling  a  berry.  We  know  but  of 
one  fpecies,  the  balfamum,  being  that  which  yields  the 
copaiba  baifam  mentioned  in  the  preceding  article. 
This  tree  grows  near  a  village  called  A^apcl,  in  the 
province  of  Antiochi,  in  the  Spanifh  Weft  Indies, 
about  ten  days  journey  from  Carthagcna.  There  are 
great  numbers  of  thefe  trees  in  the  woods  about  this- 
village,  which  grow  to  the  height  of  50  or  60  feet. 
Some  of  thefe  trees  do  not  yield  any  of  the  baliam  ; 
thofe  which  do,  are  diftinguifiied  by  a  ridge  which 
runs  along  their  trunks.  Thefe  trees  are  wounded  in 
the  ctntre,  and  they  place  calabafh  fhells,  or  fome  o- 
ther  veflels,  to  the  wounded  part  to  receive  the  baifam, 
which  will  all  flow  out  in  a  fliort  time.  One  of  thefe 
trees  will  yield  five  or  fix  gallons  of  baifam  :  but  tho' 
they  will  thrive  well  after  being  tapped,  yet  they  ne- 
ver afford  any  more  baifam. 

COPAL,  improperly  called  gum  copal,  is  a  gum  of 
the  refinous  kind  brought  from  New  Spain,  being  the 
concrete  juice  of  a  tree  *  which  grows  in  thefe  parts.  *  ^^""  ^''' 
It  comes  to  us  in  irregular  mafles,  fome  of  whfch^  '"' 
are  tranfparent,  and  of  different  fliades  as  to  colour, 
from  a  light  yellow  to  a  deep  brown.  Some  pieces 
are  whitifli  and  femitranfparent.  To  the  fmell  it 
is  more  agreeable  than  frankincenfe  ;  but  hath  nei- 
ther the  folubility  in  water  common  to  gums,  nor  in 
fpirit  of  wine  common  to  refins,  at  lead  in  any  con- 
fiderable  degree.  By  thefe  properties  it  refembles 
amber ;  which  has  induced  fome  to  think  it  a  mineral 
bitunrtn  refembling  that  fubftance.  In  diftillation  it 
yields  an  oil,  which  like  mineral  petrolea  is  indiffolu- 
ble  in  fpirit  of  wine.  Copal  itfelf  is  foluble  in  the  effen- 
tial  oils,  particularly  in  that  of  lavender,  but  not  eafily 
in  the  exprefled  ones.  It  may,  however,  be  diffolved' 
in  linfeed  oil  by  digeftion,  wiih  a  heat  very  little  lefs- 
than  is  fuflicient  to  boil  or  decorapofc  the  oil.  This 
folution,  diluted  with  fpirit  of  turpentine,  forms  a- 
beautifnl  tranfparent  varnifli,  which  when  pioperly 
applied,  and  flowly  dried,  is  very  hard  and  durable. 
This  varnilh  is  applied  to  fnuff-boxes,  tea-boards,, 
and  other  utenfils.  It  preferves  and  gives  luftre  to 
paintings,  and  greatly  reftores  the  decayed  colours 
of  old  pidtures,  by  filling  up  the  cracks  and  rendering 
the  furfaces  capable  of  reflecting  hght  more  uniformly. 

COPARCENARY,  the  fliare  or  quota  of  a  co- 
parcener. 

COPARCENERS,  (from  con  andpcirfinpi,  "part- 
ner;"), or  Parceners  ;  fuch  as  have  cqu.il  porlious 
in  the  inltcritance  of  their  anceftor. 

Co- 


COP 


[   432   1 


COP 


■Cope 

H, 
Copenha- 
gen. 


Coparceners  are  fo  either  by  law  or  cuftom.  Copar- 
ceners by  law,  are  the  ilTue  female  ;  which,  in  default 
of  a  inalc  heir,  come  equally  to  the  lands  of  their  an- 
ceftor.  Coparceners  by  cuftom,  are  thofe  who,  by  fome 
peculiar  cuftom  of  the  country,  challenge  equal  parts  in 
fuch  lands  ;  as  in  Kent,  by  the  cuftom  of  gavelkind. 
The  crown  of  England  is  not  fubjeft  to  coparcenary. 

COPE,  an  ecclefiaftical  ornament,  ufually  worn 
by  chanters  and  fubchanters,  when  they  officiate  in 
folemnity.  It  reaches  from  the  ihoulders  to  the  feet. 
The  ancients  called  A  pluvhik. — The  word  is  alfo  iifed 
for  the  roof  or  covering  of  a  houfe,  &c. 

Cope  is  alfo  the  name  of  an  ancient  cuftom  or  tri- 
bute due  to  the  king  or  lord  of  the  foil,  out  of  the 
lead-mines  in  fome  part  of  Dcrbyfliire;  of  which  Maa- 
love  faith  thus : 

Egrefs  an.l  regrefs  to  the  Itinp's  highway, 
The  miners  have  ;  and  lot  2nd  tofe  they  pay: 
The  thirteenth  dilh  of  ore  within  their  mine, 
To  the  lord,  (or  lot,  they  pay  at  meafuri^ig  time  ; 
Sixpence  a  lead  for  cojii  the  lord  demands. 
And  that  is  paid  to  the  burghm  Jler' s  hands. 

This  word  by  doomfday-book,  as  Mr  Hagar  hath  In- 
terpreted it,   fignifies  a  hill :  and  cope  is  taken  for  the 
fupreme  cover,  as  the  cope  of  heaven. 
COPEL.     See  Cupel. 
•  COPENHAGEN,  the  'capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
Denmark,  iituated  on  the  eaftern  fhore  of  the  ifland  of 
Zealand,  upon   a  fine   bay  of  the  Baltic  fea,  not  far 
from  the  ftrait  called  the  Sound.     E.  Long.  13.  o.  N. 

Lat.  55.  30.  .      .     .     .^ 

The  precife  date  of  the  foundation  of  this  city  is  dif- 
puted  ;  but  the  moft  probable  account  Is,  that  it  took 
its  rife  from  a  caftle  bulk  on  the  fpot  in  the  year  1 168, 
as  a  proteftion  againft  the  pirates  which  at  that  time 
fwarmed  In  the  Baltic.  The  convenlency  of  the  fitua- 
tlon,  and  the  fecurlty  afforded  by  the  caftle,  foon  in- 
duced a  number  of  the  inhabitants  of  Zealand  to  refort 
thither :  but  It  was  not  diftingulflied  by  the  royal  refi- 
dence  until  1443,  during  the  reign  of  Chriftopher  of  Ba- 
varia; fince  which  period  it  has  been  gradually  enlarged 
and  beautified,  and  Is  become  the  capital  of  Denmark. 

Copenhagen  Is  the  beft  built  city  of  the  north  ;  for 
although  Peterftiurgh  excels  It  In  fuperb  edifices,  yet, 
as  it  contains   no  wooden  houfes,  it  does  not  difplay 
that   ftriking  contraft  of  meannefs   and   magnificence, 
but  In  general  exhibits  a  more  equable  and  uniform  ap- 
pearance.    The  town  Is  furrounded  towards  the  land 
with  regular  ramparts  and  baftions,  a  broad  ditch  full 
of   water,    and  a  few   outworks :    Its   circumference 
meafures  between  four  and  five  miles.    The  ftreets  are 
well  paved,  with  a  foot-way  on  each  fide,  but  too  nar- 
row and  inconvenient  for  general  ufe.      The  greateil 
part  of  the  buildings  are  of  brick ;  and  a  few  are  of 
free-ftone  brought  from  Germany.     The  houfes  of  the 
nobility  are  in  general  fplendid,  and  conftruiiled  in  the 
Italian  ftyle  of  architedture  :  the  palace,   which   was 
erefted  by  Chriftian  VI.   is   a  large  pile  of  building ; 
the  front  is  of  ftone,  and   the  wings  of  brick   ftuc- 
coed  ;  the  fulte   of  apartments  is  princely  ;  but  the 
external  appearance  is  more  grand  than  elegant. 

The  bufy  fpiiit  of  commerce  Is  vifible  in  this  city, 

which  contains  about  80,000  inluibltants.     The  haven 

\js  alvvavs  crowded  with  merchant  (hips;  and  the  ftreets 

are  interfcclrd  by  bro5.d  canul-,,  which  bring  the  ir.er- 

N^  91. 


chandize  clofe  to  the  warehoufes  that  line  the  quays. 
This  city  owes  its  principal  beauty  to  a  dreadful  Hre  in 
1728,  that  deftroyed  frve  cluirches  and  67  ftreets,  which 
have  been  fince  rebuilt  in  the  modern  ftyle.  The  new  _ 
part  of  the  town,  railed  by  the  late  King  Frederic  V. 
is  extremely  beautiful,  fcarcely  inferior  to  Bath.  It 
confifts  of  an  oftagon,  containing  four  uniform  and 
elegant  buildings  of  hewn  ftone,  and  of  four  broad 
ftreets  leading  to  it  in  oppofite  direftions.  In  the 
middle  of  the  area  ftands  an  equeftrian  ftatue  of  Fre- 
deric V.  in  bronze,  as  big  as  life,  which  coft  80,000  1. 
The  Royal  Mufeum,  or  Cabinet  of  Rarities,  merits 
the  attention  of  travellers.  This  coUeftlon,  which 
was  begun  by  Frederic  III.  Is  depofited  in  eight  apart- 
ments, and  ranged  in  the  following  order :  animals, 
fliells,  minerals,  paintings,  antiquities,  medals,  dreffes, 
arms  and  implements  of  the  Laplanders. 

Part  of  Copenhagen,  which  is  called  Chrijl'ianjljcifen, 
is  built  upon  the  Ille  of  Amak,  which  generally  at- 
trafts  the  curlofity  of  foreigners ;  (fee  Amak).  From 
this  place,  to  which  the  main  city  is  joined  by  a  bridge, 
the  markets  are  fupplied  with  fowl,  beef,  mutton,  veni- 
fon,  corn,  and  culinary  vegetables,  which  are  produced 
here  in  the  greateil  abundance. 

COPERNICAN,  in  general,  fomething  belonging 
to  Copernicus.     Hence, 

CoPF.RNiCAN  S^em  or  Hypothefis,  that  fyftem  of  the 
world,  wherein  the  fun  is  fuppofcd  to  reft  in  the  centre, 
and  the  planets,  with  the  earth,  to  move  in  ellipfes 
round  him.     See  Copernicus. 

COPERNICUS  (Nicolaus),an  eminent  aftronomer, 
was  born  at  Thorn  iniPrudia,  Jan.  10.  1472.     He 
was  taught  the  Latin  and  Greek  languages  at  home ; 
and    afterwards  fent    to    Cracovia,  where  he  ftudied 
philofophy  and  phyfic.      His  genius  in  the  mean  time 
was  naturally  turned  to  mathematics,  which  he  pur- 
fued  through  all  its  various  branches.      He  fet  out  for 
Italy  when  he  was  23  years  of  age  ;  but  ftaid  at  Bo- 
nonia  fome  time,  for  the  fake  of  being  with  the  cele- 
brated aftronomer  of  that  place,  Dominlcus  Maria  ; 
whofe  converfation,  however,  and  company,  he  affec- 
ted, not  fo  much  as  a  learner,  as  an  affiftant  to  him  In 
making  his  obfervations.     From  thence  he  paffed  to 
Rome,  where  he  was  no  fooner  arrived  than  he  was 
confidered  as  not  inferior  to  the  famous  Rcgiomonta- 
nus  ;  and  acquired  in  ftiort  fo  great  a  reputation,  that 
he   was  chofen    profeffor  of  mathematics,    which  he 
taught  for  a  long  time  with  great  applaufe.     He  alfo 
made   fome  aftronomical  obfervations  there  about  the 
year  1 5C0.      Returning  to  his  own  country  fome  years 
after,  he  began  to  apply  his  vaft  knowledge  in  mathe- 
matics to  correCl  the  fyftem  of  aftronomy  which  then 
prevailed.      He  fet  himfelf  to   collect  all   the   books 
which  had  been  written  by  philofophers  and   aftvono- 
iiurs,  and  to  examine  all  the  various  hypothefes  they 
had  invented  for  the  folution   of  the  celeftlal  pheno- 
mena ;  to  try  if  a  more  fymmetrical  order  and  conlli- 
tution  of  the  parts  of  the  world  could  not  be  dlfco- 
vered,  and  amorejuft  and  exquifite  harmony  in  its  mo- 
tions eltabhdied,  than  what  t!ie   aftronomers  of  thofe 
times  focafily  admitted.  But  of  all  their  hypothefes  none 
pleafed  him  fo  well  as  the^Pythagorean,  which  m.ade 
the  fun  to  be  the  centre  of  the  fyftem,  and  fuppofed 
the  earth  to  move  not  ^nly  round  the  fun,  but  round 
its  owi;  axis   alio,     lie  thought  he   difcerned  much 

beautiful 


Coperni- 
can, 

Coperni- 
cus. 


I 


C    O    P 


[     453     1 


GOP 


ipennf'S.beautlftil  order  and   proportion   in  this;  and  that  all 
Cop!  ti.    that  embananment  and  perplexity  from  epicycles   and 
-—f-—-  excentrics,  which  attended  the   Ptolemaic  hypothefes, 
would  here  be  entirely  removed. 

This  fyllcm,  then,  lie  began  to  confider,  and  to  write 
upon,  when  iW  was  about  35  years  of  age.  He  cm- 
ployed  himfelf  in  contemplating  the  phenomena  care- 
fully ;  in  making  mathematical  calculations ;  in  exa- 
mining the  obfervations  of  the  ancients,  and  in  making 
new  ones  of  his  own  ;  and  after  more  than  20  years 
chiefly  fpent  in  this  manner,  he  brought  his  fcheme  to 
perfeilion,  and  cftablirtied  that  fyllem  of  the  world 
which  goes  by  his  name,  and  is  now  univerfally  re- 
ceived, (fee  Astronomy,  no  22.)  His  fyilem,  how- 
ever, was  then  looked  upon  as  a  moft  dangerous  here- 
fy  :  for  which  he  was  thrown  into  prifon  by  Pope 
Urban  VIII.  and  not  fulfered  to  come  out  till  he  had 
recanted  his  opinion  ;  that  is,  till  he  had  renounced  the 
teftimony  of  his  fenfes.  He  died  the  24'th  of  May 
1543,  in  the  yotli  year  of  his  age. 

This  extraordinary  man  had  been  made  canon  of 
Worms  by  his  mother's  brother,  Lucas  Wazelrodius, 
who  was  bifhop  of  that  place.  He  was  not  only  the 
greateil  of  aftronomers,  but  a  perfect  mafter  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  tongues ;  to  all  which  he  joined  the 
greateft  piety  and  innocence  of  manners. 

Copernicus,  the  name  of  an  altronomical  inftru- 
ment,  invented  by  Mr  WhiHon,  to  exhibit  the  motion 
and  phenomena  of  the  planets,  both  primary  and  fecon- 
dary.  It  is  built  upon  the  Copernican  fylleiti,  and  for 
that  reafon  called  by  li*s  name. 

COPHTI,  CoPHTS,  or  Copti,  a  name  given  to 
the  Chrillians  of  Egypt,  who  are  of  the  feA  of  Jaco- 
bites. 

The  critics  are  extremely  divided  about  the  origin 
and  orthography  of  the  word  ;  fome  write  it  Cophti, 
others  Cophtites,  Cophtitae,  Copits,  &:c.  Scaliger  de- 
rives the  name  from  Coptos,  an  anciently  celebrated 
fown  of  Egypt,  the  metropolis  of  the  fliebaid.  Kir- 
cher  lefutes  this  opinion,  and  maintains,  that  the  word 
Originally  fignities  "  cut*'  and  "  circuinfcribed  ;"  and 
was  given  thefe  people  by  the  Mahomet ms,  by  way  of 
reproach,  becaufe  of  their  pradlice  of  circumcifing : 
but  P.  Sollier,  another  Jefuit,  refutes  this  opinion. 
Scaliger  afterwards  changed  his  opinion,  and  derived 
the  word  from  Aij  vt-©-.  the  ancient  name  of  Egpyt, 
by  retrenching  the  firfl  fyllable  ;  but  this  opinion,  too, 
P.  Sollier  difputts.  Jchn  de  Leo  and  others  fay,  that 
the  Egyptians  anciently  called  their  country  Elch'iblh, 
or  Cillh,  from  Cibth  their  firfi;  king,  whence  Cophtite, 
&c.  others  fay  from  Cobtim  fecond  king  of  Egypt. 
Vanfieb  derives  the  word  Copht  from  Copt  fon  of 
Mifraim,  grandfon  of  Noah.  All  thefe  etymologies 
P.  Sollier  reje£ts,  on  this  principle,  that  were  they  true, 
the  Egyptians  ought  all  equally  to  be  called  Cophti ; 
whereas,  in  eitcft,  none  but  the  Chrillians,  and  among 
thofe  none  but  the  Jacobites,  bear  tbe  name,  the 
Mtlchitos  not  being  comprehended  under  it.  Hence 
he  choofes  to  derive  tlie  word  from  the  name  Jacobite, 
retrenching  the  full  fyllable  ;  whence,  Ccbite,  Cobea, 
-   Copta,  and  Cophta. 

The  Cophts  have  a  patriarch  who  refides  at  Cairo, 
but  he  takes  his  title  from  Alexandria:  he  has  no 
ai-chblfliop  nnd'.r  him,  but  11  or  12  bifirops.  The 
reft  of  the  clergy,  whether  fecular  or  regular,  13  com- 

VuL.V.  Part  II. 


pofed  of  the  orders  of  St  Antomy,  St  Paul,  and  St  Cophti. 
Macarius,  who  have  each  their  inonafteries.  Befides  '  "v  ■■ 
the  orders  of  priefts,  deacons,  and  fubdeacons,  the 
Cophts  have  hkewifc  archimandrites,  the  dignity 
whereof  they  confer  with  all  the  piaycrs  and  ceremo- 
nies of  a  Itrift  ordination.  Tliis  makes  a  confiderable 
diflerence  among  the  priefts  ;  and  befides  the  rank 
and  authority  it  gives  them  with  regard  to  the  religi- 
ous, it  comprehends  the  degree  and  funtlions  of  arch- 
priefts.  By  a  cuftom  of  600  years  ftanding,  if  a  prieft 
cledted  bifhop  be  not  already  archimandrite,  that  dig- 
nity muft  be  conferred  on  him  before  epifcopal  ordi- 
nation, 'i'iie  fecond  perfon  among  the  clergy,  after 
the  patriarch,  is  the  titular  pati  iarch  of  Jerufalem,  who 
alio  relides  at  Cairo,  becaule  of  the  few  Cophts  at  Je- 
rufalem ;  he  is,  in  effciSl,  little  more  than  the  bilhop 
ot  Cairo  :  only  he  goes  to  Jerufalem  every  Eafter, 
and  vifits  fome  other  places  in  Palelline  near  Egypt, 
which  own  his  jurifdiction.  To  him  belongs  the  go- 
vernment ot  the  Cophtic  church,  during  the  vacancy 
ol  the  patriarchal  fee. 

To  be  eleded  patriarch,  it  is  neceflary  the  perfon 
have  hved  all  his  life  in  continence  :  it  is  he  confers 
the  bilhoprics.  To  be  elected  billiop,  the  perlon 
muft  be  in  the  celibate ;  or,  if  he  have  been  married, 
it  muft  not  be  above  once.  The  priefts  and  inferior 
minifters  are  allowed  to  be  married  before  ordination  ; 
but  are  not  obliged  to  it,  as  Ludolphus  errontoufly 
obfcrves.  They  have  a  great  number  of  deacons,  and 
even  confer  the  dignity  frequently  on  children.  None 
but  the  loweft  rank  among  the  people  commence  ec- 
clelialiics;  whence  arifes  that  exceflive  ignorance  found 
among  them  :  yet  the  refpett  of  the  laity  towards 
the  clergy  is  very  extraordinary.  Their  office  is  longer 
than  the  Roman  office,  and  never  changes  in  any 
thing  :  they  have  three  liturgies,  which  they  vary  oc- 
calionally. 

The  monaftic  life  is  in  great  efteem  among  the 
Cophts  :  to  be  admitted  into  it,  there  is  always  re- 
quired the  confcnt  of  the  bifhop.  The  rehgious 
Cophts  make  a  vow  of  perpetual  chalUty  ;  renounce 
the  world,  and  live  with  great  aufterity  in  deferts : 
they  are  obliged  to  lleep  in  their  clothes  and  their 
girdle,  on  a  mat  ftretclied  on  the  ground  ;  and  to 
prottrate  themfelves  every  evening  150  times,  with 
their  face  and  brealt  on  the  ground.  They  are  all, 
both  men  and  women,  of  the  loweft  clafs  of  the 
people;  aqd  live  on  alms.  The  nunneries  are  proper- 
ly holpitals ;  and  iti\i  enter  but  widows  reduced  to 
beggar)-. 

F.  Roderic  reduces  the  errors  and  opinions  of  the 
Cophts  to  the  following  heads:  i.That  they  put 
away  their  wives,  and  efpouie  others  while  the  tirft  are 
living.  2.  That  they  have  fcven  facraments  ;  viz.  bap- 
tifm,  the  eiicharift,  conhrmation,  ordination,  faith,  fail- 
ing, and  prayer.  3. That  they  deny  the  Holy  Spirit  to 
proceed  from  the  Son.  4.  That  they  only  allow  ot  three 
cecumenical  councils  ;  tliat  of  Nice,  Conftantinople, 
and  Ephefus.  5.  That  they  only  allow  of  one  nature, 
will,  and  operation,  in  Jcfus  Chrift,  after  the  union  of 
the  humanity  with  the  divinity.  For  their  errors  in 
dlicipline,  they  may  be  reduced,  1 .  To  the  practice 
of  circumcifing  their  children  before  baptifm,  which 
has  obtained  among  them  from  the  12th  century, 
2.  To  their  ordaining  deacons  at  live  years  of  age, 
3  I  3-  io 


^    ^    ^'    .  [     434    ]  C    O     I' 

Corhti,     3,  To  tlieir  allowing  of  marnsge  in  the  fcconJ  degree,     were  mafters  of  the  country.     But  this,  M.  Simon  ob- 
C' phtic.   ^^.  Xo  their  forbearing  to  eat  blood:  to  which  ibme     ferves,  proves  nothing;  except  that  what  was aiicient- 
■'  add  their  belief  of  a  baptifni  by  fire,  which  they  coo-     ly  called  Egyptian,  has  fince  by  the  Arabs  been  called 

fer  by  applying  a  hot  iron  to  thiir  forehead  or  cheeks.  Copbtic,  by  a  corruption  of  fpeech.  There  are,  it  is 
—  Others  palliate  thefe  errors,  and  fliow  that  many  of  true,  Arabic  words  in  the  Cophtic ;  yet  this  by  no 
them  are  rather  abufes  of  particular  perfons  thin  means  proves  but  that  there  was  a  language  before 
doftrines  of  the  feft.     This  feeuu  to  be  the  cafe  witli       '        '  ■  -       -     -    ■         — 

regard  to  their  polygamy,  eatit.g  of  blood,  marcying 
in  the  fecond  degree,  and  the  bapiifm  of  fire  :  for  cir- 
cumcifion,  it  is  not  pradifed  as  a  ceremony  of  reli- 
gion, nor  as  of  any  divine  appointment,  iiut  merely 
as  a  cuftom  which  they  dciive  from  the  Ilhmael- 
iles ;    and -which,    perhaps,    may    have   had   its  ori 


that  time,  either  Cophtic  or  Egyptian.  Fietro  dc  la 
Valle  obferves,  that  the  Cophts  have  entirely  loll 
their  ancient  tongue  ;  that  it  is  iiow  no  longer  under- 
llood  among  them  ;  that  they  have  nothing  extant 
therein  but  I'ome  lacred  books  ;  and  that  they  iliil  fay 
mafs  in  it. 

Ail  their   other  books   have    been   tranflated   Into 


gin  from  a  view  to  health   and  decency  in  thol;  hot  Arabic,  which  is  their  vulgar  tongue  ;  and  this  has  oc- 

coiintric?.  cafioned  the  originals  to  be  loll :   it  is  added,  that  they 

The  Cophts,  at  dilTerent  tisiies,  have  made  feveral  rchearfe  the  epiilles  and  gofpels  in  the  mafs  twice  ; 

reunions  with  the  Latins ;  but  alu^ays  in  appearance  once  in  Arabic   and  once  in  Cophtic.      Indeed,  if  we 

only,  and  under  fome  neceSty  of  their  affairs.     In  tiie  believe  F.  Vanllcb,  the  Cophts  fay  tlic  mals  in  Arabic,, 

time  of  pope  Paul   IV.   a   Syrian   was   difpatchcd   to  all  but  the  spittles  and  golpeis,   which   they   rehearfe 

Rome  from  the  patriarch  ot  Alexandria,  with  letters  both  in  that  and  Cophtic. 

to  that  pope;  wherein  he  acknowledged  his  authority,  Cophtic  B'lUe.      See  Bible. 

and  promifed  obedience;  deiiring  a  perfon  might  be  C'ofWT/c;  Z/Vur^fi^j- are  three  ;  one  attributed  to  Bafil, 

difpatched  to  Alexandria,  to  treat  about  a  re-union  of  another  to  St  Gregorj',   and  the  third  co  Cyril:  they 

his  churc'i  to  that   of   Rome;    purfuant  to  which,  are  tranflated  into  Arabic  for  the   uie   of  the  priefts 

Pius  IV.  fucceffbr  to  Paul,  chofc  F.  Roderic,  a  Jeuit,  and  people. 

•whom  he  difpatched  in  1561,  in  quality  of  apoltolical  COPIATA,  under  the  wcftern  empire,  a  grave-dlg- 
nuncio.  But  the  Jcfiut,  upon  a  coiiferenec  with  two  ger.  In  the  tirit  ages  of  the  church  there  were  clerks 
Cophts  deputed  for  that  pmpole  by  the  patriarch,,  delbined  for  this  employment.  In  the  year  357,  Con- 
was  mado  to  know,  that  tlie  titles  of  lather  of  fathers,  ilantine  made  a  law  in  favour  of  the  priefls  copiatK, 
pr.ilor  of  pallors,  and  mailer  of  all  churches,  which  i-  e.  of  thofe  who  had  the  care  of  inter.ncnls  ;  where- 
thc  patriarch  had  bellowed  on  the  pope  in  his  letters,  by  he  exempts  them  from  t^e  luftral  contribution 
were  no  more  than  mere  matters  of  civility  and  com-  which  rdl  other  traders  paid.  It  was  under  him  alfo 
pliment ;  and  that  it  was  in  this  manner  the  patriarch  that  they  firil  began  to  be  called  copiatj,  q.  d.  clerks 
ufcd  to  write  to  his  friends  :  they  added,  that  liiice  dcftincd  for  bodily  labour,  from  xst.;,  or  y.iTr^',fclndoy 
the  council  of  Chalcedon,  and  the  ellablilhment  of  fe-  Citdn,fdrio,  "  I  cut,  beat,"  lic.  Before  tliat  time  they 
veral  patriarchi  iiidependent  of  one  another,  each  was  were  called  dicani  and  lec^lcirii;  perhaps  bec.'.ufe  tiicy 
chief  and  mailer  of  his  own  church.  Tiiis  v.'as  the  were  divided  by  dccads  or  tens,  each  whereof  had  a 
aniwer  the  patriarch  gave  the  pope,  after  he  had  re-  bier  or  litter  for  the  carriage  of  the  dead  bodies.  Their 
ceived  a  fum  of  money  remitted  to  him  from  Rojne,  place  among  the  clerks  was  the  next  in  order  before 
by  the  hands  of  the  Venetian  confid.  the  chantors. 

COPHTIC,    or    Coptic,    the    language   of    the  COPING -o/"  a  ttw//,  the  top  or  cover  of  a  wall,  made 

Cophts,  the  ancient  langiiage  of  the  Egyptians,  mix-  floping  to  caiTy  off  the  water. 

ed  with  a  great   deal   of  Greek,   the   characters  it  is  Coting  ever.,  in  carpentry,  a  fort  of  hanging   over,, 

written  in  being  all  Greek.      It  has  a  form  and  con-  not  fquare  to  its  upright,  but  bevelling  on  its   under 

llraction  pecidiar  to  itfcif :   it  has  no  inflexions  of  the  fide  till  it  end  in  an  edge. 

nouns  or  verbs ;  but  expreffes  number,   cafe,  gender,  COPIST,    in  diplomatic  fcience,  fignifies  a  tran- 

perfon,  mood,  tenfe,  and  poffcifive  pronouns,  by  letters  fciiber  cr  copier  of  deeds,  books,  &c. 

and  particles  prefixed.  COPPA,   in  law,  a  cop  or  cock'  of  g^fs,  hay,  or 

F.  Kircher  is  the  firfl  who  publimed  a  grammar  and  corn,    divided  into   titheable  portions  ;   as  the  tenth 

vocabulary  of  the  Cophtic.      There  is  not  known  any  cock,  &c.     This   word  in   itritlnefs   denotes  the  ga- 

book  extant  in  the  Cophtic,  except  tranflations  of  the  thering  or  laying  up  the  corn  in  cops  or  heaps,  as  the 

Holy  Scriptures,  or  of  eccle.laftical  offices  ;  or  others  method  is  for  barley  or  oats,  &c.  not  bound  up,  that  it 

that  have  relation  thereto,  as  difilonarics,  &c.  may  be  the  more  fairly  and  juftly  tithed  :   and  in  Kent 

The  ancient  Cf^htic  is   now  no  longer  tbund  but  tliey   Hill  retain  the  word,  a  cap  or  cap  of  hay,  llraw, 

in  books'^    the  language  now  uicd   throughout  die  &c. 

country  is  Arabic.     The  old  Cophtic,  which  Kircher  COPPEL.     See  Cupel. 

jijaintains  to  be  a  mother-tongue,  and  independent  of  COPPER,  the  finell  of  the  Impevfeft  metals,  called 

?J1  others,  had  been  much  altered  by  the  Greek  :   for  by  the  alcheraiils  Venus,  on   account  of  its  facility  of 

befides  that  it  has  borrowed  all  its  charaders  from  the  uniting  with  a  great  number  of  diSTerent  metallic  fub- 

Greek,  with  a  very  little  variation,  a  great  number  of  fiances.      Its  colour,  when   pure,  is  pale  red,  and  its 

the   words  are  pure   Greek.     Voflius,  indeed,  alfcrts,  fpecific  gravity  from  8.7   to  g.jj,  which  depends  not 

that  there  w-as  no  Cophtic  language  till   after   Egypt  only  on  its  degree  of  purity,  but  alfo  on  its  condenfa- 

hfcanie  fabject  to  the  Arabs.     The  language,  accord-  tion  by  hammering.      The   fpecilic   gravity  of  Japan  1 

ing  to  him,-  is  a  mixture  of  Greek  and  Arabic :  thevery  copper  is  to  water  us  9000  to  1000  ;   but  that  ot  the 

name  thereof  not  being  in  the  world  till  after  the  Arabs  Swcdifli  kinds  only  as  SjS^  or  8843. — The  cohiur, 

wUea 


c«rr''"- 


Sec  C/'c 
'  104. 


1 
lUve  cop 


% 

nere 
lid. 


COP  [4 

when  clenn,  is  very  brilliant,  but  it  i"!  extremely  liable 
to  tarnilh.  It  lias  a  (lifagret-'able  fmfU,  Vfiy  percep- 
tible on  fiiftion  or  or.  boiiig  hcattil :  its  tafte  is  II)  p- 
lio  and  naiileotis,  but  Icfs  perceptible  than  that  of  iron. 
Its  tenacity,  diK^lility,  and  hardnels,  are  very  confider- 
able,  and  its  elallicity  fuperior  to  that  of  any  other 
metal  except  fteel.  From  this  lull  quality  maflLS  of 
the  metal  emit  a  loud  and  lafting  found  wla-n  Itruck; 
nnd  this  more  efpecially  wlien  call  into  a  jiropcr  form, 
viz.  fuch  an  one  as  may  make  the  metal  vibrate  in  the 
mod  fimple  manner  pofiible.  Thus,  if  call  into  the 
lioUow  form  of  a  bell,  without  any  cracks  or  impcr- 
fefUons,  an  uniform  tone  will  be  produced  by  it  ;  or 
at  lead  the  tones  produced  by  the  llroke  will  confift 
of  a  fing'Ie  predominant  one,  and  of  others  that  have 
an  agreement  with  it.  When  broken  by  often  bend- 
ing backward  and  forward,  it  appears  internally  of  a 
cull  red  colour,  without  any  brightnefs,  and  of  a  fine 
grainilated  texture  ;  not  ill  refembling,  as  Cramer  ob- 
feives,  fome  kinds  of  earthen  ware.  It  continues 
jualleable  in  a  red  heat,  and  in  this  ftate  extends  much 
more  eafily  than  v.hen  cold  ;  but  has  not  that  valuable 
qualitv  of  iruH,  by  which  two  pieces  cohere  together 
when  heated  to  a  great  dc':;ree.  In  a  heat  far  below 
iiinitlon,  the  fuifaee  of  a  piare  of  polifl'.ed  copper  be- 
comes covered  with  various  ranges  of  priimatic  co- 
lours ;  the  red  of  each  order  being  iiearell  to  the  end 
which  has  been  moil  heated.  Reduced  to  a  fine  pow- 
der, or  even  to  filings,  and  thrown  acrols  a  flame,  it  pro- 
duces blue  or  green  colours,  whence  its  ufc  in  iire- 
works.  It  requires  a  fierce  heat  to  n'.elt  it ;  lefs,  ac- 
cording to  Mr  Wedgewood,  than  gold  or  iilver  *,  but 
more  according  to  fomc  otlicr  metallurgills.  —  It  is  re- 
markably impatient  of  moillure  when  in  a  ilate  of  fu- 
lion  ;  and  the  contaA  even  of  a  very  fmall  quantity  of 
water  will  caufe  a  vail  mafs  of  melted  metal  to  be 
tlii'own  about  with  incredible  violence,  to  the  immi- 
nent danger  not  only  of  the  byllandersbut  c\en  of  the 
ilvonj,tll  fiiruaces  and  buildings.  EfTefts  of  this  kind 
are  faid  to  have  been  produced  fay  fo  llight  a  caufe  as  the 
workmen  fpitting  in  a'  furnace  full  of  melted  copper. 

Copptr  is  found  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth  in  the 
following  dates. 

I.  Native  copper,  having  the  red  colour,  the  mal- 
leability, and  all  the  other  piopertii's  of  tbe  metal. 
It  is  dillinguifhed,  fays  Mr  Fourcroy,  into  two 
kinds  ;  copper  of  the  lirll  formation  and  ro])per  of 
the  fccond  formation  or  cementation.  'I'lcc  copper 
of  the  lirll  formation  is  difperfed  in  laivilnw  or  filjits, 
in  ganguc  almod  always  qnartzofe  ;  fome  of  its  cry- 
itals  refemblc  a  kind  ot  vegetation,  but  other  fjieci- 
mcns  are  in  malTes  or  grains.  Copper  of  ceiticnlalion 
is  commonly  in  grains  or  fnpcrficial  lamina-,  on  Hones 
or  on  iron  :  this  lad  appears  to  have  been  depofited 
in  waters  containing  vitriol  of  copper  which  has  been 
precipitated  by  iron.  Native  copper  is  found  in  many 
places  of  Europe  ;  particularly  in  various  parts  of 
Scotland,  England,  and  Wales  ;  at  St  Bell  in  Lyons; 
at  Norberg  in  Sweden,  and  Newfol  in  Hungary.  It 
is  alfo  to  be  met  with  in  feveral  parts  of  America. — 
Mr  Kirwan  fays,  it  is  met  with  cither  of  its  own  pe- 
culiar colour  or  blacklfli  or  grey  ;  and  that  either  in 
grains  or  in  large  (liapelefs  folid  lumps  ;  in  a  f«/!iated, 
capillaiy,  or  arborefccnt  form,  or  crydallizcd  in  qua- 
drangular pyramids,  in  or  on  clay,  chillas,quarl,z,fluors, 


?5     1 


GOP 


zeolytes,  &c.  He  accounts  for  its  origin  by  fuppofing  OnvP'r. 
it  to  have  been  originally  prccijiitatcj  by  iron  froiri '""^'^"^ 
waters  which  held  it  in  folulioii,  whidi  is  the  p  jreft 
fort :  but  in  many  cafes  it  could  not  have  been  pro- 
duced in  that -manner;  aijd  then  this  fort  is  never 
very  pure,  but  mixed  with  gold,  filver,  or  iron,  or 
\\ith  fulphur;  wiiich  lall  combination  is  called  i/arif 
copp-r. 

Native  copper  is  found  in  very  confiderable  quan- 
tities at  Cape  Lizard  in  Cornwall  :  it  is  formed  into 
threads  or  braiiches,  and  lies  in  veins  of  fome  thick- 
nefs,  contained  in  blacklfh  ferpentlne  mixed  witli 
brownilh  red,  and  covered  externally  with  a  grcenllTl 
nephrites,  partly  adherent  to  it  pnd  partly  loofe. 
Native  copjier,  in  large  lumps,  has  alfo  been  found  in 
the  fame  rocks  :  but  a  mcu'e  conlidcrabk  quantity  is 
found  at  Hue!  Virgin  in  the  fame  county,  tiere  it 
ftioots  into  various  branches  and-in  various  direftions : 
the  pieces  feem  to  be  formed  of  fmall  rhomboidal 
crydals  interlperfed  «lth  quart/,,  the  impredijus  of 
which  are  to  be  feen  in  the  copper  itfclf;  fiom  whcnc* 
we  might  conclude  that  the  quartz  cxilted  before  th» 
metal.  Some  of  thtf:  lumps  of  native  copper  haV6 
been  found  in  th's  fpot  that  weighed  from  20  to  3(5 
pounds  ;  and  in  the  month  of  Ma:ch  1785  there  were 
no  lefs  than  28  millions  of  pounds  of  rich  copper  ore 
extracted  from  this  mine.  At  a  place  called  Catar- 
rach,  contiguous  to  Huel  Virgin,  fome  crydallized  na- 
tive copper  has  been  found,  with  the  tranfparent  vitre-  « 
oi:s  copper  ore,  to  be  afterwards  mentioned,  cryllallizeii 
in  octahedrons  of  a  ruby  colour ;  though  the  latter 
now  begins  to  be  very  fcarce.  Near  this  place  alio  a 
compact  native  copper  is  found  in  lumps  of  a  fjjheri- 
cal  form  ;  the  copper  either  dill  in  its  raetallic  form, 
or  beginning  to  be  tiansfurmed  into  red  copper-glafs, 
imbedded  m  decayed  granite.  Native  copper  of  a 
tender  and  mofs-liice  form,  united  to  vitreous  ruby 
copper-ore,  crydallized  in  rhombs,  is  found  in  the 
clltts  of  the  mountains  compofed  of  klilas,  near  Pol- 
Ciiy- — An  Indurated  iron-clay  has  lately  been  found 
under  tiie  fnrface  of  the  Tea  in  the  Faro  iLles,  in  which 
thcie  is  fcattered  a  zeolite  with  natr\'e  copper. 

II.  Mineralized  by  fixed  air;  of  which  there  are  fe-D  (Trent 
veral  varieties,  i.  ReJ  copper,  or  hepatic  ore  of  cop-  01  es  nih.e- 
per.  This  is  known  by  its  red  duficy  colour,  fimilar  "''^^''."'''* 
to  that  of  the  fcales  beat  off  from  copper  by  hammer-  "^  *"' 
ii-.g.  It  is  feldom  met  with,  and  then  is  generally 
mixed  with  native  copper  and  mountain  green.  Some- 
times it  is  crydallized  in  octahedrons  or  fiiky  tihres, 
and  is  called j?t"zt'crx  of  copptr.  Mr  Ivirwan  favs,  that 
it  is  fometimes  met  with  in  a  loofc  form,  and  generally- 
called  cojipt-r  oi-hrf  ;  but  is  ui'ually  of  u  moderate  hard- 
nefs,  though  brittle  ;  fometiines  crydallized  .and  tranf- 
parent, either  in  a  capillary  form,  or  in  cubes,  prifms.or 
pyramids  :  it  efftrvelces  with  acids,  and  is  found  in 
Scotland,  England,  and  Germany.  According  to 
Mr  Fontana,  100  parts  of  it  contain  73  of  copper,  26 
of  fixed  air,  and  one  of  water.  Mr  Kiruan  didin- 
gulihes  the  hepatic  ore  as  being  of  a  brown  colour. 
It  "  contains  a  variable  proportion  of  iron  or  pyrites, 
and  fometimes  fulphurated  copper;  and  hence  affords 
from  20  to  50  perctnt.  of  copper.  It  is  often  iric/ifaiu" 
(we  fuppofe  fliowing  the  colours  of  the  i-aiubow). 
2.  Earthy  copper,  monntain-green,  green  chryfiicolla  or 
raalachite.  The  laft,  according  to  Mr  Kirwan,  looks  like 
3  I   2  green 


COP 


[  436  1 


COP 


Copper. 


Mcuntain 


Mdachili 


6 
Wouiit.  in 
blue,  or 
blue  chry- 
&coUa. 


green  jafper,  but  lefs  hard,  and  does  not  ftrike  fire 
with  ileel,  is  of  a  radiated  or  equable  texture,  gene- 
rally of  an  oval  form,  and  the  lize  of  an  egg,  but 
fomt times  forming  capillary  filaments.  Mufchen- 
brook  fixes  its  fpccific  gravity  from  3.5  to  3-99|.  It 
is  fonietimes  mixed  with  calcareous  earth  and  gypfum. 
According  to  Mr  Fontana,  100  parts  of  the  pureft 
fort  contain  75  of  copper  and  25  of  aerial  acid  and 
water.  Mountain  green  is  generally  found  in  a  loofe 
and  friable  llate,  rarely  cryftallized  and  indurated,  of- 
ten mixed:  with  calcareous  earth,  iron,  and  fome  arle- 
nic.  An  hundred  parts  of  the  pureft  kind  contain  72 
of  copper,  22  of  aerial  acid,  and  6  of  water. 

A  compaft  green  copper  ore,  like  malachite,  mix- 
ed with  grey  copper  ore,  and  likewife  green  velvet-like 
copper  in  the  form  of  biuiches,  are  found  at  Huel 
Virgin  in  Cornwall.  At  Carrarach,  in  the  fame  coun- 
ty, is  found  alfo  an  amorphous  green  copper  ore,  on 
a  decayed  granite ;  and  at  St  Menan,  the  fame  is 
found  ftratiliid  betwixt  quartz,  and  covered  with  a 
brownilh  iron.  Cronftedt  informs  us,  that  both  the 
green  and  blue  colours  of  copper  ores  depend  on  a 
menllrunni,  and  therefore  may  be  often  edulcorated 
or  wafhed  away.  In  SaalSeld  they  find  alfo  a  fort  of 
green,  fomewhat  indurated,  calcareous  fubftance,  con- 
tdir.ing  copper:  this,  when  broken,  looks  fat,  and 
fomewhat  ibining ;  but,  upon  the  whole,  it  refemblcs 
a  jafper.  It  is  there  very  improperly  called  a  grfen 
copper  ghifs-ore.  Good  copper  is  made  of  it ;  and, 
with  a  phlogillic  fubftance,  without  being  uftulated, 
it  forms  a  kind  of  bell-metal  fit  for  being  employed 
for  that  purpofe. 

The  malachite,  according  to  Mr  Fourcroy,  is  fre- 
quently found  in  Siberia,  compofing  beds,  fome  of 
which  reprefent  nipples  of  various  magnitudes.  Some 
fpecimens  are  compofed  of  needles,  converging  towards 
a  common  centre.  The  grain  of  malachite  is  fufficient- 
ly  hard  to  take  a  fine  polilh,  and  is  therefore  formed 
into  toys  of  different  kinds  ;  but  as  it  is  frequently 
porous  and  fuU'of  unequal  cavities,  the  folid  pieces  of 
a  certain  fize  are  reckoned  valuable.  The  ftrata  in 
which  it  is  found  are  often  of  different  fliades  of  green. 
The  mountain  green  is  a  true  ochre  of  copper,  of  a 
more  or  lefs  deep  green,  not  heavy,  and  unequally  dil- 
tributed  on  its  gangue  :  it  appears  to  be  combined 
with  the  cretaceous  acid.  There  are  two  varieties  be- 
fides  the  malachite,  ii/z.  the  firaple  mountain  green, 
and  that  which  is  cryftal'izcd,  or  the  filky  copper  ore 
of  China.  It  is  common  in  the  Hartz,  and  hkewife 
in  China.  It  is  very  pure,  and  cryftallized  in  long 
filky  bundles  of  coniiderable  fohdity.  To  thcfe  three 
ftates,  fays  Mr  Fourcroy,  we  may  add  a  beautiful  green 
fand,  brought  by  M.  Dombey  f^iom  Peru,  which  ap- 
pears to  be  a  calx  of  this  metal  mixed  with  fand,  and 
containing  a  fmall  quantity  of  muriatic  acid. 

3.  The  third  variety  of  this  fpecies  is  the  mountain- 
blue,  or  blue  chryfocoUa.  This,  according  to  M. 
Fourcroy,  is  a  calx  of  copper  of  a  deep  blue  colour, 
fometimes  regularly  formed  in  rhomboidal  prifraatic 
cryltals,  of  a  fine  blue,  in  y.hich  cafe  it  is  called  azui-e 
of  copper.  "  All  thcfe  calces  of  copper  (lays  he) 
appear  to  have  been  precipitated  from  vitriolic  folu- 
tions  of  copper,  by  the  intermedium  of  calcareous 
earths  through  which  the  waters  have  tranfudcd.  M. 
Sage  conliders  thefe  blue  co£pcr  ores  as  combinations 


of  copper  with  the  volatile  alkali  ;  from  which  he  af-  Copper, 
firms  that  they  differ  only  in  their  degree  of  folubility;  v"~-^ 
he  likcwile  thinks  that  the  malachites  is  produced  from 
this  blue,  which  he  calls  tranfpa*ent  azure  copper  ore; 
but  moll  mineralogiils  are  of  a  different  opinion.'' 
Mr  Kirwan  tells  us,  that  100  parts  of  this  ore  con- 
tain about  69  of  copper,  29  of  aerial  acid,  and  2  of 
water.  Mr  Morveau,  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  i\caderay 
of  Dijon  for  1782,  has  fliown,  that  the  calces  of  cop- 
per ore  determined  to  a  blue  rather  than  a  green  co- 
lour, by  a  greater  proportion  of  phlogifton.  7 

III.  Cupreous  ftones.  Thefe  are  the  turquoife  and  /a-TurquoJfs 
pis  armenus.     Tlie  former  of  thefe  is  improperly  called '"      ^" 
a  ftone,   being  the   tooth  of  an   animal  penetrated  by 

the  blue  calx  of  copper.  It  lofes  its  colour  when  heat- 
ed ;  is  opaque,  of  a  lamellar  texture,  and  fufceptible 
of  a  fine  polilh  ;  iti  fpccific  gravity  from  2.5  to  2.908 ; 
fome  are  of  a  deep  blue,  fome  more  white,  and  be- 
come deeper  when  heated.  They  are  found  in  Per- 
fia  and  in  Languedoc  in  France ;  the  copper  may  be 
extracled  from  them  by  dilliUed  vinegar.  Reaumur  in- 
forms us,  Mem.  Par.  1 7 1 5,  that  nitrous  acid  will  not  dif- 
f6lve  the  Per  fian  turquoife,  though  it  will  th:it  of  France. 
The  lapis  armenus  has  calcareous  earth  or  gypfum  for 
its  bafe  ;  whence  it  fometimes  eft'ervefces  with  acids 
and  fometimes  not.  It  is  ufcd  in  painting,  when 
ground  to  a  fine  powder,  under  the  name  of  Bice. 
To  thefe  Mr  Fourcroy  adds  "  copper  mineralized  by 
the  muriatic  acid  and  united  to  clay."  This  ore  has 
been  confounded  with  talc ;  and  it  was  expoled  to  fale 
at  Paris,  in  the  year  1784,  under  the  name  of  green 
mica.  It  confifts  of  fmall  beautifully  green  cryllals, 
or  fmall  brilliant  fcales.  It  was  difcovered  by  Mr 
Forfler  in  the  mines  of  John  Georgenftadt ;  the  green 
cupreous  fand  of  Peru  already  mentioned,  perhaps  be- 
longs to  the  fame  clafs.  g 

IV.  Copper  mineralized  by  fulphur,  with  fcarce  any  Copper  mi 
iron,  impriJperly  called  vitreous   copper  ore.     This  is  "-"''"'^ 
of  a  deep  violet  grey,  grtcnifli  brown,  or  liver  colour;  "y'"!'""'' 
melting  with  a  very  gentle  heat,  ponderous,  fometimes 
flexible,  and  always  yielding  to  the  knife.     When  bro- 
ken it  appears  of  a  bright  golden  colour.     It  is  fome- 
times found  in   fhapelcfs  maffes,  fometimes  regularly 
cryftallized ;  is  much  more  fufible  than   pure  copper, 

and  has  a  fpecific  gravity  from  4.S1  to  5.338.  It  is 
found  in  mines  of  other  copper  ores,  in  limeilone, 
fpar,  quartz,  mica,  and  clay  :  it  is  the  richeft  of  all  the 
copper  ores  ;  affording  from  So  to'  90  per  cent,  of  cop- 
per, 10  or  12  of  fulphur,   and  a  fmall  proportion  of 

'™°-  .  .  .  ^ 

V.  Copper  mineralized  by  fulphur  with  a  large  pro- with  a 

portion  of  iron,  azure  copper  ore  ;  does  not  differ  from '^fg^  P''"" 
the  preceding  but  in  the  quantity  of  iron  it  contains,!'  "■"""* 
which  fometimes  amounts  to  50  per  cent.  It  yields 
50  or  60  pounds  of  copper^fr  hundred,  the  reft  being 
fulphur.  The  lefs  iron  this  ore  contains,  the  richer  it 
is  in  copper  ;  and  it  has  by  many  been  confounded 
witli  indurated  mountain  blue.  10 

VI.  Copper  mineralized  by  fulphur,  with  much  iron,  Yellowcc 
the  yellow  copper  ore,  or  )  tllow  pyrites.  The  colour  P'^f^^"'^'  ' 
of  this  is  yellow,  or  yellow  mixed  with  red  or  green,  ^jjj_ 

or  variegated  like  a  pigeon's  neck  ;  it  is  inferior  in 
hardnefs  to  the  other  pyrites,  not  readily  giving  fire 
with  ftcel  as  they  do.  It  is  fometimes  founJ  cr)'ftal- 
Ijzed,  and  fometimes  in  fhapelefs  maffes  ;  its  fpecific 

giavity 


COP  [     437     ]  COP 

gravity  is  about  4.16.   It  occurs  both  in  feparatc  mal-         Tliis  kind  of  ore  may  be  analyfcd  in  tlie  liquid  way    Copper, 
fcs  and  embodied   in  ftones,  bcini^   the   moil  common     by  fohition  in   nitrous   acid,  and  procipitution   of  the  -""v""" 
of   all  the  copper  ores.      The  cryllallized  kind  aftords     copper   by  iron.     The  iron  and   zinc  are  precipitated 
leall  metal,   containing  only  from  4  to  8 /«•/- frt(/.  the     by  the  Pruffian  alkali ;  ttc  precipitate  is  then  calcined 
remainder  being  chiefly  iron.      It  is  gcner;Jly  reddilh,     and  redifi'olvcd  in  nitrons  acid,   and   the  folution  eva- 
and  is  in  i\\&  only  a  martial   pyrites  with  a  fmall  por-     porated  to  drynefs.     The  iron    being  thus  dephlogif- 

ticated,  becomes  inloluble  in  the  nitrous  acid,  but  the 
calx  of  zinc  is  redifTolvcd.and  again  precipitated  by  the 
Pruilian  alkali.  An  hundred  grains  of  this  precipitate 
are  equivalent  to  20  of  zinc  in  its  mecallic  Ibite  ;  and 
100  grains  of  dephlogiilicated  iron  are  equivalent  to 
73v  of  iron  in  its  metallic  ftate. 


tion  of  copper  ;  the,  grceniih  yellow  contains  moll  ful- 
phur,  and  from  ij  to  20  per  cent,  of  copper  ;  the  pure 
yellow  contains  mod  copper,  viz.  from  20  to  ^o  per 
tent.  "  The  cupreous  pyrites  (fays  M.  Fourcroy)  of- 
ten prefent  very  biilliant  blue  or  violet  colours  at  their 
furtace,  which  are  produced  by  the  decompofitiou  of 
their  principles  :  they  arc  then  called  chatoyant  ores  of 
copper,  or   ores  refembling   the   peacock's  tail:   they 


13 


IX.  Argillaceous  fchiilofc,  orflaty  copper  ore,  fecmssbty  cop- 
to  coiifiR  of  the  vitreous  copper  ore  intimately  com-  per  ore. 
commonly  contain  a  large  quantity  of  fulphur,  a  fmall  bined  with  fehillus,  and  uot  barely  difperlcd  through 
quantity  ot  iron,  and  are  not  rich  in  copper  ;  fucli  are  it  in  vilible  particles  :  it  is  of  a  brown  or  black  colour, 
the  ores  of  Dcrbythire  in  England,  fome  of  thofe  of  lamellar  texture,  and  very  heavy  ;  aifordin"-  from  6  to 
St  Bell  in  Lyons,  and  many  ores  of  Alfatia,  fuch  as  1  a  per  cent,  of  copper,  and  is  of  ditficult  fufion,  un- 
thofe  of  Caulenbach  and  Fcldens."  lefs  limeftone  be  added.     It  contains  a  little  bitumen, 

VII.  Copper  united  to  fulphur,  arfenic.  Iron,  and  a    calcare^)us  earth,  and  iron, 
fmall   quantity  of  filver.     This   is   called  arfenlcal  or         X.   Bituminous  copper  ore   is  a   kind    of   pitcoalBituminons 
grey  copper  ore,  and  is  of  a   white,   grey,   or  brown     found  in  Sweden.     It  burns  with  little  or  no  flame,  <^f<^- 
colour;  ot  moderate  hardnefs,  very  brittle,  fometimes     but  leaves  alhes  from  which  copper  is  extrafted.  ,j 

cryftalbzed,  and  often  of  an  indeterminate  iigure.      If         XL   Black  copper  ore,  of  the  colour  of  pitch.    Mr  Black  cop- 
is   very  difficult  of  fuiion,   and  more  ponderous  than     Gellert  denominates  it   copper  ore   in   fcorix  :   it  is  aP'^"' °'^' 
the  former.      It   contains  from   35    to  60  per  cent,  oi    refiduum  of  the  decompolition  of  the  yellow  and  grey 
copper  ;  the  brown  is  the  richell  in  copper  ;  the  white     copper  ores  which  contain  neither  fulphur  nor  arfenic, 
or  grey  contains  moll  arfenic  ;  and  if  the  iilvcr  it  con-    and  approaches   to   the   flate   of   malachite;  it  has  a 

black  ihining  appearance  like  pitch.  ,5 

XII.  Copper  united  to  fulphur  and  arfenic  contain-  Antimonial 
ing  antimony,  or  antimonial  copper  ore,  is  mentioned<"<:- 
by  Mr  Sage  in   his   Elements   of  Mineralogy.     It  is 
grey,  and  bright  in   its  fradlure  like  antimony,  and 


tains  exceed  I  or  2 per  cent,  it  is  called  grey  filver  ore 
It  IS  found  embodied  in  all  lorts  of  Hones,  and  mixed 
with  otlier  copper  ores,  as  well  as  with  the  ores  of  o- 
ther  metals. 

A  great  vaiiety  of  fulphurated  copper  ores  is  to  be 


met  with  in  the  mines  of  Cornwall,  viz.  a  whitifh-grey  contains  from  14  to  20  per  cent,  of  metal, 
ore  cr)  itallized  in  fmall  triangular  and  quadrangular  XIII.  Copper  diffblved  by  the  vitriolic  acid.  In  the 
pyramids,  with  truncated  points,  is  found  along  with  year  1673,  our  countryman  Dr  Brown  vifited  a  fa- 
the  folid  copper  ore  at  Poldice  and  Dolcoth  :  but  the  mous  copper-mine  at  Hern-grundt,  about  feven  Eng- 
richcft  are  the  folid  grey  ones  found  in  various  places;  lilh  miles  fiom  Newfol  in  the  Upper  Hungaiy ;  and 
fome  of  which  may  be  cut  with  a  knife  like  the  foft  he  informs  us,  that  there  he  faw  two  fprings,  called  the 
vitreous  filver  ore.  The  moll  remarkable  of  the  yellow  OLl  and  Neiv  Ziment,  which  turned  iron  to  copper,  as- 
ores  is  the  flalattitical  ore,  of  an  hemifpherical  form,  it  is  vulgarly  laid.  But  the  cafe  is,  that. the  iron  is 
called  nmyclloii-'-copper,  often  variegated  with  different  dlifolved  by  the  vitriolic  acid  of  this  fpring-vvater,  and 
clours.  A  compact  red  glaffy  copper  ore,  covered  ttie  copp.;r  is  precipitated  in  its  metallic  form  in  the  place 
with  mountain  green,  or  green  copper,  and  with  cal-  of  tae  iron.  It  has  been  the  cullom  in  Germany  for 
ciform  copper  of  a  vermilion  red  colour,  is  found  in  fome  centuries  to  colleA  the  copper  contained  in  ihefe 
cryila'lized  quartz,  mixed  with  tender  green  mica.  We  waters,  by  filling  with  them  fome  pits  made  purpofely 
alio  meet  with  an  ollvs-green-colcured  copper  ore  which  lor  this  operation.  Old  iron  is  thrown  in,  and  beino- 
is  arfenical,  and  cryllallized  into  tender  fpiculae  of  a-  diffolved  by  the  acid,  is  fufpended  in  the  water,  whilft 
bout  three  lines  long,  (landing  up  ftraight,  either  fingle  the  copper  is  precipitated;  the  mud  being  raked 
or  fafciculated,  or  radiated,  found  on  the  granitical  out,  is  melted  afterwards  in  a  furnace,  and  a  very 
mountain  at  Carrarach.  Thefe  cryftals  melt  before  fine  copper  is  pifoduced  :  from  100  tons  of  iron,  84- 
the  blow-pipe  with  an  arfenlcal  fmoke,  and  afterwards  and  fometimes  90  tons  of  line  copper  is  thus  pro- 
melt,  forming  a  button  of  a  grey  colour,   which,   on  duced. 

being  melted  again  with  borax,  foon  produces  a  very         But  although  this  method  of  obtaining  copper  has 

pure  copper.     Another  kind  of  arfenical  cupreous  cry-  been  long  praclifed  in  Germany,  yet  it   is  but  of  late 

ftals  arc  likcwife  met  with  in  the  form  of  green  cubes  years,  fays  Bifhop  Watfon  (p.  23S.  of  the  firft  volume 

run  together,  with  fmooth  and   fhining  furfaces,  upon  of  his  Effays),  that   any   fuccefsful  attempts   of  this 

grey  copper-ore,    in   a   m.afs   of  cryllallized   compadl  kind  have  been  made  either  in  England  or  Ireland.    In 

quartz,  vvith  various  cryllals  in  itfclf ;  and  greatly  re-  this  lall,  at  leail,   it  was   quite  owing   to  an  accident, 

fembling  fmall  cubes  of  fluor.  There  are  the  very  celebrated  copper- mines  at  Arklow,. 

VIII.  Copper  mineralized  by  fulphur  and  arfenic  with  iu  the  county  of  Wicklow  in  Ireland  ;  and  from  thefe 

zinc   and   iron;  brown   or  bkndofe  copper  ore.      Mr  mines  iffues  a  great  quantity  of  water,  ftromjly  impreg- 

Monnet  found  this  ore  only  at  Catherineberg  in  Bohc-  nated   wiih   vitriol  of  copper.     One   of  the  workmen 

mia  ;  it   is  brown,   granulated,  and  very  hard,    and  having  accidentally  left  an  iron,  (hovel  in  this  water, 

contains  from  i3  to  30  ^tr  cent,  of  copper.  he  found  it  lo::ie  weeks  after  fo  incrulled  with  a  coab 


GO?  [     438 

Coprer.  of  copper,  that  it  was  thuiight  to  be  changed  into 
copper. 

The  proprietors  of  the  miaes,  in  purfuance  of  this 
hint,  made  proper  pits  and  receptacles  for  the  water  ; 
and  have  obtained,  by  means  of  loft  ^on  bars  put  in- 
to them,  fiich  ciuanlilics  of  copper,  that  thek-  llreanis 
arc  now  of  as  much  coiifequence  aa  the  mines  them- 
fclves.  One  ton  of  iron  prodiicei  near  two  tons  of 
copper  mnJ  ;  and  each  ton  of  mud  produces,  when 
iiK-lted,  16  hundred  wci^lit  of  copper,  which  (ells  tor 
L.io  otcrling  a  ton  moie  than  ttie  copper  which  is 
fiiixcd  from  the  ore. 

There  is  in  the  iflc  of  Anglefey,  on  the  coall  of 
North  Wales,  a  mountain  called  Paris,  which  abounds 
in  coppev-orc,  the  bed  of  ore  being  above  40  feet  in 
thicknefs.  The  leffees  of  this  mine  annually  raife  from 
iix  to  feven  thoufand  tons  of  merchantable  ore,  and 
daily  employ  above  40  furnaces  in  fmelting  it.  .  This 
oie  contains  a  great  quantity  of  fulph«r,  which  mull  be 
feparated  by  loafting  before  it  can  be  fluxed  into  cop- 
per. The  phlogillon,  with  part  of  the  vitriolic  aciJ, 
is  difperfed  into  the  air  by  the  torce  of  the  fire  ;  another 
part  of  the  acid  attacks  and  diffolves  fuch  a  quantity 
of  the  copper,  that  the  water  in  whicli  the  roaltcd  ore 
is  wafhed  (by  means  of  old  iron  immsrled  in  it  ac- 
cording to  the  German  method)  produces  great  quan- 
tities of  fine  copper,  fo  that  the  proprietors  have  there 
obtained  in  one  year  near  100  tons  of  the  copper  pre- 
cipitated from  this  water. 

If  this  water  was  afterwards  evaporated.  It  would 
yield  green  vitriol  or  vitrlolated  Iron,  at  nearly  the  rale 
of  200  tons  of  vitilol  for  each  hundred  ton  of  Iron  at 
leait ;  which,  at  the  rate  of  L.3  Sterling /cr  ton,  might 
perhaps  produce  very  good  profit  to  the  undertakers, 
if  any  ihould  fettle  fuch  a  manufadlure  there. 

Befides  the  celebrated  copper-mines  at  Arklow  in 
the  county  of  Wicklow  in  Ireland,  there  are  no  Icfs 
than  feventeen  different  places  in  Britain  in  which 
copper-mines  are  found,  as  mentioned  by  Dr  Camp- 
bell in  the  jd  vol.  p.  44.  of  his  Pu/itici-'/  Stirvty  of  Bri- 
tain. Thefe  are  Cardlganfliire,  Cheftiire,  Cornwall, 
Cumberland,  Derbyflilre,  Dcvondiirc,  Lancafliire,  Ille 
of  Man,  Nortliumberland,  Shropfliir^e,  Somerlellhire, 
Staffordlhlre,  Yorkfliire,  Wales,  Warwicklhlre,  Well- 
nioreland,  and  North  Britain  :  fome  that  are  worked 
at  this  time  give  fuch  hrge  produrts  of  this  metal, 
that  the  opening  more  copper-mints  in  this  Ifland  would 
probably  afFeft  the  coppei--trade  of  Europe  in  a  very 
confiderable  manner.  The  Efton  mine,  in  the  ellate 
of  the  Duke  of  Devonfhire,  on  the  frontiers  of  Der- 
byfhire,  but  properly  iituated  in  tfee  county  of  Staf- 
fordlhlre, produces  at  leail  300  tons  of  copper /c/-  an- 
num. That  of  the  mountain  called  Paris,  in  the  illand 
of  Angleley,  whofe  bed  of  ore  is  about  40  feet  In 
thicknefs,  produces  about  1500  tons  of  copper  in  the 
year  ;  and  the  copptr-mlnes  of  Cornwall  produce  no 
lefs  than  4000  tons  in  the  fame  period.  Mr  Jarj,  who 
vihted  thefe  mines  in  the  year  1770,  found,  upon  cal- 
culation, thut   the   annual    produce   of  thele   mines  a- 


]  COP 

Its  goodnifs  is  judged  of  by  the  bright  rednefa  of  its    Copper. 

colour.  ' 

The  impurity  of  copper  proceeds  from  the  f"i>'fu''ep  '' 
of  heterogeneous  fuhllances  that  are  alloyed  with  ft,  lUllizcs 
on  account  of  being  naturally  contained  in  the  copper- «he;i  tool, 
ores.  Iron  and  arfenic  are  the  chief  of  thefe  natural'"!?' 
mixtures.  The  copper-ores  of  variegated  colours,  the 
while  copper-ores,  and  generally  thole  mineralized  by 
fulphur,  contr.in  a  gieater  propnrtion  of  Iron  ;  whilft 
the  blue  and  giecn  copper-ores  commonly  jiroJuce  a 
purer  nietrl,  bilng  free,  for  the  moft  part,  of  any  con- 
fiderable ferruginous  mixture.  The  great  aim,  there- 
fore, of  the  nielallur,jill  muil  be  directed  to  feparate 
thefe  mixtures  from  the  copper,  beginning  by  tliC  pro- 
per cxaminaticn  of  the  ore,  and  by  alcerlaining  the 
proportion  of  fulphur  that  may  be  required  to  icorify 
the  quantity  of  irun  there  ontained.  'I'he  ore  Ihoidd 
always  be  i-oafted  by  a  flow  fire,  in  a  clofe  furnace, 
which  contributes  the  bell  towards  fcorifying  the  fer- 
ruginous and  heterogeneous  mixtures  ;  and  the  fame 
operatI)n  mult  be  repeated  after  the  fccond  and  third  fu- 
fion  of  the  metal,  till  its  grain  becomes  of  an  homo- 
geneous fine  texture.  The  mixture  of  fulphuieous  py- 
rites in  the  fufion  of  the  metal  contributes  towards 
obtaining  this  obj;  ft  ;  if  their  quality  be  chofen  ac- 
cording to  the  quantity  of  fulphur  wanting.  But  in 
the  lecoird,  third,  and  tolloivlng  operations,  only  p^ure 
fulphur  fiiould  be  added,  to  fcoi'ify  the  remainder  of 
the  Iron  that  Is  (liU  intermixed  with  the  copper.  This 
fliould  be  done  when  the  metal  is  already  well  fufed  ; 
covering  It  immediately  with  a  proper  quantity  of  char- 
coal, and  feparating  the  Ijoria  or  drois  formed  on  the 
furface  of  the  fufed  metal. 

The  copper  extr'afted  from  ttiofe  mines  near  New- 
fol,  in  Upper  Hungary,  is  faid  to  be  ulually  melted 
14  times  befoi'c  it  is  fit  for  ufe.  Thefe  are  the  great- 
eft  copper-mines  in  all  Hungary.  There  are,  however, 
other  mines,  whofe  copper  requires  far  lefs  fufions  to 
be  well  purified.  The  above  was  the  procefs  of  Mr 
Dclius,  direftor  of  the  mines  of  B?.nnat  near  Teinefware 
In  Hungary,  propofed  by  him  to  the  imperial  board 
of  the  Auftrian  mines. 

Pure  copper  allowed  to  cool  ilowly  will  form  itfelf 
into  regular  cryllallizations,  which  the  Abbe  Mongaz 
defcribes  as  quadrangular  pyramids,  fimetlmes  fohd, 
and  iome'.imes  compofed  -cit  other  finiilar  (mail  pyra- 
mids laterally  adheiing.  When  heated  it  becomes  co- 
loured on  its  furface,  nearly  in  the '  fame  manner  as 
fteel  ;  the  colours  are  blue,  yellow,  and  lallly  violet ; 
it  does  not  melt  but  by  a  violent  white  heat,  though  a 

much   inferior  to   that  which  melts  Iron.     When   in  a  Uuri  s  with 
llate  of  fufion    It   app.'ars   covered  with  a  green  flame,  a  fjrten 
which  the  filings  of  the   metal   likevvife  produce  when'''";"-'*™*" 
projected  throUiih  flame  ;   and  hence   are    ufed  In  fire- 
works, as   has  been  already  remarked.      The  cryftalli- 
zatlon  of  the  metal  above  mentioned    Is  bell  perceived 
by  fuffcring  the  metal  to  cool  flcmly  ;  and  after  the  iur-        j„ 
face  is  become  congealed,  the  fluid  portion  being  pour- Particular 


ed  off,  the  remnining  folid  part  is  found  to  be  cryllal- defcnptitn 
mounted  to  L.  140,000  Sterling;  and  M.  H.  Klaproth,     lized  in  pyramids,   which\are   more  regular  and   large"'  '"^^" 
in    hh   Obfervations   on   the    Foflils  of  Cornwall,  jull     in  proportion  as    the  fufion   has   been    moie   complete 
publifhed  (in  1787),  afferts  that   this   account   is  not     and  coohng   more  gradual.    The  pyramids,  according 
an  exaggerated  one.  to  Fourcroy,  are  quadrangular,  and  appear  to  be  form- 

Copper  is  purified  with  ltd  difficulty  than  iron  ;  and    ed  of  a  great  number  of  oftahedrous  iuferte;!  Into  one 

another. 


Copjif. 


10 

'ow  the 
li  is  ob- 
ineii. 


Idltiun. 


COP 

another.  When  heatfd  with  exoeft  of  air,  this  metal 
burns  at  its  liirface,  and  is  converted  into  a  calx  of  a 
dark  red  colour,  iu  propoiti  in  a.?  it  abfotba  the  bafe 
of  the  deplilogilticnttd  part  of  the  atmofphere.  The 
calx  may  be  talily  obtained  by  heating  a  ball  of  cop- 
per rcd-liot,  the  form  of  wliich  caiifes  the  calx  to  fcak 
off;  and  the  fame  effcft  takes  place  when  red-hot  cop- 
per is  qiicnchi'l  in  cold  water;  the  ftparation  of  t!ie 
calx  bcinff  promoted  by  the  fudden  contraftion  of  the 
metal.  This  calx  is  called  the  fcales  of  copper,  and 
may  be  further  calcined  till  it  becomes  of  a  deep  brown ; 
after  which,  by  violent  heat,  it  may  be  melted  into  a 
he  fcori.T  blacklfii  or  deep  reddiih  brown  mafs.  The  fcoria  may 
iitlyredii- partly  be  reduced  without  any  additional  phlogillon  ; 
dwithnu:fQr  the  founders,  who  buy  them  of  the  coppcrimiths, 
take  no  other  trouble  with  them  than  that  of  throw- 
ing them  into  large  crucibles  on  the  melted  copper, 
with  which  they  Incorporate  by  fnlion  ;  and  t!ie  fame 
mfthod  is  made  uie  of  to  melt  the  lilings.  The  calx 
of  copper  appears  to  pofi'efs  fome  laline  properties,  but 
its  nature  has  not  yet  been  afcertained. 

Coppor  calcines  when  expoled  to  the  air,  and  is 
lis  by  ex- converted  into  a  green  luil  or  calx,  which  is  in  fome 
ifure  to  dei;ree  folnble  in  water,  and  communicates  a  tafte  as 
e  air,  hut  ^^.^j]  ^^  pernicious  q-.ialities  to  it.  It  is  r,;markable, 
however,  that  this  rult  does  not  corrode  the  internal 
parts  like  that  of  iron,  but  is  confined  to  the  iurface  ; 
and  thus,  inilead  of  deliroying,  contributes,  for  a  long 
time  at  leall,  to  the  prefervation  of  The  metal.  This 
is  particularly  obfervable  in  the  antique  medals  and  lla- 
tues,  vvhici)  are  very  well  preferved  under  a  covering 
of  ruft.  The  antiquarians  call  this  cru'i  palina,  and 
me  for  put  a  high  value  upon  the  pieces  of  antitjuity  covered 
e  ruli  cF  ^.^j^jj  j{  .  jj(,f  jj^g  Italians  and  others  have  got  a  m.e- 
■dais         thod  of  imitatmg  thisctull,  and  thus   there   is  great 

danger  of  beii'g  deceived. 
laliticsTf  Cupper,  when  taken  into  the  human  body,  a£ts  as 
s  metal  a  violent  emetic,  and  has  been  generally  accounted 
len  t.iken  poifonous,  though  lately  received  with  foms  applaufe 
■>thchu- ;i^to  the  materia  medica  as  a  tcnic.  The  pernicious 
'■  qualities,  however,  and  very  difagieeable  talle  which 
it  certainly  communicates  on  fome  occalions,  render  it 
highly  necelTary  to  obferve  fome  cautions  in  the  ufe  of 
this  metal,  of  which  fo  many  kitchen  utenfils  are  made. 
Bcfides  an  exail  aitention  to  cleanlinefs,  it  is  altoge- 
ther improper  to  let  any  fluid  remain  in  a  copper  vef- 
fel  tin  it  be  cold  ;  for  copper  is  much  more  calcinable 
in  the  cold  than  when  heated.  Mr  Fourcroy  explains 
this  by  fuppofing  the  c;i!cination  to  be  produced  by 
water  in  a  (late  of  extreme  divifion  :  as  long,  there- 
fore, as  the  fluid  is  boiling  and  the  veffel  hot,  the  aque- 
cns  vapour  does  not  adhere  to  its  furface  ;  but  when 
the  veffel  is  cold,  the  drops  of  water  which  adhere  to 
its  fides  calcine  it,  and  reduce  it  to  a  gre  «  ralx.  The 
air  and  the  cretaceous  acid  (fixed  air),  i>e  fays,  alfo 
contribute  greatly  to  this  calcination  ;  for  by  dillilling 
the  mil  (jf  copper  fixed  air  has  been  obtained. 

In  order  to  prevent  the  pern'cious  effeft.-:  of  copper, 
the  vtfTels  mrek  of  it  are  uf;i?lly  covered  with  lui  in 
the  inlide.  To  tin  copper- vefTcls,  they  are  tirll  fcraped 
clean  and  bright  ;  after  which  they  are  rubbed  with 
fal  ammoniac  to  clean  them  mor-e  petfedlly.  Thev  are 
then  heated  and  Ipiinkled  with  powdered  refin,  which 
prevents  the  furfac"  of  the  copper  from  being  calcined  ; 
after  which  the  melted  tin  is  poured  on  aud  fprcad  a- 


3) 

fipi-i 


ly  cnrro- 
■n  of  its 
ternal 
irts. 


ttinu,  a 


|»5 
he  tln- 
of 
er. 


[     4.-.9     ]      .  COP 

bout.     It   is,    however,   jiiflly  complained,    that   the     Copper. 

tinning  of  copper-veffcls  is  not  fuficient  to  defend  them • 

from  the  adiion  of  the  air,  moillure,  and  faline  fub- 
Hances  ;  becaufe  thef;  veffcls,  even  whpn  well  tinned, 
are  obf'erved  to  be  fubjeft  to  ruft.  Tfiis  might  pofli- 
bly  be  remedied  by  a  thicker  covering  of  tin  ;  and  a 
n  anutacture  of  this  kind  was  fome  time  ago  tflablifli- 
ed  at  Edinburgh,  though  it  does  not  appear  to  have 
much  alttaclied  the  notice  of  the  public;  which,  how- 
ever, is  no  objeftion  to  the  ulefuhiefs  of  the  invention. 
The  method  employed  was  to  make  the  farface  of  the 
copper  very  rough,  with  a  machine  contrived  for  that 
purpofe,  and  the  tin  put  upon  it  in  this  iitiiation  ;  af- 
ter which  the  copper  was  hammered  fmooth  as  before. 
Mr  Fourcroy  objefts  to  this  thicker  coveting- of  tin, 
that  there  "  is  reafon  to  fear  that  a  degree  of  heat 
fuperior  to  that  of  boiling  water,  to  which  thefe  vef- 
fels  are  often  expofed,  wotild  melt  the  tin  and  leave 
the  luiface  of  the  copper  uncovered."  This  objedion 
is  lurely  void  of  foundation  :  for  as  long  as  there  re- 
mains any  liquid  in  the  vefTel,  the  tin  will  not  melt 
though  the  heat  were  applied  to  it  directly  without 
any  intervention  of  copper  ;  and  if  a  dry  heat  were 
applied,  a  thin  covering  of  tin  would  be  ftiU  lefs  able 
to  refiit  it  than  a  thick  one.  Our  author,  however, 
obfcrves,  that  to  prevent  this  accident  the  tin  may  be 
iUoyed  with  ircn,  filver,  or  platina,  to  diminilh  its 
fuhbdriy,  and  render  it  capable  of  being  applied  iu 
thicker  llrata  on  the  copper.  Alloys  of  this  kind,  he 
tells  us,  are  ah»ady  uled  in  feveral  manufaClures.  ^ 

The  very  fir.all  qnantity  of  tin  required  to  cover  theiViy  fniail 
furface   of    the   copper   is  furpriling ;    a    vcllel   of    9  qvir.tity  of' 
inches  in   diameter  and    ^^  inches   in  depth,     bein j- '■" '''^1"     ' 
found   to  gain   no  more  than  21  grains  by  this  opera"  "^""^ '^r' 
tion.     This   fniall  quantity  is  never  thelefs  fufiicient  j^'""''?"'-^ 
prevent  the  dr^ngers  which  might  arife  from  the  ufe  of 
copper-veffels,  provided  care  be  taken  not  to  allow  fob- 
fiances  capable  of  difTolving  the  tin  to  remain  too  long 
in  them  ;  but  more  efpecially  that  the  tin  be  frequently 
renewed,  as  the  fiiition,  heat,  and   ailion   of  Ipoons, 
with  which  the   included  fubdances  are   llirred,  very 
foon  deilroy  it.     There   is  likewife  another  caufe  of  p.eftitlnJ  ot' 
apprehenfion,   according  to   our  author,  viz.  that  the 'in  ought  to 
tiri  is  often  alloyed  with  lead,  even  to  the  quantity  of '"^ '^"'f'"!" 
one- fourth  of  its  weight  ;  in  which  cafe  the  latter  may  ^ 
exert  its  mifchievous  influence,  efpecially  as  it  i.";  known 
that  lead  is  eafily  foluble  in  fatty  fubllances.     To  pre- 
vent this  fophillicatitin,  he  is  of  opinion  that  govern- 
ment fhould  take  futHcient  care   that  the   braziers  be 
not  deceived  in  the   tin   they  purchafe,  and  that  they 
may  not  employ  any  but  the  jNIalacca  or  Banea  tin,   in 
the  flate  it  is  received   from   the   Ea(l  Indies,  without 
having  been  alloyed  or  melted  by  the  pcwterers.     A 
better  method,  however,  fcems  to  be  that  propofed  by        jj 
M.  Folic  of  Rouen,   to    ufe    veffels  of  forged  iron  CO-  Zinc  re- 
vered  over   on   the   infide   with  zinc,  which,  he  fays,  cnimenrf- 
have  already  been   ufed  with  advantage  by  certain  per-'f  '"'^e^'i 
fons  ;  and  it  were  to  be  wiilied  that  its   ufe  might  be- °    ''"' 
come  more  general. 

Copper  is   aUo   ufed   in  mixture  with  other  metals,  Vari!,2s 
pat  licuhrly  tin  and  zinc,  in  enamel-painting,  dyeing,  mixu.res  of 
&c.     Mixed  with  tin   in  confiderable  quantity,  it  pro- '^TP"''"''' 
diicesB^.LL-METAL;  with  afmaller  proportion  Bronze  ;"','■"■"'"" 
with  zinc  it  forms   Brass,   PiNCniitcK,  or  SiMti.oR, '^''^ 
Manheim  goi^d,  iStc.  according  to  the  proportion  ;  it 
5  being 


red 


3° 
Of  its  cf- 
fe6ls  as  a 
poifon. 


COP  [    440    ]  COP 

being  always  obfervable,  that  the  conlpoUnds  mod  near-  or  fee-tail,  for  life,  years,  or  at  will,  according  to  the 

ly  refembling  cfold  in  colour  have  the  kail  ductility  and  cullom  of  the  manor  by  copy  of  court-roll ;  but  is  ge- 

are  moll  brittle.     Sec  thefe  articles,  and  Chemistry-  nerally  wh^re  the  tenant  has  fucli  ellate  either  in  fee 

I/u/tx.  or  for  three  lives. 

With  regard   to  the  poifonous   qualities  of  copper         Corr'-Riski  the  right  which  an  author  may  be  fup- 

whcn  taken  into  the  body,  much    lefs  danger  feem3  to  pofed  to   have   in   his  own  original  litcran-  compofi- 

arife  than  from  thofe  of  anenic,  on  account  of  its  eafy  tions ;    fo  that  no  other   perfon,    without    his  leave, 

folubility  i  nor  indeed  have  we  met  with  any  well  an-  may  publifli  or  make  profit   of  the  copies.     When  a 

thenticated  inttance  of  a  perfon  who   has  died  in  con-  man  by  the   exertion   of  his  r;itioiial  powers  has  pro 


C«pr. 


fequence  of  fwallowing  even  verdigreafe  itfelf.  In  one 
cafe,  where  an  unlucky  boy  had  fwallowed  fome  bits 
of  this  fubftance  thrown  out  of  a  chemiU's  laboratoiy, 
the  fymptoms  were  only  violent  licknefs  and  vomiting, 
from  which    he  recovered    by   drinking   warm   water 


duced  an  original  work,  he  has  clearly  a  right  to 
difpofe  of  that  identical  work  as  he  pleafes ;  and  any 
attempt  to  take  it  from  him,  or  vary  the  difpofilion 
he  has  made  of  it,  is  an  invafion  of  his  right  of  pro- 
perly.      Now  the  identity  of  a  literary  compofition 


largely  ;  and   probably  nothing  elfe  would  be  requilite  confifts  entirely  in  the  fentiment  and   the  language  ; 

in  any  cafe,  though  Mr  Fourcroy  advifes  citiel'ics,  abun-  the    fame    conceptions,    clothed  in    the  fame   words, 

dance  of  water,  liver  of  fulphur,  alkalis,   &c.      The  muft  neceflarily  be  the  fame  compoiltion:  and  whatever 

ufe  of  emetics  in  fuch  a  cafe,  however,  feems  altuge-  method  be  taken  of  conveying  that  compofition  to  the 

ther  fuperfluous  ;  fince   verdigreafe,  in  the  quantity  of  ear,  or  to  the  eye  of  another,  by  recital,  by  writing,  or 

a  grain  or  a  grain   and   a   half,  has  been     ordered   by  by  printing,  in   any   number  of  copies,  or  at  any  [le- 

fome  medical  writers  in  the   cafe   of  polfon  fwallowed  riod  of  time,   it  is  always  the  identical  work   of  the 

otherwifc,  as  the   emetic   moll  quick  in  its  operation  author  which  is   fo  conveyed;  and  no  other  man  (it 

that  could  be  thought  of.  hath  been   thought)   can  have  a  right  to  convey  or 

COPPERAS,   a  name  given  to  the  faftitious  green  transfer  it   without  his   confent,  either  tacitly  or  cx- 

vitilol.     See  CHEMisTRY-/«a'i?x.  prefbly  given.     This  confent  may  perhaps  be  tacitly 

COPPERPLATE.     See  Encravimg.  gi^"«"  when  an  author  permits  his  work  to  be  publilh- 

COPPICE,  or  Copse,  a  little  wood,  confiding  of  ed  without  any  referve  of  right,  and  without  ftamp- 

under- woods,  or   fuch  as  may  be  ralfed  either  by  fow-  ing  on  it  any  marks  of  ownerfhip;  it  is  then  a  prefent 

Ing  or  planting.  to  the  public,  like  the  building  of  a  church,  or  the  lay- 

COPTOS  (anc.  geog.),  a  famous  trading   town  of  ing  cut  a  new  highway:  but  in  cafe  of  a  bargain  for 

the  Thebais,  inhabited  by  Egyptians  and  Arabs,  fume  a  hngle  impreflion,  or  a4otal  fale  or  gift  of  the  copy- 

ditlaiice  from  the  Nile;  others  place  it  in  a  fmall  iOnnd  right;  in  the  one  cafe  the  reverfion  hath  been  thought 

in  the  Nile,  on  which,  however,  it  had  a  jiort.     Here  to  continue  in  the  original  proprietor ;  In  the  other 

Ifis,  on  hearing  of  the  death  of  Ofiris,  cut  one  of  her  the  whole  property,  with   its  exclufive   rights,  to  be 

locks  and  put  on  mourning  ;  and  hence  the  name  Cop-  perpetually  transferred  to  tlje  grantee.     On  the  other 

tos,   fignlfying  privatlorr:     A   proof  this   of  the  aiiti-  hand,  it  is  urged,  that  though  the  exclufive  riglit  of  the 

quity  of  the  place.      And  for  this  reafon   the   IfiacI,  manufcilpt,  and  all    which  it    contains,  belongs   un- 

or  priefts  of  Ifib,  were  bald,   according  to  JuvenalT  doubtedly  to  the   owner  before  it  Is  printed  or  pub- 

COPULATION,  the  aCl  of  generation,  or  the  con-  llflied;  yet  from  the  inftant  of  publication,   the  exclu- 

grels  of  the   male   and  female,  otherwife  called  coiiion.  five  right  of  an  author  or  his  affigns  to  the  fole  com- 

See  Generation.  munlcation  of  his  ideas  immediately  vanlfhes  and  eva- 

COPY,  in  a  law  fenfe,  a  tranfcrlpt  of  a  writing  or  porates ;  as  being  a  right  of  too  fubtilc  and  unfub- 

inftvument,  made  for  the  ufe  and  fatisfaftlon  of  fome  flantlal  a  nature  to  become  the  fubjeft  of  property 


of  the  parties  concerned,  or  in  order  to  preferve  the 
memory  thereof. 

Copy  is  alfo  ufed  for  an  Imitation  of  any  original 
■work  ;  paiticularly  a  painting,  draught,   figure,  &c 


at  the  common  law,  and  only  capable  of  being  guard- 
ed by  pofitive  ftatute  and  fpecial  provifions  cf  the  ma- 
giflrate. 

The  Roman  law  adjudged,  that  if  ore  man  wrote 


Copy,  among  printers,  denotes  the  manufcript  or  any  thing,  though  ever  fo  elegantly,  on  the  paper  or 

original  of  a  book  given  to  print  from.  parchment  of  another,  the  writing  fhould   belong  to 

Corr-HoiJ,    a  tenure  f  r   which  a  tenant   has  no-  the  original   owner  of  the  materials  on   which  it  was 

thing  to  {how  but  the  copy  of  the  rglls  made  by  the  written  :    meaning    certainly    nothing    more   thereby 

fteward  of  the  lord's  court.  than   the   mere  mechanical  operation  of  v/riting,  for 

It  is  called  a  bafe  tenure  ;  bccaufe  the  tenant  holds  which  it  directed  the  fciibe  to  receive  a  fatisfadion  ; 

the  land  at  the  will  of  the  lord.      However,  it  is  not  efpeclally  aSj'  in  works  of  genius  and  Invention,  fuch 

frmply  at  the  will  of  the  lord,  but  according  to  iht  cu-  as   a  pitture  painted   on    another   man's   canvas,  the 

ftom  of  the  manor  by  which  fuch  ellate  is  defcendible,  fame  law  gave  the  canvas  to  the  painter.     We  iind 

and  the  tenant's  heirs  may  inherit  it !  and  a  copy-holder,  no  other  mention  in  the  law  of  any  property  in  the 

fo  long  as  he  does  his  fervrces,  and  does  not  break  the  works  of  the  underftanding^  though  the  fale  of  llter'a- 

cuftom,  cannot  be  ejedled  by  the  lord  ;  and  if  he  be,  i-j'  copies,  for  the  purpofes  of  reclial  or  multiplication, 

he  (hall   have   trefpafs  againft   him.      See  the   articles  is  certainly  as  ancient  as  the  times  of  Terence,  Mar- 

Tenure  and  Villenage.  tial,    arid  Staliris.     Neither  with  us   in   Britain  hath 

Copr-Ho/der,  one  who  is  admitted  tenant  of  ImC:  there  been   (till  ver-v  lately)   any  final  determinatioa 

or  tenements  within  a  manor,  which  time  out  of  mind,  upon  the  right  of  authors  at  the  common  law.    It  was 

by  ufe  and  cuftom  of  the  manor,  have  been  demlfable,  determined  in    the   cafe   oi  M'dhr  v.  Taylor  in  B.  R. 

and  demlfed  to  fuch  as  will  take  them  in  fee-hmpie  Pafch.c)  Geo.  III.  1769,  tliat  an  exclufive  copy -right 

^^91.                                                                            4  "                                                                                     in 


COR 


[     441     ] 


COR 


in  aiithors  fubfilled  by  the  common  law.  But  after- 
wards, in  the  cafe  of  Donaldfon  v.  Berlet,  before  the 
loufe  of  lords,  wliich  was  finally  determined  2zd 
February  1774,  it  was  held  that  no  copy-right  fub- 
fifts  in  authors,  after  the  expiration  of  the  feveral 
terms  created  by  the  llatute  8  Ann  c.  19.  This  fta- 
tute  declares,  that  the  autlior  and  his  afligns  ihall 
have  the  whole  liberty  of  printing  and  reprinting  his 
works  for  the  term  of  14  years,  and  no  longer;  and 
alfo  protects  that  property  by  additional  penalties  and 
forfeitures  ;  diredting  farther,  that  if  at  the  end  of 
that  term  the  author  himfclf  be  living,  the  right  (hall 
then  return  to  him  for  another  term  of  the  fame  dura- 
tion. 

COQUES  (Gon7alo),  an  eftecmed  painter  of  por- 
traits and  converfations,  was  born  at  Antwerp  in  1618, 
and  was  a  difciplc  of  the  old  David  Kyckaert ;  under 
whofe  dircftion  he  applied  himfclf  diligently  to  cul- 
tivate thofe  promifmg  talents  which  he  pod'eired  ;  not 
only  by  pradlifing  the  bcft  rules  admialilered  to  him 
by  his  inllruftor,  but  alfo  by  lludying  nature  with 
iingnlar  attention. — He  was  a  great  admirer  of  Van- 
dyck;  and  fixing  oa  the  manner  of  that  great  artift  as 
his  model,  had  tl\e  happinefs  of  fo  far  fucceeding,  that 
next  to  liim  he  was  eileemed  equal  to  any  other  pain- 
ter of  his  time. — In  the  fchool  of  Ryckaert  he  had 
been  accullomed  to  paint  converfations,  and  he  fre- 
quently compoled  fubjefts  of  fancy  like  Teniers,  O- 
tlade,  and  his  mailer  ;  and  by  that  habit,  he  intro- 
duced a  very  agreeable  ftyle  of  portrait  painting,  in  a 
kind  of  hiltorical  converfations,  which  fcemed  much 
more  acceptable  to  perfons  of  tafte  than  the  general 
manner  of  painting  portraits,  and  procured  him  great 
reputation  and  riches.  In  that  way  he  compofed  fe- 
veral tine  pictures  for  king  Charles  I.  and  likewife  fe- 
vtral  for  the  archduke  Leopold,  and  tiie  prince  of 
Orange;  which  latter  prince,  as  a  mark  of  refpeft, 
prefented  Coques  with  a  rich  gold  chain,  and  a  gold 
medal  on  which  the  bull  of  that  prince  was  impreffed. 
He  died  in  1684. — He  had  an  excellent  pencil;  his 
portraits  were  well  defigned,  with  eafy  natural  atti- 
tudes ;  he  diipofed  the  figures  in  his  compofition  fo 
as  to  avoid  confufion  or  embarraflment ;  he  gave  an 
extraordinary  clearntfs  of  colour  to  his  heads  and 
hands  ;  and  his  touch  was  free,  firm,  and  broad,  a 
circumftancc  very  uncommon  in  works  of  a  fmall  fize. 

COQUIMBO,  a  port-town  of  Chili,  In  South  Ame- 
rica, fituated  at  the  mouth  of  a  river  of  the  fame 
name,  which  difcharges  itfelf  Into  the  Pacific  ocean. 
W.  Long.  75.  ID.  N.  Lat.  30.  O. 

COR  CAROLi,  iin  ailron(jmy,  an  extraconftellated 
liar  in  the  northern  hemifphere,  fituated  between  the 
coma  Btrenices,  and  urjh  major  ;  fo  called  by  Dr  Hal- 
ley  in  honour  ol  king  Charles. 

CoK  Hydrte,  a  fixed  ftar  of  the  fird  magnitude,  in 
the  conllellation  of  'hydra. 

Cw«  Leoim,  in  allroiiomy,  a  fixed  ftar  of  the  firft 
magnitude,  in  the  conllellation  I-eo. 

CoR-iikille,  a  noted  plant,  common  in  the  High- 
lands of  Scotland.  Its  roots  dried  are  the  fupport  of 
the  highlanders  in  h)ng  journeys,  amidli  the  barren 
hills  deftitute  of  fupports  of  life;  and  a  finall  quantity, 
like  the  alimentar)'  powders,  will  for  a  long  time  re- 
pel the  attacks  of  hunger.     lufufcd  in  liquor  it  is  an 

Vol.  V.  Part  II. 


agreeable  beverage,  and  like  the  Nepenthe  of  the  Coracbi. 
Greeks,  exhilarates  the  mind.  From  the  fimllitude  ~"~v~— ' 
of  found  In  the  name,  it  feems  to  be  the  fame  with 
chara,  the  root  difcovcred  by  the  foldiers  of  Cxfar  at 
Dyrrhachium,  which  lleeped  in  milk  was  fuch  a  relief  to 
the  famllhed  army.  Or  we  may  reafonably  believe  it 
to  have  been  the  Caledonian  food  defcribed  by  Dio, 
of  which  the  quantity  of  a  bean  would  prevent  both 
hunger  and  thirit :  and  this,  fays  the  hillorlan,  they 
have  ready  for  all  occafions. 

CORACIAS,  the  Roller,  In  ornithology;  a  ge- 
nus of  birdi  of  tlie  order  of  picae,  tlie  charailers  of 
which  are  :  The  bill  is  ilraigiit,  bending  towards  the 
tip,  witli  the  edges  cultrated  :  the  noilrils  are  narrow 
and  naked  ;  the  legs  for  the  moft  part  /hort ;  the  toes 
placed  three  before  and  one  behind,  and  divided  to 
their  origin.  This  genus  is  not  confined  to  one  fpoL 
ot  the  globe,  as  one  or  other  of  the  different  fpecies 
may  be  met  viith  in  all  the  four  quarters  of  it. 

I.  The  garrula,  or  garrulous  roller,  is  about  the 
fize  of  a  jay;  the  bill  black,  and  at  the  bale  btfet  with 
briitles,  but  do  not  cover  the  noftrils:  the  head,  neck, 
brtall,  and  belly,  are  of  a  light  blulfii  green  ;  Ijack 
and  Icapulars,  reddilh  brown  ;  coverts  on  the  rid  ere  of 
the  wing  rich  blue,  beneath  them  pale  green  ;  upper 
part  and  tips  of  the  quills  duflcy  ;  the  lower  parts  of  a 
fine  deep  blue  ;  rump,  of  this  lall  colour  :  tail  forked, 
of  a  light  blue  ;  the  outer  feather  tipped  with  black 
above,  and  beneath  with  deep  blue,  as  is  the  cafe  with 
fuch  part  of  the  quill  feathers  as  is  black  above  ;  the 
other  tail  feathers  are  dull  green  :  the  legs  are  Pnort, 
and  of  a  dirty  yellow.  Mr  Pennant  obfcri-es  that 
thefe  birds  are  frequent  in  feveral  parts  of  Europe,  in 
moll  parts  of  which  It  Is  a  bird  of  palTage.  Mention 
is  made  of  them  in  Sweden  and  Denmark  on  the  one 
hand,  and  as  far  as  Africa  on  the  other;  not  that  they 
are  found  In  all  the  parts  between,  nor  in  the  fame 
plenty.  Willoughby  tells  us,  that  in  Germany,  Si- 
cily, and  Malta,  they  are  fo  common  as  to  be  fold  in 
the  markets,  and  in  poulterers  (hops.  Adanfon  fays, 
that  it  "  comes  to  rcfide  for  fome  months  of  the  fum- 
mcr  in  the  fouthern  parts  of  Europe,  and  goes  back 
to  fpend  the  remainder  of  the  year  in  Senegal,"  ha- 
ving fnot  one  on  board  the  fhip,  on  its  pafiage,  in  A-  • 
pril.  Frifch  obferves,  that  it  makes  its  nell  in  w.oodsj 
where  there  is  biich  ;  that  it  docs  not  come  to  its  co- 
lour till  the  fecond  year;  flies  in  troops  in  autumn  ; 
often  feen  in  tilled  grounds,  with  rooks  and  other 
birds,  ftarching  for  worms,  fmall  feeds,  and  roots. 
Its  flefh  tailcs  like  that  of  a  turtle.  It  is  faid  alfo 
fometimes  to  make  the  nell  in  holes  in  the  ground, 
in  one  of  which  neils  two-eggs  were  found.  The  nelt 
is  gencially  filthy,  from  the  young  evacuating  their 
txcrements  therein;  whence  by  fome  it  was  faid  to 
make  the  neil  of  excrements.  We  arc  told  in  the 
ISritilh  ■^oology,  that  it  has  been  twice  (hot  in  F.nc- 
land,  and  is  remarkable  for  making  a  chattering  noife, 
whence  its  name. 

2.   The  blue-ftriped  roller  Is  in  length  eight  inclies;       fife 
the  bill  three   cjuartcrs  of  an   Incli   long,  bent  at  the   CXLIX, 
tip,  and  of  a  black  colour  :  the   iridts  are  red  :  the 
general  colour  of  the  jilumage  deep  blue-black,  dallied 
with  ftreaks  of  greeniih  blue :   the  tail  and  legs  are 
black.  It  Inhabits  New  Caledonia. 

3   ^^  3-  T"e 


COR  [ 

3.  The  Chinefe  roller  is  of  the  fize  of  a  jay: 
bill  and  irides  are  red  :  the  head,  hind  part  of  the 
neck,  back,  rump,  and  upper  tail  coverrs,  are  green: 
through  tlie  eyes  on  each  fide  is  a  black  ftripe  :  the 
under  pails  of  the  body,  from  chin  to  vent,  are  yel- 
lowilh  white,  tinged  vith  green  ;  but  the  thighs  are 
j^rey :  the  wing  coverts  are  olive  brown;  quills  the 
fame,  with  a  mixture  of  ehefnut  in  fome  ;  and  others, 
nearelt  the  body,  tipped  with  white  :  the  tail  is  five 
inches  in  length,  and  wedge-iliaped,  the  outer  fea- 
thers (hortening  by  degrees  like  that  of  a  magpie  ;  all 
of  them  are  more  or  lefs  green,  verging  to  black  near 
the  ends  ;  the  tips  of  all  are  white  :  the  legs  and 
claws  are  of  a  pale  red,  and  longer  than  in  other  rol- 
lers. It  inhabits  China,  and  is  called  at  Canton  S.iw 
ta-honng.      It  is  not  very  common. 

There  are  13  other  fpccies  enumerated  by  ornitho- 
logills;  though  many  of  them  doubtful,  and  fuppofed 
to  be  only  varieties. 

CORACO-BRACHiALis,  in  anatomy,  the  name  of 
a  mufcle  in  the  arm,  fcrving  to  raife  it  upwards. 

CORACOIDES,  in  anatomy,  a  fmall  iharp  pro- 
cefsof  the  fcapula.     See  Anatomy,  n'47. 

CORACOMANTES,  in  antiquity,  perfons  who 
foretold  events  from  their  obfervations  on  crows. 

CORALLINA,  or  Coral,  in  zoology,  a  genus  be- 
longing to  the  order  of  vermes  zoophyta.  The  trunk 
is  radicated,  jointed,  and  calcareous.  The  fpecies  are 
eight,  dillinguifhed  by  the  form  of  their  branches, 
and  are  found  in  the  ocean  adhering  to  ilones,  bones, 
(hells,  &c.  The  corals  v^ere  formerly  believed  to  be 
vegetable  fubitances  hardened  by  the  air  ;  but  are 
now  known  to  be  compofed  of  congeries  of  animals, 
which  are  even  endued  with  the  faculty  of  moving 
fpontaneoufly. 

The  iflands  in  the  South-fea  are  moflly  coral  rocks 
covered  over  with  earth.  The  little  creatures,  which 
have  fcarce  fenfation  enough  to  dillinguiHi  them  from 
plants,  build  up  a  rocky  ftrudlure  from  the  bottom 
of  that  fea,  too  deep  to  be  meafured  by  human  art, 
till  it  reaches  the  fuiface.  Some  of  thefe  coralline  if- 
lands appear  to  be  of  a  much  older  date  than  others  ; 
particularly  the  Friendly  iflands  :  and  it  is  probable 
that  as  thefe  fubmarine  works  are  continually  going  onj 
new  iflands  may  by  that  means  frequently  be  produced. 
M.  de  Pyflonnel  of  Marfeilles,  in  confequence  of  a 
feries  of  experiments  and  obfei-vations  from  about  the 
year  1720  to  1750,  feems  to  have  been  the  firfl;  who 
threw  a  proper  light  upon  the  nature  and  produftion 
of  coral  and  fimilar  marine  fubllances.  Thofe  bodies, 
which  the  couat  de  Marfigli  imagined  to  be  flowers, 
this  ingenious  naturalilt  difcovered  to  be  infefts  inha- 
biting the  coral  ;  for  upon  taking  branches  of  it  out 
of  the  water,  the  flowers,  which  proceeded  from  a 
number  of  white  points  anfwering  to  the  holes  that 
pierced  the  bark,  and  the  radiation  of  which  refembled 
the  flower  of  the  olive-tree,  entered  into  the  bark  and 
difappeared ;  but  upon  being  again  reftored  to  the 
water,  they  were  fome  hours  after  perceptible.  Thefe 
flowers  fpread  on  white  paper  loft  their  tranfparency, 
and  became  red  as  they  dried.  The  holes  in  the  bark 
correfpond  to  fmall  cavities  upon  the  fubftance  of  the 
coral;  and  when  the  bark  is  removed,  there  may  be 
feen  an  infinite  quantity  of  little  tubes  conneiSing  the 
baik  with  the  inner  fubilance,  befides  a  great  ntunber 


442     1  COR 

The  of  fmall  glands  adhering  to  them;  and  from  thefe  tubes  CoralKnt, 
and  glands  the  milky  juice  of  coral  iifucs  forth  :  the  ~~V~~^ 
holes  in  the  bark  are  the  openings  tlirough  which  the 
infefts  that  form  thefe  fubllanccs  for  their  habitation 
come  forth  ;  and  thofe  cavities  which  are  partly  in  the 
bark  and  partly  in  the  fubilance,  are  the  cells  which 
they  inhabit.  The  organs  of  the  aninlal  are  contained 
in  the  tubes,  and  the  ghndules  are  the  extremities  of 
its  ftet,  and  the  milky  liquor  is  the  blood  and  juice 
of  the  animal,  which  are  more  or  lefs  abundant  in 
proportion  to  its  health  and  vigour.  When  the  in- 
fefts  arc  dead,  they  corrupt,  and  communicate  to  the 
water  the  fmell  of  putrid  fifli.  This  juice  or  liquor 
runs  along  the  furrows  perceived  upon  the  proper 
fubilance  or  body  of  coral,  and  (topping  by  little  and 
little  becomes,  fixed  and  hard,  and  is  changed  into 
rtone  ;  and  being  fl;opped  in  the  bark,  caufes  the  co- 
ral to  increafe  proportionably  and  in  every  direction. 
In  forming  coral,  and  other  marine  produttions  of 
this  clafs,  the  animal  labours  like  thofe  of  the  Iclla- 
ceous  kind,  each  according  to  his  fpccies  ;  and  their 
produftions  vary  according  to  their  fe.-cral  forms,  mag- 
nitudes, and  colours. 

The  coral  infeft,  or  polype,  M.  Peyflonnel  obferves, 
expands  itklf  in,  water,  and  contracts  itfelf  in  air,  or 
when  it  is  touched  viith  the  hand  in  water,  or  acid  li- 
quors are  poured  upon  it  :  and  he  aftually  faw  thefe 
infects  move  their  claws  or  legs,  and  expand  them- 
felves,  when  the  fea-water  containing  coral  was  placed 
near  the  fire,  and  keep  them  in  their  expanded  itate 
vi'hen  feparated  from  the  coral  in  boiling  water.  Bro- 
ken branches  of  coral  have  been  obferved  to  fallen 
themfelves  to  other  branches,  and  have  continued  to 
grow  ;  and  this  is  the  cafe  when  they  are  connefted 
\vith  detached  pieces  of  rock  and  other  fubitances, 
from  which  no  nourifliment  could  be  derived.  The 
coral  infects  in  theii  cells,  not  having  been  injured, 
continue  their  operations;  and  as  they  draw  nu  nou- 
rifliment from  the  ftone  of  the  coral,  they  are  able  to 
increafe  in  a  detached  and  feparate  Itate.  Coral  was 
found  to  be  equally  red  in  the  fea  as  out  of  it ;  and  it 
was  more  fliining  when  juft  taken  out  of  the  water 
than  even  when  it  is  pohlhed  ;  and  the  bark  by  being 
dried  becomes  fomewhat  pale.  M.  Peyflonnel  found 
that  it  grows  in  difierent  directions,  fometimes  per- 
pendicularly downwards,  fometimes  horizontally,  and 
fometimes  upwards ;  and  in  the  caverns  of  the  fea,  o- 
pen  to  every  expofure. 

This  fylteni  was  little  regarded,  though  firll  com- 
municated to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Paris  in 
1727,  till  Mr  Trembley's  difcovery  of  the  frefli-waler 
polype;  but  fince  that  time,  it  has  ,been  confirmed  by 
the  obfervations  of  M.  Bernard  de  Juffieu  on  the  fea- 
coafts  of  Normandy,  and  thofe  of  M.  de  Reaumur  near 
Rochelle.  M.Donati  of  Turin  has  alfo  adopted  the  fame 
hypothefis,  viz.  that  coral  is  a  mafs  of  animals  of  the 
polype  kind  ;  and  iullead  of  reprefenting  the  polype 
beds  and  cells  which  they  contain  as  the  work  of  po- 
lypes, he  thinks  it  more  jull  to  fay,  that  coral  and 
other  coralline  bodies  ha,ve  the  fame  relation  to  the  po- 
lypes united  to  them,  that  there  is  between  the  Ihell 
of  a  fnail  and  the  fnail  itfelf,  or  the  bones  of  an  ani- 
mal and  the  animal  itfelf. 

The  fame  fyltem  has  alfo  been  excellently  illufl;rated 
and  ellfcbh'flicd  by  Mr  Ellis,  in  anfwer  to  the  objec- 
tions 


COR 


Corallitia,  ti'ons  of  Dr  Baftcr  of  Zealand,   and  Dr  Pallas  of  Bev- 
,    C°"'-     lln,  who  ftill  refer  corallines  to   the   vegetable  king- 
'         dom. 

There  are  properly  but  three  kinds  of  coral ;  red, 
■white,  and  black  :  the  black  is  the  ravell,  Hnd  molt 
eftecmed;  but  the  red  was  formerly  ufed  in  medicine. 
It  mult  be  chofen  thick,  fmooth,  and  fliining,  and  of 
a  beautiful  red,  not  covered  with  any  tartareous  mat- 
tei-.  However,  this  fubllance  is  now  fcarce  ever  pre- 
fcribed  by  aoy  intelligent  praftitioner. 

When  coral  is  newly  taken  up  out  of  the  fea,  the 
fmall  protuberances  on  its  furface  are  foft,  and  yield, 
on  being  prefied,  a  milky  juice  which  elfervefces  with 
acids.  The  cortical  part  with  which  the  coral  is  all 
over  covered  is  not  near  io  compact  as  the  internal, 
and  may  eafily  be  taken  off  whillt  fredi  ;  and  from 
this  part  it  is  ufuitlly  freed  before  it  comes  to  the  mar- 
ket. The  greatt  ft  coral  trade  is  in  Genoa  and  Leg- 
horn. This  fmall  fprigs  unfit  for  ornamental  ufes  are 
in  the  (hops  levigated  into  a  fubtile  powder;  which, 
however,  has  no  medicinal  virtues  fuperior  to  the  com- 
mon teflacca.  Coral  is  not  unfrequently  imitated  by 
artificial  compofitions,  fome  of  which  are  made  to  rc- 
femble  it  exactly  ;  but  the  abufe  may  be  difcovered 
by  fire,  the  counterfeit  not  affording  the  alkaline  earth 
which  is  afforded  by  the  genuine  coral.  The  colour- 
ing ingredients  in  the  artificial  coral  are  cinnabar  and 
miniKm,  both  of  which  are  eafily  difcovered.  The 
natural  coral  feems  to  receive  its  colai-r  from  iron  ; 
for  fpirit  of  vitriol  acquires  from  it  a  ferruginous 
tafte  ;  and  on  calcining  the  coral,  fome  panicles  are 
found  among  the  afhes  that  are  attracted  by  the  mag- 
net. Sixteen  ounces  of  coral,  according  to  Neumann, 
when  dillilled  in  an  open  fire,  yield  about  fix  fcruples 
and  an  half  of  volatile  alkaline  fpirit,  with  two  or  three 
grains  of  an  empyrcumatic  oil  :  from  the  caput  mor- 
tunm  calcined,  five  fcruples  and  a  half  of  fixed  fait 
may  be  extraited.  In  former  times,  many  extraordi- 
nary virtues  were  expected  from  this  fubftance,  on 
account  of  its  fine  red  colour  ;  and  therefore  a  great 
number  of  methods  were  tried  to  extraft  this  colour 
by  means  of  fpirit  of  wine.  None  of  thefe,  however, 
fucceeded.  A  red  colour  was  indeed  fometimes  ob- 
tained, but  it  turned  out  the  fame  whether  any  coral 
was  ufed  in  the  operation  or  not.  In  fome  of  thefe 
proceffes,  however,  the  coral  lofes  its  colour.  One  me- 
thod of  making  the  tinfture  is  by  diffolving  a  pound  of 
fugar  in  a  little  water,  and  then  adding  half  a  pound 
of  wax.  A  pound  of  coral  boiled  in  tliis  mixture  lofes 
its  rednefs,  but  is  found  to  be  unallered  in  other  re- 
fpefts.  In  order  to  prepare  the  linCture,  the  wax  and 
fugar  mult  be  dilH  Ived  in  fpirit  of  wine. 

CORAL  Fishery.  Red  coral  is  found  in  the  Me- 
diteiranean,  on  the  fliores  of  Provence,  from  Cape  de 
la  Couronne  to  (hat  of  St  Tropez  ;  about  the  ifles  of 
Majorca  and  Minorca  ;  on  the  fouth  of  Sicily  ;  on  the 
coalls  of  Africa;  and,  laltly,  in  the  Ethiopic  ocean, 
about  cape  Negro.  The  divers  fay,  that  the  Little 
branches  are  found  only  in  the  caverns  whofe  lituation 
is  parallel  to  the  earth's  furface,  and  open  to  the  fouth. 
The  manner  of  filhing  being  nearly  the  fame  where 
ever  coral  is  found,  it  will  fuflice  to  inllance  the  me- 
thod ufed  at  the  bailion  of  France,  under  the  direction 
of  the  company  ellabliihed  at  Marfeilles  for  that  fifhery. 
Seven  or  tight  men  jjo  in   a  boat  commanded   by  the 


r    443     1 


COR 


patron  or  proprietor  ;  and  when  the  net  is  thrown  bv  Cora?, 
the  caller,  the  re!l  work  the  vcffel,  and  help  to  draw  Coraliin^ 
the  net  in.  The  net  is  compofed  of  two  rafters  of  '  ^ 
wood  tied  erofs-wife,  with  leads  fixed  to  them  :  t'^  thefo 
tliey  falten  a  quantity  of  hemp  twilled  loofely  round, 
and  intermingled  with  fome  large  netting.  This  in- 
(trumcnt  is  let  down  where  they  think  there  is  coral, 
and  pulled  up  again  when  the  coral  is  (trongly  intang- 
led  in  the  hemp  and  netting.  For  this  puipofe,  iix 
boats  are  fometimes  required  ;  and  if  in  hauling  in, 
the  rope  happens  to  break,  the  fidiermen  run  the  ha- 
zard of  being  lolt.  Before  the  fi filers  go  to  lea,  they 
agree  for  the  price  of  the  cotal,  which  is  fometimes 
more,  fometimes  lefs,  a  pound  ;  and  they  engage,  on 
pain  of  corporal  punifliment,  that  neitlier  they  nor 
their  crew  ftiall  embezzle  any,  but  deliver  the  whole  to 
the  proprietors.  When  the  fifhery  is  ended,  which 
amounts  one  year  with  another  to  twcjity-five  quintals 
for  each  boat,  it  is  divided  into  thirteen  parts  ;  of 
which  the  proprietor  hath  four,  the  callers  two,  and 
the  other  fix  men  one  each,  the  thirteenth  belongs 
to  the  company  for  payment  of  the  boat  furnifhed 
them. 

CoRJL-Stoiie,  a  name  for  a  kind  of  red  aivj  white 
agate  which  breaks  in  veins,  and  is  found  in  Italy  and 
fome  parts  of  Saxony.  That  of  Roehlitz  in  Saxony 
is  the  nioft  celebrated,  and  is  found  in  globules  which 
have  a  kind  of  crnll  about  them. 

CORALLINES,  in  natural  hiftory,  were  former- 
ly reckoned  a  genus  of  plants,  and  Mr  Tournefort 
enumerates  36  fpecies  of  them  ;  but  in  the  Linnxan 
fyflem  they  belong  to  the  clafs  of  zoophytes,  and  are 
defined  by  modern  naturallfts  to  be  fubmarine  plant- 
like bodies,  that  confilt  of  many  flender  finely  divided 
and  jointed  branches,  refembling  fome  fpecies  of  mofs; 
or  animals  growing  in  the  form  of  plants,  having  their 
Hems  fixed  to  other  bodies :  thefe  Items  are  compofed 
of  capillary  tubes,  whofe  extremities  pafs  through  a 
calcareous  crull,  and  open  into  pores  on  the  furface. 
The  branches  are  ofte*  jointed,  and  always  fubdividej 
into  fmaller  branches,  which  are  either  loofe  and  un- 
conneiited,  or  joined  as  if  they  were  glued  together. 
They  are  dillinguiflied  from  plants  by  their  texture 
and  harduefs  :  they  alfo  yield  in  diltillatioii  a  confide- 
rable  quantity  of  volatile  fait  ;  and  their  fmell,  in  burn- 
ing, refembles  that  of  burnt  horns  and  other  animal 
fubltances.  Many  of  the  corallines  feem  to  confilt  of  a 
llngle  tube,  containing  a  fingle  parent  animal.  Every 
branch  emitted  contains  an  offspring  of  this  parent  de- 
pendent upon  it,  and  yet  capable  of  producing  its  like 
in  the  emiifion  of  a  new  branch.  Others  confifl  of 
many  fuch  tubes  united,  rifing  up  together,  and  en- 
circling the  defcrted  tubes  of  their  progenitors,  whofe 
exuvia;  become  the  fubltratnm  of  a  rifing  geneiation. 
Mr  EUis  diilrlbutes  corallines  into  the  •ueftculated,  tu- 
buLir,  cell'iferous,  and  articulateil  kinds. 

Vefcnlated  cornllhie;  arc  dillinguiflied  by  their  horny 
hollow  ramifications  :  molt  of  them  are  furniflied  with 
little  denticles  on  their  branches,  like  leaves  on  moffes; 
and  at  certain  feafons  of  the  year  they  are  furniflied 
with  fmall  bodies  like  bladders,  proceeding  from  their 
Items  and  branches,  and  differing  in  form  according 
to  the  different  fpecies.  Their  colour,  when  dry,  is 
of  a  ycllowifli  or  pale  brown,  and  their  nature  is  ela- 
lUc.  They  are  found  adhering  to  rocks,  Ihells,  and 
3  ^^  2  fucufes. 


Plate 

CXCVIl! 


COR 

Coraliinef.  fucufes,  by  fmall  root-like  tubes :  they  recover  their 
v~~~  form  in  water,  after  having  been  dried  ;  and  when  put 
into  vinegar,  they  caufe  no  cfFervefcence.  See  Plate 
CXLVII.  fig.  I.  where  a  reprefents  the  fea-tamariilt 
in  its  natural  fize,  and  A  in  which  the  denticles  are 
magnified.  Fig.  2.  i,  B,  is  the  fea-cyprel's  ;  fig.  3. 
c  d,  CD,  the  fmall  climbing  coralline  with  well  fhaped 
cups. 

Tubular  corallines  are  compofed  of  a  number  of 
fimple  tubes,  growing  up  nearly  together  ;  or  of  fuch 
branched  ones  as  have  neither  denticles  nor  veficles. 
Thefe  are  horny  and  claftic  like  the  former,  and  reco- 
ver their  original  form  in  water.  Some  of  them  ap- 
pear wrinkled  Hke  the  wind-pipe,  and  others  like  the 
inteftines  of  fmall  animals.     See  fig.  4,  E. 

Celllfc-rous  corallines  are  thofe  which  appear,  when 
magnified,  to  be  fine  thin  cells,  the  habitations  of  fmall 
animals  connected  together,  and  difpofed  in  a  variety 
of  elegant  forms  like  branches.  Thefe  effervefce 
with  acids.  See  fig.  5,  Ff,  with  part  (GH)  magni- 
fied. 

Articulated  ccrallities  confift  of  fliort  pieces  of  a  ftony 
or  cretaceous  brittle  matter,  whofe  furface  is  covered 
■with  pores  or  cells,  which  are  joined  by  a  tough,  mem- 
branous, flexile  fubllance,  compofed  of  many  fmall 
tubes  of  the  like  nature  compafttd  together.  The 
ftony  part  is  foluble  in  vinegar,  and  the  other  part  re- 
mains entire,  a.  A,  (fig.  6.)  is  the  coralline  of  the 
fiiops.  It  is  fixed  to  rocks  and  fliclls  by  ilony  joints, 
which,  as  they  rife,  are  united  to  others  by  extremely 
fine  and  flender  tubes  :  Thefe  may  be  difcovered  by  a 
good  eye,  or  a  common  magnifier.  As  the  ftems  ex- 
tend themfclvcs,they  become  pennated  by  fide- branches 
which  come  out  oppofite  to  each  other,  and  are  joint- 
ed in  the  fame  manner ;  the  joints  of  this  fpecies  are 
like  the  upper  part  of  an  inverted  cone,  but  a  little 
comprefled  :  The  whole  furface  is  covered  over  with 
very  minute  circular-fhaped  cells  like  pores  ;  fee  B,  and 
B  1,  where  they  are  higher  magnified.  B  2,  fbows  a 
crofs  fcftlon  highly  magnified.  If  a  branch  of  this 
coralline  is  put  into  vinegar,  thefe  cells  are  diffolved 
with  the  whole  cretaceous  furface  ;  inllead  of  which 
there  appear  rows  of  minute  ramifications,  which  feem 
to  have  communicated  with  each  of  thefe  cells.  Up- 
on fome  fpecimens  of  this  coralline,  we  may  obfcrve 
little  fmall  figures  like  feed-veifcls,  with  which  the 
branches  frequently  terminate  :  They  are  alio  found  on 
the  fides,  as  may  be  feen  at  A,  where  they  are  magni- 
fied.— When  a  branch  is  rendered  foft  by  being  iteep- 
ed  in  vinegar,  there  may  be  fqueezed  out  from  the 
little  knobs  at  the  ends  and  fides,  fmall  twiiled  fi- 
gures, like  thofe  at  A  I,  which  are  magnified  high- 
er at  A  2. — We  frequently  find  this  coralline  of  dif- 
ferent colours,  as  red,  green,  a(h,  and  white  ;  but  all 
of  it,  by  being  expofed  to  the  fun  and  air  on  the  fhore, 
becomes  white. 

The  ancients  have  faid  great  things  of  the  virtues 
cf  the  common  coralline.  Diofcorides  prelcribes  it  for 
mitigating  the  pain  of  the  gout,  and  for  preventing 
ftagnations  of  the  humours  in  any  part  ;  he  fays  no- 
thing cf  its  virtues  againll  worms,  which  are  what  we 
alone  tftecm  it  for.  Wc  give  it  in  powder  from  lO 
grains  to  a  fcruple  or  half  a  dram  twice  a  day  in  thefe 
cafes,  and  that  with  a  confiderable  good  effedt* 


444-1  COR 

Bcfides  the  above,  Mr  Ellis  enumerates  other  gene 
ra  of  marine  produftions  ;  as  the  keratophyta,  efcha- 
ra,  fponges,  and  alcyonium  ;  all  which  are  the  ncils 
or  matrices  of  fea-animals.  See  Polype.  The  lall 
clafs  of  marine  bodies  is  formed  hke  fungufes  of  va- 
rious figures,  and  with  different  forts  of  covering  :  fortia 
having  a  gritty,  and  fome  a  callous  fltin,  with  a  fpon- 
gy  fubftance  in  the  infide  ;  other  fpecies  are  of  a  flcfliy 
fubftance. 

CORALLODENDRON,  in  botany.      See  Ery- 

THRINA. 

CORALLOIDES  (frutices.)  See  Esc»ar.\ 
and  Keratophyta. 

CORAM  (Captain  Thomas),  a  gentleman  remark- 
ably diflinguiihed  by  his  humanity,  was  born  about 
the  year  1668,  and  ipent  the  early  part  of  his  life  in 
the  ftation  of  mailer  of  a  veffcl  trading  to  our  colonies. 
Afterwards  rcfiding  in  the  eaftern  part  of  the  metro- 
polis, among  feafcaring  people,  where  bufinefs  often 
obliged  him  to  come  early  into  the  city  and  return 
late,  he  frequently  faw  young  children  expofed  in  the 
ilreets  through  the  indigence  or  cruelty  of  their  pa- 
rents. This  excited  his  compafllon,  and  induced  him 
to  projeft  the  foundation  of  an  hofpital  for  foundlings. 
In  this  humane  defign  he  laboured  with  indefatigable 
diligence  for  feventeen  years  ;  and  by  his  application 
procured  a  number  of  the  nobility  and  gentry  to  pa- 
tronize and  carry  the  fcheme  into  execution,  and  at 
length  obtained  the  royal  charter  for  it.  He  was  alfo 
highly  inibumental  in  promoting  the  trade  of  Ameri- 
ca, by  procuring  a  bounty  upon  naval  ftores  imported 
from  our  colonies.  He  was  likewife  eminently  con- 
cerned in  fetting  on  foot  the  colonies  of  Georgia  and 
Nova  Scotia.  His  lall  charitable  defign,  in  which  he 
lived  to  make  fome  progrefs,  was  a  fcheme  for  uniting 
the  North  American  Indians  more  clofely  to  the  Bri- 
tilh  intereil,  by  an  eftablifhment  for  the  education  of 
Indian  girls.  In  (hort,  he  fpent  the  greateil  part  of 
life  in  labouring  for  die  public,  and  experienced  a  fate 
too  common  in  thofe  who  devote  their  talents  to  fuch 
laudable  purpofes  ;  being  at  lall  indebted  for  fubfiftence 
to  the  voluntary  fubtcriptions  of  fome  public-fpirited 
perfons,  at  the  head  of  whom  was  the  late  Frederic 
Prince  of  Wales.  Captain  Coram  died  in  1751  :  and 
was  interred,  at  his  own  defire,  in  a  vault  under  the 
chapel  of  the  Foundling  Hofpital. 

CORAN,  or  Alcoran.     See  Alcoran. 

CORAX,  in  ornithology,  the  trivial  name  of  a  fpe- 
cies of  CoRVUS. 

CORANICH,  among  the  Scotch  and  Irifh,  the  cu- 
ftom  offinging  at  funerals,  anciently  prevalent  in  thofe 
countries,  and  ftlll  practiftd  in  feveral  parts.  Of  this 
cuftom  Mr  Pennant  gives  the  following  account.  "  I 
had  ni)t  the  fortune  to  be  prefent  at  any  in  North 
Britain  ;  but  formerly  afliftcd  at  one  in  the  fouth  of 
Ireland,  wlierc  it  was  performed  in  the  fulnefs  of  hor- 
ror. The  cries  are  called  by  the  Irifh  the  ulo^ohne  and 
huUulu;  two  words  very  expreffive  of  the  found  uttered 
on  thefe  occafioiis;  and  being  of  Celtic  ftock,  etymo- 
logills  would  fwear  to  be  the  origin  of  the  o\oytyut  of 
the  Greeks  and  ululatus  of  the  Latins.  Virgil  is  very 
fond  of  ufing  the  lall  wiienever  any  of  his  females  are 
dillrefl'cd  ;  as  are  others  of  the  Roman  poets,  and  ge- 
nerally on  occafions  fimilar  to  this.    It  was  my  fortune 

to 


Coralladdi- 
drou 

I 

Coranich. 


>y.,. 


C  OBATiJ/INE  S  . 


ate  CXLVI. 


\./:Ai^,'/},'».//„/..  /,y,^,/fli /,'.y 


C011AL,L75JKS  :.„.l  H.r  I  ici-..- CoII.UJ.OniKS. 

cy-   ^ 

'!/ '  '  ESCll.MlA. 

Arxicth^ated.  ->. 


Tl;.t<-   rXTvVlK 


mmmk: 


f^-n^U<Jrujt' 


COR 


r     445     ] 


COR 


Jiranfch   to  arrive  at  a  certain  town  in  Kerry  at  the  time  that     bafket,  fomet'mct  ft  en  on  the  heads  of  caryatides.  Tfie     Corhol 
II         a  perfon  of  fome  diftinftioii  departed  this  life:  my  cu-     word  is  alfo  ufed  for  the  vafe,  or  tambour,  of  the  Co-  " 


,  riofity  led  me  to  tlio  houfc,   where  the  funeral  feemed     rinthian  column  ;  fo  called  from  its  refemblance  of  a 
conduced  in  the  pureft  daffical  form.  baJket,  or  becaufe  it  was  fiiit  formed  on  the  model  of 

^uodcunqitt  afpkettt  luBux^^emituftjue  Jcnahantj  A  bafket. 

tormaqu,mnUcitif,,ncrUmtus:r.,t.  CoR  BE  L,    or  r:<7ri/7,    is  alfo  ufed,    in  building,    for  a 

In  ftiort,  the  conchmatlo  was  fet  up  by  the  friends  in  the  (hort  piece  of  timber  placed  in  a  wall,  with  its  end 

fame  manner  as  Virgil  defcribes  that  confequential  of  flicking  out  fix  or  eight  inches,  as  occafion  ferves    in 

Dido's  death;  manner  of  a  fhouldering-piecc.    The  under  part  of  the 

Ijt>i!rnth,!;tt!iliiiqiit,  isf  fcininro  uUlatii  '  end  thus  flic]  ing  out  is  fometimcs  cut  inte  the  form  of 

TcSIj  Jrtmunt.  a  boultin  ;  fometimcs  of  an  ogee,  and  fometimcs  of  a 

Immediattly   after  this    followed  another   ceremony,  face,  &c.  according  to  the  workman's  fancy  ;  the  up- 

fuUy  defcribed  by  Cambden  in  his  account  of  the  man-  per  fide  being  plain  and  flat. 

nera  of  the  ancient   Irilh  ;  the  earnefl  expoflulations         Corbel  is  alfo  uled  by  fome  architefts  for  a  niche 

and  reproaches  given  to  the  deceafed  for  quitting  this  or  hollow  left  in  walls  for  images,  figures,  or  ilatues  to 

wcrld,  where   Ihe  enjoyed  fo  many  bleffings,  fo  good  Hand  in. 

CORBET  (Richard),  bifhop  of  Norwich,  and  an 
eminent  poet,  was  born  at  Ewell  in  Surry,  toward 
the  latter  end  of  the  i6th  century  ;  and  educated  at 
Oxford,  where  he  was  efteemed  one  of  the  moil  ce- 
lebrated wits  of  the  univerfily.  Entering  into  holy 
orders,  he  became  a  popular  preacher,  and  was  made 
chaplain  to  King  James  I. :  when,  after 'feveral  pre- 
ferments in  the  church,  he  was,  in  1629,  made  bifhop 
of  Oxford  ;  and,  in  1632,  was  tranflatcd  to  the  fee 
of  Norwich.      He  was  very  liofpltable,  and  always  a 

He  died  In 


Corcelet. 


a  huPjand,  and  fuch  fine  children.  This  cuflom  is  alfo 
of  great  antiquity,  for  Euryalus's  mother  makes  the 
fame  addrefs  to  her  dead  fon. 

Titt:e  ilia  fcneSIa 

Sera  mea.  nqitiet!*  pettjijli  reUnquiri  fiUtrj, 
■  CruJdh? 

But  when  the  time  approached  for  carrying  out  the 
corps,  the  cry  was  redoubled, 

Trtmtdij  uluUttLi.s  alhaa  cam^ltnt ; 

a  numerous  band  of  females  waiting  in  the  outer  court 

to  attend  the  hearfe,  and  to  pay  in  chorus  the  lafl  tri-  generous  encourager  of  public  defigns 

bute  of  their  voices.     The   habit  of  this  forrowing  163J.     There  have  been  feveral  editions  of  his  poems 

train,  and  the  negletl  of  their  perfons,  were  admirably  publlfhed  under  the  title  of  Poemata  Stroifiata. 


fuited  to  the  occafion  ;  their  robes  were  black  and 
flowing,  refcmbling  the  ancient  Palla ;  their  feet  naked, 
their  hair  long  and  dilhevelled  :   I  might  truly  fay, 

Vt  am  coHdittli  plorsr.t  in  fimer^iy  dicurtt 
Jit  /aciunt  Jiropf  plur.i  tfnUntibui  exanimo. 


COR  BEY,  a  town  of  Picardy  in  France,  with  a  fa- 
mous abbey  of  Benedldline  monks.  It  Is  featcd  on  the 
river  Sorame,  10  miles  eaft  of  Amiens,  and  75  north 
of  Paris.     E.  Long.  2.  35.  N.  Lat.  49.  55. 

CORCELET,  in  natural  hiilory,  that  part  of  the 


The  coipfe  was  carried  flowly  along  the  verge  of  a  fly-clafs  which  is  analogous  in  its  fituation  to  the  breafl 
nioft  beautiful  lake,  the  ululatus  was  continued,  and  In  other  animals.  Many  have  called  it  the  breall  in 
the  whole  proceflion  ended  among  the  venerable  ruins  thefe  alfo,  but  improperly;  becaufe  the  breafl  of  other 
of  an  old  abbey."  animals   is  the   place  of  the  lungs  and  trachea,    but 

CORBAN,  in  Jewifli  antiquity,  were  thofe  offerings  thefe  organs  are  in  the  fly-clafs  diilributed  through  the 

which  had  life,  in  oppofitlon  to  the  minchab,  or  thofe  whole  body.      The   wings  are   affixed  to  this  part  of 

which  had  not.      It   is  derived  from  tlie  word  karab,  the  fly-clafs;  and   there  are  fome  difllnilions  of  great 

■which   fignifies  "  to   approach  ;"   becaufe  the  viftims  confequence  In  regard  to  the  arrangement  and  dlflrlbu- 

were  brought  to  the  door  of  the  tabernacle.  The  corban  tion  of  thofe  animals  into  genera.     Some  flies  have  a 

were  alwaysilooked  upon  as  the  mofl  facred  offerings,  double   corcelet,  or  one  divided  into  two  parts;  and 

The  Jews  are  reproached  with  defeating,  by  means  of  this  is  the  cafe  of  the  fly  produced  from  the  formica 

the  corban,   the  precept  of  the  fifth  commandment,  leo,  which  therefore  does  not  carry  its  only  ditlintlion 

which  enjoins  the  refpeft  due  to  parents.      For  when  in  the  figure  of  its  antenn;E.      One  pair  of  the  legs  of 

a  child  had  no  mind  to  relieve  the  wants  of  hit  father  this  fly  are   attached  to  the  firil  or  anterior  corcelet 

or  mother,  he  would  fay  to  them,  "  It  Is  a  gift  (r»/--  which  Is  alfo  capable  of  moving  on  the  other. 
tan)  by  whatfoever  thou  mightefl  be  profited  by  me  ;"  The  corctlets  of  fome  flies  are  alfo  much  more  ele- 

i.e.   "  I  have  devoted  that 'o  God   which  you  alk  of  vated  than  thofe  of  others;  and  in  fome  this  elevation 

me,  and  it  Is  no  longer  mine  to  give."  is  carried  fo  far,  that   the  head  is  forced  by  it  to  be 

CoRBAN  is  alfo  a  ceremony  winch  the  Mahometans  bent  downward,     and    the  creature    is    plainly  made 

perform  at  the  foot  of  mount  Arrarat  In  Arabia,   near  hump-backed  by  it.     The  great  kind,,  and  the  tipuld', 

Mecca.     It  confills  la  killing  a  great  number  of  fhecp,  furnifh    inilances   of   this  elevated  and  hump-backed 


and  diftributing  them  among  the  poor. 

CORBEILS,  In  fortification,  little  bafl^ets,  about 
a  foot  and  a  half  high,  eight  inches  wide  at  the  bot- 
tom and  twelve  at  the  top  ;  which  being  filled  with 
earth,  are  frequently  fet  one  againfl  another  upon  the 
parapet  or  eltewhere  ;  leaving  certain  port-holes,  from 


corcelet. 

A  feries  of  flies  of  two  wings  are  known  by  a  very 
particular  armament  whicii  they  carry  on  the  corcelet, 
ufually  called  their  brcajl.     Ttiis  conlills  of  two  lonr 
flender,  fharp-poinled  prickles,   wliich  are  immoveable 
in  their  Infertions,  and  feem  meant  as  offenfive  or  de 


whence  to  fire  upon  the  enemy  under  covert  without     fenfive  weapons ;  but  In  what  manner  they  are  ufed  It 
being  feen  by  them.  is  not  eafily  to  be  determined. 

CORBEL,  in  archltediire,  the  reprtfentation  of  a         AU  thefe  flies  are  produced  from  long  water-worniR 

with 


COR 


Corcelet 

II 
Corcnium. 


[        446        ] 


COR 


witli  open  and  fnnnel-fafliioned  taih,  or  furniflicd  with 
their  aperture  for  refpiration  at  the  liindcr  extremit)'. 
There  are  three  known  fpccies  of  this  fort  of  fly, 
with  armed  corcclets,  which  dilfor  much  in  fize,  but 
are  all  produced  of  worms  of  this  kind.  The  largell 
of  thefe  flies  are  produced  from  the  largeft  and  longed 
worm,  and  are  fomething  longer  than  the  bee.  The 
fmallclt  are  produced  of  w*5rms  very  fmall  and  (lender, 
and  are  thcmfelvcs  extremely  minute  :  and  the  third 
kind  is  of  a  middle  fize  betwicn  thefe,  and  produced 
from  a  proportionablv  fmaller  woim  than  that  of  the 
firll,  and  proportionably  larger  than  that  cf  the  fccond 
fpecies. 

All  thefe  fpecies  have  their  wings  but  little  diftin- 
guiihable  at  their  firft  produiition  from  the  (hell ;  they 
appear  indeed  only  like  two  (lender  filaments  laid  acrofs 
their  bodies :  but  they  quickly  (how,  that  in  this  ftate 
they  were  only  very  nicely  folded  together ;  and  foon 
expand,  and  (liow  their  fidl  extent  and  proportion. 

When  firll  produced  from  the  (hell,  thefe  (lies  are 
of  a  pale  green  colour.  The  under  part  of  their  belly 
in  many  continues  green,  but  in  the  greater  number 
it  becomes  of  a  pale  dead  brown.  Some  of  them  have 
the  outfide  of  their  bodies  of  a  deep  brown,  approach- 
ing to  black,  with  lines  of  a  dead  brown  between  the 
c'ommi(rures  of  the  rings.  Tlie  back  of  fame  others 
has  only  a  blackilh  brown  band,  which  runs  ftraight 
down  from  the  corcelet  to  the  end  of  the  body,  the 
whole  body  belide  being  of  a  dead  brown.  The  cor- 
celet in  thefe  flies  is  bniwn,  and  the  prickles  are  yel- 
lovvi(h  near  their  infertions,  but  nearly  black  at  their 
points.  They  have  three  of  the  fmall  glo(ry  eyes  dif- 
pofed  in  the  (liape  of  a  triangle  on  the  back  part  of 
their  head  ;  and  their  reticular  eyes  are  brown,  and  at 
fome  diftance  from  one  another. 

CORCHORUS,  in  botany:  A  genus  of  the  mo- 
nogynia  order,  belonging  to  the  polyandria  clafs  of 
plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
37th  order,  Columne<t.  The  corolla  is  pentapetalous  ; 
the  calyx  pentaphyllous  and  deciduous;  and  the  cap- 
fule  many-valvcd  and  many-celled. 

Thete  are  eight  fpecies ;  of  which  the  mofl:  re- 
markable is  the  olitorius,  an  annual,  and  a  native 
of  Ada,  Africa,  and  America.  It  rifes  with  a 
round,  flriated,  upright,  branched  ftalk,  to  near  two 
feet,  which  is  furnifhed  with  leaves  differing  in  fliape; 
fome  being  oval,  fome  cut  off  flraight  at  "their  bafe, 
and  others  almofl  heart-fliaped.  They  are  of  a  deep 
green  colour,  and  have  a  few  teeth  on  the  margins 
of  their  bafe,  that  end  in  brifUy,  reflexed,  purplifli 
filaments.  The  flowers  come  out  at  the  fides  of  the 
branches  oppofite  to  the  leaves.  Tliey  ftand  fingly 
on  very  (liort  peduncles  ;  are  compofed  of  five  fmall 
yellow  petals,  and  a  great  number  of  ilamina  funound- 
ing  an  oblong  germen,  which  becomes  a  long,  rough, 
(harp-pointed  capfule,  opening  in  four  parts,  each  fill- 
ed with  greenifh  angular  feeds — This  plant  is  fown 
by  the  Jews  about  Aleppo,  and  is  therefore  called  j^fws 
mallow.  Tlie  leaves  are  a  favourite  fallad  among  thefe 
people,  and  tliey  boil  and  cat  them  with  their  meat. 

CORCULUM,  a  diminutive  from  for,  «  the  heart," 
little  heart  ;  the  eflence  of  a  feed,  and  principle  of 
life  of  the  future  plant,  attached  to  au-i  contained 
within  the  lobes.  It  confifl.s  of  two  parts,  termed  by 
I^Innaeus  Plumula  and  Rostellum.  The  former 
is  the  radkula  of  Grew  and  other  naturalifts.     The 


corculura  is  in  faft  the  embiyo  of  the  future  vegetable';    Corcyra 
and  is  attached  by  two  trunks  of  vcffels  to  tlie  lobes   _    '' 


at  their  union.  Tlie  firll  of  its  two  parts  mounts  up 
ward,  and  becomes  the  trunk.  The  other  fl;rikes  into 
the  ground,  and  is  the  rudiment  of  the  root.  The 
lobes  and  heart  of  the  feed  are  dtllinftly  vilible  in  the 
bean,  and  other  feeds  of  that  clafs,  efpecially  after  re- 
maining fome  time  in  water  or  earth. 

The  principle  of  life  is  featcd  cither  at  the  fummit 
or  bafe  of  the  feed.  From  this  circumflance  are  con- 
flruded  the  two  firfl  claffes  in  Cafalpinus's  method, 
containing  trees  and  (hrubs  only. 

CORCYRA  (anc.  geog. ),  an  ifland  in  the  Ionian 
Sea,  oppofile  to  Thefprotia,  a  dillridl  of  Epirus,  cal- 
led Siheria  and  Phsacia  by  Homer.  In  Callimachus 
it  is  called  Drepdne;  its  mofl  ancient  name,  according 
to  the  Scholialt,  from  the  curvity  of  its  figure.  Fa- 
mous for  the  (hipwreck  of  Ulyfles  and  the  gardens  of 
Alcinous.     Now  Corfu. 

Corcyra,  a  cognominal  town  of  the  ifland;  formerly 
powerful,  and  capable  of  coping  with  mighty  flates  ; 
fituated  about  the  middle  of  the  call  fide  of  the  ifland, 
called  The  Town  of  the  Pheacums  by  Homer.  Now  Corfu, 
from  the  K-o^vpu  of  the  middle  age,  the  name  of  the 
citadel.  It  was  a  colony  of  Corinthians  ;  Ccrcyra'i, 
the  people.     E.  Long.  19.  48.  Lat.  39.  50. 

CoRcrs.i  Nigra,  an  ifland  in  the  Adriatic,  on  the  coall 
of  Dahnatia  (Pliny) ;  called  Mdtna  by  the  Greeks,  to 
diilinguifli  it  from  the  ifland  in  the  Ionian  Sea.  The 
epithet  Nigra  was  added,  ■  from  it?  woods  of  tall  trees 
with  which  it  is  almoll  covered.      Now  Curzo/a. 

CORD,  or  Chord,  an  afiemblage  of  ieveral  threads 
of  hemp,  cabled  or  twilled  together  by  means  of  a 
wheel.  See  Cordage.  The  word  comes  from  the 
Greek  X'f^",  which  properly  fignifies  an  Intcfllne  or 
gut,  of  which  cords  may  be  made.      See  Chord. 

Magical  Cord,  an  inllrument  in  great  ufe  among 
the  Laplanders,  and  by  them  fuppofed  to  be  endued 
with  a  number  of  virtues.  It  is  a  cord  or  rope  with 
three  knots  tied  in  it.  They  life  many  magical  rites 
and  ceremonies  in  the  tying  of  this  cord  ;  and,  when 
thus  prepared,  it  is  fuppofed  to  have  power  over  the 
winds;  and  they  will  fell,  by  means  of  it,  a  good  wind, 
or  at  leall  the  promife  of  one,  to  a  (hip.  If  they  untie 
only  one  of  thefe  knots,  a  moderate  gale  fucceeds;  if 
two,  it  is  much  flronger;  and  if  three,  a  llorm  is  fuie 
to  follow. 

Cord  of  IFuoJ,  a  certain  quantity  of  wood  for  burn- 
ing, fo  called  becaufe  formerly  meafured  with  a  cord. 
The  dimeniions  of  a  ilatute  cord  of  wood  are  eight  feet 
long,  four  feet  high,  and  four  feet  broad. 

CoRD-Jl'ood,  is  new  wood,  and  fucli  as,  when  brought 
by  water,  comes  on  board  a  vtird,  in  oppohtion  to 
tliat  which  is  floated. 

CORDAGE,  a  term  ufed  in  general  for  all  forts  of 
cord,  whether  fmall,  middling,  or  great.     See  Rope. 

The  naval  cordage  of  the  earlier  ages  was  in  all 
probabihty  only  thongs  of  leather.  Thefe  prinu'tive 
ropes  were  retained  by  the  Caledonians  in  the  third 
century.  The  nations  to  the  north  of  the  Baltic  had 
them  in  the  ninth  or  tenth  centuries  :  and  the  inha- 
bitants of  the  weilern  illes  of  Scotland  make  ufe  of 
them  at  prefetit;  cutting  the  flcin  of  a  feal,  or  the  raw 
and  falted  hide  of  a  cow,  into  long  pieces,  and  fafl:en- 
ing  the  plough  to  their  horfes  with  them,  or  even  twiiU 
ing  them  into  llrong  ropes  of  2C  or  30  fathoms  length. 
2  But 


Corda 


COR 


r     447     1 


COR 


But  tlisfe,  in  the  fouth  of  our  iflnnj,  and  on  the  con- 
tinent, were  early  fuperfcded  by  the  ufe  of  iron  chains. 
,  The  very  maiitinie  and  commeicial  nation  of  the  Ve- 
n;'ti,  that  were  fo  intimately  conneAed  with  the  Belgje 
of  Britain,  ufed  iron  chains  for  their  cables  in  the  days 
of  C^far.  But  in  the  more  diftant  and  relincd  coun- 
tries of  the  fouth,  both  thongs  and  thefe  had  long 
given  place  to  the  ufe  of  vegetable  threads;  and  the 
arts  of  combining  them  into  ftrength.  In  this  manner 
the  Greeks  appear  to  have  ufed  the  common  rulhes  of 
their  country,  and  the  Carthaginians  the  fpartum  or 
broom  of  Spain.  And  as  all  the  cordage  of  the  Ro- 
mans was  made  of  thefe  materials  at  their  lalt  defcent 
im  our  illand,  fo  the  art  of  manufac'lin-ing  them  would 
ucceiranly  be  introduced  with  the  Roman  fettlements 
among  tl-.e  Eritons.  Under  the  diredlion  of  Roman 
artiils  their  thongs  of  leather  would  naturally  be  laid 
afide,  and  the  junci,  or  turtles  of  the  |)lains,  worked 
up  into  cordage.  And  what  remarkably  coincides  with 
this  opinion  is,  that  the  remains  of  old  cablrs  and  ropes 
are  Hill  dillinguilhed  among  the  Britifii  failors  by  the 
name  of  oil  jur.li 

The  nations  of  Roman  Britain,  and  the  tribes  of 
Caledonia  and  Ireland,  had  inherited,  from  their  car- 
lieft  ancellors,  many  of  the  ruder  arts  of  navigation. 
Their  (hips  were  large  open  boats,  framed  of  light 
timbers  ribbed  with  hurdles  and  lined  with  hides. 
Thefe  were  furnifhed  with  mails  and  fails.  The  lat- 
ter were  formed  of  hides,  as  the  tackle  was  of  thongs. 
They  were  aftually  of  hides  among  the  Veneti  as  late 
as  the  days  of  Csfar  ;  and  they  were  never  furled, 
but  only  bound  to  the  mall.  But  thefe  flight  fea-boats, 
and  their  rude  furniture,  would  foon  be  difmiffed  by 
the  provincials  for  the  more  fubftantial  vcfTels  and 
more  artificial  fails  of  the  Romans.  The  Roman  fails, 
which  were  compofcd  of  flax  in  the  days  of  Agricola, 
were  afterwards  made  of  hemp  ;  and  our  own  are 
therefore  denominated  cannah'is  or  canvas  by  our  mari- 
ners at  prefent.  And  about  the  fame  period  affuredly 
did  the  junk  of  the  Britilh  cordage  give  way  to  the 
fame  materials ;  the  ufe  of  hempen  ropes  upon  land, 
and  of  hempen  nets  for  hunting,  being  very  common 
among  the  Romans  in  the  firll  century. 

CORDATE!),  an  appellation  frequently  given  by 
nattu-alifts  to  things  fomewhat  rcfembling  a  heart. 

CORDED,  in  heraldry.  A  crofs  corded,  fome  au- 
thors take  for  a  crofs  wound  or  wrenched  about  with 
cords:  others,  with  more  piobability,  take  it  for  a  crofs 
made  of  two  pieces  of  cord. 

CORDELERAS,  mountains  of  South  America^ 
othe-wife  cafled  Andes.- 

CORDELIER,  a  Francifoan,  or  religious  of  the 
ordei'  of  St  Francis.  ,  The  Cordeliers  are  clothed  in 
thick  grey  cloth,  with  a  little  cowl,  a  chaperon,  and 
cloak,  ot  the  fame  ;  having  a  girdle  of  rope  or  cord 
tied  with  three  knots  :  whence  tlie  name. — They  are 
otherwife  called  Minor  Friars,  their  original  name. 
The  denomination  Cordelier  is  faid  to  have  been  full 
given  them  in  the  war  of  St  Louis  agalnil  the  infidels; 
wherein  the  Friars  Minor  having  rcpulftd  tlie  barba- 
rians, and  that  king  having  inquired  their  name,  it 
.  was  anfwerrd,  they  were  people  conkUex.,  "  tied  with 
ropes."  The  Cordeliers  arc  to  a  luan  proftfled 
S(iotIfts. 


CORDEMOI  (Geral  de),  alearned  philofopher and 
hlllorian,  born  at  Paris,  made  hlmfelf  known  to  M. 
Boffuet,  who  placed  hiai  about  the  dauphin  in  the  qua- 
lity of  reader.  He  inllrucled  that  young  prince  with 
great  aifidulty  ;  and  in  1675  was  received  into  the 
French  academy.  He  wrote  a  general  hiltory  of  France 
during  the  firil  races  of  the  French  kings,  in  2  vols ; 
and  fix  difcourfes  on  the  Dlllindllon  between  Body  and 
Soul,  which  were  printed  together  in  1  702  in  quarto. 
He  died  in  1684.  M.  Cordemoi  followed  the  principles 
of  Defcartes. 

CORDIA,  in  botany  :  A  genus  of  the  monogynia 
order,  belonging  to  the  pentandria  clafs  of  plants  ( 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  41 11 
order,  Ajperifoliij:.  I'he  corolla  is  funnel-lhaped; 
the  Hyle  dichotomous  or  divided  into  two  threads,  and 
each  of  thefe  divided  into  other  two. 

There  are  five  fpecies,  of  which  the  principal  are 
the  myxa  and  fcbellena.  1.  The  myxa,  or  Affyrian 
plum,  grows  wild  in  Affyrla  and  Egypt,  and  alfo  on 
the  coall  of  Malabar.  It  riles  to  the  height  of  a  mid- 
dling plum-tree  ;  and  its  branches  are  furniilied  with 
oval,  woolly  leaves,  llanding  without  order.  The 
flowers  are  produced  in  bunches  ;  are  white,  and  con- 
fill  of  one  tubular  petal,  and  a  like  calyx,  nearly  of 
an  equal  length,  and  both  are  cut  into  five  parts  at 
their  brims.  In  their  centre  are  five  very-fmall  itami- 
na,  and  one  flcnder  Hyle  crowned  with  an  obtufe  lllg- 
ma.  The  germen  is  roundlfh,  and  fwells  to  a  plum 
of  the  fame  form,  and  about  the  fize  of  a  damfon,  of 
a  dark  brown  colour,  a  fweet  talle,  and  very  glutinous. 
Thefe  plums  were  formerly  kept  in  the  rtiops  ;  and 
were  accounted  good  for  obtunding  acrimony,  and 
thereby  Hopping  defluxlons  of  rheum  upon  the  hings : 
bwt  at  prefent  they  are  little  ufed  for  thefe  purpofes. 
In  fome  parts  of  Turky  they  cultivate  this  tree  in  great 
abundance,  not  only  for  the  fake  of  the  fruit  to  eat, 
but  to  make  birdlime  of,  which  is  a  vail  article  of 
trade  in  a  town  caEcd  Seid.  —  2.  The  febeftena,  or 
rough-leaved  febeflen,  grows  naturally  in  both  the  In- 
dies, and  fends  foith  feveral  rtirubby  ilalks  eii-ht  or  ten 
feet  high.  The  young  leaves  are  feriated,  but  the  full 
grown  ones  are  not.  They  are  of  an  oblong-oval 
form,  rough,  of  a  deep  green  on  the  upper  fide,  and 
Hand  alternately  on  fliort  footltalks.  The  flowers  ter- 
minate the  branches  in  large  chillers,  are  nearly  of  the 
fliape  and  colour  of  thofe  of  the  marvel  of  Peru,  and 
make  a  moll  beautiful  appearance.  Each  has  five  lla- 
inlna  and  one  bifid  llylc.  The  plums  are  much  of  the 
fiiape  of  thofe  of  the  myxa,  and  are  eaten  in  the  fame 
manner.  The  fruit  of  this  tree  is  lefs  valuable  than 
the  wood,  a  fmall  piece  of  which  thrown  upon  a 
clear  fire  will  peifume  a  room  with  a  moll  agreeable 
odour. 

CORDIAL,  In  medicine,  whatever  ralfes  the  fpirlts, 
and  gives  them  a  fudden  Itrtngth  and  cheerfulncfs ;  as 
wine,  fpirlts,  the  effluvia  of  flowers,  fruit,  and  many 
other  fubllances. 

CORDON,  in  fortification,  a  raw  «f  Hones,  made 
round  on  tlie  outfidc,  and  fet  between  the  wall  of  the 
fortrefs  which  lies  aflope,  and  the  parapet  which  Hands 
perpendicular,  after  fuch  a  manner,  that  this  difference 
may  nor  be  offenfive  to  the  eye  ;  whence  the  cordons 
fci-.c  only  a&  an  ornjment,  ran^;fng  round  about  the 

place,. 


Cordemoi' 

II 
Cori'.oii. 


COR  [ 

Coriul)*,  place,  being  only  ufed  in  fortificationi  of  ftone-work  : 
^Cnrrioua.    f^^  ^  thofe  made  with  earth  the  void  fpace  is  filled  up 
*  with  pointed  flakes, 

CORDUBA  {-.inc.  geog.),  an  illuftrious  city  of 
Bdctica,  on  the  right  or  north  fide  of  the  Bstis.  Built 
by  Marcellus,  according  to  Strabo  ;  but  which  Mar- 
cellas,  is  not  fo  clear.  It  was  the  fnlt  colony  fent 
into  thofe  parts  by  the  Romans  ;  and  furnamed  Pa- 
tricia, becaufe  at  lirll  inhabited  by  principal  men,  both 
of  the  Romans  and  natives.  It  is  mentioned  by 
Kil.  Italicus  in  the  fecond  Punic  war  ;  and  hence  it  is 
probable  the  fail  Marcellus  was  the  founder,  and  not 
tlie  Marcellus  engaged  in  the  civil  war  between  Cxfar 
and  Pompey.  It  was  famous  for  the  birth  of  the  two 
Senecas  and  of  Lucan  (Martial),  and  for  its  rich  pro- 
duce in  oil  (Statins,  Maitial).  Still  retaining  its  name 
a  little  altered.     V/.  Long.  5.  Lat.  37.  45. 

CORDOUA,  or  Cordova,  a  city  of  Andalufia  in 
Spain,  fituated  on  the  river  Guadelquiver,  in  a  very 
extenilve  plain.  The  circumference  is  large;  but  it  is 
not  peopled  in  proportion  to  its  extent,  for  there  are 
a  grtat  many  orchards  and  gardens  within  the  walls. 
There  are  many  fuperb  ftrufturcs,  palaces,  churches, 
and  religious  houfes ;  particularly  the  cathedral,  which 
is  very  magnificent :  it  was  formerly  a  mofquc  when 
the  Moors  poffciled  the  town  ;  for  wliich  reafon  it  iUU 
retains  the  name  of  Mezquita,  which  has  the  fame 
meaning.  This  cathedral  is  very  rich  in  plate  ;  four 
of  the  filver  candltilicks  cofl  L.8jo  a-piece.  The  re- 
venue of  the  fee  amounts  to  L.  3500 /icr  annum;  but  as 
the  bifhops  cannot  devife  by  will,  all  they  die  pofltdtd 
of  elcheats  to  the  crown.  The  fquare  called  the  P'aza 
Major  is  furrounded  with  veiy  fine  houfes,  under  which 
are  piazzas.  The  trade  is  tlouriihing  on  account  of 
the  river  ;  and  confiils  of  wine,  fdk,  and  Cordovian 
leather.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  this  place  are  a  vail 
number  of  orange  and  lemon  trees,  which  renders  their 
fruits  exceeding  cheap.  The  beil  horfes  in  Spain  come 
from  hence. 

Cordova  was  the  ancient  Cor^iuba  mentioned  in  the 
preceding  article.  After  the  fall  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire, it  was  fubjetled  to  the  dominion  of  the  Goths ; 
but  in  the  eighth  century  it  was  railed  by  the  Moorifh 
princes  to  a  itate  of  fplendor  unequalled  in  any  other 
part  of  the  world.  In  the  year  755,  Abdoulrahman, only 
heir-male  of  the  Ommiad  line,  having  pafled  over  from 
Africa  at  the  head  of  a  few  defperate  followers,  found 
means  to  raife  a  rebellion  in  Spain  ;  when,  after  a 
battle  fought  on  the  banks  of  the  Guadelquiver,  in 
which  he  overthrew  the  lieutenant  of  the  Abaffid  Ca- 
liph of  Damafcus,  he  became  king  of  all  the  Moorifh 
pdiTcfrions  in  the  fouth  of  Spain,  and  in  759  fixed 
his  royal  relidence  at  Cordova.  Tiien  began  thofe 
flourilhing  ages  of  Arabian  gallantly  and  maguiticence 
which  rendered  the  Moors  of  Spain  liiperior  to  all  their 
cotemporaries  in  arts  and  larms,  and  made  Cordova 
one  of  the  moll  fplendid  cities  of  the  world.  Agri- 
culture and  commerce  profpered  under  the  happy  fv^'ay 
of  this  hero;  and  the  face  of  the  country  was  changed 
from  a  fcene  of  defolation,  which  the  long  wars  and 
harlTi  government  of  the  viceroys  had  brought  on,  into 
a  moil  populous  Hourhhing  itate,  exceeding  in  riclieii, 
number  of  inhabitants,  aclivnty,  and  indullry,  any 
prior  or  fubfequent  era  of  the  Spanilh  hillory.  He 
added  new  fortifications  to  the  town,  built  himfelf  a 


448     ]  COR 

magnificent  palace  with  delicious  gardens,  laid  caufe-  ' 
ways  through  the  marfhes,  made  excellent  roads  to  open  '" 
ready  communication  between   the  great  towns,  and 
in  78C  began  the  great  mofque,  which  he  did  not  live 
to  finilli. 

During  the  courfe  of  two  centuries,  this  court  con- 
tinned  to  be  the  refort  of  all  profeflors  of  tlie  polite 
arts,  and  of  fuch  as  valued  themfelvcs  upon  their  mili- 
tary and  knightly  accomplifhments  ;  while  the  reft  of 
Europe  was  buried  in  ignorance,  debafed  by  brutality 
of  manners,  or  diftracled  by  fupeiflitions  difputes. 
England,  weakened  by  its  heptarchy,  was  too  incon- 
fiderable  even  to  be  mentioned  in  the  political  hiflory 
of  the  times  :  France,  though  it  had  a  gleam  of  repu- 
tation under  Charlemagne,  was  ftill  a  barbarous  un- 
polifaed  nation  :  and  Italy  was  in  utter  confufion  ;  the 
frequent  revolutions  and  change  of  mailers  rendering 
it  impoifible  for  learning,  or  any  thing  good,  to  ac- 
quire a  permanent  footing  in  fo  unliable  a  foil:  Greece, 
though  ilill  in  poffeffion  of  the  arts  and  luxury  of  an- 
cient Rome,  had  loll  all  vigour,  and  feemcd  abforbed 
in  the  moil  futile  of  ail  puriuits  ;  miz.  that  of  fchola- 
ftic  argument  and  religious  fubtilties. 

The  relidence  of  the  Ommiad  Cahphs  was  long  con. 
fpicuous  for  its  fupreme  magnificence,  and  the  crowds 
ot  learned  men  who  were  allured  to  it  by  the  protec- 
tion offered  by  its  fovereigns,  the  beauty  of  the  coun- 
try, the  wholefomenefs  of  the  climate,  and  the  variety 
of  pleafures  that  returned  inceffantly  in  one  enchanting 
round. 

Cordova  became  the  centre  of  politenefs,  induftry, 
and  genius.  Tilts  and  tournaments,  with  other  coftly 
fliows,  were  long  the  darling  paftimes  of  a  wealthy 
happy  people  ;  and  this  was  the  only  kingdom  in  the 
well  where  geometry,  aftronomy,  and  phyfic,  were 
regularly  ftudied  and  pracliled.  Mufic  was  no  lefs 
honoured  ;  for  we  find,  that  in  844  a  famous  mufician 
called  AH  Zeriab  came  to  fettle  at  Cordova,  and  form- 
ed feveral  pupils,  who  were  fuppofed  to  equal  the  moll 
celebrated  performers  that  were  ever  known  even  in 
the  Eaft.  That  architefture  was  greatly  encouragecv 
we  need  no  other  proof  than  the  great  and  expen- 
five  fabrics  undertaken  and  completed  by  many  of 
thefe  Spanifli  monarchs.  Whatever  faults  may  be 
jutlly  condemned  in  their  manner  by  the  connoifTeur, 
accullomed  to  the  challe  noble  graces  of  the  Grecian 
proportions,  certainly  nobody  can  behold  what  remain! 
of  thefe  Moorilh  edifices,  without  being  ilrongly  im- 
prelTed  with  a  liigh  idea  of  the  genius  of  the  artills,  as 
we'.l  as  the  grandeur  of  the  prince  who  carried  their 
plans  into  execution. 

Thefe  fultans  not  only  gave  the  moft  diftinguilhed 
proteCJ^n  to  arts  and  fcicnces,  and  to  the  perfons 
learned  in  any  of  them,  but  were  themfclves  eminently 
verfed  in  various  branches  of  knowledge.  Alkehem  II. 
coUefted  fo  immenfe  a  quantity  of  manufcripts,  that 
before  the  end  of  his  reign  the  royal  Lbrary  contained 
no  lefs  than  600,000  volumes,  of  which  the  very  cata- 
logue filled  40  huge  folios.  The  uiiiverfity  oi  Cordo- 
va was  founded  by  him,  and  under  Inch  favourable  au- 
fpiccii  rofe  to  the  highcft  pitch  of  celebrity. 

Abdoulrahman  was  fucceeded  by  his  fon  Hiffenti, 
whofe  paffion  for  glory  and  architedlure  was  not  in  the 
leall  inferior  to  that  of  his  father.  He  put  the  finilh- 
iug  haivd  to  the  mofque,  which  the  plunder  of  the- 

louthern 


cr    ,  ^rS     ^  ^     449     1  COR 

Cordoua  fouthern  provnces  of  France  e.n^k-dlum  to  complete     Icatl.ers  of  tlulr  n>oes.     Others  derive  it  fro-.-.  .W.. 

Cordwain.  '  "'^^  ,'=°".'f<^  °f  ^  few   years.      The   hndp   over  the     "  rope,"  becaufe  anciently  flK)eB  were  mad.  of  cordT- 

G«ad.-!qu,ver  was  a  work  of  ILflem's  after  h,s  own     as  they  dill  are  in  fome  parts  of  Spain,  under  the  name 

*  AIL.,I  .„    r  I    .  Tj-n-  alpargates.      But   the   former  etymology   is    better 

Alkaliem  fuccecded  Hifrcm.  warranted-  for    I'n  pff,  ,4    ,),     v        \  .        "'-'•';^' 

AK,1«„l,-,K.^,„  rr  ir  rr  i      r      ,       ,.     "■'"''"'■'-"•  '"^  inetlea,  tile   I'rtnch   workmen  who 

Abdoidrahman  H-    was    alfo    paffionateljc  fond    of     prepare  the  corduas  are  ilill  called  cordouanniers 

bmlding.      He  was  the  firftthat  bro.iglit  the  fupplies  In    P.n-fs   tl,,.,,    (,.„» :,„..  /■..:_• 

of  water  to  Cordova  by  means  of  leadeu  pipes  laid  up- 
on aqueduas  of  (tone.     The  qnaiitity  was  fo  confider- 

ablo,  that  every  part  of  the  palace,  the  mofques,  baths, 

fquares,  and  public  edifices,    had   all    of   them  their 

fountams  conftantly  playincr.      A  great  many  of  thefe 

works  ftlll  fubfiil.    He  paved  the  whole  city,  and  erec- 


Corn. 


ted  feveral  mofques 

After  him  reigned  Mahomet  Ahniindar,  Abdallah, 
and  Abdoulrahman  III.  who  furpaffed  all  his  predeccf- 
fcis  in  fplendor,  riches,  and  expence.   His  fubjefts  vied 
with  each  other  in  profufion  and  magnificence.     This 
monarch  was  fucceeded  by  his  fon  AlkahemH.  who  left 
a  minor  to  fucceed  him,  and  the  kingdom  to  be  govern- 
ed by  the  famous  vifir  Mahomet  Abcnamir,  firnamtd 
yllmanzor  or  "  the  defender,"  from  liis  great  vidtonVs 
and  \yife  conduft.   His  defcendents  inherited  from  him 
the  vifn-fliip,  and  a  power  as  abfohite  as  if  they  had 
been  caliphs,  until  the  wcaknefs  of  the  fovereigns  en- 
couraged, and  the  infolence  of  the  miniilers  provoked, 
the  grandees  to  difturb  the  Hate  with  their  jealoufies 
and  dilfenfions.     Thefe  broils  occafioned  fuch  a  feries 
of  civil  wars  and  anarchy,  as  overthrew  the  throne  of 
Cordova,  and  dellroyed  the  whole  rare  of  Abdoulrah- 
man.     Thus  the  glorious  edifice,  founded   by  the  va- 
lour and  prudence  of  that  conqueror,  and  cemented  by 
fimilar  virtues  in  many  of  his  fuccefi'ors,  funk  into  no- 
thing asfoon  as  the  fccptre  devolved  upon  weak  ener- 
vated princes,  whofe  indolence  and  incapacity  tranf- 
ferred    the   management    of  e\'ery   thing   to    a   vifir. 
Many  petty  kingdoms  fpiang  up  out   of  the  ruins  of 
this  mighty  empire  ;  and  the  Chriftians  foon  found  op 
portunitiesof  dcttroying,  by  feparate  attacks,  that  tre- 
mendous power,   which  when   united  had  proved  an 
overmatch  for  their  utmoft  force. 
_  h'l-w  CoKDUyi,^  a  confider-ible  town  of  South  Ame- 
rica, in  the  province  of  Tucunian,  with  a  bilhop's  fee, 
175  mdes  from  St  Jago.     W.  Long.  62.  c.  S.  Lat 
32.  10. 

CORDUAN,  a  famous  pharos  or  light-houfe  of 
France,  in  Guienne,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Girond. 
The  architefture  is  extremely  fine;  and  is  placed 
there  to  hinder  vefTels  from  running  on  the  fund-banks 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river.  W.  Lon^.  i.  n  N  1  at 
4;-  36- 

CORDUS  (Valerius),  a  learned  botanlft,  was  the 
ion  of  Encius  Cordus,  a  ])hyfician  and  poet  of  Ger- 
many. Having  learnt  the  languages,  he  applied  him- 
iclf  to  the  ftudy  of  botany  ;  in  the  prolecution  of 
which,  he  examined  the  mountains  of  Germany,  and 
iravcllcd  into  Italy;  but  being  wounded  in  the  leo- 
by  the  kick  of  a  horfe,  died  at^  Rome  in  1544.  He 
wrcte  Remarks  on  Diofcoridcs ,  and  other  works. 

C  'RDWAINERS,  orCoRDiNHRs,  the  term  where- 
by tlie  flatutes  denominate  /hoanaiers.  The  ivord  is 
formed  from  the  French  'cordomucr,  ;vhich  Mena-^e 
deri\es  from  corikuav,  a  kind  of  leather  brought  from 
Cordoua,    whereof  they   formerly  made    the    uopcr- 

VoL.  V.  Partll.  *^ 


In  Pans  they  have  two  pious  focieties  under  the 
titles  of  freres  cordonmen,  "  brothers  flioemakers," 
ellabhfhed  by  authority  towards  the  middle  of  the  1 7th  *  '''«  ^'Z- 
century;  the  one  under  the  proteftion  of  St  Crifpin*/"" 
the  other  of  St  Crifpianus,  two  faints  who  had  former- 
ly honoured  the  profcffion.  They  live  in  community,' 
and  under  fixed  llatutes  and  officers;  by  which  they 
are  direfted  both  In  their  fpiritual  and  fecular  con- 
cerns. The  produce  of  their  (hoes  goes  into  a  com- 
mon ftock,  to  furnifh  ncctllarics  for  their  fupport } 
the  reft  to  be  diftributed  among  the  poor. 

COREA,   a  peninfula  lying  to   the  north-eaft  of 
China,  between  99  and   109  degrees  of  E.  Long,  and 
between  32  and   46  of  N.  Lat.      It   is  divided  into  8 
provinces,  which  contain  40  cities  of  the  ift  rank,  ci 
of  the  2d,  and  70  of  the  3d.    The  capital  of  the  whole 
IS  Hanching,   where  the   king  refides.     The  Jefuits 
fay,  the  people  are   well  made,  of  a  fweet  and  trac- 
table difpofition,  and  fond  of  learning,  mufic,  and  dan- 
cing,  and  in  general   referable   the'Chinefe.      Their 
houfes  are  mean,  being  covered  with  thatch ;  and  they 
have  no  beds,  but  lie  on  the  floor.     They  have  little 
filk,_and  therefore  make  ufe  of  liuen-cloth  In  i»g  room. 
Their  trade  confilts  in  white  paper,  pencils,  glngfenr," 
gold,  lllver,    iron,  yellow  varnifh,   fowls    whofe  tails 
aie  three  feet  long,  hoifcs   no  more  than  three  feet  in 
height,  fable-flvins,  caftor,  and   mineral  fait.     In  n-e. 
neral  It  is  a  fertile  country,  tho'  abounding  in  moun- 
tains.    It  ,Is  tributary  to  China. 
,    Mr  Grofier  relates  an   obfervation  conccrnlno-  the 
natural  hiilory  of  Corca,   which,   in  his  opinion^  fur- 
nilhcs  a  new  proof  of  the  revolutions  which  the  furfai  r 
of  our  glebe  has  undergone.     An   ancient   Chinel- 
book   afierts,   that  the  city  where  Kipe,  the  king  of 
?Coiea,  eftabliflied  his  court,  was  built  In  a  place  wjiich 
forms  at   prefent  a  part  of  the  territories  of  Tong- 
ping-fou,   a   city  of  tlie  firfl   clafs  In   the   province  of 
Petchell.     "  If  this  (fays  he)  be  admitted  as   a  ha, 
we  may  from  thence  conclude  that  thefe   territories 
formerly   belonged  to   Corea  ;   and  that  the  gulf  of 
Lax-tong,  which  at   prefent  fepiratts  this  kingdom 
from  the  province  of  Petchell,  did  not  then  exill,  and 
that  It  has  been   formed  fincc  ;  for  it  is  not  probable 
that  a  fovereign  would  have  fixed  his  refidenci  with- 
out the  boundaries  of  his  kingdom,  or  in  a  place  where 
he  was  feparated  from  it  by  a  wide  and  extenfive  fea. 
Tins  coiijeaure  Is  confirmed  by  certain  fads  admitted 
by  the  Chiiufe.      Thus  when  lu,  furnamed  the  Great, 
undertook  to   drain   and  carry  off  the  waters  which 
had  inundated  the  low  grounds  of  feveral  provinces,  he 
began   by   the    river   Hoang-ho,    the    overflowing  of 
^■hich  caufed  the  greatell  devaitation.     He  went  in 
fearch  of  its  fource  to   the  bofom  of  Tartar)-,  from 
whence  he  diredled  its  courfe   acrofs  the  provinces  of 
Chan-fi,_Chenfi,  Hoiian,  and  Petcheli.     Towards  It8 
mouth,  in  order  to  v.'eaken  the  rapidicy  of  Its  waters, 
he  divided  them  into  nine  channels,  through  which  he 
csiifcd  this   river  diTcharge  Itfelf  into  the  eaftern  fea 
3  -L*  near 


COR 


[    450     ] 


COR 


Corea.  near  the  mountain  of  K'lc-che-chan,  which  then  formed 
-~'^f~~'  a  promontory.  Since  that  time  to  the  prcfent,  that  is 
about  3950  years,  the  river  Hoang-ho  has  departed 
fo  much  from  its  ancient  courfc,  tliat  its  mouth  at 
prefcnt  is  about  fix  degrees  farther  fouth.  We  inuft 
alfo  remark,  that  the  mountain  Kie-che-chan,  which 
•was  foniurly  united  to  the  main  land  of  Yong-pong- 
fou,  ftands  at  prcfent  in  the  fca  at  the  diitance  of  about 
50  leagues  to  the  fouth  of  that  city.  If  the  fea  has 
been  able  to  cover  with  its  waters  that  extent  of  terri- 
tory which  at  prefent  forms  part  of  the  gulph  of  Lea- 
tong,  may  we  not  be  allowed  to  fuppofe  that  like  in- 
undations may  have  formed  fucceffively  the  whole  of 
that  gulph,  the  ancient  exlftcnce  of  which  feems  fo  ill 
to  agree  with  tlie  refidence  of  the  kings  of  Corea  in 
the  territories  of  Yong-ping-fou  ?  It  is  true,  the  Chi- 
ncfe  hillory  makes  no  mention  of  fo  confiderable  a 
phyfical  revolution  ;  but  it  is  equally  filcnt  with  re- 
gard to  the  500  lys  (50  leagues)  extent  of  ground 
which  is  at  prefent  covered  by  the  fea  beyond  the  moun- 
tains of  Kie-che-chan.  Befides,  of  all  the  changes 
which  the  furface  of  our  globe  experiences,  thofc  only 
are  mentioned  in  hillory  which  happen  fuddenly,  and 
which  confequently  make  more  imprefilon  on  the  minds 
of  men. 

Corea  chicfiy  produces  wheat,  rice,  and  ginfeng, 
•with  a  kind  of  palm-tree  which  yields  a  gum  capable 
of  producing  a  yellow  varnilh  little  inferior  to  gilding". 
Hence  alfo  are  exported  caftor  and  fable  fl<ins  ;  alfo 
gold,  filver,  iron,  and  foffil  fait;  a  kind  of  fmall  brulhes 
for  painting,  made  of  the  hair  of  a  wolf's  tail,  are  like- 
wife  manufattuied  here,  which  are  exported  to  China 
and  highly  efteemed  there.  The  fea-coafts  abound  in 
fifh,  and  great  numbers  of  whales  are  found  there  every 
year  towards  the  north-eaft.  Several  of  thefe,  it  is 
{aid,  have  in  their  bodies  the  harpoons  of  the  French 
and  Dutch,  fiom  whom  they  have  efcaped  in  the  nor- 
thern extremities  of  Europe:  which  feems  to  indicate 
a  paflage  from  the  European  into  the  Afiatic  fcas 
round  the  continents  of  Europe  and  Afia. 

A  confiderable  quantity  of  the  paper  of  Corea  is 
annually  imported  into  China:  indeed  the  tribute  due 
to  the  emperor  is  partly  paid  with  it  every  year. 
It  is  made  of  cotton,  and  is  as  ftrong  as  cloth,  being 
written  upon  with  a  fmall  hair-brufli  or  pencil;  but 
muft  be  done  over  with  alum-water  before  it  can  be 
written  upon  in  the  European  manner.  It  is  not  pur- 
chafed  by  the  Chinefe  for  writing,  but  for  filling  up 
the  fquarcs of  their  faih-windows;  becaufe,  when  oQed, 
it  refills  the  wind  and  rain^  better  than  that  of  China. 
It  is  ufed  likevvife  as  wrapping  paper;  and  is  fervicc- 
able  to  the  taylors,  who  rub  it  between  their  hands 
until  it  becomes  as  foft  and  flexible  as  the  fincft  cotton 
cloth,  inftead  of  which  it  is  often  employed  in  lining 
clothes.  It  has  alfo  this  fingular  property,  that  if  it 
be  too  thick  for  the  purpofe  intended,  it  may  be  eafily 
fplit  into  two  or  three  leaves,  each  of  which  are  even 
Ilronger  than  the  b^ll  paper  of  China. 

The  Coreans  are  well  made,  ingenious,  brave,  and 
tradable  ;  are  fond  of  dancing,  and  fliow  great  do- 
cility in  acquiring  the  fciences,  to  which  they  apply 
with  great  ardour,  and  honour  in  a  particular  manner. 
The  northern  Coreans  are  larger  fizcd  and  more  ro- 
buft.  than  thofe  of  the  fouth ;  have  a  tafte  for  arraf, 
3 


and  become  excellent  foldiers.  Their  arms  are  crofs- 
bows  and  long  fabres.  Men  of  learning  are  dillinguilh- 
ed  from  other  claffcs  of  people  by  two  plumes  of  fea- 
thers in  their  caps  ;  and  when  merchants  prefent  the 
Coreans  with  any  books  for  fale,  they  drefs  themfelves 
in  their  richeft  attire,  and  burn  perfumes  before  they 
treat  concerning  the  price. 

The  Coreans  mourn  threa  years,  as  in  China,  for  a 
father  or  mother  :  but  the  time  of  mourning  for  a 
brother  is  confined  to  three  mouths.  Their  dead  are 
not  interred  until  three  years  after  their  deceafe  ;  and 
when  the  ceremony  of  interment  is  performed,  they 
place  around  the  tomb  the  clothes,  chariot,  and  horfcs 
of  the  deccafed,  with  whatever  elfe  he  Ihowed  the 
greatefl  fondnefs  for  while  alive  ;  all  which  they  leave 
to  be  carried  off  by  the  alTiftants.  Their  houfes,  as  in 
China,  confifl  only  of  one  llory,  and  are  very  ill  built; 
in  the  country  being  compofed  of  earth,  and  in  cities 
generally  of  brick,  but  all  thatched  with  ftraw  :  the 
walls  of  their  cities  are  conilrufted  after  the  Chinefe 
manner,  with  fquare  turrets,  battlements,  and  arched 
gates.  Their  writing,  drcfs,  religious  ceremonies,  and 
creed,  as  well  as  the  gieatcr  part  of  their  cudoms,  are 
borrowed  from  the  Chinefe.  Their  women,  however, 
are  lefs  confined,  and  have  the  liberty  of  appearing  in 
public  with  the  other  fex,  for  which  they  are  often  ri- 
diculed by  their  neighbours.  They  differ  from  the 
Chintfe  alfo  in  their  ceremonies  of  marriage,  and  in 
the  manner  of  contracting  it;  the  parties  in  this  coun- 
try taking  the  liberty  to  choofe  for  themfelves,  with- 
out confulting  the  inclinations  of  their  parents,  or 
fuffering  them  to  throw  any  obftacles  in  their  way. 

COREIA,  in  antiquity,  a  feftival  in  honour  of  Pro- 
ferpine,  named  Core,  Kop«,  which  in  the  Moloflian  dia- 
led tlgnifies  a  beautiful  woman. 

CORELLI  (Arcangelo),  the  famous  Itah'an  mu- 
fician  and  compofer,  a  native  of  Fulignano,  in  the  ter- 
ritory of  Bologna,  was  born  in  1653.  He  entertain- 
ed an  early  propenfity  to  the  violin  ;  and  as  he  advan- 
ced in  years,  laboured  inceflantly  in  the  praiSice  of 
that  inftrument.  About  the  year  1672,  his  curiofity 
led  him  to  vilit  Paris,  probably  with  a  view  to  attend 
the  improvements  v\hich  were  making  in  mufic  under 
the  influence  of  cardinal  Mazarine,  and  in  confequence 
of  the  eftablifhment  of  a  royal  academy  ;  but,  not- 
withflanding  the  charafter  which  he  brought  with  him, 
he  was  driven  back  to  Rome  by  Lully,  whofe  jealous 
temper  could  not  brook  fo  formidable  a  rival  as  this 
illuftrious  Italian.  In  the  year  1680  he  vifited  Ger- 
many, and  met  with  a  reception  fuitable  to  his  merit 
from  moft  of  the  German  princes,  particularly  the 
eleftor  of  Bavaria  ;  in  whofe  fervice  he  was  retained,, 
and  continued  for  fome  time.  After  about  five  year* 
flay  abroad,  he  returned  again  to  Rome,  and  there 
puriued  his  fhidies  with  great  afliduity. 

The  proficiency  oi  Corelli  on  his  favourite  inftru- 
ment the  violin  was  fo  great,  that  the  fame  of  it  reach- 
ed throughout  Europe.  The  llyle  of  his  performance 
was  learned,  elegant,  and  pathetic;  and  his  tone  firm 
and  even.  Mr  Geminiani,  who  was  well  acquainted 
with,  and  had  ftudied  it,  was  ufed  to  refemble  it  to  a 
fweet  trumpet.  A  perfon  who  had  heard  him  per- 
form fays,  that,  whilft  he  was  playing  on  the  violin,, 
it  was  ufual  for  his  countenance  to  be  diftorted,  his- 

eye* 


Core* 

II 
Corelli. 


COR 


[    451     ] 


COR 


evfs  to  become  as  red  as  fjre,  and  his  eyc-bulls  to  roll  The  compofitions  of  Corclli  are  celebrated  for  the    Corelli 


as  m  an  agony. 

Corelli  was  highly  favoured  by  that  great  patron 

of  poetry  and  mulic,  cardinal  Otloboni.  Crefcembini 
faye,  that  he  regulated  the  mufical  academy  held  at 
the  palace  of  his  eminence  every  Monday  aftLrnoon. 
Here  it  was  that  Mr  Handel  became  acquainted  with 
him  ;  and  In  this  academy  a  ferenata  of  Mr  Handel, 
entitled,  //  Trlonfo  del  'Tempo,  was  performed,  the 
overture  to  which  was  in  a  ilyle  fo  new  and  fnigular, 
that  Corelli  was  confounded  in  his  firll  attempt  to 
play' it. 

Dniing  the  refidcnce  of  Corelli  at  Rome,  befides 
thofe  of  his  own  country,  many  perfons  were  ambi- 
tious of  becoming  his  dilciples,  and  learning  the  prac- 
tice on  the  violin  from  the  gieatcll  mafter  of  that  in- 
ftrument  the  world  had  then  heard  of.  Of  thefe  it  is 
faid  the  late  lord  Edgecumbe  was  one  ;  and  that  the 
fine  mezzotinto  print  of  Corelli  by  Smith  was  fcraped 
from  a  pifture  piinted  by  Mr  Hugh  Howard  at  Rome 
for  that  nobleman. 

Corelli  died  at  Rome  in  I  7  I  3  ;  and  was  buried  in 
the  church  of  the  Rotunda,  othtrwlfe  called  the  Pan- 
theon, in  the  firil  chapel,  on  the  left  liand  of  the  en- 
trance. Over  the  place  of  his  interment  is  a  fepul- 
chral  monument  to  his  honour,  with  a  marble  bull 
thereon,  ereft'ed  at  the  expence  of  Philip-William, 
count  palatine  of  the  Rhine,  under  the  care  and  direc- 
tion of  cardinal  Ottoboni. 

For  many  years  after  his  deceafe,  this  excellent  mu- 
{ician  was  commemorated  by  a  folemn  mufical  per- 
formance in  the  Pantheon,  on  the  anniverfary  of  his 
death.  In  the  year  1730  an  eminent  mailer,  now  li- 
ving, was  prcfcnt  at  that  folemnity,  who  relates  that 
at  it  the  third  and  eighth  of  his  concertos  were  per- 
formed by  a  numerous  band,  among  whom  were  many 
who  had  been  the  pupils  of  the  author.  He  adds,  that 
thefe  two  pieces  were  performed  in  a  flow,  dillinft, 
and  firm  manner,  without  graces,  and  juft  as  they  are 
wrote ;  and  from  hence  concludes,  that  this  was  the 
manner  in  which  they  w^ere  played  by  the  author  him- 
felf. 

He  died  polTefled  of  about  6000 1.  llerling.  He 
was  a  paffionate  admirer  of  piftures,  and  lived  in  an 
Hninterrupted  friendfliip  with  Carlo  Cignani  and  Carlo 
Marat  :  thefe  two  eminent  painters  were  rivals  for 
his  favour  ;  and  for  a  feries  of  years  prefented  him  at 
times  with  piclures,  as  well  of  other  mafters  as  of  their 
own  painting.  The  confequence  was,  that  Corelli  be- 
came pofTctTed  of  a  large  and  valuable  colleftion  of  ori- 
ginal paintings;  all  which,  together  with  the  fum  a- 
bove  mentioned^  he  bequeathed  to  bis  dear  friend  and 
patron  cardinal  Ottoboni,  who,  referving  the  pictures 
to  himfelf,  generoufly  diftributed  the  reft  of  the  ef- 
fefts  among  the  relations  of  the  teftator. 

Corelli  Is  faid  to  have  been  remarkable  for  the 
nilldnefs  of  hia  temper  and  the  modefty  of  his  deport- 
ment :  neverthelefs,  he  was  not  infeiifible  of  the  re- 
fpeft  due  to  his  fliill  and  exquifite  performance.  Cib- 
ber,  in  the  Apology  for  his  Life,  p.  340.  relates,  that 
when  he  was  playing  a  folo  at  cardinal  Ottoboni's,  he 
difcovered  the  cardinal  and  another  pcrfon  engaged 
in  difcourfe,  upon  which  he  laid  down  his  inllrument; 
and  being  aflccd  the  reafon,  gave  for  anfwer,  that  he 
feared  the  mufic  interrupted  their  convcrfation. 


harmony  rtfulting  from  the  union  of  all  the  parts ;  II 
but  the  tinencfs  of  the  airs  is  another  diftiiignilhing  Corfu. 
charaderilUc  of  them  :  the  allemand  in  tlie  loth  folo  ''~~' 
is  as  remarkable  for  fpirit  and  force,  as  that  in  the 
nth  is  for  its  enchanting  delicacy:  his  jigs  are  in  a 
ftyle  peculiaily  his  own  ;  and  that  in  the  yth  folo  was 
never  equalled.  In  the  gavot-movements  in  the  2d 
and  4th  operas,  the  melody  Is  diftilbuted  with  great 
judgment  among  tlie  feveral  parts.  In  his  minueU 
alone  he  feems  to  fail ;  Bononcini,  Mr  Handel,  and 
Giufeppe  Martini,  have  excelled  him  in  this  kindof 
airs. 

It  is  faid  there  is  in  every  nation  a  flyle  both  in 
fpeaklng  and  writing,  which  never  becomes  obfolete  ; 
a  certain  mode  of  phrafeology,  fo  coafonant  and  con- 
genial to  the  analogy  and  principles  of  its  refpeftlve 
language,  as  to  remain  fettled  and  unaltered.  This, 
but  with  iiuich  greater  latitude,  may  be  faid  of  mufic; 
and  accordingly  it  may  be  obferved  of  the  compofi- 
tions of  Corelli,  not  only  that  they  are  equally  intelli- 
gible to  the  learned  and  unlearned,  but  that  the  im- 
prelfions  made  by  them  have  been  fimnd  to  be  as  du- 
rable In  general.  His  inufic  is  the  language  of  na- 
ture ;  and,  for  a  feries  of  years,  all  that  heard  it  be- 
came fenfible  of  its  effeiAs :  of  this  there  cannot  be  a 
ftronger  proof  than  that,  amidlt  all  the  innovations 
which  the  love  of  change  had  introduced.  It  continued 
to  be  performed,  and  was  heard  with  dehght  in 
churches.  In  theatres,  at  public  folemnltles  and  felU- 
vlties,  in  all  the  cillts  of  Europe  for  near  40  years. 
Men  remembered,  and  would  refer  to  pafl'ages  in  it  as 
to  a  claffic  author  ;  and  even  at  this  day,  the  mafters 
of  the  fcience  do  not  heikate  to  pronounce  of  the  com- 
pofitio^is  of  Corelli,  that,  of  fine  harmony  and  elegant 
modulation,  they  are  the  mott  perfect  examplars. 

COREOPSIS,  TICK  SEEDED  SUNFLOWER:  A  genus 
of  the  polygamia  fruttanea  order,  belonging  to  the  fyn- 
genefia  clafs  of  plants ;  and  in  the  natural  method 
ranking  under  the  49th  order,  Compofitx.  The  recep- 
tacle is  paleaceous  ;  the  pappus  two-horned  j  the  ca- 
lyx eredt  and  polyphyllous,  furrounded  with  patent  ra- 
diated leaflets  at  the  bafe.  There  are  1 1  fpeclcs,  moil 
of  them  herbaceous  perennials.  They  are  very  flowery, 
and  rife  from  three  to  eight  feet  llature  ;  termina- 
ted by  clufters  of  compound  radiated  flowers  of  a 
yellow  colour.  They  have  all  perennial  fibrous  roots, 
and  annual  ftalks,  which  rife  In  the  fpring,  flower  from 
July  to  Otlober,  and  decay  to  the  root  in  November. 
The  flowers  are  all  Ihaped  like  fun-flowers,  but  fmal- 
ler,  and  are  very  ornamental.  They  are  ca/ily  pro- 
pagated by  flipping  or  dividing  the  roots  In  autumn, 
when  the  ftalks  decay  ;  planting  the  flips  at  once 
where  they  are  to  remain  ;  after  which  they  will  re- 
quire no  farther  trouble  than  to  be  kept  free  from 
weeds,  and  have  the  decayed  ftalks  cut  annually  in  au- 
tumn. 

CORFE-CASTLE,  a  borough-town  In  Dorfetflilre  la 
England.  It  takes  its  name  from  a  llrong  caftle,  be- 
longing to  the  crown,  that  ftood  there,  but  is  now- 
ruined.  It  feuds  two  members  to  parliament.  W. 
Long.  2.  8.  N.  Lat.  50.  33. 

CORFU,  an  ifland  In  the  Ionian  fea,  at  the  mouth 

of  the   gulph  of  Venice,  formerly  called  Corcyra  and 

Fh<eacia,  famous  for  the  gardens  of  Alcinous,     It  be- 

3  L  2  longs 


COR  [     4,- 

C.irfu.     longs  at  prefent  to  the  Venetians  ;  and  forms  the  bul- 

» wark  ot  ChrillcnJom   againll   the   Turks,   who  have 

often  attempted  to  reduce  it,  Init  without  fuccefs.  It 
is  well  fortitied,  and  has  50  caftles  ;  and  tlie  number  of 
the  inhabitants  is  faid  to  be  about  50,000.  The  inhibi- 
tantsare  of  the  Greek  church;  and  the  Venetians  lend 
themagovernorandmagiftrates,\vhicharechangcdevery 
twoyears.  The  foil  is  very  fruitful,  and  produces  a  great 
deal  of  wine,  olives,  and  feveral  other  fruits,  particu- 
larly hgs,  which  are  exceedingly  good.  The  chief  city 
is  likewife  called  Corfu  ;   fee  the  following  article. 

Corfu,  a  city  of  the  idand  of  that  name,  belonging 
to  the  Venetians.  It  is  a  large  place,  ilrongly  forti- 
fied and  defended  by  a  garrifon  of  about  lo,oco  men; 
which,  however,  in  the  opinion  of  a  late  traveller,  do 
not  appear  adequate  to  the  extent  of  the  fortifications. 
A  number  of  veiy  excellent  brafs  and  iron  cannon  are 
mounted  on  the  dift'erent  forts,  which,he  obferves,  are  fo 
divided,  that  it  would  take  treble  the  number  of  their 
garrifon  to  defend  them.  However,  the  repubhc  of 
Venice  is  generally  at  peace  with  the  different  Euro- 
pean nations,  and  the  ancient  power  of  the  Turks  be- 
ing much  decayed,  they  have  Utile  to  apprehend  ;  tho' 
to  prevent  any  fudden  furprife,  the  Venetians  keep  a 
formidable  fcjuadron  in  the  harbour  of  Corfu,  and  the 
works  have  been  much  improved  by  Major  General 
Paterfon. — In  the  late  war  they  had  with  the  Turks, 
this  town  was  attacked  by  an  army  of  «o,ooo  men, 
and  attempted  to  be  Ilormed  feveral  times  by  the  ene- 
my ;  but  the  garrifon,  which  confillcd  of  i  2,000  men 
under  the  command  of  Count  Schuknburg,  made  fo 
brave  and  gallant  a  defence,  that  they  always  repidfcd 
them,  and  obliged  them  to  raife  the  fiege,  and  aban- 
don the  phice  with  confiderable  lofs.  For  this  piece 
of  fervice  the  republic  has  caufed  a  magnilicent  llatue 
to  be  erefted  in  memory  of  the  Count,  with  an  ele- 
gant Latin  infcriptlon,  fetting  forth  tlie  many  erai- 
lient  fervices  of  his  military  atchie\ements.  The  cir- 
cumference of  the  city  is  about  four  miks ;  the  num- 
ber of  inhabitants  on  the  whole  iiland  are  computed 
at  about  50,000,  tlie  greatell  part  of  whom  are 
Greeks. 

This  ifland  is  the  refidence  of  the  governor-general, 
whofe  jurifdiftion  extends  over  all  the  Iflands  fvibjeCt 
to  the  republic  of  Venice,  in  the  Levant  feas,  and  is 
conlldered  as  one  of  the  greatell  honours  they  can  con- 
fer on  a  fubjeft.  He  is  always  a  nobleman  of  the  firit 
rank,  and  has  his  appointment  for  three  years  only,  in 
which  time  he  makes  a  tolerable  addition  to  his  for- 
tune, and  on  his  return  to  Venice  is  generally  advanced 
to  the  honours  of  the  fenate.  In  the  city  are  many 
Landfome  Greek  churches,  the  principal  of  which  is 
that  of  St  Speridione,  or  the  cathedral  :  It  is  embel- 
jilhed  with  fome  excellent  paintings,  and  moil  fuperb- 
ly  ornamented.  The  body  of  the  faint  from  whom  it 
was  named,  is  prefen'ed  entire  in  a  rich  flirine  within 
the  church.  The  Greeks  are  moil  of  them  fuch  fana- 
tics as  to  be  continually  offering  their  devotions  at  this 
flirine,  believing  that  through  the  interceffion  of  the 
faint  they  will  obtain  all  their  wants ;  and  that  by  of- 
ferings of  money  their  fins  will  be  forgiven  them  ;  by 
which  means  the  church  has  amafied  an  imnienfe  trea- 
fure.  The  relic  of  the  faint  is  depohted  in  a  filver 
coffin,  richly  decorated  with  precious  Hones.  It  is  in 
an  amazing  itate  of  prciervatiun  5  he  having  died  in 


] 


COR 


the  idand  of  Cyprus  upwards  of  700  years  a»o  ;  and 
after  rimaining  400  years  there,  was  tranfported  to 
this  place.  Bcfules  the  grand  fleet,  tlie  Venetians  have  , 
another  of  galleys,  that  are  manned  by  convicls  whofe 
crimes  are  not  of  fuch  a  nature  as  to  nurit  death. 
The  chief  diverlions  of  tliis  place  in  the  winter  are 
operas  ;  they  have  always  a  compasy  of  comedians  for 
tlie  feafon  from  Naples.  In  the  fumrner  they  pafs  their 
time  in  walking  upon  the  ramparts :  few  except  tlu 
governor  and  great  officci-s  of  ftate  are  permitted  to 
keep  carriages.  The  Corfu  people  perfeclly  referable 
the  Zanteots  in  their  manners  (fee  Zante)  ;  though 
it  mull:  be  obferved  in  praife  of  the  former,  that  aftaf- 
finations  are  uncommon  amoHg  them,  their  laws  being 
too  fevere  to  permit  fuch  praClices  with  impunity.  E. 
Long.  19.  48.  N.  Lat.  39.  ^o. 

CORIA,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  kingdom  of  Leon 
and  province  of  Dtremadura,  towards  the  confines  of 
Portugal,  with  a  blfhop's  fee.  It  is  feated  on  a  httle 
river  called  yllagon,  in  a  very  fertile  plain.  There  is 
nothing  remarkable  but  the  cathedral  church,  except  at 
a  little  dillance  a  river  without  a  bridge,  and  a  bridge 
without  a  river.  This  was  caufed  by  an  earthquake^ 
which  turned  the  river  another  way.  W.  Long.  6.  46. 
N.  Lat.  39.  59. 

CORIANDRUM,  coriander  :  A  genus  of  the 
d  gynia  order,  belonging  to  the  pentandrla  clafs  of 
plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  tb.e 
45th  order,  Umbelhito:.  The  corolla  is  radiated  ;  the 
petals  inflexed-emarginated  ;  tlie  involucrura  univerfal 
and  monophyllous  ;  the  partial  Involucra  halved  ;  the 
fruit  ipherical.  There  are  only  two  fpecies,  both  of 
them  herbaceous  annuals,  the  leaves  of  which  are  ufe- 
ful  for  tlie  kitchen,  and  the  feeds  for  medicine.  Both 
fpecies  liave  divided  finall  leaves,  fomewhat  refcm- 
bhng  parlley  :  but  there  is  but  one  fpecies  generally 
cultivated  ;  namely,  the  fcnivum.  This  hath  a  fmali 
fibrous  white  root,  crowned  by  m.-.ny  parted  leaves,  ha- 
ving broadilh  fegments  ;  and  in  the  centre  an  upright,, 
round,  branchy  ftalk,  two  feet  high,  having  all  the 
branches  terminated  by  umbels  of  flowers,  which  are 
fucceeded  by  globular  fruit.  It  is  propagated  by  feed, 
which  when  a  good  crop  is  wanted,  ought  to  be  fowii 
in  March,  either  in  drills  a  foot  alunder,  or  by  broad- 
cait,  and  then  raked  in.  When  the  plants  are  an  inch 
or  two  high,  they  fliouldbchoed  to  fix  or  eight  inches 
dillance.  The  feeds  when  frelTi  have  a  ftrong  dif- 
agreeable  fincll,  which  improves  by  drying,  and  be- 
comes fufiiciently  grateful :  they  are  recommended  as 
carminative  and  llomachlc.  They  are  alfo  much  ufeJ 
by  the  brewers  both  in  England  and  Holland,  to  give 
a  flavour  to  theh-  llrongeft  beer.  The  ancients  had  a 
notion,  that  the  juice  of  coriander  would  deprive  people 
of  their  fcnfes,  and  even  of  life.  The  leaves  are  fonie- 
times  ufed  for  cidinary  purpofes  in  foups,  and  as  an 
ingredient  in  falads;.  but  as  they  ai'e  of  a  fetid  fmell, 
they  are  held  In  no  great  efteem  in  this  country. 

CORIARIA,  the  Tanner's  or  myrllc-leafej  Su- 
mach :  A  genus  of  the  decandria  order,  belonging  to 
the  dicecia  clafs  of  plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method 
ranking  under  the  54th  order,  Mifcdlcmsit.  The  male 
calyx  is  pentaphyllous  ;  the  corolla  pentapttalous,  very 
like  the  calyx,  and  united  with  it;  tlie  aiuherae  bipar- 
tite. The  female  calyx  is  pentaphyllous  ;  the  corolla- 
like that  of  the  male  ;  the  11)  les  five,  feeds  five,  cover- 


COR 


[     453     ] 


COR 


Corior 
C-.r    •■ 


ed  with  a  like  number  of  fucculciit  petals,  forming  alto- 
gether the  refemblance  of  a  berry.  There  are  two 
lj)ecie.s,  the  myrtifoha  and  the  fcemiiia.  They  are  both 
natives  of  tlie  fouth  of  France,  but  the  former  is  moll 
commonly  cultivated  in  tins  country.  It  is  a  pretty 
ornamental  plant,  with  a  (hrubby  pithy  brown  Hem, 
cloiely  branching  from  the  bottom,  and  forms  a  budiy 
head  tliree  or  four  feet  over,  thickly  garnilhed  with  ob- 
long, pointed,  bright  green  leaves,  having  fmall  Ipikes 
of  wiittilh  flowers  at  the  ends  of  the  branches.  It  is 
taiily  propagated  by  flickers  from  the  root,  which  it 
affords  plentifully,  and  mav  be  taken  off  with  fibres 
every  autumn  or  winter.  It  may  be  alfo  propagated  by 
layeis  In  autumn,  which  will  take  root  in  a  year.  It 
is  much  uled  in  the  fouth  of  France,  where  it  natu- 
rally glows,  for  tanning  of  leather,  whence  its  name  of 
tanner's  fumMh.  It  alio  dyes  a  beautiful  black  colour. 
The  beiries  are  dangerous,  and  when  eaten  generally 
occalion  vertigoes  and  epilepfies.  The  old  leaves  have 
the  fame  eiFect  upon  cattle  that  eat  them,  but  the 
young  leaves  arc  innocent. 

CURlllOR,  or  Corridor,  in  fortification,  a  rool 
or  way  along  the  edge  of  the  ditch,  without-fide  ;  en- 
compalling  the  whole  fortiiication.  The  word  comes 
from  the  Italian  coriJore,  or  the  Spanidi  cur'uior. 

It  is  alfo  called  the  coven-ivay ;  becaufe  covered 
with  a  glacis,  orefplanade,  fcrvingit  as  a  parapet.  The 
Ccridur  is  about  2  0  yards  broad. 

CoRiDOR  is  alfo  ufed  in  architefture,  for  a  gal. 
lery  or  long  ifle  around  a  building,  leading  to  fe- 
vcral  chambers  at  a  dillance  from  each  other,  fome- 
times  wholly  inclofed,  and  fometimes  open  on  one 
fide. 

CORINNA,  a  Grecian  lady,  celebrated  for  her 
beauty  and  poetic  talents,  was  born  at  Theffu  a  city 
of  Boeotia,  and  was  the  difciple  of  Myrtis  another  Gre- 
cian lady.  Her  verfes  were  fo  efteemed  by  the  Greeks, 
that  they  gave  her  the  name  of  the  lyric  miifr.  She  li- 
ved in  the  time  of  Pindar,  about  495  years  before 
Clirilt;  and  is  (aid  to  have  gained  the  prize  of  Ivric 
poetry  from  that  poet :  but  Paufanias  oblcrvcs  that  her 
beauty  made  the  judges  pai'liah 

CORINTH,  a  celebrated  city  of  antiquity,  for 
fome  time  the  moil  illuitrious  of  all  the  Greek  cities. 
It  is  faid  to  have  been  founded  1514  years  before 
Ciirill,  by  Silyphus  the  fon  of  Eolus,  and  grandfather 
of  Ulyffes.  Various  reafons  are  given  for  its  name,  but 
mofl  authors  derive  it  from  Cor'inlhus  the  fon  of  Pe- 
lops.  It  was  fituatcd  in  the  fouth  part  of  the  Iflhmus 
which  joins  the  Peloponnefus,  now  the  Morea,  to  the 
continent.  It  confilled  of  a  citadel  built  upon  an  emi- 
nence, and  thence  naaned  Acrocor'mlhus  ;  befides  which 
it  had  two  maritime  towns  fubjecl  to  it,  named  Lc- 
cheum  and  Cmchrea.  The  whole  flate  extended  fcaree 
half  a  degree  in  length  or  breadth  ;  but  fo  advan- 
tageouDy  vrere  the  above-mentioued  ports  litiiatcd, 
that  they  might  have  gained  the  Corinthians  a  fupe- 
riority,  if  not  a  command,  over  all  Greece,  had  not 
their  advantageous  lituation  inclined  them  to  com- 
merce rather  than  war.  For  their  citadel  was  ahnoft 
impregnable  ;  and,  commanding  both  the  Ionian  and 
iEgean  feas,  they  could  ealily  cut  off  all  communica- 
tion from  one  half  of  Greece  with  the  other  ;  for 
which  reafon  tlJs  city  was  called  one  of  llie  fetters  of 
Greece. 


But  as  the  genius  of  the  Corinthians  led  them  to  Cnrinih. 
commerce  rather  than  martial  exploits,  their  city  be-  """V— " 
came  the  hnell  in  all  Greece.  It  was  adorned  with 
the  ;noll  fumptuous  buildings,  as  temj)les,  palaces, 
theatres,  porticoes,  &c.  all  of  them  enriched  with  a 
beautiful  kind  of  columns,  which  from  tlic  city  were 
called  Corhuhhin,  But  though  the  Corinthians  feldom 
or  never  engaged  in  a  war  with  a  view  of  enlarging, 
but  rather  of  defending,  their  little  ftate,  they  did 
not  forget  to  cultivate  a  good  difciplinc  both  in  time 
ot  peace  and  of  war.  Ilence  many  brave  and  expe- 
rienced generals  have  been  fumilhed  by  Corinth  to  the 
otlier  Grecian  cities,  and  it  was  not  uncommon  for  tlic 
latter  to  prefer  a  Corinthian  general  to  any  of  their 
own. 

This  city  continued  to_  preferve   its  liberty  till  the 
year  before  Chiill  146,  when  it  was  pillaged  and  burnt 
by  the  Romans.  It  was  at  that  time  the  ftrongefl  place 
in  the  world  ;  but  the  inhabitants  were  fo  diilieaiten- 
ed  by  a  preceding  defeat,  and  the  death   of  tlieir  ge- 
neral, thatthey  had  not  prefence  of  mind  enough  even 
to  (hut  their  gates.     The    Roman  conful,   Mummius, 
was  fo  much   furprifed  at  this,  that  at  firft  he  could 
fcarce  believe  it  ;  but  afterwards  fearing  an  ambufcade, 
he  advanced  with  all  pofhble  caution.    As  he  met  witii 
no  refinance,  his  foldiers  had  nothing  to   do   but  <k- 
llroy  the  few  inhabitants  who  had  not  fled,  and  plun- 
der the  city.      Such  of  the  men  as  had  ftaid,  were  all 
put  to  the  fword,  and  the  women  were  fold  for  Haves. 
After  tliis  the  city  was  ranfacked  by  the  greedy  fol- 
diers, and  the  fpoils  of  it  are   faid  to   have  been  im- 
menfe.     There  were  more  veffels  of  all  forts  of  metal, 
more  fine  pictures,  and  ilatiies  done  by  the  greatell 
mailers,  in   Corinth,  than   in   any   other  city  in   the 
world.   Ail  the  princes  of  Europe  and  Afia,  who  had 
any  talle  in   painting  and   fculpture,   furnillied  them- 
felvcs    here  with  their   richeft  moveables:  here  were 
call  the  fineft.  ilatues  for  temples  and  palaces,  and  all 
the  liberal  arts   brought  to   their  greatefl  perfedion. 
Many  inellimable  pieces  of  the   moft  famous  painters 
and  itatuaries-  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  ignorant  fol- 
diers, who  either  dellroyed  them  or  parted  with  them 
for  a  trifle.      I'olybiusthe  hiflorian  was  an  eye-witnefs 
to  this  barbarifm  of  the  Romans.      He  had  the  morti- 
fication to  fee  two  of  them  playing  at  dice  on  a  famous 
picture  of  Arillides,  which  was  accounted  one  of  the 
wonders  of  the  world.      The  piece  was  a  Bacchus,  fo 
exquifitely  done,  that  it  was  proverbially  faid  of  any 
extraordinary  performance,    "  It  is  as  well  done  as 
the    Bacchus    of  ArtJl'iJcs."      This  mallerly  piece  of 
painting,  however,   the  foldiers    willingly   exchanged 
for  a  more  convenient  table  to  play  upon  :  but  when 
the  fpoils   of  Corinth  were  put   up   to  fule.  Attains 
king  of  Pergamus  offered  for  it  6oo,oco  fefterces,  near 
5000 1.  of  our   money.       Wummius  w^as    furprifed  at 
fuch  a  high  price  offered  for  a  pidure,  and  imagined 
there  mull  be  louie  magical  virtue  in  it.     lie  therefore 
interpultd  liis  authority,  and  carried  it  to  Rome,  not- 
withltandino    the   complaints  of  Attains.      Here   this 
famous  picture  was  lodged  in   the  temple  of  Ceres,. 
A\here  it  \vas   at  lall  dellroyed  by  fire,  together  with 
the  temple.     Another  extraordinary  inllance  of  the 
ffupidily  of  Mummius  is,  that  when  the  pictures  were 
put  on  board  the  tranfports,  he  told  the   matters  ot 
til.'  veiTels  very  ferlotrfly,  that  if  any  of  the  things  were 

cillier 


COR  [ 

Corinth.'  eillier  loft  or  fpoilcd,  he   would  oblige  tliem  to 
•  others  at  their  own  coft  ;  as  if  any  other  pieces  could 

have  fupplied  the  lofs  of  thofe  ineRimable  originals, 
done  by  the  greateft  mailers  in  Greece.  When  the 
city  was  thoroughly  pillaged,  fire  was  fet  to  all  the 
corners  of  it  at  the  fame  time.  The  flames  grew  more 
violent  as  they  drew  near  the  centre,  and  at  laft  unit- 
ing there  made  one  prodigious  conflagration.  At  this 
time  the  famous  metalline  mixture  is  faid  to  have  been 
made,  which  could  never  afterwards  be  imitated  by 
art.  The  gold,  filver,  and  brafs,  which  the  Corin- 
thians had  concealed,  were  melted,  and  ran  down  the 
ftrccts  in  ftreiims,  and  when  the  flames  were  extin- 
guifhed,  a  new  metal  was  found,  compofed  of  feveral 
different  ones,  and  greatly  efteemed  in  after  ages. 

The  town  lay  defokte  until  Julius  Caefar  fettled 
there  a  Roman  colony  ;  when,  in  moving  the  rubbilh 
and  digging,  many  vafes  were  found  of  brafs  or  earth 
finely  embofled.  The  price  given  for  thefe  curiofities 
excited*indufti-y  in  the  new  inhabitants.  They  left  no 
burying-place  unexamined;  and  Rome,  it  is  faid,  was 
filled  with  the  furniture  of  the  fepulchres  of  Corinth. 

Strabo  was  at  Corinth  foon  after  its  reftoration  by 
the  Romans.  He  defcribes  the  fite  as  follows.  "  A 
lofty  mountain,  in  perpendicular  height  as  much  as 
three  ftadia  and  a  half  (near  half  a  mile),  the  afcent 
30  lladia  (3^^  miles),  ends  in  a  pointed  fummit  called 
jdcrocor'mthus.  Of  this  the  portion  to  the  north  is  the 
moft  fteep';  beneath  which  lies  the  city  on  a  level  area, 
at  the  foot  of  the  Acrocorinthus.  The  circuit  of  the 
city  alone  has  been  40  ftadia  (5  miles),  and  as  much 
of  it  as  was  unflieltered  by  the  mountain  has  been 
walled  about.  Within  the  inclofure  was  comprehend- 
ed alfo  the  Acrocorinthus,  where  the  mountain  was  ca- 
pable of  receiving  a  wall ;  and  as  we  afccnded,  the  ve- 
ftiges  were  plain  ;  fo  that  the  whole  circumference  ex- 
ceeded 85  ftadia  (near  1 1  miles).  On  the  other  fides, 
the  mountain  is  lefs  fteep,  but  rifes  very  high,  and  is 
\ifible  all  around.  Upon  the  fummit  is  a  fmall  temple 
of  Venus  ;  and  below  it  the  fpring  Pirene,  which  does 
not  overflow,  but  is  always  full  of  pellucid  and  pot- 
able water.  They  fay  it  unites  with  fome  other  hid- 
den veins,  and  forms  the  fpring  at  the  mountain  foot, 
i-unning  into  the  city,  and  affording  a  fufficient  fupply 
for  the  ufe  of  the  inhabitants.  In  the  city  is  plenty  of 
wells,  and  in  the  Acrocorinthus,  as  they  fay,  for  we 
did  not  fee  any.  There  they  relate  the  winged  horfe 
Pegafus  was  taken  as  he  was  drinking,  by  Bellcrophon. 
Below  Pirene  is  the  Sifypheum,  fome  temple  or  pa- 
lace of  white  ftone,  the  remains  not  inconfiderable. 
From  the  fummit  is  beheld  to  the  north  ParnafTus  and 
Helicon,  lofty  mountains  covered  with  fnow;  and  below 
both,  to  the  weft,  the  Criffiean  gulph  bounded  by  Pho- 
cis,  by  Bosotia  and  the  Megaris,  and  by  Corinthia  and 
SIcyoaia  oppofite  to  Phocis.  Beyond  all  thefe  are  the 
mountains  called  the  Onc'mn,  ftretching  as  far  as  Boeo- 
tia  and  Cithaeron  from  the  Scironian  rocks  on  the  road 
to  Attica."  Strabo  faw  likewife  Cleonx  from  thence. 
Cenchres  was  then  a  village.  Lechxum  had  fome  In- 
habitants. 

New  Corinth  had  fiouriflied  217  years  when  It  was 
vifited  by  Paufanias.  It  had  then  a  few  antiquities, 
many  temples  and  ftatues,  efpecially  about  the  Agora 
or  market-place,  and  feveral  baths.  The  Emperor 
Hadrian  Introduced  water  from  a  famous  fpring  at 


454    1  COR 

find  Stymplialus  in  Arcadia  ;  and  it  had  various  fountains  Corinth.' 
alike  copious  and  ornamental.  The  ftream  of  one  if-  »  '  ■' 
fued  from  a  dolphin,  on  which  was  a  brazen  Nep- 
tune J  of  another,  from  the  hoof  of  Pegafus,  on 
whom  Bellerophon  was  mounted.  O.t  the  right 
hand,  coming  along  the  road  leading  from  the  market- 
place toward  Sicyon,  was  the  Odeum  and  the  theatre, 
by  which  was  a  temple  of  Minerva.  The  old  Gyrana- 
fium  was  at  a  diftaace.  Going  from  the  market-place 
toward  LechjEum  was  a  gate,  on  which  were  placed 
Phaeton  and  the  Sun  in  gilded  chariots.  Pirene  enter- 
ed a  fi)-mtain  of  white  marble,  from  which  the  cur- 
rent paffed  in  an  open  channel.  They  fuppoied  the 
metal  called  Cor'tntbian  brafs  to  have  been  immerged 
while  red  hot  in  this  water.  On  the  way  up  to  the 
Acrocorinthus  were  temples,  ftatues,  and  altars;  and 
the  gate  next  Tcnea,  a  village  with  a  temple  of  Apol- 
lo fixty  ftadia,  or  feven  miles  and  a  half  diftant,  on  the 
road  to  Myceni.  At  LechjEum  v/as  a  temple  and  a 
brazen  image  of  Neptune.  At  Cenchreae  were  tem- 
ples ;  and  by  the  way  from  the  city  a  grove  of  cy- 
prefs  trees,  fepulchres,  and  monuments.  Oppofite  was 
the  Bath  of  Helen,  water  tepid  and  fait,  flowing  plen- 
tifully from  a  rock  into  the  fea.  Mummius  hnd  ruin- 
ed the  theatre  of  Corinth,  and  the  munificence  of  the 
great  Athenian  Atticus  Herodes  was  difplayed  in  an 
edifice  with  a  roof  inferior  to  few  of  the  moft  cele- 
brated rtruc^ures  In  Greece. 

The  Roman  colony  was  referved  to  fuffer  the  fame 
calamity  as  the  Greek  city,  and  from  a  conqueror  more 
terrible  than  Mummius,  Alarlc  the  favage  deftroyer 
of  Athens  and  univerfal  Greece.  In  a  country  ha- 
rafled  with  frequent  wars,  as  the  Pelopoanefus  ha* 
fince  been,  the  Acrocorinthus  was  a  poft  too  confe- 
quenlial  to  be  negle£led.  It  was  befieged  and  taken 
in  1459  by  Mahomet  II. ;  the  defpots  or  lords  of  the 
Morca,  brothers  of  the  Greek  emperor  who  was  kill- 
ed in  defending  Conftantinople,  refufing  payment  of 
the  arrears  of  the  tribute,  which  had  been  impofed  by 
Sultan  Morat  in  1447.  The  country  became  fubjeci 
to  the  Turks,  except  fuch  maritime  places  as  were  in 
the  polfelfion  of  the  Venetians ;  and  many  of  tlie 
principal  inhabitants  were  carried  away  to  Conftanti- 
nople. Corinth,  with  the  Morea,  was  yielded  to  the  re- 
public at  the  conclufion  of  the  war  In  1698,  and  again 
by  it  to  the  Turks  in  1715. 

Corinth  i-etains  its  old  name,  and  is  of  confiderablc 
extent,  ftanding  on  Iiigh  ground,  beneath  the  Acro- 
corinthus, with  an  eafy  defcent  toward  the  gulph  of 
Lepanto  ;  the  houfes  fcattered  or  In  parcels,  except 
in  the  Bazar  or  market-place.  Cyprefles,  among 
which  tower  the  domes  of  mofques,  with  corn-fields, 
and  gardens  of  lemon  and  orange-trees,  are  Interfper- 
fed.  The  air  is  reputed  bad  in  fummer,  and  in  au- 
tumn exceedingly  unhealthy.  Wheler  relates,  that 
from  the  top  of  the  Acrocorinthus  or  Citadel,  he  en- 
joyed one  of  the  moft  agreeable  profpects  which  this 
world  can  afford.  He  guefled  the  walls  to  be  about 
two  miles  in  compafs,  Inclofing  mofques,  with  houfes 
and  churches  moftly  In  ruins.  An  hour  was  confumed 
in  going  up  on  horfeback.  It  was  a  mile  to  the  foot 
of  the  hill ;  and  from  thence  the  way  was  very  fteep, 
with  many  traverfes.  The  faraiiies  living  below  were 
much  infefted  by  corfairs,  and  on  every  alarm  flocked 
up  to  the  caftle. 

According 


COR 


According  to  Dr  Chandler,  Corinth  has  preferved 
but  few  monuments  of  its  Gieek  or  Roman  citizens. 
The  chief  remains,  lie  informs  us,  are  at  the  fouth- 
weft  corner  of  the  town,  and  above  tlie  bazar  or  mar- 
ket ;  1 1  columns  fupporting  their  architraves,  of  the 
Doric  order,  fluted,  and  wanting  in  height  near  half 
the  ciimmon  proportion  to  the  diameter.  Within 
them,  toward  the  wcllern  end,  is  one  taller,  though 
not  entire,  which  it  is  likely  contributed  to  fullaiu  the 
roof.  They  liave  been  found  to  be  itone,  not  marble; 
and  appear  brown,  perhaps  from  a  crull  formed  on  the 
outlide.  The  ruin  he  judges  to  be  of  very  remote 
antiquity,  and  a  portion  of  a  fabric  ereiftcd  not  only 
before  the  Greek  city  was  deftroyed,  but  before  the 
Doric  order  had  attained  to  maturity.  He  fufpeds 
it  to  have  {letn  the  Sifypheum  mentioned  by  Strabo. 
North  of  the  Bazar  ftands  a  large  mafs  of  brick-work, 
a  remnant,  it  may  be  conjtaured,  of  a  bath  or  of  the 
Gymnafiuni. 

The  inhabitants  aie  mofl  of  them  Chriaians  of  the 
Greek  church,  who  are  allowed  liberty  of  confcience 
by  the  Turks.     E.  Long.  28.  13.  N.  Lat.  38.  14. 

Corinth,  (the  i(lhmusof),  in  the  Morea.isa  neck 
of  land  whieli  joins  the  Morea  to  Greece,  and  reaches 
from  the  gulph  of  Lepanto  to  that  of  Egina.  Julius 
Ca^fiir,  Caligula,  and  Nero,  attempted  to  cut  a  chan- 
nel through  it,  but  in  vain  ;  and  they  therefore  af- 
terwards built  a  wall  acrofs  it,  which  they  cMedffexa- 
mllium,  becaufe  it  was  fix  milts  in  length.  This  was 
demolidied  by  Amurat  II.  and  afterwards  rebuilt  by 
the  Venetians,  but  was  levelled  a  fecond  time  by  Ma- 
homet II. 

CORINTHIAN,  in  general,  denotes  fomething 
belonging  to  Corinth  :  thus  we  fay,  Coriuthian  brafs! 
Corinthian  order,   &c. 

Corinthian  Brafs.     See  Brass  and  Corinth. 

Corinthian  Order,  in  architecture,  the  fourth  or- 
der of  architefture,  according  to  Scamozzi  ;  but  Mr 
Le  Clerc  makes  it  the  fifth,  being  the  mofl  noble 
and  delicate  of  all  the  other  five.  See  Architec- 
ture, n°  47. 

CORIO  (Bernardine),  an  hiftorian,  born  of  an  il- 
luftrious  family  at  Milan,  in  the  year  14C0.  He  was 
fecretary  of  Rate  to  that  duchy;  and  the  Duke  of  La- 
vis  Storza  appointed  him  to  write  the  hiftory  of  Mi- 
lan. He  died  in  1500.  The  befledition  of  his  hillory 
IS  that  of  1503,  in  folio.  It  is  printed  in  Italian,  and 
IS  very  fcarce. 

CORIOLANUS  (C.  Maicius),  a  famous  Rom.n 
captain,  took  Corioli  a  town  of  the  Volfci,  whence  he 
had  his  furname  :  at  lall,  difgufting  the  people,  he 
was  banifhed  Rome  by  the  tribune  Decius.  He  went 
to  the  Volfci,  and,  perfuading  them  to  take  up  arms 
againft  the  Romans,  they  encamped  within  four  miles 
of  the  city.  He  would  not  liften  to  propofals  of  peace 
till  he  was  prevailed  upon  by  his  wife  Veturia,  and  his 
mother  Volumnia,  who  were  followed  by  all  the  Ro- 
man ladies  in  tears.  He  was  put  to  death  by  the 
Volfci  as  a  traitor  that  had  made  them  quit  their  con- 
quea:  upon  which  the  Roman  ladies  went  into  mourn- 
ing ;  and  in  the  fame  place  where  his  blood  wasfpiUed 
there  was  a  temple  corfecrated  to  Feminine  Virtue. 

CORIS,  in  botany:  Agenus  of  the  monogynia  order, 
belonging  to  the  pentandria  clafs  of  plants  j  and  in  the 


[    455     ] 


COR 


natural  metliod  ranking  with  thofe  of  which  the  order  is      Cv  f. 
doubtful.     The  corrolla  is  monopetaluus  and  Irregular  ;  H 

the  calyx  prickly  ;    the  capfule  quinquevalved  fuperior.  ,    ^"'^^    ■ 

Ihrre  ,s  only  one  fpeeies,  wi.   the  monfpelicniis,  or  ^        * 

b  ue  manlime  coris.  There  are  two  varieties  of  this 
plant,  one  with  a  red,  and  the  other  with  a  white  flow- 
cr;  but  thefe  are  only  accidental,  and  arife  from  the 
iame  feeds.  1  hey  grow  wild  about  Monfpeller,  and 
in  moft  places  in  the  fouth  of  Fiance:  they  feldom 
grow  above  fi^i.  inches  high,  and  fprcad  near  the  fur- 
face  of  the  ground  like  heath  ;  and  in  June,  when 
they  are  full  of  flowers,  make  a  very  pretty  appearance.  , 
They  may  be  propagated  by  fowing  their  feeds  in  a 
bed  of  frelh  earth,  and  afterwards  removing  the  younr 
plants,  feme  into  pots,  and  others  into  a  warm  boi"! 
der.  They  generally  bear  our  winter  colds  well  e- 
nough,  but  fevere  frofts  will  fometimes  deftroy  them  ; 
for  which  reafon  it  is  proper  to  keep  fome  of  them  in 
pots,  which  fhould  be  put  under  a  hot-bed  frame  in 
winter.  As  they  feldom  produce  good  feeds  in  this 
country,  they  may.  In  want  of  thcfe,  be  propagated 
by  flips  and  cuttings,  which  will  take  root  if  planted 
on  a  very  gentle  hot-bed,  fiiaded  from  the  fun,  and 
duly  watered. 

CoRis  is  alfo  ufed  In  the  Eaft-Indles  for  a  kiud  of 
fliells  which  pafs  for  money. 

CORISPERMUM,  tickseed:  A  genus  of  the  di- 
gynia  order,  belonging  to  the  monandria  clafs  of  plants^ 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  1 2th  or- 
der, Huhracis.  There  is  no  calyx  ;  two  petals,  and 
one  oval  naked  feed.  There  are  two  fpeeies;  but 
none  of  them  are  remarkable  for  their  beauty  or  any 
other  quality. 

CORITANI,  (anc.  geog.)  a  people  of  Britain,  occu- 
pying widely  the  inland  pans,  as  Northampton,  Lei- 
cefler,  Rutland,  Lincoln,  Nottingham,  and  Derby 
fhires,   (Camden). 

CORK,  the  bark  of  3  tree  of  the  fame  name,  a 
fpecies  of  Quercus.     See  C^ercus. 

To  take  off  the  bark  they  make  an  Incifion  from 
the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the  tree,  and  at  each  cxtrs- 
mity  another  round  the  tree,  perpendicular  to  the  firft. 
When  ftripped  from  the  tree,  which  does  not  there- 
fore die,  the  bark  is  plied  up  in  a  pond  or  ditch,  and 
loaded  with  heavy  ({ones  to  flatten  it,  and  reduce  it 
into  tables :  hence  it  is  taken  to  be  dried  ;  and  whea 
fufliciently  dry,  put  in  bales  for  carriage.  If  care  be 
not  taken  to  ftrip  the  bark,  it  fplits  and  peels  off  itfelf  j 
beingpufhed  up  by  another  bark  formed  underneath. 

The  batk  of  cot  k,  as  well  as  the  acorn,  are  of  forae 
ufe  in  medicine  ;  being  both  reputed  aftringents,  after 
being  burnt  and  powdered  when  ufed  externally  ;  but 
the  chief  employ  of  the  former  is,  to  put  in  fhoes,  flip- 
pers, &c.  and  to  flop  bottles.  The  Spaniards  bura 
It  to  make  that  kind  of  light  black  xve  call  Spa- 
nijh  black,  ufed  by  painters.  Cups  made  of  cork, 
are  faid  by  fome  to  be  good  for  heftical  perfons  to 
drink  out  of.  The  Egyptains  made  coffins  of  corkj 
which  being  lined  with  a  refinous  compofition,  prefer- 
ved dead  bodies  uncorrupted.  The  Spaniards  line 
ftone-walls  with  it,  which  not  only  renders  them  very 
warm,  but  correfts  the  moifture  of  the  air. 

FoJil.QoRs,  a  name  given  to  a  kind  of  ftonc.     It 
feems  to  be  a  fpecies  of  amianthus,  confiding  of  Hexi- 

bk 


COR 


[     4-6     1 


COR 


Ct.tk.     ble  fibres  loDfely  interwoven,  anj  fomewluit  rcfcmbling 
-    <■■■ '  vegetable  cork.      It  is  the  lighted  of  all  Hones  ;  by 
fire  it  is  fafible,  and  form^  a  black  glafs.      It  poffelTus 
the  general  qualities  of  amianthus.     See  that  article. 

Cork,  in  Latin  comitaliis  Cprcajh-iiJIs,  a  county  of 
the  province  of  munfter  in  Ireland.  It  is  the  mod  po- 
pulous and  conficurable  county  of  the  kingdom  nest 
to  that  of  Dublin  ;  containing  near  a  million  of  acres, 
and  being  divided  into  15  baronies.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  north-ead  by  the  county  of  Waterford  ;  on  the 
weft  by  Kerry  ;  by  Limeric  on  the  north  ;  and  by  the 
fea  on  the  fouth  and  fouth-ead.  Including  Defmond 
it  is  85  miles  in  length  and  50  in  breadth  ;  but  is 
very  unequal  both  ways.  Though  a  confiderable  part 
of  the  country  is  boggy,  mountainous,  and  barren  ; 
yet  by  the  indudry  of  the  inhabitants  it  is  pretty  well 
cultivated  and  improved,  and  contains  feveral  good 
towns  and  harbours. 

Cork,  a  city  of  Ireland,  and  capital  of  the  county 
of  that  name.     It  is  an  epifcopal  fee  ;  and  is  the  largeft 
and  mod  populous  of  any  in   the  kingdom,   Dublin 
alo!ie   excepted.     It   is  fituated  on   the  river  Lee,   15 
miles   from   its  mouth.     It   is  a  place  of  great  trade, 
the  harbour  here  being  one  of  the  fined  in  the  world. 
Though  fmaller  veflirls   can   come  up  to  the  key.  yet 
the    larger   generally  ride    at    a    place  called   Pajfigs. 
This  city,  together  with  its  liberties,  makes  a  county. 
It  wras  built,  or  rather  fortified,  by  the  Danes,  in  the 
ninth    century.     The  greateft   part  of  it  Hands  on  a 
mardiy  ifland  furrounded  by  the  river  Lee,  which  alio 
runs    through    the    city,    and    divides  it  into  feveral 
canals.     On   this  account  fome  have  thought  the  air 
very   moid   and  unwholeforae.     Complaints   have  alfo 
been   made   againd  the   water  as  impure  ;  but,  from 
comparing  the  bills  of  mortality  with  thofe  of  other 
cities,  it  appears  that  the  city  of  Cork  is  far  from  be- 
ing unhealthy.  This  hath  been  accounted  for  from  the 
influx  of  the  tide,  by  which  a  flagnation  of  air  is  pre- 
vented.    The  firft  charter  of  Cork  was  bedowed  by 
Henry  III.  and  afterwards  ratified  by  Edward  I.  Ed- 
ward  II.  and  Edward   III.     Edward   IV.  granted  a 
.    new  charter  ;  and  the  city  received  many  favours  from 
the  fucceeding  raonarchs.     King  James  I.  gave  the 
citizens  a  new  and  ample  charter  ;  and  king  Charles  1. 
what   is  called  the  Great  Charter,  by  which,  among 
others,  a  claufe  in  king  James's  charter  was  enforced, 
making  this  city  a  county  of  itftlf.     The  fee  of  Cork 
is  reputed  worth  L.  2700  a-year.     The  chapter   con- 
fids  of  a  dean,    chanter,    chancellor,  treafurer,  arch- 
deacon, and  twelve  prebendaries.     The  church  is  de- 
dicated to  St  Ban-  or  Finbarv  ;  and  the  diocefe  is  di- 
vided  into  five  deaneries.     There   is  very  little  to  be 
found  in  ancient  writers  concerning  llie  foundation  of 
the  Cathedral  of  Cork  ;  yet  it  is  generally  afcribed  to 
St  Barr  in  the  feventh  century.     Many  of  its  biftirps 
have  been  great  benefaftors  to  it.     Throngh  length  of 
time,  the  church  became  quite  ruinous  j  but  it  hath 
lately  been  completely  rebuilt,  and  is  now  an  elegaatrr.c- 
dern  drudlure.    To  defray  the  expence,  the  pa.lianient 
laid  a  tax    on  all  coals  confumed  in  the  city  of  Cork. 
The  deanery  is  reputed  to  be  worth  L.  4C0  a-year. 

Cork  is  much  improved  and  enlarged,  feveral  broad 

ftreets  have  been  lately  added,  by  filling  up  the  canals 

that  formerly  lan   through  them,  and  are  now  built 

up  with  elegant  houfes ;  the  parade  is  very  fpacious, 

N°92. 


■.r,d  Is    adorned    with    an   equedrian    datue  of   king 
George  II.      It  hath  the  larj^ed  exprrt  in  tlie  king-  - 
dom,  particularly  of  beef,  hides,  tallow,  butter,  tilli, 
and  other   provifions.      It   is  partly  fituated  on  feveral 
idands,  formed  by  the   river  Lee,  wiiich  are  banked 
and  quayed  in,  fomewhat  like  the  towns  in  Holland  ; 
and  partly  on  rifing  grounds,  on  the  north  and  fouth 
fides  of  the  river.      The  earl  of  Marlborou^li  befieged 
and  took  it  from  king  James's  army  in  i6go  ;  when 
the  duke  of  Grafton,   wha  ierved  as  a  vol.inteer,   was 
flain  in   an  attack.     It  contains   about  8600   houfes, 
and  upwards   of  70,000   inhabit  ints.     It  hath  tw..-lve 
companies  of  foot  quartered  in  the  barracks.     Befides 
a  ftately  cathedral,  built  from  the  foundation,  between 
1725  and  I73J',  by  the  produce  of  a  duty  upon  coals, 
as  above  noticed,  it  is  adorned  with  feveral  handfome 
paridi  churches.     It  has  alfo  an  elegant  exchange  for 
the  merchants,  a  new  and  beautiful  cudom-houfe,  a 
town-hall,    feveral  fine    hofpitals,    and    various    other 
public  druftures.     The  city  poiTeffes  an  annual  reve- 
nue of  about  1300I.  out  ol   which  the  mayor  enjoys 
for  his  falary  and  the  fupport  of  his  dignity  jool.  The 
wealth  and  grandeur  of   Cork  arife  from  its  capacious 
and  commodious  haven,  where  ahnoft  any  nuirber  of 
fliips   may   lie   with   eafe  and  fafety.      According  to 
fome  accounts,  when   there   has  been   no  war,    1200 
veffels   have   reforted   hither  in   a   year.     Ships   from 
England,  bound  to  all  p:irt3  of  the  Wed  Indies,  take 
in  here  a   great   part  of  theit   provifions  ;  and  on  the 
fame  account  the  haven  of  Cork  is  vifited  by  thofe  al- 
fo  of    mod   other  nations.     The  flaughtering  feafon 
continues  from  the  month  of  Augud  to  the  latter  end 
of  January;  in  wh'ch  fpace  it  has  been  computed,  that 
they  kill  and  cure  feldom  fewer  than  100,000  head  of 
black  cattle.     The  red  of  their  exports  confid  of  but- 
ter, candles,  hides  raw  and  tanned,  linen  cloth,  pork, 
calves,  lambs,  and  rabbit-flfins,  tallow,  wool  for  Eng- 
land,  linen    and   woollen    yarn,    and    woilled.       The 
merchants  of  Cork  carry  on  a  very  extenfive  trade  to 
alraoft  all  parts  of  the  known   world ;  fo   that  their 
commerce  is  annually  increafing.     The  produce  of  the 
cudoms  fo'ne  years  fince  exceeded  6o,oool.  and  the 
number  of  fhips  that  they  employ  is  double   to  what 
it  was  forty  years  ago.     The  only  thing  that  feemcd 
to  be  wanting  to  the  fecnrity  of  the  port  of  Cork  was 
fupplled  in  the  earl  of  Cheftcrficld's  memorable  admi- 
nillration,  by  building  a  fort  on  the   great  ifl-ind,  to 
command  the  entrance  of  the  haven.     The  outlets  of 
Cork  are  cheerful  and  pleafant.      The  country  around 
the  city,  on  both  fides  of  the  river,  is  hilly  and  pltlu- 
refque  ;  and  the  harbour  called   the  Cove,  is  one  of 
the  bed  in   the  world;  the  entrance  is  fafe,  and  the 
whole  navy  of  England  might   ride  in  it,  fccure  from 
every  wind   that  blows.      Ships  of  burden,   liowevei-, 
are  oblige>i  to  unload  at  Paifage,  five  miles  and  a  half 
from  Cork,  the  channel  not  admitting  veffels  uf  above 
150  tons. 

C0V.K  "Jacld,  or  lVo'ijlcoa>,  is  an  invention  of  one 
Mr  Dubouig,  a  gentleman  very  fond  of  fwimming, 
but  fubjeft  to  the  cramp,  which  led  him  to  confider 
of  fome  method  by  which  he  might  enjoy  hio  favour- 
ite diverfion  with  fafety.  The  waidcoat  is  compo- 
fed  of  four  pieces  of  cork,  two  for  the  breads  and 
two  for  the  back  ;  each  pretty  near  in  length  and 
breadth  to  the  qu.fters  of  a  waidcoat  without  fl-ips ; 

the 


Crk, 


COR 


[    457     ] 


COR 


the  wliole  is  covered  with  coarfe  canvas,  with  two 
holes  to  put  the  arms  through:  there  13  a  fpace  left  be- 
tween the  two  back-pieces,  and  the  fame  betwixt  each 
back  and  breaft-plecc,  that  they  may  fit  the  eaficr  to 
the  body.  Thus  the  waidcoat  is  only  open  before, 
and  may  be  faftened  on  the  weaier  with  (liings,  or,  if 
it  fhoiild  be  thought  more  fecure,  with  buckles  and 
leather  ftraps.  This  waiilcoat  does  not  weigh  above 
12  ounces,  and  may  be  made  up  for  about  5  or  6  (hil- 
lings expcnce.  Mr  Dubourg  tried  his  waiilcoat  in  the 
Thames,  and  found  that  it  not  only  fupported  him  on 
the  water,  but  that  two  men  could  not  fink  him,  tho* 
they  ufed  their  utmoft  efforts  for  that  purpofe.  If 
thofe  who  ufe  the  fea  occafionally,  and  efpecially  thofe 
who  are  obliged  to  be  almoft  conftantly  there,  were 
to  have  thofe  waiilcoats,  it  would  be  next  to  impof- 
fible  that  they  fliould  be  drowned.  It  would  alfo  be 
of  vail  fervice  to  thofe  that,  for  the  fake  of  health, 
bathe  in  the  fej;  and  even  the  mofl  delicate  and  timo- 
rous young  lady  might  by  the  help  of  one  of  thefe 
jackets  venture  into  a  rough  fea.  See  AiK-Jacld,  and 
BAMKoo-Habit. 

CORMANDEL.     See  Coromandel. 

COR-MASS,  ihe  name  of  a  grand  procelTion,  faid 
to  have  been  eftablifhed  at  Dunkirk  during  the  domi- 
rion  of  Charles  V.  and  renewed  on  St  John's  day, 
the  twenty-fourth  of  June.  After  the  celebration  of 
high  mafs,  the  procefTion,  confiding  of  the  feveral 
tradefmen  of  the  town,  begins.  Each  perfon  has  a 
burning  taper  of  wax  in  his  hand  ;  and  after  each 
company  comes  a  pageant,  followed  by  the  patron- 
faint,  ufually  of  folid  filver,  richly  wrought  and  adorn- 
ed. The  companies  are  followed  by  mufic  ;  and  af- 
ter ihe  muficians,  the  friars  in  the  habits  of  their  or- 
der, the  fecular  pricfls,  and  then  the  abbot  magnifi- 
cently adorned,  and  preceded  by  the  hoft.  Machines 
likewife  of  various,  fantallical  forms  and  devices,  and  as 
varioufly  accoutred,  form  a  part  of  the  (liovv  on  this  occn- 
fion ;  which  is  defcribed  as  one  of  the  moll  fiiperb  and 
magnificent  in  the  world,  by  an  eye-witnefs,  in  175J- 

CORMORANT,  a  corruption  of  corvorant,  in  or. 
nithologv.     See  Pelicanus. 

CORN,  in  country  affairs,  the  grain  or  feeds  of 
plants  feparated  from  the  fpica  or  ear,  and  ufed  for 
making  bread. 

There  are  feveral  fpecies  of  corn,  fuch  as  wheat, 
rye,  and  barely,  millet  and  rice,  oats,  maize  and  lentils, 
peafe,  and  a  number  of  other  kinds  ;  each  of  which 
has  its  ufefnlnefs  and  propriety. 

Europe,  in  every  part  of  it ;  Egypt,  and  fome  o- 
ther  cantons  of  Africa,  particularly  the  coafts  of  Bar- 
bary  ;  and  fome  parts  of  America  cultivated  by  the 
Europeans,  particularly  New  England,  New  France, 
and  Acadia;  are  the  places  which  produce  corn.  O 
ther  counttles  have  maize  and  rice  in  lieu  of  it  ;  and 
foine  parts  of  America,  both  in  the  iflands  and  con- 
tinents, fimple  roots,  fuch  as  potatoes  and  manioc. — 
Egypt  was  anciently  the  raofli  fertile  ol  all  other  coun- 
tries in  coin;  as  appears  both  from  facred  and- pro- 
fane hiftory.  It  fnrniffied  a  good  part  of  the  people 
fubjeft  to  the  Roman  empire,  and  was  called  the  dry 
nurfe  of  Rome  and  Italy.  Britain,  France,  and  Poland, 
feem  now  in  the  place  of  Egypt,  and  with  their  fuper- 
fluities  fupport  a  good  part  of  Europe. 

For  the  firft  difcovcry  and  culture  of  corn,  authors 
Vol  V.  Part  U. 


are  much  divided  :  the  common  opinion  is,  that  in  the  Cirn. 
firll  ages  men  lived  on  the  fpoutaneous  fruits  of  the  """"V  'I, 
eaith;  as  acorns,  and  the  nut  or  mall  produced  by 
the  beech ;  which,  they  fay,  took  its  name  fagus, 
from  the  Greek  p^y^',  I  cat.  It  is  added,  that  they 
had  not  either  the  ufe  of  corn,  nor  the  art  of  prepa- 
ring or  making  it  eatable. 

Ceres  has  the  credit  of  being  the  firft  that  (howcd 
the  ufe  of  corn,  on  which  account  (he  was  placed  a- 
niong  the  gods  ;  others  give  the  honour  to  Triptole* 
mus  ;  others  fhare  it  between  the  two,  making  Cere« 
the  firll  difcoverer,  and  Triptolemus   the   firll  planter  ' 

and  cultivator  of  corn.  Diodorus  Siculus  afcribes  the 
whole  to  Ifis ;  on  which  Polydore  Virgil  obferves,  he 
does  not  differ  from  the  reft  ;  Ifis  and  Ceres  being, 
in  reality,  the  fame.  The  Athenians  pretend  it  was 
among  them  the  art  began;  and  the  Cretans  or  Can- 
diots,  Sicilians,  and  Egyptians,  lay  claim  to  the  fame. 
Some  think  thetitle  of  the  Sicilians  beft  fupported,  that 
being  the  country  of  Ceres  :  and  authors  add,  flie  did 
not  teach  the  fecret  to  the  Athenians,  till  (he  had  firft 
inftrufted  her  own  countrymen.  Others  fay,  Ceres 
paffed  firft  into  Attica,  thence  into  Crete,  and,  laft 
of  all,  into  Sicily  :  many  of  the  learned,  however, 
maintain  it  was  in  Egypt  the  att  of  cultivating  cori 
firft  began;  and  it  is  certain  there  was  corn  in  Egypt 
and  the  Eaft  long  before  the  time  of  Ceres. 

Coin  is  very  different  froin  fruits,  with  refpeft  to 
the  manner  of  its  prefervation  ;  and  is  capable  of  be- 
in.j  preferred  in  public  granaries,  for  preffing  occa- 
fions,  and  of  being  kept  for  ftveral  centuries. — A  lit- 
tle time  after  the  fiege  of  Metz,  under  Henry  II.  of 
France,  in  the  year  1578,  the  due  d'Efpernon  laid 
up  vaft  ftores  of  corn  in  the  citadel ;  which  was  pre- 
ferved  in  good  plight  to  the  year  1707,  when  the 
French  king  and  his  retinue,  paffing  that  way,  eat 
bread  baked  thereof. 

The  chief  thing  that  contributes  to  the  prefervation 
of  corn  is,  a  cruft  which  forms  on  its  furface,  by  the 
germination  of  the  grain  next  underneath,  to  the 
thicknefs  of  an  inch  and  a  half.  On  that  at  Metz 
people  walked,  without  its  giving  the  lead  way.  At 
Sedan  was  a  granary  cut  in  a  rock,  wherein  a  heap  of 
corn  was  preferved  a  hundred  and  ten  years  :  it  was 
covered  with  a  cruft  a  foot  thick. 

For  the  prefervation  of  corn,  the  firft  method  is  ta 
let  it  remain  in  the  fpike  ;  the  only  expedient  for  con-  . 
veying  it  to  the  iflandsand  provinces  of  America.  The 
inhabitants  of  thofe  countries  fave  it  in  the  ear,  and 
raile  it  to  maturity  by  that  precaution  :  but  this  me- 
thod of  preferving  it  is  attended  with  feveral  incon- 
veniences among  us  ;  corn  is  apt  to  rot  or  fprout,  if 
any  the  leaft  molfture  is  in  the  heap  ;  the  ratb  likewife 
infeft  it,  and  our  want  of  draw  alfo  obliges  us  to  fepa- 
rate  the  grain  from  the  ear.  The  fecond  is  to  turn  out 
and  winnow  it  frequenil)-  ;  or  to  pour  it  through  a 
trough  or  mill-hopper,  from  one  iloor  to  another  ;  be- 
ing thus  moved  and  aired  every  15  days,  for  the  firft 
6  months,  it  will  require  Icfs  labour  for  the  future,  if 
lodged  in  a  dry  place  :  but  if,  through  negledl,  mites 
(hniild  be  allowed  to  dide  into  the  heap,  they  will  fooR 
reduce  the  corn  to  a  heap  of  duft  :  this  muft  be  avoid- 
ed by  moving  the  corn  anew,  and  rubbing  the  places 
adjacent  vith  oils  and  herbs,  whofe  drong  odour  may 
chace  them  away ;  for  which  garlic  and  dwarf-elder 
3  M  are 


COR 


[    458     ] 


COR 


Cem 

II 
Cornarius. 


are  very  effeftual  :  they  may  likewife  be  expofcd  to 
the  open  fun,  which  immediately  kills  them.  When 
the  corn  has  betn  preferved  from  all  impurities  for  the 
fpace  of  two  years,  and  has  exhaled  all  its  fires,  it  may 
be  kept  for  50  or  even  100  years,  by  lodging  it  in  pits 
eovrrtd  with  ftrong  planks,  clofely  joined  together  : 
but  the  fafer  way  is  to  cover  the  heap  with  quick- 
lime, which  fhould  be  dilTolved  by  fprinkling  it  over 
with  a  fm.iU  quantity  of  water;  this  caufes  the  grains 
to  flioot  to  the  depth  of  two  or  three  fingers  ;  and 
inclofes  them  with  an  incruftation,  as  above  men- 
tioned, through  which  neither  air  nor  infeAs  can  pe- 
netrate. 

Jiui'tan  CoRS  or  maize.      See  Ze.1. 

CoRy-ButUrjIj,  method  of  deilroying  it.     See  A- 

GRICl'LTURE,  n°  80. 

CoKS-Crale.     See  Rallus. 

CoRN-Jin/l,  a  water-engine  for  grinding  of  corn. 
See  Mechanics. 

CORNS,  in  furgery,  hard  excrefcences,  confifting  of 
indurations  of  the  Ikin  ariCng  on  the  toes,  and  fome- 
times  on  the  fides  of  the  feet,  where  they  are  much 
expofed  to  the  prefTure  of  the  (hoes.  By  degrees  they 
prefs  themfelves  farther  down  between  the  mufcular 
fibres  on  thefe  parts,  and  by  their  irritation  occafion 
extreme  pain.  Many  cures  have  been  prefcribed,  hut 
the  total  removal  of  them  is  always  found  to  be  at- 
tended with  great  difficulty.  It  has  been  recommend- 
ed to  foften  them  with  plafters,  and  then  to  pull  them 
up  by  the  roots,  to  apply  cauftic,  &c.  A  piece  of 
raw  beef  laid  on  by  way  of  plafter,  and  frequently  (hilt- 
ed,  is  alfo  faid  to  be  effeftual ;  but  the  bed  cure  is  to 
bathe  them  frequently  in  warm  warer,  and  pare  away 
as  much  as  pofCble  of  the  indurated  (Ivin  without  draw- 
ing blood. 

Corn,  in  farriery»     See  Farriery.  ' 

CORNAGE,  an  ancient  tenure,  the  fervlcc  where- 
of was  to  blow  a  horn  when  any  invafion  of  the  Scots 
was  perceived.  This  tenure  was  very  frequent  in  the 
northern  counties  near  the  Pifts  wall  ;  but  by  flat.  12. 
Car.  II.  all  tenures  are  converted  into  free  and  com- 
mon focage. — An  old  rental  calls  cornage,  tifwlgeldt, 
q-  d.  neat-gehl.  Lord  Coke  fays,  in  old  books  it  is 
called  horngelJ. 

CORNARISTS,  in  ecclefiaftical  hlllory,  the  dif- 
ciples  of  Theodore  Coinhert,  an  cnthufiaflic  fecretary 
of  the  ftates  of  Holland.  He  wrote  at  the  lame  time 
againft  the  Catholics,  Lutherans,  and  Calvinifts.  He 
maintained  that  every  religious  communion  needed  re- 
formation ;  but  he  added,  that  no  perfon  had  a  right 
to  engage  in  accompliihing  it,  without  a  miffion  fup- 
poitedby  miracles.  He  was  alfo  of  opinion,  that  a  per- 
fon might  be  a  good  Chriftian  without  being  a  mem- 
ber of  anv  vifible  church. 

CORNARIUS,  or  Haguenbot, (John), a  celebra- 
ted German  phyfician,  born  at  Zwickow  in  Saxony, 
His  preceptor  made  him  change  his  name  of  Haguen- 
bot to  that  of  Cornarius,  under  which  he  is  moft 
known.  At  20  years  of  age  he  taught  grammar,  and 
explained  the  Grc-k  and  Latin  poets  and  orators  to 
his  fcholars ;  and  at  23  was  licentiate  in  medicine. 
He  found  fault  with  moft  of  the  remedies  provided 
by  the  apothecaries  ;  and  obftrving,  that  the  gieateft 
part  of  the  phyficians  taught  their  pupils  only  what  is 
to  be  found  in  Avicenna,  Rafis,  andtbe  other  Arabian 

I 


phyficians,  he  carefully  fought  for  the  writings  of  the    Cornaro 
beft  phyficians  of  Greece,  and  employed  about  15  years         I! . 
in  tranflating  them  into  Latin,  efp  cially  the  works  of     ""*" 
Hippocrates,  Aetius,  Eginetes,  and  a  part  of  thofe 
of  Galen.     Meanwhile  he  praftifcd  phyfic  with  repu- 
tation at  Zwickow,  Francfort,  Marpurg,  Nordhaufen, 
and  Gena,  where  he  died   of  an  apoplexy  in    1558, 
aged  58.     He   alfo  wrote  fome   medicinal  trtatiles ; 
publi(hed  editions  of  fome  poems  of  the  ancients  on 
medicine  and  botany;  and  tranflated  fome  of  the  works 
of  the  fathers,  particularly  thofe  of  Bafil,  and  a  part 
of  thofe  of  Epiphanius. 

CORNARO  (Lewis),  a  Venetian  of  noble  extrac- 
tion, memorable  for  having  lived  healthful  and  aftive 
to  above  100  years  of  age  by  a  rigid  courfe  of  teir.pe- 
rance.  By  the  ill  conduft  of  fome  of  his  relations  he 
was  deprived  of  the  dignity  of  a  noble  Venetian  ;  and. 
feeing  himfelf  excluded  from  all  employments  under 
the  republic,  he  fettled  at  Padua.  In  his  youth,  he 
was  of  a  weak  conllitution  ;  and  by  irregular  indul- 
gence reduced  himfelf,  at  about  40  years  of  age,  to 
the  brink  of  the  grave,  under  a  complication  of  dif- 
orders ;  at  which  extremity  he  was  told  that  he  had 
no  other  chance  for  his  life,  but  by  becoming  fober 
and  temperate.  Being  wife  enough  to  adopt  this 
wholefome  counfel,  he  reduced  himfelf  to  a  regimen 
of  which  there  are  very  few  examples.  He  allowed 
himfelf  no  more  than  12  ounces  of  food  and  14  ounces 
of  liquor  each  day  ;  which  became  fo  habitual  to  him,, 
that  when  he  was  above  70  years  of  age,  the  experi- 
ment of  adding  two  ounces  to  each  by  the  advice  of 
his  friends,  had  like  to  have  proved  fatal  to  him.  At 
83,  he  wrote  a  treatife  which  has  been  tranflated  in- 
to Englilh,  and  often  printed,  intitled,  Sure  and  cei'-- 
tain  Methods  of  attaining  a  Long  and  Healthful  Life ; 
in  which  he  relates  his  own  ftory,  and  extols  temper- 
ance to  a  degree  of  enthufiafm.  At  length,  the  yolk, 
of  an  egg  became  fufficient  for  a  meal,  and  fometimes 
for  two,  until  hj  died  with  much  eafe  and  compofure 
in  1566.  The  writer  of  the  Speftator,  n<^  195.  con- 
firms the  faft  from  tlie  authority  of  the  Venetian  am- 
baflador  at  that  time,  who  was  a  defcendant  of  the 
Cornaro  family. 

CORNAVII  (Ptolemy),  a  people  of  Britain,  be- 
ginning in  the  very  heart  of  the  ifland,  and  extending 
to  Cheiler.  Now  Warivick,  JVorceJler,  Salop,  Stafford 
(hires,  and  Chejhire  (Camden).  ' 

CORNEA  TUNICA,  in  anatomy,  the  fecotid  coat  ot~ 
the  eye ;  fo  called  from  its  fubftaiice  reffmbling  the  horn 
of  a  lantern,  in  Latin  cornu.    See  Anatomv,  n"  142. 

CORNEILLE  (Peter),  a  celebrated  French  poet, 
was  born  at  Rouen  in  the  year  i6c6.  He  was  brought 
up  to  the  bar,  which  he  attended  for  fome  little  time ; 
but  formed  with  a  genius  too  elevated  for  fuch  a  pro- 
feffion,  and  having  no  turn  for  bufinefs,  he  foon  de- 
ferted  it.  An  affair  of  gallantry  occafioned  his  wri- 
ting his  firft  piece,  intitled  Melite;  which  had  prodi- 
gious fuccefs.  Encouraged  by  the  applaufe  of  ths 
public,  he  wrote  the  Cid,  and  the  other  tragedies  that 
have  immortalized  his  name.  In  his  dramatic  woiks 
he  difcovers  a  majefty,  a  ftrength  and. elevation  of  ge- 
nius, fcarce  to  be.  found  in  any  other  of  the  French 
poets  ;  and,  like  our  immortal  Shakefpeare,  feema 
better  acquainted  with  nature  than  with  the  rules  of 
critics.  Corneille  was  received  into  the  French  aca- 
demy 


COR 


[     459    1 


COR 


ftorneille  demy  in  1647,  and  died  dean  of  that  academy  in  1684, 

II   .     aged  78.     Befides  his  dramatic  pieces,  he  wrote  a 

Cornelia,  tranilation,   in   French   verfe,    of  the  "  Imitation   of 

"""*         Jcfus  Chiift,"  Sec.     The  bcft  edition  of  his  works  is 

that  of  1682,  in  4  vols  i2mo. 

C0RNEIL1.E  (Thomas),  brother  of  the  former,  was  a 
member  of  the  French  academy  and  of  that  of  infcrip- 


enemies,  who  had  teen  profcribed,  were  deprived  of  Cornelia 
the  privilege  of  Itanding  for  any  ofEce  in  the  ftate. —         H 
Another,  tk  imiglflralibus,  by   the   fame,  in   675.     It     ^"'""-  ^ 
ordained,  that  no  pcrfon  (houid  cxticife  the  fame  office  ' 

within  ten  years  diltance,  or  be  invelled  with  two  dif- 
ferent magiilracies  in  one  year. — Another,  de  magiflra- 
tihiis,  by  the  fame,  in  673.      It  divellcd'  the  tribunes 


tions.     He  difcovered  in  his  youth  a  great  inclination    ot  the  privilege  of  making  laws,  interfering,  holding 
'         '        '        ■•■■^     ■    ■-         ■    '  •      aflemblics,  and  receiving  appeals.  All  fuch  as  had  been 

tribunes  were  incapable  of  holding  any  other  office  in 
the  ilate  by  that  law.  — Another,  de  mnjejlutc,  by  the 
fame,  in  670.  It  made  it  treafon  to  lend  an  army  out 
of  a  province,  or  engage  in  a  war  without  orders,  to 
influence  the  foldiera  to  fpare  or  ranfom  a  captive  ge- 
neral of  the  enemy,  to  pardon  the  leaders  of  robJjcrs 
or  pirates,  or  for  the  abfence  of  a  Roman  citizen  to  a 
foreign  court  without  previous  leave.  The  puniflmient 
was  aquit  lif  ignis  inlenliilio, — Another  by  the  fame.  It 
gave  the  power  to  a  man  accufcd  of  murder,  either  by 
poifon,  weapo-.js,  or  falfc  accufations,  and  the  fetting 
lire  to  buildings,  to  choofe  whether  the  jury  that  tried 
him  Ihould  give  their  verdid  clmii  or pal.un,  -viva  -vooe 
or  by  ballot.  Another  by  the  lame;  which  made  it 
aqrns  Sff  ignis  iiilerdiaio  to  fuch  as  were  guilty  of  forge- 
ry, concealing  and  altering  of  wilb,  eonuption,  falfe 
accufations,  and  the  debaling  or  counterfeiting  of  the 
public  coin.  All  fuch  as  were  accelTary  to  this  offence 
were  deemed  as  guilty  as  the  offender.— Another,  de 
ptcuiiiis  lepetutidis  ;  by  which  a  man  convifted  of  pecu- 
lation or  extortion  in  the  provinces  was  condemned  to 
fuffer  the  aqu£  iif  ignis  inhrdiaio . — Another  by  the 
fame  ;  whicb  gave  the  power  to  fuch  as  weie  fent  into 
the  pi ovmces  with  any  government,  of  retaining  their 
command  and  appoiuiment  without  a  renewal  of  it  by 
the  fenate,  as  was  before  obferved. — Another  by  the 
fame  ;  which  ordained,  that  the  lands  of  profcribed 
perfons  Ihould  be  common,  efpecially  thofe  about  Vo- 
laterias  and  Fefula  in  Etiuria,  which  Sylla  divided 
among  his  foldiers. — Another  by  C.  CorneUus  tribune 
of  the  people,  in  686.  It  ordained,  tliat  no  perfon 
fliuuld  be  exempted  from  any  law  accordin-j-  to  the  ge- 
neral cullom,  unlefs  zoo  fenators  were  prefent  in  the 
fenate  ;  and  no  perlon  thus  exempted  could  hinder 
the  bill  of  his  exemption  frojn  being  carried  to  the 
people  for  their  concurrence. — Another  by  Naffica,  in 
582,  to  make  war  againft  Perleus,  fon  of  Philip  kino- 
of  Macedonia,  if  he  did  not  give  proper  fatisfadion  10 
the  Roman  people. 

CORNELIAN.     See  Carnelian. 

CORNER,  in  a  geneial  fenf.-,  the  fame  with 
Angle. 

CORNET,  in  the  military  art  of  the  ancients,  an 
inftrument  much  in  the  nature  of  a  trumpet;  which 
when  it  only  founded,  the  enhgns  were  to  march  alone 
without  the  foldiers  ;  whereas,  when  the  trumpet  only 
founded,  the  loldiers  were  to  mOve  witliout  the  en(i.'ns. 
The  cornets  and  buccinae  founded  tlie  charge  and  le- 
treat ;  and  the  cornets  and  trumpets  founded  during 
the  courfe  of  the  battle.      See  Plate  CL. 

Cornet,  in  modern  military  a-conomy,  denotes  au 
ofhcer  in  the  cavalry  wliu  bears  tlie  enlign  or  colours 
of  a  troop. 

The  cornet  is  the  third  officer  in  the  company,  and 

commands  in  the  abfence  of  the  captain  and  lieutenant. 

3  M  i  H' 


to  poetry;  and  at  length  publilhed  feveral  dramatic 
pieces  in  5  vols  1 2mo,  fome  of  which  were  applauded 
by  the  public,  and  aded  with  fuccefs.  He  alfo  wrote, 
I.  A  tranilation  of  Ovid's  Metamorphofes,  and  of  fome 
of  Ovid's  Epiftlcs  ;  2.  Remarks  on  Vauglas  ;  3.  A 
Didionary  of  Arts,  2  vols  folio ;  and,  4.  An  uni- 
verfal,  geographical,  and  hiftorical  Didionary,  in  3  vols 
folio. 

CoRNEiLLE  (Michael),  a  ceLbrated  painter,  was 
born  at  Paris  in  the  year  1642  ;  and  was  inftruded  by 
his  father,  who  was  himfclf  a  painter  of  great  merit. 
Having  gained  a  prize  at  the  academy,  young  Corneille 
obtained  a  penfion  from  Louis  XIV.;  and  was  fent  to 
Rome,  vheve  that  prince  had  founded  a  fchool  for 
young  artills  of  genius.  Having  lludied  there  fome 
time,  he  gave  up  his  penfion,  and  applied  to  the  an- 
tique with  great  caie.  He  is  fald  to  have  equalled 
Carache  in  drawing,  but  in  colouring  he  was  deficient. 
Upon  his  return  from  Rome,  he  was  chofen  profcffor 
in  the  academy  of  Paris ;  and  was  employed  by  the 
above  prince  in  all  the  great  works  he  was  carrying  on 
at  Verfeilles  and  Tiianon,  where  are  ft  ill  to  be  feen 
fome  noble  efforts  of  his  genius. 

CORNEL  TREE,  in  botany.  See  Cornus. 
CORNELIA,  daughter  of  Scipio  Africanus,  was 
the  mother  of  Tiberius  and  Cains  Gracchus.  She  was 
courted  by  a  king,  but  fhe  preferred  being  the  wife 
of  a  Roman  citizen  to  that  of  a  monarch.  Her  vir- 
tues have  been  defervecily  commended,  as  well  as  the 
wholefome  principles  flie  inculcated  in  her  two  fons. 
When  a  Campanian  lady  made  once  a  (how  of  her 
jewels  at  Cornelia's  houfe,  and  entreated  her  to  favour 
her  with  a  light  of  her  own,  Cornelia  produced  her 
two  fons,  faying,  "  Tliefe  are  the  only  jewels  of  which 
I  can  boaft." 

Cornelia  Lex,  de  ci-uitate,  was  enafted,  in  the  year 
of  Rome  670,  by  L.  Corn.  Sylla.  It  confirmed  the 
Sulpiclan  law,  and  required  that  the  citizens  of  the 
eight  newly  eleded  tribes  fliould  be  divided  among  the 
35  ancient  tribes. — Another,  dejudijils,  in  673,  by  the 
fame.  It  ordained,  that  llie  prsetor  Ihould  always  ob- 
fcrve  the  fame  invariable  method  in  judlei?!  proceed- 
ings, and  that  the  procefs  Ihould  not  drpend  upon  his 
will. — Another,  defumptibusy  by  the  fame.  It  limited 
the  expences  which  generally  attended  funerals. — Ano- 
ther, de  /■eligione,  by  the  fame,  in  677.  It  reftored  to 
the  college  of  priefls  the  privilege  of  chooling  the 
priefls,  which  by  the  Domitian  law  had  been  lodged 
in  the  hands  of  the  people. — A  nother,  de  muiiicipiis,  by 
the  fame  ;  which  revoked  all  the  privileges  which  had 
been  fome  time  before  granted  to  the  feveral  towns 
that  had  affilted  Maiius  and  Cinna  In  the  civil  wars. — 
Another,  de  magiflralihcs,  by  the  fame  ;  which  gave 
the  power  of  btaiing  honours,  and  being  promoted  be- 
fore the  legal  age,  to  thole  who  had  followed  the  in- 
tercft  of  Sylla  ;  while   the   fons  and  partizans  of  his 


COR 


[     46 


Ccrneus    He  takes  liis  title  from  his  enfign,   wliich  is  fquare  5 

'I         and  is  fuppofcd  to  be  called  by  that  name  from  cornus 

■^     '  becaufe   placed  on  the  wings,   which  form  a  kind  of 

'  points  or  horns  of  the  army. —  Others  derive  the  name 

from  coromi ;   alleging,  that  it  was  the  ancient  ctitlom 

for  thefe  officers  to  wear  coronets  or  garlands  on  their 

heads. 

CORNEUS,  the  name  by  which  Llnnseus  calls  a 
kind  of  tin-ore,  found  in  black  columns,  with  irregular 
fides,  ind  terminating  in  prifms. 

CORNICHE,  Cornish,  or  Cornice,  in  architec- 
ture, the  xippermoft  member  of  the  entablature  of  a 
column,  as  that  which  crowns  the  order.  See  Archi- 
tecture, Chap.  I.  and  the  Plates. 

CoRNicHK,  is  alfo  ulcd,  in  general,  for  all  little 
projeftures  in  mafoniy  or  joinery,  even  where  there 
are  no  columns,  as  the  corniche  of  a  chimney,  beau- 
fet,  &c. 

Cork icHF- Ring,  a  piece  of  ordnance,  is  that  next 
from  the  muzzle-rinfr,  bacicward. 

CORNICULARIUS,  in  antiquity,  an  officer  in 
the  Roman  army,  whofe  bnfinefs  was  to  aid  and  affill 
the  military  tribune  in  quality  of  a  lieutenant. 

The  cornkularii  went  the  rounds  in  lieu  of  the  tri- 
bune, vifited  the  watch,  and  were  nearly  what  the  aids 
major  are  in  the  French  army. 

The  denomination  ccrniciitirlits  was  ^ven  them  from 
a  little  horn,  called  cornicitliim,  which  they  ufed  in 
giving  orders  to  the  foldiers  :  though  Salmafius  de- 
rives it  from  coniiculum,  the  creft  of  an  head-piece ;  it 
being  an  obfervation  of  Pliny,  fhat  they  wore  iron  or 
brafs  horns  on  their  helmets  ;  and  that  thefe  were 
called  corninila. 

In  the  Nclit'in  Imperii  we  find  a  kind  of  fecretary  or 
regi'.lcr  of  the  fame  name.  His  bullnefs  was  to  attend 
the  judge,  and  enter  down  his  fentences  and  deciiions. 
The  critics  derive  the  word,  in  this  fenfe,  from  ccr- 
nkuluni,  a  little  horn  to  put  ink  in. 

CORNICULUM  (anc.  geog.),  a  town  of  the  Sa- 
bines,  to  the  call  of  Cruftumerium,  towards  the  Anio. 
It  was  burnt  down  by  Tarquin  ;  but  reftored  again, 
after  the  ytpulfion  of  the  kings,  pHorus).  Now  in 
ruins,  called  /'/  Alonie  Gennaro,  (Holflenius). 

CORNISH  diamond,  a  name  given  by  many  peo- 
ple to  the  cryftals  found  in  digging  the  mines  of  tin  in 
Cornwall.     See  Cornwal,  p.  462.  col,  2. 

CORNIX,  in  ornitholog)-,  the  trivial  name  of  a 
fpecies  of  CoRvus. 

CORNU.     See  Hork. 

CoRNv  Ammonis,  in  natural  hiflory,  foffile  fhells, 
called  3\.{o  ferpetit-Jltnes ,  ox  fnake-Jlones. 

They  are  found  of  all  fizes,  from  the  breadth  of  a 
fixpence,  to  more  than  two  feet  in  diameter  ;  fome 
of  thrm  rounded,  others  greatly  comprefled,  and 
lodged  in  different  ftrata  of  itones  and  clays;  fome  a- 
galn  are  fmooth,  and  others  lidged  in  different  man- 
ners, their  ftria;  and  ridges  being  either  ftraight,  irre- 
gularly crooked,  or  undulated.     See  SNAKt-Stone. 

CoRNV  Cervi.     See  Hartshorn. 

CORNUCOPIA,  among  the  ancient  poets,  a  horn 
out  of  which  proceeded  plenty  of  all  things;  by  a  par- 
ticular privilege  which  Jupiter  granted  his  nuife,  fup- 
pofed  to  be  the  goat  Amalthta.  The  fable  is  thus 
interpreted  :  That  in  Lybi  ^  there  is  a  little  territory 
ihaped  not  unlike  a  buUuck's  horn,  exceediag  fertile, 


o     ]  COR 

given  by  king  Ammon  to  h's  daughter  Amalthea, 
whom  the  poets  feign  to  have  been  Jupiter's  ndife. 

In  architecluie  and  fcu!pture,  the  cornucopia,  or 
horn  of  plenty,  is  reprefented  under  the  figure  of  a 
large  horn,  out  of  which  ilTue  fruits,  flowers,  &c.  On 
medals,  F.  Joubert  obferves,  the  cornucopia  is  given 
to  all  deities. 

CORNUCOPIjE,  in  botany:  A  genus  of  the  dl- 
gynia  order,  belonging  to  jhe  triandria  clafs  of  plants; 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  4th  or- 
der, Gramiiui.  The  involucrum  Is  monophyllous,  fun- 
ncl-lhaped,  crenated,  and  multiflorous ;  the  calyx  bi- 
valved;  corolla  one  valvcd. 

CORNUS,  Cornel-tree,  Cornelian  cherry, 
or  L)og-wood:  A  genus  of  the  monogynia  order, 
belonging  to  the  tetrandria  clafs  of  plants ;  and  in 
the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  47th  order, 
Ste/Litd;.  The  involucrum  is  moil  frequently  tetra- 
phyllous  ;  the  petals  above  the  receptacle  of  the  fruit 
four  ;  the  truit  itftlf  a  bilocular  kernel. 

Specie's.  Of  this  genus  there  are  five  fpecies ;  the 
molt  remarkable  are  the  following.  1 .  The  mas,  or 
cornelian  cherry-tree,  hath  an  upright  iree-tlem,  riling 
20  feet  high,  branching,  and  forming  a  large  head, 
garniflied  with  oblong  leaves,  and  fmall  umbels  of 
ye'Jjwifli-green  flowers  at  the  fides  and  ends  of  the 
branches,  appearing  early  in  the  fpring,  and  fucceed- 
ed  by  fmall,  red,  cherry-like,  eatable,  acid,  fruit,. 
2.  The  fanguinea,  bloody-twig,  or  common  dog- 
wood :  hath  an  upright  tiee-ftem,  branching  lo  or  12 
feet  high,  having  blood-red  (hoots,  garniflied  with  ob- 
long pointed  nervous  leaves  two  inches  long  ;  and  all 
the  branches  terminated  by  umbellate  white  flowers 
fucceeded  by  black  berries:  of  this  there  is  a  kind  with 
variegated  leaves.  3.  The  fiorida,  or  Virginian  dog- 
wood, hath  a  tree-ftem  branching  12  or  15  feet  higli, 
and  fine  red  ihoots  garnifhed  with  large  heart-ftiaped 
leaves ;  and  the  branches  terminated  by  umbellate 
white  flowers,  having  a  large  involucrum  fucceeded  by 
dark  red  berries.  Of  this  fpecies  there  are  feveral  va- 
rieties, chiefly  diftinguiflied  by  the  colour  of  their 
berries,  which  are  red,  white,  or  blue. 

Culture.  All  the  fpecies  may  be  propagated  hf 
feeds,  which  ought  to  be  fown  in  autumn,  otherwile 
they  will  lie  a  year  in  the  ground.  When  the  plants 
come  up,  they  fliould  be  duly  watered  in  dry  weather, 
and  kept  clean  from  weeds.  The  •  following  autumn 
they  may  be  tranfplanted  into  the  nurfery;  and  having 
remained  there  two  or  three  years,  they  may  then  be 
removed  to  the  places  where  they  are  to  remain.  They 
may  alfo  be  propagated  by  fuckers,  of  which  they 
produce  great  plenty,  or  by  laying  down  the  young 
branches. 

CORNUTIA,  in  botany:  A  genus  of  the  angiofper- 
mia  order,  belonging  to  the  didynamia  clafs  of  plants  ;, 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  40th  or- 
der, Perjonata.  The  calyx  is  quinquedentated;  the 
ftamina  larger  than  the  corolla  ;  the  ftyle  very  long  ; 
the  berry  monofpermous.  There  Is  bat  one  fpecies, 
■y/'a.  the  pyramidata,  with  a  blue  pyramidal  llower, 
and  hoary  leaves.  It  grows  plentifully  in  feveral  of 
the  Iflands  of  the  Well  Indies,  alfo  at  Campeachy, 
and  at  La  Vera  Cruz.  It  rifes  to  the  height  of  10 
or  12  feet,  with  rude  branches,  the  leaves  being  placed 
oppofite.     The  flowers  are  produced  iu  fpikes  at  the 

end 


C<irni]c0* 

pis 

II 
Cornutia. 


COR 


[    461     ] 


COR 


end  of  the  branches,  ;ind  are  of  a  fine  blue  colour. 
They  ufually  appear  in  autumn,  and  will  fometimes 
remain  in  beauty  for  two  months  or  more.  It  is  pro- 
pji'^ated  either  by  feeds  oi  cuttings,  and  makes  a  fine 
appearance  in  ihe  (love  ;  but  is  too  tender  to  bear 
the  <>p€n  air  in  this  country. 

CORNWAL,  the  moll  wcfterly  county  of  England, 
bounded  by  the  Englilh  channel  on  the  foutli,  St 
Geor'^e's  channel  on  the  welt,  the  Briftol  channel  an 
the  north,  and  on  the  eaft  by  the  river  Tamar,  which 
fcparates  it  from  Devonlhire.  Its  name  is  fuppofed  by 
fome  to  be  compounded  of  cam,  fignifying  "  a  rock" 
in  the  Bridfh  language,  and  Gauls,  or  Il^au/es,  the 
name  the  Saxons  gave  to  the  Britons.  Others,  how- 
ever, think  it  is  derived  from  the  Latin  cornu,  or  the 
Britifa  hin,  "  a  horn;"  on  account  of  its  runnlnj;  out 
into  the  fea  fomewhat  in  the  form  of  a  horn.  Hither 
the  ancient  Britons  (as  well  as  in  Wales)  retired  on 
the  inlrufiDn  of  the  Saxons,  where  they  oppofcd  their 
further  conquefts.  In  this  part  of  the  ifland  they 
formed  a  kingdom  that  cxilled  for  many  years  after, 
under  difttrent  princes,  amongft  whom  were  Ambvo- 
Jius  Atirelius,  and  the  juftly  celebrated  Arthur;  nor 
were  they  fubdued  till  the  middle  of  the  7th  century, 
from  which  time  Cornvv-al  was  confidered  as  fubjecl 
to  the  Weft  Saxon  kings,  who  begun  their  foverelgn- 
ty  in  519,  and  continued  it  till  828,  under  18  fove- 
reigns,  the  laft  of  whom  was  the  great  Egbert,  who 
fubdued  all  the  others  ;  and  by  uniting  them,  formed 
the  kine;dom  of  England,  when  this  county  was  in- 
cluded in  the  county  of  Devon,  then  the  glh  dlviiion  ; 
and  that  accounts  for  Alfred's  not  mentioning  Corn- 
wal,  which  on  forming  the  circuits  after  the  Norman 
conqueil,  is  included  in  the  weftevn  circuit.  In  1337, 
Edward  III.  erefted  it  into  a  dukedom,  and  invefted 
with  it  Eilward  the  Black  Prince.  But  this,  according 
to  the  exprefs  words  of  the  grant,  is  limited  to  the 
firft-born  fon  and  heir,  on  which  account  Richard  II. 
was  created  duke  of  Cornwal  by  charter.  So  was 
Henry  V.  by  his  f:ither_ Henry  IV.  Henry  VI.  de- 
livered the  duchy  to  his  fon  prince  Edward,  and  Ed- 
ward IV.  created  his  fon  Edward  V.  duke  of  Cornwal, 
as  did  Henry  VII.  his  fon,  afterwards  Henry  VIII. 
upon  the  deathof  his  elder  brother  Artlmr.  James  I. 
created  his  fon  Henry  duke  of-  Cornwal,  which  title 
on  his  deceafe  came  to  his  brother  Charles.  The  el- 
deft  fons  of  fuccecding  kings  have  enjoyed  this  title  by 
inheritance.  Thefe  not  only  appoint  the  flieriff,  but  all 
writs,  deeds,  &c.  are  in  their  name,  and  not  in  the 
king's  ;  and  they  have  alfo  peculiar  royalties  and  pre- 
rogative dlftindt  from  the  crown,  for  which  they  ap- 
point the  officers.  This  county  is  80  miles  long,  40 
broad,  and  250  in  circumference;  containing  960,000 
acres,  and  126,000  inhabitants.  It  is  divided  into 
9  hundreds  ;  has  27  market  towns,  w'z.  Launcefton, 
Truro,  Falmouth,  Helfton,  Saltafli,  Bodmyn,  St  Ives, 
Tregony,  Camelford,  Fowey,  St  Germains,  Penryn, 
Callington,  St  Auftle,  Eaft  Looe,  Padftow,  St  Co- 
lomb,  Penfance,  Grampond,  Leikard,  Leftwithlel,  St 
Mawes,  St  Michael,  Newport,  Market  Jew,  Stratton, 
and  Redruth;  1230  villages,  161  pariflies,  89  vica- 
rages, provides  640  men  to  the  militia,  and  pays  8  parts 
of  the  land-tax.  Its  chief  rivers  are  the  Tamer,  Fale, 
Gober,  Looe,  Camel,  Fowe,  Haile,  Lemara,  Kenfe, 

5. 


and  Aire.  Its  principal  capes  or  head-lands  are  the  C>-rnwU- 
Land's-end,  the  Eizard,  Cape  Cornwal,  Dcadman's-  — — v— ' 
head,  Rame-head,  &c.  and  a  chifter  of  illanui,  145  in 
nuniljfT,  called  the  Sciliy  IJlcs,  fuppofed  formerly  to 
have  been  joined  to  the  main  laud,  tliough  now  30 
miles  diftant ;  abounding  with  antiquities,  particulaily 
druidicd. 

As  Cornwal  is  furrounded  by  the  fea  on  all  fides 
except  the  eaft,  its  climate  is  foiUL-what  different  from 
thst  of  the  other  parts  of  Britjin.  The  reafons  of 
this  difference  will  be  eafily  underllood  from  what  is 
obfervcd  concerning  the  cliniate  of  America.  The 
fummers  in  Cornwal  art  lefs  hot,  and  the  winters  lefs 
cold,  than  in  other  parts  of  England,  and  the  fpring 
and  harveft  are  obfervcd  to  be  more  backward.  High 
and  UidJen  winds  are  alfo  more  common  In  this  than 
in  oth.;r  counties  of  England.  The  county  is  rocky 
and  mountainous ;  but  the  mountains  are  rich  in  me- 
tals, efpeclally  tin  and  copper.  The  valleys  are  very 
pleafa'nt  and  fertile,  yielding  great  plenty  both  of  corn 
and  pafture.  The  lands  near  the  fea-coall  are  ma- 
nured and  fertilized  with  fea-weed,  and  a  kind  of  fand 
formed  by  the  particles  of  broken  iliells  as  they  are 
daflied  againft  each  other  by  the  fea.  Cattle  of  all 
forts  are  fmaller  here  than  in  the  other  counties  of 
England  ;  and  the  wool  of  the  fheep,  which  are  mollly 
without  horns,  is  very  fine,  and  the  flefli,  both  of  them 
and  of  the  black  cattle,  extremely  delicate.  The  coun- 
ty is  well  fupplied  with  fifli  from  tlie  fea  and  the  many 
rivers  with  winch  it  is  watered.  The  moil  noted  of 
the  fea-fifli  is  the  pilchard;  of  which  prodigious  quan- 
tities are  caught  from  July  to  November,  and  export- 
ed to  dliferent  parts,  efpeclally  to  Spain.  It  is  faid  that 
a  million  have  been  fometimes  taken  at  a  fingle  draught. 
The  natives  are  remarkable  for  their  ftrength  and  ac- 
tivity, as  well  as  their  dexterity  in  wreftling,  in  which 
exercife  the  Cornifh  hug  is  highly  extolled. 

This  county  abounds  in  mines  of  difieient  metals 
and  femimetals  ;  but  the  principal  produce  is  tin. 
The  Phenicians  early  vifited  thefe  coafts  for  this  ar- 
ticle, fome  think  400  or  450  years  before  Chrifl ;  and 
the  miines  continued  to  be  wrought  with  various  fuc- 
cefs  at  different  periods.  In  the  time  of  king  John 
they  appear  to  have  yielded  no  great  emolument  ;  the 
right  of  working  them  being  wholly  in  the  king  Rs  ■ 
earl  of  Cornwal,  and  the  mines  farmed  by  t!ie  Jews 
for  100  marks;  and  according  to  this  propc.tlon  the 
loth  of  it,  L.6.  13s.  4d.  is  at  this  day  paid  by  the 
crown  to  the  biftiop  of  Exeter.  In  the  time  of  Rich- 
ard king  of  the  Romans  and  earl  of  Cornwal,  the  tin- 
mines  were  immenfcly  rich,  the  Jews  being  farmed  out 
to  him  by.  his  brother  Henr^-  III.  what  interell  they 
had  was  at  his  difpofal.  The  Spanifti  tin-mines  being 
flopped  by  the  Moois,  and  none  difcovercd  in  Ger- 
many, the  Malabar  coaft,  or  the  Spanilh  Weft  Indies, 
Cornwal  and  its  earls  had  all  the  trade  of  Europe  for 
it.  The  Jews  being  banilhed  the  kingdom,  18  Edw.  I. 
they  were  again  neglected  till  the  gentlemen  of  Black- 
more,  lords  of  fcven  tithings  beft  ftored  at  that'  time 
v/ith  tin,  obtained  of  Edmund  earl  of  Cornwal,  fon  of 
Richard  king  of  the  Romans,  a  charter  under  his  own  - 
feal,  with  more  explicit  grants  of  privileges,  courts, 
pleas,  parliaments,  and  the  toll-tin  or  t'-j '''  ''^  ^  '''^ 
tin  raifcd.     At  this  time  too  the  right  of  bounding  or 

dividing 


COR 


[   462    3 


COR 


•Cornw«l.   dividing  tin-grounds  into  feparate   partitions  for  the 
^~-V— "  encouragement  of  fearching  for  it  feems  to  have  been 
firft  appointed,  or  at  Icail  adjuftod.     This  charter  was 
confirmed   33  Edward  I.   and  the  Cornifh   feparated 
from  the  Devotifiiire  tinners.      Their  laws,  particular- 
ly recited  in  Plowden's  Commentaries,  p.  237,  were 
furihcr  explained    50   Edw.  III.   confirmed  and  en- 
larged by  parliament,  S  Rich.  IL  3  Ed.  IV.   I  Ed.  VI. 
I  and  2  P.   and   M.   and  2  Eliz.   and    the   whole  fo- 
ciety  divided  into  four  parts  under  one  general  warden, 
to  do  juftice  in  law  and  equity,  from  whofe  fentence 
lies  an  appeal  to  the  duke  of  Cornwal  in  council,  or 
for  want  of  a  duke  of  Cornwal  to  the  crown.     The 
lord-warden   appoints  a   vice-warden   to  determine  all 
flannary  difputes  every  month  :  he  alfo  conftitutes  four 
■ftewards,   one  for  each  of  the  precinfts  before  men- 
tioned,  who  hold  their  courts  every  three  weeks,  and 
-  -decide  by  juries  of  fix  perfons,  with  an  appeal  relerved 
to  the  vice-warden,  lord-warden,  and  lord  of  the  priuce's 
<:ouncil.     In  diiUcult  cafes  the  lord-warden,  by  com- 
miffion,  iffues  his  precept  to  the  four  principal  towns 
of  the  ftannary  diftrids,  who  each  choofe  fix  members, 
and  thefe  twenty-four  ftannators  conilitute  the  parlia- 
ment of  tinners.      Each  ftannator  choofes  an  aififtant, 
making  a  kind   of  {landing   council  in  a  different  a- 
partment  to   give  information  to  the  prince.      What- 
.ever  is  enafted  by  the  body  of  tinners  muft  be  figned 
■by  the  ilannators,  the  lord-warden,  or  his  deputy,  and 
bv  the  duke  or  the  king,  and  thenceforward  has  with 
regard  to  tin  affairs  all  the  authority  of  an  aft  of  the 
whole  legiflature.      Five  towns  are  appointed  in  the 
moft  convenient  parts  of  the  county  for  the  tinners  to 
bring  their  tin  to  every  quarter  of  a  year.     Thefe  are 
Leflvard,  Leftwithiel,  Truro,  Helfton,  and  Penfance, 
•the  laft  added  by  Charles  II.  for  the  conveniency  of 
•the   weftern   tinners.      In  the  time   of  Heniy  VTII. 
there  were  but  two  coinages,  at  Midfummcr  and  Mi- 
chaelmas :  two  more  at  Chrillmas  and  Lady-day  were 
^dded,  for  which  the  tinners  pay  an   acknowledgment 
-called  Pojl  gruals,  or  4  J.  for  every  hundred  of  white 
tin  then  coined.     The  officers  appointed  by  the  duke 
affay  it ;  and  if  well  purified  ilamp  it  by  a  hammer 
with  the  duchy  feal,  the  arms  of  Richard  earl  of  Corn- 
-wal,  a  lion   rampant  G.   crowned  O.  within  a  bordure 
of  bezants  S  ;  and  this  is  a  pcrmiflion  to  the  coiner  to 
fell,   and  is   called  cohmg  the  ik.     Every  hundred  of 
white  tin  fo  coined  pays  to  the  duke  4s.     The  tin  of 
the  whole  county,  whicli,  in  Carew's  time,  in  the  laft 
-century,  amounted  to  30  or  40,000  1.  yearly,  has  for 
24  years  laft  paft  amounted  one  year  with  another  to 
L.  iSo.oco  or  190,000  fterling.     Of  this  the  duke  of 
■Cornwal  receives  for  his  4s.  duty  on  every  hundred  of 
white  tin  above  L.  10,000  yearly :  the  bounders  or  pro- 
prietors of  the  foil  about  -g-th  at  a  medium  clear,  or 
about   L.  30,000  yearly;  the  remainder  goes  to  the 
adventurers  in  the  mine,  who  are  at  aO  the  charge  of 
.working.     Tin   is  found   colle&ed  and  fixed  in  lodes 
and  floors,  or   in   grains   and   bunches  in  the  natural 
rock,   or  loofe   and   detached  in  fingle  feparate  ftones 
jCalled  jljcdes  or  Jireams,  or  in  a  continued  courfe  of  fuch 
ftones  called  the  baiheyl  or  li-ving  ftrearr.,  or  in  an  are- 
naceous pulverized  ftate.     It  is  moft  cafily  difcovered 
by-  tracing  the  Ldes  by  '.he  fcattered  fragiaents  of  them 
called  /].udes,  by  leave   of  the  lord  of  the   foil  or  the 
pounda".     The  tin  being  divided  among  the  lords  and 


adventurers,  is  ftamped  and  worked  at  the  mill  ;  and  CornwiU 
being  thus  dreifed  is  carried  under  the  name  of  hlnek  '1  "* 
tin  to  the  melting-houfe,  where  it  is  melted  by  Wcllh 
pit-coal,  and  poured  into  blocks  of  3201b.  weight,  and 
carried  to  the  coinage  town.  Mundic,  a  fcarce  metal 
or  mineral  ore,  of  a  white,  braffy,  or  brown  colour,  is 
found  in  large  quantities,  intermixed  with  tin,  copper, 
and  lead,  and  fometimes  by  itfelf.  Iron  ore  is  found 
in  Cornwal,  but  the  working  it  does  not  anfwer. 
There  is  no  richer  copper,  nor  a  greater  variety  any 
where  than  in  this  county.  Silver,  if  really  found 
here  in  the  reigns  of  Edward  I.  and  II.  has  been  rare- 
ly found  fince,  nor  do  the  lead-mines  anf«-er.  Very 
late  difcoveries  have  proved  that  Cornwal  has  mors 
gold  than  was  formerly  imagined.  \Vhat  is  called  the 
Corni/h  diamond  is  a  figured  cryftal  generally  hexagonal 
and  pyramidical,  or  columnar,  or  both,  of  a  fine  clear 
water,  and  of  all  our  baftard  diamonds  in  this  nation 
efteemed  the  beft,  and  fome  of  different  colours,  black, 
yellow,  &c.  The  clearer  thefe  are,  the  better  they  will 
bear  engraving  for  feals. 

In  privileges  and  language  Cornwal  feems  to  be 
another  kingdom.  By  21  Elizabeth  it  was  ordered 
that  all  duty  on  Cornilh  cloth  exported  fhould  be  re- 
mitted to  every  Englilhman  within  the  duchy  of  Corn- 
wal. This  was  firft  granted  by  the  black  prince, 
in  confideration  of  their  paying  4s.  for  the  coinage  of 
eveiy  hundred  of  tin  ;  whereas  Devonfhire  pays  no 
more  than  8d.  They  have  alfo  by  grant  from  Richard 
earl  of  Cornwal,  confirmed  45  Henry  III.  freedom  to 
take  fand  out  of  the  fea  and  carry  it  through  the 
country  for  manure ;  whereupon  in  the  following 
reign,  on  an  inquifition  made,  we  find  a  complaint 
that  Saltafli  had  lately  taken  1 2  s.  yearly  for  each 
barge  tiiat  carried  fand  up  the  Tamar ;  whereas 
nothing  ought  to  be  demanded.  They  ftill  continue 
this  ancient  method  of  improving  their  land,  carrying 
it  ten  miles  up  into  the  country,  and  great  part  of 
the  way  on  hories  backs.  Mr  Ray  fuppofes  the  vir- 
tue of  this  fand  depends  chiefly  on  the  fait  mixed 
with  it,  which  is  fo  copious  that  in  many  places  fait 
is  boiled  up  out  of  a  lixivium  made  of  the  fea  fand  ; 
and  the  reafon  why  fand  when  it  has  lain  long  in  tlie 
fun  and  wind  proves  lefs  enriching  and  uleful  is,  that 
the  dews  and  rain  evaporate  great  part  of  its  fait. 
They  had  likewlfe  a  privilege  of  trading  to  all  parts 
of  the  world,  granted  them  by  Charles  I.  in  recom- 
pence  of  their  loyalty. 

The  number  of  b troughs  In  this  fmall  county  was 
furprifingly  increafed  by  Edward  VI.  who  added  feven 
to  the  original  fix,  Mary  two,  Elizabeth  fix,  making 
in  all  21,  fending  40  menrbers  befides  the  county  two. 
Ei^ht  of  thefe  boroughs  had  an  immediate  or  re- 
mote connection  with  the  demefne  lands  of  the  duchy; 
the  reft  belonged  to  religious  houfes,  or  powerful  fa- 
milies, or  were  old  boroughs,  which  had  legal  immu- 
nliles  granted  to  them  by  their  princes  or  lords. 

The  Cornifli  language  is  a  dialect  of  that  whicli 
till  the  Saxons  came  In  was  common  to  all  Britain, 
and  more  anciently  to  Ireland  arid  Gaul ;  but  the  in- 
habitants of  this  ifland  being  difperfed  before  thofe 
conquefts,  and  driven  Into  Wales  and  Corneal,  and 
thence  Into  Bretagne,  the  fame  language,  for  want  of 
frequent  Intercourfe,  became  differently  pronounced 
and  written,  and  in  different  degrees  mixed  witli  dif- 
ferent 


COR 


ferent  languages.  Hence  came  the  Welfh,  the  Cor- 
niih,  auJ  the  Annoric  didlcilts,  wlioft;  radicals  are  fo 
much  ahke  that  they  are  known  and  admitted  by  the 
,  inhabitants  of  either  country  ;  but  the  grammar  fo 
varied  tliat  they  cannot  converfe.  The  Corni(h  is 
reckoned  the  moll  pleafmg  of  the  three.  It  was  fpo- 
ken  fo  generally  here  dpwn  to  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
that  Dr  John  Moreman,  vicar  of  Mynhinet,  is  faid  to 
have  been  the  firft  who  taught  his  parifliioners  the 
Lord's  prayer,  the  creed,  and  ten  commandments  in 
Englifli,  and  at  the  Reformation  the  natives  defired 
the  fervice  in  Englifli.  The  older  people  in  fome  pa- 
vilhes  retained  their  original  language  to  the  middle  of 
the  laft  century  :  and  the  lad  fcimon  was  preached  in 
it  in  1678.  When  Mr  Ray  was  here,  1662,  he  could 
find  but  one  perfon  who  could  write  this  language; 
and  It  is  now  fo  nearly  extintt,  that  Mr  Barrington,  in 
1768,  could  only  find  one  old  woman  who  could  Icold 
in  it,  and  ihe  is  fince  dead. 

CORODY.     See  Revenue. 

COROLLA,  among  botanifts,  the  mod  confpicuous. 
part  of  a  flower,  furrounding  the  nrgans  of  generation, 
and  compofcd  of  one  or  more  flower-leaves,  moil  com- 
monly called  ^f/aZf,  to  diftinguilh  them  from  the  leaves 
of  the  plant ;  according  as  there  is  one,  two,  or  three 
of  thefe  petals,  the  corolla  is  faid  to  be  monopetalous, 
dipetalous,  tripetalous,  &c. 

COROLLARY  is  a  confequence  drawn  from  fome- 
thing  already  advanced  or  demoiiftrated :  thus,  it 
being  demonllrated  that  a  tri.mgle  which  has  two 
equal  fides,  has  alfo  two  angles  equal ;   this  corollaiy 


[       46.1        ] 


COR 


ans  for  piany  reafong.  It  was  feparated  by  I'naccef-  Coroman- 
fible  mountains  from  Malabar,  where  tlicfe  bold  ad-  ^'j 
venturers  endeavoured  to  fettle  thcmfelves  Spices  ' 
and  aromatics,  which  were  the  principal  objerfs  of 
their  attention,  were  not  to  be  found  there.  In  Ihort, 
civil  diffentions  had  banhhed  from  it  tranquillity,  fecu- 
rity,  and  induftry.  At  that  period  the  em])trc  of 
Lilnagar,  to  which  this  vail  country  was  fubjeft,  was 
falling  to  ruin.  The  governments  of  Vifapour,  the 
Carnaiic,  Gokonda,  and  Oii.\a,  threw  off  their  depen- 
dence, and  alTumed  the  title  of  kings.  Thufe  of 
Madura,  Tanjore,  Myfore,  Gingi,  and  fome  others,, 
likewiic  ufurped  the  fovcreign  authority,  thoui^h  they 
retained  their  ancient  title  of  Maick.  This  revolution 
had  jull  happened  when  the  Europeans  appeared  on 
the  coaft  ot  Coromandel.  Tlie  foreign  trade  was  at 
that  time  inconfiderable;  it  confiftcd  only  of  diamonds 
from  Golconda,  which  were  carried  to  Calicut  and 
Surat,  and  from  thence  to  Orrnus  or  Suez,  whence 
they  were  circulated  through  all  Europe  and  Afia. 
Maifulipatan,  the  richcfl  and  moll  populous  city  of 
thefe  countries,  wns  the  only  market  that  was  known 
for  linens  ;  they  were  purchafed  at  a  great  fair  an- 
nually holden  ihere  by  the  Arabian  and  Malayan  vef- 
fels  that  frequented  that  bay,  and  by  caravans  amved 
from  dillant  parts.  The  linens  were  exported  to  the 
fame  places  with  the  diamonds.  The  fondnefs  for  the 
manufaftures  of  Coromandel  which  began  to  prevail 
here,  infpired  all  the  European  nations  trading  to  the 
Indian  feas  with  the  refolntion  of  forming  fetllements 
there.     They  were  not  difcouraged  either  by  the  dif- 


will  follow,  that  a  triangle  which  has  three  fides  equal,      ficulty  of  conveying  goods  from  tlie  inland  parts  of  the 


has  alfo  its  three  angles  equal. 

COROLLISTyE,  a  name  by  which  Linnaeus  di- 
ftinguilhes  thofe  fyftematic  botanifts  who  have  ar- 
ranged vegetables  from  the  regularity,  figure,  number, 
and  other  circumftanccs,  of  the  petals,  or  beautiful  co- 
loured leaves  of  the  flower.  The  bell  fyftems  of  this 
kind  are  thofe  of  Rivinus  and  Tournefort.  The  for- 
mer proceeds  upon  the  regularity  and  number  of  the 
petals ;  the  latter,  with  touch  more  certainty,  on  their 
regularity  and  figure. 

COROLLULA,  a  term  ufed  by  botanifts  to  ex- 
prefs  the  little  partial  flowers  which  make  up  the  com- 
pound ones. 

COROMANDEL,  the  eaftern  coaft  of  the  penin- 
fula  on  this  fide  the  Ganges  in  Afia.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Golconda,  on  the  call  by  the  bay  of  Ben- 
gal, on  the  fouth  by  Madura,  and  on  the  weft  by  Bif- 
nagar.  This  coalt  fo  much  refembles  that  of  Orixa, 
that  the  Abbe  Raynal  clroofes  to  confider  them  as  one, 
and  gives  to  both   tlie  general   name   of  Coromandel. 


country,  where  there  was  no  navigable  river  ;  by 
the  total  want  of  harbours,  where  the  fea  at  one  fea- 
fon  of  the  year  is  not  navigable  ;  by  the  barrennefs  of 
the  coafts,  for  the  moft  part  uncultivated  and  uninha- 
bited ;  nor  by  the  tyranny  and  fluftuating  llate  of  the. 
government.  They  thought  that  filver  would  be  in- 
dullrioully  fought  after;  that  Pegu  would  furnllh  tim- 
ber for  building,  and  Bengal  corn  for  fubfiftcnce  ; 
that  a  profperous  voyage  of  nine  months  would  be 
more  than  iufficient  to  complete  their  ladings ;  and 
that  by  fortifying  themfclves  they  fiiould  be  fecure 
againft  the  attacks  of  the  weak  tyrants  that  opprelTcd 
thefe  countries. 

The  firft  European  colonics  were  eftabllflied  near 
the  fliore.  Some  of  them  obtained  a  feltlement  by 
force  ;  moft  of  them  were  formed  with  the  confent 
of  the  fovereigns  ;  and  all  were  confined  to  a  very 
narrow  trait  of  land.  The  boundaries  of  each  were 
marked  out  by  a  hedge  of  thorny  plants,  which  wa* 
their  only  defence.      In  procefs  of  time   fortifications 


Here  an  exceflive  heat  reigns  from  the  beginning  of  were  raifed  ;    and    the    iecurity    derived    from    them» 

May  to  the  end  of  OAober.      It  begins  at  nine  in  the  added  to  the  lenity  of  the  government,  foon  increafed 

morning,  and  continues  till  nine  in  the  evening.     Du-  the  number  of  colonlfts.     The  fplendor  and  indepcn- 

ring  the  night  it  is  allayed  by  a  fca-breeze  from  the  deuce  of  thefe  fettlements  feveral  times  raifed  the  jea- 

fouth-eaft  ;  and  moft  commonly  this  refrefliing   gale  loufy   of  the  princes  in  whofe  dominions   thev  were 

begins  at  three  In  the  afternoon.     The  air  is  lefs   in-  f(>rmed  ;.  but   their  attempts  to  demoliih  them  proved 

flamed  during  the  reft  of  the  year,  though   in  all  fea-  abortive.      Each  colony  increafed  in  profperity  in  pro- 

fons  it  is  very  hot.     It  rains  alnioft  continually  dmlng  portion   to  the   riclies  and   the  wii'dom  of  tlie  nation 

the  months  of  November  and  December.   This  Immenfe  that  founded  it.      None  of  the  companies   that  exer- 

tradt  Is  covered  with  a  parched  fand  for  the  extent  of  cifed  an  exclifive  privilege  beyond  the  Cape  of  Good 

two  miles,  and  fometimes  only   one  mile   along   the  Hope  had  any  concern  In  the  trade  of  dian.ionds.  This 

coaft.  was   always  left  to  private  merchants,  and  by  degrees 

TJiis  country  was  at  firft  negleded  by  the  Europe-  fell  entirely  into  the  hands  of  the  Englilb;  or  the  Jews 

audi 


(Goroman- 
.del. 


COR  [ 

and  Aitnenians  that  lived  under  their  protcftioii. 
prefcnt  this  grand  objcCl  of  hixury  and  indullry  is  mvich 
reduced.  The  revolutions  that  have  happened  in  In- 
doltan  have  prevented  people  from  reforting  to  tliefe 
rich  mines  ;  and  the  anarchy  in  which  this  unhappy 
country  is  plunged,  leaves'no  room  to  hope  that  they 
will  be  again  attended  to.  The  whole  of  the  com- 
mercial operations  on  the  coafl  of  Coromandel  is  con- 
fined to  the  purchafe  of  cottons.  Tiie  manufadui'iiig 
of  the  white  cottons  bought  there,  dilFers  fohttle  from 
that  it  would  be  neither  intcreiling  npr  inllruc- 


ours,  .     .     -        . 

live  to  enter  into  a  minute  defcription  of  it.  The 
procefs  ufed  in  making  tiieir  printed  cottons,  wliieh 
•was  at  firll  fcrvilely  followed  in  Europe,  has  (ince 
be«n  rendered  more  fmiple,  and  brought  to  greater 
perfection  by  our  manufaftuiers.  The  painted  cot- 
tons which  are  bought  there,  we  have  not  yet  attempt- 
ed to  imitate.  Tliofe  who  imagine  we  have  been 
prevented  from  undertaking  this  branch  merely  by 
the  high  price  of  labour  among  us,  are  miftaken.  Na- 
ture has  not  given  us  the  wild  fruits  and  drugs  nccef- 
fary  for  the  compofition  of  thofe  bright  and  indelible 
colours  which  conftitute  the  principal  merit  of  the  In- 
dian manufaftures  ;  nor  has  (he  furnidicd  us  with  the 
waters  that  ferve  to  fix  them.  The  Indians  do  not 
imiverfally  obferve  the  fame  method  in  painting  their 
cottons  ;  either  becaufe  there  are  fome  niceties  pecu- 
liar to  certain  provinces,  or  becaufe  different  foils  pro- 
duce different  drugs  for  the  fame  ufes.  We  Ihould 
tire  the  patience  of  our  readers  were  we  to  trace  the 
flow  and  painful  progrefs  of  the  Indians  in,  the  art  of 
painting  their  cottons.  It  is  natural  to  believe  that  they 
owe  it  to  length  of  time,  rather  than  to  the  fertility 
of  their  genius.  What  feems  to  authorife  this  conjec- 
ture is,  that  they  have  flopped  in  their  improvements, 
and  have  not  advanced  a  fingle  ftep  in  the  arts  for 
many  ages ;  whereas  we  have  proceeded  with  ama- 
zing rapidity.  Indeed,  were  we  to  confider  only  the 
want  of  invention  in  the  Indians,  we  Ihould  be  tempt- 
ed to  believe,  that,  from  time  immemorial,  they  have 
received  the  arts  they  cultivate  from  fome  more  in- 
duilrious  nation  ;  but  when  it  is  remembered  that 
thefe  arts  have  a  peculiar  dependence  on  the  mate- 
rials, gums,  colours,  and  produftions  of  India,  we 
cannot  but  be  convinced  that  they  are  natives  of  that 
country.  It  may  appear  fomewhat  furprifing  that 
cottons  painted  with  all  forts  of  colours  ihould  be  fold 
at  fo  moderate  a  price,  that  they  are  almoft  as  cheap 
as  thofe  that  have  only  two  or  three.  But  it  muft  be 
obferved,  that  the  merchants  of  the  country  fell  to  all 
the  companies  a  large  quantity  of  cottons  at  a  time  ; 
and  that  the  demand  for  cottons  painted  with  various 
colours  makes  but  a  fmall  article  in  their  affortments, 
as  they  are  not  much  elleemed  in  Europe. 

Though  cottons  of  all  forts  are  in  fome  degree  ma- 
nufaftured  through  the  whole  countiy  of  Indollan, 
which  extends  from  Cape  Comorin  to  the  banks  of  the 
Ganc;es  ;  it  is  obfervable,  that  the  fine  forts  are  made 
in  the  eaftern  part,  the  common  ones  in  the  centre, 
and  the  coarfe  ones  in  the  mod  weftern  parts.  Ma- 
nufaftures  are  eflablifhed  in  the  European  colonic-^, 
Slid  upon  the  coaft  :  they  are  more  frequent  at  the 
.diftance  of  five  or  fix  leagues  from  the  fea,  where  cot- 
ton is  more  cultivated,  and  provifions  are  cheaper. 
The  puichafLS  made  there  are  carried  30  or  40  leagues 


464    ]  COR 

At     farther  into  the  country.     The  Indian  merchants  fet-  Coroman. 
tied   in   the   European  faflories  have   always  the  ma-       _' 
uagemcnt  of  this  bufincfs.     The  quantity  and  quality  ' 

of  the  goods  wanted  are  fettled  with  thefe  people  : 
the  price  is  fixed  according  to  the  patterns  :  and  at 
the  time  a  contraft  is  made,  a  third  or  a  fourth  part 
of  the  money  agreed  on  is  advanced.  This  arrange- 
ment is  owing  to  the  neceflity  tiiefe  merchants  them- 
felve  are  under  of  advancing  money  to  the  workmen 
by  the  partners  or  agents  who  are  difperfed  through 
the  whole  country  :  of  keeping  a  watchful  eye  upon 
them,  for  fear  of  lofing  what  they  have  advanced;  and 
of  gradually  ledening  the  fum,  by  calling  for  the  cot' 
tons  as  fait  as  they  are  worked  off.  Without  thefe 
precautions,  nothing  could  be  depended  on  in  an  op- 
prcffive  government,  where  the  weaver  cannot  work 
on  his  own  account,  either  becaufe  his  circumllances 
will  not  permit,  or  becaufe  he  dares  not  venture  to 
difcover  them  for  fear  of  exaftions.  The  companies 
that  have  either  fuccels  or  good  management,  con- 
ftantly  keep  the  llock  of  one  year  in  advance  in  their 
fettlements.  By  this  method  they  are  fure  of  having 
the  quantity  of  goods  they  have  occafion  for,  and  of 
the  quality  they  choofe,  at  the  moll  convenient  time  : 
not  to  mention  that  their  workmen,  and  their  mer- 
chants, who  are  kept  in  conftant  employment,  never 
leave  them.  Such  nations  as  want  money  and  credit 
cannot  begin  their  mercantile  operations  till  the  ar- 
rival of  their  fhips.  They  have  only  live  or  fix  months 
at  moft  to  execute  the  orders  fent  from  Europe.  The 
goods  are  manufaftured  and  examined  in  lialle  ;  and 
they  are  even  obliged  to  take  luch  as  are  known  to  be 
bad,  and  would  be  rejefted  at  any  other  time.  The 
neceflity  they  are  under  of  completing  their  cargoes, 
and  fitting  out  their  veffels  before  hunicanes  come  on, 
leaves  no  room  for  nicety  of  infpedlion.  It  would  be 
'a  miilake  to  imagine  that  the  country  agents  could  be 
prevailed  upon  to  order  goods  to  be  made  on  their 
account,  in  hopes  of  felling  them  with  a  reafonable 
advantage  to  the  company  with  whom  they  are  en- 
gaged. For,  befidea  that  the  generality  of  them 
are  not  rich  enough  to  embark  in  lo  large  an  under- 
taking, they  would  not  be  ceitain  of  finding  llieir  ac- 
count in  it.  If  the  company  that  employ  them  fliould 
be  hindered  by  unforefeen  accidents  from  fending  the 
ufual  number  of  fliips,  thefe  merchants  would  have  no 
vent  for  their  conunodities.  The  Indians,  the  form 
of  whole  drefs  requires  different  breadths  and  lengths 
from  thofe  of  the  cottons  fabricated  tor  our  ufe,  woulJ 
not  purchafe  them  ;  and  the  other  European  compa- 
nies would  be  provided,  or  certain  of  being  provided, 
with  whatever  the  extent  of  their' trade  required,  .'md 
their  money  enabled  them  to  purchafe.  Tlie  plan  of 
procuring  loans,  which  was  contrived  to  remedy  this 
inconvenience,  never  has,  nor  can  be  ufeful.  It  has 
been  a  cullom,  time  immemorial,  in  Indoflan,  for 
every  citizen  who  borrows  money,  to  give  a  written 
inllrument  to  his  creditor.  This  deed  is  of  no  force 
in  a  court  of  judicature,  unlefs  it  is  ligned  by  three 
witneffes,  and  bears  the  day  of  the  month  and  the 
year  when  it  was  made,  with  the  rate  of  intereft  a- 
greed  upon  by 'the  parties.  If  the  borrower  fails  to 
fulfil  his  engagements,  he  may  be  arreftcd  by  the 
lender  himfelf.  He  is  never  imprifoned,  becaufe 
there  is  no  fear  of  his  making  his  efcape.     He  would 


not 


COR 


c 


CoreniaB- 

(kl. 
Corona. 


not  e«eti  eat,  without  obtaining-  leave  of  liii  creditor. 
The  Indians  make  a  three-fold  divilion  of  interell  : 
one  kind  they  call  vice  ;  another  neither  vice  nor  vir- 
tue ;  and  a  third,  they  fay,  is  virtue.  The  firft  is  four 
per  cent,  a  month  ;  the  fecond  two ;  and  the  third 
one.  The  lall  is,  in  their  opinion,  an  aft  of  bene- 
ficence that  only  belongs  to  the  moll  heroic  minds. 
Yet,  though  the  Europeans,  who  are  foiccd  to  bor- 
row, meet  with  this  treatment,  it  is  plain  they  can 
not  avail  themfelves  of  the 
involved  in  ruin. 


indulgence  witliout  being 


465     ]  COR 

fible,  and  fometimes  fcveral  concentric  coronas  make    Cconi. 

their  appearance  at  the  fame  time.     Thofe  which  have  ' '^—^- 

been  leeu  about  Sirius  and  Jupiter  were  never  more 
tlian  three,  four,  or  live  degrees  in  diameter;  thofe 
which  lurround  the  moon  are,  alfo,  fometimes  no  more 
than  three  or  iive  degrees  ;  but  thefe,  as  well  as  thofe 
which  furround  the  fun,  are  of  veiy  different  magni- 
tudes, viz.  of  12="  o',  22'  35',  30'  o',  38'  o',  4l'» 
2,  45°  o',  46°  24'>  47"  o'.  and  90°,  or  even  largef 
than  this.  'I'hcir  diameters  alfo  fometimes  vary  du- 
ring the  time  of  obfervatiou,  and  the  breadtiis  both  of 


The  foreign  trade  of  Coromandel  is  not  in  the  hands  the  coloured  and  white  circles  are  verv  diffcreiit,  viz. 

of  the  natives.     In   the   wellern   part,  indeed,   there  of  2,  4,  or  7  degrees. 

are   Mohammedans   known  by  the  name   of  Chalias,         The  colours  of  thefe  coronas   are  more  dihite  than 

who,  at  Naour-  and   Porto-Nuovo,   fend  out  fliips  to  tliofc  of  the  rainbow  ;  and  they  are  in  a  different  or- 

Acken,  Merguy,  iSiam,  and  theeailern  coaft.      Delldes  der,  according  to  their  fize.      In  thofe  which  Newton 


veirels  of  confiderable  burden  employed  in  thefe  voy- 
ages, they  have  fmallcr  embarkations  for  the  coafling 
trade  for  Ceylon  and  the  pearl  fifhery.  The  Indians 
of  MafTulipatan   turn    their   attention    another    way. 


obferved  in  1692,  they  were  in  the  following  order, 
reckoning  from  the  infidc.  h\  the  innermolt  were 
blue,  white,  and  red  ;  in  the  middle  were  purple,  blue, 
green,   yellow,  and  pale   red  ;   in  tiie  outermoll,  pale 


They  import  from  Bengal  white  callicoes,  wliich  they  blue    and   pale  red.      Mr  Huygens  obferved  red  next 

dye  or  prii\t,  and  fell  them   again   ut   the   places  from  the  fun,  and  a   pale  blue  outwards.      Sometimes  they 

whence  they  had  them,  at   35    or   40 />«■  «n/.  advan-  are  red   on  the   infide  and  white  on  the  outfide.   '  M. 

tnge.    Excepting  thefe  tranfadions,  which  are  of  very  Weidler    obferved  one  that  was  yellow  on   the    infidc 

little  confequence,   the   whole   trade   is   vefled   in   the  and  white  on  the  outfidc.      In   France,  one  was  obfer- 

Europeans,  who  have   no   partners  but  a  few  Banians  vtd  in  1683,  ,the   middle  of  which   \>-as  white  ;  after 

and  Armenians  fettled  in  their  colonics.     The  quanti-  which  foUov/ed  a  border  of  red  ;  next  to  it  was  blue, 

ty  of  callicoes  exported  from  .Coromandel   to  the  dif-  then  green,  and  the  outermoil  circle  was  a  bright  red. 

ferent  ports  of  India,  may  be  computed  at  3500  bales.  In  1728,  one  was  1,  «:ii   of  a  pale  red  outviardly,  then 

Of  thefe   the   French   carry  800  to  Malabar,  Mocha,  followed   yellow,    and    then   green,    terminated    bv  a 

and  the  ifle  of  France  ;  the  Englilli,  1200  to  Bombay,  white. 

Malabar,  Sumatra,  and  the  Philippine  Ifiands  ;  and  the  Thefe  coronas  are  very  frequent.      In  Holland,  M. 

Dutch  1500   to   their  different  lettlements.      Except  Mufchenbroeck  fays,  ^o  may  be  feen  in  the  day-time, 

500  b:des  deftined  for  Manila,  each  of  the  value  of  100  almoll   every  year  ;  but  they  are  difSctJt  to  be  obfer- 

guineas,  the  others  are  of  fuch  an  ordinary  kind  that  ved,  except  the  eye  be  fo  iituated,  that  not  the  body 

tliey  do  not  exceed  30  guineas  at  prime  coll  ;   fo  that  of  the  fun,   but  only  the   neighbouring  parts  of  the 

the  whole  number  of  bales  do  not  amount  to  more  than  heavens  can  be    teen.      Mr  Middlcton   favs,    that   this 

about  L.  l5O,O00.»  phenomenon  is  very  frequent  in  Nortii  America  ;  for 

Coromandel  fiirnifhes  Europe  with  95&0  bales  ;   800  that  there  is  geneially  one  or  two  about  the  fun  every 

of  which  are  brought  by  the   Danes,    2500  by   the  week,   and   as   many   about  the   moon   every   month. 

French,  3000  by  the  Englifh,  and  3200  by  the  Dutch.  Halos  round  the  fun  are  very  frequent  in  Ruffia.      M. 

A  conliderable  part  of  thefe  callicoes  are   dyed  blue,  ^Epinus  fays,  that  from  the  23d  of  j-Vpril  1758,10  the 

or  ftriped  blue  pnd  red  for  the   African  trade.     The  20th  of  September,  he   himfelf  had   obferved  no   lefs 

others  are  fine  muflins,  printed  calUcocs,  and  handker-  than  26,  and  that  he  has  fometimes  feen  twice  as  ma- 

ehiefs  from   MafTulipatan,  or   Paliacate.      It  is  proved  ny  in  the  fame  fpace  of  time. 

by  experience  that  each  of  thefe  bales  cofls  only  about  Coronas  may  be  produced  by  placing  a  liu-hted  can- 

L.  42  Sterlirg ;   confequently  they  ouglit  to  bring  in  die  in  the  midft  of  fleam   in   cold  weather.      Alfo,   if 

to    the   manufaftory    where   they   are   wrought   near  glafs  windows  be  breatfied   upon,   and  the  flame  of  a 

L.  360,000.      The   payments  are  not  entirely  made  in  candle   be  placed   fome  feet  from  it,  while  the  fpedta- 

fpecie,  either  in  Europe  or  Afia  ;  we  give  in  exeliange,  tor  is  alio  at  the  diflance  of  fome  feet  from  another 

cloths,  iron,   lead,  copper,  coral,  and  fome  other  ar-  part  of   a  window,  the  flame  will   be   furroundcd  with 

tides  of  lefs  value.      On  the   oth.-r   hand,    Afia   pays  a  coloured  halo.      And  if  a  candle  be  placed  behind  a 

with   fpices,  pepper,  rice,  fugar,  corn,  and  dates.      All  glafs  receiver,  w^hen   air  is   .idmltted  into  the  vacuum 

thefe   articles  taken   together  may   amount   to   about  within  it,  at   a   certain  degree  of  denlity,  the  vapour 

L.  2io,ocd;  and  from  this  calculation  it  follows,  that  with    which   it   is  loaded   will   make   a  coloured  halo 

Coromandel     receives    annually    from    Europe    about  round  tlie   flame.     This  was   obferved   by  Otto  Que- 

L.  300,000  in  money.- '  The  Britilh,  who  have  acquir-  ricke.      In   December   1756,   M.   Mufclienbroeck  ob- 

ed   the  fame  fuperiority  on  this  coatl    tiiat    tliey    luve  fcrved,   that    when   the    glafs    windows   of   his  room 

clfewhere,  have  formed  on  it  feveral  fettlements.  were  covered  with   a  thin  plate   of  ice  on  tlie  Infide 

CORONA,  among  anatomifls,  denotes  that  edge  of  t!ie  moon  appearing  through  it  was  furroundcd  with 

the  glans  penis  where  the  preputium  begins.          _  a   large   and   varioufly   coloured   halo  ;    and,   opening 

Corona,  or  Halo,  in  optics,  a  luminous  circle,  fur-  the  window,  he  found  that  it  arofe  intirelv  from  that 

rounding  the  fun,  the  moon,  the  planets,  or  fixed  liars,  thin  plate  of  ice,  for  none  was  feen   except  through 

Sometimes  thefe  circles  are  white,  and  fometimes  co-  it. 

loiiied,  like  the  rainbow.     Sometimes  one  only  is  vi-  Similar,  in   fome  lefpcfts,  to  the  halo,  was  the  re- 

Vol.  V.  Part  II.                                             '  3N                              markabk 


COR  [ 

Carona.  markablc  appearance  which  M.  Bougucr  defcribes,  as 
» .  <i  •  '  obftrved  by  himfelf  and  his  companions  on  the  top  of 
Mount  Pichinca,  in  the  Cordilleras.  When  the  fun 
was  juft  rifing  behind  them,  fo  as  to  appear  white, 
each  of  them  faw  his  own  fliadow  projefted  upon  it, 
and  no  other.  The  diftance  was  fuch,  that  all  the 
parts  of  the  fliadow  were  eafily  dlilinguilhable,  as  the 
arms,  the  leg,  and  the  head  ;  but  what  fnrprifed  them 
mod  was,  that  the  head  was  adorned  with  a  kind  of 
glory,  confining  of  three  or  four  fmall  concentric 
crowns,  of  a  very  lively  colour,  each  exhibiting  all 
the  varieties  of  the  primary  rainbow,  and  having  the 
circle  of  red  on  the  outlide.  The  intervals  between 
thefe  circles  continued  equal,  though  the  diameters  of 
them  all  were  conllantly  changing.  The  lall  of  them 
•was  very  faint,  and  at  a  confiderable  diilance  was  ano- 
ther great  white  circle,  which  fnrrounded  the  whole. 
As  near  as  M.  Bnuguer  could  compute,  the  diameter 
of  the  firft  of  thefe  circles  was  about  5}  degrees,  that 
of  the  fecond  I  I,  that  of  the  third  17,  and  fo  on  ; 
but  the  diameter  of  the  white  circle  was  about  76  de- 
grees. This  phenomenon  never  appeared  but  in  a 
cloud  confining  of  frozen  particles,  and  never  in  drops 
of  rain  like  the  rainbow.  When  the  fun  was  not  in 
the  horizon,  only  part  of  the  white  circle  was  viilble,  as 
M.  Bouguer  frequently  obfervcd  afterwards. 

Similar  alfo  to  this  curious  appearance  was  one  that 
was  obferved  by  Dr  M'Fait  in  Scotland.  This  gen- 
tleman obferved  a  rainbow  round  his  (hadow  in  the 
mift,  when  he  was  upon  an  eminence  above  it.  In 
this  fituation  the  whole  country  round  feemed,  as  it 
were,  buried  under  a  vail  deluge,  and  nothing  but  the 
tops  of  diRant  hills  appeared  here  and  there  above  the 
flood  ;  fo  that  a  man  would  think  of  diving  down  in- 
to it  with  a  kind  of  horror.  In  thofe  upper  regions 
the  air,  he  fays,  is  at  that  time  very  pure  and  agree- 
able to  breathe  in.  At  another  time  he  obferved  a 
double  range  of  colours  round  his  fliadow  in  thefe  cir- 
cumflances.  The  colours  of  the  outermofl  range  were 
broad  and  very  diflinft,  and  every  where  about  two 
feet  diftant  from  the  fliadow.  Then  there  was  a 
darkifh  interval,  and  after  that  another  narrower  range 
of  colours,  clofcly  furrounding  the  fhadow,  which  was 
very  much  contraftcd.  This  perfon  feems  to  think 
that  thefe  ranges  of  colours  are  caufed  by  the  inflec- 
tion of  the  ra\  s  of  light,  the  fame  that  occufioncd  the 
ring  of  light  which  furrounds  the  fhadows  of  all  bo- 
•  EJ-  Ff  ^'^*'  °bf^''^^'i  ^y  ^^-  Maraldi,  and  this  author*.  But 
i-'yyj_;  the  prodigious  variety  with  which  thefe  appearances 
ji.  Ij8.  are  exhibited  feems  to  fhow  that  many  of  them  do  not 
refult  from  the  general  laws  of  reflexion,  refraftion,  or 
infleftion,  belo;>j;ing  to  trar.fparent  fubltances  of  a 
large  mafs  ;  bat  upon  the  alternate  reflexion  and 
traufmiffion  of  the  diilerent  kinds  of  rays,  peculiar  to 
fubftances  reduced  to  the  form  of  thin  plates,  or  con- 
Cfting  of  feparate  and  very  minute  parts.  But  where 
the  dimenfions  of  the  coronas  are  pretty  conflant,  as 
in  the  ufual  and  larger  halo,  which  is  about  half  the 
diameter  of  the  rainbow,  they  may,  perhaps,  be  ex- 
plained on  the  general  principles  of  refraftion  only. 

Defcartes  obferves,  that  the  halo  never  appears  when 
it  rains  :  from  which  he  concludes  that  this  phenome- 
non is  occafioned  by  the  refraftion  of  light  in  the 
round  particles  of  ice,  which  are  then  floating  in  the 
atmofphsrc  ;  and  tliough  thefe  particles  are  flat  when 


466     ]  COR 

they  fall  to  the  ground,  he  thought  they  muft  be  pro-  Coron*. 
tuberant  in  the  middle,  before  their  dcfcent  ;  and  ac-  -^~\'  "^ 
cording  to  this  protuberancy  he  imagined  that  the  di- 
ameter of  the  halo  would  vary. — In  treating  of  me- 
teors, Gaffendi  fuppofed  that  a  halo  is  the  fame  thing 
with  the  rainbow,  the  rays  of  light  being  in  both 
cafes  twice  refraftcd  and  once  refleded  witliin  each 
drop  of  rain  or  vapour,  and  that  all  the  difference 
there  is  between  them  arifcs  from  their  different  fitu- 
ation with  refpeft  to  the  obferver.  For,  whereas, 
when  the  fun  is  behind  the  fpedtator,  and  donfequent- 
ly  the  rainbow  before  him,  his  eye  is  in  the  centre  of 
the  circle  ;  when  he  views  the  halo,  with  his  face  to- 
wards the  fun,  his  eye  is  in  the  circumference  of  the 
circle  ;  fo  that  according  to  the  known  principles  of 
geomeliy,  the  angle  under  which  the  objeft  appears 
in  this  cafe,  mutt  be  juft  half  of  what  it  is  in  the  other. 
Though  this  writer  fays  a  great  deal  upon  the  fubjeft, 
and  endeavours  to  give  reafons  why  the  colours  of  the 
halo  are  in  a  different  order  to  thofe  of  tht  rainbow, 
he  does  not  defcribe  the  progrefs  of  the  rays  of  light 
from  the  fun  to  the  eye  of  the  fpeflator  when  a  halo 
is  formed  by  them,  and  he  gives  no  figures  to  explain 
his  ideas. 

DecLales,  alfo,  endeavours  to  fliow  that  the  gene- 
ration of  the  halo  is  fimilar  to  that  of  ther  ainbow.  If, 
fays  he,  a  fphere  of  glafs  orcryflal,  AB,  (n"  i.)  full  ofp;ate  CL. 
water,  be  placed  in  the  beams  of  the  fun  fliining  from 
C,  there  will  not  only  be  two  circles  of  coloured  light 
on  the  fide  next  the  fun,  and  which  conilitute  the  two 
rainbows  ;  but  there  will  alfo  be  another  on  the  part 
oppoiite  to  the  fun,  the  rays  belonging  to  which  meet- 
ing at  E,  afterwards  diverge,  and"  form  the  coloured 
circle  G,  as  will  be  vifible,  if  the  light  that  is  traiif- 
mitted  through  the  globe  be  received  on  a  piece  of 
white  paper.  The  colours  alio  will  appear  to  an  eye 
placed  in  any  part  of  the  furface  of  the  cone  FEG. 
Meafuring  the  angle  FEH,  he  found  it  to  be  23  de- 
grees. They  were  only  the  extreme  rays  of  this  cone 
that  were  coloured  like  thofe  of  the  rainbow. 

This  experiment  he  thought  fufficiently  illuftrated 
the  generation  of  the  halo  ;  fo  that  whenever  the  tex- 
tuie  of  the  clouds  is  fuch,  as  not  entirely  to  intercept 
the  rays  of  the  fun  or  moon,  and  yet  have  fome  de- 
gree of  denfity,  there  will  always  be  an  halo  round 
them,  the  colours  of  the  rainbow  appearing  in  tliofe 
drops  which  are  23  degrees  diflant  from  the  fun  («r 
moon.  If  the  fun  be  at  A,  and  the  fpeftator  in  B, 
the  halo  will  be  the  circle  DFE,  DBE  being  46  de- 
grees, or  twice  23. 

The  reafon  why  the  colours  of  the  halo  are  more 
dilute  than  thofe  of  the  rainbow,  he  fays,  is  owing 
principally  to  their  being  formed  not  in  large  drops  of 
rain,  but  in  very  fmall  vapour ;  for  if  the  drops  of 
water  were  large,  the  cloud  would  be  fo  thick,  that 
the  rays  of  the  fun  could  not  be  regularly  tranfmittcd. 
through  them  ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  be  bad  obfer- 
ved, that  when  the  rainbow  is  formed  by  very  thia. 
vapours,  the  colours  hardly  appear.  As  for  thofe  cir- 
cles of  colours  which  are  fometimes  feen  round  candles, 
it  was  his  opinion  that  they  are  owing  to  nothing, 
but  moifture  on  the  eye  of  the  obferver ;  for  that  he 
could  never  produce  this  appearance  by  means  of  va- 
pour only,  if  he  wiped  his  eyes  carefully  ;  and  he  had 
obferved  that  fuch  circles  are  vifible  to  fome  perfons 
3  and 


COR 


[    467     ] 


COR 


Corona,    and  not  to  others,  and  to  the  fame  perfons  at  one  time  For  the  fame  reafon,  every  other  of  thefe  globules    Corona. 

^i '  V  ■ '    '  and  not  another.  will  have  a  Shadow  behind  it,  iu  which  the  liglrt  of  the  ' ^r— 

The  moll  confiderable  of  all  the  theories  refpeftiiig  fun  will  not  be  perceived.  If  the  eye  be  at  N,  and 
halos,  and  that  which  has  met  with  moll  favourable  that  be  conceived  to  be  the  vertex  of  a  cone,  the  fides 
and  the  longeft  reception,  is  that  of  Mr  Huygens.  of  which  NR,  N*^  are  parallel  to  the  fides  of  the 
Sir  Ifaac  Newton  mentions  it  with  rcfpeft,  and  Dr  former  cone  KL,  KM,  it  is  evident  that  none  of  the 
Smith,  ill  his  Complete  Syllem  of  Optics,  does  not  fo  globules  within  the  cone  QNR  can  fend  any  rays  of 
much  as  hint  at  any  other.  The  occafion  of  M.  Huy-  the  fun  to  the  eye  at  N.  But  any  other  globule  out 
gens  publilhing  his  tliouglits  on  this  fnbjeft,  was  the  of  this  cone,  as  X,  may  fend  thole  rays,  which  arc 
appearance  of  a  halo  at  Paris,  on  the  I2lh  of  May  more  refraded  than  XZ,  to  the  eye;  fo  that  this 
1667,  of  which  he  gave  an  account  in  a  paper  read  at  will  appear  enlightened,  while  thofe  within  the  cone 
the  Rova!  Academy  in  that  city,  which  was  afterwards  will  appear  oblcure.  It  is  evident  from  this,  that 
tranflated,  and  pnblilbcd  in  the  Englifh  Philofophical  a  certain  area,  or  fpace,  quite  round  the  fun,  mull 
Tranfiictions,  and  which  may  be  feen  in  Lowthorp's  appear  dark  ;  and  that  the  fpace  next  to  this  area 
Abridgment,  \'ol.II.  p.  iSg.  But  this  article  contains  will  appear  luminous,  and  more  lb  in  thofe  parts  that 
nothing  move  than  the  heads  of  a  difcourfe,  which  he  are  neareil  to  the  obfcure  area  ;  bccaufe,  he  fays,  it 
afterwards  compofcd,  but  never  q\ute  finilhed,  on  this  may  eafily  be  dcmonllrated,  that  thofe  globules  which 
fubjeft  ;  and  which  has  been  tranllated,  with  fcmie  ad-  are  neareil  to  the  cone  (^R  exhibit  the  largell  image 
ditions,  by  Dr  Smith,  from  whom  the  following  ac-  of  the  fun.  It  is  plain,  alfo,  that  a  corona  ought  to 
count  is  chiefly  extradled.  be  produced   in   the    fame    manner  whatever    be  the 

Our  pliilofopher  had  been   full  engaged   to   think     fun's  altitude,  becaufe  of  the  fpherical   ligurc  of  the 
particularly   upon    this  fiibjtft,   by  the  appearance  of    globules. 

five  funs  at  Warfaw,  in  1658;  prefently  after  which,  To  verify  this  hypothefis,  our  philofc.pher  advifcs 

he  fays,  he  hit  upon  the  true  caufe  of  halos,   and  not     us  to  expofe  to  the  iun  a  thin  glafs  bubble.  Idled  with 
long  after  of  that  of  mock  funs  alfo.  water,  and  having  fome   opaque  fubllance  in  the  cen- 

To  prepare  the  way  for  the  following  obfervations,     tre  of  it  ;   and  he  fays  we  Ihall  find,  that  we  Ihall  not 
it  mull  be  remarked,  that  if  we  can  conceive  any  kind    be  able  to  fee  the   fun  through  it,  unlefs  at  a  certain 
of  bodies  in  the  atmofphere,  which,  according  to  the     diltance  from  a  place  oppofite  to  the  centre  of  it ;  but 
known  laws  of  optics,  will,  either  by  means  of  reflec-     as  foon  as  we  do  perceive  the  light,  the  image  of  the 
tion  or  refraftion,  produce  the  appearance  in  queltion,     fun  will  immediately  appear  the  brightell,  and  coloured 
when  nothing  elfe  can   be   found  that   will  do  it,  we     red,  for  the  fame  reafon  as  in  the  rainbow, 
mull  acquiefce  in  the  hypothelis,  and  fuppofe  fuch  bo-         Thefe  coronas,   he   fays,    often    appear    about  the 
dies  to  exill,  even  though  we  cannot  give  a  fatisfaftory     moon  ;  but  the  colours  are  fo  weak  as  to  appear  only- 
account  of  their  generation.      Now,  two  fuch  bodies     white.      Such  white  coronas  he  had  alfo  feen  about 
are  alfumed  by  Mr  fluygens  ;  one  of  them   a  round     the  fun,  when  the  fpace  within   them   appeared   fcarce 
ball,  opaque  in  the  centre,  but  covered  with  a  tranfpa-     darker  than  that  without.     This  he  fuppofes  to  hap- 
rent  Ihell ;  and  the  other  is   a  cylinder,  of  a   fimilar    pen  when  there  are  but  few  of  thofe  globules  in  the 
compofition.      Ey  the  help  of  the   former  he   endea-     atmofphere;  for  the  more  plentiful  they  are,  the  more 
vours  to  account  for  halos,  and  by  the  latter  for  thofe     lively  the  colours  of  the  halo  appear  ;  at  the  fame  time 
appearances  which  are  called  mock  funs.     Thofe  bo-    alio  the  area  within  the  corona  will  be  the  darker, 
dies  which  Mr  Huygens  requires,  in  order  to  explain     The  apparent  diameter  of  the  corona,  which  is  gene- 
thefe  phenomena,   are   not,   however,  a  mere  alTunqs-    rally  about  45  degrees,  depends  upon  the  iize  of  the 
tion  ;  for  fome  fuch,  though   of  a  larger  fize  than  his     dark  kernel;  for  the  larger  it  is  with  refpeft  to  the 
purpofe  requires,  have  been   aftually  found,  confilling    whole   globule,   the  larger  wiU  be  the  dark  cone  be- 
of  fnow  within  and  ice  without.     They  are  particu-    hind  it. 

larly  mentioned  by  Defcartes.  The  globules  that  form  thefe  halos,  Mr  Huygens  fup- 

The  balls  with  the  opaque   kernel,   which  he  fup-     pofes  to  have  coniilled  of  foft  fnow,  and  to  have  been 
pofed    to  have  been  the  caufe  of  them,  he  imagines    rounded  by  continual  agitation  in  the  air,  and  thawed 
not  to  exceed  the  fize  of  a  turnip-feed  ;  but,  in  order     on  their  outfides  by  the  heat  of  the  fun. 
toillullrate  this  hypothefis,  he  gives  a  figure  of  one,  of        To  make  the   diameter  of  the  halo  45  degrees,  he 
a  larger  fize,  in  ABCDEF,   (n"  v)  f^prefenting  the     demonfl:rates  that  the  femidiameter  of  the  globule  muft 
kernel  of  fnow  in  the  middle  of  it.      If  the  rays  of    be  to  the  femidiameter  of  the  kernel  of  fnow  very  near-      "* 
light,  coming  from  GH,  fall  upon  the  fide  AD,  it  is     ly  as  looo  to  480  ;  and  that  to  make  a  corona  of  100 
manifell  they  will  be   fo  refratted  at  A  and  D,  as  to     degrees,  it  mull  be  as  1 000  to  6S0. 
bend  inwards ;    and  many  of  them  will  llrike   upon         Mr  Weidler,  In  his  Commentary  on   parhelia,  pub- 
the  kernel  EF.     Others,  however,   as  GA  and  HD,     lilhed  at  Wirtemburgh  in    1733,  obferves  that  it  is 
will  only  touch   the   fides  of  the  kernel ;  and  being     very  improbable   that  fuch  globules  as  Mr  Huygcns's 
again  refrafted  at  B  and  C,  will  emerge  in  the  lines    hypothefis  requires,  with  nuclei  of  fuch  a  precile  pro- 
BK,  CK,  crofling  each  other  in  the  point  K,  whofe     portion,  fliould  exill  ;  and  if  there  were   fuch   bodies, 
neareil  dillance  from  the  globule  is  fomewhat  lefsthan     he   thinks   they  would  be  too  fmall  to  produce  the  ef- 
its  apparent  diameter,      if,  therefore,  BK  and  CK  be     feds  afcribed  to  thtm.      Befides,  he  obferves  that   ap- 
produced    towards    M  and  L,   (n^4. )   it    is    evident     pearances  cxadly  fimilar  to  halos  are  not   uncommon, 
that  no  light  can  reach  the  eye  placed  within  the  angle     where   fluid   vapour    alone  are  concerned;  as  when  a 
LKM,  but  may  fall  upon  it  when  placed  out  of  that    candle  is  placed   behind  the  fteam  of  boiling  water  in 
angle,  or  rather  the  cone  reprefented  by  it.  froily  weather,  or  in   the  midft  of  the  vapour  iflliing 


3N  2 


cop  I 


juilv 


COR 


[    468    ] 


COR 


Oo'fina.  copioufly  from  a  bath,  or  behind  a  receiver  when  t!ie 
""^^  air  is  i"o  inuoh  rarefied  as  to  be  incapable  of  fupporting 
the  water  it  contains.  The  rays  of  the  fim  twice  re- 
fleiflcd  and  twice  rcfracled  within  fmall  drops  of  water 
arc  fufricient,  he  fays,  without  any  opaque  kernel,  to 
produce  all  the  appearances  of  the  halos  that  have  the 
red  light  towards  the  fun,  as  may  be  proved  by  experi- 
ment. That  the  diameter  of  the  halos  is  generally  half 
of  that  of  the  rainbow,  he  accounts  for  as  Gaflfendi  did 
before  him. 

M.  Marriotte  accounts  for  the  formation  of  the  fmall 
CO;  J  las  by  the  tranfmiffion  cf  light  through  aqueous 
vapours,  where  it  futFer3  two  refractions,  without  any 
intermediate  refleftion.  He  fliows  that  light  which 
comes  to  the  eye,  after  being  refracled  in  this  man- 
ner, will  be  chiefly  that  which  falls  upon  the  drop 
nearly  perpendicular  ;  becaufe  more  rays  fall  upon 
any  given  quantity  of  furface  in  that  fituation,  fewer 
of  them  are  reJlcCled  with  fmall  degrees  of  obliquity, 
and  they  are  not  fo  much  fcattered  after  refraction.  • 
'J'he  red  will  always  be  outermoft  in  thefe  coronas, 
as  confiding  of  rays  which  fuffer  the  leaft;  refraClion. 
And  whereas  he  had  feen,  when  the  clouds  were  dri- 
ven briddy  by  the  Wind,  halos  round  the  moon,  vary- 
ing frequently  in  their  diameter,  being  fometimes  of 
two,  fometimes  of  three,  and  fometimes  cf  four  de- 
grees ;  fometimes  alfo  being  coloured,  fometimes  only 
ivhite,  and  fometimes  difappearing  entirely  ;  he  con- 
cluded that  all  thefe  variations  arofe  from  the  differ- 
ent thicknefs  of  the  clouds,  through  which  fometimes 
more  and  fometimes  lefs  light  was  tranfmitted.  He 
fuppofed,  alfo,  that  the  light  which  formed  them 
might  fometimes  be  refleftcd,  and  at  other  times  re- 
frafted.  As  to  thofe  coronas  which  confift  of  two  or- 
ders of  colours,  he  imagined  that  they  were  produced 
by  fmall  pieces  of  fnow,  which  when  they  begin  to 
diffblve,  form  figures  which  are  a  little  convex  towards 
their  extremities.  Sometimes,  alfo,  the  fnow  will  be 
melted  in  different  fliapes  ;  and  in  this  calt,  the  co- 
lours of  feveral  halos  will  be  intermixed  and  confufed  ; 
and  fuch,  he  fays,  he  had  fometimes  obferved  round 
the  fun. 

M.  Mariotte  then  proceeds  to  explain  the  larger  co- 
ronas, namely  thofe  that  are  about  45  degrees  in  dia- 
meter, and  for  this  purpofc  he  has  recourfe  to  equi- 
angular prifms  of  ice,  in  a  certain  pofition  with  re- 
fpeft  to  the  fun  ;  and  he  takes  pains  to  trace  the  pro- 
grefs  of  the  rays  of  light  for  this  purpofe  :  but  this  hy- 
pothefis  is  very  improbable.  In  iome  cafes  he  thought 
that  thefe  large  coronas  were  caufed  by  hail-ftones, 
of  a  pyramidal  figure  ;  becaufe  after  two  or  three  of 
them  had  been  feen  about  the  fun,  there  fell  the  fame 
day  feveral  fuch  pyramidal  hall-ftones.  M.  Mariotte 
explains  parhelia  by  the  help  of  the  fame  fuppoiitions. 
See  Parhelia. 

Sir  Ifaac  Newton  does  not  appear  to  have  given 
any  particular  attention  to  the  fubjeCt  of  halos,  but  he 
has  hinted  at  his  fentiments  concerning  them  occafio- 
nally  ;  by  which  we  perceive  that  he  confidered  the 
larger  and  lefs  variable  appearances  of  this  kind  as 
produced  according  to  the  common  laws  of  refraftion, 
but  that  the  lefs  and  more  variable  appearances  de- 
pend upon  the  fame  caufe  with  the  colours  of  thin 
plates. 

He  concludes  his  explication  o£  the  rainbow  vi'ith 


the  following  obfervation  on  halos  and  parhelias.  "  The  Cnrora. 
light  which  come  through  drops  of  rain  by  two  re-  ^~Y— 
fradtions,  without  any  reflexion,  ought  to  appear  the 
ilrongtil.  at  the  diftance  of  about  26  degree!  from 
the  fun,  and  to  decay  gradually  both  ways  as  the  di- 
ftance from  him  incicafes.  And  the  fame  is  to  be  un- 
dcrftood  of  light  tranfmitted  through  fpherical  hail- 
ftones  :  and  if  the  hail  be  a  little  flatted,  as  it  ofteu 
i;,  the  tranfmitted  light  may  be  fo  ftrong,  at  a  little 
lefs  cittance  than  that  of  26  degrees,  as  to  form  a  halo 
about  tl'.e  fun  or  moon  ;  which  halo,  as  often  as  the 
h^Il-ilones  arc  duly  figured,  may  be  coloured,  and  then 
it  muft  be  red  within  by  the  leaft  rctVungible  rays, 
and  blue  without  by  the  moft  refrangible  oivcs  ;  efpe- 
cially  if  the  hail-ftones  have  opaque  globiiles  of  fnow 
in  their  centres  to  intercept  the  light  within  the  halo, 
as  Mr  Hurgens  has  obferved,  and  make  the  infide  of. 
it  more  diftlnctly  defined  than  it  would  othcrwife  be. 
For  fuch  hail-ftones,  though  fpherical,  by  terminating 
the  light  by  the  fnow,  may  make  a  halo  red  vvllhiii, 
and  colourlcfs  without,  and  darker  within  the  red  tlian 
without,  as  halos  ufe  to  be.  For  of  thofe  rays  which 
pafs  clofe  by  the  fnow,  the  red-making  ones  will  be 
the  leaft  refratted,  and  fo  come  to  the  eye  in  the 
ftrnighttft  lines." 

Some  farther  thoughts  of  Sir  Ifaac  Newton's  on  tlie 
fubjeift  of  halos  we  find  fubioined  to  the  account  of 
his  experiments  on  the  colours  of  thick  plates  of  glals, 
which  he  conceived  to  be  fimilar  to  thofe  wliich  aie 
exhiljited  by  thin  ones.  "  As  light  reflefted  by  a  lens 
quick-filvtred  on  the  back  fide  makes  the  rings  of  the 
colours  above  defcribed,  fo  (he  fays)  it  ought  to  make 
the  like  rings  in  palling  through  a  drop  of  water.  At 
the  firft  reflexion  of  the  rays  within  die  drop,  fome 
colours  ought  to  be  tranfmitted,  as  in  the  caie  of  a 
lens,  and  others  to  be  reflefted  back  to  the  eye.  For 
inftance,  if  the  diameter  of  a  fmall  drop  or  globule  of 
water  be  abour  the  50cdth  part  of  an  inch,  lo  that  a. 
red-making  ray,  in  pafling  through  the  middle  of  this 
globule,  has  250  fits  of  eafy  tranfmiffion  within  the 
globule,  and  all  the  red-making  rays  which  are  at  a 
certain  diftance  from  this  middle  ray  round  about  it 
have  249  fits  within  the  globule,  and  all  the  like  rays 
at  a  certain  farther  diftance  round  about  it  have  248 
fits,  and  all  thofe  at  a  certain  farther  diftance  247  fits 
and  fo  on,  thtfe  concentric  circles  of  rays,  after  their 
tranfmiffion,  falling  on  a  white  paper,  will  make  con- 
centric rings  of  red  upon  the  paper  ;  fuppofing  the 
light  which  paffes  through  one  fingle  globule  ftrong 
enough  to  be  fcnfible,  and  in  like  manner  the  rays  of 
other  colours  will  make  rings  of  other  colours.  Sup- 
pofe  now  that  in  a  fair  day  the  fun  Ihould  ihine  through 
a  thin  cloud  of  fuch  globules  of  water  or  hail,  and  that 
the  globules  are  all  of  the  fame  fize,  tlie  fun  feen 
through  this  cloud  ought  to  appear  fuiTounded  with 
the  like  concentric  rings  of  colours,  and  the  diameter 
of  the  firft  ring  of  red  ftiould  be  7^  degeees,  that  of  the 
fecond  lo^,  that  of  the  third  12""  33',  and  according- 
as  the  globules  of  water  are  bigger  or  lefs,  the  ring 
flKuld  be  lefs  or  bigger." 

This  curious  theory  our  author  informs  us  was  con- 
firmed by  an  ebfervation  which  he  made  in  1692.  He 
faw  by  reflexion,  in  a  veffel  of  itagnating  water,  three 
halos,  crowns,  or  rings  of  colours  about  the  fun,  like 
three  little  rainbows  concciilric.  to  his  body.  The  co- 
Z.  .  lours 


COR  [    469     ]  COR 

eoroDs.    lours  of  the  firft,  or  inncrmofl  ci-own,  were  blue  next        Corona,  among  botanills,  the  name  given  by  feme    Corona, 


the  fun,  red  without,  and  white  in  the  middle,  between  to  the  circumference  or  margin  of  a  radiated  com- 
the  blue  and  red.  Thofe  of  the  fecond  crown  were  pound  flower.  It  conefpsnds  to  the  radius  of  Lin- 
purple  and  blue  within,  and  pale  red  without,  and  nseus ;  and  is  examplified  in  the  flat,  tonf/ue-(haped 
grtcn  in  the  middle.  And  thofe  of  the  third  were  petals  which  occupy  the  margin  of  tlie  daify  or  fuii- 
palc  blue  within,  and  pale  red  without.     Thefe  crowns     flower. 

Corona  Avjlralh,  ox  Mer'ulionaVts,  Southern  Crown, 
a  con'iltllatiuu  of  the  fouthern  hemifphtre,  whofe  Hare 
in  Ptolemy's  catalogue  are  13,  in  the  Biitilh  catalogue 


Cor.inelli. 
„ 1 


jnclcfcd  one  another  imme'h'atcly,  f'>  that  their  colours 
proceeded  in  this  continual  order  from  the  fuu  out- 
warri  ;  blue,  white,  red  ;  purple,  blue,  green,  pale 
yellow,  and  red  ;  pale  blue,  pale  red.  The  diameter 
of  ilie  fecond  crow  n,  meafui-ed  from  the  middle  of 
the  yellow  and  red  on  one  hde  of  the  fun,  to  the 
middle   of  the  fame  col'ur  on  the  other  lide,  was  9f 


Corona  Borealis,  the  Northern  Crown,  or  Garland, 
in  aftionomy,  a  conllellation  of  the  northern  hemi- 
fpiiere,  whole  ftars  in  Ptolemy's  catalogue  are  eight, 


degrees   or  thereabouts.     The    diameters  of  the  hi-ll  in  Tychu's  as  many,  and  in  Mr  Flamllead's  21. 
and  third  he  had  not  time  to  meafure  ;  but  that  of  the  CukoN/i  Impcriaiis ,  in  conchyology,  a  name  given  by 

firft   fecmed  to   be  about  five  or  fix  degrees,  and  that  fomc  authors  to  a  kind  of  voluta,  differing  from  the 

of  the  third  about   twelve.     The   like  crowns  appear  other  ihclls   of  that  family,   by  having   its  liead  orna- 

fomctimes  about  the   moon  :    for  in  the  beginning  of  mcntcd  with   a  number  of  points,  forming  a  fort  of 

the  year  1664,  on  February  iqth  at  niglit,  he  faw  two  crown.      See  Voluta. 


fudi  crowns  about  her.  'l"he  diameter  of  the  firlt,' 
or  inuermoll,  was  about  three  degrees,  and  that  of 
the  fecond  about  five  degrees  and  a  half.  Next  about 
the  moon  was  a  ciixle  of  white  ;  and  next  about  that 
the  inner  crown,  which  was  of  a  bluidi  green  within, 
next  the  white,  and  of  a  yellow  and  red  without  ; 
and  next  about  thefe  colours  were  blue  and  green  on 
the  infide  of  the  outer  crown,  and  red  on  the  outfide 
of  it. 


CORONAL,  in  anatomy,  the  firft  future  of  the 
iliuU.      See  Anatomy,  n'^ij. 

CORONALE  OS,  the  fame  with  the  osfrontis.  See 
Anatomy,  n^  1  2. 

CORONARY  VESSELS,  in  anatomy,  certain  vef- 
fels  which  furnifh  the  fubllance  of  the  heart  with 
blood. 

CoRONARr  Artaies,  are  two  arteries  fpringing  out 
of  the  aorta,  before  it  leaves  the  pericardium.     See 


At  the  fame  time  there  appeared  a  halo  at  the  di-  Anatomy,  n°  122,  and  123. 
fiance  of  about  22"'  35'  from  the  centre  of  the  moon.  Coronary  Vein,  a  vein  diffufed  over  the  exterior 
Itwas  elliptical ;  and  its  long  diameter  was  perpendi-  furface  of  the  heart.  See  Anatomy,  n°  1 23. 
ciilar  to  the  horizon,  verging  below  fartheft  from  the  Sumiachk  Coronary,  a  vein  rnferted  into  the  trunk 
moon.  He  was  told  that  the  moon  has  fometimes  of  the  fplenic  vein,  which,  by  uniting  with  the  me- 
three  or  more  concentric  crowns  of  colours  encompaf-  fenterio,  forms  the  vena  porta.  See  Anatomy,  n°  12«. 
fing  one  another  next  about  her  body.  The  more  CORONARLE,  in  botany,  the  loth  order  of 
equal  the  globides  of  water  or  ice  are  to  one  another,  plants  in  Linnsus's  Fragments  of  a  natural  method, 
the  more  crowns  of  colours  will  appear,  and  the  co-  Under  this  name,  inllead  of  the  more  obvious  one  li- 
lours  will  be  the  more  lively.  The  halo,  at  the  di-  lacea,  Linnasus  Collefts  a  great  number  of  genera,  moll 
ftance  of  22i  degrees  from  the  moon,  is  of  another  of  which  furni/h  very  beautiful  garden-flowers,  I'/c.  al- 
fort.  By  its  being  oval,  and  more  remote  from  the  buca,  cyanella,'fiitillaria,  helonias,  hyacinthus,  hypo- 
moon  below  than  above,  he  concludes  that  it  was  >^is,  lilium,  melanlhium,  ornithogalum,  fcilla,  tulipa^ 
tfiade  by  refraftion  in  fome  kind  of  hail  or  fnow  floating  agave,  aletris,  aloe,  anthericum,  alphodelus,  bromelia, 
in  the  air  in  an  horizontal  pollure,  the  refrafting  angle  burmannia,  hemerocalhs,  polianthes,  tillandfia,  vera- 
being  about  50  or  60  degi'ees.     D_r  Smith,   however,  trum,  yucca. 

makes  it  fufBciently  evident,  that  the  reafon  why  this  CORONATION,  the  ceremony  of  invelling  with 
halo  appeared  oval,  and  more  remote  from  the  moon  a  crown,  particularly  applied  to  the  crowning  of  kings, 
towards  the  horizon,  is  a  deception  of  fight,  and  the  upon  their  fucceeding  to  the  fovereignty.  See  King. 
fame  with  that  which  makes  the  moon  appear  larger  CORONvE  (anc.  geog. ),  a  town  of  Bceotia,  near 
in  the  horizon.  mount  Helicon,  and  the  lake  Copais,  fituated  on  an 
Dr  Kotelnihow,  having,  like  Dr  Halley,  made  very  eminence;  famous  for  the  defeat  of  the  Athenians 
accurate  cbfervations  to  determine  the  number  of  pof-  and  Bceotians  by  Agefilaus. — Another  Corona;  of 
fible  i-ainbows,  confiders  the  coloured  halo  which  ap-  Thelfaly  ;  having  Narthacium  to  the  eall,  and  Lamia- 
pears  about  a  caudle  as  the  fame  thiirg  with  one  of  near  the  Sperchius,  to  the  north,  (Ptolemy), 
thefe  bows  which  is  formed  near  the  body  of  the  fun,  CORONE  (auc.  geog.),  a  town  of  Mefl'enia,  fitu- 
but  wliich  is  not  vifible  on  account  of  his  exceffive  ated  on  the  fea,  giving  name  to  the  Sinus  CoronjEus, 
fplendor.  (Phny)  :  now  Golfo  di  Coron.  Paufanias  takes  it  X.O 
Laftly,  M.  Mufchenbroeck  concludes  his  account  of  be  the  Aepeaoi  Homer  ;  but  Strabo  Thur'ia,  and  Pliny 
coronas  with  obferving,  that  iome  denfity  of  vapour,  Pednfus,  now  Coron,  in  the  territory  of  Belvideie,  in 
or  fome  thicknefs  of  the  plates  of  ice,  divides  the  light  the  Morea.  E.  Long.  22,  Lat.  36.  30. 
in  its  tranfmiflion  through  the  fmall  globules  of  water,  CORONELLI  (Vincent),  a  famous  geographer, 
or  their  interftices,  into  its  feparate  colours  :  but  what  born  at  Venice.  His  IkiU  in  the  nratliematicb  having 
that  denfity  was,  or  what  was  the  fi/.e  of  the  particles  brought  him  to  the  knowledge  of  the  count  d'Ellrees». 
which  compofed  the  vapour,  he  could  not  pritend  to  iiis  eminence  employed  him  in  making  globe*  for 
determine  Louis XIV.       With  this  view    Coronelli  Ipent  Tune 

time  ' 


COR 


[    470    I 


COR 


Cornnc-.  time  at  Paris ;  and  left  a  great  number  of  globes 
there,  which  arc  efteemed.  In  1685,  he  was  made 
cofmographer  to  the  republic  of  Venice  :  and  four 
years  after,  public  profcffor  of  geop^raphy.  He  found- 
ed an  academy  of  cofmography  at  Venice  ;  and  died 
in  that  city  in  1718.  He  publilTied  above  400  geo- 
graphical charts,  an  abridgement  of  cofmography,  le- 
veral  books  on  geography,  and  other  works. 

CORONER  (coronator),  an  ancient  officer  in  Eng- 
land, fo  called  becaufe  he  hath  principally  to  do  with 
pleas  of  the  crown,  or  fuch  wherein  the  king  is  more 
imiiediately  concerned.  And  in  this  light,  the  lord 
chief  juilice  of  tlie  king's  bench  is  the  principal  coro- 
ner in  the  kingdom  ;  and  may,  if  he  pleafes,  exercife 
the  jurifdiftion  of  a  coroner  in  any  part  of  the  realm. 
But  there  are  alfo  particular  coroners  for  every  county 
of  England  ;  ufually  four,  but  fometimes  fix,  and  fome- 
times  fewer.  This  officer  is  of  equal  authority  with 
the  flieriff ;  and  was  ordained,  together  with  him,  to 
keep  the  peace  when  the  eails  gave  up  the  wardihip 
of  the  county. 

He  is  chofen  by  all  the  freeholders  of  the  county 
court ;  and  by  the  ftaiute  of  Weftminfter  i .  it  was  e  ■ 
nadled,  that  none  but  lawful  and  difcreet  knights  fhould 
be  chofen:  but  it  feems  now  fuflicient  if  a  man  have 
lands  enough  to  be  made  a  knight,  whether  he  be  really 
knighted  or  not :  for  the  coroner  ought  to  have  an 
eftate  fiifGcient  to  maintain  the  dignity  of  his  office, 
and  anfwer  any  fines  that  may  be  made  upon  him  for 
his  milbehaviour ;  and,  if  he  hath  not  enough  to  an- 
fwer, his  fine  (ball  be  levied  oh  the  county,  as  a  pu- 
nifhment  for  eleftlng  an  infufficicnt  officer.  Now, 
indeed,  through  the  culpable  negledl  of  gentlemen  of 
property,  this  office  has  been  fuffercd  to  fall  into  dif- 
reputc,  and  get  into  low  and  indigent  hands  ;  fo  that 
although  formerly  no  coroners  would  be  paid  for  fer- 
ving  their  country,  and  they  were  by  the  aforefaid 
ftatutc  of  Weftminfter  i.  exprefsly  forbidden  to  take 
a  reward  under  pain  of  great  forfeiture  to  the  king  ; 
yet  for  many  years  paft  they  have  only  defired  to  be 
chofen  for  the  fake  of  their  perquifites  ;  being  allow- 
ed fees  for  their  attendance  by  the  ftatute  3  Hen.  VII. 
T.  I.  which  Sir  Edward  Coke  complains  of  heavily, 
though  fince  his  time  thofe  fees  have  been  much  en- 
larged. 

The  coroner  is  chofen  for  life;  but  may  be  removed, 
either  by  being  made  flieriff'  or  chofen  verderor,  which 
are  offices  incompatible  with  the  other ;  and  by  the 
ftatute  2j  Geo.  II.  c.  29.  extortion,  negleft,  or  miftje- 
haviour,  are  alio  made  caufes  of  removal. 

The  office  and  power  of  a  coroner  are  alfo,  like 
thofe  of  the  flieriff,  either  judicial  or  minifterial;  but 
principally  judicial.  This  is  in  great  meafuie  afcer- 
tained  bv  ftatute  4  Edw.  I.  De  officio  coronaioris  ;  and 
confifts,  iirft,  in  inquiring,  when  any  perfon  is  flain,  or 
dies  futidenly,  or  in  prifon,  concerning  the  manner  of 
his  death.  And  this  muft  \>e  fuper  vifum  corporis  ;  for 
if  the  body  is  not  found,  the  coroner  cannot  fit.  He 
muft  alfo  fit  at  the  very  place  where'  the  death  hap- 
pened. And  his  inquiry  is  made  by  a  jury  from  four, 
five,  or  fix  of  the  neighbouiing  towns,  over  whom  he 
is  to  prefide.  If  any  be  found  guilty  by  this  inqueft 
of  murder,  he  is  to  commit  to  prifon  for  farther  trial, 
and  is  alfo  to  inquire  concerning  their  lands,  goods, 
and  chattels,  which  are  forfeited  thereby  :  but  whe- 


ther it  bff  murder  or  not,  he  muft  inquire  vvhetlier 
any  deodand  has  accrued  to  the  king,  or  the  lord  of 
the  franchife,  by  this  death  j  and  muft  certify  the  ^_ 
whole  of  this  inqufition  to  the  court  of  king's-bench, 
or  the  next  affizee.  Another  branch  of  his  office  is  to 
inquire  concerning  fliipwrecks  ;  and  certify  whether 
wreck  or  not,  and  who  is  in  poffcffion  of  the  goods. 
Concerning  treafure-trove,  he  is  alfo  to  inquire  con- 
cerning the  finders,  and  where  it  is,  and  whether  any 
one  be  fufpected  of  having  found  and  concealed  a 
treafure  ;  "  and  that  may  well  be  perceived  (faith  the 
old  ftatute  of  Edw.  I.),  where  one  liveth  riotoufly, 
haunting  tiverns,  and  hath  done  fo  of  long  time  ;'* 
whereupon  he  might  be  attached  and  held  to  bail  up- 
on this  fufpicion  only. 

The  minifterial  office  of  the  coroner  is  only  as  the 
(heriff^'s  fubftitute.  For  when  juft  exception  can  be 
taken  to  the  flieriff^,  for  fulpicion  of  partiality  (as  that 
he  is  interefted  in  the  fuit,  or  of  kindred  to  either 
plaintiff  or  defendant),  the  procefs  null  then  be  a- 
warded  to  the  coroner,  infttad  of  the  fhctiff,  tor  exe- 
cution or  the  king's  writs. 

CORONET.     See  Crown. 

Coronet,  or  cornet,  of  a  horfe,  the  loweft  part 
of  the  pallern,  which  runs  round  the  coffin,  and  is  di- 
ftinguifhed  by  the  hair  joining  and  covering  the  upper 
part  of  the  hoof. 

COKONlLhA,  jointed pocfJed  Coil-TEA  :  A  genus 
of  the  decandria  order,  belonging  to  the  diadelphia  clafs 
of  plants;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
3  2d  order,  Papi/ionacete.  The  calyx  is  bilabiated,  with 
two  fegnients  above  coalited  ;  the  vexillum  fcarce  any 
longer  than  the  a\x;  the  legumen  much  contracted  be- 
tween the  feeds.  To  this  genus  Linmus  alfo  joins 
the  emerus,  or  fcorpion  fena ;  though  Mr  Miller  makes 
it  a  dillincl;  fpecies.  There  are  11  fpecies,  all  of  them 
plants  of  confiderable  beauty,  with  very  bright  yellow 
flowers.  All  of  them,  however,  are  rather  too  ten- 
der for  this  climate,  except  the  emerus.  This  fpecies 
rifes  with  a  (hrubby  ftem,  branching  numeroufly  fix  or 
eight  feet  high,  clofely  garniflied  with  winged  leaves 
of  three  pair  of  lobes,  terminated  by  an  odd  one  ; 
arid,  at  the  fides  of  the  branches,  numerous  long  flower- 
ftalks,  each  fuppoiiiug  two  or  three  large  yellow 
flowers  of  the  papilionaceous  kind,  fucceeded  by  long- 
ifli  pods ;  it  is  eafily  propagated  by  feeds,  and  hke- 
wife  by  layers  or  cuttings.  The  leaves  of  this  plant  are 
efteemed  laxative,  and  ufed  as  a  fubftitute  for  common 
fena  in  fome  parts  of  Europe.  A  dye  is  procured  by 
fermentation  from  the  leaves,  like  that  of  indigo. 

CORONOID,  and  Condvloid,  procefTes.  See 
Anatomy,  n"26. 

CORPORA  CAVERNOSA,  in  anatomy,  two  fpon- 
gious  bodies,  called  alfo  corpora  nervofa  and  corpus 
Jpongiofum.  See  Anatomy,  p.  738,  col.  2. 

CoRPOR.i  Pyramidiilia,  are  two  protuberances  of  the 
under  part  of  the  cerdellum,  about  an  inch  long  ;  fo 
called  from  their  refemblance  to  a  pyramid.  Sec  A- 
NATOMY,  no  134. 

Corpora  Striata.     See  Anatomy,  p.  758,  col.  i. 

CORPORAL,  an  inferior  officer  under  a  fergeant, 
in  a  company  of  foot,  who  has  charge  over  one  of  the 
divifions,  places  and  relieves  centincls,  and  keeps  good 
order  in  the  corps  de  garde :  he  alfo  receives  the 
word  from  the  inferior  rounds,  which  pafles  by  his 

cerjs 


COR 


C    47^     T 


COR 


Cnrpora),  corps  de  garde.     This  officer  carries   a  fiifee,  anJ  is 
Corpora-   commonly  an  old  foldier :  there  are   generally  three 

"""•      corporals  in  each  company. 
"    '  Corporal  of  a  Ship  of  IVar,  an  officer  under  the  ma- 

tter at  arms,  employed  to  teach  the  officers  the  ex- 
ercifc  of  fniall  arms,  or  of  muflvetry  ;  to  attend  at  the 
gang-way,  on  entering  ports,  and  oblcrve  that  no  fpi- 
ritnous  liquors  are  brouf;ht  into  the  fhip,  ur.leTs  by  ex- 
prcfs  leave  from  the  officers.  He  is  alio  t«  exliiiguilh 
the  fire  and  candles  at  eight  o'clock  in  winter  and 
nine  in  fummer,  when  the  evening  gun  is  hred  ;  and 
to  walk  frequently  down  in  the  lower  decks  in  his 
watch,  to  fee  that  there  are  no  lights  but  fuch  as  are 
under  the  charge  of  proper  centinels. 

CoRrORAL  ( Corporalt),  is  alfo  an  ancient  cliurch- 
term,  figui))ing  the  facred  linen  fpread  under  the  cha- 
lice in  the  cucharill  and  mafs,  to  receive  the  fragments 
of  the  bread,  if  any  chance  to  fall.  Some  fay,  it  was 
pope  Eufjbius  who  lirll  enjoined  the  nfe  of  the  corpo- 
ral ;  others  afcribe  it  to  St  Silvefier.  It  was  the  cuf- 
tom  to  carry  corporals,  wiih  fome  folemnity,  to  fires, 
and  to  heave  them  agaiuil  the  flames,  in  order  to  ex- 
tinguKli  them.  Philip  de  Comines  fays,  the  pope 
made  Louis  XI.  a  piefent  of  the  corporale,  whereon 
my  lord  St  Piter  fung  mafs. 

CORPORATION,  a  body  politic  or  incorporate, 
fo  called,  becaufe  the  perfons  or  members  are  joined 
into  one  body,  and  are  qualified  to  take,  giant,  i^cc. 

Of  corporations  there  is  a  gi-eat  variety  fubfilling, 
for  the  advancement  of  religion,  of  learning,  and  of 
commerce ;  in  order  to  prcferve  cntrie  and  for  ever 
thofe  rights  and  immunities,  which,  if  they  were 
granted  only  to  thofe  individuals  of  which  the  body 
corporate  is  compofed,  would  upon  their  death  be  ut- 
terly loll  and  extindl.  To  (how  the  advantages  of 
thefe  incorporations,  let  us  coiifider  the  cafe  of  a  col- 
lege in  either  of  our  univerfities,  founded  acl Jludendum 
et  oraiiiiiim,  for  the  encouragement  and  fupport  of  re- 
ligion and  learning.  If  this  was  a  mere  voluntary  af- 
fembly,  the  individuals  which  compofe  it  might  in- 
deed read,  pray,  ftudy,  and  perform  fcholaltic  cxer- 
cifes  together,  fo  long  as  they  could  agree  to  do  fo  : 
but  they  could  neither  frame,  nor  receive,  any  laws  or 
rules  of  their  conduA  ;  none  at  leaft  which  would 
have  any  binding  force,  for  want  of  a  coercive  power 
to  create  a  fufficient  obligation.  Neither  could  they 
be  capable  of  retaining  any  privik-ges  or  immunities  : 
for,  if  fuch  privileges  be  attacked,  which  of  all  this 
unconnefted  affembly  has  the  right  or  ability  to  de- 
fend them  ?  And,  when  they  are  difperfed  by  death 
or  otherwife,  how  (hall  they  transfer  thefe  advanta- 
ges to  another  fet  of  (Indents,  eqirally  unconnttted  as 
themfelves?  So  alfo,  with  regard  to  holding  cilates 
or  other  property,  if  laud  be  granted  for  the  purpofes 
of  religion  or  learning  to  20  individuals  not  iircorpo- 
fated,  there  is  no  legal  way  of  continiring  the  pro- 
perty to  any  other  perfons  for  the  fame  puipofes,  but 
by  endlefs  conveyances  from  one  to  the  other,  as  of- 
ten as  the  hands  are  changed.  But  when  they  are 
confolidated  and  united  into  a  corporation,  they  and 
their  fucctffors  are  then  confidered  as  one  perfon  in 
law  :  as  one  perfon,  they  have  one  will,  which  is  col- 
kfted  from  the  fenfe  of  the  majority  of  the  indivi- 
duals:  this  one  will  may  edablifh  rules  and  orders  for 
the  regulation  of  the  whole,  which  are  s  fort  of  mu> 


nicipal  laws  of  this  little  republic  ;  or  rules  and  fla- 
tutcs  rtiay  be  prefcribed  to  it  at  its  creation,  which  are 
then  in  the  place  of  natural  laws :  the  privileges  and 
immunities,  the  ellates  and  polfcffions,  of  the  corpo- 
ration, when  once  veiled  in  them,  will  be  for  ever 
veiled,  without  any  new  conveyance  to  new  fuccef- 
fions ;  for  all  the  individual  members  that  have  exiil- 
ed  from  the  foundation  to  the  prefcnt  time,  or  that 
(Irall  ever  hereafter  cxlil,  are  but  one  perfon  in  law, 
a  perfon  that  never  dies  :  irr  like  manner  as  the  river 
Thames  is  Hill  the  fame  river,  though  the  parla  which 
compofe  it  nrx"  changing  every  iiilturrl. 

The  honour  of  originally  inventing  thefe  political 
coriltitutions  entirely  belongs  to  the  Romans.  They 
were  introduced,  as  Piutaiclr  fays,  by  Numa ;  who 
finding,  upon  his  acceffion,  the  city  torn  to  pieces  by 
the  two  rival  faftiuns  of  Sabines  and  Romans,  thought 
it  a  prudent  and  politic  mcafu^e  to  fubdivide  thefe 
two  into  many  (mailer  ones,  by  inftituting  feparate 
focleties  of  every  manual  trade  and  profefilon.  They 
were  afterwards  much  confidered  by  the  civil  law,  in 
which  they  were  called  unlver/i.'atcs,  as  forming  one 
whole  out  of  many  irrdivlduals  ;  or  collegia,  from  be- 
ing gathered  together  :  they  were  adopted  alfo  by  the 
canon  law,  for  the  maintenance  of  ecclefiailical  diici- 
pline  ;  and  from  them  our  fpiritual  corporations  are 
derived.  But  our  laws  have  confiderably  refined  and. 
iiirpi-oved  upon  the  invention,  accordirjg  to  the  ufual 
geirius  of  the  Englifii  nation  :  psrtJcirlarly  with  regard, 
to  folc  corpor-alions,  confilling  of  one  peifon  only,  of 
which  the  Roman  lawyers  had  no  notion;  their  maxim 
being  that  "  tres  faciuiit  collegium  :"  though  they 
held,  that  if  a  corporation,  originally  confiiling  of 
three  perfons,  be  reduced  to  one,  "  i\  unlverfitas  ad 
unum  redit,"  it  may  dill  fubfift  as  a  corporation,  "  et 
(let  nomen  univcrfiiatis." 

As  to  the  feveral  foits  of  corporations,  the  firft  dl- 
vlfion  of  them  is  into  aggregate  andyS/e.  Corporations 
aggregate  confiil  of  many  perfons  united  together  into 
one  fociety,  and  are  kept  up  by  a  perpetual  fucceffion 
of  members,  fo  as  to  continue  for  ever  :  of  which  kind 
are  the  mayor  and  commonalty  of  a  city,  the  head  and 
fellows  of  a  college,  the  dean  and  chapter  of  a  cathe- 
dral church.  Corporations  fole  confiil  of  one  perfon 
only  and  his  fuccelTors,  in  fome  particular  (lation,  who 
are  incorporated  by  law,  in  order  to  give  them  fome 
legal  capacities  and  advantages,  particularly  that  of 
perpetuity,  which  in  their  natural  perfons  they  could, 
not  have  had.  In  this  fenfe  the  king  is  a  fole  corpora- 
tion :  fo  is  a  bifirop  :  fo  are  fome  deans  and  prebenda- 
ries, diltinft  from  their  feveral  chapters:  andfo  is  every 
parfon  and  vicar.  And  the  neceffity,  or  at  lead  ufe, 
of  this  inftitution  will  be  very  apparent,  if  we  confider 
the  cafe  of  a  parfon  of  a  church.  At  the  original  en- 
dowment of  patifli-churches,  the  freehold  of  the  church, 
the  church-yard,  the  parfonage-houfe,  the  glebe,  and 
the  tithes  of  the  parifh,  were  veiled  in  the  then  par- 
fon by  the  bounty  cf  the  donor,  as  a  temporal  recom- 
pence  to  him  for  his  fpiritual  care  of  the  inhabitant.*,, 
and  with  intent  that  the  fame  emoluments  fliould  ever 
afterwards  continue  as  a  recompence  for  the  fame  care. 
But  how  was  this  to  be  efftfted  ?  The  freehold  wa». 
veded  in  the  parfon  ;  and,  if  we  fuppofe  it  vefted  in 
his  natural  capacity,  on  his  death  it  might  defcend  lo 
his  heir,  and  would  be  liable  to  bis  debts  aud  incum- 
brances i. 


Cirpofi- 
ti'.n. 

V 

BlckJI. 
Ccmmrni. 


COR  [47 

brances  :  or  at  beft  the  heir  might  be  compellabk,  at 
fome  trouble  and  exper.ce,  to  convey  thefe  right?  to 
the  fiicceeding  incumbent.  The  law  therefore  has  wife- 
ly ordained,  th;it  the  parfon,  <~.iatenus  parfon,  fliall  ne- 
ver die,  any  more  than  the  kin-r  ;  by  making  him  and 
his  fucceffors  a  corporation.  By  which  means  all  the 
original  rights  of  the  parfonage  are  preferved  entire  to 
the  fiicceffor  :  for  the  prcfent  incunbent,  and  his  pre- 
deceffor  who  lived  feven  centuries  ago,  are  in  law  one 
and  the  fame  pcrfon  ;  and  what  wai  given  to  the  one 
was  given  to  the  other  alio. 

Another  divifion  of  corporations,  either  fole  or  ag- 
gregate, is  into  ccchfuijlkal  and  lay.  Ecclefiailical  cor- 
porations are  where  the  members  that  compofe  it  are 
entirely  fplritual  perfons  ;  fuch  as  bifhops  ;  certain  deans 
and  prebendaries  ;  all  archdeacons,  parfons,  and  vicars  ; 
which  are  fole  corporations  :  deans  and  chapters  at 
■piefent,  and  formerly  prior  and  convent,  abbot  and 
monks,  and  the  like,  bodies  aggregate.  Thefe  are 
erefted  for  the  furtherance  of  religion,  and  perpetu- 
ating the  rights  of  the  church. — Lay  corporations  aue 
of  two  forts,  ci'Stl  and  elamofynary.  The  civil  are  fuch 
as  are  ereSed  for  a  variety  of  temporal  piirpofes-  The 
king,  for  inftance,  is  made  a  corporation  to  prevent  in 
general  the  polhbility  of  an  'iiilen\f;num  or  vacancy  of 
the  throne,  and  to  preferve  the  pon"clTions  of  the  crown 
entire  ;  for,  immediately  upon  the  demife  of  one  king, 
his  fucceffor  is  in  full  poifeffion  of  the  regal  rights  and 
dignity.  Other  lay  corporations  are  ereAed  for  the 
good  government  of  a  tOA'n  or  particular  diftriifl,  as  a 
mayor  and  commonalty,  bailifT  and  burgeffes,  or  the 
like  :  fome  for  the  advancement  and  regulation  of  ma- 
nufaftures  and  commerce;  as  the  trading  companies 
of  London  and  other  towns  :  and  fome  for  the  better 
carrying  on  of  divers  fpecial  purpofes  ;  as  church-war- 
dens,  for  confcrvatlon  of  the  goods  of  the  parilh  ;  the 
college  of  phyficians  and  company  of  furgeons  in  Lon- 
don, for  the  improve-ient  of  the  medical  fcience  ;  the 
royal  focicty  for  the  advancement  of  natural  know- 
ledge ;  and  the  fociety  of  antiquarians  for  promoting 
the  ftudy  of  antiquities.  The  cleemofynary  fort  are 
fuch  as  are  conlhituted  for  the  perpetual  diflribution  of 
the  free  alms,  or  bounty,  of  the  founder  of  them  to 
fuch  perfons  as  he  has  direftcd.  Of  this  kind  are  all 
hofpitals  for  the  maintenance  of  the  poor,  fick,  and 
impotent  ;  and  all  colleges,  both  in  our  univerfities  and 
out  of  them  :  which  colleges  are  founded  for  two  pur- 
pofes :  I.  For  the  promotion  of  piety  and  learning  by 
proper  regulations  and  ordinances.  2.  For  imparting 
afiiftance  to  the  members  of  thofe  bodies,  in  order  to 
enable  them  to  profecute  their  devotion  and  ftudiee 
•with  greater  eafe  and  afliduit)'.  And  all  thefe  clee- 
mofynary corporations  are,  ftriftly  fpeaking,  lay,  and 
not  ccclefiatlical,  even  though  compoti-'d  of  ecclefi?lH- 
cal  perfon.«,  and  although  they  in  fome  things  partake 
of  the  nat'ire,  privileges,  ar.d  reftridions  of  ecclefi- 
aftical  bodies. 

H:iving  thus  marflialled  the  feveral  fpecies  of  cor- 
porations, let  us  next  proceed  to  confider,  I.  How 
corporations  in  gmeial  may  be  created.  2.  What  are 
their  powers,  capacities,  and  incapacities.  And,  3.  How 
they  may  be  diffolved. 

I.  Corporations,  by  the  civil  law,  fecm  to  have 
been   created  by  the  mere  aft  and   voluntary  aflbcia- 


] 


COR 


tion  of  their  members  ;  provided  fuch  convention  was  Cofpo 
not  contrary  to  law,  for  then   It  was  H'hitum  collegium.       "™ 
It  does  not  appear   that   the   prince's   coufent  was  ne- 
ceffary  to  be  aCliSilly  given  to  the  foimdation  of  them  ;    ^•^^' 
but  merely  that  the  original  founders  of  thefe  volun- 
tary and   friendly   focieties   (for   they  were  little  more 
than  fuch)  fhould   not   ellabiifii  any  meetings  in  oppo- 
fititm  to  the  laws  of  the  ftate. 

But  in  England  the  king's  confent  is  abfolute'y  nc- 
ceffary  to  the  ereftion  of  any  corporation,  either  im- 
pliedly or  exprefsly  given.  The  king's  implied  con- 
fent is  to  be  found  in  corporations  which  exill  by  force 
of  the  common  law,  to  which  our  former  kings  are 
fuppofed  to  have  given  their  concurrence  ;  common 
law  being  nothing  elfe  but  cuflom,  arifing  from  the 
univerfal  agreemcut  of  the  wh.)le  community.  Of 
this  fort  are  the  king  himfelf,  all  blfhops,  parfuns,  vi- 
cars, church-wardens,  and  fome  ethers  ;  who  by  com- 
mon law  have  ever  been  held  (as  far  as  our  books  can 
fliow  us)  to  have  been  corporations,  virtute  ofjicii :  and 
this  incorporation  is  fo  infeparably  annexed  to  their 
offices,  that  we  cannot  frame  a  complete  legal  idea  of 
any  of  thefe  perfons,  but  we  muil  alio  have  an  idea  of 
a  corporation,  capable  to  tranfmit  his  rights  to  his  fuc- 
ceiTors,  at  the  fame  time.  Another  method  of  impli- 
cation, whereby  the  king's  conlent  is  prefumed,  is  as 
to  all  corporations  by  prefcription,  fuch  as  the  city  of 
London,  and  many  others,  which  have  esllled  as  cor- 
porations, tim.e  whereof  the  memory  of  man  runneth 
out  to  the  contrary  ;  and  theref  re  are  looked  tipon  in 
law  to  be  well  created.  For  though  the  members 
thereof  can  fhow  no  legal  charter  of  iucorporation, 
yet  in  cafes  of  fuch  high  antiquity  the  law  prefumes 
there  once  was  one;  and  that  by  the  variety  of  acci- 
dents, which  a  length  of  time  may  produce,  the  char- 
ter is  loll  or  deftroyed.  The  methods  by  which  the 
king's  confent  is  exprefsly  given,  are  either  by  aft  of 
parliament  or  charter.  By  aft  of  parliament,  of  which 
the  royal  affent  is  a  necelfary  ingredient,  corporations 
may  undrubtedly  be  created  :  but  it  is  obfervablc,  that 
moll  of  thofe  ftatutes,  which  are  ufually  cited  as  ha- 
ving created  corporations,  do  either  conhi'm  luch  as 
have  been  before  created  by  the  king  j  as  in  the 
cafe  of  the  college  of  phyficians,  erected  by  charter 
10  Hen.  YIII.  which  charter  was  afterwards  contirm 
ed  in  parliament;  or,  they  peimit  the  king  to  ereft  a 
corporation  in  fuiuro  with  fuch  and  luch  powers  ;  as  is 
the  cafe  of  the  bank  of  England,  and  the  focicty  of  the 
Britilh  filhery.  So  that  the  immediate  creative  aft  is 
ufually  performed  by  the  king  alone,  in  virtue  of  hia 
royal  prerogative. 

All  the  other  methods  therefore  whereby  corpora- 
tions exill,  by  common  law,  by  prefcription,  and  by 
aft  of  parliament,  are  for  the  moll  part  reducible  to 
this  of  the  king's  letters  patent,  or  charter  of  incor- 
poration. The  king's  creation  m^iy  be  performed  by 
the  words  creanms,  erig'imus,  funJumas,  incorporamus,  or 
the  like.  Nay  it  is  held,  that  if  the  king  grants  to  a 
fct  of  men  to  have  giUam  msrcaioriam,  "  a  mercantile 
meeting  or  affembly,"  this  is  alone  fufficieut  to  incor- 
porate and  etlablilh  them  for  ever. 

The   king    (it   is  faid)    may  gi-ant  to  a  fubjeft   the 
power  of  erefting  corporations,  though   the  contrary 
was  formerly  held ;  that  is,  he  may  permit  the  fub- 
jeft 


COR 


r     47.3     T 


COR 


•  jefl  to  nnmc  tlie  perfons  and  powers  of  tin.'  corporation 
at  Lis  pleafine  ;  but  it  is  ically  iht  king  that  ereds, 
and  the  fnhjcft  is  but  tlie  iiiftiununt  ;  for  tlioiipli  none 
but  tlic  kingf  can  make  a  corporation,  yet  qui  fniil  per 
alium,  fnc'it  per  p.  In  tliis  manner  the  cliancellor  of 
the  univerfily  of  Oxford  has  power  by  charter  to  ereft 
corporations  ;  and  has  aftiially  often  exerted  it  in  the 
ereftion  of  feveral  matriculated  companies,  now  fub- 
fiftinjr,  of  tradefmen  fubfervient  to  the  ftudcnts. 

When  a  corporation  is  eie<£ted,  a  name  muft  be  gi- 
I'en  to  it  ;  and  by  that  name  alone  it  mufl  fue  and  be 
fued,  and  do  all  legal  afts. 

II  After  a  corporation  is  fo- formed  and  named,  it 
acquires  many  powers  and  rights,  which  we  are  next 
<o  confider.  Some  of  thefe  are  neccfTarllv  and  infe- 
parably  incident  to  every  corpotation  ;  which  incidents, 
as  foon  as  a  cotporation  is  duly  erefted,  are  tacitly  an- 
nexed of  courfe.  As,  I.  To  have  perpetual  fuccef- 
fion.  This  is  the  very  end  of  its  incorporation  :  for 
there  rannct  be  a  fuccefllon  for  ever  without  an  incor- 
poralion  ;  and  therefore  all  aggregate  corporations 
have  a  power  necelfarily  implied  of  eleifting  meirbers 
in  the  loom  of  fuch  as  go  cff.  2.  To  fue  or  be  fued, 
impltad  or  be  impleaded,  grant  or  receive,  by  its  cor- 
porate name,  and  do  all  other  afts  as  natural  perfons 
ir.ay.  3.  To  purchafe  lands,  and  hold  them,  for  the 
benelit  of  themfelves  and  their  luccefTors:  which  two 
are  confequenlial  to  the  former.  4.  To  have  a  com- 
mon feal.  For  a  corporation,  being  an  invifible  body, 
cannot  manifeft  its  intentions  by  any  perfonal  aft  or 
oral  di'icourfe  :  itotherwife  afts  and  fpeaks  only  by 
its  common  feaL  For  though  the  particular  members 
may  exprefs  their  private  confents  to  any  aft,  by  words, 
or  figning  their  names,  yet  this  does  not  bind  the  cor- 
poration ;  it  Is  the  fixing  of  the  feal,  and  that  onlv, 
which  unites  the  feveral  aifents  of  the  individuals  who 
compofe  the  community,  and  make?  one  joint  aflent 
of  the  whole.  5.  To  make  by-laws  or  private  ftatntes 
for  the  better  government  of  the  corporation  ;  which 
are  birdirg  upon  themfelves,  unlefs  contrary  to  the 
laws  of  the  land,  and  then  they  are  void.  But  no 
trading  company  is  with  113  allowed  to  make  by-laws 
which  may  afFeft  the  king's  prerogative  or  the  com- 
mon profit  of  the  people,  under  penalty  of  L.  40,  un- 
lefs they  be  approved  by  the  chancellor,  treafurer, 
and  chief  juftices,  or  the  judges  of  affi/.e  in  their  cir- 
cuits: and  even  though  they  be  fo  approved,  dill,  if 
contrary  to  law,  they  are  void.  Thefe  five  powers 
are  infeparaUy  incident  to  every  corporation,  at  leaft 
to  every  corporation  agtfregate  :  for  two  of  them, 
though  they  may  be  praftifed,  yet  are  very  unnccef- 
fary  to  a  corporation  fole  ;  viir.  to  have  a  corporate 
feal  to  tcllify  his  fole  afTent,  and  to  make  ftalutes  for 
the  regulati  11  of  his  own  conduft. 

Corporations  have  a  capacity  to  purchafe  lands  for 
themfelves  and  luceeffors  ;  but  they  are  excepted  out 
ef  the  (latiite  of  wills  ;  fo  that  no  devife  of  lands  to  a 
Corporation  by  will  is  good  j  except  for  charitable  ufes, 
by  Itatute  4^  Eliz.  c.  4.  which  exception  is  again  great- 
ly narrowed  by  the  ftatute  9  Geo.  II.  c.  36.  And  alfo, 
by  a  great  variety  of  ftatutes,  their  privilege  even  of 
purchafing  from  any  living  granter  is  much  abridged  ; 
fo  that  now  a  corporation,  either  ccclefiaftical  or  lay, 
mull  have  a  licence  from  the  king  to  purchafe,  before 
they  can  exert  tliat  capacity  which  is  veiled  in  tKem 
Vol.  V.  Part  II. 


by  the  common  l,iw  :  nor  is  evtn  this  in  all  cafes  fuf- 
hcient.  Theft  ll.iliites  are  generally  called  the  ftatutes 
of  marltnain.     .Si  e  Mortmain. 

The  general  duties  of  all  bodie:-  politic,  confijered 
in  their  corporate  capacity,  m.ny,  like  thofe  of  natuial 
perfons,  be  reduced  to  this  fingle  one  ;  that  of  afting 
up  to  the  end  or  defign,  v^hatever  it  be,  for  which 
thev  were  created  by  their  founder. 

III.  How  corporations  may  be  difTolved.  Any  par- 
ticular member  may  be  ditfranchifed,  or  lofe  his  place 
in  the  corporation,  by  afting  contraiy  to  the  laws  of 
the  fociety,  or  the  laws  of  the  land  :  or  he  may  refign 
it  by  his  own  voluntary  aft.  But  the  body  politic  may 
alio  itfelf  be  diffnlved  in  feveral  ways  ;  which  dilTolu. 
tion  is  the  civil  death  of  the  corporation  :  and  in  this 
cafe  their  lands  and  tenements  fliall  revert  to  the  per- 
fon,  or  his  heirs,  who  granted  them  to  the  corpora- 
tion :  for  the  law  doth  annex  a  condition  to  every 
fuch  grant,  that  if  the  corporation  be  dllTolved,  the 
granter  (hall  have  the  lands  again,  becaufe  the  caufe 
of  the  grant  failcth.  Tiie  grant  is  indeed  only  during 
the  life  of  the  corporation  ;  which  may  endure  for 
ever:  but  when  that  life  is  determined  by  the  difTo- 
lution  of  the  body  politic,  the  granter  takes  it  back  by 
reverfion,  as  in  the  cafe  of  every  other  grant  for  life. 
The  debts  of  a  corporation,  either  to  or  from  it,  are 
totally  extiniruilhed  by  its  diflblution  ;  fo  that  the 
members  thereof  cannot  recover,  or  be  charged  with 
them,  in  their  natural  capacities :  arrreeable  to  that 
maxim  of  the  civil  law,  6V  quid  vniverjltnli  dehcfur,  Jiw 
giilis  71071  dcbelur  ;  nee,  quod  debet  unlivrjitas,  Jinguli  de* 
bent. 

A  corporation  may  be  diffolved,  i.  By  aft  of  par- 
liament, which  is  boundlefs  in  its  operations.  2.  By 
the  natural  death  of  all  its  members,  in  cafes  of  an  ag- 
gregate corporation.  3.  Byfurrender  of  its  franchifei 
into  the  hands  of  the  king,  which  is  a  kind  of  fuicide. 
4.  By  forfeiture  of  its  chatter,  through  negligence  or 
abufe  of  its  franchifes  ;  in  which  cafe  the  law  judges 
that  the  body  politic  has  broken  the  condition  upon 
which  it  was  incorporated,  and  thereupon  the  incor- 
poration is  void.  And  the  regular  courfe  is  to  bring 
an  information  in  nature  of  a  writ  of  quo  rjuari-n/ito, 
to  inquire  by  what  warrant  the  members  now  txer- 
cife  their  corporate  power,  hp.ving  forfeited  it  by  fuch 
and  fuch  proceedings.  The  exertion  of  this  aft  of 
law,  for  the  purpofes  of  the  ftate,  in  the  reigns  of  king 
Charles  and  king  James  II.  particularly  by  feizing  the 
charter  of  the  city  of  London,  gave  great  and  juil  of- 
fence ;  though  perhaps,  in  ftriftnefs  of  law,  the  pro- 
ceedings in  moft  of  them  were  fufficiently  regular  :  but 
the  judgment  againft  that  of  London  was  reverfcd  by 
aft  of  parliament  after  the  revolution  ;  and  by  the  fame 
ftatute  it  is  enafted,  that  the  franchifes  of  the  city  of 
London  (hall  never  more  be  fovftited  for  any  caufe 
whatfoever.  And  becaufe  by  the  common  law  cor- 
porations were  didbh'ed,  in  cafe  the  mayor  or  head 
offictr  was  not  duly  elcfted  on  the  day  appointed  in  the 
cliarter  or  eftablifhed  by  prefcription,  it  is  now  pro- 
vided, that  for  the  future  no  corporation  fhall  be  dlflToI- 
vcd  upon  that  account ;  and  ample  direftions  are  gi- 
ven for  appointing  a  new  officer,  in  cafe  there  be  no 
tlcftion,  or  a  void  one,  made  upon  the  charter  or  pre- 
fcriptive  day. 

CoRioK^TioN  A3,  is  that  which  prevents  any  perfon 
3  O  from 


Ct^mment, 


C    OR  [     474    ]  COR 

from  being  legally  eleiSed  into  any  office  relating  to         Gratian  made   a   coUeftion  of  the  canons  of  (tie    Corpuj 
the    government  of  any  city    or  corporation,   unlefa     church,  cMed  corJ>u!  canoiinm.     The  i:&/y>«j  of  tUe  civil         'I 
within  3  twelvemonth  before  he  h?.s  received  the  facra-     law  is  compofed   of  the  digeft,   code,  and   inilitutcs.    '''"^   '*" 
ment   of  the  Lord's  fuppcr,  ai-cordinjr  to  the  rites  of    We  have  alfo  a  corpus  of  the  Greek  poets;  and  another 
the  church  of  En.krland  ;  and  vrhich  enj.  ins  him  to  take     of  the  Latin  poets. 

the  oaths  of  allegiance  and  fuprfmacy  when  he  takes  CoRPrs  Cirj/Ii,  a  feftival  of  the  church  of  En;|land, 

the  oath  of  office;  otherwife  his  eleftion  is  void.  kept  on  the  next  Thurfday  after   Trinity-funday,  in- 

CORPOREAL,  thofe  qualities  vvliich  denominate     ftitnted  in  honour  of  the  cucharill ;  to  w^ich  alio  one 
a  bodv.    See  Incorporeal.  of  the  coUetjes  in  Oxford  is  dedicated. 

CORPOREITY,  the  qualitv  of  that  which  is  cor-  CORPUSCLE,   in  Phylics,  a  minute  particle,  or 

porea],  or  his  body  :  or  that  wh'ch  confticutes  or  de-  phyfical  atom,  being  fuch  as  a  natural  body  is  made  up 
nominates  it  fuch. — The  corpcreitv  of  God  was  the  of.  By  this  word  is  not  meant  the  elementary  particles, 
capital  error  of  the  Anthropomorphites.  Some  authors  nor  the  hypollatical  principles  of  chemifls  ;  birt  fiich 
reproach  Tcrtullian  v.'ith  admitting  a  coiporeily  in  the  particles,  whether  of  a  fimple  or  compound  nature, 
Dtity  :  bi:t  it  is  manir'eit:,  by  loJy  he  mi-ans  no  more  whofe  parts  will  not  be  diffolved  nor  dilfipated  by  or- 
than   /iii/lance.  —  Thi   Mahoinctaiis    reproach   the   Sa-     dinaiy  deg-rets  of  he^t. 

roaritans  bt  this  dHv,  with  a  belief  of  the  corporeity  of  CORPUSCULAR  philosophy,  that  way  of  phi- 
God.  Many  of  the  ancients  beheved  the  corporeity  of  lolophiiing  wliich  eiidtavouis  to  explain  things,  and  co 
2P„el,!.  account  for  the  phenomena  of  nature,  by  tlie  muticn, 

CORPSE,  a  dead  body.  fi>;ure,  rell,   p(  lilion,   «c.  of  the  corpufcles,  or  the  mi- 

If  anyone,  in   taking;   up   a   dead  body,   deals  the     nute  particles  of  matter, 
fllrowd,  or  other  aoparet,  it  will  be   felony.      Stealing  Mr  Boyle  fums  up  the  chief  principles  of  the  corpnf- 

only  the  corpfe  itfelf  is  not  feloxiy  ;  but  it  is  punilliable  cular  hypothefis,  wiiich  noiv  flouri!hc3  under  the  me- 
as  a  mifdemeanor  by  indictment  at  common  law.  chanical  philosophy  in  thefe  particulars  : 

CORPS,  in  architedure,  is  a  term  borrowed  from  I.   They  fuppo(e  that  there  is  but  one   catholic  or 

the  French,  lignifying  any  part  that  projtrts  or  ad-  uriverfal  matter,  which  is  an  rxtcndfd,  impenetrablr, 
vances  beyond  the  naked  of  a  wall;  and  which  fcrves  and  divifible  I'ubilance,  common  to  all  bodies,  and  ca- 
as  a  ground  for  fome  decoration  or  the  like.  pable  of  all  forms,      z.   That  this  m.atter,  in  order  to 

.Corps  rie  Baiaille,  is  the  main  body  of  an  army  drawn     form  the  vaft  vaiicty  of  natural  bodies,  muil  have  mo- 
no for  battle.  t''^''  '"  fome  or  all  its  aiTignable  parts  ;  and  that  t!u"s 
Corps  ik  Garde,  a  pod  in  an  army,  fometimes  under     motion  was  given  to  matter  by  G  )d  the  Creator  of  ail 
ivcrt,   fometir.-.es  in  tiie  open  air,  to   receive   a   body     things,  and  has  all  manner  of  direftions  and  tendencies. 

'3.  Matter  mull  alfo  be  aftuully  divided  into  partr,  and 
each  of  thele  primitive  pirticles,  fragments,  or  atom* 
tf  matter,  mui'l  have  its  proper  magnitude  or  fize, 
as  alfo  its  peculiar  figure  or  fhape.  4.  They  fup- 
pofe  alfo,  that  »thefe  differently  fized  and  fhapcd  par- 
ticles may  have  as  different  orders  and  politions,  where- 
of great  variety  may  ariie  in  the  compofilion  of  bo- 
dies. 

CORRADINI  DE  Sezza  (Peter  Marcellinus),  a 


cffoldierv,  who  are  relieved  from  time  to  time,  and 
are  to  watch  in  their  turns,  for  the  fecurity  of  a  quar- 
ter, a  camp,  ftation,  ?ic. —  The  word  is  alfo  ufed  for 
the  men  who  watch  therein.  It  is  ufual  to  have,  bcfide 
;he  grer.t,  a  little  corps  de  garde,  at  a  good  diftauce 
before  the  lines  ;  to  be  the  more  readily  advertifed  of 
the  ap:irriach  of  the  enemy. 

CORPULENCY,  the  ftate  of  a  perfon  too  much 
loaded  wi'h  flefh  or  fat. 

Corpulency  is  the  occafion  of  various  difeafes,  and  learned  civilian  and  cardinal,  born  at  Sezza,  in  165^!, 

particulaily  the  apoplexy.   It  was  held  infamous  among  acquired   the  efteera  and   confidence  of  Clement  XI. 

the  ancient  Lacedjemonians.  and  died  at  Rome  in   1743.      H'-"  ^^'='5  ih^  author  of  a 

Sennertus  mentions  a  man  that  weighed  600  pounds,  learned  and  curious  work  entitled  "  VerusLatium  pro- 

and  a  maid  36  years  of  age  who  weighed  450.  Bright  fanum  &  facrum,"   2  vols  folio;  and  a  hiftory  of  Sez- 

of  Maiden,  who  died  at  the  age  of  29  years  in  1750,  za,   in  410. 

weighed  616  pounds.   Chiapin  Vitelli,  Marquis  of  Ce-  CORRADO  (Sebaftian),  an  Italian  grammarian  of 

Tona,   a  noted   Spanifh   general   in   his  time,  from  an  the  1 6th  century,  taught  the  Greek  and  Latin  tongues 

cxceffive    corpulency,  is    faid   to    have    reduced    him-  at  Reggio,  where  he  formed  an  academy   of  polite  U- 

fcIF,  by  drinking  of  vinegar,  to  fuch  a  degree  of  lean-  tcrature ;  and  at   length   removed  to  Bologna,  in  or- 

nels,  that  he  could  fold  his  fliin   feveral   times  round  der  to  be  profeiTor  of  thofe  languages.     He  wrote  fe- 

jjijY,  veral  works,  the  moil  eftecmed  of  which  are,   "  Que- 

Caftile  foap,  in  the  form  of  a  bolus,  an   cleftuary,  ftura    in    qua   Ciceronis  Vita    refercur,"  an  excellent 

pills,  or  diflbUed  in  a  gill  or  more  foft  water,  from  one  performance  ;  and,  "  de  Lingua  Latin.^."    He  died  in 

to  four  drachms,  taken  at  bed-time,  is  ftrongly  recom-  1556. 

mended  with  a  view  of  reducing  corpulency,   in  a  dif-  CORRECTION,    in     printing,     the    aft    of    re- 

courfe  on  its  nature,  caufes,  and  cure,  by  Malcolm  Fie-  trenching  the  faults  in  a  work  ;  or  the  reading  which 

myng,  M.  D.  Lond.  1760.      See  MEDiciNE'/nr-Zi-x-.  the  correftor  gives  the  firft  proofs,  to  point  out  and 

CORPUS,   in  anatomy,    is  applied  to  feveral  parts  amend  the  faults,  to  be  reftifitd  by  the  compofitor. 

of  the  animal  ftrudure  ;  as  corpus  callofum,  corpus  ca-  The  correftions  are  placed   on  the  margin  of  each 

rerno/vm,  &c.      See  Anatomy,  p.  739,  and  p.  740.  P^ge»  right  againft  the  line  where  the  faults  are  found. 

C  ORPUS  is  alfo  ufed  in  matters  of  learning,  for  fe-  There  are  different  charailers  ufed  to  exprels  different 

Ytral  works  of  the  fame  nature  colledcd  and  Ijound  to-  corredions,  as  D  or  \  dele,  for  any  thmg  to  be  effa- 

„e^her  ced  or  left  out.    When  any  thing  is  to  be  inferted, 

°         '                                                                      e  the 


COR  [4 

Cnrrf(5l«ir  the  place  19  marked  !n  the  line  with  a  carets  ami  tiie 
II         iiifertion   added  in  the   man^in.     When  a  word,  fyl- 

^'''"J"'"'.  lable,  Sec.  is  to  be  altered,  It  is  eral'td  out  of  the 
proof,  and  that  to  be  put  in  its  room  written  in  the 
margin  ;  aUvays  obferving,  if  there  be  fi:vcral  miftakes 
in  the  fame  line,  that  the  corrcftions  in  the  margin  be 
feparatcd  by  little  bars,  or  llrokes,  |  .  If  a  Ipace  be 
omitted,  its  place  is  marked  with  a  caret,  and  tlie 
margin  vlth  ■^.  If  a  Ipace  be  wrong  placed,  as  In 
the  middle  of  a  word,  the  two  parts  arc  connefted 
with  a  en     rve,  and   the    fame  charafter  put   in   the 

margin.  If  a  letter  be  inverted,  it  is  exprefTed  on  the 
margin  with  J.  If  any  thing  be  tranfpofed,  it  is 
marked  thus:  The  Ihorlejl  \ire  llie\fifl'"\  ^{ft  i  f"'"  t^-<^ 
/hnrlejl  follies  are  ihi  hejl ;  and  in  the  margin  is  added  tr. 
in  a  circle.  If  Roman  charatifcrs  are  to  be  clianged  for 
Italic,  or  vice,  verja,  a  line  i»  drawn  under  them  thus, 
and  Rinnan  or  Italk  added  in  tlie  margin  ;  If  to  capi- 
tals, a  double  line.  If  a  word  or  fentence  is  entirely 
oinitted,  the  plai  e  is  marked  with  a  caret,  and  in  the 
margin  is  inlerled  the  word  out.  If  the  letters  of 
a  word  (land  too  far  afunder,  a  line  is  drawn  imder 
them,  and  In  the  margin  is  put  a  crooked  line  or 
hook,  thus  ^_^. 

COIlRECrOR,  in  general,  denotes  fomethliig  that 
mends  the  faults  or  bad  qualities  of  others. 

CoKRhCTOK  nf  the  Staple,  a  clerk  belonging  to  the 
flaple,  whofe  bufinefs  is  to  wiite  down  and  record  the 
bargains  that  merchants  make  there. 

CoKRECTOR,  in  medicine  or  pharmncy,  an  ingre- 
dient in  a  coirpofitlon,  which  guards  againll  or  abates 
the  force  of  anotiier. 

CORREGIDOR,  the  name  of  an  officer  of  ju- 
ftlce  in  Spain,  and  countries  fubjeft  to  the  Spanlfh 
goveru'ncnt.  He  is  the  chief  judge  of  a  town  or 
province. 

CORREGCrlO.     See  Allegri.- 

CORRELATIVE,  fomethlng  oppofed  to  another 
in  a  certain  relation.  Thus,  fatiier  and  fon  arc  cor- 
iclatives.  Light  and  darknefs,  motion  and  reft,  aie 
Corrflative  and  oppofile  terms. 

CORRIGIOLA,  in  botany;  A  genus  of  the  trlgy- 
nia  order,  belonging  to  the  pentandria  clafs  of  plants  ; 
and  in  the  ntitiual  method  ranking  under  the  54th  or- 
der, JW/fceRiuiete.  The  calxy  is  pentaphyllous  ;  the  pe- 
tals five;   and  one  three- cornered  feed. 

CORROBORANTS,  or  Corroborative  Me^\- 
x'mci.      S"e  Strkng  ruENERs. 

CORRO.-iION,  In  a  general  fenfe,  the  aflion  of 
g.iawing  away,  by  degrees,  the  continuity  of  the  parts 
of  bodies. 

Corrosion,  in  chcmiftry,  an  aftlon  of  bodies,  by 
means  of  prwpcr  menltiuums,  that  produces  new  com- 
binntions,  and  a  change  of  their  form,  without  convert- 
ing them  to  fluidity. 

CORROSIVE  SUBLIMATE  MERCURY.  See  CHE- 
MISTRY - //i/A'X. 

CORRUGATOR  MUSCLE.  Sec  Anatomy,  7"^- 
hle  nf  the  Mujcles. 

CORROSIVES,  in  furgery,  are  medicines  which 
corrode  whatever  part  of  the  body  they  are  applied  to: 
fuch  are  bui  nt  alum,  white  precipitate  cf  mercury, 
■white  vitriol,  red  precipitate  of  mercury,  butter  of  an- 
timony, lapis  iafercjlis,   &c. 


75     ]  GO     R 

CORRUPTICOLtE,  a  feft  who  rofe  out  of  the  Com.pri. 
Monophylites    in   Egypt  about    the  year  511;,   under    .^      ' 
their   chief  Severus,  the  pretended  patriarch  of  Akx-      \\^n. 
andrla.  ■  .  j 

Their  dlllingulflilng  doftiine,  whence  they  derived 
their  name,  was,  that  the  body  of  Jcfus  Ciirilt  was 
corruptible;  that  the  fathers  had  owned  it;  and  that 
to  deny  it  was  to  deny  the  truth  of  our  Saviour'* 
paffiou. 

On  the  other  hand,  Julian  of  HallcarnaiTus,  another 
Eutychian,  a  refugee,  as  well  as  Severus,  in  Alexan- 
dria, maintained  that  tlie  body  of  Jefuii  Chrill  had  been 
always  Incorruptible  ;  that  to  fay  it  was  corruptible, 
was  to  make  a  diltinition  between  Jefus  Chrill  and  the 
Word,  and  by  conleqjcnce  to  make  two  natures  in  Je- 
fus Chrill. 

The  people  of  Alexandria  were  divided  between  the 
two  opinions  ;  and  the  partilans  of  Svverus  weie  call- 
ed corruptieoU,  q.  d.  worllilppers  of  fomethlng  cor- 
fuptible :  lomt  times  they  were  denominated  corrup- 
tibiles ;  and  the  adherents  of  Julian  itiorrtipitiiks  or 
phaiilafuijl^,  Tiie  clergy  and  fecular  powers  favoured 
the  lirlt  ;  the  monks  and  the  people  the  latter. 

CORRUPTION,  the  dcltruaion,  extinc'iion,  or 
at.leail  cefTation  for  a  time,  of  the  proper  mode  of 
exitlence   of  any  natural  body.      S;e  Putrefaction. 

CoKRuPTJON  of  Blood,  in  law,  one  of  the  confequen- 
ces  of  an  altaindci  ;  and  is  both  upwards  and  down- 
wards ;  fo  that  an  attainted  perfon  can  neither  inherit 
lands  or  other  liereditdments  from  his  anccllors,  nor 
retain  thofe  he  is  already  in  poiitflion  of,  nor  tranfmit 
them  by  defcent  to  any  heir;  but  the  fatne  Ihali  efcheat 
to  the  lord  of  the  fee,  lubjcft  to  the  king's  fuperior 
right  of  forfeiture;  and  the  perfon  attainted  IImU  alto 
oblhudl  all  deicents  to  his  pollcrity,  wherever  they  are 
oljh'ged  to  derive  a  title  through  liim  to  a  remoter  an- 
celtor.      Se  ATTAiNr>tR. 

This  is  one  of  thol't  notions  which  our  laws  have  Blulll. 
adopted  from  the  feodal  contlituiions,  at  the  time  oiOommait-, 
the  Norman  conquelt ;  as  appears  from  Its  being  un- 
known in  thofe  tenures  which  are  indifputably  Saxon, 
or  Gavel  kind  ;  wherein,  ihougli  by  trealbn,  according 
to  the  ancient  Saxon  laws,  the  land  is  forfeited  to  the 
king,  yet  no  corruption  of  blood,  no  impediment  of 
dtfcents,  enfues ;  and  onjudgm.ent  of  mere  felony,  no 
elcl'.eat  accrues  to  the  lord.  But,  by  the  law  of  Eng- 
land, derived  as  above,  a  man's  blood  is  fo  univcrlally 
co'rupted  by  attainder,  that  his  fons  can  neither  inhe- 
rit to  him  nor  to  any  other  ancellor,  at  Icall  on  the  part 
of  their  attainted  father. 

Tnis  corruption  of  blood  caniMt  be  abfjlntcly  remo- 
ved but  by  authority  of  parliament.  The  king  may 
exciile  the  public  punifhment  of  an  offender;  but  can- 
not abohlh  the  private  right  which  has  accrued,  or  may- 
accrue,  to  individuals  as  a  confequcnce  of  the  crlral- 
ual's  attainder.  He  may  remit  a  forfeiture  in  which 
the  intereft  of  the  crown  is  alone  concerned  ;  but  he 
cannot  wipe  away  the  corruption  of  blood  ;  for  there- 
in a  third  perfon  hath  an  intcrcll,  the  lord  who  claims 
by  efcheat.  It  therefore  a  man  hath  a  inn.,  and  is  at- 
tainted, and  afteiwards  pardon.-d  by  the  king;  thi« 
fon  can  never  inherit  to  his  father,  or  fathe.'s  ancc- 
llors i  becaufe  his  paternal  blood,  being  once  thorough- 
ly coirupted  by  his  father's  attainder,  mud  contiin' 
fo."  but  if  the  fon  had  been  born  after  the  pardon,  hr 
3  O  2  niitJi!. 


COR 

btcaule,   by  the 

may   convey 


parJon, 


f     .4 

the  fHthei-  13 
new  Iiilicrllablc 


might  Inherit 

maJe   a  new  man,  and 

blood  to  his  after-born  children. 

This  corruption  o{  blood,  thus  arifina;  fronti  friulal 
principles,  but  perhaps  ertendid  faitlier  than  even 
thefe  principles  will  warrant,  has  been  lone;  looked  upon 
as  a  peculiar  hardfhip  :  becaufe  the  oppreifive  parts  of 
the  feudal  tenures  being  nov/  in  general  abolifhed,  it 
ftems  unreafonible  to  referve  one  of  their  moff  ine- 
quitable conlequences;  namely,  that  the  children  fhould 
not  only  be  reduced  to  prefent  poverty  (which,  how- 
ever fevere,  is  iufficiently  jullilied  upon  reat'ons  of  pub- 
lic policy),  but  alfo  be  laid  under  future  difficulties  of 
inheritance,  on  account  of  the  guilt  of  their  anceftors. 
And  therefore  in  moft  (if  not  all)  of  the  new  felonies 
treated  by  Parliament  lince  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
it  is  declared  that  they  fhall  not  extend  to  any  cor- 
ruption of  blood  :  and  by  the  ilatute  7  Anne  c.  21. 
(the  operation  of  which  is  poftponed  by  the  ftatute 
I7_Geo.  II.  c.  39.)  it  is  enaiSed,  that,  after  the  death 
of  the  late  pretender  and  his  fons,  no  attainder  for 
treafon  fhall  extend  to  the  difinheriting  any  heir,  nor 
the  prejudice  of  any  perfon,  other  than  the  offender 
himfelf  :  which  provifions  have  indeed  carried  the  re- 
medy farther  than  was  required  by  the  hardfliip  above 
complained  of;  wliich  is  only  the  future  obltruttion  of 
defcencs,  where  the  pedigree  happens  to  be  deduced 
throukrh  the  blood  of  an  attainted  anceltor. 

CORSAIR,  a  pirate  or  perfon  who  fcours  the 
feas,  efpecially  the  jNIediterrancan,  with  a  vtfiel  armed 
for  war,  without  coramiflion  from  any  prince  or  power, 
to  plunder  merchant-velTels.  The  word  comes  from 
the  Italian  corfare,  of  ccrfo,  or  a  nirjibus,  by  rcafon 
of  their  courfes,  or  cxcurilons — -The  name  is  com- 
jnonly  given  to  the  piratical  cruifers  of  Barbary,  who 
had  their  rile  about  the  beginning  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury. 

A  corjalr  is  diftinguifhed  from  a  privateer  in  this, 
that  the  latter  does  it  under  a  commifTion,  and  only 
attacks  the  velTels  of  thofe  at  war  with  the  ftate  whence 
Lis  commiflion  is  derived.  The  puniihment  of  a  cor- 
fair  is  to  be  hanged,  without  remiffion  ;  whereas  pri- 
■»ateers  are  to  be  treated  as  prifoners  of  war.  All  cor- 
fair  vefiels  are  good  prizes. 

CORSELET,  a  little  CLiirafs  ;  or,  according  to  o- 
thcrs,  an  armour  or  coat  made  to  cover  the  whole  bo- 
dy, anciently  wcin  by  the  pike-men,  ufually  placed  in 
the  front  and  flanks  of  the  battle,  for  the  better  refill- 
ing the  enemy's  affaults,  and  guarding  the  foldiers  pla- 
ced behind  them. 

CORSICA,  (anc.geog.)an  ifland  fituated  in  that  part 
of  the  Mediterranean  anciently  called  the  Sea  of  Ligu- 
ria,  in  length  from  north  to  fouth  1 50  miles,  and  where 
broadcll  50,  (Pliny).  The  ancient  inhabitants  were 
the  Phocenfes,  (Herodotus);  from  which  they  remo- 
ved to  Maffilia.  To  them  fucceeded  the  Ligurians 
and  Hifpani,  as  appears  from  the  fimilitude  of  rites 
and  cuiloms  :  afterwards  two  Roman  colonies,  one  by 
Marius,  the  other  by  Sylla.  To  the  fouth  it  is  fe- 
parated  from  Sardinia  by  a  narrow  ftrait  called  Tajfoi,  or 
Foffa,  (Piiny)  ;  fixty  ftadia  or  about  feven  miles  in 
breadth,  (Strabo).  It  was  famous  for  Its  barren 
rocks,  its  woods,  and  its  honey  ;  which  laft  was  rec- 
koned noxious,  from  the  great  plenty  of  yew-trees,  ac- 


76     "I  COR 

cording  to  Diodorus  Sicuius  and  Virgil.  Ctiifi  was 
the  name  of  the  people,  (Livy)  ;  Cyrnaeus,  the  epi- 
thet, (Virgil). — The  ifland  ilill  retains  its  ancient 
name  Cnrftca  ;  fituated  between  8  and  10  degrees  of 
call  longitude,  and  between  41  and  43  de:,'rees  of 
north  latitude.  It  was  formerly  fuljjett  to  Genoa  ; 
though  the  natives  for  many  years  difputed  their  right. 
The  Ifland  is  now  in  the  hands  of  the  French  ;  and 
have  lately,  in  confequence  of  the  revolution  in  France, 
been  admitted  to  a  participation  of  all  the  rights  and 
privileges  of  free  citizens. 

CORSNED,  or  Morsel  of  Execration,  a  fpe- 
cies  of  trial  or  purgation  *  anciently  in  ufe  among  us, 
and  which  probably  arofe  from  an  abufe  of  revelation 
in  the  dark  ages  of  fuperltition.  It  conlilled  of  a  piece 
of  cheefe  or  bread,  about  an  ounce  in  weight,  which 
was  confecratcd  with  a  form  of  exorcifm  ;  defiring  of 
the  Almighty  that  it  might  canfe  convulfions  and  pale- 
nefs,  and  find  no  paffage  if  the  man  was  really  guil- 
ty; but  might  turn  to  health  and  nourifliment  if  he 
was  innocent  ;  a«  the  water  of  jcalouly  among  the  Jews 
was,  by  God's  cfpecial  appointment,  to  caufe  the  belly 
to  fwell,  and  the  thigh  to  rot,  if  the  woman  was  guil- 
ty of  adultery.  This  corfned  was  then  given  to  the 
fufpeiiled  perfon,  who  at  the  fame  time  alfo  received 
the  holy  facrament  :  if  indeed  the  corfned  was  not,  as 
fome  have  fufpefted,  the  facramental  bread  itfelf;  till 
the  fubfcquent  invention  of  tranfubltantiation  prefer- 
ved  it  from  profane  ufes  with  a  more  profound  refpeA 
than  formerly.  Our  hillorians  affure  us,  that  God- 
win, Earl  of  Kent,  in  the  reign  of  King  Edwaid  the 
Confeflbr,  abjuring  the  death  of  the  king's  brother,  at 
laft  appealed  to  his  corfned,  "  per  luccdlam  degluiim- 
dam  ahjuravit,"  which  Ituck  in  his  throat  and  killed 
him.  This  cullora  has  been  long  fince  gradually  abo- 
lifhed, though  the  remembrance  of  it  Hill  fubiifts  in 
certain  phrafes  of  abjuration  retained  among  the  com- 
moji  people;  as,  "  I  will  take  the  facrament  upon  it  ; 
May  this  morfel  be  my  laft;"  and  the  like. 

CORT  (Cornelius),  a  celebrated  engraver,  wasbotn 
at  Hoorn  in  Holland  in  1936.  After  having  learned 
the  firft  principles  of  drawing  and  engraving,  he  went 
to  Italy  to  complete  his  ftudies,  and  vifited  all  the  pla- 
ces famous  for  the  works  of  the  great  mailers.  At 
Venice  he  was  courteouOy  received  by  Titian;  and  en- 
graved feveral  plates  from  the  pitlures  of  that  admi- 
rable painter.  He  at  lail  fettled  at  Rome,  where  he 
died  1578,  aged  42.  According  to  Bafan,  he  was 
"  the  bell  engraver  with  the  burin  or  graver  only  that 
Holland  ever  produced.  We  find  in  his  prints,"  adds 
he,  "  correAnefs  of  drawing,  and  an  exquifite  tafte." 
He  praifes  alfo  the  tafte  and  lightnefs  of  touch  with 
which  he  engraved  landfcapes,  and  that  without  the 
affiftance  of  the  point.  It  is  no  fmall  honour  to  this 
artift,  that  Agoftino  Carracci  was  his  fcholar,  and  imi- 
tated his  ftyle  of  engraving  rather  than  that  of  any 
other  mailer.  His  engravings  are  very  numerous  ( 151 
according  to  Abbe  MaroUes),  and  by  no  means  uq» 
common. 

CORTES  of  Spain,  a  term  purely  Spanifti,  figni» 
fying  the  cr/urts,  i.  e.  the  ftates,  or  afferably  of  the 
ftates,  at  Madrid. 

Cortes,  or  Cortez,  (Ferdinand),  a  Spaniib  ge- 
neial,  faraouo  for  the  conquell  of  Mexico,  and  other 

viAorisj 


Corufca- 

tion. 


COR  r     477     ]  COR 

vliftoiii'S  iivcr  the  natives  of  South  Amen'cn  ;  but  infa-  plants,  and   in  the  r;atural   method  ranking  under  the  Cornmna 

moui   for   the   cruelties   he  committed  upon  tlie  van-  2  lit  ordcv,  Pred.e.    The  corolla  1b  wlieel-lhaped,  with 

,  quilhed,  without  r<-gard  to  rank,  age,  or  fex.      It  pro-  its  throat  like  an  elevated  rinc;"  ;   the  capfule  unilocular, 

bably  was  on  this  account  he   was  but  coolly  received  oval,  and  quinqucvalved  at  the  top.     There  are  two 

on  his  return  to  Euiope  by  his  royal  mafter  Charles  le  fpecies,  both  of  theui  very  low,   flt)wery,   herbaceous 

Quint :   it  is  even  afTcrted  that  the  emperor  alkcd  him  p^'rennials,  crowned  by  umbels  of  monopetalous,  wheel- 

vhohewas?  to   which  Corcez   replied;  "   I   am  the  fliaped  flowers,  of  a  fine  red  colour.      They  arc  natives 

man  who  have  given  you  more  provinces  than  your  an-  of  mountainous  rocky  parts  abroad,  fo  mud  have  a  dry 

celtors  have  left  you  towns."     Died  in  1554,  aged  63.  kan  foil;  or  they  may  be  kept  in  pots  of  dry  fandy 

See  Mhxico.  earth  placed  in  the  fliade,  and  in  fummermuft  be  duly 

CORTEX,  in    botany;  the  rind  or  coarfe  oute  watered;  and  their  propagation  here  is  by  (lipping  the 

bark  of  plants.     The   organization  of  the  outer  and  roots  in  OAober. 

inner  baiks,  which  differ  principally  in  the  fineuefs  of         CORRUNNA,  or  Grovne,   a  port-town  of  Gal- 

their  texture,  is  particularly  explained  under  the  article  licia  in   Spain,  fituated  on  a  fine  bay   of  the  Atlantic 

Plants.  "  ocean,  about  32  miles  north  of  Compoftella:  W.  Long. 

Wounds  of  the  bark,  and  its  feparations  from  the  9.  o.  and  N.  Lat.  43.  o. 
wood,  whether  naturally  or  artificially  made,  are  eafi-         CORUS,    Omer,    Homer,    or  Chomer,    in   the 

Iv  cured,  and  made  to  unite  again  by  proper  care.    If  Jewilh  antiquities,   a  meafure  containing    10    baths  or 

ffdions  be  made  in  the  rinds  of  the  aih  and  fycamore  75  gallons  and  5  pints,  as  a  meafure  of  things  liquid, 

of  a  fquarc  figure,  three  fides  cut,  and  the  fourth  un-  and  33   pecks  and  I  pint  as   a  meafure  for  things  drjr. 

cut,  and  the  whole  be  afterwards  bound  round  with  a  The    conis  or    omer  was. moil  commonly  a  mealure  for 

pack-thread,  it  will  all  unite  again,  only  leaving  a  fear  things  dry  ;  and  the  greatefl  that  «as  ufed  among  the 

in  each  of  the  three  fides  where  it  was  cut.      If  ieveral  Jews.      Ic  contained,  according  to  the  rabbins,    10  e- 

parts  cf  the  bark  of  either  of  thefe  trees  be  cut  olF,  and  phahs  or   30   fata   or  feahs.      Corns  is  the  moll  ufual 

entirely  feparated  from  the  tree  ;  fome  (hallower,  lea-  term  in   the  hifliorical  writers,  and  omer  or  chomer  a- 

ving  a  pavt  of  the  bark  on,  and  others  deeper,   to  the  mong  the  prophets. 

wooditfelf;  thcfe   pieces  being   again   put   into  their         CoRUsis  alfo  ufed  in  fome  of  our  old  writers  fof 

places,  and  bound  on  with  packthread,  will  not  in-  eight  bufhcls  or  a  quarter ;  decern  coros  iritici.  Jive  de- 

dted    unite,    but     a    fre(h    bark    will    grow    in    their  cem  qiiarla-'m. 

places,  and   thruft   them   away  :   but   if  they  be   firil         CORUSCATION,  a  glittering  or  gleam  of  light 

carefully  laid  on   in  the  exaft  direction  in  which   they  iffuing  from  any  thing.      It  is  chiefly  ufed  for  a  fialli 

originally  grew,  and  then  the  whole  part  beyond  the  of  lightning  darting  from  the  clouds  in  time  of  thun- 

wound  on  every  fide  covered  with   a   large   plaller  of  der. 

diachylon,  or  thi'  like,  and  this  bound  over  with  pack-         There  is  a  method  of  producing   artificial  corufca- 

thread  to  keep  all  firmly  in  their  places,   the  pieces  of  tions  or  fparkling  fiery  meteors,  which  will  be  vifible 

bark,   whether   cut  off  (hallower  or  deep  down  to  the  not  only  in  the  dark  but  at  noon-day,  and   that  from 

very  wood  of  the  tree,  will  firmly  unite  themfelves  to  two  liquors  aftually  cold.     The  method  is  this.      Fif- 

the  places  where  they  originally  grew.     This  cure  will  teen  grains  of  lolid   phofphorus   are   to   be   melted  in 

be  performed  in  about  three  weeks:  but  the  outer  rind  about  a  drachm  of  water;  when  this  is  cold,  pour  upon 

of  the  feparated  pieces  will  not  be   plump,   but  fome-  it   about  t'^-o  ounces  of  oil   of   vitriol ;    let  thefe   be 

what  fhrivelled  ;  the   edges   alfo  will  recede  fomewhat  fliaken  together,  and  they  will  at  firll  heat,   and  after- 

frcm  their  original  place  ;   fo  that  there  remains  a  fort  wards  ihcy  will  throw  up  fiery  balls  in  great  number, 

of  fear  all  round.     Thtfe   experiments  are  bell  made  which  will  adheic   like  fo   many  liars  to  the  fides  of 

in  the  fpring  feafon  ;   for  in   the  autumn  and  winter,  the  glafs,  and   continue  burning  a  confidetable  time  ; 

the  fap  arifing  but  weakly,  the  paits  that  fhould  unite  after  this,  if  a  fmall  quantity  of  oil  of  turpentine  is 

wither    before  that  is  bioujht    about.      The  fuccefs  poured  in,  without  fhaking  the  vial,    the  mixture  will 

of  thefe   experiments  has   made  fome  think  that  the  of  itfelf  take  fire,  and  burn  very  furioufly.     The  vef- 

vhole  branch  of  a  tree  feparated  and  bound  on  again  fcl  fhould  be  large,  and  open  at  the  top. 
might  unite  with  the  reft.     But  the  experiments  that         Artificial  corufcations  may  alfo  be  produced  by  means 

have  been  made  in  the  mod  favourable  inatmer  for  fuch  of  oil   of  vitriol  and  iron,  in   the    following  manner. 

a  trial  have  all  proved  vain,  the  branch  cut  off  wither-  Take  a   glafs  body  capable  of  holding  three  quarts  ; 

ing  always  in  a   few  days,   however   well  united  and  put  into  this  three   ounces  of  oil  of  vitriol  and  twelve 


carefully  .kept  on. 

Cortex  Penmianus.     See  Cinchoma. 

CoRTJ'X  ll'inleraims.     See  Wintera. 

CORTONA  (Pittro  da).      See  BERRtriNi. 

CoRTONA,  a  very  ancient  town  of  Italy,  men- 
tioned by  many  of  the  Roman  hillorians.  It  was  ori- 
ginally called  Gorton,  and  lay  to  the  notthward  of  the 
lake  Thrafymenus.  It  dill  retains  the  name  of  Cor- 
tona.      E.  Long.  13.  o.   N.  Lat.  43.  15. 

CORTONESE  (Pietro  Palo)  See  GoBno. 


ounces  of  water  ;  then  warming  the  mixture  a  little, 
throw  in,  at  feveral  times,  two  ounces,  or  more,  of 
clem  iron  filings :  upon  this  an  ebullition  and  white 
vapours  will  arile:  then  prelent  a  lighted  candle  to 
the  mouth  of  the  vcffel,  and  the  vapour  will  take  fire, 
and  afford  a  bright  fulniination  or  flafh  like  light- 
ning. Applying  the  candle  in  this  manner  feveral- 
times,  the  effeCl  will  always  be  the  fame  ;  and  fome- 
times  the  fire  will  fill  the  whole  body  of  the  glafs,  and 
even  circulate  to  the  bottom  of  the  liquor  ;  at  others. 


CORTUSA,  bear's- EAR  sAKicLE  ;  Agcnus  of  the     it  will  only  reach  a  little   way  down   its   neck.     The 
monogynia  older,  belonging  to  the  pentaudtia  clafs  of    great  caution  to  be  ufed  in  making  tiiij  experiniCfit  is 

the 


COR 


[     4/8     1 


COR 


Coi-vorant,  the  making  the  vapour  of  a  proper  heat ;   for,  if  too 

Corvns.     (.<)ld,   lew  vapours  will  aiilc;  and,  if  made   too  hot, 

'  ihey  will  arife  too  fall,  and  will  only  take  fire  in  the 

neck  of  the  glafs,   without  any   remarkable  corufca- 

tion. 

CORVORANT,  formerly  written  Cormorant. 
See  Pelicanus. 

CORVUrf,  the  RwENorCROW  kind,  in  ornitho- 
logy ;  a  geniifl  of  birds  of  the  order  of  pica?,  the  di- 
ttins^uithinEr  charadei  iilics  of  which  are  thefe  :  The 
beaii  is  convex  and  cuhratcd;  the  nolhils  are  covered 
■with  briftly  feathers;  the  tongue  is  forked  and  carti- 
laginous;  and  the  feet  are  of  the  walking  kind.  The 
fpecies  are  19.     Tiie  moft  remarkable  are  : 

I.  The  corax,  or  raven  of  En^lifh  authors,  weighs 
three  pounds,  and  is  about  two  feet  two  inches  in 
■  lent^th  ;  the  colour  is  black,  finely  gloffed  with  a  rich 
blue  ;  the  belly  excepted,  which  is  of  a  dulky  colour. 
They  aie  very  docile  birds,  snd  may  be  trained  up  to 
fowling  like  hawks  ;  to  fetch  and  carry  like  fpanicls  j 
they  may  be  taucht  to  fpeak  like  parrots  ;  and,  what  is 
moll  extracrdinaiy  of  all,  they  may  be  taught  to  imi- 
tate the  human  voice  in  finging.  They  have  a  great 
propenlily  to  pilfer,  often  hiding  things  of  value  to  the 
jrreat  lofs  of  the  owner,  without  ufe  to  themfelves.  Tliey 
frequent  the  neighbourhood  of  great  towns,  where  they 
are  ufeful  in  devouring  the  carcafes  and  filth  which  would 
otheiwife  prove  a  nuifance.  They,  however,  alfo  de- 
ftroy  many  living  animals ;  fuch  as,  rabbits,  young 
ducks,  and  chickens,  and  not  unfrequently  lambs 
which  have  been  dropped  in  a  weak  ftate.  In  clear 
weather  they  fly  in  pairs  to  a  great  height,  making  a 
deep  loud  noife,  different  from  the  common  croaking. 
Their  fcent  is  remarkably  good;  and  they  are  veiy 
long  lived.  The  quills  of  ravens  fell  for  12  i.  per  hun- 
dred, being  of  great  ufe  in  tuning  the  lower  notes  of 
an  harpfichord  when  the  wires  art  fet  at  a  confitlerable 
'  diltance  from   the  ilicks.— The  niven   makes  its  nell 

early  in  the  fpring,  laying  5  or  6  eggs,  of  a  pale 
bluifti-grecn  colour  fpotted  with  brown.  With  us  it 
builds  in  trees, ;  but  in  Greenland  and  Iceland  makes 
its  nell  in  the  holes  of  rocks,  compoling  it  of  roots  and 
twigs,  together  with  the  bonea  they  have  picked,  and 
lining  it  with  hair,  mofs,  &c.  The  flelh  of  thefe  birds, 
rank  and  unfavonry  as  we  may  well  fuppofe  it,  is  eaten 
in  Greenland  by  many  of  the  natives,  who  alio  ufe 
the  (Icins  as  a  warm  under-covering.  _ 

2.  The  corone,  or  carrion-crow,  in  the  form  of  ;t3 
bodv  agrees  with  the  raven  ;  alio  in  its  food,  which 
is  carrion  and  other  filth.  It  will  alfo  eat  grain  and 
infeas;  and  like  the  raven  will  pick  out  the  eyes: 
for  which  reafon  it  was  formerly  dillingulflied  from  the 
rook,  which  feeds  entirely  on  grain  and  inlea?,  by  the 
name  of  the  ^m-,  or  gor-crow.  Virgil  fays  that  its 
croaking  foreboded  rain  : 

Turn  comix  plena  jluvbrn  vxat  improha  voce. 
It  was  alfo  thought  a  bird  of  bad  omen,   efpecially  If 
It  happened  to  be  feen  on  the  left  hand  : 

Sxpe  finlftia  cava  pr.-edixit  ab  ilice  ccrtiix. 
England  breeds  more  of  this  kind  of  birds  than  any 
other  country  in  Europe.  In  the  24th  of  Henry  VIII. 
they  were  grown  fo  numerous,  and  thought  to  be  fo 
prejudical  to  the  farmer,  that  they  were  confidered 
as  an  evil  worthy  of  parliamentary  redrefs  ;  an  aft 
was  paffed  for  their  deftruftion,  in  which  rooks  and 


choughs  were  included.     Every  hamlet  was  to  provide     Corvui. 

crow-nets  for  ten  years;  and  all  the  inhabitants  wete   »— -^ 

obliged  at  certain  times  to  affemble  dnriug  that  fpaci 
to  confult  of  the  proper  means  tor  extirpating  tlitra. 
But  thougii  the  crow  abounds  thus  iu  Britain,  it  is  fo 
rare  iu  Sweden,  that  Linusus  ipeaks  ot  it  only  as  a 
bird  that  he  once  knew  killed  there.  It  lays- the  f:im'e 
number  of  eggs  as  the  raven,  and  of  the  fame  colour  ; 
immediately  after  deferting  their  young  they  go  in 
pairs.  Both  tlufe  birds  are  often  found  white  or  pled; 
an  accident  that  befaU  black  birds  more  frequently 
than  any  others.  Mr  Pennant  fays,  he  has  oblerved 
one  entirely  of  a  pale  brown  colour,  not  only  in  lis  plu- 
mage, but  even  in  its  bill  and  feet.  The  crow  weighs 
about  20  ounces.  Its  length  is  18  inches;  its  breadth 
two  feet  t^tP  inches. 

Concerning  thefe  birds,  we  have  the  following  cu- 
rious anecdote  in  Mr  Edward's  natural  hiilory  *.  "  The  '  Vol.  V, 
reverend  Mr  Robinfon  redlor  of  Oulby  in  Weftmore- ^"^f""' 
land  and  Cumberland,  fays,  '  that  birds  are  natural 
planters  of  all  forts  of  wood  and  trees.  Tlicy  difleml- 
nate  the  kernels  upon  tlu;  earth,  which  like  nurfe- 
ries  brings  them  forth  till  they  grow  up  to  their  natu- 
ral ftrength  and  perfcCflon.'  Pie  fays,  '  About  25 
years  ago,  coming  from  iiofecaftle  early  In  the  morn- 
ing, I  obferve'd  a  great  number  of  crows  very  buly  at 
their  work  upon  a  declining  ground  of  a  moffy  lur- 
face  :  1  went  out  of  my  way  ou  purpofe  to  view  their 
labour,  and  I  found  thty  were  plancing  a  gtove  of 
oaks.  The  manner  of  their  planting  was  thus  :  they 
firft  made  little  holes  in  the  earth  with  their  bill,;,  go- 
ing about  and  about  till  the  hole  was  deep  enough  ; 
and  then  they  dropped  in  the  acorn,  and  covered 
it  with  earth  and  mofs.  The  feafon  was  at  the  lat- 
ter end  oi  autumn  when  all  feeds  are  full  lipe.'  Mr  ' 
Robinfon  fcems  to  think  that  Providence  had  give.i 
the  crows  this  Inllindl  Iblely  for  the  propagation 
of  trees  ;  but  I  imagine  it  was  given  them  principally 
for  their  own  prefervation,  by  hiding  provifion  in  time 
of  plenty,  in  order  to  lupply  them  in  a  time  of  fcarci- 
ty  :  for  it  is  obfcrved  in  tame  pies  and  daws  ktpt  a- 
bout  houfes,  that  they  will  hide  tlicir  meat  when  thty 
have  plenty  of  it,  and  fetch  it  from  their  bidlug-placeB 
when  they  want.  So  tliat  fuch  an  iniUndt  in  thefe 
birds  may  anfvver  a  double  purpole  ;  both  their  own 
fupport  in  times  of  need,  and  th.e  propagation  of  the 
trees  they  plant  :  for  wherever  they  hide  a  great  num- 
ber of  nuts  or  grain  In  the  earth,  we  cannot  fuppofe 
they  find  them  all  again ;  but  that  as  many  will  remaiu 
in  the  plot  of  ground  tliey  make  ufe  of,  as  can  well 
grow  by  one  another." 

3.  The  frugilegu.-,  or  rook,  is  the  corms  of  Virgil ; 
no  other  fpecies  of  this  kind  being  gregaiious. 

S  paji:!  deceiiens  iigtuiue  nhi^tio 

Cor^j  ifLm  incripuit  denjls  cxiniitis  alls. 

A  very  natural  dtfcription   of  the   evening   return  of 
thefe  birds  to  their  nefts. 

The  rook  dificrs  not  greatly  in  its  form  ,  from  the 
carrion  crow  :  the  moll  remarkable  diffirence  is  in  the 
noftrils  and  root  of  the  bill ;  which  parts  in  the  cro.v 
are  well  clothed  with  feathers,  but  in  the  rook  are 
bare,  or  covered  ordy  with  fome  briltly  hairs.  Tiiis 
arifes  from  its  thrufting  the  bill  into  the  eaith  conti- 
nually, after  the  various  worms  and  eruca;  of  inftas, 
on  which  it  feeds ;  for  it  does  not  live  on  carrion,  like 

the 


C     O     R 


[     479 


the  laft  fpecies  and  ravens.  Befides  Infffls,  it  a!fo 
'  feeds  on  all  forts  of  grain,  to  fome  inconvenience  per- 
haps to  t'w  hufhanjman,  but  no  doubt  doubly  repaid 
bv  the  good  done  him  in  extirpating  t!is  maggot  of 
the  chaferbeetle,  which  in  fome  feafona  dcftroys  whole 
crops  of  corns  by  feeding  on  the  roots.  The  rooli  is 
a  gregarious  bird,  fometimes  being  fcen  in  immenle 
flocks,  fo  as  to  ahno!l  darken  the  air.  Thefe  flights 
they  regularly  perform  morning  and  evening,  txccpt 
in  bres.'ding-time,  when  the  daily  attendance  of  both 
male  and  female  is  required  for  the  ufe  of  incubation, 
or  feeding  the  young  ;  for  it  is  obferved  that  they  do 
both  by  turns.  As  thcfe  birds  arc  apt  to  foim  the:n- 
felves  into  focietics,  fuch  places  as  they  frequent  da- 
ring tlie  breeding-time  are  called  j-oo/'t/w ;  and  they 
generally  choofe  a  large  clump  of  the  tailed  trees  for 
chis  purpofe  ;  but  make  fo  great  a  litter,  and  inch  a 
perp;tu:Tl  chatter,  that  nothing  but  habit  and  a  Jcngih 
of  time  can  reconcile  one  to  the  noife.  The  eggs 
arc  hke  thofe.of  Ciows,  but  Lfs,  and  the  fpocs  larger. 
They  begin  to  build  in  March,  and  after  the  bietd- 
irg-l';afon  forlake  their  ntft  trees,  going  to  rooll  elle- 
where,  but  bnva  been  obfcived  to  return  to  them  in 
A'lguft  :  in  October  they  repair  their  nefts.  In  Bri- 
tain they  remain  the  whole  year  ;  yet  we  are  told  that 
both  in  France  and  Silefia  they  are  birds  of  palTage. 
Whetlier  they  migrate  or  not  in  Sweden,  we  arenottold; 
but  Liiinreus  talks  of  their  building  there.  The  young 
birds  are  accounted  good  eating,  efpecially  if  flcinned 
and  put  in  a  pie. 

4.  The  cornix,  or  royfton  crow,  pretty  much  re- 
ferables  the  rook,  feeding  en  infefts,  and  flying  to- 
gether in  great  flocks.  In  England  it  ic  a  bird  of  paf- 
fage,  viliting  that  kingdom  in  the  beginning  of  win- 
ter, and  leaving  it  with  the  woodcocks.  In  the  ma- 
ritime parts  they  feed  on  crabs  and  fhell-filh.  Tliey 
are  very  common  in  Scotland  :  in  many  parts  of  the 
Highlands,  and  in  all  the  Hebrides,  Orknies,  and 
Shetland,  it  is  the  only  fpecies  of  genuine  crow  ;  the 
carrion  and  rook  being  unknown  there.  It  breeds 
and  continues  in  thofe  parts  the  whole  year  round.  In 
the  Highlands,  they  breed  indifferently  in  all  kinds  of 
trees  :  lay  fix  eggs:  have  a  {liiiUer  note  than  the  com- 
mon crows  ;  arc  much  more  milchievous  ;  pick  out 
the  eyes  of  lambs,  and  even  of  horfes  when  engaged 
in  bogs.  They  are,  therefore,  in  many  places  pro- 
fcribed,  and  rewards  given  for  killing  them.  For 
want  of  other  food  thefe  birds  will  cat  cran-betries  or 
other  mountain  berries. 

y.  The  dauricus,  or  white-breafted  crow,  ts  in  length 
about  I  z  inches :  the  bill  is  black  ;  the  head  and 
throat  are  black,  gloffed  with  blue  ;  the  neck  and 
brcaft  white  ;  the  reft  of  the  body,  wings,  and  tail, 
blue  black;  the  legs  of  a  lead-colour;  the  daws 
black.  The  fpecimen  Ggufed  by  Buffon  came  from 
Senegal ;  but  it  is  by  no  means  confined  to  that  quar- 
ter. Pallas  dcfcribes  the  fame  fpecies,  which  he  fays 
come  early  in  the  fpring  in  great  fligius  from  China, 
and  the  fouthcrn  Monguls  country,  into  the  parts  a- 
bout  the  lake  Baikal,  but  mod  frequent  about  tlie 
towns  and  villages  on  the  river  Lena,  in  which  part  the 
jackdaws  and  Royfton  crows  are  very  leldom  fcen.  It 
is  faid  they  are  hkewife  found  in  vaft  numbers  in  the 
ifland  of  Johann,  where  they  live  chiefly  on  infedls  and 
fruita,  and  make  their  neds  in  trees. 


]  COR 

6.  The  monedula,  or  jack-daw,  weighs  nine  oun- 
ces ;  the  length  thirteen  inches,  the  breadth  twenty-  " 
ci;  lit.  Th?  head  is  large  In  proportion  to  its  bodv; 
which,  Mr  Willoughby  fays,  argues  himlo  be  ingeni- 
ous and  crafty.  The  iridts  are  white  :  the  bread  and 
belly  are  of  a  dulky  hue  incUning  to  afli-coloiir :  the 
red  of  tlie  plumage  is  black,  (lightly  gloficd  with  blue: 
the  claws  very  ftrong  and  hooked.  It  is  a  docile  and 
loquacious  bird.  Jack-daws  breed  in  dcepks,  old 
caltle»,  and  in  high  rocks,  laying  five  or  lix  eggs. 
Sometimes  they  have  been  known  to  breed  in  hollow- 
trees  near  a  rookery,  and  join  thofe  birds  in  their  fo- 
raging parties.  In  fome  parts  of  Hamp'hire,  they 
make  thtir  nefts  in  rabbit  holes :  they  alfo  build  in  the 
intei  dices  between  the  upright  and  tranfum  Hones  of 
Stonehenge  ;  a  proof  of  the  prodigious  height  of  that 
ftupendons  antiquity,  for  their  neils  are  placed  beyond 
the  reach  of  the  ihepherd  boys,  who  are  always  idling 
about  this  fpot.  Tiiey  are  gregarious  birds;  and  feed 
on  infetts,  grain,  and  feeds. — Thefe  birds  are  frequent- 
ly brought  up  tame  ;  they  have  a  praAice  of  hiding 
that  part  of  their  food  which  they  cannot  eat  ;  and  of- 
ten, alongil  with  it,  they  fecret  fmall  valuables,  thereby 
lometimes  occafioning  injurious  fufpicions  of  theft  in 
fervants  or  others  not  guilty. 

7.  The  glandarius,  or  jay,  is  one  of  the  mod  beau- 
tiful of  Britidi  birds.  The  weight  is  between  CiX 
and  fcven  ounces:  the  length  13  inches.  The  fore- 
head is  white  dreakcd  with  black;  thj  head  is  covered 
with  very  long  feathers,  whicli  it  can  ercft  at  pleafure 
into  the  form  of  a  cred :  the  whole  neck,  back,  bread, 
and  bvlly,  are  of  a  faint  purple  daih^'d  with  grey  ;  the 
covert-feathers  of  the  wings  are  of  the  fame  colour. 
The  fird  quill-feather  is  black  ;  the  exterior  webs  of 
the  nine  next  are  alh  coloured  ;  the  interior  webs  duf- 
ky  ;  the  fix  next  are  black,  but  the  lower  (ides  of 
their  e.xtcrior  webs  are  white  tinged  with  blue  ;  the 
two  next  wholly  black  ;  the  laft  of  a  fine  bay  colour 
tipt  with  black.  The  lefler  coverts  are  of  a  light 
bay :  the  greater  covert  feathers  mod  beautifully- 
barred  with  a  lively  blue,  black,  and  white  :  the 
reft  are  black  r  the  rump  is  white.  Tlie  tail  con- 
fids  of  twelve  black  feathers.  The  feet  are  of  a 
pale  brown  ;  the  claws  large  and  hooked, — Jays  build 
chiefly  in  woods,  making  their  ned  of  (ticks,  tibres  of 
roots,  and  tender  twigs  ;  and  lay  five  or  dx.  eggs,  of  the 
fize  of  a  pigeon's,  cinereous  olive,  marked  with  pale 
brown.  The  young  keep  with  the  old  ones  till  the 
next  pairing  time  in  fpring  ;  vjlien  they  choofe  eaclv- 
his  mate  to  produce  their  future  progeny.  In  gene- 
ral they  feed  on  acorns,  nuts,  feeds,  and  fruits  of  ail 
kinds;  but  will  fometimes  dcllrov  young  chickens  and 
eggs,  and  will  alfo  take  awav  birds  that  have  been 
caught  in  a  trap  or  entangled  with  birdlime.  They 
are  often  kept  in  cages,  and  will  talk  pretty  well  ;  but 
then  lofe  all  their  beauty  io  confpicuous  in  the  wild 
date. 

8.  The  caryocataftes,  or  nutcracker,  is  fomewhat 
lefs  than  the  jack-daw  :  the  bill  is  ftrong,  draight,  and 
black  ;  the  colour  of  the  whole  head  and  neck,  bread 
and  body,  of  a  nifty  brown  :  the  crown  of  the  head 
and  rump  are  plain  ;  the  other  parts  marked  with  tri- 
angular white  fpots  :  the  wings  are  black;  the  coverts- 
fpotfed  in  the  fame  manner  as  the  body  :  the  tail  ia 
rounded  at  the  end,  black  tipt  v?iih  white :  the  vent- 
feathers 


Corvu- 


C    O    K.  [4- 

Cr-rvys.  feathers  ave  wliitc ;  the  legs  diiflcy.  Wc  find  tliefe 
■~~v~~~'  birds  fcattered  in  many  parts  of  liurc  pe,  but  nci  where 
fo  plenty  as  in  G  "rmany  ;  they  are  found  alfo  in  Swe- 
den and  l)cnin:\rk,  wtiorc  they  frequent  the  moun- 
tainous parts.  Sometimes  they  come  in  vaft  ilocki  in- 
to France,  efpeciallv  Burgundy.  riiey  vifit  England 
vcryfeldom;  are  alfo  found  in  North  America,  but 
not  near  the  fea-coails.  One  has  been  brought  from 
Kamtfchatka  by  the  late  voyagers. —  In  manners  this 
bird  is  fald  to  rcfemble  the  jay,  laying  up  a  (lore  of 
acorns  and  nuts.  In  fome  parts  it  keeps  chiefly  in 
the  pine  forefts,  on  liie  kernels  of  which  it  then  feeds; 
but  is  faid  frequently  to  pierce  the  trees  like  the  wood- 
pecker, for  which  the  bill  fcems  not  unapt.  It  makes 
its  neft  in  holes  of  trees.  Klein  mentions  tw.^  varie- 
ties, one  fmaller  than  tTie  other  ;  the  largeft,  he  fays, 
breaks  the  nuts  to  pieces,  and  the  other  pierces  them. 
Both  feed  at  times  on  wild  berries  and  infecls. 

9.  The  pica,  or  magpie,  is  in  length  above  18  inch- 
es, and  weic;hs  8  or  9  ounces.  The  bill  h  black  :  the 
irides  are  hazel :  the  fcapulars,  and  all  the  under  parts 
from  the  bread,  are  white  ;  the  rell  of  the  plumage, 
wings,  and  tail,  black,  glofled  with  green,  purple,  and 
blue,  in  different  lig-hts  :  the  eleven  firft  quills  are  white 
in  the  middle  on  the  inner  web,  lefTening  by  d.;grees 
asthey  advance  inwards  :  the  tail  is  very  cuneiform,  the 
two  middle  feathers  being  near  1 1  inches  in  lenfcth, 
and  the  outiuoll  only  5  inches  and  a  half:  the  legs  are 
black.  W-e  can  form  no  judgment  of  the  btauiies  of 
this  bird,  from  tkofe  dirty  mutilated  fpecimens  which 
we  fee  expofed  daily  in  a  wicker  cage  at  every  ilall. 
It  is  only  in  a  ftale  of  nature  that  they  can  be  found  ; 
and  whoever  views  them  in  this  ftate,  will  do  fo  with 
allonidiment;  for  though  the  colours,  at  adiftant  view, 
feera  to  be  mere  black  and  white,  yet  the  fplendor 
that  meets  in  every  new  fituation  the  eye  of  the  be- 
holder, will  oblige  him  to  own  that  there  is  not  a 
more  beautiful  bird  in  Britain.  In  thefe  parts  it  is 
every  where  common.  Mr  Latham  has  been  able  to 
trace  this  bird  no  farther  fouth  than  Italy  on  the  Eu- 
ropean continent  ;  and  to  the  north,  Sweden,  and 
Denmark.  Forller  met  with  it  at  Madeira  ;  and  it  is 
alfo  feen  in  America,  but  not  common,  and  is  a  bird 
of  paffage  in  thofe  parts.  At  Hudfon'e  Bay  it  is  call- 
ed by  the  Indians  Otie-ta-hc-ajke,  which  figuifies  Heart- 
Bird ;  but  for  what  reafon  does  not  appear.  In  man- 
ners it  approaches  to  the  crow,  feeding  almoft  on 
every  thing  in  turn,  both  animal  and  vegetable  ;  and 
like  that  will  kill  young  ducks  and  chickens,  and  fuck 
the  eggs.  It  builds  its  neft  with  art,  making  a  thorny 
cover  at  top,  leaving  a  hole  on  the  fide  for  admittance  : 
lays  fix  or  feven  pak  greenilh  eggs,  thickly  fpotted 
with  black.  It  is  a  crafty  bird  in  every  ftate,  and  if 
brought  up  young,  becomes  exceedingly  familiar,  and 
will  talk  a  great  many  fentences,  as  well  as  imitate 
every  noife  within  hearing,  like  a  parrot,  but  not  near 
fo  plain. 

10.  The  graculus,  or  red-legged  crow,  is  but  thinly 
fcattered  over  the  northern  world  :  no  mention  is  made 
of  it  by  any  of  the  Faunifts;  nor  do  we  find  it  in  other 
parts  of  Europe  except  Britian  and  the  Alps  It  is 
produced  in  the  ifland  of  Canadia  in  Afia  ;  and  it  vifits 
Egypt  towards  the  end  of  the  inundations  of  the  Nile. 
Except  in  Egypt,  it  affeCls  mountainous  aud  rocky 
N'-'  92. 


\0       ^  COR 

places;  builds  its  neft  in  lii^'h  cliffs  or  ruined  towers;  Corviit. 
and  lays  four  or  five  eggs,  white  I'potted  with  a  dirty  — v— ~ 
yellow.  It  feeds  on  infefts,  and  alfo  on  new-fown 
corn.  They  commonly  fly  high,  make  a  fliriikr  noifo 
than  the  jack-daw,  and  may  be  taught  to  fp;ak.  It  is 
a  very  tender  bird,  and  unable  to  bear  very  tcvcre  wea- 
ther ;  is  of  an  elegant,  fleiider-make;  aftive,  reftlefs, 
and  thieving;  much  taken  with  glitter,  and  10  med- 
dling as  not  to  be  trufled  where  things  of  conft-qiience 
lie.  It  i'i  very  apt  to  catch  up  bits  of  lighted  llieks  ; 
fo  that  there  are  inllances  of  honfes  being  let  on  fire 
by  its  means  ;  on  w'uich  account  Cambden  caIIs  it  in- 
cenduir'ia  avis.  It  is  found  in  Coinwal,  Fluitfliire, 
Caernai  vonfliire,  and  Angkfea,  in  the  rocky  cliffs  along 
the  fiiores.  It  is  alfo  found  in  Scotland  aslar  as  Stvath- 
navern,  and  In  fome  of  the  Hebrides.  Its  colour  is 
wholly  black,  beautifully  glofftd  over  with  blue  and 
purple  :  the  legs  and  bill  are  of  a  bright  orange  colour 
inchning  to  red  :  the  tongue  is  almoft  as  long  as  the  bill, 
and  a  little  cloven  :  the  claws  are  large,  hooked,  and 
black. 

1 1.  The  criftatus,  or  blue  jay,  is  much  fmaller  than 
tne  common  jay.  The  bill  Is  black  and  ahovt  an  inch 
long;  the  head  is  creiled  and  blue:  a  ftieak  of  the 
fides  of  the  head  and  throat  are  of  a  bluilh  white,  and 
there  is  a  fpot  of  the  fame  over  the  eye:  hInJ  pait  of 
the  neck  and  back  is  bkie  :  the  wings  and  tail  are  the 
fame  ;  all  the  feathers  of  the  lall,  except  the  two 
middle  ones,  tipped  with  white ;  the  feathers  of  both 
It  and  the  wings  elegantly  barred  with  black,  and  the 
greater  coverts  and  fecond  quills  tipped  with  white  : 
the  breaft  is  of  a  bloffbm  colour  ;  the  belly  aud  under 
tail-coverts  white  :  the  legs  are  dufliy  brown  :  the  tail 
is  nearly  as  long  as  the  red  of  the  bird.  The  colouis 
of  the  female  aie  lefs  bright  than  thofe  of  the  male  — 
T/iis  fpecles  is  faid  to  be  peculiar  to  North  America, 
but  not  feen  farther  north  than  the  town  of  Albany. 
It  builds  in  fwamps,  and  has  a  foft  delicate  note.  Its 
food  is  hazel-nuts,  chefnuts,  aud  fuch  like,  vi'hich  it 
breaks  by  placinij  between  the  feet,  and  pecking  with 
the  bill  till  the  fhell  gives  way.  It  is  alfo  very  f  >nd  of 
maize  ;  and  being  a  gregario'JS  bird,  often  unites  into 
flocks  of  20,000  at  leaft,  which  alighting  on  a  field  of 
10  or  12  acres  foon  lay  wafte  the  whole  :  hence  it  is 
reckoned  the  moft  deftrudive  bird  in  that  country. 
They  will  often  take  up  with  fnails  and  vermin  thro' 
nectflity,  but  not  while  any  thing  they  likelretter  is  to 
be  got  at.     They  are  not  accounted  good  to  eat. 

12.  The  canadenfis  is  in  length  9  inches,  and 
weighs  two  ounces.  The  bill  is  blackilh,  and  not  quite 
an  inch  long  :  the  irides  are  black  :  the  forehead  and 
throat  are  of  a  dirty  yellowiiL  white  ;  the  hind  head 
and  fides  of  blackilli  brown  :  the  upper  parts  of  the 
body  are  brown;  beneath  pale  afh,  paleft  on  the  breaft  : 
the  quills  and  tail  are  brown,  tipped  with  white:  tall 
is  a  little  wedged;  the  legs  and  claws  are  blackilh.  Thefe 
bitds  inhabit  Canada;  and  are  frequent  near  Hudfon's 
Bay,  where  they  are  called  J'/I:IJk:Jo'j,i  and  U'ijjfiijaci. 
They  breed  early  in  the  fpu'ng;  build  in  pine-trees; 
aud  have  two,  rarely  three,  young  at  a  time.  The 
egprs  are  blue.  I'hey  are  not  gregarious.  Their  food 
is  black  mofs,  woi  ms,  and  firfh.  They  are  very  bold 
pilfering  birds,  ilcaling  fiom  the  traveller  even  fait 
meat,  and  devouring  often  die  bait  from  the  tiaps  fet 
A  for 


riatc  CXLLY 


(   /<-a<//i 


Cl»^:.^» 


^ 


^^^6^^  c/6>r/-/i///,i 


(  /?>Y,jf>//ff'At 


(  ^'//^/vv  <  A/f/r/Tf/^// 


L  /./.S,//--y)//>. //.t/^'iv^y^'A  r/iW/. 


COR 


[     481     ] 


COR 


Cof»uj    for  the  martin?,   as  foon  as  the  perfons  who  fct  them 

"        turn  their  backs.     They  lay  up  llores  for  winter;  at 

°^<     "  which  time  they  are  feldom  feen   unlefs   near  habita- 

-    '-m-  tions.     They  do  not  beiir  confinement  well.     What 

natural  note  they  havi,  we  are  not  told  ;  but  they  are 

faid  to  itt  the  mocking  bird,  in  imitating  that  of 

others. —There  are  near '30  other  ipccies. 

CoRvus  [Ravtn),  in  aftronomy,  a  conftellation  of 
the  fouthern  hemifphere  ;  whofe  ilars  in  Ptolemy's 
Catalogue  are  7;  in  Tycho's  as  many;  in  the  Britannic 
Catalogue  9. 

CoRvus,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  military  engine,  or 
rather  gallery,  moveable  at  pleafure  by  means  of  pul- 
lies;  chiefly  ufed  in  boarding  the  enemy's  (hips  to  co- 
ver the  men.  The  conftruftion  of  the  corvus  was 
as  follows :  They  erefted  on  the  prow  of  their  veflels 
a  round  piece  of  timber  of  about  a  foot  and  an  half 
diameter,  and  about  1 2  feet  long  :  on  the  top  of  which 
they  had  a  block  or  pulley.  Round  this  piece  of  tim- 
ber they  laid  a  flage  oi-  platform  of  boards,  four  feet 
biMad,  and  about  1 8  feet  long,  which  was  well  framed 
and  faftened  with  iron.  The  entrance  was  long-ways, 
and  it  moved  about  on  the  above  mentioned  upright 
piece  of  timber  as  on  a  fpindle,  and  could  be  hoiited 
up  within  fix  feet  of  the  top  :  about  this  was  a  fort 
of  parapet  knee-high,  which  was  defended  with  up- 
right bars  of  iron  {harpened  at  the  end,  and  towards 
the  top  there  was  a  ring,  by  the  help  of  which  and  a 
pulley  or  tackle,  they  railed  or  lowered  the  engine  at 
pleafure.  With  this  moveable  gallery  they  boarded 
the  enemy's  veflels  (when  they  did  not  oppofe  fide 
to  fide),  fometimes  on  their  bow,  and  fometimcs  on 
their  ftern,  as  occafion  beil  f'.  rved.  When  they  had 
grappled  the  enemy  with  thefe  iron  fpikes,  if  they 
happened  to  fwing  broadfide  to  broadlide,  then  they 
entered  from  all  parts;  but  in  cafe  they  attacked  them 
on  the  bow,  they  entered  two  and  two  by  the  help 
of  this  machine,  the  foremoil  defending  the  foreparts, 
and  tliofe  that  followed  the  flanks  keeping  the  bofs 
of  their  bucklers  level  with  the  top  of  the  parapet. 

CORY  ATE  (Thomas),  a  very  extraordinary  per- 
fonage,  who  feems  to  have  made  himfelf  famous  by 
his  whimfical  extravagancies,  was  the  fon  of  a  clergy- 
man, and  born  at  Oldcombe  in  Somerfetfhire  in  1577. 
He  acquired  Greek  and  Latin  at  Oxford;  and  coming 
to  London,  was  received  into  the  houfchold  of  Hen- 
ry prince  of  Wales.  If  Coryate  was  not  over  witty 
himfelf,  he  got  acquainted  with  the  wits  of  that  time, 
and  ferved  to  exereife  their  abilities,  having  more  learn- 
ing than  judgment.  He  was  a  great  peripatetic:  for,  in 
1608,  he  took  along  journey  on  foot;  and  after  he  re- 
turned, publifiied  his  travels  under  the  following  ftrange 
title,  Crudities  hafi'y  gobbled  up  in  Jive  months  Travels 
in  France,  Savoy,  Italy,  Rhetia,  Hclvelui,  fame  parts  of 
High  Germany,  and  the  Netherlands,  Lond.  l6ll,4to. 
In  1612  he  fet  out  again  with  a  rcfolution  to  fpcnd 
ten  years  in  travelling:  he  went  firft.  to  Conllantinople; 
and  after  travelling  over  a  great  part  of  the  E:ift,  died 
of  a  flux  at  Surat  in  the  Eail  Indies.  Some  of  the 
ac^counts  of  his  peregrmatious  are  to  be  found  in  Par- 
chas's  Pilgrimagts. 

CORYBAN  FES,  in  antiquity,  priefts  of  Cybele, 
who  danced  and  capered  to  the  found  of  flutes  and 
drums.      See  Crotalum. 

Catullus,  in  his  poem  called  Atys,  gives  a  beautiful 
Vol.  V.  Part  II. 


dcfcr:piion   of  them,   reprefenting  them  as  madmen.   Coryban- 
Accordingly  Ivlaximua  Tyrius  fays,  th.-it  thofe  poflfeffed       ''" 
with  the   fpirit  of  Corybantes,  as  foon  as  they  heard    p  r"'u 
the  found  of  a  flute,  were  feized  with  an  cnthufiafm,  -,  ° '^'  ''_. 
and   loft  the   ufe  of  their    rcafon.     And    hence   the 
Greeks  ufe  the  word  x-pufavm.,  to  corobantize,  to  fignify 
a  perfon's  being   tranfported  or  polTeflld  with  a  devil. 
See  JEnthusiasm. 

Some  fay  that  the  Corybantes  were  all  eunuchs  ; 
and  that  it  is  on  this  account  Catullus,  in  his  Atys, 
always  ufes  feminine  epithets  and  relatives  in  fpeaking 
of  them. 

Uioderus  Siculus  remarks,  that  Corybas,  fon  of  Ja- 
fon  and  Cybele,  pafllng  into  Plu-ygia  with  his  uncle 
Dardanus,  there  inftituted  the  worflu'p  of  the  mother 
of  the  gods,  and  gave  his  own  name  to  the  priefts. 
Strabo  relates  it  as  the  opinion  of  fome,  that  the  Co- 
rybantes were  children  of  Jupiter  and  Calliope,  and 
the  fame  with  the  Cahiri.  Others  fay  the  word  had 
its  origin  from  this,  that  the  Corybantes  always  walked 
dancing  (if  the  expreflion  may  be  allowed)  or  tolling 

the  head,  i''fV-rT'^irs;  ticmiut, 

CORYBANTICA,  a  feftival  held  in  Crete,  in  me- 
mory of  the  Corybantes,  who  educated  Jupiter  when 
he  was  concealed  in  that  idand  from  his  father  Saturu, 
who  would  have  devoured  him. 

CORYCEUM,  in  antiquity,  that  part  of  the  gym- 
nafium  where  people  undreil'ed.  It  was  otherwife  call- 
ed apodyter'ion. 

CORYCOMACHIA,  among  the  ancients,  was  a 
fort  of  exereife  in  which  they  pulhed  forwards  a  ball, 
fufpended  from  the  ceiling,  and  at  its  return  either 
caught  it  with  their  hands,  or  fuffered  it  to  meet  their 
body.  Oribafius  informs  us  it  was  recommended  for 
extenuating  too  grofs  bodies. 

CORYDALES,  in  botany,  an  order  of  plants  in 
the  Fragmenta  Methodi  Naitiralis  of  Linmus,  contain- 
ing the  following  genera,  vix.  epimedium,  hypecoum, 
leontice,  melianthus,  pinguicula,  and  utricularia. 

CORYDALIS,  in  botany.     See  Fumaria. 

CORYLUS,  the  Hazle  :  A  genus  of  the  polyan-. 
dria  order,  belonging  to  the  montecia  clafs  of  plants  ; 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  50th 
order,  Amentacee.  The  male  calyx  is  monophyllous, 
fcale-like,  trifid,  and  un-florous  ;  there  is  no  corolla  ; 
the  ftamina  tight  in  number:  The  female  calyx  di- 
phyllous  and  lacerated  ;  no  corolla  ;  two  ftylcs ;  and 
an  egg-(hapcd  nut.  Mr  Miller  reckons  three  fpecies, 
though  other  botanifts  make  only  two.  Tiiey  are  all 
of  the  large  flirub  kind,  hardy  and  deciduous;  and  have 
feveral  varieties  valuable  for  their  nuts,  as  alfo  for 
their  variety  in  large  wildcrnefles  and  (hrubbeiy  works. 
They  wiO  profper  in  almoft  any  foil  or  fituation,  and 
turn  out  to  good  account  when  growing  in  coppices 
to  cut  as  underwood,  and  as  poles  for  various  ufes,  as 
hoops,  fpars,  hurdles,  h.^.ndles  to  liufl^andry  implements, 
walking  fticks,  hilling  rods,  &c  for  which  purpiffes 
they  may  be  cut  every  5th,  7th,  or  8th  year,  accord- 
ing to  the  purpofes  for  which  they  are  defigned.  The 
be!c  mithod  of  propagating  them  is  by  layers,  though 
thty  may  alfo  be  railed  from  the  nuts. 

^  The  kernels  of  the  fruit  have  a  mild,  farinaceous, 

oily   tafte,   agreeable  to   moft  palates.      Squirrels  and 

mice   are  fond  of  them,  as  well  as  fome  biids,  fuch  as 

jays,  nutcrackers,  &c.     A  kind  of  chocolate  has  been 

3  i'  prepared 


COR 


[     482     1 


COS 


Corvmbife-  prepared  from  them,  and  there  are  inilar.ces  of  their 
having  been  formed  into  hread.  The  oil  exprcficd 
from  them  is  little  inferior  to  the  oil  of  alinonds  ;  and 
is  ufed  by  painters,  and  by  chemiils,  for  receiving  and 
retaining  odours.  The  rharcoal  made  of  the  wo0d  is 
ufed  by  painters  in  drawing-.  Some  of  the  Hirrhland- 
ers,  where  fuperllition  is  not  totally  fubfided,  look  up- 
on the  tree  itfelf  as  unhitky  ;  but  are  glad  to  get  two 
oftlie  nuts  nat.urally  conjoined,  which  is  a  good  omen. 
Thtfe  they  call  cnochomhlakh,  and  carry  them  as  an 
efficacious  charm  againil  witchcraft. 

Evelyn  tells  us,  that  no  plant  is  more  proper  for 
thickening  gf  copfes  tlian  the  hazle,  for  wliich  he  di- 
refts  ttie  following  expeditious  method.  Take.a  pole 
of  hazle  (afli  or  poplar  may  alfo  be  ufed),  of  20  or  30 
feet  in  len';th,  the  head  a  little  lopped  into  the  ground, 
giving  it  a  chop  near  the  ground  to  make  it  fuccumb ; 
this  fattened  to  the  earth  with  a  hook  or  two,  and  co- 
vered with  fome  frcfh  mould  at  a  competent  depth, 
(as  gardeners  lay  their  carnations),  will  ptoduce  a 
great  number  of  fuckers,  and  thicken  and  furnifh  a 
copfe  fpeedilv. 

CORYMBIFERiE,  in  botany,  the  name  of  an  or- 
der or  divifion  of  the  compound  flowers  adopted  by 
Linn:eu3  after  Ray  and  Vaillant,  in  the  former  editions 
of  his  Fragments  of  ^  Natural  Method.  This  title  in 
the  later  editions  is  changed  for  DifcrAJea,  another 
name  borrowed  from  Ray's  Method,  but  ufed  in  a 
fomewhat  different  fenfe. 

CORYMBIUM,  in  antiquity,  an  ornament  of  hair 
worn  by  the  women.  Its  form  was  that  of  a  coqm- 
bus. 

CoRVMBiuM,  in  botany:  A  genus  of  the  monoga- 
mia order,  belonging  to  the  fyngencfia  clafs  of  plants; 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  49th 
order,  Compofit^.  The  calyx  is  diphyllous,  unlflorous, 
and  prifmatical;  the  corolla  monopetalous  and  regular; 
there  is  one  woolly  feed  below  each  floret. 

CORYMBUS,  properly  fignifies  a  duller  of  ivy 
berries.  Among  botanifts,  it  is  a  mode  of  flowering 
in  which  the  leffer  or  partial  flower-ftalks  are  produ- 
ced along  the  common  ftalk  on  both  fides;  and,  though 
of  uneqiial  lengths,  rife  to  the  fame  height,  fo  as  to 
form  a  flat  and  even  furface  at  the  top.  See  Bota- 
KY,  n°2  73. 

CORYNOCARPUS,  in  botany :  A  genus  of  the 
monogynia  order,  belonging  to  the  pentandna  clafs  of 
plants.  The  calyx  is  a  pentaphyllous  perianthium  ; 
the  corolla  confifts  of  five  roundllh,  ercft,  and  hoUow 
petals  ;  the  flamlna  five  fubulated  filaments  arlfing 
from  the  bafe  of  the  petals  ;  the  antherae  are  ereft  and 
oblong  ;  the  perica  plum  a  monofpermous,  turbinat- 
tlavated  nut. 

CORYPHA,  Mountain  Palm,  or  UmlnUa'Tree, 
in  botany  :  A  genus  of  the  order  of  Palm^,  belong- 
ing to  the  monoccia  clafs  of  plants.  The  corolla  Is 
tripetalous  ;  the  ftamina  fix,  with  one  piftil  ;  the  fruit 
a  monofpermous  plum.  There  is  only  one  fpecies, 
the  umbracula,  a  native  of  the  Weft  Indies,  where 
it  is  called  codda-pana.  It  rifes  to  aconfiderable  height, 
and  produces  at  the  top  many  large  palmated,  plaited 
kaves,  the  lobes  of  which  are  very  long,  and  are  placed 
regularly  round  the  end  c.f  a  long  fpiny  footftalk,  in  a 
manner  reprefenting  a  large  umbrella.  The  flowers 
are  produced  on  a  branched  fpadix,  from  a  compound 


Cos. 


fpatlia  or  (lieath  ;  they  are  hermJphroditf ,  and  each  ConT^hsen* 
confifts  of  one  petal,  divided  into  three  oval  parts,  and 
contains  fix  awl-fliaped  ilamlna,  funounding  a  (hort 
flender  ftyle,  crowned  with  a  fimple  ftigma.  The 
germen  is  nearly  round,  aud  becomes  a  large  globular 
fruit  of  one  cell,  Including  a  large  round  flione.  Thefe 
plums  having  a  pleafant  flavour  are  held  in  cfteem  by 
the  Indians. 

CORYPHiENA.  in  Ichthyology,  a  genus  belonc;- 
ing  to  the  order  of  thoraclci.  The  head  is  decliu-rd 
and  truncated  ;  the  bvanchioilege  membrane  has  fi^ 
rays  ;  and  the  back-fin  runs  the  wliole  length  of  the 
back.  There  are  twelve  fpecies,  moll  of  them  natives 
of  foreign  feas.  The  moll  remarkable  are  the  blue 
and  prrrot  fifhes,  dtfcribed  by  Mr  Catefbv. — The 
head  of  the  firft  Is  of  an  odd  ftrufture,  refembling  that 
of  the  fpermaceti  whale :  the  mouth  is  fmall,  each 
mandible  armed  with  a  fingle  row  of  even  teeth,  fo 
clofely  joined  that  they  fcem  entire  bones  ;  the  iris 
of  the  eye  is  red.  On  the  back  is  a  long  pliant  fin, 
fomewhat  indented  on  the  edge  ;  behind  the  gills  ere 
two  fins,  one  under  the  abdomen  and  another  behind 
the  anus.  The  tail  is  forked;  and  the  whole  fifli  en- 
tirely blue.  They  are  taken  on  the  coarts  of  the  Ba- 
hama Iflands,  and  in  moil  of  the  feas  between  the 
tropics. — The  parrot-fiih  hath  a  large  mouth,  paved  as. 
It  were  with  blunt  teeth,  clofcly  connetled,  after  the 
manner  of  the  lupus  marlnus.  The  body  is  covered 
with  large  green  fcales  ;  the  eyes  are  ted  and  yellow  ; 
the  upper  part  of  the  head  brown,  the  lower  part  and 
the  gills  blue,  bordered  with  a  du/Icy  red  :  a  ilreak  of  • 
red  extends  from  the  throat  behind  the  gills,  at  the 
upper  end  of  which  is  a  bright  yellow  fpot.  The  fins. 
are  five  in  number,  one  extending  almoft  the  length  of 
the  back,  of  a  bay  or  cinnamon  colour  ;  there  are  two 
behind  the  gills,  blended'  witli  black,  gi-een,  and  pur- 
pllfli  colours,  with  the  upper  edge  verged  with  blue  :. 
under  the  abdomen  is  another  red  fin  verged  with 
blue  ;  under  the  antis  extends  another  long  naiTow 
green  fin,  with  a  lift  of  red  through  the  middle  of  it : 
at  the  bafis  of  the  tail  on  each  fide  is  a  large  yellow 
fpot.  The  tail  is  large,  forked,  and  green,  with  a: 
curved  red  line  rnnning  through  the  middle  parallel 
to  the  curve,  and  ending  in  two  points.  This  fifh  is 
more  efteemed  for  beauty  than  the  delicacy  of  its 
tafte.  They  are  taken  on  the  coalls  of  Hiipaniola, 
Cuba,  and  the  Bahama  Iflands. 

CORYPH^US,  in  the  ancient  tragedy,  was  the 
chief  or  leader  of  the  company  that  compofed  the  cho- 
rus: (See  Chorus). — The  word  is  formed  from  the 
Greek  «'»>jr>-,  "  tip  of  tlie  head."  The  cor)-phaeus 
fpoke  for  aU  the  reft,  whenever  the  chorus  took  part 
in  the  aftion,  in  quality  of  a  perfon  of  the  drama,  du- 
ring the  courfe  of  the  acts.  Hence  coryphaeus  had 
pafl'cd  into  a  general  name  for  the  chief  or  principal 
of  any  company,  corporation,  feci,  opinion,  &c.  Thus 
Euftaclus  of  Antloch  is  called  the  coryphsus  of  the 
council  of  Nice  ;  and  Cicero  calls  Zeno  the  coryph^us 
of  the  ftolcs. 

CORYZA,  in  medicine,  a  catarrh  of  the  nofci     See 

MEDICINE-Zna't'.v. 

CORZOLA,  or  Curscola,  an  Idard  in  the  gnlph 
of  Venice,  divided  from  Ragufa  In  Dalmatia  by  a  nar- 
row ftrait.      E.  Long.  18.  o.  N.  Lat.  42.  35. 

COS,  or  Coos,  (anc.  geog.),  a  noble  liland  on  tlie 

coalt 


COS 


r  483  ] 


G     O 


S 


ccall  cf  Caria,  in  tlie  Hithir  Afia,  fifu'en  milca  to  the 
wlII  of  HalicanuuTus,  a  liinidrLd  in  compafs,  called 
AhroJ>is ;  and  hence  Thiicydides  joins  both  names  to- 
gi-thcr,  Cos  Mfropis :  it  had  ;i  coj^'nomiiial  town  Cos, 
biit  originally  Cidled  jljlyp.tuieit,  mentioned  b^'  HoniCT; 
with  a  port  locked  or  walled  rnvnid,  (Scylax,  Mela). 
'J'iie  iflaiid  was  fruitful,  anc^  yielded  a  generous  wine, 
(Strabo).  It  boafted  of  Hippocrates  and  Apelks  ; 
each  at  the  head  of  his  feveral  profcfTion.  It  was  the 
country  of  Philetas,  an  excellent  elegiac  poet,  who 
flourilhed  in  the  time  of  Philip  and  Alexander;  the 
preceptor  of  Ptoleiny  Philadelphus  :  fo  thin  and  light 
tluit  he  was  obliged  to  wear  lead  to  prevent  the  being 
blown  away  by  a  pnif  of  wind  (Aelian,  Athenxus)  ; 
much  commended  by  Propertius.  The  iiejhs  Coat, 
made  of  lilk,  were  famous  for  their  finencfs  and  co- 
lour, (Horace,  Propertius,  Tibulhis).  In  the  fuburbs 
cf  Cos  II  'od  the  temple  of  ^fculapius,  a  noble  llruc- 
ture,  and  extremely  lich. 

COi),  the  WHt  rs TONE,  in  natural  hiftory,  a  genus 
of  vitrcfccnt  Hones,  coniiiling  of  fragments  of  an  inde- 
terminate figure,  fub-opaque,  and  granulated. 

Of  this  genus  there  are  feveral  fpecies,  forae  con- 
fifting  of  rougher,  and  others  of  fmoother,  or  even  of 
altogether  impalpable  p-.rticles  ;  and  ufed  not  only  for 
vhtt-ftones,  but  alfo  for  mill-flones,  and  other  the  like 
purpofes. 

coy  TURCICA,  Turly-Jlone,  a  fpecies  of  (tones  of 
the  garnet  kind,  belonging  to  the  (iliceous  clafs.  It 
ii  of  a  dull  white,  and  often  of  an  unequal  colour; 
fome^ parts  appearing  more  compaft  than  others.  Its 
fpeeiiic  gravity  is  2598:  it  ftrfkes  fire  with  fleel,  anil 
e.ffervcfces  with  acids.  Mr  Kirwan  found  that  100 
parts  of  it  contain  25  of  mild  calcareous  earth,  and  no 
iron.  Cronitedt  is  of  ojiinion  tiiat  there  are  probably 
two  forts  of  Hones  known  by  this  name,  as  that  de- 
fcribcd  by  Wallcrius  neither  gives  fire  with  ileel  nor 
effervefces  with  acids.  It  is  ufed  as  a  whctllone  ;  and 
thofe  of  the  finell  grain  are  the  beil  hones  for  the 
moft  delicate  cutting  tools,  and  even  for  razors,  lan- 
cets, Stc. 

COSCINOMANCY,  the  art  of  divination,  by 
means  of  a  fieve.  The  word  comes  from  ■'■«irr.iio,,  ci- 
brum,  "  ^  fieve;"  and  m^-'i-e'".  di-viitalion.  The  fieve 
being  fufpended,  after  rehearfing  a  formula  of  words, 
it  is  taken  between  two  fingers  only;  and  the  names 
of  the  parties  fufpefted  repeated:  he  at  whofe  name 
the  fieve  turns,  trembles,  or  fiiakef  j  is  reputed  guilty 
of  the  evil  in  quellion. 

This  mail  be  a  very  ancient  praftice  :  Theocritus, 
in  his  tliird  Idyllion,  mentions  a  wo.man  very  Ikilful  in 
it.  It  was  fometimes  alfo  prac\ifcd  by  fufpending  the 
fieve  by  a  thread,  or  fixing  it  to  the  points  of  a  pair  of 
Ulcers,  giving  it  room  to  turn,  and  naming,  as  before, 
the  parties  fuipcfted ;  in  which  lalt  m'a.nxKi-  cafciiwmancy 
is  Hill  praftifcd  in  fome  parts  of  England.  It  appears 
from  Theocritus,  that  it  was  not  only  ufed  to  find  out 
perfons  unknown,  but  alfo  to  difcover  the  fecrets  of 
thofe  that  were  known. 

CO-SECANT,  in  geometry,  the  fccant  of  an  arch 
wlilch  Is  the  compkraeut  of  another  to  yo"*.  See 
Geometry. 

COSENAGE,  in  law,  a  writ  thatlies  where  the 
trefail,  that  is,  the  tritaviis,  the  father  of  the  befail,  or 
greatgrandfather,  being  iciicd  in  fee  at   his  death  of 


certain  lands  or  tcnejnents,  dies ;  a  flranger  cntcm, 
and  abates;  then  Ihall  his;  heir  have  this  writ  of  cofe- 
nage;  the  form  of  which  fee  in  Fitzh.  Nat.  Br.  fol.  221. 

COSENiNG,  in  law,  an  oflence  wheriby  any 
thing  is  done  deocltfiilly,  in  or  out  of  contrafts,  which 
cannot  be  fitly  termed  by  any  tfpecial  name.  In  the 
civil  law  it  is  called_/?riV/V;«a/«j-.      See  Stellionate. 

COSENZA,  the  capital  of  the  Hither  Calabria,  in 
the  kingdom  of  Naples.  E.  Long.  j6.  35.  N.  Lat. 
^9.  15.     It  is  an  archbidiop^  fee. 

COSHERING,  in  the  feudal  cuftoms,  a  kind  of 
right  of  the  lords  to  lie  and  fiuH  themfelves  and  their 
followers  at  their  tenants  houfcs.  The  word  cofl^cvln^ 
may  perhaps  be  derived  from  the  eld  Englilh  word 
cojhe,  a  cot  or  cottage. 

CO- SINE,  in  trigonometry,  the  fine  of  an  arch 
which  is  the  complement  of  another  to  90'''.  See 
Geometry. 

COSMETIC,  in  phvfic,  any  medicine  or  prepara- 
tion which  lenders  the  Ikin  foft  and  white,  or  helps  to 
beautify  and  improve  the  complexion  ;  as  lip-falvcs, 
cold  creams,  cerufs,  8cc. 

COSMICAI^,  a  term  in  aftronomy,  cxprelung  one 
of  the  poetical  rifings  of  a  ftar  :  thus  a  ilar  is  faid  to 
rife  cofmically  when  it  rifes  with  the  fun,  or  with  that 
point  of  the  ecliptic  in  which  the  fun  is  at  that  time  : 
and  the  cofmical  felting  is  when  a  ilar  fets  in  the  well 
at  the  fame  time  that  the  fun  rifes  in  the  eall. 

COSMOGONY,  in  phyfics,  fignifies  the  fcience  of 
the  formation  of  the  univerfe.  It  is  formed  of  >■•'>=■  ,«<>.•, 
the  nvorlrl,  and  ynyiiMiy-,  J  am  born. 

In  our  conjefturcs  about  the  formation  of  the  world 
there  are  two  principles  which  we  ought  never  to  lofe 
fight  of.  I.  That  of  crealjon  ;  for  certainly  matter 
could  not  give  itfelf  exillence,  it  mull  have  received  It. 
2.  That  of  a  Supreme  Intelligence  direfting  this  creation, 
and  the  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  matter,  in  confe- 
quence  of  which  this  world  was  formed.  See  Crea- 
tion and  Earth. 

COSMOGRAPHY,  the  defcriptlon  of  the  world  ; 
01  the  art  which  teaches  the  conftruftlon,  figure,  dlf- 
pofitio^,  and  relation  of  all  the  parts  of  the  world,  with 
the  manner  of  reprefenting  them  on  a  plane.  The  word 
comes  from  '■••o- ,"-'«,  world,  and  yp-'l^',  I dtfcribe. 

Cofmography  confills  chiefly  of  two  parts.  AJlro- 
nomy,  which  (hows  the  ttrufture  of  the  heavens,  and 
the  difpofition  of  the  ftars ;  and  Ceognipby,  which 
fiiows  thofe  of  the  earth. 

COSMOLABE  (from  x-xrA-^c,  world,  and  A^/^f-tv^',  / 
tale),  an  ancient  mathematical  Inllrnment,  fei'ving  to 
mealure  dillanccs,  both  in  the  heavens  and  on  earth. 
The  cofmolale  is  in  great  meafure  the  fame  with  the 
aftrolube.  It  is  alfo  called  pcntacfifm,  or  the  unmerjal 
injlrument,  by  L.  Morgard,  in  a  treatife  written  ex- 
prefsly  upon  it,  printed  in  1612. 

COSMOLOGY  {hum '■''Ti^'-'i,  world,  and  "j"? .  ^/j/l 
courfe),  the  fcienceof  the  world  in  general.  ThisWoltius 
calls  ^'c'nfra/,  or  tranfcendcntal  cofirtology,  and  has  written 
a  treatife  on  the  fubjed,  wherein  he  endeavours  to  ex- 
plain how  the  world  arlies  from  fimple  fubltances;  and 
treats  of  the  general  principles  of  tlie  niodilications  of 
materlEl  things,  of  the  elements  of  bodies,  of  the  laws 
of  motion,  of  the  perfeftlon  of  the  woild,  and  of  the 
order  and  courle  of  nature. 

COSMOPOLITE,    or    Cosmopolitan,    a   term 
3  P  2  fome-. 


Cofennig 


COS 


r  484  1 


cos 


Coffacks.  fometimes  ufed  to  fignify  a  perfon  who  has  no  fixed 
''  " —  llvijig  or  place  of  abode,  or  a  man  who  is  a  ftranger  no- 
where. The  word  comes  from  the  Greek  y-o^foSf, 
"  world,"  and  f'^'.'.  "  city." — One  of  the  ancient 
philofophers  being  interrogated  what  countryman  he 
was?  anfwcred,  he  was  a  cofmopolite,  1.  e.  an  inhabi- 
tant or  citizen  of  the  world. 

COSSACKS,  a  name  given  to  the  people  inhabiting 
the  banks  of  the  rivers  Nieper  and  Don,  near  the 
Black  Sea  and  borders  of  Tiirky.  The  word  implies 
in-egular  troops  of  horfe.  Thefe  people  are  divided 
into  European  and  Afiatic  Coflacks.  The  firll  con- 
fift  of  the  Zaporog,  who  dwell  below  the  cataradl  of 
the  Dnieper,  fonie  on  the  fide  next  to  Ruflia,  and 
others  on  the  oppofite  fide  of  that  river  ;  the  Lower 
and  Upper  Coffacks  ;  the  Bielogorod  Coflacks  ;  and  a 
part  of  the  Don  Coflacks.  The  Afiatic  Coffacks  are 
compofcd  of  the  rell  of  the  Don  Coflacks,  the  Grcbin 
Coflkcks,  the  Yaik  Cofl"acks,  and  the  Weftern  Cal- 
muks,  who  retiring  from  thofe  that  inhabited  the 
fouth  borders  of  Siberia  under  Yaiuki  Can,  fettled 
upon  the  Wolga,  and  are  dependent  upon  RufTia. 

The  Coflacks  were  known  by  that  name  ever  fince 
the  948th  year  of  Chrift.  They  dwelt  upon  mount 
Caucafus,  in  the  place  now  called  Cabardy;  and  were 
reduced  to  the  Ruffian  dominion  by  prince  Miliflaw 
in  the  year  1021.  Many  Ruffians,  Poles,  and  others, 
who  could  not  live  at  home,  have,  at  different  times, 
been  admitted  among  the  Coffacks  ;  but  the  latter, 
abllratted  from  thefe  fugitives,  mufl.  have  been  an  an- 
cient and  well  governed  nation. 

Towards  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century,  the 
Zaporog  Coffacks  fixed  their  habitations  on  the  fpa- 
cious  plains  that  extend  along  the  banks  of  the  Dnie- 
per. They  had  undergone  confiderablehardfliips  from 
the  incurfions  of  the  Tartars,  for  which  they  after- 
wards found  means  to  avenge  themfelves  in  an  ample 
manner.  The  Poles  being  fenfible  how  ferviceable  the 
Coflacks  might  be  in  defending  them  from  the  ravages 
of  the  Tartars,  and  even  of  the  Ruffians,  propofed  to 
them  terms  of  alliance.  In  1562,  they  folemnly  took 
them  under  their  proteftion,  and  engaged  to  pay  them 
an  annual  fubfidy  ;  in  return  for  which,  the  Coflacks 
were  to  keep  on  foot  a  fufficient  body  of  troops  for 
the  defence  of  the  Pollih  dominions.  With  a  view  to 
bind  them  ftill  more  itrongly  by  ties  of  intereft,  the 
Poles  gave  them  the  whole  counti-y  between  the  rivers 
Dnieper  and  Neifler,  and  the  borders  of  Tartary. 
The  Coflacks  applied  themfelves  with  great  induflry 
to  the  cultivation  of  this  fertile  fpot;  fo  that  in  a  fliort 
time  it  was  interfperfed  with  large  towns  and  hand- 
fome  villages.  Befides  they  continually  haraffcd  the 
Turks,  and  did  them  gieat  damage  by  their  incur- 
fions ;  and  in  order  to  prevent  the  latter  from  pur- 
fuing  them,  or  making  leprifals,  they  poffeffed  them- 
felves of  feveral  fmall  iflands  in  the  Dnieper,  where 
they  kept  their  magazines,  &c.  The  hettman,  or 
general  of  the  Coffacks,  was  not  in  the  leaft  fubordinate 
to  the  field-marflial  of  Poland  ;  but  aAed  in  concert 
with  him  as  an  ally,  and  not  as  a  fubjeft  of  that  re- 
public. But  this  alliance,  though  of  fuch  manifeft 
advantage  to  both  parties,  was  not  of  long  duration. 
The  Poles,  feeing  the  vafl.  improvements  made  by  the 
Coffacks  in  the  country  they  had  given  up  to  them, 
became  eavious  «f  them,  and  atlually_made  an  attempt 


to  bring  them  into  fubjeftion,  as  we  have  feen  in  the   CcfTackt. 

hifl:ory  of  Poland.     In  1648  the  Coflacks  gained  great  ir— ^ 

advantages  over  them,  and  next  year  came  to  an  ac- 
commodation, in  which  they  not  only  preferved  their 
old  immunities,  but  obtained  additional  privileges. 
The  refult  of  all  was,  that  thefe  Coflacks  remained 
under  the  proteftion  of  RufTia  ;  and  as  their  former 
country  was  entirely  laid  wafte  in  the  late  wars,  they 
fettled  in  the  Ruffian  Ukraine,  upon  receiving  formal 
affurances  from  the  court  of  Ruflia,  that  no  alteration 
fhould  be  made  in  their  political  conflitution,  and  that 
no  taxes  whatever  fliould  be  laid  upon  them.  The 
Coffacks,  on  the  other  hand,  were  always  to  keep  in 
readinefs  a  good  body  of  troops  for  the  fervice  of 
Ruflia:  but  in  the  year  170S  Mazeppa,  their  hettm.an 
or  chief,  went  over  from  the  Ruffians  to  the  Swedes ; 
upon  which  Peter  I.  refolved  to  prevent  fuch  revolts 
for  the  future.  To  this  end,  after  the  battle  of  Pul- 
towa,  he  fent  a  ftrong  detachment  into  the  above  men- 
tioned little  iflands  in  the  Dnieper,  whither  the  Cof-  , 
facks  had  fled,  with  their  wives  and  children,  and  all  * 
their  cffefts  ;  and  ordered  them  all  to  be  put  to  the 
fword  without  diftinftion,  and  the  plunder  to  be  di- 
vided among  his  foldiers.  He  likewife  fent  a  great 
number  of  men  into  their  country,  and  caufed  feveral 
thoufands  of  the  Coffacks  to  be  carried  to  the  coails 
of  the  Baltic,  where  they  were  put  to  all  forts  of  hard 
labour;  by  which  means  he  in  a  manner  extirpated  the 
whole  nation. 

What  dllllnguiflies  the  Zaporog  Coffacks  from  all 
other  people  is,  that  they  never  fuffer  any  women  in 
their  fcttlements,  as  the  Amazons  aie  faid  not  to  have 
fuffered  any  men  among  them.  The  women  of  thefe 
Coffacks  live  in  other  iflands  of  the  Dnieper.  They 
never  marry,  nor  have  any  family  :  all  their  male  chil- 
dren are  inroUed  as  foldiers,  and  the  females  are  left 
with  their  mothers.  The  brother  often  has  children 
by  his  filler,  and  the  father  by  his  daughter.  They 
know  no  laws  but  thofe  which  cuftom  has  introduced, 
founded  on  their  natural  wants ;  though  they  have 
among  them  fome  priefts  of  the  Greek  perfuafion. 
They  ferve  in  the  armies  as  irregulars ;  and  woe  to 
thofe  who  fall  into  their  hands. 

The  country  of  thefe  Coffacks,  who  are  an  affem- 
blage  of  ancient  Roxelans,  Sarmatians,  and  Tartars,  is 
called  the  Ocrahie  or  Ukraine.  It  lies  upon  the  bor- 
ders of  Ruffiaand  Poland,  Little  Tartar}',  and  Turky, 
and  was  anciently  a  part  of  Scythia.  ■  By  virtue  of  the 
laft  treaty  fettled  between  Ruflia  and  Poland,  in  1693, 
the  latter  remains  in  poffeffion  of  all  that  part  of  the 
Ukraine  which  is  fituated  on  the  wefl  fide  of  the  Dnie- 
per, and  is  now  but  poorly  cultivated.  That  on  the 
ealt  fide,  inhabited  by  the  Coffacks,  is  in  a  much  bet- 
ter condition,  and  extends  about  two  hundred  and 
fixty  miles  in  length,  and  as  many  in  breadth.  It  is 
one  continued  fertile  plain,  watered  by  a  great  num- 
ber of  fine  rivers,  diverfitied  with  plealant  woods,  and 
yields  fuch  plenty  of  all  forts  of  grain,  pulfe,  tobacco, 
honey,  and  wax,  as  to  fupply  a  great  part  of  the  Ruf- 
fian empire  with  thofe  commodities.  Its  paflures  are 
exceeding  rich,  and  its  cattle  very  large  ;  but  the  in- 
habitants are  greatly  plagued  by  locults,  which  infeft 
this  fine  country.  The  houfes  in  the  Ukraine  are, 
like  thofe  of  tlie  Ruffisns,  moltly  built  with  tim- 
ber. 

The 


COS 


[  485  1 


COS 


Coffacks.        The  Coflacks  are  tall  and  well  made,  generally  hawk-  among  them.     Being  naturally  bold  and  hardy,  they 

'^"V  nofed,  and  of  a  good  mien.    They  are  hardy,  vigorous,  make  excellent  foldiers  ;  and  they  are  not  fo  turbulent 

brave,  and  extremely  jealous  of  what  is  moft  valuable  as  the  other  CofTacks.      They  live   entirely  at   peace 

in  life,  their  liberty;  tickle  and  wavering,  but  fouiable,  with   the  Calmuks  and   their  otlier  neighbours,  and 

cheerful,  and  fprightly.     They  are  a  very  powerful  even  maintain  a  commercial  intcrcourfe  with  them, 
people,   and   their  forces    confift    wholly   of  cavalry.  COSSE  de  Geniste,   an  order  of  knighthood  in- 

Their  dialeft  is  a  compound  of  the  Polilh  and  Ruffian  ftituted  in   1234,   by  Louis  IX.   at  his  marriage  with 

language  ;   but   the   latter   is  the   moft    predominant.  Margaret  of  Provence.      The   motto  on  the  colhi  of 

They  were  formerly  Pagans  or  Mahometans  ;  but  upon  this  order  was,  exaltat  humilis. 

their  entering  into  the  Polifh  fervice.   they  were  bap-         COSSET,  among  farmers,   a  colt,  calf,   or  lamb 

ti/.cd  Chridians  of  the  RomiHi  communion  ;  and  now  brought  up  by  hand  without  the  dam. 
that   they  belong  to    RuiTia,   they  profefs  themfelves         COSTA  (Chrillopher  a),  a  celebrated  botanlll  of 

members  of  the  Greek  church.  the  16th  century,  was  born  in  Africa,  of  a  Portuguefc 

Each  of  their  towns,   with  the  diftrift  belonging  father,  and  went   into   Afia  to   perfeft  himfelf  in  the 

to  it,  is  governed  by  an  officer  called  etloiuaiiii  or  ut-  knowledge  of  iimples,   vi'here    he  was  taken   prifoner 

tamamt.  but  found  means  to  make  his  efcape,  and  after  leveral 

The   Don-Coffacks,   fo  called   from   their  refidence  voyages,   pradtifed   phylic    at    Bourgos.      He    wrote, 

upon   the   banks  of  the   river   Don,   greatly    refemble  l.  A  Treatife  on  Indian  Drugs  and  Medicines.   2.  His 

thofe  already  defcribed.      In  the  year  1559,  when  the  Voyages  to  the  Indies.      3.  A  book  iu  praife  of  Wo- 

czar  Iwan   ISafilowit/,  was  emperor  of  RuHia,  they  vo-  men  ;  and  other  works. 

luntarily  put  thcmftlves  under  his  proteftion,  and  are  COSTAL,  an  appellation  given  by  anatomifts  to  fe- 
at this  time  on  a  pretty  equal  footing  with  the  other  veral  parts  belonging  to  the  fides  :  thus  we  meet  with 
Ruffian  fubjefts.      They   have   feveral   towns  and  vil-  coftal  mufclcs,  vertebrae,  &c. 

lages  upon  the  banks  of  tlie  Don  ;  but  are  prevented  COSTANZO  (Angelo  di),  an  Italian  hiftorian  and 

from  extending  themfelves  farther  up  the  country,  by  poet,  lord  of  Catalupo,  was  born  in  1  yoy,  of  a  noble 

the  fcarcity  of  fredi  water  and  wood  in  many  places,  and  ancient  family  of  Naples,  and  died  about  1591, 
Their  chief  fupport  is  grazing  and  agriculture,  and  oc- 
cafionally  robbing  and  plundering,  for  which  they 
want  neither  capacity  nor  inclination.  Every  town  is 
governed  by  a  magillrate  called  tamann  ;  and  tlie  ta- 
manns,  with  their  towns,  are  under  the  jurifdiftion  of 


He  wrote,  1.  A  Hiftory  of  Naples,  from  1250  to 
1489  ;  the  beft  edition  of  which  is  that  of  Aquila,  in 
1582,  in  folio,  very  fcarce.  2.  Italian  Poems,  which 
are  efteemed,  and  have  had  feveral  editions. 

COSTA-RICCA,   a  province  of  North  America   in 


two  ottomanns,  who  refide  at  Tlherkaflvy.      The  troops  New  Spain,  and  in  the  audience  of  Guatimala,  bound- 

of  thefe  CofTacks  likewife  confift  entirely  of  cavaliy.  cd  on  the  north-eaft   by  the  northern   ocean,   on    the 

In  this  country  all  the  towns  and  villages  are  fortified  fouth-wtft  by  the  fouth  fea,  on  the  north-weft  by  Ni- 

and  cncompafTed  with  palifades,  to  defend  them  againft  caragua,  and  on  the  fouth-eaft  by  Veragua.      The  foil 

the  incurfions  of  the  Calmucs  and  Kuban  Tartars,  with  is   not  very   fertile,  though   there  is  plenty  of  cattle, 

whom  they  are  continually  at  war.      The  Cofiacks,  in  Carthage  is  the  capital  town 


general,  are  of  great  fervice.  to  garrifon  towns  by  way 
of  defence,  or  to  purfue  an  enemy  ;  but  are  not  fo 
good  at  regular  attacks. 

The  Sietdi  Coflfacks,  who  are  alfo  called  Haidamachs, 
have  their  particular  hettman.     They  inhabit  the  Ruf- 


COSTARD  ((Jeorge),  a  clergyman  of  the  church 
of  England,  and  author  of  feveral  learned  works,  waj 
born  about  the  year  17  to.  He  was  educated  at  Wad- 
ham  College,  Oxford  ;  and  took  the  degree  of  M.  A, 
'"  '733-     l-^l'e  fi'"ft  ecclefiaftical  fituation  in  which  he 


fian,  Polifti,  and  Turklih  dominions,  along  the  banks  was  placed  was  that  of  curate  of  Illip  in  Oxfordfliire. 
of  the  Dnieper.  In  1747  he  publiflied,  in  8vo,  Some  Obfervations  tend- 
The  Yaiii  CofTacks  dwell  on  the  fouth  fide  of  the  ing  to  illuilrate  the  Book  of  Job.  In  1750  he  pub- 
river  Yalk  ;  and  upon  the  fuccefs  of  the  RulTian  arms  lilhed  Two  Difleitations  :  I.  On  the  meaning  of  the 
in  the  kingdom  of  Aftracaii,  voluntarily  fubmitted  to  Word  Kifitah,  mentioned  in  Job,  chap.  xlii.  ver.  11, 
them.  In  ftature  they  greatly  refemble  the  other  Cof-  II.  On  the  Signification  of  the  Word  Hermes.  In  1  752 
facks;  though  by  their  boorilli  manner  of  living,  and  he  publiflied,  in  8vo,  at  Oxford,  D'JJhlationesII.  Crilico- 
intermarriages  with  the  Tartars,  they  have  nut  the  Sacra,  quarum prima  expl'tcalur  E%eL  x'm.  i^.  yllleravero, 
(hape  and  air  peculiar  to  the  reft  of  their  countrymen.  2  Reg.  x.  22.  In  1755  he  wrote  a  letter  to  Di  Birch,. 
Their  natural  difpofitions  and  cuftoms  are,  however,  which  is  preferved  in  the  Britifh  Mufeum,  refpeftiiig  the 
nearly  the  fame.  Hulbandry,  fifliing,  and  feeding  of  r!\ezmngoi\.\\s:\-)\\v9.{efphiFralarbarica.  Some  time  after 
cattle,  are  their  principal  employments  ;  and,  like  the  thisheundertookto  publiiliafecond  editionofDr  Hyde's 
other  tribes,  they  let  llip  no  opportunity  of  making  Hijhria  Religlotiis  vclerum  Perfunim,  eorumque  Magorum;. 
depredations   on   their   neighbours.      Their  continual  and  which  was  accordingly  printed,   under  his  infpec- 


wars  with  the  Kara-Kalpacs  and  the  Kafatfhaia-Horda 
oblige  them  to  keep  their  tov\  ns  and  villages  in  a  ftate 
of  defence.  They  are  indeed  fubjetl  to  Rufli;.<i  wni- 
wodes,  to  whom  they  pay  an  annual  tribute  in  corn, 
wax,  honey,  and  cattle  ;  but  they  have  alfo  their  par- 
ticular chiefs,  who  govern  them  according  to  their  an- 
cient cuftoms.      Thou'ch  the   generality  of  the   Yalk 


tion,  and  with  his  corrections,  at  the  Clarendon  Piefs 
at  Oxford,  in  410,  in  1760.  Mr  Coftard's  extenfive 
learning  having  now  recommended  him  to  tlie  notice 
of  Lord  Chancellor  Northington,  he  obtained,  by  th'S 
favour  of  that  iioblcnian.  In  June  1764,  the  vicarage 
of  Twickenham  in  MIddlefex  ;  in  which  fituation  he 
coniliuicd  till  ills  death.      In  1767  he  publiflied,  in  one 


Coffacks  profefs  the  Greek  religion,  yet  a  great  nianv     volume  quarto.  The  Hiftory  of  Aftronomy,   with   its- 
relifts  of  Mahoaictanifm  and  Paganifm  are  Hill  found    application  to  Geography,  Hlllory,  and  Chronology  ;. 

ocea» 


Cotfe 

II 
Codard. 


COS 


[  486  ] 


COT 


II 
Coftus. 


•  Blachjl. 
Comment. 
liii.  399, 

400. 


occafior.ally  exemplified  by  the,  Oiubes.  This  work 
v/as  chiffiy  intended  for  the  ufc  of  iUidents,  and  con- 
tains a  full  and  diftinft  view  of  the  fevtral  improve- 
ments made  in  geography  and  aftronomy.  Mr  Coilard 
has  fnown,  "  by  a  gradual  dedudion,  at  what  time,  and 
by  whom,  the  priucipal  difcoveries  liave  been  made  in 
geography  and  alli-ononiy  ;  how  each  difcovery  has 
-paved  tiie  way  to  what  followed  ;  and  hy  what  eafy 
lleps,  through  the  revolution  of  fo  rnany  ages,  thcfe 
vei-y  ufeful  fciences  have  advanced  towards  their  pre- 
■fcnt  Puite  of  pei-feii\ion.''  In  1778  he  pubHfhed,  in  8vo, 
A  Letter  to  Nathaniel  BralTey  Halhead,  Efq;  contain- 
ingfome  Remarks  on  his  Preface  to  the  Cede  of  Gcntoo 
I^aws.  This  appears  to  have  been  the  laft  of  his  pub- 
lications. It  contains  fome  criticilms  which^were  in- 
tended to  Invalidate  the  opinion  which  Mr  Halhead  liad 
conceived  concerning  the  great  antiquity  of  the  Gentoo 
laws;  and  fome  arguments  againft  a  notion  which  had 
been  adopted  by  feveial  writers,  drawn  from  the  obfer- 
vation  of  natural  phenomena,  that  the  world  is  far  more 
ancient  than  it  is  reprefented  to  be  by  the  Hebrew 
chronology.  Mr  Cottard  died  on  the  loth  of  January 
I  782.  He  was  a  man  of  uncommon  learning,  and  emi- 
nently fl<illed  in  Grecian  and  oriental  literature.  His 
private  charafter  was  amiable,  and  he  was  much  re- 
fpeiJtcd  in  the  neighbourhood  in  which  he  lived  for  his 
humanity  and  benevolence. —  Befides  the  works  already 
mentioned,  he  wrote-  fome  others  ;  and  was  alfo  the 
author  of  learned  papers,  inferted  in  the  Philofophical 
Tranfadions,  on  aftronomical  and  chronological  fub- 
jeds. 

COSTIVENESS,  a  preternatural  detention  of  the 
feces,  Vi-ilh  an  unufual  drynefs  and  hardnefs  thereof, 
and  thence  a  fuppreffion  of  their  evacuation.  See  (the 
Index  fubjoined  to)  MEniciNE. 

COSTMARY,  the  Englifli  name  of  a  fpecies  of 
tanfy.     See  Tanacetum. 

COSTS,  in  law,  imply  the  expences  of  a  fuit  reco- 
vered by  the  plaintifl',  together  with  damages.  Colls 
were  not  allowed  by  the  common  law,  the  amerce- 
mejit  of  the  vanquifiied  party  being  his  only  punifli- 
ment ;  but  they  are  given  by  Ilatute*.  Colls  are  al- 
lowed in  chancery  for  failing  to  make  anfwer  to  a  bill 
exhibited,  or  making  an  infufhcient  anfwer  :  and  if  a 
firit  anfwer  be  certitied  by  a  mailer  to  be  infufntient, 
the  defendant  is  to  pay  40s.  ;  3I.  for  a  fecond  infuffi- 
cient  anfwer  ;  4I.  for  a  third,  l<c.  But  if  the  anfwer 
be  reported  good,  the  plaintiff  Ihall  pay  the  defendant 
40s.  cofts. 

COSTUME,  a  rule  or  precept  in  painting,  by  which 
the  artill  is  enjoined  to  make  every  perfon  and  thing 
fuflain  its  proper  character,  and  not  only  obferve  the 
ilory,  but  the  circurailances,  the  fcene  of  action,  the 
country  or  place,  and  take  care  that  the  habits,  arms, 
manners,  proportions,  and  the  hke,  exaftly  cone- 
fpond. 

COSTUS,  in  botany  :  A  genus  of  the  monogy- 
nia  order,  belonging  to  the  monandria  clafs  of  plants; 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  eighth  or- 
der, Sciiaminc^e.  The  corolla  is  interior,  inflated,  and 
ringent,  with  the  under  lip  trilid.  There  is  but  one 
fpecies,  r/'-z.  the  arabicus,  a  native  of  the  Indies.  The 
root  was  formerly  in  fome  elieem  as  an  attenuant,  and 
ferviceable  in  venereal  complaints;  but  it  is  now  rarely 
prcforib-jd  or  met  with  in  the  Ihops. 


COTA  (Rodriguez),  a  Spanifli  poet  in  tlie  161I1 
century,  was  the  author  of  the  Tmgi-cumedia  de  Cal'if'.o 
_v  Md'd'c-d,  which  has  been  tranllated  into  Latin  by 
Gafpar  I'artliius,  and  into  French  by  James  de  La- 
vardin.  The  Spaniards  fct  a  great  value  on  this  per- 
formance. 

CO-TANGENT,  the  tangent  of  an  arch  wliich  is 
the  coin]>lenient  of  another  to  90*^.   See  Geomhtry. 

COTBUS,  a  town  of  Germany  In  Lower  Luface. 
It  is  a  ilrong  important  place,  and  has  been  fubjed  to 
the  king  of  PruITia  ever  fince  the  year  1645.  It  is 
feated  on  the  river  Spree,  60  miles  fouth-by-eall  of 
Berlin,  and  55  fouth-eall  of  Wirtembcrg.  Here  are 
a  great  number  of  French  Protedants,  who  have  intro- 
duced manutadures;  and  this  pl-ace  is  noted  fur  excel- 
lent beer,  pitch,  and  the  cultivation  of  flax.  E,  Long. 
15.  29.   N.  Lat.  51.  40. 

COTE,  a  term  ufed  in  courfing,  to  exprefs  the  ad- 
vantage one  greyhound  has  over  another  when  he  runs 
by  the  fide  of  it,  and,  putting  before  it,  gives  the  hare 
a  turn.     See  Coursing. 

CoTF-Care,  a  kind  of  refufe  wool,  fo  clung  or  clot- 
ted together  that  it  cannot  be  pulled  afundcr.  By 
13  Rich.  II.  (lat.  I.  c.  9.  it  is  provided,  that  neither 
denizen  or  foreigner  make  any  other  refufe  of  wools 
but  cotc-gare  and  villein.  So  the  printed  Ilatute  has 
it ;  but  in  the  pai 'lament- roll  of  that  year  it  is  cod-land 
and  I'i/lein.  Cot,  or  cole,  fignifies  as  much  as  cottage 
in  many  places,  and  was  fo  ufed  by  the  Saxons  accord- 
ing to  Verllegan. 

COTLLERIUS  (John  Baptift),  fellow  of  tlie  Sor- 
bonne,  and  king's  Greek  profeifor,  was  born  at  Nif- 
mes  in  Languedoc  in  1627.  He  made  a  culledion  of 
the  fathers  who  lived  in  the  apoflollc  age,  which  he 
publilhcd  at  Paris  in  two  volumes  folio  in  1672;  all 
reviewed  and  corredcd  from  fevetal  MSS.  with  a  Latin 
tranilatlon  a.id  notes.  He  alfo  publilhcd  Moiuimenta 
Eccltjix  Gvitcir,  in  3  vols  ;  being  n  coILition  of  Greek 
trads  out  of  the  king's  and  M.  Colbert's  libraries,  and 
which  had  never  been  publifhed  before  :  to  thefe  he 
added  a  Latin  tranflation  and  notes.  He  intended  a 
farther  profecution  of  this  work  ;  but  his  inteiife  ilu- 
dies  broke  his  conllitution,  and  deprived  him  of  life 
In  1686.  Befides  his  great  llvill  in  languages  and  ec- 
clefiallical  antiquities,  Cotelerlus  was  rcmarkablij  for 
his  probity  and  candour. 

COTERELLUS.  Cotarius,  and  colerellus,  accord- 
ing to  Spelman  and  Du  Frefne,  are  fervilc  tenants  ; 
but  in  Doomfday  and  other  ancient  MSS.  there  ap- 
pears a  dillindion,  as  well  in  their  tenure  and  qutJily 
as  ui  their  name  :  for  the  cotarius  hath  a  free  icccage 
tenure,  and  p.iid  a  Hated  firm  or  rent  in  provifions  or 
money,  witii  lomc  occafional  cuftomary  fervices;  where- 
as the  coterellus  feems  to  have  held  in  mere  villcnage, 
and  his  perfon,  iffue,  and  goods,  were  difpofable  at 
the  pleafure  of  the  lord. 

COTERIE,  a  term  adopted  from  the  French  tra- 
ding alTociations  or  partneriliips,  where  each  perfon 
advan.x-s  his  (juota  of  Hock  and  receives  his  proportion 
of  gain  ;  and  which  retains  Its  original  meaning  when 
applied  to  little  afTemblies  or  companies  alTooiated  for 
mirth  and  good  humour,  where  each  one  furnidies  his 
quota  of  plcafaiitry.  Here  they  coin  new  words  not  un- 
derllood  eli'ewhire,  but  which  it  becomes  fafiiionable 
for  others  to  ufc  ;  and  they  are  thought  ridiculous  who 
2  a-fs 


Cot* 

II 
C'oitrie. 


O     T  [     487     1  COT 

It  has  been  ufcd  of  late  to  fig-    fquare  wooden  frame  wiih  a  csnvas  bottom,  equal  to    Cottape, 

its  length  and  breadth,  to  retain  it  in  an  hoiuontal  . 

an  excellent  mathematician   of    pofition. 


are  ignorant  of  them, 
nify  a  chib  of  ladles. 
COTES  (Roger) 
the  1 8th  century.  He  early  dilcovered  an  inclination 
to  the  mathematics  ;  and  at  1 7  years  of  age  w  as  ad- 
mitted a  peiifiouer  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  In 
1706  he  was  appointed  protollor  of  aflronomy  in  the 
profcflorlhip  fuiuided  by  Ui"  I'hime  archdeacon  of  Ro- 
chefter,  being  chofcn  the  firll  in  that  chair  for  liis  great 
merit  and  Itaining.  In  the  year  1713,  at  the  requeft 
of  Dr  Richaid  Btntley,  he  published  at  Cambridge, 
ill  4to,  a  fccond  edition  of  ^iir  Ifaac  Newton's  Princi- 
pja,  with  all  the  improvements  wiiich  the  author  had 
annexed  thereto  ;  to  which  he  prefixed  an  excellent 
Preface.  He  prepared  fcveral  ulcful  books  for  the 
public  ;  and  wrote  A  Dcfcription  of  the  great  Meteor 
\ihich  appeared  on  the  6th  of  Marcli  1716,  piiblillied 
in  tlie  Philofophical  Trunfattlons.  He  lived  bat  a 
little  while  to  carry  on  the  difcourfcs  for  which  he 
was  eminently  qualified  ;  dying  in  the  prime  of  his 
age  in  I  7 16,  to  the  great  regret  of  all  the  lovers  of 
the  fciences. 

COTESWOLD,  feveral  fiieep-cotes,  and  (heep 
feeding  on  hills.  It  comes  from  the  Saxon  cote,  i.  e. 
cfifa,  "  a  cottage,"  and  woh/,  "  a  place  where  there  is 
no  wood." 

COTHURNUS,  Buskin,  a  very  high  (lioe  or 
patten  raifed  on  foals  of  cork,  wore  by  the  ancient  ac- 
tors in  tragedy  to  make  them  appear  taller  and  more 
like  the  heroes  they  reprefented  ;  moft  of  whom  were 
fuppofed  to  be  giants.  It  covered  the  greatelt  part  of 
the  leg,  and  was  tied  beneath  the  knee.  .lEfchylus  is 
faid  to  have  invented  the  cothurnus.     See  Buskin. 

COTICE,  or  Cotise',  in  heraldi7,  is  the  fourth 
part  of  the  bend  ;  which  with  us  is  feldom  or  ever 
borne  but  in  couples,  with  a  bend  between  them  : 
whence  probably  the  name  ;  from  the  French  cote, 
"  fide;"  they  being  borne,  as  it  were,  a-hde  of  the 
bend. — A  bend  thus  bordered  is  faid  to  be  ccitifed,  cotice. 
He  bears  fable  on  a  bend  cotiied  argent  three  cinque- 
foils. 

COTILLON,  the  na.me  of  a  well-known  bri/k 
danrc,  in  which  eight  perfons  are  employed.  The  term 
is  French,  and  fignifics  an  under-petticoat. 

COTRONE,  a  town  in  the  Hither  Calabria,  ftand- 
fiijr  on  the  iitc  of  the  ancient  Croton,  though  not  oc- 
cupying the  fame  extent  of  ground:  (See  CrotonJ. 
It  is  fortified  with  fingle  walls,  and  a  caftle  ertfted  by 
Charles  V.  Its  private  buildings  are  poor  and  fordid, 
the  ftrcets  difmal  and  narrow.  Cheefe  and  corn  are 
the  principle  commodities.  For  the  ilowage  of  corn, 
there  are  ranges  of  granaries  in  the  fiiburbs  ;  and  the 
annual  export  is  about  200,000  tomoti.  The  cheefe 
is  tolerably  good  ;  but  has  a  great  deal  of  that  hot 
acrid  tafte  fo  common  to  all  cheefe  made  with  goats 
milk.  The  wine  is  not  unpleafant,  and  appears  fuf- 
cejjtible  of  improvement  by  better  maiiagemcnt  in  the 
making  and  keeping. 

COTT,  a  particular  fort  of  bed-frame,  fufpended 
from  the  beams  of  a  (liip  for  the  officers  to  Deep  in 
between  the  decks.  This  contrivance  is  much  more 
convenient  at  fea  than  either  the  hi'.mraocks  or  fixed 
cabins  ;  being  a  large  piece  of  canvas  ftwed  into  the 
toim  of  a  chcfl,  about  fix  feet  long,  one  foot  deep. 


COrTAGE,  CoTTAGiuM,  is  properly  a  little 
houfe  for  habitation  without  lands  belonging  to  it  ; 
ilat.  4.  Edw.  I.  But  by  a  later  ilatute,  3  i  Eliz.  c.  7. 
no  man  may  build  a  cottage  unlefs  he  lay  four  acres  of 
land  tiiereto  ;  except  it  be  in  market-iowns  or  cities, 
or  within  a  mile  of  the  fea,  or  for  the  habitation  of 
labourers  in  mines,  failors,  forcllers,  (hepherds,  &c. 
and  cottages  erected  by  order  of  juilices  of  peace  for 
poor  impotent  people  are  excepted  out  of  tiie  Ibatute. 
Tlie  four  acres  of  land  to  m.ake  it  a  cottage  within  the 
law  are  io  be  freehold,  and  land  of  inheritance  ;  and 
four  acres  holden  by  copy,  or  for  life  or  lives,  or  for 
any  number  of  years,  will  not  be  fufiicient  to  make  a 
lawful  cottage. 

COTTON,  in  commerce,  a  foft  downy  fubftance 
found  on  the  golTypmm,  or  cotton-tree.     See  Gossv- 

PIUM. 

Cotton  is  feparated  from  the  feeds  of  the  plant  by 
a  mill,  and  then  fpun  and  prepared  for  all  forts  of  fine 
works,  as  llockings,  wailleoats,  quilts,  tapeilry,  cur- 
tains, &c.  With  it  they  likewife  make  mullin  ;  and 
fometimes  it  is  mixed  with  wool,  fometimes  with  filk, 
and  even  with  gold  itfelf. 

The  finell  Icrt  comes  from  Bengal  and  the  coall  of 
Coromandel. 

Cotton  makes  a  very  conflderable  article  in  com- 
merce, and  is  diitinguiflied  into  cotton-wool  and  cotton- 
thread.  The  firll  is  brought  moiUy  from  Cyprus,  St 
John  d'Arce,  and  Smyrna:  liie  moll  elleemcd  is  white, 
long,,  and  foft.  Thofe  who  buy  it  in  bales  (hould  fee 
that  it  has  not  been  wet,  moillure  paeing  very  prejudi- 
cial to  it. 

Of  cotton-thread,  that  of  Damas,  called  cotton  d'omice, 
and  that  of  Jerufalem,  called  ^«zrtf,  are  the  moft  cfteem- 
ed  ;  as  alfo  that  of  the  Weft  India  iflands.  It  is  to  be 
chofen  white,  fine,  very  dry,,  and  evenly  fpun.  The 
other  cotton-threads  are  the  half  bazas,  the  rames,  the 
bcledin,  and  gondezel ;  the  payas  and  montafiri,  the 
geneguins,  the  baquins,  the  joffelaffars,  of  which  there 
are  two  forts.  Thofe  of  India,  known  by  the  name  of 
Tutucorin,  Java,  Bengal,  and  Surat,  arc  of  four  or 
five  forts,  diilinguiftied  by  the  letters  A,  B,  C,  &c. 
They  arc  fold  in  bags,  with  a  deduction  of  one  pound' 
and  a  half  on  each  of  thofe  of  Tutucorin,  which  are 
the  dcareft,  and  two  pounds  on  each  bag  of  the  other 
forts.  For  thofe  of  Fielebas,  Smyrna,  Aleppo,  and. 
Jerufalem,  the  dedu6tion  at  Amllerdam  is  eight  in , 
the  hundred  for  the  tare,  and  two  in  the  hundred 
for  weight,  and  on  the  value  one  per  cent,  for  prompt 
payment. 

Cotton  of  Siam,  is  a  kind  of  filky  cotton  in  the  An-  - 
tilles,  fo  called  bccaufe  the  grain  was  brought  from 
Siam.  It  is  of  an  extraordinary  finenefs,  even  furpaf- 
fmg  fdk  in  foftnefs.  They  make  hofe  of  it  there  pre- 
ferable to  lilk  ones  for  their  Inllie  and  beauty.  Tliey 
fell  from  IO  to  12  and  15  crowns  a  pair,  but  there  are  ■ 
very  few  made  unleis  for  curiofity. 

The  manner  of  pitciing  Col  ton  as  praclifed  in  the 
Aiitdhs.  The  bags  are  made  of  coarfe  cloth,  of  which 
tlay  take  three  ells  and  a  half  each  ;  the  breadth  is 
one  ell  three  inches.      When   the   bag  has   been  well  , 


and  from  two  to  three  feet  wide.      It  is  cMended  by  a     foaked  in  water,  they  hang  it  up,  extending  the  mouth 


COT  [    488     ] 

Cotton,  of  it  to  crof3  pieces  of  timber  nailed  to  pofts  fixed  in  he  had  conftrufted 
~"  V  ■■  the  ground  fevtn  or  eight  feet  high.  He  who  packs 
it  goes  into  the  bag,  which  is  fix  feet  nine  inches  deep, 
or  thereabouts,  and  prelles  down  the  cotton,  which  an- 
other hands  him,  with  hands  and  feet ;  obltrving  to 
tread  it  equally  every  where,  and  putting  in  but  little 
at  a  time.  The  belt  time  of  packing  is  in  rainy  moilt 
weather,  provided  the  cotton  be  under  cover.  The 
bag  (hould  contain  from  300  to  320  pounds.  The  tare 
abated  in  the  Antilles  is  three  in  the  hundred.  Cotton 
being  a  produdion  applicable  to  a  great  variety  of  ma- 


r.ufadure-s  it  cannot  be  too  much  cuhivated  in  our  own 
plantations  that  will  admit  ot  it. 

CoTJON-Spwvwg,  the   art    or  procefs  of  reducing 
cotton-wool  into  yarn  or  thread. 

The  moft  fimple  method  for  this  purpofe,  and  the 
only  one  in  ufe  for  a  long  time  in  this  country,  was 
by  the  hand  upon  thewell-known  domeftic  machine  call- 
ed a  orte-threcid  iL'heel.  But  as  the  demand  for  cotton- 
goods  began  to  increafe,  other  inventions  were  thought 
of  for  expediting  this  part  of  the  manufafture.  About 
50  years  ago,  one  Paul  and  others  of  London  con- 
trived an  engine  for  a  more  eafy  and  expeditious  me- 
thod of  fpinning  cotton,  and  for  which  they  obtained 
a  patent ;  but  the  undertaking  did  not  prove  fuccefs- 
ful.  Some  years  thereafter,  various  machines  were  con- 
ftrufted  by  different  perfons  for  facilitating  the  fpinning 
of  cotton  ;  but  without  producing  any  very  material 
or  lafting  advantage.  At  length,  about  the  year  1  767, 
Mr  James  Hargrave,  a  weaver  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Blackburn  in  Lancafliirc,  conftrufted  a  machine  by 
which  a  great  number  of  threads  (from  20  to  bo)  might 
be  fpun  at  once,  and  for  which  he  obtained  his  Majelly^s 
letters-patent.  This  machine  is  called  a  Jenny,  and  is 
the  bell  contrivance  for  fpinning  luoof  or Jhute  that  has 
hitherto  appeared.  It  is  now  commonly  conllruiitcd 
for  84  threads;  and  with  it  one  perfon  can  fpin  100 
Englilh  hanks  in  the  day,  each  hank  containing  840 

yards.  .       .      ^  .     . 

Carding  of  cotton,  as  a  .preparation  tor  Ipmning, 
ufed  formerly  to  be  performed  by  the  hand,  with  a 
lingle  pair  of  cards,  upon  the  knee  :  but  this  being  a 
tedious  m.thod,  ill  fuited  to  the  rapid  operations  of 
the  new  fpinning  machines,  other  methods  were  con- 
trived for  affordhig  a  quicker  and  more  adequate  fup- 
ply.  The  firll  improvement  for  this  purpofe  was 
iikewife  made  by  Mr  Harg.ave;  and  coiililled  in  ap- 
plying tv.'o  or  three  cards  to  the  fame  board,  and  fix- 
ing them  to  a  ftool  or  Hock ;  whence  they  obtained  the 
n2sn^  oi  fock-cardi.  With  ihtfe,  one  woman  could 
perform  two  or  three  times  as  much  work  as  flie  could 
do  before  in  the  common  way.  A  Hill  more  expe- 
ditious method  of  carding,  however,  by  what  are  com- 
monly called  cylinder-cards,  was  iocin  afterwards  in- 
vented, and  is  that  which  is  now  moil  commonly  prac- 
tifed  :  but  as  feveral  perfons  lay  claim  to  this  inven-^ 
tion,  it  is  not  eafy  to  determine  to  whom  in  particular 
the  merit  of  it  is  due. 

The  next  and  nu)ft  capital  impiovements  which  this 
branch  of  manufacture  received  were  from  Mr  Ark- 
vvright,  a  native  of  Lancalhire,  now  Sir  Richard  Ark- 
wright  of  Cromford  in  Derbylliire.  He  tirll  brought 
forward  his  new  method  of  fpinning  cotton  in  1768, 
for  which  he  obtained  a  patent  in  1769;  he  after- 
wards, in  1775,  obtained  a  patent  for  engines  which 


GOT 

o  prepare  the  materials  for  fpin- 
ning :  though  one  of  thefe  patents,  being  challenged 
at  law,  was  fet  afide  fome  years  btfore  it  expired. 
The  lefult  of  Mr  Arkvvright's  different  inventions  and 
improvements  is  a  combuiation  of  machinery,  by  which 
cotton  is  carded,  roved,  and  fpun,  with  tlie  utmoll  ex- 
aCtnefs  and  equality  ;  and  fuch  a  degree  of  perfeftioii 
attained  in  fpinning  "jjarp,  as  is  not  to  be  equalled  in 
any  other  part  of  the  world.  To  thefe  improve- 
ments this  country  is  entirety  indebted  for  the  great 
extent   of   its   cotton   manufaftures ;     large   buildings 


Cotton. 


having  been  erefted  for  that  branch  both  in  England 
and  Scotland,  many  of  which  contain  feveral  thou- 
fands  of  fpindles,  each  driven  by  one  or  more  large 
water  wheels  ;  and  fome  of  fuch  extent  as  to  fpin  at 
the  rate  of  one  thouland  yards  of  twill  or  warp  yarn 
in  the  minute. 

Other  machines  have  been  invented  at  different  times, 
and  a  variety  of  improvements  made  by  diflerent  mecha- 
nics and  manufafturers  ;  one  of  which  in  particular  we 
mull  not  omit  to  mention.  It  is  called  a  Alule,  being  a 
kind  of  mixtureof  machinery  between  the ■zoa;^- machine 
of  Mr  Arkwright  and  the  woo/'-machine  or  hand-jenny 
of  Mr  Hargrave  ;  and  was  alfo  invented  in  L.anca(hire. 
This  machine  bids  fair  to  be  of  great  ufe  in  fpinning 
cotton  yarn  for  muflins  to  a  degree  of  iinenefs  never 
before  known  in  this  country,  being  nearly  equal  in 
quality  to  thofe  ufually  brought  from  India. 

Cotton  Mills,  are  large  buildings  with  peculiar  ma- 
chinery for  carding,  roving,  and  ipinning  cotton  :  (iee 
the  preceding  article.) — Thefe  were  entirely  unknown  in 
this  country  before  the  different  inventions  and  improve- 
ments of  Meffrs  Arkwright  and  Hargrave;  fince  which 
time  great  numbers  have  been  ereiitcd  in  England,  and 
feveral  in  Scotland. 

The  firfl  ereitions  of  the  kind  were  by  Meffrs  Ark- 
wright and  Hargrave,  both  in  the  town  of  Nettings 
ham,  and  both  nearly  at  the  fame  time.  The  engines 
were  then  driven  by  horfes :  but  llncc  that  time  they 
have  been  chiefly  ereCled  upon  water-falls  in  different 
parts  of  the  country  ;  particularly  the  warp  machines, 
which  are  better  adapted  for  being  driven  by  water 
than  any  other.  The  moft  extenfive  of  thefe  is  in  the 
village  and  neighbourhood  of  Cromford  in  Deibvfhire, 
and  under  the  immediate  infpedlicm  of  Sir  Richard 
Arkwright.  The  hrfl  that  was  ertfted  in  Scotland 
was  for  Ml  Peter  Biotherlloii,  under  tlie  infpedion 
and  direction  of  M--  John  Hackttt  from  Nottingham  ; 
and  is  in  the  neighbourhood  of  pcnnycnick  near  Edin- 
burgh. Since  which  time  feveral  have  been  eteAed  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Glafgow,  Paifley,  Lanark, 
Perth,  &c. 

General  State  of  the  Cotton  Manufnliory.  The  fa- 
clHtics  which  the  manulatluiers  of  Great  Britain  had 
fuddenly  acquired,  and  the  immtufe  capitals  which 
they  have  fo  recently  laid  out  in  expenfive  machinery 
and  other  heavy  eflablifliments  for  carrying  on  the 
cotton  trade,  are  unparalleled  in  the  annals  of  the 
world.  Above  one  hundred  and  forty  cotlon-mills  are 
ijow  built  in  Great  Britain,  of  which  nearly  two-thirds 
have  been  credted  within  thefe  feven  years.  Befidcs 
thefe,  there  are  above  20,500  hand-mills  or  jennies  for 
fpinning  the  Ihute  for  the  twilled  yarn  fpun  by  the 
water-mills. 

Above  a  million  of  money  was,  within  this  time, 
,  funk 


COT  [    489    1  C 

funk  in  mills,  hand  engines,  and  other  machines,  in-    extended  to  the  value  of  L 
'  eluding  the  groundb  and  neccflary  buildings. 

Expence  of  water-mills,  -  L.  715,000     o     o 

Ditto  of  hand-jennies,  houfes,  build- 
ings, and  auxiliary  machinery, 
fuppofed  at  leall,  -  285,000     O     o 


O     T 

r5  ;  yielding  a  return  of 
^, goo  per  cent,  on  the  raw  material. 

But  the  ilate  of  the  raw  materials,  and  the  progref- 
llve  and  aftonifliing  increafc  of  this  manufadlure,  will 
be  heft  explained  by  what  follows  : 


Cotton. 


Total,  -  L.  1,000,000     o     o 

A  power  had  been  alfo  created  of  working  nearly 
two  million  of  fpindlcs  ;  and  men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren were  trained  to  this  bufinefs,  capable  of  can  ying  the 
cotton  manufacture  almolt  to  any  extent.  In  1787, 
the  power  of  Ipindles  capable  of  being  worked  was  efti- 
mated  as  follows : 

In  the  water-mills,  -  •  286,000 

In  the  jennies,  -  -  1,665,100 


Total  fpindles,  1,951,100 

In  the  branches  applicable  to  muflin  and  callico,  it 
was  calculated  that  employment  was  given  to  100,000 
men  and  women,  and  at  leall  60,000  children;  many  of 
the  latter  having  been  taken  from  different  parifhes  and 
hofpitals  in  Great  Britain. 

The  quantity  of  the  raw  material  of  cotton  wool 
confumed  in  this  manufafture,  which  did  not  a- 
mour.t  to  6,000,000 lb.  in  1781,  and  was  only  about 
J  c, 000,000 lb.  fix  years  ago,  had  amounted  in  the 
year  1787  to  the  enormous  height  of  22,000,000  lb. 
and  upwards  ;  and  the  aftonidiing  rapidity  of  this  in- 
ereafc  is  in  fome  meafure  to  be  attributed  to  the  exten- 
fion  of  thefe  branches  to  the  goods  of  India,  particu- 
larly the  callicoes  and  muflins. 

Brltifli  callicoes  were  tirft  made  in  Lancafhire  about 
the  year  1772,  but  the  progi^efs  was  flow  till  within 
thefe  laft  i  2  years.  The  quantity  manufaftured  has 
fince  extended  from  about  50,000  to  1,000,000  of 
pieces  made  in  the  courfe  of  a  fmgle  year. 

Biitifti  muflins  were  not  fuccefsfully  introduced  un- 
til the  year  1781,  and  were  carried  to  no  great  extent 
until  1785,  after  which  period  the  progrefs  during  two 
years  became  rapid  beyond  all  example.  The  acquifition 
of  cotton  wool  of  a  fuperior  quality  from  Demerara 
and  the  Brazils,  and  the  improvements  made  in  the 
fpinning  fine  yarns  upon  the  mule  jennies,  had  given  a 
fpring  to  this  branch  of  the  cotton  manufaftory,  wiu'ch 
extended  it  beyond  what  it  was  poffible  to  have  con- 
ceived. Above  half  a  million  pieces  of  niunin  ofdif- 
fei-ent  kinds,  including  Ihavvls  and  handkerchiefs,  were 
computed  to  be  annually  made  in  Great  Britain  ;  while 
the  quantity  not  only  increafcd  daily  with  the  new  ac- 
ceiTion  of  powers  that  were  burfting  forth  upon  the 
country,  but  the  quality  was  exceedingly  improved  ;  and 
fince  a  yearly  firpply  of  about  300  bales  of  Eaft  Indian 
cotton  has  been  obtained  by  the  way  of  Ollend,  yarns 
have  been  fpun,  and  rauflins  have  been  wove,  equal  to 
any  from  India.  Nothing,  therefore,  but  a  fine  raw 
material  apir-jared  wanting  to  enable  the  Biitifli  manu- 
fafturer  to  carry  this  branch  to  the  greatelt  extent  ; 
and,  of  al!  other's,  it  is  that  fpecics  of  cotton  goods 
which  deferves  moil  to  be  encouraged,  becaufe  of  the 
immenfe  return  it  makes  for  labour  more  than  any 
other  branch  of  the  cotton  manufaftory.  Eaft  India 
cotton  wool  has  been  fpun  into  one  pound  of  yarn 
worth  five  guineas;  and  when  wove  into  muflin,  and 
afterwards  ornamented  by  children  in  the  tambour,  has 

VoL.V.  Part  11. 


Suppofed  Value  when 
niannfaiilured, 

L.  2,000,000 

3,900,000 
3,200,000 
3,950,000 

6,oco,ooo 
6,500,000 
7,500,000 


Cotton  \\''ool  ufcd  in 
the  Manufadturii. 

1781,  lb.    5,101,920 

1782,  11,206,810 

1783,  9.54^.'79 

1784,  It, 280,238 
•785.     17,992.^88 

1786,  19,151, ^^67 

1787,  22,600,000 
Such  was  the  progrefs  of  the  Britifh  cotton  manii- 

faftory  till  1787  ;  when,  with  eftablifliments  and  mecha- 
nical powers  capable  of  bringing  forward  i:r.menfe 
quantities  of  goods  into  the  confumption,  this  manu- 
facture was  checked  by  a  great  and  fuddcn  reduction 
of  the  prices  ot  Eail  India  goods  of  the  fame  fpecies, 
which  were  fold  above  20  Ji-'r  cent,  on  an  average  urr- 
der  the  loweft  prices  at  which  the  Britifli  manufatturer 
can  afford  to  fell  without  lofs. 

This  conduft  in  the  Eaft  India  Company  quickly 
operated  to  the  great  prejudice  of  the  Britifli  manu- 
factures ;  and  there  is  no  faying  how  far  thefe  might 
be  reduced,  fhould  that  company  be  alloived  to 
prefs  goods  upon  the  market  at  prices  which- have  no 
relation  to  the  original  coft,  and  under  circumftances 
where  the  juft  laws  of  competition  cannot  operate,  and 
where  every  idea  of  proteCting-duties  is  annihilated  in 
the  effect  of  the  gener-al  fylltin. 

It  is  believed,  however,  that  the  home-manufadlure 
of  this  article,  in  ail  its  different  branches,  has  of  late  ■ 
revived,  and  is  likely  to  be  carried  on  with  greater  ad- 
vantage to  the  manufacturer  than  ever  it  was  before. 

Lavender  Cotton.      See  Santolina. 

Phllofoph'ic  Cotton,  a  name  given  to  the  flowei-s  of 
zinc,  on  account  of  their  white  colour  and  refemblancC 
to  cotton. 

FLix  made  to  refemlle  Cotton.     See  Flax, 

Silk  Cotton.     See  Bombax. 

CoTTON-Weed.      See  Gnaphalujm. 

Cotton  (Sir  Robert),  a  moft  eminent  Engh'fh  an- 
tiquarian, dclcended  from  an  ancient  family,  was  born 
in  1570.  In  his  1 8th  year  he  began  to  coUeC\  ancierrt 
records,  charters,  and  other  MSS.  Camden,  Seidell, 
and  Speed,  acknowledged  their  obligations  to  him 
in  their  refpeCtive  works.  He  was  highly  diftinguifli- 
ed  by  queen  Elizabeth,  and  by  James  I.  who  crxated 
him  a  baronet.  He  wi'ote  many  things  himfelf ;  but 
our  principal  obligations  to  him  are  for  his  valuable  li- 
brary, confllling  of  curious  manufcripts,  &c.  which 
he  was  forty  years  in  colledting.  At  his  death  in  163  I, 
he  left  the  property  of  it  to  his  family,  though  de- 
frgned  for  public  ufe.  A  lar-ge  acceffion  was  made  to 
this  library  by  private  bericfactions  befoi'e  the  death  of 
the  founder,  and  afterwards  by  the  pui-chafes  of  his 
heirs,  and  donations  of  others,  who  added  to  it  a  gr-eat 
number  of  books,  chiefly  relating  to  the  hiftory  and 
antiquities  of  our  own  nation.  An  aCl:  of  parliament 
was  obtained,  at  the  reqiieil  of  Sir  John  Cotton,  in 
I  700,  for  preferving  it  after  his  deceafe,  under  the 
above  denomination,  for  public  ufe.  It  is  now 
lixed  in  the  Britifh  Mufeiim.  For  ftatutes  relating 
3CL  to 


Col'wi 

II 
Coitus 


COT 

to   it,  fee    12   and    13   W.  III.   c.  5.  and 
cap.  30. 

Cotton  (Charles),  a  burlcf^ue  poet,  was  defoended 
of  a  good  family,  and  lived  in  tht 


[     490     1  COT 

5  Anne,     vered   with  a   number  t>l'  llrong  bony  crufls,  divided 
into  leveral  cunipaitmenls,  the   ends,  of  which  project 


icigns  of  Charles  I!. 


into   a    fliarp  point,  and  form   fevcral  ethinatcd  lines 
along  the  bock  and  lld^-s  frdm  the  head  to  the  tail, 
and  James  II.      His  moil  celebrated  piece  is  Scarrotii'  3.  The  fcorpins,  or*father-lafhcr,  is  not  uncommon 

dct,  or  TravejTie  of  the  firll  and  fourth  books  of  the  on  the  rocky  coalls  of  thisifland;  it  lurks  under  Hones, 
.ZEneid.  But  though,  from  the  title,  one  would  be  and  will  take  a  bait.  It  feldom  excseds  8  or  9  inches 
apt  to  imagine  it  an  imitation  of  Scarron's  famous  in  length.  The  head  is  large,  and  has  a  moll  formi- 
Traveftie  of  the  fame  author,  yet,  upon  examination,  dable  appearance,  being  armed  with  vatl  fpincs,  which 
it  would  be  found  greatly  to  excel  not  only  thatt  but  it  can  oppofe  to  any  enemy  that  attacks  it,  by  fwclling 
every  other  attempt  of  the  fame  kind  that  hath  been  out  its  cheeks  and  gill-covers  to  a  large  fize.  The  nofe 
hitherto  made  iu  <iny  language.      He  has  alio  tvan dated     and    fpace  contiguous   to  the   eyes  are  furniilied  with 


feveral  of  Lncian's  dialogues,  in  the  fame  manner,  un- 
der the  title  of  the  Scoffer  Scoff' d; — and  written  an- 
other poem  of  a  more  ferious  kind,  entitled  the  Won- 
ders of  the  Peak.  The  exatl  period  of  either  Mr 
Cotton's  birth  or  his  death,  is  no-where  recorded ; 
but  it  is  probable  the  latter  happened  about  the  time 
of  the  revolution.  Neither  is  it  better  known  what 
his  circumilances  were  with  rcfpedl  to  fortune  ;  they 
appear,  however,  to  have  been  eaiy,  if  one  may  judge 
from  the  turn  of  his  writings,  which  is  fuch  as  feems 
fcarcely  pofliblc  for  any  one  to  indulge  whole  mind 
was  not  perfetlly  at  eafe.  Yet  there  is  one  anecdote 
told  of  him,  which  feems  to  ihow  that  his  vein  of  hu- 
mour could  iwt  rcllrain  itfelf  on  any  confideration, 
viz.  that  in  confequence  of  a  lingle  couplet  in  his  yir- 
gU  Tranisjhe,   wheieln   he   has  made   mention  of  a  pe- 


iliort  (harp  fpines  ;  the  covers  of  the  gills  are  terminated 
by  exceeding  long  ones,  which  are  both  llrong  and  Vvfry 
iharp  pointed.  The  mouth  is  large  ;  the  jaws  covered 
with  very  fmall  teeth  ;  the  roof  of  the  mouth  is  furni(K- 
ed  with  a  triangular  ipot  of  very  minute  teeth.  This 
fptcies  is  very  frequent  in  the  Newfoundland  ieas,  wheie 
it  is  called yi:&/^/nf  .•  it  is  alfo  as  common  on  the  coail  of 
Greenland,  in  deep  water  near  the  Ihore.  It  is  a  prin- 
cipal food  of  the  natives,  and  the  foup  made  of  it  is 
faid  to  be  agreeable  as  well  as  wlioleforae. 

COTULA,  MAY-WEtD:  A  genus  of  the  polyga- 
mia  fuperflua  order,  belunging  to  the  fyngenefia  clais 
of  plants.  The  receptacle  is  ahnoll  naked;  the  pap- 
pus marginated  ;  the  florets  of  the  due  qaadririd  ;  cf 
the  radius  frequently  none.  Theie  arc  fix  l\>ccies,  all 
of  them  herba -eous  annuals,  rifing  fix  or  eight  inches 


culiar  kind  of  rutf  worn  by  a  grandmother  of  his  who  high,  and   adorned  with   yellow  flowers.     There  aic 

lived  in  the  Peak,  he  loll  an  eftate  of  L.40_  per  an-  none  of  them  natives  of  this  country,  and  moll  of  them 

Hum;  the  old  lady,   whofe  humour  and  telly   difpoii-  require  artificial  heat. 

tion  he  could  by   no   means  have   been  a  llranger  to,  Cotula,  or  Colyla,  a  liquid  meafure  in  ufe  among 

being  never   able  to   forgive  the  liberty  he  had  taken  the  ancients. 

with  her;   and  having  her  fortune  wholly    at   her  dif-  Fanuius  fays,  the  cotyla  was  the  fame  thing  with  the 

pofal,  althoui^h  ihe  had  before  made  him  her  fole  heir,  hemina,  which  was  half  a  fextary. 

altered   her   will,    and    gave   it  away  to  an  abfolute  At  a^xyizs,  r-ja,f,  flar:,t,JU-!p  lUdit 

itranger.  Hemirai,   rec^p't  ^e-n'msis  :ext.-riai  unus 

COTTUS,  or  BuLt-HEAD,  in  ichthyology,  a  ge-  Chofier  obferves,  that  the  cotjla  was  ufed  as  a  dry 

nus  belonging  to  the  order  of  thoracici.    The  head  is  meafure  as  well  as  a  liquid  one  ;  from  the  authority  of 

broader  than  the  body,  and  the  gill-membiane  has  fix  Thucydides,  who  in  one  place  mentions  two  cotyls  of 

rays.      There  are  fix  fpecies  ;   the   moft  remarkable  wine,  and  in  another  two  cotyls  of  bread, 

are,                                _  COT  (J  RNIX,  in  ornithology.     See  Tetrad. 

1.  The  gobio,  or  river-bull  head,  is  very  common  COTYLEDON,  navel-wort;  a  genus  of  the 
in  all  our  clear  brooks  :  it  lies  ahnoll  always  at  the  pentagynia  order,  belonging  to  the  decandria  rial's  of 
bott'm,  either  on  the  gravel  or  under  a  ftone  :  it  de-  plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  ths 
pofits  its  fpawn  in  a  hole  which  it  forms  among  the  13th  order,  Sucruhntis.  The  calyx  is  quinquefid  ;  the 
gravel,  and  quits  it  with  great  reluftance.  It  feeds  on  corolla  mcnopetalous  ;  there  are  five  netlaiiferous 
water  infeds.  This  fifh  feldom  exceeds  the  length  of  fcales  at  the  bafe  of  the  germen,"  and  five  capfules. 
three  inches  and  an  half:  the  head  is  large,  broad,  There  are  eight  fpecies,  moll  of  them  hardy  fucculent 
flat,  and  thin  at  its  circumference,  being  well  adapted  perennials  ;  though  fome  require  to  be  kept  in  a  ilove, 
for  infinuating  itfelf  under  ftones:  on  the  middle  part  as  being  natives  of  warm  climates.  They  rife  from 
of  the  covers  of  the  giUs  is  a  fmall  crooked  fpine  turn-  half  a  foot  to  a  yard  and  an  half  high,  and  are  adorn- 
ing inwards.  The  eyes  are  very  fmall  :  the  irides  ed  with  yellow  flowers  growing  in  umbels.  They  are 
yellow  :  the  body  grows  flender  towards  the  tail,  and  eafily  propagated  either  by  feed  or  cuttings  of  their 
is  very  fmooth.     The  colour  of  this  fifh  is  as  difagree-  branches. 

able  as  its  form,  being  duiky,  mixed  with  a  dirty  yel-  COTYLEDONES,  in  anatomy,  are  certain  glan- 

low  ;  the  bcUy  is  whitilli.     The  talle,  however,  is  ex-  dular  bodies,  adhering  to  the  chorion  of  ibme  aniraals.- 

cellcnt.  CoTVLEDONEE,   in   botany,   the  perifiiable    porous 

2.  The  c.taphraftus,  armed  bull-head,  or pogge,  is  fide-lobes  of  the  feed,  which  involve,  and  for  fome 
very  common  on  moll  of  the  Britilh  coafts.  It  feldom  time  fuinifli  nourifhment  to,  the  embryo  plant.  See 
exceeds  five   inches  and  an   half  in  length  ;  and  even  Botany,  p.  435. 

feldom  arrives  at  that  fjze.     The  head  is  large,  bony,  COTYTTO,  the  goddefs  of  all  debauchery.     Her 

and  very  rugged  :   the  end  of  the   nofe  is  armed  wi:h  feftivals  called    Cotyttia   were  celebrated  by  the  Athe- 

four  fliort  uprigst  fpincs  :   on  the  throat  are  a  number  nians,  Corinthians,  Thracians,   &c.  during  the  night. 

of  fhort  white  beards  :  the  body  is  oCtsgoeal,  and  co-  H'iJ"  priells  were  called  liapt(t,  and  nothing  but  dfebau- 

chory 


GOV 


[    491     1 


GOV 


clifiy  and  wantomincfs  prevailed  at  the  celfliration.  A 
feftival  of  the  fame  name  was  ohftircd  in  Sicily,  where 
the  votaries  of  the  goddcfs  carried  about  bcuglis  liung 
with  cakes  and  fruit,  which  it  was  lawful  for  any  pcr- 
fon  to  phitk  off.  It  was  a  capital  punilhmcnt  to  re- 
veal whatever  was  feen  or  done  at  thcfe  facred  fcftl- 
vals.  It  coll  Eupolis  his  life  for  an  unftafonable  re- 
fledion  upon  them.  The  goddefo  Cotytto  is  fuppofcd 
to  be  the  fame  as  Proferpine. 

COUCH»  in  painting,  denotes  a  lay,  or  impref- 
fion  of  colour,  whether  in  oil  or  water,  wherewith  the 
painter  covers  his  canvas,  wall,  wainfcot,  or  other 
matter  to  be  painted. 

The  word  is  a  fo  ufed  for  a  lay  or  imprelTion  on  any 
thing,  to  make  it  firm  and  coufiflent,  or  to  fcreen  it 
from  the  weather. 

Paintings  are  covered  with  a  couch  of  varnifh  ;  a 
canvas  to  be  painted  muft  firll  have  two  couches  of 
fize,  before  the  colours  be  laid  ;  two  or  three  couches 
of  white  lead  are  laid  on  wood,  before  the  couch  of 
gold  be  applied :  the  leather-gilders  lay  a  couch  of 
water  and  whitts  of  eggs  on  the  leather,  before  they 
apply  the  gold  01  filvcr  leaf. 

The  gold  wire-drawers  alfo  ufe  the  word  couch  for 
the  gold  or  filver  leaf  vvheiewith  they  cover  the  mafs 
to  be  gilded  or  filvered,  before  they  draw  it  thjough 
the  iron  that  is  to  give  it  its  proper  thicknefs. 

The  gilders  ufe  couch  for  the  quantity  of  gold  or 
filver  leaves  applied  on  the  metals  in  gilding  or  lilver- 
ing.  Each  couch  of  gold  is.  but  one  leaf,  or  two  at 
Uiofl,  and  each  of  filver  three  to  gild  :  if  the  gilding 
be  hatched,  there  are  required  from  eight  to  twelve 
couches  ;  and  only  three  or  four  if  it  be  without 
Vvatching.  To  filver  there  are  required  from  four  to 
ten  couches,  according  to  the  beauty  of  the  work. 

CofCH-Grafsjln  botany.      See  Triticum. 

COUCHANT,  in  heraldry,  is  underllood  of  a  lios, 
or  other  beaft,  when  lying  down,  but  with  his  head 
raifed  ;  which  dillinguillies  the  pofture  of  couchant 
from  dormant,  wherein  he  is  fuppofed  quite  ftretched 
out  and  afleep. 

COUCHE,  in  heraldry,  denotes  any  thing  lying 
along  :  thus,  chevron-couche,  is  a  chevron  lying  fide- 
ways,  with  the  two  ends  on  each  fide  of  the  fliield, 
which  fhould  properly  reft  on  the  bafe. 

COUCHER,  or  CouRCHER,  in  our  ftatutes,  i« 
ufed  for  a  fadtor,  or  one  that  continues  in  fome  place 
or  country  for  traffic  ;  as  formerly  in  Gafcoign,  for 
the  buying  of  wines.     Anno  37.  Edw.  III.  c.  i6. 

CouCHER  is  alfo  ufed  forthe  general  book  in  which 
any  religious  houfe  or  corporation  regifter  their  parti- 
cular afts.     Anno  3  and  4.  E-Jw.  VI.  c.  to. 

COUCHING  of  a  C.iTARACT,  in  furgery.     See 

SuRGERV-/Kfl'e.v. 

COVE,  a  fmall  creek  or  bay,  where  boats  and  fmall 
velTels  may  ride  at  anchor,  flickered  from  the  wind  and 
fea. 

COVENAN  r,  In  law,  is  the  confent  and  agiTe- 
ment  of  two  or  more  perlons  to  do,  or  not  to  do,  fdme 
aft,  or  thing,  contrafted  between  them.  Alfo  it  is 
the  declaration  the  parties  make,  that  they  will  Hand 
to  fuch  agreement,  relating  to  lands  or  other  things  ; 
and  is  created  by  deed  in  writing,  fealed  and  executed 
by  the  parties,  or  othcrwile  it  may  be  implied  in  the 
contratt  as  incident  thereto.     And  if  the  peifons  do 


not  perform  their  covenants,  a  writ  or  aftion  of  cove-  C)vcn3i!, 
rant  is  the  remedy  to  recover  damages  for  the  breach  ^"^'^""'y- 
of  them.  ' 

Covenant,  in  ecclcfiaflical  hiftciy,  denotes  a  con- 
trail or  convention  agreed  to  by  the  Scotch  in  the 
year  1638,  for  maintaining  their  religion  free  from  in- 
novation. In  I  58  I,  the  general  aflembly  of  Scotland 
drew  up  a  confclfion  of  faith,  or  national  covenant, 
condemning  epilcopal  government,  under  the  name  of 
hierarchy,  which  was  ligned  by  James  I.  and  which  he 
enjoined  on  all  his  fiibjefls.  It  was  again  fubfcribed 
in  1590  and  1596.  'l"he  fubfcription  was  renewed  in 
1638  and  the  fubfcribers  engaged  hy  oath  to  main- 
tain religion  in  the  fanie  ftate  as  it  was  in  1580,  and 
to  rejeft  all  innovations  introduced  fincc  that  time. 
This  oath  annexed  to  the  confefTion  of  faith  received 
the  name  of  the  covenant  ;  as  thofe  who  fubfcribed  it 
were  called  covenanters. 

Covenant,  in  theology,  is  much  ufed  in  connec- 
tion with  other  terms  ;  as,  I .  The  Covenant  of  Grace 
is  that  which  is  made  between  God  and  thofe  who  be- 
lieve the  gofpel,  whereby  they  declare  their  fubjec- 
tion  to  him,  and  he  declares  his  acceptance  of  them 
and  favour  to  them.  The  gofpel  is  f'>metimes  deno- 
minated a  covenant  of  grace,  in  oppofition  to  the  Mo- 
faic  law.  2.  Covenant  of  Redemption  denotes,  a  mutual 
llipulation,  tacit  or  exprcfs,  between  Chrill  and  the 
Father,  relating  to  the  redemption  of  finners  by  hinii 
p  evious  to  any  aft  on  Chrift's  part  under  the  charac- 
ter of  Mediator.  3.  Covenant  of  Jl'orls  fignifies,  in 
the  langurge  of  fome  divines,  any  covenant  whereby 
God  requires  perfeft  obedience  from  his  creatures,  in 
fuch  a  manner  as  to  make  no  exprefs  provifion  for  the 
pardon  of  offences  to  be  committed  againft  the  pro- 
cepts  of  it,  on  the  repentance  of  fuch  fuppofed  offend- 
ers, but  pronounces  a  fentence  of  death  upon  them  : 
fuch,  they  fay,  was  the  covenant  made  with  Adam  in 
a  11  ate  of  innocence,  and  that  made  willi  Ifiael  at 
Mount  Sinai. 

Solemn  League  and  Coves akt,  wascftabliilied  in  the 
year  1643,  and  formed  a  bond  of  union  between  Scot- 
land and  England.  It  was  fworn  and  fubfcribed  by 
many  in  both  nations  ;  who  hereby  fokmnly  abjured 
popery  and  prelacy,  and  combined  together  for  their 
mutual  defence.  It  was  approved  by  the  parliament 
and  affembly  at  Wefiniinfter,  and  ratified  by  the  ge- 
neral affembly  of  Scotland  in  1645.  King  Charles  II. 
difapproved  of  it  when  he  furrendered  hinifelf  tL> 
the  Scots  army  in  1646:  but  in  16^0  he  declared 
his  approbation  both  of  this  and  the  national  covenant 
by  a  folemn  oath;  and  in  Auguft  of  the  fame  year, 
made  a  farther  declaration  at  Dunfermline  to  the  fame 
purpofe,  which  was  alfo  renewed  on  occasion  of  his 
coronation  at  Scone  in  lOji.  The  covenant  was  ra- 
tified by  parliament  in  this  year,  and  the  iubfcription 
of  it  required  by  every  member,  without  which  the 
conllitution  of  the  parliament  was  declared  null  and 
void.  It  produced  a  fcries  of  dillraftions  in  the  fub- 
fequenthiftory  of  that  country,  and  was  voted  illegal 
by  parliament,  and  provifion  made  againft  it.  Stat.  14. 
Car.  II.  c.  4. 

Ari  sf  the  Cortx.iyr,  in  Jewi(h  antiquity.  See  Ark,  • 

COVENTRY,  a  town  of  Warwickfhire,  in  Eng- 
land, fituated  in  W.  Long.  1.  26.  N.  Lat.  52.  25,     It 
is  an  ancient  place,  and  is  fuppofed  to  derive  its  name 
3  (^2  from 


c  o   u 

Cnrentry.  from  a  convent  formerly  fituated  hertf 
^"^V"""  earl  of  Mcrcia,  \vho  rebuilt  the  religious  houfe  after 
it  liad  been  deftroyed  by  the  Dnncs,  and  was  lord 
of  the  place  about  the  year  1040,  is  faid,  upon  fome 
provocation,  to  have  loaded  them  with  heavy  taxes. 
Being  importuned  by  his  lady,  Godiva,  to  remit  them, 
he  confentcd,  upon  condition  that  flie  fliould  ride  na- 
ked through  the  town,  which  he  little  imagined  fhe 
would  ever  comply  with.  But  he  found  Jiimfelf  mif- 
tnken  :  for  (lie  accepted  the  offer,  and  rode  through 
the  town  with  her  long  hair  fcattered  all  over  her  bo- 
dy; having  firll  enjoined  the  citizens  not  to  venture, 
on  pain  of  death,  to  look  out  as  fhe  paiTed.  It  is  faid, 
however,  that  a  certain  taylor  conld  not  help  peep- 
ing ;  and  to  this  day  there  is  an  effigy  of  him  at  the 
window  whence  he  looked.  To  commemorate  this 
extraordinary  tranfaftion,  and  out  of  n-fpeft  to  the 
memory  of  their  patroncfs,  the  citizens  make  a  procef- 
fion  every  year,  with  the  figure  of  a  naked  woman 
on  horfeback.  After  Lcofric's  death,  the  carls  of 
Chefter  became  lords  of  the  citv,  and  granted  it  many 
privileges.  At  length  it  was  annexed  to  the  earldom 
of  Cornwall  ;  and  growing  confiderable,  had  divers 
immunities  and  privileges  conferred  upon  it  by  feveral 
kings;  particularly  that  of  a  mayor  and  two  bailiffs  by 
Edward  III.  ;  and  Heniy  VI.  made  it,  in  conjunction 
with  fome  other  towns  and  villag-es,  a  diftinft  county, 
independent  of  the  county  of  Warwick.  But  after- 
wards Edward  IV.  for  their  difloyalty,  deprived  them 
of  their  liberties,  which  were  not  reftored  till  they 
had  paid  a  fine  of  500  merks.  By  a  charter  from 
James  I.  an  alderman  is  allott-,'d  to  each  ward,  with 
the  powers  of  the  juflices  of  the  peace  within  the  city 
and  its  liberties.  The  walls  were  ordered  to  be  de- 
molifhed  at  the  reftoration;  and  now  nothing  remains 
,  of  them  but  the  gates,  which  are  very  lofty.      Coven- 

try is  noted  for  the  two  parliaments  which  were  held 
in  it;  the  one  called  the  parliament  of  Dunces,  and  the 
other  of  De-vils.  The  former  was  fo  called  on  account 
bf  the  exclufion  of  the  lawyers;  and  the  attainders  of 
the  duke  of  York,  the  earls  of  Sahfhury,  Warwick, 
and  March,  procured  the  other  the  epithet  of  Devi/s. 
The  town-houfe  of  Coventry  is  much  admired  for  its 
painted  windows  reprcfenting  feveral  kings  and  others 
that  have  been  benefaftors  to  theclty.  The  chief  ma- 
nufaftures  carried  on  here  are  temrole*  and  ribbands. 

Coventry  fends  two  members  to  parliament,  and  gives 
title  of  earl  to  an  ancent  family  of  the  fame  name. — 
Coventry  ij  a  bifhop's  fee.  The  bifhoprick  is  faid  to 
have  been  founded  by  Ofwy  king  of  Mercia,  in  the 
year  656  or  657  ;  and  although  it  hath  a  double  name, 
yet,  like  Bath  and  Wells,  it  is  a  fingle  diocefe.  It  was 
io  extremely  wealthy,  that  king  Offa,  by  the  favour  of 
pope  Adrian,  conftituted  it  an  archiepifc  pal  fee  ;  but 
this  title  was  laid  afide  on  the  death  of  that  king.  In 
1075,  Peter,  the  34th  bifliop,  removed  the  fee  to  Che- 
fter.  In  1102,  Robert  dc  Limfey,  his  immediate  fuc- 
ceflor,  removed  it  to  Coventry  ;  and  Hugo  Novant, 
the  41ft:  bilhop,  removed  it  back  to  Litchfield,  but 
•with  great  oppof'tion  from  the  monks  of  Coventry. 
The  difputc  was  finally  fettled  in  a  manner  nearly  fi- 
Hiilar  to  that  which  is  mentioned  between  Batli  and 
Wells.  Here  it  was  agreed  that  the  blfhop  fliould  be 
ftylcd  fi'  im  both  places,  and  that  Coventry  fhoiild 
liavc  the  precedence  ;  that  they  flioiUd  choofe  the  bi- 


[    492    ]  c    o    u 

Leofric,  fhop  alternately  ;  and  that  they  fhould  both  make  one 
chapter  to  the  bifliop,  in  which  the  prior  of  Coventry 
fhould  be  the  chief  man.  Matters  continued  thus  till 
the  Refornntlon,  when  the  priory  of  Coventry  be- 
ing dilib'ved  by  king  Henry  VIII.  the  flyle  of  the  bi- 
fhop  continued  as  before.  But  an  aft  of  parliament 
paffed,  33d  of  king  Henry  VIII.  to  make  the  dean 
and  chapter  of  Litchfitld  one  fole  chapter  to  the  bi- 
fliop. This  fee  hath  given  three  faints  to  the  church, 
and  to  the  nation  one  lord  chancellor,  three  lord  trea- 
furers,  three  prcfidents  of  Wales,  one  chancellor  to  the 
univerlity  of  Cambridge,  and  one  matter  of  the  Ward- 
i"ol)e.  The  old  church  built  by  king  Ofwy  being  ta- 
ken down  by  Roger  de  Clinton,  the  37th  bilhop,  he 
built  the  beautiful  fabric  that  now  flands  in  r  148,  and 
dedicated  it  to  the  Virgin  Mary  and  St  Chad.  Du- 
ring the  grand  rebellion,  the  church  fuffered  much  ; 
but,  foon  after  the  Relloiation,  it  was  repaired  and 
beautified.  This  diocefe  contains  the  whole  counties 
of  Stafford  and  Derbv  (except  two  parifhcs  of  the 
former),  the  largefl  part  of  Warwicklhire,  and  near 
only  one  half  of  Shroplhire,  in  which  are  555  parifhcs, 
of  which  250  are  impropriate.  It  hath  four  archdea- 
conries, viz.  Stafford,  Derby, Coventry, and  Shrewfbury. 
It  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  L.559:  iS:  2^, 
and  is  computed  to  be  worth  annually  L.  2S00.  The 
clergy's  tenth  is  L.  590  :  16  :  i  I  J-.  To  this  cathe- 
dral belong  a  bifhop,  a  dean,  a  precentor,  a  chancel- 
lor, a  treafurer,  four  archdeacons,  twenty-feven  pre- 
bendaries, five  prieft  vicars,  feven  lay  clerks,  or  finging 
men,  eight  chorifters,  and  other  under  officers  and 
fervants. 

CO-VERSED  SINE,  in  geometry,  the  remaining 
part  of  the  diameter  of  a  circle,  after  the  verfed  fine 
is  taken  from  it.      See  Geometry. 

COVERT,  in  law. — Feme  Covert  denotes  a  woman 
married,  and  fo  covered  by,  or  under  the  proteftion  of, 
her  hufband. 

Coi-FRT-'way,  or  Corridor,  in  fortification,  a  fpace 
of  ground,  level  with  the  field  on  the  edge  of  the  ditch,, 
three  or  four  fathoms  broad,  ranging  quite  round  the 
half  moons  and  other  works  toward  the  country.  It 
has  a  parapet  raifed  on  a  level,  together  with  its  ban- 
quets and  glacis.      See  Fortification. 

COVERTURE,  in  law,  is  applied  to  the  ftate  and 
condition  of  a  married  woman,  who  is  under  the  power 
of  her  hufband,  and  therefore  cMed  Jemme  cowuert. 

COUGH,  in  medicine.  See  [Index  fubjoined  to) 
Medicine. 

Cough,  in  farriery.     See  Farriery,  §  vi. 

Cough,  called  the  hnfk,  is  a  difeafe  to  which  young 
bullocks  are  fubjeft.  In  this  diiorder  the  wind-pipe 
and  its  branches  are  loaded  with  fmall  taper  worms. 
Farmers  count  the  difeafe  incurable  ;  but  fumigations 
with  mercurials,  as  cinnabar,  or  with  fcetids,  as  tobac- 
co, might  prove  ferviceable. 

COUHAGE,  or  stinking-beans  ;  a  kind  of  kid- 
ney-beans imported  from  the  Eaft  Indies,  where  they 
are  ufed  as  a  cure  for  the  dropfy.  The  down  gi'owing 
on  the  outfide  of  the  pod  is  fo  pointed  as,  like  a  nettle, 
to  fling  the  flefh,  though  not  with  fo  painful  a  fenfa- 
tion.  This,  by  a  corruption  of  the  word,  is  called 
coTuitch.     The  plant  is  a  fpecies  of  Dolichos. 

COVIN,  a  deceitful  compaft  or  agreement  between 
two  or  more  to  deceive  or  prejudice  a  third  perfon : 

As, 


c  o   u 


[     493     ] 


C     O     U 


As,  if  a  tenant  for  life  confpire  with  another,  that  this 
other  fhall  recover  the  land  which  the  tenant  hoKN,  in 
prejudice  of  him  in  reverfion  Dr  Skinner  takes  the 
word  to  be  a  corruption  of  the  Latin  convenlum,  and 
therefire  writes  it  co-ven.     See  Conspiracy. 

COVING,  in  building,  is  when  houfes  are  built 
projfftinar  over  the  ground  plot,  and  the  turned  pro- 
jefture  arched  with  timber,  lathed  and  plaftered. 

COVINUS,  among  the  ancients,  a  kind  of  chariot, 
in  which  the  Gauls  and  Britons  ufed  to  fight  in  battles. 

COUL,  or  Cowl.      See  Cowl. 

COULTER,  in  hufbandry,  an  Iron-inllrument, 
fixed  in  the  beam  of  a  plough,  and  ferving  to  cut  the 
edgi'  of  each  furrow.     See  Agriculture. 

COUNCIL,  or  Coi'NSEL,  iu  a  general  fcnfe,  an 
ad'tmbly  of  divers  confiderable  perfons  to  concert  mea- 
fures  rflative  to  the  ft  ae. 

In  Biitain,  the  law,  in  order  to  affift  the  king  in  the 
ditchargeof  his  dutic-s,  the  maintenance  of  his  dignity, 
and  the  exertion  of  his  prerogative,  hath  afligncd  hira 
a  diverfity  of  councils  to  advife  with. 

■  I.  The  firft  (if  thefe  is  the  high  court  of  parliament. 
See  Parliament. 

2.  The  peers  of  the  realm  are  by  their  birth  here- 
ditary counfcUors  of  th»  crown  ;  and  may  be  called  to- 
gether by  the  king,  to  impart  thtir  advice  in  all  mat- 
ters of  importance  to  the  realm,  either  in  time  of  par- 
liament, or,  which  hath  been  their  principal  ule,  when 
there  is  no  parliament  in  being.  Accordingly,  Brac- 
ton,  fptaking  of  the  nobility  of  his  time,  fays,  they 
might  properly  be  called  "  confules  a  confulendo  ;  re- 
ges  enim  tales  fibi  affociant  ad  confulcndum."  And  in 
the  law-boi.ks  it  is  laid  down,  that  the  peers  are  crea- 
ted for  two  reafons  :  I.  Ad  confulauJum,  2.  Ad  defen- 
dfiidum,  rep-rn  ;  for  which  reafons  the  law  gives  them 
certain  great  and  high  privileges ;  fuch  as  freedom 
from  ariefts,  &c.  even  when  no  parliament  is  fitting; 
becaufe  the  law  intends,  that  they  are  always  affifting 
the  king  with  their  counfel  for  the  common-wealth, 
or  keeping  the  realm  in  fafcty  by  their  prowtfs  and 
valour. 

Inllanccs  of  conventions  of  the  peers,  to  advife  the 
king,  have  been  in  former  times  very  frequent  ;  though 
now  fallen  into  difufe,  by  reafim  of  the  more  regular 
meetings  of  parliament.  Sir  Edward  Coke  gives  us  an 
extiaft  of  a  record,  J  Henry  IV.  concerning  an  ex- 
'jhange  of  lands  between  the  king  and  the  earl  of  Nor- 
thumbeiland,  wherein  the  value  of  each  was  agreed 
to  be  fettled  by  advice  of  parliament  (if  any  Ihould 
be  called  before  the  feafl  of  St  Lucia),  or  olherwiife 
by  advice  of  the  grand  council  of  peers,  which  the  king 
promifts  to  affcmble  b  fore  the  faid  feaft,  in  cafe  no 
parliament  (hall  be  called.  Many  other  inftances  of 
this  kind  of  meeting  are  to  be  fc  und  under  r  ur  ancient 
kings  :  though  the  formal  method  of  convoking  them 
had  been  fo  long  left  off,  that  when  kini'  Charles  I.  in 
l6i!.o,  ifTued  out  writs  under  the  great  feal,  to  call  a 
council  of  all  the  peers  of  England,  to  meet  and  attend 
his  majcfty  at  York,  previous  to  the  meeting  of  the 
long  parliament,  the  earl  of  Clarendon  mentions  it  as 
a  new  invention,  not  before  heard  of;  that  is,  as  he 
explains  himfeif,  fu  old,  that  it  had  not  been  praftifed 
in  fome  hundreds  of  years.  But  th'  ugh  there  had  not 
for  long  before  been  an  uiftance,  nor  has  there  been 
a.ny  fince,  of  affembling  them  in  fo  folemn  a  manner. 


yet  in  cafes  of  emergency,  our  princes  have  at  feveral    Council. 

times  thought  proper  to  call  for,  and  confult  as  many' ^^*~ 

of  the  nobility  as  could  eafily  be  brought  together  : 
as  waf  particularly  the  cafe  with  king  Jamej  II.  a/ter 
the  landing  of  the  prince  of  Orange  ;  and  wnth  the 
prince  of  Orange  himfeif,  before  he  called  the  conven- 
tion parliament  which  afterwards  called  him  to  the 
throne. 

Befides  this  general  meeting,  it  is  ufually  looked 
upon  to  be  the  right  of  each  particular  peer  of  the 
realm,  to  demand  an  audience  of  the  king,  and  to  lay 
before  him  with  decency  and  refptft  fiich  matters  a* 
he  (hall  judge  of  importance  to  the  public  weal.  And 
therefore,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  II.  it  was  made  an 
article  of  impeachment  in  parliament  againJI  the  two 
Hugh  Spencers,  father  and  fon,  for  which  they  were 
baniflied  the  kingdom,  "  that  they  by  their  evil  covin 
would  not  fuller  the  great  men  of  the  realm,  the 
king's  good  counfcllors,  to  fpeak  with  the  king,  or  to 
come  near  him  ;  but  only  in  prcfence  and  hearing  of 
faid  Hugh  the  father  and  Hugh  the  fon,  or  one  of 
them,  and  at  their  will,  and  according  to  fuch  things 
as  plcafed  them." 

3-  A  third  council  belonging  to  tlie  king,  are,  ac- 
cording to  Sir  Edward  Coke,  his  judges  of  the  courts 
of  law,  for  law-matters.  And  this  appears  frequently 
in  the  Enghfh  ftatutes,  particularly  14  Edward  IIL. 
c.  5.  and  in  other  books  of  law.  So  that  when  the 
king's  council  is  mentioned  generally,  it  muft  be  de- 
fined, particularized,  and  underftood,  fiximdum  fuLjec-- 
tarn  maUriem;  "  according  to  the  fubjett  matter:" 
and  if  the  fubjeft  be  of  a  legal  nature,  then  by  the 
king's  council  is  underftood  his  council  fir  matters  of 
law  ;  namely,  his  judges.  Therefore,  when  by  ftatuts 
16  R'chard  II.  c.  3.  It  was  made  a  high  offence  to  im- 
port into  England  any  papal  bulls,  or  other  pro- 
ceffes  from  Rome  ;  and  it  was  enaftcd,  that  the  of- 
fenders ftioulJ  be  attached  by  their  bodies  and 
brought  before  the  king  and  his  council  to  anfwer  for 
fuch  offence  ;  here,  by  the  expreffion  of  king's  council,. 
vyere  underftood  the  king's  judges  of  his  courts  of  juf- 
tice,  the  fubjeft-matter  being  legal :  this  being  the  ge- 
neral way  of  interpreting  the  word  council. 

4.   But  the  principal  council  belonging  to  the  king 
is  \\\i  privy  council,  which  is  generally,  by  way  of  emi- 
nence, called  thc-coundl.      For  an  account  of  its  confti- 
tution  and  powers,  fee  the  article  PRirr-Council. 
Aulic  Council.      See  Aulic. 

Common  Covkcil,  in  the  city  of  London,  is  a  court 
wherein  are  made  all  bye-laws  which  bind  the  citizens^. 
It  confifts,  like  the  parliament,  of  two  h  >ufcs  ;  an  up- 
per compofed  of  the  lord  mayor  and  aldermen  ;  and  a 
lower,  of  a  number  of  common-council  men,  chofen 
by  the  feveral  wards,  as  reprefentatives  of  the  body  of 
the  citizens. 

Council  of  War,  an  afiembly  of  the  principal  o3i. 
cers  I  f  an  army  or  fleet,  occafionally  called  by  the  ge- 
neral or  admiral  to  concert  meafures  for  their  cooduA 
with  regard  to  fieges,  retreats,  engagements,  &c. 

Council,  in  church-hiftory,  an  afiembly  of  prelates 
and  doflors,  met  for  the  regulating  matters  relating  to 
the  doftiine  or  dlfcipline  of  the  church. 

National  Council,  is  an  aftembly  of  prelates  of  a 
nation  under  their  primate  or  patriarch. 

Oscumenical ox  General  Coi/Acil,  is  an  aflembly  which 

rep  re  fen  ts. 


Cjunci!, 
Counfel. 


Comment, 


C    O    U                   t    494    ]  C    O    U/ 

reprefonts  the  whole  body  of  the  niilve I  fill  cliurch.  The  oufly  with  the  king's  caunft-l  ;  and,  together  with 
Romanills  reckon  eighteen  of  them  ;  15  lUinger,  in  his  ihem,  fii  within  the  bar  of  their  refpeitive  courts  :  but 
trtatife  de  Concihis,  fix  ;  I)r  PrldeauK,  f;ven  ;  and  receive  no  filaries,  and  are  not  fworn  ;  and  therefore 
birtiop  Beveridge  has  increafcd  the  number  to  eight,  are  at  liberty  lo  be  retained  in  caiifes  againft  the  crown, 
which,  he  fays,  arc  all  the  geitetal  councils  which  have  And  all  other  ferjeants  and  banifleis  indifcriminately, 
ever  been  held  fince  the  time  of  tiie  firtl  Chrlftian  cm-  (eacept  in  the  court  of  common  pleas,  where  only 
peror.  They  are  as  follows:  l.  Ihe  council  of  Nice,  ferjeants  aie  admitted),  may  take  upon  them  the  pro- 
held  in  the  reign  of  Cot.ftantine  the  Great,  on  account  tettion  and  defence  of  any  fuitois,  whether  plaintiff 
of  the  herefy  of  Ariiis.  Z.  The  council  of  Conftan-  or  defendant;  who  are  therefore  called^  their  clitnts  ; 
tinople,  called  under  the  reign  and  by  the  command  of  like  the  dependents  on  the  ancient  Roman  o),ators. 
Theodofius  the  Great,  for  much  the  fame  end  that  the  Thefe  indeed  praftifcd  gratis,  for  honour  merely,  or 
former  council  was  fumraoned.  3.  The  council  of  at  moft  for  the  fake  of  gaining  influence  :  and  fo  like- 
Ephefus,  convened  by  Theodofius  the  yoimger  at  the  wife  it  is  eftabliflied  with  us,  that  a  counftl  can  main* 
fait  of  Neftorius.  4.  The  council  of  Calcedon,  held  tain  no  adtion  for  his  fees;  wW'cU  are  given,  not  as 
in  the  reign  of  Martianus,  which  approved  of  the  Eu-  locatlo  vel  condudio,  but  as  quiddafn  honorarium  ;  not  as 
tychian  herefy.  5.  The  fecond  council  of  Conllanti-  a  falary  or  hire,  but  as  a  mere  gratuity,  which  a  coun- 
nople,  afTembled  by  the  emperor  Judinian,  condemned  fellor  cannot  demand  without  doing  wrong  to  his  re- 
the  three  chapters  taken  out  of  the  book  of  Theodo-  putation  ;  as  is  alfo  laid  down  with  regard  to  advocates 


rus  of  Mopfueftla,  having  firft  decided  that  it  was  law- 
ful to  anathematize  the  dead.  Some  authors  tell  us, 
that  they  iikewife  condemned  the  feveral  errors  of  O- 
rigen  ab  lUt  the  Trinity,  the  plurality  of  worlds,  and 
pre-exi;lence  of  fouls.  6.  The  third  council  of  C  n- 
flantinoplt,  held  by  the  command  of  Conftantius  Po- 
gonatus  the  emperor,  in  which  they  received  the  defi- 
ritionsofthe  five  firft  ger.eral  councils,  and  particularly 
that  againilOrigen  and  TheodorusofMopfueftia.  7. The 
fecond  Nicene  council.     8.  The  fourth  council  of  Con- 


in  the  civil  law,  whofe  h(m->rarium  was  directed,  by  a 
decree  of  the  fenate,  not  to  exceed  in  any  cafe  io,coo 
feflerces,  or  ab-.ut  L.  80  of  Englilh  money.  And  in 
order  to  encourage  due  freedom  of  fpeech  in  the  law- 
ful defence  of  their  clients,  and  at  the  fame  time  to 
check  tlie  unfeemly  licentiou'nefs  of  proJlitute  and  il- 
liberal men  (a  few  of  whom  ;yay  fometimes  infinuate 
themfelves  even  into  the  moft  honourable  proffffions), 
it  hath  been  hoMen  that  a  counfel  is  not  anfwerablc  for 
any  matter   by  him   fpoken,   relative  to  the  caufe  in 


ftantinople,a[rtmbled  when  LouisII.  was  emperor  of  the  hand,  and  fuggelled  in  the  client's  inilruftions ;  altho' 

Weft.  The  regulations  which  they  made  are  containedin  it  fhould  refleft  upon  the   reputation   of  another,  and 

twenty-feven  canons,  the  heads  of  which  are  fet  down  even  prove  abfolutely  groundlefs ;  but  if  he  mentions 

by  M.  du  Pin,  to  whom  the  reader  is  referred.  an  untruth  of  his  own  invention,  or  even  upon  inftruc- 

COUNSEL,  in  a  general  fenfe,  fignifies  advice  or  in-  lions,  if  it  be  impeitinent   to  the  caufe  in  hand,  he  is 

ftruftion  how  to  behave  in  any  difficult  matter.  then  liable  to  an  aftion  from  the  party  injured.     And 

CcunsBLi  or  Ad'aocat:s,  in  Englilh  courts  of  law,  are  counfel  guilty  of  deceit  and  coUufion  are  punithable  by 

of  two  fpecies  or  degrees;    Barristers   and  Sts-  the  Hatute  Weftm.  i.  3  Edw.  I.  c.  28.  witl^mprifon- 

lEANTS.     See  thefe  articles;  alfo  Advocate.  ment  for  a  year  and  a  day,  and  perpetual  filence  in  the 

From,  both  thefe  degrees  fome  are  ufually  felefted  courts :  a  punifliment  flill  fometimes  iailiiled  for  grofs 

to  be  his  majefty's  counfel,  learned  in  the  law  ;  the  two  mifdemtanouis  in  praftice. 

principal  of  whom  are  called   his  attorney- general,  and  COUNSELLOR,  in  general,  a  perfon  who  advifeg 

[olicit  or  general.     The  firft  king's  counfel,  under  the  de-  another;   thus   we  fay,   a   counl'ellor   at   law,  a  privy 

gree  of  feijeant,  was  SirFiancis  Bacon,  who  was  made  counfellor,  &c. 

io  honoris  caufa,  vi'ixhowt   either  patent  or  fee  :   fo  that  Counsf.llor  at  Law,  a  perfon  retained  by  a   client 

the  hrft  of  the  modern  order   (who  are  now  the  fworn  to  plead  his  caufe  in  a  public  court  of  judicature.    See 

fervants  of  the  crown,  with  a  (landing  falary)  feems  to  Advocate,  Barristir,  Counsel,  and  Serjeant. 

have  been  Sir  Francis  North,  afterwards  lord  keeper  Privj-CouNSEiioR.     See  Pri^t  Covnsil. 

of  the  Great  Seal  to  king  Charles  IL     Thefe  kinj;'s  COUNT,   (Comes),   a   nobleman   who  polTcffes  a 

counfel  anfwer,  injfome  dc^gree,  to  the  advocates  of  the  domain  treftcti  into  a  county.     See  Vucount. 

rcver^ue,  advocjti  Jifci,  among  the  Romans.     For  they  Engtifti  and  Scottifti  counts  we   diftinguifh   by  ihe 

muft  not  be  employed  in  any  caufe  agalnft  the  crown  title   of  earh  ;  foreign   ones   Hill  retain    their  proper 

without  fpecial  licence  ;  in  which  reftrittion  they  agree  name.     The  dignity  of  a  count  is  a  medium  between 

with  the   advocates  of  the  fife:   but,    in    the  imperial  that  of  a  duke  and  a  baron — According  to  the  modern 

law,  the  prohibition  was  carried  ftlil  farther,  and  per-  ufe,  moft  plenipotentiaries  and  ambafladors  affume  the 

haps  was  more  for  the  dignity  of  the   fovereign  ;   for,  title   of  counts,  though  they  have  no  county  ;  as  the 

excepting  fome   peculiar   caufes,   the   filcal  advocates  count  d'Avaux,  &:c. 

were  not  permitted  to  be  at  all  concerned  in  private  Anciently,  all  generals,  counfellors,  judges,  and  fe- 
'fuits  between  fubjeft  and  fubjedl.  A  cuftom  has  of 
late  years  prevailed  of  granting  letters  patent  of  prc/ 
cedence  to  fuch  barrifters  as  the  crown  thinks  proper 
to  honour  with  that  mark  of  diftinftion  :  whereby  they 
sre  intitled  to  fuch  tank  and  preaudience  as  ate  afiign- 


vnCi\ 

II 
>unt. 


cretarics  of  cities  under  Chailenngne,were  called  counts; 
the  dliiinguilhing  charadler  of  a  duke  and  count  be- 
ing this,  that  the  latter  had  but  one  town  under  him, 
but  the  former  feveral. 

A  count  has  a  right  to  be'jr  on  his  arm:  a  coronet. 


ed  in  their  refpedlive  patents  ;  fometimes  next  after  adorned  with  three  precious  ftones,  and  furmounted 
the  king's  attorney-general,  but  ufually  next  after  his  with  three  large  pearls,  whereof  thofe  in  the  middle 
majefty's  counfel  next  being.  Thefe,  as  well  as  the  and  extremities  of  the  coronet  advance  above  the 
oueen's  attorney  and  folicitor-general,  rank  proraifcu-     reft. 

Counts 


'  unt. 


C     O    U  [    495     ]  CO 

Counts  were  orig'nnlly 'ords  of  tlie  court,  or  ut   the     Hngli  Capet  came  to   ihc  crown 


u 


"*  emperor's  reti!:ue,  and  had  their  name  comites,  a  eomi- 
tcnJo,  or  ;;  commcando  ;  hence  thcf;  who  were  alw  aya 
in  the  palaci ,  or  at  the  emperor's  fide,  were  called 
tcvnts  palatiiu,  or  caniitcj  a  latere.      See  Palatine. 

In  tile  times  of  the  ci  mmonwealth,  comites  amomj 
the  Rooians  wjs  a  general  name  for  all  tlujfe  who  ac- 
companied the  pioconfuls  and  propntors  into  the  pro- 
vinces, there  to  ferve  the  commonwealth  ;  as  the  tri- 
bunes, prsetetts,  (cribes,  &c. 

Uiidt  r  the  emperors,  comites  were  the  officers  of 
the  pal.  Ci'.  The  oriijin  of  what  we  now  call  counts 
feems  o  ving  to  AiiijiitlLis,  who  took  feveral  fenators  t) 
be  his  comites,  as  Diun  ob(erves,  ;'.  e.  to  accompany 
him  ill  his  voyaijes  and  travels,  and  to  aflilt  him  in  the 
ht-aiiii^r  of  caufes ;  which  were  thns  judged  with  the 
fame  authoiity  as  in  full  fciiate.  G"illicnus  feems  to 
have  ah'ilifhtd  this  council,  by  forbidding  the  fenators 
beinij  found  in  the  armies  :  and  none  of  his  lucccilors 
re-c'labliHied  it. 

Thefe  counfellors  of  the  emperor  were  really  counts, 
comites,  i  e.  companions  of  the  piince;  and  they 
fometimts  took  the  title  thereof,  but  always  with  the 
addition  of  the  amperoi's  name  whom  they  atcom- 
pauied  ;  fo  th:it  it  was  rather  a  mark  of  their  ofSce 
than  a  title  of  dignity. — Conllantine  was  the  firft  who 
converted  it  into  a  dignity  ;  and  under  him  it  was 
that  the  name  was  firll  given  abfolntely.  The  name 
once  ellahlifhtd,  was  in  a  little  time  indifferently  con- 
ferred, nut  only  on  thofe  who  followed  the  court,  and 
accompanied  the  emperor,  but  alio  on  moft  kinds  of 
officers ;  a  long  lift  whereof  is  given  us  by  Du-Cange. 

Eufcbius  tells  us,  that  Conllintine  divided  the  counts 
Into  tliree  claffcs :  the  firlt  bore  the  title  o^  ilhifires  ; 
the  fecond  \.\id.\.  oi  clarifjimi,  and  ahtrwards  J/eHaii/es  ; 
the  third  were  called  perfeili(pmi.  Of  the  two  firlt  claflls 
was  the  fcnate  compulcd  ;  thofe  of  tiie  thiid  had  no 
place  in  the  fenate,  but  enjoyed  feveral  other  of  the 
piivilegcs  of  fenators. 

Tiiere  were  counts  who  ferved  on  land,  others  at 
fea  i  fome  in  a  civil,  fome  in  a  religious,  and  fome  in 
a  legal  capacity  :  as  comes  irravii,  comes  facrarum  hirgi- 
tioi:um,  comes  fiicri  conjj/lorii,  comes  curiae,  comes  capelts, 
cunics  archiatrorum,  comes  commtnionin:,  comes  vejiiarius, 
comes  hon-eorum,  comes  opjuniorum  or  annons,  comes  do- 
m'Jlicorum,  comes  equonim  regiurum  or  comes  Jlaluli,  co- 
mes domorum,  comes  excutitorum,  comes  notariorum,  conies 
legum  o\  projejfor  in  jure,  comes  limltuni  or  marcarum,  co- 
mes portus  Roin:e,  comes  palrimouii.   Sic. 

The  Francs,  Germans,  &c.  pafTing  Into  Gaul  and 
Germany,  did  not  abolifh  the  form  o(  the  Roman  go- 
vernment; and  as  the  governors  of  cities  and  provinces 
were  called  counts,  comites,  and  dtiies,  duces,  they  con- 
tinued to  be  called  fo.  They  commanded  in  time  of 
war;  and  in  time  of  peace  they  admiiiiRtred  juftice. 
Thus,  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  counts  were  the 
ordinary  judges  and  governors  of  the  cities. 

Thefe  counts  of  cities  were  beneath  the  dukes  and 
counts  who  preCded  over  provinces;  the  firfl  being 
conftitutcd  in  the  particular  »cities  under  thejurifdic- 
tion  of  the  latter.  The  coiinla  of  provinces  were  in 
nothing  inferior  to  dukes,  wlio  themfelves  were  only 
governoisof  provinces.  Uirder  the  laft  of  the  fecond 
race  of  French  kings,  they  got  their  dignity  rendered 
hereditary,  and    even   uiurptd    the  fovcrcignty  when 


his  authority  was 
not  lutliciciit  to  oppofe  their  encroachments:  and  hence 
il  is  they  d  .te  the  privilege  of  wearing  con^rcts  in  their 
arms;  they  afTiimed  it  then,  as  enjoying  the  rii'hts  of 
fovereigns  in  their  particular  diUrifts  or  counties. 
But,  by  degrees,  molb  of  the  countks  became  re-uni- 
ttd  to  the  crown. 

The  quality  of  count  is  now  become  very  different 
from  what  it  was  anciently  ;  being  now  no  more  than 
a  title,  which  a  king  grants  upon  erefting  a  territory 
into  a  county,  with  a  relerve  of  jurifditlion  and  fnve- 
relgnty  to  hlmfelf.  At  firfl  there  was  no  claufe  in 
the  p?.tent  of  erection,  intimating  the  reveifiun  of  the 
county  to  the  ciown  in  default  of  heirs  male;  but 
ChailtsIX.  to  prevent  their  being  too  numerous,  or- 
dained that  duchies  and  counties,  in  default  of  hciis 
male,  Ihould  letum  to  the  crown. 

The  point  of  precedence  between  counts  and  mar- 
quilts  has  been  formerly  much  controverted  :  the  rea- 
fon  was,  that  there  are  counts  who  are  peers  of  France, 
but  no  maiquifes :  but  the  point  is  now  given  up,  and 
marquifes  take  place  ;  though  anciently,  when  counts 
were  governors  of  provinces,  they  were  on  a  level  even 
with  dukes. 

William  the  Conqueror,  ai  is  obferved  by  Camden, 
gave  the  dignity  of  counts  in  fee  to  his  nobles  ;  annex- 
ing it  to  this  or  that  county  or  province,  and  allotting 
for  their  maintenance  a  certain  proportion  of  money, 
arifing  from  the  prince's  profits  in  the  pleadings  and 
foiftitures  of  the  provinces.  To  this  purpofe  he  quotes 
an  ancient  record,  thus  :  Hen.  II  Rex  Anglia  his 
"Verbis  comitem  en  avit  ;  fciatis  nos  feciJJ'e  Ilugoiiem  Bigot 
comltem  ue  NcrJ.  'iyc.  de  ierlio  Jciiarii  de  Norwich  ^ 
Norjulk,  Jicut  a/iquis  comes  yinglia,  ISjC. 

The  Germans  call  a  counl,  graaf,  or graff;  which, 
according  to  a  inodcrn  critic,  properly  ligniticsyV^^  ; 
and  is  derived  from  gra-vio  ur  grqffio,  of  tff,  I  write. 
They  have  feveral  kinds  of  thefe  counts  or  graffs ; 
as  landgrave?,  marchgraves,  burg-graves,  and  palf- 
graves,  or  counts  palatine.  Thefe  lift  are  of  two  kinds{ 
the  former  are  of  the  number  of  princes,  and  have  the 
invciliture  of  a  pahtinate  ;  the  others  have  only  the 
title  oi'  count  palatine  without  the  invelliture  of  any  pa- 
latinate. Suine  alTert,  that  by  publicly  profeiling  the 
imperial  laws  for  twenty  years,  the  perfon  acquires  the 
dignity  of  a  count  palatine;  and  there  are  Inltances  of 
profclfors  in  law  who  have  affumed  the  title  accord- 
ingly :   but  there  are  others  who  queflion  this  right. 

Count,  in  law,  denotes  the  original  declaration  in 
a  real  adlion  ;  as  the  declaration  is  in  a  perfonal  one  ! 
the  llbellus  of  the  civilianf  anfweis  to  both.  —  Yet, 
count  and  declaration  are  fometimes  confounded, 
and  ufed  for  each  other  ;  as,  count  in  debt,  count  la 
appeal,  Sec. 

Cov.vT-iyhee/,  In  the  ftriking  part  of  a  clock,  a 
wheel  which  moves  round  once  in  i  2  or  2^  hours.  It 
is  fomLtimes  called  the  locking-'whal.  See  Cmock-ATu- 
iing. 

COUNTER,  a  term  which  enters  into  the  compo- 
fition  of  dlvtrfe  words  of  our  language,  and  general- 
ly implies  oppohtlon  ;  but  when  applied  to  deeds, 
means  an  exad  copy  kept  of  the  contrary  party,  and 
fometimes  figncd  by  both  parties 

CouNtER-Changed,  in  heraldry,  the  Intermixture,  or 
oppolition  of  any  metal  with  a  colour. 
4  CovN'  - 


Counter 

II 

Counter. 

poifc 


See  Hi!- 


c  o   u 

Covs'TRR-Flory,  in    heraldry,    is    faid 
whofe  flower-de-luce  are  oppofite  to  others. 

RALDRY. 

Cou NT t R-Draiviiig,  in  painting,  is  the  copying  a 
defign,  or  painting,  by  means  of  a  fine  linen-cloth,  an 
oiled  paper,  or  oxhir  tranfparent  matter,  where  the 
ftrokes  appearing  through  are  followed  with  a  pencil, 
with  or  without  colour.  Sometimes  it  is  done  on 
glafs,  and  with  frames  or  nets  divided  into  fquares 
with  filk  or  with  thread,  and  alfo  by  means  of  inftru- 
meuts  invented  fsr  the  purpofe,  as  the  parallelogram. 

CovNTF.R-Ennhie,  in  heraldry,  is  the  contrary  of 
ermine,  being  a  black  field  with  white  fpots. 

COUNTERFEITS,  in  law,  are  perfons  that  ob- 
tain  any  money  or  goods  by  counterfeit  letters  or  falfe 
tokens,  who  being  convifted  before  juilices  of  affize 
or  of  the  peace,  &c.  are  to  fiiffer  fuch  pnnifhmcnt  as 
(hall  be  thought  fit  to  be  inflifted  under  death,  as  im- 
prifonmcnts,  pillory,  &c. 

COUNTER-roiL,  or  Counter-stock,  in  the  ex- 
chequer, that  part  of  an  ally  which  is  kept  by  an  offi- 
cer of  the  court. 

CouNTF.R-GuarJ,  in  fortification,  is  a  work  raifed 
before  the  point  of  a  baftion,  confiding  of  two  long 
faces  parallel  to  the  faces  of  the  baftion,  making  a 
faliant  angle  :  they  are  fometimcs  of  other  fhapes,  or 
othetwife  fituated. 

CoUNTER-Light,  or  Comiter-Jour,  a  light  oppofite  to 
any  thing,  which  makes  it  appear  to  difadvantage.  A 
fingle  counter-light  is  fufficient  to  take  away  all  the 
beauty  of  a  fine  painting. 

CouNTRK-March,  in  military  affairs,  a  change  of  the 
face  or  wings  of  a  battalion,  by  which  means  thofe 
that  were  in  the  front  come  to  be  in  the  rear.  It  al- 
fo fignifies  returning,  or  marching  back  again. 

CovNTER-Mine,  in  war,  a  well  and  gallery  drove 
and  funk  till  it  meet  the  enemy's  mine  to  prevent  its 
cfFeft. 

CouNTER-Pahd,  in  heraldry,  is  when  the  efcutcheon 
is  divided  into  twelve  pales  parted  peifeffe,  the  two 
colours  being  counter-changed  ;  fo  that  the  upper  are 
of  one  colour  and  the  lower  of  another. 

Counter- Part,  in  mufic,  denotes  one  part  to  be  ap- 
plied to  another.  Thus  the  bafs  is  faid  to  be  a  coun- 
ter-part to  the  treble. 

CouNTF.R-PiiJfant,  in  heraldry,  is  when  two  lions  are 
in  a  coat  of  arms,  and  the  one  feems  to  go  quite  the 
contrary  way  from  the  other. 

CouNTEK-Point,  in  mufic  :  a  term  derived  from  the 
Latin  pvepofition  contra  and  the  verh  piitigere ;  becaufe 
the  mufical  chai-aflers  by  which  the  notes  in  each  part 
are  fignificd  are  placed  in  fuch  a  manner  each  with  re- 
fpeft  to  each  as  to  fhow  how  the  parts  anfwer  one  ano- 
ther.    See  Composition. 

CouNTRR-Pmntcd  (Contre-po'inte),  in  heraldry,  is 
when  two  chevrons  in  one  efcutcheon  meet  iu  the 
points,  the  one  rifing  as  ufual  from  the  bafe,  and  the 
other  inverted  falling  from  the  chief;  fo  that  they  are 
counter  to  one  another  in  the  points.  They  may  alio 
be  counter-pointed  when  they  are  founded  upon  the 
fides  of  the  (liield,  and  the  points  meet  that  way,  call- 
ed counli'i'-po'inltd  mfeff}. 

COUNTERPOISE,  in  the  manege,  is  the  liberty 
of  the  aAion  and  feat  of  a  horfe-mau  ;  fo  that  in  all 
the  motions  made  by  the  horfc,  he  does  not  incline  his 

^°  SI'  5 


[    496    ]  c    o    u 

of  a  treffiire    body  more  to  one  fide  than  to  the  other,  biit  contlnufl 
in  the  middle  of  the  faddle,  being  equally  on  his  ftir- 
rups,  in  order  to  give  the  horfe  the  proper  and  fea-  >, 
fonable  aids. 

COUNTER-roTENT  (Contre  poletice),  in  herald- 
ry, is  reckoned  a  fur  as  well  as  vair  and  ermine  ;  but 
compofed  of  fuch  pieces  as  reprefent  the  tops  of 
crutches,  called  in  French  patinas,  and  in  old  Englifh 
polents. 

■  CovNTER- Proof,  in  rolling-prefs  printing,  a  print 
taken  ofl' from  another  frerti  printed;  which  by  being 
paffed  through  the  prefs,  gives  the  figure  of  the  form- 
er, but  inverted.  To  coimter-prove,  is  alfo  to  pais  a 
defign  in  black  lead,  or  i-ed  chalk,  through  the  prefs, 
after  having  moiftcned  with  a  fponge  both  that  and 
the  ]iaper  on  which  the  counter-proof  is  to  be  taken. 

CovKTRR-S^iarterecI '{^lontre-eciirtel.),  in  heraldry,  de- 
notes the  efcutcheon,  after  being  quartered,  to  have 
each  quarter  again  divided  into  two. 

CouNTER-Saliant,  is  when  two  heafls  are  borne  ia 
a  coat  leaping  from  each  other  direilly  the  contrary- 
way. 

Count EK-Scnrp,  in  fortification,  is  properly  the  ex- 
terior talus  or  flop  of  the  ditcli;  but  it  Is  often  taken 
for  the  covei-ed  way  and  the  glacis.  In  this  fenfe  we 
fay,  the  enemy  have  lodged  themfelves  on  the  coun- 
terfcarp.  Angle  of  the  counter-fcaip,  is  that  made  by- 
two  fides  of  the  counter-fcai-p  meeting  before  the  mid- 
dle of  the  curtain. 

Counter- Signing,  the  figning  the  writing  of  a  fupe- 
rior  in  quality  of  fecretary.  Thus  charters  are  figncd 
by  the  king,  and  counter -figned  by  a  fecretary  of  Itate, 
or  lord  chancellor. 

CouNTKR-Time,  in  the  manege,  is  the  defence  or  re- 
fiftance  of  a  horfe  that  interrupts  his  cadence,  and  the 
meafure  of  his  manet^e,  occafioned  either  by  a  bad 
horfeman  or  by  the  malice  of  the  horfe. 

Counter,  is  alfo  the  name  of  a  counting-board  in 
a  (hop,  and  of  a  piece  of  metal  with  a  llamp  on  it, 
ufed  in  playing  at  cards. 

Counter  of  a  Horfe,  that  part  of  a  horfe's  fore- 
hand which  lies  between  the  ihoulders  and  under  the 
neck, 

Counters  in  a  Ship,  arc  two.  i.  The  hollow  arch- 
ing from  the  gallery  to  the  lower  part  of  the  llraight 
piece  of  the  ftern,  is  called  the  upper-counter.  2.  The 
lower  cciinter  is  between  the  tranfom  and  the  lower 
part  of  the  gallery. 

Counter,  is  alfo  the  name  of  two  prifons  in  the 
city  of  London,  viz.  the  Poultry  and  Woodllrcet. 

COUNTORS,  Contours,  or  Counters,  has  been 
ufed  for  ferjeants  at  law,  retained  to  defend  a  caufe, 
or  to  fpeak  lor  their  client  in  any  court  ot  law. 

It  is  of  thefe  Chaucer  fpeaks : 

A  fheriflfha'l  he  I'een,  and  a  contoiT, 

W.1S  no  where  I'ucli  a  wurihy  vavafour. 
They  were  anciently  c-aWsA  ferjeanl  contours. 

COUNTRIES,  among  the  miners,  a  term  or  ap- 
pellation they  give  to  their  works  under  ground. 

COUNTRY,  among  geographers,  is  ufed  indiffer- 
ently to  dei.ote  either  a  kingdom,  province,  or  IflTer 
diilriet.>  But  its  moll  frequent  ufi  is  iu  contradiftlnc- 
tion  to  town. 

CouNTRY-Dance  is  of  Englilh  origin,  though  now 
iranfplanted  into  almoft  all  the  countries  aud  courts  of 

Eu- 


c  o  u 


•  Europe.  Thi-ie  is  no  eftablilhid  rule  for  tlic  compo 
fition  of  tunes  to  this  dance,  tiecaufe  tliere  is  in  mu(ic 
no  kind  of  time  whatever  which  mny  not  be  mcafiircd 
by  the  motions  common  in  dancinor;  nnd  then-  aie  tew 
long  tunes  of  any  note  within  the  lad  century,  that 
have  not  been  applied  to  country-dances. 

COUNTY,  in  geography,  originally  fignificd  the 
territory  of  a  count  or  eaii,  but  now  it  is  ufed  in  the 
fame  fenle  with  fllire  ;  the  one  word  coming  from  tire 
French,  the  other  from  the  Saxon. — In  this  view,  a 
county  is  a  circuit  or  portion  of  the  realm  ;  into  fif- 
ty-two of  which,  the  whole  land,  England  and  Wales, 
is  c'ivided  for  its  better  government  and  the  more 
eafy  adminiftrati^m  of  jurtice. 

For  the  execution  of  the  laws  In  the  feveral  counties, 
excepting  CuTiberland,  Weftmoreland,  and  Durham, 
every  Michaelmas  term  officers  are  appointed,  under 
the  denomination  oijlieriffs.  Other  officers  of  the  fe- 
veral 'ounties  are,  a  lord  lieutenant,  who  has  the  com- 
mand of  the  militia  of  the  county;  crillodes  rotulo- 
rum,  jufticcs  of  peace,  bailiffs,  high-conflablt,  and  co- 
roner. 

Of  t4re  fifty-two  counties,  there  are  three  of  fpeoial 
note,  which  are  therefore  termed  counUes  palatine^  as 
Lancaller,  Chefler,  and  Durham.      See  Palatine. 

CousTr-Corporate,  is  a  title  given  to  fevei-al  cities, 
or  ancient  boroughs,  on  which  our  monarch^  have 
thought  fit  to  beftow  extraordinary  privileges;  annex- 
ing to  them  a  particular  territory,  land,  orjurildic- 
tton;and  making  them  counties  of  themfclves,  to  be 
governed  by  their  own  fheriffs  and  magiftrates. 

CovNTY-Crjurt,  in  Englifli  law,  a  court  incident  to 
the  jurifdiftion  of  the  fheriff.  It  is  not  a  court  of  re- 
cord, but  may  hold  pleas  of  debt  or  damages  under 
the  value  of  40  s.  Over  fome  pf  which  caufes  thefe 
inferior  courts  have,  by  the  exprefs  words  of  the  fta- 
tute  of  Gloucefter,  a  jurifdidion  totally  exclufive  of 
the  king's  fiiperior  courts.  For  in  order  to  be  inti- 
tled  to  lue  an  aftlon  of  tiefpafs  for  goods  before  the 
king's  jul^iciars,  the  plaintiff  is  direfted  to  make  affi- 
davit that  the  caufe  of  aftion  does  really  and  boneJiJe 
amount  to  40  p.  which  affidavit  is  now  unaccountably 
difufed,  except  in  the  court  of  exchequer.  The  Ila- 
tute  alfo  43  Eliz.  c.  6.  which  gives  the  judges  in  many 
perfonal  aftions,  where  the  jury  aifefs  lefs  damages 
than  40  s.  a  power  to  certify  the  fame  and  abridge 
the  plaintiff  of  his  full  cofls,  was  alfo  meant  to  pre- 
vent vexation  by  litigious  plaintiffs  ;  who,  for  pur- 
pofes  of  mere  oppreffion,  might  be  inclinable  to  inlli- 
tute  fuch  fuits  in  the  fuptrior  courts  for  injuries  of  a 
trifling  value.  The  connty-court  may  alfo  hold  plea 
of  many  real  aftions.,  and  of  all  perfonal  aftions  to  any 
amount,  by  virtue  of  a  fpecial  writ  ciiWeA  jtijlkies  ; 
which  is  a  writ  empowering  the  flieriff  for  the  taiie  of 
dilpatch  to  do  the  fame  jullice  in  his  county-court,  as 
mit'lit  otherwlfe  be  had  at  Wcflminfter.  The  free- 
holders of  the  county  are  the  re.il  judges  in  this  court, 
and  the  fheriff  is  the  miniflerial  officer.  The  great 
conflux  of  freeholders,  which  are  fuppofed  always  to 
attend  at  the  county-court  (which  Spelmvrn  c'A\hf'ir-um 
plsbeis  jujl'it'iic  el  iheiitnim  comili-vs  potijhitis ) ,  u  the  rea- 
fon  why  all  afts  of  parliament  at  the  end  of  every  lef- 
fion  were  wont  to  be  there  puhliflied  by  the  fheriff; 
why  all  outlawries  of  abfcondiiig  offenders  are  there 
proclainrcf!  ;  and  why  all  popular  decflions  which  the 
V-ot.V.  Paitll. 


C       497       1 


c   o   u 


C'U^nnt. 


freeholders  arc  to  make,  as  formerly  of  flrerifFs  and  con-  Couptr 
fervators  of  the  peace,  and  ftill  of  coroners,  vcrderors, 
and  kiu'ghts  of  the  fliire,  mulf  ever  be  mnde  in  plena ca- 
miliitu,  or  in  full  county-court.  By  the  ftatute  2. 
Edw.  VI.  c.  25.  no  county-court  fliall  be  adj  mrned 
longer  than  for  one  month,  confiding  of  28  days.  And 
this  was  alio  the  ancient  ufage,  as  app-ars  from  the 
laws  of  king  Edward  the  elder:  prepofitns  (that  is,  the 
flieriff)  ad  quurtam  cirdter  ftpt'imanam  freqiientem populi 
concionem  cclcbt Lito  ;  cuiquejus  dicho;  I'ltcf'iue  fmguhis  di- 
rimilo.  In  thofc  times  the  county-court  was  a  court 
of  great  dignity  and  fplendour,  the  bifhop  and  the 
ealdorm.m  (or  eail),  with  the  principal  men  of  the  (hire, 
fitting  therein  to  admlniller  juftice  both  in  lay  and  ec- 
cli-fiaftlcal  caufes.  But  its  dignity  was  much  impaired, 
when  the  bifhop  was  prohibited,  and  the  earl  neglec- 
ted to  attend  it.  And,  in  modern  times,  as  proceed- 
ings are  removeable  from  hence  into  the  king's  fupe- 
rior  courts,  by  writ  of  pone  or  recordare,  in  the  fame 
manner  as  from  hundred  cnurts  and  courts-baron  ;  an(J 
as  the  fame  writ  of  falle  judgment  may  be  had,  in  na- 
ture of  a  writ  of  error,  this  has  occafioned  the  fame 
difute  of  bringing  adfions  therein. 

COUPAR,  tlie  name  of  a  town  in  Scotland,  capi- 
tal of  the  ccunty  i:f  Fife,  fituated  about  10  miles  weft 
of  St  Andrew's:  W.  Long.  2.40.  N  I-at.  56.  20.— 
CoupLir  is  alfo  the  name  of  a  village  in  thi.  ihire  of  An- 
gus, iiihabiied  chiefly  by  weavers  in  the  linen  trade. 

COUPED,  in  heraldry,  is  ufed  to  expreft  the  head, 
or  any  limb,  of  an  animal,  cut  off  from  the  trunk, 
fmooth;  dittinguifliing  it  from  that  which  is  called  <'/-a/- 
fed,  that  is,  forcibly  torn  off,  and  therefore  is  ragged 
and  uneven. 

CouPED,  is  alfo  ufed  to  fignifiy  fuch  croffes,  bars, 
bends,  chevrons,  &c.  as  do  not  touch  the  fides  of  the 
efciitcheon,  but  are,  as  it  were,  cut  off  from  them. 

COUPEE,  a  motion  in  dancing,  wherein  one  Ids' 
is  a  litile  bent,  and  fufpended  from  the  ground;  and 
with  the  other  a  motion  is  made  forwards. 

The  word  in  the  original  French  fignifies  a  cut. 
COUPLE-CLOss,  in  heraldry,  the  fourth  part  of  a 
chevron,   never  borne   but   in  pairs,  except  there  be  3 
chevron  between  them,  faith  Guillim,  though  Bloom 
gives  an  inftance  to  the  contrary. 

COUPLE  r,  a  divlfion  of  a  hymn,  ode,  fong,  &c. 
wherein  an  equal  number,  or  equal  meafurc,  of  verfes, 
13  found  in  each  part ;  which  divifions,  in  odes,  are 
cslledjlrophes.  —  Couplet,  by  an  abufe  of  the  word,  is 
freqiientlv  made  to  fignify  a  couple  of  verfes. 

COURAGE,  in  ethics,  is  that  quality  of  the  mind, 
derived  either  from  conftitutlon  or  principle,  or  both, 
that  enables  men  to  encounter  difficulties  and  dangers. 
See  Fortitude. 

COURANT,  a  French  term  fynonymous  with  far- 
rent,  and  properly  fignifies  running.     See  Current. 

CouRANT,  is  alfo  a  term  in  niufic  and  dancing; 
being  ufed  to  exprefs  both  the  tune  or  air  and  the  dance. 
With  regard  to  the  firft,  conrant,  or  currant.  Is  a  piece 
of  mufic  in  triple  time :  the  air  of  the  courant  is  or- 
dinarily noted  In  triples  of  minlnia;  the  parts  to  be 
repeated  twice  It  begins  and  ends  when  he  who 
beats  the  meafure  falls  his  hand;  In  contradiflinfllon 
from  the  faraband,  which  ordinarily  ends  when  the 
hand  Is  laifed.  With  regard  to  dancing,  the  courant 
was  long  the  moll  common  of  all  the  dances  praftifed 
3  ^  in 


c   o   u 


[  498  1 


c  o   u 


Conrap,    In  England:   it  confilU,  eflentially,  of  a  time,  a  ftep, 

Courayer.  ^  balance,  and  a  coupce  ;  though  it  alio  admits  of  other 

^"^  motions.      Formerly  they  leaped  their  ileps  ;  in  which 

point,  the  courant  differed  from  the  low  dance  and  pa- 

vades.     There  are   fimple   cnurants  and   figured   cou- 

lants,  all  danced  by  two  peifons. 

COURAP,  the  modern  name  for  a  diilemper 
■»ery  common  in  Java  and  other  parts  of  tlie  Eaft- 
Indies.  It  is  a  fort  of  herpes  or  itch  on  the  arm-pits, 
groins,  breaft,  and  face  :  the  itching  is  almoft  perpe- 
tual ;  and  the  fcratching  is  followed  by  great  pain  and 
a  difcharge  of  matter,  which  makes  the  linen  (lick  fo 
to  the  fkin  as  not  eafily  to  be  feparated  without  tear- 
ing off  the  cruft.  Courap  is  a  general  name  for  any 
fort  of  itch  ;  but  this  diitemper  is  thus  called  by  way  of 
eminence.  It  is  fo  contagious  that  few  efcape  it.  For 
the  cure,  gentle  and  repeated  purging  is  ufed,  and  ex- 
ternally the  fublimate  in  a  fmall  quantity  is  a  good  to- 
pic. 

COURAYER   (Peter  Francis),  a  Roman  Ca- 
tholic clergyman,  dillinguifhed  by   great   moderation, 
charity,  and  temper,  concerning  religious  affairs,  as  well 
as  by  learning,    was   born   at   Vernon   in   Normandy, 
1681.      While  canon  regular  and  librarian  of  the  abbey 
of  St  Genevieve  at  Paris,  he  applied  to  our  archbilhop 
Wake  for   the   refolution  of  fome   doubts,  concerning 
the   epifcopal   fuccefiion   in    England,  and  the  validity 
of  our  ordinations:   he  was  encouraged  to  this  by  the 
friendly  correfpondencc  which  had  paffed  between  the 
archbifhop  and  M.  du  Pin  of  the  Sorbonne.    The  arch- 
bifhop  fent  him  cxafl  copies  of  the   proper   records; 
and  on  thefe   he  built  his  "  Defence  of  Englifli  Ordi- 
nations,"  which    was    publifhed    in    Holland,    1727. 
This  expofing  him  to  a  profcculion  in  his  own  country, 
he   took   refuge   in    England  ;  where   he  was  well  re- 
ceived, and  piefented  the  fame  year  by  the  univerfity 
of  Oxford  with  a  doAor's  degree.     As  it  is  fomewhat 
uncommon  for  a  Roman  Catholic  clergyman  to  be  ad- 
mitted to  degrees  in  divinity  by  Proteftant  univerfities, 
the  carious  may  be  gratified  with  a  fight  of  the  diplo- 
ma, and  the  d.ftor's  letter  of  thanks,  in  "  The  prefent 
State   of   the    Republic  of   Letters,   for  June    1728. 
In  1736,  he   tranflated    into    French,   and   publifhed, 
"  Father  PaiiFs  Hiftury  of  the  Council  of  Trent,"  in 
2  vols,  folio,  and  dedicated  it  to  queen  Caroline  ;   who 
augmented  to  200  1.  a  penfion  of  icol.  a  year,  which 
he  had  obtained  before  from  the  court.     The  learned 
Jer.  Markland,  in  a  letter  to  his  friend    Bowyer,   Sep- 
tember  1 746,   fays,    "  Mr   Chrke   has  given   me    F. 
Courayer's  iranflation   of  the   Hiilory  of  the  Council 
i)f  Trent  ;  with  whofe  preface  I  am  fo  greatly  pleafed, 
that  if  he  be  no  more  a  Papiil  in  other  tenets  than  he 
is  in  thofe  he  mentions  (which  are  many,  and  of  the 
moft  diftinguilhed  clafs),  I  dare  fay  there  are  very  few 
ccnfiderate  Proteflancs  who  ar-e  not  as  good  Catholics 
as  he  is.."      His  works  are  many,  and   all  in    French  : 
he  tranflated  Sleidan's  "  Hiftory  of  the  Reformation." 
He  died  in  1776,  after  two  days  illnefs,  at  the  age  of 
05  ;  and  was  buried    in   the   cloifter    of  Weftminllei"- 
abbey.     In  his  will,  dated  Feb.  3d  1774,  he  declai-es, 
that  he  "  dies  a  member  of  the  Catholic  church,  but 
without  approving  of  many  of  the    opinions  and  fu- 
perftitions  which  have  been  introduced  into  the  Ro- 
mifh  church,   and   taught  in  their   fchools  and  femi- 
"    naries ;  and  which  they  have  infiiled  on  as  articles 


of  faith,  though  to  him  they  appear  to  be  not  only  not 
founded  in  truth,  but  alfo  to  be  highly  improbable." 
And  his  praflice  was  conformable  to  tliis  Jeclaraiion  ;  ^ 
for  at  London  he  conllantly  went  to  mafs,  and  at  Eal- 
ing in  the  country,  whither  he  often  retired,  as  con- 
llantly attended  the  fervice  of  the  paiifli  church  ;  de- 
claring at  all  times,  that  he  "  had  great  fatiafad'tion  in 
the  prayers  of  the  church  of  England." 

COURBARIL.     See  Hymenea. 

COURIER,  or  Currier,  (from  the  French  courir, 
"  to  run,")  a  meffenger  fent  poft,  or  exprefs,  to  car- 
ry difpatches. 

Antiquity,  top,  had  its  couriers.  We  meet  with 
two  kinds:  I.  Thofe  who  ran  on  foot,  called  by  the 
Greeks  hemerodromi,  q.  d.  *'  couriers  of  a  day."  Pliny, 
Corn.  Ncpos,  and  Caefar,  mention  fome  of  thefe  who 
would  run  20,  30,  36,  and  in  the  circus  even  40 
leagues  per  day.  2.  Riding  couriers  (curfores  equi' 
tantes),  who  changed  horfes,  as  the  niudcrn  cou- 
rier's do. 

Xenophon  attributes  the  firfl  couriers  to  Cyrus. 
Herodotus  fays,  they  were  very  ordinary  among  the 
Perfians,  and  that  there  was  nothing  in  the  world  more 
fwlft  than  thefe  kind  of  meflengers.  "  That  prince 
(fays  Xenophon)  examined  how  far  a  horfe  would  go 
in  a  day ;  and  built  ftables,  at  fuch  diftances  from 
each  other,  where  he  lodged  horfes,  and  perfons  to 
take  care  of  them  ;  and  at  each  place  kept  a  perfon 
always  ready  to  take  the  packet,  mount  a  irclh  horfe, 
and  forward  it  to  the  next  ftage  :  and  thus  quite 
through  his  empire." 

But  it  does  not  appear  that  either  the  Greeks  or 
Romans  had  any  tegular  fixed  couriers  till  the  time 
of  Auguflua :  under  that  prince  they  travelled  in 
cars ;  though  it  appears  from  Socrates  they  after- 
wards went  on  horfeback.  Under  the  weftern  em- 
pire, they  were  called  •viatores;  and  under  that  of 
Conftantinople,  curfores  :  whence  the  modem  name. 
See  Post. 

COURLAND,  a  duchy  fituated  between  E.  Long, 
21.  26.  and  between  N.  Lat.  56.  30.  and  57.  30.  It 
is  bounded  by  the  river  Dwina,  which  divides  it  from 
I.,ivonia,  on  the  north  ;  by  Lithuania,  on  the  eaft  ; 
by  Samogitia,  on  the  for.th  ;  and  by  the  Baltic  fea  on 
the  well;  being  130  miles  long  and  30  broad.  This 
duchy  was  formerly  independent,  and  elected  their  own 
duke  ;  but  is  now  fubjett  to  Rulfia. 

COURSE  [route),  in  navigation,  the  angle  con- 
tained between  the  neareft  meridian  and  that  point  of 
the  compafs  upon  which  a  flilp  fails  in  any  particular 
direflion. 

Course,  in  architefture,  denotes  a  continued  range 
of  Hones,  level,  or  of  the  fame  height,  throughout  the 
whole  length  of  the  building  ;  and  not  intennptcd  by 
any  aperture.  It  forms  a  parapet  to  the  intermedi- 
ate fpace  between  the  body  of  the  building  and  the 
wings. 

Course  cf  PUiUhs,  is  the  continuity  of  a  plinth  of 
ftone  or  plaller  in  the  face  of  a  building  ;  to  mark 
the  feparation  of  the  ftories. 

Course  is  alfo  ufed  for  the  time  ordinarily  fpent 
in  learning  the  principles  of  a  fcience,  or  the  ufual 
points  arid  quefllons  therein.  Thus,  a  ftudent  is  faid 
to  lave  finiihed  his  courfe  in  the  humanity,  in  philo- 
fophy,  &c. 

3.  •     CouJlSS 


Courbarll 

II    • 
Courfe. 


c  o  u 


Courfe 
H 

Courfing 


Course  is  alfo  ufed  for  the  elements  of  an  ait  ex- 
hibited and  explained,  eitlier  in  writing  or  by  atlual 
experiment.  Hence  our  ctmrfes  of  philofophy,  anato- 
my, cliemiltry,  mathematics,  &c.  probably  fo  called  as 
going  throughout  or  running  tlie  whole  length  or 
ciurfe  of  the  art,  Sec. 

COURSEvS,  a  name  by  which  the  principal  fails  of 
a  ftiip  are  dillinguiflied,  viz.  the  main-fail,  the  fore- 
fail,  and  the  inizcii  :  the  niizcn  (lay-fall  and  forc-lail 
are  alfo  fomctinies  comprehended  in  this  denomina- 
tion ;  as  are  the  main-llay-fails  of  all  brigs  and  fchoon- 
ers.     Ste  Sail. 

COURSING,  among  fportfnien.  There  are  three 
fevenil  forts  ufcouifes  with  gre-hounJs  :  l.  At  the  hare; 
2.  At  the  fox  ;  and,   3.  At  the  deer. 

For  the  Jeer,  thtre  are  two  forts  of  courfes  ;  the 
one  in  the  paddock,  the  other  either  in  the  forcft 
or  the  purlieu.  For  the  paddock  courfe,  there  mull 
be  the  giehound  and  the  terrier,  and  the  mongrel 
gre-hiund,  whofe  bufinefs  it  is  to  drive  away  the 
deer  before  the  gre-hounds  are  flipped  ;  a  brace  or 
a  leafli  are  the  ufual  number  flipped  at  a  time,  fel- 
dom  at  the  utmoll  more  than  two  brace.  In  cour- 
fing  the  deer  in  the  forell  or  purlieu,  there  are  two 
ways  in  ufe  :  the  one  is  courfing  fiom  wood  to  wood  ; 
and  the  other,  upon  the  lawns  clofe  by  the  keeper's 
lodge.  In  the  courfing  from  wood  to  wood,  the  way 
is  to  throw  in  fome  young  hounds  into  the  wood  to 
bring  out  the  deer;  and  if  any  deer  come  out  that  is 
not  weighty,  or  a  deer  or  antler  which  is  buck,  fcie, 
or  forrcl,  then  you  are  not  to  flip  your  grc-hounds, 
which  are  held  at  the  end  of  the  wood,  where  the 
keepers,  who  can  guels  very  well  on  thefe  occafions, 
expeft  that  tl.e  deer  will  come  out.  If  a  proper  deer 
come  out,  and  it  is  fufpetted  that  the  brace  or  lealh  of 
gre -hounds  flipped  after  him  wiU  not  be  able  to  kill 
him,  it  is  proper  to  waylay  "him  with  a  couple  of  frefli 
gre-hounds. 

The  courfing  upon  the  lawn  is  the  moft  agreeable 
of  all  other  ways.  When  the  keeper  has  notice  of  this, 
he  will  lodge  a  deer  for  the  courfe  ;  and  then,  by  co- 
ming under  the  wind,  the  gre-hound  may  be  brought 
near  enough  to  be  flipped  for  a  fair  courfe. 

The  bell  method  of  courfing  the  hare,  is  to  go  out 
and  find  a  hare  fiiting  ;  which  is  eafily  done  in  the 
fummer,  by  walking  acrofs  the  lands,  either  ftubble, 
fallow,  or  corn  grounds,  and  calling  the  eye  up  and 
down  :  for  in  fummer  they  frequent  thofe  places  for 
fear  of  the  ticks,  which  are  comrhon  in  the  woods  at 
that  feafon  ;  and  in  autumn  the  rains  falling  from  the 
trees  ofFeud  them.  The  rell  of  the  year  there  is 
more  trouble  required ;  as  the  bufhes  and  thickets 
mull  be  beat  to  roufe  them,  and  oftentimes  they  will 
lie  fo  clofe,  that  they  will  not  llir  till  the  pole  almoll 
touches  them  :  the  fportfmen  are  always  pleafed  with 
this,  as  it  promifes  a  good  courfe.  If  a  hare  lies  near 
any  clofe  or  covert,  and  with  her  head  that  way,  it 
is  always  to  be  expedled  that  flie  will  take  to  that  im- 
mediately on  being  put  up  ;  all  the  company  are  there- 
fore to  ride  up  and  put  thcmfelves  between  her  and 
the  covert  before  (he  is  put  up,  that  flie  may  take  the 
other  way,  and  run  upon  open  ground.  When  a  hare 
is  put  up,  it  is  always  proper  to  give  her  ground,  or 
laiv,  as  it  is  called  ;  that  is,  to  let  her  run  1  2  fcore 
yards,  or  thereabouts,  before  the  gre-hounds  are  flip- 


[    499     ] 


C    O    U 


ped  nt  her  ;  otherwife  fhe  is  killed  too  foon,  the  greater  Coarfincr. 
part  of  the  fport  is  thrown  away,  and  the  plcafure  of  i(  "^ 
obhrving  the  feveral  turnings  and  windings  that  the 
creature  will  make  to  get  away  is  all  loll.  A  good 
I'portfnian  had  ralhet  fee  a  hare  fave  herfclf  after  a  fair 
courfe,  than  fee  her  murdered  by  the  gre-hounds  as 
foon  as  flic  is  up. 

In  courfing  the/e.v,  no  other  art  is  required,  than 
(landing  clofe,  and  in  a  clear  wind,  on  the  oatilde  of 
fomc  grove  where  it  is  expefted  lie  will  come  out ; 
and  when  he  is  come  out,  he  mull  have  head  enough 
allowed  him,  otheiwife  he  will  return  back  to  the  co- 
vxrt.  The  flowell  grc-h'.und  will  be  able  to  over- 
take him,  after  all  the  odds  of  dillauce  uecedary  ;  and 
the  only  danger  is  the  fpciling  the  dog  by  the  fox, 
wliich  too  frequently  happens.  For  this  reafon,  no 
gre-hound  of  any  value  fliould  be  run  at  this  courfe  ; 
but  the  flrong,  hard,  bitter  dogs,  that  will  fcize  any 
thing. 

The  laws  of  courfing  ellabliflied  by  the  duke  of 
Norfolk,  and  other  fportfmen  of  the  kingdom  of  Eng- 
land, are  thefe  : 

I.  He  that  is  chofen  fewterer  or  letter-loofe  of  the 
dogs,   fliall   receive   the   gre-hounds   matched    to    run 
together  into  his  leafli  as  foon  as   he  comes  into  the 
lieid  ;  he  is  to  march  next  to  the  hare-linder,  or  him 
who  is  to  ftart  the  hare,   until  he  come  to   the  form  j 
and  no  horfeman  or  footman  is  to  go  before  or  fide- 
ways,  but  all  Ilraighl  behind,  for  the  fpace  of  about  40 
yards.      2.   A  hare  ought  never   to   be   courfed   with 
more   than    a    brace   of   gre-hounds.       3.   The    hare- 
finder  is  to  give  the  hare  three  fohoes  before   he  puts 
her  up  fiom  het  form  or  feat,  to  the  end  that  the  dog* 
may    be    prepared     and    attend    her    darting.     4.   If 
there  be  not  a  particular  danger  of  lofing    the  hare, 
file  fiiould  have  about  twelve  fcore  yards  law.      c.  The 
dog  that  gives  the    firll  turn,   if  after  that  there  be 
neither  cote,  flip,  nor  wrench,  wins  the  wager.     6.  A 
go-by,  or  bearing   the   hare,    is   accounted   equivalent 
to  two  turns.     7.  If  neither  dog  turns  the  hare,  he  that 
leads  to  the  lall  covert  wins.     8.  If  any  dog  turns  the 
hare,  ferves  himfelf,  and  turns  her  again,  it  is  as  much 
as  a  cote,  and   a   cote    is   elleemed   as  much  as  two 
turns.      9.  If  all  the  courfe  be  equal,   he    that  bears 
the  hare  (hall  win  ;  and  if  he  be  not  borne,  the  courfe 
fliall  then  be  judged  ^W.      10.   If  a  dog  take  a  fall 
in    his  couifc,  and    yet   perforin   his   part,     he     may 
challenge    the    advantage   of    a   turn    more   than    he 
gave.      II.  If  a  dog    turn    the    hare,    ferve  himfelf, 
and  give  di>'eis  cotes,  and   yet  in  the  end  fliall  ftand 
ftill  in  the  field,  the  other  dog,  if  he  turns  home  to  the 
covert,  although  he  gives  no  other,   fliall   be  adjudged 
to  win  the  wager.      1  2.  If  by  misfortune  a  dog  be  rid 
over  in  the  courfe,   that  courfe  fhall  be  adjudged  void, 
and  he  that  did  the  mlfchief  is  to  make  reparation  to  the 
owner.      1  3.  If  a  dog  gives  the  firll  and  lalt  turn,  and 
there  be  no  other  advantage  betwixt  them,  he  that  gives 
the  odd  turn  wins.      14.  A  cote  is  when  a  gre-hound 
goes  end  ways  by  the  fide  of  his  fellow,  and  gives  the 
hare  a  turn.      15.  A  cote  lervesfortwo  turns,  and  two 
trippings  or  jcrkings  for  a  cote  ;  and  if  the  hair  turns 
not  quite  about,  fhe  only  lurencheth,  in  the  fportfman's 
phrafe.      16.  If  theie  be  no  cotes  given  by  cither  of  the 
gre-hounds,  but  one  ferves  the  other  at  turning,  then 
he   that  gives   the  moft   turns   wins  tlie  wager.     17. 
3  R  2  Sometimes 


c  o  u 


[   500   ] 


c  o  u 


Conri. 


Comment, 


Sometimes  a  hare  does  not  turn,  but  wrenches ;  for 
(he  dues  not  turn  except  Hie  turns  as  it  were  round. 
In  tKife  cafes,  two  wrenches  ftaiiJ  for  one  turn.  18. 
He  tiiat  comes  in  fiift  at  the  death  of  the  hare  takes 
her  up,  and  faves  her  from  breaking  ;  he  cheriihes  the 
do^s,  and  cleanfes  their  mouths  from  the  wool  ;  he  is 
adjudjfed  to  have  the  hare  for  l.is  pains.  19.  Finally, 
thole  who  are  judges  of  the  leafh,  muft  give  their  judg- 
ment before  they  depart  out  of  the  field,  or  elfe  it  is 
not  to  ftand  as  valid. 

COURT,  an  appendage  to  a  honfe  or  habitation  ; 
conllfting  of  a  piece  of  ground  inclcfcd  with  walls,  but 
open  upwards. 

Court  is  alfo  nfed  for  the  palace  or  place  where  a 
king  or  fovereign  prince  refides. 

Court,  In  a  law  fenfc,  is  defined  to  be  a  place 
wherein  jultice  is  judicially  adminiftered.  And  as, 
by  our  excellent  conftitutlon,  the  fole  executive  power 
of  the  laws  is  veiled  in  the  perfon  of  the  king,  it  will 
follow  that  all  courts  of  juliice,  which  are  the  me- 
dium by  which  he  adminillers  the  laws,  are  derived 
from  the  power  of  the  crown.  For  whether  created 
by  aft  of  parliament  or  letters  patent,  or  fubfiftingby 
prefcription  (the  only  methods  by  which  any  court 
of  judicature  can  exift),  the  king's  confent  in  the  two 
former  is  exprefoly,  and  in  the  latter  impliedly,  given. 
In  all  thefe  courts,  the  king  is  fuppofed  ia  contem- 
plation of  law  to  be  always  prefent;  but  as  that  is  in 
faft  impofhble,  he  is  there  reprefented  by  his  judges, 
whofe  power  is  only  an  emanation  of  the  royal  prero- 
gative. 

For  the  more  fpeedy,  univerfal,  and   impaitial  ad- 
miniltration  of  juftice  between  lubjeft  and  fubjett,  the 
law  hath    appointed    a  prodigious    variety   of  courts, 
fome  with  a  more  limited,  others  with  a  more  exten- 
five  jurifdiftion  ;  fome  conitituted  to  inquire   only,  o- 
thers  to   hear  and  determine  ;  fome   to  determine  in 
the  firft  inftance,  others  upon  appeal  and  by  way  of 
review.     See  Lj!  w,  n°  xcviii.  xcxix.  c.  cxll.  clvi.  clvii. 
clviii.  and  the  refpeftive  articles  in  the  order  of  the  al- 
phabet.    One  dilhnttion  may  be  here  mentioned,  that 
runs  throughout  them  all  ;  viz.  that  fome  of  them  are 
courts  of  record,  others  not  of  record.     A  court  of  re- 
cord is  that  where  the  afts  and  judicial  proceedings  are 
enrolled  in  parchment   for   a  perpetual   memorial  and 
tellimony  :  which  rolls   are   called    the  records   of  the 
court,  and  are  of  fuch  high  and  fnpereminent  authori- 
ty, that  their  truth  is  not  to  be  called  in  queflion.   For 
It  is  a  fettled  rule  and  maxim,  that  nothing  fljall  be  a- 
verred   againll   a  record,  nor  ihall  any  plea,   or  even 
proof,   be  admitted  to  the  contrary.      And  if  the  exig- 
ence of  a  record  be  denied,  it  (hall  be  tried  by  nothing 
but  Itfelf ;  that  Is,  upon  bare  Infpeftion  whether  there 
be  any  fuch  record  or  no  ;  elfe  there  would  be  no  end 
of  difputes.      But  if  there   appear  any  millake  of  the 
clerk  in  making  up  fuch  record,  the  court  will  direiSl 
him  to  amend  it.      All  courts  of  record  are  the  king's 
courts,  in  right  of  his  crown  and  royal   dignity,  and 
therefore  no  other  court  hath  authority  to  fine  or  im- 
prifon  ;  fo  that   the  very  eieftion   of  a  new  jurifdic- 
tlon  with  power  of  fine  or  imprifonment,  makes  it  in- 
ftantly  a  court   of  record. — A  court  not  of  record  is 
the  court  of  a  private   man  ;  whom  the  law  will  not 
intruft  with  any  difcretionary  power  over  the  fortune 
or  liberty  of  his  fellow-fubjefts.     Such  are  the  courts- 


baron  incident  to  every  manor,  and  other  inferior  ju- 
rifdiftions:  ^hcre  the  procedlngs  are  not  eHrulled  vx  " 
recorded  j  but  as  well  their  t  xi!*cnce  as  the  triuh  of  the 
matters  therein  contained  Ihall,  if  difputed,  be  tried 
and  determined  by  a  jury.  Thefe  courts  can  hold  no 
plea  of  matters  cognizable  by  the  common  law,  unlefs 
under  the  value  of  40s.;  nor  of  any  forcible  injury 
whatloever,  nor  having  anyprocefo  to  arreil  the  perfon 
of  the  defendant. 

In  every  court  there  muft  be  at  lead  three  confti- 
tuent  parts,  the  a9or,  reus,  and  judex  :  the  a8or,  or 
plaintiff,  who  complams  of  an  injury  done  ;  the  reus, 
or  de.'endant,  whv)  is  called  upon  to  make  fatisfartion 
for  it  ;  and  tlu- judex,  or  judicial  power,  which  is  to 
examine  the  tiuth  of  the  faft, 'to  determine  the  law 
arlfins-  upon  that  fad,  and.  If  any  injury  appears  to 
have  been  done,  to  afcertain  and  by  Its  officers  to  apply 
the  remedy.  It  is  alfo  ufual  in  the  fuperior  courts  to 
have  attorneys,  and  advocates  or  counfel,  as  affiftants. 
See  Attorney  and  Counsel. 

Court- Baron,  in  EnglKh  law,  a  court  incident  to 
every  manor  in  the  kingdom,  to  be  holden  by  the 
fteward  within  the  faid  manor.  This  court-baron  is 
of  two  natures  :  the  one  is  a  cuftomary  court,  apper- 
taining entirely  to  the  copyholders.  In  which  their 
eftates  are  transferred  by  furrender  and  admittance,  and 
other  matters  tranfaited  relative  to  their  tenures  only. 
The  other  is  a  court  of  common  law,  and  it  Is  the 
court  of  the  haruiis,  by  which  name  the  freeholders 
were  fometimes  anciently  called  :  for  that  it  is  held  be- 
fore the  freeholders  who  owe  fuit  and  fervlce  to  the 
manor,  the  fteward  being  rather  the  regillrar  than  the 
judge.  Theie  courts,  though  In  their  nature  dilllnil, 
are  equally  confounded  together.  The  court  we  are 
now  confiderlng,  viz.  the  freeholder's  court,  was  com- 
pofed  of  the  lord's  tenants,  who  were  X.he  pares  of  each 
other,  and  were  bound  by  their  feodal  tenure  to  affift 
their  lord  in  the  difpenfation  of  domeftic  juftice.  This 
was  formerly  held  every  three  weeks  ;  and  its  moft  im- 
portant bufinels  Is  to  determine,  by  writ  of  right,  all 
controverfics  relating  to  ihe  right  of  lands  within  the 
manor.  It  may  alio  hold  plea  of  any  perlonal  aflions,-- 
of  debt,  trelpal's  on  the  cafe,  or  the  like,  where  the 
debt  or  damages  do  not  amount  to  40s.  Which  is 
the  fame  fum,  or  three  marks,  that  bounded  the  ju- 
rifdiftion  of  the  ancient  Gothic  courts  in  their  loweft 
inftance,  or ferditig  courts,  fo  called  becaufe  four  were 
inftltuted  within  every  fuperior  diftrift  or  hundred. 
But  the  proceedings  on  a  writ  of  right  may  be  remo- 
ved into  the  county-court  by  a  precept  from  the  ftierlfT 
called  a  toll,  quia  to/lit  clique  exhnlt  caufam  e  curia  larof 
num.  And  the  proceedings  in  all  other  aftions  may 
be  removed  Into  the  luperior  courts  by  the  king's  writs 
ci  pone,  or  acceJas  ad  curiam,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  fuit.  After  judgment  given,  a  writ  alfo  of 
falfe  judgment  lies  to  the  courts  at  Wellminfter  to  re- 
hear and  review  [he  caufe,  and  not  a  writ  of  error ; 
for  this  Is  not  a  court  of  record  :  and  therefore,  in- 
fome  of  thefe  writs  of  removal,  the  firft  direftion  given 
is  to  caufe  the  plaint  to  be  recorded,  recordari  facias 
luquelam. 

CavRt-Martial,  a  court  appointed  for  the  puniftiing 
offences  In  officers,  foldlers,  and  failors,  the  powers  of 
which  are  regulated  by  the  mutiny-bill. 

For  other  courts,  fee  AoMXR.Ai.Ty,  Arches,  Bench, 

Count  r, 


Court. 


c   o   u 


r  sot  1 


cow 


toDf^y    CnwNTY,  CoMMcis-Ple/is,  Chancery,  Ecclesiasti- 

II         c.iL,    DiHHv,    Faculty,    Reqiksts,    Hustings, 

;outances   (jmyy^LRY,  FoRE-^T,  Stannary,  STAR-CVjamfer,  Pre- 

"""*         ROGATivE.  University,  Legate,  Leet,  Mayor, 

PlEPO'.DRE,    Sir. 

COURTESY,  or  CvRTt  BY,  of  England;  a  certain 
tenure  thereby  a  man  marrying  an  lieirefs  feizcd  of 
lands  of  fee  fimple,  or  fee- tail  general,  or  feized  as 
heir  of  the  tail  fpecial,  and  gettcth  a  child  by  her  that 
Cometh  alive  into  the  world,  thongh  both  It  and  his 
wife  die  forthwith  ;  yet,  it  (he  were  in  pofleflioii,  he 
Iliall  keep  the  land  during-  his  life,  and  is  called  tenant 
per  legem  Angliie,  "  or  tenant  by  the  caurtciy  of  Eng- 
land ;"  becaufe  this  privilege  is  not  allowed  m  any 
country  except  Scotland,  where  it  is  called  curiuliuis 
Scotia. 

COURTESAN,  a  woman  who  proftitutes  herfelf 
for  hire,  elpceially  to  people  of  fuperlor  rank.  Lais, 
the  famous  Theban  courtefan,  ftands  on  record  for 
requiring  no  lels  than  10,000  crowns  for  a  fingle 
night.  Of  all  places  in  the  world,  Venice  is  that  where 
counefans  abound  the  moft.  It  is  now  300  years  fince 
the  fenate,  which  had  expelled  them,  was  obliged  to  re- 
cal  them;  in  order  to  provide  for  the  fecurity  of  wo- 
men of  honour,  and  to  keep  the  nobles  employed  left 
they  ihould  turn  their  heads  to  make  innovations  in  the 
ftate. 

COURTRAY,  a  town  of  the  Auftrlan  Netherlands, 
fituated  on  the  river  Lvs,  about  23  miles  fouth-wcft  of 
Ghent,  and  14  eaft.  of  Ypres.  E.Long.  3.  10.  N.  Lat. 
50.  48. 

COUSIN,  a  term  of  relation  between  the  children 
of  brothers  and  fillers,  who  in  the  firft  generation  are 
called  coiifm-gennnns,  in  the  fecond  generation  fecoinl- 
coiifiiu,  i^c.  It  Iprung  from  the  relations  of  the  fa- 
ther's fide,  they  are  denominated  patenud  coufina  ;  if 
on  the  mother's,  maternal. 

The  wotd  is  ordinarily  derived  from  confaiiguineus  ; 
though  Menage  brings  it  from  congenlut,  or  eongeneiu, 
q.  d.  ex  eoflem  genere. 

In  the  primitive  times,  it  was  allowed  coulin-ger- 
irtai^i.  to  marry,  to  prevent  their  making  alliances  in 
heathen  families  :  but  Theodofins  the  Great  prohi- 
bited It,  under  pain  of  death;  on  pretence  that  they 
were,  in  fome  fort,  brothers  and  fillers  with  regard  to 
each  other. 

Cousin  (John),  a  celebrated  French  painter,  who 
excelled  in  painting  on  ghifs.  His  pifture  of  the  Lall' 
Judgment,  in  the  veilry  of  the  Minims  of  the  Wood  of 
Vincennes,  is  much  admired.  He  was  alfo  a  good 
fculptor.  He  wrote  feveral  works  on  geometry  and 
perfpedlive  ;  and  died  after  the  year  1689. 

COUSU,  in  heraldry,  fignifies  a  piece  of  another 
colour  or  metal  placed  in  the  ordinary,  as  if  it  were 
fewed  on,  as  the  word  imports.  This  is  generally  of 
colour  upon  colour,  or  metal  upon  metal,  contrary  to 
tlie  general  lule  A  heraldry. 

COUTANCES,  a  port  town  of  Normandy,  and 
capital  of  Coutantin,  in  W.  Long.  1.  32.  Lat.49.  10 
This  town,  anciently  called  Conjlantia  or  Coj'edta,  is 
pkafantly  fituated  among  meadows  and  rivulets  about  fix 
miles  dlHant  from  the  fea.  By  the  remains  of  a  Ro- 
man aquedudt,  and  other  ancient  ruins,  it  appears  to 
be  a  place  of  great  antiquity,  it  is  the  fee  of  a  bi- 
ihop.luffragan  of  Rome  ;  and  has  a  magnificenl  cathe- 


dral, c(leeme(J   one   of  the  fined  pieces  of  Gothic  ar-   Couthut 
chitccture  in  Europe.      The  trade  of  this  town  is  very      '""S" 
inconiiderable,   and  the  fortilications  are  quite  demo-    Cowley. 
llfhed.     They  have  feveral  religious  houfes,  and  two '     ■  y      J 
parochial  churches. 

COUTHUILAUGH,  from  the  Saxon  couth, 
"knowing"  and  utlaugh,  "  outlaw;"  he  that  wittingly 
receives  a  man  outlawed,  and  cherifhes  or  conceals  him  : 
for  which  offence  he  was  in  ancient  times  fubjett  to 
the  fame  punilhment  with  the  outlaw  himfelf. 

COVER'!',  in  heraldry,  denotes  fomething  like  a 
piece  of  hani^ing,  or  a  pavlUion  falling  over  tile  top  of 
a  chief  or  other  ordinary,  fo  as  not  to  hide,  but  only 
to  be  a  covering  to  it. 

COW,  in  zoology.     S^e  Bos. 

Coir-Burner.     See  Buprestis. 

Seti-Coiy,   in  zoology.      See  Trichecus. 

Coiv-Itch,  or  Couhage,  in  botany.  See  Couhage, 
and  UoLiCHos. 

Cciy''s-Lip,  in  botany.     See  Primula. 

Coward,  in  heraldry,  a  term  given  to  a  lion 
borne  u'  an  efcutcheon  with  his  tail  doubled,  or  turned 
in  bi ;  -veen  his  legs. 

COWEL  (Dr  John),  a  learned  and  eminent  civi- 
liar,  born  about  the  year  1554.  In  1  607  he  compiled 
a  Law  Didimary,  which  gave  great  olTence  to  Sir 
Edward  Coke  and  the  common  lawyers :  fo  that  they 
firll  accufed  him  to  Jamesl.  as  affertiiig  that  the  king's 
prerogative  was  in  fome  calcs  limited;  and  when  they 
failed  in  that  attempt,  they  complained  of  him  to  the 
houle  of  commons,  as  a  betrayer  of  the  rights  of  the 
people,  by  afftrting  that  the  king  was  not  bound  by 
the  laws  ;  for  which  he  v/as  committed  to  cullody, 
and  his  book  publicly  burnt.  He  alfo  publUhed  In- 
Jlhuiwnes  J^i'ris  jinglicani,  in  the  manner  of  Julliniau's 
Inllituucs  ;  and  died  of  the  operation  for  the  ilone,  in 
1611. 

COWES,  a  town  and  harbour  on  the  north-eall 
coaR  of  the  Ifle  of  Wight,  in  Hampihire.  It  has  no 
market,  but  is  the  bell  place  for  trade  in  the  whole 
ifland;  but  as  it  lies  low,  the  air  is  accounted  unheal- 
thy. It  is  eight  miles  fouth-cafl.  of  Portlmouth.  W. 
Lung.  I.  25.   N.  Lat.  50.  45. 

COWL,  or  CouL,  a  fort  of  monkifh  habit  worn 
by  the  Bernardines  aiid  Beneditlines.  The  word  is 
formed  Irom  ciicullus,  by  confounding  the  two  firll  fyl- 
lables  into  one,  as  being  the  fame  twice  repeated. — 
There  are  two  kinds  of  cowls  :  the  one  white,  very. 
large,  worn  in  ceremony,  and  when  they  aflifl  at  the 
office  ;  the  other  black,  worn  on  ordinary  occafions,  in 
the  llreets,   &c. 

F.  Mabillon  maintains  the  coul  to  be  the  fame  thing 
in  its  origin  with  the  fcapular.  The  author  of  the 
apology  of  the  Emperor  Henry  IV.  dillinguifhcs  two 
forms  of  coyls  :  the  one  a  gown  reaching  to  the  feet, 
having  fleeves,  and  a  capucliin,  ufcd  in  ceremo- 
nies ;  the  other  a  kind  of  hood  to  work  in,  called  al- 
fo ayi-fl^u/ar,  becaule  it  oiJy  covere  the  htad  and  Ihoul- 
ders. 

COWLEY  (Abraham),  an  eminent  poet,  was  born 
at  London  1618.  His  father,  who  was  a  grocer,dying  be- 
fore he  was  born,  his  mother  procured  him  to  be  admit- 
ted a  king's  fcholar  at  Wcllmlnller.  His  firft  inclination 
to  poetry  arofe  on  his  lighting  onSpencer'sFairyQueen, 
when  he  was  but  juft  able  to  read:  and  this  inclination  fo 


cow 


[  502 


Cowley,  far  improved  in  Mm,  that  at  1 3  he  bep;an  to  write  ft- vcid 
^  -v—-  poeiT.s  ;  a  colleAion  of  which  was  pub'.illied  in  161 3, 
when  he  was  but  15.  He  has  been  reprtftnted  as  pof- 
•  fcflr.d  of  fo  bad  a  memory  that  his  teachers  could  never 
bring  him  to  retain  the  ordinary  rules  of  grammar. 
But  the  fatt  was,  as  Dr  Johnfon  notices,  not  that  he 
could  not  Uain  or  retain  the  rules;  but  that  being 
able  to  perform  his  exeicifes  without  them,  he  fpared 
himfelf  the  labour.  In  1636  he  was  elefted  a  fcholar 
of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  lemoved  to  that 
univeifity.  Here  he  went  through  all  his  exercifes 
with  a  remarkable  degree  of  reputation  :  and  at  the 
fame  rime  muft  have  puifued  bis  poetical  turn  with 
great  eagerntfs,  as  it  appears  that  the  greatcil  part'of 
his  poerr.s  were  written  before  he  left  that  univerfity. 
He  had  taken  his  degree  of  Mafter  of  Arts  before 
1643,  when,  in  confequence  of  the  turbulence  of  the 
times,  he,  among  others,  was  ejetted  from  the  col- 
lege :  whereupon,  retiring  to  Oiford,  he  entered  him- 
fe?f  of  St  John's  college:  and  that  veiy  year,  under  the 
denomination  cf  2^fcholar  of  Oxford,  publifhcd  a  fatire 
called  the  Puritan  and  the  Papilt.  It  is  apparent, 
however,  that  he  did  not  remain  very  long  at  Oxford: 
for  his  zeal  to  the  royal  caufe  engaging  him  in  the 
fervice  of  the  king,  who  was  very  fenfible  of  his  abi- 
lities, and  by  whom  he  was  frequently  employed,  he 
attended  his  majcfty  in  many  of  his  journeys  and  ex- 
peditions, and  gained  not  only  that  prince's  efteem, 
but  that  of  many  other  great  perfonages,  and  in  parti- 
cular of  Lord  Falkland,  one  of  the  principal  ftcreta- 
ries  of  (late. 

During  the  heat  of  the  civil  war,  he  was  fettled  in 
the  Earl  of  St  Alban's  family  ;  and  when  the  queen- 
mother  was  obliged  to  retire  into  France,  he  accom- 
panied her  thither,  laboured  llrenuoufly  in  the  affaits 
of  the  royal  family,  undertook  feveral  very  dangerous 
journeys  on  their  account,  and  was  the  principal  in- 
llrument  in  maintaining  an  cpiftolary  correfpondence 
between  the  king  and  queen,  whofe  letters  he  cypher- 
ed and  decyphered  with  his  own  hand.  His  poems 
intitled  The  Miftrefs,  were  publilhed  at  London  in 
1647  ;  and  his  comedy  called  The  Guardian,  after- 
wards altered  and  publifhed  under  the  title  of  Cutter 
of  Coleman-ilreet,  in  1650.  In  1  656  it  was  thought 
proper  by  thofe  on  whom  Mr  Cowley  depended  that 
he  (hould  come  over  into  England,  and,  under  pretence 
of  privacy  and  retirement,  fhould  give  notice  of  the 
pollure  of  affairs  in  this  nation.  Upon  his  return  he 
publifhed  a  new  edition  of  all  his  poems,  confiding  of 
four  parts  ;  viz.  I.  Mifcellanies.  II.  The  MUlrefs,  or 
Several  Copies  of  Lovc-Verfes.  III.  Pindarique  Odes, 
written  in  imitation  of  the  Style  and  manner  of  Pin- 
dar. IV.  Davideis,  a  facred  Poem  of  the  troubles  of 
David,  in  four  books. 

Soon  after  his  arrival,  however,  he  was  feized,  in 
the  fearch  after  another  gentleman  of  confiderable  note 
in  the  king's  party  :  but  although  it  was  through  mif- 
take  that  he  was  taken,  yet  when  the  republicans 
found  all  their  attempts  of  every  kind  to  bring  him 
over  to  their  party  proved  ineffeftual,  he  was  coirrmit- 
ted  to  a  fevere  confinement,  and  it  was  even  with  con- 
fiderable difficulty  that  he  obtained  his  liberty  ;  when, 
venturing  back  to  France,  he  remained  there,  in  his 
former  fltuation,  till  near  the  time  of  the  king's  re- 


J  COW 

tu:  n.  During  his  flay  in  England  he  wrote  his  Two  Cnwlcy, 
Books  of  Plants,  publilhed  firll  in  1662  ;  to  which  he  '~~V~-- 
afterwards  added  four  hooks  more  ;  and  all  fix,  toge- 
ther with  liis  other  Latin  poems,  were  printed  at  Loo- 
don  in  1678.  It  appears  by  Mr  Wood's  FajU  Oxoni- 
enfs,  that  our  poet  was  created  doftor  of  phyfic  at 
Q.>ifor-d,  Dtrcember  2.  1657. 

Soon  attcr  the  reiloraticn  he  became  poffefTed  of  a 
very  competent  cilate,  through  the  favour  of  his  prin- 
cipal friends  the  duke  of  Buckingham  and  the  earl  of 
St  Alban's  ;  and  being  now  upwards  of  40  years  of 
age,  he  took  up  a  refolution  to  pafs  the  remainder  of 
a  life  which  had  been  a  fcenc  of  tempell  and  tumult, 
ill  that  fituation  which  had  ever  been  the  objecl  of  hia 
wifhcs,  a  iludious  retirement.  His  eagernels  to  get 
out  of  the  bullle  of  a  court  and  city  made  him  lefs 
careful  than  he  might  have  been  in  the  choice  of  a 
healthful  habitation  in  the  country  ;  by  which  means 
he  found  his  tolitode  from  the  very  beginning  fuit 
lefs  with  the  conlliiution  of  his  body  than  with  hi« 
mind.  His  firlt  rural  refidence  was  at  Barn  Elms,  a 
pkce  which,  lying  low,  and  being  near  a  large  river, 
was  lubject  to  a  variety  of  breezes  from  land  and  wa- 
ter, and  liable  in  the  wiutcr-time  to  great  inconveni- 
ence from  the  dampneis  of  the  foil.  The  confequence 
of  this  Mr  Cowley  too  loon  experienced,  by  being 
feized  with  a  dangerous  and  lingering  fever.  On  his 
recovery  from  this  he  removed  to  Chcrtfey,  a  fituation 
not  much  more  healthy,  where  he  had  not  been  long 
before  he  was  feized  with  another  coniuming  dlfsale. 
Having  ianguiflied  under  this  for  fome  months,  he  at 
length  got  the  better  of  it,  and  fecmed  pretty  well  re- 
covered from  the  bad  fymptoms  ;  when  one  day  in  the 
heat  of  fummer  1667,  Haying  too  long  in  the  fields  to 
give  fome  directions  to  his  labourers,  he  caught  a  moll 
violent  cold,  which  was  attended  with  a  defiuxion  and 
ftoppage  in  his  bteaft  ;  and  for  want  of  timely  care, 
by  treating  it  as  a  common  cold,  and  rcfufing  advice 
till  it  was  pall  remedy,  he  departed  this  life  on  the 
28th  of  July  in  that  year,  being  the  49th  of  his  age  ; 
and,  on  the  3d  of  Augull  following,  he  was  interred 
in  Weilmindci-abbey,  near  the  afhes  of  Chaucer  and 
his  beloved  Spencer.  He  was  a  man  of  a  very  ami- 
able character,  as  well  as  an  admirable  genius.  King 
Ciiarles  II.  on  the  news  of  his  death,  declared  "  that 
Mr  Cowley  had  not  leit  a  better  man  behind  him  in 
England."  A  monument  was  erefted  to  his  memory 
by  George  Villiers  duke  of  Buckingham  in  1 675. 

Befides  the  works  already  mentioned,  Mr  Cowley 
wrote,  among  other  things,  A  Propofition  for  the 
Advancement  of  Experimental  Philofophy  ;  A  Dif- 
courfe  by  way  of  Vifion  concerning  the  Government 
of  Oliver  Cromwell ;  and  Several  Difcourfcs  by  way 
of  Elfays  in  profe  and  verle.  Mr  Cowley  had  defign- 
ed  alfo  a  Dilcourle  concerning  Style,  and  a  Review 
of  the  Principles  of  the  Primitive  ChrlHian  Churchy 
but  was  prevented  by  death.  A  fpurious  piece,  intitled 
The  lion  Age,  was  publifhed  under  Mr  Cowley's 
name  during  his  abfence  :  and,  in  Mr  Dryden's  MiP- 
cellany  Poems,  we  find  A  Poem  on  the  Civil  War, 
faid  to  be  written  by  our  author,  but  not  extant  in 
any  edition   of  his   works.     An   edition  of  his  works  ' 

was  publilbed  by  Dr  Spratt,  afterwards  bifhop  of  Ro- 
cheiter,  who  alio  prefixed  to  it  an  account  of  the  au- 
thor's 


cow 


[    503    1 


cox 


Cowley.    tJior'5  life.      The   reverend   editor  mentions,  as  very 
■""v  excellent  of  their   kind,   Mr  Cowley's   Letters  to   his 

Friends;  none  of  which,  however,  were  publirtied. 

The  moral  charadler  of  Mr  Cowley  appears,  from  e- 
very  account  of  it,  to  have  been  very  excellent.  "  He 
is  reprefented  by  Dr  Spratt  (fays  Dr  Jr-.hnfon)  as  the 
mod  amiable  of  mankind  ;  and  this  pollhiimous  praife 
may  be  fafcly  credited,  as  it  has  never  been  contradidl- 
ed  by  envy  or  by  fatlion." 

As  a  pott,  his  merits  have  been  varloudy  eftimated. 
Lord  Clarendon  has  faid  he  made  a  flij^ht  above  all 
men  ;  Addifon,*in   his  account   of  the  Enpjliili  poets. 


Cox. 


falfe  and  unclaffical,  even   though  he  had  much  learn-    Cowley, 
ing." 

Dr  Beattie  has  cliarafterifed  CowL-y  in  the  follow- 
ing terms.  "  I  know  not  whether  any  nation  ever 
produced  a  more  fmgular  genius  than  Cowley.  He 
abounds  in  tender  thoughts,  beautiful  lines,  and  em- 
phaiical  cxprclTiuns.  His  wit  is  incxhauftible,  and  his 
learning  cxttnfive  ;  but  his  talle  is  generally  barbarous, 
and  fcems  to  have  been  formed  upon  fuch  models  as 
Donne,  Martial,  and  the  worft  parts  of  Ovid  :  nor 
is  it  poflible  to  read  his  longer  poems  with  pleafure, 
while  we  retain  any  relifh  for  the  fimplicity  of  ancient 

ewer, 


his 


that  he  improved  upon  the  Theban  bard  ;  the  duke  of    compofiiion.      If  this  author's  ideas  had  been  ft 

Buckingham  upon  his  tomb'^Llorje,  that  he  was  the  E'lg- 

lifli   Pindar,  the  Horace,  the  Virgil,   the  delight,  the 

glory,  of  his  times.     And  with  reVped   to  the  harlh- 

nefs  of  his  numbers,  the  eloquent  Spratt  tells  us,  that 

if  his  verfes  in  fome  places  feem  not  as  fuft  and  flowing 

as  one  would  have  them,  it  was  his  choice  and  not  his 

fault. 

"  Such  (fays  Mr  Knox)  is  the  applaufe  lavifhed  on  a 
writer  who  is  now  feldora  read.  That  he  could  ever 
be  efteemcd  as  a  pindaiic  poet,  is  a  curious  literary 
phenomenon.  H=  totally  miftook  his  own  genius  when 
he  thought  of  imitating  Pindar.  He  totally  miflook 
the  genius  of  Pindar,  when  he  thought  his  own  inco- 
herent fentiments  and  numbers  bore  the  lealf  refem- 
blance  to  the  wild  yet  regular  fublimity  of  the  The- 
ban. He  negledled  even  thofe  forms,  the  ftrophe,  an- 
tiftrophe,  and  epode,  which  even  imitative  dulntfscan 
copy.  Sublime  imagery,  vehement  pathos,  poetic 
fire,  which  conftitute  the  effence  of  the  Pindaric  ode, 
are  incompatible  with  witty  conceits,  accurate  anti- 
thefes,  and   vulgar  expreffion.     All   thefe   imply   the 


conceits  would  have  been  lefs  frequent ;  fo  that  in 
one  refpecf  learning  may  be  faid  to  have  hurt  his  ge- 
nius. Yet  it  does  not  appear  that  Greek  and  Latin 
did  him  any  harm  ;  for  his  imitations  of  Anacreon  are 
almolt  the  only  parts  of  him  that  are  now  remeiuber- 
ed  or  read.  His  Davideis,  and  his  tranflations  of 
Pindar,  are  dellitute  of  harmony,  fimplicity,  and  every 
other  clafii'.-al  grace." 

But  the  works  of  this  celebrated  poet  have  been  no 
wheie  fo  amply  criticiLd  as  in  his  Life  by  Dr  John- 
fon.  Alter  a  particular  examination  of  the  different 
pieces,  the  Dodor,  in  taking  a  general  review  of 
Cowley's  poetry,  obferves,  That  "  he  wrote  with  a- 
bundant  fertility,  but  negligent  or  unllcilful  fcleftion  ; 
yvith  much  thought,  but  with  little  imagery  ;  that  he 
is  never  pathetic,  and  rarely  fublime,  but  always  either 
ingenious  or  learned,  eltiier  acute  or  profound."  Of 
his  profe  he  I'peaks  with  great  approbation.  "  No 
author  (lays  he)  ever  kept  his  verfe  and  his  profe  at  a 
gi eater  dillance  from  each  other.  His  thoughts  are 
natural,  and  his  Ityle  has   a  fmooth  and  placid  equabi- 


coolnefs  of  deliberate  compofiiion,  or  the  meannefs  of  hty,  which  has  never  yet  obtained  its  due  commenda' 
a  little  mind  ;  both  of  them  moft  repugnant  to  the  tion.  Nothing  is  far-fought  or  hard-laboured  ;  but  all 
truly  Pindaric  ode,  in  which  all  Is  rapturous  and  noble,  is  eafy  without  fetblenefs,  and  familiar  without  groff- 
Wit  of  any  kind  would  be  i.npn.perlydlfplayed  in  fuch  nefs."  Upon  the  whole,  he  concludes  as  follows: 
compofition  ;  but  to  increafe  thu  abfurdity,  the  wit  of  "  It  may  be  affirmed,  without  any  e.icomlaftic  fer- 
Cowley  is  often  falfe.  That  he  had  a  tafte  for  Latin  vour,  that  he  brought  to  hhi  poetic  labours  a  mind  re- 
poetry,  and  wrote  in  it  with  elegance,  the  well  known  plete  with  learning,  and  that  his  paflages  are  embel- 
epitaph  on  hirafelf,  upon  his  retirement,  and  an  ad-  hlhed  with  all  the  ornaments  which  books  could  fup- 
mirable   imitation  of   Horace,  are- full   proofs.      But     ply  ;  that   he  was   the  firll    who  imparted  to  Englilh 

furely  his   rhetorical  bio^napher   makes  ufe   of  the  fi-  numbers   the  enthuliafm  of  the   greater  ode  and  the 

gure  hyperbole,  when   he  affirms  that  Cowley  has  ex-  gaiety  of  the  lels  ;  tliat   he  was  qualified  for  fprightly 

celled  the   Romans  themfelves.      He   was   inferior  to  failles  and  for  lofty  flights  ;  that  he  was   among  thofe 

many  a   writer  of  lefs  fame  in    the   Aliifr.  yJnglicana.  who   fieed    traiillation   from   fervility,  and,  inftead  of 

liut  ftill  he  had  great  merit  ;  and  I  muft  confefs  I  have  following  his  author  at  a  dillance,  walked  by  his  fide  ; 

read   his   Latin  verfes  with   more   pleafure  than  any  of  and  that  if  he  Lft  verfificatiun  yet  improvable,  he  left 

his  Engllfh  can  afford."   EJfays,  \^\.  li.  p.  36^  —  365.  likevvife  from  time  to  time  fuch  fpecimens  of  excellence 

To  Cowley's  compofitions   in   profe   Mr  Knox  hath  as  enabled  fucceeding  poets  to  improve  it." 
paid  a  very  honourable  tellimony.      He   fays,   that  in  Sj  many  of  Cowley's  piodudtions  bt  ing  now  efleem- 

this  department  he  is  an  elegant,  a  pleafing,  a  judicious  ed  fcarcely  worthy  of  a  perufal,  while  others  of  them 

writer  ;   and    tl.al   it    is  much  to  be  lamented  that  he  are  dilllnguiflied   by  their  beauty,  Dr  Hurd  (the  pre- 

did  not  devote  a  greater  part  of  his  time  to  a  kind  of  fent  bilhop  of  Worceller)   thought  proper   to  make  a 

writlniT  which  appeared  natural  to  him,  and  in  which  feledtion  of  them,  which  he  pubhlhcd  in  1772,  under 

he  excelled.  ^  the   title   of  Seledt  Works   of  Mi  Abraham  Cowley. 

Dr  Jofeph  Warton  obferves,  that  it  is  no  caricature  i'l  two  volumes  ;  with   a  Preface  and   Notes   by  the 

of  Cowley   to   leprefent  him   as   being  poffclfed  of  a  Editor. 

flrained  affeflation  of  ftriving  to  be  witty  upon  all  oc-         COX  (Richard),  a  learned   prelate,  and  principal 

cafiuns.     "   It   is   painful   (addj  this  excellent  critic)  pillar   of  the   Reformation,  was   born  at  Whaddon  ia 

to  cenfure  a  writer  of  fo  amiable  a  mind,  fuch  integri-  Bucklnghamfhire,  of  low  parentage,  in  the  year  1499. 

ty  of  manners,  and  fuch  a  fweetnefs  of  temper.     His  From  Eaton  fchool  he  obtained  a  fcholaiflilp  in  Klng's- 

fancy  was  brilliant,  ftrong,  and  fprightly  ;  but  his  tafte  college  in  Cambridge,  of  whigh  he  became  a  fellow  in 

15 195 


cox 


r  504  1 


C    R     A 


Cot.       I?I0:  he  wa3  thence  invltfd   to  OxfoiJ   hy  Cardinal 
~">~~^  Wi  Key,  and  was  there  nia.U:  one  of  the  juiiioi  canons 
of  Cardinal  Colle:c.      In    rj^y    he   was   incorporated 
bachelor  ;  and  the  following'    year  took,  the  degree  of 
mafter  of  arts  in   the   fame   imiverfity.      In  this  litiia- 
tion  he  became  remarkable   for   his  learning  and  poeti- 
cal abilities ;  but    his   attachment   to  the   opinions  of 
Luther  rendered  him  hateful  to  his  fuperiors,  who  (trip- 
ped him  of  his  prefen   rtit,  and   threw  him  into  priion 
on   a  fufpicion  of  herely.     Being;,  however,  foon    re- 
leafed,  he  was  chofen  mailer  of  Eaton  fchool,  which 
flouriihed   remarkably   under  his  care.      In    1537   he 
commenced  dodor  of  divinity  at  Cambrldae  ;  in  1540 
was  mads  archdeacon  of  Ely  ;  and  the  following  year 
prebendary  of  that  cathedral,  on  its  being  new  found- 
ed by  king  Henry  ^'III       In  1546  he  was  made  dean 
of  Chrift-church,  Oxford.      By   the   recommendation 
of  Archbifhop  Cranmcr  and  Bifhop  Goodiich,  to  the 
latter  of  whom  he  had  been  chaplain,  he  not  only  ob- 
tained the  above  preferments,  but  was  chofen  precep- 
tor to  Prince  Edward  ;  on  whofe  acceffion  to  the  throne 
he  became  a  favcurlte  at  court,  was  fvvorn  of  the  privy 
council,  and   made  king's  almoner.      In  1 547    he  was 
elefted  chancellor  of  Oxford  ;  in  1548  canon  of  Wind- 
for;  and  the  next  year  dean  of  Wetlminiler.     About 
this   time   he  was  appointed  one  of  the  commiffioners 
to  vifit  the  univerfity  of  Oxford  ;   in  which   office  his 
zeal  for  reformation  was  fo  exceffive,  that  he  deftroyed 
a  number  of  curious  and  valuable  books,  for  no  better 
reafon  than   becaufe  they  were  written  by  Roman  Ca- 
tholics.    On  the  accrffion  of  Queen  Mary  he  was  ftrip- 
ped  of  all  his  preferments  and  committed  to  the  Mar- 
{halfea.     He  was,  however,  foon  releafed,  and  imme- 
diately left  th^  kingdom.      Having   refided   fome  time 
«t   Strafburg  with    his   intimate   friend   Pcter^Mrirtyr, 


between  Dr  Trefham  and  Peter  M  irtyr,  I.ond.  I  J49, 
4to.  2.  Liturgy  of  the  Church  of  England  ;  in  com- 
piling, and  afterwards  correfting  which,  he  was  prin- 
cipally concerned.  3.  Tlie  Lord's  Piaycr  in  vcrfe, 
commonly  printed  at  the  end  of  David's  Pfalms  by 
Sternhold  and  Hopkins.  4.  Tianllation  of  the  four 
Gofpels,  the  Aits  of  the  Apoftles,  and  the  Epiftle 
to  the  Romans,  in  the  new  tranflation  of  the  Bible 
in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  5.  Rifol'tti  ns  of 
fome  Qucftions  concerning  the  Sacrament,  in  the  Col- 
letlion  of  Records  at  the  end  of  Burnet's  Hiifory  of 
the  Reformation.  6.  Several  Lettei^  to  the  Q^een 
and  others,  publifhed  in  Strype's  Annals  of  the  Re- 
formation. He  is  alfo  faid  to  have  been  concerned  in 
the  declaration  concerning  the  divine  inftitution  of  bi- 
fliops,   and  to  have  afiillcd  Lilye  in  his  Grammar. 

COXWOLD,  a  town  in  the  North-riding  of  York- 
(Tiire,  14  miles  north  of  York.  W.  Long.  i.  10.  N. 
Lat.  54.  16. 

COYPEL  (Anthony),  an  excellent  French  painter, 
born  at  Paris  in  166 1.  Noel  Coypel,  his  father,  be- 
ing chofen  by  M.  Colbert  to  be  diretlor  of  the  aca- 
demy at  Rome,  he  took  his  fon  with  him  into  Italy, 
where  Anthony  Coypel  formed  himftlf  on  the  works 
of  the  greatell  mailers,  and  on  his  return  to  Frai  ce 
was  made  firft  painter  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans.  That 
prince  employed  him  in  painting  the  grand  gallery  of 
the  royal  palace,  and  allowed  him  a  penfion.  In  I  7 14, 
he  was  direftor  of  the  Academy  of  Painting  and  Sculp- 
ture. In  I  7 15,  he  was  made  firit  painter  to  the  French 
king,  and  was  ennobled  on  account  of  his  merit.  He 
died  in  1722.  M.  Coypel,  his  fon,  alfo  excelled  in  the 
fame  art. 

COZENING  ;  tricking,  or  defrauding. — In  law,  it 
denote.^  an  offence  where  any  thing  is  done  deceitfully,, 


on  the  death  of  Queen  Mary  he  returned  to  England,     whether  belonging  to  contrafts  or   not,  which  cannot 
and,  with  othev  divircs,  was  appointed   to   revife  the     '" "  "'"  "         "■  '  ^         ' 

liturgy.      He  often  preached  before  the  queen  ;   and  in 
1559  was  preferred  to  the  fee  of  Ely,   which  he  con- 


tinued to  enjoy  upwards  of  21  years.     He  wa^,  hov 
ever,  no  favoutite  with  the  queen  :  the  reafon  afllgned 
for  which  was,  his  zealous  oppofition  to  her  retaining 
the  crucifix  and  wax-candles   on  the  altar  of  the  royal 
chapel;  alfo   his   llrenuous  defence  of  the  marriage  of 
the   clergy,    which    her   majefty   always    difapproved. 
He  died  on  the   22d  of  July    1581,  ag-d   81.     He 
was  a  man  of  confiderable  learning,  a    zealous  and  ri- 
gid bulwark   of  the   church   of  England,  and  an  im- 
placable enemy  both    to   Papifts   and  Puritans.      In  a 
letter  to  Archbifhop  Parker,  he  advifes  him  to  proceed 
vigorundy  in  reclaiming  or  punljh'wg  tie  Puritans,   and 
not  to  be  difcouraged  at   the  frown  of  thofe  court-fa- 
vourites   w^o  protected  them;  afTuring   him   that   he" 
mitrht  expeft   the   bkfling  of  God  on  his  pious  labours 
to  free  the  church  from  their  dangerous  attempts,  and 
to  cftablifh  uniformity. — This  zealous  reformer  we  find 
had  not  totally  loft  fight  of  the  popifh  text,  compel  them 
to  come  in  :  but   a   ftroriger   proof  of  his  implacability 
and  felf-importance  appears   in   his  letter  to   the  lord 
treafurer    Burleigh,  in    which   he  warmly  expollihtes 
with  the  cou.rcil  t<:r   interpofing  in  behalf  ot  the  Pu- 
ritans, or  meddling  i;i  affairs  of  the  church,  admonifh- 
inif  them   to    keep   thcii  own  fphere.      Such  language 
from  a  bifhop  would  make  a  modern  privy  council  Hare. 
Hiswi  '  s  are,  I.  Two  Latin  Orations  on  the  Difpute 

N"  93.  *■ 


be  properly  termed  by  any  fpecial  name. 

COZUMEL,  an  ifland  near  the  weftern  coaft  of 
Jncatan,  where  Cortez  landed  and  refrtdied  his  troops 
before  entering  upon  the  conqueft  of  Mexico.  W. 
Long.  89.  O.  and  N.  Lat.  13.  o. 

CRAB,  in  zoology.     See  Cancer. 

CR.iB's  Claiui,  in  the  materia  medica,  are  the  tips 
of  the  claws  of  the  common  crab  broken  off  at  the 
verge  of  the  black  part,  fo  much  of  the  extremity  of 
the  claws  only  being  allowed  to  be  ufed  in  medicine 
as  is  tinged  with  this  colour.  The  blackncfs.  how- 
ever, is  only  fuperficial  ;  they  are  of  a  greyilh  white 
within,  and  when  levigated  furnifli  a  tolerable  white 
powder. 

Crab's  claws  are  of  the  number  of  the  alkaline  ab- 
forbents,  but  they  are  luperior  to  the  generality  of 
them  in  fome  degree,  as  they  are  fotmd  on  a  chemical 
analyfis  to  contain  a  volatile  urinous  fait 

Crab's  Eyes,  in  pharnacy,  are  a  <lrang  concretion 
in  the  head  of  the  cray-filh.  They  are  rounded  on 
one  fide,  and  deprcffed  and  finuated  on  the  other,  con- 
fidcrably  heavy,  moderately  hard,  and  without  fmcll. 
We  have  them  from  Holland,  Mufcovy,  Poland,  Den- 
mark,  Sweden,  and  many  other  places. 

Crab's  eyes  are  muuli  ufed  both  in  the  fhop-medt- 
cines  and  extemporaneous  prefjriptions,  being  account- 
ed not  only  abforbent  and  drying,  but  alfo  difcuffive 
and  diuretic. 

CRAB-Lice,   a  ttoablefonie  kind  of  vermin,  which 

ftick 


C    R     A 


t     S'^S     ] 


C     R     A 


Hick  fo  fad  with  their  claws  to  the  (\<<.n  as  to  render 
it  difficiih  to  diflodge  them.  Being  viewed  %«ith  a 
"  glafa  thev  nearly  rcfemble  the  fmall  crab-tifii  ;  whence 
thty  obtained  their  popular  n;ime.  They  arc  alfo  called 
phiStula,  tnorpiones,  pclolte,  and  piffiJat,;  :  they  ufually 
infill  the  armpits  znA  pn,-lenAa.  They  will  be  quickly 
dtlboyed,  and  drop  off  dead,  upon  tlie  apijlicatioii  of 
a  rag  wet  with  the  milk  of  fiiblimate.  This  fort  of 
vermin  is  reckoned  to  prognofticate  fpeedy  mortality 
to  thofe  whom  they  abandon  without  being  removed 
by  medicine.     ., 

Cr.\b,  a  fort  of  wooden  pillar,  wliofe  lower  end, 
being  let  down  throu^^i  a  fliip's  decks,  rclfs  upon  a 
fockit  like  the  capttern  ;  and  having  in  its  iippei  end 
three  or  four  holes,  at  different  heights,  through  the 
middle  of  it,  one  above  another,  into  which  long  bars 
are  thruft,  whofe  length  is  nearly  equ?.l  to  the  brtadth 
of  the  deck.  It  is  employed  to  wind  in  the  cable,  or 
to  purchafe  any  other  weighty  matter  which  requires 
a  great  mechanical  power.  'I'his  diifers  from  a  cap- 
Rern,  as  not  being  furnifhed  with  a  di-um-hcjd,  and 
by  having  the  bars  to  go  entirely  through  it,  reaching 
from  one  fide  of  the  deck  to  the  other ;  whereas  thofe 
of  the  capflern,  which  are  fuperior  in  number,  reach 
oiily  about  eiglit  inches  or  a  foot  into  the  drum-head, 
according  to  the  fize  thereof.  This  machine  is  repre- 
fented  in  Plate  CXXVII.  n"  4.  See  alfo  Capstirn. 
Cr.1'<-7'iI'U's,  a  name  in  Jamaica  for  a  kind  of  ulcer 
on  the  files  of  the  feet,  with  hard  callous  lips,  fohaid 
that  it  is  difficult  to  cut  them.  The  ui'gf.  cicml.fort. 
is  their  cure. 

CRACATOA,  the  moft  foutherly  of  a  clufler  of 
iilands  lying  in  the  entrance  of  the  flraits  of  Sunda  in 
the  Eaft  Indies.  Its  whole  circumference  does  nwt 
f  \ceed  nine  miles  ;  and  off  its  north-callern  extremity 
is  a  fmall  ifland  forming  a  road,  in  which  Captain 
Cook  anchored  when  vifiting  this  i'iand  on  his  Lift  voy- 
age. On  the  fouthern  part  of  the  fmall  ifland  is  a 
reef  of  rocks,  within  which  is  a  tolerable  flicker  a- 
gainfl  all  northerly  v.inds,  there  being  27  fathoms  wa- 
ter in  the  mid  cliannel,  and  1 8  near  the  reef.  Be- 
tween the  two  itlands  thtre  is  a  narrow  paffage  for 
boats.  The  fliore  that  conftitutcs  the  wcfl  fide  of  the 
road  runs  in  a  north-wcflerly  diredfion,  having  a  bank 
of  coral  limning  into  the  fea  for  a  little  way,  fo  that 
it  is  difficidt  for  boats  to  land  except  at  t'^e  time  of 
high  water  ;  but  the  anchoring  ground  is  very  good 
and  free  from  rocks.  In  the  inland  parts  the  ground 
is  elevated,  riling  on  all  fides  gi-adualiy  from  tlie  fea, 
and  is  entirely  covered  with  wood,  excepting  a  ftw 
fpots  wh.ich  are  cleared  by  the  inhxbitai  ts  f-r  fowing 
rice.  The  climate  is  reckoned  vcr}-  healthy  in  com- 
parlfon  with  the  neighbouring  countries,  but  is  very 
thinly  inhabited.  There  are  abundance  of  tuitle  on 
thr  coral  reefs;  hut  other  lefrclhments  are  fcarce,  and 
fold  at  an  exorbitant  price.  Water  is  not  plentiful : 
Captain  Cook  was  obliged  to  fupply  himfclf  fiom  a 
imall  fpring  oppofite  to  the  fouthern  extremity  of  the 
fmall  ifland  above  mentioned.  To  the  fou;-  ward  is  a 
liot  fprirg,  whofe  waters  are  ufed  as  a  bath  by  the  in- 
habitants. The  road  where  the  Refohition  anchored 
lies  in  S.  Lat.  S.  6.  and  by  obfervation,  in  105.  36. 
E.  Long,  by  the  timekeeper  in  IC4.  4H.  The  varia- 
tion of  the  compafs  one  degree  W.  On  the  full  and 
Vou.  V.  Paitll. 


change  days  it  is  h'gh  water  at  ftven  o'clock  in  the  Crackotr. 
morning,  and  the  tide  rifes  three  feet  two  inches  per-  —^r—^ 
pendicular. 

CRACKOW,  a  city  of  Poland,  fituated  in  a  pala- 
tinate of  the  fame  name,  E.  Long.  20.  16.  N.  Lat. 
^o,  H.  It  was  formerly  the  capital  of  Poland,  where 
the  kings  were  elcrted  and  crowned,  and  was  once  al- 
moil  the  centre  of  the  Pnlilli  dominions,  but  is  now  a 
frontier  town  ;  a  proof  how  much  the  pcivcr  of  tills 
republic  has  been  contracted. 

Ciackow  llauds  in  an  extenfive  plain,  watered  by 
the  Villula,  which  is  broad  but  flialLw  :  the  city  and 
its  fiiburbs  occupy  a  vail  track  <  f  ground,  but  are  fo 
badly  peopled,  that  they  fcarcely  contain  1 6,000  in- 
habitants. The  great  fquare  in  the  middle  of  the 
town  is  very  fpacious,  and  has  feveral  well-built houfes, 
once  richly  furnifhed  and  well  inhabited,  but  mofl  of 
them  now  either  untenanted  or  in  a  fldr<r  of  melan- 
choly decay.  Many  of  the  rtteets  are  broad  anrlhand- 
forae  ;  hut  almoil  every  building  bears  the  moft  llri- 
king  marks  of  ruined  grandeur  :  the  churches  alone 
feem  to  have  preferved  their  original  fplendor.  The 
devaflation  of  this  unfortunate  town  was  begun  by  the 
Swedes  at  the  commencement  of  the  piefent  century, 
when  it  was  befieged  and  taken  by  Charles  XII.  but 
the  mifchiefs  it  futfered  from  that  ravager  of  the  north 
were  far  Icfs  deftruftive  than  ihofe  it  experienced  du- 
ring the  late  dreadful  commotions,  when  it  und^'rwent 
repeated  fieges,  and  was  alternately  in  pofTtfTion  of 
the  Ruffians  and  Confederates.  The  etfeits  of  can- 
non, grape,  and  mufket  flaot,  are  flill  difceinible  on 
the  walls  and  houfes.  In  a  word,  Crackow  exhibits 
the  remains  of  ancient  magnificence,  and  looks  like  a 
great  capital  in  ruin? :  from  the  number  of  fallen  and 
falling  huu''e3  one  would  imagine  it  had  lately  been 
fackcd,  and  that  the  enemy  had  left  it  only  yellerday. 
The  iown  is  fiirrounded  with  high  walls  of  brick, 
flrengthencd  by  round  and  fquare  towers  of  whimfical 
fhapes,  in  the  ancient  ftyle  of  fortification  :  thefe  walls 
were  built  by  Venceflaus  king  of  Bohemia  during  the 
fhort  period  in  which  he  reigned  over  Poland. 

The  univerfity  of  Crackow  was  formerly,  and  not 
unjuitly,  called  the  mother  of  Polilh  literature,  as  it 
principally  fupplied  the  other  feminaries  witli  profef- 
(ors  and  men  of  learning  ;  but  its  hillre  has  been  great- 
ly obfcured  by  the  removal  of  the  royal  refidence  to 
Warfaw,  and  flill  more  by  the  late  inteftine  convul- 
frons.  In  this  city  the  art  of  printing  was  firll  intro- 
duced into  Poland  by  Haller  ;  and  one  of  the  carlieU 
books  was  the  Conftitutionti  and  Statutes  compiled  by 
Cafimir  the  Oreat,  and  afterwards  augmented  by  his 
fucceffors.  The  charafters  are  G  )thic,  the  f  ime  which 
were  univerfally  ufed  at  the  invention  of  printing  ;  the 
gre^t  initial  letters  are  wanting,  which  lliows  that  they 
were  probably  painted  and  aflcrwaids  worn  away.  The 
year  in  which  this  compilation  was  printed  is  not  po(i- 
tively  known  ;  but  its  publication  was  certainly  ante- 
rior to  1496,  as  it  does  not  contain  the  ftatutes  paffed 
by  John  Albert  in  that  year.  The  moll  Hourllhlng 
period  of  the  univerfity  was  under  Sigilinond  Auguf- 
tus  in  the  1 6th  century,  when  ftvcial  of  the  Gernian 
ref)rmers  fled  from  the  pcrfecutions  of  the  emperor 
Charles  V.  and  found  an  afylurn  in  this  city.  They 
gave  to  the  world  feveral  vcrfions  of  the  facred  wii- 
S  ■'S  tings, 


C    R    A  [50 

Craclcaw.  tings,  and  other  theological  publications,  which  difFu- 
'  <r~~-  fed  the  reformed  religion  over  great  part  of  Paland. 
The  protefti'H  whicli  Sif^ifniond  Aiiguftus  afforded 
to  men  of  learning  of  all  denominations,  and  the  uni- 
verfal  toleration  which  he  extended  to  every  fe£l  of 
Chril'tians,  created  a  fufpicion  that  he  was  fecretly  in- 
clined to  the  new  church  ;  and  it  was  even  reported 
that  he  intended  to  renounce  the  catholic  faith,  and 
pviblicly  profefs  the  reformed  religion. 

Towards  the  fouthern  part  of  the  town,  near  the 
Viftula,  rifes  a  filial!  eminence  or  rock,  upon  the  top 
of  which  is  built  ili?  palace,  furrounded  with  brick  walls 
and  old  towers,  which  form  a  kind  of  citadel  to  the 
town.  This  palace  owes  its  ori^;in  to  Ladiflaus  Japhcl- 
lon  ;  but  little  of  the  ancient  ftrufture  now  appears, 
as  the  greateft  part  was  demclilhed  by  Charles  XII.  in 
1702,  when  he  entered  this  town  in  triumph  after  the 
battle  of  Cliffow.  It  has  been  fince  repaired  :  the  re- 
mains of  the  old  palace  confift  of  a  few  apartments, 
which  aie  left  in  their  ancient  Hate  as  they  exilled  in 
the  laft  century.  This  palace  was  formerly  the  refi- 
dence  of  the  kings  of  Poland,  who,  from  the  time  of 
Ladiflaus  Lokctec,  have  been  crowned  at  Crackow. 
The  Poliili  and  German  hillorians  differ  concerning;  the 
time  when  the  title  of  king  was  firft  claimed  by  the  fovc- 
reigns  of  this  country;  but  the  nioft  probable  account  is, 
according  to  MrCoxe,  that  in  i  295  Premiflaus  affurned 
the  regal title,and  was  inaugurated  atGnefna  by  thearch- 
bifliop  of  that  diocefe.  He  was  fucceeded  by  Ladiflaus 
Loketec,  who  offending  the  Poles  by  his  capricious  and 
tyrannical  conduA,  was  depofed  before  he  was  crown- 
ed ;  and  Venceflaus  king  of  Bohemia,  who  had  mar- 
ried Richfa  daughter  of  Premiflaus,  being  elefted  in 
his  ftead,  was  in  1300  confecrated  at  Gnefna.  La- 
diflaus, after  flying  from  his  country  and  undergoing 
a  feries  of  calamitous  adventures,  was  at  length  brought 
to  a  fenfe  of  his  mifconduft.  Having  regained  the 
afteftion  of  his  fubje£ls,  he  was  reftored,.  in  the  life- 
time of  Venccllaus,  to  part  of  his  dominions  ;  and  he 
recovered  them  all  upon  the  demife  of  that  monarch 
in  the  year  1305  :  he  governed,  however,  for  fome 
years  without  the  title  of  king  ;  but  at  length  in  I  320 
was  crowned  at  Crackow,  to  which  place  he  transfer- 
red the  ceremony  of  the  coronation  ;  and  afterwards 
cnacled,  that  for  the  future  his  fuccefibrs  fliould  be 
inaugurated  in  the  cathedral  of  this  city. 

Since  that  period  all  the  fovercigns  have  been  confecra- 
ted at  Crackow,  excepting  the  preftnt  king.  Previous 
to  his  eleftion  a  decree  wasiflTued  by  the  diet  of  convo- 
cation, that  the  coronation  fhould  be  folemnizcd  for 
this  turn  at  Warfaw,  without  prejudice  in  future  to 
the  ancient  right  of  Crackow  ;  a  provifo  calculated  to 
fatlsfy  the  populace,  but  which  will  not  probably  pre- 
vent any  future  fovereign  from  being  crowned  at  War- 
faw, now  become  the  capital  of  Poland  and  the  refi- 
Jence  of  its  kings.  The  diadem  and  other  regalia 
ufed  at  the  coronation  are  ft;ill  kept  in  the  palace  of 
Crackow,  under  fo  many  keys,  and  with  fuch  care, 
that  it  was  impofiible  to  obtain  a  figlit  of  them. 
^  Adjoining  to   the   palace  ftands  the  cathedral,  alio 

within  the  wallj  of  the  citadel.  Here  all  the  fove- 
reigns,  from  the  time  of  Ladiflaus  Loketec,  have  been 
interred,  a  few  only  excepted,  viz.  Louis  and  Ladif- 
laus 111.  who  were  kings  of  Hungary  as  well  as  of 
Poland,  and  whofe  bodies  were  depoiited  in  Hungary ; 


6     1  C    R     A 

Alexander,  who  died  and  was  buried  at  Vilna  ;  Henry 
of  Valois,  interred  in  France  ;  and  the  late  monarch 
Auguftus  II L  The  fepulchres  of  the  kings  of  Po- 
land are  not  diftinguiflied  by  any  peculiar  magnificence ; 
their  figures  are  carved  in  marble  of  no  extraordinary 
workmanfiiip,  and  fome  are  without  infcriptions. 

The  bifliop  of  Crackow  is  the  firft  in  the  kingdom, 
duke  of  Savcria,  and  very  often  a  cardinal.  His  re- 
venues are  larger  than  thofe  of  his  metropolitan  th.: 
archbifliop  of  Gnefna,  and  are  computed  to  amount 
to  40,000  dollars  pir  annum. 

CRADLE,  a  well  known  machine  in  which  infants 
are  rocked  to  fleep. 

It  denotes  alfo  that  part  of  the  (lock  of  a  crofs-bow 
where  the  bullet  is  put. 

Cradle,  in  furgery,  a  cafe  in  which  a  bioken  leg 
is  laid  after  being  fct. 

Cradle,  in  engraving,  is  the  name  of  an  inllrument 
ufed  in  fcraping  mezzotintos  and  preparing  the  plate. 
It  is  formed  of  Heel,  refcmbling  a  chiiTet  with  one  flo- 
ping  fide,  upon  which  are  cut  hollow  lines  very  near 
each  other,  and  at  equal  dillances.  The  acting  part 
of  this  tool  is  made  circular,  and  the  corners  are  round- 
ed. After  being  properly  tempered,  it  mull  be  fhar- 
pened  on  the  whetllone.  There  are  various  iizes  of 
this  inftrument. 

Cradle,  among  fliipwrights,  a  frame  placed  under 
the  bottom  of  a  fliip,  in  order  to  conduCl  her  fmoothly 
and  fleadily  into  the  water  when  flie  is  going  to  be 
launched  ;  at  which  time  it  fupporls  her  weight  while 
flie  Aides  down  the  defcent  or  floping  paflage  called  ihe 
ways,  which  are  for  this  purpofe  daubed  with  foap  and 
tallow.      See  Plate  CL. 

CRAFT,  a  general  name  for  all  forts  of  veffels 
employed  to  load  or  difcharge  merchant  fliips,  or 
to  carry  alonglide  or  return  the  llores  of  men  of  war. 
Such  are  lighters,  hoys,  barges,  prames,  &c.  See  thofe 
articles. 

CRAKE,  or  Corn-crake.     See  Rallus. 

CRAIL,  or  Careil,  a  parharaent  town  of  Scotland, 
fituated  on  the  fea-coall  of  the  county  of  Fife,  about 
feven  miles  fouth-eall  of  St  Andrew's.  W.  Long.  2.  20. 
and  N.  Lat.  56.  17. 

CRAMBE,  Sea-cabbage,  Sea-beach  Kale,  or 
Sea-colewort,  in  botany  :  A  genus  of  the  filiquofa 
order,  belonging  to  the  tetradynamia  clafs  of  plants  ; 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  39th  or- 
der, SiHquoJ)e.  The  four  longer  filaments  are  forked 
at  top,  with  an  anthera  only  on  one  point  of  each  ; 
the  fruit  a  dry,  globofe,  and  deciduous  berry.  There 
arc  three  fpecies,  all  of  them  herbaceous  efculents  vvich 
perennial  roots,  producing  annually  large  leaves  re- 
fembllng  thofe  of  cabbage  ipreading  on  the  ground, 
with  llrong  flower-ftalks  and  yellowifh  flowers.  Only 
one  of  the  fpecics  is  a  native  of  Britain.  It  grows  wild 
on  the  fliorcs  of  many  of  the  maritime  counties  of  Eng- 
land, but  is  cultivated  in  many  gardens  as  a  choice 
cfculent ;  and  the  young  robuft  fhoots  of  its  leaves  and 
flowtr-ftalks,  as  they  iflue  forth  from  the  earth  after 
the  manner  of  afparagus  flioots,  are  then  in  the  great- 
eft  perfection  for  ufe.  At  this  period  they  appear 
white  as  if  blanched,  and  when  boiled  eat  exceeding 
fweet  and  tender.  Its  principal  feafon  for  ufe  is  m 
April  and  May.  This  plant  may  alfp  be  employed  in 
the  pleafure-ground  as  a  flowering  perennial^  for  the 

ftalkt 


C    R    A 


[    507    ] 


C    R    A 


Crameria  ftalks  divide  Into  fine  branchy  heads  of  flowers.     It  is 

_    I',         prepn^ated  by  feeds  fown  in  any  common  litc'it  earth 
Cranium    F     '    ==  I     ■  1         .1     '   1  . 

,  in  auuimn  or  Ipnng,   where  the  plants  are  to  remain, 

whitli,  when  two  years  old,  will  produce  fhoots  fit  for 
ufe,  will  multiply  exceedingly  by  the  roots,  and  con- 
tinue for  many  years. 

CRAMERIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order,  belonging  to  the  tetrandria  clafs  of  plants. 
There  is  no  calyx;  the  corolla  has  four  petals;  the  fu- 
perior  neftary  is  trifid,  the  inferior  biphyllous  ;  the 
fruit  Is  a  dry,  monofpcrmous,  and  echinatcd  berry. 

CRAMOND,  Over  and  Nether,  two  villages 
about  four  miles  weft  of  Edinburgh  ;  of  which  only 
the  laft  deferves  notice,  as  having  been  once  a  famous 
naval  flation  of  the  Romans.  It  is  fituated  at  the  in- 
flux of  the  river  Almon  into  the  Forth.  Three  Ro- 
man roads  me^t  at  this  place,  which  was  called  by  them 
Alaierva,  and  whither  they  brought  their  grain  for  the 
fupport  of  their  troops.  The  vill;\ge  contains  about 
300  inhabitants.  -Here  are  the  remains  of  a  bath  and 
fudatory;  and  many  altars,medals,  Sic.  have  been  dug  up. 
CRAMP,  a  kind  of  numbnefs  or  convulfion,  occa- 
fioned  by  a  thick  vlfcid  vapour  entering  tlie  membranes 
of  the  mufcles,  which  contracts  or  extends  the  neck, 
arms,  legs,  &c.  with  a  violent  but  tranfitory  pain  ; 
being  ufually  driven  off  with  frittion  alone.  The  word 
comes  from  the  German  krampfe,  which  fignifies  the 
fame 

A  glafs  of  tar  water,  to  be  drank  night  and  morn- 
ing, has  been  recommended  ;  and  a  rod  of  brimftonc, 
when  held  in  the  hand,  has  given  prefcnt  rehef. 
CRAMP-F'iJb,  or  Torpedo.  See  Raja. 
Cr.imp-  Iron,  or  Cramps,  a  piece  of  iron  bent  at  each 
end,  which  fcrves  to  fafttn  together  pieces  of  wood. 
Hones,  or  other  things. 

CRAMPONEE,  in  heraldiy,  an  epithet  given  to  a 
crofs  which  has  at  each  end  a  cramp  or  fquare  piece 
coming  from  it  ;  that  from  the  arm  in  chief  towards 
the  finiller  angle,  that  from  the  arm  on  that  fide  down- 
wards, that  from  the  arm  in  bafc  towards  the  dexter 
fide,  and  that  from  the  dexter  arm  upwards. 

CRANAGE,  the  liberty  of  ufing  a  crane  at  a  wharf, 
and  alfo  the  money  paid  for  drawing  up  wares  out  of 
a  fliip,  &c.  with  a  crane. 

CRANE,  in  ornithology.     See  Ardea. 
Crane,  in  mechanics,   a  machine  ufed   In  building 
for  ralfing  large  ftones  and  other  weights.     See  Me- 
chanics. 

Crane's  Bill,  In  botany.     See  Geranium. 
Crank-FIj,  In  zoology,  a  fpecies  of  Tipula. 
CR.ANGANOR,  a  Dutch  faftory  on  the  Malabar 
coail  in  the  Eaft  Indies,  feated  in  E.  Long.  75.  5.  N. 
Lat.  10.  o.      Sec  Cochin. 

CRANIOLARIA,  in  botany  :  A  genus  of  the  an- 
glofpermia  order,  belonging  to  the  didynamia  clafs  of 
plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  tlie 
40th  order,  Perfonatie.  The  calyx  of  the  flower  is 
double,  the  under  one  tetraphyllous,  the  upper  one  a 
inonophyllous  fpatlia  ;  the  tube  of  the  coro'la  very  long; 
the  capfulc  alinoft  the  fame  with  that  of  the  martytiia  ; 
which  fee.  There  are  two  fpecies,  both  natives  of  hot 
climates,  and  neither  of  them  pofiefTed  of  any  remark- 
able property. 

CRANIUM,  in  anatomy,  an  affemblage  of  feveral 
bones  which  cover  and  enclofe  the  brain  and  cerebel- 


lum,   popularly   called   the  JiuU.       See   An-atomv,    Crank 
n'  II.     The  word  comes  from  the  Greek  -,a»-.*,  of        II 
Kfav®-,  galea,   "helmet;"  becaufe  it  fervcs  to  defend .  C"niner._ 
the  brain  like   a  head-piece.      Pezion,  again,  derives         ' 
xfa...«  from  the  Celtic  crcn,  becaufe  of  Its  roundnefs. 

CRANK,  a  contrivance  in  machines.  In  manner  of 
an  elbow,  only  of  a  fquare  form,  projcfting  out  from 
an  axis  or  fpindle  ;  and  ferving,  by  its  rotation,  to 
ralfe  and  fall  the  piftons  of  engines  for  ralfing  water 
or  the  hke. 

Crank,  In  fea-language.  A  fhip  is  faid  to  be  cranl- 
/ichd,  when,  for  want  of  a  fuflicient  quantity  of  ballaft 
or  cargo,  flie  cannot  bear  her  falls,  or  can  bear  but 
fmall  fail,  for  feai  of  overfetting.  —  She  is  faid  to  be  cranu 
by  the  ground,  when  her  floor  is  fo  narrow  that  Ihe  can- 
not be  brought  on  ground  without  danger. 

Crank  is  alfo  an  iron  brace  which  fupports  the  Ian- 
thorns  un  the  poop-quarters,  &;c. 

CRANMER   (Tliomas),  a  celebrated  archblfhop, 
reformer,   .ind  martyr,   was  the  fon  of  Thomas  Cran- 
mer,  Efq;  of  Aflatton  in  Nottinghamlhire,  where  our 
author  was  born  in  1489.     At  the  age  of  14,  he  was 
admitted  a  ftudent  of  Jefus'  College,  Cambridge,  of 
which  he  afterwards  became  fellow  ;  but  marrying  the 
relation  of  an  inn-keeper's  wife,  he  lofl;  his  fellowfhip 
and  quitted  the  college.     On  the  death   of  his  wite 
he  was  re-admitted  fellow  of  Jefus'  College.      In  1525 
he  took  the  degree  of  dodor  of  divinity,  and  was  made 
theological  lecturer  and  examiner.      The  plague  being 
at  Cambridge,  he  retired  to  the  houfe  of  a  relation  at 
Waltham  Abbey,  where,  meeting  with  Fox  the  king's 
almoner,  and  Gardiner  the  fecretary,  he  gave  his  opi- 
nion  concerning  King   Henry's  marriage  with  Catha- 
rine  much  to   the   fatisfadion  of  his   majelly.     This 
opinion  was,  that  Inilead  of  difputing  about  the  vali- 
dity of  the    King's   marriage   with   Catharine,    they 
(hould    reduce    the    matter    to    this    fimple    qucftion, 
"  Whether  a  man  may  marry  his  brother's  wife  or  no?" 
"When  the  King  was  told  of  it,  he  faid,  "  This  fellow 
has  got  the  right  fow  by  the  ear."     He  then  fent  for 
him  to  court,  made  him  one  of  his  chaplains,  and  or- 
dered  him   to   write   in   vindication   of  the  divorce  in 
agitation.      Tills  book  having  quieted  the  tender  con- 
fcience  of  the    King,  he  was  dcfirous  that  all  Europe 
fhould  be  convinced  of  the  illegality  of  his  marriage 
with    Queen   Catharine  ;     and   for  that   purpofe    fent 
Cranmer  to   France,   Italy,  and  Germany,  to  difpute 
the  matter  with  tlie  divines  of  thofe  countries.    At  Nu- 
remberg Cranmer  married  a  fecond  wife,  lieing returned 
to  England,  in  March  IJ33  he  was  confecrated  arch-        '' 
bifliop  of  Canterbury  ;  in  May  following  he  pronoun- 
ced the   fentence  of  divorce  between   the   King   and 
Queen  ;   and  foon  after  man  led  the  amorous  monarch 
to  Ann  Boleyn.   Being  now  at  the  head  of  the  church, 
he  exerted  himfelf  in  the  bufinefs  of  the  Reformation. 
The  Bible  was  trandatcd  into  Englilh,  and  monafttrles 
dilFolved  principally  by  his  means. 

In  1536  the  royal  confcience  again  required  the  af- 
fillance  of  our  archblihop:  in  this  year  he  divorced  the 
King  from  Ann  Boleyn.  In  1537  he  vifited  his  diocefe, 
gnd  endeavoured  to  aboliih  the  fupcrftitlous  obfervatlon 
of  holidays  In  1539  he  and  foiac  of  the  blfliops  fell 
under  the  King's  dilpleafure,  becaufe  they  could  not  be 
brought  to  give  their  confcnt  in  parliament  that  the 
monalleries  fhuuld  be  fupprcfed  fur  the  King's  fole 
3  S  2  -  ufc. 


C    R    A  [5c 

Cranmer.  ule.  He  alfo  flrenuoufly  oppofed  the  aA  for  the  fix 
^"•~V~-  articles  ia  the  houft  of  lordi,  fpealciiig  three  days 
acainft  it  ;  and  upon  the  pafling  of  that  ilatute  fcnt 
away  his  wife  into  Germany.  In  1540  he  was  one  of 
the  commiflloners  for  infpertinLj  into  matters  of  reH- 
gion,  and  explaining  fome  of  its  chitf  dodrines.  The 
refult  of  their  comraiflion  was  the  book  intitled  A  ne- 
ceflarv  Erudition  of  any  Chiiftian  Man.  After  Lord 
Cromwell's  death  (in  whofe  behalf  he  had  wriiten  to 
the  King),  lie  retired  and  hvtd  in  great  privacy,  med- 
dling not  at  all  with  Hate  aflairs.  In  1541  he  gave  orders, 
purfuant  to  tlie  King's  directions,  for  taking  away  fu- 
perftitious  fhrines  ;  and,  exchanging  Bilhoplbourn  for 
Bckefbourn,  united  the  latlir  to  his  diocefe.  In  1542 
he  procured  the  "  Aft  for  the  advancement  of  true  re- 
ligion and  the  abolifhment  (if  the  contrary,"  which 
moderated  the  rigour  of  the  lix  articles.  But  the  year 
following,  foine  enemies  preferring  accufations  again !l 
him,  he  had  like  to  have  been  ruined,  had  not  the 
King  interpofcd  in  his  behalf.  His  majeily  continued 
afterwards  to  protect  him  from  his  enemies  ;  and  at  his 
'  death  appointed  him  one  of  the  executors  of  his  will, 
and  one  of  the  regents  of  the  kingdom.  In  IJ46  he 
crowned  young  Edward,  during  whofe  (hort  reign  he 
promoted  the  reformation  to  the  utmr>ll  of  his  power ; 
Bnd  was  particularly  inftruniental  in  compofing,  correc- 
ting, and  eftablifliing  the  Hturgy  by  aft  of  parliament. 
He  had  alfo  a  Ihare  in  compiling  tlie  thirty-nine  articles 
of  religion. 

In  1 553  he  oppofed  the  new  fettlement  of  the  crown 
upon  Lady  Jane  Gray,  and  would  no  way  be  concern- 
in  that  affair  (though  at  laft,  through  many  importu- 
nities, he  was  prevailed  upon  to  fet  his  hand  to  it)  ; 
neither  would  he  join  in  any  of  Dudley's  ambitious 
projefts.  Upon  Qiieen  Mary's  acceffion  to  the  throne, 
he  was  committed  to  the  Tower  ;  partly  for  letting 
his  hand  to  the  inflrument  of  Lady  Jane's  fucceflion, 
and  partly  for  the  public  offer  he  had  made  a  little  be- 
fore of  julllfying  openly  the  religious  proceedings  of 
the  late  king.  Some  of  his  friends,  forefeeing  the  Itorm 
that  was  likely  to  fall  upon  him,  advifed  him  to  fly, 
but  he  abfolutely  refufed.  In  the  enfuing  parliament, 
on  November  the  3d,  he  was  attainted,  and  at  Guild- 
hall found  guilty  of  high  treaion  ;  whereupon  the  fruits 
of  his  archbifliopric  were  fequellercd.  In  April  1554,  he 
and  Ridley  and  I^atimer  were  removed  to  Oxford,  in 
crder  for  a  public  difputation  with  the  Papifts  ;  which 
was  accordingly  held  there  towards  the  middle  of  the 
month,  with  great  noife,  triumph,  and  impudent  confi- 
dence on  the  Papifts  fide,  and  with  as  much  gravity, 
learning,  modefty,  and  convincing  fufficiency  on  the 
f)de  of  the  Proteiiant  bifhops.  The  20th  of  April,  tvifo 
days  after  the  end  of  thefe  difputations,  Cranmer  and 
the  two  others  were  brought  before  the  commifDoners, 
and  afl<ed,  Whether  they  would  lubfcribe  (to  Popery)  ? 
which  they  unanimoufly  refufing,  were  condemned  as 
heretics.  From  this  fentence  the  Archbifhop  appealed 
to  the  juft  judgment  of  the  Almighty  ;  and  wrote  to 
the  council,  giving  them  an  account  of  the  difputation, 
and  dcfiring  the  Queen's  pardon  for  his  treafon,  which 
it  feems  was  not  yet  remitted.  By  the  convocation 
which  met  this  year,  his  Defence  of  the  true  and  ca- 
thohc  Doftrine  of  the  Sacrament  of  the  Body  and 
Blood  of  our  Saviour  Chrift  was  ordered  to  be  burnt. 
Some  of  his  friends  petitioned  the  Queen  in  his  behalf; 


5c8     ] 


C    R    A 


putting  her  in  mind  how  he  had  once  preferved  her  in  Cranmer. 
her  father's  time  by  his  earneft  interccllions  with  him  —— v~~-^ 
for  her,  fo  that  flie  had  reafon  to  believe  he  loved  her,  -'■ 

and  woidd  fpeak  the  truth  to  her  moie  than  all  the 
reft  of  the  clergy.  All  endeavours  in  his  behalf,  how- 
ever, were  ineff"eftual  ;  and  the  Archbilhop  being  de- 
graded and  moft  ignominioudy  treated,  was  at  lall  ilat- 
teied  and  terrified  into  an  inlincerc  recantation  and  re-  ^ 

nunciation  of  the  Piottftarit  faith.      But  this  triumjili  jH 

was  not  fufficient  to  gratify  the  pious  vengeance  of  tiie  ^n 

Romifh  Mary.  On  the  24th  of  Feb.  1556,  a  writ 
was  figned  for  the  burning  of  Cianmer;  and  on  tiie 
24th  March,  which  «as  the  fatal  day,  he  was  brought 
to  St  Mary's  church,  Cambridge,  and  placed  on  a 
kind  of  ftage  over  againit  the  pulpit,  where  Dr  Cole 
provoft  of  Eton  was  a|)pointed  lo  preach  a  fermon  on 
the  occafion.  While  Cole  was  haranguing,  the  un- 
fortunate Cranmer  expreffed  great  inward  confullon  ; 
often  hfting  up  his  hands  and  eyes  to  heaven,  and  fre- 
quently poLiring  out  floods  of  tears.  At  the  end  of 
the  fermon,  when  Cole  defired  him  to  make  an  open 
profeifion  of  his  failh,  as  he  had  promifed  him  he 
would,  he  firil  prayed  in  th;  moft  fervent  manner  f 
then  made  an  exhortation  to  the  people  prefent,  not  to 
fet  their  minds  upon  the  wor'.d,  to  obey  the  King  and 
Queen,  to  love  each  otI\er,  and  to  be  charitable.  Af- 
ter this  he  made  a  confeffion  of  his  faith,  beginning 
with  the  creed,  and  concluding  with  thefe  words : 
"  And  I  believe  every  word  and  fentence  taught  by 
our  Saviour  Jefus  Chrift,  his  apoftles,  and  prophets,  in 
the  Old  and  New  Teliament. — And  now  (added  he) 
I  come  to  the  great  thing  that  fo  much  tvoubleth  my 
confcience  more  than  any  thing  I  ever  did  or  faid  in 
my  whole  life  ;  and  that  is  the  fetting  abroad  a  wri- 
ting contrary  to  the  truth,  which  I  here  now  renounce 
as  things  written  with  my  hand  contrary  to  the  truth 
which  1  thought  in  my  heart ;  and  wiitten  for  fear  of 
death,  and  to  fave  my  life  if  it  might  be  :  that  is,  all 
fuch  bills  and  papers  which  I  have  written  or  figned 
with  my  hand  fince  my  degradation,  wherein  I  have 
written  many  things  untuie.  And  forafmuch  as  my 
hand  offended,  writing  contrary  to  my  heart,  my  hand 
fliall  firft  be  puniflied  ;  for,  may  I  come  lo  the  fire,  it 
ihall  be  firll  burned.  As  for  the  pope,  I  rcfule  him,  as 
Chrill's  enemy  and  antichrift,  with  all  his  falfe  doftrine. 
And  as  for  the  facrament,  I  believe  as  I  have  taught 
in  my  book  agalilil  the  Bilhop  of  Wincheller."  Thun- 
deilli'uck  as  it  were  with  this  unexpefted  declaration, 
the  enraged  Popiih  crowd  admonifhed  him  not  to  dif- 
femble.  "  Ah!  (replied  he  with  tears),  fince  I  lived 
hitherto,  I  have  been  a  hater  of  falfehood  and  a  lover 
of  fimpliclty,  and-never  before  this  time  have  I  difiem- 
bled."  'Whereupon  they  pulled  him  off  the  ftage  with 
the  utmoft  fury,  and  hunied  him  to  the  place  of  his 
martyrdom  over  againft  Baliol  College  ;  where  he  put 
of!  his  clothes  in  hafte,  and  ftanding  in  his  fhirt,  and 
without  fhoes,  was  faftened  with  a  chain  to  the  ftake. 
Some  preffing  him  to  agree  to  his  former  recantation, 
he  anfwered,  fliswing  his  hand,  "  This  is  the  hand 
that  wrote  it,  and  therefore  it  (hall  firil  fuifer  punilh- 
ment."  Fire  being  apphed  to  him,  he  luetched  out 
his  right  hand  into  the  flame,  and  held  it  there  unmo- 
ved (except  that  once  wifh  it  he  wiped  his  face)  till  it 
was  confumed  ;  cn-ing  with  a  loud  voice,  •'  This  hand 
hath  offended  ;"  and  often  repeating-,  "  This  unwor- 
thy 


C    R     A 


C    509    ] 


C    R     A 


Iranmcr.  tliy  n'^ht  hand. 


At  laft,  the  fire  getting  up,  he  foon 
expired,  never  llirring  or  crying  out  all  the  while  ; 
only  keeping  his  eyes  fixed  to  heaven,  and  repeating 
more  than  once,  "  Lord  Jefus  receive  my  fpirit."  Such 
was  the  end  of  the  renown^id  Thomas  Cranmer,  in  the 
67th  year  of  his  age. 

It  was  noticed  above,  that  after  the  pafling  of  the  aft 
for  the  fix  articles,  Archbifliop  Cianmcr  fcnt  his  wife 
into  Gcnnany.  But  (he  afterwards  returned  again  to 
En;rland  ;  and  Mr  Strype  informs  us,  that  "  in  tlie 
time  of  King  Edward,  when  tlie  marriage  of  the  clergy 
was  sllowed,  he  broutrht  her  f  >rth,  and  lived  openly 
with  her."  Mr  Gilpin  fays,  '■  he  left  behind  him  a 
widow  and  children  ;  but  as  he  always  kept  his  family 
in  obfcurity  fir  prudential  reafons,  we  know  little 
about  them.  They  had  been  kindly  provicK'd  for  by 
Henrv  VIII  ;  who,  without  any  fnlicitation  from  the 
Primate  himfelf,  gave  him  a  cor.fiderablc  grant  from 
the  Abbey  of  Walbeck  in  NoUinghamfliire,  which  his 
family  enjoyed  after  his  deceafe.  King  Edward  made 
fome  addition  to  his  private  fortime  ;  and  his  heirs 
were  rettored  in  blood  by  an  aft  of  parliament  in  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth." 

Archbilhop  Cranmer  wrote  a  great  number  of  books: 
many  of  them  he  published  hrnifelf ;  and  many  of 
them  ftill  remain  in  MSS.  viz.  two  folio  vohunes  in 
the  king's  library,  feveral  letters  in  the  Cotton  collec- 
t:on,  &c. 

Mr  Gilpin  remarks.  That  "  the  charafter  of  the 
Archbidiophathbeen  equally  the  fubjeft  of  exaggerated 
praife  and  of  undeferved  cenlure.  The  moft  indefen- 
fible  parts  of  the  Archbifiiop's  charafter  are  the  readi- 
nefs  with  which  he  fometimes  concurred  in  the  unjufti- 
flable  proceedings  of  Henry  VIII.  and  the  inftances 
wherein  he  fliowed  himfelf  to  be  aftuated  by  intolerant 
principles. 

"  He  firft  recommended  himfelf  to  Henry  by  the  zeal 
which  he  dilplayed  in  promoting  the  King's  divorce 
from  Queen  Catharine.  As  to  this,  it  may  be  allow- 
ed, thatlDr  Cranmer  might  think  the  marriage  wrong: 
but  though  it  poQibly  might  be  a  point  of  confcience 
w  ith  the  King,  it  could  however  be  none  with  him  ; 
and  there  was  raanifcftly  a  difference  betwetn  advifing 
not  to  do  a  thing,  and  advifing  to  undo  it  when  al- 
ready done,  at  leall  in  a  matter  of  fo  difp\itable  a  na- 
ture. On  the  other  hand,  to  repudiate  a  woman  with 
whom  the  King  iwul  cohabited  near  20  years  as  his 
wife,  and  to  illegitimate  a  daughter,  bred  up  in  the 
higheft  expeftatioiis,  and  now  marriageable,  were  afts 
of  fuch  cruelty,  that  it  feems  to  indicate  a  want  of 
feeling  to  be  in  any  degree  acceffary  to  them.  To 
tliis  may  be  added,  that  the  notoriety  of  the  King's 
paffiou  for  Ann  Boleyn,  which  all  men  believed  to  be, 
if  not  the  firft  mover,  at  leail  the  principal  fpring  of 
his  pretended  fcruples,  threw  a  very  indelicate  impu- 
tation on  all  who  had  any  concern  in  the  affair.  No 
fe.Ious  churchman,  one  would  imagine,  could  be  fond 
of  the  idea  of  aduiiniftering  to  the  King's  paffions.  It 
is  with  concern,  therefore,  that  we  fee  a  man  of  Dr 
Cranmcr's  integrity  and  iimplicity  of  manners  afting 
fo  much  out  of  character  as  to  compound  an  affair  of 
this  kiiid,  if  not  with  his  confcience,  at  leail  with  all 
delicacy  of  fentimcnt ;  and  to  parade  through  Eunjpe, 
in  the  quality  of  an  ambaffudor,  defending  every  where 
the  Kingsjiisaj  intsntions.      But  thtt  caufe   (continues 


Mr  Gilpin)  animated  him.     With  the  illegality  of  thf   Cranme!'. 

King's  marriage,  he  endeavoured  virtually  to  eilablifh  '~~~^, 

the  infufiiciency  of  the  pope's  difpcnfition  ;  and  the 
latter  was  an  argument  fo  near  his  heart,  that  it  feems 
to  have  added  merit  to  the  former.  We  cannot  indeed 
account  for  his  embarking  fo  zealoufly  in  this  bufinefs 
without  fuppofing  his  princii)al  motive  was  to  free  his 
country  from  the  tyranny  of  Rome,  to  which  this  Hep 
very  evidently  led.  So  defirable  an  end  would  in  fome 
degree,  he  might  imagine,  fanftify  the  means." 

Of  two  of  the  inllanccs  of  perfecutlon  in  which 
Archbilhop  Cranmer  was  concerned,  Mr  Gilpin  gives 
the  following  account.  "  Joan  Boclier  and  George 
Paris  were  accufcd,  though  at  different  times  ;  one  for 
denying  the  humanity  of  Chriff,  the  other  for  denying 
his  divinity.  They  were  both  tried  and  condemned 
to  the  Hake  ;  and  the  Archbilhop  not  only  confcnted 
to  thefe  acts  of  blood,  but  even  perfuaded  the  averfion 
of  the  young  King  into  a  compliance.  '  Your  majefty 
mull  diftinguifh  (faid  he,  informing  his  royal  pupil's 
confcience)  between  common  opinions  and  fuch  as  are 
the  effcntial  articles  of  faith.  Thefe  latter  we  mull  on 
no  accoiuit  fuffer  to  be  oppofcd."  Mr  Gilpin  jultly  ob- 
ferves,  that  "  notliing  even  plaufible  can  be  fuggelled 
in  defence  of  the  Archbldiop  on  this  occafion,  except 
only  that  the  fpirit  of  Popery  was  not  yet  wholly  re- 
preffed."  Thefe  inftances  of  injullice  and  barbarity 
were  indeed  totally  indefenfible,  and  a  great  difgrace 
to  Cranmer  and  to  all  who  were  concerned  in  them. 
It  does  not  appear  that  he  endeavoured  to  promote  the 
death  of  Lambert ;  but,  as  Mr  Gilpin  obferves,  it 
were  to  be  wifhed  he  had  rid  his  hands  of  the  difpu- 
tation  likewife.  The  public  difputation,  in  which 
Cranmer  bore  fome  part,  proved  the  means  ef  bring- 
ing Lambert  to  the  Hake. 

One  of  the  mblt  honourable  tranfaftions  of  Arch- 
bilhop Cranmer's  life,  was  the  firm  Hand  that  he  made 
againll  the  aft  of  the  fix  articles.  This  aft  was  fo 
ftrongly  fupported  by  the  King,  that  even  the  Pro- 
tellants  in  parliament  made  little  oppofition  to  it.  But 
Cranmer  oppofed  it  with  great  zeal  and  fteadinefs. 
"  The  good  Archbifliop  (fays  Mr  Gilpin)  never  ap- 
peared in  a  more  truly  Chrillian  light  than  on  this  oc- 
cafion. In  the  midll  of  fo  general  a  defection  (for 
there  were  numbers  in  the  houfe  who  had  hitherto 
ihown  great  forwatdnefs  in  reformation )'he  alone  made 
a  ftand.  Three  days  he  maintained  his  ground,  and 
baffled  the  arguments  of  all  oppofers.  But  argument 
was  not  tireir  weapon,  and  the  Archbilhop  law  him- 
felf obliged  to  fink  under  fuperior  power.  Henry  or- 
dered him  to  leave  the  houfe.  The  Primate  rcfufed  : 
'  It  was  God's  bufinefs  (he  faid),  and  not  man's.' 
And  when  he  could  do  no  more,  he  boldly  entered  his 
proteft.  Such  an  inllance  of  fortitude  is  fufficient  to 
wipe  off  many  of  thole  courtly  llains  which  have  falltn- 
ed  on  his  memory." 

His  behaviour  in  the  cafe  of  the  Duke  of  Norfolk 
was  alio  intitled  to  great  commendation.  "  The  laft 
aft  of  this  reign  (fays  Mr  GDpin)  was  an  aft  of  blood, 
and  gave  the  Archbilhop  a  noble  opportunity  of  fluiw- 
ing  how  well  he  had  learned  that  great  Cluiitiau  leffon 
of  forgiving  an  enemy.  Almoft  without  the  fhadow 
of  jullice,  Henry  had  given  direftions  to  have  the  Duke 
of  Norfolk  attainted  by  an  aft  of  parliament.  The 
King's  mandate  flood  in   lieu  of  guilt,  and  the  bill 

palled 


C    R    A  [51 

•tanmfr.  palTed  the  houfe  with  great  eafe.  No  man,  except  the 
^  v*"""  Bifhop  of  Winchefter,  had  been  fo  great  an  enemy  to 
the  Archbilhop  as  the  Duke  of  Norfolk.  He  had  al- 
ways thwarted  the  Primate's  meafures,  and  oitener  than 
once  had  praClifed  againft  his  life.  How  many  would 
have  feen  with  fecret  pleafure  the  workings  of  Provi- 
dence againll  fo  rancorous  an  enemy  ;  fatislied  in  ha- 
ving themfelves  no  hand  in  his  unjuR  fate  !  But  the 
Archbifhop  faw  the  affair  in  another  light :  he  faw  it 
•with  horror  ;  and  although  the  King  had  in  a  parti- 
cular manner  interefled  himfelf  in  this  bufinefs,  the 
Primate  oppofed  the  bill  with  all  his  might  ;  and  when 
his  oppofition  was  vain,  he  left  the  houfe  with  indig- 
nation, and  retired  to  Croydon." 

He  was  indeed  remarkable  for  the  placability  of  his 
temper,  and  for  (howing  kindnefs  to  thofe  by  whom 
he  had  been  greatly  injured.  Hence  it  is  mentioned 
in  Shakefpeare's  Henry  VIH.  as  a  common  faying 
concerning  him: 

"  Di)  my  Lorci  of  Ganterlniry 

But  ore  fii'ewd  ti.rn,  and  he's  yoT  fritnd  f^ir  ever.*' 

Archbilhop  Cranmer  was  a  great  friend  and  patron 
of  learned  foreigners  who  had  been  perfecuted  for  their 
attachment  to  the  principles  of  the  Reformation.  Mr 
Gilpin  fays,  "  the  fuffering  profeflbrs  of  Proteftantifm, 
who  were  fcattered  in  great  numbers  about  the  vari- 
ous countries  of  Europe,  were  always  fure  of  an  afy- 
!•■  with  him.  His  palace  at  I^ambeth  might  be  call- 
ed a  feminary  of  learned  men  ;  the  greater  part  of 
whom  perfecution  had  driven  from  home.  Here, 
among  other  celebrated  reformers.  Martyr,  Bucer, 
Alefs,  Phage,  found  fanftuary.  Martyr,  Bucer,  and 
^age,  were  liberally  penfioned  by  the  Archbilhop  till 
he  could  otherwife  provide  for  them.  It  was  his  wifii 
to  fix  them  in  the  two  univerfities,  where  he  hoped 
their  great  knowledge  and  fpiric  of  inquiry  would  fur- 
ward  his  dcfigns  of  reftoring  learning  ;  and  he  at  length 
obtained  profefTorfhips  for  them  all.  Bucer  and  Phage 
were  fettled  at  Cambridge  ;  where  they  only  Ihowed 
what  might  have  been  expefted  from  them,  both  dy- 
ing withi'i  a  few  months  after  their  arrival.  But  at 
Oxford  Martyr  afted  a  very  confpicuous  part,  and  con- 
tributed to  introduce  among  the  iludents  there  a  very 
liberal  mode  of  thinking. 

Of  the  learning  of  Archbhhop  Cranmer,  Mr  Gilpin 
remarks,  that  "  it  was  chiefly  confined  to  his  profef- 
fion.  He  had  applied  himfelf  in  Cambridge  to  the 
ftudy  of  the  Greek  and  Hebrew  languages  ;  which, 
though  eftcemed  at  that  time  as  the  mark  of  herefy, 
appeared  to  him  the  only  fources  of  attaining  a  critical 
knowledge  of  the  Scriptures.  He  had  fo  accurately 
ftudied  canon  law,  that  he  was  efteemed  the  bell  ca- 
Bonift  in  England  ;  and  his  reading  in  theology  was 
fo  extenlive,  and  his  coUeftions  from  the  Fathers  fo 
very  voluminous,  that  there  were  few  points  in  which 
he  was  not  accurately  informed,  and  in  which  he  could 
not  ^i%'e  the  opinions  of  the  feveral  ages  of  the  church 
from  the  times  of  the  Apoltles.  He  was  a  fenlihle 
writer,,  rather  nervous  than  elegant.  His  writings 
■were  entirely  confined  to  the  great  controverfy  which 
then  fubfillcd,  and  contain  the  whole  fum  of  the  theo- 
logical learning  of  thofe  times.  His  library  was  filled 
■with  a  very  noble  collection  of  books,  and  was  open  to 
all  men  of  letters. 

Mr  Gilpin,  after  remarking  that  Archbifliop  Cran- 


] 


C     R     A 


mer  preached  often  wherever  he  vifited,  fays,  "  In  hiB  Cranmer, 
fermons  to  the  people  he  was  very  plain  ajij  inftruc-  »  '•* 
tive  ;  infilling  chiefly  on  the  elfentials  of  Chrillianity. 
The  fubjefts  of  his  fermons,  for  the  moll  part,  were 
from  whence  falvation  is  to  be  fetched,  and  on  whom 
the  confidence  of  man  ought  to  lean.  They  infilled 
nuicii  on  doilrines  of  faitli  and  works  ;  and  taught 
what  tlie  fruits  of  faith  were,  and  what  place  was  to  be 
given  to  works  ;  they  ini.rufted  men  in  the  duties 
they  owed  their  neighbour,  and  that  every  one  was 
our  neighbour  to  whom  we  might  any  way  do  good  ; 
they  declared  what  men  ought  to  think  of  themfelves 
after  they  had  done  all ;  and,  laftly,  what  promifes 
Chrift  hath  made,  and  who  they  are  to  whom  he  will 
make  them  good.  Thus  he  brought  in  the  true  preach- 
ing of  the  Gofpel,  altogether  diiferent  from  the  ordi- 
nary way  of  preaching  in  thofe  days  ;  which  was  to 
treat  concerning  faints,  to  tell  legendary  tales  e>f  them, 
and  to  report  miracles  wrought  for  the  confirmation 
of  tranfubllantiation  and  other  Popifli  corruptions. 
And  iueh  a  heat  of  conviction  accompanied  his  fer- 
mons, that  the  people  departed  from  them  with  minds 
poircffed  of  a  great  hatred  of  vice,  and  burning  with  a 
defire  of  virtue." 

He  was  a  great  economift  of  his  time.  Mr  Gilpin 
fays,  "  he  rofe  commonly  at  five  o'clock,  and  conti- 
nued in  his  ftudy  till  nine.  Thefe  early  hours,  he 
would  fay,  were  the  only  houis  he  could  call  his  own. 
After  breakfaft  he  generally  fpent  the  remainder  of  the 
morning  either  in  public  or  private  bufinefs.  His 
chapel-hour  was  eleven,  and  his  dinner-hour  twelve. 
After  dinner  he  fpent  an  hour  either  in  converfation 
with  his  friends,  in  playing  at  chefs,  or  in,  what  he 
liked  better,  overlooking  a  chefs-board.  He  then  re- 
tired again  to  his  lludy  till  his  chapel-bell  rang  at  five. 
After  prayers,  he  generally  walked  till  fix,  which  was 
in  thofe  times  the  hour  of  fupper.  His  evening  meal 
was  fparing.  Often  he  ate  nothing  ;  and  when  that 
was  the  cafe,  it  was  his  ufual  cuftom,  as  he  fat  down 
to  table,  to  draw  on  a  pair  of  gloves  ;  which  was  as 
much  as  to  fay,  that  his  hands  had  nothing  to  do. 
After  fupper,  he  fpent  an  hour  in  walking  and  another 
in  his  iludy,  retiring  to  his  bedchamber  about  nine. 
This  was  his  uiual  m  -de  of  living  when  he  was  moil 
vacant,  but  very  often  his  afternoons  as  well  as  his 
mornings  were  engaged  in  bufinefs.  He  generally, 
however,  contrived,  if  pollible,  even  in  the  bu.ieft  day, 
todevottfome  proportion  of  his  time  to  his  books  befides 
the  morning.  And  Mr  F'X  tells  us,  he  always  accu- 
ftomed  himfelf  to  read  and  write  in  a  (landing  poilure; 
ellceming  conllant  fitting  very  pernicious  to  a  iludious 
man." 

Mr  Gilpin  alfo  obferves,  "  that  he  was  a  very  ami- 
able mailer  In  his  family,  and  admirably  prelerved  the 
diflicult  medium  between  indulgence  and  rellraint.  He 
h:id,  according  to  the  cullom  of  the  times,  a  very  nu- 
merous retinue,  among  whom  the  moll  exatl  order 
■was  obferved.  Every  week  the  ileward  of  his  houfe- 
hold  helil  a  kind  of  court  in  the  great  hall  of  his  pa- 
lace ;  in  which  all  family  affairs  were  fettled,  fervants 
wages  were  paid,  complaints  were  heard,  and  faults 
examined.  Dellnqueiits  were  publicly  rebuked,  and 
after  the  third  admonition  diicharged.  His  hofpl- 
tality  and  charities  were  great  and  noble;  equal  to 
his  ftation,  greater  often  than  his  abihties.  A  plenti- 
ful 


C    R     A  L     ji 

Crsnny  ful  table  was  among  the  virtues  of  tliofe  days.  His 
II  was  always  bountifully  covered.  In  an  upper  room  was 
IIL  fprtad  Iiis  own,  where  he  feldoni  wanted  company  of 
the  firll  dilliiiftion.  Here  a  gTeat  many  learned  fo- 
reigners were  daily  entertained,  and  partook  of  his 
bounty.  In  his  great  hall  a  long  table  was  plentifully 
covered  every  day  for  guc(ls  and  ftiangcrs  of  a  lowtr 
rank  ;  at  the  upper  end  of  which  were  three  fmaller 
tables,  dcfigned  for  his  own  oiTiccrs  and  inferior  gen- 
tlemen. Among  other  inllances  of  the  Archbifhop's 
charity,  we  have  one  recorded  which  was  truly  noble. 
After  the  deftruiStion  of  monuileries,  and  before  hofpi- 
tals  were  erefted,  the  nation  faw  no  fpecies  of  greater 
mifery  than  that  of  wounded  and  difbanded  foldiers.  For 
the  ufe  of  fuch  miferable  objefts  as  were  landed  on  the 
fouthern  coafts  of  the  iiland,  the  Archbifliop  fitted  up 
his  manor-houfc  of  Beckefburn  in  Kent.  He  formed 
it  indeed  into  a  complete  hofpital ;  appointing  a  phy- 
fician,  a  furgeon,  nurfes,  and  every  thing  proper,  as 
well  for  food  as  phyfic.  Nor  did  his  charity  flop  here. 
Each  man,  on  his  ncovery,  was  furnilhed  with  money 
to  carry  him  home,  in  proportion  to  the  dillance  of  his 
abode." 

To  conclude  with  the  charafter  given  by  Mr  Hume : 
"  Archbilhop  Cranmcr  was  undoubtedly  a  man  of 
merit ;  poffeired  of  learning  and  capacity  ;  and  adorn- 
ed with  candour,  fincerity,  and  benelicence,  and  all 
thofe  virtues  which  were  fitted  to  render  him  ufeful 
and  amiable  in  fociety.  His  moral  qualities  procured 
him  univerfal  refpeft ;  and  the  courage  of  his  martyr- 
dom, though  he  fell  (hort  of  the  rigid  inflexibility  ob- 
ferved  in  many,  made  him  the  hero  of  the  Proteilant 
party." 

CRANNY,  in  glafs-making,  an  iron  inftrument 
wherewith  the  necks  of  glaffes  are  formed. 

CRANTARA,  among  the  ancient  Britons,  was  a 
fort  of  military  fignal  ufed  for  colleifling  the  dillant 
and  fcattered  warriors  to  the  ftandard  of  their  chief. 
A  prince  having  immediate  occafion  for  the  affillance 
of  his  followers  to  repel  fome  fudden  invafion  or  en- 
gage in  fome  expedition,  b^  fides  ftriking  the  fliicld 
and  founding  the  horn  to  give  warning  to  thofe  who 
were  within  hearing,  he  fent  the  craiitara,  or  a  ilick 
burnt  at  the  end  and  dipped  in  the  blood  of  a  goat, 
by  a  fwift  meflenger,  to  the  neareft  liamlet,  where  he 
delivered  it  without  faying  one  word  but  the  name  of 
the  place  of  rendezvous.  This  crantara,  which  was 
well  underftood  to  denounce  deftruclion  by  fire  and 
fword  to  all  who  did  not  obey  this  fummons,  was  car- 
ried with  great  rapidity  from  village  to  village  ;  and 
the  prince  in  a  little  time  found  himfelf  furrounded  by 
all  his  warriors  ready  to  obey  his  commands. 

GRANTOR,  a  Greek  philofopher  and  poet,  was 
born  at  Solos  in  Cilicia.  He  left  his  native  country 
where  he  was  admired  ;  went  to  Athens,  and  there 
ftudied  with  Polemon  under  Xcnociates.  He  was 
confidered  as  one  of  the  chief  fupporters  of  the  Pla- 
tonic feft ;  and  was  the  firft  who  wrote  commentaries 
upon  Plato's  works.  He  flourilhed  270  years  before 
Chrill. 

CRAPE,  a  light  tranfparent  ftufT,  in  manner  of 
gauze  ;  made  of  raw  filk  gummed  and  twilled  on  the 
mill;  woven  without  crofling,  and  much  ufed  in  mourn- 
ing- 
Crapes  are  either  craped,  /.  e.  crifped,  or  fmooth; 
the   firft  double,  exprefling  a  clufer  mourning  j    the 


no 
trr 


1     ]  C    R    A 

latter  fingle,  ufed  for  that  lefs  deep.     Note,  White  is    Craptila, 
refcrved  for  young  people,  or  thofe  devoted  to  virgi-   dafliaw. 
nity.     The  filk  deftined  for  the  firil  is   more   twifled         ' 
than  that  for  the  fecond  ;  it  being  the  greater  or  lefs 
degree  of  twifting,  efpecially  of  the  warp,  which  pro- 
duces the  crifping  given  it  when  taken  out  of  the  loom, 
fleeped  in  clear  water,  and  rubbed  with  a  piece  of  wax 
for  the  pupofe. 

Crapes  are  all  dyed  raw.  The  invention  of  this 
ftuff  came  originally  from  Bologna  :  but  the  chief  ma- 
nufacture of  it  is  faid  to  be  at  Lyons. 

Hiftory  tells  us,  that  St  Bathilda,  queen  of  France, 
made  fine  crape  [crepa)  of  gold  and  fuver,  to  lay  over 
the  body  of  St  Eloy.  The  Bollandifts  own  they  can- 
ot  find  what  this  crepa  was.  Binet  fays,  it  was  a 
ame  to  cover  the  body  of  the  faint :  but  others,  with 
reafon,  take  it  to  be  a  traniparent  ftuff,  through  which 
the  body  might  be  feen  ;  and  that  this  was  the  crepa 
whence  our  word  crape  was  formed. 

CRAPULA,  among  phyficians;  a  term  for  Sur- 
feit. 

CRASHAW    (Richard),  who  was  in  his  lifetime 
honoured  with  tlie  friendfhip  of  Cowley,  and  fince  his 
death   by  the   praife  of  Mr  Pope,   who   condefcended 
both  to  read  his  poems  and  to  borrow  from  them;  was 
the  fon  of  William  Cralhaw,  an   eminent  divine,  and 
educated  at  the  Charter-houfe  near  London.      He  was 
then  fent  to  Pembroke  hall  in  Cambridge,  and  was  af- 
terwards  of   Peter-houfe,    where    he  was    fellow ;    in 
both  which  colleges  he  was  diltinguilhed  for  his  Latin 
and  Englilli  poetry.     Afterwards  he  was  ejefted  from 
his  fellowfliip,  together  with  many  others,  for  denying 
the  covenant  in  the  time  of  the   rebellion  ;    and  he 
changed  his  rehgion,  being  by  catholic  artifices  per- 
verted to  the  church  of  Rome  ;  not  converted,  but  ra- 
ther, as  Pope  fays,   oulwitted.      He  went  to  Paris,   in 
hopes  of  recommending   himfelf  to  fome   preferment 
there  ;  but  being  a  mere  fcholar,  was  incapable  of  ex- 
ecuting the  new  plan  he  had  formed.     There  he  fell 
into  great  diftrefs,  which  Cowley  the  poet  hearing  of 
in  1646,  very  kindly  fought  him  out,  gave  him  all  the 
afhrtance  he  could,  and  at  laft  got  him  recommended 
to   Henrietta  Maria  queen  of  England,  then  refiding 
at  Paris.      Obtaining  from  her  letters  of  recommenda- 
tion, he  travelled  into   Italy  ;  and   by  virtue  of  thofe 
letters  became  fecretary  to  a  cardinal  at  Rome,  and 
at  laft  one  of  the  canons  or  chaplains  of  the  rich  church 
of  our  lady  at  Loietto,  fome  miles  diftance  from  thence, 
where  he  died  and  was   buried  about  1650.      Before 
he   left   England  he   wrote   certain    poems,    entitled, 
Sleps  to  the    Temple  ;   "  becaufe  (fiys  Wood)    he  led 
his  life  in   the  temple  of  God,   in  St  Mary's  church 
near  to  his  college.     There,  as  we  learn  from  the  pre- 
face to  thefe   poems,  he  lodged  under  1  ertulliau's  roof 
of  angels.     There  he  made  his  neft  more  gladly  than  ■ 
David's  fv/allow  near  the  houfe  of  God  ;  where,  like 
a  primitive  faint,  he  offered  more  prayers  in  the   night 
than  others  ufually  offer  in  the  day.      There  he  penned 
the  faid  poems  called  Steps  to  the  Temple  fir  happy  Souls 
to  cl'imb  to  Ihat'cn  by.     To   the  faid   Steps  are  joined 
other  poems  called  The  DJights  of  the  Mnfes,  wherein 
are  feveral   Latin   poems  ;  which,   though  of  a  mere 
human  mixture,   yet  they  are  fweet  as  they  are  inno- 
cent.     He  hath  alfo  written  Carmem  Deo  nojlro,  biing 
hymns  and  other  facred  poems,  addreffed  to  the  eoun- 
tef;i  of  Denbigh.     He  was  excellent  in  five  languages 

befidcs 


Crafis 

II 


C    R    A  [     512 

bcfiiles  liis  mother  tongue,  namely,  Hebrew,  Greek, 
Latin,  Italian,  and  Spanilb. 
,      CRASIS  (from  '^fttyvi^i,  to  mix),  the  temper  of  the 
blood  peculiar  to  every  conllitution. 

Crasis,  in  grammar,  is  a  figure  whereby  two  diffe- 
rent letters  are  either  contracted  into  one  lung  letter 
or  a  dii)hthong.  Such,  e.  g.  is  'P'f  for  i?''?;  •nin  for 
A\>i6i3,  Sic.  Tv^^v;  for  ru;j!of,  ice.  vvhere  ■  and  ■' are  con- 
tracled  into  1;  '  and  «  into  »;  and  ■  and  0  into  ». 

CRASS  AMENTUM,  in  phyfic,  the  thick  red  or 
fibuAis  part  of  tlie  blood,  otlierwife  called  cruor,  in 
cuntradllHuftion  to  the  ferum  or  aqueous  part. 

CRASSULA,    LESSER  ORPlNf:,    Or  LI7E-EVER  :    A 

genus  of  the  pentagynia  order,  belonging  to  the  pen- 
taudria  clafs  of  plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method 
ranking  under  the  I  3th  order,  Sucatlenla.  The  calyx 
is  pentaphyllous;  the  petals  five,  with  five  netlariferous 
fcales  at  the  bafe  of  the  gcrnien,  and  five  capfules. 
Their  are  1  7  fpecies,  all  of  them  natives  of  warm  cli- 
mates. Several  of  them  arc  cultivated  in  this  country, 
but  require  the  affiftance  of  artiiicial  heat  for  their 
prefervation.  They  rife  from  one  foot  to  fix  or  eight 
in  height,  and  are  ornamented  with  oblong,  thick,  fuc- 
culent  leaves,  and  funncl-fiiapcd  pcntapetalous  flowers 
of  a  fcarlet,  white,  or  gieeuiih  colour.  They  are  pro- 
pagated by  off-fets  or  cuttings ;  and  mull  be  potted 
in  light  fandy  compoft,  retained  in  a  funny  part  of  the 
green-houfe  all  winter,  and  veiy  fparirgly  watered. 
In  fummcr  they  may  be  placed  in  the  full  air  in  a 
fiieltered  place,  and  in  dry  weather  watered  twice  a- 
week. 

CRASSUS  (M.  LIcinius),    a  celebrated   Roman, 
furnamed  Rich  on  account  of  his  opulence.      At  firlt 
he  was  very  circunifcribcd  In  his  circumllances,  but  by 
educating  (laves  and   felling  them  at  a  high  price  he 
foun  enriched  iiimfelf.     The  cruelties  of  Cinna  obliged 
him  to  leave  Rome,  and  he  retired  to  Spain,  wliere  he 
remained    concealed    for   8   months.      After    Cinna's 
death  he  paffed  into  Africa,  and  thence  to  Italy,  where 
he  ferved  Sylla  and  ingratiated  himfelf  in  his  favour. 
When  the  Gladiators  with  Spartacus  at  their  head  had 
fpread  an   univtrfal  alarm  In    Italy  and  defeated  fome 
of  ihe  Roman  generals,  CralTus  was  fent  againft  them. 
A   battle  was   fought,  in   which  Craffus  flaughtered 
i2,cooofthe  flaves,  and  by  this  declfive  blow  foon 
put  an   end  to  the   war,   and  was    honoured  with  an 
ovatio  at  his  return.      He  was  foon  after  made  conful 
with  porapey   in  the  year  of  Rome  6S2,  and  in   this 
hiirh  office  he  difplayed  his  opulence  by  entertaining 
the  populace  at    1 0,000   tables.      He  was  afterv/ards 
Cenfur,  and  formed  the  firft  tiluravirate  with  Pompey 
and  Cafar.     As  his  love  of  riches  was  more  predomi- 
nant  than    that  of  glory,  CralTus   never  imitated  the 
ambitious  conduct  of  his  colleagues,  but  was  fatisfied 
with  the  province  of  Syria,  which  fcemed  to  promife 
an  inexhaullible  fource  of  wealth.     With  hopes  of  en- 
larging  his  pofleffiona  he  fet  off  from   Rome,  though 
the  omens  proved  unfavourable,  and  every  thing  feem- 
ed    to  threaten  his  ruin.      He  crofitd  the  Euphrates, 
and  forgetful  of  the  rich  cities  of  Babylon  and  Selcu- 
cia,  he  haftened  to  make   himfelf  mailer  of  Parthia. 
He  was  betrayed  in  his  march  by  the  delay  of  Arta- 
vafdcs,  king  of  Armenia,  and  the  perfidy  of  Ariamnes. 
He  was  met  in  a  large  plain  by  Surena  the  general  of 
the  forces  of  Orodesvking  of  Parthia,  and  a  battle  was 


]  C     R     A 

fought  in  which  '*20,ooo  Romans  were  killed  and  Cratigm 
10,000  taken  prifoners.  The  darknefs  of  the  night  * 
favoured  the  tfcape  of  the  reil;  andCralfus,  forced  by 
the  mutiny  and  turbulence  of  his  foldiers,  and  the 
treachery  of  his  guides,  trufted  himfelf  to  the  general 
of  the  enemy  on  preler.ce  of  propofing  ternio  of  ac- 
commodation, and  he  was  killed.  His  head  was  cut 
off  and  fent  to  Orodes,  uho  poured  melted  gold  down 
his  throat,  and  iufulted  his  misfortunes.  Though  he 
has  been  called  avaricious,  yet  he  fhowed  himfelf  al- 
ways ready  of  lending  money  to  his  friends  without 
interell.  He  was  fond  of  philofophy,  and  his  know- 
ledge of  h?ilory  was  great  and  extenfive. 

CRAT/EGUS,  WILD-SERVJCE   TREE,    HAWTHORN, 

&c. :  A  genus  of  the  digynia  order,  belonging  to  the 
icofandria  clafs  of  plants ;  and  in  the  natural  method 
ranking  under  the  36th  order,  Ponmcite.  'I'he  calyx 
is  quinquefid  ;  the  petals  five  ;  the  berry  inferior,  di- 
fpermoifs.  There  are  ten  fpecies,  ail  of  the  tree  and 
flirub  kind,  hardy  and  deciduous.  Thofe  moil  va- 
luable for  economical  and  ornamental  purpofes  in  gar- 
deninjj  are  the  followinjj. 

I.  The  oxycanthus,  hawthorn,  or  white-thorn,  grows 
naturally  all  over  Europe.  In  the  ilate  in  which  we 
are  ufed  to  obferve  it,  it  is  nothing  better  than  a  tall, 
uncouth,  irrcgidar  Ihrub  ;  but  trained  up  as  a  llandard, 
it  Iwells  to  a  large  timber  fize,  with  a  tall  ftem  and  a 
full  fpreading  head.  Tlie  llandard  hawthorn,  whe- 
ther we  view  its  flowers  in  the  fpring,  its  foliage  in  the 
fummer,  or  its  fruit  in  the  autumn  and  winter,  is  one 
of  the  moil  ornamental  plants,  Handing  fingly,  that 
can  be  fcattered  over  a  park  or  lawn.  Its  ules  will 
be  explained  under  the  article  Hedges. 

In  order  to  jjropagate  a  quantity  of  quick,  one  me- 
thod is  generally  praclifed  ;  namely,  firlt  bui-ying  the 
haws,  and  taking  them  up  to  fow  the  Ottober  follow- 
ing ;  though,  lays  Hanbury,  there  is  another  way 
more  preferable;  namely,  to  prepare  the  beds,  and  fow 
the  haws  foon  after  they  are  gathered.  Whoever  pur- 
ines the  former  method,  having  gathered  what  quan- 
tity of  haws  vv'ill  anfwer  his  piirpofe,  lliould  in  fome 
bye-corner  of  the  kitchen-garden  or  nurfery  dig  an 
hole  or  pit  capacious  enough  to  receive  them  ;  fome 
of  the  earth  which  came  out  of  the  hole,  after  the 
haws  are  put  in  it,  (hoidd  be  laid  upon  them  ;  and 
being  thus  carefully  covered  down,  they  may  remain 
there  till  October.  Then,  having,  ground  well  dug, 
and  cleared  of  the  roots  of  all  tioublefome  weeds,  and 
the  mould  being  fit  for  working,  the  beds  ihould  be 
made  for  the  ha\vs.  Four  feet  is  a  very  good  width 
for  thefe  beds,  as  they  may  be  eafily  reached  over 
to  be  weeded  ;  and  if  the  alleys  between  be  each 
one  foot  and  a  half  wide,  they  will  be  of  a  good  fize. 
The  beds  being  maiked  out  with  a  liire,  fufficient 
mould  mud  be  i-aked  out  to  cover  the  haws  an  inch 
and  an  half  deep.  This  being  done,  and  the  bottom 
of  the  beds  being  made  level  and  even,  the  haws  Ihould 
be  fown,  and  afterwards  gently  tapped  down  with  the 
back  of  the  fpade  ;  and  then  the  fine  mould,  which 
had  been  raked  out  of  the  beds,  mull  be  throw  u  over 
them,  covering  them  an  inch  and  a  half  deep.  In  the 
fpring  the  plants  will  come  up,  and  in  the  fummer 
following  Ihould  be  kept  clear  of  weeds  ;  though  it 
does  fometintcs  happen,  that  few  of  them  will  appear 
till  the  fecoud  fpriug  after  fowing.  Sometimes  the 
t  young 


C    R    A 


[     5' 


Cntajui.  vouiio;  j)laut9  an:  plantrd  out  from  llic  fctxMKJs  at  one, 
—— N— — '  two,  or  tlivce  yt.irs  old  ;  but  the  bell  phiiits  arc  ob- 
tained by  tr.iiifj)!aiitiijg  tlu-m  into  fielli  mould  the  full 
or  fecond  year,  letting  them  remain  in  the  nurfery  two 
or  thue  years  longer.  The  pradlice  of  the  London 
mirfciymen  is  this :  Tlie  llrongeft  of  the  feed-bed 
plants  having  been  drawn  at  two  or  three  years  old 
for  fale,  they  clear  the  beds  entirely  by  drawing  the 
remaining  weak,  underling  plants,  and  tranfplantiiig 
them  into  frcih  beds  in  this  manner,  which  they  call 
leJd'ing  them  :  The  gi-oiuid  having  been  trenched,  and 
the  tips  oi  the  plants  as  well  as  the  lower  fibres  of  tlieir 
roots  having  been  taken  off  with  a  fharp  knife,  they 
llrain  aline  along  one  fide  of  the  bed  ;  and  by  chop- 
ping with  a  fpade  by  the  fide  ;if  the  line,  leave  a  clift 
or  drill  of  a  depth  proportioned  to  the  length  of  the 
plants  to  be  laid  in  ;  and  drawing  the  loole  mould 
•  fomewhat  towards  tliem,  leave  the  fide  of  th;  drill  next 
to  the  line  with  a  fmooth  polilhed  face.  Againil  this 
face  the  plants  are  let  up,  leaning  towards  the  line, 
about  three  inches  afunder,  1-aving  their  heads  about 
an  inch  above  the  mould,  and  placing  their  roots  at 
fuch  a  depth  as  to  bury  tlieir  Items  from  two  to  three 
inches  deeper  than  they  flood  in  the  feed-bed.  The 
loole  mould  being  returned  and  prefled  gently  to  tlie 
roots  with  the.foot,  the  line  is  removed,  and  another 
row  planted  iu  the  fame  manner  about  a  foot  from 
the  iirll. 

The  common  hawthorn  fports  in  the  following  va- 
rieties :  The  large  fcarlet  hawthorn  ;  the  yellow  haw- 
thorn ;  the  white  hawthorn  ;  the  maple-leaved  haw- 
thorn ;  the  d',)uble-bl«.Tomed  hawthorn  ;  the  Glafton- 
bury  thorn.  The  large  Icarlet  hawthorn  is  no  more 
than  a  beautiful  variety  of  the  common  haw.  It  is 
exceedingly  larf^e,  oblong,  perfectly  imooth,  and  of  a 
bright  fcarlet  ;  and  from  the  additional  fplendir  it  ac- 
quires by  the  berries,  it  is  propagated  to  canfe  variety 
iu  plantations  for  obfervation  and  pleafure.  Yellow 
haw  is  a  moll  exquilite  plant.  The  buds  at  their  liril 
coming  out  in  the  fpring  are  of  a  fine  yellow,  and  the 
fruit  is  of  the  colour  of  gold.  The  tree  is  a  great 
bearer,  and  retains  its  fruit  all  winter,  caufing  a  de- 
ligiitful  effeft  in  plantations  of  any  kind.  It  was  ori- 
ginallv  brought  from  Virginia,  is  greatly  admired,  nud 
no  colltftioii  of  hardy  trees  {hould  be  without  it. 
AVhite  haw  is  but  a  paltry  tree  compared  with  the 
forn'.er.  It  hardly  ever  grows  to  the  height  of  the 
common  hawthorn,  is  an  indifierent  bearer,  and  the 
fruit  is  fmalb  and  a  very  bad  white.  Mnple-lcavcd 
hawthorn  will  grow  to  be  near  twenty  feet  high,  and 
has  very  few  thorns.  The  leaves  are  larger  than  the 
common  hawthorn,  refemble  thofe  of  the  maple,  and 
arc  of  a  whitilh-green  colour.  The  flowers  are  pro- 
duced in  large  bunches  i-.i  June,  and  arc  fuccecded  by 
remarkable  fruit,  ot  a  fhining  red,  which  looks  beau- 
tiful in  the  winter.  U.uible-blnfibmed  hawthorn  pro- 
duces a  full  flower,  ai'..l  is  'ne  of  the  fweetelt  orna- 
juents  in  the  Ipring.  Nature  feems  to  have  peculiarly 
defigned  this  iort  for  the  pleafure-garden;  for  thnugii 
it  be  the  common  liawthom  only  with  the  flowers 
doubled,  yet  it  mtiy  be  kept  down  to  what  ilze  the 
owner  plcafes ;  fo  that  it  is  not  only  fuitable  for  wil- 
derncfs-quarters,  fhrubberies,  and  the  like,  but  is  alfo 
ufefu!  for  Imall  gardens,  where  a  tree  or  two  only  are 
ajmitted.  Thefe  beautiful  double  flowers  coBie  out 
VOL.V.   Part  II. 


.^     ]  C     R     A 

ill  large  bimehcs  in  May,  and  the  tree  is  lo  good  a  OrJlrp'^ 
bearer  that  it  will  often  appear  covered  with  them.  *—— /~— ' 
Their  colour  at  their  full  appearance  is  a  delicate 
w^iite  :  They  aftenvards  die  to  a  faint  red  colour, 
and  are  frequently  fucccedcd  by  fniall  imperf(^.l  fruit. 
GlaRonbiuy  thorn  difl'ert  in  no  icfped  from  the  com- 
muu  hawthorn,  only  that  it  fomctiuics  flowers  in  th<? 
winter.  It  is  faid  to  have  oiiginaily  been  the  ftafF  of 
jofeph  of  Arimalhea,  that  noble  counlellov  who  bu- 
ried Chrill.  He,  according  lo  the  tradition  of  the  ab- 
bey of  Olailoubury,  attended  by  eleven  companions, 
came  over  into  Britain,  and  fomidcd,  iu  honour  of  tlie 
Blefled  Virgin,  the  Iirll  Chritlian  church  in  this  ifle. 
As  a  proof  of  his  million,  he  is  faid  to  have  fluck  his 
flaff  into  the  ground,  which  immediately  fliot  forth 
ami  bloomed.  This  tree  is  faid  to  have  blofTomed  on 
Chrillinas-day  ever  lince,  and  is  univcrfally  dillinguifli- 
cd  by  the  name  of  the  Ghfirmhury  thorn.  Hanbm-y 
(ays,  I  have  many  plants  that  were  originally  propa- 
gated from  this  thorn  :  nnd  they  often  ilower  in  the 
winter,  but  there  is  no  exad  time  of  their  flowering  ; 
for  in  fine  feafons  they  will  fometimes  be  in  blow  be« 
fore  Chriftmas,  fomctimes  they  afford  iheir  bloflbms  in 
Ft?bruary,  and  fometimes  it  fo  happens  that  they  will 
be  out  on  Chrillmas-dav. 

2.  The  azarolus,  or  azarole  thorn,  is  a  native  of  Italy 
and  the  fouth  of  France.  It  will  grow  to  be  fifteen 
or  lixteen  feet  high.  The  leaves  are  large,  nearly  tri- 
iid,  ferrated  and  obtufe.  The  flowers  are  large,  come 
out  in  May,  and  in  the  different  varieties  are  fucceeded 
by  fruit  of  difi'erent  fize,  fliape,  and  rflilh.  The  prin* 
cipal  varieties  of  this  fpecies  are  :  The  azarole  with 
llrong  thorns;  the  azarole  with  *..o  thorns;  the  jagged- 
leaved  azarole  ;  the  oriental  medlar. 

3.  The  aiia  theophradli,  called  the  'wh'itc-lmf-tree,  is 
a  native  of  moll  of  the  ccild  countries  of  Europe.  It 
will  grow  to  be  more  than  twenty  feet  high.  This 
tree  is  engaging  at  ;i]l  times  of  the  year,  and  catches 
the  attention  even  hi  the  \\  inter  ;  for  then  we  fee  it 
llaiid,  though  naked  of  leaves,  with  a  line  fl:ra:t  .flem, 
with  fmooth  branches,  fpotted  with  white,  at  the  end 
of  which  are  the  buds,  fwellcd  for  the  next  year's 
fhoot,  giving  the  tree  a  bold  and  fine  appearance.  In 
the  ipring  the  leaves  corns  out  of  courfc,  and  look  dt-  ■ 
lightfully,  having  their  up])ef  furface  green  and  the 
lower  white.  Their  ligure  is  ovid  ;  they  are  uneqr.ally 
ferrated,  about  three  inches  long,  and  half  as  widev 
Several  ftrong  nerves  run  from  the  mid-rib  to  the 
border,  and  they  are  placed  alternately  on  the  branch*. 
es,  which  app.-ar  as  if  powdered  with  the  fineil  meal. 
The  flowers  are  produced  at  the^fd  of  the  branches 
in  May  :  they  are  white,  grow  in  Ilsge  bunches,  ha- 
ving meal'y  foutllalks  ;  and  are  fi^ccceded  by  red  ber- 
ries, which  will  be  ripe  in  autumn. 

4.  The  terminaliG,  wild  fervice,  or  maple-leaved  fer- 
vice,  is  a  large  growing  tree,  native  of  England,  Ger- 
many, Switzerland,  and  Burgundy.  It  will  arrive  to 
near  fifty  feet,  and  is  worth  propagating  foi  the  fake 
of  the  timber,  which  is  very  v.hite  and  hard.  This 
tree  grows  naturally  iu  feveral  woods  in  England  ;  and 
it  is  the  fruit  of  this  fpecies  tha^  ia  tied  in  bunched 
and  expofcd  for  fale  in  the  autumn  :  It  .is  gathered  in 
the  wouds,  and  by  fome  perfons  is  much  liked.  The 
leaves  in  fome  degree  refemble  thofe  of  the  maple-tree 
in  fl-.apc  ;  their  upper  fuiface  is  a  fine  green,  their  un- 

3T  der 


C    R    A  [51 

Crat2g»5.  ^er  hoary;  and  thty  grow  alternately  on  the  branches. 

'     'v  The  flowers  come  out   in  May,  exhibit iii;2r  thcmfelves 

in  large  cluders  at  the  ends  of  the  brandies  :  They 
are  white,  and  aie  fucceeded  by  the  aforcfaid  eat- 
able fruit,  which  when  ripe  is  of  a  brown  colour,  and 
about  the  lize  of  a  large  haw. 

5.  The  coccinea,  or  Virginian  a/.avolc,  is  a  native  of 
Virginia  and  Canada.  It  will  grow  to  be  near  twenty 
fett  high.  The  Hem  is  robult,  and  covered  with  a 
light-coloured  bark.  The  branches  are  produced  with- 
out order,  are  of  a  dark  brown  colour,  and  pofTeired 
of  a  few  long  fiiarp  thorns.  The  leaves  are  fpear- 
fhaped,  oval,  fmootii,  and  feirated  ;  of  a  thickl/h  con- 
fiftcnce,  and  often  remain  on  tlie  tree  the  greateil  part 
gf  the  winter.  Each  feparate  flower  is  large  ;  but  as 
few  of  them  grow  together,  the  umbels  they  form  are 
rather  fmall.  They  come  out  in  May,  and  are  fuc- 
ceeded by  large  dark-red-coloured  fruit,  which  ripens 
late  in  the  autumn.  The  varieties  of  this  fpecies  arc  : 
The  pear-leaved  thorn;  the  plum-leaved  thorn  with 
very  long  llrong  fpines  and  large  fruit  ;  the  plum- 
leaved  thorn  with  (lioi't  fpines  and  fmall  fruit. 

6.  The  cms  galli,  or  cockfpur  thorn,  is  a  native  of 
Virginia  and  Canada,  and  grows  to  about  twenty  feet 
high.  It  rifes  with  an  upright  ftem,  irregularly  fend- 
ing forth  branches,  which  are  fmooth,  and  of  a  brown- 
ilh  coloiu",  fpotted  thinly  with  fmall  white  fjjots.  It 
is  armed  with  thorns  that  refemble  the  fpurs  of  cocks, 
which  gained  it  the  appellation  of  cockfpur  thorn.  In 
winter  the  leaf-buds  appear  large,  turgid,  and  have  a 
bold  and  pleafant  look  among  others  of  different  ao- 
pearancts.  In  fuinraer  this  tree  is  very  dehglitful. 
The  leaves  are  oval,  angular,  ferrated,  fmooth,  and 
bend  backwards.  They  aie  about  four  inches  long, 
and  three  and  a  half  broad  ;  have  five  or  fix  pair  of 
ftiong  nerves  running  from  the  mid  rib  to  the  border; 
and  die  to  a  browni(h-red  colour  in  the  autumn.  The 
flowers  are  produced  in  very  large  umbels,  making  a 
noble  Ihow  in  May;  and  are  fucceeded  by  large  fruit 
of  a  bright  red  colour,  which  have  a  good  efredS  in  the 
winter.  The  principal  varieties  of  this  fpecies  are  : 
The  cockfpur  hawthorn  with  many  thorns;  the  cock- 
fpur hawthorn  with  no  thorns  ;  the  cockfpur  with 
eatable  fruit.  "  The  latter  was  fent  me  (fays  Hanbur)') 
from  America  with  that  name,  and  I  have  raifed  forae 
trees  of  the  feed;  but  they  have  not  yet  produced  any 
fruit,  fo  that  I  cannot  pretend  to  fay  how  far  it  may 
be  defirable;  though  I  have  been  informed  it  Is  rellflied 
in  America  by  fome  of  the  inhabitants  there. 

7.  The  tcmentofa;,  goofeberry-leaved  Virginia  haw- 
thorn, grows  to  about  leven  or  eight  feet  high.  The 
branches  are  flender,  and  clofclv  fet  with  ftiarp  thorns. 
The  leaves  are  cuneiform,  oval,  ferrated,  and  hairv 
underneath.  The  flowers  are  fmall,  and  of  a  white 
colour  :  They  are  produced  from  the  fides  of  the 
branches  about  the  end  of  May ;  and  are  fucceeded  by 
yellow  fruit,  which  ripens  late  in  autumn.  There  is 
a  variety  of  this  called  the  Carolina  Haivthorn,  which 
has  longer  and  whiter  leaves,  larger  flowers  and  fruit, 
and  no  thorns. 

8.  The  viridis,  or  green-leaved  Virginia  hawthorn, 
has  the  ftem  and  branches  altogether  dcftitute  of  thorns. 
The  leaves  are  lanceolate,  oval,  nearly  trilobate,  fer- 
rated, fmooth,  and  green  on  both  fides.  The  flowers 
are  white,  moderately  large,  come  out  the  end  of  May, 

3 


4     ] 


C    R    A 


and  are  fucceeded  by  a  roundifli  fruit,  which  will  be 
ripe  late  in  the  autumn. 

The  rcfpedive  fpecies  are  all  propagated  by  fowing 
of  the  feeds;  and  the  varieties  are  continued  by  bud- 
ding them  upon  (locks  of  the  white  thorn.  This  lat- 
ter method  is  generally  praAiled  for  all  the  forts  ; 
tliough  when  good  feeds  can  be  procured,  the  largell 
and  moll  beautiful  plants  are  raifed  that  way.  i.  In 
Older  to  raile  them  from  feeds,  let  tlicfc  be  fown  foon 
after  they  arc  ripe.  In  beds  of  frefli,  light,  rich  earth. 
Let  alleys  be  left  between  the  beds,  for  the  convenlen- 
cy  of  weeding,  and  let  the  feeds  be  covered  over  with 
fine  mould  about  an  inch  deep.  The  fumnier  follow- 
ing the  beds  muft  be  kept  clean  of  weeds,  and  probably 
fome  few  plants  will  appear :  But  this  is  not  common 
in  any  of  the  forts ;  for  they  generally  lie  till  the  fe- 
cond  Ipring  after  fowing  before  they  come  up.  At 
the  time  they  make  their  appearance  they  muft  be 
watered  If  the  weather  proves  diy  ;  and  this  fiiould  be 
occafionally  repeated  all  fummer.  They  fliould  alfo 
be  conrtantly  kept  clean  from  weeds ;  and  in  the  au- 
tumn the  ftrongell  may  be  drawn  out,  and  fet  In  the 
nurfery-ground,  a  foot  afunder,  in  rows  that  are  two 
feet  diilant  from  each  other ;  while  the  weakeft  may 
remain  until  another  year.  During  the  time  they  are 
in  the  nurfery,  the  ground  between  the  cows  ftiould  be 
dug  every  winter,  and  the  weeds  conftantly  hoed  down 
In  the  fummer  ;  and  this  Is  all  the  trouble  they  will 
require  until  they  are  planted  out  for  good,  which 
may  be  In  two,  three,  or  more  years,  at  the  pkafure  of 
the  owner,  or  according  to  the  purpofes  for  which 
they  are  wanted.  2.  Thefe  trees  are  eafily  propagated 
by  budding  alfo  ;  they  will  all  readily  take  on  one 
another;  but  the  uiual  flocks  are  thofe  of  the  common 
hawthorn.  In  order  to  have  thefe  the  beft  for  the 
purpofe,  the  haws  ftiould  be  got  from  the  largeft  trees, 
fuch  as  have  the  fcweft  thorns  and  largeft  leaves.  Af- 
ter they  are  come  up,  and  have  ftood  one  year  in  the 
feed-bed,  the  ftrongell  ftiould  be  planted  out  In  the 
nurfery,  a  foot  afunder  and  two  feet  diftant  In  the 
rows  ;  and  the  fecond  fummer  after  many  of  them 
will  be  fit  for  working.  The  end  of  July  is  the  beft 
time  for  this  bufinefs  ;  and  cloudy  weather,  nlglit  and 
morning,  are  always  preferable  to  the  heat  of  the  day. 
Having  worked  all  the  difieient  forts  into  thefe  (locks, 
they  may  be  let  alone  until  the  latter  end  of  Septem- 
ber, when  the  bafs  matting  fliould  be  taken  off.  In 
the  winter  the  ground  between  the  rows  fliould  be  dug, 
and  in  the  ipring  the  flock  fhoiild  be  headed  about 
half  a  foot  above  the  bud.  The  young  flioots  the 
ftocks  will  always  attempt  to  put  out,  fhould  be  as  con- 
flantly  rubbed  ofl;  for  thefe  would  in  proportion  ftarvc 
the  bud  and  flop  its  progrefs.  With  this  care  fevcral 
of  the  forts  have  been  known  to  flioot  fix  feet  by  the 
autumn  ;  and  as  they  will  be  liable  to  be  blown  out  of 
their  fockets  by  the  high  wind;  which  often  happen  in 
the  fummer,  they  ihould  be  flightly  tied  to  the  top  of 
the  ftock  that  is  left  on  for  the  purpofe,  and  this  will 
help-to  preferve  them. 

CRATCHES,  in  the  manege,  a  fweUing  on  the 
paftern,  under  the  fetlock,  and  iomttimes  under  the 
hoof;  for  which  reafon  it  is  diftingulftied  into  the 
finew  cratches,  which  affeft  the  iinew,  and  thofe  upon 
the  cronet,  called  qui:icr-bonfs. 

CRATER,    Ct'P,    In   aftronoroy,    a  conftellatiori 

of- 


C     R     A 


[     5^5     ] 


C     R     A 


Crater  of  tlie  foutherii  licmiTpliere ;  w'.ibfe  ftars,  in  Plole- 
_  "  my's  Catalogue,  arc  fevi;n  j  in  Tycho's,  tight  ;  in 
,  Hevelius's,  ten;  in  the  Britamn'c  Catalogue,  iliiity-one. 

Crater  is  alio  ufed  to  (igiiify  the  mouth  or  open- 
ing of  a  volcano  or  burning  mountain,  from  whence 
the  tire  is  difcharged.     See  Volcano. 

CRATES,  of  Tlicbcs,  a  famous  pliilofopher,  was 
the  difciple  of  Diogenes  the  Cynic.  It  is  faid  that  he 
tlircw  all  his  money  into  the  fea,  that  he  might  the 
more  freely  apply  hinifclf  to  the  Ihidy  of  philofo- 
phy.  Others  alFeit  that  he  placed  it  in  another  per- 
fon's  hands,  with  orders  to  give  it  to  his  children  if 
they  iTiiiu'd  happen  to  be  fools  :  For  (faid  Crates),  if 
they  ihoulJ  be  philofophevs,  they  will  have  no  need  of 
it  :  in  which  cafe  it  was  to  be  given  to  the  people.  He 
flourifhed  about  328  years  before  Chrift. 

He  ought  not  to  be  confounded  with  Crates,  a  fa- 
mous academic  philolopher,  the  difciple  and  fiiend  of 
Polemon.  This  lall  Crates  had  Arcefilaus  and  other 
celebrated  philofophers  for  his  difciples;  and  flouriihtd 
about  3C0  years  before  Chrilt. 
,  CRATEVA,  the  garlic  pear  :  A  genus  of  the 
monoeynia  order,  bcloncing  to  the  dudecandria  clafs  of 
plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
2yth  order,  P.iihimiiea:  The  corolla  is  tctrapetalous  ; 
the  calyx  quadritid  ;  the  berry  inferior  difpetmous. 
There  are  two  fpecies,  both  of  them  natives  of  feveral 
parts  of  India.  They  are  both  of  the  tiee  kind  ;  and 
are  chiefly  diftinguiflied  by  their  fruit.  The  tapia,  or 
garlic  pear,  has  a  fmooth  round  fruit  about  the  fize  of 
an  orange,  with  a  hard  brown  fliell  or  cover,  which 
inclofes  a  meally  pulp,  filled  with  kidney- rtiaped  feeds. 
It  hath  a  ftrong  fnicU  of  garlic,  and  communicates  the 
fame  to  fuch  animals  as  feed  upon  it.  The  tender 
buds  from  the  young  branches  being  bruifed  and  ap- 
plied to  the  naked  Ikin,  will  bliller  as  effettually  as 
cantharides.  It  rifes  to  the  height  of  about  30  feet. 
The  other  grows  to  the  fize  of  a  very  large  tree,  with 
trifoliate  leaves,  fawed  on  the  edges.  The  flowers  have 
the  fmell  of  roles,  and  are  fucceeded  by  an  oblong  fruit 
of  the  fi7,e  of  an  apple,  covered  with  a  very  hard  bony 
Ihell,  and  containing  a  foft  flefliy  pulp,  having  the  talle 
of  quinces.  From  the  flowers  of  this  plant  is  obtained 
by  diftillation  a  water  highly  odoriferous  and  cordial. 
The  pulpy  part  of  the  fruit  is  prepared  into  various 
kinds  of  marmalades,  which  are  exceedingly  agree- 
able to  the  tafte,  and  are  much  ufed  by  the  gran- 
dees in  thofe  countries  where  the  trees  we  native  ; 
they  are  alfo  reckoned  ferviccable  in  dyfenteries.  Both 
fpecies  may  be  propagated  in  this  country  by  feeds. 
Tliefe  are  to  be  fown  upon  a  hot-bed  in  the  fpring  ; 
and  when  the  plants  come  up,  they  are  to  be  treated  in 
the  manner  direAcd  for  the  Annona. 

CRATINUS,  an  ancient  comic  poet,  of  whom  we 
fhould  fcarcely  have  known  any  thing,  had  not  Quin- 
tilian,  Horace,  and  Perfius,  mentioned  him,  Eupolis, 
and  Ariftophanes,  as  the  great  mailers  of  what  we 
call  the  ancient  comedy.  It  is  gathered  that  he  died 
in  the  87th  Olympiad.  Suidas  tells  us  that  he  wrote 
2  I  plays,  and  that  he  was  fplendid  and  bright  in  his 
charafters. 

CRATIPPUS,  a  celebrated  peripatetic  philofo- 
pher,  was  a  native  of  Mitylene,  where  he  taught  phi- 
lofophy  ;  but  at  length  went  to  Athens,  where  Brutus 
and  the  fon  »f  Cicero  were  his  difciples.      Pompey 


went  to  fee  liim  after  the  battle  of  Pharfalia,  and  pro-      Crato 
pofed  to  him  his  diilici'lties  in  relation  to  the  belief  of  ^     '' 
a  Providence;  when  Cratippus  comforted  him,  and  by,    '''^"'    '/ 
forcible  arguments  aufwcrcd  his  ohjeftions.     He  wrote 
fome  pieces  about  divination  :  and   U   fuppofed  to  be 
the  fame  with   him   whom  Tertuliian,  in  his  book  De 
Anima,  has  ranked  among  the  writers  upon  dreams. 

CRA  TO,  a  fmall  town  of  Portugal,  in  the  province 
of  Alentejo,  with  a  rich  priory.  It  is  the  chief  cora- 
mandery  which  the  kiiightj  of  Malta  have  in  Portugal. 
W.  Long.  8.  £2.  N.  Lat.  38.  50. 

CRAVAN,  a  town  of  France,  in  Burgundy,  re- 
markable for  its  pood  wine,  and  for  a  battle  foucrht 
there  between  the  Englilh  and  French.  It  is  feat- 
cd  near  the  confluence  of  the  rivers  Cure  and  Yonne. 
E.  -Long.  3.  30.   N.  Lat.  47.  42. 

CRAVEN,  or  Cravent,  a  word  of  reproach,  ufed 
in  trials  by  battel.     See  Battel. 

CRAX,  in  ornithology,  the  cnralTou,  a  genus  of 
birds,  belonging  to  the  order  of  galliiix.  The  bafe  of 
tlic  beak  of  each  mandible  is  covered  with  wax  ;  and 
the  leathers  of  the  head  are  curled.  There  are  five 
fpecies,  viz.  I.  The  alecator,  or  Indian  hen  of 
Sloaue,  is  about  the  fize  of  a  fmall  turkey.  It  is 
black,  with  a  white  belly.  A  yellow  wax  covers 
about  one  half  of  each  mandible;  the  tongue  is  en- 
tire ;  the  temples  are  bare  and  black;  the  tail  is  roun- 
dilh,  and  confills  of  14  prime  feathers;  the  legs  are 
ftrong,  and  of  a  duflvy  brown  colour.  They  are  fre- 
quent at  Guiana  ;  and  are  called  po-weji  by  the  na- 
tives from  their  cry,  which  is  fomewhat  ilmilar  ;  are 
pretty  numerous  in  the  woods,  and  make  no  fmall  part 
of  the  food  of  the  planters,  being  fupplied  therewith  by 
the  Indian  hunters ;  and  their  fielh  is  reckoned  deli- 
cate, much  like  that  of  a  turkey.  They  are  eafily 
brought  up  tame,  and  are  frequently  found  in  the 
Dutch  fettlements  of  Berbice,  Eflequebo,  and  Deme- 
rary.  They  are  called  at  Brafil  by  the  name  oicurajfo. 
It  is  found  In  the  warm  parts  of  America.  2.  The 
rubra,  or  Peruvian  hen,  is  red,  with  a  bluifli  head  :  it 
is  a  native  of  Peru.  Thefe  birds  are  natives  of  Mexico  Plate  CLI, 
and  Peru.  They  feed  on  fruits,  and  pei-ch  of  nights  on 
trees  :  the  flelh  is  white;  and  elleemed  very  good  food. 
They  are  frequently  kept  tame  in  our  menageries  in 
England,  and  readily  mix  with  other  poultry,  feeding 
on  bread  and  grain  ;  but  this  climate  is  not  near  warm 
enough  for  their  nature,  they  not  being  able  to  bear 
the  dampnefs  of  the  grafs  of  our  meadows,  which  ren- 
ders them  lubjeft  to  have  their  toes  rot  off.  They  wiH 
often  live  in  this  ftate  fome  time  ;  and  in  one  inllance 
which  Mr  Latham  faw,  the  whole  of  one  foot  was 
gone,  and  but  part  of  one  toe  left  on  the  other,  before 
the  creature  died.  3.  The  mitu,  or  Brafilian  phea- 
fant,  is  black,  with  a  dufl<y  belly,  and  red  wax  :  it  is 
a  native  of  Guinea  and  Brazil.  4.  The  globiccra,  has 
a  yellow  protuberance  between  the  noftrils,  and  is  of 
a  bluifh-black  colour  :  it  is  likewife  a  native  of  Brazil. 
5.  The  pauxl,  or  Mexican  pheafant  of  Briffonlus,  Is  of 
a  bluifli  colour,  with  blue  wax,  and  the  tip  of  the  tail 
and  belly  white:   it  Is  a  native  of  Mexico. 

CRAY-FISH,  or  Craw-/v/Zi.      See  Cancer. 

The  flefti  of  cray-fifti  is  cooling,  moillening,  and  a- 

dapted    to    nourilh    fuch    as  labour  under    atrophies. 

There  are  various  methods  of  preparing  thefe  animals; 

they  may  be  either  boiled  or  fried,  and  then  taken  out 

3  T  2  of 


C    R     A  [51 

tray-firh,  of  their  I'h.-lla,  and  maj«  up  in  variety  of  diOies ;  but 
Prayer,  no  part? of  them  aie-eatahle  escept  their  claws  arid 
'  tails.  Preparations  and  broths  of  crayliPii  arc  cele- 
brated not  only  for  a  palatable  aliment,  but  alfo  for 
anfweriug  fome  medicinal  intentions,  as  being  of  a 
inoiftening  quality,  and  {heitiiing  up  and  correfting 
acrinnony.  The  broth  is  prepared  of  four  or  nrc 
craw  fidi,  which  having  their  heads  cut  off,  and  their 
inteftineS  extrafted,  are  to  be  biuiled  and  boiled  in  the 
broth  of  fle'h  or  poultry,  until  they  become "rufiioieiit- 
ly  red  ;  after  waicli  the  liquor  is  to  be  drained  off  and 
fe.ifoned,  as  the  Cif-'  may  require.  This  broth  may  be 
rendered  ilill  more  meriicinal  by  rhe  addition  of  h.-rbs, 
fnails,  or  other  fubilances;  according  to  the  intention 
of  the  phyir-ian.  Their  flcfli  is  accounted  bctl  in  the 
fummer  motiths. 

The  delicate  flavour  of  thefe  fifh  depends  i:!  a  great 
meal'ure  on  their  food.  When  they  have  weil-taftej 
food,  their  flefh  preferves  llse  relifli  of  it ;  but  wht-n 
they  feed  on  other  things.,  they  are  often  rendered  of 
no  value,  by  ttie  flavour  comrriuni<;atcd  to  their  flefh  by 
ihcm.  There  ate  great  quantities  of  thefe  fifh  in  the 
rivtr  Obra,  on  the  borders  of  Sikfia  ;  but  the  people 
find  them  fcarce  eatable,  bec?.nie  of  a  bitter  aromatic 
flavour,  very  difagreeable  in  fo(,d.  It  has  been  fince 
obferved,  that  the  caLimus  aromailtvi  grows  in  vatt  a- 
bundance  on  the  banks  of  that  river,  and  that  .thefe 
creatures  feed  very  greedily  upon  its  roots.  Thetc  have 
a  very  remarkable  bitternets  mixed  -.vith  their  aromatic 
flavour,  while  frelh,  which  goes  off  very  much  in  the 
drying;  and  on  comparing' the  tafte  of  thefe  roots  with 
that  of  the  cray  filh,  there  remams  no  doubt  of  the  one 
being  owing  to  the  other. 

They  abound  in  the  river  Don  in  Mufcovy,  where 
they  are  laid  in  heaps  to  putrefy  ;  after  which  the 
ftones  called  cra!>'s  eyes  are  picked  out.  Thefe  animals  are 
very  greedy  of  flefli,  and  fljck  in  great  numbers  about 
carcales  thtown  into  the  water  where  they  are,  and  ne- 
ver leave  it  while  any  remains.  They  alfo  feed  on  dead 
frogs  when  they  come  into  their  way.  In  Swiffcrland 
there  are  fome  cray- filh  which  are  red  while  they  are 
alive,  and  others  bluilh.  Some  kinds  of  them  alio  will 
never  become  red,  even  by  boiling,  but  continue 
blackifh. 

The  cray  fifh  difcharges  itfelf  of  itsftcmach,  and,  as 
M.  Gcoffroy  thinks,  of  i;s  intelnnes  too.  Thefe,  as 
they  putrefy  and  diffolvc,  ferve  for  food  to  the  animal; 
during  the  time  of  the  reformation,  the  old  ftomach 
feems  to  be  the  firft  food  the  new  one  digefts.  It  is 
only  at  this  time  that  the  ffones  are  found  called  cri/iJ'.; 
tyes;  they  begin  to  be  formed  when  the  old  flomach  is 
dettroyed,  and  are  afterwards  wrapped  up  in  the  new 
one,  where  they  decreafc  by  degrees  till  they  entirely 
difappear. 

CRAYER  (Cafpar  de),  was  born  at  Antwerp  in 
1585,  and  was  a  dilciple  of  Raphael  Coxis,  the  fon  of 
that  Coxis  who  had  (ludied  under  Raphael ;  but  he 
foon  ftowed  fuch  proofs  of  genius,  and  of  an  elevated 
capacity,  that  he  far  furpaffcd  his  mafter,  and  there- 
fore quitted  him.  Afterwards  he  made  judicious  ob- 
fervations  on  the  particular  excellencies  of  the  moll  re- 
nowned m'Hers  to  whicii  he  had  any  accefs;  and  taking 
nature  for  his  conftaut  diredor  and  guide,  he  fonred 
for  himfelf  a  manner  tJiat  was  exceedingly  pleafing. 
The  hrft  work  which  etlablifhed  him  in  thefavour  of 
the  court  at  Bruffels,  was  a  portrait  of  Cardinal  Fer- 


6     ] 


C     R     A 


dinand,  brother  to  the  King  of  Spain,  which  he  priint- 
cd  at  fidl  length,  and  ai  large  as  life.  In  that  picture 
he  fucceeded  fo  happily,  that  it  was  fent  to  Madrid, 
and  received  tliere  with  fuoii  concurrent  approbition 
of  the  king  and  the  whole  court,  that  it  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  the  fame  and  fortune  of  Grayer.  For  the 
king,  as  an  acknowledgment  of  the  painter's  merit, 
fent  liim  a  gold  chain  with  a  medal  ;  and  added,  as  A 
farther  inllance  of  his  favour,  an  apnointnent  for  a 
coufiderable  penfion.  .  But  nothing  places  the  talent* 
of  Crayer  in  a  ftion?er  light,  than  the  telliiiony  of  fo 
excelle;it  an  artilt  as  Rubens.  That  great  man  went 
to  Antwerp  particularly  to  vifit  Grayer,  and  to  fee 
his  work  ;  and  after  examining  attentively  a  piA'ire  of 
h;s  painting,  in  the  retcctory  of  the  abbey  of  Aflleg- 
hi'ti,  he  publicly  declared  that  no  painter  could  fur- 
pais  Craycr.  Njr  was  this  mailer  lefsdillin?u:lhtd  by 
Vandyck,  who  always  exprelftd  a  real  etlecm  and 
friendihip  for  him,  and  painted  his  portrait.  He  had 
fom^^what  iefs  fire  in  his  compolitions  than  Rubens, 
but  hij  dcfrgn  is  frequently  more  correA.  His  com- 
pofition  generally  confilled  of  a  fmall  number  of  fi-  j 
gures  ;  and  with  dilcreet  judgment,  he  avoided  tiie  en- 
cumbering hii.  defign  with  luperfluoui  particulars,  or 
loading  his  futj:ci  with  any  thing  that  teemed  nut  to 
contribute  to  its  elegance  or  probability.  He  grouped 
his  figures  with  fingular  flciil,  and  his  expreffions  have- 
all  the  truth  of  natuie.  .  There  is  a  remarkable  variety 
ill  his  draperies,  and  an  equal  degree  of  fimplicity  ia 
their  folds  j  and  as  to  his  colouring,  it  is  admirable. 
Of  all  his  cotcmporary  painters,  he  was  accounted  to 
approach  nearcll  to  Vandyck,  not  only  in  hiftory  but 
in  portrait.  He  principally  paiiued  religious  (^ubjcfts, 
and  was  coiitinually  at  work;  and  although  he  lived  to 
a  great  age,  yet  his  temperance  and  conllant  regula- 
rity preferved  to  him  the  full  ufe  of  all  his  faculties  } 
and  to  the  laft  month  of  his  life  his  pencil  retained  the 
fame  force  and  freedom  which  it  poffcffed  in  his  moll 
vigorous  time.  The  iubjeft  of  that  picture  wliich  was 
fo  honoured  by  the  approbaiion  of  Rubens  is  the  Cen- 
turion alighting  from  his  horle  to  proftrate  himfelf  at 
the  feet  of  our  Saviour.  It  is  a  capital  defign  of 
Grayer  j  and  although  it  confifls  of  a  great  number 
of  figures,  the  harmony  and  union  are  well  preferved. 

CRAYON,  a  general  name  for  all  coloured  ftones, 
earths,  or  other  minerals  and  fubllances,  ufed  in  de- 
figning  or  painting  in  pallel ;  whether  they  have  been 
beaten  and  reduced  to  a  pafte,  or  are  ulcd  in  their  pri- 
mitive conhllencc,  after  tawing  or  cutiing  them  into 
long  narrow  flips.  In  this  lall  manner  are  red  crayons 
made,  of  blood- flone  or  red  chalk  ;  black  ones,  of 
charcoal  and  black  lead.  Crayons  of  all  other  colours 
are  compel  tiuns  of  earths  reduced  to  pafte. 

CnyiroN-Paiiuiiig.  Whether  the  painter  works  with 
oil-colouis,  water  colours,  or  crayons,  the  grand  objett 
of  his  purfuit  is  flill  the  fame  :  a  jull  imitation  of  na- 
ture. B'lt  e.cri  I'pccics  has  its  peculiar  rules  and  me- 
thods. Painting  with  crayons  reqin'res  in  many  le- 
fptfts  a  treatment  different  from  painting  in  oil  co- 
lours ;  becaufe  ail  colours  ulcd  diy  are  in  their  na- 
tuie  of  a  much  warmer  complexion  than  when  wet 
with  oils,  &c.  For  this  rcalon,  in  order  to  produce 
a  rich  piclure,  a  much  greater  poition  of  what  pain- 
ters term  ceoiiirg  feints  mull  be  applied  in  crayon  paint- 
ing than  would  be  judicious  to  ufe  in  oils.  \Vitliout 
any  danger  of  a  raiftake,  it  is  to  be  fuppofcd,  the  not 

be- 


>• 


C    R    A  '  [si 

Criynn  being  acquainted  with  this  ohfervation  is  one  great 
— V— -  caule  V'hy  io  many  oil-painters  have  no  better  fuc- 
ctfs  when  tliey  aitcmpt  crayon-painting.  On  the 
toiitrary,  crayon-p;ui'.ti.is  hcinir  fo  much  uLcd  to  thole 
teiiits  which  ave  of  a  cold  nature  when  ufed  wet,  are 
apt  to  introduce  them  too  much  when  they  paint  with 
oils,  which  is  fcUlom  prodiittive  of  a  good  tffecl;. 

We  (hnll  now  endeasrout  To  give  the  lludent  iome  di- 
reftlons  towards  the  attainment  of  excellence  in  this  art. 
0/  the  yi/ijiliaitien  of  the  Crayons,  -with  fame  previous 
Dilprifitlons.  The  Undent  mull  provide  himlelf  with 
fo:;)e  Itrong  blue  paper,  the  thicker  the  better,  If  the 
grain  is  not  too  coaife  or  knotty,  though  It  h  almoft 
impofllble  to  get  any  entirely  free  from  knots.  The 
knots  (liould  he  i^vtrlkd  willi  u  penknife  or  razor,  o- 
thetwlfe  they  will  prove  exceedingly  troublefome.  Af- 
ter this  is  done,  the  pnper  inuil  be  palled  very  fmooth 
on  a  lioen  cloth,  prevloufly  ilrained  on  a  deal  frame, 
the  liz;  according  to  the  artilt's  pleafnrc  :  oti  this  the 
pK.ture  is  to  be  executed;  but  it  is  irtoit  eligible  not  to 
pa;le  the  paper  on  till  the  whole  ftihjett  is  firft  dead-co- 
loured. The  method  of  doing  this  is  very  eafy,  by 
laying  the  paper  with  the  deadcohiur  on  its  face,  upon 
a  Imooth  board  or  table,  when,  by  means  of  a  bruih, 
the  baeklide  or'  the  paper  mull  be  covered  with  palle; 
the  frame,  with  the  ilrained  cloth,  muft  then  be  laid  on 
the  paftfd  fide  of  the  papsr;  after  which  turn  the  paint- 
ed fide  uppermoft,  and  lay  a  piece  of  clean  paper  up- 
on it,  to  prevent  fmearing  it  :  this  being  done,  it 
may  be  llroked  gently  over  with  the  hand;  by  which 
means  all  the  air  between  the  cloth  and  the  paper  will 
be  forced  out. 

When  the  pafte  is  perfcitly  dry,  the  ftudent  may 
proceed  with  the  painting.  The  advantages  arifing 
fioiii  pa!llni(  the  paper  on  the  frame  according  to  this 
method,  after  the  pifture  is  begun,  are  very  great,  as 
the  crayons  will  adhere  much  bciter  than  any  other 
way;  which  will  enable  the  Undent  to  fiiiifh  the  piflure 
with  a  firmer  body  of  colour  and  greater  luftre. 

Wlicn  the  painters  want  to  make  a  very  correct  copy 
of  a  pifture,  they  generally  make  ufe  of  tiffany  or 
black  gauZL",  ftrained  tight  on  a  frame,  which  they  lay 
flat  on  the  lubj^tt  to  be  imitated,  and  with  a  piece  of 
fkerchhi'^  chalk  trace  all  the  outlines  on  the  tiffany. 
They  then  lay  the  canvas  to  be  painted  on  flat  upon 
die  floor,  placing  the  tiffany  with  the  chalked  lines  up- 
on It,  and  with  an  handkerchief  brufh  the  whole  over; 
this  prefents  the  exa£l  outlines  of  the  pifture  on  the 
canvas.  Tiie  crayon-painter  may  alfo  make  ufe  of 
this  method  whtn  the  fubjeft  of  his  imitation  is  in 
oils  ;  but  in  copying  a  cray.)n-pifture,  he  mull  have 
rect)Urfe  to  the  following  method, on  account  of  theglafs. 
The  pifture  being  placed  upon  the  eafel,  let  the  out- 
lines be  drawn  on  the  glifdwiih  a  fnrall  camel's  hair 
pencil  dipped  in  lake,  ground  thin  with  oils,  which 
muft  be  done  with  great  exaftnefs.  After  this  is  ac- 
compUflicd,  ta.ke  a  fileet  of  paper  of  the  fame  fiz«  and 
place  it  on  the  glals,  llroking  over  all  the  line-i  with 
the  hand,  by  which  means  the  cnlour'  will  adhere  to 
the  paper,  which  mull  be  pierced  with  pin-holes  pret- 
ty clote  to  each  other.  The  paper  Intended  to  be  u- 
fed  for  the  painting  mull  next  be  laid  upon  a  table,. 
and  the  pierced  paper  placed  upon  it  ;  then  with  fome 
fine-pounded  charcoal,  tied  up  in  a  piece  of  lawn,  rub 
over  the  pierced  line:.,  which  will  j^ive  an  cxaft  out- 
line ;  but  great  care  mull  be  taken  not  to  bruih   this 

5 


R 


7     1  ,      C     ^^ 

off  till  the  whole  is  drawn  over  with  Iketching  chalk,  Crr,o-i 
which  is  a  compofition  made  of  whiting  and  tobacco-'"^ — 
pipeclay,  roUed'iike  the  crayons, and  pointed  at  each  end. 
Wlicu  a  ftudent  paints  i:nmcdlately  from  the  life,  it 
will  be  mod  prudent  to  make  a  correft  drawing  of  the 
outlines  on  another  paper,  the  fizeof  the  piclure  he  is 
gninir  to  paint,  which  he  may  trace  by  the  preceding 
metiiod,  hccaufe  erroneous  llrokes  of  the  fetching 
chalk  (wSiich  are  not  to  be  avoided  without  great  ex- 
pertncls)  will  prevent  the  crayons  from  adhering  to  the 
paper,  owing  to  a  certain  greafy  quality  in  the  compo- 
fition. 

The  ftudent  will  find  the  fitting  poftiiie,  with  the: 
box  of  crayons  in  his  lap,  the  moil  convenient  method 
for  him  to  paint.  •  The  part  of  the  pifture  he  i.s  im- 
mediately painting  fhould  be  rather  below  his  face  ; 
for,  if  it  is  placed  too  high,  the  arm  will  be  fatigued. 
Let  the  windows  of  the  room  where  he  paints  be  dark» 
ened,  at  leall  to  the  height  of  fix  feet  from  the 
ground;  and  the  fubjeft  to  be  piinted  fnould  hi  fittia- 
ted  in  luch  a  manner,  that  the  light  may  fall  with 
every  advantage  on  the  face,  avoiding  too  mnrrk  Ihadow, 
which  feldom  has  a  good  efftft  in  pr'Vtr,;it-painting, 
efpecially  if  the  face  he  paints  from  has  any  degree  ot" 
delicacy. 

Before  he  begins  to  paint;  let  him  be  attentive  to 
his  fnSjeft,  and  appropriate  the  aftlon  or  attitude  pro- 
per ti)  the  age  of  the  fuhjeft.  :  if  a  child,  let  it  be 
childiih  ;  if  a  young  kdy,  exprefs  more  vivacity  thaa 
in  the  mnjeftic  beauty  of  a  middle- aged  woman,  who 
alio  fhould  not  be  exprcfll-d  with  the  fame  gravity  as  a 
peifon  far  advanced  in  years.  Let  the  embellifli- 
mcnts  of  the  pifture,  and  introduftion  of  birds,  ani- 
mals, fee.  be  legulated  by  the  rules  of  propriety  and 
coniillency. 

The  features  of  the  face  being  correftly  drawn  with 
chalks,  let  the  ftudent  take  a  crayon  of  pure  carmine, 
and  carefully  draw  the  noftril  and  edge  of  the  nofe 
next  the  Ihadow;  then,  with  the  fainted  carmine- tcint, 
lay  iu  the  higheft  light  upon  the  nofe  and  forehead, 
which  muft  be  executed  broad.  He  is  then  to  proceed 
gradually  with  the  fecond  teint,  and  the  fucceeding 
ones,  till  he  arrives  at  the  fliildows,  which  mull  be  co- 
vered brilliant,  enriched  with  much  lake,  carmine,  and 
deep  green.  This  method  v,fill  at  firft  ofllnfively  ftrikij- 
the  eye,  from  Its  crude  appearance;  but  in  the  finllh- 
ing,  it  will  be  a  good  foundation  to  produce  a  plea- 
fing  effeft,  colours  being  much  more  eafily  fullied  vvfhen' 
too  bright,  than  when  the  firfl  colourinij  is  dull,  to 
raife  the  pifture  into  a  brilliant  Hate.  The  feveral 
pcai'ly  telnts  difcernible  in  fine  complexions  muft  be 
imitated  with  blue  verdlter  and  white,  which  aiifwer-j 
to  the  ultramarine  teints  ufed  in  oil.".  But  if  the  partj 
of  the  face  where  thefe  teintr.  appear  are  in  fhadow,  the 
crayons  compoled  of  black  and  white  muft  be  fubilits. 
ttd  in  their  place. 

Th.ough  all  the  face  when  firft  coloured  flioiild  b* 
laid  in  as  brilliant  as  poffiblr,  yct»each  part  ftunjld  be 
kept  in  its  proper  tone  ;  by  which  means  the  rotundi- 
ty of  the  face  will  be  pvefcrved. 

Let  the  ftudorrt:  be  careful  when  he  begins  the  eyes 
to  draw  them  with  a  crayon  inclined  to  the  carmine 
teint,  of  whatever  colour  the  irifes  are  of;  he  mxiW, 
hy  them  in  brilliant,  and  at  firft  not  loaded  with  co- 
lour, but  executed  lightly:  no  notice  is  to  be  taken  of 
the  pupil  yet.     The  ftudent  muft  let  the  light   of  the 


C     R     A  [51 

Cr-.yon.  eye  incline  very  much  to  the  blue  caft,  cautioudy  a- 
■"  voiding  a  ftarinjr  white  appearance,  (which,  when 
once  introduced,  is  feldom  oveicome),  prtferving  a 
broad  (hadow  thrown  on  its  upper  pait,  by  the  eye- 
la(h.  A  bhck  and  heavy  teint  is  alfo  to  be  avoided  ia 
the  eye-brows  ;  it  is  therefore  bell  to  execute  them 
like  a  broad  glowing  fhadow  at  firft,  on  which,  in  the 
finilhing,  the  hairs  of  the  brow  are  to  be  paiiited  ;  by 
which  method  of  proceeding,  the  former  teinta  will 
(liow  therafelves  through,  and  produce  the  moll  plea- 
iing  effcft. 

The  lludent  (hould  begin  the  lips  with  pure  carmine 
and  lake,  and  in  the  ftndow  ufe  fome  carmine  and 
black  ;  the  llrong  vermilijn  tcints  fliould  be  laid  on 
afterwards.  He  mull  beware  of  executing  them  with 
ftifF,  harfli  lines,  gently  intermixing  each  with  the 
neighbouring  colours,  making  the  Ihadow  beneath 
broad,  and  enriched  with  brilliant  crayons.  He  mull 
form  the  corner  of  the  mouth  with  carmine,  brown 
ochre,  and  greens,  varioufly  intermixed.  If  the  hair 
is  dark,  he  Ihould  preferve  much  of  the  lake  and  deep 
carmine  teints  therein  ;  this  may  ealily  be  overpowered 
by  the  warmer  hair  teints,  which,  as  cbfcrved  in  paint- 
ing the  eye-brows,  will  produce  a  richer  efFecl  when 
the  pifture  is  finiflied  ;  on  the  contrary,  if  this  method 
is  unknown  or  neglefted,  a  poverty  of  colouring  will 
be  difcernible. 

After  the  lludent  has  covered  over,  or  as  artllls 
term  it,  has  dead-coloured  the  head,  he  is  to  fweeten 
the  whole  together,  by  rubbing  it  over  with  his  fin- 
ger, beginning  at  the  ftrongeR  light  upon  the  fore- 
head, pafling  his  linger  very  lightly,  and  uniting  it 
with  the  next  teint,  which  he  muft  continue  till  the 
whole  is  fweetened  together,  often  wiping  his  finger 
on  a  towl  to  prevent  the  colours  being  fuUied.  He 
mull  be  cautious  not  to  fmooth  or  fweeten  his  pifture 
too  often,  becaufe  it  will  give  rife  to  a  thin  and  fcanty 
effeft,  and  have  more  the  appearance  of  a  drawing 
than  a  folid  painting;  as  nothing  but  a  body  cf  rich 
colours  can  conilitute  a  rich  effcft.  To  avoid  this  (as 
the  lludent  finds  it  necelFary  to  fweeten  with  the  fin- 
ger), he  muft.  commonly  replenifh  the  picluie  with 
moi-e  crayon. 

When  the  head  is  brought  to  fome  degree  of  for- 
wardnefs,  let  the  back-ground  be  laid  in,  which  mull 
be  treated  in  a  different  manner,  covering  it  as  thin  as 
poffible,  and  rubbing  it  into  the  paper  with  a  leather 
ilump.  Near  the  face  the  paper  Ihould  be  almoil  free 
from  colour,  for  this  will  do  great  fervrce  to  the  head, 
and  by  its  thinnefs  give  both  a  foft  and  folid  appear- 
ance. In  the  back  ground  alfo,  no  crayon  that  has 
whiting  in  its  compofition  (hould  be  ufed,  but  chiefly 
fuch  as  are  the  moll  brilliant  and  the  leall  adulterated. 
The  ground  being  painted  thin  next  the  hair,  will  give 
the  lludent  an  opportunity  of  painting  the  edges  of  the 
hair  over  In  a  light  and  free  manner  when  he  gives  the 
finlfhing  touches. 

Tlie  lludent  having  proceeded  thus  far,  the  face, 
hair,  and  back-ground  being  entirely  covered,  he  mull 
carefully  view  the  whole  at  fome  dillance,  remarking 
■  in  what  refpe<Sl  It  Is  out  of  keeping,  that  is,  what  parts 
are  too  light  and  what  too  dark,  being  particularly 
attentive  to  the  white  or  chalky  appearances,  which 
c^.uft  be  fubdued  with  lake  and  carmine.  The  above 
method  being  properly  put  into  execution,  willproduce 


8     ] 


C    R    A 


the  appearance  of  a  painting  principally  eompofed  of    Crayon, 

three  colours,  viz.  carmine,   black,  and  white,   which  *~-~ 

Is  the  bell  preparation  a  painter  can  make  for  the  pro- 
ducing a  fine  crayon  pifture. 

The  next  ftep  Is,  to  complete  the  background 
and  the  liali-,  as  the  dud,  in  painting  thefe,  will  fall 
on  the  face,  and  would  much  injure  It  if  that  wat 
completed  firll.  From  thence  proceed  to  the  fore- 
head, finilhing  downward  till  the  whole  pitlure  is  com- 
pleted. 

In  painting  over  the  forehead   the  lall  time,  begin 
the  highell   light    with  the  moll  faint  vermilion  teint^ 
in  the  lame  place   where   the  faint  carmine  was  firlk 
laid,   keeping  It  broad  In   the   fame   manner".      In  the  ^M 

next  Ihade  iuoceeding  the  lightell,  the  Undent  malt  '^B 
work  in  lome  light  blue  teints,  eompofed  of  verdittr 
and  white,  intermixing  with  them  fome  of  the  deeper 
vermilion  teints,  fweetening  them  together  with  great 
caution,  Inl'enfibly  melting  them  Into  one  another,  In- 
crealing  the  proportion  of  each  colour  as  his  judgment 
{hall  dirtil.  Soitre  brilliant  yellows  may  alfo  be  uled, 
but  fparingly ;  and  towards  the  roots  of  the  hair, 
flrong  verditer  teints,  intermixed  with  greens,  will  be 
of  fingular  fervlee.  Cooling  crayons,  eompofed  "of 
black  and  white,  llrould  fncceed  thefe  and  melt  Into  the 
hair.  Beneath  the  eyes,  the  fweet  pearly  teints  are  to 
be  preferved,  eompofed  of  verdltei  and  white,  and 
under  the  nofe,  and  on  the  temples,  the  fame  may 
be  ufed  ;  beneath  the  lips,  teints  of  this  kind  alfo  are 
proper,  mixing  them  with  the  light  greens  and  fome 
vermilion. 

In  finilhing  the  checks,  let  the  pure  lake  clear  them 
from  any  duR  contrafted  frora  the  other  crayons  ;  then 
with  the  lake  may  be  Intermixed  the  bright  vermilion ; 
aird  laft  of  all  (if  the  fubjedl  fiiould  require  it),  a  few 
touches  of  the  orange-coloured  crayon,  but  with  ex- 
treme caution  ;  after,  fweeten  that  part  with  the  fin- 
ger as  little  as  poffible,  for  fear  of  producing  a  heavy 
difagreeable  effedl  on  the  cheeks  :  as  the  beauty  of  a 
crayon-pldlure  confills  in  one  colour  ihowing  Itfelf 
thr"ough,  or  rather  between,  another:  this  the  lludent 
cannot  too  often  remark.  It  being  the  only  method  of 
imitating  beautiful  complexions. 

Tiie  eye  Is  the  moll  difficult  feature  to  execute  In 
crayons,  as  every  part  muft  be  exprclTed  with  the  ut- 
moll  nicety,  to  appear  finilhed  ;  at  the  fame  time  that 
the  painter  mull  pi-eferve  Its  breadth  and  iolidity  while 
he  Is  particularizing  the  parts.  To  accompUlh  this, 
it  will  be  a  good  general  rule  for  the  ftudent  to  ufe  his 
crayon  In  fweetening  as  much,  and  his  finger  as  little, 
as  poffible.  When  he  wants  a  point  to  touch  a  iraall 
part  with,  he  may  break  off  a  little  of  his  crayon  a- 
gainft  the  box,  which  will  produce  a  corner  fit  to  work 
with  In  the  minulell  parts.  If  the  eye-lalhes  are  dark, 
he  muft  ufe  fome  of  the  carmine  and  brown  ochre,  and 
the  crayon  of  carmine  and  black  ;  and  with  thefe  he 
may  alfo  touch  the  Iris  of  the  eye  (if  brown  or  hazel),- 
making  a  broad  Ihadow,  caufed  by  the  eye-lalh.  Red 
teints  of  vermilion,  carmine,  and  lake,  will  execute 
the  corners  of  the  eye  properly  ;  but  if  the  eye-lids  are 
too  red,  they  will  have  a  difagreeable  fore  appearance.  . 
The  pupil  of  the  eye  muft  be  made  of  pure  lamp- 
black :  between  this  and  the  lower  part  of  the  ins, 
the  light  will  catch  very  flrong,  but  It  muft  not  be 
made  too  fudden,  but  be  gently  diffufed  round  the  pu- 

pU 


C    R     A 


[     5 


'Crayon,     pil  till  it  is  lofl  in  fhade.      Wtien  the  eyt-balls  nii.'  fuf- 

—~t ticienlly  prepared,  the  (hilling  fpeck  mult  be  made  with 

a  pure  white  crayon,  which  fhoiilJ  be  firll  broken  to 
a  point,  and  then  laid  on  firm;  but  as  it  is  poffiblc 
they  may  be  dcFettive  in  neatnefs,  they  iliould  be  cor- 
refted  with  a  pin,  taking  off  the  redundant  parts,  by 
wliicli  means  they  may  be  formed  as  neat  as  can  be  re- 
quired. 

Tlie  difficulty,  with  rcfpeft  to  the  nofc,  is  to  pre- 
ferve  the  lines  properly  determined,  and  at  the  fame 
time  fo  artfully  blended  into  the  cheek,  as  to  exprcfs 
its  projeftion,  and  yet  no  real  line  to  be  perceptible 
upon  a  clofe  examination  ;  in  fome  circumdances  it 
ihould  be  quite  blended  with  the  cheek,  which  appears 
behind  it,  and  determined  entirely  with  a  fli;Tht  touch 
of  red  chalk.  The  fhadow  caufed  by  the  nofe  is  gene- 
rally the  darkeft  in  the  whole  face,  partaking  of  no 
refleftion  from  its  furrounding  paits.  Carmine  and 
brown  ochre,  carmine  and  black,  and  fuch  brilliant  cray- 
ons, will  compofe  it  bell. 

The  ftudent  having  before  prepared  the  lips  with  the 
ftrongeil  lake  and  carmine,  &c.  mull  with  thefe  co- 
lours make  them  completely  correCl;  and  when  finllh- 
ing,  introduce  the  ftrong  vermilions,  but  with  great 
caution,  as  they  are  extremely  predominant.  This,  if 
properly  touched,  will  give  the  lips  an  appearance 
equal,  if  not  fuperior,  to  thofe  executed  in  oils,  not- 
withllanding  the  feeming  fuperiority  the  latter  has,  by 
means  of  glazing  (a),  of  which  the  former  is  entirely 
deftitutc. 

When  the  (ludent  paints  the  neck,  he  Ihould  avoid 
exprefling  the  mufcles  too  ftrong  in  the  ftem,  nor 
fliould  the  bones  appear  too  evident  on  the  chelt,  as 
both  have  an  unplealing  ctFcrt,  denoting  a  violent  agi- 
tation of  the  body;  a  circumflance  feldom  necedaiy  to 
exprefs  in  portrait-painting.  The  moll  necedary  part 
to  be  expreffed,  and  which  (liould  ever  be  obferved, 
(even  in  the  moft  delicate  fubjtcts),  is  a  llrong  mark- 
ing jull  above  the  place  where  the  collar  bones  uin'te  ; 
and  if  the  head  is  much  thrown  over  the  (houlders, 
fome  notice  fhould  be  taken  of  the  large  mufcle  that 
rifes  from  behind  the  ear,  and  is  infertcd  into  the  pit 
between  the  collar  bones.  All  inferior  mufcles  flioald 
be,  in  general,  quite  avoided.  The  ftudent  will 
find  this  caution  necefl'ary,  as  moft  fubjefts,  elpeclally 
thin  perfons,  have  the  mufcles  of  the  neck  much  more 
evident  than  would  be  judicious  to  imitate.  As  few- 
necks  are  too  long,  it  may  be  ntceffary-  to  give  fome 
addition  to  the  ftem,  a  fault  on  the  other  fide  being 
quite  unpardonable,  nothing  being  more  ungraceful 
than  a  ftiort  neck.  In  colouring  the  neck,  let  the  ftu- 
dent prcferve  the  ftem  of  a  pearly  hue,  and  the  light 
not  fo  ftrong  as  on  the  cheft.  If  any  part  of  the  breall 
appears,  its  tranfparency  muft  alfo  be  exprelTed  hy 
pearly  teintst ;  but  the  upper  part  of  the  cheft  (liould 
be  coloured  with  beautiful  vermilions  delicately  blend- 
ed with  the  other. 

Of  the  Drapery.  Dark  blue,  purple,  black,  pink, 
and  all  kinds  of  red  draperies  alfo,  ftiould  oe  firft  tin- 
ged with  carmine,  which  will  render  the  colours  much 
more  brilliant  than  any  other  method ;  over  this  Ihould 


19     7  C     R     A 

be  laid  on  the  paper  the   middle   tcint  (a  medium  be-    Crayon, 
twcen  the  light  and  dark  tcints,  of  wliich  the  drapery  *^ 

is  to  be  painted),  except  the  dark  malfes  of  ftiadow, 
which  Ihould  be  laid  on  at  firil  as  deep  as  polTiblc  ; 
thefe,  fweetened  with  the  finger,  being  dellitute  of  the 
fmaller  folds,  will  exhibit  a  malterly  breadth,  which 
the  l-ffer  folds,  when  added,  ought  by  no  means  to 
dcftroy.  With  the  light  and  dark  teints,  the  fmaller 
parts  are  next  to  be  made  with  freedom,  executing  as 
much  with  the  crayon,  and  as  little  with  the  finger  as 
pofilble ;  in  each  fold  touching  the  lall  ftroke  with  the 
crayon,  wliich  ftroke  the  finger  mull  never  touch.  In 
the  cafe  of  reflections,  the  fimple  touch  of  the  crayon 
will  be  too  hardi,  therefore  fingering  will  be  neceftai-y 
afterwards,  as  reflecled  lights  are  always  more  gentle 
tlian  thofe  which  are  dirtdl.  With  refpedl  to  reflec- 
tions In  general,  they  muft  always  partake  of  the  fame 
colour  as  the  objedt  refleding,  but  in  the  cafe  of  fingle 
figures,  it  may  be  ufeful  to  make  fome  particular  ob- 
fevations. 

In  a  blue  drapery,  let  the  refleftions  be  of  a  greenifii 
caft  ;  in  green  draperies,  make  them  of  a  yellow  teiut ; 
In  yellow,  of  an  orange;  in  orange,  reflect  a  reddiftl 
cad;  in  all  reds,  fomething  of  their  own  nature,  but 
inclined  to  the  yellow:  black  ftiould  have  a  reddiftl  re- 
fleftion  ;  the  reflctT;i<in  of  a  reddHli  telnt  will  alio  pre- 
fent  purples  to  the  bell  advantage. 

Of  whatever  colour  the  drapery  is,  the  refleftioa 
on  the  face  muft  partake  thereof,  othtrwife  the  pic- 
ture, like  paintings  on  glafs,  will,  have  but  a  gaudy 
effcft. 

Linen,  lace,  fur,  &c.  fliould  be  touched  fpiritedly 
with  the  crayon,  fingering  very  little,  except  the  latter  ; 
and  the  lad  touches,  even  of  this,  like  all  other  parts, 
ftiould  be  executed  by  the  crayon,  without  fweeteniug 
with  the  finger. 

The  methocJs  above  recommended  have  been  prac- 
tifed  by  the  moft  celebrated  crayon-painters,  whofe 
works  ha%'e  been  held  in  public  eftlnuitlon  ;  but  the 
knowledge  of,  and  ability  to, execute,  each  feparate  part 
with  brilliancy  and  truth,  will  be  found  very  infufS- 
cient  to  conftitute  a  complete  painter,  without  his 
judgment  enables  him  to  unite  them  with  each  o- 
ther,  by  correftnefs  of  drawing,  propriety  of  light 
and  ftiadow,  and  harmony  of  colouring.  In  order  to 
accompllfli  this,  the  ftudent  ftiould  carefully  avoid 
finifiiing  one  part  in  particular,  till  he  has  proper- 
ly confidered  the  connection  It  Is  to  have  with  the  reft. 
The  neglefl  of  this  is  the  principal  rcafon  why  tlie  per- 
formances of  Indifferent  painters  are  fo  deftitute  of 
what  is  termed  breadth,  fo  confplcuouny  beautiful  in 
the  works  of  great  mafters.  It  muft  be  granted,  that 
this  obfervatlon  relates  more  particularly  to  large  com- 
pofitlons,  where  a  diverfity  of  figures  requires  fuch  a 
judicious  dlfpofition,  that  each  may  alhft  in  the  com- 
bination of  a  kind  of  univerfal  harmony  ;  yet,  even 
in  portrait-painting,  the  ftudent  ftiould  be  particularly 
attentive  to  obfervc  this  idea  of  breadth,  if  he  is  defir- 
ous  of  acquiring  that  importance  and  dignity  which 
conftitutes  excellence  in  painting. 

Of  the  Materials.    Tue  perfection  of  the  crayons  con- 
fids,. 


(a)  The  method  with  which  painters  in  oils  exprefs  tranfparency  in  the  lip«  is,  by  painting  them  fiift  w.th 
light  vermiiion  teiats,  and,  when  dry,  touching  them  over  with  pure  lake. 


C     R     A                     [     520     ]  C     R     A 

Ctayon.    fifts,  in  a  great  mealure,  iii  tUeir  fortncrs;  for  it  is  im-  two  pf.rcili?.     The  next  gradation  flioiild  be  coxpofcd 

t— — \ pofliblc  to  execute  a  brilliant  pifture  with  them  if  they  of  equal  quantities  of  carmine  and  whiting,  of  whieh 

are  otherwife  ;  on  whieh  account  gi eat  care  (hould  be  four  crayons  may   be  nr>ade.     The.thiid  conipoliticin 

obfeived  in  the  prt paring  them,  to  prevent  their  being  fliould    linve    one  fourth    carmine    and   three   fourtlis 

hard.       In   aU  compofitions,    flake-while    and   white-  whiting  ;    of  this  make  fix   crayons,   which   will  be  a 

lead    fhoiM  be   wholly  rejeftcd,  becauCe   the  filghteft  good    proportion   with  the  reft.     The  laft  teirt  (hould 

touch  with  either  of  thefe  will  imvivoidably  turn  black,  be  made  of  whiting,  very  faintly  tinged  with  carmine, 

The  tifnal  objcflion  tocrayon-paintin^^sis,  that  they  of  which  make  about  eight  ciayons,  which  will  eoin- 

are  fubien  to  change  ;  but  whenever  this  Itappens,  it  is  plete  the  above-meniioned  proportion.     As  thelc  co.ii- 

entirely  owing  to  an  injudicious  ule  of  tlie  above-raen-  pound  teints  are   levigated,  they  are  to  be  laid  imme- 

lioiied  whites,  which  will  ftand  only  in  oils.     To  ob-  diately   lipon   the  chalk,   that  tne  moillurc  may  be  ab- 

viate  the  bad  eflefts  avifing  from  the  ufe  of  fuch  ciay-  fiirbed   to   the   proper  degree  of  drynefs   tor  forming 

oua,  let  the  fludent  make  ufe  of  common  whiting  pre-  into  crayons,  which   may   be  known  by  if  loliiig  the 

pared  in  the  followimr  manner.  greater  part   of  its   adhelive  quality  when  taken  into 

Take   a  large  veflel  of  water,  put   the  vs'hiting  into  the  hand:  if  the  canfiltency  is   found  to  be  right,  it 

it,  and  mix  them   well  together  ;  let  thii  Hand  iibout  may   be    then  laid   upon   the   glaf»,  which  havmg  na 

half  a  minute,  then  pour  off  the  top  into  another  vef-  pores   will   prevent   the  moillurc    from,  becoming    too 

lei,  and  throw  ttie  gritty  fediment  away  ;  let  "hat  is  dry  before  it  is  convenient  to  form   it  into  crayons, 

prepared  reft  ab  nit  a  minute,  and   then  pour  it  oil' as  otheiwife  the  crayons  would  be  full  of  cracks  and  very 

before,  which  will   purifv   the   whiting   and  render  it  brittle,  which  will  be  a  great  inconvenience  when  tiiey 


Crsyon. 


free  from  all  dirt  and  yrittlnefs.  When  this  is  done, 
let  the  whiting  fettle,  and  then  pour  the  water  from 
it;  after  which,  lay  it  on  the  chalk  to  dry,  and  k.-ep 
it  for  ufe,  either  for  while  crayons,  or  the  purpole  of 
preparing  teints  with  other  cohi'jrs,  for  with  this  all 
other  teints  may  be  fafely  prepared.  Iftheftudent 
choofcs  to  make  crayons  of  the  whiting  immediately  af- 
ter it  is  walhed,  it  is  not  neccffitry  to  dry  it  on  the 


are  uf.d  m  painting. 

2.  Lake.  This  is  a  colour  very  apt  to  be  hard  ;  to 
prevent  which  the  ftudent  mull  obfer^e  the  following 
particulars.  Take  about  h-ulf  the  quantity  of  l»ke  In- 
tended for  the  crayong  and  grind  it  very  lii.c  vntii  )pi- 
rits  of  wine  ;  let  it  dry,  and  then  pulverize  it,  v/hicli 
is  eafily  done  If  the  lake  is  good  ;  then  take  ilie' other 
half,  and  grind  it  with  fpints,  after  which  mix  it  with 


chalk,   for  it   may  bc^inixed   inllantly  with  any  other  the  pulverized  Like,  and  lay  it  out  dlreritly  In  crayons 

colour,  which  will  fave  confiderable  trouble.      All  co-  on  the  chalk.     This  colour  will  not  bear^-olllng.      The 

lours    of    a    heavy    or  giitty  nature,    efpecially   blue  Cmple   colour  being  thus   prepa.cd,  proceed  with  the 

verditer,    mull    be    purified  by  wadiing  after  this  me-  compound   crayons    as    direfted    before,   and    in    the 

tjjod.  fame  degrees  of  gradation  as  the  carmine  teints. 

The  lludent  muft  he  provided  with 'a  large,  flexible  3-  Vermilion.  The  beft  is  inclined  to  the  carmine 
pallet-knife,  a  large  ftone  and  muller  to  levigate  the  teint.  Nothiri;  is  required  to  prepare  this  colour  more 
colours,  two  or  three  large  pieces  of  chalk  to  abforb  than  to  mix  it  on  the  llone  with  fifl  water  or  fpliits, 
the  moillure  from  the  colours  after  they  are  levigated,  after  which  it  may  be  rolled  into  crayons,  'i'ne  diHc- 
a  piece  of  fiat  glafs  to  prevent  the  moillure  from  be-  rent  teints  are  produced  by  a  mixture  of  theiimpic  Go- 
ing abforbed  too  m.uch,  till  the  coloui  s  are  rolled  Into  lour  with  \vh;ting,  according  to  the  proportions  already 
form,  and  veffels  for  water,  fpirits,  ^c.  as  neceliity  given, 
and  convenience  f!;all  dircft.  II-   Blufs.      i.  Pruflian  blue  is  a  colour  very  apt 

I.   Rids.      It   is   rather   difficult    to  procure  either  to  bind,  and  is  rendered  ioft  with  more  dil.^cuity  than 

good   carmine  or  good  lake.      Good  caimine  Is  iiiclln-  carmine  and  lake.    The  lame  method  of  preparation  is 


to  be  lollowed  with  this  as  directed  with  refpcft  to 
lake,  only  it  is  neceffary  to  grind  a  larger  quantity  of 
tl\e  pure  crlour,  as  it  is  chit  fly  ufed  f^^r  painting  dra- 
peries. The  dift'eient  teints  may  be  made  according 
to  neceility,  or  tlie  fancy  of  the  painter.      2    Blue-ver- 


ed  to  the  vermilion  telnt,  and  good  lake  to  the  carmine 
teint.  The  carmine  crayons  are  prepared  in  tlie  f;.l- 
lowing  manner. 

I.  Carmine.      As  their  texture  is  inclinable  to  hard- 
nefs,    inllead   of  grinding   and   roiling   them,    take  a 

fufficlent  quantity   of  caruiine,  lav  it  upon  the  gi  Ind-  dlier   Is  a  colour  naturally  gritty,  and  therefore  it  is 

jng-llone,   mix   it   with   a  levigating  knife  with  fpirits  neceffary  to   walh   it   well.      Its  particles  are  io  coaife 

of  wine  till  it  becomes    fmooth  and  even.     The  chalk-  as  to  require  fome  binding  matter  to  unite  them,  other- 

flone  being  ready,  lav  the  colour  irpon  it  to  ablorb  the  Vi'lfe   the  cr-ayons  will  never  adhere  together.     To  ac- 

fpirit;  but  be  careful  that  it  is  laid  on  In  a  proper  ihape  complltli  this,   iLake  a  quartily  fuincient  to  form  two 

for  painting.      If  it   is  levigated  too  thin,  the  crayons  ot  three  crayons,    to  «hi;h  add  a  piece  of  llacke  1  pk- 

wlU  be  tois  flat;   and   if  too  thick,  it   will  occalion  a  fter  of  Paris  about  the  lize  of  a  pea;  mix  thefe  v.  e.lto- 

«valle  of  colour,  by  their  adhering  to  the  pallet-knifc  ;  gether,  and   form   the  crayons  upon  liic  cnalk       'This 

but  practice  will  rendcrthe  proper  degree  of  conCflen-  blue  is  extremely  billliant,  and  will  be  of  great  ufe  in 

cy  familiar.     The   fimple   colour  being  pi-cpated,  the  heightening  dr:;perles,    -^       '^"'' "  "^     ' 


next  ftep  is  to  compofe  the  different  teints  by  a  mixture 
with  wliltliig  i  the  proportion  to  be  obierved  conliiling 
of  20  gradations  to  one,  which  ir.ay  be  clearly  under- 
ftood  by  the  following  dlredlions.  Take  fome  of  the 
fimple  colour,  and  levigate  it  with  fpirits  ef  wine,  ad- 
ding about  one  part  of  waflied  whiting  to  three  parts  of 
carmine,  of  which,  when  properly  iucorporated,  make     great  difficulty.     In  Switzerland,   they  have  a  method 


teincs  mult  be  form- 
ed with  wlitting  as  diir£ted  in  the  former  inllanccs,  and 
are  highly  feiviceable  lor  painting  il:i]i,  10  pi-oduce 
thofe  pearly  teints  fo  beautiful  in  crayon- piftures.  It 
is  not  neceffary  to  mix  the  compounds  with  Ipliits,  as 
clear  water  will  be  fufficlent. 

III.  Gp.Ei'NS.      Brilliant-greens  are  produced  with 


C    R    A 


[    521    ] 


C    R    A 


.  of  making  them  far  fuperior  to  ours.  We  ufually 
"■  take  yellow  ochre,  and  after  grinding  it  with  fpirits, 
mix  it  with  the  powder  of  Pruflian  blue,  then  tem- 
per it  with  a  knife,  and  lay  the  crayons  on  the 
chalk,  without  rolling  them.  Inftcad  of  this,  fome 
ufe  king's  yellow  mixed  with  Pruflian  blue,  and  others 
brown  ochre  and  Pruflian  blue.  The  crayons  made  of 
the  two  laft  may  be  rolled.  Various  tcints  may  be 
produced  by  thele  colours,  according  to  fancy  or  nccef- 
lity  ;  fome  to  partake  more  ofthe  blue,  and  otheis  of 
the  yellow, 

IV.  Yellows,  t.  King's-yellow  is  the  moft  ufe- 
ful  and  the  moft  brilliant,  levigated  with  fpirits  of  wine, 
and  compofe  the  different  teints  as  before  directed. 
Yellow  ochre  and  Naples  yellow  ground  with  fpirits 
will  make  ufeful  crayons.  2.  Orange  is  produced  with 
king's-yellow  and  vermilion  ground  together  with  fpi- 
rits, and  the  teints  formed  as  in  other  Cafes,  but  no 
great  quantity  of  them  is  required. 

V.  Browns.  i.  CuUen's-earth  is  a  fine  dark 
brown.  After  fix  or  eight  of  the  limple  crayons  are 
prepared,  feveral  rich  compound  teints  may  be  pro- 
duced from  it,  by  a  mixture  with  carmine,  in  various 
degrees.  Black,  carmine,  and  this  colour,  mixed  to- 
gether, make  ufeful  teints  for  painting  hair ;  feveral 
gradations  may  be  produced  from  each  of  thefe  by  a 
mixture  with  whiting.  Roman  or  brown  ochre  is  an 
excellent  colour,  either  fimple  or  compounded  with 
carmine.  Whiting  tinged  in  feveral  degrees  with 
either  of  thefe,  will  prove  very  ferviceable  in  paint- 
ing. 2.  Umber  may  be  treated  in  juft  the  fame  man- 
ner, onlyit  is  neccffaiy  to  levigate  it  with  fpirit  of 
wine. 

VI.  Purples.  PiufGan  blue  ground  with  fpirits 
and  mixed  with  pulverized  lake,  will  produce  a  good 
purple.  Carmine  thus  mixed  with  Pruffian  blue,  will 
produce  a  purple  fomething  different  from  the  former. 
Various  teints  may  be  made  from  either  of  thefe  com- 
pounds by  a  mixture  with  whiting. 

VII.  Black.  i.  Lamp-black  is  the  only  black 
that  can  be  ufed  with  fafety,  as  all  others  are  lubjctl 
to  mildew  ;  but  as  good  lamp-black  is  very  fcarce,  tlfc 
l^iident  v.'ill,  perhaps,  find  it  moil  expedient  to  make 
it  himfelf ;  the  procefs  of  which  is  as  follows:  Pro- 
vide a  tin  cone,  fix  it  over  a  lamp  at  fuch  a  height 
that  the  flame  may  juft  reach  the  cone  for  the 
foot  to  gather  within  it.  When  a  fufficient  quantity 
is  collefted,  take  it  out,  and  burn  all  the  greafe  from 
it  in  a  crucible.  It  muft  then  be  ground  with  fpirits, 
and  laid  on  the  chalk  to  abforb  the  molfture.  Various 
grej-  teints  may  be  formed  from  this  by  a  mixture 
with  whiting,  as  mentioned  in  former  inftancts.^ 
2.  Vermilion  mixed  with  carmine  :  this  is  a  compofi- 
tion  of  great  ufe,  and  teints  made  from  this  with  whit- 
ing will  be  found  to  be  very  ferviceable.  3.  Carmine 
and  black  is  another  good  compound,  of  vifhich  five  or 
lix  gradations  fhould  be  made,  fome  partaking  moic  of 
the  black,  and  others  having  the  carmine  moll  predo* 
rninant,  befides  ftveral  teints  by  a  mixture  with  whiting. 

4.  Vermilion  and  black  is  alfo  a  very  ufeful  compound, 
from  which   feveral   different  tcints   (liould   be   made. 

5.  Pruflian  blue  and  black  is  another  good  compound, 
and  will  be  found  of  fingular  fcrvice  in  painting  dra- 
peries. 

It  is  impollible  to  lay   down   rules  for  the  forming 
Vol.  V.  Part  H. 


Cream. 


every  teint  neceffary  in   corapofing  a  fet  of  crayonj,    Crayon 
there  being  many  accidental  compofitions,  entirely  de- 
pendent on  fancy  and   opinion.     The  ft:udent  fliould  >, 
make  it  a  rule  to  favc  the  leavings  of  his  colours ;  for 
of  thefe  he  may  form  various  teints,  which  wiQ  occa- 
fionally  be  ufeful. 

Of  rolling  the  crayons,  and  d'ffojiig  them  for  paint- 
ing. The  different  compofitions  of  colours  muft  be  cut 
into  a  proper  magnitude,  after  they  are  prepared,  in 
order  to  be  rolled  into  paftils,  for  the  convenience  of 
utiiigthem.  Each  crayon  fhould  be  formed  in  the  left 
hand  with  the  ball  of  the  right,  firft  formed  cylindri- 
cally,  and  then  tapered  at  each  end.  If  tlie  compofi- 
tioB  is  too  dry,  dip  the  finger  in  water  ;  if  too  wet,  the 
compofition  muft  be  laid  upon  the  chalk  again  to  ab- 
forb more  of  the  raoift.ure.  The  crayons  fhould  be 
rolled  as  quick  as  poflible  ;  and  when  finiflied,  muft  be 
laid  upon  the  chalk  again,  to  abforb  all  remaining  moi- 
flure.  After  the  gradation  of  teints  from  one  colour 
are  formed,  the  flone  fliould  be  weU  fcraped  and  clean- 
ftd  with  water  before  it  is  ufed  for  another  colour. 

When  the  fet  of  crayons  is  completed  according  to 
the  rules  prefcribed,  they  fhould  be  ananged  in  claffes 
for  the  convenience  of  painting  with  them.  Some 
thin  drawers,  divided  into  a  number  of  partitions,  is 
the  moft  convenient  method  of  difpofing  them  proper- 
ly. The  crayons  ftiould  be  depofited  according  to  the 
feveral  gradations  of  light.  The  bottom  of  the  parti- 
tions muft  be  covered  with  bran,  as  a  bed  for  the  co- 
lours ;  bccaufe  it  not  only  preferves  them  clean,  but 
prevents  their  breaking. 

The  box  made  ufe  of  when  the  ftudent  paints,  fhouIJ 
be  about  a  foot  iquare,  with  nine  partitions.  In  the 
upper  corner,  on  the  left  hand  (fuppofing  the  box  to 
be  in  the  lap  when  he  paints),  let  him  place  the  black 
and  grey  crayons,  thofe  being  the  mofl  feldom  ufed ; 
in  the  fecond  partition,  the  blues  ;  in  the  third,  tlie 
greens  and  browns  ;  in  the  iirft  partition  on  the  left 
hand  of  the  fecond  row,  the  carmines,  lakes,  vermi- 
lions, and  all  deep  reds  ;  the  yellows  and  orange  in 
the  middle,  and  the  pearly  teints  next ;  and  as  thefe 
laft  are  of  a  very  delicate  nature,  they  muft  be  kept 
very  clean,  that  the  gradations  of  colour  may  be 
eafily  dlftinguifhed  :  in  the  loweft  row,  let  the  firfl 
partition  contain  a  piece  of  fine  hnen  rag  to  wipe 
the  crayons  with  while  they  are  ufmg ;  the  fecond, 
all  tlie  pure  lake  and  vermilion  teints;  and  the  other 
partition  may  contain  thofe  teints  which,  from  their 
complex  nature,  cannot  be  claffed  with  any  of  the 
former. 

CRAZE-MILL,  or  Crazng-MHJ,  a  mill  in  all  refpefts 
hke  a  grift-mlll  to  grind  corn,  and  is  fo  called  by  the 
tin-miners,  who  ufe  it  to  grind  their  tin,  which  is  yet 
too  great,  after  trambllng. 

CREAM,  a  general  name  applicable  to  all  fubftan- 
ces  that  feparate  from  a  liquor,  and  are  collefted  upon 
its  furface  ;  but  is  more  particularly  applied  to  the  fol- 
lowing. 

Crham  of  Liirt,  is  that  part  of  the  lime  which  had 
been  diftblved  in  the  water  in  its  cauftic  ftatc,  but  ha- 
ving again  attracted  fome  fixed  air  from  the  atmo- 
fphere,  becomes  incapable  of  folutinn,  and  therefore 
feparates  from  the  water  in  the  mild  ilate  of  chalk  or 
limcftone. 

Cs.EA!.i  of  MiH-,  generally  called  fimple  cream,  is  the 

3  u  moa 


•See  Bulltr 

Mm,  and 
Ct»Je. 


I 
Wliat 
•work?  of 

Cod  is 
J:iio'An  fo 
ha'.e  per- 
formed. 


C    R     E  [5 

moil  oily  part  of  the  milk  ;  which  being  naturally  only 
mixed,  and  not  diflblved  in  the  reft,  foon  feparates  from 
them,  as  being  fpecifically  lighter  ;  after  which  it  col- 
lefts  on  the  furface ;  from  which  it  is  generally  flcimmed, 
to  complete  the  difengagement  of  the  oily  from  the 
cafcous  and  ferous  paits  that  is  to  make  butter*. 
Cream  of  milk  is  not  only  an  agreeable  aliment  when 
recent,  but  is  alfo  ufcful  in  medicine  as  a  lenient,  when 
applied  to  tetters  and  eryfipelas  attended  with  pain  and 
proceeding  from  an  acrid  humour. 

CkF.yiM  of  Tartar.     See  Chemistry,  n°  886. 

CREAT,  in  the  manege,  an  uHier  to  a  riding  ma- 
fter  :  or  a  gentleman  bred  in  the  academy,  with  intent 
to  make  hi  mfclf  capable  of  teaching  the  art  of  riding 
the  great  horfe. 

CREATION,  in  its  primary  import,  fcems  to  fig- 
nify  the  bringing  into  being  fomething  which  did  not 
before  exift.  The  term  is  therefore  moft  generally  ap- 
plied to  the  original  production  of  the  materials  where- 
of the  vifible  world  is  compofed.  It  ia  alfo,  however, 
ufed  in  a  fecondary  or  fubordinate  fenfe,  to  denote 
thofe  fubfequcnt  operations  of  the  Deity  upon  the 
matter  fo  produced,  by  which  the  whole  fyilem  of  na- 
ture and  all  the  primitive  genera  of  things  received 
their  form,  qualities,  and  laws. 

There  is  no  fubjeft  concerning  which  there  have 
been  more  difputes  than  this  of  creation.  It  is 
certain  that  none  of  the  ancient  philofophers  had  the 
fmallell  idea  of  its  being  poffible  to  produce  a  fub- 
llar.ce  out  of  nothing,  or  that  even  the  power  of  the 
Deity  himfelf  could  work  without  any  materials  to 
work  upon.  Hence  fome  of  them,  among  whom  was 
Ariftotle,  afferted  that  the  world  was  eternal  both  as 
to  its  matter  and  form.  Others,  though  they  believed 
that  the  gods  had  given  the  world  its  form,  yet  imagined 
tlie  materials  whereof  it  is  compofed  to  have  been  eter- 
nal. Indeed  the  opinions  of  the  ancients,  who  Iiad  not 
had  the  benefit  of  revelation,  were  on  this  head  fo  con- 
fufcd  and  c^ntvadiftory,  that  nothing  of  any  confe- 
quence  can  be  deduced  from  them.  The  freethinkers 
of  our  own  and  of  former  ages  have  denied  tlie  poflibi- 
lity  of  creation,  as  being  a  contraditlion  to  reafon ;  and 
of  confequence  have  taken  the  opportunity /rom  thence 
to  difcredit  revelation.  On  the  other  hand,  many  de- 
fenders of  the  facred  writings  have  alTerted,  that  crea- 
tion out  of  nothing,  fo  far  from  being  a  contradic- 
tion to  reafon,  is  not  only  probable,  but  demonftra- 
hly  certain.  Nay,  fome  have  gone  fo  far  as  to  fay, 
that  from  the  very  infpeftion  of  the  vifible  fyftem  of 
nature,  we  are  able  to  infer  that  it  was  once  in  a 
ftate  of  non-exiftence.  It  would  be  impolTible  for  us, 
however,  to  enter  into  the  multiplicity  of  arguments 
ufed  on  both  fides  ;  nor  can  we  pretend  to  fettle  it, 
as  the  fubjeft  is  confefledly  above  human  comprehen- 
fjon. 

As  to  the  works  of  creation  which  the  Deity  is 
known  to  us  to  have  performed  ;  all  other  beings,  be- 
fide  himfelf,  are  his  creatures.  Men  and  other  ani- 
mals that  inliabit  the  earth  and  the  feas,  all  the  ira- 
mcnfe  varieties  of  herb .  and  plants  of  which  the  ve- 
vetable  kingdom  conlills  ;  the  globe  of  the  earth,  and 
the  expanfe  of  the  ocean  ;  thefe  we  know  to  have  been 
produced  by  his  power.  Befides  the  terreftrlal  world 
which  we  inhabit,  we  fee  many  other  material  bodies 
difpofed  around  it  in  the  wide  extent  of  fpace.  The 
lacoii.  which  is  in  a  particular  manner  coancftcd  with 


22     ]  C     R     E 

our  earth,  and  even  dependent  upon  it  ;  the  fun,  and  Creation, 
the  other  p'anets  with  their  fateliites,  which,  like  tiie  '~~'v~-~' 
earth,  circulate  round  the  fun,  and  appear  to  derive 
from  him  light  and  heat  ;  thofe  bodies  which  we  call 
fixed  ftais,  and  confider  as  illuminating  and  cherifhing 
with  heat  each  its  peculiar  fyftem  of  planets ;  and 
the  comets  which  at  certain  periods  furprife  us  with 
their  appearanc-e,  and  the  nature  of  whole  conneftion 
with  the  general  fyftem  of  nature,  or  with  any  parti- 
cular fyftem  of  planets,  we  cannot  pretend  to  have  tuily 
difcovered  ; — thefe  are  fo  many  more  of  the  Deit<''3 
works,  from  the  contemplation  of  which  we  can- 
not but  conceive  the  moft  awful  ideas  of  his  creative 
power. 

Matter,  hov.'ever,  whatever  the  varieties  of  form 
under  which  it  is  made  to  appear,  the  relative  dilpo- 
fition  of  its  parts,  or  the  motions  communicated  to 
it,  is  but  an  inferior  part  of  the  works  of  creation. 
We  believe  ourfelves  to  be  animated  with  a  much  high- 
er principle  than  brute  matter  ;  in  viewing  the  manners 
and  economy  of  the  lower  animals,  we  can  Icarce  avoid 
acknowledging  even  them  to  confift  of  lomtthing  more 
than  various  modifications  of  matter  and  motion  ;  I'lie 
other  planetary  bodies  which  feem  to  be  in  circumllan- 
ces  neatly  analogous  to  thoie  of  our  earth,  are  lure- 
ly,  as  well  as  it,  deftined  for  the  habitations  of  rational, 
intelligent  beings.  The  exiftence  of  intelligences  of 
an  higher  order  than  man,  though  infinitely  below 
the  Deity,  appears  extremely  probable: — Of  thofe 
fpiritual  beings  called  Angels  we  have  exprefs  in- 
timation in  fcripture;  (fee  the  article  Angels.)  Such 
are  our  notions  concerning  the  exiftence  of  beings  ef- 
fentially  diftinft  from  matter,  and  in  their  nature  far 
fuperior  to  it  :  thefe,  too,  muft  be  the  creatures  of  the 
Deity,  and  of  his  works  of  creation  the  nobleft  part. 
But  the  limits  of  creation  we  muft  not  pretend  to  de- 
fine. How  far  the  regions  of  fpace  extend,  or  how 
they  are  filled,  we  know  not.  How  the  planetary 
worlds,  the  fun  and  the  fixed  ftars,  are  occupied,  we 
do  not  pretend  to  have  afcertained.  We  are  even  ig- 
norant how  wide  a  diverfity  of  forms,  what  an  infinity 
o£  living  animated  beings  may  inhabit  our  own  globe. 
So  confined  is  our  knowledge  of  creation  ;  yet  fo 
grand,  fo  awful,  that  part  which  our  narrow  uiider- 
ftandiiigs  can  comprehend  ! 

Concerning  the  periods  of  time  at  which  the  Deity 
executed  his  feveral  works  of  creation,   it  cannot   be -j-fj^  pg,;„|ij 
pretended  that  mankind  have  had  opportunities  of  re-oftinieat 
cclving  very  particular^  information.      F.'-om    viewing  "'hich  God 
the  phenomena  of  nature,  and  confidering  the  general  p*^'"'^? 
laws  by  which  they  are   regulated,   we  cannot  draw^^j-  jfmion, 
any  conclufive  or  even  plaufible  inference  with  refpecl 
to  tlie  precife  period  at  which  the  univerfe  muft  have 
begun  to  exift.     We  know  not,  nor  can  we  hope   to 
afctrtain,   whether  the  different  fyftems  of  planets  cir- 
culating round  oui  fun  and  the  other  fixed  ftars,  were 
all  created  at  one  period,  or  each  at  a  different  period. 
We  cannot  even  determine,   from  any  thing  that  ap- 
pears on  the  face  of  nature,  vvhetiier  our  earth  was  not 
created  at  a  later  period  than  any  of  her  fellow  planets 
which  revolve  round  the  fame  fun.      Aftronomers  are, 
from  time  to  time,  making  new  difcoverics  in  the  hea- 
vens ;  and  it  is  impoffible  to  fay  whether  lome  of  thefe 
fucceflive  difcoveries  may   not  be  owing  to  fucceifive 
.creations. 

Philofophers  have,  indeed,  formed  fome  curious  con- 

1  jeclures 


C    R     E  [5 

jeftures  concerning  the  antiquity  of  the  earth,  from 
the  appearances  of  its  fiirface,  and  from  the  nature 
and  difpofition  of  its  interior  ilrata.  The  beds  of  lava 
in  the  neif'hbourhood  of  volcanoes  have  afforded 
ground  for  fome  calculations,  which,  though  they  do 
not  llx  the  period  of  the  earth's  origin,  are  yet  thought 
to  prove  that  period  to  have  been  much  more  remote 
than  the  carlieil  age  of  facred  or  profane  hiftory.  *  In 
the  neighbourhood  of  mount  iEtna,  or  on  the  fides  of 
that  cxtenfive  mountain,  there  are  beds  of  lava  covered 
over  with  a  confiderable  thickncfs  of  earth  ;  and  at  lead 
another,  again,  which,  though  known  from  ancient  mo- 
numents and  hiftorical  records  to  have  iffued  from  the 
volcano  at  leaft  2000  years  ago,  is  ftlll  almoll  entirely 
deftitute  of  foil  and  vegetation  :  in  one  place  a  pit  has 
been  cut  through  feven  different  ilrata  of  lava  ;  and 
thefe  have  been  found  feparated  from  each  other  by 
almoft  as  many  thick  beds  of  rich  earth.  Now, 
from  the  faft,  that  a  ilratum  of  lava  2000  years  old 
is  yet  fcantily  covered  with  earth,  it  has  been  inferred 
by  the  ingenious  canon  Recupero,  who  has  laboured 
30  years  on  the  natural  hiftorj'  of  mount  jEtna,  that 
the  lowed  of  thefe  ftrata  which  have  been  found  di- 
vided by  fo  many  beds  of  earth,  muil  have  been  emitted 
from  the  volcanic  crater  at  leaft  14000  years  ago; 
and  conftquently  that  the  age  of  the  earth,  whatever 
it  may  exceed  this,  term  of  years,  cannot  pofllbly  be  lefs. 
Other  fafts  of  a  fimilar  nature  likevvife  concur  to  juftify 
this  conjefture. 

But  all  thefe  fafts  are  as  nothihg  in  comparifon  with 
the  long  feries  v/hich  would  be  rcquifite  to  ellabliffi 
fuch  a  conjefture  as  an  incontrovertible  truth.  And, 
befides,  any  evidence  which  they  can  be  fuppofed 
to  afford,  may  be  veiy  eafily  explained  away.  The 
bed  of  lava  which  in  the  courfe  of  2000  years  has 
fcarce  acquired  a  covering  of  earth,  is  confeffcd  to 
ftand  in  a  fituation  in  whi(  h  it  Is  expofed  to  the  fpray 
of  the  fea,  and  to  all  the  violence  of  winds  and  rains. 
In  fuch  a  fituation,  it  cannot  be  thought  that  a  thick 
bed  of  earth  could,  in  any  length  of  time,  be  formed 
on  it  :  we  might  as  well  expert  depth  of  foil  and  vi- 
gorous vegetation  on  the  craggy  cliffs  of  hills.  In 
crevices  here  and  there  over  it,  in  which  the  e?rth  has 
been  retained,  there  is  a  depth  of  foil  which  fupports 
large  trees.  This  faft,  therefore,  admits  of  no  fuch 
inference  as  that  which  Recupero  has  pretended  to  de- 
duce from  it.  The  local  circumftances,  again,  of  the 
feven  (Irata  that  have  been  pierced  through,  are  very 
different.  They  are  fituated  at  Jaci  Rcale,  in  a  fitua- 
tion where  fhowers  of  allies  from  the  volcano  mutt  fre- 
quently fall ;  and  where  whatever  falls  mull  be  natu- 
rally retained  and  accumulated  : — fo  that  feven  beds 
of  earth  might  be  formed  on  thefe  feven  ftrata  of  lava 
much  fooner  than  one  thin  layer  could  be  formed  on 
the  ftratum  above  mentioned.  In  other  places,  fome 
of  which  are  within  the  influence  of  the  fame  awful 
volcano,  and  fome  adjacent  to  that  of  Vcfuvius,  foil 
is  known  to  have  accimiulated  on  lava  with  the  help 
of  fliowers  of  afhes  Irom  the  volcanoes,  with  fuificient 
rapidity  to  juftify  this  fuppofition  concerning  the  co- 
verings of  the  ftrata  at  Jaci  Reale.  From  tlie  obfer- 
vation  of  thefe  phtnoiuena  of  volcanoes,  therefore,  no 
fafts  have  been  gained  that  can  help  us  to  determine 
with  any  certainty  the  earth's  age.  And  fo  wide  is 
the  variety  of  circumftances  to  be  hue  taktu  into,  ac- 


23     ]  C     R     E 

count,  that  it  csnnot  be  hoped  that  this  defulsratumvix^  Creation  ." 
be  ever  fupphed  from  this  quarter.   See  further  the  ar-  «  '     ' 

tick  Earth  ;  n^iyyandiyS. 

But  by  examining  the  compofition  and  arranj^- 
ment  of  the  interior  ftrata  of  the  globe,  and  by  view- 
ing the  general  appearance  of  its  furface,  the  ingenui- 
ty of  pliilofophers  has,  with  better  hopes,  fought  to 
gncfs  at  the  length  of  time  during  which  it  muft  have 
exifted.  Obferving  the  cxuvIe  of  fea  and  land  animals 
depofited  at  profound  depths  under  ground,  and  ac- 
companied with  vegetable  bodies  in  a  good  ftate  of 
prefervation,  as  well  as  with  oleaginous  and  bitumi- 
nous fubftances  which  have  in  all  probability  been 
formed  from  vegetable  bodies;  and  remarking  at  the 
fame  time  witli  what  confufion  the  other  materials, 
compofing  the  crull  of  this  terreftrial  ball,  are,  in  va- 
rious inftances,  not  arranged,  but  caft  together ;  they 
have  concluded  that  the  earth  muft  have  exifted  for 
many  an  age  before  the  earlieft  events  recorded  in  fa- 
cred or  profane  hiftory,  and  muft  have  undergone 
many  a  revolution,  before  it  fettled  in  its  prelent  ftate. 
Such  at  leaft  are  the  ideas  which  Buffon  and  M.  de 
Luc,  and  a'fo  Dr  Hutton  |,  feem  defirous  to  \m- ^  ej.  Phil, 
prefs  us  with  concerning  its  changes  and  antiqui-  Tranf. 
ty. —  It  will  be  only  doing  juftice  to  thefe  philofo- ^■''^' •■ 
phers  to  acknowledge,  that  they  have  collefted,  with 
amazing  induftry,  almoft  every  faft  in  the  natural 
hiftory  ol  the  earth  that  can  ferve  to  give  plaufibi- 
lity  to  their  conjeftures.  But  ftiU  their  fafts,  befides 
the  Inconfiftency  of  many  of  them,  a-e  by  far  too  fcanty 
to  warrant  the  conclufions  which  they  have  pretended 
to  deduce  from  them.   See  the  article  Earth  , 

The  voice  of  profane  hiftory  is  far  from' being  de- Accountsof 

cifive  concerning  the  age  of  the  world;  nor  is  it  to  be  'h«  "nti<iui- 

expefted  that  it   ftiould.     When  the  earth   firft  arofe '^  °f '5'^ 
.    ^         ...  ,  ,    ,-  .         ,       earili  Ircm 

into  exiitence,  we   can   be  at  no  lois  to  conceive  that  p.^f^nj  hi- 

mankind  were  not  fpeCtators  of  the  event:  and  we  ftory. 
may  naturally  imagine  that  the  firft  human  beings  who 
occupied  it,  would  be  too  much  buficd  in  furniftiing 
themfclves  with  the  immediate  neceffaries  and  the  con- 
veniences of  life,  to  think  of  curious  rcfearches  into 
its  origin,  or  even  their  own.  ■  Profane  hiftory  is  not, 
however,  without  accounts  of  the  age  of  the  earth 
and  the  origin  of  human  fociety  ;  but  thofe  accounts  are 
various  and  coiitradiftory.— Plato  In  his  dialogue  intit- 
led  Cril'ids,  mentions  his  celebrated  Atalantis  to  have 
been  buried  in  the  ocean  about  9000  years  before 
the  age  in  which  he  wrote.  He  afferts  it  to  have 
been  well  known  to  the  Egyptian  priefts  and  to  the 
cotemporary  inhabitants  of  Attica.  The  learned  world, 
indeed,  gen-rally  agree  in  regarding  liis  aeeuunts  of 
that  ifland  as  a  fiftlon,  which  the  author  himfelf  did 
not  dcfign  to  be  underftood  in  any  other  light  ;  fome, 
however,  are  more  credulous,  and  others  go  fo  far  as  to 
acknowledge  doubts:  and,  if  the  exiftence  of  fuch  an 
ifland,  at  a  period  fo  diftant,  be  admitted  as  a  faft 
worthy  of  any  credit,  the  age  of  the  world  may  be 
reckoned  as  at  ieaft  confidcrably  more  than  12,000 
years.  T'ne  ptetenfions  of  the  Chinefe  reprefeiit  the 
world  as  fome  hundreds  of  thoufands  of  years  older  : 
and  we  are  alfo  told*  that  the  aftronomical  records  •  ITnhrr.'al 
of  the  ancient  Chaldjeans  carried  back  the  origin  of  ■'^i'- '"'l-i- 
fociety  to  a  very  remote  period  ;  no  lefs  than  473,000  'V'"-'- 
years.  The  Egyptian  priefts  reckoned  between  Me- 
ntb  and  Sethon  341  generations  f.    Bat  thefe  accounts  ^  fj'rod. 


3U 


,  1.  ii  c.  I4i, 


C     R     E  [52 

Creation,  are  fo  difcordant,  and  fo  flendcrly  fupported  by  evi- 
'~"'v~—  dence,  that  we  cannot  hefitate  to  reject  them  all  as 
falfe  ;  the  fables  of  hiftorians  fcarce  merit  fo  much  at- 
tention as  the  hypothefes  of  philofophers. 
The  era  of  When  from  profane  we  turn  to  facred  hiftory,  we 
the  creation  may  reafonably  cxpeft  more  accurate  and  'more  cre- 
»t  ftaied  m  jj{^jg  jaforniation  concerning  the  antiquity  of  the 
bifton''  globe.  As  the  authenticity  of  the  Holy  Scriptures 
is  fo  incontrovertibly  eftablilhed,  wherever  they  af- 
ford evidence  concerning  any  faft,  that  evidence  mull 
be  regarded  as  decifive.  A  faft  fo  important  as  the 
prefent  may  be  thought  higlily  worthy  of  a  place  in 
them.  Unfortunately,  however,  even  the  facred  wri- 
tings do  not  fix  the  era  of  the  creation  with  fufficient 
accuracy  ;  they  leave  us,  in  fome  meafure,  at  a  lofs 
whether  to  extend  what  they  fay  concerning  that  era 
to  the  whole  contents  of  created  fpace,  or  to  confine 
it  to  our  earth  and  its  inhabitants  :  different  copies 
give  different  dates;  and  even  in  the  fame  copy,  different 
parts  relating  the  fame  events,  either  difagree  or  do 
not  fpeak  decifively  with  regard  to  the  length  of  the 
time  in  which  they  pafTed.  —  In  the  beginning  of  the 
£xth  chapter  of  the  firft  book  of  Kings,  the  time 
which  elapfed  between  the  departure  of  the  children 
of  Ifracl  from  Eg^'pt.  and  the  period  at  which  Solo- 
mon laid  the  foundation  of  his  temple,  is  faid  to  have 
been  480  years :  And  in  the  book  of  Judges  again, 
f  tTnivcrW  the  age  of  all  the  patriarchs  amounts  to  592  years,  f 
JiiJl.yo\.i.  The  Hebrew  copy  of  the  bible,  which  we  Chrillians 
J'n/au.  fgr  good  reafons  conlider  as  the  moll  authentic,  dates 
the  creation  of  the  world  3944  years  before  the  Chri- 
ftian  era.  The  Samaritan  bible,  again,  fixes  the  era 
of  the  creation  4305  years  before  the  birth  of  Chrifl. 
And  the  Greek  tranflation,  known  by  the  name  of 
the  Septuughit  verfion  of  the  bible,  gives  5270  as  the 
number  of  the  years  which  intervened  between  thofe 
two  periods.  As  many  other  different  calculations  of 
the  years  contained  in  the  fame  intermediate  fpace  of 
time,  might  be  formed  upon  other  dates  in  the  fa- 
cred volmiu?,  differing  in  the  ditferent  copies.  By 
comparing  the  various  dates  in  the  facred  writings, 
examining  how  thefe  have  come  to  dilagree  and  to 
be  diverfified  in  different  copies,  endeavouring  to  re- 
concile the  moll  autl^ntic  profane  with  facred  chi-o- 
nology,  and  eking  out  deficiency  of  dates  and  evi- 
dence with  conjecture;  fome  ingenious  men  have  form- 
ed fchcmes  of  chronology,  plaufible  indeed,  but  not 
fupported  by  fufficient  authorities,  whi.ch  they  would 
gladly  perfuade  us  to  receive  in  preference  to  any  of 
thofe  above  m.entioned.  Ulher  makes  out  from  the 
Hebrew  bible  4004  years,  as-  the  term  between  the 
creation  and  the  birth  of  Chriil  :  Jcfephus,  according 
to  Dr  Wills  and  Mr  Whiil  .n,  makes  it  4658  years  ; 
and  M.  Pezron,  with  die  help  of  tlie  Septuagint,  ex- 
tends it  to  5872  years.  Uiher's  fyflem  ia  the  mofl 
generally  received. 

But  though  thefe  different  fyftems  of  chronology 
are  fo  inconilftent  and  fo  flenderly  fupported,  yet 
the  differences  among  them  are  fo  inconfiderablc  i» 
comparifon  with  thofe  v/hich  arife  before  us  when  we 
contemplate  the  chronology  of  the  Chinefe,  the  Chal- 
deans, .md  the  Egyptians,  and  tiicy  agree  fo  well 
with  the  general  information  of  authentic  hift  iry  and 
with  the  appearances  of  Duture  aad  of  focictv,  that 


4     ]  C     R     E 

they  may  be   confidered  as  nearly  fixing  the  true  pe«   Creation, 
riod  of  the  creation  of  the  earth.  — v— w 

Profane  hillory  cannot  be  expefted  to  contain  an        5 
account  of  the  firft  events  which  paffed  after  the  crea-       '."'"'"• 
tion  of  the  fubftances  of  which  the  univerle  eoulitls.  tj,,*  head 
The  conjeftures  of  ancient  philofophers  on  this  lub-  to  in;  ob- 
jcdt  cannot  merit  attention  ;   for  vague  tradition,  and  '■ii'ie<l  Irnm 
the  appearances  of  nature,  the   only   data  on   which  ^''''f' v^^ 
they  could  proceed  in  forming  their  conjectures,  could  ^j-^.j  y. 
admit  of  no   fair  induftions  concerning  thole  events  j  icory. 
and  bcfides,  inflcad  of  liflening  to  tradition,    or  exa- 
mining the  appearances  of  nature,  thty  generally  con- 
fulted  imagination,  and  imagination  alone,  ou  fuch  oc- 
cafions.       Here,  therefore,   we  have  nothing   to  hope 
but  from   the   facred    writings.      From  them  we  may 
expett  hiilorical  information,  not  to  be  obtained  from  | 

any  other  fouice.  What  they  communicate  is  com- 
municated on  divine  authority  ;  and  it  is  only  on  luch 
authority  we  can  receive  any  accounts  concerning  Uie 
creation.  5 

A  few  hints  In  the  book  of  Job,  afford  the  earhefl  Hint;  con- 
Information  to  be  found  in  the  fcriptur-es  concerning  c<?r:nng  thel 
the  creation  of  the  woi-ld.      "  Where  wall  thou  ^'beu  jjj"r'°L''l 
I  laid  the  foundations  of  the  earth,  when  the  morning  jub. 
liars  fang  together,  and  all  the   fons  of  God  ihoutcd 
for  joy  *  i"    "Behold,  he  put  no  trull  in  hislervants,  and  .  (-.jj 
his  angels  he  chaiged  with  folly  f."    ''  And  unto  man,  xsxviii. 
(or  to  Adam),  he  faid,  J3ehold,  the  fear  of  the  L,ordvei.  4  &7.J 
is  wifdom,  and  to  depart  from  evil  is  underflandingf ."  t  *-"  '"• 
Thefe  pafTages  rather  hint  at  tlian  relate  fatts.      •'^'^t  ^  pj^'^^  ». 
it  has  been  inferred  from  them,  that  there   w  ere   itars  vcr.  jK. 
in  the  firmament,  and  angels  in  heaven,  before  the  for- 
mation of  our  globe  ;  that  angels  as  well  as  rnan  have 
fallen  ;  and  that  other  injunctions,  befidcs  that  of  ab- 
ftaining  from  the  forbidden  fi  uit,   were  laid  on  Adam 
when  he  was   firll  placed  in  Pa.  adile  li.      If  the  inter-  „  , ,.,  , 
prttation  be  admitted  as  jult,  the  nrlt  of   thefe  tacts  n^Hures 
may  be  confidered  as  forming,  as  it  were,  a  point  withLe<2. 1.. 
which  our  knowledge  of  the  works  of  the  Deity  com- 
mences :  the  period  of  time  at  which  tli;  fccond  event 
took  place  is  not  fpecified ;  and  the  precept  to  Adam 
muft  no  doubt  have  been  uttered    after  he  was  formed 
and  infpiicd  wiih  intelligence.     Yet  with  regard  to  the 
firfl  of  the  above  quotations  from  the  book  ol  Job,  t!i« 
only  one  that  is  of  importance  to  us  at  prefent,  it  mufl 
be  acknowledged,  tliat  it   has   been  dillerentiy  under- 
Hood.     The  morning  flars   might  fing   togeUier,  and 
the  fons   of  God  Ihout   for  joy,   on  account  both  of 
their  own  creation  and  of  the  creation  of  the  earth  at 
one   time;  and  yet  Job,  having  been  himiclf  made  a 
cordcious  being  at  a  much  later  period,  not  be  able  to 
tell  where  he  was  at  that  era  of  exulting  giatitude  and 
congratulation. 

Mofes  relates,  that*   "in  the  bfglning  God  created  j^  fj;,.  ae- 
ihe  heavens  and  the  earth.     And  the  eaith  (continues. nmit  of 
he)  was  without  form  and   void;  and  darkucis   waii'heere- 

upon  the  face  of  the  deep  :  and  the  fpirit  ol  God  mo-.l''A"    •   , 
!  r  ri  \'i/^if-iT  Gee.  1.  !• 

ved  upon  the  face  ct  the  waters.     And  OoQ  laid,  i..ct 

tliere   be  light  ;  and  there  was  hght.     And  God  faw 

the   light,   that   it   was  good  :  and  God  divided  the 

light  fi-om  the  darknefs.  And  God  called  tlie  light  day, 

and  the  darknefs  he  called  night :  and  the  eveiung  and 

the  morning  were  the  firft  day."  During  five  luccecd» 

ing  days  tire  woik  of  creatioa  was  cairied  on.     On 

thfe 


CUE  C     5^5     ]  G     R     E 

Creation    the  fccoiid  day,  a  fiimamcut  was  made  to  feparaic  the  a   cruft   of  earth;   nor  docs  he   inform  us   that   the 

■""V        '  waters,  aiui  that  tirinamt-nt  called  hcavai  :   on  the  third  Icciic'ry   of    nature    was  not   diveiiilicd  by    hills  and 

day,  the  waters  were  collefted  into  fcas,  and  the  land  vales.     Bcfidcs,  tlie  author  of  this  theory  has,  without 

from   which  the  waters  retired  caufed  to  produce  grafs  any  evidence,  luppoled  matter  to  have  been  originally 

and  trees  and  other  plants  :   on  the  fourth  day,   lights  under  the  influenee  of  laws  very  diiferent  from  thole  by 


Creation, 
^ 1 


8 

ilTiculties 
rcurring 


Cory. 


were  made  to  appear  in  the  faunament  ;  to  enlighten 
the  earth,  to  divide  the  day  from  the  night,  and  to 
dilUniTuilh  time  into  feafons  and  years ;  on  the  tilth 
day,  the  leas  were  peopled  with  whales  and  other  iillies, 
and  the  air  with  fowls  :  on  the  fixth  day,  the  earth  was 
furnilhed  with  reptiles  and  quadrupeds  of  all  kmds  ; 
and  un  the  fame  day,  the  lirll  human  pair,  the  proge- 
nitors of  all  the  hmrian  race,  were  created  in  God's 
own  image 

Some  difficulties  occur  in  comparing  this  account  of 
the  creation  with  the   laws  which  appear  at  prelVnt  to 

theabuve,.g„|^,]3jg  (|,g  fyllemof  nature.    We  iind  it  hard  to  con- 

count  .  . 

ceive  how  the  earth,  while  yet  a  ilranger  to  the  influ- 
ence of  the  fun,  could  experience  the  viciflltude  eif  day 
and  night  ;  and  are  aftonilhed  at  the  rapidity  with 
which  trees  and  herbage  lull  ovei'fpread  its  furface. 
The  condition  of  matter  when  the  earth  was  without 
form  and  void,  and  the  operation  of  the  fpint  of  God 
on  the  face  of  the  waters,  are  equally  myltcrious. 
ttemitsto  Some  ingenious  men  have  eagerly  laboured  to  re- 
ive thdfe  move  thtle  difficulties.  Among  thtfe  is  Dr  Burnet, 
fBcultie  .^  W'hole  theory  of  the  earth  has  now  been  long  confider- 
'.__'i'^'"^' °ed  as  fanciful  and  ill-iounded.  He  fuppofes  all  the 
Cclettial  bodies,  even  the  fuu  and  all  the  other  planets 
of  the  folar  fyllcm,  to  have  exilled  long  before  the 
earth.  The  chaos  on  which  the  fpirit  of  God  nlov^d, 
confifted,  according  to  him,  of  the  tirft  principles  from 
whicli  all  terreRiial  bodies  have  been  formed.  When 
thofc  laws  by  which  the  material  world  is  regulated 
fiilt  began  to  operate  on  the  mafs,  he  fuppofes  that 
its  grolfer  and  heavier  parts  would  fink  towards  the 
centre,  and  there  form  a  folid  ball.  Around  this  folid 
ball  two  fpecies  of  particles  would  Hill  float  together  in 
confullon.  Ot  thele  he  thinks  one,  being  more  volar 
tile,  would  by  degrees  make  its  efcape  from  the  other, 
viould  leave  it  fiiU  recumbent  on  the  folid  centi-e,  and 
fpread  around  it  in  an  atmofphere.  The  middle  ftra- 
tum  he  compofes  of  aqueous  and  oleaginous  fluids ; 
and  he  makes  no  doubt,  that  after  the  air  had  made 
its  eicape,  the  levity  of  the  oleaginous  fluids  would 
enable  them  to  rile  above  the  aqueous,  and  difpofe 
tlienifelves  next  the  furface  of  the  liquid  mafs.  On 
them  he  fuppofes  the  impure  atmofphere  to  have  then 
dcpofittd  a  quantity  of  terrene  particles,  futiicient  to 
form,  by  intermixture  with  the  oils,  a  thick  crult  of 
rich  earth  lor  the  production  of  plants  and  herbage, 
and  to  afford  an  habitation  lo  animals.  This  delicate 
fhcll  he  was  careful,not  to  lurrow  with  feas  or  load  with 
mountains  ;  either  of  thefe  would  have  reduced  all  to 
cunfulion.  Such  is  his  earth  ;  and  after  moulding  it 
with  fo  much  ini;eiiuity,  and  into  fo  happy  a  form,  he 
contents  hinilcU,  without  venturing  lo  ufe  the  fame 
freedoms  with  the  remaining  part  of  Mofes's  account 
of  the  creation. 

Lut  Mofes  affords   noihing  that   can   be   with   any 


le 

jeiSi  ns 


br  Lii  J.  propriety  ulcd  in  the  foundation  of  fuch  a  theory  :  he 

stbto  J .  tcils  not  whether  the  chaos  conlilted  of  thofe  terrene, 

and  aqueous,  ajid  oleaginous,  and  aeiial  particles  which 

Dr  Burnet  tinds  in  it  ;  he  confmcs  not  the  feas  within 


which  it  is  at  prefent  regulated.  Oil,  indeed,  while 
fluid,  floats  above  water :  but  in  a  concrete  llaie,  it 
links  in  water  like  other  fohd  bodies.  If  reduced  in- 
to that  ftdte  by  combination  with  terrene  matters,  fuf- 
fieient  to  render  the  mixture  proper  for  the  nouriihinent 
and  production  of  vegetables  ;  its  ipecific  gravity  wiE 
be  ttill  greater,  and  it  will  confeqiie.itly  link  lo  much 
the  fooner.  How  a  concrete  lubltance,  coniiding  of 
earth  and  oil,  could  float  on  water,  appears  an  inexpli- 
cable enigma.  But  we  need  not  here  take  farther 
pains  in  combating  and  triumphing  over  this  theory^ 
wluch  has  long  fince  fallen  and  funk  to  its  grave.  j^ 

Mr    Whiilon    treats   both  the  fcriptures    and  the  Mr  Whi- 
laws   of  nature  with  greater  reverence.     Yet  be  cer-  ''"'i'»  theo- 
tainly  involves  him.felf  in   no  trifling  diificulties  in  at-'^^" 
tempting  to   folve  thofe  which  Moles  prefents.     He 
fuppoles  the  fun,  moon,  and  liars   to   be   all  more  an- 
cient than  the  earth.      Ttie  chaos  from  which  the  earth 
was  formed,    he   reprefents   as   having   been  originally 
the  atmolphere  of  a  comet.      The  fix  days  of  the  crea- 
tion he  would  perfuadc   us  to  believe  equal  to    lix  of 
our  years  :   for  he  is  of  opinion,  that  the  eartli  did  not 
revolve  daily  round  its  axis,   but   only  annually  round 
its  orbit,  till  after  the  fall  of  man. 

On  tlic  111  t  day  or  year,  therefore,  the  more  pon- 
derous parts  of  ttie  chaos  were  according  to  this  theory 
conglomerated  into  an  orb  of  earth,  the  chinks  and  in- 
terllices  over  that  orb  hlled  up  with  water,  and  the  ex- 
terior part  or  atmofphere  rarelied,  fo  as  to  admit  fome 
faint  glimmering  of  the  rays  of  the  fun. 

On  the  fecoud  day,  the  atmofphere  was  diff"ufed  to 
Its  due  extent  around  the  earth,  and  reduced  to  a  de- 
gree of  raiity  and  purity  wliich  rendered  it  Hill  more 
iuitable  for  the  tranfmilfion  of  light ;  the  earth  was 
ftill  more  confolidated  ;  and  the  waters  being  almoll 
entirely  excluded  from  the  interilices  which  they  be- 
fore occupied,  were  partly  fpread  over  the  furface  of 
the  earth,  and  partly  railed  in  vapour  into  the  atmo- 
fpiiere  or  firmament. 

On  the  third  day,  the  earth's  furface  became  fo  ir- 
regular, in  one  place  riling  into  hills,  in  another  fink- 
ing into  vales,  as  to  caufe  the  waters,  which  were  be- 
fore equally  diffuled,  to  coUetl  into  feas  and  lakes, 
leaving  large  trails  of  ground  unoccupied.  And  no 
fooner  was  a  part  of  the  earth's,  furface  left  bare  by 
the  waters,  than  the  general  influence  of  the  fun  pro- 
duced on  it  a  rich  covering  of  herbage,  and  all  the 
diiferent  fpecies  of  vegetables. 

On  the  fourih  day,  the  earth  was  rendered  fubjedr 
lo  the  regular  influence  of  the  fun,  moon,  and  liars. 

On  the  hftli  day  or  year,  things  were  lo  far  advan- 
ced, that  hfhes  and  fowls  were  now  produced  from  the 
waters. 

On  the  fixth  day  was  the  earth  furnifhed  with  ani- 
mals ;  and  the  lord  of  all  the  other  animals,  man,  was 
now  created. 

Such  is  MrWhifton's  account  of  the  phenomena  ofni,;..?-  _ 
tfie  Molaic  creation.     But  he  hkewitc  aflunics  much  to  MrW'iii- 
rame    than  can   be   rcafonably  granted.      The  atrao- """'s  thco- 

fi^hcrc.'-y- 


C     R     E 


[     526     ] 


C    R    E 


Cmtion.  fp}iere  of  a  comet  could  not  well  be  the  primitive  chaos ; 
'  it  is  not  an  obfcure,  but  a  pellucid  fluid  j  and  its  exterior 

ftrata.if  of  the  fame  nature  with  the  matter  of  our  earth, 
muft  be  fcorified  by  its  near  approaches  tfi  the  fun. 
Had  the  earth  not  begun  to  move  round  its  axis  till 
after  the  work  of  creation  was  completed,  the  immo- 
derate degrees  of  heat  and  cold  which  its  diffcient 
parts  would  have  alternately  felt,  would  in  all  probabi- 
lity have  proved  fatal  to  both  plants  and  animals. 
Even  the  moft  artful  interpretation  of  Mofcs's  words 
cannot  reprefent  him  as  meaning  to  inform  us  that  the 
fun  and  moon  were  created  at  different  periods.  But 
philofophy  will  fcarce  permit  us  to  imagine  that  tlie 
moon  was  formed  before  the  earth.  And  therefore 
we  cannot  upon  good  grounds  agree  with  Mr  Whifton, 
that  the  creation  of  the  earth  was  later  than  that  of 
the  other  bodies  of  the  folar  fyilem. 
».  i\  '  Among  others  who  have  endeavoured  to  explain  the 
theory  and 'original  formation  of  the  earth,  and  the  changes  which 
objetlions.  it  has  undergone,  is  M.  de  Luc.  This  cofmologift,  like 
Mr  Whifton,  thinks  that  the  days  of  the  creation  were 
much  longer  periods  of  time  than  our  prefent  days. 
He  feems  to  think  that  the  earth  had  exifted  long  be- 
fore the  Mofaic  creation ;  but  began  at  that  era  to  ex- 
perience new  changes,  and  to  be  regulated  by  new 
laws  :  that  all  the  different  events  defcribed  by  Mofes 
in  his  hiftory  of  the  creation,  aclually  took  place  in  the 
order  in  which  he  relates  them  ;  but  that  Mofes's  days 
are  indefinite  fpaces  of  time,  which  mull  have  been 
very  long,  but  of  which  we  cannot  hope  to  afcertaiu 
the  precil^  length.  Thefe  are  ingenious  conjectures; 
but  they  do  not  appear  neceffary,  nor  are  they  juftificd 
bv  fafts.  For  a  fuller  and  more  clofe  invelligation  of 
this  part  of  the  fubjeft,  we  muft  refer  to  the  article 
Earth  :  and  (hall  now  clofe  the  pvefent  anicle  with  a 
fhott  explanation  of  what  appears  to  us  the  moft  na- 
tural way  of  underttanding  Mofes's  account  of  the 
creation. 

It  has  been  conjeftiircd*,  with  great  probability, 
•  trmv.HI/>-^y^^^  ^},g  creation  of  which  Mofes  is  the  hiilorian,  was 
vol.i.  p.8j.^^j|.|^^^  ^Q^p^gj  tg  jjie  earth  alone,  nor  extended  to 
the  whole  univerfe.  The  relation  which  all  the  pla- 
cets of  the  folar  fyftem  bear  to  the  fame  iHuMiinating 
body  countenances  the  conjecture,  that  they,  together 
with  the  luminary  by  which  they  are  enlightened,  were 
all  created  at  one  period  :  but  it  would  perhaps  be  to 
conceive  too  meanly  of  the  benevolence,  wifdom,  and 
aftive  power  of  the  Deity  to  fuppofe  that  before  that 
period  thefe  had  never  been  exerted  in  any  work  of 
creation.  Yet  even  here  we  have  not  dcmonftrative 
evidence. 

On  the  fuppofition  that  the  whole  folar  fyftem  was 
created  at  once,  which  has  at  leaft  the  merit  of  doing 
no  violence  to  the  narrative  of  M^fs,  the  creation  of 
the  fun  and  the  other  planets  may  be  underllood  to 
have  been  carried  on  at  the  fame  time  with  the  crea- 
tion of  the  earth.  In  that  cafe,  even  in  the  courfe 
of  the  firft  day,  though  not  longer  than  our  prefent 
days,  thofe  bodies  might  be  reduced  to  fuch  order, 
and  their  relative  motions  fo  far  eftabhftied,  as  to  be- 
frin  the  didinftion  between  light  and  darknefs,  day  and 

night. 

On  the  fecond  day,  we  may  naturally  underftand 
from  Mofes's  narrative,  that  the  atmofphcre  was  puri- 
lied    and  the   fpecific  gravities  of  aqueous  vapour  and 


atmofpheric  air  To  adjufted,  as  to  render  the  latter  ca-  Creation, 
pahL  of  fupporting  the  former.  Crebillon. 

On  the  tiiird  day  the  waters  were  firft  collcffled  into 
lakes  and  feas:  but  in  what  manner,  we  cannot  well 
determine.  Some  call  in  the  operation  of  earthquakes ; 
others  tell  us,  that  when  the  earth  was  full  formed, 
the  exterior  ftrata  v/ere,  at  different  parts  over  its  fur- 
face,  of  different  fpccilic  gravities;  and  that  the  more 
ponderous  parts  now  funk  tftarer  the  common  centre, 
while  the  lighter  parts  ft  ill  remaining  equally ;  emote  from 
it  as  before,  formed  idands,  continents,  hills,  and  moun- 
tains. But  thefe  are  mere  fancies ;  aisd  we  have  not 
faft 3  to  offer  in  their  ftsad.  On  the  latter  part  of  this 
day  vegetables  were  caufed  to  fpring  up  over  the  earth. 
Their  growth  muft  have  been  much  more  rapid  ttian 
we  ever  behold  it  now:  but  by  wKat  particular  atl  of 
fupernatural  power  that  might  be  effecfed,  we  Ibould 
in  vain  inquire. 

On  the  fourth  day  the  fun,  moon,  and  ftars,  were  made 
to  appear.  But  according  to  the  conjecture  which  we 
have  mentioned  as  plaufible,  though  without  afcribing 
to  it  the  evidence  of  certain  truth,  thofe  heavenly  bo- 
dies are  to  be  confidered  as  having  been  created  before 
this  day.  But  they  might  now  begin  to  exert  their 
full  influence  on  the  earth  in  the  fame  manner  as  they 
have  fince  continued  to  do. 

The  creation  of  the  inanimate  world  was  now  finifti- 
ed,  and  the  earth  prepared  for  the  reception  of  ani- 
mals. On  the  fifth  day,  therefore,  were  the  living 
inhabitants  of  the  air  and  the  waters  created. 

On  the  fixth  day  the  inferior  animals  inhabiting  the 
earth  were  firft  created;  and  after  that,  the  wliole  work 
was  crowned  by  the  creation  of  a  male  and  a  female 
of  the  human  fpecies.  To  the  account  of  the  crea- 
tion of  the  animals,  nothing  certain  can  be  added  in 
explanation  of  Mofes's  narrative.  No  more  but  one 
pair  of  the  human  fpecies  were  at  firft  created  :  the 
fame  economy  might  poffibly  be  obferved  in  the  crea- 
tion of  the  inferior  animals^ 

CREBILLON  (Piofper  Jollot  de),  a  French  wri- 
ter of  tragedy,  and  ufually  ranked  after  CorneiUe  and 
Racine,  was  born  at  Dijon  in  1674.  He  was  origi- 
nally dellined  to  the  profeffion  of  the  law,  and  placed 
at  Paris  with  that  view  ;  but  the  iinpetuofity  of  his 
paffions  rendering  him  imfit  for  bufinels,  he  was  ui"- 
ged  by  fome  friends,  who  difcerned  very  well  his  na- 
tural turn,  ta  attempt  dramatic  compofitions.  He 
complied,  but  not  till  after  many  refufals  ;  and  gave 
at  length  a  tragedy,  which  met  with  great  iuc- 
cefs.  He  then  marched  on  in  the  cai'eer  he  had  be- 
gun, but  was  checked  by  a  fitiof  h)ve  for  an  apothe- 
cary's daughter  ;  which  fit  of  love  ended  in  marriage. 
His  father-,  doubly  enraged  at  his  fon  for  thus  furren- 
dering  himfelf  to  the  two  demons  of  Love  and  Poetry, 
difinlierited  him  ;  but  filling  fick  fome  years  after,  in 
1707,  he  re-eftabliihed  him  in  all  his  rights,  and  died. 
Crebillon  was,  however,  little  better  for  his  acquifi- 
tions,  the  greateft  part  being  probably  wafted  before 
they  came  ;  and  thus,  though  high' in  fame  and  at  the 
prime  of  life,  he  ftill  continued  poor.  He  loft  his  wife 
in  171  I,  and  fortune  long  frowned  upon  him,  till  at 
laft  he  obtained  a  place  in  the  French  academy,  and 
the  employment  of  cenfor  of  the  police.  He  was  af- 
terwards in  good  circumftances,  and  happy  to  tl'.e  end 
of  ]iis  life,  which  was  a  very  long  one  ;  for  he  did  not 

die 


die  till  17G2,  aged 


RE  [52 

8.     He  was  much  regretted  and 


7     ] 


C    R     E 


lamented,  as  old  as  lie  was ;  being  a  very  worthy  man, 
and  of  many  and  great  virtues.  He  was  of  a  tem- 
perament extremely  robutl,  without  which  lie  could 
not  have  held  out  fo  long  ;  for  he  tat  prodigiouHy, 
aaid  continued  to  the  lad  fo  to  do.  He  flept  little, 
and  lay  as  hard  as  if  upon  the  floor  ;  not  from  any 
pious  principle  of  mortifying,  but  becaufc-  he  liked  it. 
He  was  always  furroundcd  with  about  30  dogs  and 
cats  ;  and  ufcd  to  fmoak  a  good  deal  of  tobacco,  to 
keep  his  room  fwect  againll  their  exhalations.  When- 
ever he  was  ill,  he  ufed  to  manage  himfelf  according 
to  his  own  fancy  and  feelings  ;  for  he  always  made  a 
jeft  of  phyfic  and  phyficians.  He  was  a  dealer  in 
tons  mots.  Being  adced  one  day  in  full  company,  which 
of  his  works  he  thought  the  beil  ?  "  I  don't  know 
(fays  he)  which  is  Biy  bell  piodutlion  ;  but  this  (point- 
ing to  his  fon)  is  certainly  my  worft." 

CRECY,  Crescy,  or  Cres-sy.     See  Cressy. 

CREDENTIALS,  letters  of  recommendation  and 
power,  elpeeially  luch  as  are  given  to  ambalTadors  or 
public  minillers,  by  the  prince  or  ftate  that  fends  them 
to  foreign  courts. 

CREDIBILITY,  a  fpecies  of  evidence,  lefs  Indeed 
than  abfolute  certainty  or  demonflration,  but  greater 
than  mere  poUibility  :  it  is  nearly  allied  to  probability, 
and  feems  to  be  a  mean  between  poflibility  and  de- 
monftration. 

CREDIT,  In  commerce,  a  mutual  trull  or  loan  of 
merchandife  or  money,  on  the  reputation  of  the  pro- 
bity and  folvability  of  a  dealer. 

Credit  is  cither  public  or  private.  Every  trader 
ought  to  have  fome  eftate,  ftock,  or  portion  of  his 
own,  fufficient  to  carry  on  the  traffic  he  Is  engaged  in: 
they  Ihould  alfo  keep  their  dealings  within  the  extent 
of  their  capital,  fo  that  no  difappointment  in  their  re- 
turns may  Incapacitate  them  from  fupporting  their  cre- 
dit. Yet  traders  of  worth  and  judgment  may  fome- 
times  lie  under  the  neceffity  of  borrowing  money  for 
carrying  on  their  bulinefs  to  the  bell  advantage  ;  but 
then  the  borrower  ought  to  be  fo  juil  to  his  own  re- 
putation and  to  his  creditors,  as  to  be  well  allured  that 
he  has  fufScient  effefts  within  his  power  to  pay  off  his 
obligations  in  due  time.  Bat  If  a  trader  Ihould  bor- 
row money  to  the  extent  of  his  credit,  and  launch  out 
into  trade  fo  as  to  employ  It  with  the  fame  freedom  as 
if  It  was  his  own  proper  iloek,  fuch  a  way  of  manage- 
ment Is  very  precarious,  and  may  be  attended  with 
dangerous  confequences.  Merchants  ought  never  to 
purchafe  their  goods  for  exportation  upon  long  credit, 
with  intent  to  difeharge  the  dt.bt  by  the  return  of  the 
fame  goods  ;  for  this  has  an  Injurious  Influence  on  trade 
feveral  ways  :  and  if  any  merchant  has  occalion  to 
make  ufe  of  his  credit,  it  (hould  always  be  for  tlie 
borrowing  of  money,  but  never  for  the  buying  of 
goods  ;  nor  is  the  large  credit  given  to  whulefale  tra- 
ders a  prudential  or  julliliablc  practice  in  trade. 

The  public  credit  of  a  nation  is  faid  to  run  hirh 
when  the  commodities  of  that  nation  find  a  ready  vent, 
are  fold  at  a  good  price,  and  when  dealers  may  be  fafe- 
ly  trulled  with  them  :  alfo  when  lands  and  houfes  lind 
ready  purchafers  ;  when  money  is  to  be  burrowed  at 
a  low  Interell  ;  when  people  think  it  fafe  and  advan- 
tageous to  Venture  large  Itocks  in  trade;  and  when  notes, 
mortgages,  &c.  will  pafs  for  money. 


Letters  of  Credit,    are  thofe  given  to  pcrfonB  in     Credit 
whom   a  merchant,  &c.   can   trull,  to  tik?  money  of        II       ' 
his  correfpondent  abroad,  in   cafe  he  happens  to  need  ,  C*'"^'"-  ^ 
it,  ' 

Credit  is  alfo  ufed  for  the  currency  which  papers 
or  bills  have  In  the  public  or  among  dealers.  In  thij 
fenfe  credit  is  faid  to  rife,  when,  in  negociating  tlic 
fliares  of  the  company,  they  are  received  and  fold  at 
prices  above  pur,  or  the  Uandard  of  their  fu  II  crea- 
tion. Difcredit  is  oppofcd  to  credit,  and  is  ufed  where 
money,  bills,  &c.  fall  below  ^ar. 

Credit  was  alfo  anciently  a  right  which  lords  had 
over  their  vafials  ;  coniilling  in  this,  that  during  a  cer- 
tain time  they  might  oblige  them  to  lend  .them  mo- 
ney. In  this  fenle,  the  Duke  of  Britauny  had  credit  , 
during  fifteen  days  on  his  own  fubjeCls,  and  thofe  ot 
the  bilhop  of  Nantes ;  and  the  bllliop  had  the  fame 
credit  or  right  among  his  fubjeCls  and  thofe  of  that 
prince. 

CREDITON,  a  market-town  in  Devonlliire,  con- 
fidcrable  for  a  good  woollen  manufactory  :  it  is  fitua- 
ted  about  9  miles  norlh-well  of  Exeter,  in  W.  Long. 
3.  50-  and  N.  Lat.  50.  50. 

CREDITOR,  a  perl'on  to  whom  any  fum  of  mo- 
rtey  Is  due,  either  by  obligation,  promlfe,  or  other- 
wife.      See  Debt. 

CREDULITY  denotes  a  weaknefs  of  mind,  by 
reafon  of  which  a  perfon  yields  his  alTent  to  propoli- 
tions  or  fafts,  before  be  has  coijfidered  their  evi- 
dence, 

CREECH  (Thomas),  eminent  for  his  tranflations 
of  ancient  authors  both  in  prole  and  verle,  was  ion  of 
Thomas  Creech,  and  born  near  Sherborne  in  Dorfet- 
Ihire  In  1659.  He  was  educated  In  grammar  learning 
under  Mr  Curganven  of  Sherborne,  to  whom  he  after- 
wards dedicated  a  tranflatlon  of  one  of  Theocritus's- 
Idyillums  ;  and  entered  a  commoner  of  Wadham  col- 
lege In  Oxford  in  1675.  Wood  tells  us  that  his  father 
was  a  gentleman  ;  but  Giles  Jacob  fays,  in  his  Lives- 
and  charadlcrs  of  Englifh  Poets,  that  his  parents  cir-- 
cumllances  not  being  fufficient  to  afford  him  a  liberal 
education,  his  difpofition  and  capacity  for  learning 
raifed  him  up  a  patron  in  Colonel  Strangeways,  whole 
generolily  fupp'ied  that  defecl.  Be  that  as  It  will, 
Creech  dilllnguiflied  .himfelf  much,  and  was  account- 
ed a  good  philufopher  and  poet,  and  a  diligent  iludent. 
June  13.  1683  he  took  the  degree  of  mailer  of  arts, 
and  not  long  atler  was  eletltd  probationer  fellow  of  All- 
fouls  college  ;  to  which,  Jacob  obfervcs,  the  great  repu- 
tation acquired  by  his  tranflatlon  of  Lucretius  recom- 
mended him.  Wood  tells  us,  that  upon  tin's  occalloii 
he  gave  lingular  proofs  of  his  claffical  learning  and 
philofophy  before  his  examiners.  He  alfo  took  the 
degree  of  B.  D.  on  the  l8tli  of  March  1696.  He 
now  began  to  be  well  known  by  tlie  works  he  publilli- 
cd  ;  but  Father  Niceron  obfervcs,  that  they  were  of 
no  great  advantage  to  his  fortune,  lincehls  clrcumttan- 
ces  were  always  indifl'ercnt.  In  1699,  having  taken 
holy  orders,  he  was  prefer.ted  by  his  college  to  the  li- 
ving of  Welwyn  In  Hertforddilre ;  but  this  he  had 
not  long  enjoyed  before  he  put  an  end  to  his  own  life. 
The  motives  of  this  fatal  catallrophe  have  been  varl- 
onlly  reprefented.  The  author  of  the  K^ouvilles  tie  la 
RepuUiijue  Jes  l.dlres  Informs  us,  that  in  the  year  I  700  ■ 
Mr  Creecli  fcU  in  love  with  a  v.  oman  who  treated  him, 

witU- 


C    R    E  [52 

Greed     with  great  negleft,  though  (he  was  complaifant  enough 
II  to  feveral  others.     This  affront  he  could  not  bear,  and 

Creeper,  rgfolved  not  to  furvive  it.  Whereupon  he  ftut  himfelf 
•~"~  up  in  his  ftudy,  where  he  hanged  himfclf  about  the 
end  of  June  1 7C0,  and  was  found  in  that  circumftance 
three  days  after.  The  Poetical  Regiller  fays  nothing 
of  the  particular  manner  of  his  death,  but  only  that 
he  unfortunately  made  away  with  himfelf  in  the  year 
I70I ;  and  afcribcs  this  fatal  catallrophe  of  Mr  Creech's 
life  to  the  morofenefs  of  his  temper,  which  made  him 
lefs  efteemed  than  his  great  merit  defcrved,  and  enga- 
ged him  in  frequent  animofities  and  difpvites  upon  that 
account.  But  from  an  original  letter  of  Arthur  Char- 
lett,  preferved  in  the  Bodleian  library,  it  has  lately 
been  difcovered,  that  this  unhappy  event  was  owing 
to  a  very  different  caufe.  There  was  a  fellow  colle- 
gian of  whom  Creech  frequently  borrowed  money  ; 
but  repeating,  his  applications  too  often,  he  met  one 
day  with  fuch  a  cold  reception,  that  he  retired  in  a 
fit  of  gloomy  difguft,  and  in  three  days  was  found 
hanging  in  his  ftudy.  Creech's  principal  performances 
are,  l.  A  Tranflation  of  Lucretius.  2.  A  Tranfla- 
tion  of  Horace  ;  in  which,  however,  he  has  omitted 
fome  few  odes.  3.  The  IdylHums  of  Theocritus,  with 
Rapln's  Difcourfe  of  Paftorals.  4.  A  Tranflation  of 
Manilius's  Aftronomicon.  Befides  trandations  of  fe- 
veral parts  of  Virgil,  Ovid,  and  Plutarch  ;  printed  in 
different  coUeftions. 

CREED,  a  brief  fummary  of  the  articles  of  a  Chri- 
fliaii's  belief. 

The  moft  ancient  form  of  creeds  is  that  which  goes 
under  the  name  of  the  apoftolic  creed  :  befiies  this, 
there  are  feveral  other  ancient  forms  and  fcattcred 
remains  of  creeds  to  be  met  with  in  the  primitive  re- 
cords of  the  chuich.  The  firft  is  the  form  of  apofto- 
lical  doftrine,  collefted  by  Orlgtn  ;  the  fecond  is  a 
fragment  of  a  creed  preferved  by  Tertullian  ;  the  third 
remains  of  a  creed  is  in  the  works  of  Cyprian  ;  the 
fourth,  a  creed  compofed  by  Gregory  Thaumaturgus, 
for  the  ufe  of  his  own  church  ;  the  fifth,  the  creed  of 
Lucian  the  martyr  ;  the  fixth,  the  creed  of  the  apollo- 
lical  conftitutions.  Befides  thefe  fca.tered  remains  of 
the  ancient  creeds,  there  are  extant  fome  perfect  forms, 
as  thofe  of  Jerufalem,  Cefarea,  Antioch,  &c. 

The  moH  univerfal  creeds  are,  the  Apostolical, 
the  Athanasian,  and  the  Nicene  creeds.  See  thefe 
articles. 

Thefe  three  creeds  are  ufed  in  the  public  offices  of 
the  church  of  England  ;  and  fubfcriplion  to  them  is 
required  of  the  clergy,  and  of  dificnting  teachers  pro- 
perly qualified  by  the  toleration  aft,  as  the  eighth  ar- 
ticle declares  that  they  may  be  proved  by  the  fureil 
teftimonies  of  fcripture. 

CREEK,  a   part   of  a  haven,  where  any  thing   is 
landed  from  the  fea.      So  many  landing-phces  as  there 
are  in   a   harbour   or  port,  fo  many  creeks  there  are. 
Jt  is  alfo  faid  to  be  a  ihore  or  bank  whereon  the  water 
beats,  running  in  a  fmall  channel  from  any  part  of  the 
fea  ;  from  the  Latin  crepida.     This  word  is  ufed  in  the 
_ftat.  4  Hen.  IV.  c.  20.  and  5  Eliz.  c.  5. 
CREENGLES.     See  Cringle. 
CREEPER,  in  ornithology.     See  CerthiA. 
Crefpep.,  in   naval  affairs,   an   inftrument  of   iron 
refembling  a  grappling,  having  7i.JJiank,  and  four  hooks 
or  claws.     It  is  ukd  to  throw  into  the  bottom  of  any 
N°  94. 


8     1 


C     R    E 


river  or  haibour,  with  a  rope  failened  to  it,  to  book 
and  draw  up  any  thing  from  the  bottom  which  may 
have  been  loft.     See  Plate  CL. 

CRELLIUS  (John),  a  famous  Socinlan,  born  in 
1590,  in  a  village  near  Noremberg.  In  1612  he  went 
into  Poland,  where  the  Unitarians  had  a  fchool,  in 
which  he  became  profeflor  of  divinity,  and  miniller 
at  Crackow,  wheie  he  died  in  1632,  aged  42.  He 
wa8  the  author,  i.  Of  a  famous  Treatife  againft  the 
Myftcry  of  the  Trinity  ;  2.  Commentaries  on  a  part 
of  the  New  Tcftament  ;  and  other  works.  All  of 
tliem  are  fcarcc. 

CREMA,  a  city  and  bifliop's  fee  of  Italy,  capital  of 
a  diftriit  of  the  Milanefe,  called  from  it  Crcniiifco  :  it 
(lands  almoft  in  the  middle  between  Milan  and  Man- 
tua,  in  E.  Long.  10.  15.  and  N.  Lat.  45.  zo. 

CREMASIER,  in  anatomy,  the  name  of  a  mufcle 
of  the  tellicle,  of  which  there  is  one  on  each  fide.  See 
Anatomy,   Tab/e  of  the  Miifcles. 

CREMATION  is  fometimes  ufed  for  burning,  par- 
ticularly when  applied  to  the  ancient  cuftom  of  burn- 
ing the  dead.  This  cufiom  is  well  known  to  have 
prevailed  among  molt  eaftern  nations,  and  continued 
with  their  defcendants  after  they  had  peopled  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  Europe.  Hence  we  find  it  prevailing 
in  Greece,  Italy,  Gaul,  Britain,  Germany,  Sweden, 
Norway,   and  Denmark,  till  Chriftianity  abolidied  it. 

CREMONA  (anc.  geog.),  a  Roman  colony,  with 
municipal  rights,  fettled  beyond  the  Po,  below  the 
confluence  of  the  Addua,  on  the  report  of  Hannibal's 
march  into  Italy  (Polyhius)  :  a  town  at  this  d.ay  flill 
maintaining  its  name  and  flourilhing  ftate.  It  was  aa 
opulent  and  mercantile  city  ;  but  fuffered  greatly  in 
the  civil  wars  of  Auguftus  (Virgil).  In  the  war  with 
Vitellius,  it  was  dcftroyed  by  the  partizans  of  Vefpa- 
fian;  but  was  foon  after  rebuilt  by  the  munificence  of 
the  citizens  and  exhortations  of  Vefpafian,  (Tacitus). 
Now  capital  of  the  Cremonefe.  in  the  duchy  of  Mi- 
Ian.     E.  Long.  10.  30.   Lat.  45. 

CRENATED,  in  botany.   See  BoTANY-/«i/fx. 

CRENELLE,  or  Imbattled,  in  heraldry,  is  ufed 
when  any  honourable  ordinary  is  drawn,  like  the  bat- 
tlements on  a  wall  to  defend  men  from  the  enemies 
fhot.  This  attribute  belongs  to  the  arms  of  fuch  as 
have  defended  callles  for  their  prince  or  country,  or 
of  fuch  as  are  llcIUed  in  archittfture. 

CRENOPHYLAX,  in  antiquity,  a  maglftrate  of 
Athens,   who  had  the  infpeftlon  of  fuimtalns. 

CREODIBA,  in  the  cuftoms  of  the  middle  awe,  a 
robbery  and  murder  committed  in  a  wood,  where  the 
body  of  the  perfon  killed  was  burnt  in  order  to  pre- 
vent any  difcovery  of  the  crime  The  word,  fays 
Wtndelinus,  is  compounded  of  cruy  and  iliveit,  that 
is,   "  wood-rcbbers." 

CREOLES,  a  name  given  to  the  families  defcend- 
ed  from  tiie  Spaniards  who  firft  fettled  at  Mexico  in 
America.  Thefe  are  much  more  numerous  than  the 
Spaniard  properly  fo  called,  and  the  Mulattoes,  which 
two  other  fpccies  of  inhabitants  they  diftinguifh  ;  and 
are  excluded  from  all  confidcrablc  employments. 

CREON,  king  of  Corinth,  was  fon  of  Syfiphus. 
He  promiied  his  daughter  Glauce  to  Jafon,  who  had 
repudiated  Medea.  To  revenge  the  fuccefs  of  her  rival, 
Medea  fent  her  for  a  prefentagown  covered  with  poi- 
fon.  Glauce  put  it  on,  and  was  feized  with  fudden pains. 
4  Her 


C    R    E  [529 

Crcon  Hit  body  took  fire,  and  flie  expired  in  the  jrrcsteft  tor- 
ments. The  lioufe  alfo  was  confiimed  by  tlie  tire, 
and  Creon  and  his  family  fluired  Ghiiice's  fate. 

Crkin,  fon  of  Menoetius,  was  father  to  Jocafta, 
the  wife  and  mother  of  Oe  iipiis.  At  the  death  of 
Lalus,  wlu)  had  married  Jocalla,  Crcon  afcended  the 
vacant  throne  of  Thebes.  As  the  ravages  of  the 
Sphynx  were  intolerable,  Creon  offered  his  crown  and 
daughter  in  marriage  to  him  who  could  explain  the 
enigmas  which  the  monilcr  prupofed.  Oedipus  was 
happy  in  his  cxplan4tions,  and  he  afcended  the  throne 
of  Thtbes  and  marriid  Jocafta  without  knowins^  that 
f!ie  was  his  mother,  and  by  her  he  had  twofons,  Poly- 
rices  and  Eteocles.  Thefe  two  fons  mutually  agreed 
after  their  father's  death  to  reign  in  the  kingdom  each 
a  year  alternately.  Eteocles  firft  afcended  the  throne 
by  right  of  feniority  ;  but  when  he  was  once  in  power 
he  refufed  to  refign  at  the  appointed  time,  and  his 
brother  led  againft  him  an  army  of  Argives  to  fuppovt 
his  right.  The  war  was  decided  by  a  fingle  combat 
between  the  two  brothers.  They  both  killed  one  ano- 
ther, and  Creon  afcended  the  throne  till  Leodamus 
the  fon  of  Eteocles  fliould  be  of  a  fuffieient  age  to  af- 
fame  the  reins  of  gc.\ernment.  In  hh  regal  capacity 
he  commanded  that  the  Argives,  and  more  particular- 
ly Polynicep,  who  was  the  caufe  of  all  the  bloodfhed, 
(hould  remain  unburicd.  If  this  was  in  any  manner 
difobeycd,  the  offenders  were  to  be  buried  alive.  An- 
tigone the  filter  of  Folynices  tranfgrefled,  and  was  ac- 
cordingly puniflied.  Ha»mon  the  fon  of  Creon,  who 
was  paffionately  fond  of  Antigone,  killed  himfelf  on 
her  grave,  when  his  father  refufed  to  grant  her  par- 
don. Creon  was  afterwards  killed  by  Thtfeus,  who 
had  made  war  with  him  becaufe  he  refufed  burial  to 
the  Argives. 

CREPANCE,  in  the  manege,  a  chop  or  cratch  in 
a  horfe's  leg,  given  by  the  fpunges  of  the  flioes  of  one 
of  the  hinder  feet  eroding  and  llriking  agalnfl  the  o- 
ther  hinder  foot.  This  cratch  degenerates  into  an 
ulcer. 

CREPIDjE,  among  the  Romans,  a  kind  of  flip- 
pers or  fhoes,  which  were  always  worn  with  the  ^a/- 
litim,  as  the  cahci  were  with  the  toga. 

CREPLS,  HAWK-WEED  :   A  genus  of  the  polygamia 


C     R     E 

geon  moves  a  limb  to  afiure  himfelf  by  his  ear  of  the  CrcpundJa 
exiitence  of  a  fracture.  '' 

CREPUNDIA,  in  antiquity,   a  term  ufed  to  rv- .  '■ 

prefs  fucii  things  as  were  cxpofed  along  with  children, 
as  rings,  jewels,  e<Q.  ferving  as-tokeus  whereby  they 
afterwards  might  be  known. 

CREPUHCULUM,  in  allronomy,  twilight  ;  the 
time  from  the  iirll  dawn  or  appearance  of  the  morn- 
ing to  the  rifmg  of  the  fun  ;  and  again,  between  the 
fetting  of  the  fun  and  the  lait  remains  of  day. 

Papias  derives  the  word  fronj  crepenis  ;  which,  he 
fays,  ancieiitl)-  fignilied  uncertain,  doubtful,  q.  d.  a  dtt- 
liou^  li^hl.  The  crepufculum  is  ufually  computed  to 
begin  and  end  wlien  the  fun  is  about  18  degrees  below 
the  horizon;  for  then  the  flars  of  the  lixth  magnitude 
diiap])ear  in  the  morning,  and  appear  in  the  evening. 
It  is  of  longer  duration  in  the  folftices  than  in  the  c- 
quinoxes,  and  longer  in  an  obhquc  than  in  a  right 
fphere. 

The  crepufcula  are  occafion^d  by  the  fun's  rays  re- 
frafted  in  our  atmofphere,  and  reflcded  from  the  par- 
tides  thereof  to  the  eye.      See  Twilight. 

CRESCENT,  the  new  moon,  which,  as  it  begins 
to  recede  from  the  fun,  (hows  a  little  rim  of  light, 
terminating  in  points  or  horns,  wliich  are  ilill  in- 
crealing  till  it  become  full  and  round  in  the  oppo- 
fition.      The  word  is  formed  from  ci-efcOi  "  I  grow." 

The  term  is  alfo  ufed  for  the  fame  figure  of  the 
moon  in  its  wane  or  decre;ife,  but  improperly;  be- 
caufe the  points  or  horns  are  then  turned  towafds 
the  well,  whereas  they  look  to  the  ealt  in  the  jult 
crefcent. 

Crescent,  in  heraldry,  is  a  beaiing  in  form  of  a 
half  moon.  The  Ottomans  bear  linople,  a  crefcent 
montant,  argent. 

The  crefcent  is  frequently  ufed  as  a  difference  in 
coat-armour,  to  diftinguifli  it  for  that  of  a  fecond  bro- 
ther or  junior  family. 

The  figure  of  the  crefcent  is  the  Turkifli  fynibol  ; 
or  rather  is  that  of  the  city  Byzantium,  which  bore 
this  device  from  all  antiquity ;  as  appears  from  medals 
ftruck  in  honour  of  Augxillus,  Trajan,   &c. 

The  crefcent  is  fometimes  montant,  i.  e.  its  points 
look  towards  the  top  of  the  chief,  which  is  its  moll 


fuperflua  order,  belonging   to  the   fyngenelia  clafs  of    ordinary  reprefentation  ;  whence  fome  contend,  that 


plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
4C;th  order,  Compofti^.  The  receptacle  is  naked  ;  the 
calyx  calycidatcd  with  deciduous  fcalcs ;  the  pappus 
feathery  and  (talked.  There  are  14  fpecies,  moll  of 
them  herbaceous  annuals,  riling  to  the  height  of  a 
foot  or  a  foot  and  an  half;  and  having  their  branches 
terminated  by  ligulated  compound  red  and  yellow 
flowers.  Thefe  are  very  large,  and  confift  of  many 
fiat  florets  fpread  over  one  another  imbricatim,  and 
when  fully  blown  appear  as  if  radiated.  They  are 
very  confpicuous  and  beautiful  :  and  appear  in  June, 
July,  and  Auguft.  They  are  fuccceded  by  plenty  of 
feed,  which,  if  permitted  to  fcatter  on  the  ground, 
will  produce  a  number  of  young  plants  without  fur- 
ther trouble. 

CREPITATION,  that  noife  which  fome  falts 
make  over  the  fire  in  calcination,  called  alfo  c'ctona- 
tion. 

Crepitation  is  alfo  ufed  in  furgery,  for  the  noife 
made  bv  the  ends  or  pieces  of  bones,  when  the  fur- 

VoL.'  V,  Pan  II. 


the  crefcent,  abfolutely  fo  called,  implies  that  fi- 
tuation  ;  though  other  authors  bla/.on  it  montant, 
when  the  horns  are  towards  the  dexter-fide  of  the 
efcutcheon,  in  which  pofition  others  call  it  I:ia-oiJjant. 

Crefcents  are  faid  to  be  adojfed,  when  their  backs 
or  thicked  parts  are  turned  towards  each  other;  their 
points  looking  to  the  fides  of  the  fllield.  Crefcent  in- 
verted, is  that  whofe  points  look  towards  the  bottom  ; 
turrwd  crefcents,  are  placed  like  thofe  adoffed  ;  the  dif- 
ference is,  that  all  ti:eir  points  look  to  the  dexter-fide 
of  the  (hield  :  conturned  crefcents,  on  the  contrary,  look 
to  tlie  (initter  fide  :  affronted  or  appointed  crefcents,  are 
contrary  to  the  adolfed,  the  points  looking  towards 
each  other. 

Crescent  is  aUb  the  name  of  a  military  order,  in- 
flituted  by  Renatus  of  Anjou,  King  of  Sicily,  &c.  in 
1448  ;  fo  called  from  the  badge  or  fymbol  thereof,  a 
crefcent  of  gold  enamelled.  What  gave  occafion  to 
this  eftablifliment  was,  that  Renatus  took  for  his  de 
vice  a  crefcent,  with  the  word  loz,  "  praife,"  which,  in 
3  X  the. 


C     R     E 

Crefcertia.  the  ftyle  of  rebus,  makes  lo%  in  crefcent,  q.  d 
treUim-     ^^„cj„g  }„  inrlue,  one  nxfrits  prinfe, 

•  '    .      CRESCENTIA,  the  calabash-tree:  A  genusof 

the  angiofperraia  order,  belonging  to  the  didynamia 
clafs  of  plants  ;  and  in  the  natur\l  method  ranking 
■under  the  25th  order,  Piifamlne.t.  The  calyx  is  bipar- 
tite and  equal ;  the  corolla  gibbons  ;  the  berry  pedi- 
cellatcd  or  llalkcd,  unilocular,  and  polyfpermous;  the 
feeds  bilocular.     There  arc  two  fpecies. 

I.  The  cujete,  with  oblong  narrow  leaves  and  a 
large  oval  fruit,  is  a  native  of  Jamaica  and  the  Lee- 
ward Idands.  It  hath  a  thick  trunk  covered  with  a 
■whitifh  bark,  which  rifes  from  20  to  30  feet  high, 
and  at  the  top  divides  into  many  branches,  forming  a 
large  and  regular  head,  garnifhed  with  leaves,  which 
come  out  irregularly,  fonietimes  lingle  ;  at  other  times 
many  arife  out  of  the  fame  knot :  the  flowers  are  pro- 
duced from  the  fides  oi  the  large  branches,  and  fome- 
times  from  the  trunk,  ilanding  upon  long  footftalks. 
They  have  but  or.e  petal,  which  is  irregular  ;  and  they 
are  of  a  greenifh  yellow  colour,  ftiiped  and  fpotted 
V'ith  brown.  Thcfe  are  fucceeded  by  very  large  fruit, 
generally  fpherical,  fometimes  oval ;  and  at  other  times 
they  have  a  contrafted  neck  like  a  bottle  ;  and  are  fo 
large,  that  when  the  pulp  and  feeds  are  cleaned  out, 
the  Ihclls  will  contain  three  pints  or  two  quarts  of  li- 
quid. The  fruit  is  covered  externally  with  a  thin  /l<in 
of  a  greenilh-yellow  colour  when  ripe.  When  this  is 
peeled  off,  there  appears  a  hard  ligneous  fliell,  inclo- 
iing  a  pale  yellowiih  foft  pulp  of  a  tart  unfavoury  fla- 
vour, furrounding  a  great  number  of  flat  heart-fliaped 
feeds.  2.  The  latifolia,  or  broad-leaved  calabafh,  fel- 
dom  rifes  more  than  1  y  or  20  feet  high,  with  an  up- 
right trunk,  covered  with  a  white  fmooth  bark,  fend- 
ing out  many  Literal  branches  at  the  top,  garniflied 
with  leaves  three  inches  in  length,  and  one  and  a  quar- 
ter broad,  ranged  alternately.  The  flowers  come  out 
as  in  the  former  fpecies  ;  but  are  fmaller,  and  of  a 
deeper  yellow  colour.  The  fruit  of  this  fort  is  fome- 
times round,  fometimes  oval,  but  of  very  unequal 
Czes.  Both  thefe  fpecies  are  eafdy  propagated  by 
feeds;  but  the  plants  are  too  tender  to  live  in  this 
country,  unlefs  they  are  conft:antly  kept  in  a  fl;ove. 

The  fliells  of  calabaflics  are  made  ufe  of  for  va- 
rious purpofes.  At  Barbadocs,  befides  drinking-cups 
and  punch-bowls,  there  are    made   of  them    fpoons, 

'  dilhes,  and  other  utenfds  for  the  flaves.    Some  of  thefe 

fliells  are  fo  large,  as  to  be  capable  of  holding  1 5  pints 
of  water.  The  pulp  is  feldom  eaten,  except  by  cattle 
in  the  time  of  drought.  The  wood,  which  is  hard  and 
fmooth,  is  made  into  ftools,  chairs,  and  other  furniture. 
CRESCIMBENI  (John  Maria),  an  Itahan,  was 
born  at  Macerata  in  Ancona,  1663.  His  talents  for 
poetry  and  eloquence  developed  themfelves  early.  His 
verfes  at  firft  had  too  much  pomp  and  point  ;  but  re- 
fiding  in  Rome,  and  reading  the  befl:  Italian  poets, 
brought  him  back  to  nature.  He  not  only  reformed 
himfelf,  but  undertook  to  reform  bad  tafte  in  general. 
From  this  motive  he  projefted  the  ellabliihment  of  a 
new  academy,  under  the  name  of  Arcadia;  the  mem- 
bers of  which  at  firfl  did  not  exceed  14,  but  after- 
wards increafed  much.  They  called  themfelves  the 
fliepherds  of  Arcadia,  and  each  took  the  name  of  fome 
fhepherd  and  fome  place  in  that  ancient  kingdom. 
The  founder  of  this  fociety  was  appointed  the  direftor 
of  it  in  1690,  and  held  this  honourable  poft  38  years  ; 


[       530      ]  ^       ^      ^. 

hy  ad-  namely,  to  the  year  of  his  death,  which  happened  in 
1728.  Among  a  great  number  of  works,  in  verfeand 
profc,  the  principal  is.  An  Hiftory  of  the  Italian 
Poetry,  very  much  efteemed,  and  reprinted,  I  73  I,  at 
Venice,  in  fix  volumes  410.  This  hiftory  is  accou^pa- 
nied  with  a  commentary,  containing  anecdotes  of  I- 
talian  poets.  He  publilhcd  alfo  An  Hiftory  of  the 
Academy  of  Arcadia,  together  with  the  -Lives  of 
the  mofl  ilUiftrious  Arcadians  :  and  many  other  works. 

CRESCY,  or  Cressy.     See  Cressy. 

CRESS,  WATER-CRESS,  Or  CRESSES,  in  botany» 
See  Sisymbrium. 

Indian  Cmhs.      See  Trop^olum. 

CRESSY,  a  port-town  of  Picardy  in  France,  about 
44  miles  fouth  of  Calais,  and  27  north-well  of  Abbe- 
ville, remarkable  on  account  of  the  victory  obtained 
there  over  the  French  bv  Edward  III.,  of  England,  in 
the  year  1346.      E.  Long.  2.  o.   N.  Lat.  50.  2.0. 

Edward  having  encountered  and  overcome  many 
diftieulties  in  his  expedition,  was  at  hift  fo  clofely  fol- 
lowed and  haralTed  by  the  Fiench  army,  commanded 
by  the  King  of  France  in  perfon,  that  he  determined 
to  make  a  iland  at  this  place,  arid  to  give  his  purfuers 
a  check.  For  tliis  purpofe  he  chofe  his  around  with  r.  , 
great  judgment,  on  th-e  gentle  declivity  or  a  lull,  with  (/,j,^y 
a  thick  wood  in  his  rear.  He  ordered  deep  entrench-  Vol  I'V. 
mcnts  to  be  made  on  each  flank,  and  waited  with  P-  '78. 
finnnefs  the  approach  of  his  enemies.  The  King  of 
France,  dreading  nothing  fo  much  as  the  efcape  of  the 
Englilh,  began  the  march  of  his  great  army  from  Ab- 
beville early  in  the  morning,  Auguil  26.  and  continued 
it  feveral  hours  with  great  eagernefs,  till  he  received 
intelligence  that  the  Englilh  had  hailed  at  CrefTy,  and. 
were  prepared  to  give  him  battle.  He  was  advifcd  at 
the  fame  time  not  to  engage  that  day,  when  his  troops 
were  much  fatigued  with  their  march,  and  in  great 
dilorder  ;  and  he  was  difpoled  to  have  taken  this  ad- 
vice. But  the  difciph'ne  of  thefe  times  was  fo  imper- 
feft,  that  the  orders  given  for  halting  were  not  obey- 
ed ;  and  one  corps  of  this  mighty  holl  impelling  ano- 
ther, they  continued  advancing  till  they  came  into 
the  prefence  of  their  enemies  in  much  confufion. 

Edward  had  employed  the  forenoon  of  this  import- 
ant day  in  drawing  up  his  army  in  the  moft  excellent 
order,  in  three  lines.  The  firft  line,  which  confifted 
of  800  men  at  arms,  4000  Englilh  archers,  and  600 
Welfh  foot,  was  commanded  by  his  young,  amiable, 
and  heroic  fon,  the  Prince  of  Wales;  affilled  by  the 
Earls  of  Warwick  and  Oxford,  and  feveral  other 
noblemen.  The  fecond  line,  compofed  of  800  men  at 
arms,  4000  halbaidlers,  and  2400  archers,  was  led  by 
the  Earls^of  Arundel  ftnd  Northampton  ;  the  laft  line, 
or  body  of  relerve,  in  which  were  700  men  at  arms, 
5300  billmen,  and  6000  archers,  was  ranged  along  the 
fummlt  of  the  hill,  and  condufted  by  the  King  in  per- 
fon, attended  by  the  Lords  Moubray,  Mortimer,  and 
others.  When  the  army  was  completely  formed,  Edward 
rode  along  the  lines,  and  by  his  words  and  looks  infpircd. 
his  troops  with  the  moft  ardent  courage  and  ftrongell 
hopes  of  viftory.  He  then  commanded  the  cavalry  to 
difmount,  and  the  whoLe  array  to  fit  down  upon  the 
grafs,.  in  their  ranks,  and  refi  .ih  themfelves  with  meat, 
drink,  and  reft.  As  foon  a,  the  French  army  cam-j 
in  view,  they  fprung  from  the  groimd,  full  of  iti  .ngtlx 
and  fplrit,  and  ftood  ready  to  receive  them. 

The  King  of  France,  affilled  by  the  Kings  of  Bo- 
hemia. 


C    R     E 


•  licmia  and  Majorca,  the  Dukes  of  Lorraine  and  Sa- 
voy, and  fcveral  other  fovercign  princes,  with  the 
fioMcr  of  the  French  nobility,  labonred  to  rcftore  fonie 
degree  of  order  to  his  prodigious  army,  and^drew  it  up 
alio  in  three  lines,  but  very  indiltinftly  formed.  Tiie 
fird  line  was  commanded  in  chief  by  the  King  of  Ijo- 
hemia  ;  the  fecond  by  the  Earl  of  Alemjon,  the  King 
of  France's  brother ;  and  the  third  by  Pliilip  in 
perfon  ;  and  each  of  thefe  lines  contained  a  greater 
number  of  troops  than  the  wliole  Englifh  army. 

The  battle  of  Creffy  was  begun  about  three  o'clock 
in  the  afternoon,  Anguft  26.  by  a  great  body  of  Ge- 
noefe  crofs-bowmen,  in  the  French  fervice,  who  let  tly 
their  quarrels  at  too  great  a  diftance  to  do  any  execu- 
tion, and  were  prefently  routed  by  a  fhower  of  arrows 
trom  the  EnglilTi  archers.      The  Earlof  Alen^on,  after 
trampling  to  death  many  of  the  flying  Genoefe,  advan- 
ced to  the  charge, and  madea  furiousattack  on  that  corps 
commanded  by  the  Princeof  Walts.  The  Earls  of  Arun- 
del and  Northampton  advanced  with  the  fecond  h'ne  to 
fullain  th.    Prince,  and  Alenfon  was  fupported  by  as 
many  troops  as  could  crowd  to  his  alfillance.      Here  the 
battle  raged  for  fome  time  with  uncommon  fury  ;   and 
the  Earl  of  \\'arwick,  anxious  for  the  fate  of  the  day 
and  the  fafety  of  the  Prince,   fent  a  meflenger  to  the 
King,  intreating  him   to  advance  with  the  third  line. 
Edward,  who  had  taken  his  ftand  on  a   wind-mill  on 
the  top  of  the  hill,  from  whence  he  had  -a  full  view  of 
both  armies,  afted  the  mcfienger,  if  his   fon  was  un- 
horfed,  or  wounded,  or  killed?  and  being  anfwered, 
that  the  Prince  was  unhurt,  and  performed  prodigies 
of  valour,  "  Go  then,"   faid  he,   "   and   tell  my   fon 
and  his  brave  companions,  that  I  will  not  deprive  them 
of  any  part  of  the  glory  of  their  vidtory."     This  flat- 
tering meffage  being  made  known,   infpired  the  Prince 
and  bis  troops  with  redoubled  ardour  ;  and  the  King 
of  Bohemia,   the   Earl  of  Alencon,  and  many  ocher 
great  men,  being  flain,  the  whole  firft  and  fecond  lines 
of  the  French   army  weie  put  to  flight.      Philip,  un- 
difmayed  at  the  (laughter  of  his  troops,  and  the  fall  of 
fo  many  princes,  advanced  to  the  charge  with  the  line 
imdcr  his   immediate  command.      But  this  body  foon 
fhared  the  fame  fate  with  the  ether  two  ;  and  Philip, 
after  having  been  unhorfed,  and  wounded  in  the  neck 
and  thigh,  was  carried  off  the   field  by  John  de  Hai- 
nault,  and  fled   with  no  more   than  five   knights  and 
about  60  foldiers  in   his  company,  of  all  his  mighty 
army,  which  at  the  beginning  of  the  battle  confifted  of 
more  than  120,000  men.      Such  was  the   famous  vic- 
tory of  Crefl'y,   the  greateft  ever  gained  by  any  King 
of  England.     After  the  battle,  the  King  flew  into  the 
arms  of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  and  grafping  him  to  his 
bofom,  cried  in  an  eeftacy  of  joy,   "  My  dear  fon,  you 
have  this  day  fliowed  yourfclf  worthy  of  the  knight- 
hood which  you  lately  received,  and  of  the  crown  for 
which  you   have  fo  bravely  fought  ;  perfevere  in  your 
honourable   courfe."      The    Prince,   as   niodeft  as  he 
was  brave,  funk  down  on  his  knees,  his  face  covered 
with  bluflics,  and  begged  his   father's  bleffing.      Ed- 
ward continued  with  his  army  at  Crefl'y  three  days,  em- 
ployed  in   numbering   and  burying  the  dead.      The 
French  had  left  on  this  bloody  fcene  the  King  of  Bo- 
hemia,   1  I  other  princes,  80  bannerets,  1200  knights, 
1500  gentlemen,  4000  men  of  arms,  and  30,000  other 
foldiers. 


[     53^     1 


C     R     E 


CREST,  in  armoury,  denotes  the  uppermoft  part 
of  an  armoury  ;  or  that  part  riling  over  the  caflc  or 
helmet. — Next  to  the  maiitlc,  fays  Gudlim,  the  crefi.  or  i_ 
cognizance  claims  the  highefl  place,  being  feated  on 
the  moll  eminent  part  of  the  helmet  ;  yet  fo  as  to  ad- 
mit an  interpofition  of  fome  cfcrol,  wreath,  chapeau, 
crown,   iScc. 

The  ancient  warriors  wore  crefts  to  flrike  terror  in 
their  enemies,  as  the  fight  of  the  fpoils  of  animals  they 
had  killed;  or  to  give  them  the  more  formidable  mien, 
by  making  them  appear  taller,   &c. 

In  the  ancient  tournaments,  the  cavaliers  had  plumes 
of  feathers,  efpecially  thofe  of  oflriches  and  herons, 
for  their  crells  ;  thefe  tufts  they  called  plmnarts  ;  and 
were  placed  in  tubes,  on  the  tops  of  high  caps  or 
bonnets.  Some  had  their  creih  of  leather;  others  of 
parchment,  palleboard,  &c.  painted  or  varniihed,  to 
keep  out  the  weather ;  others  of  iteel,  wood,  &c.  on 
which  were  fometimes  reprefented  a  member  or  ordi- 
nary of  the  coat ;  a«,  an  eagle,  fleur-de-lys,  &c.  but 
never  any  of  thole  ta&^d.  hoitourahle  onliiiarks,  as  pale, 
feflTe,  &c.  The  crells  were  changeable  at  pleafure  ; 
being  reputed  no  other  than  as  an  arbitrary  device  or 
ornament. 

Herodotus  attributes  the  rife  of  crefts  to  the  Ca- 
rians,  wko  firit  bore  feathers  on  their  caflts,  and  paint- 
ed figures  on  their  bucklers;  whence  the  P'erfians call- 
ed them  cocks. 

The  crefl;  is  efteemed  a  greater  mark  of  nobility 
than  the  armoury,  as  being  borne  at  tournaments  ;  to 
which  none  were  admitted  till  they  had  given  proof 
of  their  nobility  Sometimes  it  fervcs  to  dillinguiili 
the  feveral  branches  of  a  family.  It  has  alio  ferved, 
on  occafion,  as  the  diftinguilhing  badge  of  fadtions. 
Sometimes  the  creil  is  taken  from  the  device  ;  but 
more  ufually  it  is  formed  of  fome  piece  of  the  arms : 
thus,  the  emperor's  crell  is  an  eagle  ;  that  of  Callile, 
a  cattle,  Sic.  Families  that  exchange  arms,  as  the 
houfes  of  Brunfwick  and  Cologne  have  done,  do  not 
change  their  crefl:s  ;  the  firll  ftill  retain  the  lioife,  and 
the  latter  the  mermaid. 

Crest,  in  heraldry,  the  figure  placed  above  the 
helmet  in  an  atchievement.      See  Hkraldry. 

CRKST-fallen,  a  fault  of  an  horfe,  when  the  upper 
part  of  his  neck,  called  the  crejl,  hangs  to  one  fide  : 
this  they  cure  by  placing  it  upright,  clipping  away  the 
fpare  /kin,  and  applying  plaflers  to  keep  it  in  a  proper 
pofition. 

CRETA,  or  Chalk,  in  natural  hiftory.  SccChalk. 
CRETE,  one  of  the  largell  iflands  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, lying  between  22  and  27  degrees  of  eaft  lon- 
gitude, and  between  35  and  36  degrees  of  north  lati- 
tude. According  to  Strabo,  this  ifland  is  2^7  miles 
in  length;  and  according  to  Pliny,  270;  and  according 
to  Scylax,  312.  As  to  its  breadth,  it  is  not,  as  Phny 
obferves,  above  55  miles  where  wideft;  whence  it  was 
flyled,  as  Stephanus  obferves,  the  Long  Ifiand.  It 
has  the  Archipelago  to  the  north,  the  African  fea  to 
the  fouth,  the  Carpathian  fea  to  the  call,  and  the  Io- 
nian to  the  well.  Anciently  it  was  known  by  the 
naroes  of  Aeria,  Chlhonia,  IcUa,  Curete,  ALicaris,  5cc. 
but  its  moll  common  name  was  that  of  Cvfie. 

The  Cretan  mythologifts,  quoted  by  Diodorus  Si- 

cuhis,  relate  that  the  firll  inhabitants  of  the  ifland  were 

the   Daftyli    Idasi,  who    dwelt  around   mount    Ida ; 

3X2  tiiCf 


Crtft 

II 
Crcie. 


C     R     E 


r  53^  ] 


C     R     E 


Crete.  tKcy  were  regarded  as  magicians,  becaufe  they  poflefs- 
"" "v '  ed  a  varietv  of  knowledge,  and  were  particularly  (kill- 
ed in  religious  myfteries.  Orpheus,  who  diilincjuinied 
Iiimfclf  fo  hiiihly  in  poetry  and  mufic,  was  their  dif- 
clple.  Tliey  difcovered  the  life  of  tire,  iron,  and  brafs, 
and  invented  the  art  of  working  thtfe  metals  in  Be- 
recvnthius,  a  mountain  near  Aptera.  Thofe  inva- 
luable difcoveiies  procured  them  divine  honours.  One 
of  them,  named  Hercules,  rendered  himfelf  famous 
by  his  courage  and  great  exploits.  He  inlHtuted  the 
Olympic  games :  though  pofterity,  by  a  miftake  ari- 
fing  from  his  bearing  the  fame  name,  have  afcribed  that 
inftitution  to  the  fon  of  Alcmena;  who,  indeed,  trode 
in  the  flcps  of  his  predeceflor,  and  raifed  himfctf  alfo  to 
immortality. 

The  Daftyli  Idxi  were  the  anceilors  of  the  Cure- 
tes.  Thefe  laft,  at  firft  inhabited  the  forefts  and 
caves  of  the  mountains.  Afterwards  they  entered  in- 
to domellic  life,  and  contributed,  bv  their  inftitutions, 
to  the  civilization  of  mankind.  They  taught  men  to 
colleft  flocks  of  flieep,  to  tame  the  ferocity  of  wild 
animals  for  domeitic  purpofes,  and  to  incite  bees  into 
hives,  that  they  micjht  riHe  them  of  the  fruit  of  their 
labours.  They  firft  prompted  men  to  the  chace,  and 
taught  the  ufe  of  the  bow.  They  were  the  inventors 
cf  fwords  and  of  military  dances.  The  noife  which 
they  made,  by  dancing  in  armour,  hindered  Saturn 
from  hearing  the  cries  of  Jupiter,  whofe  education 
Rhea  had  entrufted  to  them.  With  the  affillance  of 
the  nymphs,  thev  brought  up  that  god  in  a  cave  in 
mount  Ida,  feeding  him  with  the  milk  of  the  goat 
Amalthea,  and  with  iianey.    • 

To  this  period  mythology'  afTigns  the  origin  of  the 
Titans ;  their  abode  near  GnofTus,  where  flood  the 
palace  of  Rhea  ;  their  travels  over  the  whole  earth  ; 
their  war  againft  Ammon,  and  his  defence  by  Bac- 
chus ;  the  nuptials  of  Jupiter  and  Juno,  celebrated 
nigh  the  river  Therenus  in  Crete;  the  gods,  goddefTes, 
and  heroes,  who  defcended  from  them. 

The  moft  illuftrious  of  thofe  heroes  were  Minos  and 
Rhadamanthus.  They  are  faid  to  have  been  the  fons 
•f  Jupiter  and  Europa,  who  was  conveyed  into  the 
ifland  on  a  bull.  Minos  becoming  king,  built  fcveral 
sities  ;  the  moil  confiderable  of  which  are — GnofTus, 
en  that  fide  of  the  ifland  which  faces  Afia,  Phceftus 
en  the  fouthcrn  fhore,  and  Cydon  on  the  weftern,  fa- 
cing Peloponnefus.  He  gave  to  his  fubjefts  a  code 
of  admirable  laws,  which  he  pretended  to  have  re- 
ceived from  his  father  Jupiter  in  the  grotto  of  mount 
Ida. 

Rhadamanthus  di'Hnguifhed  himfelf  by  the  impar- 
tiality of  his  judgments,  and  by  the  inflexible  feverity 
with  which  he  inflifted  punilhment  en  the  impious  and 
■wicked.  His  empire  extended  over  the  chief  ifles  of 
the  Archipelago,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  adjacent 
eoafts  of  Afia  fubmitted  to  him  on  account  of  his  high 
leputation  for  probity  and  juftice.  Mytholag!  lis  have 
tonftituted  him  judge  in  the  regions  below,  to  deter- 
mine the  future  ftate  of  the  righteous  and  the  wicked. 
They  have  conferred  on  him  the  fame  honours  which 
were  bcilowed  on  Minos,  the  jufteft  of  kings. 

Thus  far  have  been  followed  the  Cretan  traditions 
as  ihcy  are  related  by  Diodorus ;  but  hiilorians  differ 
about  the  truth  of  them.  There  are  a  variety  of  opi- 
BU>ns  concerning  the  lirll  inhabitants  of  Crete.     Stra- 

3 


bo,  who- has  difcuffed  them  widi  great  erudition,  fays, 
after  fevend  pages  on  the  fubjec^  ;  '■  1  am  not  fond  of 
fables ;  yet  I  have  detailed  thefe  at  fome  length,  be- 
caufe they  are  connedled  with  theology,  livery  dif- 
courfe  concerning  the  gods  fliould  examine  the  reli- 
gious opinions  of  antiquity,  and  dillinguilh  them  from 
fable.  The  ancients  were  pleafed  to  conceal  'their 
knowledge  of  nature  under  a  veil.  It  is  now  impof- 
fible  to  unfold  the  meaning  of  their  enigmas.  But  by 
expofing  to  light  the  numerous  allegories  which  they 
have  left  us,  and  by  examining  attentively  their  mutual 
relations  and  differences,  genius  may  perhaps  be  able  to 
unfold  the  truths  which  are  couched  under  them." 

But  leaving  mythology  for  the  more  certain  records 
and  monuments  of  hillory,  we  fmd  that  Crete  received 
its  name  from  Cres,  the  fiift  of  its  monarchs.  He  was 
author  of  feveral  ufeful  inventions,  which  contributed 
to  the  happinefs  of  his  fubjefts.  Prompted  by  grati- 
tude, they  endeavoured  to  perpetuate  the  memory  of 
his  favours,  and  to  immoitalize  his  name,  by  naming 
the  ifland  after  him. 

In  order  to  diftinguifli  the  true  Cretans  from  ftran- 
gers,  they  were  named  JLteocri'les.  A  number  of  co- 
lonies, from  different  parts  of  Greece,  fettled  in  the 
ifland.  The  agreeablenefs  of  the  climate,  and  the  fer- 
tility of  the  foil,  invited  them  to  hx  their  habita- 
tion there.  The  Lacedemonians,  Argives,  and  A- 
thenians,  were  the  principal  people  who  fent  colo- 
nies into  Crete.  This  is  what  makes  Homer  fay, 
"  Crete  is  an  extenfive  ifland  in  the  midft  of  the  llormy 
main.  The  foil  is  rich  and  fertile.  It  contains  an 
immenfe  number  of  inhabitants.  It  is  adorned  with 
an  hundred  cities.  Its  inhabitants  fpeak  in  various 
langmges.  We  find  there  Acha;ans,  valiant  Eteo- 
cretrs,  Cydonians,  Dorians,  and  godlike  Pelafglans." 
The  Eteocretes  inhabited  the  fouthern  divifion  of  the 
ifland  ;  they  built  there  the  city  of  Proefus,  ana  erec- 
ted a  temple  to  Dlet;ean  Jove. 

Cres  was  not  the  only  monarch  who  reigned  in  the 
ifland  of  Crete.  He  had  a  ferles  of  fucceflbrs.  But 
hlflory  affords  httle  information  concerning  them  : 
only  the  names  of  a  few  of  them  are  preferved,  and  a 
fmall  number  of  events  which  happened  under  the 
reign  of  fome  others, — but  blended  and  disfigured  with 
an  intermixture  of  fable.  Among  thofe  monarths  we 
find  two  Jupiters,  and  two  of  the  name  of  Minos. 
However,  moit  writers  confound  them,  and  afcrihe  to 
one  thofe  tranfatlions  and  exploits  which  fhould  be 
fhai-ed  between  the  two. 

This  remark  chiefly  regards  Minos,  who  was  efleem- 
ed  the  wifeft  leglflator  of  antiquity.  The  ofhce  al- 
iigned  him  in  the  regions  below,  is  a  clear  and  cer- 
tain proof  of  his  having  gained  an  exalted  reputation 
by  his  juflice.  Greece,  fays  Plato,  has  with  great 
propriety  adopted  the  laws  of  Crete  ;  for  they  are 
founded  on  the  folid  bafis  of  reafon  and  equity,  and 
have  a  natural  tendency  to  render  the  people,  who  live 
in  fubjedlion  to  them,  opulent  and  happy.  One  of 
thofe  laws  forbade  "  the  Cretans  ever  to  carry  their 
feilivity  fo  far  as  to  intoxicate  themfelves  with  wine." 
The  following  was  very  fuitable  to  rtprefs  the  pre- 
fumptuous  ardour  'of  youth,  "  Let  young  people  not 
canvafs  the  lawb  with  an  indifcreet  curiofity  ;  let  them 
not  examine  whether  the  lawgiver  has  done  right  or 
wrong  in  promulgating  them  ;  but  let  them  join  una- 

i(im.ouIlv 


Crete. 


C     R     E 


f     Sii     1 


C    R     E 


Crrte.  nimoiifly  in  declaring  them  good,  fince  they  proceed 
■"V*"^  from  the  gods.  If  any  of  the  old  men  perceive  fome- 
thing  in  them  meriting  ameniUnent,  let  hira  mention 
it  to  the  magiitratc,  or  difculs  it  with  his  equals,  but 
never  in  the  prefence  of  the  young  people."  That 
excellent  code  was  engraven  on  tables  of  brafs ;  and 
Talof,  chief  mmUler  to  Minos,  vilited  all  the  towns 
and  cities  in  tlif  iUand,  three  times  a-year,  to  obferve 
in  what  manner  the  laws  were  executed  and  obeyed. 
The  king  of  Crete,  well  knowing  that  the  marvellous 
is  nectlTary  to  command  the  belief  and  enforce  the 
obedience  of  the  people,  pretended  that  he  had  re- 
ceived thofe  l.-tw5  from  his  f.aher  Jnpiter,  in  the  grot- 
to of  miHint  Ida.  In  the  fame  manner,  Lycnrgns, 
befoie  promulgating  his  laws,  repaired  to  Dtlphos, 
and  gave  out  they  had  received  the  landlion  ol  Apol- 
lo. A  like  rcafon  inducc<l  Numa  to  pretend  to  an  in- 
timacy with  the  nymph  Egeria,  and  Mahomet  to  a- 
fcribe  his  doiftrincs  and  inilitutions  lo  the  revelation  of 
the  angel  Gabriel. 

In  contradiftion  to  this  account,  others  of  the  an- 
cients dtfcribe  Minos  as  a  prince  impotently  aban- 
doned to  the  fury  of  his  paffions,  and  a  barbarous 
conqueror.  Falling  paflionately  in  love  with  the 
nympth  Dl<3ynna,  who  refufed  to  gratify  his  wlflics, 
he  purfued  htr  to  the  brink  of  the  (hoie,  and  forced 
her  to  plunge  into  the  fea,  where  (he  was  faved  by 
fome  fifhermen,  who  received  her  in  their  nets.  He 
was  the  firll  of  the  Greeks  who  appeared  in  the  Me- 
diterranean at  the  head  of  a  naval  armament.  He 
conquered  the  Cyclades,  expelled  the  Cariaiis,  elta- 
blifhed  Cretan  colonics  in  thofe  iflands,  and  commit- 
ted the  government  of  them  to  his  foo. 

Being  informed,  while  he  was  at  Paros,  that  his 
fon  Androgens  was  (lain  at  Athens,  he  dechrcd  war 
againd  Egeus,  and  impofed  on  him  a  difgraceful  tri- 
bute ;  from  the  payment  «f  which  Thefeus  delivered 
his  country.  He  took  arms  againll  Nilus,  king  of 
Megara,  made  him  prifoner  by  the  treachery  of  his 
daughter  Scylla,  and  put  him  to  death,  together  with 
Megarus,  the  fon  of  HIppomanes,  who  had  brought 
fomc  forces  to  his  alTiftance.  Da-dalus,  who  had  by 
fome  means  incurred  his  difpleafure,  defpairing  of 
paidon  from  fo  levtre  and  inflexible  a  prince,  employed 
the  refourccK  of  his  inventive  genius,  in  order  to 
efcape  from  his  power.  He  (led  to  Sicily,  gained  the 
proteftion  of  king  Cccalus,  and  obtained  an  afylr.m 
in  bis  court.  Valerius  Flaccus  has  defcribed  his 
flight  In  a  very  lively  and  pifturcfque  manner  "Thus 
Daedalus,  with  the  wings  of  a  l)ird,  afcended  from 
mount  Ida.  Belide  him  flew  the  comrade  of  his  (light, 
with  (liorter  wings.  They  appeared  like  a  cloud  rl- 
fing  in  the  air.  Minos,  feeing  his  vengeance  thus 
eluded,  glowed  with  impotent  rage.  In  vain  he  fol- 
lowed with  his  eyes  the  fecure  flight  of  his  enemies 
through  the  wide  expanfe  of  heaven.  His  guards  re- 
turned to  Cortynla  with  their  quivers  filled  with  ar- 
rows." The  Cretan  monarch  did  not,  however,  give 
up  his  prey.  He  equipped  a  fleet,  purfued  the  fugi- 
tive to  Sicily,  and  fell  before  the  walls  of  Camlcum. 

It  is  plain,  that  thofe  adlions  cannot  agree  to  the 
charafter  of  that  jull  monarch,  whofe  merits  raifed 
him  to  the  office  of  determining,  in,  the  regions  be- 
low, the  unalterable  fate  of  the  righteous  and  the 
wicked.      We  may,   therefore,  reafonably  conclude, 


that  Minos  the  legiflator  is  a  different  p*rfon  frem 
the  conqueror  ;  that  it  was  tlic  former  who  gained 
a  la  fling  reputation  by  his  wifdom  and  juRice  ;  and 
the  latter  who  fubdued  niofl  of  the  iflands  of  the  Ar- 
chipelago, but  being  enflaved  by  his  palTions,  tarnilh- 
ed  his  glory  by  his  cruelty  and  racrcilcfs  thirll  for 
vengeance. 

The  lail  king  of  Crete  was  Idomeneus.  This  prince, 
accompanied  by  Merion,  conduced  24.  fliips  to  the 
aiUftance  of  Agamemnon.  Homer  informs  us  of 
the  illuHrious  exploits  by  which  he  fignalized  himfelf 
before  the  walls  of  Troy.  At  his  departure,  he  com- 
mitted the  government  of  his  kingdom  to  Leucus  his 
adopted  fon,  promiling  him  the  hand  of  his  daughter 
Clliithera  if  he  governed  wifely  in  his  abfencc.  That 
ambitious  young  man  foon  forgot  the  favoius  which 
had  been  fo  lavilhly  bellowed  on  him.  Gaining  a 
number  of  partlfans,  he  in  a  (hort  time  afpired  to  the 
immediate  pcjflclVun  of  the  crown.  His  impatience 
would  not  wait  till  he  ihould  obtain  it  lawfully  by- 
marriage.  Flattering  himfell,  from  the  long  abfence 
of  the  king,  that  he  was  perhaps  fallen  before  Troy, 
he  determined  to  mount  the  throne.  Mida,  wife  to 
Idomeneus,  and  the  princels  Clliithera,  were  an  ob- 
fhicle  to  his  wiflies.  But  ambition  knows  no  rcftraint, 
and  tramples  under  foot  the  moll  facred  obligations. 
The  bale  wretch  having  feduced  the  people  from  their 
allegiance,  and  captivated  the  alfedlions  of  the  nobles,, 
facrificed  thofe  unfortunate  vlftlras  in  the  temple. 
When  Idomeneus,  crowned  with  laurels,  landed  oa 
the  coaft  of  Crete,  Leucus,  who  had  now  firmly  efta- 
blKhed  his  power,  attacked  him  with  an  armed  force, 
and  obliged  him  to  relmbark.  A  different  account  is 
alio  given  of  the  banlrtiment  of  Idomeneus.  Servius 
fays,  that  he  had  vowed,  in  a  florm,  to  facrilice  to 
the  gods  the  full  perfon  that  his  eyes  (hould  behold 
on  the  Cretan  fliore  ;  that  his  fon  having  met  him  firfl 
after  his  arrival,  he  fulfilled  his  vow,  by  facrificing 
him ;  and  that  the  ifland,  beiiig  foon  after  depopu- 
lated by  pellilence,  the  inhabitants  looked  upon  that 
affliftiou  as  the  eiTcfl  of  divine  vengeance,  and  expel- 
led the  parricide;  who,  retiring  to  Italy,  founded  Sa- 
lentum,  on  the  MelTapian  coall.  But  that  opinion 
appears  entirely  groundlefs.  Hiflory  mentions  no  fon 
of  Idomeneus.  If  he  had  a  fon  of  his  own  blood, 
why  did  he  adopt  Leucus  ?  Why  did  he  intruil  to 
}iim  the  government  of  the  ifland,  when  he  promifed 
him  his  daughter  in  marriage  ?  The  more  probable 
opinion  is,  that  the  plague  was  introduced  into  the- 
ifland  by  his  (lilps,  when  he  returned  from  the  fiege 
of  Troy,  as  Herodotus  afferts  ;  and  that  Leucus  art- 
fully  made  ufe  of  that  pretext  to  expel  his  lawful  fo- 
vereign  from  the  ifland.  But  it  appears  that  the 
ufurper  did  not  long  enjoy  the  fruit  of  his  crimes.  Soon 
after  the  departure  of  Idomeneus,  monarchy  was  aboli- 
(hed,  and  the  government  of  Crete  became  republican. 

The  republic  of  Crete  has  been  celebrated  by  the 
panegyric  of  Plato,  ferved  Lycurgus  as  a  model  for 
that  which  he  eilabllfhcd  in  Lacedcmon,  atid  was  be- 
held by  all  Greece  with  refpeft  and  admiration.  Stra- 
bo  has  thought  it  not  unworthy  of  his  pencil,  and  has 
confecrated  the  leading  features  of  its  conilitution  to 
lading  fame  In  his  immortal  work.  Itwas  indeed  a  fyftem 
of  legiflature,  whofe  direft  tendency  was  to  call  forth  the 
buds  of  viituein  the  heart  of  infancy ;  to  open  aad  expand 

them 


Ci-«(«. 


C    R     E  [     s$ 

Crete.  them  in  voiitli ;  to  infpire  man,  as  lie  reached  maturity, 
"~v  '  with  tlic  love  of  his  country,  of  glory,  and  of  liberty;  and 
to  comfort  and  fupport  the  iiilimiities  of  age  witli  the 
refpeCl  and  ellecm  due  to  the  experience  and  wifdom 
of  that  peiiod  of  life.  It  laboured  to  form  affectionate 
friends,  patriotic  citizens,  and  worthy  magiftrates.  It 
made  no  ufe,  however,  of  a  multitude  of  acts  and  fta- 
tutcs  to  produce  thofe  inelliinable  advantages.  They 
flowed  all  from  one  fource  ;  the  public  education  of 
youth,  judicioudy  dire<^ted.  The  virtuous  examples 
fet  before  youth  in  the  eourfe  of  that  education,  the 
illuflrious  deeds  which  were  recited  to  them  with  high 
applaufe,  the  honours  conferred  on  valour  and  on  noble 
actions,  the  opprobrium  invariably  cad  on  vice  ;  thefe 
ivere  the  only  means  which  the  Cretan  lawgiver  made 
life  of  to  form  a  warlike,  humane,  and  virtuous  na- 
tion. 

The  Cretan  government,  foon  after  the  expulfion 
of  Idomencus,  became  arillocratical.  The  povrer  was 
divided  between  the  nobles  and  the  people.  Yet  as 
the  chief  employments  were  occupied  by  the  nobles, 
they  direfted  the  adminillration  of  atfairs.  Ten  ma- 
giftrates were  annually  elefted,  by  a  majority  of  voices, 
in  the  national  affembly.  Thefe  were  named  CoJ'moi, 
and  their  public  ofiice  and  charatter  were  the  fame 
with  thofe  of  the  Ephori  at  Sparta.  They  were  the 
generals  of  the  republic  in  time  of  war,  and  directed 
all  affairs  of  any  importance.  They  had  the  right  of 
choofing  certain  old  men  for  counfellors.  Thole  old 
men,  to  the  number  of  twenty-eight,  colnpofed  the 
Cretan  fenate.  They  were  chofen  from  among  fuch 
as  had  difcharged  the  ofHce  of  Cofmoi,  or  had  diftin- 
guiflied  themfelves  by  extraordinary  merit  and  blame- 
lefs  probity.  Thofe  fenators  continued  in  office  du- 
ring life,  pofiefTed  a  weighty  influence,  and  were  con- 
fulted  in  every  affair  of  any  importance.  This  body 
was  a  barrier  oppofcd  by  the  wildom  of  the  legiflator 
againft  the  ambition  of  the  ten  chief  rulers.  He  had 
impofed  another  rellraint  on  their  power,  by  li.i.iting 
the  period  of  their  adminiftration  to  one  year.  His 
forefight  went  ftill  farther.  The  fuffrages  of  the 
people  might  be  obtained  by  bribery  or  perfonal  in- 
fluence, and  of  confequence  their  choice  might  fome- 
times  fall  on  a  man  unworthy  of  fo  honourable  an  of- 
fice. When  that  happened,  he  who  had  been  unde- 
fervedly  advanced  to  the  dignity  of  Cofmos  was  de- 
graded, either  in  a  national  affembly,  or  fimply  by 
the  voices  of  his  colleagues.  This,  doubtlcfs,  is  what 
Plato  alludes  to,  when  he  fays,  "  Neither  the  com- 
monwealth, which  approaches  too  near  to  a  monarchi- 
cal conftitution,  nor  that  which  aifccts  a  licentious  li- 
berty, is  founded  on  the  folidbafis  cf  a  juft  medium  be- 
tween anarchy  and  defpotifm.  O  Cretans  !  O  Lace- 
demonians !  by  eftablilhing  yours  on  firmer  founda- 
tions, you  have  avoided  thofe  fatal  extremes." 

Such  were  the  dilliibution  of  power  and  the  ad- 
niniltration  of  public  affairs  in  the  Cretan  govern- 
ment. Its  fimplicity  was  admirable.  A  people  who 
were  bleffed  with  the  fatred  enjoyment  of  liberty,  but 
pollefled  not  fufTicient  knoivledge  and  difcernment  to 
direct  themfelves,  cle£t<-d  magi  Urates,  to  whom  jthey 
delegated  their  authority.  Thofe  magiftrates,  thus 
arrayed  with  fovereign  power,  chofe  fenators  to  affifl 
and    direct   their  dcliberatious.        Thefe   counfellors 


+       1 


C     R     E 


could  neither  enaiS  or  decide  of  themfelves:  but  they 
held  their  ofHee  for  life  ;  and  that  circumllance  con  *■ 
tributed  to  itrengthen  their  influence  and  to  increafc 
their  experience.  Tlie  magiftrates  were  animated  by 
the  molt  powerful  motives  to  dillinguiih  themfelvea 
when  in  office,  by  unwearied  activity  in  the  public 
fervice.  On  one  fide,  they  were  reftrained  by  the 
fear  of  degradation  ;  on  the  other,  aftuated  by  the 
hope  of  becoming  one  day  members  of  the  national 
council. 

Yet  let  us  enquire  what  means  the  Cretan  lawgiver 
iifed  to  form  virtuous  citizens.  All  the  Cretans  were 
fubjeCted  to  the  power  of  their  magiftrates;  ani  di- 
vided into  two  claffes,  the  adults  and  the  youth.  Men 
arrived  at  maturity  were  admitted  into  the  firft.  The 
fecond  confuted  of  all  the  young  men  who  were  not 
below  the  age  of  feveiiteen.  The  fociety  of  adults  eat 
together  in  public  halls.  There  rulers,  magiftrates, 
poor  and  rich,  feated  together,  partook,  witliout  di- 
ftinction,  of  the  fame  fimple  faie.  A  large  bowl,  fil- 
led with  wine  and  water,  which  went  round  the  com- 
pany from  one  to  another,  was  the  only  drink  that 
tliey  were  allowed.  None  but  the  old  men  had  a  right 
to  call  for  more  wine.  Doubtlefs,  that  people,  io  ce- 
lebrated for  wifdom,  were  not  Itrangers  to  tlie  power 
of  beauty  ;  for  a  woman  was  appointed  to  prelide  at 
each  table.  She  openly  diftributed  the  molt  exquUite 
meats  to  thofe  who  had  diflinguiflied  themfelves  by 
their  valour  or  wifdom.  That  judicious  preference 
was  fo  far  from  exciting  envy  or  jealoufy,  that  it  only 
prompted  every  perfon  to  deferve  it  by  brave  and  pru- 
dent conduft.  Near  where  the  citizens  fat,  two  tables 
were  laid,  which  they  named  Hnjpitable ;  all  Itrangers 
and  travellers  were  entertained  at  thefe:  and  there  was 
alfo  a  particular  houfc  fet  apart  by  the  public,  ia 
which  they  might  fpend  the  night. 

To  fupply  the  public  expences,  every  citizen  was 
obliged  to  bring  a  tenth  part  of  his  annual  income  in- 
to the  treafury.  The  chief  magiftrates  were  to  take 
care  that  every  perfon  contributed  his  proportion.  In 
Crete,  fays  Ariftotle,  one  part  of  the  fruits  of  the 
earth,  of  the  produce  of  the  flocks,  of  the  revenues 
of  the  ftate,  and  of  the  taxes  and  cuftoms,  is  facred 
to  the  gods  :  the  other  is  diftributed  among  the  mem- 
bers of  the  community  ;  fo  that  men,  women,  and 
children,  all  fubfift  at  the  public  expence. 

After  dinner,  the  magiftrates  and  fenators  ufually 
fpent  fome  time  in  deliberating  on  the  affairs  of  the 
ftate  ;  they  next  recounted  the  noble  deeds  which  had 
been  done  in  war,  celebrated  the  courage  of  their  moll 
diltinguifhed  warriors,  and  animated  the  youth  to  he- 
roic valour.  Thofe  afferablies  were  the  firft  fcliool  of 
the  youth.  At  the  age  of  feven,  the  boy  was  per- 
mitted to  handle  the  bow; — from  that  time  he  was 
admitted  into  the  fociety  of  the  adults,  where  he  con- 
tinued till  the  age  of  feventeen.  Thci-e,  fitting  on 
the  ground,  and  clothed  in  a  plain  and  coaife  drefs, 
he  ferved  the  old  men,  and  liftcned,  with  relpedtful 
filence,  to  their  advices.  His  young  heart  was  in- 
flamed with  the  recital  of  noble  deeds  in  arms,  and 
glowed  with  ardour  to  imitate  them.  He  acquired 
habits  of  fobriety  and  temperance.  And  being  con- 
ftantly  witnefs  of  illuftrious  examples  of  moderation, 
wifdom,  and  patriotifm;  the  f;eds  of  virtue  were  thus 

fowM 


Crete. 


C    R    E 


[     5 


fovrn  and  foflered  in  his  heart  before  he  attained  tht 

■^  ufe  of  reafon. 

He  vas  early  acciiftomed  to  arms  and  to  fatigue, 
that  he  might  karn  to  endure  excefiive  heat  or  cold,  to 
clamher  and  leap  amoncj  hills  and  precipices,  and  to  bear 
manfully  the  blows  and  wounds  which  he  might  receive 
amid  the  gymnallic  excrcifes  or  in  battle.  His  education 
\vas  not  confined  to  the  gymnaftic  excrcifes;  he  wasalfo 
taught  to  fing  the  laws,  which  were  written  in  verfe, 
■with  a  certain  ipecies  of  melody  ;  in  order  that  tlie 
charms  of  mufic  mii'ht  difpofe  him  to  learn  them  with 
more  pleafure,  and  might  imprefs  them  more  deeply 
on  his  lieait,  and  that,  if  he  (honld  ever  tranlgrcfs 
thi  m,  he  miglit  not  have  the  excnfe  of  ignorance  to 
(ilTtr.  He  next  learned  hymns  in  honour  of  the  gods, 
and  jioenis  compf>fcd  in  praffe  of  heroes.  When  he 
reached  his  feventeenth  year,  he  retired  from  the  for 
ciety  of  the  adults,  and  became  a  member  of  that  of 
the  young  men. 

Here  his  education  was  (liU  carried  on.  He  exer- 
cifed  himfclf  in  hunting,  wrellling,  and  fighting  with 
his  companions.  The  lyre  played  tunes  of  martial 
mufic  ;  and  he  learned  to  follow  exaftly  the  founds 
and  meafure  of  the  raiifician.  Thofe  fports  and  excr- 
cifes were  fometimes  attended  with  danger;  becaufe 
arms  of  Heel  were  fometimes  uled  in  them.  One 
dance,  in  which  the  youth  afpired  moil  ardently  to 
excel,  was  the  Pyrrhic,  originaHy  invented  in  Crete. 
The  performers  in  that  dance  were  arrayed  in  com- 
plete armour  : — they  wore  a  light  fhort  coat,  which 
did  not  fall  below  the  knee,  and  was  bound  with  a 
girdle  going  twice  round  the  waill  :  on  their  feet  and 
legs  were  bufkins  ;  above  thefe  they  bore  their  arms, 
— and  performed  Various  military  evolutions  to  the 
found  of  mufieal  inilrument*.  "  The  Lacedemonians 
and  Cretans,"  (fays  Libanius),  "  cidtivated  dancing 
with  amazing  ardour  ;  they  confidered,  that  their 
laws  had  direfted  them  to  praftife  it  for  the  moil  im- 
portant purpofes  ;  and  it  was  fcarec  lefs  dilhonourable 
for  a  Lacedemonian  or  Cretan  to  negleft  the  military 
dances,  than  to  defert  his  poJi  in  battle." 

Thofe  Cretans  who  were  opulent  and  high-born, 
were  permitted  to  form  focieties  of  young  men  of  their 
own  age.  They  often  drove,  with  emulation,  who 
Ihould  form  the  mofl  numerous  one.  The  father  of 
the  young  man  who  formed  one  of  thofe  foeieties, 
ufually  prefided  in  it.  He  had  a  right  to  educate  thofe 
warlike  youth,  to  exercife  them  in  running  and  in 
hunting,  to  confer  rewards  and  inflift  punifhments. 

Friendfliip  was  in  high  eftimation  among  the  Cre- 
tans ;  but,  fays  Strabo,  the  manner  in  which  they 
condufted  the  intcrcourfe  of  friendfhip  was  pretty  ex- 
traordinary. Inflead  of  mild  perfuaiion,  they  made 
ufe  of  violence,  to  gain  the  objefts  of  their  affeftions. 
He  who  conceived  an  affeftion  for  a  young  man  of  his 
own  age,  and  wilhed  to  attach  him  to  himfclf  by  in- 
diffoluble  bonds,  formed  a  fcheme  for  carn'ing  him  off 
by  violence.  Three  days  before  putting  it  into  exe- 
cution, he  communicated  it  to  his  comrades.  They 
could  not  then  interfere  to  prevent  it  ;  becaufe  if  they 
had,  they  would  have  appeared  to  think  the  young 
man  unworthy  of  fuch  an  excelTivc  attachment.  At 
the  appointed  day  they  affemblcd  to  proteft  their 
companion.  If  the  raviaier  appeared  to  them  not  im- 
worthy  of  the  objeft  of  his  affeftion,  they  made,  at 
firft,  a  faint  jefiilance  in  obedience  to  the  law — but, 


35     1  C    R    E 

at  laft,  joyfully  favoured  his  enterprifc  ;  if,  on  the 
other  hand,  they  thought  him  unworthy  of  the  objcdl 
of  his  choice,  they  made  fuch  rcfiflance  as  to  prevent 
him  from  executing  his  defign.  The  feigned  refiftance 
continued  till  the  ravifhcr  had  condudtcd  his  friend  in- 
to the  hall  of  that  fociety  to  which  he  belonged.  They 
did  not  regard  hinivwho  pofTefled  fupcrior  beauty  and 
gracefulnefs  of  perfon  as  the  moil  amiable  ;  but  him  who 
liad  moll  diftinguilhed  himfelf  byhismodeily  and  valour. 

The  ravilher  loaded  his  yovuig  friend  with  favours, 
and  cimduftcd  liim  wherever  he  defired  :  they  were 
accompanied  by  thofe  who  had  favoured  tiie  rape  :  he 
carried  him  from  fcall  to  feail,  procured  him  the  plea- 
fures  of  the  chace  and  good  cheer  ;  and  after  ufing 
all  pofiible  means  to  gain  his  heait  for  the  courfe  of 
two  months,  brought  him  back  to  the  city,  and  was 
•  obliged  to  give  him  up  to  his  parents.  But  firft  he 
prelented  him  with  a  fuit  of  armour,  an  ox,  and  a 
driiiking-cup  ;  which  were  the  ufual  and  legal  pre- 
ftnts  un  fuch  occafions.  Semietimes  his  generofity 
W|nt  ftill  farther ;  and  he  made  more  expenfive  pre- 
fents  ;  to  defray  the  expence  of  which  his  comrade* 
contributed.  The  young  man  facrificed  the  ox  to  Ju- 
piter, and  gave  an  entertainment  to  thofe  who  had 
aihlled  when  he  was  carried  off.  He  then  declared 
his  fentinients  concerning  a  conneftion  with  his  ravifh- 
er,  and  told  whether  or  not  it  was  agreeable  to  him. 
If  he  had  reafon  to  complain  of  the  treatment  which 
he  had  received,  the  law  allowed  him  to  forfake  a- 
friend  fo  unworthy  of  the  name,  and  to  demand  hi& 
punilhment. 

It  would  have  been  difgraceful,  adds  Strabo,  to  a 
young  man,  who  was  handfome  and  well-born,  to  be  re- 
jefted  by  his  friends  on  account  of  the  depravity  of 
his  manners.  Thofe  who  had  been  carried  off  re- 
ceived public  honours.  Theirs  were  the  firft  places 
in  the  halls  and  at  the  race.  They  were  permitted 
to  wear,  during  the  reft  of  life,  thofe  ornaments  which 
they  owed  to  the  tendernefs  of  friendlhip  ;  and  that 
maik  of  diftinftion  teftificd  to  all  who  faw  them,  that 
they  had  been  the  objefts  of  fome  fond  attachment. 

Wlien  the  youth  had  finifhed  their  excrcifes,  and  at- 
tained the  legal  age,  they  became  members  of  the 
clafs  of  adults  ;  being  then  confidered  as  men,  they 
were  permitted  to  vote  in  the  national  afTemhlies,  and 
were  intitled  to  ftand  candidates  for  any  public  officr. 
They  were  then  obliged  to  marry  ;  but  did  not  taEe 
home  their  wives  till  fuch  time  as  they  were  capable 
of  managing  their  domcftjc  concerns. 

"  The  legiflator  (fays  Strabo)  had  confidered  li- 
berty as  thegreateft  bleiTmg  that  cities  can  enjoy.  Li- 
berty alone  can  fecure  the  property  of  the  citizens  of 
any  ftate.  Slavery  either  robs  them  of  it,  or  renders, 
it  precarious.  The  firll  care  of  nations  fliould  there- 
fore be  to  preferve  their  liberty.  Concord  llrength- 
ens  and  fupports  her  empire  ;  Ihe  flouriJhes  wherever 
the  feeds  of  diifenfion  arc  extinguilhed.  Almoft  all 
tliofe  hoflilities  which  prevail  among  nations  or  indi- 
viduals fpring  either  from  an  inordinate  defirc  of 
wealth  or  the  h)ve  of  luxury.  Introduce,  inllead  af 
thofe  banefid  principles,  frugality,  moderation,  and 
equality  of  conditions  ;  you  will  thus  banifh  envy,  ha- 
tred, injnftice,  and  haughty  difdain."  This  was  what 
the  Cretan  lawgiver  happily  effefted.  And  the  comr 
munity,  which  was  regulated  by  h's  wife  inftitutions 
rofe   to    glory,  opulence,    and  power ;    aud  v\-as  ho^ 

cuureii: 


Crete. 


C    R    E 


I     S3^    ] 


ORE- 


'Crotc.     noiircd  ivitli  tlie  panegyrics  of  the  moft  ceWbrated  phi- 

»         l(;fi)phers  of  Greece  :  but  the  highefl  honour  it  ever 

obtained,  was  that  of  ferving  Lycurgus  as  a  model 

for  the  admirable  form  of  government  which  he  efta- 

blifhed  at  Sparta. 

The  republic  of  Crete  continued  to  flourilh  till  the 
age  of  Julius  Csefar.  No  other  llatc  has  enjoyed  fo 
lono-  a  period  of  ftrength  and  grandeur.  The  legifla- 
ture,  regarding  liberty  as  the  only  fure  bafis  of  a  na- 
tion's happinefs,  had  inllituted  a  fyftcm  of  laws,  the 
natural  tendency  of  which  was,  to  infpire  men  with  an 
ardent  paffion  for  liberty,  and  with  fuch  virtue  and  va- 
lour as  are  neceflaiy  to  fupport  and  defend  it.  All 
the  citizens  weie  foldiers ;  all  of  them  were  drilled  in 
the  art  of  war.  The  vaUant  youth  of  other  nations 
reforted  to  Crete,  to  learn  the  exercifes,  manccuvres, 
and  evolutions,  of  the  military  art.  "  Pbilopojmen 
(fays  Plutarch)  being  impatient  of  indolence,  and  eager 
to  acquire  fldll  in  arms,  embarked  for  Crete.  After 
fpending  a  confiderable  time  in  the  nobleft  exercifes 
among  that  brave  people,  who  were  ilvilled  in  the  art 
of  war,  and  accuftomed  to  an  aullere  and  temperate 
life,  he  returned  to  the  Acliseans.  I'he  knowledge 
•which  he  had  acquired  made  him  fo  eminent  among 
them,  that  he  was  immediately  appointed  general  of 
their  cavalry." 

On  the  other  hand,  the  legiflator,  being  perfuaded 
that  conquefts  are  generally  unjuft  and  criminal,  that 
they  often  cxhauft  the  ftrength  of  the  viilorious  na- 
tion, and  almoll  always  corrupt  its  manners,  e-ndea- 
voured  to  prefeive'  the  Cretans  from  the  ambition  of 
conqueft.  The  fertility  of  the  ifland  abundantly  fup- 
plied  their  wants.  They  needed  not  that  commerce 
(hould  introduce  among  them  the  riches  of  foreign 
tountries,  along  with  which  luxury  and  her  train  of 
attendant  vices  would  alfo  be  introduced;  and  he  knew 
how  to  infpire  them  with  an  indifference  for  fuch  ac- 
quifitions  without  exprefsly  forbidding  them.  The 
"ymnaftic  exercifes,  which  occupied  the  leilure  of  the 
gallant  yoiiths;  the  pleafures  of  the  chace;  the  ardour 
of  friendfliip  ;  the  public  (hows,  at  which  all  the  dif- 
ferent orders  of  the  community,  both  men  and  women, 
■ufed  to  affemble  ;  the  love  of  equahty,  order,  and  their 
country,  with  which  he  inflamed  every  breaft  ;  the 
wife  inftitutions,  which  united  a  whole  nation  fo  clofely 
that  they  compofed  but  one  family; — all  thefe  ties  at- 
tached the  Cretans  to  their  native  ifland  :  and  finding 
at  home  that  happinefs  which  was  the  objeft  of  their 
wifhes,  they  never  thought  of  wandering  abroad  in 
fearch  of  an  imaginary  glory,  or  of  extending  their 
•empire  over  other  nations.  Therefore,  from  the  pe- 
riod at  which  that  ftate  aduraed  a  republican  form  till 
the  time  when  they  were  attacked  by  the  arms  of 
Rome,  the  nation  was  not  once  known  to  fend  an 
hoftile  force  into  the  temtories  of  any  of  their  neigh- 
bours. This  inftance  of  moderation  is  unparalleled  in 
hiftory ;  no  other  nation  can  divide  the  glory  of  it  with 
the  Cretans.  Individuals  indeed  might  leave  their 
country  to  engage  in  foreign  armies.  Thofe  princes 
and  ftates  who  knew  their  valour  and  Ikill  in  archery 
■eagerly  fought  to  take  them  into  their  pay  ;  all  the 
neighbouring  monarchs  were  defirous  of  having  in  their 
armies  a  body  of  Cretan  archers.  Over  the  whole 
world  none  were  more  celebrated  than  they  for  bend- 
ing the  bow.  "  The  arrows  of  Gortynia  (faysClaudlan), 

N-  94. 


aimed  from  a  trufty  bow,  are  fure  to  wonnd,  nor  evof 

mifo  the  dellined  mark."  *■ 

Though  the  multitude  of  independent  cities  which 
flourilhed  in  Crete  did  not  unite  their  arms  to  fubja- 
gate  the  neighbouring  iUands,  and  drench  them  with 
the  blood  of  their  inhabitants ;  yet  they  were  not  fo 
wife  as  to  live  in  peace  among  tlicmfelves.  Difcord 
often  llalked  among  them  with  her  flaming  torch. 
The  moll  powerful  wiflied  to  enflave  the  reft.  Some- 
times Gnuflu.s  and  Gortynia  marched  with  foeial  ban- 
ners againft  their  neighbours,  levelled  their  fortreifes, 
and  fubjecled  them  to  their  power ;  at  other  timt" « 
they  attacked  each  other  with  hoilile  violence,  and 
fav/  their  bravell  youth  peiilh  amid  the  horrors  of  civi! 
war.  LyCfos  and  Cydou  oppofed  an  invincible  barrier 
to  their  ambition,  and  prcferved  their  own  liberty. 
The  lall  of  thtle  cities  had  acquired  fuch  ftrength  and 
influence,  that  flie  held  the  balance  between  the  rival 
powers  of  the  illand.  Thofe  wars  deftroyed  a  number 
of  the  cities,  and  drenched  the  native  country  of  Jupi- 
ter with  blood. 

To  what  fource  muft  we  attribute  thofe  inteftine 
diffentions  ?  One  part  of  the  illand  was  occupied  by 
the  Eteocretes,  the  original  inhabitants ;  the  reft  was 
peopled  with  colonies  from  Athens,  Sparta,  Argos, 
and  oamos.  Perhaps  the  ancient  grudges  which  had 
fublift ed  among  thofe  llrangers,  being  ftill  unextingullh- 
ed  in  their  breads,  were  ealily  rekindled  by  accident  or 
cii'cumftances,and  inflamed  with  new  fury.  We  may  alio 
fuppofe,  that  the  moft  powerful  among  them,  exulting 
in  their  fuperiority,  would  endeavour  to  take  advantage 
of  the  weaknefs  of  the  reft,  and  difregard  all  laws  but 
thofe  of  force  ;  bcfides,  the  glowing  ardour  of  the 
youth,  trained  to  military  exerciles,  was  ever  ready  to  fly 
to  arms.  Such,  probably,  were  the  cauies  which  iomen- 
ted  difcord  and  hoftiiity  among  a  people  living  under 
the  fame  religion,  cuftoms,  and  laws.  Whatever  thefe 
might  be,  the  Cretans,  being  perfuaded  that  the  firm 
union  of  their  foldiers  was  eflential  to  vicVtory,  arrayed 
the  bravell  youths  of  the  army  in  fplendld  robes,  and 
caufed  them  to  facrifice  to  friendlhip  before  engaging 
in  battle.  In  fome  countries  it  would  be  very  proper 
to  obHge  the  generals,  on  fuch  occaiions,  to  facririce 
to  coricord.  If  fuch  a  facrifice  were  performed  with 
iincerity,  it  might  preferve  their  glory  unftained,  and 
prevent  fuch  deluges  of  blood  from  being  walled  with- 
out producing  any  advantages  to  the  ftate. 

Their  paflion  for  war  did  not  extinguiih  in  the  breafts 
of  the  Cretans  that  exquiiite  fenfibility  which  is  the 
mother  and  nurfe  of  the  fine  arts.  "  The  Cretans 
(fays  Sozomen)  gave  an  ilhillrious  proof  of  their  mu- 
nificence to  genius,  by  making  Homer  a  prefent  of  a 
thoufand  pieces  of  filver  ;  and  to  perpetuate  the  me- 
mory of  this  act  of  generoiity,  they  recorded  it  by  an 
infcriptlon  on  a  pubhc  column."  In  Crete,  adds  Pto- 
lemy, men  are  Itiil  more  defirous  of  cultivating  their 
underilandings  than  of  exeicifing  their  bodily  powers. 
Often  when  diflentions  arofe,  the  voice  of  wildom  and 
the  charms  of  poefy  recalled  them  to  reafon  and  har- 
mony. Thales  of  Gortynia,  the  preceptor  of  Lycur- 
gus, was  one  of  their  moft  celebrated  philofophers. 
Being  both  a  poet  and  legiflator,  he  made  an  happy 
ufe  of  his  abilities  and  knowledge  to  extinguiih  among 
his  counti-ymen  the  kindling  fparks  of  difcord.  "  His 
poems  were  moral  difcourfcs  in  verfe,  which  recalled 

the 


CrcM. 


C    R     E 


[   ,5^7    1 


C     R     E 


tTic  people  to  concord  and  fubmiflion  to  the  laws.  U- 
"  fing  a  regular  meal'iire,  lie  recommended  the  aullerity 
of  his  fubjecl  by  the  infinuating  and  powerful  charm 
of  fentiment.  So  powerful  were  the  cfTeAs  of  his 
verfcs,  which  addrtflld  at  ouce  the  ears,  the  lieart,  and 
tJie  underilanding  of  his  hearers,  that  their  rage  was 
jfradually  fuftened.  Next,  opening  tlieir  hearts  to  the 
love  of  peace,  the  advantages  wliich  he  defciibed  in 
glowing  colours,  they  forgot  their  iutelline  dilTentions, 
and  ranged  themfelves  around  the  llandard  of  concord." 
That  fage  is  faid  to  have  invented  tunes  for  the  mili- 
tary dances  and  for  the  Cretan  Pyrrhic.  Men  who 
felt  fo  ftrongly  the  influence  of  poetry  and  niufic  could 
fcarcely  be  enemies  to  pleafiire.  Accordingly  they 
had  a  cuftom  of  difliuguiihing  -their  fortunate  days 
with  white  flint  Hones,  their  unfortunate  days  with 
black.  At  the  end  of  the  year  tliey  counted  the 
number  of  their  white  Hones,  and  reckoned  that  tliey 
had  lived  only  fo  many  days  as  were  diitinguiflied  for 
having  been  fortunate.  They  did  not  think  mere  ex- 
iilence,  without  the  enjoyment  of  pleafure,  worthy  of 
the  name  of  liff.  For  this  reafon,  they  eaufcd  to  be 
infcribtd  on  their  tombs  :  "  He  lived  fo  many  days  ; 
he  continued  :n  exigence  fo  long." 

A  paffion  for  glory  is  eafily  awaked  in  a  feeling  and 
generous  breaft.  The  Cretans  eagerly  repaired  to  the 
famous  fclemnities  of  Greece,  and  were  often  crowned 
at  the  Olympic,  Nemasan,  and  Pythian  games :  others 
of  them  were  favourites  of  the  mufes,  and  verfified  the 
prediftions  of  prophets,  or  celebrated  the  glorious  deeds 
of  their  heroes.  Several  of  them  diftinguidied  them- 
felves  by  hiftorical  compofitions.  At  the  moll  ancient 
games,  a  prize  is  faid  to  have  been  bellowed  on  the 
poet  who  fung  the  noblefl  hymn  in  honour  of  Apollo: 
Chryfothemis  of  Crete  fung  and  gained  the  prize. 

The  ravages  of  time  have  deprived  us  of  ahnoll  all 
their  works ;  and  if  Pindar  liad  not  preferved  tlic  me- 
mory of  fome  of  their  crowns,  we  Ihould  not  know 
even  the  names  of  the  conquerors  who  wore  them.  The 
temple  of  Diana  at  Ephefus,  built  by  the  Cretan  Cte- 
fipon  and  his  fon  Metagenes,  was  not  proof  againll 
the  frantic  hand  of  the  incendiary.  Thofe  ingenious 
architee^s  had  built  it  on  the  principles  of  the  Ionic 
order  :  to  the  colllinefs  of  the  materials,  the  elegance 
of  the  architefture,  the  fyminetry  of  the  parts,  and 
the  majefty  and  perfcflion  of  the  whole,  they  had  ad- 
ded folidity  and  ftrength,  without  which  the  reft  mull 
have  been  of  fmall  value.  Their  names  have  defcend- 
ed  to  pollerity,  but  the  pillars  of  that  monument 
which  has  perpetuated  their  memory  have  been  difper- 
fed  or  deftroyed.  Scarce  a  veftige  remains  of  that 
building  which  was  efteemed  one  of  the  feven  wonders 
of  the  world. 

Nations  are  effaced  from  the  earth  like  the  monu- 
ments of  their  power,  and  after  the  revolution  of  feveral 
ages  we  can  fcarcc  trace  in  their  pofterity  any  remains 
cf  their  ancient  charafter.  Some  of  them  exift  longer, 
others  ihorler;  but  we  may  almoft  always  calculate  the, 
period  of  their  duration  by  the  excellence  of  their  laws, 
and  the  fidelity  with  which  they  fupport  and  obey 
them.  The  republic  of  Crete,  being  eftablilhed  on  a 
folid  bafis,  knew  no  foreign  mailer  for  a  period  of  ten 
centuries.  She  bravely  repelled  the  attacks  of  tliofe 
princes  who  attempted  to  enflave  her.  At  length  the 
time  arrived  when   the  warlike  and  vidtorious    Ro- 

Vol.  v.  Part  II. 


mans  afpiroJ  to  the  empire  of  the  world,  and  would  Crete. 
fuffer  none  but  their  fubjefts  or  Haves  to  inhabit  within  """"v^-^, 
the  reach  of  their  arms.  Florris  does  not  fcruplc  to 
acknowledge,  tliat  the  Romans  had  no  other  motives 
for  invading  Ciete  but  the  ambitious  delne  of  fubdu- 
ing  the  renowned  native  country  of  Jupiter.  "  If  any 
perfon  wifli  to  know  the  reafons  which  induced  us  to 
attack  Crete  (fays  he),  the  true  reafon  was  our  defire 
to  fubdue  fo  celebrated  an  ifland.  The  Cretans  had 
appeared  to  favour  Mithridaces,  and  the  Romans 
thought  pifiper  to  declare  war  againft  tliem  on  that 
pretext.  Mark  Antony,  father  of  the  triumvir,  at- 
tacked them  with  ftroug  hopes  of  fuccefs  ;  but  was 
feverely  punilhed  for  his  prefumption  and  imprudence. 
The  Cretans  took  a  great  part  of  liis  fleet,  hinig  up 
his  foldiers  and  failors  on  the  mafts  amid  the  fails  and 
cordage,  and  returned  in  triumph  into  their  har- 
bours." 

The  Romans  never  forgot  nor  forgave  a  defeat.  As 
foon  as  the  Macedonian  war  was  brought  to  an  happy 
concluiion,  they  again  took  arms  agniiift  the  Cretans 
to  revenge  their  ignominy  and  iofs.  (;^uintus  Metellus 
was  fent  to  Crete  with  a  powerful  armament.  He  met 
with  an  obllinate  and  vigoro\is  refiftance.  Panarus 
and  Lallhenes,  two  experienced  leaders,  co'ledting-a 
body  of  20,000  young  warriors,  all  eager  for  battle, 
and  of  determined  courage,  employed  their  arms  and 
arrows  fuceefsfully  agaiad  the  Romans,  and  protraifted 
the  fate  of  Crete  for  three  years.  Thofe  conquerors 
could  not  make  themfelves  mafters  of  the  illand  before 
deftroying  its  bravell  warriors.  They  loft  a  great 
number  of  troops,  and  bought  a  bloody  vidory  at  the 
price  of  many  a  danger  and  much  fatigue.  However, 
their  ufual  good  fortune  at  length  prevailed.  The  firft 
care  of  the  conqueror  was  to  abolirti  the  laws  of  Minos, 
and  to  eftabliih  in  their  room  thofe  of  Nunia.  Strabo, 
that  enhghtened  philofopher,  complains  of  this  adl  of 
feverity  ;  and  informs  us,  that  in  his  days  the  original 
laws  of  Crete  were  no  longer  in  force,  becaufe  the  Ro- 
mans compelled  the  conquered  provinces  to  adopt  their 
civil  code.  To  fecure  themfelves  ftill  more  fully  ia 
the  poffeflion  of  the  iiland,  they  fent  a  powerful  colo- 
ny to  GnofFus. 

From  that  era  to  the  prefent  time,  that  is,  for  a 
period  of  1900  years,  the  Cretans  have  no  longer 
formed  a  feparate  nation,  nor  made  any  figure  among 
the  ftates  and  kingdoms  of  the  world  :  their  noble  and 
ingenuous  manners,  their  arts  and  fciences,  their  va- 
lour  and  their  virtues,  are  no  more.  They  have  loft 
thefe  with  the  Iofs  of  liberty.  So  true  is  it  that  man 
is  born  for  himfelf ;  and  that,  when  deprived  of  that 
aid  which  Nature  has  defigned  to  ftrengthen  and  fup- 
port his  weaknefs,  the  flame  of  genius  and  the  ardent 
glow  of  valour  are  extinguilhed  in  his  breall ;  he  be- 
comes incapable  of  vigorous  refolution,  and  finks  be- 
low the  natural  virtue  and  dignity  of  the  fpecies. 

The  illand  of  Crete,  joined  with  the  fmall  kingdom 
of  Cyrene,  on  the  Lybian  coaft,  formed  a  Roman  pro- 
vince. It  was  at  firft  governed  by  a  proconful ;  a  que- 
ftor  and  an  afiiftant  were  afterwards  fent  there  ;  at  laft, 
as  Suetonius-informs  us,  it  was  put  under  the  govern- 
ment of  a  conful.  This  ifland  was  one  of  tlie  firll  pla- 
ces in  the  world  that  were  favoured  with  the  linht  of 
the  gofpel.  St  Paul  introduced  the  Chriftian  faith  in- 
to Crete  j  and  his  difciple  Titus,  whom  he  left  there 
3Y  to 


G    R"    E 


to  clierilli  and  cultivate  that  precious  plant,  became 
the  fiil>  bilhop  of  the  ifland.  In  the  reign  of  the  em- 
peror Leo,  it  had  twelve  bifhops,  who  were  all  fub- 
jeiS  to  the  patriarch  of  Conftantinople.  Conftaiitine 
feparated  Crtte  from  Cyrene  in  the  new  divifion  which 
lie  made  of  the  provinces  of  the  empire.      Leaving 


[     53^     1 


C     R     E 


work;  fo  it  pleads  ftrongly  for  its  admifiion  Into  oiu* 
language. 

CreuK  origi'jally  fignifies  a  hollow,  cavity,  or  pit,  out 
of  which  fomething  has  been  fcooped  or  dug:  hence  it 
is  uitd  to  denote  that  kind  of  fciJpture  and  graving' 
.where  the  lines  and  figures  are  cut  and  formed  within 


three   fons,    Conftantius,   Conft.intine,    and  Conlhms,  the  face  or  plane  of  the  plate  or  matter  cngrnvcn   on 

he  afligned  Thrace  and   the  lallern   provinces  to   the  In  which  fenfe  it  Hands  oppofed  to  relievo;   where  the 

firft  ;  to  the  ftcond,  the  empire  of  the  Well ;  the  iOand  lines  and  figures  are  embolfed,   and  appear  prominent 

of  Crete,   Africa,   and  lllyria,  to  the  third.  above  the  face  of  the  matter. 

When  Michael  Balbus  fat  on  tlie  throne  of  Conftan-  CREW,  the  company  of  failors  bclouging  to  a  fliip, 

rinople,  the  rebellion  of  Thomas,  which  laltcd  three  boat,  or  other  veli'el. 

Tears,  cauftd  him  to  ncgktl  the  other  pares  of  the         The   failors  that  arc  to  work  and  manage  a  fhip  are 

empire.      The  Ag'arenians  (a  people  of  Arabia),  who  regulated   by  the    number  of  lalls  it  may  carry;  each 

had  conquered  the  tincll  provinces  of  Spain,  feized  that  bit  nuiking  two  ton.     The  crew  ot  a  Dutch  lliip,  from 


opportunity.  They  fitted  out  a  confideraWe  fleet, 
plundered  the  Cyclades,  attacked  the  ifland  of  Crete, 
and  made  tliemf;.lves  niafters  of  it  without  oppolition. 
In  order  to  fecure  their  conqueft,  they  built  n  fortrefs 
which  they  named  Khamiak,  "  intrenchment."  From 
that  citadel  the  barbarians  made  inroads  into  the  inte- 
rior parts  of  the  ifland,  carrying  havock  and  devallu- 
tion  wherever  tliey  appeared.  By  repeated  attacks, 
they  fubdued  all  the  cities  in  Crete  except  Cydon. 
Michael  made  fome  inefFedual  efforts  to  expel  them 
from  Crete.  The  emperor  Bafilius,  the  Macedonian, 
was  not  more  fuccefsful.  They  defeated  him  in  a 
bloody  battle  ;  but  being  vanquilhcd  by  one  ef  his  ge- 
nerals, they  were  fubjefted  to  the  payment  of  an  an- 
tual  tribute.  At  the  end  of  ten  years,  the  Arabians 
refufed  the  tribute.  It  was  referved  for  Nicephorus  as  well  as  letters. 
Phocas,  who  was  afterwards  emperor,  to  deliver  this  very  advanced  age 
fine  ifland  from  the  yoke  of  the  Infidels.  He  landed 
»n  the  ifland  with  a  numerous  army,  boldly  attacked 
thena,  and  routed  them  in  various  engagements.  The 
Saracens,  no  longer  daring  to  meet  k>  formidable  a 
general  ill  the  field,  f.ed  for  protetlion  to  their  for- 
trcfl'es.  Phocas  being  plentifully  fupplied  with  all  the 
warlike  machines  ntce^Tary  for  a  fiege,  levelled  their 
v^alls,  and  alarmed  their  hearts  v*ith  terror.  He  took 
their  cities  and  fortrcfics,  and  drove  them  into  Khan- 
dak  tlieir  metropolis  and  Inft  rctource.  In  the  courfe 
of  nine  months  he  fubdued  the  whole  ifland,  took  their 
king  Curup  and  his  lieutenant  Aremas  prifoners,  and 
reunited  to  the  empire  a  province  which  had  been  127 
years  in  the  hands  of  the  Infidels.     It  remained  under 


4.0  to  50  laRs,  is  feven  failors  and  a.fwabbor  ;  from  5> 
to  60  lafts,  the  crew  conlllls  of  eight  men  and  a  fwab- 
ber  ;  and  thus  increafes  at  the  rate  of  one  man  for  every 
ten  lails ;  fo  that  a  (hip  of  100  lalls  has  12  men,  &c. 
Englilh  and  French  crews  arc  ufually  ftronger  than 
Dutch  ;  but  always  in  about  the  fame  proportion.  In. 
a  (hip  of  war  there  are  ffeveral  particular  crews,  or 
gangs,  as  the  boatfwaiu's  crew,  the  carpenter's  crew, 
the  gimuer's  crew,  &c. 

CREVIER  (John  Baptist  Lewis),  a  Parifian, 
was  trained  under  the  celebrated  Rollin,  and  afterwards 
became  profelfor  of  rhetoric.  Upon  the  death  of  his 
maftcr,  in  1741,  he  took  upon  him  to  finilh  his 
Roman  Hillory.  He  puhlKhcd  other  works,  and  was 
greatly  ferviccabk  to  the  caufe  of  virtue  and  religion 
His  death  happened,  1765,  in  a 
Befidesthe  continuation  jull  men- 
tioned, he  publilhed,  1.  An  edition  of  lA-oiiis,  cum 
Noth,  In  6  vols  4to,  174S;  and  afterwards  another 
edition,  better  adapted  to  the  ufe  of  his  pupils,  in  6  vols.  . 
fmall  8vo.  2.  La  Hijh'ire  da  Efitpenurs  de  Romains 
Jufiju'  a  Conftantin,  1749,  12  torn.  i2rao.  ^,  Hi/ioire 
at  I'Univerfue  de  Pnr'u,  7  torn.  i2mo.  4  Rhelorlqiia 
Fran^eife,  a  jiifl  and  ufeful  W(  rk.  ^.  Obfervat'ionsfur 
l'£Jprit  des  ho'ix.  Here  he  ventured  out  of  his  depth;. 
he  IhoiJd  have  kept  within  the  precintls  of  the  belles 
letters. 

CREITRA,  in  fabulous  hiftory,  daughter  of  Creoa 
king  of  Corinth.  As  flie  was  going  to  mari-y  Jafon» 
who  had  divorced  Medea,  (he  put  on  a  poifoned  gar- 
ment, which  immediately  fet  her  body  on  fire,  and  die 


the  dominion  of  the  Pv.oni3ns  till  the  time  whe-n  Bald-  expired  in  the  moft  excruciating  torments.     She  had 

win  Count  of  Flanders,  being  raifed  to  the  throne,  li-  received  this  gown  as  a  gift  from  Medea,  who  wifhed 

Iverally  rewarded  the  fervices  of  Boniface  Marquis  of  to    take    that    revenge  upon   the   infidelity  of  Jafon, 

Montferrat,  by  making  him  king  of  Thedalonlca,  and  Some  call  her  Glauce.      (Ovid,  de  Art.  Am.  l.  v.  335.) 

addlni'  the  ifland  of  Crete  to  his  kingdom.    That  lord,  A  daughter  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy  by  Hecuha.     She 

being  more  covetous  o£  gold  than  glory,  fold  it  to  the  married  ./Eneas,  by  whom«Aj:  had,  among  other  chil- 

Venetians  In  the  year  1194  ;  undtir  whom  It  affumed  dren,  Afcanuis.     When  Troy  was  taken,   Ihe  fled  in 

the  name  of  Casdia.      Sec   the  fequel  of  its  hiftory  the  night  with  her  huftjand  ;  but  they  were  feparated 

under  that  article.  '  in  the  midft  of  the  confufion  and  turaalt,  and  vEneas 

CRETIO,  in  antiquity,   a'  certain  number  of  days  could  not  recover  her,  nor  l>ear  where  (he  was.     Some 

allowed    the    heir    to    ccnfidcr    whether    he    would  fay  that  Cybtle  faved   her,    and    cai^ried    her   to   her 


aft  as  heir  to  the  deceafed  or  not  ;  after  which 
time,  if  he  did  not  aft,  he  was  excluded  from  the 
eftate. 

CREUX,  a  term  in  fcuTptnre,  much-ufed  by  the 
Trench  ;  though  not  yet,  that  we  kuow  of,  natu- 
ralized among  us:  but  the  want  of  a  word  of  equal 
import  in  Engllfli,  as  it  has  frequently  put  us   under  a 


temple,  of  which  (he  became  priclleis.  Pi-'uJ.  10.  c. 
26. —  Virg.  JEn.  2.  V.  562. 

CREX,  in  ornithology,  a  fpecies  of  Ralli'S. 

CRIB,  the  lack  or  maiigtr  of  a  (table,  or  the  ftali 
or  cabbin  of  aa  ox.  It  is  aHo  ufed  for  any  fmall  habi- 
tation, as  a  cottage,  &c. 

Crib,  in  the  Englidi  fait -works,  a  name  given  to  a 


jseccllity  of  ufing  this  iu  the  courfe   of  the  prcfent    fort  of  cafe  ufed  in  fome  places  inllead  of  the  drab,  to 

pui 


CrlJuon. 


C    R    I  I    539    1       '  C    R    1 

Ciftbage  put   tlie  fait    into  as    it  is  taken   out  of  the  boiling     is  j^Iven.     He  oaufcd  fix  placarJ?  tobc  fixed  on  all  tlie   Critbw; 
pun.  gates  of  the  fchaols,  halls,   and  colloj;eR  l)i'lon<;ing  lo  ^"~^ 

C'ribbage,  a  jjanic  at  cards,  to  be  learnt  only  by     the  iinivciiity,   and  on  all  the  pillars  and  pulls  before 

praftlce.  the  houfes  of  tlie  moil  renowned  men  for  littrature  in 

CR IBRATION,  in  pharmacy,  the  pafTing  any  fub-     the  city,  inviting  all  thofe  whn  were  well  vcrfcd  in  any 

ftance  through  a  ficvc  or  learee,   in   order  to  feparate     art   or   fcience,  to   difpntc  with  him  in   the  college  of 

the  liner  particles  from  the  grolfer.  Navanc,  that  day  fix  weeks,  by  nine  of  the  clock  in 

Cribrosum  OS,  in  anatomy,  called  alfo  0/ f/Zwo/'./cT.     the  morning,  where  he  would  attend   them,   and  be 

ready  to  anfwer  to  whatever  fhoiild  be  propofed  to  him 
in  any  art  or  fcience,  and  in  any  of  thefe  12  languages, 
Hebrew,  Syriac,  Arabic,  Greek,  Latin,  Spaiiifh, 
French,   Italian,  EngliHi,  Dutch,   Flemifh,   and  Scla- 


See  j-liintomy,  \\^  i  7. 

CRICELAKIA,  the  driving  a  ring  or  hoop.  -Dri- 
ving a  hoop  was  one  of  the  ancient  g^'mnaftics  :  this 
lioop  was  as  higli  as  the  breall  of  the  perfon  who  ufed 


it.      It  was  commended  for  rendering  the  limbs  pliable,     vonian  ;  and   tliie  either  in    verfe  or  profe   at  the  dif- 


and  for  llrengthening  the  ncives. 

CRICETUS,  in  /.oology.     See  Mus. 

CRICHl^ON  (James),  aScotsgentleman,  who  lived 
in  the  i6th  century,  and  who,  on  account  of  his  cxtraor- 
tliiuirv  endowments  both  of  body  and  mind,  obtained 
the  appellation  of  "  the  admirable  Cricliton  ;"  by  which 


cretion  of  the  difpiitaiit.  During  this  whole  time,  in- 
ftead  of  clofely  applying  to  his  (Indies,  he  legardixl 
nothing  but  hunting,  hawking,  tilting,  vaulting,  riding 
of  a  well-managed  horfe,  toflingthe  pike,  handling  the 
miiflcet,  and  other  military  feats  ;  or  tile  he  employed 
himfclf  in  domeJlic  games,   fuch   as   balls,  concerts  of 


•  MS  Me- 
mo-r  read 
to  ihc  S^. 
ciety  of 
Antiquarie: 
it  IC.Iin- 
burgh. 


title  he  has  continued  to  l>e  diOinguiflied  down  to  the  .mufic  vocal  and  indrumcntal  ;  cards,  dice,  tennis,  and 
prefent  day.  The  time  of  tills  celebrated  jierfon's  the  like  diveifions  of  youth.  This  conduH  fo  provo- 
birth  is  faid,  by  the  generality  of  writers,  to  have  been  kcd  the  Undents  of  the  univerfity,  that,  beneath  tlve 
in  15JI  ;  but,  according  to  Lord  Buchan  *,  it  ap-  placard  which  was  fixed  on  the  Navarre  gate,  they  cau- 
peaxs,  from  fevcral  citcumllances,  that  he  was  born  in  fed  the  following  words  to  be  written:  "  If  you  woulil 
the  month  of  Augud  1560.  There  is  a  difference  meet  with  this  monfter  of  ptrfeftion,  to  make  fearch 
likewife  between  the  Earl  of  Buchan  and  other  bio-  for  him  either  in  the  tavern  or  bavvdy-houfc,  is  the 
graphcrs,  with  regard  to  the  family  of  Crichton,  and  readiell  way  to  find  him."  Neverthelefs,  when  the 
the  rank  and  fituation  of  his  father.  The  common  day  appointed  arrived,  Crichton  appeared  in  the  col- 
accounts  alieit,  that  James  Crichton's  father  was  Ro-  lege  of  Navarre,  and  acquitted  himfelf  beyond  expref- 


bcrt  Crichton  of  Cluiiie,  in  the  county  of  Perth  ;  and 
that  this  Robert  Crichton  commanded  Q^ieen  Mary's 
army  at  the  battle  of  Langfide  in  the  year  1568.  But 
from  the  Eail  of  Buchan  we  learn,  that  this  gentleman 
■xvas  of  Eliicek  in  the  fame  county,  and  that  he  was  lord 
advocate  of  Scotland  in  queen  Ma-ry's  reign  from  1561 
to  1573;  part  of  which  time  he  held  that  office  in  con- 


fion  in  the  difputation,  which  laded  i'lom  nine  o'clock 
in  the  morning  til!  fix  at  night.  At  length,  the  pre- 
fident,  after  extolling  him  highly  for  the  many  rare 
and  excellent  endowments  which  God  and  nature  had 
bellowed  upon  him,  rofe  from  his  chair,  and,  accom- 
panied by  four  of  the  moft  eminent  profelfors  of  the 
iiniverlity,  gave  him  a  diamond  ring,   and  a  purfe  fuil 


junction  with  Spens  of  Condie.  The  mother  of  James  of  gold,  as  a  tcftlmony  of  their  love  and  favour.  Tlie 
Cricliton  was  l^ll/.abeth  Stuart,  the  only  dauj^hter  of  Sir  whole  ended  with  the  repeated  acclamations  and  huzzas 
James  Stuart  of  Btath,  who  was  a  defcendant  of  Robert  of  the  fptAatois  ;  and  henceforward  our  young  difpu- 
duke  of  Albany,  the  third  Ton  cf  king  Robert  the  fe-  tant  was  called,  "  the  admirable  Crichton."  It  is  a'l- 
cond,  by  Elizabeth  Mulr  or  More,  as  fhe  is  commonly  ded,  that  he  was  fo  little  fatigued  with  the  difpute, 
called.  It  is  hence  evident,  that  when  the  admiiable  that  he  went  on  the  very  next  day  to  the  Louvie, 
Crichton  bcailed  (as  he  did  abroad),  that  he  was  fprung  where  he  had  a  inateh  of  tilting  (an  exercife  then  in 
from  Scottifh  kings,  he  laid  nothing  but  what  was  much  rcqueif ),  and  in  the  piefence  of  fome  of  the 
f.greeablcto  truth.  princes  of  the  court  of  Fiance,  and  a  great  many  la- 
James  Cricliton   is  faid   to  have  received  his  gram-  dies,  carried  away  the  ring  ly  times  fucce'Iivcly. 


matical  education  at  Perth,  and  to  have  Ihidied  pliiio- 
fophy  ill  the  univerfity  of  St  Andrew.  Fiis  tutor  in 
that  univei-tTty  was  Mr  John  Rutherford,  a  prof,  {for  at 
that  time  famous  for  his  learning,  and  who  diih'riguidi- 
td  himfelf  by  writing  four  books  on  Ariftotle's  logic 
and  a  comm'-ntan'  on  his  poetics.  According  to  Al- 
dus Manutius,  who  calls  Crichton   firil   coufin   to   the 


About  two  years  after  this  we  find  him  at  Rome, 
where  he  affixed  a  placard  upon  all  the  eminent  places 
of  the  city,  in  the  following  terms:  Nos  yacclus  Crkh- 
toniis  Sfottis,  cmctinque  rel propcfi.'ir  ex  tmpro-oifo  nfponile- 
liwi.s.  In  a  city  which  abounded  in  wit,  this  boltl 
challenge,  to  anfwer  to  any  queftion  that  could  be 
propofed  to   him  without   his  being  previoufly  adver- 


klng,  he  was  alfo  inftruttcd,  along  v\'-ltli  his  majeity,  tifed  of  it,  couM  not  efcape  the  ridicule  of  a  paf- 
by  Buchanan,  Hepburn,  and  Robertfon,  as  well  as  by  quinade.  It  is  faid,  however,  that  being  nowife 
Rutherford  ;  and  he  had  fcarcely  arrived  to  tlie  20th  difcouraged,  he  ajipeared  at  the  time  and  place  ap- 
pear of  his  age,  when  he  had  run  through  the  whole  poii-ted  ;  and  that,  •  in  the  prefence  of  the  pope, 
circle  of  the  fcieuces,  and  could  fpeak  and  write  to  many  cardinals,  bilhops,  dodors  of  divinity,  and  pro- 
perfettion  in  ten  different  languages.  Nor  was  this  feHors  in  all  the  fciences,  he  dlfplayed  fuch  wonderful 
all ;  for  he  had  likewife  improved  himfelf  to  the  high-  proofs  of  his  univerfal  knowledge,  that  he  excited  no 
«il  degree  in  riding,  dancing,  and  finging,  and  in  play-  lefs  furprife  than  he  had  done  at  V:,rK.  Boccalini, 
ing  upon  all  (orts  of  Inltruments.  who  was  then  at  Rome,  gives  fometliing  of  a  different 
Crichton,  being  thus  accomplifiied,  went  abroad  relation  of  the  matter.  According  to  tliis  aiuhor, 
upon  his  travels,  and  is  faid  to  have  gone  to  Paris;  of  the  pafquina-de  againll  Crichton,  which  was  to  the 
his  tranfaiSbions  at  which  place  the  foIlo-wing  account  following  effed  ,  "  /lad  he  that  tv'iU  Jce  it  ht  hint  go  to 

3  Y  2  the 


C    R    I 


[     540    1 


C    R    I 


Crichfo'-.  tlr/i^n  of  the  Falcon  and  it  Jlall  be  fiown"   made  fuch 
*~    «         an  imprefiion  upon  him,  that  he  left  a  phice  where  he 
had  been  fo  grolnly  affronted  as  to  be  put  upon  a  level 
with  jugjjiers  and  mountebanks. 

From  Rome  he  went  to  Venice;  where  he  contraSed 
"an  intimate  friendfhip  with  Aldus  Manutius,  Lauren- 
tius  Mafia,  Speion  Speronius,  Johunncs  Donatus,  and  ' 
various  other  learned  perfons,  to  whom  he  prefented 
feveral  poems  in  commendation  of  the  city  and  uni- 
veifity.  At  length  he  was  introduced  to  the  Doge 
and  Senate,  in  whofe  prefeiice  he  made  a  fpetch, 
which  was  accompanied  with  fuch  beauty  of  eloquence, 
and  fuch  grace  of  perfon  and  manner,  that  he  received 
the  thanks  of  that  illuftrious  body,  and  nothing  was 
talked  of  through  the  whole  city  but  this  rarj  in  terns 
avis,  this  prodigy  of  nature.  He  held,  likewife,  dif- 
putations  on  the  fubjefts  of  theology,  philofophy,  and 
mathematics,  before  the  moft  eminent  profefTbrs,  and 
large  multitudes  of  people,  liis  reputation  was  fo 
great,  that  the  dsfire  of  feeing  and  hearing  him  brought 
together  a  vaft  concourfe  of  perfons  from  different 
quarters  to  Venice.  It  may  be  collefted  from  Manu- 
tius, that  the  time  in  which  Crichton  exhibited  thefe 
demonftrations  of  his  abilities  was  in  the  year  1580. 

During  his  refidence  at  Venice,  he  feU  into  a  bad 
ftate  of  health,  which  continued  for  the  fpace  of  four 
months.      However,   before  he  was  pcrfeftly   recover- 
ed, he  went,  by  the  advice   of  his  friends,  to  Padua, 
the  univerfity  of  which  city  was  at  that  time  in  great 
reputation.     The  next  day  after  his  aiTival,  there  was 
a  meeting  of  all  the  learned  men  of  the  place,   at  the 
houfe  of  Jacobus  Aloyfius  Cornelius  ;  when  Crichtcn 
opened   the  afTembly   with  an  extemporary'  poem  in 
praife  of  the  city,  the   univerfity,   and  the   company 
•B-ho  had  honoured  him   with   their   prefence.     After 
this,  he  d'.fputcd  for  fix  hours  with  the  moft  celebra- 
ted profeflbrs  on  various  fubjefts  of  learning  ;  .and    he 
expofed,  in  particular,   the  errors  of  Ariftotle  and  his 
commentators,  with  fo  much   fohdity   and  acutenefs, 
and  at  the  fame  time  with  fo  much  modefty,  that  he 
excited  iiniverfal  admiration.     In   conclufion,  he  de-> 
livered  extempore  an  oration  in  praife   of  ignorance, 
which  was  conducted  with  fuch  ingenuity  and  elegance, 
that  his  hearers  were  aftonlflied.      This  exhibition  of 
Crlchton's  talents  was  on  the  14th  of  March    15S1. 
Soon  after  he  appointed  a  day  for  another   difputa- 
tion  to  be  held  at  the  palace  of  the  bifhop  of  Padua  ; 
not  for  the  purpofe  of  affording  higher  proofs  of   his 
abilities,  for  tl^at  could  not  poffibly  be   done,   but  in 
compliance  with  the  earncft  felicitations  of  fome  per- 
fons who  vrere   not    prefent  at  the  former  afiembly. 
However,   feveral  clrcnmfiances  occurred  which  pre- 
vented this  mieting  from  taking  place.      Such   is   the 
account   of  Manutius  :  but  Imperialis  relates,  that  he 
■was  informed  by  his  father,  who  was  prefent  upon  the 
©ccafion,  that  Crichton  was  oppofed  by  Archangelus 
Mercenarius,  a  famous  phllofoj^ier  ;  and  that  he  ac- 
quitted himfelf  fo  well  as  to  obtain  the  approbation  of 
a  very  honourable  company,  and  even  of  his  antagonift 
himfelf. 

Amidft  the  difcourfes  which  were  occafioned  by  our 
young  Scotfman's  exploits,  and  the  high  applaufes  that 
were  beftowed  upon  his  genius  and  attainments,  fome 
perfons  there  were  who  endeavoured  to  detraft  from 
Jijs  merit.     For  ever,  therefore,  to  confound  ihefe  in- 


vidious imptigners  of  his  talents,  he  ca\ifed  a  paper  to  Crichton. 
be  fixed  on  the  gates  of  St  John  and  3t  Paul's  church,  /"~^ 
wherein  he  offered  to  prove  before  the  univerfity,  that 
the  errors  of  Arillotle,  and  of  all  his  followers,  were 
almoft  innumerable  ;  and  that  the  latter  had  failed 
both  in  explaining  their  maftcr's  meaning,  and  in 
treating  on  theological  fubjetts.  He  promifed  like- 
wife  to  refute  the  dreams  of  certain  mathematical  pro- 
feffors  ;  to  dilpute  in  all  the  fclences  ;  and  to  anfwer 
to  whatever  fhould  be  propofed  to  him  or  objedled  a- 
gainft  him.  All  this  he  engaged  to  do,  either  in  the 
common  logical  way  or  by  numbers  and  mathemati- 
cal figures,  or  in  too  forts  of  verfes,  at  the  pleaiure  of 
his  opponents.  According  to  Manutius,  Crichton  fu- 
ftained  this  conteft,  without  fatigue,  for  three  days ; 
during  which  time  he  fupported  his  credit,  and  main- 
tained his  propohtlons,  with  fuch  fplrit  and  energy, 
that,  from  an  unulual  concourfe  of  people,  he  obtain- 
ed acclamations  and  praifes,  than  which  none  more 
magnificent  were  ever  heard  by  men. 

From  Padua,  Crichton  fet  out  for  Mantua ;  where 
there  happened  to  be  at  the  time  a  gladiator,  who 
had  foiled,   in  his  travels,  the  moft  famous  fencers  in  ' 

Europe,  and  had  lately  killed  three  who  had  entered 
the  lifts  with  him  in  this  city.  The  duke  of  Mantua 
was  much  grieved  at  having  granted  this  man  his  pro- 
teftion,  as  he  found  it  to  be  attended  with  fuch  fatal 
confequences.  Crichton,  being  informed  of  his  Hlgh- 
nefs's  concern,  offered  his  fervice,  not  only  to  drive 
the  murderer  from  Mantua,  but  from  Italy,  and  to 
fight  him  for  15CO  piftoles.  Though  the  duke  was 
unwilling  to  expofe  fuch  an  accomplifhed  gentleman  to 
fo  great  a  hazard  ;  yet,  relying  upon  the  report  he  had 
heard  of  his  warlike  atchlevements,  he  agreed  to  the 
propofal  ;  and  the  time  and  place  being  appointed,  the 
whole  court  attended  to  behold  the  performance.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  combat  Crichton  ftood  only 
upon  his  defence  ;  while  the  Itahan  made  his  at- 
tack with  fuch  eagernefs  and  fury,  that,  having  over- 
ailed  himfelf,  he  began  to  grow  weary.  Crichton 
now  feized  the  opportunity  of  attacking  his  antagonift 
in  return  ;  which  he  did  with  fo  much  dexterity  and 
vigour,  that  he  ran  him  through  the  body  in  three  dif- 
ferent places,  of  which  wounds  he  immediately  died. 
The  acclamations  of  the  fpeftators  were  loud  and  ex- 
traordinary upon  this  occafiou  ;  and  it  was  acknow- 
ledged by  all  of  them,  that  they  had  never  feen  Art 
grate  Nature,  or  Nature  fecond  the  precepts  of  Art, 
in  io  lively  a  manner  as  they  had  beheld  thefe  two 
things  accomplilhed  on  that  day.  To  crown  the  glory  . 
of  the  adfion,  Crichton  beftowed  the  prize  of  his  vic- 
tory upon  the  widows  of  the  three  perfons  who  had 
loft  their  lives  in  fighting  with  the  gladiator. 

It  is  afferted,  that  In  tonfequence  of  this  and  his  other  ■ 
wonderful  performances,  the  duke  of  Mantua  made 
choice  of  liim  for  preceptor  tohis  fon  Vincentio  di  Gon- 
zaga,  who  is  repreientcd  as  being  of  a  riotous  temper  and 
a  diffolute  life.  The  appointment  was  highly  pleafing  to 
the  court.  Crichton,  to  teftify  his  g .  atitude  to  his  friends 
and  benefactors,  and  to  contribute  to  their  diverfion, 
framed,  we  are  told,  a  comedy,  wherein  he  expofed 
and  ridiculed  all  the  weakneffes  and  failures  of  the  fe- 
veral employments  in  which  men  are  engaged.  This 
compofition  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  molt  ingcnioui 
fatires  that  ever  was  made  upon  mankind.     But  the 

moft 


C     R     I 


[     541     1 


C     R     I 


Crifhton.   ttioft  aftonlfliliig  part  of  the  floiy  is,  tliat  Ctlcliton  fu- 

— ""v flained   ly  chaiatlcrs  in  the  rcprefeutation  of  his  own 

play.  Among  the  refl,  he  aded  the  divine,  the  phi- 
lofopher,  the  lawyer,  the  mathtmatitian,  the  phylieiaii, 
.and  the  foldier,  with  fuch  inimitable  grace,  that  every 
time  he  appeared  upon  tlie  theatre  he  leemed  to  be  a 
different  perfcm. 

From  being  the  principal  a6\or  in  a  comedy,  Crich- 
ton  foon  became  the  fubjett  of  a  dreadful  tragedy. 
One  night,  during  the  time  of  carnival,  as  he  was 
walking  along  theltreetsof  Mantua,  and  playing  upon 
his  guittar,  he  was  attacked  by  half  a  dozen  people  in 
maflis.  The  affailants  found  that  they  had  no  ordina- 
iry  perfon  to  deal  with,  lor  they  were  not  able  to 
maintain  their  ground  againll  him.  In  the  ilfue,  the 
leader  of  the  company  being  difarmed,  pulled  off  his 
malic,  and  begged  his  life,  telling  him  that  he  was  the 
prince  his  pupil.  Crichton  immediately  fell  upon  his 
kneef,  and  txprcfied  his  concern  for  his  millake  ;  alle- 
ging, that  what  he  had  done  was  only  in  his  own  de- 
fence, and  that  if  Gonzaga  had  any  defign  upon  his 
life,  he  mijlit  always  be  mailer  of  it.  Then  taking  his 
own  fword  by  the  point,  he  prefented  it  to  the  prince, 
who  immediately  received  it,  and  was  fo  irritated  by 
the  affront  which  he  thought  he  had  fullained  in  be- 
ing foiled  with  all  his  attendants,  that  he  inilantly  ran 
Crichton  through  the  heart. 

Various  have  been  the  conjefturcs  concerning  the 
motives  which  could  induce  Vincentio  di  Gonzaga  to 
be  guilty  of  fo  ungenerous  andbrut;;l  an  attion.  Some 
have  afcribed  it  to  jeafoufy,  aflerting  that  he  fufpeftcd 
Crichton  to  be  more  in  favour  than  himfelf  with  alady 
whom  he  paffionately  loved  ;  and  Sir  Thom.as  Urqu- 
hart  has  told  a  llory  upon  tliio  head  which  is  extrava- 
gant and  ridiculous  in  the  highefl  degiee.  Others, 
vith  gi  eater  probability,  rcprefent  the  whole  tranfac- 
■  tion  as  the  refult  of  a  dnmken  frolic  ;  and  it  is  uncer- 
tain, according  to  Imperialis,  wli(/ther  the  meeting  of 
the  prince  and  Crichton  was  by  accident  or  defign. 
However,  it  is  agreed  on  all  hands  that  Crichton 
loR  his  life  in  this  rencounter.  -  The  time  of  his 
deccafe  is  faid,  by  the  generality  of  his  biographeis,  to 
have  been  in  the  beginning  of  July  1583  ;  but  Lord 
Buchan  fixes  it  to  the  fame  month  in  the  preceding 
year.  Theie  is  a  difference,  likewife,  with  regard  to 
the  period  of  life  at  which  Crichton  died.  The  com- 
mon accounts  declare  that  he  was  killed  in  the  3 ad  year 
of  his  age  :  but  Imperialis  afTerts  that  he  was  only  in 
his  2 2d  when  that  calamitous  event  took  place;  and 
this  fact  is  confirmed  by  lord  Buchan. 

Crichton's  tragical  end  excited  a  very  great  and  ge- 
neral lamentation.  If  Sir  Thomas  Urquhart  is  to  be 
credited,  the  whole  court  pf  Mantua  went  three  quar- 
ters of  a  year  into  mourning  for  him  ;  the  epitaphs 
and  elegies  that  were  compofed  upon  his  death  and 
ftuck  upon  his  heaife,  would  exceed,  if  coUefted,  the 
bidk  of  Homer's  works  ;  and,  for  a  long  time  after- 
wards, his  pifture  was  to  be  feen  in  rnoft  of  the  bed- 
chambers and  galleries  of  the  Italian  nobility,  repre- 
fenting  him  on  horfeback,  with  a  lance  in  the  one 
hand  and  a  book  in  the  other.  The  fame  author  tells 
us,  that  Crichton  gained  the  efteem  of  kings  and 
princes,  by  his  magnanimity  and  knowledge;  of  no- 
blemen and  gentlemen,  by  his  courtlinefs  and  breed- 
ing i  of  knights,  by  his  honourable  deportment  and 


pregnancy  of  wit;  of  the  lich,  by  his  affability  and  Cr'chton. 
go(.d  fcllowfliip ;  of  the  poor,  by  his  muiiificence  """^  "' 
and  liberality  ;  of  the  old,  by  his  condancy  and  wif- 
dom  ;  of  the  young,  by  his  mirth  and  gallantry  ;  of 
the  learned,  by  his  univerfal  knowledge  ;  of  the  fol- 
dicrs,  by  his  undaunted  valour  and  courage  ;  of  the 
merchants  and  artificers,  by  his  uptight  dealing  and 
honefty  ;  and  of  the  fair  fex,  by  his  beauty  and  hand- 
fomenefs,  in  which  refpeft  he  was"  a  mallerpiece  of 
nature. 

Joannes  Imperialis,  in  his  life  of  Crichton,  fays, 
That  he  was  the  wonder  of  the  laft  age  ;  the  prodi- 
gious production  of  nature ;  the  glory  and  ornament 
of  Parnuffus,  in  a  itupendous  and  unufual  manner ; 
and  that,  in  the  judgment  of  the  learned  world,  he 
was  the  pheenix  of  literature,  and  rather  a  fhining  par- 
ticle of  the  Divine  Mind  and  Majefty  than  a  model  of 
what  could  be  attained  by  human  induflry.  The 
fame  author,  after  highly  celebrating  the  beauty  of  his 
perfon,  afkrts,  that  his  extraordinary  eloquence  and 
his  admirable  knowledge  of  things  teftitied  that  he 
pollelfed  a  llrength  of  genius  wholly  divine.  "  What 
(adds  this  writer)  can  more  exceed  our  comprehen- 
iion,  than  that  Crichton,  in  the  2ifl  year  of  his  age,, 
(hould  be  mailer  ot  ten  different  languages,  and  per- 
feiAly  well  verfed  in  philofophy,  mathematics,  theolo- 
gy, polite  hterature,  and  all  other  fciences  ?  Befides, 
was  it  ever  heard  in  the  whole  compafs  of  the  globe, 
that  to  thefe  extraordinary  endowments  of  the  mind 
fliould  be  added  a  lingular  flciU  in  fencing,  dancing, 
finging,  riding,  and  in  every  exercife  of  the  gymnaflie 
art.'"  Nay,  Imperialis,  in  his  account  of  Crichton's 
death,  declares,  that  the  report  of  fo  fad  a  catallroplie 
was  fpread  to  the  remotefl  parts  of  the  earth  ;  that  it 
diiturbcd  univerfal  nature  ;  and  that  in  her  grief  for 
the  lois  of  the  wonder  fhc  had  produced,  flie  threaten- 
ed never  more  to  confer  fuch  honour  upon  mankind. 
Compared  with  thefe  extravagancies,  the  aiTerlion  of 
Bayle  that  Crichton  was  one  of  the  greateft  prodigies 
of  wit  that  ever  lived,  and  the  tellimony  of  Foclis 
Aftolfus  concerning  his  wonderful  memory,  may  be 
conlidered  as  model!  encomiums. 

Such  are  the  accounts  which,  by  a  fuccelTion  of 
writers,  and  particularly  fince  the  time  of  Mackenzie,. 
have  been  given  of  the  admirable  Crichton.  Thefs 
accounts  are  indeed  fo  wonderful,  that  many  perfons 
have  been  difpofed  to  conlider  thein  as  in  a  great  mea- 
fiue,  if  not  entirely,  fabulous.  We  fhall  therefore 
fubjoin  from  the  B'wgraphla  Britannka  the  fuUowin^j 
obiervations  of  Dr  Kippis,  with  a  view  to  afcertain 
what  portion  of  faith  is  due  to  the  different  parts  of 
the  preceding  narrative,  or  at  leall  to  aihil  the  reader 
in  forming  a  proper  judgment  concerning  thcni. 

The  Dodor  begins  with  obferving,  "  That  no  cre- 
dit can  be  granted  to  any  fafts  which  depend  upon  the 
fole  authority  of  Sir  Thomas  Urquhart.  Mr  Pennant 
indeed  fpeaks  of  him  with  approbation  ;  and  Dr  Sa- 
muel Johnfon  laid  a  iliefs  on  his  veracity,  in  the  ac- 
count of  Crichton  which  he  didattd  to  DrHawkfworih, 
and  is  iuferted  in  the  8 1 11  number  of  the  Adventurer  ; 
of  which  account  it  may  be  obferved,  that  it  is  only  an 
elegant  funimary  of  the  life  written  by  Mackenzie. 
But  with  all  deference  to  thefe  refpeflable  names,  I 
muft  declare  my  full  perfuafion  that  Sir  Thomas  Urqu- 
hartis  an  author  whofe  tellimony  to  fadls  istotaUyunwor. 

thy 


C     R     I  [     54 

Criditor.  th)'  of  regard;  and  it  is  furprifing  tiiat  a  pcrul;il  of  his 
''  ^~—  works  does  not  ilrikf;  evci^  mind  with  this  conviction.  . 
His  produilions  are  fo  inexprefiibly  abfurd  and  extrava- 
gant, that  tht  only  rational  judgment  wiiich  can  bepro- 
nounced  conccrning-hiin  is,  that  he  w.islitile,  if  at  all,  bet- 
ter than  a  madman.  To  the  character  of  liis  having  been 
a  madman  mult  be  addtd  that  of  his  being  a  liar.  Se- 
vere us  this  term  piay  be  thought,  I  apprehend  that  a 
di!i"'ent  examination  of  the  treatife  which  contains  the 
memorials  concerning  Criclilon  would  rtiow  that  it  is 
flriftly  true.  But  of  his  total  dilVegard  to  truth  there 
is  incontellable  evidence  in  another  work  of  his,  intitltd. 
The  true  Pedigree  and  Lineal  Defccnt  of  the  moll 
ancient  and  honourable  Family  of  the  Urquhart's  in 
the  Houfe  of  Cromarty,  from  the  Creation  of  the 
World  until  the  year  of  God  1652.  In  this  work  it 
is  dlmoll  incredible  what  a  number  of  talfitics  he  has 
invented  both  with  tefpe^  to  names  and  facls.  Per- 
haps a  more  flagrant  inftance  of  importurc  and  fiftion 
vas  never  exhibited  ;  and  the  abfurdity  of  the  whole 
pedi-Tee  is  be)ond  the  power  of  words  to  exprefs.  It 
can  only  be  felt  by  thole  who  have  p.^nifed  the,tratl 
jtfelf.  Such  a  man  therefore  can  juft'y  be  intitled  to 
no  dcoree  of  credit,  efpecially  when  he  has  a  purpofe 
to  ferve,  as  was  the  cafe  with  Sir  Thomas  Urquhart. 
His  dtiic^n  was  to  exalt  his  own  family  and  his  own 
nation  nt  any  rate.  With  refpecl  to  his  own  nation, 
there  was  no  occaiion  for  having  recourfe  to  ticlion, 
in  order  to  difplay  the  luflre  of  Scotland,  in  the  emi- 
nent men  whom  it  has  produced  in  arms  and  literature. 
The  pencil  of  truth  alone  would  have  been  amply  fuf- 
ficient  for  that  purpofe. 

"  So  far  therefore  as  Sir  Thomas  Urquhart's  au- 
thority is  concerned,  the  wonderful  exhibitions  of 
Crichton  at  Paris,  his.  triumph  at  Rome,  his  combat 
with  the  gladiator,  his  writing  an  Italian  comedy,  his 
fuftaining  fifteen  characters  in  the  reprefentation  of 
that  comedv,  the  extraordinary  ilory  of  the  amour 
which  is  defcribed  as  the  caufe  of  his  death,  the  nine 
months  mourning  for  him  at  Mantua,  and  the  poems 
hung  round  his  hearfe  to  the  quantity  of  Homer's 
works,  mull  be  regarded  as  in  the  highelt  degree  doubt- 
ful, or  rather  abfolutcly  falfe.  I  cannot  forbear  men- 
tioning two  circumilances,  which  thow  how  much  Sir 
Thomas  Urquhart  was  deftilute  of  prudence,  as  well 
as  of  fcrupuloiitv,  in  his  violations  of  truth.  He  fays 
that  the  duke  of  Mantua  was  pleafed  to  confer  upon 
the  young  lady  that  was  Crichton's  miltrefs  and  future 
wife,  a  penlion  of  live  hundred  ducats  a  year  ;  and  that 


I     ]  C    R    I 

the  prince  alfo  bcffowed  as  much  upon  her  during  all  C'icht-n. 
the  days  of  his  life,  "  which  was  (adds  Sir  Tliomis)  '~"~v~~^ 
but  fhort  ;  for  ho  did  not  long  "enjoy  himfelf  after  the 
(Tofs  fate  of  fo  miferable  an  accident.  Now  it  is  well 
known  that  Vincenzo  di  Gonzaga  fucceeded  his  father 
in  the  dukedom  of  Mantua  in  15S7,  and  that  he  did 
not  die  till  the  year  1612  ;  which  was  almoil,  if  not 
entirely,  thirty  years  after  Crichton's  dectafe.  The 
other  inllance  of  the  imprudence  of  Sir  Thomas  Ur- 
quhart in  the -contrivance  of  his  fictions,  occurs  at  the 
c<mclu!ion  of  his  narrative,  where  he  atlerts  that  the 
verity  of  the  flow  which  he  hath  related  concerning 
the  incomparable  Crichton,  '  may  be  certified  by  two 
tl.oufand  men  yet  living  who  have  kni'wn  him.'  'T'Wt 
ihtjufiin.i  men  ye!  Ih'iug!  that  is,  in  I'l^a,  fixty-nine  or 
feventy  years  after  Crichton's  death,  for  fiich  was  the 
time  of  Sir  Tiiomas's  publication.  Our  author  would 
have  been  fadlv  puz/led  to  coUeCl;  together  thefe  two 
thonfand  living  witnefles  who  could  certify  the  verity  _ 

of  his  Ilory.  <fl 

"  AVith  regard,  however,  to  the  account  which  is 
given  of  the  prodigious  exertions  of  Crichton,  both 
corporal  and  mental,  at  Paris,  Mickenzie  imagines 
that  he  has  found  a  full  cou'irmatlon  of  them  in  ,1 
pafTage  produced  by  hlin  trom  the  Dif'iuififionei  of 
Stephen  Pafquitr,  and  which  he  confiders  as  the  teili- 
mony  of  an  eye-witnefs.  But  the  whole  of  what  li'i; 
been  built  upon  it  by  Macken/.ie  and  fucceeding  bio- 
graphers, is  foimded  on  a  millake.  In  the  quotation 
from  the  Dijqu'ifiliones.  the  name  of  Crichton  is  not 
mentioned,  and  the  author  doth  not  appear  to  have 
been  perfonallv  prefent  at  the  exhib!ti>ns  of  the  ex- 
traordinary youth  there  defcribed.  The  exprcffion* 
which  are  fuppofedto  carry  that  meaning  may  well  be 
referred  not  S  the  writer  hirjifelf,  but  to  his  country- 
men the  French,  befoi-e  whom  the  young  man  is  faid 
to  have  difplayed  his  furprifing  talents.  But  the  dif- 
culfijn  of  this  point  is  totallv  needlcfs,  becaule  the 
paflage  in  queilion  is  not  an  original  authority.  The 
book  intitled  Stephani  Pajrhifrl  DifrniUifiones,  is  only 
an  abridgement  in  Latin  of  Paiquler's  Des  Reclvrchei 
de  la  France.  Now  in  this  laft  work  there  is  indeed 
an  account  of  a  wonderful  youth,  fuch  as  is  related  in 
Mackenzie's  quotation,  and  fiom  which  that  paffagc 
was  formed.  But  this  wonderful  youth,  whoever  he 
might  be,  was  not  the  admirable  Crichton  :  for  Paf- 
quier,  who  does  not  tell  his  name,  esprefsly  favs  that 
he  appeared  in  the  year  1445  (a).'  The  evidence, 
therefore,  produced  by  Mackenzie  falls  entirely  to  the 

eround. 


(a)  This   matter   has  lately  been    ftt  in  a  clear  light   by  a  learned  and  judicious  writer  in   the  Edinburgh 
Magazine  for  May  1787,  whofe  letter  is  as  follows. 
"SIR, 

"  We  are  infoimed  by  Sir  John  Hawkins,  that  Dr  Johnfon  dilated  from  memory  that  accoimt  of  the 
•perfon  vulgarly  named  ike  Admtrahk  Crkhton,  which  is  to  be  found  in  one  of  the  pajiers  of  the  Adven- 
turer. 

"  That  account  is  plainly  an  abridgement  of  the  Life  of  Crichton  by  Dr  George  Mackenzie.  Dr  Mac- 
kenzie fuppofcs  that  Pafquier,  the  French  lawyer  and  antiquaiy,  was  an  eye  witnefs  of  the  feats  performed  in 
arts  as  well  as  in  arms  by  Crichton.  This  is  one  of  the  groffcll  errors  in  biography  which  has  occurred  to 
me  in  the  courfe  of  my  reading:  and  it  is  an  error  which  I  perceive  is  gaining  ground  daily,  and  bids  fair  in 
a  fhort  time  to  be  received  as  an  indifputable  truth. 

"  The  error  feems  to  have  arifen  from  the  following  circumftance  :  Dr  Mackenzie  had  never  read  the  ori- 
ginal work  of  Pafquier  intitled  Richenkei  de  la  Fiaii.e;  what  he  quotes  concerning  tie  ivun.ierfu!  young  man 

S  is 


C    R     I  r    54.3     1  CRT 

Ctichton.  prround.  Indeec-l,  if  the  ftory  oi"  Criclilon's  exploits  ;it  upon  by  this  extravagant  writer;  I'or  if  t'ley  lia<i  Crichfnn. 
■  Paris  had  been  true,  no  man  was  mure  likely  to  be  known  them,  they  would  have  been  eagerly  difpofeJ  to '~~'V~~^ 
acquainted  with  them  than  titeplien  Pafnuicr,  who  relate  them,  and  to  do  it  wlili  e^ery  circnmllancc  of 
lived  at  the  time,  and  who  would  be  fond  enougli  of  exagjjerution.  How  much  this  was  the  chanider  of 
recording  tranfaClions  fo  extraordiiiary.  It  may  tar-  Thomas  Dempftcr,  with  regard  to  hi-i  own  country- 
thtr  be  ohfervtd,  tliat  Thuanus,  who  was  likewile  a  men,  is  fuffieienlly  underflood,  and  hath  frequently 
contcmporan',  and  who  in  his  own  life  is  very  partieu-  been  remarked;  and  yet  his  account  of  Ciichton  ia 
hr  in  what  relates  to  learned  men,  makes  no  mention  uncommonly  niodcft,  compared  with  thofc  of  fuc- 
ofCrichton.  The  only  authoiity  for  liis  having  ever  cecding  authors.  The  extravagance  of  Imperialis  ii» 
relided  in  France  at  all  (Sir  Thomas  Urquliart  except-  refpcCt  to  Crichton  has  already  ajipeared.  Tiiere  feems 
ed)  is  that  of  Dr  John  Johnilon,  who  fays  Gullia pec-  indeed  to  have  been  an  univerfal  tendency  in  the  wri^. 
tus  rxcc/il.  Dut  this  amounts  to  no  proof  of  the  truth  ters  of  this  young  Scotfman's  life  to  produce  wonder 
of  the  tranfaftions  related  by  Urquhart.  The  whole  and  ailoniiliment.  Mackenzie  remarks,  that  Imperii^ 
which  can  be  deduced  from  it  is,  that  Crichton,  in  the  lis  could  not  but  know  the  truth  of  all,  or  at  lead  oi 
courfe  of  his  travels,  mlglit  make  fomc  ilay  in  France  moll  of,  the  things  he  has  related  concerning  Crichton, 
for  the  purpofe  of  improvement.  Ev.-n  this,  however,  fmce  he  lived  upon  the  places  in  whioli  thev  were  tran- 
doth  not  agree  with  the  narration  nf  Imperialis,  who  fitted,  and  had  tlieni  from  an  eye  and  ear  witnefs,  even 
informs  \is,  that  when  troubles  aroie  in  ocotland  on  ac.  Ins  owa  father.  It  is,  however,  to  be  remembered, 
c'ouiit  of  relijion,  and  queen  Mary  fell  into  fo  many  that  Im-peualh's  Mufeitm  Hi/liricum  was  n(jt  publilhed 
calamities,  Crichton  was  fent  by  his  [father  directly  till  1640,  nearly  fixty  years  after  the  events  recorded 
from  that  covmtry  to  Venice  as  a  place  of  ftcurity.  by  him  happened  ;  to  which  may  be  added,  that  the 
"  It  is  acknowledged  by  Sir  Joh.n  Hawkins,  that  iaformation  he  derived  from  his  father  w.is  probably 
Sir  Thomas  Urquhart  has  produced  no  authorities  in  very  imperfect.  Imperialis  the  elder  was  not  born  till 
fiipport  of  his  furprillng  narrations  But  this  defert,  1568,  and  confequently  was  only  thirteen  years  oldl 
^>ir  John  thinks,  is  fupplied  in  the  -Life  of  Crichton  when  Crichton  displayed  his  talents  at  Padua.  What 
which  is  given  in  Mr  Pennant's  Tour.  1  am  under  the  real  dependence,  therefore,  could  there  be  on  the  ac- 
ncceffity  of  faying,  that  this  is  by  no  means  the  cafe,  curacy  of  the  account  given  by  a  youth  of  that  age  ? 
The  article  in  Pennant  was  not  drawn  up  ty  that  in-  He  could  only  relate,  and  perhaps  from  inadequate  in- 
genious and  learned  gentleman,  but  is  the  tranfcript  of  telligence,  the  things  which  were  talked  of  when  he 
a  pamphlet,  that  was  printed  lome  years  ago  at  Aber-  was  a  boy.      Befidis,   his  authority  is  appealed  to  for 


deen  ;  and  which  pamphlet  is  nothing  more  than  a  re- 
publication, with  a  few  verbal  alterations,  of  the  Life 
of  Crichton  written  by  Mackenzie.  It  doth  not, 
therefore,  furnldi  a  liiigle  additional  teftimony  in  con- 
firmation of  Sir  Thomas  Urquhart's  ftories,  excepting 
in  the  miilaken  in 
ipefts  i' 

hart,  without  eliabliihing  them  upon  fi-e(h  proofs.     It     dinary   abilities   beiides  thofe  which  are  recorded  by 

1  ichton     the  younger  Aldus  Manutius.      He  therefore  is  to  be 


no  more  than  a  fingle  fadt,  and  that  a  dckubtful  one, 
iince  it  docs  not  aOcord  with  Manutiui's  narrative  i 
and  who  ever  heard  of  the  famous  philofoplier  Arcan- 
gelus  Mercenarius  i 

"  The  truth  of  the  matter  is,  that,  fome  flight 


miilaken  inftance  from  Pafquier.      In  other  re-     cumftances  excepted,  neither  Dempller  nor  Imperiali* 
it  only  borrows   fa6\s  frcmi  Sir  Thomas  Urqu-     have  produced   any   evidences  of  Ciichton's  extraor- 


i«  obfervable,  that  the  earlier  biographers  of  Ci 

had  no  knowledge  of  mod  of  the  traufaftions  enlarged     regarded   as  the   only  Hwin  1 


luthority  upon  the  fub- 
jccL 


is  taken  from  a  Latin  abridgement  of  that  work  ;  he  refers  to  Sfc/>h.  Pnfch.  Difquif.  lib.  v.  cap.  2^.  and  htT 
gives  his  quotation  in  Latin  ;  imtecd  if  does  not  appear  that  Dr  IVlackenzie  had  ever  heard  of  the  original 
work.  Now  Pafquier,  inftead  of  faying  that  he  v/as  an  eye-witnefs  of  the  wonders  exhiliited  by  Crichton,  favs, 
in  the  moft  unequivocal  terms,  that  what  he  relates  was  taken  '  fnim  a  manufcTipt  v.'hich  was  occalionally 
ufcd  by  him,'  (d'un  liwc  ecrit  li  la  main  dint je  m'a'iik felon  Us  oicurrences ).  And  he  adds,  '  I  will  reprefent  the 
frory  in  its  own  fimple  garb,  without  any  artificial  coloiiring,  fo  that  my  readers  may  be  the  more  inclined  t* 
give  credit  to  it,'  (vous  reptrfiniant  cetle  hijloire  en  Jafimplicitc  Janx  y  afprjrter  aitcun  fard  pmir  ce  que  voin  v  nJ- 
joii/leres  plus  Je joy j.  He  then  tranfcribes  the  narrative  from  the  MS.  which  places  the  appearance  of  this  phe- 
nomenon in  the  year  r445,  a  full  century  before  the  birth  of  our  Crichton^  See  Rccherchei  de  la  Frame, 
lib.  vi.  c.  3R,  39. 

••  Dr  I^lacken/.ie,  although  he  had  not  read  the  original  of  Pafquier,  appears  to  have  read  ar>  author  who 
quotes  the  fame  ftory  :  '  The  learned  M.  du  Laimoy  ( faj  s  he),  in  his  Hiftory  of  the  college  of  Navarre, 
finding  the  hiflory  of  this  difputc  recorded  in  a  MS.  Hiilory  of  the  College  of  K'a\-atre,  and  the  like  account 
of  a  Spaniard  in  Trithemius,  confounds  the  two  together,  and  nlr  our  author  of  the  glory  of  this  adtion,  and 
places  it  in  the  year  1445;  whereas  it  fliould  be  in  ihe  year  1571.'  This  thwge  oi  robbery  is  lingular 
enough. 

"  Let  me  only  add,  that  Pafquier  tranfcribes  fome  vcrfcs  written  by  George  Chaftelain,  a  French  poet  in- 
the  reign  of  Cliailes  VII.  ki.,,'  of  Fiance,  which  allude  to  the  fame  ftory;  and  that  Pafquier  himfclf  wa» 
born  at  Paris  in  1528,  pafkd  his  lifi:  in  that  city,  and  was  an  eminent  lawyer  and  pleader  in  1  jyj  ;  fo  that  it 
!S  impofliblc  the  feats  of  Crichton,  had  they  been  really  performed  at  Paris,  could  have  been  unknown  to  him, 
and  moft  improbable  that,  knowing  them,  he  would  have  omitted  to  mention  them  ;  for,  in  the  fame  lib.  vi. 
c.  39.  he  is  at  pains  to  produce  examples  of  great  proficiency,  difplayed  by  men  i«  a  mucii  humbler  rack,  of 
Kfe  than  that  of  philofophera  and  public  difputants.  1  am,  &c" 


C    R    I 


[     544     1 


C     R     I 


!tli  Crichton;  he 


Cr'icliton.  jeft.  Manutlus  was  contemporary  witli 
^-'— ir—  was  clofely  conncfted  with  him  in  friendlhip  ;  and  he 
relates  feveral  things  on  his  own  perfonal  knowledge. 
Ke  is  a  pofitive  and  undoubted  witnefs  with  rcfpeft  to 
our  young  Scotfman's  intelleftual  and  literary  exer- 
tions at  Venice  and  at  Padua;  and  from  him  it  is  that 
our  account  of  them  is  given  above.  Neverthelefs, 
even  Aldus  Manutius  is  to  be  read  with  fome  degree 
of  caution.  Dedications  are  apt  to  affume  the  Uyle 
of  exaggeration,  and  this  is  the  cafe  withM^nutius's 
dedication  of  the  Paradoxa  Ckcrcn'n  to, Crichton.  In 
addition  to  the  general  language  of  fuch  addreflfes, 
he  mio-ht  be  carried  too  far  by  his  afFcftion  for  his 
friend  °  which  appears  to  have  been  very  great:  nor 
was  the  younger  Aldus  eminent  for  ftcadincfs  and 
confiftency  of  charafter.  It  is  even  faid  that  by  his 
imprudencies  he  fell  into  contempt  and  mi("ery._  But 
independently  of  any  confiderations  of  this  kind,  it 
may  be  obfeived,  that  Manutius's  narrative,  previoufly 
to  Crichton's  arrival  at  Venice,  could  not  be  derived 
from  perfonal  knowledge.  For  that  part  of  it  (which 
is  fufficiently  erroneous)  he  was  probably  indebted  to 
Crichton  himfelf.  .  Neither  does  he  appear  to  have 
been  an  eye-witnefs  of  the  whole  of  the  difputations 
which  were  held  at  Padua  ;  for  fpeaking  of  his  young 
friend's  praife  of  ignorance,  he  relates,  that  thofe  who 
were  prcfent  told  him  afterwards  how  much  they  were 
ftruck  with  that  oration.  However,  at  the  other  dif- 
putation,  which  lafted  three  days,  Manutius  feems  cer- 
tainly to  have  attended  ;  for  he  concludes  his  accounts 
of  it  with  faying,  that  he  was  not  only  the  advifer 
but  the  fpeftator  of  Crichton's  wonderful  contefts. 
It  is  evident,  however,  from  the  dedication,  that  his 
extraordinary  abilities  were  not  univerfally  acknow- 
ledged and  admired.  Some  there  were  who  detrafted 
from  them,  and  were  difpleafed  with  Manutius  for  fo 
warmly  fupporting  his  reputation. 

"  As  to  the  real  caufe  and  manner  of  oui  young 
Scotfman's  death,  both  of  them  Rill  remain  in  fome 
degree  of  obfcurity.  That  he  was  killed  in  a  ren- 
counter at  the  carnival  at  Mantua,  is  teftified  by  too 
many  authors  to  be  reafonably  doubted.  But  whether 
there  was  that  particular  malignity  on  the  part  ofVm- 
cenzo  di  Gonzago,  which  is  commonly  afcribed  to 
him,  may  be  confidered  as  uncertain. 

"  One  important  method  yet  remains  by  which  we 
may  be  enabled  to  form  a  judgment  of  Crichton's 
jrtnius,  and  that  is  from  a  perufal  of  the  four  poems 
of  his  which  are  ftiU  preferved.  It  is,  however,  to  be 
feared,  that  thefc  will  not  exhibit  him  in  a  very  high 
point  of  view.  Some  fancy,  perhaps,  may  be  thought 
to  be  difplayed  in  the  longeft  of  his  poems,  which  was 
written  on  occafion  of  liis  approach  to  the  city  of  Ve- 
nice. He  there  reprefents  a  Naiad  as  rifing  up  before 
him;  and,  by  the  order  of  the  Mufcs  and  of  Minerva, 
directing  him  how  to  proceed.  But  this  is  a  fenti- 
ment  which  fo  eafily  prefents  itfelf  to  aclaffical  reader, 
that  it  can  fcarcely  be  confidered  as  deferving  the 
name  of  a  poetical  invention.  The  three  other  poems 
of  Crichton  have  ftill  lefs  to  recommend  them.  Indeed 
his  verfes  will  not  ftand  the  teft  of  a  rigid  examination 
even  with  regard  to  quantity. 

"  What  then  is  the  opinion  which  on  the  whole  we 
arc  to  form  of  the  admirable  Crichton  ?  It  is  evident 
that  he  was  a  youth  of  fuch  lively  parts  as 
K°  94- 


excited 


great  prefent  admiration,  and  high  expcAations  with    Crichton 
regard  to  his  future  attainments.     He  appears  to  have  „  .  "       ' 
had  a  fine  perfon,  to  have  been  adroit  in  his  bodily  ex-     "'"'   *'* 
ercifes,  to  have  poirefTed  a  peculiar  facility  in  learning  ^ 

languages,  to  have  enjoyed  a  remarkably  quick  and 
retentive  memory,  and  to  have  excelled  in  a  power  of 
declamation,  a  fluency  of  fpeech,  and  a  readintfs  of  re- 
ply. His  knowledge,  likewife,  was  probably  very  un- 
common for  his  years  ;  and  this,  in  c  njunftion' with 
his  othi.r  qualities,  enabled  him  to  ihine  in  public  dif- 
putation.  But  whether  his  knowledge  and  learning 
were  accurate  or  profound,  may  juftly  be  quellioned ; 
and  it  may  equally  be  doubted  whether  he  would  have 
arifeii  to  any  extraordinary  degree  of  eminence  in  the 
literary  world.  It  will  always  be  refleeted  upon  with  re- 
gret, that  his  early  and  untimely  death  prevented  this 
matter  from  being  brought  to  the  teft  of  experiment." 
From  the  portraits  which  remain  of  Crichton,  it 
appears  that  in  his  face  and  form  he  was  beautiful 
and  elegant,  and  that  his  body  and  limbs,  though  not 
mufcular  or  athletic,  were  well  proportioned,  and  (it- 
ted  for  feats  of  agihty.  The  toUowing  catalogue  of 
Crichton's  works  is  given  byDempftcr:  l.  Oatr  ad 
Laureiilium  MiiJJam  plures.  2.  Laudes  Palav'mx,  Carmen 
extempore  effujum.,  cum  In  yacobi  Mo^i't  Cornelii  rlomo  ex- 
perlmentum  ingenii  coram  tola  Acadenuee  frequentla,  nonjlne 
mullorum  Jlupore,  faceret.  3.  Ignoraiionis  Laudatio,  extern- 
porale  Thema  ibidem  redditum,poJtfex  horarum  difputationes, 
ut  pmfentes  /omnia  potius  fovere  qiiam  rem  Je  iieram  viderc 
ei/firmarint ,  ait  Manutius.  4.  De  Appulju  fuo  Venetias. 
5.  Odd  ad  Aldum  Manutium.  6.  Epijlolie  ad  Di-uerfos. 
7.  Prttfationes  folemnes  in  omnes  Sdentias  facras  et  prof  anas. 
%.  Judicium  de  Philojophis.  g.  Errores  Ariftotelis.  10. 
Arma  an  Liters  priejldnt,  Contro'verfia  oratnria.  1 1 .  Re- 
futatio  Mathematicorum.  1 2.  A  Comedy  in  the  Italian 
language. 

CRICK,  among  farriers,  is  when  a  horfe  cannot 
turn  his  neck  any  manner  of  way,  but  holds  it  fore 
right,  infomuch  that  he  cannot  take  his  meat  from  the 
ground  without  great  pain. 

CRICKET,  in  zoology.     See  Gryllus. 
Cricket  is  alfo  the  name  of  an   exercife  or  game, 
with  bats  and  a  ball. 

Mole  Cricket.    See  Gryllotalpa. 
CKICKL ADE,  a    borough-town    of    Wiltlhire, 
fitualcd  on  the  river  Ifis,  about  26  miles  fouth-weft  of 
Oxford.     It  fends  two  members  to  parliament.     W. 
*Loiig.  I.  55.   N.  Lat.  51.  35- 

CRICOARYTANOIDiEUS,  in  anatomy,  a  name 
given  to  two  mufcles  of  the  larynx.  See  Anatomy, 
nO    116. 

CRICOIDES,  in  anatomy,  a  cartilage  of  the  la- 
rynx, called  alfo  the  aratular  cartilage.  It  occupies  the 
lowell  part  by  way  of  bafe  to  the  reft  of  the  cartilages, 
and  to  the  lower  part  of  it  the  afpera  arteria  adheres. 
See  Anatomy,   Table  of  the  mufcles. 

CRICOTHYROIDiEUS,  in  anatomy,  one  of  the 
five  [iroper  mufcles  of  the  larynx.      Ibid. 

CRIM-TARTARS,  a  people  of  Afia,  fo  called 
becaufe  they  originally  came  from  Crimea.  They 
rove  from  place  to  place  in  fearch  of  paftures,  their 
houfes  being  drawn  on  carts.  There  are  a  great  num- 
ber of  them  about  Aftrachan,  to  which  place  they  flock 
in  the  winter-time  ;  but  they  are  not  permitted  to  en- 
ter the  city  :  for  this  reafon,  they  ered  huts  up  and 

down 


C    R    I 


[     545     ] 


C    R    I 


PiinifK- 
mciit. 


Cr!m,  down  in  the  open  fields ;  which  are  made  either  of 
Cnme^iiil  J„,ll.ru(he8  or  reeds,  being  about  12  feet  in  diameter, 
of  a  round  form,  and  with  a  liole  at  the  top  to  let  out 
the  fmoke.  Thtir  fuel  is  turf  or  cow-dung;  and,  when 
the  weather  is  very  cold,  they  cover  the  hut  with  a 
coarfc  cloth,  and  fometimes  pafs  feveral  days  without 
ftii  ring  out.  They  are  generally  of  fmall  ftature, 
with  large  faces,  little  eyes,  and  of  an  olive  complec- 
tion.  The  men  are  generally  fo  wrinkled  in  their 
faces,  that  they  look  like  old  women.  Their  com- 
mon food  is  fifh  dried  in  the  fun,  which  ferves  them 
inllead  of  bread  ;  and  they  eat  the  flelh  of  horfes  as 
well  as  camels.  Their  drink  is  water  and  milk,  efpe- 
cialiy  mares  u  ilk,  which  they  carry  about  in  nalty 
Itathern-bags.  Their  garments  are  of  coarfe  grey 
cloth,  with  a  loofe  mantle  made  of  a  black  (lieep's 
Jkin,  and  a  cap  of  the  fame.  The  women  are  clothed 
in  white  linen,  with  which  likewife  they  drefs  their 
heads,  hanging  a  great  many  Mofcovian  pence  about 
them  ;  and  there  is  likewife  a  hole  left  to  flick 
feathers  in.  As  for  their  religion,  they  are  a  fort 
of  Mahometans  ;  but  do  not  coop  up  their  women 
like  the  Turks. 

Crim-tartarv,   or  Crimea.      See  Crime^. 

CRIME  am/  Punishment.  The  difcuTfion  and 
admeafurcment  of  crimes  and  punifhments  forms  in 
every  country  the  code  of  criminal  law  ;  or,  as  it  is 
more  ufually  denominated  in  England,  the  doftrine  of 
the  p/eas  of  lie  crotvn  .•  fo  called,  becaufe  the  king,  in 
whom  ccntrto  the  majeftv  of  the  whole  community,  is 
fuppofed  by  the  law  to  be  the  perfon  injured  by  every 
infraflion  of  the  public  rights  belonging  to  that  com- 
munity ;  and  is  therefore  in  all  cafes  the  proper  profe- 
cutor  for  eveiy  public  offence. 

The  knowledge  of  this  branch  of  jurifprudence, 
which  teaches  the  nature,  extent,  and  degrees  of 
every  crime,  and  adjufts  to  it  its  adequate  and  neceffary 
penalty,  is  of  the  utmoil  importance  to  every  indivi- 
dual in  the  flate.  For  no  rank  or  elevation  in  life, 
no  uprightnefs  of  heart,  no  prudence  or  clrcumfpeftion 
of  conduct,  fhould  tempt  a  man  to  conclude,  that  he 
may  not  at  fome  time  or  other  be  deeply  interelled  in 
thefe  refearches.  The  infirmities  of  the  beft  among 
us,  the  vices  and  ungovernable  paffions  of  others,  the 
ftiflability  of  all  human  affairs,  and  the  numberlefs.un- 
foreieen  events  which  the  compafs  of  a  day  may  bring 
forth,  will  teach  us  (upon  a  moment's  refleftion),  that 
to  know  with  precifion  what  the  laws  of  our  country 
have  forbidden,  and  the  deplorable  confequences  to 
which  a  willul  difobedience  may  expofe  us,  is  a  mat- 
ter of  univerfal  concern. 

In  proportion  to  the  importance  of  the  criminal 
law,  ought  alfo  to  be  the  care  and  attention  of  the  le- 
giflature  in  properly  forming  and  enforcing  it.  It 
lliould  be  founded  upon  princijilcs  that  arc  permanent, 
uniform,  and  univcifal;  and  always  conformable  to 
the  diftatcs  of  truth  and  juftice,  the  feelings  of  huma- 
nity, and  the  ind-lible  lights  of  mankind  :  though  it 
fometimes  (provided  there  be  no  trar.fgrcffion  of  thefe 
eternal  boundaries)  may  be  modified,  narrowed,  or 
enlarged,  according  to  the  local  or  occafional  nectffi- 
ties  ot  the  flate  which  it  is  meant  to  govern.  And 
yet,  either  from  a  want  of  attenticn  to  thefe  prin- 
cipled in  the  firft  coucodlion  of  the  laws,  and  adopting 
in  their  Read  the  impetuous  diftates  of  avarice,  ambi- 

VoL.V.  Partll. 


tion,  and  revenge;  from  retaining  the  difcordant  po- Crim<:  and 
litical  regulations,  which  fuccelTive  conquerors  or  fac-     P""'"'- 
tions  have  cllablifhed,  in  the  various  revolutions  of  go-  '.^ 

vernment ;  from  giving  a  lafling  efficacy  to  fanclions 
that  were  intended  to  be  temporary,  and  made  (as 
lord  Bacon  expreffcs  it)  mtiely  upon  the  fpur  of  the 
occafion  ;  or  from,  lallly,  too  haftily  employing  fuch 
means  as  are  greatly  difproportionatc  to  their  end,  in 
order  to  check  the  progrefs  of  fome  very  prevalent 
offence  ;  from  fome,  or  from  all,  of  thefe  canfes  it 
hath  happened,  that  the  criminal  law  is  in  every  coun- 
try of  Europe  more  rude  and  imperfetl  than  the  civil. 
We  fliall  not  here  enter  into  any  minute  enquiries  , 
concerning  the  local  conftitutions  of  other  nations :  the 
inhumanity  and  millaken  policy  of  which  have  been 
fufficiently  pointed  out  by  ingenious  writers  of  their 
own*.       But   even    with    us    in    Britain,    where  our  "A^.tJaion 

crown-law  is   with   juftice   fuppofed  to  be  more  nearly  '*'p''f='- 

j  J  ..  r  a.-  u  •  q;iicu, Mar- 

advanced  to  perfection;   where   crimes  are  m.ore  accu- jl.;^,,,- jj^^. 

rately  defined,  and  penalties  lefs  uncertain  and  ar- caiia,  &:c. 
bitrary  ;  where  all  our  accufations  are  public,  and  our 
trials  in  the  face  of  the  world  ;  where  torture  is  un- 
known, and  every  delinquent  is  judged  by  fuch  of  his 
equals,  agai.iil  whom  he  can  form  no  exception,  nor 
even  a  perlonal  diflike  ; — even  here  we  fliall  occafion- 
ally  find  room  to  remark  fome  particulars  that  feem 
to  want  revifion  and  amendment.  Thefe  have  chief- 
ly arifen  from  too  fctupulous  an  adherence  to  fome 
rules  of  the  ancient  common  law,  when  the  reafons 
have  ceafed  upon  which  thofe  rules  were  founded;  from 
not  repealing  fuch  of  the  old  penal  laws  as  are  either 
obfolete  or  abfurd  ;  and  from  too  little  care  and  atten- 
tion in  framing  and  pafTing  new  ones.  The  enactinfj 
of  penalties  to  which  a  whole  nation  fhall  be  fubjcdt, 
ought  not  to  be  left,  as  a  matter  of  indifference,  to  the 
pallions  or  interells  of  a  few,  who  upon  temporary 
motives  may  piefer  or  fapport  fuch  a  bill  ;  but  be 
calmly  and  maturely  confidered  by  perfous  who  know 
what  provifions  the  laws  have  already  made  to  reme- 
dy the  mifchief  complained  of,  who  can  from  expe- 
rience forefee  the  probable  confequences  of  thole 
which  are  now  propofed,  and  who  will  judge  without 
paffion  or  prejudice  how  adequate  they  are  to  the  evil. 
It  is  never  ufual  in  the  houle  of  peers  even  to  lead  a 
private  bill  which  may  affeft  the  properly  of  an  indi- 
vidual, without  firft  referring  it  to  fome  of  the  learn- 
ed judges,  and  h*aring  their  report  thereon.  And 
furcly  equal  precaution  is  ncccflary,  when  laws  are 
to  be  eftablifhed,  which  may  affect  the  property,  the 
liberty,  and  pei-haps  even  the  lives,  of  thoufands.  Had 
fuch  a  reference  taken  place,  it  is  Impofiible  that  in 
the  1 8th  century  it  could  ever  have  been  made  a  ca- 
pital crime,  to  break  down  (however  malicloufly)  the 
mound  of  a  fiflipond,  whereby  any  filli  fhall  efcape  ; 
or  to  cut  down  a  cherry  tree  in  an  orchard.  Were 
even  a  committee  appointed  but  once  in  an  hundred 
years  to  revife  the  criminal  law,  it  could  not  have  con- 
tinued to  this  hour  a  felony  without  benefit  of  clergy, 
to  be  feen  for  one  month  in  the  company  of  perlons 
who  call  themfclves  or  are  called  Egyptians. 

It  is  true,   that  thefe    outrageous  penalties,    being 
feldom  or  never  inflicted,  are  haidly  known  to  be  the 
law  by  the  public  ;    but  that    rather    aggravates  the 
mifchief,  by  laying  a  fnare  for  the  unwary.     Yet  they  Bladf. 
cannot  but  occur  to  the  obfervation  of  any  one,  who  ^'''"""■''• 
3  Z  "         hath 


C     R     I 


Crinne  jnd  hath  Undertaken  the  talk  of  cKamlning  the  great  out- 
Putiif.i-    j|,,f5  Qj.'  oji^  imy^  j^jj  tracing  them  up  to  their  prin- 
I  "    I  cipleo  ;  and  it  la  the  duty  of  fuch  a  one  to  hint  them 

with  decency  to  thofe  whofe  abilities  and  ftations 
eniible  them  to  apply  the  remedy.  Proceed  we  now 
to  confidcr  (in  the  firft.  place)  the  general  nature  of 
eriincs. 

I.  A  crime,  or  raifjemcanour,  io  an  acl  committed, 
or  omitted,  in  violation  of  a  public  law,  either  forbid- 
cirg  or  commanding  it.  This  general  dednition  com- 
prehends both  crimes  and  mifdemeanoins  ;  which,  pro- 
jierly  fjicaking,  are  mere  fynonyr.ioiis  terms:  though, 
in  common  ufage,  the  word  "  crimes"  ia  made  to  de- 
rote  fuch  ofitnccs  as  are  of  a  deeper  and  more  atro- 
cious dye  ;  while  fmaller  faults,  and  omiflions  of  lefs 
conTcqiunce,  arc  comprized  under  the  gentler  name  of 
"  mifdenuanours"  only; 

The  diilinftion  of  public  wrongs  from  private,  of 
Climes  and  mifdemeanours  from  civil  injuries,,  fecms 
principally  to  confift  in  this:  that  private  wrongs,  or 
civil  injuries,  are  an  iiifiingement  or  privation  of  the 
civil  rights  which  belong  to  indivldulals,  confidered 
merely  as  individuals ;  public  wrongs,  or  crimes  and 
mifdemeanours,  are  a  breach  and  violation  of  the  pub- 
lic rights  and  duties,  due  to  the  whole  community,  con- 
fidered as  a  community,  in  its  focial  aggregate  capaci- 
ty. As  if  I  detain  a  field  from  another  man,  to  which 
the  law  has  given  him  a  right,  this  is  a  civil  injury,  and 
not  a  crime  ;lfor  here  only  the  right  of  an  individual  is 
concerned,  and  it  is  immaterial  to  the  public  which  of 
us  is  in  poflcnion  of  the  land  :  but  tveafon,  murder, 
and  robbery,  are  properly  ranked  among  crimes  ;  fince, 
befides  the  injury  done  to  individuals,  they  ftrike  at 
the  vei'y  being  of  fociety  ;  which  cannot  poffibly  fub- 
iift,  where  aftions  of  this  fort  are  fuffered  to  efcape 
■tvith  impunity. 

In  all  cafes  the  crime  includes  an  injin-y  :  cvei-y  pub- 
lic offence  is  alfo  a  private  wrong,  and  fomewhat  more ; 
it  affedts  the  individual,'and  it  likewife  affetls  the  com- 
munity. Thus  treafon  in  imagining  the  king's  death, 
involves  in  it  confpiracy  againil  an  individual,  which 
is  alfo  a  civil  injury  :.  but  as  this  fpecies  of  treafon  in 
its  confequences  principally  tends  to  the  difTululion  of 
government,  and  the  deilrutlion  thereby  of  the  order 
and  peace  of  fociety,  this  denominates  it  a  crime  of 
the  highcft  magnitude.  Murder  is  an  injury  to  the 
life  of  an  individual ;  but  the  law  cf  fociety  confiders 
principally  the  lofs  which  the  (late  fuilains  by  be- 
ing deprived  of  a  member,  and  the  pernicious  ex- 
ample thereby  fet,  for  others  to  do  the  like.  Rob- 
bery may  be  confidered  in  the  fame  view  :  it  is  an  in- 
jury to  private  property  ;  but,  were  that  all,  a  civil 
fatisfaftion  in  damages  might  atone  for  it :  the  public 
mifchief  is  the  thing,  for  the  prevention  of  which  om- 
laws  have  made  it  a  capital  ofi'ence.  In  thefe  grofs 
and  atrocious  injuries  the  private  wrong  is  fwallowed 
up  in  the  public  :  we  feldom  hear  any  mention  made 
of  fatisfaftion  to  the  individual ;  the  fatisfaction  to  the 
community  being  fo  very  great.  And  indeed,  as  the 
public  crime  is  not  otherwife  avenged  than  by  forfei- 
ture of  life  and  property,  it  is  impoffible  afterwards 
to  make  any  reparation  for  the  private  wrong  :  which 
can  only  be  had  from  the  body  or  goods  of  the  ag- 
greffor.  But  there  are  crimes  of  an' inferior  nature, 
in  which  the  public  puni/hment  is  not  fo  fevere,  but  jt 


[     546     1  C     Tv     I 

affords    room  for   a  private   compenfatlon 


alfo  :    and  Crime  ami 
herein  the  diftinflion  of  crimes   from   civil  injuries  is    ''""'"»- 
very  apparent.      For  inllance  ;  in  the  cafe  of  battery,  .    '^'^'''"    . 
or  beating  another,  the  aggreflbr  may  be  indifted  for 
this  at  the  fuit   of  the  king,  for  diihubing  the  public 
peace,  and  be  punidied  criminally  by  fine  and  impri- 
fonment :  and  the  party  beaten  may  alfo  have  his  pii- 
vatc  remedy  by  atliun  of  trefpafs  for  the  inj.iry,  which 
he  in  particular  fuilains,   and   recover  a  civil  fatisfac- 
tion in  dam.ages.     So  alfo,  in  cafe  of  a  public  nuifance, 
as  digging  a  ditch  acrofs  a  highway,  this  Is  j)unilhab!e 
by  indictment,  as    a   common   oiFence    to  the  whole 
kingdom,  and  all  his  majeft)'s  fubjeCls  :  but  if  any  in- 
dividual fuilains   any  fpeeiil   damage   thereby,   as  la- 
ming  his  horfe,   breaking  hi;s  carriage,  or  the  like^, 
the  offender  may  be  compelled   to   make  ample  fatif- 
faclion,  as  well  for  the  private  injury  as  for  the  pablic    " 
wrong. 

11.  The  nature  of  crimes  and  raifdcmcauours  in  ge-- 
neral    being    thus   afceilaiued    and    diilinguilhed,   wc 
proceed  in  the  next  place  to  confider  the  general  na-- 
ture  of  punifirments  :   Which  are  evils  or  inconvenien- 
ces eonfequent  upon  crimes   and  mifdemeanours  ;    be- 
ing deviwd,  denounced,  :'nd  inflicted  by   human  laXvs, 
in    confequence    of  difobedience   or   milbehaviour  in. 
thofe,  to  regulate   whofe  conduct  fuch   laws  were  rc- 
fpeftively  made.     And  herein   we  will   briefly  confi- 
.  dcr    the  ^oiver,  the  eiit/,  and  the  menfure,   oi   human 
puniflnnent. 

I.  As  to  the  poiver  of-  human  punifhment,  or  the 
right  of  the  temporal  legifiator  to  inflidt  difcretionary 
penalties  for  crimes  and  mifdemeanours.     It  is  clear,  •'''^■''j*- 
that  the  right  of  punidiing  crimes   againfl   the  law  of '■""'""''' 
nature,  as  m.urder  and  the  like,  is  in   a  ftate  of  mere 
nature,   veiled  in  every  individual.      For    it   mujl    be 
veiled    in   foraebod/ ;    otherwife    the   laws  of   nature 
would  be  vain   and  fruitlefs,  if  none  were  empowered 
to  put  them  in  execution  :  and   if  that  power  is  veiled 
in  any  one,  it  muil  alfo  be  veiled   in   all  mankind;, 
fince  aU  are  by  nature  equal.     Whereof  the  tirll  mur- 
deier  Cain  was   fo  fenfible,  that  we   find   him  espref- 
fing  his  apprehenfions,  that  whoever   fhould   find  him 
would   flay  him.      In  a  Hate  of  fociety   this   right  is  ■ 
transferred  from  individuals  to   the    fovereign   power-;, 
whereby  men  are  prevented  froni  being  judges  in  their 
own  caiifes,  which  is  one  cf  the  evils    that    civil    go- 
vernment was  intended  to  remedy.      Whatever  power 
therefore  individuals  had  of  punif.iing  offences  againlt. 
the  law  of  nature,   that  is   now    veiled  in  the  magi- 
ftrate  alone  ;  who  bears  the  fword  of  julliee  by  the. 
confent  of  the  whole  community.      And  to  this  pre- 
cedent natural  power  of  individuals  muil  be   referred; 
that  right,  which  fome  have  argued  to  belong  to- eve- 
ry ilate   (though,  in  faft,     never  exercifed  by   any),     • 
of  punilhing  not  only  their  own  fubjefts,  but  alio  fo- 
reign  embafTadors,   even    with    death    itfelf;    in   cafe  • 
they  have  offended,  not  indeed  againil   the  miuiicipal 
laws  of  the  country,   but  againil   the   divine    laus  of 
nature,  and  become  liable  thereby  to  forfeit  their  lives 
for  their  guilt. 

As  to  offences  merely  againil  the  laws  of  fociety, 
which  are  only  mala  proh'ih'Ua,  and  not  mala  in  J'e ; 
the  temporal  magiilrate  is  alfo  empowered  to  inflidl 
coercive  penalties  for  fuch  tranfgreffion  :  and  this  by 
the  confent  of  individuals  ;  who,  iir  forming  focieties, 
3  did, 


i 


c   n   I 


[    517    1 


c   R   r 


iJ  did  eithci'  tacitly  or  exprefsly  invert  tlie  fovorcigu 
power  with  a  right  of  muivliig  laws,  ami  oi  cnforciii^j 
obeilicnci;  to  tliem  when  m^Ji;,  by  exercilinj;,  upou 
their  aon-obieivance,  ieveritit's  adcqi-iate  to  tiic  evil. 
1'iie  iawfiilntfii  therefore  of  paniniing  fueh  criminals  is 
founded  upoti  this  principle,  that  the  law  by  which 
they  fuffer  Was  traadc  by  tlielr  own  confent ;  it  is  a  part 
of  the  original  coiitraiJt  into  which  they  entercil,  when 
lirft  they  engaj^ed  in  fociety  ;  it  was  calculated  for,  and 
has  long  contrlbvited  to,  their  own  fecnrity. 

This  right  therefore,  being  thus  conferred  by  iini- 
verfal  confent,  gives   to    the  Hate   exadlly    the   fame 
power,  and  no  more,    over  all  its  members,  as  each 
individu.il   member^iid  naturally    over  himfelf  or  o- 
ihers.     Wliich  has  occalioned  fome  to  doubt,  how  far 
ti  human  legiflaturc  ought  to  inlliift  capital  punilhmcnts 
for  pofitive  offences;  offences  againil  the  municipal  law 
Oiily,    and  not  againfl  the  law  of  nature  ;   lince  no  in- 
tlividual  has,  naturally,  a  power  of  inflicting  deatli  upon 
iiimfclf  or  others  for  adtions  in  themfelves  indifferent. 
With  regard  to  offences   tmtl.'i    in  fi,  capital  pimifli- 
ments  are  in  fome  inflanes  inflicled  by  the   immediate 
command  of  God  hirnfelf  to  all  mankind  ;  as,  in  the 
cr.fc   of  murder,   by   the   precept  delivered  to  Noah, 
their  common   ancelfor  and  reprefcntative,  "  Whofo 
'•  flieddeth  man's  blood,  by   man    fliall  his  blood  be 
"   filed."      In    other   inllances   tiiey  are  inliiticd  after 
the  example  of  the  Creator,  in   his  politive  code  of 
laws  for  the  regulation  of  the  Jevvifli  repubhc  ;  as  in 
the  ciife  of  the  crime   againll   nature.      But  they  are 
fometimes  inllicted  without  fuch   cxprefs   warrant  or 
example,  at  the  will  and  dlfcretion  of  the  human  le- 
giflature  ;   as  for  forgery,  for  theft,  and  fometimes  for 
offences  of  a  lighter  kind.     This  praftice  is  thusjulll- 
hed  by  that  great  and  good  man   Sir  Matthew  Hale  : 
"  V\'^hen  offences  grow  enormous,  frequent,   and  dan- 
'■'  gerous  to  a  kingdom  or  ftate,  dellruftive  or  highly 
•'  pernicious  to  civil  focieties,  and  to  the  great  infecii- 
"  vity  and  danger  of  the  kingdom  or  its  inhabitants, 
"  fevere   puninimcnt  and  even  death  itfelf  is  neceffary 
•'  to  be  ann.'xed   to  laws  in  many  cafes  by  the  pru- 
"  dence  of  lawgivers."     It  is  therefore  the  enormity, 
or  daajjerous  tendenc)",  of  the^crime,  that  alone  can 
warrant  any  earthly  legillatuve  in  putting  him  to  death 
that  commits  it.      It   is  not  its  freq-.ijney  only,  or  the 
difficulty  of  otherwife  preventing  it,  that  will   excufe 
our  attempting  to  prevent  it  by  a   wanton   effulion   of 
human  blood,     roi'  though  the  f nd  of  pun;!h:ntnt  is 
to  deter  men  from  ofl'&ading,  It  never  can  follow  from 
thence,  that  it  is  lawful  to  deter  them  at  any  rate  and 
by  any  means;  liace  there  may  be  imkwful  methods 
of  enforcing  obedience  even   to  the  juftell   laws.     E- 
veiy   humane    legiflator    will  be  therefjre    extremely 
cautious  of  e'lahlilning  laws  that  inflift  the  penalty  of 
death,  efpecially  for  flight  offences,  or  fucli  as  are  mere- 
ly politive.      lie  win  expecl   a   better    reafon   for  his 
fo  doing,  than  thit  loofe  o\ie  which  gene: ally  is  given  ; 
that  it  is  found  by  former  experience  tint  no  lighter 
])ena!ty  will  lie  effei^tual.      For  is  it  found  uj)Oii  far- 
ther experience,    that   capital    puniihments  arc  more 
cffeilual  ?     Was    the  vafl  territoi-y  of  all   the  Rnluas 
worfe  regulated  under    the    late    emprefs    El'zabeth, 
than  under  her  more   fanguinary  predeceffors  ?      Is  it 
now,  under  Catherine  II.  lefs  civilized,  lefs  focial,  lefi 
fecurc  I    And  yet  we  arc  allured,  that  neither  of  thcfi 


iilufliions  princcfFes  have,  throughout  thiir  wnolc  ad-Ciinic  ana 
minillration,  inflidtd  the  penalty  of  death  :  and  the  I'""-'- 
latter  has,  upon  full  perfnafion  of  its  being  ufelefs,  r.ay  '"'''•'• 
even  pernicious,  given  orders  for  ab:)liihing  it  entire-  * 
ly  throughout  her  extenfive  dominions.  But  Lidccd, 
were  cipital  punithmtnts  proved  by  experience  to  be 
a  fare  and  efl'ctlual  reni.ly,  that  would  not  prove  tlic 
neceJity  (upon  which  the  jnlli:e  and  propriety  de- 
pend) of  intiiding  them  upon  all  occafions  wlien  oilier 
expedients  fad.  It  is  feared  this  reafoning  wo  ild  ex- 
tend a  great  deal  too  far.  For  Inllance,  tlie  damage 
done  to  our  public  roads  by  loaded  waggons  is  unlver- 
fally  allowed,  and  many  laws  have  been  made  to  p-e- 
vent  it,  none  of  which  have  hiiherto  proved  etlectu.il. 
]5ut  it  does  not  tiicrcfore  follow,  that  it  would  be  juifc 
for  the  legiflature  to  inflidl  death  upon  every  obfUiiate 
carrier,  who  defeats  or  eludes  the  proviiions  of  for- 
mer flntutes.  Where  the  evil  to  be  prevented  is  not 
adequate  to  the  violence  of  the  prevencive,  a  foverelgn 
that  thinks  ferioufly  can  never  juftif;  fuch  a  law  to  tbc 
dictates  of  confcience  and  humanity.  To  fhed  the 
blood  of  our  fellow-creature  is  a  matter  that  requires 
the  greatefl  deliberation,  and  the  fulloll  convidtion  of 
our  own  authority  :  for  life  is  the  immediate  gift  of  God 
to  man  ;  which  neither  he  can  refign,  nor  can  it  be  ta- 
ken from  him,  unlefsby  the  command  or  permiiUon  of 
him  who  gave  it,  either  exprefsly  revealed,  orcoUeCteJ 
from  the  laws  of  nature  or  lociety  by  clear  and  indifpu- 
tablc  demonflration. 

We  would  not  be  underRood  to  deny  the  right  of 
the  legillature  in  any  coimtry  to  inforce  Its  ov;n  laws 
by  tlie  death  of  th:  tranfgrefl'or,  though  perfons  of 
fome  abilities  have  doubted  it  ;  but  only  to  fuggelt  a 
few  hints  tor  tlie  confideration  of  fuch  as  are,  or  may 
hereafter  become,  legiflators.  When  a  queilion  a- 
rifes,  whether  death  may  be  lawfully  infKcted  foo 
this  or  that  tranfgrelfiou,  the  wifdom  of  the  laws 
mull;  decide  it  :  and  to  this  public  judgment  or  deci- 
llon  all  private  judgments  miiR  fubniit;  elfe  there 
is  an  end  of  the  firfl  principle  of  all  fociety  and  go- 
vernment. The  guilt  of  blood,  if  any,  mufl  lie  at 
their  doors,  who  raifinterpret  the  extent  of  their  war- 
rant;  and  not  at  thit  doois  of  the  fubjecl,  who  is 
bound  CO  receive  the  in'.erpretativjus  that  are  given  by 
tlie  fovereign  po.ver. 

2.  As  to  the  end,  or  final  caufe,  of  human  puniih- 
ments. This  is  not  by  way  of  atonement  or  expia- 
tion for  the  crime  com.mitted  ;  for  that  muft  be  left  to 
thejull  determination  of  the  Supreme  Being:  but  as  a 
precaution  againlt  future  offences  of  the  fami  kind. 
Tills  is  effected  three  ways :  either  by  the  amend- 
ment of  the  offender  himfelf;  for  which  purpofe  all 
corporeal  punifhments,  tines,  and  temporary  exile  or 
impriionment,  are  inflicted  ;  or,  by  deterring  others 
by  the  dread  of  his  example  from  offending  in  the  like 
way,  ".v.'/i/.\T  (as  Tully  expreffes  it)  ad  p.vA:-:T, 
"  meiiis  11:1  omiies,  perveniat ;  which  gives  rife  to  all 
Ignominious  puniihments,  and  to  fu<h  executions  of 
jultice  a.;  are  open  and  public  :  or,  hlUy,  by  d.-priving 
the  party  injuring  of  the  power  to  do  future  mif- 
chief;  which  is  efiecled  by  either  putting  him  to 
death,  or  condemning  him  to  perpetual  confinement, 
flavery,  or  exile.  The  fame  one  end,  of  preventing 
future  crimes,  is  endeavoured  to  be  anfwered  by  each 
of  thefc  three  Ipecies  of  piinifhmeut.  The  public  gains 
3  Z   2  equal 


C    R    I 


Crime  tnd  equal   fecurity,   whether    the   offender  himfelf  be  a- 
Punith-    fnended  by  wholefome  correftion,  or  whether  he  be 

.  °^^°^'  (lifabled  from  doing  any  farther  harm  :  aad  if  the  pe- 
nalty fails  of  both  thefe  efFe£ls,  as  it  may  do,  ftiU  the 
terror  of  his  example  remains  as  a  warning  to  othur 
citizens.  The  method,  however,  of  infiifting  punilh- 
ment  ought  always  to  be  proportioned  to  the  particu- 
lar purpofe  it  is  meant  to  ferve,  and  by  no  means  to 
exceed  it:  therefore  the  pains  of  death,  and  perpetual 
difability  by  exile,  (lavcry,  or  imprifonment,  ought  ne- 
ver to  be  inflifted,  but  when  the  offender  appears  in- 
corrigible :  whicli  may  be  coUcfted  either  from  a  re- 
petldon  of  minuter  offences  ;  or  from  the  perpetration 
of  fome  one  crime  of  deep  n\alignity,  which  of  itfelf 
demonftrates  a  difpofition  without  hope  or  probability 
of  amendment:  and  in  fuch  cafes  it  would  be  cruelty  to 
the  public  to  defer  the  puniiliment  of  i'uch  a  criminal 
till  he  had  an  opportunity  of  repeating  perhaps  the 
word  of  villanies. 

3.  As  to  the  meitfure  oi  human  punidiments.  From 
what  has  been  obferved  in  the  foimer  articles  we  may 
collect,  that  the  quantity  of  punilhment  can  never  be 
abfolutely  determined  by  any  (landing  invariable  rule  ; 
but  it  muft  be  left  to  the  arbitration  of  the  legiflature 
to  inflicl  fuch  penalties  as  are  warranted  by  the  laws 
of  nature  and  fociety,  and  fuch  as  appear  to  be  the  bed 
calculated  to  anfwer  the  end  of  precaution  againft  fu- 
ture offences. 

Hence  it  will  be  evident,  that  what  fome  have  fo 
highly  extolled  for  its  equity,  the  lex  talionis  or  "  law 
of  retaliation,"  can  never  be  in  all  cafes  an  adequate  or 
permanent  rule  of  punifhment.  In  fome  cafes  indeed  it 
Icenis  to  be  diftated  by  natural  rcafon  ;  as  in  the  cafe 
of  confpiracies  to  do  an  injury,  or  falfe  accufations  of 
the  innocent  ;  to  which  we  may  add  that  law  of  the 
lews  and  Egyptians,  mentioned  by  Jofeplius  and  Dio- 
dorus  Siculus,  that  whoever  without  fufficient  caufe 
was  found  with  any  mortal  poilou  in  his  cullody,  fhould 
himfelf  be  obliged  to  take  it.  But,  in  general,  the 
difference  of  perfons,  place,  time,  provocation,  or 
other  circnmftanccs,  may  enhance  01  mitigate  the  of- 
fence ;  and  in  fuch  cafes  retaliation  can  never  be  a 
proper  meafure  of  juHice.  If  a  nobleman  ilrikes  a 
peafant,  all  mankind  will  fee,  that  if  a  court  of  juftice 
awards  a  return  of  the  blow,  it  is  more  than  a  jull 
compcnfation.  On  the  other  hand,  retaliation  may 
fometimes  be  too  eafy  a  fentence  ;  as,  if  a  man  mali- 
cioufly  fhould  put  out  the  remaining  eye  of  him  who 
had  loll  one  before,  it  is  too  flight  a  punifhment  for  the 
maimer  to  lofe  only  one  of  his :  and  therefore  the  law 
of  the  Locrians,  which  demaded  an  eye  for  an  eye, 
was  in  this  inftance  judicioufly  altered  ;  by  decreeing,  in 
imitation  of  Solon's  laws,  that  he  who  (Iruck  out  the 
eye  of  a  one-eyed  man,  fhould  lofe  both  his  own  in  re- 
turn. Bcfidea,  there  are  very  many  crimes,  that  will 
:p.  no  fliape  admit  of  thefe  penalties,  without  manifefl 
abfurdity  and  wickednefs.  Theft  cannot  be  puniflied 
by  theft,  defamation  by  defamation,  forgery  by  for- 
gery, adultery  by  adultery,  and  the  like.  And  we 
may  add,  that  tliofe  inllances,  whereia  retaliation  ap- 
pears to  be  nfed,  even  by  the  divine  authority,  do  not 
really  proceed  upon  the  rule  of  exaft  retribution,  by 
doing  to  the  criminal  the  fame  hurt  he  lias  done  to  his 
neighbour,  and  no  more  ;  but  tliis  correfpondence  be- 
tween  the  crime  aad  punilhment  is  barely  a  confe- 


r.  548  ] 


C    R    I 


quence  from  fome  other  principle.     Death  \i  ordered  Crime  and 
to  be  punifhcd  with  death  ;  not  btcaufe  one  is  equiva-    Punifii- 
lent  to  the  other,  for  that  would  be  expiation,  and  not      "'^"''    . 
punifhment.     Nor   is   death  always  an  equivalent  for        ' 
death  ;   the  execution  of  a  needy  dccrepid  afTaffin  is  a 
poor  fatlsfaftion  for  the  death  of  a  nobleman  in  the 
bloom  of  his  youth,  and  full  enjoyment  of  his  friends,  , 

his  honours,  and  his  fortune.  Bat  the  rcafon  upon 
which  this  fentence  is  c^rounded  ftems  to  be,  that 
this  is  th;  highell  penalty  tliat  man  can  infli£t,  and 
t^nds  moll  to  the  fecurity  of  the  world  ;  by  remo- 
ving one  murderer  from  the  earth,  and  fctting  a  dread- 
ful example  to  deter  others :  fo  tliat  even  this  grand 
inllance  proceeds  upon  other  principles  than  thofe  of 
retaliation.  And  truly,  if  any  meafures  of  punifhment 
Is  to  be  taken  from  the  damage  fullained  by  the  fuf- 
ferer,  the  punifhment  ought    rather  to   exceed  than  1 

equal  the  injury  :  fince  it  Teems  contrary  to  realon  and  I 

equity,  that  the  guilty  (if  convidled)  fhould  fuller  no 
more  than  the  innocent  has  done  before  iiim  ;  efpeci- 
ally  as  the  fuffering  of  the  innocent  is  pall  and  irrevo- 
cable, that  of  the  guilty  is  future,  contingent,  and  liable 
to  be  efcaped  or  evaded.  With  regard  indeed  to  crimes 
that  are  incomplete,  which  confill  merely  in  the  in- 
tention, and  are  not  yet  carried  Into  aft,  as  confplra- 
cies  and  the  like  ;  the  Innocent  has  a  chance  to  fruftrate 
or  avoid  the  viilany,  as  the  confpirator  has  alfo  a 
chance  to  efcape  his  punifliment :  and  this  may  be  one 
reafon  why  the  lex  tnlioiils  is  more  proper  to  be  in- 
flidted,  if  at  all,  for  crimes  that  confill  In  intention, 
than  for  fuch  as  are  carried  Into  a6l.  It  feems  indeed 
confonant  to  natural  reafon,  and  has  therefore  been 
adopted  as  a  maxim  by  feveral  theoretical  writers,  that 
the  punifliment,  due  to  the  crime  of  which  one  falfely 
accufes  another,  ftiould  be  inflifted  on  the  perjured  in- 
former. Accordingly,  when  it  was  once  attempted 
to  Introduce  into  England  the  law  of  retaliation,  it  was 
intended  as  a  punilhment  for  fuch  only  as  preferred 
malicious  accufations  againll  others;  It  being  enabled  by 
ftatute  37  Edw.  III.  c.  18.  that  fuch  as  preferred  any 
fuggeflions  to  the  king's  great  council  Ihould  put  In 
furetles  of  taliation  ;  that  is,  to  incur  the  fame  pain 
that  the  other  flrould  have  had,  in  cafe  the  fuggeilion. 
were  found  untrue.  But,  after  one  year's  experience, 
this  punifliment  of  taliation  was  rejeftcd,  and  imprifon- 
ment adopted  in  its  Head. 

But  though  from  what  has  been  faid  it  appears,  that 
there  cannot  be  any  regular  determinate  method  of 
rating  the  quantity  of  punifhments  for  crimes,  by  any 
one  uniform  ride  ;  but  they  muft  be  referred  to  the  will 
and  difcretlon  of  the  leglflatlvt  power  :  yet  there  are 
fome  general  principles,  drav/n  from  the  nature  and  cir- 
cymflances  of  the  crime,  that  may  be  of  lome  affiflance 
in  allotting  it  an  adequate  punifliment. 

As,  firil,  with  regard  to  the  objeft  of  it  :  for  the 
greater  and  more  exalted  the  objcft  of  an  injury  is, 
the  more  care  fhould  be  taken  to  prevent  that  injury,, 
and  of  courfe  under  this  aggiavation  the  punifliment. 
fhould  \it  more  fevere.  Therefore  treafon  in  con- 
fpiring  the  king's  death  is  (in.  Britain)  punlfhed  with, 
greater  rigour  than  even  adlually  killing  any  pri- 
vate fubjeft.  And  yet,  generally,  a'  delign  to  tranf- 
grefs  is  not  fo  flagrant  an  enormity  as  the  aftual 
completion  of  that  delign.  For  evil,  the  nearer  we 
approach  it,  is  the  more  difagreeable  and  fliocking;, 

fo 


nr^nt. 


C    R     I  [    549     1  ^.    ^^.    ^  . 

Irime  antl  fo  tTiat  It  requires   more   obflinacy   in   wickednefs  to  It  is  t}ic  fentiment  of  an  ingenious  writer,  who  feems dime  and 

Piinifh      p,-,p-traie  an  unlawful  aftion,   than   barely  to  enter-  to  have  vveinUidicd  the  fprings  of  human  aftion,  that    P^"'*"" 

"'^'"'      tain  the  thought   of  it :  and   it  is  an  encouragement  crimes  are  more  efftftually  prevented  by  the  certainty 

'         to  repentance  and  remorfe,  even  till  the  laft  ftnj^e   of  than  by  the  fevcrity  of  punifhment ;  for  the  exceflive 

any  crime,  that  it  never  is  too  late  to  retraft  ;  and  that  fevcrity  of  laws  (fays  Monttfquieu)  hinders  their  exe- 

if  a   man    flops  even  here,  it  is  better  for  him  than  if  cutlcn.     When  the  punifliment  furpalTcs  all  meafure, 

he  proceeds  :   for  which  rcafons  an  atttmpt  to  rob,  to  the  public  will  frequently  prefer  impunity  to  it.  Thus 

raviili,  or  to  kill,  is  far  lefs   penal  than  the  adlual  rob-  alfo  the   (latute  t  Mar.  ft.  i.e.  i.   recites  in  its  prc- 

bery,  rape,  or  murdet.     But  in  the  cafe  of  a  trealonable  amble,  "  thai  the  Rate  of  every  king  confifts  more  af- 

confp'racy,  the  objeft  whcrecf  is  the   king's   majefty,  furcdly  in  the  love  of  the  fiibjeCl  towards  their  prince, 

the  bare  iiiten>ion  will  deferve    the  hiphcll    degree   of  than   in  the  dread  of  laws  rriade  with  rigorous  pains; 

feverity  :   rot   becaufe  the   intention    is   equivalent  to  and  that  Iws   made  for  the  prcfervation  of  the  com- 

the  acl  itftlf ;  but  becaufe   the   greateft    rigour  is  no  nionwcalth  without    great  penalties,    are  more   often 

more  than  adequate  to  a   treafonable  pnrpofc   of   the  obeyed  and  kept  than  laws  made  with  extreme  puniih- 

lieart,  and  there   is  no  greater  left  to  iufli<£l  upon  the  ments."    Happy  had  it  been  for  the  nation  if  the  fub- 

afti:al  execution  itfdf.  fequcnt  pvadtice  of  that  deluded  princefs  in  matters  of 

Again  :  The  violence  of  paflion,  or  temptation,  may  religion,  had  beejj  correfpondent  to  tliefe  ftntiments 
fometimcs  alleviate  a  ci  ime  ;  as  theft,  in  cafe  of  hunger,  of  hcrfclf  and  parliament  in  matters  of  Hate  and  go- 
is  far  more  worthy  of  compaflion,  than  when  commit-  vernment !  We  may  further  cbferve,  that  fanguinary 
ted  through  avarice,  or  to  fupply  one  in  luxurious  ex-  laws  are  a  bad  fym.ptom  of  tlie  dillemper  of  anv  ftate, 
celfes.  To  kill  a  man  upon  fudden  and  violent  refent-  or  at  leaft  of  its  weak  conilitutiou.  The  laws  of  the 
ment  is  lefs  penal  than  upon  coel  deliberate  malice.  The  Roman  kings,  and  the  twelve  tables  of  the  ^fffOTwv, 
age,  education,  and  characiier,  of  the  offender  ;  the  re-  were  full  of  cruel  punifhments :  the  Porciau  law,  which 
petition  (or  otherwife)  of  the  offence  ;  the  time,  the  exempted  all  citizens  from  fenteiice  of  death,  filcntly 
place,  the  company  wherein  it  was  committed  ;  all  abrogated  them  all.  In  this  penod  the  republic  fiou- 
thefe,  and  a  thoufand  other  incidents,  may  aggravate  riflred  :  under  the  emperors  fevere  jiunifliments  were 
or  extenuate  the  crime  (a).  revived,  and  then  the  empire  fell. 

Far-ther:   As  puniflinients  are  chlefiy  intended  for  the  It  is,  moieovcr,  abfurd  and   impolitic  to  apply  the 

prevention  of  future  crimes,  it  is  but  reafonable  tliat  fame  punifliment  to  crimes  of  different  malignity.      A 

among  crimes  of  differ-ent  natures  thofe  fhould  be  moll  multitude  of  fanguinary  laws  (befrdes  the  doubt  that 

feverely   puniflied,  which   are   the  mofl  defliuftive  of  may  be  entertained  concerning  the  right  of  niakino- 

the  public  fafcty  and  happinefs;  and,  among  crimes  of  them)  do  likewife  pi'ove  a  manifeft  dcfeft  either  in  the 

an  equal  malignity,  thofe  which  a  man  has  the  mofl  wifdom  of  the  legiflatlve,  or  the  ffrenn-th  of  the  exe- 

frequent  and  eafy  oppoitimlties  of  committing,  which  cutive,  power-.     It  is  a  kind  of  quackery  in  govern- 

cannot  be  fo  eafily  guarded  againft    as    others,    and  ment,  and  argues  a  want  of  folid  fl<ill,  to  apply  the 

which  therefore  the  offender  has  the  flrongcfl  induce-  fame  univerfal  remedy,  the  uhhmim  fupplkium,  to  every 

ment  to  commit :  accordhig  to  what  Cicero  obferves,  cafe  of  difficulty.    It  is,  it  mufl  be  owned,  much  eafier 

Ea  futit  an'imadvtrleiuh  ptccafa  mjxinu-,    qua:  diffidUime  to  extirpate  than  to  amend  mankind  ;  yet  that  magt- 

frsca-vaitvr.     Hence  it  is,  that  for  a  fervant  to  rob  his  ftrate   mufl  be  elleemed  both  a  weak  and  a  cruel  fur- 

mafier  is  In  more  cafes  capital  than  for  a  flranger.      If  geon,   who  cuts  off  every  limb  which   through  io-no- 

a  fervant  kills  his  mafier,   it  is  a  fpceics  of  trc.fon  ;  in  ranee  or  indolence  he  will  not  attempt  to  cure.    It  has 

asother  it  Is  only  mur-der.    To  Ileal  a  handkerchief,  or  been  therefore  Ingenioufly  propofed,  that  in  every  flate 

other  trifle  of  above  the  value  of  twelvepence,  privately  a  fcale  of  crimes  fhould  be  formed,  with  a  correfpond- 

fr-om  one's  perfon,   is  made  capital  ;  but  to  cany  off  a  ing  fcale  of  punifliments,  defcending  from  the  n-r-eateft 

load  of  corn  from  an  open  field,  though  of  fifty  times  to  the  leaft.      But  if  that  be  too  romantic  an  idea,  yet 

greater  value,  is   puniftied   with  tranfportation   only,  at  leaft  a  wife  legiflator  will  mark  the  principal  divr- 

And  In  the'iflaird  of  Man  this  rule  was  formerly  carried  frons,  and  not  affrgn  penalties  of  the  firft  degree  to  pf- 

fo  far-,  that  to  take  away  an   horfe  or  an  ox  was  there  fences  of  an  Inferior  rank.     Where  men  fee  no  diftinc- 

iro  felony,  but  a  trefpafs,  becaufe  of  the  difficulty  in  tion  made  in  the  nature  and  gradations  of  punifhment, 

that  little  territory  to  conceal  them  or  carry  them  off:  the  generality  will  be  led  to  conclude  there  Is  no  di- 

hut  to  fteal  a  pig  or  a  fowl,  which  is  eafily  done,  was  ftinftlon  in  the  guilt.    Thus  In  France  the  punifhment 

a  capital  mifdemeanour,  and  the  offender  was  punlfhcd  of  robbery,  either  with  or  without  murder-,  is  the  fame: 

with  death.  h  nee   It   is,  that   though  perhaps  they  are  therefore 

Lallly,  as  a  conclufiou  to  the  whole,  we  may   ob-  fubjeft   to   fewer  robberies,    yet   they   never   rob   but 

ferve,  that  punifliments  of  unreafonable  fevcrity,  efpe-.  they  alfo  murder.      In  China  mui-derei'S  arc  cut  to  pie- 

cially  wheii   indiferiminately  inflifted,  have  lefs  cffeCl  ces,  and  robbers  not  :  hence  in  that  country  they  never 

in 'preventing  crimes,  and  amending  the  manners  of  a  murder  on  the  highway,  thorrgh  they  often  rob.    And 

people,  than  fuch  as  are  more  mercifirl  in  general,  yet  In  Britain,  befrdes  the  additional  terror's  of  a  fpeedy 

properly  intermixed  with  due  diflindions  of  feverity.  execution,  and   a    fubfequcnt   expcfure   or  diffedion 

robbers 


(a)  Thus  Demofthenes  (in  his  oration  againft  Midias)  finely  works  up  the  aggravations  of  the  infults  he 
had    received.       "  I    was    abuled  (fays  he)  by  my  enemy,  in  cold  blood,  out  of  malice,   not    by  heat    of 
"  wine,    in  the  morning,  publicly,  before  ftrangers  as   well  as  citizens;    and    that  in  ths  temple,. whilht' 
♦*  the  duty  of  my  office  tailed  nic." 


C    R    I  [    SS 

robbers  liavj  a  hope  of  tranfportation,  wliich  fcldom 
is  extended  to  marderera.  This  has  the  fame  clfedt 
here  as  in  China,  in  preventing  frequent  ailafiination 
and  flaiighter. 

Yet  thoiifjh  in  this  inlVince  we  nny  glory  in  the 
wifdom  cf  our  law,  we  Diall  finJ  it  more  diiriciilt  to 
juftify  the  frequency  of  capital  punillim^nt  to  be  found 
therein;  inflifted  (perhaps  in-.utentively )  by  a  multi- 
tude cf  fucceffive  independent  ftatutcs,  upon  crimes 
Very  di n:\rent  in  their  natures.  It  k  a  melancholy 
trutli,  that  among  the  variety  of  adlions  wiu'ch  men 
are  daily  liable  to  commit,  ro  l:fs  than  iCo  havi  been 
declared  ty  a(il  of  parliament  to  be  telonics  without 
benefit  of  clergy  ;  or,  in  other  words,  to  te  worthy 
of  inilant  death.  So  dreadful  a  lift,  inftead  of  diminilh- 
iag,  iricieafes  the  numbei  of  ofTenders.  The  injured, 
through  companion,  will  often  f(;rbear  to  profccute  ; 
juries,  through  compaflion,  will  fometiraes  forget  their 
oaths,  and  either  stquil  the  guilty  or  mitigate  the  na- 
ture of  the  oflence  ;  and  judges,  through  compaffion, 
will  rcfpice  one  half  of  the  conviits,  and  recommend 
them  to  the  royal  mercy.  Among  fo  many  chiinces  of 
efcapiug,  the  needy  and  hardened  offender  ovei locks  the 
multitude  that  fufFer :  he  boldly  vingagcs  in  fome  de- 
fperatc  attempt  to  relieve  his  war.ts  cr  lupply  his  vices ; 
and  if  unexpectedly  the  hand  of  juilice  overtakes  him, 
he  deems  himfclf  peculiarly  unfci  lunate  in  falling  at  lail 
a  facridce  to  thole  laws  which  long  impunity  has  taught 
him  to  contemn. 

As  to  the  trials  and  mode  of  puniiTiraent,  fee  Ar- 
RAicsMiisT;  Trial,  and  the  references  therefrom; 
CosTiCTSos;  J'.'DGMent;  Attainder;  CoRRVPTio;r 
of  Blood;  Forfeiture;  Execution;  the  ftveial6V;V«« 
under  their  refpcftive  names;  aud  Lau',  Part  II.  cxxii. 
i:  Jiq-  and  Pa;l  HI.  clxxxvi. 

Jfiijons  cap.dile  or  incurable  of  comuuttiig  Crimes  ;  or 
(which  is  all  one)  of  fullering  the  cenfures  of  the  law 
upon  the  commiHion  of  forbidden  aCts. 

All  the  feveral  pleas  ai.d  excufes  which  protect  the 
committer  of  a  forbidden  act  irom  the  puiinhmcnt 
which  is  otherw'fe  annexed  thereto,  may  be  reduced 
to  this  fingle  conlideration,  the  want  or  defeil  of  lulll. 
An  involuntary  aft,  as  it  has  no  ehim  ta  merit,  fo 
neither  can  it  induce  any  guilt :  the  concurrence  of 
the  will,  when  it  has  its  choice  either  to  do  or  to  avoid 
the  fad  in  qucllion,  being  the  only  ihirg  that  renders 
human  actions  either  praifeworthy  or  culpable.  In- 
deed, to  make  a  compkte  ciime,  cogni^^blc  by  human 
hivs,  there  mull  be  both  a  will  and  an  aft.  For 
I'.ough,  in  foro  conJcunUn:,  a  fixed  defign  or  will  to 
6lO  an  unlaivful  aft  is  almoft  as  heinous  as  the  commif- 
fioa  of  it  ;  yet  as  no  temporal  tribunal  can  fearch  the 
heart,  or  fathom  the  intentions  cf  the  mind,  othei  wife 
than  as  they  are  demonllrated  by  outward  aftior.s,  it 
therefore  cannot  pnnifh  for  what  it  cannot  know.  For 
vhich  rcafon,  in  all  tempera!  jutifdiftions,  an  overt  aft, 
or  fomi  open  evidence  of  an  intended  crime,  is  ne- 
cefTary  in  order  to  dem.onftrate  the  depravity  of  the 
will,  before  the  man  is  liable  to  pr.nilhuient.  And  as 
a  vitious  will  without  a  vitious  aft  is  no  civil  crime  ; 
fo,  on  the  other  hand,  an  unwarrantable  aft  without 
a  vitious  will  is  no  crime  at  all.  So  that  to  csnllitute 
a  crime  againft  human  laws,  there  mull  be,  firll,  a  vi- 
tious will ;  and,  fecondly,  an  unlawful  aft  coniequcnt 
upon  fuch  vitious  wilL 


o     ]  GUI 

Now  there  r.re  three  cafes  in  which  the  will  docs  Crimau 
not  join  with  the  aft:  i.  When  there  ib  a  defeft  of 
undcrllanding.  For  vihere  there  is  no  difccrnmeit, 
there  is  no  choice  ;  and  where  there  is  no  choice, 
there  can  be  no  aft  of  the  will,  which  is  nothing  elfe 
but  a  determination  of  one's  choice  to  do  or  to  ab- 
ftain  from  a  paiticular  ;.flion  :  he,  therefore,  that  has 
no  underllanding,  can  have  no  will  to  guide  his  con- 
duft,  2.  Where  there  is  undcrllanding  and  will  fuf- 
ficient  rcliding  in  the  party,  but  not  caled  forth  and 
exerted  at  the  time  of  the  aftion  done  ;  which  is  the 
cale  of  all  offences  committed  by  chance  or  ignorance. 
Here  the  will  fits  neuter,  and  neither  concurs  with  the 
aft  nor  difagrees  to  it.  3.  Where  the  aftion  is  con- 
lliained  by  fome  outward  force  and  violence.  Here 
the  will  counterafts  the  deed  ;  and  is  fo  far  frcm  con- 
curring with,  that  it  loaths  and  difagrees  to  what  the 
man  is  obliged  to  perform.  Infan.-y,  idiocy,  lunacy, 
and  inloxicaiion,  fall  under  the  firlt  clafs  ;  misfortune 
and  ignorance  may  be  referred  to  the  lecond  ;  and 
compulhon  or  necellity  may  proptily, rank  in  the  third. 
See  Infancy,  Idiocy,  Drunkenness,  Misfor- 
tune, Ignorance,  Necessity. 

CRIMEA,  or  Crim  Tartaky,  anciently  the  Chtr' 
fyritjiis  Tciiriiw,  a  peninfula  fituated  diicftly  to  the  foulh 
of  St  Peterlburg,  between  the  5ifl.  and  55th  degtets 
oi  latitude,  and  in  46  of  longitude.  Its  iouthevn  and 
wcllern  coafts  lie  in  the  Eusine,  its  northern  and  eait- 
ern  in  the  Rotten  Sea  and  the  Palus  Maeolis.  It  is 
joined,  however,  to  the  continent  en  the  north  Ly  a 
Imall  neck  of  land  not  more  than  fix  miles  broad.  This 
ptniafu'a  has  been  known  more  than  3CC0  year»  fince 
the  firft  naval  expedition  of  the  Arjjonauts  ;  a  ftory, 
though  m.ixed  with  fable,  yet  well  founded  in  its  prin- 
cipal fafts.  The  mountainous  parts  were  iiihati:ed  by 
tiie  Tauii,  probably  a  colony  of  Scythians  ;  and  its 
coalls  on  the  well,  the  eail,  and  the  ioL-ih,  by  Greeks. 
The  Scythians  were  driven  out  by  Mithridates;  the 
Greeks  by  the  Sarmstians;  and  thefe  again  by  the 
Alaiii  and  Goths,  a  uorthexn  hord  i;f  Scytiiiaiis.  The 
Hungarians,  the  Cofldcks,  aud  Tartars,  fuccetded  in 
their  turn;  while  the  GenoelV,  in  the  1 2th  centuiy, 
held  a  temporary  and  precarious  poflcfiion  cf  tie  fea- 
porcs,  which  they  were  obliged  to  yield  to  the  Tuiks 
in  1475.  At  the  peace  of  1774,  the  Tartars  cf  the 
Ciimca  were  declared  indeperdenc ;  and  in  17S3,  this 
peniniula  was  united  to  the  Rufiian  empire. 

From  the  above-mentioned  iiliimus,  on  which  ia 
built  the  fort; el's  of  Or-kapi  or  Perekop,  to  tl.'c  firll 
rifing  of  the  hill  at  Karalubafar,  the  country  is  one 
continued  flat  ;  elevating  itfelf,  by  an  eafy  gradd::on, 
t>)  the  fummit  of  the  hill,  which  forms  the  fouth  fide 
of  the  peninfula  and  the  fliore  of  the  Euxine  Sea. 
The  furface  of  the  foil  is  almoil  all  of  one  kind,  a  red- 
diih  grey  loam  ;  on  digging,  you  find  it  more  or  lefs 
mixed  with  a  bl;.ck  earih,  and  the  hiils  aucund  with 
marie.  The  whole  flat,  from  IVrekop  to  the  river 
Salgir,  which  may  be  an  extent  of  80  miles,  is  full  of 
fait  marflies  and  lakes;  from  whence  the  neighbouring 
Ruflian  governments,  as  well  as  the  Crim  itlclf,  Ana- 
tolia, and  BclTarabia,  are  fupplied  with  fait.  The 
molt  remarkable  of  thefe  lakes  are  five  in  number : 
Koflof  and  Kcfia,  fo  called  after  the  towns  near  which 
they  lie,  are  very  large  ;  the  Tiilla,  about  1 5  verils 
from  Perekop,  on  the  road  from  Keffa;  the  Reel  Lake, 

not 


C     R     I  [     S5\]  ^  CRT 

not  far  frnrn  the  UIl  mentioned  ;  and  tlie  Black  Lake,  ftraight  into  the  plain  below,  und  waters  a  great  part    C  iivja. 

BefiJes  thefe,  there  are  many  other  fwamps  and  lakes,  of  the  Crim  ;  the  other,  commeneintr  behind   Karafu-  ——y—^ 

from  whence  the  inhabitants  get  fait  for  their  own  con-  bafar,  falls  likewife  into  the  plain,  and   mingles  with 

fumption.  the  Sslgir.     There  are  mnny  other  little   rivers  and 

Tiie  greateft  part  of  the  peninfula  is  fo  level  that  a  ftrcams,   which   run  eallward,  and  either  join  tl;e  two 

mm  may  travel  over  the  half  of  ii   without   meeting  forementioned,   or   fall   immediately   into  the   Rotten 

with  a  river,  or  even  the  fnialleft  brook.     The  inhabi-  Sea.     All  the   ftieams,  for  the   wiiolo  length  of  the 

tanis  of  the  vi!lai;r's,  therefore,  make  a  ])it  in  the  yard  hills,  which  bi-gin  at  Kcffa,  and  proceed  in  a  chain  of 

of  every  houfc  for  receiving  the  rr.in  or  the  water  th-at  the  fame  height,  flow  to  the  north  or  the  north-eaft, 

runs  from  the  hilis.     The  whole  trac't  is  bare  of  every  excepting  the   one    behind    Achmclfched,  where   the 

kind  of  tree.     Not  n  ijufli  or  a  bramble  is  to  be  feen,  great  mountain  Aktau  is,  which  falls  on  the  other  fide: 

and  the  herbage  i;  cxtre^ncly  fcant)-.     This,  however,  this  river,  riling  ou  the  northern  fide  of  this  mountain,. 

doc8  not  proceed   fo   much   from  the  unfruitfulnefs  of  flows,  as  was  before  oblcrved,  towards  the  north-eaft, 

the  place,  as  from  the  vail  herds  of  cattle  which  rove  to  the   Salgir  and   the   Rotten  Sira  ;  as  likewife  ihofe 

Uie  \vh(  le   year  long  from   place  to  phce  ;   by  which  which   fpring  on   the   wcilern   fide,  take  their  courfe 

means  all  the  grafs  in  fpring,  funim;r,  or  ant  imu,   no  wefti^'ard  to  the  Bulganak,  and  thence    ftiaight  to  the 

foonei  appL-arsthr(. tilth  the  long  drought  which  fucceeds  Black   Sea;   which  alfo  receives  all  the  other  little  ri- ■ 

the  rainy  feafon,  but  it  is  immediately  dtvoutcd  ortrod-  vers   that   arile   from   thefe   hills,  as   the   Amma,  the 

den  dav.'n.     The  univerfal  pnvilcnce  of  this  culfom  of  Katfcha,  the  Belbek,  the  Kafulkioi,  &c. 
keeping  cattle  to  wander  up  and  down,  joined  to  the  Tne  moisntaius  are  well  covered  with  woods  fit  for 

flolhfuhiefs  of  the  Tartars,   with  their  inaptitude  and  the  purpofe   of  fhipbulldiog,  and   contain   pLnty  of 

Eveifion  to  agriculture,  is   the    reafon  of  the  total  ne-  wild  bcalls.    The  valleys  conlill  of  fine  arable  land;  on  ■ 

glcft  of  that  fci;r.ce  here.      Otherwife,  vrere  the  land  the    fides   of  the   hills  grov/    corn   and  vines  in  great 

divided   into    portions  and   properly  managed,    there"  abundance,  and  the  earth  is  rich  in  mines.     But  thefe  ■ 

would  be  a  fufficiency  for  the  cattle,  and  the  reft  would  moutitaineevs  are  as  careltfs  and  negUgent  as  the  i'nha- 

be   fruitful  in  corn  and  grain.      By  this  means   alone  bitants  of  the  deferts ;  (lighting  all  thefe  advantages;. 

the  Crim  would  become  a  fertile  country,  and  no  na-  and,  like  their  bretliten  of  the  lowlands,  are  fufBciintly 

tural  dcfeft  would  be  found  in  oppolition  to  the  wel-  happy  if  they  are  in  poffciJlon  of  a  fat  Iheep  and  as  - 

fare  of  its  inhabitants.  The  truth  of  this  is  well  known  much  bread  as  ferves  them  to  eat. 
by  their  neighbours;   where,  of  a  hundred  Tartars,         About  20  years  ago  this  peninfula  was  uncommonly 

one  perhaps  follows  hu{bandry,   who  finds  it  to  anf*er  full  of  inhabitants  and  wealth.    They  reckoned  at  that 

to  fo  much  profit,  that  he  has  not  only  enough  for  his  time  at  leall  1200  villages;  but,  from  the  late  troubles 

own  ufe,  but  wherewith  to  fell  to  the  ninety-nine.  in  the  Crim,  it   has  loft  more  than  a  third  part  of  its  • 

This  peninfula,  which  is  indeed  but  a  little  difliiA,  inhabitants;  and  now,  wherever  we  turn,  we  meet  with 
yet,  from  the  many  advantages  conferred  upon  it  by  the  ruins  of  large  villages  and  dwellinc-s.  The  people 
nature,  may  be  cfteemed  peculiarly  rich,  is  divided  in-  were  compofed  of  various  nations,  who  lived  tocrether 
to  the  hilly  country  and  the  flat.  The  latter,  which  under  the  Tartars  in  the  moll  unbounded  freedom;  but 
extends  from  Peitkop  to  Koflof  and  the  river  Balganak,  in  the  late  Tuikifli  war  they  either  put  thcmfelves  un- 
to Karafubafar,  KcfFi,  and  Ytnicali,  is  ftrewn  here  der  the  Ruffian  government,  and  were  transferred  fo  • 
and  there  with  little  Tartar  villages,  maintained  by  that  empire,  or  fled  to  Abcafia  and  the  Tfchirkaffian  ■ 
cattle  and  the  pioduce   of  the  fait  kkes.     The  high-  hills. 

Innds,  or  hilly  country,  form  the  fonthern  part  of  the         The  houfcs   in   the   towns,  as  well  as  the  villa"-es,  , 
Crim,  along  the  flraight  coaft  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  are  for  the  raoft  part  of  fquare  timbers,  havin;'  the  in- 
ttrctching  weftward,  in  a  right  line  from  KefTa,  to  the  tei-flices  filled  with  briclrwork,  if  the  poffeffor  can  af- 
vicin;ty  of  Belbek.     Thefe  hills  are  co-.npofed  of  lay-  ford  it,  and  thofe  of  the  poorer  fort  v.'ith  turf.     The 
era  ot  chalk  ;  which,  in  the  headlands  and  promonto-  chinks  and  crannies  are  made  tight  with  clay,  and  then 
ries,  is  foft,  but  more  inland  quite  hard.      The  ft.rata  plaftercd  within  and  without.     The  coveriagr  is  com- 
et the  highell  hills  are  like  thnfe  of  the  promonwries,  nionly  either  of  brick  or  of  turfs.    Only  the  medcheds 
and  take  a  diredtion  from  north  to  fouth.     Thefe  qua-  minarets,   and  baths,  are  of  (lone,  and  a  few  extreme- 
lities  of  the   ftri:ta  prevail   not  tiiroughout  the  whole  ly  handfonie   of  marble.     They  have  chimnies  in  the  " 
hil!s,  but  only  in  the  large  and  lofty  ones;  fnch  as  the  chambers,  at  which  they  likcw'ife  drels  their  victuals  • 
two  that  rife  near   Karafubafar,  and  one  very  high  by  but   Itoves  in  tlie  Ruffian  manner  none.     In  extreme 
Achmclfched,   v. hicli  bears  the  name  of  Aktau.      The  frofts  a  great  iron   pan  of  charcoal  is  broughi  into  the -• 
other  fmaller  hills  he  fcattcred  and  difperfed,  but  take  room,  for  making   it  comfortable.     Their  cull.im  is, 
the  names  of  the  greater  ones,  to  which  they  feem  to  to  fit  upon  low  fofas,  witli  I'urkifli  coverings  and  cu- 
b;long;  as  the  great  ridge  of  Caucafus  does,  which  fliions,  or  upon  a  clay  feat,   fomewhat  raifed  above  the  ' 
extends  beyond  the  Donau,  through  Bulgaria,  and  are  earth,  and  fpread  with  a  carpet.     In  thefe  rooms  are 
u.t.-r.ed  FalLvu.            ^        ^  cupboards  aud  cl-.stls,  citcn  covered  with  cufln'ons,  to 

All  accounts  agree  in  this,  that  nature  has  favoured  ferve  as  feats  ;  in  which  they  keep  their  -rold    filver 

tl.cfc  highland   countries  with   great   advantages,  and  and  valualjlcs.      Such   are   the  inner  apartments  or  ha-  • 

bleffeilLheni  with  abundance  of  all  things.     A  number  rams,  in  which  the  women   generally  live  ;   ilis  others  ■ 

of  fp'iugs  that  fl  )w  from  the  mountains  form  the  two  are  not  fo  fine.     The.''e  contain  only'a  fofa,  or  a  bank 

confiderable  rivers  K.ilgir  and  Karafu,   wliich  run   into  of  cl;.y  covcicd    with  a  carpet,    as    in    the    chimney 

the    Rotten   S.a.     The  foimer,  wliich   takes   its  rife  ro^ms. 

from  ii  cavern  in  a  high  hill  wear  Adiautfched,  falls         The  likh  Tartars,  and  their  nobility  or  murzas  (ex- - 

ctpting  ; 


C     R    I  [     S5 

Crimea,  ceptirg  Only  fuch  as  are  cbout  the  pcrfon  of  the  khan), 
*•  '  »  '  '  commonly  dweU  all  the  year  round  in  the  country, 
coming  only  to  town  when  they  have  biihiicl's  there. 
There  are  but  few  towns  in  the  Crim,  at  leaft  in  co;n- 
parifon  of  its  former  population.  The  Krimflcoi  Tar- 
tars have  no  tribunal  of  juftice,  controveriies  and  quar- 
rels being  feldom  heard  of  among  them  ;  and  if  a  dif- 
pute  (hould  arlfe,  it  is  immediately  fettled  by  an  appeal 
to  the  Koran.  Little  differences  in  the  villages  inevi- 
tably happening  about  property,  or  other  matters  not 
taken  notice  of  in  that  code,  are  amicably  adjuftcd  by 
the  eldermen  or  abefes;  but  in  the  towns  all  weighty 
concerns,  excepting  the  fingle  cafe  of  murder  or  homi- 
cide, are  brought  before  the  kaimakan  or  command- 
ant, who  fettles  them  abfolutcly  without  appeal. 

The  refidence  of  the  khans  of  the  Crimea  was  for- 
merly Bachtfchifarai,  in  which  city  they  held  their  feat 
for  upwards  of  200  years.  They  went  thither  from 
Eflvi-Crim,  or  Old  Crim,  the  capital  city  of  the  Ge- 
noefe,  upon  Bengli  Ghireikhan's  plundering  the  fea- 
•ports,  and  driving  all  the  Genoefe  from  their  ftations. 
Before  Eflii-Crim,  and  indeed  upon  the  firll  coming 
of  ihe  Tartars  into  this  peninfula,  the  fovereign  refi- 
dence was  at  Koflof ;  but  here  they  remained  not  long. 
Under  the  late  khan  Shagin  Ghirei  it  was  held  at  Kef- 
fa,  the  ancient  Theodolia ;  which  is  10  miles  dillant 
from  Efki  Crim,  faid  to  be  the  Cimmeriura  of  the  an- 
cients. ' 

The  principal  cities  or  towns  of  the  Crimea  are  : 
I.  Bachtfchi-Sami,  an  extenfive  and  wealthy  city,  ly- 
ing in  a  vale  between  two  high  mountains,  and  fur- 
rounded  by  a  number  of  gardens.  From  this  circiira- 
ftance  it  has  its  name  ;  lachtjchi  fignifying  in  the  Tar- 
tarian language  "  a  garden,"  and  farm  "  a  palace." 
It  formerly  contained  3000  houfes,  and  many  fumptu- 
ous  medfchcds  The  palace  of  the  khans,  with  its 
gardens  and  ponds,  were  much  improved  under  the  go- 
vernment of  Khan  Kerim  Girei,  under  whofe  govern- 
ment the  lall  Turkifh  war  took  its  rife.  In  this  palace 
is  the  burial  place  of  all  the  khana  of  Crimea,  wherein 
all  the  khans  that  have  reigned  here  lie  interred.  The 
fine  Krimflcoi  vines,  with  their  large  chillers  of  grapes, 
grow  in  great  plenty  all  about  this  town,  and  a  profu- 
iion  of  other  delicious  fruits,  from  whence  the  neigh- 
bouring parts  of  Rufiia  are  fupplied.  2.  Kcjfa.,  the 
prefenl  refidence  of  the  khans,  ilands  on  the  Ihoie  of 
a  large  harbour  in  the  Black  Sea.  Its  fite  is  on  the 
declivity  of  a  long  ridge  of  mountains;  and  is  mantled 
fcy  a  (lone  wall,  fortified  by  feveral  towers,  and  encom- 
pafled  by  a  deep  ditch.  On  both  fides  of  the  city  fv^r- 
merly  ilood  cailles,  and  in  the  middle  of  them  a  lofty 
turret  for  the  putpofe  of  giving  fignals  by  fire.  Before 
the  wall  were  wide  extended  fuburbs ;  containing, 
among  oiher  confiderable  buildings,  medfchcds,  church- 
es for  the  Greek  and  .'Armenian  worlhip  ;  of  all  which 
now  only  the  veftiges  remain.  The  caftles  and  towers 
lie  alfo  in  ruins  ;  and  not  one  third  part  of  the  houlcs 
of  the  city  itfclf  aie  now  remaininj)',  and  thofe  chiefly 
built  of  materials  taken  from  the  aforefaid  ruins.  I'hey 
formerly  reckoned  KcfiTa  to  contain  40CO  houfes,  in- 
cluding the  fuburbs,  with  a  number  of  medfcheds  and 
Chriftian  churches  ;  but  this  number  hao  been  much 
<jimini(hed  by  the  laft.  I  urkith  war.  The  prcfentinha- 
"  bitants  Ci  nlill  mollly  of  Taitars ;  who  cany  on  a  i:ade 

by  no  means  inccnfiderable,  in  commodities  brought 
N='94.  1 


2     ]  CRT 

from  Turkey.  The  late  khan,  an  intelligent  and  en-  Crimei.  i 
lightened  perfonage,  made  this  city  the  place  of  his  re-  '  >  '•* 
fidence,  and  brought  hither  the  mint  from  Bachifchi- 
farai,  built  himfelf  a  palace,  and  ereded  a  divan,  which 
affembled  three  times  a-wcek,  and  the  fourth  time  was 
held  in  the  palace  of  the  khan,  in  which  he  always 
perfonally  affitled.  Here  is  alfo  a  cuftomhoufe,  the 
management  of  which  is  farmed  out.  3.  Karafulafar, 
likewife  a  very  rich  city  in  former  times,  Hands  at  the 
beginning  of  the  mountains,  about  half-way  between 
Keffa  and  Baohtfchifarai.  It  is  a  large  trading  town ; 
contains  a  confiderable  number  of  dwellinghoufes  and 
medfcheds,  but  the  greateft  part  of  them  in  decay,  and 
many  fine  gardens.  This  place  is  the  mod  famous,  in 
all  the  Crim  for  its  trade  in  horfes,  and  has  a  market 
once  a-week  for  that  article  of  traffic;  to  which  are 
likcwife  brought  great  numbers  of  buffaloes,  oxen, 
cows,  camels,  and  flieep,  for  fale.  Near  this  city  flows 
one  of  the  principal  rivers  of  the  Crim,  called  the  Ka- 
rafii,  that  is,  the  Black  Water.  Of  this  river  they 
have  an  opinion  in  Ruffia,  that  one  part  of  it  flows 
upwards  for  feveral  verils  together.  But  this  is  in  forae 
fort  true,  not  only  of  the  Katalu,  but  of  all  the  rivers 
of  the  Crim, that  have  a  ilrong  current.  The  Tartars, 
who  dwell  either  in  the  valleys  or  on  the  fides  of  the 
mountains  (frequently  without  confidering  whether  the 
place  is  fupplied  with  water  or  not),  dig  canals  either 
from  the  foiirce  of  the  next  river,  or  from  that  part  of 
it  which  lies  nearell  to  their  particular  habitation,  about 
an  arfliine  in  breadth,  for  their  gardens  and  domeftic 
ufe.  From  thefe  they  cut  fmaller  ones  through  the 
villages,  to  fupply  them  with  water,  and  not  unfre- 
quently  to  drive  a  mill.  Thefe  canals  appear,  to  the 
imagination  ef  the  common  people,  to  run  in  a  con- 
trary direftion  to  the  current  of  the  river  ;  and  in  faft  j 
thefe  canals  do  lie,  in  many  places  for  a  verll  in  length, 
fome  tathoms  higher  than  the  level  of  the  ftream  from 
whence  they  are  fupplied.  4.  Achmetfled,  a  pretty 
large  city  not  far  from  Bachtfchifarai  ;  now  made  the 
capital  of  all  the  Crimea  by  the  regulations  of  Prince 
Potemkin  in  the  fummer  of  1783.  5.  Kojlof,  for- 
merly a  very  confiderable  trading  town,  lies  on  the 
weftern  fide  of  the  peninfula,  in  a  bay  of  the  Black 
Sea  ;  which,  as  well  as  the  found  at  Keffa,  might  ra- 
ther be  called  a  road  than  a  haven.  This  was  the  firft 
town  the  Tartars  pofTcfled  themfelvcs  of  on  their  firft 
entrance  into  the  Ci-im,  and  eftabliflicd  a  cuitomhoufe 
therein,  after  the  example  of  the  Geuotfe,  which  is  now 
farmed  out. 

The  other  remarkable  places  are,  Sui^ai,  which  ia 
built  on  the  hills  upon  the  ihore  of  the  Black  Sea,  at 
the  foutji  fide  of  the  peninfula,  and  is  famous  for  its 
excellent  wine,  refcmbling  Champaigne  both  in  colour 
and  llrength  ;  Alujchti,  on  the  fame  fide,  among  the 
hills  on  the  fea-(hore  ;  Baluhlava,  where  there  is  a  fine 
harbour,  and  perhaps  the  only  one  on  the  Blaek  Sea, 
containing  ample  room  for  a  very  good  fleet;  Ir.kirmaa 
may  be  noticed  for  its  commodious  though  not  very 
large  haven,  a^Ati.  Achtiar ;  and  Mangup,  the  old  Cher- 
f  jnefus :  which  were  all  formeily  very  flourishing 
towns  ;  but  are  now  either  in  ruins,  or  dwindled  into 
fmall  villages. 

All  thefe  places,  fo  long  as  the  Genoefe  remained 
matters  of  the  Crini,  were  well  fortified  ;  but  the  Tar- 
tars, in  taking  them,  deraoliihed  all  the  works.    While 

they 


C    R 

tlifv  were  nnder  tlie  Turk: 

KcfT.i,  Kertfch,  and  Kcidof,  and  built  the  fort  Arabat 
on  tlie  neck  of  land  bctw-rcn  th,-  le  cf  Azof  (or  PaKis 
MtEotis)  and  the  Rotten  Sea,  when  Perekop  alfo  is. 

In  ^rabat  are  but  tew  hoiifes  ;  but  heie  the  warlike 
ftores  of  the  khans  weie  kept. — PercLif,  ciilled  by  the 
Turks  Or-Zv?/!/,  is  a  fortrefs  of  moderate  ftreiigth  ; 
ftaiiding  about  the  middle  of  the  neck  of  land  that 
joins  the  peninfula  with  the  continent.  This  ifthmus, 
which  is  at  leail  fix  miles  broad,  is  cut  through  with  a 
wide  and  deep  ditch  h'ned  with  (lone,  and  reaches  from 
the  Black  to  the  Rotten  Sea.  This  was  formerly  kept 
without  water,  but  n  w  is  filled  from  both  feas.  On 
the  Crimean  fide  a  hii?li  wall  of  earth  runs  the  whole 
length  of  it,  ftraight  /rom  one  fea  to  the  other.  The 
people  pafs  over  the  ditch  by  means  of  a  drawbridge,  and 
through  the  wall  by  a  gateway.  The  walls  of  the  for- 
trefs are  fome  fathoms  from  the  read-fide;  of  which 
the  ruina  are  only  now  di:cernible,  namely,  large  brick 
houles,  with  a  number  of  bomblhells  and  cannon  balls 
about  them,  which  were  formeily  kept  in  the  fortrefs. 
At  Itaft  two  miles  from  this  is  the  pretty  populous  but 
miferable  place,  which  was  probably  the  town  to  which 
this  fort  belonged.  Near  the  gate  is  a  cullomhoufe, 
where  all  imports  and  exports  pay  duty. 

This  peninfula  was  formerly  extremely  populous;  the 
number  of  its  inhabitants,  in  Tartars,  Turks,  Greeks, 
Armenians,  Jews,  and  others,  amounted  to  above 
100, oro  men.  Since  that,  however,  the  greateft  part 
of  the  Chrlflians  have  betaken  themfelves  to  the  other 
paits  of  the  Ruffian  empire,  particularly  the  govern- 
ment of  Azof;  and  many  other  inhabitants,  particu- 
laily  Tartars,  have  gone  to  Taman  and  .'^bchafia;  fo 
that  the  prefent  population  of  the  Crim  cannot  now  be 
reckoned  at  more  than  70,000  men  at  mofb. 

The  Crim  was  heretofore  divided  into  24  kadullks 
or  diftrifts  ;  namely,  Yenikali,  Kertfch,  Arabat,  Ef- 
ki-kiim,  Keffa,  Kaiafubafar,  Sudak,  Achmetfched, 
Yalof,  Bachtfchifarai,  Balaklava,  Mangup,  Inkerman, 
KofiiT,  Or,  Manfur,  Tarkan,  Sivafch,  Tfchongar, 
Sarubulat,  Barun,  Argun,  Sidfchugut,  and  Schirin. 
Several  of  thefe  dirtriiits  are  named  after  the  town  or 
village  wherein  the  murza,  their  governor,  dwells ; 
and  many  of  them  arc  at  prefent  in  a  ftate  of  total  de- 
cay. 

CRIMEN  FALSI.      See  Falsi  Crimen. 

CRIMSON,  one  of  the  feven  red  colours  of  the 
dyers.     See  Dyeing. 

CP^iNGLE,  a  fmall  hole  made  in  the  bolt-rope  of 
a  fail,  by  intertwifting  one  of  the  divifions  of  a  rope, 
called  a  Jlrand,  alt-jrnately  round  itfelf  and  through 
the  fiiands  of  the  bolt-rope,  till  it  becomes  threefold, 
and  affumes  the  ihape  of  -a  wreath  or  ring.  The  ufe 
of  the  cringle  is  generally  to  contain  the  end  of  fome 
rope,  which  is  faftened  thereto  for  the  purpofe  of 
drawing  up  the  fail  to  its  vaid,  or  of  extending  the 
fkirts  by  the  means  of  bridles,  to  ftand  upon  a  fide 
wind.  The  word  feems  to  be  derived  from  krinchehn 
(Bthj.)   "  to  run  into  twills." 

CRINUM,  ASPHonEL-Lu-Y  :  A  genus  of  the  mo- 
nogynia  order,  belongmg  to  the  hexandria  clafs  of 
plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
yth  order,  Spaihccee.  The  corolla  is  funnel-fhaped, 
monopctalous,  andlcxpar.tite,  with  thiee  alternate  feg- 
ments  havinsr  hooked  appendages  ;  the  gtrmen  is  co- 

VoL.  V.  Part  II. 


I  I     ^Sl     ^  C     R     I 

they  left  ihe  fortreffes  of     vercd  in  the  bottom  of  the  corolla,  the  (lamin.i  fland-      Crilis 
ing  afunder.       'i'licy   are   very   beautiful   green  houfe^  ., " 
plants,  rifing  two   or  three  feet  high,   each   of  rhim,        '""": 
crowned    by  a   Lii;je   umb<.llalc  cluder  of  fpathaceous,         * 
monopctalous,  long  funnel-rtiaped  flowers,  blue,  white, 
or  ftriped,  having  a  very  fragrant  fmell.     They  are  pro- 
pagated by  off-ft  ts. 

CRISIS,  in  medicine,  is  ufcd  in  difTercnt  fenfes,  both 
by  the  ancient  and  modern  phyficians.  With  fome  it 
means  frequently  no  more  than  the  excretion  of  any- 
noxious  fubllance  from  the  body.  Others  take  the 
word  for  a  fecretion  of  the  noxious  humours  made  in 
a  fever.  Others  ufe  it  for  the  critical  motion  itfelf; 
and  Galen  defines  a  crifib  in  fevers,  a  fudden  and  in- 
ftaiitaneous  change,  either  for  the  better  or  the  worfe, 
produftive  of  recovery  or  death. 

CRISPIN  ««^/Crispianus,  two  legendary  faints, 
whofe  fertival,  as  marked  in  the  kalendar,  is  on  the 
25th  of  OiSober.  According  to  the  legend,  they 
Were  brethren,  bom  at  Rome  ;  from  whence  they  tra- 
velled to  Soilfons  in  France,  about  the  year  303,  to 
propagate  the  Chriftian  religion  ;  and  becaufe  rhey 
would  not  be  chargeable  to  othets  for  their  mainte- 
nance, they  exercifed  th?  trade  of  fhoemakers  ;  but 
the  governor  of  the  town  difcovering  them  to  be  Chri- 
ftians,  ordered  them  to  be  beheaded.  From  which 
time  the  flioemakers  made  choice  of  them  for  their 
tutelar  faints. 

CRISTjE,  in  furgery,  a  term  for  certain  excref- 
cences  about  the  anus  and  pudenda.  See  Mudicine- 
Index. 

CRISTA  galli,  in  anatomy,  an  eminence  in  the 
middle  of  the  os  elhmoides,  advancing  within  the  cavity 
o'f  the  cranium  ;  and  to  which  is  faftened  that  part  of 
the  dura  mater  which  divides  the  brain,  called  falx. 
It  has  its  name  from  its  figure,  which  refembles  that 
of  a  cock's  comb.  In  adults,  this  procefs  appears  of 
a  piece  with  tVefeplum  varium. 

CRITERION,  or  Criterium,  a  ftandard  by 
which  propofitions  and  opinions  are  compared,  in  or- 
der to  difcover  their  truth  or  falfchood. 

CRITHE,  in  furgery,  commonly  called  the  /in,  is 
a  fort  of  tubercle  that  grows  on  the  eyelids.  When 
fmall,  it  vi  feated  on  the  edge  of  the  eye- lid  ;  but  when 
large,  it  fpreads  further.  When  they  do  not  fuppu. 
rate,  they  become  wens.  They  are  apt  to  difappear 
and  return.  If  there  is  inflammation,  endeavour  to 
fuppurate  it  with  the  white  bread  poultice:  if  it  i« 
hard,  deflroy  it  with  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  hog's 
lard  and  quickfilver.  If  the  lower  eye-lid  is  afFctted, 
the  tumor  is  more  frequently  on  its  infide  ;  and  then 
it  is  beft  to  difleft  it,  or  to  make  way  for  it  outwardly 
by  applying  a  cauftic  on  the  fkin  juft  upon  it. 

CRITHMUM,  samphire  :  A  genus  of  the  dlgy- 
nia  order,  belonging  to  the  pentandria  clafs  of  plants  ; 
and  in  the  ratural  method  ranking  under  the  45th  or- 
der, Unibellalic.  The  fruit  is  oval  and  comprefted,  the 
florets  equal.  There  are  two  fpecies,  the  principal  of 
which  is  the  maritimum,  or  common  maritime  fam- 
phire.  It  hath  a  fibrous  penetrating  root  ;  thick,  fuc- 
culcnt,  branchy  ilalks  rifing  two  feet  high  ;  winged 
flediy  leaves,  confining  of  many  fmall  fpear-fhaped 
lobes  ;  with  round  yellow  flowers  growing  in  umbels. 
It  is  produced  naturally  on  the  fea-coafts  among  the 
gravel  and  rocks.  Its  leaves  are  an  excellent  pickle 
4  A  ufed 


Craho- 
maucy 

!l 

Criticifni. 


C    R     I  [554]  C     R    I 

ufed  for  faiKcs,  and  are  by  many  eaten  raw  in  falads.  principles  of  the  fine  arts,  inures  the  refleftin^  mind  Cntjcift*. 
It  is  of  a  faltifh  relidi,  palatable,  and  comfortable  to  to  the  mofl  enticing  fort  of  logic  :  the  praftice  oE'"—^  ' 
the  ftomach.  It  is  not  very  tafily  prefervcd  in  gar-  reafoning  upon  fubjefts  fo  agreeable  tends  to  a  habit ; 
I  dens.  It  mud  be  fown  on  grav-lly  or  rocky  ground,  and  a  habit  ftrengthcning  the  reafoning  faculties,  pre- 
half  an  inch  deep  ;  in  which  fituation  the  plants  will  pares  the  mind  for  entering  into  fubjefts  more  difficult 
come  up,  and  lalt  fome  years.  The  leaves  of  this  plant  and  abftraft.  To  ha»e,  in  this  refpeft,  a  juft  con- 
are  fiid  alfo  to  be  aperient  and  diuretic.  ception  of  the  importance  of  criticifm,  we  need  but 
CRITHOMANCY,  a  kind  of  divination,  perform-  refleft  upon  the  common  method  of  education  ;  which, 
ed  by  confidering  the  dough  or  matter  of  the  cakes  after  fome  years  fpent  in  acquiring  languages,  hurries 
offered  in  facrifice,  and  the  meal  ftrewed  over  the  vie-  us,  without  the  leafl;  preparatory  difclpline,  into  the 
tims  to  be  killed.  Hence,  in  regard  they  ordinarily  moft-  profound  philolophy  :  a  more  elTcftunl  method 
ufed  barLymcal  in  thefe  ceremonies,  this  kind  of  di-  to  alienate  the  tender  mind  from  abftrad  fcience,  is 
vination  was  called  crkhomancj,  from  itf^n,  barley,  and  beyond  the  reach  of  invention  :  and  accordingly,  with 
fixiT't  I,  dl-ji nation.  relpeCl  to  fuch  fpeculations,-  the  bulk  of  our  youth 
CRITIAS,  one  of  the  30  tyrants  fet  over  Athens  contrad  a  fort  of  inbgoblin  terror,  which  is  f-ldom, 
by  the  Spartans.  He  was  eloquent  and  well  bred,  but  if  ever,  fubdued.  Thole  who  apply  to  the  arts  arc 
of  di'.igcious  principles.  He  cruelly  perfecuted  his  trained  in  a  very  different  manner ;  tliey  are  led,  ftep 
enemies  and  put  them  to  death.  He  was  killed  about  by  ftep,  from  the  eaficr  parts  of  the  operation  to 
400  years  before  the  Anguilan  age,  in  a  battle  againll  what  are  more  difficult  ;  and  are  not  permitted  to 
thofe  citizens  ivhom  his  oppreflion  had  baniihed.  He  make  a  new  motion  till  they  be  perfeftcd  in  thofe 
had  been  among  the  difciples  of  Socrates,  and  had  which  regidarly  precede  it.  The  fcience  of  criticifni 
written  elegies  and  other  compolitions,  of  which  fome  appears  then  to  be  a  middle  link,  conneding  the  dif- 
fragments  remain.  ferent  parts  of  education  into  a  regular  chain.  This 
CRITICAL  DAYS  and  SYMPTOMS,  among  phyfici-  fcience  furnilhcth  an  inviting  opportunity  to  exercife 
ans,  are  certain  days  and  fyniptoms  in  the  courfe  of  the  judgment:  we  delight  to  reafon  upon  fubjefts  that 
acute  difeafes,  which  indicate  the  patient's  ftate,  and  are  equally  pleafant  and  familiar  ;  we  proceed  gradu- 
detcrmine  him  either  to  recover  or  grow  worfe.  See  ally  from  the  fimpler  to  the  more  involved  cafes:  and 
MEDiciNE-Zwi/fx.  in  a  due  courfe  of  difcipline,  cuftom,  which  improves 
CRITICISM,  t,he  art  of  Judging  with  proprietycon-  all  our  faculties,  bellows  acutenefs  upon  thofe  of  rea- 
cerning  any  objeft  or  combination  of  objeds.  But,  Ton,  fufficient  to  unravel  all  the  intricacies  of  philo- 
in  a  more  limited  fenfe,  the  fcience  of  criticifm  is  con-     fophy. 

lined  to  the  fine  arts.  The  principles  of  the  fine  arts  Nor  ought  it  to  be  overlooked,  that  the  reafonings 
are  beft  unfolded  by  ftudying  the  fenfitive  part  of  our  employed  upon  the  fine  arts  are  of  the  fame  kind  with 
nature,  and  by  learning  what  objeds  are  naturally  a-  thofe  which  regulate  our  condud.  Mathematical  and 
greeable  and  what  arc  naturally  difagreeable.  The  nietaphyfical  reafonings  have  no  tendency  to  improve 
man  who  afpiies  to  be  a  critic  in  thefe  arts,  mull  focial  intercourfe  ;  r>or  are  they  applicable  to  the  cora- 
pierce  ftill  deeper  :  he  mud  clearly  perceive  what  ob-  raon  affairs  of  life  :  but  a  juft  tafte  in  the  fine  arts,  de- 
jeds  are  lofty,  what  low,  what  are  proper  or  irapro-  rived  from  rational  principles,  furnifhes  elegant  fub- 
per,  what  are  manly,  and  what  are  mean  or  trivial,  jeds  for  converfation,  and  prepares  us  finely  for  ading 
Hence  a  foundation  for  judging  of  tafte,  and  for  rea-  in  the  focial  ftate  with  dignity  and  propriety, 
foning  upon  it  :  where  it  is  conformable  to  principles.  The  fcience  of  rational  criticifm  tends  to  improve 
we  can  pronounce  with  certainty  that  it  is  corred  ;  the  heart  not  lefs  than  the  underftanding.  It  tends, 
othcrwife,'  that  it  is  incorred,  and  perhaps  whimfical.  in  the  firft  place,  ^to  moderate  the  fclfifh  atfedions :  by 
Thus  the  fine  arts,  like  morals,  become  a  rational  fci-  fweetening  and  harmonizing  the  temper,  it  is  a  ftrong 
ence  ;  and,  like  morals,  may  be  cultivated  to  a  high  antidote  to  the  turbulence  of  pafiion  and  violence  of 
degree  of  refinement.  purfuit  ;  it  procures  to  a  man  fo  much  mental  cnjoy- 

Manifold  are  the  advantages  of  criticifm,  when  thus  ment,  that,  in  order  to  be  occupied,  he  is  not  tempted 
ftudied  as  a  rational  fcience.  In  the  firft  place,  a  in  youth  to  precipitate  into  hunting,  gaming,  drinking  ; 
thorough  acquaintance  with  the  principles  of  the  fine  nor  in  middle  age,  to  deliver  himlelf  over  to  ambition  ; 
arts  redoubles  the  entertainment  thefe  arts  afford.  To  nor  in  old  age,  to  avarice.  Pride  and  envy,  two  dif« 
the  man  w1io  refigns  himfelf  entirely  to  fentiment  or  guftful  paffions,  find  in  the  conftitution  no  enemy  more 
feeling,  without  interpofing  any  fort  of  judgment,  torihidable  than  a  delicate  and  difcerning  tafte :  the 
poetry,  mufic,  painting,  are  mere  paftime  ;  in  the  prime  man  upon  whom  nature  and  calture  have  beftowed 
of  life,  indeed,  they  are  deliiihtful,  being  fupported  this  bleffing,  feels  great  delight  in  the  virtuous  difpo- 
by  the  force  of  novelty  and  the  heat  of  i"magination  :  fitions  and  adions  of  others  :  he  loves  to  cherifh  them, 
but  they  lofe  their  relifli  gradually  with  their  novelty  ;  and  to  publiih  them  to  the  world  :  faults  and  failings, 
and  are  generally  negleded  in  the  maturity  of  life,  it  is  true,  are  to  him  not  lefs  obvious ;  but  thefe  he 
which  difpofes  to  more  ferious  and  more  important  avoids,  or  removes  out  of  fight,  becaufe  they  give  him. 
occupations.  To  thofe  who  deal  in  criticifm  as  a  re-  pam.  On  the  other  hand,  a  man  void  of  tafte,  upon 
gular  fcience,  governed  by  juft  principles,  and  giving  whom  the  moft  ftriking  beauties  make  but  a  faint  im- 
fcope  to  judgment  as  well  as  to  fancy,  the  fine  aits  preCion,  has  no  joy  hut  in  gratifying  his  pride  or  en- 
are  a  favourite  entertainment  ;  and  in  old  age  main-  vy  by  the  difcovery  of  errors  and  blemifires.  In  a 
tain  that  relilh  which  thty  produce  in  the  morning  of  word,  there  may  be  other  paffions,  which,  for  a  fea— 
life.  fon,  difturb  the  peace  of  fociety  more  than  thofe  men- 

In  the  next  place,  a  philofophical  inquiry  into  the    tioned  ;  but  no  other  paffion  is  fo  unwearied  an  anta- 

goaifl 


C     R     I 


[     5S5    ] 


C    R    O 


Criticjfai  gonlft  to  the   fweets  of  fecial  intercourfe  :  thefe  paf- 

,  ."   ,      lions,  ttndinK  afllJuoiiny  to  their  irratitication,   put  a 
Cnzzcl-  °-  '    ■  °-  ...'.. 


ling. 


man  perpetually  in  oppolition  to  others  ;  and  difpofe 
him  more  to  rehfti  bad  than  good  qualities,  even  in  a 
companion.  How  different  that  difpoiition  of  mind, 
where  every  virtue  in  a  companion  or  neighbour,  is, 
by  refinement  of  talte,  fet  in  its  ftrongeit  light  ;  and 
defeds  or  blemllkes,  natural  to  all,  are  lupprefTed,  or 
kept  out  of  view  ! 

Id  the  next  place,  delicacy  of  tafte  tends  not  lefs  to 
invigorate  the  focial  affeftions  than  to  moderate  thofe 
that  are  felliih.  To  be  convinced  of  this  tendency, 
we  need  only  rcfleft,  that  delicacy  of  tafle  ntceflarily 
heightens  our  fenfibility  of  pain  and  pleafure,  and  of 
courle  our  fympathy,  which  is  the  capital  branch  of 
every  focial  paflion.  Sympathy,  in  particular,  invites 
a  communication  of  joys  and  forrows,  hopes  and 
fears  ;  fuch  exercife,  foothing  and  fatisfaftory  in  it- 
felf,  is  licceflarily  produdlive  of  mutual  good-will  and 
affeclicn. 

One  other  advantage  of  rational  criticifm  is  refer- 
ved  to  the  laft  place,  being  of  mU  the  moft  important  ; 
which  is,  that  it  is  a  great  fupport  to  morality.  No 
occupation  attaches  a  man  more  to  his  duty  than  that 
cf  cultivating  a  talle  in  the  fine  arts  :  a  juil  rclilh  of 
what  is  beautiful,  proper,  elegant,  and  ornamtntal,  in 
writing  or  painting,  in  atchitefture  or  gardening,  is 
a  fine  preparation  for  the  fame  jull  relifh  of  thel'e  qua- 
lities in  character  and  behaviour.  To  the  man  who 
has  acquired  a  tafte  fo  p.cute  and  accompliflied,  every 
aftion  wrong  or  improper  mull  be  highly  difguftful : 
if,  in  any  inllance,  the  overbearing  power  of  paflion 
fway  him  from  his  duty,  he  returns  to  it  upon  the  fivft 
reflcdlion,  with  redoubled  rcfolution  never  to  be  fway- 
ed  a  fecond  time  :  he  has  now  an  additional  motive 
to  virtue,  a  conviftion  derived  from  expcrLcnce,  that 
happincfs  depends  on  regularity  and  order,"and  that  a 
disregard  to  jull  ice  or  propriety  nevcr'fails  to  be  pu- 
nilhed  with  fliarae  and  remoife. 

For  the  rules  of  criticifm  applicable  to  the  fine  arts, 
and  derived  trom  human  nature,  lee  Architecture, 
Be.iuty,  Congruity,  CoMP.iRisou,  Grandeur, 
&c. 

CRITO,  an  Athenian  philofopher,  fiourilhed  400 
years  before  Chriil.  He  was  one  of  the  moll  zealous 
difciples  of  Socrates,  and  lupplied  him  with  whatever 
he  wanted.  He  hadleveral  fcholars  who  proved  great 
men,  and  he  compofcd  lome  dialogues  which  are  loft. 

CRlTOLATJi'l,  a  citizen  of  Tcgea  in  Arcadia. 
He  with  two  brotheis  fought  againft  the  three  Ions  of 
Demollratus  of  Pheneus,  to  put  an  end  to  a  long  war 
between  their  refpcilive  nations.  The  brothers  of 
Critolaus  were  bitli  killed,  and  he  alone  rer..ained  to 
withftand  his  three  bold  antagonifts.  He  conquered 
them  ;  and  when  at  his  return  his  lifttr  deplored  the 
death  of  one  ot  his  antagoniils,  to  whom  flie  was  be- 
trothed, he  killed  her  in  a  fit  of  relentment.  The  of- 
fence defcrved  capital  punifliment  ;  but  he  was  pardon- 
ed on  account  ot  the  (crvices  he  had  rendered  his  coun- 
try. He  was  afterwards  general  of  the  Achseans  ; 
aiid  it  is  faid  that  he  poifoned  himfclf  becaufe  he  had 
been  conquered  at  Thermopylu;  by  the  Romans,  about 
146  years  before  the  Augullan  age. 

CRIZZELLING,  in  the  glafs  trade,  a  kind  of 
roughnefs  arifing  on  the  furface  of  forae  kinds  of  glafs. 


Tliis  was  the  fault  of  a  pecuHar  fort  of  glafs  made  in  Cr^a'ij, 
Oxfordrtiire  and  fome  otlier  places,  of  black  flints,  a  Crocodilf. 
cryflalli/.ed  fand,  and  a  large  quantity  of  nitre,  tartai,  *~~''^'~'~' 
and  borax.  The  glafs  thus  made  is  very  beautiful,  but, 
from  the  too  great  quantities  of  the  falts  in  the  mixture, 
isfubjed  to  crizzel;  that  is,  the  falls  in  the  mixture,  from 
their  too  great  proportion,  are  fubjeft,  either  from  the 
adventitious  nitre  of  the  air  from  without,  or  from  warm 
liquors  put  in  them,  to  be  either  incrcaled  in  quantity 
or  dilfolved,  and  thereby  induce  a  fcabritics  or  rough- 
nefs, irrecoverably  clouding  the  tranfparence  of  the 
glafs.  This  is  what  was  called  cr'nzcllbig ;  but  by 
ufing  an  Italian  white  pebble,  and  abating  the  pro- 
portions ot  the  falts,  the  raanufatture  is  now  carried 
on  with  advantage,  and  the  glafs  made  with  thefe  falts 
is  whiter  than  the  fincft  Venetian,  and  is  fubjedi  to  no 
faults. 

CROATIA,  a  part  of  the  ancient  Illyricum,  if 
bounded  on  the  eail  by  Sclavonia  and  Bolnia,  on  the 
fouth  and  fouth-weft  by  Morlachia,  and  on  the  north 
by  the  Drave,  which  feparates  it  fro:n  a  part  of  Scla- 
vonia. It  is  about  80  miles  in  length  and  70  in 
breadth,  and  was  once  divided  between  the  Hunga- 
rians and  Turks  ;  but  now  the  greatelf  part  of  it  vi 
lubjeft  to  the  houfe  of  Aultria.  The  Croats  derive 
their  origin  from  the  Sclavi  ;  and  their  language  is  a 
dialefl  of  the  Sclavonian,  approaching  very  near  to 
that  of  the  Poles.  The  country  is  divided  into  two 
parts,  viz.  tiiat  under,  and  that  beyond,  the  Save.  In 
the  late  wars  between  the  emprefs  queen  and  the  king 
of  Pinffia,  no  lefs  than  50,000  men  were  raiftd  out 
of  this  fmall  territory.  Both  horfe  and  toot  arc  good 
toldiers,  efpecially  the  former.  The  foil,  where  cidti- 
valed,  is  fruitful  in  wine  and  oil,  f£c.  but  being  a  fron- 
tier country,  and  much  expofed  to  inroads,  it  is  not 
fo  well  cultivated  as  othcrwife  it  miglit  be. 

CROCODILE,  in  zoology.     See  Lacerta. 

Pojile  CuocoDii.E,  one  of  the  greatcll  ciiriofities  in 
the  fofiile  world  which  the  late  ages  have  produced. 
Ii  is  the  Ikeleton  of  a  large  crocodile,  almoll  entire, 
found  at  a  great  depth  under  ground,  bedded  in  ftore. 
This  was  in  the  pofTcfTion  of  Einkius,  who  wrote  many 
pieces  of  natural  hiltory,  and  particularly  an  accurate 
defcription  of  this  curious  fofiile.  It  was  found  in  the 
fide  of  a  large  mountain  in  the  midland  part  of  Ger- 
many, and  in  a  ftratum  of  black  toffilc  Hone,  fomewhat 
like  our  common  llate,  but  of  a  coarier  texture,  thj 
fame  with  that  in  which  the  folfile  fifh  in  many  paits 
of  the  woild  are  found.  This  fkeleton  had  the  back 
and  ribs  very  plain,  and  was  of  a  much  deeper  black 
than  the  rell  of  the  Hone ;  as  is  alfo  the  cale  in  the 
fofiile  fifhes  which  are  prefervcd  in  this  manner.  The 
part  ot  the  ftonc  where  the  head  lay  was  not  found  ( 
this  being  broken  oft  juft  at  the  flioulders,  but  that  ir- 
regularly ;  fo  that,  in  one  place,  a  part  of  the  back 
of  the  head  was  vifiblc  in  its  natural  form.  The  two 
Ihoulder-bones  were  very  fair,  and  three  of  the  feet 
were  well  preferved ;  the  legs  were  of  tlrtir  natural 
Ihape  and  fize,  and  the  feel  prefeived  even  to  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  five  toes  of  each. 

Crocodile  (crocotliliu),  in  rhetoric,  a  captious  and 
fophillioal  kind  of  argumentation,  contrived  to  feducc 
the  unwary,  and  draw  them  fpecionfly  into  a  fnare.  it 
has  its  name  crocodile  from  the  following  occafion,  in- 
vented by  the  poets.  A  poor  woman,  begging  a  cro- 
4  A  2  codile 


G    R    O  [53 

Crncus.  codile  that  had  caught  her  fon  walking  by  the  river- 
fide  to  fpare  and  reftore  him,  was  anfwcred,  that  he 
would  reilore  him,  provided  (he  {hould  give  a  true  an- 
fwer  to  a  queftion  he  fhould  propofc  :  the  qucllion  was. 
Will  1  reftore  thy  fon  or- not  ?  To  this  the  poor  wo- 
man, fufpefting  a  deceit,  forrowfully  anfwercd.  Thou 
wilt  not  :  and  demanded  to  have  him  rellored,  becaufe 
She  had  anfwered  truly.  Thou  lyefl,  fays  the  croco- 
dile ;  for  if  I  reftore  him,  thou  haft  not  anfwered  truly  : 
I  cannot  therefore  reftore  him  without  makinjif  thy  an- 
fwer  falfe.  Under  this  head  may  bf  reduced  the  pro- 
pofitions  called  meniienles  ot  wfolul'ilcs ;  which  dtftroy 
themfelves.  Such  ii  that  of  the  Cretan  poet  :  Onmes 
ad  unum  Crelenfei  femper  mentiunlur  ;  "  All  the  Cretans, 
to  a  man,  always  lie."  Either,  then,  the  poet  lies 
when  he  alferts  that  the  Cretans  all  lie,  or  the  Cretans 
do  not  all  lie. 

CROCUS,  SAFFRON  :  A  genus  of  the  monogynia 
order,  belonging  to  the  triandria  clafs  of  plants ;  and 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  0th  order, 
Enfatii:.  The  corolla  is  fexpartite  and  equal  ;  the  ftig- 
mata  convoluted  or  rolled  fpirally  inwards.  Modern 
botanifts  allow  only  one  fpecics  of  this  genus,  which, 
however,  comprehends  many  bea\itiful  varieties.  This 
hath  a  fmall  roundifh,  brown,  bulbous  root,  compref- 
fcd  at  the  bottom.  Dirtftly  fiom  the  root  iffvie  many 
long  narrow  leaves,  of  a  deep  green  colour  ;  and  amidft 
them  the  flowers  all  protruded  from  a  thin  ur.ivalvular 
radical  fpatha  ;  the  tube  of  the  flower  is  long,  ftand- 
ing  on  the  root,  and  ferving  as  a  footHalk  to  the 
limb  or  upper  part,  which  is  ered,  fix-parted,  widens 
gradually  upward,  and  grows  from  about  three  to  five 
or  fix  inches  high.  The  varieties  of  this  fpecies  may 
be  divided  into  two  claffts,  the  autumnal  and  fpring 
flowering. 

The  varieties  of  the  firft  are  the  crocus  ojjichialis, 
er  faff"ron  of  the  ftiops ;  for  the  properties  of  which, 
and  its  cultivation  for  lale,  fee  the  aiticle  Saffron. 
This  hath  a  long-tubed  bluifti  purplr  flnwei,  with  three 
ftigmata  of  a  fine  golden  colour.  Other  varieties  are 
the  autumnal  fmall  blue  crocus  ;  deep  blue,  Iky-blue, 
whitifti  blue,  many  flowered  whitifti  blue,  purple, 
large  rufti-leaved  purple,  autumnal  white  ciocus,  and 
autumnal  yellow  crocus.  The  varieties  of  the  vernal 
crocus  are,  the  fmall  and  large,  and  golden  yellow 
crocufes,  and  the  yellow  black-ftriped,  the  yellow  pur- 
ple-ftriped  and  double  cloth  of  gold  ones  ;  the  white, 
white  purple-ftriptd,  white  purple  bottom,  white 
black-ftriped,  whitifh  cream  coloured,  whitifli  afhco- 
loured,  little  narrow-leafed  white,  and  white  bhie- 
ftriped  crocufes.  Befides  thefe  there  are  a  great  ma- 
Ey  others  of  a  blue  and  purple  colour  finely  vatie- 
gated. 

The  autumnal  crocufes  flower  about  the  beginning 
of  Oclober,  but  never  ripen  their  feeds  in  this  coun- 
try. They  are  very  beautiful  if  fown  in  patches  in 
the  front  of  borders,  or  in  beds  by  themfelves,  and  ve- 
ry proper  ornaments  for  gardens  of  every  extent,  as 
coming  up  at  a  time  when  moft  other  flowers  are  on 
the  decay.  They  grow  freely  in  aiiy  kind  of  foil,  and 
may  be  propagated  by  oflFsets.  The  vernal  kinds  flower 
in  February,  March,  and  April.  They  alfo  are  very 
ornamental,  and  are  fo  hardy  that  they  will  grow  al- 
inoft  any  where.  They  are  propagated  by  feetls,  which 
the  plants  produce  in  plenty. 


6    ] 


C    R     O 


Crocus,  io  chemiilry,  denotes  any  metal  calcined 
to  a  red  or  deep  yellow  colour. 

Crocus  Aletailurum,  an  emetic  preparation   of  anti- 
mony and  nitre.      See  Chemistry  /«rfe*. 

CRCESUS,  the  laft  king  of  Lydia,  remarkable  "for 
his  riches,  his  conquefts,  his  temporary  profperity,  and 
the  fad  reverfe  of  his  fortune.  He  fubdued  the  Phry- 
gians, Myfians,  Paphlagonians,  Thracians,  and  Cari- 
ans ;  amalTed  together  immenfe  riches;  and  became 
one  of  the  moft  powerful  and  magnificent  princes  in 
the  world.  He  drew  the  learned  to  his  court,  and 
took  a  plcafurc  in  converfing  with  them.  Thales  of 
Miletus,  Pittacus  of  Mitylene,  Bias  of  Priene,  Cleo- 
bulus  of  Lindus,  and  moft  of  the  other  "  wife  men," 
as  they  are  emphatically  ftyled,  who  lived  in  that  age,' 
as  well  as  TEfop  the  fabulift,  and  the  elegant  Greek 
poets  of  the  times,  were  bountifully  received  at  the 
court  of  Crcefus.  There  is  ftill  on  record  a  memorable 
converfation  between  that  prince  and  Solon,  which 
feemed  to  predift  the  fubfcquent  events  of  his  reign, 
and  which  had  a  late  but  important  influence  on  the 
charafter  and  fortune  of  the  JLydian  king.  Cicsfns 
having  entertained  his  Athenran  gueft,  according  to 
the  ancient  talhion,  for  fevcral  days,  before  he  aiked 
him  any  queftions,  oftentatioufly  fiiowed  him  the  mag- 
nificence of  his  palace,  and  particularly  the  riches  of 
his  treafury.  After  all  had  been  difplayed  to  the  beft 
advantage,  the  king  complimented  Solcn  upon  his  cu- 
riofity  and  love  ot  knowledge  ;  and  afl<ed  him,  as  a 
man  who  had  feen  many  countries,  and  rcfleded  with 
much  judgment  upon  what  he  had  ften.  Whom  of  all 
men  he  ellcemed  moft  happy?  By  the  particular  oc- 
cafion,  as  well  as  the  tri\iinphant  air  with  which  the 
queftion  was  propofed,  the  king  made  it  evident  that- 
he  expcfted  flatteiy  rather  than  information.  But  So- 
lon's charader  had  not  been  enervated  by  the  debilita- 
ting air  of  a  court  ;  and  he  replied  with  a  manly  free- 
dom, ."  TcUus,  the  Athenian."  Croelus,  who  had 
fcarcely  learned  to  diftinguifli,  even  in  imagination, 
between  wealth  and  happinefs,  inquired  with  a  tone  of 


Croc»«, 
Crafut. 


Tell 


furpriie,  why  this  preference  to  TtUiis  t  "  ielUis,' 
rejoined  Solon,  "  was  not  conlpicuons  for  his  riches 
or  his  grandeur,  being  only  a  fimple  citizen  of  Athens  { 
but  he  was  dcicended  from  parents  who  delerved  the 
firll  honours  of  the  republic.  He  was  equally  fortu- 
nate in  his  children,  who  obtained  univerfal  efteem  by 
their  probity,  patriotifm,  and  every  ufcful  quality  of 
the  mind  or  body  :  and  as  to  himfelf,  he  died  fighting 
gallantly  in  the  fervice  of  his  country,  which  his  va- 
lour rendered  viftorious  in  a  doubtful  combat  ;  on- 
which  account  the  Athenians  buried  him  on  the  fpot 
where  he  fell,  and  diftinguifhcd  him  by  every  honour 
which  public  gratitude  can  confer  on  illuftrious  merit.'* 
Crosfus  had  little  encouragement,  after  this  anfwer, 
to  aik  Solon,  in  the  fecond  place,  Wiiom,  next  to  Tel- 
lus,  he  deemed  moft  happy?  Such,  however,  13  the 
illufion  of  vanity,  that  he  Hill  ventured  to  make  this 
demand;  and  Hill,  as  we  are  informed  by  the  moft  cir- 
cumftanti'-'J  of  hiftorians,  entertained  hopes  of  being 
favourably  anfwered.  But  Silcn  replied  with  the  fame 
freedom  as  before,  "  The  brothers  Cleobis  and  Biton  ; 
two  youths  of  Argos,  whofe  ftrength  and  addrels  were 
crowned  with  repeated  victory  at  the  Olympic  games  ; 
who  delerved  the  affeflion  of  their  parents,  the  grati- 
tude of  their  couutry,  the  admiration  of  Greece  ;  and 

who, 


C    R    O 


[     557     ] 


C     R     O 


TctCus     who,    haviiicj   ended  their  lives  with  peculiar  felicity, 
-yi  I     '  wtrc  commemorated  by  the  mod  fignal  mo  lUinents  of 


immoi  tal  fame."  "  And  is  the  happiiiefs  of  a  king 
then,"  faid  Croefus,  "  fo  little  regarded,  O  Grecian 
flranjfer !  that  you  prefer  to  it  the  mean  condition  of 
an  Athenian  or  Argive  citizen  ?"  The  reply  ot  Solon 
fuf&ciently  juftified  his  reputation  for  wildom.  "  The 
life  of  man,"  laid  lie,  "  confiftsot  70  years,  which  make 
25,550  days;  an  immenl'e  number:  yet  in  the  longed 
life,  the  events  of  any  one  day  will  not  be  found  exadl- 
ly  alike  to  thofe  of  another.  The  affairs  of  men  are 
liable  to  perpetual  vicifTitudes :  the  Divinity  who  pre- 
Jides  over  our  fate  is  envious  of  loo  much  proiperiiy  ; 
and  all  human  life,  if  not  condemned  to  calamity,  is  at 
leaft  hablc  to  accident.  Whoever  has  uninterruptedly 
enj  lycd  a  profperous  tide  of  fuccefs  may  jullly  be  call- 
ed /(^rtunats  :  but  he  cannot  before  his  death  be  inti- 
tlcd  to  the  epithet  of /Jij/)y5)i." 

The  events  which   loon  followed  this  converfation, 
prove  how  little  latisfaftion  is  derived  Irora  the  pofTcf- 
ficn  of  a   throne.      ViAorious    in    war,    untivalled  in 
wealth,   fupreme   in   power,   Croclus  felt  and  acknow- 
ledged liib  iinhappinefs.     The  waimcft  affedlions  of  his 
foul   centered   in   his  fon   Atys,  a  youth  of  the  moft 
promifinsf  hopes,  who  had  often  fought  and  conquered 
by  his   fide.      The  ftrergth  of  his  attachment  was  ac- 
companied with   an   excefs   of  paternal  care,  and  the 
anxiety  of  his  waking  hours  difturbed  the  tranquillity  of 
his  red.      He   dreamed   that  his  beloved  fon  was  llain 
by  a  dart  ;  and  the  fohcitude  with  which  he  watched 
his  fafety,  preventing   the  youth  from  his  -.irual  occu- 
pations and  amufements,  and  thereby   rendering  him 
too  eager  to  enjoy  them,  moll  probably  expofed  him  to 
the  much-dreaded  misfortune.      Reluftanlly  permitted 
to  engage  in  a  party  of  hunting,  the  juvenile  ardour  of 
Atytj,   incrcafed   by    the  impatience  of  long  rettraint, 
made    him   negL-ft  the  precautions   neceffary   in    that 
manly   amuleracnt.      He  was  flain  by   a  dart  aimed  at 
a  wild  boar  of  monflrous  fize,  which   had  long  fpread 
terror  over  the  country  of  the  Myfians.     The  weapon 
came  from  the  hand  of  Adralfus,   a   Phrygian   piince 
and  fugitive,    whom  Crcefus  had  purified  from  the  in- 
voluntary guilt  of  a  brother's   blood,  and  long  diHin- 
guilhed  by  peculiar  marks  of  bounty.     To  the  grate- 
ful prote&ion  of  the  Phrygian,  Crcefus  recommended, 
at  parting,  tlie  fafety  of  his  beloved  Ion.      A  mournful 
proccflion  of  Lydians  brought  to  Sardis  the  dead  body 
of  Atys.      The    ill-fated   murderer   follow-cd    behind. 
When  they  approached  the  royal  prefence,   Adraltus 
ftepped  forward,  and  intreated   Cioefus  to  put  him   to 
death;   thinking    life  no   longer    to   be  endured  after 
killing,   fird  his  own  brother,  and  then   the  fon  of  his 
henefafton      But   the   Lydian   king,   notwithllanding 
the  excefs   of   his  aftliiition,  acknowledged  tlie  inno. 
cence  of  Adraftus,  and  the  power  of  fate.      "  Stranger, 
your  adlion  is  blamelels,  being  committed  without  de- 
iign.      I  know   that  my   fon   was  dcilined  to  a  prema- 
ture death."     Adradus,  though  pardoned  by  Croefus, 
could  not   pardon  liimfelf.     When  the  mourners  were 
removed,   he   privately   returned,  and  peridied  by  his 
own  hand  on  the  tomb  of  Atys. 

Two  years  Croefus  remained  difconfolate  for  the  lofs 
•f  his  fon  ;  and  might  have  continued  to  indulge  his 
unavailing  afSiftion  during  the  remainder  of  life,  had 
not  the  growing  greatnefs  of  Peilia,  which  threatened 


the  fafety  of  his  dominions,  roufedhlin  from  his  dream     Ciccfus.. 
ot  mifery.    (See  I-YDiA.) — He  marched  againd  Cyrus         *""" 
with  a  great  army,  but  was  defeated  ;  and   retreating 
to  his  capital  Sardis,   was  there    befieged.     The   city 
was  taken  by  aflault  ;  and  as  a  Per.'ian  foldier  was  go- 
ing to  kill  Crcefus,  that  prince's    only  furviving   fon, 
who  had  hitherto  been  dumb,  terrified  at  his  danger, 
cried,    Slop,  JhlclUr,  and  touch  not  Crafiis.      But  though 
delivered  by  this  extraordinary  accident  from  the  blind. 
rage  of  the   foldier,   he    feemcd   to  be  referved  for   a 
harder  fate.     Dragged  into  the  prefence  of  his  conque- 
ror, he  was  loaded  with  irons  ;  and  the  ftern,  unrelent- 
ing Cyrus,   of  whofe  humane  temper  of  mind  we  have 
fo  beautiful,  hut  fo  flattering,  a  picture  in  the  philofo- 
pliical  romance   of  Xenophon,  ordered  him,  with  the 
melancholy  train  of  hia  Lydian  attendants,  to  be  com- 
mitted to  the  flames.     An  immenfe  pile  of  wood  and 
other  combuflibles    was  erefted   in  the  mod  fpacious 
part  of  the  city.     The  milerable  viftims,  bound  hand 
and  foot,  were  placed  on  the  top  of  the  pyre.      Cyrus, 
furrounded  by    his   generals,    witnefied    the    dreadful 
fpetlacle,  either   from  an   abominable  principle  of  fu- 
perdition   if  he  had  bound  himlelf  by  a  vov/  to  facri- 
tice  Croefus  as  the  firit  fruits  of  his  Lydian  vittory,  or 
from  a  motive  of  curiofity,  equally  cruel  jnd  impious,. 
to    try    whether    Crcefus,   who  had  fo  magnificently 
adorned  the  temples  and  enriched  the  miniilers  of  the 
gods,,  would  be  helped  in  time  of  need  by  the  miracu- 
lous interpofition   ot    his   much  honoured  protectors,. 
Meanwhile   the   unfortunate    Lydian,     opprcflTed    and 
confounded  by  the  intolerable  v/eight -of  his  prtlentca- 
.^lamity  compared  with  the  lecurity  and  fphndor  of  his 
former  date,   recollected   his  memorable   converfation 
with    the   Athenian   fage,  and   uttered    with    a    deep 
groan  the    name   of  Soloi.      Cyrus  af]<ed  by  an  inter- 
preter,  "  Whofe  name  he  invoked  ;"     "  Bis,"  replied 
Cio:fus,  emholdened  by   the  profpeft  of  certain  death,. 
"  whofe  words  ought  ever   to  fpeak   to  the  heart  of 
kings."     This   reply   not   being   fatisfaitory,   he  was 
commanded  to  explain  at  full  length  the  fubject  of  his 
thoughts.      Accoidingly  he  related  the  Important  dif- 
courle  which  had  pafl'cd  between  hinifelf  and  the  Athe- 
nian, of  which  it  was  the   great   moral.  That  no  man' 
could  be  called  happy  till  his  death. 

The  words  of  a  dying  man  are  fitted  to  make  a 
drong  imprelllon  on  the  heart.  Thofe  of  Croefus. 
deeply  affciled  the  mind  of  Cyrus.  The  Perfian  con- 
fidered  the  fpetch  of  Solon  as  addreffed  to  himfelf. 
He  repented  of  his  intended  cruelty  towards  an  unfor- 
tunate prince,  who  had  formerly  enjoyed  all  the  pomp.- 
(.f  profpeiity  ;  and  dreading  the  concealed  vengeance 
that  might  lurk  in  the  bofom  of  fate,  gave  orders  that 
the  pyre  Ihoiild  be  extingiiilhed.  But  the  workmen 
who  had  been  employed  to  prepare  it,  had  performed 
their  talk  with  fo  miich  care,  tliat.lhe  order  could  not 
fptcdily  be  obeyed.  At  that  moment,  Croefus  calling 
on  Apollo,  whofe  favourite  flirliie  ot  Delphi  had  expe- 
rienced his  generous  munificence,  and  whofe  perfidious 
oracle  had  made  him  fo  ungrateful  a  return  ;,  the  god, 
it  is  faid,  fent  a  plentiful  fhower  to  extinguifli  the  pyre. 
This  event,  which  faved  the  life,  and  which  fufficiently 
atteded  the  piety  of  Crosfus,  drongly  recommended 
him  to  the  credulity  of  his  conqueror.  It  fecmed  im- 
pofilble  to  pay  too  much  rclptft  to  a  man  who  was  evi- 
dently the  favourite  of  heaven.  Cyrus  gave  orders 
4  UiatL 


Crotfin 

II 

Croifiide. 


C    R     O  [53 

tliat  he  fliould  be  fcated  by  his  fide,  and  thenceforth 
treated  as  a  kinw ;  a  revolution  of  fortune  equally  fud- 
den  and  unixptdled.  But  the  mind  of  Crcefus  had  un- 
dergone a  ilill  move  important  revolution:  tor,  tutored 
in  the  ufcfiil  fchool  of  adverfity,  he  learned  to  think 
with  patience  and  to  aft  with  prudence,  to  govern 
his  own  pafTions  by  the  dictates  of  rcafon,  and  to  repay 
by  wholefome  advice  the  generous  behaviour  of  liis 
Perfian  mafter. 

The  firll  advantage  which  he  derived  from  the 
chan^^e  in  Cyrus's  difpofition  towards  him,  was  the 
permiflion  of  fending  his  fetters  to  the  temple  of  Dcl- 
l)hian  Apollo,  whole  flattering  oracles  had  ei!coura«d 
him  to  wage  war  with  the  Perfiaiis.  Behold,"  \vere 
his  meffengers  inftrufted  to  fay,  "  the  trophies  of  our 
promifcd  fuccefs  !  behold  the  monuments  of  the  un- 
erring veracity  of  the  god  !"  The  Pythia  heard  their 
-reproach  with  a  fmile  of  contemptuous  indignation, 
and  anfwered  it  with  that  iolemn  gravity  which  llie 
was  fo  carefully  taught  to  affume :  "  The  gods  them- 
felves  cannot  avoid  their  own  delliny,  much  lefs  avert, 
however  they  may  retard,  the  determined  fates  of 
men.  Croefus  has  fuffered,  and  julUy  luffered,  for  the 
crime  of  his  anceftor  Gyges  ;  who,  entrufted  as  chief 
of  the  guards,  with  the  petfon  of  Candaules,  the  laft 
king  of  the  race  of  Hercules,  was  feduced  by  an  im- 
pious woman  to  murder  his  mailer,  to  defile  his  bed, 
and  to  ufui'p  his  royal  dignity.  For  this  complicated 
guilt  of  Gyges  the  misfortunes  of  Crosfus  have  atoned; 
but  know,  that  through  the  favour  of  Apollo,  thefe 
misfortunes  have  happened  three  years  later  than  the 
fates  ordained."  The  Pythia  then  proceeded  to  explain  , 
her  anfvvers  concerning  the  event  of  the  war  againft 
Cyrus,  and  proved,  to  the  convlftion  of  the  Lydians, 
that  her  words,  if  properly  underilood,  portended  the 
deftruftion,  not  of  the  Perfian,  but  of  the  Lydian  em- 
pire. Crcefus  heard  with  refignation  the  report  of  his 
meffengers,  and  acknowledged  the  juftice  of  the  Del- 
phian oracle,  which  maintained  and  increafed  the  luftrc 
ef  its  ancient  fame.  This  fallen  monarch  furvived  Cy- 
rus.    The  manner  of  his  death  is  not  known. 

CROFT,  a  little  clofe  adjoining  to  a  dwelling- 
houfe,  and  inclofcd  for  'pafture  or  arable  land,  or  any 
other  purpofe — In  fome  ancieni  deeds,  crufta  occurs 
as  the  Latin  word  for  a  "  croft;"  but  cum  tvj'tis  iS'  crof- 
-tis  h  more  frequent.  Croft  is  tranflated  in  Abbo  Flo- 
riacenfis,  hy  pr<tdium  a  "  farm". 

CROISADE,  or  Crusade,  a  name  given  to  the 
expeditions  of  the  Chriflians  agalnfl.  the  inlidcis  for  the 
conqueft  of  Pakitine. 

Thefe  expeditions  commenced  in  the  year  IC96. 
The  foundation  of  them  was  a  fuperltiticus  veneration 
for  thofe  places  wliere  our  Saviour  performed  his  mi- 
racles, and  accomplifhed  the  work  of  man's  redemp- 
tion. Jerufalem  had  been  taken,  and  Paleftine  con- 
•  See  Aia-  quei-ed,  by  Omar  ihe  fucccffor  of  Abu  Beer  *,  who 
fw,  ii^yS.  fucceeded  Mahomet  hinifelf.  Tliis  proved  a  confi- 
derable  interruption  to  the  pilgrims,  who  flocked  from 
all  quarters  to  perfnrm  their  devotions  at  the  holy  fe- 
pulchre.  They  had,  however,  Ilill  been  allowed  this 
liberty,  on  paying  a  fmall  tribute  to  the  Saracen  ca- 
liphs, who  were  not  much  inclined  to  tnolell  them. 
But,  in  1065,  this  city  changed  its  maflers.  The 
Turks  took  it  from  the  Saracens;  and  being  much 
piore  fierce  a»d  baibarous  than   the  fernier,   the  pil- 


]  C    R     O 

grims  now  found  they  could  no  longer  perform  their  CroilWr, 

devotions  with   the  fame  fafety  they  did  betorc.     An  ^r^i 

opinion  was  about  this  time  alfo  prevalent  in  Europe, 
which  made  thefe  pilgrimages  much  move  frequent 
than  formerly.  It  was  loniehow  or  other  imagined, 
that  the  thoufand  years  mentioned  in  the  20th  chapter 
of  the  Revelations,  were  fuhlUed ;  that  Chrift  was 
foon  to  make  his  appearance  in  Palelline,  to  judge  the 
world;  and  confcquently  that  journeys  to  that  country 
were  in  the  highelt  degree  meritorious,  and  even  ab- 
folutely  necclTary.  The  multitudes  of  pilgrims  which 
now  flocked  to  Paleftine  meeting  with  a  very  rough 
reception  from  the  Turks,  fdled  all  Europe  with  com- 
plaints againft  thofe  infidels  who  profaned  the  holy 
city  by  their  prefence,  and  derided  the  facred  myfte- 
ries  of  Chriftianity  even  in  the  place  where  they  were 
fulfilled.  Pope  Gregory  \'^Il.  had  formed  a  dcfign  of 
uniting  all  the  princes  of  Chriftendom  againft  the  Ma- 
hometans; but  his  exorbitant  encroachments  upon 
the  civil  power  of  princes  had  created  him  fo  many 
enemies,  and  rendered  his  fchemes  fo  fufpiclous,  that 
he  was  not  able  to  make  great  progrefs  in  this  under- 
taking. The  work  was  referved  tor  a  meaner  inlliu- 
ment. 

Peter,  commonly  called  the  hermit,  a  native  of  A- 
mlens  in  PIcardy,  had  made  the  pilgrimage  to  Jeru- 
falem; and  being  deeply  aft'edted  with  the  dangers  to 
which  that  aft  of  piety  now  expofed  the  pilgrims,  as 
well  as  with  the  oppreflion  under  which  the  eaflcrii 
Chriftians  now  laboured,  formed  the  bold,  and,  in  all 
appearance,  imprafticable  defign  of  leading  into  Afia, 
from  the  fartheft  extremities  of  the  Weft,  armies  fuf- 
ficieat  to  fubdue  thofe  potent  and  warlike  nations  that 
now  held  the  Holy  Land  in  flavery.  He  propofed 
his  fcheme  to  Martin  II.  who  then  filled  the  papal 
chair;  but  he,  though  fenfible  enough  of  the  advan- 
tages which  mufl  accrue  to  himfelf  from  fuch  an  un- 
dertaking, refolved  not  to  interpofe  his  authority  till 
he  faw  a  greater  probability  of  fuccels.  He  fummon- 
ed,  at  Piacentia,  a  council  confifting  of  4000  ecclefia- 
ilics  and  30,000  feculars.  As  no  fiall  could  be  found 
large  enough  to  contain  fuch  a  multitude,  the  aflcmbly 
was  held  in  a  plain.  Here  the  Pope  himfelf,  as  well 
as  Peter,  harangued  the  people,  reprefenting  the  dif- 
mal  fituation  of  their  brethren  in  the  Eaft,  and  the  in- 
dignity offered  to  the  Chriftian  name  in  allowing  the 
holy  city  to  remain  in  the  hands  of  the  infidels.  Thefa 
fpeeches  were  fo  agreeable  to  thofe  who  heard  them, 
that  the  whole  multitude  fuddenly  and  violently  decla- 
red for  the  war,  and  iolemnly  devoted  thcmlelves  to 
perform  this  fervlce,  which  they  beheved  to  be  fo  me- 
ritoiious  In  the  fight  of  God. 

But  though  Italy  leemed  to  liave  embraced  the  de- 
fign with  ardour,  Martin  yet  thought  it  necelfary,  in 
order  to  lufure  perfeft  fuccels,  to  engage  the  greater 
and  more  warlike  nations  in  the  fame  enterprl/.c.  Ha- 
ving therefoie  exhorted  Peter  to  vilit  the  chief  cities 
and  fovereigns  of  Chriftendom,  he  fummoned  another 
council  at  Cleimont  in  Auveigne.  The  fame  of  this 
great  and  pious  defigii_  being  now  univerfally  diffufed, 
procured  the  attendance  of  the  greateft  prelates,  nobles, 
and  princes  ;  and  when  the  Pope  and  the  hermit  re- 
newed their  pathetic  exhortations,  the  whole  aflembly, 
as  if  impelled  by  an  immediate  infpiration,  exclaimed 
with  one  voice,  "  It  is  the  will  of  God  !  it  is  the  will 
5  ^^ 


C    R    O 


[     559     1 


C     R     O 


iHCiJe.   ofGoJ!"  Thefe  words  were   deemed   fo  memorable,  the  hermit,    and    Gautitr    or   Walter,    furnamed  the   Croirale. 

■* 'and  fo  much  the  cfFeA  of  a  divine  impulfe,   that  they  moneyhfs,  from  his  being  a  foldier  of  fortune.      Thefe '        <       -^ 

were  employed  as  the  fignal  of  rendezvous  and  battle  took  the  road  towards  Conllantinople  through  Hun- 
in  all  future  exploits  of  thefe  adventurers.  Men  of  all  gAry  and  Bulgaria  ;  and,  Irulling  that  heaven,  by  fu- 
ranks  now  flew  to  arms  with  the  utmoft  ardour,  and  a  pernatural  affillance,  would  fupply  all  their 'neccffi- 
crofs  was  affixed  to  their  right  (lioulder  by  all  who  in-  tics,  they  made  no  proviiion  for  fiibliftentc  in  their 
lifted  in  this  holy  enlerprize.  marcli.  Tlicy  foon  found  tliemfelves  obliged  to  ob- 
At  this  time  Europe  was  funk  in  the  moft  profound  tain  by  plunder  what  they  vainly  cxpeAcd  from  mi- 
ignorance  and  fuperflition.  The  ecclefialiics  had  racles  ;  and  the  enraged  inhabitants  of  the  countries 
gained  the  greatefl  afcendant  over  the  human  mind  ;  through  which  they  pafTcd,  attacked  tiie  difordelT 
ard  the  people,  who  conwiitted  the  nicft  horrid  multitude,  and  flaughtered  them  without  rcfillance 
crimes  and  difordtrs,  knew  of  no  other  expiation  than  The  more  difcipiined  armies  followed  after  •  and  oaf- 
the  obfervances  impofed  on  them  by  their  fpiritual  paf-  ling  the  Ihaits  at  Conllantinople,  they  were  mullered  ' 
tors.           _  in  the  plains  of  Alif.,  and  amounted  in  the  whole  to 

But  amidft  the  abjeft  fuperftition   v.^hich   now  pre-  700,000  men. 

vailed,  the  military  fpirit   had  alfo  univerfally  diffufed  This  rage   for  conquering  the   Holv  Land  did  not 

itU-lf;   and,  though  not  fupportcd  by  art  or  difclpline,  ceafe  with  this   expedition.       It   continued   for   very 

was  become  the  general  pafTiou  of  the  nations  govern-  near  two  centuries,   and  eight  different   croifades  were 

cd  bv  the  feudal   law.      All  the  great  lords  pofTefTed  fet  on  foot,  one  after  another.      The  iirll  was  in  the 

the  right  of  peace  and  war.     They   were   engaged  in  year    1096,  as   already  obferved.      The  princes  en<Ta- 

continual  hofidities  with  one  another:   the  ojien  coim-  ged  in  it  were,   Hugo,  count  of  Vemiandois,  brother 

try  was  become  a  fccne  of  outrage   and  diforder:   the  to  Philip  I.   king  of  France  ;   Robert,  duke'  of  Nor- 

eitics,  ftill  mean   and  poor,  were   neither  guarded  by  mandy  ;   Robert  earl   of  Flanders  ;   Raimond,   carl  of 

walls  nor  proteifted   by  privileges.      Every   man   was  Touloufe  and  St  Giles  ;  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,'duke  of 

obliged  to  depend  for  fafety  on  his  own  force,  or  his  Lorrain,  with  his  brothers  Baldwin  and  Euflace-   Ste- 

private  alliances  ;   and   valour  was  the  only  excellence  phen,  earl  of  Chartres  and  Blois ;   Hiio-o,  count' of  St 

which  was  held  in  efteem,  or  gave  one  man  the  pre-  Paul  ;  with  a  great  number  of  other  lords.     The  (je- 

eminence  above  another.      When  all  the  particular  fu-  ncral  rendezvous  was  at   Conftantinople.      la  this  ex- 

perftitions,  therefore,  were   here   united  in   one  great  pedition,  the  famous  Godfrey   befiegcd   and  took  the 

objeft,   the  ardour  for  private  hoftllities  took  the  fame  city  of  Nice.      The  city  of  Jerufalem  was  taken  by  the 

direftion  ;  "  and   all  Europe   (as  the   princefs  Anna  confederated  army,  and    Godfrey  chofen    king.      The 

Comnena  expreffes  herftlf ),  torn  from  its  foundations,  Chriifians  gained  the  famous  battle  of  Afcalon'againil 

ftemed  ready  to  precipitate  itfclf  in  one  united  body  the  foldan  of  Egypt;   which  put  an   end  to  the  firll. 

upon  Afia  "  croifade. 

All  oiders  of  men,  now  deeming  the  croifades  the  The  fecond  croifade,  in  the  year  1144,  was  headed 

only  road  to  heaven,   were  impatient  to  open   the  way  by  the  emperor  Conrad  III.  and  Louis  VII.  kin.r  of 

with  their  fwords  to  the  holy  city.      Nobles,  artifans,  France.      The   emperor's  army  was   cither  deftroyed 

peafants,  even    pricfts,  inroUed    their   names;  and  to  by  the  enemy,  or   periflied  through  the   treachery  of 

decline  this  ftrvice  was  branded  with  the  reproach  of  Manuel  the   Greek   emperor;  and  the   fecond   army 

impiety  or  cowardice.     The  nobles  who  inlilted  them-  through  the  unfaithfulnefs  of  the  Chrillians  of  Syria 

felves  were  moved,  by  the  romantic  fpirit  of  the  age,  was  forced  to  break  up  the  lieg-e  of  Damafcus.              ^ 

to   hope  for  opulent  eltablifhments   in  the   Eaft,  the  The  thi' 


bird  croifade,  in  the  year  11 88,  immediately 
the  taking  of  Jerufalem  by  Saladin  the  foldan 


breathe  their  laft  in  fight  of  that  city  where  their  Sa-  pire ;  with  the  bifhops  of  Befancon,  Cambrav  A 
viour  had  died  for  them.  Women  themfelves,  con-  iter,  Ofnaburg,  Miflen,  Paffau,  Vil^urg,  andfex 
cealing  their  (ex  under  the  difguife  of  armour,  attend-     others^      In  this  expedition, 'the  emperor  Frederic 


chief  feat  of  arts  and  commerce  at  that  time.  In  pur-  followed  the  taking  of  Jerufalem  by  Saladin  the  foldan 
foit  of  thefe  chimerical  projeds,  they  fold  at  the  low-  of  Egypt.  The  princes  engaged  in  this,  expedition 
eft  puce  their  ancient  caftles  and  inheritances,  which  were,  the  emperor  Frederic  BarbarofTa  •  Frederic 
had  now  loll  all  value  in  their  eyes.  The  infirm  and  duke  of  Suabia,  his  fecond  fon;  Leopald  du'ke  of  Au- 
aged  contributed  to  the  expedition  by  prefenta  and  (Iria;  Berthold  duke  of  Moravia;  Herman  marquis 
money:  and  many  of  them,  not  fatisfied  with  this,  at-  of  Baden  ;  the  counts  of  NafTau,  Thurin'ria  Miffen 
tended  it_  In  pet^fon,  beingdetermined,   if  pofTible,   to     and  Holland  ;  and  above  60  other  princes'^of  the  em- 

Mun- 
feveral- 
,     ,  ,  ,     ,.  ,    ■      ,         „.,.     ,  r '   -iperor  I'rederic  de- 

ed  the   camp  :  and  commonly  forgot   their   duty  ftill     feated  the  foldan  of  Iconlum  :  his  fon  Frcderi-    joined 
more,  by  prolhtutmg  themfelves  to  the  army.      The    by  Guy  Lufignon   king  of  Jerufalem,  in  vain'endea 
greatefl  criminals  were  forward  in  a  fervice  which  they    vouied  to   take   Acre   or  Ptolcmais.      Durino-   which 
confidered  as  an  expiation  for  all  crimes;  and  the  moil     tr?nfaftions,  Philip  Auguflus  king  of  France  ''and  Ri 
enormous  difoideis   were,  during  the   courfe  of  thefe     chard  II.  king  of  England,  joined   the  croifade-   bv 
expediiions,  committed  by  men  inured  to  wickednefs,     which  means  the  Chriillan  army  confifted  of  500 'coo 
encouraged    by   example,   and    implied    by   neceflity.     fighting  men:  but  great   difpiites  happening  bet«-eea 
The  mnhitude   of  adwnturers  foon   became  fo  grtat,     the  kings  of  France  and  England,   the  fo-mer  Quitted' 
that  their  more  fagncious  leaders  became  apprehenfive     the  Holy  Land,  and  Richard  concluded  a  peace  witli 
kft  the  greatnefs  of  tne  armament  would  be  the  caufe     Saladin. 

of  its  own  difappointment    _  For  this  reafon   they  per-         The   fourth  croifade  was  undertaken,   in  the  vear. 
muted  an  undifciphned  muhituoe,  computed  at  3CO,cco     1195,  by  the  emperor  Henry  VT.  after  Saladin's  death 
man,  to  go  before  them  under  the  command  of  Peter    In  this  expedition  the  Chrillians  gained  feveral  battles 

agaiull 


C    R    O 


Crn.hie.  jfrainft  tlie  infidels,  took  a   preat  many  towns,  and 
*"=— V'— ^  vi-erc  in  tlie  way  of  fuccefs,  when  the  death  of  the  em- 
peror obligrd  them  to  quit  tlie  Holy  Land,  and  return 
into  Germany. 

The  fifth  croifade  was  puWidied,  by  order  of  pope 
Innocent  III.  in  1 198.  Thofe  tnagaqed  in  it  made 
fruitiefs  efforts  for  the  recovery  of  the  Holy  Land  :  for, 
though  John  de  N;ule,  who  commanded  the  fleet  e- 
quipped  in  Flanders,  arrived  at  Pcolemais  a  little  after 
Simon  of  Montfort,  Renard  of  Dampierre,  and  others  ; 
yet  the  pla<Ti:e  dcllroying  many  of  them,  and  the  reft 
either  returning  or  engaging  in  the  petty  quarrels  of 
the  Chiiftian  princes,  there  was  nothing  done;  fo 
that  the  foldan  of  Aleppo  eafily  defeated  their  troops 
in  I  204. 


[       560      ] 


G    R    O 


ving  converfed  fo  long  with  people  who  lived  in  a  Croifa.J, 
much  more  magnificent  way  than  themft-lves,  began  *"~-v— 
to  entertain  fome  tafte  for  a  refined  and  polilhed  way 
of  life.  Thus  the  barbarifm  in  which  Eirope  had  been 
fo  long  immerfed,  btgan  to  wear  off  foon  after  this 
time.  The  princes  alio  who  lemaintd  at  home,  found 
means  to  avail  themfclves  of  the  frenzy  of  the  people. 
By  the  abfence  of  fuch  numbers  of  teftlcfs  and  martial 
adventurers,  peace  was  cftabllfhed  in  their  dominioPii. 
They  alfo  took  the  opportunity  of  annexing  to  their 
crown  many  confiderable  fiefs,  either  by  purchafe,  or 
by  the  extinftion  of  the  heirs;  and  thus  the  mifchiefs 
which  muil  always  attend  feudal  governmentj  were 
confiderably  Icffrned. 

With  regard  to  the  bad  fuccefs  of  the  croifaders,  it 
was  fcarce  poffible  that  any  other  thing  could  happen 
them.      The  emperors  of  Conftantinople,  inftead    of 


The  fixth  croifade  began  in  1228;  in  which  the 
Chiiftians  took  the  to-ivn  of  Damietta,  but  were  for- 
ced to  furrender  it  attain.  The  next  year  the  em-  aflilting,  did  all  in  their  power  to  difconcert  their 
peror  Frederic  made  peace  with  the  foldan  for  10 
yeiirs.  About  1240,  Richard  earl  of  Coinwal,  and 
brother  to  Henry  III.  king  of  England,  arrived  in  Pa- 
Icftine  at  the  head  of  the  Englifh  croifade  ;  but   find 


ing  it  moft  advantageous  to  conclude  a  peace,  he  re- 
embarked,  and  fleered  towards  Italy.  In  1244,  the 
Karafmians  being  driven  out  of  Perfia  by  the  Tartars, 
broke  into  Palcftine,  and  gave  the  Chriftians  a  general 
defeat  near  Gaza. 

The  frventh  croifade  was  headed  by  St  Lewis,  in  the 
ye--  1249,  who  took  the  town  of  Damietta :  but 
a  ficknefs  happening  in  the  Chiiftian  army,  the  king 
endeavoured  a  retreat ;  in  which  being  purfued  by  tlie 
infidels,  moft  of  his  ar;  y  were  miferably  butchered, 
and  himlelf  and  the  nobility  taken  prifoners.  Then  a 
truce  was  agreed  upon  for  10  years,  and  the  king  and 
fords  fet  at  liberty. 

The  eight  croifade,  in  i  270,  was  headed  by  the  fame 
prince,  who  made  hiinfelf  maiter  of  the  port  and  caftle 
of  Carthage  in  Africa  ;  but  dying  in  a  fliort  time,  he 
left  his  army  in  a  very  ill  condition.  Soon  after,  the 
king  of  Sicily  coming  up  with  a  good  fleet,  and  join- 
ing Philip  the  Bold,  fon  and  fucceffor  of  Lewis  the  king 
o'  Tunis,  after  feveral  engagements  with  the  Chrifti- 
ans, in  which  he  was  always  worlled,  defircd  peace, 
whi'ch  was  granted  upon  conditions  advantageous  to 
the  Chriftians :  after  which  both  princes  ernbaikcd 
for  their  own  kingdoms.  Prince  Edward  of  England, 
who  arrived  at  Tunis  at  the  time  of  this  treaty,  failed 
towardf  Ptolemais,  where  he  landed  with  a  fmall  body 


quit  the  noly  .  . 

England,  this  croifade  ended  without  contributing  any 
thing  to  the  recovery  of  the  Holy  land.  In  I  291,  the 
town  of  Acte,  or  Ptolemais,  was  taken  and  plundered 
by  the  foldan  of  Egypt,  and  the  Chriftians  quite  dri- 
ven out  of  Syria.  There  has  been  no  croifade  fince  that 
time,  though  feveral  popes  have  attempted  to  ftir  tap 
the  Chriftians  10  fuch  an  undertaking;  particularly 
Nicholas  IV.  in  1292,  and  Clement  V.  in  131 1. 

Thoiui-h  thefe  ciolfades  were  effefts  of  the  mo^  ab- 
furd  fuperftition,  they  tended  greatly  to  pioinote  the 
good  of  Europe.  Muliitudes  indeed  were  dcftroyed. 
M.  Voltaire  computes  the  people  who  periflicd  in  the 
different  expeditions  at  upwards  of  two  millions.  Many 
there  were,  however,  who  returned;  and  thefe,  ha- 

W  04. 


fchemcs.  They  were  jealous,  and  not  without  rea- 
fon,  of  fuch  an  inundation  of  barbarians.  Yet,  had 
they  coniidered  their  true  intereft,  they  would  rather 
have  affifted  them,  or  at  leaft  ftood  neuter,  than  en- 
tered into  alliances  with  the  Turks.  They  ioUowed 
the  latter  method,  however,  and  were  often  of  very 
great  diff.'rA-ice  to  the  weftern  adventurers,  which  at 
laft  occafioned  the  lofs  of  their  city  *.  But  the  woiil  •  c^.  /< 
enemies  the  croifaders  had,  were  their  own  internal /;j„/,„o«/,j 
feuds  and  diffentions.  They  neither  could  agree  n'i4^. 
while  marching  together  in  armies  with  a  view  to 
conqueft,  ner  could  they  unite  their  conquefts  under 
one  government  after  they  had  made  them.  They 
fet  up  three  fmall  ftates,  one  at  Jerufalem,  another  at 
Antioch,  and  another  at  Edeffa.  Thefe  ftates,  inftead 
of  affifting,   made  war   upon   each  othei',  and*on  the  _,^B| 

Greek  emperors  ;  and  thus  became  an  eafy  prey  to  the  ^| 

common  enemy.  The  horrid  cruelties  they  committed 
alfo  were  fuch  as  muft  have  infpired  the  Turks  with 
the  moft  invincible  hatred  againft  them,  and  made  them 
refift  with  the  grtateft  obftinacy.  They  were  fuch  as 
could  have  been  committed  only  by  barbarians  inflamed 
with  religious  enthufiafm.  When  Jerufalem  was  taken, 
not  only  the  numerous  garrifon  were  put  to  the  fworj, 
but  the  inhabitants  were  maffacred  without  m.ercy 
and  without  dlftinftion.  No  age  nor  fcx  was  fpared, 
not  even  fucking  children.  According  to  Voltaire, 
fome  Chriftians,  who  had  been  fuffered  by  the  Turks 
to  live  in  that  city,  led  the  conquerors  into  the  moft 
privdte  caves  where  women  had  concealed  themfclves 
with  their  children,  and  not  one  of  them  was  luflered 
to  efcape.  What  eminently  (hows  the  enthufiafm  by 
which  thefe  conquerors  were  animated,  is  their  beha- 
viour after  this  terrible  {laughter.  They  marched 
over  heaps  of  dead  bodies  towards  the  holy  fepulchre  ; 
and  while  their  hands  were  yet  polluted  with  the 
blood  of  fo  many  innocent  perfons,  fung  anthems  to 
the  common  Saviour  of  mankind.  Nay,  fo  tar  did 
their  leligious  enthufiafm  overcome  their  fury,  that 
thefe  ferocious  conquerors  now  burft  into  tears.  If 
the  abfurdlty  and  vickednefs  of  this  conduft  can  be 
exceeded  by  any  thing,  it  muft  be  by  what  follows. 
Ill  the  year  1204,  the  frenzy  of  croifading  feized  the 
children,  who  are  ever  ready  to  imitate  what  they 
fee  their  patents  engage  themfelves  in.  Their  childifh 
folly  was  encouraged  by  the  monks  andfchoolmailers  ; 
and  thoufands  of  tbofe  innocents  were  conduAed  from 

tht 


C  OTiOIbs'^A.oi-  H.\L,0 


riatc  CL 


^<^i 


■  fS:^^^^i^.//>tA''^^c^i^fi^/ia'Ci 


C    R    o 


L   561    1 


C    R     O 


tlic  houfef  of  their  parent's  on  the  faith  of  thcfe  words, 
"  Out  of  the  mouth  of  babes  and  fuckUngs  haft  thou 
petfeAed  praife."  Their  bafe  conduftors  fold  a  part  of 
them  to  the  Turks,  and  the  rell  perifhed  mlferably. 

CROISES,  or  Croi7.£s,  in  Englidi  antiquity,  pil- 
grims bound  for  the  Holy  Land,  or  fuch  as  had  bei:n 
there  ;  fo  called  from  a  badge  they  wore  in  imitation 
of  a  crofs.  The  knisrhtsof  St  John  of  Jerufaiem,  created 
for  the  defence  and  protection  of  pilgrims,  were  parti- 
cularly called  cro'ifes. 

CliOISIERS,  a  religious  order  founded  in  honour 
of  the  invention  or  difcovery  of  the  crofs  by  the  emprcfs 
Helena.  They  are  difpcifed  in  feveral  parts  of  Europe, 
paiticularly  in  the  Low  Countries,  France,  and  Bo- 
hemia, thofe  in  Italy  being  at  prefent  fiippreffed.  Thefe 
relicfious  follow  the  rule  of  St  Augulline.  They  had 
in  England  the  name  of  crouched frhiri. 

CROIX  (Francis  Petis  de-la),  fecretaryand  in- 
terpreter to  the  king  of  France  in  the  Turkifh  and 
Arabic  languages,  died  November  4th  1695,  in  his 
73d  year  ;  after  having  executed  this  employment  for 
the  fpace  of  44  years.  And  it  appears,  that  he  exe- 
cuted it  with  as  much  integrity  as  abilities  :  for, 
when  the  Algerines  fought  for  peace  of  Louis  XIV. 
conditions  were  offered,  by  which  they  were  required 
to  rtimburfe  to  this  monarch  600,000  franks.  The 
termi  being  thought  exorbitant,  they  had  recourfe  to 
ftratagem  :  and  t.hty  ofTcied  a  hu-ge  fum  to  La  Croix, 
who  was  the  interpreter  of  all  that  pafTed,  if  he  would 
put  into  the  treaty  "  crowns  of  Tripoli,"  inllead  of 
•'  French  crowns;"  which  would  have  made  to  the  Al- 
gerines a  difference  of  more  than  100,000  livres.  But 
the  integrity  of  the  interpreter  triumphed  over  the 
temptation  ;  which  however  was  the  greater,  as  it 
was  next  to  impuffible  he  Ihouldbe  difcovered.  Bcfides 
the  Turkifh  and  the  Arabic,  the  Perfian  and  the  Tar- 
tarian, he  alfo  undcrftood  the  Ethiopian  and  Arme- 
nian languages.  He  is  well  known  to  the  learned 
world  by  many  works.  He  trao/lated  the  "  Hiftory 
of  France"  into  the  Turkhh  language.  He  digcftcd 
the  three  volumes  of  "  Voyages  into  the  Eaft  Indies" 
of  M.  Thevenot.  He  made  an  accurate  catalogue  of 
all  the  Tutkilh  and  Fcrfian  books  which  are  in  the 
kino's  library.  He  compoled  two  complete  Diftion- 
aries  for  the  French  and  Turkifh  languages :  and, 
when  he  was  dying,  he  was  about  to  prefent  the  world 
with  the  hiftory  of  Genghifcan.  He  undertook  this 
hiftory  by  the  order  of  M.  Colbert  :  for  this  miniller, 
Eltogelhet  intent  upon  aggrandizing  hie  mailer,  was  ac- 
cullcmed  every  week  to  call  together,  either  in  the 
king's  library  or  hie  own,  certain  of  the  learned,  whom, 
according  as  they  excelled  in  their  feveral  departments 
in  literature, he  conilaiitlyfet  to  work.  This  hiftory,  which 
coft  La  Croix  more  than  ten  years  labour,  is  ufeful,  not 
only  to  the  learned  who  are  curious  to  know  paft  events, 
or  to  geographers  who  had  hitheito  been  greatly  J(i- 
norant  of  Grand  Tartary,  but  likewife  to  ail  who 
trade  to  China,  Perfia,  or  other  eaftern  parts  of  the 
world.  There  is  a  good  map  of  northern  Alia  drawn 
by  M.  de  I'lfle,  accompjmying  the  work  ;  which  M. 
Petis  de  la  Croix,  the  author's  fon,  not  only  rcvifcd, 
but,  to  render  it  more  curious,  added  to  it  anabiidge- 
ment  of  the  lives  of  all  thole  authors  from  whom  it  was 
extracted.  It  was  tranflated  into  Englifh,  and  publifti- 
ed  at  London,  1722,  8vo. 

Vol.  V.  Part  IL 


CROMARTY,  the  capital  of  the  (hire  of  Cromarty,  Croriflcty 
in    Scotland,  with  an  excellent  and  fafe  harbour  ca-         II 
pable    of  containing  the  greateft  fleets.      W.  Long.  Cromwell. 
3.  40.  N.  Lpt.  57.  54.  ^^~~' 

CROiVILECH,  in  Britifiiantiquities,  are  huge,  broad, 
flat  ftones,  raited  upon  other  ftones  fct  up  on  end  for 
that  purpofe.  They  are  common  in  Anglesy;  under 
which  article  a  very  large  one  is  defcribcd.  See  Plate 
CL. 

Thefe  monuments  are  fpoken  of  largely  by  Mr  Row- 
land, by  Dr  Boi  late,  and  by  Wormius,  under  the  name 
or  ^im  01  altar.  Mr  Rowland,  however,  is  divided  in 
his  opinion;  for  he  paitly  inclines  to  the  notion  of  their 
having  been  altars,  partly  to  their  having  been  fepul- 
chres  :  he  luppofes  them  to  have  been  originally  tombs, 
but  that  in  after  times  facrilices  were  performed  upon 
them  to  the  heroes  depofited  within.  Mr  Keiller  pre- 
ferves  an  account  of  King  Hatold  having  been  interred 
beneath  a  tomb  of  this  kind  in  Denmark,  and  Mr 
Wright  difcovered  in  Ireland  a  flvcleton  depofited  under 
one  of  them.  The  great  fmiilarity  of  the  inonumenta 
throughout  the  north,  Mr  Pennant  obferves,  evinces 
the  fame  religion  to  have  been  fpread  in  every  part, 
perhaps  with  fome  flight  deviations.  Many  of  thefe 
monuments  are  both  Britifli  and  Danifli;  for  we  find 
them  where  the  Danes  never  penetrated. 

The  cromlech,  or  cromleh.  chiefly  diffeis  from  the 
KiST-ti(7fH,  in  not  being  clofed  up  at  the  end  and  fides, 
that  is,  in  not  fo  much  partaking  of  the  chell-like  fi- 
gure ;  it  is  alfo  generally  of  larger  dimenfions,  and 
fometimes  confifts  of  a  greater  number  of  ftones  :  the 
terms  cromleh  and  k'ljl-vaen  are  however  indifcriminately 
ufed  for  the  fame  monument.  The  term  cromlech  is  by 
fome  derived  from  the  Armoric  word  cram,  "  crooked 
or  bowing,"  and  kh  "  ftone,"  alluding  to  the  reverence 
which  perfons  paid  to  them  by  bowing.  Rowland 
derives  it  from  the  Hcbiew  words  carem-luach,  flgnify- 
ing  a  "devoted  or  confecrated  ftone."  They  are  called 
by  the  vulgar  coetne  Arlhor,  or  Arthurs  quoits,  it  be- 
ing  a  cuftom  in  Wales  as  well  as  Cornwal  to  afcribe 
all  great  or  wonderful  objedls  to  prince  Arthur,  the 
hero  of  thofe  countries. 

CROMWELL  (Thomas),  earl  of  EfTex,  was  the 
fon  of  a  blackfmilh  at  Putney,  and  born  in  1458. 
Without  a  liberal  education,  but  endowed  with  a  ftrong 
natural  genius,  he  confidered  travelling  as  the  proper 
means  of  improving  his  underftanding  ;  and  to  this 
early  token  of  his  found  judgment  he  ftood  indebted 
for  the  high  rank  and  diftinguiflred  honours  he- after- 
wards enjoyed.  He  became  by  dregrees  the  confi- 
dential favourite  and  ptime  miniftcr  of  Henry  VIII.; 
and  from  the  moment  he  acquired  any  authority  in 
the  cabinet,  he  employed  it  in  promoting  the  refor- 
mation, to  his  zeal  for  which  he  became  a  viftim  ; 
for,  the  more  firmly  to  fccure  the  Proteftant  caufe,  he 
contrived  to  marry  the  king  to  Ann  of  Clevcar,  whofe 
friends  were  all  Lutherans.  Unfortunately  Henry 
took  a  difguft  to  this  ludy,  which  brought  on  Crom- 
well's ruin  ;  the  king,  with  his  ufual  cruelty  and  ca- 
price, taking  this  opportunity  to  facrlfice  this  minifter 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  party,  to  whom  he  feemed  de- 
firous  f,f  reconciling  himfclf  as  foon  as  he  had  Catha- 
rine Howard  in  view.  Cromwell  was  a  great  poli-  • 
tician,  and  a  good  man  ;  but,  like  moft  ftatefmen,  was 
guilty  of  great  errors.     In  his  zeal  for  the  new  reli- 

4  ^  g'on. 


C    R     O 


[     5^2     1 


C    R     O 


Cromwell,  gion,  he  had  introduced  the   imjulUfiable  mode  of  at- 
«  tainder  in  cafes  of  trcafon   and  herefy  ;  and  liis  ene- 

mies, who  were  numerous  (confiding  of  two  clafTes, 
the  ancient  nobility  and  fcntiy,  who  were  enraged  to 
fee  the  higheft  honours  bellowed  on  a  man  of  his  mean 
rxtraftion,  and  the  Roman  Cathohcs,  who  dettfted 
him),  having  preferred  many  complaints  againft  him, 
availed  themfelves  of  his  own  lax.  He  was  attaint- 
ed of  trca'.on  and  herefy,  conviftcd  unheard,  and  be- 
headed in  1540.  He  was  the  chief  indtument  of  the 
fuppreffion  of  the  abbeys  and  inonafteries,  and  of  the 
deflruilion  of  images  and  relics;  to  him  alfo  we  are 
indebted  for  the  inflituli©n  of  parifh-regifters  of  births, 
marriages,  and  burials. 

Cromv/ell  (Oliver),  ftykd  Jjord  ProUdor  of  the 
commonwealth  of  England,  one  of  the  moft  extraor- 
dinary perionages  mentioned  in  hilloiy,  was  the  fon 
of  Mr  Robert  Cromwell  of  Hirchiiibrooke  in  the 
county  of  Huntingdon.  His  auceilors  were  of  very 
honourable  extraftion  :  but  no  ways  related  to  Tho- 
mas Cromwell  earl  of  Effcx,  the  prime  minifter  and 
favourite  of  Henry  VI U.  He  was  born  in  the  pariih 
of  St  John,  Huntingdon,  where  his  father  moftly  li- 
ved, on  the  24th  or  25th  of  April  1599,  and  educated 
at  ihe  free  fchool  of  that  town.  Little  is  known  con- 
cerning him  in  his  younger  years,  or  indeed  concern- 
ing his  behaviour  in  piivate  life.  Il  is,  however,  re- 
lated by  autliors  of  unfufpe(fled  veracity,  that  when  at 
fchoel  he  gave  many  figns  of  a  very  turbulent  and 
refllefs  difpofition.  He  is  alfo  faid  from  his  early 
years  to  have  been  fubjeft  to  the  hypochondriac  difor- 
der,  and  to  many  deceptions  of  the  imagination.  lie 
had  a  very  remarkable  one  while  at  fchool.  It  hap- 
pened in  the  day  time,  when  he  was  lying  melancho- 
ly upon  his  back  in  bed.  A  fpeftre,  as  he  thought, 
approached  him.,  and  told  him  that  he  Ihould  be  the 
greatefl  man  in  the  kingdom.  His  father,  being  in- 
formed of  this,  was  very  angry,  and  deiired  his  ma- 
fter  to  correft  him  feverely.  This,  however,  produ- 
ced no  efftd  Oliver  perfided  in  the  truth  of  his  do- 
ry, and  would  fometimes  mention  it  though  his  uncle 
told  him  "  it  was  too  traiterous  to  be  repeated." — 
From  this  fchool  Oliver  was  removed  to  Sidney-col- 
lege  In  Cambridge,  where  he  was  admitted  in  1616. 
His  progrefs  in  his  Itiidies  is  uncertain  ;  but  he  fpent 
much  time  in  playing  at  foot- ball,  cricket,  and  other 
lobuft  exevclfes,  at  which  he  was  very  expert.  His 
father  dying  after  he  had  been  about  two  years  at  co- 
lege,  Cromwell  returned  home;  but  the  irregularity 
of  his  life  gEve  fuch  offeree  to  his  mother,  that,  by  the 
advice  of  fome  friends,  die  fent  him  to  London,  and 
placed  him  in  Lincoln's-inn.  This  expedient  by  no 
means  anfwered  the  purpofej  her  fon  gave  himfelf 
up  to  gaming,  wine,  and  women,  fo  that  he  quickly 
diifipated  all  that  was  left  htm  by  his  father.  This 
diffipaiion,  however,  could  be  but  of  very  diort  conti- 
nuance ;  for  he  was  mariled,  before  he  was  21  years 
of  age,  to  Elizabeth  daughter  of  Sir  James  Bouchier 
of  EfTex.  Soon  after  his  marriage  he  returned  to  the 
country,  where  he  led  a  very  grave  and  fobcr  life. 
This  fudden  reformation  has  been  afctibed  to  his  fal- 
ling in  with  the  Puritans ;  but  it  is  certain,  that  Mr 
Cromwell  continued  then,  and  for  fome  time  after,  a 
jealous  member  of  the  church  of  England,  and  form- 
ed a  cLfc  friendlhig    with   feverai   eminent    divines. 


He  continued  at  Huntingdon  where  he  fettled  afJer  Cromwell 
his  marriage,   till  an   eilate   of   between  L.  400  and      "  1    '■'1 
I.1.500  per  anvum  devolved  to  him    by   the  death  of  ] 

his  uncle  Sir  Thomas  Stuart.     This  induced    him   to  \ 

remove  to   the   ifie  of  Ely   where  the  eftate  lay,  and  ( 

here  he  etabraced  the  puritanical  dcftrines.  He  was 
elefted  a  member  of  the  third  parhament  of  Charles  I. 
which  met  on  the  20th  of  January  1628;  and  was  a 
member  of  the  commutee   for  religion,  where  he  dif-  ' 

tlngulfted  himfelf  by  his  zeal  againd  popery.  After 
the  dilfolution  of  that  parliament,  he  returned  again 
into  the  country,  where  he  continued  to  exprels  much 
concern  for  religion,  to  keep  company  with  filenced 
minlders,  and  to  invite  thtm  often  to  lettures  and  fer- 
mons  at  his  hcule.  T.hus  he  brought  his  aflairs  again 
into  a  very  indlfffrent  fituatlon;  fo  that,  by  way  of  re- 
pairing the  breaches  he  made  in  his  fortune,  lie  took 
a  farm  at  St  Ives,  which  he  kept  five  years.  But  tliis 
fcheme  fucceeded  fo  ill,  that  he  was  obliged  to  give  it 
up;  and  at  lad,  chagrined  with  his  ddappoiiitments, 
and  made  uneafy  by  the  treatment  his  party  at  tlwt 
time  received,  he  formed  a  dcfign  of  going  over  to 
New-England.  In  this,  however,  he  was  difappointed; 
the  king  iffutd  out  a  proclamation  againft  all  iuch  emi- 
grations, and  Cromwell  was  obliged  to  remain  in  Eng- 
land apaind  his  will. 

In  1638,  Cromwell  had  firft  an  opportunity  of  get- 
ting himfelf  publicly  taken  notice  of.  The  earl  0/ 
Bedford,  and  fome  other  perfons  of  high  rank,  who 
had  edates  in  the  fen  country,  were  very  deiirous  of 
having  it  better  drained  ;  and  though  one  project  of 
this  fort  had  failed,  they  fet  on  foot  another,  got  it 
countenanced  by  royal  authority,  and  fettled  a  part  ot 
the  profits  upon  the  crown.  This,  though  really  in- 
tended for  a  public  benefit,  was  oppofcd  as  injurious 
to  piivate  property  :  and  at  the  head  of  the  oppofcrs 
was  Mr  Oliver  Cromwell,  who  had  confiderable  in- 
fluence in  thefe  parts.  The  vigour  he  fhowed  on  this 
occalion  recoiumcndcd  him  to  his  friend  and  relation 
Mr  Hampden  ;  who  afrerwards  charafterized  him  la 
parliament,  as  a  perfon  capable  of  contriving  and  con- 
ducing great  defigiis.  But  for  all  this  he  was  not  ve- 
ry fucccisful  In  his  oppolition  ;  and  as  his  private  af- 
fairs were  iWl  declining,  he  was  in  very  necclTitous 
circunidances  at  the  approach  of  the  long  parliament. 
In  this  critical  fituation  he  got  himfelf  elefted  member 
of  parliament  in  the  following  manner.  In  the  puri- 
tanical meetings  which  he  conftantly  frequented,  Oli- 
ver had  moft  eminently  diiiinguilhcd  himfelf  by  his 
gifts  of  praying,  preaching,  and  expounding.  At  one 
of  thefe  meetings,  he  met  with  one  Richard  Tims,  a 
tradefman  of  Cambridge.  This  man  was  fo  much  ta- 
ken with  Oliver,  that  he  took  it  into  his  head  to  at- 
tempt getting  hiiji  chofen  burgefs  for  the  approaching 
parhament.  Bei^g  himfelf  one  of  the  common-coun- 
cil, Tims  imagin</d  this  dcfign  might  be  brought  about; 
and  with  this  vi^w  went  to  Mr  Wildbore  a  relation  of 
Cromvi'ell's,  to  whom  he  communicated  his  intention. 
Wildbore  agreed  as  to  the  fitnefs  of  the  perfon  ;  but 
told  him  the  defign  was  imprafticable,  becaiife  Oliver 
was  not  a  freeman.  Tims  next  addreffed  one  Evett 
on  the  fame  fubjedf,  who  alfo  made  the  fame  objec- 
tion. He  recoUcfted,  however,  that  the  mayor  had 
a  freedom  to  beftow,  and  a  fcheme  was  immediately 
laid  for  ftcuxing  this  freedom  to  Cromwell.     On  ap. 

plication 


C    R     O  [ 

!TomwclI.  plii-ation  to  the  mayor,  however,  he  told  them  that  the 
""^r^—  freedom  was  already  dUpofed  of  to  another  5  but  this 
objeiftion  being  obviated  by  promifiiig  that  perfon  a 
freedom  from  the  town,  the  mayor  being  informed 
that  Cromwell  was  a  man  of  great  fortune,  fignitied 
his  intention  of  bellowing  the  freedom  upon  him.  Our 
hero,  being  informed  of  the  good  offices  of  his  friends, 
made  his  appearance  in  the  court  dreiTtd  in  fcavlet 
riclily  laced  with  gold,  and  having  provided  plenty  of 
claret  and  fweatmeats,  they  were  fo  freely  circula- 
ted among  the  corporation,  that  Mr  Mayor's  freeman 
was  unaiiimoully  declared  to  be  a  very  civil  worthy 
gentleman.  When  the  eleftion  came  on,  the  mayor 
difcovered  his  millake,  but  it  was  now  too  late ; 
the  party  among  the  burgelTes  was  ftrong  enough  to 
choofe  him,  and  accordingly  did  fo  at  the  eledtion 
next  year. 

When  Cromwell  firft  came  into  parliament,  he  af- 
fefted  great  plainnefs,  and  even  careleffncfs,  in  his 
drefs.  His  attention  to  farming  had  entirely  rulH- 
cated  him,  fo  that  he  made  a  very  uncouth  appearance. 
"  Who  (fays  Dr  South)  that  had  behtld  fuch  a  bank- 
rupt, beggarly  fellow,  as  Cromwell,  tirll:  entering  the 
parliament  houfe,  with  a  thread-bare  torn  coat  and 
greafy  hat,  and  perhaps  neither  of  them  paid  for,  could 
have  fufpefted,  that,  in  the  fpace  of  fo  few  years,  he 
fliould,  by  the  murder  of  one  king,  and  the  banifh- 
ment  of  another,  afcend  the  throne,  be  inverted  with 
the  royal  robes,  and  want  nothing  of  the  ftnte  of  a 
.  king  but  the  changing  his  hat  into  a  crown  ?"  Crom- 
well was  very  aftive  in  proinoting  the  famous  Ranon- 
Jlrance* ;  which  in  reality  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
-.civil  war.  He  declared  afterwards  to  Lord  Falkland, 
that  if  the  remoiiftrance  had  not  been  carried,  he  de- 
figned  to  have  converted  the  fmall  remains  of  his  ef- 
tate  into  ready  money  the  next  day,  and  to  have  left 
the  kingdom  by  the  firft  opportunity.  His  firranefs 
on  this  occafion  fo  efFeftually  recommended  him  to 
Hampden,  Pym,  and  the  other  leaders  of  the  popular 
party,  that  they  took'him  into  all  their  councils  ;  and 
here  he  acquired  that  clear  infight  into  things,  and 
that  knowledge  of  men,  of  which  he  afterwards  made 
fuch  prodigious  ufe.  His  exploits  during  the  civil 
war,  his  murder  of  the  king,  and  ufurpation  of  the 
kingdom,  are  related  under  the  article  Britain,  n°  1 39, 
—  188. 

With  regard  to  the  charafter  -of  Cromwell,  Mr 
Hume  expreffes  himfelf  as  follows  :  "  The  writers 
attached  to  this  wonderful  perfon  make  his  charafter, 
with  regard  to  abilities,  bear  the  air  of  the  moft  ex- 
travagant panegyric:  his  enemies  form  fuch  a  repre- 
fentation  of  his  moral  qualities  as  refemblcs  the  moft 
virulent  invective.  Both  of  them,  it  muft  be  confef- 
fed,  are  fupported  by  fuch  ftriking  circumftances  in 
his  fortune  and  conduft,  as  beftow  on  their  reprefen- 
tation  a  great  air  of  probability.  '  What  can  be 
more  extraotdinary  (it  is  faid),  than  that  a  perfon  of 
private  birth  and  education,  no  fortune,  no  eminent 
Dualities  of  body,  which  have  fometimes,  nor  ihiiiing 
qualities  of  mind,  which  have  often,  raifed  men  to  tlie 
highcft  dignities,  fliould  liave  the  courage  to  attempt, 
and  the  abilities  to  execute,  fo  great  a  defign  as  the 
Subverting  one  of  the  moft  ancient  as  well  as  beft 
eftablilhed  monarchies  in  the  world  ?  That  he  fhould 
have  the  power  and  boldnefs  to  put  his  prince  and 


*  See  B. 
tah,a°ic 


563     ]  C    R    O 

mafter  to  an  open  and  infamous  death?  fhould  banidi  Cromwell, 
that  numerous  and  ilroiigly  allied  family  ?  Cover  all  """^ 
thefe  temerities  under  a  teeming  obedience  to  a  par- 
liament, in  uhofe  fervice  he  pretended  to  be  retain- 
ed ?  Tiample  too  upon  that  jiailiament  in  their  turn, 
and  fcornfuUy  expel  them  as  foon  as  tiiey  gave  him 
ground  of  dilfatlstaition?  Ereft  in  tlicir  place  the  do- 
minion of  the  fdints,  and  give  reality  to  the  moft  vi- 
fioriary  idea  which  the  heated  imagination  of  any  fa- 
natic was  ever  able  to  entertain?  Supprefs  again  that 
monfter  In  Its  infancy,  and  openly  fet'liimfelf  up  above 
all  tiu'ngs  that  ever  were  called  J'overe'gn  in  England  ? 
Overcome  firft  all  his  enemies  by  arms,  and  all  his 
friends  afterwards  by  artif  ce  ?  Serve  all  parties  patient- 
ly for  a  wlillc,  and  afterwards  command  them  vido- 
riouily  at  fall  ?  Over-run  each  corner  of  the  three  na- 
tions, and  fubJue  with  equal  facility  both  the  riches  of 
the  fouth,  and  the  poverty  of  the  north  ?  Be  feared  and 
courted  by  all  princes,  and  adopted  a  brother  to  the 
gods  of  the  earth  ?  Call  together  parliaments  with  a 
word  of  his  pen,  and  fcatter  them  again  by  the  breath 
of  his  mouth?  Reduce  to  fubjiCtion  a  warlike  and  dlf- 
contented  nation  by  means  of  a  mutinous  army?  Com- 
mand a  mutinous  army  by  means  of  feditious  and  fac- 
tious ofTicers?  Be  humbly  and  daily  petitioned,  that  he 
would  be  pleafcd,  at  the  rate  of  millions  a-year,  to 
be  hired  as  mafter  of  thofe  who  had  formerly  hired 
him  for  their  fervant  ?  Have  the  eftates  and  lives  of 
three  nations  as  much  at  his  difpofal  as  was  once  the 
little  inheritance  of  his  father,  and  be  as  noble  and  li- 
beral in  the  fpendingof  them  ?  And,  laftly,  (for  there 
is  no  end  of  enumerating  every  particular  of  his  glo- 
ry), with  one  word  bequeath  all  this  power  and  fplen- 
dor  to  his  pofterity  ?  Die  pofi'tfTcd  of  peace  at  home, 
and  triumph  abroad  ?  Be  buried  among  kings,  and 
with  more  than  regal  folemnlty  ?  And  leave  a  name 
behind  him  not  to  be  extlnguKhed  but  with  the  whole 
world  ;  which,  as  it  was  too  little  for  his  praife,  fo  it 
might  have  been  for  his  conquefts,  if  the  Ihort  line  of 
his  mortal  life  could  have  ftretched  out  to  the  extent 
of  his  immortal  defigns  ?' 

"  My  Intention  is  not  to  disfigure  this  pidure 
drawn  by  fo  mafterly  a  hand  :  I  fhall  only  endeavour 
to  remove  from  it  fomewhat  of  the  marvellous;  a  cir- 
cumftance  which,  on  all  occafions,  gives  much  ground 
for  doubt  and  fufpicion.  It  feems  to  me  that  the 
circumftance  of  Cromwell's  life  in  which  his  abllltlej 
are  principally  difcovered,  is  his  rifing,  from  a  private 
ftation,  in  oppofition  to  fo  many  rivals,  fo  much  ad- 
vanced before  him,  to  a  high  command  and  authority 
in  the  army.  His  great  courage,  his  fignal  military- 
talents,  his  eminent  dexterity  and  addrefs,  were  all 
requlfite  for  this  important  acquifition.  Yet  will  not 
this  promotion  appear  the  effeA  of  fupernatural  abi- 
lities, when  we  contider  that  Fairfax  himfelf,  a  private 
gentleman,  who  had  not  the  advantage  of  a  feat  in 
parliament,  had,  through  the  fame  fteps,  attained  even 
to  a  fuperlor  rank  ;  and,  if  endued  with  common  ca- 
pacity and  penetration,  had  been  able  to  retain  it. 
To  incite  fuch  an  army  to  rebellion  againft  the  par- 
liament, required  no  uncommon  art  or  induftry  :  to 
have  kept  them  In  obedience  had  been  the  more  diffi- 
cult enterprize.  When  the  breach  was  once  formed 
between  the  military  and  civil  powers,  a  fuprcme  and 
abfolute  authority,  from  that  moment,  is  devolved  on 
4  B  2  the 


C    R    O 


[     564    1 


C     R     O 


Crnniwfl'.  the  general ;  and  if  he  is  afterwards  pkafed  to  em- 
<"■  ''  ploy  artifice  or  policy,  it  may  be  regarded  on  moft 
occafions  as  great  condefcenfion,  if  not  as  fuperfluous 
caution.  That  Cromwell  was  ever  able  really  to  blind 
or  over-reach  either  the  king  or  the  republicans,  does 
not  appear  :  as  they  poflefled  no  means  of  relilHng  the 
force  under  his  command,  they  were  glad  to  temporize 
with  him  ;  and,  by  fceming  to  be  deceived,  to  wait 
fi>r  an  opportunity  of  frieing  thcmfclves  from  his  do- 
minion. If  he  fcduced  the  military  fanatic?,  it  is  to 
be  confidered,  that  their  intereft  and  his  evidently  con- 
curred ;  that  their  ignorance  and  low  education  cx- 
pofed  them  to  the  grolTeit  impofition  ;  and  that  he 
.  himfelf  was  at  bottom  as  frantic  an  enthufiaft  as  the 
worft  of  them  ;  and,  in  order  to  obtain  their  confi- 
dence, needed  but  to  difplay  thofe  vulgar  and  ridi- 
culous habits  which  he  had  early  acquired,  and  on 
which  he  fct  fo  high  a  value.  An  army  is  fo  forcible, 
and  at  the  fame  time  fo  conrfe  a  weapon,  that  any 
*  hand  which  wields  It,  may,  without  much  dexterity, 
perform  any  operation,  and  attain  any  afcendant  in 
human  fociety. 

«'  The  domeftic  adminiftration  of  Cromwell,  though 
it  difcovers  great  ability,  was  conduced  without  any 
plan  cither  of  liberty  or  arbitrai-y  power  :  perhaps  his 
difficult  fituation  admitted  of  neither.  His  foreign 
tnterprifes,  though  full  of  Intrepidity,  were  pernicious 
to  national  intereft  ;  and  feem  more  the  refult  of  im- 
petuous fury  or  narrow  prejudices,  than  of  cool  fore- 
Jight  and  deliberation.  An  eminent  perfonage,  how- 
ever, he  was  in  many  refpefts,  and  even  a  fuperior 
genius  ;  but  unequal  and  irregular  in  his  operations  : 
and,  though  not  defeftive  in  any  talent  eKcept  that  of 
elocution,  the  abilities  which  in  him  were  moft  admi- 
rable, and  which  contributed  moft  to  his  marvellous 
fuccefs,  were  the  magnanimous  refolution  of  his  en- 
terprlzes,  and  his  peculiar  dexterity  in  difcovering 
the  charaAers  and  praitifing  on  the  weaknefles  of 
mankind. 

"  If  we  furvey  the  moral  charafter  of  Cromwell, 
■with  that  indulgence  which  Is  due  to  the  blindnefs  and 
infirmities  of  the  human  fpecles,  we  fliall  not  be  In- 
clined to  load  his  memory  with  fuch  violent  reproaches 
as  thofe  which  his  enemies  ufually  throw  upon  it.  A- 
midft  the  paffions  and  prejudices  of  that  time,  that  he 
fhould  prefer  the  parliamentary  to  the  royal  caufc,  will 
not  appear  extraordinary  ;  fince  even  at  pi-efent  many 
men  of  fenfe  and  knowledge  are  difpofed  to  think, 
that  the  queftion,  with  regard  to  the  juftice  of  the 
quaiTel,  inay  be  regarded  as  doubtful  and  ambiguous. 
The  murder  of  the  king,  the  moft  atrocious  of  all  his 
aftions,  was  to  him  covered  under  a  mighty  cloud  of 
republican  and  fanatical  lUufions;  and  it  is  not  impof- 
flble  but  he  might  believe  it,  as  many  others  did,  the 
moft  meritorious  aftion  which  he  could  perform.  His 
fubfequent  ufurpation  was  the  effeft  of  neceffity,  as 
well  as  of  ambition  ;  nor  is  it  eafy  to  fee  how  the  va- 
rious faftions  could  at  that  time  have  been  reftrained 
without  a  mixture  of  military  and  arbitrary  authority. 
The  private  deportment  of  Cromwell  as  a  fon,  a  huf- 
band,  a  father,  a  friend,  is  expofed  to  no  confiderable 
cenfure,  if  It  does  not  rather  merit  praife.  And,  up- 
on the  whole,  his  charafter  does  not  appear  more  ex- 
traordinai-y  and  unufual  by  the  mixture  offo  muchab- 
furdity  with  £0  much  penetration,  than  by  his  temper- 


ing fuch  violent  ambition  and  fuch  enraged  fanaticlfm  Cromwcl). 
with  fo  much  regard  to  juftice  and  humanity."  "— Y*~^ 

That  Cromwell  continued  a  moft  complete  and  bi- 
gotted  enthufiaft  to  the  very  laft,  appears  from  his  be- 
haviour in  his  laft  ficknefs.      His  difeafe,  which  at  firft 
was  a  kind  of  flow  fever,  brought   on   by  the   cares 
and  anxiety  of  his  mind,  foon  degenerated  into  a  ter- 
tian ague.      For  about  a  week  the  diforder  continued 
without  any  dangerous  fymptoms,  infomuch  that  every 
other  day  he  wa!I;ed  abroad  ;  but  one  day  after  din- 
ner his  five   phyfictans  coming  to  wait  upon  iiim,  one 
of  them  having  felt  hi-s  pulfe,  faid  that   it  intermitted. 
At  this  Cromwell  was  furprlied,  turned  pale,  fell  into 
a  cold  fweat,   and,  when   he  was  aimoft  fainting,  or- 
dered himfelf  to  be  carried  to  bed;  where,  by  the  af- 
fiftance  of  cordials,  being  brought  a  little  to   himfelf, 
he  made  his  will  with  refpect  to  his  private  affairs.   The 
next  morning  when  one  of  his  phyficlans  came  to  vifit 
him,  Cromwell  aficed  hira,  why  he  looked  fo  fad  J  and 
wh\;n  anfwer  was  made,  that  fo   It  became  every  one 
tt'ho  had   the  weighty   charge  of  his  life  and  health 
upon  hira,   "  Ye  phyficlans  (fays  Crom%vell),  think  I 
ftiall  die:  I  tell  you  I  ftiall  not  die  this  bout,  I  am  furc 
of  it.      Do  not  you  think    (faid   he  to   the  phyfician, 
looking  more  attentively  at  him),  do  not  think  that  I 
am  mad:  I  fpeak  the  words  of  truth  upon  furcr  grounds 
than  your  Hippocrates  or  Galen  can  furnilh  you  with. 
God  Almighty  himfelf  hath  given  that  anfwer,  not  to 
my  prayers  alone,  but  alfo  to  the  prayerB  of  thofe  who 
entertain  a  ftricier  commerce  and  gfi-eater  intereit  with 
him.    Go  on  cheerfully,  banilhing  all  fadnefs  from  your 
looks ;  and  deal  with  me  as  you  would  do  with  a  fer- 
ving  man.  Ye  may  have  a  ikill  in  the  nature  of  things; 
yet  nature   can  do  more  than  all  phyficlans  put  toge- 
ther, and  God  Is  far  more  above  nature."  As  this  phy- 
fician was  coming  out  of  the  chamber,  he  accidentally 
met  with  another,  to  whom  he  expreffed  Ills  fear  that 
the  proteftor  was  turning  light-headed.      But  tlie  o- 
ther  Informed  him  that  the  chaplains,  being  difperfed 
the   preceding  night  into  different  parts  of  the  houfcj 
had  prayed  for   the  proteftor's  recovery,  and  unani- 
moufiy   received   for  anfwer   that   he    ftiould   recover. 
Nay,  to  fuch  a  degree  of  madnefs  did  they  at  laft  ar- 
rive, that,  a  public  fall  being  kept  at  Hampton-court, 
they  did  not  fo  much  pray  to  God  for  the  pr.oteifor's 
health,   as   return   thanks   for  the   undoubted  pledges 
they  had  of  his  recovery.  On  this  account,  though  the 
phyficlans  perceived    his    diftemper    increafing    every 
hour,  they  took  no  notice  of  his  danger,  till  it  became 
iieceflary  for  him  to  appoint  a  iucceflbr  while  he  had 
any  breath  remaining.      But  being  then  in  a  lethargic 
fit,  he  anfwered  from  the  purpofe;   upon  which  he  was 
again   afced   whether  he  did   not   name  his  eldcft  fon 
Richard?  and  to  this  queftion  he  anfwered,  Yes.      Be- 
ing then   aH<ed  where  his  will  was  which  he  had  for- 
merly made  concerning  the  heirs  of  the  kingdom  ;  he 
fent  to  look  for  it  in  his  clofet  and  other  places,  but 
in  vain  ;  for  fomebody  had  either  ftole  It,  or  he  him- 
felf had  burnt  it.      Soon  after,  he  expired,  on  the  3d 
of  September  1658,  aged  fomewhat  more  than  59  years 
and  four  months.     This  day  of  September  he  had  al- 
ways reckoned  to  be  the  moft  fortunate  for  him  in  the 
whole  year.     A  violent  tempeft,  which  immediately 
fucceeded  his  death,  ferved  as  a  fubjedl;  of  difcourfe  to 
the  vulgar.     His  partizans,  as  well  as  his  opponents, 

were 


C    R    O  [     565 

•(Wiwell.  were  fond  of  remarking  this  event :  and  each  of  them 
"^         endeavoured,   by  forced  inferences,  to  interpret  it  as 
bcft  fuited  their  particular  prejudices. 

It  has  been  imagined  by  fome,  that  Oh'ver  Crom- 
well was  poiloned  ;  but  for  this  there  feems  to  be  no 
realonablc  fmiiidation.  His  body  was  openi.d  by  Dr 
Bates.  He  found  the  brain  fomewhat  overcharged 
with  blood,  and  the  lungs  a  little  inlhmed  ;  but  what 
he  reckoned  to  have  been  the  principal  canfe  of  his 
diforder  was  a  total  deti'eneracy  of  the  fubftance  of  the 
fpleen  into  a  matter  refcmbling  the  lees  of  oil.  This, 
he  thouirht,  alio  acc^ounted  for  the  hypochondriac  dif- 
pofuions  to  which  Cromwell  had  from  his  infancy 
•been  fubjcft.  Though  the  bowels  were  taken  out, 
and  the  body  filled  with  fplces  wrapped  in  a  fourfold 
cere-cloth,  pat  firll  into  a  coffin  of  lead,  and  then  into 
one  of  wood,  yet  the  corruption  wa?  fo  great  that  the 
humour  wiou'^^ht  itielf  through  the  whol;,  and  there 
was  a  necclfity  of  uiterri'ig  the  body  before  the  fo- 
h-mnity  of  the  funeral.  A  verv  pompous  funeral  was 
ordered  at  the  pnblic  expence,  and  performed  from 
Somerfet-houfe,  with  a  fplendor  not  only  equal  but 
fuperior  to  that  bt-ftowed  upon  crowned  heads.  Some 
have  related  that  his  body  was  depofited  in  Nafeby- 
field:  others,  that  it  was  wrapped  in  lead,  and  funk  in 
the  deepeft  part  of  the  TIrames,  to  prevent  any  iniult 
that  might  afterwards  be  offered  to  it.  But  it  feems 
beyond  doubt  that  his  body  was  interred  at  Wcilmin- 
tter;  as  we  are  informed,  that  on  the  order  to  difinter 
liim  after  the  reftoration,  his  corpfe  was  found  in  a 
vault  in  the  middle  aifle  of  Henry  VII.'s  chapel.  In 
the  infide  of  the  coffm,  and  on  the  breaff  of  the  corpfe, 
was  laid  a  copper  plate  finely  gilt,  inclofed  in  a  thin 
cafe  of  lead.  On  one  fide  of  this  plate  were  engraven 
the  arms  of  England  impaled  with  thofe  of  Oliver,  and 
on  the  reverfc  tlie  following  legend  ;  Oliverius  ProuSor 
Re'ipublice  Angli.s,  Scotix,  H  Hiternis,  natus  25  ^prills 
1599,  inauguratus  16  Decembris  1653,  mortuus  3  Septem- 
Ir'ts  ann.  1 65 8,  hlcjitus  eft. 

Cromwell  was  of  a  robuft  frame  of  body,  and  of  a 
manly,  though  not  agreeable  afpeft.  His  nofe  being 
_  rema.-kably  red  and  fhining,  was  often  made  the  fub- 
jecf  of  ridicule.  He  left  only  two  fons,  Richard  and 
Henry:  and  three  daughters;  one  married  to  General 
Fleetwood,  another  to  Lord  Fauconberg,  and  a  third  to 
Lord  Rich.  His  mother  lived  till  :^'"ter  he  was  protec- 
tor ;  and  contrary  to  her  orders  he  buried  her  with 
great  pomp  in  Weftminller  Abbey.  She  could  not 
he  perfuaded  that  ever  his  power  or  his  perfon  was 
in  fafety.  At  every  noife  Ihe  heard  fire  would  exclaim 
that  her  fdn  was  murdered  ;  and  was  never  fatisfied 
that  he  was  alive  if  fhe  did  not  receive  frequent  vifits 
from  him.  She  was  a  decent  woman  ;  and  by  her 
frugality  and  induftry  had  raifed  and  educated  a  nu- 
merous family  upon  a  fmall  fortune.  She  had  even 
been  obliged  to  fet  up  a  brewery  at  Huntingdon,  which 
(he  managed  to  good  advantage.  Hence  Cromwell, 
in  the  invcftives  of  that  age,  is  often  ftig-matized  with 
the  name  of  brewer.  Ludlow,  by  way  of  infslt,  men- 
tions the  great  acceilion  which  he  would  receive  to  his 
royal  revenues  upon  his  mother's  death,  who  pofTeffed 
a  jointure  of  60  pounds  a-ycar  upon  his  eftate.  She 
was  of  a  good  family,  of  the  name  of  Stuart  ;  and  is 
by  f  ime  fuppofed  to  have  been  remotely  allied  to  the 
royal  family. 


]  C     R     O 

Cromwell  (Richard),   eldcft  fon  of  Oliver  Crom-  Cromwell 
well,   was  by  his  father  appointed  fucccffor  to  the  pro-  II 

tc£lor(liip,  but  very  foon  depofed  by  the  armv  *.  They  ,*-J'"''l?^,'* 
difcharged  his  d'-bts,  took  all  the  houfehold  iluff,  plate,  'J'^Jlz^ 
&c.   gave  him  a  proteftion  for  fix  months,  and  fo  he  jj^o.  * 

retired.  He  was  by  no  means  qualified  to  fupport  the 
ftition  gained  by  the  aipiring  talents  of  his  father.  He 
was  of  a  moderate  temper,  and  untainted  with  that  fa- 
natical (pirit  which  his  father  had  fo  fuccefsfullv  culti- 
vated. On  the  reftoration  he  went  abroad  ;  but  re- 
turned in  16S0  under  the  alTumed  name  of  Clark,  and 
fettled  at  Chcfhunt  in  Hertfordfhire,  where  he  lived 
privately,  and. died  in  1712,  aged  86. 

CRONENBURG,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  circle 
of  the  upper  Rhine,  and  in  the  landgravate  of  HeiTe 
Caifel,  with  a  ftrong  callle.  It  is  ftated  at  the  foot  of 
a  hit'h  mountain,  on  a  fertile  foil,  and  is  furround- 
ed   with  a  double  wall.     E.  Long.  8.  15.  N.  Lat.  50. 

'5- 

Cpomenburg,  a  ftrong  fortrefs  of  Denmark,  in  the 
ifle  of  Zealand,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Sound,  where 
the  Danes  take  toll  oi  fuch  fhips  as  arc  bound  for  the 
Baltic.  It  was  very  richly  futnilhcd,  but  pillaged  by 
the  Swedes  in  1658,  who  took  away  the  furniture, 
among  which  were  fome  ftatues  of  maffy  filvtr.  It  is 
built  upon  piles.      E.  Long.  12.  50.  N.  Lat.  56.  o. 

CRONIUS,  in  chronology,  the  ancient  name  of 
the  Athenian  month  Hecatombaeon  ;  which  was  the 
firft  of  their  year,  and  anfwered  to  the  latter  part  of 
our  June  and  beginning  of  July. — There  were  feafta 
called  Croiuenes  celebrated  at  Athens  in  this  month,  in 
honour  of  Saturn,  anfwering  to  the  Saturnaha  of  the 
Romans. 

CRONSLOT.     See  Cronstadt. 

CROVSTADT,  a  fea-port  town  of  Ruflia,  where 
the  greateft  part  of  the  navy  is  fituated.  It  (lands  up- 
on the  ifland  of  Retufari  in  the  Gulf  of  Finland  ;  and 
was  founded  by  Peter  I.  as  being  provided  with  the 
fafeft  harbour  in  thefe  parts,  and  as  forming  a  ftrong 
bulwark  by  fea  for  the  defence  of  the  new  metropolis. 
The  only  paffage  by  which  (liips  of  burden  can  approach 
Peterfhurgh  lies  on  the  fouth  fide  of  Retufari,  through 
a  narrow  channel  ^  one  fide  whereof  is  commanded  by 
Cronftadt,  and  the  oppofite  by  Cronflot  and  the  cita- 
del. Cronflot,  which  ftands  upon  a  fmall  illand  of 
fand,  is  a  circular  wooden  building,  and  furrounded 
with  fortifications  of  wood  that  jut  into  the  water.  It 
contains  a  garrifon  of  100  men.  The  citadel  is  ano- 
ther fmall  wooden  fortrefs,  conftruCited  alfo  upon  an- 
adjacent  tind-bank,  and  capable  of  holding  about  36 
foldicrs.  All  large  veffels  muft  fail  between  Cronftadt 
and  thefe  two  fortreffes  expoled  to  the  fire  of  the  op- 
pofite batteries  ;  for  the  other  parts  of  the  gulf  are 
only  from  one  to  eleven  feet  in  depth.  All  thefe  for- 
tifications were,  at  the  time  of  their  conftruftioii,  ,  \ 
efteemed  places  of  confidcrable  ftrength;  but  now  they 
derive  their  confequence  more  from  their  pafi  import- 
ance than  from  any  refifiance  they  could  make  againft 
the  attack  of  a  powerful  fleet. 

Cronftadt  is  built  upon  the  fouth  eaftern  extremity 
of  the  ifland,  and  is  defended  towards  the  fea  by 
wooden  piers  projcding  into  the  water,  and  towards. 
the  land  by  ramparts  and  baftions.  It  is  a  very  ftrag- 
gling  place  ;  and  occupies,  like  all  the  Rulllaii  towns, 
a  larger  fpace  of  ground  than  the  ntiiubei  of  h.ibiia- 
2  t,'uug 


C    R    O  [     5<S6     ]  C    R    O 

tions  feem  to  require  ;  the  houfes  are  moftly  of  wood,  at  the  to^j  like  a  T,  or  in  the  middle  of  their  length 

excepting   a  few   fronting  the   harbour,  which  are  of  like  an  X.     The  crofs  to  which  our  Saviour  was  fallen- ^ 

brick  ftuccoed  white.     Among  the  htter  are  the  Im-  ed,  and  on   which  he  died,  was  of  the  former  kind  ; 

perial  hofpital  for  failors,   the   barrack'',  and   the  aca-  being  thus  rc;prefented  by  old  monuments,  coins,  and 

demy  for  marines  and  officers  of  the   naiy.     That  fe-  croffes  ;   md  St  Jerom  compares  it  to  a  bird  flying,  a 

minary  ufualiy  contains  between  three  and  four  huu-  man  fwimming,  or  praying  with  his  arms  extended, 

dred  cadets,   who  are  clothed,  maintained,  and  ta'ight  The  puniih:nent  of  the  crofs  wag  common  among  the 

at  the  expence  of  the  crown.     They  are  admitted  at  Syrians,  Egyptians,  Perfians,  Africans,  Greeks,  Ro- 

the  age  of  five,  and  are  fuffered  to  renain  until  they  mans,  and  Jews. 

reach  their  feventeenth   year.     They  learn  accounts,  The  death  of  the   crofs   was  the  moll  dreadful  of 

mathematics,  drawing,   fortification,   and  navigation  ;  all   others,  both   for  the   Ihame  and  pain  of  it ;  and 

and  have  m.adtrs  in  the  French,  German,  Englifh,  and  fo   fcandalous,   that  it  was  infllfted  as  the   laft   mark 

Swedifii  languages.  They  are  trained  to  naval  aff.iirs,  and  of  detellatton   upon   the  vileft  of  people.      It  was  the 

make  an  annual  cruifc  in  the  Baltic  as  far  as  Revel. —  puniihraent   of  robbers  and   murderers,  provided  tha*^ 

Cronftadt  has  a  feparate  haven  appropriated  to  the  men  of  they  were  ilives  too;  but  otherwife,  if  they  were  free, 

■war   and  another  to  merchant  (hips    Clofe  to  the  haven  and  had  the  privileges  of  the  city  of  Rome,  this  wa« 

for  raerchaiit  (hips  is  a  canal  and  feveral  dry  docks,  begun  then  thought  a  protlitution  of  that  honour,  and  too  in- 

in  I110  by  Pettrl.  for  the  purpofe  of  refitting  the  men  famous  a  punifhment  for  fuch  a  one,  let  his  crimes  be 

of  war.   Thisufeful  work  was  nepletled  under  his  fuccef-  what  they  would. 

fors,  and  was  not  completed  until  the  reign  of  liis  daugh-         The  Mofaic  law  ordained,  that  the  perfons  executed 

ter  Elizabeth.  K  has  been  ftill  further  heautlfird  and  im-  fliould  not  be  left  upon  the  tree  after  fun-fet,  becaufe 

proved  by  the  prefent  empiefs;  and  is  now  applied  for  he  that   is  hanged  in  this  manner  is  accurfed  of  God. 

building  as  well  as  careening  (hips  of  the  line.     At  the  Deut.  xxi.  32.     The  Jews  believe,   that  the  fouls  of 

extre:nity  of  thefe  docks  is  a  great  refervoir,   568  feet  thofe  who  remain  upon  the  gibbet,  and  without  burfaT, 

in  ler.gth,  which  contains  water  fi^fficlent,  and  half  the  enjoy  no  peace,  and  receive  no  benefit  from  the  prayers 

quantity  over,  to  fupply  all  the  docks ;  which  is  pump-  of  other  people  ;  but   wander  up  and  down  till  their 

ed  into  it  by  means  of  a  fire  engine,  the  diameter  of  bodies  are  buried:   which  agrees  with  the  notions  that 

■whofe  cylinder  is  fix  feet.     The  length  of  this  work,  the  Greeks  and  Romans  had  of  this  matter,  as  may  be 

fro^   the  beginning  of  the  canal  to  the  end  of  the  lall  feen  in  Horn.  II.  4.  and  Virg.  JEneid.  ■d.  V 

dock.  Is  4221  feet.     The  fides  of  the  docks  are  faced         The  form  of  a  crofs  being  fuch  as  has  been  already 

vlth   ftone,    and   the  bottom   is   paved   with  granite,  defcribed,  the  body  of  the  criminal  was  fattened  to  the 


Craft. 


They    are  40    feet   deep  and    105    broad ;    and  are 
capable    of  containing    nine    men    of  war   upon    the 

Aocks.  r  I         • 

CRONSTAT,  a  town  of  Tranfylvania,  near  the 
frontiers  of  Moldavia,  fubjeft  to  the  houfe  of  Auilria. 
E.  Long.  25.  o.  N.  Lat.  47.  O. 

CROP,  the  higheft  part  or  end  of  any  thing  cut  off. 


upiight  piece  by  nailing  the  feet  to  it,  and  on  the  other 
tranfverfe  piece  generally  by  nailing  the  hands  on  each 
fide.  Now,  becaute  thefe  parts  of  the  body,  being  the  in- 
ftruments  of  aftion  and  motion,  are  provided  by  nature 
with  a  much  greater  quantity  of  nerves  than  others  have 
occafion  for ;  and  becaufe  all  fenfation  is  perfoi-med  by 
the  fpirit  contained  in  thefe  nerves  ;  it  will  follow,  as 


■It  Is  particularly  ufed  for  the  corn  gathered  ofi^  afield     Stanhope  obferves,    that  wherever  they   abound,   the 
in   harveft.       See  Agriculture,    Part  II.  fenfe  of  pain   : 


CROSIER,  or  Crozier,  a  fhephetd's  crook ;  a  fym- 
bol  of  paftoral  authority,  confifting  of  a  gold  or  fi'ver 
ftaff,  crooked  at  the  top,  carried  occafionally  before 
bifiiops  and  abbots,  and  held  in  the  hand  when  they 
give  the  folemn  benediftions.  The  cuHom  of  bearing 
a  paftoral  ftaff  before  bhhops  is  very  ancient,  as  appears 
from  the  life  of  St  Csefarea  of  Arks,  who  lived  about 
the  year  500.  Among  the  Greeks  none  but  the  patri- 
archs had  a  right  to  the  crofier.  The  crofiers  were  at 
firft  no  more  than  fimple  wooden  ftaves  in  form  of  a  T, 
ufed  to  reft  and  lean  upon.  By  degrees  they  were 
made  longer  ;  and  at  length  arrived  to  the  form  we 
now  fee  them  of.  Regular  abbots  are  allowed  to  offi- 
ciate with  a  mitre  and  crofier. 

Crosier,  in  aftronomy,  four  (lars  in  the  fouthern 
hemifphere,  in  the  form  of  a  crofs,  ferving  thofe  who 
fail  in  fouth  l?.titudes  to  find  the  antardic  pole. 

CROSLET,  in  heraldry,  is  when  a  crofs  is  croffed 
again  at  a  fmall  diftance  from  each  of  the  ends.  Up-  Cyrenian  was  conftralned  to  bear  it  after  him  and  with 
ton  fays  it  Is  not  fo  often  borne  by  itfelf  in  arms  as  other  him.  But  whereas  it  is  generally  fuppofed  that  our 
croffis  are,  but  often  in  diminutives,  that  is,  in  fmall  Lord  bore  the  whole  crofs,  r.  e.  the  long  and  tranfverfe 
croflets  feattered  about  the  field.      See  Heraldry.  part  both,  this  feems  to   be  a  thing  ixpoffible ;  and 

CROSS,  a  gibbet  made  with  two  pieces  of  wood     therefor cLipfius  (in  his  treatife  Z>f  .Suft/i/iao  Cri;r«)  has 
placed  crofswife,  whether  they  crofs  with  right  angles     fet  the  matter  In  a  true  light,  when  he  tells  us  that 

3  J^'"^ 


mult  needs  in  proportion  be  more  quick 
and  tender. 

The  Jews  confcfs,  that  indeed  they  crucified  people  In 
their  nation,  but  deny  that  they  inflifted  this  puniflrment 
upon  any  one  alive.  They  firll  put  them  to  death,  and 
then  fallened  them  to  the  crofs  either  by  the  hands  or 
neck.  But  there  are  indifputable  proofs  of  their  cru- 
cifying men  frequently  alive.  The  worlhippers  of 
Baal-peor  and  the  king  of  Ai  were  hung  up  alive  ;  as 
were  alio  the  defcendants  of  Saul,  who  were  put  into 
the  hands  of  the  Gibeonites,  2  Sam.  xxi.  9. 

Before  crucifixion  the  criminal  was  generally  fcour- 
ged  with  cords :  fometimes  little  bones,  or  pieces  of 
bones,  were  tied  to  thefe  fcourges,  fo  that  the  con- 
demned perfon  might  fuffer  more  feverely.  It  was  alio 
a  cuftom,  that  he  who  was  to  be  crucified  lliould  bear 
his  own  crofs  to  the  place  of  execution.  After  tliis 
manner  we  find  Chrill  was  compelled  to  bear  his  own 
crofs  ;  and   as   he  funk  under  the  burden,   Simon  the 


C    R     O  [567 

'roTs,  Jefus  only  can  led  the  tranfverfe  beam  j  becaufe  the 
"V  '  long  beam,  or  the  body  of  the  crofs,  was  either  fixed 
in  the  ground  before,  or  made  rea<iy  to  be  fet  up  as  loon 
as  the  prifoncr  came;  and  from  lieiice  he  obferves, 
that  painters  are  very  much  midakeii  i;i  their  d-ifcrip- 
tion  of  our  Saviour  carrying  the  whol:  crofs. 

There  were  fevcral  ways  of  crucifying  ;  fometimes 
the  criminal  was  fattened  with  cords  to  a  tree,  fome- 
times he  was  crucified  with  his  liead  downwards.  This 
way  St  Ptter  chofe  out  of  rcfpedl  to  his  mailer  Jefus 
Chril),  not  thinking  himfelf  worthy  to  be  crucified 
like  him  ;  though  the  common  way  of  crucifying  was 
by  fattening  the  criminal  with  nails,  one  through  each 
hand,  and  one  througii  both  feet,  or  one  through  each 
of  them  :  for  this  was  not  aIv^'ays  performed  in  the  fame 
manner;  th-e  ancients  fo.aetimcs  reprefcntiug  Jefus 
C'hrill  crucified  with  four  nails,  and  fomttiines  with 
three.  The  criminal  was  fixed  to  the  crofs  quite  na- 
ked ;  and  in  all  probability  the  Saviemr  of  the  world 
was  not  ufed  with  any  greatei  tenJerntfs  than  others 
upon  whom  this  p'.mittiment  was  iufliited.  The  fol- 
dicrs  di<-'ided  hij  cloalhs  among  them,  and  caft  lets  for 
his  tunic,  which  is  an  under  gaimtnt  woiu  over  the 
fleih  like  a  ttiiri. 

The  text  of  the  Gofpcl  (liows  clearly,  that  Jefus 
Chrill  was  fattened  to  the  crofs  with  nails  ;  and  the 
Pfalmiil  (xxxii.  17.)  had  foretold  long  before,  that 
they  Ihould  pierce  his  hands  and  his  feet  :  but  there 
are  great  difputes  concerning  the  nuinber  of  thefe  nails. 
The  Greeks  reptefent  our  Saviour  as  fafl.ened  to  the 
crofs  with  four  nails  ;  in  which  particular  Gregory  of 
Tours  agrees  with  them,  one  at  each  hand  and  foot. 
But  fevcral  are  of  opinion,  that  our  Saviour's  hands 
and  feet  were  pierced  with  three  nails  only,  viz.  one 
at  each  hand,  and  one  thiough  both  his  feet  :  and  the 
cullom  of  the  Latms  is  rather  for  \his  laft  opinion  ;  for 
the  generality  of  the  old  crucifixcf  made  in  the  Latin 
church  have  only  three  nails.  Nonnus  thinks  that  our 
Saviour's  arms  wcic  befidiS  bound  fall  tothtcrol's  with 
chains  ;  and  St  Hilary  fpeaks  of  the  cords  wherewith 
be  was  tied  to  it. 

Sometimes  they  who  were  fattened  upon  tlie  crofs 
lived  a  good  whdc  in  that  condition.  St  Andrew  is 
believed  to  have  continued  three  days  alive  upon  it. 
Eufebius  fpeaks  of  ceitain  martyrs  in  Egypt  who  were 
kept  upon  the  crofs  till  they  were  ftarvcd  to  death. 
Pilate  was  amazed  at  Jefus  Cbrill's  dying  fo  foon  ; 
becaufe  naturally  he  mull  have  lived  longer,  if  it  had 
not  been  in  his  power  to  have  laid  down  his  life  and  to 
■take  it  up  again.  The  thighs  of  the  two  thieves  who 
vere  crucified  together  with  our  Saviour  were  broken 
in  order  to  batten  their  death,  that  their  bodies  might 
not  remain  upon  the  crofs  on  the  Sabbath  day  (John 
lix.  31,  32,  ^3.),  and  to  comply  with  the  law  of  Mo- 
fcs,  which  foibids  the  bodies  to  be  left  there  alter 
liin-fet.  But  among  other  nations  they  were  luftered 
to  remain  upon  the  crofs  a  long  time.  Sometimes  they 
were  devoured  aHve  by  birds  and  beafts  of  prey  Guards 
were  appointed  to  oblcrve  that  none  of  their  friends 
•r  relations  Ihould  take  them  down  and  bury  them. 
The  ftory  of  the  Ephefian  matron  aird  the  foldier 
who  was  fet  to  guard  the  crofs,  is  very  well  known. 
The  Roman  foldiers  who  had  crucified  Jelus  Chrifl  and 
the  t*o  thieves  continued  near  the  crofles  till  the  bodies 
Isrere  taken  down  and  buii«d. 

CtuiTes  neic  ulually>  ia  founer  tinier,  ereded  on 


] 


C    R    O 


the  tops  of  houfes  by  which  tenants  pretended  to  rfaim     Onft. 

the  privileges  of  the  Templars  Hofpitallers,   to  dtfcnd^— v— 

themlelves  agaiiitl  their  rightful  lords.     I'Iris  was  con- 

dcniktd   by   the   llatute  Wil.  II.  c    37.      It  was  ufual 

alfo,  in  thofc  days,   to   fet   up   crrlfes  in  places  where 

the  C'-rpfe  of  any  of  the  nobility  r{  lied  as  it  was  carried 

to  be  buried,   that   a  tnmfcunliius  pro  ejus  ammo  depre- 

cetur.       Crofles,    &c.    are    forbidden,    to   be    brought 

into  England  by  13  Eliz.  c.  2-  on  Y^moi  3.  premunire, 

&c. 

Invention  of  the  CRo^i,  an  ancient  feaft,  foltmnized 
on  the  third  of  May,  in  memory  of  St  Helena's  (the 
mothtrof  Conftantine)  finding  the  true  crofs  of  Chrill 
deep  in  the  grornid  on  mount  Calvary  j  wliei'e  fhe 
erefted  a  church  for  the  prefervation  of  part  of  it;  the 
reft  being  brought  to  Rome  and  repofittd  in  the  church 
of  ihc  Holy  Cvofs  of  Jcrulalem. 

Theodorft  n.entions  the  finding  of  three  crofles  ; 
that  of  Jefus  Chrill  and  tliofe  of  the  two-  tliicves;  and 
that  they  dilliiigiiiflied  between  them  by  means  of 
a  fick  womsn,  who  was  immediatclv  healed  by  touch- 
ing the  true  crofs.  The  place  is  laid  to  have  been 
pointed  out  to  her  by  St  Q^iriacus,  then  a  Jew,  after- 
wards converted  and  canonized. 

Exaltation  of  the  Cross,  an  ancient  featt,  held  on  the 
141b  of  September,  in  memory  of  this,  that  lieracli- 
tus  rettored  to  mount  Calvary  the  true  crofs  in  642, 
which  had  been  carried  otf  14  yeara  before  by  Colroes 
king  of  Peifia,  upon  his  taking  Jerufalem  from  the  em- 
peror Phocas. 

The  adoration  of  the  crofs  appears  to  have  been 
prattiled  in  the  ancient  church  ;  luaimuch  as  the  Hea- 
thens, particulaily  Julian,  reproach  the  primitive  Chri- 
ilians  with  it.  And  we  do  not  find  tliat  their  apob- 
gitts  diiclaim^-d  the  charge.  Murnay,  indeed,  afferted,.  - 
that  this  had  been  done  by  St  Cyril,  but  could  not 
fupport  his  allegation  at  the  conference  of  Fontainbleau, 
Sl  Helena  is  laid  to  have  reduced  the  ado-ation  of  the 
crofs  CO  its  jull  principlt,  fince  Ihe  adored  in  the  wood^ 
not  the  wood  itlelf,  which  h%d  been  direft  idolatry  and 
HeathenifM^,  but  blm  who  had  been  nailed  to  this 
wood.  With  fiich  modifications  fome  Protettants  have 
been  induced  to  admit  the  adoeation  of  the  crofs.  John 
Plufs  allowed  of  the  phrafe,  provided  it  were  txpreisly 
added,  that  the  adoration  was  relative  to  the  perloii  of 
Chrill.  But  however  Roman  Catholics  may  j'eem  to 
triumph  by  virtue  of  fuch  dillinction  and  mitigations^ 
it  is  well  known  they  have  no  great  place  in  their  own 
practice.  Imbert,  the  good  prior  of  Gafcony,  was 
feverely  profecutcd  in  1683  for  telling  the  people,  that 
in  the  ceremony  of  adoring  the  crofs,  praftifcd  in  that 
church  on  Good  Friday,  they  were  not  to  adore  the 
wood,  but  Chritt,  who  was  crucified  on  it.  The  cu- 
rate of  the  panlh  told  them  the  contrary  :  it  was  the 
wood  !  the  wood  !  they  were  to  adore.  Imbert  re- 
plied, it  was  Chrill,  not  the  wood  :  for  which  he  was 
cited  before  the  archbilbop  of  Bourdeaux,  fufpendcd 
from  his  fun&ions,  and  even  threatened  with  chains 
and  perpetual  iraprifonment.  It  little  availed  biin  to 
cite  the  bilhop  of  Meaux's  dillinftiori  ;  it  was  anfwer- 
ed,  that  the  church  allowed  it  not. 

CRO^s-Beanr  (port-croix,  cruciger),  in  the  Romifu- 
church,  the  chaplain  of  an  archbilbop  or  a  primate, 
who  bears  a  crofs  before  him  on  foleinn  occafions. 

The  pope  has  the  crofs  borne  before  him  every 
where  ;  a  patriarch  any  where  out  of  Rome  ;  ar.d  pri- 


C    R    O  I     56 

Cfoff.      mates,  metropolitans,  and  thofe  who  have  a  right  to 
^"V^  the  pallium,  throughout  their  refpcCtive  jurifdidlions. 

Grtgory  XI.  forbad  all  patriarchs  and  prelates  to 
have  it  borne  in  prefence  of  cardinals.  A  prelate 
bears  a  fingle  crofs,  a  patriarch  a  double  crofs,  and  the 
pope  a  triple  one  on  their  arms. 

Ckoss-Bearer;  alfo  denote  certain  officers  in  the  in- 
qoitition,  who  make  a  vow  before  the  inquifitors  or 
their  vicars  to  defend  the  Catholic  faith,  though  with 
the  lofs  of  fortune  and  life.  Their  bufinefs  is  to  pro- 
vide the  inquifitors  with  ncceflaries.  They  were  for- 
snerly  of  great. ufe  ;  but  in  proccfs  of  time  fome  of  their 
ccnftitutions  were  changed,  and  they  were  called  of 
the  penance  of  St  Dominic, 

Psaoral  Cicosr,  is  a  crofs  of  gold  or  filver,  or  other 
precious  materials,  often  enriched  with  diamonds, 
which  the  bifhops,  archbilhops.  Sec.  and  regular  ab- 
befles,  wear  hanging  from  the  neck. 

Order  ef  the  Cross,  or  CroiJaJe,  an  order  of  ladies 
inftituted  in  1  668  by  the  emprefs  Eleonora  de  Gonza- 
gua,  wife  of  the  emperor  Leopold ;  on  occafion  of 
the  miraculous  recovery  of  a  licde  golden  crofs,  where- 
in were  inclofed  two  pieces  of  the  true  crofs,  out  of 
the  a(hes  of  part  of  the  palace.  It  feems  the  tire  had 
burnt  the  cafe  wherein  it  was  inclofed,  and  melted  the 
cryftal,  yet  the  wood  remained  untouched. 

Maids  of  the  Cross,  a  community  of  young  women 
inftituted  in  1265  at  Roye  in  Picardy,  and  fuice  dif- 
perfed  to  Paris  and  other  towns.  They  inllruiA  young 
perfons  of  their  own  fex.  Some  take  the  three  vows 
of  poverty,  challity,  and  obedience  ;  others  retain 
their  hberty.  They  are  under  the  direftion  of  a  fupe- 
■  rior. 

Cross,  in  heraldry,  is  dcfrned  by  Guillim,  an  ordi- 
nary compofed  of  fourfold  lines  ;  whereof  two  are  per- 
pendicular, and  the  other  two  tranfverfe  ;  for  fo  we 
muil  conceive  of  them,  though  they  be  not  drawn 
throughout,  but  meet  by  couples,  in  four  right  angles, 
near  the  fcflpoint  of  the  efcutcheon.  See  Heraldry. 
This  bearing  v.as  iiril  b°ellowed  on  fuch  as  had  per- 
formed, or  at  leaft  undertaken,  fome  fervice  for  Chrift, 
and  the  Chrillian  profefllon  ;  and  is  held  by  divers  the 
moft  honourable  rharg&in  all  heraldry.  'What  brought 
it  into  fuch  frequent  ufe,  was  the  ancient  expeditions 
into  the  Holy  Land  ;  and  the  holy  war  pilgrims,  af- 
ter their  pilgrimage,  taking  the  crofs  for  their  cogni- 
zance ;  and  the  eiifign  of  that  war  being  the  ci-ofs.  In 
thofe  wars,  fays  Mackenzy,  the  Scots  carried  St  An- 
drew's crofs;  the  French  a  crofs  argent  ;  the  Enghlh 
a  crofs  or  ;  the  Germans,  fable  ;  the  Italians,  azure  ; 
the  Spaniards,  gules. 

Si  George's  Cross,  or  the  red  crofs,  in  a  field  ar- 
gent, is  now  the  ilandard  of  England;  that  faint  being 
the  reputed  patron  of  this  nation. 

Nor  is  it  only  in  croiTes  that  the  variety  is  fo 
great;  the  like  is  found  in  many  other  bearings,  and 
particulai-ly  in  lions,  and  the  parts  of  them;  whereof 
Colombiere  gives  us  no  Icfs  than  96  varieties.  Leigh 
mentions  but  46  feveral  crolTos  ;  SylvanUs  Morgan, 
26;  Upton,  30;  Johannes  de  Bado  Aureo,  12  ;  and 
I'o  others,  whom  it  is  needlefs  to  mention.  Upton 
owns  he  dares  not  prefume  to  afcertain  all  the  various 
crofTes  ufed  in  arms,  for  that  they  are  at  prefent  almoft 
innumerable  ;  and  therefor-e  he  only  takes  notice  of 
fuch  as  he  had  feen  ufed  in  his  own  lime.  ' 
N°  9J. 


8     ] 


C    R     O 


Cross,  in  mining,  two  nicks  cut  on  the  fnpcrficlcs 
of  the  earth,  thus  -H,  which  the  miners  make  when  "" 
they  take  the  ground  to  dig  for  ore.  This  crofs  gives 
the  miners  three  days  liberty  to  make  and  to  fet  on 
ftones.  As  many  of  thefe  crofies  as  the  miner  makes, 
fo  many  mears  of  ground  he  may  have  in  the  vein, 
provided  he  fet  on  ftones  within  three  davs  after  ma- 
king his  crofs  or  ci-ofTes.  But  if  he  make  but  oire  crofs, 
and  a  ftander-by  makes  the  fecond,  and  a  ftranger 
makes  the  third,  every  one  is  ferved  with  the  next 
mear,  according  as  they  have  firil  or  laft,  fooner  or 
later,   made  their  cr-ofs  or  crofTes  upon  the  ground. 

Cross,  in  coins,  a  name  given  to  the  right  fide  or 
face,  the  other  being  called  tie  ///c  or  rtverfe.  It 
has  been  a  comiiion  error,  that  the  reverfe  was  meant 
by  the  crofs;  becairfe  at  this  time,  with  us,  it  is  marked 
with  figures  difpofed  in  that  form  :  but  the  ftamping 
the  head  of  the  prince  in  thefe  kingdoms  on  the  right 
fide  of  the  coin,  was  preceded  by  a  general  cuftom  of 
ftriking  on  that  part  the  figure  of  a  crofs  ;  while  the 
other,  called  the  p!s,  contained  the  arms,  or  fome 
other  device. 

Cross,  inftead  of  a  fignature  to  a  deed,  &c.  is  de- 
rived from  the  Saxcn  practice  of  affixing  the  fign  of 
the  crofs,  whether  they  could  write  or  not. 

Citoss-Bar  Shot,  a  bullet  with  an  iron  bar  paflrng 
through  it,  and  Handing  fix  or  eight  inches  out  at 
both  fides.  It  is  ufed  at  fea  for  deftroying  the  enemy's 
'"iggir.g-  _ 

Ckoss-BiII,  in  ornithology.     See  LoirA. 

Cross-BUI,  in  chancery,  is  an  original  bill,  by  which 
the  defendant  prays  relief  againft  the  plaintiff. 

Cross-Boivs.     See  Bows  and  Archery. 

CROss-grained  Stitjf,  in  joitrery.  Wood  is  faid  to  he 
crofsgrained,  when  a  bough  or  branch  has  fhot  out  of 
it  ;  for  the  grain  of  the  branch  fhootirrg  forward,  runs 
athwart  that  of  the  trunk. 

In  wood  well  grown  this  dcfeft  is  fcaice  perceivable, 
except  in  working  ;  but  in  deal-boards  thefe  bouifhs 
make  knots.  If  the  bough  grew  up  with  the  young 
trunk,  inftead  of  a  knot  is  found  a  curling  in  the  llufF, 
very  fenfible  under  the  plane. 

CRoss-jfack,  pronounced  cro-jeci,  a  fail  extended  on 
the  lower  yard  of  the  mizen-mall,  which  is  hence  called 
the  crofs-jach  yard.  This  fail,  however,  has  generally 
been  found  of  little  fervice,  and  is  therefore  very  feU 
dom  ufed. 

Cxoss-Piece,  a  rail  of  timber  extended  over  the 
windlafs  of  a  merchant-fhip  from  the  krright  heads  to 
the  belfry.  It  is  ftuck  full  of  wooden  pins,  which  are 
irftd  to  fallen  the  running  riggrng  as  occalion  requires. 
See  WrsDLASs. 

CRoss-Tiiutig,  in  hufbandry,  a  method  of  harrowing 
land,  confifting  in  drawing  the  han'ow  rrp  the  interval  it 
went  down  befor^c,  and  downthat  which  it  was  drawnup. 

CROss-Trees,  certain  pieces  of  timber,  fuppfirted  by 
the  cheeks  and  trellle-trees,  at  the  upper  ends  of  the 
lower  mafts,  athwart  which  they  are  laid  to  firflain 
the  frame  of  the  top. 

CROss-Tree  Tard,  is  a  yard  ftanding  fquare,  juft  un- 
der the  mizen  top,  and  to  it  the  mizcn-top  is  fattened 
below.     See  CROss-'Jiui. 

CROSS-lVort,  in  botany.      SeeVALENxrA. 

Ordeal  of  the  Cross,  a  fpecies  of  trial  frequently 
pradtifed  iu  the  days  of  fuperllition.     See  Ordeal. 

CROSS, 


Crof,. 


C    R    O  I     569     ]  C    R    O 

CROSS,  an  Englifh  artill,  famoue  only  for  copying,  wife;  one  part  wlicrcof  they  (Iruckajrainn; the  other;  and 
in  llic  reigns  of  CIkiiIcs  I.  and  Charles  II.  Of  this  ta-  as  this  maclt  a  noife  fomcwhat  hke  that  of  a  crane's  hill, 
'  lent  thtic  ii  a  (lory  cnrrent,  more  to  the  credit  of  his  they  called  that  bird  crotal'i/lria,  a  player  on  the  cro- 
ftili  than  of  his  probity.  He  is  faid  to  have  been  em-  tala  :  and  Aridophanes  calls  a  preat  talker  a  crotahim. 
ployed  by  Cliarles  I.  to  copy  the  celebrated  Madona 
of  Raphael  in  St  Mark's  church  at  Venice  ;  and  that, 
having  obtained  It-ve  of  the  ftate  for  that  purpofe,  he 
executed  his  piece  fo  well  as  to  bring  away  the  origi- 
nal ^nd  leave  his  copy  in  the  place  of  it.  The  decep- 
tion was  not  d 
the  lofs  ;  and  tl 


Clemens  Alexandrinus  attributes  the  invention  to 
the  Sicilians;  and  forbids  the  ufe  thereof  to  the  Chrif- 
tians,  becaufe  of  the  indecent  motions  and  gcllures 
that  accompany  it. 

CROTj\I^US,  or  Rattle-sn.ake,  in  zoology,  a 
tcCled  until  it  was  too  late  to  recover  gerjus  belonging  to  the  order  of  amphibia  fenientes'; 
his  piece  was  bought  in  Oliver's  time     the  characters  of  which  are  thefe:  the  belly  is  furnifli- 


PUte 
CXMX. 


by  the  Spanifh  ambaflador  for  his  mailer,  who  placed 
it  in  the  Efcurial. 

CROSSEN,  a  handfome  town  of  Silefia  in  Germany, 
and  capital  of  a  principality  of  the  fame  name.  It  is 
lituated  at  the  confluence  of  the  rivers  Bobar  and  O- 
der,  in  a  fertile  country  abounding  in  wine  and  fruits. 
There  is  a  bridge  over  the  Oder  which  is  fortified. 
E.  Long.  15.  20.  N.  Lat.  52.  5. 

CRCSSOSTYl.US,  in   botany  :  A  genus  of  the 


ed  with  fcuta,  and  the  tail  has  both  fcuta  and  fcales  ; 
but  the  principal  charattcrillic  of  this  genus  is  the 
rattle  at  the  end  of  the  tail.  The  rattles  confill  of 
feveral  articulated  crultaccojis,  or  rather  horny,  bags, 
which  make  a  confiderable  rattling  noife  when  the 
creature  moves,  and  ferves  to  warn  people  of  their  ap- 
proach. There  are  five  fpecles;  and  the  bite  of  every 
one  of  them  is  fo  highly  poilonous,  that  it  generally 
kills  in   a    fliort  time.      Of  thefe   we  have   no  account 


polyandria  order   belonging   to   the  monadelphia  clafs  that  can  be  depended  upon,  except  that  given  by  Mr 

of  plants.    The  calyx  is  a  quadrangular,  quadriiid,  tur-  Catefby   of  the  horridus,   or  American    rattle-fnake. 

binated  perianthium  :  the  corolla   confills   of  four  el-  This  grows  fometimes   to  the  length   of  8    feet,  and 

Kptical  petals  ;  the   ftamlna  are  20  fdifoim  filaments,  weighs  between  8  and  9  pounds.     The  colour  of  the 

almoll  the  length  of  the  calyx  ;  the  anthers  fmall  and  head  is  brown  ;  the  eye   red  ;  the  upper  part  of  the 

loundilh  ;  the  pericarpium  an  hemifpherical,  unilocu-  body  of  a  ytllowi(h-brown  colour,  tranfverfely  marked 

lar  berry,  with  many  llrive  on  its  upper  part;  the  feeds  with  irregular  broad  black  lifts.      The  rattle  is   of  a 


numerous  and  roundilh. 

CROTALARIA,  Rattle-wort:  A  genus  of 
the  dccandria  order,  belonging  to  the  diadclphia  clafs 
of  plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under 
the  3  2d  order,   Papilioiiacea:.     The  legumen   is  turgid. 


brown  colour,  compofcd  of  feveral  horny,  membra- 
nous, cells,  of  an  undulated  pyramidal  figure.  Thefe 
are  articulated  within  one  another  in  fuch  a  manner 
that  the  point  of  the  firit  cell  reaches  as  far  as  the  ba- 
fis  of  the  protuberant   ring  of  the  third,   and  fo  on  ; 


inflated,  and   pedicellated  ;  the  fihments   are  coalited  which  articulation,  being  ver)' loofe,  gives  liberty    to 

with  a  fiifure  on  the  back.     There  are    1  i  fpecies,  all  the  parts  of  the  cells  that  are  inelofed  within  the  out- 

ofthem  natives  of  warm  climates.     They  rife  from  18  ward  rings  to   ftrike  againft  the  fides  of  them,  and  fo 

inches  to  5  teet  in  height,  and  are  adorned  with  flowers  to  caufe  the   rattling   noife  which  is    heard  when  the 

of  a  blue  or  yellow  colour.     The  moft  remarkable  fpe-  fnake  Ihakes   its  tail.     This  is   the  raoit   inaftive  and 

cics  is  the  rctula,  with  fimple  oblong  wedged  leaves.    It  flow  moving  of  all  the  fnakes,  and  is  never  the  ag-iref- 

is  a  native  of  the  ifland  of  Ceylon  and  fome  other  parts  for  except  in  what  it  preys  upon.      The  above  gentle- 

of  the  Eaft  Indies;     The  flowers  are  yellow,  the  puds  man  is  of  opinion  that  no  remedy  is  yet  difcovered  for 


fmoeth,  cylindrical,  inflated,  and  placed  horizontally  : 
they  are  filled  with  feeds,  which,  when  dried,  and 
Hialien  by  the  flighteil  wind,  emit  a  rattling  noife  : 
and  this,  by  the  rude  inhabitants  of  the  countries 
where  the  plant  is  native,  is  attributed  to  the  devil, 
who  is  thought  to  deliver  his  oracles  in  this  whimfical 
manner. 

CROTALO,  an  inftrument  of  military  mufic,  like 
that  defcribed  in  the  next  article.  The  Turks  are 
the  firit,  among  th^-  moderns,  who  introduced  the 
life  of  it  for  their  troops.  It  is  now  common  in  Flan- 
ders and  Florence,  and' other  territories  on  the  conti- 
nent. It  has  only  one  tone ;  but  its  eifeft  in  marking 
time  may  be  dllUnCtly  heard  through  the  noife  of  forty 
drums.  This  is  the  fame  inftrument  with  the  ancient 
cymbalum. 

CROTALUM,  an  ancient  kind  of  caftagnetta,  or 


the  bite  of  this  animal.  He  had  frequently  accefs  to 
fee  Indians  bit  by  it,  and  always  thought  that  thofe 
who  recovered  were  cured  more  through  the  force  of 
nature,  or  by  reafon  of  the  flightnefs  of  the  bite,  than 
by  the  remedies  ufed.  He  tells  us,  that  the  Indians 
know  their  deftiny  the  moment  they  are  bit  ;  and  if 
the  bite  happens  to  be  on  any  of  the  large  veins,  they 
apply  no  remedies,  as  knowing  them  to  be  entirely 
uiclefs.  He  believes  the  reports  of  the  fafcinating 
powerof  this  ferpent,  though  he  never  had  an  opportu- 
nity of  feeing  it.  See  the  articles  Poison  and  Skrpent. 

CROTALYSTRIiE,  in  antiquity,  a  kind  of  mo- 
rice  dancers,  admitted  to  entertainments,  in  order  to 
divert  the  company  with  their  dancing  and  plaving 
on  an  I'liftrument  called  crotahim,  whence  they  had 
their  name. 

CROTCHET,  in  mufic,  one  of  the  notes  or  cha- 


mufical  inilrunient,  found  on  medals,  in  the  hands  of  rafters  of  time,  equal  to  half  a  minim,  and  double  of  a 

the  pvieils    of  Cybele.      The  crotahim  diflered   from  quaver. 

the  fillrum;  though  authors  frequently  confound  the  .    Crotchets  are  alfo  marks  or  characters,  ferving  to 

two.      It  confifl.ed  of  two  little   brafs  plates  or  rods,  inclofe  a  word  or  fentence  which  is  dlftinguilhed  from 

which  were  fliaken  in  the  hand,  and  in  ftriking  againll  the  reft,  being  generally  in  this  form  [  ]. 

each  other  made  a  noife.  CROTO,  or   Cxoton,   (anc.  geog. )',  a  noble  city 

It  was  fometimes  alfo  made  of  a  reed  fplit  length-  of  the  liruttii,  built  by  the  Achcaiis;  an  hundred  and 

Vol..  V.  Part  II.  4  C                                    fifty 


C    R    O 


r  570  1 


c  11  o 


Croto.  fifty  ftadia  to  the  north  of  Laclnimn,  and  in  the  ncigh- 
■""V""^  bourhood  of  Metapontum.  It  was  twelve  miles  in 
compafs  before  the  arrival  ofPyrrhiis  into  Italy;  but  after 
the  defolation  produced  by  that  war,  fcarce  half  of  it  was 
inhabited.  The  citadel  on  one  fide  hung  over  the  fta, 
on  the  other  towards  the  land.  It  was  naturally  llrong 
from  its  fituation,  but  afterw.nrds  \valle<I  round  ;  on 
wlilch  fide  it  was  taken  by  Dionyfius  by  flratagem,  by 
means  of  tlie   rocks  behind  it. 

Pythagoras,  after  his  long,  peregrinations  In  fcarch 
of  knowledge,  fixed  his  refidence  in  this  place,  which 
fome  authors  think  his  nutive  one,  at  leaft  that  of 
his  parents,  fuppofing  him  to  have  been  born  in  the 
ifle  of  Samos,  and  not  at  fome  town  of  that  name  in 
Italy.  This  Incomparable  fage  fpent  the  latter  part 
of  his  life  in  training  up  difciples  to  the  rigid  exercife 
of  lublime  and  moral  virtue,  and  inltrufting  the  Cro- 
tonitts  In  the  true  arts  of  government,  fuch  as  alone 
can  Infure  happinefs,  glory,  and  independence. 

Under  the  Influence  of  this  philofophy,  the  Croto- 
nltcs  inured  their  bodies  to  frugality  and  hardfhlps, 
and  their  minds  to  felf-denial  and  patriotic  difintereft- 
ednefs.  Their  virtues  were  the  admiration  of  Greece, 
where  It  was  a  current  proverb,  that  the  lall  of  the 
Crotonites  was  the  firfl  of  the  Greeks.  In  one  Olym- 
piad, feven  of  the  viftors  In  the  games  were  citizens 
of  Croton  ;  and  the  name  of  Milo  Is  almoll  as  famous 
as  that  of  Hercules.  The  vigour  of  the  men  and 
beauty  of  the  women  were  alcribed  to  the  climate, 
which  was  believed  to  be  endowed  with  qualities  pe- 
tul  arly  favourable  to  t!ie  human  fyftem.  Their  phy- 
iic^ans  were  in  high  repute  ;  and  among  thefe,  Alc- 
meon  and  Democidts  rendered  themfelves  mofl  con- 
fplcuous.  Alcmeon  was  the  tirll  who  dared  to  ampu- 
tate a  limb,  in  order  to  fave  the  life  of  a  patient  ;  and 
.  alfo  the  llrft  writer  who  thought  of  inculcating  moral 
precepts  under  the  amufing  cloak  of  apologues.  This 
invention  Is  more  commonly  attributed  to  ^Elop,  as 
he  was  remarkably  ingenious  in  this  fpecies  of  compo- 
fitlon.  Denioeides  was  famous  for  his  attachment  to 
his  native  foil.  Though  carcfTed  and  enriched  by  the 
king  of  Perfia,  whofe  queen  he  had  fnatched  frem 
the  jaws  of  death,  he  abandoned  wealth  and  honours, 
and  by  flratagem  efcaped  to  the  humble  comforts  of  a 
private  life  at  Croton. —  The  Pythagoreans  are  faid  to 
have  difcovered  that  difpofitlon  of  the  folar  fyftem, 
v.'luch,  with  fome  modifications,  has  been  revived  by 
Copernicus,'  and  is  ^now  univerfally  received,  as  being 
moft  agreeable  to  nature  and  experiment.  Theano, 
the  wife  of  Pythagoras,  and  many  other  women,  emu- 
lated the  virtues  of  their  hufbands. 

In  thofe  fortunate  days  the  ftate  of  Croton  was  moft 
fiourllhing.  Its  walls  inclofed  a  circumference  of 
!2  miles.  Of  all  the  colonies  fent  out  from  Greece, 
tills  alone  furniflied  fuccour  to  the  mother-country 
when  invaded  by  the  Perfians.  By  its  avenging  arms 
the  Sybarites  were  puniflied  for  their  (hameful  dege- 
neracy ;  but  viftoi-y  pioved  fatal  to  the  conquerors, 
for  riciies,  and  all  their  pernicious  attendants,  inlinua- 
ted  themfelves  into  Croton,  and  foon  contaminated 
the  purity  of  its  principles.  Indeed,  the  very  confti- 
tutlon  of  human  nature  militates  againft  any  long  con- 
tinuance in  fuch  rigid  praftices  of  virtue  ;  and  there- 
fore it  is  no  wonder  ii   the  Crotonites  fell  by  degrees 


into  the  inegularities  they  once  abhorred.  Kot  long  Ctct-n. 
after,  the  Loerians,  who  were  lefa  corrupted,  defeated  '"•"v—J 
them  on  the  banks  of  the  Sagra,  and  reduced  the  re- 
public to  diftrefs  and  penury.  This  reiloreJ  the  re- 
maining Crotonites  to  their  priftine  vigour  of  mind, 
and  enabled  them  to  make  a  brave,  though  unfuccefs- 
ful,  refinance,  when  attacked  by  Dloiiyfius  of  Syracufc. 
Tliey  fuffered  much  in  the  war  with  Pyrrhus,  and,  by 
repeated  misfortunes,  decreafed  iu  ftrength  and  num- 
bers, from  age  to  age,  down  to  that  of  Hannibal, 
when  they  could  not  mufter  20,000  Inhabitants.  This 
fmall  population  being  incapable  of  mnnniug  the  ex- 
tenfive  works  erected  in  the  days  of  profperlty,  Cro- 
ton was  taken  by  the  Carthaginians,  and  its  citizen"; 
tranfportcd  to  JLocri.  The  Romans  fent  a  colony 
hither  200  years  before  ChriiL  In  the  Gothic  war, 
this  city  rendered  itfelf  confpicuous  by  its  fidelity  to 
Juftinian,  aid  Totila  befieged  it  long  in  vain. 

CROTON,  -Wild  ricinus  :  A  genus  of  the  adel- 
phla  order,  belonging  to  the  moniecla  clafs  of 
plants  ;  and  In  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
38th  order,  Tr'uocca.  The  male  calyx  is  cylindrical 
and  quinquedentated,  the  corolla  Is  pentapetalous;  the 
ftamina  from  10  to  15.  The  female  calyx  is  poly- 
phyllous  ;  no  corolla;  three  bifid  Ityles;  the  capfule 
tnlocular;  one  feed.  There  are  21  fpecies;  of  which 
the  moft  remarkable  are,  i.  The  tindlorium,  or  plant 
from  which  the  French  turnfole  is  made.  This  grows 
naturally  in  the  fouth  of  France:  it  is  an  annual  plant, 
rlfing  about  9  inches  high,  with  an  herbaceous  branch- 
ing italk,  garnilhed  with  Irregular  or  rhomboidal  fi- 
gured leaves,  which  are  near  two  Inches  long  and  an 
Inch  and  a  quarter  wide  in  their  wideft  part.  Thefe 
fland  upon  flender  footftalks  near  four  inches  long.  The 
flowers  are  pioduced  in  fliort  fpikes  from  the  fides  of 
the  ftalks,  at  the  end  of  the  branches  ;  the  upper  part 
of  the  fpike  is  compofed  of  male  flowers,  having  inany 
ilamina  which  coalefee  at  the  bottom  ;  the  lower  part 
hath  female  flowers,  whiclj  have  each  a  roundifli, 
three-cornered,  germen  ;  thefe  afterwards  become  a 
roundifli  capfule  with  three  lobes,  having  three  cells, 
each  including  one  roundifli  feed.  This  flowers  in 
July  ;  but  unlcfs  the  plants  are  brought  forward  on  a 
hot-bed,  they  do  not  ripen  feeds  in  this  country.  From 
this  plant  is  made  the  turnfole  uLd  for  colouring  wines 
and  jellies.  It  is  made  of  the  juice  which  is  lodged 
between  the  enipalement  and  the  feeds;  which,  if 
rubbed  on  cloths,  at  firft  appears  of  a  lively  green, 
but  afterwards  changes  to  a  bluifli  purple  colour. 
If  thefe  cloths  are  put  into  water,  and  afterwards 
wiung,  they  will  dye  the  water  to  a  claret  colour. 
The  rags  thus  dyed  arc  brought  to  this  country,  and 
fold  in  the  drugglfts  fliops  under  the  name  of  turnfole. 
2.  The  febifera,  or  tallow-tree,  with  rhomboidal  e^^- 
ftiaped  leaves,  pointed,  fmooth  and  very  entire.  It 
is  about  the  height  of  a  cherry-tree  ;  its  leaves  In 
form  of  a  heart,  of  a  deep,  fhining,  red  colour,  and 
its  bark  very  fmooth.  Its  fruit  is  enclofed  in  a 
kind  of  pod,  or  cover,  like  a  chefnut,  and  confills 
of  three  round  white  grains,  of  the  fize  and  form  of  a 
fmall  nut,  each  having  its  peculiar  capfula,  and  within 
that  a  little  ftone.  This  ftone  is  tncompafiedv/ith  awhite 
pulp,  which  has  all  the  properties  of  true  tallow,  as  to 
confillence,  colour,  and  even  linell:  and  accordinrfy  the 

Ch> 


C    R     O 


[     57 


Croton 

II 
Croto- 
phagi. 


Mrdical 
journal, 
ol.  viii. 


late  CLI, 


Cliinefe  make  their  candles  of  it ;  wliich  would  doubtlefs 
be  as  good  as  thofe  in  Europe,  if  they  knew  how  to  pu- 
rify tlicir  vegetable  tallow  as  will  as  we  do  our  animal 
kind,  and  to  make  their  wicks  as  well.  3,  The  nro- 
maticum,  with  heait-fliaped  ferrattd  leaves,  :ind  an  ar- 
borefccnt  flem.  The  bark  of  this  ti  ee  is  the  fame  as  the 
cafcarilla  and  eleutheria;  though  thefe  have  been  con- 
iidered  by  fome  as  dillinft  barks,  and  fold  in  the  (hops 
as  different  produdlions.  It  is  a  hot,  acrid,  aromatic 
bitter,  refembling  in  appearance  the  Peruvian  bark, 
but  is  more  bitter  and  pungent,  though  not  fo  rough 
and  allringent.  It  was  firlt  introduced  into  Europe 
about  the  end  of  the  laft  century,  and  feems  firft  to 
have  been  ufed  in  Germany,  where  it  is  ftill  in  very 
high  efteem.  There  it  is  frequently  employed  againlt 
common  intermittent  fevers,  in  preference  to  the  Peru- 
vian bark,  as  being  leis  fubjeft  to  fome  inconveniences, 
which  the  latter  on  account  of  its  great  allringency  is 
apt  to  occafion.  It  is  alfo  faid  to  liave  been  employed 
with  great  fucccfs  in  fome  very  dangerous  epidemic  fe- 
vers attended  with  petechire  ;  and  it  is  frequently  em- 
ployed with  advantage  in  flatulent  colics,  internal  he- 
morrhagies,  dyfenteries,  diarrhceas,  and  fimilar  difor- 
ders.  In  Britain  it  has  been  ufed  by  fome  praftition- 
ers,  particularly  by  the  late  Dr  Keir  of  London,  who 
was  of  opinion  that  it  was  by  no  means  employed  fo 
generally  as  it  deferved  to  be.  Its  virtues  are  par- 
tially extrafted  by  water,  and  totally  by  reftificd  fpi- 
rit,  but  it  is  molt  efleftual  wlien  given  in  fubllance. 
4.  The  cafcarilla,  defcribed  by  Linnceus  as  producing 
the  officinal  baik  of  that  name,  is,  according  to  Dr 
Wright  f,  the  wild  rofemary  Ihrub  of  Jamaica,  the 
bark  of  which  lias  none  'of  the  fenfible  qualities  of  the 
true  cafcarilla  or  eleutheria  above  defcribed. 

CROTON  A,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Naples,  feated  en  tlie  gulph  of  Taranto,  with  a  bi(hop's 
fee  and  a  citadel.     E.  Long.  17.  27.  N.  Lat.  39.  10. 

CROTOPHAGA,  in  ornithology,  a  genus  of  birds 
belonging  to  the  eider  of  pics;  the  charafteis  of 
which  are  :  The  bill  is  thin,  compreffed,  greatly  arch- 
ed, half  oval,  and  cultrated  at  top  ;  the  nollrils  are 
round  ;  the  tongue  flat,  and  pointed  at  the  end  ;  the 
tail  confiits  of  ten  feathers  ;  and  the  toes  are  placed 
two  and  two.  The  moll  remarkable  fpecies  is  the  ani, 
which  is  about  the  lize  of  a  blackbird  :  the  colour  of 
the  whole  biid  is  black,  in  fome  parts  glofled  with 
purple,  and  about  the  neck  faintly  tinged  with  green 
on  the  margins:  the  bafe  of  the  bill  is  furniflied  with 
black  brilUes,  vvhlch  turn  forwards  :  the  eye-lids 
have  long  hairs  like  cye-lafiies  :  the  tail  is  fix  inches 
long,  and  much  cuneated  ;  and  the  legs  are  black. 
This  fpecies  is  found  in  Jamaica,  St  Domingo,  and 
other  iflands  in  the  Weft  Indies ;  alfo  at  Cayenne  and 
other  parts  of  South  America."  Contrary  to  all  other 
birds,  they  have  the  fingularity  of  many  laying  in 
the  fam.e  neft  ;  to  make  which,  they  all  unite  in  con- 
cert, and  after  laying  their  tggs,  fit  on  them  clofe  to 
each  other  in  order  to  hiuch  them,  each  unanimoufiy 
ftrlving  to  do  the  bell  for  the  general  good  ;  and  -.vhen 
the  young  are  hatched,  the  parents,  without  refei  vc, 
do  the  belt  to  feed  t!;e  whole  iloek.  Still  a  greater 
fingularity  occurs,  which  is,  that  as  foon  as  each  fe- 
male lays  her  eggs  fiie  covers  thtm  with  leaves,  doing 
the  fame  thing   whenever  f!ie   is   obliged  to  leave  the 


I     1  C     R     O 

nell  for  food  :  this  might  be  neceflary  in  a  cold  cli- 
mate ;  but  why  it  fhould  be  wanted  in  a  hot  one  feems 
not  clear,  efpecially  as  it  has  not  been  obferved  in 
other  birds.  It  generally  has  two  broods  in  a  year, 
except  accidents  happen  ;  in  which  cafe  it  has  been 
known  to  make  three  nefta.  The  eggs  are  about  the 
fize  of  thcife  of  a  pigeon,  of  a  fea-green  colour,  fpot- 
ted  at  the  ends.  Their  food  is  various ;  worms,  in- 
fefts,  fruit,s,and  grain,  according  to  the  feafoii.  Thert 
is  a  variety  called  the  greater  ani,  which  is  about  the 
fize  of  a  jay,  differing  no  otherwife  from  the  former 
but  in  fize.  They  ought,  however,  to  be  confidered 
as  two  dlllinA  fpecies:  for  they  never  mix  together  ; 
though  each  have  the  fame  manners,  with  this  differ- 
ence only,  that  the  finaller  frequent  the  open  Cavannat, 
the  larger  only  the  falt-marfiies  near  the  feacoaiU. 
It  is  faid  that  they  are  eafily  made  tame,  and  will  learn 
to  talk  like  parrots.  The  male  and  female  ate  both 
alike.  Both  fpecies  are  eafy  to  be  fhot,  not  being  fo 
wild  as  many  otiier  birds  ;  but  are  known  to  chatter 
much  on  the  fight  of  a  man,  though  they  dn  not  fly 
to  a  great  diilance  ;  hence  are  not  well  relilhed  by 
fportfmrn,  as,  like  the  jays  in  England,  they  are  the 
occafion  of  hindering  his  fport  in  refpeft  to  other  game, 
without  making  him  amends  in  their  own  flefti,  which 
is  never  foHght  after  for  food,  being  rank  and  unfavoury. 

CROTOY,  a  town  of  France,  in  Picardy,  and  111 
Ponthieu.  The  fortifications  are  dcmolidied.  It  is 
feated  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Somme.  E.  Long. 
I.  45-  N.  Lat.  ^o.  15. 

CROUCHED  FRIARS.     See  CRois.tRs. 

CROUP,   in  medicine.      See  Medicine-Zw/^-.v. 

Crovf  of  a  Horfe,  in  the  manege,  the  extremity  of 
the  reins  above  the  hips. 

CROUPADE,  in  the  manege,  a  leap,  in  which  the 
horfe  pulls  up  his  hind  legs,  as  if  he  drew  them  up  to 
his  belly. 

CROUTE,  Sour  Croute,  or  Kroute.  As  this 
preparation  of  cabbage  has  been  found  of  fovereign 
efficacy  as  a  preferv?tive  in  long  voyages  from  the  fea- 
fcurvy,  it  may  not  be  unacceptable  to  give  a  concifc 
account  of  the  procefs  for  making  it,  according  to  the 
information  communicated  by  an  ingenious  German 
gentleman. 

The  founded  and  mofl  fulid  cabbages  are  fclefled 
for  this  ufe,  and  cut  very  fmall,  commonly  with  an  in- 
ftrument  made  for  this  purpofe,  not  unlike  the  plain 
which  is  ufed  in  this  country  for  fjicing  cucumbers. 
A  knife  is  ufed  when  the  preparation  is  made  with 
greater  nicety.  The  cabbage  thus  minced  is  put  into 
a  barrel  in  layers,  hand  high,  and  over  each  is  ftrewtd 
a  handful  of  fait  and  carraway  feeds  ;  in  this  manner 
it  IS  rammed  down  with  a  rzromerjlratum  Jupcrjlralum, 
fill  the  barrel  be  full ;  when  a  cover  is  put  over  it  and 
preiTed  down  with  a  heavy  weight.  After  ftanding 
(one  time  in  this  flate  it  begirs  to  fnment  ;  and  it  is 
not  till  the  fermentation  has  entirely  fubfided  that  the 
head  is  fitted  to  it,  and  the  barrel  is  finally  Ihut  up  and 
prcftrved  for  ufe.  There  is  not  a  drop  of  vinegar  em- 
ployed in  this  prejWraiion.  'I'he  Germans  write  this 
preparation  in  the  following  manner  :  Snvcr  Lraut,  or 
fauer  kohl ;  that  is,  in  their  language,  "  four  herb,  or 
four  cabbage." 

CROUSAZ  (John  Peter  de),  a  learned  philofoplier 
4  C  2  and 


C     R     O 


L   572    1 


C     R     O 


Crow, 

Crowd, 


and  mathematician,  was  born  in  1663  :  having  made 
great  progrtfs  in  the  mathematics  and  the  philofophy 
of  Dts  Cartes,  he  travelled  to  Geneva,  Holland,  and 
France  ;  was  fucctflivtly  profeflbr  in  feveral  univer- 
fities  ;  and  at  length  was  chofen  governor  to  Prince 
Frederic  of  HelTc-Caflel,  nephew  to  the  king  of  Swe- 
den. He  wrote  manywoiks;  the  moft  efteemed  of 
which  are,  I.  His  Logic,  the  heft  edition  of  which  is 
that  of  1741,  in  6  vols  8vo.  2.  A  Trcatife  on  Beauty- 
3.  A  Treatife  on  the  Education  of  Children,  2  vols 
l2nio.  4.  Several  Treatifes  on  Philofophical  and  Ma- 
thematical Subjects,  &c.  He  died  at  Laufanne  in 
1748. 

CROW,  in  ornithology.      See  Corvus. 

Cp-OW,  in  mechanics,  a  kin'l  of  iron  lever,  with  a 
claw  at  one  enil  and  a  fkarp  point  at  the  other  ;  ufed 
for  heaving  or  purchaling  great  wei:  hts. 

Cao-ys  Bill,  among  fiirgeons,  a  kind  <  f  forceps 
for  drawing  bullets  and  other '  foicign  bodies  out  of 
wounds. 

Croh's  Feet,  in  the  military  art,  machines  of  iron, 
having  four  points,  each  about  three  or  four  inches 
long,  fo  made,  that  whatever  way  they  fall  there  is 
ftill  a  point  up  :  they  are  thrown  upon  breaches,  or  in 
pafles  where  the  enemy's  cavalry  are  to  march,  proving 
very  troublefome,  by  running  into  the  horfe's  feet  and 
laming  them. 

CROjy-Foot,  on  fiiip-board,  a  complication  of  fmall 
cords  fpreading  out  from  a  long  block,  like  the  fmallcr 
parts  which  extend  from  the  backbone  ot  a  heriing 
(Plate  CL.).  It  is  ufed  to  fufpend  the  oivnings  ;  or 
to  keep  the  top-fails  from  flriking  violently,  and  fret- 
ting againft  the  tops. 

CROiF-Net,  is  an  invention  for  catching  wild-fowl 
in  the  winter  feafon,  and  may  be  ufed  in  the  day-time. 
This  net  is  made  of  double  thread,  or  fine  pack  thread  ; 
the  me(hes  fhoidd  be  two  inches  wide,  the  length  about 
ten  yards,  and  the  depth  three  ;  it  muft  be  verged  on 
the  fide  with  good  ftrong  cord,  and  ftretched  out  very 
fliff"  on  long  poles  prepared  for  that  purpole.  WTien 
you  are  come  to  the  place  where  you  would  fpread 
your  net,  open  it,  and  lay  it  out  at  its  full  length  and 
breadth  ;  then  fallen  the  lower  end  of  the  net  all  along 
the  ground,  fo  as  only  to  move  it  up  and  down  ;  the 
upper  end  of  the  net  muil  Hand  extended  on  the  long 
cord  ;  the  further  end  thereof  being  ftaked  firft  to  the 
earth  by  a  ftrong  cord  about  five  yards  dillant  from  the 
net.  Place  this  cord  in  an  even  line  with  the  lower 
edge  of  the  net.  The  other  end  muft  be  at  leaft  25 
yards  diftant  to  reach  into  fome  natural  or  artificial 
flielter,  by  the  means  of  which  you  may  lie  concealed 
from  the  fowl,  otherwife  no  good  fuccefs  can  be  ex- 
pefted.  The  net  muft  be  placed  in  fuch  exa£l  order 
that  it  may  give  way  to  play  on  the  fowl  on  the  leaft 
pull  of  the  cord,  which  muft  be  done  fmartly,  left  the 
fowl  ihould  prove  too  quick  for  you.  This  net  may 
be  ufed  for  pigeons,  crows,  or  other  birds,  on  corn- 
fields newly  fown  ;  as  alfo  in  ftubble-fitlds,  provided 
the  ftuVibh  conceals  the  net  from  the  birds. 

CROWD,  in  a  gentral  fi.nfe,  rignihe"  a  number  of 
people  aflemblcd  in  a  place  fcarce  big  enough  to  hold 
them  all. 

To  Croifb,  in  the  fea-language,  is  to  carry  an  ex- 
tfaordinarjr  force  of  fail  upon  a  fliip,  ia  order  to  ac- 


celerate her  courfe  on  fome  important  occaGon  ;  as  in 
purfuit  of,  or  flight  from,  an  enemy  ;  to  efeape  any 
imm-'diate  danger,  &c. 

C ROWLAND,  a  town  in  Lincolnihire,  feated  in 
the  fens,  in  a  diity  foil,  and  had  formerly  an  abbey 
of  very  great  note.  There  is  no  coming  at  it  but  by 
narrow  caufeways,  which  will  not  admit  a  cart.  It 
has  three  ftreets,  feparated  from  eacli  other  by  water- 
conrfcs,  whofe  banks  are  fupported  by  piles,  and  fet 
with  willow  trees.  Their  chief  trade  is  in  fifh  and 
fowl,  which  ^re  in  great  plenty  in  the  adjacent  pools 
and  marflies.     W.  Long.  o.  10.  N.  Lat.  52.  40. 

CROWN,  an  ornament  worn  on  the  head  by  kings, 
fovcreign  princes,  and  noblemen,  as  a  raaik  of  their 
dignity. 

In  fcripture  there  is  frequent  mention  of  crowns, 
and  the  ufe  of  them  ftems  to  have  been  very  common 
among  the  Hebrews.  The  high  prieft  wore  a  crown, 
which  was  a  fillet  of  gold  placed  upon  the  forehead, 
and  tied  with  a  ribbon  of  hyacinth  colour,  or  azure 
blue.  It  feems  alfo  as  if  private  priefts,  and  even 
common  Ifraelites,  wore  alio  a  foit  of  crown,  Cncc 
God  commands  Ezekiel  not  to  take  off  his  crown,  nor 
affume  the  marks  of  one  in  mourning.  This  crown 
was  no  more  than  a  ribbon  or  fillet,  with  which  the 
Jews  and  fevetal  people  in  the.eaft  girt  their  heads. 
And  indired  the  firft  crowns  were  no  more  than  a  ban- 
delet drawn  round  the  head,  and  tied  behind,  as  we 
ftill  fee  it  reprefented  on  medals  round  the  heads  of 
Jupiter,  tiie  Ptolemies,  and  kings  of  Syria.  After- 
wards they  confifted  of  two  bandelets  ;  by  degrees 
they  took  branches  of  trees  of  divers  kinds  ;  at  length 
they  added  flowers,  infomuch  that  Claudius  Saturui- 
nus  fays,  there  was  not  any  plant  whereof  crowns  had 
□ot  been  made.  The  woods  and  groves  were  fearched 
to  find  different  crowns  for  the  feveral  deities  ;  and  they 
were  ufed  not  only  on  the  ftatues  and  images  of  the 
gods,  by  the  priefts  in  facrificing,  and  by  kings  and 
emperors,  but  alfo  on  altars,  temples,  doors  of  houfes, 
facred  veflels,  vi<ftims,  (hips,  &c. 

The  Roman  emperors  had  four  kinds  of  crowns, 
ftill  feen  on  medals,  viz.  a  crown  of  laurel,  a  radial 
or  radiating  crown,  a  crown  adoined  with  pearls  and 
precious  ftones,  and  the  fourth  a  kind  of  bonnet  or 
cap,  fomething  like  the  moitier. 

The  Romans  had  alfo  various  kinds  of  crowns, 
which  they  diftributed  as  rewards  of  military  atchleve- 
ments ;  as,  i.  The  oval  crown,  made  of  myitle,  and 
beftowed  upon  generals,  who  were  intitled  to  the  ho- 
nours of  the  leffer  triumph,  called  ovation.  2.  The 
naval  or  roftral  crown,  compoied  of  a  circle  of  gold, 
with  ornaments  reprelenting  beaks  of  ihips,  and  given 
to  the  captain  who  fiift  grappled,  or  the  foldier  who 
firft  boarded,  an  enemv's  ftiip.  3.  The  crown  called 
in  Latin  •vallaris,  or  caftrenjis,  a  circle  of  gold  raifed 
with  jewels  or  palilades  ;  the  reward  of  him  who  firft 
forced  the  enemy's  entrenchments.  4.  The  mural 
crown,  a  circle  of  g.  Id  indented  and  embattled  ;  given 
to  him  who  firft  mounted  the  wall  of  a  befieged  place, 
and  there  lodged  a  ftandard.  5.  The  civic  crown, 
made  of  the  branch  of  a  green  oak,  and  given  him 
who  had  faved  the  life  of  a  citizen.  6.  The  triuin-t 
phal  crown,  confifting  at  fiift  of  wreaths  of  laurel, 
but  afterwards  made  of  gold  ;  proper  to  fuch  generals 


CrowlanJ, 
Crown 


<'V//.v- 


riate    CLl. 


/l»|i 


fe. 


'  ■^A//7/ffy   r  ////Tfrn^ 


('^//nv///, 


v< 


'::0r 


7^ 


V 


,':-/./^,-//.'A,„.//.r/:  K-u^,/,.:-  /,//y 


C     R     O 


C     573     1 


C     R    O 


as  had  tlie  honour  of  a  triumph.  7.  The  crown  cail- 
-'  ed  obfiAonalis ,  or  graminea,  made  of  grafs  growina;  on 
the  place  ;  the  reward  of  a  genet al  who  had  dthvered 
a  Roman  army  from  a  fiege.  8.  The  radial  crown, 
given  to  princes  at  their  tranflation  among  the  gods. 
We  meet  alfo  with  the  corona  aurea,  often  bellowed 
on  foldieis,  without  any  other  additional  term;  ath- 
letic Clowns,  and  crowns  of  laurel,  deftined  to  crown 
viclims  at  the  puhlic  games,  poets,  orators,  &c.  All 
thefe  crowns  were  marks  of  nobility  to  the  wearers  ; 
and  upon  competitions  with  rivals  for  rank  and  digni- 
ties, often  determined  the  preference  in  their  favour, 
See  Plate  CL.  For  an  account  of  modern  crowns, 
fee  Heraldry. 

Crown  is  alfo  ufed  to  fignify  the  poflVnions  and 
dignity  of  a  ki[ig.  The  crown  of  England,  according 
to  Sir  William  Blackftone,  is.  by  common  law  and 
conliitutional  cullom,  hereditary  ;  and  this  in  a  manner 
peculiar  to  itfelf^  but  the  right  of  inheritance  may 
from  time  to  time  be  changed  or  limited  by  aft  of  par- 
liament, under  which  li:iiitations  the  crown  Hill  cun- 
tinres  hereditary.     See  Succession. 

Pleas  of  the  CuoirN.      See  Pleas. 

Crown,  in  commerce,  is  a  general  name  for  coins, 
both  foreign  and  domeftic,  of  or  near  the  value  of  five 
fliillingd  Sterling.  In  its  limited  fenfe,  crown  is  only 
applicable  to  that  popular  Englilh  coin  which  bears  the 
name,  and  which  is  equivalent  to  fixty  Englifli  pence  or 
five  (liillings,  or  to  fix  livres  French  money.  But,  in  its 
extenfive  Icnfe,  it  takes  in  feveral  others  ;  as  the  French 
ecu,  which  we  call  the  French  crown,  Ihuck  in  164 1 
for  llxty  fols,  or  three  livres  ;  alfo  the  patagon,  dollar, 
ducatoon,  rixdbllar,  and  piaftre  or  piece  of  eight. 

Crown,  in  an  ecclefiaftieal  fenfe,  is  ufed  for  the 
clerical  tonfurt  ;  which  is  the  mark  or  charatter  of  the 
Romifh  ecclcfiaftics.  This  is  a  little  circle  of  hair 
fiiavcd  off  from  the  crown  of  the  head  ;  more  or  lefs 
broad,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  orders  received  : 
That  of  a  mere  clerk  is  the  fmalleft  ;  that  of  priefts 
and  monks  the  largeft.  The  clerical  crown  was  an- 
ciently a  round  liil  of  hair,  (haved  off  around  ths  head, 
reprefenting  a  real  crown  :  this  is  eafily  obfervable  in 
feveral  ancient  llatues,  &c.  The  religious  of  St  Do- 
minic and  St  Francis  iHll  retain  it. 

Crown,  among  jewellers,  the  upper  work  of  the 
rofe  dia^nond,  which  all  centres  in  the  point  at  the  top, 
and  is  bounded  by  the  horizontal  ribs. 

Ckoivn  OJficc,  an  office  belonging  to  the  king's 
bench  court,  of  which  the  king's  coroner  or  attorney 
is  commonly  mailer.  In  this  office,  the  attorney-ge- 
neral and  clerk  of  the  crown  feverally  exhibit  infor- 
mations for  crimes  and  mifdemeanours  at  common 
law,  as  in  the  cafe  of  batteries,  confpiracies,  libelling, 
6:c.  on  which  the  offender  is  liable  to  pay  a  fine  to 
the  king. 

CuoiyN-G/nfi,  denotes  the  frneft  fort  of  window- 
glafs.     See  Glass. 

Croitn- Scabs,   in  farriery.      See  there,  (J  xxxvi.  2. 

Croi%'n -Wheel  of  a  Watch,  the  upper  wheel  next  the 
balance,  which  by  its  motion  drives  the  balance,  and 
in  royal  pendulums  is  called  t\\t  fivlng-ivheel. 

CKoifN  Imperial,  in  botany.      See  Fritillaria. 

CRoirN-Work,  in  fortification,  is  an  out- work  run- 
ning into  the  field ;  defigned  to  keep  off  the  enemy. 


gain  fome  Kill  or  advantageous  pod,  and  cover  the 
other  works  of  the  place.  The  crown-work  confifls 
of  two  demiballions  at  the  extremes,  and  an  entire 
ballion  ill  the  middle,  with  cui tains. 

CROWNE  (John),  a  celebrated  dramatic  writer, 
born  in  Nova  Scotia,  where  his  father  was  a  minillcr. 
Being  impatient  of  the  gloomy  rcllraint  of  that  coun- 
try, he  came  to  England,  where  he  was  reduced  to 
enter  into  the  fervice  of  an  old  lady  ;  of  which  he 
was  foon  as  weary  as  he  had  been  of  America.  He 
then  had  lecourfe  to  his  pen,  which  quickly  procured 
him  f;ivour  at  court  ;  but  this  kind  of  fubfillence  pro- 
ving precarious,  he  ventui-ed  to  folicit  Charles  II.  for 
fome  eftablilhment.  Charles  promiled  to  provide  for 
him,  but  infilled  lirft  on  having  another  comedy  ;  and 
fuggelled  to  him  the  plan  of  a  Spauiih  play,  from 
which  Crowne  produced  the  comedy  of  Sir  Courtly 
Nice  :  hut  the  i'nddcn  death  of  the  king  on  the  lalb 
day  of  the  rehcarlal,  plunged  him  at  once  from  his 
plcafiuir  expectations  into  difappointmcnt  and  diilrefs, 
antl  Icic  him  no  refource  but  lu's  wits.  He  died  fome 
time  about  the  year  1703  ;  and  left  behind  him  17  tra- 
gedies and  comedies,  fome  of  which  are  ailed  with, 
great  fiiccefs.  His  chief  excellency  lay  in  comedy  ; 
yet  his  tragedies  are  far  from  being  contemptible. 
His  plots  are  for  the  moll  part  his  own  invention  ;  his 
charatlers  are  in  general  llrongly  coloured  and  highly 
finllhed  ;  and  his  dialogue  lively  and  fpirited,  attentive- 
ly diver'fified,  and  well  adapted  to  the  feveral  fpeakers. 
So  that  on  the  whole  he  may  alfuredly  be  allowed  to 
Hand  at  leall  in  the  third  rank  of  our  dramatic  writers. 

CROWNING,  iii  ^rchitedture,  is  undcrilood,  in 
the  general,  ot  any  thing  that  terminates  or  hnifhes 
-a  member  or  decoration.  Thus,  a  corniche,  a  pedi- 
ment, &c.  are  called  crotvnhigs.  Thus  alio  the  abacus 
is  faid  to  crown  , the  capital  ;  and  thus  any  member  or 
moulding  Is  faid  to  be  crowned  when  it  has  a  fillet  over 
it  ;  and  a  niche  is  crowned  when  it  is  covered  with  a 
capital. 

Crowning,  in  fea-language,  denotes  the  finiHiin^ 
part  of  a  knot  made  at  the  end  of  a  rope.  It  is  per- 
formed by  interweaving  the  ends  of  the  different  llrands 
artfully  amongft  each  other,  fo  as  that  they  may  not 
become  loolened  or  untwiiled.  They  are  ufeful  in  all 
kinds  of  Hoppers. 

CROWTH,  or  Cruth.      See  Cruth. 

CROXAL  (Samuel),  an  ingenious  Englilh  divine^ 
who  in  his  youth  wrote  the  celebrated  potm  Inlitled 
The  Fair  CirciiJJian.  He  had  the  livings  of  Hampton 
in  Middlefex  ;  and  the  united  pariflies  of  St  Maiy  So- 
merfet,  and  St  Mary  Mounthaw,  in  L<<ndon  ;  bollx 
which  he  held  till  his  death  in  1751.  Fie  publlflied 
many  other  poems  and  tranllations,  with  an  entire 
Englifh  edition  of  Efop's  I'ables.  In  conlcqtience  of 
his  attachment  to  Whig  principles,  he  enjoyed  fome 
other  preferments,  and  was  chaplain  in  ordinary  to 
George  II. 

CR.OYDON,  a  town  In  Surry  in  England.  Its 
fituatlon  is  low,  near  the  fpring-head  of  the  river 
Waiidel,  and  it  is  in  a  manner  furroundtd  with  hills. 
It  is  pretty  large,  and  is  chiefly  noted  for  being  the 
feat  of  the  archbifhop  of  Canterbury.  It  has  a  large 
handlome  church,  an  hofpital,  and  a  free  fcliool.  W» 
Long,  o.  5.  N.  Lat.  51.  22. 
5  CRUCIAIi. 


Crunicn 

tata. 


C    R    U  [    J74    ]  C    R    U 

CRUCIAL  INCISION,  in  furgery,  an  incifion  made    nidied  with  a  pouch  or  bag,  wherein  to  receive  their 

■      "        of  d 


Crucldl 

in  the  form  of  a  crofs. 

CRUCIANELLA,  petty  madder  :  A  genus  of 
.  the  monogynia  order,  belonging  to  the  tetrandria  clafs 
of  plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  metliod  ranking  under 
the  47th  order,  Stellats.  The  corolla  is  monopctalous 
and  funnel-lhaped,  with  the  tube  filiform  and  the  limb 
unguiculated,  or  having  an  indexed  fejjment  on  the 
top  of  each  fegment  ;  the  calyx  is  diphyllons,  and  there 
aie  two  linear  feeds.  Thtre  are  five  fpecies,  natives 
of  the  fouthern  parts  of  Europe  ;  but  none  of  them 
pofieffed  of  any  remarkable  quality. 

CRUCIBLE,  a  chemical  vefTel  made  of  earth,  and 
fo  tempered  and  backed  as  to  endure  the  gveateil  tire. 
They  are  ufed  to  melt  metals,  a'lid  to  flux  minerals, 
ores,  &c.     See  CHEMisTRY-/rt</f.v. 

CRUCIFIX,  a  crofs  upon  which  the  body  of  Chrlft 
is  fattened  in  effigy,  ufed  by  the  Roman  Catholics  to 
excite  in  their  minds  a  ihong  idea  of  our  Saviour's 
paffion. 

They  efteem  it  an  effential  circumftance  of  the  reli- 
gious worfhip  performed  at  the  altar  ;  and  on  Good 
Friday  they  perform  the  ceremony  of  adoring  it,  which 
is  done  in  thcfe  words,  0  crux  ave,  /pes  vtiidi ;  "  Hail, 
thou  crofs,  our  only  hope."  The  officiating  pried  un- 
covers the   crucifix,  elevates   it  with   both   his  hands, 


young  in  time   of  danger  ;  as  the  opolfam.     See  Di- 

DELI'HIS. 

CRUOR,  fometimes  fignifies  the  blood  in  general ; 
fometimes  only  the  venous  blood  ;  and  fometimes  ex- 
travafated  or  coagulated  blood  ;  but  is  molt  frequent- 
ly ufed  for  the  red  globules  of  the  h!o  jd,  in  contradi>- 
ilinftion  to  the  limpid  or  ferous  part. 

CRUPPER,  in  the  manege,  the  buttocks  of  a  horfe, 
the  rump  ;  alfo  a  thong  of  leather  put  under  a  horfe's 
tail,  and  drawn  up  by  tliongs  to  the  buckle  behiiid  the 
faddle,  fo  as  to  keep  him  from  cafling  the  faddle  for- 
wards on  his  neck. 

CRUR./EUS,  or  Crureus,  Miifculus,  in  anatomy, 
a  flefhy  mafs,  covering  almoft  all  the  forefide  of  the 
OS  femoris,  between  the  two  vafti,  which  hkewife  cover 
the  edges  of  this  mufcle  on  each  fide.  Sei  Anatomy, 
Tabb  of  the  Mufcles. 

CRUR  AL,  in  anatomy,  an  epithet  given  to  the  ar- 
tery which  conveys  the  blood  to  the  crura  or  legs,  and 
to  the  vein  by  which  this  blood  returns  towards  the 
heart.     See  Anatomy,  p.  751. 

CRUS,  in  anatomy,  all  that  part  of  the  body  con- 
tained between  the  buttocks  and  the  toes. 

CRUSADO,in  commerce,  a  Portnguefe  coin,  ftruck 
under  Alphorifus  V.  about  the  year  1457,  at  the  time 


not  palfed  the  fire  or  had  a  proper  degree  of  coc- 
Jlion. 

CRUDITY,  among  phyficians,  is  apphed  to  undi- 
o-efted  fubftances  in  the  ftomach  ;  to  humours  in  the 
body  which  are  unooncofted,  and  not  prepared  for  ex- 
pi;Hion  ;  and  to  the  excrements. 

CRUISE, from  the  Germen  /va//},"acrofs," fignifies 
to  crofs  to  and  fro,  to  fail  up  and  down  within  a  cer- 
tain fpace  of  the  fea,  called  the  cntifwg  latitude,  in 
quell  of  veficls,  or  fleets  of  an  enemy,  i<c. 

CRUISERS,  in  the  navy,  are  fmall  men  of  war 
made  ufe  of  to  and  fro  in  the  channel,  and  elfewhcre, 
to  fccure  our  merchatit  (liips  and  veflels  from  the  ene- 
my's fmall  frigates  and  privateers.  They  are  gene- 
rally fuch  as  fail  well,  and  are  commonly  well  man- 
ned: and  indeed  the  fafety  of  the  trade  in  the  chan- 
nel, and  up  and  down  the  foundingi,  and  other  places, 
.^bfolutely  requires  the  conilaut  keeping  out  Inch  (hips 
ht  fea. 

CRUMENTATA,  among  zoologifts,  animals  fur- 


Cnipr 

11 
Cralfa- 

C«  lUS. 


and   favs,  Ecce  lignum   rn/ru  ;"  Behold  the  wood  of  when  pope  Calixtus  fent  thither  the  bull  for  a  croifade 

the  crofs."     The  people  anfwer,  in  quo  falus  munJl  pe-  againfl:  the  infidels.     This  coin  lias  a  crofs  on  one  fide 

pendit ;  "  on  which  the    Saviour  of  the  world  fullered  and  the  arms  of  Portugal  on  the  other. 

death."     Then  the  whole  congregation  bow  with  great  CRUSCA,  an  Italian  term  fignifying  Iran,  is  in  ufe 

reverence,  and  devoutly  kils  the  holy  wood.  amongil  us  to  denote  that  celebr^ed  academy  called 

CRUCIFIXION,  a  captital  punilliment  by  nailing  ddla  Crufca,  ellablilhed  at  Florence  for  purifying  and 

the  criminal  to  a  crofs.     See  Cross.  perfeCling    the    Tufcan    language.      See  Academy, 

CRUCIFORM,    in    general,    fomething    difpofed  n'^ii.     The  academy  took  its  name   from   its  office, 

crofs-ways  ;  but  more  efpecially  ufed  by  botanifts,  for  and  the  end  propofed   by   it ;  which  is,  to  refine  the 

flowei'S  confining  of  four  petals  difpofed  in  the  form  of  language,  and  as  it   were   to  feparate  the   bran  from 

a  crofs.  it-      Accordingly,  its  device  is  a  fieve  ;  and  its  motto, 

CRUCITA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  digynia  or-  //  piu   lei  fior  ne  coghe ;   that  is,   "  It  gathers  the  fi- 

der,  belonging  to  the  tetrandria   clafs   of  plants,  and  Beit   flour  thereof."      In  the  hall  or  apartment  where 

in  the  natural  method  ranking  with   thofe  the   order  the  academy  meets,  M.  Moneonis  informs  us,  that  eve- 

of  which  is  doubtful.     The  interior   calyx   is  tctra-  ry  thing  bears  an  allufion  to  the  name  and  device:  the 

phyllous,  the  exterior  calyx  triphyllous  ;  there  is  no  feats  arc  in  form  of  a  baker's  bafl^et  ;  their  backs  like 

corolla,  and  only  one  feed.  a  fhovel  for  moving  of  corn;  the  cufhions  of  grev  fat- 

CRUDE,  an  epithet  given  to   fomething  that  has  tin,  in   form    of  facks  or  wallets  ;  and  the  branches 


where  the  lights  are  placed  refembling  ficks.  The 
vocabulary  Delia  Crufca  is  an  excellent  Italian  diftion- 
aiy,  compofed  by  this  academy. 

CRUSTA    LACTE.'i,  in  medicine,  the  fame    with 

ACHOR. 

CRUSTACEOUS  fish,  in  natural  hiftory,  are 
thofe  covered  with  fiiells,  confifting  of  feveral  pieces  or 
fcales  ;  as  thofe  of  crabs,  lobfters,  S:c. 

Thefe  are  ufually  fofter  than  the  fliells  of  the  tefta- 
ceous  kind,  which  confill  of  a  fingle  piece,  and  gene- 
rally much  thicker  and  llronger  than  the  former;  fuch 
as  thofe  of  the  oyfter,  fcallop,  cockle,  Hic. 

L)r  Woodward  obferves,  in  his  Natural  Hiftory,  that 
of  all  the  (licUs  found  in  beds  of  all  the  different  mat- 
ters dug  out  of  the  earth,  there  are  fcarce  any  of  the 
crullaceous  kind  :  the  rcafun  he  gives  for  it  is,  that 
thefe  being  much  lighter  than  the  reft,  mufl  have 
floated  on  the  furface  at  the  time  of  the  deluge,  when 
all  the  ftrata  were  formed;  and  there  have  corrupted 
and  pcrifhcd. 

cruth; 


(^     R     Y  r     575     ]  GUY 

CRUTH,  or  Growth,  a  kinj  of  mufical  inftru-  &c.   The  word  is  formed  of  «?""■'■,  fl/^on(/(?,  "  I  hide j" 

went  formerly  i;i  ufc   among  the  commcn   p-.ople  in  whence  «fuTrf,  ciypta. 

■Wales.     It  is  of  llie  fiiliciiiiil    kind,  fomcwliHt  rcfcm-         Vitruvius  ufca  the  word  rrj'//^  for  a  part  of  a  build- 

-  blitig  a  violin,  ?  2  inclics  in  length,  and  :i;i  inch  and  an  ing,  anfwcring  nearly  to  our  cellar ;  Juvenal  for  a  cloaca. 

half  in  thicknefs.     It  has  fix   things   fiipported  by  a  Ylence  cryl'to-portkus ,  a  fubterraneous  place  arched  or 

bridge,  and  is  played  on  with  a  bow  :  the  bridge  dif-  vaulted  j  ufed  as  an  under-work  or  paffage  in  old  walk, 

fcrs  from  that  of  a  violin,   in  that  it  is  fiat  and  not  I'he  fame  is  alfo  ufed  for  the  decoration  at  the  entry 

convex  on  the  top  ;  a  circumftance  from  which  it  is  of  a  grotto. 


Crypij 

II 
Crjftal. 


to  be  inferred,  that  the  ftrings  are  to  be  ftruck  at  the 
fame  tinii^,  fo  as  to  afford  a  fncceiTion  of  concords. 
The  bridge  is  not  placed  at  right  angles  with  the  fides 
of  the  inllrument,  but  in  an  oblique  dircftion  ;  and, 
which  is  further  to  be  reiparked,  one  of  the  feet  of 
the  bridge  goes  through  one  of  the  found-holes, 
which  are  circular,  and  rcfts  on  the  infide  of  the  back ; 
the  other  foot,  which  is  proportionably  fliorter,  roiling 
on  the  btlly  before  the  other  foimd-hole.   Of  the  (Irjngs, 


Crvpta  is  alfo  ufed  by  fome  of  our  ancient  writers 
for  d  chapel  or  oratory  under-ground. 

Ckypt^,  in  anatomy,  a  name  given  by  Ruyfch  to 
gl;mds  fituated  on  the  back  of  the  tongue,  and  to  glands 
of  the  inteftincs. 

CRYPTOGAMIA,  (from  vfu^r©..  ecctillus,  "  con- 
cealed," and  -/»y0-,  ::iiptla,  "  nuptials"),  the  24th 
clals  in  the  Linntean  fyftem,  comprehending  thofc 
plants  vvhofe  frui^tification  is  concealed,  either  through 


the  four  firll  are  conduclcd  from  the  bridge  down  the     minntcnefs,   or  within   the   fruit.     See  Botany,   tJi-: 


tinger-boaul,  as  in  a  common  violin  ;  but  the  fifth 
and  fixth,  which  are  about  an  inch  longer  than  the 
others,  leave  the  fmall  end  of  the  neck  about  an  inch 
to  the  right.  The  whole  fix  are  wound  up  either  by 
wooden  pegs  in  the  form  of  the  letter  T,  or  by  iron 


Scheme  and  Explanation,  Vol.  III.  p.  ^t,o. 

CRYPTOGRAPHY,  the  art  of  writing  in  cipher, 
or  with  fympathetic  ink.     See  Cipher  and  Ink. 

CRYSTAL,  a  fpecies  of  ftones  of  the  quartz  kind, 
belonging  to  the  filiceons  clafs.     It  always  appears, 


pins,  which   are   turned   with  a  wred  like  thofe  of  a  when  there  has  been  no  interruption  to  its  cryftalli/a- 

harp  or  fpinet.     Of  the  tuning,  it  is  to  be   remarked,  tion,  in  hexagonal  prifms  pointed  at  both  ends.      It  is 

that  the  fifth  and  fixth  firings  are  the  unifon  and  oc-  found  of  different   kinds  and  colours.      I.  Opaque  or 

tave  of  G  ;    the  fourth  and  fifth,  the  fame  of  C  ;  and  femitranfparent,   and  white   or  of  a  milk  colour.      2. 

the  fecond  and  firfl,  the  fame  of  D;  fo  that  the  fecond  Opaque  and  red,  or  of  a  cornelian  colour,  from  Oran 

pair  of  firings  are  a  fourth,  and  the  third  a  fifth,  to  the  in    Barbary.      3.   Opaque  and   black,   from  the  fame 

firil.     See  Plate  CL.  place.     4.  Clear.     The  fpecific  gravity  of  thefe  kinds 

Concerning  the  antiquity  of  this  inftrument,  there  of  cryftals  is  from  2650  to  2700.  Profeffor  Bergman 
is  but  little  written  evidence  to  carry  it  further  back  extrafttd  from  them  about  fix  paits  of  argilla  and  one 
than  the  time  of  Teland  ;  neverthelcfs  the  opinion  of  of  calcareous  earth  per  hundred  weight  ;  but  Mr  Gcr- 
its  high  antiquity  is  fo  llrong  among  the  inhabitants  of  hard  found  fome  fo  pure  as  to  contain  neither, 
the  country  where  it  vras  ufed,  as  to  afford  a  probable  5.  Clear  and  blackifh  brown,  the  fmoky  topaz,  or  r«w/6 
groqnd  of  conjeclure,  that  the  cruth  might  be  the  pro-  topaz,  of  the  Germans.  It  is  found  at  Egan  in  Nor- 
totype  of  the  whole  fidicinal  fpecies  of  mufical  inftru-  way,  and  at  Lovifa  in  Finland.  Thefe  cryftals  are 
ments.  Another  evidence  of  its  antiquity,  but  which  faid  to  become  clear  by  boiling  them  in  tallow.  6.  Clear 
tends  alfo  to  prove  that  it  was  not  peculiar  to  \Vales,  and  yellow  ;  found  in  Bohemia,  and  fold  inllead  of 
arifes  from  a  difcovery  lately  made  and  corr^nunica-  topazes.  7.  Cliar  and  violet-coloured  ;  the  amethyft, 
ted  to  the  foci-ely  of  antiquarians,  refpetling  the  abbey-  from  Saxony,  Bohemia,  and  Dannemore  in  Upland- 
church  of  Melrofe  in  Scotland,  fuppofed  to  have  been  The  moft  tranfparent  of  thefe  are  called  falfe  diamonds, 
built  about  the  time  of  Edward  II.  It  feems  that  a-  Eriftol,  Kerry  ftones,  Alengon  diamonds,  &c.  8.  Co- 
mong  the  outfide  ornaments^of  that  church  there  is  lourlefs  rock  cryflal,  properly  fo  called,  found  in  Bo- 
the  reprefentr.tion  of  a  cruth,  very  little  different  from  hernia,  the  province  of  Jemtland,  and  many  other 
the  dcfcriplion  above  given.  The  iiiilrument  is  now  places.  9.  Pyramidal  cryllat  with  one  or  two  points. 
"  difufed,  in  fo  much  that  Sir  John  Hawkins,  from  whom  Thefe  have  no  prifraatic  ihape,  but  either  ftnnd  upon 
we  extratl,  tells  us,  that  tliere  is  but  one  perfon  in  a  bafe  in  cavities  of  quartz-veins,  have  only  a  fingic 
the  whole  principality  of  N(j,rth  Wales  that  can  play  pyramid,  and  are  of  various  colours  ;  or  they  lie  in  a 
upon  it  ;  and  as  he  was  at  that  time  near  60  years  of  clayey  earth,  and  have  both  pyramids,  but  no  prifm. 
a^c,  the  fucceffion  of  performers  is  probably  near  an  They  are  found  at  Blackenburg  upon  the  Hart/,  and 
end.  at  Morferofh  in  the  Silverland  in  Tranfylvania. 

CRUX,  or  St  Croix,  one  of  the  Caribbee  ifiands,  *  The  coloured  tranfparent  cryflals  derive  their  tinge 
fituated  about  60  miles  fouth-eaft  of  Porto- Rico,  and  from  an  exceedingly  fmall  portion  of  metallic  calce.-i,, 
fubjeft  to  Denm.ark.  From  being  a  perfect  defart,  it  but  loft  them  entirely  when  flrongly  heated.  Thev 
has"^egun  to  flourifii  exceedingly,,  being  made  a  free  are  i:3\\i<\  falfc gems  ;  via.  the  red  from  Oran  in  Bar- 
port,  and  receiving  great  encouragement  from  govern-  bai^,  falfe  rubies ;  the  yellow  from  Saxony,  fulfe  to- 
ment.     W.  I^ong.  64.  o.  NLat.  17.30.  pazes  ;    the    green   from    Dauphlny,    ver^.'  rare,    fall'e 

CP^-YMODES,  among  ])hyficians,  a  kind  of  fever  emeralds  or  prafes ;  the  violet  from  Vil  in  Catalonia, 

attended  with  a  fhivcring  cold,  and  inflammation  of  the  falfe  amcthyfls  ;   the  blue  from  Pay  in  Valay  in  France, 

interna!  parts  of  the  body.  falfe  fa'pphires.     There  are  likewifc  opal  or  rainbow 

CRYPTA,  a  fubtcrraneous  cell  or  vault,  efpecially  cryftals,  the  various  colours  of  which  are  thrown  our. 

under  a  church,  for  the  interment  of  particular  families  in  zones  acrofs  the   furface.      They  make  a  very  fine 

or  perfons.     S.  Cijimpini,  defer ibing  ■  the   outfide  of  appearance,  though  thev  never  fliine  like  the  orii-nta!' 

the  Vatican,  fpeaks  of  the  cryp'a  cf  St  Andrew,  St  Paul,  opal. 


CRY  [     sj 

Cryflal.         M.  Fourcroy  makes  a  remarkable  difference  between 

"~~v the  cr)-llals  and  quartz,   by  affirming  that  the  former 

are  unalterable  in  the  fire,  in  which  they  neither  lofe 
their  hardnefs,  tranfpareiR-y,  nor  colour,  while  the 
quartz  lofes  the  fame  qualities,  and  is  reduced  by  it  to 
a  white  and  opaque  earth.  He  ciftlTes  the  rock-cry- 
ftals, 

I.  According  to  their  form,  viz.  I.  Infulated  hexa- 
gonal cryllals  ending  in  pyramids  of  fix  faces,  which 
have  a  double  refraClion,  or  thow  two  images  of  the 
fame  objcd  when  looked  through.  2.  Hexagonal 
cryllals  united,  having  one  or  two  points.  3.  Te- 
traedral,  dodecaedral,  flatted  cryllals  ;  and  which, 
though  hexagonal,  have  neverthelefs  their  planes  irre- 
gular. 4.  Cryllals  in  large  mafles,  from  the  iiland  of 
Madag.ifcar,  which  have  a  fimple  refraction. 

n.  With  regard  to  their  colour,  as  being  either 
diaphanous,  reddilh,  fmoky,  or  blackiHi. 

HI.  With  reg-ard  to  accidental  changes,  fome  are 
hollow  ;  fome  contain  water  within  one  or  more  cavi- 
ties ;  fome  are  cafed  one  within  the  other ;  fome  are 
of  a  round  form,  as  the  pebbles  of  the  Rhine  ;  fome 
have  a  cruft  of  metallic  calces  or  of  a  pyrites  ;  fome 
are  found  cryilaUized  in  the  infide  of  a  cavity  ;  while 
fome  feem  to  contain  amianthus  or  afbeftus ;  and  others 
contain  fhirls.  The  fame  author"  reckons  among  cry- 
ftals  the.  oriental  topaz,  the  hyacinth,  the  oriental 
fapphire,  and  tiie  amethyft.  Mr  Daubenton  has  al-  , 
ways  looked  upon  this  laft  as  a  quartz  of  a  cryllal. 

When  the  rock-cn-ftals  are  femitranfparenfoi  inter- 
mixed with  opaque  veins,  they  are  called  by  the  Swe- 
«3illi  lapidaries  tnilk-cryjlals.  When  they  are  found  in 
the  form  of  round  pebbles,  which  is  occafioned  by 
their  being  tofTed  about  and  rubbed  againll  one  another 
by  floods,  or  by  the  fea,  they  are  called  by  the  Englidi 
lapidaries  J^clble-cnjlals.  They  come  from  the  Iiidies, 
Siberia,  and  other  places, 

According  to  Bomare,  the  rock-ciyftals  are  gene- 
rally formed  upon  or  among  quartz,  which  (hows  their 
great  affinity,  and  are  to  be  found  in  all  parts  of  the 
world.  The  gteatell  quantity-  of  them  is  brought 
from  Mount  Saint  Gothard  in  Switzerland.  Large 
pieces  of  thefe,  weighing  from  5  to  Soo  pounds,  were 
found  there  at  Grimfelberg  ;  another  of  about  1200 
pounds  weight  was  found  fome  years  ago  at  Fiibach  in 
the  Wallais  ;  and  a  piece  fix  feet  long,  four  wide,  and 
equally  thick,  was  found  in  the  ifland  of  Madagafcar, 
where  thefe  natural  productions  are  of  the  molt  extra- 
ordinary fize  and  perfeftion. 

In  the  imperial  collection  at  Vienna,  there  is  a  py- 
ramidal cijftal  vafc  two  ells  in  height,  cut  wholly  out 
of  one  piece.  It  is  ufual  with  the  largeit  cryllals  of 
the  German  mountains  to  be  full  of  cracks  and  flaws, 
and  to  be  fo  conilructed  internally  as  to  fliow  all  the 
prifmatic  colours  ;  but  the  above  mentioned  ones  were 
quite  free  from  thefe  blemilhes,  andrefembled  columns 
of  the  purell  glafs,  only  much  clearer  than  any  glals 
can  be  made.  Cryllal  is  alfo  found  in  many  parts  of 
Britain  and  Ireland.  About  Brillol  it  is  found  of  an 
amethyiline  tinge.  In  Silefia  and  Bohemia  in  Ger- 
many it  is  found  llained  with  the  colours  of  the  ruby, 
fapphire,  emerald,  and  topaz  ;  in  which  cafe  jewellers 
take  great  advantage  of  it,  felling  it  under  the  name 
of  arddcntal  fapphire. 

Tlie  orders  of  pure  crydal  are  three  :  Tlie  firll  is 


] 


CRY 


G 

perfeft  columnar  cryllals,  with  double  pyramids,  com- 
pofed  of  1  8  planes,  in  an  hexangular  column,  termi-  ^ 
nated  by  an  hexangular  pyramid  at  each  end:  the  fe- 
cond  order  is  that  of  perfcdt  cryllals,  with  double  py- 
ramids, without  a  column,  coinpofed  either  of  12  or 
of  16  planes,  in  two  hexangular  pyramids,  joined 
clofely  bafe  to  bafe,  without  the  intervention  of  any 
column  :  the  third  order  is  that  of  imperfect  crvftals, 
with  fingle  pyramids,  compofed  either  of  12  or  10 
planes,  in  an  hexangular  or  pentangular  column,  affix- 
ed irregularly  at  one  end  to  fome  folid  body,  and  ter- 
minated at  the  other  by  an  hexangular  or  pentangular 
pyramid. 

Thefe  are  all  the  general  forms  into  which  crvflal, 
when  pure,  is  found  concreted :  but  under  thefe  there 
are  alnioft  infinite  varieties  in  the  number  of  angles, 
and  the  length,  thicknefs,  and  other  accidents  of  the 
colum.ns  and  pyramids. 

When  cryllal  is  blended  with  metalline  particles  at 
the  time  of  its  formation,  it  alfumcs  a  variety  of  fi- 
gures wholly  different  from  thefe,  conftituting  a  fourth 
order,  under  the  name  oi  metaUine  .rvftah  :  when  that 
metal  is  lead,  the  cryflal  afl'jmes  the  form  of  a  cube  ; 
when  it  is  tin,  of  a  quadrilateral  pyramid,  with  abroad 
bafe  ;  when  iron,  the  crvflal  is  found  concreted  in 
rhomboiJal  figures :  thefe  cryllals  are  vtiy  common 
about  mines  ;  but  the  common  fpars,  which  are  liable 
to  be  influenced  in  the  fame  manner  by  the  metals, 
and  to  appear  in  the  very  fame  form,  are  to  be  care- 
fully dillinguiflied  from  them.  There  is  one  very 
eafy  tell  for  this  purpofc,  which  is,  that  all  fpars  are 
fubjeft  to  be  diflblved  by  aquafortis,  and  effervefce 
violently  only  on  its  touching  them  :  but  it  has  no  fuch 
effects  on  cryllal. 

The  pebble-cryftal  is  common  enough  in  all  parts  of 
the  world  ;  but  that  which  is  formed  of  hexangular 
columns,  affixed  to  a  folid  bafe  at  one  end,  and  termi- 
nated by  a  hexangular  column  at  the  other,  is  infi- 
uitely  more  fo  :  this  is  what  we  call  fprig  or  rock 
cr^lal,  and  is  the  fpecies  dcfcribed  by  moll  autiiors 
under  the  name  ol  cryjlal  of  th:  Jlmps,  or  that  kept  for 
medicinal  ufcs. 

With  regard  to  the  formation  of  cryllals,  it  is  cer- 
tain that  they  mull  have  been  once  in  a  foft  flate, 
fince  fome  are  found  to  have  water  in  their  cavities. 
Profeflbr  Bergman  obtained  J  3  regular  formed  cry^ 
flals,  by  futfering  the  powder  of  quartz  to  remain  in  a 
vellel  with  fluor  acid  for  two  years.  Thefe  were  about 
the  fizc  of  fmall  peas,  and  were  lefs  hard  than  quartz. 
Mr  Magellan  informs  us,  that  he  received  from  Mr  A- 
chard  two  cryllals,  one  of.  the  fparry  kind,  and  the 
other  as  hard  and  traufparent  as  rock-cryflal.  The 
firll  he  procured  by  means  of  calcareous  earth,  and  the 
latter  from  the  earth  of  alum,  both  dillolved  in  water 
impregnated  with  fi.\.td  air,  the  water  filtrating  very 
flowly  through  a  porous  bottom  of  baked  clay.  'The 
apparatus  is  defcribed  by  tlie  author  in  the  'Journnl  tk 
Phyfiqui  for  January  177R:  but  though  the  procefs 
was  attempted  by  Mr  Magellan,  and  afterwards  a  fe- 
cond  time  by  Mr  Achard  himfclf,  neither  of-  them 
wer;  able  to  iucceed.  Mr  Morveau,  however,  in  the 
firll  volume  of  the  Dijon  Memoirs  for  1785,  alTeits 
t}iat  he  has  produced  a  very  fmall  artificial  cryilal ; 
and  gives  the  proper  method  for  fucceeding  in  the 
procefs. 


Cr.Cal. 


CRY 


[    517    ] 


CRY 


Ciyftal.'  In  the  natural  waymany  of  the  more  compound  foffile 
'^'  V  ■  bodies  are  formed  chiefly  cither  of  cryltal,  or  offpar,  a 
body  in  many  things  relembhng  it.  The  original  fornia- 
•  tion  and  coalefccnce  ot  thofe  bodies  ot  which  fpar  is  the 
bafis,  we  know,  may  have  been  but  of  yeilerday,  fince 
wc  have  evident  proofs  tliat  fpar  is  concreting  to  tliis 
day,  and  that  fparry  bodies  are  forming  every  mo- 
ment. This  is  evident  from  the  fparry  llalaCtix  in 
the  arches  of  modern  buildings,  particularly  in  one  fo 
lately  built  as  the  new  bridge  at  Wcftminlter  ;  the 
roofs  of  the  arches  of  which  were  filled  with  tliefe 
fpars  within  a  year  after  they  were  built.  It  is  alfo 
dcmonftrable  that  the  fpars  are  not  formed  of  matter 
exfuding  from  the  flone,  fmce  brick  arches  abound 
equally  with  them  ;  and  the  brick  vault  which  fup- 
ports  part  of  the  grand  terrace  at  London,  was  feme 
time  ago  fo  full  of  them  tliat  there  was  not  room  to 
walk.  Thefe  obfervations  fuihciently  demonftrale  the 
growth  of  fpar;  but  the  vegetation  of  cryltal  re- 
mained dubious  till  Dr  Hill  fliowcd  by  fume  experi- 
ments that  cryjlal,  as  well  as  fpar,  is  diiloivcd  in  every 
kind  of  water,  even  fueh  as  appears  to  be  mod  pure 
and  clear.  This  is  alfo  probable  from  an  obfervation 
of  Neumann's,  who  tells  us,  that  he  has  feen  leaves, 
llalks  of  plants,  hay,  ftraw,  hogs  b.  illles,  &c.  inclofed 
in  fprigs  of  cryftal.  From  the  regular  forms  in  which 
thefe  natural  cryllals  are  fomid,  the  regular  arrange- 
ment of  falts  into  difterent  figures  takes  the  name  of 
cr^allization,  and  both  are  probably  owing  to  the 
See  Crj-  famecaiife*.  Henckel  gives  us  a  remarkable  account 
ilUzttim.  of  the  formation  of  cryftal  out  of  human  urine.  He 
once  filled  a  large  round  glafs-velTcl  half  way  up  with 
the  recent  urine  of  a  young  lad,  and  tying  a  bladder 
over  the  mouth  of  the  vtlfel,  fet  it  in  a  ftove  for  four 
years  together,  never  ftirring  it  during  that  whole 
time.  At  the  end  of  this  time  he  found  a  number  of 
fmall  white  ftones  growing  to  the  infide  of  the  glafs  ; 
they  were  of  the  fize  of  an  oat-feed,  of  a  prifmatic 
figure,  and  tolerably  pellucid:  they  ftuck  fo  fait  to  the 
fides  of  the  glafs  that  they  could  not  be  waflied  off  by 
the  (baking  about  of  the  urine  ;  and  when  taken  out 
had  no  faline  tafte,  and  were  not  foluble  even  in  hot 
water. 

Cryftal  is  frequently  cut ;  and  hiftres,  vafes,  and 
toys,  are  made  of  it  as  of  other  beautiful  Hones.  For 
this  purpofe  it  is  to  be  chofen  perfeftly  clear  and  tranf- 
parent.  It  is  to  be  tried  by  aquafortis,  or  by  draw- 
ing it  along  a  pane  of  glafs.  The  genuine  cryftal  \yill 
not  be  afFettcd   by  the  acid,   and  will  cut  glafs  almoft 


a  ftate  proper  for  making  glafs  with  alkaline  falts,  and  Ciyft  il. 
thus  becomes  a  very  valuable  fritt.  The  method  of'~~~v~~" 
doing  it  is  as  follows  :  calcine  natural  cryftal  in  a  cru- 
cible ;  when  it  is  red-hot,  throw  it  into  cold  water. 
Repeat  this  eight  times,  covering  the  crucible  tliat  no 
duft  or  afhes  may  get  in  among  the  cryftal.  Dry  thia 
calcined  mafs,  and  reduce  it  to  an  impalpable  powder. 

Co/ouiiiig  Crystal,  for  the  imitation  of  gems.  See 
Doublet. 

Crystal  is  alfo  ufed  for  a  faflitious  body,  caft  in 
glafs-houfes,  called  cry^al-gLifs  ;  being  in  faft  no  more 
than  glafs  carried,  in  the  compolition  and  nianii- 
fafture,  to  a  greater  pcrfeftion  than  the  common 
glafs. 

The  beft  kind  of  glafs-cryftal  is  that  called  Fen/ce- 
crjf/hi/,  made  at  Moran  near  Venice.      See  Glass. 

IJlond  or  Icilantl  CRrsT.ii,  a  tranfparent  filTile  ftone, 
brought  from  Iceland,  foft  as  talc,  clear  as  rock-cry- 
ftal,  and  without  colour ;  remarkable  for  its  unufiial 
refractions. 

It  is  there  found  in  great  jibundance  all  over  the 
country,  biit  is  particularly  plentiful  in  a  mountain, 
not  far  from  the  bay  of  Roezfiord,  where  the  finetl 
and  moft  pellucid  pieces  are  found  on  digging.  The 
mountain  h'es  in  65  degrees  latitude,  and  has  its  whole 
outfide  made  up  of  it ;  but  though  this  makes  a  very 
bright  and  glittering  appearance,  it  is  not  fo  fine  as 
that  which  lies  at  a  hltle  depth,  and  is  met  with  o» 
opening  the  furface.  This  is  generally  taken  up  out 
of  the  earth  in  maffes  a  foot  long,  and  its  corners  very 
frequently  are  terminated  in  thefe  large  maffes,  by  a 
fort  of  cryftals,  very  difTerent  in  figure  and  qualities 
from  the  reft  of  the  mafs.  The  flone  itfelf  is  of  a 
parallelopiped  figure  ;  but  thefe  excrefcences  are  ei- 
ther fingle  pyramids,  affixed  to  columns  like  common 
cryftal,  or  double  pyramids  with  or  without  columns 
between.  The  flone  itfelf  is  foft;  thefe  are  hard,  and 
cut  glafs  :  the  ftone  calcines  to  lime  in  the  fire  ;  thefe 
rim  into  glafs :  in  fliort,  the  ftone  itfelf  is  true  fpar, 
and  thefe  are  true  cryllal.  Befide  thefe,  there  fome- 
times  grows  out  of  the  ends  of  the  larger  maffes  a  pure 
fine  afbeftos.  This  likewife  is  the  cafe  fometimes  in 
tlie  fpar  found  about  Barege  in  France,  and  (liows 
how  nearly  together  the  formation  of  bodies,  wholly 
different  from  one  another,  may  happen.  The  gene- 
ral figure  of  the  ftone  is  parallelopiped  ;  or,  as  fome 
exprcfs  it,  rhomboide ;  and  it  retains  this  not  only 
while  whole,  but  alfo  when  broken  to  pieces.  Every 
fragment  it  naturally  falls   into,  though  ever  fo  fmall, 


like  a  diamond.     When  any  piece  of  workmanftiip  of     being  truly  of  that   fhape.      But  it  is  remarkable,  that 


natural  cryftal  is  become  foul  and  dark,  the  fohowing 
method  is  to  be  ufed  for  recovering  its  brightnefs 
without  hurting  the  polKh.  Mix  together  fix  parts 
■of  common  water  and  one  part  of  brandy  ;  boil  thefe 
over  a  briftc  fire,  and  let  the  cryftal  be  kept  in  it,  in  a 
boiling  ftate,  a  quarter  of  an  hour ;  then  take  it  out 
and  rub  it  carefully  over  with  a  brufti  dipped  in  the 
fame  liquor  ;  after  this  it  is  to  be  wiped  with  a  nap- 
kin, and  by  that  means  its  furface  will  be  perfeftly 
cleaned,  and  rendered  as  bright  as  at  firft,   without 


in  fome  places  of  this  mountain,  the  fame  fort  of  mat- 
ter is  found  in  form  of  triangular  pyramids,  all  which 
have  the  fame  property  of  the  double  refrattion  with 
the  parallelopipeds  of  the  fame  fubftance  ;  fo  that  the 
original  error  of  fuppofing  its  qualities  owing  to  its 
fhape,  is  refuted  by  this,  as  well  as  by  the  trials  made 
with  other  pellucid  bodies  of  the  fame  figure,  which 
do  not  ftiow  this  remarkable  property. 

The  Iceland  cryftal  is  eleiflrical,  and  when  ribbed 
will  draw  up   ftravvs,  feathers,   and   other  light  fub- 


any  injury  to  the  points  of  the  cutting  or  the  polilh  of  fiances,  in  the  fame  manner  that  amber  does, 
the  planes  or  faces,  which  would  probably  have  hap-  The  vaft  maffes  of  white  fpar  which  are  found  in  the 
pened  had  the  cleaning  been  attempted  by  mere  rub-  lead  mints  of  Derbyfhire,  though  they  arc  not  exter- 
bingwith  a  cloth.  nally  of  the  parallelopiped  figure  of  the  Iceland  cry- 
Natural  crj'ftal  may  be  reduced  bv  calcination  into  Ital,  norhaveany  thing  of  its  brightnefs  or  tranfpareme 
VoL.V.  PartJI.                       '  4D                               in 


CRY 


c  573  ] 


CRY 


Ciyfiai.  in  the  general  lump  ;  yet  when  they  are  broken  they 
•■"V— '  Itparate  into  rhomboidal  fragments,  and  fome  of  thefe 
are  found  to  be  tolerably  pellucid  :  all  thcfe  which  are 
fohave  the  property  of  the  Iceland  cry  Hal;  and  being 
laid  upon  paper,  where  a  black  Une  is  drawn,  they  all 
fhow  that  line  double  In  the  fame  manner  as  the  real 
Iceland  cryftal  does. 

Iceland  cryilal   bears  a  red  heat  without  lofing  its 
tranfparency ;  and  in  a  very  intcnfe  heat  calcines  with- 
out falion  :  ileeped  a  day  or  two  in  water,  it  lofes  its 
natural  palifh.     It  is  vei-y  foft  and'eafily  fcratched  with 
the  point  of  a  pin;  it  will  not  give  fire  on  being  ftruck 
ao-ainil  (leel;  and  ferments  and  is  perfedlly  diflblved  in 
aquafortis.    It  is  found  in  Iceland,  from  whence  it  has 
its  name  ;  and  in  France,   Germany,  and  many  other 
places.     In  England  fragments  of  other  fpars  are  veiy 
often  miftaken   for  it,  many  of  them  having  in  fome 
deo-ree  the  fame  property.     It  has  none  of  the  diftin- 
guiihing  chai-afters  of  cryftal;  and  is  plainly  a  genus  of 
fpars,  called  from  their  figure  paraUelopipedia,  which, 
as  well  as  fome  other  bodies  of  a  different  genus,  have 
the  fame  properties.     Bartholine,  Huygens,  and  Sir 
Ifaac  Newton,  have  defcilbed  the  body  at  large,  but 
have  accounted   it  either  a  cryilal   or  a  talc ;  errors 
which  could  not  have  happened,  had  the  criterions  of 
foffils  been  at  that  time  fixed;  fince  Sir  Ifaac  Newton 
has  recorded  its  property  of  making  an  ebullition  with 
aquafortis,  which  alone  mud  prove  that  it  is  neither 
talc  nor  cryftal,  both  thofe  bodies  being  wholly  unaf- 
fefted  by  that  menftruum.    It  is  always  found  in  form 
of  an  obhque  parallclopiped,  with  fix  fides,  and  is  found 
of  various   fizes,  from  a  quarter  of  an  inch  to  three 
inches  or  more  in  diameter.     It  is  pellucid,  and  not 
much  lefs  bright  than  the  pureft  cryilal,  and  its  planes 
are  all  tolerably  fmooth,  though   when  nicely  viewed 
they  are  found  to  be  waved  with  crooked  lines  made 
by  the  edges  of  imperfeft  plates.     What  appears  very 
fingular  in  the    ftruiSliu-e  of  this  body   is,  that  all  the 
furfaccsare  placed  in  the  fame  manner,  and  confequent- 
ly  it  will  fplit  off"  into  thin  plates,  either  horizontally 
or  perpendicularly  ;  but  this  is  found,  on  a  microfco- 
pic  examination,  to  be  owing  to  the  regularity  of  fi- 
gure,  fmoothncfs  of  furface,  and  nice  joining  of  the 
ieveral  fmall  parallclopiped  concretions,  of  which  the 
whole  is  compofed,  and  to  the  fame  caufe  is  probably 
owing  its  remarkable  property  in  refraction. 

The  phenomena  of  this  ftone  are  vciy  remarkable, 
were  firft  fuggefted  by  Bartholin,  and  have  been  exa- 
mined with  great  accuracy  by  M.  Huygens  and  Sir 
Ifaac  Newton. 

1.  Whereas  in  other  pellucid  bodies  there  is  only  one 
refraftion,  in  this  there  are  two  ;  fo  that  objefts  view- 
ed through  it  appear  double. 

2.  Whereas  in  otlier  tranfparent  bodies,  a  ray  falling 
perpendicularly  on  the  furface,  paifes  ft:raight  through, 
without  fuffering  any  refraClion  ;  and  an  oblique  ray 
is  always  divided  ;  in  Iceland  cryftal,  every  ray,  whe- 
ther perpendicvdar  or  oblique,  becomes  divided  into 
two,  by  means  of  the  double  rcfraftion.     One  of  thefe 


rives  at  the  farther  furface,  that  refracted  in  the  firll  CrytVal. 
furface  after  the  ufual  manner,  is  refracted  entirely  » 
after  the  ufual  manner  at  the  fecond  ;  and  that  re- 
frafted  in  the  unufual  manner  in  the  firll  is  entirely  re- 
frafted  after  the  like  manner  in  the  ftcond  ;  fo  that 
ench  emerges  out  of  the  fecond  furface  parallel  to  the 
firft  incident  ray.  Again,  if  two  pieces  of  this  cryftal 
be  placed  over  each  other,  fo  that  the  furfaces  of  the 
one  be  parallel  to  the  corrcfponding  ones  of  the  other; 
the  rays  refrafted  in  the  ufual  manner  in  the  firft  fur- 
face of  the  firft,  are  refratted  after  the  ufual  manner  in 
all  the  other  furfaces;  and  the  fame  uniformity  appears 
iu  the  rays  refrafted  after  the  unufual  manner ;  and 
this  in  any  inclination  of  the  furfaces,  piovided  their 
planes  of  perpendicular  refraftion  be  parallel. 

From  thcfe  phenomena  Sir  Ifaac  Newton  infers, 
that  there  is  an  original  dificience  in  the  rays  of  light; 
by  means  whereof  fome  are  here  conftantly  refratled 
after  the  ufual  manner ;  and  others  in  the  unufual 
manner.  Were  not  the  difference  original,  and  did  it 
arife  from  any  new  modifications  imprclfed  on  the  rays 
at  their  firft  rcfradlion,  it  would  be  altered  by  new 
modifications  in  the  three  following  ones  ;  whereas,  in 
facl,  it  fuffers  no  alteration  at  all.  Again,  he  hence 
takes  occafion  to  f:  fpecl,  that  the  rays  of  hght  have 
fevcral  fides,  endued  with  feveral  original  properties : 
for  it  appears  from  the  circumftances,  that  thefe  are 
not  two  forts  of  rays  differing  in  their  nature  from 
each  other,  one  conftantly,  and  in  all  pofitions,  refraft- 
ed  in  the  ufual,  and  the  other  in  the  unufual  manner ; 
the  difference  in  the  experiment  mentioned  being  only 
in  the  pofition  of  the  fides  of  the  rays  to  the  plane  of 
perpendicular  refraftion.  For  one  and  the  fame  ray 
is  refradled  fometimes  after  the  ufual,  and  fometimes 
after  the  unufual  manner,  according  to  the  pofition  of 
its  fides  to  the  cryftal :  the  refraftion  being  alike  in 
both,  when  the  fides  of  the  rays  are  pofited  the  fame 
way  to  both,  but  different  when  different.  Every  ray 
therefore  may  be  confidered  as  having  four  fides  or 
quarters  ;  two  of  which,  oppofitc  to  each  other,  dif- 
pofe  the  ray  to  be  refrafted  after  the  unufual  manner  ; 
and  the  other  two  in  the  ufual.  Thefe  difpofitions, 
being  in  tlie  rays  befoic  their  incidence  on  the  fecond, 
third,  and  fourth  furfaces,  and  fuffering  no  alterations  ; 
for  what  appears  in  their  paffage  through  them  muil 
be  original  and  connate. 

Father  Beccaria  correfts  the  obfervations  of  Huy- 
gens and  Newton  concerning  the  refraftion  of  rock  or 
mountain  cryftal.  The  double  refraction  of  the  latter 
happens  when  a  ray  paffes  through  two  fides  that  are 
inclined  to  each  other,  and  ctonfequently  iffues  colour- 
ed ;  whereas  that  of  the  Iceland  cryftal  is  made  by  the 
paffage  of  a  ray  through  two  parallel  fides,  and  there- 
fore it  iffues  colourlefs.  He  fuggefts,  that  there  may 
be  other  fubftances  in  which  there  is  a  manifold  re- 
fraftion. Gravefande  had  a  prifm  of  Biafil  pebble, 
which  had  a  double  refraftion  at  each  angle,  but  of  a 
different  kind  from  one  another.  Mr  B.  Martin  pre- 
pared feveral  prifms  of  Iceland  cryftal,  which  exhibited 


refraftions  is,  according  to  the  ordinary  rule,  the  fine     not  only  a  double  but  a  multiple  refraftion.     A  iingle 
of  incidence  out  of  air  into  cr^'ftal,  being  to  the  fine  of    prifm  produced  a  fix-fold  refraftion ;  and  by  combimn 


refraftion  as  five  to  three  ;  but  the  other  is  perfeftly 
new.  The  like  double  refraftion  is  alfo  obferved  in 
cryftal  of  the  rock,  though  much  lefs  fenfibly.  When 
an.  incident  ray  is  thus  divided,  and  each  moiety  ar- 

3 


feveral  prifms,  a  number  of  refraftions  was  obtained 
equal  to  the  produft  of  thofe  of  the  finglc  prifms ;  /.  e. 
a  prifm  which  afforded  two  images  applied  to  one  of 
fix,  produced  .-  prifm  of  twelve  images,  &c.  He  far- 
ther 


CRY  [5 

Crydalline  tlier  obferves,  with  refpedl  to  Iceland  cryftal,  tl;al  tho' 
'I         the  fides  of  its  plane  of  perpendicular  retraftion  be  pa- 
^'^'tion    ^'  "^''^^  '"  ""^  another,  a  beam  of  light  tranfmittcd  thro' 
■  them  will  not  be  colourlefs  ;   in  which  property  it  dif- 

fers from  all  other  known  fnbllances. 

CRYSTALLINE,  in  general,  fomethlng  compofed 
of,  or  refembling,  cryftal.      See  Crystal. 

CkYiTAi.LiKf.  Hciivens,  in  ancient  aRronomy,  two 
fpheres,  imagined  between  the  primum  mobile  and 
the  fmnameiit,  in  the  Ptolemaic  fyilem,  which  fup- 
pofes  the  heavens  folid,  and  only  fufceptible  of  a  fnigle 
motion.      See  Astronomy,  n'^  247. 

CRrsT/U.r.iriE  Humour.  See  An  ATOMY,  p.  767. 
CRVSTALLINTE,  or  Crystallines,  in  medi- 
cine, are  j)uflules  liUtd  with  water,  and  fo  called  on 
account  of  their  tranfparency.  They  are  one  of  the 
woril  fymptoms  attendant  on  a  gonorrhoea.  They 
are  lodged  on  the  prepuce,  without  pain  ;  and  though 
caufed  by  coition,  have  nothing  of  infeftion  attending 

tthem.  The  caufe  is  fuppofed  to  be  a  contufion  of  the 
lymphatic  velTel.i  in  the  part  afPeiled.  Dr  Cockburn, 
who  hath  dtfcribed  this  cafe,  recommends  for  the  cure 
a  mixture  of  three  parts  of  lime-water  and  two  of 
testified  fpirit  of  wine,  to  be  ufed  warm,  as  a  lotion, 
three  times  a-day. 

CRYSTALLIZATION,  in  general,  fignifies  the 
i£_  natural   formation    of   any  fubftance    into    a    regular 

V  figure,  refembling  that  of  cryllal.     Hence  the  phrafes 

of  ci-yftalhzcd  ores,  cryllalllzed  falts,  &c.  and  even 
the  bafaltic  rocks  are  now  generally  reckoned  to  be 
effefts  of  this  operation  :  (See  Basaltes  and  Vol- 
cano). The  term,  however,  is  moil  commonly  ap- 
plied to  bodies  of  the  faline  kind,  and  their  feparation 
in  regular  figures  from  the  water,  or  other  fluid  in 
which  they  are  diflolved,  is  called  their  cr\J}aUi%a- 
tion  *.  The  word  cryJfaUi-z.titio/i  is  never  applied  to  the 
freezing  of  water,  or  to  the  confolidation  of  metals 
after  they  have  been  melted;  though  it  might  certainly 
be  applied  with  as  much  jullice  to  thcfe  fuhftances  as 
to  any  others ;  for  all  of  them  concrete  into  a  certain 
regular  form,  from  which  they  never  deviate,  unlefs 
dilturbed.  When  water  freezes  flowly,  it  always 
forms  regular  cryrtals  of  ice,  which  are  conftantly  of 
congelation  the  fame  form.  They  are  long,  needle-like  mafles, 
and  cryftJ-  flattened  on  one  fide,  and  joined  together  in  fuch  a 
manner,  that  the  fmaller  are  inferted  into  the  fides  of 
the  greater  ;  and  thus  thefe  compound  cryUals  have 
the  appearance  of  feathers,  or  branches  of  trees  with 
leaves.  The  moll  remarkable  circumftance  attending 
this  cryllallization  is,  that  the  angle  formed  by  the 
infertion  of  the  fmaller  pieces  into  the  larger  is  either 
60  or  120  degrees.  The  figures  affumtd  by  metals 
of  different  kinds  have  not  been  fo  exaSly  invefliga- 
ted,  except  in  the  regulus  of  antimony,  which  is  ob- 
ferved  always  to  take  a  ftellated  form.  Experience 
alfo  fhows,  that  all  kinds  of  earths,  or  other  mineral 
matters,  are  capable  of  afluraing  a  cryftalline  form, 
and  may  eafily  be  made  to  do  fo  by  taking  away  part 
of  the  water  which  diflxilves  them. 

Different  falts  affume  different  figures  in  cryftalliza- 
tion,  and  are  thus  moft  eafily  diftinguiflied  from  one 
another.  The  methods  of  reducing  them  into  this 
form,  for  fate,  are  mentioned  under  the  article  Che- 
mistry, n*^  573.  But  befides  the  large  cryllals  pro- 
duced in  this  way,  each  fait  is  capable  of  affumlng  a 


I 


•  See  Cle- 

nijlry-ln- 

dex- 


Similarity 
between 


Itzatioii. 


79     1  CRY 

very  dilTcrcnt  appearance  of  the  cryftalline  kird,  when  CryftaUiza- 
oiily  a  fingle  drop  of  tlie  faline  fohition  is  made  ufe  of,       '[""' 
and  the  cryllallization  viewed  through  a  microfcope.         """"^ 
For  our  knowledge  of  this  fpecies  of  cryflallizalion  we  Mictcfco- 
are  indebted  to  Mr  Henry  Baker,   who  was  prefented  pical  cry- 
with  a  gold  medal  for  the  difcoveiy,  in  the  year  i  744.  ft»'*  difco. 
Thefe  microfcopical  ci7ftals  he  diilinguifhes  from  theYVR't' 
large  ones   by    the   name   of  coiifisnniiims ;    but    this 
term   feems   inaccurate,  and  the  diillnftion  may   well 
enough   be  preferved   by   calling  the   large    ones  the 
common,'- ^nd   the  fipall   ones   the  mkrofcopical,  cryftals 
of  the  fait.     His  method  of  making  thefe  obfervaiions 
he  gives  in  the  following  words  : 

"  I  dlfiolve  the  fubjedt,  to  be  examincil,  in  noHismeth.i 
larger  a_  quantity  of  rain  or  river  water  than  I  am  cer- of  pr'wu- 
tain  it  is  fuilicient  to  faturate.  If  it  is  a  body  eafily ''"o'  ^*>«"»- 
dilfolvable,  I  make  ufe  of  cold  water  ;  otherwife  I 
make  the  water  warm,  hot,  or  even  boiling,  accor- 
ding as  I  find  it  necelTary.  After  it  is  perfeftly  dif- 
foK-cd,  I  let  it  rell  for  foice  hours,  till,  if  overcharged, 
the  redundant  fjine  particles  may  be  precipitated  and 
fettle  to  the  bottom,  or  flioot  into  cryllals  j  by  which 
means  I  am  mofl  hkely  to  have  a  folution  of  the  fame 
(Irength  at  one  time  as  at  another  ;  that  is,  a  folution 
fully  charged  with  as  much  as  it  can  hold  up,  and  no 
more  ;  and  by  thefe  precautions  the  configurations  ap- 
pear  alike,  how  often  foever  tried  :  whereas,  if  the 
vyater  be  lefs  faturated,  the  proportions  at  different 
times  will  be  fubjeft  to  more  uncertainty  ;  and  if  it 
be  examined  before  fuch  feparation  and  precipitation 
of  the  redundant  falts,  little  more  will  be  feen  than  a 
confufed  mafs  of  cryftals. 

"  The  folution  being  thus  prepared,  I  take  up  a 
drop  of  it  with  a  goofe  quill  cut  in  falliion  of  a  fcoop, 
and  place  it  on  a  flat  flip  of  glafs  of  about  three  quar' 
ters  of  an  inch  in  width,  and  between  three  and  four 
inches  long,  fpreading  it  on  the  glafs  with  the  quill,  in 
either  a  round  or  an  oval  figure,  till  it  appears  a  quar- 
ter of  an  inch,  or  more,  in  diameter,  and  fo  fhallow 
as  to  rife  very  little  above  the  furface  of  the  glafs. 
When  it  is  fo  dilpofed,  I  hold  it  as  level  as  I  can  over 
the  clear  part  of  a  fiie  that  is  not  too  fierce,  or  over 
the  flame  oi  a.  candle,  at  a  diftance  proportionable  to 
the  heat  it  requires  (which  experience  only  can  di- 
reft),  and  watch  it  very  carefully  till  I  difcover  the 
fahne  particles  beginning  to  gather  and  look  white,  or 
of  fome  other  colour,  at  the  extremities  of  the  edges. 
Then  (having  adjufted  the  microfcope  before-hand  foi- 
its  reception,  armed  with  the  fourth  glafs,  which  is  the 
fitteft;  for  moil  of  thofe  experiments),  I  place  It  under 
my  eye,  and  bring  it  exadly  to  the  focus  of  the  mag- 
nilier  ;  and,  after  running  over  the  whole  drop,  I  fix 
my  attention  on  that  fide  where  I  obferve  any  increafe 
or  pufliing  forwards  of  cryft;alline  matter  from  the  cir- 
cumference  towards  the   centre. 

"  This  motion  is  extremely  flow  at  the  beginning, 
unlefs  the  drop  has  been  overheated,  but  quickens  as 
the  water  evaporates  ;  and,  in  many  kinds,  towards 
the  conclufion,  produces  configurations  with  a  fwift- 
nefs  inconceivable,  compofed  of  an  infinity  of  parts 
which  are  adjufted  to  each  other  witli  an  elegance, 
regularity,  and  order,  beyond  what  the  exaflcft  pen- 
cil in  the  world,  guided  by  the  ruler  and  compaflts, 
can  ever  equal,  or  the  moil  luxuriant  imagination 
fancy. 

4  D  2  «  When 


CRY 


[    580    1 


CRY 


Crjrftalliza-  «  When  this  aiflion  once  begins,  the  eye  cannot  be 
tj""-  taken  off,  even  for  a  n^oment,  without  lofing  fome- 
'"""V-'  thing  worth  obfervation  :  for  the  figures  alter  eveiy 
jiiftdDt  till  the  whole  procefs  is  over ;  and,  in  many- 
forts,  after  all  fcems  at  an  end,  new  forms  arife,  dif- 
ferent entirely  from  any  that  appeared  before,  and 
which  probably  are  owing  to  fome  fmall  quantity  of 
fait  of  anotiier  kind,  which  the  other  fcparates  from, 
and  leaves  to  act  after  itfclf  has  done  :  and  in  fome 
fubjefts,  three  or  four  different  foils  are  obfeivable, 
few  or  none  of  them  being  fimple  and  homogeneous. 

"  When  the  configurations  are  fully  formed,  and 
all  the  water  evaporated,  moi\.  kinds  of  them  are  foon 
deftroved  aTain  by  the  muillure  or  aillon  of  the  air 
upon  them  ;  their  points  and  angles  lofe  their  iharp- 
nefs,  become  uneven  and  defaced,  and  moulder,  as  it 
were,  away.  But  fome  few  are  permanent,  and  be- 
ing incloftd  between  glaffes,  may  be  preferved  months, 
or  even  years,  entertaining  objcds  for  the  microfcope. 
"  It  happens  oftentimes  that  a  drop  of  faline  folu- 
t!on  can  hardly  be  fpread  on  the  flip  of  glafs,  by  rea- 
fon  of  the  glafs's  fmoothnefs,  but  breaks  into  little  glo- 
bules, as  it  would  do  if  the  furface  were  greafy  :  this 
was  very  troublefome,  till  I  found  a  way  of  prevent- 
ing it,  by  rubbing  the  broken  drop  with  my  finger 
over  the  glafs,  fo  as  to  leave  the  furface  fmeared  with 
it  ;  on  which  fmeared  place,  when  diy,  another  drop 
of  the  fulution  may  be  fpread  very  eafily  In  what  form 
one  pleafes. 

"  It  likewife  fometimes  happens,  that  when  a  heat- 
ed drop  is  placed  properly  enough  for  examination, 
the  obferver  finds  he  can  diftinguilh  nothing  :  which 
is  owing  to  faline  fleams  that,  rifing  from  the  drop,  co- 
ver and  obfcure  the  objeft-glafs,  and  therefore  miift 
immediately  be  wiped  away  with  a  foft  cloth  or  lea- 
ther. 

"  In  all  examinations  by  the  microfcope  of  faline 
folutions,  even  though  made  in  the  day-time,  I  always 
employ  the  light  of  a  candle,  and  advife  every  obfer- 
ver to  do  fo  likewife  :  for  the  configurations  being  ex- 
ceedingly tranfparent,  are  rendered  much,  more  dillin- 
gulfliable  by  the  brown  light  a  candle  affords,  than  by 
the  more  white  and   tranfparent   day-light ;  and  be- 
fides,  either  by'  moving  the  candle  or  turning  the  mi- 
crofcope, fuch  light  may  be  varied  or  diredlcd  juft.  9s 
the  objeft  requires." 
Defcription      In  this  manner  were  produced  the  beautiful  cryftal- 
cf  the  mi-   lizations   reprefented  Plate   CLII.     They  are  vafUy 
crofcopical  different  from  fuch  cryftals  of  the  fame  falts  as   are 
cryftais  of    p{jj^„j.jj  ^,y  the  common  proceffes;  but  Mr  Baker  af- 
fures  us  they  are  no  lefs  conftant  and   invariable  than 
they,  and  that  he  has  repeated  the  experinvents  a  great 
number  of  times  with  the  fame  fuccefs. 

Fig.  I.  (hows  the  raicrofcopical  cryftals  of  mVrf  or 
fali-petre.  Thefe  fhoot  from  the  edges,  vrith  very 
little  heat,  into  flattiih  figures  sf  various  lengths,  ex- 
ceedingly tranfparent,  and  with  ftraight  and  parallel 
fides.  They  are  fhown  In  their  different  degrees  of 
progreffion  at  the  letters  a,  b,  c,  d,  e  ;  where  a  repre- 
fents  how  they  firft  begin.  After  numbers  of  thefe 
are  formed,  they  wUl  often  diffolve  under  the  eye,  and 
difapptar  entirely  ;  but  if  one  waits  a  little,  new  (hoots 
will  puih  out,  and  the  procefs  go  on  afrefh.  Thefe 
firll  figures  fometimes  enlarge  only  without  altering 


various 

isXM. 


their  fhapes,  and  fometimes  form  in  fuch  fort  as  the  CryllaUiz** 
drop  reprefents  ;  but   if  the  heat  has  been  too  great,       """• 
they    (hoot    haftiiy   into   ramifications  s"-.)-   numerous        ^"~     • 
and   beautiful,   but  very   difficult  to  b-.   drawn  ;    and 
which  Mr  Baker  therefore  did   not  altempt.      Thi)re 
feenis  all  the  while  a  violent  agitation  in  the  tiuld,  and 
moil  commonly,  towards  the  conclufion,  a  few  oAae- 
dra  (compofcd  of  eight  triangular  planes,  or  two  qua- 
draiiguki  pyramids,  joined  bafe  to  bale)    make   their 
appearance. 

2.  Blue  vitriol,  produces  cryftals  round  the  edges, 
very  Ihort  at  the  beginning,  but  increaiing  gradu*- 
ally,  as  reprefented  at  the  figures  1,  2,  3,  which  de- 
note their  difference  of  form,  and  the  prugrefs  of  their 
growth.  Thefe  crylialline  (hoots  are  folid,  regular, 
tranfparent,  and  refleft  the  light  very  beautifully  from 
th:ir  poliHied  iides  and  angles.  As  the  waten,-  part 
evaporates,  numbers  of  long  flenc'ei  bodies  like  hairs, 
are  feen  here  and  there,  fome  lyi^'g  (ide  by  fide,  or- 
crolling  each  other  as  at  4,  others  forming  ftar-like 
figures  with  many  radiations  (5,  5).  This  falt'llioots but 
flowly,  and  therefore  requires  patience.  At  laft  the 
true  cryftals  begin  to  appear  commonly  in  the  middle, 
of  the  di'op,  and  are  very  pietlUy  branched,  as  at  6. 

3.  Dijlilled  vtrdigreafe,  dlffolved  as  above  direfttjl, , 
and  immediately  applied  to  the  microfcope,  (hows  a- 
bundance  of  the  regular  figures,  I,  2,  3,  4,  ^,6,  7  : 
but  if  the  folution  is  fuffered  to  ftand  for  a  few  hours, 
and  a  drop  of  it  is  then  heated  over  the  fire  on  a  flip 
of  glafs,  till  it  begins  to  concrete  about  the  fides,  and 
then  examined,  (harp-pointed,  folid,  figures,  bifefled 
by  a  line  cut  through  the  middle,  from  which  they  are 
cut  away  towards  the  edges,  begin  to  appear,  and 
(hooting  forwards  (i,  I,  i).  Thefe  figures  are  often 
flriated  very  prettily  from  the  middle  line  to  the  edges 
obliquely  (2,  2);  and  frequently  they  arife  incluilers; 
and  (hooting  from  a  centre  (3,  3).  Thefe  figures  are 
a  long  time  in  growing ;  and  whilft  they  are  doing 
fo,  regular  cryftals  appear  forrriing  In  feveral  parts 
of  the  drop,  of  the  mod  lovely  emerald  colour,  and 
reflefting  the  light  from  their  fides  and  angles,  which 
are  moft  exaftly  difpofed,  and  finely  polKhed.  No 
cryftals  are  formed  in  the  middle  till  the  water  is 
nearly  evaporated ;  and  then  they  begin  to  form  ha- 
ftiiy, for  which  reafon  they  muft  be  carefully  attend- 
ed. Their  common  figure  refembles  two  longyy"crof- 
fing  each  other  in  an  angle  of  about  60°,  and  (hooting 
branches  every  way  :  each  of  which  again  protrudes 
other  branches  from  one,  and  fometimes  from  both,  its 
fides  ;  making  together  an  appearance  like  four  leaves 
of  fern  conjoined  by  their  (talks  (5,  5).  Separate 
clufters  of  the  fame  (harp  pointed  figures,  as  thofe  at 
the  edges  of  the  drop,  are  alfo  formed  in  the  middle 
of  it  (6).  Sometimes  alfo  they  put  on  another  form, 
like  the  leaves  of  dandelion  (7).  Very  beautiful  fi- 
gures ar«  likewife  produced  by  a  kind  of  combination^, 
of  (hai-p  points  and  branches  (8,  8).  All  thefe  cry- 
ftals are  of  a  moft  beautiful  green  colour,  but  deeper 
or  lighter,  according  to  the  time  of  their  production. 
The  deepeft  are  conftantly  produced  firft,  and  the 
paler  ones  afterwards.  Towards  the  end  of  the  pro- 
cefs fome  circular  figures  are  formed,  extremely  thin, 
and  fo  flightly  tinged,  with  green  lines  radiating  from . 
a  centre,  as  to  be  almoil  colouvlefs  (9,  9).     When  all 

fcems 


yu/.  /..y^iirecr  SuJ/^J^e/re. 


CRTS  TAt  5  o  f  S  AL  r  S  . 


Plate  ri;j[. 


,  r/E/idom  Sa/t. 


/{lScario?~<?ir^/i Sa/^.  //.  {^/anient  Se///,).  /J?. Sa/to/'/^'/filn Sar'A. 


/3.Sa/t^Ziaum'(V.  l4.Sa//p/mrrm/tW(7.         /J.Sff/hyTo/^arm  /6:Sa/hfJ7rirf/Iwni 


y/'.Su//o/^'r/-ri',u'. 


/  6*.  JtA^i-irn 


/^.  Can^iAt/r.  ?0.  Mafi^ra. 


'^^ySf// ,</^»;irr(^/j„,^,f^r^„ 


CRY 


Jry^alHza- feems  fn  a  manner  over,   bundles  of  hair-like  bodies 
'""'•       appear  freq'ji  iitly  fcattered  liorc  and  there  throughout 
'  the  drop,  like  thofe  of  blue  vitriol  already  defcribed. 

4.   Alum.     The   microfcepical  cryftals  of  this  fait 
prove  more  or  lefs  pcrfetl   according  to  the  ihength 
of  liie  foKition  and   the  degree   of  heat    employed  in 
making  the  experiment.      The  folution  of  altmi,  how- 
ever faturated  with   the   fait,  will  not  be  found  over- 
llrong    after    ftanding  fome    days ;  for   in    that«  time 
mr.ny  cryftals  will  have  formed  in  it.      This  feparation 
will  often  leave  the   remainder  too  weak  for  the  pur- 
pofe  ;  but  by  holding  the  vial  over,  or  near  the  fire, 
the  cryftals  will  again  diflblve.    After  it  has  ftood  about 
half  an  hour,   it  may  then  bi;  ufcd.      The  drop  put  on 
the  fflafs,  and  properly  heated,  exhibits  commonly  at 
firft  a  dark  cloud  which  appears  in  motion  fomewhere 
near  the  edge,   and   runs  pretty   fwiftly  both   to    the 
right  and  left,  until  it  is  cither   ftopped   by  the  inter- 
vention  of  regular   cryftals,  or   elfe  it  proceeds  both 
ways  at  once,  till  having  furrounded   the   whole  drop, 
the  two  ends  rufh  together,  and  join  into  one  (a,  a"). 
This  cloudy  part,  which  feems  to  be  violently  agitated 
while  it  is  running  round,  appears  on  a  ftrift  examina- 
tion to  confift  of  falts,   ftiot  into  long  and  very  flender 
lines,  much  tiner  than  the  fmallefl  hair,   crolling  each 
other  at  right  angles.      As  they  go  along,  rows  of  folid 
cryftals  are  produced  from  their  internal  edges.     Thcfe 
are  compofed  of  many  oblique  plain  fides  {b,  i),  artd 
which  have  all  a  tendency  towards  the  figures   of  the 
regidar  cryftals  to  be  defcribed  prefently.      But  it  fre- 
quently happens,  that,  in  fome  parts  of  the  drop,  many 
minute   and   circular   figures  are   feen,  rifing  at  fome 
little  diftances  from  the  edge,  which  enlarging  them- 
felves   continually,  appear  at  laft   of  a   ftar-hke  form 
(f,  c).     The  cryftals  in  the   middle  feldom  appear  till 
tlie  fluid  feems  ahnoft  wholly  evaporated  ;  when,  on  a 
fudden,  many  ftraight  lines  appear  puftiing  forwards, 
whofe  fides  or  edges  are  jagged,  and  from  which  o- 
ther  fimilar  ftraight  and  jagged  lines  (lioot  out  at  right 
angles  with   the  firft.      Thefe  again  have  other  fniall 
ones  of  the  fame  kind  ftiooting  out  likcwife  from  them- 
felves,  and  compofe  altogether   a   moft   beautiful  and 
elegant  configuration  (D).   Each  of  thefe  lines  increa- 
fiug    in   breadth  towards   its  end,  appears  fomewhat 
club-headed  (c,  1?,  e).     Sometimes,  inftead  of  fending 
branches  from  their  fides,  many  of  thefe  lines  rife  pa- 
rallel  to   each   other,  refembling  a  kiiid  of  palifadoe, 
and  having  numberlefs  minute  tianfverfe  lines  running 
between  them  (F).      But  the  moft   wonderful  pait  of 
all,  though  not  producible  without  an  exaft  degree  of 
heat  and  right  management,  is  the  dark  ground  work 
(ti).      It  confifts  of  an  infinity  of  parallel  lines,  having 
others  crolling  them  at  right  angles^  and  producing  a 
variety  icarce  conceivable  from  lines  difpofed  in  no  o- 
ther  manner:  the  dire&ion  of  the  lines  (which  are  ex- 
quifitely  ftraight  and  delicate)  being  fo  frequently  and 
differently  changed,  that  one  would  think  it  the  refult 
of  longlludy  and  contrivance.     During  the  time  this 
ground- work  is  framing,  certain  lucid  points  prefent 
themfelves  to  view  moft  commonly  on  one  fide.   Thcfe 
grow  continually  larger,  with  radiations  from  a  centre, 
and   become    ftar-like    figures    as  before    mentioned. 
Some  of  them  fend  out  long  tails,  which  give  them  the 
appearance   of  comets  :  and  at  the  end  of  all,  a  dark 
lineation  in  various  direftions  darti  frequently  thrpugh, 


[       5S.       ] 


CRY 


tion. 

-v- 


and  occupies  all  or  iTioft  of  the  fpaces  between   them,  Ofyflalltea. 
making  thereby  no  ill  reprefentation,  when  viewed  by 
candle-light,   of  a  dark  flcy,  illuminated  with  ftars  and 
comets.     Tlie  regular  cryftals  are  often  formed  in  tlie 
fame  drop  with  the  others  (y"). 

5.  Borax.  If  a  drop  of  folution  of  borax  is  held 
too  long  over  the  fire,  it  hardens  on  the  flip  of  glafi 
in  fuch  a  manner  that  no  cryftals  can  appear.  The 
bell  method  is  to  give  it  a  briflt  heat  for  about  a  fe- 
cond,  and  then  applying  it  to  the  microfeope,  the 
ciyrtals  will  quickly  form  themfelves  as  reprefented  iij. 
the  figure. 

6.  Sa/  ammoniac  begins  with  ftiooting  from  the  edges, 
great  numbers  of  ftiarp,  but  thick  and  broad,  fplculae;. 
from  whofe  fides  are  protruded,  as  they  rife,   many  o- 
thers  of  the    fame   ftiape,  but   very  fhort  ;  parallel  to 
each  other,   but  perpendicular  to  their  main  ftem  (  i  ). 
Thefe   fpicula;   arrange   themfelves    in    all  directions  j. 
but  for   the   moft   part   obliquely  to   the   plane   from, 
whence   they  rife,  and  many  are  frequently   feen  pa- 
rallel  to   one   another  (i,  1).      As  they  continue   to- 
pulh  fot  wards,  which  they  do  without  increafing  much 
in  breadth,   fome  ftioot  from   them  the  fmall  fpiculse 
only  (2);  others  divide  in    a  Angular  maimer  by  the 
fplitting  of  the  ftem  (3)  ;  and  others  branch  out  into 
fmaller  rantifications  (4).     Before   the  middle  of  the- 
drop  begins  to   flroot,  feveral   exceedingly  minute  bo- 
dies  may  be  difcerned    at    the  bottom    of  the   fluid- 
Thele  in  a  little  while  rife  to  the  top,  and  foon  diftin- 
guifti  their  ftiape  as   at   (5).      Their  growth   is  very 
quick,  and  for  fome   time  pretty   equal ;  but   at   lalt 
fome  branch  gets  the  better  of  the  reft,  and  forms  the 
figure  (6).      The  other  branches  enlarge  but  little  af- 
ter this,  all   the   attraction   feeming  to  be   lodged  ins 
that  one  that  firft  began  to  lengthen  ;  and  from  this,, 
more  branches  being  protruded,   and  they  again  pro- 
truding others,  the  whole  appears  as  at  (S).     It  is  not 
uncommon  to  fee  in  the  middle  of  the  drop  fome  cry- 
ftals, where,  inftead  of  the  ftraight  Items  above  defcri- 
bed, there  is  formed  a  kind  of  zig-aag,  with  fpiculae  like 
thofe  in  the  other  figures  (7). 

7.  Salt  of  Lead,  or  faccharum  faturni.  A  little  of 
this  fait  diflolved  in  hot  water,  which  it  iinmediately 
renders  milky,  after  ftanding  a  quarter  of  an  hour  to 
fubfide,  is  in  a  fit  condition  for  an  examination  by  the 
microfeope.  A  drop  of  it  then  applied  on  a  flip  of 
glafs,  and  held  over  the  fire  to  put  the  particles  in 
action,  will  be  feen  forming  round  the  edge  a  pretty 
even  and  regular  border  of  a  clear  and  tranfparent 
film  or  glewy  fubftance  [aaaa);  which  if  too  iudden» 
and  violent  a  heat  be  given,  runs  over  the  whole  area 
of  the  drop,  and  hardens  fo  on  the  glafs  as  not  to  be  ■ 
got  off  without  great  difficulty.  But  if  a  moderate 
warmth  be  made  ufe  of,  which  likewife  mull  not  be 
too  long  continued,  this  border  proceeds  only  a  little 
way  into  the  drop,  with  a  kind  of  radiated  figure 
compofed  of  fine  lines,  or  rather  bundle;  of  lines,  be- 
ginning from  the  centres  in  the  interior  edge  of  the 
border,  and  fjjreading  out  at  nearly  equal  diftances 
from  each  other  every  way,  towards  the  exterior 
(^bbbl).  From  the  fame  centres  are  produced  after-- 
wards  a  rad  ation  inwards,  compofed  of  parallelograms 
of  difterent  lengths  and  breadths ;  from  one,  and 
fometimes  both  the  angles  of  thefe,  are  frequently 
feen  Ihootiugs  fo  ex'.cedingly  flender,  that  they  are- 


582 


■Cryft-*rizft 

tlnn. 


CRY  [ 

peiliaps  the  left  pofTible  reprefentalious  of  a  mathema- 
tical line.  The  extiemitics  of  the  parallelograms  are 
crciierally  caft  off  at  i  iglit  angles  ;  but  they  are  fome- 
tlmes  alfo  feen  oblique  {cccc).  Centres  witli  the  like 
radii  ifTuing  from  them,  and  iome  of  the  glutinous  mat- 
ter for  their  root,  are  fometimes  formed  in  the  drop, 
entirely  detached  from  the  edges  ;  and  in  thefe  it  is 
ver)'  frequent  to  find  a  kind  of  fecondary  radii  pro- 
ceeding from  fome  of  the  primary  ones  ;  and  others 
from  them  again  to  a  great  nuniber  of  gradations, 
forming  thereby  a  very  pretty  figure  (D). 

8.  Sci!/  of  Tin,  proAices  at  the  edges  of  the  drop  a 
number  of  odatdra,  partly  traofpaient,  {landing  on 
long  necks,  at  fnif.U  distances  from  each  other,  with 
angiilar  flioots  between  them  fnaj.  At  the  fame 
time,  folid  aud  regular  opaque  cubes  will  be  feen  form- 
ing themfelves  in  other  parts  of  the  drop  {bi).  In 
the  middle  of  the  fame  drop,  and  in  feveral  other  parts 
of  it,  very  different  figures  will  alfo  be  formed  ;  parti- 
cularly great  numbers  of  flat,  thin,  tranfparent,  hex- 
an"-ular  bodies  (ccc)  ;  fume  among  which  are  thicker 
(f),  and  a  few  appear  more  folid,  and  with  fix  Hoping 
fidts  rifing  to  a  point,  as  if  cut  and  polilbed  {(i).  The 
flgire  ffj  is  compofed  of  two  high  pyramids  united 
at  their  bafe.  Some  in  this  kind  of  form  are  found 
ti-uncated  at  one  of  their  ends,  and  others  at  both.  Se- 
veral of  the  hexagonal  bodies  may  be  obierved  with 
floping  fides,  forming  a  fmooth,  triangular,  rifing 
plane,  whofe  angles  point  to  three  intermediate  fides 
of  the  hexagon  (^). 

q.  Epfom  Sail,  begins  to  flioot  from  the  edge  in 
jagged  figures  [a).  From  other  parts  difl'erently  fi- 
gured cryltals  extend  themfelves  towaids  the  middle, 
fome  of  which  have  fine  lines  proceeding  from  both 
fides  of  a  main  ftem,  in  an  oblique  diretlion;  thofe  on 
one  fide  fhooting  upwards  in  an  angle  of  about  60",  and 
thofe  on  the  other  downwards  in  the  fame  obliquity 
(c,f).  Others  produce  jags  fi-om  their  fides  nearly 
perpendicular  to  the  main  Item,  thereby  forming  fi- 
gures that  refemble  fome  fpecies  of  the  polipody  (c); 
but  in  others  the  jags  are  Iborter  [il).  Now  and  then 
one  of  the  main  ftems  continues  ihooting  to  a  confi- 
derable  length,  without  any  branchings  from  the  fides; 
■but  at  laft  fends  out  two  branches  from  its  extremity 
ig).  Sometimes  a  figure  is  produced  having  many 
tine  and  minute  lines  radiating  from  a  centre  {i). 
The  laft  fhootings  in  the  middle  of  the  drop  (b)  are 
not  unlike  the  frame-work  for  the  flooring  or  roofing 
of  a  houfe,  but  with  the  angles  oblique  :  and  fome- 
times a  form  of  another  kind  prcfents  itfclf  (i). 

10  Scarborough  Salt,  begins  to  (hoot  from  the  edges: 
firft  of  all  in  portions  of  quadrilateral  figures,  much 
refembling  thofe  of  common  fait ;  but  two  of  their 
angles,  inftead  of  90,  are  about  100°.  They  flioot 
in  great  numbers  round  the  borders  of  the  drop,  ha- 
ving their  fides  as  nearly  parallel  to  one  another  as  the 
■figure  of  the  drop  will  allow  :  fome  proceed  but  a  lit- 
tle way,  others  farther,  before  they  renew  the  flioot 
(aa).  In  fome  places  they  appear  more  pointed  and 
longer  (i)  ;  and  fometimes,  inftead  of  the  diagonal, 
one  of  the  fides  is  feen  towards  the  edge,  and  the  o- 
ther  Ihooting  into  the  middle  (c).  The  middle  cryf- 
tals  {dif)  feem  to  be  of  the  vitriolic  kind. 

II.  Glauber's  Salt,  produces  ramifications  from  the 
fide  of  the  drop,  like  the  growth  of  minute  plants,  but 


3  CRY 

extremely  tranfparent  and  elegant  (r).  Some  of  them.CryA-iUizi- 
however,  begin  to  ftioot  fiom  a  centre  at  fome  dif- .  "°""  j 
tance  from  the  edge,  and  protrude  branches  from  that  ' 
centre  in  a  contrary  direction  (i).  Sometimes  they 
flioot  from  one,  and  fometimes  from  more  fides  of  the 
central  point  in  different  varieties  {d).  Other  figures 
are  produced  from  different  parts  of  the  edge  of  the 
drop  {a,f,  e)  ;  but  the  moil  remarkable  and  beautiful 
cryllellization  forms  laft  of  all  near  the  middle  of  the 
drop.  It  is  compofed  of  a  number  of  fines  proceeding 
from  one  another  at  right  angles  with  tranfparent 
fpaces  and  divillons  running  between  them,  appear- 
ing altogether  like  ftreets,  alleys,  and  fqnares,  igg)- 
When  this  cryftalllzation  begins,  it  forms  with  great 
rapidity,  afl'ording  the  cbferver  a  very  agreeable  en- 
tertainment :  but  its  beauty  is  of  very  ftiort  duration: 
in  a  few  moments  it  diffolves  and  vaniflies  like  melt- 
ed ice,  which  renders  the  drawing  of  it  very  difii- 
cult. 

I  2  Salt  'of  Jefuiti  hark.  The  few  fliootings  which 
this  fait  produces  at  the  edge  of  the  drop  are  of  no  re- 
gular figure  (,7).  The  whole  area  becomes  quickly 
filled  with  great  numbers  of  rhombi,  of  different  fizcs, 
extremely  thin  and  tranfparent  (A).  Some  of  thefe 
enlarge  greatly  and  acquire  a  confiderable  thicknefs, 
forming  themfelves  into  folids  of  many  fides  [c  c). 
Near  the  conclufion  fome  ciyftals  of  fea-falt  are  form- 
ed {'III),  and  likewife  a  few  odJ  triangular  figures  (c). 

13.  Salt  of  LiquDrice,  begins  fhooting  from  the  edge 
with  a  fort  of  rhombic  fpicula:  [a).  Some  four-branch- 
ed figures  like  thofe  of  vitriol  commonly  appear,  but 
moulder  away  before  their  ramifications  are  completed, 
leaving  only  their  ftamina  behind  [bb).  The  middle 
of  the  drop  is  ufually  overfpread  with  great  numbers  of 
parallelograms,  fome  exceedingly  tranfparent,  being 
mere  planes  ;  having  fometimes  one,  fometimes  more, 
of  the  angles  canted  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  produce 
pentagonal,  hexagonal,  and  other  figures.  Others 
have  much  thickncls,  and  form  parallelopipeds  or  prifins 
(c).  Some  of  the  plane  figures  now  and  then  pro- 
trude an  irregular  kind  of  fliooting  which  appears  very 
pretty  [d). 

14.  Salt  of  Wormwood.  The  firil  fhootings  of  this 
fait  from  the  edges  of  the  drop  appear  of  a  confider- 
able thicknefs  in  proportion  to  their  length:  their  fides 
are  deeply  and  firarply  jagged  or  indented,  being 
made  up  of  many  fomewhat  obtufe  angles,  and  their 
ends  pointed  with  angles  of  the  fame  kind  (a).  But 
other  fhoots  frequently  branch  out  from  thefe  original 
ones,  and  they  again  fend  forth  others,  making  alto- 
gether a  very  pretty  appearance  {bb).  The  cryftals 
of  this  ialt  are  very  different  from  each  other,  confifting 
of  fquarcs,  rohmbi,  parallelograms,  &c.  {c). 

15.  Salt  of  Tobacco.  If  a  moderate  degree  of  heat 
is  given  to  a  folution  of  this  fait,  its  firft  fhootings  will 
be  from  the  edges  of  the  drop,  in  flender  tapering  fi- 
gures, ending  with  very  fharp  points,  but  at  confider- 
able diftances  from  one  another.  Along  with  thefe 
are  formed  other  cryftals,  nearly  ef  the  fame  kind, 
but  entirely  detached,  and  farther  within  the  drop, 
having  the  thicker  ends  towards  the  centre  of  the 
drop,  and  the  fliarp  points  turned  towards  its  edge 
[a).  When  a  little  more  heat  has  been  given,  other 
fpiculx  are  produced  from  the  edge,  whofe  ends 
fpread  on  either  fide,  and  then  terminate  in  a  point ; 

and 


CRY 


[     5^2     1 


CRY 


tio.i. 


and  which  have  all  along  their  fijes  triangular  pointed 
cryftals,  placed  alternately  fo  as  to  reprcfent  a  zig- 
zag, with  a  line  drawn  through  its  middle  (i).  The 
regular  cryftals  arc  produced  in  the  middle  of  the 
drop,  and  are  either  hexagons  or  ihombi  (c).  When 
the  moiilure  is  nearly  exhaled,  thei'e  are  lometimes 
feen  to  fhoot  from,  or  rather  ucidtr  the  i'piculie,   upon 


produced  fliooting  feveral  flems  from  one  point,  and  Cryda'tiza- 
rcfembling  a  kind  of  fea-mofs  (E).  "°''' 

19.  Ciimp/.'ire,  though  infohible  in  water,  diflblves  very 
readily  in  fpirit  of  wine.  A  drop  of  this  folution 
fpread  upon  a  (lip  of  glafs  cryllalli/es  in!lantly  in  the 
beantitul  manner  reprcfented  in  the  iigurc. 

20.  Manna  eafdy  diffolves  in  water,  and  a  drop  of* 
the  plane  of  the  glafs,  a  reprefentation  of  leaves  very  the  folution  is  a  very  pretty  objeft.  Its  firft  (liootmgs 
fmall  at  iheir  firil  appearance,  but  gradually  uicreallng  are  radiations  from  points  at  the  very  edge  of  the 
{d).  A  violent  agitation  may  be  difcovered  in  the  drop:  the  radiating  lines  feem  opaque,  but  are  very 
fluid  by  the  firll  magnifier  during  the  whole  procefs;  flender  [aaa).  Amongft  thefc  arife  many  minute 
but  efpecially  at  the  beginning,  and  extremely  minute  tranfparent  columns,  whofe  end's  grow  wider  gradual- 
cryftals  rifmg  from  the  bottom.  ly  as  they  extend  in  length,  and  terminate  at  lall  with 

16.  Sdh  of  HartJIjorn.  On  the  application  of  a  ve-  fome  degree  of  obliquity  [b).  Some  few  figures  ra- 
ry  fmall  degree  of  heat,  fait  of  hartlhorn  flioots  near  diating  f.tim  a  centre  every  way,  and  circumfcribed 
the  edges  of  the  drop  into  folid  figures  iomewhat  re-  by  an  outline,  are  produced  within  the  drop  (dtl). 
fcmbliag  razors  or  lancets,  where  the  blade  turns  into  But  the  moll  furprifiiig  and  elegant  configuration  is 
the  handle  byaclafp  [d).  The  cryftals  of  this  fait  are  compofed  of  many  clufters  of  radiaticms  (hooting  one 
produced  with  great  velocity,  and  are  fomewhat  o-  from  another  over  great  part  of  the  drop,  and  ma- 
paque,  (Viootiiig  trom  the  edges  of  tlie  drop,  on  both  king  all  together  a  figure  not  unlike  a  certain  very 
fides  a  main  ftem,  and  with  a  kind  of  regularity,   rug-  beautiful  fea-plant  (C). 

ged  branches  like  thofe  of  fome   foixs  of  coral  ((iff).  The  plienomena  of  cryftallization  have  much  engaged 

But  fomttimes,  inllead  of  thefe  branches,   (harp  I'picu-  the  attention  of  modern  chcmifts,  and  a  vaft  number  of 

\x,  fome  plain,  and  others  jagged,  are  protruded  to  a  experiments  has  been  made  with  a  view  to  determine 

confiderable  depth  on  one  fide  only  (i).     As  the  fluid  exatlly  the  different  figures  affumed  by  falts  in  pafling 

exhales,  fome  one  of  the  branching  figures  generally  from  a  fluid  to  a  folid  form.    It  does  not,  however,  ap-  ExcelTive 

extends  to  a  great  length,  producing  on  one  lide  flioots  pear,  from  all  that  has  yet  been  done,  that  any  certain  variety  in 

that  are   rugged   and  irregular,  and  on  the  other  cu-  lule  can  be  laid  down  in  thefe  cafes,  as  the  figure  of  faline ''''^'"^"*"'^ 

rious  regular  branches  rcfembling  thofe  of  fome  jilant  cryftals  may  be  varied  by  the  flighteft  circumftances.  "^ 

(f).  Thus,  fal  ammoniac,   when   prepared  by  a  mixture  of 

17.  5'</// 0/"  LV-Zw,  flioots  from  the  edges  of  the  drop  pure  volatile  alkali  with  fpirit  of  f^lt,  (hoots  into 
in  long  parallelograms  like  nitre  {an).  But  in  other  cryllals  refcmbhng  feathers  ;  but  if,  inftead  of  a  pure 
places,  along  the  fides  of  the  drop  folid  angles  are  alkah,  we  make  ufe  of  one  juft  diftilled  fiom  bones, 
formed,  that  feem  to  be  the  rudiments  of  common  and  containing  a  great  quantity  of  animal  oil,  we  fhall, 
fait  (i).  Some  of  the  parandograms  increafc  much  after  fome  cryftallizations  of  the  featheiy  kind,  obtain 
in  fize,  and   fpread  themfelves   in  the  middle,  fo   as  the  very  fame  fait  in  the  form  of  cubes. 

to  change  their  firft  figure,  and  become  three  or  four  Such  falts  as  are  fublimeable  cryftallize  not  only  in 

times  bigger  than  the  rell  :   and  tliefe  have  a  dividing  the  aqueous  way  by  folution  and  evaporation,  but  alfo 

line  that  runs  through  their  whole  .length  from  end  to  by  fublimation  ;  and  the  difference  betwixt  the  figures 

end,  whence  ilTue  other  (liort  lines  at  fmall  diilances,  of  thefe  cryftals  is  often  very  remarkable.     Thus  fal 

oppofite   to   one  another  ;  all  pointing  with  the  fame  ammoniac  by  fublimation   never  exhibits  any  appear- 

degree  of  obliquity  towards  the  bafe  (cc).      Among  ance   of  feathery  ci-yftals,  but  always  forms  cubes  or 

thefe   enlarged  figures,  f(iine   few   (hoot  (till   forward  parallelopipeds.      This  method  of  cryftallizing  falts  by 

and   tapering  towards  a  point,  but,  before  they  form  fublimation  has  not  as  yet  been  inveftigated  by  che- 

onc,  fwell  again,    and  begin   as   it  were   anew  ;  and  mifts :   nor  indeed  does  the  fubjeft  feem  capable  of  in- 

thus  they   proceed  feveral  times  before  their  figure  is  vefligation   without   much  trouble  ;  as  the  leaft  aug- 

quite  finilhcd  (aa).     The  figures  I,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  are  mentation  of  the  heat  beyond  the  proper  degree  would 

the  regular  ciyftals  of  this   fait  when  it  is  allowed  to  make  the  cryftals  run  into  a  fohd  cake,  while  a  dimi- 

•diffolve  in  the  air,  and  no  heat  at  all  is  given.  nution  of  it  would  caufe  them  fall  into  powder.      In, 

18.  Rheum,  or  the   clear  liquor  which   diftils  from  aqueous  folutions,  too,  the   circumftances  which  de- 
the  noftrils  when  people  cateli  cold,  is  ftrongly  fatura-  termine  the  (liapes  of  the  cryilals  are  innumerable;  and 
ted  with  fait.    A  drop  of  it  on  a  flip  of  glafs  will  foon  the  degree  of  heat,  the  quantity  of  fait  contained  in 
cryftallize  in  a  beautiful  manner,   either  wi;h  or  with-  the  liquor,  nay,  the  quantity  of  liquor  itfelf,  and  the 
out  heat  ;  but  if  heated  to  about  the  warmth  of  the  various  conftitutions  of  the  atmofphere  at  the  time  of 
blood,  and  then  viewed  through  the  microfcope,  many  cryftallization,  often  occafion  fuch  differences  as  feem 
lucid  points  will  be  feen  rifing  and  increafing  gradually,  quite  imaccountable  and  furprifing.                                            , 
till  their  form  is  fhown  to  be  quadrangular,   with  two  Mr  Bergman  has  given  a  diffcrtation  on  the  various  Mr  B^rg. 
tranfparent  diagonals  croffing  each  other  (d  d).    Thefe  forms  of  cryftals  ;  which,  he  obferves,  always  refemble  man's  ac- 
diagonals  (hoot  foon  after  far  beyond  the  fquare,  pro-  geometrical  figures  more  or  lefs  regular.     Their  varie- '""."'  "^ 
truding  other  lines  at  right  angles  from  their  fides ;  and  ty  at  firft  appears  infinite  ;  but  by  a  careful  cxamina-  ''"^'^  ^"'^* 
thus  they  go  on  to  form  the  mcft  elegant  and  beautiful  tion  it  will  be  found,  that  a  great  number  of  cryftals, '"""""' 
cryftals  {bb,cc).     When  a  drop  of  rheum   is   fet  to  feemingly  very  diflferent  from  each  other,  may  be  pro- 
cryftallize  without  any  heat,  inftead  of  branched  cryf-  duced  by  the  combination  of  a  fmall  number  of  origi- 

tals  over  the  whole  area,  fuch  are  formed  only  in  the  nal  figures,  which  therefore  he  thinks  may  be  called 

middle;  but,  about  the  edges,  plant-like  figures  are  frimitivc.     On  this  principle  he  explains  the  fonnation. 

of 


CRY 


[    5S4    1 


CRY 


7 

Of  the 
frhoerlace. 
ous  eryflal 


CtyH^IViza-  of  the  CTftalline  gems  as  well  as  falts  ;  and  the  refults 
tion.      (jf  j^ig  observations  are  as  follow. 

'-"'^r-'^  j_  One  cf  the  primitive  forms  is  that  named  by  our 
author  fpmhijri'ous;  and  thcfe,  he  fays,  properly  agglu- 
tinated, may  form  the  great  variety  of  diffimilar  bodies 
found  among  cryftals. 

In  the  calcareous  fpar  we  find  a  combination  of 
rhombi,  whofe  obtufe  angles  contain  1 01  r  degrees, 
and  the  acute  78^-.  By  S  combination  of  thefe  is 
formed  the  calcareous  fpar,  which  appears  in  the  form 
of  a  teffera  or  oblique  paraiklopiped  ;  but  by  other 
combinations  of  the  fame  planes,  cryftals  apparently 
of  the  moft  oppofite  forms  may  be  generated.^  I'hus, 
for  the  formation  of  an  hexaedral  pril'm,  confifting  of  fix 
equal  and  fimilar  parallelograms  terminating  at  both 
ends  in  three  rhombi  which  form  a  folid  angle,  we  have 
onlv  to  fuppofe  a  continual  addition  of  rhombi  equal, 
fimilar,  and  parallel  to  the  oblique  parallelepiped  or 
cryftal  of  the  calcareous  fpar.  Thus,  fuppofe  the  fi- 
gure ABCDE  (fig.  I.)  to  reprefent  a  nucleus  of  the 
kind  juft  mentioned,  the  axis  of  which  paflcs  through 
the  two  oppofite  angles  BE;  it  is  evident,  that  by  a 
continual  application  of  rhombi,  fuch  as  F  G,  HI,  &c, 
■to  both  fides  of  the  axis,  we  fiiall  at  laft  produce  the 
figure  A  B,  fig.  2.  and  which  reprefents  the  hexae- 
dral prifm  required.  This  kind  of  crj-ital,  our  author 
tells  us,  belongs  chiefly  to  the  ftones  called  fchoerh, 
and  is  therefore  called  the  fchoerlaceovs  form.  It  be- 
longs likewife  to  fome  others  of  the  calcareous  tribe. 

<3arnet  cr)'-      From  the  fchoerluceous  cryftal  that  of  the  garnet  is 


3PIate 


iliO. 


9 

Sljacinth. 


10 
Pyramidal 

cijilals. 


eafily  produced  by  a  ftoppage  of  the  accumulation  of 
the  planes  as  foon  as  the  fides  of  the  prifm  have  acqui- 
red a  rh(mrboidal  figure.  Thus  a  complete  dodecahe- 
dron is  formed,  which  is  always  the  figure  of  the  gar- 
net when  perfeA. 

The  figure  of  the  garnet  is  eafily  changed  into  ano- 
ther, frequently  affumed  by  the  hyacinth,  by  the  regular 
application  of  equal  and  fimilar  rhombi  to  each  of  the 
folid  angles,  which  angles  are  formed  by  feur  planes. 
The  garnet,  when  complete,  has  fix  angles  compofed  of 
four  planes,  and  eight  with  three.  The  formation  of 
this  kind  of  cryftal  will  be  underftood  from  an  infpcc- 
tlon  of  fig.  3.  In  this  operation  the  four  rhombi  are 
changed  into  an  equal  number  of  oblong  hexagons ; 
L  H  A  B  into  L  H  /j  a  i  B  :  and  fo  ot  the  other 
rhombi   reprefented    by   the    different    letters  of   the 

figure. 

lu  fome  cafes  the  original  planes  decreafe  accordmg 
to  a  certain  law;  and  this,  from  whatever  caufe  it  may 
arife,  muft  neccflarily  change  the  appearance  of  the 
terminating  planes,  and  occafionally  either  augtnent 
or  diminifli  their  number.  Thus,  inftead  of  a  prifm, 
we  Ihall  have  a  double  pyramid,  one  tending  upwards 
and  the  other  downwards,  as  will  be  eafily  underftood 
from  what  has  been  akeady  faid.  This  is  the  form  af- 
fumed  by  the  calcareous  cryftals  commonly  called /;;j-- 
tooth  by  the  miners. 

If  the  decreafing  feries  of  rhombi  is  ftopped  before 
they  vanifii  ultimately  in  a  point,  the  formation  of 
truncated  pyramids,  of  which  many  examples  are  to 
be  met  with  in  the  mineral  kingdom,  muft  necefl!aTily 
take  place.  In  cafes  of  this  kind,  it  is  eafy  to  fee  why 
the  pyramids,  if  ftruck  in  one  direction,  will  break 
over  fmoothly  and  eafily,  but  not  in  another. 


It   is  not   uncommon  to   find  the  original  cryftals  CrylViIliza- 
theB^fflves  imperfedl ;  in  which  cafe  the  large  cryftals,       ''""• 
fonried   by   combining  them    together,    muft    deviate  • 

more   or    lefs    from    the    ptrfert    form.       Tlius,     let  j,     '/•  . 

ABCDEFG  (fig.  4  )  reprefent   tht  three  rhombi  from' a'pf'-  ■ 
which  conllitute   the  apex  of  a  ptrfetl  fchocrlaceousfuil  cryftal- 
cryftal ;  and  let  us  next  fuppofe  the  rhombus  A  G  trun-  '^e  t'orin. 
caled  in  the  direction   ot  the  line  ab,  CG  along  c  il, 
and  E  G  along  ef.     Thus,   the  legular  hexagonal  fi- 
gure of  the  prifm  A  B  C  D  £  F  will  be  changed  into 
an  irregular  one  abcdDefV,  confifting  of  nine  un- 
equal fides,  whofe  apex  Is  compofed  of  three  irregular 
pentagons,  a^  B  G  F,  <:  ^^D  C  B,  and  e/F  G  D.  The 
rough  tourmalins  of  Tyrol  and  CcyloEi  particularly  af- 
fume  this  form,  though  it  fometimcs  belongs  to  bodies 
both  of  the  calcareous  and  fchocrlaceous  kind.  j. 

Triangular  cryftals  may  be  luppofcd  to  arife  from  Triangular 
thofe  of  the  pentagonal  kind  ;  It  being  obvious,  that  cryftals. 
the  periphery  of  a  pentagon,  as  a^  B  G  F,  approaches 
more  nearly  to  a  triangle  In  proportion  as  the  diftance 
between  a  b  and  B  F  grows  lefs  :  and  when  thefe  dl- 
ftances  vaniih  entirely,  a  triagoual  prifin  is  formed, 
terminated  by  three  triangles :  if  the  cutting  line  a  b 
approach  ilill  nearer  to  the  centre  G,  the  form  ftiU 
remains  the  fame.  j 

Let  us  now  fuppofe,  that  the  garnet  ci7ftal,  whofe  Varieties  of 
(hape  k  reprefented  fig.  5.  inftead  of  complete  rhombi,  the  pimct 
has  others  accumulated  about  Its  axis,  whofe  three  ex-  ''■y^"' 
ternal  angles  are  truncated  ;  or,  which  is  the  fame 
thing,  if  the  longitudinal  margins  of  the  prifm  be  cut  by 
planes  parallel  to  the  axis,  crj'ftals  will  be  formed,  whofe 
(hape  is  reprefented  by  the  fmall  letters  in  the  figure. 
Calcareous  cryftals  are  iometimes  found  of  this  fliape  ; 
but  generally  fo  low,  that  e  nearly  coincides  with  a,  c 
with  d,  &c.  and  hence  the  pentagon  abcdt  becomes 
ahnoil  of  a  triangular  figure,  which  has  been  attributed 
to  thefe  cryftals  by  fome  authors  who  did  not  under- 
ftand  their  true  origin.  The  pyrltaceous  cryftals  fome- 
times  afford  Inftances  of  this  kind  complete.  Some- 
times the  garnet  confifts  of  24  fides,  by  having  all  tlie 
margins  truncated ;  a  change  which  may  eafily  be 
underftood  from  what  has  been  already  mentioned. 
If  the  intetfedion  cd  of  the  planes  ec  and  cr  fall 
without  the  plane  B  G,  a  figure  of  a  very  different 
kind  will  be  generated.  j 

Sometimes  the  hyacinthlne  cryftal  aflumes  the  cru-  Cruciforta 
ciform  appearance  A  B  C  D  E  F  G  H I KLM,  fig.  6.  hyacinthine 
Here  the  apex  is  at  C,  the  figure  A  B  C  *  c  a  being  all  "yft^l. 
in  the  fame  inclined  plane,  which  is  the  cafe  with  the 
otlier  three  homologous  figures.  Now,  in  order  to 
Inveftigate  the  fonnation  ot  thefe  cryftals,  let  us  fup- 
pofe the  rhombi  CO,  C  P,  and  C  Q^  to  be  comple- 
ted, which  to  an  eye  placed  in  the  high  axis  C  will 
appear  like  as  many  iquares  fituated  In  the  fubja- 
cent  plane.  Thus  we  may  underftand  the  formation 
of  the  crj'ftals  of  granite  as  well  as  of  the  hyacinth. 
The  former  may  be  fuppofed  a  quadrangular  prifin 
compofed  of  foiu-  rhombi,  touching  one  another  only 
at  tlieir  apices,  and  terminated  at  each  end  by  four 
rhombi  meeting  at  the  apex.  When  this  form  is  a 
little  protracted,  or  augmented  by  applying  to  the 
apices  fimilar  and  equal  planes,  it  becomes  that  of  the 
hyacinth  ;  whence  the  graiute  cryftal  may  be  called 
the  rudiment  of  the  hyacinth  alfo.     The  variety  here 

mentioned 


CHUYS  T.U.T.IZATI( 


)N, 


V    . 


.IAc 


-:>?. 


'/■  /^: 


Oc 


^./^. 


f^ 


t^/?r 


|?r./^. 


Ware  rxur. 


^c^.  ^. 


'^'V 

'^^. 


S'^O'. 


^''r^'yofAf/^yiWA 


CRY 


[     585     1 


CRY 


Cryftalli-  mentioned,  of  hyacinthine  cryftals,  is  met  with  in  the     fix  quadrangular  hollow  pyramidi,' joined  by  their    CryflalU. 


15 

■Other  va- 
rieties of 
the  forms 

••f  crj'ftals. 


Of  the  mi. 
rute  coii- 
ftituent 
parts  of 
•wyftals. 


Hartz  mines.     Mr  Ehihart  fays,  that  they  are  of  a  fi 
liceous,  and  not  of  a  calcareous,  nature. 

If  planes  fimllar  to  one  another,  but  diflimilar  to 
the  fundamental  ones,  be  added,  a  vaft  variety  of 
fhapes  may  be  produced,  of  which  it  is  needlcis  to 
give  more  examples  at  prefent.  Our  author  appeals 
to  experience  for  the  truth  of  it  ;  and  afTerts,  that  the 


npicca  and  external  furfaces ;  each  of  thefe  filled  up 
by  others  funijar,  but  gradually  dccreafinp,  completes 
the  form.  By  a  due  degree  of  evaporation,  it  is  no 
difficult  matter  to  obtain  thtfe  pyramids  feparate  and 
diftina,  as  in  fig.  8.  or  iix  of  fuch,  eitl^er {hollow,  or 
more  or  lefs  folid,  joined  round  a  centre.  This  is  the 
whole  courfe  of  the  operation  from  beginning  to  end, 


loofe  texture  of  calcareous  cryftals  will  clearly  fiiow  This  takes  place  in  the  falited  vegetable  alkali,  or  fal 

their  conftruftion,  if  carefully  and  completely  broken,  digejlivus  Sylvli;   in   the   ci7ftallized  luna  cornea  ;  the 

The  harder  cryftals  can  fcarcely  be  broken  in  fuch  a  g.alena  or  fulphurated  lead  ;  and  quadrangular  nitre, 

manner  as  to  (how  their  ftrufture ;  but  the  fchoerls  dif-  which  is  of  the  fpathaceous  form,  produces  a  fimllar 

cover  it  very  plainly,  and  even  the  garnets  (how  them-  congeries  of  pyramids,  and  thefe  almoft  equallv  di(lini5\ 

felves  to  be  compofed  of  laminae.  with  the  preceding  cubic  cryftals.   A  folution  of  alum, 

"  Finally   (fays   }*lr   Bergman),  we  may   add  one  upon   evaporation,  generally  produces  folid  odlaedra  ; 

particular  obfervation  concerning  prilmatic  and  hexa-  but  fometimes  alfo  it  exhibits  hollow  pyramids,  and 

gonal   calcareous  cr^'ftals   truncated  perpendicularly;  upon   fuch  of  them  as  are  complete,  the  junftures  are 

fuch   fometimes  occur,  and  they  cannot   derive  their  very  diftinftly  marked  by  confpicuous  lines, 
origin,  in  the  manner  above  dcfcribed,  from  the  fpa-         4.  "  Sometimes,   too,   other  falts  indicate  the  fame 

thaceous  particles,  and  by  no  other  way  can  hexago-  conftruftion  by  vifible  diagonals.      Fig.  9.  reprefents  a 

nal  prifms  be   generated.     What,  then,  is  the  caufe  feftion  of  the  hexagonal  prifm  formed  by  Rochelle  fait, 

which  deftroys  their  apices  ?     I  confefs  this  to  be  a  The  arrangement   of  the  internal  particles  of  this  fait 

queftion  which   I  am  wholly  unable  to  anfwcr,  unlefs  cannot  be  known  when  the  cry ftal  is  complete:  but  when 

■we  may  aflume  an  accumulation   of  planes  more  and  it  is  formed  on  the  bottom  of  the  veflel,  as  reprefenteA 

more  deficient  around  the  axis.     We  may  from  hence  fig.  10.  the  lower  fide  cannot  be  perfeft  ;  and  this  paral- 

conclude,  that  fomething  unufual  occurs ;   as  the  trun-  lelogram  exhibits  two  diagonals di/linftly,  as  reprefented 

cated  extremity  is  opaque,  while  the  reft  of  the  prifm  fig.  11.     This  is  likewife  the  cafe  with  the  fait  extrafted 

is  tranfparent ;    but   the   upper  hexagonal   fetlion   is  from  human  urine,  called  microcofmic  fall.      Befides,  we 

fmooth  and  poliihed."  fhould  obferve  of  the  vertical  triangles,  that  they  are  al- 

On  the  whole,  our  author  obferves,  that  the  greateft  ternately  tranfparent  and  opaque  in  pairs;  which  plainly 

varieties  may  occur  in  the  fifrures  of  cryftals,  though  points  out  a  difi'erence  in  the  fituation  of  tlieir  elements, 

all  of  them  may  be  generated  from  thofe  of  the  fpatha-  Some  cryftals  of  nitre  are  alfo  marked  with  diagonals; 


ceous  form,  and  the  fubftance  of  all  may  be  ultimately 
the  fame  ;  whence  we  fhould  be  induced  to  put  but 
little  confidence  in  the  figure.  "  If,  then,  (fays  he), 
this  teft,  which  undoubtedly  is  the  moft  remarkable  fo 
far  as  externals  reach,  is  of  fo  little  ufe,  of  what  value 
can  the  others  be  ?  and  with  what  fuccefs  can  we  hope 


a  circumllance  which  in  others   is  generally  concealed 
by  the  clofe  connexion  of  the  particles. 

5.  "  If  we  examine  the  hollow  pyramid  of  common 
fait  farther,  we  fliall  find  it  compofed  of  four  triangles, 
and  each  of  thefe  formed  of  threads  parallel  to  the 
bafe  ;  which  threads,  upon  accurate  examination,  are 


to  form  a  fy'ftem  of  mineralogy  upon  fuch  diftinftions?  found  to  be  nothing  elfe  than  a  feries  of  fmall  cubes  : 

External  criteria  (hould  certainly  not  be  neglcfted,  but  Therefore,    although   the    above    circumftances   feem 

he  who  trufts  implicitly  to  them  deceives  himfelf."  plainly  to  piJint  out  the  formation  of  all  cryftals  from 

II.  From  a  confidevation  of  the  larger  hmellse  of  the  union  and  cohefion  of  pyramids,  vvhofe  fides,  be- 

which  cryftals  are  compofed,  our  author  naturally  pro-  ing  different  in  form  and  magnitude,  occafion  the  dif- 

ceeds  to  an  inveftigation  of  their  fmaller  conftituent  ferences  of  forms  ;  it  yet  remains  uncertain  whether 

parts.      Here  he  is  of  opinion,  that  the  different  ex-  the  fame  internal  itrufture  takes  place  in  thofe  whofe 

ternal  appearance  of  all  cryftals  is  owing  to  varieties  in  minutenefs  renders  them  totally  invifible  ;  and  whether 

their  mechanical  elements.     A  queftion,  however,  oc-  the  primary  ilamina  polfefs  a  determinate  figure,  or 

curs,    Whether  thofe  very  minute  molecules,    which  are  compofed  by  the  union  sf  many  ftiapelefs  particles, 

may,  as  it  were,  be  csXXtA  \.\\e  Jlamina  of  cryftals,  be  We  have  long  known,   that  the  I'malleft  concretions 


naturally  pofTefled  of  a  determinate  angular  figure,  or 
whether  they  acquire  it  by  cryftalUzation  ?  In  anfwer 
to  this,  he  mentions  the  following  fafts,  which  he 
has  had  an  opportunity  of  obferving  himfelf. 

I,  "  If  the  fmall  particles  which  feparate  from  lime- 
water,  when  expofed  to  the  air,  be  infpcfted  with  a 
microfcope,  they  will  be  found  fpathaceous. 


which  are  vii'ible  by  a  microfcope  poifefs  a  determined 
figure  ;  but  thefe  are  compounds.  In  the  mean  time, 
until  this  veil  be  removed  in  fome  meafure  at  leaft,  we 
cannot  avoid  comparing  the  procefs  of  cryftallization 
with  the  congelation  of  water. 

"  While  the   watery  particles  are  concreting,  tJiey 
exert  a  double  tendency;   by  one  of  which  they  aie 


2.   "  The  greater  fpathous  tefl'era",  when  accurately  formed  into  fpiculx,  by   the   other  thefe  fpiculi;   are 

examined,  are  frequently  found  with  ftrias  running  di-  ranged  in  fuch   a  manner  with  refpect  to  one  another 

agonally,  fuch  as  often  appear  in  fahne  cryftals,  by  as  to  form  angles  of  60  degrees  :  from  hence  the  va- 

'  '  '    ■'    '    '  '  "-   ■'^"-  '--  -■'"  »  rieties  obferved  in  the  p.articles  of  fnow  mav  be  eafilv 


which  their  internal  ftrufture  is  difcovered. 

3.  "  The  cubes  of  common  fah  not  only  exhibit 
diagonal  ftriae,  but  frequently,  upon  each  fide,  (how 
fquares  parallel  to  the  external  furface,  and  gradually 
decreafing  inwards  (fig.  7.),  by  which  we  difcover 
their  internal  iirutture  :  for  every  cube  is  comp(;fed  of 

Vol.  V.   Part  II. 


fxplalned.  The  n\oft  fimplt:  figure  is  that  where  fix 
equal  radii  diverge  from  3  centre  in  the  angle  abo\e 
mentioned,  as  in  fig.  12.  The  fime  angle  will  be 
preferved  if  the  extremities  of  thefe  be  joined  by  right 
lines;  which  wiU  alio  be  the  cafe,  if  each  of  the  tri- 
4  E  angles 


2<iuun. 


J7 
DilTeicnt 

vays  in 
which  they 
may  be 
©reduced. 


CRY  [     586 

angles  thv;s  forrrssd  be  filled  with  right  lines  parallel  to 
the  bafe,  as  in  fig.  13. 

"  Let  us  now  fuppofe  the  particles  which  are  em- 
ployed in  crjftallization  endowed  with  a  tendency  to 
torm  fpiculae,  and  thefe  fpicuhe  with  a  tendency  to 
arrange  themftlves  at  equal  angles  of  inclination,  and 
we  ihall  have  both  the  triangles  and  the  pyramids  com- 
pofed  of  them,  even  although  the  primary  ilamina  had 
not  a  determined  figure.  As  the  angles  of  inchnation 
vary,  the  triangles  and  pyramid:;  will  alfo  vary  ;  and 
hence  the  difl'erent  forms  of  crylfals  will  be  produced, 
which  may  to  a  certain  degree  be  invetligated  geome- 
trically, the  angles  being  given. 

III.  Mr  Bergman  now  conhdcrs  the  various  ways  in 
which  cryilals  may  be  produced  ;  which  are,  i.  By  wa- 
ter ;  2.  By  a  liquefying  heat  ;  3.  By  a  volatihzing  heat. 

1.  The  mofl  coramon  method  of  obtaitiing  cryftals  is 
by  means  of  water ;  as  by  this  medium  faUne  fubflan- 
ces  are  very  readily  taken  up,  and  appear  again  in  a 
folid  form  when  the  liquid  is  properly  diminilhed  by 
evaporation.  It  is  not  only  when  dili'olved  in  water 
that  they  acquire  determinate  forms  ;  this  happens 
alio  when  they  are  fufficiently  attenuated  and  mixed 
with  it ;  for  fubflances  not  foluble  in  water  will  re- 
main fufpended  in  it,  when,  by  fufficient  divilion,  they 
have  acquired  as  much  furface  as  makes  them  approach 
the  fpecific  gravity  of  the  fluid  ;  and  it  feems  very 
probable,  that  many  of  the  earths  met  wich  in  the  mi- 
neral kingdom,  which  have  a  regular  form,  have  cealef- 
ced  in  this  way.  We  mulf,  however,  carefully  di- 
ftingnilh  between  mechanical  mixture  and  true  folu- 
tion,  even  though  both  Ihould  agree  in  weight.  When 
folid  bodies  are  mechanically  mixed  with  water,  they 
will  remain  at  the  bottom  of  the  veffel  if  laid  there  in 
powder,  unlefs  difTufed  by  agitation  ;  but  foluble  fub- 
llances  totally  and  fpontaneoufly  dillribute  themfelves 
through  the  menftruum  even  without  any  agitation, 
though  this  certainly  accelerates  the  lolution. 

2.  Another  method  of  obtaining  cryllals  is  by  fufion 
and  flow  cooling.  Thus  fulplnir,  when  melted  and 
cooled,  (hoots  into  long  ftria;,  acquiring  at  the  fame 
time  an  eleftrical  pioperty  :  bifmuth,  zinc,  and  regu- 
ius  of  antimony,  acquire  a  ttfFelated  appearance  ;  nay, 
the  laft  of  thefe,  when  fet  to  cool  in  a  conical  mould, 
becomes  flellated,  not  only  on  the  upper  furface  or  ba- 
lls of  the  mafs,  but  along  the  whole  axis.  Glafs  alfo, 
when  melted  and  flowly  cooled,  will  fometimcs  fhoot 
into  beautiful  cryftals.  Our  author  mentions  his  ha- 
ving fometimes  feen  the  fcoria  of  furnaces,  wheie  iron 
had  been  m.elted  with  the  addition  of  calcareous  earth, 
of  a  regular  prifmatic  figure  ;  and  when  crude  iron  has 
been  melted  with  lime,  he  has  fometimes  alfo  found 
complete  oftaedra  in  the  fcoria.  In  large  metallic 
maffes,  however,  the  tmder  parts  are  generally  fo  much 
pTefTcd  by  the  weight  of  thofe  above,  that  they  Ihow 
DO  figns  of  cryflallization,  though  beautiful  cryftals 
are  often  formed  on  the  furface  of  gold,  filv.-r,  iron,  &c. 

3.  The  particles  of  bodies  volatilized  by  heat,  ii  du- 
ring cooling  they  are  fufhciently  at  liberty,  often  obey 
the  laws  of  attraftion,  and  form  cryftals.  To  this  clafs 
we  may  refer  thofe  which  are  condenfed  from  the  va- 
pours of  rcgulus  of  antimony,  called  the  Jlores  argen- 
tini.  The  galena  which  is  frequently  inierfperfed  a- 
mong  the  copper-ore  at  Fahlun  fends  forth  a  vapour 
which  cond'.nfes  on  the  upper  ftrata,  forming  hollow 


1  C     11     Y 

pyrami'S,  which  are  the  bafes  of  the  cubes  of  galena,    Cryfialli- 

entirely  ftmilar   to   tliufe  which  compofe  common  fait,      zation. 

In   the  heaps  of  aifenical  ore   expofed   to  the  fire  at  *— ~-v~--' 

Loefa,   our  author  has  coUedled  very  beautiful  cryftals, 

of  white,  yellow,  and   red   colours,    partly  tetraedral 

and  partly  oftaedral.      Some   of  thefe   exhibit   hollow 

pyramids,  whofe  fiJea  confifl;  of  threads  parallel  to  the 

bafe,  and  exaftly  fimilar  to  thofe  formed  in  the  moift 

way.     Thefe  cryftals,  when  complete,  frequently  (how 

the  junftures  of  the  pyramids  very  diftinttiy  by  itraight 

lines  ;   and  by  careful  examination,    we  may  be  able  to 

trace  the  whole  piocefs  through  its  various  fteps,  from 

the  very  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  operation.  jg 

Prifms  of  any  kind  may  be  formed  by  the  apices  of  Forn'ation 
proper  pyramids  meeting  together  ia  a  certain  numbei  "f  P  if"^* 
round  the  fame  point.  The  apex  may  alio  be  foi  med  1^'^^^"'°"' 
by  a  fiugle  pyramid  having  its  vertical  angle  turned 
outward.  Thus,  by  adding  to  the  cube  ABCD  the 
quadrangular  pyram.ids  ABE  DCF,  we  fhall  have  a 
four-lided  prifm  (fig.  16.)  ;  and  thus,  though  very  fel- 
dom,  common  fait  fometimes  acquires  an  apex.  If 
we  apply  to  one  or  both  of  the  apices  of  the  oftae- 
dron  ACBD,  tig.  17.  a  hollow  pyramid  aiii,  limilar 
and  equal  to  the  fundamental  figure,  we  will  have  a 
prifm  of  the  fame  kind  :  alum,  however,  has  never 
been  obferved  of  aprilm.atic  form  by  our  author,  though 
fometimes  conhfting  of  oftaedra  imperi'edtly  joined  to- 
gether, as  in  tig.  18.  Four-fidtd  pyramids  may  be 
compoied  of  four  tetraedra,  and  confequently  24  of 
the  fame  may  make  up  a  cube  ;  "  and  (fa)s  our  au- 
thor) it  has  alio  a  double  apex  of  32.  Thus  we  have 
a  new  conflrudtion,  which  undoubtedly  fometimes  takes 
place;  for,  as  I  have  already  faid,  arfeincal  cryftals  (ome- 
times  take  the  tetraedral,  lomttimes  the  oAaedral,  form, 
which  may  therefore  eafily  be  mutually  exchanged. 

"  It  is  with  lefs  facility  that  hexagonal  prifms  are 
formed  of  fuch  pyramids  as  have  the  fame  number  of 
fides,  unlefs  tetraedra  bo  admitted.  In  fig.  19.  four 
hexagonal  and  fix  tetragonal  pyramids  meet  ;  the  for- 
mer are  eafily  rciolvcd  into  fix  and  the  latter  into  four 
tetraedra  (Ijg.  20.)  ;  48  of  which  conf.quer.tly  m;.ke 
up  the  whole  mafs,  fuppofing  this  to  be  the  method 
followed  by  nature.  1  have  no  doubt  that  this  con- 
ftiuAion  is  probable  on  many  accounts ;  for  it  requires 
only  the  moll  fimple  elements,  and  fuch  as  are  con- 
formable to  the  figures  of  all  cryftals.  That  tetraedra 
adapted  to  this  purpofe  have  fometimes  diflimilar  and 
unequal  fides,  makes  not  againft  the  fuppofition  :  but 
what  is  mcfl  to  the  purpofe  is,  that  fometimes  fuch 
tetraedra  are  employed  without  the  fmalleft  doubt. 
All  thefe  circumltances  are  of  no  fmall  weight  ;  but 
as  long  as  no  traces  of  tetraedra  are  to  be  found  among 
the  pyramids  of  common  fait,  the  laws  of  found  rea- 
foning  foibld  us  to  draw  any  general  conelulici).  I 
am  perfectly  certain  that  nature  dees  frequently  employ 
pyramids  in  this  operation  ;  it  remains  for  future  experi- 
mtnts  to  determine  whether  this  be  always  the  ca(e." 

IV.  We  come  novv  to  confider  the  ultimate  caufe  of 
cryflallization,  concerning  which  there  have  been  ma-        19 
ny  different  theories.      Some  have  been  of  opinion  that  DifT.rent  ^ 
there    cannot   be   any  cryflallization   without   a  faline      °"5!_°' 
principle  in  feme  degree  exifting   in   the   cryftalhzing  ^^yj^ 
fubftance.     This  opinion,  however,  is  oppoled  by  Mr 
Bergman  on  the  following  grounds : 

I.  He  fuppofes  cryfl.a)UzatioB  to  be  an  eflfeft  of  at- 

traAion ; 


CRY 


CryllalH- 
Zauoil. 


traftion  ;  confcqucntlv,  as  all  other  matters  as  well  as' 
falts  are  fubjcil  to  the  laws  of  that  attra^ti.)[i,  we  cin- 
iiot  coiiliderthe  regular  and  fymmetrical  foi-m  in  wlitch 
they  arrange  themlclves  as  peculiar  to  faline  bodies  ; 
and  hence  cryftals  are  alfo  produced  by  fuch  mtthods 
as  will  (ufficicnlly  attenuate  and  dilengage  the  inte- 
grant parts  from  each  other. 

2.  The  more  fimple  that  any  faline  body  is,  and 
the  more  free  from  any  kind  of  heterofftneous  mat- 
ter, the  more  difficult  it  is  to  reduce  it  into  a  cryllal- 
line  form.  Thus  the  pure  acids  and  caullic  alkali 
cannot  be  made  to  aflume  the  form  of  cryftals  without 
the  greateft  difficulty. 

3. The  fimilarity  of  forms  in  cryftals,  Mr  Bergman  ob- 
feives,  "  does  not  depend  upon  the  acid  ;  as  the  prifnia- 
tic  and  quadrangular  nitre  areformed  from  thefame  acid, 
though  joined  indeed  to  different  alkalies.  Neither  is  the 
bafis  fufficient  to  determine  the  figure  ;  for  the  vege- 
table, as  well  as  the  mineral  alkali,  when  faturated  with 
marine  acid,  will  produce  cubical  cry  Hals.  The  external 
appearance,  therefore,  depends  on  the  menftruum  and 
the  bafe  jointly.  We  are  not,  however,  to  imagine 
from  thence  that  there  is  prelent  a  neutral  or  middle 
fait  whenever  the  figure  of  fuch  a  one  is  difcoverable  ; 
for  not  the  fmalleil  particle  of  alum  is  found  in  nickel 
or  lead  when  united  with  nitrous  acid,  though  both 
thefe  compounds  yield  oftaedral  cryllals."  Here  we 
may  again  remark,  that  the  figure  of  cryftals  depends 
upon  circumftancts  altogether  unknown,  of  which  Dr 
Eafon,  in  a  paper  on  this  fubjeCt  in  the  M.inchefter 
TianfaiSions,  gives  a  remarkable  inllance  in  gypfum, 
which  is  known  to  be  a  combination  of  the  vitriolic 
acid  with  a  calcareous  bafis ;  yet  this  compound  is 
found  naturally  cryftallized  in  five  ways,  fo  very  dif- 
fireiit  from  each  other,  that  inineralogifts  have  dittin- 
guifhed  them  by  five  diftinifl  names,  viz.  1.  Lapis  fpe- 
cularis.  2.  Striated  gypfum.  3.  Gypfeous  alabalter. 
4.  Selenitts  properly  fo  called.  5.  A  gypfeous  fpar 
frequently  adhering  to  the  veins  of  ore  in  mountains. 
All  of  thele,  when  chemically  examined,  exhibit  pre- 
cifely  the  fame  plienomena,  and  are  really  nothing  btit 
different  cryftalli'/.ations  of  the  fame  compound  fait. 

4.  Mr  Bergman  likewife  obferves,  that  there  is  a 
great  variety  in  the  forms  of  cryllals,  though  the  mat- 
ter remains  the  fame  ;  of  which  examples  have  been 
given  in  the  calcareous  cryftals,  and  in  the  different 
kinds  of  gypfum  juft  mentioned.  Among  the  pyrites 
alfo  we  meet  with  cubes  ftriated  in  a  very  Angular 
manner;  the  lines  of  one  fide  being  perpendicular  to 
thofe  which  diftinguifli  the  different  fides,  as  reprefented 
fig.  14.  ;  but  among  thefe  there  are  likewife  tetvacdra, 
oftacdra,  dodecaedra,  and  icofatdra,  to  be  met  with. 

5.  A  great  number  of  cryftals  are  either  totally  de- 
fliture  of  any  faline  matter,  or  poffefs  it  in  luch  a  fiiall 
dejn-ee  that  no  experiments  hitherto  tried  have  been 
r.ble  to  difcover  the  fmalL-ft  fcnfible  traces  of  it.  Tlius 
mica  fometimcs  ftioots  into  hexangular  piifms  compo- 
fed  of  parallel  lamellne,  the  elcmtntary  fpicula;  of  which 
are  difpofed  as  in  fig.  Ij.  ;  gems,  fchoeils,  granites, 
and  other  earthy  bodies,  are  frequently  found  figured, 
though  no  faline  matter  can  be  difcovered  by  analyfis; 
and  the  fame  holds  good  of  gold,  filver,  lead,  tin,  bif- 
muth,  and  zinc, united  with  mercury, all  of  which  regular 
forms,  according  to  the  quantity  of  the  mercurv. 

"   li  we  have  rccourfe  (concludes  Mr  Bergman)  tc 


[       5S7       1 


CRY 


the  fuppofition  of  an  hidden  faline  fubftarre  which 
cannot  be  difcoveied  by  art,  it  mull  furtly  be  unrea- 
lonable  to  attribrtie  to  fuch  a  principle  fo  great  a  pow. 
cr  as  ih.it  of  arranging  the  particles  in  the  order  ne- 
ceffary  for  cryftallization  ;  a  caufe,  beyond  queftion, 
unequal  to  the  ma/jnitude  of  the  effeii\  :  for  how  is  it 
poflible  that  a  faline  matter,  the  prefence  of  the  fmall- 
eil atom  of  which  cannot  be  difcovered  by  the  raoft 
delicate  lefts,  (hall  in  pure  water  have  yet  power  to 
effect  the  icy  cryftallization  with  fuch  force  as  to  over- 
come the  ftrongeft  obftacles  ?  }Iow  can  a  faline  mat- 
ter, which  by  no  teft  can  be  difcovered,  have  powtr, 
in  an  amalgam  of  gold,  to  arrange  the  ponderous  par- 
ticles of  both  metals  in  a  particular  manner  ?  \Miat 
fait  is  able  to  form  the  (lellated  reguhis  of  antimony  ? 
^Vhat  the  hexagonal  lamellae  of  mica  i" 

On  this  fubjeft  we  may  remark,  that  whether  we  All  of  them 
affirm  or  deny  a  faline  principle  to  be  the  caufe  of  cry-infufHcicnt. 
ftallization,  the  ultimate  power  by  wliich  it  is  cffecltd 
mull  be  equally  unknown.  A  faline  principle  can 
make  other  bodies  cryftallize  along  with  it  only  by  vir- 
tue of  the  difpofition  it  has  of  itfclf  to  affume  a  cry- 
ftalline  appearance  ;  and  we  mull  therefore  feek  for 
the  caufe  of  this  cryftallization  of  the  fait,  as  well  as 
of  the  fubftasce  with  which  it  is  mixed.  Mr  Berg- 
man, as  well  as  others,  have  endeavoured  to  account 
for  this  on  the  principle  of  attraition  ;  but  with  little 
fuccefs.  Sir  Ilaac  Newton  fuppofes  the  particles  of 
fait  to  be  diffufed  through  the  folvent  fluid  at  equal 
diftances  from  each  other  ;  on  which  account  he  con- 
cludes that  they  mull  come  together  in  regular  fi- 
gures. Mr  Bergman  confiders  the  particles  which 
form  faline  fubftances  as  endowed  with  a  twofold  ten- 
dency ;  one  to  arrange  themfelves  in  fpiculas,  the  other 
for  the  fpicuhe  to  arrange  themfelves  at  certain  angles 
of  inclination  ;  and  as  thefe  angles  vary,  different  forms 
of  cryftals  muft  be  produced.  Both  thefe  effecls,  he 
thinks,  may  he  owing  to  the  fame  caufe,  viz.  a  mutual 
at traCllon  between  the  particles  ;  which,  according  to 
the  various  fhapes  and  particular  figures  of  the  atoms, 
at  one  time  arranges  them  in  the  form  of  fpicuhe,  and 
again  connefls  the  fpicula?  already  formed  under  dif- 
ferent angles  of  inclination. 

This  feems  to  be  much  the  fame  with  what  other 
chemifts  underftand  by  the  polarity  of  the  faline  par- 
ticles, by  which  they  are  arr-anged  in  certain  direftions. 
All  this,  however,  is  totally  infufEcient  to  explain  the 
phenomenon.  If,  accoiding  to  Sir  Ifaac  Newton's 
fuppofition,  the  particles  were  brought  together  by  a 
general  attiadion,  after  being  placed  at  equal  di- 
ftances by  the  folvent  for  fome  tiuie,  we  mutt  expect 
to  find  all  kinds  of  falts  cryftallized- in  the  fame  man- 
ner, or  rather  running  into  one  folid  lump.  The  ar^ 
rangetncnt  of  the  particles,  or  their  tendency  to  ar- 
rangement, alhgned  by  Mr  Bergman  as  a  caufe,  is  on- 
ly explaining  the  phenomenon  byitfelf;  for  it  is  the 
caufe  of  this  tendetrcy  which  is  the  point  in  quefticn. 
Now,  that  the  attraftion  of  the  faline  particles  to  each 
other-  cannot  be  the  caufe  of  cryitalline  arrangemerrts, 
is  evident  from  the  following  confidcrations :  i.The 
cryftals  of  every  kind  of  fait  contain  water  as  an  effcn- 
tial  part  of  their  compofition  ;  and  if  deprived  of  this, 
they  lofe  their  cryftalline  form  entirely,  and  fall  into 
powder.  It  is  plain,  therefore,  that  the  faline  par- 
ticles attradl  no*  only  one  another,  bttt  fome  part  of 
3  E  2  the 


C    T    E 


[     588     1 


CUB 


Cryftalli- 

zacion 

II 

Ctefibius. 


fSteE 


tlie  water  which  diflblves  them  ;  whence  it  feeois  pro- 
bable that  the  proceffes  of  cryllallization  and  vegeta- 
tion arc  analogous  to  each  other.  This  is  likewife 
confirmed  by  the  many  curious  vegetations  of  falts 
known  by  the  name  of  eJJerefcences.  Thefe  cannot  be 
owing   merely  to  attradtion  ;  becaufe   they  frequently 


the  proper  hours  and  months,  which  were  engraved  Ctcfiphoo 
on  a  column  near  the  machine.  .This  artful  invention  ^  '[  ' 
gave  rife  to  many  improvements  ;  and  the  modern  man- 
ner of  mealuriiig  time  with  an  hour-glafs  is  in  imita- 
tion of  the  cleplydra  of  Ctefibius. 

CTESIPHON,  a  celebrated  Greek  architeft,  who 


Dfotrude  from  a  bree  fsline  mafs,  in  which  they  ought     gave   the   deligns  for  the  famous  temple  of  Ephcfus, 


rather  to  be  detained  by  the  attraftion  of  the  rrft. 
Ttius,  if  a  quantity  of  the  refiduum  of  Glauber's 
fpirit  of  nitre  diftilled  with  a  large  proportion  of  vi- 
triolic acid,  be  expofed  to  a  moilt  air,  beautiful  rami- 
fications lomcuhat  rcftmblint;  fhrubs  will  fometimes 
fliooi  out  to  ihe  length  of  more  than  an  inch.  This 
furely   cannot   be   tbe   efTeift   of   attraftion  ;    but    ra 


and  invented  a  machine  for  bringing  thither  tlie  co- 
lumns to  be  ufcd  in  that  nobfe  ilruiture.  He  flourilh- 
ed  544  B.  C. 

Ctesiphon  (anc.  geog.),  a  large  vlllaiJe,  or  rather 
a  fine  city,  of  Chalonitis,  the  mod  fouthern  province 
of  AlTyria.  It  was  fituated  on  the  left  or  eall  fide  of 
the  Tigris,  oppofite  to  Scleucia  on  this  fide  ;  and  built 


ther  of  fome  rcpulfive  power  by  which  the  particles  of  by  the  Parthians,  to  rival  Seleucia.  Here  the  kings 
the  large  mafs  at  firll  tend  to  feparate  from  one  ano-  of  Parthia  palled  the  winter  (StraboJ  ;  as  they  did 
ther  f  ^      2,  Atttattion,  in  fuch  a  manner  as  would  dif-     the  fummer  at  Ecbatana. 

■         ■  ■      ■  ■  ■■  Ctesiphon  was  alio  the  name  of  feveral  noted  per- 

fons  of  antiquity.  I.  An  Athenian,  who  advilcd  his 
fellow-citizens  to  crown  publicly  Demolthencs  with  a 
golden  crown   for  his  probity  and  virtue.     This  was 


pofe  the  particles  into  certain  determinate  iorms,  can- 
not take  place  where  they  are  all  homogeneous,  which 
muft  be  the  cafe  with  metals ;  all  of  which  are  capable 
of  forming  cryllals  when   ilowly  cooled  ;  fuch  cryftal-     _ 

hzations,  therefore,   mull  be  produced  by  fome  other     oppofed   by  the   orator  iKlchines,    the   rival  of  De- 

mofthenes,  who  accufed  Ctefiphon  of  feditious  views. 


power. 

Mr  Bergman  crnfiders  the  congelation  of  water  as 
a  fpecies  of  cryllallization  ;  and  in  order  to  prove  the 
fimilitude,  he  takes  notice,  that  it  is  by  means  of  the 
matter  of  heat  that  this  clement  becomes  fluid.  He 
obferves  likewife,  that  falts,  in  the  aft  of  cryllallizing, 
part  with  heat  as  water  does  in  the  ait  of  being  con- 
verted into  ice.  It  would  feem,  therefore,  that  the 
particle?  were   arranged  in  certain  forms  by  the  aition 

of  the  heat  when   paffing  from  a  latent  to  a   fenfible     marteon   of  the   firll  year  are  alfo  called  cubs. 
llate.      From   a  late   experiment,  it  would  feem   that     Ursus. 
the  eledt.ic  fluid  was  principally  concerned.     This  was  CUBA,  a   large   and  very  important  illand   in   the 

riril  difcovered  by  Lichtenberg,  and  confifts  only  in  Weil  Indies,  belonging  to  Spain.  On  the  eaft  fide  it 
fprinkling  powdeied  rofin  upon  an  ekarophorus,  which  begins  at  20.  20.  N.  Lat.  touches  the  tropic  of  Can- 
in  certain  ciicumftances  arranges   itfelf  into  ftars  with     cer  on  the  north,  and  extends  from  74-_^"  85.  15.  W.. 


Demotthenes  undertook  the  defence  of  his  friend,  in 
a  celebrated  oration  ilill  extant,  and  iEfchincs  was  ba- 
nifhed.  2.  A  Greek  architect,  who  made  the  plan  of 
Diana's  temple  at  Ephefus.  3.  An  elegiac  pott, 
whom  king  Attalus  fet  over  his  poflefllons  in  ^olia. 
4.  A  Greek  hiftorian,  who  wrote  an  hillory  of  Bo:- 
otia. 

CUB,  a  bear's  whelp.     Among  hunters,  a  fox  and' 

See 


radii   fimilar   to  thofe    of  the   cryllals  of  fnow.      See 
Electricity. 

CRYS  FALS,  in  chemiftry,  fahs  or  other  matters 
(hot  or  congealed  in  the  manner  of  cryilal.  See  Che- 
M iSTRY- /?«/»■ ;  and  Crystallization 


Long.  It  lies  60  miles  to  the  weft  of  Hifpaniula,  25 
leagues  north  of  Jamaica,  100  miles  to  the  eall  of  Ju- 
catan,  and  as  many  to  the  fouth  of  Cape  Florida  ;  and 
commands  the  entrance  of  the  gulphs  both  of  Mexi- 
co and  Florida,  as   alfo   the   windward  palfages.      By 


CFESIAS,  a  native 


of  Cnidos,  who  accompanied     this  fituation  it  may  he  called  the  key  of  the  Weft.  In- 


Cyrus  the  fon  of  Darius  in  his  expedition  againft  his 
brother  Artaxerxea  ;  by  whom  he  was  taken  priioner. 
But  curing  Artaxerxes  of  a  wound  he  received  in  the 
battle,  he  became  a  great  favourite  at  the  court  of 
Peifia,  where  he  continued  praftifing  phyfic  for  17 
vears,  and  was  employed  in  feveral  ncgociations.  He 
wrote  the  Hiftory  of  Ferfia  in  23  boi-ks,  and  a  Hi- 
flory  of  the  Indies  :  but  thele  works  are  now  loft,  and 
all  we  have  remanilng  of  them  is  an  abiidgement  com- 
The  moft  judicious  among  the  an 


dies.  It  was  difcovered  by  Columbus  in  1 49-,  who 
gave  it  the  name  of  Ferdiaando,  in  honour  of  king 
Ferdinand  of  Spain  ;  but  it  quickly  after  recovered  its 
ancient  name  of  Cuba,  The  natives  did  not  regard 
Columbus  with  a  very  favourable  eye  at  his  landing  ; 
and  the  weather  proving  very  tempeftuous,  he  foon 
left  this  ifland,  and  failed  to  Hayta,  now  called  H'tjpa- 
nlola,  where  he  was  better  received.  The  Spaniards, 
however,  foon  became  mafters  of  it.  By  the  year 
I  5  I  I  it  was  totally  conquered  ;  and  in  that  time  they 


piled  by  Photius.      - --  j o  -                            -,.-,.                               ,     - 

cients  looked  upon    Ctcfias  as   a   fabulous  writer  ;  yet  had  deftroyed,  according  to  their  own  accounts,  (eve- 

feveral  of  the  ancient  hiftorians  and  modern  Chriflian  ral  millions  ot  people.      But  the  pofftflion  of  Cuba  was 

writers  have  adopted  in  p.irt  his  chronology  of  the  Af-  far    fiora  anlwering    the    expeftations    of    the    Spa- 


I'yrisn  kings. 

CTESIBIUS,  a  m.ithematician  of  Alexandria,  a- 
bout  120  years  befoie  Chrift.  He  was  the  firft  who 
invented  the  pump.  He  alfo  invented  a  clepiydra,  or 
a  water  clock.     This   ii.vention  of  mealiiiiiig  time  by 


nilh  adventurers,  whole  avarice  could  be  fatiated. 
with  nothing  but  gold.  Thele  monfters  finding  that 
there  was  gold  upon  the  ifland,  concluded  that  it 
mull  come  from  mines  ;  and  therefore  tortured  the 
few  inhabitants  they  had  left,  in   order  to  extort  from 


water  «as  wonderful  and   ingenious.     Water  was  let  them  a  dilcovery  of  the   places  where   thele  mines  Lty. 

drop  upon  wheels  which   it   turned  :   the  wheels  com-  The    mifcries   endured  by  thefe    poor  creatures   were 

municated   their   regular   moiiwn   to   a   fmall   wooden  fuch   that   they  ab.ioft  unanimoufly  refolved  to  put  an 

image,  which  by  a  gradual  rife  pointed  with  a  Hick  to  end  to  their  own  lives ;  but  were  prevented  by  one  of 


CUB 


C    589    ] 


CUB 


-ha.  the  SpanilTi  tyrants  called  ^t(/^o  P^rff.%r.  This  wretcK 
v-~*~  tlirontcned  to  hang  himfelf  along  with  them,  that  he 
migiit  have  the  plcafiiie,  r.s  he  faid,  of  tormfiiting 
them  in  the  next  vvovlJ  worfe  than  he  had  done  in 
this  ;  and  fo  iruch  were  thi-y  afraid  of  tht  Spaniards, 
th:it  this  threat  diverted  th-.fe  poor  favages  from  their 
delpr^riitf  refolution.  In  1511,  the  town  of  Havan- 
nah  vv'js  built,  now  the  principal  place  on  the  ifland. 
T!ie  hduft's  were  at  firll  built  only  of  wood  ;  and  the 
town  itlVIf  was  for  a  long  time  I'o  inconfidorablt,  that 
ill  1536  it  was  taken  by  a  French  pirate,  who  obliged 
the  inhabitants  to  pay  70J  dncals  to  fave  it  from  be- 
iiitf  burnt.  The  very  day  after  the  pirate's  departure, 
three  Spanifh  (hips  arrived  from  Mexico,  and  having 
irloadfd  their  cai  goes,  failed  in  purluit  of  the  pirate 
Ihlp.  But  fuch  was  the  cowardice  of  the  oiEcers, 
that  the  pirate  took  all  the  three  iliips,  and  returning 
to  the  Havannah,  obliged  the  inhabitants  to  pay  700 
ducats  moie.  To  prevent  misfortunes  of  this  kind, 
the  iwhabitanis  built  their  houfcs  of  ftone  ;  and  the 
place  has  lince  been  ftrongly  fortified.  See  Havan- 
nah. 

According  to  the  Abbe  Raynal,  the  Spanifli  fettle- 
ment  at  Cuba  is  very  important,   on   three  accounts  : 

1.  The  produce  of  the  country,  which  is  confideraWe. 

2.  As  being  the  ftaple  of  a  great  trade  ,•  and,  3.  As 
being  the  key  to  the  Weft  Indies.  The  principal  pro- 
duce of  this  ifland  is  cotton.  The  commodity,  how- 
ever, through  neglcft,  is  now  become  fo  fcarce,  that 
fonictimes  fcveral  years  pafs  without  any  of  it  being 
brought  into  Europe.  In  place  of  Cotton,  coffee  has 
been  cultivated  :  but,  by  a  fimilar  negligence,  that  is 
produced  in  no  great  quantity  ;  the  whole  produce 
not  exceeding  30  or  35  thoufaud  weight,  one-third  of 
which  is  exported  to  Vera  Cruz,  and  the  reft  to  Ma- 
drid. The  cultiv-dtion  of  coffee  naturally  leads  to  that 
of  fugar ;  and  this,  which  is  the  moft  valuable  pro- 
dnClion  of  America,  would  af  itfelf  be  fufEcient  to 
give  Cuba  that  ftatc  of  profpeiity  for  which  it  feems 
dcfigned  by  nature.  Although  the  furfacc  of  the  iP.and 
is  in  general  uneven  and  mountainous,  yet  it  has  plains 
fufEcienily  extcnfive,  and  well  enough  watered,  to  fup- 
ply  th«  confumption  of  the  greateit  part  of  Europe 
with  fugar.  Tiie  incredible  fertility  of  its  aevv  lands, 
if  properly  managed,  would  enable  it  to  furpafs  every 
other  nation,  however  they  may  have  now  got  the 
Itart  of  it  :  yet  fuch  is  theindolence  of  the  Spaniards, 
that  to  this  day  they  have  iiut  few  plantations,  where, 
with  the  fuieft  canes,  they  make  but  a  fmall  quantity 
of  coarfe  fugar  at  a  great  expence.  This  ferves  partly 
for  the  Mexican  market,  and  partly  for  the  mother- 
country  ;  while  the  indolent  inhabitants  are  content 
to  import  fugar  for  themielves  at  the  expence  of  near 
220,000  1.  annually.  It  has  been  expefted  with  pro- 
bability, that  the  tobacco  imported  from  Cuba  would 
compenfate  this  lofs  ;  for  after  fiirnifhing  Mexico  and 
Peru,  there  was  fufficient,  with  the  little  brought  from 
Caracca  and  Buenos  Ayres,  to  fupplvdll  Spain.  But 
this  trade  too  has  declined  through  the  negligence  of 
the  court  of  Madrid,  in  not  gratifying  the  general 
tafle  for  tobacco  from  the  Havannah.  The  Spanilh 
colonies  have  an  uijiverfal  trade  in  fkins ;  and  Cuba 
fupplies  annually  about  10  or  1  2  thoufand.  The  num- 
bei  might  ealily  be  increaied  in  a  country  abounding 
■with  vild  cattle  where   fome  gentlemen  poflefs  Lrge 


trails  of  ground,  that  for  want  of  population  can 
fcarce  be  applied  to  any  other  purpofe  than  that  of 
breeding  cattle.  The  hundredth  part  of  this  ifland  is 
not  yet  cleared.  The  true  plantatitjns  are  all  confined 
to  tlie  beautiful  plains  of  the  Huvannali,  and  fve«  thofe 
are  not  what  they  m.ight  be.  All  thefe  plantations 
together  may  employ  about  25,000  male  and  female 
(laves.  The  number  of  whites,  meftecs,  mulattbes,  and 
free  negroes,  upon  the  whole  ifland,  amounts  to  about 
30,000.  The  food  of  thefe  diffcieut  fpecies  confiftg 
of  excellent  pork,  very  bad  beef,  and  caffava  bread. 
The  colony  would  be  more  flourilhing,  if  its  produc- 
tions had  not  been  made  the  property  of  a  company, 
whofe  cxclufive  privilege  operates  as  a  conftant  and 
invariable  principle  of  difcouragemcnt.  If  any  tlting 
coiJd  fupplythe  want  of  an  open  trade,  and  atone  for 
the  grievances  occafioned  by  this  monopoly  at  Cuba, 
it  would  be  the  advantage  which  this  ifland  has  for 
fuch  a  long  time  enjoyed,  in  being  the  rendezvous  of 
al'moft  all  the  Spanifh  veffels  that  fail  to  the  ne\Y 
world.  This  practice  commenced  dlmoft  with  the 
colony  itfelf.  Ponce  de  Leon,  having  made  an  at- 
tempt upon  Florida  in  1512,  became  acquainted  with 
the  new  canal  of  Bahama.  It  was  immediately  dif- 
covered  that  this  was  the  beft  route  the  (hips  bound 
from  Mexico  to  Europe  could  pofTibly  take  ;  and  to 
this  the  wealth  of  the  ifland  is  principally,  if  nut  al- 
together, owing. 

CUBE,  in  geometry,  a  folid  body  confifting  of  fix 
equal  (ides.      See  Geometrv. 

Cub  F.- Root  of  any  Numler  er  ^tantity,  is  fuch  a  num- 
ber or  quantity,  which,  if  multiphcd  into  itfelf,  and 
then  again  the  produft  thence  ariling  by  that  number 
or  quantity,  being  the  cube-root,  this  lalt  product  (hall 
be  equal  to  the  number  or  quantity  whereof  it  is  the 
cube-root ;  as  2  is  the  cube-root  of  8  ;  becaufe  two 
times  2  is  4,  and  two  times  4  is  8  :  and  a-yb  is  the 
cube-root  of  a' +  ^aab+'i,iilb-\-l^.     See  Algebra. 

CUBEBS,  in  the  materia  medica,  a  fmall  dried  fniit 
refembling  a  grain  of  pepper,  but  often  fomcwhat 
longer,  brought  into  Europe  from  the  illand  of  Java. 
In  aromatic  warmth  and  pungency,  they  are  far  infe- 
rior to  pepper. 

CUBIC   tQt'ATION.        SeeAtGEBRA. 

CUBIDIA,  a  genus  of  fpars.  The  word  is  derived 
from  x'^Svsj-,  "a  die;"  and  is  given  them  from  their  be- 
ing of  the  fhape  of  a  common  die,  or  of  a  cubic  fi- 
gure. Thefe  bodies  owe  this  fhape  to  an  admixture 
of  lead,  and  there  are  only  two  krown  fpecies  of  the 
genus.  I.  A  colourlefs  cryft:iline  one,  with  thin 
flakes,  found  in  the  lead-mines  of  Yorklhirc,  and  fome 
other  parts  of  the  kingdom  ;  and,  2.  A  milky  white 
one  with  thicker  crulls.  This  is  found  in  the  lead- 
mines  of  Derby ihire  and  Yorkfliire,  but  is  ufuallv 
fraall,  and  is  not  found  plent'fully. 

CUBIT,  in  the  menluration  of  the  ancients,  a  long 
mealure,  equal  to  the  length  of  a  man's  arm,  from  llie 
elbow  to  the  tip  of  the  lingers. 

Ur  Arbuthnot  makes  tiie  Englifh  cubit  equal  to  18 
inches;  the  Roman  cubit  equal  to  i  foot  5.406  inches  ; 
and  the  cubit  of  the  fcripture  equal  to  1  foot  g.gSy 
inches. 

CUBITjEUS  muscles,  the  name  of  two  mufcles- 
of  the  hand.      See  Anatomy,  Table  of  the  Mifchs. 

CUBITUS,  in  anatomy,  a  boue  of  the  arm,  reach- 


cue 


[   590  ] 


cue 


Cuboidos  ing  from  llie  elbow  to  the  wrift;  otherwife  called  u/«a, 
_     '    ,     or  the  greater  fojfile.     Some  ufe  the  worJ  for  all  that 
"part  of  the  arm  between  the  elbow  and  the  wr.ll  ;  in- 
cluding the  ulna  or  cubitus,  pioperly  fo  called,  and  the 
radius. 

CUBOIDES,  or  Os  CvunoRMF,  in  anatomy,  the 
feventh  hone  of  the  foot  ;  fo  called  from  its  being  in 
form  of  a  cube  or  die. 

CUCKING-STOOL,  an  engine  invented  for  punifh- 
ing  fcolds  and  unquiet  women,  by  ducking  them  in 
water  ;  called  in  ancient  times  a  lumbrel,  and  fome- 
times  a /r:;<^H( /•<■/.  In  Doinefday,  it  is  called  i:^7//Wra 
Jiercoris  :  and  it  was  in  ufe  even  in  the  Saxons  time, 
by  whom  it  was  defcribed  to  be  cathedra  in  qua  rix- 
ofiC  muUcres  fedsnfes  ciquis  demer'rehantur.  It  was  an- 
ciently alfo  a  punifhment  infli&ed  upon  brewers  and 
bakers  tranfgreffing  the  laws  ;  who  were  thereupon 
in  fuch  a  ftool  immerged  over  head  and  ears  tnjiercore, 
fome  ftinking  water.  Some  think  it  a  corruption 
from  duchn^-Jlool ;  others  from  choahing-Jlool,  quia  hoc 
modo    demerjic    aqnis  fere  fujfocantur.       See   Castiga- 

TORY. 

CUCKOW,  in  ornithology'.     See  Cuculus. 
CvcKotF-Spit,  the  fame  with  froth-fpit.    See  Froth- 
Spit,  and  Cicada. 

CUCUBALUS,  BERRY-BEARING    CHICKWEED:    A 

genus  of  the  trigynia  order,  belonging  to  the  decan- 
dria  clafs  of  plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  rank- 
ing under  the  2  2d  order,  Caryophilln.  The  calyx  is 
inflated  ;  the  petals  five,  unguiculated  without  a  nec- 
tariferous corona  at  the  throat  ;  the  capfule  is  trilocu- 
lar.  There  are  1 3  fpecies,  the  mod  remarkable  of 
which  are, 

1.  The  beken,  Swedifh  lychnis,  or  gumfepungar,  is 
a  native  of  fcveral  parts  of  liurope.  The  empale- 
ment  of  its  flower  is  curioufly  wrought  like  a  net- 
work, and  js  of  a  piirplifli  colour.  The  leaves  have 
fomewhat  of  the  flavour  of  peafe,  and  proved  of 
great  ufe  to  the  inhabitants  of  Minorca  in  16S5, 
when  a  fwarm  of  locufls  had  deftroyed  the  harvcft. 
The  Gothlanders  apply  the  leaves  to  eryiipelatous 
eruptions.  Horfes,  cows,  fheep,  and  goats,  eat  this 
plant. 

2.  The  noftiflora,  or  night-flowering  lychnis,  grows 
naturally  in  Spain  and  Italy.  It  is  a  perennial  plant, 
rifing  with  an  upright  branching  flialk,  a  foot  and  an 
halt  high,  garnilfied  with  very  narrow  leaves  placed 
oppofite.  'i'he  upper  part  of  the  llalk  btanchis  very 
much ;  the  flowers  Hand  upon  long  naked  footftalks, 
each  fupporting  three  or  four  flowers  which  have  long 
tubes  witii  ttriped  empalements:  the  petals  are  large, 
deeply  divided  at  top,  and  of  a  pale-bluiln  colour.  The 
flowers  areclofed  all  the  d^y  ;  but  when  the  fun  leaves 
them,  they  expand,  and  then  emit  a  very  agreeable 
fcent.  It  may  be  propagated  by  feeds  (own  in  the 
fpring  on  a  bed  of  light  earth  ;  and  when  the  plants 
are  fit  to  remove,  they  Ihould  be  planted  in  a  nurfery- 
bed  at  about  four  inches  diftance,  where  they  may  re- 
main till  autumn.  They  may  then  be  planted  in  the 
borders  where  they  are  to  remain,  and  will  flower  the 
following  year. 

3- The  otites,  or  catch- fly,  is  a  native  of  Britain, 
and  other  Kuropcan  countries.  It  hath  a  thick,  flefhy, 
perennial  root,  which  ftrikes  deep  into  the  ground. 


from   whercc   rifes  a  jointed  ft:alk  three  or  four  feet    Ciiculuj, 

high.      At  the  joints  there  exfudes  a  vifcous  clammy    v- 

juice,  that  flicks  to  the  fingers  v.'hen  handled;  and  the 
fmall  inlccls  which  fettle  upon  thofe  part;;  of  the  ilalks 
are  thereby  fo  faflened  that  they  cannot  get  ofl'.  The 
Sowers  are  fmall,  and  of  a  greenilh  colour.  The 
plant  is  propagated  by  feeds. 

CUCULUS,  the  CucKOW,  in  ornithology,  a  genus  pi  »  ri  t 
belonging  to  the  order  of  pica;  :  the  cliaraAers  of 
which  are  :  The  bill  is  fmooth.,  and  more  or  lefs  bend- 
ing ;  the  noflrils  are  bounded  by  a  fmall  lim  ;  the 
tongue  is  ftiort  aad  pointed ;  the  feet  and  toes  formed 
for  climbing.     The  mofl;  remarkable  fpecies  are  : 

1.  The  canorus,  or  common  cuckow,  weighs  about 
five  ounces;  and  is  in  length  f^  inches,  in  breadth  25. 
The  bill  is  black,  and  about  two  thirds  of  an  inch  in 
length.  The  head,  hind  part  of  the  neck,  coverts  of 
the  wings  and  rump,  are  of  a  dove  colour  ;  darker  on 
the  head  and  paler  on  the  rump.  The  throat  and 
upper  part  of  the  neck  are  of  a  pale  grey  ;  the  breall 
and  belly  white,  crofled  elegantly  witli  undulated  lines 
of  black.  The  tail  confifts  of  ten  feathers  of  unequal 
lengths  ;  the  two  middle  tail-feathers  are  black  tipped 
with  white  ;  the  others  are  marked  with  white  fpots 
on  each  fide  their  ftiafts.  The  legs  are  fliort ;  asd  the 
toes  difpofed  two  backwards  and  two  forwards,  like 
thofe  of  the  vi'ood-pecker,  though  it  is  never  obferved 
to  run  up  the  fides  of  trees.  The  female  differs  in 
fome  refpefts.  The  neck  before  and  behind  is  of  a 
brownift-red  ;  the  tail  barred  with  tlie  fame  colour 
and  black,  and  fpotted  on  each  fide  the  ftiaft  with 
white.  The  young  birds  are  brown  mixed  with  black, 
and  in  that  ftate  have  been  defcribed  by  fome  authors 
as  old  ones. 

This  bird  appears  in  our  country  early  in  the  fpring, 
and  makes  the  ihortell  flay  with  us  of  any  bird  of  paf- 
fage.  It  is  compelled  here,  as  Mr  Stilingllect  ohferves, 
by  that  conllitution  of  the  air  which  caufes  the  fig- 
tree  put  forth  its  fruit :  though  it  has  been  fuppofed 
that  fome  of  thefe  birds  do  not  quit  this  ifland  during 
the  winter  ;  but  that  they  feek  Ihelter  in  hollow  trees 
and  lie  torpid,  unlefs  animated  by  unufually  warm 
weather.  Mr  Pennant  gives  two  iullances  of  their 
being  heard  in  February;  one  in  1771,  in  the  end  of 
that  month  ;  the  other  in  1769,  on  the  4th  day  ;  but 
after  that  they  were  heard  no  more,  being  probably 
chilled  again  into  torpidity.  There  Is  a  remarkable 
coincidence  between  the  fong  of  thefe  birds  and  the 
mackarels  continuing  in  full  roc  ;  that  is,  from  about 
the  middle  of  April  to  the  latter  end  of  June.  The 
cuckow  is  filent  for  fome  time  after  his  arrival  ;  his 
note  is  a  call  to  love,  and  ufcd  only  by  the  male,  who 
fits  perched  generally  on  fome  dead  tree  or  bare  bough, 
and  repeats  his  fong,  which  he  lofes  as  foon  as  the 
ainorous  feafon  is  over.  His  note  is  fo  uniform,  tiiat 
liis  name  in  alljanguages  feems  to  have  been  derived 
from  it  ;  and  in  i;ll  countries  it  is  ufed  in  the  fame  re- 
proachful fenfe  : 

Tl\e  plaI:i-fon^  cnchozv  ^re)', 

Whole  note  fi.ll  nany  a  man  d  th  nurk, 

Acd  dares  not  ai.fwcr  nay.  Shahjieart. 

The  reproach  feems  to  arife  from  the  cuckow's  ma- 
king ufe  of  the  bed  or  neft  of  another  to  depofite  its 
eggs  in,  leaving  the  car.e  of  its  young  to  an  improper 

parent ; 


cue 


Cr.culus.    parent  ;  but  Juvenal  with  more  juftice  gives  the  infa- 
"~v— —  try  to   the  bird  in  whofe  iiell   the  fuppufititious  eggs 
were  laid : 

Tu  tlhi  nunc  co'rucayj/tz.-w. 
On  the  natural  hiftory  of  this  Angular  bird,  wc  have 
a  very  curious  paper  by  Mr  Jenner,  publiflied  in  tlie 
Philof'phical  TranfaiElions  for  l7S8f.  The  fii-n;  ap- 
pearance of  cuckows  in  this  country,  as  already  ob- 
fcrved,  is  about  tlie  middle  of  April;  (the  17th,  ac- 
cordincr  to  Mr  Jenner,   whofe  oblci  vations  were  made 


[     59^     J 


cue 


P;irt  II. 
:.  14. 


demoliOied  ;  but  all  are  left  to  peri(h  together,  either 
entangled  about  the  bu(h  which  contains  the  nell,  or 
lying  on  the  ground  under  it. 

"  The  early  late  of  the  young  hedgc-fparrows  (Mr 
Jenner  obferves)  is  a  circumilance  that  has  been  noti- 
ced by  others,  but  attributed  to  wrong  caufes.  A 
variety  of  conjettures  have  been  formed  upon  it.  Some 
have  iiippofed  the  parent  cuckovv  the  author  of  their 
dellrudion  ;  while  others,  as  crr<.neo;i(]v,  have  pro- 
nounced them  fmolliered  by  the  difproport'ionate  fize  of 
in  Gloucefterdiire).  The  fong  of  the  male,  which  is  tl'cir  fciluw-ncRling.  Now  tiie  cuckow's  egg  being 
well  known,  f)on  proclaims  its  arrival,  fhe  fong  of  ""t  much  larger  than  the  hedge-fparrow's  (as  I  (hall 
the  female  (if  the  peculiar  notes  of  which  it  is  com-  mo'C  fully  point  out  hereafter),  it  neceffarily  follows 
pofcd  may  be  fo  called)  is  widely  diiFerent,  and  has  that  at  full  there  can  he  no  great  difference  in  the  fize 
been   fo  little   attended  to,  that  perhaps  few  are  ac-     '^f  the  birds  jull  buril  from  the  (liell.     Of  the  fallacy 

quainted  with  it  :  the  cry  of  the  dab-chick  bears  forae     "'''^'■'  '" /r    .•        ir    t 

refemblanee  to  it. 

Unlike  the  generality  of  birds,  cuckows  do  not  pair. 


Cucu!u>. 


of  the  former  affertion  alfo  I  was  fome  years  ago  con- 
vinced,   by   having  found  that   many   cuckows   eggs 
were  liatcltcd  in  the  nefts  of  other  birds  after  the  old 
euckow  had  difappeared,  and  by  feeing  the  fame  fate 
then  attend  the  nellling  fparrovvs  as  during  the  appear- 
ance  of  old  cuckows  in  this  country.      But  before  I 
proceed  to  the  facts  relating  to  the  death  of  the  young 
fparrows,  it  will  be  proper  t.)  lay  before  you  fome  ex- 
amples of  the  incubation  of  the  egg,  and  the  rearing 
of  the  young  euckow;  fmce  even  the  well-known  fad, 
that  this  bufinefa  is  intrufted  to  the  care  of  other  birds, 
It  is  on  all  hands  allowed,  tliat  the  euckow  does  not     li^s  been  controverted  by  an  author  who  has  lately 
hatch  its  own  eggs;  for   which  difTeren*:  rcafons  have     written  oa  tl\is  fubjeft  f  ;  and  fince,  as  it  is  a  faft  fofTh   H 
been  given,  as  will  be  afterwards  noticed.    The  hedge-     much  out  of  the  ordinary  courfe  of  natiu-e,  it  may  {till  Uaincs 

pvobably  be  dilbelieved  by  others.  Barringtoni 

"  Examph  I.  The  titlark  is  frequently  felefted  by 
the  cuekow  to  t;ike  charge  of  its  young  one  ;  but  as  it 
is  a  bird  lefs  familiar  tlian  many  that  I  have  mentioned, 
it'i  iieil  is  not  fo  often  dilcovered.  I  have,  ncverthe- 
lefs,    had   feyeral  cuckows  eggs  brought   to  me  that 


^^Tien  a  female  appears  on  the  wing,  fhe  is  often  at- 
tended by  two  or  three  males,  who  feem  to  be  earnell- 
ly  contending  for  her  favours.  From  the  time  of  her 
appeaiance  till  alter  the  middle  of  fiiminer  the  nefts  of 
the  birds  lelecied  to  receive  her  egg  are  to  be  found 
in  great  abundance  ;  but,  hke  the  other  migrating 
birds,  ihe  does  not  begin  to  lay  till  feme  weeks  after 
her  arrival. 


fparrow,     the    water-wagtail,     the    titlark,     the    red 
breaft,  the  yellow  hammer,  the  green  linnet,  or  the 
whinchat,  is  generally  the  nurfe  of  the  young  euckow: 
but    BuiTou   enumerates   20  forts   of  ncfls   at  lead   in 
■which  they  have  depolited  their  eggs.     It  may  be  fup- 
pofed,  that  the  female   euckow  lays  her  egg  in   the 
abfence  of  the   biid  in   whole   nell  llie  intends  to  de- 
pofite  ;  as   it   has  been   known,  that  on  fight  of  one 
of  thtfe  a  redbreaft  and  its  mate  jointly  attacked  her 
on  approaching  the  neft,  putting  her  to  flight  ;  and  fo 
effeftually  drove  her  away,  that  {he  did  not  dare  to 
return.     Among  the  birds  above  mentioned,  it  gene- 
rally, according   to   Mr  Jenner's  obfervations,  felects 
the  three  firft,  but  fhows  a  much  greater  partiality  to 
the  hedge  fparrow.     This  lafl  commonly  take-  up  four 
or   five   days   in   laying  her  eggs..     During  this  time 
(generally  after   fhe  has  laid  one  or  two)  the  euckow 
contrives  to  depofite  her  egg  among  the  reft,  leaving 
the  future   care   cf  it  entirely  to   the  hedge-fparrow. 
Iliis  intrufion  often  occafions-fome  difcompofure ;  for 
the  o!d  hedge-fparrow  at  intervals,  wliilll  Ihe  is  fitting, 
not  nnfrequently  throws  out   fome   of  her  own  ef>'-s, 
and   fometimcs  injures  them  in   fuch  a  way  that  they 
become  addle  ;   fo  that  it  more  frequently  happens  that 
only  two   or  three   hedge-fparrows   eggs  are  hatched 
with  the  cuckow's  than  otherwife.      But  whether  this 
be   the   cafe  or  not,  fhe   fits  the  fame  length  of  time 
as  if  no  foreign  egg  had  been  introduced,  tlie  cuckow's 
egg  requiring  no  longer  incubation  than  her  own. 

When  the  hedge-fparrow  has  fat  her  ufual  time, 
and  difengaged  the  young  euckow  and  fome  of  lar 
own  offspring  from  the  fhell  *,  her  own   young  ones. 


gnic    and  any  of  her  eggs  that  remain  iinhatched,  are  foon 

iscom- jy^Pgjj  out,   the  young  euckow  remaining  poflcfior  of 

i^j       the   neft,   and   fole  object    of  her  future  care.     The 

youug  birds  are  not  grevioufty  IdileJ,  n-jr  are  the  ejgs 


were  found  in  titlarks  nefts,  and  had  one  opportunity 
of  feeing  the  young  ciickow  in  the  neft  of  this  bird. 
I  faw  the  old  birds  feed  it  repeatedly  ;  and,  to  fatisfy 
myfelf  that  they  were  really  titlarks,  (hot  them  both, 
and  found  them  to  be  fo. 

"  E\iitnpk  2.  A  euckow  laid  her  egg  in  a  water- 
wagtail's  neft  in  the  thatch  of  an  old  cottage.  The 
wagtail  fat  her  ufual  time,  and  then  hatched  all  the  ego-s 
but  one  ;  which,  with  all  the  young  ones  except  the 
euckow,  was  turned  out  of  the  neft.  The  young 
buds,  confifting  of  five,  were  found  upon  the  rafter  tha't 
projected  from  under  the  thateh,  and  with  them  was  the 
egg  not  in  the  leaft  injured.  On  examining  the  i:g^, 
I  found  the  young  wagtail  it  contained  quite  perfeft, 
and  juft  in  fuch  a  ftate  as  birds  are  when  ready  to  be 
difengaged  from  the  fhell.  The  euckow  was  reared 
by  the  wagtails  till  it  was  nearly  capable  of  flying, 
when  it  was  killed  by  an  accident. 

"  Example  3.  A  hedge-fparrow  built  her  ntft  in  a 
hawthorn  bufti  in  a  timber-yard.  After  flie  had  laid 
two  eggs,  a  euckow  dropped  in  a  third.  The  fparrov/ 
continued  laying  as  if  nothing  had  happened,  till  file 
had  laid  five,  her  ufual  number,  and  then  fat. 

"  June  20.  1786.  On  infpcaing  the  neft,  I  found 
that  the  bird  had  hatched  this  morning,  and  that  every 
thuig  but  the  young  euckow  was  thrown  out.  Under 
the  neft  I  found  one  of  tiie  young  hedge-fparrows  dead, 
and  one  egg  by  the  fide  of  the  neft  entangled  with  the 
coarfe  woody  materials  that  formed  its  outfide  cover- 
ing. On  esainir;i:!g  the  eg-,  I  frjr.d  one  end  of  the 
4r  HielL^ 


cue  C    59 

CiK"liii  (hell  a  little  cracked,  and  couH  fee  thnt  tlie  fparrow 
•  1  '  it  contained  was  yet  alive.  It  was  then  reftored  to 
the  ncft,  but  in  a  few  minutes  was  thrown  out.  The 
egg  being  again  fufpcnded  by  the  outlide  of  the  ncll, 
was  faved  a  fecond  time  from  breaking.  To  fee  what 
would  happen  if  the  cuckow  was  removed,  I  took  out 
the  cnckow,  snd  placed  the  egg  containing  the  hedge- 
fparrow  in  the  neft  in  its  ftead.  The  old  birds,  da- 
ring this  time,  flew  about  the  fpot,  fhowing  figns  of 
great  anxiety;  but  when  I  withdrew,  they  quickly 
came  to  the  neft  again.  On  looking  into  it  in  a  quar- 
ter of  an  hour  afterwards,  I  found  the  young  one  com- 
pletely hatched,  warm,  and  lively.  The  hcdge-fpar- 
rows  were  fuffercd  to  remain  undifturbed  with  their 
new  charge  for  three  hours  (during  which  time  they 
paid  every  attention  to  it),  when  the  cuckow  was 
attain  put  into  the  neft.  The  old  fparrows  had  been 
fo  much  dirturbed  by  thefe  intrufions,  that  for  fome 
time  they  fhowed  an  unvviUingnefs  to  come  to  it. 
However,  at  length  they  came;  and  on  examining  the 
neft  again  in  a  few  minutes,  I  found  the  young  Ipar- 
row  was  tumbled  out.  It  was  a  fecond  time  reftored, 
but  again  experienced  the  fame  fate. 

"  From  thefe  experiments,  and  fuppofing,  from  the 
feeble  appearance  of  the  young  cuckow  juft  difengaged 
from  the  (hell,  that  it  was  utterly  incapable  of  difpla- 
cing  either  the  egg  or  the  young  fparrows,  I  was  in- 
duced to  believe  that  the  old  fj)arrows  were  the  only 
agents  in  this  feeming  unnatural  bufmefs.  But  I  af- 
terwards clearly  perceived  the  caufe  of  this  ftrange 
phenomenon,  by  difcovering  the  young  cuckow  in  the 
aft  of  difplacing  its  fcUow-neftlings,  as  the  following 
relation  will  fully  evince. 

"  June  1 8.  17^7,  I  examined  the  neft  of  a  hedge- 
fparrow,  which  then  contained  a  cuckow's  and  three 
hedge- fparrow's  eggs.  On  infpefting  it  the  day  fol- 
lowing, I  found  the  bird  had  hatched,  but  that  the 
neft  now  contained  only  a  young  cuckow  and  one 
young  hedge-fparrow.  The  ncft  was  placed  fo  near  the 
extremity  of  a  hedge,  that  I  could  diftinflly  fee  what 
was  going  forward  in  it  ;  and,  to  my  aftonifhment, 
faw  the  young  cuckow,  though  fo  newly  hatched,  in 
the  a£t  of  turning  out  the  young  hedge-fparrow. 

"The  mode  of  accomphlhing  this  was  very  curious. 
The  little  anininl,  with  tlie  affiftance  of  its  rump  and 
wings,  contrived  to  get  the  bird  upon  its  back  ;  and 
making  a  lodgement  for  the  burden  by  elevating  its 
elbows,  clambered  backward  with  it  up  the  fide  of  the 
reft  till  it  reached  the  top  ;   where  refting  for  a  mo- 
ment, it  threw  off, its  load  with  a  jerk,  and  quite  dif- 
encragcd   it  from  the   neft.      It  remained  in  this  fitua- 
lion  a  (horttime,  feeling  about  with  the  extremities  of 
its  win'fs,  as  if  to  be  convinced  whether  the  bufuiefs 
was  properly  executed,   and  then  dropped   into   the 
neft  again.      With  thefe  (the  extremities  of  its  wings) 
I  have  often  feen  it  examine,  as  it  were,  an  egg  and 
neftling  before  it  began  its  operations  ;  and  the  nice 
fenfibihty  which  thefe  parts  appeared  to  poflefi,  feemcd 
fufficiently  to  compenfate  the  want  of  light,  which  as 
yet  it  was  deltitute  of.     I   afterwards  put  in  an  egg; 
and  this,  by  a  fimilar  procefs,  was  conveyed  to   the 
edge  of  the  neft  and  thrown  out.     Thefe  experiments 
I  have  fince  repeated  feveral  times  in  different  nefts, 
.•snd  have  always  found  the  young  cuckow  difpofed  to 
ail  in  the  fame  manner.     In  choibing  up  tUe  neft,  iit 


2   ]  cue 

fometiraes  drops  Its  burden,  and  thus  is  foiled  in  its  Cucolut. 
endeavours ;  but,  after  a  little  refpite,  the  work  is  re-  ' 
fumed,  and  goes  on  almoft  inceflantly  till  it  is  effo'fled. 
It  is  wonderful  to  fee  the  extraordinary  exertions  of 
the  young  cuckow,  when  it  is  two  or  three  days  old, 
if  a  bird  be  put  into  the  neft  with  it  that  is  too  weigh- 
ty for  it  to  lift  out.  In  this  ftate  it  feems  ever  reftlefs 
and  uneafy.  But  this  difpofition  for  turning  out  its 
companions  begins  to  decline  from  the  time  it  is  two 
or  three  till  it  is  about  twelve  days  old  ;  when,  as  far 
as  I  have  hitherto  feen,  it  ceafes.  Indeed,  the  difpo- 
fition for  throvving  out  the  egg  appears  to  ceafe  a  few 
days  fooner  ;  tor  I  have  frequently  feen  the  young 
cuckow,  after  it  had  been  hatched  nine  or  ten  days, 
remove  a  nelUing  that  had  been  placed  in  the  neft 
with  it,  when  it  fuffercd  an  egg,  put  tliere  at  the  fame 
tim.e,  to  remain  unmolefted.  The  fingularity  of  its 
(hape  is  well  adapted  to  thefe  purpofes  ;  for,  different 
from  other  newly-hatched  birds,  its  back,  from  the 
fcapuls;  downwards,  is  very  broad,  with  a  confiderable 
depreffion  in  the  middle.  This  depreffion  feems  form- 
ed by  nature  for  the  defign  of  giving  a  more  fecure 
lodgement  to  the  egg  of  the  hedge-fparrow  or  its  young 
one  when  the  young  cuckow  is  employed  in  removing 
either  of  them  from  the  neft.  When  it  is  about  1 2 
Bays  old,  this  cavity  is  quite  filled  up,  and  then  the 
back  aftumes  the  ftiape  of  neftling  birds  in  general. 

"  Having  found  that  the  old  hedge-fparrow  com- 
monly throws  out  fome  of  her  own  eggs  after  her  neft: 
has  received  the  cuckow's,  and  not  knowing  how  fhe 
might  treat  her  young  ones  if  the  young  cuckow  was 
deprived  of  the  power  of  difpoffeffing  them  of  the  neft, 
I  made  the  following  experiment. 

"  J"Iy  9-  ^  young  cuckow,  that  had  been  hatched 
by  a  hedge-fparrow  about  four  hours,  was  confined  in 
the  neft  in  fuch  a  manner  that  it  could  not  poifibly 
turn  out  the  young  hedge-fpanows  which  were  hatch- 
ed at  the  fame  time,  though  it  was  almoft  incelTantly 
maliing  attempts  to  effeft  it.  The  confequcnce  was, 
the  old  birds  fed  the  whole  alike,  and  appeared  in 
every  refpeft  to  pay  the  lame  attention  to  their  own 
young  as  to  the  young  cuckow,  until  the  13th,  when 
the  neft  was  unfortunately  plundered. 

"  The  fmailneJs  ot  the  cuckow's  egg,  in  proportion 
to  the  fize  of  the  bird,  is  a  circumftance  that  liiiherto, 
I  believe,  has  efcaped  the  notice  oi  the  ornithologiil. 
So  great  is  the  difproportion,  that  it  is  in  general 
.fmaller  than  that  of  the  houfe-fparrow ;  whereas  the 
difference  in  the  fize  of  the  birds  is  nearly  as  five  to 
one.  I  have  ufed  the  term  in  general,  becaufe  eggs 
produced  at  different  times  by  the  fame  bird  vary  very 
much  in  fize.  I  have  found  a  cuckow's  egg  fo  light 
that  it  weighed  only  43  grains,  and  one  fo  heavy  that 
it  weighed  55  grains.  The  colour  of  the  cuckow's 
eggs  is  extremely  variable.  Some,  both  in  ground 
and  penciling,  very  much  refcinble  the  houfe-fparrow's; 
fome  are  indiftinilly  covered  with  bran-coloured  fpots; 
and  others  are  marked  with  lines  of  black,  refembling, 
in  fome  meafure,  the  eggs  of  the  yellow  hammer. 

*'  The  circumftance  of  the  young  cuckow's  being 
deftined  by  nature  to  throw  out  the  young  hedge- 
fparrows,  feems  to  account  for  the  parent  cuckow's 
dropping  her  egg  in  the  nefts  of  birds  fo  fmall  as  thole 
I  have  particulaiifed.  If  ihe  were  to  do  this  in  the 
neft  of  a  bird  which  produced  a  large  egg,  and  confe- 

quently, 


cue 


t     593     1 


cue 


Caculin.  quently  a  large  iicftling,  the  youi>g  cuckow  would 
^'  »  '  probably  find  an  infiirinountable  difficulty  in  folely 
poiTeffing  the  neft,  as  its  exertions  would  be  unequal 
to  the  labour  of  turning  out  the  young  birds.  Befides, 
though  many  of  tlie  larger  birds  miglit  have  fed  the 
nelUing  c'lckow  very  properly  had  It  been  committed 
to  their  charge,  yet  they  could  not  have  fufFered  their 
own  young  to  have  been  facrificed  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  the  cuckow  in  fueh  great  number  as  the  fmaller 
ones,  which  are  fo  much  more  abundant  ;  for  though 
it  would  be  a  vain  attempt  to  calculate  the  numbers  of 
neftlings  dillroycd  by  means  of  the  cuckow,  yet  the 
flightell  obfervation  would  be  fufficient  to  convince  us 
that  they  mull  be  very  largt." 

Here  Mr  Jenner  remarks,  that  though  nature  per- 
mits the  young  cuckow  to  make  this  great  wafte,  yet 
the  animals  thus  deilroyed  are  not  thrown  away  or 
rendered  ufelefs.  At  the  feafon  when  this  happens, 
great  numbers  of  tender  quadrupeds  and  reptiles  are 
feeking  provifion  ;  and  if  they  find  the  callow  nefth'ngs 
which  have  fallen  viftims  to  the  young  cuckow,  they 
are  furnllhed  with  food  well  adapted  to  their  peculiar 
ftate. 

It  appears  a  little  extraordinary,  that  two  cuckows 
eggs  fliould  ever  be  depofited  in  the  fame  neft,  as  the 
young  one  produced  from  one  of  them  muft  inevitably 
perifh ;  yet  two  inftances  of  this  kind  fell  under  our 
author's  obfervation,  one  of  which  he  thus  relates  : 
"  June  27.  1787.  Two  cuckows  and  a  hedge-fparrow 
were  hatched  in  the  fame  neft  this  morning  ;  one  hedge- 
fparrovv's  egg  remained  unhatched.  In  a  few  hours 
after,  a  conteft  began  between  the  cuckows  for  the 
pofTeffion  of  the  neft,  which  continued  undetermined 
till  the  next  afternoon,  when  one  of  them,  which  was 
fomewhat  fuptrior  in  fize,  turned  out  the  other,  toge- 
ther with  the  yoimg  hedge-fparrow  and  the  unhatched 
egg.  This  conteft  was  very  remarkable.  The  com- 
batants alternately  appeared  to  have  the  advantage,  as 
each  carried  the  other  feveral  times  nearly  to  the  top 
of  the  neft,  and  then  funk  down  again,  opprefFed  by 
the  weight  of  its  burden  ;  till  at  length,  after  various 
efforts,  the  ftrongeft  prevailed,  and  was  afterwards 
brought  up  by  the  hcdge-fparrows." 

But  the  principal  circumftance  that  has  agitated  the 
mind  of  the  riaturalift  refpefting  the  cuckow  is.  Why, 
like  other  birds,  it  ihould  not  build  a  neft,  incubate 
its  eggs,  and  lear  its  own  young? 

There  is  no  apparent  reafon,  Mr  Jenner  thinks,  why 
this  bird,  in  common  with  others,  fhould  not  perfoim 
all  thefe  feveral  offices  ;  for  it  is  in  every  refpeft  per- 
fettly  formed  for  coUcfting  materials  and  building  a 
neft.  Neither  its  external  ftiape  nor  internal  ftruflure 
prevent  ic  from  incubation  ;  nor  is  it  by  any  means 
incapacitated  from  bringing  food  to  its  young.  It 
would  be  needlefs  to  enumerate  the  various  opinions 
©f  authors  on  this  fubjeit  from  Ariftotle  to  the  prefent 
time.  Thofe  of  the  ancients  appear  to  be  either  vl- 
iJ.onary  or  erroneous;  and  the  attempts  of  the  moderns 
towards  its  inveftigation  have  been  confined  within 
very  narrow  limits  :  for  they  have  gone  but  little  fur- 
ther in  their  refearches  than  to  examine  the  conftitu- 
tion  and  ftrutture  of  the  bird  ;  auS  having  found  it 
poflefled  of  a  ca^jacious  fti-'Uiach  with  a  thin  external 
covering,  concluded  tiiat  the  prelTure  upon  this  part, 
ii.'i  a  fitting  pofture,  prevented  incubation.     They  have 

Vol.  V.  Part  II. 


not  confidereJ  that  many  of  the  birds  which  Incubate   C'icoluj, 

have   ftomaehs  analogous  to  thofe  of  cuckows.     The  v~~" 

ftomach  of  the  owl,  f<n-  example,  is  proportionably 
capacious,  and  is  almoft  as  thinly  covered  with  exter- 
nal integuments.  Nor  have  they  confidered,  that  the 
ftomaehs  of  n.  ftlings  are  always  much  diftended  with 
food  ;  and  that  this  very  part,  during  the  whole  time 
of  their  confinement  to  the  nell,  fui)ports  in  a  great 
degree  the  weight  of  the  whole  body  :  whereas,  in  a 
fitting  bird,  it  is  not  nearly  fo  much  prefl'ed  upon,  for 
the  breaft  in  that  cafe  fills  up  chicily  the  cavity  of  the 
neft  ;  for  which  purpofe,  from  its  natural  convexity,  it 
is  admirably  well  fitted. 

Thefe  obfervations  may  be  fufficient  to  fliow,  that 
the  cuckow  is  not  rendered  incapable  of  fitting  through 
any  peculiarity  either  in  the  filiialion  or  formati  )n  of 
the  ftomach  ;  yet,  as  a  proof  ftill  more  decifive,  our 
obferver  adduces  the  following  fail. 

"  In  the  fummer  of  the  year  1786,  I  faw,  in  the 
neft  of  a  hedge-fparrow,  a  cuckow,  which,  from  its 
fize  and  plumage,  appeared  to  be  nearly  a  fortnight 
old.  On  lifting  it  up  in  the  neft,  I  ohfervcd  two 
hedge-fparrows  eggs  under  it.  At  firft  I  fuppofed 
them  part  of  the  number  which  had  been  fat  upon  by 
the  hedge-fparrow  with  the  cuckow's  egg,  and  that 
they  had  become  addle,  as  birds  frequently  fuffer  fuch 
eggs  to  i-emain  in  their  ncfts  with  their  young;  but  on 
breaking  one  of  them  I  found  it  contained  a  living 
foetus  :  fo  th^t  of  courfe  thefe  eggs  muft  have  been 
laid  feveral  days  after  the  cuck'  w  was  hatched;  as  the 
latter  now  completely  filled  up  the  neft,  and  was  by 
this  peculiar  incident  performing  the  part  of  a  litting- 
bird.  At  this  time  I  was  unacquainted  with  the  faft, 
that  the  young  cuckow  tinned  out  the  eggs  of  the 
hedge-fparrow  ;  but  it  is  reafonable  to  conclude,  that 
it  had  loft  the  dilpofition  for  doing  this  when  thefe 
eggs  were  depofited  in  the  neft. 

"  Having  under  my  infpetlion,  in  anotiier  hedge- 
fparrow's  neft,  a  young  cuckow  about  the  fame  fize  as 
the  former,  I  procured  two  wagtails  eggs  which  had 
been  fat  upon  a  few  days,  and  had  them  immedi.itely 
conveyed  to  the  fpot,  and  placed  under  the  cuckow. 
On  the  ninth  day  after  the  eggs  had  been  in  tais  fitu- 
ation,  the  perfou  appointed  to  fuperintend  trje  neft 
(as  it  was  foine  ditlance  from  the  place  of  my  refi- 
dence)  came  to  inform  me  that  the  wagtails  were 
hatched.  On  going  to  the  place,  and  examining  the 
neft,  I  found  nothing  in  it  but  the  cuckow  and  the 
fticlls  of  the  wagtail's  eggs.  The  jfad,  therefore,  of 
the  birds  being  hatched,  I  do  not  give  you  as  coming 
immediately  under  my  own  eye  ;  but  the  tellimony  of 
the  perfon  appointed  to  watch  the  neft  was  corrobo- 
rated by  that  of  another  witneis." 

In  confidering  to  what  caufes  may  be  attributed  the 
fingulaiities  of  the  cuckow,  Mr  Jenner  fuggefts  the. 
following  as  the  moft  probable :  "  Tbejhort  ref  deuce 
this  bird  is  allowed  to  nmle  in  the  country  where  it  is  dc- 
Jlined  to  propagate  its  Jpccies;  and  the  call  that  nature  hat 
upon  it,  during  that  Jhort  rejidence,  to  produce  a  nunurous 
progeny.  The  cuckow's  liril  appeai-ance  here  is  about 
the  middle  of  April,  commonly  on  the  Ijtlr.  Its 
egg  is  not  ready  for  incubation  till  fome  weeks  after 
its  arrival,  feldom  before  the  middle  of  May.  A  fort- 
night is  taken  up  by  the  fitting-bird  in  hatching  the 
e^g.  The  young  bird  generally  continues  three  week* 
4F  is 


cue 


[     594    T 


cue 


Cuculu?.  in  the  neft  before  it  flies,  and  the  fofter-parents  feed 
^~~"v^~"  it  more  than  five  weeks  after  this  period  ;  fo  that  if  a 
cuckow  (hoiild  be  ready  with  an  egg  much  fooner  than 
the  time  pointed  out,  not  a  fiagle  neftling,  even  one 
of  the  earlieft,  would  be  fit  to  provide  for  itfelf  before 
its  parent  would  be  inftinftivtly  directed  to  feek  a  new 
refidence,  and  be  thus  compelled  to  abandon  its  young 
tne;  for  old  cuckows  take  their  final  leave  of  this 
country  the  firft  week  in  July. 

"  Had  nature  allowed  the  cuckow  to  have  ftaid  here 
as  long  as  forae  other  migrating  birds,  which  produce 
a  fingle  fet  of  young  ones  (as  the  fwift  or  nightingale, 
for  example),  and  had  allowed  her  to  have  reared  as 
large  a  number  as  any  bird  is  capable  of  bringing  up 
at  one  tin\e,  thefe  might  not  have  been  iufficient  to 
have  anfvvered  her  pui-pofe  ;  but  by  fending  the  cuc- 
kow from  one  neft  to  another,  fhe  is  reduced  to  the 
fame  ftate  as  the  bird  whofe  neft  we  daily  rob  of  an 
egg,  in  which  cafe  the  ftimulus  for  incubation  is  fu- 
fpended.  Of  this  we  have  a  familiar  example  in  the 
common  domcftic  fowl.  That  the  cuckow  aiifually 
lays  a  great  number  of  eggs,  difleclion  feems  to  prove 
TCTX  decifively.  Upon  a  coniparifon  I  had  an  oppor- 
tunity of  making  between  the  ovarium,  or  racemus  vi- 
tellorum,  of  a  female  cuckow,  killed  juft  as  (he  had 
begun  to  lay,  and  of  a  pullet  killed  in  the  fame  ftate, 
no  effential  difference  appeared.  The  uterus  of  each 
contained  an  egg  perfeAly  formed,  and  ready  for  cx- 
clufion  ;  and  the  ovarium  exhibited  a  large  duller  of 
eggs,  gradually  advanced  from  a  very  diminutive  fize 
to  the  greateft  the  yolk  acquires  before  it  is  received 
into  the  oviduit.  The  appearance  of  one  killed  on  the 
third  of  July  was  very  different.  In  this  I  could  di- 
ftindtly  trace  a  great  number  of  the  membranes  which 
had  difcharged  yolks  into  the  oviduA  ;  and  one  of 
them  appeared  as  if  it  had  parted  with  a  yolk  the  pre- 
ceding day.  The  ovariiun  ilill  exhibited  a  duller  of 
enlarged  eggs,  but  the  moft;  forward  of  them  was  fcarce- 
\v  larger  than  a  raullard-feed. 

"  i  would  not  be  underftood  to  advance,  that  every 
egg  which  fwells  in  the  ovarium  at  the  approach  or 
commencement  of  the  propagating  feafon  is  brought 
to  perfetlion  ;  but  it  appears  clearly,  that  a  bird,  in 
obedience  to  the  diftates  of  her  own  will,  or  to  fonie 
hidden  caufe  in  the  animal  economy,  can  either  retard 
©r  bring  forward  her  eggs.  Belides  the  example  of 
the  common  fowl  above  alluded  to,  many  others  oc- 
cur. If  we  deftroy  the  neft  of  a  blackbird,  a  robin, 
or  almoft  any  fmall  bir-d,  in   the  -fpring,  when  (lie  has 

is 


time  during  the  feafon  appointed  for  them  to  lay;  but  Cumluj. 
the  cuckow,  not  being  fubjetl  to  the  common  inter-  >  — 
ruptions,  goes  on  laying  fiom  the  time  fhe  begins  till 
the  eve  of  her  departure  from  this  countiy  :  for  al- 
though old  cuckows  in  general  take  their  leave  the  firft 
week  in  July  (and  1  never  could  fee  one  after  the  5th 
day  of  that  month,  though  I  conceive  it  poflible  that 
here  and  there  a  Ilraggling  cuckow  may  be  feen  after 
this  time)  ;  yet  1  have  known  an  inftance  of  an  egg'3 
being  hatched  in  the  neft  of  an  hedge-fparrow  fo  late 
as  the  15th.  And  a  farther  proof  of  their  continuing 
to  lay  till  the  time  of  their  leaving  us  may,  I  think,  be 
faiily  deduced  from  the  appearances  on  dilTcftion  of 
the  female  cuckow  above  mentioned,  killed  on  the  ^d 
of  July." 

Among  the  many  peculiarities  of  the  young  cuckow, 
there  is  one  that  fliows  itfelf  very  early.  Long  before 
it  leaves  the  neft,  it  frequently,  when  irritated,  af- 
fumes  the  manner  of  a  bird  of  prey,  looks  ferocious, 
throws  itfelf  back,  and  pecks  at  any  thing  prefented 
to  it  with  great  vehemence,  often  at  the  fame  time 
making  a  chuckling  noife  like  a  young  hawk.  Hence 
probably  the  vulgar  opinion,  that  this  bird  changes 
into  a  hawk  and  devours  its  nurfe  on  quitting  its  neft; 
whence  the  Frendi  proverb,  Ingrat  comme  un  coucou. 
Sometimes,  when  dillurbed  in  a  fmaller  degree,  it 
makes  a  kind  of  hilfing  nolle,  accompanied  with  a  hea» 
ving  motion  of  the  whole  body. 

The  growth  of  the  young  cuckow  Is  uncommonly 
rapid.  Its  chirp  is  plaintiff,  like  that  of  the  htdge- 
fparrow  ;  but  the  found  is  not  acquired  from  the  fo- 
fter-parent,  as  it  is  the  fame  whether  it  be  reared  by 
the  hedge-lparrow  or  any  other  bird.  It  never  acquire* 
the  adult  note  during  its  ftay  in  this  country. 

The  ftomachs  of  young  cuckows  contain  a  great  va« 
riety  of  food.  On  diifecling  one  that  was  brought 
up  by  wagtails,  and  fed  by  them  at  the  time  it 
was  fhot  (though  it  was  nearly  of  the  fize  and  ful- 
nefs  of  plumage  of  the  parent-bird),  Mr  Jenner  found 
in  its  llomach  the  following  fubftances :  Flics  and 
beetles  of  various  kinds  ;  fmall  inails  witli  their  ftiells 
unbroken  ;  graftioppcrs  ;  caterpillars  ;  part  of  a  horfe- 
bean  ;  a  vegetable  fubftance,  refembling  bits  of  tough 
grafs,  rolled  into  a  ball  ;  and  the  feeds  of  a  vegetable 
that  refembled  thofe  of  the  goofe-grafs.  In  the  llo- 
mach of  one  fed  by  hedge-fparrows,  the  contents  were 
ahnoft  entirely  vegetable;  fuch  as  wheat,  fmall  vetches, 
&c.  "  But  this  (fays  our  author)  was  the  only  in- 
ftance of  the  kind  I  had  ever  feen,  as  thefe  birds  in 


laid  her  ufual  number  of  eggs,  it   is  well  known  to     general  feed  the  young  cuckow  with  fcarcely  any  thing 
every  one  who  has  paid  any  attention  to  inquiries  of     but   animal  food.      However,   it   ferved  to  clear  up  a 

point   which  before  had  fomewhat   puzzled  me ;  for 


this  kind,  in  how  ftiort  a  fpace  of  time  fire  will  pro'ducc 
a  frefn  fet.  Now,  had  the  bird  been  fuffered  to  have 
proceeded  without  interruption  in  her  natural  courfe, 
the  eggs  would  have  been  hatched,  and  the  ycung 
ones  brought  to  a  ftate  capable  of  providing  for  thcm- 
felves,  before  the  would  have  been  induced  to  make 
another  neft,  and  excited  to  produce  another  fet  of 
eggs  from  the  ovarium.  If  the  bird  had  been  deftroy- 
ed  at  the  time  ftie  was  fitting  on  her  firft  laying  of 
eggs,  diffeftion  would  have  ftiov.m  the  ovarium  con- 
taining a  great  number  in  an  enlarged  ftate,  and  ad- 
■vancing   in   the   ufual    progreffive   order.       Hence    it 


having  found  the  cuckow's  egg  in  the  neft  of  a  greea 
linnet,  which  begins  very  early  to  feed  its  young  with 
vegetable  food,  I  was  apprehenfive,  till  I  faw  this  faft^ 
that  this  bird  would  have  been  an  unfit  fofter-parent 
for  the  young  cuckow. 

"  The  titlark,  I  obferve,  feeds  it  principally  witb 
graftroppers. 

"But  the  moft  Angular  fubftance,  fo  often  met 
with  in  the  ftomachs  of  young  cuckows,  is  a  ball  of 
hair  curioufly  vvound  up.  I  have  found  it  of  various 
fizes,  from  that  of  a  pea  to  that  of  a  fmall  nutmeg.    It 


plainly  appears,  that   birds  can    keep-  back   or  bring     feems  to  be  compofc<l  chiefly  of  horfe  hairs ;  and  from 
forward  (under  certain  limitations)  their  eggs  at  any     the  refemblance  it  bears  to  the  infide  covering  of  tho 

5  wft. 


cue 


neft,  I  conceive  the  bird  fwallows  it  while  a  ncftling. 
la  the  ftoraachs  of  old  cuckows  are  often  ken  niafles 
cf  hair  ;  but  thele,  had  evidently  once  formed  a  part 
of  the  hairy  caterpillar,  which  tlie  cuckow  often  takes 
for  its  food." 

There  feems  to  be  no  precife  time  fixed  for  the  de- 
parture of  young  cuckows.  Mr  Jcnner  believes  they 
go  off  in  fucceffion,  probably  as  foon  as  they  are  ca- 
pable of  taking  care  of  themfelves  ;  for  although  they 
ilav  here  till  they  become  nearly  equal  in  fize  and 
growth  of  plumage  to  the  old  cuckow,  yet  in  this  very 
itate  the  fullering  care  of  the  hedge-fparrow  is  not 
withdrawn  from  them.  "  I  have  frequently  (fays  he) 
feen  the  young  cuckow  of  fuch  a  iize  that  the  hedge- 
fparrow  has  perched  on  its  back,  or  half-expanded 
wing,  in  order  to  gain  fufScient  elevation  to  put  the 
food  into  its  mouth.  At  this  advanced  ftage,  I  be- 
lieve that  young  cuckows  procure  fome  food  for  them- 
felves ;  like  the  young  rook,  for  initance,  which  in 
part  feeds  itfelf,  and  is  partly  fed  by  the  old  ones,  till 
the  approach  of  the  pairing  i'eafon.  If  they  did  not 
go  oft  in  fucceffion,  it  is  probable  we  fhould  fee  them 
in  large  numbers  by  the  middle  of  Auguil  ;  for  as 
they  are  to  be  found  in  gi'tat  plenty  when  in  a  neilling 
ftate,  they  mull  now  appear  very  numerous,  fincc  all 
ef  them  mull  have  quitted  the  nell  before  this  time. 
But  this  is  not  the  cafe  ;  for  they  are  n(;t  more  nume- 
rous at  any  feafon  than  the  parent-birds  are  in  the 
months  of  May  and  June. 

"  The  fame  inllinftive  impulfe  which  direiSls  the 
cuckow  to  depofite  her  eggs  in  the  nells  of  other  birds, 
directs  her  young  one  to  throw  out  the  eggs  and  young 
cf  the  owner  of  the  nell.  The  fcheme  of  nature  would 
be  Incomplete  without  it ;  for  it  would  be  extremely 
difficult,  if  not  impoffible,  for  the  little  birds  deftined 
to  tind  fuccour  for  the  cuckow,  to  find  it  alio  for  their 
own  young  ones  after  a  certain  period  ;  nor  would 
there  be  room  for  the  whole  to  inhabit  the  neft." 

It  is  fuppofed,  that  there  are  more  male  cuckows 
than  females;  fince  two  arc  often  fe^en  in  dilpute  where 
a  third  has  been  in  fight;  which,  no  doubt,  was  of  the 
oppofiie  fex.  Mr  Pennant  obferved,  that  live  male 
birds  were  caught  in  a  trap  in  one  feafon ;  and  Mr  La- 
tham fays,  that  "  out  of  at  leall  half  a  dozen  that  i 
have  attended  to,  my  chance  has  never  direftcd  me  to 
a^ftmale  ;  and  it  is  to  be  wiflied,  that  future  obfer- 
vers  may  determine  whether  our  obiervatiuns  have  rife 
only  In  chance,  or  arc  founded  on  the  general  circum- 
fkance."  He  believes  that  the  male  birds  are  more 
liable  to  be  (hot,  their  note  direftingthe  gunner  where 
to  take  aim,  while  tlie  female  is  fecured  by  her  filcnce. 

Cuckows  may  be,  and  often  are,  brought  up  tame, 
fo  as  to  bcco.ne  familiar.  They  will  eat  in  tliis  ftate 
bread  and  milk,  fruits,  infetls,  eggs,  and  flelh  cither 
cooked  or  raw ;  but  in  a  Hate  of  nature,  I  believe, 
fhiefly  live  on  caterpillars  ;  which,  in  the  few  I  have 
obferved,  were  all  of  the  fmooth  kind  ;  others  have 
found  vegetable  matter,  beetles,  and  fmall  ilones. 
When  fat,  they  are  faid  to  be  as  good  eating  as  a 
land  rail.  The  French  and  Italians  eat  them  to  this 
day.  The  ancient  Romans  admired  them  greatly  as 
food  :  Pliny  lays  that  there  is  no  bird  which  can  be 
compared  to  them  for  delicacy. 

In  migrating,  the  major  part  of  thefc  birds  are  fup- 
pofed to  go  into  Africa,  llncc  they  arc  obferved  to  villi 


C    595     ] 


cue 


the  ifland  of  Malta  twice  in  a  year,  in  their  paflage  Cucului. 
backwards  and  forwards,  as  is  fuppofed,  to  that  part  ~~^  ' 
xjf  the  world.  They  are  well  known  alfo  at  Aleppo, 
To  the  north,  it  is  faid  to  be  common  in  Sweden  ; 
but  not  to  appear  fo  early  by  a  month  as  with  us. 
Ruffia  is  not  dcititute  of  tliis  bird  ;  and  Mr  Latham 
has  feen  a  fpecimen  brougiit  from  Kamtfchatka,  now 
in  the  polFelfion  of  Sir  Jofeph  Banks. 

2.  The  Americanus,  or  cuckow  of  Carolina.  It  i« 
about  the  fize  of  a  blackbird,  the  upper  mandible  of 
the  bill  black,  the  lower  yellow  ;  the  large  wing-fea- 
thers are  reddilh ;  the  reft  of  the  wing,  and  all  the  up- 
per  part  of  the  body,  head  and  neck,  is  of  an  alh-co- 
lour  ;  all  tlie  under  part  of  the  body,  from  the  bill  to 
the  tail,  white  ;  the  tail  long  and  narrow,  compofed 
of  fix  long  and  four  fliortcr  feathers ;  their  legs  (liort 
and  ftrong.  Their  note  is  very  different  from  the  cuc- 
kow of  this  country,  and  not  fo  remarkable  to  be  taken 
notice  of.  It  is  a  folitary  bird,  frequenting  the  dark- 
ell  receffes  of  woods  and  (hady  thickets.  They  re- 
tire on  the  approach  of  winter. 

3.  The  indicator,  or  honey-guide,  is  a  native  of  A-      Piste 
frica.      The  following  defcription  is  given  of  it  by  Dr     CLlV. 
Sparrman  in  the  Philofophical  Tranfaitions  for  1777. 

"  This  curious  fpecics  of  cuckow  is  found  at  a  confider- 
able  dillance  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in  the  in- 
terior parts  of  Africa,  being  entirely  unknown  at  that 
fettlcment.  The  firft  place  I  heard  of  it  was  in  a  wood 
called  the  Grooi-vaader's  Bojclr,  "  the  Grand-father'i 
Wood,"  fituated  in  a  defeit  near  the  river  which  the 
Hottentots  call  T'knut'i^i.  The  Dutch  fettlers  there- 
abouts have  given  this  bird  the  name  of  honiguyzsr^ 
or  "  honey-guide,"  from  its^  quality  of  difcovering 
wild  honey  to  travellers.  Its  colour  has  nothing  ftri- 
king  or  beautifuL  Its  fize  is  confidciably  fnraller  that! 
that  of  our  cuckow  in  Lurope  :  but  in  return,  the  in- 
ftiutt  which  prompts  it  to  leek  its  food  in  a  fingular 
manner  is  truly  admirable.  Not  only  the  Dutch  and 
Hottentots,  but  likewife  a  fpccies  of  quadruped  named 
ratel  (probably  a  new  fpccies  of  badger),  are  fre- 
quently conducted  to  wild  bee-hives  by  this  bird, 
which,  as  it  were,  pilots  them  to  the  very  fpot.  The 
honey  being  its  favourite  food,  its  own  interell  prompts 
it  to  be  inllrumental  in  robbing  the  hive,  as  fome 
Itraps  are  commonly  left  for  its  fupport.  The  morn- 
ing and  evening  are  its  times  of  feeding,  and  it  is 
then  heard  calling  in  a  flirill  tone,  chcrr,  chcrr;  which 
the  honey-hunters  carefully  attend  to  as  the  fuminons 
to  the  chace.  From  time  to  time  they  anfwer  with  a 
foft  whiftle ;  which  the  bird  hearing-,  always  conti- 
nues its  note.  As  foon  as  tliey  are  in  light  of  each 
other,  the  bird  gradually  flutters  toward  the  place 
where  the  hive  is  fituated,  continually  repeating  il» 
former  call  of  chcrr,  cherr  :  nay,  if  it  fliould  happen 
to  have  gained  a  confiderable  way  before  tiie  men  (who 
may  cafily  be  hindered  in  the  purfuit  by  bi:flies,  rivers, 
or  die  like),  it  returns  to  them  again,  and  redoubles 
its  note,  as  it  were  to  reproach  them  with  their  inac- 
tivity. At  lall  the  brd  is  obferved  to  hover  for  a  few 
moments  over  a  certain  Ipot,  and  then  fikntly  retiring 
to  a  neighbouring  bufh  or  refting-place,  the  hunters 
are  lure  of  finding  the  bees  nell  in  that  identical  fpot; 
whether  it  be  in  a  tree  or  in  tlic  crevice  of  a  rock,  or 
(as  is  moft  commonly  the  cafe)  in  the  earth.  Whiht 
the  hunters  are  bufy  iii  taking  the  honey,  the  bird  is 
4  F  2  feen 


cue 


[  596  ] 


cue 


Crtulus.  feen  looting  on  attentively  to  what  is  going  forward, 
'-  »  and  waiting  for  its  fliare  of  the  fpoil.  The  bee-hun- 
ters never  fail  to  leave  a  fmall  portion  for  their  con- 
diiftor  ;  but  commonly  take  care  not  to  leave  fo  much 
as  would  falisfy  its  hunger.  The  bird's  appetite  be- 
ing whetted  by  this  parlimony,  it  is  obliged  to  commit 
a  (econd  treafon,  by  difcoveriug  another  bee's  neil,  in 
hopes  of  a  better  falary.  It  is  further  obferved,  that 
the  nearer  the  bird  approaches  the  hidden  hive,  the 
more  frequently  it  repeats  its  call,  and  feems  the  more 
impatient.  I  have  had  frequent  opportunities  of  fee- 
ing this  bird,  and  have  been  witnefs  to  the  dcilruftion 
of  fevcral  repubh'cs  of  bees  by  means  of  i:s  treachery. 
I  had,  however,  but  two  opportunities  of  (hooting  it, 
which  I  did  to  the  great  indignation  of  ray  Hotten- 
tots. It  is  about  feven  inches  in  length,  and  is  of  a 
rufty  brown  colour  on  the  back,  with  a  white  breall 
and  belly."  A  nefl  which  was  (hown  to  Dr  Sparrman 
for  that  of  this  bird,  was  compofed  of  flender  filaments 
of  bark,  woven  together  in  the  form  of  a  bottle  ;  the 
neck  and  opening  hung  downwards,  and  a  ftring,  in 
an  arched  fhape,  was  fufpended  acrofs  the  openmg  faf- 
tened  by  the  two  ends,  perhaps  for  the  bird  to  perch  on. 
4.  The  Cape  cuckow  {Bujf.),  is  a  trifle  fmaller  than 
ours :  the  bill  a  deep  brown  ;  the  upper  part  of  the 
body  greenifh  brown  :  throat,  cheeks,  fore  part  of  the 
neck,  and  upper  wing  coverts,  of  a  deep  rufous  co- 
lour :  tail  feathers  rufous,  but  paler,  tipped  with 
white:  the  breaft,  and  'all  the  under  parts  of  the  body, 
white,  croffed  with  lines  of  black  :  the  legs  reddiih 
brown.  It  inhabits  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ;  and  is 
moft  likely  the  fame  bird  which  is  called  Edol'io,  from 
its  pronouncing  that  word  frequently  in  a  low  melan- 
choly tone. — Voyagers  alfo  mention  another-cuckow, 
which  is  common  to  Loango  in  Africa.  It  is  bigger 
than  ours,  but  of  the  fame  colour  ;  and  repeats  the 
■word  cuckow  like  that  bird,  but  in  different  inflexion 
of  voice.  It  is  faid  that  the  male  and  female  toge- 
ther go  through  the  whole  eight  notes  of  the  gamut ; 
the  male,  beginning  by  itfclf,  founds  the  three  firll, 
after  which  he  is  accompanied  by  the  female  through 
the  reft  of  the  oftave. 

5.  The  honoratus,  or  facred  cuckow,  is  fomewhat 
lefs  than  our  cuckow  :  the  general  colour  is  blackifli 
alh  on  the  upper  parts,  marked  with  two  fpots  of 
white  on  each  feather ;  beneath  white,  tranfvcrfely 
fpotted  v/ith  afli-colour:  the  quills  are  cinereous,  tranf- 
verfely  fpotted  with  white  :  the  tail  is  much  cuneated, 
five  inches  and  a  half  long,  and  of  the  fame  colour  as 
the  quills ;  the  outer  feather  only  three  inches  long : 
the  legs  and  claws  are  of  a  pale  a(h-colour.  This  fpe- 
cies  inhabits  Malabar,  where  the  natives  hold  it  fa- 
cred. It  feeds  on  reptiles,  which,  perhaps,  may  be 
fuch  as  are  the  moft  noxious  ;  if  fo,  this  feeming  fu- 
perftition  may  have  rife  from  a  more  reafonable  foun- 
dation than  many  others  of  the  like  fort. 

6.  The  (hining  cuckow  is  the  fize  of  a  fmall  thrufh: 
the  bill  is  bluilh  :  the  upper  part  of  the  body  green, 
with  a  rich  gilded  glofs  ;  the  under  parts  are  white, 
tranfvcrfely  waved  with  green  gold :  the  under  tail 
coverts  alrnoit  white;  the  quills  and  tail  dufl<y-brown; 
the  legs  arebluifh.  This  inhabits  New  Zealand,  where 
it  is  called  Pocpo-arowro.     See  Plate  CLI. 

7.  The  vetula  is  a  trifle  bigger  than  a  blackbird  : 
the  bill  above  an  inch  and  a  half  long :  the  upper 


mandible  black  ;  the  lower  whitiOi:  crown  of  the  head  Cufiilus.' 
brown,  the  feathers  of  it  foft  and  filky  :  the  upper  ^~""V"~~" 
parts  of  the  body  and  the  quills  cinereous  olive  : 
throat  and  fore  part  of  the  neck  whitifh  ;  the  teft  of 
the  under  parts  rufous :  the  tail  is  tnucli  cuneated  ; 
the  two  middle  feathers  cinereous  olive,  the  others 
dufliy  black  tipped  with  white  ;  the  outer  feather  very 
Ihort  >  legs  bhie-black.  This  fpeoies  inhabits  Ja- 
maica, where  it  is  frequent  in  the  woods  and  hedges 
all  the  year  round.  It  feeds  on  feed?,  fmall  worms, 
and  caterpillars,  and  is  very  tame.  This  bird  has  the 
name  lacco  from  its  ciy,  which  is  like  that  word  ;  the 
firft  fyllable  of  this  is  pronounced  hardly,  the  other 
following  in  a  full  octave  lower  than  the  lirft.  It  has 
alfo  another  cry  like  qua,  qua,  qua:  but  that  only  when 
alarmed  by  an  enemy.  Behdes  infefts,  it  will  alfo  eat 
lizards,  fraall  fuakes,  fi'ogs,  young  rats,  and  loraetimes- 
€veu  fmall  birds.  The  fnakts  they  fwallow  head  for- 
moil,  letting  the  tail  hang  out  of  the  mouth  tiU  the 
fore-parts  are  digeiled.  This  bird,  it  is  moit  likelr, 
might  be  eafily  tamed,  as  it  is  fo  gentle  as  to  fuffer 
the  negro  children  to  catch  it  with  their  hands.  Its 
gait  is  that  of  leaping,  like  a  magpie  ;  being  frequent- 
ly feen  on  the  ground  ;  and  its  flight  but  fliort,  chiefly 
from  buih  to  buili.  At  the  time  when  other  bird* 
breed,  they  likewife  retire  into  the  woods,  but  their 
neils  have  never  yet  been  found  ;  from  which  one 
ftiould  be  inclined  to  think,  that  they  were  indebted 
to  other  birds  for  the  rearing  their  young  in  the  man- 
ner of  the  common  cuckow.  It  has  the  name  of  rain- 
h'lrd,  as  it  is  faid  to  make  the  greatell  noife  before- 
rain.  Common  all  the  year  at  Jamaica.  In  another 
fpecies  or  variety,  common  in  Jamaica,  the  feathers 
on  the  throat  appear  like  a  downy  beard,  whence  pro- 
bably the  name  of  old-man  rain-bird,  given  it  there 
and  by  Ray,  Slcane,  &c. 

8.  The  naevius,  fpotted  cuckow,  or  rail-bird,  is  a- 
bout  the  fize  of  a  fieldfare :  the  bill  three  quarters  of 
an  inch  ;  the  upper  mandible  black  on  the  top,  and 
rufous  on  the  fides  j  the  under  wholly  rufous:  the  ge^ 
neral  colour  of  the  plumage  is  rufous  in  two  ftiades ;, 
the  under  parts  rufous  white:  the  feathers  on  the  crown 
are  of  a  deep  brown,  and  pretty  long,  with  rufous 
tips,  and  fome  of  tliera  margined  w  ith  rufous :  the 
hind  part  of  the  neck  is  a  rufous  grey  ;  down  the 
(hafts  deep  brown  :  back  and  rump  the  fame  ;  each 
feather  tipped  with  a  rufous  fpot :  on  each  feather  of 
the  throat  and  neck  is  a  tranfverfe  brownilh  line  near 
the  end  :  the  under  tail  coverts  are  rufous  :  the  quills 
are  grey  brown,  edged  with  rufous,  and  a  fpot  of  the 
fame  at  the  tips  :  the  tail  is  near  fix  inches  lortg,  much 
cuneated;  the  outer  feathers  only  half  the  length  of  the 
middle  ones;  colour  of  it  the  fame  as  the  quills;  fome 
of  the  upper  coverts  reach  to  near  two-thirds  of  the 
length  of  the  tail :  the  legs  are  a(h-colour  ;  the  claws 
greyifh  brown.  It  inhabits  Cayenne. — Buffon  men- 
tions a  variety  of  this  by  the  name  of  rail-bird.  It  is 
much  the  fame  in  fize,  but  has  lefs  rufous,  being.grey 
in  the  place  of  that  colour  :  .the  fide  tail-feaihers  have 
white  tips :  the  throat  is  pale  grey  ;  under  the  body 
white ;  the  tail  a  trifle  longer  than  in  the  other. 
WTiether  a  variety  or  difi"erent  fex,  is  not  known.  This 
is  common  at  Cayenne  and  Guiana  ;  and  is  feen  oftea 
perched  upon  gates  and  rails,  whence  its  name ;  and 
when  intkis  fituation  continually  moves  its  tail.  Thcfe. 

are 


Plate  C1.11IL 
Tig.l.  CTTOXHiXTS    Jiirlicator, 


'S^.YM/,/r,,//zy/^ 


cue 


[    597    1 


cue 


Cucumber,  are  not  very  wild  birds,  yet  do  not  form  themfelves 
Cucumis.  jj^jg  troops,  although  numbers  are  otten  found  in  the 
*■■""'  fame  dillriA  :  nor  do  they  frequent  the  thitk  woods 
like  many  of  the  genus. 

9.  The  cayanus,  or  Cayenne  cuckovv,  Is  the  fi/.c  of 
a  blackbird  :  the  bill  is  grey  brown,  above  an  inch 
long,  and  a  little  bent  at  the  tip  :  the  plumage  on  the 
upper  parts  of  the  body  Is  purplilh  chefnut  ;  beneath, 
the  fame,  but  paler  :  the  quills  are  the  fame  as  the 
upper  parts,  tipped  with  brown  :  the  tail  is  the  fame  ; 
near  the  end  black,  and  tipjied  with  white;  It  Is  much 
cuneated,  and  above  ten  inches  If'ng  :  the  legs  and 
claws  are  grey  brown.  This  inhabits  Cayenne,  where 
it  goes  by  the  name  of  piiiye,  or  devil.  The  natives 
give  it  that  name  as  a  bird  of  ill  omen.  The  flctli 
they  win  not  touch  ;  and  Indeed  not  without  rtafon, 
as  It  Is  very  bad  and  lean.  It  Is  a  very  tame  fpecies, 
fiiffering  itfclf  to  be  almoft  touched  by  the  hand  be- 
fore It  I'ffers  to  efcapc.  Its  flight  Is  almolt;  like  that 
of  a  king'sfillrer ;  frequents  the  borders  of  rivers,  on 
the  low  branches  ;  feeds  on  Infcfts  ;  often  wags  its  tall 
on  changing  place. 

There  are  37  other  fpecies,  which  Inhabit  different 
parts  of  the  globe,  and  are  principally  dillingullhed 
by  the  fhape  of  the  tail  and  variations  in  colour. 

CUCUMBER,  In  botany.      See  Cucumis. 

CUCUMIS,  the  Cucumber  :  A  genus  of  the  fyn- 
genefia  order,  belonging  to  the  monoecia  clafs  of 
plants  ;  and  In  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
34.th  order,  CiictiriifMea.  The  male  calyx  is  quinque- 
dentated,  the  corolla  quinquepartite  ;  the  filaments 
three.  The  female  calyx  Is  quinquedentated,  the  corolla 
quinquepartite,  the  piftil  trifid  ;  the  fides  of  the  apple 
ftiarp-polnted.  In  this  genus  Llnnreus  includes  alfo 
the  Melon;  (fee  that  article).  There  are  11  fpecies, 
of  which  the  following  are  the  moft  remarkable. 

1.  The  fativa,  or  common  cucumber,  hath  roots 
compofed  of  n\imerous,  long,  {lender,  white  fibres  ; 
long  (lender  ftalks,  very  branchy  at  their  joints,  trail- 
ing on  the  ground,  or  climbing  by  their  clafpers,  a- 
dorned  at  every  joint  by  large  angular  leaves  on  long 
ereft  footftalks,  witli  numerous  and  monopetalous  bell- 
(haped  flowers  of  a  yellow  colour,  fucceeded  by  oblong 
rough  fruit.  The  varieties  of  this  kind  are,  (  I.)  The 
common  rough  green  ptickly  cucumber;  a  mlddle- 
fized  fruit,  about  i\\  or  feven  Inches  long,  having  a 
dark-green  rough  rind,  clofely  fet  with  very  fmall 
prickles  ;  the  plant  is  of  the  hardiell  fort,  but  does 
not  fliow  its  fruit  early.  (2.)  The  fhort  green  prick- 
ly cucumber  Is  about  three  or  four  inches  long  ;  the 
rind  rather  fmooth,  and  fet  with  fmall  black  prickles. 
It  is  valuable  chiefly  for  being  one  of  the  earlieft  and 
hardieft  forts.  (3.)  The  long  green  prickly  cucumber, 
grows  from  fix  to  nine  Inches  in  length,  and  Is  rather 
thinly  fet  with  prickles.  And  as  there  is  an  early  and 
late  cucumber,  It  is  confiderably  the  bed  variety  for 
the  main  crops,  both  In  the  frames  and  hand-glafs, 
as  well  as  in  the  open  ground  for  pricklers.  Of  this 
there  is  another  variety  with  white  fruit.  (4.)  The  early 
green  duller  cucumber  Is  a  fhoitilb  fruit,  remarkable  for 
growing  In  chillers,  and  appearing  early.  (5.)  The 
long  fmooth  green  Turky  cucumber,  is  a  fmooth 
green-rinded  fruit,  growing  from  10  to  15  inches  in 
lengtii,  without  prickles.  The  plants  are  ftrong 
growers,  with  very  large  leaves.    (5.)  The  long  fmooth 


white  Turky  cucumber,  is  a  fmooth  rinded  fruit,  from  Cucumis. 
10  to  15  Inches  long,  without  prickles.  (7.)  The  — — v~**" 
large  fmooth  green  Roman  cucumber  is  a  very  large 
and  long  fmooth  green  fruit  produced  from  a  ilrong 
growing  plant.  (8.)  The  long  white  prickly  Dutcli 
cucumber,  is  a  white  fruit  8  or  10  inches  long,  fet 
with  fmall  black  prickles;  the  planta  are  but  bad  bear- 
ers in  this  country. 

2.  The  chata,  or  round-leaved  Egyptian  cucumber. 
According  to  Mr  HalTelquift,  thisgrows  in  the  fertile 
earth  near  Cairo  after  the  inundation  of  the  Nile,  and 
not  in  any  other  place  In  Egypt,  nor  does  it  grow  in 
any  other  foil.  It  ripens  with  the  water-melons. 
The  fruit  Is  a  little  watei-y  ;  the  flclh  alinoil  of  the 
fame  fubftance  with  the  melons  ;  it  talles  fomewhat 
fweet  and  cool  ;  but  is  far  from  being  as  cool  as  the 
water-melons.  This  the  grandees  and  Europeans 
In  Egypt  eat  as  the  moft  pleafant  fruit  they  find,  and 
that  from  which  they  have  the  leail  to  apprehend.  It  is 
the  moft  excellent  fruit  of  this  tribe  of  any  yet  known. 

The  four  firft  varieties  of  the  cucumis  fativa  are  thofe 
chiefly  cultivated  in  this  country.  They  are  raifed  aC 
tliree  different  feafons  of  the  year:  i,  on  hot-beds, 
for  early  fruit  ;  2.  under  bell,  or  hand-glaffes,  for  the 
middle  crop  ;  3.  on  the  common  ground,  which  is  for 
a  late  crop,  or  to  pickle.  The  cucumbers  which  are 
ripe  before  April  are  unwholefome;  being  raifed  wholly 
by  the  heat  of  the  duug  without  the  alfiltance  of  the 
fun.  Thofe  raifed  In  April  are  good,  and  are  raifed 
in  the  following  manner. 

Towards  the  latter  end  of  January,  a  quantity  of 
frefli  horfe-dung  muft  be  procured  with  the  litter  a- 
inong  it ;  and  a  fmall  proportion  of  fca-coal  aihes 
(hould  be  added  to  it.  In  four  or  five  days  the  dung 
will  begin  to  heat ;  at  which  time  a  little  of  it  may 
be  drawn  flat  on  the  outfide,  and  covered  with  two 
inches  thicknefs  of  good  earth  :  this  muft  be  covered 
with  a  bell-glafs  ;  and  after  two  days,  when  the  earth 
Is  warm,  the  feeds  muft  be  fown  on  It,  covered  with 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  of  frefti  earth,  and  the  glafs  then 
fet  on  again.  The  glafs  muft  be  covered  with  a  mat 
at  night,  and  in  four  days  the  young  plants  will  ap- 
pear. When  thefe  are  feen,  the  reft  of  the  dung  muft 
be  made  up  into  a  bed  for  one  or  more  lights.  This 
muft  be  three  feet  thick,  beat  clofe  together,  and  co- 
vered three  inches  deep  with  fine  frefli  earth  ;  the 
frame  muft  then  be  put  on,  and  covered  at  night,  or 
in  bad  weather,  with  mats.  When  the  earth  is  hot 
enough,  the  young  plants  from  under  the  bell  muft  be 
removed  into  It,  and  fet  two  Inches  diftance.  The 
glaffes  muft  be  now  and  then  a  little  raifed,  to  give 
air  to  the  plants,  and  turned  often,  to  prevent  the 
wet  from  the  fteam  of  the  dung  from  dropping  down 
upon  them.  The  plants  muft  be  watered  at  proper 
times  ;  and  the  water  ufed  for  this  purpofe  muft  be 
fet  on  the  dung  till  It  becomes  as  wann  as  the  air  In 
the  frame  :  and  as  the  young  plants  Increafe  In  bulk, 
they  muft  be  earthed  up,  which  will  giv.'  them  great- 
additional  ftrtngth.  If  the  bed  Is  not  hot  enougli, 
fome  frefli  litter  fliould  be  laid  round  Its  fides :  and  if 
too  hot,  fome  holes  lliould  be  bored  into  feveral  parts 
of  It  with  a  ftake,  which  will  let  out  the  heat  ;  and 
when  the  bed  is  thus  brought  to  a  proper  coolncfs,  ths 
holes  are  to  be  ftopped  up  again  witli  fidh  Uuiig. 
When  thefe  plants  begin  to  flioot  tlieir  third  or  rouglu 

leaf. 


cue 


Cue 


[     59S     1 


cue 


leaf,  another  bed  muft  be  prepared  for  tliem  like  the 
firfl;  and  when  it  is  properly  warm  through  the  earth, 
the  plants  of  the  other  bed  mull  be  tiken  up,  and 
planted  in  this,  in  which  there  mull  be  a  hole  in  the 
middle  of  each  light,  about  a  foot  deep,  and  nine 
inches  over,  iilled  with  light  and  fine  frelh  earth  laid 
hollow  in  form  of  a  bafon:  in  each  of  thefe  holes  there 
jnuft  be  fet  four  plants :  thefe  muil  be,  for  two  or 
three  days,  (liaded  from  the  fun,  that  they  may  take 
firm  root  ;  after  which  they  muft  have  all  the  fun 
thty  can,  and  now  and  then  a  little  freih  air,  as  the 
weather  will  permit.  When  the  plants  are  four  or 
five  inches  high,  they  mult  be  gently  pegged  down 
towards  the  earth,  in  direftions  as  different  from  one 
another  as  may  be  ;  and  the  branches  afterwards  pro- 
duced fliould  be  treated  in  the  fame  manner.  In  a 
month  after  this  the  flowers  will  appear,  and  foon  af- 
ter the  rudiments  of  the  fruit.  The  glaifes  (hould 
row  be  carefully  covered  at  night ;  and  in  the  day- 
time the  whole  plants  (hould  be  gently  fprinkled  with 
water.  Thefe  will  produce  fruit  till  about  midfum- 
mer ;  at  which  time  the  fecond  crop  will  come  in  to 
fupply  their  place  :  thefe  are  to  be  raifed  in  the  fame 
manner  as  the  early  crop,  only  they  do  not  require  fo 
much  care  and  trouble.  This  fecond  crop  fhould  be 
fown  in  the  end  of  March  or  beginning  of  April. 
The  feafon  for  fovving  the  cucumbers  of  the  laft  crop, 
and  for  pickling,  is  towards  the  latter  end  of  May, 
when  the  weather  is  fettled  :  thefe  are  fown  in  holes 
dug  to  a  little  depth,  and  frlled  up  with  fine  earth,  fo 
as  to  be  left  in  the  form  of  a  bafon  ;  eight  or  nine 
feeds  being  put  into  one  hole.  Thefe  will  come  up 
in  five  or  fix  days  ;  and  till  they  are  a  week  old,  arc 
in  great  danger  from  the  fparrows.  After  this  they 
require  only  to  be  kept  clear  of  weeds,  and  watered 
now  and  then.  There  fiiould  be  only  five  plants  left 
at  firfl.  in  each  hole;  and  when  they  are  giovvn  a  little 
farther  up,  the  worft  of  thefe  is  to  be  pulled  up,  that 
there  may  finally  remain  only  four.  The  plants  of 
this  crop  will  begin  to  produce  fruit  in  July. 

The  cucumber  is  taken  in  great  cities  by  the  lower 
people  as  nouiifhment;  but  by  the  better  fort  is  chiefly 
ufed  as  a  refrigerant,  or  condiment,  to  accompany 
animal  food.  They  have  a  bland  ijifipid  juice,  with- 
out acidity  or  fweetnefs,  approaching,  as  appears  by 
their  ripening,  to  a  faiinaceous  matter.  When  ufed 
green  they  have  no  nouriihment,  lo  they  are  only  to 
be  ufed  in  the  fummer  feafon  and  by  the  fedentary. 
Although  cucumbers  are  neither  fweet  nor  acid,  yet 
they  afe  confiderably  acefcent,  and  fo  produce  flatu- 
lency, cholera,  diairhcea,  &c.  Their  coldncfs  and  fla- 
tulency may  be  likewife  in  part  attributed  to  the  firm- 
nefs  of  their  texture.  They  have  been  difcharged 
with  little  change  fiom  the  fl;omach,  after  being  de- 
tained there  for  48  hours.  By  this  means,  therefore, 
their  acidity  is  greatly  increafed.  Hence  oil  and  pep- 
per, the  condiments  commonly  employed,  are  very 
ufeful  to  check  their  fermentation.  We  have  lately 
ufed  another  condiment,  viz.  the  (l<in,  which  is  bitter, 
and  may  therefore  fupply  the  place  of  aromatics  ;  but 
fliould  only  be  uted  when  young. 

Befides  the  above  mentioned  fpecies  which  are  pro- 
per  for  the  table,  this  genus  affords  alio  two  articles 
for  the  materia  medica. 


1.  The  claterium  of  the   (Iiops,    is  the  infplirated  Cucumis 
faecula  of  the  juice  of  a  kind  of  wild  cucumber,   call-  II 

ed  alfo  the  afs's  cucumber.  It  comes  to  this  country  Cucurbitt. 
from  Spain  and  the  fouthern  parts  of  France,  where  ' 
the  plant  is  very  corainon.  It  is  brought  to  us  in 
fmall  flat  vi'hitifli  lumps  or  cakes  that  are  dry,  and 
break  eafily  between  the  fingers.  It  is  of  an  acrid, 
bitter,  and  naufeous  ta!le,  and  has  a  Itrong  offenfive 
fmtU  when  newly  made  :  but  thefe,  as  well  as  its 
other  qualities,  it  lofes  after  being  kept  fome  time, 
Elaterium  is  a  very  violent  purge  and  vomit,  and  is 
now  very  feldom  ufed.  The  plant  is  commonly  called 
fpirting  cucumber,  from  its  cafting  out  its  feeds  with 
great  violence,  together  with  the  vifcid  juice  in  which 
they  are  lodged,  if  touched  when  ripe ;  from  this  cir- 
cumftance  it  has  obtained  the  appellation  of  tio/i  me 
tangere,  or  "  touch  me  not." 

2.  The  colocynthis,  the  colocynth,  coloquintida,  or 
bitter  apple  of  the  fhops,  is  brought  to  us  from  Aleppo 
and  the  ifland  of  Crete.  The  leaves  of  the  plant  are 
large,  placed  alternate,  almoft  round,  and  ftand  upon 
footilalks  four  inches  long.  The  flowers  are  white  ; 
and  are  fucceeded  by  a  fruit  of  the  gourd  kind,  of  the 
fize  of  a  large  apple,  and  which  is  ytUow  when  ripe. 
The  (helly  or  hufky  outfide  inclofes  a  bitter  pulp  inttr- 
fperfed  with  flattilh  feeds.  If  a  hole  is  made  in  one 
of  thefe  ripe  gourds,  and  a  glafs  of  rum  poured  in, 
and  fuffcred  to  remain  24  hours,  it  proves  a  power- 
ful purgative.  The  pulp  itfelf  dried  and  powdeied  is 
commonly  ufed  as  a  purgative  in  this  country,  but  is 
one  of  the  moft  drailic  and  difagreeablc  we  know.  If 
taken  in  a  large  dofe,  it  not  only  often  brings  away 
blood,  but  produces  colics,  convuhions,  ulcers  in  the 
bowels,  and  fatal  fuper-purgations.  The  moft;  effec- 
tual correftor  of  thele  virulent  quahties  is  to  triturate 
it  finely  with  fugar  or  fweet  almonds. 

CUCURBIT,  the  name  of  a  chemical  veffel  ein- 
ployed  in  diftillatien,  when  covered  with  its  head.  Its 
name  comes  from  its  lengthened  fhape,  by  which  it 
refembles  a  gourd:  fome  cucurbits,  however,  are  flial- 
low,  and  wide-mouthed.  They  are  made  of  copper, 
tin,  glafs,  and  ftone-vvare,  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  fubftances  to  be  dillilled.  A  cucurbit,  provided 
with  its  capital,  conftitutes  the  veflel  for  diftillation 
called  an  akml'ic. 

CUCURBITA,  the  Gourd,  andPoMPioN:  A  ge- 
nus of  the  fyngenefia  order,  belonging  to  the  moncecia 
clafs  of  plants ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  34th  order,  Cui'urbitacett.  The  calyx  of  the 
male  is  quiuquedcntated  ;  the  corolla  quinquctid  ;  the 
filaments  three.  The  calyx  of  the  female  is  quinque- 
dtntatcd  ;  the  corolla  quinquefid;  the  pilliJ  quinquefid  ; 
the  iecds  of  the  apple  with  a  tumid  margin.  There 
are  five  fpecies. 

1.  The  lagcnaria,  or  bottle  gourd,  rifes  with  thick 
trailing  downy  ftalks,  branching  into  many  fpreading 
runners.  Thefe  extend  along  the  ground  fometimes 
15  or  20  feet  ia  length.  The  leaves  arc  large,  round- 
i(h,  heart-fliaped,  indented,  and  woolly.  The  flowers 
are  large  and  .white,  fucceeded  by  long  incurvated 
whitilh  yellow  fruit,  obtaining  from  about  two  to' five 
or  fix  feet  in  length,  and  from  about  nine  to  24  inches 
in  circumference,  having  a  ligneous  and  durable  ftiell. 

2.  The  papo  or  pompion,  commonly  called  pump- 

kin, 


cue 


[     599     ] 


CUD 


Cutarblta.  kin,  Iiath   ftrong,  trailing,    rough    ftalks,  branching 

*— V into  numerous  runners.     Thefe  are  much  larger  than 

the  former,  extv;nding  from  lo  to  40  or  50  feet 
each  way.  Thefe  are  garnilhed  with  large,  round- 
ifh,  lobated,  rough  leaves,  and  yellow  flowers.  The 
flowers  arf  fucceeded  by  large,  round,  fmooth  fruit, 
of  different  forms  and  fizcs  ;  fome  as  big  as  a 
peck,  others  as  big  as  half  a  bufhel  meafurc  ;  fome 
confiderably  Icfs,  and  others  not  exceeding  the  bulk 
of  an  orange  ;  ripening  to  a  yellow,  and  fometimes 
to  a  whitilb  colour.  This  fpccies  is  the  mod  hardy 
of  any,  as  well  as  the  mod  extcufive  in  their  growth. 


;udda>ore. 
,r— J 


they  makff  a  tolerable  good  faucc  fi.r  butcher's  meat,  CucurbJtx 
and  are  alfo  ufed  in  foups.  In  England  they  are  feldoin  '^'^ 
ufed  till  grown  to  maturity.  A  hole  is  then  made  in 
one  fide,  through  which  the  pulp  is  fcooped  out;  after 
being  diverted  of  the  Iccds,  it  is  mixed  with  fliced  ap- 
ples, milk,  fugar,  and  grated  nutmeg,  and  thus  a  kind 
of  pudding  is  made.  The  whole  is  then  baked  in  the 
oven,  and  goes  by  the  name  of  a  pumk'in  pye.  For  this 
purpoft  the  plants  are  cultivated  in  many  places  of 
England  by  the  country  people,  who  raifc  them  upon 
old  dung  hills.  The  third  fpecies  is  alfo  ufed  in  North 
America  for  culinary  purpofes.      The  fruit  is  gathered 


A  Cngle  plant,  ifproperly  encouraged,  will  overfpread  when  about  half  grown,  boiled,  and  eaten  as  fauce  to 

10  or  15  roods  of  ground,  and  produce  a  great  number  butcher's  meat.     The  fquaflies  are  alfo  treated  in  the 

of  fruit,  which,  wiien  young,  are  generally  a  mixture  fame  manner,  and  by  fome  people  elleemed   delicate 

between   a  deep  blue  and  pale  white,  but  change  as  eating 


they  increafe  in  bulk. 

3.  The  verrucofa,  or  warted  gourd,  hath  trailing 
ftalks  very  branchy,  and  running  upon  the  ground  10 
or  1 5  feet  each  way  ;  large  lobated  leaves,  and  yellow 
flowers,  fucceeded  by  roundidi,  knobby,  warted  white 
fruit,  of  moderate  fize. 

4.  The  melopepo,  ereft  gourd,  or  fquafh.  This 
rifes  with  an  erect  ftrong  (lalk  fcveral  feet  high,  rare 
ly  fending  forth  fide- runners,  but  becoming  bulhy  up- 
ward. It  is  adorned  with  large  lobated  leaves  ;  and 
the  flowers  are  fucceeded  by  dcpreffed  knotty  fruit, 
both  white  and  yellow,  commonly  of  a  moderate  fize. 


CUCURDITACEiE,  the  name  of  the  34th  order 
In  Linnseus's  fragments  of  a  natsral  method,  confiding 
of  plants  \rhich  refemble  the  gourd  in  external  figure, 
habit,  virtues,  and  fenfible  qualities.  This  order  con- 
tains the  following  genera,  viz.  gronovia,  melothria, 
pafllflora,  anguria,  bryonia,  cucumis,  cucuibita,  fevii- 
lea,  momordica,  ficyos,  trichofanthes. 

CUCURUCU,  in  zoology,  the  name  of  a  ferpent 
found  in  America,  growing  10  or  il  feet  long.  It  is 
alfo  very  thick  in  proportion  to  its  length,  and  is  of  a 
yellowiih  colour,  llrongly  variegated  with  black  fpots, 
which  are  irregularly  mixed  among  the  yellow,   and 


e.  The  lignofa,  ligneous  dielled  gourd,  often  called     often  have  fpots  of  yellow  within  them.     It  is  a  very 


calabafti.  This  hath  trailing  dalks,  branching  into 
runners,  which  extend  far  evei-y  way  ;  the  leaves  are 
large,  lobated,  and  rough  ;  the  flowers  yellow,  and  are 
fucceeded  by  roundidi  fmooth  fi  uit  of  a  moderate  fize, 
with  hard  woody  dielis.  Of  all  thefe  fpecies  there  are 
a  great  many  varieties,  and  the  fruit  of  eveiy  fpecies 
is  obferved  to  be  furprifingly  apt  to  change  its  form. 

Culture.  All  the  fpecies  of  gourds  and  pompions, 
with  their  refpeftive  varieties,  are  raifed  from  feed 
fown  annually  in  April  or  the  beginning  of  May,  either 
with  or  without  the  help  of  artificial  heat.  But  the 
plants  forwarded  in  a  hot-bed  till  about  a  month  old, 
produce  fruit  a  month  or  fix  weeks  earlier  on  that  ac- 
count, and  ripen  proportionably  fooner.  The  fird 
fpecies  particularly  will  fcarce  ever  produce  tolerably 
fized  fruit  in  this  country  without  the  treatment  a- 
bove  mentioned. 

Ufes.  In  this  countiy  thefe  plants  are  cultivated 
only  for  curiofity  ;  but  in  the  places  where  they  are 
natives,  they  anfwer  many  important  purpofes.  In 
both  the  Indies,  bottle-gourds  are  very  commonly  cul- 
tivated and  fold  in  the  markets.  They  make  the  prin- 
cipal food  of  the  common  people,  particularly  in  the 
warm  months  of  June,  July,  and  Augud.  The  Ara- 
bians call  this  hind  of  gourd  charrah.  It  grows  com- 
monlv  on  the  mountains  in  thefe  defarts.  The  na- 
tives boil  and  feafon  it  with  vmegar ;  and  fometimes. 


^ioifonous  fpecies,  and  greatly  dreaded  by  the  natives ;. 
but  its  flefh  is  a  very  rich  food,  and  much  edeemed 
among  them,  when  properly  prepared. 

CUD,  fometimes  means  the  infide  of  the  throat  in 
beads  ;  but  generally  the  food  that  they  keep  there, 
and  chew  over  again.  See  Comparative  Jlnatniny, 
n°  92 — 94. 

CUDDALORE,  a  town  on  the  coad  of  Coro- 
mandel  in  India,  belonging  to  the  Englidi,  very  near 
the  place  where  Fort  St  David  once  dood.  N.  Lat.  1 1. 
30.  E.  Long.  79.  53.  30.  This  place  was  reduced  by 
the  French  in  the  year  1781  ;  and  in  1783  underwent 
a  fevere  fiege  by  the  Britifh  forces  commanded  by  Ge- 
neral Stuart.  At  this  time  it  was  become  the  princi- 
pal place  of  arms  held  by  the  enemy  on  that  coad: 
they  had  exerted  themfelves  to  the  iitmod  in  fortify- 
ing it  ;  and  it  was  garrifoned  by  a  numerous  body  of 
the  bed  forces  of  France,  well  provided  with  artil- 
lery, and  every  thing  neceflary  for  making  a  vigorous 
defence. 

Previous  to  the  commentt-ment  of  the  fiege,  they 
had  condrudted  drong  lines  of  defence  all  along  the 
fort,  excepting  one  place  where  the  town  was  covered 
by  a  wood,  fuppofedto  be  inaccefTible.  Thiough  this 
wood,  however,  General  Stuart  began  to  cut  his  way  ; 
on  which  the  bcficgtd  began  to  draw  a  line  of  fortifi- 
cation within  that  alfo.     The  Britifh  commander  then 


filling  the  fhell  with  rice    and    meat,   make   a   kind  of     determined  to   attack  thefe   fortifications  before  they 


pudding  of  it.  The  hard  fhell  is  ufed  for  holding  wa- 
ter, and  fome  of  them  are  capacious  enough  to  con- 
tain 22  gallons;  thefe,  however,  are  very  uncom- 
mon. The  fruit  of  the  pompion  likewife  conllitutes 
a  great  part  of  the  food  of  the  common  people  duiing 
the  hot  months,  in  thofc  places  where  they  grow.  If 
gathered  when  not  much  bigger  than  a  hen  or  goofe 
«gg,  aud  properly  feafoued  with  butter,  vinegar,  clc. 


were  quite  completed  ;  and  for  this  pi>rpofe  a  vigorous 
attack  was  made  by  the  troops  under  General  Bruce. 
The  grenadiers  aifailcd  a  redoubt  which  greatly  an- 
noyed them,  but  were  obliged  to  retire  ;  on  which  the 
whole  army  advanced  to  the  attack  of  the  lines.  The 
French  defended  themfelves  with  refolution;  and  as 
both  parties  charged  each  i.ther  with  fixed  bayonets, 
a  dreadful  flaughter  eufued.     At  lad  the  Britilh  were 

obliged 


CUD 


[    600    ] 


CUD 


rudda'ore  obliged  to  retreat  ;  but  the  French  liaving  imprudent- 
_  , "  ,  ly  come  out  of  their  lines  to  purfue  them,  were  in 
^  their  turn   defeated,  and  obliged  to  give  up  the  hnes 

they  had  conftrucled  with  fo  much  pains  and  fo 
.gallantly  defended.  The  lofs  on  the  part  of  the 
JBritilh  amounted  to  near  icoo  killed  and  wounded, 
one  half  of  whom  were  Europeans ;  and  that  of  the 
French  was  not  lefs  than  600. 

Thou<;h  the  Britifli  proved  viftorious  in  this  con- 
teft,  yet  the  viftory  coft  fo  dear  that  there  was  not  now 
a  fufficient  number  to  carry  on  the  fiege  with  any  ef- 
feft.  The  troops  alfo  became  fickly;  and  their  ftrength 
diminiflied  fo  much,  that  the  befieged  formed  a  defign 
of  not  only  obliging  them  to  raife  the  fiege,  but  of 
totally  deftroying  them.  For  this  purpofe  4000  men 
■was  landed  from  the  fquadron  commanded  by  M. 
SufFrein  ;  and  the  conduft  of  the  enierprife  committed 
to  the  Chevalier  de  Damas,  an  experienced  and  valiant 
officer.  On  the  25th  of  June  17S3,  he  fallied  out  at 
the  head  of  the  regiment  of  Aquitaine,  fuppofcd  to  be 
one  of  the  beft  in  the  French  fervice,  and  of  which 
he  was  colonel ;  with  other  troops  feleAed  from  the 
braved  of  the  garrifon.  The  attack  was  made  by 
day-break ;  but  though  the  Britifh  were  at  firil  put 
into  fome  diforder,  they  quickly  recovered  themfelves, 
and  not  only  repulfed  the  enemy,  but  purfued  them  fo 
■warmly,  that  the  Chevalier  de  Damas  himfelf  was  killed 
with  about  200  of  his  countrymen,  and  as  many  taken 
prifoners. 

This  engagement  was  attended  with  one  of  the 
nioft  remarkable  circumtlances  that  happened  during 
the  whole  war,  viz.  A  corps  of  Sepoy  grenadiers  en- 
countering the  French  troops  oppofed  to  them  with 
fixed  bayonets,  and  overcoming  them.  This  extraor- 
dinary bravery  was  not  only  noticed  with  due  applaufe, 
but  procured  for  that  corps  a  provifion  for  themfelves 
and  families  from  the  prefidencies  to  which  they  be- 
longed. No  other  operation  of  any  confequence  took 
place  during  the  fiege,  which  was  now  foon  ended  by 
the  news  of  peace  having  taken  place  between  the  bel- 
ligerent powers  of  Europe. 

CUDDY,  in  a  tirft-rate  man  of  war,  is  a  place  ly- 
ing between  the  captain  heutenant's  cabin  and  the 
quarter-deck ;  and  divided  Into  partitions  for  the  ma- 
iler and  other  officers.  It  denotes  alfo  a  kind  of  ca- 
bin near  tlie  flera  of  a  hghter  or  barge  of  burden. 

CUDWEED,  in  botany.     See  Gnaphalium. 

CUDWORTH  (Ralph),  a  very  larned  divine  of 
the  church  of  England  in  the  I  7th  century.  In  Janu- 
ary 1557  he  was  one  of  the  perfons  nominated  by  a 
committee  of  the  parhament  to  be  confulted  about  the 
Engiiih  trauilation  of  the  Bible.  In  1678  he  publilhed 
his  True  Iiitsllefiual  Syj2em  of  tie  Unh-erfe ;  a  work 
which  met  with  great  oj^pofition.  He  likewife  publilh- 
ed a  treatife,  intitled,  Deuj  ji^'ificatus:  or,  "  The  di- 
vine o-oodneis  of  God  vindicated,  againft  the  adertions 
of  abfolute  and  unconditionate  reprobation."  He  em- 
braced the  mechanical  or  corpufcular  philofophy  :  but 
with  regard  to  the  Deity,  fpirits,  genii,  and  ideas,  he 
followed  the  Flatonitls.  He  died  at  Cambridge  in 
1688.  The  editor  of  the  new  edition  of  the  Biogra- 
phia  Britannica  obfei-ves,  that  it  is  not  eafy  to  meet 
vith  a  rrieater  ftore-houfe  of  ancient  literature  than  the 
"  Intcllettual  Syftem  ;"  and  various  writers,  we  be- 
lieve, have  been  indebted  to  it  for  an  appearance  of 

N°95- 


learning  which  they  might  not  otherwif(^  have  been  CuJworth 
able  to  maintain.  That  Dr  Cudworth  was  fanciful  in  (i 
fome  of  his  opinions,  and  that  he  was  too  devoted  a  '-"^'■'"* 
follower  of  Plato  and  the  Platonifts,  will  Icarcely  be  " 
denied  even  by  thofe  who  are  moll  fenfible  of  his  gene- 
ral merit.  The  reflections  that  have  been  call  upon  fuch 
a  man  as  the  author,  by  bigotted  writers,  are  altogether  ^ 
contemptible.  It  is  the  lot  of  diftinguifhed  merit  to 
be  thus  treated.  Lord  Shaftelbury,  fpeaking  on  this 
fubjetl,  has  given  an  honourable  teftimony  to  the  me- 
mory of  Dr  Cudworth.  "  You  know  (fays  his  lord- 
lliip)  the  common  fate  of  thofe  who  dare  to  appear 
fair  authors.  What  was  that  pious  and  learned  man'3 
cafe,  who  wrote  the  Intelleftual  Syftem  of  the  Uni- 
verfc  i  I  confefs  It  was  pleaiant  enough  to  confider, 
that  though  the  whole  world  were  no  lefs  fatisfied  with 
his  capacity  and  learning,  than  witli  his  fincerity  in 
the  caufe  of  Deity  ;  yet  he  was  accufed  of  giving  the 
upper  hand  to  the  Atheift,  for  having  only  ftated  their 
realons,  and  thofe  of  their  ajverfaries,  faiily  together." 
It  is  obferved  by  Dr  Bircii,  that  Dr  Cudworth's 
IntellcClual  Syftem  of  the  Unlverfe  has  raifed  him  a 
reputation,  to  which  nothing  can  add  but  the  publi- 
cation of  his  other  writings  ftill  extant  in  manufcriot.  • 
That  thefe  writings  are  very  valuable  cannot  be  doubt- 
ed. We  may  be  afiured  that  they  difplay  a  great 
compafs  of  fentiment  and  a  great  extent  of  learning. 
Neverthelefs,  from  their  voluminous  quantity,  from  the 
abftrufenefs  of  the  fubjetls  they  treat  upon,  and  from 
the  revolutions  of  literary  tafte  and  opinion,  it  is  n.o- 
rally  certain  that  the  publication  of  them  would  not 
be  fuccefsful  in  the  prefent  age.  Mr  Cudworth's 
daughter  Damaris,  who  married  Sir  Francis  Madiam 
of  Gates  in  Efftx,  was  a  lady  of  genius  and  learning  : 
ftie  had  a  great  friendlhip  for  Mr  Locke,  who  reiicled 
feveral  years  at  her  houfe  at  Gates,  where  he  died  In 
1704. 

CUE,  an  item  or  inniieniJo,  given  to  the  act.  r,  on 
the  ftage  what  or  when  to  fpe-ik.     Se;  PROMrrf  r. 

CUENZA,  a  town  of  Spaii.,  in  New  Caltiie,  and 
in  the  territory  of  the  Sierra,  with  a  biftop's  fee.  It 
was  taken  by  Lord  Peterborough  in  I  706,  but  retaken 
by  the  Duke  of  Berwick.  It  is  feated  on  the  river 
Xucar,  in  W.  Long,   1.  45.  N.  Lat.  40.  10. 

CUERENHERT  (Theodore  Van),  a  veiy  extra- 
ordinary petfon,  was  a  native  of  Amftcrdam,  wiiere 
he  was  born  in  1522.  It  appears,  that  early  in  life  he 
travelled  into  Spain  and  Portugal  ;  but  the  motives  of 
his  journey  are  not  afcertained.  He  was  a  man  of 
fcience,  and,  according  to  report,  a  good  poet.  The 
fitler  arts  at  firft  he  confidered  as  an  amufement  only  ; 
but  in  the  end  he  vv'as,  It  feems,  obliged  to  have  re- 
courfe  to  engraving  alone  for  his  fupport.  .And  though 
the  different  ftudies  in  which  he  employed  his  time 
prevented  his  attachment  to  this  profellion  being  fo 
clofe  as  it  ought  to  have  been,  yet  at  laft  the  marks 
of  genius  are  difcoverable  In  his  works.  They  are 
flight,  and  haftily  executed  with  the  graver  alone  ;  but 
in  an  open  carclefs  ftyle,  fo  as  gieatly  to  refemble  de- 
figns  made  with  a  pen.  He  wss  eflabliftied  at  Hacr- 
lem  ;  and  there  purfuing  his  favourite  ftudies  in  litera- 
ture, he  learned  Latin,  and  was  macie  fecretary  to  that 
town,  from  whence  he  was  fcnl  feveral  times  as  ara- 
baffador  to  the  Prince  of  Orange,  to  whom  he  addref- 
fed  a  famous  manlftfto;  which  that  prince  publilhed 

Ja 


]  C    U    L 

He  wrote  two  books  ;  the  one  intitled,  The      Cujaj 
DIfterences  of  the  Ages  of  Man's  Life  ;  the  other,         II 
D<;  Rebus  Gijlis   in   Sando   Comilio   Nicario.     The   firft  ^"''="'''^'''' 


C     U     F  [     6or 

in  1566.     Had  he   flopped  here,  it  had  been  well;  abilities 

but  direfting  his  thoughts  into  a  different  channel,  he 

undertook  an  argument  as  dangerous  as  it  was  abfurd. 

He  maintained,  that  all  religious  cominunications  were  was  publilhed  after  his  death  ;  the  fecond  is  ftill  in  ma- 

conupted  ;   and  that,  without  a   fupernatural  miflion,  nufcript. 

accompanied  with  miracles,  no  perfcn   had  a  right  to         CUJAS  (James),  in  Latin  Cujacius,  the  bed  civi- 

adminiller  in  any  religious  office  :  he   therefore  pro-  lian  of  his  time,  was  born  at  Touloufe,  of  obfcure  pa- 

nounced  that  man  to  be  unworthy  the  name  of  a  Chri-  rents,  in  1520.     He  learned  polite  literature  and  hi- 

llian   who  would  enter   any  place   of  public  worfhip.  ftory  ;  and  acquired   great   knowledge   in    the  ancient 

This  he  net  only  advanced  in  words,  but  drove  to  Ihow  laws,  which   he   taught  with  extraordinary  reputation 

the   (incerity  of  his  belief  by  praiftice  ;  and  for  that  at  Touloufe,  Cahors,   Bourges,  and  Valence,  in  Dau- 


reafon  would  not  communicate  with  either  Proteftant 
or  Papift.  His  woiks  were  publiflied  in  three  volumes 
folio  in  1630;  and  though  he  was  feveral  times  im- 
prifoned,  and  at  lafl  lentenced  to  baniiliment,  yet  he 
does  not  appear  to  have  altered  his  fentiments.  He 
died  at  Dergoude  in  1590,  aged  68  years.  It  is  no 
fmall  addition  to  the  honour  of  this  fingular  man,  that 
he  was  the  inftruftor  of  that  jultly  celebrated  artift 
Henry  Goltzius.  Cuerenhert  worked  conjointly  with 
the  Galles  and  other  artifls,  from  the  defigns  of  Mar- 
tin Hemflcerck.  The  fubjefts  are  from  the  Old  and 
New  Teftament,  and  confill  chiefly  of  middling-fized 


phinc.  Emanuel  Philibert,  duke  of  Savoy,  invited 
him  to  Turin,  and  gave  him  fingular  marks  of  his  e- 
fteem.  Cnjas  aftei  wards  refufed  very  advantageous 
offers  from  Pope  Gregory  XHI.  who  was  defirous  of 
having  him  teach  at  Bologna  :  but  he  chofe  rather  to 
fix  at  Bourges,  where  he  had  a  prodigious  number  of 
fcholars  ;  whom  he  not  only  took  great  pleafure  in 
inllrufting,  but  affifled  with  his  fubftance,  which  occa- 
fioned  his  being  called  the  Father  of  his  Scholars.  He 
died  at  Bourges  in  1590,  aged  70.  His  works  are  in 
high  effeem  among  civilians. 

CUJAVA,  a  territory  of  Great  Poland,  having  on 


plates  lengthwife.     He   alfo  engraved  feveral  fubjefts     the  north  the  duchy  of  Pruffia,  on   the  weft  the  pala 


from  Franc.  Floris 

CUERPO.  To  lualkin  cuerpo,  is  a  Spanifh  phrafc 
for  going  without  a  cloak  ;  or  without  all  the  formali- 
ties of  a  full  drefs. 

CUFF  (Henry),  the  unfortunate  fecretary  of  the 
unfortunate   earl   of  Effex,   was   born   at   Hinton    St 


tinate  of  KalifJc,  on  the  fouth  thofe  of  Licici  and  Ra- 
va,  and  on  the  weft  that  of  Ploczko.  It  contains 
two  palatinates,  the  chief  towns  of  which  are  Inow- 
loez  and  Brcft  ;  as  alfo  Uladiilaw,  the  capital  of  the 
diftria. 

CUIRASSE,  a  piece  of  defenfive  armour,  made  of 


George  in  Somerfetfhire,  about  the  year  1560,  of  a  iron  plate,  well  hammered,  ferving  to  cover  the  body, 
'  ^     ''         '  ""  ''^  '      ■"         "  '      "  f'om  the  neck  to  the  girdle,  both  before  and  behind. 

Some  derive  the  word,  by  corruption,  from  the  Ita- 
lian cuore,  "  heart ;"  becaufe  it  covers  that  part : 
others  from  the  French  cuir,  or  the  Latin  corium, 
«'  leather  ;"  whence  coriaceous  :  becaufe  defenfive  arms 
were  originally  made  of  leather.  The  cuiraflt-  was  not 
brought  into  ufe  till  about  the  year  1300,  thotrgh  they 
were  known  both  to  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans 
in  different  forms. 

CUIRASSIERS,  cavalry  armed  with  cuIrafTes,  as 
moft  of  the  Germans  are  :  The  French  have  a  regi- 
ment of  cuiraflittis  ;  but  we  have  had  none  in  the  Bri- 
tifh  army  fince  the  revolution. 

CULDEES,  in  church-hiftory,  a   fort  of  monkifli 


genteel  family,  who  were  poffclTed  of  confiderable  e 
ftates  in  that  county.  In  1576,  he  was  entered  of  Tri- 
nity college  Oxford  ;  where  he  foon  acquired  confi- 
derable reputation  as  a  Grecian  and  difputant.  He 
obtained  a  fellowfhip  in  the  above-mentioned  college  ; 
but  was  afterwards  expelled  for  fpeaking  difrefpeftful- 
ly  of  the  founder  (a).  He  was,  however,  foon  after 
admitted  of  Merton  college;  of  which,  in  1586,  he 
was  elcfted  probationer,  and  in  1588  fellow.  In  this 
year  he  took  the  degree  of  mafter  of  arcs.  Some  time 
after  he  was  clefted  Greek  profeffor,  and  in  i  J94  proc- 
tor of  the  univerfity.  When  he  left  Oxford  is  uncer- 
tain ;  nor  are  we  better  informed  as  to  the  means  of 
his  introdutllon  to  the  earl  of  EfTex.     When  that  no- 


bleman was  made  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  Mr  Cuff     priefts,  formerly  inhabitiirg  Scotland  and  Ireland.     Be- 


was  app'^inted  his  fecretary,  and  continued  intimately 
connefted  with  his  lordflilp  uiitil  his  confinement  in 
the  tower ;  and  he  is  generally  fuppofed  to  have  a-d- 
viftd  thofe  violent  meafurcs  which  ended  in  their  mir- 
tual  deftruftion.  The  earl  indeed  corifclTed  as  much 
before  his  execution,  and  charged  him  to  his  face  with 
being  the  author  ot  all  his  misfortunes.  Mr  Cuff  was 
tried  for  high-trjafon,  conviiled,  and  executed  at  Ty- 
birrn  on  the  30tlr  of  March  1601.      Lord  Bacon,  Sir 


ing  remai-kable  for  the  religious  exercilcs  of  preaching 
and  praying,  they  were  called,  by  way  of  eminence, 
cultores  Dii ;  from  whence  is  derived  the  word  ciiUees. 
They  made  choice  of  one  of  their  own  fraternity  to 
be  their  fpiritual  head,  who  was  afterwards  called  the 
Scots  bilhop. 

CULEMBACH,  a  dilbld  or  marquifate  of  the  circle 
of  Fianconia,  in  Germany.  It  is  bounded  on  the  well 
by  the  bifiiopric  of  Bamberg  ;  on  the  fouth  bv  the  ter- 


Hcniy  Wotton,  and  Camden,  fpeak   of  him   in   very     ritory  of  Nuremberg  ;  on   the   eaft  by  the   palatinate 
harfli  terms.     He  was  certainly  a  man  of  learning  and     of  Bavaria  and  Bohemia ;  and  on  the  north  by  Voig-ht- 
VoL.  V.   Part  II.  4  G  land 


(a)  The  founder  of  Trinity  college  was  Sir  Thomas  Pope,  who,  it  feems,  would  often  take  a  piece  of  plate 
from  a  friend'b  houfe,  and  carry  it  home  concealed  under  his  gown  ;  out  of  Am,  no  doubt.  Cufl",  being  mer- 
ry with  fome  of  his  acquuintance  at  another  college,  ha.ppened  to  fay,  alluding  to  Sir  Thomas  Pope's  ufual 
joke  above  mentioned,  "  A  pox  on  this  beggarly  hoiift  !  v\lry,  our  founder  ftole  as  much  plate  as  would  build 
firch  another."  This  piece  of  wit  was  the  caufe  of  his  expulfioir.  The  heads  of  colleges  in  thofe  days  did 
«ot  underftand  humour.     Anthony  Wood  was  told  thts  ftory  By  Dt  Bathurft. 


C    U     L  [60 

0ulemb«ch,  land  and  part  of  the  cirdc  of  Upper  Saxony.     It  I3 
.  ^"'''*-    _  about  50  miles  in  length  from  north  to  fouth,  and  30 
*  in  breadth  from  call  to  weft.      It  is  full   of  forefts  and 

high  mountains  ;  the  moil  conlidcrable  of  the  latter  are 
thofe  of  Frichlelberg,  all  of  th-.'m  covered  with  pine- 
trees.  Here  are  the  fources  of  four  large  rivers,  the 
Maine,  the  Sala,  the  Eger,  and  the  Nab.  This  niar- 
quifate  is  the  upper  part  of  the  burgraviate  of  Nu- 
remberg. 

CuLEMBACH,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  Franconia, 
the  capital  of  the  marquifate  of  the  fame  name.  It 
lias  good  fortifications,  and  is  feated  at  the  confluence 
of  two  branches  of  the  river  Maine.  It  was  pillaged 
and  bunit  by  the  Huilites  in  1430,  and  by  the  inhabi- 
tants ot  Nuremberg  in  1573.  E.  Long.  1 1.  28.  N.  Lat. 
50.  12. 

CULEUS,  in  Roman  antiquity,  the  largeft  meafure 
of  capacity  for  things  liquid,  containing  20  amphorx, 
or40urna;.  It  contained  143  gallons  3  pints,  Englifh 
wine-meafure  ;  and  was  i  1.095  f^''^  inches. 

CULEX,  the  GNAT  ;  a  genus  of  infe(fts  belonging 
to  the  order  of  diptera.     The    mouth  is  formed  by  a 
flexible  fheadi,  inclofing   brillles  pointed  like  ftings. 
Plate  CLI.  The   antennje  of  the  males  are  filiform  ;  thofe  of  the 
females  feathered.     There  are   feven  fpecies.     Thefe 
infefts,  too  well  known   by  the  fevere  punftures  they 
inflift,  and  the  itchings  thence  arifing,  afford  a  moil 
interelling  hiftory.     Before  they  turn  to  flying  infefts, 
they  have  been  in  fome  manner  filhes,  under  two  dif- 
B«ri«A  C7f.  f^rent  forms.     You  may  obferve  in  ftagnating  waters, 
neraofln-    from  the  beginning  of  May  till  winter,  fmall  grubs 
fiSs.  with  their  heads  downwards,  their  hinder-parts  on  the 

furface  of  the  water  ;  from  which  part  arifes  fideways 
a  kind  of  vent-hole,  or  fmall  iioUow  tube  like  a  funnel, 
and  this  is  the  organ  of  refpiration.  The  head  is 
armed  with  hooks,  tliat  feive  to  feize  on  infefts  and 
bits  of  grafs  on  wliich  it  feeds.  On  the  fides  are  placed 
four  fmall  fins,  by  the  help  of  which  the  infeft  fwims 
about,  and  dives  to  the  bottom.  Thefe  larvae  retain 
their  form  during  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks,  after 
which  period  they  turn  to  chryfalids.  All  the  parts 
of  the  winged  infeft  are  didingnilhable  through  the 
outward  robe  that  fhrouds  them.  The  chryfalids  are 
rolled  up  into  fpirals.  The  fituation  and  fliape  of  the 
windpipe  is  then  altered  ;  it  confifts  of  two  tubes  near 
the  head,  which  occupy  the  place  of  the  ftigmata, 
through  which  the  winged  infcdlis  one  day  to  breathe. 
Thefe  cluyfalids,  conllantly  on  the  furface  of  the  wa- 
ter in  order  to  draw  breath,  abftain  now  from  eating  ; 
but  upon  the  leail  motion  are  fcen  to  unroll  themfelves, 
and  plunge  to  the  bottom,  by  means  of  little  paddles 
htuated  at  their  hinder-part.  After  three  or  four  days 
ftrift  fafl:ing,  they  pafs  to  the  Itate  of  gnats'.  A  mo- 
irent  before,  water  was  its  element ;  but  now,  become 
an  aerial  infeft,  he  can  no  longer  exitl  in  it.  He  fwells 
his  head,  and  burfts  his  inclofure.  The  robe  he  lately 
wore  turns  to  a  fliip,  of  wliich  the  infeft  is  the  malt 
and  fail.  If  at  the  inftant  the  gnat  difplays  his  wings 
there  arifes  a  breeze,  it  proves  to  him  a  dreadful  hur- 
ricane ;  the  water  gets  into  the  fiiip,  and  the  infeft, 
who  is  not  yet  loofened  from  it,  finks  and  is  loft.  But 
in  calm  weather,  the  gnat  forfakes  his  flough,  dries 
himftlf,  flies  into  the  air,  feeks  to  pump  the  alimen- 
tary juice  of  leaves,  or  the  blood  of  man  and  beafts. 
The  fting  which  our  naked  eye  difcovers,  is  but  a  tube, 


2    3  C    U    L 

containing  five  or  fix  fpicula  of  exquifite  minutenefs  ; 
fome  dentated  at  their  extremity  like  the  head  of  an 
arrow,  others  Iharp-edged  like  razors.  Thefe  fpicula 
introduced  into  the  veins,  act  as  pump-fuckers,  into 
which  the  blood  afcends  by  reafon  of  the  fmallnefs  of 
the  capillary  tubes.  The  infeft  injects  a  fmall  quan- 
tity of  liquor  into  the  wound,  by  which  the  blood  be- 
comes more  fl»id,  and  is  feen  through  the  microfcope 
pafiing  through  thofe  fpicula.  The  animal  fwells, 
grows  red,  and  does  not  quit  its  hold  till  it  has  gorged 
itfeif.  The  liquor  it  has  injefted  caufes  by  its  ferment- 
ing that  difagreeable  itching  which  we  experience  ; 
and  which  may  be  removed  by  volatile  alkali,  or  by 
fcratching  the  part  newly  ftung,  and  wafhing  it  with 
cold  water;  for  later,  the  venom  ferments,  and  you 
would  only  increafe  the  tumor  and  the  itching.  Rub- 
bing one's  felf  at  night  with  fuller's-earth  and  water, 
leffens  the  pain  and  inflammation.  Gnats  perform 
their  copulation  in  the  air.  The  fem.ale  depolites  her 
eggs  on  the  water  ;  by  the  help  of  her  moveable  hin- 
der part  and  her  legs,  placing  them  one  by  the  fide  of 
another  in  the  form  of  a  little  boat.  This  veffel,  com- 
pofed  of  two  or  three  hundred  eggs,  fwims  on  the 
water  for  two  or  three  days,  after  which  they  are 
hatched.  If,  a  ftorm  arifes,  the  boats  are  funk.  Every 
month  there  is  a  frefh  progeny  of  thefe  inftfts.  Were 
they  not  devoured  by  fwallows,  other  birds,  and  by 
feveral  carnivorous  infeils,  the  air  would  be  darkened 
by  them. 

Gnats  in  this  country,  however  troublefome  they 
may  be,  do  not  make  us  feel  them  fo  feverely  as  the. 
muiketo-flies  [culex  piplens)  do  in  foreign  parts.  In 
the  day-time  or  at  night  thefe  come  into  the  houfes  ; 
and  when  the  people  are  gone  to  bed  they  begin  their 
difagieeable  humming,  approach  always  nearer  to  the 
bed,  and  at  laft  fuck  up  fo  much  blood  that  they  can 
hardly  fly  away.  Their  bite  caufes  blillcrs  in  people 
of  a  dtlicate  compleftfon.  When  the  weather  has 
been  cool  for  fome  days,  the  mnfquetoes  difappear  ; 
but  when  it  changes  again,  and  efpecially  after  a  rain, 
they  gather  frequently  in  fuch  quantities  about  the 
houfes,  that  their  numbers  are  ailonilhing.  In  fultry 
evenings  they  accompany  the  cattle  in  great  fwarms, 
from  the  woods  to  the  houfes  or  to  town  ;  and  when 
they  are  driven  before  the  houfes,  the  gnats  fly  in  where- 
ever  they  can.-  In  the  greateft  heat  of  fummer,  they 
are  fo  numerous  in  fome  places,  that  the  air  feems  to 
be  quite  full  of  them,  efpecially  near  fwamps  and  ftag- 
nate  waters,  fuch  as  the  river  Morris  in  New  Jerfey. 
The  inhabitants  therefore  make  a  fire  before  their 
houfes  to  expel  thefe  difagreeable  guefts  by  the  fmoke. 

CULIACAN,  a  province  of  North  America,  in  the 
audience  of  Guadalajara.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  New  Mexico,  on  the  eaft  by  New  Bifcay  and  the 
Zacatecas,  on  the  fouth  by  Chiametlan,  and  on  the 
weft  by  the  fea.  It  is  a  fruitful  country,  and  has  rich 
mines. 

CULLIAGE,  a  barbarous  and  immoral  pradlice, 
whereby  the  lords  of  manors  anciently  aflumed  a  right 
to  the  firft  night  of  their  vaifals  brides. 

CULLEN,  a  parliament-town  in  Scotland,  fituated 
on  the  fea-coaft  of  BanfiF-lliire.  W.  Long.  2.  12.  and 
N.  Lat.  57.  38. 

CULLODEN,  a  place  in  Scotland  within  two 
miles  of  Invernefs,  chiefly  remarkable  for  a  complete 

vidtory 


C    U     L  [     603     ]  C     U     L 

OuHoden.   viaory  gained  over  tlie  rebels  on  tlic    l6th  of  April  in  tlie  mean  time  the  cannon  kept  playing  itpnn  tliem   CuIlod«i. 

"     -  1746-     That  day  the  royal  army,  commanded  by  the  with  cartridge-(hot.   General  Hawlcy,  with  fomc  High-  —v—-' 

late   Duke  of  Cumberland,  began  their  march   from  landers,    had  opened  a  palFagc  through   fome   ftone- 

Nairn,  formed  into  live  lines  of  three  battalions  each  ;  walls  to   the   right   for  the  horfe  which  advanced  on 


headed  by  Major-general  Huflce  on  the  left,  Lord  Sem-     that  fide  ;  while  the  horfe  on  the  king's  right  wheeled 
pill  on  the  light,  and  Brigadier  Mordaunt  in  the  cen-     oft"  upon  their  left,  difperfcd  their  body  of  referve,  and 

1  ..  .1  .  /-. 1.  rT__,-        n^^j^  ji^   jljg  centre   of  llieir  front-line   in  their  rear; 

when  being  repuHed  in  the  front,  and  gnat  numbers 
of  them  cut  off,  the  rebels  fell  into  very  great  confu- 
fion.  A  dreadful  carnage  was  made  by  the  cavalry 
on  their  backs  ;  however,  fome  part  of  the  foot  fliU- 
prefervtd  their  order  :  but  the  Kingfton's  horfe,  from 
the  referve,  galloped  up  briflcly,  and  falling  on  the 
fugitives,  did  terrible  execution.  A  total  defeat  in- 
ttantly  took  place,  with  the  lofs  of  2500  killed,  wound- 
ed, and  prifoncrs,  on  the  part  of  the  rebels  ;  while  the 
royalills  loft  not  above  200.  The  young  pretender  had 
his  horfe  (hot  under  him  during  the  engagement ;  and 
after  the  battle  retired  to  the  houfe  of  a  faClor  of  Lord 
Lovat,  about  ten  miles  from  Invernefs,  where  he  ftaid 
that  night.      Next  day  he   fet   out  for  Fort-Auguftus, 


tre  ;  flanked  by  the  horfe  under  the  Generals  Hawley 
and  Bland,  who  at  the  fame  time  covered  the  cannon 
on  the  light  and  left.  In  this  order  they  marched 
about  eight  miles,  when  a  detachment  of  Kingfton's 
horfe,  and  of  the  Highlanders,  having  advanced  before 
the  reft  of  tlie  army,  difcovered  the  van  of  the  rebels 
commanded  by  the  young  pretender.  Both  armies 
immediately  formed  in  the  order  and  numbers  fliown 
in  the  annexed  feheme. 

About  two  in  the  afternoon  the  rebels  began  to 
cannonade  the  king's  army  :  but  their  artillery  being 
ill  ferved,  did  little  execution  ;  while  the  fire  from 
their  enemies  was  feverely  felt,  and  occafioned  great 
diforder.  The  rebels  then  made  a  pn(h  at  the  right 
of  the   royal  army,   in  order   to   draw  the  troops  for- 


ward ;  but  finding  themfelves  difappointcd,  they  turned  from  whence  he  purfued  his  journey  through  wild  de-. 

their  whole    force  on   the  left  ;  falling  chiefly  on  Bar-  farts   with  great   difficulty  and  diftrefs,  till  at   laft  hf 

rell's  and  Monro's  regiments,  where  they  attempted  to  fafely  reached  France,  as  related  under  the  article  Bri 

flank  the  king's  front-line.      But  this   defign  alfo  was  tain,  11°  423. 
defeated  by  the  advancing  of  Wolfe's  regiment,  while 


•Jl83l[suj — 3j.ioiis,uoySui\i      pjBMOj^         X.3U5inj        nesjajiGg;      XauaijDEig      3J.ioi{  s,uoy3ui\i 


•3  5)snjj  -uaQ  -h]/^ 
s^Bjp  s,uipqqo3      j^^o-a   S  P.  ^v^^o^J  °°  souj   U°  -[ynj  -.15;  °  j|  o.mopj  °°Ip.iJi:g        -suooSe.ip  V-isjI 


•aNVig  "uaQ  -fej^ 


•ainvwaaiY  JO  psj  •usQ-i'-]; 
•A     IM     H     V       s,o     N     I     ^r       3HJ, 


•wn^DNy  pjo'j  puojo^ 


N. 


Duke  of  Perth. 


The     rebel     ARMY. 
Lord  John  Drummond. 


•  000     Ov  y  (>* 


O  >T3 

o 


^  uQ  .S  .§. 


O 


O 
O 


S"  K_ 


o 

Cu 


3 
O 


I<eft  flank  400. 
Ld  John  Dnimmond. 


O 

9 


o 


Guards,  huflars, 
and  Perthfliire, 
fquadron. 


Firft  column  800. 

Thofe  of  the  above,  who 
have  only  guns,  and 
Kilmarnock's  guards. 


The  young  pretender. 


Second  column  800. 


Lord  Geo.  Murray. 


r-2 

°     o  c 


Fit  z  James's 
horfe. 


Ld.  Lewis  Gordon's  and  Glenbucket's, 
to  be  ready  to  fuccour,  when  needful. 


s 


O    S      O 
n' 


^     0000 


Right  flank  400. 
Piquets,  by  Stapleton, 


Third  column  8co. 

Colonel  Roy  Stuart's,  and 
thofe  of  the  above  who 
have  only  guns. 


o 

O 

3 


n 

3 


The  D.  of  Perth's  reg.  and  Ld.  Ogilvie's, 
not  to  fire  without  pofitive  order;  and  to 

keepclofe,  as  afrefli  corps  dereferveSoo. In  all  83J0. 

4  G  2 


CULM, 


C    U     L 


[     604     1 


CUM 


.  Culm         CULM,  or  CuLMUs,  among  botanifts,  a  ftraw  or 
II         haulm  ;  defined  by  Linnxus  to  be  the  proper  trunk  of 
^Culvenn.  tjjg  graffcs,    which    elevates  the  leaves,   flower,    and 
*~    '         fruit. 

This  fort  of  trunk  is  tubular  or  hollow,  and  has 
frequently  knots  or  joints  diftributed  at  proper  diftan- 
ces  through  its  whole  length.  The  leaves  are  long, 
fleek,  and  placed  either  near  the  roots  in  great  num- 
bers, or  proceed  fingly  from  the  different  joints  of  the 
ftalk,  which  they  embrace  at  the  bafe,  like  a  Iheath  or 
glove. 

The  haulm  is  commonly  garni (hed  with  leaves: 
fometimes,  however,  it  is  naked  ;  that  is,  devoid  of 
leaves,  as  in  a  few  fpecies  of  cyprefs-grafs.  Moil 
graflcs  have  a  round  cylindrical  ftalk;  in  feme  fpecies 
of  fchoenus,  fcirpus,  cyprefs-grafs,  and  others,  it  is  tri- 
angular. 

The  Halk  is  fometimes  entire,  that  is,  has  no  bran- 
ches;  fometimes  branching,  as  m  fckcenus  aaih-atus  l^ 
capenfu ;  and  not  feldom  confiftsof  a  number  of  icales, 
which  lie  over  each  other  like  tiles. 

Laftly,  in  a  few  graifes,  the  ftalk  is  not  interrupted 
with  joints,  as  in  the  greater  part.  The  fpacc  con- 
tained betwixt  every  two  knots  or  joints,  is  termed  by 
botanifts  internotlium,  and  aruciilus  culmi. 

This  fpecies  of  trunk  often  affords  certain  marks  of 
diftinftion,  in  difcriminating  the  fpecies.  Thus  in  the 
genus  eriocaulon,  the  fpecies  are  fcarce  to  be  diftln- 
guiftied  but  by  the  angles  of  the  culm  us  or  ftalks.  Thefe 
in  fome  fpecies  are  in  number  5,  in  others  6,  and  in 
others  10. 

CULMIFEROUS  plants,  (from  culmus,  a  ftraw 
or  haulm):  plants  fo  called,  which  have  a  fmooth 
jointed  ftalk,  ufually  hollow,  and  wrapped  about  at 
each  joint  with  fingle,  narrow,  fliarp-pointed  leaves, 
and  the  feeds  contained  in  chaffy  hufks;  fuch  are  oats, 
wheat,  barley,  rye,  and  the  other  plants  of  the  natu- 
ral family  of  the  grasses. 

CULMINATION,  in  aftronomy,  the  paffage  of 
any  heavenly  body  over  the  meridian,  or  its  greateft 
altitude  for  that  day. 

CULPRIT,  a  term  ufed  by  the  clerk  of  the  arraign- 
ments, when  a  perfoh  is  indifted  for  a  criminal  mat- 
ter.     See  Plea  to  IndiUmcnt,  par.  i  • . 

CULROSS,  a  parliament  town  in  Scotland,  fituated 
«D  the  river  Forth,  about  23  miles  north-weft  of  Edin- 
burgh. Here  is  a  magnificent  houfe  with  I  3  windows 
in  front,  built  about  the  year  1590  by  Edward  Lord 
Kinlofs,  better  known  In  England  by  the  name  of 
Lord  Eruce,  flain  in  the  noted  duel  between  him  and 
Sir  Edward  Sackville.  Some  poor  remains  of  the  Cif- 
tercian  abbey  are  ftill  to  be  feen  here,  founded  by 
Malcolm  earl  of  Fife  in  1217.  The  church  was 
jointly  dedicated  to  the  Virgin  and  St  Serf  confeffor. 
The  revenue  at  the  diffolution  was  768  pounds  Scots, 
befides  the  rents  paid  in  kind.  The  number  of  monks, 
exclufive  of  the  abbot,  were  nine.  W.  Long.  3.  34. 
N.  Lat.  56.  8. 

CULVERIN,  a  long  (lender  piece  of  ordnance  or 
artillery,  ferving  to  carry  a  ball  to  a  great  diftance. 
Manege  derives  the  word  from  the  Latin  colubrhu ; 
others  from  coluber,  "  fnake;"  either  on  account  of 
the  length  and  flendernefs  of  the  piece  or  of  the  rava- 
ges it  makes. 

There  are.  three,  kinds  of  culverinsj.w'z.  the  extra- 


Cumber 

linJ. 


ordinary,  the  ordinary,  and  the  leaif   fized.      I.  The  Culvertai 
culverin  extraordinary  has  54-  inches  bore  ;  its  length        '^^ 
32  calibers,  or  13  feet ;  weighs  4800  pounds ;  its  load 
above  12   pounds;  carries   a  ftiot  5|- inches  diameter, 
weighing   20  pounds  weight       2.  The  ordinary  cul-  ~ 
verin    is  12    feet  long;    carries  a  ball  of  17  pounds 
5  ounces  ;  caliber  5  I-  inches;  its  weight  4500  pounds. 
3.  The  culverin  of  the  leaft  fize,  has   its  diameter  5 
inches;  is  1 2  feet  long;  weighing  about  4000  pounds; 
carries  a  ftiot  3^  inches  diameter,  weighing  14  pounds 
9  ounces. 

CULVERTAILED,  among  ftiipwrights,  fignifies 
the  fattening  or  letting  of  one  timber  into  another,  fo 
that  they  cannot  flip  out,  as  the  codings  into  the  beams 
of  a  fnip. 

CUMA,  or  CuM.s:  (anc.  geog. ),  a  town  of  .ffiolia 
in  Ada  Minor.  The  inhabitants  have  been  accufed  of 
ftupidity  for  not  laying  a  tax  upon  all  the  goods  wliich 
entered  their  harbour  during  300  years.  They  were 
called  Cuma/ii. 

CUMjE,  or  CuMA  (anc.  geog.),  a  city  of  Campa- 
nia near  Puteoli  founded  by  a  colony  from  Chalcis  and 
Cumse  of  ^Eolia  before  the  Trojan  war.  The  inhabi- 
tants were  called  Cuniiei.  One  of  the  Sibyls  fixed  her 
refidence  in  a  cave  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  was  call- 
ed the  Cumean  Sibyl. 

CUMBERLAND,  Cumbria,  fo  denominated  from 
the  Cumbri  or  Britons  who  inhabited  it ;  one  of  the 
moll  northerly  counties  in  England.  It  was  formerly 
a  kingdom  extending  from  the  vallum  of  Adrian  to 
the  city  of  Dumbritton,  now  Dumbarton,  on  the  frith 
of  Clyde  in  Scotland.  At  prefent  it  is  a  county  of 
England,  which  gives  the  title  of  duke  to  one  of  the 
royal  family,  and  fends  two  members  to  parliament. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  north  and  north-weft  by  Scot- 
land ;  on  the  fouth  and  fouth-eaft  by  part  of  Lanca- 
fliire  and  Weftmoreland  ;  it  borders  on  the  eaft  with 
Northumberland  and  Durham ;  and  on  the  weft  is 
waftjed  by  the  Irifti  fea.  Tlie  length  from  north  to 
fouth  may  amount  to  ^^  miles,  but  the  breadth  does, 
not  exceed  40.  It  is  well  watered  with  rivers,  kikes, 
and  fountains  ;  but  none  of  its  ftreams  are  navigable. 
In  fome  places  there  are  very  high  mountains.  The 
air  is  keen  and  piercing  on  thefe  mountains  towards 
the  north  ;  and  the  climate  is  moift,  as  in  all  hilly 
countries.  The  foil  varies  with  the  face  of  the  coun- 
try ;  being  barren  on  the  moors  and  mountains,  but 
fertile  in  the  valleys  and  level  ground  bordering  on 
the  fea  In  general  the  eaftern  parts  of  the  ftiire  are 
barren  and  defolate ;  yet  even  the  leaft  fertile  parts 
are  rich  in  metals  and  minerals.  The  mountains  of 
Copland  abound  with  copper :  veins  of  the  fame  metal, 
with  a  mixture  of  gold  and  filver,  were  found  in  the 
reign  of  queen  Elizabeth  among  the  fells  of  Derwent; 
and  royal  mines  were  formerly  wrought  at  Kef- 
wick.  The  county  produces  gieat  quantities  of  coal, 
fome  lead,  abundance  of  the  mineral  earth  called 
black-lead,  feveral  mines  of  lapis  calaminaris ;  and  an 
inconfiderablc  pearl-fiftiery  on  the  coaft  near  Raven- 
glafs. 

Cumberland  (Richard),  a  very  learned  Englifh 
diviiie  in  the  latter  end  of  the  17th  century,  was  fon. 
of  a  citizen  of  London,  and  educated  at  Cambridge. 
In  1672,  he  publifhed  his  excellent  Treatife  of  the 
Laws  of  Naturcj  and  in  1686,  An  Effay  toward  the 

Xcwiflii 


C    U     N 


Cuminum  Jewifh  Weights  and  Meafures.     After  the  revolution 
tl         he  was   nominated  by   king  William  to  the  bi(h«prlc 
Cunicuius.  jj£  Peterborough,    without  the  leail  t'olicitation  on  his 
'  part.     He   purfued  his  lludies   to   the   lall ;   and  the 

world  is  obliged  to  him  for  clearing  up  feveral  difficul- 
ties in  hillory,  chronology,  and  pliilofopliy.  After 
the  age  of  83,  he  applied  himfelf  to  the  Ihidy  of  the 
Coptic  language,  of  which  he  made  himftlf  mafter. 
He  was  as  remarkable  for  humility  of  mitid,  benevo- 
lence of  temper,  and  innocence  of  life,  as  for  his  exten- 
Cve  learning.      He  died  in  17  18. 

CUMINUM,  CUMIN  :  A  genus  of  the  digynia  or- 
der, belonging  to  the  pentandria  clafs  of  plants  ;  and 
in  the  natural  metliod  ranking  under  the  45th  order, 
Umbellatiz.  The  truit  is  ovate  and  ftriated  ;  there  are 
four  partial  umbels,  and  the  involncra  are  quadriiid. 
There  is  but  one  ipccies,  vl-z  the  cyminum.  It  is  an 
annual  plant,  perifliing  foon  after  the  feed  is  ripe  It 
rifes  9  or  10  inches  high  in  the  warm  countries  where 
it  is  cultivated  ;  but  feldom  rifes  above  four  in  this 
country.  It  has  fometimes  flowered  very  well  here, 
but  never  brings  its  feeds  to  perfedlion.  The  leaves 
are  divided  into  lo'ig  narrow  fegments,  like  thofe  of 
fennel,  but  much  fmaller :  they  are  of  a  deep  green, 
and  generally  turned  backward  at  their  extremity :  the 
flowers  grow  in  fmall  umbels  at  the  top  of  the  flalks  : 
they  are  compofed  of  live  unequal  petals,  of  a  pale 
bluilli  colour,  which  are  fucceeded  by  long,  channel- 
led, aromatic  feeds.  The  plant  is  propagated  for  fale 
in  the  ifland  of  Malta.  In  this  country  the  feeds  mult 
be  fown  in  fmall  pots,  and  plunged  in  a  very  mode- 
rate hot-bed  to  bring  up  the  plants.  Thefe,  after 
having  been  giadually  inured  to  the  open  air,  turned 
out  of  the  pots,  and  planted  in  a  wai-m  border  of  good 
earth,  prefcrving  the  balls  of  earth  to  their  roots,  will 
flower  pretty  well,  and  may  perhaps  even  perfeil  a  few 
feeds  in  warm  feafuns.  Thefe  feeds  have  a  bitterifli 
warm  tafte,  accompanied  with  an  aromatic  flavour,  not 
of  the  moft  agreeable  kind.  They  are  accounted 
good  carminatives  ;  but  not  very  often  made  ufe  of. 
An  effential  oil  of  them  is  kept  in  the  ihops. 

CUNvEUS  (Peter);  born  in  Zealand,  in  1586,  was 
diftinguiftied  by  his  knowledge  in  the  learned  langua- 
ges, and  his  fl<!ll  in  the  Jewilh  antiquities.  He  alfo 
ftudied  law,  which  he  taught  at  Leyden,  in  1615  ; 
and  read  politics  there  till  his  death,  in  1638.  His 
principal  work  is  a  treatife,  in  Latin,  on  the  republic 
©f  the  Hebrews. 

CUNEIFORM,  in  general,  an  appellation  given  to 
whatever  refemblcs  a  wedge 

CvNF.iFORM-Bone,  in  anatomy,  the  feventh  bone  of 
the  cranium,  called  alfo  os  bafilare,  and  os  fphenoides. 
See  Anatomy,  n*^  16. 

CUNEUS,  in  antiquity,  a  company  of  infantry 
drawn  up  in  form  of  a  wedge,  the  better  to  break 
through  the  enemy's  ranks. 

CUNICUL.US,  in  zoology.      See  Lepus. 

CuNicuLus,  ill  mining,  a  term  ufed  by  authors  in 
diftinction  from  puteus,  to  exprefs  the  feveral  forts  of 
paflages  and  cuts  in  thefe  fubterranean  works.  The 
ciinictili  are  thofe  dire6l  paffages  in  mines  where  they 
walk  on  horizontally  ;  but  the  putei  are  the  perpen- 
dicular cuts  or  dcfcents.  Tlie  miners  in  Germany  call 
thefe  by  the  name  JioUen,  and  Jchachtt ;  the  firft  word 


[       605       ] 


C     IT     N 


ex  pi  elfnig  the  horizontal,  and  the  fecond  the  perpen-     CunII« 
dicnlar  cuts.  Il 

CUNILA,  in  botany:  A  genus  of  the  monogynia  '^'"hj"'"^* 
order,  b«longing  co  the  monandria  clafs  of  plants;  and  i___— 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  the  4zd  or- 
der, Vei-iidllatn.  'I'he  corolla  is  ringent,  with  its 
upper  lip  tred  and  plane  ;  there  are  two  fdaments, 
caltrated,  or  wanting  anthera; ;  the  feeds  are  four. 
There  are  three  fpecics,  none  of  which  has  any  remark* 
able  property. 

CUNINA,  in  mythology,  a  goddefs  who  had  the 
care  of  little  children. 

CUNITZ  (Mary),  one  of  the  greatell  geniufes  In 
the  1 6th  century,  was  born  in  Silelia.  She  learned, 
languages  with  amazing  facility  ;  and  undcrllood  Po- 
lilh,  German,  French,  Italian,  Latin,  Greek,  and  He- 
brew. She  attained  a  knowledge  of  the  fcicnces  with 
equal  eafe  :  fhe  was  fkiUed  in  hiftory,  phyfic,  poetry,, 
painting,  mufic,  and  playing  upon  inftruments ;  and 
yet  thefe  were  only  an  amufement.  She  more  parti- 
cularly applied  herfelf  to  the  mathematics,  and  efpe- 
cially  to  attronomy,  which  (he  made  her  principal  lludy, 
and  was  ranked  in  the  number  of  the  moll  able  aftro- 
nomers  of  her  time.  Her  Aftronomical  Tables  ac- 
quired her  a  prodigious  reputation  :  flie  printed  them 
in  Latin  and  German,  and  dedicated  them  to  the  em- 
peror Ferdinand  III.  She  married  Elias  de  Lewin, 
M.  D.;  ^ind  died  at  Pillehen,  in  1664. 

CUNNINGHAM,  one  of  the  four  bailiwicks  in 
Scotland;  and  one  of  the  three  into  which  the  ihire  of 
Air  is  fubdivided.  It  lies  north-eaft.  of  Kyle.  Its 
chief  town  is  Irvin. 

Cunningham  (Alexander),  author  of  a  Hif- 
tory of  Great  Britain  from  the  revolution  to  the  ac- 
ceffion  of  George  I.  was  born  in  the  fouth  of  Scot- 
land about  the  year  1654,  in  the  regency  of  Oliver 
Cromwell.  His  father  was  minifter  at  Ettrick, 
in  the  prefbyteiy  and  (hire  of  Selkirk.  He  was 
educated,  as  was  the  cuftom  among  the  Scot- 
tilh  pre(hyterian  gentlemen  of  thofe  times,  in  Hol- 
land i  where  he  imbibed  his  principles  of  govern- 
ment, and  lived  much  with  the  Enghln  and  Scots 
refugees  at  the  Hague  before  the  revolution,  par- 
ticularly with  the  earls  of  Argyle  and  Sundeiland. 
He  came  over  to  England  with  the  prince  of  Orange, 
and  enjoyed  the  confidence  and  intimacy  of  many- 
leading  men  among  the  whig  party,  that  is,  the 
friends  and  abettors  of  king  William  and  the  re- 
volution. He  was  employed,  at  different  times,  in  the 
charafter  of  a  travelling  companion  or  tutor ;  firft,  to 
the  earl  of  Hyndford,  and  his  brother  Mr  William  Car- 
michatl,  fohcitor  general,  in  the  reign  of  queen  Anne, 
for  Scotland  ;  fecondly,  with  the  lord  l..orne,  after- 
wards fo  well  known  under  the  name  of  jfohn  duke  of 
Argyle ;  and  thirdly,  with  the  lord  vifcount  Lonfdale. 
In  his  travels,  we  find  him,  at  the  German  courts, 
in  company  with  the  celebrated  Mr  Jofeph  Addifon^ 
whofe  virtues  he  celebrates,  and  whofe  fortune,  like 
that  of  our  author,  compelled  him  to 

*' become  for  hire, 

"  A  trav'lirg  tutor  to  a  fquire." 

IvOrd  Lome,  at  the  time  he  was  under  the  tuition  o£ 
Mr  Cunningham,  though  not  feventcen  years  of  age,. 
was  colonel  of  a  regiment,  which  liii  father,  the  earl' 

«tT 


C    U    N 


'Cuninrg-  of  Argyle,  haJ  raifed  for  his  majedy's  fcrvice  in  Flan- 
•^'"'  dcrs.  Mr  Cuniiingham's  connedion  with  the  duke 
of  Argyle,  with  whom  he  had  the  honour  of  maintain- 
ing rn  intimacy  as  long  as  he  lived,  together  with  the 
opportunities  he  enjoyed  of  learning,  in  liis  travels, 
what  may  be  called  military gsogrnphy^  naturally  tend- 
ed to  qualify  him  for  writing  intelligibly  on  military 
affairs. 

Mr  Cunningham,  both  when  he  travelled  with  the 
nullcman  above  mentioned,  and  on  other  occafions, 
was  employed  by  th-  Englilh  minilliy  in  tranfmitting 
ftcret  intelligence  to  them  on  the  muft  important  fub- 
jcfls.  He  was  alfo,  on  fundry  occafions,  employed 
by  the  generals  of  the  confederate  armies,  to  carry  in- 
telligence, and  to  make  reprefentations  to  the  court  of 
Britain.  In  Carllares's  State-papers,  pubhflied  by  Dr 
Macornrick  principal  of  the  united  college  of  St  An- 
drew's in  1774,  tl'<^''6  '"■e  two  letters  from  our  author, 
dated  Paris  the  22d  and  26th  of  Auguft  1701,  giving 
an  account  of  his  conferences  with  the  marquis  de 
Torcy,  the  French  miuiller,  relative  to  the  Scots 
trade  with  France.  This  commercial  negociation, 
from  the  tenor  of  Cunningham's  letters  compared 
with  his  hiftory,  appears  to  have  been  the  only  ollen- 
fible  objeft  of  his  attention  ;  for  he  fent  an  exa£l  ac- 
count to  king  William,  with  whom  he  was  perfonally 
acquainted,  of  the  military  prepaiations  throughout 
all  France. 

''  Mr  Cunningham's  political  friends,  Argyle,   Sun- 

derland, Sir  Robert  Walpole,  &c.  on  the  acceffion  of 
George  I.  fent  him  as  Britifh  envoy  to  the  republic  of 
Venice.  He  ariived  in  that  city  in  17 15  ;  and  con- 
tinued there,  in  the  charadfer  of  refident,  till  the  year 
1720,  when  he  returned  again  to  London.  He  lived 
many  years  after,  which  he  feems  chiefly  to  have  paf- 
fed  in  a  fludious  retirement.  In  1735,  he  was  vifited 
ia  London  by  lord  Hyndford,  by  the  diretlion  of  his 
lordlhip's  father,  to  whom  he  had  been  tutor,  when 
he  appeared  to  be  very  old.  He  feems  to  have  lived 
sbout  two  years  after  ;  for  the  body  of  an  Alexander 
Cunningham  lies  interred  in  the  vicar  chancel  of  St 
Martin's  church,  who  died  in  the  83d  year  of  his  age, 
on  the  15th  day  of  May  1737;  and  who  was  pro- 
bably the  fame  perfon. 

His  "  Hiftory  of  Great  Britain,  from  the  revolu- 
tion in  1688  to  the  acceffion  of  George  I."  was  pub- 
lifhed  in  two  volumes  4to,  in  1787.  It  was  written 
by  Mr  Cunningham  in  Latin,  but  was  tranflated  into 
Englifli  by  the  reverend  William  Thomfon,  L.  L,  D. 
The  original  manufcript  came  into  the  poflcfllon  of  the 
reverend  Dr  HoUingberry,  archdeacon  of  Chichefter, 
fome  of  whofe  relations  had  been  connetled  with  the 
author.  He  communicated  it  to  the  earl  of  Hardwicke, 
and  to  the  reverend  Dr  Douglas  now^  bilhop  of  Car- 
litle,  both  of  whom  recommended  the  publication. 
In  a  (liort  preface  to  the  work,  the  archdeacon  fays, 
"  My  lirft  defign  was  to  have  produced  it  in  the  ori- 
ginal ;  but  knowing  how  few  are  fufRciently  learned 
to  underlland,  and  how  many  are  indifpofed  to  read 
two  quarto  volumes  in  Latin,  however  interetting  and 
entertaining  the  fubjeft  may  be,  I  altered  my  purpofe, 
and  intended  to  have  fent  it  into  the  world  in  a  tranf- 
latlon.  A  nervous  fever  depriving  me  of  the  power, 
defeated  the  fcheme."  But  he  afterwards  transferred 
the  undertaking  to  Dr  Thomfon  ;  and  Dr  Holling- 


r  606  ] 


C    U    N 


Cunoce- 
phali. 


berry  obferves,  that  Dr  Thomfon  "  has  exprefled  the  Cunninj 
fenfe  of  tlie  author  with  fidelity."  The  work  was  un-  ''^"^ 
doubtedly  well  deferving  of  publication.  It  contains 
the  hillory  of  a  very  interefting  period,  written  by  a 
man  who  had  a  confiderable  degree  of  authentic  in- 
formation, and  his  book  contains  many  curious  parti- 
culars nut  to  be  found  in  other  hiltories.  His  ch-- 
raftersate  often  drawn  with  judgment  and  impartiali- 
ty :  at  other  times  they  are  fomewhat  tinftured  with 
prejudice.  This  is  particularly  the  cafe  with  refpedl 
to  bilhop  Burnet,  againtt  whom  he  appears  to  have 
conceived  a  llrong  perfonal  dillike.  But  he  was  ma- 
nitellly  a  veiy  attentive  obferver  of  the  tranfaftions 
of  his  own  time  ;  his  work  contains  many  jult  poli- 
tical remarks ;  and  the  fadfs  v.'hich  he  relates  are  ex- 
hibited with  great  perfpicuity,  and  often  with  much 
animation.  Throughout  his  book  he  frequently  inter- 
fperfes  fome  account  of  the  literature,  and  of  the  mod 
eminent  perfons  of  the  age  concerning  which  he  writes; 
and  he  has  alfo  adorned  his  work  with  many  allufions 
to  the  claifics  and  to  ancient  hiftory. 

Alexander  Cunningham,  the  author  of  the  hiftory 
of  Great  Britain,  has  been  fuppofed  to  be  the  fame 
perfon  with  Alexander  Cunningham  who  publiftied  an 
edition  of  Horace  at  the  Hague,  in  two  volumes  8vo, 
in  1 72 1,  which  is  highly  efteemed.  But  from  the 
beft  information  we  have  been  able  to  coUeft,  they  were 
certainly  different  perfons  ;  though  they  were  both  of 
the  fame  name,  lived  at  tlie  fame  time,  had  both  been 
travelling  tutors,  were  both  faid  to  have  been  eminent 
for  their  fliill  at  the  game  of  chefs,  and  both  lived  to 
a  very  advanced  age.  The  editor  of  Horace  is  gene- 
rally faid  to  have  died  in  HoUaild,  where  he  taught  both 
the  civil  and  canon  laws,  and  where  he  had  collefted 
a  very  large  library,  which  was  fold  in  that  country. 

CUNNUS,  in  anatomy,  the pmlendum  mulicLre,  or 
the  anterior  parts  of  the  genitals  of  a  woman,  including 
the  labia  puiiendi  and  mons  •venerij. 

CUNOCEPHALI,inm)thology,(from""v,«dog," 
and  »tfix>-,  "head,"),  a  kind  of  baboons,  or  animals 
with  heads  like  thofe  of  dogs,  which  were  wonder- 
fully endowed,  and  were  preferved  with  great  veneration 
by  the  Egyptians  in  many  of  their  temples.  It  is 
related,  that  by  their  afhilance  the  Egyptians  found 
out  the  particular  periods  of  the  fun  and  moon  ;  and 
that  one  half  of  the  animal  was  often  buried,  while 
the  other  half  furvived  ;  and  that  they  could  read  and 
write.  This  ftrange  hiftory,  Dr  Bryant  imagines,  re-  , 
lates  to  the  priefts  of  Egypt,  ftyled  cdien,  to  the  no- 
vices in  their  temples,  and  to  the  examinations  they 
were  obliged  to  undergo,  before  they  could  be  ad- 
mitted to  the  priefthood.  The  Eg^-ptian  colleges 
were  fituated  upon  rocks  or  hills,  called  capi,  and  from 
their  confecration  to  the  fun,  caph-el;  whence  the 
Greeks  deduced  "f**^!-,  and  from  cahen-caph-elthey  form- 
ed y-^i'ifiKfiiKo;.  So  that  cahen-caph-cl  was  fome  royal  fe- 
minary  in  LTpper  Egypt,  whence  they  drafted  novi- 
ces to  fupply  their  colleges  and  temples.  By  this  e- 
tymology  he  explains  the  above  hiftory.  The  death 
of  one  part,  while  the  other  furvived,  denoted  the  re- 
gular fucceffion  of  the  Egyptian  priefthood.  The  cu- 
nocephalt  are  alfo  found  in  India  and  other  parts  of 
the  world.  Thefe  and  the  acephali  were  thus  denomi- 
nated from  their  place  of  refidence  and  from  their 
worfhip. 

CUNO- 


CUP 


[  607  ] 


GUP 


Cunod.nees      CUNODONTES,  a  people  mentioned  by  Solinus 

II         and  Kidoriis,  and  by  tlicm  fuppol'ed  to  have  the  teeth 

Cupel,      of  dof's.     Tliey  were  probably  denominated,   fays  Dr 

^~~*~~~'  Bryant,  from  the   objeit   of  their  worlliip,  the  deity 

Chan-Adon,  which  the  Greeks  expreffed  Kj.oJ^v,   and 

thence  called  his  votaries  CunidoiUes. 

CUNONIA,  in  botany  :  A  genus  of  the  digynia 
order,  belonging  to  the  decandria  elafs  ot  plants;  and 
iu  the  natural  method  ranking  with  thole  of  which  the 
ord;r  is  doubtful.  The  corolla  is  pentapetalous;  the 
calyx  pentaphyllous  ;  the  capfule  bilocular,  accumi- 
nated,  polyfpermous';  the  ilyles  longer  than  the  flower. 

CUOGOLO,  in  natural  hillory,  the  name  of  ailone 
much  iifed  by  the  Venetians  in  glafs-making,  and  found 
in  the  river  Feiuio.  It  is  a  fmall  Hone  ot  an  impure 
white,  of  a  Ihattery  texture,  and  is  of  the  fiiape  of  a 
pebble. 

CUP,  a  veiTel  of  capacity  of  various  forms  and  ma- 
terials, chiefly  to  drink  out  oL  In  the  Ephem.  Ger- 
man, we  have  a  defcription  of  a  cup  made  of  a  com- 
mon pepper-corn  by  Olwald  Neilinger,  which  holds 
1200  other  ivory  cups,  having  each  its  feveral  handle, 
all  gilt  on  the  edges  ;  with  room  for  400  more. 

Cup,  in  botany.     See  Calyx. 

CuF-Gulls,  in  natural  hiftory,  a  name  given  by  au- 
thors to  a  very  lingular  kind  of  galls  found  on  the 
leaves  of  the  oak  and  fome  other  trees.  They  are 
of  the  figure  of  a  cup,  or  drlnking-glafs  without  its 
foot,  being  regular  cones  adhering  by  their  point  or 
apex  to  the  leaf;  and  the  top  or  broad  part  is  hollow- 
ed a  little  way,  fo  that  it  appears  like  a  drlnking-glafs 
with  a  cover,  which  was  made  fo  fmall  as  not  to  clofe 
it  at  the  mouth,  but  fall  a  little  way  into  it.  This  co- 
ver is  flat,  and  has  in  the  centre  «  very  fmall  protu- 
berance, refembling  the  nipple  of  a  woman's  breaft. 
This  is  of  a  pale  green,  as  is  alfo  the  whole  of  the  gall, 
excepting  only  its  rim  that  runs  round  the  top:  this  is 
of  a  fcarlet  colour,  and  that  very  beautiful.  Belides 
this  fpecles  of  gall,  the  oak  leaves  furnifli  us  with  fe- 
veral others,  fome  of  which  are  oblong,  fome  round, 
and  others  flatted  ;  thefe  are  of  various  fizes,  and  ap- 
pear on  the  leaves  at  various  feafons  of  the  year. 
They  all  contain  the  worm  of  fome  fmall  fly  ;  and  this 
creature  pafles  all  its  changes  in  this  its  habitation,  be- 
ing fometimes  found  in  the  worm,  lometimes  in  the 
nymph,  and  fometimes  In  the  fly-Hate,  In  the  cavity 
of  it. 

CUPANIA,  In  botany  :  A  genus  of  the  addphia 
order,  belonging  to  the  raonoecia  clafs  of  plants; 
and  In  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  38th 
order,  Tricocca.  The  calyx  of  the  male  is  triphyllous  ; 
the  corolla  pentapetalous ;  the  ftamina  five.  The  calyx 
of  the  female  triphyllous  ;  the  corolla  trlpetalous  ;  the 
ftyle  trlfid  ;  and  a  pair  of  feeds.  There  is  but  one 
fpecles,  a  native  of  America,  and  which  polTefles  no 
remarkable  property. 

CUPEL,  In  metallurgy,  a  fmall  veflel  which  abforbs 
metallic  bodies  when  changed  by  fire  into  a  fluid  fco- 
ria;  but  retains  them  as  long  as  they  continue  in  their 
metallic  Hate.  One  of  the  moft  proper  materials  for 
making  a  veflel  of  this  kind  is  the  aflies  of  animal 
bones ;  there  Is  fcarcely  any  other  fubftance  which  fo 
ftrongly  refills  vehement  fire,  which  fo  readily  im- 
bibes metallic  fcoris,  and  which  is  fo  little  difpofed  to 


be  vitrified  by  them.     In  want  of  thefc,  feme  make     Cupel, 
ufe  of  Vegetable  aflics,   freed  by  boiling  In  water  from    C-'upclla- 
their  faline  matter,  which  would  taule  them  melt  in      "°"- 
the  fire.  — y— 

The  bones,  burnt  to  perfecl  wliitenefs,  fo  as  that  no 
particle  of  coaly  or  inflammable  matter  may  remain 
in  them,  and  well  waflied  from  filth,  are  ground  imn 
moderately  fine  powder  ;  which,  in  order  to  its  being- 
formed  into  cupels,  is  moiltened  with  jull  as  much  wa- 
ter as  is  fnfficient  to  make  it  iiold  together  wlieu 
llrongly  prefled  between  the  fingers;  fume  dlretl  glii- 
tinous  liquids,  as  whites  of  eggs  or  gum-water,  in  or- 
der to  give  the  powder  a  greater  tenacity:  but  the  In- 
flammable  matter,  however  fmall  in  quantity,  whleb 
accompanies  thefe  fluids,  and  cannot  be  ealily  burnt 
out  from  the  internal  part  of  the  mafs,  is  apt  to  revive 
a  part  of  the  metallic  fcorla  that  has  been  abforbed, 
and  to  occafion  the  veffel  to  burlt  or  crack.  The  cu- 
pel Is  formed  in  a  brufs  ring,  from  three  quarters  of  an 
inch  to  two  inches  diameter,  and  not  quite  fo  deeo, 
placed  upon  fome  fmooth  fupport:  the  ring  being  fill- 
ed with  moiftened  powder,  which  is  prefled  clofe  .with 
the  fingers  ;  a  round-faced  pelUe,  called  a  monh,  is 
ftruck  down  into  it  with  a  few  blows  of  a  mallet,  by 
which  the  mafs  is  made  to  cohere,  and  rendered  fuf- 
ficiently  compact,  and  a  fiiallow  cavity  formed  in  the 
middle  :  the  figure  of  the  cavjty  is  nearly  that  of  a 
fphere,  that  a  fmall  quantity  of  metal  melted  in  it 
may  run  together  into  one  bead.  To  make  the  ca- 
\lty  the  fmoother,  a  little  of  the  fame  kind  of  aflies 
levigated  into  an  Impalpable  powder,  and  not  molllen- 
ed,  is  commonly  fprinkled  on  the  furface,  through  a 
fmall  fine  fieve  made  for  this  purpofe,  and  the  monk 
again  ftruck  down  upon  it.  The  ring  or  ^mould  is 
a  little  narrower  at  bottom  than  at  top ;  fo  that  by 
prefling  It  down  on  fome  of  the  dry  powder  fpread  up- 
on a  table,  the  cupel  is  loofcned,  and  forced  upwards 
a  little  ;  after  which  it  is  eafily  puflicd  out  with  the 
finger,  and  is  then  ftt  to  dry  in  a  warm  place  free  from 
dull. 

CUPELLATION,  the  ad  of  refining  gold  or  fi) 
ver  by  means  of  a  cupel.  For  this  purpofe  another 
veflel,  called  a  nmjjle,  is  made  ufe  of,  within  which  one 
or  more  cupels  are  placed.  The  muflle  is  placed  upon, 
a  grate  in  a  proper  furnace,  with  its  mouth  facing  the 
door,  and  as  dole  to  it  as  may  be.  The  furnace  be- 
ing liUed  up  witli  fuel,  fome  lighted  charcoal  is  thrown 
on  the  top,  and  what  fuel  is  afterwards  neceffary  is 
fuppHcd  through  a  door  above.  The  cupels  are  fet  iu 
the  muffle  ;  and  being  gradually  heated  by  the  fuccef- 
five  kindling  of  the  fuel,  they  are  kept  red-hot  for 
fome  time,  that  the  molfl:ure  which  they  ftrongly  re- 
tain may  be  completely  diffipated :  for  if  any  vapours 
fliould  ilFue  from  them  after  the  metal  is  put  in,  they 
would  occafion  it  to  fputter,  and  a  part  of  it  to  be 
thrown  off  in  little  drops.  In  the  fides  of  the  muffle 
are  fome  perpendicular  flits,  with  a  knob  over  the  top 
of  each,  to  prevent  any  fmall  pieces  of  coals  or  aflies 
from  falling  in.  The  door,  or  fome  apertures  made  in 
it  being  kept  open,  for  the  infpeftion  of  the  cupels, 
frefli  air  enters  into  the  muffle,  and  palfes  off  through 
thefe  flits:  by  laying  fome  burning  charcoal  on  an  iron 
plate  before  the  door,  the  air  is  heated  before  itg 
admiflTion  ;  and  by  removing  the  charcoal  or  fupply- 
3  in|L 


CUP 


Cupe'la     ing  more,  the  heat  in  the  cavity  of  the  muffle  may  be 
•»°""       fomewhat  diminilhed  or  increafed  more  fpcedily  than 
' — ^'         can  be  effected  by  fuppreffing  or  exciting  the  fire  in 
tlie  i'urnace  on  the  outfide  of  the  muffle.      The  renew- 
al of  the  air  alfo  is  neceffary  for  promoting  the  fcori- 
fication  of  the  lead. 

The  cupel  being  of  a  full  red  heat,  the  lead  caft  in- 
to a  fmooth  bullet,  that  it  may  not  fcratch  or  injure 
the  furface,  is  laid  lightly  in  the  cavity:  it  immediate- 
ly melts  ;  and  then  the  gold  or  filver  to  be  cupelled 
are  cautioudy  introduced  cither  by  means  of  a  fmall 
iron  ladle  or  by  wrapping  them  in  paper,  and  drop- 
ping them  on  the  lead  with  a  pair  of  tongs  The 
quantity  of  lead  (hould  be  at  leaft  three  or  four  times 
that  of  the  fine  metal:  but  when  gold  is  very  impure, 
it  requires  lo  or  12  times  its  quantity  of  lead  for  cu- 
pellation.  It  is  reckoned  that  copper  requires  for  its 
fcorification  about  10  times  its  weight  of  lead  ;  that 
when  copper  and  gold  are  mixed  in  equal  quantities, 
the  copper  is  fo  much  defended  by  the  gold  as  not  to 
be  feparable  with  lefs  than  20  times  its  weight  of  lead  ; 
and  that  when  copper  is  in  very  fmall  proportion,  as 
a  20th  or  30th  part  of  the  gold  or  filver,  upwards  of 
60  parts  of  lead  are  neceffary  for  one  of  the  copper. 
The  cupel  muft  always  weigh  at  leaft  half  as  much  as 
the  lead  and  copper  ;  for  otherwife  it  will  not  be  fuf- 
ficient  for  receiving  half  the  fcoria:  there  is  little  dan- 
ger, however,  of  cupels  being  made  too  fmall  for  the 
quantity  of  a  gold  affay. 

The  mixture  being  brought  into  thin  fufion,  the 
heat  is  to  be  regulated  according  to  the  appearances ; 
and  in  this  confifts  the  principal  nicety  in  the  opera- 
tion. If  a  various  coloured  ikin  rlfes  to  the  top,  which, 
liquefying,  runs  off  to  the  fides,  and  is  there  abforbed_ 
by  the  cupel,  vifibly  ftaining  the  parts  it  enters;  if  a 
frefli  fcoria  continually  fucceeds,  and  is  abforbed  near- 
ly as  faft  as  it  is  foimed,  only  a  fine  circle  of  it  re- 
maining round  the  edge  of  the  melal  ;  if  the  lead  ap- 
pears in  gentle  motion,  and  throws  up  a  fume  a  little 
way  from  its  furface  ;  the  fire  is  of  the  proper  degree, 
and  the  procefs  goes  on  fuccefsfully. 

Such  a  fiery  brightnefs  of  the  cupel  as  prevents  its 
colour  from  being  diflinguiihcd,  and  the  fumes  of 
the  lead  rifing  up  almoft  to  the  arch  of  the  muffle,  are 
marks  of  too"  ftrong  a  heat :  though  it  muft  be  obfer- 
ved,  that  the  elevation  of  the  fumes  is  not  always  in 
proportion  to  the  degree  of  heat  ;  for  if  the  heat 
greatly  exceeds  the  due  limits,  both  the  fumes  and 
ebullition  will  entirely  ceafe.  In  tbefe  circumftances 
the  fire  muft  neceffarily  be  diminilhed  :  for  while  the 
lead  boils  and  fmokes  vehemently,  its  fumes  are  apt  to 
cany  off  fome  pr.rt  of  the  gold  j  the  cupel  is  liable  to 
crack  from  the  hafty  abforption  of  the  fcoria,  and  part 
of  the  gold  and  filver  is  divided  into  globules,  which 
lying  difcontinued  on  the  cupel  after  the  procefs  is  fi- 
niflied,  cannot  eafily  be  colledtcd :  if  there  is  no  ebul- 
lition or  fumes,  the  fcorification  does  not  appear  to  go 
on.  Too  weak  a  heat  is  known  by  the  dull  rednefs 
of  the  cupel ;  by  the  fume  not  rifing  from  the  furface 
of  the  lead;  and  the  fcoria  like  bright  drops  in  languid 
motion,  or  accumulated,  or  growing  conCftent  all  over 
the  metal.  The  form  of  the  furface  affords  alio  an 
ufeful  mark  of  the  degree  of  heat  ;  the  ftronger  the 
fire,  the  more  convex  is  the  furface;  and  the  weaker, 
the  more  flat ;  in  this  point,  however,  regard  muft  be 
N^'  96. 


[    608     ]  CUP 

had  to  the  quantity  of  metal  ;  a  large  quantity  being  Cupelling 
always  flatter  than  a  fmall  one  in  an  equal  fire.  1 

Towards  the  end  of  the  procefs,  the  fire  muft  be  in-  '-"P'"'^'^"'-. 
creafed;  for  greateft   part  of  the  fufible   metal   lead  "' 

being  now  worked  off,  the  gold  and  filver  will  not 
continue  melted  in  the  heat  that  was  fuf&cient  before. 
As  the  laft  remains  of  the  lead  are  feparating,  the 
rainbow  colours  on  the  furface  become  more  vivid, 
and  varioufiy  interfecl  one  another  wiih  quick  mo- 
tions. Soon  after,  difappearing  all  at  once,  a  fuddcn 
luminous  brightnefs  of  the  button  of  gold  and  filver 
fhows  the  procefs  to  be  finilhed.  The  cupel  is  then 
drawn  forwards  towards  the  mouth  of  the  miffle  ; 
and  the  button,  as  foon  as  grown  folly  fohd,  taken 
out. 

CUPELLING  FURNACE.  See  Cupelling  Fvrnace. 

CUPID,  in  pagan  mythology,  the  god  of  love. 
There  feem  to  have  been  two  Cupids ;  one  the 
fon  of  Jupiter  and  Venus,  whofe  delight  it  was  to 
raife  fentiments  of  love  and  virtue ;  and  the  other 
the  fon  of  Mars  and  the  fame  goddefs,  who  in- 
fpired  bafc  and  impure  defires.  The  firll  of  thefe, 
called  Eros,  or  true  love,  bore  golden  arrows,  which 
caufed  real  joy,  and  a  virtuous  affeftion  ;  the  other, 
called  Anteros,  had  leaden  arrows  that  raifed  a  pafllon 
founded  only  on  dtfire,  which  ended  in  fatiety  and 
difguft.  Cupid  was  always  drawn  with  wings,  to  re- 
prefent  his  Inconftancy  ;  and  naked,  to  fliow  that  he 
has  nothing  of  his  own.  He  was  painted  bhnd,  to  de- 
note that  love  fees  no  fault  in  the  objeft  beloved  ;  and 
with  a  bow  and  quiver  of  arrows,  to  ftiow  his  power 
over  the  mind.  Sometimes  he  is  placed  between 
Hercules  and  Mercury,  to  (how  the  prevalence  of  elo- 
quence and  valour  in  love  ;  and  at  others  is  placed 
near  Fortune,  to  fignify  that  the  fuccefs  of  lovers  de- 
pends on  that  inconftant  goddefs.  Sometimes  he  Is  re- 
prcfcnted  with  an  helmet  on  his  head  and  a  fpear  on 
his  ihoulder,  to  fignify  that  love  difarms  the  fiercefl 
men  ;  he  rides  upon  the  backs  of  panthers  and  lions, 
and  ufes  their  manes  for  a  bridle,  to  denote  that  love 
tames  the  moft  favage  beafts.  He  is  likewife  pidluFed 
riding  u/ju  a  dolphin,  to  fignify  that  his  empire  ex- 
tends over  the  fea  no  lefs  than  the  land. 

CUPOLA,  in  architecture,  a  fpherical  vault,  or  the 
round  top  of  the  dome  of  a  church,  in  the  form  of  a 
cup  Inverted. 

CUPPING,  in  furgery,  the  operation  of  applying 
cupping- Tlaffcs  for  the  difcharge  of  blood  and  other 
humours  by  the  ikin.      See  Svrgerv. 

CUPRESSUS,  the  CYPRESS-TREE  :  A  genus  of  the 
monadelplua  order,  belonging  to  the  moncccia  clafs  of 
plants;  and  in  the  natuial  method  ranking  under  the 
51ft  order.  Conifer.^.  The  male  calyx  is  a  fcale  of  the 
catkin  ;  there  is  no  corolla  ;  the  anthera;  are  four,  feffile, 
and  without  filaments.  The  calyx  of  the  female  is  a  fcale 
of  the  ftrobilus,  and  uniflorus;  inftcad  of  ilvlcs  there 
are  hollow  dots  ;  the  fruit  is  an  angulated  nut.  There 
are  fix  fpeeies  ;  the  moft  remarkable  are  the  following: 
I.  The  fempervirens,  with  an  upright  ttraight  ftem, 
clufely  branching  all  around,  almoft  from  the  bottom 
upwards,  into  numerous  quadrangular  branches  ;  lifiiig 
In  the  different  varieties  from  15  to  40  or  50  feet  in 
height,  and  very  clofely  garniftied  with  fmall,  narrow, 
crcit  evergreen  leaves,  placed  Imbricatim  ;  and  flowers 
and  fruit  from  the  fides  of  the   branches.     2.  The 

thyoides, 


Cupru" 


CUP  [     609    ]  c 

CuprefTiiS,  tliyoiJes,  or  evergreen  American  cyprcfs,  commonly  CUPRUM,  or  Copper. 

called  wiilte  cedar,  hath  an  upright  ilem,  brancliinfj 
out  into  numerous  two-edged  branches,  riiing  20  or  30 
feet  high,  ornamented  witli  llat  ever-green  leaves  im- 
bricated like  arbor  vitd-,  and  finall  blue  cones  the  fi/e 
of  juniper-berries.  3.  The  dillicha,  or  deciduous 
American  cyprcfs,  hath  an  ereft  trunk,  retaining  a 
large  bulk,  branching  wide  and  regular ;  grows  jo  or 
60  feet  high,  fully  garnillied  with  fmall,  fpreading 
deciduous  leaves,  arranged  diltichous,  or  along  two 
fides  of  the  branches.  All  thefe  fpecies  are  raifed 
from  feeds,  and  will  fometimes  alfo  grow  from  cut- 
tings ;  but  thofe  railed  from  feeds  prove  the  hand- 
fomcft  plants.  The  feeds  are  procured  in  their  cones 
from  the  feedfmen,  and  by  expofing  them  to  a  mo- 
derate heat,  they  readily  open,  and  difcharge  the 
feeds  freely.  The  feafon  for  fowing  them  is  any  time 
in  March  ;  and  they  grow  freely  on  a  bed  or  border  of 
common  light  earth  :  efpecially  the  firll  and  third 
fpecies.  The  ground  mull  then  be  dug,  well  broken, 
and  raked  fmooth,  then  drawing  an  inch  of  earth 
evenly  from  off  the  furface  into  the  alley,  fowthcfeeds 
moderately  thick,  and  directly  fift  the  earth  over  them, 
half  an  inch  deep.  If  in  April  and  May  the  weather 
proves  warm   and   dry^  a  very   moderate  watering  will 

now  and  then  be  neceflai-y,  and  the  plants  will  rife  in 
fix  or  eight  weeks.  During  the  fummer  they  mud  be 
kept  clear  from  weeds,  and  in  dry  weather  they  muft 
be  gently  watered  twice  a-wcek.  In  winter  tiiey  muJl 
be  occahonally  flicltered  with  mats  in  the  time  of  hard 
froll.      In   two  year«  thev  will  be  lit  for  tranfplanting 

from  the  fec/l-bed,   when  they  may  be  fet  in  nurfeiy- 

rows  two  feet  afunder  ;  and  in  three  or  four  years  they 

will  be  fit  for  the  flirubbery. 

The  wood  of  the  firll  fpecies  is  faid  to  refill:  worms, 

moths,  and  putrefadtion,  and   to  Lll   many   centuries. 

The  coffins  in  which  the  Athenians  were  wrut  to  bury 

their    heroes    were    made,    fays  Thucydldes,    of   this 

vood  ;  as  were  likevvife  the  chefts  containing  the  E- 
■gyptian   mummies.     The  doors  of  St  Peter's   church 

at  Rome  were  originally  of  the  fame  materials.    Thefe, 

after  lailing  upwards  of  600  years,  at  the  end  of  which 

they  did  not  difcover  the  fmalleft  tendency  to  corrup- 
tion, were  removed   by  order   of  pope   Eugenius  IV. 

and    gates  of   brafs  fiibftituted  in  their  place.      The 

fame  tree  is  by  many  eminent  authors   recommended 

as  improving  and  meliorating  the   air  by  its  balfamic 

and  aromatic  exhalations ;   upon  which  account  many 

ancient  phyficians  of  the  eaftern  countries  ufed  to  fend 

their  patients  who  were  troubled  with   weak  lungs  to 

the  illand  of  Cnndia,  where  thefe  trees  grew   in    great 

abundance  ;  and  where,  from  the  falnbrious  air  alone, 

very  few  failed  of  a  perfetl;  cure.      In  the  fame  illand, 

favs  Miller,  the  cyprefs  trees  were  fo  lucrative  a  com- 
modity, that  the  plantations  were  called  dos  filiit ;  the 

felling   of  one   of  them  being  reckoned  a  daughter's 

portion.     Cyprefs,  fays  Mr  Pococke,  is  the  only  tree 

that  grows  towards  the  top  of  mount   Lebanon,  and 

being  nipped  by   the    cold,  grows   like  a  fmall   oak. 

Noah's  ark  is  commonly  fuppofcd  to  have   been   made 

of  this  kind  of  wood. 

CUPRUM    Ammoniacalj.       See    Chemistry-, 

N^  1034.     This  preparation  is  recommended  in  fome 

kinds  of  fpafmodic  dlfeafes,  given  in  the  dofe  of  one 

er  two  grains. 
Vol.  V.  Part  11. 


U    R 

See  CoppFR. 

CURACOA,  or  CuRAs:;ow,  one  of  the  larger  An- 
tilles iflands,  fubjeCl  to  the  Dutch  ;  fituated  in  VV. 
l-ung.  68.  30.  N.  I.at.  12.  30.  This  illand  is  little 
elfe  than  a  bare  rock,  about  ten  leagues  long  and  five 
l;road  ;  lying  three  leagues  off  the  coafl  of  Venezuela. 
It  has  an  excellent  harbour,  but  the  entrance  is  diffi- 
cult. The  bafon  is  extremely  lavg.-,  and  convenient 
in  every  relpeCt  ;  and  is  defended  by  a  fort  (Icilfully 
conflruftcd,  and  always  kept  in  repair.  The  icafon 
of  forming  a  lettlcment  upon  this  barren  fpot  wasi  Xci 
carry  on  a  contraband  trade  with  the  Spanilh  coloniei 
on  the  continent  ;  but  after  fome  time  the  method  of 
managing  this  trade  was  changed.  CuralTow  itfelf 
became  an  immenfe  magazine,  to  which  the  Spaniard* 
reforted  in  their  boats  to  exchange  gold,  filver,  va- 
nilla, cocoa,  cochineal,  bark,  fi<ins,  and  mulee,  for  ne- 
groes, linen,  filks,  India  ftufl's,  fpices,  laces,  ribbands, 
quick-lilver,  Heel,  and  iron-ware.  Thefe  voyngei, 
though  continual,  did  not  prevent  a  number  of  Dutch 
floops  from  pafTing  from  CuralTow  to  the  continent. 
But  the  modern  fuliilitution  of  regiiler-lhips  inllead 
of  galleons,  has  made  this  communication  lefs  frequent ; 
but  it  will  be  revived  whcnerer,  bv  the  intervention 
of  war,  the  communication  with  the  Spanilli  main  Hiall 
be  cut  off.  The  difputes  between  the  courts  of  Lon- 
don and  Verfailles  alfo  prove  favourable  to  the  trade 
of  Curailbw.  At  thefe  times  it  furnilhes  proviiions 
to  tlie  fouthern  parts  of  St  Domingo,  and  takes  ofl"  all 
its  produce.  Even  the  French  privateers,  from  the 
windward  iflands,  repair  in  great  numbers  to  Curaf- 
fow,  notwithllanding  the  diltance.  The  reafon  is, 
that  they  find  thire  all  kinds  of  ncccffary  ftores  for 
their  velTels  ;  and  frequently  Spanifli,  init  always  Eu- 
ropean goods,  which  are  univcrfally  ufed.  Enidilli 
privateers  feldom  cruize  in  thefe  parts.  Every  com- 
modity witliout  exception,  that  is  landed  at  CurafTow, 
pays  one  per  cent,  port-duty.  Dutch  goods  are  never 
taxed  higher;  but  thofe  that  are  fhipped  from  other 
European  ports  pay  nine  per  cent.  more.  Foreign 
coffee  is  fiibjeft  to  the  fame  tax,  in  order  to  promote 
the  fale  of  that  of  Surinam.  Every  other  produdion  of 
America  is  fubjeCl  only  to  a  payment  of  three/ifr  cot/.  ; 
but  vn\\\  an  exprefs  llipulation  that  they  are  to  be  con- 
veyed diredtly  to  fome  port  belonging  to  the  republic. 

CURATE,  the  lowell  degree  in  the  church  of  Eng- 
land ;  he  who  reprefents  the  incumbent  of  a  church, 
parfon  or  vicar,  and  officiates  divine  fcrvice  in  his 
ilead  :  and  in  cafe  of  pluralities  of  livings,  or  where  a 
clergyman  Isold  and  inlirm,  it  is  re<]uiiite  there  (liould 
be  a  curate  to  perform  the  cure  of  the  church.  He  is 
to  be  licenfed  and  admitted  by  the  bilhop  of  the  diocefe, 
or  by  an  ordinary  having  epifcopal  jurifdiclion :  and 
when  a  curate  hath  the  approbation  of  the  bilhop,  he 
ufually  appoints  the  friary  too  ;  and  in  fuch  cafe,  if  he 
be  not  paid,  the  curate  hath  a  proper  remedy  in  the 
ecclefialtical  court,  by  a  fequeftratiou  of  the  profits  of 
the  benefice  ;  but  if  the  curate  is  not  licenfed  by  the 
billiop,  he  is  put  to  his  remedy  at  common  law,  where 
he  muft  prove  the  agreement,  &c.  A  curate  having 
no  fixed  ellate  in  his  curacy,  not  being  inllituted  and 
induftedjUiay  be  removed  at  plcafure  by  the  bilhop  or 
incumbent.  But  there  are  perpetu:;l  curates  as  well 
as  temporary,  who  are  appointed  where  tithes  arc  im- 
propriate, and  no  vitarage  endowed  :  thefe  are  not 
4  H  rcmoveable. 


Cu(rum 
Curaif 


C    U  >R 


CnratelU  removeable,  and  the  improprietors  are  obliged  to  find 
them ;  fome  whereof  have  certain  portions  of  the  tithes 
fettled  on  them.  Every  clergyman  that  officiates  in 
a  church  (whether  incumbent  orfubftitute)  in  the  li- 
turgy is  called  a  curate.  Curates  muft  fubfcribe  the 
declaration  according  to  the  adl  of  uniformity,  or  are 
liable  to  imprifonmcnt,  &c. 

CURATELLA,  in  botany  :  A  genus  of  the  digy- 
nia  order,  belonging  to  the  polyandria  clafs  of  plants  ; 
arid  in  the  natural  method  ranking  with  thofe  of 
which  the  order  is  doubtful.  The  calyx  is  pentaphyl- 
lous  ;  the  petals  four  ;  the  ftyles  two  ;  the  capfule  bi- 
partite, with  the  cells  difpermous. 

CURATOR,  among  the  Romans,  an  officer  under 
the  emperors,  who  regulated  the  price  of  al!  kinds  of 
merchandize  and  vendible  commodities  in  the  cities  of 
the  empire.  They  had  likewife  the  fuperlntendence  of 
the  culloms  and  tributes ;  whence  alfo  they  were  call- 
ed loglfla. 

Curator,  among  civilians,  a  truftce  or  perfon  no- 
minated to  take  care  of  the  affairs  and  interefts  of  a 
perfon  emancipated  or  interdifted.  In  countries  where 
.the  Roman  law  prevails,  between  the  age  of  14  and 
24  years,  minors  have  curators  affigned  them  ;  till  14, 
they  have  tutors. 

CuRATOH  of  an  Unlverfity,  in  the  United  Provinces, 
is  an  ekftive  office,  to  which  belongs  the  direction' of 
the  affairs  of  the  univerfity  ;  as,  the  adminiftiation  of 
the  reven  les,  the  infjedion  of  the  profeflbrs,  &c.  The 
curators  are  chofen  by  the  dates  of  each  province  :  the 
univerfity  of  Leyden  has  three  ;  the  burghermafters  of 
the  city  have  a  fourth. 

CURB,  in  the  manege,  a  chain  of  iron  made  fad 
to  the  upper  part  of  the  branches  of  the  bridle  in  a  hole 
called  the  eye,  and.  running  over  the  horfc's  beard. 
Ifconfifts  of  thcfe  -three  parts  ;  the  hook,  li.xed  to  the 
eye  of  the  branch  ;  the  chain  of  SS's  orhnks;  and 
the  two  rings,  or  mailes.  Large  curbs,  provided 
they  be  round,  are  always  mofl  gentle  :  but  care  is  to 
be  taken,  that  it  reft  in  its  proper  place,  a  little  above 
the  beard,  otherwife  the  bit-mouth  will  not  have  the 
efftft  that  may  be  cxpefted  from  it. 

Engliih  watering  bits  have  no  curbs  ;  the  Turkllli 
bits,  called  gencttes,  have  a  ring  that  ferves  inllea2'*of  a 
curb.     See  Genettes. 

Curb,  in  farriery,  is  a  hard  and  callous  fwelling  on 
the  hind  part  of  the  hock",  attended  with  ftiffnefs,  and 
fometimes  with  pain  and  lamenefs.     See  Spavin. 

GURCAS,  a  name  given  in  Egypt  to  an  efculent 
root,  approaching  to  the  tafte  and  virtues  of  the  colo- 
cafia.  It  is  alfo  a  name  ufed  in  Malabar  for  a  fmall 
fruit  of  the  fhape  and  fize  of  an  hazel  nut.  Both 
thefe  things  have  the  credit  of  being  ftrong  provoca- 
tives ;  and  it  is  very  propable  that  the  curcas  of  the 
Eaft  Indies  may  be  the  fruit  called  bcl  by  Avicenna, 
^nd  fdid  to  poi'fcfs  the  fame  virtues.  Garcias  has  been 
led  into  a  veiy  great  error  by  this  fimilarity  of  names 
and  virtues  ;  and  fuppofes  the  curcas  of  Egypt  the 
fame  with  that  of  the  Eail  Indies. 

CURCULIO,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of  infefts  be- 
'  longing  to  the  order  of  coleoptera.  The  feelers  are 
fubclavated,  and  reil  upon  the  fnout,  which  is  promi- 
nent and  homy.  Thefe  in!- tils  are  divided  into  the 
fallowing  families.  I.  Thofe  which  have  the  roftrum 
longer  than  the  thorax,  and  whofe  thighs  are  Cmple. 

I 


[     610    1  G    U     R 

2  Thofe  which  hare  the  roftrum  longer  than  the  the-  Curcuro. 
rax,  and  the  thighs  thicker  and  made  for  leaping.  /~~^ 
3,  Thofe  which  have  the  roftrum  longer  than  the  tho- 
rax, and  the  thighs  dentated.  4.  Thofe  which  have 
dentated  thighs,  and  a  roftrum  fliorter  than  the  thorax. 
5.  Thofe  whofe  thighs  are  without  teeth  or  fpines,  and 
the  roftrum  (horter  than  the  thorax.  There  are  no 
lefs  than  95  fpecies,  principally  diftinguifhed  by  their 
colour. 

The  larvae  of  the  curculiones  diflfer  not  from  thofe  of 
moft  coleopterous  infeds.  They  bear  a  refemblance 
to  oblcng  foft  worms.  They  are  provided  antetiorly 
with  fi.\  fcaly  legs,  and  their  head  is  likewife  fca'iy. 
But  the  places  where  thofe  larva;  dwell,  and  their  iraiif- 
formations,  afford  fome  fmgiilarities.  Some  fpecies  of 
them,  that  are  dreaded  for  the  mifchief  they  do  in  gra- 
naries, find  means  to  introduce  theinfclves,  while  yet 
fmaU,  into  grains  of  corn,  and  there  make  their  abode. 
It  is  very  dlfhcultio  difcover  them,  as  they  lie  con- 
cealed within  the  grain.  There  they  grow  at  leilure, 
enlarging  their  dwelling-place  as  they  grow,  at  the 
expence  of  the  interior  meal  .of  the  grain  on  which 
they  feed.  Corn-lofts  are  often  laid  wafte  by  thefe 
infeAs,  whofe  numbers  are  fometimes  fo  great  as  to 
devour  and  deftroy  all  the  corn.     When  the  infect, 


B^rrhut  aw 


f  lite  CLt 


after  having  eat  up  the  meal,  is  come  to  its  full  'iii.e,  r"^-  ■>' 
it  remains  within  the  grain,  hidden  under  the  empty  ''  ' 
huflc,  which  fubfifts  alone  ;  and  there  transformed,  it 
becomes  a  chryfalis,  nor  does  it  leave  it  till  a  perfedt 
infeft,  making  its  way  through  the  hufli  of  the  grain. 
It  is  no  eafy  matter  to  difcover  by  the  eye  the  grains 
of  corn  thas  attacked  and  hollowed  out  by  thefe  in- 
fefts,  as  they  outwardly  appear  large  and  full :  but 
the  condition  the  curculio  has  reduced  them  to,  renders 
them  much  lighter  ;  and  if  you  throw  corn  infefted  by 
thefe  infedfs  into  water,  all  the  tainted  grains  wiU 
fwim,  and  the  reft  fink  to  the  bottom.  Other  larvx 
of  curculiones  are  not  fo  fond  of  corn,  but  fix  in  the 
fame  manner  on  feveral  other  feeds.  Beans,  peafe, 
and  lentils,  that  are  preferved  dry,  are  liable  to  be 
fpoiled  by  thefe  little  animals,  which  prey  upon  the 
inward  part  of  the  grain,  where  they  have  taken  up 
their  habitation,  and  do  not  come  forth  till  they  have 
completed  their  transformation,  by  breaking  through 
the  outward  huflc  of  the  grain  :  this  is  difcoverable 
by  cafting  thofe  grains  into  water;  thofe  that  fwim 
are  generally  perforated  by  the  curculiones.  Other 
fpecies  are  lodged  in  the  infide  of  plants.  The  heads- 
of  artichokes  and  thiftles  are  often  bored  through  and 
eaten  away  by  the  larvae  of  large  curculiones.  Ano- 
ther fpecies  fmaller,  but  fingular,  pierces  and  inwardly 
confumes  the  leaves  of  elms.  It  frequently  happens 
that  almoft  all  the  leaves  of  an  elm  appear  yellow,  and 
as  it  were  dead  towards  one  of  their  edges,  while  the 
whole  remainder  of  the  leaf  is  green.  Upon  infpecl- 
ing  thofe  leaves,  the  dead  part  appears  to  form  a  kind 
of  bag  or  fmall  bladder.  The  two  laminae  or  outward' 
pellicles  of  the  leaf,  as  well  above  as  below,  are  en- 
tire, but  diilaat  and  feparated  from  each  other,  whilll 
the  parenchvma  that  lies  between  them  has  been  con- 
fumed  by  ftvcral  fmall  larvK  of  the  curculio,  that  have 
made  themfclves  that  dwelling,  in  which  they  may  be 
met  with.  After  their  transformation  they  come  forth, 
by  piercing  the  kind  of  bladder,  and  give  being  to  a 
curculio  that  is  brown,  fmall,  and  hard  to  catch,  by 

reafon 


CUR 


[     6 


rcafon  of  the  nlmbknefs  with  wlilch  it  leaps.  The  pro- 
perty of  leaping,  allotted  to  tliis  fingle  fpecies,  depends 
on  the  fliape  and  length  of  its  hinder  legs. 

CURCUMA,  TURMERIC  :  A  genus  of  the  mono- 
gyr.ia  order,  belonging  to  the  inonandria  clafs  of 
plants;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
eighth  order,  Scitamities.  It  has  four  barren  lla- 
mina,  with  a  fifth  fertile.     The  fpecies  are, 

I.  The  rotunda,  with  a  round  root,  hath  a  flefhy- 
jointed  root  like  that  of  ginger,  but  round  ;  winch 
fends  up  feveral  fpear-fliaped  oval  leaves,  which  rife 
npwards  of  a  foot  high,  and  of  a  fea-grcen  colour. 
From  between  thefc  arifes  the  flower-ftalk,  fupporting 
a  loofe  fpike  of  flowers  of  a  pale-ycUowifli  colour,  in- 
clofed  in  feveral  diflerent  fpathx,  or  flieaths,  which 
drop  ofF.  The  flowers  are  never  fucceeded  by  feeds 
in  this  country.  2.  The  longa,  hatli  long  fielhy  roots 
of  a  deep  yellow  colour,  which  fpread  under  the  fur- 
face  of  the  ground  like  thofe  of  ginger  ;  they  are  about 
the  thicknels  of  a  man's  finger,  having  many  round 
knotty  circles,  from  which  arife  four  or  five  large  fpear- 
fliaped  leaves,  Handing  upon  long  foot-ilalks.  The 
flowers  grow  in  loofe  fcaly  fpikes  on  the  top  of  the 
foot-ftalks,  which  arife  from  the  larger  knobs  of  the 
roots,  and  grow  about  a  foot  higli ;  they  are  of  a  yel- 
low ilh- red  colour,  and  flfSped  fomewhat  like  thofe  of 
the  Indian  reed. 

Thefe  plants  grow  naturally  in  India,  from  whence 
the  roots  are  brought  to  Europe  for  ufe.  They  are 
very  tender  ;  fo  will  not  live  in  this  country  unlefs  kept 
conllantly  in  a  ftove.  They  are  propagated  by  part- 
ing the  roots.  The  root  communicates  a  beautiful 
but  perifhable  yellow  dye,  with  alum,  to  woollen,  cotr 
ton,  or  linen.  In  medicine  it  is  efteemed  aperient, 
and  emmenagogic;  and  of  Angular  efficacy  in  the 
jaundice. 

CURDISTAN,  a  country  of  Afia,  feated  between 
the  Turkifh  empire  and  Perfia,  lying  along  the  eafl- 
ern  coaft  of  the  river  Tigris,  and  comprehends  great 
part  of  tlie  ancient  AfTyria.  Some  of  the  inhabitants 
live  in  towns  and  villages,  and  others  rove  from  place  . 
to  place,  having  tents  like  the  wild'  Arabs,>  and  are 
alfo  robbers  like  them.  Their  religion  is  paitly  Chrif- 
tian,  and  partly  Mahometanifm  ;  but  they  are  very 
loofe  in  regard  to  either. 

CURDLING,  tlie  coagulating  or  fixing  of  any 
fluid  body;  particularly  milk.   Seethearticle  Cheese. 

Paufanias  fays,  that  Arillsus  fon  of  Apollo,  and  Gy- 
rene daughter  of  the  river  Peneus,  were  the  firll  who 
found  the  fecret  of  cuj-dling  milk. 

At  Florence  they  curdle  their  milk  for  the  making 
of  cheefe  with  artichoke  flowers  ;  in  lieu  of  the  rennet 
ufed  for  the  fame  purpofe  among  us. 

The  Bifaltx,  a  people  of  Macedonia,  Rochfort 
obferves,  live  wholly  upon  curdled  milk,  i.  e.  on 
curds.  He  adds,  that  curds  are  the  whole  food  of  the 
people  of  Upper  Auvcrgne  in  France,  and  whey  their 
only  drink. 

CURETES,  in  antiquity,  a  fort  of  priefts  or 
people  of  the  ifle  of  Crete,  called  alfo  Corybantes.  See 
CoRYBANTEs  and  Crete.  The  Curttes  are  faid  to 
have  been  originally  of  mount  Ida  in  Phrygia ;  for 
which  reafon  they  were  alfo  called  Ide'i  Daityll,  See 
Dactym. 


II     1  CUR 

Lucian  and  Diodorus  Siculus  reprefent  them  aS' very    Curctei' 
expert  in  calling  of  darts  ;  though  other  authors  give         H. 
them  no  weapons  but  bucklers  and  pikes:  but  all  agree     ^"^'i*' 
in  furnifliing  them  with  tabors  and  callanettas;  and  re-  "~*^^'" 
late,  that  they  ufed  to  dance  much  to  the  noife  and 
clafliing  thereof.      By  this  noife,  it  is  faid,  they  pre- 
vented  Saturn  fiom  hearing  the  cries  of  young  Jupiter, 
whereby  he  was  faved  from  being  deftioved. 

Some  authors,  however,  give  a  dilftrcnt  account  of 
the  Curetes.  According  to  Ptzron  and  others,  the- 
Curetes  were,  in  the  times  of  Saturn,  &c.  and  in  the  • 

countries  of  Crete  and  Phrygia,  what  the  druids  were  • 
afterwards  among  the  Gauls,  ike.  ;'.  e.  they  were  prieili 
who  had  the  care  of  what  related  to  religion  and  the- 
worlhip  of  the  gods.     Hence,  as  in  thofe  days  it  was 
fuppoled  there  was  no  communication  with  the  god$  • 
but   by   divinations,    auguries,  and  the  operations  of  ■ 
magic  ;  the  Curetes  palled  for  magicians  and  enchan- 
ters: to  thefe  they  added  the    lludy  of  the  liars,  of 
nature,  and  poefy  ;  and  fo  were  philofophers,  aftrono- 
mers,  &c. 

Voflius,  lie  Idolei.  dillinguiftes  three  kinds  of  Cu- 
retes ;  thofe  of  yEtolia,  thofe  of  Phrygia,  and  thofe  of 
Crete  who  were  originally  derived  from  t)ie  Phry- 
gians. The  firrt,  he  fays,  took  their  name  from  <»(>«. 
ton/lire;  in  regard,  from  the  time  of  a  combat  where-' 
in  tiie  enemy  feized  their  long  iiair,  they  always  kept  ■ 
it  cut.  Thofe  of  Phrygia  and  Crete,  he  fuppofes,  were  ■ 
fo  called  from  »»,"©•,  young  man;  in  regard  they  were 
young,  or  becaufe  they  nurfed  Jupiter  when  he  was 
young. 

CURFEW,'  or  Courfew,  a  fignal  given  in  cities 
taken  .in  war,  &;c.  to  the  inhabitants  to  go  to  bed, 
Pafquin  fays,  it  was  fo  called,  as  being  intended  to  ad- 
vertile  the  people  to  fecure  themfelves  from  the  rob- 
beries and  debaucheries  of  the  night. 

The  moll  eminent  curfew  in  England  was  that  efta- 
bliflied  by  William  the  Conqueror,  who  appointed, 
under  ievere ,  penalties,  that,  at  the  ringing  of  a  bell 
at  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening,  every  one  Ihould  put 
out  their  lights  and  fires  and  go  to  bed :  whence,  to 
this  day,  a  bell  rung  about  that  lime  is  called  a  curjew- 
bdl. 

CURIA,  in  Roman  antiquity,  was  ufed  for  the  fe- 
nate-houfe.  There- were  feveral  curix  in  Rome;  as 
the  curia  calahra,  laid  to  be  built  by  Romulus  ;  the 
curia  boJlUla,  by  Tullas  Holtilius;  and  tht  curia pumpiioy 
by  Pompey  the  Great. 

Curia  alio  denoted  the  places  where  the  curire  ufed  > 
to  affemble.      Each  of  the  30  curiie  of  old  Rome  had 
a  temple  or  chapel  affigned   to  them  fur  tlie  common 
performance   of  their  laerifices,  and   other  offices  of- 
their  religion  ;  fo  that  they  were  not   unlike  our  pa- 
riflies.     Some  remains  of  thefe  little  temples  feem  to  • 
have  fubfilled  many  ages  after  on  the  Palatine-hill, 
where  Romulus  firft  built  the  city,  and  always  relided. 

Curia,  among  the  Romans,  alfo  denoted  a  portion 
or  divilion  of  a  tribe.  In  the  time  of  Romulus,  a  tribe 
conlilled  of  ten  curiae,  or  a  thoufand  men ;  each  curia 
being  one  hundred.  That  legiflator  made  the  firll  di- 
vifion  of  his  people  into  thirty  curiae.  Afterwards, 
curia,  or  tl'jmus  curia/it,  became  ufed  for  the  place 
where  each  curia  held  its  allemblies.  Heuce  alfo 
curia  palled  to  the  fenate-houfe  ;  and  it  is  fiuni  hence 
4  H  2         ,  tlie 


CUR 


[     612     1 


CUR 


the  modtrns  come  to  ufe  die  word  curia,  "  court,"  for 
a  place  of  jultice,  and  for  the  judges,  S:c.  there  af- 
fembled. 

Varro  derives  the  word  frojn  cura,  "  care;"  q.  d.  an 
an'crribly  of  people  charged  wilh  the  care  of  public  af- 
faiis.  Oth^is  deduce  it  from  the  Greeks ;  maintain- 
ing, that  at  Athens  thcv  called  «"?"»  the  place  where 
the  magiftrate  held  his  alTi/.es,  and  the  people  ufed  to 
affeiT.ble  :  «''P"',  again,  may  come  from  «ff'  f,  avthcri- 
ty,  power;  becaufe  it  was  heie  the  laws  were  made. 

Ci-'RiA,  in  our  ancient  cuftoms. — It  was  nfual  for 
the  kings  of  England  to  funimoii  the  bilhops,  peers, 
and  gicat  men  of  the  kingdom,  to  fome  particular 
place,  at  the  chief  feftivals  in  the  year:  and  this  affem- 
bly  is  called  by  our  hiitorians  ith/vV?;  becaufe  there  they 
ccnfulttd  about  the  weiglity  affairs  of  the  nation  : 
whence  it  v/as  fometimcs  alio  called y«i/t7/.'»w  curia,  gene- 
ralii  curlu,  augufiulls  curia ,  ■^Lwd.  cir'ui  pullkci,   tVc.      See 

WiTF.NA-Mot. 

CvRiA  Baronum.      See  Coi'RT-Bnroru 

Curia  Clauthiuhi,  Is  a  writ  that  lies  againft  him  who 
(hould  fence  and  inclofe  the  ground,  but  refufes  or 
defers  to  do  it. 

CURIATII,  three  brothers  of  Alba,  maintained  the 
iiitcrell  of  their  country  againll  the  R<,man6  who  had 
declared  war  againft  tliofe  of  Alba.  The  two  armies 
being  equal,  three  brothers  on  each  fide  were  chofen 
t.o  decide  the  contell ;  the  Curiatii  by  thofe  of  Alba, 
and  the  Horatii  by  the  Romans.  The  three  firil  were 
wounded,  and  two  of  the  latter  killed  :  but  the  third, 
joining  policy  to  valour,  ran  away  ;  and  having  thus 
tired  the  Curiatii,  he  took  them  one  after  another  and 
killed  thtm  all  three. 

CURING,  a  term  ufed  fur  the  prcferving  fifli,  flefh, 
and  other  animal  fubitances,  by  means  of  certain  ad- 
ditions of  things,  to  prevent  putrefaction.  One  great 
method  of  doing  this,  is  by  fmoking  the  bodies  with 
the  fmoke  of  wood,  or  rubbing  them  with  fait,  nitre, 

&.C. 

CURIO,  the  chief  and  piieft  of  a  curia. — Romulus, 
upon  dividmg  the  people  mto  curia;,  gave  each  divifion 
a  chief,  who  was  to  be  priclt  of  that  curia,  under  the 
title  of  curio  m\A  jlumtn  curuilis.  His  bulinefs  was  to 
provide  and  officiate  at  the  facrifices  of  the  curia, 
which  were  called  ciirloriia;  the  curia  furnilhing  him 
with  a  fum  of  money  on  that  confideration,  which  pen- 
fion  or  appointment  was  called  curio/iium.  Each  divi- 
lion  had  the  eleftion  of  its  curia  ;  but  all  thefe  parti- 
cular curios  were  under  the  direftion  of  a  fiiperior  or 
gentral,  called  curio  maxhrtus;  who  was  the  head  of  the 
body,  and  elcfted  by  all  the  curios  aflcmbled  in  the 
comitia  curialis. 

All  thefe  inllitutions  were  introduced  by  Romulus, 
and  confirmed  by  Numa,  aa  Plalitarnaffeus  relates  it. 

CURIOSUS,  an  officer  of  the  Roman  empire  du- 
ring the  middle  age,  appointed  to  take  care  that  no 
frauds  and  irregularities  were  committed  ;  particularly 
no  abufes  in  what  related  to  the  polls,  the  roads,  &c. 
and  to  give  intelligence  to  the  court  of  what  paffed  in 
the  provinces.  This  made  the  curiofi  people  of  im- 
portance, and  put  them  in  a  condition  of  doing  more 
harm  than  they  prevented  ;  on  which  account,  Hono- 
rius  cafliiered  them,  at  leafl  in  fome  parts  of  the  em- 
pire, anno  415. 

The  curiofi  came  pretty  near  to  what  we  call  con- 


trolkrs.     They  had  their  name  from  ctira,  "  car?  ;"    CurTewr 
quod  curls  agetidis  Sjf  evcdionitui  curfus  publict  injpku-ndls  U 

operim  darent.  ^  Current.  ^ 

CURLEW,  in  ornithology.     See  Scolopax.  * 

CURMI,  t  name  given  by  the  ancients  to  a  fort  of 
malt  liquor  or  ale.  It  was  made  of  barley,  and  was 
drunk  by  the  people  of  many  nations  inilead  of  wine, 
according  to  Diofcordes's  account.  He  accufes  it  of 
caufing  pains  in  the  head,  generating  bad  juices,  and 
difordering  the  nervoas  fyllem.  He  alfo  fays,  that 
in  the  weitern  part  of  Iberia,  and  in  Britain,  luch  a 
fort  of  liquor  was  in  his  time  prepared  from  wheat  in- 
Head  of  barley.  ■  See  Ale. 

CURNOCK,  a  meafure  of  corn  containing  four  bu- 
fliels,  or  half  a  quarter. 

CURRANS,  or  Currants,  the  fruit  of  a  fpecies  of 
groffularia.     See  Grossularia. 

The  white  and  red  fort  are  moftly  ufed  ;  for  the 
black,  and  chiefly  the  leaves,  upon  tirft  coming  out, 
are  in  ufe  to  flavour  Englilh  fpirits,  and  counterfeit 
French  brandy.  Currants  greatly  affuage  drought, 
cool  and  fortify  the  ftomach,  and  help  digeition  ;  and 
the  jelly  of  black  currants  is  faid  to  be  very  efTicitcious 
in  curing  inflammatians  of  the  throat. 

Currants  alfo  fignify  a  fmaller  kind  of  grapes, 
brought  principally  from  Zant  and  Cephalonia.  Ihcy 
are  gathered  off  the  buflies,  and  laid  to  dry  in  the  fun, 
and  fo  put  up  in  large  butts.  They  art  opening  and 
peftoral  ;  but  are  more  ufed  in  the  kitchen  than  in 
medicine. 

CURRENT,  or  CouRANT,  a  term  ufed  to  expref* 
the  prefent  time.  Thus  the  year  1790  is  the  cunent 
year,  the  20th  current  is  the  20th  day  of  the  month 
now  running. — With  regard  to  commerce,  the  price 
current  of  any  merchandife  is  the  known  and  ordinary 
price  accuilomcd  to  be  given  for  it.  The  term  is  alfo 
ufed  for  any  thing  that  has  courfe  or  is  received  in 
commerce  ;   in  which  fcnfe  we  fay,  current  coin,  SkC. 

Current,  in  navigation,  a  certain  progreffive  move- 
ment of  the  water  of  the  fea,  by  which  all  bodies 
floating  therein  are  compelled  to  alter  their  courfe  or 
velocity,  or  both,  and  fubmit  to  the  laws  impoled  on 
them  by  the  current. 

In  the  fea,  currents  are  either  natural  and  general, 
as  arifing  from  the  diurnal  rotation  of  the  earth  about 
its  axis  ;  or  accidental  and  particular,-caufed  by  the 
waters  being  driven  againft  promontories,  or  into 
gulphs  and  ftraits,  where,  wanting  room  to  fpread, 
they  are  driven  back,  and  thus  difturb  the  ordinary 
flux  of  the  fea.  Currents  are  various,  and  directed 
towards  different  parts  of  the  ocean,  of  which  fome 
are  conllant,  others  peiiodical.  The  moll  extraordi- 
nary current  of  the  fea,  is  that  by  which  part  of  the 
Atlantic  or  African  Ocean  moves  about  Guinea  from 
Cape  Vcid  towards  the  curvature  or  bay  of  Africa, 
which  they  call  Fernando  Poo;  v/s.  from  weft  to  eaft, 
contrary  10  the  general  motion.  And  fuch  is  the  force 
of  the  current,  that  when  fliips  approach  too  near  the 
(bore,  it  carries  them  violently  towards  that  bay,  and 
deceives  the  manners  in  their  reckoning.  There  is  a 
great  variety  of  fliifting  currents  which  do  not  laft, 
but  return  at  certain  periods  ;  and  thefe  do,  moft  of 
them,  depend  upon  and  follow  the  aaniverfaiy  winds 
or  monfoons,  which  by  blowing  in  one  place  may  caufe 
a  current  in  another.     Vareuius  informs  us,  that  at 

Java, 


CUR 


r  6 


Java,  in  the  ftraits  of  Sunda,  when  the  monfoons 
llow  fium  the  wert,  viz.  in  the  month  ot"  May,  tiie 
currents  fet  to  the  cnlUvaid,  contrary  to  the  general 
iDution.  Between  the  illand  of  Celtlies  and  Madnra, 
when  ihe  weftern  monfoons  fet  iu,  viz.  in  December, 
January,  and  February,  or  wlien  the  winds  blow  fiom 
the  north-wtil;,  or  between  the  north  and  weft,  the 
currents  fet  to  the  fouth  eaft,  or  between  the  iouth 
and  ealt.  At  Ceylon,  from  tlie  middle  of  March  to 
October,  the  currents  fet  to  the  foutlnvard,  and  in 
the  other  parts  ot  the  year  to  the  northward  ;  bicaule 
at  this  time  the  foxitliern  monioons  blow,  and  at 
the  other  the  northern.  Between  Cochin-China  and 
Malacca,  when  the  weilern  monfoons  blow,  liz.  from 
April  to  Auguft,  the  currents  fet  eaftward  againft 
the  general  motion  ;  but  the  reft  of  the  year  they 
fet  wcilvvard,  the  monfoon  conlpiring  with  the  general 
motion.  They  run  io  Itrongly  in  thefe  leas,  that  un- 
experienced failors  miilake  them  for  waves  that  beat 
upon  the  rotks,  know  n  ufually  by  the  name  of  breakers. 
So  for  fomc  ir.onths  after  the  ijih  of  February,  the 
cui  rents  fet  from  the  Maldives  towards  India  on  the  ealt, 
againil  the  general  motion  of  the  fea.  On  the  (liore 
of  China  and  Cambodia,  in  the  months  of  Oftober, 
November,  and  December,  the  currents  fet  to  the 
north-well,  and  from  January  to  the  fouth-weft,  when 
they  run  with  fuch  rapidity  about  the  (hoals  of  Parcel, 
that  they  leem  fwiitcr  than  an  arrow.  At  Pulo  Con- 
dore,  upon  the  coaft  of  Cambodia,  though  the  mon- 
foons are  ihilting,  yet  the  ciirrents  fet  llrongly  to- 
wards the  call,  e/en  when  they  blow  to  a  contrary 
point.  Along  the  coafts  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  as 
far  as  the  Cape  Romania,  at  the  extreme  point  of 
Malacca,  the  current  runs  fouthward  in  November 
and  December.  When  the  monfoons  blow  from  China 
to  Malacca,  the  fea  runs  fwittly  from  Pulo  Cambi  to 
Pulo  Condore  on  the  coall  of  Cambodia.  In  the  Bay 
of  Sans  Bras,  not  far  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Kope, 
there  is  a  current  particularly  remarkable,  where  the 
fea  runs  from  eaft  to  weft  to  the  landward  ;  and  this 
more  vehemently  as  it  is  oppofed  by  winds  from  a 
contrary  dircftion.  The  caufe  is  undoubtedly  owing 
to  fonie  adjacent  Ihore  which  is  higher  than  this.  In 
the  llra:ts  of  Gibraltar,  the  currents  alnioil  couflantly 
drive  to  the  eallward,  and  carry  (hips  into  the  Medi- 
terranean :  they  are  alfo  found  to  drive  the  fame  way 
into  St  George's  channel. 

The  fetting  or  progreffive  motion  of  the  current 
may  be  either  quite  down  to  the  bottom,  or  to  a  cer- 
tain determinate  depth.  _  As  the  knowledge  of  the  di- 
reftion  and  velocity  of  currents  is  a  very  material  ar- 
ticle in  navigation,  it  is  highly  neceflary  to  dilcover 
both,  in  order  to  afcertain  the  (liip's  fituation  and 
courfe  with  as  much  accuracy  as  pollible.  The  msft 
fuccef:.ful  method  which  has  been  hitherto  praclifed 
by  mariners  for  this  purpofe  is  as  follows.  A  com- 
mon iron  pot,  which  may  contain  four  or  live  gallons, 
is  fnfpended  by  a  fiuall  rope  fallened  to  its  ears  or 
handles,  fo  as  to  hang  dirttlly  upright,  as  when  pla- 
ced upon  the  lire.  This  rope,  which  may  be  from 
70  to  100  fathoms  in  length,  being  prepared  for  the 
experiment,  is  coiled  in  the  boat,  which  is  hoifled  out 
of  the  fliip  at  a  proper  opportunity,  when  there  is 
little  or  no  wind  to  ruffle  the  furface  of  the  fea.  The 
put  being  then  thrown  overboard  into  the  water,  aud 


13     ]  CUR 

immediately  finking,  the  line  is  llackened  till  about  70 
or  80  fathoms  of  tlie  line  run  out ;  after  which  the 
line  is  failened  to  the  boat's  ftern,  by  which  Ihe  is  ac- 
coidinnly  rell rained,  and  rides  as  at  an  anchor.  The 
velocity  of  the  current  is  then  ealily  tried  by  the  log 
and  haJf-minute  glafs,  the  ufual  method  of  difcovering 
the  rate  of  a  Ihip's  failing  at  fea.  The  courfe  of  the 
ftream  is  next  obtained  by  the  compafs  provided  for 
this  operation.  Having  thus  found  the  fetting  and 
drift  of  the  current,  it  next  remains  to  apply  this  ex- 
periment to  the  purpofes  of  NiViGAriOM  ;  for  which 
fee  that  article. 

UnJcr-CvKkRS'TS  are  diftinA  from  the  upper  or  ap- 
parent, and  in  diiTerent  places  fet  or  drive  a  con- 
trary way.  Dr  Smith  makes  it  highly  probable,  that 
in  the  Downs,  in  the  ftraits  of  Gibraltar,  &c. ' 
there  is  an  under-current,  whereby  as  much  water  is 
carried  out  as  is  brought  in  by  the  upper-currents. 
This  he  argues  from  the  ofling  between  the  north  and 
fouth  Foreland,  where  it  runs  tide  and  half-tide,  i.e. 
it  is  either  ebb  or  flood  in  that  part  of  the  Downs  three 
hours  before  it  is  fo  off  at  fea  :  a  certain  fign,  that 
though  the  tide  of  flood  runs  aloft,  yet  the  tide  of 
ebb  runs  under-foot,  i.  e.  clofe  by  the  ground  ;  and  fo 
at  the  tide  of  ebb  it  will  flow  under-foot.  This  he 
confirms  by  an  experiment  in  the  Baltic  Sound,  com- 
municated to  him  by  an  able  feaman  prcfcnt  at  ths 
making  it.  Being  there  then  with  one  of  the  king's 
frigates,  they  went  with  their  pinnace  into  the  mid- 
ftrcam,  and  were  carried  violently  by  the  current. 
Soon  after  that,  they  funk  3  balket  with  a  large  cannon 
bullet  to  a  certain  depth  of  water,  which  gave  check 
to  the  boat's  motion  ;  and  linking  it  ftill  lower  and 
lower,  the  boat  was  driven  a-hcad  to  the  windward 
againft  the  upper  current,  the  curient  aloft  not  being 
above  four  or  live  fathom  deep.  He  added,  that  the 
lower  the  baiket  was  let  down,  the  Itronger  the  under 
current  was  found. 

From  this  principle,  it  is  eafy  to  account  for  that 
continual  in-draught  of  water  out  of  the  Atlantic  into 
the  Mediterranean  through  the  ftraits  of  Gibraltar, 
a  palTage  about  20  miles  broad  ;  yet  without  any  fen- 
fible  riling  of  the  water  along  the  coafts  of  Barbary,  &r. 
or  any  ovci flowing  of  tlie  lands,  which  there  lie  very 
low. —  Dr  Halley,  however,  folvcs  the  cuneuts  fetting 
in  at  the  llraits  without  overflowing  the  banks  by. 
the  great  evaporation,  without  fuppofing  any  under- 
current. 

CURRICULUS,  in  our  ancient  writers,  denolfs 
the  year  or  courfe  of  a  year.  A£lum  ejl  hoc  aunorunt 
UominiCiH  incarnalioitts  quater  ^mnquii^ints  ts"  quiuquifr, 
quiiiis  hjlris,  lij  tribus  curriculus ;  i.  e.  In  the  year  102S; 
for  four  times  fifty  makes  two  hundred,  aud  five  times 
two  hundred  makes  one  thoufand ;  five  luftres  are 
twenty-five  years,  and  three  curricuh  are  three  years. 

CURRIERS,  thole  who  drefs  and  colour  leathci- 
after  it  comes  from  the  tan-yard.      See  Tanning. 

CURRODREPANUS  (formed  of  currus,  "  cha- 
riot," and  <!fiT...o»,  <•  fcythc"  or  "  fickle"),  in  anti- 
quity, a  kind  of  chariot  armed  with  feythes.  The 
driver  of  thefe  cliariots  was  obliged  to  ride  on  one  of 
the  horfes,  as  there  was  no  other  feat  for  him  ;  the 
ufual  place  for  him  'oeing  all  amied  with  knives,  aa 
was  likewife  the  hinder  pait  of  the  chariot.  There 
were  no  feythes  pointing  down  to  the  earth  either 

iJCQta 


Cuffnt 

II 

Currodre- 

panus. 


CUR 


I     614     1 


CUR 


Currviiig,  from  the  beam  or  axle-tree  ;  but  thefe  were  fixed  at 
Curfing.  jjjg  head  of  the  axle-tree  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  be 
'"""  moveable  by  means  of  a  rope,  and  thereby  could  be 
raifed  or  let  down,  and  drawn  forward  or  let  fall  back- 
ward, by  relaxing  the  rope. 

CURRYING,  the  method  of  preparing  leather  with 
oil,  tallow,  &c. 

The  chief  bufinefs  is  to  fof'.en  and  fiipple  cow  and 
calve-fliins,  which  make  the  upper-leathers  and  quar- 
ters of  fhoes,  covering  of  faddles,  coaches,  and  other 
things  which  muft  keep  out  water.  1.  Thefc  fliins, 
after  coming  from  the  tanner's  yard,  having  many 
flefhy  fibres  on  them,  the  currier  foaks  them  fome 
time  in  common  water.  2.  He  takes  them  out  and 
fttetches  them  on  a  very  even  wooden  horfe  ;  then 
■with  a  paring-knife  he  fcrapes  off  all  the  fupevfl uous 
flefh,  and  puts  them  in  to  foak  again.  3.  He  puts 
them  wet  on  a  hurdle,  and  tramples  them  with  his 
heels  till  they  begin  to  grow  foft  and  pliant.  4.  He 
foaks  thereon  train-oil,  which  by  its  unfluous  quality 
is  the  beft  liquor  for  this  purpofe.  5.  He  fpreads  them 
on  large  tables,  and  faftcns  them  at  the  ends.  There, 
with  the  help  of  an  inllrument  called  s.  pummel,  which 
is  a  thick  piece  of  wood,  the  under-fide  of  which  is 
full  of  furrows  crofling  each  other,  he  folds,  fquares, 
and  moves  them  forwards  and  backwards  feveral  times, 
under  the  teeth  of  this  inftrument,  which  breaks  their 
too  great  ftiffnefs.  This  is  what  is  properly  called 
'  {urrying.  The  order  and  number  of  thefe  operations 
is  varied  by  different  curriers,  but  the  material  part  is 
always  the  fame.  6.  After  the  flv'ins  are  curried,  there 
may  be  occafion  to  colour  them.  The  colours  are 
black,  white,  red,  yellow,  green,  S:c.  the  other  co- 
lours are  given  by  the  Hcinners,  who  differ  from  cur- 
riers In  this,  that  they-apply  their  colours  on  the  fleHi 
fide  ;  the  curriers  on  the  hair  fide.  In  order  to  whiten 
ftins,  they  are  rubbed  with  lumps  of  chalk  or  white- 
lead,  and  afterwards  with  pumice-ftone.  7.  When  a 
flcin  is  to  be  made  black,  after  having  oiled  and  dried  it, 
he  pafles  over  it  a  puff  dipt  in  water  impregnated  with 
iron  ;  and  after  his  firft  wetting,  he  gives  it  another  in 
a  water  prepared  witli  foot,  vinegar,  and  gum-arabic. 
Thefe  different  dyes  gradually  turn  the  (kin  black,  and 
the  operations  are  repeated  till  it  be  of  a  fhining  black. 
The  grain  and  wrinkles,  which  con,tribute  to  the  fup- 
plenefs  of  calves  and  cows  leather,  are  made  by  the 
reiterated  folds  given  to  the  fl:in  in  ever)'  direftion, 
and  by  the  care  taken  to  fcrape  off  all  hard  parts  on 
the  colour  fide. 

CURSING  AND  Swearing,  an  offence  againft 
God  and  religion,  and  a  fin  of  all  others  the  moil  extra- 
vagant and  unaccountable,  as  having  no  benefit  or  ad- 
vantage attending  it.  By  the  laft  ftatute  againft  this 
»  crime,  19  Geo.  II.  which  repeals  all  former  ones,  es'ery 
labourer,  failor,  or  foldier,  profanely  curfing  or  fwear- 
ing,  fhaU  forfeit  I  s.  ;  every  other  perfori  under  the 
rank  of  a  gentleman,  2  s. ;  and  every  gentleman  or 
perfon  of  fuperior  rank,  5  s.  to  the  poor  of  the  parilh; 
and,  on  a  fecond  conviftion,  double  ;  and,  for  every 
fubfequent  offence,  treble  the  fum  firft  forfeited,  with 
all  charges  of  conviAion  :  and,  in  default  of  payment, 
iliall  be  fent  to  tlie  hoiife  of  correflion  for  10  days. 
Any  juftice  of  the  peace  may  convift  upon  his  own 
tearing,   or  the  telliiuuny  ci  cne  witne's ;    and  any 


conilable  or  peace  officer,  upon  his  own  hearing,  may    Ciirfitnf 
focure   any  offender  and  carry  him  before  a  juftice,  II 

and  there  convift  him.  If  the  juftice  omitj  his  duty,  ^-"f'"^"' 
he  forfeits  5I.  and  the  conftable  40  s.  And  the  aft  is  ^~~/~~~' 
to  be  read  in  all  parifh  churches  and  public  chapels  the 
Sunday  ^fter  every  quarter-day,  on  pain  of  5I.  to  be 
levied  by  warrant  from  any  juftice.  Befides  this  pu- 
niflimeiit  for  taking  God's  name  in  vain  in  common 
difcourfe,  it  is  enafted,  by  flat.  3.  Jac.  I.  c.  21.  that  if 
in  any  ftage-play,  interlude,  or  Ihow,  the  name  of  the 
Holy  Trinity,  or  any  of  the  perfons  therein,  be  jeft- 
ingly  or  profanely  ufed,  the  offender  fliall  forfeit  lol. ; 
one  moiety  to  the  kiiig,  and  the  other  to  the[informer. 

CURSITOR,  a  clerk  belonging  to  the  court  of 
chancery,  whofe  bufmcfs  it  is  to  make  out  original  writs. 
In  the  ftatute  iS  Edw.  III.  they  are  called  c/fri/ 0/" 
courfe,  and  are   24  in  number,  making  a  corporation  * 

of  themfelves.  To  each  of  them  is  allowed  a  divifion 
of  certain  counties,  into  which  they  iffue  out  the  origi- 
nal writs  required  by  the  fubjeft. 

CURTATE  DISTANCE,  in  aftronomy,  the  diftance 
of  a  planet  from  the  fun  to  that  point,  where  a  per- 
pendicular let  fall  from  the  planet  meets  with  the 
ecliptic. 

CURTATIGN,  in  aftroHomy,  is  the  interval  be- 
tween a  planet's  diftance  from  the  fun  and  the  cur- 
tate diftance. 

CURTEYN,  CuRTAvA,  was  the  name  of  Edward 
the  Confeffor's  fword,  which  is  the  firil  fword  carried 
before  the  kings  of  England  at  their  coronation  ; 
and  it  is  faid  the  point  of  it  is  broken  as  an  emblem  of 
mercy. 

CURTIN,  Curtain,  or  Courlin,  in  fortification, 
IS  that  part  of  the  rampart  of  a  place  which  is  betwixt 
the  flanks  of  two  baftions,  boidered  with  a  parapet 
five  feet  high,  behind  which  the  foldiers  ftand  to  tire 
upon  the  covered  way  and  into  the  moat. 

CURTIUS  (Marcus),  a  Roman  youth,  who  de- 
voted himfelf  to  the  gods  manes  for  the  fafety  of  his 
country,  about  360  years  before  the  Auguftan  age.  A 
wide  gap  had  fuddenly  opened  in  the  forum,  and  the 
oracle  had  faid  that  it  never  would  clofe  before  Rome 
threw  into  it  whatever  it  had  moft  precious.  Curtius 
immediately  perceived  that  no  lefs  than  an  human  fa- 
crifice  was  required.  He  armed  hirafelf,  mounted  his 
horfe,  and  folemnly  threw  himfelf  into  the  gulf,  which 
inftantly  clofed  over  his  head. 

CfRTius  (Q^'intus),  a  Latin  hiftorian  who  wrote 
the  life  of  Alexander  the  Great  in  10  books,  of  which 
the  two  firft  are  not  indeed  extant,  but  are  fo  well 
fuppliod  by  Freinfhemius,  that  the  iofs  is  fcarcely  re- 
gretted. Where  this  writer  was  born,  or  even  when 
he  lived,  are  points  no  one  pretends  to  know.  By  his 
ftyle  he  is  fuppofed  to  have  lived  in  or  near  tha  Au- 
guftan age  ;  while  fome  are  not  wanting,  who  ima- 
gine the  woik  to  have  been  conpofed  in  I'aly  about 
300  years  ago,  and  the  name  of  ^/.v;,'uj  Curtius  to  be 
iiditioully  added  to  it.  Cardinal  du  Perron  was  fo  gieat 
an  admirer  of  this  work,  as  to  declare  one  page  of  it 
to  be  worth  30  of  Tacitus  i  yet  M.  le  Clerc,  at  the 
end  of  his  Art  of  Criticifm,  has  charged  the  writer 
with  great  ignorance  and  many  contradiftions.  He 
has  nsvertlielefs  many  qualities  as  a  writer,  which  will 
always  make  him  admired  and  applauded. 

'  CUR. 


\ 


CUR 


[     615     ] 


c   u   s 


:ufVBt«re       CURVATURE  OF  a  Line,  18  the  peculiar  man- 

U         ner  of  its  bending  or  flexure,  by  wliich  it  becomes  a 

Cu''^"-     curve  <if  luch  and  fuch  peculiar  propeities. 

-     '  CURVE,  in  geometry,    a  line  which  running  on 

continuitlly  in  all  direftions,  may  be  cut  by  one  right 

line  in  mrve  points  than  one.     See  Conic  SECTiOiNS 

and  Fluctions. 

CURVET,  or  CoRVET,  in  the  manege,  an  air  in 
which  iht  horfe's  legs  are  raifed  higher  than  in  the 
demi  volt;  being  a  kind  of  leap  up,  and  a  little  for- 
wards, wherein  the  horfe  raifes  both  his  fore-legs  at . 
once,  eq-ially  advanced,  (vi/hen  he  is  going  ftraight 
^■■rward,  and  not  in  a  circle),  and  as  his  fore-legs  are 
falling,  he  immediately  raifes  his  hind-legs,  equally  ad- 
vanced, and  not  one  before  the  other;  fo  that  all  his 
four  legs  are  in  the  air  at  once  ;  and  as  he  fets  them 
down,  he  marks  but  twice  with  them. 

CURVILINEAR,  or  Curvilineal,  is  faid  of  fi- 
,  gures  bo'jnd.^d  'ox  cirves  or  crooked  lines. 

CURVIROSTR/\,  in  ornithology.     See  LoxiA. 

CURULE  CHAIR,  111  Roman  antiquity,  a  chair  a- 
ddrned  with  ivory,  wherein  the  great  magiftrates  of 
Rome  had  a  right  to  fit  and  be  carried. 

The  curule  magiftrates  were  the  a»diles,  the  prae- 
tors, cenfors,  and  confuls.  This  chair  was  fitted  in  a 
kind  of  chariot,  whence  it  had  its  name.  The  fena- 
tors  VL'ho  had  borne  the  offices  of  aediles,.  prseiors,  &c. 
were  carried  to  the  fenate-hoiii.'  in  this  chaii,  as  were 
alfo  thofe  who  trinmphed,  and  fuch  as  went  to  admi- 
niller  juilice,  &c.     St-e^DiLE,  &c. 

CURZOLA,  an  iflnnd  in  the  gulf  of  Venice,  lying 
on  the  coaft  of  Dalmatia.  It  is  about  20  miles  long, 
and  has  a  fmall  rowu  of  the  fame  name,  with  a  bi/liop's 
fee.  It  belongs  to  the  Venetians.  E.  Long.  17.  ij. 
N.  Lat.  43   6. 

CUSA  (Nicholas  de),  a  learned  cardinal,  born  of 
■^  mean  parentage,  and  named  fiom  Cufa,  the  place  of 
his  birth.  He  was  made  a  cardinal  in  1448  ;  and  be- 
ing appointed  governor  of  Rome  by  Pope  Pius  II.  du- 
ring his  abfence  at  Mantua,  he  was  the  chief  concer- 
ter  and  manager  of  the  war  againft  the  Tiiiks.  He 
founded  a  church,  and  a  noble  library  of  Greek  and 
Latin  authors,  at  Cufa;  and  left  many  excellent  works 
behind  him,  which  were  collefted  and  pviblifhed  in  three 
volumes  at  Bafil  in  1565.  In  thefe  he  has  made  no 
fcruple  to  deleft  the  lying  traditions  and  fophiftries  of 
the  Roman  church. 

CUSCO,  a  large  and  handfome  town  of  South  A- 
merica  in  Peru,  formerly  the  refidence  of  the  Incas. 
It  is  feated  at  the  fo.  t  of  a  mountain,  and  is  built  in  a 
fquare  form,  in  the  middle  of  which  there  is  the  beft 
market  in  all  America.  Four  large  flreets  terminate  in 
this  fquare,  whi^h  arc  all  as  ftraight  as  a  '.  ne,  and  re- 
gard the  four  quarters  of  the  world.  The  Spaniards 
tell  us  wonderful  things  of  the  richnefs  of  the  Inca's 
palace,  and  of  the  temple  of  the  fun  ;  but  more  fober 
travellers,  judging  from  what  remains,  think  mTft  of 
them  to  be  fabulous.  At  prcfent  it  contains  eight  large 
parifhes,  and  five  religious  houfes  the  bed  of  which 
belongs  to  the  Jefuits  ;  and  the  number  of  the  inhabi- 
tants may  be  about  50,000,  of  wliich  three-fourihs  are 
the  original  natives,  Americans.  From  this  town  there 
is  a  very  long  road,  w'hich  runs  along  the  Cordeleim; 
and,  at  certain  diftances,  there  arc  fniall  houfes  for 
refting- places,  fome  parts  of  which  are  fo  attiticially 


wrought,  that  it  is  furprifing  how  a  people  who  had 
no  iron  tools  could  perform  fuch  workmanfliip.  There 
are  ftrearas  of  water  run  through  the  town,  which  are  a 
great  convenience  in  fo  hot  a  country  where  it  never 
rains.  It  is  375  miles  eaft  of  Lima.  W.  Long.  74.  37. 
S.  Lat.  13.  o. 

CUSCUTA,  noDDER  :  a  genus  of  the  digynia  or- 
der, belonging  to  the  tetrandria  clafs  of  plants  ;  and 
ill  the  natural  method  ranking  under  thote  of  which 
the  order  is  doubtful.  The  calyx  is  quadrifid  ;  the  co- 
rolla monopet;dou3 ;  the  capfule  bilocular.  There 
are  two  fpecies  ;  one  of  which  is  a  native  of  Britain, 
viz.^  the  Europsea,  dodder,  hell-weed,  or  devil's  guts. 
This  is  a  very  lingular  plant,  almoll  dcititutc  of  leaves, 
parafitical,  creeping,  fixing  itfelf  to  whatever  is  next 
to  it.  It  decays  at  the  root,  and  afterwards  is  nou- 
nlhed  by  the  plant  which  fupport;,  it.  Hops,  flax, 
and  nettles,  are  its  common  fupport  ;  but  principally 
the  common  nettle.  Its  l)lofronis  are  white.  As  footv 
as  the  Ihoots  have  twined  about  an  adjacent  plant,  they 
fend  out  from  their  inner  furface  a  number  of  little 
veficles  or  papilla-,  which  attach  themfelves  to  the 
bark  or  rind  of  the  plant.  By  degrees  the  longitudi- 
nal vefiels  of  the  ftalk,  which  appear  to  have  accom- 
panied the  veficles,  (hoot  from  their  extremities,  and 
make  their  way  into  the  fofter  plant,  by  dividing  the 
veffels  and  infuniating  themfelves  into  the  tendercll 
part  of  the  italk  ;  and  fo  intimately  are  they  united 
with  it,  that  it  is  eafier  to  break  than  to  difengage 
them  from  it.  The  whole  plant  is  bitter.  It  affords 
a  pale  reddifh  colour.  Cows,  flicep,  and  fwiue,  eat 
it  ;  horfes    refufe  it  ;  goats  are  not  fond  of  it. 

CUSH,  the  eldeit  fon  of  Ham,  and  father  of  Nim- 
tod  ;  the  other  fons  of  Culh  were  Scba,  Havilah,  Sab- 
tah,  Raamah,  andSabtecha.  Gen.  x.  6— 8.  Though- 
we  know  of  no  other  perfon  of  fcripture  that  is  called 
by  this  name,  yet  there  arc  feveral  countries  that  are 
called  by  it ;  whether  the  fame  man  may  have  dwelt 
in  them  all  at  different  times,  or  that  there  were  fome 
other  men  of  this  name,  we  are  ignerant. 

The  Vulgate,  Se^luagint,  and  other  interpreters, 
both  ancient  and  modern,  generally  tranflate  Culh, 
Ethiopia :  but  there  are  many  paflages  wherein  this 
tranflation  cannot  take  place. 

C'ufli  is  the  name  of  the  country  watered  by  the 
Araxes.  They  who  in  tranflating  the  fituation  of 
Eden,  have  made  Cufo  Ethiopia,  gave  rife  to  that 
unwarrantable  opinion  which  Jofephus  and  feveral  o-- 
thers  have  entertained  of  the  river  Gihon's  being  the 
Nile.  In  this  place  (Gen.  ii.  13.)  the  LXX  tranfla- 
tion renders  the  word  Cu/h  by  the  name  of  Ethiopia  ; 
and  in  this  iniftake  is  not  only  here  followed  by  our 
Englifh  veriion,  but  in  the  fame  particular  in  feveral 
ether  places. 

Cuth  is  the  fameas  Cufh.  The  Chaldecs  generally 
put  the  tau  where  the  Hebrews  ufe  the  Ji/;in:  they  fay 
cul/j,  inttcad  of  aiflj.     See  Cuth. 

But  Ethiopi,i  is  frequently  in  the  Hibrev/  called 
Cujb  ;  and  Jofephus  fays,  th.nt  they  c;.iled  themfelves 
by  this  name,  and  that  the  fame  name  was  given  them 
by  all  Afia.  St  Jerom  tells  us,  that  the  Hebrews  call 
the  Ethiopians  by  the  fame  name,  and  the  Septuagint- 
give  them  nt'uther.  Jeremiah  (xiii.  23.)  fays,  "  Can 
the  Cufharan,  or  Ethiopian,  c!ian>re  his  colour."  In; 
Ezeklel    (xxi.\.  10.)   the    Lord    thr'tateus   to    reduce 

•<  Egygt 


Cufcuta, 

Cum. 


c  u  s 


[     6 


CuP.tien 

-        II 
•C'lOom 
and  Haliit. 


"  ^gypt  *°  ^  defart,  from  the  tover  of  Syene  even 
urito  the  border  of  Cu(h,  or  Ethiopia  ;"  and  in  Ifaiah, 
(xi.  1  r.)  he  fays,  "  he  will  recover  tlie  remnant  of  his 
people,  which  fhall  be  left  from  Affyria,  and  from 
Egypt,  and  Pathros,  and  from  Cuih."  AH  thefe  marks 
agree  with  Ethiopia  properly  fo  called,  Mhich  lies  to 
the  foiith  of  Egvpt. 

r>ochart  has  thown  very  clearly  that  there  was  a 
country  called  "  the  lemd  of  Cvfh"  in  Arabia  Petra?3, 
bordering-  upon  Egypt  ;  that  this  country  extended 
ilfelf  principally  upon  the  caflern  fhore  of  the  Red- 
Kea,  and,  at  its  extremity,  to  the  point  of  this  fea,  in- 
clining towards  Egypt  and  Palciliiie. 

Thus  there  are  three  countries  of  the  name  of  Cufh, 
tlefcribed  in  fcripture,  and  all  confounded  by  interpre- 
ters under  the  gcneial  name  of  Ethiopia. 

CUSHION,  in  engraving,  is  a  bag  of  leather  filkd 
with  fand,  commonly  about  nine  inches  fquare,  and 
three  or  four  thick,  ufed  for  fupporting  the  plate  to  be 
engraved. 

CusKiON,  in  gilding,  is  made  of  leather,  faftened  to 
a  fquare  board,  from  14  inches  fqnare  to  10,  with  a 
handle.  The  vacuity  between  the  leather  and  board 
is  fluffed  with  fine  tow  or  wool,  fo  that  the  outer  fur- 
face  mav  be  flat  and  even.  It  is  ufed  for  receiving  the 
leaves  of  gold  from  the  paper,  in  order  to  its  being 
cut  into  proper  fizes  and  figures. 

CUSI,  in  natmal  hiftory,  a  name  given  by  the 
people  of  the  Philippine  iflands  to  a  very  fmall  and 
very  beautiful  fpecies  of  parrot. 

CUiSP,  cufp'is,  properly  denotes  the  point  of  a  fpear 
or  fword  ;  but  is  ufed  in  ailronomy  to  exprefs  the 
points  or  horns  of  the  moon,   or  any  other  huninary. 

Cusp,  in  aftrology,  is  ufed  for  the  firft  point  of  each 
of  the  12  houfes,  in  a  figure  or  fcheme  of  the  hea- 
vens.    See  House. 

CUSPIDATED,  in  botany,  are  fuch  plants  whofe 
leaves  are  pointed  like  a  fpear. 

CUSPINIAN(John),  a  German,  was  bornatSu-ein- 
furt  in  1473  ;  and  died  at  Vienna  in  1529.  He  was 
firft  phyfician  to  the  emperor  Ma.\:milian  I.  and  em- 
ployed by  that  prince  in  feveral  delicate  negotiations. 
We  have  of  his  in  Latin,  l.  A  hiftory  of  the  Roman 
emperors  from  Julius  Casfar  to  the  death  of  Maximi- 
lian I.  Degory  Whcare,  in  his  Metlmdus  Legeiid/e 
Ni/lorice,  calls  this  "  lucukntum  fane  opus,  $5°  omnium  kc- 
tinre  dijrm^iimim.''''  2.  An  hiftory  of  Auftria  ;  being  a 
kind  of  continuation  of  the  preceding.  3.  An  hitlory 
of  the  origin  of  the  Tmks,  and  of  their  cruelties  to- 
wards Cliriftians.  Gerard  Voilius  calls  Cufpinian 
viagmim  fun  avo  hi/loriit  lumtn. 

Cl^STOM,  a  very  comprehenfive  term,  denoting 
the  manners,  ceremonies,  and  fafhions,  of  a  people, 
which  having  turned  into  a  habit,  and  paffed  into  ufe, 
obtain  the  force  of  laws  ;  in  which  fenfe  it  implies 
fuch  ufages,  as,  though  voluntary  at  firll,  are  yet  by 
praftice  become  neceflary. 

Cuftom  is  hence,  both  by  lawyers  and  civilians',  de- 
fined hx  noil  fcr'ipta,  "  a  law  or  right  not  written," 
t'ftablilhed  by  long  ufage,  and  the  confent  of  our  an- 
ceftors  :  in  which  fenfe  it  Hands  oppofed  to  the  lex 
fcripta,  or  "  the  written  law."  See  Law,  Part  II. 
■"  38—41. 

GvsTOM  and  Hah'it,  in  the  human  economy.  The 
former  is  often  confounded  with  the   latter.     By  at- 

N"  96. 


16    ]  c    u    s 

Jtmi  we  mean  a  frequent  reiteration  of  the  fame  aft  ;     rnftom 
and  by  hahit,  the  ctted   that  cuftom  has  on  the  m.ind  ^''^  Hahit 
or  body.     This  curious  fubjedl  falls  to  be  confidered         ^     ~ 
firft  in  a  moral,  and  fecondly  in  a  phyfical,  light. 

■  I.  Iiiflueiice  of  CuJIom  and  Habit  on  the  Mind,   &c. 
Cuftom   hath  fuch   influence  upon  many  of  our  feel- 
ings, by  warping  and  varying  them,  that   its  opera- 
tions demand   tlie   attention  of  all  who  would  be  ac- 
quainted with  human  nature.      The  fubj;;r.t,  however,  j^-j/otw'/ 
is  intricate.      Some  pleafures  are  fortified   by  cuftom  :  EU'rvntsnf 
and  yet   cuftom  begets  familiarity,  and  confequentlv '-"""./''• 
indilference  : 

If  ail  the  year  were  pla;  ing  Iioli.^ay?, 

To  fport  would  be  as  re<ii(njs  as  ro  \'  orfc  ; 

But  wlien  rluy  fcldi'm  c  mie.  they  widiM-for  omc, 

And  nothing  picafeth  hut  rare  accidents.  Shui-Jh. 

In  many  inftances,  fatiety  and  difguft  are  the  confe- 
quences  of  reiteration  :  again,  though  cuftom  blunts 
the  edge  of  diftrefs  and  of  pain  ;  yet  the  want  of  any 
thing  to  which  we  have  been  long  accuftomed  Is  a  foit 
of  toiture.  A  clue  fo  guide  us  through  all  the  intri- 
cacies of  this  labyrinth,  would  be' an  acceptable  pre- 
fent. 

Whatever  be  the  caufe,  it  is  certain  tliat  we  arc 
much  influenced  by  cuftom  :  it  hath  an  effect  upon 
our  pleafures,  upon  our  actions,  and  even  upon  onr 
thoughts  and  fentiments.  Habit  makes  no  figure  du- 
ring the  vivacity  of  youth  :  in  middle  age  it  gain* 
ground  ;  and  in  old  age  governs  without  control.  In 
that  period  of  life,  generally  fpeaking,  we  eat  at  a 
certain  hour,  take  exercife  at  a  certain  hour,  go  to 
reft  at  a  certain  hour,  all  by  the  direction  of  habit  : 
nay,  a  particular  feat,  table,  bed,  comes  to  be  effen- 
tial ;  and  a  habit  in  any  of  thefe  cannot  be  controlled 
without  uneafinefs. 

Any  flight  or  moderate  pleafure,  frequently  reite- 
rated for  a  long  time,  forms  a  peculiar  connection  be-  -o 
tween  us  and  the  thing  that  caufes  the  pleafure.  This 
connexion,  termed  habit,  has  the  effeft  to  awaken  om- 
defire  or  appetite  for  that  thing  when  it  returns  not 
as  ufual.  During  the  courfe  of  enjoyment,  tlie  p!ea- 
fin-e  rifes  infenfilily  higher  and  higher  till  a  habit  be 
eftablilhed;  at  which  time  the  pleafure  is  at  its  lieight. 
It  continues  not,  however,  ftationar)'  :  the  fame  cu- 
ilomary  reiteration  which  carried  it  to  its  height, 
brings  it  down  again  by  iifenfible  degrees,  even  low- 
er than  it  was  at  firft;  but  of  that  circumftance  after- 
ward. What  at  prefent  we  have  in  view,  is  to  prove 
by  experiments,  that  thofe  things  which  at  firft  are 
but  moderately  agreeable,  are  the  apteft  to  become 
habitual.  Spirituous  liquors,  at  firft  fcarce  agreecable, 
readily  produce  an  habitual  appetite  :  and  cutbim  pre- 
vails fo  far,  as  even  to  make  r.s  fond  of  things  origi- 
nally dlfagreeable,  fuch  as  coffee,  affafostlda,  and  to- 
bacco. 

A  walk  upon  the  quarter-deck,  though  intolerably 
confined,  becomes  however  lo  agreeable  by  cuftom, 
that  a  fallor  in  his  walk  on  (hore  confines  himfclf  com- 
monly within  the  fame  bounds.  The  author  knew  a 
man  who  had  rellnquiftied  the  fea  for  a  country-life  : 
in  the  corner  of  his  garden  he  reared  an  artificial 
mount  with  a  level  fumralt,  rtfembling  moft  accurately 
a  quarter-deck,  not  only  In  Ihape  but  in  fize  ;  and 
here  he  generally  walked.  In  Minorca  governor 
Kane  made  an  excellent  road  the  whole  length  of  tlie 

iiland ; 


c  u   s  [   617   ]  r:   u   s 

Cuflom    iflanJ  ;  and  yet  the  inhabitants  adhere  to  tlie  old  road,     lity,  grows   Into   ihc  habit   of  averfion,  which   com-     Oifloni 

»ml  Habit.  il,(„,jrh  not  only  longer,  but  extremely  bad.     Play  or     iiionly  fnbfiftci  for  life.  '"'"'  H'^'t' 

'"     '  R^'niiig,  at   firlt  barely  amufiiig  by  the  occnpnlioii   it  Objefts  of  laltc  tiiat  arc  delicious,  far  from  tending  *"""* 

iiffonls,  becomes  in  time  extremely  agreeable  ;  and  is     to  become  habitiicd,  are  apt  by  indulgence  to  pioduce 

irequently  profccuted  with  avidity,  as  if  it   were  the     fatiety  and  diigiill  :   no  man  contraa^  a  habit   of  fu- 

gar,  honey,  or  fweet-mcats,  as  he  doth  of  tobacco. 


Thofr"  violent  delights  have  violent  ends, 

A  111  in  their  triiimiihs  ('.if.     'I'lic  fwcctufl.  honey 

Isloathlnnioin  it^  own  ilc  icii)ufii<;f,, 

And  in  the  taftf  co  foumls  the  .i|n  etitc  ; 

'i  hcrefore  love  nioU'ratoly,  long  love  doth  f , ; 

'IVo  IwSt  ariivtb  a^  tardy  as  too  (lov. . 

Romeo  and  'Juliet ^  ail  %  fe.  6. 


cliicf  bulinefs  of  life.  The  fame  obfervatioii  is  appli- 
cable to  the  pleafures  of  the  internal  fenfes,  thofe  of 
knowledge  and  virtue  in  particular ;  childrtu  have 
fcarce  any  fenfe  of  ihefe  pleafures  ;  and  mtn  very 
■little  who  are  in  the  ilate  of  nature  without  culture  : 
our  talte  for  virtue  and  knowledge  improves  flowly  ; 
but  is  capable  of  growing  (Ironger  than  any  other  ap- 
petite in  human  naltire. 

To  introduce  an  aftive  habit,  frequency  of  afts  is  The  fame  obfervation  holds  with  refpcft  to  all  objeAs 
not  fufhcicnt  without  length  of  time  :  the  quickcft  fuc-  that  being  extremely  agreeable  raife  violent  paiTions! 
ceflion  of  arts  in  a  (liort  time  is  not  fufficient ;  nor  a  fuch  paffions  ^re  incompatible  witli  a  habit  of  any  fort ; 
flow  fiicceflion  in  the  longeft  time.  The  elfedl  mull  and  in  particular  they  never  produce  affcilion  nor  3- 
be  produced  by  a  moderate  foft  a£lion,  and  a  long  fe-  verfion  :  a  man  who  at  firll  fight  falls  violently  in 
ries  of  eafy  touches,  removed  from  each  other  by  (hort  love,  has  a  ftrong  defn-e  of  enjoyment,  but  no  affeftion 
intervals.  Nor  are  thefe  fufficient  without  regularity  for  the  woman  (a)  :  a  man  who  is  furprifed  with  an 
in  the  time,  place,  and  other  circumftanccs  of  the  ac-  unexpedled  favoui",  burns  for  an  opportimity  to  exert 
tion  :  the  more  uniform  any  operation  is,  the  fooner  his  gratitude,  without  having  any  affeiSlion  for  his  be- 
lt becomes  habitual.  And  this  holds  equally  in  a  paf-  nefadtor:  neither  docs  defue  of  vengeance  for  an  atro- 
five    habit;  variety    in   any  remarkable    degree,  pre-     cious  injury  involve  averfion., 

vents  the  effeft  :  thus  any  particular  food   will  fcarce  It  is  perhaps  not  eafy  to  fay  why  moderate   plea- 

ever  become  habitual  where  the  manner  of  drcfling  fures  gather  ilrength  by  cuihun  :  but  two  caufes  con- 
is  varied.  The  circumllances  then  requifite  to  aug-  cur  to  prevent  that  effe6l  in  the  more  intenfe  plea- 
ment   a   moderate   plealurc,  and   at    the    long-run  to     fures.     Thefe,   by  an   original  law  in   our  nature,  in- 

cteale  quickly  to  their  full  growth,  and  decay  with  no 
lefs  precipitation  :  aud  cuftoin  is  too  flow  iji  its  ope- 
ration to  overcoiTie  that  law.  The  other  caufe  is  not 
lefs  powerful:  exquifite  pleafure  is  extremely  fatiguino-- 
occniioning,  as  a  naturaliil  would  fay,  great  expence 
of  animal  fpirit.s  ;  and  of  fueh  the  mind  cannot  bear  fo 
frequent  gratification,  as  to  fuperinduce  a  habit :  if 
the  thing  that  raifes  the  pleafure  return  before  the  mind 


form  a  habit,  are   weak  uniform   ails,   reiterated  du 
ring  a  long  courfe  of  time,  without  any   confiderable 
interruption  :   every    agreeable  caufe  tliat  operates  in 
this  manner  will  grow  habitual. 

yJffeCtion  and  aveijion,  as  diltinguilbed  from  pafHon 
on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other  fiom  original  dif- 
politiou,  are  in  reality  habits  refpcftiug  particular  ob- 
jects, acquired  in   the  manner  above  fet  forth.     The 

pleafure  of  focial  intercourfe  with  any  perfon,  muil  have  recovered  its  tone  and  relifh,  difgufl  enfues  inftcad 
cjriginally  be  faint,  and  frequently  reiterated,  in  order     of  pleafure. 

to  eftabliflr  the  habit  of  affuftion.     Affetlion  thus  ge»  A  habit  never  fails  to  admonitli  us  of  the  wonted 

Iterated,  whether  it  be  friendfliip  or  love,  feldom  fwells  tiine  of  gratification,  by  raifing  a  pain  for  want  of  the 
into  any  tumultuous  or  vigorous  pafiion  ;  but  is  how-  objed,  and  a  dcfire  to  have  it.  The  pain  of  want  is 
c-ver  the  ftrongeil  cement  that  can  bind  together  two  always  iirlt  felt  :  the  defire  naturally  follows  ;  and 
individuals  of  the  human  fpecies.  In  like  manner,  a  upon  prefentiug  the  objeft,  both  vauifli  inftantaneoufly. 
(light  degree  of  difguil  often  reiterated  with  regula-     Thus  a  man  accuftomcd  to  tobacco,  feels,  at  the  end 

Vol.  V'.  Part  II.  4  I  of 


(a)  Violent  love,  without  affection,  is  finely  exemplified  in  the  following  flory.  When  Conftantinople  was 
taken  by  the  'I'urks,  Irene,  a  young  Greek  of  an  illullrious  family,  fell  into  tlie  hands  of  Mahomet  II.  who  was 
at  that  time  in  the  prime  of  youth  and  glory.  His  favage  heart  being  fubdued  by  her  charms,  he  fhut  himfelf 
lip  with  her,  denying  accefs  even  to  his  miniilers.  Love  obtained  fuch  afcendant  as  to  make  him  frequently 
iibandon  the  army,  and  fiyto  his  Irene.  War  relaxed,  for  vitlory  was  no  longer  the  monarch's  favourite  paf- 
fi*in.  The  foldicrs,  accuftomed  to  booty,  began  to  murmur,  and  the  infeftion  fpread  even  among  the  command- 
ers. The  Bafiia  Muftapha,  confulting  the  fidelity  he  owed  his  mafter,  was  the  firll  who  durft  acquaint  him  of 
the  difeourfes  held  publicly  to  the  prejudice  of  his  glory.  The  fultan,  after  a  gloomy  filence,  formed  his  refo- 
lution.  He  ordered  Mullapha  to  allemble  the  troops  next  morning  j  and  then  with  precipitation  retired  to 
Irene's  apartment.  Never  before  did  that  pvincefs  appear  fo  charming  ;  never  before  did  the  prince  bellow  fo 
many  warm  careffes.  To  give  a  new  lultre  to  her  beauty,  he  exhorted  her  women  next  morning  to  bellow  their 
Htmoft  art  and  care  on  her  drefs.  He  took  her  by  the  hand,  led  her  into  the  middle  of  the  army,  and  ]mllin«- 
(iff  her  vail,  deinanded  of  the  lalhas  with  a  fierce  look,  whether  they  had  ever  beheld  fueh  a  beauty  ?  After  an 
awful  paiife,  Mahomet  with  one  hand  laying  hold  of  the  young  Greek  by  her  beautiful  locks,  and  with  .the  o- 
ther  pulling  out  his  fcimitar,  fevered  the  head  from  the  body  at  one  Ihoke.  'I'hen  turning  to  his  grandees, 
with  eyes  wild  and  furious,  "  This  fvvord  (fays  he),  when  it  is  my  will,  knows  to  cut  the  bands  of  love.'' 
However  llrange  it  may  appear,  we  learn  from  experience,  that  defire  of  enjoyment  may  confill  with  the  moft 
brutal  averfion,  diretted  both  to  the  fame  woman.  Of  this  we  have  a  noted  example  in  the  firll  book  of  Sully's 
Memoirs ;  to  which  wecho&fe  to  refer  the  reader,  fyr  it  is  too  jjrofs  to  be  traiifctibeJ, 


c   u   s 


[     6i8   "] 


c   u   s 


Cuflom 

and  Habit, 


of  the  ufiial  inUival,  a  confufcd  pain  of  want  ;  which  as  to  any  one  in  particular;  but  as  the  train  is  uniform     Cu.fom 

at  firft  points  at  nothing  in  particular,  though  it  foou  with  refpeft  to  amufcmcut,  the  habit  is  formed  accor-  anf^  Habit, 

fettles  upon  its  accuftouied  objeft:  and  the  fame  may  dingly;  and  that  fort  of  habit  may  be  denominated  a         ' 

be  obftrved  in  perfons  addicted  to  drinking,  who  are  generic  hulh,  in   oppofition  to  the  former,   which  is  a 

often  in  an  uneafy  reftlefs  ilate  before  they  think  of  fpec'ific  hah'it.    A  habit  of  a  town-hfe,  of  country-fports, 

the  bottle.     In   pleafures  indulged   regularly,  and  at  of  folltude,  of  reading,  or  of  bufmefs,  where  fufficient- 


equal  intervals,  the  appetite,  remarkably  obfequious  to 
euftom,  returns  regularly  with  the  ufual  time  of  gra- 
tification ;  not  fooner,  even  though  the  objeft  be 
prefented.  This  pain  of  want  ariiing  from  habit,  feems 
direftly  oppofite  to  that  of  fatiety  ;  and  it  mull  ap- 
pear Angular,  that  frequency  of  gratification  (hould 
produce  effecls  fo  oppofite,  as  are  the  pains  of  cxcefs 
and  of  want. 

The  appetites  that  refpeft  the  prtfervation  and  pro- 


ly  varied,  are  inftauces  of  generic  habits.  Every  fpe- 
cific  habit  hath  a  mixture  of  the  generic  ;  for  the  ha- 
bit of  any  one  fort  of  food  makes  the  tafte  agreeable, 
and  we  are  fond  of  that  tafle  wherever  found.  Thus 
a  man  deprived  of  an  habitual  objeA,  takes  up  with 
what  moll  refembles  it  ;  deprived  of  tobacco,  any 
bitter  herb  will  do  rather  than  want  ;  a  habit  of 
punch  makes  wine  a  good  refource  :  accuftomed  to 
the  fweet  fociety  and  comforts  of  matrimony,  the  man 


pagation  of  our  fpecies,  are   attended  with  a  pain  of    unhappily  deprived  of  his  beloved  objeft,  inclines  the 


want  fimilar  to  that  occafioned  by  habit  :  hunger  aid 
third  are  uneafy  fenfations  of  want,  which  always  pre- 
cede the  defire  of  eating  or  drinking  ;  and  a  pain  for 
want  of  carnal  enjoyment,  precedes  the  defire  of  an 
objeft.  The  pain  being  thus  felt  independent  of  an 
objeA,  cannot  be  cured  but  by  gratification.  Very 
different  is  an  ordinary  pafTion,  in  which  defire  pre- 
cedes the  pain  of  want  ;  fuch  a  paffion  cannot  exill 
but  while  the  objeil  is  in  view;  and  therefore,  by  re- 
moving the  objeft  out  of  thought,  it  vaniflieth  with  its 
defire  and  pain  of  want. 

The  natural  appetites  above  mentioned,  differ  from 
habit  in  the  following  particular:  they  have  an  unde- 
termined direftion  toward  all  objefts  of  gratification 
in  general ;  whereas  an  habitual  appetite  is  diretled 
to  a  particular  objeft  :  the  attachment  we  have  by  ha- 
bit to  a  particular  woman,  differs  widely  from  the  na- 
tural paffion  which  comprehends  the  whole  fex  ;  and 
the  habitual  relllli  for  a  particular  difli,  is  far  from  be- 
ing the  fame  with  a  vague  appetite  for  food.  That 
difference  notwithftanding,  it  is  lliU  remarkable,  that 
nature  hath  enforced  the  gratification  of  certain  natu- 
ral appetites  effcntial  to  the  fpecies,  by  a  pain  of  the 
fame  fort  with  that  which  habit  produceth. 

The  pain  of  habit  is  lefs  under  our  power  than  any 
other  pain  that  arifes  from  want  of  gratification :  hun- 
ger and  thirft  are  more  eafily  endured,  efpecially  at 
.  firft,  than  an  unufual  iutermiffion  of  any  habitual  plea- 
fure  :  perfons  are  often  heard  declaring,  they  would 
forego  fleep  or  food,  rather  than  tobacco.  We  mull 
not  however  conclude,  that  the  gratification  of  an  ha- 
bitual appetite  affords  the  fame  delight  with  the  gra- 
tification of  one  that  is  natural :  far  from  it  ;  the  pain 
of  want  only  is  greater. 

The  flow  and  reiterated  a£ls  that  produce   a  habit, 
Jlicngthcn  the  mind  to  enjoy  the  habitual  pleafure  in 


fooner  to  a  fecond.  In  general,  when  we  are  deprived 
of  a  habitual  objeft,  we  are  fond  of  its  qualities  In  any 
other  objcft. 

r'.e  rcafons  are  affigned  above,  why  the  caufes  of 
inteuit  pleafure  become  not  readily  habitual:  but  now 
we  difcover,  that  thcfe  reafons  conclude  only  againft 
fpecific  habits.  In  the  cafe  of  a  weak  pleafure,  a  ha- 
bit is  formed  by  frequency  and  uniformity  of  reitera- 
tion, which,  i;"i  the  cafe  of  an  intenfe  pleafure,  pro- 
duceth fatiety  and  dlfguft.  But  it  is  remarkable,  that 
fatiety  and  dlfguft  ha^'e  no  effeft,  except  as  to  that 
thing  fingly  which  occafions  them:  a  furfeit  of  honey 
produceth  not  a  loathing  of  fugar  ;  and  intemperance 
with  one  woman  produceth  no  difrellih  of  the  fame 
pleafure  with  others.  Hence  it  is  eafy  to  account  for 
a  generic  habit  in  any  Intenfe  pieafuie  :  the  delight 
we  had  in  the  gratification  of  the  appetite,  inflames 
the  imagination,  and  makes  us,  with  avidity,  fearch 
for  the  fame  gratification  in  whatever  other  objefl  it 
can  be  found.  And  thus  uniform  frequency  in  grati- 
fying the  fame  paffion  upon  different  objects,  produ- 
ceth at  length  a  generic  habit.  In  this  manner  one 
acquires  an  habitual  delight  in  high  and  poignant  fau- 
ces, rich  drefs,  fine  equipages,  crowds  of  company,  and 
in  whatever  is  commonly  termed  pleafure.  There  con- 
curs at  the  fame  time,  to  introduce  this  habit,  a  pe- 
culiarity obferved  above,  that  reiteration  of  ads  en- 
larges the  capacity  of  the  mind,  to  admit  a  more  plen- 
tiful gratification  than  originally,  with  regard  to  fre- 
quency as  well  as  quantity. 

Hence  it  appears,  that  though  a  fpecific  habit  can- 
not be  formed  but  upon  a  moderate  pleafure,  a  gene- 
ric habit  may  be  formed  upon  any  fort  of  pleafure, 
moderate  or  immoderate,  that  hath  variety  of  objedts. 
The  only  difference  is,  that  a  weak  pleafure  runs  na- 
turally into  a  fpecific  habit ;  whereas  an  intenfe  plea- 


greater  quantity  and  more  frequency  than  originally  ;     fure  is  altogether  averfe  to  fuch  a  habit.     In  a  word, 


and  by  that  means  a  habit  of  intemperate  gratification 
is  often  formed  :  after  unbounded  acts  of  intemperance, 
the  habitual  relilh  is  foon  reftored,  and  the  pain  for 
want  of  enjoyment  returns  with  frefh  vigour. 

The  caufes  of  the  prefent  emotions  hitherto  in  view, 
are  either  an  individual,  fuch  as  a  companion,  a  cer- 
tain dwelling-place,  a  certain  amufement  ;  or  a  parti- 
cular fpecies,  fuch  as  coffee,  mutton,  or  any  other 
food.  But  habit  is  not  confined  to  fuch.  A  conftant 
train  of  trifling  diverfions  may  form  fuch   a  habit  in 


it  is  only  in  fingular  cafes  that  a  moderate  pleafure 
produces  a  generic  habit;  but  an  intenfe  pleafure  can- 
not produce  any  other  habit. 

The  appetites  that  refpeft  the  prefervation  and  pro- 
pagation of  the  fpecies,  are  formed  into  habit  in  a  pe- 
culiar manner  ;  the  time  as  well  as  meafure  of  their 
gratification  are  much  under  the  power  of  euftom  ; 
which,  introducing  a  change  upon  the  body,  occafions 
a  proportional  change  in  the  appetites.  Thus,  if  the 
body  be  gradually  formed  to  a  certain  quantity  of  food 


the  mind,   that  it  cannot  be  eafy  a  moment  without     at  ftated  times,  the  appetite  is  regulated  accordingly  ; 
jUTiufement :  a  variety  in  the  objefts  prevents  a  habit    and  the  appetite  is  again  changed,  when  a  different 

3^  habit 


c   u   s 


Cudom    habit  of  body  Is  introduced  by  a  different  pradice. 
and  Hibit.  Here  it  would  feem,  that  the  change  is  not  made  upon 
•         the  mind,  which  is  commonly  tlie  cafe  in  paflive  habits, 
but  upon  the  body. 

When  rich  food  is  brought  down  by  ingredients  of 
a  plainer  tafte,  the  compolUion  is  fufceptible  of  a  fpe- 
cific  habit.  Thus  the  fweet  tafte  of  fugar,  rendered 
Icfs  poignant  in  a  mixture,  may,  in  courfe  of  time, 
produce  a  fpecific  habit  for  fuch  mixture.  As  mode- 
rate pleafurcs,  by  becoming  more  intenfe,  tend  to  ge- 
neric habits  ;  fo  intenfe  pleafuivs,  by  becoming  more 
moderate,  tend  to  fpecific  habits. 

The  beauty  of  the  human  figure,  by  a  fpecial  re- 
commendation of  nature,  appears  to  us  fupreme,  amid 
the  great  variety  of  beauteous  forms  bellowed  upon 
animals.  The  various  degrees  in  which  individuals 
enjoy  that  property,  render  it  an  objeft  fometimes 
of  a  moderate,  fometimes  of  an  intenfe,  paffion.  The 
moderate  paffion,  admitting  frequent  reiteration  with- 
out diminution,  and  occupying  the  mind  without  ex- 
haufting  it,  turns  gradually  ftrunger  till  it  becomes  a 
ha!)it.  Nay,  iullances  are  not  wanting,  of  a  face  at 
firll  difagreeable,  afterward  rendered  indifferent  by 
familiarity,  and  at  length  agreeable  by  cuflom.  On 
the  other  hand,  confummate  beauty,  at  the  veiy  firlt 
glance,  fills  the  mind  fo  as  to  admit  no  increafe.  En- 
joyment leffcns  the  pleafure  ;  and  if  often  repeated, 
ends  commonly  in  fatiety  and  difguft.  The  impref- 
fions  made  by  confummate  beauty,  in  a  gradual  fuc- 
ceflion  from  lively  to  faint,  conllitute  a  feries  oppofite 
to  that  of  faint  impreflions  waxing  gradually  more 
L'vely,  till  they  produce  a  fpecific  habit.  But  the  mind 
when  accuftomed  to  beauty  contrafts  a  relifh  for  it  in 
general,  though  often  repelled  from  particular  objetts 
by  the  pain  of  fatiety  ;  and  thus  a  generic  habit  is 
formed,  of  which  inconftancy  in  love  is  the  ntceffary 
confequence  ;  for  a  generic  habit,  comprehending  e- 
very  beautiful  objeA,  is  an  invincible  obftruftion  to  a 
fpecific  habit,  which  is  confined  to  one. 
,  But  a  matter  which  is  of  great   importance  to  the 

•'  youth   of  both   fcxes,   defervcs  more  than   a  curfory 

''  view.      Though  the  pleafant  emotion  of  beauty  differs 

widely  from  the  corporeal  appetite,  yet  when  both 
are  direfted  to  the  fame  objcft,  they  produce  a  very 
ftrong  complex  paffion  :  enjoyment  in  that  cafe  muil 
be  exquifite  ;  and  therefore  more  apt  to  produce  fa- 
tiety than  in  any  other  cale  whatever.  Tiiis  is  a  ne- 
\-er-failing  effeft,  where  confummate  beauty  in  the 
one  party,  meets  with  a  warm  imagination  and  great 
fenfibility  in  the  other.  What  we  are  here  explain- 
ing, is  true  without  exaggeration  ;  and  they  muft  be 
infenfible  upon  whom  it  makes  no  impreffion  :  it  de- 
ferves  well  to  be  pondered  by  the  young  and  the  amo- 
rous, who,  in  forming  the  matrimonial  fociety,  are  too 
often  blindly  impelled  by  the  animal  pleafure  merely, 
inflamed  by  beauty.  It  may  indeed  happen  after  the 
pleafure  Is  gone,  and  go  it  muft  with  a  fwift  pace, 
that  a  new  conneftion  is  formed  upon  more  dignified 
and  more  lafting  principles  :  but  this  is  a  dangerous 
experiment ;  for  even  fuppoiing  good  fenfe,  good 
temper,  and  Inteinal  merit  of  every  fort,  yet  a  new 
conneftion  upon  fuch  qualifications  is  rarely  formed  : 
it  commonly,  or  rather  always  happens,  that  fuch  qua- 
EficatioBS,  the  only  folid  foundation  of  an  Indiffoluble 


[       619      1 


c   u   s 


conuei^tion,  are  rendered  altogether  invifible  by  fatiety     Cuftom 
of  enjoyment  creating  difguft.  ant.  H.>bif. 

One  effed  of  cuftom,  different  from  any  that  have  ' 
been  explained,  muft  not  be  omitted,  becaufe  it  makca 
a  great  figure  in  human  nature  :  though  cuftom  aug- 
ments moderate  plcafures,  and  leffcns  thofe  that  are 
intenfe,  it  has  a  difierent  effed  with  refped  to  pain  ; 
for  it  blunts  the  edge  of  every  fort  of  pain  and  diftrcf;, 
faint  or  acute.  Uninterrupted  mifery,  therefore,  is 
attended  with  one  good  effcd  :  If  its  tonnents  be  in- 
ceffant,  cuftom  hardens  us  to  bear  them. 

The  changes  made  in  forming  habits  are  curious. 
Moderate  plcafures  are  augmented  gradually  by  reite- 
ration, till  they  become  habitual  ;  and  iheu  are  at 
their  height  :  but  they  are  not  long  ftationary  ;  for 
from  that  point  they  gradually  decay,  till  they  vanilh 
altogether.  The  pain  occafioned  by  want  of  gratlli- 
cation,  runs  a  different  courfe:  it  increafes  uniformly; 
and  at  laft  becomes  extreme,  when  the  pleafure  of 
gratification  is  reduced  to  nothing. 

U  fo  falls  out, 

That  whut  we  have  we  prize  not  to  the  wortb, 

While  we  enjiiy  it ;  but  being  iack'd  and  loft, 

Why  then  we  rack  the  va'ue;  then  we  find 

The  virtue  that  pfff,  fliun  would  not  Ihow  us 

Whiift  it  was  ours,  ' 

J^lucb  ado  about  N^tbingy  o^  4  fc,  2, 

The  effed  of  cuftom  with  relation  to  a  fpecific  habit, 
is  difpliyed  through  all  its  varieties  iu  the  ufe  of  to- 
bacco. The  tafte  of  that  plant  is  at  firft  extremely 
unpleafant :  our  difgud  Icffens  gradually,  till  it  vanifti 
altogether ;  at  which  period  the  tafte  is  neither  agree- 
able nor  difagreeable:  continuing  the  ufe  of  the  plant,- 
we  begin  to  relift)  it  ;  and  our  rclifii  improves  by  ufe, 
till  It  an-ive  at  perfedion :  from  that  period  it  gradu- 
ally decays,  while  the  habit  Is  in  a  ftate  of  increment, 
and  confequently  the  pain  of  want.  The  refult  is,  that 
when  the  habit  has  acquired  its  greateft  vigour,  the 
relllh  Is  gone  ;  and  accordingly  we  often  fmoke  and 
take  fnuft'  habitually,  without  fo  much  as  being  con- 
fcious  of  the  operation.  We  muft  except  gratification 
after  the  pain  of  want ;  the  pleafure  of  which  gratifi- 
cation is  the  greateft  when  the  habit  Is  the  moft  vi- 
gorous :  it  is  of  the  fame  kind  with  the  pleafure  one 
feels  upon  being  dehvered  from  the  rack.  This  plea- 
fure however  is  but  occafionally  the  effed  of  habit ; 
and  however  exquifite,  is  avoided  as  much  as  poffible 
becaufe  of  the  pain  that  precedes  it. 

With  regard  to  the  pain  of  want,  we  can  difcover 
no  difference  between  a  generic  and  a  fpecific  habit  ; 
but  thefe  habits  differ  widely  with  refped  to  the  pofi- 
tive  pleafure.  We  have  had  occafion  to  obferve,  that 
the  pleafure  of  a  fpecific  habit  decays  gradually  till  it 
turn  imperceptible  :  the  pleafure  of  a  generic  habit,  on 
the  contrary,  being  fupported  by  variety  of  gratifica- 
tion, fuffers  little  or  no  decay  after  it  comes  to  its 
height.  However  it  may  be  with  other  generic  ha- 
bits, the  obfcrvatlon  certainly  holds  with  refped  to  the 
plcafures  of  virtue  and  of  knowledge  :  the  pleafure  of 
doing  good  has  an  unbounded  fcope,  and  may  be  fo 
varioully  gratified  that  it  cati  never  decay  ;  fcience  is 
equally  unbounded  ;  our  appetite  for  knowledge  ha- 
ving au  ample  range  of  gratification,  where  difcove- 
rles  are  recommended  by  novelty,  by  variety,  by  uti- 
lity, or  by  all  of  them. 

4  I  2  In 


c  u  s 

Ciiftom  In  tKis  intricate  inquiry,  we  have  endeavoured,  but 
and  Haoit.  ,v;t^,oi,t.  fnccefs,  to  difcover  by  what  particular  means 
-       '  it  is  that  cuRoin  hath  influence  upon  us;  and  now  no- 

thing feeras  left,  but  to  hold  our  nature  to  be  fo  fra- 
med as  to  be  fiifceptible  of  fuch  influence.  And  fup- 
poling  it  purpofely  fo  framed,  it  will  not  be  difficult  to 
find  out  feveral  important  final  caufes.  That  the  power 
of  cuftom  is  a  happy  contrivance  for  our  good,  cannot 
have  efcaped  any  cne  who  refltcts,  that  bufinefs  is  our 
province,  and  plenfure  our  relaxation  only.  Now  fa- 
tiety  is  nccefPary  to  check  CKquitltc  plealures,  which 
otherwife  would  cngrofs  the  mind  and  unqualify  us 
for  bufinefs.  On  the  other  hand,  as  bufinefs  is  fome- 
tinies  painful,  and  is  never  plcafant  beyond  modera- 
tion, the  habitual  increafe  of  moderate  pleafure,  and 
the  converfion  of  pain  into  pleafure,  are  admirably 
contrived  for  difappointing  the  malice  of  fortune,  and 
for  reconciling  us  to  whatever  courfe  of  life  may  be 
our  lot : 

How  u'e  drtb  br.  el  a  h  i!i!t  in  a  man  ! 
This  Ihadowy  dtfcrt,  ui!fre<iitentL'd  won 's, 
I  hetter  brook  thin  floiinniiiie  l;ti>pled  towns. 
Here  I  can  lit  alone,  unfcen  of  any,    . 
Ar^d  tti  the  nii^-htirgale's  ci'nii'laininjT  notes 
'I'une  my  difticfics,  and  record  my  woes. 

1  Tzuo  Gentlemen  of  Verona^  a^  5- 7^".  4* 

As  the  foregoing  diftinftion  between  intenfe  and 
moderate,  hold  in  pleafure  only,  every  degree  of  pain 
being  foftened  by  time,  cuftom  is  a  catholicon  for  pain 
and  diftrefs  of  every  fort  ;  and  of  that  regulation  the 
final  caufe  requires  no  illullration. 

Another  final  caufe  of  cuftom  will  be  highly  relilhed 


620    1  c    u    s 

to  the  authority  of  cuftom  things  that  nature  hath  left  Curtom 
indiftcrent.  It  is  cuftom,  not  nature,  that  hath  efta-  ^"d  Habit. 
bliflied  a  difference  between  the  right  hand  and  the  '^"""^ 
left,  fo  as  to  make  it  aukward  and  difagreeable  to  ufe 
the  left  where  the  right  is  commonly  ufed.  The  va- 
rious colours,  though  they  aflei-.l  us  differently,  are  all 
of  them  agreeable  in  their  purity  ;  but  cu'lora  has  re- 
gulated that  matter  in  another  manner;  a  black  ikin 
upon  a  human  being,  is  to  us  dilagrceable ;  and  a 
white  (]<in  probably  not  Icfs  fo  to  a  negro.  Thus 
things,  originally  indifTtrent,  b-come  agreeable  or  dif- 
agreeable by  the  force  of  cuftom.  Nor  will  this  be 
furpvifing  after  the  difcovery  made  above,  that  the 
Original  agrecablcncfs  or  dilagreeablentls  of  an  objecT:, 
is,  by  the  influence  of  cuftom,  often  converted  into  the 
oppofite  quality. 

Proceeding  to  matters  of  tafte,  where  there  is  natu- 
rally a  preference  of  one  thing  before  another  ;  it  i» 
certain,  in  the  firft  phice,  that  our  faint  and  more  de- 
licate feelings  are  readily  fufceptible  of  a  bias  from 
cuftom  ;  and  therefore  that  it  is  no  proof  of  a  defec- 
tive tafte,  to  find  thefe  in  fome  mcafure  influenced 
by  cuftom  :  drefs  and  the  modes  of  external  behavi- 
our, are  regulated  by  cuftom  in  every  country  :  the 
deep  red  or  vermilion  with  which  the  ladies  in  France 
cover  their  cheeks,  appears  to  them  beautiful  in  fpite 
of  nature;  and  ftrangers  cannot  altogether  be  jufti- 
fied  in  condemning  that  praftice,  confidering  the  law- 
ful authority  of  cuftom,  or  of  the  fajhtnn  as  it  is  call- 
ed :  it  is  told  of  the  people  who  inhabit  the  Ikirts  of 
the  Alps  facing  the  north,  that  the  fwelling  they  uni- 
verfally  have  in  the  neck  is  to  them  agreeable.     So  far 


by  every  perfon  of  humanity,  and  yet  has  in  a  great  has  cuftom  power  to  change  the  nature  of  things,  and 
meafure  been  overlooked  ;  which  is,  that  cuftom  hath 
a  gteater  influence  than  any  other  known  caufe,  to 
put  the  rich  and  the  poor  upon  a  level  ;  weak  plea- 
lures,  the  fhare  of  the  latter,  become  fortunately 
ftrouger  by  cuftom  ;  while  voluptuous  pleafures,  the 
Ihare  of  the  former,  are  continually  lofing  ground  by 
fatiety.  Men  of  fortune,  who  poffefs  palaces,  fump- 
tuous  gardens,  rich  fields,  enjoy  them  lefs  than  paflen- 
gers  do.  The  goods  of  Fortune  are  not  unequally 
diftributed  ;  tiie  opulent  poffcls  what  others  enjoy. 

And  indeed,  if  it  be  the  effeifl  of  habit,  to  produce 
the  pain  of  want  in  a  high  degree  while  there  is  little 
pleafure  in  enjoyment,  a  voliiptuons  life  is  of  all  the 
leaft  to  be  envied.  Thofe  who  are  habituated  to  high 
feeding,  eafy  vehicles,  rich  furniture,  a  crowd  of  va- 
lets, much  deference  and  flattery,  enjoy  but  a  fmall 
fhare  of  happinefs,  while  they  are  expofed  to  mani- 
fold diftreffes.      To  fuch  a  man,    cnflaved  by  eafe  and 


to  make  an  objetl  originally  difagreeable  take  on  an 
oppofite  appearance. 

But  as  to  every  particular  that  can  be  denominated 
proper  or  improper,  right  or  wrong,'  cuftom  has  little 
authority,  and  ought  to  have  none.  The  principle  of 
duty  takes  naturally  place  of  eveiy  other  ;  and  it  ar- 
gues a  ftiameful  weaknefs  or  degeneracy  of  mind,  to- 
find  it  in  any  cafe  fo  far  fubdued  as  to  fubmit  to  cuf- 
tom. 

II.  Effids  of  Cujlom  and  Habit  in  the  Animal  Economy. 
Thefe  may  be  reduced  to  five  heads.  I.  On  the  fim- 
ple  fohds.  2.  On  the  organs  of  fenfe.  3.  On  the 
moving  power.  4.  On  the  whole  nervous  power. 
5.  Ou  the  fyftem  of  blood-veftels. 

I .  EJfecis  en  the  Simple  Solids.  Cuftom  determines 
the  degree  of  flexibihty  of  which  they  are  capable. 
By  frequently  repeated  flexion,  the  feveral  particles  of 
which   thefe   folids   confift   are   rendered  more  fupple 


luxury,  even  the  petty  inconveniences  in  travelling,  of     and  moveable  on  each  other.      A  piece  of  catgut,  e.g. 
a  rough  road,   bad  weather,  or  homely  fare,  are  feri-     when  on  the  ftrctch,   and   having  a  weight  appended  CulhnsLa- 
ous  evils  :  he  lofes  his  tone  of  mind,  turns  peeviih,  and     to  its  middle,  will  be  bended  thereby  perhaps  half  an'ura  o»  tie 
would  wreak  his  refentment  even  upon  the  common     inch  ;  afterwards,  by  frequent  repetitions  of  the  fame  '1^<''- /wtJ-- 
accidents  of  life.      Better  far  to  ufe  the  goods  of  For-     weight,  or  by   increafing  the  weight,  the   flexibility 
tune  with   moderation:    a   man  who   by  temperance     will  be  rendered  double.     The  degree  of  flexibility  has  ' 
and  aftivity  hath  acqin'red  a  hardy  conftitution,  is,  on     a  great  effeift  in  determining  the  degree  of  ofcillation, 
the  one  hand,  guarded  againft  external  accidents  ;  and,     provided  that  elafticity  is  not  affedted  ;  if  it  go  beyond 

this,  it  produces  flaccidity.  Again,  cuilom  deteiraines 
the  degree  of  tenfion  ;  for  the  fame  elaftic  chord  that- 
now  ofcillates  in  a  certain  degree  of  tenfion,  will,  by 
frequent  repetition  of  thefe  ofcillations,  be  fo  far  re- 
laxed, that  the  ex  tenfion  mull  be  renewed  in  order  to. 


on  the  other,  is  provided  with  great  variety  of  enjoy- 
ment dver  at  command. 

We  fhall  clofe  this  branch  of  the  fubjeft  with  an 
article  more  delicate  than  abftrufc,  viz.  what  authority 
cuftom  ought  to  have  over  our  tafte  in  the  fine  arts, 


One  particular  is  certain,  that  we  cheerfully  abandon     produce  the  fame  tenfion,  and  confequently  the  fame 

vibra-. 


c  u  s 


C    621    1 


C    U    S 


Curom  vibrations,  as  at  fit  ft.  This  appears  in  many  inllances 
and  Habit.  ^^  d^^  animal  economy,  as  when  different  mufcles  con- 
'  cur  to  give  a  fixed  point  or  tcnfion  to  each  other: 
and  thus  a  weakly  child  totters  as  it  walks  ;  but  by 
giving  it  a  weight  to  carry,  and  by  thus  incrcafing  the 
tenlioii  of. the  (yilem,  it  waliis  more  ftcadily.  In  like 
nianaer  the  iuincfj  of  the  lyllem  gives  ftiength,  by 
diilending  the  vcfTcis  every  where,  and  fo  giviiig  ten- 
lion  :  hence  a  man,  by  good  nourifhment,  fiom  being 
weak,  acquires  a  great  increale  of  Hrength  in  a  itiw 
days  :  and,  on  llie  other  hand,  evacuations  weaken  by 
taking  off  the  teniion. 

2.  EffeSs  mt  tlif  Organs  cf  Senfe.  Repetition  gives 
a  greater  degrtc  of  fcnfibihty,  in  fo  far  only  as  it  ren- 
ders perception  more  accurate.  Repetition  alone  gives 
lalHng  imprefrioii,  and  thus  lays  the  foundation  of  me- 
mory ;  for  fingle  imprcffions  are  but  retained  for  a 
ilioit  time,  and  are  fo:  n  forgot.  Thus  a  perfon,  who 
at  prefent  has  little  knowledge  of  cloths,  will,  by  fre- 
quently handling  them,  acquire  a  fl<ill  of  difcerning 
thrm,  which  to  others  feems  almoit  impoflible.  Many 
arc  apt  to  miltake  this  for  a  nicer  fcniibility,  but  they 
are  much  niillakeu;  for  it  is  an  univerfal  law,  that  the 
repetition  of  impredion  renders  us  lefs  acute.  Tin's  is 
wtl]  ilhiftrated  by  the  operation  of  medicines;  for  all 
medicines  whicli  art  on  the  organs  of  fenfe  mull,  after 
fome  time,  be  inereafed  in  their  dofe  to  produce  the 
fame  efferts  as  at  iirft.  This  affords  a  rule  in  praftice 
witli  regard  to  thefe  medicines;  it  becoming  neceffary, 
after  a  certain  tim»,  to  change  one  medicine  even 
for  a  weaker  of  the  fame  nature.  Thus  medicines, 
which  even  have  no  great  apparent  force,  are  found, 
by  long  ufe,  to  deftroy  the  fenfibility  of  the  fyftem  to 
other  imprellions.  But  to  this  general  rule,  that,  by 
repetition,  the  force  of  impreffions  is  more  and  more 
diminilhed,  there  are  fome  exceptions.  Thus  perfons, 
by  a  ilrong  emetic,  have  had  their  ftomachs  rendered 
fo  irritable,  that  l-20th  of  the  firft  dofe  was  fufficient 
to  produce  the  fame  effcrt.  This,  however,  oftener 
takes  place  when  the  vomit  is  repeated  every  day  ; 
for  if  the  fame  vomit  be  given  at  pretty  confiderable 
intervals,  the  geneval  rule  is  obfcrved  to  hold  good. 
Thus  two  contrary  efferts  of  habit  are  to  be  noted  ; 
and  it  is  proper  to  obferve,  that  the  greater  irritability 
is  more  readily  produced  when  the  firit  imprtffion  is 
great,  as  in  the  cafe  firft  given  of  the  flrong  emetic. 
This  may  be  farther  illuftrated  by  the  effert  of  fear, 
vhlch  is  commonly  obferved  to  be  diminilhed  on  repe- 
tition: wliich  can  only  be  attributed  to  cuftom:  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  there  arc  inllances  of  perfons,  who, 
having  once  got  a  great  fi  Ight,  have  for  ever  after 
continued  flaves  to  tears  excited  by  impreflions  of  the 
Lke  kind,  howevtr  flight;  wlilch  muft  be  lm;-uted  en- 
tirely to  excefs  of  the  firft  impreflion,  as  h.as  been  al- 
ready obferved.  To  this  head  alfo  belongs  the  affo- 
ciation  of  ideas,  which  is  the  foundation  of  memory 
and  all  our  intcUertual  faculties,  and  is  entirely  the 
effecl  of  cuftom  ;  with  regard  to  the  body  alfo,  thefe 
afTociatinns  often  take  place.  And  fometimes,  fh  pro- 
ducing effefts  on  the  body,  affociations  feemir.gly  op- 
fite  are  formed,  which,  through  cuftom,  become  abfo- 
lutely  neceffary;  e.g.  a  perfoa  long  accuftomed  to 
fleop  in  the  neighbourhood  of  a  great  nolfc,  is  fo  far 
from  being  incommoded  on  that  account,  that  aftcr- 
Uiirds  f'ath  noift   Ltcomts  neceffary  to  produce  ileep. 


It  will  be  of  ufc  to  attend  to  this  in  medical  practice;    Cuflom 
for  we  ought   to  allow  for,   however  oppofite  it  :my  ""^  Haht. 
feem  at  the  tinie,  whatever  ufually  attended  th     pur-  ""^ 
pofe  we  defign   to  effcd.     Thus,  la  the  inftance  of 
ileep,   we  muft   not  exclude  noife   when  we  want  to 
procure  reft,   or  any  caufes  which   may  feem  oppofite 
to  fuch  an  cffcrt,  provided  cuftom  has  rendered  them 
neceffary. 

3.  EJffas  on  the  Moving  Fibres.  A  certain  degree 
of  teniion  is  neceffary  to  motion,  which  is  to  be  deter 
mined  by  cuftom  ;  e.  g.  ?i  fencer,  accuftomed  to  one 
fod,  cannot  have  the  lame  fteadlnefs  or  activity  with- 
one  lieavier  or  lighter.  It  is  neceffary  alfo  that  eveiy 
motion  fliould  be  performed  in  the  fame  fituation,  or 
pofture  of  the  body,  as  the  perfon  has  been  accuftom- 
ed to  employ  in  that  motion.  Thus,  in  any  chirur- 
gical  operation,  a  certain  pofture  is  recommended  ;. 
but  if  the  operator  has  been  accuftomed  to  another,, 
fuch  a  one,  however  aukward,  becomes  neceffary  after- 
wards to  his  right  performance  of  that  operation. 

Cuftom  alfo  determines  the  degree  of  ufcillation  of" 
which  the  moving  fibres  are  capable.  A  perfon  accu- 
ftomed to  ftrong  mufcular  exertions  is  quite  incapable 
of  tire  more  delicate.  Thus  writing  is  performed  by 
fmall  mufcular  contraftions  ;  but  if  a  perfon  has  beeri' 
accuftomed  to  ftrongcr  motions  with  thefe  mufcles,  he 
will  write  with  much  lefs  fteadlnefs. 

This  fubjert  of  teniion,  formerly  attributed  to  the 
funple fibres,  is  probably  more  ftriclly  applicable  to  the 
moving  :  for,  befides  a  tenfion  from  flexion,  there  is 
alfo  a  tenfion  from  irritation  and  fympathy  ;  e.  g.  the 
tenfion  of  the  ftomach  from  food,  gives  tenfion  to  the 
whole  body.  Wine  and  fplrituous  liquors  give  tenfion;. 
e.  g.  a  perfon  that  is  fo  affedted  with  tremor  as  fcarce- 
ly  to  hold  a  glafs  of  any  of  thefe  liquors  to  his  head, 
has  no  foouer  fwallowed  it,  than  his  whole  body  be- 
comes fteady  ;  and  after  the  fyftem  has  been  accu- 
ftomed to  fuch  ftimuli,  if  they  are  not  applied  at  the 
ufual  time,  the  whole  body  becomes  flaccid,  and  of 
confequcnce  unfteady  in  its  motions. 

Again,  cuftom  gives  facility  of  motion.  This  feems 
to  proceed  from  the  diftenfion  which  the  nervous 
power  gives  to  the  moving  fibres  themfelves.  But  in> 
whatever  manner  it  is  occafioned,  the  effeft  is  obvi- 
ous;  for  any  new  or  unufual  motion  is  performed  with 
great  difficulty. 

It  is  fuppofed  that  fenfatlon  depends  on  a  commu- 
nication with  the  fenforiuin  commune,  by  means  of  or- 
gans fufiiclently  diftended  with  nervous  influence.  We- 
have  found,  that  fenfibility  is  dimlnifhed  by  repetition. 
And  we  have  now  to  obferve,  that  in  fome  cafes  it 
may  be  inereafed  by  repetition,  owing  to  the  nervous, 
power  itfelf  flowing  more  eafily  into  the  part  on  ac- 
count of  cuftom.  Attention  to  a  particular  oljject  may 
alfo  determine  a  greater  influx  into  any  particuhir  part,, 
and  thus  the  fenfibility  and  irritability  of  that  particu- 
lar part  may  be  inereafed. 

But  with  regard  to  facility  of  motion,  the  nervous. 
power,  no  doubt,  flows  molt  eafily  into  tliofe  parts  to. 
which  it  has  been  accuftomed  :  yet  facility  of  motion 
does  not  entirely  depend  on  this,  but  in  part  alfo  on 
the  concurrence  of  the  action  of  a  gie.it  many  muf- 
cles ;  f.  g.  Winflow  has  obferved,  that  in  performing 
any  motion,  a  number  of  mufcles  concur  to  give  a  fixed 
pulut  tu  thoft  inieiided  chiefly  to  art,  as   well   as  to. 

others ; 


c   u   s 


[   62 


Cunom 
and  H;ibit 


Others  tliat  are  to  vary  and  modify  their  aiflion.  This, 
however,  16  aflifted  by  repetition  and  the  freer  influx  ; 
as  by  experience  we  know  the  proper  attitude  for  giving 
a  fixed  point  in  order  to  perform  any  aftion  with  fa- 
cility and  [leadinefs. 

Cuftom  gives  a  fpontaneous  motion  alfo,  which  feems 
-to  recur  at  ftated  periods,  even  when  the  exciting 
caufes  are  removed.  Thus,  if  the  ftomach  has  been 
accuftomed  to  vomit  from  a  particular  medicine,  it  will 
require  a  much  fmaller  dofe  than  at  firft,  nay,  even 
the  very  fight  or  remembrance  of  it  will  be  fiifficient 
to  produce  the  effeft  ;  and  there  are  not  wanting  in- 
flances  of  habitual  vomiting,  from  the  injudicious  ad- 
miniftration  of  emetics.  It  is  on  this  account  that  all 
fpnfmodic  affecftions  fo  eafily  become  habitual,  and  are 
fo  difficult  of  cure  ;  as  we  muft  not  only  avoid  all  the 
exciting  caufes,  even  in  the  fmalleft  degree,  but  alfo 
their  aflbciations. 

Cuftom  alfo  gives  ftrength  of  motion  ;  ftrength  de 
pends  on  ftrong  ofcillations,  a  free  "and  copious  influx 
of  the  nervous  power,  and  on  denfe  folids.  But  in 
what  manner  all  thefe  circumftances  have  been  brought 
about  by  repetition,  has  been  already  explained.  The 
effeCl  of  cuftom,  in  producing  ftrength,  may  be  thus 
illuftrated  :  a  man  that  begins  with  lifting  a  calf,  by 
continuing  the  fame  pradiice  every  day,  will  be  able 
to  lift  it  when  grown  to  the  full  fize  of  a  bull. 

All  this  is  of  confiderable  importance  in  the  praAice 
of  phyfic,  though  but  too  little  regarded  ;  for  the  reco- 
very of  weak  people,  in  great  mea!ure,  depends  on 
the  ufe  of  exercife,  fuited  to  their  ftrength,  or  rather 
within  it,  frequently  repeated  and  gradually  increafed. 
Farther,  it  is  neceflary  to  obferve,  that  cuftom  regu- 
lates the  particular  celerity  with  which  each  motion  is 
to  be  performed  :  for  a  perfon  accuftomed,  for  a  con- 
fiderable  time,  to  one  degree  of  celerity,  becomes  in- 
capable of  a  greater  ;  e.  g.  a  man  accuftomed  to  flow 
•walking  will  be  out  of  breath  before  he  can  run  20 
paces.  The  train,  or  order,  in  which  our  motions  are 
to  be  performed,  is  alfo  eftabliflied  by  cuftom  ;  for  if 
a  man  hath  repeated  motions,  for  a  certain  time,  in  any 
particular  order,  he  cannot  afterwards  perform  them 
in  any  other.  Cuftom  alfo  very  frequently  aflbciates 
motions  and  fenfations  :  thus,  if  a  perfon  has  been  in 
ufe  of  affociating  certain  ideas  with  the  ordinary  fti- 
mulus  which  in  health  excites  urine,  without  thefe 
ideas  the  ufual  inclination  will  fcarce  excite  that  excre- 
tion ;  and,  when  thefe  occur,  will  require  it  even  in 
the  abfence  of  the  primary  exciting  caufe  :  e.  g.  it 
is  very  ordinary  for  a  perfon  to  make  urine  when  go- 
ing to  bed  ;  and  if  he  has  been,  for  any  length  of  time, 
accuftomed  to  do  fo,  he  will  ever  afterwards  make 
urine  at  that  time,  though  otherwife  he  would  often 
have  no  fuch  inclination  :  by  this  means  fome  fecre- 
tions  become,  in  a  manner,  fubjeft  to  the  will.  The 
fame  may  be  faid  of  going  to  ftool :  and  this  affords 
118  a  good  rule  in  the  cafe  of  coftivenefs ;  for  by  en- 
deavouring to  fix  a  ftated  time  for  this  evacuation,  it 
will  afterwards,  at  fuch  time,  more  readily  return.  It 
is  farther  remarkable,  that  motions  are  infeparably  af- 
fociated  with  other  motions :  this,  perhaps,  very  often 
proceeds  from  the  neceflary  degree  of  tenfion  ;  but  it 
alfo  often  depends  merely  on  cuftom,  an  inftance  of 
which  we  have  in  the  uniform  motions  of  our  eyes. 

4.  Ejffedi  on  the  •whole  Nervous  Paiuer.     We  have 


2    ]  c   u   s 

found,  that,  by  cuftom,  the  nervous  influente  may  be  Cuftom 
determined  more  eafily  into  one  part  than  another ;  """^  '^'''''] 
and  therefore,  as  all  the  parts  of  the  fyftem  are  ftrong-  "'~~ 
ly  connefted,  the  fenfibility,  irritability,  and  ftrength 
of  any  particular  part,  may  be  thus  increaf'd.  Cu- 
ftom alfo  has  the  power  of  altering  the  natural  tem- 
perament, and  of  inducing  a  new  one.  It  is  alfo  in 
the  power  of  c\iftom  to  render  motions  periodical,  and 
periodically  fpontaneous.  An  inftance  of  this  we  have 
in  fleep,  which  is  commonly  faid  to  be  owing  to  tlie 
nervous  power  being  exhaufted,  the  neceflary  confe- 
quence  of  which  is  fleep,  e.  g.  a  reft  of  the  voluntary 
motions  to  favour  the  recruit  of  that  power  :  but  if 
this  v/ere  the  cafe,  the  return  of  fleep  fliould  be  at  dif- 
ferent times,  according  as  the  caufes  which  dimlnifli 
the  nervous  influence  operate  more  or  lefs  powerfiflly  ; 
whereas  the  cafe  is  quite  otherwife,  thefe  returns  of 
fleep  being  quite  regular.  This  is  no  lefs  remarkable 
in  the  appetites,  that  return  at  particular  periods,  in- 
dependent of  every  caufe  but  cuftom.  Hunger,  t.  g. 
is  an  extremely  uneafy  fenfation  ;  but  goes  off'  of  it- 
felf,  if  the  perfon  did  not  take  food  at  the  ufual  time. 
The  excretions  are  farther  proofs  of  this,  e.  g.  going 
to  ftool,  which,  if  it  depended  on  any  particular  irri- 
tation, fliould  be  at  longer  or  fliorter  intervals  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  aliment.  There  are  many- 
other  inftances  of  thid  dilpofition  of  the  nervous  influ- 
ence to  periodical  motions,  as  the  ftory  of  the  idiot  of 
Stafford,  recorded  by  Dr  Plot  (Speilator,  n°  4+7-)> 
who,  being  accuftomed  to  tell  the  hours  of  the  church- 
clock  as  it  ftruck,  told  them  as  exactly  when  it  did  not 
ftrike  by  iis  being  out  of  order.  Montaigne  tells  us 
of  fome  oxen  that  were  employed  in  a  machine  for 
drawing  water,  who,  after  making  300  turns,  which 
was  the  ufual  number,  could  be  ftimulated  by  no  whip 
or  goad  to  proceed  farther.  Infants,  alfo,  cry  for  and 
expeA  the  breaft  at  thofe  times  in  which  the  nurfe 
has  been  accuftomed  to  give  it. 

Hence  it  would  appear,  that  the  human  economy 
is  fubjedl  to  periodical  revolutions,  and  that  thefe  hap- 
pen not  oftener  may  be  imputed  to  variety  :  and  this 
feems  to  be  the  reafon  why  they  happen  oftener  In  the 
body  than  mind,  becaufe  that  is  fubjeft  to  greater  va- 
riety. We  fee  frequent  inftances  of  this  in  difeafes, 
and  in  their  crifes ;  intermitting  fevers,  epilepfies, 
allhmas,  &c.  are  examples  of  periodical  affeAions : 
and  that  critical  days  are  not  fo  ftrongly  marked  in 
this  country  as  in  Greece,  and  fome  others,  may  be 
imputed  to  the  variety  and  inftability  of  our  climate  ; 
but  perhaps  ftiU  more  to  the  lefs  fenfibility  and  irrita- 
bihty  of  our  fyftem  ;  for  the  exhibition  of  medicine 
has  little  effedl  in  difturbing  the  crifes,  though  it  be 
commonly  afllgned  as  a  caufe. 

We  are  likewife  fubjcA  to  many  habits  independent 
of  ourfelves,  as  from  the  revolutions  of  the  celeftial 
bodies,  particularly  the  fun,  which  determines  the  bo- 
dy, perhaps,  to  other  daily  revolutions  befides  fleeping 
and  waking.  There  are  alfo  certain  habits  depending 
on  the  feafons.  Our  connexions,  likewife,  with  re- 
fpeS  to  mankind,  are  means  of  inducing  habits.  Thus 
regularity  from  affociating  in  bufinefs,  induces  regular 
habits  both  of  mind  and  body. 

There  are  many  difeafes  which,  though  they  arofe 
at  firft  from  particular  caufes,  at  laft  continue  merely 
through  cullom  or  habit.     Thefe  are  chiefly  of  the 

nervous 


c  u   s 


I   623  ] 


c  u  s 


Ciinom  nervous  fyflem.  We  fliould  therefore  ftudy  to  coun- 
aud  Habit,  tjrail  fiich  habits;  and  accoidingly  Hippocrates,  among 
Culloms.  ^i^j^^j.  jijjngs  for  the  cure  of  epilcpfy,  orders  an  entiie 
~      '  change  of  the  manner  of  life.     We  likewile  imitate 

this  in  the  chincough  ;  which  often  refills  all  remedies 
till  the  air,  diet,  and  ordinary  tiaiii  of  life,  are  chan- 
ged. 

5.  Exec's  on  the  BlooJ-veJfeh.  From  what'  has  been 
faid  on  the  neivous  power,  the  diftribution  of  the  fluids 
muft  neceflarily  be  varioully  atfedled  by  ciillom,  and 
with  that  the  diftribution  of  the  different  excretions  ; 
for  though  we  make  an  eftimate  of  the  proportion  of 
the  excretions  to  one  another,  according  to  the  climate 
and  feafons,  they  muft  certainly  be  very  much  varied 
by  cuftom. 

On  this  head  we  may  obferve,  that  blood-letting 
has  a  manifeft  tendency  to  increafe  the  quantity  of  the 
blood  ;  and  if  this  evacuation  be  repeated  at  ftated 
times,  fuch  fymptoms  of  repletion,  and  fuch  motions 
are  excited  at  the  returning  periods,  as  render  the  ope- 
ration necelTary.  The  fame  has  been  obferved  in  fome 
fpontaneous  hemorrhagles.  Thefe,  indeed,  at  firft, 
may  have  fome  exciting  caufes,  but  afterwards  they 
feem  to  depend  chiefly  on  cullom.  The  beft  proof  of 
this  is  with  regard  to  the  menftrual  evacuation.  There 
is  certainly  fomething  originally  in  females,  that  de- 
termines that  evacuation  to  the  monthly  periods.  Con- 
ftant  repetition  of  this  comes  to  fix  it,  independent  of 
ftrong  caufes,  either  favouring  or  preventing  repletion  ; 
e.  g.  blood-letting  will  not  impede  it,  nor  filling  the 
body  induce  it  :  and  indeed,  lo  much  is  this  evacua- 
tion connefted  with  periodical  motions,  that  it  is  little 
in  our  power  to  produce  any  efFeft  by  medicines  but 
at  thofe  particular  times.  Thus  if  we  would  relax 
the  uterine  fyftem,  and  bring  back  this  evacuation 
when  fuppreffed,  our  attempts  would  be  vain  and  ftuit- 
lefs,  unlefs  given  at  that  time  when  the  menfes  ihould 
have  niituraliy  returned. 

CUSTOMS,  in  political  economy,  or  the  duties, 
toll,  tribute,  or  tariff,  payable  to  the  king  upon  mer- 
chandize exported  and  imported,  form  a  branch  of  the 
perpetual  taxes.     See  Tax. 

The  confiderations  upon  which  this  revenue  (or  the 
more  ancient  part  of  it,  which  arofe  orily  from  exports) 
was  invcfted  in  the  king,  were  faid  to  be  two:  i,  Be- 
caufe  he  gave  the  fubjeft  leave  to  depart  the  kingdom, 
and  to  carry  his  goods  along  with  him.  2.  Becaafe  the 
king  was  bound  of  common  right  to  maintain  and  keep 
up  the  ports  and  havens,  and  to  prot»:<ft  the  merchant 
from  pirates.  Some  have  imagined  they  are  called  with 
us  aijloms,  becaufe  they  were  the  inheritance  of  the 
king  by  immemorial  ufage  and  the  common  law,  and 
not  granted  him  by  any  ftatute  :  but  Sir  Edward  Coke 
•  hath  clearly  fhown,  that  the  king's  firft  claim  to  them 
was  by  grant  of  parliament  3  Edw.  1.  though  the  re- 
cord thereof  is  not  now  extant.  And  indeed  this  is 
in  exprefs  words  confeffed  by  ftatute  25  Edw.  I.  c.  7. 
wherein  the  king  promifes  to  take  n»  cuftoms  from 
merchants,  without  the  common  affent  of  the  realm, 
*'  faving  to  us  and  our  heirs  the  cuftoms  on  wool, 
Ikins,  and  leather,  formerly  granted  to  us  by  the 
commonalty  aforefaid."  Thefs  were  formerly  called 
hereditary  cuftoms  of  the  crown  ;  and  were  due  on  the 
exportation  only  of  the  faid  three  commodities,  and 
of  none  other :  which  were  flyled  the  fapk  coxraodi- 


ties  of  the  kingdom,  becaufe  they  were  obliged  to  be  Cu(lom«. 
brought  to  thofe  ports  where  the  king's  ftaple  was  ''~~^ 
eftablilhed,  in  ord.;r  to  be  there  firft  rated,  and  then 
exported.  They  were  denominated  in  the  barbarous 
Latin  of  our  ancient  records,  cujlmna,  (an  appellation 
which  fci-'ms  to  be  derived  from  the  French  word  cou- 
Jlum,  or  cou/iim,  which  fignities  toll  or  tribute,  and 
owes  its  own  etymology  to  the  word  coii/},  which  fig- 
nifies  price,  chaige,  or,  as  we  have  adopted  it  in 
Englifh,  co/l)  ;  not  confuctttdines,  which  is  the  language 
of  our  law  whenever  it  means  merely  ufages.  Tlie  du- 
ties on  wool,  fticep-diins  or  wooIfcUs,  and  leather,  en- 
ported,  were  called  cujiuma  antiqua  Jive  magna  ;  and 
weie  payable  by  every  merchant,  as  well  native  as 
flranger ;  with  this  difference,  that  merchant- ftrangere 
paid  an  additional  toll,  viz.  half  as  much  again  as  wan 
paid  by  natives.  "The  ai/luma  parva  el  nova  were  an 
impoft  of  3d.  in  the  pound,  due  from  merchant- ftraii- 
gers  only,  for  all  commodities  as  well  imported  as  ex- 
ported ;  which  was  ufually  called  the  alien's  duty,  anl 
was  firft  granted  in  31  Edw.  I.  But  thefe  ancient 
hereditary  cuftoms,  efpecially  thofe  on  wool  and  wool- 
fells,  came  to  be  of  little  account,  when  the  nation 
became  fenfible  of  the  advantages  of  a  home  manufac- 
ture, and  prohibited  the  exportation  of  wool  by  fta- 
tute I  1  Edw.  III.  c.  1. 

Other  cuftoms  payable  upon  exports  and  imports 
were  diftinguilhed  into  fubfidies,  tonnage,  poundage, 
and  other  impofts.  Subfidies  were  fuch  as  were  im- 
pofcd  by  parliament  upon  any  of  the  ftaple  commodi- 
ties before  mentioned,  over  and  above  the  cujiuma- 
antiqua  et  magna:  tonnage  was  a  duty  upon  all  wines 
imported,  over  and  above  the  prifage  and  butlerage 
aforefaid  :  poundage  was  a  duty  irapofcd  ad  valorem, 
at  the  rate  of  1  2  d.  in  the  pound,  on  all  other  mer- 
chandize whatfoever ;  and  the  other  impofts  were 
fuch  as  were  occafionally  laid  on  by  parliament,  as 
circumttancts  and  times  required.  Thefe  diftinftions 
are  now  in  a  manner  forgotten,  except  by  the  officers 
immediately  concerned  in  this  department ;  their  pro- 
duce being  in  elFeft  all  blended  together,  under  the 
one  denomination  of  the  ciifloms. 

By  thefe  we  imdcrftand,  at  prefent,  a  duty  orBhclJT.. 
fubfidy  paid  by  the  merchant  at  the  quay  upon  all'''""""^" 
imported  as  well  as  exported  commodities,  by  autho- 
rity of  parliament ;  unlefs  where,  for  particular  na- 
tional reafons,  certain  rewards,  bounties,  or  drawbacks, 
are  allowed  for  parcicular  exports  or  Imports.  The 
cuftoms  thus  impofcd  by  pailiament  are  cljiefly  con- 
tained in  two  books  of  rates,  fet  forth  by  parliamen- 
tary authority  ;  one  figned  by  Sir  Harbottle  Grime- 
fton,  fpeaker  of  the  houfe  of  commons  in  Charles  II. 's 
time  ;  and  the  other  an  additional  one  figned  by  Sir 
Spenfer  Compt on,  fpeaker  in  the  reign  of  George  I. 
to  which  alfo  fubfequent  additions  have  been  made. 
Aliens  pay  a  larger  proportion  than  natural  fubjefts, 
which  is  what  is  now  generally  underftood  by  the  aliens 
duty  ;  to  be  exempted  from  which  is  one  principal 
caufe  of  the  frequent  applications  to  parliament  for 
afls  of  naturalization. 

Thefe  cuft.oms  are  then,  we  fee,  a  tax  immediate- 
ly paid  by  the  merchant,  although  ultimately  by  the 
confumer.  And  yet  thefe  are  the  duties  felt  leaft  by. 
the  people;  and,  if  prudently  managed,  the  people 
hardly  confidcr  that  they  pay  tliem  at  all.     For  the 

merchaut: 


.0 


Cuftos  Bre 
vimn. 


G    U     S  [6: 

Cufloms  n-ierchant  is  eafy,  being  fenfibk  he  doe?  not  pay  them 
for  him'elf ;  and  the  coRfumcr,  who  teally  pays 
them,  confounds  them  with  the  price  of  the  commo- 
dity :  in  the  fame  manner  as  Tacitus  obferves,  that 
the  emperor  Nero  gained  the  reputation  of  abolirtiing 
the  tax  of  the  fale  of  fiaves,  though  he  only  transfer- 
red it  from  the  buyer  to  the  ftlbr  ;■  fo  that  it  was,  as 
he  exprtffes  it,  remjfum  magis  ffecie,  quam  vi :  gtiia, 
cum  'venditor  pendere  jubtretnr.  In  partem  pretli  emplarihus 
-acc-rejahal.  But  this  inconvenience  attends  it  on  the 
otlier  hand,  that  thefe  impolls,  if  too  heavy,  are  a 
cheik  and  cramp  upon  trade  ;  and  efpccially  when  thi 
value  of  the  commodity  bears  little  or  no  proportion 
to  the  quantity  of  the  duty  impofed.  This  in  con- 
fequcnce  gives  tife  alfo  to  fmuggling,  which  then  be- 
comes a  very  lucrative  employment :  and  its  natural 
and  moll  reafonable  punifhment,  viz.  confifcation  of 
the  commodity,  is  in  fuch  cafes  quite  ineffeftual ;  the 
intriiific  value  of  the  goods,  which  is  all  that  the 
fmUggler  has  paid,  and  therefore  all  that  he  can  lofe, 
being  very  Inconfiderable  when  compared  with  his  pro- 
fpea  of  advantage  in  evading  the  duty.  Recourfe 
inuft  therefore  be  had  to  extraordinary  punifhments 
to  prevent  it  i  perhaps  even  to  capital  ones:  which  de- 
Itroys  all  proportion  of  pur.ithment,  and  puts  murderers 
upon  an  equal  footing  with  fuch  as  are  really  guilty  of 
no  natural,  but  merely  a  politive,  offence. 

There  is  alfo  another  ill  confcquence  attending  high 
impolh  on  merchandize,  not  frequently  conlidered, 
but  indifputably  certain  ;  that  the  earlier  any  tax  is 
laid  on  a  commodity,  the  heavier  it  falls  upon  the 
confumer  in  the  end  ;  for  every  trader  through  whofe 
hands  it  paffes  muft  have  a  profit,  not  only  upon  the 
raw  material  and  his  own  labour  and  time  in  prepa- 
ling  it,  but  alfo  upon  the  very  tax  itfelf,  which  he  ad- 
vaaces  to  the  government ;  othcrwife  he  lofes  the  ufe 
aii8  inteieft  of  the  money  which  he  fo  advances.  To 
inftance  in  the  aiticle  of  foreign  paper.  The  merchant 
pays  a  duty  upon  importacion,  which  he  does  not  re- 
ceive again  till  he  fells  the  commodity,  perhaps^  at  the 
end  of  three  months.  He  is  therefore  equjjly  intitled 
to  a  profit  upon  that  duty  which  he  psys  at  the  cuftom- 
houfe,  as  to  a  profit  upon  the  original  price  whicli  he 
pays  to  the  manufafturer  abroad  ;  and  confiders  it 
accordingly  in  the  price  he  demands  of  the  llationer. 
When  the'llationer  fells  it  again,  he  requires  a  profit 
of  the  printer  or  bookftUer  upon  the  whole  fum  ad- 
vanced by  him  to  the  merchants :  and  the  bookfeller 
does  not  fcrget  to  charge  the  full  proportion  to  the 
lludent  or  ultimate  confumer  ;  who  therefore  does  not 
only  pay  the  original  duty,  but  the  profits  of  thele 
three  intermediate  traders,  who  have  fucCefTively  advan- 
ced it  for  him.  This  might  be  carried  much  farther  in 
any  mechanical,  or  more  complicated,  branch  of  trade. 

CiiTOM-HouJe,  an  office  eftabliflied  by  the  king's  au- 
thority in  the  maritime  cities,  or  port-towns,  for  the 
receipt  and  management  of  the  cuiloms  and  duties  of 
importation  and  exportation,  impofed  on  merchandifes, 
and  regulated  by  books  of  rates. 

CUSTOS  EREviuM,  the  principal  clerk  belonging 
to  the  court  of  common  pleas,  whofe  bufinefs  it  is  to 
receive  and  keep  all  tlie  writs  m.ade  returnable  in  that 
court,  filing  evti^  return  by  itftlf ;  and,  at  the  end 
of  each  ternij  to  receive  of  the  prothonot&ries  all  the 
records  of  the  nifi  prius,  called  the  p'jhas. 

N"  96. 


4     ]  CUT 

Cl'sto!  liotiilonim,  an  olficcr   who   has  the  cuilody  Curto'!  Ro. 
of  the  rolls  and  records  of  the  feflions  of  peace,  and  <il-    ■"'"''"'n 
fo  of  the  commiffion  of  the  peace  itfelf.  ,  '1. 

He  ufually  is  fome  perfon  of  quality,  and  alw-ays  a  '        ,  ■■  ^ 
jullice  of  the   peace,  of   the   quorum,  in  the  county 
where  he  is  .ippointed. 

CriTOi  Spirilualium,  he  that  exercifes  the  fpiritual 
jurifdiclion  of  a  diocefe,  during  the  vacancy  of  any 
fee,  which,  by  the  canon-law,  belongs  to  the  dean 
and  chapter;  but  at  prefent,  in  England,  to  the  arch- 
bifliop  of  the  province,  by  prefcription. 

CriTOS  Temporalium,  was  the  perfon  to  whom  a  va- 
cant fee  or  abbey  was  given  by  the  king,  as  fupreme 
lord.  His  office  was,  as  fteward  of  the  goods  and 
profits,  to  give  an  account  to  the  efcheator,  who  did 
the  like  to  the  exchequer. 

CUT-A-FEATHER,  in  the  fea-lsnguage.  If  a  fhip 
has  too  broad  a  bow,  it  is  common  to  fay,  JJ.v  •will  not 
cut  a  feathii- ;  that  is,  (lie  will  not  pafs  through  the 
water  fo  fwift  as  to  make  it  foam  or  froth. 

Cut  Purfe,  in  law  ;  if  any  perfon  chun  iff  fecrcte,  and 
without  the  knowledge  of  another,  cut  his  purfe  or 
pick  his  pocket,  and  fteal  from  thence  above  the 
value  of  twelve  pence,  it  is  felony  excluded  clergy. 

Cul-purfes  or  fnccularii,  were  more  fevercly  punifhed 
than  common  thieves  by  the  Roman  and  Athenian 
laws. 

Cut  Water,  the  Iharp  part  of  the  head  of  a  fhip  be- 
lov*'  the  beak.  It  is  fo  called  becaufe  it  cuts  or  divides 
the  water  before  it  comes  to  the  bow,  that  it  may  not 
come  too  fuddenly  to  the  breadth  of  the  fliip,  which 
would  retard  her. 

CUTANEOUS,  in  general,  an  appellation  given 
to  whatever  belongs  to  the  cutis  or  flvin.  Thus,  we 
fa)-  cutaneous  eruptions;  the  itch  is  a  cutaneous  difeafe. 

CUTH,  or  CuTHAH  (anc.geog.),  a  piovince  of 
Affyria,  which,  as  fome  fay,  lies  upon  the  Araxes, 
and  is  the  fame  with  Cufli:  but  others  take  it  to  be  the 
fame  with  the  country  which  the  Greeks  call  Sti/ianjf 
and  which  to  this  very  day,  fays  Dr  Wells,  is  by  the 
inhabitants  called  Chufrjlnn.  P'.  Calmct  is  of  opinion 
that  Cuthah  and  Scylhia  are  the  fame  place,  and  that 
the  Cuthites  who  were  removed  into  Samaria  by  Sal- 
manefer  (2  Kings  xvii.  24.)  came  from  Cufh  or  Cuth, 
mentioned  in  Gen.  ii.  13.  See  the  article  Cush. — 
The  Cuthites  worfhipped  the  idol  Nergal.  id.  ibid.  30. 
Thefe  people  were  tranfplantcd  into  Samaria  in  the 
room  of  the  Ifraeiites,  who  before  inhabited  it.  Cal- 
met  is  of  opinion,  that  they  came  from  the  land  of 
CuHi,  or  Cuthah  upon  the  Araxes ;  and  that  tlicir 
firft  fettlement  was  in  the  cities  of  the  Mcdes,  fub- 
dued  by  Salmanefer  ;ind  the  kings  of  Syria  his  pre- 
decefTors.  The  fcripture  ohlerves,  that  the  Cuth- 
ites, upon  their  arrival  in  this  new  countij,  conti- 
nued to  worfhip  the  gods  formerly  adored  by  them 
beyond  the  Euphrates.  Efarhaddon  king  of  Affy- 
ria, who  fucceeded  Sennacherib,  appuiuttd  an  liracli- 
tifli  priell  to  go  thither,  and  inftrutt  them  in  the  re- 
ligion of  the  Hebrews.  But  thefe  people  thought 
they  might  reconcile  their  old  fnpcillilion  with  the 
worfliip  of  the  true  God.  They  therefore  framed 
particular  gods  for  themfelves,  which  tlicy  placed  in 
the  feveral  cities  where  they  dwelt.  The  Cuthites 
then  worfhipped  both  the  Lord  and  their  falfe  gods 
together,  and  chofe  the  lowefl  of  the  people  to  make 
2  pritils 


CUT 


[     625     ] 


CUT 


priifts  of  them  in  the  high  plRces  ;  and  they  conti- 
luu'd  tills  piaih^ice  for  a  long  time.  But  afterwards 
^  they  forfook  the  worfliip  of  idols,  and  adhered  only 
to  the  law  of  Mofcs,  as  the  Samaritans  who  are  de- 
fc ended  from  tlie  Cuthites  do  at  this  day. 

CUTICLE,  the  fearf-ikin.     See  Anatomy,  n''74. 
CUTICULAR,  the  fame  with  Cutaneous. 
CUTIS,  the  (Ion.     See  Anatomy,  n-^  76. 
CUTTER,   a  fmall   vcflel,  commonly  navigated  in 
the  channel   of  England.        It   is  furnilhed  with   one 
maft,  and  rigged  as  a  floop.     Many  of  thefe  velTels  are 
ufed  iri  an   illicit   trade,  and   others  arc  employed  by 
government  to  take  them  ;  the  latter  of  wjiich  are  ei- 
ther under  the  direction  of  the  admiralty  or  cuftom- 
hoiife.      See  a  reprefentation  of  a  cutter  of  this  fort  in 
the  plate  referred  to  from  the  article  Vessel. 

Cutter,  is  alfo  a  fmall  boat  ufed  by  (liips  of  war. 
CvTTF.k  of  the  Tiillies,  an   oiHcer  of  tlie  exchequer, 
wliofe  bufinefs  is  to  provide  wood  for  the  tallies,  to  cut 
or  notch  the   fum  paid  upon   them ;  and  then   to  call 
them  into  court,  to  be  written  upon.     Sec  Tally. 

CUTTING,  a  term  ufed  in  various  fcnfes  and 
various  arts ;  in  the  general,  it  implies  a  divifion  or 
feparation. 

Cutting  is  particulaily  ufed  In  heraldry,  where 
the  Ihield  is  divided  into  two  equal  parts,  from  right 
to  left,  parallel  to  the  horizon,  or  in  the  feffe-way. 

Tlie  word  alfo  is  applied  to  the  honourable  ordina- 
ries, and  even  to  animak  and  moveables,  when  they  are 
divided  equallv  the  fame  way  ;  fo,  however,  as  that 
one  moiety  is  colour,  the  other  metal.  The  ordinaries 
are  faid  to  be  cut,  couped,  when  they  do  not  come 
full  to  the  extremities  of  the  (Isicld. 

Cutting,  in  chirurgery,  denotes  the  operation  of 
extrafting  the  ftone  out  of  the  bladder  by  fcttion.  See 
Lithotomy. 

Cutting  in  coinage.  When  the  laminx  or  plates 
of  the  metal,  be  it  gold,  lilver,  or  copper,  are  brought 
to  the  thicknefs  of  the  fptcies  to  he  coined,  pieces  are 
cut  out,  of  thicknefs,  and  nearly  of  the  weight,  of 
the  intended  coin;  which  are  now  called /'/(/.■i.;/A»Cj',  till 
the  king's  image  hath  been  (lamped  on  them.  The  in- 
ftrument  wherewith  they  cut,  conhfts  of  two  pieces  of 
fteel,  very  iharp,  and  placed  over  one  another ;  the 
lower  a  little  hollow,  reprefenting  a  mortar,  the  other 
a  peftle.  The  metal  put  between  the  two,  is  cut  out 
in  the  manner  dtfciibed  under  coinage. 

Note.  Medallions,  where  the  relievo  is  to  be  great, 
are  not  cut,  but  call  or  moulded. 

Cutting,  in  the  manege,  is  when  the  horfe's  feet 
interfere  ;  or  when  with  the  {hoe  of  one  foot  he  beats 
off  the  flcin  from  the  paliern  joint  of  another  foot. 
This  is  more  frequent  in  the  hind  feet  than  the  fore  : 
the  caufes  aie  either  wearincfs,  weaknefs  in  the  reins, 
not  knowing  how  to  go,  or  ill  Ihoeing. 

Cutting,  in  painting,  the  laying  one  ftrong 
lively  colour  over  another,  without  any  {liade  or  fofteu- 
ing.  The  cutting  of  colours  has  always  a  difagrceable 
effeft. 

Cutting  in  wood,  a  particular  kind  of  fculpture 
or  engraving;  denominated  from  the  matter  wherein 
it  is  employed. 

It  is  uled  for  various  purpofes  ;   as  for   figured  let- 
ters, head   and    tail- pieces    of  books ;    and    even    for 
fchemes  and  other  figures,  to  fave  the  expencei  of  eii- 
VoL,  V.  Tart  II. 


graving  on  copper;  and  for  prints  and  (lamp:  for  pa-    Cuitipif. 
per,  callicoes,  linens,  &c.  ' '  "  »  ■  ■  -^ 

The  invention  of  cutting  In  wood,  as  well  as  that 
in  copper,  is  afcribed  to  a  goldfniith  of  Eiorence  ;  but 
It  Is  to  Albert  Diirer  and  Lucas  they  aie  both  in- 
debted fur  their  perfei'tion.  See  Engraving,  and 
Printing. 

One  Hugo  de  Carpi  Invented  a  manner  of  cutflnr 
In  wood,  by  means  whereof  the  prints  appearexl  as  if 
painted  in  clair-obfcure.  In  order  to  this,  he  made 
three  kinds  of  ilamps  for  the  fame  deiignj  which  were 
drawn,  after  one  another,  through  the  nrefs  for  the 
fame  print:  they  were  fo  condufled,  as  that  one  ferved 
for  the  grand  lights,  a  fecond  for  the  demi-teiiiLs,  and 
a  third  fur  the  outlines  and  the  deep  fltadows. 

The  art  of  cutting  in  wood  was  certainly  carried 
to  a  very  great  pitch  above  two  hundred  years  ago  j 
and  might  even  vie,  for  beauty  and  juilnefs,  with  that 
of  engraving  in  copper.  At  prefent  it  is  in  a  low  con- 
dition, as  having  been  long  negletlcd,  and  the  appli- 
cation of  artifts  wholly  employed  on  copper,  as  the 
more  eafy  and  promifing  province:  net  but  that  wood- 
en cuts  have  the  advantage  ofthofe  in  copper  on  many 
accounts  j  chiefly  for  figures  and  devices  in  books  ;  as 
being  printed  at  the  fame  time  and  in  the  fame  pref» 
as  the  letters :  whereas  for  the  other,  there  Is  required 
a  particular  imprefhon.  In  the  reprefentation  of  plants 
and  flowers,  and  In  defigns  for  paper-hangings,  where 
the  outline  only  is  wanted  to  be  printed,  in  a  bold 
full  manner,  this  method  will  be  found  che.iper  and 
more  effeftual  than  the  ufe  of  copper-plates. 

Tile  cutters  in  wood  begin  with  preparing  a  plank 
or  block  of  the  iize  and  thicknefs  required,  and  very 
even  and  fmuotli  on  the  lide  to  be  cut  :  for  this,  they 
ulually  take  beech,  pear-tree,  or  box;  though  the  lat- 
ter is  the  belt,  as  being  the  clofeil,  and  kail  liable  to 
be  woim-eat.  The  wood  being  cut  into  a  proper 
form  and  fi/e,  fiiouid  be  planed  as  even  and  trulv  as 
poffible  :  it  is  then  .It  to  receive  the  drav^ing  or  chalk- 
ing of  the  dclign  to  be  engraved.  But  the  eifcdt  may 
be  made  more  apparent,  and  the  Ink,  If  any  be  ufed 
in  drawing,  be  prcvenled  fiom  running,  by  fpreading 
thinly  on  the  furfacc  of  the  wood  white  lead  temper 
cd  with  water,  by  grinding  with  a  brufh  pencil,  and 
afterwards  rubbing  it  well  with  a  fine  linen  rag  whilft 
it  is  wet  ;  and  when  it  is  dry,  brulhlng  off  any  loofc 
or  powdery  part  with  a  foft  pencil. 

On  this  block  they  draw  their  defign  with- a  pen  or 
pencil,  juft  as  they  would  have  it  printed.  Thofe 
who  cannot  draw  their  own  defign,  as  there  are  many 
who  cannot,  make  ufe  of  a  defign  furnilhed  them  by 
another;  failening  it  upon  the  block  with  parte  made 
of  fluur  and  water,  with  a  little  vinegar  or  gum 
tragacauth  ;  the  ilrokes  or  Tines  turned  towards  the 
wood. 

When  the  paper  Is  dry,  they  wafti  It  gently  over 
with  a  fponge  dipped  in  water  ;  which  done,  they 
take  off  the  paper  by  httle  and  little,  Hill  rubbing  it 
a  little  firll  with  the  tip  of  the  finger;  till  at  leu'rth 
there  be  nothing  left  on  the  block  but  the  ilrokes  of 
Ink  that  foira  the  defign,  which  mark  out  fo  much  of 
the  block  as  is  to  be  fpared  or  left  llandintf.  Fi- 
gures are  fometinies  cut  out  of  prints,  by  taking  away 
all  the  white  part  or  blank  paper,  and  cemented  with 
gum-water  to  the  furfacc  of  the  wood.  The  rcll  they 
4  K  cut 


CUT* 


t     626     ] 


CUT 


Culte. 


Cuttings  cut  off,  and  take  away  very  curioufly  with  the  points 
of  very  (harp  knives,  or  little  cliilTels  or  gravers,  ac- 
cording to  the  bignefs  or  delicacy  of  the  work  ;  for 
they  need  no  other  iaftruments. 

It  differs  from  engraving  in  copper,  becuufe  in  the 
former,  the  imprcflion  comes  from  the  prominent  parts 
«r  ftrokes  left  uncut ;  whereas  in  the  latter,  it  comes 
from  the  channels  cut  in  the  metal. 

'nie  manner  of  printing  with  wooden  prints  is  much 
more  expeditious  and  eafy  than  that  of  copper-plate  : 
beciufe  they  req'jire  only  to  be  dipt  in  the  printing- 
ink,  and  impreffed  on  the  objeft  in  the  fame  manner 
and  vrith  the  fame  apparatus  as  the  letter-printing 
is  managed  ;  and  for  purpofes  that  do  not  require 
great  correctnefs,  the  imprefiion  is  made  by  the  hand 
only,  a  proper  handle  being  fixed  to  the  middle  of  the 
print,  by  which  it  is  tiril  dipped  in  the  ink,  fprcad  by 
means  of  a  brufh  on  a  block  of  proportionable  fize 
covered  w'ith  leather;  and  then  lifted  up  inllantly, 
and  dropped  with  fome  little  force  on  the  paper  which 
is  to  receive  the  imprefiion. 

Cuttings,  or  flips,  in  gardening,  the  branches  or 
fprigs  of  trees  or  plants,  cut  or  flipped  off  to  fet  a- 
cain  ;  which  is  done  in  any  molil  line  earth. 

The  belt  feafon  is  from  Auguil  to  April ;  but  care 
is  to  be  taken  when  it  is  done,  the  fap  be  not  too  much 
in  the  top,  left  the  cut  die  before  that  part  in  tl.c  (.arth 
have  root  enough  to  fupport  it :  nor  yet  mull  it  be  too 
dry  or  fcanty  ;  the  fap  in  the  branches  aiTilling  it  to 
take  root. 

In  providing  the  cuttings,  fuch  branches  as  have 
joints,  knots,  or  burrs,  are  to  be  cut  off  iwo  or  three 
inches  beneath  them,  and  the  leaves  to  be  ftn'pped  off 
fo  far  as  they  are  fet  in  the  earth.  Small  top-branch- 
es, of  two  or  three  years  growth,  are  fitteit  tor  this 
operation. 

CUTTLE-FISH.  See  Sepia.  The  bone  of  the 
cuttle-fifh  is  hard  on  one  fide,  but  foft  and  yielding  on 
the  other;  fo  as  readily  to  receive  pretty  neat  impref- 
fions  from  medals,  &c.  and  afterwards  to  ferve  as  a 
mould  for  cafting  meials,  which  thus  take  the  figure 
of  the  original :  the  bone  is  likewife  frequently  em- 
ployed for  cleaning  or  poliftiing  liiver.  This  lilh  con- 
tains in  a  certain  diilinft  veflel  a  fluid  as  black  as  ink: 
which  it  is  faid  to  (hed  when  purfued,  and  thus  to  con- 
ceal itfelf  by  difcolouring  the  water.  The  particular 
qualities  of  this  liquor  are  not  yet  determined.  Dr 
Leigh  fays,  he  faw  a  letter  which  had  been  written 
with  it  ten  years  before,  and  which  ftill  continued. 
Some  report  that  the  ancients  made  their  ink  from  it ; 
and  others,  that  it  is  the  bafis  of  China,  or  Indian-ink: 
but  both  thefe  accounts  appear  to  have  little  founda- 
tion. Pliny,  fpeaking  of  the  inks  made  ufe  of  in  his 
time,  after  obferving  that  the  cuttle-fiih  is  in  this  re- 
fpeft  of  a  wonderful  nature,  adds  exprefsly,  that  ink 
was  not  made  from  it. 

CUTTS  (John  lord),  a  foldier  of  moft  hardy  bravery 
in  king  William's  wars,  was  fon  of  Richard  Cutts, 
Efq;  of  Matching  in  Eflex  ;  where  the  family  were 
fettled  about  the  time  of  Henry  VI.  and  had  a  great 
f  ft  ate.  He  entered  early  into  the  fervice  of  the 
duke  of  Monmouth,  was  aid-de-camp  to  the  duke  of 
'  J.orrain  in  Hungary,  and  fignaljzcd  himfelf  in  a 
ver)- extraordinary  manner  at  the  taking  of  Buda  by 
the  Imperialifts  in  1^86;  which  important  place  had 


b  een  for  near  a  century  and  a  half  in  the  hands  of  the 
Turks.     Mr  Addilon,  in  a  Latin  poem  worthy  of  the 
Augullan  age,  plainly  hints  at.  Mr  Cutts's  diliinguilh- 
ed  bravery  at   tliat   fiege.      Returning   to   England  at 
the  revolution,  he  had  a  regiment  of  foot  ;  was  crea- 
ted baron  of  Gowran   in    Ireland,  Dec.  6-1690;  ap- 
pointed governor  of  the  iile  of  Wight,  April  14.  1693  ; 
was  made  a   major-general  ;  and,   when  the   affalli.ia- 
tion    project  was   difcovered,    1695-6,  was  captain  of 
tlie  king's  guard.     In  1698  he  was  complimented  by 
Mr  John  Hopkins,  as  one  to  whom   "  a  double  crown 
was  due,"  as  a  hero  and  a  poet.      He  was  colonel  of 
the  Colddu  am,  or  fecond  regim.'nt  of  guards,  in  I  701,; 
when  Mr  Steele,  who  was  indebted  to  liis  intereit  for 
a  military  commilllon,   infcribcd  to  him  his  firll  work, 
"   The  Clniilian  Hero."      On  the  acceflion  of  queen 
Anne,  he  was  made  a  lieutenant-general  of  the  forces 
in  Holland  ;  commander  in  chief  of  the  forces  in  Ire- 
land, under  the  dake  of  Oriiiond,  March  23.  1704-5  ; 
and  afterwards  one  of  the  lords  jultices  of  that  king- 
dom, to  keep  h  m  out  of  the  way  of  action  ;  a  circuia- 
llance  which   broke  his  heart.     He   died  at  Dublin, 
J:m.  26.  1706-y,  and  is  buried  there   in   the  cathedral 
of  Chrifl  church.     He  wrote  a  poem  on  the  death  of 
queen  Mary  ;  and  publiflied,  in  1687,  "  Poetical  ex- 
ercifes,  written  upon  feveral  occafions,  and  dedicated 
to  her  royal  Highnefs  Mary  priucefs  01  Orange."      It 
contains,  befidcs  the  dedication  iigncd  J.  Cults,  verfts 
to  that  princefs ;  a  poem  on  W^ifdom  ;  another  to  Mr 
Waller  on  his  commending  it  ;  feven  more  copies  of 
verfes  (one  of  them  called  Z/c/  Ali/fc  Ca-oaher,  which  had 
been  afcribed  to  lord  Peterborough,  and  as  fucii  men- 
tioned by  Mr  Walpole  in  the  lilt  of  tliat  nobleman's 
writings),  and  ii  fongs  ;  the  whole  compofing  but  a 
very  thin  volume ;  which  is  by  no  means  io  fcarce  as 
Mr  Walpole  fuppofes  it  to  be.     A   fpecimen  of  his 
poetry  (of  which  the    five   firll   lines   are   quoted   by 
Steele  in  his  fifth  Tatler)  is  here  added  : 

Oniy  tell  her  thit  I  love, 

Lejvc  the  reft  t.)  licr  and  fate  ; 
Si-mc  kind  plant-t  from  above 
May  jerhaps  I.er  j  it)  rauve  ; 

Lnver*  on  their  ft/tf  mi;ft  wait" 
Only  tell  her  tha'  1  love. 
Why,  oh,  why  fli  >ul(J  I  defpair  .' 

Mer cj 's  pi^:tur\t  in  her  eye; 
If  fhe  ouc-  vouchfafc  to  hear. 
Welcome  hojK,  ani  welcom-  fear. 

•She't  tuo  gooH  to  let  me  die  ; 
Why,  oh,  why  Ihoold  I  Jcl'pai;  ? 

CYATHUS,  «u»6»f  (from  the  verb  X"'"'  to  pour 
out),  was  a  common  meafure  among  the  Greeks  and" 
Romans,  both  of  the  liquid  and  dry  kind.  It  was  e- 
qual  to  an  ounce,  or  the  twelfth  part  of  a  pint.  The 
cyathus  was  made  with  an  handle  like  oilr  punch-ladle. 
The  Roman  topers  were  ufed  to  drink  as  many  cydthi 
as  there  were  mufes,  i.  e.  nine  ;  alfo  as  many  as  there 
were  letters  in  the  patron's  iiame.  Thus,  they  had 
modes  of  drinking  firailar  to  the  modern  health-drink- 
ing or  toalHng.  They  fay,  that  the  cyathus  of  the 
Greeks  weighed  10  drachms;  and  Galen  fays  the  fame; 
though  clfewhere  he  fays,  that  a  cyathus  contains  12 
drach.Tis  of  oil,  13  drachms  and  one  ftruple  of  wine, 
water,  or  vinegar,  and  18  drachms  of  honey.  Galen 
fays,  that  among  the  Veterinarii  the  cyathus  contain- 
ed two  ounces. 

CYAXARES,  fonofPhraortes,  was  king  of  Me- 
dia 


c  y  .B         .   .C  6 

(lia  and  PeiTia.  Ke  bravely  dt-f.-i'-'fil  )iu  'kingdom, 
whiciv  the  Scythians  had  invaded.  He  made  war  a- 
•^aiiift  Alyattes  king  of  I.ydia  ;  and  fiibjetled  to  his 
power  all  Alia  beyond  the  river  Halys.  He  died  af- 
ter a  reign  of  40  years,  in  the  year  of  Rome  160. 

CyaxaresH.  is  fuppofed  by  fome  to  bv;  the  fame 
as  Darius  the  Mede.  He  was  fon  of  Aftya^es  king 
of  x>Ldia.  He  added  feven  provinces  to  his  father's 
dominions,  and  made  war  againft  the  Affyrians,  whom 

'Cyrus  favoiu'ed. 

'CYBEIiE,  a  name  of  Cyhele,  from  xuS./J.,,,  Iiecaufe 
in  the  celebration  of  her  feftivals  men  were  driven  to 

■raadnefs. 

CV13ELE,  in  Pagan  mythology,  the  daughter  of 
Ctrliis  and  Terra,  and   wife  of  Saturn.      Slie   is  fup- 

•pofcd  to  be  the  fame  as  Ceres,   Rhea,  Ops,  Ve''ia,  I5o- 

■  na  Mater,  Magna  Mater,  Berecynthia,  Dintlymene, 
&c.  According  to  Uiodorus,  (lie  was  the  daugiiter 
of  a  l>ydi  n  prince,  and  as  foen  as  fiie  was  born  (lie 
was  expof;d  on  a  mountain.  She  was  prefcrved  by 
fucking  fome  of  the  wild  beads  of  the  foreit,  and  re- 
ceived the  name  of  Cybele  "rom  the  mountain  where 
her  life  had  been  preferv^d.  When  (Re  returned  to 
her  father's  court,  llic  had   an   intrigue  with  Atys,  a 

■  beautiful  youth  whom  her  father  mutilated,  &c.  All 
the  mythologifts  are  unanimous  in  mentioning  the 
amour?  of  Atys  and  Cybele.  In  Phrygia  the  fellivals 
of  Cybele  were  obftrved  with  the  greateii  folcmnity. 
Her  priefts,  called  Cory/ antes.  Galli,  &c.  were  not  ad- 
mitted in  the  fervice  of  the  goddefs  without  a  previous 
mutilation.  In  the  celebration  of  the  fellivals,  tliey 
imitated  the  manners  of  madmen,  and  (Hied  tlie  air  with 
(hricks  and  bowlings  mixed  with  the  confufed  noife  of 
drums,  tabrcts,  bucklers,  and  fpears.  This  was  in  com- 
memoration of  the  forrow  of  Cybele  for  the  lofs  of 
her  favourite  Atys.  Cybele  was  generally  reprefented 
as  a  robuft  woman  far  advanced  in  her  pi-egnancy,  to 
intimate  the  fecundity  of  the  earth.  She  held  keys  in 
Jier  hand,  .and  her  head  was  crowned  with  rifing  tur- 
rets, and  fometimes  with  the  leaves  of  an  oak.  She 
fometimes  appears  riding  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  two 
tame  lions:  Atys  follows  by  her  fide,  carrying  a  ball 
in  his  hand,  and  fupporting  himfelf  upon  a  fir  tree 
V  hich  is  facrcd  to  the  goddefs.  Sometimes  (lie  is  re- 
prefented with  a  fceptre  in  her  hand,  with  her  head 
covered  with  a  tower.  She  is  alfo  feen  with  many 
breafts,  to  fiiow  that  the  earth  gives  aliments  to  all  li- 
ving creature? ;  and  (he  generally  carries  two  lions  un- 
der her  arms.  From  Phrygia  the  worlhip  of  Cybele 
paffcd  into  Greece,  and  was  folemnly  etlablldied  at 
Eleuils  under  the  name  of  the  lll'ufimati  mfjler'vjs  of  Ce- 
res. The  Romans,  by  order  of  tiie  Sibylline  books, 
brought  the  ftatue  of  the  godi'efs  from  PeflTmus  into 
Italy  ;  and  when  the  Ihip  which  carried  it  had  run  on 
a  (hallow  bank  of  the  Tiber,  the  virtue  and  innocence 
of  Claudia  was  vindicated  in  removing  it  with  her 
girdle.  It  is  fuppofed  that  the  mylleries  of  Cybele 
were  firft  known  about  2J7  years  before  the  Trojan 
war,  or  1580  years  before  the  Auguftan  age.  The 
Romans  were  particularly  fuperftitious  in  wafliln.g  eve- 
ry year,  on  the  6th  of  the  kalends  of  April,  the  fhrine 
of  this  goddefs  in  the  waters  of  the  river  Almon. 
There  prevailed  many  obfcenities  in  the  obfervation 
of  the  fellivals  j  and  the  priefts  themfelves  were  the 


^7    3 


CYC 


CycOT. 


mod  e:(gcr  to  ufe   indecent   exprcflions,  and  to  rtiow     Cyl>cB. 
their  unboundeil  liccntioufiicfs  b/  the  iinpurit,y  of  thtir       '"'"• 
aftion.s.  ( 

CVBELICUM  ma:im3r,  a  name  given  by  the  an- 
cients to  a  fpccies;  of  marble  dug  in  a  mountain  of  that 
name  in  Phrygia.  It  was  of  an  extremely  bright 
white,  with  broad  veins  of  bluifh  black. 

CVCAS,  in  botany  :  A  genus  of  p'ants  belonging 
to  the  firft  natural  order,  Palmn.  The  fruit  is  a  dry 
plum  with  a  bivalved  kernel.  There  is  but  one  fpe- 
cics  defcribed  by  Linnxus,  viz.  the  circinalis,  or  fago- 
tree,  wiiich  grows  fpoiitaneoufly  in  the  Eall  Indies, 
and  partic  darly  on  the  coall  of  Malabar.  It  runs  up 
with  a  llraight  trunk  to  40  feet  or  more,  h.aving  many 
circles  the  whole  length,  occafioned  by  the  old  leaves 
fallin.g  olT ;  for  they  (landing  in  a  circular  order  round 
the  ftcm,  and  embracing  it  with  their  bafe,  whenever 
they  drop,  they  leave  the  marks  of  their  adhelian  be- 
hind. The  leaves  are  pinnated,  and  grow  to  the 
length  of  feven  or  eight  feet.  The  pinnx  or  lobes  are 
limg,  narrow,  entire,  of  a  fhining  green,  all  the  way 
of  a  breadth,  lance-lhaped  at  the  point,  are  clofely 
crouded  together,  and  itand  at  right  angles  on  each 
fide  the  midrib,  like  the  teeth  of  a  comb.  Tiie  flowers 
are  produced  in  long  bunches  at  the  footftalks  of  th« 
leaves,  and  arc  fucceeded  by  oval  fruit,  about  the  fi7,e 
of  large  plums,  of  a  red  colour  when  ripe,  and  a  fweet 
flavour.  Each  contains  a  hard  brjwn  nut,  enclofinj 
a  white  meat,  which  tailes  like  a  chefuut. 

Tliis  is  a  valuable  tree  to  the  inhabitants  of  India,  a? 
it  not  only  furniflies  a  eonllderablepurt  of  their  conftant 
bread,  but  alfo  fupplies  them  with  a  large  article  of 
trade.  The  body  contains  a  fannaceous  fubdance, 
which  they  extraft  from  it  and  make  into  bread  in 
this  manner:  they  faw  the  body  into  fmall  pieces,  and 
after  beating  them  in  a  mortar,  pour  water  upon  the 
mafs  ;  this  is  left  for  fome  hours  to  fettle.  When  fit, 
it  is  drained  through  a  cloth,  and  the  fine-  particlci 
of  the  mealy  fubdance  running  through  with  the  wa- 
ter, the  grofs  ones  are  left  behind  and  thrown  away. 
After  the  farinaceous  part  is  fuffcciently  fubfided,  the 
water  is  poured  off,  and  the  meal  being  projierly  dried, 
is  occafionally  made  into  cakes  and  baked.  Thefe 
cakes  are  faid  to  eat  nearly  as  well  as  wheaten  bread, 
and  are  the  fupport  of  the  inhabitants  fof  three  or  four 
months  in  the  year. 

The  fame  meal  more  fijiely  pulverized,  and  reduced 
into  granules,  is  what  is  called  Sago,  which  is  fent 
into  all  parts  of  Europe,  and  fold  in  the  (hops  for  a 
great  ftren^thener  and  reftorative. 

There  is  a  foit  of  fiigo  ma  le  in  the  Weft  Indies,  and 
is  fent  to  Europe  in  the  fame  manner  as  that  from  the 
Eaft  ;  bttt  the  \Ve(l  India  fago  is  far  inferior  in  quality 
to  the  other.  It  is  fuppofed  to  be  made  from  the  pith 
of  the  areca  oleracea.     See  Areca. 

^hi  brood  boom  (or  bread-tree)  of  the  Hottentots, 
a  plant  lately  difcovered  by  profelTor  Thunberg,  i^ 
defcribed  as  a  new  fp;cies  of  this  genus,  by  the  name 
of  cycas  Cajra,  in  the  Nova  AHa  Reg.  Soe.  Sclent. 
Upf.  vol.  ii.  p.  283.  tab.  V.  T!;e  pith,  or  meiialh, 
which  abounds  in  the  trunk  of  this  little  palm,  Mr 
Sparman  informs  us,  is  colledted  and  tied  up  in  dreffed 
calf  or  (lieep-lkins,  and  then  buried  in  the  earth  for 
the  fpace  t>f  feveral  weeks,  till  it  becomes  fudiciently 
4  K  2  mellow 


CYC  [62 

Hiellow  and  tender  to  be  kneaded  up  with  water  into 
a  pafte,  of  which  they  afterwards  make  finall  loaves  or 
cakes,  and  bake  them  under  the  afhes.  Olher  Hot- 
tentots, not  quite  fo  nice,  nor  endued  with  patience 
enough  to  wait  this  tedious  metliod  of  preparing  it, 
are  faid  to  dr)'  and  roaft  the  pith  or  marrow,  and  after- 
wards make  a  kind  of  brown  frumenty  of  it. 

CYCEON,  from  v.ox».'iVj  "  to  mix;"  a  name  given 
by  the  ancient  poets  and  phyficians  to  a  mixture  of 
meal  and  water,  and  fomctimes  of  other  ingredients. 
Thefe  conftituted  the  two  kinds  of  cyceon;  the  coarfer 
being  of  the  water  and  meal  alone  ;  the  richer  and 
more  delicate  compofed  of  wine,  honty,  flour,  water, 
and  cheefe.  Homer,  in  the  iith  Iliad,  talks  of  cy- 
ceon made  with  cheefe  and  the  meal  of  barley  mixed 
with  wine,  but  without  any  mention  either  of  honey 
or  water;  and  Ovid,  dcfcribing  the  draught  of  cyceon 
given  by  the  old  woman  of  Athens  to  Ceres,  mentions 
only  flour  and  water,  Diofcorides  underftood  the 
word  in  both  thefe  fcnfes  ;  but  extolled  it  moll  in  the 
coarfc  and  fimple  kind  :  he  fays,  when  prepared  with 
water  alone,  it  refrigerates  and  nourilhes  greatly. 

C'YCINNIS,  a  Grecian  dance,  fo  called  from  the 
name  of  its  inventor,  one  of  the  fatyrs  belonging  to 
Bacchus.  It  confifted  of  a  combination  of  grave  and 
gav  movements. 

CYCLADES  insuiae;  iflands  anciently  fp  called, 
as  Pliu)  informs  us,  from  the  Cyclus  or  orb  in  which 
thev  lie  ;  beginning  from  the  promontory  Ceraeftum 
of  Euboea,  and  lying  round  the  ifland  Dtlos,  (Phny). 

Where  t*hey  are,  and  what  their  number,  is  not  fo 
gtaerally  agreed.  Strabo  lays,  they  were  at  tint 
r.'ckontd  12,  but  that  many  others  were  added  :  yet 
moft  of  them  lie  to  the  fouth  of  Pelos,  and  but  few  to 
the  nortli,  fo  that  the  middle  or  centre,  afcribed  to 
J)tlos,  i^  to  be  takert  in  a  loofe,  not  a  geometrical 
feufe.  Strabo  recites  them  after  Artemidorus,  as  fol- 
lows :  Helena,  Ccos,  Cynthus,  Seriphus,  Mclus,  .Si- 
phus,  Cimolus,  Prepcfmthus,  Olearus,  Naxus,  Parus, 
Syrus,  Mvconus,  Tenus,  Andrus,  Gyarus ;  but  he 
excludes  from  the  number,  Piepefinthus,  Olearus,  and 
Oyarus. 

CYCIjAMEN,  Sowbrfad:  A  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order,  belonging  to  the  pentandria  claisol  plants; 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  2  i  It  or- 
cer.  Precis.  The  corolla  is  verticillatcd,  with  the  tube 
▼ery  (iiurt,  and  the  tliroat  piominent  ;  the  berry  is 
covered  with  the  capfulc.  There  are  but  two  fpecies; 
«hich,  however,  produce  many  beautiful  varieties. 
They  are  low,  herbaceous,  flowery  perennials  of  the 
tuberous  rooted  kind,  with  numerous,  angular,  hcart- 
fiiaped,  fpotted,  marbled  leaves  ;  with  many  flc/hy 
foot-llalks  fix  inches  high,  carryir.g  monopetalcnis, 
{ive-parted  reflexed  flowers  of  various  colours.  All  the 
varieties  are  extremely  ornamental,  and  fome  of  the 
flowers  very  fragrant.  They  may  be  planted  in  any 
of  the  common  borders,  bat  require  to  be  fiieltertd 
from  hard  frofts  by  being  covered  with  mats.  They 
fhould  alfo  have  a  light  dry  foil,  otherwife  their  ro<  ts 
are  apt  to  rot.  1  he  fpecies  are  propagated  by  lecds, 
and  the  particular  vaileties  by  dividing  their  roots. 

The  root  of  the  cyclamen  has,  when  frefh,  an  ex- 
tremely acrimonious  burning  ta'.le,  which  it  lofes  al- 
moll  entirely  on  being  dried.     It  is  recunimeudcd  as 


8     1 


CYC 


an  errhine ;  in  cataplafms  for  fcorrhous  and  cancerous     Cycle 
tumors ;  and  internally  as  a   cathartic,  detergent,  and         || 
aperient.      It  operates  very  flowly,   but  with  great  vi-    Cyclopj, 
rulence,  inflaming  the  fauces  and  Inteftincs.  """V— ' 

CYCLE,  in  chronology,  a  certain  period  or  feries 
of  numbers,  which  regularly  proceed  from  the  tirft.  tu 
the  laft,  and  then  return  again  to  the  firit,  and  fo  cir- 
culate perpetually.   See  Chronology,  n°  26. 

CrcLR  nf  Ind'itllon,  a  period  of  15  years,  in  ufe  a- 
mong  the  Romans.  It  has  no  connedion  with  the 
celeRial  motion,  but  was  inftituted,  according  to  Ba- 
ronius,  by  Conftantine  ;  who  having  reduced  the  time 
which  the  Romans  were  obliged  to  ferve  to  15  years, 
he  was  confequently  obliged  every  15  years  to  ini- 
pofe,  or  hidkerc  according  to  the  Latin  exprefiion, 
an  extraordinary  tax  for  the  payment  of  thofe  who 
were  difcharged  ;  and  hence  arole  this  cycle,  which, 
from  the  Latin  word  indkere,  was  ftyled  1/ulidion. 

CrcLS  of  tljs  Moun,  called  alfo  \\i<t  golden  number,  and 
the  Metonic  cycle  from  its  inventor  Melon  the  Athe- 
nian, is  a  period  of  ly  years,  which  wh^n  they  are 
completed,  the  new  moons  and  full  moons  return  on 
the  fame  days  of  the  month,  fo  that  on  whatever  days 
the  new  and  full  moons  fall  this  year,  19  years  hence 
they  win  happen  on  the  very  fame  days  of  the  month, 
though  not  at  the  fame  hour,  as  Meton  and  the  fa- 
thers of  the  primitive  church  thought ;  and  therefore, 
at  the  time  of  the  council  of  Nice,  when  the  method  of 
finding  the  time  for  oblerviug  the  feall  of  Eallcr  was 
cftablilhtd,  the  numbers  of  the  lunar  cycle  were  in- 
ferted  in  the  kalendar,  which,  upon  the  account  of 
their  excellent  ufe,  were  let  In  golden  letters,  and  the 
year  of  the  cycle  called  the  ^JJm  number  of  that 
year. 

CrcLE  of  ihe  Sun,  a  revolution  of  28  years,  which 
being  elapled,  the  ilominlcal  or  Sunday-letters  return 
to  their  former  place,  and  proceed  in  the  fame  order 
as  before,  according  to  the  Julian  kalendar. 

CYCLISUS,  in  furgery,  an  inftrument  in  the  fomt 
of  a  half  moon,  ufed  in  icraping  the  lliidl,  in  cafe  of 
fraftures  of  that  part. 

CYCLOID,  a  curve  on  which  the  doiftrine  of  pen- 
dulums, and  time-mcafuring  inllruments,  in  a  great 
mtafure  depend;  Mr  Huygens  demonftrated,  that  from 
whatever  point  or  height  a  heavy  body,  ofcillatlng  oa 
a  fixed  centre,  begins  to  defccnd,  while  it  continues 
to  move  in  a  cycloid,  the  time  of  iti  falls  or  ofclUations 
will  be  equal  to  each  other.  It  is  likewife  demonflra- 
ble,  that  it  is  the  curve  of  qulckell  defcent,  ('.  1;.  a 
body  falling  In  It,  from  any  given  point  abovCj  to  ano- 
ther, not  exattly  under  it,  wdl  co[ne  to  this- point  in 
a  kfs  time  than  in  any  other  curve  pafling  through 
thofe  two  points. 

CYCLOPjKDIA,  or  E»!Cyclopa:bia,  denotes  die 
circle  or  compafs  of  arts  and  fclences.  A  cyclopaedia, 
fay  the  authors  of  the  French  Encyclopcdie,  ought  tcx 
explain  as  much  as  pofTibk  the  order  and  connection, 
of  human  knowledge. 

CYCLOPS,  in  fabulous  hillory,  the  fons  of  Neptune 
and  Amphitrite  ;  the  principle  of  whom  were  Brontes, 
Steropes,  and  Perrjcmon  ;  but  their  whole  number  a- 
mounted  to  above  an  hundred.  Jupiter  threw  them 
into  Tartarus  as  -foon  as  they  were  born  ;  but  they 
were  delivered  at  the  intcrceilion  of  TcUus,  aud  be- 
came 


CYC 


Cydopte-  came  the  afliftants  of  Vulcan.     TLey  were  of  prodigi- 
'"'•       BUS   ilature,  and  had   each  only  one   eye,  which   was 
»         placed  in  the  middle  of  their  foreheads. 

Some  mythologifts  fay,  that  the  Cyclops  ilgnify  the 
vapours  raifed  in  the  air,  which  occailoii  thunder  and 
lightning  ;  on  which  account  they  are  reprefeiited  us 
forging  the  thunderbolts  of  Jupiter.  Others  repre- 
fent  them  as  the  tiril  inhabitants  of  Sicily,  who  were 
cruel,  of  a  gigantic  form,  and  dwelt  round  mount 
JEtm. 

CYCLOPTERUR,  the  sucker,  fn  ichthyology,  a 
genus  belonging  to  the  order  of  amphibia  nantts.  The 
head  is  obtufe,  and  furnilhcd  with  faw-teeth:  there  are 
four  rays  in  the  gills ;  and  the  beliy-fins  are  connected 
together  in  an  orbicular  form.      The  fpecies  are, 

I.  The  lumpus,  or  lump-tilh,  grows  to  the  length  of 
19  inches,  and  weighs  fcven  pounds.  The  ihape  of  tlie 
body  Is  like  that  of  the  bream,  deep  and  very  thick, 
and  it  fwims  edge-ways.  The  back  Is  iharp  and  ele- 
vated ;  the  belly  fiat,  of  a  bright  crlmlun  colour.  A- 
long  the  body  there  run  leveial  rows  of  iharp  bony 
tubercles,  and  the  whole  ficin  is  covered  with  fmall 
ones.  The  peftoral  lins  are  large  and  broad,  ahnoil 
uniting  at  thtir  bafe.  Beneath  thcfe  is  the  part  by 
V  hlch  It  adheres  to  the  rocks,  &c.  It  confiiis  of  an 
oval  aperture,  furrounded  with  a  flefijy,  mufcular,  and 
obtufe  fuft  fubdancc;  edged  with  many  fmall  thread- 
ed appendages,  which  concur  as  fo  many  clatpers.  The 
tail  and  ».-nt-fins  are  purple.  By  means  of  this  part  it 
adheres  with  vail  force  to  any  thing  It  pleafes.  As  a 
proof  of  its  tenacity.  It  hath  been  known,  that  in  fling- 
ing a  fifn  of  this  fpecies  juil  caught  into  a  pail  of  wa- 
ter, it  fixed  itfclf  fo  firmly  to  the  bottom,  that  on  ta- 
king the  li(h  by  the  tail,  the  whole  pail  by  that  means 
T\'as  lifted,  though  it  held  fome  galhjns,  without  once 
making  the  fifli  .quit  its  hold.  Thefe  iiih  refort  in 
nuiltltudes  dm'ing  fpriug  to  the  coaft  of  Sutherland 
near  the  Ord  of  Calthnefs.  The  feals  which  fwarm 
beneath,  prey  greatly  -upon  them,  leaving  the  Iklns  ; 
numbers  of  which,  thus  emptied,  float  alhorc  at  that 
fealon.  It  is  eafy  to  diftlnguifti  the  place  where  the 
feals  are  devouring  this  or  any  other  unctuous  filh,  by 
a  fmoothnt-ft  of  the  water  immediately  above  the 
fpot.  This  tact  is  now  eflablilhed;  it  being  a  tried  pro- 
perty of  oil  to  rtill  the  agitation  of  the  waves  and 
fender  them  fmooth.  Great  numbers  of  lump-lifh  are 
found  in  the  Greenland  feas  during  the  monllis  of 
April  and  May,  when  they  rtiort  near  the  ihore  to 
fpawn.  Their  roe  is  remarkably  large,  which  the 
Grcenlanders  boil  to  a  ])ulp  and  eat.  They  are  ex- 
tremely fat,  which  recommends  them  the  more  to  the 
natives,  who  admire  all  oily  food.  They  call  them  ru- 
fifd.t  or  cat-Jlpj,  and  take  quantities  of  them  during 
the  fealon.  The  fi;1i  is  fometlmes  eaten  in  Eng- 
knd,  being  ftewed  like  carp  ;  but  Is  both  flabby  and 
rnilpid. 

2.  The  liparis  takes  the  name  oi  fta-fnail  from  the 
foft  and  midtuous  texture  of  its  body,  refembling  that 
of  the  laiid-fnall.  It  is  almoft  tranlpaient,  and  foon 
difiolves  and  melts  away.  It  is  found  m  tlu;  lea  near 
the  mouths  of  great  rivers,  and  hath  been  feen  full  of 
fpawn  In  January.  The  length  is  five  inches  ;  the 
Ccjlour  a  pale  blown,  foinetimes  finely  ftreaked  with  a 
darker.     i3eaeath  the  throat  is  a  round  deprcUion  of 


i    ^2g    ] 


C    Y    D 


a  whitilh  colour  like  the  impreflion  of  a  Teal,  filrroiind-  Cyder, 
ed  by  twelve  fmall  pale  yellow  tubera,  by  which  pro-  — v— 
bably  It  adheres  to  the  ilones  like  the  other  fpecies. 

3.  The  lefler  fucking-fifli  Is  found  in  different  parts 
of  the  Britlfli  feas.  It  is  about  four  inches  in  length; 
the  fldn  without  fcales,  (llppery,  and  of  a  dullry  colour. 
It  hath  alfo  an  apparatus  for  adhering  to  ftoncs  and 
rocks  fimllar  to  the  others. 

CYDER,  or  Cider,  an  excellent  drink  made  of 
the  juice  of  apples,  efpecially  of  the  more  curious  table 
kinds;,  the  juice  of  thefe  being  ellccmed  more  cordial 
and  pleafant  tlian  that  of  the  wild  or  harfli  kinds.  Jti 
making  this  drink  it  hath  long  been  thought  neeeffary, 
in  every  part  of  England,  to  lay  the  harder  cyder- 
fruits  in  heaps  for  fome  time  before  breaking  their 
pulps  ;  but  the  Devonfhire  people  have  much  Impro- 
ved this  practice.  In  other  counties  the  method  is  to 
make  thele  heaps  of  apples  in  a  honfe,  or  under  fome 
covering  Incloied  on  every  fide.  This  method  hath 
been  found  defective,  becaufe,  by  excluding  the  free 
air,  the  heat  foon  became  too  violent,  and  a  great 
perfpiratlon  enfued,  by  which  in  a  fhort  time  the 
lols  of  juices  was  fo  great,  as  to  reduce  the  fruit  to 
half  their  former  weight,  attended  with  a  general  rot- 
tennefs,  rancid  fmell,  and  difagreeable  talle.  In  the 
South-hams,  a  middle  way  has  been  purfued,  to  avoid 
the  Inconveniences  and  lofs  attending  the  above.  They 
make  their  heaps  of  apples  in  an  open  part  of  an  or- 
chard, where,  by  the  means  of  a  free  air  and  lefs  per- 
fpiration,  the  defired  maturity  is  brought  about,  with 
an  inconfiderable  viafte  of  the  juices  a>Kl  decay  of  tliu 
fruit,  entirely  free  of  rank ncfs  ;  and  though  fome  ap- 
ples rot  even  in  this  manner,  they  are  very  few,  and 
are  flill  fit  for  ufe  ;  all  continue  plump  and  full  of 
juices,  and  very  much  heighten  the  ecJour  of  cyders^ 
without  111  tafte  or  fmell. 

In  purfuing  the  Devonfhire  method,  it  is  to  be  ob- 
ferved,  1.  That  all  the  promifcuous  kinds  of  apples 
that  have  dropped  from  the  trees,  from  time  to  time, 
are  to  be  gathered  up  and  laid  in  a  heap  by  them- 
felves,  and  to  be  made  into  cyder  after  having  fo  laliv 
about  ten  days.  2.  Such  apples  as  are  gathered  from 
the  trees,  having  already  acquired  forae  degree  of  ma- 
turity, are  likewlfe  to  be  laid  in  a  heap  by  themfelvcs 
for  about  a  fortnight.  3.  The  later  hard  fruits,  which 
are  to  be  left  01  the  trees  till  the  approach  of  froll  is 
apprehended,  are  to  be  laid  in  a  feparate  heap,  where 
they  are  to  remain  a  month  or  fix  weeLs,  by  which, 
notwithllanding  froll,  rain,  S:c.  their  juices  will  re- 
ceive fuch  a  matmation,  as  will  prepare  them  for  a 
kindly  fermentation,  and  which  they  could  not  have 
attained  on  the  trees  by  means  of  tlie  coldticfs  of  the 
fcaloti. 

(t  is  obfervable,  that  the  riper  and  mellower  the 
fruits  are  at  the  time  of  collecting  them  into  heaps, 
the  lliorter  fliould  be  their  continuance  ther£  ;  and  oii 
the  CTontrary,  the  harlher.  tmnuiturer,  and  harder  they 
are,  the  longer  tliev  lliould  reft. 

Thele  heaps  Ihould  be  made  in  an  even  and  open 
part  of  an  orchard,  without  any  regard  to  coveriii;^ 
from  rain,  dews,  or  what  clfe  may  happen  duilngthe 
apples  ftaying  there  ;  and  whether  they  be  carried  in 
and  broke  in  wet  or  dry  weather,  the  thins;  is  all  the 
fame.     It  it  may  be  objected  that  during  theli  liav.Iiig 

lain 


II 
Cydim«. 


C    Y    D  C    ^30    ]  c    y    D        . 

Iain  together  in  the  lieap,  thtj-  may  liavc  Imoib^d  great  the  peop'c  of  Tarfiis  a  ftation  or  port  for  ttieir  Jliipj.    Cylo 

humidity,  as  well  from   the  air  ?s   from  the  ground,  The  water  of  the  Cydnus  is  commmled  by  Strabo,  as  \r 

nun,  dews,   &c.   whicl\    are   mixed  with  their  juices  ;  of  fervice  in  nervous  difoijero  atfd  the  gout, 
the  anfwer  is,   this  will  have  no   other  effeft  than  a         CYDONIA  (anc.  geog.),  one  of  the  three  moft  il- 

kindlv  diluting,  natural  to  the  fruit,  by  which  means  lullrious  cities  of  Crete,  fituatcd  in  the   north-wtft  of 

a  fpecdier  fermentation  enfues,  and  all  heterogeneous  the  illand,  with  a  locked  port,  or  walled  round.     The 

humid  particles  are  thrown  off.  circumftances  of  the  founding  of  Cydon  are  uncertain. 

The  apples  are   then    ground,   and  the  pummice  is  Stephen  of  Byzantium  fays,  that  it  was  at  iirft  named 

received    in  a  large   open-mouthed   vefTcl,   capable  of  ApoUonia  from  Cydon  the  fon  of  Apollo.      Paufmias 

containing  as  much  thereof  as  is  fufficient  for  one  ma-  afcribes  the  founding  af  it  to  Cydon  the  fon  of  Tcgc- 

king,  cr  one  cheefe.    Though  it  has  been  a  cuitom  to  tus,  who  travelled  into  Crete.    Herodotus  affirms,  that 

let  the  pummice  remain  fome  hours  in  the  vcffel appro-  it  was  founded   by  the  Samians,   and  that   itii  templcj 

priattd  to  contain  it,  yet  that  practice  is  by  no  means  .were  erefted  by  them.      Alexander,  In  the  firil  book 

commendable  ;   for  il  the  fruits  did  not  come  ripe  from  of  the  Cretans,   informs  us,   that  it  received   its  name 

the  trees,  or  otherwife  matured,  the  pummice,  remain-  from   Cydon  the   fon   of  ]!>iercury.     Cyd^m   was   the 

ing  in  the  vat  too  long,  will  acquire  fucli  harfhnefs  and  largeft  city  in  the  iiland  ;  and  was  enabled  to  hold  the 

ccarfenefs  from  the  ikins  as  is  never  to  be  got  rid  of;  balance  between  her  contending  neighbours.     She  fuf- 

and  if  the  pummice  is  of  well  ripened  fruit,  the  con-  tained  fome  famous  fieges.      Phaleucus,  general  of  the 

tinning  too  long  there  will  occafion  it  to  contraft  a  Phoceans,  making  an  expedition  into  Crete  with  a  fleet 

lliarpnefs  that  veiy  often  is  followed  with  want  of  fpi-  and  a  numerous  army,  invefted  Canea  both  by  fea  and 

rit  and  pricking  ;  nay,  fomctimes  it  even  becomes  vi-  land  ;  but  loft,  his  aiTny  and  his  life  before  its  walls, 

regar,  or  always  continues  of  a  whey  i  ft   colour;  all  In  fucceeding  times,  when  Metellus  fubdued  the  ifland, 

which  proceeds  from  the  heat  of  fermentation  that  it  he  affailtd  Cydon  with   all  hLs  forces  ;  and  after  coit\- 

almoft  inftantly  falls  into  on  lying  together ;  the  pum-  bating  an  obilinate  rcfiftance,  fubje6ted  it  to  the  power 

mice    therefore   (hould   remain   no  longer   in  the   vat  of  Rome.      Cydon  occupied   the   prefent  fituatlon   of 

than  until  there  may  be  enough  broke  for  one  prcfilng,  Canea  ;  only  extending  half  a  league  farthtr  towards 

or  that  all  be  made  iiito  a  cheefe,  and  preffcd  the  lame  St  Odero;  where  on  the  fea  Oiore  the  remains  are  Hill 

day  it  is  broken.  to  be  feen  of  fome  ancient  walls  which  appear  to  have 

In  Plate  CLIV.   i?  a-jierfpedtive  view  of  the  cyder-  been  of  a  very  folid  contlrucftlon.      See  C/i^'fA. 
prefs  and  apple-mill.  CYDONIA,  the  (iUiNCE;  fo  called  from  Cydon,  a 

A,  B,  the  bottom  or  lower  beam  ;  C,  D,  the  upper  town   of  Crete,   famous  for   it-s  abounding  with  this 

beam  ;   5,  6,  7,  8,  9,   the  uprights  ;  4,  4,  e,  e-  fpurs  ;  fruit.      Lrnnxus  has  joined  this  genus  to  the  apple  and 

Z,  2,  I2t  braces,   or  crofs-pieces  ;  a,  b,  capitals ;  X,  pear  ;  but  as  there  is  fuch  a  remarkable  difference  be- 

blocks  ;  g,   the   fcrew ;   E,  the  back  or   receiver;   F,  tween  the  fruits,  we  follow  Mr  Miller,  who  treats  the 

the   cheefe  or  cake  of  pummice,  placed  on  the  ilage  or  quince  as  a  genus  by  ilftlf. 

bafon  ;   G,   the   ftage  or   bafon  ;    10,  10,  beams  that  Species,      i.   The    oblonga,  with   an   oblong    fruit, 

fupport  the   pieces  of  which  the  bafon  is  compoftd  ;  lengthened  at  the  bafe.     2.  The  maliforma,  with  oval 

1 1,  perpendicular  pieces  for  fupporting   thefe  beams  ;  leaves  woolly  on   their  under  fide,   and  lengthened  at 

H,  the  buckler;   R,  S,  Q,   a  circular  trough  of  the  their  bafe.    3.  The  Uifitanica,  with  obverfe  oval  leaves, 

apple-mill  ;  T,  L,  V,  compartments  or  dlvlfions,  for  woolly  on   their   under   fide.      The:e   are  fome  other 

different  forts  of  apples  ;   M,  the   mill-llone  ;   L,  M,  varieties  of  this  fruit  propagated  in  fruit-gardens,  and 

axis  of  the  mill  (lone  ;   N,  the  fprlng-tree  bar.  in  the  nurferies  for  fale;  one  of  which  is  a  (oft  eatable 

CrDFk-Spiri/,  a  fpirituous  liquor  drawn  from  cyder  fiuit,  another  very  aftringent,  and  a  third  with  a  very 

by  dillillation,  in   the  fame  manner  as  brandy   from  fmall   fruit  cottony   all  over,   which  is   fcarce   worth 

wine.     The  particular  flavour  of  this  fpirit  is  not  the  keeping.     Thefe  Mr  Miller  fuppoftd  to  be  fern  nal  va- 

moft   agreeable,   but    it    may   with   care    be    divefled  riations,  but  the  three  others  to  be  didinA   fpecles. 

wholly  of  it,  and  r-endered  a  perfectly  pure  and  inlipid  The  Portugal   quince   is   tire   molt  valuable:   its  pulp 

fpirit  upon  reftilication.     The  tradurs  in  fpirltitous  11-  turns  to  a  f.ne  purple  when  flewed  or  baked,  and  bc- 

quors  are  well   enough   acquainted  with   the  value  ot  conres  much  fofter  and  lefs  auftere  than  the  others  ;   fo       „ 

fuch  a  fpirit  as  this  :   they  can  give  It  the  flavours  of  is  much  fitter  for  making  marmalade.  The  trees  are  all 

fome   other  kinds,  and  fell  it  under   their  names,  or  cafily  propagated,  either  by  layeiF,  futkers,  or  cuctinga; 

mix  it  in  large   proportion  with  the   foreign  Jir-andy,  which  mull  be  planted  in  a  moiil  foil.     Thofe  ralftd 

rum,   and  arrack,  in  the  fale,  without  any  danger   of  from  fuckers  are  firldom  fo  well  rooted  as  thofe  whicli 

a  difco very  of  the  chert.  are  obtaincti  f.-um  cuttings  or  layers,  and  are  fubjciA 

CYDIAS,  a  painter  who  made  a  painting  of  the  to  produce  fuckers  again  in  greater  plenty;  which  is 
Argonauts  in  the  l  Ith  Olympiad.  This  celebrated  not  fo  proper  for  fruit-beariiig  trees.  Thei'e  tree* 
piece  was  bought  by  the  orator  Hortenfius  for  164  require  very  little  pruning;  the  chief  thlirg  to  b<? 
talents.  oblerved  is,  to  keep  their  Items  clear  from  fuckers, 
CYDNUS  (anc.  geog.),  a  river  of  CIKala  ;  rifmg  and  cut  off  fuch  branches  as  crofs  each  other:  like- 
in  mount  Taurus,  to  the  north  of  Tarfus,  through  wife  all  upright  luxuriant  flioots  from  the  middle  of 
whole  middle  it  ran,  in  a  very  clear  and  cold  ibxam,  the  tree  flrould  be  taken  off,  that  the  head  mry  not 
which  had  almoft  proved  fatal  to  Alexander  on  bath-  be  too  much  crowded  with  wood,  which  is  .if  ill  c  ■:■!- 
ing  in  it  ;  falling  into  the  fea  at  a  place  called  Rheg-  fcquencc  to  all  fruit-trees.  Thefe  forts  may  alfo  l)e 
ma,  a  breach,  the  fea  breaking  in  there,  and  afTordiiig  propagacej  by  budding  or  grafting  upon  ilociis  raifc<i 


C     Y    M 


[     631     ] 


G     Y     N 


iy  cuttings  ;  fo  that  tlie  bell  forts  may  be  cukivatcil 
this  \vdy  in  greater  plenty  than  by  any  other  method. 
Tlieft:  arc  alfo  in  great  ellecm  to  biul  or  graft  pears 
upon  ;  which  tor  fummer  or  autumn  fruits  are  a  great 
improvement  to  tlietn,  efpccially  thofe  defigned  for 
walls  and  cfpaliers;  for  tlie  trees  upon  thefe  Hocks  do 
not  fhoot  fo  vigoroLifly  as  thofe  upon  frte-ilocks,  and 
therefore  may  be  kept  in  lefs  coinpafs,  and  fooner 
produce  fruit  :  but  hard 'winter-fruits  do  not  fuccecd 
fo  well  upon  thefe  ftock^,  their  fruit  being  fubjecl  to 
crack,  and  are  commonly  Itony,  elpecially  all  the 
bi raking  pears  :  therefore  thefe  ilocks  are  only  lit  for 
melting  pears  and  a  inoift  foil. 

CYGNIIS,  or  Swan,  in  ornithology.     See  Anas. 

CvGNUs,  the  Swan,  in  aftronomy,  a  conftellatioii 
of  the  northern  hcmifphere,  between  Lyra  and  Ce- 
phcus.  I'he  ftars  in  fhe  conllellation  Cygnus,  in 
Piolemy's  catalogue,  are  19;  in  I'ycho's  18;  in  He- 
vclius'b  47;  in  the  Britannic  catalogue  81. 

CYLINDER,  in  geometry,  a  folid  body  fuppoftd 
to  be  generatid  by  tlie  rotation  of  a  parallelogram. 

Jiol/ing,  or  Loailed  Ciiinder,  a  cyllnd-er  which  rolls 
up  an  inclined  plane  ;  the  phenomena  of  which  arc  ex- 
plained under  Mechanics. 

CYLINUROID,  in  geometry,  a  folid  body,  ap- 
proaching to  the  figure  of  a  cylinder,,  but  differing 
from  it  in  fome  rctpetlS)  as  having  the  bafes  elliptical, 
but  parallel  and  equal. 

^  CYLINDRUS,  in  natural  hiftory,  the  name  of  a 
genus  of  fhell-ti'h,  of  which  there  are  many  elegant 
and  precious  fpccies. 

CYMA,  in  botany,  the  tender  ftalks  which  heib* 
fend  forth  in  the  beginning  of  the  fpring,  particularly 
thofe  of  the  cabbage  kind. 

Cyma,  or  Cymatium,  in  architefture,  a  member 
or  moulding  of  the-  corniche,  the  profile  of  which  ii 
waved,  that  is,  concave  at  top,  and  convex  at  bottom. 

CYMBAL,  >tuf<faAo«,  a  mufical  inftrument  in  ufe 
among  the  ancients.  The  cymbal  was  made  of  brafs, 
like  our  kettle-druras,  and,  as  fome  think.  In  their 
form,  but  fmaller,  and  of  difiereat  ufe.  Ovid  gives 
C}U"ibals  the  epithet  of  ^^enkil'ia,  becaufe  they  were 
uCed  at  weddings  and  other  diverfions. 

Cafficdorus  and  liidoie  calt-this  lullrument  ij«/iiW((w, 
the  name  of  a  cup  or  cavity  ofa  bone  wherein  another 
ij  articulated  ;  and  Xenophon  compares  it  ta  a  horfe's 
hoof;  whence  it  muft  have  been  hollow:  which  ap- 
pears, too,  from  the  figure  of  feveral  othtr  things  de- 
nominated from  It  :  as  a  bafin,  caldron,  goblet,  calT<, 
and  even  a  ihoe,  fuch  as  thofe  of.  Empedocles,  which 
were  of  brafs. 

In  reality,  the  ancient  cymbals  appear  to  have  been 
very  diiferent  from  our  kettle  drums,  and  their  ufe  of 
another  kind  :  to  their  exterior,  cavity  was  fallened  a 
handle  ;  whence  Phny  compares  them  to  the  upper 
part  of  the  thigh,  and  Rabanus  to  phials. 

They  were  (truck  againfl:  one  another,  in  cadence, 
and  made  a  very  acute  found.  Their  invention  was 
attributed  to  Cybele  ;  whence  their  ufe  in  fcalls  and 
facrifices;  fetting  afide  this  occafion,  they  were  fcldoin 
ufedbut  by  difl'olute  and  effeminate  people.  M.  Lampc, 
who  has  written  exprefsly  on  the  lubjeA,  attributes 
the  invention  to  the  Cuietes,  or  inhabitants  of  tuount 
Ida  ia  Crete  J  it  .is  certain  thefe,  as  well  as  the  Cory- 


bantes  or  guards  of  the  kings  of  Crete,  and  thofe  o< 
Rhodes  and  Samothracia,  were  reputed  to  excel  in  the 
mui'ic  of  tlie  cymbal. 

The  Jews  had  th.  ir  cymbals,  or  at  leall  inftniments 
which  tranflators  rendei  cymbals  ;  but  as  to  their  mat- 
ter and  form,  critics  are  ftill  in  the  dark.  The  mo- 
dern cymbal  is  a  mean  inlirument,  chiefly  in  ufe  among 
vagrantp,  gypfie.s  &c.  It  coufills  of  Heel  wire,  in  a 
triangular  form,  whereon  are  palTed  five  rings,  which 
arc  touched  and  fliifted  along  the  triangle  with  :>n  iron 
rod  held  in  the  left  hand,  while  it  is  fupported  in  the 
tight  by  a  ring,  to  give  it  the  freer  luotion.  Diiran- 
diis  fays,  that  the  monks  nfed  the  word  cymbal  for  the 
cloiller-bell   iifed  to  call  them  to  the  refectory. 

CYiME  (anc.  geog.),  a  city  built  by  Pelops  on 
his  return  from  Greece.  Cyme  the  Ainazon  gave 
it  name,  on  e-<ptlling  the  inhabitants,  according  to 
Mela.  Latin  authors,  as  Mepos,  Livy,  Mela,  Plinv, 
Tacitus,  retain  the  appellation  Cyme,  after  the  Greek 
manner.  It  flood  in  Aeolia,  between  Myrina  and 
Phoca;a  (Ptolemy)  ;  and  long  after,  in  Peutinger's 
map,  is  fet  down  nine  iniles  dillant  from  Myrina. — ■ 
From  this  place  was  the  Sybllla  Camia,  called  Ery- 
thrxa,  from  Erythr/e,  "  a  neighbouring  place  "  It 
was  the  country  of  Ephorus.  Hefiod  was  a  Cumcan 
originally  (Stephaiius)  ;  his  father  coming  to  fettle  at 
Aicra  in  Becoua. 

CYMENE,  in  botany,  a  name  given  by  the  ancient 
Greeks  to  a  plant  with  which  they  ufed  to  dye  woolicu 
things  yellow,  and  with  which  the  women  of  tliofc 
times  ufed  alio  to  tinge  the  hair  yellow,  that  being  the 
favourite  colour  in  thofe  ages.  The  cymene  of  the 
Greeks  is  evidently  the  fame  plant  with  the  lutea  heiba 
of  the  Latins ;  or  what  we  call  dya-''s  luecd.      See  Re-- 

S£DA. 

CYN.tGIRUS,  an  Athenian,  celebrated  for  his- 
extraordinary  courage.  He  was  brother  to  the  poet 
vEfchylns.  After  the  battle  of  Marathon,  he  pur- 
fued  the  flying  Perfians  to  their  ihips,  and  feized  one 
of  their  vellels  with  his  right  hand,  which  was  imme- 
diately fevered  by  the  enemy.  Upon  this  he  feized 
the  vcffel  with  his  left  hand,  and  when  he  had  lolt 
that  alfo,  he  Hill  kept  his  hold  with  liis  teeth. 

CYNANCHE,  a  fpecies  of  qulnzy,  in  which  the 
to!>gue  is  inllamcd  and  fwelled,  fo  that  it  liaags^  out 
beyond  the  teeth. 

CYNANCHUM,  bastard  doosbane:  A  genus 
of  the  digynia  order,  belonging  to  the  pentandria  clafs 
of  plants;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under 
the  30th  order,  Contortir.  The  neftarium  is  cylindrical 
and  quinquedentated.  There  are  fix  fpecies  ;  of  which, 
the  following  are  the  moft  remarkable.  1.  The  acu- 
tura,  commonly  called  Monlpelier  fcamnumy ;  and,  2. 
Tlie  moniiKliacum,  or  round-leaved  Mt^ntptlier  fcam^ 
mony.  They  abound  with  a  milky  juice  like  the 
fpiirgCj  which  iffues  out  wherever  they  are  broken  ; 
and  this  milLy  juice  when  concreted  has  frequently' 
been  fold  for  fcammony.  Thefe  plants  propagate  fo 
fall  by  their  creeping  roots,  that  few  people  care  to 
admit  them  into  gardens. 

CYNARA,  the  Akttchoke)  A  genus  of  thepo- 
lygamia   asqualis   order,    belonging  to  the   fyngencfia 
clafs  of  plants.     The  calyx  is  dilated,   imbricated  with  . 
carnous  fquamx,  ar.d  emaiginated  with,  a  fharp  point. 
4-.  .  Of,- 


Cyxe 

l| 
Cynara. 


C    Y    N 


[     C^32 


Cyrara.    Of  tliis  genus  there  are  four  fptcies,  but  only  two  are 
■■"^  cultivated  for  ufe. 

I.  The  fcolynius,  or  garden  artichoke,  hath  large, 
thick,  perennial  roots,  crowned  by  a  confiderable  clu- 
fter  of  large  pennatilid,  eveft  leaves,  two  or  three  feet 
long.  In  the  middle  aie  upright  ftalks  rifing  a  yard 
high,  on  the  top  of  which  is  a  large  round  fnaly  head, 
compofcd  of  numerous,  oval,  calycinal  fcales,  iiiclofing 
the  fiorvts,  fitting  on  a  broad  flefliy  receptacle,  which, 
with  the  flefhy  bafe  of  the  fcales,  is  the  only  eatable 
pait  of  the  plant.  The  varieties  of  this  fpecies  are, 
(l.)  The  conical  green-headed  French  artichoke,  ha- 
ving the  fmall  leaves  terminated  by  fpines,  a  tall  ftalk, 
the  head  fomewhat  conical,  and  of  a  light  green  co- 
lour, with  the  fcales  pointed  at  top,  opening  and  turn- 
ing outward.  (2.)  The  globular  headed  red  Dutch 
artichoke,  having  leaves  without  fpines,  a  ftrong  llalk, 
the  head  large,  globular,  a  little  comprtifed  at  to,p, 
and  of  a  ledJilh-green  colour;  broad  obtufe  fcales 
emarginated  at  top,  growing  clofe,  and  turning  In- 
ward. Of  thefe  varieties  the  lad  is  defervcdly  the 
moil  efteemed,  both  on  account  of  its  fuperiority  in 
lize  and  the  agreeablenefs  of  its  flavour.  Borh  varieties 
are  perennial  in  their  root :  but  the  leaves  aud  frnit- 
flem  die  to  the  ground  in  winter  ;  and  their  roots  re- 
maining, fend  up-frclli  leaves  and  Hems  every  fumtner, 
producing  a  fupply  of  artichokes  for  20  years  if  requi- 
red. The  flowers  and  feed  of  all  the  plants  of  this  ge- 
r.us  are  produced  in  the  centre  of  the  head  ;  the  fcales 
of  which  are  the  proper  calyx  of  the  flower,  which  con- 
fifts  of  numerous  fniall  bluifh  florets,  fucceeded  by 
downy  feeds  fitting  naked  on  the  receptacle. 

2.  The  cardunculus,  or  cardoon,  greatly  refembles 
tbe  artichoke,  but  is  of  larger  and  more  regular  growth; 
the  leaves  being  more  upright,  taller,  broader,  and  more 
regularly  divided;  and  the  ftalks  of  the  leaves  blanched 
are  the  only  eatable  parts  of  the  plant. 

Culture.  Both  the  varletits  of  the  artichoke  are 
propagated  by  flips  or  fuckers,  arifing  annually  from 
the  llool  or  root  of  the  old  plants  in  Ipring,  which  are 
to  be  taken  from  good  plants  of  any  prefent  plantation 
'  '  in  March  or  the  beginning  of  Apiil,  and  planted  in  the 
open  quarter  of  the  kitchen-garden,  in  rows  five  feet 
afunder  ;  and  they  will  produce  artichokes  the  lame 
year  in  autumn.  It  fliould,  however,  be  remarked,  that 
though  artichokes  are  of  many  years  duration,  the  an- 
nual produce  of  their  fruit  will  gradually  Itfftn  in  the 
fize  of  the  eatable  paits  after  the  third  or  fourth  year, 
fo  that  a  frefli  plantation  fliould  be  inade  every  three  or 
four  years.  The  cardoon  is  a  very  hardy  plant,  and 
profpers  in  the  open  quarteis  of  the  kitchen-garden. 
It  is  propagated  by  ftcd  lowed  annually  in  the  full 
ground  in  March  ;  either  in  a  bed  for  tranfplantation, 
or  in  the  place  where  they  are  defigned  to  remain. 
The  plants  are  very  large,  fo  mull  ftand  at  confiderable 
diftances  from  one  another.  By  this  means  you  may 
have  fome  fmall  temporary  crops  between  the  rows,  as 
of  lettuce,  fpinach,  endive,  cabbage,  favoy,  or  broc- 
coli plants.  In  the  latter  end  of  September,  or  in  Oc- 
tober, the  cardoons  will  be  grown  very  large,  and  their 
footftalks  have  acquired  a  thick  fubllance  ;  you  mull 
then  tie  up  the  leaves  of  each  plant,  to  admit  of  earthing 
them  clolely  all  round  for  blanching,  which  wdl  take 
up  fix  or  eight  weeks ;  and  thus  the  plants  will  come 
N  96.  5 


2     1  C    Y    N 

in  for  ufe  in  November  and  December,  and  continue  all    Cynens 
winter.  ~  H 

CYN7EIJS  of  Thefllaly,  the  fcholar  of  Demofthenes,  ^ynips. 
flourilhed  275  years  before  Chrifl;,  Pyiihus  had  la  ' 
high  an  eltcem  for  him,  that  he  fent  him  to  Rome  to 
folicit  a  peace  ;  and  fo  vaft  was  his  memory,  that  the 
day  after  his  arrival  he  faluted  all  the  f-nators  and 
knights  by  name.  Pynhus  and  he  wrote  aTreatile«f 
War,  quoted  by  Tully. 

CYNICS,  a  feci  of  ancient  philofophera,  who  va- 
lued themfelves  upon  their  contempt  of  riches  and 
Hate,  arts  and  fciences,  and  every  thing,  in  flrort,  ex- 
cept virtue  or  morality. 

The  cynic  philofophers  owe  their  origin  and  inlli- 
tution  to  Antlfthenes  of  Athens,  a  difcijjle  of  Socrates; 
who  being  alked  of  what  ufe  his  philofophy  had  been 
to  him,  replied,  "  It  enables  me  to  live  with  myiell." 
Diogeres  was  the  mMl  famous  of  his  dilciples,  in 
whole  life  the  fvllem  of  this  philofophy  appear*  in  it* 
greattlt  perffftion.  He  led  a  moft.  wretched  life,  a  tub 
having  ferved  him  for  a  lodging,  which  he  rolled  be- 
fore him  wherever  he  went.  Yet  he  was  nevcrthe- 
Icfs  not  the  more  humble  on  account  of  his  ragged 
cloak,  bag,  and  tub  ;  for  one  day  entering  Plato's 
honfe,  at  a  time  when  there  was  a  fplendid  entertain- 
ment there  for  feveral  perfons  of  dillinclion,  liejuir.p- 
ed  up  upon  a  very  rich  couch  in  all  his  dirt,  laying, 
"  I  trample  on  the  pride  of  Plato."  "  Yes  (replied 
Piato),  but  with  great  pride,  Diogenes."  He  had  the 
utmuft  contempt  for  all  the  human  race;  for  he  walked 
the  llreets  of  Athens  at  noon  day  with  a  lighted  Ian- 
thorn  in  his  hand,  telling  the  people,  "  He  v^'as  in 
fearch  of  a  man."  Amongft  many  excellent  maxims 
of  morality,  he  held  fome  very  pernicious  opinions; 
for  he  uled  to  fay,  that  the  unintenupted  good  fortune 
of  Harpalus,  who  generally  pafTcd  for  a  thief  and  a 
robber,  was  a  teftimony  againft  the  gods.  He  re- 
garded chaftity  and  modcily  as  weaknedes  :  hence 
Laertius  oblerves  of  him,  that  he  did  every  thing  open- 
ly, whether  it  belonged  to  Ceres  or  Venus  ;  though  he 
adds,  that  Diogenes  only  ran  to  an  excefs  of  impu- 
dence to  put  others  out  of  cor.ceit  with  it.  But  impu- 
dence was  the  chirailerillic  of  thefe  philofophers';  v\'ho 
argued,  that  what  was  right  to  be  done,  might  be  done 
at  all  times  and  in  all  places.  The  chief  principle  of 
this  feci,  in  common  with  the  lloics,  was,  that  we 
Ihould  follow  nature.  But  they  diiTcred  from  the  ftoics 
in  tlitir  expLination  of  that  maxim  ;  the  cynics  being 
of  opinion,  that  a  man  followed  nature  that  gratified 
his  natural  motions  and  appetites;  while  the  itoics  un- 
dtrllood  right  reafon  by  the  word  nature. 

Ci'MC  Spcifm,  a  kind  of  cnvulfion,  wherein  the  pa- 
tient imitates  the  bowlings  of  dogs. 

CYNIPS,  in  zoology,  a  gtuus  of  infedls  belonging 
to  the  hymenoptera  order.  The  mouth  is  armed  with 
jaws,  but  has  no  probofcis :  the  iling  is  Ipiral,  and 
mollly  concealed  within  the  body.  The  quercns  folii, 
or  oak-leaf  cynipa,  is  of  a  burnllhed  (hining  brown  co- 
lour. The  antentuc  are  black  ;  the  legs  and  feet  cf  a 
chefnut-brovvn ;  and  the  wings  white,  but  void  of  mar- 
ginal fpots.  It  it  in  the  little  fniooth,  lound,  hard 
galls,  found  under  the  oak-leaves,  generally  tallencd  to 
the  fibi-cs,  that  this  infett  is  produced,  a  (ingle  one  in 
each  gall.  Thefe  latter  are  ligneous,  of  a  hard  compaci 

fub- 


C    Y    N 


[     6 


fubflance,  formed  like  the  reft,  by  the  extravafation  of 
the  fap  of  the  leaf,  occafioned  by  the  punfture  of  the 
gall-fly  when  it  depofits  its  eggs.  Sometimes,  inftead 
of  the  cynips,  there  ij  feen  to  proceed  from  the  gall  a 
larger  infeA  of  a  brown  colour,  which  is  an  ichneumon. 
This  ichneumon  is  not  the  real  inmate  of  the  gall,  or 
he  that  formed  it.  He  is  a  parafite,  whofe  mother 
depolited  her  egg  in  the  yet  tender  gall ;  which,  when 
batched,  brings  forth  a  larva  that  deftioys  the  larva  of 
the  cynips,  and  then  comes  out  when  it  has  undergone 
its  metamorphofis  and  acquired  its  wings. 

The  qiiercus  gemmae,  or  oak-bud  cynips,  is  of  a 
very  dark  green,  (lightly  gilded  :  its  antenna:  and 
feet  are  of  a  dun  colour,  rather  deep.  It  depofits  its 
eggs  in  the  oak  buds,  which  produces  one  of  the  fineft 
galls,  leafed  like  a  rofe-bud  beginning  to  blow.  When 
the  gall  is  fmall,  that  great  quantity  of  leaves  is  com- 
preffed,  and  they  are  fct  one  upon  another  like  the 
tiles  of  a  roof.  In  the  centre  of  the  gall  there  is  a 
kind  of  ligneous  kernel,  in  the  middle  of  which  is  a  ca- 
vity ;  and  in  tliat  is  found  the  little  larva,  who  feeds 
there,  takes  its  growth,  undergoes  its  metamorphofis, 
and  breaks  through  the  inclofure  of  that  kind  of  cod 
in  order  to  get  out.  The  whole  gall  is  often  near  an 
inch  in  diameter,  fometimes  more  when  dried  and  dif- 
played  ;  and  it  holds  to  a  branch  by  a  pedicle. 

There  are  a  great  number  of  other  fpecies. 

CYNOCEPHALUS,  in  zoology,  the  trivial  name 
of  a  fpecies  of  Si  MIA. 

CYNOGLOSSUM,  hound's  tongue  :  A  genus 
of  the  monogynia  order,  belonging  to  the  pentandria 
clafs  of  plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  un- 
der the  41ft  order,  Afperifoliit.  The  corolla  is  funnel- 
ihaped,  with  its  throat  clofed  up  by  little  arches  formed 
in  it  ;  the  feeds  depretTcd,  and  affixed  to  the  llyle  or 
receptacle  only  on  their  inner  fide.  There  are  eight 
fpecies,  none  of  them  remarkable  for  their  beauty. 
The  root  of  one  of  them,  I'l'z.  the  officinale,  cr  com- 
mon greater  hound's  tongue,  was  formerly  uftd  in' 
medicine,  and  fuppofed  to  pofTefs  narcotic  virtues;  but 
it  is  difcRrded  from  the  prefent  praftice.  The  fmell 
of  the  whole  plant  is  very  difagreeable.  Goats  eat  it : 
ihetp,  horfes.  and  fwlne  refufe  it. 

CYNOMETRA,  in  botany  :  A  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia Older,  belonging  to  the  decandria  clafs  of 
plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  with  thofe 
of  which  the  order  is  doubtful.  The  calyx  is  tetra- 
phyllous;  the  antheras  bifid  at  top  ;  the  legumen  car- 
nous,  crefcent-fhaped,  and  monofpermous. 

CYNOMORTUM,  in  botany  :  A  genus  of  the  mo- 
nandiia  order,  belonging  to  the  monacia  clafs  of 
plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
jcth  order,  yfmeritacece.  The  male  calyx  is  an  imbri- 
cated catkin  ;  there  is  no  corolla  :  the  calyx  of  the  fe- 
male is  in  the  fame  catkin  ;  no  corolla  j  one  ttyle;  and 
one  roundifli  feed. 

CYNOPHONTIS,  in  antiquity,  a  feftival  obferved 
in  the  dogdays  at  Argos,  and  fo  called  »»»  '■"f  i-^'ui 
fcm.j  f.  f .  from  kllh'ng  dogs;  becaufe  it  was  ufual  on 
this  day  to  kill  all  the  dogs  they  met  with. 

CYNOREXY,  Z-.  immoderate  appetite,  to  the  de- 
gree f  r  ?.  difeafe;   called  allo_/affifj  ranina  and  bulimy. 

CYNOSARGES,  a  place  in  the  fuburbs  of  Athens, 
ramed  from  a  v. -liie  or  fwift  dog,  who  fnatched  away 
part  of  the  facrifice  ofTering  to  Hercules.     It  had  a 

VoL.V.  Part  II. 


3^     ]       ^  C    Y     P 

gymnafium,  in  which  flrangers  or  thofe  of  the  half- 
blood  performed  their  cxercifes;  the  cafe  of  Hercules, 
to  whom  the  place  was  confecrated.  It  had  alfo  a 
court  of  judicature,  to  try  illegitimacy,  and  to  examine 
whether  perfons  were  Athenians  of  the  whole  or  half 
blood.  Here  Antifthencs  fet  up  a  new  feifl  of  philofo- 
phers  called  Cynics,  either  from  the  place,  or  from  the 
fnarling  or  the  impudent  difpofiiion  of  that  feft. 

CYNOSCEPHALjE  (anc.  geog.),  a  place  ia 
Thcffaly  near  Scotufla ;  where  the  Romans,  under 
Q^Flaminius,  gained  a  great  viiflory  over  Philip,  fon 
of  Demetrius  king  of  Macedon.  Thefe  Cynofcephals 
are  fmall  tops  of  feveral  equal  eminences  ;  named  from 
their  refemblancc  to  dogs  heads,  according  to  Plu- 
tarch. 

CYNOSSEMA,  the  tomb  of  Hecuba,  on  the  pro- 
montory Maflufia,  over  againll  Sigcuin,  in  the  foutli 
of  the  Cherfonefus  Thracia  ;  named  either  from  the 
figure  of  a  dog,  to  which  (he  was  changed,  or  from  her 
fad  teverfe  of  fortune  (Pliny,  Mela). 

CYNOSURA,  in  ailronomy,  a  denomination  given 
by  the  Greeks  to  urfa  minor,  or  "  the  little  bear,"  by 
which  failors  lleer  their  courfe.  The  word  is  formed 
of  xuiroatif»,  q.  d.  the  dog's  tail.  This  is  the  conftella- 
tion  next  our  pole,  confiding  of  feven  ftars  ;  four 
whereof  are  difpofed  like  the  four  wheels  of  a  cha- 
riot, and  three  lengthwife  reprefenting  the  beam ; 
whence  fome  give  it  the  name  of  the  chariot,  or 
Charles's  ivain. 

Cynosura,  Cynofum,  or  Cynofuris,  (anc.  geog.),  a 
place  in  Laconica  ;  but  whether  maritime  or  inland, 
uncertain.  Here  ^fculapius,  being  thunderftruck, 
was  buried  (Cicero). 

Cynosura  was  alfo  the  name  of  the  promontory  of 
Marathon  in  Attica,  obverted  to  Eiibcea. 

Cynosura,  in  mythology,  -a.  nymph  of  Ida  in  Crete. 
She  nurftd  Jupiter,  who  changed  her  into  a  ftar  which 
beats  the  fame  name.  It  is  the  fame  as  the  urfa  mi- 
nor. 

CYNOSURUS,  in  botany:  A  genus  of  the  digynia 
order,  belonging  to  the  triandria  clafs  of  plants  ;  and 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  4th  order, 
Gramina.  The  calyx  is  bivalved  and  multiflorous  ;  the 
receptacle  proper,  unilateral,  and  folidceous.  There 
are  ten  fpecies,  four  of  which  are  natives  of  Britain, 
•viz.  the  criftatus,  or  crefted  dog-tail  grafs  ;  the  echi- 
natus,  or  rough  dogtail-grafs  ;  the  ca;ruleus,  or  blue 
dog-tail  grafs ;  and  the  panictus,  or  bearded  dog  tail 
grafs. 

CYNTHIUS  and  Cynthia,  in  mythology,  fur- 
names  of  Apollo  and  Diana,  derived  from  Cynthia 
the  name  of  a  mountain  in  the  middle  of  the  ifland  of 
Delos. 

CYNTHUS  (anc.  geog.),  a  mountain  of  the  ifland 
Delos,  fo  high  as  to  overfiiadow  the  whole  ifland.  On 
this  mountain  Latona  brought  forth  Ap.illo  and  Diana: 
hence  ihe  epithet  Cynthius  (Virgil),  and  Cynthia  (Lu- 
can,  Staiius). 

CYNURIA,  or  Crf/vsius  yl^cr,  (anc.  geog.),  a 
diftrid  of  Laconica,  on  the  confines  of  Argoli^.  A 
territory  that  proved  a  perpetual  bone  of  contention 
between  the  Argives  and  Spartans  (Thucydidcs).  For 
the  :'  anner  of  deciding  the  difpute,  fee  Thvrea. 

CYPERUS,  in  botany  :     A  genus  of  the  monogy- 
nia order,   belonging  to   the  triandria  clafs  of  j  lants ; 
4  L  ■ and 


Cynofce- 

pha'.x. 

II 
Cypetus. 


c   Y  r 

Cj'phon    and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  3d  order, 

„     'I         Calamariit.  The  glumeg  are  paleaceous,  and  imbricated 

Cjprjaniis.  ,         ,    -,  °     ,  ,7     .  :  ,    . 

■  towartlseacli  lioe  ;  tiie  corolla  is  wanting,  and  there  is 

one  naked  feed.  There  are  20  fpecif  s;  the  only  remark- 
able are  the  round  and  the  loner  fweet  cyperus.  The 
former  is  a  native  of  the  Eaft  Indies,  and  grows  by 
the  fides  of  rivulrls,  ditches,  and  tlie  like.  The  root 
is  knotty,  wrapped  round  with  fibrous  firings  not  eafy 
to  break,  of  a  brown  colour  without  and  grey  within; 
of  a  pleafant  fcent,  efpecially  when  frcfli  and  well  dried; 
the  leaves  are  green,  and  refemble  ihofe  of  the  reed 
and  Itek.  The  latter,  commonly  called  Engl'ifi  or 
Flem'Jlo  cyperus,  grows  in  the  water,  and  alcng  banks 
and  river  fides.  Its  root  is  as  thick  as  an  olive,  full 
of  little  knots  or  fpecks,  of  an  oblong  figure,  grey 
colour,  fweet  and  fomewhat  (harp  tarte,  and  almoll 
without  fmill  when  it  is  newly  taken  out  of  the  ground. 
The  roots  of  both  plants  are  efleemed  cordial,  diure- 
tic, and  cephalic,  refifters  of  poifons,  and  expellers  of 
wind.  Long  cyperus  is  much  ufed  by  perfumers  and 
glovers. 

CYPHON,  in  antiquity,  a  kind  of  punirtiment  ufed 
by  the  Athenians.  It  was  a  collar  made  of  wood  ;  fo 
called  becaufe  it  conllrained  the  criminal  who  had  this 
punifhment  irflifled  on  him  to  bow  down  his  head. 

CYPHONISM,  Cyphonismus,  from  «t'?!-v,  which 
has  various  figniiications;  derived  from  >"'fof,  crooked:  a 
kind  of  torture  or  punifliment  in  ufe  among  the  an- 
cients. 

The  learned  are  at  a  lofs  to  determine  what  It  was. 
Some  will  have  it  to  be  that  mentioned  by  St  Jcrom  in 
his  Life  of  Paul  the  Hermit,  chap.  2.  which  confifted 
iu  frntaring  the  body  over  with  honey,,  and  thus  ex- 
pofing  the  perfon,  with  his  hands  tied,  to  the  warm 
fun,  to  invite  the  flies  and  other  vermin  to  perfeeute 
him. 

CYPR^A,  or  GowRiE,  ifi  zoology,  a  genus  of 
infedls  belonging  to  the  order  of  vermes  teftacca.  It 
is  an  animal  of  the  limax  or  fnail  kind  ;  the  (hell  is  one 
involuted,  fubovated,  obiufe,  fraooth  valve.  The  aper- 
ture on  each  fide  is  linear,  longitudinal,  and  teethed. 
There  are  44  fpecies,  diftinguifhed  by  the  form  of 
their  (hells.  The  pediculus,  or  common  gowrie,  is  le- 
prefented  on  Plate  CLIV. 

This  genus  is  called  cypr/ca  and  venerea  from  its  be- 
ing peculiarly  dedicated  to  Venus;  who  is  faid  to  have 
endowed  a  (hell  of  this  genus  with  the  powers  of  a  re- 
mora,  fo  as  to  impede  the  courfe  of  the  (hip  which  was 
fcnt  by  Periander  tyrant  of  Corinth  with  orders  to  ca- 
llrate  the  young  nobility  of  Corcyra. 

CYPRESS.      See  CuPREssus. 

CYPR.IANUS  (Thafclus-Caecilius),  a  principal  fa- 
ther of  the  Chriftian  church,  was  born  at  Carthage  in 
Africa,  at  the  latter  end  of  the  fecond  or  beginning  of 
the  third  century.  We  know  nothirfg  more  of  his  pa- 
rents than  that  they  were  heathens  ;  and  he  himfelf 
continued  fuch  till  the  laft  1 2  years  of  his  life.  He 
applied  himfelf  early  to  the  ftudy  of  oratory;  and 
fome  of  the  ancients,  particularly  Laflantius,  inform 
us,  that  he  taught  rhetoric  in  Carthage  with  the  high- 
efl  applaufe.  Cyprian's  converfion  is  fixed  by  Pear- 
/on  to  the  year  246  ;  and  was  at  Carthage,  where,  as 
St  Jerome  obferves,  he  had  often  employed  his  rhe- 
toric in  the  defence  of  paganifm.  It  was  brought 
£boui  by  one  CKcilius,  a  prieil  of  the  church  of  Car,- 


634    3  C    Y    P 

thage,  whofc  name  Cyprian  afterwards  took ;  and  be-  Cyprionii 
twcen  v/hom  thcie  ever  after  fubfiiied  fo  clofe  a '  *  "" 
friendlhip,  that  Caicilius  at  his  death  comniitled  to  Cy- 
prian the  care  of  his  family.  Cyprian  was  alfo  a 
married  man  himfelf;  but  as  foon  as  he  was  convert- 
ed to  the  faith,  he  refolved  upon  a  (late  of  continence, 
which  was  thought  a  high  degree  of  piety,  as  not  be- 
ing yet  become  general.  Being  now  a  Chriftian,  he 
was  to  give  the  uTual  proof  of  the  finceriiy  of  his  con- 
verfion ;  and  that  was  by  writing  againfl  paganifm 
and  in  defence  of  Chriilianity.  With  tliis  view  Tie 
compofted  his  piece  Ue  Gratia  Dei,  "  or  concerning 
the  grace  of  God,"  which  he  additfTtd  to  Donatus. 
It  is  a  woik  of  the  fame  nature  vvith  the  Apologetic 
ofTertullian.and  the  Oiflaviusof  Minulius  Felix.  He 
next  compofed  a  piece  De  Idolorum  Vanitate,  or  "  up- 
on the  vanity  of  idols."  Cyprian's  behaviour,  both 
before  and  after  his  baptifm,  was  fo  hiuhly  pleafing 
to  the  bifhop  of  Carthage,  that  he  ordained  him  a 
pried  a  few  months  after.  It  was  rather  irregular  to 
ordain  a  man  thus  In  his  very  noviciate;  but  Cyprian 
wTis  fo  extraordinary  a  perfon,  and  thi  ught  capable 
of  doing  fuch  finglular  fervice  to  the  church,  that  it 
feemed  allowable  in  this  cafe  to  difpcnfe  a  little  with 
the  form  and  difcipline  of  it.  For  befides  his  known 
talents  as  a  frcular  man,  he  had  acquired  a  high  re- 
putation of  fanftity  fince  his  converfion  ;  having  not 
only  feparated  himfelf  from  his  wife,  as  we  have  ob- 
ferved  before,  which  In  thofe  days  was  thought  an  ex- 
traordinary aft  of  piety,  but  alfo  configned  over  all 
his  goods  to  the  poor,  and  given  himfelf  up  entirely 
to  the  things  of  God.  It  was  on  this  account  no  doubt,, 
too,  that  when  the  bKhop  of  Carthage  died  the  year 
after,  that  is.  In  the  year  248,  none  was  judged  fo 
proper  to  fuccced  him  as  Cyprian.  The  quiet  and  re- 
pofe  which  the  Chrillians  had  enjoyed  during  the  laft 
40  years,  had,  it  feems,  greatly  corrupted  their  man- 
ners ;  and  therefore  Cyprian's  firft  care,  after  hii  ad- 
vancement to  the  bi(hi)pric,  was  to  correft  diforders 
and  reform  abafes.  Luxury  was  prevalent  among 
them  ;  and  many  of  their  women  were  not  fo  flrift 
as  they  fhould  be,  efpecially  in  the  article  of  dref!.> 
This  occafioned  him  to  draw  up  his  piece  De  bab'itu 
•v'irginum,  or  "  concerning  the  drefs  of  young  wo- 
men ;"  in  which,  befides  what  he  lays  on  that  parti- 
cular head,  he  inculcates  many  Icffons  of  modedy  and 
fobriety.  In  the  year  249,  the  emperor  Decius  be- 
gan to  ifTue  out  very  feveie  edift?  againft  the  Chri- 
ftians,  which  particularlv  affefted  thole  upon  the  coall 
of  Africa  ;  and  In  the  beginning  of  250,  the  heathens, 
in  the  circus  and  amphitheatre  of  Carthage,  infilled 
loudly  upon  Cyprian's  being  thrown  to  the  lions  :  a 
common  method  of  dellroying  the  primitive  Chrilli-- 
ans.  Cyprian  upon  this  withdrew  from  his  church  at 
Carthage,  and  fled  into  retirement,  to  avoid  the  fury, 
of  the  pcrfecutions.  He  wrote  in  the  place  of  his  re- 
treat, pious  and  inftruftlve  letters  to  thole  who  had 
been  his  hearers ;  and  alio  to  the  libcllalkl,  a  name 
by  which  thofe  pufillanimous  Chriilians  were  called,, 
who  procured  certificates  of  the  heathen  magiftrates,. 
to  (how  that  they  had  complied  with  the  emperor's  or- 
ders in  facrificing  to  idols.  At  his  return  to  Carthage 
he  held  feveral  councils  on  the  repentance  of  thofe  who 
had  fallen  during  this  perfecution,  and  other  points  of 
difcipline }  he  oppofsd  the  fchcmcs  of  Navatus  and 

Novatia-Dus  ; 


C     Y     P 


[     635     ] 


C     Y     P 


CVrriniH  Novatianus;  and  contended  for  the  rebaptiCinsj  of  thofe 
■~^.  who  liad  been  baptifed  by  heretics.  At  laft  he  died  a 
martyr  in  the  perfccution  of  Valerian  and  Galh'enus,  in 
2;8.  Cyprian  wrote  8  I  letters,  and  feveral  treatifcf. 
The  belt  edition  of  his  works  are  thofe  of  Pameh'us  in 
I56S  ;  of  Rigaltius  in  1648;  and  of  Oxford  in  lC8z. 
His  words  have  alfo  been  tranflated  into  English  by 
Dr  MarfliRll. 

CYPRINUS,  in  ichthyology;  a  genus  of  fiflies.be- 
longincr  to  the  order  of  abdominales.  The  mouth  13 
tnothlefs  ;  there  are  three  rays  in  the  gills  ;  the  body 
is  fmooth  and  white;  and  the  belly-fins  have  frequently 
nine  rays.  There  are  ^l  fpecies,  principally  dillin- 
guifhed  by  the  number  of  rays  in  the  vcntiin.  The 
moft  remarkable  are, 

I.  The  carpio,  or  carp.  This  was  introduced  into 
England  about  the  year  15  14,  by  Leonard  Mafchal,  to 
whom  we  are  alfo  indebted  for  that  excellent  apple  the 
pep'in.  Riiflia  wants  thefe  tilh  at  this  day.  Sweden  has 
them  only  in  the  ponds  of  people  of  fafliion.  They 
chiefly  abound  in  the  rivers  and  lakes  of  Polilh  PriifTia, 
where  they  are  fometimcs  taken  of  a  vail  fize.  They 
are  there  a  great  article  of  commerce,  and  lent  in  well- 
boats  to  Sweden  and  Ruffia.  The  merchants  purchafe 
them  out  of  the  waters,  of  the  nobleffe  of  the  country, 
who  draw  a  good  revenue  from  this  article.  The  an- 
cients do  not  feparate  the  carp  from  the  fea-fi(h.  They 
are  fomeiimes  found  in  tlie  harbour  of  Dantzic  between 
the  town  and  a  place  called  Heh. 

Carp  are  very  long-lived.  Gefner  brings  an  In- 
ftance  of  one  that  was  near  100  years  old.  They 
grow  alfo  to  a  very  great  fize  ;  fome  authors  fpeak 
of  carp  weighing  200  pounds  weight,  and  five  feet  iu 
length.  The  carp  is  a  prodigious  breeder  ;  its  quan- 
tity of  roe  has  been  fometimes  found  fo  great,  that 
when  taken  out  and  weighed  again  ft  the  fifh  Itfclf,  the 
former  has  been  found  to  preponderate.  From  the 
fpawn  of  this  fifh,  caviare  is  made  for  the  Jews,  who 
hold  the  fturgeon  in  abhorrence.  The  carp  is  ex- 
tremely cunning,  and  on  that  account  is  fometimes  fty- 
led  the  river-fox.  They  will  fometimes  leap  over  the 
nets  and  efcape  that  way  ;  at  other  times  they  will  iin- 
merfe  themfelves  f  >  deep  in  the  mud  as  to  let  the  net 
pafs  aver  them.  They  are  alfo  very  fhy  in  taking  a 
bait  ;  yet  at  the  fpawning-time  they  are  fo  fimple  as  to 
fuffer  themfelves  to  be  tickled,  handled,  and  caught  by 
any  body  that  will  attempt  it.  This  fifii  is  apt  to  mix 
its  milt  wiih  the  roe  of  other  fidi  ;  from  which  is  pro- 
duced a  fpurious  breed,  as  has  been  obfervcd  in  the  off- 
fpring  of  the  carp  and  tench,  which  bore  the  greattft 
refemblance  to  the  firlt.  The  fame  has  alfo  been  ob- 
fcrved  of  tlie  carp  and  bream. 

In  Pnlidi  Prulfia,  and  many  other  parts  of  Germany, 
the  fale  of  carp  conflitutes  a  part  of  the  revenue  of  the 
nobility  and  gentry  :  fo  that  the  proper  management 
of  that  filh  is  reduced  to  a  kind  of  fyltcm,  founded  on 
the  experience  of  feveral  generations.  Of  the  me- 
thods there  pra6\ifed,  we  have  an  account  in  the  Plii- 
lofophical  Traniaftions  for  1771,  art.  37.  communica- 
ted by  Mr  J.  Reinhold-Forller  ;  who  lays,  he  has  feen 
carp  treated  and  maintained  according  to  thofe  me- 
Uiods,  "  above  a  yard  loni^,  and  of  25  poun(rs  weight ;" 
but  had  no  opportunity  of  aicertaining  their  age.  "In 
the  pond,  however,  at  Charlottenburg  (he  adds),  a 
palace  belonging  to  the  king  of  PrulGa,  I  faw  more 


than  two  or  three  hundred  carp,  between  two  and  Oj'i^-'nu*. 
three  feet  long  ;  and  I  was  told  by  the  keeper  they  V  ■', 
were  between  50  and  60  years  Handing.  They  were 
tame,  and  came  to  the  flnre  in  order  to  be  fed  ;  they 
fwallowcd  with  eafe  a  piece  of  white  bread  of  the 
fize  of  half  a  halfpenny  roll." — Mr  Forller,  in  this  pa- 
per, alfo  vouches  a  moft  extraordinary  circumftance, 
namely,  the  poflibility  of  the  carp's  not  only  living  for 
a  confiderablc  time  out  of  water,  but  of  its  growing 
fat  in  its  new  element.  The  a\ithor  has  feen  the  ex- 
periment fuccefsfully  tried,  and  attended  to  the  whole 
proccfs,  in  a  nobleman's  houfe  where  he  then  refided, 
in  the  principality  of  Anhalt-Dcifau.  The  fiiTi  being 
taken  out  of  the  water,  is  wrapped  up  in  a  large  quan- 
tity of  wet  mofs,  fpread  on  a  piece  of  net,  which  ij 
then  gathered  into  a  purfe  ;  in  f'lch  a  mani.cr,  how. 
ever,  as  to  allow  him  room  to  breathe.  The  net  is 
then  plunged  into  water,  and  himg  up  to  the  cieling  . 
of  a  cellar.  At  firll  the  dipping  muil  be  repeated  e- 
very  three  or  four  hours;  but  afterwards  the  carp 
need  only  to  be  plunged  into  the  water  once  in  about 
fix  or  feven  hours.  Bread  foakcd  in  milk  ie  firft  gi- 
ven  him  in  fmall  quantities.  In  a  fliort  time,  the  fifl\ 
will  bear  more,  and  grow  fat  under  this  feemingly  un- 
natural treatment.  Mr  Daines  Barrington,  in  a  note, 
confirms  a  part  of  the  preceding  account,  by  mention- 
ing the  praftice  of  a  certain  filhmonger  near  Claremar- 
ket,  who,  in  the  winter,  frequently  expofes  a  bufhel  at 
leart  of  carp  and  tench,  for  fale,  in  ti;e  fame  dry  velfel, 
for  fix  or  feven  hours  ;  many  of  which  are  not  fold,  and 
yet  continue  in  health,  though  breatliing  nothing  but 
air,  during  ihe  time  above  mentioned,  for  feveral  days 
fucceflively.  - 

2.  The  barbiis,  or  barbel,  is  fo  extremely  coarfe  as 
to  be  overlooked  by  the  ancients  till  the  time  of  the 
poet  A-ufunius,  who  gives  it  no  great  charadler.  They 
frequent  the  ftill  and  deep  parts  of  rivers,  and  live  in 
fociety,  rooting  like  fwine  with  their  nofes  i  n  the  fofc 
banks.  It  is  fo  tame  as  to  fuffer  itfelf  to  be  taken  by 
the  hand  ;  and  peeple  have  been  known  to  take  num- 
bers by  diving  for  them.  In  fommer  they  move  a- 
bout  during  night  in  fearch  of  food  ;  but  towards  au- 
tumn, and  during  winter,  confine  themfelves  to  the 
deepeft  holed.  The  barbel  is  about  the  length  of  three 
feet,  and  will  weigh  18  pounds;  the  belly  white;  the 
dorfal  fin  is  armed  with  a  remarkable  (Irong  fpine, 
(hat ply  ferrated,  with  which  it  can  inflict  a  very  fe- 
vere  and  dangerous  wound  on  the  incautious  handler, 
and  even  do  much  damage  to  nets.  They  are  the 
worft  and  coarfeft  of  frelh-water  filh,  and  fcldom  eaten 
but  by  the  poorer  fort  of  people,  who  fometimes  boil 
them  with  a  bit  of  bacon  to  givetlicm  a  relilh.  Their 
roe  is  very  noxious,  affeiling  thofe  who  unwarily  eat 
of  it  with  a  naufea,  vomiting,  purging,  and  a  flight 
fwelling. 

3.  Tne  tinea,  or  tench,  was  treated  with  the  fame 
dlfrefpctf  by  the  ancients  as  the  baibel;  but  is  now 
in  inuch  more  repute.  It  has  by  fome  been  called  the 
phyjlcian  of  the  fifli ;  and  Its  flime  has  been  faid  to  be 
of  lo  healing  a  nature,  that  the  wounded  fifhes  apply 
it  as  a  llyptic.  In  this  country  it  is  reckoned  a  whole- 
fome  and  delicious  food  ;  but  the  Germans  are  of  a  tUf- 
fercnt  opinion.     By  way  of  contempt  they  call  it  the 

Jbocmaher.     Gefner  even  fays,  that  it  is  infipid  and  un- 

wholefome.   It  doea  not  commonly  txceed  four  or  five 

4  L  2  pounds 


C     Y     P 


[     6^6    ] 


C    Y    P 


Cyprirus.  pounds  in  weight,  though  fome  have  been  known  to 
^  y  '  weigh  ten  or  twenty.  They  love  dill  waters,  and  are 
rarely  found  in  rivers :  they  are  very  foolifh  and  eafily 
caught.  The  tench  is  thick  and  (hort  in  proportion 
to  its  length.  The  colour  of  the  back  is  duflcy  ;  the 
dorfril  and  ventral  fins  of  the  fame  colour  ;  the  head, 
fides,  and  belly,  of  a  gveenifh  caft,  moft  beautifully 
mixed  with  gold,  which  is  in  itsgrcateft  fplendor  when 
the  filh  is  in  the  highcft  I'eafon. 

4  The  p-udi^fon  is  generally  found  in  gentle  ftreams, 
and  is  of  a  fmall  fize,  the  largeit  not  exceeding  half  a 
pound  weight.  They  bite  eagerly  ;  and  are  affembled 
by  raking  the  bed  of  the  river  ;  to  this  fpot  they  im- 
mediately crowd  in  fhoals,  in  expeftation  of  food. 

5.  The  brania,  or  bream,  is  an  Inhabitant  of  lakes, 
or  the  deep  parts  of  Hill  rivers.  It  is  a  fiih  that  is 
very  little  efteemed,  being  extremely  infipid. 

6.  The  rutiliis,  or  roach,  is  a  common  fiib,  found  in 
many  of  the  deep  ftill  rivers  of  this  country.  They 
are  gregarious,  keeping  in  large  (hoals.  It  has  never 
been  known  to  exceed  five  pounds  in  weight. 

7.  The  leuclfcus,  or  dace,  like  the  roach  is  gregari- 
ous, haunts  the  fame  places,  is  a  great  breeder,  very 
lively,  and  during  fummer  is  very  fond  of  frolicking 
near  the  furface  of  the  water.  It  never  exceeds  the 
■weight  of  a  pound  and  an  half:  the  fcales  are  fmaller 
than  thofe  of  the  roach. 

8.  The  cephalus,  or  chub,  is  a  very  coaife  filh  and 
full  of  bones.  It  frequents  the  deep  holes  of  rivers  ; 
and  in  fummer  commonly  lies  on  the  furface  beneath 
the  (hade  of  fome  tree  or  bu(h.  It  is  very  timid,  fink- 
ing to  the  bottom  on  the  leall  alarm,  even  at  the  paf- 
fing  of  a  (hadow  ;  but  they  will  foon  refume  their 
former  fituation.  It  feeds  on  worms,  caterpillars, 
grafshoppers,  and  other  coleopterous  infefts  that  hap- 
pen to  fall  into  the  water  ;  and  it  will  even  feed 
on  cray-filh.  It  will  rife  to  a  fly.  Some  of  this  kind 
have  been  known  to  weigh  eight  or  nine  pounds. 

9.  The  alburnus,  or  bleak.  Thefe  filh  are  very 
common  in  many  of  our  rivers,  and  keep  together  in 
laige  (hoals  At  certain  feafons  they  feem  to  be  in 
great  agonies:  they  tumble  about  near  the  furface  of 
the  wattr,  and  are  incapable  of  fwimming  far  from  the 
place  ;  but  in  about  two  hours  they  recover  and  dif- 
appear.  Filh  thus  afftaed,  the  Thames  filhermtn  call 
mad  bleaks.  Thev  feem  to  be  troubled  with  a  fpecics 
of  gordius,  or  hair-worm,  which  torments  them  fo, 
that  they  rife  to  the  furface  and  then  die.  The  bleak 
feldom  exceeds  five  or  fix  inches  in  length.  Artificial 
pearls  are  made  with  the  fcales  of  this  filh,  and  pro- 
bably alio  with  thofe  of  the  dace.  They  are  beat  in- 
to a  fine  powder,  then  diluted  with  water,  and  intro- 
duced into  a  thin  glafs  bubble,  which  is  afterwards 
filled  with  wax.  The  French  were  the  inventors  of  this 
art  During  the  month  of  July  there  appear  in  the 
Thames,  near  Blackvvall  and  Greenwich,  innumer- 
able  mLiititudes  of  fmall  filh,  known  to  the  Londoners 
by  the  name  of  tuhite  bah.  They  are  efteemed  very 
delicious  when  fried  with  fine  flour,  and  occafton,  du- 
ring the  feafon,  a  vaft  refort  of  the  lower  order  of  epi- 
cures to  the  taverns  at  the  places  where  they  are  taken 
at.  There  are  vaiious  fnppofiiions  concerning  thefe 
ti(he3,  all  of  which  terminate  in  reckoning  them  the 
fry  of  fume   other  filh.     Mr  Pennant  thinks  they  arc 


of  the  carp  kind,  thotigh  he  cannot  determine  the  Cyprinw. 

fpecies   to   which  they  belong.     They  have   a  greater  ~~V~*~' 

fimilarity  to  the  bleak  than  to  any  other,  but  he  thinks 

they  cannot  be  the  young  fry  of  this  fpecies  ;  becaufe 

the  bleak  is  found  in  many  of  the  Briti(h  ftreams,  but 

the  white  bait  only  in  the  Thames.     The  ufual  length 

of  this  filh  is  only  two  inches. 

10.  The  auratus,  or  golden  fi(h,  a  fmall  fifh  dome- 
fticated  by  the  CMnefe,  and  generally  kept  for  orna- 
ment by  great  people  in  their  courts  and  gardens.  They 
breed  them  in  fmall  ponds  made  for  the  purpofe,  in 
bafons,  and  even  in  porcelain  vedlls.  This  filh  is  no 
larger  than  our  pilchard.  The  male  is  of  a  bright 
red  colour  from  the  top  of  the  head  to  the  middle  of 
the  body  :  the  rell  is  of  a  gold-colour  ;  but  it  is  fo 
bright  and  fplendid,  that  the  finelt  gilding,  according 
to  F.  le  Comte,  cannot  approach  it.  The  female  is 
white  ;  but  its  tail  and  half  of  its  body  referable  the 
lurtre  of  filver.  F.  du  Halde,  however,  obferves,  that 
a  red  and  white  colour  are  not  always  the  diftinguilh- 
ing  marks  of  the  male  and  female  ;  but  that  the  fe- 
males are  known  by  feveral  white  fpots  which  are  feen 
round  the  orifices  that  ferve  them  as  organs  of  hear- 
ing, and  the  males,  by  having  thefe  fpgts  much  bright- 
er. Gold  filh  are  light  and  lively  ;  they  love  to  fpart 
on  the  iiirface  of  the  water,  loon  become  familiarifed, 
and  may  even  be  accuftomed  to  come  and  receive  their 
food  on  founding  a  fmall  rattle.  Great  care  is  necef  Gmfitr't 
fary  to  preferve  them  ;  for  thty  are  extremely  deli  Dcpnpito* 
cate,  and  fenfible  of  the  lead  injuries  of  the  air:  a "/'■'•'""'• 
loud  noife,  fuch  as  that  of  thunder  or  cannons  ;  a 
ftrong  fmell,  a  violent  (baking  of  the  vclTel,  or  a  fingle 
touch,  will  oft-times  dellroy  them.  Thefe  fi(h  live 
with  little  nourlfhment :  thofe  fmall  worms  which  are 
engendered  in  the  water,  or  the  earthy  pai tides  that 
are  mixed  with  it,  are  fufficient  for  their  food.  The 
Chinefc,  however,  take  care,  from  time  to  time,  to 
throw  into  the  bafons  and  refervoirs  where  they  are 
kept  fmall  balls  of  pafte,  which  they  are  very  ford  of 
when  difllilved  ;  they  give  them  alfo  lean  pork  dried 
in  the  fun  and  reduced  to  a  fine  and  delicate  powder, 
and  fometimes  fnails  :  the  flime  which  thefe  infefts 
leave  at  the  bottom  of  the  velTel  is  a  great  delicacy  for 
them,  and  they  eagerly  hallen  to  feed  on  it.  In  win- 
ter they  are  removed  from  the  court  to  a  warm  chams- 
ber,  where  they  are  kept  generally  (hut  up  in  a  por* 
celain  veflel.  During  that  feafon  they  receive  no  nou- 
rifliment  ;  however,  in  fprlng,  when  they  are  carried 
back  to  their  former  bafon,  they  fport  and  play  with 
the  fame  ftrength  and  livelinefs  as  they  did  the  pre- 
ceding year. 

In  warm  countries  thefe  filh  multiply  faft,  provided 
care  be  taken  to  coUeft  their  fpawn,  which  floats  on 
the  water,  and  which  they  almoil  entirely  devour. 
This  fpawn  is  put  into  a  particular  vefftl  expofed  to 
the  fun,  and  prtferved  there  until  vivified  by  the  heat : 
gold-fiOi,  however,  feldom  multiply  when  they  are  kept 
in  clofe  vafes,  becaufe  they  are  then  too  much  con- 
fined. In  order  to  render  them  fruitful,  they  muft  be 
put  into  refervoirs  of  confiderable  depth  in  fome  places 
at  kaft,  and  which  are  conilantly  fupplied  with  frcfh 
water.  At  a  certain  lime  of  the  year,  a  prodigious 
number  of  barks  may  be  feen  in  the  great  river  Tang- 
tfe-kiang,  whicli  go  thither  to  purchafe  die  fpav^n  of  thele 

filh. 


C    Y    P 


[    (>%1    1 


C    Y    P 


fi(h.  Towards  the  n-.oirth  of  May,  the  neigHhounng  in- 
habitants Ihut  up  the  river  in  fi  veral  placi"!  with  matsand 
,  hurdles,  which  occupy  an  extent  of  almoft  nine  or  ten 
leagues  ;  and  they  leave  oi.Iy  a  fpace  in  the  middle  fnf- 
ficient  fi>r  the  pafTage  of  barks.  The  fpawn  of  the  fiili, 
which  the  Chinefe  can  dilliuguKh  at  firft  fight,  al- 
though a  ftranger  co'ild  perceive  no  traces  of  it  in  the 
wattr,  is  (lopped  by  tl  e!e  hurdles.  The  water  mixed 
with  fpawn  is  tiitn  drawn  up,  and  after  it  has  been  put 
into  large  velTels,  it  is  fold  to  merchants,  who  tran  port 
it  aftcTVva  ds  to  every  part  of  the  er  pire.  Tiiis  water 
is  fold  by  meafure,  and  purchafcd  by  thofe  who  are 
defirousof  (locking  their  ponds  and  tcfervoirs  with  li(h. 
Nolwlthflanding  the  tendernefs  of  thtfe  (illi  even  in 
their  native  climates,  they  are  now  naturalized  in  Bri- 
tain, where  they  even  breed.  They  were  firft  intro- 
duced into  England  about  (he  ytar  1 69 1  ;  but  were  not 
generally  known  till  1728,  when  a  great  number 
weie  brought  over,  and  prclentcd  fiift  to  Sir  Matthew 
Dekker,  and  by  him  circulated  round  the  neighbour- 
hood of  London,  from  whence  they  have  been  diilri- 
buted  to  mod  parts  of  the  country. 

Nothing  can  be  more  amufing  than  a  glafs  bowl 
containing  fuch  filhes  :  the  double  refraftions  of  the 
glafs  and  water  repiefenl  them,  when  moving,  in  a 
(hifting  and  changeable  variety  of  dimenfions,  fliades, 
and  colours  ;  while  the  two  mediums,  a(rifted  by  the 
concavo-coiivcx  (hape  of  the  vcik-l,  magnify  and  diftort 
them  valUy  ;  not  to  mention  that  the  introdudlion  of 
another  element  and  its  inhabitants  into  our  parlours 
engages  the  fancy  in  a  very  agreeable  manner.  Some 
people  exhibit  this  fort  of  fifn  in  a  very  fanciful  way ; 
for  they  caufe  a  glafs  bowl  to  be  blown  with  a 
large  hollow  fpace  within  that  does  not  communicate 
with  it.  In  this  cavity  they  put  a  bird  occalionally  ; 
fo  that  you  may  fee  a  goldfinch  or  a  linnet  hopping 
as  it  were  in  the  midft  of  the  water,  and  the  (i(hes 
fwimming  in  a  circle  round  it.  The  fimplc  exhibition 
of  the  fillies  is  agreeable  and  pleafant  ;  but  In  fo  com- 
plicated a  way  becomes  whimfical  and  unnatural,  and 
liable  to  the  objeftion  due  to  him, 

^jti  Tartars  cupu  rem  prodi^iaUt'i'r  vnnm. 

CYrRIPEDIUM,the  lady's  slipper,  in  botany: 
A  genus  of  the  diandria  order,  belonging  to  the  gy- 
nandria  clafs  cf  plant? ;  and  in  the  natural  method 
ranking  under  the  7th  order,  OnhiJea.  The  neftari- 
um  is  ventricole,  inflated,  and  hollow.  There  are 
three  fpecics ;  of  which  only  one,  viz,  the  calceolus, 
is  a  native  of  Britain.  It  grows  in  rough  firound  hi 
different  parts  of  the  ifl.^nd.  The  other  ipecies  are  na- 
tives of  America.  None  of  them  are  eafily  propaga- 
ted in  gardens,  and  therefore  mtill  be  tranfplanted  from 
thofe  places  where  they  aie  natives. 

CYPRUS,  an  Ifland  fitiiatcd  in  the  Levant,  or  mod 
eallerly  part  of  the  Mtditenantan  fea,  between  ^3 
and  36  degrees  of  eail  longitude,  and  30  and  34 
oi  north  latitude.  In  ancient  times  this  ifland  was 
known  by  the  names  of  Acamis,  Cerattis,  Afpalia, 
Amathus,  Macaria,  Cryptos,  Colinia,  Sphecia,  Faphia, 
Salammia  iEiofa,  and  Cyprus.  The  etymologies  of 
tlii'fe  names  are  neither  very  talily  found,  nor  are  they 
of  much  importance.  The  name  by  which  it  was  moft 
geneia'ly  known  is  that  of  Cyprus,  faid  to  be  derived 
from  ryfros,  the  name  of  a  (lirub  or  tree  with  which 
the  ifland  abounded  ;  fu^pofed  to  be  the  cypref;. 


Cyprus,  according  to  Eratofthenes,  was  firft  difco-    Cyxra*. 
vered  by  tlie  Piioenicians,  two  or  three  Keneraiions  be-  ' 

fore  the  days  of  Ai^etius  and  Minos  kings  of  Crete ; 
that  Ts,  according  to  Sir  Ifaac  Nc-wton's  computation, 
2006  years  before  the  Chriftian  era.  It  was  at  that 
ti.Tie  lo  fill  of  wood  that  it  could  not  be  tilled,  and 
the  Phoenicians  fi^ft  cut  down  th;it  woo!  for  melting 
copper,  with  which  the  iflarjd  aboniided  ;  and  after- 
wards, when  ihey  began  to  fail  without  fear  ou  the 
M-diterrancan,  that  is,  after  the  Tr.ijaii  war,  they 
built  great  navies  i)f  the  wood  produced  on  the  lila:id. 
Jofephu?,  however,  informs  us,  that  the  tietceridant* 
of  Cittim,  the  fou  of  Javan,  and  giandfon  of  Japhat, 
were  the  original  inhabitants  of  Cyprus.  According 
to  his  account,  Cittim,  feeing  bis  brother  Tarlhifli  fet- 
tled in  Cilicia  where  he  built  the  city  of  Tarfus,  fet- 
tled with  his  followers  in  this  oppofite  ifland  ;  and  ei- 
ther he  or  his  defcendants  laid  tiie  foundations  of  the 
city  of  Citium,  which,  according  to  Ptolcmv,  was  the 
raoft  ancient  in  the  ifland.  As  Cyprus  was  too  nar- 
row to  contain  the  great  numbers  who  attended  him, 
he  left  here  as  many  as  mi.rhl  ferve  to  people  the 
country,  and  with  the  reft  pafted  over  into  Macedoii. 

The  ifland  of  Cyprus  was  divided  among  feveral 
petty  kings  till  the  time  of  Cyrus  the  Great.  He  fub- 
dued  them  all;  but  left  each  in  polTcfrion  of  his  king- 
do  n,  obliging  them  only  to  pay  him  an  annual  tribute, 
and  to  fend  fupplies  of  men,  money,  and  llups,  wheiv 
required.  Tiie  Cyprian  princes  lived  thus  fubjeit  to 
the  Perfians  till  the  reign  of  Darius  Hyftafpes,  wheo 
they  attempted  to  ftiake  off  the  yoke,  but  with  bad  fuc- 
cefs  ;  their  forces  being  entirely  defeated,  and  the m- 
felves  again  obliged  to  fubmit,  Tliey  made  another 
more  fuccefsful  attempt  about  the  year  befrwe  Chrift 
357  ;  but,  howpver,  could  never  totally  free  thera- 
Iclves  fi-om  their  fubjeftion.  It  is  very  probable  that 
they  fubmltted  to  Alexander  the  Great,  thougli  hifto- 
rians  are  filent  as  to  that  event.  On  the  death  of  the 
Macedonian  conqueror,  the  dominion  of  Cyprus  was 
difputed  by  Antigonus  and  Ptolemy  the  fon  of  Lagus. 
At  laft  Antigonus  prevailed,  and  the  whole  ifland  fub- 
mitted  to  him  about  304  years  before  Chrift.  He  and 
his  fon  Demetrius  kept  pofTrflion  of  it  for  I  1  years, 
when  it  was  recovered  by  Ptolemy,  and  quietly  pof- 
fefTcd  by  him  and  his  defcendants  till  ^>i  years  before 
Chrift,  when  it  was  moft  unjuftly  feized  by  the  Ro- 
mans. In  the  time  of  Augullus,  it  began  to  be  rank- 
ed among  the  procoiifular  provinces,  and  to  be  govern- 
ed by  magiftrates  fent  thither  by  the  fenace.  In  the 
year  648  it  was  conquered  by  the  Saracens  ;  but  reco- 
vered by  the  P^omans  in  957.  They  held  It,  however, 
but  for  a  very  fliort  time,  and  the  barbarians  kept  pof- 
feffion  of  it  till  the  time  of  the  croifadts.  It  was  then 
reduced  by  the  coifadtrs  ;  and  Richard  I.  of  England 
gave  it  to  the  princes  of  the  Lufignan  family,  who 
held  it  till  the  ytar  1570  They  divided  it  into  12 
pi-o^iiices,  ill  each  of  which  was  a  capital  city  from 
which  the  province  was  denominated.  S)  confider- 
able  was  the  iflmd  at  this  time,  th.at  befides  the  cities 
above  mentioned,  and  others  of  Icfs  note,  it  contain- 
ed 8oo  villages.  In  1570  it  was  taken  by  the  Turks, 
and  though  it  hath  ever  fince  continued  under  their 
tyrannical  yoke,  is  ftiU  fo  confidciable  as  to  be  govern-- 
ed  by  a  beglerbeg,  and  feven  fangiacs  under  him. 

Til;  uir  in  this  ifland  is,  for   the  mutt  part  very  un- 

wholelome« 


C    Y    R  [     638     ] 

Cyrano,  wholefome,  on  account  of  the  many  fens  and  marflies  Barca. 
Cyi-eiia^ca.  ^^,;,ij  ^.\{i^\^  the  countiy  abounds.  The  foil  is  an  ex- 
.^~*"''  celknt  fertile  clay  ;  and  would  produce  all  the  neccf- 
faries  of  life  in  abundance,  if  properly  cultivated. 
There  are  but  few  fprings  or  rivers  in  thi»  iiknd  ;  fo 
that  when  the  rains  do  not  fall  plentifully  at  the  ufual 
feafons,    the  inhabitants   are   m\w}i  diftrcfTed    by  the 


C    Y    R 

C^«naica,  however,  feenna  to  have  remained 
free  till  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  who  con- 
quered it  along  with  Egypt.  Soon  after  his  death  the 
inhabitants  recovered  tiicir  liberty  ;  but  were  in  a  fliort 
time  reduced  by  Ptolemy  king  of  Egypt.  Under  thcfe 
kings  it  remained  till  Ptolemy  Phyfcun  made  it  over  to 
his  bartard  Ion  Apian,  who  in  the  658th  year  of  Rome 
fcarcity  of  water.   By  reafon  of  the  uncultivated  ftate  of    left  it  by  will  to  the  Romans.   The  fenate  permitted  all 


the  country,  they  are  alfo  greatly  infefted  with  poifon 
OU3  reptiles  of  various  kindis.  The  people  are  extreme- 
ly ignorant  and  lafcivious,  as  indeed  they  arc  remark- 
ed to  have  been  from  the  remotcll  antiquity.  Anci- 
ently the  worfhip  of  Venus  was  eftablifl-ied  in  this  idand, 
tvhence  her  title  among  the  poets  of  the  Cypriaf.  queen; 
and  fuchan  inclination  had  the  inhabitants  to  become 
the  vot-jries  of  this  goddefs,  both  in  theory  and  prac- 
tice, that  the  young  women  uled  to  proftitute  them- 
felves  in  her  temple  in  order  to  raife  themfelves  por- 
tions. Nor  are  their  fucce'Tors  faid  to  be  much  better 
at  this  day.  The  exports  of  the  ifland  are  lilks,  oil, 
cotton,  wine,  fait,  and  turpentine  :  the  imports  are 
French  and  Venetian  broad  cloths  ;  and  fometimes  a 
few  bales  of  Englifh  manufafture,  cutlery  wares,  fu- 
gar,  tin,  lead,   &:c. 

Kn:~hts  of  Cyprus,  an  order  inftituted  by  Guy  de 
jLungnan,  titular  king  of  Jerufalem,  to  whom  Richard  I. 
of  England,  after  conquering  this  ifland,  made  over 
his  right. 

CYRANO  (Bergerac),  a  French  author,  born  in 
Gafcony,  about  the  year  1620.  He  fird  entered  into 
the  arrny,  where  his  natural  courage  engaged  him  fre- 
quently in  duels  in  the  quality  of  a  fecond  :  which, 
with  other  rafli  aftions,  procured  him  the  title  of  the 
Intrepid.  But  the  little  profpeft  he  faw  of  prefer- 
ment made  him  renounce  the  trade  of  war  for  the 
exercife  of  wit.  His  comic  hiftories  of  the  dates  and 
empires  in  the  fun  and  moon,  fhow  him  well  acquaint- 
ed with  the  Cartefian  philofophy,  and  to  have  a  lively 
imagination.  Our  Lord  Orrery  clafles  him  with  Swift 
for  his  turn  of  humour,  which  he  fays  the  latter  adopt- 
ed and  purlued. 

CYRENAICA,  an  ancient  kingdom  of  Africa,  cor- 
refponding  to  the  prtfent  kingdom  and  defert  of  Barca 
end  Tripoli.  It  was  originally  inhabited  by  a  number 
of  barbarous  nations,  diffn  ing  little  fi  om  great  gangs  of 
robbers.  Afterwards  fome  colonies  from  Greece  fet- 
tled here,  and  Cyrenaica  became  fo  powerful  a  ftate, 
that  it  waged  war  with  Egypt  and  Carthage,  often 
with  fiiccels  In  the  time  of  Darius  Hyllafpes,  Arce- 
filaus,  the  reigning  prir.ce  in  Cyrenaica,  was  driven 
from  the  throne  ;  on  which  his  mother  Fheretima  ap- 
plied for  affiftance  to  the  king  of  Cyprus.  Her  fon  af- 
terwards returning  to  Barca,  the  chief  city  of  Cyrene, 
was  there  afTaiTinated,  together  with  his  father-in-law 


the  cities  to  be  governed  by  their  own  laws  ;  and  this 
immediately  filled  the  country  with  tyrants,  thofc  who 
were  moft  potent  in  every  city  or  dilliift  endeavour- 
ing to  afTume  the  fovereignty  of  it.  Thus  the  kingdom 
was  thrown  into  great  confufion  ;  but  Lucullus  in  a 
good  meafure  reftored  the  public  tranquillity  on  his 
coming  thither  during  the  firit  Mithridatic  war.  It  was 
found  impoffiblc,  however,  totally  to  fupprefs  thefc 
dillurbances  till  the  country  was  reduced  to  the  form 
of  a  Romati  province,  which  happened  about  20  years 
after  the  death  of  Apian,  and  76  before  Chiift.  Upon 
a  revolt,  the  city  of  Cyrene  was  ruined  by  the  Romans  ; 
but  they  afterwards  rebuilt  it.  In  procefs  of  time  it 
fell  to  the  Arabs  ;  and  then  to  the  Turks,  who  are  the 
prefent  mailers  of  it. 

CYRENAICS,  a  feft  of  ancient  philofophers,  fo 
called  from  their  founder  Aiillippus  of  Cyrene,  a  dif- 
ciple  of  Socrates. 

The  great  principle  of  their  do£lr!ne  was,  that  the 
fupreme  good  of  man  in  this  life  is  plcafure  ;  whereby 
they  not  only  meant  a  privation  of  pain,  and  a  tran- 
quiUity  of  mind,  but  an  aflembldge  of  all  mental  and 
fenfual  pleafures,  particularly  the  lall. 

Cicero  makes  frequent  mention  of  Ariftippus's  fehool; 
and  fpeaks  of  it  as  yielding  debauchees.  Three  difciples 
of  Ariilippus,  after  his  death,  divided  the  feft  into 
three  branches ;  under  which  divilion  it  languifiicd 
and  funk  :  the  firll  called  the  He^efiac  fehool  ;  the  fe- 
cond the  Ann'icerian ;  and  the  third  the  TheoJoran ; 
from  the  names  of  their  authors. 

CYRENE  (tine,  geog.),  the  capital  of  Cyrenaica, 
and  one  of  the  cities  called  Peiitapolis,  diftant  from 
Apollonia,  its  fea-port,  10  miles,  fituated  on  a  plain, 
of  the  form  of  a  table,  according  to  Strabo.  A  colony 
of  the  Thereans.  Though  they  were  defccndants  of 
the  Lacedemonians,  yet  they  differed  from  them  in 
their  turn  of  mind  or  difpofition,  applying  themfelves 
to  philofophy ;  and  hence  arofe  the  Cyrenaic  feft,  at 
the  head  of  which  was  Ariitippus,  who  placed  all  hap- 
pinefs  in  pleafure.  The  Cyreneans  were  a  people 
much  given  to  anrigation,  or  the  ufe  of  the  chariot, 
from  their  excellent  breed  of  horfes,  (Pindar,  Epho- 
rus,  Strabo.) 

CYRIL  (St)  bifliop  of  Jerufalem,  fucceeded  Maxi- 
mus  in  350.  He  was  afterward  depofcd  for  the  crime 
of  expofing  to  fale  the  treafures  of  the  church,  and  ap- 


Pheretiraa  finding  herfelf  difappointed   by  the  king  of     plying  the  money  to  the  fupport  of  the  poor  during  a 


Cyprus,  applied  to  Darius  Hyftafpes,  and  by  the  affift' 
ance  of  the  Perfians  reduced  Barca.  Here  flie  beha- 
ved with  the  utmoll  cruelty,  caufmg  all  thofe  who 
had  been  conceined  in  her  fon's  death  to  be  impaled, 
and  the  breafts  of  their  wives  to  be  cut  off  and  af- 
fixed near  them.  She  is  faid  to  have  been  afterwards 
devoured  by  worms  ;  which  was  looked  upon  as  a  di- 
vine judgment  for  her  exceffive  cruelty.  The  prl- 
foners  in  the  mean  time  were  fent  to  Daiius,  who  fet- 
tled them  in  a  diflrid  of  Badria,  from  tliem  ealkd 


great  famine.  Under  Julian  he  was  reltored  to  liis 
fee,  and  was  firmly  ellablifhed  to  all  his  old  honours 
and  dignities  under  Theodofnis  ;  in  which  he  conti- 
nued unmolcfted  to  his  death  in  386,  The  remain*- 
of  this  father  confift  only  of  23  catechefes.,  and  one  let- 
ter to  the  emperor  Conilantius. 

Cyrill   (St)    patrisrch   of  Alexandria,  fucceeded 
Theophilus,  his  uncle.  In  412.     Scarce  was  he  inflal- 
led,  when  he  began  to  exert  his  authority  with  great 
vigour  ;  he  drove  the  Novatians  and  Jews  from  Alex- 
andria, 


C    Y    R 


sndna,  permitting  their  wealth  and  fynaf;ogucs  to  be 
-  taken  from  ttiem.  This  proceeding  liighly  difpleafed 
Orcllcs,  the  governor  ol"  the  city,  wlio  faw  that  if  the  bi- 
Ihop's  authority  was  not  foon  fupprcfled  it  might  grow 
too  (Irong  for  that  of  the  magilbate.  Ujion  wliich  a 
kind  of  civil  war  broke  out  between  OreRes  and  the 
biihop  ;  many  tumults  were  raifed,  and  fome  battles 
fought  in  the  very  ftreets  of  Alexandria.  St  Cyril!  alfo 
dillinguilhed  himfelf  by  his  zeal  agaiiilt  Nellorius  bi- 
fhop  of  Conlhmtinople,  who,  in  fome  of  his  homilies, 
had  affcrteJ  that  the  Virgin  Mary  ouglrt  not  to  be  call- 
ed the  mother  of  God.  The  difpute  at  firft  proved 
unfavourable  to  Cyrill,  whole  opinion  was  not  only 
condemned,  but  himfelf  deprived  of  his  bifhopric  and 
thrown  into  prifon.  But  he  was  foon  after  releafcd, 
and  gained  a  complete  viftory  over  Ncftorius,  who  in 
431  was  depofed  from  his  fee  of  Conrtantinople.  Cyrill 
scturned  to  his  fee  at  Conftantinople,  where  he  died 
in  444.  St  Cyrill  alfo  wrote  againll  Theodorus  of 
Miipfucfta,  Diodorus  of  TarfiK,  and  Julian  the  apo- 
ilale.  He  compofed  commentaries  on  St  John's  gofpel, 
and  wrote  feveral  other  books.  His  works  were  pub- 
lifhed  in  Greek  and  Latin  in  163S,  in  fix  volumes  folio. 
CYRUS,  the  fon  of  Cambyfesthe  Perfian,  by  Man- 
dane  the  daughter  of  Aftyages  king  of  the  Medcs. 
The  two  chief  hiftorians,  who  have  written  the  life  of 
Cyrus,  arc  Herodotus  and  Xenophon  ;  but  their  ac- 
counts of  him  aie  different,  in  as  much  as  the  latter 
makes  his  father  a  king  of  Perfia,  and  the  former  a 
meaner  man.  The  account  of  Herodotus,  as  Dr  Pri- 
deaux  obftrves,  indeed  contains  narratives  that  are 
much  more  ftrange  and  furprifing,  and  confquently 
more  diverting  and  agreeable  to  the  reader  :  and  for 
this  reafon  more  have  chofe  to  follow  him  than  Xeno- 
phon. 

Herodotus  informs  us,  that  Aftyages  king  of  the 
Mcdes,  dreamed,  that  a  vine  fprung  from  the  womb 
of  his  daughter  Mandane,  the  branches  whereof  over- 
fliadowed  all  Alia  ;  whereupon  having  confulted  the 
ibothfayers,  he  was  told  that  this  dream  portended  the 
future  power  and  greatnefs  of  a  child  who  (hould  be 
born  of  his  daughter  ;  and  further,  that  the  fame  child 
(hoiild  deprive  him  of  his  kingdom.  Aftyages,  to  pre- 
vent the  accompliftiment  of  this  predication,  inftead  of 
marrying  his  daughter  to  fome  powerful  prince,  gave 
her  to  Cambyfes  a  Pcrfian  of  mean  condition,  and  one 
v.ho  had  no  great  capacity  for  forming  any  important 
defign,  nor  for  fjpporting  the  ambition  of  his  fon,  by 
his  own  riches  and  authority.  Nor  did  Aftyages  ftop 
here  ;  the  apprehenfionshe  was  under,  left  Mandane's 
fon  might  perhaps  find  that  afliftance  in  his  own  cou- 
rage, or  fome  lucky  circumftances  which  his  family 
was  not  able  to  fupply  him  with,  induced  him  to  take 
a  refolution  of  difpatching  the  child,  if  there  ftiould  be 
any.  As  foon,  therefore,  as  he  underftood  his  daugh- 
ter was  with  child,  he  commanded  one  of  his  officers, 
whofe  name  was  Harpagus,  to  dtftroy  the  infant  as 
foon  as  it  came  into  the  world.  Harpagus,  fearing 
the  refentment  of  Mandane,  put  the  child  into  the 
hands  of  one  who  was  the  king's  ftiepherd,  in  order  to 
cxpofe  him.  The  fticpherd's  wife  was  fo  extremely 
touched  with  the  beauty  of  Cyrus,  that  ftie  defired  her 
Lulband  rather  to  expofe  her  own  fun,  who  was  born 
fome  time  before,  aud  prefcrve  the  j  oung  prince.    Af- 


[    639   T 


C    Y    R 


tcr  this  manner  Cynij  was  preferved,  and  brought  tip 

among  the  king's  (hcpherds. 

One  day,  as  the  neighbouring  children  were  at  play 
together,  Cyuis  was  chofen  king  ;  and  having  punifti- 
ed  one  of  his  little  play-fellows  with  fome  fevei  ity,  for 
dilobeying  his  commands,  the  child's  parent  complain- 
ed of  Cyrus  to  Aftyages.  This  prince  fent  for  young 
Cyrus,  and  obferving  fomcthing  great  in  his  air,  hi» 
manner  and  behaviom-,  together  with  a  great  refem- 
blance  of  his  daughter  Mandane,  he  made  particular 
inquiry  into  the  matter,  and  difcovered  that,  in  reality, 
Cyrus  was  no  other  than  his  gandfon.  Harpagus,- 
who  was  the  inftrument  of  prefervinjf  him,  was  punifli- 
ed  with  the  death  of  his  own  fon  :  however,  Ailyages- 
believing  that  the  royalty  vvhicli  the  footlilayers  had 
piomifed  totheyoangprince,  wasonly  that  which  he  had 
lately  exercifed  among  the  (hcpherds  children,  troubled 
himfelf  no  more  about  it.  Cyrus  bein^'  grown  up,  Har- 
pagus  difclofed  the  whole  feeretof  his  birth  to  him,  toge- 
tlier  with  the  manner  wherein  he  had  delivered  him  from 
the  cruel  refolutlou  of  his  grandfather.  He  encoura- 
ged him  to  come  into  Media,  and  promifcd  to  furuifh 
him  with  forces,  in  order  to  make  him  mafter  of  the 
country,  and  depofe  Aftyages.  Cyrus  hearkened  to 
thefe  propofitions,  engaged  the  Perfians  to  take  arms 
againil  the  Medes,  marched  at  the  head  of  them  to 
meet  Aftyages,  defeated  him,  and  poffeired  himfelf  of 
Media.  He  carried  on  many  other  wars  ;  and  at 
length  fat  down  before  Babylon,  which  after  a  long 
fiege  he  took. 

The  relation  of  Cyrus's  life  from  Xenophon  is  as 
follows  :  Aftyages  king  of  Media  marr'ed  his  daugh- 
ter Mandane  to  Cambyles  king  of  Perlia,  fon  to  Achae- 
nicncs  king  of  the  fame  nation.  Cyrus  was  born  at 
his  father's  court,  and  was  educated  with  all  the  care 
his  birth  required.  When  he  was  about  the  age  of 
12  years,  his  grandfather  Aftyages  fent  for  him  to- 
Media,  together  with  his  mother  Mandane.  Some 
time  after,  the  king  of  Affyria's  fon  having  invaded 
Media,  Aftyages,  with  his  fon  Cyaxares  and  his  grand- 
fon  Cyrus,  marched  againft  him.  Cyrus  diftinguifti- 
ed  himfelf  in  this  war,  and  defeated  the  Affyrians. 
Cambyfes  afterwards  readied  him,  that  he  might  have 
him  near  his  own  perfon  ;  and  Aftyages  dying,  his  foil 
Cyaxares,  uncle  by  the  mother's  iide  to  Cyrus,  fuc- 
ceeded  him  in  the  kingdom  of  Media. 

Cyrus,  at  the  age  of  30  years,  was,  by  his  father 
Cambyfes,  made  general  of  the  Perfian  troops  ;  and 
fent  at  the  head  of  30,000  men  to  the  alhftance  of  his 
uncle  Cyaxares,  whom  the  king  of  Babylon  with  hia- 
allies  the  Cappadocians,  Carians,  Phrygians,  Cilicians, 
and  Paphlagonians,  vixre  prepaiing  to  attack.  Cya- 
xares and  Cyrus  prevented  them,  by  falling  upon  them 
and  difperfmg  them.  Cyrus  advanced  as  far  as  Baby- 
lon, and  fpread  terror  throughout  the  country.  From 
this  expedition  he  retired  to  his  uncle,  towards  the 
frontiers  of  Armenia  and  Alfyria,  and  was  received  by 
Cyaxares  in  the  tent  of  the  Alfyrian  king  whom  he  had 
defeated. 

After  this,  Cyrus  carried  the  war  into  the  countries 
beyond  the  river  Halys,  entered  Cappadocia,  and  fub- 
dued  it  entirely.  From  thence  he  marched  againll 
Crosfus  king  of  Lydia,  beat  him  in  the  fiift  buttle; 
then  bcfiegtd  him  in  Sardis  his  capital ;  and  after  a 

fieg< 


Ci  rut, 


C    Y    R 


[     640     1 


C    Y    R 


t'yi-u*.  fiege  of  fourteen  days  obliged  him  to  furrendcr.  See 
■■  V  —  CROESUS.  After  this,  Cyrus  having  almoft  reduced 
all  Afia,  repaficd  the  Euphrates,  and  made  war  upon 
the  Affyrians.  He  marched  direftly  to  Babylon,  took 
it,  and  there  prepared  a  palace  for  his  uncle  Cyaxares, 
whether  he  might  retire,  if  at  any  time  he  had  an  in- 
clination to  come  to  Babylon  ;  for  he  was  not  then  in 
the  army.  After  all  thefe  expeditions,  Cyrus  return- 
ed to  his  father  and  mother  into  Perfia,  where  they 
wire  ftlll  living  ;  and  going  fome  time  after  to  his 
uncle  Cyaxares  into  Media,  he  married  his  coufin  the 
only  daughter  and  helrefs  of  all  Cyaxares's  dominions, 
and' went'with  her  to  Babylon,  from  whence  he  fent 
men  of  the  firft  rank  and  quality  to  govern  all  the  fe- 
veral  nations  which  he  had  conquered.  He  engaged 
again  in  feveral  wars,  and  fubdued  all  the  nations 
which  lie  between  Syria  and  the  Re-d  Sea.  He  died 
at  the  age  of  70  years,  after  a  reign  of  30  :  but  au- 
thors differ  very  much  concerning  the  manner  of  his 
death.  Herodotus,  Juftin,  and  Valerius  Maximus  re- 
late, that  he  died  in  the  war  agalnll  the  Scythians ; 
and  that  falling  into  an  ambuib  which  queen  Tomyris 
had  laid  for  him,  fhe  ordered  his  head  to  be^  cut  off, 
and  call  Into  a  vcffel  full  of  blood,  faying,  "  Thou  haft 
always  thirfted  after  human  blood,  now  glut  thyfelf 
with  it."  Diodorus  the  Sillcian  fays,  that  he  was  ta- 
ken in  an  engagement  and  hanged.  Ctefias  affures  us, 
that  he  died  of  a  wound  which  he  received  in  his 
thigh  :  but  by  Xenophon's  account  he  died  peaceably 
in  his  bed,  amidft  his  friends  and  fervants  ;  and  certain 
it  is,  that  In  Alexander's  time  his  monument  was 
lliown  at  Pafagarda  In  Perfia. 

From  all  this.  It  is  eafy  to  conclude  that  we  are  but 
imperfeftly  acquainted  with  the  hiilory  of  this  great 
prince,  the  founder  of  the  Perfian,  and  dellroyer  of  the 
Chaldxan  empire.     We   learn  fewer  particulars  of  it 
from  fcrlpture,  but  then  they  are  more   certain   than 
any  that  we   have  produced.     Daniel   (vlli.  3  —  20.) 
in  the  famous  vlfion  wherein  God  (bowed  him  the  ruin 
of  feveral  great  emperors,   which  were  to  precede  the 
birth  of  the  MelTiah,  reprefents  Cyrus  to  us  under  the 
idea  of"  a  ram,  which  had  two  horns  ;  and  the  two 
horns   were  high,   but  the   one  was  higher  than  the 
other,  and  the  higher  came  up  laft.     This  ram  pu(hed 
weftward,  and  northward,  and  fouthward,   fo   that   no 
beafts  might  ftand  before  him  ;   neither  was  their  any 
that  could   deliver   out   of   his  hand,  but   he  did  ac- 
cording to  his  will,  and  became  great."     The  ram's 
two  horn's  fignlfy  the  two  empires  which   Cyrus   re- 
united in  his  perfon  ;  that  of  the   Medes,  and  that  of 
the  Perfians.     The  laft  was  greater  and  more  power- 
ful than  the  empire  of  the  Medes  :  or  otherwife,  thefe 
two  horns  fignify  the  two  branches  of  Cyrus's  fuccef- 
fors.     His  fon  Cambyfes  dying,  the  empire  was  tranf- 
ferred  to  Darius  the  fon  of  Hyftafpes,   and  was  conti- 
nued down  to    Darius  Codomannus,   who,  as  Calmet 
thinks,  Is  the  great  horn  which  the  lie-goat,   that  de- 
notes AleKander,  run  againft.      In  chap  vil.  5.  Daniel 
compares  Cyrus  to  a  bear,  with  three  ribs  in  the  mouth 
of   it,  to  which   It  was  faid,   "  Arife,   devour  much 
fltlh."     Cyrus  fucceeded  his  father  Cambyfes  in  the 
kingdom  of  Perfia,  and  Darius  the  Med*-,   by    Xeno- 
phon  called  Cyaxares,  am'.  Aftyages  in  the  apocrvphal 
chapter  (xiii.  I.)  of  Daniel,  in  the  kingdom   of  the_ 
Medes  and  empire  ot   Babylun.     He  was  monarch  of 
N"  96. 


all  the  Eaft  ;  or  as  he  fpeaks  (  2  Chr.  jtxxvl.  zt,  23,  Cyrut. 
and  Ezr.  i.  I.  2  )  "  of  all  the  earth,"  when  he  per-  — v— ' 
mitted  the  Jews  to  return  into  their  own  country,  ia 
the  year  of  the  world  3466,  before  Jefus  Chrift  538. 
The  enemies  of  the  Hebrews,  making  ufe  of  this 
prince's  affeftion  to  his  own  religion,  prevailed  with 
him  to  put  a  ftop  by  his  orders  to  the  building  of 
the  temple  at  Jeruialem  ;  (Ezr.  iv.  5.)  The  pro- 
phets frequently  foretold  the  coming  of  Cyrus  ;  and 
Ifaiah  (xllv.  28.)  has  been  fo  particular  as  to  declare 
his  name  200  years  before  he  was  born.  Jofcphus 
(Antiq.  1.  II.  c.  2.)  fays,  that  the  Jews  of  Babyloa 
fhowed  this  paffage  of  the  prophet  to  Cyrus ;  and  that 
this  prince,  in  the  edicl  which  he  granted  them  for 
their  teturn,  acknowledged  that  he  received  the  empire 
of  the  world  from  the  God  of  Ifrael  ;  and  that  the 
fame  God  had  defcribed  him  by  name  In  the  writings 
of  the  prophets,  and  foretold  that  he  fhould  build  a 
temple  to  him  at  Jerufalem.  Cyrus  is  pointed  out  in 
fcrlpture  under  the  name  of  the  righteous  man  and 
the  fliepherdof  Ifrael,  (Ifaiah  xli.  2.  10.  xlvi.  i  i.  and 
xliv.  28.)  Notwithftanding  this,  God  fays  of  him, 
(Ifa.  xlv.  5.)  "I  girded  thee,  though  thou  haft  not 
known  me."  And  Jeremiah  calls  Cyrus  and  his  people, 
who  overthrew  the  Babylonilh  empire,  thieves  and  rob- 
bers. The  taking  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus  is  clearly  fet 
down  by  the  prophets,  and  may  be  feen  under  the  ar- 
ticles Babylon  and  Belshazzar.  Arclibifhop  Ulher 
fixes  the  birth  of  Cyrus  to  the  year  of  the  world 
3405  ;  his  firft  year  at  Babylon  to  3466,  and  his 
death  to  3475.  The  eaftern  people  will  have  it,  that 
Cyrus  by  the  mother's  fide  was  defcended  from  fomc 
of  the  Hebrew  prophets  ;  as  alfo  that  his  wife  was  a 
Jew,  which  Is  the  rcafon  (fay  they),  that  tlils  prince 
fo  attached  himfelf  to  the  Jews,  to  whom  he  was  fo 
nearly  allied. 

Cyrus  II.  was  the  younger  fon  of  Darius  Nothus, 
and  the  brother  of  Artaxerxes.  He  was  fent  by  his 
fat'i'.er  at  the  age  of  16  to  affill  the  Lacedemonians 
againft  Athens.  Artaxerxes  fucceeded  to  the  throne 
at  the  death  of  Nothus  ;  and  Cyrus,  who  was  of  an 
afpiring  foul,  attempted  to  aflaffinate  him.  He  was 
difcovered,  and  had  been  punifhcd  with  death,  had  not 
his  mother  Paiyfatis  faved  him  from  the  hands  of  the* 
executioner  by  her  tears  and  intreaties.  This  circiim- 
ftance  did  not  In  the  leaft  check  the  ambition  of  Cy- 
rus ;  he  was  appointed  over  Lydia  and  the  fea-coalts, 
where  he  iecretly  fomented  rebellion  and  levied  troeps 
under  various  pretences.  At  laft  he  took  the  field 
with  an  army  of  100,000  barbarians,  and  13,000 
Greeks  under  the  command  ot  Clearchus.  Artaxer- 
xes met  him  with  900,000  men  near  Cunaxa.  The 
battle  was  lo.ig  and  bloody  ;  and  Cyi-us  might  have 
perhaps  obtaiiu-d  the  vidtory,  had  not  his  uncommon 
ralhnefs  proved  his  ruin.  It  is  faid  that  the  two  royal 
brothers  met  in  perfon,  and  their  engagemtnt  ended 
in  the  death  of  Cyrus,  401  years  before  the  Auguftan 
age.  Artaxerxes  was  fo  anxious  of  its  being  unlver- 
fallv  reported  that  his  brother  had  fallen  by  his  hand, 
that  he  put  to  death  tv.-o  of  his  fubjefts  for  boafting 
that  they  had  killed  Cyrus.  The  Greeks  who  were 
engaged  in  the  expedition,  obtained  much  gloiy  in  the 
battle  ;  and  after  the  death  of  Cyrus,  they  remained 
victorious  in  the  field  without  a  commander.  They 
were  not  difcouraged  tiiou^h  at  the  dillante  of  above 
,  600 


C    Y    T 


[     6.11     ] 


C     Y     Z 


600  loa^^ues  from  their  coiritry,  and  farrovjiided  on 
every  fide  by  a  powerful  enemy.  Tliey  iiimiimoufly 
imited  in  the  eleclion  of  commanders,  and  traverfed  all 
Afia,  in  fpltc  of  th."  continual  attacks  of  the  Pcrllans  ; 
and  nothing  is  more  truly  celebrated  in  ancient  hiilory 
than  the  bold  retreat  of  the  ten  t'.ioufand.  The  jour- 
ney that  they  made  from  the  place  of  their  lirft  embar- 
kation till  their  return  has  been  calculated  at  1 155 
leagues  performed  in  the  fpace  of  15  months,  including 
all  the  time  which  was  devoted  to  take  reft  and  refre(h- 
ment.  This  retreat  has  been  celebrated  by  Xenophon, 
who  was  one  of  their  leaders,  and  among  the  friends 
and  fupporters  of  Cyrus. 

CYST,  the  bag  or  tunic  including  all  incyfled  tu- 
mors, as  the  fciriiius,  atheroma,  ileotoma,  melice- 
res,  Sic. 

CYSTIC,  in  anatomy,  a  U.'.mc  given  to  tv.o  arte- 
ries and  two  veins. 

Cystic  duct.     See  Anatomy,  n'-<)j. 

CYTHERA,  ontm,  (anc.  geog.)  an  ifland  oppofite 
to  Mallea  a  promontory,  and  to  Boiie  a  town  of  La- 
conica  ;  with  a  cognominal  town,  v/hich  has  an  ex- 
cellent port  called  Scandea.  The  ifland  was  facred 
to  Venus,  with  a  very  ancient  temple  cf  that  goddefs 
exhibited  in  armour  at  Cythcra,  as  in  Cyprus,  Now 
Cerigo. 

CYTHEREA,  in  mythology,  the  furname  of  Ve- 
nus, fo  called  from  Cythera;  an  illand,  where  (he  had  a 
temple  eileemed  the  moft  ancient  in  Greece,  and  on 
the  Ihores  of  which  (lie  was  believed  to  be  borne  by  the 
Zephyrs,  furrounded  by  the  Loves,  the  Tritons,  and 
Nereides,  reclining  in  a  languifliing  pofture  in  a  fea- 
fhell.  They  give  the  name  of  Cytheriades  to  the 
Graces  which  attended  her  on  the  fliore  without  quit- 
ting her,  except  on  thofe  occafions  when  fhe  rather 
chofe  to  be  waited  on  by  the  Fleafures. 

CYTINUS,  in  botany:  A  genus  of  the  dodecan- 
dria  order,  belonging  to  the  gynandria  clafs  of  plants; 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  i  ith  or- 
der, Sarmentaciir.  The  calyx  is  quadrifid,  fuperior  ; 
there  is  no  corolla  ;  the  anthcrae  are  16,  and  feffile  ; 
the  fruit  an  ortolocular  polyfpermous  berry. 

CYTISUS,  TREE  TRKPOiL  :  A  genus  of  the  decan- 
dria  order,  belonging  to  the  diadelphia  clafs  of  plants  ; 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  32d  or- 
der, Piipuirjnnctx.  The  calyx  is  bilabiated,  with  the 
upper  hp  bifid  ;  inferior,  tridentate  ;  the  leguraen  at- 
tenuated at  the  bafe.  There  are  1 1  fpecies;  of  which 
the  raofl  remarkable  are,  i.  The  laburnum,  or  large 
deciduous  cytifus,  hath  a  large  upright  tree-ftem, 
branching  into  a  fuU-fpreading  head,  20  or  30  feet 
high,  having  fmooth  greenifli  branches,  oblong  oval 
entire  leaves,  growing  by  threes  on  long  flender  foot- 
ftalks  ;  and  from  the  fides  of  all  the  branches  nume- 
rous yellow  flowers  coUedled  into  long  fpikes,  hanging 
loofely  downward,  and  appearing  in  May.  2.  The 
feflilifolius,  often  called  cyi'ifus  fjcunJus  clujii,  have  a 
low  fhrubby  ftem  dividing  into  numerous  ereft  brown- 
ifh  branches,  forming  a  bufliy  head  five  or  fix  feet 
high,  garnifhcd  with  fmall  oval  leaves  growing  by 
threes  ;  fome  on  very  fhorl  foot-ftalks,  others  fitting 
clofe  ;  and  bright  yellow  flowers  in  fliort  creft  fpikes 
at  the  ends  of  the  branches,  appearing  in  June.  3.  The 
nigricans  grows  with  a  fhort  fhrubby  flem,  dividing 
low  into  many  erefl  flender  branches,  forming  a  bufhy 
Vol..  V.  Part  II. 


head  four  or  five  feet  high,  with  oblong,    oval,  trlfo-     CyiTui 

hate   leaves,  and   yellow   flowers,  terminating   all  the  II' 

branches  in  upright  fpikc;,  appearing  in  July.     4.  The  Cyaiiuu*. 

hirfulus,  or  hairy  evergreen   Neapolitan  cytifus,  lifes  '~~^ 

with  an  upright  fhrubby  grey  firm,  fending  out  many 
ercd  greeniih  hairy  branches,  forming  a  fine  head  fix 
or  eight  feet  high,  clufely  ganiiflied  with  fmall  hairy 
trifoliated  leaves  on  fhort  footP.alks,  and  yellow  flow- 
ers fiom  the  fides  of  the  branchrs  in  fhort  pendulous 
fpikes,  appearing  in  June.  y.  Tiie  Aullriacus,  Au. 
ftrian,  or  Tartarian  evergreen  cytifus,  liath  a  flirubby 
flem,  dividing  low  into  many  greeniih  branches,  form- 
ing a  bufiiy  head  three  or  four  feet  high,  having  fmooth 
whitifh-green  leaves,  and  bright  yellow  flowers  in  clofe 
umbelhite  heads  at  the  ends  of  the  branches,  having  a 
duller  of  leaves  under  each  head.  Thefe  flov.-ers  ap- 
pear in  May. 

Culture,  &c.  All  the  forts  are  hardy,  and  will  pro- 
fper  in  any  common  foil  and  e^pofure:  though,  as  the 
hirfutus  is  fometimes  alleged  by  fevere  frolt,  it  fhould 
have  a  dry  foil,  and  a  fomewhat  flieltered  fituation. 
They  may  all  be  propagated  by  feeds  or  cuttings,  and 
all  the  cukure  they  require  in  the  nurfery  is  to  have 
the  ground  kept  clear  from  weeds,  and  dug  annually 
between  the  rows.  Though  they  are  generally  con-; 
fidered  only  as  ornamental  fhrubs,  yet  the  firfl  fpecies, 
if  originally  trained  to  a  ftem,  and  fuffercd  to  fland, 
will  grow  to  the  fize  of  pretty  large  timber  trees. 
They  grow  naturally  on  the  Alps,  the  mountains  of 
Dauphine,  and  the  highlands  of  Scotland;  and  the 
timber  being  very  hard,  and  taking  a  fine  polifh,  is 
frequently  ufcd  for  making  chairs,  tables,  bed-fteads, 
and  other  furniture  ;  and  is  faid  to  equal  the  fineft  ma- 
hogony  in  beauty.  A  fpecies  of  cytifus,  called  by 
ljinn;eus  cytifus  cajan,  is  known  in  the  Weft  Indies, 
where  it  is  a  native,  by  the  name  of  the  pigeon-pea, 
from  the  feeds  being  the  common  food  of  thefe  birds 
111  that  part  of  the  world.  Thefe  feeds  are  alfo  fome- 
times ufed  as  food  for  the  human  fpecies;  and  as  they 
arc  of  a  very  binding  quality,  afford  a  wholefome  nou- 
rifhment  during  the  wet  feafon,  when  dyfenteries  are 
fo  frequent. 

CYZICENS.Cyzicesa,  among  the  ancient  Greeks, 
were  a  fort  of  magnificent  banqueting-houfes,  always 
looking  towards  the  north,  and  ufually  opening  upon 
gardens. 

They  had  their  name  from  Cyzicus,  a  city  very  con- 
fidcrable  for  the  grandeur  of  its  buildings;  fituated  ia 
an  ifland  of  Mylia,   bearing  the   fame   name. 

CYZICUM,  or  Cyzicus  (anc.  geog.),  one  of  the 
nobleft  cities  of  the  Hither  Afia  ;  fituated  in  a  cogno- 
minal ifland  of  the  Propontis,  on  the  coaft  of  Myfia  ; 
joined  to  the  continent  by  two  bridges  (Strabo)  ;  the 
lirft  by  Alexander:  the  city,  a  colony  of  the  Mile- 
fians  (Pliny).  Rendered  famous  by  the  fiege  of  Mi- 
thridates,  which  was  raifed  by  LucmHus.  —The  inhabi- 
tants were  made  a  free  people  by  the  Romans,  but  for- 
feited their  freedom  under  Tiberius.  It  was  adorned 
with  a  citadtl  and  walls  round  it  ;  had  a  port  and 
marble  towers;  and  three  magazines,  one  ixir  arms, 
another  for  warlike  engines,  and  a  third  for  corn. 
Cyziceni,  the  people  ;  noted  by  the  ancients  for  their 
timidity  and  effeminacy  :  hence  the  proverb  in  Zeno- 
dotus  and  others,  t'mdura  Cyzoiicti,  applied  to  pcrfons 
guilty  of  an  indecency  through  fear  :  but  SlaUres  Cy- 
4  M  aiccni. 


C     Z    A 


[     642     1 


c   z   o 


Czaik 
thurn. 
Czar. 


«/«/!/',  tiummi  Cyziceni,  denote  things  executed  to  per- 

feftion. 

CZACKTHURN,  a  Urong  town  of  Germany,  in 
Auftria,  and  near  the  frontiers  of  Hungary.  It  is  feat- 
cd  between  the  rivers  Drave  and  Muhir,  in  E.  Long. 
17.  19.  N.  Lat.  46.  24. 

CZAR,  a  title  of  honour,  affumed  by  the  grand- 
dukes,  or,  as  they  are  now  ftyled  emperors  of  Riiffia. 

The  natives  pronounce  it  tzar,  or  aaar;  and  this,  by 
corruption    (it  has  been  fancied)    from    C^far    "em- 
peror," from  fome   imagined  relation  to  the  Roman 
emperors.     But  this  etymolotjy  does  not  fecm  correft. 
When  the  czar  Peter  formally  required  of  the  Euro- 
pean courts  an  acknowledgement  of  his  imperial  titles, 
and  that  the  appellation  of  Emperor  (hould  never  be 
omitted,  there   was   great    difficulty   made   about   it, 
efpecially   at  the  court  of  Vienna  ;  which  occafioned 
him  to  produce  the  famous  letter,  written  in  the  Ger- 
man tongue,  from  Maximilian  I.  emperor  of  Germany, 
to  Vafllli   Ivanovitch,  confirming   a  treaty  of  alliance 
ofFenfive  and  defenfive  againft  Sigifmond  king  of  Po- 
land.     In    this   difpatch,   which  is  dated  Auguft  the 
4th,  11J14,  and  is  ratified  with  the  feal  of  the  golden- 
bull,  Maximilian  addredes  Vaffili  by  calling  him  Kay/er 
and  Herrfcher  aller  Riijfen  ;   "  emperor  and  ruler  of  all 
the  RulTias."      But   independently  of  this  document, 
there  could  be   no  doubt  that  the  foreign  courts,   in 
their  intercourfe  with   that  of  Mofcow,   ftyled  the  fo- 
vereigns  indifcriminately  Great  Duie,   C%ar,  and  Zm- 
peror.     With  refpeft   to  England  in   particular,   it  is 
certain,  that   in   Chancellor's  Account  of  Ruffia,   fo 
early  as  the  middle  of  the  16th  century,  Ivan  Vaffilic- 
vitch  II   is  called  Lord  ami  Emperor  of  all  Rufia ;  and 
in  the  Englifh  difpatches,  from  the  reign  of  Elizabeth 
to  that  of  Anne,  he  is  generally  addreffed   under  the 
fame  appellation.      When  the  European  powers,  how- 
ever, ftyled  the  tzar  Emperor  of  AI  11/1-01'}',  they  by  no 
means  intended  to  give  him   a  title   fimilar  to  that 
which  was  peculiar  to  the  emperor  of  Germany  ;  but 
they    beftowed    upon    him   that   appellation   as  upon 
an   Afiatic    fovereign,    in    the    fame    manner    as   we 
now  fay  the  emperors  of  China  and  Japan.     When 
Peter,  therefore,  determined  to  affume  the  title  of  em- 
peror, he  found  no   difficulty  in  proving  tliat   it  had 
been  conferred  upon  his  predeccflbrs  by  moft  of  the 


European  powers  ;  yet  when  he  was  defirous  of  affix- 
ing to  the  term  the  European  fenfe,  it  was  confidered 
as  an  innovation,  and  was  produttive  of  more  nego- 
tiations than  would  have  been  requifite  for  the  termi- 
nation of  the  moft  important  ftate  affair.  At  the 
fame  time  it  occafioned  a  curious  controverfy  among 
tlie  learned,  concerning  the  rife  and  progrefs  of  the 
titles  by  which  the  monarchs  of  this  country  have  been 
diftinguiflied.  From  their  refearches,  it  appeared  that  • 
the  early  fovereigns  of  Rufliu  were  called  great  duke, 
and  that  Vaflili  Ivanovitch  was  probably  the  firft  wlio 
ftyled  himfelf  <zfl/-,  an  expreffion  which  In  the  Sclavonian 
language  fignifies  Icing;  and  that  his  fuccelTors  continued 
to  bear  within  their  own  dominions  that  title  as  the 
moll  honourable  appellation,  until  Peter  the  Great  firft 
took  that  of  Povelitel  or  emperor.  After  many  delays 
and  objeflions,  the  principal  courts  of  Europe  con- 
fented,  about  the  year  1722,  to  addrefs  the  fovereign 
of  Ruifia  with  the  title  of  Emperor;  without  prejudice, 
neverthelefs,  to  th«  other  crowned  heads  of  Europe. 

CZASLAU,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  and  capital  of  a 
circle  of  the  lame  name.  Here  is  the  higheft  tower 
in  all  Bohemia;  and  near  this  place  the  kingofprudia 
gained  a  viilory  over  the  Auftrian;j  in  1742.  It  is 
fcated  on  the  river  Crudenka,  in  E.  Long.  ij.  ^^^ 
N.  L^t.  49.  50. 

CZENSTOKOW,  a  town  of  Poland  in  the  palati- 
nate of  Cracovia,  with  a  fort,  in  which  tliey  keep  a 
rich  treafure,  called  "  the  treafiire  of  the  virgin  Ma- 
ry." The  pilgrims  flock  hither  fo  much  for  the  fake 
of  a  convent  near  it,  that  it  is  called  the  Loretio  of 
Poland.  The  town  is  fituated  on  the  river  in  Warte, 
E.  Long.  19.  15.  N.  Lat.  50  48. 

CZERNIC,  a  town  of  Carniola,  in  Auftria,  fituated 
in  E.  Long.  15.  o.  N.  Lat.  46.  12.  It  is  remarkable 
for  its  lake  ;  for  a  particular  defcription  of  which  fee 
the  article  Circhnitzer. 

CZERNIKOU,  a  confiderable  town  of  Mufcovy,, 
and  capital  of  a  duchy  of  the  fame  name,  with  a  caftle. 
It  is  feated  on  the  river  Dczna,  in  E.  Long.  32.  13. 
N.  Lat.  51.  20. 

CZONGRODT,  a  town  of  Upper  Hungary,  and 
capital  of  a  territory  of  the  fame  name,  at  the  conflu- 
ence of  the  rivers  Teiffe  and  Kcres.  E.  Long.  20. 
57.  N.  Lat.  46.  50. 


[     643     1 


DAG 

DT  H  Ji  fourth  letter  of  the  alphabet,  and  the 
>  third  confonant. 
Grammarians  generally  reckon  D  among  the 
"  lingual  letters,  as  fuppofing  the  tongue  to  have  the 
principal  fliare  in  the  pronunciation  thereof;  though  the 
Abbot  de  Dangeau  feems  to  have  reafon  in  making  it 
a  palate  letter.  The  letter  D  is  the  fourth  in  the  He- 
brew, Chaldee,  Samaritan,  Syrlac,  Greek,  and  Latin 
alphabets  ;  in  the  five  firft  of  which  languages  it  has 
the  fame  name,  though  fomewhat  differently  fpoke, 
e.  g.  in  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Daleth,  in  Syriac  Dokth, 
and  in  Greek  Delta. 

The  form  of  our  D  is  the  fame  with  that  of  the  La- 
tins, as  appears  from  all  the  ancient  medals  and  infcrip- 
tions  ;  and  the  Latin  D  is  no  other  than  the  Greek  a, 
rounded  a  little,  by  making  it  quicker  and  at  two 
ftrokes.  The  A  of  the  Greeks,  again,  is  borrowed  from 
the  ancient  charafter  of  the  Hebrew  Daleth;  which 
form  it  ilill  retains,  as  is  Ihown  by  the  Jefuit  Soucict, 
in  his  Differtation  on  the  Samaritan  Medals. 

D  is  alfo  a  numeral  letter,  fignifying^tie  hundred ; 
which  ariles  hence,  that,  in  the  Gothic  charafters,    the 
D  is  half  the  M,  which  fignilies  a   tkoufand.     Hence 
the  verfe. 

Liter  a  D  "velut  A  qu'wgentos  figmf.calit. 
A  dafh  added  a-top,  JJ,  denotes  it  to  Hand  for  five 
thoufand. 

Ufed  as  an  abbreviation,  it  has  various  fignifications! 
thus  D  (lands  for  D.^ftor;  as,  M.  D.  for  Doftor  of 
Medicine;  D.  T.  Doftor  of  Theology;  D.  D.  im- 
plies DoiSor  of  Divinity,  or  "  dono  dtdit  ;"  D.  D.  D. 
is  ufed  for  "  dat,  dicat,  dedicat ;"  and  D.  D.  D.  D.  for 
"  dignum  Deo  donum  dcdit." 

DAB,  in  ichthyiihgy,  the  Englifli  name  of  a  fpe- 
cies  of  Pleuronectes. 

DABUL,  a  town  of  Afia,  in  the    Eaft    Indies,  on 


D. 


DAG 

three  guineas  :  nor  can  they,  but  by  dint  of  money,  re- 
lieve themfelves  from  this  oppreflion. 

In  this,  as  in  all  the  other  markets,  the  Europeans ' 
treat  with  the  Moorifh  brokers  fettled  upon  the  fpot, 
and  appointed  by  the  government.  They  likewife  lend 
their  name  to  the  individuals  of  their  own  nation,  as 
well  as  to  Indians  and  Armenians  living  in  their  fettle- 
ments,  who,  without  this  precaution,  would  infallibly 
be  plundered.  The  Moors  themfelves,  in  their  private 
tranfaftions,  fometimes  avail  themfelves  of  the  fame  pre- 
tence, that  they  may  pay  only  two,  inftcad  of  five  per 
cent.  A  diflindion  is  obferved,  in  their  contrafts,  be- 
tween the  cottons  that  are  befpoke  and  thofe  which  the 
weaver  ventures,  in  fomc  places,  to  manufafture  on  his 
own  account.  The  length,  the  number  of  threads,  and 
the  price,  of  the  former  are  fixed  :  nothing  further  than 
thecommiflion  for  the  latter  is  (lipulated,  becaufe  it  is 
impoffible  to  enter  into  the  fame  detail  I'hofe  na- 
tions that  make  a  point  of  having  fine  goods,  take  pro- 
per meafures  that  they  may  be  enabled  to  advance  mo- 
ney to  their  workmen  at  the  beginning  of  the  year. 
The  weavers,  who  in  general  have  but  little  employ- 
ment at  that  time,  peiform  their  woik  with  lefs  hurry 
than  in  the  months  of  October,  November,  and  De- 
cember, when  the  demand  is  preffing. 

Some  of  the  cottons  are  dehvered  unbleached,  and 
others  half-bleached.  It  were  to  be  widied  that  this 
cuftom  might  be  altered.  It  is  very  common  to  fee 
cottons  that  look  very  beautiful,  go  off  in  the  bleach- 
ing. Perhaps  the  manufafturers  and  brokers  forefee 
how  they  will  turn  out  ;  but  the  Europeans  have  not 
fo  exquifite  a  touch,  nor  fuch  an  experienced  eye  to 
difcern  this.  It  is  a  circumftance  peculiar  to  India, 
that  cottons,  of  What  kind  foever  they  are,  can  never 
be  well  bleached  and  prepared  but  in  the  place  where 
they  are  manufaftured.      If  they  have  the   misfortune 


Dacca, 
Dace. 


the  coaft  of  Malabar,  and  to  the  foiath  of  the  gulf  of  to  get  damage  before  they  are  fhipped  for  Europe, 
Gambaye,  on  a  navigable  river.  It  was  formerly  very  they  muft  be  f^ent  back  to  the  places  from  whence  they 
flourifliirg,  but  is  now  much  decayed.      It  belongs  to     came. 


the  Pottuguefe,  and  its  trade  confiils  principally  in  pep- 
per and  I'alt       E.  Long.  73.  55.  N.  Lat.  17.  30. 

DACCA,  a  town  of  Afia,  in  the  kingdom  of  Ben- 
gal in  the  Eaft  Indies,  fituated  in  E.  Long.  89.  10. 
N.  Lat.  24.  O. — The  advantages  of  the  fituation  of 
this  place,  and  the  fertility  of  the  foil  round  it,  have 
long  fince  made  it  the  centre  of  an  extenfive  coir.merce. 
The  courts  of  Delhi  and  Muxadavad  art  furniihed  from 
thence  with  the  cottons  wanted  for  their  own  con- 
fumption.  Tliey  each  of  them  maintain  an  agent  on 
the  fpot  to  fuperintend  the  manufaftnre  of  them  ;  and 
he  has  an  authority,  independent  of  the  magiftrate, 
over  the  brokers,  weavers,  embroiderers,  and  all  the 
workmen  whofe  bufinefs  has  any  relation  to  the  objedt 
of  his  coramiflion.  Thefe  unhappy  people  are  forbid- 
den, under  pecuniary  and  corporal  penalties,  to  fell,  to 
any  perfon  whatever,  a  piece  exceeding  the   value  of 


DACE,  in  ichthyology,  a  fpecies  of  Cvprinus. 

This  fifli  is  extremely  common  in  our  rivers,  and 
gives  the  expert  angler  great  diverfion.  The  dace  will 
bite  at  any  fly ;  but  h>.  is  more  than  ordinarily  fond  of 
the  ftone  caddis,  or  May-fly,  which  is  plentiful  in  the 
latter  end  of  April  and  the  whole  month  of  May. 
Great  quantities  of  thefe  may  be  gathered  among  the 
reeds  of  ledges  by  the  water-fide  ;  and  on  the  hawthorn 
bulhes  near  the  waters.  Thefe  are  a  large  and  hand- 
fome  bait ;  but  as  they  laft  only  a  fmall  part  of  the  year 
in  feafon,  recourfe  is  to  be  had  to  the  ant-fly.  Of  thefe 
the  black  ones  found  in  large  molehills  or  ant-hills 
are  the  heft.  Tliefe  may  be  kept  alive  a  long  time  in  a 
bottle,  with  a  little  of  the  earth  of  the  hill,  and  fome 
roots  of  grafs ;  and  they  are  in  feafon  throughout  the 
months  of  June,  July,  Augulf,  and  September.  The 
bcft  leafon  of  all  is  when  they  fwarm,  which  is  in  the 
4  M  2  end 


D     A     C 


D   64+    ] 


D    A     C 


end  of  July  or  beginning  of  Augufl  ;  and  they  may 
be  kept  many  months  in  a  vtfTci  wafhed  out  with  a  fo- 
lutior.  of  honey  in  water,  even  longer  than  with  the 
earth  and  grals-roots  in  the  vial;  though  that  ia  the 
moft  convenient  method  with  a  fmall  parcel  taken 
for  one  day's  lilhing.  In  warm  weather  this  fiih  very 
feldom  refufes  a  fly  at  the  top  of  the  water  ;  but 
at  other  times  he  rauft  havi  the  bait  funk  to  within 
three  inches  of  the  bottom.  The  winter  fiihing  for 
dace  requires  a  very  different  bait :  this  is  a  white  mag- 
got with  a  reddifli  head,  which  is  the  produce  of  the 
eggs  of  the  beetle,  and  is  turned  up  with  the  plough 
in  great  abundance.  A  parcel  of  thefe  put  in  any  vcf- 
fel,  with  the  earth  they  were  taken  in,  will  keep  many 
months,  and  are  an  excellent  bait.  Small  dace  may  be 
put  into  a  glafs  jar  with  frelh  water  ;  and  there  preler- 
ved  alive  for  a  long  time,  if  the  water  is  properly  chan- 
ged. They  have  been  obferved  to  eat  nothing  but  the 
animalcula  of  the  water.  They  will  grow  very  tame 
be  degrees. 

DACHAW,  a  town  of  Bavaria  in  Germany.  It  is 
pretty  large,  well  built,  and  feated  on  a  mountain,  near 
the  river  Amber.  Here  the  elector  has  a  palace  and 
line  garden?.     E.  Long.  11.  30.  N.  Lat.  48.  20. 

DACIA  (anc.  geog. ),  a  country  which  Trajan, 
who  reduced  it  to  a  province,  joined  to  Ivloeiia  by  an 
admirable  bridge.  This  country  lies  extended  between 
the  Danube  and  the  Carpathian  mountains,  from  the 
river  Tibifcus,  quite  to  the  north  bend  of  the  Danube; 
lb  as  to  extend  thence  in  a  direft  line  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Danube  and  to  the  Euxine ;  on  the  north-fide 
next  the  Carpatfs,  terminated  by  the  river  Hierafus, 
now  the  Piuth  ;  on  the  weft  by  the  Tibifcus  or  Teifs; 
comprifing  a  part  of  Upper  Hungary,  all  Tranfylvanla 
and  Walachia,  and  a  part  of  Moldavia.  Daci,  the 
people  ;  a  name  which  Strabo  takes  to  be  the  fame 
with  the  Davl  of  Comedies :  neighbours,  en  the  weft, 
to  the  Gilac ;  an  appellation  common  alfo  In  Come- 
dies. Jofephus  mentions  a  fet  of  religious  men  among 
the  Daci,  whom  he  calls  Pltfti,  and  compares  with  the 
Efleri! ;  of  thefe  PhftI  no  other  author  rrakes  any  men- 
tion. Dac'uus,  the  epithet;  affumed  by  fome  em- 
perors, (Juvenal.)  There  was  a  Dacia  Aureliani,  a 
pan  of  Illyricum,  which  was  divided  into  the  eaftern 
and  weftei  n ;  SIrmlum  being  the  capital  of  the  latter, 
and  Sardica  of  the  former.  But  this  belongs  to  the 
lower  age. 

DACIER  (Andrew),  born  at  Caftres  in  Upper 
Languedoc,  1651,  had  a  great  genius  and  inclination 
for  learning,  and  lludled  at  Saumur  under  Tannegui 
ie  Ftvre,  then  engaged  In  the  inftiudion  of  his  daugh- 
ter, who  proved  afterwards  an  honour  to  her  fex.  This 
^avc  rife  to  that  mutual  tcndcrnefs  which  a  marriage 
of  40  years  could  never  weaken  In  them.  The  duke  of 
Muntaulier  hearing  of  his  merit,  put  him  in  the  lift  of 
ccmmfutators  fi^r  the  ufe  of  the  dauphin,  and  enga- 
ged him  in  an  edition  of  Pompeius  Feftus,  which  he 
publiflied  in  1681.  His  edition  of  Horace  printed  at 
Paris  in  10  vols  in  l2mo,  and  his  other  works,  raifed 
him  a  great  reputation.  He  was  made  a  member  of 
the  academy  of  inPcrlptlons  in  1695.  When  the  hl- 
ftory  of  Louis  XIV.  bv  medals  was  finifhed,  he  wa« 
ehofen  to  prefent  it  to  his  raajefty  ;  who  being  inform- 
ed of  the  pains  which  he  had  taken  in  it,  fettled  upon 
him  a  penfion  of  2000  livres,  and  appointed  him  keep- 


er of  the  books  of  the  king's  clofet  in  the  Louvre. 
When  that  poll  was  united  to  that  of  library-keeper  to 
the  king,  he  was  not  only  continued  In  the  privileges  of 
his  place  during  life,  but  the  furvivance  was  granted  to 
his  wife,  a  favour  of  which  there  had  been  no  inftance 
before.  But  the  death  of  Madam  Dacier  in  1720,  ren- 
dered this  grant,  which  was  fo  honourable  to  her,  in- 
cfFtttual.  He  died  Si'ptember  18.  1722,  of  an  ulcer 
in  the  throat.  In  his  manners,  fentiment?,  and  the  whole 
of  his  conduft,  he  was  a  complete  mudcluf  that  ancient 
philofophy  of  which  he  was  lo  great  an  ad.:.irer,  and 
which  he  impraved  by  the  rules  and  principles  of  Chri- 
ftianity. 

Dacier   (Anne),  daughter  of  Tannegui  le  Fevre, 
proieffor  of  Greek  at  Saumur  in   France.     She  early 
ihowed  a  fine  genius,  which  her  father  cultivated  with 
great   care  and  fatisladlion.     After  her  father's  death 
(he  went  to  Paris,  whither  her  fame  had  already  reach- 
ed ;   (lie  was  then  preparing  an  edition  of  Callimachus, 
which  (he    publifhed  In    1674.      Having  fhown   lomc 
(hcets  of  It  to  Mr  Huet,  preceptor  to  the  dauphin,  and 
to  feveral  other  men  of  learning  at  tlie  court,  the  work 
was  fo  highly  admired,  that  the  duke  of  Montaufier 
made  a  propofal  to  her  of  publilliing  feveral  Latin  au- 
thors for  the  ufe  of  the  dauphin.   She  rejefted  this  pro- 
pofal at  firft,  as  a  tafli  to  which  flie  was  not  equal. 
But  the  duke  infifttd  upon  it ;  io  that  at  lait  he  gain- 
ed her  confent  ;  upon  which  fhe  undertook  an  edition 
of  Florus,  publifhed  in  1674.      T^'^'t  reputation  being 
now  fpread  over  all  Europe,  Chrilhna  queen  of   Swe- 
den ordered  count  Konigfmark  to  make  her  a  compli- 
ment in  her  name  :   upon  which  MadcmoIfcUe  le  Fevre 
fent  the  queen  a  Latin  letter,  with  her  edition  of  Flo- 
rus:   to  which  her  majeily  wiote  an  obliging  aulwer  ; 
and  not  long  after  fent  her  another  letter,  to  pcrfuade 
her  to  abandon  the  Protcltant   religion,  and  made  her 
confiderable  offers  to  fettle  at  her  court.      In  1683  fhe 
married  Mr  Dacier  ;  and  loon  after  declared  her  delign 
to  the  duke  of  Montauiier  and  the  bidiop  of  Mt.aux  of 
reconciling  herfelf  to  the  church  of  Rome,  which  (lie 
had  entertained  for  fome  time  :   but  as  Mr  Dacier  was 
not    yet    convinced    of  the   reafonablenels   of  luch  a 
change,  they  retired   to  Cafties  in    16S4,   where  they 
had  a  fmall  eftate,  in  order  to  examine  the   points  of 
controverfy  between  the   Protellants  and   the   Roman 
Catholics.     They  at  laft  determined  in  favour  of  the 
latter,  and  made  their  public  abjuration  in  16S5.      Af- 
ter this,  the  king  gave   both  hufband  and  wile  marks 
of  his  favour.      In  1693,  ^^  applied,  herlelf  to  the  edu- 
cation of  her  fon  and  daughter,  who  made  a  prodigi- 
ous progrefs  :   the  fon  died  In  1  694,  and  the  daughter 
became  a  nun  in  the  abbey  of  Longchamp.     Sht  had 
another  daughter,  who  had  united  in  her  all  the  virtues 
and  accomplilhments  that  could  adorn  the  fex  ;  but  (lie 
died  at  18.     Her  mother   has  immoitalized   her  me- 
mory in  the  preface   to   her   tranflation    of  the    Iliad. 
Madam  Dacier  was  In  a  very  Infjjm  ftate  of  health  the 
two  laft  years  of  her  life  ;  and  died,  after  a  very  pain- 
ful fickncfs,  Auguft  17.  1720,  aged  69.     She  was  re- 
markable for  her  firmnefs,  generofity,  equality  of  tem- 
per, and  piety. 

DACTYL,  dadyhs,  a  foot  In  the  Latin  and  Greek 
poetry,  confifting  of  a  long  fyllable,  followed  by  two 
fhort  ones  :  as  carmine. 

Some  fay    it   is   derived  from  <ra«ri/xt>>-,  "  a  finger," 

•  becaufe 


D     JE     D 


[     ^45     1 


r>   iE   M 


Jafty'.us   becaufe  it  is  divided  into  three  joints,  the  fiift  of  wliich 

U         is  longer  than  the  other  two. 
jaiijli;.        -pijg  liactyl  is  i'aid  to   h.ive   been  the  invention  of 
"^  Dionyiiiis  or   Bacchus,  wlio   delivered   oracles  in  this 

meafure  at  Delphos,  before  Apollo.  The  Greeks  call 
it  croMTix^r,  The  daiftyl  and  fpondec  are  the  moll 
confiderable  of  the  poetical  feet  ;  as  being  the  niea- 
fures  ufed  in  heroic  verfe,  by  Homer,  Virgil,  &c. 
Thefe  two  are  of  equal  time,  but  not  equal  motion. 
The  fpondee  has  an  even,  Ibrong,  and  fteady  pace,, 
hke  a  trot  :  the  daclyl  relembles  the  nimbler  llrokes 
of  a  gallop. 

Dactylus  was  alfo  a  fort  of  dance  among  the  an- 
cient Greeks,  chieliy  performed,  Hefychius  obftrvcs, 
by  the  athletje. 

Dactyls  alfo  denote  the  fruit  of  the  palm-tree, 
more  ufually  called  dates. 

DACTYLI  ID/Ei  ;  the  Fingers  of  Alount  Ida. 
Concerning  thefe.  Pagan  theology  and  fable  give  very 
different  accounts.  Tiie  Cretans  paid  divine  vvorfhip 
to  them,  as  thole  who  had  nurfcd  and  brought  up  the 
god  Jupiter  ;  whence  it  appears,  tliat  they  were  the 
fame  as  the  Corybantes  and  Curetes.  Neverthelcfs 
Strabo  makes  them  diiferent;  and  fays,  that  the  tradi- 
tion in  Phn,-gia  was,  that  "  Curetes  and  Corybantes 
were  dcfcended  from  the  Dadlyli  Idiei:  that  there  were 
originally  an  hundred  men  in  the  illand,  who  were  call- 
ed Dadyli  IiLi ;  from  whom  fprang  nine  Curetes^  and 
each  of  thefe  nine  produced  ten  men,  as  many  as  the 
fingers  of  a  man's  two  hands;  and  that  this  gave  the 
name  to  the  ancellors  of  the  DaCtyli  Idaei."  Ho  re- 
lates another  opinion,  which  is,  that  there  were  but 
five  Datlyli  Idiei;  who,  according  to  Sophocles,  were 
the  inventors  of  iron:  that  thefe  five  brothers  had  five 
fifters,  and  that  from  this  number  they  took  the  name 
oi Jiggers  cf  mount  IJu,  becaufe  they  were  in  number 
ten  ;  and  that  they  worked  at  the  foot  of  this  moun- 
tain. Diodorus  Siculus  reports  the  matter  a  little  dif- 
ferently. He  fays  "  the  firil  inhabitants  of  the  iiland 
of  Crete  were  the  Datlyli  Ida;i,  who  had  their  refi- 
dence  on  mount  Ida  :  that  fome  faid  they  were  an 
hundred  ;  others  only  five,  in  number  equal  to  the  fin- 
gers of  a  man's  hand,  whence  they  had  the  name  of 
JDaSyli :  that  they  were  magi^clans,  and  addifted  to 
niyllical  ceremonies  :  that  Orpheus  was  their  difciple, 
,  and  carried  their  myfterles  into  Greece  :  that  the  Dac- 
tyli  invented  the  ufe  of  iron  and  fire,  and  that  they 
had  been  recompenced  with  di\ine  honours."' 

Diomedes  the  Grammarian  fays,  I'he  Daflyll  Idii 
were  pritfts'of  the  goddefs  Cy'oele:  called  Idici,  becaufe 
that  goddefs  was  chiefly  wordiipped  on  mount  Ida  in 
Phrygia ;  and  DaSyli,  becaufe  that,  to  prevent  Saturn 
from  hearing  the  cries  of  infant  Jupiter,  whom  Cybtle 
had  committed  to  their  cuftody,  they  ufed  to  firg  ci.r- 
tain  veifes  of  their  own  invention,  in  the  DaCtyhc 
meafure.     See  Curetes  and  Corybantes. 

DACTYLIC,  fomething  that  has  a  relation  to 
dadyls. 

Anciently,  there  were  daftylic  as  well  as  fpondaic 
flutes,  t'tbiie  daSylictS.  The  daitylic  flutes  confifted  of 
unequal  intervals;  as  the  dailylic  foot  does  of  unequal 
meafures. 

D.icjrLic  Verjes  are  hexameter  verfes,  ending  in  a 
daftyl  iaflead  of  a  fpondee  ;  as  fpondaic  verfts  are 
thofe  which  have  a  fpondee  in  the  fifth  foot  inllead 
of  adaftyl. 


An  inftance  of  a  daftylic  verfc  we  have  in  Virgil: 

Ris  p:i!iix  ceciJire  vtu'iut  •'  ^itin  prot'riui  omnij 
}^tf-  t.^gerciit  ocu'ii AiN.  VI,  33. 

DACTYLIOMANCY,  Dactvliomantia,  a  fort 
of  divination  performed  by  means  of  a  ring.  The 
word  is  compoftd  of  the  Greek 'ia«r<'''"f  "ling,"  of 
Sxr.ruKo,-   "  finger,"  and  m^"-"-   "  divination." 

Daftylioraancy  confilled  principally  in  holding  a  ring, 
fufpended  by  a  fine  thread,  over  a  I'ound  table,  on  the 
edge  whereof  were  made  divers  marks  with  the  twen- 
ty-four letters  of  the  alphabet.  The  ring  in  (baking, 
or  vibrating  over  the  table,  Hopped  over  certain  of  tl«: 
letters,  which,  being  joined  together,  compofcd  the 
aiilvver  required.  But  the  operation  was  preceded  and 
accom.pauied  by  feveral  fupcrftitious  ceremonies ;  for 
firit  the  ring  w.is  to  be  confecrated  with  a  great  deal 
of  inyilery  :  the  perfon  who  held  it  v\us  to  be  clad  in 
linen  garments  to  the  very  flioes  ;  his  head  was  to  be 
Ihaved  all  round  ;  and  in  his  hand  he  was  to  hold  ver- 
vain. And  before  he  proceeded  on  any  thing,  the 
gods  were  firll  to  lie  appeafed  by  a  formulary  ot  pray- 
ers, &c.  Ammianus  Marcellinus  gives  the  pr,ocefs  at 
large  in  his  29th  book. 

DACTYLIS,  Cock's-fgot  grass  :  A  genus  of 
the  digynia  order,  belonging  to  the  triandria  clafs  of 
plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
4th  order,  Qrununa.  The  calyx  is  bivalved  and  com- 
preffed,  with  tlie  one  valve  longer  than  the  other, 
carinated,  or  having  the  I'achls  prominent  and  Iharp. 
There  are  two  fpecics,  the  cynoiuioidcs  or  fmooth 
cock's-foot  grafs,  and  tiie  glonu-ratus  or  rough  cock's 
foot  grafs.  Both  are  natives  of  Britain  :  the  firft 
grows  in  marfhy  places,  and  the  latter  is  common  in 
ineadows  and  palture-gi'ounds.  1  ins  lall  is  eat  by 
horfes,  fteep,  and  goats;  but  rtfufed  by  cows. 

DACTYLUS,  in  zoology,  a  name  given  by  Pliny 
to  the  P^ioLAS. 

DADUCHI,  in  antiquity,  priefts  of  Cei-es.  That 
goddeL  having  loll  her  daughter  Proferpine,  fay  my- 
tholegiftf,  began  to  make  iearch  for  her  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  night.  In  order  to  do  tliis  in  the  dark, 
fhe  lighted  a  torch,  and  thus  fet  forth  on  her  travels 
throughout  the  world  :  for  which  reafon.it  is  that  file, 
is  alv/aysfccn  reprefented  with  a  lighted  torch  in  her 
hand.  On  this  account,  and  in  commemoration  of 
this  pretended  exploit,  it  became  a  cullora  for  the 
prieiif,  at  the  fealts  and  facrifices  of  this  goddefs,  to- 
run  about  in  the  temple,  with  torches  after  this  man- 
ner ;  one  of  them  took  a  lighted  torch  from  oft'  tire 
alt?.r,  and  holding  it  with  his  hand,  ran  with  it  to  a  cer- 
tain part  of  the  temple,  where  he  gave  it  to  another, 
faying  to  him,  Tibl  irado  ;  this  fecond  ran  after  the 
like  manner  to  another  part  of  the  temple,  and  gave 
It  to  the  third,  and  fo  of  the  reft.  From  this  cere- 
mony the  prieils  became  denominated  daduchi,  iaS^x."', 
q.  d.  "torch-bearers;"  from  J^i;,  "an  undluous  refr- 
noas  wood,  as  pine,  fir,  &c."  whereof  the  anciculs. 
made  torches;  and  '%-',  "  I  have,  I  hold." — The  Ath<»- 
nians  alfo  gave  the  name  dcduchus  to  the  high-priell  of 
Hercules. 

DjEDALA,  a  mountain  and  city  of  Lycia,  where 
Dasdalus  was  buried,  according  to  Pliny. — Alfo  two 
fellivals  in  Bccolia,  fo  called  ;  one  of  them  obl'erved 
at  Alalcomenos  by  the  Platacans  in  a  large  grove,  where 
they  expofed  in  the  open  air  pieces  of  boiled  flefli,  and 
carefuUy  obferved  whether  the    crows  that  came  to 

prer 


ii.anty 

11 
Da-daU. 


I>sedalus. 


t)    ^    D 

prey  upon  them  dileftcd  their  flight 
upon  which  any  of  thefe  birds  ah'ghted  weie  imme- 
diately CMt  down,  and  with  them  ilatues  were  made, 
called  Dsdala,  in  honour  of  Dredalus.  The  other  fef- 
tival  was  of  a  more  folemn  kind.  It  was  celebrated 
every  60  years  by  all  the  cities  of  Bceotia,  as  a  cora- 
penfation  for  the  intermiffion  of  the  fmaller  feftivals, 
for  that  number  of  years,  during  the  exile  of  the  Pla- 
tscans.  Fourteen  of  the  ftatues  called  D<edala  were 
dilbibuted  by  lot  among  the  Plataeans,  Lebadseans, 
Coroneans,  Orchomenians,  Thefpians,  Thebans,  Ta- 
nagraeans,  and  Chironeans,  becaufe  they  had  effeSed 
a  reconciliation  among  the  Plataeans,  and  caufed  them 
to  be  recalled  fi  om  exile  about  the  time  that  Thebes 
was  rcftored  by  CaflTander  the  fon  of  Antipater. 
During  this  fcftival  a  woman  in  the  habit  of  a  bride- 
maid  accompanied  a  ftatue  w^hich  was  dreffed  in  fe- 
male garments,  on  the  banks  of  the  Eurotes.  This 
proceffion  was  attended  to  the  top  of  mount  Cithasron 
by  many  of  the  Boeotians,  who  had  places  afligned 
them  by  lot.  Here  an  altar  of  fquare  pieces  of  wood 
cemented  together  like  (lones  was  erefted,  and  upon 
it  were  thrown  large  quantities  of  combuftible  mate- 
rials. Afterwards  a  bull  was  facrificed  to  Jupiter,  and 
an  ox  or  heifer  to  Juno,  by  every  one  of  the  ci- 
ties of  Boeotia,  and  by  the  moll  opulent  that  attend- 
ed. The  poorcfl  citizens  offered  fmall  cattle;  and  all 
thefe  oblations,  together  with  the  Daedala,  were  thrown 
into  the  common  heap  and  fet  on  fire,  and  totally  redu- 
ced to  aflies.  They  originated  in  this :  When  Juno, 
after  a  quarrel  with  Jupiter,  had  retired  to  Eubosa, 
and  refufed  to  return  to  his  b:d,  the  god,  anxious 
for  her  return,  went  to  confult  Citha;ron  king  of 
Plataea,  to  find  fome  effeftual  meafure  to  break  her 
obftinacy.  Cithiron  advifed  him  to  drefs  a  ftatue  in 
woman's  apparel,  and  carry  it  in  a  chariot,  and  pub- 
lickly  to  report  it  w  as  Platcea  the  daughter  of  Afopus, 
whom  he  was  going  to  marr)'.  The  advice  was  fol- 
lowed ;  and  Juno,  informed  of  her  hufb^nd's  future  mar- 
riage, repaired  in  hafte  to  meet  the  chariot,  and  was 
eafily  united  to  him.  when  (he  dilcovered  the  artful 
ineafureshe  made  ufe  of  to  effedl  a  reconciliation. 

DjEDALUS,  an  Athenian,  fon  of  Eupalamus,  de- 
fcended  from  Erechthcus  k'ng  of  Athens.  He  was 
die  moft  ingenious  artift  of  his  age;  and  to  him  we  are 
indebted  for  the  invention  of  the  wedge,  and  many 
other  mechanical  inftruments,  and  the  fails  of  (hips. 
He  made  ftatues  which  moved  orthemfelves,  and  feem- 
ed  to  be  endowed  with  life.  Talus  his  fitter's  fon 
promifed  to  be  as  great  as  himfelf  by  the  ingenuity  of 
his  inventions;  and  therefoie  from  envy  he  threw 
him  down  from  a  window  and  killed  him.  After  the 
murder  of  this  youth,  DaedeJus,  with  his  fon  Icarus, 
fled  from  Athens  to  Crete,  where  Minos  king  of  the 
country  gave  him  a  cordial  reception.  Dsdalus  made 
a  famous  labyrinth  for  Minos,  and  alTiiled  Pafiphae 
tlie  queen,  to  gratify  her  unnatiu'al  pafTion  for  a  bull. 
For  this  action  Daedalus  incurred  the  difpleafure  of 
Mino^,  who  ordered  him  to  be  confined  in  the  laby- 
rinth which  he  had  conftruited.  Here  he  made  him- 
felf wings  with  feathers  and  wax,  and  carefully  fitted 
them  to  his  body  and  that  of  his  fon,  who  was  the 
companion  of  his  confinement.  They  took  their  flight 
in  the  air  from  Crete;  but  the  heat  of  the  fun  melted 
the  wax  on  the  wings  of  Icarus,  whofc  flight  was  too 


[   646    ]  D   j:   M 

All  the  tree*  high,  and  he  fell  Into  that  part  of  the  ocean  which 
from  him  has  been  called  the  /ctjrian  Sea.  The  father 
by  a  proper  management  of  his  wings  alighted  at 
Cums,  where  he  built  a  temple  to  Apollo,  and  thence 
directed  his  courfe  to  Sicily,  where  he  was  kindly  re- 
ceived by  Cocalus,  who  reigned  over  part  of  the  coun- 
try. He  left  many  monuments  of  his  ingenuity  in 
Sicily,  which  ftill  exifted  in  the  age  of  Diodorus  Si- 
culus.  He  was  difpatched  by  Cocahis,  who  was  afraid 
of  the  power  of  Minos,  who  had  declared  war  againft 
him  becaufe  he  had  given  an  afylum  to  Daedalus.  The 
flight  of  Dsdalus  from  Crete  with  wings  is  explain- 
ed by  obferving  that  he  was  the  inventor  of  fails,  which 
in  his  age  might  pafs  at  a  diftance  for  wings.  He  lived 
1400  years  before  the  Chriftian  era.  There  were  two 
ftatuaries  of  the  fame  name;  one  of  Sicyon  fon  of 
Patroclus  ;  the  other  a  native  of  Bithynia. 

D^MON  Aoti^u«,  a  name  given  by  the  ancients  to 
certain  fpirits  or  genii,  which  they  fay  appeared  to 
men,  either  to  do  them  fervice  or  to  hurt  them. 

The  Greek  word  imy-a'  is  derived  (according  to 
Plato,  in  his  Cratylus,  p.  398.  ed.  Scrrani,  vol.  i. )  from 
Sctti/i^v,  '•  knowing  or  intelligent  ;"  but  according  to 
others  from  ^aiafoxi,  "to  diftribute,"  (fee  the  Scholiaft 
on  Homer,  U.  i.  ver.  222).  Either  of  thefe  deriva- 
tions agrees  with  the  oiSce  afcrlbed  to  daemons  by  the 
ancient  heathens,  as  the  fpirit  intrufted  with  the  iu- 
fpeftion  and  government  of  mankind.  For,  accor- 
ding to  the  philiifophers,  dsmons  held  a  middle  rank 
between  the  celellial  gods  and  men  on  earth,  and  car- 
ried on  all  intercourfe  between  them  ;  conveying  tiie 
addreflfts  of  men  to  the  gods,  and  the  divine  benefits 
to  men.  It  was  the  opinion  of  many,  that  the  ce- 
lellial divinities  did  not  themfelves  interpofe  in  hu- 
man affairs,  but  committed  the  entire  adminiftration 
of  the  government  of  this  lower  world  to  thefe  fubal- 
tern  deities  :  Neque  enim  pro  mqjejlate  deum  calejlium fue- 
rit,h.rc  lurare;  {K^vXeiM?,  dcdeo  Socratis,  p.  677^.  Cuiic- 
ta  calejl'uim  voluntate,  nummc  iif  atilljorhate,  fed  ditmonum 
obfeqiiio,  ly  opera,  Isf  mi>i'tJ}cnoJien  arb'itrandum  ej} ;  (Id. 
p.  b-l<^.)  Hence  they  became  the  objefts  of  divine 
worlhip.  "  ff'idols  are  nothing,"  fays  Celtus  (apud  Ori- 
gen  cont.  Cf^llb.viii.  p.  393.),  "what  harm  can  there  be 
to  join  in  the  pubhc  feftivals?  If  they  are  dsmons,  then 
it  is  certain  that  they  are  gods,  in  whom  we  are  to 
confide,  and  to  whom  we  (liould  offer  facrificcs  and 
prayers,  to  render  them  propitious." 

Several  of  the  heathen  philofophers  held,  that  there 
were  different  kinds  of  daemons;  that  fome  of  them 
were  fpiritual  fubftances  of  a  more  noble  origin 
than  the  human  race,  and  that  others  had  once  been 
men. 

Bat  thofe  daemons  who  were  the  more  immediate 
objefts  of  the  eilabliilied  worlliip  amongll  the  ancient 
nations  were  human  fpirits,  fucli  as  were  believed  to 
become  da-mons  or  deities  after  their  departure  from 
their  bodies.  Plutarch  teaches  [Fit.  Roinul.  p.  36. 
ed.  Paris)  "that  according  to  a  divine  nature  and  jn- 
ilice,  the  fouls  of  virtuous  men  are  advanced  to  the 
rank  of  dicmons  ;  and  that  from  daemons,  it  they  are 
properly  purified,  they  are  exalted  into  gods,  not  by 
any  political  inftitution,  but  according  to  right  reafon." 
The  fame  author  fays  in  another  place  {de  If.  isf  OJir. 
p.  361.),  "  that  Ifisand  Ofiris  were,  for  their  virtue, 
changed  from  good  da;mons  into  gods,  as  were  Her* 

c\iles 


D     JE    M 


[     647     ] 


D     JE    M 


Bamoniac.  cules  and  Bacchus  afteiw;ird.s,  receiving  the  united  ho- 
"""v  '  noiirs  both  of  gods  and  diemoiis."  Hcfiod  and  ullicr 
poets  who  have  recorded  the  ancient  hiilory  or  tradi- 
tions on  which  the  pnblic  faith  and  worihip  were  toun- 
ded,  afTert,  that  the  men  of  the  golden  age,  who  were 
fiippofed  to  be  very  good,  became  daemons  after  death, 
and  difpenfers  of  good  things  to  mankind. 

Though  (Union  is  often  ufcd  in  a  general  fenfe  as 
equivalent  to  a  dehy  ;  and  is  accordingly  applied  to 
fate  o\  fortune,  or  whatever  elfc  was  regarded  as  a  god:  . 
yet  thofe  dxmons  who  were  the  more  immediate  ob- 
jefts  of  divine  worihip  amongll  the  heathens  were  hu- 
man fpirits;  as  is  fliown  in  Farmer  on  Miracles,  chap.  iii. 
ft-a.  2. 

The  word  dc:-mon  is  ufed  indiffeiently  in  a  good  and 
in  a  bad  fenfe.  In  the  former  fenfe,  it  was  very  com- 
monly ufcd  annmg  the  ancient  heathens.  "  Wt  mull 
not  (fays  Mcnander)  think  any  d-jemon  to  be  evil, 
hurtful  to  a  good  life,  but  every  god  to  be  good." 
Neverthelefs,  thofe  are  certainly  miltaken  wh(>  affinn, 
that  damon  never  fignifies  an  evil  being  till  after  the 
times  of  Chrift.  Pythagoras  held  daemons  who  fent 
difeafes  to  men  and  cattle  [Diogen.  Laert.  Pit.  Py- 
tha^nr.  p.  5 1 4.  ed.  Amflel. )  Zaleucus,  in  his  preface 
to  his  Laws  {apud  Stobisum,  Serm.  42.)  fuppofes  that 
an  evil  da;mon  might  be  prefent  with  a  man,  to  influ- 
ence him  to  injuflice.  The  daemons  of  Empedoclcs 
were  evil  fpirits,  and  exiles  from  heaven  ;  (Plutarch, 
nipi  Tu  un  J':iv  <fa»M(s- J  1).  And  in  his  life  ot  Dion 
(p.  958)  he  fays,  "  It  was  the  opinion  of  the  ancitnts, 
that  evil  and  mifchicvous  daemons,  out  of  envy  and 
hatred  to  good  men,  oppofe  whatever  they  do."  Scarce 
did  any  opinion  more  generally  prevail  In  ancient  times 
than  this,  w's.  that  as  tlie  departed  fouls  of  good  men 
became  good  daemons,  fo  the  departed  fouls  of  bad 
m;n  became  evil  daemons. 

It  has  been  generally  thought,  that  by  d,erncns  we 
are  to  underftand  dc-vih,  in  the  Septuaglnt  verfion  of 
the  Old  Tcllament.  Others  think  the  word  is  in  that 
verfion  certainly  applied  to  the  ghoftsoffuch  dead  men 
as  the  heathens  deified,  in  Deut.  xxxii.  17.  Pf.  cvi.  37. 
That  damon  often  bears  the  fame  meaning  in  the  New 
Te'tament,  and  particularly  in  Adlsxvii.  18.  1  Cor.  x. 
2  1.  I  Tim.  iv.  I.  Rev.  ix.  13.  is  fhown  at  large  by 
Mr  Jofeph  Mede  (Works,  p.  623,  et feq.)  That  the 
word  is  applied  always  to  human  fplilts  in  the  New 
Teflanient,  Mr  Farmer  has  attempted  to  fliow  in  his 
EfTay  on  Demoniacs,  p.  208,  el  feq.  As  to  the  meanr 
■  ing  of  the  word  d.vnon  in  the  fathers  of  the  Chriilian 
church,  it  is  ufcd  hy  thtm  in  the  fame  fenfe  as  it  was 
by  the  heathen  philofoph.ers,  efpecially  the  latter  Pla- 
tonifts  ;  that  is,  fomctimes  for  departed  human  fpirits, 
and  at  other  times  for  fuch  fpirits  as  had  never  inha- 
bited human  bodies.  In  the  fathers,  indeed,  the  word 
is  more  commonly  taken  in  an  evil  fenfe,  than  in  the 
ancient  philolophers  Bcfides  the  two  forementu>ned 
kinds  of  d.enions,  the  fathers,  as  wrll  as  the  ancient  phi- 
lofophers,  held  a  third,  viz.  fuch  as  fprang  from  the 
congrefs.  of  fiiperior  beings  with  the  daughters  of  men. 
In  the  theology  ot  the  fathers,  thefe  were  the  worft 
kind  of  daemons. 

Different  orders  of  demons  had  different  (lations  and 
employments  afTigned  them  b)  the  ancients.  Good 
dsenions  were  confidered  as  the  aulhora  of  good  to 
maakiad ;  evildKnions  brought  inniuneraLle  evils  both 


upon   men  and  beads.     Amongft  evil  docmons   there  D.-cmon.'at. 
was  a  great  dllliiiaion  with   refpeiit  to   the  offices  af-  '    "  v     '  -' 
figned   them  ;    fome   compelled    men    to   wickednefs, 
others  llimulated  them  to  madnefs     See  Demoniac. 

Much  has  been  faid  concerning  the  daemon  of  So- 
crates. He  pretended  to  his  friends  and  difciples,  and 
even  declared  to  the  world,  that  a  friendly  fpirit, 
whom  he  calltil  his  dsmon,  direded  him  how  to  ad  on 
every  important  occafion  in  his  life,  and  rcihaiued  him 
from    imprudence    of  condud. 

In  contemplating  the  chaiader  of  this  great  philo- 
fopher,  while  we  admire  him  as  the  nobkit  pattern 
of  virtue  and  moral  wifdom  that  appeared  in  the  hea- 
then world,  we  ait  naturally  led  to  inquire,  whetlier 
what  he  gave  out  concerning  his  dieuion  weu.  a  trick 
of  impollurc,  or  the  reverie  of  a  heated  im.ij.-indtion, 
or  a  lober  and  tiue  account  of  a  favour  which  heaven 
defigned  to  confer  on  fo  extraordinary  a  man. 

To  afcertain  in  this  cafe  the  objed  of  our  inqui- 
ries, is  by  no  means  fo  eafy  as  the  luperficial  think- 
er may  be  apt  to  imagine.  When  we  confider  the 
dignity  of  fentiment  and  fimpllcity  of  manners  which 
Socrates  dlfplayed  through  the  general  tenor  of  his 
life,  we  cannot  readily  bring  ourfelves  to  think  that 
he  could  be  capable  of  fuch  a  trick  of  irapolhire.  No- 
thing of  tlie  wildnefs  of  an  enthufiaft  appears  in  his 
charather  ;  the  modelly  of  his  pretcifions,  and  the 
refped  which  in  his  converfation  and  condud  he  uni- 
formly teilified  for  the  ordinary  duties  of  fo-ial  life, 
fufiiciently  prove  that  he  was  free  from  the  influence 
of  blind  enthufiafm  :  we  cannot  infer,  therefore,  that, 
hke  the  aftrouomer  in  Raffelas,  he  was  deceived  with 
refpect  to  his  daemon  by  an  overheated  imagination. 
It  is  no  lefs  difficult  to  believe,  that  God  would  dif- 
tinguiih  an  heathen  in  fo  eminent  a  manner,  and  yet 
leave  him  uninftrnded  in  the  principles  of  true  reli- 
gion. Surely,  if  ever  fcepticifm  be  reafonable,  it  mud 
be  in  fucli  matters  as  the  prefent. 

Yet,  if  it  be  flill  infilled,  tliat  fome  one  of  thefe 
three  notions  concerning  the  da;mon  of  Socrates  mull 
be  more  probable  than  the  otiiers ;  we  would  rather  " 
cllccm  Socrates  an  enthufiaft  in  this  inllauce,  than 
degrade  him  to  the  bnfe  charader  of  an  impoftor,  or 
fuppole  that  a  fpiritual  being  adually  revealed  hini- 
lelt  to  the  philofopher,  and  condefccnded  to  become 
his  conflnnt  attendant  and  counfellor.  People  are  of- 
ten under  the  influence  of  an  over-heated  imagination 
with  regard  to  fome  one  thing,  and  cool  and  fobtr  a« 
to  every  thing  elfe. 

pyt-MONiAC  (fro.ma:«ff2on),ahuraan  being whofe Defiuhion, 
volition   and  other  mental   faculties  are   overpowered 
and  rellrained,   and  his   body  pofl:'cfl"td  and  aduated, 
by  fome  cxer-ted  fpiritual  being  uffuperior  power. 

Such  fctms  to  be  the  determinate  fenfe  of  the  wordjD.fpme 
but  it  is  difputed  whether  any  of  mankind  ever  were  cone- rning. 
in. this  unfortunate  condition.  ciaiir.oui- 

It  is  generally  agreed,  that  neither  good  nor  evil  "'■** 
fpirits  ai-e  known  to  exert  fuch  antJiorlty  at  prefent 
over  the  human  race  :  but  in  the  ancient  heatlien 
world,  and  among  the  Jews,  particularly  in  the  days 
of  our  Saviour,  evil  fpirits,  at  leaft,  are  thought  by 
many  to  have  been  more  troublefome. 

_  The  Greeks  and  Romans  imagined,  that  their  dci- Notions  of- 
ties,   to  .eveal  future  events,   frequently  entered  intg ''"^ '^'■'^'''" ' 
the  prophet,  or  pioplitiefs  \,'ho  was  coufulted,  ovei-^Jj.'^cl^^'J*"*' 
4  powtrcdpoflelliou. 


t>   m   M 


[   648   ] 


D    ^    M 


Jl.vtnn.'ac.  powered  tlitir  faculties,    and  uttered    ijpfponfts  with 

*--^v '  iliL-ir  oroTins  of  fpeecb.     Apollo  w:is  believed  to  enter 

ir.to  the  Pythonefs,  and  to  didate  the  prophetic  an- 
fwers  received  by  thofe  who  confukcd  her.  Other 
oracles  befides  that  of  Delphi  were  fiujpofed  to  unfold 
futurity  by  the  fame  machinery.  ^\nd  in  various 
other  cafes,  either  malignant  diemons-  or  benevolent 
deities  were  thought  to  enter  into  and  to  actuate 
human  bein;;s.  Tht Lym^/:'at!ci,  the  C^rriti,  the  Latvati, 
of  the  Ronians,  were  all  of  this  defcription  ;  and  the 
Greeks,  by  the  ufe  of  the  word  Ja.^».i>,ti"=.,  fliow  that 
they  referred  to  this  caufe  the  origin  of  madnefs. 
Among  the  ancient  l>catheu5,  therefore,  it  appears  to 
have  been  a  generally  received  opinion,  that  iupenor 
beings  enlertd  occafionally  into  men,  overpowered  the 
facukits  of  their  minds,  and  aftuated  their  .bodily  or- 
gans. They  might  imagine  that  this  happened  in  in- 
Rancts  in  which  the  e.Tefts  were  owing  to  the  opera- 
tion of  different  caules  ;  but  an  opinion  fo  generally 

4  prevak-nt  had  furely  fome  plaufible  foundation. 

Of  the  The  Jews  too,   if  we  may  trull  the  facred  writings 

J«*--  or  lolephus,  appear   to  have  believed   in  demoniacal 

poffcfiion.  The  cafe  of  Saul  may  be  recolleded  as 
one  among  many  in  which  fuperior  created  beings 
wxre  believed  by  the  Jev.'S  to  exert  in  this  manner 
their  influence  over  human  life.  The  general  tenor 
of  their  hiftoty  and  language,  and  their  doftrines  con- 
cerninp-  good  and  evil  fpirits,  prove  the  opinion  of  dae- 
moniacal  poifeffion  to  have  been  well  known  and  ge- 

5  nerally  received  among  them. 

Ofmankind      jj,  the  days  of  our  Saviour,  it  would  appear  that 
in  general   j^-jnoniacal  Doffeffion   was  very  frequent   among   the 
^"  o,,^sl''^'jews  and  the  neighbouring  nations.     Many  were  the 
»iour.      '     evil  fpirits  whom  Jefus  is  related  in  the   gofpels   to 
have  ejefted  from  patients  that  were  brought  unto  him 
as  poffefied  and  tormented  by  thofe  malevolent  de- 
mons.    His  apollles  too,  and  the  firil  Chriftians,  who 
were  moll  afllve  and  fuccefsful  in   the  propagation  of 
Chrillianity,  appear  to  have  often  exerted  the  mira- 
culous powers  with  which  they  were  endowed  on  li- 
milar  occafions.     The  da;mons  difplayed  a  degree  of 
knowledge   and  malevolence   which  fuHiciently  dlllin- 
guiPaed  them  from  human  beings :  and  the  language 
in  which  the   demoniacs  are  mentioned,  and  the  ac- 
tions and   fentiments  afcribed  to  them  in  the  New 
Teftament,  Ihow  that  our  Saviour  and  his  apollles  did 
not  ccnfider  the  idea  of  dremoniacal  poireffion  as  being 
merely  a  vulgar  error  concerning  the  origin  of  a  difeafe 
g  or  difeafes  produced  by  natural  caufes. 

Tefus  The  more  enlightened  cannot  always  avoid  the  ufe 

Chria  an!  of  metaphorical  modes  of  expreffion  ;  which  though 
his  apoftie?  fomidi-j  upon  error,  yet  have  been  fo  ellablilhed  in 
language  by  the  influence  of  cuftoin,  that  they  cannot 
be  fuddenly  difmifled.  V/hen  we  read  in  the  book  of 
Jofliua,  that  the  fun  on  a  certain  cccafion  flood  ftill, 
to  allow  that  hero  time  to  complete  a  viilory  ;  we 
eafily  find  an  excufe  for  the  condudl  of  the  facred  hi- 
florian,  in  accommodating  his  narrative  to  the  popular 
ideas  of  the  Jews  concerning  the  relative  motions  of 
the  heavenly  bcdies.  In  all  fimilar  inftances,  we  do 
not  complain  much  of  the  ufe  of  a  fingle  phrafe,  ori- 
ginally introduced  by  the  prevalence  of  fome  ground- 
lefs  opinion,  the  falfity  of  which  is  well  known  to  the 
writer. 

But  in  defcriptions  of  charafters,  in  the-narration  cf 
N°97. 


tnuft  h\ 
believed 
ri^emnria- 
cal  poflef- 
fion  to  be 
real. 


facts,  and  in  the  laying  down  of  fyltems  of  doclrlne,  Drerr.onhi 
we  require  different  rules  to  be  oblervcd.  Should  any  '  '■■,■  — 
perfon,  in  compliance  with  popular  opinions,  talk  in 
leiious  language  of  the  exikcnce,  dilpofitions,  decla- 
rations, and  aiitions  of  a  race  of  beings  whom,  he  knew 
to  be  abfolutely  fabulous,  we  furely  could  not  praife 
him  for  candid  integrity:  we  mull  fuppofe  hint  to  be 
either  exulting  in  irony  over  the  weak  credulity  of 
thole,  aroiuid  lum,  or  taking  advantage  of  their  weak- 
nefs,  with  the  dif.ionelly  and  the  felfilh  views  of  an 
impollor.  And  if  he  himftlf  fhould  pretend  to  any 
connedlion  with  this  imaginary  fyllem  of  beings;  and 
IhouIJ  claim,  in  confequence  of  his  conneclion  with 
them,  particular  honours  from  his  contemporaries ; 
whatever  might  be  the  dignity  of  his  character  in  all 
other  refpedls,  nobody  could  hefitate  even  for  a  mo- 
ment to  brand  him  as  an  impollor  of  the  bafelt  cha- 
racler. 

Precifely  in  this  light  mull  we  regard  the  conduil 
of  our  Saviour  and  his  apollles,  if  the  idea  of  diemo- 
niacal  poffeffion  were  to  be  conlidered  merel}'  as  a  vul- 
gar error.  They  talked  and  acled  as  if  they  believed 
that  evil  fpirits  had  aclually  entered  into  thofe  who 
were  brought  to  them  as  pofTeffed  with  devils,  and 
as  if  thofe  fpirits  were  aftually  expelled  by  their  au- 
thority out  of  the  unhappy  perfoas  whom  they  had 
pofieli'ed.  They  expected,  they  demanded  too,  to 
have  their  profelkons  and  declarations  believed,  in  con- 
fequence of  their  performing  fuch  mighty  works,  and 
to  be  honoured  as  having  thus  triumphed  over  the 
powers  of  hell.  The  reality  of  da;moniacal  poffefiion  7 
Hands  upon  the  fame  evidence  with  the  eofnel  iVllem  in  R'^l''""^;''' 

g'^"'^"'-       .  .  .    doarinev 

Neither  is  there  any  thing  abfurd  or  unreafonable  in 

this  dodlrine.  It  does  not  appear  to  contradiet  thofe 
ideas  which  the  general  appearances  of  nature  and  the 
feries  of  events  fuggefl  concerning  the  benevolence 
and  wifdom  of  the  Deity,  and  the  counfcls  by  which 
he  regulates  the  affairs  of  the  univerfe.  We  often 
fancy  ourfelves  able  to  comprehend  things  to  which 
our  imderllanding  is  wholly  inadequate  :  we  perfuade 
ourfelves,  at  times,  that  the  whole  extent  of  the  works 
of  the  Deity  mult  be  well  known  to  us,  and  that  his 
defigns  mult  always  be  fuch  as  we  can  fathom.  Wc 
are  then  ready,  whenever  any  difficulty  arifes  to  us,  in 
conlidering  the  conduft  of  Providence,  to  model  things 
accoiding  to  our  own  ideas;  to  deny  that  the  Deity 
can  poffibly  be  the  author  of  things  which  we  cannot 
reconcile ;  and  to  affert,  that  he  mull  aft  on  every  occa- 
fion  in  a  manner  confillent  with  our  narrow  views. 
This  is  the  pride  of  reafon  ;  aitd  it  feems  to  have  fug- 
gelled  the  ftrongefl  objeftions  tiat  have  been  at  any 
time  urged  againll  the  reah'ty  of  demoniacal  poffel- 
fion.  But  the  Deity  may  furely  conneft  one  order  of 
his  creatures  with  another.  We  perceive  mutual  re- 
lations and  a  beautiful  connection  to  prevail  through 
all  that  part  of  nature  which  falls  within  the  fphere 
of  our  obfervation.  The  inferior  animals  are  con- 
nefted  with  mankind,  and  fubjefted  to  their  autho- 
rity, not  only  in  inftances  in  which  it  is  exerted  for 
their  advantage,  but  even  where  it  is  tyrannically  abu- 
fed  to  their  dellrudion.  Among  the  evils  to  wlKch 
mankind  have  been  fubjefted,  why  might  not  their 
being  liable  to  daemoniacal  poffeihon  be  one  r  While 
the   Supreme   Being   retains    the  fovereignty  of -the 

uniTerft, 


DAE 


Dxpioniac.  utiiverfe,  he  may  employ  whatever  agents  he  thinks 

''~"'v~~"  proper  in  the  execution  of  Iiis  piirpofes:  he  may  either 

commilTion  an  angel   or  let  loofe  a  devil ;  as  well   as 

bend  the  human  will,  or  communicate  any  particular 

impuUe  to  matter. 

All  that  revelation  makes  known,  all  that  human 
reafon  can  conjefturo,  concerning  the  exillence  of  va- 
rious orders  of  fpiiitual  beings,  good  and  bad,  is 
perfeftly  confiltcnt  with,  and  even  favourable  to,  the 
doftiine  of  demoniacal  pofTcffion.  It  was  generally 
believed  through  the  ancient  heathen  world  ;  it  was 
equally  well  known  to  the  Jews,  and  equally  refpefted 
by  them  ;  it  is  mentioned  in  the  New  Teftament  in 
fuch  language,  and  fuch  narratives  are  related  concern- 
ing it,  that  the  gofpels  cannot  well  be  regarded  in  any 
other  light  than  as  pieces  of  impolture,  and  Jefus 
Chriil  muft  be  confidered  as  a  man  who  difhoneftly 
took  advantage  of  the  weaknefs  and  ignorance  of  his 
contemporaries,  if  this  do£lrine  be  nothing  but  a  vulgar 
error  ;  it  teaches  nothing  inconfillert  with  tlie  general 
conduSt  of  Providence  ;  it  is  not  the  caution  of  philo- 
foph\ ,  but  the  pride  of  reafon,  that  fuggefts  objections 
g  againll  tliis  doftriiie. 

Arirumei  ts  Thofe,  again,  who  are  unwilling  to  allow  that  angels 
of  the  An-  or  devils  have  ever  intermeddled  fo  much  with  the 
tidKinoni-  cpngfins  of  human  life,  urge  a  number  of  fpecious  ar- 
anilts.  .  -  .       '      1    /•  ^ 

g         guments  in  oppoUtion  to  tlieie. 

The  cafes  The  Greeks  and  Romans  of  old,  fay  they,  did  be- 
iii  which  Yicve  in  the  reality  cf  demoniacal  poirefTion.  They 
ihe  Greeks  f||ppQf(.j  jligt  fpiritual  beings  did  at  times  enter  into 
ruppnftd  'he  ions  or  daughters  or  men,  and  dillmguilh  them- 
demoniacal  felves  in  that  fituation  by  capricious  freaks,  deeds  of 
poficflioii,  wanton  mlfchief,  or  prophetic  enunciations.  But  in 
was  only  ^^^  inftances  in  which  they  fuppofed  this  to  happen,  it 
of  iiiadnefs  is  evident  that  no  fuch  thing  took  place.  Their  ac- 
&c.  counts  of  the  ftate  and  conduft  of  thofe  perfons  whom 

they  believed  to  be  poffeffed  in  this  fupernatural  man- 
nei",  fhow  plainly  that  what  they  afcribcd  to  the  in- 
fluence of  dxmons  were  merely  the  effcdts  of  natural 
difeafes.  Whatever  they  relate  concerning  the  lar-vatl, 
the  cerriti,  and  the  lyniphatid,  fhows  that  thefe  were 
merely  people  difordered  in  mind,  in  the  fame  unfor- 
tunate fituation  with  thofe  madmen  and  idiots  and 
melancholy  peifons  whom  we  have  among  out  felves. 
Feftus  dtfcribes  the  Larvatt  as  being  fur'iofi  it  nunte 
moti.  Horace  fays, 

Hellaiie pcrctijfa^  Alurius  cutr.  prac'ip'.tat  Jc^ 
Cerritui  full  ? 
Plato,  in  his  iJiVniru/,  fays,  "■''"i  7^f  "mu?  nfinrtiToii  ^a.Jmif 
i.9.ou«,<i'>raiKf.     Lucian  defcribes  dxmoniacs  as  lunatic, 
and  as  flaring  with  their  eyes,  foaming  at  the  mouth, 
and  being  fpeechlefs. 

It  appears  II ill  more  evidently,  that  all  tlie  perfons 
fpoken  of  as  poffeffed  with  devils  in.  the  New  Tef- 
Jcmo.  tament,  were  either  mad  or  epileptic,  and  precifely 
in  the  fame  condition  with  the  madmen  and  epileptics 
of  modern  times.  The  Jews,  among  other  reproaches 
which  they  threw  out  againft  our  Saviour,  fald,  Ih 
hath  a  ilfu'il,  and  is  viaci;  nvhy  hear  ye  h'lrri  ?  The  ex- 
prtflions  he  hath  a  tlevH,  and  is  mud,  were  ceitainly  ufed 
on  this  occafion  be  fynonymous.  With  all  their  vi- 
rulence, they  would  ndt  furely  afcribe  to  him  at  once 
two  things  that  were  inconiiftcnt  and  contradictory. 
Thofe  who  thought  more  favourably  of  the  character 
pf  Jtfus,  afferted  concerning  his  difcourfcs,  iji  reply  to 
Vol.  V.  Part  H. 


[       649       ] 


DAE 


10 

The  fanie 
it  true  of 
thcD 
niacs 


New  Tef- 
tanimt. 


his  adverfarles,  Thefe  are  not  the  nvords  of  him  that  hath  Dxmoniac, 

adxmoti;  meaning,  no  doubt,  that  hefpokc  in  a  more  ra-  -""^ 

tional  manner  than  a  madman  could  be  expefledtofpcak. 
The  Jews  appear  to  have  afcribed  to  the  influence  of 
dsmoiis,  not  only  that  fpecies  of  madncfs  in  whlcli  tho 
"^^iienX.  IS  raving  and  furious,  but  alfo  meliin:hol\i  mad- 
nefs.  Of  John,  who  fecludod  himfelf  from  intercourfe 
with  the  world,  and  was  diftinguiflicd  for  abllinencc 
and  ails  of  morlification,  they  faid.  He  hnth  a  dxmon. 
The  youth,  vi'hofe  father  applied  to  Jefus  to  free  him 
from  an  evil  fpirit,  defcribing  liis  unhappy  conditioa 
in  thefe  words,  Huve  mercy  on  my  fon,  for  he  is  lunatic 
and  fore  vexed  'with  a  diemon;  for  oft  times  he  fdlih  into 
the  fire,  and  oft  into  the  "water,  was  plainly  epileptic. 
Every  thing  indeed  that  is  related  in  the  New  Tella- 
ment  concerning  dxmoniacs,  proves  that  they  were 
people  affefted  with  fuch  natural  difeafes  as  are  far 
from  being  uncommon  among  mankind  in  the  prefent 
age.  When  the  fymptoms  of  the  difordcrs  cured  by 
our  Saviour  and  his  apollles  as  cafes  of  darmoniacal 
poffeffion,  correfpond  fo  exaflly  with  thofe  of  difeafes 
well  known  as  natural  in  the  prefent  age,  it  would  be 
abfurd  to  impute  them  to  a  fupernatural  caufe.  It  is 
much  more  confillent  with  common  fenfe  and  found 
philofophy  to  fuppofe,  that  our  Saviour  and  his  apo- 
ftles  wilely,  and  with  that  condtfcenfion  to  the  weak- 
nefs and  prejudices  of  thofe  with  whotn  they  converfed, 
which  fo  eminently  diftinguifhed  the  chaiaAer  of  the 
Author  of  our  holy  religion,  and  mufl;  always  be  a  pro- 
minent feature  in  the  charafter  of  the  true  Clniftian, 
adopted  the  vulgar  language  in  fpeaking  of  tliofe  unfor- 
tunate  perfons  who  were  groundlefsly  imagined  to  be 
poireffed  with  daemons,  though  they  well  knew  the 
notions  which  had  given  rife  to  fuch  modes  of  ex- 
predion  to  be  ill-founded,  than  to  imagine  that  dif- 
eafes, which  arife  at  prefent  from  natural  caufes,  were 
produced  in  days  of  old  by  the  intervention  of  de- 
mons, or  that  evil  fpirits  fbill  continue  to  enter  into 
mankind  in  all  cafes  of  madnefs,  melancholy,  or  epi- 
Icpfy. 

Befides,  it  is  by  no  means  a  fufficient  reafon  for 
receiving  any  dotlrine  as  true,  that  it  has  been  gene- 
lally  received  through  the  world.  Error,  like  an  epi- 
demical dileafe,  is  communicated  from  one  to  another. 
In  certain  circumftances,  too,  the  influence  of  imaLfi- 
nation  predominates,  and  reitrams  the  exeitlons  of 
reafon.  Many  falle  opinions  have  extended  their  in- 
fluence through  a  veiy  wide  circh',  and  maintained  it 
long.  On  tvtry  fuch  occafion  as  the  prefent,  there- 
foie,  it  becomes  us  to  inquire,  not  fo  much  how  gene- 
rally any  opinion  has  been  received,  or  Iiow  long  it 
has  prevailed,  as  from  what  caufes  it  has  originated, 
and  on  what  evidence  it  refls. 

When  we  contemplate  the  frame  of  nature,  we  be- 
hold a  grand  and  beautiful  fimp'icity  prevailing  thro'        j, 
the  whole  :   Notwilhttanding  its  immenfe  extent,  andlnfL-rcJire 
though  it  contains  fuch  nuniberlefs  divcvTities  of  being ;  Oo:"  d'c) 
yet  the   fimpleft  machine  conllrui.ted  by  human  n,t''"'''";~5'''^ 
does  not  dlfphiy  i  afier  fimplicity,  or  an  happier  connec-"^'""'^' 
tlon  of  parts.     ^Vc  may  therefore  venture  to  draw  an 
inference,  by  analogy,  fiom  what  is  obfcrvable  of  the 
order  of  nature  in   general   to  the  prefent   cafe.      To 
permit  evil  fpirits  to  intermeddle  with  the  concerns  of 
hum,: I.  life,  would  be  to  break  through  that  order  vv'hich 
the   Deity   appears   to    have    iflabUilied  through  his 
4  N  works  ; 


Csinoniaet 

u 

Dailie. 


•Sec I  Sam, 
jhap.  V. 


DAI  [6s 

works ;  it  woiild  be  to  introduce  a  degree  of  confu- 
fion  unworlliy  of  the  wi'dom  of  Divine  Providence. 

Such  are  the  mofl  rational  arguments  that  have  been 
urged  on  both  fides  in  this  controverfy.  Pefhaps  the 
diEmoniaiiii'ls  have  the  ftronger  probabihties  un  their 
fide  ;  but  we  will  not  prefume  to  take  upon  oirfelves 
the  office  of  arbitrators  in  the  difpute 

DyEMONIACS,  b  church-hiftoiy,  a  branch  of 
the  Anabaptifts;  whofe  diflinguifh.ing  tenet  is,  that  the 
devils  fh?ll  be  favcd  at  the  end  of  the  world. 

DAFFODIL.     See  Narcissus. 

DAGNO,  a  town  of  Turky  in  Europe,  In  Albania, 
■with  a'bifhop's  fee.  It  is  the  capital  of  the  diftrift  of 
Dut^a^iril,  and  is  feated  on  the  rivers  Drino  and  Nero, 
Hear  their  couHiitnce.  It  is  i  y  miles  fouth-eall  uf  Scu- 
tari, and  15  north-eall  of  AlelTio.  E.  Long.  19..  4H. 
N.  Lat.  42.  o. 

DAGO,  or  Dag  HO,  an  ifland  in  the  Baltic  Sea, 
on  the  coaft  of  Livonia,  between  the  gulf  of  Finland 
and  Riga..  It  is  of  a  triangular  figure,  and  may  be 
about  20  miles  in  circumference.  It  has  nothing  coa- 
fiderable  but  two  callles,  called  Daggcr-iuort  and  Paden. 
E.  Long.  22.  30.  N.  Lat.  58.  48. 

DAGON,  the  falfe  god  of  Afhdod*,  or,  as  the 
Greeks  call  it,  A-zotus.  He  is  commonly  reprefented 
as  a  monfter,  half  man  and  half  fidi  ;  whence  moll 
learned  men  derive  his  name  from  the  Hebrew  dag, 
which  fignifies  "  a  filh."  Thofe  who  make  him  to  have 
been  the  inventor  oi bread-corn,  derive  his  name  from  the 
HebrewZ>j^.-7;(,  which  fignities_//-i^m,'»/«77/' ;  whence  Philo 
Biblius  calls  him  ^'"i  Ajj!,'...®-,  Jupiter  Aratr'ws. 

This  deity  continued  to  have  a  temple  at  Afhdod 
during  all  the  ages  of  idolatiy  to  the  time  of  the  Mac- 
cabees :  for  the  author  of  the  tirfl  book  of  Maccabees 
tells  us,  that  "  Jonathan,  one  of  the  Maccabees,  having 
beaten  the  army  of  Apollonius,  Demetrius's  general, 
they  fled  to  Azotus,  and  entered  into  Bethdagon  (the 
temple  of  their  idol)  ;  but  that  Jonathan  fet  fire  to 
Azotus,  and  burnt  the  temple  of  Dagon  and  all  thofe 
■who  were  fled  into  it." 

Dagon,  according  to  fome,  was  the  fame  with  Ju- 
piter, according  to  others  Saturn,  according  to  others 
Venus,  and  according  to  moft.  Neptune. 

DAHGESTAN,  a  country  of  Afia,  bounded  by 
Circafiia  on  the  north,  by  the  Cafpian  Sea  on  the  eaft, 
by  Chirvein  a  province  of  Perfia  on  the  fouth,  and  by 
Georo-ia  on  the  weft.  Its  chief  towns  are  Tarku  and 
Derbent,  both  fituated  on  the  Cafpian  Sea. 

DAHOME,  a  kingdom  of  Africa,  on  the  coaft  of 
Guinea,  to  the  noith  of  Whidah,  or  Fida.  The  kirrg 
cf  this  country  conquered  Whidah,  and  very  much  dif- 
turbed  the  flave-trade  of  the  Europeans. 

DAILLE  (John),  a  Proteftant  miniftcr  near  Pa- 
ris, was  one  of  the  moft  learned  divines  of  the  17th 
centur)',  and  was  the  moft  eftecmed  by  the  Catholics 
of  all  the  controverfial  writers  among  the  Proteftants. 
He  was  tutor  to  t';-o  of  the  grandfons  of  the  illuftrious 
Wr  Du  PleiTis  Mornai.  Mr  Daille  having  lived  14 
years  with  fo  excellent  a  matter,  travelled  into  Italy 
■with  his  two  pupils  :  one  of  them  died  abroad  ;  with 
the  other  he  faw  Italy,  Switzerland,  Germany,  Flan- 
ders, Holland,  and  England,  and  returned  in  1 62 1. 
He  was  received  minifter  in  1623,  and  firft  exercifed 
his  ofBce  in  the  family  of  Mr  Da  Pleflie  Mornai ;  but 


o     1  DAK 

this  did  net  laft  long,  for  that  lord  died  foon  after. 
The  memoirs  of  this  great  man  emplo^td  Mr  Diille 
the  following  year.  In  1625  he  was  appointed  mini- 
fter  of  the  church  of  Samur,  anJ  in  1626  removed  to 
Paris.  He  fpent  all  the  rell  of  his  life  in  the  fervice 
of  this  laft  church,  and  compofed  feveral  w^orks.  His 
firft  piece  was  his  m;ifttrpiece,  aitd  an  excellent  work. 
Of  the  Ufe  of  the  Fathers,  printed  163  I.  It  is  a  ftronr 
chain  of  reafoning,  which  forms  a  moral  demonftratiou 
againft  thofe  who  would  have  religious  difputes  de- 
cided by  the  authority  of  the  fathers.  He  died  in  1670, 
aged  77. 

DAIRI,  or  Dairo,  in  the  hiftory  of  Japan,  is  the 
fovereign  pontiff  of  the  Japanefe  ;  or,  according  to 
Kaempfer,  the  hereditary  ecclefiaftical  monarch  of  Ja- 
pan. In  eflecl,  the  empire  of  Japan  is  at  prefent  un- 
der two  fovereigns,  viz..  an  ecclefiaftical  one  called  the 
dairo,  and  a  fecular  one  who  bears  the  title  of  kubo. 
The  laft  is  the  emperor,  and  the  former  the  oracle  of 
the  religion  of  the  country. 

DAIRY,  in  rural  affairs,  a  place  appropriated  for 
the  management  of  milk,  and  the  making  of  butter, 
chetfe,  (xc.     See  Butter,  Cheese,  &c. 

The  dairy-houfe  Ihould  always  be  kept  in  the  neateft 
order,  and  fo  fituated  as  that  the  windows  or  lattices 
never  front  the  fouth,  fouth-eail,  or  fouth-well.  Lat- 
tices  are  alfo  to  be  preferred  to  windows,  as  they  ad- 
mit a  more  free  circulation  of  the  air  than  glazed 
lights  poflibly  can  do.  It  has  been  objeited,  that  they 
admit  cold  air  in  winter  and  the  fun  in  fummer;  but 
the  remedy  is  eafilv  obtained,  by  making  a  frame  the 
fize  of  or  fcmewhat  larger  than  the  lattice,  and  conftruc- 
ting  it  fo  as  to  Hide  backward  and  forward  at  pleafure. 
Packthread  ftrained  acrofs  this  frame,  and  oiled  cap 
paper  pafted  thereon,  will  admit  the  light,  and  keep 
out  the  fun  and  wind. 

It  is  hardly  poflible  in  the  fummer  to  keep  a  dairy- 
houfe  too  cool;  on  which  account  none  ihould  be  fitua- 
ted tar  from  a  good  fpring  or  cuiTCnt  of  water.  They 
ftioiJd  be  neatly  paved  either  with  red  brick  or  fmooth 
hard  Itone ;  and  laid  with  a  proper  defcent,  fo  that  ncF 
water  may  lodge.  This  pavement  Ihoidd  be  well  wafh- 
ed  in  the  fummer  every  day,  and  all  the  utenfils  be- 
longing to  the  dairy  fhould  be  kept  perfeftlv  clean. 
Nor  Ihould  we  ever  fuffcr  the  churns  to  be  fcalded  in 
the  dairy,  as  the  fteam  that  arlfes  from  hot  water  will 
injure  the  milk.  Nor  Ihould  cheefe  be  kept  therein, 
nor  rennet  for  making  cheefe,  nor  a  ciieefe-prefs  be 
fixed  in  a  dairy,  as  the  whey  and  curd  will  difihife  their 
acidity  throughout  the  room. 

The  proper  receptacles  for  milk  are  earthen  pans» 
or  wooden  vats  or  trundles  ;  but  none  of  thefe  fhould 
be  lined  with  lead,  as  that  mineral  certainly  contains  a 
poifuiious  quality,  and  may  in  fome  degree  affeft  the 
milk  :  but  if  people  are  fo  obftinate  as  to  perfift  in 
ufing  them,  they  fhould  never  forget  to  fcald  them, 
fcrub  them  well  with  fait  and  water,  and  to  dry  them 
thoroughly,  before  they  depohte  the  milk  therein. 
Indeed  all  the  utenfils  ihould  be  cleaned  in  like  manner 
before  they  are  iifed  ;  and  if  after  this  they  in  the  leafl 
degree  fmcll  four,  they  mull  undergo  a  fecond  fcrub- 
bing  before  they  are  fit  for  ufe. 

DAKIR,  in  our  ftatu'ics,  is  ufed  for  the  twentieth 
part  of  a  laft  of  hides.     According  to  the  ftatute  of 

5» 


II 

Dakir. 


DAL 


C    651    1 


DAL 


51  Ilcn.  III.  Z)i°  compofitlone poiiderum  £?"  mtnfiirarum,  a 
lad  of  hides  confifts  «t  twenty  Jakirs,  and  every  dakir 
often  liides.  But  by  I  Jac.  cap.  33.  one  lafl  of  hides 
or  /Icins  Is  twelve  dozen.      See  Dicker. 

DAIS,  in  botany:  A  genus  of  the  monogynia  order, 
belonging  to  the  dccandria  clafs  of  plants  ;  and  in  the 
natur.il  method  ranking  under  the  3  1 11  order,  l^cpreculit. 
The  involuorum  is  tetraphyllous;  the  corolla  quadrilid 
or  qnlnqTiefid;  the  fruit  a  monofpermous  berry. 

DAISY.     See  Bellis. 

DALACA,  an  ifland  of  the  Red  Sea,  over-againft 
the  coail  of  Abex,  about  72  miles  in  length  and  15  in 
breadth.  It  is  very  fertile,  populous,  and  remarkable 
for  a  pearl  (iiliery.  The  inhabitants  are  negroes,  and 
fjrcat  enemies  to  the  Mahometans.  There  is  a  town 
of  the  fame  name  feated  over-againll  Abadia. 

DAL.BERGIA,  in  botany  ;  a  genus  of  the  oftan- 
dria  order,  belonging  to  the  diadclphia  clafs  of  plants. 
There  are  two  filaments  or  llamina  quadrifid  at  top. 
Tlie  fruit  ii  pediccllatcd,  not  gaping,  leguminous, 
membrano-compreficd,  and  bearing  feeds. 

DA  LEA,  a  province  of  Sweden,  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Dalecarlia,  on  the  eait  by  the  Wermeland 
and  the  lake  ^Vener,  on  the  fouth  by  Gothland,  and  on 
the  north  by  Norway  and  the  fea. 

DALEBURG,  a  town  of  Sweden,  and  capital  of 
the  province  of  Dalia,  feated  on  the  wellern  bank  of 
the  lake  Wener,  50  miles  north  of  Gottcnburg.  E. 
Long.  13.  o.  N.  Lat.  59.  o. 

DALECARLIA,  a  province  of  Sweden,  fo  called 
from  a  river  of  the  fame  name,  on  which  it  lies,  near 
Norway.  It  is  divided  into  three  parts,  which  they 
call  I'ullfys;  and  is  about  175  miles  in  length  and  100 
in  breadth.  It  is  full  of  mountains,  which  abound  in 
mines  of  copper  and  iron,  fome  of  which  are  of  a  pro- 
digious depth.  The  towns  are  very  fmall,  and  Idra  is 
the  capital.  The  inhabitants  arc  rough,  robuft,  and 
warlike  ;  and  all  the  great  revolutions  in  Sweden  had 
their  rife  in  this  province.  The  river  rifes  in  the  Dof- 
rine  mountains;  and,  running  fouth-eaft  thro'  the  pro- 
vince, falls  into  the  gulph  of  Bothnia. 

DALECHAMP  (James),  a  phyfician  in  Norman- 
<ly,  in  the  i6th  century,  wrote  a  Hillory  of  Plants, 
and  was  well  (Ivilled  in  p(jHte  learning.  He  wrote  notes 
on  Pliny's  Natural  Hillory,  and  tranflated  Athensus 
into  Latin.  He  praftifed  phyfic  at  Lyons  from  1552 
to  155^*,  when  he  d  ed,  aged  75. 

DALECHAMPIA,  in  botany  :  A  genus  of  the 
adelphia  order,  belonging  to  the  moncecia  clafs  of 
plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
38tli  Older,  Tr'icoccic.  The  involucrum  of  the  male  is 
common  and  quadripartite  ;  the  calyces  hcxaphyllous  ; 
corolla  none  ;  the  neftarium  laminated  or  fcaly  ;  the 
ftaraina  monodelphous  or  coalitcd  at  the  bafe,  and  po- 
lyandrous  or  numerous.  The  female  involucrum  is 
common  and  triphyllous  ;  corolla  none;  llyle  one;  the 
capiule  tricoccous. — There  is  but  one  fjjecies,  wz.  the 
fcandens,  a  native  of  Jamaica.  It  is  a  climbing  plant, 
which  rifes  to  a  conliderable  height  ;  and  is  remark- 
able for  nothing  but  having  its  leaves  armed  with  brift- 
ly  hairs,  which  Iting  the  hands  of  thole  who  unwarily 
touch  them. 

DALEM,  a  town  of  the  United  Provinces,  and 
capital  of  a  dilbicl  of  the  fame  name.     It  was  taken  by 


the  French  in  1672,  who  demolilhcd  the  fortilicationa. 
It  is  feated  on  tlie  river  Bervine,  five  miles  north-eall 
of  Liege.      E.  Long.  5.  59.  N.  Lat.  50.  40. 

D'ALEMBERT.     See  Alembert. 

DALEN  (Cornelius  Van),  an  eminent  engraver, 
who  flourilhed  about  the  year  1 640.  I  le  was  a  native  of 
Holland  ;  but  under  what  mailer  he  learned  the  art  of 
engraving,  is  uncertain.  It  is  diificult  to  form  a  pro- 
per judgment  of  his  merit;  for  fometimes  his  print? 
refemble  thofe  of  Cornelius  Vifcher,  of  Lucas  Vollcr- 
man,  of  P.  Pontius,  of  Bolfwcrt,  and  other  mailers. 
A  fct  of  antique  ftatues,  engraved  by  him,  arc  in  a 
bold,  free  llyle,  as  if  founded  upon  that  of  Goltzius ; 
others,  again,  feem  imitations  of  that  of  Francis  Poilly. 
In  all  thefe  different  manners  he  has  fuccecded  ;  and 
they  plainly  manifell  the  great  command  he  had  with 
his  graver,  for  he- worked  with  that  inllrument  only. 
He  engraved  a  great  variety  of  portraits,  fome  of 
which  are  very  valuable,  and  form  the  bell  as  well  as 
the  larger  part  of  his  works. 

DALKEITH,  a  town  of  Scotland,  in  Mid-Lothian, 
fix  miles  fouth-eall  of  Edinburgh  ;  \V.  Long.  2.  20; 
N.  Lat.  55.  50.  It  is  the  principal  relidence  of  the 
Duke  of  Buccleugh,  who  has  here  a  noble  houl'e  and 
extcniive  parks.  In  this  houfe ,  which  at  the  time  was 
the  head-quarters  of  General  Monk,  the  relloration 
of  Charles  II.  was  planned.— The  Duke's  eldell  fon 
has  the  title  of  Eail  of  Dalkeith.  Here  is  a  conlider- 
able marJiet  weekly  on  Tliurfdays,  which  fupphes  in 
part  both  Edinburgh  and  Glafgow. 

DALMATIA,  a  province  of  Europe,  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Bofnia,  on  the  fouth  by  tlie  gulph  of  V^c- 
nice,  on  the  call  by  Servia,  and  on  the  well  by  Mor- 
lachia.  Spalatio  is  the  capital  of  that  part  beiojiging 
to  the  Venetians;  and  Raguza,  ,of  a  republic  of  that 
name;  the  Turks  have  a  third,  whofe  capital  is  Herze- 
govina. The  air  is  wholefome,  and  the  foil  fruitful; 
and  it  abounds  in  wine,  corn,  and  oil. 

DALTON,  a  town  of  Lancaflilre,  in  England.  It 
is  feated  on  the  fpring-head  of  a  river,  in  a  champaign 
country,  not  far  from  the  fea  ;  and  the  ancient  caltle 
is  made  i-ife  of  to  keep  the  records,  and  prifoners  for 
debt  in  the  liberty  of  I'urnes.  W.  Long.  3.  o.  N. 
Lat.  54.  i». 

Dalton  (John),  D.  D.  an  eminent  divine  and  poet, 
was  the  fon  of  the  Rev.  Mr  John  Dalton  rettor  of 
Dean  near  Whitehaven  in  Cumberland,  where  he  was 
born  in  1  709.  He  was  educated  at  Queen's  College, 
Ox.'ord  ;  and  became  tutor  or  governor  to  tlie  Lord 
Beauchamp,  only  fon  of  the  Earl  of  Hertford,  late 
Duke  of  Somerlet  ;  during  which  time  he  adapted 
Milton's  admirable  Malk  of  Comus  to  the  ftage,  by  a 
judicious  infertion  of  ftveral  fongsand  dilferent  palfages 
felected  from  other  of  Milton's  works,  as  well  as  of 
fcveral  fongs  and  other  elegant  additions  of  his  own, 
fuited  to  the  characters  and  to  the  manner  of  the  ori- 
ginal author.  During  the  run  of  this  piece  he  induftri- 
oully  fought  out  a  grand-daughter  of  Milton's,  oppref- 
fed  both  by  age  and  poverty  ;  and  procured  her  a  be- 
nefit from  it,  the  profits  of  which  amounted  to  a  very- 
con  liderable  fum.  He  was  promoted  by  the  king  to  a 
prebend  of  Worcefler ;  where  he  died  on  the  22d  of 
July  1763.  Belides  the  above,  he  wrote  a  defcriptive 
poem,  addielled  to  two  ladies  at  their  return  from  view- 
4  N  2  ing 


DAM 


[     652     ] 


DAM 


ing  tlie  coal-mines  near  WhiteKaven;  and  Remarks  on 
1 2  hillorical  defi^ns  of  Raphael,  and  the  Mufeum  Gm- 
cum  fcf  Egypliacum. 

DAM,  a  boundary  or  confinement,  as  to  dam  up  or 
dam  out.  Infra  damnum  f mini,  within  the  bounds  or 
limits  of  his  own  property  or  jurifdiftioii. 
DAMA,  in  zoology.  See  Ckrvus. 
DAMAGE,  in  law,  is  generally  underftood  of  a  hurt 
or  hindrance  attending  a  perfon's  eftate  :  but,  in  com- 
mon law,  it  is  part  of  what  the  jurors  are  to  inquire 
of  in  giving  vcrdift  for  the  plaintiff  or  defendant  in  a 
civil  aelion,  whether  real  or  perfonal ;  for  after  giving 
veidift  on  the  principal  caufe,  they  are  likewife  atlicd 
their  confciences  touching  colls  and  damages,  which 
contain  the  hindrances  that  one  party  hath  fuffered 
from  the  wrong  done  him  by  the  (ither.     See  Costs. 

DAMAN,  a  maritime  town  of  the  Eaft  Indies,  at 
the  entrance  into  the  gulph  of  Cambay.  It  is  divided 
by  the  river  Daman  into  two  parts  ;  one  of  which  is 
called  NcTJ  Daman,  and  is  a  handfome  town,  well 
fortified,  and  defended  by  a  good  Portuguefe  garrifon. 
The  other  is  called  Old  Daman,  and  is  very  ill  built. 
There  is  a  harbour  between  the  two  towns,  defended 
by  a  fort.  It  was  taken  by  the  Portuguefe  in  1535. 
The  mogul  has  attempted  to  get  pofTtflion  of  it  feveral 
times,  but  always  without  effeft.  E.  Long.  72.  35. 
N.  Lat.  21.5. 

DAMASCENUS  (John),  an  illuftrious  father  of 
the  church  in  the  Sth  century,  born  at  Damafcus, 
where  his  father,  though  a  Chrlllian,  enjoyed  the  office 
of  counfellor  of  ftate  to  the  Saracen  caliph  ;  to  which 
the  fon  fucceeded.  He  retired  afterwards  to  the  mo- 
nafter)'  of  St  Sabas,  and  fpent  the  remainder  of  his  life 
in  writing  books  of  divinity.  His  works  have  been  often 
printed:  but  the  Paris  edition  in  1712,  2  vols  foho,  is 
elleemed  the  beft. 

DAMASCIUS,  a  celebrated  heathen  philofopher, 
born  at  Damafcus  in  the  year  540,  when  the  Goths 
reigned  In  Italy.  He  wrote  the  life  of  his  mailer  Ifi- 
dorus  ;  and  dedicated  it  to  Theodora,  a  very  learned 
and  philofophlcal  lady,  who  had  alfo  been  a  pupil  to 
liidorus.  In  this  life,  which  was  coploufly  written,  he 
frequently  made  oblique  attacks  on  the  Chriftian  reli- 
gion. We  have  nothing  remaining  of  it  but  fome  ex- 
trafts  preferved  by  Photius.  Damafcius  fucceeded 
Theon  in  the  rhetorical  fcliool^  and  Ifidorus  In  that  of 
philofophy,  at  Athens. 

DAMASCUS,  a  very  ancient  city  of  Syria  in  A- 
fia,  feated  in  E.  Long.  47.  18.  N.  Lat.  35.  o.  Some 
of  the  ancients  fuppofe  this  city  to  have  been  built  by 
rxie  Damafcus,  from  whom  it  took  it?  name  ;  but  the 
moil  iTenerally  received  opinion  is,  that  it  was  found- 
ed by  Uz  the  eldell  fon  of  Aram.  It  is  certain,  from 
Gen.  xiv.  5.  that  it  was  in  being  in  Abraham's  tisie, 
and  confcquently  may  be  looked  upon  as  one  of  the 
ino&fcclent  cities  In  the  world.  In  the  time  of  king 
David  It  feems  to  have  been  a  very  confiderable  place  ; 
as  the  facred  hiilorian  tells  us,  that  the  Syrians  of  Da- 
mafcus fent  20,000  men  to  the  rehef  of  Hadadezer 
king  of  Zobah.  We  aie  not  informed  whether  at  that 
time  it  was  governed  by  kings,  or  was  a  republic.  Af- 
terwards, however,  it  became  a  monarchy  which  pro- 
Ted  very  troublefome  to  the  kingdom  of  lirael,  and 
would  even  have  deftroyed  it  entirely,  had  not  the  Dei- 
ty miraculoully  intcrpoted  in  its  behalf.     At  lall  this 


monarchy  was  deftroyed  by  Tiglath  Pilefer  king  of  Damafcoj, 
AlTyria,  and  Damafcus  was  never  afterwards  governed   r''""*''-'- 
by  its  own  kings.    From  the  Affyrians  and  Babylonians         ''"""^ 
it  pafled  to  the  Perfians,  and  fiom  them  to  the  Greeks 
under  Alexander  the  Great.    After  his  death  it  belong- 
ed, with  the  reft  of  Syria,  to  the  Seleucidse  ;  till  their 
empire  v.-as  fubdued  by  the  Romans,  about  70  years  be- 
fore Chrift.      From  them  it  was  taken  by  the  Saracens 
in  633  ;  and  it  is  now  in  the  hands  of  the  Turks.— 
Notwithftanding  the  tyranny  of  the  Turklih  govern- 
ment, Damafcus  is  ftill  a  confiderable  place.     It  is  fi- 
tuated  in  a  plain  of  fo  great  extent,  that  one  can  but 
juft  difcern  the   mountains   which  compafs  it  on  the 
other  fide.     It   ftands   on  the  weft  fide  of  the  plain, 
about  two  miles  from  the  head  of  the  river  Barrady, 
which  waters  it.      It  is  of  a  long,  llrait  figure,  extend- 
ing about  two  miles  in   length,  adorned  with  mofquts 
and  ftecplcs,  and  encompaffed  with  gardens  computed 
to  be  full  30  miles  round.      The  river  Barrady,  as  foon 
as  it  iffuestfrom  the  clefts  of  the  Antillbanus  into  the 
plain,  is  divided  into  three  ftreams,  whereof  the  mid- 
dlemoft  and  biggeft  runs  direftly  to  Damafcus,  and  ii 
diftributcd  to  all  the  citterns  and  fountains  of  the  city. 
The  other  two  feem  to  be   artificial ;  and   are   drawn 
round,  one  to  the  right,  and  the  other  to  the  left,  on 
the  borders  of  the  gardens,  into  which  they  are  let  by 
little  currents,  and  difperfed  every  where.     The  houfes 
of  the  city,  whofe  ftreets  are  very  narrow,  are  all  builtr 
on  the  outfide  either  witli  fun-burnt  brick,  or  Flemifli 
wall :    and  yet  It  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  fee  \.\vi 
gates  and    doors  adorned  with  marble  portals,  carved 
and  inlaid  with  great  beauty  and  variety  ;  and  within 
thefe  poitals  to  find  large  fqiiare  courts  beautified  witb 
fragrant    trees   and  marble  fountains,  and  compaffed 
round  with  fplendid  apartments.     In  thefe  apartments 
the  ceilings  are  ufually  richly  painted  and  gilded  ;  and 
their  duans,  which  are  a  fort  of  low  ftages  feated  in  the 
pleafanteil  part  of  the  room,  and  elevated  about  1 6  or 
1 8  inches  above  the  floor,  whereon  the  Turks  eat,  fieep, 
fay  their  prayers,  &c.  are  floored,  and  adorned  on  the 
fides  with  variety  of  marble  mixed  in  mofaic  knots  and 
mazes,  fpread  with  carpets,  and   furnifiied  all  round 
with  bolfters  and  cuftiions,  to  the  very  height  of  luxu- 
ry.     In  this  city  are  fliown  the  church  of  John  the  Bap- 
tift,  now  converted  into  a  famous   mofque ;  the  houfa 
of  Ananias,  which  is  only   a  fmall    grotto    or  cellar 
wherein  is  nothing  remarkable  ;  and  the  houfe  of  Ju- 
das with  whom    Paul  lodged.      In  this  laft  is  an  old 
tomb,    fuppofed  to  be  that  of  Ananias  ;    which  tha 
Turks  hold  in  fuch  veneration,  that  they  keep  a  lamp 
continually  burning  over  it.      There  is  a  cattle  belong- 
ing to  Damafcus,  which  is  like  a  little  town,  having 
its  own  ttrcets  and  houfes ;  and  in  this  cattle  a  maga- 
zine of  the  famous  Damafcus  fteel  was  formerly  kept. 
The    fruit-tree    called   the  damafcene,    and  the  flower 
called  the  damajl  rofc,  were  tranfplanted  fiom  the  gar- 
dens belonging  to   this   city;  and  the  filks  and  linens 
known  by  the  name  of  <iiBi(!/?^,  were  probably  Invented 
by  the  inhabitants. 

DAM.ncui  Stetl.     Sse  Damask. 
DAMASIA  (anc.  geog.),  a  town  of  VIndelicIa  on 
the   Licus.     Afterwards   called  Augujla.     Now  AugS' 
burg   in   Suabia,    on  the    Lech.      E.  Long.   10.  50.. 
N.  Lat.  48.  20. 

DAMASK,  a  fort  of  filken  jluff,  having  fome  parts 

r<uied 


D     A     M 


C     653     ] 


DAM 


Bumaik  raifed  above  the  ground,  reprefentiiifj  flowers  or  other 
!1  figures.  Da]na(k  (liould  hi  of  drctrcd  lilks,  bt)ih  in 
3imietta.  ^.^.p  ^^^^  vvoof.  It  has  its  name  from  its  being  ori- 
"""*  giiially  brought  from  Damafcus  in  Syrin. 

There  is  slfo  a  fluff  in  IVancc  called  the  cajT^rt  da- 
fiwji,  made  in  imitation  of  the  true  damaf'c,  havinjj 
woof  of  hair,  coarfe  filk,  thread,  wool,  or  cotton.  Spme 
have  the  warp  of  filk  and  the  wOof  of  thread  ;  others 
are  all  thread  or  all  wool. 

Damask  is  alfo  a  kind  ef  wrought  linen, -made  in 
Flanders,  fo  called,  becaufe  its  lartje  flowers  re- 
femble  thofe  of  dama(l<s.  It  is  chiefly  ufed  for  tables  ; 
a  table-cloth  and  a  dozen  of  napkins  are  called  a  da- 
maji-fervice. 

Damask  is  alfo  applied  to  a  very  fine  (ltd,  in  fome 
parts  of  the  Levant,  chiefly  at  Damafcus  in  Syria  ; 
whence  its  name.  It  is  ufed  for  fword  and  cutlafs 
blades,  and  is  finely  tempered. 

DAMASKEENING,  or  Damasking,  the  art  or 
operation  of  beautifyina;  iron,  ftecl,  &c.  by  making 
incifions  therein,  and  filling  them  up  with  gold  or  filver 
wire  ;  chiefly  ufed  for  adorning  fvvord-blades,  guards 
and  gripes,  locks  of  piftols,  &c. 

Damalkeening  partakes  of  the  mofaic,  of  engraving, 
and  of  carving  :  like  the  mofaic,  it  has  inlaid  work  ; 
like  engraving,  it  cuts  the  metal,  reprefenting  divers 
figures  ;  and,  as  in  chafing,  gold  and  filver  is  wrought 
in  relievo.  There  are  two  ways  of  datnafliing  :  the 
one,  which  is  the  fineft,  is  when  the  metal  is  cut  deep 
with  proper  inftruments,  and  inlaid  with  gold  and  filver 
wire  :   the  other  is  fuperficial  only. 

DAMELOPRE,  a  kind  of  bilander,  ufed  in  Hoi- 
land  for  conveying  mcrchandife  from  one  canal  to  an- 
other ;  being  veiy  commodious  for  pafTing  under  the 
bridges. 

DAMIANISTS,  in  church-hifliory,  a  branch  of 
the  ancient  acephali-fcverit^.  They  agreed  with  the 
"  catholics  in  admitting  the  Vlth  council,  but  difowned 
any  dillinftion  of  pcrfons  in  the  Godhead ;  and  pro- 
feffed  one  fingle  nature,  incapable  of  any  difference  : 
yet  they  called  God  "  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy 
Ghoft." 

DAMIETTA,  a  port-town  of  Egypt,  fituated  on 
the  eailern  mouth  of  the  river  Nile,  four  miles  from  the 
fea,  and  too  milts  north  of  Grand  Cairo.  E.  Long. 
32.  and  N.  Lat.  31.  'I'he  prefmt  town  ftands  upon 
a  different  fite  from  the  ancient  Damietta  fo  re- 
peatedly attacked  by  the  European  princes.  The 
latter,  according  to  Ahulfeda,  was  a  "  town  fur- 
rounded  by  walls,  and  fituated  at  the  mouth  of  the 
eaftern  branch  of  the  Nile."  Stephen  of  Byzantium 
informs  us,  that  it  was  called  Thamlatts  under  the  go- 
vernment of  the  Greeks  of  the  lower  empire,  but  that 
it  was  then  very  inconfiderable.  It  incvcafed  in  im- 
portance every  day,  in  proportion  as  Pelufium,  which 
was  frequently  plundered,  loft  its  power.  The  total 
ruin  of  that  ancient  town  occafioned  the  commerce  of 
the  eaftein  parts  of  the  Delta  to  be  tran^.fclTed  to  Da- 
mietta. It  was,  however,  r.o  longer  a  place  of  llrength, 
when,  towaids  the  year  238  of  the  Heglra,  the  em- 
perors of  Conftantinople  took  poficfTion  of  it  a  ieeuiid 
time.  The  impoitance  of  a  harbour  fo  favourably  fitu- 
ated opened  the  eyes  of  the  caliptiS.  In  the  year  244 
of  the  Hegira,  ElractouakkeJ  funounded  it  with  Itioiig- 


walls.     This   obftaclc  did   not  prevent  Roger  king  of  Damietta. 
Sicily  from  taking  it  from  the  Mahometans  in  the  year  '~~'v^-^ 
5-50  of  the  Hegira.      He  did  not,   however,  long  en- 
joy his  conqueft.      Salih  Eddin,  who  about  that  period 
motinted  the  throne  of  Egypt,  expelled  the  Europeans 
from  D.imietta.      Fifteen  years  after   they  returned  to 
hL-ficge  it  ;  but  this  able  fultan  baffled  all  their  efforts. 
Notivlthftaiiding    their   hind   army  was  fuppovted  by  a  * 
fleet  of  I  200  fail,  they  were   obliged   to  make  a  dif- 
gracefiil  retreat. 

It  was  the  fate  of  this  place  to  be  conflantly  be- 
fieged.  In  the  year  615  of  the  Hegira,  under  the 
reign  of  Eladel,  the  crufaders  attacked  it  with  a  very 
confiderable  force.  They  landed  on  the  weftern  lliore 
of  the  Nile  ;  and  their  firft  care  was  to  futround  their 
camp  with  a  ditch  and  paliifado.  The  mouth  of  the 
river  was  defended  by  two  towers,  furnillied  with  nu-  " 
merous  garrifons.  An  enoimous  iron  chain,  Itretch- 
ing  from  one  fide  to  the  other,  hindered  the  approach 
of  vcfftls.  The  cruiaders  carried  by  ftorm  the  tower 
on  the  fame  fide  w'ith  their  camp,  broke  the  chain, 
and  opened  the  entrance  of  the  rivet  for  their  fleet. 
Nejm  Eddin,  the  fultan's  fon,  who  was  encamped  near 
Damietta,  covered  it  with  an  army.  To  ftop  the  ene- 
mies velfels  he  threw  a  bridge  over  the  Nile.  The 
Franks  overturned  it,  and  the  piiiice  adopted  the  mea- 
fure  of  choking  up  the  mouth  of  the  river,  which  he 
almoll  rendered  impalfable  by  feveral  large  boats  he  funk 
there.  After  alternate  and  various  fucccflts,  many 
bloody  battles,  and  a  fiege  of  17  months,  the  Chrillian 
princes  took  Damietta  by  ftorm.  They  did  not,  how- 
ever, long  enjoy  the  fruit  of  fo  much  blood  fpilt,  and  of 
an  armament  which  had  coil  immenfe  fums.  Completely 
invtfted  near  the  canal  of  Ach.-noun,  by  the  waters  of 
the  Nile  and  by  the  Egyptian  army,  they  purchafej 
their  lives  and  their  liberty  by  the  facrifice  of  their 
conqueft. 

One-and-thirty  year?  after  this  defeat  St  Louis  car- 
ried Damietta  without  ftriking  a  ftroke.  The  Arabs,., 
however,  foon  recovered  it  ;  but  tired  of  keeping  a 
place  which  continually  drew  upon  them  the  moll 
warlike  nations  of  Europe,  they  totally  dellroyed 
it,  and  lebuilt  it  further  up  in  the  country.  This 
modern  Damietta,  firil  called  Mencht-,  as  Abulfeda 
tells  us,  has  preferved  the  inemory  of  its  origin  in 
a  fquare  ftill  called  by  that.  name.  Writers  in  ge- 
neral have  confounded  thefe  two  towns,  afciibing  to 
the  one  the  attribu-tes  of  the  other.  The  modern 
Damietta  is  rounded  in  a  femicircle  on  the  eaftern 
bank  of  the  Nile,  two  leagues  and  a  half  from  the 
mouth  of  it.  The  eye,  placed  at  one  of  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  crcfcent,  takes  in  its  whole  extent. 
It  is  reckoned  to  contain  80,000  fouls.  It  has  fe- 
veral fquares,  the  mofl  confiderable  of  which  has  re- 
tdir.ed  the  name  af  Jii/nr/jte.    The  bazars  are  filled  with  1 

merchants.      Spaciots  dais,  rir  il'cirs,  colltdlinglJnder 
their  porticos   the    ftuiTs  of  India,  the  filks  of  mouiit 
I^ebanoH,  fal-amrnoniac,    and   pyramids   of  rice,  pro- 
claim tiiat  it  is  a  comineiclal  town.      The  houfes,  thofe  " 
in  particular  which  are  on  the  banks  of  the  river,  are 
very  lofty.      They  have,  in   general  handlome   laloons  ■ 
built  ou  the  top  of  their  terraces,  whiih  are  cheerful  • 
beividcixs,  open  to  every  wind,  where  the  Turk,  effe- 


miBf.lely  reclining  ou  a   fopha,  paircs, 


his  Lfe  in  fmo- 
kiug, , 


DAM  •  [     654 

D..mietf3.  kinR,  in  looking  on  the  fea,  which  bounds  the  hori- 
W-  V  '  ■  zon  on  one  fide,  on  tlie  great  lake  that  extends  ilielf 
on  the  other,  and  on  the  Nile,  which,  running  be- 
tween them,  traverfes  a  rich  country.  Several  large 
mofques,  adorned  with  lofty  minarets,  are  difperied 
over  the  town.  The  public  baths,  lined  witii  marble, 
are  dilhibuted  in  the  fame  manner  as  thofe  of  Grand 
Cairo.  The  linen  you  are  ferved  with  is  clean,  and 
the  water  very  pure.  The  heat  and  the  treatment  in 
them,  fo  far  from  injiiring  the  health,  ferve  to  ftrength- 
en,  nay  even  to  i.mprove  it,  if  ufed  with  moderation. 
This  cuftom,   founded   on   experience,    is  general   in 

E,rypt. 

'The  port  of  Damietta  is  continually  filled  with  a 
multitude  of  boats  and  fmall  vtfTel?.  Thofe  called 
Sderm  ferve  to  convey  the  merchandize  on  board  the 
fhips  in  the  road,  and  to  unload  them  ;  the  others  car- 
ry on  the  coafting' trade.  This  town  carries  on  a  great 
trade  with  Syria,  with  Cyprus,  and  Marfeilles.  The 
rice  called  Mezc/aoui,  of  the  finell  quality  there  is^in 
f  ilgypt,  is  cultivated  in  the  neighbouring  plaini.^    The 

exports  of  it  amount  annually  to  about  fix  milli  )n3  of 
livres.  The  other  articles  of  the  pioduce  of  the  coun- 
try are  hnens,  ^"al-ammoniac,  corn,  &c.  A  ruinou-s 
policy  for  the  country  prohibits  the  exportation  of  this 
lail  article  ;  but  the  law  is  evaded,  and  it  pafFes  under 
the  name  of  rice. 

The  Chriftians  of  Aleppo  and  Damafcus,  fettled  in 
this  town,  have  for  feveral  ages  carried  on  its  principal 
commerce.  Turkilh  indolence,  content  with  extort- 
incr  from  them  from  time  to  time,  fufFers  them  to  be- 
come rich.  The  exportation  of  rice  to  foreign  coun- 
tries is  prohibited  ;  but  by  means  of  fonie  iluuaurs  to 
the  cuftomhoufe  officers,  the  people  of  Provence  load 
annuaUy  feveral  iliips  with  it.  The  Boga%  preventing 
them  from  entering  the  Nile,  their  cargoes  are  con- 
veyed on  board  by  the  boats  of  the  country.  This  in- 
convenience io  the  fource  of  endlefs  vexation  and  abufcs. 
The  boat,  which  is  loaded  in  the  evening  with  lice  of 
the  fiift  quality,  is  frequently  not  that  which  arrives  at 
the  (hip  ;  an  inferior  quahty  is  fubftitutedfor  it  during 
the  ni^ht.  The  Marfeilles  captains,  aware  of  chsle 
rogueries,  without  being  able  to  prevent  them,  endea- 
vour to  play  off  tiick  again!!  trick,  fi)  that  this  com- 
merce has  become  a  general  fcene  of  knavery.  But 
the  badnefs  of  the  port  is  Hill  more  detrimental  to  Da- 
mietta. The  road  where  the  veffels  l.e  being  expoicd 
to  every  wind,  the  fllghtLil  gale  obliges  the  captains 
to  cut  their  cables  and  take  (lielter  at  Cyprus,  or  to 
ftand  off  to  fea.  It  would  be  eafy,  by  cutting  a  canal 
only  of  half  a  league,  to  open  a  paffage  for  (hips  into 
the  Nile,  where  there  is  deep  water.  This  work, 
which  might  be  executed  at  very  little  expence,  would 
reader  Damietta  a  ncble  harbour  ;  but  defpotif.-n,  in- 
fenfible  to  the  interell  of  the  people,  is  always  fur- 
lounded  by  dedrudion  in  its  progre(s,  and  wants  both 
the  will  and  the  power  to  create. 

The  tongue  of  land  on  which  Damietta  is  fituated, 
ftraitened  on  one  fide  by  the  river,  and  on  the  other 
by  the  weftern  extremity  of  lake  MenzaU,  is  only  from 
two  to  fix  miles  wide  from  call  to  weft.  It  is  inter- 
fefted  by  innumerable  riv  ulets  in  every  direftion,  which 
render  it  the  moft  fertde  fpot  in  Egypt.  The  foil 
there  produces,  communibtu  annis,  80  bv.Ihcls  of  rice  for 

5 


]  DAM 

one.  The  other  produce  is  in  the  fame  proportion.  I3ami«fe 
It  is  tlieie  that  nature,  lavifhing  profuftly  iicr  pomp  l^smoclc; 
and  riches,  prelents  flowers,  fruits,  and  harveiis,  at  ■""">"""■ 
every  fealon  of  the  year.  Winter  never  deprives  it  of 
theie  advantages  ;  its  beauties  are  never  impaired  by 
furamer.  DeiluiCtive  heats,  as  w;ell  as  chilling  colds, 
arc  equally  unknown  in  that  happy  fpot.  The  ther- 
mometer varies  only  from  9  to  24  degrees  above  the 
freezing  point.  Damietta  is  indebted  for  this  charm- 
ing temperature  to  the  immenfe  quantity  of  water 
with  which  it  is  furrounded.  The  ??rdure  is  no 
where  fo  frelh ;  the  trees  are  no  where  covered 
with  luch  quantities  of  fruit.  The  rivufets  around 
the  fields  of  rice  are  lined  with  feveral  kinds  of 
reeds,  fome  of  which  rife  to  a  great  height.  The 
reed  calamus  is  here  found  in  abundance,  which  is 
made  ule  of  for  writing  by  the  oiientals.  Its  len- 
der llalk  bears  long  narrow  leaves,  which  hang  grace- 
fully, and  fpreading  branches  covered  with  white  flow- 
ers. Here  alio  are  to  be  feen  forefts  of  papyrus,  of 
which  the  ancient  Egyptians  made  their  paper.  Strabo, 
who  calls  hJJillus,  gives  an  accurate  dclcription  of  it.  It 
is  here  alfo  that  the  Lotus,  of  which  the  Arabs  have 
prefervcd  the  primitive  name  of  Nupkar,  exalts  its 
lofty  ftalk  above  the  waters.  Its  large  calyx  blows  ci- 
ther of  an  azure  blue  or  of  a  brilliant  white,  and  it 
appears  with  the  majefty  of  the  king  of  the  aquatic 
plants.  The  marlhes  and  the  canals  in  the  interior 
parts  of  the  country  are  filled  with  this  (uperb  flower, 
which  diffufcs  a  moll  agreeable  odour. 

There  are  a  great  many  villages  around  Damietta, 
in  moft  of  which  are  manufactures  where  the  moft 
beautiful  linens  of  the  country  are  fabricated.  The 
fined  napkins  in  particular  are  made  thcie,  fringed 
with  fiik.  You  are  ferved  at  table  with  them,  but 
elpecially  on  ceremonial  vilits,  when  the  flave  prefents 
you  with  one  to  wipe  your  mouth  with,  after  you  have 
drank  your  (herbet,  or  eat  the  fwtctmeats,  wliich  are° 
carried  round  on  a  filver  plate  to  all  the  company. 
Thefe  fmall  towns,  generally  furrounded  with  httle 
woods,  or  trees  promifcuoufly  planted,  form  a  whim- 
Ccal  and  picturtlque  afl'emblage.  By  the  fide  of  the 
fycamore  and  the  melancholy  tamaiind,  one  fees  the 
elegant  caffia  tree,  with  its  clufters  of  yellow  flowers, 
like  thofe  of  the  cytiius.  The  top  of  the  date- tree, 
loaded  with  enormous  bunches,  rifes  above  the  grove. 
The  calTia,  witli  its  fweet-fcented  flower,  grows  under 
its  (hade.  The  orange  and  lemon  trees  cover  the  la- 
bourer's cabin  with  their  golden  fruit.  The  banana- 
tree  with  its  long  leaves,  the  pomegranate  with  its 
fcailct  flower,  and  the  fig-tree  v^ith  its  fugary  fruit, 
throw  a  va(l  variety  into  thefe  lancfcapes. 

DAMNII,  anciently  a  people  of  Britain  j  fituated 
between  the  SelgovE  to  the  fouth  and  the  Caledonii 
to  the  north.      Now  Clyde/dale. 
DAMNONII.     SeeDANMONii. 
DAMOCLES,  one  of  the  flatterers  of  Dionyfius 
the  Elder  of  Sicily.      He  admired  the  tyrant's  vvtalth, 
and  pronounced  him  the  happieft  man  on  earth.     Dio- 
nyfius prevailed  upon  him  to  undertake  for  a  while  the 
charge  of  royalty,  and  be  convinced  of  the  happinelj 
which  a   fovereign   enjoyed.      Dan.oclcs   afcendcd  the 
throne,  and  while  he  gazed  upon  the  wealth  and  fplcn- 
dor  thai  furrounded  him,  he  perceived  a  fword  hang- 
ing 


DAM 


[     655     1 


DAM 


ing  over  bis  head  by  a  horfe  hair.  This  To  terrified 
him  that  all  his  imasjinary  f-licity  vanlfhed  at  oner,  and 
he  begped  Dionyfius  to  remove  him  from  a  litualion 
which  cx"ifed  his  life  to  fiich  fears  and  dangers. 

DAMON,  the  name  of  feveral  illudrious  ancients  ; 
particuhrly  of  a  Pythagorean  philofophcr  very  inti- 
mate \vith  Pythias.  When  he  had  been  condemned  to 
death  by  Dlonylius,  he  obtained  from  the  tyrant  leave 
to  tfo  and  fettle  his  domeftic  affairs,  on  promifc  of  re- 
turnine  at  a  f^ated  honr  to  the  place  of  execution. 
Pythias  pledijed  himfelf  to  undergo  the  punilhment 
which  was  to  be  infliftcd  on  Damon,  fhonld  he  not  re- 
turn in  time,  and  he  confcquently  delivered  himfelf 
into  the  hands  of  the  tyrant.  Damon  returned  at  the 
app'  inted  moment,  and  Dionyfius  was  fo  ftruek  with 
the  fidelity  of  thofe  two  friends,  that  he  remitted  the 
punifhment,  and  intieated  them  to  permit  him  to  fliare 
their  friend/hip  and  enjoy  tlieir  confidence. 

DAMPIER  (William),  a  famous  navigator,  de- 
fcended  from  a  good  family  in  Somerfetfliire  in  Eng- 
land, was  born  in  1652.  Lofing  his  father  when  very 
young,  he  was  fent  to  the  fea,  where  he  foon  diHinguifli- 
ed  himfelf,  particularly  in  the  South  Sea.  His  voyage 
round  the  world  is  well  known,  and  has  gone  through 
many  editions.  He  appears  afterward  to  have  enja- 
l^ed  in  an  expedition  concerted  by  the  merchants  of 
Briftol  to  the  South  Sea,  commanded  by  Captain 
Woods  Rogers;  who  failed  in  Augu'.l  1708,  and  re- 
turned in  September  171 1  :  but  we  have  no  further 
particulars  of  his  life  or  death. 

DAMPS,  in  natural  hifloi7  (from  the  Saxon  word 
damp,  fignifying  vapour  or  exhalation),  are  certain 
noxious  exhalations  ifTuing  from  fome  parts  of  the 
earth,  and  which  prove  almoft  inftantly  fatal  to  thofe 
who  breathe  them. 

Thefc  damps  are  chiefly  obferved  In  mines  and  coal- 
pits :  though  vapours  of  the  fame  kind  often  IfFue  from 
old  lavas  of  burning  moiinteins  ;  and,  in  thofe  counti-ies 
■where  volcanoes  are  common,  will  frequently  enter 
houfes,  and  kill  people  fuddenly  without  the  leafl  warn- 
ing of  their  approach.  In  mines  and  coal-pits  they 
are  chiefly  of  two  kinds,  called  by  the  miners  and  col- 
liers the  choke  znd  Jire  damps  ;  and  both  go  under  one 
general  naine  of  fcul  air.  The  chole-dnmp  is  very 
much  of  the  nature  of  fixed  air  ;  and  ufually  infefts  thofe 
places  which  have  been  formerly  worked,  but  long 
oeglefted,  and  are  known  to  the  miners  by  the  name 
of  luajies.  No  place,  however,  can  be  reckoned  fafe 
from  this  kind  of  damps,  except  where  there  is  a  due 
circulation  of  air  ;  arid  the  procuring  of  this  is  the  only 
proper  means  of  preventing  accidents  from  damps  of  all 
kinds.  The  choke-damp  fufTocates  the  miners  fuddenly, 
with  all  the  appearances  found  in  thofe  that  are  fuffo- 
cated  by  fixed  air.  Being  heavy,  it  defcends  towards 
the  lowed;  parts  of  the  workings,  and  thus  is  danger- 
ous to  the  miners,  who  can  fcarce  avoid  breathing  it. 
'Yhejire-dairip,  which  fecms  chiefly  to  be  compofed  of 
inflammable  air,  lifes  to  the  roof  of  the  workings,  as 
being  fpecifically  lighter  than  the  common  atmofphere  ; 
and  hence,  though  it  will  fufTocate  as  veil  as  the  o- 
ther,  it  feldom  proves  fo  dangerous  In  this  way  as  by 
its  inflammable  property,  by  which  it  often  takes  fire 
at  the  candles,  and  explodes  with  extreme  violence. 

In  the  Phil.  Tranf.  n°  1 19.   there  is  to  account  of 


fomc  explofions  by  damps  of  this  kind,  on  which  we  D-"np». 
have  the  followini{  obfervations.  r.  Thofe  who  are  in  ""-V""" 
the  place  where  the  vapour  is  fired,  fuddenly  tlnd  them- 
felves  furrounded  with  flames,  but  hear  little  or  no 
noife  ;  though  thofe  who  are  in  places  adjacent,  or  a^- 
bove  ground,  hear  a  very  great  one.  2.  'i'hofe  who 
are  furrounded  by  the  inflamed  vapour  feel  themfelves 
fcorched  or  burnt,  but  are  not  moved  out  of  their 
places,  though  fuch  as  unhappily  (land  in  the  way  of 
it  are  commonly  killed  by  t!ie  violence  of  the  /hock, 
and  often  thrown  with  great  force  cut  at  the  mouth  of 
the  pit  ;  nor  are  the  hcavieft  machines  found  able  to  re- 
fill the  impetuofity  of  the  blaft.  3.  No  fmell  is  perceived 
before  the  fire,  but  a  very  ftron;j  one  of  brimftone  Is 
afterwards  felt.  4.  'i'hc  vapour  lies  towards  the  rot.f, 
and  is  not  perceived  if  the  candles  are  held  low  ;  but 
when  thefe  are  held  higher,  the  damp  difocnds  like  a 
black  mift,  and  catches  hold  of  the  flame,  lengthening 
it  to  two  or  three  handfuls  ;  and  this  appearance  ceafes 
when  the  candles  are  held  nearer  the  ground.  5.  The- 
flame  continues  in  the  vault  for  feveral  minutes  after 
the  crack.  6.  Its  colour  is  blue,  fomething  inclining- 
to  green,  and  very  bright.  7.  On  the  explofion  of  the 
■vapour,  a  dark  fmoke  like  that  proceeding  from  fired 
gunpowder  Is  perceived.  8.  Damps  are  generally  ob- 
ferved to  come  about  the  latter  end  of  May,  and  to 
continue  during  the  heat  of  fummer.  They  return  fe- 
veral times  during  the  fummer  feafon,  but  obferve  no 
certain  rule. 

Befides  thefe  kinds-  of  damps,  which  are  very  com- 
mon, we  find  others  defcribed  in  the  Philofophical 
Tranfaftions,  concerning  the  nature  of  which  we  can 
fay  nothing.  Indeed  the  account  feems  fomewhat  fu- 
fpicious.  They  are  given  !«y  Mr  JefTop,  from  whom 
we  have  the  foregoing  obfervations  concerning  the  fire- 
damp, and  who  had  thefe  from  the  miners  in  Derbv- 
ftiire.  After  defcribing  the  common  damp,  which 
confifts  of  fixed  air,  "  They  call  tlie  fecond  fort  (favs 
he)  X.\\t  peafi-bloom  damp,  becaufe,  as  they  fav,  it  fmells 
like  peafe-isloom.  The;,'  tell  me  it  always  comes  in  the 
fummer-time  ;  and-'thofe  grooves  are  not  free  which 
are  never  troubled  with  any  other  fort  of  damps.  I 
never  heard  that  It  was  mortal  ;  the  fccnt,  perhaps, 
freeing  them  from  th*  danger  of  a  furprife  :  but  by 
reafon  of  it  many  good  grooves  lie  idle  at  the  befl  and 
moft  profitable  time  of  tke  year,  when  the  fubterrane-  - 
ous  waters  are  the  lowed.  They  f.incy  It  proceeds  from 
the  multitude  of  red-trefoil  flov/crs,  by  them  called  /w- 
tityftickles,  with  which  the  limtftone  meadows  in  the 
Peake  do  much  abound.  The  third  Is  the  flrangefl;  and 
moll  peflilentlal  of  any  ;  if  all  be  true  whicii  is  faid  con- 
cerning it.  Thofe  who  pretend  to  have  feen  it  (for  It 
is  vifible)  defcribe  it  thus :  In  the  higheft  part  of  the 
roof  of  thofe  paflages  which  branch  out  from  the  main 
groovs,  they  often  fee  a  round  thing  hanging,  about 
the  bignefs  of  a  foot-ball,  covered  with  a  fkin  of  th.c 
thicknefs  and  colour  of  a  cob- web.  This,  they  fay,  if  it 
is  broke  by  any  accident,  as  the  fpllnler  of  a  (lone,  or 
the  like,  difpcrfcth  itfelf  immediately,  and  fufl"ocatc3 
all  the  company.  Therefore,  to  prevent  cafuallies  an, 
foon  as  ihey  have  efpled  it,  they  have  a  way,  by  tiie 
help  of  a  ftick  and  long  rope,  of  breaking  it  at  a  di- 
ftance;  which  done,  they  purify  the  {)!ace  well  with 
lire,  before  they  dare  enter  it  again.     I  dare  not  a- 

vou.il 


DAM 


[     656    J 


DAM 


ramps,  rouch  the  truth  of  this  ftoiy  in  all  its  circumftances, 
becaufe  the  proof  of  it  feems  impoflible,  fiiice  they  fay 
it  kills  all  that  are  likely  to  beai  witiiefs  to  the  parti- 
culars :  neither  dare  I  deny  but  fuch  a  thing  may 
have  been  feen  hanging  on  the  roof,  fince  I  have  heard 
many  affirm  it." — Some  damps,  feemingly  of  the  fame 
r.ature  with  thofe  laft  mentioned,  are  noticed  by  the 
author  of  the  Chemical  Dictionary,  under  the  word 
Damps.  "  Amongft  the  noxious  mineral  exhalations 
(fays  he),  we  may  place  thofe  which  are  found  in  the 
mines  of  Sal-gem  in  Poland.  Thefe  frequently  appear 
in  form  of  light  flocks,  threads,  and  fpiders  webs.  They 
are  remarkable  for  their  property  of  fuddenly  catching 
f.re  at  the  lamps  of  the  miners  with  a  terrible  noife 
and  explofion.  They  inftantly  kill  thofe  whom  they 
touch.  Similar  vapours  are  found  in  fome  mines  of 
foffil  coal." 

With  regard  to  the  formation  of  damps  we  have  as 
yet  no  certain  theory  ;  nor,  though  the  experiments 
of  aerologifts  are  abundantly  able  to  fliow  the  conipo- 
fition  and  manner  of  foi-ming  thefe  noxious  airs  arti- 
ficially, have  they  yet  thrown  much  light  on  the  me- 
thod by  which  nature  prepares  them  on  a  large  fcale. 
There  are  two  general  ways  in  wliich  we  may  fuppofe 
this  to  be  done  ;  one  by  the  flagnation  of  atmofpheii- 
cal  air  in  old  wafte  places  of  mines  and  coal-pits,  and 
its  converfion  into  thefe  mephitic  exhalations  ;  the 
other  by  their  original  fornu-.tion  from  the  phlogiftic 
or  other  materials  found  in  the  earth,  without  any  in- 
terference of  the  atmofphere.  In  favour  of  the  for- 
mer opinion  it  may  be  urged,  that  old  waftes  are  ne- 
ver free  from  damps,  efpecially  thofe  of  the  kind  re- 
i'embling  fixed  air  ;  nor  are  they  always  deficient  in 
the  inflammable  kind.  The  fame  is  alfo  true  of  old 
vvcUs,  or  even  cellars,  and  in  fliort  in  every  place 
whei-e  the  air  ftagnates  for  any  confiderable  time.  But, 
on  the  other  hand,  we  have  many  inflances  of  fixed 
air  coming  out  of  the  earth,  and  that  in  vaft  quanti- 
ties, where  no  confiderable  flagnation  of  the  atmo- 
fphere could  be  fufpc6ted  ;  as  for  inftance,  in  the  grot- 
to del  Cani  in  Italy,  where  a  continual  llream  of  it  has 
Jfl'ued  from  time  immemorial.  The  fame  feems  to  be 
the  cafe  with  the  tops  of  fome  bigh  mountains,  parti- 
cularly Mont  Blanc,  the  higheft  in  Europe  ;  ou  the 
top  of  which  M.  Sauflure  found  the  atmofphere  fo 
much  impregnated  with  fixed  air,  that  lime-water  ex- 
pofed  to  it  very  qviickly  gathered  a  cruft  on  its  furface 
Sir  William  Hamilton,  in  his  account  of  the  eruptions 
of  Vefuvius,  informs  us,  that  the  inhabitants  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  that  mountain  aie  "infetted  with  a 
kind  of  peftilential  vapours  named  by  them  nwfttcs, 
which  ifl'ue  from  the  old  lavas  thrown  out  by  the  vol- 
cano. Thefe  are  of  the  nature  of  the  damps  in  our 
mines  or  coal-pits,  and  Ifl'ue  forth  in  fuch  quantity  as 
either  to  infeft  the  atmofphere  for  a  very  confiderable 
wav  rovmd,  or  to  do  mifchief  by  being  carried  from 
place  to  place  by  the  atmofpherical  currents,  which 
are  not  ftrong  enough  to  diflipate  then  for  fome  time. 
From  fom.e  late  accounts,  the  famiei  (or  fcorching 
winds,  as  they  have  been  reprefented)  in  the  eallern 
countries,  feem  to  be  no  other  thah  ftreams  of  fixed 
air  of  confiderable  extent,  which  exert  their  ufual  and 
fatal  eff'efts  en  thofe  who  breathe  them.  A  (Irong  ar- 
gument in  favour  of  this  opinion  is,  that  thefe  winds 
N°  97. 


cannot  crofs  a  river,  it  being  the  nature   of  water  to     Damp 
abforb  fixed  air,  and  thus  dellroy  them.  ~~"v^ 

Hence  it  is  rendered  probable  that  thefe  mephitic 
vapours  are  often  to  be  met  with  in  the  open  atmo- 
fphere, and  confequently  cannot  always  be  the  effc£l 
of  flagnation  ;  nor  indeed  does  it  at  all  appear  that 
mere  flagnation  can  affeit  the  quality  of  the  atmo- 
fphere either  one  way  or  other.  This  fluid  cannot 
have  its  properties  altered  but  by  fomething  immerfed 
in  it  upon  which  it  can  aft,  and  by  means  of  which 
attion  its  component  parts  may  be  changed  or  fepa- 
rated.  While  this  procefs  is  going  on,  there  is  gene- 
rally, if  not  always,  an  ahforption  of  air,  accompanied 
indeed  frequently  with  an  emifllon  of  fome  aerial  fluid 
equal  in  quantity  to  that  which  is  abforbed.  Mr 
Scheele,  in  his  Eflay  on  Fire,  has  fliown  by  a  number 
of  experiments  the  efi"c<il  of  expofing  certain  fubftan- 
ces  to  the  action  of  air,  both  on  the  fubftances  them- 
felves  and  on  the  aerial  fluid.  Tue  refult  of  aU  thefe 
is  no  other  than  what  we  might  expeft  from  a  very  flow 
combuilion,  and  which  perhaps  may  on  inquiry  be 
found  to  be  the  only  way  by  which  air  can  be  decom- 
pofed.  If  the  fublfance  expofed  to  the  air  was  capa- 
ble of  abforbing  that  part  of  the  fluid  which  had  un- 
dergone a  change,  there  was  always  an  evident  dimi- 
nution, but  not  utherwife  Thus,  on  inclofing  fome 
cauftic  fixed  alkali  in  a  phial  of  atmofpheric  air,  a  con- 
fiderable diminutivin  took  place  ;  and  the  alkali,  by  be- 
coming faturated  with  fixed  air,  fliowed  that  a  dccom- 
pofition  had  taken  place,  and  that  the  dcphlogillicated 
part  of  the  air  had  feparated  from  the  other,  attached 
itfelf  to  the  fixed  alkali,  and  become  fixed  air  by  uni- 
ting with  a  certain  proportion  of  phlogiflic  matter. 
Hence  we  may  conceive,  that  in  any  place  where  the 
air  was  conhned  over  a  vaft  quantity  of  cauftic  alkaline 
fait,  it  would  foon  become  unfit  for  the  purpofes  of 
animal  hfe,  and  we  might  fay  that  a  <iainp  would  be 
formed.  But  this  would  be  a  damp  of  a  very  differ- 
ent kind  from  that  ulually  met  with  in  mines ;  for 
here  the  dephlogifticated  part  of  the  atmofpliere  be- 
ing converted  into  fixed  air,  and  abforbed  by  the  fait, 
only  the  poifonous  mephitic,  or  as  it  is  commonly 
caWed  phiogiJiL-ateel,  air  would  remain,  fo  that  no  fixed 
air  could  ever  be  feparated  from  it. 

Let  us  HDw  fuppofe,  that  inftead  of  the  alkaline 
fait  a  quantity  of  burning  charcoal  is  conilaed  in  3 
place  where  there  is  not  a  proper  circulation  of  air, 
and  we  will  foon  fee  that  a  damp  of  the  very  fame 
kind  with  that  called  by  miners  the  choke-damp 
will  be  formed.  But  this,  according  to  the  late  dif- 
coveries,  takes  place  by  reafon  of  the  dlflipation  of 
the  charcoal  by  heat,  and  its  union  with  the  dephlo- 
gifticated part  of  the  atmofphere,  which  always  con- 
ftitutes  fixed  air  *,  In  this  cafe,  however,  the  damp.gee./fn 
muft  be  but  of  fliort  continuance,  and  will  foon  be/jgiand 
dlfli^jated  after  the  charcoal  is  extinguiflied ;  but  if,  [n-^^'^"'^' 
flead  of  the  charcoal,  we  fubftitute  a  Urge  quantity 
of  fermenting  liquor,  from  whence  the  fixed  air  is  na- 
turally emitted,  a  damp  will  be  formed  much  more 
dilficult  to  be  diflipated  than  the  former,  becaufe  it 
renews  itfelf  in  a  very  fliort  time  ;  and,  unlefs  there 
is  a  very  conftant  circulation  of  air,  it  will  be  danger- 
ous to  enter  the  place  where   t  is 

From  the  laft  example  we  may  foiin  an  idea  of  the 

niaaner 


DAM  I    ^S7 

manner  in  which  thefe  damps,  confifting  chiefly  of 
fixed  sir,  arc  formed.  We  know  not  indeed  thorough- 
ly the  nature  of  fermentation  ;  but  we  are  aiTured, 
-that  it  is  ahvays  accompanied  by  an  internal  heat ; 
which,  in  fomc  cafes,  is  raifcd  to  the  utmoil  height, 
infomuch  that  large  quantities  of  mofll  vegetable  fub- 
rtanccs,  packed  together,  will  fometimes  buril  out  into 
flame.  It  is  not,  however,  at  all  times  ueceflar)-  for 
the  extrication  of  fixed  air,  that  the  heat  ftould  cotne 
to  this  extremity.  The  example  of  fermenting  liquors 
fliowe,  that  in  feme  cafes  a  very  moderate  heat  is  fuf- 
ficient  for  the  purpofe.  Now,  though  tlie  compari- 
fon  may  feem  fomewiiat  inadequate  between  the  foHd 
fubilance  of  tlie  earth  and  a  fermenting  liquid,  yet 
we  know  that  a  gentle  heat  conftantly  takes  place  in 
the  bowels  of  the  eartli  ;  and  that  almoft  all  terrellrial 
fubllances  will  emit  fixed  air  on  being  expofed  to 
heat.     It  is  not  at  all  improbable,  therefore,  that,  on 


]  DAM 

With  regard  to  what  is  called  the /«  Jm^,  the  l>*ii'<'' 
cafe  fteiBi  to  be  more  plain.  !n  the  Phil.  Tranf.  —*/-*- 
n'=  136,  we  have  the  following  account  of  one  of 
this  kind  which  fcemed  evidently  to  ifnic  fro:n  the 
earth.  "  T liis  work  is  upon  a  coal  of  five  yards  in 
thickhefs,  and  h:ith  been  begun  upon  tibout  fix  or 
eight  and  thirty  years  ago.  When  it  was  firR  found, 
it  was  extremely  full  of  wafer,  fo  that  it  could  not  be 
wrought  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  '-oal ;  but  a  luit.-htti 
or  cave,  was  driven  out  of  the  middle  of  it,  upon  a  le- 
vel, for  gaining  room  lo  work,  and  drawing  do\tn  the 
fpring  of  water  that  lice  in  the  coal  to  the  eye  of  the 
pit.  In  driving  of  which  witchet,  after  they  had  gone 
a  cor.fiderable  way  under  ground,  and  were  fcanted  of 
wind,  the  fire-damps  did  begin  by  httle  and  little  to 
breed,  and  to  appear  in  crevices  and  flits  of  the  coal, 
where  water  had  lain  before  the  opening  of  the  coalj, 
with  a  fmall  bluiili  flame,  working  and  moving  conti 


the  large  fcale  of  natu;e,  the  quantity  of  materials  may  nnally  ;  but  not  out  of  its  full  feat,  unlefs  the  work- 
compenfate  for  the  weaknefs  of  the  heat,  and  thus  oc-  men  held  their  candles  to  it  ;  and  then  being  weakj, 
caGon  a  conilant  emiifion  of  fixed  air;  which,  though  the  blaze  of  the  candle  would  drive  it  with  a  fudden 
flow  in  coniparifon  of  what  is  efFtcltd  in  our  experi-  fizz  away  to  another  crevice,  wliere  it  would  foon  af- 
ments  by  a  violent  artificial  heat,  may  yet  accumu-  ter  appear  blazing  and  moving  as  formerly.  This  wa» 
late  in  the  narrow  fpaces  of  mines  in  fuch  a  manner  the  firft  knowledge  of  it  in  this  work,  which  the  work- 
as  to  be  very  troublefome.  In  volcanic  countries,  men  made  but  a  fport  of ;  and  fo  partly  neglefted,  till 
where  the  heat  of  the  earth  is  much  greater,  the  emif-  it  had  gotten  fome  ftrength  ;  and  then  tipon  a  morin'nf, 


fion  of  fixed  air  is  in  proportion  ;  and  thus  we  may- 
account  for  that  continual  ftrcam  of  It,  which  iifues 
from  the  grotto  del  Cani,  and  perhaps  other  places. 
The  moj'dfj,  which  are  fnid  to  proceed  from  old  lavas, 
can    only   be   accounted   for  by  fuppofing  the   heat, 


the  firft  collier  that  went  down,  going  forwards  in  the 
witchet  with  his  candle  in  his  hand,  the  damp  prc- 
fcntly  darted  out  fo  violently  at  his  candle,  that  it  tlruck 
the  man  clear  down,  finged  all  liis  hair  and  clothes,  and 
dilabled  him  from  working  for  a  while  after.     Some 


which  originally  took  place   in  them,  to  be   in   fome  other  fmall  warnings  it  gave  them,  infomuch  that  they 

jneafure  renewed  ;  or   tliat   they  have  been  again,  by  refolved  to  employ  a  man  on  purpofe  that  was  more  rc- 

fome  means  or  other,  dif'pofed  to  take  fire  as  formerly:  folute  than  the  reft,  to  go  down  a  while  before  them 

'.  I  this  we  offer  merely  as   a   conjeiflure  ;  there  not  every  morning,  to  chafe  it  from  place  to  place,  and  fo 

being  as  yet  fufEcient  data  to  dcteriniiie  any  thing  po-  to  weaken  it.     His  ufual  manner  was  to  put  on  the 

fuively  upon  the  fubjcA.  worfl  rags  he  had,  and  to  wet  them  all  in  water,  and 

It  may  be  objedlcd  to  the  hypothtfis  jufl  now  laid  w-hen  he  came  within  the  danger  of  it,  then  he  fell 

down,  that,  if  there  is  a  continual  difpofition  in  the  down  grovehng  up»n  his  belly,  and  fo  went  fonvard, 

earth  to  produce  fixed  air,  the  whole  furface  of  it  mufl  holding  in  one  hand  a  long  wand  or  pole,  at  the  head 

pour  out  fuch  a  quantity  as  would  deftrcy  every  living  whereof  he  tied  candles  burning,  and  reached  them  by 

creatine    upon  it.      Tliis    indeed  might  be  granted,  degrees  towards  it ;  then  the  damp  would  fly  at  them, 

were  the  furface  of  the  earth  quite  bare,  and  deftitutc  and,  if  it  mifTed  of  putting  them  out,  would  quench  it. 

of  vegetation  :  but  we  know  that  fixed  air  is  compofed  felf  with  a  blaft,  and  leave  an  ill-fcented  fmoke  behind, 

of  the  dephlogifticatej  kind  and  phlogifton  ;  and  that  Thus  they  dealt  with  it  till  they  had  v\Tought  the  coal 

thefe  two   ingredients,  a'fter  being  once  joined,  may  down  to  the  bottom,  and  the  water  following,  and  not 

be  feparated  from  each  other,  and  reafTume  their  pro--  remaining  as  before  in  the  body  of  it,  among  fulphu- 


per  charafters.  There  is  no  abfurdity,  therefore,  in 
fuppofing  that  the  fixed  air  may  he  continually  de- 
compofed  by  the  vegetables  which  grow  all  over  the 
ftuface  of  the  earth  ;  and  the  atniofphere  not  only 
thus  prefervcd  from  any  taint  from  it,  but  fupplled 
with  a  quantity  of  pure  dephlogifticated  air,  wliich 
it  is  certain  that  vegetables  do  emit.  It  is  alio  cer- 
tain, that  wherever  the  atmofphere  is  fuffered 
in   contaft  with    the  bare  fuiface  of  the   groun 


fome  time,  a  confiderable  quantity  of  fixed  air  will 
be  produced,  unlefs  there  is  a  eonllant  circulation 
of  atmofpherical  air  to  carry  off  the  former  before  it 
has  time  to  produce  any  fenfible  efteft.  Hence  we 
may  account  for  the  damps  in  wells,  cellars,  and  even 
in  the  confined  places  of  old  callles  and  ruinous  build- 
ings, where  the  air  is  not  in  contaft  with  the  furface  of 
the  ground  itfelf,  but  with  mere  heaps  ef  rubbifti  and  old 
walls. 

Vol.  V.  Part  IL 


reous  and  bralTy  metal  that  is  in  fome  veins  of  the 
coal,  the  fire-damp  was  not  feen  nor  heard  of  till  the 
latter  end  of  the  year  1675,  which  happened  as  fol- 
loweth. 

"  After  long  working  of  this  coal.  It  was  found  up- 
on the  rifing  grounds  that  there  Jay  another  roach  of 
coal  at  the  depth  of  14  yards  under  it,  which  proved 

to  be     to  be  3^ yards  thick,  and  fomething  more  fulphureoui. 

id  for    This  encouraged  us  to  link  in  one  of  the  pits  we  had 


pits 
formeily  ufed  on  the  five-yards  coal. — As  v.efank  tije 
lovvtr  part  of  It,  we  had  many  appearances  of  the  fire- 
damp in  the  watery  crevices  of  the  rocks  wc  funk 
through,  flafhing  and  darting  from  fide  to  fide  of  the 
pit,  and  fhowing  rainbow-like  colours  upon  the  fuiface 
of  the  water  in  the  bottom  j  but  upon  drawing  up  of 
the  water  with  buckets,  which  ftirred  the  air  in  the  pit„ 
it  would  leave  burning,  till  the  colliers  at  work,  with 
their  breath  and  fweat,  and  the  fmske  of  their  candlei, 
4  O  thickcwci 


DAM 


[     658     ] 


DAM 


Bamp«.  thickened  the  air  in  the  pit,  and  then  it  would  appear 
again  ;  they  lighted  their  candles  at  it  fometimes  when 
they  went  out ;  and  fo  in  this  pit  it  did  no  further 
harm." 

In  another  pit,  however,  it  foon  appeared,  and  at  laft 
produced  a  nioft  terrible  explofion.  This  was  occa- 
iioned  by  one  of  the  workmen  going  imprudently  down 
with  a  lighted  candle,  after  a  ceffation  of  work  for  fome 
days,  and  the  force  exerted  by  it  feemed  equal'  to  that 
cf  gun-powder. 

The  formation  of  inflammable  air  in  mines  cannot 
be  attributed  to  any  vitiation  of  the  atmofphere  ;  for 
there  is  no  natural  procefs  with  which  we  are  ac- 
quainted, by  which  fuch  a  change  could  be  accom- 
pliflied.  In  one  inftance,  however,  we  have  an  ex- 
ample of  a  fire-damp  being  produced,  not  osly  with- 
out any  confiderable  llagnation  of  atmofpherical  air, 
but  \vhere  there  is  the  bell  circulation  imaginable. 
This  is  in  large  bellows  ufed  in  metallurgic  works, 
which  are  fometimes  burft  by  an  explofion  of  inflam- 
mable matter  proceeding  from  the  rancid  matters 
with  which  the  leather  is  greafed.  Dr  Prieflley  has 
(hown,  that  inflammable  air  is  compofcd  of  pure  ele- 
mentary fire,  charcoal  or  phlogifton,  and  a  little  wa- 
ter ;  and  that  this  compofition  may  take  place  even 
in  vacuo.  All  thefe  materials  are  to  be  met  with  in 
the  bowels  of  the  earth.  Coal,  a  bituminous  fubftance, 
is  abundantly  able  to  fupply  the  phlogifton  ;  the  na- 
tural moillure  of  the  earth  affords  water,  and  the 
heat,  however  gentle,  which  conflantly  exiils  in  the 
bowels  of  the  earth,  may  be  fufficient  to  produce  a 
<iuantity  of  inflammable  air,  which  gradually  accumu- 
lating in  thofe  places  where  there  is  not  a  ccmllant 
ftream  of  atmofpherical  air  to  carry  it  off,  will  foon 
produce  the  dreadful  effcAs  already  mentioned. 

A  much  more  important  confideration  than  the 
formation  of  damps,  however,  is  the  proper  method  of 
avoiding  their  pernicious  effefls.  The  inflammabi- 
lity of  one  kind  affords  an  eafy  method  of  preventing 
it  from  accumulating,  viz.  by  fetting  fire  to  it.  This 
may  be  done  with  fafety,  unlefs  it  has  been  fuffered  to 
go  too  far  before  the  experiment  is  made :  for  the  in- 
flammable air,  being  much  lighter  than  any  other 
kind,  will  naturally  rife  to  the  top ;  fo  that  a  man,  ly- 
ing flat  on  the  ground  to  avoid  the  force  of  the  ex- 
plofion, and  holding  up  a  lighted  candle  fixed  upon  a 
pole,  may  at  once  free  the  mine  from  fuch  a  trouble- 
£ome  gueil.  Eut  where  it  has  been  allowed  to  ac- 
cumulate in  too  great  quantity,  fo  that  this  method 
cannot  be  ufed,  or  in  the  other  kind,  which  is  not  in- 
flammable, the  method  commonly  prafliied  is  to  pro- 
duce a  conflant  circulation  of  air  as  much  as  polTible 
through  all  parts  of  the  mine.  To  procure  this,  they 
make  a  perpendicular  opening,  which  they  call  aJLimi 
vrjbaft,  fo  that  the  mine  may  have  two  or  more 
openings;  and  thus  by  reafon  of  the  difference  of  tem- 
perature between  the  open  atmofphere  and  that  in  the 
mine,  there  is  a  continual  draught  of  air  through 
them  both.  This  current  wiU  always  be  ftronger  in 
proportion  to  the  difference  between  the  external  at- 
mofphere and  that  of  the  mine  ;  and  likewile  in  pro- 
portion to  the  difference  between  the  depth  of  the  two 
fhafts.  But  as  the  temperature  of  the  atmofphere  is 
■variable,  it  happens,  at  certain  ftafons  of  the  year, 
thi^t  there  is  not  a  fafficient   difference  between  that 


of  the  atmofphere  and  in  the  mine  to  produce  the  ne- 
ceffary  circulation.     This  happens  principally  in  the 
fpring  and  autumn  ;  at  which  feafons  it  is  neccffary  to  ^ 
light  fires  in  the  fhafts,  which  are  always  efficacious  fsr 
the  purpofe  de  fired. 

Among  the  other  ufcs  to  which  dephlogifticated  air 
might  be  applied,  Mr  Cavallo  reckons  that  of  fccuring 
people  from  the  dangerous  efTefts  of  damps  in  mines, 
and  other  fubterrancous  places.  "  If  a  large  blad- 
der," fays  he,  "  into  which  a  folution  of  lime  in  wa- 
ter is  introduced,  be  filled  with  dephlogifticated  air, 
and  a  fmall  wooden  or  glafs  pipe  be  adapted  to  its 
neck,  a  man  may  hold  that  pipe  in  his  mouth,  and 
may  breathe  tlie  dephlogifticated  air ;  and  thus  equip- 
ped he  may  enter  into  thefe  fubterranean  places, 
amidft  the  various  elaftic  fluids  contained  in  them. 
A  large  bladder  of  dephlogifticated  air  will  ferve 
for  above  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  which  is  a  length  of 
time  fufficient  for  various  purpofes  ;  beiides,  if  longer 
time  is  required  to  be  fpent  in  thefe  places,  a  per- 
fon  may  have  two  or  more  bladders  of  dephlogifticated 
air  along  with  him,  and  may  fhift  as  foon  as  the  air  of 
one  is  contaminated.  Without  the  neceflity  of  any 
more  complicated  apparatus,  the  bladders  full  of  de- 
phlogifticated air  may  be  kept  flopped  by  putting  corks 
into  the  glafs  or  wooden  pipes  that  are  tied  to  their 
necks.    This  air  might  alfo  be  ufed  for  diving-bells."     ' 

DAMSEL,  from  the  French  damo'ifel  or  damoifcau, 
an  appellation  anciently  given  to  all  young  people  of 
either  fex,  that  were  of  noble  or  genteel  extraftion,  as 
the  fons  and  daughters  of  princes,  knights,  and  barons; 
thus  we  read  of  Damfel  Pepin,  Damfel  Louis  le  Grus, 
Damfel  Richard  prince  of  Wales. 

From  the  fons  of  kings  this  appellation  firft  paffcd 
to  thofe  of  great  lords  and  barons,  and  at  length  t^ 
thofe  of  gentlemen  who  were  not  yet  knights. 

At  prefent  damfel  is  applied  to  all  maids  or  girls  not 
yet  married,  provided  they  be  not  of  the  vulgar. 

DAN,  or  JoR-DAN,  which  laft  literally  denotes  "  the 
river  Dan;"  fo  named  from  the  people  where  it  has 
its  fource,  which  is  a  lake  called  Phiala,  from  its  round 
figure,  to  the  north  of  its  apparent  rifing  from  the 
mountain  Panium  or  Paneum,  as  was  difcovered  by 
Philip,  Tctrarch  of  Tiachonites  ;  for  on  throwing  light 
bodies  into  the  Phiala,  he  found  them  to  emerge  again 
at  Paneum  (Jofephus).  From  Paneum  it  runs  in  a 
diredl  couife  to  a  lake  called  Samachonites  ;  as  far  as 
which  it  is  called  Jordan  the  Lefs  ;  and  thence  to  the 
lake  Genefareth,  or  of  Tiberias,  where  it  comes  in- 
creafcd  by  the  lake  Samathonitis  and  its  fprings,  and 
is  called  the  Greater  Jordan ;  continuing  its  diredl 
courfe  fouthwards,  till  it  falls  into  the  Afphaltites. 

Dan  (anc.geog. ),  a  town  to  the  weft  of  the  fource 
of  the  Jordan  ;  formerly  called  Lah  (Jofhua,  Judges,. 
Jofephus).  This  was  the  north,  as  Beerlheba  was  the 
fouth,  boundary  of  the  Ifraelites;  as  appears  from  the 
common  expreflion  in  Scripture,  from  Dan  to  Beerjhe- 
la.  At  Dan  Jeroboam  erefled  one  of  the  golden 
calves  (  1  Kings  xii.). 

Daw,  the  tribe,  extended  itfelf  weft  ward  of  Judah,, 
and  was  terminated  by  Azotus  and  Dora  on  the  Medi- 
terraneai    (Jofephus). 

DANAE,  in  antiquity,  a  coin  fomewhat  more  than 
an  obolus,  uLd  to  be  put  into  the  mouths  of  the  dead, 
to  pay  their  paffage  over  the  river  Acheron. 


DAN  [    659    1 

DASAr,  in  fabulous  hillory,  was  the  daugliter  of  A-  nor  king  of  Arp;os. 
critius  king  of  Argos,  by  Emydice.  She  was  confined 
in  a  brazen  tower  by  her  father,  who  had  been  told  by 
an  oracle  that  his  daughter's  fon  would  put  liim  to  death. 
His  endeavours  to  prevent  Danae  from  becoming  a  mo- 
thtr  proved  fruitlefs  ;  and  Jupiter,  who  was  enamoured 
cf  her,  introduced  himfclf  to  her  bed  by  changing  liim- 
felf  into  a  golden  fliower.  From  his  embraces  Danae 
had  a  fon,  with  whom  (he  was  expofed  on  the  fea  by 
her  father.  Tlie  wind  drove  the  bark  which  carried  her 


DAN 


to  the  coafts  of  the  ifland  of  Seriphus  ;  where  (lie  was 
faved  by  fome  filhermen,  and  carried  to  Polydeftes 
king  of  the  place,  whofe  brother,  called  Diflys,  edu- 
cated tiie  child  called  Pafins,  and  tenderly  treated  the 
mother.  PolydeCtes  fell  in  love  with  her  ;  but  as  he 
was  afraid  of  her  fon,  he  fent  him  to  conquer  the 
Gorgons,  pretending  that  he  wiflied  Medufa's  head  to 
adorn  the  nuptials  which  he  was  going  to  celebrate 
with  Hippodamia  the  daughter  of  CEnomaus.  When 
Perteus  had  vidorioufly  finiflied  his  expedition,  he  re- 
tiied  to  Argos  with  Danae  to  the  houfe  of  Acrifius, 
whom  he  inadvertently  killed.  Some  fuppofe  that  it 
was  Prcetus  the  brother  of  Acrifius  who  introduced 
himfelf  to  Danae  in  the  brazen  tower  ;  and  iuftead  of 
a  golden  iliower,  it  was  maintained  that  the  keepers 
of  Danae  were  bribed  by  the  gold  of  her  feducer. 
Virgil  mentions  that  Danae  came  to  Italy  with  fome 
fugitives  of  Argos,  and  that  Ihe  founded  a  city  called 
/IrJca. 

DANAIDES  (fab.  hift.),  the  fifty  daughters  of  Da- 
naus  king  of  Argos.  When  their  uncle  iEgyptus  came 
from  Egypt  with  his  fifty  fons,  they  were  promifed  in 
marriage  to  their  coufins ;  and  before  the  celebration  of 
their  nuptials,  Danaus,  who  had  been  informed  by  an 
oracle  that  he  was  to  be  killed  by  the  hands  of  one  of 
kis  fons-in-law,  made  his  daughters  folemnly  promife 
that  they  vi'ould  dettroy  their  hafbands.  They  were 
provided  with  daggers  by  their  father;  and  all  except 
Hypermneftra  ftained  their  hands  with  the  blood  of 
their  coufins  the  firft  night  of  their  nuptials  ;  and  as 
a  pledge  of  their  obedience  to  their  father's  injunc- 
tions, they  prefented  him  each  with  the  head  of  the 
murdered  fons  of  jEgyptus.  Hypermneftra  was  fum- 
moned  to  appear  before  her  father,  and  anfwer  for  her 
difobedience  in  fuffering  her  hufbandLynceus  to  efcape; 
but  the  unanimous  voice  of  the  people  declared  her 
innocent,  and  Ihe  dedicated  a  temple  to  the  gaddefs  of 
Perfuafion.  The  fillers  were  purified  of  this  murder 
by  Mercury  and  Minerva  by  order  of  Jupiter  ;  but 
according  to  the  more  received  opinion,  they  were 
condemned  to  fevere  puniihment  in  hell,  and  were 
compelled  to  fill  with  water  a  velTel  fiJl  of  holes,  fo  that 
the  water  ran  out  as  foon  as  poured  into  it ;  and 
therefore  their  labour  was  infinite,  and  their  puniftiment 
eternal.  The  heads  of  the  fons  of  .Sigyptus  were  bu- 
ried at  Argos ;  but  their  bodies  were  left  at  Lerna, 
where  the  murder  had  been  committed. 

DANAUS  (fab.hill.),afon  of  Belus  and  Anchinoe, 
who  after  his  father  death  reigned  conjointly  with  his 
brother  ./Egyptus  on  the  throne  of  Egypt.  Some  time 
after,  a  difference  arofe  between  the  brothers,  and  Da- 
naus fet  fail  with  his  fifty  daughters  in  (jueft  of  a  fet- 
tlement.  He  vifited  Rhodes,  where  he  confecrated  a 
ftatue  to  Minerva,  and  arrived  fafe  on  the  coaft  of  Pe- 
ioponnefus,  where  he  was  hofpitably  received  by  Gela- 


Gelanor  had  lately  afcended  the  Dancr. 
throne,  and  the  firil  years  of  his  reign  were  marked  ^— V""^ 
with  difi'enfions  with  his  fubjeds.  Danaus  took  ad- 
vantage of  Gelanor's  unpopularity,  and  obliged  him  to 
leave  tl:e  crown.  In  Gclanor,  the  race  of  the  Inachid* 
was  extinguifiied,  and  the  Belides  began  to  reign  at 
Argos  in  Danaus.  Some  authors  fay,  that  Gelanor 
voluntarily  rtfigncd  the  crown  to  Danaus,  on  account 
of  the  wrath  of  Neptune,  who  had  dried  up  all  the 
waters  of  Argolus,  to  punilh  the  impiety  of  Inachus. 


^he  fuccefs  of  Danaus  invited  the  fifty  fons  of  ./Egyp- 
iis   to   embark  for  Greece.     They   were  kindly  re- 


tus  to  embark  for  Greece.  They  were  kindly  re- 
ceived by  their  uncle;  who,  either  apprehenfive  of  their 
number,  or  terrified  by  an  oracle  which  threatened  hi» 
ruin  by  one  of  his  fons-in-law,  caufed  his  daughters,  to 
whom  they  v,-ere  promifed  in  marriage,  to  murder  them 
the  firft  night  of  their  nuptials.  His  orders  were  executed. 
Hypermnellra  alone  fpared  the  life  of  Lynccus  :  (Sec 
Danaides).  Danaus  at  firlt  perfecutcd  Lynccus  with 
unremitted  fury  ;  but  he  was  afterwards  reconciled  to 
him,  and  he  acknowledged  him  for  his  fon-in-law  and 
fuccelTor  after  a  reign  of  50  years.  He  began  his  reigo 
about  1586  years  before  the  Chrillian  era;  and  aftdr 
death  he  was  honoured  \Vith  a  fplendid  monument  in 
the  town  of  Argos,  which  Hill  exifted  in  the  age  of 
Paufanias.  According  to  jEfchylus,  Danaus  left  E- 
gypt,  not  to  be  prefent  at  the  marriage  of  his  daugh- 
ters with  the  ions  of  his  brother,  a  connection  which 
he  deemed  unlawful  and  impious. 

DANCE,  or  Dancing,  as  at  prefent  pradlifed,  may 
be  defined,  "  an  agreeable  motion  of  the  body,  ad- 
jufted  by  art  to  the  meafures  or  tune  of  inftruments, 
or  of  the  voice." — But,  according  to  what  fome 
reckon  more  agreeable  to  the  true  genius  of  the 
art,  dancing  is  "  the  art  of  expreffing  the  fentiments 
of  the  mind,  or  the  paffions,  by  meafured  fteps  or 
bounds  that  are  made  in  cadence  by  regulated  motions 
of  the  body,  and  by  graceful  geftures  ;  all  performed 
te  the  found  of  mufical  inftruments  or  of  the  voice." 

There  is  no  accoimt  of  the  origin  of  the  pradlice 
of  dancing  among  mankind.  It  is  found  to  exill 
among  all  nations  whatever,  even  the  moft  rude  and 
barbarous  ;  and,  indeed,  however  much  the  afliftancc 
of  art  may  be  neceftfary  to  make  any  one  perfeft  in  the 
prattice,  the  foundation  muft  certainly  lie  in  the  mc- 
chanifm  of  the  human  body  itfelf. 

The  conneftion  that  there  is  between  certain  foundl 
and  thofe  motions  of  the  human  body  called  (lancing, 
hath  feldom  or  never  been  inquired  into  by  philofo- 
phers,  though  it  is  certainly  a  very  curious  fpeculation. 
The  power  of  certain  founds  not  only  over  the  human 
fpecies,  but  even  over  the  inanimate  creation,  is  indeed 
very  furprifing.  It  is  well  known,  that  the  moft  folid 
walls,  nay  the  ground  itfelf,  will  be  found  to  ftiake  at 
fome  particular  notes  in  mufic.  This  ftrongly  indi- 
cates the  prefence  of  fome  univetfally  diffufed  and  ex- 
ceedingly elaftic  fluid,  which  is  thrown  into  vibration* 
by  the  concuffions  of  the  atmofphere  upon  it,  produced 
by  the  motion  of  the  founding  body. — If  thefe  con- 
cuflions  are  fo  ftrong  as  to  make  the  large  quantity  of 
elaftic  fluid  vibrate  that  is  difperfed  through  a  ftone 
wall  or  a  confiderable  portion  of  earth,  it  is  no  won- 
der they  ftiould  have  the  fame  effedt  upon  that  invifible 
and  exceedingly  fubtile  matter  that  pervades  and  feems 
to  refide  in  our  nerves. 

4  O  2  Some 


DAN  [660 

T>»nc*.  Some  tlierc  are  that  have  their  nsrves  conftrudled 
■'""v  ■"  In  fu<:h  a  manner,  that  they  cannot  be  afFeited  by  the 
founds  wliich  afFcft  others,  and  feme  fcarce  with  any, 
while  others  have  fiich  an  irritabihty  of  the  nerves  in 
this  cafe,  that  they  cannot,  without  the  greatclk  dilfi- 
tully,  fit  or  {land  lUU  when  they  licar  a  favourite  piece 
of  mufic  phiyod. 

It  is  conjectured  by  veiy  en"incnt  philofophers,  that 
all  the  feniations  and  pallions  to  wliicli  we  are  fiibjeft 
do  inimtdiately  depend  upon  the  vibrations  txclted  in 
the  nervous  fluid  above  mentioned.  Hence,  mufical 
founds  have  the.^'cateft  power  over  thofe  people  who  are 
of  a  delicate  fcntiblc  frame,  and  who  have  ftrong  pafiions. 
If  it  be  true,  therefore,  that  ever/  paffion  in  the  hu- 
man n'jturc  immediately  depends  upon  a  certain  affec- 
tion of  the  nervous  fyflcm,  or  a  certain  motion  or 
vibration  in  the  nervous  fimid,  we  ihall  immediately  fee 
the  origin  of  the  different  dances  among  different  na- 
tions. One  kind  of  vibration,  for  inllance,  raifes  the 
pafiions  of  anger,  pride,  &c.  which  are  indifpenfubly 
jieceffary  in  warlike  nations.  The  founds,  for  fuch 
there  are,  capable  of  excitirig  a  firailar  vibration,  would 
naturally  conilitute  the  martial  mufic  among  fueh  na- 
tions, and  dances  conformable  to  it  would  be  inlUtu- 
ted.  This  appears  to  be  the  cafe  particularly  among 
barbarous  nations,  as  we  fhall  prefently  have  occafion 
to  remark.  Other  vibrations  of  the  nervous  fluid 
pi-oduce  the  pafSons  of  joy,  love,  &c.;  and  founds 
capable  of  exciting  thefe  particular  vibrations  will 
immediately  be  formed  into  mufic  for  dances  of  an- 
other kind. 

As  barbarous  people  are  obferved  to  have  the  ftrong- 
»ft  pafiions,  fo  they  are  alfo  obferved  to  be  the  moil 
tafdy  affeiScd  by  founds,  and  the  moft  addidted  to  dan- 
cing. Sounds  to  us  the  moft  difagrceable,  the  drum- 
ming with  flicks  upcn  an  empty  cafk,  or  the  noifemade 
by  blowing  into  reeds  incapable  of  yielding  one  mufi- 
cal note  tolerable  to  us,  is  agreeable  mufic  to  them. 
Much  more  are  they  afftfted  by  the  found  ef  inftru- 
mcnts  which  have  any  thing  agreeable  in  them.  Mr 
Gallini  informs  us,  that  "  The  fpirit  of  dancing  pre- 
vails almoft  beyond  imagination  among  both  men  and 
■women  in  moft  parts  of  Africa.  It  is  even  more  than 
inftinft,  it  iia  rage,  in  feme  countiies  of  that  part  of 
the  globe.  —  Upon  the  gold  coait  efpecially,  the  inha- 
bitants are  fo  paflionately  fond  of  it,  that  in  the  midft 
i)f  their  hardefl  labour,  if  they  hear  a  pei-fon  ling,  or 
any  njufical  inftrumcnt  played,  they  cannot  refrain  from 
dancing. — There  are  even  well  attefted  ftories  of  fome 
negroes  flinging  themfelves  at  the  feet  of  an  European 
playing  on  a  fiddle,  intrcating  him  to  defift,  unlcfs  he 
had  a  iiJnd  to  tire  them  to  death;  it  being  impoflible 
for  them  to  ceafe  dancing  while  he  continued  playing. " 
— The  fame  thing  Is  found  to  take  place  Ib  America, 
though,  as  the  inhabitants  of  that  continent  are  found 
to  be  of  a  more  fierce  and  barbarous  nature  than  the 
African  nations,  their  dances  are  ftill  more  uncouth 
and  barbarous  than  thofe  of  the  negroes.  "  In  Mexi- 
co, fays  Gallini,  they  have  alio  their  dances  and  mu- 
fic, but  In  the  moft  uncouth  and  barbarous  ftyle.  For 
their  fyraphony  they  have  wooden  drums,  fomething 
in  form  of  a  kettle-drum,  with  a  kind  of  pipe  or  fla- 
gellct,  made  of  a  hollow  cane  or  reed,  but  very  gra- 
ting to  an  European  ear.  It  is  obferved  they  love  every 
ihing  that  makes  a  noife,  how  difagrceable  Jfcever  tke 


DAN 

found  is.  They  will  alfo  hum  over  lonictliing  like  a 
tune  when  they  dance  jo  or  40  in  a  ciivle,  llretcbing 
out  their  hands,  and  laying  them  on  each  others  ihoul- 
dcrs.  They  llamp  and  junjp,  and  uie  the  niolh  antic 
gellures  for  leveral  houis,  till  they  are  lienrtily  weary. 
And  one  or  two  of  the  comp;uiy  fometinics  itep  Oiit 
of  the  ring  to  make  fport  for  the  relt,  by  Ihowiiig  featj 
of  activity,  throwing  their  lances  up  into  the  air, 
catching  them  again,  bending  bsckwards,  and  fpring- 
Ing  forwards  with  great  ability." 

The  origin  of  dancing  among  the  Greeks  was  moft 
certainly  the  fame  as  among  all  other  nations;  but  as 
they  proceeded  a  certain  length  in  eivilization,  their 
dances  were  of  confequein;e  more  regular  and  agree- 
able than  thofe  of  the  more  barbarous  nations.  I'liey 
reduced  dancing  into  a  kind  of  regular  fyllem;  and  had 
dances  proper  for  exciting,  by  means  of  the  fympathy 
above  mentiened,  any  paflion  whatever  in  the  minds  of 
the  beholders.  In  this  way  they  are  faid  to  have  pro- 
ceeded very  great  lengths,  to  us  abiolutcly  incredible. 
At  Athens,  It  is  faid,  that  the  dance  of  tlie  Eumeui- 
des  or  Furies  on  the  theatre  had  fo  exprefHve  a  cha- 
raiSler  as  to  (Irike  the  Ipetlators  with  irreiillible  tcrrer: 
men  grown  old  in  the  profcfiion  of  anns  trembled  ; 
the  multitude  ran  out  ;  women  with  child  mifcairied; 
people  imagined  they  faw  In  earned  thofe  terrible  dei- 
ties commiffioned  with  the  vengeance  of  heaven  to  pur- 
fue  and  pmiifii  crimes  upon  earth. 

The  Greeks  had  martial  dances,  which  they  reckoned 
to  be  very  ufefid  for  keeping  up  the  warlike  fpirit  of 
their  youth  ;  but  the  Romans,  though  equally  warlike 
with  the  Greeks,  never  had  any  thing  of  the  kind. — 
This  probably  may  be  owing  to  the  want  of  that  roman- 
tic turn  for  which  the  Greeks  were  fo  rtmarkable.  TIiC- 
Romans  had  no  heroes  among  them,  futh  as  Hercules^ 
Achilles,  or  Ajax  ;  nor  does  the  whole  Roman  hillory 
furnlfh  an  example  of  a  general  tliat  made  war  after  th« 
manner  of  Alexander  the  Great.  Though  tlieir  foldiers 
were  as  valiant  as  evei  the  Greeks  could  pretend  to  be, 
the  objeifk  with  them  was  tlie  honour  of  tbe  republic, 
and  not  their  own  perfonal  praife.  Hence  there  was 
lels  fury,  and  much  more  cool  deliberate  valour,  exerci- 
fed  by  the  Romans,  than  any  other  nation  whatever. 
The  paiHons  of  pride,  refentmcnt,  obftjnacy,  &c.  were 
excited  in  them,  not  by  the  mechanical  means  of  mufic 
and  dancing,  but  by  being  taught  that  It  was  their 
chief  honour  to  fight  for  the  republic— It  does  not  how- 
ever appear,  that  the  Romans  were  at  all  lefs  capable 
of  being  affeiled  In  this  mechanical  manner  than  the 
Greeks.  When  dancing  was  once  introduced,  It  had 
the  very  fame  effefts  at  Rome  as  at  Athens. 

Among  the  Jews,  dancing  feems  to  have  made  a 
part  of  the  religious  worlhip  on  lorae  occafions,  as  we 
learn  from  fome  paffages  in  the  Pfalms,  though  we  do 
not  find  either  that  or  Cnging  jxifitlvely  enjoined  as  a 
divine  precept. —  In  the  Chriftian  churches  mentioned 
In  the  New  Teftanient,  there  is  no  account  of  dancing 
being  introduced  as  an  att  of  worfhip,  though  It  is  cer- 
tain that  h  was  ufed  as  fuch  In  after  ages.  Mr  Gat 
lini  tells  hs,  that  '*  at  Limoges,  not  long  ago,  the 
people  ufed  to  dance  the  round  in  the  ohoir  of  the 
church  which  is  under  the  invocation  of  their  patron 
faint;  and  at  the  end  of  each  pfalm,  inflead  of  the 
Gloria  Patri,  they  fmig  as  follows  :  Si  Marcel,  pray 
Jar  usf  mid  we  wil  dan«(  in  bwour  of -you," — Though 

daf»- 


DAN 


[    66i     ] 


DAN 


dancing  VoulJ  now  be  looked  upon  as  t!.e  liighcl  de- 
~  grtc  of  piiifaiiation  in  a  rcUgiuiib  afTcnibly,  yet  it  is 
certain,  that  tluiiciiin;,  confidercil  as  an  expreffion  of 
joy,  is  no  more  a  jiiofaiulion  than  (inging,  or  than 
fiinplt  fpeaking  ;  nor  can  it  Uc  thought  in  the  Icail 
more  abfurd,  that  a  Chrillian  (hoiild  dain-e  for  ioy  that 
Jifus  Chrift  is  rileii  fioiii  ilie  dc;u3,  than  thi't  David  dan- 
ced before  the  ark  when  it  «as  utunicd  to  hiui  after  a 
long  abfence. 

riato  reduces  tlie  dances  of  the  ancients  to  three 
elafles.  i.  The  nu'h'tary  dain-if.,  whicli  tended  to  make 
the  body  robull,  active,  and  wtll-difpofed  for  all  the 
cxercifes  of  war.  2.  The  di)intlHc  dani:cs,  which  had 
for  tlieir  object  an  agreeable  and  innocent  relaxation 
and  amufement.  3.  The  mediatorial  darces,  which 
were  ill  life  in  expiitions  and  facrificcs. — Of  military 
dances  there  were  two  lortj :  the  i^yinnoj^nliqiie  dance, 
or  the  dance  oi  children  ;  and  the  cnotiltnn,  or  armed 
dance.  The  Spartan^  had  invented  the  lirft  for  an 
early  excitation  of  the  courage  of  their  children,  and 
to  lead  them  on  infenfibly  to  tlic  esercife  of  the  armed 
d^nc.e.  This  childrens  dance  uled  to  be  executed  in 
the  public  place.  It  was  coinpofed  of  two  choirs;  the 
one  of  grown  men,  the  other  ot  children  ;  whence,  be- 
ing cliiefly  dcfigned  for  the  latter,  it  took  its  name. 
They  were  both  of  them  in  a  (late  of  nudity.  The 
choir  of  the  children  regulated  their  motions  by  thofe 
©f  the  men,  and  alt  danced  at  the  fame  time,  finging 
the  poems  of  Thiiles,  Alcman,  and  Dionyfodotus. — 
The  nwpl'iiin  or  pyrrhic  was  danced  by  young  men 
armed  cap-a-pee,  who  executed,  to  the  found  of  the 
flute,  all  the  proper  movements  either  for  attack  or 
for  defence.  It  was  compofed  of  four  parts. — The 
firll,  iht  poriifm  or  footing  ;  which  confided  in  a  quick 
Shifting  motion  of  the  feet,  fuch  as  was  neceffary  for 
overtaking  a  flying  enemy,  or  for  getting  away  from 
him  when  an  overmatch. — The  fecoiid  part  was  the 
xiphifm  ;  this  was  a  kind  of  mock-fight,  in  which  the 
dancers  imitated  all  the  motions  of  combatants  ;  aim- 
rng  a  ilroiie,  darting  a  javtli".,  or  dexteroufly  dodging, 
parrying,  or  avoiding  a  blow  or  ihruil.  Tlie  third 
part,  called  the  tomos,  confifted  in  very  high  leaps  or 
vaultings,  which  the  dancers  frequently  repeated,  for 
the  better  ufiiig  thcmfclves  occafionally  to  leap  over  a 
ditch,  or  fpring  over  a  wall.  The  Mracomos  wae  the 
fourth  and  laft  part  :  this  was  a  fquare  figure,  execu- 
ted by  flow  and  majeftie  movements ;  but  it  is  uncer- 
tain whether  this  was  ev<ry  where  executed  in  the  fame 
manner. 

Of  all  the  Greeks,  the  Spartans  were  thofe  who  mod 
eullivated  the  Pyrrhic  dance.  Athenaeus  relates,  that 
they  had  a  law  by  which  they  were  obliged  to  exercife 
thc'r  children  at  it  from  the  age  of  five  years.  This 
w  SI  like  people  conllantly  retained  the  cuftom  of  accom- 
panying their  dances  with  hymns  and  fongs.  The 
following  was  fnng  for  the  dance  called  trichor'ta,  fald 
to  be  inftituted  by  I.ycurgus,  and  which  had  its  name 
from  its  being  compofed  of  three  choirs,  one  of 
children,  another  of  young  men,  and  the  third  of  old. 
The  eld  men  opened  the  dance,  faying,  "  In  time  pall 
we  were  valiant."  The  young  men  anCwered,  "  We 
are  fo  at  prefent."  "  We  fhall  be  Hill  more  fo  when 
our  time  comes,"  replied  the  chorus  of  chddren.  The 
i^partans  never  danced  but  with  real  arms.  In  procefs 
«f  time,  how<:ver,  ottier  RaUaiM  cant  to  ufc  o&ly  wea- 


pons of  wood  on  fuch  occafions.  Nay,  it  was  only  To 
late  as  the  days  of  Athensus,  who  lived  in  tlie  fecond 
century,  that  the  dancers  of  the  Pyrrhic,  inftead  of 
arms,  canicd  only  flaflcs,  ivy-bound  wands  (thyrfus) 
or  reeds.  But,  evrn  in  Ariltoik's  days,  they  had  be- 
gun to  ufie  thyrfufes  inftead  of  pikes,  and  lighted  torches 
in  lieu  of  javelins  and  fwords.  With  thefe  torches  they 
executed  a  dance  called  the  c',njlagt\iltun  of  the  ■u'vrld. 

Of  the  daucci  for  amufement  and  recreation,  fome 
were  but  finiply  ganibok,  or  fportive  exeiclfes,  which 
had  no  character  of  imitation,  and  of  which  the  greater 
part  cxill  to  this  day.  The  others  were  more  complex, 
more  agieerible,  figured,  and  were  always  accompanied 
with  finging.  Among  the  firft  or  limple  ones  was  the 
ajcoliafmus ;  which  conillicd  in  jumping,  with  one  foot 
onl),  on  bladders  filled  with  air  or  with  wine,  and  rub- 
bed on  the  outfide  with  oil.  The  dypoJhim  was  jumijcd 
with  both  feet  clofe.  The  kyhejhjls  v.  as  what  is  called 
in  this  countr)'  the  fomer/tt — C)f  the  fecond  kind  was 
that  called  the  '■x'ine-pnfs,  of  which  there  is  a  defcription 
in  Loiiginus,  and  the  Ionian  dances :  thefe  lalt,  in  tlie 
original  of  their  inftitution,  had  nothing  but  what 
was  decent  and  modell;  but,  in  time,  their  movements 
came  to  be  fo  depraved,  as  to  be  employed  in  expref- 
iiiig  nothing  but  voluptuoufnefs,  and  even  the  grolfell 
obfcenity. 

Among  the  ancients  there  were  no  feftivals  nor  reli- 
gious aflembhes  but  what  were  accompanied  with  fong^ 
and  dances.     It  was  not  held  pofiible  to  celebrate  any 
myileiy,  or  to  be  initiated,  without  the  intervention  of 
thefe  two  arts.    In  fhort,  they  were  looked  upon  to  be 
fo  elfential  in  thefe  kinds  of  ceremonies,  that  to  exprefs 
the  crime  of  fuch  as  were  guilty  of  revealing  the  facrcd 
myfterics,  they  employed  the  word  kheijiie,  "  to  be  out 
of  the  dance."     The  mod  ancient  of  thefe  religious 
dances  is  the  Bacchk ;  which  was  not  only  confecrated 
to  Bacchus,  but  to  all  the  deities  whofe  fellival  was  ce-- 
kbrated  with  a  kind  of  enthufiafm.     The  moll  grave 
and  majcllic  was  the  hyporchanatlc  i  it  was  executed  to. 
the  lyre,  and  accompanied  with  the  voice. — At  his  re- 
turn  from  Crete,  Thefeus  inftituted  a  dance  at  which 
he  himfelf  affilled  at  the  head  of  a  numerous  and  fplen- 
did  band  of  youth  round  the  altat  of  Apollo.     The 
dance  was  compofed  of  three  parts;  tWJlrophe,  the  an- 
tljhophe,  and  thcjlathnary.      In  the  ftrophe,  the  move- 
ments were  from  the  right  to  the  left;  in  the  antiftro- 
phe,  from  the  left  to  the  right,     in  the  flationary,  they 
danced  before  the  ahar;  fo  that  the  flationary  did  ntit 
mean  an  abfulute  paufe   or  rcil,  but  only  a  more  flow 
or  grave  movement.      Plutarch   is  pcrfuaded,  that  in^ 
this  dance  there  is  a  profound  myflery.   He  thinks,  that 
by  the  ftrophe  is  indicated  the  motion  of  the  world  from 
call  to  well;  by  ih^  antiilrophe,  the  motion  of  the  pla- 
nets from  the  weft  to  the  eaft  ;  and  by  the  Itatioiiary, 
the  liability  of  the  earth.   To  this  dance  Thtfeus  gavij 
the  name  of  geranos,   or  "  the  crane;"  becaufe  tlie  fi- 
gures which  charafterifed  it  bore  a  refemblancc  lo  tht/e 
dcfcribed  by  cranes  in  their  flight. 

With  regard  to  the  modern  pra<aacc  of  dancing  as  an 
art,  tliere  are  few  diiedions  that  can  be  of  much  fervice. 
The  following  is  extracted  from  Mr  Galliui's  defcrip- 
tion of  the  feveral  Heps  or  movements. 

"  The  dancing  (fays  he)  is  generally  on  a  theatre, 
or  in  a  falcon  or  room.  At  the  theatre  there  are  four 
pan*  t«  b«  confidered.     j.   The  neareft  front  to  the 

i'pedators. 


nanc« 


DAN 

2.  and  3.  The  two  fides  or  wings. 


Dance.     fpeAators 
"""V^"'  furtheft  front  from  the  fpedators, 

"  In  a  faloon  or  room,  the  place  in  which  are  the 
fpeftators  decides  the  appellation  refpeftively  to  them 
of  right  and  left.  The  dancer  ihould  place  himfelf  in 
as  advantageous  a  point  of  view  to  them  as  poffible. 

"  In  the  dance  itfelf,  there  are  to  be  diftinguifhed, 
the  attitude  of  the  body,  the  figure,  the  pofitions,  the 
bends,  the  rifings  or  leaps,  the  fteps,  the  cabriole,  the 
fallings,  the  Aides,  the  turns  of  the  body,  the  cadences. 

"  The  atntude  of  the  body  requires  the  prefenting 
one's  felf  in  the  moll  graceful  manner  to  the  company. 

"  The  fgure  is  to  follow  the  track  prefcribcd  to  the 
fteps  in  the  dance. 

"  The  pofition  is  that  of  the  varied  attitudes,  which 
muft  be  at  once  ftriking  and  eafy,  as  alfo  of  the  diflfer- 
ent  exertions  of  the  legs  and  feet  in  dancing. 

"  The  bends  are  inflexions  of  the  knees,  of  the  body, 
«f  the  head,  or  the  arms. 

"  The  r'lfings  are  the  contrail  to  the  bends,  the  ex- 
tenfion  of  the  knee.  One  of  thefe  two  motions  necef- 
farily  precedes  the  other. 

"  The  Jlcp  is  the  motion  by  the  foot  or  feet  from 
one  place  to  another. 

"  The  leap  is  executed  by  fpringing  up  into  the  air; 
it  begins  with  a  bend,  and  proceeds  with  a  quick  ex- 
tenfion  of  the  legs,  fo  that  both  feet  quit  the  ground. 

"  The  cabriole  is  the  eroding,  or  cutting  of  capers, 
duiing  the  leap,  before  the  return  of  the  feet  to  the 
ground. 

"  The  falling  is  the  return  of  the  feet  to  the  ground, 
by  the  natural  gravitation  of  the  body. 

"  The  Jlide  is  the  aftion  of  moving  the  foot  along 
the  ground  without  quitting  it. 

"  The  turn  is  the  motion  of  the  body  towards  either 
fide,  or  quite  round. 

"  The  cadence  is  the  knowledge  ef  the  different 
meafures,  and  of  the  times  of  movement  the  moft 
marked  in  the  mufic. 

"  The  tract  is  the  line  marked  by  the  dance  :  it 
may  be  either  ftraight  or  curve,  and  is  fufceptible  of  all 
the  infleftions  correfpondent  to  the  various  defigns  of 
the  compofer. — There  are  the  right,  the  diametral 
line,  the  ciicular  line,  and  the  oblique  line.  The  rig/ji 
line  is  that  which  goes  lengthwife,  reckoning  from  one 
end  of  the  room  towards  the  other.  The  diametral  Vine 
is  acrofs  the  room,  from  one  fide  to  the  other.  The 
circular  line  is  waving,  or  undulatorj',  from  one  place 
to  another.  The  obligue  line  proceeds  obliquely  from 
one  quarter  of  the  room  towards  another. — Each  of 
thefe  lines  may  direftly  or  feparately  form  the  dancer's 
track,  diverfified  with  fteps  and  pofitions. 

"  The  regular  figure  is  when  two  or  more  dancers 
move  in  contrary  direftions  ;  that  is  to  fay,  that  when 
one  moves  towards  the  right,  the  other  moves  to  the 
left.— The  irregular  line  Is  when  the  couples  figuring 
together  are  both  on  the  fame  fide. 

"  Commonly  the  man  gives  the  right  hand  to  the 
lady  in  the  beginning  or  ending  of  the  dance,  as  we 
fee  in  the  minuet,  louvre,  &c. 

"  When  a  greater  number  of  dancers  figure  together, 
they  are  to  execute  the  figure  agreeably  to  the  compo- 
fition  of  the  dance,  with  fpecial  attention  to  keep  an 
eye  conftantly  on  the  partner. — When,  in  any  given 
dance,  the  dancers  have  danced  for  feme  time  in  the 


[    662    ]  DAN 

4.  The     fame  place,  the  trmi  is  only  to  be  confidered  as  the 


Han 


condutlor  of  the_y?f'y!).f,  but  not  of  the_/ij-w^'./  but  when  ' 
the  dance  continues,    without  being  confined  to  the 
fame  place,  then  the  tmci  mull  be  confidered  as  the 
conduttor  both  of  the  fteps  and  of  the  figure. 

"  Now,  to  obferve  the  figure,  the  dancer  muft  have 
placed  himfelf  at  the  beginning  of  the  tradl  upon 
which  he  is  to  dance,  and  comprehend  the  figure  before 
he  himfelf  begins  it.  He  is  to  remark  and  conceive 
whether  the  figure  is  right,  diametral,  circular,  or  ob- 
lique ;  if  it  is  progreflive  or  rctrogreflTive,  or  towards 
the  right  or  left.  He  fliould  have  the  air  played  or 
fung  to  him,  to  underftand  the  movement. — Where  the 
tracks  crolsone  another,  the  fteps  of  each  of  the  couples 
muft  leave  a  fufficient  diftance  between  them  not  to 
confufe  the  figure. 

*'  There  are  commonly  reckoned  ten  kinds  of  pofi- 
tions, which  are  divided  into  true  d,nAfalfe,  five  each 

There  are  three  principal  parts  of  the  foot  to  be  obfer- 
ved ;  the  toes,  the  heel,  and  the  ancle. 

"  The  true  pofitions  are  when  the  two  feet  are  in  a 
certain  uniform  regularity,  the  toes  turned  equally  out- 
wards.— The  falle  are  divided  into  regular  and  irregu- 
lar. They  differ  from  the  true,  in  that  the  toes  are  eitlier 
both  turned  inwards ;  or  if  the  toes  of  one  foot  are 
turned  outwards,  the  others  are  turned  inward. 

"  In  the  firft  of  the  true  pofitions,  the  heels  of  the 
two  feet  are  clofe  together,  fo  that  they  touch  ;  the 
tots  being  turned  out.  In  the  fccond,  the  two  feet  are 
open  in  the  fame  line,  fo  that  the  diftance  between  the 
two  heels  is  precifely  the  length  of  one  foot.  In  the 
third,  the  heel  of  one  foot  is  brought  to  the  ancle 
of  the  other,  or  feems  to  lock  in  with  it.  In  the  fourth, 
the  two  feet  are  the  one  before  the  other  a  foot's  length 
diftance  between  the  two  heels,  which  are  on  the  fame 
line.  In  the  fifth,  the  two  feet  are  acrofs,  the  one 
before  the  other  ;  fo  that  the  heel  of  one  foot  is  direct- 
ly oppofite  to  the  toes  of  the  other. 

"  In  the  firft  of  the  falfe  pofitions,  the  toes  of  both 
feet  are  turned  inwards,  fo  that  they  touch,  the  heels 
being  open.  The  fecond  is,  when  the  feet  are  afunder 
at  a  foot's  diftance  between  the  toes  of  each,  which  are 
turned  inward,  the  heels  being  on  a  line.  The  third 
is,  when  the  toes  of  one  foot  are  turned  outwards,  the 
other  inwards,  fo  that  the  two  feet  form  a  parallel. 
The  fourth  is,  when  the  toes  of  the  two  feet  are  turn- 
ed inwards;  but  the  toes  of  one  foot  are  brought  nearer 
the  ancle  of  the  other.  The  fifth  is,  when  the  toes  of 
the  two  feet  are  turned  inwards,  but  the  heel  of  one 
foot  is  oppofite  to  the  toes  of  the  other. 

"  There  are  mixed  pofitions,  compofed  of  the  true 
and  falfe  in  combination ;  which  admit  of  fuch  an  infi- 
nite variety,  and  are  in  their  nature  fo  unfufceptible 
of  defcription  by  words,  that  it  is  only  the  fight  of  the 
performance  that  can  give  any  tolerable  idea  of  them. 

"  Of  the  bends  of  the  knee  there  are  two  kinds ;  the 
one  Jimple,  the  oth^r  forced.  The  fimple  bend  is  an  in- 
flexion of  the  knees  without  moving  the  heel,  and  is  ex- 
ecuted with  the  foot  flat  to  the  ground.  The  forced 
bend  is  made  on  the  toes  with  more  force  and  lower. 

*'  Much  is  to  be  obferved  on  the  head  oifltps.  Firft, 
not  to  make  any  movement  before  having  put  the  body 
in  an  upright  pofture,  firm  on  the  haunches. 

•'  Begin  with  the  inflexion  of  the  knee  and  thigh; 
advance  one  leg  foremoil ;  with  the  whole  foot  on  the 

giound, 


DAN 


[     (>^2>     ] 


DAN 


ground,  laying  the  llrefs  of  the  body  on  the  advanced 

•'  There  are  feme  who  begin  the  ftep  by  the  point 
of  the  toes  ;  but  that  has  an  air  of  theatrical  adeifta- 
tion.  Nothing  can  be  more  noble  than  a  graceful  eafe 
and  dignity  of  ftep.  The  quantity  of  fleps  ufed  in 
dancing  are  almoft  innumerable  ;  they  are  neverthelefs 
reducible  under  five  denominations,  which  may  ferve 
well  enough  to  give  a  general  idea  of  the  different 
movements  that  may  be  made  by  the  leg,  viz.  the  di- 
rect ftep,  the  open  ftep,  the  circular  ftep,  the  twifted 
ftep,  and  the  cut*  ftep. 

"  The  dlrea  ftep  is  when  the  foot  goes  upon  aright 
line,  either  forwards  or  backwards. 

The  open  ftep  is  when  the  legs  open.  Of  this  ftep 
there  are  three  kinds :  one  when  they  open  outwards ; 
another,  when,  defcribing  a  kind  of  circle,  they  form 
an  in-knee'd  figure  ;  a  third,  when  they  open  fide- 
ways  ;  this  is  a  fort  of  right  ftep,  becaufe  the  figure  is 
in  a  right  line. 

"  The  found  ftep,  is  when  the  foot,  in  its  mo- 
tion, makes  a  circular  figure,  either  inwards  or  out- 
wards. 

"  The  ttvijlsd  ftep,  or  pas  torttlle,  is  when  the  foot 
in  its  motion  turns  in  and  out.  There  arc  three  kinds 
of  this  ftep  ;  one  forwards,  another  backwards,  the 
third  fidelong. 

"  The  cut  ftep  is  when  one  leg  or  foot  comes  to  ftrike 
againft  the  other.  There  are  alfo  three  forts  of  this 
ftep  ;  backwards,  forwards,  and  fidelong. 

"  The  fteps  may  be  accompanied  with  bendings, 
rifings,  leaps,  cabrioles,  fallings,  Hidings,  the  foot  in 
the  air,  the  tip-toe,  the  reft  on  the  heel,  quarter-turns, 
half-turns,  three-quarter  turns,  and  whole-turns. 

"  There  may  be  praftifed  three  kinds  of  bends,  or 
finkings,  in  the  fteps  ;  w's.  bending  before  the  ftep 
proceeds,  in  the  aft  of  ftepping,  and  at  the  lail  of  tlie 
fteps. 

"  The  beginning  or  initial  fink-pace  is  at  the  firft 
fetting  oft,   on  advancing  the  leg. 

"  The  bend  in  the  a6t  of  ftepping  continues  the 
tnarch  or  walk. 

."  The  final  fink-pace  clofes  the  march. 

"  The  rifing  is  juft  the  reverfe  of  the  bend,  or  fnik- 
pace,  which  (hall  have  preceded  it. 

"  Some  great  mafters  in  the  art  of  dancingj  having 
obferved  that  mufic,  which  is  infeparable  from  it,  was 
capable  of  being  preferved  and  conveyed  by  the  mufi- 
cal  charafters,  imagined  by  analogy,  that  llie  like  ad- 
vantage could  be  procured  to  the  compofition  of  dan- 
ces. Upon  this  plan  they  attempted  what  is  called 
the  chorography,  an  art  which  they  fuppofe  was  either 
utterly  unknown  to  the  ancients,  or  not  tranfmitted  to 
as  from  them. 

"  It  may  indeed  be  eafily  allowed,  that  the  tracker 
figure  of  a  dance  may  be  determined  by  written  or  en- 
graved lines ;  but  thofe  lines  will  neceflarily  appear  fo 
perplexing,  fo  intricate,  fo  difficult,  if  not  impuflible 
to  feize,  in  their  various  relations,  that  they  are  only 
fit  to  difguft  and  difcourage,  without  the  poifibility  of 
their  conveying  a  fatisfaftory  or  retainable  inftruftion. 
—Thence  it  is,  that  the  article  of  Chorography  in  the 
French  Encyclop'tdte  is  univerfaJly  exploded  as  unintelli- 
gible and  ufelefii :  though  nothing  more  than  an  ele- 


mentary indication  of  the  art;  andanexpianafion,  fuch     Ban«. 
as  it  is,  of  fome  of  the  tcchnic.J  terms  of  it."  »    ' 

Stdge-DANCEi.  The  Greeks  were  the  firil  who  uni- 
ted the  dance  to  their  tragedies  and  comedies  ;  not  in- 
deed as  making  part  of  thofe  fpedacles,  but  merely  as 
an  acccfTary. 

The  Romans,  as  ufual,  copied  after  the  Greeks; 
but  in  the  reign  of  Auguftcis  they  left  their  inftruttors 
far  behind  them.  Two  very  extraordinary  men  made 
their  appearance  at  that  time  :  they  invented  a  new 
fpecics  of  entertainment,  and  carried  it  to  an  aftonjfti- 
ing  degree  of  pcrfedion.  Nothing  was  then  talked  of 
but  the  wondertul  talents'and  amazing  performances  of 
Pylades  and  Bathylus,  who  were  the  fiift  to  introduce 
among  the  Romans  what  the  Fiench  call  tlie  balld  d'ac- 
tioti,  wherein  the  performer  is  both  aftor  and  dancer. 

Pylades  undertook  the  hard  taflc  of  reprefenting, 
with  the  affiftance  of  the  dance  alone,  ftrong  and  pa- 
thetic fituations.  He  fucceeded  perhaps  beyond  his 
own  expectation,  and  may  be  called  the  father  of  that 
ftyle  of  dancing  which  is  known  to  us  by  the  name  of 
grave  or/erioui  parilomime. 

Bathylus  an  Alexandrian,  and  a  freedman  of  Me- 
cenas,  took  upon  himfclf  to  reprefent  fuch  fubjedts  a* 
required  a  certain  liveliflefs  and  agility.  He  was  hand- 
fome  in  his  perfou  ;  and  the  two  great  fcourges  of 
Roman  follies,  Perfius  and  efpecialiy  Juvenal,  fpeale 
of  him  as  the  gallant  of  every  woman  in  Rome.  The 
latter,  in  his  cynic  ftyle,  even  goes  fo  far  as  to  fay, 
that  when  Bathylus  performed  the  dance  called,  after 
the  name  of  a  celebrated  female  dancer,  Chiromerws-Leda^ 
the  graveft  matron  was  turned  off'  her  guard,  and  the 
young  virgin  longed  for  the  dancer's  addreffes. 

Nature  had  been  exceflively  partial  to  thofe  two 
men.  They  were  endowed  with  genius,  and  all  the 
exterior  charms  that  could  captivate  the  eye.  By  their 
ftudy,  apphcation,  and  a  deiire  to  eftablilh  a  lafting' 
reputation,  they  difplayed  to  the  greateft  advantage 
all  the  refources  which  the  art  of  dancing  could  fupply. 
Thefe,  like  two  phenomena,  difappeared,  and  never 
did  the  world  fee  "  their  Jike  again."  Government 
withdrew  its  proteftion,  the  art  gradually  funk  into 
obfcuricy,  and  became  even  entirely  forgotten  on  the 
accelfion  of  Trajanus  to  the  empire. 

Tlius  buried  with  the  other  arts  in  entire  oblivion,- 
dancing  remained  unciJtivated  till  about  the  15th  cen- 
tury, when  ballets  were  revived  in  Italy  at  a  magnifi- 
cent entertainment  given  by  a  nobleman  of  Lombardy 
at  Tortona  on  account  of  the  marriage  between  Galeas- 
Duke  of  Milan  and  IfabeUa  of  Arragon.  Every  re- 
fource  that  poetry,  mufic,  dancing,  and  machinery 
could  fupply,  was  employed  and  exhaufted  on  the  oc- 
cafion.  The  defcription  given  of  fo  fuperb  an  enter- 
tainment excited  the  admiration  of  all  Europe,  and  ex- 
cited the  emulation  of  feveral  men  of  genius,  who  im- 
proved the  hint  to  introduce  among  their  cauntrymea. 
a  kind  of  fpeftacle  equally  pleafing  and  novel 

It  would  feem,  however,  that  at  firft  the  women  had 
no  fiiare  in  the  public  or  theatrical  dance  ;  at  leaft  we 
do  not  fee  them  mentioned  in  the  various  entertainments- 
given  at  the  opera  in  Paris  till  the  21ft  of  January 
1 68 1,  when  the  then  Dauphinefs,  the  Princefs  of 
Conti,  and  fome  other  ladies  of  the  firft  diftinftion.  itt 
the  court  of  Louis  XIV.  performed  a  ballet  with  tha- 
3  e^eiat 


B    A    N 


664    1 


DAN 


l^a"M.  -oyera  Called  /-f  Triomj>h  d^  I'Jmeur,  'Vnis  union  of 
""V-"-'  the  two  fexes  fcrvcd  to  enliven  and  render  the  fpedla^le 
iBort  pieafiiig  and  far  more  brilliant  than  it  ever  was  at 
any  other  period.  It  waa  received  with  fa  mvich  ap« 
pkufe,  that  on  the  16th  of  May  following,  when  the 
fame  opera  was  aCled  in  Parii  at  tl>e  theatre  of  the  Pa- 
iais  Royal,  it  was  thought  indifpenfdble  for  the  fliccefs 
uf  that"  kind  of  entertainment  to  introduce  female  dan- 
cers. They  have  continued  ever  fince  to  be  the  prin- 
cipal fupport  of  the  opera. 

The  dance  is  now  in  fuch  commendatiorii  that,  par- 
ticularly in  France,  the  opera-houfe  fecms  rather  an 
academy  for  dancing  than  calculated  fur  the  reprefen- 
titlon  of  lyric  poems.  The  difguiting  and  immoderate 
length  of  their  recitatives  is  one  of  the  chief  caufes  of 
that  general  tafte  for  dancing  which  prevails  amongit 
thera.  A  wit  being  afted  one  day  what  could  be  done 
to  keep  up  an  o}«;i-a  threatened  with  a  molt  complete 
damnation?  "Do!  (fays  lie);  why,  lengthen  the 
dances  and  Aorten  the  petticoats."  So  evident  it  i?, 
that  finging,  though  apparently  the  chief  puipofe  of 
an  opera,  is  by  no  means  the  mod;  pkafiug  part  of  the 
entertainment  for  the  fpedators. 

Thus,  what  was  at  firft  introduced  as  a  mere  accef- 
fary  to  the  muljcal  performani>. ,  became  in  protefs  of 
time  its  only  fupport  ;  and  this  circumflance  excited 
the  emulation  of  feveral  eminent  ballet-mailers.  The 
art,  however,  of  compofing  thofe  grand  dances,  which 
are  now  fo  much  admired,  was  for  many  years  in  a 
ftate  of  infancy,  tdl  Monfieur  Novirre  ftept  forth  and 
gave  it  that  degree  of  perfeClion  which  it  fcems  inipof- 
tble  to  exceed.  This  celebrated  ballet-mailer  and  per- 
former, in  a  work  lately  publiilied,  has  with  great 
elegance  and  ingenuity  delineated  the  nature,  objects, 
and  powers  of  dancing,  enumerated  the  proper  requi- 
iites  to  give  it  cfl'cCl,  and  ihown  how  much  it  may  be 
ennobled  by  an  acquaintance  with  the  kindred  arts. 

Ballets,  he  obfervcs,  have  hitherto  been  the  faint 
■flcetch  only  of  what  they  may  be  one  day.  An  art 
entirely  fubfervicnt,  as  this  is,  to  tafte  and  genius,  may 
receive  daily  variation  and  improvements.  Hiitory, 
painting,  mythology,  poetry,  all  join  to  raife  it  from 
that  obfcurity  in  which  it  lies  buried  ;  and  it  is  truly 
furprihng,  that  compofers  have  hitherto  difdained  fo 
niany  valuable  lefources. 

According  \o  our  author,  the  reafon  why  this  art 
has  remained  fo  long  in  its  infancy,  is  becaufe  its  ef- 
fects have  been  rellrained  to  the  ttanfitory  ones  of 
fire-works  calculated  only  to  pleafe  the  eye  ;  and  it 
never  wss  fuppofed  to  have  powers  fuificient  to  fpeak 
to  the  heart  :  whereas  it  may  vie,  he  fays,  with  the 
bell  dramatic  pieces,  prove  equally  interelling,  and 
captivate  the  fpedlator  by  the  charms  of  the  moll  com- 
plete iUufion. 

If  ballets,  therefore,  fays  he,  "  are  for  the  moll 
part  uninterefting  and  uniformly  dull ;  if  they  fail  in  the 
characltrlillc  expreflion  which  conftitutes  their  effence, 
the  dcfcft  does  not  originate  from  the  art  itfclf,  but 
fhould  be  afcribed  to  the  trtllls.  Arc  then  the  latter 
to  be  told,  that  dancing  is  an  imitative  art  \  I  am 
indeed  inclined  to  think  that  they  know  it  not,  fince 
we  daily  fee  the  generality  of  compofers  facriiice  the 
beauties  of  the  dance,  and  give  up  the  graceful  naivclS 
of  fentiment,  to  become  the  fervile  copiefts  of  a  cer- 
uin  number  of  figures,   known   snd  hackneyed  for 


above  a  century  ;   fo  that  the   ballets  of  Phaeton,  or    D»nc*. 
of  any  ancient  opera,  revived  by  a  modern  compofei,^~~''v~~' 
would  prove  fo  very  funilar  to  former  ones,  that  one 
would  think  they  have  binderguuc  no  alterations,  and 
are  the  fame  i^i  every  ilcj). 

"  Balltt-mafters  ihouid  confult  the  produftlona  of 
the  moll  eminent  painters.  This  would  bring  them  ^ 
nearer  to  nature,  and  Induee  them  to  avoid,  as  often 
aspof^ible,  that  fyramctry  of  figures,  which,  by  repeat- 
ing the  objfeft,  prefent  two  diifereat  piclures  on  ine 
and  the  farr.e  canvas. 

"  Thofe  fymmetrlcal  figures  from  right  to  left,  ac- 
cording to  my  judgement,  are  fupportable  only  in  the 
entrees,  which  are  notmeant  to  exprefs  anything  in  par- 
ticular, but  are  only  calcuLited  to  afford  lome  relief  to 
the  principal  dancers.  They  may  be  introduced  in  a 
general  dance  at  the  conclufiou  of  an  entertainment, 
they  may  alfo  be  admitted  in  the  pas  of  four,  fix, 
&c.  though  in  ray  opinhm  it  be  ridiculous  even  in 
this  cafe  to  prefer  the  difplay  of  boddy  llrength  and 
agility  to  expreihon  and  lentiment.  But  fuch  figure* 
mult  give  way  to  nature  in  what  we  term  bidlds  d'ac- 
ticn.  An  inllance,  though  perhaps  not  very  forcible, 
may  ferve  to  elucidate  and  fupport  my  argument. 

"  At  the  iuddcn  and  unexpected  appearance  of 
fome  young  fauns,  a  troop  ot  nymphs  take  them- 
fclves  to  flight  with  equal  affright  and  precipitation. 
The  former  are  in  purfuit  of  the  latter  with  that 
eagernefs  which  the  very  hope  of  pleafure  can  in- 
fpire.  Now  they  ftop  to  obferve  what  imprcffion  they 
have  made  on  the  nymphs ;  thefe  at  the  lame  time, 
and  for  a  fimilar  reafon,  check  their  career :  witli 
fear  they  furvty  their  purfureis,  endeavour  to  guefs  at 
their  intentions,  and  provide  for  a  retreat  to  forae 
fpot,  where  they  may  rclt  feeure  from  the  dangers 
that  threaten  them.  Both  troops  now  joi«i,  the 
nymphs  refill,  defend  themfelves,  and  at  lalt  cffcit  tlieit 
eicape  with  no  lef>  fwiftncfs  than  dexterity. 

"  This  I  call  a  bufy  adtive  foene  in  which  the 
dance,  as  it  were,  (hould  fpeak  with  energy.  Hete 
lludled  and  fymmetrlcal  figures  cannot  be  introduced 
without  a  manifeil  violation  of  the  truth,  without  de* 
ftroyiiig  the  n.dcs  of  probability,  and  without  weaken- 
ing the  aftlon  a^nd  lefl'ening  its  effedt. — This  fcene 
{hould  be  confpicuous;  lor  its  beautiful  diforder,  and 
the  art  of  the  compofer,  mull  here  be  the  handmaid  of 
nature. 

"  A  ballet-mafter,  devoid  of  tafle  and  difcernment, 
will  make  of  this  a  mechanical  piece  of  dancing,  and 
thus  deprive  it  of  the  cffedl  it  was  calculactd  to  pro- 
duce for  want  of  entering  into  the  fplrit  of  it.  Ills 
nymphs  and  fauns  will  be  aiTanged  upon  a  pji-allel  line, 
he  will  place  the  former  in  attitudes  aukwardly  uni- 
form, and  infill  on  the  latter  holding  up  their  arras  to 
an  even  altitude  ;  rather  than  deviate  from  the  beaten 
path,  and  the  antique  rules  of  opera  dancing,  he  will 
cautioufly  avoid  to  have,  on  the  right  and  left,  hU 
nymphs  placed  in  unequal  numbers,  but  will  rediici'. 
a  fcene  of  aciion,  which  ought  to  be  fupported  with 
fpirlt,  to  an  exercife  equally  affeCled  and  uuinterell- 
ing. 

"  Perhaps  fome  ill-difpofed  critics,  fo  far  ftrangers 
to  the  art  as  not  to  judge  of  it  from  its  various  effects, 
will  maintain,  that  the  above  fcene  fiiould  prefent  only 
two  different  cbjccls,  the  one  pourtrayed  in  the  love- 

Tick 


DAN  [     ^65     ]  DAN 

Dance,    fak  fauns,  the   other  expreflVd  by  the  affright  of  the  Phrynicus,  one  of  the  oldeft  tragedy  writers,  fay,  l!tat     Haicf. 

"•V— ~  nymphs.     But  how  many  fliadcs  may  ferve  to  embcl-  he  could  find  in  oui  ballet  as  many  ligurcs  as'thc  fea' 

lilh    thofe    pirtnres  ?     how  varied  may  be  the  ftrokes  rolls  waves  in  a  high  ivinter  tide. 

of  tlie  pencil  ?  how  opjjofite   tlie   lights  ?  and  what  a  A  well  compofcd  ballet,  therefore,  may  do  without 

number  of  tints   ou^ht  to   be  employed  in  order  to  the  afhilance  ot  words  :  ^T.  Novtrre  even  remarks,  that 

draw  from  this  twofold  fituation  a  multiplicity  of  ima-  thefe  only  ferve  to  weaken  the  ad\ion,  and  p.-^rtly  deft'oy 

ges,  each  more  lively  and  fpirited  than  the  other.'  itscifcas.      He  has  no  opinion  of  a  pantomime  which, 

"  As  all  men  (hare  the  faipe  paffions,  and  thefe  dif-  in  order  to  be  underllood,  miift  borrov,'  the  h^!p  of  a 

fer  in  proportion  to  their  I'cnfations  and  feelings,  they  verbal  explanation.     "  Any  ballet  whatever  (fays  he), 


may  therctorc  be  worked  upon  more  or  lefs  powerful- 
ly in  proportion  as  they  manifeft  themfelves  outward- 
ly with  more  oi-  lefs  force  and  impetuofity.  This 
principle  once  acknowledged,  and  nature  indeed  in- 
forces  it  daily,  it  would  certainly  be   more  to  the  pur- 


dellitiite  of  intrigue,  aftion,  and  intereft,  difplayiiij 
uothiiig  more  than  the  mechanicnl  beautits  of  the  art, 
and,  though  decorated  with  a  pompous  title,  is  unintel- 
ligible thioughout,  is  not  unlike  thofe  portrsits  and 
pitlurts  to  whicii  the  painters   of  old    fubfcribed  the 


'  pofe  to  diverlify  the  attitudes  and  vary  the  exprelfion  ;  names  of  the  perfonages  and  aftion  they  meant  to  re- 

for   then   the    pantomime    attion    of  each    perfonnge  prefent :   becaufe  they  were  iniperfcft  in   point  o(  iraJ- 

vvould  be  diveiled   of  a  difgufting  uniformity.     The  tation,  the  fituations  weakly  expiefle<i,  the  outlines  in- 

truth  of  imitation  and  the  ikill  of  the  painter  would  correft,  and  the  cohiurs  unfeemly. 

confpicuoufly  appear  in  giving  a  different  afpecl  to  "  'When  dancers  fllall  feel,  afid,  Proteus  like,  Irant- 
the  features,  fome  of  them  exprcflive  of  a  kind  of  fe-  form  themfelves  into  various  fliapes  to  exj)rers  to  the 
rocity,  others  betraying  lefs  eagerncfs,  thefe  calling  a  hfe  the  confliet  of  pafliDns  ;  when  their  features,  their 
more  tender  look;  and  to  the  reft,  the  languidiing  very  looks,  (hall  fpeak  their  inward  feeling;  ;  when,  ex- 
air  of  vohipluoufnels.  The  (ketch  of  this  firll  pifture  tending  their  arms  beyond  the  narrow  circle  prefcri- 
naturally  leads  to  the  ciimpolition  of  the  fecond :  here  bed  by  the  rigid  lules  of  pedantry,  and  with  equal 
fome  nymphs  appear  divided  between  fear  and  defirc  ;  grace  and  judgment  giving  them  a  fuller  fcope,  they 
there  fome  others  expiefs  by  the  contraft  of  their  at-  (hall  by  proper  fituaiions  defcribe  the  gradual  and  fuc- 
titudes  the  varioi\s  emnti<ms  of  their  foul.  Some  ceihve  progrefs  of  the  pafTions  ;  when,  in  fine,  thry 
are  more  fcornful  than  their  companions,  whilft  others  call  good  fenfe  and  genius  to  the  affiftance  of  their  art; 
betray  a  curioiity  equal  to  their  fears.  This  enfemble  then  they  may  expctt  to  dillinguifh  themfelves  ;  cx- 
gives  life  to  the  whole  piclure,  and  is  the  more  plea-  planatory  fpecches  will  become  ufekfs  ;  a  mute  but 
fmg  that  it  is  perfectly  conliftent  with  nature.  From  powerful  eloquence  will  be  fubftituted  to  much  better 
this  expoinion,  you  will  not  heiitate  to  agree  with  me,  efTcft  ;  each  motion  will  be  a  fentence  ;  every  attitude 
that  fymmetry,  the  offspring  of  art  itfelf,  (Iiould  never  will  pouitray  actuation;  each  gtflure  convey  a  thought, 
find  place  iir  the  biillets  d' attion.  and  each  glance  a  new  fentimcnt  :  every  part  will 
•'  I  fliall  beg  leave  to  enquire  of  all  thofe  who  rea-  pleafe,  becaufe  the  wliole  will  be  a  true  and  faithful 
fon  from   habitual  preJHdice,   whether  they  will  look  imitation  of  nature." 

for  their  favourite  fymmetry  in  a  lierd  (»f  (heep  flying  A  ballet,  in  whatever  ftyle  it   may   be,   (hould,  ac 

from  the  wolf,  or  amongft   wretched   peafants  leaving  cording  to  A  rlftotle,  be  compoftd,  as  well  as  poetry, 

their    huts     and      lields,     in    order  to    (Irelter   them-  of  two  different  parts,  which   he  calls  parts  of  quality 

felves  from   the   fury  of  a  party  of  enemies  !■     By   no  and  parts  of  quantity.      Nothing  exiHs  in  nature  with- 

means.      But  the  art  lies  in  concealing  jrt  itfelf;   my  out  matter,   form,  and  figure  ;   the  ballet  therefore  be- 

aira  is  by  no  means  to  introduce   diforder   and  confu-  Comes  a   mere   noneutitv,  if  it    be  deficient  in  any  of 

Jion  ;   on  the  contrary,  I  will  have   regularity  even  in  thofe  efTtntial  parts,  which  mark  and  conflitute  the  bc- 

irregularity.     AVhat  I  molt   infill  upon  is,  the  iiitriK  ing  of  any  one  thing  anim.ate  or  inanir.iate.      The  mat- 

dueing  of  well  concerted   groups,    lituations  forcibly  ter  here  is  the  fubjcft  intended  for  reprefentation  ;   its 

expreffed,  but  never  beyond  nature,  and  above  all,  a  form  con  (ill*  in  the  ingenious  diiti-ibutioii  of  the  ]ilan  ; 

certain  eafe  in  the  compofition,  which  betrays  not  the  and  the  various  comptmnding  parts  conflitute  its  fi"ijre. 

labour  of  the  compcfer.      As  forthe  figures,  they  are  Form  therefore  contains  the  parts  of  quality,  and  the 

likely  to  pleafe  only  in  proportion  as  they  quickly  fuc-  extent  the  parts  of  quantity. 

ceed  each  other,  and  are  dtvifed  with  equal  tafle  and  Thus  it  appears,  that   ballets  are   in   fome  degree 


elegance." 

A  haUet  perfeifl  in  all  its  parts,  our  author  proceeds 
to  oblcrve,  is  a  pidure,  drawn  from  life,  of  the  mau- 
iiei'S,  drefl'es,  ceremonies,  and  cufloms  of  all  nations. 
It    mull    therelore    be    a    complete    pantomime,    and 


fubjeel  to  the  rules  of  poetical  compofition.  They, 
ueverthelefs,  diff.-r  from  tragedies  and  comedies,  in 
that  the  former  are  not  fubjcdl  to  the  three  unities  of 
time,  place,  and  aftion  :  Yet  they  require  an  lii.ity  of 
plot,    in  order  that  the  various  fceres  mry  meet  and 


through  the  eyes  fpeak,  as  it  were,   to   the  very  foul  end  on  the  fame  point. — The  ballet,  therefore,  mav  be 

of  the   fpe&itor.      If  it  wants  cxpreflion,  if  it  be  tie-  termed  the  bi'otlier  of  the  drama;  though  not  leilr'ain- 

frcient  in  point  of  fituation  and  fcenery,  it  degenerates  ed  to  its  ftrifter  rules:   whicli  only   ferve  to  cramp  the 

into  a  fpeclacle  equally  flat  and  monotone.  imagination,  check  its  flight,  and  confine  genius  ;   and 

According  to  Plutarch,  a  ballet  is,  if  the  exprelSon  if  adhered  to,  mufl  fet  afide  all  thought  of  conipctition 

may  be  allowed,  a  mute  converfation,  or  a  fpeaking  of  ballets,  by  depriving  them  of  their  chief  ornament, 

and  animated  jiifture,  whole  language  confifts  of  mo-  pleafmg  variety. 

lions,  figures,  .rnd  geflures. — Thefe   figures,   fays  our  M.  Noverre  confiders  tragedy  as   th;   fiibj^(£l  moil 

author,  arc  unlimited  in   their  number,  becaufe  there  fuitable  for  the  art  of  dancing.      The  former  abounds 

are  a  thoufand   thinj^s   that  the  ballet  may   cxprefs.  in  noble  incidents,  fituations,  &c.  and  ihtfe  produce 

Vol.  V.  Part  IL  4P                                    the 


DAN 


[     666     ] 


DAN 


Dancf .     tlie  befl  flage  efFcfts.     Befides,  the  paffioris  are  more 
■""^  forcibly  cxprefTed  by  great  charadlers  than  by  common 

men  :  the  imitation  is  of  courfe  lefs  difficuU,  the  ac- 
tion in  the  pantomime  more  fignificant,  natural,  and 
intelligible. 

"  'ITie  bufmefs  of  a  ilcilful  mafter  (he  obferves"),  is 
to  forefce,  as  it  were,  at  one  glance,  the  general  efFeft 
'  that  may  reTult  from  the  enfemble,  and  never  give  the 

preference  to  one  fingle  part  over  the  whole.  The  only 
way  for  hira  to  beftow  his  thoughts  on  the  greateft 
number,  is  to  forget  for  a  while  the  principal  charac- 
ters of  the  drama:  if  his  whole  attention  ftiould  entire- 
ly be  taken  up  with  the  parts  of  his  firft  dancers  of 
both  fexes,  the  atlion  i?  lulpendtd,  the  fcenes  are  flow 
in  their  progrefs,  and  the  whole  performance  muft  fall 
fhort  of  its  defircd  effeft. 

In  the  tragedy  of  Merope  by  Voltaire,  the  princi- 
pal charaflers  are,  Merope,  Polifonte,  Egille,  and 
Narbas':  But  alth'iugh  the  parts  of  the  inferior  aftors 
arc  not  of  equal  importance,  yet  they  all  concur  to  tlie 
general  aftion,  and  to  the  progreffion  of  the  drama, 
which  would  appear  deficient  in  fome  paits,  (hould  ei- 
ther of  thofe  charafters  be  wanting  in  the  reprefcnta- 
tion.  No  iifelefs  perfonage  fhould  be  obtruded  on  the 
ftage.  Every  thing  thirefore  that  may  tend  to  weiik- 
en  the  effeft  of  the  drama  ought  to  be  carefully  avoid- 
ed, and  only  that  number  of  aftors  introduced  which 
is  barely  requlfite  for  the  execution  of  the  perform- 
ance. 

"  A  ballet  is  a  produflion  of  the  fame  kind.  It 
imift  be  divided  into  afts  and  foencs,  each  of  which,  as 
well  as  the  aft  itfelf,  muft  have  its  beginning,  its 
middle,  and  its  end  ;  that  is,  in  other  words,  expofition, 
plot,  and  denouement. 

"  I  have  obferved  above,  that  the  principal  per- 
formers in  a  ballet  fliould  be  forgotten  for  a  wliile:  My 
reafon  is,  that,  in  my  opinion,  it  is  epfier  to  give  llri- 
king  parts  to  Hercules  and  Omphalc,  Ariadne  and 
Bacchus,  Ajax  and  Ulyffcs,  &.c.  than  to  24  perfons 
in  their  retinue  :  If  thexe  have  nothing  to  fay,  they 
are  fuperfiuous,  and  of  courfe  ought  to  be  rejeft- 
ed  ;  but,  if  they  are  to  fpeak,  ht  their  converfa- 
tion  be  confonant  with  that  of  the  principal  charac- 
ters. 

"  The  difficulty,  therefore,  does  not  lie  in  afligning 
a  primary  and  didinftive  part  to  Ajrx  orUiyfres;  fince 
it  fprings  naturally  from  the  iirportance  of  their  fitua- 
tion  in  the  play  ;  but  in  introducing  the  figurers  in  a 
becoming  ftyle,  giving  tbtm  parts- of  more  or  lefs  im- 
rortance,  connefled  vith  the  aflion  of  the  two  he- 
roes ;  in  introducing  women,  fome  of  whom  will  ap- 
pear concerned  for  Ajax,  and  the  greater  number 
fhovvjng  their  partiahty  for  UlyfTcs.  The  triumph  of 
the  latter,  the  former'.s  death,  prefent  to  the  man  of 
genius  a  feries  of  images  that  vie  with  each  other  in 
point  of  intercftlng  and  pittoreique  fituations.  Thefe, 
by  means  of  a  colouring  fldlfully  contrafted,  cannot  but 
produce  the  mod  lively  fenfations.  In  fine,  a  ballet 
pantomime  (hould  be  dramatic  in  all  its  parts  ;  and  the 
figure-dancers,  who  fucceed  to  the  principal  peifor- 
merf,  ought  to  continue  the  fcene,  not  by  a  number 
of  fvmmetrical  figures  and  (ludied  fteps,  but  by  that 
i.ind  of  animated  txprelTion  which  keeps  up  the  atten- 
tion of  the  fpeftators  to  the  main  fubjeft  tor  which  the 
preceding  actors  have  prepared  the  audience. 


"  Yet,  either  through  ignorance  or  in  confequence  Dance, 
of  a  vitiated  habit,  there  are  but  few  well  fupported  '"~"V~~ 
ballets.  Dance  is  introduced  for  the  mere  purpofe  of 
dincing  :  the  end  is  fuppoled  to  be  anfwered  by  the 
mechanical  motions  of  the  feet,  or  by  high  jumping, 
and  that  the  idea  which  people  of  real  taile  may  have 
of  a  ballet  is  fully  anfwered,  when  inactive  pci  formers 
are  introduced  in  it,  who  mix  and  joftle  each  other, 
prclenting  a  contufed  heap  of  pidurcs,  flcetched  with- 
out tafte,  aukwardly  grouped,  and  totally  devoid  of 
that  harmony  and  exprcflion,  the  offspring  of  the  foul, 
which  alone  can  embellifh  art  by  giving  it  life." 

M.  Noverre,  in  confidering  the  knowledge  necefTary 
for  attaining  perfeilion  in  the  prefent  art,  obferves, 
that  mythology,  ancient  poetry,  and  chronology,  ought 
to  be  the  primary  lludies  of  a  ballet-mailer;  who  ought 
alfo  to  poffcfs  a  genius  for  poetry  and  painting,  fince 
the  art  boriows  all  its  charms  from  a  perfedt  imitation 
of  nature. 

A  flight  knowledge  of  geometry  cannot  but  prove 
very  advantageous,  as  it  wiU  help  the  mafter  to  intro- 
duce his  figures  in  due  proportion,  to  calculate  exact- 
ly, and  execute  with  ptecifion.  By  means  of  that  un- 
erring guide,  he  will  retrench  every  fuperfiuous  accef- 
fury,  and  ihu.s  enliven  the  performance.  Talle  will  in- 
troduce elegance,  genius  create  variety,  and  judgment 
dir^ft  the  whole. 

Wh'it  is  a  ballet  but  a  piece  of  more  or  lefs  compli- 
cated machinery,  which  ilrikes  or  furprifes  the  behol- 
der by  its  various  dfiffts,  only  in  proportion  as  thofe 
are  diverfified  and  fudden  ?  That  chain  and  connec- 
tion of  figures,  thofe  motions  fucceeding  each  other 
with  rapidity,  thofe  various  forms  turning  contrary 
v/ays,  that  mixture  of  different  incide:  ts,  the  enfemble 
and  harmony  which  mark  the  fteps  and  accompany  the 
exertions  of  the  dancers;  do  not  ?.ll  thefe  give  you  the 
idea  of  a  mechanifm  moft  ingenioufly  contrived  ? 

B  jUeto  are   often   built   on   preternatural   fubjedls  : 
feveral  of  tliem   require   the   afEftance   of  machinery. 
For  inflance,  few  of  the  lubjttts  taken  from  Ovid  will 
be  fit  for  reprefentation,  without  a  change  of  fcenery, 
flights    through    the   air,  metamorphofes,    &c.     This 
author  therefore  muft  never  be  taken  for  a  model,  un- 
Icis  the  ballet-mafler  himftlf  be  an  expert  mechanift.. 
None  are  to  be  found  out  of  the  capital  but  journey- 
men and  ftage-fweepers,   wliom   the  patronage  of  foane 
mighty  fon  of  the  lock  has  preferred  bydegrees  to  that 
employment.     The  talents  of  thofe  iipftavts  confift  in, 
and  reach  not  beyond,  the  capacity  ot  putting  up  the 
lights  which  they  were  wont  to  fnuff  for  many  years, 
or  letting  down  aukwardly  a  glory  of  the  moft  wretch- 
ed ftyle.     The  theatres  in  Italy  are  not  remarliable  for 
their  machinery  ;  thofe  of  Germany,  built   upon  the. 
fame  plan,  are  rot  lefs  deficient  in   point  of  that  en. 
chanting  part   of    ftage-txhibition ;  fo   that   a  ballet- 
mafter  muft,   in   thefe  countries,  iSnd   himfelf  greatly, 
embarraffed,  if  imflcilled    in   the  mechaQlcal  arts,    he. 
cannot  convey  his  ideas  with  perfpicuity,  by  building: 
for  that  purpofe  fmall  models,  which  are  better  under- 
ftood  by  the  generality  of  workmen  than  the  clearcft 
verbal  explanation. 

The  theatres  of  Paris  and  Lond  m  are  the  beft  fup- 
plird  with  thefe  refources.  The  Ei:gli(h  are  very  in- 
genious :  their  flage  machinery  is  ■  ;  re  fini;  lifted  than 
the  Fjench  ;  and.  of  courfe  product  a  quicker  efTeft. 

A- 


DAN 


[    G67    j 


DAN 


Dance.  Amongll  them  all  thefe  kinds  of  works  are  mod  ex- 
"-i  '  'quifitely  finidieJ  ;  that  nentnefs,  care,  and  cxaftitude, 
which  is  remarkable  throughout  every  part,  greatly 
contribute  to  the  precifion  of  the  whole.  Thofe  chef- 
d'oeuvres  of  meclnnifm  particularly  difplay  themfclves 
in  their  pantomimes  ;  which,  however,  are  low  and 
trivial,  dcvuid  of  tafte  and  intercft:,  and  built  upon  the 
mcancll  incidents.  It  may  be  faid  that  this  kind  of 
entertainment,  which  is  got  up  at  a  prodigious  ex- 
pence,  is  only  calculated  to  pleafe  thofe  eyes  which  are 
Ihocked  at  nothing  ;  and  that  it  would  meet  with  no 
fucccfson  the  French  theatres,  where  no  other  pleafanlry 
is  permitted  but  fuch  as  is  not  incompatible  with  de- 
cency, abounds  with  delicacy  and  wit,  and  is  110  ways 
levelled  againft  morals  and  humanity. 

A  compofer  who  wifhes  to  rife  fuperior  to  the  gene- 
rality of  ballet-mafters,  fhould  ftudy  the  painters,  and 
trace  them  in  their  various  manners  of  drawing  and 
compofing.  Both  arts  have  the  fame  objedl  in  view, 
whether  ic  be  for  taking  likeneffes,  mixing  the  colours, 
and  preferving  the  clare-obfcure  j  or  for  grouping  the 
figures  properly,  laying  on  the  draperies,  throwing 
the  former  into  elegant  attitudes,  and  giving  thera  life 
and  expreflion. 

Upon  the  fame  principle,  the  knowlede;e  of  anatomy 
will  lerve  to  render  more  clear  and  intelligible  the  pre- 
cepts which  he  has  to  lay  down  for  his  pupils.  It  will 
be  an  eafy  matter  for  hira  to  diftinguiih  properly  be- 
tween the  natural  and  habitual  defedls  in  their  confor- 
mation. Thefe  art  the  greateft  obltacles  that  fo  often 
impede  the  progrcfs  of  young  beginners.  Thus  once 
knowing  the  cauf-,  he  will  be  able  to  remedy  the  evil ; 
as  his  ItfTon  and  precepts  will  then  be  the  refult  of 
ftrift  attention,  they  never  can  fail  of  becoming  pro- 
fitable. 

Drawing  is  too  ufeful  in  the  compofiilon  of  ballets 
for  the  mailer  not  to  pay  a  ferious  attention  to  that 
art  ;  it  will  contribute  to  the  beauty  of  the  forms  ;  it 
will  give  to  the  tigures  an  air  of  novelty  and  elegance, 
animate  the  jjroups,  throw  the  body  into  graceful  po- 
fitions,  and  fhowthe  attitudes  in  a  jull  precifion. 

A  ballet-mafter  who  is  no  proficient  in  mufic,  will 
make  a  bad  choice  of  his  airs.  He  vi-ill  not  enter  into 
the  fpirit  or  charafter  of  them.  The  motions  of  his 
dancers  will  not  beat  time  with  that  precifion  and  de- 
licacy which  are  abfolutely  neceflary,  unlefs  he  is  en- 
dued with  that  fenfibility  of  organ  which  is  more  com- 
monly the  gift  of  nature  than  the  refult  of  art,  and  is 
far  above  what  may  be  acquired  by  long  pradlice  and 
fteady  application. 

A  good  choice  of  mufic  is  as  effential  to  dancing  as 
the  choice  of  words  and  the  phrafing  of  a  fpeech  is 
to  eloquence.  It  is  the  tune  and  time  of  the  mufic 
that  fix  and  determine  the  motions  of  the  dancers.  If 
the  former  be  uniform  and  devoid  of  tafte,  the  bal- 
let will,  like  its  model,  be  du-11  and  unmeaning. 

By  this  immediate  conneftion  between  mufic  and 
dancinfj,  it  clearly  appears,  that,  from  a  pradtical 
knowledge  of  the  former,  the  ballet-mafter  will  derive 
the  greateft  advantages.  He  will  then  be  able  to  im- 
part his  thoughts  to  the  compofer  ;  and  if  tafte  and 
knowledge  combine  together,  he  will  either  fet  the 
mufic  himtelf,  or  at  leaft  furnifti  the  compofer  with 
the  principal  outlines,  to  characlerife  the  aftion 
of  the  dancer ;  as   this    will    be    varied    and    expref- 


five,  the  ballet  cannot  fail  of  being  equally  fo.  Mu-  Dance, 
fie  well  compoftd  (houlil  paint  and  fpeak  ;  and  the  »  -'. 
dance  fet  to  thofe  founds,  will  be,  as  it  were,  the  echo 
to  repeat  the  words.  If  on  the  contrary  it  be  mute, 
if  it  fpeak  not  to  the  ear  of  the  dancer,  then  all  fen- 
timent  and  exprefTion  are  baniflied  from  the  perform- 
ance. 

As  nothing  can  appear  trifling  to  the  man  of  ge- 
nius, nothing  Ihould  leem  fo  to  the  ballet-mafter.  It 
is  impoflible  for  him  to  diftinguifh  himfelf  in  his  pro- 
fcffion,  unlefs  he  applies  to  iludy  thofe  arts  which  have 
been  juft  mentioned.  Yet  to  infift  that  he  Ihould  be 
mafter  of  them  all  in  that  degree  of  peifeftioii  which  is 
attainable  only  by  thofe'who  give  thcmfelves  entirely  up 
to  the  Iludy  of  each  of  them  in  particular,  would  be  re- 
quiring a  mere  impoffibillty. 

Alt  that  can  be  deemed  ftrlftly  requifite,  therefore} 
is  a  general  knowledge,  a  flight  tinfture  of  thofe  fcien- 
ces  which,  by  the  connedlion  they  have  with  each 
other,  are  likely  to  contribute  to  the  improvement  of 
the  art  and  to  its  reputation.  From  the  natural 
union,  however,  that  fubfifts  between  the  arts,  and 
from  the  harmony  which  reigns  amongft  them,  that 
ballet-mafter  will  ennoble  his  compnfition  with  the  moll 
fire,  fpirit,  livelinefs,  and  intereft,  who  has  mod  ge- 
nius and  imagination,  and  whole  knowledge  is  moll 
extcnfive. 

As  to  performers,  and  their  perfonal  qualifications : 
The  firfl  point  to  which  it  is  diredled  to  pay  attention 
when  one  takes  up  the  profefTion  of  a  danc-.-r  (at  leall 
fo  loon  as  he  becornes  capable  of  refleftlon),  is  his  bo- 
dily formation  :  If  one  Is  confcious  of  any  natural  de- 
fers which  feem  irremediable  by  art,  It  will  be  bell 
immediately  to  renounce  everj'  idea  that  may  have  been 
formed  of  the  advantage  arifing  from  popular  appro- 
bation. But  where  perfonal  defeds  can  be  reformed 
by  apphcation,  Iludy,  or  the  advice  and  alTUlance  of 
judicious  mailers,  then  it  becomes  an  effential  concern 
quickly  to  exert  every  effort,  before  the  parts  to  be 
conedled  have  acquired  ftrength  and  confiftence,  be- 
fore nature  has  unalterably  taken  her  bent,  and  the 
error  becomes  too  habitual  -and  inveterate. 

Among  other  perfonal  defefts,  there  are  two 'which 
deferve  particular  notice  :  The  firft  is  that  of  being 
jarnL',  "  knock-knec'd;"  the  other  of  being  arjtie  or 
"  bow-legg'd." 

A  man  is  faid  to  be  jarrelj  or  in-knee'd  when  the 
haunches  are  llrair,  and  inchne  inwardly,  the  thighs  ' 
lie  near,  and  the  knees  are  protuberant,  and  fo  clofe 
that  they  touch  and  knock  together  at  every  ftep 
even  when  the  feet  are  at  a  dlilance  ;  fo  that  fuch  a 
perfon,  from  the  knees  to  the  feet,  makes  the  figure  of 
a  triangle  :  in  people  of  this  formation,  likewife,  there 
is  a  clumfinefs  In  the  infide  of  the  ancle,  a  great  eleva- 
tion in  the  Inllep,  while  the  iendo  AchUlis  is  not  only 
very  flender,  but  much  extended  in  the  articula- 
tion. 

The  other  defeft,  of  being  arja/ or  bow-legged,  is 
the  oppofite  of  the  former  ;  and  exifts  in  the  fame 
parts,  namely,  from  the  haunches  to  the  feet,  which 
delcnbe  a  fort  of  bow  or  arch;  for  the  haunches  being 
iu  this  cafe  hollow,  the  thighs  and  knees  Hand  open, 
and  at  a  dlilance,  and  produce  the  fame  effetl  in  the 
lower  extremities,  fo  that  they  can  never  be  brought 
in  proper  contad  like  thofe  of  a  well-fhaped  perfon  ; 
4  P  2  their 


DAN 

■Djdc!'.  thcL-  fetl  r>lfo  sre  lon^  and  flat,  the  ancle  juts  out,  and 
"~"'"  '  the  ten/io  ytcL'illit  is  large  aiid  clol'ely  iiiferted.  A 
/Ingle  view  oCtlieic  diametriciilly  oppolite  defeds,  prove 
more  tori:il)!y  than  any  arg\imciils,  that  the  inlb'uc- 
tions  which  might  correft  the  errors  of  one  of  thole 
fort  of  dancer;!,  would  tend  only  to  incrcafe  the  de- 
frAs  of  the  other  ;  and  that  confequeiitly  their  aim 
and  fliidy  ought  to  be  correfpoudcntly  oppolite. 

The  danger  v^hofc  defeiil  iiof  the  tlrll  kind,  that  of 
beingy'i'/w.'f',  mull  ufe  the  means  which  art  furniihes 
liiin  with,  to  feparate  and  widen  the  too  cloicly  con- 
nefted  parts.  The  hrft  ftep  to  this  end  is  to  turn  the 
tliighs  outwardly,  endeavouring  to  move  them  in  that 
pofition,  by  taking  the  advantage  of  the  free  lotation 
■which  the  thi,f;h-bone  has  in  the  rotiloii/af  c'dvlly  of  the 
haunchos  :  alTilbfd  by  this  txercife,  the  knees  will  fol- 
low the  fame  direction,  and  return  as  it  were  to  their 
proper  pofition.  The  kneepan  (which  feems  intend- 
ed to  prevent  the  knee  from  being  thrown  too  far 
backward  from  its  inlertlon)  will  Hand  perpendicular 
over  the  point  of  the  foot,  while  the  thigh  and  leg 
thus  placed  defcribe  a  line  that  will  enfure  lirmnels 
and  liability  to  the  whole  body. 

The  fecond  remedy  to  be  ufed  is,  to  keep  the  knees 
in  a  conitant  bend,  and  to  make  them  appear  very  much 
Ihetched,  without  their  being  really  fo.  This  muft 
he  the  refult  of  long  and  conflant  praftice  ;  but  when 
the  habit  is  firmly  contracted,  it  is  impoOible  to  i-eturn 
fo  the  former  vicious  pofition,  without  caufnit;  an  in- 
fjpjiortable  pain  and  nuinbnefs.  Some  dancers  have 
l;eeu  able  to  conceal  this  defect  fo  artfully,  that  it  was 
entirely  nadifcoverable  imltfs  in  dancing  llrait-capers 
or  in  veiy  quick  movements.  The  reafon  of  its  be- 
rcniing  vilible  at  fuch  times  i'i,  that  the  contraction  of 
the  mufcles  in  the  effort  of  leaping  makes  them  Hi!? 
about  the  articulation,  and  forces  every  part  into  its 
former  and  natural  fituation  ;  the  knees  thus  drained, 
turn  inwardly  and  (for  the  time)  regain  their  ufual 
protuberance,  which  becomes  an  wbllacle  to  the  difplay 
oi  the  cnlre-c/jol.  The  more  thefe  parts  connedl,  to  the 
greater  di!\ance  will  the  lower  extremities  be  thrown  ; 
hence  the  legs,  neither  being  able  to  beat  nor  crofs, 
itmain  motionlefs  at  the  time  of  the  knees  rolling  over 
each  other,  while  the  entre-chst,  being  neither  cut,  beat, 
8or  crolTcd  by  the  feet,  is  deprived  of  that  life  and  bril- 
liancy which  are  its  chief  merit. 

A  perfon  thus  formed,  Ihould  entirely  renounce  the 
entre-chjt,  cabrlo'us,  and  every  kind  of  dance  that  re- 
quires very  quick  and  complicated  movements,  as  it 
will  infallibly  render  him  weak  and  powerltfs;  for  the 
liaunches  being  fo  ftrait,  the  mufcles  that  are  attached 
to  them  (whereon  the  motions  of  the  trunk  depend), 
have  not  a  proper  and  eafy  play,  which  will  be  always 
in  proportion  to  the  dimenfion  of  thefe  bones,  becaiife 
then  the  mufcles  (hoot  out  or  divide  from  a  point  more 
diilanced  from  the  centre  of  gravity  ;  therefore  the 
grander  fort  of  dancing,  and  terre  j  terrs,  is  the  heft, 
adapted  to  fuch  dancers  ;  and  we  may  add,  that  what- 
ever they  lofe  on  the  fcore  of  ftrcngth,  they  regain  in 
elegance  and  addrefs  They  are  luxuriant  and  fliining 
in  the  fimpleft  parts;  eafy,  even  in  difficult  ones,  where 
no  great  efforts  are  required  ;  juft  in  their  execution  ; 
elegant  in  their  difplay  ;  and  their  fpring  is  always 
exerted  with  an  infinity  of  grace,  as  they  dexteroufly 
cncloy  every  refource  which  the  molioa  of  the  inftep 


[     663     ]  DAN 

can  give  them.  Tliefe  are  advantages  which  atone  foi- 
want  of  perfonal  ftrength  ;  and  in  dancing  a-^ility  and 
addrefs  are  always  preferable  to  the  mere  IfTorts  of 
force. 

The  art  of  concealing  or  overcoming  tlie  defeft  of 
fuch  performers  as  we  have  charadcrized  by  being 
arqu':  or  bow-legged,  is  in  a  great  meafnre  the  oppo- 
lite of  the  former  ;  namely,  by  endeavouring  to  bring 
together  the  parts  that  are  too  much  feparated,  and 
lelieniug  that  vacancy  which  is  particularly  obfcnable 
between  the  knees.  Thefe  require  no  lefs  exercife 
than  the  former  in  turning  tiie  thighs  outwardly,  and 
generally  are  lefs  able  to  difguife  their  faults  :  for  be- 
ing more  robull  and  vigorous,  there  is  lefs  pliability  in 
their  mulcles,  and  their  joints  move  lefs  caiily.  And 
it  mull  be  added,  if  the  deformity  refuks  from  a  na- 
tural diilortion  of  the  bone,  labour  will  be  as  ufelefs 
as  all  the  aids  of  art  will  he  impotent. 

It  was  remarked,  that  dancers  of  the  firft  clafs,  or 
jirrete,  Ihould  prcferve  a  flight  genuilcxion  or  bend  in 
their  performance  ;  while  thefe,  for  the  oppolite  rea- 
ion,  ought  to  keep  their  limbs  rather  extended  or 
ftretched,  and  to  crofs  more  clcfely,  by  that  means 
dunuiilhing  the  vacancy  occalioned  by  the  natural  fe- 
paration.  Such  dancers  are  nervous,  lively,  and  bril- 
liant in  all  cafes  which  require  more  ihength  than  ele- 
gance ;  vigour  and  agility  may  be  inferred  fiom  their 
mufcular  force,  and  the  tirmuefs  and  reliftance  of  their 
articular  ligaments  ;  lively  in  their  dancing,  becaufe 
they  crofs  low  rather  than  high  ;  and  requiring  on 
tliat  account  lefs  fpace  in  beating  time,  they  perform 
it  with  more  livelinefs  :  they  dilplay  more  brilliancy, 
bccaufe  the  light  becomes  viiiblc  between  the  limbs- 
at  the  moment  of  croifing  and  recrolTing  ;  and  this  is 
precifely  the  clair-cbfciire  oi  ^andng  ;  for  if  the  time 
in  the  entrc-chat  or  crofs-caper  is  neither  cut  nor  beat, 
but  rolled  or  huddled  over,  there  is  no  light  to  give 
diftindion  to  the  (hadows,  and  the  limbs,  fo  clofciy 
joined,  prefent_an  indiftind  and  eSedlefs  mafs. 

Thefe  dancers  have  lefs  addrefs  than  the  others,  as 
they  generally  depend  on  their  itrength  ;  and  indeed 
that  ftrength  is  a  conilant  c^illacle  to  eafe  and  pliancy; 
if  it  forfakes  them  a  fingle  moment,  they  appear  auk- 
ward  and  ridiculous :  nor  can  they  conceal  their  litua- 
tion  by  any  trifling  difplay  ;  tliat  requiring  mere  ad- 
drefs, would  give  them  time  to  recover,  which  their 
want  of  natural  elafticity  otherwife  prevents. 

Dancers  who  arejiirntes,  are  weak,  llender,  and  de- 
licate ;  the  others,  ftrong  and  vigorous,  large  madcj. 
and  nervous.  It  is  a  common  opinion,  that  ilout, 
fquat-built  men,  are  heavy  and  fluggiflr;  which  they 
doubtlefs  are  in  refped  of  bodily  weight :  but  tiie- 
notion  is  erroneous  fo  far  as  regards  dancing  ;  for 
adivity  owes  its  very  exillence  to  mufcular  llrength,^ 
and  every  man  who  has  not  a  requilitt  (hare  of  that 
will  always  fall  heavy.  The  reafon  is  evident  ;  the 
weak  parts,  in  the  inllant  of  falling,  not  being  able  to 
rtiilt  the  ilronger  (that  is,  the  weight  of  the  body» 
which  acquires  a  moinentum  in  proportion  to  the  height 
it  falls  or  defcends  from),  yield  and  bend;  and  it  is  at 
the  moment  of  relaxation  or  flexion  that  the  noifc  of 
the  fall  is  heard  ;  a  circum  fiance  greatly  leffened,  or 
rather  entirely  avoided,  when  the  body  is  able  to  main- 
tain itfelf  in  a  perpendicular  diredion  ;  and  while  the 
mufcular  fpring  is  fuf&cient  to  oppofe  tliat  defcending 

force. 


Dince 


DAN 


r  06.J  ] 


DAN 


Dance. 


force,  and  vigoroufly  refill  a  fliock  which  would  odicr- 
•  wife  dtllioy  it. 

Nature  has  not  exempted  the  fair  fex  f:om  thofe  im- 
perfcclioiis  we  have  bi;eii  taking  notice  of;  hut  ait, 
and  the  ufe  of  petticoats,  come  fortunately  to  the  help 
of  the  female  dancer.  The  hoop  conceals  a  muhitude 
of  defeftf,  which  the  critic's  curious  eye  cannot  afcend 
to  difcover.  Moll  of  ihem  dance  with  their  knees 
open,  as  if  they  were  nalmally  arquees  ;  but,  thanks  to 
this  hud  habii,  and  tu  the  jjetticoats,  they  a])pear  more 
brilliant  than  the  men  ;  becaufe,  as  liity  beat  from  the 
lower  part  of  the  leg,  they  perform  the  time  quicker 
than  we,  who,  concealing  nothing  from  the  Ipectator, 
are  obliged  to  beat  at  a  greater  extent,  and  to  do  it 
originally  from  the  hauncl). 

The  vivacity  of  the  fex  contributes  much  to  the 
brihiancy  of  their  execution  ;  though  certainly  not 
lels  is  owing  to  the  petticoats,  which,  by  concealing 
the  length  of  the  limbs,  catch  the  attention,  and  iix 
it  more  advantageoully :  thus  all  the  fire  of  the  beats 
being  united  in  one  point,  appears  more  hvcly  and 
brilliant ;  while  the  eye  embraces  one  objett  only, 
without  being  hurried  and  confufed,  in  proportion  to 
the  fpace  it  has  to  overlook. 

To  perfection  in  dancing,  Mr  Noverre  obferves, 
nothing  is  more  neceffary  than  the  outward  turn  of  the 
thigh  ;  yet  nothing  is  more  natural  to  mankind  than 
the  contrary  polition  :  it  is  born  with  us.  It  will  be 
fuperiluous,  in  eftablifhing  this  truth,  to  cite  for  ex- 
ample the  Afiatics,  the  Africans,  or  any  people  who 
d.ince,  or  rather  leap  and  move,  without  art  or  prin- 
ciple. If  we  attend  only  to  children,  or  the  ruftic  in- 
habitants of  the  villages,  we  fhall  iee  that  they  all  turn 
their  feet  inwardly.  The  other  pofition  is  purely  in- 
vention ;  and  a  proof,  far  from  equivocal,  of  this  fault 
being  an  imaginai^  one,  is,  that  a  painter  would  tranf- 
grefs  as  much  againll  nature  as  the  rules  of  his  art, 
were  he  to  place  the  feet  of  his  portrait  in  the  fitua- 
tion  of  a  dancer's.  It  is  plain,  then,  that  to  dance 
elegantly,  walk  gracefully,  or  addrefs  ourfelves  with 
•eafe  and  manlinefs,  we  mutl  ablolutcly  reverie  the  na- 
ture of  things ;  and  force  our  limbs,  by  artificial  ap- 
plications equally  tedious  and  painful,  to  afl'ume  a  very 
-difverent  fituation  from  what  they  originally  received. 

Such  a  chaage,  however  nccelfavy  in  this  art,  can 
enly  be  accomplhhed  by  laying  its  foundation  in  the 
■earliell  ftages  of  infan  :y,  when  every  bone  and  muf- 
■cle  is  in  a  Itate  of  pliability,  and  capable  of  receiving 
any  direftion  which  vs'e  choofe  to  give  them. 

The  difficulty  of  attaining  the  outward  pofition  of 
4he  limbs  is  owing  to  our  ignorance  of  the  proper  arts 
to  be  employed.  Moll  beginners  perfuade  themfelves 
that  it  is  to  be  acquired  by  forcing  the  feet  to  turn 
cutward  ;  and  though  tliis  part  may  readily  take  fuch 
a  direftion,  from  their  fupplenefs,  and  being  fo  ealily 
■moved  at  their  articulation  with  the  leg  ;  yi:t  this  me- 
thod is  fo  rarfalfe,  as  it  tends  to  difplace  the  ancle-bones, 
and  befides  has  not  any  effedl  upon  either  the  knees 
or  thighs. 

Neither  is  it  pofTible  to  throw  the  knees  outwardly 
without  the  afiillance  of  the  thigh.  The  knees  have 
only  two  motions,  bending  and  extenfion  ;  the  one 
diawing  the  leg  backward,  the  other  throwing  it  for- 
•ward  :  they  have  no  power,  therefore,  of  themfelves 
to  determine  or  affumc  an  outward  pofition  j  but  mult 


eventually  depend  on  the  thigh,  whioh  entirely  coni- 
niands  all  the  lower  parts  of  the  body,  and  turns  them  ' 
ill  confequence  of  its  own  rotatory  motion  ;  fo  that, 
in  fact,  whatever  motion  or  pofition  that  takes,  the 
knee,  foot,  and  leg,  are  obliged  to  follow. 

M.  Nouvcrrc  condemns  the  tourne-haunch  as  a  clum- 
fy  and  ufclefs  invention,  whicii,  inllead  of  producing 
any  good  cffeft,  ferves  only  to  lame  thofe  who  ufe  it, 
by  giving  a  diftortion  to  the  waiil,  much  more  difa- 
grecable  than  what  it  was  intended  to  remove. 

The  fimplcll  and  moll  natural  means  are  thofe  which 
reafou  and  good  fenfe  (night  to  adopt  ;  and  of  thefe  a 
moderate  but  continual  exercife  is  indifpenfable  :  tlir. 
praftlce  of  a  circular  motion  or  turning  of  the  legs» 
both  inwardly  and  outwardly,  and  of  boldly  beating 
at  fu'l  extent  from  the  haunch,  is  the  only  certain  ex- 
ercife to  be  preferred.  It  infenfibly  gives  freedom, 
fpring,  and  pliancy  ;  while  the  motions  acquired  by 
ufing  the  iftachine  have  more  an  air  of  conilraiiit, 
tlian  of  that  liberty  and  eafe  which  fliould  fliine  coti- 
Ipicuous  in  them. 

It  has  been  maintained,  that  a  ftrong  and  vigorous 
perfon  ought  to  fpring  higher  and  better  than  a  flen- 
der  or  weaker  man.  But  experience  (fays  M.  Noverre) 
daily  proves  the  contrary.  We  fee  many  dancers,  who 
cut  the  time  very  ilrong,  who  beat  with  much  vigour 
and  firmnefs,  and  yet  cannot  fpring  to  any  confiderable 
perpendicular  elevation  :  for  an  oblique  elevation,  or  on 
one  fide,  ought  here  to  be  diftinguilhed  from  the  former  ; 
the  latter  is  faint,  and  depends  entirely  upon  addrefs  in 
the  dancer.  There  are  others,  again,  whofe  Hender 
form  renders  their  execution  lefs  bold,  and  rather  ele- 
gant than  forcible,  rather  luely  than  nervous,  but  wht> 
can  rife  to  an  extraordinary  height  :  it  is  to  the  fiiape 
and  formation  of  the  foot,  and  to  the  length  and  ela- 
llicity  of  the  tendon,  that  this  power  of  elevation  is 
onginally  owing  ;  the  knees,  the  loins,  and  the  arms, 
all  co-operate  in  this  aiftion  ;  the  (Ironger  the  prefTure 
upon  the  mufcles,  the  gteater  is  the  re-aftion,  and  the 
fpring  or  leap  is  proportionably  high.  The  alternate 
motion  of  the  knees  participate  with  thofe  of  the  in- 
ftep  and  tendo  ^thiHis,  though  the  latter  are  dill  the 
moll  tffential  auxiliaries  ;  the  mufcles  of  the  trunk 
lend  th-eir  afGlliiice,  and  prefcrve  the  body  in  a  per- 
pendicular dirertion  ;  while  the  arms,  ruiinmg  imper- 
ccj.tibly  to  the  mutual  affillance  of  all  the  parti,  ferve 
as  wnigj  to  counterbalance  the  machine. 

Oblervc  all  thofe  animals  that  have  long  and  (lender 
ancles,  as  ilags,  roebucks,  fheep,  cats-,  monkeys,  &c. 
and  you  will  perceive  that  they  have  a  quicknels  and 
facility  of  fpringing  and  leaping,  which  animals  dif- 
ferently formed  in  that  part  can  never  obtain. 

But  were  a  man  endowed  with  all  the  other  qualities 
effcntial  to  the  perfeftioii  of  the  art,  yet  Hill  without 
ftrcngth  and  firmnefs  in  his  loins  he  never  can  be  a 
good  dancer.  This  lliength  is  certainly  the  gift  of 
nature  ;  but  it  maybe  much  improved  by  the  affidulty 
of  an  able  teacher.  We  daily  fee  dancers  who  have 
neither  perpendicularity  nor  firmnefs,  and  whofe  p-r- 
formance  is  altogether  unftable  and  irregular  :  and  wc 
likewife  lee  others,  who,  though  they  pofiefs  not  fc 
great  a  degree  of  native  force,  have  all  the  appearancf: 
of  finewy  firmnefs  and  mufcular  ftrcngth,  in  their 
haunches,  back,  and  loins.  Art  has  furnifiied  a  fub- 
llitote  for  nature,    in  the  kflbns  of  fome  excellent 

teacher, 


T)inc(i. 


DAN  [67 

Dante,  teactsr,  who  has  convinced  them,  that  when  once 
"■"^^""^  they  forego  an  attention  to  the  loins,  it  is  impoflible 
to  keep  therafelves  in  a  right  perpendicular  line  ;  and 
therefore  all  their  exertions  will  be  devoid  of  tafte  : 
that  all  wavering  and  inllabilitv  in  this  part  is  incon- 
fiftent  with  perpendicularity  and  firmnefs,  and  will  cer- 
tainly caufe  diftortion  of  the  fhape  and  waift  :  that  the 
depreflure  and  finking  of  the  body  deprives  the  lower 
parts  of  that  liberty  which  is  necelTary  to  tlieir  eafy 
motion  :  that  hence  the  body  is  undetermined  in  its 
pofitions ;  frequently  drags  the  limbs  ;  and  conftanUy 
lofes  the  centre  of  gravity  ;  and  therefore  cannot  re- 
cover an  equilibrium,  but  after  various  efforts  and  con- 
tortions totally  repugnant  to  the  graceful  and  harmo- 
nious motions  of  good  dancing.    , 

Such  is  the  performance  of  thofe  dancers  who  have 
no  ftrength  in  their  loins,  or  at  lead  do  not  exert  what 
they  polTefs.  In  order  to  dance  well,  the  body  Ihould 
be  firm  and  Ready  ;  it  (hould  particulaily  be  motion- 
lefs  and  free  from  wavering  while  the  legs  are  in  exer- 
tion ;  for  when  the  body  follows  the  aftions  of  the 
feet,  it  difplays  as  many  grimaces  and  dillortions  as 
the  legs  execute  different  fteps  ;  the  performance  is 
then  robbed  of  its  eafe,  uniformity,  harmony,  exait- 
nefs,  firmnefs,  perpendicularity,  and  equilibrium  ;  in 
a  word,  of  all  thofe  beauties  and  graces  which  are  fo 
effential  to  make  dancing  give  plealure  and  delight. 

Many  dancers  are  of  opinion,  that  to  be  foft  and 
luxuriant,  the  knees  mufl.  be  bsnt  very  low.  But  in 
this  they  are  moft  certainly  mlftaken  ;  for  a  more  than 
ordinary  flexion  of  the  knees  gives  rather  a  drynefs 
and  iiifipidity  to  dancing ;  and  a  dancer  may  be  very 
inelegant,  and  jerk,  as  it  were,  all  his  movements,  as 
■well  in  bending  very  low  as  in  not  bending  at  all.  The 
reafon  will  appear  natural  and  evident,  when  we  refleCl, 
that  the  time  and  motions  of  the  dancer  are  Itrictly 
fuboidinate  to  the  time  and  movements  of  the  mutic  : 
purfuiug  this  principle,  it  is  not  to  be  doubted,  that 
when  the  flexion  of  the  knees  is  greater  than  what  the 
air  or  time  of  the  dance  requires,  the  meaiure  then 
drawls  along,  languiihes,  and  is  loll.  To  recover  and 
catch  again  the  time  which  this  unneceflary  flexion  had 
deflroyed,  the  extenfion  of  the  knee  mud  be  equally 
quick  ;  and  it  is  this  fudden  tranfition  whicli  gives  fuch 
a  harfhnels  and  fterility  to  the  execution,  and  renders 
it  as  difgullful  as  the  oppofite  fault  of  iliffiiels  and  in- 
flexibiiity. 

That  luxuriant  foftnefs  requires  more  to  its  perfec- 
tion than  merely  an  exaA  flexion  and  extenfion  of  the 
knees  ;  the  fpring  of  the  inllep  muft  add  its  afiiftance, 
while  the  loins  muft  balance  the  body  to  preferve  thefe 
fprings  in  proper  bounds.  It  is  this  rare  harmony  of 
motion  (fays  M.  Noverrt)  which  has  procured  the  ce- 
lebrated Dupre  the  glorious  title  of  the  Gcd  of  Dance. 

There  are  many  dancers,  and  of  an  inferior  clafs 
only,  who  can  difplay  a  great  variety  of  fteps,  badly 
enough  chol'en  to  be  hire,  and  often  dilphycd  without 
either  judgment  or  tafte  ;  but  it  is  veiy  uncommon  to 
find  among  them  that  exaiSnefs  of  ear  (that  rare  but 
innate  talent  of  a  dancer),  which  gives  life  to  and 
ftamps  a  value  upon  fteps,  and  which  diffufes  over  all 
their  motions  a  fpirit  that  animates  and  enlivens 
them. 

There  are  fome  earsftiipid  and  infenfible  even  to  the 
moft  fimple,  plain,  and  llriking  movements ;  there  are 


O       ] 


DAN 


others,  more  cultivated  or  refined,  that  can  feel  and  Dane*, 
comprehend  the  meafure,  but  cannot  feize  its  intrica-  """V"" 
cies  ;  and  there  are  others  again  to  whom  the  moft  dif- 
ficult airs  and  movements  are  eafy  and  intelligible,  and 
at  once  comprehended  It  is  neverthelefs  certain,  that 
a  dancer  may  have  a  very  perfcA  and  nice  feehng,  and 
yet  not  make  his  feelings  intelligible  to  the  audience, 
if  he  has  not  the  art  of  commanding  thofe  refourcei 
which  depend  upon  a  proper  exertion  of  the  coup  dcpied : 
aukwarrinefs  becomes  vifible  where  the  exafteft  propor- 
tion was  neceffary  ;  and  every  ftep  which  would  have 
been  becom.ing,  and  produced  the  happieft  effect,  liad 
it  been  fmartly  introduced  at  the  conclufion  of  the 
meafure,  will  now  be  cold  and  lifclefs,  if  all  the  limb* 
are  in  motion  at  once.  It  requires  more  time  to  move 
the  whole  body  than  to  exert  any  fingle  member  ;  the 
flexion  and  extenfion  of  the  inftep  is  more  readily  and 
quickly  made  than  the  reciprocal  motion  of  all  the 
joints.  This  principle  allowed,  that  the  dancer  is  de- 
fiitute  of  precifion,  who  (hippofing  he  poffeiTes  a  mu- 
fical  ear)  knows  not  how  to  time  his  fteps  ;  the  elafti- 
city  of  the  inftep,  and  the  more  or  Itfs  aciive  play  of 
the  mufcles,  add  to  the  natural  fenfibility  of  the  ear, 
and  ftamp  value  and  brilliancy  on  the  dance.  The 
joint  charms  of  the  harmon)-  fprlnging  from  the  move- 
ments of  the  mufic,  and  the  motions  of  the  dancer, 
captivate  even  thofe  whofe  eais  are  the  moft  infenfible 
and  leaft  lufccptible  of  mufical  imprelTion. 

The'^e  are  fome  countries  where  the  inhabitants  ia 
general  are  endowed  with  this  innate  mufical  tafte. 
The  Palatinate,  Wirtemberg,  Saxony,  Brandenbourg, 
Aufliia,  and  Bohemia,  fupply  the  orchcftres  of  the 
German  princes  with  many  excellent  muficians  and  emi- 
nent compofere.  The  Germans,  indeed,  are  horn 
with  a  very  lively  and  juft  tafte  for  mufic,  and  have  in 
them  the  feeds  of  true  harmony  ;  nothing  is  more  com- 
mon than  to  hear  concerts,  both  in  the  ftrcets  and  in 
the  fliops  oF  their  mechanics,  performed  with  the 
greatcft  i\d\\  and  exaftnefs. 

Such  a  n  itural  and  native  tafte  for  mufic  as  we  have 
been  mentioning,  is  ufually  accompanied  by,  or  in- 
cludes in  it,  a  fimilar  one  for  dancing  ;  they  are  kin- 
dred arts ;  the  tender  and  harmonious  accents  of  the 
one  excites  and  produces  the  agreeal)le  and  expref- 
livc  motions  of  the  other,  and  their  union  entertains 
the  eye  and  ear  with  animated  pi&ures  of  fentiment ; 
thefe  two  fcnfes,  again,  convey  to  the  heart  the  inte- 
refting  images  which  affect  them,  while  the  heart,  in 
its  turn,  communicates  them  to  the  mental  faculty : 
thus  the  pleafure  refulting  from  the  harmony  and  in- 
telligence of  thefe  two  arts,  enchants  the  fpedlator, 
and  fills  him  with  the  moft  feducing  pleafurcs  of  vo- 
luptoufnefs. 

Dancing  is  probably  no  where  varied  to  fuch  a  de- 
gree as  in  the  provinces  of  Germany  ;  where  the  well 
known  dances  of  one  village  arc  ftrangers  in  the  adja- 
cent hamlet  ;  their  fongs  of  mirth  and  merrhnent  have 
no  lets  different  airs  and  moveuents,  though  they  are 
all  marked  with  that  of  gaiety.  Their  dances  are 
pleafing  and  engaging,  bccaufe  the  offspring  of  fimple 
nature  ;  their  motions  exprefs  joy  and  pleafure  ;  and 
the  exaitnefs  with  which  the  whole  is  performed,  gives 
a  peculiar  agreeableuefs  to  their  fteps,  gcftures,  and 
attltud-s.  l)o  they  fpring  ? — a  hundred  perfons,  af- 
fembled  roimd  an   oak,  or  fome  ancient  pillar,  feize 

the 


DAN 


[     671     ] 


DAN 


the  time  at  one  inftant,  bound  up,  and  dcfcend  vvitti  the 
'  fame  exaftnefs.  Do  they  wifli  to  mark  the  me.'fiiie 
by  a  coup-dc-pied? — all  (Irike  with  one  confent  ;  or 
when  t-hey  catch  up  their  women,  you  lee  them  all  in 
the  air  at  an  equal  height,  nor  do  tli(.y  defcend  but  at 
the  precife  note  that  marks  the  time. 

The  counter-point,  which  is  doubtlcfs  the  toueh- 
floiie  of  a  delicate  ear,  is  to  them  an  objcft  ot  no  dif- 
ficulty ;  hence  their  dance  is  fo  particularly  animated, 
and  the  nicety  of  that  organ  has  the  efied  of  giving 
their  different  motions  an  air  of  gaiety  and  variety  al- 
together exquifite. 

A  dancer  whofe  ear  is  untuned  to  harmony,  difplays 
his  fteps  without  order  or  regularity,  i;-anders  from  his 
part,  and  purfues  the  meaiure  without  being  able  to 
reach  it  :  devoid  of  judgment,  his  dancing  has  nei- 
ther fentiment  nor  expreffion  ;  and  the  mufic  which 
ftiould  dircft  his  motions,  regulate  his  ttcps,  an  guide 
his  tims,  ftrvcs  only  to  expufe  his  imperrifti-.ns  and 
infufhcicncy.  The  ftudy  of  miific  (hould  thercore  be 
applied  to  icr  the  purpulc  of  obviuting  tiiis  deftcl,  and 
giving  more  lenfibility  and  exactuels  to  the  orgdns  of 
hearing. 

It  will  not  be  expefled  that  we  fhould  proceed  to 
give  a  delcription  ot  alt  the  intricacies  and  combina- 
tions of  lleps  that  are  or  can  be  exerted  in  dancing  ; 
or  enlarge  on  the  mechanical  paiticulars  of  the  art. 
A  difl'ertation  on  the  latter  would  be  iniipid  and  dif- 
gullful  ;  for  the  language  of  the  feet  ;.».id  limbs  is 
addreffed  to  the  eyes,  not  to  the  ears  :  and  a  detail 
of  the  former  would  be  endlefs,  lince  eveiy  dancer  has 
Lis  peculiar  manner  of  joining  or  varying  the  time. 
It  mny  be  fuf5cient  jult  to  mention  on  this  point,  tl.at 
it  is  ;n  dancing  as  in  mnfic,  and  with  dancers  as  v/ith 
inufi.  ians  :  Dancing  does  not  abvmnd  with  more  fun- 
damental ileps  than  mufic  with  notes  ;  but  there  are 
oclaves,  Ijicves,  fcraibrev^s,  minims,  crotchets,  double 
and  treble  crotchets  ;  times  to  count,,  and  tneahires  to 
follow.  This  mixture,  however,  of  a  finall  number  of 
fteps,  and  a  few  notes,  furniihes  dancers  with  a  mul- 
titude of  conncftions  and  a  variety  of  figures  :  taile 
and  genius  will  always  find  a  fource  of  novelty  in  ar- 
ranging them  in  different  manners,  and  to  exprefs  va- 
rious ideas.  Slow  and  lengthened,  or  quick  and  pre- 
cipitate ileps,  aiid  the  lime  correfpondently  varied, 
give  birth  to  this  endlei's  civeifity. 

Country- D/iNCE.     See  CovNTur-Darice. 

Country-Dance,  commonly  fo  written,  and  hence 
feeming  to  imply  a  rullic  way  of  dancing  borrowed 
from  country  people  or  pcafants,  is  by  others  fuppofed 
to  be  a  corruption  of  the  French  Cunire-datife,  where  a 
number  of  perfons  placing  thtmfclves  oppofite  one  to 
another  begin  a  figure. 

liope-DAtiCER,  fchxnohcdes ,  a  perfon  who  walks, 
leaps,  dances,  and  periorms  feveral  otlicr  feats,  upon  a 
fuiall  rope  or  wire. 

The  ancients  had  thcr  rope-dancers  as  wcU  as  we. 
Thtfe  had  four  feveral  ways  of  exercifing  their  art  : 
The  fiiit  vaulted,  or  turned  round  the  rope  like  a  wheel 
round  its  axis,  and  there  hung  by  the  heels  or  neck. 
The  fecond  flew  or  ffid  fi"om  above,  reltin;'-  on  their 
ftomach,  with  the  arras  and  legs  extended.  The  third 
ran  along  a  rope  ilretched  in  a  right  line  or  up  and 
down.  Laftly,  the  fourth  not  only  wilked  on  the 
rope,  but.  made  furgrifin.g-   leaps  and   turns  thereon. 


They    had    likewife    the     cremnahates    and    eralales ;    Dance 
that  is,  people  who  walked  on  the  brinks  of  precipi-    _    ". 
ces :     Nay  more,  Suetonius  in  Galba,  c.  6.   Seneca  in      '^°""^'f 
his  85th  Epiftle,   and  Phny,  Ub.  viii.  c.  2.  make  men- 
tion of  elephants  that  were  taught  to  walk  on  the  rope. 

St  Vitus' s  Dance.     See  MEDiciNE-Znii*. 

DANCETTE,  in  heraldry,  is  when  the  outline  of 
any  bordure,  or  ordinary,  is  indented  very  largely,  the 
argenefs  of  the   indentures  being  the  only  thing  that 
diftinguilhes  it  from  indented. 

dANCING.     See  Dance. 

D.-iNciNG-Gir/s  of  Egypt.     See  Alme. 

Dancing-girls  are  tmpLyed  all  over  the  eaft,  as 
affording  great  diverfion  at  all  pubhc  etltertainments. 
They  are  all  proftitutes  ;  and  by.  the  laws  of  their  fo- 
ciety  are  bound  to  rcfufe  no  one  for  their  price, 
which  is  rated  according  to  their  beauty  and  other 
accoinplilhments.  There  are  even  particular  fcts  of 
them  appropriated  to  the  fervice  of  the  Gentoo 
temples  and  the  ufe  of  the  bramin  pi  lefts  who  attend 
them.  Thefe  poor  ci-eaturcs  fay  tliac  they  were  firft 
debauched  by  their  god,  and  afterwards  by  him  con- 
figned  over  to  the  ufe  of  the  priells  who  belong  to  his 
temples. 

Thefe  dancing-girls,  whether  in  a  fettled  or  un- 
fettled  condition,  hve  in  a  band  or  community  under 
the  diredion  of  fome  fuperannuated  female  of  the 
fame  piofeffion,  under  whom  they  receive  a  regular 
education,  and  are  Ualned  up  in  all  the  arts  of  love 
and  leafing,  like  fcholars  in  an  academy.  Thus  they 
acquire  the  art  of  captivating  the  afleftlons  of  the 
other  fex  to  fuch  a  degree,  that  nothing  is  more  com^ 
mon  than  for  one  of  the  princes  or  chief  people  of  the 
country  to  take  a  liking  to  one  of  thcie  girls,  and 
vvalle  immenfe  funis  on  her,  though  at  the  fame  time 
their  own  haram  is  flocked  with  beauties  far  fuperior, 
and  who  are  befides  poiTtlfed  of  the  natural  modelly 
of  the  fex,  to  which  the  others  have  not  die  fmallelt 
pretenfions.  Thus  fome  of  thefe  girls  acquire  inir 
menfe  wealth.  In  the  neighbourhood-  of  Goa,  for 
inllance,  on  a  part  of  the  continent  bordering  on  the 
diftrid  of  that  ifland,  the  dancing  girls  founded  a 
village,  after  being  driven  from  Goa  by  the  zeal  of  the 
archbilhop.  Here  they  reCde  in  a  body  corporate,  and 
attend  the  parties  of  pleafure  of  the  noblemen  and 
'principal  inhabitants,  for  it  is  not  every  one's  ptufe 
that  can  afford  them.  Here  many  of  them  acquire 
confiderable  fortunes  by  this  fcandalous  tralBc,  aud 
throw  it  into  a  common  itock  for  the  fake  of  carry- 
ing on  merchandife  ;  being  concerned  in  (hipping  and; 
the  moil  profitable  voyages,  for  which  they  liave  rco-u.. 
lar  fa'ilors  and  brokers. 

The  diefs  of  thefe  women  varies  according  to  the. 
country  they  hve  in  ;  but  in  all  it  is  the  moil  gor- 
geous imaginable.  They  are  loaded  with  jewels,  lite- 
rally from  top  to  toe,  fince  even  on  their  toes  they 
wear  rings.  Their  necks  are  adorned  with  carcancts, 
their  arms  with  bracelets,  and  their  ancles  with  chains- 
cf  gold  and  filver,  often  enriched  with  precious  ftones. 
They  a!fo  wear  nofc-jeweU,  which  at  firll  have  an  odd 
appearance,  but  to  which  the  eye  is  loon  reconciled. 
In  Indollan,  thefe  dancing-girls,  as  well  as  the  other 
women  of  the  country,  have  a  peculiar  method  of  pre 
ferving  and  managing  their  brealls,  which  at  the  fame.' 
time  makes  no  iiicoafidcrable  .part,  of  their  finery^ 
4  ■  Tiiey.- 


ninciriJ. 


DAN  [     672     ]  DAN 

They  indofe  them  in  a  pair  of  hollow  cafes,  exaAly  are  accompanied  with  a  mufic  far  from  deli^htrul,  con 
fitted  to  tliem  ;  made  of  vc-ry  light  wood,  Imked  to-  filling  of  little  drums  called  g^iimgfuns,  cymbii's,  and  ; 
gether,  and  buckled  at  the  b;ick.  Thefe  at  once  con- 
line  their  breafts  fo  that  they  cannot  grow  to  any  dif- 
guftfuUy  exuberant  li/.e  ;  though,  from  their  fmooth- 
iiefs  and  pliancy,  they  play  fo  fretly  with  every  mo- 
tion of  thi  body,  that  they  do  not  cruili  the  tender 
texture  of  the  fleih  in  that  part,  like  the  ftiff  whale- 
bone ftavs  in  ufe  among  the  Europeans.  The  out- 
fide  of  them  is  fpread  over  with  a  thin  plate  of  gold  or 
fdver,  or  fct  with  gem?,  if  they  can  afford  it.  Ano- 
ther occafional  ornament  the  dancing-girls  put  on, 
particularly  when  they  rcfoit  to  their  gallants,  viz. 
a  necklace  of  many  loofe  turns,  compofed  of  flowers 
ftrun"-  together,  which  they  call  mogrees,  fomewhat 
refenTbling  Spanidi  double  jeffamy,  but  of  a  much 
ftronger  and  more  agreeable  fragrant  odour,^  and  far 
preferable  to  any  perfumes.  "  They  have  nothing  (fays 
Mr  Grofe)  of  that  naufcous  boldnefs  which  charic- 
terifes  the  European  proflitutes,  their  llyle  of  feduc- 
tion  being  all  foftnefs  and  gentlenefs." 

With  regard  to  the  performances  of  thefe  women  as 
dancers,  we  have  various  accounts.  The  author  of  Me- 
moirs of  the  late  War  in  Afia,  acquaints  us,  "  that  their 
attitudes  as  well  as  movements  are  not  ungraceful. 
Their  perfons  are  delicately  formed,  gaudily  attired,  and 
highly  perfumed.  By  the  continuation  of  wanton  at- 
titudes, they  acquire,  as  they  grow  warm  in  the  dance, 
a  frantic  lafcivioufnefs  themfelves,   and   communicate, 


fort  of  fife,  Viihich  make  a  hideous  din,  and  are  played 
on  by  men,  whofc  effeminacy,  grimaces,  and  uncouth 
fhii\clled  features,  all  together  fliock  the  eye  and  tor- 
ture the  ear.  However,  by  ufe  we  become  reconciled 
to  the  nolle,  and  may  obferve  fome  not  unpleafing  airs, 
with  which  the  dancers  keep  time  :  the  words  often 
exprefs  the  matfer  of  a  pantomime  dance,  fuch  as  a 
lover  courting  his  miftrefs  ;  a  procurefa  bringing  a  let- 
ter, and  endeavoming  to  fedu>:e  a  woman  from  one 
gallant  in  favour  of  another;  a>girl  timorous  and  a- 
fraid  of  being  caught  in  an  intrigue.  All  thefe  love- 
fcenes  tlie  girls  -xecute  in  cliaiadti  dances,  and  with 
no  defpicable  expreffioo,  if  they  are  proficients  in  their 
art  ;  for  then  tlieir  geftures,  air,  and  fteps,  are  marking 
and  well  adapted.  In  fome  of  th^ir  dance.';,  even  in 
public,  modtfly  is  not  much  refpecied  by  the  lafcivious 
attitudes  into  which  they  throw  themfelves,  without 
expoling  any  nudity  ;  being  richly  clad  and  bedecked 
with  jewels  after  their  manner.  13uc  in  private  parlies 
to  which  they  are  called,  as  in  gardens,  they  give 
themf;lves  a  greater  loofe,  and  have  dances  in  referve  ; 
in  vi'hich,  though  Hill  without  any  gicfsnefs  in  difco- 
vering  thvir  bodies,  they  arc  milliLfTes  of  I'uch  motions 
and  l.'wdnefs  of  looks  and  geilures  as  are  perhaps  mure 
provoking. 

DANDELION,  in  botany.      See  Lfontodon. 

DANDINI  (Pietro),  an  eminent  painter,  was  born 


1646,   and  received  his  iirll  inftruflioii 


by  a  natural  contagion,  the  molt  voluptuous  defires  to     at  Florence  in 

the  beholders."     Mr  Ives  feems  to  have  been  very  cool     in  the  art  of  painting  from  Valerio  Spada,  who  excel- 


on  this  fubjeft.  "  I  could  not  (fays  he)  fee  any 
thing  in  their  performance  worthy  of  notice.  Their 
movements  are  more  like  tumbling  or  ihowing  poflures 
than  dancing.  Their  drefs  is  thin  and  light  ;  and 
their  hair,  necks,  ears,  arms,  wrifts,  fingers,  legs,  feet, 
and  even  the  toes,  are  covered  with  rings  of  gold  and 
filver,  made  after  a  clumfy  manner.  They  wear  two 
rings  in  their  nofcs  ;  and  by  their  llaring  looks  and  odd 
geiliculations,  you  would  lather  fufpeft  them  to  be 
mad  women  than  morris-dancers.  The  band  of  mufic 
that  attends  them  is  not  lefs  fingular  in  its  way  :  it  is 
chiefly  compofed  of  three  or  four  men,  who  hold  two 
pieces  of  bell  inetal  in  their  hands,  with  which  they 
make  an  incedant  noife  ;  another  man  beats  what  he 
is  pleafed  to  call  a  drum  ;  and  that  they  may  not  want 
vocal  mufic  to  complete  the  band,  theie  are  always  two 
others  appointed  to  fing.  Thefe  lall  generally  lay  in 
their  m.ouths  a  good  loading  of  beetel  nut  betoie  they 
begin  ;  which,  after  having  been  well  chewed,  tinges  the 
faliva  with  fuch  a  rednefs,  that  a  (Iranger  would  judge 
them  to  bleed  at  the  n-.outh  by  too  violent  an  exertion 
ef  their  voice.  Thefe  gentry  are  called  t'tcly  fa--f  boys, 
from  the  two  words  tiiiy-td-zv, which  they  continually  re- 
peat, and  chant  with  great  vehemence.  The  dancing- 
girls  are  fometimes  made  ufe  of  in  their  religious  ce- 
remonies, as  when  the  priells  bring  fortli  the  uuages  of 
their  gods  into  the  open  fields  on  a  car  ornamented 
%vith  lafcivious  figures,  thefe  girls  dance  before  the 
images  amidft  a  great  crowd  of  people  ;  and  having 
been  fclefted  for  their  fuperior  beauty,  are  very  pro- 
fitable to  their  mafters  the  priells,  who  are  faid  to  pro- 
llitute  them  to  all  comers." 

Mr  Grofe  informs   us,   that  "  thefe  dances  would 
hardly  at  firft  lelifti  with  Europeans,  efpecially  as  they 

N"  97.  5 


led  in  fmall  drawings  with  a  pen.  Whilll  he  was  un- 
der the  care  of  that  artift,  he  gave  fuch  evident  proofs 
of  a  ready  genius,  that  he  was  then  placed  as  a  dif- 
ciple  with  his  uncle  Vincentio  Daudini,  a  mailer  of 
great  reputation  through  all  Italy,  who  had  been 
bred  up  luider  Pietro  da  Cortona.  He  afterwards 
travelled  through  moil  of  the  cities  of  Italy,  ilu- 
dying  the  worlcs  of  thofe  who  were  moil  dlftin- 
guilhed  ;  and  rcfided  for  a  long  time  at  Venice, 
whei'C  he  copied  the  panitings  of  Titian,  Tintoretto, 
and  Paolo  Vcronefe.  He  next  vifited  Parma  and  Mo- 
dena,  to  defign  the  works  of  Correggio  ;  omitting  no 
opportunity  that  might  contribute  to  improve  his 
hand  or  his  judgment.  When  he  returned  to  Flo- 
rence, the  grand  duke  Cofmo  III.  the  grand  duchefs 
Victoria,  and  the  prince  Ferdinand,  kept  him  perpetu- 
ally employed,  in  frefco  painting  as  well  i'.s  in  oil  ;  his 
ftibjeCts  being  taken  not  only  from  facred  or  fabuhnis 
hllbory,  but  from  his  own  inventitn  and  fancy,  which 
frequently  furniflied  him  with  fucii  as  were  odd  and 
fingular,  and  efpccially  with  whimfical  caricatures. 
He  died  in  1712. — This  mailer  had  a  moft  extraor- 
dinary talent  for  imitating  the  ftyle  of  even  the  moft 
celebrated  ancient  painters  of  every  fchool,  particu- 
larly Titian,  Veronefe,  and  Tintoretto  ;  and  with  a 
force  and  elegance,  equal  to  his  iubjeCls  of  hillory, 
he  painted  portrait.s,  landfcapts,  archltefture,  flowers, 
fruit,  battles,  animals  of  all  kinds,  and  likewife  fea- 
pieces  ;  proving  himfelf  an  univerfal  artill,  and  excel- 
lent in  every  thing  he  undertook. 

He  had  a  fon,  Otlavio,  who  proved  not  inferior  to 
him  in  any  branch  of  his  profefllon,  and  was  an  honour 
to  his  family  and  his  country. 

Dandini   (Csfare),    hilloiy   painter,   was  born  at 

Florence, 


DAN 


[     673     ] 


DAN 


Dsnrgclt 

fi. 
Daniel. 


Florence;  and  was  the  elder  brother  and  firil  inflruc- 
tor  of  Vincentio  Dandini  the  uncle  of  Pietro.  This 
J  mafter  had  fucceflively  Itudied  as  a  difclple  with  Ca- 
valier Curradi,  Pafllgnano,  and  Chrirtofano  Allori'; 
from  whom  he  acquired  a  very  pleahng  manner  of 
defigning.and  colouring.  He  was  extremely  correil 
in  his  drawing,  and  finifhed  his  pitlures  highly.  Several 
noble  altar-pieces  in  the  churches  of  Florence  are  of 
his  hand  ;  and  one,  which  is  in  the  chapel  I'Annon- 
ciata,  is  particularly  admired. 

DANEGELT,  an  annual  tax  laid  on  the  Anglo- 
Saxons,  firll  of  I  s.;  afterwards  2  s.  for  every  hide  of 
land  thro'  the  realm,  for  maintaining  fuch  a  number  of 
forces  as  were  thought  fufficient  to  clear  the  Britllh 
feas  of  Danifh  pirates,  which  heretofore  greatly  an- 
noyed our  coafts. 

Danegelt  was  firft  impofed  as  a  {landing  yearly 
tax  on  the  whole  nation,  under  king  Ethelred,  A.  D. 
991.  That  prince,  fays  Cambden,  5Wto!.  142.  much 
diftrefled  by  the  continual  invafions  of  the  Danes,  to 
proc!u-e  a  peace,  was  compelled  to  charge  his  people 
with  heavy  taxes,  called  llanegelt. — At  firlt  he  paid 
10,000  1.  then  16,000 1.  then  24,000!.  after  that 
36,000  1.  and  laftly  48,000  1. 

Edward  the  Confeflbr  remitted  this  tax:  William  I. 
and  II.  reaflumed  it  occafionally.  In  the  reign  of 
Henry  I.  it  was  accounted  among  the  king's  ftanding 
revenues  ;  but  king  Stephen,  on  his  coronation-day, 
abrogated  it  for  ever. 

No  church  or  church-land  paid  a  penny  to  the  ifane- 
gelt ;  becaufe,  as  is  fet  forth  in  an  ancient  Saxon  law, 
the  people  of  England  placed  more  confidence  in  the 
prayers  of  the  church  than  ia  any  military  defence 
they  could  make. 

DANDOLO  (Henry),  doge  of  Venice,  a  brave 
admiral  and  pohtician.  With  a  Venetian  fleet  he  tt)ok 
Conllantinople  in  1203,  and  l^d  the  moderation  to  re- 
fufe  to  be  emperor.      He  died  in  1 350. 

DANET  (Peter),  abbot  of  St  Nicholas  de  Verdun, 
was  one  of  the  perfons  chofen  by  the  duke  of  Montau- 
fier  to  write  on  the  dallies  for  the  ufe  of  the  dauphin. 
He  had  a  (liare  in  Phasdrus,  which  he  publifhed  with 
notes  and  explications  in  Latin.  He  alfo  wrote  a  dic- 
tionary in  Latin  and  French,  and  another  in  French 
and  Latin.      He  died  at  Paris  in  1709. 

DANIEI,,  the  fourth  of  the  greater  prophets,  was 
born  in  Judea  of  the  tribe  of  Jiidah,  about  the  25th 
year  of  the  reign  of  Jofiah.  He  was  led  captive  to 
Babylon,  with  other  young  Hebrew  lords,  after  the  ta- 
king of  Jerufalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  took  them 
into  his  fervice.  That  prince  gave  them  mailers  to  in- 
ftruft  them  in  the  language  and  fciences  of  the  Chal- 
deans, and  ordered  them  to  be  fed  with  the  mod  de- 
licate viands  ;  but  they,  fearing  that  they  fliould  eat 
meat  forbidden  by  the  law  of  Mofes,  defired  the  king's 
officers  to  allow  them  only  pulfe.  The  wifdom  and 
condudl  of  Daniel  pleafmg  Nebuchadnezzar,  that 
prince  gave  him  feveral  polls  of  honour.  It  is  com- 
monly believed,  that  this  prophet,  when  but  I  2  years  of 
age,  made  known  the  innocence  of  the  challe  Sufan- 
nah  ;  but  the  learned  are  not  agreed,  that  the  young 
Daniel,  who  confoimded  the  old  men,  was  the  fame 
with  this  prophet.  However,  he  explained  Nebuchad- 
nezzar's dream  of  the  myllerious  ftatue,  which  foretold 
the  four  great  monarchies ;  on  which  account  he  was 
VoL.V.  Part.  IL 


made  prefeft  of  the  province  of  Babylon.  In  the  rtign 
of  Darius  the  king  of  the  Medcs,  ho  refufed  to  adore  ' 
the  golden  llatue  of  the  king,  and  was  call  into  the 
lions  den,  when  thofe  bea/ls,  tho'  pinclied  with  hunger, 
did  him  no  manner  of  hurt.  And  he  explained  the 
charaders  written  on  the  wall  of  the  room  where  Bel- 
(hazzar  was  fealling. 

It  is  believed  that  Daniel  died  in  Chaldca,  and  that 
he  did  not  take  advantage  of  the  pcrmiflion  granted  by 
Cyrus  to  the  Jews  of  returning  to  their  own  country. 
St  Epiphanius  fays  he  died  at  Babylon;  and  herein  he 
is  followed  by  the  generality  of  hillorians. 

The  prophecies  of  Daniel  concerning  the  coming  of 
the  Meffiah,  and  the  ether  great  events  of  after-times, 
are  fo  clear  and  exphcit,  that,  as  St  Jerom  tells  us. 
Porphyry  objefted  to  them,  that  thofe  which  related 
to  the  kings  of  Syria  and  Egypt,  chap.  xi.  muil  have 
been  written  after  the  times  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes; 
whereas  this  prophecy  was  trandated  into  Greek  100 
years  before  his  time,  and  the  tranflation  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  Egyjjtians,  who  had  no  great  kindnefs 
for  the 'Jews  and  their  religion.  And  thofe  prophe- 
cies foretelling  the  fuccefles  of  Alexander,  chap.  viii. 
5.  xi.  3.  were  ihown  to  Alexander  by  the  Jews,  in 
confequence  of  which  they  obtained  feveral  privilege* 
from  him;  (j^nl.  lib.  xi.  c.  8.)  The  ftyle  of  Daniel 
is  not  fo  lofty  and  figurative  as  that  of  the  other  pro- 
phets;  it  is  clear  and  concife,  and  his  narrations  and 
defcriptlons  fimple  and  natural :  in  fliort,  he  writes 
more  hke  a  hiftorian  than  a  prophet. 

The  Jews  do  not  reckon  Daniel  among  the  pro- 
phets ;  part  of  his  book,  that  is,  from  the  fomth  verfe 
of  his  fecond  chapter  to  the  end  of  the  feventh  chap- 
ter, was  originally  written  in  the  Chaldee  language  ; 
the  real'on  of  which  was,  that  in  that  part  he  treats 
of  the  Chaldean  or  Babylonilh  affairs  :  all  the  red  of 
the  book  is  in  Hebrew.  The  fix  iirll  chapters  of  the 
book  of  Daniel  are  a  hiftory  of  the  kings  of  Baby- 
lon, and  what  befel  the  Jews  under  their  government. 
In  the  fix  lad  he  is  altogether  prophetical,  foretelling 
not  only  what  (liould  happen  to  his  own  church  and 
nation,  but  events  in  which  foreign  princes  and  kintr- 
doms  were  concerned. 

Daniel  (Samuel),  an  eminent  poet  and  hiftorian, 
was  born  near  Taunton  in  Somerfetdiire  in  the  year 
1562,  and  educated  at  Oxford  :  but  leaving  that  uiil- 
veifity  without  a  decree,  he  applied  himfelf  to  EngliHi 
hillory  and  poetry  under  the  patronage  of  the  carl  of 
Pembroke's  family.  He  was  afterwards  tutor  to  the 
lady  Ann  Clifford  ;  and,  upon  the  death  of  Spencer, 
was  created  poet-laureat  to  queen  Elizabeth.  In  king 
James's  reign  he  was  appointed  gentleman  extraordi- 
nary, and  afterwards  one  of  the  grooms  of  the  pi  iv\-- 
chamber  to  the  queen  confort,  who  took  great  deli'>-iit 
in  his  converfation  and  writings.  He  wrote  an  hiftory 
ot  England,  feveral  dramatic  pieces,  and  fome  poems  ; 
and  died  in  1C19, 

Daniel  (Gabriel),  a  celebrated  Jcfuit,  and  one  of 
the  bed  Frencli  hiftorians,  was  born  at  Rouen  in  1649. 
He  taught  polite  literature,  philufophy,  and  diviniiv, 
among  the  Jefuits  ;  and  was  fuperior  of  their  houfe  at 
Paris,  where  he  died  in  1728.  There  are  a  great 
number  of  his  works  publilhed  in  French,  of  wliick 
the  principal  are,  i.  An  Hiftory  of  France,  of  which 
he  alio  wrote  an  abridgment  in  nine  volumes  i2mo. 
4  0^  2-  All 


D.inie!. 


DAN 


Daftmoi.ii,  j.  An  Hiftory  of  tlie   French  Militia,  in   2  vols  410. 
Dante,     j.  An  Anlwcr  to  the  Provincial  Letters.    4.  A  N'oyage 
*     ■     to  tlie  World   oi  Dcfcartes.      5.  Letters  on  the  Doc- 
trines of  the  Theoriils,   and  on  Probability.     6.  New 
difficulties  relating  to  the  knowledge  of  Brutes  :  And, 
7.  A  theological  treat  ife  on  the  Efficacy  of  Grace. 

DANMONIT,  an  ancient  British  natioTi,  fiippofed  to 
have  inhabited  that  traft  of  country  which  is  now  called 
Cornwal  and  Devonlhirc,  bounded  on  the  fouth  by  the 
Brililh  Ocean,  on  the  wei\  by  St  George's  Channel, 
00  the  north  by  the  Sevcin  Sea,  and  on  the  eaftby  the 
country  of  the  Durotriges.  Some  other  Britilh  tribes 
•vi'cre  alfo  feated  within  thefe  limits  ;  as  the  Coflini 
iind  Oilidainnii,  which  were  probably  paiticular  clans 
of  the  13anmonii  ;   and,  according  to  iVIr  Baxter,  thi.'y 


[        674       1 


DAN 


fcquence  of  this  event,  ftom  which  his  friends  endea* 
voured  to  raiie  him,  by  perfuading  him  to  marriage.^ 
After  fome  time  he  followed  their  advice,  and  repent- 
ed it  ;  for  he  unfortunately  made  choice  of  a  lady  «-ho 
bore  fome  refemblance  to  the  ctkbratcd  Xantippe. 
The  poet,  not  pofleffing  the  patience  of  Socrates,  le- 
parated  himfelf  from  her  with  fuch  vehement  expref- 
iions  of  diflike,  that  he  never  afterwards  admitted  her 
to  his  prcfence,  though  (lie  had  born  him  fcvcrai 
children.  In  the  early  part  of  his  life  he  gained  fome 
credit  in  a  inihtary  charatter  ;  d  ftinguiihing  himlelf 
by  his  bravery  in  an  adtion  where  the  Florentines  obtain- 
ed a  fignal  viftory  over  the  citizens  of  Arezzo.  He 
became  Hill  mine  eminent  by  the  acquifition  of  civil 
honours ;  and  at  the  age  of  35  he  r^fe  to  be  one  of 
were  the  keepers  of  their  flocks  and  herds.  As  the  the  chief  magiftrates  of  Florence,  when  th.it  dignity 
fcvcrai  tribes  of  liie  Danmonii  fubmittcd  without  much  was  conferred  by  the  futirages  of  the  people.  From 
refirtance  to  the  Romans,  and  never  jcn'ned  in  any  re-  this  exaltation  the  poet  himfclr"  dated  his  principal 
volt  againil  them,  that  people  were  under  no  nectffity  misfortunes,  as  ajipears  from  the  fragment  of  a  letter 
of  building  many  forts,  or  keeping  many  garnfons  quoted  by  Lionardo  Bruni,  one  of  his  early  biogr.i- 
jn  their  country.  This  is  the  reafon  why  fo  few  Ro-  phers,  where  Dante  fpeaks  of  his  .political  failure  with 
man  antiquities  have  been  found  in  that  country,  and  that  hberal  franknels  which  integrity  infpires.  Italy 
fo  little  mention  is  made  of  it  and  its  ancient  inhabi-     was  at  that  time  diflra&ed  by  the  contending  faftions 


Tl^'.ntt. 


tants  by  Roman  writers.  Ptolemy  names  a  few  places, 
both  on  the  fea-coalts  and  in  the  inland  parts  of  this 
country,  which  were  known  to,  and  frequented  by,  the 
Romans.  The  mod,  confiderable  of  thefe  places  are 
the  two  famous  promontories  of  Bolerium  and  Ocri- 
num,  now  the  Landfend  and  the  Lizard  ;  and  the 
towns  of  Ifca  Danmoniorum  and  Tamare,  now  Exe- 
ter and  Saltalh.     As  the  Danmonii  fubmitted  fo  tame- 


of  the  Ghibellins  and  the  Guclphs :  the  latter,  among 
whom  Dante  took  an  active  part,  were  again  divided 
into  the  Blacks  and  the  V/liites.  Dante,  fays  Gra- 
vina,  exerted  all  his  influence  to  unite  thcfe  inferior 
parties;  but  his  efforts  were  inefPeftnal,  and  he  had  the 
misfortune  to  be  unjullly  perfecuted  by  thofe  of  his 
own  faftiou.  A  powerful  citizen  of  Florence,  named 
Corfo  Douati,  had  taken  mcafures  to  tenninate  thefe 


ly  to  the  Romans,  they  might  perhaps  permit  them  to  intefliue  broils,  by  introducing  Charles  of  Valois,  bro- 
live,  for  fome  time  at  leaft,  under  their  own  princes  ther  to  Philip  the  Fair  king  of  France.  Dante,  with 
and  their  own  laws  ;  a  privilege  which  we  know  they  great  vehemence,  oppofed  this  difgraceful  projeft,  and 
granted  to  fome  other  Britilh  Hates.  In  the  moll  per-  obtained  the  banilhment  of  Donati  and  his  partizins. 
feft  ftate  of  the  Roman  government  in  Britain",  the  The  exiles  applied  to  the  pope  (Boniface  VI 11.), 
country  of  the  Danmonii  made  a  part  of  the  province  and  by  his  alTitlance  fucceeded  in  their  delign.  Charles 
called  Flava  Caefarienfis,  and  was  governed  by  the  pre-  of  Valois  entered  Florence  in  triumph,  and  thofe  who 
fidcnt  ©f  that  province.  After  the  departure  of  the  had  oppofed  his  admiffion  were  baniflied  in  their  turn. 
F..omans,  kingly  government  was  immediately  revived  Dante  had  been  difpatched  to  Rome  as  the  ambaffa- 
amongft  the  Danmonii  in  the  perfon  of  Vortigern,  dor  of  his  party  ;  and  was  returning,  when  he  received 
who  was  perhaps  defcended  from  the  race  of  their  an-  intelligence  of  the  revolution  in  his  native  city.  His 
cient  princes,  as  his  name  fignifies  in  the  Britifh  Ian-  enemies,  availing  ihemfelves  of  his  abfence,  had  procu- 
guage  a  chieftain  or  the  head  of  a  family.  red  an  iniquitoQs  fenteiice  againil  him,  by  which  he 
DANTE  (Aligheri),  one  of  the  firfl  poets  of  was  condemned  to  baiiifhnient,  and  his  poffeffions 
Italy,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1265,  of  an  ancient  and  were  confifcated.  His  two  tnthufiallic  biographers, 
honourable  family.  Boccacio,  who  lived  in  the  fame  Boccacio  and  Manetti,  exprcfs  the  warmeft  indigna- 
period,  has  left  a  very  curious  and  entertaining  treatife,  tion  againil  this  injuflice  of  his  country  Dante,  on. 
on  the  life,  the  ftudies,  and  manners  of  this  extraordi-  receiving  the  intelhgence,  took  refuge  in  Siena,  and 
nary  poet ;  whom  he  regarded  as  his  mailer,  and  for  afterwards  in  Arezzo,  where  many  of  his  party  were 
■whofe  memory  he  profefTcd  the  higheft  veneration,  affembled.  An  attempt  was  made  to  furprife  the  city 
Tliis  biographer  relates,  that  Dante,  before  he  was  of  Florence,  by  a  fmall  army  which  Dante  is  fup- 
nine  years  old,  conceived  a  paifion  for  the  lady  whom  pofed  to  have  attended  :  the  deiign  mifcarried,  and 
he  has  immortalized  in  his  Angular  poem.  Her  age  our  poet  is  conjeftured  to  have  wandered  to  various . 
was  near  his  own  ;  and  her  name  was  Beatrice,  the  parts  of  Italy,  till  he  found  a  patron  in  the  great  Can- 
daughter  of  Folco  Portinari,  a  noble  citizen  of  Flo-  della  Scala,  prince  of  Verona,  whom  he  has  celebrated 
rence.  The  pafTion  of  Dante,  however,  like  that  of  his  in  his  poem.  The  high  fpirit  of  Dante  was  ill  fuited 
fucceffor  Petrarch,  feems  to  have  been  of  the  chafte  to  courtly  dependence  ;  and  he  is  tild  to  have  Isil  the 
and  platonic  kind,  according  to  the  account  he  has  favour  of  his  Veroneze  patron  by  the  rough  franknefs 
himlelf  given  of  it,  in  one  of  his  early  produtlions  in-  of  his  behaviour.  From  Verona  he  retired  to  France, 
titled  Fit,!  Nuova;  a  mixture  of  myfterious  poetry  and  according  to  Manetti  ;  and  Boccacio  atTirms  that  he 
profe  ;  in  which  he  mentions  both  the  erigin  of  his  af-  difputed  in  the  theological  fchools  of  Paris  with  great 
feftion  and  the  death  of  his  miftrefs,  who,  according  reputation.  Bayle  qucllions  his  vifiting  Paris  at  thig 
to  Boccacio,  died  at  the  age  of  24.  The  fame  author  period  of  his  life ;  and  thinks  it  improbable,  that  a  man, . 
afferts,  that  Dante  fell  into  a  deep  melancholy  in  con-  who  ha<l  been  oae  of  the  snief  magifti-ates  of  Florence, 

ihould 


DAN 


I5iii«.  fliovild  condefcend  to  engage  in  the  public  fquabbles  of 
•-~v—  the  Parifian  theologifts  ;  but  the  fpirit  both  of  Dante 
itid  the  times  in  which  he  lived  fiifEciently  account 
for  this  exertife  of  his  talents  ;  and  his  residence  in 
Fiance  at  this  feafon  is  confirmed  by  Boccacio,  in  his 
life  of  our  poet,  which  Bayte  fctins  to  have  had  no 
opportunity  of  confulting. 

The  clcftion  of  IIeni-y  count  of  Luxcmburgh  fo 
the  empire,  in  November  1308,  afforded  Dante  a  pro- 
fpi-ft  of  being  reftored  to  his  native  city,  as  he  attached 
himfelf  to  the  intcreft  of  the  new  emperor,  in  whofe 
fcrvice  he  is  fuppofed  to  have  written  his  Latin  trea- 
tife  De  Monarchia,  in  which  he  afitrtcd  the  rights  of 
the  empire  againll  the  eiicroaclunents  of  the  Papacy. 
In  the  year  131 1,  he  infligatcd  Henry  to  lay  liege  to 
Florence  ;  in  which  eutcrpiifc,  f.iys  one  of  the  bio- 
graphers, he  did  not  appear  in  perlon,  from  motives  of 
rcfpeft  towards  his  native  city.  The  emperor  was  rc- 
pulfed  by  the  Florentines  ;  and  his  death,  which  hap- 
pened in  the  fuccecding  year,  deprived  Dante  of  all 
hopes  concerning  re-ellab!ilhment  in  Florence.  After 
thisdifappointnient,  he  Is  fuppofed  to  have  pafTcd  fome 
years  in  roving  about  Italy  in  a  ftate  of  poverty  and 
diftrefs,  till  he  found  an  honourable  ellablilhment 
at  Ravenna,  under  the  protcdllon  of  Guido  Novello 
da  Polenta,  the  lord  of  tliat  city,  who  received  this  il- 
luftrious  exile  with  the  molt  endearing  hberality,  con- 
tinued to  proteft  hl\n  through  tiie  few  remaining  years 
of  his  life,  and  extended  his  munliicence  to  the  allies 
©f  the  poet. 

Eloquence  was  one  of  the  many  talents  which  Dante 
poffefled  in  an  eminent  degree.  On  this  account  he 
IS  faid  to  have  been  employed  on  fourteen  different 
embalTies  in  the  coiirfe  of  his  life,  and  to  have  fuc- 
ceeded  in  moft  of  tiiem.  His  patron  Guido  had  occa- 
fion  to  try  his  abilities  in  a  fervice  of  this  nature,  and 
diTpatch'^d  him  as  his  ambaffador  to  negociate  a  peace 
with  the  \^enetians,  who  were  preparing  for  hoftilities 
againft  Ravenna.  Manttti  afferts  that  he  was  unable 
to  procure  a  piibhc  audience  at  Venice,  and  returned 
to  Ravenna  by  land,  from  his  apprehenlions  of  tlie 
Venetian  fl(  et ;  when  the  fatigue  of  his  journey,  and 
the  mortification  of  failing  in  his  attempt  to  preferve 
his  generous  patron  from  the  impending  danger,  threw 
him  into  a  fever,  which  terminated  in  death  on  the 
14th  of  September  1321.  He  died,  however,  in  the 
palace  of  his  friend  j  and  the  affeiftionate  Guido  paid 
Uie  moll  tender  regard  to  his  memory.  This  magni- 
ficent patron  (fays  Boccacio)  commanded  the  body  to 
be  adorned  with  poetical  ornaments,  and,  after  being 
carried  on  a  bier  through  the  ftreets  of  Ravenna  by  the 
moft  iUufirious  citizens,  to  be  depofited  in  a  marble 
cofiin.  He  pronounced  himfelf  the  funeral  oration, 
and  expreU'ed  iiis  defign  of  ereding  a  fplendid  monu- 
ment in  honour  of  the  deceafed  :  a  defign  which  his 
fubfcqucnt  misfortunes  rendered  him  unable  10  accom- 
plilh.  At  his  requcit,  inany  epitaphs  were  written  on 
the  poet:  thebeft.  of  them  (fays  Boccacio)  by  Gio\an- 
ni  del  Virgilio  of  Bologna,  a  famous  author  of  that 
time,  and  the  intimate  friend  of  Dante.  Borcaciothen 
cite!  a  few  Latin  verfes,  not  worth  tranfcribing,  fix  of 
vhich  are  quoted  by  Bayle  as  the  compofition  of  Dante 
Mmfelf,  on  the  authority  of  Paul  Jovius.  In  1483 
Bernardo  Beinbo,  the  fcuher  of  tlie  celebrated  cardinal. 


i    ^7S    ] 


DAN 


raifed  a  handfome  monument  over  the  negieftcd  ifkti     I*'"' 
of  the  poet,  with  the  follow.ing  inlcription  :  '~~/* 

F.xgxii  tunuili  n.mthci.  hie  forte  jacebas 

.^qiial^nti  nul]i  cojrnita  ya^-.ic  Ctu  ; 
At  mine  nia-moreo  fuhmxus  contictis  arc.i, 

Omnibus  et  cuUii  fnIi  njidioie  nites: 
Niiriruin  Bcni'ius,  Miif;!  i-  ciiifin  EtrMlVi". 

Ho;  tibi,  qiicm  in  jirimi-  hx  coluerr,  doiiit. 

Before  this  period  the  Florentines  had  valuly  endel< 
voured  to  obtain  the  bones  of  their  great  poet  from 
the  city  of  Ravenna.  In  the  age  of  Lea  X.  they 
made  a  fecond  attempt,  by  a  folenin  application  to  t!ie 
pojie,  for  that  purpofe;  and  the  great  Michael  Angelo, 
an  enlhufiallic  admirer  of  Dante,  very  liberally  offered 
to  execute  a  magnificent  monument  to  the  poet.  Th« 
hopes  of  the  Florentines  were  again  unfuccefsful.  Tlit 
particulars  of  their  fingular  petition  may  be  found  in 
the  notes  to  Codivi's  Life  of  Michael  Angelo. 

At  what  time,  and  in  what  place,   he  executed  the 
great  and  fingular  work  vvliich  has  renflercd   him  im- 
mortal,   his  numerous  cominentators  feem  unable  to 
determine.     Boccacio  afferts,  that   he  began  it  in  hij 
35th  year,  and  had  finiflied  feven  cantos  of  his  Infer- 
no before  his  exile  ;  that  in  the  plunder  of  his  hoiife, 
on  that  event,  the  beginning   of  his  poem  was  fortu- 
nately preferved,  but  remained  for  fome  time  neglec- 
ted,  till  its  merit  being  accidentally  difcovered  by  an 
intelligent  poet  named  Dino,   it  was  fent  to  the  mar- 
quis Marcello  Malefpina,  an  ItaUan  nobleman,  by  whom 
Dante  was  then  protefted.   The  marquis  reiloicd  thefe 
loft  papers  to  the  poet,  and  intreated  him  to  proceed 
in  a  work  which  opened  in  fo  proraifing  a  manner.  To 
this  incident  we  are  probably  indebted  foi  the  poem  of 
Dante,  which  he  muff   have   continued  under  all  the 
difadvantages  of  an  unfortunate  and  agitated  life.     It 
does  not  appear   at  what  time  he  completed  it ;  per- 
haps before  he  quitted  Verona,  as  he  dedicated  the  Pa- 
radife  to  his  Veronefe  patron.      The  critics  have  vari- 
oufly  accounted  for  his  having  called  his  poem  Come- 
dia.     He  gave  it  that  title  (laid  one  of  his  fons),  be- 
caufe  it  opens  with   diftrefs  and  clofes  with  fehcity. 
The  very  high  eftimation  in  which  this  produilion  was 
held  by  liis  country,  appears  from  a  fingular  inftitution. 
The  republic  of  Florence,  in  the  year  1373,  affigned  a 
public  llipend  to  a  perfon  appointed  to  read  ledures 
on  the  poem  of  Dante  :   Boccacio  was  the  firil  petfoa 
engaged  in  this  office  ;  but  his  death  happening  in  two 
years    after   his  appointment,  his  comment  extended 
only  to  the  feventeen  firft  cantos  of  the  Inferno.  The 
critical  differtations  that  have  been  written  on  Dante 
are  almoft  as  numerous  as  thofe  to  which  Homer  has 
given  birth  ;  the  Italian,  like  the  Grecian,  bard,  has 
been  the  fubjefl  of  the  higheft  panegyric,   and   of  the 
groffeft  inveClive.      Voltaire   has   fpoken  of  him  with 
that  precipitate  vivacity,   which  fo  frequently  led  that 
lively  Frenchman  to  infult  the  reputation  of  the  nobleft 
writers.      In  one  of  his  entertaining  letters,  he  fays  to 
an  Italian  abbe,  "  Je  fais  grand  cas  du  courage,   avec 
lequcl  vous  avez  of6  dire  que  Dante  etoit  un  fou,  ct  fon 
ouvrage  un  monilre. — I.ie  Dante  pourra  entrer  dans  Ics 
bibliotheques  des  curicux,   mais  il  ne  fera  jamais  lu." 
But  more  temperate  and  candid  ciitics  have  not  been 
wanting  to  difplay  the  merits  of  this  original  poet.  Mr 
Wartoii  has  introduced  into  his  lafl  volume  on  EngliHi 
4  Q_  2  poetry. 


DAN 


[     676    ] 


DAN 


Dante, 
Dantzic. 


poetiy,  a  judicious  and  fpirited  fummary  of  Dante's 
perfornlance. 

Dante  (John  Baptift),  a  native  of  Perugia,  an  ex- 
cellent mathematician,  called  the  new  Dsdalus,  for  the 
vings  he  made  himfclf,  and  with  which  he  flew  fcveial 
times  over  the  lake  Thrafymsnus.  He  fel'  in  one  of 
his  enterprifes  ;  the  iron  work  with  which  lie  managed 
one  of  his  wings  having  failed  ;  by  which  accident  he 
broke  his  thigh  :  but  it  was  fet  by  the  furgeons,  and 
he  was  afterwards  called  to  Venice  to  profefs  mathe- 
matics. 

DANTZIC,  the  capital  of  Poli(h  Pruffia,  Handing 
on  a  branch   of   the   Vilhila,  about   four  miles  above 
where    it    falls  into  the   Baltic;  in  E.Long.  18.  36. 
N.  Lat.  54.  20.     This  city  is  famous   in    hiftory   on 
many  accounts,  particularly  that  of  its  being  former- 
ly at  the  head  of   the  Hanftatic  affociation,  common- 
ly called  the  Hanfi-ioiuns.     It  is  large,  beautiful,   po- 
pulous, and  rich  ;  its  houfes  generally  are  live  ftories 
high  ;  and  many  of  its   itrects   are  planted  with  chef- 
nut-trees.       One  of  the    fuburbs    is    called    Scotland ; 
and  the  Scots  have  great  privileges  in  confequence  of 
their  gallant  defence  of  the  town,  under  one  of  the  fa- 
mily of  Douglas,  when  it  was  bcfieged  by  the  Poles. 
It  16  faid  there  are  upwards  of  30,000  pedlars  of  that 
nation  in  Poland  who  travel  On   foot,  and  fome  with 
three,  four,  or  five  horfes.     In  king  Charles  II. 's  time 
they  were  about  53,000:   in  that  reign  Sir  John  Den- 
ham  and  Mr  Killigrew  were  fent  to  take  the  number 
of  them,  and  to  tax  tliem  by  the  poll,  with  the  king  of 
Poland's  licence;  which  having  obtained,  they  brought 
home  L.  10,000  Sterling,  befides  their  charges  iu   the 
journey.     Dantzic  has  a  line  harbour ;  and  is  Hill  a 
moft  eminent  commercial  city,  although  it  feems  to  be 
fomewhat  paft  its  meridian  glory,  which  was  probably 
about  the  time  that  the  prtfident  de  Thou  wrote  his 
much  eileenied  H'ljlorw  fui  ''Temporis,  wherein,  under  the 
vear  1607,  he  fo  highly  ctlebrates  its  commerce  and 
grandeur.      It  is  a  republic,  claiming  a  fmall  adjacent 
territory  about  forty  miles  round  it,  which  were  under 
the  proteftion  of  the  king  and  the  republic  of  Poland. 
Its  magiftracy,  and  the  majority  of  its  inhabitants,  are 
Lutherans;  although  the  Romanills  and  Calvanills  be 
equally  tolerated  in  it.      It  has  26  parifhes,  with  many 
convents  and  hofpitals.      The   inhabitants  have   been 
computed  to  amoimt  to  200,000  ;  but  later  computa- 
tions fall  very   confiderably  Ihort  of  it,  as  appears  by 
its  annual  bill  of  mortality,  exhibited  by  Dr  Bufching, 
■who  tells  us,  that  in   the  year    1752,   there   died   but 
1846  perfons.       Its  own  (hipping  is  numerous;    but 
the  foreign   drips  conftantly  rcforting  to  it  are  more 
io,  whereof  1014  arrived  therein  the  year  1752;  in 
which  year  alfo   1288   Polifh  vefTels   came   down   the 
Viftula,  chiefiy  laden  with  corn,  for  its  matchlefs  gra- 
naries ;  from  whence  that  grain  is  diflributed  to  many 
foreign  nations,  Poland  being  juflly  deemed  the  great- 
eft  m.agazine  of  corn  in  all  Europe,  and  Dantzic  the 
greateft  port  for  diltributing  it  every  where  :  befides 
which,  Dantzic  exports  great  quantities  of  naval  ftoi-es, 
and  vail  variety  of  other  articles.     Dr  Buiching  af- 
firms, that  it  appears  from  ancient  records,  as  early  as 
the  year  997,   that  Dantzic   was  a  large  commercial 
oity,  and  not  a  village  or  inconfiderable  town,  as  fome 
pretend.      The    inhabitants   of   Dantzic    have    often 
changed  their  mailers,  and  have  fometimes  been  un- 


der the  proteclion  of  the  Englidi  and  Dutch  ;  but  ge- 
nerally have  ihown  a  great  predileftion  for  the  king- 
dom and  republic  of  Poland,  as  being  lefs  likely  to  ri- 
val them  in  their  trade,  or  abridge  them  of  their  im  "* 
munities,  which  reach  even  to  the  privilege  of  coining 
money.  Though  ftrongly  fortified,  and  poffefl'ed  of 
150  large  brafs  cannon,  it  could  not,  through  its  fitua- 
tion,  ftand  a  regular  fiege,  being  furrounded  with  emi- 
nences. In  1734,  the  inhabitants  difcovered  a  remark- 
able attachment  and  fidelity  towards  Staniflaus  king 
of  Poland,  not  only  when  his  enemies,  the  Rufllans, 
were  at  their  gates,  but  even  in  poficfiion  of  the  city. 
This  city  was  exempted  by  the  late  king  of  Prufiia 
from  thofe  claims  which  he  made  on  the  neighbouring 
countries  ;  notwithftanding  which,  his  Pruiilan  ma- 
jefty  foon  after  thought  proper  to  fei/e  on  the  terri- 
tories belonging  to  Dantzic,  under  pretence  of  their 
having  been  formerly  part  of  Polifii  Pruffia.  He  then 
proceeded  to  poffefs  himfelf  of  the  port-duties  belong- 
ing to  that  city,  and  erected  a  cuftom-houfe  in  the 
harbour,  where  he  laid  arbitrary'  and  infupportable  du- 
ties upon  goods  exported  or  imported.  To  complete 
the  fyilem  of  oppreffion,  cullom.-houfes  were  tretted 
at  the  very  gates  of  Dantzic,  fo  that  no  perfons 
could  go  in  or  out  of  the  town  without  being  fearch- 
ed  in  the  fcridleil  manner.  Such-  is  the  treatment 
which  the  city  of  Dantzic  has  received  from  the  king 
of  Pruiha,  though  few  cities  have  ever  exilled  whicix 
have  been  comprehended  in  fo  many  general  and  par- 
ticular treaties,  and  whofe  rights  and  liberties  have 
been  fo  frequently  fecured,  and  guarantied  by  fo  many 
great  powers,  and  by  fuch  a  long  and  regular  fucctffion 
of  public  acts,  as  that  of  Dantzic  has  been.  In  the  year 
1784,  it  was  blockaded  by  his  troops  on  various  pre- 
tences ;  but  by  the  interpofition  of  the  emprefs  of  Ruf- 
fia  and  of  the  king  of  Poland,  they  were  withdrawn  ; 
and  a  compromife  having  taken  place,  the  city  was 
rellored  to  its  former  immunities.  Neverthelefs,  its 
trade  has  fince  been  rather  upon  the  decline,  the  mer- 
chants choofing  to  fettle  where  their  property  may 
be  more  fecure. 

DANUBE,  the  largeft  and  mofl  confiderable  river 
in  Europe,  rifuig  in  the  Black  Foreft,  near  Zunberg  ; 
and  running  N.  E.  through  Swabia  by  Uhn,  the  ca- 
pital of  that  country  ;  then  running  E.  through  Baf- 
faria  and  Auilria,  palfes  by  Ratiibon,  Paffau,  Ens,  and 
Vienna.  It  then  enters  Hungary,  and  runs  S.  E.  from 
Prelburg  to  Buda,  and  fo  on  to  Belgrade;  after  which 
it  divides  Bulgaria  from  Molachia  and  Moldavia,  dif- 
charging  itfelf  by  feveral  channels  into  the  Black  Sea, 
in  the  province  of  Beflarabia.  Towards  the  mouth, 
it  was  called  the  Ijler  by  the  anelents  ;  and  it  is  now 
faid,  that  four  of  the  mouths  are  choaked  up  with  fand, 
and  that  there  are  only  two  remaining.  It  begins  to 
be  navigable  for  boats  at  Ulm,  and  receives  feveral 
large  rivers  as  it  palfes  along.  It  is  fo  deep  between 
Buda  and  Belgrade,  that  the  Turks  and  ChrilUans  have 
had  men  of  war  upon  it ;  and  yet  it  is  not  navigable 
to  the  Black  Sea,  on  account  of  the  cataracts.  The 
Danube  was  generally  fuppofed  to  be  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  Roman  empire  in  Europe.  It  was 
worlhipped  as  a  deity  by  the  Scythians. 

DAPHNE,  a  daughter  of  the  river  Peneus  by 
the  goddefs  Terra,  of  whom  Apollo  became  enamour- 
ed.    This  paffiun  had  been   raifed   by  Cupid  ;  with 

■vvhoia 


DAP  [677 

whom  Apollo,  proud  of  his  hte  conqueft  of  the  fir-  will 
pea.  Python,  had  ditputcd  the  power  of  his  darts. 
Daphne  heard  wiih  horror  the  addrelTes  of  the  god, 
and  endeavoured  to  remove  herfelf  from  his  importu- 
nities by  flight.  Apollo  piirfued  her,  and  Daphne, 
fearful  of  being  caught,  intreatcd  the  afliftance  of  the 
gods,  who  changed  her  into  a  laurel.  Apollo  crown- 
ed his  head  with  the  leaves  of  the  laurel,  and  for 
ever  ordered  that  that  tree  fliould  be  facred  to  his  di- 
vinity. Some  fay  that  Daphne  was  admired  by  Leu- 
cippus,  fon  of  CEnomaus  king  of  Pifa,  who  to  be  in 
her  company  difguifed  his  fex  and  attended  her  in  the 
woods  in  the  habit  of  a  iiuntrefs.  Leucippus  gained 
Daphne's  eAeem  and  love  ;  but  Apollo,  who  was  his 
powerful  rival,  difcovercd  his  fex,  and  I,eucippus  was 
killed  by  the  companions  of  Diana.  Daphne  was  al- 
fo  the  name  of  a  daughter  of  Tirefias,  pvicRefs  in  the 
temple  of  Delphi.  She  was  confecrated  to  the  fcrvice 
of  Apollo  by  the  Epigoni,  or  according  to  others  by 
tlie  goddefs  Tellus.  She  was  called  Siiy/  on  account 
of  the  wildncfs  of  her  looks  and  exprefiions  when  fhe 
delivered  oracles.  Her  oracles  were  generally  in  verfe  ; 
and  Homer,  according  to  fome  accounts,  has  intro- 
duced much  of  her  poetry  in  his  compofitions. 

Daphne  (anc.  gcog.),  a  fmall  village  near  to,  or 
in  the  fuburbs  of,  Antiochia  of  Seleucis  in  Syria;  with 
a  large  grove,  weU  watered  with  fpriiigs  :  In  the  mid- 
dle of  the  grove  ilood  th';  temple  of  Apollo  and  Diana. 
Its  extent  was  80  iladia  or  10  miles;  the  dillance 
from  the  city  five  miles:  A  place  pleafant  and  agree- 
able, from  the  plenty  of  water  and  the  temperature  of 
the  air,  and  its  foft  breathing  breezes.  The  grove 
was  of  bay-trees,  intermixed  with  cyprefs ;  which  laft. 
multiplied  fo  fail,  as  to  occupy  the  whole  of  it.  Pom- 
pey  gave  fome  land  for  enlarging  the  grove.  Antio- 
chus  Epiphanes  built  a  very  large  temple  of  Daph- 
niEUS  Apollo.  The  pla'ce  at  length  became  fo  infa- 
mous, that  people  of  modefty  and  charafter  avoided 
reforting  thither  :  fo  that  Daphnki  mores  became  pro- 
verbial. 

Daphne  (anc.  geog.),  a  fmall  diftridl  on  the  lake 
Samachonitis,  in  the  Higher  Galilee,  very  pleafant  and 
plentifully  watered  with  fprings,  which  feed  the  Lefs 
Jordan  ;  whence  Its  nam.e  feems  to  arife,  probably  in 
imitation  of  that  near  Antiocli  of  Syria  on  the  river 
Orontes. 

Daphne,  Spurge-lutirel;  a  genus  of  the  monogynia 
order,  belonging  to  the  otlandria  clafs  of  plants  ;  and 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  luider  the  3 ill  order, 
Vepreculie.  There  is  no  calyx  ;  the  corolla  is  quadri- 
fid  and  marcefcent,  inclofing  the  rtamina.  The  fruit 
is  a  monofpermous  bei-ry.  There  are  15  fpecies;  of 
which  the  following  are  the  moft  remarkable. 

I.  Mezereum,  the  mezereonor  fpurge-ollve,  is  a  low 
deciduous  fhrub.  It  is  a  native  of  Germany,  and  has 
been  alfo  difcovered  in  this  country  in  fome  woods  near 
Andover  in  Hampfhire.  Of  this  elegant  plant  there 
are  four  varieties:  [.  The  white;  2.  The  pale-red; 
3.  The  crimfon  ;  and,  4.  The  purple-flowering. — 
Hanbuiy  is  very  lavifii  of  his  praife  of  thtfe  flirubs. 
He  fays,  "thty  have  each  every  perfection  to  recom- 
mend them  as  flowiiring-ft-irubs.  In  the  fitft  place, 
they  are  of  low  growth,  feldom  aiifing  to  more  than 
three  or  four  feet  In  height,  and  therefore  arc  proper 
even  for  the  fmalleft  gardens.   In  the  next  place,  they 


]  DAP 

be  in  bjoom  when  few  trees,  efpecially  of  the  Daphnu. 
(hrubby  tribe,  preftnt  their  honours.  It  will  be  in  ""'v— 
February,  nay,  fometimes  in  January  ;  then  will  the 
twigs  be  garniftied  with  flowers  all  around  from  one 
end  to  the  other.  Each  twig  has  the  appearance  of  3 
fpike  of  flowers  of  the  moft  confummate  luftre  ;  and 
as  the  leaves  are  not  yet  out,  whether  you  behold  this 
tree  near  or  at  a  diftance,  it  has  a  moil  enchanting 
appearance.  But  this  is  not  all ;  the  fenfc  of  fmell- 
ing  is  peculiarly  regaled  by  the  flowers ;  their  fpicy 
fweetnefs  is  diffufed  around,  and  the  air  is  perfunved 
with  their  odours  to  a  confidcrable  dillance.  Many 
flowers,  deemed  fweet,  arc  not  liked  by  all  ;  but  the 
agreeable  inoffenlive  fweetnefs  of  the  mezereon  has  e- 
vcr  delighted  the  fenfe  of  fmelling,  whilft  the  kulre 
of  its  blow  has  feailed  the  eye.  Neither  is  this  the 
only  plea  fure  the  tree  beftovvs  ;  for  bcfides  the  , beauty 
of  the  leaves,  which  come  out  after  the  flowers  arc 
fallen,  and  which  are  of  a  pleafant  green  colour  and 
an  oblong  figure,  it  will  be  full  of  red  berries  in  June, 
which  will  continue  growing  till  the  autumn.  Of 
thcfe  berries  the  birds  are  veiy  fond  ;  fo  that  whoever 
is  delighted  with  thofe  fongilers,  fliould  have  a  quan- 
tity of  them  planted  all  over  the^outfides  of  his  wildei'- 
nefs  quarters." 

2.  Gnidium,  the  flax-leaved  daphne,  is  a  low  de- 
ciduous flirub  ;  native  of  Italy,  Spain,  and  about 
Montpelicr.  This  fpecies  feldom  grows  higher  than 
three  feet.  The  branches  are  very  flender,  and  orna- 
mented with  narrow,  ipear-fliaped,  pointed  leaves, 
much  like  thofe  of  the  common  flax.  The  (lowers  are 
produced  in  panicles  at  the  ends  of  the  branches  : 
They  are  fmall,  come  out  in  June,  but  are  rarely  fuc-' 
ceeded  by  feeds  in  England. 

3.  Cneorum,  the  fpear-leaved  daphne  or  cneo- 
rum,  is  a  very  low  deciduous  flirub ;  native  of  Switzer- 
land, Hungary,  the  Alps  and  Pyrenean  mountains. 
This  rifes  with  a  flirubby,  branching  ftalk,  to  about- 
a  foot  or  a  foot  and  an  half  high.  The  leaves  are  nar- 
row, fpear-lhaped,  and  grow  irregularly  on  the  branch- 
es. The  flowers  are  pvoduced  in  clullers  at  the  ends 
of  the  little  twigs  :  They  make  their  appearance  in 
March,  are  of  a  purple  colour,  and  poflefled  of  a  fra- 
grance little  inferior  to  that  of  the  mezereon  ;  but 
they  are  feldom  fucceeded  by  feeds  in  England. 

4.  Tartonraira,  the  oval-leaved  daphne  or  tarton- 
nura,  a  very  low  deciduous  flu'ub,  is  a  native  of  France 
and  Italy.  This  rifes  with  a  woody  ftalk  to  the  height 
of  about  two  feet.  The  brandies  are  numerous,  ir- 
regular, tough,  and  covered  with  a  light-brown-co- 
loured bark.  The  leaves  are  ovai,  very  fmall;  foft  to 
the  touch,  and  fliining.  The  flowers  are  produced  in 
clufters  from  the  fides  of  the  ttalks  :  They  are  white, 
come  out  in  June,  and  are  fucceeded  by  roundifli  ber- 
ries, which  feldom  ripen  in  England.  This  fort  fiiould 
have  a  dry  foil  and  a  warm  fituation. 

5.  Alpina,  the  alpine  daphne  or  chamelaea,  is  a 
low  deciduous  fhrub,  native  of  the  Alps,  Geneva, 
Italy,  and  Auftrla.  This  will  grow  to  the  height  of 
about  a  yard.  'I^lie  leaves  are  .  fpear-ftiaped,  obtufe, 
and  hoary  underneath.  Tiie  flowers  come  out  in  cluf- 
ters from  the  fides  of  the  branches,  and  are  very  fra-  ' 
grant :  They  appear  in  March,  and  are  fucceeded  by- 
red  berries,  that  ripen  in  September. 

6.  Thymel^a,  the  luiikwort-leaved  daphne  or  the 

thymelsa;  - 


DAP 


f     6 


:t33p\-'.e  tliymelsa  ;  a  low  decidiious  fTiriib,  rlative  of  Spain  and 
'~*"V~-  the  fouth  of  Fiance.  The  thymtlaea  will  grow  to  the 
height  of  a  yard.  The  ftalks  of  this  fpecies  are  up- 
right, branched,  and  covered  svith  alight-biown  bark. 
The  leaves  are  fpcar-fhapeJ,  fmooth,  and  in  fonie  re- 
fpedt  rcfcmble  thofe  of  milk-wort.  The  flowers  are 
produced  in  cluRers  from  the  (ides  of  the  ilalks :  They 
are  of  a  grcenirti  colour,  have  no  footllalks,  appe.u-  in 
March,  and  are  fueceeded  by  fmall  yellowilh  berries, 
which  will  be  ripe  In  Augult,  This  fort  requires  a 
dry  foil  and  a  warm  fituation. 

7.  Villofa,  the  hairy -leaved  daphne,  a  very  low  de- 
ciduous flirub,  native  of  Spain  and  Portugal.  The 
ftalks  are  ligneous,  alxiut  two  feet  high,  and  fend 
forth  branches  alternately  from  the  fides.  The  leaves 
are  fpear-fiiaped,  plane,  hairy  on  both  fides,  and  grow 
on  very  fliort  footilalks.  The  flowers  have  vciy  nar- 
row tubes,  are  fmr.ll,  and  make  no  great  fliow:  They- 
come  out  in  June,  and  are  not  fueceeded  by  ripe  feeds 
in  England.  This  fhrub,  in  fome  fituations,  retains 
its  leaves  all  winter  in  fuch  beauty  as  ta  caiife  it  to  be 
tanked  among  the  low-growing  evergreens  ;  but  as  in 
others  it  is  fometimes  fliattered  with  the  firft  black 
winds,  it  is  left  to  tire  gardener  whether  to  place  this 
iln-ub  among  the  deciduous  trees  or  evergreens. 

8.  Laureola,  the  fpurge  laurel  or  evergreen  daphne  ; 
a  low  evergreen  (hrub,  caramon  ia  fome  parts  of  this 
kingdom,  alfo  in  Switzerland  and  France.  This  fhrub 
feldom  grows  more  than  a  yard  or  four  feet  high  ;  it 
fends  out  many  branches  from  the  bottom,  and  thefe 
are  covered  with  a  fmooth  light-brown  bark  that  is 
very  thick.  The  bark  on  the  younger  branches  is 
fmooth  and  green  ;  and  thefe  are  very  clofcly  garnilb- 
ed  with  leaves  of  a  delightful  ftrong  lucid  green  co- 
lour. Thefe  leaves  fit  tlofe  to  the  branches,  and  are 
produced  in  fjch  plenty,  that  they  have  the  appear- 
ance, at  a  fmall  diftance,  of  chillers  at  the  ends  of  the 
tranches.  They  are  fpear-flmped,  fiiining,  fmooth, 
and  thick  ;  their  edges  are  entire.  Hanbury  extols 
this  plant  with  a  degree  of  enthufiafm  ;  continuing, 
•'  and  this  is  another  excellent  property  of  this  tree, 
that  it  is  thus  pofTeffed  of  fuch  delightful  leaves  for  its 
ornament.  Thefe  leaves,  when  growing  under  the 
drip  of  trees,  fpread  open,  and  exhibit  their  green  pure 
and  untarnilhed,  in  its  natural  colour  ;  when  planted 
fingly  in  expofed  places,  they  naturally  turn  back  with 
a  kind  of  twift,  and  the  natural  green  of  tlie  leaf  is  of- 
ten alloyed  with  a  brownifh  tinge.  This  flirub  is  alfo 
valuable  on  account  of  its  flowers ;  not  becaufe  they 
make  any  great  fliow,  but  from  their  fragrance,  and 
the  time  they  appear  ;  for  it  will  be  in  blow  the  be- 
ginning of  Januaiy,  and  will  continue  fo  until  the 
middle  or  latter  end  of  April  before  the  flowers  fall 
off";  during  which  time  they  never  fail  to  diffufe  a- 
bioad  their  agreeable  odours,  which  are  refrefhing  and 
inofFenfivc.  In  the  evenings  efpccially,  they  are  more 
than  commonly  liberal ;  infomuch  that  a  few  plants 
will  often  perfume  the  whole  end  of  a  garden  ;  and 
when  this  happens  early,  before  many  flowers  appear, 
the  unfliilful  in  flowers,  perceiving  an  uncommon  fra- 
grancy,  are  at  once  ftiuck  with  fuiprize,  and  immedi- 
ately begin  enquiring  from  whence  it  can  proceed. 
Neither  are  its  odours  confined  to  a  garden  only ;  but, 
when  planted  near  windows,  they  will  enter  parlours, 
and  afccnd  evtai  into  bed-chambers,  to  the  gieat  com- 


7S     ]  DAP 

fort  of  the  poffe/Tbr,  and  furprize  of  every  fre/Ii  vili.  Daplin 
tor."  Thefe  flowers  make  but  little  (how ;  for  they  — v* 
are  fmall,  and  of  a  greriiiih-yellow.  They  arc  pro- 
duced amongil  the  leaves  from  the  fides  of  the  ilalks, 
in  fmall  cluilcrs,  and  will  often  be  fo  hid  by  them,  as 
to  be  unnoticed  by  any  but  the  curious.  They  are 
fueceeded  by  oval  berries,  which  are  firiV  green,  and 
afterwards  black  when  ripe.  Thefe  berries  will  be 
in  fuch  plenty  as  to  be  very  ornamental ;  but  will 
foon  be  eaten  up  by  the  birds  ;  which  is  another  good 
property  of  this  tree,  as  it  invites  the  different  forts 
of  whillling  birds  ts  flock  where  it  is  planted  in  great 
plenty. 

Preparation.  The  niezereon  ripens  its  feeds  with 
us,  which  may  at  any  time  be  eafily  obtained,  if  they 
arc  fccured  from  birds.  Previous  therefore  to  fowing, 
the  heahhiclt  and  moil  thriving  trees  of  the  wliite,  the 
pale,  and  the  deep-red  forts,  Ihouldbe  marked  out,  and 
as  foon  as  the  berries  begin  to  alter  from  green,  they 
mull  be  covered  with  nets,  to  fecure  them  from  the 
birds,  which  would  otherwifc  devour  them  all.  1"he 
berries  will  be  ripe  in  July  ;  and  due  obfervance  mull 
be  had  to  pick  them  up  as  they  fall  from  the  trees, 
and  to  keep  the  forts  feparate.  As  foon  as  they  are 
all  fallen,  or  you  have  enough  for  your  purpofe,  they 
may  then  be  fown.  The  bell  foil  for  thefe  plants  is  3 
good  fat  black  earth,  fuch  as  is  found  in  kitchen-gar- 
dens that  have  been  well  manured  and  managed  for 
many  years.  In  fuch  foil  as  this  they  will  not  only 
come  up  better,  but  will  grovvf  to  a  greater  height 
than  in  any  other.  No  particular  regard  need  be  paid  to 
the  iituation;  for  as  this  tree  is  a  native  of  the  northern 
parts  of  Europe,  it  will  grow  in  a  north  border,  and 
flourifh  there  as  well  as  in  a  fouth  ;  nay^  if  there  be 
any  difference,  the  Horth  border  is  more  eligible  than 
the  fouth.  The  ground  being  made  fine,  and  cleared 
of  roots  of.  all  forts,  the  feeds  fiiould  be  fown  hardly 
half  an  inch  depth.  The  mould  being  riddled  over  them 
that  depth,  let  the  beds  be  netted  up,  and  they  will 
want  no  other  attention  until  the  fpring.  Thefe  feeds 
will  fometimes  remain  in  the  ground  two  years  ;  but 
for  the  moll  part  they  come  up  the  fpring  after  fow- 
ing ;  and  the  feedlings  will  require  no  other  care  du- 
ring the  fummer  than  weeding,  and  gentle  watering 
in  dry  weather.  After  they  have  been  in  the  feed-bed 
one  year,  the  flrongefl:  may  be  drawn  out,  and  planted 
in  the  nurfery,  to  make  room  for  the  others ;  though, 
if  they  do  not  come  up  very  clofe,,it  would  be  as  well 
to  let  them  remain  In  the  feed-bed  until  the  fecond 
autumn  :  when  they  fliould  be  taken  up  with  care,  and 
planted  in  beds  at  a  foot  afunder  each  way.  This 
will  be  diftance  enough  for  thefe  low-growing  flirubs. 
Oftober  is  the  bell  month  for  planting  them  out  final- 
ly ;  for  although  they  will  grow  if  removed  any  time 
between  then  and  fpring,  yet  that  will  ctrtainly  be  a 
more  proper  feafon  than  when  they  are  in  full  blow. 
Such  is  the  culture  of  this  Ihrub.  The  other  fpecies 
of  this  genus  require  a  different  management. 

The  fpurge  laurel  is  propagated  by  feeds,  in  the 
fame  manner  as  the  common  mezcreon.  The  feeds 
muH  be  prefci-ved  fiom  the  birds  by  nets,  until  they 
are  ripe.  Soon  after,  they  mull  be  fown  as  is  direft- 
ed  for  the  mezereon.  They  will  often  be  two  years 
before  they  come  up  ;  during  which  time,  and  after- 
wards, they  may  have  the  fame  management  as  has 

been 


DAP                    C     ^79     1  DAP 

been  laid  down  for  the  common  mezereon  until  they  fite,  or  they  will  be  fubjedl  to  be  dcftroyed  in  bad  wea 

be  finally   fit    out.      This  ihrub   ^ill  grow   in   almoll  thcr. 

any  foil  or   fituation,   but   floiirilhts   moft   under  the  iJirv/;V;;(.i//r<5yVr/.w.  The  root  of  tlie mezereon  was  long  _ 

(hade   and    drip    of   taller    pliiits,   giwng    a    peculiar  ufed  in  the  Liibon  diet-drink  for  ventral  complaints,  par- 

clieerfulncfs  to  the  bottoms  of  groves  and   clumpsr  in  ticularly  nodes  and  other  fymptoms  refilling  the  ute  of 

winter.  mercury  j  but  with  the  co'.iipofilion  of  this  article  we 

All  the  other  forts  are  «itli  fome  dilliculty  propa-  were  unacquainted,  till  an  account  of  it  was  publifhed  in 
gated  and  retained.  They  v/ill  by  no  means  bear  re-  the  Edinburgh  Phyfical  Efl'ays,  by  Dr  Donald  Monro 
movincr,  even  when  feedhngs  ;  and  if  ever  this  is  at-  of  London.  On  chewing  it  a  little,  it  proves  very  pun- 
tempted,  not  one  in  an  hundred  niuft  be  cxpeificd.  to  gent,  and  its  acrimony  is  accumulated  about  the  fauces, 
rrow.  They  are  raifed  by  feeds,  which  we  receive  and  is  very  durable.  It  is  employed  chiefly  under  the 
from  the  places  where  tlicy  grow  naturally;  and  he  form  of  decoftion  ;  and  it  enters  the  decoiftum  farfa- 
who  is  delinnis  of  having  thefe  plants,  mud  manage  parillse  compoGtum  of  the  London  college;  but  it  has 
them  in  the  following  manner:  Let  a  compuil  be  pre-  alfo  been  ufed  in  powder  combined  with  fome  inadive 
pared  of  thtfe  equal  divifions;  one-fourth  part  of  lime-  one,  as  that  of  liquorice  root.  It  is  apt  to  occafion  vo- 
rubbiih;  one-fourth  part  of  drift  or  fea  land  ;  another  miting  and  purging;  fo  muft  be  begun  in  grain-dofes,. 
of  fplinltr?  of  rocks,  fome  broad  and  others  fmaller  ;  and  graduall)'  increafcd.  It  is  often  ufcfully  com- 
and  the  other  part  of  maiden  earth  from  a  nch  paf-  bined  with  mercury.  The  bark  of  the  root  contains 
ture.  Let  thefe  be  mixed  all  together,  and  filled  in-  nioft  acrimony,  though  fome  prefer  the  woody  part, 
to  largiih  pots.  In  each  of  tlielc  pots  put  a  feed  or  Mezereon  has  alfo  been  ufed  with  good  efftfls  in  tu- 
two,  about  half  an  inch  deep,  in  the  fineil  of  the  mors  and  cutaneous  eruptions  not  venereal.  The 
mould.  We  receive  the  feeds  in  the  fpring  ;  fo  that  whole  plant  is  very  corrofive.  Six  of  the  berries  will 
there  is  little  hopes  of  their  coming  up  until  the  fpring  kill  a  wolf.  A  woman  gave  12  grains  of  the  berries 
following:  Let,  therefore,  the  pots  be  fet  in  the  Ihade  to  her  daughter  who  had  a  quartan  ague  ;  Ihe  vomited: 
all  the  fummer,  and  in  the  autumn  removed  into  a  blood,  and  died  immediately. 

warm  fituation,  where  they  may  enjoy  every  influence  DAPHNEPHORIA,  a  feftival  in  honour  of  A- 
of  the  fun's  rays  all  winter.  In  March  let  them  be  polio,  celebrated  every  ninth  year  by  the  Boeotians.  It 
plunged  into  a  moderate  hot-bed,  and  the  plants  will  foon  was  then  ufual  to  adorn  an  olive  bough  with  garlands  of 
after  appear.  Tliis  bed  will  caufe  them  to  beftr-ongplants  laurel  and  other  flowers,  and  placed  on  the  top  a  bra- 
by  the  autumn  ;  and  when  all  danger  of  frofl.  is  over,  zcn  globe,  on  which  were  fufpendtd  fmaller  ones.  In 
they  may  be  uncovered  whoUy,  and  permitted  to  en-  the  middle  was  placed  a  number  of  crowns,  and  a  globe 
joy  the  open  air.  In  the  autumn,  they  ihould  be  re-  of  inferior  fize,  and  the  bottom  was  adorned  with  a 
moved  into  the  greenhoufe,  or  fet  under  an  hot-bed  faflVon-coloi.red  garment.  The  globe  on  the  top  re- 
frame  all  winter  ;  and  in  fpring  they  fhould  be  placed  prcfentcd  the  fun  or  Apollo.  That  in  the  middle  was 
where  they  are  to  continue,  moulding  them  up  the  an  emblem  of  the  moon,  and  the  others  of  the  ftars. 
height  of  the  pot  ;  the  pots  being  fufficiently  bi-oken  The  crowns,  wliich  were  65  in  number,  re])refented  the 
to  make  way  for  their  roots  as  they  fhoot,  and  then  fun's  annuali'evolution.  This  bough  wai  carried  in  folemn 
left  to  nature.^ — The  fituation  of  the  four  tenderer  proceffion  by  a  beautiful  youth  of  an  illuftiious  family, 
forts  muft  be  well  (lielteied  :  and  if  it  be  naturally  and  whofe  parents  were  both  living.  The  youth  was 
rocky,  fandy,  and  dry,  it  will  be  the  better  ;  for  in  drelfed  in  rich  garments  which  i-eached  to  the  ground, 
the  places  where  they  grow  naturally,  they  ft'rike  into  his  hair  hung  loofe  and  diflievelled,  his  head  wascover- 
the  crevices  of  rocks,  and  fiourilh  where  there  is  hai-d-  ed  with  a  golden  crown,  and  he  wore  on  his  feet  fhoes 
ly  any  appearance  of  foil.  called  Iphicrat'idis,  from  Iphicrates  an  Athenian,   who 

This  is  one  method  of  obtaining  thefe  firubs.  A-  fiift  invented  them.  He  was  called  Aar'nMr'f,  laurel- 
nother  way  is,  by  fowing  the  feeds  in  the  places  where  lenrer;  and  at  that  time  he  executed  the  oflice  of  priclt 
they  are  to  remain.  The  fituation  and  nature  of  the  of  Apollo.  He  was  preceded  by  one  of  his  nearell  re- 
fill llioiild  be  as  near  that  above  defcrlbed  as  pof-  lations,  bearing  a  rod  adorned  with  garlands,  and  be— 
fible  ;  and  the  mould  fiioidd  be  made  fine  in  fome  pla-  hind  him  followed  a  train  of  virgins  with  branches  in 
ces,  and  a  feed  or  two  fown  in  each.  After  tliis,  pegs  their  hands.  In  this  order  the  procelTion  advanced  as 
flumld  be  fiuek  down  on  each  fide  of  them,  to  dire(9:  far  as  the  temple  of  Apollo,  fimiamed  Tfmenius,  w  here 
to  the  places  where  they  are  fawn.  The  exafteft  care  fupplicatory  hymns  were  fung  to  the  god. — This  felli- 
mull  be  obferved,  all  fummer,  to  pull  up  the  weeds  val  owes  its  origin  to  the  following  circumftance : 
as  often  as  they  appear;  for  if  they  are  permitted  When  an  oracle  advifed  the  jEtolians,  who  inhabited 
to  get  itrong,  and  have  great  roots,  they  will  pull  Arrie  and  the  adjacent  country,  to  abandon  their  ancient 
up  the  feeds  with  them.  In  the  fpring  following,  poifrffions  and  go  in  quell  of  a  fcttlemtn-t,  they  invaded  1 
if  the  feeds  are  good,  the  plants  will  appear.  During  the  Theban  territories,  which  at  that  time  were  pilla- 
the  fummer,  they  iliould  be  watered  in  dry  weather  ;  ged  by  an  army  of  Pelafgians.  '  As  the  celebration  of 
and,  for  the  firft  winter  or  two,  (hould  have  fome  Apollo's  fellival  was  near,  both  nations,  who  reli 
fur-ze-bu(lies  pricked  all  round  them,  at  a  proper  dif-  gioufly  obferv,.'d  It,  laid  afide  all  hoitilities,  and  ac- 
tance,  which  will  break  the  keen  ciige  of  the  frofty  co'diu g  to  cuftom  cut  down  laurel  boughs  from  mount 
winds,  and  preferve  the  young  plants  until  they  are  Helicon,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  ofthe  rivet  Mela.i, 
ftrong  enongh  to  defend  themfelves.  and  walked  in   proceffion   in   honour   of  the  divinity. 

The   cneonim  and  the    alpine  chamelxa  are   ver-y  Tlie  day  that  this  folemnlty  was  obferved, Polematas  the 

hardy,  and  will  grow  in  the  coldcft.  fituation  ;  but  the  general  of  the  Boeotian  army  faw  a  y  uth  in  a  dream,, 

Other  iixU  (hould  have  a  wajm  iuil  and  a  wcll-lbeltered  that  prifeuted  bim  with  a  complete  fuit  of  armour,  and: 

Z  commauded. 


Da.hre, 

Daphn;  - 

|>horu. 


D     A    R  [    6S 

commanded  the  Boeotians  to  offer  folemn  prayers  to 
Apollo,  and  walk  in  procefliou  with  laurel  boughs  in 
their  hands  every  ninth  year.  Three  days  after  this 
dream,  the  Boeotian  general  made  a  fally  and  cut  off 
the  greateft  part  of  the  befiegers,  who  were  compelled 
by  this  blow  to  relinquifh  their  enterprife.  Polematas 
immediately  inllituted  a  novennial  feftival  to  the  god, 
who  feemed  to  be  the  patron  of  the  Boeotians. 

DAPIFER,  the  dignity  or  office  of  grand-mafler 
of  a  prince's  houfehold.  This  tide  was  given  by  the 
Emperor  of  Conftantinople  to  the  Czar  of  Ruffia  as  a 
teftimony  of  favour.  In  France  the  like  officer  was  in- 
fcituted  by  Charlemagne,  under  the  title  of  dapiferat  ; 
and  the  dignity  of  dapifer  is  ftill  fubfifting  in  Germany, 
the  eleftor  of  Bavaria  afTuming  the  title  of  arch  dapi- 
fer of  the  empire,  whofe  office  is,  at  the  coronation  of  the 
emperor,  to  carry  the  firft  di(h  of  meat  to  table  on 
horfeback. 

DAPPLE-BAy,  in  the  manege  :  When  bay  horfes 
have  marks  of  a  dark  bay,  they  are  called  dcpple-bays. 

DAFfLE-BLici:  When  a  black  horfe  has  got  ipotsor 
marks  more  black  or  fhining  than  the  reft  of  his  fltin, 
he  is  called  a  dapple  black. 

DARANT.ASIA,  (anc.  geog.),  called  ForumClau- 
dit  by  the  Romans  ;  a  town  of  the  Centrones  in  Gallia 
Narbonenfis,  fituated  between  Lemincum  and  Augufta 
Pretoria.  Nchv  Moufiiers,  and  Moujliers  en  Tarantaife, 
in  Savoy. 

DARAPTI,  among  logicians,  one  of  the  modes  cf 
fyllogifms  of  the  third  figure,  whofe  premifes  are  uni- 
verfal  affirmatives,  and  the  concluCon  is  a  particular  af- 
firmative :   thus, 

Dar-     Every  body  is  divifible  ; 

AP-         Every  body  is  a  fubftance  ; 

Ti,         Therefore,  fome  fubftance  is  divifible. 

DARDA,  a  town  and  fort  of  Lower  Hungary, 
built  by  the  Turks  in  1686,  and  taken  by  the  Impe 
rialifts  the  next  year,  in  whofe  hands  it  remains.  It  is 
feated  on  the  river  Draw,  10  miles  from  its  confluence 
with  the  Danube,  and  at  the  end  of  the  bridge  of  Ef- 
feck.     E.  Long.  19.  10.  N.  Lat.  45.  45. 

DARDANELLES,  two  ancient  and  ftrong  caftles 
of  Turky,  one  of  which  is  in  Romania,  and  the  other 
in  Natolia,  on  each  fide  the  canal  formerly  cilled  the 
JielLfpont.  This  keeps  up  a  communication  with  the 
Archipelago,  and  the  Propontis  or  Sea  of  Marmora. 
The  mouth  of  the  canal  is  four  miles  and  a  half  over  ; 
and  the  cadles  were  built  in  1659,  to  fecure  the  Turk- 
ifh  fleet  from  the  infults  of  the  Venetians.  The  fliips 
that  come  from  Conflantinople  are  fearched  at  the 
caftle  on  the  fide  of  Natolia,  to  fee  what  they  have  on 
toard. 

DARDANIA,  (anc.  geog.),  a  diftrlcl  of  Moefia 
Superior  to  the  fouth.  Now  the  fouth  part  of  Servia, 
towards  the  confines  of  Macedonia  and  lUyricum.  Dar- 
dani  was  the  name  of  the  people,  who  feem  to  have  been 
defcendants  of  the  Dardani  of  Troas.  Alfo  a  (mall  dl- 
ftria  of  Troas,  along  the  HcUefpoiit,  (Mela,  Virgil.) 
. — And  the  ancient  name  of  Samothracia,  (Pliny);  from 
DarJanus,  who  removed  thitlier. 

DARDANIUM  promontorium,  (Pliny);  Dar- 
danis,  (Strabo):  A  promontory  of  Troas,  near  A- 
bydos,  running  out  into  the  Hellefpont  ;  with  a  cog- 
Tiominal  toivn  at  it,  called  alio  Dardanus  and  Darda- 
r.utn  :  All  which  give  nacne  to  the  Dardiiae/les, 


N°  97- 


o     ]  DAR 

DARDANUS,  a  Ton  of  Jupiter  and  Eleftra,who,  Dardai 
after  the  death  of  his  brother  Jafion,  left   S^mothrace  II 

his  country,  and  paficd  into  Afia  Minor,  where  he  mar-  ^""= 
ried  Batia,  the  daughter  of  Teucer  king  of  Teucria.  ''" 
After  the  death  of  his  father-in-law  he  afcended  the 
throne,  and  reigned  6z  years.  He  built  the  city  of 
Dardania,  and  was  reckoned  the  founder  of  the  king- 
dom of  Troy.  He  was  fuccceded  by  E:ichthoriius. 
According  to  fome,  Corybas,  his  nephew,  accompa- 
nied him  to  Teucria,  where  he  introduced  the  worlliip 
of  Cybele.  Dardanus  taught  his  fubjefts  to  worfhip 
Minerva,  and  he  gave  them  two  ftatues  of  the  p-odJefs, 
one  of  which  is  well  known  by  the  name  of  Palladtum. 
According  to  Virgil, Dirdanus  was  an  Italian  by  origin. 

DARE,  in  ichthyology,  the  fame  with  dace.  See 
Dace. 

DARES,  a  Phrygian,  who  lived  during  the  Tro- 
jan war,  in  which  he  was  engaged,  and  of  which  he 
wrote  the  hiftory  In  Greek.  This  hift;ory  was  extant 
In  the  age  of  jElian ;  the  Latin  tranllation,  now  ex- 
tant, is  univerlally  believed  to  be  fpurious,  though  it 
is  attributed  by  fome  to  Cornelius  Nepos.  This  traiif- 
latlon  firft  made  its  appearance  A.  D.  1477,  at  Milan. 
Homer  fpcaks  of  him,  //.  j.  v.  10.  and  27. 

DARIC,  in  antiquity,  a  famous  piece  of  gold,  firft 
coined  by  Darius  the  Mede  about  538  years  before 
Chrift;  probably  during  his  ftay  at  Babylon,  out  of  the 
vaft  quantity  of  gold  which  had  been  accumulated  in 
the  treafury.  From  thence  it  was  difptrfed  over  the 
eaft,  and  alfo  into  Greece  ;  fo  that  the  Pedlan  daric, 
wliich  was  alfo  called  flitter,  was  the  gold  coin  beft 
known  in  Athens  in  ancient  times.  According  to  Dr 
Bernard,  it  weighed  two  grains  more  than  one  of  our 
guineas  ;  but  as  it  was  very  fine,  and  contained  little 
alloy,  it  may  be  reckoned  worth  about  zjs.  of  our 
money.  Plutarch  informs  us,  that  the  darics  were 
ftamped  on  one  fide  with  an  archer  clothed  in  a  long 
robe,  and  crowned  with  a  fpiked  crown,  holding  a  bow 
in  his  Ifft  hand  and  an  arrow  in  his  right  ;  and  on  the 
other  fide  with  the  effigies  of  Darius.  All  the  other 
pieces  of  gold  of  the  fame  weight  and  value  that  were 
coined  by  the  fucceeding  kings,  both  of  the  Peifian  and 
Macedonian  race,  were  called  darics,  from  Darius,'  in 
whofe  reign  this  coin  commenced.  Of  thefe  there 
were  whole  darics  and  half  darics  ;  and  they  are  called 
in  thofe  parts  of  Scripture  written  after  the  Baby- 
lonifh  captivity,  adarionini ;  and  by  the  Talmudifts, 
darkonoth.  Greaves  fays  that  the  daric  is  ftiil  found  in 
Perfia;  but  it  is  certainly  very  fcatce,  and  perhaps  of 
doubtful  antiquity. 

DARIEN,  or  the  Ifthmus  of  Panama,  is  a  pro- 
vince between  South  and  North  America,  being  a  nar- 
row ifthmus,  or  neck  of  land,  which  joins  them  to- 
gether. It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Noith  Sea, 
on  the  fouth  by  the  South  Sea,  on  the  eaft  by  the 
gulph  or  river  of  Darien,  and  on  the  weft  by  another 
part  of  the  South  Sea  and  the  province  of  Veragua.  It 
lies  in  the  form  of  a  bow,  or  crefcent,  about  the  great 
bay  of  Panama,  in  the  South  Sea  ;  and  is  300  miles 
in  length  and  60  in  breadth.  This  province  is  not 
the  richeft,  but  is  of  the  greateft  importance  to  Spain, 
and  has  been  the  fcene  of  more  aftiuns  than  any  ether 
in  America.  The  wealth  of  Peru  is  brought  hither, 
and  from  hence  exported  to  Europe.  This  has  indu- 
ced many  enterprifuig  people  to  make  attempts  on  Pa- 
nama, 


DAK 


r   est   ] 


D     A     R 


nama,  Porto- Bcllo,  and  other  towns  of  this  province, 
"*  in  hopes  of  obtaining  a  rich  booty. 

The  Scotch  got  pofTeffion  of  part  of  this  province  in 
1699,  and   attempted  to  form  an  eftabh'fhment  which 
would  have  proved  one  of  the  moH  ufeful  and  import- 
ant that  ever  was  projected.'    Of  the  rife,  progrefs,  and 
catallrophe,  of  this  well-imai^ined,  but  ill-fated,  under- 
taking,  Sir  John  Daliymple,  in  the  2d  volume  of  his 
Memoirs  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  has   given  a 
very  interfiling  account,  authenticated   in  every  parti- 
cular by  unqiitHionable  documents.       The    projeftor 
and  leader  of  the  Darien  expedition  was  a  clergyman 
of  the   name  of  Paterfon  ;  who  having  a  violent  pro- 
penfity  to  fee  foreign  countries,  he  made  his  profeffion 
the  inftrument  of  indulging  it,  by  going  to   the  new 
weftern  world,   under  pretence  of  converting  the  In- 
dians to  the  religion  of  the  old.      In  his  couifes  there, 
he  became  acquainted  with  Capt.  Dampler  and  Mr  Wa- 
fer, who  afterwards  publilhed,  the  one  his  Voyages  and 
the  other  his  Travels,  in  the  region  where  the  fepara- 
tioii  is  narrovvell  between  the  Atlantic  and  the  South 
Seas ;  and  both  of  whom,  particularly  the  firll,  appear 
by  their  books  to  have  been  men  of  confiderable  obfer- 
vation.     But  he  got  much  more  knowledge  from  men 
who  could  neither  write  nor  read,  by  cultivating  the 
acquaintance  of  fome  of  the  old  Buccaneers,  who,  af- 
ter fuvviving  their  glories  and  their  crimes,  ftill,  in  the 
extremity  of  age  and  misfortune,  recounted  with  tranf- 
port  the  eafe  with  which  they  had  pa.Ted  and  repafled 
from  the  one  fea  to  the  other,  fometimes  in  hundreds 
together,   and   driving   firings  of  mules    before  them 
loaded  with  the  plunder  of  friends  and  of  foes.   Paterfon 
having  examined  the  places,  fatisfied  himfelf,  that  on 
the    Ifthmus  Darien  there  was  a  traft  of  country  run- 
ning acrofs  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  South  Sea,  which 
tlte  Spaniards  had  never  pofTeffed,  and  inhabited  by  a 
people  continually  at  war  with  them  ;  that  along  the 
coaft,  on  the  Atlantic  fide,  there  lay  a  ftring  of  iflands 
called  the  Sambalois,  uninhabited,  and   full  of  natural 
flrength  and  forefts,  from  which  laft  circumftance  one 
of  them  was  called  the  ijland  of  the  Pines;  that  the  feas 
there  were  filled  with   turtle  and  the  manatee   or  fea- 
cow  ;  that  midway  between   Porto-bello  and  Cartha- 
gena,  but  near  50  leagues  diftant  from  either,  at  a  place 
called  A&a,  in  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  Darien,  there 
was  a  natural  harbour,  capable  of  receiving  the  greateft 
fleets,  and  defended  from  ftorms  by  other  iflands  which 
covered  the  mouth  of  it,  and  from  enemies  by  a  pro- 
montory which  commanded  the  pafTage,  and  by  hidden 
rocks  in  the  paffage  itfelf ;  that  on  the   other  fide  of 
the  ifthmus,  and   in   the  fame  traft  of  country,  there 
were  natural  harbours,  equally  capacious  and  well  de- 
fended ;  that   the  two  feas  were  connefted  by  a  ridge 
of  hills,  which,   by  their  height,  created  a  temperate 
climate  in  the  midft  of  the  mod  fultry  latitudes,  and 
were  fheltered  by  forefts,  yet   not   rendered  damp  by 
them,  becaufe  the  trees  grew  at  a  diftance  from  each 
other,  having  very  little  under-wood  ;  that,  contrary 
to  the  barren  nature  of  hilly  countries,  the  foil  was  of 
a  black  mould  two  or  three  feet  deep,  and  producing 
fpontaneoufly  the  fine  tropical  fruits  and  plants,  and 
roots  and  herbs  ;  that  roads  could  be  made  with  eafe 
along  the  ridge,  by  which  mules,  and  even  carriages, 
might  pafs  from  the  one  fea  to  the  other  in  the  fpace 
Vol.  V.  Part  II. 


of  a  day  ;  and  confequently  this  pafTage  feemcd  to  be     fiar'ifi. 
pointed  out  by  the  finger  of  nature,  as  a  common  cen-  »       -' 

tre,  to  conneft  together  the  trade  and  intercourfc  of  the 
univerfe. 

Paterfon  knew  that  /hips  which  ftretch  in  a  ftraight 
line  from  one  point  to  another,  and  with  one  wind, 
run  lefs  rifles,  and  require  fewer  hands,  than  fhip» 
which  pafs  through  many  latitudes,  turn  with  many 
coafts,  and  require  many  winds  ;  in  evidence  of  which, 
vefftls  of  feven  or  eight  hundred  tons  burden  are  ofteo 
to  be  found  in  the  South  Seas,  navigated  by  no  more 
than  eight  or  ten  hands,  becaufe  thefe  hands  have  little 
elfe  to  do  than  to  fet  their  fails  when  they  begin  their 
voyage,  and  to  take  them  in  when  they  end  it  ;  that 
as  foon  as  fliips  from  Britain  got  fo  far  fouth  as  to 
reach  the  trade-wind,  which  never  varies,  that  wind 
would  carry  them  to  Darien,  and  the  fame  wind 
would  carry  fhips  from  the  bay  of  Panama,  on  the  op- 
pofite  fide  of  the  ifthmus,  to  the  Eaft-Indies  ;  that  as 
foon  as  fhips  coming  from  the  Eaft-Indies  to  the  bay 
of  Panama  got  fo  far  north  as  the  latitude  of  40,  to 
reach  the  wefterly  winds,  which,  about  that  latitude, 
blow  almoft  as  regularly  from  the  weft  as  the  trade 
winds  do  from  the  eaft,  thefe  winds  would  carry  them, 
in  the  track  of  the  Spanifh  Acapulco  ftiips,  to  the 
coaft  of  Mexico  ;  from  whence  the  land-wind,  which 
blows  for  ever  from  the  north  to  the  fouth,  would  car- 
ry them  along  the  coaft  of  Mexico  into  the  bay  of  Pa- 
nama. So  that  in  going  from  Britain,  fhips  would 
encounter  no  uncertain  winds,  except  during  their  paf- 
fage  fouth  into  the  latitude  of  the  trade  wind ;  in  co- 
ming from  India  to  the  bay  of  Panama  no  uncertain 
winds,  except  in  their  pafTage  north  to  the  latitude  of 
the  wefterly  winds  ;  and  in  going  from  the  other  fide 
of  the  ifthmus  to  the  eaft,  no  uncertain  wind  whatfoever. 
— Gold  was  feen  by  Paterfon  in  fome  places  of  the 
ifthmus ;  and  hence  an  ifland  on  the  Atlantic  fide  was 
called  the  Golden  Ijland,  and  a  river  on  the  fide  to  the 
South  Sea  was  called  the  Golden  Ri-ver;  but  thefe  were 
objefts  which  he  regarded  not  at  that  time,  becaufe  far 
greater  were  in  his  eye  ;  the  removing  of  diftances,  the 
drawing  nations  nearer  to  each  other,  the  prefervation 
of  the  valuable  lives  of  feamen,  and  the  faving  in 
freight,  fo  important  to  merchants,  and  in  time  fo  im- 
portant  to  them,  and  to  an  animal  whofe  life  is  of  fo 
fhort  duration  as  that  of  man. 

By  this  obfcure  Scotfman,  a  projeiEl  was  formed  to 
fettle,  on  this  neglefted  fpot,  a  great  and  powerful  co- 
lony ;  not  as  other  colonies  have  for  the  moft  part 
been  fettled,  by  chance,  and  unprotefted  by  the  coun- 
try from  whence  they  went  ;  but  by  fyftem,  upon  fore- 
fight,  and  to  receive  the  ample  proteftion  of  thofe  go- 
vernments to  whom  he  was  to  offer  his  projeft.  And 
certainly  no  greater  idea  has  been  formed  Gnce  the  time 
of  Columbus. 

Paterfon's  original  intention  was  to  offer  his  projeft 
to  England,  as  the  country  which  had  moft  intereft  in 
it,  not  only  from  the  benefit  common  to  all  nations, 
of  fhortening  the  length  of  voyages  to  the  Eaft  Indies, 
but  by  the  effeft  which  it  would  have  had  to  conncft 
the  interefts  of  her  European,  Weft  Indian,  American, 
African,  and  Eaft  Indian  trade.  But  Paterfon  having 
few  acquaintance,  and  no  proteftion  in  London,  thought 
of  drawing  the  public  eye  upon  him,  and  ingratiating 
4  R  himfelf 


D     A     R 


[     6S2     ] 


D     A     R 


Darien.     himfelf  with  monied  men,  and  with  great  men,  by 

T  aflifling  them  to  model  a  projeft,   which  was  at  that 

time  in  embryo,  for  erefting  the  Bank  of  England. 
But  that  happened  to  him  which  has  happened  to 
many  in  his  fituation  :  the  perfons  to  whom  he  applied 
made  ufe  of  his  ideas,  took  the  honour  of  them  to 
themfelves,  were  civil  to  him  for  a  while,  and  neglec- 
ted him  afterwards.  He  therefore  communicated  his 
projeA  of  a  colony  only  to  a  few  perfons  in  London, 
and  thefe  few  difcouraged  him. 

He  next  made  offer  of  his  projeft  to  the  Dutch,  the 
Hamburghers,  and  the  Eleftor  of  Brandenburgh  ;  be- 
caufe,  by  means  of  the  paffage  of  the  Rhine  and  Elbe 
throu^li  theit  Hates,  he  thought,  that  the  great  addi- 
tional quantities  of  Eaft  Indian  and  American  goods, 
which  his  colony  would  bring  into  Europe,  would  be 
diftributed  through  Germany.  The  Dutch  and  Ham- 
burgh merchants,  who  bad  mod  intereft  in  the  fubjetl 
of  his  »Ifit,  heard  him  with  indifference:  The  EleAor, 
who  had  very  little  intereft  in  it,  received  him  with  ho- 
nour and  kindnefs.  But  court-arts  and  falft  reports  loll 
him  even  that  prince's  favour. 

Paterfon,  on  his  return  to  London,  formed  a  friend- 
fhip  with  Mr  Fletcher  of  Salton,  whofe  mind  was 
inflamed  with  the  love  of  public  good,  and  all  of 
whofe  ideas  to  procure  it  had  a  fublimity  rn  them. 
Fletcher  brought  Paterfon  down  to  Scotland  with  him, 
prefented  him  to  the  Marquis  of  T^-eeddale,  then  Mi- 
nifter  for  Scotland;  and  then,  with  that  power  which 
a  vehement  fpirit  always  poffefles  over  a  diffident  one, 
perfuaded  the  Marquis,  by  arguments  of  public  good, 
and  the  honour  which  would  redound  to  his  admini- 
ftration,  to  adopt  the  piojeft.  Lord  Stair  and  Mr 
Johnfton,  the  two  fecreUries  of  ftate,  patron ifed  thofe 
abilities  in  Paterfon  which  they  pofftffrd  in  themfelves: 
and  the  Lord  Advocate  Sir  James  Stuart,  the  lame 
man  who  had  adjufted  the  Prince  of  Orange's  declara- 
tion at  the  Revolution,  whofe  fon  was  manied  to  a 
niece  of  Lord  Stair,  went  naturally  along  with  his  con- 
neftions.  Thefe  perfons,  in  June  1695,  procured  a  fta- 
tute  from  parliament,  and  afterwards  a  chatter  from  the 
crown  in  terms  of  it,  for  creating  a  trading  company  to 
Africa  and  the  new  world,  with  power  to  plant  colonies 
and  build  forts,  with  confent  of  the  inhabitants,  iu 
places  not  poffeffed  by  other  European  nations. 

Paterfon,  now  finding  the  ground  firm  under  him, 
and  that  he  was  fupported  by  almoft  all  the  po.ver  and 
talents  of  his  country,  the  charafter  of  Fletcher,  and 
the  fanftion  of'an  aft  of  parliament  and  royal  charter, 
threw  his  projeft  boldly  upon  the  public,  and  opened 
a  fubfcription  for  a  company.  The  frenzy  of  the  Scots 
nation  to  fign  the  folemn  league  and  covenant  never 
exceeded  the  rapidity  with  which  they  ran  to  fubfcribe 
to  the  Darien  Company.  The  nobility,  the  gentry, 
the  merchants,  the  people,  the  royal  burghs  without 
the  exception  of  one,  moft  of  the  other  public  bodies, 
fubfcribfd.  Young  women  threw  their  little  fortunes 
into  the  (lock,  widows  fold  their  jointures  to  get  the 
command  of  money  for  thtr  fame  putpofe.  Almoft  in  an 
inftant  L. 400,000  were  fubfcribed  in  Scotland,  altho' 
it  be  now  known,  that  there  was  BCt  at  that  time  above 
L. 800,000  of  cafh  in  the  kingdom.  The  famous  Mr 
Law,  then  a  youth,  afterwards  confcffed,  that  the  fa- 
cility with  which  he.faw  the  pafQon  of  fpcculation  com- 


municate itfelf  from  all  to  all,  fatisfied  him  of  the  pof-    Daritn. 
fibilityof  producing  the  fame  tfftft  from  the  fame  caufe,  """■>—■ 
but  upon  a  larger  fcale,   when   the  Duke  of  Orleans, 
in  the  year  of  the  Mlllifippi,  engaged  hijn  againft  his 
will  to  turn   his  bank  into  a  bubSIe.      Pateifon's  pro- 
ject, which  had  been  received  by  ftrangers  with  fears 
when  opened  to  them  in  private,  filled  them  with  hopes 
when  it  came  to  them  upon  the  wings  of  public  fame  : 
For   Colonel  Eifliine,   fon  to  Lord  Cardrofs,  and  Mr 
Haldane  of  Gleneagles,  the  one  a  generous  branch  of  a 
generous  ftem,  and  the  other  a  country  gentleman  of 
fortune  and  eharafter,  having  been  deputed  to  receive 
fubfcriptions  in  England  and  on  the  continent,  the  Eng- 
gllih  fubfcribed  L.300,oco,  and  the  Dutch  and  Ham- 
burphers  L. 200,000  more. 

In  the  mean  time  the  jealoufy  of  trade  (continues  our 
author),  which  has  done  more  mifchief  to  the  trade  of 
England  than  all  other  caufes  put  together,  created  an 
alarm  in  England  ;  and  the  Houfes  of  Lords  and  Com- 
mons, without  previous  inquiry  or  reflection,  on  the  1 3th 
of  December  1695,  concurred  in  a  joint  addrefs  to  the 
King,  againil  the  eftabliilimentof  the  Darien  Company, 
as  detrimental  to  theintereil  of  the  Eall  IndiaCompany. 
Soon  after,  the  Commons  impeached  fome  of  thcic 
own  countrymen  for  being  inllrumental  in  erefting  the 
company  ;  and  alio  fome  of  the  Scots  nation,  one  of 
whom  was  a  peer,  Lord  Bclhaven  ;  that  is  to  fay,  they, 
arraigned  the  fubjefts  of  another  country  for  making, 
ufe  of  the  laws  of  their  own.  Among  600  legiQators, 
not  one  had  the  happy  ray  of  genius  to  propofe  a  com- 
mittee of  both  parliaments,  to  inquire  into  the  prin- 
ciples and  cenfcquences  of  the  eftablKhmcRt  ;  and  if 
thefe  fliould,  upon  inquiry,  be  found,  that  the  bentuS: 
of  it  fliould  be  communicated,  by  a  participation  of. 
rights,  to  both  nations.  The  King's  anfwer  was, 
"  That  he  had  been  ill  advlfcd  in  Scotland."  He 
foon  after  changed  his  Scottifli  minillers,  and  fent  orr 
ders  to  his  refident  at  Hamburi>h  to  prefer-t  a  memo- 
rial to  the  fenate,  in  which  he  difowned  the  company 
and  warned  them  againft  all  conneftions  with  it.  The 
fenate  fent  the  memorial  to  the  aflcmbly  of  merchants, 
who  returned  itwith  thefoUowing  fpiritedanfwer  :  "  We 
look  upon  it  as  a  very  ftrange  thing,  that  the  King  of 
Britain  fhould  offer  to  hinder  us,  who  are  a  free  people, 
to  trade  witli  whom  we  pleafe;  but  are  airazedto  think, 
that  he  would  hinder  us  from  joining  with  his  own  fub- 
jefts in  Scotland,  to  whom  he  had  lately  given  fuch 
large  privileges,  by  fo  folemn  an  aft  of  parliament." 
But  merchants,  though  mighty  prone  to  paffion,  are. 
eafily  intimidated  :  The  Dutch,  Hamburgh,  and  Lon- 
don merchants  withdrew  their  fubfcriptions. 

The  Scots,  not  difcouraged,  were  rather  animated 
by  this  oppreflion  ;  for  they  converted  it  into  a  proof, 
of  the  envy  of  the  Englifh,  and  of  their  eonXcioufnefs 
of  the  great  advantages  which  were  to  flow  to  Scotland 
from  the  colony.  The  company  proceeded  to  build 
lix  fhips  in  Holland,  from  36  to  60  guns,  and  they  en- 
gaged 1 200  men  for  the  colony  ;  among  whom  were 
younger  fons  of  many  of  the  noble  and  moft  ancient 
families  of  Scotland,  and  60  officers  who  had  been  difr 
banded  at  the  peace,  who  carried  with  them  fuch  cf 
their  private  men,  generally  raifed  on  their  own,  or  the 
eftates  of  their  relations,  as  they  knew  to  be  faithful 
and  brave  ;  and  moft  of  thefe  vjeie  Highlanders.  The 
jL  Scots- 


D    A     R 


r  683  ] 


D    A    R 


Scots  parliament,  on  the  5lh  Augud  1 698,  unani- 
"'moufly  addrefTed  the  Kliifj  10  fupport  the  company. 
The  Lord  Prefident  Sir  Iliii^h  Dahymple,  brother  to 
Lord  Stair  and  head  of  the  bench,  and  the  Lord  Ad- 
vocate Sir  James  Stuart,  head  of  tlie  bar,  jointly  drew 
mcmurials  to  the  King,  able  in  point  of  argument,  in- 
formation, and  arrangement ;  in  which  they  defended 
t!ie  rights  •f  the  company  upon  the  principles  of  con- 
flitutional  and  of  public  law.  And  neighbouring  na- 
tions, with  a  mixture  of  furprife  and  refped^,  faw  the 
pooreft  kingdom  of  Europe  fending  forth  the  moft  gal- 
lant and  the  moft  numerous  colony  that  had  ever  gone 
from  the  old  to  the  new  world. 

On  the  26th  day  of  July  of  the  year  1698,  the  whole 
city  of  Edinburgh  poured  down  upon  Lcith,  to  fee  the 
colony  depart,  amidll  the  tears  and  prayers  and  prai- 
fes  of  relations  and  friends  and  of  their  countrymen. 
Many  feamen  and  foldiers,  whofe  fervices  had  been  re- 
fufed,  becaufe  more  had  offere'd  themfclves  than  were 
needed,  were  found  hid  in  the  rtiips,  and,  when  order- 
ed afhore,  clung  to  the  ropes  and  timbers,  imploring 
to  go  without  reward  with  their  companions.  Twelve 
hundred  men  failed  in  five  ftout  (hips,  and  arrived  at 
Darien  in  two  months,  with  the  lofs  of  only  15  of 
their  people.  At  that  time  it  was  in  their  power,  moft 
of  whom  were  well  born,  and  all  of  them  hardily  bred, 
and  inured  to  the  fatigues  and  dangers  of  the  late  war, 
to  have  gone  from  the  northmoll  part  of  Mexico  to  the 
fouthmoft  of  Chili,  and  to  have  overturned  the  whole 
empire  of  Spain  in  the  South  Seas  :  But  modeft,  re- 
fpeding  their  own  and  their  country's  character,  and 
afraid  of  being  accufed  that  they  had  plunder,  and  not 
a  fettlement,  in  view,  they  began  with  purchafing  lands 


with  them  ;  they  fell  into  difeafea  from  bad  food  and  Darien. 
from  want  of  food.  But  the  more  generous  favages,  »  ■ 
by  hunting  and  firtiing  for  them,  gave  them  that  relief 
which  fellow  Britons  refufed.  They  lingered  eight 
months,  awaiting,  but  in  vain,  foraffillance  from  Scot- 
land ;  and  almoll  all  of  tliem  either  died  out  or  quitted 
the  fettlement.  Paterfon,  who  had  been  the  firlt  that 
entered  the  (hip  at  Leith,  was  the  latl  who  went  on 
board  at  Darien. 

During  the  fpace  of  two  years,  while  the  eftablilTi- 
ment  of  this  clony  had  been  in  agitation,  Spain  had 
made  no  complaint  to  England  or  Scotland  againit  it. 
The  Darien  council  even  averred  in  tiieir  papers  (which 
are  in  the  Advocates  Library),  that  the  right  of  the 
company  was  debated  before  the  king,  in  prefence  of 
the  Spanilli  ambalTador,  before  the  colony  left  Scot- 
land. But  now,  on  the  3d  of  May  1696,  the  Spa- 
ni/h  ambalfador  at  London  prefented  a  memorial  to  the 
king,  which  complained  of  the  fettlement  at  Darien 
as  an  incroachment  on  the  rights  of  liis  matter. 

The  Scots,  ignorant  of  the  misfortunes  of  their  co- 
lony, but  provoked  at  this  memorial,  fent  out  another 
colony  foon  after  of  1300  men,  to  fupport  an  eftablifh- 
ment  which  was  now  no  more.  But  this  lall  expedi- 
tion having  been  more  haftily  prepared  than  the  firlt, 
was  unlucky  in  its  paffage.  One  of  the  fhips  was  loft 
at  fea,  many  men  died  on  (hip-board,  and  the  lelt  ar- 
rived at  different  times,  broken  in  their  health  and 
difpirited,  when  they  heard  the  fate  of  thofe  who  had 
gone  before  them. — Added  to  the  misfoi tunes  of  the 
firft  colony,  the  fecond  had  a  misfortune  peculiar  to 
itfelf :  The  General  Affembly  of  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land fent   out  four  miniilcrs,   with   orders,  "  to  take 


from  the   natives,  and  fending  meffages   of  amity  to     charge  of  the  fouls  of  the  colony,  and  to  ereft  a  pref- 


the  Spanifh  governors  within  their  reach:  and  then 
fixed  their  ftation  at  Ada,  calling  it  AViy  St  Jlndreiv, 
from  the  name  of  the  tutelar  faint  of  Scotland,  and  the 
country  itfelf  A'ifTO  Caledonia.  One  of  the  fides  of  the 
harbour  being  formed  by  a  long  narrow  neck  of  land 
which  ran  into  the  fea,  they  cut  it  acrofs  fo  as  to  join 
the  ocean  and  the  h'Srbour.  Within  this  defence  they 
erefted  their  fort,  planting  upon  it  jo  pieces  of  cannon. 
On  the  other  fide  of  the  harbour  there  was  a  mountain 
a  mile  high,  on  which  they  placed  a  watch-houfe, 
which,  in  the  rarefied  air  within  the  tropics,  fo  favour- 
able for  vifion,  gave  them  an  immenfe  range  of  pro- 
fpeft,  to  prevent  all  furprife.  To  this  plaee,  it  was 
obferved,  that  the  Highlanders  often  repaired,  to  en- 
joy a  cool  air,  and  to  talk  of  their  friends  they  had  left 
behmd  in  their  hills;  friends  whofe  minds  were  as  high 
as  their  mountains.  The  firft  public  aft  of  the  colony 
was  to  publilh  a  declaration  of  freedom  of  trade  and 
religion  to  all  nations.  This  luminous  idea  originated 
with  Patetfon. 

But  the  Dutch  Eaft  India  Company  having  prelL'd 


bytery,  with  a  moderator,  clerk,  and  record  of  pro- 
ceedings ;  to  appoint  ruling  elders,  deacons,  overfeers 
of  the  manners  of  the  people,  and  affillants  in  the 
exercife  of  church  dit'cipline  and  government,  and  to 
hold  regular  kirk-felTions."  When  they  arrived,  the 
oflicers  and  gentlemen  were  occupied  in  building  houfes 
for  themfelves  with  their  own  hands,  becaufe  there 
was  no  help  to  be  got  from  others  ;  yet  the  four  mini- 
fters  complained  gricvoufly  that  the  council  did  not  or- 
der houfes  to  be  immediately  built  for  their  accommo- 
dation. They  had  not  had  the  precaution  to  bring 
with  them  letters  of  recommendation  from  the  direc- 
tors at  home  to  the  council  abroad.  On  thefe  accounts, 
not  meeting  with  all  the  attention  they  expefted  from 
the  higher,  they  paid  court  to  the  inferior  ranks  of 
the  colonifts,  and  by  that  means  threw  divifions  into 
the  colony.  They  exhaufted  the  fpirits  of  the  people, 
by  requiring  their  attendance  at  fermon  four  or  five 
hours  at  a  flretch,  relieving  each  other  by  preaching 
alternately,  but  allowing  no  relief  to  their  hearers. 
The  employment  of  one  of  the  days  fet  afide  for  re- 


the  king,  in  concurrence   with   his   Englifh  fubjedts,  ligious  exercife,  which  was  a  Wedntfday,  they  divided 

to  prevent   the  fettlement  at  Darien,  orders  had  been  into  three   parts,  thanklgiving,  humiliation,  and  fup- 

fent  from  England   to    the  governors  of  the  Weft  In-  plication,  in  which  three  miniifers  followed  each  other, 

dian    and   American   colonies,  to   ilTue   proclamations  And  as  the  fervice  of  the  church  of  Scotland  confifts 

agaiiift  giving  alTiftance,  or  even  to  hold  correfpondence  of  a  lefturc  with  a  comment,  a  fermon,  two  prayers, 

with  the  colony  ;  and  thefe  were   more  or  lefs  hardily  three,  pfalms,  and   a    bleffing,  the  work   of  that   day| 

exprcffed,  according   to   the   tempers   of  the  different  upon  an  average   of  the  length   of  the  fervice  of  that 

governors.     The  Scots,  truPung  to  far  different  treat-  age,  could  not  take  up  lets  than  twelve  hours :  during 

ment,  and   to   the   fupplies  which  they  expefted  from  which  fpace  of  time  the  colony  was  coUcfted,  and  kept 

thofe    colonies,    had  not  brought  provifions  enough  clofc  together  in  the  guard-room,  which  was  ufed  as 

4  R  J  a 


PAR 


[    684    ] 


D    A    Tl 


D.uien.    a  church,  in  a  tropical  climate,  and  in  a  fickly  feafon. 

^~'>^""~  They  prefented  a  paper  to  the  council,  and  made  it 
public,  requiring  them  to  fet  afide  a  day  for  a  folemn 
falling  and  humiliation,  and  containing  thtir  reafons 
for  their  requifition  ;  in  which,  under  pretence  of  enu- 
merating the  fins  of  the  people,  they  pouved  abufe  on 
their  rulers.  They  damped  the  courage  of  the  people, 
by  continually  prefenting  hell  to  them  as  the  termina- 
tion of  life  to  mod  men,  becaufe  moil  men  are  finners. 
Carrying  the  prefljyterian  doftrine  of  predeftination 
to  extremes,  they  (topped  all  exertions,  by  (hewing  that 
the  confequence  of  them  depended  not  on  thofe  by  whom 
they  were  made.     They  converted   the  numberlefs  ac- 

.  cidents  to  which  foldiers  and  feamen  are  expofed,  into 

immediate  judgments  of  God  againft  their  fins.  And 
hating  refolved  to  quit  the  fettlement,  they,  in  excufe 
for  their  doing  fo,  wrote  bitter  letters  to  the  General 
Aflembly  againft  the  chirafters  of  the  colonifts,  and 
the  advantages  of  the  colony  itfelf. 

One  of  them,  in  a  kind  of  hiftory  of  the  colony 
which  he  publiflied,  with  a  favage  triumph  exulted 
over  the  misfortunes  of  his  countrymen  in  the  follow- 
ing words  : — "  They  were  fuch  a  rude  company,  that 
I  believe  Sodom  never  declared  fuch  impudence  in  fin- 
ning as  they.  Any  obfervant  eye  might  fee,  that  they 
were  running  the  way  they  went  :  heU  and  judgment 
was  to  be  feen  upon  them,  and  in  them,  before  the 
time  :  Their  cup  was  full ;  it  could  hold  no  more  : 
They  were  ripe  ;  they  muft  be  cut  down  with  the 
fickle  of  the  wrath  of  God." 

The  laft  party  that  joined  the  fecond  colony  at  Da- 
rien,  after  it  had  been  three  months  fettled,  was  Cap- 
tain Campbell  of  Finab,  with  a  company  of  the  people  of 
his  own  eftate,  whom  he  had  commanded  in  Flanders, 
and  whom  he  carried  to  Darien  in  his  own  fhip.  On  their 
arrival  at  New  St  Andrew,  they  found  inttlligence 
had  been  lately  received,  that  a  Spanilh  force  of  i6oo 
men,  which  had  been  brought  from  the  coaft  of  the 
South  Sea,  lay  encamped  at  Tubucantce,  waiting 
there  till  a  Spanifh  fquadron  of  eleven  (hips  which 
was  expeAed  fhould  arrive,  when  they  were  jointly  to 
attack  the  fort.  The  military  command  was  offered 
to  Captain  Campbell,  in  compliment  to  his  reputation 
and  to  his  birth,  who  was  defcended  from  the  families 
of  Breadalbane  and  Athole.  In  order  to  prevent  a 
joint  attack,  he  refolved  to  attack  firft  ;  and  therefore, 
on  the  fecond  day  after  his  arrival,  he  marched  with 
200  men  to  Tubucantce,  before  his  arrival  was  known, 
to  the  enemy,  donned  the  camp  in  the  nitjht-time, 
diffipated  the  Spanilh  force  with  much  (laughter,  and 
jeiutned  to  the  fort  the  fifth  day  :  But  he  found  the 
Spanilh  (hips  before  the  harbour,  their  troops  landed, 
and  alracft  all  hopes  of  help  or  provifion  cut  off;  yet  he 
ftood  a  fiege  near  fix  weeks,  til!  almoft  all  the  ofBcers  were 
dead,  the  enemy  by  their  approaches  had  cut  off  his 
wells,  and  his  balls  were  fo  far  expended,  that  he  was 
obliged  to  raelt  the  pewter  dilhes  of  the  garrifon  into 
balls.  The  garrifon  then  capitulated,  and  obtained 
not  only  the  common  honours  of  war  and  fecurity 
for  the  property  of  the  company,  but,  as  if  they  had 
been  conquerors,  exafted  hoftages  for  performance  of 
the  conditions.  Captain  Campbell  alone  defired  to  be 
excepted  from  the  capitulation,  faying,  he  was  fure 
the  Spaniards  could  not  forgive  him  the  mifchief  which 
he  fo  lately  had  done  them.     The  bravcj  by  their  cou- 


rage, often  efcape  that  death  which  they  feem  to  pro- 
voke:  Captain  Campbell  made  his  efcape  in  his  vclfel, "" 
and,  (lopping  nowhere,  arrived  fafely  at  N«w  York, 
and  from  thence  to  Scotland,  where  the  company  pre- 
fented him  with  a  gold  medal,  in  which  his  virtue  was 
commemorated,  to  inflame  his  family  with  the  love  of 
heroic  actions.  And  the  Lord  Lyon  King  at  Arms, 
whofc  ofiice  it  is  in  Scotland  (and  fuch  offices  (hould 
be  every  where)  to  confer  badges  of  dillinclion  accord* 
ing  to  the  rules  of  heraldry  upon  honourable  aflious, 
gave  him  a  Highlander  and  an  Lidian  for  fupporters 
to  his  coat  of  arms. 

A  harder  fate  attended  thofe  whom  Captain  Camp, 
bell  left  at  Darien.  They  were  foweak  in  their  health 
as  not  to  be  able  to  weigh  up  the  anchors  of  the  Rifing 
Sun,  one  cf  their  (hipa,  which  carried  60  guns:  But 
the  generous  Spaniards  aiTifted  them.  In  going  out  of 
the  harbour  fire  ran  aground  :  The  prey  was  tempting  ; 
and  to  obtain  it,  the  Spaniards  had  only  to  (land  by 
and  look  on  :  but  (howed  that  mercy  to  the  Scots 
in  diftrefs,  which  one  of  the  countrymen  of  thofe 
Scots,  General  Elliot,  returned  to  the  poderity  of  the 
Spaniards  at  the  end  of  the  late  conflagration  at  the 
ficge  of  Gibraltar.  The  Darien  flrips  being  leaky  and 
weakly  manned,  were  obliged  in  their  voyage  to  take 
(helter  in  different  ports  belonging  to  Spain  and  Eng- 
land. The  Spaniards  In  the  new  world  (howed  thera 
kindnefs ;  the  Englilh  governments  (howed  them  none  ; 
and  in  one  place  one  of  their  (hips  was  feized  and  de- 
tained. Of  thefe  only  Captain  Campbell's  (hip  and 
another  fmall  one  were  faved  :  The  Royal  Sun  was  loft 
on  the  bar  of  Charleftown  ;  and  of  the  colony,  not 
more  than  30,  faved  from  war,  (hipwreck,  or  difeafe, 
ever  faw  their  country  again. 

Paterfon,  who  had  dood  the  blow,  could  not  (land 
the  reflettion  of  misfortune.  He  was  feized  with  a 
lunacy  in  his  paffage  home  after  the  ruin  of  the  firft 
colony  ;  but  he  recovered  in  his  own  country,  where 
his  fpirit,  dill  ardent  and  unbroke,  prefented  a  new 
plan  to  the  company,  founded  on  the  idea  of  King 
William,  that  England  (hould  have  the  joint  dominion 
of  the  fettlement  with  Scotland. 

He  furvived  many  years  in  Scotland,  pitied,  refpeft- 
ed,  but  neglei5led.  After  the  union  of  the  two  king- 
doms, he  claimed  reparation  of  his  loffes  from  the  equi- 
valent-money given  by  England  to  the  Darien  Com- 
pany, but  got  nothing  j  becaufe  a  grant  to  him  from 
a  pubhc  fund  would  have  been  only  an  aft  of  humani- 
ty, not  a  political  job. 

Thus  ended  the  colony  of  Darien.  Men  look  into 
the  works  of  poets  for  fubjeAs  of  fatire  ;  but  they  are 
more  often  to  be  found  in  the  records  of  hillory.  The 
application  of  the  Dutch  to  King  William  againft  the 
Darien  Company,  affords  the  fured  of  aU  proofs,  that 
it  was  the  intereil  of  the  Briti(h  iflands  to  lupport  it. 
England,  by  the  imprudence  of  ruining  that  lettle- 
raent,  loft  the  opportunity  of  gaining  and  continuing 
to  herfelf  the  greated  commercial  empire  that  proba- 
bly ever  will  be  upon  earth.  Had  (he  treated  with 
Scotland,  in  the  hour  of  the  didrefs  of  the  company,, 
for  a  joint  poffcllion  of  the  fettlement,  or  adopted  the 
union  of  tire  kingdoms,  which  the  fovereign  of  both 
propofcd  to  them,  that  poffcffion  could  certainly  have 
been  obtained.  Had  (he  treated  with  Spain  to  relin. 
quid)  an  imaginary  right,,  or  at  leaft  to  give  a  palTage 

acrulil. 


D    A    R 


I    685     1 


D    A    R 


Darien.  acrofs  tKe  ifthmus,  upon  receiving  dutiea  fo  high  as  to 
— V—  overbalance  all  the  chance  of  Iof»  by  a  contraband  trade, 
fhe  had  probably  obtained  either  the  one  or  the  other. 
Had  (he  broke  with  Spain  for  the  fake  of  gaininir  by 
force  one  of  thofe  favours,  fhe  would  have  loft  far  leU 
than  fhe  afterwards  did  by  carrylns;  a  war  into  that 
country  for  many  years,  to  force  a  king  upon  the  Spa- 
niards againll  their  will.  Even  a  rupture  with  Spain 
for  Darien,  if  it  had  proved  fucccfsful,  would  have 
knit  the  two  nations  together  by  the  mod  folid  of  ties, 
their  mutual  intcreft  :  for  the  Englifli  muft  then  have 
depended  upon  Spain  for  the  fafcty  of  their  caravans 
by  land,  and  the  Spaniards  upon  England  for  the  fafety 
of  their  fleets  by  fea.  Spain  and  England  would  have 
been  bound  together  as  Poitugal  and  England  have 
long  been  ;  and  the  Spanifh  iteafures  have  failed,  un- 
der the  wings  cf  Englifh  navies,  from  the  Spanifli  main 
to  Cadiz,  in  the  fame  manner  as  the  treaiures  of  Por- 
tugal have  failed  under  the  fame  proteftion,  facred  and 
untouched,  from  the  Brazils  to  Lifbon. 

It  has  been  made  a  qiieflion.  Whether  King  Wil- 
liam behaved  with  his  ordinary  fincerity  and  fteadinefs, 
in  the  afTurances  of  fa>'our  which  he  gave  more  than 
once  to  the  company  during  their  diftrefTes.  The  fol- 
lowing anecdote  makes  it  probable,  that  there  was  a 
ilruggle  in  his  breatt  between  the  part  which  he  was 
obliged  to  aft  to  pleafe  his  Englifli  and  Dutch  at  the 
fxpence  of  his  Scots  fubjefts  and  his  own  feelings. 
A  provifion  (hip  of  the  firfl;  colony,  in  which  were  30 
gentlemen  pafTengers,  and  fome  of  them  of  noble  birth, 
having  been  (hipwrccked  at  Carthagena,  the  Spaniards 
believing,  or  pretending  to  believe,  that  they  were 
fmugglers,  cafl  them  Into  a  dungeon  and  threatened 
them  with  death,  The  company  deputed  Lord  Bafil 
Hamilton  from  Scotland  to  implore  King  William's 
protcftion  for  the  prifoners.  The  king  at  firll  refufed 
to  fee  him,  becaufe  he  had  not  appeared  at  court  when 
he  was  laft  in  London.  But  when  that  difHculty  was 
removed  by  explanation,  an  expreflion  fell  from  the 
king  which  (liowed  his  fcnfe  of  the  generous  conduft 
of  another,  although  influenced  by  the  Englifh  and 
Dutch  Eaft  India  Companies,  he  could  not  refolve  to 
imitate  it  in  his  own.  For  Lord  Bafil's  audience  ha- 
ving been  put  off  from  time  to  time,  but  at  lafl  fixed 
to  be  in  the  council-chamber  after  a  council  was  over, 
the  king,  who  had  forgot  tlie  appointment,  was  paf- 
fing  Into  another  room,  when  Lord  Eafil  placed  him- 
fclf  in  the  pafTage,  and  faid,  "  That  he  came  commif- 
fioned  by  a  great  body  of  his  majefty's  fubjefts  to  lay 
their  misfortunes  at  his  feet ;  that  he  had  a  right  to 
be  heard,  and  would  be  heard;"  The  king  returned, 
liftened  with  patience,  gave  inftant  orders  to  apply  to 
Spain  for  redrefs  ;  and  then  turning  to  thofe  near  him, 
faid,  "  This  young  man  is  too  bold,  if  any  man  can 
be  too  bold  in  his  country's  caufe."  I  had  this  anec- 
dote from  the  prefent  Earl  of  Selkirk,  grandfon  to 
Lord  Bafil. 

King  William's  defertion  of  a  company  ereiSed 
upon  the  faith  of  his  own  charter,  and  the  Englifli 
oppreffions  of  it,  were  the  reafons  why  fo  many  of  the 
Scots,  during  four  fucceflive  reigns,  difliked  the  caufe 
of  the  Revolution  and  of  the  Union.  And  that  diflike, 
joined  to  Englifh  difcontents,  brought  upon  both  coun- 
tries two  rebellions,  the  expenditure  of  many  millions 
of  money,  and  (which  is  a  fir  greater  lofs)  the  down- 
iol  of  miuy  of  their  nobkft  aod  mofl.  ancient  fami- 


lies.—iT/V  yoin  Dalrymple's  Jilemoirs  of  Great  Drltsin  and     Darii 
Ireland,  vol.  ii.  f|      ' 

DARII,  in  logic,  one  of  the  modes  of  fyllogifm  of  DarVncfi.^ 
tlie  fir(l  figure,  wherein  the  major  propofition  is  an  u-  ^"^ 
niverfal  affiimaiive,  and  the  minor  and  conclufion  par- 
ticular affirmatives  :  thus. 

Da-     Every  thing  ihat   is   moved,  is  movtd  by 

another; 
Ri-       Some  body  Is  moved  ; 
I,  Therefore,  fome  body  is  moved  by  ano- 

ther. 

DARIORIGUM  (anc.  geog.),  a  town  of  the  Ve- 
neti  in  Gallia  Celtica  ;  called  In  the  Notiiia  Lugdu- 
nenfis,  Civilas  Venetum,  after  the  manner  of  the  lower 
age.      Now  Vav.ncs,  or  Venues,  in  Brittany.    W.  Long,  ^ 

2.  -^y.  Lat.  47.  40. 

DARIUS,  the  name  of  fcveral kings  of  PerCa.  Se« 
[Hifiory  of)  Persia. 

DARKING,  a  market- town  of  Surrey  in  England, 
fituated  ten  miles  call  of  Guilford.  The  market  is  no- 
ted for  corn  and  provlfions,  more  efpecially  for  fowls. 
W.  Long.  8.  20.  N.  Lat.  51.  i8. 

DARKNESS,  the  abfence,  privation,  or  want  of 
natur-al  light.  "  Darknefs  was  upon  the  face  of  the 
deep"  (Gen.  i.  2.)  ;  that  is  to  fay,  the  chaos  was  plun- 
ged in  thick  darknefs,  btcaufe  hitherto  the  light  wag 
noi  created.  One  of  the  moft.  terrible  forts  of  dark- 
nefs was  that  which  Mofes  brought  upon  Egypt  ai 
a  plague  to  the  inhabitants  of  it.  The  Septnagint, 
our  tranflation  of  the  Bible,  and  indeed  moll  others, 
in  explaining  Mofes's  account  of  this  darknefs,  render 
it,  "  a  darknefs  which  may  be  felt ;"  and  the  Vulgate 
has  it,  "  a  palpable  darknefs  ;"  that  is,  a  darknefs 
confining  of  black  vapours  and  exhalations,  fo  con- 
denfed  that  they  might  be  perceived  by  the  organs  of 
feeling  or  feeing  ;  but  fome  commentators  thiirk  that 
this  is  carrying  the  fenfe  too  far,  fince  in  fuch  a  me- 
diilm  as  this  mankind  could  not  live  an  hour,  much  lefs 
for  the  fpace  of  three  days,  as  the  Egyptians  are  faid 
to  have  done,  during  the  time  this  darknefs  lafted  ;  and 
therefore  they  imagine,  that  irjftead  of  a  darknefs  that 
may  be  felt,  the  Hebrew  phrafe  may  fignify  a  darknela 
wherein  men  went  groping  and  feeling  about  for  every 
thing  they  wanted.  Le  Clerc  Is  of  this  opinion,  and 
thinks  that  Philo,  in  his  life  of  Mofes,  underflood  the 
paffage  in  its  right  fenfe.  "  For  in  this  darknefs  (faya 
he),  whoever  were  in  bed,  durft  not  get  up  ;  and  fuch, 
as  their  natural  occafions  compelled  to  get  up,  weot 
feeling  about  by  the  walls,  or  any  thing  they  could  lay 
hold  on,  as  if  they  had  been  blind."  What  it  was 
that  occafioned  this  darknefs,  whether  it  was  in  the 
air  or  in  the  eyes  ;  whether  it  was  a  fufpenfion  of  light 
from  the  fun  in  that  countr-y,  or  a  black  thick  vapour 
which  totally  intercepted  it,  there  is  reafon  to  think 
that  the  defcription  which  the  author  of  the  book  of 
Wifdom  (xvii.  1,2,3,  &c.)  gives  u3  of  their  inward 
terrors  and  confternation,  is  not  altogether  conjeftural, 
viz.  that  they  were  not  only  prifoners  of  darknefs,  and 
fettered  with  the  bonds  of  a  long  night,  but  were  hor- 
ribly aftonlfhed  likewife,  and  troubled  with  flrange  ap- 
paritions; for  while  over  them  was  fpread  an  heavy  night, 
they  were  to  themfelves  more  grievous  than  darknefs. 

During  the  laft  three  hours  that  our  Saviour  hanged 
upon  the  crofs,  a  darknefs  covered  the  face  of  the  earth, 
to  the  great  terror  and  amazement  of  the  people  pre- 
fent at  bis  execution.    This  extraordinary  alteration  m 

tcft 


DAS 


[     686     ] 


DAS 


Darlington  the  face  of  nature  (fays  DrMacknigKt,  in  his  Harmony 
II        cf  the  Go/pels),  was  peculiarly  proper,  whilft  the  Sun 

.  P»fyP"^-  of  righteoufnefs  was  withdrawing  his  beams  from  the 
•  land  of  Ifrasl  and  from  the  world ;  not  only  becaufe 
it  was  a  miraculous  teftimony  borne  by  God  himfelf 
to  his  innocence  ;  buc  alfo  becaufe  it  was  a  fit  emblem 
of  his  departure  and  its  effefts,  at  leaft  till  his  light 
flione  out  anew  with  additional  fplendor  in  the  minillry 
of  his  apoftles.  The  darknefs  which  now  covered  Ju- 
dea  and  the  neighbouring  countries,  beginning  about 
noon  and  continuing  till  Jefus  expired,  was  not  the 
effeft  of  an  ordinary  eclipfe  of  the  fun  :  for  that  can 
never  happen  but  at  the  new  moon,  whereas  now  it 
was  full  moon  ;  not  to  mention,  that  the  total  dark- 
nefs occafioned  by  eclipfes  of  the  fun  never  continues 
above  twelve  or  fifteen  minutes;  wherefore  it  muft 
have  been  produced  by  the  divine  power,  in  a  manner 
we  are  not  able  to  explain.  Accordingly,  Luke 
(xxiii.  44,  45-)'  ^f's""  relating  that  there  was  darknefs 
over  all  the  earth,  adds,  "  and  the  fun  was  darkei>ed  ;" 
which  perhaps  may  imply,  that  the  darknefs  of  the 
fun  did  not  occalion,  but  proceeded  from,  the  dark- 
nefs that  was  Over  all  the  land.  Further,  the  Chriftian 
writers,  in  their  mod  ancient  apologies  to  the  Hea- 
thens, affirm,  that  as  it  was  full  moon  at  the  pafFover 
when  Chrlft  was  crucified,  no  fuch  eclipfe  could  hap- 
pen by  the  courfe  of  nature.  They  obferve  alfo,  that 
it  was  taken  notice  of  as  a  prodigy  by  the  Heathens 
themfelves. 

DARLINGTON,  a  tow'n  of  the  county  of  Dur- 
ham, fituated  on  a  flat  on  the  river  Skerne,  which  falls 
into  the  Tees.  It  is  a  pretty  large  place,  has  feveral 
ftreets,  and  a  fpacious  market-place.  It  gives  title  of 
earl  to  the  Vane  family.     W.  Long.  i.  15.  N.  Lat. 

54-  30- 

DARMSTADT,  a  town  of  Germany  in  the  circle 

of  the  Upper  Rhine,  and  capital  of  the  landgraviate 
of  HefTeDarmftadt,  with  a  handfome  caftle,  where 
its  own  prince  generally  refides.  It  is  feated  on  a  ri- 
ver of  the  fame  name  in  E.  Long.  8.  40.  N.  Lat.  49. 
50. 

DARNEL,  im  botsny.     See  Lolium. 

DARNLEY  (Lord).  See  {Hyiory  of)  Scot- 
land. 

DARTFORD,  a  town  of  the  county  of  Kent  in 
England,  feated  on  the  river  Darent  not  far  from  its 
influx  into  the  Thames.     E.  Long.  o.  1 6.  N.  Lat.  5 1 . 

DARTMOUTH,  a  fea-port  town  in  Devonfliire, 
feated  on  the  river  Dart,'  near  its  fall  into  the  fea.  It 
is  a  well  frequented  and  populous  place,  having  a  com- 
modious harbour,  and  a  confiderable  trade  by  fea. 
The  town  is  large  and  well  built  ;  but  the  ftreets  are 
narrow  and  bad,  though  all  paved.  It  has  the  title  of 
an  earldom,  and  fends  two  members  to  parliament. 
W.  Lon^.  4.  o.  N.  Lat.  50.  25. 

DARTOS,  in  anatomy,  one  of  the  coats  which 
form  the  fcrotum.  It  is  called  the  ilartos  muj'cle  ;  but 
Dr  Hunter  fays,  that  no  fuch  mulcle  can  be  found,  and 
AJbinus  takes  no  notice  of  it  in  his  tables. 

DASYPUS,  the  Armadillo  or  Tatou,  in  zoolo- 
gy ;  a  genus  of  quadrupeds,  belonging  to  the  order  of 
bruta.  The  dafypus  has  neither  foreteeth  nor  dog- 
teeth ;  it  is  covered  with  a  hard  bony  (hell,  interfefted 
with  diftinCl  moveable  zones  or  belts  ;  this  ihell  covers 


the  head,  the  neck,  the  back,  the  flanks,  and  extends  Drfj^pm. 
even  to  the  extremity  of  the  tail  ;  the  only  parts  to  ~""V"~~" 
which  it  does  not  extend,  are  the  throat,  the  breaft, 
and  the  belly,  which  are  covered  wich  a  whitifh  llcin  of 
a  coarfe  grain,  refembling  that  of  a  hen  after  the  fea- 
thers are  pulh'd  off.  The  (hell  does  not  confi'.t  of  one 
entire  piece,  like  that  of  the  tottoiie  ;  but  is  divided  in- 
to feparate  belts,  connected  to  each  other  by  mem- 
branes, which  enable  the  animal  to  move  it,  and  even 
to  roll  itlelf  up  like  a  hedge-hog.  The  number  of 
thefe  belts  does  not  depend  on  the  age  of  the  animal, 
as  fome  have  imagined  ;  but  is  uniformly  the  fame  at  all 
times,  and  ferves  to  diltingui(b  the  different  fpecics. 
All  the  fpecies  of  this  animal  were  originally  natives 
of  America  :  they  were  entirely  unknown  to  the  an- 
cients ;  and  modern  travellers  mention  them  as  peculiar 
to  Mexico,  Brafil,  and  the  fouthern  parts  of  America; 
though  fome  indeed  have  confounded  them  with  two 
fpecies  of  manis  or  (hell-lizard,  which  are  (ouHd  in 
the  Eaft  Indies  :  others  report  that  they  are  natives 
of  Africa,  becaufe  fome  of  them  have  been  tranfported 
from  Brafil  to  the  coaft  of  Guinea,  where  a  ftw  have 
fince  been  propagated  ;  but  they  were  never  heard  of 
in  Europe,  Afia,  or  Africa,  till  after  the  difcovery  of 
America. — They  are  all  endowed  with  the  faculty  of 
extending  and  contratting  their  bodies,  and  of  rolling 
themfelves  up  like  a  ball,  but  not  into  fo  complete  a 
fphere  as  the  hedge-hog.  They  are  very  inoffenfivc 
animals,  excepting  when  they  get  into  gardens,  where 
they  devour  the  melons,  potatoes,  and  other  roots. 
They  walk  quickly  ;  but  can  hardly  be  faid  to  run  or 
leap,  fo  that  they  feldom  efcape  the  purfuit  either  of 
men  or  dogs.  But  nature  has  not  left  them  altogether 
diefencelefs.  They  dig  deep  holes  in  the  earth  ;  and 
feldom  go  very  far  from  their  fubterraneous  habitations :' 
upon  any  alarm  they  immediately  go  into  their  holes  ; 
but,  when  at  too  great  a  diftance,  they  require  but  a 
few  moments  to  make  one.  The  hunters  can  hardly 
catch  them  by  the  tail  before  they  fink  their  body  in 
the  ground  ;  where  they  ftick  fo  clofe,  that  the  tail  fre- 
quently comes  away  and  leaves  the  body  in  the  earth  ; 
which  obliges  the  hunters,  when  they  want  to  take 
them  alive  and  immutilated,  to  dilate  the  fides  of  the 
hole.  When  they  are  taken,  and  find  that  there  is 
no  refource,  they  inllantly  roll  themfelves  up,  and  will 
not  extend  their  bodies  unlefs  they  are  held  near  a 
fire.  When  in  deep  holes,  there  is  no  other  method  of 
making  them  come  out,  but  by  forcing  in  fmoke  or 
water.  They  keep  in  their  holes  through  the  day,  and 
feldom  go  abroad  in  queft  of  fubfiftence  but  in  the 
night.  The  hunters  ufually  chafe  theni  with  fmall 
dogs,  which  eafily  come  up  with  them.  When  the  dogs 
are  near,  the  creatures  initantly  roll  themfLlves  up,  and 
in  this  condition  the  hunters  carry  them  off.  However, 
if  they  be  near  a  precipice  they  often  elcape  both  the 
dogs  and  hunters :  they  roll  themlelves  up,  and  tumble 
down  like  a  ball,  without  breaking  their  flicll,  or  re- 
ceiving any  inj'iry.  The  dafypus  is  a  very  fruitful  a- 
nimal  :  the  female  generally  brings  forth  foui  young 
ones  every  month  ;  which  is  the  reafon  why  the  fpecies 
are  fo  numerous,  not  with  (landing  they  aie  fo  much 
fought  after  on  account  of  the  fweetnefs  of  their  flelh. 
The  Indians  likewife  make  bafkets,  boxes,  &c.  of  the 
(hells  which  cover  their  heads. 

Linnseus  enumerates  fix  fpecies  of  dafypus,  princi- 
pally 


DAT 


[     687     1 


D     A     U 


pally  diftingnifhed  by  the  number  of  their  moveable 
belts.      See  Plate  CLV. 

DATA,  among  mathematicians,  a  term  for  fueh 
things  or  quantities  us  are  given  or  known,  in  order  to 
find  other  things  thereby  that  are  UTiknovvn.  Euclid 
ufes  the  word  i!nta  (of  which  he  hath  a  particular 
traA)  for  fiich  fpaccs,  lines,  and  angles  as  are  given 
in  magnitude,  or  to  which  we  can  "aflign  others  equal. 

From  the  primary  ufe  of  the  word  data  in  mathe- 
matics, it  has  been  tranfplanted  into  other  arts  ;  as 
philofophy,  medicine,  Sec.  where  it  exprefles  any  quan- 
tity, which,  for  the  fake  of  a  ptefent  calculation,  is 
taken  for  gi anted  to  be  fuch,  without  requiring  an 
immediate  proof  for  its  certainty  ;  called  alfo  the  given 
quantity,  number,  or  power.  And  hence  alfo  fuch 
thing's  as  are  knovi'n,  from  whence  either  in  natural 
philofophy,  the  animal  mechanilm,  or  the  operation 
of  medicines,  we  come  to  the  knowledge  of  others  un- 
known, are  now  frequently  in  phyfical  writers  called 
data. 

DATE,  an  addition  or  appendage  in  writings,  afts, 
inllruments,  letters,  &c.  exprefling  the  day  and  month 
of  the  year  when  the  aft  or  letter  was  pafied  or  fign- 
ed  ;  together  with  the  place  where  the  fame  was  done. 
The  word  is  formed  from  the  Latin  datum  "given," 
the  participle  oi  do  "  I  give." 

Our  ancient  deeds  had  no  dates,  but  only  the  month 
and  year,  to  fignify  that  they  w-ere  not  made  in  hafte, 
or  in  the  fpace  of  a  day,  but  upon  longer  and  more 
mature  deliberation.  The  king's  grants  began  with 
thefe  words,  Pr.cfenlibvs  isf  futuris,  life,  but  the  grants 
of  private  perfons  with  Omnibus  prxfentes  literas  itifpec- 
turis,  i^e. 

A  deed  is  good,  though  It  mentions  no  date  or 
hath  a  falfe  date  ;  or  even  if  it  hath  an  impoffible  date, 
as  the  30th  of  February  ;  provided  the  real  day  of  its 
beliuT  dated  or  given,  that  is,  delivered,  can  be  proved. 
BlackJ}.  Com.  vol.  ii.  p.  304. 

Date,  the  fruit  of  the  great  palm-tree.     See  Phoe- 

NIX. 

DATI  (Carlo),  profeffor  of  polite  learning  at  Flo- 
rence. His  native  country  became  very  famous,  as 
well  on  account  of  his  works  as  of  the  eulogies  which 
have  been  bellowed  on  him  by  learned  men.  The  chief 
work  to  which  DatI  applied  himlclf,  was  Delia  Piltu- 
ra  Aiitica,  of  which  he  publiihed  an  effay  in  the  year 
1667.  He  died  in  167^,  much  lamented,  as  well  for 
his  humanity  and  amiable  manners  as  for  his  parts  and 
learning. 

D ATISC A,  in  botany:  A  genus  of  the  dodecandria 
order,  belonging  to  thedioecia  clafs  of  plants;  and  in  the 
natural  method  ranking  under  the  54th  order,  Mifcella- 
nea.  The  male  calyx  is  pentaphyllous  ;  there  is  no  co- 
rolla ;  the  anthcra  are  feffile,  long,  and  15  in  number. 
The  female  calyx  is  bidented  ;  no  corolla  ;  the  llyles 
three  ;  the  caplule  triangular,  three-horned,  unilocular, 
pervious,  polyfpermoua,  inferior. 

DATISI,  in  logic,  a  mode  cf  fylloglfms  in  the 
third  figure,  wherein  the  major  is  an  univcrfal  affirma- 
tive, and  the  minor  and  conclufion  particular  affirma- 
tive propoGtions.      For  example. 

Da-      All  who  ferve  God  are  kings  ; 

Ti-        Some  who  ferve  God  are  poor  ; 

SI,         Therefore,  fome  who  are  poor  are  kings. 

DATIVE,  in  grammar,  the  third  cafe  in  the  de- 


Daucus. 


clenfion  of  nouns  ;  exprefling  the  ftate  or  relation  of     Datum 
a  tiling  to  whofe  profit  or  lofs  fome  other  thing  is  re- 
ferred.    See  Grammar. 

It  is  called  dative,  becaufe  ufually  governed  by  a 
verb  implying  foinething  to  be  given  to  fome  perfotr. 
As,  commodare  Soerati,  "  to  lend  to  Socrates  ;"  utilii 
rdpublica,  "  ufeful  to  the  commonwealth  ;"  perniciofus 
ecclijla,   "  pernicious  to  the  church." 

In  Engllfh,  wtiere  we  have  properly  no  cafes,  this 
relation  is  exprefled  by  the  fijfn  to,  or  for. 

DATUM,  or  Datus,  (anc.  geog.),  a  town  of 
Thrace,  fituated  between  Ncapolis  and  the  river  Nef- 
tus :  A  colony  of  the  Thraclans,  according  to  Eufta- 
thius  ;  who  places  it  on  the  fea-coa!l,  near  the  Stry- 
mon,  in  a  rich  and  fruitful  foil,  famous  for  Hnip-build- 
ing  and  mines  of  gold  ;  hence  the  proverb  A"'"!'  Ayxiar, 
denoting  profperity  and  plenty,  (  Strabo.)  Appian  de- 
fcribes  it  as  feated  on  a  llcep  eminence,  the  whole  of 
which  I:  covered.  It  was  taken  by  Philip  of  Macedon, 
who  chang.ed  its  name  to  Philippi,  being  originally  cal- 
led Crenides  on  account  of  its  fprings.  It  was  after- 
wards famous  for  the  defeat  of  Brutus  and  Caflius  by 
Augullus  and  Antony. 

DATURA, theTHORN-APPLE, in  botany  :  A  genus 
of  the  monogynia  order,  belonging  to  the  pentandria 
clafs  of  plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  28th  order,  Luridx.  The  corolla  is  funncl- 
(haped,  and  plaited  ;  the  calyx  tubular,  angulated,  and 
deciduous;  the  capfule  quadiivalved.  There  are  fix 
fpecies.  The  ftramonlum,  or  common  thorn-apple, 
rifes  a  yard  hl>>;h,  with  an  ereft,  ftrong,  round, 
hollow,  green  ftalk,  branching  luxuriantly,  having  the 
branches  widely  extended  on  every  fide  ;  large,  oval, 
Irregularly-angulated,  fmooth,  dark-green  leaves  ;  and 
from  the  divlllons  of  the  branches,  large  white  flowers 
fingly,  fucceeded  by  lai-ge,  oval,  prickly  capfules, 
growing  ereft,  commonly  called  thorn-apples.  At  night 
the  upper  leaves  rife  up  and  inclofe  the  flowers.  The 
bloiToms  have  fometimes  a  tinge  of  purple  or  violet. 
The  flowers  confill  of  one  large,  funnel- fliaped  petal, 
having  a  long  tube,  and  fpreading  pentagonal  limb,, 
fucceeded  by  large  roundilh  capfules  of  the  fize  of 
middling  apples,  clofely  befet  with  fharp  fpines.  An 
ointment  prepared  from  the  leaves  gives  eafe  in  exter- 
nal inflammaiions  and  In  the  haemorrhoids.  The  feed* 
were  lately  recommended  by  Dr  Storck  to  be  taken 
internally  in  cafes  of  madnefs  ;  but  they  feem  to  be  a 
very  unfafe  remedy.  Taken  even  in  a  fmall  dofe,  they 
bring  on  a  delirium,  and  in  a  large  one  would  certain- 
ly prove  fatal.  Cows,  horfes,  Iheep,  and  goats,  refufe 
to  eat  this  plant. 

DAUCUS,  the  Carrot,  in  botany:  A  genus  ofi 
the  digynia  order,  belonging  to  the  pentandria  clafs  of 
plants;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
45th  order,  Uiabellate.  The  corolla  is  a  little  radiated, 
all  hermaphrodite.  T!ie  fiult  briftly  with  ftiort  hairs. 
1  here  are  five  fpecies  ;  but  the  only  one  which  merits 
attention  is  the  carota  or  common  carrot.  This  is  fo 
well  known  as  to  need  no  defcription.  There  are  fe- 
veral  varieties,  as  the  white,  the"orange,  and  the  purple 
carrot ;  but  of  thefe  the  orange  carrot  is  the  molt  e- 
ftcemed.  It  grows  longer,  larger,  and  is  commonly- 
more  handfome  than  the  others,  being  often  15  or  18 
inches  long  in  the  eatable  part,  and  from  two  to  four 
in  diameter  at  top.     Carrots  are  propagated  by  feeds, 

which, 


D    A    U 


r     688     ] 


D    A    U 


CaiTCTi'.    which  are  fown  at  different  feafons  of  the  year,  in  or- 
'  ""1"        der  to  procure  a  fupply  of  young  roots  for  the  table  at 
all  times.     The  feafon  for  fowing  for  the  earlieft  crop 
13  foon  after  Chrifttnas.     They  (hoiild  he  fown  in  an 
open  fituation,  but  near  a   wall ;  though  if  they  are 
fown  clofe  under  it  they  will  be  apt  to  run  up  to  feed 
too  faft,  and  give  no  good  roots  :  about  eight  inches 
dillance  is  the  molt  proper.     They  delight  in  a  warm 
fandy  foil,  which  fhould  be  light,  an 2   well  dug  to  a 
good  depth,  that  the  roots  may  meet  with  no  obflruc- 
tion  in  running  down,  fo  as  to  make  them  forked,  and 
fhoot  out  lateral  branches.     This  will  happen  efpecial- 
ly  when  the  giound  has  been   too  much   dunged  the 
fame  year  that  the  feeds  were  fown,  which  will  alfo  oc- 
cafion  them  to  be  worm-eaten.     The  hairynefs  of  thefe 
feeds  makes  the  fowing  of  them  difficult,  on   account 
of  their  being  fo  apt  to  ftick  together.   Before  fowing, 
tlierefore,  they  (hould  be  put  through  a  fine  chaff  fieve  ; 
and  a  calm  day  fhould  be   chofen   for   fowing   them. 
When  fown,  they  (hould  be  trod  in  with  the  feet,  and 
the  ground  raked  level  over  them.     When  they  firll 
come  up  they  fliould  be  cut  up  to  four  inches  diftance, 
and  a  month  after  this  they  are  to  be  cleared  again  ; 
and  if  drawn  while  young,  they  are  now  to  be  left  at 
fix  inches  diftance  every  way  ;  if  they  are  to  Hand  to 
grow  large,  they  muft  be  feparated   to  ten   inches  di- 
ftance.   The  fecond  feafon  for  fowing  carrots  is  in  Fe- 
bruary.    This  muft  be  done  under  a  wall  or  hedge,  on 
warm  banks  :  but  thofe  which  are  to  be  on  open  large 
quarters  (hould  not  be  fown  till  the  beginning  of  March. 
In  July,  carrots  may  be  fown  for  an  autumnal  crop  ; 
and  laftly,  in  the  end  of  Auguft,  for  thofe  which  are  to 
ftand   the   winter.     Thefe  lad  will  be   fit   for  ufe  in 
March,  before  any  of  the  fpring  ones  ;  but  they  are 
feldom  fo  tender  or  well  tafted.     In  order  to  prelerve 
carrots  for  life  all  winter,  they  are  to  be  dug  up  in  the 
beginning  of  November,  and  laid  in   a   dry  place  in 
fand  ;  and  thefe  roots  being  again  planted  in  February, 
will  ripen  feeds  in  Augult  for  fucceeding  crops :    the 
longell  and  ftraighteft  roots  are  to  be  chofen  for  this 
purpofe. 

Under  the  article  Agricijlture,  n»  44.  we  have 
taken  notice  of  the  good  properties  of  carrots  as  a  food 
for  cattle.  They  have  been  greatly  recommended  as 
proper  for  fattening  hogs;  but  from  fome  experiments 
mentioned  in  the  Georg'ttral  EJfays,  it  appears,  that 
though  the  bacon  thus  fed  is  of  excellent  quality,  the 
feeding  is  confiderably  dearer  than  that  fed  with  pesfe, 
pollard,  &c.  In  the  fame  effays,  the  following  experi- 
ment is  mentioned  by  Dr  Hunter,  concerning  the  pro- 
priety of  raifing  carrots  for  the  ufe  of  the  diftiller.  "  In 
the  month  of  Oftober  (1773),  I  took  24 bufhels  of  car- 
rots. After  being  wafhed,  topped,  and  tailed,  1  put 
them  into  a  large  brewing  copper  with  four  gallons  of 
water ;  and  covering  them  up  with  cloths  to  haften 
the  maceration,  I  ordered  a  fire  to  be  kindled  under- 
neath, which  in  a  (hort  time  reduced  the  whole  into  a 
tender  pulp.  They  were  then  put  into  a  common 
fcrew-prefs,  and  the  juice  taken  from  them  ;  which, 
together  with  the  liqour  left  in  the  copper,  was  run 
through  a  flannel  bag.  The  juice  was  then  returned 
itjto  the  copper  ;  and  as  it  was  my  defign  to  make  it 
into  ale,  I  put  to  it  a  proportionable  quantity  of  hops. 
The  liquor  was  then  boiled  about  an  hour,  when  it  ac- 


quired  both  the  tafte  tind  colour  of  wort.  It  was  next 
put  into  a  cooler,  and  afterwards  into  the  working 
veiTel,  where  the  yeaft  was  added  to  it.  It  worked 
kindly,  and  in  all  refpefts  was  treated  as  ale.  I  al- 
lowed it  to  remain  in  the  caflc  about  four  months,  when 
I  broached  it,  but  found  it  of  a  thick,  muddy  appear- 
ance. I  attempted  to  fine  it,  but  in  vain.  The  tafte 
was  by  no  means  difpleafing,  as  it  much  refembled 
malt  liquor.  My  fivft  intention  being  fruftrated,  I 
threw  it  into  the  ftill,  being  about  40  gallons  in  mea- 
fure,  and  by  two  diflillations  obtained  four  gallons  of 
a  clean  proof  fpirit.  It  had,  however,  contrafted  i 
flavour  from  the  hop,  which  (hould  be  left  out  wheti 
the  intention  is  to  reduce  the  liquor  into  fpirit.  Frott* 
a  grofs  calculation,  I  am  induced  to  think  that  a  good 
acre  q£  carrots  manufaftured  in  this  manner,  will  lea»e 
a  profit  of  L.  40.  after  dedufting  the  landlord's  rent, 
cultivation,  diftillation,  and  other  incidental  expences. 
In  this  calculation,  I  prefume  that  the  fpirit  is  worth 
fix  (hillings  per  gallon,  and  not  excifed.  An  acre  of 
barley  will  by  no  means  produce  fo  much  fpirit.  A 
rich  fandy  loam  is  the  beft  land  for  carrots ;  which,  af- 
ter the  crop  is  removed,  will  be  in  high  clutivation  for 
corn." 

Attempts  have  alfo  been  made  to  prepare  fugar  from 
carrots,  but  without  fuccefs ;  a  thick  fyrupy  matter 
like  treacle  being  only  obtainable. — Raw  carrots  are  gi- 
ven to  children  troubled  with  worms.  They  pafs 
through  moft  people  but  little  changed. — A  poultice 
made  of  the  roots  hath  been  found  to  mitigate  the  pain 
and  abate  the  ftench  of  foul  and  cancerous  ulcers.— 
Crickets  are  very  fond  of  carrots  ;  and  are  eafily  de- 
ftroyed  by  making  a  paftc  of  powdered  arfcnic,  wheat- 
meal,  and  fcraped  carrots,  which  muft  be  placed  near 
their  habitations. — By  their  ftrong  antifeptic  qualities, 
a  marmalade  made  from  carrots  has  alio  been  found 
ufeful  in  preventing  and  curing  the  fea-fcurvy. — The 
feeds  have  been  reckoned  carminative  and  diuretic ; 
and  were  formerly  much  ufed  as  a  remedy  for  the  ftone, 
but  are  at  prefcnt  difregarded. — Carrots  were  firft  in- 
troduced into  England  by  the  Flemings,  in  the  reign 
of  queen  Elizabeth. 

DAVENANT  (Sir  WiUIam),  an  emfnent  poet  in 
the  1 7th  century,  was  born  at  Oxford  is  1 606.  After 
fome  (fay  at  the  univerfity,  he  entered  into  the  fervice  or 
Frances  firft  duchefs  of  Richmond,  and  afterward  of 
Fulke  Grevil,  lord  Brook ;  who  having  an  excellent 
tafle  for  poetry,  was  much  charmed  with  him.  He 
got  great  efteera  by  writing  poems  and  plays  ;  and  up- 
on the  death  of  Ben  Johnfon  was  created  poet-laureat. 
He  wrote  his  poem  Goudibert  at  Paris.  He  formed 
a  defign  for  carrying  over  a  confidcrable  number  of 
artificers,  efpecially  weavers,  to  Virginia,  by  the  en- 
couragement of  Henrietta  Maria,  the  queen-mothei  of 
England,  who  obtained  leave  for  him  of  the  king  of 
France.  But  he  and  his  company  were  feized  by  fome 
parliament  (hips,  and  he  carried  prifoner  firft  to  the  ifle 
of  Wight,  and  then  to  the  Tower  of  London  ;  but,  by 
the  mediation  of  Milton  and  others,  he  got  his  liberty 
as  a  pi-ifoner  at  large.  At  this  time  tragedies  and  co- 
medies being  prohibited,  he  contrived  to  fet  up  an  O- 
pera,  to  be  performed  by  declamations  and  mufic.  This 
Italian  "opera  began  in  Rutland-houfe  in  Charter- 
houfe-yard,  1656;  but  was  afterwards  removed  to  the 

Coek- 


Dunefli, 
Davenanl 


,  //J: 


I'Jalo  fJ.V 


tL  ^^///i^/».//.,/^/r^^/^/^r^: 


Davfnant 

II 


D    A    V  [     689    ]  D    A    V 

Cock-Pit  in  Drury-I^ane,  and  was  rmicli  frequented  the  doftrine  of  ?  future  judgment.  He  rejected  mar-  T>uv'iU 
for  many  years.  In  164^,  liis  Madagafcar,  with  other  riap^e,  with  the  Adamitei ;  held,  with  Manes,  that  the  "— >r-~ 
poems,  were  printed.      He  died  in  1668.  foul  was   not   defiled  hy  fin;   and  laughed  at  the  lelf- 

DAVENANT  (Dodor  Charles),  an  eminent  ci-  denial  fo  much  reconuuended  hy  Jei'us  ChvilL  Such 
viliau  and  writer,  eldell  fon  of  the  preeediupf,  and  edu-  were  his  principal  errors.  Mc  made  liis  efcape  from 
cated  in  Cambridge  :  he  wrote  feveral  pohtical  trads  ;  Delft,  and  retired  fu-ft  into  I'rieOand  and  then  to  \^A- 
andlikevvife  plays.  He  was  (i6!^y)  impowered,  with  fd,  where  he  changed  hi?  name,  affuming  that  of  John 
the  niafter  of  the  revels,   to  infped  the  plays  defigned     Bruck,  and  died  in  1 556. 

for  the  (ia.i^c,  that  no  immoralities  might  be  prefeuted.  He  left  fome  difciples  behind  him,  to  whom  he  pio- 

His  Effays  on  Trade  are  in  high  ellcem  ;  and  were  mifed,  that  he  would  rife  again  at  the  end  of  threfc 
r<  printed  in  5  voli.  8vo,  in  1771.  Dodor  Davenaiit  years.  Nor  was  he  altogether  a  falfe  propliet  herein  j 
Mas  infpcdor-general  of  exports  and  imports  ;  and  died  for  the  magillrates  of  that  city,  being  informed,  at  thfc 
in  I  71  2.  three   years  end,  of  what  he  had  taught,  ordeied  hitn 

DAVENTRY,  or  Daintry,  a  handfome  town  of  to  be  dug  up  and  burnt,  together  with  his  writings, 
Northamptonlhire  in  England,  fuuated  on  the  fide  of  a     by  the  common  hangman. 

hill  cjn  the  great  road  to  Chetler  and  Cariiile.  W.Long.  There  are  Hill  fome    remains  of  this  ridtcnlons  feft 

in  Holftein,  Frielland,  and  other  countries ;  whofc 
temper  and  conduft  feem  to  difcrcdit  the  exag- 
gerated account  which  fome  writers  have  given  of 
their  foimder.  He  was  probably  a  deluded  fanatic 
and  myftic. 

DAVILA    (Henry    Catherine),   a   celebrated    hi- 
ftorian,  was    the    youugeil    fon    of  Antonio   Davila, 


I.  ly.  N.  Eat.  52.  12. 

DAUGHTER,  fJiHaJ,  a  female  child.  See  the  ar- 
ticle Children. 

Daughters,  among  the  ancients,  were  more  fre- 
quently expofcd  than  fons,  as  requiring  greater  charge 
to  eduoatt  and  fettle  them  in  the  world.  See  Ex- 
fosiSG  of  CbiUnn.     Thofe   who   had   no   legitimate 


fons  were  obliged,  by  the  Athenian  laws,  to  leave  their  grand  conitable  of  C)-pru3,  who  on  the  taking  of  that 
cltatesto  their  daughters,  who  were  confined  to  marry  ifland  by  the  Turks  in  1 5  70,  had  been  oWiged  to  re- 
their  nearell  relatione,  otherwife  to  forfeit  their  inheri-  tire  into  Spain,  whence  this  family  fuppofed  tiiey  had 
tance  ;  as  we  find  to  have  been  pradifed  likewife  among  derived  their  name  and  origin.  From  Spain  Antonio 
the  Jews,  many  of  whufe  laws  iVeiir  to  have  been  tran-  repaired  to  the  court  of  Fiance,  and  fettled  his  foit 
I'cribed  by  Solon.  Louis  and  two  daiiglitcrs  under  the  patronage  of  Ca- 
lf an  htirefs  happened  to  lie  married  before  her  therine  of  Medieis ;  whofe  name  he  afterwards  gai^e 
father's  death,  this  did  not  hinder  the  nearell  relation  to  the  young  hiilorian,  born  157'',  at  an  ancient  caftle 
to  claim  the  inhcitance,  and  even  to  take  the  Vv-omau  in  the  territories  of  Padua,  though  generally  called  a 
from  her  hulband  ;  v.hich  is  faid  to  have  been  a  com-  native  of  Cyprus.  The  little  Davila  was  brought  early 
nion  cafe.  into  France:  and  at  the  age  of  I  8,  he  fignaiiiced  hini- 
DAVID,  king  of  Ifrael,  and  Hebrew  poet,  was  fclf  in  the  military  fctues  of  that  country.  His  la  (I 
born  at  Bethlehem  1085,  and  died  1014  years  B.  C.  exploit  there  was  at  the  liege  of  Amiens,  where  he 
His  hillory  is  particularly  recorded  in  the  facred  wri-  fought  under  Henry  IV".  and  received  a  wound  in  the 


tings. 

St  DAVID'S,  an  epifcopal  town  of  Penibroke- 
{liire,.in  S.  Wales;  but  has  neither  market  nor  fair. 
It  is  feated  in  a  barren  foil  on  the  river   Hen,   not  a 


knee,  as  he  relates  himfelf  in  his  hiltory.  After  peace 
was  ellabliflied  in  France,  he  withdrew  into  Italy,  and 
eutered  into  the  fervice  of  the  Venetians.  Davila, 
while  he  was  at  Venice,  wrote  his  admirable  Hiflory  of 


mile  from  the  fea-{hore.      It  was  once  a  confideiable  the  Civil  Wars  of  France,  which  contains  every  thing 

pUice,  and  had  walls,  which  are  now  demolKhcd  ;   but  worth  notice  that  paffed  from  the  death  of  Henry  II. 

it  is  fmall  at  prefcnt,  and   thinly  inhabited;   however,  in  1559,  to  the   peace  of  Vervins  In  IJ98.      He  con- 

the  cathedral  is  a  pretty  good  flrudure.      From  the  tinued  to  ferve  the  republic  of  Venice  with  great  repa- 


cape,  near  tliis  place,  there  is  a  proijied  Into  Ii  eland 
W.  Long.  5.  20.   N.  Lat.  52.  o. 

St  David's,  a  V^'"  """I  f'J'"!  "f  Afia,  in  the  pe- 
niufula  on  tliis  fiJe  the  Ganges,  and  on  the  coaft.  of 
Coromandel,  80  miles  S.  of  Fort  St  George.  E.  Long 


tation,  till  a  moft  unfortunate  adventure  put  an  end  to 
his  life  in  1 63  I.  Paffing  through  Verona  with  his  wife 
and  family,  on  his  way  to  Crema,  which  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  defend,  and  demanding,  according  to  the 
ufual   cuftom    of  perlons   in   his    Ration,   a   fupply  of 


79.  55.  N.  Lat.  II.  30.     On  the  taking  of  Madrafs  horfes  and  carriages  for  his  retinue,  a  brutal  Veronefe, 

by  the  French  in  1746,  the  prefidency  of  all  the  Englilh  called  il  Turco,  entered  tlie  room  where  he  and  his  fa- 

fettlcments  on  the  Coromandel  coall  was   removed  to  mily  were  at  fupper,  and  being  mildly  reprimanded  for 

Tort  St  David,  and  continued  there  till  about  the  year  his  intrufionby  Davila,  difcharged  a  piUol  at  the  hilto- 

1752,  when   it   was  removed  back  to  Madrafs.     In  rian,  and  (liot  him  dead  on  the   inllant.     His  accom- 

Jnne  1758,  the  fort  was  taken  a!id  demolilhed  by  the  plices  alfo  killed  the  chaplain  of  Davila,  and  wounded 

French,  and  has  never  been  rebuilt  fince.  many  of  his  attendants.      But  Ids  eldill  fon  Antonio, 

DAVIDI8TS,  Davidici,  <ir  David  Georgians,  a  youth  of  18,  revenged  the  death  of  his  father,   by 

a  fed  of  heretics,  the  adherents   of  David  George,  a  killing   the   murderer  on   the   Ipot.      All    the    coiife- 


iiative  of  Delft,  who,  in  1525,  began  to  preach  a  new 
dodrine  ;  publilhing  himfelf  to  he  the  true  Mefliah  ; 
and  that  he  was  fcnt  thither  to  fill  heaven,  which  was 
quite  empty  for  want  of  people  to  deferve  it.      He  is 


derates  were  iccured  next  morning,  and  publicly  exe- 
cuted at  Verona.  It  is  very  remarkable,  that  Davila 
parted  no  ceiilure  on  the  inaflacre  of  St  Bartholomew. 
His  charaftcr  of  the  queen  mother  has  that  p  irtiaL'ty, 


likcwiie  faid   to  have  denied  the  exillcnce   of  angels,     which  it  was  natural  for  him  to  fhow  to  the  patronef* 
good  and  evil,  of  heaven  and  hell,  and  to  have  rejected     of  bis  family  ;  but  his  general  veracity  is  coufirmed  by 
Vol.  V.  Pan  11.  '  4  S  the 


D    A    V  [69 

the  great  authority  of  the  firft  duke  of  Eperiion,  who 
(to  ufe  the  words  of  lord  Bolingbroke)  •'  had  been  an 
aftor,  and  a  principal  aftor  too,  in  many  of  the  fcenes 
that  Davlla  recites."  Girard,  fecretary  to  this  duke, 
and  no  contemptible  biographer,  relates,  that  this  hi- 
llory  came  down  to  the  place  where  the  old  man  re- 
fided  in  Gafcony,  a  little  before  his  death ;  that  he 
read  it  to  him ;  that  the  duke  confirmed  the  truth 
of  the  narrations  in  it  ;  and  feemed  only  furprifed  by 
what  means  the  author  could  be  fo  well  informed 
of  the  moft  fecret  councils  and  meafures  of  thofe 
times. 

DAVIS  (Sir  John),  an  eminent  lawyer  and  poet, 
born  about  the  year  1570.  He  firlt  diftinguifhed  him- 
felf  bv  his  poem  Nofce  Teipjum  on  the  Immortality  of 
the  Soul.  He  became  attorney-general,  and  fpeaker 
of  the  hcufe  of  commons  in  Ireland  ;  and  afterward 
was  appointed  lord  chief  jnftice  of  the  court  of  King's 
Bench  in  England,  but  died  before  his  inftallation, 
in  1626.  He  publilhed  many  law  trafts ;  but  was 
efteemed  more  of  a  fcholar  and  a  wit  than  of  a 
lawyer. 

Davis  (John),  a  famous  navigator  in  the  1 6th 
century,  was  born  at  Sandridge,  near  Dartmouth  in 
Devonrtiire;  and  diilinguifhed  himfelf  by  making  three 
voyages  to  the  moll  northern  parts  of  America,  in  or- 
der to  difcover  a  north- weft  paifage  to  the  Eaft  Indies; 
in  which  he  difcovered  the  Straits  which  bear  his  name. 
He  afterwards  performed  five  voyages  to  the  Eaft 
Indies  ;  in  the  laft  of  which  he  was  flain  in  a  dcfpe- 
rate  fight  with  fome  Japanefe,  near  the  coaft  of  Malac- 
ca, on  the  27th  of  December  1605.  He  wrote  an  ac- 
count of  his  fecond  voyage  for  the  difcovery  of  the 
north-weft  paffage  ;  a  Voyage  to  the  Eaft-Indies ; 
and  other  trafts. 

Duns's  Straits.     See  New  Britain. 

DAVIT,  in  a  fiiip,  a  long  beam  of  timber,  re- 
prefented  by  a,  a,  Plate  CLXV.  and  ufed  as  a  crane 
whereby  to  hoiil  the  flukes  of  the  anchor  to  the  top 
of  the  bow,  without  injuring  the  fides  of  the  ftiip 
as  it  afcends;  an  operation  which,  by  mariners,  is  cal- 
led Jj/hlng  the  anchor.  The  anchors  being  fituated  on 
both  the  bows,  the  davit  may  be  occafionally  fliifted, 
fo  as  to  projeft  over  either  fide  of  the  (hip,  according 
to  the  pufition  of  that  anchor  on  which  it  is  employed. 
The  inner  end  of  the  davit  is  fecured  by  being  thruft 
into  a  fquare  ring  of  iron  b,  which  is  bolted  to  the 
deck,  and  forelocked  under  the  beams.  This  ring, 
which  is  called  the  fpan-Jhaclle,  exhibited  at  large  by 
fig.  9.  is  fixed  exadlly  in  the  middle  of  the  deck,  and 
clofe  behind  the  foremaft.  Upon  the  outer  end  of  the 
davit  is  hung  a  large  block  c,  through  which  a  ftiong 
rope  traverfes,  called  the  Jijh-peniknt,  d ;  to  whofe 
foremoft  end  is  fitted  a  large  iron  hook  e,  and  to  its 
after-end  a  tackle  or  complication  of  pulllesyV  the  for- 
mer of  which  is  called  the  Jijh-hook,  and  the  latter  tiie 
ffh-tachk. 

The  davit,  therefore,  according  to  the  fea-phrafe,  is 
employed  to  _/f//j  the  anchor;  which  being  previoufly 
tatted,  the  fifli-hook  is  fattened  upon  its  flukes  ;  and 
the  effort  of  the  tackle  being  tranfmitted  to  the  hook, 
by  means  of  the  fifh-pendent,  draws  up  thut  part  of  the 
anchor  fufl'icienlly  high  upon  the  bow  to  fallen  it, 
which  is  done  by  xhe  Jhnnk-painter.  Sec  tliat  artic'le. 
—There  is  alfo  a  davit  of  a  fmaller  kind  occafionally 


o     ]  D     A     U 

fixed  in  the  long-boat,  and  employed  to  weigh  the  Dauiiliin. 
anchor  therein.  '       <t    " 

DAUPHIN  is  a  title  given  to  the  cldeft  fon  of 
France,  and  prefumptive  heir  of  the  crown;  on  account 
of  the  province  of  Dauphine,  which  in  1343  was  given 
to  Philip  de  Valois,  on  this  condition,  by  Humbert 
dauphin  of  the  Vlcnnois.  The  dauphin,  in  his  letters 
patent,  ftylcs  himfelf.  By  the  grace  of  God,  eldejl  fon  of 
France,  and  dauphin  of  Vlenneli. 

Dauphin  was  anciently  the  title  or  appellation  of 
the  prince  of  Vieiinois  in  France. 

Moft  authors  who  have  fought  the  origin  of  the 
name  Dauphin  and  Dajphhie,  feem  to  have  given  too 
much  loofe  to  conjeclure.  Du-Chefne  is  of  opinion, 
that  it  was  the  grandfon  of  Guy  the  Fat  who  firlt  bore 
the  name  of  dauphin.  Chorier  obferves,  that  William, 
canon  of  Notre  Dame  at  Grenoble,  who  has  written  the 
life  of  Margaret,  daughter  of  Stephen  earl  of  Burgun- 
dy, married  with  Guy,  fon  of  Guy  the  Fat,  calls  the 
latter  fimply  Guy  the  Old,  and  the  former  always 
count  Dauphin  ;  and  adds,  that  no  record,  no  monu- 
ment, ever  attributes  the  title  of  dauphin  to  Guy  the 
Fat  or  any  of  his  predecefibi  s  :  fo  that  it  muft  necef- 
farily  have  taken  its  rife  in  his  fon,  all  vvhtife  fucccifors 
fo  conftantly  aff^iimed  it,  that  it  became  the  proper 
name  of  the  family.  He  died  in  1 142,  in  the  llower 
of  his  youth  ;  fo  that  it  muft  be  about  the  year  1 1  zo 
that  the  title  commenced  ;  and  without  doubt,  adds 
he,  on  fome  illuftrious  occafion.  He  obfcrves  fartlicr, 
that  this  prince  was  of  a  military  difpoiltion,  and  de- 
lighted in  nothing  but  war  ;  and  again,  that  it  was  the 
cuftom  of  the  cavaliers  to  deck  their  calks,  coats  of 
arms,  and  the  houllng  of  their  horfes,  with  fome  figure 
or  device  peculiar  to  themfelves,  wheieby  they  were 
diftinguiftied  from  all  others  engaged  in  the  fame  com- 
bat or  tournament.  From  all  thefe  circumftances  he 
conjefturcs,  that  this  Gi^y  chofe  the  dolphin  for  his 
fignature  ;  that  this  was  the  creft  of  his  helmet ;  and 
that  he  bore  it  on  his  coat  in  fome  notable  tournament 
or  battle,  wherein  he  diftinguifhed  himfelf.  And  this, 
Chorier  makes  no  doubt,  is  the  real  origin  of  the  ap- 
pellation. Nothing  was  more  common  in  thofe  times 
than  to  make  proper  names  become  the  names  of  fa- 
milies or  dignities.  Witnefs  the  Ademars,  Arthauds, 
Aynards,  Atltmans,  Berengers,  and  infinite  others  ; 
who  all  owe  their  na"ies  to  fome  one  of  their  ancellors, 
from  whom  it  has  been  tranfmitted  throughout  the 
family. 

The  feigneurs  or  lords  of  AuvergUe  have  likewife 
borne  the  appellation  oi  dauphin  ;  but  the  dauphins  of 
Auvergne  had  it  not  till  a  good  while  after  thofe  of 
the  Viennois,  and  even  received  it  from  them.  The 
manner  was  this:  Guy  VIII.  dauphin  of  Viennois,  had 
by  his  wife  Margaret,  daughter  of  Stephen  earl  of 
Burgiuidy,  a  fon  and  two  daughters.  The  fon  was 
Guy  IX.  his  fuccefibr.  Beatrix,  one  of  the  daughters, 
was  raarrried  to  the  count  d'Auvergne,  who,  according 
to  Blondel,  was  William  V.  or  rather,  as  Chorier  and 
others  hold,  Robert  VI.  father  of  William  V.  This 
prince  loll  the  gieateft  part  of  the  county  Auvergne, 
which  was  taken  from  him  by  his  uncle  William,  afr 
filled  by  Louis  the  Young  :  and  was  only  left  mafter 
of  the  little  canton  whereof  Vodable  is  the  capital. 
He  had  a  fon  whom  he  called  Dauphin,  on  account 
of  Guy,  or  Guiguee,   his  uncle  by  the   mothei's  lidtr. 

From 


DAY 


[     691     1 


DAY 


DaupMn  From  his  time  his  fucceffbrs,  holJing  the  fame  petty 
II  canton  of  Auvergne,  flylcd  themselves  dauphins  of  ^U' 
^^''      iiergne,  and  bore  a  dolphin  for  their  arms. 

Dauphins,  or  Delphins,  in  literary  hiftory,  a  name 
given  to  the  commentators  on  the  ancient  Latin  au- 
thors, who  were  employed  by  order  of  Louis  XIV.  of 
France,  for  the  benefit  of  the  prince,  under  the  care 
and  direftion  ef  M.  de  Montaulier  his  governor,  Bof- 
fuet  and  Huet  his  preceptors.  They  were  39  in 
number. 

DAUPHINY,  a  province  of  France,  hounded  on 
the  weft  by  the  river  Rhone,  on  the  north  by  the 
Rhone  and  Savoy,  on  the  fouth  by  Provence,  and  on 
the  eail  by  the  Alps.  Hence  the  prefamptive  heir  of 
France  is  called  the  Dauphin.  In  fome  places  it  is 
very  fertile  ;  and  produces  corn,  wine,  olives,  woad, 
copperas,  filk,  cryftal,  iron,  and  copper.  But  the 
greatcft  part  of  this  province  is  barren,  and  the  inha- 
bitants are  obliged  to  go  into  other  countries  for  fub- 
fiftence.  The  mountains  abound  in  fimples  and  game 
of  all  forts  ;  and  here  are  fir-trees  proper  for  mails. 
The  principal  rivers  are,  the  Rhone,  the  Durance,  the 
Ifere,  and  the  Drone.  There  is  a  great  number  of 
mineral  fprings  ;  and  Grenoble  is  the  capital  town. 

DAURAT  (John),  an  eminent  French  poet,  born 
in  1507.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  he  was  preceptor 
to  the  king's  pages,  and  Charles  IX.  who  took  great 
delight  in  his  converfation,  and  honoured  him  with  the 
title  of  his  poet  ;  but  his  generofity  and  want  of  ma- 
nagement placed  him  in  that  clafs  of  learned  men  who 
have  been  very  near  ftarving.  Conformable  to  the  tafte 
of  the  age,  he  had  fo  much  flcill  in  making  anagrams, 
that  feveral  illullrious  perfons  gave  him  their  names  to 
anagrammatife:  he  alfo  undertook  to  explain  the  Cen- 
turits  of  Noftradamus.  Making  verfes  was  a  difeafe 
in  him:  for  no  book  was  printed,  nor  did  any  perfon 
of  confequence  die,  but  Daurat  made  fome  verfes  on 
the  occafion;  as  if  he  had  been  poet  inordinary,  or  his 
mufe  had  been  a  hired  mourner,  to  the  whole  kingdom. 
Scaliger  tells  us,  that  he  fpent  the  latter  part  of  his 
life  in  endeavouring  to  find  all  the  bible  in  Homer,  He 
died  in  158S. 

DAY,  according  to  the  mofl  natural  and  obvious 
fenfe  of  the  word,  figiiifits  that  fpace  of  time  during 
which  it  continues  to  be  light ;  in  contradiftinflion  to 
night,  being  that  partition  of  time  wherein  it  is  dark  : 
but  the  fpace  of  time  in  which  it  is  light,  being  fome- 
■what  vague  and  indeterminate,  the  time  between  the 
rifing  and  the  fetting  of  the  fun  is  ufually  looked  on  as 
the  day  ;  and  the  time  which  lapfes  from  its  fetting  to 
its  rifing  again,  the  night. 

The  word  day  is  often  taken  in  a  large  fenfe,  fo  as 
to  include  the  night  alfo  ;  or  to  denote  the  time  of  a 
■whole  apparent  revolution  of  the  fun  round  the  earth  ; 
in  which  fenfe  it  is  called  by  fome  a  natural  day,  and 
ty  others  an  artificial  one  ;  but,  to  avoid  confufion,  it 
is  ufual  to  call  it  in  the  former  fenfe  finiply  the  day, 
and  in  the  latter  a  nychthemernn  ;  by  whicli  term  that 
acceptation  of  it  is  aptly  denoted,  as  it  implies  both 
day  and  night. 

The  nychthemernn  is  divided  into  twenty-four  parts, 
called  hours ;  which  are  of  two  forts,  equal  and  unequal 
or  temporary.      See -the  article  Hour. 

Different  nations  begin  their  day  at  a  different  hour. 
Thus  the  Egyptians  begin  theirday  at  midJiight;  from 


whom  Hippocrates  Introduced  that  way  of  reckoning 
into  aftronomy,  and  Copernicus  and  others  have  fol-  ^ 
lowed  him  :  But  the  greateft  part  of  aflronomers  rec- 
kon the  day  to  begin  at  noon,  and  fo  count  twenty- 
four  hours,  till  the  noon  of  the  next  day  ;  and  not 
twice  twelve,  accorcKng  to  the  vulgar  computation. 
The  method  of  beginning  the  day  at  midnight  prevails 
alfo  in  Great  Britain,  France,  Spain,  and  moil  parts  of 
Europe. 

The  Babylonians  began  their  day  at  fun-rifing,! 
reckoning  the  hour  immediately  before  its  rifing  again, 
the  twenty-fourth  hour  of  the  day;  from  whence  the 
hours  reckoned  in  this  way  are  called  the  Babylonlc.  In 
feveral  parts  of  Germany,  they  begin  their  day  at  fun- 
fetting,  and  reckon  on  till  it  lets  next  day,  calling  that 
the  tiuenty-fowth  hour  :  thefe  are  generally  termed  Jta- 
Han  hours.  The  Jews  alfo  began  their  nychthemeron 
at  fun-fetting  :  but  then  they  divided  it  into  twice 
twelve  hours,  as  we  do  ;  reckoning  twelve  for  the  day, 
be  it  long  or  fhort,  and  twelve  for  the  night;  fo  that 
their  hours  continually  varying  with  the  day  and  night, 
the  hours  of  the  day  were  longer  than  thole  of  the 
night  for  one  half  year,  and  the  contrary  the  other ; 
from  whence  their  hours  are  called  temporary :  thofe 
at  the  time  of  the  equinoxes  became  equal,  becaufe  then 
thofe  of  the  day  and  night  arc  fo.  The  Romans  alfo 
reckoned  their  hours  after  this  manner,  as  do  the  Turks 
at  this  day. 

This  kind  of  hours  Is  called  planetary,  becaufe  the 
feven  planets  were  anciently  looked  upon  as  prefiding 
over  the  affairs  of  the  woild,  and  to  take  It  by  turns 
each  of  thefe  hours,  according  to  the  following  order: 
Saturn  firft,  then  Jupiter,  Mars,  the  Sun,  Venus,  Mer- 
cury, and  laii:  of  all  the  Moon :  hence  they  denomina- 
ted each  day  of  the  week  from  that  planet  whofe  turn 
It  was  to  prefide  the  firft  hour  of  the  nychthemeron. 
Thus,  affigning  the  firft  hour  of  Saturday  to  Saturn, 
the  fecond  will  fall  to  Jupiter,  the  third  to  Mars,  and 
fo  the  twenty-fecond  of  the  fame  nychthemeron  will 
fall  to  Saturn  again,  and  therefore  the  twenty-third  to 
Jupiter,  and  the  laft  to  Mars:  fo  that  on  the  fiift  hour 
of  the  next  day,  it  will  fall  to  the  Sun  to  prefide;  and 
by  the  like  manner  of  reckoning,  the  lirft  hour  of  the 
next  will  Jall  to  the  Moon  ;  of  tlie  next,  to  Mars  ;  of 
the  next,  to  Mercury  ;  of  the  next,  to  Venus:  hence 
the  days  of  the  week  came  to  be  diftinguilhed  by  the 
Latin  names  oi  Dies  Salurni,  Soits,  Luns,  Martis,  J\Ier- 
curii,  jfovis,  and  Veneris ;  and  among  us,  by  the  nam^rs 
of  Saturday,  Sunday,  Monday,  &c. 

DAT-Coal,  in  natural  hiftory,  a  name  given  by  the 
miners  of  England,  and  the  common  people  who  live 
in  coal-countries,  to  that  feam  or  ilratum  of  the  coal 
which  lies^uppermoft  in  the  earth.  The  fame  vein  or 
ilratum  of  coal  ufually  luiis  a  great  way  through  the 
country,  and  dips  and  rifcs  in  the  -earth  at  difterent 
places ;  fo  that  this  upper  ftratuiu,  or  day-coal,  is,  In 
the  various  parts  of  the  fame  Ilratum,  fometimes  near 
the  furface  and  fometimes  many  fathoms  deep.  The 
fubterranean  fires  found  in  fome  of  our  coal-countries 
feed  principally  on  this  coal ;  and  are  nearer  to  orfai"- 
ther  from  the  furface  as  It  rifes  or  finks. 

DAT-Fly.      Sec  Ephemeris. 

DAT-Ket,  among  fowlers.     See  Net. 

Dats  of  Grace,  are  thofe  granted  by  the  court  at  the 
prayer  of  the  defendant  or  plaintiff,  in  whofe  delay  it  is. 
4  S  3  Dii;,t 


t>rr- 


D     K     A 


[     692     ] 


D    E    A 


Dnyj  of  grace,  in  commerce,  are  a  cu/lomary  imin- 
ber  of  days  allowed  for  the  payment  of  a  bill  of  ex- 
change, iic,  after  the  fame  becomes  due. 

Three  days  of  j^ace  are  tiUowcd  in  Britain  ;  ten  in 
France  and  Dantzic  ;  eight  at  Naples;  fix  at  Venice, 
Amflerdam,  Rotterdam,  and  Antwerp;  four  at  Franc- 
fort;  five  in  Leipfic;  twelve  at  Hambmir;  fix  in  Por- 
tugal; fourteen  in  Spain;  thirty  in  Genoa,  Sic. 

In  Britain  the  days  of  grace  are  given  and  taken  as 
a  matter  of  courfe,  the  bill  being  only  paid  on  the  lail 
day  :  but  in  other  countries,  where  the  time  is  much 
lonj^er,  it  would  be  reckoned  dlllionourable  for  a  mer- 
chant to  take  advantage  of  it  ;  bills  are  therefore  paid 
on  the  very  day  they  fall  due. 

D.ir'i-Mdn,  in  the  north  of  England,  an  arbitrator 
or  perfon  chofen  to  determine  an  affair  in  difpute. 

Intercalary  Djrs.     See  Istbrcalart  Days. 

D/sri-Wurk,  among  fearaen,  the  reckoning  or  ac- 
count of  the  (hip's  courfe  during  24  hours,  or  between 
noon  and  noon,  according  to  the  rules  of  trigonome- 
try.    See  De^d-RcckohI^. 

DAZE,  in  natural  biftory,  a  name  given  by  our 
miners  to  a  glittering  fort  of  llone,  which  often  occurs 
in  their  works  ;  and,  as  it  is  an  unprofitable  fubRance,  is 
one  of  tliofe  things  they  call  nueeds.  ^'^he  word  iLixe 
takes  in  with  them  every  itone  that  is  hard  and  glit- 
tering ;  and  therefore  it  comprehends  the  whole  genus 
of  the  telangia  -or  ftony  nodules,  which  have  the 
flakes  of  talk  in  their  fi;bdance:  thefe,  according  to  the 
colour  of  tiie  iton y  matter  they  are  bedded  in,  and  their 
own  colour,  give  the  names  of  blaci  daze,  ivhite,  red, 
and  yd'aui  daze,  to  thefe  llones. 

DEACON.  DiACONUs,  a  perfon  in  the  lowefl  de- 
j^ree  of  iioly  orders,  whofe  bufinefs  is  to  baptife,  read  in 
the  church,  and  afliil  at  the  celebration  of  the  eucharift. 
The  word  is  formed  from  the  Latin  D'laconus,  of  the 
Oreek  JiaKOKK^,  miniiler,  fervant.  Deacons  were  in- 
liituted  feven  in  nurabei,  by  the  apoflles,  A3s  chap.  vi. 
which  number  was  retained  a  long  time  in  fcveral 
churches.  Their  office  was  to  ferve  in  the  Agapne, 
and  to  diitrib'.ite  the  bread  and  wine  to  the  communi- 
cants. Another  part  of  the  office  of  deacons,  was  to 
be  a  fort  of  monitors  and  direftors  to  the  people  in  the 
exercifc  of  their  public  devotions  in  the  church  ;  for 
which  purpofe  they  made  ufe  of  certain  known  forms  of 
words,  to  give  notice  when  each  part  of  the  fervice  be- 
gan. Whence  they  are  fometimes  called  tiroierukes  ; 
"  the  holy  cryers  of  the  church." 

Deacons  had,  by  licence  and  authority  from  the  bi- 
fhop,  a  power  to  preach,  to  reconcile  penitents  and 
grant  them  abfohition,  and  to  reprelent  tiieir  billiops 
in  general  councils.  Their  office  out  ut  the  churcli  was 
to  take  care  of  the  neceifitous,  fuch  as  orplians,  wi- 
dows, prifoners,  and  all  the  poor  and  fick  who  had  any 
title  to  be  maintained  out  of  the  revenues  of  the  church  ; 
to  inquire  into  the  morals  and  converfationof  the  people, 
and  to  make  their  report  thereof  tothebilliop.  Whenge, 
on  account  of  the  variety  of  bufinefs,  it  was  uiual  to 
have  feveral  deacons  in  the  fame  church. 

In  the  Romifli  church,  it  is  the  deacons  office  to  in- 
cenfe  the  officiating  prieil  or  prelate  ;  to  lay  the  cor- 
poral on  the  aliar  ;  to  receive  the  pattern  or  cup  from 
the  fubdeacon,  and  prefent  them  to  the  perfon  officia- 
ting; to  inccnfe  the  choir;  to  receive  the  pax  from  the 
oHiciating  prelate,  and  carry  it  to  the  fubdeacon;  and 


at  the  pontifical  mafs,  when  the  bifhop  gives  the  bltf-  Deaconeft, 

fing,  to  put  the  mitre  on  lus  head,  and  to  take  oiT  tlii;  »~-~^ 

archbifliop's  pall  and  lay  it  on  the  altar,  in  Eng- 
land, the  form  of  ordaining  deacons,  declares  that  it  is 
their  office  to  affift  the  prieft  in  the  diltribution  of  the 
holy  communion  :  in  which,  agreeably  to  the  practice 
of  the  ancient  church,  they  are  confined  to  the  adrai- 
nilheringthe  wine  to  the  communicants.  A  deacon  in 
England  is  not  capable  of  any  ecclefiaiUcal  promotion; 
yet  he  may  be  a  chaplain  to  a  family,  curate  to  a  be- 
neficed clergymaH,  or  lecturer  to  a  parilh-church.  He 
may  be  ordained  at  23  ycais  of  age,  anno  cwrente  ; 
but  it  is  exprefsly  provided,  that  the  biihop  (hall  not 
ordain  the  fame  perfon  a  pried  and  deacon  in  the  fame 
day.  Deacons,  according  to  St  Paul,  Ihould  be  chafte, 
ilncere,  and  blamclcfs  ;  neither  great  drinkers,  nor  gi- 
ven to  filthy  lucre  :  they  (hould  hold  the  myftery  ot 
the  faith  in  a  pure  confcience  ;  and  Ihould  be  well  ap- 
proved before  they  are  admitted  to  the  niinifkry.  In 
the  church  of  Scotland,  the  deacon's  office  is  only  to 
talce  care  of  the  poor. 

DEACONESS,  a  female  daicon  ;  an  order  of  wo- 
men who  had  their  diftimfl  offices  and  fervices  in  the 
primitive  church.  This  office  appears  as  ancient  as  the 
apollolical  age  ;  for  St  Paul  calls  Phcbe  a  fervant  of 
the  church  of  Cenchrea.  The  original  word  is  J'"- 
xov-(,  anfwerable  to  the  Latin  word  mhujlr.i,  Ter- 
tuUian  calls  them  vidu.t,  widows,  becauie  they  were 
commonly  chofen  out  of  the  widows  of  tlie  church  ; 
and,  for  the  fame  reafon,  Epiphanius,  and  the  coun- 
cil of  Laodlcea,  calls  them  Ti.fc6-,//ijK{,  elderly  women, 
becaufe  none  but  fuch  were  ordinarily  taken  into  this 
office.  For,  indeed,  by  fome  ancient  laws,  thefe  four 
quaUfications  were  required  in  every  one  that  was  to 
be  admitted  into  this  order,  i.  That  fhe  fhould  be  a 
widow.  2.  That  (he  (hould  be  a  widow  that  had  bora 
children.  3.  A  widow  that  was  but  once  married. 
4.  One  of  a  confiderable  age,  40,  50,  or  60  years  old. 
Though  all  thele  rules  admitted  of  exceptions.  Con- 
cerning their  ordination,  whether  it  was  always  per- 
formed by  impofition  of  hands,  the  learned  are  much 
divided  in  their  fcntiments.  Baronius  and  Valefius 
think  they  were  not,  and  make  no  other  account  of 
them  than  as  mere  lay-perfons.  But  the  author  of  the 
conftitiitions,  fpeaking  of  their  ordination,  requires 
the  bidrop  to  ufe  impofition  of  hands,  with  a  form  of 
prayer  which  is  there  recited.  We  are  not,  however, 
to  imagine,  that  this  ordination  gave  them  any  power 
to  execute  any  part  of  the  lacerdotal  office.  They 
were  only  to  perform  fomeinferior  fervices  of  the  church, 
and  thofe  chiefly  relating  to  the  women  for  whofe  f^ikes 
they  were  ordained.  One  part  of  their  office  was  to 
affi(t  the  minilter  at  the  baptizing  of  women,  to  undrefs 
them  for  immerfion,  and  to  drefs  them  again,  that  the 
whole  ceremony  might  be  performed  with  all  the  de- 
cency becoming  fo  facred  an  aiAion.  Another  part  of 
their  office  was  to  be  private  catechlfts  to  the  women- 
catechumens  who  were  preparing  for  baptlfm.  Ther 
were  likewife  to  attend  the  women  that  were  fick  and 
in  dillrefs  ;  to  rainifler  to  martyrs  and  confelTors  in 
prifon  ;  to  attend  the  womens  gate  in  the  church;  and, 
laitly,  to  affign  all  women  their  places  in  the  church,, 
regulate  their  behaviour,  and  prefide  over  the  reft  of 
the  widows  ;  whence  in  fome  canons  they  are  flyled 
TfOAnJi^i^uai,  "  guvenieffes."     Tliis  order,  whicli  (luce 

tlie 


D     E     A 


[     693     ] 


D    E    A 


eac^nrjr 


tKe  toth  or  T2th  century  has  been  wholly  laiJ  afiJc,     a  flup  makes  imich  dead-water  when  fhe  has  a  great 
was  not  abohlhid  every  wh>;re  at  once,  but  continued     tdJy  following  htr  (Icrii 


DEADLY-CARROT.     See  Thapsia. 

Da-iDir  Ftud,  m  Englflh  lawbooks,  a  profcffion  of  1 
irrecoiicileable  enmity,  till  a  perfon  is  revenged  by  the 
death  of  his  enemy.  The  Word  Jeud  is  derived  from 
the  German  FeLi;  which,  as  Huttoman  obfcrves,  fig- 
nifits  modo  bul'uin,  mndo  ccipitules  inimicitias  *■.  Such 
enmity  and  revenge  was  allowed  by  law  in  the  time  of 
th«:  Saxons,  viz.  If  any  man  was  killed,  and  a  'jecu- 
niary  fatistaction  was  not  made  to  the  kindred,  it  was 
lawkJ  for  them  to  take  up  arms  and  revenije  themfelvc* 
on  the  rain-derer  :  which  was  called  deadly  pud.  AnJ 
this  probably  was  the  original  ot  an  Appeal. 

DEAFNESS,  the  (late  of  a  perfon  who  wants  the 
fenie  of  I'.taring  ;  or  the  dileafe  ot  the  ear,  which  pre- 
vents  its  due  reception  of  founds.     See  Medicine- 


in  the  Greek  church  longer  than  in  the  Latin,  and  in 
fome  of  the  'Latin  churclies  longer  than  in  others. 

DEACONRY,  Diaconate,  the  order  or  miniltry 
of  a  deacon  or  deaconcfs.  See  Deacon  aud  Dea- 
coness. 

Deaconry,  ITiacoiiia,  is  alfo  a  name  ftill  referved 
to  the  chapels  and  oratories  in  Rome,  under  the  di- 
rection of  llie  feveral  deacons,  in  their  rcipective  re- 
fpeftive  regions  or  quarters. 

To  the  dcaconries  were  annexed  a  fort  of  holpitals 
or  boards  for  the  diltribution  of  alms,  governed  by  the 
regionary  deacons,  call'.'d  cardinal  deacons,  of  wliom  there 
were  fevcn,  anfwering  to  the  feven  regions,  their  eliief 
being  called  the  archdeacon. 

The  hofpital  adjoining  to  the  church  of  the  dea- 

conry  had  an  adminillraior  for  the  temporal  concerns.  Judex. 

called  the  father  of  the  deaconry,  who  was  fometimes  a  Deafnefs  generally  arifes  either  from  an  obftruftion 

prielt  and  fometimes  a  layman.  or  a  compreffion  of  the  auditory  nerve  ;  or  from  fome 

At  prefcnt  there  are  are  fourteen  of  thefe  deaconries  coUecllion  of  matter  in  the  cavities  of  the  inner  ear;  or 

or  hofpitals  at  Rome,   which  are  referved  to  the  car-  from  the  auditory  palTage  being  Hopped  up  by  forae 

dinals.     Du-Cange  gives  us  their  names  :   as,  the  dea-  hardened  excrement;  or,  lalUy,  from  fome  excrcfcence, 

conry  of  St  Maria  in  the  Broad-way,  the  deaconry  of  a  ivvelHng  of  the  glands,  or  fome  foreign  body  intro- 

St  Eullachio  near  the  Pantheon,  &c.  duced  within  it. 

JDEAD  LANGUAGES.     See  Ph iLOLOGY,  cliap.  iii.  Thole  born  deaf  are  alfo  dumb,  as  not  being  able 

Prefcrvation  of  Dead  Bodi^'s.     See  Embalming.  to  learn  any  language,  at  Icall   in   the  common  way. 

Fecift  of  the  DfjIO.      See  Fnjsr  if  the  Dead.  However,  as  the  eyes  in  fome  meafure  ferve  them  for 

Df.AD-Fights,  certain  wooden  ports  which  are  made  ears,  tliey  may  underiland  what  is  faid  bv  the  motion 
to  fallen  into  the  cabin  windows,  to  prevent  the  waves  of  the  lips,  tongue,  &c.  of  the  fpeaker ;  and  evei 
from  gnfliing  into  the  (hip  in  a  high  fea.  As  they  accullon\  themfelves  to  move  their  own,  as  they  fee 
are  made  exaflly  to  fit  the  windows,  and  are  ftrong  other  people  do,  and  by  this  means  learn  to  fpeak.— 
enough  to  relKl  the  waves,  they  are  always  (ixed  in  Thus  it  was  that  Dr  Wallis  taught  two  young  gentle- 
on  the  approach  of  a  ftorm,  and  the  glafs  lights  taken  men  born  deaf  to  know  what  was  (aid  to  them,  and  to 
cut,  which  mull  othcrwife  be  fliattered  to  pieces  by  return  pertinent  anfwers.  Digby  gives  us  another  in- 
the  furges,  and  fuffer  great  quantities  of  water  to  enter  (lance  of  the  fame  within  his  own  knowledge;  and 
the  velTel.  there  was  a  Swifs  phylician  lately  living  at  Amllerdam, 

DEAD-Mens-Eyei,    in   the   fea-language,  a  kind  of  one  John  Conrad  Amman,   who  eifeclcd  the  fame  in 

blocks  with    many   holes  in   them,    but   no   ihtevers,  feveral  children  born  deaf  with  furpriring  fuerefs.    Ha 

whereby  the  (hrowds  are  faftened  to  the  chains  ;  the  has  reduced  the  thing  to  a  fixed  art  or  mcthe>d,  which 

erow-feet  reeve  alfo  tlirough  thefe  holes  :  and,  in  fome  he  has  publifhed  in  his  Siirdus  J^i^ijueiis,  Amleelod.  1 692, 

Ihips,  the  main-days  are  let  tight   in  them  ;   but  then  and  de  Luqiiela,  ibid.  1 700. 

they  have   only  one  hole,  through  which  the  lanyards  In  the  Phil.  Tranf.  N"  3 1 2.  we  have  an  account  by 

are  paficd  feveral  times.     SeePlate  CLXV.  Mr  Waller,   R.  S.  Seer,  of  a  man  and  his  fdler,  each 

.     DhAD^s  Fart.     See  Law,  N'^clxxxi.  6.  about  50  years  wld,  bom  in  the   fame  town  with  Mr 

DKAD-R'ckoning,    in    navigation,   the  judgment   or  Waller,  who  had  neither  of  them   the  lead  fcnfe  of 

eftimation  which   is  made  of  the  place  where  a  (hip  is  hearing  ;  yet  both  of  them  knew,  by  the  motion  of  the 

fituated ;  w  itl;put  any  obfervation  of  the  heavenly  bo-  lips  only,  whatever  was  faid  to  them,  and  would  anfwer 

dies.    It  is  difcovercd  by  keeping  an  account  of  tlie  di-  pertinently  to   the   queillon   propofcd.      It  feems  they 

fiance  (he  has  run  by  the  log,  and  of  her  courlc  ileered  could  both  hear  and  fpeak  when  children,  but  loft  their 

by  the  compals  ;  and  by  reftifying  thefe  data  by  the  fenlc   afterwards  ;  whence  they  retained  their   (peech, 

ufual  allowances  for  drift,  lee-way,  &c.  according  to  the  which,  though  uncouth,  was  yet  intelligible, 

fhip's  known  trim.    This  reckoning,  however,  is  always  Such  another  inllance  is  that  of  Mr  Goddy's  daugh- 

to  be  corredled,  as  often  as  any  good  oblcrvation  of  ter,   miniller  of  St  Gervais  in  Geneva,  related  by  13i- 

tlie  fun  can  be  obtained.  fliop  Bin-net.      "  At  two  years  old  they  perceived  (he 

DsAD-Sea,  in  geography,  a  lake  of  Judea,  into  which  had  lofi  her  hearing;  and  ever  linee,  though  flie  hears 

the  river  Jordan  difcharg;s  itfell;  being  about  70  miles  great  noil'cs,  yet  hears  nothing  of  what  is  faid  to  her. 

long  and  20  broad.     See  Asphaltites.  But  by  obferving  the  motions  of  the  mouth  and  lips  of 

Dead-ToJis,  a  difeafe   incident   to  young  trees,  and  others,  (he  acquired  fo  many  words,  that  out  of  thefe 

cured   by  cutting  off  the  dead  parts  clofe  to  the  next  (he  has  formed  a  fort  of  jargon,  in  which  flie  can  hold 

good  twig  or   (hoot,    and    claying    them   over  as   in  convcrfation  whole  days  with  thofe  that  can  fpeak  her 

grafting.  language.      She  kncms  nothing  that  is  faid  to  her  un- 

DhAD-Watrr,    at   fea,   the  eddy-water  juft  aftern  of  le(s   ilie  fee  the  motion  of  their  mouths  that  fpeak  to 

a  (hip  ;  fo  called,  becauCe  it  does  not  4>afs  away  fo  fwift  her,  fo  that  in  the   night  they  are   obliged   to  light 

as  the  water  ruimmg  by  her  lldcs  does.    TLcy  lay  that  candles  10  fpeak  to  her.     One  thing  will  appear   the 

llranjjell 


C^irrot, 

II 
nrnfnefs. 


See  Ftui.. 


D    E    A 


[     694    1 


D     E     A 


Deal, 
Dtan. 


*  See  fur- 
ther the 
article 
Dumbncfi, 


ftrangefl  part  of  the  whole  narration  :  (he  hps  a  filler, 
with  whom  ftic  has  praftifed  her  language  more  thaa 
with  any  body  elfe  ;  and  in  the  night,  by  laying  her 
hand  on  her  filler's  moutli,  (he  can  perceive  by  that 
what  (he  faith,  and  fo  can  difcourfe  with  her  in  the 
dark."      Burn.  Let.  W .  ^f.  l\%* . 

It  is  obfervable,  that  deaf  perfons,  and  feveral  others 
thick  of  hearing,  hear  better  and  more  eafily  if  a  loud 
noife  be  raifed  at  the  time  when  you  fpeak  to  them  : 
v'hich  is  owing,  no  doubt,  to  the  greater  tenfion  of  the 
ear-drum  on  that  occafion.  Dr  Wallis  mentions  a  deaf 
woman,  who  if  a  drum  were  beat  in  the  room  could 
hear  any  thing  very  clearly ;  fo  that  her  hu(band  hired 
a  drummer  for  a  fervant,  that  by  this  means  he  might 
hold  converfation  with  his  wife.  The  fame  author 
mentions  another,  who,  living  near  a  (leeple,  could 
always  hear  very  well  if  there  was  a  ringing  of  three  or 
four  bells,  but  never  elfe.  , 

DEAL,  a  thin  kind  of  (ir-planks,  of  great  ufe  in 
carpentrj'.  They  are  formed  by  fawing  the  trunk  of 
a  tree  into  a  great  many  longitudinal  divilions,  of  more 
or  lefs  thicknefs  according  to  the  purpofes  they  are  in- 
tended to  ierve. 

A  very  good  method  of  feafoning  planks  of  deal  and 
fir  is  to  throw  them  into  fait  water  as  foon  as  they  are 
fewed  ;  and  keep  them  there  three  or  four  days,  fre- 
quently turning  them.  In  this  cafe  they  will  be  ren- 
dered much  harder,  by  drj-ing  afterwards  in  the  air 
and  fun  :  but  neither  this,  nor  any  other  method  yet 
known,  will  preferve  them  from  (hrinking. 

Rods  of  deal  expand  laterally,  or  crofs  the  grain,  in 
moift  weather,  and  contiail  again  in  dry  ;  and  thence 
have  been  found  to  make  an  ufcful  hygrometer. 

Deal,  a  town  of  Kent  in  England,  lying  between 
Dover  and  Sandwich,  in  E.  Long.  I.  30.  N.  Lat.  51. 
16.  is  fuppofed  to  be  the  Dola  of  Nennius,  and  is  11- 
tuated  on  a  flat  and  level  coad.  This  town,  according 
to  Dr  Campbell,  juftifies  an  obfervation  he  had  made 
in  favour  of  fituatlons  of  this  kind,  'vi%.  that  they  are 
lefs  liable  than  others  to  be  injured  by  the  fea.  The 
town  of  Deal,  as  far  as  we  aie  able  to  judge,  except 
it  maybe  the  fea's  flirinking  a  little  from  it,  is  in  much 
the  fame  condition  in  which  it  ever  was,  even  from  the 
earliell  accounts.  The  learned  Dr  Halley  has  proved, 
M'lfcclhviea  Curiofa,  vol.  iii.  p.  426,  that  Julius  Caefar 
landed  here,  Augufl  26th,  the  year  before  the  coming 
of  Chriil  55. — The  great  conTtniency  of  landing  has 
been  of  infinite  fervice  to  the  place  ;  fo  that  it  is  large 
and  populous,  divided  into  the  upper  and  lower  towns, 
adorned  with  many  fair  buildings,  and  is  in  effeiSl  the 
principal  place  on  the  Downs. 

DEAN,  an  ecclefiaftical  dignitarj-  in  cathedral  and 
collegiate  chuiches,  and  head  of  the  chapter. 

Rural  Dra!J,  called  alfo  Arcli-prejbyter,  originally 
€xercifcd  jurifdt<£lion  over  ten  churches  in  the  country, 
and  afterwards  became  only  the  bifiiop's  fubftttute,  to 
grant  letters  of  adrainillration,  probate  of  wills,  &c.  ; 
to  convocate  the  clergy;  and  to  lignify  to  them  fomc- 
times  by  letters  the  bifliop's  will,  and  to  give  indudlion 
to  the  archdeacon.  Their  office  is  now  loll  in  that  of 
the  archdeacons  and  chancellors. 

DfjtN  of  a  Monajlsry,  was  a  luperior  eftabliflied  un- 
fier  the  abbot,  to  eafe  him  in  taking  care  of  ten  monks; 
whence  he  was  called  dtranus, 

Dejsk  and  Chapter,  are  the  council  of  the  bifljop,  to 


alTill  him  with  their  advice  in  aflfairs  of  religion,  and  alfo 
in  the  temporal  concerns  of  his  fee.  When  the  rcll  of 
the  clergy  were  fettled  in  the  feveral  parilhes  of  each  i, 
diocefe,  thefe  were  referved  for  the  celebration  of  di- 
vine fervice  in  the  bi(hop's  own  cathedral;  and  the  chief 
of  them,  who  prefided  over  the  rcll,  obtained  the  name 
of  decanus  or  deMi,  being  probably  at  firil  appointed  to 
fuperintend  ten  canons  or  prebendaries. 

All  ancient  deans  are  eleded  by  the  chapter  by  congt 
d'ejl'ire  from  the  king,  and  letters  miflive  of  recommen- 
dation, in  the  fame  manner  as  bilhops  ;  but  in  thofe 
chapters  that  were  founded  by  Henry  VIII.  out  of  the 
fpoilj  of  the  diifolved  monalleries,  the  deanery  is  dona- 
tive, and  the  inllallation  merely  by  the  king's  letters 
patent.  The  chapter,  confilling  of  canons  or  preben- 
daries, are  fometimes  appointed  by  the  king,  forae- 
tiraes  by  the  bifliop,  and  fometimes  elected  by  each 
other. 

The  dean  and  chapter  are  the  nominal  electors  of  a 
bifliop.  The  bifliop  is  their  ordinary  and  immediate 
fuperior ;  and  has,  generally  fpeaking,  the  power  of 
viliting  them,  and  correcting  their  exceflfcs  and  enor- 
mities. They  had  alfo  a  check  on  the  bifliop  at  com- 
mon law  ;  for  till  the  (latute  32  Hen.  VIII.  c.  28.  his 
grant  or  leafe  would  not  have  bound  his  fucceffors,  ua- 
lefs  confirmed  by  the  dean  and  chapter. 

Dean  of  Guild.     See  Law,  N'  civiii.  1 1. 

DEANER.Y,  the  office  of  a  dean. — Deaneries  and 
prebends  may  become  void,  like  a  bifhopric,  by  death, 
by  deprivation,  or  by  relignation  either  to  the  king  or 
bilhop.  If  a  dean,  prebendary,  or  other  fpiritual  per- 
fon,  be  made  a  bifliop,  all  the  preferments  of  which  he 
was  before  poifelTed  are  void  ;  and  the  king  may  pre- 
fent  to  them  in  right  of  his  prerogative  royal.  But 
they  are  not  void  by  the  elcttion,  but  only  by  the  con- 
fecration. 

DEATH,  is  generally  confidered  as  the  feparation 
of  the  foul  from  the  body;  in  which  fenfe  it  (lands  op- 
pofed  to  life,  which  confifts  in  the  union  thereof. 

Phylicians  ufually  define  death  by  a  total  ftoppage  of 
the  circulation  of  the  blood,  and  a  celfalion  of  the  animal 
and  vital  fundlions  confequent  thereon;  as  refpiration, 
fenfation,  &c. 

An  animal  body,  by  the  aftions  infcparable  from 
life,  undergoes  a  continual  change.  Its  linallell  fibres 
become  rigid  ;  its  minute  veffels  grow  into  folid  fibres 
no  longer  pervious  to  the  fluids  ;  its  greater  veflels 
grow  hard  and  narrow  ;  and  every  thing  becomes  con- 
trafted,  clofed,  and  bound  up  :  whence  the  drynefs, 
immobility,  and  extenuation,  obferved  in  old  age.  By 
fuch  means  the  offices  of  the  minuter  velfels  are  de- 
ftroyed  ;  the  humours  (lagnate,  harden,  and  at  length 
coalefce  with  the  foiids.  Thus  are  the  fubtilid  fluids 
in  the  body  intercepted  and  loll,  the  concoilioa  weak- 
ened, and  the  reparation  prevented  ;  only  the  coarfer 
juices  continue  to  run  flowly  through  the  greater  vef- 
fels, to  the  prcfervation  of  life,  after  the  animal  func- 
tions are  dellroyed.  At  length,  in  the  procefs  of  thefe 
changes,  death  itfelf  becomes  inevitable,  as  the  necef- 
fary  confequence  of  life.  But  it  is  rare  that  life  is  thu» 
long  protrafted,  or  that  death  fucceeds  mertly  from 
the  decays  and  impairment  of  old  age.  Dilcafes,  a 
long  and  horrid  train,  cut  the  work  (hort. 

The  ligns  of  death  are  in  many  cafes  very  uncertain. 

If  we  confult  what  WinUow  or  Bruchier  have  faid  on 

t  tliis 


D     E    A  [     6^!;     ]  DEB 

tliis  fubjfft>  viT  fliall  he  convinced,  that  bftwcen  life    watches,  a  male  and  a  female,  which  he  kept  alive  in    ''"'''' 
and  dentil  the  ftiadc  is  fo  very  undillinguilhablc,  that     a  box  feveral  months;  and  could  bring  one  of  them  to  P'""-""! 


even  all  ths  powers  of  art  can  fcarcily  detemiine  where 
the  one  ends  and  the  other  begins.  The  colour  of  the 
vifjTc,  the  warmtli  of  the  body,  and  fupplenefs  of  the 
joints,  avo  but  uncertain  figns  of  life  Hill  fubfilling  ; 
while,  on  the  contrary,  the  palenefa  of  the  complexion, 
the  coldnefs  of  the  body,  the  Itiffnefs  of  the  extremi- 
ties, the  cedation  of  all  niot'on,   and  the  total  infenfi 


beat  whenever  he  pleafed,  by  imitating  its  beating. 
By  this  ticking  nolfe  he  could  frequently  invite  the  male 
to  get  up  upon  the  other  in  the  way  of  coition.  When 
the  male  found  he  got  up  In  vain,  he  would  get  oft'  a- 
gain,  beat  very  eagerly,  and  then  up  again  :  Whence 
the  ingenious  author  concludes  thofe  puHations  to  be 
the  way  whereby  ihefe  infefts  woo  one  another,  and 


bility  of  the  parts,  are  but  uncertain  marks  of  death  be-     find  out  and  invite  each  other  to  copulation 


gun.  In  the  fume  manner  alfo,  with  regard  to  the 
pulfe  and  breathing;  thtt'e  motions  are  often  fo  kept 
under,  that  it  is  impofTible  to  perceive  them.  By  bring- 
ing a  looking-glafs  near  to  the  mouth  of  the  peifon 
fuppofcd  to  be  dead,  people  often  expedl  to  lirid  whether 
he  breathes  or  not.     But  this  is  a  very  uncertain  expe- 


Phe  feco\id  kind  of  death-watch  is  an  infeft  in  ap- 
pearance quite  different  fiom  tlie  firlt.  The  former 
only  beats  feven  or  eight  ilrokes  al  a  time,  and  quicker ; 
the  latter  will  beat  foine  hours  together  without  inter- 
niifiion;  and  his  ftrokes  are  more  leifurely,  and  like  the 
beat  of  a  watch.     This  latter  is  a  fmall  greyiih  infect. 


rimrnt :    the  ghifs  is  frequently  fullied  by  the  vap'Sur  -  much  like  a  loufe  when  viewed  with  the  naked  eye 


It  is  very  common  in  all  parts  of  the  houfe  in  the 
fummer-months  :  it  is  very  nimble  in  running  to  fiiel- 
ter,  and  (liy  of  beating  when  diflurbcd  ;  but  will  beat 
very  freely  before  you,  and  alfo  anfwer  the  beating,  if 
you  can  view  it  without  giving  it  dillurbance,  or  (ba- 
king the  place  where  it  lies,  &c.  The  author  cannot 
fay  whether  they  beat  in  any  other  thing,  but  he  never 
heard  their  nuife  except  in  or  near  paper.  As  to  their 
noife,  the  fame  perfon  is  in  doubt  whether  it  be  made 
by  their  heads,  or  rather  fnouts,  againll  the  paper  ;  or 
whether  it  be  not  made  after  fome  fuch  manner  as 
and  a  civil  death  :  natural,  where  nature  itfelf  expires;  grafhoppeis  and  crickets  make  their  noife.  He  in. 
civil,  where  a  perfon  is  not  adually  dead,  but  adjudged  clines  to  the  former  opinion.  The  reafon  of  his  doubt 
fo  by  law.  Thus,  if  any  perfon,  for. whofe  life  an  eflate  is,  that  he  obferved  the  animal's  body  to  fhake  and 
is  granted,  remains  beyond  fca,  or  is  otherwife  abfent,  give  a  jerk  at  every  beat,  but  could  fcarce  perceive  any 
feven  years,  and  no  proof  made  of  his  being  alive,  he  part  of  its  body  to  touch  the  paper.  But  its  body 
ihall  be  accounted  naturally  dead.  is  fo  fmall  and  near  the  paper,   and  its  motion  in  tick- 

Brvlhcrs  of  Death,  a  denomination  ufually  given  to     ing  fo  quick,  that  he  thinks  it  miglit  be,  yet  he  not  per- 
the  religious  of  the  order  of  St  Paul,  the  firll  hermit,     ceive   it.      The   ticking,  as  in  the  other,  he  judges  to 


of  the  dead  man's  body  ;  and  often  the  perfon  is  &'\\\ 
alive,  though  the  glafs  is  no  way  taniifiied.  In  tiie 
fame  manner,  neither  burning  nor  fearifyiiig,  neither 
noifes  in  the  ears  nor  puii;jent  fpirits  applied  to  the  no- 
llrils,  give  certain  figns  of  the  difcontinuance  of  life  ; 
and  there  are  many  inftances  ot  perfons  who  have  endu- 
red them  all,  and  afterwards  recovered  without  any  ex- 
ternal affillance,  to  the  ailonilhment  of  the  fpcftators. 
This  ought  to  be  a  caution  againfl.  haRy  buiials,  elpe- 
clally  in  cafes  of  fudden  death,  drowning,  &c. 

Death  in  Law.      In  law,  there  is  a  natural  death 


Tliey  aic  called  brothers  of  death,  friitres  a  morte,  on  ac- 
count of  the  figure  of  a  death's  head,  which  they  were 
always  to  have  with  them,  in  order  to  keep  perpetu- 
ally before  them  the  thoughts  of  death.  [This  order, 
by  itsconftitutions  made  in  1620,  does  not  feem  to  have 
been  eftablilhed  long  before  Pope  Paul  V.  Louis  XIII. 
in  1 62 1,  permitted  them  to  fettle  in  France.  The  or- 
der vi'as  piobibly  fupprefTcd  by  Pope  Urban  VIII. 

Laiv  of  Dfathbed.    See  I.,AW,  N^clxxxi.  38 — 41. 

Death- Watch,  in  natural  hiflorv,  a  little  infe6t  fa- 


be  a  wooing  a£k ;  as  having  obferved  another,  after  much 
beating,  come  and  make  offers  to  the  beating  infeft, 
who,  after  fome  offers,  left  off  beating,  and  got  upon 
the  br:ck  of  the  other.  Wiien  they  were  joined,  he 
left  off  again  ;  and  they  continued  fome  hours  joined 
tail  to  tall,  like  dog  and  bitch  in  coition.  Whether 
this  infect  changes  its  (hape  and  becomes  another  ani- 
mal or  not,  he  «annot  fay  ;  though  he  has  fome  caufe 
to  fufpe6l  that  it  becomes  a  iort  of  fly.  It  is  at  firft  a 
minute  white  egg,  much  fmalhr  than  the  nits  of  lice  ; 


mous  for  a  ticking  noife,  like  the  beat  of  a  watch,  which     though  the  infedt  is  near  as  brg  as  a  loufe.      In  March 


the  vulgar  have  long  taken  for  a  piefage  of  death  in 
the  family  vthere  it  is  heard  :  whence  it  is  alfj  called 
ped'icului,  faUiihvs,  mwrtfa^a, pulfatorius,  &c. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  tiCath-watches.  Of  the  firft 
■we  have  a  good  account  in  the  Phil.  Tranf.  by  Mr  Al- 
len. It  is  a  fmall  beetle,  ^•'-j^  of  an  inch  long,  of  a  dark- 
brown  colour,  fpotted  ;  having  pellucid  wings  under 
the  vagina,  a  large  cap  or  helmet  on  the  head,  and 
two  antennas  proceeding  from  beneath  the  eyes^  and 
doing  the  ofEce  of  probofcides.  The  part  it  beats 
withal,  he  obferved,  was  the  extreme  edge  of  the  face, 
which  he  clioofes  to  call  the  upper-lip,  the  msuth  being 
protra£ted  by  this  bony  part,  and  lying  underneath  out 
of  view. 

This  account  is  confirmed  hy  l)r  Derham;  with  this 
difference,  that  inftead  of  ticking  with  the  uf  per-lip, 
he  obferved  the  infeft  to  draw  back  its  mouth,  and 
beat  with  its  forehead.     That  author  had  two  death- 


it  is  hatched,  and  creeps  about  with  its  (hell  on.  When 
it  firll  leaves  its  fhell,  it  is  even  fmaller  than  its  eg^  ; 
though  that  be  fcarce  difcernible  without  amicrofcope. 
In  this  ftate  it  is  perfectly  like  the  mites  in  cheefe. 
From  the  mite-ftate  they  grow  gradually  to  their  ma- 
ture perfeft  flate.  When  they  become  like  the  old 
ones,  they  are  at  firfl  very  fmall,  but  run  about  much 
more  fwiftly  th;in  befure. 

DEBENTURE,  a  term  of  trade  ufed  at  the  cuflom- 
houfe  for  a  kind  of  certificate  figned  by  the  officers  of 
the  cuffoms,  which  intitks  a  merchant  exporting  goods 
to  the  receipt  of  a  bounty  or  draw-back.  All  mer- 
chandifes  that  are  deGgned  to  be  taken  on  board  for 
th:;t  voyage  being  entered  and  (hipped,  and  the  fliip 
being  regularly  clc:ued  out,  and  failed  out  of  port  01; 
her  intended  voyage,  debentures  may  be  made  oat 
from  the  exporter's  entries,  in  order  to  obtain  the 
drawbacks,  allowances,  bouiiUes,  or  premiums;  which 

debentures 


]")<••  aJe. 


DEC                   C    696    ]  DEC 

U'.lenture  detjentnres  for  foTeign  goods  are  to  be  paid  within  one  tens.   The  word  is  formed  from  the  Latin  ^eeas,  which  l^eragjn 

"         month  after  demand.     Aod  in  maklnc;  out  thele  de-  is  derived  from  a   Greek  word  of  the  fame  import.         '' 

bentures,  it  muil  be  obferved,  that  evti  y  piece  of  vcl-  The  word  has  been  more  pecuharly  appropriated  to  the      !"  f" 

lum,  parchment,   or  paper,  containing  any  dehentnre  number  of  books,  q.  d.  decades,  into  which  the  Roman  __y_I. 

for  drawing  back  cuttoms  or  duties,  muil,  before  wri-  Hillory  of  Titus  Livius  is  divided.      Hence  alfo  came 

ting,  be  ftamped,  and  pay  a  duty  of  Hd.  decadal  arithmetic,  the  Decameron  of  Boccacio,  &c. 

The  forms  of  debentures  vary  according  to  the  mer-  DECAGYNIA  (frem  S:y.x  ten,  and  >-">■"  a  moman), 
chandife  exported.  In  the  execution  of  debentures  t!ie  name  of  an  order,  or  fecondarj'  divifion,  in  the  clafs 
for  tobacco,  it  mud  be  particuhirly  obferved,  i.  Tliat  decandria,  of  the  fexual  method,  conillHng  of  plants 
debentures  for  the  fame  (|uantlty  may  be  made  on  one  whofe  flowers  are  furnifhed  with  ten  ftamina  and  tlie 
or  more  parchments.  2  That  the  exporter's  oath  mull  fame  number  of  ftyles  ;  which  lalt  are  confidered  by- 
be  printed,  I'pecifying  whether  lie  ads  for  himfelf  or  on  Linnius  and  the  fexualifls  as  the  female  organs  of  ge- 
commiffion.  3  If  exported  to  any  other  foreign  ports  ncration  in  plants.  Neurada  and  Amtric.in  niglit- 
thaii  Ireland,  the  word  Ireland  mull  be  added  to  the  Ihade  furiiifli  examples. 

oath  after  G;vi?/ i^;v'/7ra.      4.   That  as  no  tobacco  may  DECALOGUE,  the  ten  precepts  orcommaiKlments 

be  confumed  on  board  of  fliips  of  war  in  Europe  but  dehvered  by  God  to  Moles,  after  engraving  them  on 

what  has  paid  full  duties,   and  been   manufactured  in  two  tables  of  iloue. 

Great  Britain,  no   drawback  is  to  be  allowed  for  to-  The  Jews,  by   way  of  excellence,  call  thefe  com- 

baeco  exported  in  any  man  of  war.    5.  That  the  eight  mandments  the  ien  luords,  from  whence  they  had  af- 

pounds  per  hoglhead  of  ^^o  pounds,   01  more,  allowed  terwards  the  name  of  deca/ogue:  but  it  is  to  be  obfer\'ed, 

for  draurht  at   importation,  mull  not  be  deducted  on  that  tliey  joined  the  firll  and  fecond  into  one, and  liividcd 

exportation.     6.  That  debentures  for  tobacco  exported  the  lalt  into  two.      They  underltand  that  againll  ileal- 

to  Ireland  muil  not  be  paid  till  a  certificate  be  pro-  ing  to  relate  to  the  itealing  of  men,  or  kidnapping  ; 

duced,  teftifying  the  landing  thereof.       7.    That  no  alleging,  that  the  dealing  one  another's  goods  or  pro- 

perfons  may  fwcar  to  the  exportation  but  fuch  as  are  perty  is  forbidden  in  the  lalL  commandment, 

permitted  to  fwear  to  debentures  for  other  goods.     In  The  emperor  Julian  objected  to  the  decalogue,  that 

debentures  for  all  other  foreign  goods,  no  perfon  may  the  prtctpts  it  contained  (thole  only  excepted  which 

be  admitted  to  fwear  to  the  exportation  but  the  true  concern  the  worlhip  of  falle  gods,  and  the  obfervatiini 

exporter,  cither  as  a  proprietor,  or  who,  being  employed  of  the  falibath)  were  already  lb  familiar  to  all  nations, 

by  commiffion,  is  concerned  in  the  dirtftion  of  the  and  lb  univcrfaOv  received,  that  they  were  unworthy, 

voyage.      All  kinds  of  debentures,  before  delivered  or  for  that  veiy  reafon,  to  be  delivered,   by  fo  great  a  le- 

paid'to  the  exporters,  are  entered  into  a  feparate  book  gillator,  to  fo  peculiar  a  people.     The  church  of  Rome 

kept  for  that  purpofe  by  the  colkftor  and  comptroller  has  llruck  the  fecond  commandment  quite  out  of  the 

of  the  culloms.  decalogue  ;  and  to  make  their  nuuiber  complete,  hath 

DEBITA  FUNDI.     See  Law,  Noclxvi.  i.  fplit  the  tenth  into  two:  The  real'on  of  which  maybe 

DenirA  Fruautim.     See  Law,  N=  clxx.  17.  ealily  conceived. 

DEBILITY,    among   phylicians,    a  relaxation  of  DEC  AN,  a  kingdom  of  Ada,  in  the  peninfula  on 

the  folids,  occafioning  oftentimes  weaknetfes  and  faint*  this  fide   the  Ganges,   bounded  on  the  fouth  by  the 

injrs.  kingdom  of  Bif  lagar,  on  the  weft  by  the  ocean,  on  the 

DEBIR  (anc.  geog.),  a  facerdotal  citv  of  Paleftine,  nonh  by  Mognlitlan,  and  on  the  call  by  the  moun- 

near  Hebron  ;  but  neither  diflance,   nor  point  of  the  tains  which  feparate  it  from  Golconda. 

compafs  on  which  it  lies,  can  be  determined.      It  was  DECANDRIA    (J<«=t    ten,    and    «»"f   a   hiifbemd), 

anciently  called    Kar'iath-fepher  or   Khjath-fepher,   and  I.innajus's   tenth   clafs,  comprehending  thofe   herma- 

Kirjath-fanna  [}o'\\n'&'). — Another  Z>f/'i>  in  the  tribe  of  phrodite  plants  which   bear  ilowers  with  ten   ilamina. 

Gad,  beyond  Jordan.  See  Bo  tan  v,  p.  430. 

DEBRECHEN,  a  town  of  Upper   Hungary,    a-  DECANTATlON,  among  chemlfts,  &c.  the  gent- 


boBt  77  miles  call  of  Buda.    E.  Long.  21.  1  o.  N.  Lat, 

47-  45- 

DEBRUIZED,  in  heraldry,  a  term  peculiar  to  the 

Englifli,  by  which  is  intimated  the   grievous  rellraint 

of  any  animal,  debarred  of  its  natural  freedom,  by  any 

of  the  ordinaries  being  laid  over  it. 


Iv  pouring  ofl^  a  liquor  from  its  frees,  by  inclining  the 
lip  or  canthus  of  the  veffel;  whence  the  name. 

DECANUS,  in  Roman  antiquity,  an  orficer  who 
prefided  over  the  other  ten  officer^;,  and  was  head  of 
the  contuberninm,  or  ferjealit  of  a  file  of  folciiers. 

DECAPOLIS  (anc  geog),  a  diilrict  beyond  Jor- 


DEBT,  in  law,  any  thing  due  to  another,  whether  dan,  almoll  all  of  it  belonging  to  the  half  tribe  of  Ma- 
it  be  money,  goods,  or  fervices;  or  the  atlion  brought  ■-"-'<■  K,.f,^,-..  .v,»  ....,^t;„,•^„  .-M^A  f!„ur.,.. .  K,,f  ,ft„« 
for  recovering  the  tame. 

National  Df.bt.     See  Funds  and  National  Belt, 

DEBTOR,  a  perfon  who  owes  any  thing  to  ano- 
ther ;  in  contradiftinftion  to  creditor,  which  is  he  to 
whom  the  debt  is  owing. 

Debtor,  in  merchants  accounts.  See  Book- 
keeping. 


iiafl'th  ;  before  the  captivity,  called  Belhfun;  but  after 
occupied  by  heathens,  who  could  not  be  driven  out.  It 
comprifed,  as  the  name  denotes,  ten  piinclpal  cities  on 
the  other  fide  thej-.)idan,if  we  except  Scythojuills,  which 
Hood  on  this  fide,  but  its  territon-  on  the  other. 

DECAPROTI,   DKCEMrRiMi,   in   R<mian  antiqui- 
tv,  officers  for  gathering  the  tributes  and  taxes. 

The  de'capioti  were  alio  obliged  to  pay  for  the  dead, 
DECAGON,  in  geometry,  a  plane  figure  with  ten     or  to   anlwcr   to   the  emperor  for  tlie  quota  paits  of 
fides  and  ten  angles.  fuch  as  died  out  of  their  own  eftates. 

DECADE,  a  word  ufed  by  fome  old  writers  for         DECASPERMUM,   in  botany  ;  a  genus   o(  the 

the   number  ten,  and  decades  for  an  enumeration  by     monogynia  order,  belonging  to  the  icofandria  clafs  of 

N°98.  J  plants. 


^ 


DEC 


[     697     ] 


DEC 


Jecaflyle  plants.     The  cali'X  Is  a  turbinated  poriiiathlum,  i]uiii- 
"   .  .   cjiiciiJ   at  the  apex.     The  corolla   has   five  rouiidilh 
;cemnri.  pj.(jj]^_     'p}jg   ftamina  are  many  dlitorin  tilaments,  a 
little  fhorter  than  the  corolla.      The  pericarpium  is  a 
dry,  globular,   duccmlocular  berry,  with  fohtary  egg- 
fliaptd  feeds. 

DECASTYLE,  in  the  ancient  architeaure,  a  build- 
ing with  an  ordnance  ot  ten  columns  in  front,  as  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Olyinpiui  was. 

DECEl  r,  ill  law,  a  fabtle  nick  or  device,  to  which 
may  be  added  all  manner  of  craft  and  coUufion,  or  un- 
derhand piartioe,  uied  to  defraud  another,  by  a:iy 
means  whatever. 

DECEJiIBER,  the  laft  month  of  the  year,  wherein 
the  fun  enters  the  tropic  of  Capricorn,  and  makes  the 
winter  folltice. 

In  Romuhis's  year,  December  was  the  tenth  month, 
whence  the  name,  -viz.  from  Jecem  "  ten;"  for  the  Ro- 
mans began  their  year  in  March. 

The  month  of  December  was  under  the  proteftion 
of  Vefta.  Romulus  affigned  it  30  day$,  Nuir.a  redu- 
ced it  to  29,  which  Julius  Ca;far  increafed  to  31. 

Under  the  reign  of  Commodus,  this  month  was 
called,  by  way  of  flattery,  yi,iui^ouiiis,  in  lionour  of  h 
courtefan  whom  that  prince  pafTionaltly  loved,  and  had 
got  painted  like  an  Amazon  ;  but  it  only  kept  the 
name  during  that  emperor's  life. 

At  the  latter  end  of  this  month  they'had  (he  juveniles 
ludl;  and  the  country  people  kept  the  feafl  of  the 
goddefs  Vacuna  in  the  fields,  having  then  gathered  in 
their  fruits  and  fown  their  corn  ;  whence  leems  to  be 
derived  our  popular  feftival  called  harve/I-home. 

DECEM  PAGI  (anc.  geog.),  a  tJwn  of  Belgica: 
Now  D'leufe,  in  Lorrain,  on  the  rivulet  Scille  or  Sclna, 
near  the  lake  Lindre,  about  feven  German  miles  to 
the  north-eafl  of  Nancy. 

DECEMPEDA,  AixaTour,  tin-fed  rod,  an  inftrument 
iifed  by  the  ancients  in  mcafuring. 

The  decempeda  was  a  rule  or  rod  divided  into  ten 
feet  ;  whence  its  name,  from  decern  "  ten,"  and  pes, 
pedis,  "  foot."  The  foot  was  fubdivided  into  twelve 
inches,  and  each  inch  into  ten  digits.  The  decempe- 
da was  ufed  both  in  meafuring  of  land,  like  the  cliain 
among  us  ;  and  by  architefts  to  give  the  proper  dimen- 
fions  and  proportions  to  the  parts  of  their  buildings, 
which  ufe  it  ftill  retains.  Horace,  lib.  ii.  od.  15.  bla- 
ming the  magnificence  and  delicacy  of  the  buildings  of 
his  time,  obferves,  that  it  was  otherwife  in  the  times 
of  Romulus  and  Cato  ;  that  in  the  houfes  of  private 
perfons  there  were  not  then  known  any  porticoes  mea- 
sured out  with  the  decempeda,  nor  turned  to  the  north 
to  take  the  cool  air. 

DECEMVIRI,  ten  magiftrates  of  abfohite  autho- 
rity among  the  Romans.  The  privileges  of  the  pa- 
tricians raifcd  diflatisfaftion  among  the  plebeians;  who, 
though  freed  from  the  power  of  the  Tarquins,  ftill  faw 
that  the  adminiftration  of  juftice  depended  upon  the 
will  and  caprice  of  thtir  fuperiors,  without  any  writ- 
ten ftatute  to  direft  them,  and  convince  them  that 
they  were  governed  with  equity  and  impartiality.  The 
tribunes  complained  to  the  fenate,  and  demanded  that 
a  code  of  laws  might  be  framed  for  the  ufe  and  bene- 
fit of  the  Roman  people.  This  petition  was  complied 
with  ;  and  three  ambaffadors  were  fent  to  Athens  and 
all  the  other  Grecian  ftates,  to  collect  the  laws  of  So- 
Voi,.V.  Partll. 


Ion  and  of  all  the  other  celebrated  legiflators  of  Greece.  Decemviri 
Upon   the   return  'ji  the  commilhoiiers  it  was  univer-  '' 

fully  agreed,  that  ten  new  magiltrates  called  Duemviri,  .'•^"']    "^ 
(hould  be  eleded  from  the  fenate  to  put  the  projedl         * 
into  execution.     Their  power  was  abfolute,  all  other 
olfices  ceafed  after  their  cleAion,  and  they   prcfidcd 
over  the  city  with  regal  authority.     They  were  inveft- 
ed  with  the  badges  of  the  conful,  in  the  enjoyment  of 
wh.ch   they  fuccceded  by   turns  ;    and  only   one   was 
preceded  by  the  fafces,  and  had  the  power  of  aflem- 
bling  the  fenate  and  confirming  decrees.     The  firll  de- 
cemvits  were  Appius  Claudius,   T.  Genutius,   P.  Sex- 
tus,   Sp.  Vcturius,  C.  Julius,  A.  Manliiis,   Ser.  Sulpi- 
tius,   Pluriatius,  T.  Romulus,   Sp.  Pofthumius,  in  the 
year  of  Rome  302.     Under  them  the  laws  which  had 
been  expofed  to  public  view,  that  every  citizen  might 
fpeak  his  fentiments,  were  publicly  approved  of  ascon- 
llitutional,  and  ratified  by  the  priells  and  augurs  in  the 
molt  lolcmn  and  religious  manner.     They  were  ten  in 
number,  and  were  engraved  on  tables  of  brafs;  two  were 
afterwards  added,  and  they  were  called  the  laws  of  the 
twel ve  tables, leges diiodec'tm  tahuhirum,  and  leges  dccemvira- 
Its.  The  decemx  iral  power,  which  was  beheld  by  all  ranks 
of  people  with  thegreatell  fatisfadion,  was  continued; 
but  in  the  third  year  after  thtir  creation  the  decemvirs 
became  odious  on  account   of  their  tyranny,  and  the 
attempt  of  Ap.  Claudius  to  ravilh  Virginia  totally  abo- 
hlhed  the  olTice.       The  people  were   fo   exafperated 
againft  them,  that  they  demanded  them  from  the  fe- 
nate to  burn  them  alive.    Confuls  were  again  appoint- 
ed, and  tranquillity  re-eftabhihed  in  the  (late.— There 
were   other   ofRcers  in    Rome   called  decemvirs,   who 
were  originally  appointed  in   the  abfence  of  the  prae- 
tor to  adminilter  juftice.      Their  appointment  became  ' 
afterwards   neceilary,    and  they   generally  affifted  at 
files  called  JttbhaJliUiones,  becaufc  a  fpear,  bajla,   was 
fixed  at  the  door  of  the  place  where  the  goods  were 
expofed  to'fale.      They  were  called  decemviri  litikis  ju- 
dicaiidis.      Tiie   officers   whom   Tarquin   appointed  to 
guard   the   Sibylline   books  were  alfo  called  decemviri. 
They  were  originally  two  in  number,  called  duumviri, 
till  the  year  of  Rome  38S,  when  their  number  was  in- 
creafed to  ten,  five  of  which  were  chofen  from  the 
plebeians  and  five  from  the  patricians.    Sylla  increafed 
their  number  to  fifteen,  called  quindecemvirs. 

DECENNALIA,  ancient  Roman  feftivals,  cele- 
brated by  the  emperors  every  tenth  year  of  their  reign, 
with  f.icrifices,  games,  and  largeffes  for  the  people. 
The  emperor  Auguftus  firft  inftiiuted  thefe  folemnities, 
in  which  he  was  imitated  by  his  fucceflurs.  At  the 
fame  time  the  people  offered  up  vows  for  the  emperor, 
and  for  the  perpetuity  of  the  empire  ;  which  were  there- 
fore called  vota  decennalia.  Auguftus's  view  in  efta- 
bliftiing  the  decennalia  was  to  preferve  the  empire  and 
the  fovcreign  power  without  offence  or  rellraint  to  the 
people.  For  during  the  celebration  of  this  feaft,  that 
prince  ufed  to  furrender  up  all  his  authority  into  the 
hands  of  the  people  ;  who,  filled  with  joy,  and  charmed 
with  the  goodnefs  of  Augullus,  immediately  delivered 
it  him  back  again. 

DECHALES  (Claudius  Francis  Milliet),  an  ex- 
cellent mathematician,  mechanic,  and  aftronomer,  de- 
feended  from  a  noble  family,  and  born  at  Chamberry 
in  161 1.  His  principal  performances  are  an  edition  of 
Euclid's  elements  of  geometry,  in  which  the  unfcrvice- 
4  T  able 


DEC. 


Dociates  able  propofitions  are  reiefted,  and  the  ufes  of  thofe  re. 
II.  tallied,  annexed  ;  a  difcoiirfc  on  forcificatioii  ;  and  an- 
^^""^  ,  other  on  navigation.  Tliefe  with  others  have  been  cpl- 
leCxed  firft  in  3  vols  folio,  and  afterwaids  in  4,  under 
the  title  of  Jlluiii/nj  Mathematicus  :  being  indeed  a 
complete  couiTe  of  maihematics.  He:  died  in  167S, 
piofcfior  of  mathematics  in  the  univerCty  of  Turin. 

DECIATEvS,  or  Deciatli,  (anc.  geog.)  a  people  of 
Gallia  Narbonenlis.  next  the  borders  of  Italy,  on  the 
Mediterranean.  Now  the  diocefe  of  Grace  and  An- 
tibes.  Deciatum  oppidum,  was  a  town  Uliiaied  between 
Antibes  and  Nice. 

DECIDUOUS,  an  appellation  chiefl\'  ufed  in  ve- 
fpeil  of  plants  :  thus,  the  calyx  or  cup  of  a  flower  is 
faid  to  be  dcc'ii'.uous,  when  it  fall 


[        69S        1 


DEC 


alono  with  the  flower- 


petals  ;  and,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  called  permancKt, 
when  it  remains  after  they  are  fallen.  Again,  decidu- 
ous leaves  are  thofe  which  full  in  autumn  ;  in  contradif- 
tintf  ion  to  thofc  of  the  evei  -greens,  which  1  emain  ail  tlie 
winter-     See  Defoliat ion. 

DECIL,  in  atlronomy,  an  afpeft  or  pofuionoftwo 
planets,  when  they  are  diilant  from  each  other  a  tenth 
part  of  the  zodiac. 

DECIMAL  ARITHMETIC,  the  art  of  computing  by 
decimal  fraiitions.     See  Arithmetic. 

DECIMATION,  a  punifhment  infiifted  by  the 
Romans,  on  fuch  foldiers  as  quitted  their  poils,  or  be- 
haved themfelves  cowardly  in  the  field.  The  names  of 
the  guilty  were  put  into  an  urn  or  helmet,  and  as  ma- 
ny were  drawn  out  as  made  the  tenth  part  of  the  whole 
number,  and  thofe  were  put  to  the  fword,  and  the  o- 
thers  faved.  This  was  caUed  dicimare  ;  a  word  of  the 
ancient  Roman  militia,  who,  to  punifh  whole  legiona 
when  they  had  failed  in  their  duty,  made  every  tenth 
foldier  draw  lots,  and  put  him  to  death  for  an  example 
to  the  others. 

As  the  Romans  had  their  declmatio,  they  had  alfo 
the  ■vice/ttnalio,  and  even  centcfimat'io,  when  only  the  zoth 
or  1 00th  man  fuffered  by  lot. 

DECIPHERING,  the  art  of  finding  the  alpha- 
bet of  a  cipher.  For  the  art  both  of  Ciphering  and 
Deciphering,  fee  the  article  Cipher. 

DECIUS  Mus,.a  celebrated  Roman  conful,  who, 
after  many  glorious  exploits,  devoted  himfelf  to  the 
gods  manes  for  the  fafety  of  his  country  in  a  battle  a- 
gainfl  the  Latirs,  about  340  years  before  the  x-^uguf- 
tan  age.  His  fon  Decius  imitated  his  example,  and 
devoted  himfelf  in  like  manner  in  his  fourth  confulfliip, 
when  fighting  againft  the  Gauls  and  Saninites.  His 
grar.dfcn  alfo  did  the  fame  in  the  war  againft  Pyrrhus 
and  the  Tarentines.  This  aaion  of  devoting  onefelf 
was  of  infinite  feivice  to  the  ftate.  The  foldiers  were 
animated  by  the  example,  and  induced  to_  follow  with 
intrepidity  a  commander  who,  arrayed  in  an  unufual 
drefs,  and  addreffing  himfelf  to  the  gods  with  folemn 
invocation,  ruflied  into  the  thickell  part  of  the  enemy 
to  meet  his  fate. 

Decius  (Cn.  Mecius,  Q^  Trajanus),  a  native  cf 
Pannonia,  fent  by  the  emperor  Philip  to  appeafe  a  fe- 
dition  in  Mcefia.  Inllead  of  obeying  his  mailer's  com- 
mand, he  affumed  the  imperial  purple,  and  foon  after 
inarched  againft  him,  and  at  his  death  became  the  only 
emperor.  He  fignalized  himfelf  againft  the  Perfians  ; 
and  when  he  marched  againft  the  Goths,  he  pufhcd 
his  horfe  into  a  deep  marfh,  from  which  he  could  not 


extricate  himfelf,  and  he  perifhed  with  all  his  army  by 
the  darts  of  the  barbarians,  A.  D.  251,  after  a  reign  ~ 
of  two  years, 

DECK  of  a  Ship,  (from  deck^n,  D.in.  to  cover)  ; 
the  planked  floors  of  a  (hip,  which  conneit  the  fide* 
together,  and  fcrve  as  different  piattorms  to  fupport 
the  artillery  and  lodge  the  mtn,  as  alfo  to  pteferve  the 
cary;o  from  the  fea  in  merchant  velfcla.  As  all  (In ps 
are  bioader  at  the  lower  deck,  thin  on  the  next  above 
it,  and  as  the  cannon  thereot  are  always  heavieft,  it  is 
necelfary  that  the  frame  of  it  Ihould  be  much  ftrongcr 
than  ihat  of  the  others-;  and  for  the  frnie  reafon  the 
fccoud  or  rniddle  deck  ought  to  be  ftroiiger  than  the 
upper  deck  or  forecaftle. 

Ships  of  the  fiift  and  fccond  rates  are  furnidied  with 
three  whole  decks,  reaching  from  the  item  to  the  ftcrn, 
befides  a  forecaftle  and  a  quarter-deck,  w'aich  ex- 
tends fiom  the  ftern  to  the  nuiumaft  ;  between  which 
and  the  forecaftle  a  vacancy  is  left  in  the  middle,  open- 
ing to  the  upper  deck,  and  forming  ivhat  is  called  the 
•aalJi.  There  is  yet  another  deck  above  the  hinder 
or  aftmoft  part  of  the  quarter-deck,  c-<i!led  the  j^oo/>, 
which  alio  fcrves  as  a  roof  for  the  captain's  cabin  or 
couch. 

The  inferior  ftilps  of  the  line  of  battle  are  equipped 
with  two  decks  and  a  half;  and  frigates,  floops,  &c. 
with  one  gun-deck  and  a  half,  with  a  fpar-deck  below 
to  lodge  the  crew. 

The  decks  are  formed  and  fuftained  by  the  beams, 
the  clamps,  the  water-ways,  the  carlings,  the  ledges, 
the  knees,  and  two  rows  of  fmall  pillars  calledj^anc/lionx, 
&c.      See  thofe  ai  tides. 

That  the  figure  of  a  deck,  together  with  Its  corre- 
fponding  parts,  may  be  more  clearly  underftood,  we 
have  exhibited  a  plan  of  the  lower-deck  ot  a  74  gun 
fliip  in  Plate  CLVI.  And  as  both  fides  of  the 
deck  are  cxaftly  Cmilar,  the  pieces  by  which  it  is  fup- 
ported  appear  on  one  fide,  and  on  the  other  fide  the 
planks  of  the  floor  of  which  it  is  compofed,  as  laid  up 
on  thofe  upper  pieces. 

A,  the  principal  or  main  hatch-way. 

B,  the  ftern-poft. 

C,  the  ftem. 

D,  the  beams,  compofed  of  three  pieces,  -as  exhi» 
bited  by  D,  in  one  of  which  the  dotted  lines  fhow  the 
arrangement  of  one  of  the  beams  under  the  other  fide 
of  the  deck. 

E,  part  of  the  vertical  or  hanging  knees. 

F,  the  horizontal  or  lodging  knees,  which  faften  the 
beams  to  the  fides. 

G,  the  carlings  ranging  fore  and  aft,  from  one  beam 
to  another. 

H,  the  gun-ports. 

I,  the  pump-dales,  being  large  wooden  tubes,  which 
return  the  water  from  the  pumps  into  the  fea. 

K,  the  fpurs  of  the  beams,  being  curved  pieces  of 
timber  ferving  as  half-beams  to  fupport  the  decks, 
where  a  whole  beam  cannot  be  placed  on  account  cf 
the  hatchways. 

L,  the  wing-tranfem,  \»hich  is  bolted  by  the  middle 
to  the  ftein-poft,  and  whofe  ends  reft  upon  the  faihion- 
pieces. 

M,  the  bulk-head  or  partition,  which  inclofes  the 
manger,  and  prevents  the  water  which  enters  at  the 
hawle-hcks  fiom  running  aft  between  decks. 

NN, 


DEC 


[     ^99     1 


D    E    C 


NN,  tlie  fore  liatch-way. 

O  O,  the  after  hatch-way. 
,      P,  the  dnim-!iead  of  the  gear  capflern. 

P  p,  the  drum- head  of  the  main  capftern. 

Q,  The  wing-tranfoin  knee, 

R,  one  of  the  breall-hooks  nnder  the  gun  deck. 

S,  the  bread- hook  of  the  eun-deck. 

TT,  the  Hat  ion  of  the  chain-pumps. 

V,  the  breadth  and  thicknefs  of  the  timbers  at  the 
lieifjht  of  the  gun-deck. 

U  U,  fcuttlfs  leading  to  the  gunner's  ftore-room, 
and  the  bread-room. 

W,  the  ftation  of  the  fore-maft. 

X,  the  tlation  of  the  main-mail. 

Y,  the  Ration  of  the  mizenmaft. 

Z,  the  rini^'-bolts  of  the  decks,  ufed  to  retain  the 
cannon  whilft  charging. 

a  a,  The  ring-bolts  of  the  fides  whereon  the  tackles 
are  hooked  that  fecure  the  cannon  at  fea. 

c  a  a  d,  The  water-ways,  ih.rough  which  the  fciipper 
holes  are  pierced,  to  carry  the  water  off  from  the  deck 
i'.ito  the  fea. 

h  b.  Plan  of  the  foremoR  and  aftmoft  cable-bits,  with 
theit  crofs-piecesgg,  and  their  ftandards  e  e. 

Thus  we  have  reprefented  on  one  fide  all  the  pieces 
which  fiiftain  the  deck  with  its  cannon  ;  and  on  the 
other  fide,  the  dtck  itfelf,  with  a  tier  of  32  pounders 
planted  in  battery  thereon.  In  order  alio  to  (liow  the 
ufe  of  the  breeching  and  train-tackle,  one  of  the  guns 
is  drawn  in  as  ready  for  charging. 

The  number  of  beams  by  which  the  decks  of  fhips 
are  fupported,  is  often  very  different,  according  to  the 
pradlioe  of  different  countries;  the  ftrength  of  the  tim- 
ber of  which  the  beams  are  framed  ;  and  the  fervices 
.for  which  the  fhip  i.s  calculated. 

As  the  deck  which  contains  the  train  of  a  fire-fhip 
is  furniflvi'd  with  an  equipage  peculiar  to  itfelf,  the 
whole  apparatus  is  particularly  defcribed  in  the  article 
'Ftm-Sti/i. 

FluJli-DscR  implies  a  continued  floor  laid  from 
flem  to  Hern,  upon  one  line,  without  any  flops  or  in- 
tervals. 

Half-DECi,  a  fpace  under  the  quarter-deck  of  a 
Ihip  oi  war,  contained  between  the  foremoft  bulk-head 
of  the  fteerage  and  the  fore-part  of  the  quarter-deck. 
In  the  colliers  of  Northumberland  the  fteerage  itfelf  is 
called  the  half-dak,  and  is  ufually  the  habitation  of  the 
crew. 

DECLAMATION,  a  fpeech  made  in  public.  In 
the  tone  and  manner  of  an  oration,  uniting  the  expref- 
fion  of  aftion  to  the  propriety  of  pronnnciati.in,  in  or- 
der to  give  the  fentiment  its  full  impreflion  upon  the 
mind.-  According  to  the  manners  and  cuftoms  of  the 
prefent  age,  public  harangues  are  made  only,  j.  In 
the  pulpit.  2.  In  the  lenate,  in  council,  or  other 
public  aiTembly.  4.  By  pubhc  profeirors.  5.  On  the 
theatre. 

I.  With  regard  to  the  declamation  of  the  pulpit,  the 
dignity  and  fanftity  of  the  place,  and  the  importance 
of  the  fubjtft,  require  the  preacher  to  exert  the  utmofl 
powers  of  his  voice  to  produce  a  pronunciation  that  is 
pcrfedly  diltinft  and  harmonious,  and  that  he  obferve 
a  deportment  and  aftion  which  is  cxpreflive  and  grace- 
ful. No  man,  theretore,  who  is  dellitute  of  a  voice, 
ihould  afcend  the  pulpit,  and  there  '%£l  the  part  of  a 


pantomime  before  his  audience.     The  preacher  fhoiild  Dcclanu- 
not,  however,  roar  like  a  common  cryer,  and  rend  the  ^     """• 
car  with  the  voice  of  thunder  ;  for  fuch  kind  of  dtcla-  '     ~ 

mation  is  not  only  without  mcaninsr  and  without  per-  Jl  ''.  ' 
lualion,  but  highly  incongruous  with  the  mtck  and 
gentle  exprcfTions  of  the  gofpel.  He  (hould  hkewife 
take  particular  care  to  avoid  a  monotony  ;  his  voice 
fhould  rife  from  the  beginning,  as  it  were  by  degrees, 
and  its  greateft  Hrength  fhould  be  exerted  in  the  appli- 
cation. Each  inflexion  of  the  voice  Aiould  be  adapted 
to  the  phrafe,  and  to  the  meaning  of  the  words  ;  and 
each  remarkable  exprefTion  (hould  have  its  peculiar  in- 
flexion. The  dogmatic  requires  a  pJ.iin,  uniform  tone 
of  voice  only  ;  and  the  menaces  of  the  gofpel  demand  i 
greater  force  than  do  its  promifes  and  rewards:  but  the 
latter  (hould  not  be  pronounced  in  the  foft  tone  of  a 
flute,  nor  the  former  with  the  loud  found  of  a  t rum- 
pet.  The  voice  (hould  if  ill  retain  its  natural  tone  in  all 
its  various  inflexions.  Happy  is  that  preacher,  to  whom 
nature  has  given  a  voice  that  is  at  once  ftrong,  flexible 
and  harmonious. 

An  air  of  complacency  and  benevolence,  as  well  as 
devotion,  (hould  be  conftantly  vilible  in  the  countenance 
of  the  preacher.  But  every  appearance  of  affeaatlon 
mnft  be  carefully  avoided  :  for  nothing  is  fo  difgullful 
to  an  audience,  as  even  the  fembknce  of  diiTimulation. 
Eyes  conftantly  rolling,  tuined  towards  heaven,  and 
ilreaming  with  tears,  rather  denote  a  hypocrite,  than 
a  man  pofrcffed  of  the  real  fpirit  of  religion,  and  that 
feels  the  tiue  import  of  what  he  preaches.  An  air  of 
afteiSed  devotion  iifallibly  deftroys  the  efficacy  of  all 
that  the  preacher  can  fay,  however  juft  and  Mnportant 
it  may  be.  On  the  other  hand,  he  muft  avoid  every 
appearance  of  mirth  or  raillery,  or  of  that  cold  unfeel- 
ing manner  which  is  fo  apt  to  freeze  the  hearts  of  hi.i 
hearers. 

The  body  fhould  be  in  general  ereft,  and  in  a  natural 
and  eafy  attitude.  The  perpetual  movement,  or  con- 
tortion, of  the  body,  has  a  ridiculous  effeft  in  the 
pulpit,  and  makes  the  figure  of  a  preacher  and  a 
harlequin  much  too  fimilar.  But,  on  the  other  hand, 
he  ought  not  to  remain  conftantly  upright  and  motion« 
lefs,  like  a  fpeaking  ftatue. 

The  motions  of  the  hands  give  a  ftrong  expreflion  to  a 
difcourfe  J  but  they  fhould  be  conftantly  decent,  grave, 
noble,  and  exprefTive.  The  preacher,  who  is  inceffantly 
in  aftion,  who  is  perpetuilly  clafping  his  hands,  cr 
who  menaces  with  a  clenched  till,  or  counts  his  argu- 
ments on  his  fingers,  will  only  excite  mirth  amonc  hia 
auditory.  In  a  word,  declamation  is  an  art  that  the 
facred  orator  (hould  ftudy  with  the  utmoft  affidulti'. 
The  defign  of  a  fermon  is  to  convince,  to  affeft,  and  to 
perfuide.  The  voice,  the  countenance,  and  the  aftion, 
which  are  to  produce  this  triple  effeft,  are  therefore  the 
objefts  to  which  the  preacher  (hould  particularly  apoly 
himfelf. 

II.  The  declamation  of  a  minifler  or  ftitefman  in 
the  fenate,  in  council,  or  other  public  affembly,  is  of 
a  more  uncorifined  nature.  To  perfuade,  to  move  the 
paffions,  and  gain  an  nicendancy  in  a.  public  affembly, 
the  orator  ftivuild  himfelf  feel  the  force  of  what  he  fays, 
and  the  declamation  fhould  only  exprefs  that  internal 
fcnfation.  But  nothing  fliould  be  carried  to  excefs.  A 
fuavity  in  the  tone  of  voice,  a  dignity  of  deportment, 
a  graceful  aftion,  and  a  certain  tranquiUity  of  counte- 
4  T  2  Uiui\; 


DEC  [     700     ]  DEC 

Ileclami-  nance,  fhould  conflantly  accompany  the  flatefman  when  inllance  of  high  abfurdity  to  reprefent  a  tragedy,  or  Declim: 

lion.      jjg  fpeaks  in  public,  even  when  he  is  moil  earncftly  en-  comedy,  before  an  audience  of  twenty  thoiifand  people,       •'""• 

*  (raced  in  debate,  or  when  he  is  addrefiing  his  fovercign  the  far  greateft  part  of  whom  could  neither  hear  nor  ^~V~ 

in  perfon.    A  pleating  tone  of  voice,  and  a  dlltinft  pro-  foe  what  pafl'cd  to  any  good  purpofe,  unlefs  they  were 

nur.ciation,  prejudice  the  heaivrs  greatly  in  the  fpeak-  poffeffed  of  organs  which  we  have  not.      The  theatres 

er's  favour.      A  youmi  man  may  improve   thefe  to  a  of  London  and  Paris  may  conveniently  contain  about 

furprifing  degree.      DeniollheP'.'s,   who   h?.d   a   natuial  a  thouland  perfons  ;  and  that  is  found  fufficicnt  in  the 

impediment  in  his  fpccch,  was  accuftomed  to  go  to  the  moft  populous  cities,  where  there  are  fevcral  places  of 

fea-fhore,  and  partly  filling  his  mouth  with  pebbles  he  entertainment  on  the  fame  day,  and  where  the  people 

declaimed  with  a  loud  voice.     The   Hones  by  degrees  are  reafonable  enough  to  fucceed  each  other  in  their 

gave  a  volubility  to  his  tongue,  and  the  roaring  of  the  diverfions.     As  the  features  of  the  face  could   not  be 

waves  reconciled  him  infenfibly  to  the  noife  of  the  mul-  diltinguifhed  at  fo  great  a  dillance,  and  ftiU  lefs  the 

titude.  alteration  of  countenance   in   order  to   reprefent  the 

III.  The  principal  objeft  of  a  public  profefTor  is  the  different  patfions,  they  were  obliged  to  have  recourfe 
inftrufliou  of  the  ftudious  youth  :  for  which  purpofe,  to  majks;  a  wretched,  childilh  invention,  that  dcltroy- 
he  is  to  convince  and  perfuade.  Every  tone  of  voice,  ed  all  the  Ifrength  and  variety  of  expreffion.  I'heir 
tvery  cxpreffion  of  the  countenance,  oraftionofthe  aftion  became  extravagant;  and,  at  tlie  lame  time, 
body,  which  can  produce  this  efteft  by  enforcing  the  fubfervierit  to  a  regular  mechanitm,  which  prevented 
words,  ftiould  therefore  be  employed  by  thofe  who  are  all  the  refinement,  and  all  the  pleafiire  of  furprife, 
to  teach  the  fciences.  Their  is,  moreover,  one  very  in  the  performance;  and  muft  have  had  an  eft'tdt  hor- 
effenti.!!  refitftion  which  every  profeflbr  ought  to  ribly  difagreeable  to  thofe  who  were  placed  near  the 
rnake,  and  which  is,  that  the  chair,  from  which  he  ha-  ftage. 

rangues,  is  furrounded   by  young  ftudents,  naturally         3.  The  egregious  imperfeftion   of   their   language 

poffefTcd  with  vivacity,  not  unfrequently  ludicrous,  and  likewife,   which  confided  of  fyllables    long  and  fliort, 

for  the  moft  part  prcvioufly  inftrufted  in  the  prepara-  whofe  duration  was  determined  by  a  fet  mcafure  of 

tory  fciences.     They  are  therefore  conftantly  inclined  time,  and  their  manner  of  tuning  thefe  fyllablcs,  after 

to  criticife,  to  jeft,  and  to  ridicule :  for  which  reafon,  the  method  of  tlie  orchefis  of  the  Greeks,  was  another 

the  profefTor  fhould  endeavour  to  infpire  them  with  re-  difadvantage.     For  by  this  means  they  determined  by 

fpeft  and  attention,  by  a  grave,  commanding,  and  ve-  notes  or  charafters  placed  after  the  long  and  Ihort  fyl- 

nerable  countenance;  and  carefully  avoid  all  appearance  lables,  not  only  the  nature,  but  the  duration,  of  each 

of  grimace  in  his  aftion,  and  every  kind  of  affeftation  aftion.      Now,  nothing  could  be  more  affetled,  more 

in  his  difcourfc,  that  he  may  not  afford  the  Icaft  oppor-  conitrained    and  difgullful,   than   fuch  method  of  de- 

tunitv  for  pleafantry.  claiming.     How   far   fuperior  in  this  refpect  are  the 

IV.  We  are  now  come  to  theatric  Jedainal'ion.  moderns,  who  confult  nature  alone  in  their  theatric  de- 
1.  This  was  vtry  different  among  the  ancients  from  clamation ;  who  can  make  the  audience  hear  each  figh; 
what  it  is,  and  ought  to  be,  with  us,  from  the  nature  who  can  accompany  it  with  a  proper  attitude  ;  who 
of  the  thing  Itfelf,   and  from  the  difTereiice  of  circnm-  can  inceffantly   \ary  their  adlion  ;  who  can  feize  the 


fiances.     Numberkfs  paffages  in  Quintilian,  and  other  lucky  moment,   and  make  the  countenance  fully  ex- 
ancient  hiflorians,  critics,  grammarians,  and  commen-  prtfs  the  fenfations  of  the  mind.'  Nature  does  all  here; 
tators,  evidently  prove,  that  the  ancient  dramatic  de-  and  art,  infinitely  inferii 
clamation  was  fubfervient  to  the  rules  of  the  mufical  ancients.     Modern  dec 
•Dtilfi^'!i«,j}jythmus';  and  by  this,  according  to  Ariftides*,  their  to  a  mufical  rhythmus, 
*■          action,  as  well  as  recital,  was  regulated.     But  to  ex-  without  affeftatioii.   Ou 


tators,  evidently  prove,  that  the  ancient  dramatic  de-  and  art,  infinitely  inferior  to  nature,  did  all  among  the 

clamation  was  fubfervient  to  the  rules  of  the  mufical  ancients.     Modern  declamation  cannot  be  fubfervient 

feeing  we  fpeak  rapidly,  and 
ur  a6tors  learn  their  art  without 

plain  this  feemiiig  paradox,  it  will  be  neceffary  to  make  art,  from  nature  itfelf,  affifted  by  refledion;  and  they 

here  fome  preliminary  remarks.     Tlie  ancients  gave  a  arrive  at  a  degree  of  excellence  infinitely  greater  than 

much  more  extcnfive  fignification  than  we    do  to  the  that  of  the  ancients,  by  a  method  far  more  fimple,  and 

word   vmjic   (mufica),    which    they   derived   from   tiie  by  efforts  incomparably  more  cafy. 
tnufes,   or  at  kail  from  fome  of  them.     It  is  for  this         4.  We  do  not,  moreover,  precifcly  know  what  the 

reafon,  that  the  fame  Aiillides  and  Quintilian  define  theatric  declamation  of  the  ancients  was  ;  nor  what 

it   to  be  "  An  art  that  teaches  all  that  relates  to  the  were  the  mufical  inilruments  which  accompanied  that 

life  of  the  voice,  and  the  manner  of  performing  all  the  declamation.      The  title  to  the  Eunuch  of  Terence 

motions  of  the  body  with  grace  :"  y/rj  dtcor'is  In  vaci-  fays,   for  example,   "  That    Flaccus,  the  freedraan  of 

ins  y  mot'ibui.     Therefore  poetry,  declamation,   dan-  Claudius,   made  the  mufic  of  that  piece,  in  which  he 

cing,  pantomimes,  and  many  other  gtllures  and   ex-  employed  the  two  flutes,  the  right  and  the  left."  Thefe 

crcifes,  were  fubfervient  to  this  art.  flutes,  it  is  likely,  gave  the  tone   to  the  after;  which 

2.  That  part  of  general  mufic  which  taught  the  art  muft  have  had  a  VC17  odd  tffeA  on  the  audience.    Moft 

of  declamation  and  geftare  according  to  the  rules  of  of  the   ancient  pieces  have  fimllar  titles.     They  who 

an    eftablifhcd  method  (and  which  we  perform  by  in-  woiJd  be  particularly  informed  of  the  art  of  dcclaim- 

ftlnft,  or  at  mofl  by  the  aid  of  common  fcnie),   was  ing  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  may  read  to  ad- 

difl-inguifhed  by  the  name  of  hypocriil:  mufic:   and  this  vantage  the  Critical  Refieftioiis  on  Poetry  and  Paint- 

mufical  art  was  called  by  the  Greeks  orch.Jis  ;  and  by  ing  by  the  Abbe  du  Bos.     The  third  part  of  that 

the    Romans  fahatio.      It  was,   however,   fo  far  from  work  confiils   entirely  of  learned  refearches  and  inge- 

being  an  advantage  to  the  ancients  to  have  had  this  art,  nious  refledions  on  this  filly  praftice  of  the  ancients, 

■which  we  have  not,  that  it  was,  on  the  contrary,  a  mark  But  as  this  art  has  happily  no  place  in  modern  decla- 

of  great  impeifsdion.    For,  in  the  firft  place,  it  was  an  mation,  and  can  at  beit  ferve  only  to  make  a  parade 

i.  «^fc 


DEC  [7 

•  of  erudition,  wo  fliaJl   fay  no  more  of  it,  but   pafs  to 
maltcTS  of  real  utility. 

5'.  We  think  tlicre  is  good  reafon  to  belitve,  more- 
over, that  ihe  lU'  ft  pulillitd  nations  of  inodcrn  Europe 
do  not  accompany  their  difcourfcs,  in  general,  with  lo 
many  gcflicuLitions,  as  did  the  Greeks,  the  Romans, 
and  other  inhabitants  of  warm  chmates.  They  ap- 
pear to  liave  found  the  method  of  animating  a  difcourfe, 
and  giving  it  an  cxpiclTioii,  by  the  limple  iiiflei^^lions  ot 
tlie  \oiee,  and  by  the  features  of  the  rountenarjce  ; 
which  is  far  moie  decent,  morcjud,  and  rational,  lh.ia 
all  thofe  contortions  wliicli  perpetually  derange  the  na- 
tural atitudc  of  the  body  and  its  members,  and  give 
the  fjieaker  the  air  of  a  harletjuin. 

6.  Exprejfion,  therefore,  forms  at  once  the  effence 
and  the  end  of  declamation  j  and  the  means  of  jirodu- 
cing  it  conliils  in  a  pronunciation  that  is  fonoious,  di- 
flinil,  and  pleafing,  fupporled  by  an  action  that  is  de- 
cent and  proper  to  the  lubjtdl.  If  the  l)ell  dramatic 
pott  has  need  of  a  good  diclaimer  or  aCtor  to  make 
his  writing  produce  its  proper  effert,  the  ae\or  has 
likevvife  need  of  a  good  poet  to  enable  him  to  pleafe 
and  affecl  by  his  aclion  :  for  it  is  to  little  purpole 
that  he  endeavours  to  charm  his  anditoi-y  by  uniting, 
with  nature,  all  the  powers  of  art,  if  the  poet  has  not 
furnidicd  him  with  fentiments  that  are  rational  and  af- 
fcAing. 

7.  The  after,  in  ftudying  his  part  before  a  large 
mirror,  where  he  can  Ice  his  whole  ligiu'e,  in  order  to 
determine  the  mod  proper  expreffion  for  every  thought, 
(hould  confult  nature,  and  endeavour  to  imitate  her. 
But,  in  this  imitation,  he  fliould  take  care  not  to  make 
too  fervile  a  copy.  He  has  this  to  obferve,  in  common 
with  his  colleagues,  the  mafters  in  all  tlie  polite  arts: 
The  theatre  is  intended  to  exhibit  an  imitation  of  na- 
ture, and  not  nature  itfelf.  Tragedy  and  comedy  form 
pi&ures  of  human  life;  but  thefe  pictures  are  alfo 
pieces  of  perfpeftivc,  which  require  flrokes  fomewhat 
ftronger  than  nature,  that  they  may  be  difcerncd  at  a 
diftance.  The  aftor  is  elevated  to  a  confiderable 
height  from  the  ground;  he  is  furroundcd  by  fcenery, 
he  is  feparated  from  the  audience  by  the  orchellra,  and 
he  fpeaks  in  verfe ;  all  this  is  not  natural :  but  the 
fpedtator  is  to  accede  to  this  neceflary  illufion,  in  order 
to  promote  his  own  pleafurc,  which  would  not  be  fo 
great  as  it  is  were  all  thefe  matters  otherwife  difpofcd. 
Declamation,  therefore,  Ihould  fomewhat  exceed,  but 
never  lofe  fight  of,  nature. 

8.  The  tone  of  the  aftor's  voice  (Iiould  be  natural, 
but  regulated  by  the  extent  of  the  theatre;  fufiiciently 
loud  to  be  heard  hy  all  the  audience,  but  not  fo  vio- 
lent as  to  rend  their  ears.  A  pure  and  graceful  pro- 
nunciation, without  any  provincial  accent,  is  likewife 
a  great  merit  in  an  aftor;  and  he  ihould  alfo  habituate 
himfelf  te  fpeak  in  a  manner  perfeftly  diftindl.  It  is 
a  capital  point  in  the  pronouncing  of  verfe,  not  to  fe- 
parate  the  two  hemiftics,  by  reding  too  long  on  the 
ttcjura  in  the  middle,  or  dwelling  on  the  end  of  each 
kemittic:  for,  by  fo  doing,  the  aftor  falls  into  a  mo- 
jiotony,  an  infuffcrable  uniformity  of  cadence,  in  a 
piece  that  confifls  of  fome  thoufand  verfes.  The  gra- 
dations of  the  voice  demand  alfo  a  very  jud/bious  ob- 
fcrv  ance.  The  fpeaker,  who  begins  in  a  high  tone, 
wili  find  it  very  difficult  to  fuftain  it  through  the  whole 
jpCce;  Mid  he,  who  clamours  incclfantly,  will  find  his 


01     1  DEC 

lungs  fail  him  In  thofe  parts  where  the  vehemence  of  Dcclarato. 
palTton  requires  the  Jlrongell  efforts.      If  we  may  be         [>' 
allowed  theexpreliion,  the  firongeft  touches,  the  bold-  Dctoflion. 
eil  figures,  will  not  there  Hand  out  from  the  pifture  in         ^ 
a  Rriking  manner. 

9.  The  deportment  of  an  aftor  fliould  be  conftantly 
graceful,  decent,  and  proper  to  the  ciiaraftcr  he  repte- 
ftnts.  An  old  man  hay  a  different  pofition  of  body 
from  a  young  petit  maiiit  ;  an  aged  queen  from  a 
young  princefs;  a  noble  gallant  from  a  valet  de  charn-* 
bre.  A  rational  oblervance  of  nature,  and  an  imita- 
tion of  the  bell  aftors,  are  here  the  furcft  guides.  The 
fame  may  be  faid  of  the  aiStion  of  the  hands,  the  thea- 
tric flep,  &e'.  An  inaniinated  figure,  a  body  in  the 
politiou  of  a  llaliie,  and  hands  immoveable,  are  as  dif- 
plealing  in  the  fcene  as  a  player  whole  inceffant  gdli- 
culation  lefembles  the  adtiuii  of  a  puppet. 

10.  Every  attoi"  who  afpires  to  make  his  art  fome-  .. 
thing  more  than  merely  meehanical,  will  begin  by  c- 
n-ibliug  himlell  readily  to  repeat  his  part,  that  the  de- 
fed;  ot  his  memory  may  not  embarrafs  his  adtion. 
When  he  is  fo  iar  a  mailer  of  it,  he  will  make  it  the 
lubjedt  of  feriuus  reflection  in  his  clofet  ;  endeavour  to 
fei/.e  the  true  fenfe  of  the  author;  and  to  tind  out  that 
exprefllon  of  each  fentiment  and  pafiion,  which  is  the 
moil  natural,  the  moil  llriking,  and  bell  adapted  to  the 
ftage  ;  and  which  he  will  cultivate  by  repeated  eflays, 
till  he  is  able  to  render  it  in  its  full  force. 

DECLARATORY  action.  See  Law,  N'clxxxli. 
2  I. 

DECLENSION,  in  grammar,  an  iufleftion  of 
nouns  according  to  their  divers  cafes;  as  nominative,, 
genitive,  dative,  <Scc.      See  G8.amm.ir. 

DECLINATION,  in  ailronomy,  the  diftance  of 
any  celeilial  ohjeilt  from  the  cquiuoftial,  either  north- 
ward or  fouthward.  It  is  either  true  or  apparent,  ac- 
cording as  the  real  or  apparent  place  of  the.objedt  is 
confideied.     See  Astronomy,  n°4C9,  410. 

DkCLinATiOK  of  the  Sea-Compafs  or  l^eedU,  is  its  va- 
riation from  the  true  meridian  of  any  place. 

DecLiNAtiON  of  a  Wall  or  P!ai;e,  for  Dials,  is  an 
arch  of  the  horizon,  contained  either  between  the  plane 
and  the  prime  vertical  circle,  if  you  reckon  it  from  the 
eaft  or  weft  ;  or  tlfe  between  the  meridian  and  the 
plane,  if  you  account  it  from  the  north  or  fouth.  See 
Dial. 

DECLINATORIES,  are  inftruments  for  taking 
the  declinations,  inclinations,  and  rediiiations  of  planes; 
and  tliey  are  of  feveral  kinds. 

The  bell  fort  for  taking  the  declination  confifts  of  a 
fquare  piece  of  brafs  or  wood,  with  a  limb  accurately 
divided  into  degrees;  and  every  fifth  minute,  if  polfible, 
having  a  horizontal  dial  moving  on  the  centre,  made 
for  the  latitude  of  the' place  it  is  to  ferve  in;  and  which 
has  a  fmall  bit  of  fine-  brafs  fixed  on  its  meridian  line, 
lik<  a  fiducial  edge,  to  cut  the  degrees  of  the  limb:  for 
at  any  time  when  the  fun  fliines,  by  having  the  hour  of 
the  day,  you  may  find  the  declination  of  any  wall  or 
plane  bv  this  inftrument. 

DECLINATURE  o/Jodg£s.  See  Law,  N'clvi. 
12. 

DECLIVITY  denotes  the  reverfe  of  Acclivity. 

DECOCTION,  ufuaUy  fignifies  either  the  aftion. 
of  boiling  a  fubftance  in  water,  or  the  water  itfelf  in: 
which  the  fubllance  has  been  boiled.     It  is  only  appli- 

cablt 


DEC 

Becoliation  caUe  to  matters  containing  fome  piinciples  foluble  in 
"  .  water ;  fuch  particulaily  are  animal  and  vegitable 
^^  matters.     Decodlion  ought  not  to  be  iifed  witli  fuch 

I'ubftances  as  contain  any  volatile  principles,  as  they 
would  be  diflipated  in  the  air  during  the  procefs.  But 
it  may  be  fafcly  ul'ed,  nay  even  becomes  neceffary,  when 
the  matters  to  be  treated  are  folid,  and  of  a  clofe  and 
compaA  texture  ;  becaufe  then  the  water  could  not 
extract  its  principles  without  a  boiling  heat.  Mod  foft 
f.iiimal  matters,  as  flerti,  ikin,  tendons,  may  be  conve- 
niently boiled  in  water;  becaufe  they  contain  no  prin- 
ciple volatile  with  a  boiling  heat.  Water  extracts  from 
them  nothing  but  a  gelatinous  fubllance,  and  fome 
oily  parts  which  float  on  the  furface  of  the  water.  All 
vegetable  matters  which  are  inodorous,  and  particular- 
ly thofc  which  are  hard,  as  roots,  barks,  &c.  are  ge- 
nerally boiled,  when  an  extraction  of  their  principles 
by  ivater  is  required.  -  To  this  rule,  however,  there 
are  fome  exceptions.  Peruvian  bark,  for  inftance,  gives 
its  ilrength  to  cold  water  better  than  to  luch  as  is  boil- 
ing hot.  Many  other  vegetables  alfo  have  the  fame 
property  of  yielding  lefs  to  boding  than  to  cold  water. 
And  therefore  a  general  rule  may  be  eftablKhed,  that 
decoftion  ought  not  to  be  employed  but  when  abfo- 
lutely  neceffary ;  that  is,  when  the  fame  principles,  or 
the  f^me  quantities  of  thofe  principles,  cannot  be  ob- 
tained by  an  iufufion,  and  that  without  heat,  if  it  can 
be  fp  done,  confidering  that  the  proximate  principles 
of  vegetables  are  generally  fo  delicate,  and  (o  fufcep- 
tlble  of  change  and  decompofition,  that  frequently  the 
nioft  gentle  heat  changes  much  their  nature  and  pro- 
perties. 

DECOLLATION,  beheading,  a  term  feldom 
lifed  but  in  the  phrafe  decolliJtton  of  St  John  Baptift  ; 
which  denotes  a  painting,  wherein  is  reprefented  the 
Baptiil's  head  (truck  off  from  his  trunk  ;  or  tlie  feait 
held  in  honour  of  that  martyr. 

DECOMPOSITION,  in  chemiftry,  ufually  figni- 
fies  the  difunion  or  feparation  of  the  conftituent  parts 
of  bodies.  —  It  differs  from  mere  mechanical  divifion,  in 
that  when  a  body  is  chemically  dccompofcd,  the  parts 
into  which  it  is  refolved  are  elfentially  different  from 
the  body  itfelf ;  hut  though  a  mechanical  force  Is  ap- 
plied to  it  ever  fo  long,  or  with  ever  fo  much  violence, 
the  minutelt  particles  into  which  the  body  may  be  re- 
duced, ilill  retain  their  original  nature. — Thus,  for  ex- 
ample, though  we  fnppofe  nitre,  or  any  other  fait,  to 
be  reduced  to  ever  fo  tine  powder,  each  particle  retains 
the  nature  of  nitre,  as  much  as  the  largeft  unpounded 
mafs  ;  but  if  oil  of  vitriol  is  applied,  a  decompofition 
takes  place,  and  one  of  the  component  parts  of  the  ni- 
tre rifes  in  the  form  of  a  fmoking  acid  fpirit,  which 
fiever  -could  have  been  fufpected  to  lie  hid  in  the  mild 
neutral  fait. 

DECORATION,  in  architefture,  any  thing  that 
adorns  and  enriches  a  building,  church,  triumphal 
arch,  or  the  like,  either  without  fide  or  within. 

The  orders  of  architefture  contribute  greatly  to  the 
decoration  ;  t)Ut  then  the  feverai  parts  of  thofe  orders 
iTiuft  have  th-.ir  jnft  proportions,  characters,  and  orna- 
ments ;  olhcrwife  the  fincft  order  will  bring  confufion 
rather  than  richnefs.     See  Architecture. 

Decorations  in  churches,  are  paintings,  vafcs,  fe- 
floons,  &c.  occafionally  applied  to  the  walls;  and  with 
fo  rauchccndudt  and  difcrction,  as  not  to  take  off  any 


as  18  mudi  Dfwraiio 

^  I! 

Decoy, 


[     702     ]  DEC 

thing  from  the  form  of  the  architecture 
praiitifed  in  Italy  at  the  foiemn  fealls. 

Decoration  is  more  particularly  applied  to  the 
fcenes  of  theatres. 

In  operas,  and  other  theatrical  performances,  the 
decorations  muil  be  frequently  changed  conformably  to 
the  1  abject. 

The  ancients  had  two  kinds  of  decorations  for  their 
theatres:  the  firft,  called  i>erfattli:s,  having  three  fides, 
or  faces,  which  were  turned  fuccellively  to  the  fpefka- 
tors  :  the  other  called  dutfiles,  fliowing  a  new  decora- 
tion by  diawing  or  fliding  another  before  it.^-This 
latter  fort  is  lliU  ufed,  and  apparently  with  much 
greater  fuccefs  than  among  the  ancients,  who  were 
obliged  to  draw  a  curtain  whenever  they  made  a 
change  in  the  decoration  ;  whereas  on  our  (lagc  the 
change  is  made  in  a  moment,  and  almoll  without  be- 
ing perceived. 

DECORUM,  In  architeifture,  is  the  fultablenefs  of 
a  building,  and  the  fcveial  parts  and  ornaments  there- 
of, to  the  llation  and  occalion. 

DECOUPLE,  in  heraldry,  the  fame  as  uncoupled: 
thus  a  chevron  decouple,  is  a  chevron  wanting  fo 
much  of  it  towards  the  point,  that  the  two  ends  iland 
at  a  diftance  from  one  another,  being  parted  and  un- 
caupled. 

DECOY,  in  "naval  affairs,  a  ftratagem  employed 
bv  a  fhip  of  war  to  betray  a  veflel  of  inferior  force 
into  an  uncautious  purfuit,  till  fhe  has  drawn  her  with- 
in the  range  of  her  cannon,  or  what  is  called  within 
giwjhot.  It  Is  ufually  performed  by  painting  the  Hern 
and  fides  In  fuch  a  manner  as  to  difguife  the  Ihip,  and 
reprefent  her  either  much  fmaller  and  of  inferior  force, 
or  as  a  friend  to  the  hoilile  vcffel,  wliich  (he  endeavours 
to  enfnare,  by  alTuming  the  emblems  and  ornaments  of 
the  nation  to  which  the  (Iranger  is  fuppofed  to  belong. 
When  (he  has  thus  provoked  the  advcrlary  to  chafe,  in 
hopes  of  acquiring  a  prize,  fhe  continues  the  dccov, 
by  (preading  a  great  lail,  as  endeavouring  to  cfcapc  ; 
at  the  fame  time  that  her  courfe  Is  coniiderably  retard- 
ed by  an  artful  alteration  of  her  trim  till  the  enemy 
approaches.  Decoying  Is  alfo  performed  to  elude  the 
chafe  of  a  Tnlp  of  a  Itiperlor  force  in  a  dark  night,  by 
throwing  out  a  lighted  calk  of  pitch  into  the  fea,  wliich 
will  burn  for  a  confiderable  time  and  mifguide  the  ene- 
my. Immediately  after  the  cadi  is  tliiown  out,  the 
fliip  changes  her  courfe,  and  may  eaiUy  efcape  if  at 
any  tolerable  diftance  from  the  foe. 

Decoy,  among  fowlers,  a  place  tnade  for  catching 
wild-fowl.  A  decoy  is  generally  made  where  there  i» 
a  large  pond  furrounded  with  wood,  and  beyond  that 
a  inar(tiy  and  uncultivated  country  :  if  the  piece  of  wa- 
ter is  not  thus  furrounded,  it  will  be  attended  with  the 
noife  and  other  accidents  which  may  be  expedted  to 
frighten  the  wild-fowl  from  a  quiet  haunt,  where  they 
mean  to  llecp,  during  the  day-time,  in  fecurity.  If 
thefe  noifes  or  dlllurbances  are  wilful,  it  hath  been 
held  that  an  aiftlon  will  lie  againft  the  dKturber.  —  As' 
foon  as  the  evening  fets  in,  the  decoy  r'lfes  (as  they' 
term  it),  and  the  wild  fowl  feed  during  the  night.  If 
the  evening  is  ftlll,  the  noife  of  their  wings,  during 
their  flight,  is  heard  at  a  very  great  diftance,  and  is  a 
pleating  though  rather  melancholy  found.  This  ri/tng 
of  the  decoy  in  the  evening,  is  in  Somerletfiiii-e' called 

The 


D    £    C 


[    703     1 


DEC 


ennant  s 
't.  ZcoJ. 


The  decoy-ducks  are  feil  with  hempfeed,  which  is 
thrown  over  the  flcretns  in  fmall  (j'litntities,  to  bring 
them  forwards  into  the  pipea  or  canals,  and  to  allure  the 
wild-fowl  to  follow,  as  this  feed  is  fo  light  as  to  float. 

There  are  feveral  /:':pes,  a  they  are  called,  which 
lead  up  a  narrow  ditch  iluit  clofes  at  lall  with  a  funnel- 
net.  Over  thefe  pipes  (which  grow  narrower  from 
their  firft  entrance)  is  a  continued  arch  of  netting 
fuipended  on  hoops.  It  is  necclfary  to  have  a  pipe  or 
ditch  for  almofl  every  wind  that  can  blow,  as  upon 
this  citcuinitance  it  depends  which  pipe  the  fowl  will 
take  to  ;  and  the  dtcoy  man  always  keeps  on  the  lee- 
ward fide  of  the  ducks,  to  prevent  hij  tllliivia  reaching 
their  fagacious  noflrils.  All  along  each  pipe,  at  certain 
intervals,  are  placed  f.creens  made  of  reeds,  which  are 
fo  fituated,  that  it  is  impoffible  the  wild-fowl  flioiild 
fee  the  decoy-raan,  before  they  have  parted  on  towards 
the  end  of  the  pipe,  where  the  purfe-nct  is  placed. 
The  inducement  to  the  wild-fowl  to  go  up  one  of 
thefe  pipes  is,  becaufc  the  decoy-ducks  trained  to 
this  lead  the  way,  either  after  hearing  the  whittle  of 
the  decoy-man,  or  enticed  by  the  hempfeed  ;  the  lat- 
ter will  dive  under  water,  whilil  the  wild-fowl  fly  on, 
and  arc  taken  in  the  pnrfe. 

It  often  happens,  however,  that  the  wild-fowl  are 
in  fuch  a  (late  of  fleepinefs  and  dozing,  that  they  will 
not  follow  the  decoy-ducks.  Ufe  is  then  generally 
made  of  a  dog,  who  is  taught  his  leflbn  :  he  paflcs 
backwards  and  forwards  between  the  reedfkreens  (in 
which  are  little  holes,  both  for  the  decoy-man  to  fee, 
and  the  little  dog  to  pafs  through);  this  attrafts  the 
eye  of  the  wild-fowl,  who,  not  choofing  to  be  inter- 
rup»'jd,  advance  towards  the  fmall  and  contemptible  a- 
iiimal,  that  they  may  drive  him  away.  The  dog  all  the 
time,  by  the  direcflion  of  the  decoy-man,  plays  among 
the  ikreens  of  reeds,  nearer  and  nearer  the  purfe-net  ; 
till  at  laft,  perhaps,  the  decoy-man  appears  behind 
a  (kreen,  and  the  wild  fowl  not  daring  to  pafs  by  him 
in  return,  nor  bring  able  to  efcape  upwards  on  account 
of  the  net-cohering,  ru(h  on  into  the  purfe-net.  Some- 
times the  dog  will  not  attraft  their  attention,  if  a  red 
handke-chlef,  or  fomething  very  fingular,  is  not  put 
about  him. 

The  general  feafon  for  catching  fowl  in  decoys,  is 
from  the  latter  end  of  October  till  February  :  the  ta- 
king of  them  earlier  is  prohibited  by  an  act  10  Geo.  11. 
c.  32.  which  forbids  it  from  June  ifl:  to  Oftober  id, 
under  the  penally  of  five  {hillings  for  each  bird  dcftroy- 
ed  within  that  fpace. 

The  Linccinfhire  decoys  are  commonly  fet  at  a  cer- 
tain annualrent,  from  5  to  20  pounds  a-year:  and 
there  is  one  in  Somerfetfhire  that  pays  30 1.  The  for- 
mer contribute  principally  to  fupply  the  markets  in 
London.  Amazing  numbers  of  dncks,  wigeons,  and 
teal,  are  taken :  by  an  account  fent  us  *  of  the  number 
caught  a  few  winters  pall,  in  one  feafon,  and  in  only 
ten  decoys,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Wain-fleet,  it  np- 
peared  to  amoiuit  to  31,200,  in  which  are  included  fe- 
veral other  fpecies  of  ducks  :  it  is  alfo  to  be  obferved, 
that,  in  the  above  particular,  wigcoti  and  teal  are  rec- 
koned but  as  one,  and  confcquently  fell  but  at  half  pi  ice 
of  the  ducks.  This  quantity  makes  them  fo  cheap  on 
thefpot,  that  we  have  been  affiired,  feveral  decoy-men 
would  be  content  to  contract  for  years  to  deliver  their 
ducks  at  Boftv-n,  for  to  d.  per  couple.     The  account  of 


the  numbers  here  mentioned,  relates  only  to  thofe  that    Dceieo 
were  fent  to  the  capital.  II 

It  was  cudomary  formerly  to  have  in  the  fens  an  ,  ^'""''^ 
annual  driving  of  the  young  ducks  before  they  took  ' 
wing.  Numbers  of  people  affembled,  who  beat  a  vaft 
tract,  and  forced  the  birds  into  a  net  placed  at  the 
fpot  where  the  fport  was  to  terminate.  A  hundred  and 
fifty  dozens  have  been  taken  at  once :  hut  this  pradlice 
being  fuppoJed  to  be  detrimental,  has  been  abolifhed 
by  a6i  of  pnrliament. 

DECREE,  an  order  made  by  a  fuperior  power  for 
the  regulation  of  an  inferior. 

Decree,  in  the  civil  law,  is  a  determination  whiclv 
the  emperor  pronounces  upon  hearing  a  particular  caufe 
between  the  plaintift  and  defendant. 

Df.crrrs  of  Counci/s,  are  the  laws  made  by  them, 
to  regulate  the  doftrine  and  policy  of  the  church. 

Dkckfss  in  Chancery,  are  the  determination  of  the 
lord-clrancellor,  upon  a  full  hearing  of  the  merits  of  a 
caufe. 

DECREET,  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  a  final  decree 
or  judgment  of  the  lords  of  fcflion,  from  which  an  ap- 
peal only  lies  to  parliament. 

DF.CKEET-Ariitral,  in  Scots  law,  the  fentence  or 
judgment  of  one  to  whom  parties  voluntarily  fubmit  the 
determination  of  any  queilion  betwixt  them  *.  *  See  £atv, 

DECREMENT,  in  heraldry,   (ignities  the  wane  of"°  '1^='' 
the  moon  from  the  full  to  the  new.      The  moon  in  this  ^' 
llate  is  called  Hiocn  decrefct-nt,   or  in  Jecours  ;  and  when 
borne   in  coat-armour,    facts  to  the  left  fide  of  the  e- 
fcutcheon,  as  fhe  docs  to  the  right  fide  when  in  the  in- 
crement. 

DECREPITATION,  in  chemiftry,  fignifies  the 
quick  fcparation  of  the  parts  of  a  body,  occafioned  by 
a  ftrong  heat,  and  accompanied  with  noile  and  crack- 
ling. This  elTeft  is  moll  frequently  produced  by  wa- 
ter contained  betwixt  the  parts  of  the  decrepitating  bo- 
dy, when  thefe  parts  have  a  certain  degree  of  adhefion 
together.  This  water  being  quickly  reduced  into  va- 
pour by  the  heat  fuddenly  applied  to  it,  ratifies,  and. 
burfts  with  noife  the  parts  which  comprefs  it.  The  bo- 
dies mod  fubjeft  to  decrepitation  are  certain  falts,  fuch 
as  common  fait,  vitriolated  tartar,  nitre  of  lead,  &c. 
the  decrepitation  of  all  which  proceeds  fi'om  the  water 
of  their  cryftallization.  Clays  which  are  not  perfeCV 
ly  dry,  and  flints,  are  alfo  fiibjeft  to  decrepitation. 

DECREPITUDE*,  in  medicine,  the  confequence 
of  the  infirmities  of  old  age  ;  which  by  degrees  leado- 
to  death.      See  Death. 

DECRETAL,  in  the  canon  law,  a  letter  of  a 
Pope  determining  fume  point  or  queition  in  the  eccle- 
fiallical  law.  The  decretals  compufe  the  fecond  part 
of  the  canon  law.  The  firll  genuine  one,  acknowledged 
by  all  the  learned  as  fuch,  is  a  letter  of  Pcipe  Siricius, 
written  in  the  year  38J,  to  Himtrus  bilhup  of  Tarra- 
gona, in  Spain,  concerning  forne  diforders  which  had 
ci'cpt  into  the  churches  ol  Spain.  Oratian  publiOied 
a  colkition  of  decretals,  cuiitaining  all  the  ordinances 
made  by  the  popes  till  the  year  1 1 50.  Gi-egory  IX. 
in  1227,  following  the  example  of  Theodvfius  and  Ju- 
ftinian,  formed  a  confl:itution  of  his  own,  collefting  into 
one  body  all  the  decilions  and  all  the  caufes  which 
fcrved  to  advance  the  papal  power  ;  which  collctlion 
of  decretals  was  called  \.\ii p.niuteMh,  becaufe  it  con- 
taiiii!  five  book,'. 

DECUMARIA, 


DEC 


Secumaria 

II 
Dedication 


DECUMARl  A,  in  botany:  A  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order,  belonging  to  the  doJccandria  clafs  of 
plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  thofe 
of  which  the  order  is  doubtful.  The  calyx  is  deca- 
phyllous, fuperior  ;  the  petals  ten;  tlie  fruit  unknown. 
DECUMATES  Agri,  tithed  fields,  or  granted  on 
a  tithe,  as  appeals  from  Tacitus,  to  that  rabble  of 
■Gauls  who  fucceeded  the  Marcomanni,  that  had  till 
then  provv'd  a  check  to  the  Roman  conquefts  up  the 
Rhine;  and  hence  probably  their  name,  people  living 
on  the  marches  or  limits  of  the  empire.  In  Cicero  we 
have  Ager  Decumans,  which  is  of  the  fame  import 
with  the  AgerDecumas  of  Tacitus. 

DECUPLE  PROPORTION,  that  often  to  one. 
DECURIO,  a  fubakern  officer  in  the  Roman  ar- 
mies. He  commanded  a  decuria,  which  confiiled  of 
ten  men,  and  was  the  third  part  of  a  turraa,  or  the 
SOth  part  of  a  legio  of  hoife  which  was  compofed  of 
380  men.  There  were  certain  magiilrates  in  the  pro- 
vinces called  decur'wnes  muniapales,  who  formed  a  body 
to  reprefent  the  Roman  fenate  in  free  and  corporate 
towns.  They  confiiled  of  ten  ;  whence  the  name  and 
their  duty  extended  to  watch  over  the  interefis  of  their 
fellow  citizens,  and  to  increafe  the  revenues  of  the  com- 
monwealth. Their  court  was  called  curia  dscurwnum 
zudminor/er.atus;  and  their  decrees,  called  Junta  Jecuri- 
otiiim,  were  marked  with  two  D.  D.  at  the  top.  Tliey 
generally  ftyled  themfelves  d-vitatum  patres  cuy'talcs  and 
Jsonorati  munkiptorum  faiatora.  They  were  elefted  with 
the  fame  ceremonies  as  the  Roman  fcnators;  they  were 
to  be  at  leaft  25  years  of  age,  and  to  be  poIFcfled  of  a 
certain  fum  of  money.  The  eleftion  happened  in  the 
kalends  of  March. 

DECURRENT  leaf.     See  Botany,  p.  440. 
DECURY,  ten  perfons  ranged  under  one  chief  or 
leader,  called  the  decurio. 

The  Roman  cavalry  was  divided  into  decuries,  which 
were  fubdivifions  of  a  century,  each  century  containing 
ten  decuries. 

DECUSSATION,  a  term  in  geometry,  optics,  and 
anatomy,  fignifying  the  crofllng  of  two  lines,  rays,  or 
nerves,  when  they  meet  in  a  point,  and  then  go  on  fc- 
parately  from  one  another. 

DECUSSORIUM,  a  furgeon's  inftrument,  which, 
by  prcfiing  gently  on  the  dura  mater,  caufes  an  evacua- 
tion of  the  pus  coUeAed  betvveen  the  cranium  and  the 
before  mentioned  membrane,  through  the  perforation 
made  by  the  trepan. 

DEDHAM,  a  town  of  Eflex  in  England,  confid- 
ing of  about  400  lofty  houfes.  The  ftreets  are  not 
paved,  but  very  flean,  occafioned  by  their  lying  pretty 
high.  It  has  one  large  old  church,  remarkable  for  a 
fine  Gothic  lleeple,  with  a  great  deal  of  carved  work 
about  it,  but  much  injured  by  time.  E.  Long.  i.  10. 
N.  Lat.  52.  5. 

DEDICATION,  the  aft  of  confecrating  a  temple, 
altar,  flatue,  palace,  &c.  to  the  honour  of  fome  deity. 
The  ufe  of  dedications  is  very  ancient  both  among 
the  woifliippers  of  the  true  God  and  among  the  hea- 
thens :  the  Hebrews  call  it  rosn  hhanuchah,  "  imita- 
tion ;"  which  the  Greek  tranflators  tender  Elicjina,  and 
E;>iai»io-.uJf,  "  renewing." 

In  the  fcripture  we  meet  with  dedications  of  the  ta- 
bernacle, of  altars,  of  thefirll  and  fecond  temple,  and 
even  of  the  houfes  of  private  perfons.     There  are  alfo 
N°98. 


[       704      ] 


DEC 


dedications  of  veCTels,  and  garments  of  the  pricds  andDedica< 
Ltvites,  and  even  of  the  men  themfelves.  P" 

The  heathens  had  alfo  dedications  of  temples,  altars,  '" 
and  images  of  their  gods,  See.  Nebuchadnezzar  held  a 
folemn  dedication  of  his  ftatue,  Dan.  iii  2.  Pilate 
dedicated  gilt  bucklers  at  Jcrufalem  to  Tiberius,  Phlh 
d;  kgat.  Petronius  would  have  dedicated  a  ftatue  to 
the  emperor  in  the  fame  city,  ibid.  p.  791.  Tacitus, 
Hijl-  lib.  iv.  c.  ^l.  mentions  the  dedication  of  the  ca- 
pitol,  upon  rebuilding  it  by  Vefpafian,  &c. 

The  Jews  celebrated  the  anniverfary  of  the  dedica- 
tion of  their  temple  every  year  for  eight  days.  This  was 
firll  enjoined  by  Judas  Maccabeus,  and  the  whole  fynn- 
gogue,  in  the  year  of  the  Syro-Macedonian  era  148, 
/'.  e.  164  years  before  Clirift.  The  heathens  had  the 
like  snniverfaries,  "&.%  that  of  the  dedication  of  the  tem- 
ple of  Parthenope,  mentioned  by  Lycophrou.  Under 
Chriftianity,  dedication  is  only  applied  to  a  church  ; 
and  is  properly  the  confecration  thereof  performed  by 
a  bifhop,  with  a  number  of  ceremonies  prefcribed  by 
the  church. 

The  Chriftians  finding  themfelves  at  liberty  under 
Conftantine,  in  lieu  of  their  ruinous  churches,  built 
new  ones  in  every  place  ;  and  dedicated  them  with  a 
deal  of  folemnity.  The  dedication  was  ufually  per- 
formed in  a  fynod  ;  at  leafl  they  aflembled  a  number  of 
bilhops  to  afliil  at  the  fervice.  We  have  the  defcrip- 
tion  of  thofe  of  the  churches  at  Jerufalem  and  Tyre  in 
Eulebius,  and  many  others  in  later  writers. 

Dedication,  in  literature,  is  an  addrefs  prefixed  to 
a  book,  foliciting  patronage,  or  tellifying  refpecl  for 
the  perfon  to  whom  it  is  made.  The  dedication  of  the 
fourth  part  of  Mr  Edwards's  Hiftory  of  Birds,  is  cu- 
rious :  To  God  !  the  atti.  eternal!  the  inccmprehetifibh  t 
the  omnipreftnl !  ommjclent  and  almighty  Creator  of  all 
things  that  exi/l !  from  orbs  immeafurably  great  to  the  nimu- 
tefl  points  of  matter,  this  Alom  is  dedicated  and  devoted, 
ivith  all  pojjible  gratitude,  humilietion,  and  worjhip,  and  the 
highejl  adoration  both  of  body  and  mind,  by  his  mojl  rejigned, 
loiu,  and  humble  creature,   G.  E. 

DEE  (John),  a  famous  mathematician  and  aftra- 
loger,  was  born  (July  1527)  in  London,  where  his  fa- 
ther was  a  wealthy  vintner.  In  1542,  he  was  fent  to 
St  John's  college,  Cambridge.  After  five  years  clofe 
application  to  mathematical  ftudies,  particularly  aftro- 
nomy,  he  went  to  Holland,  in  order  to  vifit  feveral  e- 
minent  mathematicians  on  the  continent.  Having  con- 
tinued abroad  near  a  year,  he  returned  to  Cambridge; 
and  was  there  elefted  one  of  the  fellows  of  Trinity 
college,  then  firft  ereftcd  by  king  Henry  VIII.  In 
1548,  he  took  the  degree  of  niafter  of  art«  ;  and,  in 
the  fame  year,  left  England  a  fecond  time  ;  his  flay  at 
home  being  rendered  uneafy  to  him,  by  the  fufpiclons 
that  were  entertained  of  his  being  a  conjuror  ;  arifing 
partly  from  his  application  to  allronomy,  but  efpecially 
on  account  of  a  piece  of  machinery  in  the  l"'f  >i»n  of  A- 
rillophanes,  which  he  exhibited  to  the  univerfity,  and 
in  which  he  reprefented  the  Scarabeus  flying  up  to 
Jupiter,  with  a  man  and  a  baflcet  of  viAuals  on  its 
back.  Thefe  fufpiclons  he  could  never  after  Ihake  off ; 
nor  did  his  fubfequent  condudi,  as  we  fhall  fee,  tend  to 
clear  him  of  the  imputation  ;  for  if  he  was  not  aiftually 
a  conjuror,  it  was  not  for  want  of  endeavours. 

Upon  leaving  England,  he  went  to  the  univerfity  of 
Lotivain  ;  where  he  was  niuch  efteeroed,  and  vifited  by 

fcveral 


DEE 

feveral  pcrfons  of  liigh  rank.  Here  lie 
'  tvo  years,  and  tlien  (et  out  for  France  ;  wliere,  in  the 
college  of  llheiins,  he  read  ledures  of  Euclid's  tlemcnta 
with  vatl  applaufc.  lu  155  i,  he  returned  to  Eugland, 
and  was  introduced  by  the  fectctary  Cecil  to  king  Ed- 
ward, wlio  affigned  him  a  penfion  of  100  crow  ns,  which 
he  afterwards  relinquidied  for  the  rei^tory  of  Upton 
upon  Severn  :  but  foou  after  the  acctfTion  of  queen 
Mary,  liaving  fome  corretpondence  with  the  lady  Eli- 
inbeth's  fcrvants,  he  was  accufcd  of  praftifing  aigainft 
the  queen's  hfe  by  enchantment.  On  this  account  he 
fuffered  a  tedious  confinement,  and  was  feveral  times 
examined;  till,  in  the  year  1555,  he  obtained  his  11- 
bcrtv  by  an  order  of  council. 

When  queen  Elizabeth  afcended  the  throne,  our 
aftrological  Dee  was  conuilted  by  lord  Dudley,  con- 
cerning a  propitious  day  for  her  majefty's  coronation. 
He  was  on  this  occafion  introduced  to  the  queen,  who 
made  him  great  promifes,  which  were  never  performed, 
though  fl)e  condefcended  to  receive  his  inftiudions  re- 
lative to  the  myilical  interpretation  of  fome  of  his  un- 
intelligible writings,  which  he  publifhed  about  this  time. 
In  1564,  he  made  another  voyage  to  the  continent  ; 
in  order  to  prefent  a  book  which  he  had  dedicated  to 
the  emperor  Maximilian.  He  returned  to  England  in 
the  fame  year  ;  but  in  1571,  v.fe  find  him  in  Lorrain  ; 
where,  being  dangeroufly  ill,  the  queen  fent  over  two 
phyficians  to  his  relief.  Having  once  more  returned 
to  his  native  country,  he  fettled  at  Mortlake  in  Surrey, 
where  he  continued  his  ftudie.<?  with  unremitting  ardor, 
n!id  coUcfted  a  confidcrable  library  of  curious  books 
and  manufcripts,  with  a  variety  of  inftruments ;  moft 
of  which  were  afterwards  dtllroyed  by  the  mob,  as 
belonging  to  one  who  dealt  with  the  devil.  In  1578, 
the  queen  being  much  iudifpoftd,  Mr  Dee  was  fent  a- 
broad  to  confult  with  German  phyficians  and  philofo- 
phers  (aftrol'nf;er3  no  doubt)  on  the  occafion.  We 
now  behold  him  again  in  England,  wheie  he  was  foon 
after  emph.iyed  in  a  more  rational  fervice.  Her  ma- 
jefty,  dcfirous  to  be  informed  concerning  her  title  to 
thofe  countries  which  had  been  difcovertd  by  her  fub- 
jefts,  commanded  Mr  Dee  to  confult  the  ancient  re- 
cords, and  furnifii  her  with  proper  geographical  de- 
fcriptions.  Accordingly,  in  a  fhort  time  he  prefented 
to  the  queen,  in  the  gardens  at  Richmond,  two  large 
rolls,  in  which  the  difcovered  countries  were  geogra- 
pliically  defcribcd  and  hiftoiically  iUullrated.  Thefe 
tolls  are  preferved  in  the  Cotton  library,  Augitjlus  I. 
His  next  employment  was  the  reformation  of  ihc  ka- 
lendar,  on  which  fubjefl  he  wrote  a  rational  and  learn- 
ed treatife,  prefeivcd  in  the  Alhmolean  library  at  Ox- 
ford. 

Hitherto  the  extravagancies  of  onr  eccentrical  phi- 
lofupher  feem  to  have  been  counterpoifed  by  a  tolerable 
proportion  of  reafon  :vnd  fcience  ;  but  hencetorwstd  we 
confider  him  as  a  mere  necromancer  and  credulous  al- 
chymiil.  In  the  year  1 581,  he  became  acquainted 
with  one  Edward  Kelley,  by  whofe  aflillanee  he  per- 
formed divcrfc  incantations,  and  maintained  a  frequent 
imaginary  intercourfe  with  fpirits.  He  was  paiticu- 
lary  intimate,  it  feems,  with  the  angels  Raphael  and 
Gabriel.  One  of  them  made  him  a  prefent  of  a  black 
fpeculum,  in  which  his  angels  and  demons  appeared 
as  often  as  he  had  occafion  -foi"  them ;  they  aufwered 
Vol..  V.  Part  II. 


[     705     ]  DEE 

refided  about     his  qneilions,  and  Kelley's  bufinefs  was  to  record  the'r 
didlates : 


KcIley  did  all  his  feat!.  Upon 
I'lie  Jcvii'i  loiikin^  K'*^'"*.  **  ftonc 

HuulH.  ptirt  ii.  canto  iii.  v.  63 1. 

In  15?'3,  they  were  both  introduced  to  a  certain  Po- 
lilh  nobleman,  then  In  England,  named  Allxrt  Lajki^ 
palatine  of  Siradia,  a  perfon  equally  addicted  to  the 
fame  ridiculous  purfuits.  He  was  fo  charmed  with 
Dee  and  his  companiou,  that  he  pcrfuaded  them  to  ac- 
company him  to  his  native  country.  They  embarked 
for  Holland  in  Sept.  1583;  and  travelling  over  land, 
arrived  at  the  town  of  La{l<i  in  February  following. 
Their  patron,  however,  finding  himfclf  abufed  by  their 
idle  pretenfions,  peifuaded  them  to  pay  a  vifit  to  Ro- 
dolph  king  of  Bohemia  ;  who,  though  a  credulous 
man,  was  foon  difgulled  with  their  noufcnfe.  They 
were  afterwards  introduced  to  the  king  of  Poland,  but 
with  no  better  fuccefs.  Soon  after  this,  they  were 
Invited  by  a  rich  Bohemian  nobleman  to  his  callle  of 
Trebona,  where  they  contiinied  for  lome  time  in  great 
affluence  ;  owing,  as  they  alferted,  to  their  art  of 
tranfmutatlon  by  means  of  a  certain  powder  in  the 
pofleffion  of  Kellty. 

Dee,  now  quarrelling  with  his  companion  in  Iniqui- 
ty, quitted  Bohemia,  and  returned  to  England,  where 
he  was  once  more  gracioufly  received  by  the  queen  ; 
who,  in  1595,  made  him  warden  of  Manchefter  col- 
lege, in  which  town  he  refided  feveral  years.  In  1604, 
he  returned  to  his  houfe  at  Mortlake,  where  he  died 
in  the  year  i6o8,  aged  81  ;  leaving  a  large  family, 
and  many  works,  behind  him. — The  black  Hone  into 
which  Dee  ufed  to  caD  his  fpirits,  was  In  the  collec- 
tion of  the  earls  of  Peterborough,  whence  It  came  to 
lady  Elizabeth  Germalne.  It  was  next  the  property 
of  the  late  duke  of  Argyle,  and  is  now  Mr  Walpole's. 
It  appears  upon  examination  to  be  nothing  but  a  po- 
liihed  piece  of  cannel-coal.- — That  Dec  was  a  man  of 
confidcrable  acquirements,  is  beyond  a  doubt  ;  his 
mathematical  knowledge  Is  generally  allowed  :  but, 
unlefs  we  fuppofe  him  a  wicked  impollor,  which  is  bjr 
no  means  iinprobable,  we  muft  tranfmit  him  to  pof- 
terity  as  one  of  the  moft  foolilli,  fuperltitious,  necro- 
mancers of  his  time.  Neverlhelefs,  the  celebrated  Dr 
Hook,  many  years  after  Dee's  death,  took  It  into  his 
head  to  prove  that  his  joiUMial,  publiihed  by  Cafaubon, 
was  entirely  cryptogi'aphlcal,  concealing  his  political 
tranfaftions,  and  that  he  was  employed  bj  queen  Eli- 
zabeth as  a  fpy. 

DEE,  the  name  of  feveral  rivers  In  Scotland  and 
England  ;  as  thofe  whereon  the  cities  of  Cheiler  in 
England,  and  New  Aberdeen  in  Scotland,  are  fitua- 
ted.  The  river  Dee  In  Aberdeenfliire  abounds  with 
falmon,  fo  as  to  form  one  of  the  greateR  falmon-fifh- 
ings  In  Scotland. — Over  this  river  there  is  a  bridge  of 
feven  arches,  built  by  'a  biOiop  of  Aberdeen,  who  left 
for  Its  fupport  a  revenue,  which  is  now  fo  large,  that 
in  order  to  exhaull  the  fund,  a  perfon  has  a  falary  to 
fweep  the  bridge  once  a-day. 

DEED,  an  inlb-ument  written  on  paper  or  parch- 
ment, comprehending  fome  contract,  bargain,  or  agree- 
ment between  the  parties  thereto.  In  relation  to  the 
matter  therein  contained. 

DEEMSTERS,  or  Demsters  ;  (from  tlie  S.-jxo« 
4  U  dema. 


II 
Deemfter?i 


D    E    F 

dema,  judge  or  umpire).  All  controverfics  in  the  Ifle 
of  Man  Lire  decided  without  proccfs,  'writings,  or  any 
charges,  by  cert;dn  judges,  chol'cn  yearly  from  among 
themfelves,  called  dcrmjiers  ;  there  being  two  of  them 
for  each  divifion  of  rhe  ifland  :  they  fit  judges  In  all 
courts,  either  for  life  or  property;  and  with  the  advice 
of  24  keys,  declare  what  is  law  in  uncommon  emer- 
gencies. 

DEEPING,  a  town  of  Lincolndiire  in  England, 
feated  on  the  river  Weland,  in  a  fenny  ground.  W, 
Long.  o.  20.  N.  Lat.  52.  35. 

DEER,  in  zoology.  Se-  Cervus, — The  method 
of  hunting  deer  in  the  ifland  of  Ceylon  is  very  parti- 
cular. T1ie  huntfmen  go  out  in  the  night,  and  only 
two  ufually  go  together:  the  one  of  thefe  carries  upon 
his  head  an  earthen  velfel,  in  which  there  is  fome  fire 
burning  and  flaming ;  the  ingredients  are  generally 
fmall  Ricks  cut  into  pieces,  and  common  rofin.  Of 
this  the  other  man  carries  a  fupply  about  him  to  re- 
plenifh  the  pot  when  it  grows  low.  The  perfon  who 
has  the  fire  upon  his  head,  carries  in  one  hand  a  ftaff, 
on  which  there  are  fixed  eight  bells ;  and  the  larger 
thefe  are,  the  better.  This  man  goes  firft  into  the 
woods,  and  the  other  follows  clofe  behind  with'  afpear 
in  his  hand.  As  foon  as  the  deer  hears  the  noife  of 
the  bells,  he  turns  towards  the  place  whence  the  found 
comes  ;  and  feeing  the  fire,  he  eagerly  runs  up  to  it, 
and  flands  gazing  at  a  fmall  diftance:  the  fecond  man 
has  then  nothing  to  do  but  to  kill  him  with  the  fpear; 
for  he  fees  neither  of  them. — Not  only  deer,  but  even 
elks  and  hares,  are  thus  taken ;  for  they  gaze  at  the 
fire,  and  never  fee  the  men.  The  profits  of  this  fort 
of  hunting  are  very  large,  and  the  danger  nothing  ; 
for  though  there  are  numbers  of  tygers,  elephants,  and 
wild  boars,  in  thefe  woods,  the  huntfmen  are  in  no 
danger  from  them  while  the  fire  burns,  for  they  all  run 
away  from  it. 

DE  FACTO,  fomething  aftually  in  faft,  or  exifting; 
in  contradiftlnttion  to  de  jure,  where  a  thing  is  only  fo 
in  juftice,  but  not  in  faft  :  as  a  king  defuSo,  is  a  per- 
fon who  is  aftually  in  poiTcfiion  of  a  crown,  but  has 
no  legal  right  to  the  fame  ;  and  a  king  de  jure,  is  the 
perfon  who  has  a  juft  right  to  the  crown,  though  he 
is  out  of  pofFeflion  thereof. 

DEFAMATION,  the  fpeaking  flanderous  words 
ef  another  ;  for  which  the  flanderer  is  punifhable,  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  his  ofi"ence,  either  by  aftion 
•upon  the  cafe  at  common  law,  or  by  ftatute  in  the  ec- 
clefialtical  court. 

DEFAULT,  in  law,  is  generally  taken  for  non- 
appearance in  court,  at  a  day  afiigned  ;  but  imports 
any  omiflion  of  that  which  we  ought  to  do,  for  which 
judgment  may  be  given  againft  the  defaulter. 

DEFEASANCE,  or  Defeisamce,  inlaw,  a  con- 
dition relating  to  fome  certain  deed,  which  being  per- 
formed, the  deed  is  defeated  and  rendered  void,  as  if 
it  had  never  been  made.  The  difference  between  a 
common  condition  and  a  defeafance  is,  that  the  condi- 
tion is  annexed  to,  or  inferted  in,  the  deed  ;  and  a 
defeafance  is  a  deed  by  itfelf,  cpncluded  and  agreed 
on  between  the  parties,  and  having  relation  to  another 
deed. 

DEFECATE,  in  chemiftry,  a  term  applied  to  a 
liody  freed  and  purged  from  fxces  and  impurities. 


[     706     1  D     E     F 

DEFECTION,  the  aft  of   abandoning  or  relin-  Dcfeflioi 
quiihing  a  party  or  interell  a  perfon   had   been   enga-  11 

ged  in. — The  word  is  formed  of  the  Latin  deficio,   to  Dtf.nder 
faU  off.  ^ — 

DEFECTIVE,  in  general,  an  appellation  given  to 
things  which  want  fome  of  the  properties  that  naturally 
they  ought  to  have.     Thus, 

Defective  or  Deficient  Nouns,  in  grammar,  are  fuch 
as  want  either  a  whole  number,  a  particular  cafe,  or 
are  totally  indeclinable.     See  Noun. 

The  term  defealve  is  alfo  apphed  to  a  verb  that  has 
not  all  its  moods  and  tenfes.     See  Verb,  Mood,  &c. 

DEFENCE,  in  fortification,  all  forts  of  works 
that  cover  and  defend  the  oppofite  pofts,  as  flanks, 
cafements,  parapets,  and  fauflebrays.  See  Fortifi- 
cation. 

Line  of  Defence,  a  fuppofed  line  drawn  from  the 
angle  of  the  curtin,  or  from  any  other  part  in  the  cur- 
tin,  to  the  flanked  angle  of  the  oppofite  baiHon. 

DE'FEND,  in  general,  fignifies  much  the  fame  with 
protefting,  or  keeping  off  injuries  offered  to  any  perfon 
either  by  enemies  or  otherwife. 

Defend,  in  our  ancient  laws  and  ftatutes,  fignifies 
to  prohibit  or  forbid  :  as,  Vfuarios  defendit  quoque  rex 
Edwardus  ne  rsmanerent  in  regno.  L.  L.  Edw.  Conf. 
f.  37.  £5°  5  Rich.  2.  c.  7.  In  which  fenfe  Chaucer  al- 
fo ufes  it  in  the  following  paffage  : 

*'  W'liere  can  vnu  fay  in  any  manner  age, 
"  That  ever  Go>l  tUfauii-d  marriage." 

In  7  Edw.  I.  there  is  a  ftatute  intitled,  "  Statutum  d; 
deknUone  por/andi  arma,"  &c.  And  "  it  is  defended 
by  law  to  diftrain  on  the  highv;ay;"  Coie  on  LitlL 
fol   161. 

DEFENDANT,  In  law,  the  perfon  fued  in  an  ac* 
tion  perfonal ;  as  te/ujnt  is  he  who  is  fued  in  an  aftioii 
real.     See  Action. 

DEFENDER  of  tie  Fajth  fFldei  DffenforJ,  a  pe- 
culiar title  belonging  to  the  king  of  England  ;  as  Ca- 
tholicus  to  the  king  of  Spain,  and  ChrijTiamlfimus  to  the 
king  of  France,  &c.  Thefe  titles  were  given  by  the 
popes  of  Rome.  That  of  Fidd  Dcfenfor  was  firft  con- 
ferred by  Leo  X.  on  king  Henry  VIII.  for  writing 
againft  Martin  Luther;  and  the  bull  for  It  bears  date 
quintoidits  03oh.  13:21.  It  was  afterwards  confirmed 
by  Clement  VII.  But  the  pope,  on  Henry's  fuppref- 
fing  the  houfes  of  religion  at  the  time  of  the  Refor- 
mation, not  only  deprived  him  of  his  title,  but  dcpo-. 
fed  him  from  his  crown  alfo  :  though  in  the  35th  year 
of  his  reign,  his  title,  &c.  was  confirmed  by  parlia? 
ment  ;  and  hath  continued  to  be  ufed  by  all  fucceed- 
ing  king-s  to  this  day. — Chajnberlayne  fays,  the  title 
belonged  to  the  kings  of  England  before  that  time; 
and  for  proof  hereof  appeals  to  feveral  charters  grant- 
ed to  the  univei-fity  of  Oxford.  So  that  pope  Leo's 
bull  was  only  a  renovation  of  an  ancient  right. 

DEFENDERS,  were  anciently  notable  dignita- 
ries both  in  church  and  ftate,  whofe  biifinefs  was  ta 
look  to  the  prefervation  of  the  public  weal,  to  pro- 
tcft  the  poor  and  hclplefs,  and  to  maintain  the  Inte>- 
lefts  and  caufes  of  churches  and  religious  houfes.  See 
Protector. — The  council  of  Chalcedon,  can.  2.  calls 
the  defender  of  a  church  EkJixhc  Codin,  de  cfficiis 
aulie  Conji.  makes  mention  of  defenders  of  the  palace. 
ThereL  were  alfo  a  defender  of  the  kingdom,  defcnfct 

regnt.i 


D     E     F 


[     707     1 


D     E     F 


rtgni ;  defenders  of  cities,  ih/'infores  c'lvUiil'is  ;  defen- 
ders of  the  people,  defcnfores  pUDs  ;  of  the  poor,  father- 
lefs,  widows,  &c. 
i  About  tlie  year  420^  each  patriarchal  church  began 
to  have  its  defender  ;  which  cuftom  was  afterwards  in- 
troduced into  other  churches,  and  continued  to  later 
days  under  other  names ;  as  thofe  of  Advocate,  and 
Advoiuee. 

In  the  year  407,  we  find  the  council  of  Carthage 
aflcing  the  emperor  for  defenders,  of  the  number  of 
Scholajlici,  i.  e.  advocates  who  were  in  oflice  ;  and 
that  it  might  be  allowed  them  to  enter  and  fearch  the 
cabinets  and  papers  of  the  judges  and  other  civil  ma- 
giftrates,  whenever  it  iliould  be  found  neceflary  for 
the  intereft  of  the  church. 

DEFILE,  in  fortification,  a  ftrait  narrow  paf- 
fage,  through  which  a  company  of  horfe  or  foot  can 
pafs  only  in  file,  by  making  a  fmall  front. 

DEFINITE,  in  grammar,  is  applied  to  an  article 
that  has  a  precife  determinate  fignification  ;  fuch  as  the 
article  the  in  Englifli,  le  and  la  in  French,  &c.  which 
fix  and  afceitain  the  noun  they  belong  to,  to  fome  par- 
ticular ;  as  the  king,  le  roy :  whereas,  in  the  quality  of 
img,  de  ruy,  the  articles  of  and  de  mark  nothing  pre- 
cife, and  are  therefore  indefinite. 

DEFINITION,  in  general,  a  fhoit  defcription  of 
a  thing  by  its  properties  ;  or,  in  logic,  the  explication 
of  the  eiftnce  of  a  thing  by  its  kind  and  differ- 
ence. 

DEFINITIVE,  a  term  applied  to  whatever  termi- 
nates a  procefs,  queftion,  itc.  ;  in  oppofition  to  provi- 
fional  and  interlocutory. 

DEFLAGRATION,  in  chemiftry,  the  kindling  or 
letting  fire  to  a  fait  or  mineral,  &c.  either  alone  or 
mixed  for  that  purpofe  with  a  fulphureous  one,  in  or- 
der to  purify  it. 

This  (liort  procefs  has  been  often  recommended  to 
the  world  as  of  great  ufe  in  trying  the  itrength  of 
brandies  and  other  vinous  fpirits,  and  has  been  greatly 
improved  in  this  refpeft  by  Mr  Geoffroy. 

The  common  way  of  trying  fpirits  by  deflagration, 
is  to  meafure  out  any  quantity  of  it,  then  to  heat  it, 
and  ftt  it  on  fire.  If,  after  it  will  no  longer  burn,  the 
remainder  is  half  as  much  as  the  quantity  meafured  out 
for  the  trial  was,  then  the  fpirit  tryed  is  found  to  con- 
fifl  of  half  water,  and  half  totally  inflammable  fpirit ; 
that  is,  it  is  lomewhat  below  what  we  undertland  by 
the  term  perfed  proof. — This  method  is  much  more 
Certain  than  that  by  the  crown  of  bubbles  which  arifes 
upon  fliaking  the  fpirit  in  a  vial.  Monf.  Geoffroy's 
method  is  this :  Take  a  cylindric  vefltl  two  inches 
high,  and  as  much  in  diameter,  confilling  of  thin  plate 
filver,  that  metal  being  much  lefs  liable  to  rutl  than 
copper  ;  this  veflel  mult  be  fitted  with  a  little  reftan- 
gular  gage  exaclly  graduated  into  lines,  half  lines,  &c. 
then  the  velTel  being  let  level  upon  a  copper  cafe  made 
to  contain  it,  a  parcel  of  the  brandy  to  be  examined  is 
poured  in,  to  the  height  of  1 6  lines.  This  height  is  to 
be  exaftly  hit  by  pouring  in  more  than  enough  at  firft, 
and  then  fucking  out  the  overplus  with  a  very  fmall 
lube.  Then  the  velfel  being  heated  a  little,  fo  as  jufl 
to  make  the  liquor  fume,  it  is  to  be  fet  on  fire,  and 
left  to  go  out  of  itfelf;  at  the  inftant  when  the 
flame  expires,  the  gage  is  plunged  perpendicularly  into 
the  veflel,  and  the  lines  and  quarters  cxaftly  noted 


De  b  . 


wiu'ch  the  liquor  wants  of  its  former  height :  this  dif-  DeflcftioB 
ftrence  gives  the  precife  quantity  of  alcohol  or  pine 
fpirit  contained  in  the  liquor.  Thus,  if  eight  lines  of 
phlegm  arc  found  romaiiuiig,  this  being  the  half  of  the 
i6  lines  of  the  original  fdliiig,  it  is  plain,  that  the  li- 
quor contained  one  half  fpirit,  or  was  fomething  below 
proof.  If  only  four  lines  remained,  it  was  nearly 
double  proof,  or  of  a  middle  nature  betwixt  alcohol 
and  common  proof-fpirit. 

DEFLECl'ION  o/c/'c  Ray  so/"  Light,  a  property 
which  Dr  Hook  obfened  in  1675,  and  read  an  account 
of  before  the  Royal  Society,  March  18,  the  fame  year. 
He  fays  he  found  it  different  both  from  reflexion  and 
rcfradtion,  and  that  it  was  made  towards  the  furface  of 
the  opaque  body,  perpendicularly.  This  is  the  fame 
property  which  Sir  Ifaac  Newton  calls  Inflection. 

DEFLORATION,  or  Deflowering,  the  adl  of 
violating  or  taking  away  a  woman's  virginity.  See 
Virginity.  —  Death,  or  marriage,  arc  decreed  by  the 
civil  law  in  cafe  of  defloration. 

The  ancients  had  fo  much  refpedl  for  virgins,  that 
they  would  not  put  them  to  death  till  they  had  firil 
procured  them  to  be  deflowered.  It  is  faid,  the  na- 
tives of  the  coail  of  Malabar  pay  ftrangers  to  come  and 
deflower  their  brides. 

In  Scotland,  and  the  northern  parts  of  England,  it 
was  a  privilege  of  the  lords  of  the  manor,  granttd  them 
by  king  Ewen,  that  they  fhould  have  the  firil  night's 
lodging  with  their  tentants  wives.  King  Malcolm  III. 
allowed  the  tenants  to  redeem  this  fervice  at  a  certain 
rate,  called  marchtta,  confilling  of  a  certain  number  of 
cows :  Buchanan  fays  it  was  redeemed  with  half  a 
mark  of  filver.  The  fame  cuflom  had  place  in  Vi^ales, 
Flanders,  Friefeland,  and  fome  parts  of  Germany. 

DEFLUXION,  in  medicine,  the  falling  of  the 
humours  from  a  fupcrior  to  an  inferior  part  of  the 
body. 

De  FOE  (Daniel),  a  writer  famous  for  politics 
and  poetry,  was  bred  a  hofier ;  which  profelfion  how- 
ever he  foon  forfook,  and  became  one  of  the  moll  cnter- 
priling  authors  that  any  age  produced.  When  difcon- 
tents  ran  high  at  the  Revolution,  and  king  William 
was  obliged  to  difmifs  his  Ducth  guards,  De  Foe,  who 
had  true  notions  of  civil  liberty,  ridiculed  the  enemies 
of  government  in  his  well-know  poem,  called  The 
True-born  Englijhman,  which  had  a  prodigious  fale. 
The  next  fatire  he  wrote  was  intitled,  Rtformjtlon  of 
Manners  ;  aimed  at  fome  perfons  of  high  rank,  who 
"rendered  themlelves  a  difgrace  to  their  country.  When 
the  ecclefiailics  in  power  breathed  too  much  of  a  fpirit 
of  perfecutisn,  De  Foe  wrote  a  trad  called  The  Short- 
eji  IVay  with  the  D'ljfenters ;  for  which  he  was  called  to 
account,  and  explained  himfelf  with  great  flrmnefs.  He 
was  afterward  fentfuced  to  the  pillory  for  attacking 
fome  public  meafures  ;  which  fo  little  intimidated  him, 
that,  in  defiance  of  their  ufage,  he  wrote  A  Hymn  to  the 
Pillory.  It  would  be  endlefs  to  enumerate  all  his  pub- 
lications ;  but  the  following  are  the  principal :  The 
Hijlory  of  the  Plague  in  1 665  ;  a  novel  intitled  The  ^i- 
Jiory  of  Colonel  Jack  ;  A  neiu  Voyage  round  the  IVortd 
by  a  Company  of  Merchants,  printed  for  Bettcfworth, 
1725  ;  The  Hijlory  of  Roxana  ;  Memoirs  of  a  Cavalier  f 
The  Hiflory  of  Moll  F landers  ;  a  book  intitled  i?f%/j«f 
Caurtjhip,  which  has  undergone  upwards  of  20  edi- 
tions ;  aad  the  Life  md  Adventures  of  Robinfo/i  Crufoe, 
4U  2  an 


D    E     F  [     708 

Defoliation. an  admirable  performance,  of  which  there  have  been 
r—~  editions  without  number,  but  concerning  which  there 
is  an  anecdote  that  does  the  author  of  it  no  credit  as 
to  the  better  part  of  a  writer's  charaiEter,  honefty. 
When  captain  Woods  Rogers  touched  at  the  ifland 
of  Juan  Fernandez,  in  tlie  South  Sea,  he  brought 
away  Alexander  Selkirk,  a  Scots  failor,  who  had 
been  left  aftiore  theie,  and  had  lived  on  that  defolate 
p4ace  above  four  years.  When  Selkirk  came  back 
to  England,  he  wrote  a  nairative  of  his  adventures, 
and  pjt  the  papers  into  the  hands  of  De  Foe,  to 
diajeli  for  publication  ;  who  ungcncroufly  converted 
the  materials  into  the  Hiftory  of  Robinfon  Crufoe, 
and  returned  Selkirk  his  papers  again  !  A  fraud  for 
which,  in  a  humane  view,  the  dillinguifhed  merit  of 
that  romance  can  never  atone.  Daniel  de  Foe  died  at 
Iflington,' in  1731.  AU  his  produtlioiis  of  the  ro- 
mantic fpecies,  but  efpecially  the  two  lall  mentioned, 
are  much  in  vogue  amongll  country  readers  ;  and,  on 
account  of  their  moral  and  religious  tendency,  may 
very  probably  in  fome  meafure  counteraft  the  perni- 
cious efFctts  produced  by  the  too  general  circulation 
of  modern  novth,  thofc  occalional  vehicles  of  impiety 
and  intidelity. 

DEFOLIATION,  (from;//-,  and/»/;amaleaf);  the 
fall  of  the  leaves.  A  term  oppofed  tofronclefcmtia,  the 
annual  renovation  of  the  leaves,  produced  by  the  un- 
folding of  the  buds  in  Ipiing.  See  Frondescentia. 
Moil  plants  in  cold  and  temperate  climates  (hed  their 
leaves  everj^  year  :  this  happens  in  autumn,  and  is  ge- 
serally  announced  by  the  flowering  of  the  common 
meadow  faffron.  The  term  is  only  applied  to  trees 
and  Ihrubs  ;  for  herbs  perifli  down  to  the  root  every 
year,  loling  ftem,  leaves,  and  all. 

All  plants  do  not  drop  their  leaves  at  the  fame  time. 
Among  large  trees,  the  a(h  and  walnut,  although  lateft: 
in  unfolding,  are  fooneft  divefted  of  them  :  the  latter 
tldom  carries  its  leaves  above  live  months. 

On  the  oak  and  horn-beam,  the  leaves  die  and  wi- 
ther as  foon  as  the  colds  commence  ;  but  remain  at- 
tached to  the  branches  till  they  are  pufhed  off  by  the 
new  ones,  which  unfold  themfelves  the  following 
fpring.  Thefe  trees  are  doubtlefs  a  kind  of  ever- 
greens :  the  leaves  are  probably  dellroyed  only  by 
cold  ;  and  perhaps  would  continue  longer  on  the 
plant,  but  for  the  force  of  the  fpring-fap,  joined  to 
the  moifture. 

In  mild  and  dry  feafons,  the  lilac,  privet,  yellow  jef- 
famine  of  the  woods,  and  maple  of  Crete,  preferve  their 
leaves  green  until  fpring,  and  do  not  drop  them  tlU  the 
new  leaves  are  beginning  to  appear.  The  tig-tree,  and 
many  other  trees  that  grow  between  the  tropics,  are 
of  this  particular  clafs  of  ever-greens.  The  trees  in 
Egypt,  fays  Do£lor  HafTelquilt,  call  their  leaves  in  the 
latter  end  of  December  and  beginning  of  January, 
having  young  leaves  ready  before  all  the  old  ones  arc 
fallen  off;  and,  to  forward  this  operation  of  nature, 
few  of  the  trees  have  buds :  the  fycamore  and  willow, 
indeed,  have  fome,  but  with  few  and  quite  Xooit  Jiipultc 
or  fcales.  Nature  did  not  imagine  buds  fo  nccefTary  in 
the  fouthern  as  in  the  northern  countries ;  this  occa- 
Cons  a  great  difference  between  them. 

LaiUy,  fome  trees  and  fliiubs  ptefcrve  their  leaves 


1 


D     E     F 


conilantly  through  the  whole  year  :  and  are  not  in  thcDefo!iat;,.n 
leall  influenced  by  the  clemency  or  inclemency  of  lea-  """v*"" 
fons.  Such  are  the  firs.  Juniper,  yew,  cedar,  cyprefs, 
and  many  other  trees,  hence  denominated  evcr-grt-eiis. 
Thefe  preferve  their  old  leaves  a  long  time  after  the 
formation  of  the  new,  and  do  not  drop  them  at 
any  determinate  time.  In  general,  the  leaves  (>i 
ever-grcens  are  harder,  anil  Icis  fucculent,  than  thofe 
which  are  renewed  annually.  The  trees  are  gene- 
rally natives  of  warm  climates  ;  as  the  alaternuies  of 
France  and  Italy,  the  ever-green  oak  of  Portugal  and 
Suabia. 

Some  herbaceous  perennials,  as  the  houfe-leeks  and 
navel-worts,  enjoy  the  fame  privilege  with  the  ever- 
green trees,  and  refill  the  feverities  of  winter  :  foms 
even  can  difptnfe  with  the  earth  for  lome  time  ;  being 
replete  with  juices,  which  the  leaves  imbibe  from  the 
humidity  of  the  atmofphere,  and  which,  in  fuch  plants, 
are,  of  themfelves,  fafficient  for  effecting  the  pnrpufes 
of  vegetation.  It  is  fur  this  reafon,  that,  unlcis  in  ex- 
ceflive  hot  weathei,  ga,rdeners  are  leldom  wont  to  wa- 
ter fat  fucculent  plants,  as  the  aloes,  which  rot  when 
they  are  moiilcned,  if  the  fun  does  not  quickly  dry 
them  up. 

The  leaves  of  aU  the  ever-green  fhrubs  and  trees, 
have  a  thin  compaS  Ikin  or  cover  over  their  furface  ; 
as  is  eafily  difcovered  by  macerating  them  in  water,  in 
order  to  feparate  the  parenchyma,  or  pulp,  from  the 
vefl'cls  of  the  leaves ;  which  cannot  be  effected  in  any 
of  thefe  ever-greens  till  a  thin  parchment-like  cover  is 
taken  off.  Thefe  trees  and  Ihrubs  are  found  by  ex- 
periment to  perfpiie  but  litrle,  when  compared  witb 
others  which  Ihed  their  leaves ;  and  it  is,  perhaps, 
principally  owing  to  this  clofe  covering,  as  alfo  to 
the  fmall  proportion  of  moillure  contained  in  their 
veflels,  that  they  retain  their  verdure,  and  continue 
through  the  winter  on  the  trees.  The  nutritive  juices 
of  thefe  plants  always  abound,  more  or  lefs,  with  an 
oily  quality,  which  fecures  them  from  being  injured, 
by  fevere  frofts  ;  fo  that  many  of  thefe  ever-green  trees 
are  adapted  to  grow  in  the  coldeft  parts  of  the  habi- 
table world. 

With  refpeft  to  deciduous  trees,  the  falling  off  o£ 
the  leaves  feems  principally  to  depend  on  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  atmofphere,  which  likcwife  ferves  to  halt  en 
or  retard  the  appearance  in  queftion.  An  ardent  fun 
contributes  to  hallen  the  dropping  of  the  leaves. 
Hence  in  hot  and  dry  fummers,  the  leaves  of  the  lime- 
tree  and  horfe-chefnut  turn  yellow  about  the  hrft  of 
September  ;  whilft  in  other  years,  the  yellownefs  does 
not  appear  till  the  beginning  of  Oftober.  Nothing, 
however,  contributes  more  to  hallen  the  fall  of  the 
leaves,  than  immoderate  cold  or  moifl  weather  in  au- 
tumn ;  moderate  droughts,  on  the  other  hand,  fcrve  ta 
retard  it.  As  a  proof  of  this  pofition,  Mr  Adanfon. 
relates,  that  in  the  year  1759,  the  leaves  of  the  elm- 
tree,  which  generally  fall  off  about  the  25th  of  No- 
vember, continued  in  verdure  and  vigour  at  Paris, 
where  the  autumn  was  remarkably  dry,  tdl  the  10th  of 
the  following  month. 

The  following  table,  refpefting  the  mean  times  ir» 
which  different  trees  ihed.  thtir  leaves,  is  founded  upon 
obfcrvatioos. 

Coofe- 


'3 


Oaober  ift. 
15th. 

25th. 

November  ift. 


loth. 
15th. 
20th. 


D     E     F  [     709     ] 

efoiii'lon  Goofeberry-tree  and  bladder-")  ^  f 

II  feiia, 

)cfiiinlty  W;,liuit  and  afli, 
'^"'T—'  Almond-tree,  horfe-chefnut, 

and  lime-tree, 
Maple,  ha/,lc-nut,  black  pop- 
lar, and  afpen-ttee. 
Birch,  plane-tree,  moiintain- 

ofier,  falfe-acacia,  pear,  and 

apple-tree. 
Vine,  mulberry,  fig,  fumac, 

and  angelica-tree, 
EIratrce  aid  willow, 
Apricot  and  elder  trees,  J  ^^   L  " 

f;/„'.  It  dcfervts  to  be  remarked,  that  an  ever-green  tree 

It.  t)iS.  grafted  upon  a  deciduous,  determines  the  Jatter  to  re- 
tain its  leaves.  This  obfervation  is  confirmed  by  re- 
peated experiments;  paiticularly  by  grafting  the  laurel, 
or  clierry-bay,  an  evergreen,  on  the  common  cherry  ; 
and  the  ilex,  or  ever-green  oak,  on  the  oak. 

DEFORCEMENT,  in  law,  the  calling  any  one 
«ut  of  his  land,  or  with  holding  of  lands  and  tenements 
by  force  from  the  right  owner. 

Deforcement,  in  Scots  law,  the  oppormg  or  re- 
filling of  the  officers  of  the  law  in  the  execution  of 
their  office.     See  Law,  N^  clxxxvi.  15. 

DEFORMITY,  the  want  of  that  uniformity  ne- 
ceffary  to  conftitute  the  beauty  of  an  object.  See 
Beauty. 

Deformity  is  either  natural  or  moral.  Thefe  are 
both  referred  by  Mr  Hutchefon  to  an  internal  fenfe  ; 
and  qnr  perceptions  of  them,  as  he  fuppofes,  arifes  from 
an  original  arbitrary  ftru6lure  of  our  own  minds,  by 
■which  certain  objects,  when  obferved,  are  rendered  the 
occafions  of  certain  feafations  and  afledions. 

That  many  objefts  give  no  pleafure  to  our  fenfe  is 
obvious.  Many  are  certainly  void  of  beauty;  but  then, 
fays  this  author,  there  is  no  form  which  fecms  necef- 
farily  difagreeable  of  itfelf,  when  we  dread  no  other 
evil  from  it,  and  compare  it  with  nothing  better  of  the 
kind.  Many  objefts  are  naturally  difpleafing  and  dif- 
tafteful  to  our  external  fenfes,  as  well  as  others  plealing 
and  agreeable  ;  as  fmells,  talles,  and  fome  fcpaiate 
founds  :  but  with  regard  to  our  fenfe  of  beauty,  no 
compofition  of  objefts  which  give  not  unpleafant  limple 
ideas,  feems  pofitively  unpleafant  or  painful  of  Itfelf, 
had  we  never  obferved  any  thing  better  of  the  fame 
kind. 

Had  there  been  a  fpecies  of  the  form  which  we  now 
denominate  ugly  or  deformed,  and  had  we  never  feen  or 
expedtcd  greater  beauty,  we  fhould  have  received  no 
difgull  from  it  ;  though  the  pleafure  would  not  have 
been  fo  great  in  this  form  as  in  thofe  we  now  admire. 
Our  fenfe  of  beauty  feems  dcfigned  to  give  us  pofitlve 
pleafure;  but  not  pofitive  pain  or  difgull,  any  farther 
than  what  arilcs  from  dllappointment. 

There  are  indeed  many  faces  which  at  firft  view 
are  apt  toraife  diflike.  But  this  is  generally  not  from 
any  pofitive  deformity  ;  but  either  from  want  of  ex- 
pefted  beauty,  or  from  the  carrying  fome  natural  in- 
dications of  morally  bad  difpofitlons,  whicli  we  all  ac- 
quire a  faculty  of  difcerning  in  countenances,  airs,  and 
gelliires.  That  this  is  not  occafioned  by  any  form  po- 
fitively dIfgulHng,  appears  hence,  that  if,  upon  long 
actjuaiatance,  we  are  lure  of  finding  fweetnefs  of  tern- 


D     E     F 


per,  humanity,  and  cheerfulntfs,   though  the  bodily  Deformity, 

form  continues,  it  fhall  give  us  no  difgull.      There  are    ^~~^.. 

horrors  railed  by  fome  objefts,  which  are  only  the  tf- 
feft  of  fear  for  ourfelves,  or  compallion  towards  others, 
when  either  reafon,  or  fome  foolilh  allbciation  of  ideas, 
makes  us  apprehend  danger;  and  not  the  effeA  of  any 
thing  in  the  form  itfelf  For  we  Cnd,  that  moll  of 
thofe  objefls  which  excite  horror  at  firll,  when  ex- 
perience or  reafon  has  removed  the  fear,  may  become 
the  occafion  of  pleafure. 

The  cafual  conjuriclion  of  ideas  gives  us  dlfgufl, 
where  there  is  nothing  difagreeable  in  tlu-  form  itfelf. 
And  this,  in  eifed,  is  the  caui'e  of  mofl  of  our  fanta- 
ftic  averfions  to  the  figures  of  divers  animals,  &c. 
Thus  ferpents  of  all  kinds,  and  many  iufetls,  really 
beautiful  enough,  are  beheld  with  averfion  by  many 
people,  who  have  got  fome  accidental  ideas  of  mif- 
chlef  affociatcd  to  them.  A  fimilar  reafoning  is  ap- 
plied to  our  perception  of  moral  beauty  and  deformity. 
Inquiry  into  the  Original  of  our  Ideas  of  Beauty  and  Virtue, 
pailim. 

But  it  is  more  juft  to  diilinguilh  between  the  fenti- 
ments  of  delight  or  difgull,   excited  in  us  by  beautiful 
or  deformed  objeds,  which  are  efFeds  of  fome  caufes, 
and  the  natural  and  real  qualities  of  the  perceived  ob- 
jeds  by  whlcIi  they  are  produced.      There  are  objcds, 
fays  an  excellent  writer,  which  have  a  natural  aptitude 
to  pleafe  or  oflcnd,  or  between  which  and  the  contem- 
plating   mind   there  is  a  neceflaiy  congrulty  or  incon- 
gruity ;  and  though  tlie  adual  perception  of  the  un- 
derilandlng,  and   cor.fequent  feeling  of  the  heart,  In 
contemplating  the  adions  and  affedions  of  moral  agent?, 
may  exill  in  very  different  degrees,  on  account  of  the 
incidental  oblliudions  arifing from  bodily  indlfpofitlon, 
mental  prejudices  and  biaffes,  and  the  alTociatlon  of 
ideas  ;  yet,  to  every  rational  mind  properly  difpofed,^ 
morally   good    ailions    muft  for  ever  be  acceptable, 
and  can  never  of  themfelves  offend  ;  and  morally  evil 
adions  mull  for  ever  be  difagreealile,  and  can  never  of 
themfelves  pleafe.      What  is  right  in  adions  and  cha- 
raders  is  beautiful  and  amiable,   and  gives  pleafure  ; 
what  is  wrong  is  deformed  and  odious,  and  excites  dif- 
gull: right  and  pleafure,  wrong  and  pain,  are  as  diftind 
as  caule  and  cffed.      It   is   no  lefs  abfurd  to  maintain, 
that  the  pei'ception  of  virtue  is  nothing'diftlnd  from  the 
reception  of  the  pleafure  refulting  from  It,  tlian  to  infer, 
with  fome  metaphyficians,  that  I'c'lidity,  extenfion,  and 
figure,  are  only  particular  modes  of  fenfation,  becaufc 
attended,  whenever  the;-  are  perceived,  with  fome  fen- 
fations  of  fight  or  touch.     Thus  does  this  author  (how, 
that   moral  beauty  and  deformity  are  real  qualities  of 
certain  actions;  in  which  confills  their  aptitude  to  pleafe 
or  difgull.     With   refped  to   natural  beauty,   he  ob- 
fervea,   that  uniformity  amidll  variety  pleafes,  becaufe 
of  the  natures  of  variety  and   unifurmity,  which  are 
fuch,  that  whenever  united,  they  are  adapted  to  pleafs 
every  free  unbiaffed  mind  that  difcerns  them.     He  ac- 
counts for  the  pleafure  they  afford,  v.'ithout  referrincr. 
them   to  an  arbitrary  internal  fenfe,  by  the  foUowino- 
circumtlances  that  attend  them.    They  are  more  eafily 
comprehended  by  the  mind;  order  and  iVmmetry  give, 
things  their  liability  and  llrength,  and  fub.'crvlency  to 
any  valuable   purpofe  ;  regidarity  and  order  evidence 
art   and  dcfign. "   Diforder  and  confulion,  whence  de- 
formity arifes,  denote  only  the  negation  of  regularity 

and 


D    E    F  [71 

Bcfortniiy.  and  order ;  or  any  arrangement  and  difpofition  of 
things,  wliich  are  not  according  to  a  law,  rule,  or 
plan,  and  prove  not  defign.  Tliefe  are  not  pofitively 
iiifpleafing  ;  except  where  we  previoully  expefted  or- 
der, or  where  impotence  or  want  of  /kill  appear,  and 
the  contriver  has  either  failed  of  his  defign  or  executed 
it  ill. 

In  the  Fugitive  Pieces,  is  prcferved  an  excellent 
eflay  on  Bodily  Deformity  by  the  late  William  Hay, 
Efq;  who  was  himfelf  what  he  defcribes,  and 'who, 
while  he  rallies  his  own  figure  with  great  pleafantry, 
difcufles  the  general  fuhjeCt  in  a  manner  equally  in- 
flruAive  and  agreeable.  He  confiders,  i.  The  natu- 
ral confequences  of  bodily  deformity ;  2.  How  it  affefls 
the  outward  ciicumflances ;  and,  3.  What  turn  it 
gives  to  the  mind. 

I.  It  is  certain,  that  the  lumian  frame,  being  warp- 
ed and  difproportioned,  is  leffened  in  ftrength  and  ac- 
aftivity,  and  rendered  lefs  fit  for  its  funttions.  Scar- 
ron  had  invented  an  engine  to  take  off  his  hat  ;  "  and 
1  wifh  (fays  our  author)  I  could  invent  one  to  buckle 
my  (hoe,  or  to  take  up  a  thing  from  the  ground,  which 
I  can  fcarce  do  without  kneeling,  for  I  can  bend  my 
body  no  farther  than  it  is  bent  by  nature.  For  this 
reafon,  when  ladies  drop  a  fan  or  glove,  I  am  not  the 
fitft.  to  take  it  up  ;  and  often  reftrain  my  inclination  to 
perform  thofe  little  fervices,  rather  than  expofe  my 
fpider-like  fliape.  And  I  hope  it  will  not  be  conftrued 
as  pride,  if  I  do  not  always  rife  from  my  feat  when  I 
ought  :  for  if  it  is  low,  I  find  fome  trouble  in  it  ; 
and  my  centre  of  gravity  is  fo  ill  placed,  that  I  am 
often  like  to  fall  back.  Things  hanging  within  tlie 
veach  of  others  are  out  of  mine  ;  and  what  they  can 
execute  with  eafe,  I  want  ftrength  to  perform.  I 
am  in  danger  of  being  trampled  upon  or  llifled  in  a 
crowd,  where  my  back  is  a  convenient  lodgment  for 
the  elbow  of  any  tall  perfon  that  is  near.  I  can  fee 
nothing,  and  my  whole  employment  is  to  guard  my 
perfon.  Ihave  forborne  to  attend  his  Majefty  in  the 
houfe  of  peers  fince  I  was  like  to  be  fqueezed  to  death 
there  againft  the  wall.  I  would  willingly  come  thither 
w  hen  his  majefty  commands,  but  he  is  too  gracious  to 
cxpeft  impuffibilities.  Befidcs,  when  1  get  in,  I  can 
never  have  the  pleafure  of  feeing  on  tlie  throne  one  of 
the  beft  princes  who  ever  iat  on  it.  Thefe,  and  many 
others,  are  the  inconveniences  continually  attending  a 
figure  like  mine.  They  may  appear  grievous  to  per- 
fons  not  ufed  to  them,  but  they  grow  eafier  by  habit ; 
and  though  they  may  a  little  difturb,  they  are  not  fuf- 
ficient  to  deftroy  the  happinefs  of  life  ;  of  which,  at 
an  average,  I  have  enjoyed  as  great  a  ftrare  as  moft 
men.  And  perhaps  one  proof  of  it  may  be  my  writing 
this  Effay ;  not  intended  as  a  complaint  againft  Provi- 
dence for  my  lot,  but  as  an  innocent  amufement  to 
myfelf  and  others." 

As  to  what  tfledt  deformity  may  have  on  the  health, 
it  appears  natural  to  imagine,  that  as  the  inward  parts 
of  the  body  muft  in  fome  meafure  comijly  with  the 
outward  mould,  fo  the  form  of  the  latter  being  irregu- 
lar, the  firft  cannot  be  fo  well  placed  and  difpofed  to 
perform  their  functions  ;  and  that  generally  deformed 
perfons  would  not  be  healthy  or  long-lived.  But  this 
is  a  queft'.on  beft  determined  by  fails ;  and  in  this  cafe 
the  inftanccs  are  too  few  or  unobfervcd,  to  draw  a  ge- 
neral conclufion  from  them  :  and  health  is  more  than 


0       ] 


D    E    F 


is  commonly  thought  in  a  man's  own  power,  and  the  Defortnitj 
reward  of  temperance  more  than  the  efFc6l  of  conftitu-  "~~V~-» 
tion ;  which  makes  it  ftill  more  difficult  to  pafs  a  judge- 
ment. yEfop  could  not  be  young  when  he  died;  and 
might  have  lived  longer,  if  he  had  not  been  murdered 
at  Delphi.  The  Prince  of  Orange  fcarce  palTcd  the 
meridian  of  life,  and  the  Duke  of  Luxemburg  died 
about  the  age  of  67.  The  I^ord  Treafurer  Burleigh 
lived  to  78  ;  but  his  fon  the  Earl  of  Salilbury,  who 
died  about  15  years  after  him,  could  not  reach  near 
that  age.  It  is  faid  that  Mr  Pope's  father  was  de« 
formed,  and  he  lived  to  75  ;  whereas  the  fon  died  in 
middle  age,  if  he  may  be  laid  to  die  whofe  works  are 
immortal.  "  My  father  (adds  our  author)  was  not 
deformed,  but  active,  ajid  my  mother  a  celebrated 
beauty  ;  and  I,  that  am  fo  unlike  them,  have  lived  to 
a  greater  age,  and  daily  iee  my  acquaintance,  of  a 
ilronger  frame,  quitting  the  ttage  before  me." 

But  whether  deformity,  abllracledly  confidered,  be 
really  prejudicial  to  health,  in  its  confequences  it  ap- 
pears to  be  moft  commonly  an  advantage.  Deformed 
perfons  have  a  lefs  ihare  of  ftrength  than  others,  and 
therefore  fliould  naturally  be  more  careful  to  preferve 
it ;  and  as  temperance  is  the  great  prefervative  of 
health,  it  may  inchne  them  to  be  more  temperate. 
Another  great  prefervative  of  health  is  moderate  ex- 
ercife,  which  few  deformed  perfons  can  want  ftrength 
to  perforin.  As  a  deformed  perfon  is  not  formed  for 
violeni  exercife,  he  is  lefs  liable  to  fuch  diforders  as 
are  the  natural  confequence  of  it.  He  will  alfo  efcape 
many  accidents,  to  which  men  of  athletic  make,  and 
who  glory  in  their  ftrength,  are  always  expofing  them- 
felvcs  to  make  trial  and  proof  of  it.  If  he  cannot  carry 
an  ox,  like  Milo,  he  will  not,  like  Milo,  be  hand- 
cuffed in  the  oak  by  attempting  to  rend  it.  He  will 
not  be  the  man  that  ftiall  ride  from  London  to  York 
in  a  day,  or  to  Windfor  in  an  hour,  for  a  wager ;  or 
that  fhall  be  perpetually  performing  furprifing  long 
journeys  in  a  furprlling  fliort  time,  for  no  earthly  bu- 
finefs  but  the  pleafure  of  relating  them.  Conieious  of 
his  own  weakncfs,  he  will  be  cautious  of  running  into 
'places  or  occafions  of  danger.  Nature,  too,  warns 
deformed  perfons  to  be  careful  not  to  offer  fuch  affronts 
as  may  tall  them  forth  into  the  field  of  falfc  honour, 
where  they  cannot  acquit  themfelves  well  for  want  of 
ftrength  and  agility  ;  and  they  are  fecurer  from  fuch 
aftronts  themfelves,  fince  others  vi'ill  confider  the  httlc 
credit  they  will  gain  by  compelling  them  to  appear  on 
that  fcene.  On  the  whole,  therefore,  it  may  be  con- 
cluded, that  deformity  is  a  protection  to  a  man's  health 
and  perfon  ;  which  (flrange  as  it  may  appear)  are  bet- 
ter defended  by  feeblenefs  than  ftrength.. 

z.  The  influence  of  bodily  deformity  on  a  man's 
fortune  may  next  be  confidered.  Among  the  lower 
clafs,  he  is  cut  off  from  many  profeffions  and  employ- 
ments. He  cannot  be  a  foldler,  he  is  under  ftandard  ; 
he  cannot  be  a  failor,  he  wants  activity  to  climb  the 
rigging  ;  he  cannot  be  a  chairman  or  porter,  he  vvaiits- 
ftrength  to  bear  the  burden.  In  higher  life,  he  is  ill 
qualified  for  a  lawyer,  he  can  fcarce  be  fecn  over  the 
bar ;  for  a  divine,  he  may  drop  from  his  haffock  out 
of  fight  in  Ills  pulpit.  The  improvement  of  his  mind 
is  his  proper  province,  and  his  bufinefs  only  fuch  as 
depends  on  ingenuity.  If  he  cannot  be  a  dancing- 
mafter  to  adjuft  the  heels,  he  may  be  a  fchoolmafter  to 
A  inllrucl 


D    E    F      ■  [     711     ]  D    E    F    . 

Deformity  in flniA  the  head  :  he  cannot  be  a  graceful  aftor  on     (Burkigli)  fit  in  her  prtfence  ;  telling  him,  that  (lie  did  Dcformify, 

-"V the  ftage;  but  he  may  produce  a  good  play  :   he  would      not   uft  him  for  his  legs,  but   his  head-      But  the   Ton  '""^ 

appear  ill  as  a  herald  in  a  proceflion  ;  but  may  pafs  as     (afterwards  lord  treafurer  and  Earl  of  Salifbury)  was 

a  merchant  on  the  exchange  :   he  cannot  undergo  the     not   fo  civilly   treated  by  the  populace;  and  is  an  in- 

fatigue  of  the  campaign  ;  but  he  may  advife  the  ope-      fiance,  not   only  that  envy  pnrfucs  a  great  man,  but 

rations  of  it :  he  is  dehgncd   by  nature  rather  to  ileep     that  the   highell  port  cannot  redeem  a  deformed  one 

on  ParnafTus,  than  to  defcend  on  the  plains  of  Eolis :  he     from  contempt:  it  attends  him  like  his  (hadow,  and 

cannot  be  crowned  at   the  Olympic  games;  but  may     like  that  too  is  ever  reminding  him   of  his   ill  figure, 

be   the  Pindar   to  celebrate  them  :  he  can  acquire  no     which  is  often  objcfted  for  want  of  real  crimes.     For 

glory  by  the  fword  ;  but  he  may  by  the  pen,  and  may     the  fame  writer  fays  of  the  fame  great  man,  "  that  the 

grow  famous  by  only  relating  thofe  exploits  which  are     misfortunes  accompanying   him  from  his  birth  did  not 

beyond  his  power  to  imitate.  a  little  add  to  that  cloud  of  detraftion  that  fell   upoir 

Lord  Bacon  (that  extenfive  and  penetrating  genius,     all  that  he  faid  or  did  ;  a  mulft  in  nature,  like  an  optic 

vho  pointed  out  every  part  of  nature  for  examination),     fpeftacle,  multiplying  much  in  the  fight  of  the  people 

in  his  Effay  on  Deformity,  fays,  "  that  in  their  fupe-     the  apparitions  of  ill."      Nor  was  this  contempt  buried 

riors  it  quencheth  jealoufy  towards  them,  as  perfons     with  him  :   it  trampled  on  his  alhes,  and  infulted  his 

that  they   think  they  may  at  pleafure  defpife  ;  and  it     grave;   as  appears  by  an  epitaph,  which  Ofborn  cites, 

layeth  their  competitors  and  emulators  alleep,  as  never     as  void  of  wit  as  it  is  full  of  fcurrility  ;  in  one  line  of 

believing  they  (liould  be  in  a  poflibility  of  advancement     which  there  is  an  epithet,  not  fo  elegant,  as  defcrip- 

till  they  fee  them  in   poflefriou."     But  it  is  much  to     tive  of  his  perfon,  -viz.  "  Little  Boffive  Robin,  that 

be  doubted  whether  this  is  not  more  than  counterba-      was  fo  great  " 

lanced  by  the  contempt  of  the  wcnld.  which  it  requires  Such  contempt  in  general,  joined  with  the  ridicule 
no  mean  parts  to  conquer  ;  for  if  (as  has  been  faid)  a  of  the  vulgar,  is  another  certain  confequencc  of  bodily- 
good  perfon  is  a  letter  of  recommendation,  deformity  deformity;  for  men  naturally  defpife  what  appears  lefs 
muft  be  an  obftrucftion  in  the  way  to  favour.  In  this  beautiful  or  ufeful,  and  their  pride  is  gratified  when 
refpeft,  therefore,  deformed  perfons  fet  out  in  the  they  fee  fuch  foils  to  their  own  perfons.  It  is  this 
world  to  a  difadvantage  ;  and  they  muft  firft  furmount  fenfe  of  fuperiority  which  is  teftified  by  laugncer  in  the 
the  prejudices  of  mankind  before  they  can  be  upon  a  par  lower  fort;  while  their  betters,  who  know  how  little 
with  others,  and  muft  obtain  by  a  courfe  of  behavi-  any  man  whatfoever  hath  to  boaft  of,  are  reftrained  by 
our  that  regard  which  is  paid  to  beauty  at  firft  fight,  good  fenfe  and  good  breeding  from  fuch  an  infult. 
When  this  point  is  once  gained,  the  tables  are  turned.  But  it  is  not  eafy  to  fay  why  one  fpecies  of  deformity 
and  then  the  game  goes  in  their  favour :  for  others,  (hould  be  more  riduculous  than  another,  or  why  the 
fenfible  of  their  injuilice  to  them,  no  fooner  find  them  mob  (hould  be  more  merry  with  a  crooked  man,  than 
better  than  they  expefted,  than  they  believe  them  with  one  that  is  deaf,  lame,  fquinting,  or  purblind.  It 
better  than  they  are  ;  whereas  in  the  beautiful  perfon  fs  a  back  in  alto  rchevo  that  bears  all  die  ridicule  ;  tho' 
they  fometimes  find  therafelves  impofed  upon,  and  are  one  would  think  a  prominent  belly  a  more  reafonable 
angi-y  that  they  have  worfiiipped  only  a  painted  idol,  objeft  of  it,  fince  the  I'aft  is  generally  the  elTeft  of  in- 
For  (again  take  Lord  Bacon's  words)  "  neither  is  it  temperance  and  of  a  man's  own  creation.  Socrates- 
almoft  feen,  that  very  beautiful  perfons  are  otherwife  was  ugly,  but  not  contemned  ;  and  Philopoemen  (a)  of 
of  great  virtue  :  they  prove  accomplifhed,  but  not  of  very  mean  appearance,  and  though  contemned  on  that 
great  fpirit  ;  and  ftudy  rather  behaviour  than  virtue,  account,  not  ridiculed  :  for  Montaigne  fays,  "  111  fea- 
Whereas  deformed  perfons,  if  they  be  of  fpirit,  will  hires  are  but  a  fuperficial  uglinefs,  and  of  little  cer- 
free.thcmfelves  from  fcoin,  which  muft  be  either  by  tainty  in  the  opinion  of  men;  but  a  deformity  of 
virtue  or  malice  ;  and  therefore  let  it  not  be  marvelled  limbs  is  more  fubftantial,  and  ftrikes  deeper  in."  As 
if  they  fometimes  prove  excellent  perfons,  as  was  Age-  it  is  more  uncommon,  it  is  more  remarkable;  and  that 
filaus,  Zanger  the  fon  of  Soloman,  ALiop,  Gafca  pre-  perhaps  is  the  true  reafon  why  it  is  more  ridiculed  by 
fident  of  Peru ;  and  Socrates  may  likewife  go  amongft     the  vulgar. 

them,  with  others."  Nay,  he  fays,  "  in  a  great  wit  3.  The  laft  confideration  on  this  fubjeft  relates  to 
deformity  is  an  advantage  to  rifing."  And  in  another  thofe  paffions  and  affeftions  which  mod  naturally  re- 
part  of  his  works,  "  that  they  who  by  accident  have  fult  from  deformity.  Lord  Bacon  obferves,  that  '  dc- 
fome  inevitable  and  indelible  mark  on  their  perfons  or  formed  perfons  are  commonly  even  with  nature  ;  for 
fortunes,  as  deformed  people,  baftards,  Sic,  if  they  as  nature  hath  done  ill  by  them,  fo  do  they  by  nature, 
want  not  virtue,  generally  prove  fortunate."  being  for  the  moft  part  (as  the  fcriptuie  fail'i)  void 0/ 

Olhorn,  in  his  Kiftorical  Memoirs  of  Queen  Eliza-  natural  aff en  ion.'  But  (fays  Mr  Hay)  "  I  can  neither 
beth,  informs  us,  that  "  fiie  chofe  the  goodlieft  per-  find  out  this  pafTage  in  fcripture,  nor  the  reafon  of  it; 
fons  for  her  houfehold  fervants :  but  in  her  couufel-  nor  can  I  give  my  alfent  or  negative  to  a  propofition, 
Ibrs  did  not  put  by  fufEciency,  though  accompanied  till  I  am  well  acquainted  with  the  terms  of  it.  If  by 
with  a  crooked  perfon  ;  as  it  chanced  in  a  father  and  natural  alfcdVion  is  here  m;ant  univerfal  benevolence, 
a  fon  of  the  Cecils,  both  incomparable  for  prudence."  and  deformity  neceflarily  implies  a  want  of  it,  a  de- 
It  is  well  known  the  Queen  would  make  the  father     formed  perfon  muft  then  be  a  complete  monfter.     But 

however 

(a)  Coming  to  an  inn,  where  he  was  expected,  before  his  attendants,  the  miilrefs  of  the  houfe  feeing  »■ 
plain  perfon  of  very  mean  afpeft,  ordered  him  to  alTift  in  getting  things  ready  for  Philopcemen.  His  attend- 
ants finding  him  fo  employed,  he  told  them  that  he  was  then  paying  the  tribute  of  his  uglinefs.     Plutarch. 


D     E    F  [71 

D«formif7. ^o^f ver  common  the  cafe  may  be,  my  own  fcnfations 
•  inform  me  that  it  u  not  unlvcrfally  true.      If  by  natu- 

ral affcAion  h  meant  a  partial  regard  for  individuals,  I 
belie%'e  the  remark  is  judicious,  and  founded  in  hu- 
man nature.  Deformed  perfons  are  defpifed,  ridiculed, 
and  ill-treated  by  others  ;  are  feldom  favourites,  and 
commonly  moft  neglefted  by  parents,  guardians,  at\d 
relations;  and  therefore,  as  they  are  not  indebted  for 
much  fondnefs,  it  is  no  wonder  if  they  repay  but  little. 
It  is  the  command  of  fcripture,  A^ot  tofet  our  affea'wiis 
on  things  beloiu  ;  and  it  is  the  voice  of  realon,  not  to 
overvalue  what  we  mud  foon  part  with  :  therefore,  to 
he  fo  fond  of  others  as  not  to  be  able  to  bear  their  ab- 
fence,  or  to  furvive  them,  is  neither  a  religious  nor  mo- 
ral duty,  but  a  childifli  and  womanilh  weaknefs ;  and 
I  mud  congratulate  deformed  perfons,  who,  by  ex- 
ample, are  early  taught  another  lelTon.  And  I  will 
now  lay  open  my  own  heart  to  the  reader,  that  he  may 
judge  if  Lord  Bacon's  pofition  is  verified  in  me. 

"  I  hope  it  proceeds  not  from  a  malignity  of  heart; 
but  I  never  am  much  affetled  with  the  common  ac- 
cidents of  life,  whether  they  befall  myfelf  or  others. 
I  am  little  moved  when  I  hear  of  death,  lofs,  or  mif- 
fortune  ;  I  think  the  cafe  is  common. 

(^Tritui,  £5*  e  meJio Jot  tuna  duStui  acerva  ••) 
Juv.  Sat.  xiii. 
And  as  it  Is  always  likely  to  happen,  I  am  not  fur- 
prifed  when  it  does.  If  I  fee  a  perfon  cry  or  beat  his 
breall  on  any  fuch  occafion,  I  cannot  bear  him  com- 
pany ;  but  am  not  a  Democritus  to  laugh  at  his  folly. 
I  read  of  battles  and  fields  covered  with  flain  ;  of  cities 
deftroyed  by  fword,  famine,  peftllence,  and  earthquake; 
I  do  not  filed  a  tear :  I  fuppofe  it  is,  becaufe  they  are 
the  ufual  llorms,  to  which  the  human  fpecies  are  ex- 
pofed,  proceeding  from  the  juft  judgments  of  God,  or 
the  miftaken  and  falfe  principles  of  rulers.  I  read  of 
perfecutions,  tortures,  murders,  maffacres  ;  my  com- 
paffion  for  the  fufferers  are  great,  but  my  teats  are 
flopped  by  refentment  and  indignation  agalnll  the  con- 
trivers and  perpetrators  of  fuch  horrid  adtions.  But 
there  are  many  things  that  bring  tears  into  my  eyes 
whether  I  will  or  no  ;  and  when  I  refl;cl,  I  am  often 
at  a  lofs  in  fearching  out  the  fecret  fource  from  whence 
they  flow.  What  makes  me  weep  (for  weep  I  do) 
when  I  read  of  virtue  or  innocence  in  diilrefs  ;  of  a 
good  man  helplefs  and  forfaken,  unmoved  by  the  great- 
eft  infuks  and  cruelties,  or  courageoufly  fupporting 
timfelf  againft  oppreffion  in  the  article  of  death  ?  I 
fuppofe  it  is,  to  fee  vice  triumphant,  and  virtue  fo  ill 
rewarded  in  this  life.  May  I  judge  by  myfelf,  I 
fhould  imagine  that  few  fincere  ChriJtians  could  read 
the  fuffcrings  of  their  Saviour,  or  Englifhmen  thofe  of  a 
Cranmer,  Ridley,  or  Latimer,  without  tears;  the  fit  ft 
dying  to  eft.iblifii  his  religion,  the  laft  to  refcue  it  from 
corruption.  When  I  read  of  Regulus  returning  to  tor- 
ment, and  John  of  Ft,?nce  to  imprifonment,  againft  the 
perfuafion  of  friends,  to  keep  faith  with  their  enemies, 
I  weep  to  think  there  is  fcarce  another  inllance  of  fuch 
exalted  virtue.  Thofe  who  often  hear  me  read,  know 
that  my  voice  changes,  and  my  eyes  are  full,  when  I 
meet  with  a  generous  and  heroic  faying,  aftion,  or  cha- 
rafter,  cfpecially  of  perfons  whofc  example  or  command 
may  influence  mankind.  I  weep  when  I  hear  a  Titus 
fay,  that  he  had  loft  the  day  in  which  he  did  no  good  ; 
when  Adrian  tells  his  enemy,  that  he  had  efcaped  by 
N=  98- 


2     J  D    E    F 

his  being  emperor  ;  or  Louis  XII.  that  he  is  not  to  Dtforn 
revenge  the  affront  of  the  duke  of  Orleans.  Thefe  are  '~~~v~ 
the  firft  inilances  that  happen  to  occur  to  me  :  I  might 
recoUcft  many,  too  many  to  infert  in  this  elTay  ;  yet 
all  are  but  few,  compared  to  inftances  of  cruelty  and 
revenge :  perhaps  I  am  concerned  that  they  are  fo 
rare  ;  perhaps  too  I  inwardly  grieve  that  I  ani  not  in 
a  fituation  to  do  the  like.  I  am  entertained,  but  not 
moved,  when  I  read  Voltaire's  Hiftory  of  Charles  XII, ; 
but  I  melt  into  tears  on  reading  Hanway's  charafte^r 
of  his  antagonift  Peter  the  Great.  The  firft  is  a  ftory 
of  a  madman  ;  the  other  of  a  father,  friend,  and  bene- 
faftor  of  his  people  ;  whafe  charaAcr  (as  the  author 
obferves  in  the  conclufion  of  it)  will  command  the  ad- 
miration of  all  fucceeding  generations  ;  and  I  fuppofe 
I  lament,  that  God  is  pleafed  to  advance  to  royalty  fo 
few  fuch  initrnments  of  good  to  mankind. 

Again  :  "  I  am  uneafy  when  I  iee  a  dog,  a  horfe, 
or  any  other  animal  ill  treated  :  for  I  coniider  them 
as  endued  with  quick  fenfe,  and  no  contemptible 
fliare  of  reafon  ;  and  that  God  gave  man  dominion 
over  them,  not  to  play  the  tyrant,  but  to  be  a  good 
prince,  and  promote  the  happinefs  of  his  fubj-.fts. 
But  I  am  much  more  uneafy  at  any  cruelty  to  my 
own  fpecies  ;  and  heartily  wifh  Piocruftes  dlfclpli- 
ned  in  his  own  bed,  and  Phalaris  in  his  bull.  A 
man  brulfed  all  over  in  a  boxing  match,  or  cut  to 
pieces  in  fighting  a  prize,  is  a  fhocking  fpectacle  ;  and 
I  think  I  could  with  lei's  horror  fee  a  thoufand  fall  in 
battle,  than  human  naaire  thus  depreciated  and  difgra- 
ced.  Violence,  when  exerted  in  wantonncfs  or  paf- 
fion,  is  brutality  ;  and  can  be  termed  bravery  only 
when  it  is  fanftioned  by  juflice  and  neceffity. 

"  I  have  been  in  a  fituation  to  fee  not  a  little  of  the 
pomp  and  vanity,  as  well  as  of  the  neceffity  and  mifery, 
of  mankind  :  but  the  laft  only  afFc£l  me  ;  and  if,  as  a 
magiftiate,  I  am  ever  guilty  of  partiality,  it  is  in  fa- 
vour of  the  poor.  When  I  am  at  church  among  my 
poor  but  honeft  neighbours  in  the  country;  and  fee 
them  ferious  in  performing  the  ceremonies  prelcribed  ; 
tears  fometimts  fteal  down  my  cheek,  on  reflecting, 
that  they  are  doing  atid  heating  many  things  they  do 
not  underftand,  while  thofe  who  underftand  thera 
better  neglect  them  :  that  they,  who  labour  and  live 
hard,  are  more  thankful  to  heaven  than  thofe  who  fare 
luxurioufly  on  the  fruits  of  their  labour  ;  and  are  keep- 
ing and  repeating  the  fourth  commandment  at  the  very 
inltant  the  otheis  are  breaking  it. 

"  Thefe  are  fome  of  the  fenfations  I  feel ;  which  I 
have  ftcely  and  fairly  difclofed,  that  the  reader  may 
judge,  how  far  I  am  an  inftance  of  a  deformed  petfon 
wanting  natural  affe£tion.  And  I  am  a  good  fubjed  of 
fpeculation ;  becaufe  all  in  me  is  nature  :  foi  to  own  the 
truth,  I  have  taken  but  little  pains  (though  I  ought  to 
have  taken  a  great  deal),  to  corrett  my  natural  deietls. 

"  Lord  Bacon's  next  pofttion  is,  '  That  deformed 
perfons  are  extremely  bold  :  firft  in  their  own  defence, 
as  being  expofed  to  fcorn  ;  but  in  procefs  of  time  by  a 
general  habit.'  This,  probably,  is  fo  among  the  infe- 
rior fort,  who  are  in  the  way  of  continual  iniults ;  for 
a  return  of  abuft  is  a  natural  weapon  of  felf-defenc^', 
and  in  fome  meafure  juftifitd  by  the  )#kv  of  retaliation: 
To  upbraid  a  man  with  a  p^rfonai  defedt,  which  he 
cannot  help,  is  alfo  an  immoral  a<fl:  ;  and  he  who  does 
it,  has  reafon  to  «:peft  uo  better  i^uarter  than  to  hear 
S  -of 


D    E    F  [71 

formlty.  of  faults,  which  it  was  in  his  own  power  not  to  commit. 

"V~— '  But  I  find  this  obfervation  far  from  being  verified  in 
myfelf :  an  unbecoming  balhfulnefs  has  been  the  con- 
feqiience  of  ray  ill  figure,  and  of  the  worfe  manage- 
ment of  me  in  my  childhood.  I  am  always  uneafy, 
when  any  one  looks  ftedfaftly  on  fo  bad  a  piilure  ;  and 
cannot  look  with  a  proper  confidence  in  the  face  of 
another.  I  have  ever  reproached  myfelf  with  this 
weaknefs,  but  am  not  able  to  correft  it.  And  it  may 
be  a  difadvantage  to  a  man  in  the  opinion  of  thofe  he 
converfes  with  ;  for  though  true  modefty  is  amiable, 
the  falfe  is  liable  to  mifconftruAion  :  and  when  a  man 
is  out  of  countenance  for  no  reafon,  it  may  be  imagi- 
ned, that  he  has  fome  bad  reafon  for  being  fo.  In 
point  of  aflurance,  I  am  indeed  a  perfetl  riddle  to  my- 
felf; for  I,  who  feel  a  reluftance  in  croffing  a  draw- 
ing room,  or  in  opening  my  mouth  in  private  com- 
pany before  perfons  with  whom  I  am  not  well  acquaint- 
ed, find  little  in  delivering  my  fentiments  in  public, 
and  fxpofing  my  difcourfe,  often  as  trifling  as  my  per- 
son, to  the  ears  of  a  thoufand.  From  what  caufe  this 
proceeds,  I  know  not :  it  may  be  partly  from  hopes  of 
wiping  off  any  ill  imprefllons  from  my  perfon  by  my 
difcourfe,  partly  from  a  fenfe  of  doing  my  duty,  and 
partly  from  a  fecurity  in  public  alfemblies  from  any 
grofs  perfonal  refleflions. 

"  Lord  Bacon  compares  the  cafe  of  deformed  per- 
fons to  that  of  eunuchs ;  '  in  whom  kings  were  wont 
to  put  great  trufl  as  good  fpies  and  whifperers  ;  for 
they  that  are  envious  towards  all,  are  more  obnoxious 
and  officious  towards  one.'  But,  with  fubmiflion  to 
fo  good  a  judge  of  human  nature,  I  own  I  can  difcover 
no  uncommon  qualification  in  them  for  fpies ;  and 
very  few  moti-ves  to  envy  peculiar  to  themfelves.  Spies 
fubmit  to  that  bafe  and  ungenerous  office,  either  for 
the  fake  of  intercfl  or  power  :  if  for  intereft,  it  is  to 
gratify  their  covetoufnefs  ;  if  for  power,  their  ambi- 
tion or  revenge  ;  which  paflions  are  not  confined  to 
the  tunuch  or  deformed,  but  indifcriminately  feize  all 
daffes  of  men.  Envy  too  may  prompt  a  man  to  mean 
actions,  in  order  to  bring  down  the  perfon  envied  to 
his  own  level ;  but  if  it  is  on  account  of  fuperiority  of 
fortune,  it  will  operate  alike  on  men  of  all  fliapes. 
Eunuchs  have  but  one  peculiar  motive  to  envy':  but 
that  (as  Lord  Bacon  expreffes  it)  makes  them  envious 
towaids  all  j  becaufe  it  is  for  a  pleafure  whicii  all  but 
themfelves  may  enjoy.  Deformed  perfons  are  de- 
prived only  of  beauty  and  ftrength,  and  therefore 
thofe  alone  are  to  be  deemed  the  extraordinary  mo- 
tives to  their  envy  ;  for  they  can  no  more  be  beautiful 
or  ftrong  than  eunuchs  be  fuccefsful  lovers.  As  to 
myfelf,  whatever  fparks  of  envy  might  be  in  my  con- 
ftitution,  they  are  now  entirely  extinguifhed  ;  for,  by 
frequent  and  ferious  refieAion,  I  have  long  been  con- 
vinced of  the  fmall  value  of  moil  things  which  men 
value  the  mofl:. 

"  There  is  another  palTion  to  which  deformed  per- 
VoL.  V.  Part  IL 


3     1  D    E    F 

fons  feem  to  be  more  expofed  than  to  envy  ;  which  itnefortukf 

jealoufy  :   for  being  confcious  that  they  are  lefs  amia-  —  v— ^ 

ble  than  others,  they  may  naturally  fufpeft  that  they 

are  lefs  beloved.     I  have  the  happinefs  to  fpcak  thit 

from  conjedlure,  and  not  from  experience  ;  for  it  wa» 

my  lot,  many  years  ago,  to  man7  a  young  lady,  very 

pioufly  educated,  and  of  a  very  diilinguilhed   family, 

and  whofe  virtues  are  an  honour  to  her  family  and  her 

fex  :  fo  that  I  had  never  any  trial  of  my  temper,  and 

can   only  gucfs  at  it  by  emotions  I  have   felt  in    my 

younger  days  ;  when  ladies  have  been  more  liberal  of 

their  fniiles  to  thofe  whom  I  thought  in  every  rcfped, 

but  perfon,  my  inferiors." 

The  moft  ufeful  inference  from  all  this  to  a  deform- 
ed perfon  is,  to  be  upon  his  guard  againil  thofe  frail- 
ties to  which  he  is  more  particularly  expofed  ;  and  to 
be  careful,  that  the  outward  frame  do  not  diitort  thr 
foul.  Orandiim  eft  (fays  Juvenal),  ut  fit  mens  fana  tn 
corporefano;  "Let  us  pray  for  a  found  mind  in  a  healthy 
body  :"  and  every  deformed  perfon  (hould  add  this  pe- 
tition, utfit  mem  refia  in  corpore  curvo,  for  "  an  upright 
mind  in  a  crooked  one."  And  let  him  frequently  ap- 
ply to  himfelf  this  article  of  felf-examination,  Lentnr 
et  meliorjis,  accedente  fineSa  ?  "  As  age  approaches,  do 
your  temper  and  morals  improve  ?"  It  is  a  duty  pecu- 
liarly incumbent  ;  for  if  beauty  adds  grace  to  virtue 
itfelf,  vice  mull  be  doubly  hideous  in  deformity. 

Ridicule  and  contempt  are  a  certain  confequence  of 
deformity  ;  and  therefore  what  a  perfon  cannot  avoid, 
he  thould  learn  not  to  regard.  He  Ihould  bear  it  hke 
a  man  ;  forgive  it  as  a  Chriftian  ;  and  confider  it  as  a 
philofopher.  And  his  triumph  will  be  complete,  if  he 
can  exceed  others  in  pleafantry  on  himfelf.  Wit  will 
give  over  when  it  fees  itfelf  outdone  ;  and  fo  will  ma- 
lice when  it  finds  it  has  no  effeft  ;  And  if  a  man's  be- 
haviour afford  no  caufe  of  contempt,  it  will  fall  upon 
thofe  who  condemn  him  without  caufe. 

Inftead  of  repining,  therefore,  a  deformed  perfon 
ought  to  be  thankful  to  Providence  for  giving  him 
fuch  a  guard  to  his  virtue  and  repofe.  Thoulands  are 
daily  ruined  by  a  handfome  perfon  ;  for  beauty  is  a 
flower  that  every  one  wants  to  gather  in  its  bloom, 
and  fpares  no  pains  or  flratagem  to  reach  it.  All  the 
poetical  (lories  concerning  it  have  their  moral.  A 
Helen  occafions  war  and  confufion  ;  the  Hyacinths 
and  Ganymedcs  are  feized  on  for  Cataraitts  ;  the  En- 
dymioHS  and  Arionifes  for  gallants  ;  Narciffus  can  ad- 
mire nobody  but  himlelf,  and  grows  old  before  he  is 
cured  of  that  paffion.  Who  is  a  ftranger  to  tiie  (lory 
of  Lucretia  killing  hcrfelf  for  her  violated  chaftity  ? 
or  of  Virginia  killed  by  her  father  to  preferve  it  .■'  In 
thofe  circumllances,  fays  Juvenal,  (he  might  wifh  to 
change  perfons  with  Rutila  ;  the  only  lady  we  know 
among  the  ancients  c-^lebrated  for  a  hump-back.  The 
handfomeft  men  are  chofcn  for  eunuchs  and  gallants  ; 
and  when  they  are  catched  in  exercifing  the  laft  func- 
tion, both  (a)  Horace  and  Juvenal  inform  you  of  the 
4  X  penalties 


(a)  Hie  fe  pra;cipitfm  tcfto  dedit :   illc  flagellis 
Ad  mortem  csefus  :  fugiens  hlc  decidit  acrem 
Praedonum  in  turbam  :  dedit  hie  pro  corpore  nummos ; 
Hunc  perminxcrunt  calones ;  quinetiam  illud 


Accidit,  utcuidam  teftes  caudamque  falacem 

Demeteret  ferrum Hor.  Sat.  ii.  1.  i. 

C^uofdam  moscbos  et  mugilis  intrat.      Jt^'v. 


D    E    F  [71 

D.-forniify.  penalties  and  indignities  they  undergo.  Sllius  (b) 
^—~y^-~  ^as  'converted  by  the  inCatiable  MetTalina  into  a  lu'.f- 
band  ;  and  Sporus,  by  the  monller  Nero,  Into  a  wife. 
Thelaft  mentioned  poet  (hows,  that  praying  for  beau- 
ty is  praying  for  a  CLirfe  ;  and  (c)  Peifius  refiiits  to 
join  in  fuch  a  prayer :  And  has  not  the  deformed  per- 
ibn  reaibn  to  thank  his  Rars,  whicli  have  placed  hi;n 
more  out  of  danger  than  even  virtue  could  ?  for  that 
could  not  guard  a  Jofeph,  an  (d)  Hippolytus,  a  Bel- 
lerophon,  and  others,  againft  the  revenge  of  flighted 
love. 

Another  great  advantage  of  deformity  is,  that  it 
tends  to  the  improvement  of  the  mind.  A  roan  that 
cannot  fhine  in  his  perfon,  will  have  recourfe  to  his 
underftantling ;  and  attempt  to  adorn  that  part  of 
him,  which  alone  is  capable  of  ornament.  When  his 
ambition  prompts  him  to  begin,  with  Cowcly,  to  alk 
himfelf  this  queftion, 

■  What  fliall  I  c^o  to  be  for  ever  known, 
And  make  the  ape  to  come  my  own  ? 
on  looking  about  him,  he  will  find  many  avenues  to 
the  temple  of  fame  barred  againll  hinv;  but  fome  are 
Hill  open  through  that  of  virtue  ;  and  thofe,  if  he  has 
a  right  ambition,  he  will  moll  probably  attempt  to 
pafs.  The  more  a  man  is  inaftive  in  his  perfon,  the 
more  his  mind  will  be  at  work  ;  and  the  time  which 
others  fpend  in  aftion,  he  will  pafs  in  ftudy  and  con- 
templation :  by  ihefe  he  may  acquire  wifdom;  and  by 
wifdom,  fume.  The  name  of  Socrates  is  as  much 
founded  as  thofe  of  Alexander  and  Ca:far ;  and  is  re- 
corded in  much  fairer  charadlers.  He  gained  renown 
by  wifdom  and  goodnefs ;  they  by  tyranny  and  op- 
preffion  :  he  by  inftruftlng,  they  by  dcftroying,  man- 
kind :  and  happy  it  is,  that  their  evil  deeds  were  con- 
fined to  their  lives;  while  he  continues  to  inftruft  us 
to  this  day.  A  deformed  perfon  will  naturally  con- 
fidei'  where  his  ftrength  and  his  foible  he  :  and  as  he 
is  well  acquainted  with  the  latt,  he  will  eafily  find  out 
the  firft;  and  muft  know,  that  (if  it  is  any  where)  it  is 
not,  like  Samfon's,  in  the  hair ;  but  muft  be  in  the 
lining  of  the  head.  He  will  fay  to  himfelf,  "  I  am 
weak  in  perfon  :  unable  to  ferve  my  country  in  the 
field,  I  can  acquire  no  military  glory  ;  but  I  may, 
like  Socrates,  acquire  reputation  by  wifdom  and  pro- 
bity ;  let  me  therefore  be  wife  and  honeft.  My  figure 
is  very  bad  ;  and  I  fhould  appear  but  ill  as  an  orator 
either  in  the  pulpit  or  at  the  bar  :  let  me  therefore  pafs 
my  time  in  my  iludy,  either  in  reading  what  may  im- 
prove myfelf,  or  in  writing  what  may  entertain  or  ui- 
ftruft  others.  I  have  not  the  ftrength  of  Hercules,  nor 
can  I  rid  the  world  of  fo  many  monfters ;  but  perhaps 
I  may  get  rid  of  fome  that  infeft  myfelf.  If  I  cannot 
draw  out  Cacus  from  his  den,  I  may  pluck  the  villain 
from  my  own  breaft.  I  cannot  cleanfe  the  ftable  of 
Augeas :  but  I  may  cleanfe  my  own  heart  from  filth 
and  impurity :    I    may    demolilh    the    hydra  of  vices 


4    ]  D    E     G 

within  me ;  and  fliould  be  careful  too,  that  while  Derormity 
I  lop  off  one,  I  do  not  fuffer  more  to  grow  up  in 
its  ftead.  Let  me  be  ferviceable  in  any  way  that  I  can: 
and  if  I  am  fo,  it  may,  in  fome  nuafure,  be  owing 
to  my  deformity  ;  which  at  leaft  (hould  be  a  rtftraint 
on  my  conduct,  left  my  conduit  make  me  more  de- 
formed." 

Few  pcrfons  have  a  houfe  entirely  to  their  mind ; 
or  the  apartments  in  it  difpofed  as  they  could  wifli. 
And  there  is  no-deformed  perfon,  who  does  not  wiili 
that  his  foul  had  a  better  habitation  ;  which  is  fome- 
limes  not  lodged  according  tcT  its  quality.  Lord 
Clarendon  fays  of  Sir  Charles  Cavendilh  (brother  to 
the  marquis  of  NeSvcaftle),  that  he  was  a  man  of  the 
nobleft  and  largeft  mind,  though  of  the  leaft  and  moll 
inconvenient  i;Hiy  that  lived.  And  every  body  knows, 
that  the  late  prince  of  Orange  had  mail/  araiablc' qua- 
lities. Therefore,  in  juftiee  to  fuch  perfons,  we  muil 
f\ippofe  that  they  did  not  repine  that  their  tenements 
were  not  in  a  more  regular  ilyle  of  architefture.  And 
let  every  deformed  perfon  comfort  himfelf  with  re- 
flecting, that  though  his  foul  hath  not  the  moft  conve- 
nient and  beautiful  apartment,  yet  that  it  is  habitable  ; 
that  the  accommodation  will  ferve  as  an  ir.n  upon  tlie 
road  ;  that  he  is  but  tenant  for  hfe,  or  (more  properly) 
at  will ;  and  that,  while  he  remains  in  it,  he  is  in  a 
ftate  to  be  envied  by  the  deaf,  the  dumb,  the  lame, 
and  the  blind. 

DEFOSSION,  (Defossio),  thepunilhment  of  bu- 
rying alive,  infliiSled  among  the  Romans  on  vellal  vir- 
gins guiky  of  incontinency.  It  is  alfo  a  cuftom  among 
the  Hungarians  to  inflift  this  pnnidiment  on  women 
convifted  of  adultery.  Heretics  were  alfo  punKhed  in 
this  manner.      See  BukriNU-yllive. 

DEGENERATION,  or  Degenerating,  in  ge- 
neral, denotes  the  growing  worfe,  or  loling  fome  va- 
luable qualities  whereof  a  thing  was  for.Tierly  pofrcflcQ. 
Some  naturalills  have  been  of  opinion,  that  things  are 
capable  of  degenerating  into  quite  a  dittinA  fpecics  ; 
but  this  is  a  mere  chimera.  AH  that  happens  in  the 
degeneration  of  a  plant,  for  inftance,  is  the  lofing  its 
ufual  beauty,  colour,  fmell,  fee.  a  circumftance  entirely- 
owing  to  its  being  planted  in  an  improper  foil,  cli- 
mate, &c. 

DEGLUTITION,  the  adion  of  fwallowing.  See 
Anatomy,  1°  104. 

DEGRADATION,  In  our  laW-books  called  dif- 
Trndalhn  and  dcpnfillon,  the  aft  of  depriving  or  rtrlp- 
ping  a  perion  for  ever  of  a  dignity  or  degree  of  ho- 
nour, and  taking  away  the  title,  badge,  and  privileges 
thereof. 

The  degradations  of  a  peer,  a  prieft,  a  knight,  a 
gentleman,  an  ofBcer,  &c.  are  performed  with  divers 
ceremonies.  That  which  anciently  obtained  in  degra- 
ding a  perfon  from  his  nobility  is  very  curious.  It 
was  praftifed   in  the  time  of  Francis  I.  upon  Captain 

Fangel, 


(b)  Optimus  hie  et  formofifiimus  idem 

Gentis  Patricia;  rapitur  mifer  extinguendus 
Mefialinae  ocuhs. y«^^  Sat.  x. 

(c)  Hunc  optent  generum  Rex  et  Regina  :  puelloe 
Hunc  rapiant  :  quicquid  calcaverit  hie,  rofa  fiat ; 
Aft  ego  nutrici  non  mando  vota  ;  negato 


Jupiter  hxc  ill 


Perf.  Sat. 

-Quid  profuit  olim 


Hippolyto  grave  piopofitum  ?  Quid  Bellerophonti 
Erubuit  nempe  hsc,  feu  faftidlta  rcpulfa  : 
Nee  Sthenoboea  minus  quam  Crefla  excanduit,  et  fe 
Concuffere  ambse 'J"'v,  Sat.  x» 


D     E     G  [7 

Degrada-  Fangel,  who  had  in  a  cowardly  manner  given  up  Fon- 
iion.  tarabia,  whereof  he  was  governor.  On  this  occafion, 
'  20  or  30  cavahers,  without  blcmifh  or  reproach,  were 

aflembied  ;  before  whom  tlie  gentleman  was  accufed 
of  treafcm  and  breach  of  faith  by  a  king  at  arms.  Two 
fcafi'olds  were  ercfted  ;  the  one  for  the  judges,  he- 
ralds, and  purfuivanti  ;  and  the  other  for  the  guilty 
cavalier,  who  was  armed  at  all  points,  and  his  (liield 
placed  on  a  (lake  before  him,  reverfed  with  the  point 
up,wardi).  On  one  fide  aflilled  12  prielts  in  furplices, 
who  lung  the  vigils  of  the  dead.  At  the  clofe  of  eacii 
pialm  they  made  a  paufe,  durinir  which  the  officers  of 
arms  ftiipped  the  condemned  of  fome  piece  of  his  ar- 
mour, beginning  with  the  helmet,  and  pioceeding 
thus  till  he  was  quite  difarmcd  ;  which  done,  they 
broke  his  fliield  in  thiee  pieces  with  a  hammer.  Then 
the  king;  at  arms  emptied  a  bafon  of  hot  water  on  the 
criminal's  head;  and  the  judges,  putting  on  mourning 
habits,  went  to  the  church.  This  done,  the  degraded 
was  drawn  from  off  die  fcaffold  with  a  rope  tied  under 
his  aim- pits,  laid  on  a  bier,  and  covered  with  mortu- 
ary clothes  ;  the  pried  finging  fome  of  the  prayers  for 
the  dead  ;  and  then  he  was  delivered  to  the  civil  judge 
and  the  executioner  of  jullice. 

For  a  more  domeilic  inftance  :  Sir  Andrew  Harcla, 
earl  of  Cailine,  being  attainted  and  convifted  of  trea- 
fon,  18  Edw.  II.  coram  rege  ;  after  judgment  was  pro- 
nounced on  liim,  his  Iword  was  broken  over  his  head, 
and  his  fpurs  hewn  off  his  heels  ;  Sir  Anthony  Lucy 
the  judge  fayinjr  to  him,  "  Andrew,  now  thou  art  no 
knight,  but  a  knave."  By  llat.  13  Car.  II.  William 
Lord  Monfon,  Sir  Henry  Mildmay,  and  others,  were 
degraded  from  all  titles  of  honour,  dignities,  and  pre- 
eminences, and  prohibited  to  bear  or  ufe  the  title  of 
lord,  knight,  efqnire,  or  gentleman,  or  any  coat  of 
arms,  for  ever  afterwards.  It  has  been  maintained 
that  the  king  may  degrade  a  peer  ;  but  it  appears  from 
later  authorities,  that  he  cannot  be  degraded  but  by 
aft  of  parliament. 

As  to  ecclcfiaftics,  we  have  an  inftance  of  degrada- 
tion before  condemnation  to  death,  in  the  eighth  cen- 
tury, at  Conftantlnople.  It  is  in  the  perfon  of  the 
patriarch  Conftantine,  wliora  Conflantine  Copronymus 
can  fed  to  be  executed.  He  was  made  to  afcend  the 
ambo  ;  and  the  patriarch  Nicetas  fent  fome  of  his  bi- 
rtiops  to  drip  him  of  the  pallium,  and  anathematized 
him  :  then  they  made  him  go  out  of  the  church  back- 
wards. 

Jjut  we  have  a  much  later  inftance  in  our  own  hifto- 
ry  :  When  Cranmer,  archbifliop  of  Canteibury,  was 
degraded  by  order  of  Queen  Mary,  thfcy  drefled  him 
in  epifcopal  robes,  made  only  of  canvas,  put  the  mitre 
on  his  head  and  the  paftoral  (lafF  in  his  hard  ;  and  in 
this  attire  ihowed  him  to  the  people.  Which  done, 
they  ftiipped  him  again  piece  by  piece.  At  prefcnt 
they  do  not  Hand  fo  much  on  the  ceremony  of  degra- 
dation in  order  to  the  putting  a  priell  to  death  ;  by 
reafon  of  the  delays  and  difficulties  that  it  would  oc- 
calion.  Pope  Boniface  pronounced  that  fix  bilhops 
were  required  to  degrade  a  priell  ;  but  the  difficulty 
of  affeinbling  fo  many  bldiops  rendered  the  puniihment 
frequently  imprafticable.  In  England,  a  pried,  after  ha- 
ving been  delivered  to  his  ordinary,  if  he  cannot  purge 
himfelf  of  the  crime  laid  at  his  door,  his  gown  and 
other  robes  are  flripped  over  his  cars  by  the  common 


f5     ]  D     E     J 

hangman  ;  by  which  he  is  declared  diveiled  of  his  or-   Be^jrala. 
ders.  "on 

It  Is  decided,  however,  that  degradation  does  not  r>  ■  "  • 
efface  the  priedly  charafter.  Degradation  only  feemj .  "J"""'. 
to  differ  from  depofition  in  a  few  ignominious  cer>;mo- 
nies  which  cudom  has  add^d  lliereto.  Accordingly, 
in  the  bufinefs  of  Arnoul  arclibilhop  of  Rheims,  fen- 
tcnced  in  the  council  of  Orleans  in  991,  it  was  deli- 
berated what  form  they  Ihould  follow  in  the  depofition  ; 
whether  that  of  the  canons,  that  is,  fiinple  depofition  ; 
orthat  of  cudom, viz. degradation.  And  it  was  declared, 
that  he  Ihould  furrender  the  ring,  padoral  dafT,  and 
pallium  ;  but  that  his  robes  diould  not  be  torn  off.  In 
effeft,  the  canons  prefcribe  no  more  than  a  mere  read- 
ing of  the  fentence.  It  is  the  reft,  therefore,  added 
thereto  by  cudom,  viz.  the  dripping  off  the  ornaments 
and  the  tearing  the  pontifical  vedm.enta,  that  properly 
conditutes  degradation. 

Degradation,  in  painting,  exprelFes  the  leirenlng 
the  appearance  of  didant  ohjedts  In  a  landfcape,  in  the 
fame  manner  as  they  woidd  appear  to  an  eye  placed  at 
that  didance  from  them. 

DEGREE,  in  geometry,  a  divifion  of  a  circle,  in- 
cluding a  three  hundred  and  fixtielh  part  of  its  circum- 
ference. 

Degree  of  Latitude.     See  Latitude. 

Degree  of  Longitude.     See  Longitude. 

A  degree  of  the  meridian  on  the  furface  of  the  globe 
IS  varioully  determined  by  various  obfervers.  Mr  Pi- 
cart  meafured  a  degree  in  the  latitude  of  49°  21',  and 
found  it  equal  to  57060  French  toifes.  But  the  French 
mathematicians,  who  have  lately  examined  Mr  Picart's 
operations,  affure  us,  that  the  degree  in  that  latitude 
"^  57 ''^S  toifes.  Our  countryman,  Mr  Norwood,  mea- 
sured the  didance  between  London  and  York,  and  found 
it  905751  Englidi  feet  ;  and  finding  the  difference  of 
latitudes  7^  28',  determined  the  quantity  of  one  de- 
gree to  be  367196  Englidi  feet,  or  69  Englidi  miles 
and  288  yards.  Mr  Maupertuis  meafured  a  degree  in 
Lapland,  in  the  latitude  of  66^  20',  and  found  it 
57438  toifes.  A  degree  was  likewife  meafured  at  tlie 
equator  by  other  Freneh  mathematicians,  and  found 
to  contain  56767.8  toifes.  Whence  it  appears,  that 
the  earth  is  not  a  fphere,  but  an  oblate  fpheroid. 

Degree,  in  the  civil  and  canon  law,  denotes  an 
interval  in  kindiip,  by  which  proximity  and  remotenefs 
of  blood  are  computed.  See  Consanguinity  and 
Descent. 

Degp.ees,  in  mufio,  are  the  little  Intervals  whereof 
the  concords  or  h-irmonical  intervals  are  compofed. 

Degree,  in  univerfities,  denotes  a  quality  conferred 
on  the  dudents  or  members  thereof,  as  a  tedimony  of 
their  proficiency  in  the  arts  01  fciences,  and  intiding 
them  to  certain  privileges. 

DEJANIRA,  in  fabulous  hidory,  daughter  cf  Oe- 
neus  king  of  ./F.tolia,  and  wife  to  Hercules.  The  cen- 
taur Neflub  endeavouring  to  ravilh  her,  was  ilain  by 
Hercules  with  a  poifoned  arrow.  Neifus,  when  dv- 
Ing,  gave  his  bloody  Ihirt  £0  Dejanira  ;  aifuring  her, 
that  it  was  a  fovei'.ign  remedy  to  cure  her  hufband  if 
ever  he  proved  unfaithful.  Some  time  after,  Dej?.n;ra 
thinking  flie  had  reafju  to  fufpecft  his  fidelity,  fent  him 
the  ihirt  ;  which  he  had  nn  fooncr  put  on,  thijn  he 
was  feized  with  the  mod  excruciating  torments.  Be- 
ing unable  to  fupport  his  pains,  he  retired  to  mount 
4  X  z  Octa,  . 


Eeifm. 


DEI  C     71 

Dejefljor  Oeta,  and  erefling  e  pile  of  wood  fet  fire  to  it,  and 
threw  himfelf  into  the  flames;  upon  which  Dejanira 
killed  herfelf  in  defpair. 

DEJECTION,  in  medicine,  the  aft  of  voiding  the 
fxcrennents  by  the  anus.     See  Anatomy,  n°  93. 

DEIFICATION,  In  antiquity.  See  Apotheosis. 

DEIPHON,  in  fabulous  hiftory,  a  brother  of  Trip- 
tolemus  fon  of  Celeus  and  Metanira.  When  Ceres 
travelled  over  the  world,  (he  flopped  at  his  father's 
court  and  undertook  to  nurfe  him  and  bring  him  up. 
To  reward  the  hofpitality  of  Celeus,  the  goddefs  be- 
gan to  make  his  fon  immortal,  and  every  evening  (he 
placed  him  on  burning  coals  to  purify  him  from  what- 
ever mortal  particles  he  dill  pofTefTed.  The  uncommon 
growth  (if  Deiphon  aftonifhed  Metanira,  who  vvifhcd 
to  fee  what  Ceres  did  to  make  him  fo  vigorous.  She 
was  frightened  to  fee  her  fon  on  burning  coals  ;  and 
the  Ihricks  that  fiie  uttered  diilurbed  the  myfteriuus 
operations  of  the  goddefs,  and  Deiphon  perifhed  in 
the  flames. 

DEISCAL,  in  the  ancient  Britifli  cuftoms,  the 
name  of  a  ceremony  originally  ufed  in  the  druidical 
worfliip,  and  retained  in  many  places  down  to  a  very 
late  period  as  a  civil  ceremony  towards  perfons  of  par- 
ticular diftinilion.  The  temples  of  the  ancient  Bii- 
tons  were  all  circular  ;  and  the  druids,  in  performing 
the  public  offices  of  their  religion,  never  neglefted  to 
make  three  turns  round  ihe  altar,  accompanied  by  all 
the  worfliippers.  This  practice  was  fo  habitual  to  the 
ancient  Britons,  that  it  continued  in  fome  places  many 
ages  after  the  druids  and  their  religion  were  both  de- 
ftroyed.  In  the  Scottilb  ifles,  the  vulgar  never 
come  to  the  ancient  factificing  and  fire-hallowing  cairns, 
but  they  walk  three  times  round  them,  from  eaft  to 
weft,  according  to  the  courfe  of  the  fun.  Thisfanfti- 
fied  tour,  or  round  by  the  fouth,  is  called  dctfcal,  from 
deas  or  ihfs,  "  the  right-hand,"  and  Juil  or  Jul,  "  the 
fun  ;"  the  right-hand  being  ever  next  the  heap  or 
cairn.  In  the  fame  ifles  it  is  the  cuftom  and  fafliion 
of  the  people  to  teftify  their  refpedl  for  their  chief- 
tains, the  proprietors  of  their  feveral  ifles,  and  other 
perfons  of  diftinftion,  by  performing  the  deifcal  round 
them  in  the  fame  manner.  A  gentleman  giving  an 
acco\int  of  his  reception  in  one  of  the  weftern  iflands, 
of  which  he  was  proprietor,  defcribes  the  ceremony 
of  the  deifcal  in  this  manner  :  "  One  of  the  natives 
would  needs  cxprefs  his  high  efleem  for  my  perfon, 
by  making  a  turn  round  about  me  fun-ways,  and  at 
the  fame  time  blefling  me,  and  wifhing  me  all  happi- 
nefs.  But  I  bid  him  let  alone  that  piece  of  homage, 
telling  him  I  was  fenfible  of  his  good  meaning  towards 
me.  But  this  poor  man  was  very  mticli  difappointcd, 
as  were  alio  his  nciglibouis  ;  for  they  doubted  not  but 
this  ancient  ceremony  would  have  been  very  acceptable 
to  me  ;  and  one  of  them  told  me  that  this  was  a  thing 
due  to  my  charafter  from  them,  as  to  their  chief  and 
patron  ;  and  that  they  could  not,  and  would  not,  fail 
to  perform  it  " 

DEISM,  the  doftrine  or  belief  of  the  deifts.  De- 
ifra,  from  «:«c.  God,  may  properly  be  ufed  tO  denote 
natural  religion,  as  comprehending  thofe  truths  which 
"have  a  real  foundation  in  reafon  and  nature  ;  and  in 
this  fenfe  it  is  fo  far  from  being  oppofite  to  Chriiliani- 
ly,  that  it  is  one  great   defign  of  the  gofpel  to  illu- 


6    3  DEI 

ftrate  and  enforce  it.  Thus  fome  of  the  deiftical  wri- 
ters  have  affefted  to  ufe  it.  But  deifm  more  precifely  • 
fignifies  that  fyllem  of  religion,  relating  both  to  doc- 
trine  and  praftice,  which  every  man  is  to  difcover  for 
himfelf  by  the  mere  force  of  natural  reafon,  independ- 
ent of  all  revelation,  and  exclufive  of  it ;  and  this  re- 
ligion  Dr  Tindal  and  others  pretend  ie  fo  perfeft,  a« 
to  be  incapable  of  receiving  any  addition  or  improve- 
ment even  from  divine  revelation, 

DEISTS,  a  clafs  of  people,  known  alfo  under  the 
denomination  of  Fres-thinL'is,  whofe  diftinguilhing 
charafter  it  is,  not  to  profefs  any  particular  form  or 
fyftem  of  religion  ;  but  only  to  acknowledge  the  ex- 
illence  of  a  God,  and  to  follow  the  light  and  law  of 
nature,  rejefting  revelation,  and  oppofing  Chrilli- 
anity. 

This  name  feems  to  have  been  firft  aff'iimed  as  the 
denomination  of  a  party  about  the  middle  of  the  i6th 
century,  by  fome  gentlemen  in  France  and  Italy,  who 
were  defirous  of  thus  difguifing  their  oppofition  to 
Chriftianity  by  a  more  honourable  appellation  than 
that  of  athelfts.  Viret,  an  eminent  reformer,  men- 
tions certain  perfons  in  his  epiftle  dedicatory  prefixed 
to  the  fecond  tome  of  his  InJlruSkn  Chrdknne,  publilh- 
ed  in  1563,  who  called  themfelves  by  a  new  name, 
that  of  De'ijh.  Thefe,  he  tells  us,  profeflTed  to  believe 
in  God,  but  fliowed  no  regard  to  Jefus  Chiill,  and 
confidered  the  doftrine  of  the  apoftles  and  cvangelilU 
as  fables  and  dreams.  He  adds,  that  they  laughed  at 
all  religion,  though  they  outwardly  conformed  to  the 
religion  of  thofe  with  whom  they  lived,  or  whom  they 
wiflied  to  pleafe,  or  feared  to  offend.  Some,  he  ob- 
fcrves,  profcfled  to  believe  the  immortality  of  the  foul; 
others  denied  both  this  doftrine  and  that  of  provi- 
dence. Many  of  them  were  confidered  as  perfons  of 
acute  and  fubtil  genius,  and  took  pains  in  difleminating 
their  not  ions. 

The  delfts  hold,  that,  confidering  the  multiplicity 
of  religions,  the  numerous  pretences  to  revelation, 
and  the  precarious  arguments  generally  advanced  in 
proof  thereof,  the  beil  and  fureft  way  is  to  return  to 
the  fimplicity  of  nature  and  the  belief  of  one  God  ; 
which  is  the  only  truth  agreed  to  by  all  nations.  They 
complain,  that  the  freedom  of  thinking  and  reafoning 
is  opprefled  under  the  yoke  of  religion  ;  and  that  the 
minds  of  men  arc  ridden  and  tyrannized  by  the  necef- 
fity  impoftd  on  them  of  believing  inconceivable  my- 
fteries ;  and  contend  tkat  nothing  ftiould  be  required 
to  be  aflented  to  or  believed  but  what  their  reafon 
clearly  conceives. 

The  diftinguifliing  charafler  of  modern  deifts  is,  that 
they  reject  all  revealed  religion,  and  difcard  all  pre- 
tences to  it  as  the  eff^efts  of  impolhire  or  enthufiafm. 
They  pi-ofefs  a  regard  for  natural  religion,  though  they 
are  far  from  being  agreed  in  their  notions  concerning 
it.  They  are  claflisd  by  fome  of  their  own  writers  in- 
to mortal  and  immortal  deifls  :  the  latter  acknowledg- 
ing a  future  ftate ;  and  the  fonner  denying  it,  or  re- 
prefenting  it  as  very  uncertain. 

Dr  Clarke  diftinguiflies  four  forts  of  delfts,  r. Thofe 
who  pretend  to  believe  the  exiftence  of  an  eternal,  in- 
finite, independent,  intelligent  Being,  who  made  the 
world,  without  concerning  hlinfirlf  in  the  government 
of  it.     2.  Thofe  who   believe   the   being  ana  nstural 

providence. 


DEI  [7 

Delfls.  providence  of  God,  but  deny  the  difTercncc  of  aiSions 
-  y  as  morally  good  or  evil,  rciulving  it  into  the  arbitrary 
conftitution  of  human  laws  ;  and  therefore  they  fup- 
pole  that  God  takes  no  notice  of  them.  With  refpttl 
to  both  thefe  clafTcs,  he  obferves  that  their  opinions 
can  coniilteiitly  terminate  in  nothing  but  downright 
atheifm.  3.  Thofe  who  having  right  apprehenfions 
concerning  tl-e  nature,  attributes,  and  all-governing 
providence  of  God,  feem  alfo  to  have  feme  notion  of 
his  moral  perfections  ;  though  they  confider  them  as 
tranfcendent,  and  fuch  in  nature  and  degree,  that  we 
can  form  no  true  judgment,  nor  argue  witii  any  cer- 
tainty concerning  them  :  but  they  deny  the  immorta- 
lity of  human  fouls;  alleging  that  men  perilh  at  death, 
and  that  the  profent  life  is  the  whole  of  human  exift- 
ence.  4.  Thofe  who  believe  the  exifte nee,  perfeftions," 
and  providence  of  God,  the  obligations  of  natural  rc- 
hgion,  and  a  flate  of  future  retribution,  on  the  evi- 
dence of  the  light  of  nature,  without  a  divine  revela- 
tion :  fuch  as  thefe,  he  fays,  are  the  only  true  dcifts  ; 
but  their  principles,  he  apprehends,  ihould  lead  them 
to  embrace  Chniliiinity  ;  and  therefore  he  concludes 
that  there  is  now  no  confident  fcheme  of  deifm  in  the 
world. 

*  The  firft  deiftica!  writer  of  any  note  thnt  appeared 
in  this  country  was  Herbert  baron  of  Cherbury.  He 
lived  and  wrote  in  the  lall  century.  His  booi<  Df  Ve- 
rltnte  was  firtl  publiihcd  at  Paris  in  1624.  This,  to- 
gether with  his  book  De  Canfis  Errorum,  and  his  trea- 
tife  De  Rcligione  Laid,  were  afterwards  publiihed  in 
London.      His  c<;kbrated  work  De  Relig'wne  CcnlUium 

•  was  publifhed  at  Amflerdam  in  1663  in  4to,  and  in 
I  700  in  8vo,  and  an  Englilh  tranflation  of  it  was  pub- 
lifhed  at  London  in  1705.  As  he  was  one  of  the  firfl; 
that  formt^l  deifm  into  a  fyftem,  and  afferted  the  fuf- 
ficiency,  univcrlality,  and  abfohite  perfeflion,  of  na- 
tural religion,  with  a  view  to  difcard  all  extraordinary 
revelation  as  ufelcfs  and  needlcfs,  v.'e  flial!  fubjoin  the 
five  fundamental  articles  of  this  univerfal  religion. 
They  are  thefe  :  1.  That  there  is  one  fupreme  God. 
2.  That  he  is  chiefly  to  be  worfliipped.  3.  That  piety 
and  virtue  are  the  principal  part  of  his  wordiip.  4. 
Tliat  we  muil  repent  of  our  fins  ;  and  if  we  do  fo, 
God  will  pardon  them.  5.  That  there  are  rewards  for 
good  men  and  puniihraents  for  bad  men,  both  here 
and  hereafter.  Our  own  age  has  produced  a  number 
of  advocates  in  the  fame  caufe  ;  and  however  they 
may  have  differed  among  themfclves,  they  have  been 
agreed  in  their  attempts  of  invalidating  the  evidence 
and  authority  of  divine  revelation.  We  might  men- 
tion Hobbes,  Blount,  Toland,  CoUins,  WooHtun,  Tin- 
dal,  Morgan,  Chubb,  Lord  Bolingbroke,  Hume,  &c. 
Some  have  alio  added  Lord  Shaftcfoury  to  the  num- 
ber. 

But  the  friends  of  Cliriflianity  have  no  reafon  to  re- 
gret the  free  and  unrelerved  diicuffion  which  their  re- 
ligion has  undergone.  ObjeiStions  have  been  itaied 
and  urged  in  ihf'w  full  force,  and  as  fully  anfwercd  ; 
argument  and  raillery  have  been  repelled  ;  and  tiie 
controverfy  between  Chriltians  and  deifts  has  called 
forth  a  great  miinhcr  of  excellent  writers,  who  have 
illuftrated  both  the  dottrines  and  evidence  of  ChrilU- 
anity  in  a  manner  that  will  ever  refieit  honour  on  their 
names,  and  be  of  lading  fervice  to  the  caufe  of  genu- 
ine religion  and  the  bed  iniereiU  of  mankind. 


17     1  DEL 

DEITY,  Godhead ;  a  common  appellation  given  to     Deity, 
God  ;  and  alfo  by  the  poets   to  the  heathen  gods  and  D«'aw*" 
goddefles.  *— y— 

DELAWARE,  a  province  of  North  America,  fi- 
tuated  on  a  river  of  the  fame  name. 

The  Dutch,  under  the  pretended  purchafe  made  by 
Henry  Hudfon,  took  poficifion  of  the  lands  on  both 
fides  the  river  Delaware  ;  and  as  early  as  the  year 
1623  built  a  fort  at  tl  •  place  which  has  fince  been 
called  G/5«f(/Ar.  In  1627,  by  the  influence  of  WiUiaiii 
Uleling,  a  refptftab'.c  merchant  in  Sweden,  a  colony 
of  Swedes  and  Finns  came  over,  furniflied  with  all  the 
neceffaries  for  beginning  a  new  fettlement,  and  Lnid- 
ed  at  Cape  Hinlopen  ;  at  which  time  the  Dutch  had 
wholly  quitted  the  country.  The  Dutch,  however, 
returned  in  1630,  and  built  a  fort  at  Lewidown,  by 
them  named  HoarlUL  Tlie  year  following  the  Swedes 
built  a  fort  near  Wilmington,  which  they  called  Chr'if- 
tehi  or  Ckr'ijl'uina.  Here  alfo  they  laid  out  a  fmail 
town,  which  was  afterwards  demolilhed  by  the  Dutch. 
The  fame  year  they  ereited  a  fort  higher  up  the  1  i- 
ver,  upon  Tenecum  illand,  which  they  called  Ntiu 
Gcttaibiirgh  ;  they  alfo  about  the  fame  time  built  forts 
at  Cheder,  Elfinburgh,  and  other  places.  John  Prinz 
then  governed  the  Swedes,  who,  in  1654,  deputed 
his  fon-in-law,  John  Papgoia,  and  returned  to  Sweden. 
Papgoia  foon  f  jUowed  his  father-in-law  to  his  native 
country,  and  John  Ryfing  fucceeded  to  the  govern- 
ment. In  1655,  the  Dutch  under  the  command  of 
Peter  Stuyveiant,  arrived  in  Delaware  river,  from 
New  Amiterdam  (New  York),  in  feven  veffcls,  with  6 
or  700  men.  They  difpoflefled  the  Swedes  of  their 
forts  on  the  river,  and  carried  the  officers  and  princi- 
pal inhabitants  prifoners  to  New  Amderdam,  and  from 
thence  to  Holland.  The  common  people  fubmitted  to 
the  conquerors  and  remained  in  the  country.  On  the 
fird  of  October  1664,  Sir  Robert  Carr  obtained  the 
fubmilfion  of  the  Swedes  on  Delaware  river.  Four 
years  after.  Col.  Nicolls,  governor  of  New  York,  with 
his  council,  on  the  2 1  d  of  April,  appointed  a  fcout 
and  five  other  perfons  to  aflid  Capt.  Carr  in  the  go- 
vernment of  the  country.  In  1672,  the  town  of  New- 
cadle  was  incorporated  by  the  government  of  New 
York,  to  be  governed  by  a  bailiff  and  fix  aifidauts  ; 
after  the  fird  year,  the  four  oldeft  were  to  leave  their 
office  and  four  others  to  be  chofen.  The  bailift' was 
prefident,  with  a  double  vote  ;  the  condable  was  cho- 
fen by  the  bench.  They  had  power  to  try  caufes  not 
exceeding  L.  10,  without  appeal.  The  office  of  fcour. 
was  converted  into  that  of  liieriff,  who  had  jurifdic- 
tion  in  the  corporation  and  along  the  river,  and  was 
annually  chofen.  They  were  to  have  a  free  trade, 
without  being  obliged  to  make  entry  at  New  York, 
as  had  formerly  been  the  pradtice.  Wampum  was  at 
this  time  the  principal  currency  of  the  country.  Go- 
vernor Lovelace  of  New  York,  by  proclamation.  Or- 
dered that  four  white  grains  and  three  black  ones 
ftiould  pafs  for  the  value  of  a  lliver  or  penny.  This 
proclamation  was  pubhihed  at  Albany,  Efopns,  De- 
laware, Long  Illand,  and  the  parts  adjacent.  In  1674, 
Charlesll.  by  a  feeond  patent, dated  June  zgth,  grained, 
to  his  brother  duke  of  York  all  that  country  called  by 
the  Dutch  Kevj  NctLrhinds,  of  which  the  three  coU'i- 
ties  of  Newcadle,  Kent,  and  Suflex  were  a  part.  In 
1683,  the  duke  of  York,  by  deed  dated  Augult  241;;. 

fold- 


DEL 


[     V 


/ 

l>t'lawave.  fold  to  William  Penn  the  town  of  Newcaftle,  with  the 

^— — ~. dillrid:  of  1 2   miles   round  the  fame  ;  and  by  another 

deed  of  the  fame  date,  granted  to  him  the  remainder 
of  the  territory,  wliich,  till  the  revolution,  was  called 
the  Three  Lower  Counties.  "Thefe  three  counties  were 
confidered  as  a  part  of  Pennfylvania  in  matters  of  go- 
vernment. The  fame  governor  [irelided  over  both  :  but 
the  affembly  and  courta"  of  judicature  were  different ; 
different  as  to  their  conllitu.-.L  members,  but  in  form 
nearly  the  fame.  At  the  late  revolution  they  became 
a  dlftinct  terrilor)',  called 

The  Delaware  State.  This  llate  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  territorial  line  which  divides  it  from 
Pcnnfylvania;  on  the  eaft,  by  Delaware  river  and  Bay; 
en  the  foutli,  by  a  due  eall  and  weft  line,  from  Cape 
Henlopen,  in  hit.  38.  30.  to  the  middle  of  the  penin- 
fula  ;  and  on  the  weft  by  Maryland.  The  climate  is  in 
many  parts  unhealtliy.  The  land  is  generally  low  and 
flat,  wliich  occafions  the  waters  to  ftagnate,  and  the 
confequence  is,  the  inhabitants  are  fubjtft  to  intermit- 
tents. 

The  Delaware  ftate  is  divided  into  three  counties, 
viz.  Newcaftle,  Kent,  and  Snfi'ex  ;  the  chief  towns  of 
which  are,  Wilmington  and  Newcaftle,  Dover,  Mil- 
ford,  and  Lewifton. 

Three  rivers,  the  Choptank,  Nanticok,  and  Poco- 
moke,  have  their  fourccs  in  this  ftate,  and  are  navi- 
gable for  veflels  of  50  or  60  tons,  20  or  30  miles  into 
the  country.  They  all  run  a  weftwardly  courfe  into 
Chefapeak  Bay.  The  fouth  part  of  the  ftate  is  a  low 
flat  country,  and  a  confiderable  portion  of  it  lies  in  fo- 
reft.  What  is  under  cultivation  is  chiefly  barren,  ex- 
cept in  Indian  corn,  of  which  it  pi'oduces  fine  crops. 
In  lome  places  rye  and  flix  may  be  raifed,  but  wheat 
is  a  foreigner  in  thefe  parts.  Where  nature  is  deficient 
in  one  refource,  (he  is  generally  bountiful  in  another. 
This  is  verified  in  the  tall  thick  forefts  of  pines  which 
are  manufactured  into  boaids,  and  exported  in  large 
,  ^quantities  into  every  fea-port  in  the  three  adjoining 
ftates. — As  you  proceed  north,  the  foil  is  more  fertile, 
and  produces  wheat  in  large  quantities,  which  is  the 
rtaple  commodity  of  the  ftate.  They  raife  all  the  o- 
ther  kinds  of  grain  common  to  Pennfylvania.  The 
ftate  has  no  mountain  in  it,  except  Thunder  Hill,  in 
the  weftern  part  of  Newcaftle  county,  and  is  general- 
ly level,  except  fome  fmall  parts,  which  are  ftony  and 
tineven.  The  trade  of  this  ftate,  which  is  inconllder- 
able,  is  carried  on  principally  with  Philadelphia,  in 
boats  and  fliallops.  The  articles  exported  are  princi- 
pally wheat,  corn,  lumber,  and  hay. 

There  are,  in  this  ftate,  21  Prelbyterian  congrega- 
tions, belonging  to  the  fynod  of  Philadelphia  ;  feven 
Epifcopal  churches  ;  fix  congregations  of  BaptiUs, 
containing  about  2 1 8  fouls  ;  four  congregations  of  the 
people  called  ^laiers  ;  beiides  a  Swcdilh  church  at 
Vv'ilmlngton,  which  is  one  of  the  oldeft  churches  in 
the  United  States,  and  a  number  of  Methodifts.  All 
thefe  denominations  have  free  toleration  by  the  con- 
ftitution,  and  live  together  in  harmony. 

In  the  convention  held  at  Philadelphia,  in  the  fum- 
mcrof  )  787,  the  inhabitants  of  Delaware  were  reckon- 
ed at  37,000,  which  is  about  26  for  every  fquare  mile. 
There  is  no  obvious  charatlerlftlcal  difference  between 
the  inhabitants  of  this  ftate  and  the  Pcnnfylvaniaus. 
See  Pennsylvania. 


S     ]  DEL 

Under  the  prefent  conftitution,  the  leglflature  is  Dclawste. 
divided  into  two  diltinft  branches,  whicli  together  are  ^^~^  "* 
ftyled  The  General .iijfemhly  of  Uelazvare.  One  branch, 
called  the  Hotife  of  AJfemhly,  confifts  of  feven  reprelcn- 
-tatives  from  each  of  the  three  counties,  chofen  annu- 
ally by  the  freeholders.  The  other  branch,  called  the 
Council,  confifts  of  nine  members,  three  for  a  county, 
who  muft  be  more  than  25  years  of  age,  chofen  like- 
wife  by  the  freeholders.  A  rotation  of  members  is 
eftablidied  by  diiplaclng  one  member  for  a  county  at 
the  end  of  every  year.  All  money  bills  muft  origi- 
nate in  the  houfe  ot  aflembly,  but  they  may  be  alter- 
ed, amended,  or  rejetled,  by  the  leglflative  council.  A 
prefident  or  chief  magiftrate  is  chofen  by  the  joint  bal- 
lot of  both  houfes,  and  continues  in  office  three  years  i 
at  the  expiration  of  which  period,  he  is  ineligible  the 
three  fucceeding  years.  If  his  office  becomes  vacant 
during  the  reccis  of  the  legiflature,  or  he  is  unable  to 
attend  to  bufineis,  the  fpeaker  of  the  legiilative  coun- 
cil is  vice-preftdent  for  the  time  ;  and  in  his  abfence, 
the  powers  of  the  prefident  devolve  upon  the  fpeaker 
of  the  aflembly.  A  privy  council,  confifting  of  four 
members,  two  from  each  houfe,  chofen  by  ballot,  is 
conftituted  to  aifift  the  chief  magiftrate  in  the  admi- 
niftration  of  the  government.  The  three  julliccs  of 
the  fupreme  court,  a  judge  of  admiralty,  and  four 
juilices  of  the  common  pleas  and  orpiians  courts,  are 
appointed  by  the  joint  ballot  of  the  prefident  and  ge- 
neral aflembly,  and  commiflioned  by  the  prefident  to 
hold  their  oflices  during  good  behaviour.  The  prefi- 
dent and  privy  council  appoint  the  fecretary,  the  at- 
torney general,  regifters  for  the  probate  of  wills,  regi- 
fters  in  chancery,  clerks  of  the  common  pleas,  and  or- 
phans courts,  and  the  clerks  of  the  peace,  who  hold 
their  offices- during  five  years,  unlcfs  foouer  removed 
for  mal-conduft.  The  houfe  of  aflembly  name  24  per- 
fons  in  each  county  for  juftices  of  peace,  from  winch 
number  the  prefident,  with  the  advice  of  his  council, 
appoints  and  comraifllons  twelve,  who  ferve  for  feven 
years,  unlefs  foontr  difmifled  for  mal-adminillration. 
The  members  of  the  leglflative  and  pri\y  councils  are 
juftices  of  the  peace  for  ^he  whole  ftate. — The  courts 
of  common  pleas  and  orphans  courts  have  power  to 
hold  chancery  courts  in  certain  cafes.  The  clerk  of 
the  fupreme  court  is  appointed  by  the  chief  juftice, 
and  the  recorders  of  deeds,  by  the  juftices  of  the  com- 
mon pleas,  for  five  years,  unlefs  fooner  difmifled.  All 
the  military  and  marine  officers  are  appointed  by  the 
general  aflembly.  The  court  of  appeals  confifts  of  le- 
ven  perfons;  the  prefident,  who  is  a  member,  and  pre- 
fidcs  by  virtue  of  his  office,  and  fix  others,  three  to 
be  chofen  I)y  the  Icgiflative  council  and  three  by  the 
houfe  of  nifembly.  To  this  court  appeals  lie  fiom 
the  fupreir.c  court,  in  all  matters  of  law  and  equity. 
The  judges  hold  their  office  during  good  behaviour. 

The  juftices  of  the  feveral  courts,  the  members  of 
the  privy  council,  fecretary,  truftees  of  the  loan  of- 
fice, clerks  of  the  common  pleas,  and  all  perfons  con- 
cerned in  army  or  navy  contrads,  are  ineligible  to  ei- 
ther Itoufe  of  aflembly.  Every  member,  before  taking 
his  feat,  muft  take  the' oath  i.of  aUegiance,  and  fub- 
fcribe  a  religious  teft,  declaring  his  belief  in  God  the 
Father,  in  Jefus  Chilft,  and  the  Holy  Ghoft ;  and  in 
the  infpiration  of  the  Scriptures. 

Tlie  houfe  of  aflembly  have  the  privilege  of  im- 

peaching 


DEL 


Cdcn. 


Delegate   peacliing  delinquent  officers  of  government ;  and  im- 
peachments are  to  be  profeciitcd  by  the  attorney  ge- 

neial,   er  other  perfon  appointed  by  the  anembly,  and 

tried  before  tlie  legiflative  council.  The  punilliment 
may  extend  to  temporary  or  pcrpctiial'  dilability  to 
hold  offices  under  government,  or  to  fuch  other  penal- 
ties as  the  laws  fliall  dirtcl. 

There  is,  in  Delaware,  no  eflabliflimcnt  of  one  re- 
ligious feci  in  preference  to  ariother ;  nor  can  any 
preacher  or  clergyman,  while  in  his  paftoral  employ- 
ment, hold  any  civil  office  in  the  Itate. 

DELEGATE,  in  a  general  fenfe,  a  deputy  or  com- 
miffioner. 

Deli-g.itfs,  commifHoners  appointed  bv  the  king, 
under  the  great  feal,  to  hear  and  determine  appeals 
from  the  ecekfiaftical  court. 

Courl  of  J)n!:G//iEi,  the   great  court   of  appeal  in 
all  ecclefialHeal  caufes.    Thefe  delegates  are  appointed 
by  the  king's  commidlon  under  his  great  feal,  and  if- 
fuiMg  o\it  of  chancery,  to  rcprefent  his  royal  perfiin, 
and  hear  all  appeals  to  him  made  by  virtue  of  the  fla- 
tutc  25  Hcnrv  VIII.  r.  19.    This  comniiiTion  is  uftial- 
Iv  filltd  with  lords  fpiritual  and  temporal,  judges  of 
the  courts  at   Wtftminfler,  and   doclors  of  the  civil 
law.     Appeals  to  Rome  were  always  looked  upon  by 
the  Englifh  nation-,  even  in  the  times  of  Popery,  with 
an  evil  eye,  as  being  contrary  to  the  liberty  of  the  fub- 
ietl,  the  honour  of  the  crown,  and  the  independence  of 
the  whole  realm  ;   and   were   firft   introduced  in   very 
tuibulent  times,  in   the    16th  year    of  king    Stephen 
(A.D.  1151),  atthe  fame  period  (Sir  Henry  Spel- 
man   obferves)  that  the  civil  and  canon  laws  were  lirft 
imported  into  England.     But  in  a  few  years  after,  to 
obviate  this  growing  praftice,  the  conftitutions  made 
at  Clarendon,    1 1  Hen.  II.  on  account  of  the  diftuib- 
antes  raifed  by  archbifhop  Becket  and  other  zealots  of 
the  holy  fee,  exprefsly  declare,  that  appeals  in  caufes 
ecclefiaftical  ought  to  lie   from  the  archdeacon  to  the 
diocefan  ;  from  the  diocefan  to  the  archbifhop  of  the 
province  ;  and  from   the  archbifliop  to  the  king  ;  and 
are  not  to  proceed  any  farther  without  fpeeial  licenfe 
from  the  crown.    But  the  unhappy  advantage  that  was 
given  in  the  reign  of  king  John,  and  his  fon  Hen.  III. 
to  the  encroaching  power  of  the  Pope,  who  was  ever 
vigilant  to  improve  all  opportunities  of  extending  his 
jurifdic^lion  to  Britain,  at  length   livetted  the  euilom 
of  appealing  to  R.ome  in  canfes  e'celefiaftical  fo  ilrong- 
ly,  that  it -never  coulJ  be  thoroughly  broken  off,  till 
the  grand  rupture  happened  in  the  reign  of  Hen.  VIII. 
when  all  the  jurifdiclion  ufurped  by  the  Pope  in  mat- 
ters ecclefiaftica!  was  reftored  to  the  crown,   to  which 
it  originally  belonged:  fo  that  the  ftatute  25  Hen.  VIII. 
was  but  declaratory  of  the  ancient  law  of  the  realm. 
But  in  cafe  the  king  himfelf  be  party  in  any  of  tliefe 
fuits,  the  appeal  does  not  then  lie  to  him  in  chancery, 
which  would  be  abfurd;  but,   by  the  24  Henry  VIII. 
c.  12.  to  all  the  bifhops  of  the  realm,  aflembled  in  the 
upper  houfe  of  convocation. 

DELEGATION,  a  commiffion  extraordinarj-  gi- 
ven by  a  judge  to  take  cognifance  of  and  determ.ine 
luine  caufe  which  ordinarily  does  not  come  before  him. 
Delegation,  in  Scots  law.  See  Law,  n'clxxvii.  8. 
DELEN  (Dirk  Van),  an  eminent  painter  of  ar- 
chiteiSure  and  perfpedllve,  was  born  at  Heufden, 
iut  in  what  year  is  not  kncv/n.     Ke  v,-as  2  difeiple  of 


[       719       1 


DEL 


Otis, 

Dclfc 


Francis  Hals,  in  whofe  fchool  he  praftifcd  to  paint  Dclt-a-;. 
thofe  particular  fubjefts  which  were  mod  cftecmed  by 
that  maflcr,  fuch  as  portraits  and  convcrfations ;  and 
by  that  means  he  acquired  the  flcill  to  defign  figures 
with  a  great  deal  of  fpirit  and  correftnefs.  But  h;z 
predominant  inclination  direfted  him  to  paint  archi- 
tecture and  perfpeCtive  ;,  and  thofe  he  ftudied  with  fo 
much  care,  as  to  make  his  works  admired  and  co- 
veted through  the  Low  Countries.  ■  His  fiibjcCis  were, 
theinfides  of  churches,  filled  with  figures;  grand  tem- 
ples ;  magnificent  faloons  and  galleries,  with  people 
a|rtmbled  at  concerts  of  mufic,  feafting,  or  dancing. 
Thofe  fubjefts';  he  finiflied  highly  :  his  arehiteClure 
was  in  a  noble  tafte  ;  and  the  figures  were  well  defign- 
ed,  as  Well  as  grouped  with  a  great  deal  of  judgment. 
Several  authors  mention  the  performances  of  this  maf- 
ter  with  large  commendation,  for  the  goodiiefs  of  his 
invention,  and  the  neatnefs  of  h's  handling'-. 

DELETERIOUS,  an  appellation  given  to  things- 
of  a  dellrudive  or  puifonous  nature.   See  Poison. 


DELFT,  a  town  of  the  united  provinces,  and  capi- 
tal of  Delftland  in  Holland.  It  is  a  pretty  large  place,, 
very  clean  and  well  built,  with  canals  in  the  ftreet.s,. 
planted  on  each  fide  with  trees.  The  public  buildings, 
efpecially  the  town-houfe,  are  very  magnificent.  Here 
are  two  churches  :  in  one  is  the  tomb  of  the  prince  of 
Orange,  who  was  affafiinated  ;  and  in  the  other,  that 
of  adtniral  Tromp.  It  has  a  fine  arfenal,  well  furnilh- 
ed  ;  is  about  two  miles  in  circumference,  and  is  de- 
fended againll  inundations  by  three  dams  or  dikes. 
Here  is  made  a  prodigious  quantity  of  fine  earthen 
ware  called^  Jilft-ivnre ;  but  the  town  has  no  other 
trade.  It  is  pleafantly  fituatcd  among  the  meadows 
on  the  river  Shie,  in  E.  Long.  4.  13.   N.  Lat.  32.  6. 

Drlfj  JVare,  a  kind  of  pottery  of  baked  earth,  co- 
vered with  an  enamel  or  white  glazing,  which  gives  it 
the  appeal ance  and  neatnefs  of  porcelain.—  Some  kinds 
of  this  enamelled  potter)'  differ  much  from  others,  ei- 
ther in  their  fuftaining  fudden  heat  without  breaking, 
or  in  the  beauty  and  regularity  of  their  forms,  of  their 
enamel,  and  of  the  painting  with  which  they  are  or- 
namented. In  general,  the  fine  and  beautiful  enamel- 
led potteries,  which  approach  the  neareft  to  porcelain 
in  external  appearance,  are  at  the  fame  time  thofe. 
which  lealt  relift  a  brifli  fire-  Again,  thufe  which 
fuilain  a  fudden  heat,  are  coarfe,  and  refcmble  com- 
mon pottery. 

The  bafis  of  this  pottery  is  clay,  which  is  to  be 
mixed,  when  too  fat,  with  fuch  a  quantity  of  fand,  that 
the  earth  Ihall  preferve  enough  of  its  ductility  to  be 
worked,  moulded,  and  turned  eafily  ;  and  yet  that  its 
fatnefs  fhall  be  fufliciently  taken  from  it,  that  it  may 
not  crack  or  fhrink  too  much  in  drying  or  in  baking.. 
Veflcls  foimed  of  this  earth  muft  be  dried  very  gently 
to  avoid  cracking.  They  are  then  to  be  placed  in  a 
furnace  to  receive  a  flight  baking,  which  is  only  meant 
to  give  them  a  certain  confillence  or  hardnefs.  And,. 
lalUy,  they  ate  to  be  covered  with  an  enamel  or  glazinn- ; 
which  is  done,  by  putting  upon  tlic  veflels  thus  prepa- 
red, the  enamel,  which  has  been  ground  vcrv  fine,  and. 
diluted  with  water. 

As  veffels  on  which  the  enamel  is  applied  are  but 
nightly  baked,  they  readily  imbibe  the  water  in  which, 
tile  enamel  is  fufpended,  and  a  layer  of  this  enamel  ad- 
heres to  their  fuvface  :  thefe  veffeh  mar  then  bepainte.C 

with* 


DEL  [72 

Delft,  with  colours  compofed  of  metallic  calces,  mixed  and 
'~~^'~~"  ground  with  a  fufible  glafs.  When  they  are  become 
perfeftly  dry,  they  are  to  be  placed  in  the  furnace,  in- 
cluded in  cafes  of  baked  earth  czUed  feggars,  and  ex- 
pofed  to  a  heat  capable  of  fufing  uniformly  the  enamel 
which  covers  them. — This  heat  given  to  fufe  the  ena- 
mel being  much  ilronger  than  that  whicVi  was  apphed 
at  firft  to  give  fome  confidence  to  the  ware,  is  alio  the 
lieat  neceiTary  to  complete  the  baking  of  it.  The  fur- 
nace and  the  colours  ufed  for  painting  this  ware,  are  the 
fame  as  thofe  employed  for  Porcelain.  The  glazing, 
which  is  nothing  but  white  enamel,  ought  to  be  fo 
opaque  as  not  to  fhoW  the  ware  under  it.  There  are 
many  receipts  for  making  thefc  enamels  :  but  all  of 
them  are  compofed  cf  fand  or  flints,  vitrifying  falts, 
Ciim.  Diii.  calx  of  lead,  and  calx  of  tin  ;  and  tlie  fand  mull  be  per- 
feclly  vitrified,  fo  as  to  form  a  glafs  confiderably  fufible. 
Somewhat  Icfs  than  an  equal  part  of  alkaline  fait,  or 
twice  its  weight  of  calx  of  lead,  is  requifite  to  effeft 
fuch  vitrifications  of  fand.  The  calx  of  tin  is  not  in- 
tended to  be  vitrified,  but  to  give  a  white  opaque  colour 
to  the  mafs ;  and  one  part  of  it  is  to  be  added  to  three 
or  four  parts  of  all  the  other  ingredients  taken  together. 
From  thefe  general  principles,  various  enamels  may  be 
made  to  fuit  the  different  kinds  of  earths.  To  make  the 
enamel,  lead  and  tin  are  calcined  together  with  a  ftrong 
fire  ;  and  the  fand  is  alfo  to  be  made  into  a  fritt  with 
the  falts  or  afhes.  The  whole  is  then  to  be  well  mix- 
ed and  ground  together.  This  matter  is  then  to  be 
placed  under  the  furnace,  where  it  is  melted  and  vitri- 
fied during  the  baking  of  the  ware.  It  is  next  to  be 
ground  in  a  mill,  and  applied  as  above  directed. 

The  preparation  of  the  white  enamel  is  a  very  effen- 
tial  article  in  making  delft-ware,  and  one  in  which  ma- 
ny artifts  fail.  M.  Bofc.  d'Antic,  in  a  Memoir  con- 
cerning this  kind  of  ware,  publilhed  in  the  Mem.  des 
Sea-vans  Eirang.  tern.  6.  recommends  the  following 
proportions.  An  hundred  pounds  of  calx  of  lead  are 
to  be  mixed  with  about  a  feventh  part  of  that  quantity 
of  calx  of  tin  for  common  delft-ware,  or  a  fourth  part 
of  calx  of  tin  for  the  fineft  kind  ;  an  hundred,  or  an 
hundred  and  ten,  pounds  of  fine  fand  ;  and  about  twen- 
ty or  thirty  pounds  of  fea  fait. — Concerning  the  earth 
of  which  the  ware  is  made,  he  obferves,  that  pure  clay 
is  not  a  proper  material  when  ufed  alone.  Different 
kinds  of  earths  mixed  together  are  found  to  fucceed 
better.  Pieces  of  ware  made  of  clay  alone,  are  found 
to  require  too  much  time  to  dry ;  and  they  crack,  and 
lofe  their  form,  unlefs  they  are  made  exceedingly  thick. 
An  addition  of  marie  diminiihes  the  contraftion  of  the 
clay  ;  renders  it  Icfs  compaft  ;  and  allows  the  water  to 
efcape,  without  altering  the  form  of  the  ware  in  dry- 
ing. It  affords  alfo  a  better  ground  for  the  enamel ; 
which  appears  more  gloffy  and  white  than  when  laid 
on  clay  alone. — The  kinds  of  clay  which  are  chiefly 
ufed  in  the  compofition  of  delft-ware,  are  the  blue  and 
green.  A  mixture  of  blue  clay  and  marie  would  not 
be  fufficienlly  folid,  and  would  be  apt  to  fcale,  unlefs 
it  were  expofed  to  a  fire  more  intenfe  than  what  is 
commonly  ufed  for  the  burning  of  delft-ware.  To 
give  a  greater  folidity,  fome  red  clay  is  added  ;  which, 
on  account  of  its  ferruginous  matter,  poffeffes  the  re- 
quifite binding  quality.  The  proportions  of  thefe  in- 
gredients vary  in  dlS^erent  works,  according  to  the  dif- 


o    ]  DEL 

ferent  qualities  of  the  earths  employed.     Three  parts      Dei;» 
of  blue   clay,  two   parts  of  red  clay,  and   five  parts        .'I 
of  marie,  form  the  compofition  ufed  in  feveral  manufac-  ^''.''"'■»- 
tories.     M.  d'Antic   thinks,  that  the  beft  delft-ware  j 

might  be  made  of  equal  parts  of  pure  clay  and  pure 
calcareous  earth  ;  but  this  compofition  would  require 
that  the  fire  fliould  be  continued  twice  as  long  as  it 
generally  is. 

DELIA,  in  antiquity,  a  feftival  celebrated  evei-y 
fifth  year  in  the  rfland  of  Delos,  in  honour  of  Apollo. 
It  was  firft  inftituted  by  Thefeus,  who  at  his  return 
from  Crete  placed  a  fl;atue  there,  which  he  had  recei- 
ved from  Ariadne.  At  the  celebration  they  crowned 
the  ftatue  of  the  goddefs  with  garlands,  appointed  a 
choir  of  mufic,  and  exhibited  horfe-races.  Thev  af- 
terwards led  a  dance,  in  which  they  imitated  by  their 
motions  tlie  various  windings  of  the  Cretan  labyrinth, 
from  which  Thefeus  had  extricated  himfelf  by  Ariad- 
ne's affiftance. — There  was  another  feftival  of  the 
fame  name  yearly  celebrated  by  the  Athenians  in  De- 
los. It  alfo  was  inftituted  by  Thefeus,  who,  when  he 
was  going  to  Crete,  made  a  vow,  that  if  he  returned 
victorious  he  would  yearly  vifit  in  a  folemn  manner 
the  temple  of  Delos.  The  perfons  employed  in  this 
annual  proccffion  were  called  Ddiajlx  and  Thcori.  The 
Ihip,  the  fame  which  carried  Thefeus,  and  had  been 
carefully  preferved  by  the  Athenians,  was  called  Theo- 
rla  and  Delias.  When  the  (hip  was  ready  for  the  voy- 
age, the  prieft  of  Apollo  folemnly  adorned  the  ftcrn 
with  garlands,  and  an  univerfal  luttration  was  made  all 
over  the  city.  The  Theori  were  crowned  with  lau- 
rels, and  before  them  proceeded  men  armed  with  axes, 
in  commemoration  of  Thefeus,  who  had  cleared  the 
way  from  Troezen  to  Athens,  and  delivered  the  coun- 
try from  robbers.  When  the  fliip  arrived  at  Delos, 
they  offered  folemn  facrifices  to  the  god  of  the  illand, 
and  celebrated  a  feftival  to  his  honour.  After  this 
they  retired  to  their  fliip  and  failed  back  to  Athens, 
where  all  the  people  of  the  city  ran  in  crowds  to  meet 
them.  Every  appearance  of  feftivity  prevailed  at  their 
approach,  and  the  citizens  opened  their  doors  and 
proftrated  therafelves  before  the  De'iaftas  as  they  walk- 
ed in  proccffion.  During  this  feftival  it  was  unlawful 
to  put  to  death  any  malefaftor,  and  on  that  account 
the  life  of  Socrates  was  prolonged  for  thirty  days. 

Delia,  a  furname  of  Diana,  becaufe  (he  was  born 
in  Delos. 

DELIAC,  Deliacus,  among  the  ancients,  denoted 
a  poulterer,  or  a  perfon  who  lold  fowls,  fatted  capons, 
&c.  The  traders  in  this  way  were  called  Del'iaci :  the 
people  of  the  ifle  of  Delos  firft  pracllfed  this  occupa- 
tion. They  alio  fold  eggs,  as  appears  from  Cicero,  in 
his  Academic  Queftions,  lib.  iv.  Pliny,  Jib.  x.  cap.  30. 
and  Columella,  hb.  viii.  cap.  8.  likevvife  mention  the 
Del'mci. 

DELIBAMENTA,  in  antiquity,  a  libation  to  the 
infernal  gods,  always  offered   by  pouring  downwards.  SeeZiij//«i. 

Jus  DELIBERANDI.     See  Law,  N°  clxxx.  23. 

DELIBERATIVE,  an  appellation  given  to  a  kind 
or  branch  of  rhetoric,  employed  in  proving  a  thing,  or 
convincing  an  affembly  thereof,  in  order  to  perfuade 
them  to  put  it  ill  execution. 

To  have  a  deliberative  voice  in  the  affembly,  is 
when  a  ptrfon  has  a  right  to  give  his  advice   and   his 

vote 


DEL 


[ 


H 
Drlirium 


vote  therein.  In  councils,  the  bifliops  have  delibera- 
tive voices  ;  thofi;  beneath  them  have  only  confultative 
voices. 

DELICT,  in  Sects  law,  figniiics  fnch  fmall  ofllnces 
or  breaches  of  the  peace  as  are  puiiilhable  only  by  fine 
or  rtiort  imprifonment. 

DELIM.'V,  in  botany  :  A  genus  of  the  monogy- 
nia  order,  belonging  to  the  polyandria  clafs  of  plants  ; 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  with  thofe  of  wt'.ich 
the  order  is  doubtful.  There  is  no  corolla  ;  the  calyx 
is  five-leaved,  \vith  a  two-feedcd  berry. 

DELINQUENT,  a  guilty  perfon,  or  one  who  has 
committed  fome  fault  or  offence  for  which  he  is  pu- 
nilhable.      See  Britain,  n°  97. 

DELIQITESCENCE,  in  chemiftry,  fignifies  the 
propertv  wliieh  certain  bodies  have  of  attrafting  moi- 
ilure  from  the  air,  and  becoming  liquid  thereby.  This 
property  is  never  found  but  in  faline  fubllances,  or 
ntatters  containing  them.  It  is  caufed  by  the  great 
affinity  which  thefe  fubftances  have  with  water.  The 
more  fimple  they  arc,  according  to  Mr  Macquer,  the 
more  they  incline  to  deliquefcence.  Hence,  acids,  and 
certain  alkalies,  which  are  the  moll  fimple,  are  alfo  the 
moft  deliqi'.efeent  falts.  Mineral  acids  are  fo  deliquef- 
cent,  that  they  flrongly  imbibe  moifture  from  the  air, 
even  though  they  are  already  mixed  with  a  fufficient 
quantity  of  water  to  be  fluid.  For  this  purpofe,  it  is 
fufficient  that  they  be  concentrated  only  to  a  certain 
degree.  —  Man^  neutral  falts  are  deliquclcent,  chiefly 
thofe  whofe  bafes  are  not  faline  fubllances.  Salts 
formed  by  the  vitriolic  acid,  with  fixed  or  Tolatile  al- 
kalies, earths,  or  moft  metallic  fubftances,  arc  not  de- 
liqucfcent  ;  although  this  acid  is  the  ftrongeft  of  all, 
and,  when  difengaged,  attrafts  the  moifture  of  the  air 
moft  powerfully. 

Though  the  immediate  caufe  of  deliquefcence  is  the 
attraftion  of  the  moifture  of  the  air,  as  we  have  already 
obferved;  yet  it  remains  to  be  (hpwn  why  fome  falts 
attraft  this  moifture  powerfully,  and  others,  though 
feemingly  equall)'  fimple,  do  not  attraft  it  at  all.  The 
vegetable  alkali,  for  inftance,  attfafts  moifture  power- 
fully; the  mineral  alkali,  though  to  appearance  equally 
fimple,  does  not  attract  it'at  all.  The  acid  of  tartar 
by  itfelf  docs  not  attract  the  moifture  of  the  air  ;  but 
if  mixed  with  borax,  which  has  a  little  attraftiou  for 
moifture,  the  mixture  is  exceedingly  deliquefcent. — 
Some  theories  have  been  fuggefted,  in  order  to  account 
for  thefe  and  other  fimilar  fafts  ;  but  we  are  as  yet  too 
little  acquainted  with  the  nature  of  the  atmofphere, 
and  the  relation  its  conftituent  parts  have  to  thofe  of 
terreftrial  fubftances,  to  determine  any  thing  with  cer- 
tainty on  this  head. 

DELIQI.TIUM,  or  Dehsi'ivm  minimi  (from  di-lln- 
quo,  "  I  fwoon"),  a  fwooning  or  fainting  away;  call- 
ed alfo  fync'ipc,  lipolhymin,  lipr,j>fyclna,  ech/is,  and  af- 
phyxia. 

Deliquium  (from  dcUqmfco,  "  to  be  dilTolved"), 
in  chemiltry,  is  the  din()lution  or  melting  of  a  fait  or 
calx  by  fufpending  it  in  a  moift  ceUar. 

Salt  of  tartar,  or  any  fixed  alkali,  fet  in  a  cellar  or 
ether  cool  moift  place,  and  in  an  open  vcffel,  refolves 
or  runs  into  a  kind  of  liquor  called  by  the  chemifts 
oil  of  tartar  per  de/iquium. 

DELIRIUM  (from  Mro,  "  to  rave  or  talk  idly"). 
When  the  ideas  excited  in  the  mind  do  not  correfpond 

VoL.V.  PartIL 


■21     ]  DEL 

t)  the  external  objc(5ls,  but  arc  produced  by  the  change    DcUvcry 
induced  on  the  common  fenfory,  the  patient  is  faid  to 
be  delirious.      See  MKOiciSE-fndex. 

DELIVERY,  orCiiiLD-niRTH.  See  Midwifery. 
DELLI,  or  Delhi,  a  kingdom  and  ciiy  of  the 
Mogul's  empire,  in  Afia.  The  city  is  one  cf  the  ca- 
pitals of  the  empire.  The  road  between  it  and  ^^ra, 
the  other  capit.d,  is  that  famous  alley  or  walk  planted 
with  trees  by  Jehin  Ghir,  and  150  leagues  in  length. 
Each  half  league  is  marked  with  a  kind  of  turret;  and 
at  every  ftage  there  arc  little  farays  or  caravanfcras  for 
the  benefit  of  travellers.  The  road,  though  pretty 
good,  has  many  inconveniences.  It  is  not  only  fre- 
quented by  wild  beafts,  but  by  robbers.  The  latter 
are  fo  dexterous  at  cafting  a  noofe  about  a  man's  neck, 
that  they  never  fail,  if  within  reach,  to  feize  and  ftrangle 
him.  They  gain  their  point  likewife  by  means  of 
handfoine  women  ;  who,  feigning  great  diftrefs,  and 
being  taken  up  behind  the  unwary  traveller,  choak  him 
with  the  fame  fnare. — The  capital  confifts  of  three  ci- 
ties, built  near  one  another.  The  firft,  now  quite  de- 
ftroyed,  is  laid  to  have  had  52  gates;  and  to  have  been 
the  refidence  of  king  Porus,  conquered  by  Alexander 
the  Great.  The  fecond,  which  is  alfo  in  ruins,  was 
demoliftied  by  Shah  Jehan,  to  build  'Jehan-abad  with 
the  materials.  This  makes  the  third  city,  and  joins 
the  ruins  of  the  fecond.  This  city  ftands  in  an  open 
plain  country,  on  the  river  yamna,  which  rifes  in  this 
province.  It  is  encompafl'ed  with  walls,  except  to- 
wards the  river.  Thefe  are  of  brick,  flanked  with 
round  towers  ;  but  without  a  ditch,  and  terraced  be- 
hind, four  or  five  feet  thick.  The  circumference  of 
the  walls  may  be  about  nine  miles.  The  fortrefs,  which 
is  a  mile  and  an  half  in  circuit,  has  good  walls  and 
round  towers,  and  ditches  full  of  vi'ater,  faced  with 
ftone.  It  is  furroiinded  with  fine  gardens,  and  in  it  is 
the  Mogul's  palace.  See  iNOOST.'is.  E.  Long.  79.  25. 
N.  Lat.  28.  20. 

DELMENHORST,  a  ftrong  town  of  Germany, 
in  the  circle  of  Weftphalia,  and  county  of  01denburgh, 
belonging  to  Denmark  ;  feated  on  the  river  Delm  near 
the  AVefei.     E.  Long.  8.  37.  N.  Lat.  53.  10. 

DELOS,  an  ifland  of  the  Archipelago,  very  famous 
in   ancient  hiftory.      Originally  it  is  faid  to  have  been 
a  floating   ifland,   but  afterwards  it  became  fixed  and 
immoveable.     It  was  held  facred  on  account  of  its  be- 
jng  the  birth-place  of  Apollo  and  Diana. — Anciently 
this  ifland   was  governed   by  its  own   kings.      Virgil 
mentions  one   AnJus  reigning  here  in  the  time  of  the 
Trojan  war.      He  was,   according  to  that  poet,  both 
king  and  high-prieft  of  Apollo,  and  entertained  ^neas 
with   great  kindnefs.     The  Perfians  allowed  the  De- 
lians  to  enjoy  their  ancient  liberties,  after  tbey  had  re- 
duced the  reft  of  the  Grecian  iflands.      In  after  ages, 
the  Athenians  made  themfclves  maftersof  it;  and  held 
it  till  they  were  driven  out  by  Mithridates  the  Great, 
who  plundered  the  rich  temple  of  Apollo,  and  obliged 
the  Delians  to  fide  with  him.      Mithridates  was  in  his 
turn  driven  out  by  the  Romans,  who  granted  the  inha- 
bitants many  privileges,  and  exempted  them  from  all 
forts  of  taxes.     At  picfcnt  it  is  quite  abandoned;  the 
lands  being  covered  with  ruins  and  rubbifli,  in  fuch  a 
manner  as  to  be  quite  incapable  of  cultivation.      The 
inhabitants  cf  Mycone  hold  it  now,  and  pay   but  ten 
crowns  land-tax  to  the  Grand  Signior   for  an  ifland 
4  Y  which 


DEL 


C    722    ] 


DEL 


DcSn:     -which  was  once  one  of  the  richeft  in  die  vvorlJ. — Strabo 
"""»    '      and  Calllmachas  tell  us  that   the   illand  of  Delos  was 
watered  by  the  river  Tnapuj  :   but  Pliny  calls  it  only  a 
fpring  ;  and  adds,  that  its  waters  fwelled  and  abated 
at  the  fame  time  with  thofe  of  the  Nile.     At  prefent 
>  there  is  no   river  in  the  idand,  but  one  of  the  noblell 

fprings  in  the  world  ;  being  twelve  paces  in  diameter, 
and   inclofed  partly   by   locks   and  partly  by  a    wall. 
Mount  Cynthus,  whence  Apollo  had  the  furname  of 
Cyiithitis,  is  by  Strabo  placed  near  the  city,  and  faid  to 
be  fo   high,  that  the  whole  ifland  was  covered  by  its 
Ihadow ;  but  our  modern  travellers  fpeak  of  it  as  an 
hill  of  a  very  moderate   height.     It  is  but  one  block 
of  granate  of  the  ordinary  fort,  cut  on  that  iide  which 
faced  the  city  into  regidar  fteps,  and  inclofed  on  both 
iides  by  a  wall.     On  the  top  of  the  mountain  aie  ilill 
to  be  feen  the  remains  of  a  llately  building,  with  a 
mofaic  pavement,  many  broken  pillars,  and  other  va- 
luable monuments  of  antiquity.      From  an  infcription 
dlfcovered  there  fome  time  ago,  and  which  mentions  a 
vow  made  to  Serapls,  Ifis,  and  Anubis,  fome  have  con- 
je61;ured,  that  on  this  hill  ilood  a  temple  dedicated  to 
thcfe  Egyptian  deities,  though  no  where  mentioned  in 
hiftory. — The  city  of  Delos,  as  is   manifeft  from  the 
magnificent  ruins  ilill  extant,  took  up   that  fpacious 
plain  reaching  from  one  coaft  to  the  other.      It  was 
well  peopled,  and  the  richeft  city  in  the  Archipelago, 
efpecially  after  the  deftruftiun  of  Corinth  ;   merchants 
flocking  thither  from  all  parts,  both  in  regard  of  the 
immunity  they  enjoyed  there,  and  of  the  convenient  fi- 
tuation  of  the  place  between  Europe  and  Alia.   Strabo 
calls  it  one  of  the  moll  frequented  empories  in   the 
world  ;  and  Piny  tells  us,  that  all  the  commodities  of 
Europe  and  Afia  were  fold,  purchafed,  or  exchanged, 
there.      It  contained  many  noble  and  ftately  buildings; 
as,  the  temples  of  Apollo,  Diana,   and   Latona  ;  the 
porticoes  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  and  Dionyfius  Euty- 
ches ;  a  gymnafuim  ;  an   oval  bafon   made  at  an  ira- 
jnenfe  expenfe,  for  the   reprefentation  of  fea-fights  ; 
and  a  moll  magnliicent  theatre.    The  temple  of  Apollo 
was,  according  to  Plutarch,   begun  by  Erfjichtnn  the 
fon  of  Cecrops;  but   after^-ards  enlarged  and  einbel- 
liihed  at  the  common  charges  of  all  the  Hates  of  Greece. 
Plutarch  tells  us,   that  it  was  one  of  the  moft  ftately 
buildings  in  the  univerfe ;   and   fpeaks  of  an   altar  in 
it,  which,   in  his  opinion,  deferved  a  place  among  the 
wonders  of  the  world.      It  was  built  with  the  horns  of 
various  animals,  fo  artificially  adapted  to  one  another^ 
that  they  hanged  together  without  any  cement.    This 
altar  is  faid  to  have  been  a  perfedl  cube;  and  the  dou- 
bling it  was  a  famous  mathematical  problem  among  the 
ancients.      This  went  under  the    name   of  ProUema 
Dertacttm ;  and  is  faid  to  have  been  propofed  by  the 
Oracle,  for  the  purpofe  of  freeing  the  country  from  a 
plague.     The  diftemper  was  to  ceafe  when  the  pro- 
blem was  folved.  — The  trunk  of  the  famous  ftatue  of 
ApoUo,  metioned  by  Strabo  and  Pliny,  is  Itill  an  ob- 
jeft  of  great  admiration  to  travellers.      It  is  without 
head,  feet,  arms,  or  legs  ;  but  from  the  parts  that  are 
yet  remaining,  it  plainly  appears,  that  the  ancients  did 
not  exaggerate  when  they  commended  it  as  a  wonder 
of  art.     It  was  of  a  gigantic  fize,  though  cut  out  of  a 
fmgle   block  of  marble  ;  the   ftioulders  being  fix  feet 
broad,  and   the  thighs  nine   feet  round.     At  a  fmall 
iliftance  from  this  llatue  lies,  amongft  confufed  heaps 


of  broken  columns,  architraves,  bafes,  chapiters,  &c. 
a  fquare  piece  of  marble  154-  feet  lojig,  ten  feet  nine 
inches  broad,  and  two  feet  three  inches  thick;  which  ^ 
undoubtedly  ferved  as  a  pedeftal  for  this  coloflns.  It 
bears  in  very  fair  charaClers  this  infcription  in  Greek, 
"  The  Naxlans  to  Apollo."  Plutarch  tells  us,  in  the 
life  of  Niclas,  that  he  caufed  to  be  fet  up,  near  the 
temple  of  Delos,  an  huge  palm-tree  of  biafs,  which  he 
confecrated  to  Apollo;  and  adds,  that  a  violent  Itonn 
of  wind  threw  down  this  tree  on  a  colodian  ftatue  railed 
by  the  inhabitants  of  Naxos.  Round  the  temple  were 
magnificent  porticoes  built  at  the  charge  of  various 
princes,  as  appears  from  infcriptlons  which  are  ftill  ve- 
ry plain.  The  names  of  Philip  king  of  Macedon,  Di- 
onyfius Eutyches,  Mithrldates  Eucrgetes,  MIthridates 
Eupator,  kings  of  Pontus,  and  Nicomedes  king  of  Bi- 
thynla,  are  found  on  fcveral  pedeftals. — To  this  temple 
the  inhabitants  of  the  neighbouring  iflands  fcnt  yearly 
a  company  of  virgins  to  celebrate,  with  dancing,  the 
feftival  of  Apollo  and  his  lifter  Diana,  and  to  make 
offerings  in  the  name  of  their  refoefkive  cities. 

So  very  facred  was  the  ifland  of  Delos  held  by  the 
ancients,  that  no  hoftilltles  were  pratlifed  here,  even 
by  the  nations  that  were  at  war  with  one  another, 
when  they  happened  to  meet  in  this  place.  Of  this 
Livy  gives  an  inllance.  Pie  tells  us,  that  fome  Ro- 
man deputies  being  obliged  to  put  In  at  Delos,  in  their 
voyage  to  Syria  and  Egypt,  found  the  galleys  of  Per- 
feus  king  of  Macedon,  and  thofe  of  Eumencs  king  of 
Pergamus,  anchored  In  the  fame  haibour,  though  tiiefe 
two  princes  were  then  making  war  upon  one  another. 
—  Hence  this  ifland  was  a  general  afylum,  and  the  pro- 
tection extended  to  all  kinds  of  living  creatures  ;  for 
this  reafon  it  abounded  with  hares,  no  dogs  being  fuf- 
fered  to  enter  it.  No  dead  body  was  fuffcrcd  to  be 
burled  In  it,  nor  was  any  woman  fuffered  to  lie-in  there-; 
all  dying  perfons,  and  women  ready  to  be  delivered, 
were  carried  over  to  the  ntnghbouriiig  ifland  of  Rhe- 
n-.ca. 

DELPHI,  (anc.  geog.),  a  town  of  Phocis  fituated 
on  the  louth-weit  extremity  of  mount  Parnalfus.  It  was 
famous  for  a  temple  and  oracle  of  that  god,  of  which 
the  following  was  faid  to  bi  the  origin:  A  number  of 
goats  that  were  feeding  on  mount  Parnafl'us  came  near 
a  place  which  had  a  deep  and  long  perforation.  The 
ftcam  which  iifned  from  the  hole  feemed  to  infpire  the 
goats,  and  they  played  and  frilked  about  in  fuch  an 
uncommon  manner,  that  the  goat-herd  was  tempted  to 
lean  on  the  hole,  and  fee  what  inylleries  the  place  con- 
tained. He  was  immediately  feizcd  with  a  fit  of  ea- 
thufiafm,  his  expreffions  were  wild  and  extravagant, 
and  paflcd  for  prophecies.  This  circumftance  was  foon 
known  about  the  country,  and  many  experienced  the 
fame  enthufiaftic  Infpiratlon.  The  place  was  revered; 
a  temple  was  foon  after  ertfted  in  honour  of  Apollo  ; 
and  a  city  built,  which  became  the  chief  and  moft  11- 
luftrlous  in  Phocis.  The  influence  of  its  god  has  con- 
trolled the  councils  of  ftates,  dIreAed  the  courfe  of  ar- 
mies, and  decided  the  .fate  of  kingdoms.  The  ancient 
hiftory  of  Greece  is  full  of  his  energy,  and  an  early 
reglfter  of  his  authority.  Tlie  circumjacent  cities 
were  the  ftewards  and  guardians  of  the  god.  Their 
deputies  compofed  the  famous  Amphidlyonic  affenvr 
bly,  which  once  guided  Greece. 

The  temple  of  Apollo,  it  in  related,  was  af  firft  a 

kind 


Delphi. 


DEL 


■Delphi,  kind  of  cottage  covered  with  linuglis  of  laurel ;  but  he 
""■^  was  early  provided  witli  a  bctti-r  hahitatioii.      An  edi- 

fice of  (lone  was  erefted  by  Trophonius  and  Againe- 
des,  which  fiibiilled  about  700  years,  and  was  burned 
in  the  year  67,6  after  the  takinff  of  Trov,  and  548  bo- 
fore  Chrift,  It  is  jiientioned  in  the  hymn  to  Apollo 
afcribed  to  Homer.  An  0])ulcnt  and  illuftrious  fa- 
mily, called  /Hcn'ifrjiutLr,  wlu"eh  had  fled  from  Athens 
and  the  tyrant  Hippias,  contracted  with  the  deputies 
for  the  building  of  a  new  temple,  and  exceeded  their 
agreement.  The  front  was  raifed  with  Parian  marble, 
iiiilead  of  the  ftone  called  Porus;  which  refembled  it 
in  whitenefs,  but  was  not  fo  heavy.  A  Corinthian 
was  the  architect.  The  pediments  were  adorned  with 
Diana,  and  Latona,  and  Apollo,  and  the  Mufes ;  the 
fetting  of  Phoebus  or  the  fun  ;  with  Bacchus,  and  the 
women  called  Tkyades.  The  architraves  were  deco- 
rated with  golden  armoiir  ;  bucklers  fufpended  by  the 
Athenians  ufter  the  battle  of  Marathon,  and  {hields 
taken  from  the  Gauls  under  Brcnnus.  In  the  portico 
were  infcribed  the  celebrated  maxims  of  the  feven  fages 
of  Greece.  There  was  an  image  of  Homer,  and  in 
the  cell  was  an  altar  of  Neptune,  with  flatues  of  the 
Fates,  and  of  Jupiter  and  Apollo,  who  were  furnamed 
Leaders  of  the  Fates.  Near  the  hearth  before  the  al- 
tar, at  which  Neoptolemus  the  fon  of  Achilles  was 
Ilain  by  a  prieft,  flood  the  iron  chair  of  Pilidar.  In 
the  fancluaiy  was  an  image  of  Apollo  gilded.  The 
inclofure  was  of  great  extent,  and  filled  with  treafuries, 
in  which  many  cities  had  confecratcd  tenths  of  fpoil 
taken  in  war,  and  with  the  public  donations  of  renown- 
ed dates  in  various  ages.  It  was  the  grand  repofitory 
of  ancient  Greece,  in  which  the  labours  of  the  fculptor 
and  ftatuary,  gods,  heroes,  and  illuftrious  perfons,  were 
feen  collefted  and  arranged  ;  the  inequalities  of  the 
area  or  acclivity  contributing  to  a  full  difplay  of  the 
noble  affc-mblage. 

The  oracles  were  delivered  by  a  prieftefs  called  P3'- 
thia,  who  received  fhe  prophetic  influence  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner.  A  lofty  tripod,  decked  with  laurel, 
was  placed  over  the  aperture,  whence  the"  facred  va- 
pour iffued.  The  prieftefs,  after  waftu'ng  her  body, 
and  efpecially  her  hair,  in  the  cold  water  of  Caftalia, 
mounted  on  it,  to  receive  the  divine  effluvia.  -Slie 
wore  a  crown  of  laurel,  and  (hook  a  facred  tree,  which 
grew  by.  Sometimes  fhe  chewed  the  le.ives  ;  and  the 
frenzy  which  followed  may  witii  probability  be  attri- 
buted to  this  ufage,  and  the  gentler  or  more  violent 
fymptoms  to  the  quantity  taken.  In  one  inftance  tlie 
paroxyfm  was  fo  terrible,  that  the  pricfts  and  fup- 
pliants  ran  away,  and  left  her  alone  to  expire,  it  was 
believed  of  the  god.  Her  part  was  unpleafant;  but, 
if  flie  declined  afting,  they  dragged  her  by  force  to  the 
tripod.  The  habit  of  her  order  was  that  of  virgins. 
'  ^  The  rules  enjoined  temperance  and  chaftity,  and  pro- 
hibited luxury  in  apparel.  The  feafon  of  enquiry  was 
in  the  fpring,  during  the  month  called  Bufius ;  after 
which  Apollo  was  fuppofed  to  vifit  the  altars  of  the 
Hyperboreans. 

The  city  of  Delphi  arofe  in  the  form  of  a  theatre, 
upon  the  winding  declivity  of  ParnafTus,  whoft  fanta- 
ftic  tops  overfliadowed  it,  like  a  canopy,  on  the  north, 
while  two  imnienfe  rocks  rendered  it  inacceffible  on  the 
f^aft  and  weft,  and  the  rugged  and  ftiapelefs  mount 
Cirphis  defended  it  en  ike  fouth.     The  foot  of  the 


[       723       1 


DEL 


laft-named  mountain  was  wadied  l)y  the  rapid  Pliftus,     Deli'h;, 

which  difcharged  itfclf  into  the  fea  at  the  diftance  of  r^—' 

only  a  few  leagues  from  the  facred  city.  This  inaccef- 
fible and  romantic  lltuation,  from  which  tlie  place 
derived  the  name  of  Delphi  (fignifying,  as  explained 
in  the  gXci^wrki,  fo'itary  alute),  was  rendereii  Kill  11'ore 
ilriking,  by  the  innumerable  echoes  which  muliiplicd 
every  found,  and  increafed  the  ignorant  veneration  of 
vifitauts  for  the  god  of  the  oracle.  The  artful  mini- 
fters  of  Apollo  gradually  collefted  fuch  objor^s  in  the 
groves  and  cemple  as  were  fitted  to  aftonidi  the  feiifes 
of  the  admiring  multitude.  The  fplendor  of  marble, 
the  magic  of  painting,  the  invaluable  ibitues  of  gold 
and  filver,  reprefented  (to  ufe  the  language  of  antiqui- 
ty) not  the  refeniblance  of  any  earthly  habit  ition,  but 
rather  exprefled  the  image  of  Olympus,  adorned  and 
enlightened  by  the  aftual  prefence  of  the  gods. 

The  prote6kion  and  fuperintendence  of  this  precious 
depofitory  of  riclKs  and  fuperftition  belonged  to  the 
Amphitlyons,  as  already  noticed.  But  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Delphi,  who,  if  we  may  ufe  the  expreftion, 
were  the  original  proprietors  of  the  oracle,  always  con- 
tinued to  diretl  tiie  religious  ceremonies,  and  to  con- 
duct the  important  bufinefs  of  prophecy.  It  was  their 
province  alone  to  determine  at  what  time,  and  on  what 
occafion,  the  Pythia  ftiould  mount  the  facred  tripod, 
to  receive  the  prophetic  fteams  by  which  (he  commu- 
nicated with  Apollo.  When  overflowing  witli  the 
heavenly  infpiration,  (he  uttered  the  coufufed  word,?, 
or  rather  frantic  founds,  irregularly  fuggefted  by  the 
impulfe  of  the  god ;  the  Delphians  collecled  thefc 
founds,  reduced  them  into  order,  animated  them  witli 
fenfe,  and  adorned  them  with  harmony.  The  Pythia, 
appointed  and  difmiffed  at  pleafure,  was  a  mere  inftru. 
mcnt  in  the  hands  of  thofe  artful  minillers,  whofe  cha- 
i-atter  became  fo  venerable  and  facred,  that  they  were 
finally  regarded,  not  merely  as  attendants  and  wor- 
ftrippers,  but  as  the  peculiar  family  of  the  god.  Their 
number  was  confiderable,  and  never  exactly  afctrtain- 
ed,  fince  all  the  principal  inhabitants  of  Delphi, 
claiming  an  immediate  relation  to  Apollo,  were  inti- 
tled  to  officiate  in  the  rites  of  his  fanftuary  ;  and  even 
the  inferior  ranks  belonging  to  that  facred  citv  were 
continually  employed  in  dances,  fefti\-als,  proceftions, 
and  in  difplaying  all  the  g.iy  pageantry  of  an  airy  and 
elegant  fuperftition. 

Delphi  was  conveniently  fituated  for  the  con- 
flux of  votaries,  lying  in  the  centre  of  Greece,  and, 
as  was  then  imagined,  of  the  uuiverfe.  It  was  cu- 
ftomary  for  thofe  who  confulted  tlie  oracle  to  make 
rich  prefents  to  the  god;  his  fervants  and  priells  feaft- 
ed  on  the  numerous  viftims  which  were  facrificed  to 
him  ;  and  the  rich  magnificence  of  his  temple  had  be- 
come proverbial  even  in  the  age  of  Homer.  In  after- 
times,  Cioefus,-  the  wealthieft  of  monarchs,  was  par- 
ticularly munificent  in  his  donations.  This  facred 
repofitory  of  opulence  was  therefore  often  the  ob- 
ject of  phinder.  Neoptolemus  was  flain,  while  facri- 
ficing,  on  fufpicion  of  a  defign  of  that  kind.  Xer- 
xes divided  his  army  at  Panopeus,  and  proceeded 
with  the  main  body  through  Bceotia  into  Attica, 
while  a  party,  keeping  ParnafTus  on  the  right,  ad- 
vanced along  Schillc  to  Delphi;  but  was  taken  with 
a  panic  when  near  Ilium,  and  fled.  This  monarch,  it 
is  related,  was  as  well  apprifed  of  the  contents  of  the 
4  Y  2  temple 


Delphinia. 


DEL  [72 

temple  and  the  fiimptuous  offerings  of  Hah  atlLS  and 
Crcefus  as  of  the  efltfts  which  he  had  left  behind  in 
liis  own  palace.  The  divine  hoard  was  feizcd  by  the 
Phcx:enfians  under  Philomelus,  and  diffipated  in  a  long 
war  with  the  Amphiftvons.  The  Gauls  experienced 
a  reception  like  that  of  the  Perfians,  and  manifefted 
fimilar  difmay  and  fuperflition.  S)lla,  wanting  money 
to  pay  his  army,  fent  to  borrow  from  the  holy  trea- 
fury,  and  when  his  meffenger  would  have  frightened 
hira,  by  reporting  a  prodigy,  that  the  found  of  a  harp 
had  been  heard  from  within  the  fanftuary,  replied,  it 
was  a  fign  that  the  god  was  happy  to  oblige  him. 

The  tiade  of  Apollo,  afttr  it  had  flouriflied  for  a 
long  period,  was  affeded  by  the  mal-pratlices  of  fome 
concerned  in  the  partnei  (liip,  who  were  convifled  of 
bribery  and  corruption,  and  ruined  the  charadler  of 
their  principal.  The  temple  in  the  time  of  Strabo  was 
reduced  to  extreme  poverty  ;  but  the  offerings  which 
remained  were  very  numerous.  Apollo  was  filent, 
except  fome  efforts  at  intervals  to  regain  his  loft  credit. 
Nero  attempted  to  di^e  him,  as  it  were  by  violence, 
from  the  cavern  ;  killing  men  at  the  mouth  and  pol- 
luting it  with  blood  ;  but  he  lingered  on,  and  would 
not  entirely  forfake  it.  Anfwers  were  reported  as 
given  by  him  afterwards,  but  not  without  fufpicion  of 
forgery.  An  oracle  of  Apollo  at  another  place  inform- 
ed the  confultcrs,  that  he  fhould  no  more  recover  ut- 
terance at  Delphi,  but  enjoined  the  continuance  of  the 
accuftomed  offerings. 

The  city  of  Delphi  was  free  under  the  Romans.  In 
the  time  cf  Paufanias,  who  has  particularly  defcribed  it, 
there  Hill  remained  an  invalu:;b!e  tieafure  of  the  of- 
erings  within  the  court  of  the  temple.  The  number,v 
variety,  and  beauty  of  thefe  were  prodigious.  The  ilore 
appeared  inexhauftible;  and  the  robbery  of  Nero,  who 
removed  five  hundred  brazen  images,  was  rather  re- 
gretted than  perceived.  The  holy  treafuries,  though 
empty,  ferved  as  memorials  of  the  piety  and  glory  of 
the  cities  which  erefted  them.  The  .-^theni-in  portico 
preferved  the  beaks  of  fhips  and  the  brazen  ftiields  ; 
trophies  won  in  the  Peloponnefian  war.  And  a  mul- 
titude of  curiofities  remained  untouched. 

Conftantine  the  Great,  however,  proved  a  more  fatal 
enemy  to  Apollo  and  Delphi  than  either  Sylla  or  Ne- 
ro. He  removed  the  facred  tripods  to  adorn  the  Hip- 
podrome of  iiis  new  city;  v.'here  thefe,  with  the  A- 
pollo,  the  ftatues  of  the  Heliconian  mufes,  and  the  ce- 
febratcd  Pan  dedicated  by  the  Greek  cities  after  the 
war  with  the  Medes,  were  extant  when  Sozomen 
wrote  his  hiftorj'.  Afterwards  Julian  fent  Oribafius 
to  reftore  the  temple ;  but  he  was  admonifhed  by  an  oracle 
to  reprefent  to  the  emperor  the  deplorable  condition  of 
the  place.  '  Tell  him  the  well-built  court  is  fallen  to 
the  ground.  Phcebus  has  not  a  cottage,  nor  the  pro- 
phetic laurel,  ror  the  fpeaking  fountain  (Caffotis); 
and  even  the  beautiful  water  is  extinft.'  See  Delphos. 

DELPHINIA,  in  antiquity,  feafts  which  the  in- 
habitants of  Egina  celebrated  in'  honour  of  Apollo, 
furnamed  Delphinius,  fo  called,  as  it  is  pretended,  be- 
caufe  he  affumed  the  form  of  a  dolphin  to  conduct  Ca- 
ftalius  and  his  colony  from  the  iHe  of  Crete  to  the  Si- 
nus Crijfsus  Ddfh'tnium,  »ne  of  the  courts  of  judica- 
ture of  the  Athenians  ;  fo  called  from  the  proximity 
cf  the  place,!  where  they  held  their  affemblies,  to  the 
♦empic  of  Apollo  Deljihinius. 


4     1  DEL 

DELPHINIUM,  DOLPHiN-FtowER,  or  lark- 
spur: A  genus  of  the  trigynia  order,  belonging  to 
the  polyandria  clafs  of  plants  ;  and  in  the  iiaiural 
method  ranking  under  the  26th  order,  Mulil/iliyu^. 
There  is  no  calyx  ;  the  petals  are  five  ;  the  nectarium 
bifid,  and  horned  behind  ;  the  filiqu^  three  or  one. 
Theie  aie  fcven  fpccies  ;  four  are  cultivated  in  gar- 
dens. Two  of  thefe  are  annual,  and  two  perennial. 
They  arc  herbaceous  plants  of  upright  growth,  riling 
from  1  8  inches  to  four  feet  in  height,  garnilhed  witti 
finely  divided  leaves,  and  terminated  by  long  Ipikts 
of  pentapetalous  flowers  of  blue,  ted,  white,  or  violet 
colours. —  One  fpecies,  the  confohda,  is  found  wild  in 
feveral  parts  of  Britain,  and  grows  in  corn-helds.  Ac- 
cording to  Mr  \\'ithcring,  the  expieffed  juice  of  the 
petals,  with  a  little  aliun,  makes  a  good  blue  ink. 
The  feeds  are  acrid  and  poifonous.  \V  hen  cultivated, 
the  bloffonis  often  become  double.  Sheep  and  goats 
eat  this  plant  ;  horfes  are  not  fond  of  it  ;  cows  and 
fwine  rcfufe  it. — The  firft  mentioned  fpecies  makes  a 
very  fine  appearance  in  gardens,  and  is  ealdy  propaga- 
ted by  feeds  ;  being  fo  hardy,  that  it  thrives  in  any 
foil  or  fituation. 

DELPHINUS,  or  DOLPHIN  ;  a  genus  of  fifties 
belonging  to  the  order  of  Cete.  There  are  three  fpe- 
cies. 

I.  The  delphinus,  or  dolphin.  Hiflorians  and  phi- 
lofophers  fcem  to  have  contended  who  fhould  invent 
moft  fables  concerning  this  fifh.  It  was  conlecrated 
to  the  gods,  was  celebrated  in  the  earliell  time  for 
Its  fondnefs  of  the  human  race,  was  honoured  with  the 
title  of  xhtfacnJJijlj,  and  dillinguiflied  by  thole  of 
loy-loving  and  phdanthropijl.  It  gave  rife  to  a  long 
train  of  inventions,  proofs  of  the  credulity  and  igno- 
rance of  the  times.  Ariilotlc  iteers  the  clearell  of  all 
the  ancients  from  thefe  fables,  and  gives  in  general  a 
fa'thful  hillory  of  tliis  animal  ;  but  the  elder  Pliny, 
.ALlian,  and  others,  feem  topreferve  no  bounds  in  their 
belief  of  the  tales  related  of  this  fifli's  attachment  to 
mankind.  Scarce  an  accident  could  happen  at  fea, 
but  the  dolphin  offered  himfelf  to  convey  to  fhore  the 
unfortunate.  Arion  the  mufician,  when  flung  into 
the  ocean  by  the  pirates,  is  received  and  faved  by  this 
benevolent  fifh. 

InJi  (Jf^f  ntajus')  tergo  Detpbine^  recur'jOf 

Se  vitmorint  antre JuOpjfuiJfe  flovo. 

liU  fedeni  citharsm^ue  temnr  j  fretlumqui;  itehendi 

Luniatf  et  a^uorta^-tjrmine  tnuUet  aguus. 

Ovid  F.iJ!i,  lib.  ii.  113. 
But  (paftbelie')  a  dol|ihin's  arched  br.ck 
Preferved  .\ricn  fr   m  his  deftined  wrack  ; 
Secure  Ire  fir-'.aiid  with  harm(iniuu5  lirains 
Requites  his  be  .rcr  for  his  friendly  pair-.. 

We  are  at  a  lofs  to  account  for  the  origin  of  thofe 
fables,  fince  it  does  not  appear  that,  the  dolphin  Ihows 
a  greater  attachment  to  mankind  than  che  rell  of  the 
cetaceous  tribe.  We  know  that  at  prefeut  the  appear- 
ance of  this  fifh,  and  the  porpoffe,  are  far  from  being 
efteemed  favourable  omens  by  the  feamen  ;  for  their 
boundings,  fprings,  and  frolics,  in  the  water,  are  held 
to  be  fare  figns  of  an  approaching  gale. 

It  is  from  their  leaps  out  of  that  element,  that  they 
affume  a  temporai7  form  that  is  not  natural  to  them  ; 
but  which  the  old  painters  and  fculptots  have  almoft 
always  given  them.  A  dolphin  is  fcarce  ever  exhibi- 
ted by  :he  ancients  in  a  ftraight  fliape,  bat  almofl  al- 
3  ways 


Delphi, 
nium,    , 
.Dc'iihiiim. 


DEL 


[     7^5     ] 


DEI. 


Pclphinus.  ways  i'iicurvati.J  :  fiith  arc  thofc  on  the  foin  of  Alex- 

'— -v andcr  the  Great,  which  is  prefervej  by  Beloii,  as  well 

as  on  I'tveral  other  pieces  of  antiquity.  'I  tie  poets 
defcribe  them  miioh  in  the  fame  maimer,  and  it  is  not 
i:nj)robable  but  that  the  oue  had  boi  rowed  from  the 
other  ; 

TumiJum^Nt  panda  tranftlit  tforfu  mare 

*I\nhiHiis  otnni pifcii  exjuitat  jrcto^ 

Agiiuit{ur  gyros.  SB^ EC.  Ti ag.  Ai^am.4jo. 

U,  on  tlie  i'wellinjj  waves  the  doli'hins  ll  e\v 
Their  beixiin.^  l>j  ks;  then,  fwiftly  diirc/ni;,  go, 
And  in  a  ihouland  wreaths  their  budics  throw. 

,  pi^jg  The  natural  fhape  of  the  dolphin  *  is  almoft  llraight, 

;i.V.  the  back  being  very  (lightly  incurvated,  and  tlie  body 
flendcr  :  the  nofe  is  long,  narrow,  and  pointed,  not 
much  unlike  the  beak  of  fome  birds,  for  which  reafon 
the  French  call  it  Voyt  ik  ma:  It  has  In  all  40  teeth; 
21  in  the  upper  jaw  and  19  in  the  hjwer ;  a  little  a- 
bove  an  iueli  long,  conic  at  tlieir  upper  end,  (haip- 
pointed,  bending  a  little  in.  They  are  plaecd  at 
Invdl  Jillances  from  each  other;  fo  that  when  the  mouth 
is  fluit,  ths  teeth  of  both  jaws  lock  into  one  another: 
the  fpout  hole  is  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  head;  the 
tall  is  femihmar  ;  the  fl(in  is  fmooth,  the  colour  of  the 
back  and  fid^-s  duflty,  the  belly  whitifli:  it  Iwiins  with 
threat  fwiftnefs;  and  its  prey  is  fi(h.  It  was  formerly  rec- 
koned a  great  delicacy:  DrCaiusfays,  that  one  which 
was  taken  in  his  time  was  thought  a  prefeiit  worthy 
the  Duke  of  ^Jorfolk,  who  dittribiited  part  of  it  among 
his  friends.  It  v/as  roalltd  and  drefltd  with  porpeffe 
fauce,  made  of  crumbs  of  fine  wheat  bread,  mixed  with 
vinegar  ai;d  fugar.  Tiis  fpecies  of  dolphin  muft  not  be 
confounded  with  that  to  which  feamen  give  the  name; 
the  latter  being  quite  another  kind  of  fifh,  the  cniy- 
fk<!:na  I.'ippuris  of  LinnKUS,  and  the  dorado  of  the  Pur- 
tugucfe. 

2.  The  phocarna,  or  porpeffe.  This  fpecies  is  found 
in  vaft  multitudes  in  all  parts  of  the  Britilh  feas  ;  but 
in  grcatcft  numbers  at  the  time  when  filTi  of  paffage  ap- 
pear, fuch  as  mackerel,  herrings,  and  falmon,  which 
ihey  purfue  up  the  bays  with  the  fame  eagernefs  as  a 
clog  does  a  hare.  In  fome  places  they  alnioft  darken 
the  fta  as  they  rife  above  water  to  take  breath  :  but 
porpeffes  not  only  feck  for  prey  near  the  furface,  but 
often  defcend  to  the  bottom  in  fearch  of  fand-eels  and 
fea-worms,  whicli  they  root  out  of  the  fand  with  their 
i:ofes  in  the  fame  manner  as  hogs  do  in  the  fields  for 
their  food.  Their  bodies  arc  very  thick  towards  the 
head,  but  grow  flender  towards  the  tail,  forming  the 
figure  of  a  cone.  The  nofe  projects  a  little,  is  much 
fliorter  than  that  of  the  dolphin,  and  is  furnifhed  with 
ver\-  ftrong  mufcles,  which  enables  it  the  readier  to  turn 
up  the  fand.  In  each  jaw  are  48  teeth,  fmall,  (liarp- 
pointed,  and  a  little  moveable  :  like  thofe  of  the  dol- 
phin, they  are  fo  placed  as  that  the  teeth  of  one  jaw 
locks  Into  thofe  of  the  other  when  clofed.  The  eyes 
are  fmall ;  the  fpout-hole  Is  on  the  top  of  the  head  ; 
the  tail  fcmilunar.  The  colour  of  the  porpeffe  is  ge- 
nerally black,  and  the  belly  whitllh  ;  but  they  fome- 
tlmes  vary.  In  the  river  St  Laurence  there  is  a  white 
kind  ;  and  Dr  Borlafc,  in  his  voyage  to  the  Scilly 
ifles,  obfervcd  a  fmall  fpecies  of  cetaceous  fifh,  wliich 
he  calls  thornbacks ,  from  their  broad  and  fharp  fin  on 
the  back.  Some  of  thefe  were  brown,  fome  quite  white, 
#>iljers  fpotted ;  but  whether  they  wer.-  only  a  variety 


of-  this  fiili,   or  whether  they  were  fmull  grampufes,  Dcljihln-jj. 

which  are   alfo  fpotted,    we  cannot  determine.      The   «     "^. 

porpeflc  is  iemark;djle  for  the  vail  quantity  of  the  fat 
or  lard  that  furrounds  the  body,  which  yields  a  great 
quantity  of  excellent  oil :  from  this  lard,  or  from  their 
rooting  like  Iwine,  they  are  called  in  many  places /f.;- 
h'lgs ;  the  Germans  call  them  mierjch-wi'tn ;  the  Swedes 
marfiiin;  and  the  ]Lug\\i\\  porjifjle,  from  the  IuYvau  pohco 
pejcc. — This  was  once  a  royal  dilh,  even  fo  late  as  the 
reign  of  Hern-)'  VIII.  and  from  Its  mati-iiitudc  mull 
have  held  a  very  refpedable  flatlon  at  the  table  ;  for  in 
a  houichold  book  of  that  prince,  extracts  of  which  are 
publiflied  in  the  third  volume  of  the  Archa^ologia,  it  is 
ordered,  that  If  a  porpeffe  Ihould  be  too  big  for  a  horfe- 
load,  allowance  fhould  be  made  to  the  purveyor.  Tiilj 
filh  continued  in  vi^gue  even  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth; 
for  Dr  Caius,  on  mentioning  a  dolphin  (that  was  taken 
at  Shoreham,  and  brought  to  Thomas  Duke  of  Norfolk, 
who  divided  and  feat  it  as  a  prelent  to  his  friendt)  fays, 
tliat  it  eat  bell  with  porpede  fauce,  which  was  made  of 
vinegar,  crunis  of  fine  bread,  and  fugar. 

3.  The  orca,  or  grampus,  is  found  from  the  length 
of  tj  feet  to  that  of  2  J.  It  is  remarkably  thick  in 
proportion  to  its  length,  one  of  18  feet  being  in  the 
thickett  plate  10  feet  diameter.  With  realon  then  diJ 
Pliny  call  this  "  an  Immenfe  heap  of  flclli  armed  with 
dreadful  teeth."  It  Is  extremely  voracious;  and  will  not 
even  fpare  the  porpeffe,  a  congenerous  filh.  It  is  fald 
to  be  a  great  enemy  to  the  whale,  and  that  it  will  fa- 
llen on  It  hke  a  dog.  on  a  bull,  till  the  animal  roars 
with  pain.  The  noie  is  flat,  and  turns  up  at  the  end. 
There  are  30  teeth  in  each  jaw:  thofe  before  are  blunt, 
round,  and  {lender  ;  ths:  fanhcfl  fharp  and  thick  :  be- 
tween each  is  a  fpace  adapted  to  receive  the  teeth  of  the 
oppolke  jaw  when  the  mouth  Is  clofed..  The  fpout- 
hole  Is  In  the  top  of  the  neck.  The  colour  of  ths 
back  is  black,  but  on  each  fhouIJer  ii  a  large  white 
fpot;  the  fides  marbled  with  black  and  white;  the  belly 
of  a  fnowy  whitentfs.  Thefe  filhes  fometlines  appear' 
on  our  coalls  ;  but  are  found  in  much  greater  nu.iiberi 
off  tlie  North  Cape  in  Norway,  whence  they  are  called 
the  North-Capers.  Thefe  and  all  other  whales  are  ob- 
ferved  to  fwim  agalnft  the  wind;  and  to  be  much  di- 
flurbed,  and  tumble  about  with  unufaal  violence,  at  the 
approach  of  a  florm. 

4.  The  beluga,  a  fpecies  called  by  the  Germans 
iL-it-fiJlh,  and  by  the  Rulliaiis  beiija;  both  fignifylnij 
"  white  filli  :"  but  to  this  the  latl  add  moiy'l-aia,  or 
"  of  the  fea,"  by  way  of  diitinguilhlii^-  it  fro.^l  a  fpe- 
cies of  llurgeon  fo  named.  The  head  is  fhort :  nofe 
blunt  :  fpiracle  Imall,  of  the  form  of  a  crefceut :  eyea 
very  minute  :  mouth  fmall :  in  each  fide  of  e.nch  jaw- 
are  nine  teeth,  fiiort,  and  rather  blunt ;  thofe  of  the 
ujiperjaw  arc  bent  and  hollowed,  fitted  to  rccelvt  the 
teeth  of  tliel;wer  jaw  when  the  mouth  is  clofed  :  pec- 
toral fins  nearly  of  an  oval  form:  beneath  the  fldn  may 
be  felt  the  bones  of  five  fingers,  which  terminate  at  the 
edge  of  the  fin  In  five  very  fenfible  projeflions.  This 
brings  it  into  the  next  of  rank  in  the  order  of  being.s 
with  the  Marian.  The  tail  Is  divided  Into  two  lobes, 
which  he  horizontally,  but  do  not  fork,  except  a  little 
at  their  bafe.  The  body  is  oblong,  and  rather  (lender, 
tapering  from  the  back  (which  is  a  little  elevated)  to 
the  tail.  It  is  quite  deftitute  of  the  dorfal  fin.  Its 
length  is  from  1 2  ta  I S  feet.     It  makes  great  ufe  of    ■ 

its. 


DEL 


[     726    ] 


DEL 


X>elpliiiuis 
Dclphos. 


its  tail  in  fwimmiiig;  for  it  bends  that  part  under  it,  as 
a  lobflcr  does  its  tail,  and  works  it  with  fuch  force  as 
•  to   dart  alontr  with   the   rapidity  of  an  arrow.      It  is 

common  in  all  the  Ardlic  feas  ;  and  forms  an  article  of 
commerce,  being  taken  on  account  of  its  blubber. 
They  are  numerous  in  the  Cluljih  of  St  Laiuence,  and 
go  with  the  tide  as  high  as  Quebec.  There  are  lifheries 
for  them  and  the  common  porpclTe  in  that  river.  A 
coniiderable  quantity  of  oil  is  cxtraftcd  ;  and  of  their 
ildns  is  made  a  fort  of  Morocco  leather,  thin,  yet  ilrong 
enough  to  refill  a  muHvCt-ball.  They  arc  frequent  in 
the  Dwina  and  the  Oby;  and  go  in  fraall  families  from 
five  to  ten,  and  advance  pretty  far  up  the  rivers  in 
purfuit  of  filh.  They  are  ufually  cauglit  in  nets,  but 
are  fometimes  harpooned.  They  bring  only  one  young 
at  a  time,  which  is  dufl^y  ;  but  grow  white  as  they 
advance  in  age,  the  change  tirll  commencing  on  the 
belly.  They  are  apt  to  follow  boats,  as  if  they  were 
tamed ;  and  appear  extremely  beautiful,  by  reafon  of 
their  refplendent  whitenefs. 

Delphi N us,  in  aftronomy,  a  conftcllation  of  the 
northern  heraifphere. 

DELPHOS,  a  town,  or  rather  village,  of  Turky  in 
Afia,  in  the  province  of  Libadia  ;  occupying  part  of 
the  fite  of  the  ancient  Delphi.     See  Delphi. 

A  late  traveller  f  informs  us,  that  fome  veftiges  of 
t^£*^"^"^''''' temples  are  vifible ;  and  above  them,  in  the  mountain- 
Cracc.'"  fide,  are  fepulchres,  niches  with  horizontal  cavities  for 
the  body,  fome  covered  with  flabs.  Farther  on  is  a 
niche  cut  in  the  rock  with  a  feat,  intended,  it  feems, 
for  the  accommodation  of  travellers  wearied  with  the 
rugged  track  and  the  long  afcent.  The  monaftery  is 
on  the  fite  of  the  Gymnafium.  Strong  terrace  walls 
and  other  traces  of  a  large  edifice  remain.  The  village 
is  at  a  diftance.  Caftalia  is  on  the  right  hand  as  you 
aftend  to  it,  the  water  coming  from  on  high  and  crof- 
IinfT  the  road  ;  a  fteep  precipice,  above  which  the 
motintain  Hill  riffs  immenfely,  continuing  on  in  that 
direftion.  The  village  confills  of  a  few  poor  cottages 
of  Albanians  covering  the  fite  of  the  temple  and  oracle. 
Beneath  it  to  the  fouth  is  a  church  of  St  Elias,  with 
areas,  terrace  walls,  arches,  and  veftiges  of  the  build- 
ings once  within  the  court.  The  concavity  of  the 
rock  in  this  -part  gave  to  the  fite  the  resemblance  of  a 
theatre.  Turning  to  the  left  hand,  as  it  were  toward 
the  extremity  of  one  of  the  wings,  you  come  again  to 
fepulchres  hewn  in  the  rock,  and  to  a  femicircular  re- 
cefs  or  niche  with  a  feat  as  on  the  other  fide.  Higher 
up  than  the  village  is  the  hollow  of  the  Stadium,  in 
which  were  fome  feats  and  fcatiered  fragments. 

Hi"-her  up,  within  the  village,  is  a  piece  of  ancient 
wall,  concealed  from  view  by  a  filed,  which  it  fup- 
ports.  The  ftone  is  brown,  rough,  and  ordinary, 
probably  that  of  Parnaifus.  On  the  fouth  fide  are 
many  infcriptions,  with  wide  gaps  between  the  letters, 
which  are  negligently  and  faintly  cut  ;  all  nearly  of  the 
fame  tenor,  and  very  difficult  to  copy.  They  regifter 
the  purchafc  of  fiaves  who  had  entrufted  the  price  of 
their  freedom  to  the  god  ;  containing  the  contraft  be- 
tween Apollo  and  their  owners,  witnefTed  by  his 
priefts  and  by  fome  of  the  archons.  This  remnant 
feems  to  be  part  of  the  wall  before  Cafibtis ;  as  above 
it  isftill  a  fountain,  which  fupplits  the  village  with  ex- 
cellent water,  it  is  likely  fram  the  ancient  fource. 
The  water  of  Caftalia  in  the  neighbourhood,  from 


which  the  Pylliia,  and  the  poets  who  verfip.ed  her  an- 
fwer.s,  were  believed  to  derive  a  large  fiiare  of  their 
infpiration,  defcends  through  a  cleft  of  Parnaifus  ;  the 
rock  on  each  fide  high  and  lleep,  ending  in  two  fum- 
mits  ;  of  which  one  was  called  Hya.npe'a,  and  had  be- 
neath it  the  facred  portion  of  Autonous,  a  local  hero 
as  diitinguifhcd  as  Phylacus.  From  this  precipice  the 
Delphians  threw  down  the  famous  TEfop.  By  the 
ftream,  within  the  cleft,  are  fecn  fmall  broken  ftairs 
leading  to  a  cavity  in  which  is  water,  and  once  per- 
haps up  to  the  top.  Grooves  have  been  cut,  and  the 
marks  of  tools  are  vifible  on  the  rock ;  but  the  current, 
inllead  of  fupplying  a  fountain,  now  paiFes  over  its 
native  bed,  and  haftens  down  a  courfe  deep-worn  to 
join  the  Pleiftus.  Clofe  by,  at  the  foot  of  the  eallern 
precipice,  is  a  bafin  with  fteps  on  the  margin,  once, 
it  is  likely,  the  bath  uftd  by  the  Pythia.  Above,  in 
the  fide  of  the  mountain,  is  a  petty  church  dedicated 
to  St  John,  within  which  are  excavations  refembling 
niches,  partly  concealed  from   view  by  a  tree. 

DELTA,  is  a  part  of  Lower  Egypt,  which  takes 
up  a  confiderable  fpace  of  ground  between  the  branchea 
of  the  Nile  and  the  Mediterranean  Sea  :  the  ancients 
called  it  the  Ijle  cf  Delta,  becaufe  it  is  in  the  ftiape  of 
a  triangle,  like  the  Greek  letter  of  that  name.  It  is 
about  130  miles  along  the  coail  from  Damietta  to  A- 
lexandria,  and  70  on  the  fides  from  the  place  where 
the  Nile  begins  to  divide  itfelf.  It  is  the  moft  plenti- 
ful country  in  all  Egypt,  and  it  rains  more  there  than 
in  other  parts,  but  the  fertility  is  chiefly  owing  to  the 
inundation  of  the  river  Nile.  The  principal  towns  on 
the  coaft  are  Damietta,  Rofetta,  and  Alexandria;  but, 
within  land,  Menoufia,  and  Majla  or  Ehnala. 

DELTOIDES,  in  anatomy.  See  Anatomy,  Table 
of  the  Miifcles. 

DELUGE,  an  inundation  or  overflowing  of  the 
earth,  either  wholly  or  in  part,  by  water. 

We  have  feveral  deluges  recorded  in  hiftory;  as  that 
of  Ogyges,  which  overflowed  almoft  all  Attica  ;  and 
that  of  Deucalion,  which  drowned  all  Theffaly  in 
Greece  :  but  the  moft  memorable  was  that  called  the 
Univci-fal  Deluge  ox  Noah^ s  Floral,  which  overflowed  and 
deftroyed  the  whole  earth  ;  and  from  which  only  Noah, 
and  thofe  with  him  in  the  aik,  efcaped. 

This  flood  makes  one  of  the  moft  confiderable  Era  of  the 
epochas  in  chronology.  Its  hiftory  is  given  by  Mofes,  the  deluge 
Gen.  ch.  vi.  and  vii.  Its  time  is  fixed,  by  the  bcil 
chronologers,  to  the  year  from  the  creation  1656,  an- 
fwering  to  the  year  before  Chrift  2293.  From  this 
flood,  the  ftate  of  the  world  is  divided  into  diluvian 
and  antediluvian.     See  Antediluvians. 

Among  the  many  ttftimonies  of  the  truth  of  this 
part  of  the  iSIofalc  hillory,  we  may  account  the  ge- 
neral voice  of  mankind  at  all  times,  and  in  all  parts  of 

the   world.     The  objections  of  the  free-thinkers  have^,  .  \-  .. 
•    ,      >      ■     ■     11  ,  1  •  ■  rm     Ohjection! 

indeed  principally  turned  upon  three  points,  viz.  I.  I  he  to  thefail 

want  of  any  dirett  hiftory  of  that  event  by  the  profane 
writers  of  antiquity;  2.  the  apparent  impofiibility  of  ac- 
counting forthe  quantity  of  water  neceilary  to  overflow 
the  whole  earth  to  fuch  a  depth  as  it  is  faid  to  ha^"e 
been  :  and,  3.  there  appearing  no  neceffity  for  an  uni- 
verlal  d;:luge,  as  the  fame  end  might  ha^e  been  accom- 
pli ilied  by  a  partial  one. 

I.  The  former  of  thcfe  objeAions  has  given  rife  to 
feveral  very  elaborate  treatifis,  though  all  that  has  yet 
4.  been 


Deliipe. 


3 
rraiit'sac 


DEL  [7 

been  dune  in  this  way  has  fcnrcely  been  able  to  filence 
the  ohjeiftors.  Mr  Bryant,  in  his  Syftem  of  Mytholoify, 
has  with  great  learning  and  confiderablc  ii'ccefs  endea- 
voured to  (lio-.v,  that  the  deluge  was  one  of  the  piin- 
cipal,  if  not  the  only  foundation  of  the  Gentile  wor- 
fhip;  th.it  the  firft.  of  all  their  deities  was  Noah  ;  that 
all  nations  of  the  world  look  up  to  him  as  their  foun- 
der ;  and  that  he,  his  fona,  and  the  tint  patiiarchs, 
are  alluded  to  in  molt  if  not  all  of  the  religious  ceremo-  ■ 
nies  not  only  of  the  ancient  but  of  the  modern  hea- 
thens. In  (hort,  according  to  this  author,  the  de- 
luge, fo  far  from  being  forgot,  or  oblcurely  men- 
tioned by  the  heathen  world,  is  in  reality  confpicu- 
ous  throughout  every  one  of  their  afts  of  religious  wor- 
Ihip. 

The  Egyptian  Ofiris,  according  to  him,  was  the  fame 
unt  of  with  Hani  the  fon  of  Noah,  though  tiie  name  was  fome- 
i  ancient  times  bcftowed  on  Noah  himfelf.  That  this  is  the  cafe, 
""*'  is  evident,  he  thinks,  from  its  being  laid  that  he  was 
expofed  in  an  ark,  and  afterwards  reftored  to  day  ; 
that  he  planted  the  vine,  taught  mankind  agriculture, 
and  inculcated  upon  them  the  maxims  of  religion  and 
juftice.  Something  of  the  fame  kind  is  related  of 
Perfeus.  He  is  reprefented  by  feme  ancient  hillorians 
as  a  great  ailronomer,  and  well  verfed  in  other  fciences. 
After  being  conceived  in  a  fhower  of  gold,  he  was  ex- 
pofed in  an  ark  upon  the  waters,  and  is  faid  to  have 
had  a  renewal  of  life. — The  hiiloiy  of  Myrina  the  a- 
mazon  afFoi-d  a  kinds  of  abridgement  and  mixture  of 
the  hillories  of  Oliris  and  Perferis.  Similar  to  thefe 
is  the  hiflory  of  Hercules  himfelf.  But  our  author  ob- 
ferves,  that  under  the  titles  of  OJirls,  Perfeus,  Myrina, 
&e.  the  ancients  Ipoke  of  the  exploits  of  a  whole  na- 
tion, vrho  were  no  other  than  the  Cuthites  or  Cu- 
fiiites,  the  defcendants  of  Cufh  the  fon  of  Ham  and 
father  of  Nimrod.  Tiiefe  people  fpread  themfelves 
into  the  moll  lemcte  corners  of  the  globe;  and  hence 
the  heroes  whom  they  reprefented  are  always  fet  forth 
as  conquering  the  whole  world. — According  to  Dio- 
dorus  Siculirs,  the  Egyptian  Oiiris  was  the  fame  with 
tlie  Dionyfus  of  the  Gieeks.  He  is  laid  to  have  been 
twice  born,  and  to  have  had  two  fathers  and  two  mo- 
thers ;  to  have  been  wonderfully  preferved  in  an  ark  ; 
to  have  travelled  all  over  the  earth  ;  taught  the  uie  of 
the  vine,  to  build,  plant,  &c.  The  Indians  claini 
hiiii  as  a  native  of  their  country,  though  fome  allow 
that  he  came  from  tlie  weft.  Of  Cronus  and  Altartc, " 
it  is  faid  that  they  went  over  the  whole  earth,  dlf- 
pofing  of  the  counti-ies  as  they  pleafcd,  and  doing  good 
wherever  they  came.  The  fame  is  related  of  Oura- 
nus,  Themis,  Apollo,  &c.  though  all  their  exploits 
are  faid  to  have  been  the  effe&s  of  conqueil,  and 
their  benevolence  enfwrced  by  the  fwoid.  In  a  fi- 
milar  manner  he  explains  the  hillories  of  other  he- 
roes of  antiquity  :  and  having  thus,  in  the  charac- 
ters and  hillory  of  the  moll  celebrated  perfonages, 
found  traces  of  the  hiftory  of  Noah  and  his  family, 
our  author  proceeds  to  inquire  [into  the  memorials 
of  the  deluge  itfelf  to  be  met  with  In  the  hillory 
4  or  religious  rites  of  the  different  nations  of  antiquity. 
1  limr.nics"  We  may  reafonauly  fuppofe  (fays  he),  that  the  par- 
the  de-  tJcuJarj  of  this  extraoi'dinaiy  event  would  be  gratc- 
'i„„l,  fully  commemorated  by  the  patriarch  liimfelf,  and 
I  leatlien  tranfmitted  to  every  branch  of  his  family  ;  that  they 
:  !ii;t;.      vseie  made  the  fubjett  of  domellic   convene,  where 


27    ]  DEL 

the  hiftory  was  often  renewed,  and  ever  attended  with  Deluge. 
a  revevcntlal  awe  arrd  horror,  efpecially  in  thofe  who  '  >  ■' 
had  been  witnelfes  to  the  calamity,  and  had  cxj)erien- 
ced  the  hand  of  Pi-ovldencc  in  their  favour.  In  pro- 
cefs  of  time,  when  there  was  a  falling  off  from  the 
truth,  we  might  farther  expevSl,  that  a  perfon  of  fo 
high  a  charafteras  Noah,  fo  particularly  dillinguidied 
by  the  Deity,  could  not  fail  of  being  reverenced  by 
his  pollerity  ;  and,  when  idolatr)'  prevailed,  that  he 
woidd  be  one  of  the  fii-ft  among  the  fons  of  men  to 
whom  divine  honour's  would  be  paid.  Laflly,  we 
might  conclude,  that  thefe  memorials  would  be  inter- 
woven in  the  mythology  of  the  Gentile  world;  and  that 
there  would  be  continual  allulions  to  thefe  ancient  oc- 
cui-rences  in  the  rites  and  myfleries  as  they  were  prac- 
tifed  by  the  nations  of  the  earth.  In  conformity  to 
thefe  fiippofitions,  I  fliall  endeavour  to  fhow  that  thefe 
things  did  happen  ;  that  the  hillory  of  the  deluge  was 
religioufly  prefer-ved  in  the  firft  ages  ;  that  every  cir- 
cumftaiice  of  it  is  to  be  inet  with  among  the  hillorians 
and  mythologifts  of  different  countries;  and  traces  of 
it  are  to  be  found  particularly  in  the  faci-ed  rites  of  E- 
gypt  and  of  Greece. 

"  It  will  appear  from   many  circumftances  in  the  Various 
more   ancient  writers,    that   the   great   patriarch   wastitiesby 
highly  reverenced  by  hi^  pollerity.      They  looked  up  wl'ich 
to  Irim  as  a  perfon  highly  favoured  by  heaven;  and  ho-^'"^"^  "'„' 
noured  him  with  many  titles,  each  of  which  had  a  ^^.^^'^"'8"'^-'- 
ference  to  fome  particular  part  of  his  hillory.      They 
ftyled  him  Prometheus,.  Deucalion,  Atlas,  Theuth,   Zutb, . 
Xuthus,  Inachus,  Oftr'u.     When   there  began  to  be  a 
tendency  towai'ds  idolatry,  and   the  adoration   of  the- 
fun  was  introduced  by  the  pollei-ity.  of  Ham,  the  title, 
ot  Hethis,    among   others,    was  conferred   upon  him. 
They  called  him  alfo  Muv  and  Ma»,  which  is  the  moon. 
When  colonies  went  abroad,  many  took  to  themfelves 
the  title  of  M'myada  and  Minys  from  him  ;  jult  as  o~ 
thers   were  denominated  Achtcwenuie,  Aiiritie,  HeliaiU, 
from  the  fun.     People  of  the  former  name   are  to  be 
found  in  Arabia  and  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  The 
natives  at  Orchomenos  were   ftyled   Alw.yj:,  as  were 
fome  of  the   inhabitants  of  TheiTaly.      Noah  was  the 
origin.il  Zeus  and  Dios.     He  was  the  planter  of  the 
vine,   and  inventor  of  fermented  liquors :  whence  he 
was  deno.minated  Zeuth,  which  frgnifies  ferment,  ren- 
dered Zeus  by  the    Greeks.      He  was  alfo   called  D'w 
nufis,  interpreted  b)  the  Latins  Bacchus,  but  vei-y  im- 
properly.    Bacchus  was  Chus  the  grandfon  of  Noah  ; 
as  Ammou  may  in  general  be  eileemed  Ham,  fo  much 
reverenced  by  the  Egyptians. 

"  A.T.ong  the  people  of  the  eatl,  the  true  name  of 
the  patriarch  was  preferved  ;  they  called  him  Nojs, 
Naus,  and  fometimes  contracted  Nous  ;  and  many  pla- 
ces of  fandity,  as  well  as  rivers,  were  denominated 
from  him.  Anaxagcras  of  Clazomens  had  obtained 
fome  knov.-lcdge  of  him  in  Egypt.  By  him  the  pa- 
triarch was  der.oininat'-d  h'(,as  or  Nous  ;  and  both  he 
and  his  difciplcs  were  fenlible  that  this  was  a  foreign 
appellation  ;  notwithllandiug  which  he  has  aded  as  if 
it  had  been  a  ternn  of  the  Greek  language.  Eufebius 
infoi-ms  us,  that  the  difciples  of  Anaxagcras  fay,  <  that 
Nous  is  by  interpretation,  the  deity  Dis  or  Dios  ; 
and  they  likewife  elteem  Nous  the  fame  as  Pr-ome- 
thens,  becaufe  he  was  the  renewer  of  mankind,  and 
was  faid  to  have  fafliion.d  them  aeain,'    after  they 

had.  ^ 


DEL  [72 

T).-Iugr-  had  been  in  a  manner  extinct.  After  tliii,  however, 
*'—y~—  },g  gives  a  folution  of  the  Hory  upon  the  fuppofilioii 
that  Nous  is  the  fame  with  the  Greek  word  »».-  the 
mind  ;  that  '  the  mind  wssPrometheia  ;  and  Prometheus 
was  faid  to  ^enew  mankind,  from  new  forming  their 
minds,  and  leading  them,  by  cultivation,  from  igno- 
rance.' 

"  Suidas  has  preferved,  from  fome  ancient  afithor, 
a  curious  memorial  of  this  wonderful  perfonage,  whom 
he  afFefts  to  dillinguilh  from  Deucalion,  and  ftyles 
KamiMus.  According  to  him,  thi*  Nannacus  was 
a  perfon  of  great  antiquity,  and  prior  to  the  time  of 
Deucalion.  He  is  faid  to  have  been  a  king,  who, 
forefeeing  the  approaching  deluge,  colltCled  every 
body  together,  and  led  them  to  a  temple,  where  he 
offered  up  his  prayers  for  them,  accompanied  with 
many  tears.  There  is  likewife  a  proverbial  expreflion 
about  Nannacus  applied  to  people  of  great  anti- 
quity. 

"Stephanus  gives  great  light  to  this  hiftory,  and  fiip- 
plies  many  deficiencies.  'The  tradition  is  (fays  he),  that 
there  was  one  formerly  named  Annacus,  the  extent  of 
whofe  life  was  above  300  years.  The  people  who  were  of 
bis  neighbosrhood  and  acquaintance  had  inquired  of 
an  oracle  how  long  he  was  to  live  :  and  there  was  an 
anfwer  given,  that  when  Annacus  died,  all  mankind 
would  be  deftroyed.  The  Phrygians,  upon  this  ac- 
count, made  great  lamentations,  from  whence  arofe 
the  proverb  to  it.  A-.v^w  xx^i-tiiv,  the  larmntat'wn  fvr 
Annacus,  made  ufe  of  for  people  or  circumftances 
liighly  calamitous.  When  the  flood  of  Deucalion 
came,  all  mankind  were  deftroyed,  according  as  the 
oracle  bad  foretold.  Aflerwai'ds,  when  the  furface  of 
the  earth  began  to  be  again  dry,  Zeus  ordered  Prome- 
theus and  Minerva  to  make  images  of  clay  in  the  form 
of  men:  and,  when  they  were  finilhed,  he  called  the 
winds,  and  made  them  breathe  into  each,  and  render 
them  vital.' 

From  thefe  hiilorics  Mr  Bryant  concludes   as  fol- 
lows :   "  However  the  ftory  may    have   been    varied, 
the  principal  outlines  plainly  point  out  thepeifon  who 
is  alluded  to  in  thefe  hiftories.      It  is,   I   think,  maui- 
fift,  that  Annacus,  and  Nannacus,   and   even   Inacus, 
Tnachus,       ^..Jate  to  Noachus   or   Noah.      And    not  only  thefe, 
^d'p^o"-"'  but  the  hiftories  of  Deucalion  and   Prometheus   have 
r"ethcus,      a  like  reference  to  the  patriarch  ;  in  the   600th  year, 
the  fame      and    not    the    300th,    of  whofe    life  the  waters  pre- 
with  Noah.  ^^^^.^  \moVi  the  earth.      He  was  the  father  of  man- 
kind, who  were  renewed  in  him.     Hence  he  is  repre- 
fented  by  another   author,    under   the    charafter   of 
Prometheus,  as   a  great   artiil,  by   whom   men   were 
formed    anew,    and    were    inftrufted  in   all    that  was 

good. 

"  Noah  was  the  original  Cronus  and  Zeus  ;  though 
the  latter  is  a  title  conferred  fometimes  upon  his  fon 
Ham.  There  is  a  vtrx  particular  expreflion  recorded 
by  Clemens  of  Alexandria,  and  attributed  to  Pytha- 
»roras,  who  is  faid  to  have  called  the  fea  the  tear^  of 
*Cronus  ;  and  there  was  a  farther  tradition  concerning 
this  perfon,  that  he  drank,  or  fwallowed,  up  all  his 
children.  The  tears  of  Ifis  are  reprefented  as  very 
myfterious.  They  are  faid  to  have  flowed  whenever 
the  Nile  began  to  rife,  and  to  flood  the  country.  The 
overflowing  of  that  river  was  the  great  fource  of  af- 
fluence to  the  people,  and  they  looked  upon  it  as  their 


8     1 


DEL 


chief  blefling;  yet  it  was  ever  attended  with  myftical    Drlog; 

tears   and   lamentations.     This   was    particularly    ob-    v — ■ 

ferved  at  Coptos,  where  the  principal  deity  was  Ifis. 
An  ancient  writer  imagines  that  the  tears  and  lamen- 
tations of  the  people  were  to  implore  an  inundation  ; 
and  the  tears  of  Ills  were  fuppofed  to  make  the  river 
fwell.  But  all  this  was  certainly  faid  and  done  in  me- 
morial of  a  former  flood,  of  which  they  made  the  over- 
flowing of  the  Nile  a  type. 

"  As  the  patriarch  was  by  fome  reprefented  as  a 
kin 5  called  Noachus  and  Nauchus ;  fo  by  others  he  was 
ftyled  Inachus,  and  fuppofed  to  have  reigned  at  Argos. 
Hence  Inachus  was  made  a  king  of  Greece ;  and 
Phoroneu!  and  Apis  brought  in  fucccffion  after  him. 
But  Inachus  was  not  a  name  of  Grecian  original  :  it 
is  mentioned  by  Eufcbius,  in  his  account  of  the 
lirft  ages,  that  there  reigned  in  Eg)'pt  Tclegonus,  a 
prince  of  foreign  extraction,  who  was  the  fon  of  Ones 
the  fhepherd,  and  the  feventh  in  defcent  from  Ina- 
chuus.  And  in  the  fame  author  we  read,  tiiat  a  co- 
lony went  forth  from  that  country  into  Syria,  where 
they  founded  the  ancient  city  of  Antioch  :  and  that 
they  were  conduftcd  by  Cafus  and  Belus,  who  were 
fons  of  Inachus.  By  Liachus  is  certainly  meant 
Noah  :  and  the  hillory  relates  to  fome  of  the  more 
early  defcendants  of  the  patriarch.  His  name  has 
been  rendered  veiy  unlike  itfclf,  by  having  been 
lengtliened  with  terminations,  and  likewife  filhioncd 
according  to  the  idiom  of  different  languages.  But 
the  ciicumftances  of  the  hiftory  are  lo  prccile  and  par- 
ticular, that  we  cannot  mifs  of  the  truth. 

"  He  feems  in  the  eail  to  have  been  called  Noas, 
Noafs,  Niifus,  and  Nus ;  and  by  the  Greeks  his  name 
was  compounded  Dhmifus.  The  Amonians,  wherever 
they  came,  founded  cities  to  his  honour :  hence  places 
called  jV«/(j  will  often  occur;  and  indeed -a  gieat  ma- 
ny of  them  are  mentioned  by  ancient  authors.  Thefe, 
though  widely  diftant,  being  fituated  in  countries  far 
removed,  yet  retained  the  fame  original  hiftories ;  and  ' 
were  generally  famous  for  the  plantation  of  the  vine. 
Milled  by  this  fimilarity  of  traditions,  people  in  after 
times  imagined  that  Dionufus  muff  neceffarily  have 
been  where  his  hiftory  occurred  :  and  as  it  was  the 
turn  of  the  Greeks  to  place  every  thing  to  the  account 
of  conqueft,  they  made  him  a  great  conqueror,  who 
went  over  the  face  of  the  whole  eartli,  and  taught 
mankind  the  plantation  of  the  vine.  We  are  informed, 
that  Dionufus  went  with  an  army  over  the  face  of  the 
wliole  earth,  and  taught  mankind,  as  he  paffed  along, 
the  method  of  planting  the  vine,  and  how  to  prefs 
out  the  juice,  and  receive  it  in  proper  veffels.  Though 
the  patriarch  is  reprefented  under  various  titles,  and 
even  thefe  not  always  uniformly  appropriated ;  yet 
there  will  continually  occur  fuch  peculiar  circumftances 
of  his  hiftory  as  will  plainly  point  out  the  perfon  re- 
ferred to.  The  perfon  preferved  is  always  mentioned 
as  preferved  in  an  ark.  He  is  defcribcd  as  being  in  a 
ftate  of  darknefs,  which  is  reprefented  allcgorically  a$ 
a  ftate  of  death.  He  then  obtains  a  new  life,  which 
is  called  a  fecond  birth  ;  and  is  faid  to  have  his  youth 
renewed.  He  is,  on  this  account,  looked  upon  as  the 
firft-born  of  mankind  ;  and  both  his  anteiiiluvian 
and  poftdiluvian  ftates  are  commerr.orated,  and  fome- 
times the  intermediate  ftate  is  alfo  fpokcn  of.  Diodo- 
rus  calls  him  Deucalion ;  but   defcribes  the    deluge  as 

in 


DEL  [    729    ]  DEL 

Driuije-    in  a  manner  univerfal^    '  In  the   deluge  which  hap-     the  archives   of  the   Medes   and    Babylonians 


pened  in  the  time  of  Deucalion,  almoft  all  fleili  died.'     writer  fpeaks  of  Noah,  whom  he  names  Seifilhrus   as  a 

Apollodorus    having    mentioned    Deucalion 

configned  to   the   ark,  takes 

it,   of  his  offering  up   an 

God  who  delivered  him.     As  he  was  the  father  of  all    judge   if  the  flood  had  returned  :   but  that  the  birds' 


This    Delug*. 


r  "-    ""..'■,    ....v...  11.,  utiiiiv.B   i^tiiuiii  us,  ds  a 

Lioned    Dcucahon  ,,  ^»,f,««,,    kmg  ;  and  fays,  that  tlie  flood  began  upon  the  15th 

i  notice,  upon  his  quitting     day  of  the  month  Dcfius  :   that  during  the  prevalence 

immediate  facrifice  to  the     of  the  waters,  Seifithrus  fent  out  birds,  that  he  might 


Deucalion 


mankind,  the  ancients  have  made  him  a  perfon  of 
very  extenfive  rule  ;  and  fuppofed  him  to  have  been  a 
king.  Sometimes  he  is  defcribed  as  a  monarch  of 
the  whole  earth  ;  at  other  times  he  is  reduced  to  a 
petty  king  of  Theffaly.  He  is  mentioned  by  Hclla- 
dias  in  this  latter  capacity  ;  who  fpeaks  of  the  de- 
luge in  his  time,  and  of  his  building  altars  to  the  gods. 
ApoUonius  Rhodius  fuppofes  him  to  have  been  a  na- 
tive of  Greece,  according  to  the  common  notion  : 
but  notwithftanding  his  prejudices,  he  gives  fo  parti- 
cular a  character  of  him,  that  the  true  hillory  cannot 
be  miilaken.  He  makes  him  indeed  the  fon  of  Pro- 
metheus, the  fon  of  Japetus ;  but  in  thefe  ancient  my- 
thological accounts  all  genealogy  mull  be  entirely  dif- 
regarded.  Though  tliis  charafter  be  not  precifcly 
true,  yet  we  may  learn  that  the  perfon  reprefented  was 
the  firll  of  men,  through  whom  religious  rites  were 
renewed,  cities  built,  and  civil  polity  ellabliflied  in  the 
world  :  none  of  which  circumltances  are  applicable  to 
any  king  of  Greece.  We  are  afi^ured  by  Philo,  that 
Deucalion  was  Noah ;  and  the  Chaldeans  likewife 
mentioned  him  by  the  name  of  Xifuthrus,  as  we  are 
informed  by  Cedrenus, 


not  finding  any  rtfting  place,  returned  to  him  again. 
This  was  repeated  three  times  ;  when  the  birds  were 
found  to  return  with  their  feet  ftained  witli  foil  ;  by 
which  he  knew  that  the  flood  was  abated.  Upon  this 
he  quitted  the  ark,  and  was  never  more  fecn  of  men, 
being  taken  away  by  the  gods  from  the  earth.  Aby- 
denus  concludes  with  a  particular,  in  which  the  eafteru 
writers  arc  unanimous  ;  that  the  place  of  dcfcent  from 
the  ark  was  in  Armenia,  and  fpeaks  of  its  remains  be- 
ing preferved  for  a  long  lime.  Plutarch  mentions  the 
Noachic  dove,  and  its  being  fent  out  of  the  ark.  But 
the  mod  particular  hiilory  of  the  deluge,  and  the  near- 
eft  of  any  to  the  account  given  by  Mofes,  is  to  be 
found  in  Lucian.  He  was  a  native  of  Samofata,  a 
city  of  Comagene,  upon  tlie  Euphrates,  a  part  of 
the  world  where  memorials  of  the  deluge  were  par- 
ticularly preferved,  and  where  a  reference  to  that 
hiftory  was  continually  kept  up  in  the  rites  and  worlliip 
of  the  country.  His  knowledge  therefore  was  obtain- 
ed from  the  Afiatic  nations  among  whom  he  was  born, 
and  not  from  his  kinfmen  the  Helladians,  who  were  far 
inferior  iu  the  knowledge  of  ancient  times.  He  de- 
icribes  Noah  under  the  name  of  Deucalion  ;  and  fays, 
'  that   the  prefent  race  of  mankind  ate  different  from 


That  Deucalion    was    unduly   adjudged   by    the        ...-  ^. ^  „.    n.^.i^.i,^  „,^  ^.ucicni.  iiuin 

tohlvcbc' P^'P^*^  °^  '^'^'''^^^y  '°  *'''^'''   '^""ntry   folely,   may  be  thofe  who   firft  exift ed  ;  for  thofe  of  the  antediluvian 

h.nge.l  to    proved  from  his  name  occurring  in  different    parts    of  world  were  all  deftroyed.   The  ptefent  world  is  peooled 

ThtlValy.     the  world,  and  always  accompanied  with  fonie  hiftory  from  the  fons  of  Deucalion  ;  having  increafed  to  fo  great 


of  the  deluge.     The  natives   of  Syria   laid  the  fame 
claim  to  him.      He  was  fuppofed  to  have  founded  the 
temple    at    Hierapolis,  where   was  a   chafm   through 
which  the  waters   after  the  deluge  were  faid  to  have 
retreated.      He  was  likewife    reported   to   have  built 
the  temple  of  Jupiter  at  Athens  ;   where   there   was   a 
cavity  of  the  fame  nature,  and  a  like  tradition,  that  the 
waters  of  the  flood  paffed   off  through  this  aperture. 
However  groundlefs  the  notions  may  be  of  the  waters 
having  retreated  through  thefe  paffages,  yet  they  ftiow 
what   impreffions  of  this  event   were   retained  by  the 
Amonians,  who   introduced  fome  hiftory  of  it  where 
ever  they  came.      As  different   nations  fucceeded   one 
another  i'.i  thefe  parts,  and  time  produced  a  mixture  of 
genei-ations,  they   varied   the    hiftory,  and  modelled  it 
according    to   their    notions   and  traditions ;   yet   the 
ground-work  was  always  true,  and  the  event  for  a  long 
time  univerfally  commemorated       Jofephus,  who  feeins 
to  have  been   a  perfon  of   extenfive   knowledge,   and 
verfed  in  the  hiilorics  of  nations,  fays,  that  this  great 
occurrence  was  to  be  met  with  in  the   writings  of  all 
perfons  who  treated   of  the  firft  ages.      He  mentions 
Eerofus  of  Chaldea,  Heronymus  of  Egypt,  who  wrote 
cencerning  the  antiquities  of  Phenicia;  alfo  Ahiafeas, 
Abydenus,     Melon,     and     Nicolaus    Damafcenus,    as 
writers  by  whom  it  was  recorded  ;  and  adds,  that  it 
was  taken  notice  of  by  many  others. 
Vccounisof      "  Among  the   eaftern   nations,  the    traces  of  this 
he  fled     event  are  more  vivid   and   determinate    than   thofe  of 
niong  the  Greece,  and  more  cr  nformable  to  the  accourts  of  Mo- 
ions.      ^   fi--'-      Eufebius  has  pi  cfcrved  a  moft  valuable  extradl  to 
this  pnrpofe  from  Abvdenus  ;  which  was   taken  from 
Vol.  V.  Part  11.  ' 


S 


I  great 
a  number  from  one  perfon.     In  refpedt  to  the  former 
brood,  they  were  men  of  violence,  and   lavvlefs  in  their 
dealings.       They    regarded    not    oaths,    nor  obfervej 
the    rights  of  hofpitality,  nor  fhowed  mercy  to  thofe 
who  fued   for  it.     On  this  account  they  were    doom- 
ed to   deftruftion  :  and    for    this    purpofe  there     was 
a    mighty    eruption    of   waters    from    the    earth,    at- 
tended with   heavy  ftiowers  from   above;  fo  that  the 
rivers  fwelled,   and   the   fea  overflowed,  till  the  whole 
earth  was  covered  with  a  flood,  and  all  flefli  drowned. 
Deucalion  alone  was  preferved  to  rcpeople   the   worle. 
This  mercy  was  ihown  to  him  on  account  of  his  piety 
and  juftice.      His  prefervation  w  as  eff<.cli.d  in  this  man- 
ner :   He  put  all  his  family,   both  his  fons   and  their 
wives,  into  a  vaft  ark  which  he  had  provided,   and  he 
went  into  it  himlelf.     At   the   fame   time  animals   of 
every  fpecies,   boars,  horfes,   lions,  ferpents,  whatever 
lived  upon  the  face  of  the  earth,  followed  him  by  paiis: 
all  which  he   received   into  the  ark,  and   experienced 
no  evil  from  them  ;   for   there   prevailed   a  wonderful 
harmony  throughout,    by   the   immediate  influence  of 
the  Deity.      Thus  were  th:y  wafted  wiiii  him  as  long 
as  the   flood    endured.'      After   this   he   proceeds   to 
mention,  that,   upon   tht   difappeaiing  of  the  waters, 
Deucalion  went  forth  from  the  ark,  and  raifcd  an  altar 
to  God  ;  but  he  tranlpofes  the  fceiie  to  Plicnif  olis  in 
Syria,   where  the   natives  pretended,   as  has   been    al- 
ready mentioned,  to  have  very  particular  memoiialstif 
the  deluge.  „ 

"   Moft  of  the  authors  who  have  tranfmitttd   to  us  Reniaira  of 
thefe  accounts,  at  the  fame   time  ir 


!orm  us,  that  the'Jjy''  '■'■^ 
remains  of  the  ark  were  to  be  leen  in  thcit  days  on  one{,^j.„' 


4Z 


of  MfiLL-. 


To 
Eoits  or 
Ihips  car 
ricd  in  pro 
ceffioi!  by 
the  Amo- 
riansind 
Egyptiiics. 


DEL  [73 

IVlujre.  of  the  mountains  of  Armenia.  Abydenus  particular- 
ly fays,  in  confirmation  of  this  opinion,  that  the  people 
of  the  country  ufed  to  get  fmall  pieces  of  the  wood, 
which  they  carried  about  by  way  of  amulet.  And  I5e- 
rofus  mentions,  that  they  fcrapeii  off  the  afphaltus  vvitli 
which  it  -.vas  covered,  and  ufed  it  as  a  charm.  Some  of 
the  fathers  feem  to  Inful  on  the  certainly  of  the  ark 
being  ilill  remaining  in  their  time.  Thcophilis  fays 
exprefsly,  that  the  remains  were  to  be  Ictn  upon 
the  mountains  of  Aram,  or  Armenia.  And  Chryfo- 
ftom  appeals  to  it  as  to  a  thing  well  known.  '  Do 
riOt  (fays  he)  thofe  mountains  of  Arm.cnia  bear  wlt- 
nefs  to  the  truth  ?  thofe  mountains  where  the  ark  firft 
reded  ?  And  are  not  the  remains  of  it  preferved  there 
even  unto  this  day  ?' 

"  There  was  3  cuftom  among  the  prlrfts  of  Amon, 
of  carrying  a  boat  in  procefiion  at  particular  feafons, 
in  whicii  was  an  oracular  (hrine  held  in  great  venera- 
tion. They  were  faid  to  have  been  80  in  number, 
and  to  have  carried  the  facted  veil'el  about  jull  as  they 
were,direfted  by  the  impulfe  of  the  Deity.  This  cu- 
£lom  was  likewifein  ufe  among  the  Eeyptians;  and  bi- 
fhop  Pocock  has  preferved  three  fpecimens  of  ancient 
fculpture,  wherein  this  ceremony  is  difplayed.  They 
are  of  wonderful  antiquity,  and  were  found  by Mm  in 
Upper  Egypt.  .  „     r   , 

■   "  Part  of  the  ceremony  in  moft  of  the  ancient  my- 
ileries  confided  in  carrying  about  a  fhip  or  boat;  which 
cuftom,  upon  due  examination,  will  be  found  to  relate 
to  nothing  elfe  but  Noah  and  the  delui;e.     The  fliip  of 
Ifis     is    well    known,     and   the    feftivity    among    the 
Egyptians  whenever  it  was  carried   in   public.     The 
name  of  this,  and  of  all  the  navicular  llirines,  vpas  Ba- 
ris  ;  which  is  remarkable  :   for  it  was  the  very  name  of 
the  mountain,  according  to  Nicolaus  Damafcenus,   on 
which  the  ark  of  Noah  reftcd,   the  fame  as  Ararat  in 
Armenia.   He  mentions,  that  there  is  a  large  mountain 
in   Armenia,  which   ftands  above  the  country  of  the 
MinyjE,  called  Bans;  to  this  it  was   faid  that  many 
peofjle   betook  themfelves  in  the  time  of  the  deluge, 
and  were  faved;   and  there  is  a  tradition  of  one  perfon 
in   particular  floating   in    an    atk,   and  arriving  at  the 
fumm.it  of  the  mountain.     We  may  be  aflured  then, 
that  the  fliip  of  Ills  was  a  facfed  emblem  ;  in  honour 
of  which  there  was   among   the    Egyptians  an  annual 
feftival.     It  was   in  after  times  admitted  among  the 
Romans,  and  fet  down  In  their  kalendar  for  the  month 
of  March.     The  former,  in   their  defcn'ptlon   of  the 
primary  deities,  have  continually  fome   reference  to  a 
"fhip    or    float.       Hence   we    frequently   read    of   ©"' 
muri\x<nT!c  (failing  gods).     They  oftentimes,  fays  Por- 
phyry, defcribe  the  fun  in  the  charafter  of  a  man  lad- 
ing upon  a  float.     And  Plutarch  obferves  to  the  fame 
purpofe,  that  they  did  not  reprefent  the  fun  and  the  moon 
in  chariots,  iu!  •wqfted  about  upon  f.oat'mg  machines.      In 
doing  which  they  .did  not  refer  to  the  luminaries,  but 
to  a  perfon  rcprefented  under  thofe  titles.  The  fun,    or 
Orus,  i5  likewlfe  defcrlbed  by  Jamblichusas  fitting  up- 
on the  lotus,  and  failing  in  a  veflel. 
1       "  It  is  faid  of  Sefoftris,  that  he  conftruAed  a  fhip 
which  was   280  cubits   in  length.      It  was  of  cedar, 
plated  without  with  gold,  and   inlaid  with  filver  ;  and 
it  was,  when  finiihed,  dedicated   to  Ofiris  at  Thebes. 
It  is  not  credible  that  there  fhould  have  been  a  fliip  of 
tbis  ijze,  efpecially  in  aa  inland  diftrift,  the  molt  re- 


n 

"Wonderfii' 
Jhip  of  Sc' 
fofliris  ex- 
plained. 


o    ]  DEL 

mote  of  any  ifi  Egypt.  It  was  certainly  a  temple  and  Delujre. 
a  fhrine.  The  former  was  framed  upon  this  large  »  "^ 
fcale  ;  and  it  was  the  latter  on  which  the  gold  and  fiU 
ver  were  fo  lavilhly  expended.  There  is  a  remarkable 
circumllanre  relating  to  the  Argonautic  expedition ; 
that  the  dragon  flaln  by  Jafon  was  of  the  fize  of  a 
trireme  ;  by  which  miifl  be  meant,  that  it  was  of  the 
fliape  of  a  fhip  In  general,  for  there  were  no  triremes 
at  the  time  alluded  to.  And  I  have  moreover  fhown, 
that  all  thefc  dragons,  as  they  have  been  rcprefented  by 
the  poeta,  were  in  reality  temples,  Draconfui;  where, 
among  other  rites,  the  worfhip  of  the  ferpent  was  In- 
llituted.  There  is  therefore  reafon  to  think,  that  tliis 
temple,  as  well  as  that  of  Sefoftris,  was  fadiioned,  Irt 
refpett  to  Its  fuperficial  contents,  after  the  model  of 
a  fhip  ;  and  as  to  the  latter,  it  was  probably  intended, 
in  its  outlines,  to  be  the  exaft  repreieutation  of  the 
ark,  in  commemoration  of  which  it  was  certainly  built. 
It  was  a  temple  facred  to  Ofiiis  at  Theba  ;  or,  to  fay 
the  truth,  it  was  itfelf  called  Theha  ;  and  both  the 
city,  faid  to  be  one  of  the  mofl  ancient  in  Egypt,  as 
well  as  tlte  province,  was  undoubtedly  denominated 
from  it.  Now  Theha  was  the  name  of  the  ark.  It  is 
the  very  word  made  ufe  of  by  the  facied  writer ;  fo 
that  we  may,  I  think,  be  affured  of  the  prototype 
after  which  this  temple  was  faiTiioned.  It  is  faid  indeed 
to  have  been  only  280  cubits  in  length  ;  whereas  ths 
ark  of  Noah  was  300.  But  this  is  a  variation  of  only 
one-lifteenth  in  the  whole :  and  as  the  ancient  cubit 
was  riot  In  all  countries  the  fame,  we  may  fuppofe  tliat 
this  difparity  arofe  rather  from  the  manner  of  mea- 
furing  than  from  any  real  difference  in  the  extent  of 
the  building.  It  was  an  idolatrous  temple,  faid  to 
have  been  built  by  Sefoftris  in  honour  of  Oliris.  I 
have  been  repeatedly  obliged  to  take  notice  of  the  ig- 
norance of  the  Greeks  in  refpeft  to  ancient  titles, 
and  have  fliown  their  mifapplication  of  terms  in  many 
inftances ;  efpecially  in  their  fuppollng  temples  to  have 
lieen  erefted  by  perfoiis  to  whom  they  were  in  reality 
facred.  Sefoftris  was  Ofirls ;  the  fame  as  Dionufus, 
Menes,  and  Noah.  He  is  called  Seifithrus  by  Abyde- 
nus ;  Xtxouthros  by  Berofus  and  ApoUodorus ;  and  is 
reprefented  by  them  as  a  prince  in  whofe  time  the  de- 
luge happened.  He  was  called  Zuth,  Xutk,  and  Zeus  ; 
and  had  certainly  divine  honours  paid  him.  j^ 

"  Paufanias  gives  a  remarkable  account  of  a  temple  Other  em* 
of  HerciJes  at  Eruthra  in  Ionia  ;  which  he  mentions  biematical 
as  of  the   highelt   antiquity,  and   very  hke   thofe  off^P"''"'*" 
Egj'pt.      The  deity  was  reprefented  upon  a  float,  a"d  ',  •  j^_' 
was  fuppofed  to  have  come  thither  in  this  manner  from 
Phenlcla.      Ariftides  mentions,  that  at  Smyrna,   upon 
the  fenft  called  Dtonyfia,  a  fhip  ufed  to  be  carried  in 
procelfion.     The   fame  cuftom  prevailed   among  the 
Athenians  at  the  Panathensa  ;  when  what  was  termed 
the  facred  fhip  was  borne  with  great  reverence  through 
the   city   to  the  temple  of  Dameter  at  Eleufis.     At 
Phalerus,  near  Athens,  there  were  honours  paid  to  an 
unknown  hero,  who  was  reprefented  in  the  ftern  of  3 
fhip.      At  Olympia,  the  moft  facred  place  in  Greece, 
was  a   reprefentation   of   the   like   nature.      It  was  a 
building  like   the   fore-part  of  a  fnip,  which  ftood  fa- 
cing the  end  of  the  Hippodromus  ;  and  towards  the 
middle  of  it  was  an  altar,  upon  which,  at  the  renewal 
of  each  Olympiad,  certain  rites  were  performed. 

"  I  think  it  is  pretty  plain  that  all  tbefe  emblema- 
r  ticai 


DEL 


[     73'     ] 


DEL 


rielugf.  tical  reprefentations,  of  which  I  have  given  fo  many 
-nr— '  inllanccs,  related  to  the  liiftoiy  of  the  deluge,  and 
the  confervatioii  of  one  family  in  the  ark.  This  hi- 
ftoiv  was  pretty  recent  when  thcfe  works  were  exe- 
cuted in  Eg\'pt,  and  when  the  rites  were  firll  ella- 
biirtied  ;  and  there  is  reafon  to  think,  that  in  early 
times  moil  Ihrines  of  the  Mizraim  were  formed  under 
the  refemblance  of  a  (hip,  in  memory  of  this  great 
event.  Nay,  farther,  both  fliips  and  temples  received 
their  names  from  thence  ;  being  ftylcd  by  the  Greeks, 
who  borrowed  largely  from  Egypt,  K""*  and  N?.^,  and 
mariners  Naurai,  Nautie,  in  refe;ence  to  the  patriarch, 
who  was  vaiioufly  flylcd  Kom,  N'otis,  and  Noah, 

"  However  the  Greeks  may,  in  their  myfleries,  have 
fometimes  introduced  a  (hip  as  a  fymbol,  yet  in  their 
references  to  the  deluge  itfelf,  and  to  the  perfons  pre- 
fervcd,  they  always  fpeak  of  an  ark.  And  though 
they  were  apt  to  mention  the  fame  perfon  under  va- 
rious titles,  and  by  theie  means  difTerent  people  fecni 
to  be  made  principals  in  the  fame  hiftory  ;  yet  they 
were  fo  far  uniform  in  their  account  of  this  particular 
event,  that  they  made  each  of  them  to  be  expofed  in 
an  ark.  Thus  it  is  faid  of  Deucalion,  Perfeus,  and 
Uionufus,  that  they  were  expofed  upon  the  waters  in 
a  machine  of  this  fabric.  Aconis  was  hid  in  an  ark 
by  Venus,  and  was  fuppofcd  to  have  been  in  a  ilate  of 
death  for  a  y;;ar.  Thcoeiltiis  introduces  a  paftcral 
perfonage  named  Comates,  who  was  expofed  in  an  ark 
tor  the  fame  term,  and  wonderfully  preferved.  Of 
Oiiris  being  expofed  in  an  ark  we  have  a  very  remark- 
able account  in  Plutarch  ;  who  menti<ms,  that  it  was 
on  account  of  Typhoii,  and  that  it  happened  on  the 
1 7th  of  the  month  Athyr,  when  the  fun  was  in  Scor- 
pio. This,  in  my  judgment,  was  the  precife  time 
when  Noah  entered  the  ark,  and  when  the  flood  came, 
which,  in  the  Egyptian  mythology,  was  called  Ty- 
phon. 

"  Typhon  is  one  of  thofe  whofe  charafler  has  been 
greatly  confounded.  This  has  arilen  from  two  dif- 
ferent perfonages  being  included  under  one  name,  who 
Vndoubtedly  were  diftinguifhed  in  the  language  of  E- 
gypt.  Typhon  was  a  compound  of  Tuph  or  Tupha- 
On  ;  and  iignified  an  high  altar  of  the  Deity.  There 
were  feveral  fuch  in  Egypt,  upon  which  they  offered 
human  facrifices  ;  and  the  cities  which  had  thefe  al- 
tars were  ftyled  Typhonum.  But  there  was  another 
Typhon,  who  was  vei-y  dilftrcnt  from  the  former,  how- 
ever by  miflake  blended  with  that  charafter.  By  this 
was  Iignified  a  mighty  whirlwind  and  inundation  :  and 
it  oftentimes  denoted  the  ocean  ;  and  particularly  the 
ocean  in  a  ferment.  For,  as  Plutarch  obferves,  by 
Typhon  was  underftood  any  thing  violent  and  unruly. 
It  was  a  derivative  from  Tuph,  like  the  former  name  ; 
which  Tuph  fecms  here  to  have  been  the  fame  as  the 
Suph  of  the  Hebrews.  By  this  tliey  denoted  a  whirl- 
wind ;  but  among  the  Egyptians  it  was  taken  in  a 
greater  latitude,  and  fignitied  any  thing  boillerous, 
particularly  the  fea.  Plutarch  fpeaks  of  it  as  denoting 
the  fea  ;  and  fays  likewife,  that  the  lalt  of  the  lea 
was  called  the  foam  of  Typhon.  It  fignified  alfo  a 
whirlwind,  as  we  learn  from  Euripides,  who  exprefies 


13 
EtI  lana- 
tion  of  the 
Word  ^y. 
pbon. 


it  Tuphos  ;  and  the  like  is  to  be  found  In  Hcfychlus,    Dclure. 
who  calls  it  a  violent  wind.  -^~V~~" 

"  'I'he  hlHory  of  Typhon  was  taken  from  hiero- 
glyphical  defcriptiona.  In  thefe  the  dove,  obia!,  wa? 
repiefentcd  as  hovering  over  the  muruLine  egg,  which 
was  expofed  to  the  fury  of  Typhon  :  For  an  egg, 
containing  in  it  the  elements  of  life,  was  thought  no 
improper  emblem  of  the  ark,  in  wliicli  were  preferved 
the  rudiments  of  the  future  world.  Hence  in  the 
Dionufiaca,  and  in  other  myftcrios,  one  part  of  the 
noftiirnal  ceremony  confifted  in  the  confecration  of  an 
*&L'-  l^y  ^''''>  35  ^'^  ^'"'^  informed  by  Porphyry,  was 
iignified  the  world.  This  world  was  Noah  and  his  fa- 
mily ;  even  all  mankind,  inclofed  and  preferved  in  the 
ark. 

"  In  refpecl  to  Typhon,  it  mnft  be  confeffed  that 
the  hiftory  given  of  him  is  attended  with  fome  obfcu- 
rity.  The  Grecians  have  comprehended  feveral  cha- 
ratters  under  one  term,  which  the  Egyptians  undoubt- 
edly diftinguifhed.  The  term  was  uled  for  a  title  aa 
well  as  a  name  ;  and  feveral  of  thofe  perfonages  which, 
had  a  relation  to  the  deluge  were  ilyled  Typhonian  or 
Diluvian.  All  thefe  the  Grecians  have  included  un- 
der one^  and  the  fame  name  1  yphon.  The  real  deity 
by  whom  the  deluge  was  brought  upon  the  earth  had 
the  appellation  of  Typhonian,  by  which  was-  meant 
DUuvii  Dciis  (a).  It  is  well  known  that  the  ark  was 
conllrufted  by  a  divine  commiflioa  ;  in  which,  when 
it  was  completed,  God  inclofed  the  patriarch  and  his 
family.  Hence  it  is  faid,  that  Typhon  made  an  ark 
of  curious  workmaniliip,  that  he  might  difpofe  of  the 
body  of  Cfiris.  Into  this  Ofiris  entered,  and  was  Ihut 
up  by  Typhon.  All  this  relates  to  the  Typhonian 
deity  who  inclofed  Noah,  together  with  his  family, 
within  the  hmits  of  an  aik.  The  patriarch  alfo,  who 
was  thus  interefted  in  the  event,  had  the  title  of  Ty- 
phonian. I  have  fhown  that  the  ark  by  the  mytho- 
logills  was  fpoken  of  as  the  mother  of  mankind.  The 
ftay  in  the  ark  v^'as  looked  upon  as  a  ilate  of  death 
and  of  regeneration.  The  padage  to  life  was  throiigli 
the  door  of  the  ark,  which  was  formed  in  its  fide. 
Through  this  the  patriarch  made  his  defcent  ;  and  at 
this  point  was  the  commer.cemcnt  of  time.  This  hi- 
ftory is  obfcurcly  alluded  to  in  the  account  of  Typhon  ; 
of  whom  it  is  faid,  that  without  any  regard  to  time 
or  place,  he  forced  a  paffage  and  buril  into  light  ob- 
liquely through  the  fide  of  his  mother.  1  his  return 
to  light  was  defcribed  as  a  revival  from  the  grave  ;  and 
Plutarch  accordingly  mentions  the  return  of  Ofuis 
from  Hades,  after  he  had  been  for  a  long  feafon  in- 
cloitd  in  an  ark  and  in  a  ifate  of  death.  This  re- 
newal of  life  was  by  the  Egyptians  efteemed  a  fecond 
ifate  of  childhood.  They  accordingly,  in  their  hie- 
roglyphics, defcribed  him  as  a  boy,  whom  they  placed 
upon  the  loto;;  or  water-lily,  and  called  him  Orus.  He 
was  the  fuppofed  fon  of  Ifis  ;  but  it  has  been  (liown 
thai  Ifis,  Rhea,  Atargatis,  were  all  emblems  of  the 
ark,  that  receptucle  wliich  was  ftyled  the  mother  of 
mankind.  Orus  is  reprefented  as  undergoing  from 
the  Titans  all  that  Ofuis  fuifered  from  Typhon  ;  and 
the  hiftoiy  at  bottom   is  the   fame.     Hence  it  is  faid 

4  Z  2  "^         iM 


(.1)   "  Plutarch  owns  that  the  Egyptians  in  fome  inftances  efteemed  Typhon  to  be  no  other  than  Helius  the 
chief  deity  ;  and  they  were  in  the  right,  though  he  will  not  allov^  it.'^ 


DEL 


Deluge. 


nieiin  me 


[     73 

of  Ifis,  that  fhe  had  the  power  of  making  people  im- 

^— ^^ mortal ;  and  that  when  (lie  found  her  fon  Orus,  in  the 

midit  of  the  waters,  dead  through  the  malice  of  the 
Titans,  fte  not  only  gave  him  a  renewal  of  life,  but 
alfo  conferred  upon  him  immortality." 

In  this  manner  does  our  author  decypher  almoft  all  the 
ancient  fables  of  which  no  fatisfaftory  folution  was  ever 
o-ivtn  before,  lie  (ho.vs  that  the  primitive  gods  of  E- 
gypt,  who  were  in  number  eight,  were  no  other  than  the 
eight  perfons  faved  -in  the  ark  ;  that  almoil  all  the 
^  heathen   deities   had   one   way  or  other  a  reference  to 

Noah.  He  (hows  that  he  was  charatterifed  under  the 
titles  of  Janus,  Nereus,  Proteus,  Cannes.  Dagon, 
&c.  &c.  and  in  fliort,  that  the  deluge,  fo  far  from  be- 
ing unknown  to  the  heathens,  or  forgot  by  them,  vvas 
in  a  manner  the  bafis  of  the  whole  of  their  woiftiip. 
He  traces  the  liiftor)'  of  the  raven^and  dove  itnt  forth 
by  Noah  in  the  cuitoms  of  various  nations,  not  only 
in  the  eaft  but  the  weft  alfo.  Of  the  nuraberlefs  te- 
ftimonies  of  the  truth  of  this  part  of  facred  hiftory  to 
be  met  with  among  the  wellern  nations,  however,  we 
ihall  feltft  one  more,  which  is  an  ancient  coin  ufually 
Account  of  known  by  the  name  of  the  Jpamean  medal.  "  Tlie 
the  Af^■  learned  Falconerius  (fays  Mr  Bryant)  has  a  cu- 
rious diffcrtation  upon  a  coin  of  fhihp  the  Elder, 
which  was  ftruck  at  Apamea  (b),  and  contained 
on  its  reverie  an  epitome  of  this  hiftory.  The  re- 
verfe  of  moil:  Afiatic  coins  relate  to  the  rehgion  and 
mythology'  of  the  places  where  they  were  llruck.  On 
the  reverfe  of  this  coin  is  delineated  a  kind  ot  Iquare 
machine  floating  upon  water.  Through  an  opening 
in  it  are  feen  two  perfons,  a  man  and  a  woman,  as  low 
as  the  breaft  ;  and  upon  the  head  of  the  woman  is  a 
veil.  Over  this  ark  is  a  triangular  kind  ef  pediment, 
on  which  there  fits  a  dove  ;  and  below  it  another, 
which  feems  to  flutter  its  wings,  and  hold  in  its  mouth 
a  fmall  branch  of  a  tree.  Before  the  machine  is  a 
man  following  a  woman,  who  by  their  attitude  feem 
to  have  juft  quitted  it,  and  to  have  got  upon  dry  laiid. 
Ufion  the  ark  itfelf,  underneath  the  perfons  there  in- 
clofed,  is  to  be  read  in  diftind  characters,  np.e.  Tlie 
learned  editor  of  this  account  fays,  that  it  had  fallen 
to  his  lot  to  meet  with  three  of  thefe  coins.  They 
were  of  brafs,  and  of  the  medallion  fize.  One  of 
them  he  mentions  to  have  feen  in  the  coOcdion  of  the 
Duke  of  Tufcany  ;  the  fecond  in  that  of  the  Cardi- 
nal Ottoboni  ;  and  tlie  third  was  the  property  of  Au- 
guflino  Chigi,  nephew  to  Pope  Alexander  VII." 
«v.L.„u„.  Not  content  with  thefe  teilimonies,  however,  which 
ol  ihe  Hoed  are  to  be  met  with  in  the  weilern  regions,  or  at  leall 
-"  '"  ""'  in  thofe  not  very  far  to  the  ealtward,  our  author  ihows 
that  "  the  farae  mythology  (of  the  Egyptians),  and 
the  fame  hieroglyphics,  were  carried  as  lar  as  Cluna 
and  Japan  ;  where  they  are  to  be  found  at  this  day. 
The  Indians  have  a  perfon  whom  they  call  Buto  or 
Budo.  This  IS  the  fame  as  Boutus  of  Egypt,  Battus 
of  Cyrene,  and  Boeotus  of  Greece.  The  account  gi- 
ven of  him  is  fimilar  to  that«of  Typhon  ;  for  it  is  faid 
that  he  did  not  come  to  life  in  the  ufual  way,  but 
made  himfelf  a  paiTage  through  the  tide  of  his  mother ; 
which  mother  is  reprefented  as  a  virgin.     This  hiilory. 


] 


DEL 


Accounts 


to  be  met 
with  in 

China  and 
Japan. 


though  now  current  among  the  Indians,  is  of  great  D«l"g'. 
antiquity,  as  we  may  learn  from  the  account  given  of  *  "" 
this  perlonage  by  Clemens  Alexandrinus.  '  There  is 
a  call  of  Indians  (fays  he)  who  are  difciples  of  Bou- 
tas.  This  perfon,  on  account  of  his  extraordinary 
fanftity,  they  look  up  to  as  a  god.'  The  name  of  Bou- 
tas,  Battus,  and  Bceotus,  though  apparently  confer- 
red upon  the  patriarch,  yet  originally  related  to  the 
machine  in  which  he  was  prefcrved.  Of  this  forae 
traces  may  be  found  among  the  Greeks.  One  of  the 
Amonian  names  for  the  ark  were  Aien  and  Arene  ; 
and  Boeotus  is  faid  by  Diodorus  Sicuhis  to  have  been 
the  fon  of  Neptune  and  Arne,  which  is  a  contrattiou 
of  arene  the  ark.  The  chief  city,  Boutus  in  Egypt, 
where  v.'as  the  floating  temple,  iignitied  properly  ll.c 
city  of  the  float  or  ark.  The  Bceotiaiis,  who  in  the 
Dionufiaca  fo  particularly  commemorated  the  ark,  were 
fuppofed  to  be  defcended  from  an  imaginary'  perfonage, 
Bceotus ;  and  from  him  likewife  their  country  was 
thought  to  have  received  its  name.  But  Boeotus  v/as 
merely  a  variation  from  Boutus,  and  Butus,  the  ark  ; 
which  in  ancient  times  was  indifferently  flyled  Theba, 
Argus,  Aren,  Butus,  and  Boeotus.  The  term  Cibo- 
tus  is  a  compound  of  the  fame  purport,  and  figniiies 
both  the  temple  of  the  ark  and  alfo  a  place  for  (hip- 
ping. 

"  All  the  myfleries  of  the  Gentile  world  feem  to  have 
been  memorials  of  the  deluge,  and  of  the  event  which 
immediately  fucceeded.     They  confilled  for  the   moil 
part   of  a   melancholy   prccefs ;   and   were  celebrated 
by  night  in   commemoration  of  the  ilate  of  darknefs 
in   which  the  patriarch  and  his  family  had  been  invol- 
ved.    The  firil  thing  at  thofe  awful  meetings  was  to 
offer  an  oath  of  fecrecy  to  all  who  were  to  be  initiated: 
after  which  tliey  proceeded  to  the  ceremonies.     Thele 
began  with  a  defcription  of  chaos  :   by  wiiich  was  fig-        rrt 
nified  fome  memorial  of  the   deluge.      Chaos  was  cer-  Explaiia. 
tainly  the  fame'  as  /SfS^.  the  great  abyfs.  Who,  fays  'l""  "^  , 
Epiphanius,  is  fo  ignorant  as  not  to  know,  that  Chaos  ^^^^^ 
and  Buthos,  the  abyfs,  are  of  the  fame  pui-port  ? 

"  The  names  of  the  deities  in  Japan  and  China,  and 
the  form  of  them,  as  well  as  the  mythology  with  which 
they  are  attended,  point  out  the  country  from  whence 
they  originally  came.  In  Cnina  the  deity  upon  the 
lotos  in  the  midft  of  waters  has  been  long  a  favourite 
emblem,  and  was  imported  from  the  well.  The  iii- 
figne  of  the  dragon  vvas  from  the  fame  quarter.  The 
Cuthites  wordiipped  Cham,  the  fun  ;  whole  name  they 
varioufly  compounded.  In  China  molt  things  which 
have  any  reference  to  fplendor  and  magnificence,  fcera 
to  be  denominated  from  the  fame  objeft.  Cham  is 
faid,  in  the  language  of  that  country,  to  fignify  any 
thingy://r«ffi-.  Cum  is  a  fine  building  or  palace,  fimi- 
lar to  Coma  of  the  Amonians.  Cum  is  a  lord  or  ma-: 
fter  ;  Cham  a  fceptre.  Laftly,  by  Cham  is  fignified  a 
prieft,  analogous  to  the  Chamanim  and  Chamenim  of 
Cutha  and  Babylonia.  The  country  itfelf  is  by  the 
Tartars  called  Ham.  The  cities  Cham-ju,  Campion, 
Compition,  Cumdan,  Chamul,  and  many  others  of  the 
fame  form,  are  manifeltly  compounded  of  the  facred 
term  Cham.     Cambalu,   the  name  of  the  ancient  me- 

tropohs, 


'■b)  Our  author  had  before  fhown  that  the  ancient  name  of  Apamea  was  Cibotiis,  one  of  the  names  of  the 


DEL 


tropolis,  is  the  city  of  Cliam-bal  ;  and  Milton  ftylfs  it 
very  jjropcrly  Cambatil,  Je.it  of  Cuthaum  Chan.  By 
tliis  ib  meant  the  chief  city  of  the  Cutheaii  monarch; 
for  Chan  is  a  derivative  of  Cahen,  a  prince.  It  fcems 
fornetimes  in  China  and  Japan  to  have  been  exprefl'ed 
Quan  and  Qulho. 

"  Two  temples  are  taken  notice  by  Hamelton,  near 
Syrian  in  Pegu,  which  he  repiefents  as  io  lilie  in  Itiuc- 
ture,  that  they  fcemed  to  be  buih  on  the  fame  model. 
One  of  thcfe  was  called  Kiaklack,  or  the  God  of  Goils 
tanple.  i  he  other  is  called  the  temple  of  Dagutt  ;  and 
the  doors  and  windows  of  it  arc  perpetually  Ihut,  fo  that 
none  can  enter  but  the  prieiis.  They  will  not  tell  of 
what  (hapc  the  i<li)l  is,  but  only  fay  that  ii  is  not  of  a 
human  form.  The  former  deity,  Kiakiack,  is  repre- 
fented  as  afleep,  of  a  human  ihapc,  and  60  feet  long  ; 
and  when  he  awakes,  the  world  is  to  be  dcftroyed.  As 
foon  as  Kiakiack  has  difTolved  the  frame  and  being  of 
this  world,  Dagun  will  gather  up  the  fragments,  and 
make  a  new  one.  I  miike  nodaubt  but  ;he  true  name 
of  the  temple  was  lacb-Iach,  and  dedicated  to  the 
fame  god  as  the  Jachuh  in  J.ipan.  Mr  Wife  takes  no- 
tice of  the  Grecian  exclamation  to  Dionufus,  when  the 
terms  Icicche,  0  laccbe,  weie  repeated  :  and  he  fuppofes, 
with  great  probabihty,  that  the  Peguan  name  had  a 
reference  to  the  fame  deity.  It  is  certain,  that  the 
worfliip  of  Dionufus  prevailed  very  early  among  the 
nations  in  the  eall.  The  Indians  ufed  to  maintain, 
that  his  rites  lirft  began  among  them.  Profelfor  Bay- 
er has  fhown,  that  traces  of  his  worlhip  are  Hill  to  be 
obferved  among  the  Tamuli  of  Tranquebar.  '  They 
have  a  tradition  (fays  he),  that  there  was  once  a  gigan- 
tic perfon  named  Lltiida/luren,  who  was  born  at  Nifa- 
dabura  near  the  mountain  Meru.  He  had  the  horns 
of  a  bull,  and  drank  wine  and  made  war  upon  the  gods. 
He  was  attended  by  eight  Pudam,  who  vveie  gigantic 
and  mifchievous  dajmons,  of  the  family  of  thole  Indian 
(hepherds  called  Kohakr.''  In  this  account  we  have 
a  manifeil  reference  to  the  hillory  of  Dionufuj,  as 
well  as  that  of  the  Dionulians,  by  whom  his  rites  were 
introduced.  And  we  may  perceive,  that  it  bears  a 
great  refemblance  to  the  accounts  tranimitted  by  the 
Grecians.  What  are  thefe  Kobaler,  who  were  de- 
fcended  from  the  fhephcrds,  but  the  fame  as  the  Coba- 
li  of  Greece,  the  unilorm  attendants  upon  Dionufus  J 
a  fet  of  pricfts  whofe  cruelty  and  chicanery  rendered 
them  infamous.  '  The  Cabali  (fays  an  ancient  au- 
thor) were  a  fet  of  cruel  du^mons,  who  followed  in 
the  retinue  of  Dionufus.  It  is  a  term  made  ufe  of  for 
knaves  and  cheats.' 

"  As  the  deity,  in  the  fecond  temple  of  Syrian, 
to  which  (Irangers  were  not  admitted,  was  not  of  a  hu- 
man form,  and  was  called  Daguii,  we  may  ealily  con- 
ceive the  hidden  charafter  under  which  he  was  dcferi- 
bed.  We  may  conclude,  that  it  was  no  other  than 
lliat  mixed  figure  of  a  man  and  a  filh,  under  which  he 
waa  of  old  worOiipped  b.>th  in  Paleftine  and  Syria. 
He  is  cxpreffed  under  this  fymbolical  rcprefentation  in 
many  parts  of  India  ;  and,  by  the  Bramins  is  called 
IViftiiou  or  Vi/hnou.  Dagon  and  Vifhnou  have  a  like 
reierence.  They  equally  reprelent  the  man  of  the  lea 
called  by  Beroius  Oannes ;  whofe  hiftory  has  been  re- 
verfed  by  the  Indians.  They  fuppofe  that  he  will  re- 
fture  the  world,  when  it  ftall  be  dellroyed  by  the  chief 
God.     But  by  Dagon  is  figuilicd  the  very  perfon  thro' 


r  733  ] 


DEL 


whom  the  earth  has.  been  already  rellorcd  when  it  was  Debpr. 
in  a  ftate  of  ruin  ;  and  by  whom  mankind  was  renew-  v~~" 
ed.  Dagon  and  Noah  1  have  Ihown  to  be  the  fame 
Viihnou  is  reprefented,  like  Dagon,  under  the  mixed 
figure  of  a  man  and  a  filh,  or  rather  of  a  man,  a  prince- 
ly figure,  proceeding  from  a  iifh.  The  name  of  this 
dilliiil,  near  which  the  temples  above  iland,  we  find 
to  be  called  Syrian.;  juil  as  was  named  the  region 
where  Hood  the  temples  of  Atargatus  and  Dagon.  Sy- 
rus,  Syria,  and  Syrian,  are  all  of  the  fame  purport,  and 
fignify  Cceleltis  and  Solaris,  from  Sehor,  the  fun." 

Our  author  next  pioceeds  to  defciibe  fome  of  the 
Indian  temples  or  pagodas  ;  particularly  thofe  of  Sal- 
fctte,  Eliphanta,  and  another  called  Elora  near  Au- 
rangeabad  in  the  province  of  Bilagate,  which  was  vilit- 
cd  by  Thevenot.  That  traveller  relates,  that  "  upo:i 
making  diligent  inquiiy  among  the  natives  about  the 
origin  of  theie  wonderful  buildings,  the  conltant  tra- 
dition was,  that  all  thefe  pagodat,  great  and  fmall,  with 
all  their  woiks  and  ornaments,  were  made  by  giants; 
but  in  what  age  they  could  not  tell." 

"  Many  of  thefe  ancient  ftruftures  (continues  Mr 
Bryant)  have  been  attributed  to  Ramfcander,  or  Alex- 
ander the  Great;  but  there  is  nothing  among  thefe 
flately  edifices  that  in  the  leall  favours  of  Grecian 
woikmanlhip  ;  nor  had  that  monarch,  nor  any  of  the 
princes  after  him,  opportunity  to  perform  works  of 
this  nature.  We  have  not  the  leait  reafon  to  think 
that  they  ever  pofTcfTed  the  country  ;  for  they  were 
called  oH"  from  their  attention  this  way  by  feuda  and 
engagements  nearer  home.  There  is  no  tradition  of 
this  country  having  been  ever  conquered  except  by  the 
fabulous  armies  of  Hercules  and  Dionufus.  What  has 
led  people  to  think  that  thefe  works  were  the  operation 
of  Alexander,  is  the  fimllitude  of  the  name  Ramtxander. 
To  this  peifon  they  have  fornetimes  been  attributed; 
but  Ramtxander  was  a  deity,  the  fuppofed  fon  of  Bal ; 
and  he  is  introduced  among  the  perlonages  who  wete 
concerned  in  the  incarnations  of  Viflinou. 

"  The  temple  of  Elora,  and  all  the  pagodas  of 
which  I  have  made  mention,  mull  be  of  great  antiquity, 
as  the  natives  cannot  reach  their  era.  They  were  un- 
doubtedly the  work  of  the  Indo-Cuthites,  who  came 
fo  early  into  thefe  parts.  And  that  thefe  ftruftures 
were  formed  by  them,  will  appear  from  many  circum- 
flances ;  but  eipecially  from  works  of  the  fame  magni- 
ficence which  were  performed  by  them  in  other  places. 
Eor  fcarce  any  people  could  have  cffefted  fuch  great 
works,  but  a  branch  of  that  family  which  ere>Scd  the 
tower  in  Babylonia,  the  walls  of  Balbec,  and  the  pyra- 
mids of  Egypt." 

Having  then  defcribed   a   number  of  Eaft   Indian 
idols  of  furpriling  magnitude,  "  the  Babylonians  and 
Egyptians  (fays  he),  and  all  of  the  fame  great  family, . 
ufed  to  take  a  pleafure  in  formi.ig  gigantic  figures,  and 
exhibiting    other    reprefentitions   equally    ftupendous. 
Such   were   the    colollal   ftatues   at   Thebes,   and  the 
fphinx  in  the  plains  of  Coume.     The  ftatus  ereftcd. 
by  Nebuchadnezzar  in   the  plains  of  Dura,  was   in . 
height   threcfcore  Babylonifli   cubits.     It  was   proba- 
bly raifcd  in  honour  of  Ch.intf  the  fun  ;  and  perhaps  it 
was  alfo  dedicated  to  the  head  of  the  Chaldaic  family;, 
who    was    deified,    and    reverenced    under    that   title. 
MarccUinni  takes  notice  of  a  ftatue  of  Apollo  named 
Comais  ;   which,  ia  tlie  time  of  the  emperor  Verus,  wai 

brought'. 


I     734    1  DEL- 

Delrge.    brouglit  from  Seleucia  to  Rome.     This  related  to  the     fliore,  near  tlie  village  of  Toma.     About  a  quarter  of    Dduge. 

a  German  mile  before  you  come  to  this  village  Hands  ~~"v— ^ 
a  famous  temple  of  the  god  Abutto  ;  which  is  faid  to 
be  very  eminent  for  miraculoufly  cuiing  many  invete- 
rate dillempcrs,  as  alfo  for  procuring  a  wind  and  good 
paflage.  For  this  reafon,  failors  and  paflcngers  al- 
ways tie  fume  farthings  to  a  piece  of  wood,  and  throw 
it  into  the  fca,  as  an  offering  to  this  Abutto,  to  obtain 
a  favourable  wind.  The  fame  deity,  but  under  a 
different  name,  w^s  worthipped  in  China.  The  Apis, 
Mneuis,  and  Anubis  of  Egypt,  have  often  been  men- 
tioned and  explained  as  well  as  the  Minotaur  of  Crete. 
Tlie  fame  hieroglyphics  occur  in  Japan  ;  and  we  are 
informed  by  Marco  Polo,  that  the  inhabitants  vvorlliip 
idols  of  diflerent  fhapes.  Some  have  the  head  of  an 
ox,  fome  of  a  fwlne,  and  others  the  head  of  a  dog. 
The  mofl  common  reprefcntation  in  this  country  is 
that  of  Goilfo  Ten  Oo,  or  '  the  ox-headed  prince  of 
heaven.' 

"It  has  alieady  been  taken  notice,  that  the  ark  was 
rcpretented  under  the  lymbol  of  an  egg,  called  the 
mundane  egg  ;  w  hich  was  expoltd  to  the  rage  of  U'y- 
phon.  It  was  alfo  defcribed  under  the  figure  of 
a  lunette,  and  called  Ss-lene,  the  moon.  The  pcrfon 
by  whom  it  was  framed,  and  who  tlirougjj  its  means 
was  providentially  preferved,  occurs  under  the  cha- 
rafter  of  a  fteer,  and  the  machine  itfelf  under  the 
femblance  of  a  cow  or  heifer.  We  have  moreover 
been  told,  that  it  was  called  Cibotiu,  which  Clemens 
of  Alexandria  calls  Thibotha.  Epiphanius  mestions  it 
by  the  name  of  Itlaal  B.nlh;  and  fays  that,  accordina- 
to  an  eailern  tradition,  a  perfon  named  Nun  was  pre- 
ferved in  it.  'I'lic  horfe  of  Neptune  was  another  em- 
blem, as  was  alfo  the  hippopotamus  or  river-hotfe. 
The  people  of  Elis  made  ufe  of  the  tortoife  foe  the 
fame  purpofe,  and  reprefented  Venus  as  refling  upon 
its  back.  Some  traces  of  thefe  hieroglyphics  are  to  be 
found  in  Japan,  which  were  certainly  carried  thither  by 
the  Indie  Ethiopians. 

"  From  an  account  of  a  temple  of  Daiboth  (probably 
the  fame  with  Daibod)  at  Meaco  in  Japan,  we  may 
perceive,  that  the  people  there  fpeak  of  the  renewal 
of  the  world  at  the  deluge  as  the  real  creation,  which 
I  have  fiiown  to  be  a  common  miftakc  in  the  hiftorics 
of  this  event.  And  though  the  ilory  is  told  with  fome 
variation,  yet  in  all  the  circumllances  of  confequence 
it  accords  veiy  happily  with  the  mythology  of  Egypt, 
Syria,  and  Greece.  It  matters  not  how  the  embitms 
have  by  length  of  time  been  miflntei-preted.  We  have 
the.  mundane  egg  upon  the  waters,  and  the  concomi- 
tant fymbol  of  tlie  moon  ;  and  the  egg  at  lift  opened 
by  the  aiUilance  of  the  facred  fteer,  upon  which  the 
world  iflues  forth  to  this  day."  The  author  proceeds 
afterwards  to  mention  the  great  veneration  paid  in 
thefe  parts  to  the  ox  and  cow  ;  and  fays,  that  nobody 
dares  injure  them.  One  deity  of  the  Japancfe  was 
Canon,  the  reputed  lord  of  the  ocean.  He  was  repre- 
fented in  an  erect  pofture,  crowned  with  a  flower,  and 
ccmiing-  out  of  the  mouth  of  a  filb.  He  is  reprefented 
Jiiftory  of  this  perfon,  however  varied,  we  may  per-  in  the  fame  manner  by  the  natives  of  India,  and  named 
ceive  a  relation  to  the  arkite  deity  of  the  fea,  called  Vl/hnoiitZinA  Mtuauter;  and  he  is  to  be  found  in  other 
Pofeiilon  or  Neptune;  alfo  to  Arculus  and  Dionufus,     parts  of  the  Eaft.      Father  Boulhet  mentions  a  tradi-  _ 

llyled  Bceotus  and  Thdanus.  Ksmpfer  has  a  curious  tion  among  the  Indians  concerning  a  flood  in  the  days 
hiftory  of  a  deity  of  this  fort  called  Alulto ;  whofe  of  Vilbnou  which  covered  the  wiiole  earth.  It  is 
temple  flood  in  the  province  of  Bungo,  upon  the  fca-     moreover  reported  of  him,  that  feeing  the  ptevalence 


DEL 

brought  from  Seleucia  to  Rome, 
fame  deity  as  the  preceding.  We  may  alfo  infer,  that 
the  temple  at  Kamju  was  erefled  to  Cham  the  fun, 
whom  the  people  worlhipped  under  the  name  of  Sumo- 

It  is  remai'kable,  th?.t  in  Japan  the  priefts  and  no- 
bility have  the  title  of  Caml.    The  emperor  Quebacon- 
dono,  in  a  letter  to  the  Portuguefe  viceroy,  1585,  tells 
liira,  that  Japan  is  the  kingdom  of  Chamis  ;  whom, 
fays  he,  we  hold  to  be  the  fame  as  Sdn,  the  origin  of 
all  things.     By  Scin  is  probably  meant  San,  the  fun  ; 
who   was  the   fame   as   Cham,  rendered  here  Chamis. 
The  laws  of  the  country  arc  fpoken  of  as  the  laws  of 
Chamis  ;  and   we  are   told  by  Ksmpfer,  that  all  the 
gods  were  ftyied  either  Sin  or  Cam:.     The  founder  of 
-the   empire   is  fald  to   have   been    Tenjio  Dai  Sin,  or 
•'  Tenflo  the   god  of  light."     Near  his  temple  w-as  a 
cavern  rellgioully  vifited,  upon  account  of  his  having 
been   once  hid  when   no  fun  nor  liars  appeared.      He 
was  efteemed  the  fountain  of  day,  and  his  temple  was 
called  ;/'f /iv.j^.r  of  Niiiku.     Near  this  cavern  was  ano- 
ther temple,  in  which  the  canufl  or  priells  fhowed  an 
image  of  the  deity  fitting  upon  a  cow.     It  \^as  called 
Dainits  No  Ray,  "  the  great  reprefcntation  of  the  fun." 
One   of  their  principal   gods  is  Jatiif,  iimllar  to  the 
lacchus  of  the  Weft.      Ksempfer  fays,  that  he  is  the 
Apollo  of  the  Japancfe,   and  they  defcribe  him  as  the 
Egyptians  did  Orus.      His  temple   flands  in   a  town 
called  Minnoki:  and  Jakuii  is  here  reprefented  upon  a 
gilt  tarate  flovN-er  ;  which  is  faid  to  be  the  nymph.ga  pa- 
Injlrii  maxima,  or  f aba  JEvyptiaca   of  Profper  Alpinus. 
One  half  of  a  large  fcallop  fhell  is  like  a  canopy  placed 
over  him  ;  and  his  head  is  furrounded  with  a  crown  of 
rays.      They  have  alfo  an   idol  named  Menipbe,  much 
reverenced   in  different  parts.     Both  thefe,  continues 
our    author,   relate  to  the  fame   perfon,   ^'/■^.   Noah. 
Ksempfer,  an  author  of  great  credit,  faw  the  temple 
of  Dabys,  which  he  truly  renders  Daibod,  at  Jedo  in 
Japan.       By    Dai-Bod   was    meant    the    god-  Budha, 
■whofe  religion  was  ftyled  the  Budfo,  and  which  pre- 
vailed   gieatly  upon  the  Indus  and  Ganges.     Kaemp- 
fer,   from   whom  Mr  Bryant  takes  this  account,  fays, 
that    the  people   of  Siain    reprefent   him    under  the 
form  of  a  INIoor,  in  a  fitting  pofture,   and  of  a  prodi- 
gious fize.      His   fliin    is  black,   and   his   hair  curled 
(probably  woolly),  and  the  images  about  him  are  of 
the  fame  complexion.    "  This  god  was  fuppofed  (fays 
Mr  Br)'ant)   to  have  neither  father   nor  mother.     By 
Budha   we   are  certainly  to  undertfand  the  idolatrous 
fyanbol  called  by  fome  nations  BudJo;  the  fame  as  ylr- 
gus  and  Thcha  (names  for  the  ark).      In  the  mytholo- 
gy concerning  it,  we  may  fee  a  reference  both  to  the 
machine  itfelf  and   to   the  perfon  prefei-ved  in  it.      In 
confequence  of  which  we  find  this  perfon  alfo  ftyled 
Bod,  Budha,  and  Buddo;  and  in  the  Wefl  Butiis,  Batius, 
and  Buotus.      He  was  faid  by  the   Indians  not  to  have 
been  born   in  the  ordinaiy  way,  but  to  have  come  to 
light  indirectly  through  the  fide  of  his  mother.      By 
Clemens  of  Alexandria  he  is  called  Bouta:  and  in  the 


Delufc 


i3 


I>    E    L  [     735     ]  DEL 

of  the  waters,  he  made  a  float ;  and  being  turned  into  accounts  afford  tlie  fame  hilloiy  as  has  been  given 

a  fifh,  he  fteered  it  with  his  tall.     This  perfon,  in  tlie  above. 

account  of  the  Banians  by  Lord,  is  called  ^/ranw  ;  "  As  the  family  of  Noah  confilled  of  eight  perfons 
whicli  certainly  (hould  be  expreffed  Mi-n-Noiv.  It  is  inchifive,  there  have  been  writers  who  liave  pisced 
faid,  that  in  the  Khafter  of  this  people,  a  like  hiftory  fonie  of  fhera  in  fucceffion,  and  fiippofed  that  there 
is  given  of  the  earth  being  overwhelmed  by  a  deluge,  were  three  or  four  perfons  who  reigiicd  between  Sin- 
in  which  mankind  perifhed  ;  but  the  world  was  after-  Noo  and  Hopm.  But  Du  Halde  favs,  that  in  the 
wards  renewed  in  two  perfons  called  Menou  and  Cete-  true  hiftories  of  the  country,  the  three  firil  monarchs 
roiipa.  Vilhnou  is  defcribed  under  many  charadters,  were  Fohi,  Chin-Nong,and  Hoam,  whom  he  ttyles 
wliieh  he  is  faid  at  times  to  have  aiTumed.  One  of  Hoang-T't.  To  thefe,  he  fays,  the  arts  and  fciences 
thefe,  according  to  the  bramlns  of  Tanjour,  was  that  owe  their  invention  and  progrefs.  Thus  we  find 
of  Rama  Sami.  This  undoubtedly  is  the  fame  as  Sama  that  thofe  who  were  heads  of  families  hav^  been  raifed 
Rama  of  Babylonia,  only  reverfed  :  and  it  relates  to  to  be  princes  ;  and  their  names  have  been  prefixed  to 
that  great  phenomenon  the  Iris  ;  which  was  generally  the  lifts  of  kings,  and  their  hillory  fuperadded  to  the 
accompanied  v/ith  the  dove,  and  held  in  veneration  by  annals  of  the  country.  It  is  further  obfervable,  in  the 
tlie  Semarim.                       _       _  accounts  given  of  thofe  fuppofed  kings,  that  their  term 

"  As  the  hlRory  of  China  is  fuppofed  to  extend  up-  of  life,   for  the  Hrft.  iive  or  lix  goneration.i,  coirefponds 

wards  to  an  amazing  height,  it  may  be  worth  while  to  with  that  of  the  patriarchs  after  the  flood,  and  decrea- 

confider  the  firil  eras  in  the  Chincfe  annals,  as  they  are  fes  much  in  the  fame  proportion. 

reprefented  in  the  writings  of  Japan:  for  the  Japanefe         "  The  hirtoiy  of  Japan  is  divided  into  three  eras ;  Hiftory 

have  prefervtd  hiilories  of  China  ;  and  by  fuch  a  coUa-  which  confift  of  gods,  demigods,   and   mortals.     The  "'^J^P*'^* 

tion,   I  believe  no  fmall  light  may  be  obtained  towards  perfon  whom  the  natives  look   upon   to   be  the  real 

the  difcovery  of  fome  important  truths.   Hitherto  it  has  founder  of  their  monarchy  is  named  5)'«;;i(/,-   in  whofe 

not   been    obferved    that    fuch   a    collation   could    be  reign   the  Sintoo  religion,    the   moft  .^nclent  of  the 

made.  _  _  country,  was  introduced.      It   was  called  S'm-sju  and 

"  In  the  hiftories  of  this  country,  the  firft  monarch  Chami-mufa ;  from  Sin  and  Chami,  the  deities  which  ' 
of  China  is  named  Foki ;  the  fame  whom  the  Chinefe  were  the  objefts  of  worfliip.  At  this  time  it  is  faid 
call  Foh'i,  and  place  at  the  head  of  their  lift.  This  that  600  foreign  idols  were  brought  into  Japan.  To 
prince  had,  according  to  fome,  the  body,  according  to  the  Sintoo  religion  was  afterwards  added  the  Budfo,  to- 
others the  head,  of  a  ferpent.  If  we  may  believe  the  gether  with  the  worfhip  of  Armida.  This  deity  they 
Japanefe  hillorians,  he  began  his  reign  above  2 1,000  commonly  reprefented  with  the  head  of  a  do",  and 
years  before  Cliriil.  The  fecond  Chinefe  emperor  was  efteemed  him  the  guardian  of  mankind.  This 
Sin- Noo,  by  the  people  of  China  called  5/n  A^H/«;  and  ligion  was  more  complicated  than  the  former 
many  begin  the  chronology  of  the  country  with  him.  abounded  with  hieroglyphical  reprefentations  and  ray 
He  is  fuppofed  to  have  lived  about  3000  years  before  ftcrious  rites.  It  is  the  fame  which  I  have  termed 
Chrift;  confequently  there  is  an  interval  of  near  18,000  \.)\t  Arkite  IJulatry,  wherein  the  facred  fteer  and  cow" 
years  between  the  firft  emperor  and  the  fecond  ;  a  cir-  were  venerated-  The  deity  was  reprefented  upon 
cumftance  not  to  be  credited.  The  third,  who  imme-  the  lotus  and  upon  a  tortoife,  and  oftentimes  as 
diately  fucceeded  Sin-Noo,  was  Hoam-Ti.  In  this  proceeding  from  a  fifti.  In  this  alfo,  under  the  cha- 
account  we  may,  I  think,  perceive,  that  the  Chinefe  rafter  of  Budha,  we  may  trace  innumerable  memorials 
have  afted  like  the  people  of  Greece  and  other  re-  of  the  ark,  and  of  the  perfon  prefei-ved  in  it.  The 
gions.  The  hiftories  which  were  imported  they  have  author  above,  having  mentioned  the  eleventh  emperor 
prefixed  to  the  annals  of  their  nation  ;  and  adopted  inclufive  from  Syn  Mu,  tells  us,  that  in  his  time  thefe 
the  firft  perfonages  of  antiquity,  and  made  them  mo-  rites  began.  '  In  his  reign  Eudo,  othervvife  called 
narchs  in  their  own  country.  M^hom  can  we  fuppofe  Kobotus,  came  over  from  the  Indies  to  Japan  ;  atij 
Fohi,  with  the  head  of  a  ferpent,  to  have  been,  but  brought  with  him,  upon  a  white  horfe,  his  religion 
the  great  founder  of  all  kingdoms,  the  father  of  man-  and  doftrines.'  We  find  here,  that  the  objeft  of  wor- 
kind  ?  They  have  placed  him  at  an  immenle  diftance,  ftiip  is  made  the  perfon  who  introduced  it  (a  miftake 
not  knowing  his  true  era.  And  I  think  we  maybe  ahnofl  uuiverfally  prevalent)  ;  otherwife,  in  this  fliort 
affured,  that  under  the  charafter  of  Sin  Num  and  Sin-  account,  what  a  curious  hiftory  is  unfolded! 
Noo  we  have  the  hiftory  of  Noah;  and  Haam-Ti  was  "  The  only  people  to  whom  we  can  have  recourfe 
no  othei  than  Ham.  According  to  Kaempfer,  Sin-  for  any  written  memorials  concerning  thefe  thino-s  are 
Noo  was  exaftly  the  fame  charafter  as  Serapis  of  E-  the  inhabitants  of  India  Proper.  Thcv  were,  "wc 
gypt.  '  He  was  an  huft)andman,  and  taught  mankind  find,  the  perfons  who  inti-oduced  thefe  hieroirlvphics 
agriculture,  and  thofe  arts  which  relate  to  the  im.me-  both  in  China  and  Japan.  It  will  therefore  be  worth 
diate  fupport  of  life.  He  alfo  difcovered  the  virtues  while  to  confider  what  they  have  tianfmittcd  concci-n- 
of  many  plants  ;  and  he  was  reprefented  with  the  head  ing  their  religious  opinions  ;  as  wc  may  from  hence 
ef  an  ox,   and  fomctimes  only  with  two  horns.      His  obtain  ftill  greater  light  towards  explaining  this  fvm- 

bolical  worihip.      Every  manifeftation  of  God's  good- 
ncls  to  Tfl'e  world  was  in  the  firft  ages  exprei'led  by  an 


re- 

and 


pifture  is  held  in  high  eftimation  by  the  Chinefe.'  Well 
indeed  might  Kjenipfer  think,  that  in  Sin-Noo  he  faw 
the  charafter  of  Serapis  ;  for  this  perfonage  was  no 
ether  than  Sar-Apis,  the  great  father  of  mankind,  the 
fame  as  Men-Neuas  of  Egypt,  the  fame  alfo  as  Diunu- 
fus  and  Ofiris.  By  Du  Halde  he  is  called  Ch'm-Nong, 
and -made  the  next  monarch  after  Fohi 


hieroglyphic ;    and   the   Deity    was    accordingly    de 


fcrlbed    under  various    forms,  and   in   different   atti- 
tudes.    Thefe  at  length  were  miftaken  for  real  tranf- 
figuralions ;   and  Viflinou   was   fuppofed   to   have   ap- 
Thc  Chinefe     peared  in  different   ftiapts,  which  were  ftyled  incarna^ 

tion:. 


"De'uge. 


19 

Acci'imt  of 

the  cofmo- 
pory  and 
deluge 
given  by 
the  Pariec! 


DEL  [ 

lions.  In  one  of  thefe  he  is  reprefented  under  the 
figure  before  mentioned,  of  a  princely  perfon  coming 
out  of  a  fi(h.  In  another  lie  appears  with  the  head 
of  a  boar,  treading  upon  an  evil  demon,  which  feems 
to  be  the  fame  as  the  Typhon  of  the  Egyptians.  On 
his  head  he  fupports  a  lunette,  in  which  are  feen  cities, 
towers,  in  (liort,  all  that  the  world  contains.  In 
Baldsus  we  have  a  delineation  and  hiftory  of  this  in- 
carnation. Kircher  varies  a  little  in  his  reprefenta- 
tion,  yet  gives  him  a  fimilar  figure  of  the  Deity,  and 
ityles'him  Fi/hriou  Barachatir.  By  this  I  (hould  think 
was  fignified  Vifhnou,  "  the  offspring  of  the  fifli." 
The  bramins  fay,  that  there  was  a  time  when  the  fer- 
pent  with  a  thoufand  heads  withdrew  itfelf,  and  would 
not  fuppoit  the  world,  it  was  fo  overburdened  with 
fin.  Upon  this  the  earth  funk  in  the  great  abyfs  of 
waters,  and  mankind  and  all  that  breathed  perifhed. 
But  Vifiinou  took  upon  himfelf  the  form  above  de- 
fcribed,  and  diving  to  the  bottom  of  the  fea,  lifted  up 
the  earth  out  of  the  waters,  and  placed  it,  together 
with  the  ferpent  of  a  thoufand  heads,  upon  the  back 
of  a  tortoife. 

"  In  the  third  volume  of  M.  Perron's  Zendavefta, 
there  is  an  account  given  of  the   cofmogony   of  the 
Parfees  ;  aUb  of  the  lubfcquent  great  events  that  en- 
fued.     The  fupreme  Deity,  called  by  him   Otm'ij'da, 
is  faid  to  have  accomplifhed  the   creation   at  fix  dif- 
ferent intervals.      He  firll  formed  the  heavens  ;   at  the 
fecsnd    the    waters ;   at  tlie   third   the   earth.     Next 
in  order  were  produced  the  trees  and  vegetables:   in 
the  fifth   place  were  formed  birds  and  fifhes,  and  the 
wild  inhabitants  of  the  woods ;   and  in  the  fixth  and 
laft  place,  he  created   man.     The  man  thus  produced 
is  faid  to  have  been  an  ox-l'tke  perfon,  and  is  defcribed 
as  confining  of  a  purely  divine    and  a    mortal    part. 
For  forae  time  after  liis  creation  he  lived  in  great  hap- 
pinefs  ;  but  at  laft  the  world  was  corrupted  by  a  dje- 
mon  named  Ahriman.      This  dn=mon  had  the   boldnefs 
to  vifit  heaven;  whence  he  came  down  to  the  earth  in 
the  form  of  a  ferpent,  and  introduced  a  fet  of  wicked 
beings,  called  karfefters.      By  him  the  firll  ox-like  per- 
fonao-e,  called  Moudud,  was  fo  infefted  that  he  died  ; 
after  which  Kaiomorts,   probably   the  divine  part,  of 
which  the  ox  was  the  reprefentative,  died  alfo.      Out 
of  the  left  arm  of  the  dcceafed  proceeded  a  being  call- 
ed Gofihoi-aim,  who  is  faid  to  have  raifed   a  cry  louder 
than  the  (hout  of  1000  men.   After  fon-.e  converfation 
between  the  fupreme  Deity  and   Gofchoraun,  it  was 
determined  to  pnt  Ahriman  to  flight,  and  to  deftroy 
all  thofe  wicked  perfons  he  had  introduced  ;  for  there 
now  feemcd  to  be  an   univerfal  oppofition  to  the  Su- 
preme Deity  Ormifda.     At  this  feafon  a  fecond  ox- 
like  perfonage  is  introduced  by  the  name  of  Tafchter. 
He  is  fpoken  of  both  as  a   ftar  and  a  fun.     At  the 
fame  time  he   is  mentioned  as  a  perfon  upon   earth 
under  three  forms.      By  Tafchter  is  certainly  fignified 
Dc  JJltt'i- ;   the   fame   perfon  whom  the  Greeks   and 
Syrians  reprefented  as  a  female,  and  called  AJlarte.  She 
was  detcvibed  horned,  and  fonictimes  with  the  head  of 
a  bull  ;  fuppofe J  to  proceed  from  an   egg;  and  they 
eiteemed   her  the   fame  as  Juno  and  the    moon.      At 
laft  it  was  thought  proper  to  bring  an  univerial  inun- 
dation over  the  face  of  the  earth  ;  that   all   impurity 
juight  b,e  wailicd  away  :   which  being  accomplilhed  by 
Tafchter,  every  living  creature  periflied,  and  the  earth 


736     1  DEL 

was  for  fome  time  entirely  covered.  At  laft,  the  wa-  Deluire. 
tcrs  retreating  within  their  proper  bounds,  the  moun-  '  ■  "'  v  ' 
tain  of  Albordi  in  Fcrakh-kand  firft  appeared  ;  which 
the  author  compares  to  a  tree,  and  fuppofes  that  all 
other  mountains  proceeded  from  it.  After  this  there 
was  a  renewal  of  the  world  ;  and  the  earth  was  reftored 
to  its  priftine  ftate.  The  particular  place  where  Or- 
mifda planted  the  gerniina  from  whence  all  things 
were  to  fprlng,  was  Ferakh-kand  ;  which  feems  to  be 
the  land  of  Arach  ;  the  country  upon  the  Araxes  in 
Armenia." 

Thus  we  have  given  an  ample  fpecimen  of  this  very 
ingenious  author's  method  of  reafoning,  and  difcover- 
ing  traces  of  the  facred  hiilory  even  in  things  which 
have  been  thought  leaft  to  relate  to  it.  That  the 
Greeks  and  weftern  nations  had  fome  knowledge  of 
the  flood,. has  never  been  denied  ;  and  from  what  has 
been  already  related,  it  appears  that  the  fame  has  per- 
vaded the  remoteft  regions  of  the  eaft.  The  know- 
ledge which  thefe  people  have  of  the  fall  of  man,  and- 
the  evil  confequences  which  enfued,  cannot,  according 
to  our  author,  be  the  confequences  of  their  intercourfe 
with  Chriftians  ;  for  their  traditions  afford  neither  any 
traces  of  Chriftianity  nor  its  founder.  Whatever  truths 
may  be  found  in  their  writings,  therefm-e,  muft  be  de- 
rived from  a  more  ancient  fource.  "  There  are  (favs 
he)  in  every  climate  fome  ftiattered  fragments  of  ori- 
ginal hiftory  ;  fome  traces  of  a  primitive  and  univerfal 
language  :  and  thefe  may  be  obferved  in  the  names 
of  deities,  terms  of  worfliip,  and  titles  of  honour,  which 
prevail  among  nations  widely  feparated,  who  for  ages 
had  no  connc6tion.  The  like  may  be  found  in  the 
names  of  pagodas  and  tempLs ;  and  of  fundry  other 
objefts  which  will  prefent  thcmfelves  to  the  traveller. 
Even  America  would  contribute  to  this  purpofe.  The 
more  rude  the  monuments,  the  more  ancient  they  may 
poflibly  prove,    and  afford  a  greater  light   upon  in- 

1"'''>-"  .  ....  ao 

Tlie  accounts  hitherto  met  with  in  this  continent,  ^j^^fj^n 

indeed,  are  far  from  being  equally  authentic  and  fatis- accounts  of 
fadtory  with  thofe,  hitherto  treated  of.  In  A  carta's '-he ''''"g*- 
hiftory  of  the  Indies,  however,  we  are  informed,  that 
the  Mexicans  make  particular  mention  of  a  deluge  in 
their  country,  by  which  all  mm  were  drowned.  Ac- 
cording to  them,  one  Viracocha  came  out  of  ihc  great 
lake  Titicaca  in  their  country.  This  ptrfon  ilaid  in 
Tiaguanaco,  where  at  this  day  are  to  be  feen  the  ruins 
of  fome  ancient  and  very  ftrange  buildings.  From 
thence  he  came  to  Cufco,  where  mankind  began  to 
multiply.  They  fliow  alfo  a  fmall  lake,  where  they 
fay  the  fun  hid  hinilelf ;  for  which  reafon  they  facri- 
fice  largely  to  him,  both  men  and  other  animals. — 
Hennepin  informs  us,  that  fome  of  the  favages  are  of 
opinion,  that  a  certain  fpirit,  called  Oikon  by  the  Iro- 
quois, and  Aiahauia  by  thofe  at  the  mouth  of  the  ri- 
ver St  Laurence,  is  the  Creator  of  the  world ;  that 
Mtjfou  repaired  it  after  the  deluge.  They  fay,  that 
this  Melfou  or  Olkon,  being  a  hunting  one  day,  his 
dogs  I'jft  themfclves  in  a  great  lako,  which  theieupon 
ovei  flowing,  covered  tlie  whole  earth  in  a  (lioit  lime, 
and  fvvall.  Aved  up  the  world.  According  to  Herrera, 
the  people  of  Ciiba  knew  that  the  heavens  and  the 
earth  had  been  created  :  and  faid  they  had  mucli  in- 
formation concerning  the  flood  ;  and  that  the  world 
h;id  been  deftroyed  by  water,  by  three  perfons,  who 
I  came 


DEL  [7 

Dttluge.  came  throe  feveral  ways.  Gabriel  de  Cabrera  was 
■"""» —  told  by  a  man  of  more  than  70  years  of  age,  that  an 
old  man,  k cowing  the  dthigc  was  to  rome,  buil:  a 
great  Ihip,  aiid  went  into  it  with  liis  family  and  a- 
bundance  of  animals  ;  that  he  feut  out  a  crow,  which 
did  not  4t  tint  return,  ilaying  to  feed  on  the  carcafes 
of  dead  aniinals,  but  afterwards  came  back  with  a 
green  branch.  He  is  faid  to  have  added  other  par- 
ticular's nearly  confonant  to  the  Mofaic  account,  as 
far  as  Noah's  fons  covering-  him  when  drunk,  and  the 
other  fcoffing  at  it.  The  Indians,  he  faid,  defcended 
fi-om  the  latter,  and  therefore  had  no  clothes  ;  but 
the  Spaniards  defcending  from  the  former,  had  both 
clothes  and  horfes. — Tlie  fanic  aiuiior  likewife  informs 
us,  that  it  was  reported  by  the  inhabitants  \^f  Caftilla 
del  Oro  in  Ter .a  I'irma,  that  when  the  univeifal  de- 
luge happened,  one  man  with  his  wife  and  children  efca- 
ped  in  a  canoe,  and  that  from  them  the  world  was  peo- 
pled. The  Peruvians,  according  to  our  author,  like- 
wife  affirmed,  that  they  had  received  by  tradition  front 
their  anceilors,  that,  many  years  before  there  were 
any  incas  or  kings,  when  the  countiy  was  very  po- 
pulous, there  happened  a  great  flood  ;  the  fca  break- 
ing out  beyond  its  bounds,  fo  that  the  land  was  co- 
veiicd  with  water,  and  all  the  people  perifhed.  To 
this  it  is  added  by  the  Guancas,  inhabiting  the  vale  of 
Xaufea,  and  the  natives  of  Chiquito  in  the  province 
of  Callao,  that  fome  perfons  remained  in  the  hollows 
and  caves  of  the  h'ghell  mountains,  who  again  peo- 
pled the  land.  Others  afEini,  that  «11  perilbcd  in  a 
deluge,  only  fix  perfons  being  faved  in  a  float,  from 
whom  defcended  all  the  inhabitants  of  that  country. 
In  N  euh(>fF's  voyages  to  Bralil,  wc  are  informed,  that 
the  moll  barbarous  of  the  Brafilians,  inhabiting  the  in- 
land countries,  fcarce  knew  any  thing  of  religion  or 
an  Almigl^y  Being:  they  have  iome  knowledge  re- 
rriaining  of  a  general  deluge  ;  it  being  their  opinion 
that  the  whole  race  of  mankind  were  extirpated  by  a 
general  deluge,  except  one  man  and  his  iiller,  who, 
being  with  child  before,  they  by  degrees  repeopled 
the  world.  M.  Thevet  gives  us  the  creed  of  the  Bra- 
fdians  in  this  matter  more  particularly.  In  the  opinion 
of  thefe  favages,  the  deluge  was  univerful.  They  fay, 
that  Sommaj,  a  Caribbee  of  great  dignity,  had  two  chil- 
dren named  Tamenilrjiiare  and  Ar'uvnle.  Being  of  con- 
trary difpofitions,  one  delighting  in  peace  and  the  other 
in  war  and  rapine,  they  mortally  hated  each  other.  One 
day  Ariconte,  the  warrior,  brought  an  arm  of  an  enemy 
be  had  encountered  to  his  brother,  reproacliing  him 
at  the  fame  time  with  cowai-dice.  The  other  retorted 
by  telling,  that  if  he  iiad  b^en  poflelTed  of  the  valour 
he  boalled,  he  would  have  brought  his  enemy  entire. 
Ariconte  on  this  threw  the  arm  againll  the  door  of 
his  brother's  houfe.  At  that  inilant  the  whole  village 
was  carried  up  into  the  Iky,  and  Tamendonare  ilri- 
klng  (he  ground  with  violence,  a  vafl:  flream  of  water 
ifTued  out  from  it,  and  continued  to  flow  in  (ueh  quan- 
tity, that  in  a  fhort  time  it  feemed  to  rife  above  the 
clouds,  and  the  earth  was  entirely  covered.  The  two 
brothers,  feeing  this,  afcended  the  higheft  mountains 
of  the  country,  and  with  their  wives  got  upon  the 
trees  that  grew  upon  ihein.  By  this  deluge  all  man- 
kind, as  Well  as  all  other  animals,  were  drowned,  ex- 
cept the  two  brothers  above  mentioned  and  their  wives ; 
who  having  dcfeended  when  the  flood  abated,  became 
heads  of  tv.o  difterent  nations,"  &c. 
VoL.V.  Part.  IL 


J,     J  ^         .        »    E    L 

To  thefe  Americas  te(limonic«  wc  may  add  another    I>e!nge. 
from  the  remote  and   uncivilized  island   of  Otaheite.  *~~^ 
DrWatfonf,  in  his  difeourfe  to  the  clergy,   informs      ." 
us,  that  one  of  the   navigators  to  the  fouthern   bemi-,|jj5f|.„j,1 
fphere  having  aflicd   fome  of  the   inhabitants  of  that  Otaheite 
illand    concerning    their    origin,    was  anfwered,  that  »i'<l'lieEa(l 
their   fuprenie   God,   a  long  ti;ne  ago,  being  angry,  '•'^'^''• 
dragged   the  earth  through   the   fea,  and  their  iflandj,,}'.^^"^  ■ 
being  broken   off,  was  prefeived.      In  the  Eall  Indies  p.  loS. 
alfo  we  are  informed  by  DrWatfonf.,  that  Sir  William  \  /^'^. 
Jones,  by  whom  a  fociety  for  the  advancement  of  A-  P-**'- 
iiatic  literature  has  been   inllituted  at   Calcutta,  has 
difcovtred,   that   in   the  oldeft   mythological  books  of 
that  country,  there  is  fuch  an  account  of  the  deluge 
as  correfponds  fufficiently  with  that  of  Mofc3.  j. 

II.  The  fad"t  being  thus  eltablilhed  by  the  iiniverfal  Hypothefcs 
confent  of  mankind,  that  there  was  a  general  deluge  <^''n«rnir/g 
v>hich  overflowed  the   whole  world  ;   it  remaini,  next .   "^."J.'"?' 

1  t  r         Li      1       r  °y  which 

to  inquire,  by  what  means  it  may  realonahly  be  lup-  ,1,^.  dcluae 
pofed  to  have  been  accomplilhed.  The  hypotheies  tuok  jibde. 
on  this  fubjeift  have  been  principally  the  following.  j, 

I.   It  has  been   aiTerted,  that  a  quantity  of  water SupiMilcJ 
was  created  on  purpofe,   and  at  a  proper  time  annihi-'^''^^''°". 


and  annihr 
Ution  of 


lated,  by  divine  power.  This,  however,  befldes  its 
being  abfolutely  without  evidence,  is  direAly  contrary  ,v^tj^, 
to  the  words  of  the  facred  writer  whom  the  aflerters 
of  this  hypochefis  mean  to  defend.  He  exprefsly  de- 
rives the  waters  of  the  flood  from  two  fources  ;  firft, 
the  fountains  of  the  great  deep,  which  he  tells  us  were 
all  broken  up  ;  and  fecondly,  the  windows  of  heaven, 
wliich  he  fays  wers  opened  :  and  fpeaking  of  the  dc- 
creafe  of  the  waters,  he  fays,  the  fountains  of  the 
deep  and  the  windows  of  heaven  were  flopped,  and  the 
waters  returned  continually  from  off  the  earth.  Here 
it  is  obvious,  that  Mofes  was  fo  far  from  having  any 
difficulty  about  the  quantity  of  water,  that  he  thought 
the  fources  from  whence  it  came  were  not  exhaufted  ; 
fince  both  of  them  required  to  be  flopped  by  the  fame 
almighty  hand  who  opened  them,  lell  the  flood  fhould 
iifcreafe  more  than  it  aftually  did.  ,  • 

2.  Dr  Burnet,  in  his  TcUiirls  Tkeona  Sacra,  endea- Tlico: )  of 
vours  to  ftiow,  that  all  the  waters  in  the  ocean  are  Dr  Burnet, 
not  fufTicItnt  to  cover  the  earth  to  the  depth  alfigned 
by  Mofee.  Suppofing  the  fea  drained  quite  dry,  and 
all  the  clouds  of  the  atmofphere  diffolved  into  rain, 
we  fliould  ftill,  according  to  him,  W7.nt  much  the 
greateft  part  of  the  water  of  a  deluge.  To  get  clear 
of  this  difliculty,  Dr  Burnet  and  others  have  adopted 
Defcartes's  theory.  That  philofopher  will  have  the 
antediluvian  world  to  have  been  pcrfeftly  round  and 
equal,  without  mountains  or  valleys.  He  accounts 
for  its  formation  on  mechanical  piinciples,  by  fuppo- 
fing  it  at  ifiil  ill  the  condition  of  a  thick  turbid  fluid 
replete  with  divers  heterogeneous  matters  ;  which, 
fubfiding  by  flow  degrees,  formed  themfelves  into  dif- 
ferent concentric  flrata,  or  beds,  by  the  laws  of  gravi- 
ty. Dr  Burnet  improves  on  this  theory,  by  fuppoling 
the  piimitive  earth  to  have  been  no  more  than  a  Ihcll 
or  cruft  invcfting  the  furface  of  the  water  contained  in 
the  ocean,  and  in  the  central  abyfs  which  he  and  o- 
ihers  fuppofe  to  exifl  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth.  *  At  •See^ij/fj 
the  time  of  tLe  flood,  this  outward  cruft,  according 
to  him,  broke  in  a  thoufand  places  ;  and  cowfequert- 
ly  funk  down  among  the  water,  which  thus  fpouted 
up  in  vatl  cataracts,  and  overflowed  the  whole  iurlace. 
He  fuppofes  ulfo,  that  before  the  flood  there  was  a 
5  .\.  pevfttt 


Delugt. 


'5    , 

Centre  of 

gravity  of 
the  earth 
fupr.ofed  to 
be  Ihifted. 


56 

Mr  Whl- 
ftcn's  theo- 
ry- 


DEL 

perfeA  coincidence  of  the  equator  with  the  ecliptic, 
and  confequeiitly  that  the  aiitedihivl;tn  world  enjoyed 
a  perpetual  fpring  ;  but  that  the  violence  of  the  Ihock 
by  which  the  outer  cruft  was  broken,  (liifted  alfo  the 
pofition  of  the  earth,  and  produced  the  prefent  obli- 
quity of  the  ecliptic.  This  theory,  it  will  be  obfer- 
ved,  is  equally  arbitrary  with  the  former.  But  it  is, 
befides,  direftly  contrary  to  the  words  of  Mofes,  who 
alTuies  us,  that  all  the  high  hills  were  covered  ;  while 
Dr  Burnet  affirms  that  there  were  then  no  hills  in  be- 
ing. 

3.  Other  authors,  fuppofmg  a  fufiicient  fund  of  wa- 
ter in  the  abyfs  or  fea,  aie  only  concerned  tor  an  ex- 
pedient to  bring  it  forth  :  accordingly  fome  have  re- 
courfe  to  a  Ihifting  of  the  earth's  centre  of  gravity, 
which,  drawing  after  it  the  water  out  of  its  channel, 
overwhelmed  the  feveral  parts  of  the  earth  fucceflively. 

4.  The  inquifitive  Mr  Whifton,  in  his  New  Theory 
of  the  Earth,  fliows,  from  feveral  remarkable  coinci- 
dences, that  a  comet  defccnding  in  the  plane  of  the 
ecliptic,  towards   its  perihelion,   paffed  jull  before  the 
earth  on  the  firll  day  of  the  deluge  ;  the  confequences 
whereof  would  be,  firft,  that  this  comet,  when  it  came 
below  the  moon,  would  raife  a  vail  and  flrong  tide, 
both  in  the  fmall  feas,  which  according  to  his  hypo- 
thefis  were  in  the  antediluvian  earth  (for  he  alloivs  no 
great  ocean  there  as  in  ours),  and  alfo  in  the  abyfs 
which  was  under  the  upper  cruft  of  the  earth.     And 
this  tide   would  rife   and  increafe  all  the  time  of  the 
approach  of  the  comet  towards  the  earth ;   and  would 
be  at  its  greateft   height  when   the  comet  was  at  its 
leaft  dirtance  from  it.     By  the  force  of  which  tide, 
as  alfo  by  the  attraftion  of  the  comet,  he  judges,  that 
the  abyfs  mufl  put  on  an  elliptical  figure,  whofe  fuc- 
face  being  conhderably  larger  than  the  former  fpheri- 
cal  one,  the  outward  cruft  of  the  earth,  incumbent  on 
the  abyfs,    muft  accommodate   itfelf  to   that   figiu'e, 
which  it  could  not  do  while  it  held  folid,  and  conjoined 
together.     He  concludes,  therefore,  that  it  mufl  of  ne- 
ceffity  be  extended,  and  at  laft  broke  by  the  violence 
of  the  faid  tides   and  attraftion  ;  out  of  which  the  in- 
cluded water  ilTuing,  was  a  great  means  of  the  deluge: 
this  anfwering  to  what  Mofes  fpeaks   of  the  "  foun- 
tains of  the  great  deep  being  broke  open." — Again, 
the  fame  comet,  he  fhows,  in   its  dcfcent  towards  the 
fun,  pafied  fo  clofe  by  the  body  of  the  earth,  as  to  in- 
volve it  in   its  atmofphere  and  tail  for  a   confiderable 
time  ;  and  of  confcquence  left  a  vail  quantity  of  its 
vapours,  both  expanded  and  condenfed,  on  its  furface  ; 
a    great   part    of  which   being   rarefied  by  the  folar 
heat,  would  be  drawn  up  into  the  atmofphere,   and 
afterwards  return  in  violent  rains :  and  this  he  takes 
to  be  what  Mofes  intimates  by  "  the  windows  of  hea- 
ven being   opened,"  and  particularly  by  the   "  forty 
days  rain."'      For  as  to  the  following  rain,  which  with 
this  made  the  whole  time  of  raining   150  days,  Mr 
Whillon  attributes  it   to  the  earth  coming  a  fecond 
time  within  the  atmofphere  of  the  comet  as  the  comet 
was  on  its  return  from  the  fun.     Lallly,  to  remove 
this  vaft  orb  of  waters   again,  he  fuppoies  a  mighty 
wind  to  have  arifen,  Vi'hich  dried  up  lome,  and  forced 
the  reft  into  the  abyfs  through   the  clefts  by  which 
it  came  up  ;  only  a  good  quantity  remained  in  the  ;d- 
vcus  of  the  great  ocean,  now  firft  made,  and  in  lefler 
fcas,  lakes,  &c.   This  theory  was  at  iirll  only  propofed 


Deluge. 


27 


[     738     1  DEL 

as  an  hypothefis  ;  but,  on  further  confideration,  Mr 
Wliifton  thought  he  could  attually  prove  that  a  comet  - 
did  at  that  time  pafs  very  near  tlie  earth,  and  that  it 
was  the  fame  which  afterwards  appeared  in  i63o.  Af- 
ter this,  he  looked  upon  his  theory  no  longer  as  an 
hypothefis,  but  publiihed  it  in  a  particular  traCl,  en- 
titled, The  Caufe  of  the  Deluge  demonfi rated.  But  the 
uncertainty  of  tlie  comet's  return  in  1758,  and  the 
abfohite  failure  of  that  which  ought  to  have  appeared 
in  1788  or  1789,  niuft  certainly  render  Mr  Whifton's 
calculations  for  fuch  a  length  of  time  extremely  dubious; 
and  the  great  fimilarity  between  the  tails  of  comets 
and  ftreams  of  eleftric  matter  renders  his  fuppofition  of 
their  being  aqueous  vapours  exceedingly  improbable. 

5.  According  to  Mr  dc  la  Pryme,  the  antediluvian  Theory  o£ 
world  had  an  external  fea  as  well  as  land,  with  moun-  Mr  de  U 
tains,  rivers,  &c.  and  the  deluge  was  efl'edted  by  break-  "T"^*- 
ing  the  fubterraneous  caverns,  and  pillars  thereof,  with 
dreadful  earthquakes,  and  caufing  the  fame  ts  be  for 
the  moft  part,  if  not  wholly,  abforbed  and  fwallowcd 
up,  and  covered  by  the  feas  that  we  now  have.  Lall- 
ly, this  earth  of  ours  arofe  out  of  the  bottom  of  the 
antediluvian  fea  ;  and  in  its  room,  jull  as  many  idands 
are  fwallowed  down,  and  others  thruft  up  in  their  ilcad. 
On  this,  as  on  all  the  other  hypothcfes,  it  may  be  re- 
marked, that  It  is  quite  arbitrary,  and  without  the  leall 
foundation  from  the  words  of  Mofes.  The  facred  hi- 
ftorian  fpeaks  not  one  word  of  earthquakes,  nay,  from 
the  nature  of  the  thing,  we  know  it  is  irapoffible  that 
the  flood  could  have  been  occafioned  by  an  earth- 
quake, and  the  ark  preferved,  without  a  miracle.  It 
is  certain,  that  if  a  ihip  finks  at  fea,  the  commotion 
excited  in  the  water  by  the  defcent  of  fuch  a  large 
body,  will  fwallow  up  a  fmall  boat  that  happens  to 
come  too  near.  If  the  pillars  of  the  earth  itfelf  tlien 
were  broken,  what  muft  the  commotion  have  been, 
when  the  continents  of  Europe,  Afia,  and  Africa,  de- 
fcended  into  the  abyfs  at  once  ?  not  to  mention  Ame- 
rica, which  lying  at  fo  great  a  diftance  from  Noah,  he 
might  be  fuppofed  out  of  danger  from  that  quarter. 
By  what  miracle  was  the  little  ark  preferved  amidft 
the  tumult  of  thofe  impetuous  waves  which  mull  have 
rulhed  in  from  all  quarters  \  Befides,  as  the  ark  was 
built  not  at  fea,  but  on  dry  ground  ;  when  the  earth 
on  which  it  refted  funk  down,  the  ark  mull  have  funk 
along  with  it  ;  and  the  waters  falling  in  as  it  were  over- 
head, mull  have  dafhed  in  pieces  the  ftrongeft  veflel 
that  can  be  imagined.  Earthquakes,  alfo,  operate  lud- 
denly  and  violently;  whereas,  according  to  the  Molaic 
account,  the  flood  came  on  gradually,  and  did  not  ar- 
rive at  its  height  till  fix  weeks,  or  perhaps  live  months, 
after  it  began.  jg 

6.  Mr  Hutchi.ifon  and  his  followers  prefent  us  with  HutchinRs" 
a  theory  of  the  deluge,  which  they  pretend  to  derive  nian  theo- 
from  the  word  of  God  itfelf.     This  theory  halh  been '')'• 
particularly  enlarged  upon  and  ilhiftrated  by  Mr  Cat- 
cot,  who  in  1768  publiihed  a  volume  on  the  fubjecl. 
This  gentleman  aflerts,  that  when  the  world  was  firft 
created,  at  the  time  when  It  Is  faid  to  have  been  "  with- 
out form  and  void,"  the  terreftri:d  matter  was  then  en- 
tirely  diflblved   in    the   aqueous ;    fo  that  the   whole 
formed,  as  it  were,  a  thick  muddy  water.     The  figure 
of  this  mafs  was  fpherical;  and  on  the  outfide  of  this 
fphere  lay  the  grofs  dark  air.      \\'ithin  the  fphere  cf 
earth  aad  water  was  an  iinmirufe  cavity,  called  by  Mc. 

•fes 


n^'iugf 


DEL  [7 

fes  the  ihep  ;  and  this  internal  cavity  was  filled  with 
"'  air  of  a  kind  limi'ar  to  that  on  the  oiitlide.  On  the 
creation  of  light,  the  internal  air  received  elafticity 
fufficient  to  burll  out  tlirough  the  external  covering  of 
earth  and  water.  Upon  this  tlie  water  defctnded, 
filled  up  the  void,  and  left  the  earth  in  a  form  finiilar 
to  what  it  hath  at  prefent.  Thus,  according  to  him, 
the  antediluvian  world,  as  well  as  the  prefent,  con- 
fitted  of  a  vatt  colledion  or  nucleus  of  water,  called  the 
^ri-tif  dei-p,  or  the  ab)fi ;  and  over  this  the  fhell  of 
earth  perforated  in  many  places;  by  which  means  the 
waters  of  the  ocean  communicated  with  the  abyfs. 
The  breaking  up  of  thefe  fountains  was  ocoalioned  by 
a  miraculous  prcifure  of  the  atmofphere,  from  the  im- 
mediate action  of  the  Deity  himftlf.  So  violent  was 
this  preffure,  that  the  air  defcended  to  where  it  had 
been  originally  ;  occupied  the  fpace  of  tiie  abyfs  ;  and 
drove  out  the  waters  over  the  whole  face  of  the  dry 
land.  But  this  account,  fo  far  from  being  infallibly 
certain,  fecms  inconfiltent  with  the  moil  common  ob- 
fervations.  No  prefliire,  liowcver  violent,  will  caufe 
water  riie  above  its  level,  unlefs  that  preffuve  is  unequal. 
If,  therefore,  the  atmofphere  entered  into  the  fuppofed 
abyfs,  by  a  vehement  preifure  on  the  fuiface  of  the 
ocean,  that  prefiure  mull  only  have  been  on  one  place, 
or  on  a  few  places  :  and  even  though  we  fuppofe  the 
atmulphcre  to  have  been  the  agent  made  ufe  of,  it  is 
impolfible  that  it  could  have  remained  for  any  time 
in  the  abyfs  without  a  continued  miracle;  as  the  pref- 
fure  of  the  water  would  immediately  have  forced  it  up 
again  through  thofe  holes  which  had  afforded  it  a  paf- 
fage  downwards. 

The  explication  given  from  Hutchinfon  by  Mr  Cat- 
cot,  of  the  "  windows  of  heaven,"  is  fomewhat  ex- 
traordinary. According  to  him,  thefe  windovi's  are 
not  in  heaven,  but  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth  ;  and 
mean  no  more  than  the  cracks  and  filTures  by  which 
the  airi,  as  he  calls  them,  found  a  paflage  through 
the  fhell  or  covering  of  earth,  which  they  utterly  dif- 
folved  and  reduced  to  its  original  ilate  of  fluidity.  It 
is,  however,  difficult  to  conceive  how  the  opening  of 
fuch  windows  as  thefe  could  caufe  a  violent  rain  for  40 
days  and  nights. 

It  is  not  to  be  fuppofed,  that  we  can  pretend  to  af- 
certain  any  thing  on  the  fubjeft  more  than  others  have 
done.  The  following  conjeftures,  however,  may  be 
offered  on  the  manner  in  which  the  deluge  might  have 
happened  without  any  violence  to  the  eilabliihed  laws 
of  nature. 

I.  If  we  confider  the  quantity  of  water  requifite  for 
tlie  purpofe  of  the  deluge,  it  will  not  appear  fo  very  ex- 
traordinaiy  as  has  been  commonly  repref.-nted.  The 
height  of  the  higheft  hills  is  thought  not  to  be  quite 
four  miles.  Itwill  therefore  be  deemed  a  fufficient 
allowance,  when  we  fuppofe  the  waters  of  the  delu'J'e 
to  have  been  four  miles  deep  on  the  furface  of  the 
ground.  Now  it  is  certain,  that  water,  or  any  other 
matter,  when  fpread  out  at  large  upon  the  ground, 
feems  to  occupy  an  immenfe  fpace  in  comparifon  of 
what  it  does  when  contained  in  a  cubical  veffel,  or 
when  packed  together  in  a  cubical  form.  Suppofe 
■we  wanted  to  overflow  a  room  1 6  feet  every  way,  or 
containing  256  fquare  feet,  with  water,  to  the  height 
of  one  foot,  it  may  be  nearly  done  by  a  cubical  veflel 
of  fix  feet  fiilled  with  water.    A  cube  of  eight  feet  will 


39     J  DEL 

cover  it  too  f.et  deep,  and  a  cube  of  ten  feet  will  very  Deluire. 
nearly  cover  it  four  feet  deep.  It  makes  not  the  leaft  ' 
difference  whetiier  we  fuppofe  feet  or  miles  to  be  co- 
vered. A  cube  of  ten  miles  of  water  would  very  near- 
ly overflow  256  fquare  miles  of  plain  ground  to  the 
height  of  four  miles.  But  if  we  take  into  our  account 
the  vail  number  of  eminences  with  which  the  furface 
ot  the  earth  abounds,  the  above-mentioned  quantity  of 
water  would  do  a  great  deal  more.  If,  tlierefore,  we 
attempt  to  calculate  the  quantity  of  water  fuflScient  to 
deluge  the  earth,  we  muit  make  a  very  confiderable 
allowancj;  for  the  bulk  of  all  the  hills  on  its  furface. 
To  coniVder  this  matter,  however,  in  its  utmoft  lati- 
tude :  The  furface  of  the  earth  is  fuppofed,  by  the 
latcft;  computations,  to  contain  199,512,595  fquare 
miles.  To  overflow  this  furface  to  the  height  of  four 
miles,  is  required  a  paralklopiped  of  water  16  miles 
deep,  and  containing  49,878,148  fquare  miles  of  fur- 
face. Now,  conlidering  the  immenfe  thickntfs  of  the 
globe  of  the  earth,  it  can  by  no  means  be  improbable, 
that  this  whole  quantity  of  water  may  be  contained  in 
its  bowels,  without  the  neceffity  of  any  remarkable 
abyfs  or  huge  colleftion  of  water,  fucli  as  moit  of 
our  theorilts  fuppofe  to  exiil  in  the  centre.  It  is  cer- 
tain, that  as  far  as  the  earth  has  been  dug,  it  hath 
been  found  not  dry,  but  moifl; ;  nor  have  we  the  leail 
reafon  to  imagine,  that  it  is  not  at  lealt  equally  moiit 
all  the  way  down  to  the  centre.  How  moill  it  really 
is  cannot  be  known,  nor  the  quantity  of  water  requi- 
fite to  impart  to  it  the  degree  of  moifture  it  has;  but 
we  are  fure  it  mull  be  immenfe.  The  earth  is  com- 
puted to  be  near  8000  miles  in  diameter.  The  ocean 
is  of  an  unfathomable  depth;  but  there  is  no  reafon  for 
fuppoiing  it  more  than  a  few  .miles.  To  make  all  rea- 
fonable  allowances,  however,  we  (hall  fuppofe  the 
whole  folid  matter  in  the  globe  to  be  only  equal  to  a 
cube  of  5000  miles  ;  and  even  on  this  fuppolition  we 
fliall  hud,  that  all  the  waters  of  the  deluge  would 
not  be  half  fufficient  to  moifl:en  it.  The  above  men- 
tioned parallelopiped  of  water  would  indeed  contain 
798,050,368  cubic  miles  of  that  fluid;  but  the  cube 
of  earth  containing  no  lefs  than  an  hundred  and  twenty- 
hvc  thoufand  millions  of  cubic  miles,  it  is  evident  that 
tlie  quantity  alfigned  for  the  deluge  would  fcarce  be 
known  to  moillen  it.  It  could  have  indeed  no  more 
eff"ea  this  way,  than  a  fingle  pound  of  water  could  have 
upon  150  times  its  bulk  of  dry  earth.  We  are  per- 
fuaded  therefore,  that  any  perfon  who  will  try  by  ex- 
periment how  much  water  a  given  quantity  of  earth 
contains,  aud  from  that  experiment  will  make  calcula- 
tions with  regard  to  the  whole  quantity  of  water  con- 
tained in  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  mull  be  abundantly 
fatislied,  that  though  a//  the  water  of  the  deluge  had 
been  thence  derived,  the  diminution  of  the  general  ilore 
would,  comparatively  fpeaking,  have  been  next  to 
nothing. 

2.  It  was  not  from  the  bowels  of  the  earth  only 
that  the  waters  were  difcharged,  but  alfo  from  the  air; 
for  we  are  alfured  by  Moles,  that  it  rained  40  days 
and  40  nights.  This  fource  of  the  deluvian  waters  hath 
been  conlidcred  as  of  fmall  confequence  by  almoll  every 
one  who  hath  treated  on  the  fubjod.  The  general  opi- 
nion concerning  this  matter  we  ihall  tranfcrioe  from  the 
Univerfal  Hiftory,  Vol.  I.  where  it  is  veiy  fully  exprefs- 
ed.  "  According  to  the  obfervations  made  of  the 
5  A.  2  quantity 


DEL 


[     74®     1 


DEL 


Deluge,  quantity  of  water  tliat  falls  in  rain,  tVie  rains  could  rot 
■"""N  afford  one  ocean,  nor  half  an  ocean,  and  would  be  a 
very  inconfidcrable  part  of  what  was  neceflary  for  a 
deluge.  If  it  rained  40  days  and  40  nights  throughout 
the  whole  earth  at  once,  it  might  be  fufficieiit  to  lay 
all  the  lower  grounds  under  water,  but  it  woxdd  figni- 
fy  very  liltk  as  to  the  overflowing  of  the  mountains  ; 
fo  that  It  has  been  faid,  that  if  the  deluge  had  been 
made  by  rains  only,  there  would  have  needed  not 
40  d;iys,  but  40  years,  to  have  brought  it  to  pafs. 
And  if  we  fuppofe  the  whole  atmnfphere  condeufed  in- 
to water,  it  would  not  all  have  been  fufficient  for  this 
effeft  ;  for  it  is  certain  that  it  could  not  have  rilcn 
above  32  feet,  the  height  to  which  water  can  be  raifed 
by  the  preffurc  of  the  atniofphcre;  for  the  weight  of 
the  whole  air,  when  condenfed  into  water,  can  be  no 
more  than  equal  to  its  weight  in  its  natural  ftate,  and 
muft  become  no  lefs  than  Soo  times  denfer  ;  for  that 
is  the  difference  between  the  weight  of  the  heaviell 
air  and  that  of  water." 

On  this  fubjeft  we  muft  obferve,  that  there  Is  a  very 
general  midake  with  regard  to  the  air,  fimilar  to  the 
above-mentioned  one  regarding  the  earth.  Becaufe  the 
rarth  below  our  feet  appears  to  our  fenfes  firm  and  com- 
paft,  therefore  tlie  vaft  quantity  of  water,  contained 
even  in  the  moft  folid  parts  of  it,  and  which  will  rea- 
dily appear  on  proper  experiment,  is  overlooked,  and 
treated  as  a  non-entity.  In  like  manner,  becaufe  the 
air  does  not  always  deluge  with  exccflive  rains,  it  is 
alfo  imagined  that  it  contains  but  very  little  water. 
Becaufe  the  preifure  of  the  air  is  able  to  raife  only 
32  feet  of  water  on  the  furface  of  the  earth,  it  is 
therefore  fuppofed  we  may  know  to  what  depth  the 
atmofphere  could  deluge  the  earth  if  it  was  to  let  fall 
the  iL'Iiole  water  contained  in  it.  But  daily  obferva- 
tions  fhow,  that  the  preifure  of  the  atmofphere  hath 
not  the  leaft  connexion  with  the  quantity  of  water  it 
contains.  Nay,  if  there  is  any  connedlion,  the  air 
feems  to  be  lighted  when  it  contains  moll  water.  In 
the  courfe  of  a  long  fummer's  drought,  for  inftance, 
the  mercury  in  the  barometer  will  Hand  at  30  inches, 
or  little  more.  If  it  does  fo  at  the  beginning  of  the 
drought,  it  ought  to  afcend  continually  during  the  time 
the  dry  weather  continues  ;  becaufe  the  air  is  all  the 
while  abforbing  water  in  great  quantity  from  the  furface 
ef  the  earth  and  fca.  This,  however,  is  known  to  be 
contrary  to  faiS.  A  t  fuch  times  the  mercury  does  not 
afcend,  but  remains  flationary  ;  and  what  is  ftill  more 
extraordinary,  when  the  drought  is  about  to  have  an 
tnd,  the  air,  while  it  yet  contains  the  v/hole  quantity 
of  water  it  abforbed,  and  hath  not  difeharged  one  fmglc 
drop,  becomes  iuddtnly  lighter,  and  the  meicury  wdl 
perhaps  fink  an  inch  before  any  rain  falls.  The  moft 
lurprifing  phenomenon,  however,  is  yet  to  come.  Af- 
ter the  atmofphere  has  been  difeharging  for  a  number 
of  days  fucceffively  a  quantity  of  matter  800  times  hea- 
▼ier  than  itftlf,  inftead  of  being  lightened  by  the  dif- 
charge,  it  becomes  heani'ier,  nay  fpecijically  heavier, 
than  it  was  before.  It  is  alfo  certain,  that  very  dry 
air,  provided  it  is  not  at  the  fame  time  very  hot,  is  al- 
ways heavieft  ;  and  the  drieft  air  which  we  are  ac- 
quainted with,  namely  Dr  Prieftley's  dephlogi/iicated  air, 
isconfiderably  heavier  than  the  air  we  commonly  breathe. 
For  thefe  reafons  we  think  the  quantity  of  water  con- 
tained in  the  whole  atmofphere  ought  to  b€  confidered 


as  iiidefimtf,  efpfclally  as  we   know  that  by  wliatever    nduc*. 
agent   it   is  fufpended,  that  agent  mull  counteracl  the  '     -y' ■'»< 
force  of  gravity,  othurwife  the  water  would  immediate- 
ly defcend  ;  and  while  the  force  of  gravity  in  any  fub- 
ftance  is  counteiafted,  tiiat  fubllance  cannot  appear  to 
us  to  gravitate  at  all. 

3.  The  above  confideratlons  render  it  probable  at  leaft, 
that  there  is  in  nature  a  quantity  of  water  fufficient  to 
deluge  the  world,  provided  it  was  applied  to  the  pur- 
pofe.  Wc  muft  next  confider  whether  there  is  any  na- 
tural agent  powerful  enough  to  e.Tettuate  this  purpofe. 
We  faall  take  the  phrafes  ufed  by  Alofea  in  their  moft 
obvious  fenfe.  The  breaUng  up  of  the  fcuntains  of  the 
deep  we  may  reafonably  iuppole  to  have  been  the  open- 
ing of  all  the  padages,  whether  fmall  or  great,  through 
which  the  fubterianeous  \\  aters  pofiibly  could  difcharge 
thenifclves  on  the  furface  of  the  earth.  The  nbenin"  of 
the  ■•M'ndo-ws  of  heaven  we  may  alfo  fuppofe  to  be  the 
pouring  out  the  water  contained  in  the  atmofphere 
thro'  thofe  invifible  patfages  by  wliich  it  enters  in  luch  a 
manner  as  totally  to  elude  every  one  of  our  fenfes,  as 
when  water  is  abfuibed  by  the  air  in  evaporation.  As 
both  thele  are  faid  to  have  been  opened  at  the  fame  time, 
it  feems  front  thence  probable,  that  one  natural  agent 
was  employed  to  do  both.  Now  it  is  certain,  that  the 
iiiduftry  of  modern  inquirers  hath  diftovered  an  agent 
unknown  to  the  former  ages,  and  uhofe  influence  is 
fo  great,  that  with  regard  to  this  world  it  may  be 
faid  to  have  a  kind  of  omnipotence.  The  agent  we 
mean  is  elettricity.  It  is  certain,  that,  by  means  of 
It,  immenfe  quantities  of  water  can  be  raifed  to  a  great 
height  in  the  air.  This  is  proved  by  the  phenomena 
of  water-fpouts.  Mr  Forller  relates,  that  he  happen- 
ed to  fee  one  break  very  near  him,  and  obferved  a  flafh 
of  lightning  proceed  from  it  at  the  moment  of  its 
breaking.  The  conclufion  from  this  is  obvious.  When 
the  electric  matter  was  difeharged  from  the  water,  it 
could  no  longer  be  fupported  by  the  atmofphere,  but 
inmicdiately  fell  down.  'I'hough  water-fpouts  do  not 
often  appear  in  this  country,  yet  every  one  mufl  have 
made  an  obfervation  fomewhat  fimilar  to  Mr  Forfler's. 
In  a  violent  florm  of  thunder  and  rain,  after  every  flafh 
of  lightning"  or  difcharge  of  electricity  from  the  clouds, 
the  rain  pours  down  with  increaf'ed  violence;  thus  fhow- 
ing,  that  the  cloud,  having  parted  with  fo  much  of  its 
ckflricity,  cannot  longer  be  fupported  in  the  form  of 
vapour,  but  muft  defcend  in  lain.  It  is  not  indeed  yet 
dilcovered  that  elefiricity  is  the  caufe  of  the  fufpenfion 
of  water  in  the  atmofphere  ;  but  it  is  certain  that  eva- 
poration is  promoted  by  cletlrifying  the  fluid  to  be 
evaporated*.  It  may  therefore  be  admitted  as  &poJ/i-  '  ^ee  Strc. 
lility,  that  the  eleftric  fluid  contained  in  the  air  is  the'"'''.*  "fd 
agent  by  which  it  is  enabled  to  fufptnd  the  water-'''-"/'"'*' 
which  riles  in  vapour.  If  therefore  the  aii  is  deprived 
of  the  due  propoition  of  this  fluid,  it  is  evident  that  rain 
muft  fall  in  prodigious  quantities. 

Again,  we  are  aiTured  from  tlie  moft  undeniable  ob- 
fervations,  that  electricity  is  able  to  fwell  »p  water  on 
the  furface  of  the  earth.  This  we  can  make  it  do  even 
in  our  trilling  experiments ;  and  much  more  muft  the 
whole  force  of  the  fiuid  be  fuppofed  capable  of  doing  it, 
if  applied  to  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  or  any  others. 
The  agitation  of  the  fea  in  earthquakes  is  a  lufficicnt 
proof  of  thisf.    It  is  certain,  that  at  thefe  times  there  ,  ^^^ 

is  a.difchar£e  of  a  ■»<u1  quantity  of  elctlric  matter  from  jj,,^^. 

the 


DEL 


[     74'     1 


DEL 


PeUije.  tVc  eartli  into  the  air  ;  and  as  foon  as  this  happens, 
""""V~"~'  all  becomes  quitt  on  the  fiiifacc  of  the  earth. 

From  a  nuiltitude  of  obfervations  it  ;ilfo  appears,  that 
there  is  at  all  times  a  palTage  ot  cketric  matter  from 
the  atmofphere  into  tlic  eaith,  and  vict vcrjh  from  the 
earth  into  the  atmofphere.  There  is  therefore  no  ab- 
furdity  in  fuppufuig  the  Deity  to  have  influenced 
the  a£lion  of  the  natural  powers  in  fuch  a  manner 
that  foi  40  days  and  nights  the  eleflric  matter  con- 
tained in  the  atmofphere  lliould  defeend  into  the  bowels 
of  the  earth  ; — if  indeed  there  is  oeeallon  for  hippo- 
fing  any  fiich  immediate  influence  at  all,  finct  it  is  not 
impotTible  that  there  might  have  been,  from  fome  na- 
tural eaufe,  a  dtleent  oi  this  matter  from  the  atmo- 
fphere for  that  time.  But  by  whatever  caufe  the  de- 
ft ent  was  occuiioned,  the  eoulequence  would  be,  the 
LrcaL:iig  up  of  the  fruntaiiis  nf  the  Jeep,  and  the  opening 
the  tvnulonvs  nf  hecimii.  Tlic  water  contained  in  the 
atmofphere  bcinj  left  without  fiipport,  would  defeend 
in  inipetiious  rain^  ;  while  the  waters  of  the  ocean, 
thofc  from  which  foimtains  originate,  and  thofe  con- 
tained in  the  fohd  earth  itfelf,  would  rife  from  the  very 
centre,  and  meet  the  waters  which  defcended  fiom 
above.  Thus  the  breaking  up  of  the  fountains  of  the 
deep,  and  the  opening  tht  windows  of  heaven,  would 
accompany  each  other,  as  Mofes  tells  us  tliey  aftually 
did  ;  for,  according  to  him,  both  happened  on  the 
tin  •  day. 

In  this  manner  the  flood  would  come  on  quietly 
and  gradually,  without  that  violence  to  the  globe  which 
Burnet,  Whiilon,  and  other  theoriils,  are  obliged  to 
fuppofe.  The  abatement  of  the  waters  would  enfue 
on  the  afcent  of  the  elcttric  fluid  to  where  it  was  be- 
fore. The  atmofphere  wonld  then  ahforb  the  water 
AS  formerly  ;  that  which  had  afceudcd  through  the 
tarui  would  attain  fubfide  ;  and  thus  every  thing  would 
return  to  its  priiline  (late. 

III.  Having  thiis  fliuwn  in  what  manner  it  is  pofllble 
that  an  um'verfal  deluge  might  take  place  by  means  of 
the  natural  agents  known  to  us  at  prefcnt,  we  fhall 
next  coniidcr  fome  mwre  of  the  evidences  that  fuch  an 
event  actually  did  happen,  and  that  the  deluge  was 
univerfal.  The  proof  here  is  fo  llrong  from  the  tra- 
ditions prevalent  among  almod  every  nation  on  the 
face  of  the  earth,  and  which  have  been  already  fo 
amply  treated,  thai  no  farther  objetlion  could  be 
made  to  the  Mofaic  account,  were  it  not  that  the 
jircejfity  of  an  univerfal  deluge  is  denied  by  fome,  who 
contend  that  all  the  deluges  mentioned  in  hiflory  or 
recorded  by  tradition  were  only  partial,  and  may  be 
accounted  for  fiom  the  fweUing  of  rivers  or  other  ac- 
cidental caufcs.  Many  indeed,  even  of  thofe  vvlio 
profcfs  to  believe  the  Mofaic  account,  have  thought 
that  the  deluge  was  not  univerfal ;  or,  though  it 
might  be  univerfal  with  refpeft  to  mankind,  thai  it 
was  not  fo  with  regard  to  the  earth  itfelf.  Tlie  learn- 
ed Ifaac  Vofiius  was  of  this  opinion,  though  his  rea- 
fcnp  feem  principally  to  have  been  that  he  could  not 
conceive  how  an  univerfal  deluge  could  happen.  "  To 
effefl  this  (fays  he)  many  miracles  mult  have  concur- 
red ;  but  God  works  no  miraclts  in  vain.  What  need 
was  there  to  diown  thofe  lauds  where  no  men  lived,  or 
are  yet  to  he  found  ?  'Tis  a  foolifh  thing  to  think  that 
mankind  had  multiplied  fo  r^uch  befo'-c  the  flood  as  to 
have  ovcrfprcad  all  tlie  cattli.     litiw  ili)vv  aud  /luggifh 


the  firfl  men  were  In  propagating  their  kind  is  evident  r.i.lnpe. 
from  hence,  that  Noah  was  but  the  ninth  in  a  lineal '— v~~^ 
dcfcent  from  Adam.  They  are  quite  wide  of  the 
truth,  therefore,  who  think  mankind  to  liave  fpread 
over  all  the  earth  in  the  days  of 'Noah,  who  perhaps 
at  that  time  had  not  extended  themfelves  beyond  the 
borders  of  Syria  and  Mefopotamia :  but  no  realon 
obligeth  us  to  extend  the  inundation  of  the  deluge  be- 
yond thofe  bounds  which  were  inhabited  ;  yea,  it  ig 
altogether  abfurd  to  aver,  that  the  elfciil  of  a  iiunifll- 
nient  inflifled  upon  mankind  only,  (liould  extend  to 
tliofe  places  where  no  men  lived.  Although  we  (hould 
therefore  believe  that  part  of  the  earth  only  to  have 
been  overflowed  by  the  waters  which  we  have  men- 
tioned, and  which  is  not  the  hundredth  part  of  the 
terreftrial  globe,  the  deluge  will  neverthelefs  be  luiiver- 
fri/,  irciimetiicn!,  fmce  the  dellruflion  was  univerfal,  and 
overwliclmed  the  whole  habitable  world."  ji, 

Another  fcheme  of  a  partial  deluge  is  publillied  by  Coctlo— 
Mr  Coetlugon  in  his  Univerfal  Hillory  of  Arts  and  ^°"'^ 
Sciences,  under  the  article  Anitdilu-v'uins.  This  ap- 
pears to  have  been  formed  with  a  dclign  to  accommo- 
date tile  belief  of  a  deluge  to  the  opinions  of  the-  free- 
thinkers, who  deny  the  truth  of  the  Mofaic  accounts,, 
as  he  tells  us  that  they  are  willing  to  allow  it.  Accord- 
ing to  this  author,  the  firft  inhabitants  of  the  earth  be- 
ing placed  at  the  confluence  of  two  great  rivers,  tlie  Eu- 
phrates and  Tigris,  thofe  rivers  may  have  overflowed 
their  banks  all  of  a  fudden,  and  furprifed  the  neighbour- 
ing inhabitants  not  yet  accuftomed  to  fuch  fort  of  vifits, 
and  drowned  part  of  thenr  (and  if  really  defigned  as  a 
puni(hment),  fuch  as  were  more  guilty.  That  fome  of 
the  animals,  particularly  the  more  ilothful,  and  cou- 
fequently  not  fo  apprehenfive  of  danger  or  fo  ready 
to  take  to  flight  to  avoid  it,  might  have  been  involved 
in  the  fame  calamity,  as  well  as  fome  of  the  volatiles,-. 
which  being  deprived  of  food  by  the  earth's  being  co- 
vered with  water,  might  have  periflied  ;  particularly 
thofe  who,  by  the  too  great  weaknefs  of  their  wings 
to  fupport  their  bodies,  were  not  proper  for  a  long 
flight.  As  for  others  who  had  thefe  advantages  above 
the  reft,  they  would  no  doubt  take  care  of  their  own 
prefervation  by  flying  to  thofe  parts  of  the  earth  which 
their  natural  inftinft  could  Ihow  them  free  from  the 
inundation.  ^j 

A  third  fcheme  of  a  partial  deluge  is  given  by  the  BKImp  Stil* 
learned  bilhop  Stlllingfleet  in  his  Qngines  Sacrx.  "  I 'iniilecfs- 
cannot  (fays  he)  fee  any  urgent  neceflity  from  the 
fcripture  to  affert,  that  the  flood  did  fpread  itfelf  all 
over  the  furface  of  the  earth.  That  all  mankind 
(thofe  in  the  ark  excepted)  were  deftroyed  by  it,  is 
moll  certain  according  to  the  fcriptures.  When  the 
Lord  faid,  that  he  woiJd  defl:roy  man  from  the  face- 
of  the  earth,  it  could  not  be  any  particular  deluge  of 
fo  fmall  a  country  a'S  ^Pale'line,  as  fome  have  lidlcu- 
loufly  imagined  ;  for  we  find  an  univerfal  corrupticm 
in  the  earth  mentioned  as  the  caufe;,  an  univerfal 
threatening  upon  all  men  for  this  caufe  ;  and  after- 
wards an  univerfal  dcllruction  exprclfed  as  the  elTeit 
of  this  flood.  So  then  it  is  evident,  that  the  flood 
was  univerfal  with  regard  to  mankind  ;  but  f^roiu 
tlience  follaws  no  neceflity  at  all  of  aflerting  the  uni- 
veriullty  of  it  as  to  the  globe  of  the  earth,  unlefs  it  be 
fidhciently  proved  that  the  whole  earth  was  peopled 
before  the  flood,  \vhltli_ldefpaic  of  ever  feeing  proved:: 


DEL 


[     742     ] 


DEL 


Ddtijf.    and  what  reafon  can  there  he  to  extend  the  flood  be- 
'  yond  the  occafion  of  it,   which  was  the  corruption  of 

mankind? — The    only    prohabihty  then   of  aflerting 
the  univerfahty  of  the  flood,  as  to  the  globe   of  the 
■earth,  is  from  the  dellriiction  of  all  living  creatures,  to- 
gether with  man.     Now  though  men  might  not  have 
fpread  themfelvcs  over  the  whole  fiirface  of  the  earth, 
yet  beaRs  and  creeping  things   might,  which  were  all 
deftroyed  with  the  flood  ;  for  it  is  laid,  '  that  all  fle(h 
died  that  moved  upon  the  earth,   both  of  fowl  and  of 
cattle,   and    of  every    creeping    thing    that   creepeth 
upon  the  earth,  and  every  man.'     To  what  end  fhould 
there  be  not  only  a  note  of  univerfahty  added,   but 
fuch  a  particular  enumeration  of  the  feveral   kinds  of 
beafts,  creeping  things  and  fowls,  if  they  were  not  all 
deftroyed  ?     To  this  I  anfwer  ;   I  grant  that,  as  far  as 
the  flood  extended,  all  thefe  were   deftroyed :  but  I 
fee  no  reafon  to  extend  the  deftrutlion  of  thefe  beyond 
that  compafs  and  fpace  of  the  earth  where  men  inha- 
bited, becaufe  the  puniihinent  upon  the  beafts  was  occa- 
fioned  by,  and  could  not  but  be  concomitant  with,  the 
deftruftion  of  man  ;  but  (the  occafion  of  the   deluge 
being  the  fin  of  man,  who  was  puniflied  in  the  beafts 
that  were  deftroyed  for  his  fake,  as  well  as  in  himfelf) 
■where  the  occafion  was  not,  as  where  there  were  ani- 
mals and  no  men,  there  feems  no  neceffity  of  extend- 
i^ng  the  ilood  thither. — But  to  what  end,  will  it  there- 
fore be  replied,   did   God    command   Noah,   with  fo 
much  care,  to  take  all  kinds  of  birds,  beafts,  and  creep- 
ing things,  into  the  ark  with  him,   if  all   thofe  living 
creatures  were  not  deftroyed  by  the  flood  ?   I  anfwer, 
becaufe  all  thofe  things  were   deftroyed  wherever  the 
flood  was.     Suppofe  then  the  whole  continent  of  Aha 
was   peopled   before  the  flood,  which  is  as  much  as  in 
reafon  we  may  fuppofe  ;   I  fay,  all  the  living  creatures 
in  that  continent  were  deftroyed  ;  or  if  we  may  fup- 
pofe it  to  have  extended  over  our  wliole  continent  of 
the  ancient  known   world,   what  reafon  would  there 
be,  that  in  the  oppofite  part  of  the  globe,  which  we  fup- 
pofe to  be  unpeopled   then,   all  the  living  creatuies 
ihould  there  be  deftroyed,   becaufe  men  had  finned  in 
-  this  ?  and  would  there  not  have  been  on  this   fuppo- 
fition  a  fufficient  reafon  to  preferve  living  creatures  in 
,,         the  ark  for  future  propagation,"  &c.  ? 
A  partial  Thus  we  have  the  ftrength   of  all   the  arguments 

deluge  pro-  that  have  been  offered  in  fupport  of  a  partial  deluge, 
y  'Jj-?f  and  which  may  all  be  funimed  up  in  the  three  foUow- 
'  ing  articles,  l.  The  impoffibility,  in  a  natural  way, 
of  accounting  for  the  quantity  of  water  neceffary  to 
overflow  the  whole  world;  2.  The  fmall  number  of 
mankind  fuppofed  at  that  time  to  have  exifted  on 
the  earth;  and,  3.  The  inutility  of  an  imivcrfal  de- 
luge, when  the  divine  purpofes  could  have  been  equal- 
ly well  anfwered  by  a  partial  one.  But  to  all  this 
we  may  make  one  general  anfwer,  that  a  partial  deluge 
is  in  the  natuit  of  things  impoflible.  We  cannot 
imagine  that  the  waters  could  accumulate  upon  any 
country  without  going  off  to  the  fea,  while  the  lat- 
ter retained  its  ufual  level  ;  neither  can  we  fuppofe 
any  part  of  the  fea  to  remain  above  the  level  of  the 
reft.  On  the  fuppofition  of  biftiop  Stillingfleet  there- 
fore, that  the  deluge  exended  over  the  whole  conti- 
nent of  Afia,  we  know  that  it  muft  have  covered  the 
high  mountains  of  Ararat,  on  which  the  ark  refted  ; 
Caucafus,  Taurus,  &c.     The  height  of  Ararat  is  in- 


determined,  as  no  traveller  of  any  credit  pretends  to    Ddutre. 

have  afcendtd  to  its  top  ;  but  from  the    diftance  at  v— -* 

which  it  is  feeti,  we  can  fcarce  look  upon  it  to  be  in- 
ferior to  the  moft  celebrated  mountains  of  the  old 
continent*.  Sir  John  Cha'din  thinks  that  fome  part  •  See  Art. 
of  Caucafus  is  higher  ;  and  fuppofing  each  of  thefe  to^a/. 
be  only  a  mile  and  an  half  in  height,  the  fea  all  round 
the  globe  muft  have  been  raifed  to  the  fame  height ; 
and  therefore  all  that  could  remain  of  dry  ground  as 
a  ftieltcr  to  animals  of  any  kind,  muft  have  been  the  un- 
inhabitable tops  of  fome  high  mountains  fcatttred  at 
immcufe  diftauces  from  one  another.  We  may  there- 
fore with  equal  reafon  fuppofe,  that  thefe  were  in 
like  manner  covered,  and  that  no  living  creature 
whatever  could  find  ihelter  even  for  a  moment :  and 
it  is  certainly  more  agreeable  to  the  character  of  the 
Deity  to  believe,  that  he  would  at  once  deftroy  ani- 
mal life  by  futt'ocation  in  water,  rather  than  allow 
numbers  of  them  to  colleft  themftlves  on  the  tops  of 
mountains  to  perifli  with  hunger  and  cold.  It  is  be- 
fides  very  improbable,  that  any  creature,  whether  bird 
or  beaft,  could  fuftain  a  continued  rain  of  40  days  and 
4c  nights,  even  without  fuppofing  them  to  have  been 
ablolutely  immerfed  in  water. 

This  confideration  alone  is  fufficient  to  ftiow,  that 
if  there  was  a  deluge  at  all,  it  muft  have  been  univerial 
with  regard  to  the  world  as  well  as  the  human  race  ; 
and  the  poftibility  of  fuch  a  deluge  by  natural  means 
has aheady  been  evinced.  Under  the  article  Antedi- 
luvians it  is  (hovvn,  that,  according  to  the  moft  mo- 
derate computations,  the  world  muft  have  been  vailly 
more  full  ot  people  than  at  prefeot.  The  leaft  calcu- 
lation there  made  indeed  feems  incredible  ;  fince,  ac- 
cording to  it,  the  world  muft  have  contained  upwards 
of  6'8,7i9  times  as  many  inhabitants  as  are  at  prefent 
to  be  met  with  in  the  empire  of  China,  the  moft  'po- 
pulous country  in  the  world  :  but  China  bears  a  much 
larger  proportion  to  the  habitable  part  of  the  world 
than  this.  The  violences  exercifed  by  mankind  upon 
one  another,  have  always  been  the  means  of  thinning 
their  numbers,  and  preventing  the  earth  from  being 
overftocked  with  inhabitants  ;  and  the  ftrong  expref- 
fion  in  Scripture,  that  the  "  earth  was  filled  with  vio- 
lence," fliows  that  it  muft  have  gone  to  an  extraordi- 
nary height.  But  though  this  violence  muft  have  un- 
doubtedly thinned  the  old  world  of  its  inhabitants,  it 
muft  likewife  have  difperfed  fome  of  them  into  diftant 
regions.  There  is  therefore  no  reafon  for  fuppofing, 
that  before  the  flood  the  human  race  were  not  driven 
into  the  remoteft  regions  of  the  habitable  world,  or 
that  America  was  dettitute  of  inhabitants  then  more 
than  it  is  at  prefent.  At  any  rate,  the  fchemes  of 
Voffius  and  Coetlogon,  who  would  confine  the  whole 
race  of  mankind  to  a  fmall  part  of  Afia,  muft  appear 
evidently  futile  and  erroneous  in  the  highell  degree. 

Some  objeftions  have  been  made  to  the  doftrine  of  objedionj 
an  univerial  deluge  from  the  ftate  of  the  continent  of  from  fome 
America,  and  the  number  of  animals  peculiar  to  that '"1":'^'^'°' 
and   other  countries,  which  coiUd  not  be  fuppofed  to  ?"'"'^'^  ,.^ 
travel  to  fuch  a   diftance  either  to  or  from  the  ark  of  ,o°.^rtj;n 
Noah.     On  this  fubjeft  Biftiop  Stillingfleet  obferves,  countries, 
that  the  fuppofition  of  animals  being  propagated  much 
farther  in  the  world  than  mankind  before  the  flood, 
feems  very  probable,  "  becaufe  the  produdlion  of  ani- 
mals is  parallel  in  Genefis  with  that  of  filhes,  and  both 

«f 


36. 

.'  7o'jiitiies 
t  endcrc'i 
'  ininhabir- 
.  bit:  by  the 
i;  bundance 
i  brute 
icatures. 


DEL  [     743     ]  DEL 

of  them  different  from  man.  For  God  faith,  Let  port  of  life  was  fpoiled  or  dcftroycd  by  them,  nor  was  Ddujie. 
the  waters  bring  forth  every  moving  creature  that  hath  it  jJofTihlc  fur  tlie  inhabitants  to  prevent  it.  " 
life,  '-j/a.  fifh  and  fowl;  And  accordingly  it  is  laid,  that  'I"he  Ille  of  France  may  be  faiJ  to  be  the  kingdom 
the  waters  brought  forth  abundantly  every  living  crea-  of  rats.  They  come  down  from  the  mountains  like 
ture  after  their  kind,  and  every  fowl  after  his  kind,  an  army,  creep  up  tlie  lleepeft  rocks,  march  into  the 
Accordingly,  in  the  piodnftion  of  beads,  we  read,  flat  ctuuitry,  ad'cmble  in  the  mardiy  grounds,  and 
'  Let  the  earth  bring  forth  the  living  creature  after  bring  defolation  every  where,  efpeelally  in  the  night, 
his  kind,  cattle,  and  every  creeping  thing,  and  bead  Men  can  fcarce  flecp  for  them,  and  are  obliged  to  roll 
of  the  earth,  after  his  kind  :  and  it  was  fo.'  Eut  in  thcmfelves  in  fuch  things  as  may  bell  fccure  them  from 
the  production  of  man  it  is  hiid,  '  Let  us  make  man  thtir  bitings.  It  was  tlie  fame  in  the  Ifle  of  Bourbon, 
in  our  image,  and  after  our  likenefs.'  From  hence  I  which  was  as  much  infeftcd  with  them  at  firft,  till  it 
obicrve  this  difference  between  the  formation  of  ani-  became  more  fully  peopled.  "  We  have  good  rea- 
mals  and  of  man,  that  in  one  God  gave  a  prolific  fon  therefore  (fays  Mr  Cockburn)  to  conclude,  that 
power  to  the  earth  and  waters  for  the  production  of  there  was  buf  one  pair  of  animals  created  at  firll;,  that 
the  feveral  living  creatures  which  came  from  tiicm,  fo  they  might  not  inereafe  too  fall  for  mankind  ;  and 
that  the  feminal  principles  of  them  were  contained  in  though  they  woiJd  multiply  much  more,  and  inereafe 
the  matter  out  of  which  they  were  produced  ;  which  faller  tlian  men  could  do,  they  had  room  to  fpread 
was  othcrwife  in  man,  who  was  made  by  a  peculiar  themfelves  for  a  long  time  without  much  annoyance 
hand  of  the  great  Creator  himfelf,  who  thence  is  faid  to  man ;  and  as  men  increaled  in  number  and  extended 
to  have  formed  man  out  of  the  dull  of  the  ground.  their  habitations,  they  would  be  able  to  drive  them 
"  If  now  this  fuppofition  "be  embraced,  by  it  wc  fuither  ofi",  or  defend  thcmfelves  from  their  depreda- 
prefently  clear  ourlclves  of  many  difficulties  concern-  lions."  The  fame  mode  of  reafoning  is  by  our  author 
ing  the  propagation  of  animals  in  the  world,  and  their  made  ufe  of  with  regard  to  aquatic  animals.  -Th^ 
conftrvation  in  the  ark  ;  as  how  the  unknown  kind  of  multitude  of  thefe  indeed,  however  great,  could  be  no 
fei-pents  in  Brazil,  the  ilow-bcUied  creature  in  the  In-  detriment  to  man  who  lived  on  land  ;  but  if  we  con- 
dies,  and  all  thofe  itrange  fpecies  of  animals  feen  in  fider  how  large  and  numerous  a  fpawn  tlfhes  call  at 
the  Weft  Indies,  (hould  either  come  into  the  ark  of  once,  and  in  how  fliort  a  time  they  multiply  to  im- 
Noah,  or  be  conveyed  out  of  it  into  thofe  countries  mtnfe  numbers,  he  thinks  it  reafon.ible  to  conclude, 
which  are  divided  by  fo  vaft  an  ocean  on  one  fide,  and  that  only  one  pair  was  created  at  once  ;  and  that  the 
at  leaf!  fo  large  a  traft  of  land  on  the  other.  Befides,  command  to  the  waters  to  bring  forth  abundantly  both 
fome  kind  of  animals  cannot  live  out  of  the  climate  fifh  and  fowl,  related  only  to  the  variety  of  fpecies,  not 
wherein  they  are;  and  there  are  many  forts  of  animals  to  a  number  of  each.  37 
difcoveied  in  America  and  the  adjoining  iflands,  which  3.  Though  at  the  refloration  of  the  world  it  was  to^^'^  ■"- 
have  left  no  remainders  of  tliemielves  in  thefe  parts  of  be  repeopled  by  fix  perfons  inllead  of  two,  and  though, V*^^  "^  ?  ^ 
the  world.  And  it  feems  very  flrange,  that  thefe  fhould  at  the  fame  time  animal  food  was  given  to  man,  yet„£^[;on, 
propagate  into  thofe  parts  of  the  world  from  the  place  Noah  was  commanded  only  to  take  a  fingle  pair  of 
of  the  flood,  and  leave  none  at  all  of  their  number  behind  each  of  the  animals,  clean  bealls,  which  are  but  a  few  in 
them  in  thefe  parts  whence  they  were  propagated."  number,  only  excepted.  It  is  further  obfervable,  that 
To  this  Mr  Cockburn,  in  his  treatifc  on  the  deluge,  notwithilanding  this  fcanty  fupply  of  animals,  they 
replies,  I.  That  as  it  pleaftd  God  to  create  only  one  man  had  increafed  fo  much  by  the  time  of  Nimrod,   that  it 

then  became  necefTary  to  hunt  and  deftroy  them  ;  and 
Nimrod    was    celebrated    for    his    courage     and    flvill 
in  that  necefTary  employment.     "  So  numerous  (adds 
he)   were  the  animals  before   the  flood,    though  but 
brute  animals  having  been  created  originally,  they  mull,  two  of  a  kind  were  created,  that  Dr  Woodward,  I'roni 
when  the  human  race  were  few  in  number,  have  multi-  the  remains  of  that  earth,  as  well  theanimal  as  vegetable 
plied  to  fuch  a  degree  as  to  render  the  world  uninhabi-  produftions  of  it   flill  preferved,  concludes,  that  '  at 
table.    In  confirmation  of  this,  he  informs  us  from  the  the   time   the  deluge  came,  the   earth  was  fo  loaded 
accounts  of  the  Indian  miffionaries,  that  in  the  kingdom  with  herbage,  and  fo  thronged  with  animals,  that  fuch 
of  Champua  in  the  Indies,  the  river  called  by  the  natives  an  expedient  was  even  wanting  to  eafe  it  of  the  bur- 
Tinacoreu,  but  by  the  Portuguefe  Varella,  goes  up  80  den,  and  to  make  room  for  a  new  fucccfGon  of  its  pro- 
leagues  into  the  country  to  a  mountain  called  Llonca-  duftions."  .^g 
lor,  above  which  it  is  much  broader,  but  not  fo  deep          4.   Mr  Cockburn  is  of  opinion,  that  America  muflOf  tlie 
by  far;  there  being  banks  of  fand  in  fome  places,  and  have  been  peopled  before  the  flood,  as  the  old  conti- i '^"P''f  S  °f 
lands  overflowed  with  water,  wheie  there  are  an  infi-  nent  could  not  be  fuppofed  able  to  hold  the  number  of    "'"''"' 
nite  number  of  fowls  that  cover  all  trie  country  ;  inio-  intiabitants.                                                                               tion^f  ani- 
mucli,  that  by  reafon  of  them  the  whole   kingdom  of         5.  With   regard  to   the  main  diilieulty,  ih-z..  how  iiiali  to  it. 
Chintaleuhos  had  for  40  years  been  defolate,  though  the  animals  peculiar  to  different  countries  could  travel 
it  was   eight   days  journey  in   length;  which,  at   30  to  fuch  dillances  to  and  from  the  ark,   Mr  Cockburn 
miles  a-day,  made  it   240  miles  long.      After  paffing  replies,  that  America,  which  Bifliop  Stilhngfleet  chief- 
this  country,  another   was  met  with  more  wild,  and  ly  infills  upon,  has   nothing  peculiar  to  it,  but  what 
full  of  great  rocks;  where  there  were  a  vail  number  of  may  equally  well  be  urged  both  with  refpedl  to  Afia 
animals  yet  worfe  than  the  fowls,  as  elephants,  rhino-  and  Africa ;  each  of  them  having  animals  peculiar  to 
cerofes,  lions,  bears,  buffaloes,  and  other  beafls  in  fuch  thcmfelves.     It  is  alfo  poflible,  that  there  might  for* 
multitudes,  that  vvhatcvc?  mea  cultivated  for  the  fup-  mcrly  be  a  more  eafy  communication  between  the. 

2y  Ailatic 


and  one  woman  at  the  beginning,  and  their  poftcrity 
were  fufficient  to  overfpread  the  earth,  it  might  well  be 
fuppofed  to  be  furnlflied  with  animals  from  an  original 
pair  of  each.     2.   On  the  fuppofilicn  of  many  paiis  of 


IV-Vaffe 


DEL  [     7. 

Afiatic  and  American  continents  tlian   tliere  is  now. 
*''~'^  See  the  article  America,  n^  ioi — 113. 

Our  author  likewife  obferves,  that  though  the  ark 
refted  on  mount  Ararat,  yet  we  are  not  told  where  it 
was  built,  which  might  be  far  enough  from  the  place 
where  it  is  commonly  fuppofed  ;  fo  that  thofe  animals 
which  are  peculiar  to  America  might  not  have  fo  far 
to  travel  to  the  ark  as  is  commonly  imagined.  This 
argument,  however,  feems  to  be  very  inconclufive  ; 
for  though  we  fliould  fujipofe  the  ark  to  have  been 
conftructed  in  America  itfclf,  the  animals  of  Mefopo- 
tamia  would  have  had  as  far  to  travel  from  thence  to 
America,  as  the  American  animals  from  their  ovin 
country  to  Mefopotamia,  according  to  the  common 
opinion.  But  in  whatever  part  of  the  earth  Noah  lived 
and  the  ark  was  built,  it  was  at  God's  command  that 
the  feveral  kinds  of  animals  came  thither  in  order  to 
their  prefcrvation  ;  and  his  command  could  bring 
them  from  the  fartheil  parts  of  the  earth  du-ring  the 
120  years  that  the  world  lay  under  condemnation.. 
Though  after  all,  none  of  the  animals  might  have  very 
frr  to  travel  to  the  ark  ;  for  if  only  one  pair  of  each 
kind  was  created  at  firll,  and  all  of  thcfe  in  or  near 
one  place,  fuice  they  were  all  brought  before  Adam., 
eiud  received  names  from  him,  there  is  no  abfurdity  in 
fuppofing  that  feme  of  every  kind  might  remain  in  the 
country  where  they  were  firft  produced,  from  whence 
Noah's  habitation  might  not  be  very  diftant.  Neither 
can  any  objeftion  be  brought  from  the  extinftion  of 
fome  fpccies  of  animals  in  certain  countries  of  the 
vorld,  fince  they  might  have  been  hunted  and  de- 
flroycd  either  by  the  human  race  or  by  other  creatures. 
Thus  it  is  faid,  that  there  are  now  few  or  no  deer  in 
Switzerland,  though  formeily  there  were  a  great  many 
when  it  was  full  of  woods.  In  Britain  alfo  there  are 
no  wolves  now  to  be  found,  though  the  ifland  was  in- 
fefted  with  them  in  former  times. 
Of  tiieiiili-  ■^"  confidering  the  fubjec\  of  the  deluge,  among  other 
fifterce  of  queilions  which  occur,  one  is,  by  what  means  were  the 
cnniivoroiis  ravenous  animals,  which  feed  only  upon  flefli,  fup- 
ported  in  the  ark  ?  For  this  fome  authors  have  fup- 
pofed, that  Noah,  befides  thofe  animals  whom  he  took 
into  the  ark  for  prefervation,  took  likewife  a  great 
jiumber  for  flaughter.  For  this  purpofe  bifliop  Wil- 
kins  lias  allowed  no  fewer  than  1825  (heep,  though 
lie  was  of  opinion,  that  there  were  no  carnivorous 
animals  before  the  flood  ;  and  this  latter  opinion  is 
adopted  by  Mr  Cockburn.  The  idea  indeed  of  flaugh- 
teiing  a  number  of  harmlcfs  animals  to  fatisfy  a  few 
■wle  rapacious  ones,  and  that  too  in  a  place  deligned 
for  the  common  afylum  of  the  animal  creation,  feems 
inconfiilent  witli  that  fcheme  of  mercy  difplayed  in 
the  whole  tranfaclion.  It  is  by  m.uch  the  more  pro- 
bable fuppofitiou  then,  that  though  fome  animals  had 
been  accuftomed  to  live  on  fleili  in  their  natnial 
ftate,  they  could  neverthelefs  fubfift  upon  vegetable 
food.  This  feems  the  more  probable,  as  fome  animals 
naturally  carnivoious,  paiticularly  dogs  and  cats,  may 
he  fupported  in  their  domeitic  ttate  by  vegetable  food 
alone.  If  we  extend  this  to  the  whole  canine  and  fe- 
line genera,  we  fiiall  take  in  the  raoit  of  the  bcalls  of 
prey  ;  as  lions,  tygers,  leopards,  panthers,  wolves, 
foxes,  hya-nas,  &c.  Bears  arc  well  known  fometimes 
to  feed  on  berries;  fnakes  will  eat  bread  and  milk;  and 
there  is  rTo  reafon  to  fuppofe  that  even  the  moll  car- 


animal-  in 
■the  ark. 


4    1  DEL 

nivorous  birds  could  not  be  kept  alive  by  grain  or  0-  t)e!i.^, 
thcr  vegetable  food.  By  thus  excluding  fuch  a  num-  *~~v— ^ 
ber  of  ufelefs  animals,  a  very  conlidirable  fpace  will  4° 
be  allowed  for  the  circulation  of  air  in  the  ark,  the  .,.,'"'" 
want  of  which  feems  to  be  the  moit  inexplicable  dif- tula'tion  uf 
ficulty,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  prefcnt  coultitutlcm  air  the 
of  things.  It  feems  indeed  to  be  certain,  that  no  e- Ki'^atclldif. 
qual  number  of  animals  could  fublilc  for  a  twelvemonth  "■"  ^^' 
in  an  equal  ipace  fo  clofely  lluit  up  as  they  were. 
The  ark,  it  is  true,  contained  near  two  millions  of 
cubic  feet  ;  but  confidering  the  number  of  its  iii- 
habitants,  the  great  fpace  necefiaiy  for  the  food 
with  which  they  were  to  be  fupplied,  and  the  con- 
tinual pollution  of  the  air  by  their  dung  and  tilth 
as  well  as  the  efHuvia  from  their  bodies,  there 
feems  little  probability  tiiat  even  fuch  a  vail  bulk  of 
air  could  fulSce  for  any  length  of  time.  Tliis  ditti- 
culty  will  appear  the  greater,  wlien  we  conliiler  tliat 
any  ventilation  was  impoflible,  as  this  could  not  have 
been  done  without  opening  both  the  duor  and  win- 
dow; and  the  former,  we  are  certain,  was  not  opened 
until  the  time  that  the  !;ommand  \wdi  given  to  come 
forth  out  of  the  ark.  Neither  is  there  the  fmallelt 
probability,  that  the  opening  of  a  tingle  window  could 
renew  the  air  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  make  it  tit  for 
breathing  throughout  the  whole  extent  of  the  ark. 
In  this  particular  therefore,  we  mull  have  rtcourfe  tu 
the  immediate  interpoiition  of  Divine  power,  and  fup- 
pofe that  the  air  was  miraculoudy  prefcrved  of  a  fuf- 
ticient  degree  of  purity,  as  the  garments  of  the  Tirae- 
lites  were  preferved  fronr  turning  old,  and  theit  feet 
from  being  afFcdled  by  the  journey  through  the  defert 
in  which  they  wandered  fo  long. — Many  other  quef- 
tions  concerning  the  economy  of  the  ark  might  be 
propofed;  as,  how  they  fupplied  themfclves  with  wa- 
ter .'  in  w'hat  manner  tlicy  could  ufe  tire  for  the  drci- 
iingof  their  victuals?  Sic.  But  as  every  anfwcr  to  thelc 
mull  be  founded  wholly  upon  conjecture,  and  none 
can  pretend  th.-.t  there  was  a  natural  impoffibility  of 
eftctting  any  of  thefe  things,  we  forbear  to  intiil  far- 
ther upon  them.  The  cafe,  however,  is  very  diffe- 
rent with  re{peA  to  the  air  necelfary  for  fuflaining  a- 
nimal  life  :  tor  here  there  is  a  plain  impollibility  in  a 
natuial  way;  nay,  we  may  even  doubt  whether  the 
general  mafs  of  atmofphcrc,  after  being  deprived  of  its 
electric  matter,  or  olherwilc  altered  in  luch  a  manner 
as  to  let  fall  fuch  a  quantity  of  the  water  it  contain- 
ed, was  fit  for  the  fupport  of  animal  life;  fo  that  a 
miracle  would  have  been  neceffary  at  any  late.  'I'o 
this  indeed  it  may  be  replied,  that  on  inch  a  fuppo- 
fition,  men  and  other  animals  would  have  been  dc- 
Itroyed,  not  by  the  flood,  but  by  the  vitiated  air  they 
breathed.  But,  as  has  been  already  hinted,  it  is  im- 
piobable  tliat  .-aiy  living  creature  could  refill  the  vio- 
lent rain  which  took  place,  and  which  would  ioou 
drive  the  birds  from  their  flielter,  as  the  waters  begin- 
ning to  overflow  the  ground  would  foon  expel  the  hu- 
man race  from  their  houfes  ;  and  it  would  not  be  till 
the  end  of  the  40  days  and  40  nights  that  the  air 
could  be  at  its  vvoril  Itale,  long  befoie  which  time  all 
animal  life   would  be  extindl.  ,, 

We  fhall  conclude  this  article  with  confidering  fame  Changes 
of  the  alterations  which  are   fuppofed   to  have  taken  "hich  have 
place  in  the  world  in  confequence  of  the  deluge.     One  ■"'  "^°  ,'^/" 
of  thcfe  is  the  much  greater  quantity  of  water  on  tiie  q,jj„^(.  of 

prefeHt  tl.e  deluge. 


DEL  [7 

Peluge.    prefent  than  on  the  old  world.     Dr  Keil  has  indeed 

<——y endeavoured  to  prove,   that  the  preleiit  extent  of  the 

furface  of  the  waters  is  nectflary  to  raife  Aich  a  quan- 
tity of  vapours  as  may  lupply  the  furtace  of  the  earth 
wiih  rain  and  with  Ipriiigs.  In  anfwer  to  this,  it  is 
faid,  that  it  may  jullly  be  queftioned  whether  all  Iprings 
are  derived  from  the  vapours  raifed  by  the  fun's  heat? 
and,  2.  Whether  the  primitive  earth  Hood  in  need  of 
fuch  a  quantity  of  rain  to  render  it  fertile  as  the  pre- 
fent ?  Dr  Woodward  gives  the  following  rcafon  for 
fnppofing  the  antediluvian  feas  to  have  been  nearly  of 
the  fame  extent  with  thofe  at  prefent,  viz.  that  "  the 
fpoils  of  the  fea,  the  (hells  and  other  marine  bodies, 
are  left  in  fuch  prodigious  numbers,  and  in  heaps  upon 
heaps  in  the  earth,  befides  thofe  which  have  long  fince 
periihed,  that  they  could  not  have  been  left  in  fuch 
quantities  had  not  the  feas  occupied  much  the  fame 
ipacc  as  they  do  now."  This  argument,  however,  is 
thought  by  Mr  Cockburn  to  be  alfo  inconclufive  : 
"  For  (fays  he)  I.  Animal  food,  whether  filh  or  fleili, 
was  not  ufed  by  mankind  before  tiie  deluge  :  but, 
2.  Suppofe  it  had,  yet  for  the  firll  500  years  the  num- 
ber of  mankind  was  but  fmall,  and  likely  at  a  great 
dillance  from  the  fea  ;  fo  that  the  increafe  of  all  kinds 
of  fiih  during  fo  long  a  time  mufthave  been  prodigi- 
ous. We  need  not  be  furprifed,  then,  at  the  immenfe 
quantities  of  the  exuvia;  of  marine  animals  left  on  the 
earth  by  the  deluge.  But  the  reafon  he  brings  to 
prove  that  the  feveral  continents  of  the  world  were 
encompafled  by  feas  as  they  are  now,  viz.  that  as 
there  are  different  forts  of  iidies  in  the  different  feas 
of  the  world,  fo  the  exuvix  of  the  fame  kind  are  ge- 
nerally found  Upon  contiguous  lands,  does  not  always 
hold,  fince  there  are  fome  Ihells  found  in  the  continent 
which  are  (Irangers  to  the  parts  of  tlie  fea  contermi- 
nous to  thefe  continents.  That  the  feas  in  the  pre- 
fent earth  are  valHy  more  extended,  and  confcquently 
the  di"y  land  fo  much  lefs  in  proportion,  may  likewife 
be  inferred  from  the  great  multitude  of  iflands  that 
lie  near  the  (horcs  of  the  greater  continents,  if  it  be 
true  what  fome  allege,  that  they  are  parts  broken  oiF 
by  the  deluge  from  the  main  land,  which  before  that 
readied  to  and  beyond  them.  And.though  ifl.mds  are 
thought  to  be  rarely  found  in  the  great  ocean,  yet 
there  have  of  late  been  found  in  the  midft  of  the  In- 
dian ocean  vaft  clufters  of  illandf,  Sec." 

To  all  this  it  may  be  replied.  That  the  Mofaic 
account  fays  nothing  of  the  extent  of  the  feas  ei- 
ther before  or  after  the  flood  ;  but  limply  tells  us, 
that  the  waters  were  poured  out  upon  the  furface  of 
the  earth  irom  the  windows  of  heaven  and  the  foun- 
tains of  the  deep,  and  that  as  the  flood  decreafed  the 
waters  returned  from  off  the  face  of  the  earth.  If  part 
of  them  returned,  we  have  not  tlie  leaft  reafon  to  fup- 
pofe  that  the  whole  did  not  do  fo  hkewife.  That  the 
fifh,  as  well  as  land  animals,  were  more  ninuerous  in 
tiie  antediluvian  world  than  now  when  fuch  quantities 
are  dcflroycd  by  mankind,  is  very  probable,  as  we  fee 
they  abound  to  this  day  in  uninhabited  places.  This 
may  account  for  the  aflonifhing  quantities  of  their 
exuvise  to  be  met  with  in  many  different  parts  of  the 
earth  ;  but  from  the  formation  of  iflands  nothing  can 
be  couchided  concerning  the  antediluvian  world.  The 
late  difcoveries  have  fliown  that  many  iflands  have  a 
volcanic  origin  ;  others  are  fonned  by  the  growth  of 
Vol.  V.  Part  II. 


45     T  DEL 

coral ;  fome  by  an  accumulation  of  fea-weeds  and  other 
matters  floating  on  the  furface  of  the  ocean,  and  de- 
tained lipon  fand-banks  01  funk  rocks  ;  while  not  a 
few  of  thofe  near  the  great  continents  owe  their  origin 
to  the  quantities  of  mud  brought  down  by  the  great 
rivers  which  empty  themfclves  into  the  ocean.  Au- 
thentic hiflory  fcarce  affords  an  inflance  of  an  ifland 
formed  by  the  breaking  off  a  piece  from  the  conti- 
nent, though  it  does  many  of  iflands  being  joined  ttt 
continents  by  fome  one  or  other  of  the  caufes  jull 
mentioned. 

The  inferior  fertility  of  the  earth  after  the  deluge  is 
much  infilled  upon  by  the  fame  author,  for  the  follow- 
ing reafons  :  "  I.  The  grant  of  animal  food  U>  Noah  and 
his  pollerity  ;  which  he  thinks  is  an  indication  of  great- 
er barrennefs  in  the  ground  than  formerly.  2.  Our 
Saviour  compares  the  days  of  Noah  with  thofe  of 
Lot  ;  and  as  the  country  about  Sodum  is  faid  to  have 
been  exceedingly  fertile  like  l/je  garden  of  the  I.ori!, 
he  is  of  opinion  that  the  antediluvian  world  mull  have 
been  very  fertile  alfo.  3.  As  (according  to  Dr  Wood- 
ward) the  firfl  earth  brought  forth  all  manner  of 
plants  of  itfelf  without  any  labour  or  culture  of  man, 
and  even  before  there  was  a  man  to  till  the  ground, 
we  may  reafouably  fuppofe  that  the  exterior  ftratum 
or  furface  of  the  earth  confilled  of  fuch  terreftrial 
matter  as  was  fit  for  thefe  produftions  ;  that  is,  of 
a  rich  light  mould,  affording  plentifully  matter  for 
vegetation.  Now,  though  God  was  pleafed,  upon 
man's  tranfgreffion,  to  withdraw  in  part  his  benedic- 
tion from  the  earth  ;  yet  the  earth  itfelf  was  untouch- 
ed till  the  deluge,  the  fame  furface  of  rich  mould  was 
Hill  upon  it,  and  brought  forth  plentifully,  efpc.-iall/ 
whan  man's  culture  for  corn  was  added.  But  the 
inundation  of  waters  at  the  deluge  greatly  altered  the 
conflltution  of  the  earth  itfelf:  it  mixed  and  confound- 
ed this  upper  flratum  of  vegetative,  earth  with  other- 
terrellrial  matter  not  fit  for  vegetation,  with  fand,  gra- 
vel, Hones,  and  all  kinds  of  mineral  matter,  which  mull 
needs  render  the  earth  in  general  much  lefs  fertile  than 
before,  and  which  made  the  plough  ncceflary  to  dig 
up  the  proper  vegetative  mould  and  bring  it  to  the 
furface,  and  alfo  manure  or  compoft  to  increafe  and 
enrich  it  ;  neither  of  which  before  the  flood  it  needed. 
4.  There  is  a  moral  reafon  why  the  earth  after  the 
flood  ihould  be  lefs  fertile  than  before.  The  luxu- 
riant productions  of  the  firll  earth,  after  man's  nature 
became  corrupted,  and  to  deviate  more  and  more  from 
righteoufncis,  ferved  only  to  excite  and  foment  his 
lulls,  and  to  miniller  plentiful  fuel  to  his  vices  and 
luxury.  To  cut  off,  therefore,  fuch  occafion  of  fin 
and  wickedncfs,  God,  in  great  mercy  to  meu,  retrench- 
ed- the  earth  in  its  former  fertility,  thereby  obliging 
them  to  labour  and  dihgence,  and  employing  mofl  of 
their  time  to  procure  their  neceffar)-  fubfillence,  which 
the  earth  by  diligent  culture  will  IHII  afford,  but  not 
that  luxuriant  abundance  it  did  before  the  flood.  If 
we  take  a  furvey  of  the  different  regions  and  countries 
of  the  world,  we  fhall  find  this  to  be  the  truth  of  the 
cafe.  Some  places,  both  in  Afia  and  America,  are 
as  it  were  a  paradife  in  refped  of  die  rell,  to  fliow 
us  perhaps  wliat  was  and  would  have  been  the  flate  of 
the  earth  had  not  man  finned  ;  but  far  the  greatefl 
part  is  nothing  to  he  compared  to  thefe,  and  evidently 
(hows  that  elfed  which  the  fins  of  meu  had  upon  the 
5  B  earth 


Oeluge. 


DEL  [7 

r>c1;ig;e  earth  itfelf.  Iq  a  word,  if  we  take  a  furvey  of  the 
'  whole,  it  cannot  be  thought  that  the  firlt  lileifiiig  was 
reftorcd  to  the  earth  after  the  flood,  or  that  it  came 
out  of  the  hands  of  its  maker  in  the  ftalt  it  is  at  pre 
fent,  fince  fo  great  a  part  of  it  bears  Itill  the  marks  of 
the  curfe  laid  upon  it." 

Notwilhltanding  all  th^t  is  here  alleged,  the  extra- 
ordinaiy  feitility  of  the  ancient  earth  muft  iliU  ap- 
pear very  problematical,  if  we  confider  all  circumitan- 
ces.    For, 

I.  Even  at  the  creation,  when  the  earth  was  at  its 
utmoft  perfedtion,  wc  cannot  fuppofe  that  every  part 
of  it  produced  fpontaneoufly  like  the  garden  of  Eden. 
On  the  contrary,  we  are  told  that  this  garden  was 
flantcc!  by  the  Lord  Gad^  and  that  Adam  was  put  into 
it  to  drefs  it  and  to  keep  It.  It  appear?,  therefore,  that 
even  in  the  Paradifaical  ftate  the  earth  would  not  liave 
produced  food  for  man  without  culture  ;  for  as  God 
planted  the  fufl;  garden,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
had  man  continued  in  his  llate  of  innocence  and  mul- 
tiplied, he  mull  have  ^/j«/«/ other  gardens  when  it  be- 
came neceffary.  After  the  fall,  the  fertility  ot  the 
earth  wa.^  exprefsly  removed,  and  that  not  in  a  flight 
decrree  ;  but  if  we  can  iudee  from  the  orefent  ftate  of 
things,  it  mull  have  become  extremely  wild  and  bar- 
ren. Thus,  when  it  is  faid,  "  Thorns  alio  and  thilUes 
flrall  il  bring  forth  to  thee  ;"  we  may  judge  of  the 
ftate  of  the  foil  from  that  which  we  fee  bringing  forth 
thorns  and  ihiltles  at  this  day.  Every  one  knows  that 
an  abundant  crop  of  thefe  weeds  indicates  poor  ground, 
which  will  require  a  great  deal  of  cultivation  to  bring 
it  into  order.  Nay,  that  we  may  be  fure  that  the  cul- 
liva'Jon  of  the  earth  was  at  this  time  no  eafy  matter, 
it  is  likewife  faid,  "  In  forrow  {halt  thou  eat  of  it  all 
the  days  of  thy  hfe."  Kenee  it  would  appear,  that 
the  antediluvian  earth,  initead  of  being  more  fertile, 
■was  much  more  barren  than  at  prefent.  That  the  la- 
bour of  cultivating  the  ground  at  that  time  was  alfo 
fo  great  as  to  be  almoll  intolerable,  is  evident  from  the 
fpeech  of  Lamech  on  the  birth  of  Noah  :  "  This 
fume  (fays  he)  fhall  comfort  us  concerning  our  work 
and  toil  of  our  hands,  concerning  the  ground  which 
the  Lord  hath  curfed." 

i.  There  is  a  very  evident  natural  reafon  why  the 
antediluvian  world  fhould  have  been  more  barren  than 
the  prefent,  and  why  the  deluge  fhould  have  removed 
that  barrennefs.  Under  the  article  Antediluvians, 
n*^  19,  it  is  hinted,  that  the  purity  of  the  air  at  that 
time  was  a  principal  caufe  of  the  longevity  of  the  hu- 
man race.  If  this  was  really  the  cafe,  which  is  very 
probable,  we  mull  luppoie  the  atmofphere  to  have 
then  contained  a  greater  quantity  of  (.Lfhlogijl'icated  air 
than  it  does  at  prefent ;  for  late  experiments  have  put 
it  beyond  dotibt,  that  from  this  the  fupport  of  animal 
life  is  immediately  derived.  But  this  kind  of  air, 
however  favourable  to  animal  hfe,  is  found  to  be  very 
unfavourable  to  vegetation  ;  and  therefore,  in  propor- 
tion to  its  abundance  in  the  antediluvian  atmofphere, 
the  animals  would  be  healthy,  and  the  vegetables  weak, 
puny,  and  fickly.  But  the  deluge,  by  overflowing  the 
earth  for  a  whole  year,  deftroyed  every  animal  and  ve- 
getable, and  conftquently  induced  a  vail  putrefadion 
all  over  the  globe  ;  the  confequence  of  which  was  the 
produflion  of  an  immenfe  quantity  of  what  is  called 
phlo^yiicated  air.     This  piixing  with  the  pure  auno- 


46     ]  DEL 

fphere,  vitiated  it  to  fuch  a  degree  as  to  make  il  lefs  r>Llii7e, 
frientlly  to  animal  life,  but  more  fo  to  vegetation.  '■  v"^ 
Hence  the  prefent  world  mull  naturally  be  more  fer- 
tile than  the  former  ;  and  not  only  on  this  account, 
but  by  reafon  of  its  being  manured  by  the  ilagnation 
of  the  waters  upon  its  furface  for  a  twelvemonth,  and 
the  immenfe  quantity  of  animal  matter  left  by  them, 
the  ground,  inftead  of  being  leflened  in  its  fertility  as 
Dr.\^oodward  fuppofes,  muft  have  been  rellored,  as 
far  as  we  can  judge,  to  the  very  llate  it  was  in  at  its 
original  formation. 

3.  That  this  was  really  the  cafe  appears  probable  from 
what  the  Deity  faid  to  Nuah  after  offering  up  his  lacri- 
fice.  '•  I  will  not  (lays  he)  curfe  the  ground  anv  mure 
for  man's  fake."  Now  this  was  plainly  intimating  that 
the  earth  was  reftorcd  to  its  primitive  fertih'ty,  and 
that  he  would  no  more  take  it  away  ;  for  wh'.n  he  did 
fo  to  the  primitive  world  it  was  in  thefe  words,  "  Cur- 
fed is  the  ground  for  thy  lake."  That  the  curfe  here 
alluded  to  was  really  the  depriving  the  earth  of  its 
fertility,  and  not  the  overflowing  the  earth  with  water, 
is  evident  ;  becaufe,  after  declaring  that  he  would  no 
more  curfe  the  ground  for  man's  fake,  he  adds,  "  Nei- 
ther will  I  again  finite  every  living  thing  as  I  have 
done." 

4.  The  moral  reafons  affigned  why  the  prefent 
world  ihould  be  lefs  fertile  than  the  former,  feein 
to  be  inconclufive.  However  barren  we  may  reckon 
the  earth  juft  now,  it  is  certain  that  it  produces, 
or  might  produce,  much  more  than  would  fufSce  for 
all  its  inhabitants.  The  difficulties  which  mankind 
undergo  are  not  at  all  owing  to  the  barrennefs  of 
the  earth  ;  but  to  their  own  condudl,  or  their  opprel- 
iion  of  one  another.  Neither  does  it  clearly  appear 
that  animal  food  is  really  in  any  degree  cheaper  than 
vegetable,  but  rather  the  contrary  ;  fo  that  whatever 
was  the  reafon  of  this  grant  after  the  flood,  we  can- 
not fairly  afcribe  it  to  a  forefight  of  the  future  bar- 
rennefs of  the  earth. 

Another  queflion  which  naturally  occurs  on  the 
fubjefl  of  the  deluge  is.  Whether  there  was  any  rain 
before  it  or  not  ?  The  argument  againft  the  exiftence 
of  lain  before  the  flood  is  obvioufly  derived  from  the 
rainbow  being  made  a  fymbol  of  the  divine  favour  im- 
mediately after.  It  is  certain,  indeed,  that  unlefs  we 
fuppofe  the  nature  of  light  or  of  water  to  have  been 
different  before  this  event  from  what  it  was  afterwards, 
there  is  a  natural  impoffibility  of  the  refradlion  of  the 
fun's  light  being  prevented  from  (howing  the  appear- 
ance of  a  rainbow  whenever  the  fun  and  cloud  were 
in  a  certain  pofition  with  regard  to  one  another.  It 
appears  improbable,  to  thofe  who  take  this  tide  of  the 
queftion,  that  the  Deity  Ihould  inftitute  any  thing  as 
an  emblem  of  his  difpleafure  being  turned  away,  when 
the  lame  emblem  had  been  fcen  perhaps  a  very  fliort 
time  before  the  cataftrophe  happened.  On  the  other 
hand  it  is  replied,  that  tliere  is  no  abfurdity  in  fappo- 
fing  this  to  have  been  the  cafe  :  for  though  the  rain- 
bow exifted  before  the  deluge,  yet  it  never  was  ap- 
pointed to  be  the  fymbol  of  this  particular  event,  viz, 
the  reconciliation  of  the  Deity  ;  and  the  impoffibihty 
of  vegetables  being  fupplicd  with  a  fuflUcient  quantity 
of  moifture  without  rain  is  likewife  urged  as  a  decillve 
argument.  Still,  however,  it  appears,  that  even  ve- 
gelatiou  may   fubUil,    dud   that    Ja  its  utmoft    pcr- 

fedioQ, 


DEM 


[     747     ] 


DEM 


DcnictriiH. 


Denia.1=i  fcAion,  without  rain  :,  foi  we  are  informed,  that  by 
means  of  a  mill  the  ground  was  originally  watered, 
and  vegetables  fupplied  with  moiilure,  bclore  there 
was  any  rain  ;  and  if  this  was  the  cafe  at  one  time. 
It  might  have  been  at  any  other,  or  at  any  number  of 
times  we  can  fuppofe.  Indeed,  as  matters  Hand  at 
prcfent,  this  would  undoubtedly  be  a  very  feanty  fup- 
ply  ;  and  perhaps  lo  it  was  in  the  antediluvian  world  : 
and  thus  the  want  of  rain  might  have  been  one  caufc 
of  that  banennefs  in  the  antediluvian  world  which  wc 
have  already  mentioned  as  probable,  and  which  Mr 
.Bryant  mentions  as  the  opinion  of  all  the  ancient  my- 
thologifts. 

For  particular  deluges,  or  overflowings  of  various 
parts  of  the  earth  by  water,  lee  the  article  Inunda- 
tion. 

DEMADES,  a  famous  Athenian,  who,  from  be- 
ing a  mariner,  became  a  great  orator,  and  appeafcd 
Philip  by  his  eloquence,  after  the  famous  viftoiy  over 
the  Athenians  at  ClKronea,  in  the  338th  year  15.  C. 

DEMAIN,  or  Demesnp.,  in  its  common  accepta- 
tion, is  uied  for  the  lands  round  a  mauur-houfc,  occu- 
pied by  the  loi-d. 

Dem.iin,  or  Demefne,  in  law,  is  commonly  under- 
ftood  to  be  the  lord's  chief  manor-place,  with  the 
knds  thereto  belonging,  which  he  and  his  anceftors 
hare,  time  out  of  mind,  kept  in  their  own  manual  oc- 
cupation. 

DEMAND,  in  its  popular  fenie,  denotes  a  calling 
fur  or  requiring  one's  due. 

Demand,  in  law,  has  a  more  fpecial  fignillcation, 
BS  contradiltiiiguilhed  horn  plaint:  for  all  civil  actions 
arc  purfu(.d  cither  by  dcmar.ds  or  plaints  ;  according 
to  \vhich  the  purfucr  is  i-iUed  either  dematulatit  or 
^In'wlijj':  \'\!..  in  real  ailiou";,  ikmanAant ;  and  in  per- 
funal  iCXww^,  plaintiff.     See  Plaintiff. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  demands  .-  the  one  in  deed, 
de  faao,  as  in  every  pivcipe  :  the  otiuv  in  lano,  dejure; 
fuch  is  entrv  in  land,  diilrcfs  for  rent,  Sec. 

DEMEMBRATION,  in  Scots  law.  See  Law, 
N"  clxx.wi.  17. 

DEMEMBRE,  in  heraldry,  is  faid  of  difmeiubertd 
animals,  or  thofe  with  their  limbs  cut  off. 

DEMESNE.     Sec  Demain. 

Demesne  LANDS.     See  Revenue,  n'' j. 

DEMETvE  (anc.  geog.),  a  people  of  Britain, 
confidertd  as  a  branch  of  the  Silurcs,  occupying  that 
inner  corner  formed  by  the  Briilol  Channel  and  the 
Iiilh  Sea. 

DEMETRIA,  afeftival  in  honour  of  Ceres,  called 
Jiy  the  Greeks  Z'.wc/'fr.  It  was  then  cuilomary  for 
the  votariis  of  the  goddefs  to  la(h  themfelvcs  with 
whips  made  with  the  bark  of  trees.  The  Athenians 
had  a  folemnity  of  the  iame  name  in  honour  of  Deme- 
trius Poliorcetes. 

DEMETRIOWITZ,  a  city  of  the  duchy  ofSmo- 
lenlko,  in  the  RuiTiaii  empire,  fituated  Upon  the  rlvtr 
Ugra,  in  E.  Long.  37.  o.  N.  Lat.  53.  20. 

DEMETRIL'5,  a  fon  of  Antigonus  and  Strato- 
nlce,  furnamed  P i/liorcetes ,  "  Deltroyer  of  towns."  At 
the  age  of  22,  he  was  fent  by  his  father  againll  Ptolemv, 
who  invaded  Syria.  He  was  defeated  near  Gaza ; 
but  he  foon  repaired  his  lofs  by  a  viiilury  over  one  of 
the  generals  of  the  enemy.      He  afterwards  failed  with 


a  fleet  of  2^0  fnips  to  Athens,  and  rcilored  t!.s  .\tTie-  Demrtriu*. 
nians  to  liberty,  hy  freeing  tliem   from  the   poiTcr  of  ■"""•       *i 
Caflandcr  and  Ptolemy,  and   expelling  the  ganifon, 
which  was  Itationcd  there  under  Demetrius  Phalereus. 
After  tl;is  lucceisful  expedition,  he  befieged  and  took 
Munychia,  and  defeated  CalTaniler   at    'i'hermopyl.r. 
His  reception  at  Athens  after  thefe  victories  was  at- 
tended with  the  greatefk  fervility,   and   the  Athenians 
were  not  alhamcd  to  raife  akars  to  him  as  to  a  gad,  and 
confidt  his   oracles.     This   uuconunou    fuccefs   railed 
the  jealoufy  of  the  fucceffois  of  Alexaiidei-  and  Seleu- 
cus  CalFander,  and  Lylimachus  united  to  deihoy  An- 
tigonus   and  his   foil.      Their   hollile   armies  inet   at 
Ipfus,  299  years  before  the  Auguitan  age.     Antigo- 
nus was  killed  in  the  battle ;    and   Demetrius,  after  a 
fevere  lofs,  retired  to  Ephelus.      His  ill  fuccefs  ra'fed 
him  many  enemiei  ;  and  the  Athenians,  who  had  late- 
ly adored  him  as  a  gi)d,  refufed  to  admit  him  into  their 
city.      He  loon  after  ravaged  the  territory  of  Lyfi- 
machus,  and  reconciled   himfclf  to  Scleucus,  to  whom 
he  gave  his  daughter  Stratonice  in  mairiagc.      Athens 
now  laboured  under  tyranny,  and  Demetrius  relieved  it 
and  pardoned  the  inliabitants.   The  lofs  of  hispoifelfions 
in  Alia  recalled  him  from  Greece,  and  he  titablilhed 
himfclf  on  the  throne  of  Macedonia  by  the   murder 
of  Alexander  the  fon  of  Cad'ander.      Here  he  was  con- 
tinually at  war  with  the  neighbouring  Hates,  and  the 
fuperior  power  of  his  adverfaries  obliged  him  to  leave 
Macedonia,' after  he   had  fat   on  the  thnjae  for  fcveri 
years.    He  palTed  i^ito  Alia,  and  attacked  fome  of  the 
provinces  ol  Lylimachus  with  various  fuccefs  ;  but  fa- 
mine and  peftilence  dellroyed  the  greatclt  part  of  his 
army,  and    he   retired  to  the  court  of  Scleucus   for 
fupport  and  ainilancc.      He  met   with  a  kind  leccp- 
tion  :  but  hoftilivies  were  foou  begun  ;  and  after  he 
had  gained  iome  advantages   over  his  fon-in-iaw,  De- 
metrius was  totally  foifakcn  by  his  troops  in  the  held 
ot  battle,  and  bcc:viie   an  eafy   prey   to    the  ene,iiy. 
Though  he  was   kept  in  conhnement  by  his  fon-in- 
law,    yet  lie  maintained   himfclf  like  a  prince,  and 
p:ilkd  his  time  in  l.untiug  and  iu   every  laborious  ex- 
crcife.   His  fon  Antigonus  offered  Scleucus  all  his  pof- 
fcflions,  and  even  his  perfon,  top.>-ocute  his  fallier's  li- 
berty;   but  all  proved  unavailing,   and  Demetrius  died 
in  the  54th  year  of  his   age,   after  a   confinement  of 
three  years,   286   years  before  Chrift.      His  remains 
were  given  to  Antigonus,  and  honoured  with  a  fplen- 
did  iuneral  pomp  at  Corinth,  and  thence  conveyed  to 
Demetrias.      His   pofterity  remained  in  polfetiion  of 
the   Macedonian   throne  till  the  age  of  Pcrfeus,    who 
was  conquered  by  the  Romans.      Demetrius  has  ren- 
dered himfclf  fanious  for   his   fondncfs   of  dilfipation 
when  among  the  dilTolute,  and  for  his  love  of  virtue 
and  militaiy  glory  in  the  field  of  battle.   He  has  been 
commended  as  a  great  wan  ior  ;  and  his  ingenious  in- 
ventions, his  warlike  engines,  and  llupendous  machines 
in  his  war  with  the   Rhodians,  jullify  his   claims  to 
that  charafter.      He  has  been  blamed  for  his  voluptu- 
ous indulgences;  and  his  biographer  obferves  that  no 
Grecian  prince  had  more  wives   and  concubines    than 
Poliorcetes.      His  obedience  and  reverence  to  his  fa- 
ther has  been  juftly  admired  ;   and  it  lias  been  obfcr- 
ved,^   that  Antigonus   ordered  the  ambalfador^.   of   a 
foreign  prince,   particularly  to   it  mark    the   cordiah- 
J  B  3  ty 


DEM  [     748     ]  DEM 

Demetrius,  ty  and  friendrtiip  which  fubfifted  between  him  and  his     Egypt,  and  was  protefted  by  Ptolemy  Lagus.     This  Demetriuj 

king,  it  is  iaid,  aiked  his  advice  concerning  the  fucccf-         [1 
fion   of  his  children   to  the  throne;  -j!a.   whe'h^r  he  ,   ^"""'"g'; 
ought  to  pixfiir  thofe  he  had  by  Euridicc  to  Ptolemy 
Ptnladelphus  whom  he  had  by  Berenice?  and  Dcinclriuj 


Demetrius,  furnamed  Gonatas,  fucceeded  his  fa- 
ther Antigcnus  on  the  throne  of  Macedonia.  He  reign- 
ed iz  years,  and  was  fucceeded  by  his  ion  Philip. 

Demetrius,  a  fon  of  Philip,  king  of  Macedonia, 
delivered  as  an  hortage  to  the  Romans.  His  modefty 
delivered  his  father  from  a  heavy  accufatlon  laid  be- 
fore the  Roman  fenatc.  When  he  returned  to  Mace- 
donia, he  was  falfely  accufed  by  his  brother  Perfcus, 
who  was  jealous  of  liis  po|)ularity,  and  his  father  too 
creduloully  confented  to  his  death. 

Demetrius  I.  furnamed  Soter  or  Sa-vior,  was  fon  of 
Seleucus  Philopator  the  fon  of  Antlochus  the  Great, 
king  of  Syria.  His  father  gave  him  as  a  holtage  to 
the  Romans.  After  the  death  of  Seleucus,  Antlo- 
chus   Epiphanes,    the    deceafed     monarch's   brother, 


advifcd  him  to  leave  his  crown  to  the  former.  This 
difpleafed  Philadelphus  fo  much,  that,  his  father  bein^ 
dead,  he  banithcd  l)emetrius;  Vvho  was  afterwards  kill- 
ed by  the  bite  of  an  afp.  Demetrius  compofed  more 
works  in  profc  and  verfe  than  any  other  peripatetic  of 
his  time  ;  and  his  writings  confided  of  poetry,  hiilory, 
politics,  rhetotic,  harangues,  and  embaffies.  None  of 
them  are  extant  except  his  rhetoric,  which  Is  ulually 
printed  among  the  Rhetores  Sileiti. 

Demetrius,  a  cynic  phllofopher,  difclple  of  Apol- 
lonius  Thyaneus,  In  the  age  of  Caligula.  The  empe- 
ror wifhed  to  gain  the  philofcpher  to  his  intcreft  by  a 


ufurped  the  kingdom  of  Syria,  and  fucceeded  by  his    large  prefent  ;  but  Demetrius  refufed  it  with  Indlgna- 


fon  Antlochus  Eupator.  This  ufurpation  difpleafed 
Demetrius,  who  was  detained  at  Rome.  He  procured 
his  hberty  on  pretence  of  going  to  hunt,  and  fled  to 
Syria,  where  the  troops  received  him  as  their  lau-ful 
foverelgn.  He  put  to  death  Eupator  and  Lyfias,  and 
eilabliflied  himfelf  on  his  throne  by  cruelty  and  op- 
preffion.  Alexander  Bala,  the  fon  of  Antiochus  Epi- 
phanes, laid  claims  upon  the  crown  of  Syria,  and  de- 
feated Demetrius  in  a  battle,  250  years  before  Chrift. 

Demetrius  H.  furnamed  iJlcanor,  or  Conqueror, 
■was  fon  of  Soter,  to  whom  he  fucceeded  by  the  af- 
fiftance  of  Ptolemy  Philomctor.  He  married  Cleopa- 
tra, the  daughter  of  Ptolemy,  v/ho  was  before  the  wife 
of  the  expelled  monarch  Alexander  Bala.  Demetrius 
gave  himfelf  up  to  luxury  and  voluptuoufnefs,  and  fuf- 
fered  his  kingdom  to  be  governed  by  his  favourites. 
At  that  time  a  pretended  fon  of  Bala,  called  Diodorus 
Tryphon,  feized  a  part  of  Syria  ;  and  Demetrius,  t.)  op- 
pofe  his  ant<igonift,  made  an  alliance  with  the  Jews, 
an'i  marched  into  the  tall,  where  he  was  taken  by  the 
Parthlans.  Phraates  king  of  Parthia  gave  him  his 
daughter  Rhodogfyne  in  marriage;  and  Cleopatra  was 
fo  inccnfed  at  this  new  connedion,  that  file  gave  her- 


tlon,  and  fald,  If  Caligula  wlihes  to  bribe  me,  let  him 
fend  me  his  crown.  Vefpafian  was  difpleafed  with  his 
infolence,  and  baniihcd  him  to  an  Ifland.  The  cynic 
derided  the  punifliment,  and  bitte,Tly  inveighed  a^alnd 
the  emperor.  He  died  in  a  great  old  age  ;  and  Se- 
neca obfeives,  that  "  nature  had  brought  him  forth 
to  fhow  mankind  that  an  exalted  genius  can  live  fecure- 
ly  without  being  corrupted  by  the  vice  of  the  furround- 
ing  world." 

DEMI  (formed  from  Jimiilitim),  a  word  ufed  in 
compofitlon  with  other  words  to  lignlfy  half. 

DsMi-yfttici,  boroughs  or  larger  villages  of  Attica. 
The  Athenian  tribes  were  diftrlbuted  Into  Demi.  Ho- 
mer, In  his  catalogue,  dlllingullhes  the  Athenians  by 
the  appellation  Demos.  And  when  Thefcus  prevailed 
on  them  to  quit  the  country  and  fettle  at  Athens,  they 
ftlll  continued  to  frequent  the  Demi,  and  to  perform 
their  feveral  religious  ceremonies  there  (Paufanlas, 
Livy). 

DEMi-Cuherht,  a  piece  of  ordnance  ufually  4f  inches 
bore,  2700  pound  weight,  10  feet  long,  and  carrying 
point  blank  175  paces. 

DEMi-Culverin  of  the  hajljize,  is  45-  inches  bore,  10 


felf  up  to  Antlochus  Sidetes  her  brother-in-law,  and  feet  long,  and  20CO  pound  weight.  It  carries  a  ball 
maiTled  him.  Sidetes  was  killed  in  a  battle  agamft  of  4  Inches  diameter  and  of  9  pounds  weight,  and  its 
tlie  Parthians,    and  Demetrius  regained  the  poileffion     level  range  is  174  paces. 


of  his  kingdom.  His  pride  and  oppreffion  rendered 
him  odious;  and  his  fubjefts  afked  a  king  of  the  houfe 
of  Seleucus  from  Ptolemy  Phyfcon  king  of  Egypt  : 
and  Demetrius,  unable  to  refill  the  power  of  his  ene- 
mies, fled  to  Ptolemais,  which  was  then  in  the  hands 
of  his  wife  Cleopatra.  The  gates  were  (hut  up  againll 
his  approach  by  Cleopatra  ;  and  he  was  killed  by  or- 
der of  the  governor  of  Tyre,  whither  he  had  fled  for 
proteftion,  A.  U.  C.  627.  He  was  fucceeded  by 
Alexander  Zebina,  whom  Ptolemy  had  ralfed  to  the 
throne. 

Demetrius  Phalercus,  a  celebrated  orator  arid  peripa- 
tetic phllofopher,  was  the  fcholar  of  The.iphraflus.  He 
acquired  fo  much  authority  at  Athens,  that  he  govern- 
ed the  city  for  ten  years  ;  and  ruled  with  fo  much  wlf- 


Di.Mi-Cuh'erii  of  the  largejl  fort,  Is  4I  inches  bore, 
lOy  feet  long,  and  weighs  3000  pounds  weight.  It 
carries  a  ball  4^  inches  diameter,  weighing  12  pounds 
II  ounces,  point  blank  178  paces. 

DfMj-God.     See  Hero. 

DfMi-Gorge,  In  foitlticavlon,  is  th^t  part  of  the  poly- 
gon which  lenialns  after  the  flank  is  raifed,  and  goes 
from  the  ciirtin  to  the  angle  of  tlie  polygon.  It  Is  half 
of  the  vacant  fpace  or  entrance  Into  a  balllon. 

DEMt-^iaver,  a  note  in  mufic,  two  of  which  are  e- 
qual  to  a  quaver. 

Df..M:-Semi-!^ia-aer,  in  mufic,  the  ftiortefl;  note,  two 
of  them  being  equal  to  a  feral-quaver. 

DEMISE,  in  law,  is  applied  to  an  eftate  either  in 
fee-fimple,   fee-tail,  or  for  term  of  life  or  years  ;  and 


dom  and  virtue,  that  they  fet  up  36  flatues  In  honour     fj  It  is  commonly  taken   in   many  writs.     The  king's 


of  him.  By  the  (landers  of  fome  malicious  perfons  in 
his  abfence,  he  was,  however,  condemned  to  die  ;  and 
his  Images  were  pulled  down  :  v/hlch  when  Demetrius 
heardj  he  faid,  they  could  not  pull  down  that  vlitue 
fur  v.4iich  thofe  images  were  fet  up.     He  efcaped  into 


death  is  in  law- termed  the  demlfe  of  the  king. 

Demise,  and  Redemise,  denote  a  conveyance 
where  there  are  mutual  leafes  made  from  one  to  ano- 
ther of  the  fame  land,  or  fomething  out  of  it. 

DEMIURGE  (from  S,<f><o;,  which  denotes  a  puLiic 

Jirvant, . 


DEM 


[     749     ] 


DEM 


•feriianf,  and  'p}"*  •zvork),  in  the  mytht'Iogyof  the  eail- 
ern  pliilofophers,  was  one  of  the  jeons  employed  by 
the  fuprcmc  Deity  in  the  creation  of  the  world.  The 
character  they  give  him  is  a  compound  of  fliining  qua- 
lities and  infupportable  arrogance  ;  and  his  excttlive 
luft  of  empire  effaces  his  talents  and  virtues.  He  is 
reprtfented  as  claiming  dominion  over  the  new  world 
he  has  formed,  as  his  fovcreign  right  ;  and  excluding 
tetally  the  fupreme  Deity  from  all  concernment  in  it, 
he  demands  from  mankind,  for  himfelf  and  his  aflb- 
ciates,  divine  honours. 

DEMOCRACY,  from  J"^®?  people,  and  «faT«,  j-o 
command  or  govern ;  the  fame  with  a  popular  govern- 
ment, wherein  the  fupreme  power  is  lodged  in  the  hands 
of  the  people  :  fuch  were  Rome  and  Athens  of  old  ; 
but  as  to  our  modern  republics,  Bafil  only  excepted, 
their  government  comes  nearer  to  ariilocracy  than  de- 
mocracy.    See  Law,  n°  14. 

DEAIOCRITUS,  one  of  the  greateft  pliilofophera 
of  antiquity,  was  born  at  Abdera,  a  town  of  Thrace, 
about  the  80th  Olympiad  ;  tluit  is,  about  460  years 
before  Chriil.  His  father,  fuys  Valerius  NIaximus, 
was  able  to  entertain  the  army  of  Xei-xes  ;  and  Dio- 
genes Laertius  adds,  upon  the  teftimony  of  Herodotus, 
that  the  king,  in  requital,  pn,feuted  him  with  fome 
Magi  and  Chaldeans.  From  thefe  Magi  and  Chalde- 
ans Democritus  received  the  firft  part  of  his  education  ; 
and  from  them,  whilft  yet  a  boy,  he  learned  theology 
and  aflronomy.  He  next  applied  to  Leucippus,  and 
learned  from  him  the  fyftem  of  atoms  and  a  vacuum. 
His  father  dying,  the  three  fons,  for  fo  many  there  were, 
divided  the  eftate.  Democritus  made  choice  of  that 
part  which  confided  in  money,  as  being,  though  the 
leaft  (hare,  the  moft  convenient  for  travelling  ;  and  it 
is  faid,  that  his  portion  amounted  to  above  100  talents, 
which  is  neat  20,000  1.  Sterling.  His  extraordinary 
inclination  for  the  fcience.^  and  for  knowledge,  induced 
him  to  travel  into  all  parts  of  the  world  where  he  hoped 
to  find  learned  men.  He  went  to  vifit  the  priefis  of 
Egypt,  from  whom  he  learned  geometry  ;,  he  confulted 
the  Chaldeans  and  the  Perfian  philofophers  ;  and  it  is 
faid,  that  he  penetrated  e/en  into  India  and  Ethiopia, 
to  confer  with  the  Gymnofophifts.  In  thefe  travels 
he  waited  hisfubftance;  after  which,  at  his  return,  he 
was  obliged  to  be  maintained  by  his  brother  ;  and  if 
he  had  not  given  proofs  of  tht  greateft  underfianding, 
and  thereby  procured  to  himielf  the  higheft  honours, 
and  the  ftrongeft.  intereft  of  his  country,  hevvould  have 
incurred  the  penalty  of  that  law  which  denied  tliein- 
tcrmcnt  in  the  family-fepnlchre  to  thofe  who  hxd  fpent 
their  patrimony.  After  his  return  from  travclliisg,  he 
Kved  at  Abdera,  and  governed  there  in  a  m(>ft  abfulute 
manner,  by  virtue  of  his  confummate  wifdozn..  The 
magiftrates  of  that  city  made  him  a  prefdnt  of  5C0  ta- 
lents, and  ereified  ftatucs  to  him  even  in  his  lifetime  : 
but  being  naturally  more  inclined  to  contemplation 
than  delighted  with  public  honours  and  employments, 
lie  withdrew  into  folitude  and  retirement.  Dcmocii- 
tus  inceffantly  laughed  at  human  life,  as  a  continued 
farce,  which  made  the  inhabitants  of  Abdera  think  he 
was  mad  ;  on  which  they  fent  for  Hippocrates  to  cure 
him  :  but^that  celebrated  phyfician  liaving  difcourfed 
with  the  philofopher,  told  the  Abderians,  that  he  had 
a  great  veneration  for  Democritus  ;  and  that,  in  his 
opmion,  thofe  who  e(leeu;td  themfeives  the  nioft  heal- 


tiiy  were  the  moft  diftempered.     Democritus  died,  ac-    Demon- 
cording  to  Diogenes  Laertius,  in  the  361ft  year  before     ""b'e 
the  Chriftian  era,  aged  109.      It   is  faid  that  he  put    Dcmoft. 
out  liis  eyes,  in   order  that   he  might   meditate  more      hciiei. 

profoundly    on   philofophical   fubicfls  ;    but    this    has' y       ■> 

little  probability.  He  was  the  author  of  many  books, 
whicii  are  loft  ;  and  from  thefe  Epicurus  borrowed  his 
pUili-ifophy. 

DEMONSTRABLE,  a  term  ufed  in  the  fchools- 
to  fignify  that  a  thing  may  be  clearly  proved.  Thus, 
it  is  dcmonftrable,  that  the  three  angles  of  a  triangle 
are  equal  to  two  n'tfht  ones. 

DEMONSTRATION,  in  logic,  a  feries  of  fyllo- 
gifms,  all  whoff  premifl'es  are  either  definitions,  felf- 
evident  truths,  or  propofitions  already  ellablilhed.     See- 
LoGic. 

DE'vIONSTRATIVE,  in  grammar,  a  term  given- 
to   fuch   pronouns  as  ferve  to  indicate  or  point  out  %. 
thing.      Of  this  number  are  /j/^  iar,  hoc,  among  the 
Latins;   and  l.his,  thai,  thefe,  thofe,  in  Englidi. 

DEMOSTHENES,  the  famous  Athenian  orator, 
was  born  at  Athens  381  B.  C.     He  loft  his  father  at 
feven  years  of  age  ;  and  was  placed  under  the  conduft 
of  guardians,  who  robbed  him  of  his  fubftauce,  and  ne- 
glc>;T:ed  his  education.      Demoilhencs  repaired  this  lofs 
by  his  love  of  eloquence  and  his  extraordinary  abilities. 
He  became  the  difciple  of  Ifoeus  and   Plato,  and  ap- 
plied himfelf  to  ftudy  the   orations  of  Ifocrates.     At 
the  age  of  1 7  he  gave  tn  early  proof  of  his  eloquence 
and  abilities  againft  his  guardians,  from  whom  lie  ob-  • 
tained  the  retribution  of  the  greateft  part  of  hi^  eftate. 
His  rifiiig  talents  were,   howevei^  impeded  by  various 
natural  defedts.      But  thefe  were  at  laft  conquered  by 
dint  of  refolution  and  unwearied  attention.     He  de- 
claimed by- the  fea-fliore,  that  he  might  be  ufed  to  the 
noife  of  a  tumultuous  aifembly  ;  and   with  pebbles  in 
his  mouth,  that  he  might  corrert  a  deleft  in  his  fpeech.  ■ 
He  pra6tiled   at  home   with   a   naked  fword  hanging 
over  ins  fhoulder,  that  he  might  check  an  ungraceful 
motion  to  which  he  was  fubjeft.      He  alfo   confined 
himfelf  in  a  fubterraneoiis  cave,  to  devote  himfelf  more 
clofely  to  ftudious  purfuits ;  and  to  eradicate  all  curi- 
ofity  (Jf  appearing  in  public,  he  fhaved  one  half  of  iiis 
head.     In   this  folitary  retirement,  by  the  help  of  a  ■ 
glimmering  lamp,  he  compofed  the  greateft  part  of  his 
orations,  which  have  ever  been  the  admiration  of  eveiy 
age  ;  though  his  contemporaries  and  rivals  inveighed 
againft  them,  and  obfei'ved  that  they  fmelt  of  oiL   His 
al.-ilities  as  en  orator  raifed  him  to  confequence  at  A-  ■ 
thens,  and  he  was  foon  placed  at  the  head  of  govern- 
ment.     In  this  pubhc  capacity  he  rouled  his  country- 
men from  their  indolence,  and  animated  them  agaiuil 
the   encroachment  of  Philip  of  Macedonia.      In   the 
battle  of  Chcronwa,  l^emofthenes  betrayed  his  pufiUa- 
nimity,  and  faved  his  life  by  flight.      After  the  death  • 
of  Philip,  he  declared  himlelf-warn?.ly  againft  his  Ion 
and  fucceifor  Alexander  ;  and  when  the  Macedonians 
demanded  of  the  Athenians  their  orators,  Dcmofthenes 
reminded  his  countrymen  of  the  fable  of  the  fheep 
which   delivered  their   dogs   to  the  woKts.      By  the 
prevalence  of  party,  however,  he  was  forced  to  retire 
from  Athens  ;  and  in  his  banilhment,  which  he  pafl'ed 
at  Trtszen   and   jGgina,  he  lived  with   more  efitmi- 
nacy  than  true  heivifm.      When  Antipatcr  made  war 
againft  Greece  after  the  death  of  .i\lexander,   Demolt-  - 


D     E    IVI  [7 

Pemr  ft-  hencs  was  publicly  recalled  from  las  exile,  and  a  galley 
*''^"'''-  was  lent  to  fctcii  'lim  from  ^.gina.  His  return  was 
■~  '  '  attended  with  much  fpkndor,  and  all  the  citiiens 
crowded  at  the  Piva-us  to  fee  him  land.  His  triumph 
and  popularity  were  (hort.  Ar.tipatcr  and  Craterus 
were  near  Athens,  and  demanded  all  the  orators  to  be 
delivered  up  into  their  hands.  DBmolllunes  fled  to 
the  teni]'le  of  Neptune  in  Calauria ;  and  when  he  faw 
liiat  all  hopes  of  f.ifely  were  vaniflied,  he  took  a  dole 
of  poifon,  which  he  always  carried  in  a  quill,  and  ex- 
pired on  the  day  that  the  Thefniophoria  were  celebia- 
ted,  322  years  i)ef<n-e  Chrill.  'I'he  Athenians  raifed  a 
brazen  ftalue  to  his  honour,  with  an  Ini'cription  tranf- 
lated  into  this  diilich  : 

Si  tibi  pur  xetli  rubur,  Vir  ma^ne,  fnijpt, 
Gr.u-ij  tion  Slacedj j'uciu':itljj':t  hero, 

Demoilhenes  has  been  dcfervedly  called  the  prince 
of  onitors.  Indeed  no  orator  had  ever  a  finer  field 
than  Dcmotthenes  in  his  Olynthiacs  and  Phihppics, 
which  are  his  capital  oi-ations  ;  and  unduubttdly  to 
the  great nei's  of  the  I'ubjed,  and  to  that  integrity  and 
public  fpirit  which  breathe  in  them,  they  owe  a  large 
portion  of  their  merit.  The  fubjecl  is,  to  excite 
the  indignation  of  his  countrymen  againft  Phihp  of 
Macedon,  the  public  enemy  of  the  liberties  of  Greece; 
and  to  guard  them  agaiull  the  treacherous  meafurcs 
by  which  that  crafty  tyrant  endeavoured  to  lull  them 
into  a  negltdt  of  their  danger.  To  attain  this 
end,  we  fee  him  ufe  every  proper  means  to  ani- 
mate a  people  diilinguiilied  by  juliice,  humanity,  and 
valour ;  but  in  many  inllances  become  corrupt  and 
degenerate.  He  boldly  accufes  them  of  venality,  in- 
dolence, and  indifference  to  the  public  good  ;  while, 
at  the  fame  time,  he  icminds  them  of  their  for- 
mer glory,  and  of  their  prtfent  refources.  His  con- 
temporary orators,  who  were  bribed  by  Phihp,  and 
who  perfuaded  the  people  to  peace,  he  openly  re- 
proaches as  traitors  to  their  country.  He  not  only 
prompts  to  vigorous  meaUu-es,  but  teaches  how  they 
are  to  be  carried  into  exrcution.  His  orations  are 
ftrongly  animated,  and  full  of  the  impetuofity  and  ar- 
dour of  public  fpirit.  His  compoiitiou  is  not  diftin- 
guifhed  bv  ornament  and  fplendor.  It  is  an  energy 
of  thought,  peculiarly  his  own,  »  hich  forms  his  cha- 
rafler,  and  raifes  him  above  his  fpecies.  He  feems 
not  to  attend  to  words,  but  to  things.  We  forget 
the  orator,  and  think  of  the  fubjec^.  He  has  no  pa- 
rade and  oftentatitMi,  no  ftudied  introductions :  but  is 
like  a  man  full  of  his  fubjed;  who,  after  preparing  his 
audience  by  a  fentence  or  two  for  the  reception  of 
plain  truths,  enters  diredlly,  on  buiineis. 

The  ilyle  of  Dcmofthcues  is  ft rong  and  concife  ; 
though  fometimes,  it  mull  be  confelTtd,  harlh  and 
abrupt.  His  words  are  highly  expreffive,  and  his  ar- 
rangement firm  and  manly.  Neghgcnt  of  leffer  graces, 
he  feems  to  have  aimed  at  that  fubhme  which  lies  in 
fentiment.  His  atlion  and  pronunciation  aie  faid  to 
have  been  uncommonly  vehement  and  ardent  ;  which, 
from  the  manner  of  his  writings,  we  Ihould  readily 
believe.  His  charaftcr  appears  to  have  been  of  the 
auftere  rather  than  of  the  gentle  kind.  He  is  always 
o-rave,  ferious,  palfionate  ;  never  degrading  himfelf, 
nor  attempting  any  thing  like  pleafantry.  If  his 
admirable  elo4Ucnce  be  in  any  refpecf  faulty,  it  is 
that  he  fometimes  borders  on  the  hard  and  dry.     He 


50    ]  D    E    M 

may  be  thought  to  want  fmoothnefs  and  grace;  which 
is  attributed  to  his  imitating  too  clofely  the  manner  of 
Thucydides,  who  was  his  great  model  for  ityle,  and 
whofe  hitloi-y  he  is  faid  to  have  tranfcribed  eight  times 
with  his  own  hand.  But  thefe  defects  are  more  than 
atoned  for  by  that  mallerly  force  of  mafculine  elo- 
quence, which,  as  it  overpowered  all  who  heard  it, 
cannot  in  the  prcfent  day  be  read  without  emotion. 

CiCERO^dls  him  a  perfeA  mode!,  and  fu'ch  as  he  him- 
felf wilhed  to  be.  Thefe  two  great  princes  of  eloquence 
have  been  often  compared  together;  hv.X  the  jiulijment 
heiitates  to  which  to  give  the  preference.  The  Arch- 
biihop  of  Cambray,  however,  feems  to  have  ftated  their 
merits  with  great  jultice  and  perfpicuity  in  his  Reflec- 
tions on  Rhetoric  and  Poetry.  The  paffage,  tranfia- 
ted,  is  as  follows.  "  I  do  not  hefitate  to  declare,  that 
I  think  Dcmotthenes  fupericr  to  Cicero.  I  am  per- 
fuaded no  one  can  admire  Cicero  more  than  I  do.  He 
adorns  whatever  he  attempts.  He  decs  honour  to 
language.  He  diijoles  of  wtrrds  in  a  manner  peculisr 
to  himfelf.  His  llylc  has  great  variety  of  character. 
\Yhcncver  he  plcafes,  he  is  even  concife  and  vehement ; 
for  indance,  againtt  Catiline,  againll  Verres,  againlt 
AntJny.  But  ornament  is  too  vihble  in  his  writing'^. 
His  a;t  is  wonderful,  but  it  is  perceived.  When  the 
orator  is  providing  for  the  fafcty  ot  the  republic,  he 
foigets  net  himfelf,  nor  permits  others  £0  forr;et  him. 
Demofthencs  feems  to  cfcape  from  himfelf,  and  to  fee 
nothing  but  his  country.  He  feeks  not  elegance  of 
expreffion  ;  unfougl'.t  for  he  poffeiTes  it.  He  is  fupc- 
lior  to  admiration.  He  makes  ufe  of  language,  as  a 
modell  man  does  of  drefs,  only  to  cover  him.  He 
thunders,  he  lightens.  He  is  a  torrent  which  carries 
every  thing  before  it.  We  cannot  criticife,  becaiife 
we  aie  not  ourfelves.  His  fubjec\  enchains  our  atten- 
tion, and  makes  us  forget  his  language.  ^Ve  lofe  him 
from  our  fight  :  Philip  alom;  occupies  our  minds.  I 
am  delighted  with  both  thefe  orators  ;  but  I  confefs 
that  I  am  Ids  affected  by  the  infinite  art  and  magnih- 
cent  eloquence  cf  Cicero,  than  by  the  rapid  fimplicity 
of  DeinolUicnes." 

DEMPSTER  (Thomas),  a  very  learned  man,  but 
of  a  fuiirular  charafier.  He  was  born  in  Scotland,  but 
we  do  not  find  in  what  year.  He  went  over  to  France 
for  the  fiike  of  embracing  the  catholic  religion,  and 
taught  claffical  learning  at  Paris  about  the  beginning 
of  the  17th  century.  Tho'  his  bufinefs  was  to  teach 
fchool  ;  yet  he  was  as  ready  to  draw  his  fword,  and  as 
quarrclfome  as  if  he  had  been  a  duellill  by  profelTion : 
and  it  is  faid,  that  there  fcarce  pafled  a  day  but  he  had 
fomething  or  other  of  this  kind  upon  his  hands.  This 
fpirit  and  turn  of  temper  drew  him  into  many  fcrapes ; 
and  one  in  particular,  which  obliged  him  to  quit  the 
country.  Grangier,  ja-incipal  of  the  college  of  Beau- 
vais  at  Paris,  being  obliged  to  take  a  journey,  appoint- 
ed Dempiltr  his  fubllitute.  Dempiter  caufed  whip  a 
fcholar,  in  full  fchool,  for  challenging  one  of  his  fel- 
lows to  fight  a  duel.  The  fcholar,  to  revenge  this  af- 
front, brought  three  gentlemen  of  his  relations,  who 
were  of  the  king's  life-guards,  into  the  college.  Demp- 
Ihr  made  the  whole  college  take  arms  ;  hamilrung  the 
three  life-guard-mens  hoifts  before  the  college  gate  ; 
and  put  himfelf  into  fuch  a  pollute  of  defence,  that 
the  three  fparks  were  forced  to  alk  for  quarter.  He 
gave  thera  their  lives;  but  imprilontd  them,  and  did 

not 


DsmoA- 

hcilES, 

Oemi.ller. 


Dempfter 

II 
Deijbigh. 


T)     E    K                   [     75'     1  DEN 

not  releafe  them  for  feme  days.    They  fnUf^ht  another  DENDERMOND,  a  handfome  ami  Rcong  town 

way  to  revenge  themfclvcs :     tlicy  caufcd  an  infornia-  of  the  Auftrian  Nv--therlands,  in  Flanders,  with  a  (Irupg 

tion  to  be   made  of  the  life  and  moral  behaviour  of  citadel.      It  w^s  taken   by  the  allies  in    i  706,  and  by 

Dempfter,  and  got  fome  witnefTes  to  be  heard  againll  the  Frcncli  in  1745.     ^'  '•''  furrounded  liy  maiHies  and 

him.      Upon   this  he  went  over  to  England,  where  he  fine  meadows,  which  the  inhabitants  can  lay  under  v,-a- 

found  refuge  ;  but  did  not  make  any  long  (lay.      He  ter  when  they  pleafe.     It  is  fcated  at  the  confluence  of 

went  abroad  again,  and  read  It-ftures  upon  polite  learn-  the  rivers  Dender  and   Schelde.      E.  Long.  4.  3.  N. 

ing  in  fcveral  univerfities  ;  in  that  of  Nifmes  particu-  L.at.  51.  ^. 

larly,  where  he  difputed  for  a  profcflor's  chair,  and  ob-  DENDR  ACHATES,  in  natural  hiilory,  the  nam<r 

taincd   it.      He   went    to   Bologna,  and  was  profeffbr  ufed   by   the   ancients  for  an   extremely   elegant  and 

there  for  the  remainder  of  his  life  ;  and  was  then  alfo  beautiful   fpeoles   of  agate,   the    ground  of  which   i» 

admitted  a  member  of  the  Academy  della  Rotte.     He  whitifh,  variegated   with   veins  of  a   brighter   white, 

died  there  in  September  1625,  leaving  behini-  him  fe-  Thefc  veins  are  beautifully  difpofed  in  a  number  of  va- 

veral  learned  works;  as  Commentaries  on  Rojiniis  Je  An-  rious  figures  ;   but  generally  in  many  concentric  irregu- 

tiqmtaubns  Romunorum,  and  upon  Claudiani  &c.  ;  tour  lar   circles,   drawn    round   one  or  more  points.      It  is 

books  of  Epiilles  ;  fevcral  dramatic  pieces,  and  other  common  alfo,  in  various  parts  of  this  Itone,  to  find  very 

poems;  fume  books  of  law  ;  an  Apparatus  to  the  Hi-  beautiful  delineations  of  trees,  moffes,   fea-plants,  and 

ftory  of  Scotland  ;  a  Martyrology  of  Scotland  ;  and  a  the  like,  fo  elegantly  exprofled,   that   tnany  have  erro- 

Liil  of  the  Scottith  Writers.  neoufly  taken  them  for  real  plants  included  in  the  fub- 

Dh.MFsim  of  Court,  the  name  formerly  given  in  Scot-  llance  of  the  ft  one  ;   whence  the  name  dentlrachates. 

land  to  thex-ommon  executioner  or  hangman.  DENDR  ANATOMY,  a  term  ufed  by  fome  for  a 

DEMSTER,  or  Def.mster.     See  Dei;mster.  defcription  of  the  various  parts  of  trees;  as  root,  tnmk, 

DEMULCENTS,    among    phyficians,    medicines  branch,  bark,   wood,   pith,   flower,    fruit,    Sec.      See 

good  agalnft  acrimonious  humours.   Such  are  the  roots  Pl.ints,  Veget.ition,  &c. 

of  marlh-niallows,  of  white  lilies,  of  liquorice,  and  of  DENDROMETER  (from -'''><''.='' a /;w,  and  ."""ftu 

viper-grafs,  the  five  emolhent  herbs,  &c.  /  meafure)-,   an   inftrument  lately    invented  by   Meflrs 

DEMURRAGE,  in  commerce,  an  allowance  made  Duncombe  and  Whittel,   for  which   they  obtained  a 

to  the  mailer  of  a  (hip  by  the  merchants,  for  ttaying  in  patent,  fo  called  from  its  ui'e  in  meafui  ing  trees.   This 

a  port  longer  than  the  time  hrft  appointed  for  his  de-  inftrument  con(ifls  of  a  femicircle  A,  divided  into  two 

parture.  quadrants,  and  graduated  from  the  middle  ;   upon  the 

DEMURRER,   in   law,  a  ftop  put  to  any  aftion  diameter   B  there  liangs  a  phinimet  L  for   fixing  the 

upon  fome  point  of  difficulty  which  mull  be  determined  inllrument  in  a  vertical  polition  ;  there  is  alfo  a  chord 

by  the  court,  before  any  further  proceedings  can  be  D  parallel  to  the  diameter,  and  a  radius  E,  pafiing  at 

had  in  the  fuit.  right  angles  through  the  diameter  and  chord.      From 

DEN,  a  fyllable  which,  added  to  the  names  of  places,  a  point  on  the  radius  hangs  an  ahiineter  C,  between 

ftiows  theni  to  be  fituated  in  valleys  or  near  woods;  as  the  chord  and  diameter,  to  which  is  fixed  a  fmall  femi- 

Tenterden.  circle  G,   and  a  fcrew,   to  confine  it   in.  any  pnfition. 

DENARIUS,  in  Roman  antiquity,  the  chief  filver  The   altimeter,  which  is  contrived  to  form   the  fame 

coin  among  the   Romans,  worth  in  our  money  about  angle   with  the  radius  of  the   inftrument  as  the  tree 

fevenpence  three  farthings.     As  a  weight,  it  was  the  forms  with  the  lioriz(m,  is  divided  from  its  centre  both 

feventh  part  of  a  Roman  ounce.  ways  into  forty  equal  parts  ;  and  ihefe  parts  are  a^ain 

Denarivs   is    alio   ufed   in   our   law-books  for  an  fubdivided  into  halves  and  quarters.      Upon  the  fmall 

Englifh  penny-.  femicircle  G,  on   which    Is  accounted  the  quantity  of 

DENBIGHSHIRE,  a  county  of  Wales,  bounded  the  a-^ie  made  by  the   altimeter  and  radius,   are  ex- 

on  the  fouth  by  Merioneth   and  Montgomery  (hires,  prefti'd  degrees  from  60  to  120,  being  30  on  each  qua- 

on   the   north  by  Fllutfhire  and  the  Irilh  Sea,  on  the  drant.     The  radiu.s  is  numbered  with   the   lame  feale 

weft  by  Caernarvon  and  part  of  Merioneth(hire.      It  is  of  divifioiis  as   the  altimeter.      There  is  alfo  a  noriu<i 

about  40  miles  long  and  21  broad.      The  air  is  whole-  to   the  fmall   fcirjicircle,   which  (hows  the  quantity  of 

fome,  but. (harp;  ttic  county  being  pretty  hilly,  and  the  an  angle  to  every  five  mir.ntes.      On   the  bucic  of  the 

fnow  lying  longon  the  tops  of  the  mountains.   I'he  foil  inftrument  the  itock  M  of  the  Aiding  piece  is  confined 

iu  general  is  barren  ;  but  the  vale  of  Clwyd,  fo  called  to  the  a>«i3  N,   which  moves  concentrically  parallel   to 

from  its  being  watered  by  that  river,  is  a  very  fertile  the  elevation  index  F  on  the  oppoite  fide,  to  which  it 

pleafant  fpot,  of  great  extent,  and  well  inhabited.  The  is  fixed.      This  index  Is  numbered  by  a  fcale  of  equal 

chief  commodities  are  black  cattle,  (heep,  and  goats,  divifions  with  the  altimeter  and  radius :  at  thj  end  of 

rye,   called  here  amrlcorn,  and  lead-ore.     The  county  the  index  is  a  nonius,  by  which  the  angles  erf  elevation 

fends  two  members  to  parliament,  I'/i.  a  knight  for  the  above,  or  of  depreflion  below,  the  horizon,   meafured 

(hire,  and  a  burgefs  for  Denbigh  the  capital.  upon  the  I'emicirele  of  the  inftrument,  are  determined 

Denbigh,  the  capital  town  of  Denbighlhire  in  N.  to  every  five  minutes.      There  is  alio  a  groove   in  the 

Wales.      It  is  featcd  on  the  iide  of  a  rocky  hill,   on  a  ladius,  that  Hides  acrofs  the  axis  by  means  of  a  fcrew 

branch  of  the  river  Clwyd,   and  was  formerly  a  place  I,   working   between  the  chord  and  f  m'circle  of  the 

of  great  ftrcngth,  with  an  impregnable  calllc,  now  de-  inftriur.cnt  ;  and  this  fcrew  is  turned  by  the  key  O. 

inolifhcd.      It  is  pretty  large,  well  built,  and  inhabited  Upon  the  ftock  M  is   a  Hiding   piece  P,    that   always 

by  tanners  and  glovers,  and  gives  the  title  of  Earl  to  afts  at  right  angles  with  the  altimeter,  by  means  of  a 

the   noble  family  of  Fielding.     W.  Long.  3.  30.   N.  groove   in    the   latter.     To   the    (hank   of  the  Hiding 

Lat.  53.  15.  piece  is  aflixcd  a  uwvcabk  limb  Q^  which  forms  the 

5  lame 


D.'nder- 
muntl 

II 

Dcndrome» 

ter. 


riate 
CLXV. 


DEN 


[     752     1 


DEN 


Dcnilrome-fame  angle  with  the  altimeter  as  the  bough  forms 
,  '^"-  with  the  body  or  trunk  of  the  tree.  This  limb  may 
'  be  of  any  convenient  length,  divided  into  equal  parts 
of  the  fame  fcale  with  all  the  foregoing  divifions.  At 
the  extremity  of  the  fixed  axis,  on  a  centre,  an  index 
R,  with  telefcopic  fights,  works  horizontally  upon  the 
moveable  limb  of  the  Hiding  piece.  Upon  this  hori- 
zontal index  R  may  be  fixed  a  fraall  quadrant  T,  de- 
fcribed  with  any  convenient  radius  from  the  centre  on 
which  the  index  moves,  and  divided  into  90  degrees, 
beginning  at  a  right  hne  drawn  from  the  centre  at 
ri^'ht  angles  with  the  fiducial  edge  of  the  faid  index  ; 
and  upon  the  extremity  of  the  axis  is  a  nonius,  where- 
by to  determine  the  quantity  of  an  angle  upon  the 
quadrant  every  five  minutes.  There  are  aUb  two  fmall 
circular  arches  S,  S,  ferving  to  keep  the  fights  m  a 
parallel  pofition,  each  containing  an  equal  number  of 
degrees.  Upon  thefe  arches  is  meafured  the  angle, 
fubtending  a  fide  equal  to  the  difference  of  the  alti- 
tudes of  the  obferved  objefts  above  the  plane  of  the 
horizon,  and  whofe  bafe  is  the  neareftdillance  between 
the  perpendiculars  in  which  thefe  objecls  are  fitua- 
ted.  The  dendrometer  is  fitted  to  a  theodolite,  and 
may  be  ufed  either  with  or  without  it  as  occafioh  re- 
quires. .  . 

The  principal  ufe  of  thisinftrument  is  for  meafurmg 
the  length  and  diameter  of  any  tree,  perpendicular  or 
oblique,  to  an  horizontal  plane,  or  in  any  filuation  of 
the  plane  on  which  it  refts,  or  of  any  figure,  whether 
regular  or  irregular,  and  alfo  the  length  and  diameter 
of  the  boughs,  by  mere  infpetlion  ;  and  the  inventors 
of  it  have  calculated  tables,  annexed  to  their  account 
of  the  inftrument  itfclf,  by  the  help  of  which  the  quan- 
tity of  timber  in  a  tree  is  obtained  without  calculation, 
or  the  ufe  of  the  Aiding  rule.     The  inftrument  is  rec- 
tified by  fetting  it  in  a  perpendicular  pofition,  by  means 
of  the  plummet,  and  fcrewing  it  to  the  ftaff ;   then  the 
altimeter  is  placed  in  the  exaft  pofition  of  the  tree,  whe- 
ther perpendicular,  reclining,  or  inclming,  and  fcrejv- 
ed  faft.     If  the  tree  ftands  on  level  ground,  the  hori- 
zontal dillance  from  the  tree  to  the  axis  of  the  inilru- 
ment  is  meafured   with  a  tape-line,  and  the  radius  is 
moved  with  the   key  till  that  diftance  be  cut  upon  it 
by  the  infide  of  the  diameter  :   but  if  the   gnjund  be 
flanting,  the  diftance  from  the  tree  to  the  inftrument 
is  meafured,  and  the  elevation  index  is  moved   till  the 
point  of  the  tree  from  which  the  diftance  was  meafured 
is  feen  thiough  the  fights,  and  there  fcrewcd  faft  ;  and 
the  radius  is  moved  batkwards  or  forwards  with  the 
key  till  this  diftance   is  cut  upon  the  elevation  Index 
by  the  perpendicular  line  of  the  altimeter  ;  and  the  ho- 
rizontal line  will  be  marked  upon  the  radius  by  the 
infide  of  the  diameter.     In  order  to  obtain  the  length 
of  the  tree,  the  elevation  index   is   firft  moved  down- 
wards,, till  the   bottom  of  the  tree  cut  by  the   hori- 
zontal wires  is  obferved  through   the  lights,  and   the 
feet   and   inches  marked  by  the  index  upon  the  alti- 
meter  below  the    point   of  fight  or   horizontal    line 
are  noted  down  :  then   the  index  is   moved   upwards 
till  the  part  to  which  you  would  meafiire,  cut  by  the 
horizontal   wires,  is    feen,  and    the    feet    and  inches 
marked  on  the  altimeter  above  the  point  of  fight  are 
noted :   thefe  two  quantities  added  together  give  the 
exaft  length  of  the  tree,  which  is  inferted  in  a  field- 
book.     For  the  girth  of  the  tree,  the  circumference 
N°  99.  4 


phoria. 


In  that  p.irt  where  l"he  horizonal  diftance  was  taken,  D^ndrome- 
is  mealured  with  the  tape-line;  and  a  fixth  part  of  p, '"^'/ 
this  circumference  is  added  to  the  diftance  on  tlie  ra- 
dius, which  was  before  cut  by  the  infide  of  the  diame-  - 
ter,  becaufe  the  tape-line,  in  taking  the  diftance,  ci'n- 
not  be  applied  to  the  centre  of  the  body  of  the  tree  ; 
then  the  elevation  index  is  loweivd  to  that  part  of  the 
tree,  of  which  the  diameter  is  to  be  taken  and  fcrewed 
faft.  Set  the  moveable  limb  of  the  Aiding  piece 
quite  ftraight,  and  the  edge  of  the  horizontal  indes 
upon  the  firft  divifion  of  it.  Turn  the  whole  inftru- 
ment about  to  the  left  hand  till  you  fee  through 
the  fights  the  left  fide  of  the  tree  cut  exaftly  by 
the  perpendicular  wires  ;  then  the  inftrument  be- 
inec  fixed,  move  the  fights  only  upon  the  Aiding 
piece,  till  you  fee  the  riglit  fide  of  the  tree  cut  alio  by 
the  perpendicular  wires  ;  and  you  will  find  the  true 
diameter  marked  by  the  horizontal  index  upon  the 
flidim^  piece,  which  is  to  be  entered  in  a  dilh'nft  co- 
lumn of  the  field-book. 

For  the  boughs  :  let  the  diftance  on  the  radius  be 
now  red\iced  to  its  former  quantity,  and  the  elevation 
index  moved  upwards  till  the  bough  is  feen  through 
the  fights  and  fcrewed  faft.  Set  the  moveable  part  of 
the  Aiding  piece  in  a  pofition  parallel  to  the  bough, 
and  the  edge  of  the  horizontal  index  on  the  firft  divi- 
fion of  it.  Turn  the  whole  inftrument  about  till  you 
fee  through  the  fights  the  flioot  of  the  bough  clufe 
to  the  trunk  cut  by  the  perpendicular  wires  ;  then 
move  the  fights  till  you  fee  the  other  end  of  the  bough 
cut  by  the  faid  wires,  and  note  the  feet  and  inches 
marked  by  the  horizontal  index  on  the  moveable  limb 
of  the  Aiding  piece,  which  will  give  the  true  length  of 
the  bough  to  be  inferted  in  the  field-book.  And  the 
girth  of  the  bough  may  be  obtained  by  direfting  the 
fights  to  that  part  of  it  wl.-ife  girth  is  defired  ;  then 
by  moving  the  elevation  index  downwards  till  you  fee 
the  uftder  fide  of  the  bough  cut  by  the  horizontal 
wires,  and  there  noting  the  feet  and  inches  marked  by 
the  faid  index  on  the  altimeter ;  after  which,  let  the 
elevation  index  be  moved  upwards  tlU  the  upper  fide 
of  the  bough  cut  by  the  horizontal  wires  is  feen  ;  the 
feet  and  inches  marked  upon  the  ahiraeter  are  to  be 
noted  as  before.  The  foimer  qiiantlty  fubtrafted  from 
the  latter  'will  give  the  true  diameter  of  the  bough, 
which  is  entered  in  the  field-book.  The  true  folldlty 
both  of  the  body  of  the  tree  and  of  the  boughs  may  be 
found  from  the  diameter  and  lengths  in  tables  calcula- 
ted for  this  purpulc. 

The  dendrometer,  fitted  to  a  theodolite,  may  be 
applied  to  meafuring  the  heig-hts  and  dillances  of  ob- 
je(fts,  acceffible  or  inaccefiible,  whether  lituated  in 
planes  parallel  or  oblique  to  the  plme  in  which  the 
inftrument  is  placed.  It  may  be  alfij  ufed  for  taking 
all  angles,  whether  vertical,  horizontal,  or  oblique,  in 
any  pofition  of  the  planes  in  wl:*:h  th.ey  are  formed  ; 
and  thus  for  facilitating  the  practical  operations  of  en- 
gineering, land  furveying,  levelling,  mining,  &:c.  and 
for  performing  the  various  cafes  of  pLuie  trigonometry 
without  calculation  ;  of  which  the  nivcntors  have  fnb- 
jolned  to  their  account  of  this  inftrument  many  ex- 
amples. 

DENDROPHORIA,  In  antiquity,  the  carn-ing 
of  boughs  or  branches  of  trees;  a  religious  ceremony 
fo   called,  becaufe  certain  pricfts  called  from  thenee 

dendrojihon, 


DEN 


Denel)       <hnih-oplinri,  trcc-bcarci-s,  marched  in  proccfTiDD,  carry- 
II         ing  the  branches  of  trees  in  tliiir  hands  in  hdnour  of 
Denmark.  fo,ne   god,   as  Bacchus,  Cybtlc,   tiylvaiins,   &c.      The 
.       •  ccllcgc  of  the  dendrophori  is  often    niintioned  in   an- 

cient marbles  ;  and  we  frequently  fee  in  balfo  relievos 
the  bacchanals  reprcfented  as  men  carrying  little  (luubs 
or  branches  of  trees. 

DENEB,  an  Arabic  term  fignifying  tail,  ufed  by 
aftror.omers  to  denote  fcvcral  fixed  ftars.  Thus,  ih-iiel> 
elirt,  ilgnifies  the  bright  liar  in  the  lion's  tail.  Dtncb 
atligege,  that  in  the  fwan's  tail,  &c. 

DENHAM  (Sir  John),  an  eminent  Englifli  poet, 
the  only-  fon  of  Sir  John  Denham,  chief  baron  of  the 
exchequer  in  Ireland,  and  one  of  the  lords  com  mlfllon- 
ers  there,  was  born  in  Dublin  in  1615;  but  his  father, 
in  1 617,  being  made  a  baron  of  the  exchequer  in 
England,  he  received  his  education  in  that  country. 
In  his  youth  he  followed  gaming  more  than  any 
thing  elfe  ;  but,  in  164!,  publiflud  a  tragedy  called 
the  Sophy,  which  was  much  admired  by  the  befl 
judges;  and,  in  if>43,  wrote  his  famous  poem  called 
Cooper's  Hill ;  which  MrDiyden  pronounces  will  ever 
be  the  ilandard  of  good  writing  for  majelly  of  ftyle. 
Denham  was  fent  anibaffador  from  Cluules  II.  to  the 
king  of  Poland  ;  and  at  the  Rcftoration  was  made 
fjrveyor-general  of  his  jnajeily's  buildings,  and  crea- 
ted knight  of  the  Bath.  On  obiaining  this  poft,  he  is 
faid  to  have  renounced  his  poetry  for  inore  important 
ftudies ;  though  he  afterward  wrote  a  fine  copy  of 
verfes  on  the  death  of  Cowlty.  He  died  at  his  office 
in  Whitehall  in  1668  ;  and  his  works  have  been  often 
fince  printed. 

DENIER,  a  fmall  French  copper-coin,  of  whicli 
twelve  make  a  fol. 

There  were  two  kinds  of  deniers,  the  one  tournois, 
the  other  parifis,  whereof  the  latter  was  worth  a  fourth 
part  more  than  the  former. 

DENIZEN,  in  law,  an  alien  made  a  fubjeil  by  the 
king's  letters-patent ;  otherwife  called  donaifoii,  becaufe 
"  his  legitimation  proceeds  ex  thnatfhne  regis,  from  the 
kind's  gift." 

A  denizen  is  in  a  kind  of  middle  flate  between  an 
alien  and  a  natural  born  fubjetl,  and  partakes  of  both 
of  them.  He  may  take  lands  by  purchafe  or  devife, 
v/hich  an  alien  may  not  ;  but  cannot  take  by  inheri- 
tance;  for  his  paient,  through  whom  he  mult  claim, 
being  an  alien,  had  no  inheritable  blood,  and  therefore 
could  convey  none  to  the  fon  ;  and,  upon  a  like  de- 
fcc-l  of  blood,  the  ifTue  of  a  denizen  born  before  deni- 
lation,  cannot  inherit  to  him ;  but  his  ilFue  born  after 
may.  A  denizen  is  not  excufed  from  p^iying  tlie 
alien's  duty,  and  iome  other  mercantile  burdens.  And 
TiO  deni/en  can  be  of  the  privy  council,  or  either  houfe 
cf  parliament,  or  have  any  office  of  trull  civil  or  mili- 
tary, or  be  capaple  of  any  grant  of  lands,  &:c.  from 
the  crown. 

DENMARK,  one  of  the  mod  ancient  monarchies 
in  Europe,  comprehending  the  peninfula  of  Jutland, 
and  the  iflands  of  Zealand,  Tunen,  Sec.  But  Denmark, 
properly  fo  called,  is  only  that  part  of  Scandinavia 
which  formerly  went  by  the  name  of  Ciinirica  Cher- 
Jhiiefus,  and  now  is  called  Jutland.  Including  Hol- 
ftein,  it  is  bounded  by  the  fta  called  the  Catenate  on  the 
north  ;  by  the  Baltic  on  the  eaft  ;  by  the  river  Elbe, 
v.'liich  feparates  it  from  Bremen,  on  the  fouth;  and  by 

Vol.  V.  Pare  II. 


[     753     ] 


DEN 


the  duchy  of  Saxc-I^swcnburg  towards  the  fouth-eaft;  nsnmarli, 
extending  from  54.  40.  to  j8.  20.  N.  Lat.  «     -^ 

The  origin  of  the  name  Denmark  is  very  uncertain,  j.     ^ 
The  raoft  probable  conjecture  concerning,  it  is  that  oi ^^Yikt^cc 
Stixo-Graiiimiiticus,  the  moil   ancient  and  l)e(l   Daniih  derived, 
hillorian.      He  derives  it  from  Dyin  the  fon  of  HumbL; 
the  lirll  king,  and  Marl,  or  Alarc,  fignifying  a  coun- 
try in  fcveral   dialcAs  of  the  Teutonic  ;  according  to 
which   etymology,    the    word    D.-iiwari    ilgnifies    the 
land,  or  country,  of /)««. — I'his   Dan  is    thought  to  Dan  the 
have  lived  about  1038  years  before  the  Chrifliaii  era.  firll  king. 
Almoll   all   hiftorians  agree   that   he   was  the   fon   of 
HuiiilL;  a  native  of  Zealand.     His  pofTeilions  and  in- 
fluence  were  very  confidetable,    not  only  in  Zealand, 
but  in  the  iflands  of  Langland  and  Mona.      It  was  his 
courage,  however,  and  Ikiil  in  the  art  of  war,  iliat  in- 
duced the  inhabitants   of  Denmark  to  choofe  lilm  for 
their  king.      He  was  called  to  the  alTiftance  of  the  Jut- 
landers  upon  an  irruption  of  the  Saxons  into  their  ter- 
ritories, and  prcmifed   the  fovereignty  of  the  country 
if  he  drove  out  the  enemy.      On  this  he  immediately 
raifed  an   army,   gained  a   complete   viftory  over  the 
Saxons,  and  obhged  them  to  leave  the  country;  and  he 
was  accordingly  clefted  king.  j 

In  fuch  early  ages  as  thefe,  we  are  not  to  lor;k  for  HiHory  of 
any  authentic  hiilory  either  of  this  or  any  other  king-  '"scounrrir 
dom.  The  hiltory  of  Denmark,  for  a  great  number  of  ,^'3"  "^' .'* 
ages  after  the  reign  of  Dan,  is  filled  with  fabulous  ex- 
ploits of  heroes,  encounters  with  giants,  dragons,  &c. 
One  of  their  kings  named  Frotho,  who  reigned  about 
761  years  before  Chrill,  is  faid  to  have  conquered  all 
Britain,  Slcfwick,  Rufiia,  Poinerania,  Hohlein,  &c.  an 
afTertion  which  cannot  ealily  be  credited,  conlidering 
the  difficulty  which  fuccecding  warriors,  even  the 
greatcll  in  the  world,  found  to  fubdue  the  inhabitants 
of  thofe  countries. —  It  is  certain,  however,  that  an- 
ciently the  kingdom  of  Denmark  made  a  much  more 
conlplcuous  figure  than  it  does  at  prefent.  The  Danes 
appear  to  have  had  a  very  confiderable  naval  force  al- 
moll from  the  foundation  of  their  empire  ;  and  the 
conqueils  they  undoubtedly  made  in  our  illand  are  cerr 
tain  proofs  of  their  valour. 

The  natural  enemies  of  the  Danes  were  the  Swedes, 
Noiwegians,  and  Saxons;  cfpecially  the  firil.  With 
one  or  other  of  thefe  nations  almoll  perpetual  war  was 
carried  on.  The  kingdom  wasalfo  often  rent  by  civil 
diffenfions;  which  the  neighbouring  monarchs  did  not 
fall  to  take  advantage  of,  in  order  to  reduce  the  king- 
dom of  Denmark  under  their  fubjeitlon.  As  ocither 
party,   however,  generally    came  off  with   advantage,  » 

the  hlRory  of  thefe  wars  aiFords  nothing  interclilng  or 
entertaining.  One  of  the  greatcll  of  tlie  Danllli  mo- 
narchs was  Valdcmar  I.  who  obtained  the  throne  in  Valdumarl. 
I  157;  having  defeated  and  klled  his  competitor  Swen,  ayeat  mo- 
after  a  ten  years  civil  war.  He  maintained  a  long  war  "*"■''• 
with  the  Vandals,  whofe  power  lie  at  lafl  entirely 
broke,  and  reduced  under  his  fubjedlon  the  ifland  of 
Riigen.  He  alfo  proved  vitloilous  over  the  Norwe- 
gians, fo  that  their  king  and  queen  came  in  peifon  to 
fubmit  to  liim.  In  1 165,  he  alfo  laid  the  foundations 
of  the  city  of  Dantzic;  which,  though  it  hath  lince 
become  a  place  of  fuch  confequence,  confilled  at  fird 
only  of  a  few  poor  lifhermens  huts;  but  the  privile-res 
and  immunities  conferred  upon  it  by  this  monarch, 
foon  proved  the  nacans  of  its  becoming  a  flouriihing 
5  C  city. 


r>ei!ma-k 


5 
Power  of 
Denmark 
iu  1195. 


Expedition 
©f  VaWe- 
xiiar  II.  a- 
•raiuft  the 
LiTOQians. 


Floiiiidiirg 
f.ace  of  the 


DEN  [     754     ]  DEN 

city. — In  11S9,  he  entirely  fubdtied  the  Covirlanders;  notwithftanding  all  his  power.     Henry  earl  of  Swerin,  Denm.vk. 

and,  foon  after,  was  invefted  with  the  duchy  of  Hoi-  otherwife  called  Henry  Palatine,  a  German  prince,  ha-    ^~~^ 

ilein,  by  the  emperor  Frederic  Barbarofla.     He  is  faid  ving  been  deprived  of  part  of  his  dominions  by  Valde-  y  n 

to  have  been  poifonedbya  quack  medicine,  given  with  mar,  furprifed  and  carrried  (iff  the  king  liimfelf,  and  taken  pri- 

a  defign  to  recover  him  from  a  diftemper  with  which  kept  him  clofe  prifoner  for  three  years.     The  condi-  fontr. 

he  was  fsized  in  1 182.  tions  on  which  he  at  laft  obtained  his  liberty  were  very         „ 

In   the   year   1195,   Canute,  Valdemar's  fuccefTor,  hard.     He   was  obliged   to   pay  a  prodigious  fum  of  Reieafednn 
caufeda  tnufter  to  be  made  of  all  the  men  fittobear  arms  money;   to  relinquifh    Holftein,  Sn-erin,  Hamburgh,  ™'i'l'tionoi 
in  liis  dominions  ;  and  ordered  each  province  to  Et  out  and  all  his  pofTefSons  on  the  other  fide   of  the  Elbe  ; '^^.'^i'^P*''' 
its  proportion  of  fhipping,  every  way  equipped,  and  and  laftly,  iolemnly  to  fwear  that   he   would  maintain  t^iics 
ready  for  action.      The  whole,  force  of  Denmark,  at  this  compulfive  contrart,  and  never  take   any  meafures 
that  time,   confided  of  670  fhips  of  war,  befides  the  to  punifh   Henry  or  his  adociates.     This  treaty  was 
fqusdrons  fupplied  by  vafials,  tributary  ftates,  and  al-  figned  on  the  25th  of  March  1226. 
lies.     The  number  of  the  land-forces  is  not  mentioned.  Befides  thefe  territories  which   the  Danifh  monarch 
In  the  reign  of  this  prince,  the  Dinifli  dominions  were  had  been  obliged  to  cede   by  treaty,   many  tributary 
enlarged  by  the  entire   conqueft  of  Stromar  ;   the  di-  princes  took  the  opportunity  of  his   captivity  to  rc- 
ftrifts  of  Lubcc   and  Hambtirgh,  formerly  known  by  cover  their  liberty  ;  and  among  the  ri.ft ,  the  inhabitants 
the  iMme  of  A'orc/a/iingia,  but  now  included  under  the  of    Lubcc    revolted,    and    entered   into   alliance  with 
general  name  of  Holflein.      He  ■died  in  120_5,  and  was  Albert  duke  of  Saxony  againft  Vaidcmar.     The  latter, 
fucceeded  by  Valdemar  II.  who   proved   a   very  great  however,  was  not  of  a  difpofition  to  fubmit  tamely  to        10 
and  warlike  prince.      In  121  i,  he  founded  the  city  of  fuch  treatment.      He  obtained  a  difpenfaticn  from  the  He  brealts 
Stralfund,  oppofite  to  the  Ifle  of   Rugen,      The  fame  Pope  to  break   his  engagments  with  Henry,  and  im- f'"^  treaty, 
year  his  queen  died  in  child-bed  ;  aiid  in  memory  of  mediately  entered  Holltein  at  the  head  of  a  numerous  j-^^^^.^ 
her  he  built  the  cattle  of  Dron'wgholm,  that  name  i.iri-  array.      Here  he  was  met  by  feveral  German  p.inovrs, 
porting  the  i5;.rfH'j-7/7(;H(/.     In  1 218,  he  undertook  an  at  the  head  of  a  very  numerous  army  ;  and  a  deiperate 
expedition  again!!  the  Livonians,  having  received  ad-  engagement  enfued.     Valdemar  at  firil  had  the  ad^-aii- 
vice  that  thty,  afliiled  by  the  Lithuanians,  Mufcovites,  tage  ;   but  being  wounded  in   the  eye,  his  troops  were 
and  other  barbarous  nations,  had  driven  from  their  ha-  at  lail  defeated  with  great  flaughter.      It  doth  not  ap- 
bitationsall  thofe  in  their  neighbourhood  who  had  em-  pear  that  ever  the   king  of  Denmark  was  able  to  re- 
braced  Chriftianity,   and  taken  an   oath  of  allegiance  venge  himfelf  of  his  enemies,  or  to  recover  the  donii- 
to  the  crown  of  Denmark.      Fitting  out  a   powerful  nions  he  had  loft.      So  far  from  this,  he  was  obliged,  in 
fleet,  therefore,  he  imm.ediatcly  fet  fail  for  that  coun-  1228,  to  cede  Lawenberg  to  the  duke  of  Saxony,  who 
try  ;   but  his  troops  were   no  fooner  landed,  than  they  had  already  feized  on    Raizburg   and  Molna.       Soon 
were  feized  with  a  panic  at  the  fight  of  fuch  a  power-  after  this,  his  eldeft  (on  Valdemar  was  accidentally  kil- 
ful  Ermy  of  favages  as  were  aflembled  to  oppofe  them,  led  as  he  was  hunting,  and  his  two  other  Ions  married 
The  king  himfelf  was  difmaved  at  the  unufual  fpecftacle  the  daughters  of  his  two  greatelt  enemies.     Abel,  the 
of  a  whole  army  clothed  in  (kins,  and  refembling  beads  third  fon,  married  the  daughter  of  Adolphus  duke  of 
more  than   human   creatures.      Encouraged,  however,  Holftein  ;  and  Eric,  the  fecond,  married  the  duke   of 
by  the  bifhops  who  attended  him,  he  ventured  an  en-  Saxony's  daughter.      Thefe  misfortunes  are  fuppoled  to 
gagemcnt,  and  overthrew  the  barbarians   with   inere-  have  haftcned  his  dtatltt  which  happened  in- the  month 
dible  flaughter.  This  vi<Story  was  gaiiied  near  the  fortrefs  of  April  1242.  u 
of  ^.i/i/cCT^r,  which  received  its  name  on  that  account.           On  the  death  of  Valdemar,  the  kingdom  w*s  di- Civil  war 

How  potent  and  flourllhing  the  kingdom  of  Den-  vided  between   the   t\»o  young  princes ;  and  between  b^t^veen  hi» 

mark  was  at  this  time,  appears  from   an   fftimate  of  them  a  war  commenced  the  very  next  year.      A  peace' 

the  revenues  of  the  tributary  provinces,  thofe  countries  was  concluded  the  year  following,  and  war  renewed 

conquered  by  Valdemar,  and  the  ftanding  forces  of  the  the  yearafter  ;   tut  how  long  it  continued,  we  are  not 

whole  kingdom.     This  account  was  copied  by  Ponta-  informed.      In  1250,   Eric  paid  a  vifit  to  his  brother 

nus  from  Witfeld  a  writer  of  thofe  days,  who  had  it  Abel,  intreating   his  mediation  between  him  and  the 

from,   a   regifter  kept   by  Valdemar's  fteward.      From  princes  of  Holftein,   with  whom   he  was  then  at  war. 

the  provinces  were  daily  fcnt  in  24  lafts  of  oats,  24  lafts  Abel  received  him,  in  appearance,  with  great  kindnefs, 

pf  rye,  and  half  that  quantity  of  wheat,    13  talents  of  and  promifed  that  hi?  utmoft  endeavours  to  procure  a 

cheefe  and  butter,  and   nine  of  honey  ;   24  oxen,  3C0  reconciliation  ftiould  not  be  wanting  ;  but  in  the  mean 

fheep,   200  hogs  ;  and  600  marks  of  coined   money,  time,  laid  a  plan  for  having  him  murdered  at  fea  :  this 

This  was  the  certain  revenue:  but  to  thib' was  added  was  effefted,  and  Abel  became   mafter   of  the  whole 

near  an  equal  fum   from   adventitious   circumftances  ;  kingdom.  -  ij 

fuch  as  fines,  forfeitures,  taxes  on  law-fuits  and  plead-  The   new  king  did   not  long  enjoy  '.he  fovereignty  Kingdom 

mgs,  with  a  variety  of  other  contingencies  ;  the  whole  he  had  fo  wickedly  obtained.      He  was  tormented  by      '^ 

amounting  to  upwards  of   100,000  marks  a-day,   or  his  own  confcitnce  ;   efpecially  when  he  four.d  among |,j,^,(,gr  of 

2^,730,0001. /fr  am:mn  ;   a  fum  in  thofe  days  almoft  his  brother's  papers,  one  by  which' he  was  left  heir  to  petty  ty- 

jncredible. — With  this  revenue  were  kept  for  conftant  the  whole  kingdom  on  the  deceafc  of  Eric,  and  manyran.5. 

fervice  1400  great  and   fmall  fhips  for  the  king's  ufe,  kind  exprefiions  with  regard   to  himfelf.      He  was  at 

each  of  which  at  a  medium  carried  121  loldiers ;    ma-  lall  killed  in  a  battle  with  his  own  lubjtfts  in  1252, 

king  the  whole  of  the  ilanding  forces,  befides  garriibns,  on  account  of  fome  taxes  he  intended  tc  impole. 
ccnfift  of  169,400  fighting  men.  From  this  time  to  the  year  13^3,   the  kingdom  of 

In  1223,   a  very  great  misfortune  befsl  Valdemar,  Denmark  gradually   declined.       L'furpers  eftablilhej 

therafelvc3 


DEN  I    755 

Dcnniatt.  themfclves  in  different  provinces ;  while  the  kind's  of 
-— V—  Sweden  did  not  fail  to  avail  themfelves  of  the  dillrac- 
ted  ftate  of  the  Danilh  affairs.  In  1333,  died  Clirif- 
tophtr  II.  who  pon'tifed  only  the  cities  of  Scanderburg 
in  Jutland  and  Ncobiirg  in  Fionia,  with  fome  few 
other  inconfiderable  places,  of  all  the  hereditary  do- 
minions of  Denmark.  Halland,  Holbec,  Calemburg, 
and  Samfoe,  were  held  by  Canute  Porfuis  ;  Schonen, 
l.yftre,  and  Blekinsr,  by  the  king  of  Sweden,  to  whom 
they  had  been  lately  fold  :  John  carl  of  Wagria  had 
the  jurifdiiftions  of  Zealand,  Falftre,  lyaaland,  and  Fe- 
merin  ;  Gerhard,  of  Jutland  and  Fionia;  and  Lawience 
Jonea,  of  Lang-land  and  Arras. 

After  the  death  of  Chriftopher,  an  interregnum  of 
feven  years  enfued. — The  firll  attempt  for  the  fove- 
reignty  was  made  by  Otho,  fecond  ion  to  the  late  king, 
who  laid  a  fcheme  for  driving  Gerhard  out  of  Jutland  ; 
but  not  being  able  to  accomplifh  it,  he  was  taken  pri- 
foner,  and  clofely  confined  by  Gerhard. — The  king  of 
Sweden  next  wrote  to  Pope  Benedict  XIII.  befeech- 
iiig  his  Holinefs  to  confirm  to  him  tlie  provinces  of 
Schonen  and  others  which  he  poffc.Ted  ;  and  to  allow 
him  to  fubdue  the  reft  of  the  kingdom,  which  was  now 
ufurped  and  rendered  miferable  by  a  fet  of  petty 
princes,  who  knew  not  how  to  govern.  To  influence 
him  the  more  powerfully,  he  alfo  piomifed  to  hold 
this  kingdom  of  the  Pope  ;  and  to  pay  him  the  ufual 
tax  collefted  by  the  church.  This  requert,  however, 
was  refufed.  Valdemar  of  Slefwic,  nephew  to  Ger- 
hard, then  afpired  to  the  fovereignty.  He  had  for- 
meily  been  eleiScd  king  ;  but  had  given  over  all 
thoughts  of  enjoying  the  fovereignty,  on  account  of 
the  fupcrior  influence  of  Chriltopher;  but  now  refumed 
his  ambitior.s  views  at  the  inlligation  of  his  uncle. 
Several  of  the  nobility  alfo  caft  their  eyes  on  yotmg 
Viildtmar  Chriftophei's  fon,  now  at  the  emperor's 
court.  But  while  each  of  thefe  princes  were  laying 
fchemes  to  aggrandife  themfelves,  the  unhappy  Danes 
were  diftirefled  by  exorbitant  taxes,  famine,  and  pelli- 
lence  ;  the  two  laft  in  confcquencc  of  the  former.  The 
peafants  neglffted  to  cultivate  the  lands,  which  they 
held  on  a  very  precarious  tenure  ;  the  confcquence  of 
this  was  poverty  and  an  unwholefome  diet  ;  and  this, 
cooperating  with  the  peculiar  difpofition  of  the  air, 
produced  a  plague,  which  deftroyed  more  than  half 
the  inhabitants  of  the  country.  The  poor  dropped 
down  dead  on  the  ftrects  with  difeafe  and  hunger,  and 
the  gentry  themfelves  were  reduced  to  a  ftate  of  wretch- 
ed nefs  ;  yet,  though  the  whole  kingdom  was  evidently 
on  the  verge  of  ruin,  ambitious  pnjefts  employed  the 
great,  as  if  evety  thing  had  been  in  the  moft  profound 
tranquillity. 

In  the  midil  of  thefe  grievous  calamities,  Gerhard, 
fovereign  of  Jutland,  propofed  to  his  nephew  Valdemar 
an  exchange  of  territoiies,  which  he  believed  would 
prove  favourable  to  the  defigiis  of  the  latter  on  the 
crown.  A  treaty  for  this  puipofe  was  a£lually  diawn 
up  and  figned  ;  but  the  inhabitants,  notwithilanding 
their  diftrefted  fituation,  fo  highiy^rcfentcd  their  being 
difpofed  of  like  cattle,  from  one  inafttr  to  another,  that 
they  refufed  to  pay  the  ulnal  taxes.  Gerhard  refolved 
to  compel  them  ;  and  therefore  led  10,000  men,  whom 
he  had  levied  in  Germany,  into  the  heart  of  the  pro- 
vince. Piovidence,  however,  now  railed  up  an  enemy 
to  this  tyrant.      One  Nieliolas   Norcvi,  a  man  greatly 


13 

Jiftrtlfca 
late  of  the 
Lin;rduni. 


^     1  D     E     N 

efteemed  for  his  courage,  public  fpirit,  and  prudence,  Denmarl. 
beheld  with  forrow  the  condition  to  which  Denmark  '— v— "^ 
was  redHced.     He   had   long  meditated  a  variety  of,^.  ,'+,  ^ 
projefts  for  its  relief,  and  at  laft  imagined  things  were  jsj„„^,i  ^g. 
in  fuch  a  fituation  that  the  whole  depended  on  his  finale  covert  the 
arm.     Young  Valdemar,  Chriftopher's  fon,  had  a  num-  li'ierty  of 
ber  of  adherents  in  the  kingdom  ;  his  moft  dangerous  J  ""•'"^' 
enemy  was  Gerhard  ;  and  could  he   be   removed,  the 
Jutlanders  would  at  leaft  be   free  from    an  'ippreflbr, 
and  might  choofe  Valdemar,  or  any  other  they  thouj^bt 
proper,  for  their  fovereign.   Colletting  a  body  of  cbo- 
fen  horfe,  thetefore,  he  marched  in  the  night  to  Ran- 
derlhufen,  where  Gerhard  had  fixed  his  head  quartcis; 
and  having  forced  open   the    tyrant's  quarters,  imme- 
diately put  him  to  death.     He  then  fled  with  the  ut- 
moft  expedition  ;   but  was  purfued  and  overtaken  by  i 
party  of  the  enemy's  horfe,  through  which  he  forced 
his   way  and  efcaped.      Gerhard's  fons  hearing  of  his 
death,  retired   into   HoUlein   from   whence  they  had 
come  ;  leaving  the  army,   compofed   chiefly  of  Hol- 
fteiners,  to   be  cut  in  pieces  by  the  enraged  pe^lante, 
who  fell  upon  them  from  every  quarter. 

Still,  however,  the  Hollleiners  kept  pofTeflion  of  I'nz 
citadels  and  fortified  places,  from  whence  Nicholas  re- 
folved to  diflodge  them.  He  accordingly  raifed  a 
body  of  forces ;  attacked  and  took  Linden,  a  caftk 
fituated  on  the  river  Scheme  :  After  which  he  laid 
ficge  to  Albeg  ;  but  the  garrifon  making  an  obftiuate 
defence,  he  turned  the  fiege  into  a  blockade,  by  wliich 
they  were  foon  reduced  to  great  extremity.  The  go- 
vernor fent  an  exprefs  to  the  fons  of  Gerhard,  ac- 
quainting them  with  the  impoflibility  of  his  holding 
out  more  than  a  few  days,  w'tho'it  being  relieved. 
This  determined  them  to  march  to  the  relief  of  fo  im-  ^^ 
poitant  a  place.  They  came  up  with  Nicholas  juH  as  He  i;  kill- 
the  governor  was  ready  to  furrender,  but  were  defeat- ed. 
ed  ;  though  Nicholas  was  unfortunately  killed  in  the 
engagement. 

Jutland  having  thus  regained  its  liberty,  the  reft  of 
the  kingdom  followed  its  example.  Zealatid  firft  o- 
penly  declared  itfelf.  Here  Henry,  Gerhard's  fon, 
maintained  feveral  ganifons  ;  and  refolved  to  defend 
his  pofTefllons  in  fpite  of  all  the  power  of  the  inhabi- 
tants. For  this  purpofe  he  drew  together  an  army  ; 
but,  in  the  mean  time,  ?.  tumult  arofe  arr.ong  the  pea- 
fants on  account  of  a  Danilh  nobleman  fliin  by  the 
Holfteiners.  By  this  the  people  were  at  laft  fo  irri- 
tated, tliat  falling  upon  the  Holfteineis  fword  in  hand, 
they  killed  ^00  of  them,  drove  the  reft  out  of  the 
iiland,and  chofe  Valdemar,  Chiiftopher's  fon,  for  their 
fovereign. 

The  Danes  :.ow  refumed   their  courage  ;   the   lands 
were  cultivated,  the  famine  and  peftilence  ceafed,  mid        ,,; 
the  kingdom  began  to  flourifh  as  formerly.     Matters  Marj^iret 
continued  in   a  profperous   w^y  till  1387,  when  Mar- ""'tes  the 
caret  mounted  the  tlirone.    She  raifed  the  kingdom  to"'"'™",'' 
Its  higlielt  pitch  01  glory,  as  partly  by  her  addrels,  and  (^..^.^^j, 
partly   by  hereditary  right,   flic  formed  the  union   of-md  Nor- 
Calmar,  by  which  fhe   was  acknowledged  fovereign  of  ^vay. 
Sweden,   Denmark,  and  Norway.      She  held  her  dig- 
nity with  fuch  firrantfs  and  coinage,  that  flie  was  jult- 
ly  Ityled  the  Snr.iramis  cf  ike  j\'irlh.      Her  fucceflors 
being  deftilute  of  her  great  qualifications,  the  union  of 
Calmar   fell  to   nothing :    but    Norway   ftill  continued 
annexed    to  Denmark.      About   the  year   H4S,  the 
1;   C   2  crowii 


DEN 


r  756  ] 


DEN 


IVnraarV.  crown  of  Denmark  ftll  to  Chriftian  count  of  Olden- 
burg, fiom  whom  the  prefcnt  royal  family  of  Denmark 
is  defcfnded  ;  and,  in  1536,  the  Proteftant  religion 
was  ctlablifhed  in  Denmark  by  that  wife  and  politic 
prince  Chrillian  III. 

Chri;Han  IV.  of  Denmark,  in  1629,  was  cliofen  for 
the  head  of  the  Proteftant  league  formed  agaiiill  the 
lioufe  of  Auftria  :  but,  though  brave  in  his  own  per- 
fon,  he  was  in  danger  of  lofing  his  dominions  ;  when 
he  was  fucceeded  in  that  command  by  the  famous  Gu- 
ftavus  Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden.  The  Dutch  ha- 
ving obliged  Chriftian,  who  died  in  164S,  to  lower 
the  duties  of  the  Sound,  his  fon  Frederic  III.  con- 
fented  to  accept  of  an  annuity  of  150,000  florins  for 
the  whole.  The  Dutch,  after  this,  peifuaded  him  to 
declare  war  againll  Charles  Gullavus  king  of  Sweden, 
which  had  almoll  coft  him  his  crown  in  1657.  Charles 
ftormcd  the  fortrefs  of  Fredericftadt  ;  and  in  the  luc- 
cecding  winter,  he  marched  his  army  over  the  ice  to 
the  ifland  of  Funen,  where  he  furprifed  the  Danifh 
troops,  took  Odenfee  and  Nyburg,  and  marched  over 
the  Great  BlIi  to  befiege  Copenhagen  itfelf.  Crom- 
well, the  Englifli  ufurper,  interpofcd:  and  Frederic  de- 
fended his  capital  with  great  magnanimity  till  the 
J7         peace  of  Rofchild;   by  which  Frederic  ceded  the  pro- 


ttibuted  to  the  nobility  ;  who,  on  the  other  liand,  took  Denmark, 

no  care  to  conciliate  tlie  affeftions  of  the  inferior  claf-  »      ■^. 

fes,  but  rather  increafed  the  difcontents  by  tlieir  arro- 
gance. They  had  even  the  imprudence  to  rtmonllrate 
againft  the  immunities  above  menticmtd,  which  lud 
been  granted  by  the  kiuJ  during  the  fiege.  In  conie- 
quence  of  this  the  deputies  of  the  commons  and  clergy 
united  aeainll  them  ;  and  b-^ing  joined  by  the  citizens 
of  C'lpenhairen,  formed  a  v?rv  confulerable  party.  Oa 
bringing  forward  in  the  afTcmbly  the  fums  necellary  for 
the  national  exigencies,  a  general  exclfe  was  propoled 
by  the  nobles  on  every  article  of  contumpt  ;  and  to 
which  they  th:fmftlvcs  were  willing  to  fubmit,  though, 
by  an  exprefs  law,  their  order  was  to  be  exempted 
from  all  taxes.  This  offer  was  accop.])anied  with  a  re- 
monftrance  to  the  king  ;  in  which  they  endeavoured  not 
only  to  reclaim  many  obloltte  privileg.-s,  but  to  add 
frelli  immunities,  and  introduct*  many  other  regula- 
tions, all  of  them  tending  to  duninidi  tlie  royal  prero- 
gative, and  check  the  rifmg  iniljence  of  the  commons 
and  clergy.  This  propofal  occafioned  great  dilputes 
in  the  diet ;  and  the  two  inferior  orders  infifted  that 
they  would  not  admit  of  any  tax  which  ihould  not  be 
levied  equally  upon  all  ranks,  without  referve  or  rellric- 
tion.     The  riobles  not  only  refufed  to  comply  with  this 


Severalpro-vinces  of  Halland,   Blcking,  and  Sconia,  the  ifland  of    propofal,  but  even  to  be  fubjeft  to   the   tax  for  more 


vinccs  ce- 
ded to  Swe- 
den. 


Bornholm,  Bahus,  and  Dronlheim,  in  Norway,  to  the 
Swedes.  Frederic  fought  to  elude  thofe  fevere  terms; 
but  Charles  took  Cronenburg,  and  once  more  befieged 
Copenhagen  by  fea  and  land.  The  fteady  intrepid  con- 
duft  of "  Frederic  under  thefe  misfortunes  endeared 
him  to  his  fubjefts  ;  and  the  citizens  of  Copenhagen 
made  an  admirable  defence,  till  a  Dutch  fleet  arrived 
in  the  Baltic,  aud  beat  the  Swedilh  fleet.  The  for- 
tune of  war  was  now  entirely  changed  in  favour  of  Fre- 
deric, who  Ihowed  on  every  occafion  great  abilities, 
both  civil  and  military  :  and  having  forced  Charles  to 
jaife  the  liege  of  Copenhagen,  might  have  carried  the 
war  into  Sweden,  had  not  the  Englilh  fleet,  under 
Montague,  appeared  in  the  Baltic.  This  enabled 
Charles  to  befiege  Copenhagen  a  third  time  :  but 
France  and  England  offering  their  mediation,   a  peace 


than  three  years  ;  pretending  that  all  taxes  whatever 
were  infringements  on  their  privileges.  By  way  of 
compenfation,  however,  they  propofed  new  duties  up- 
on leather  and  ftamped  paper,  and  at  laft  offered  to  pay 
a  poll-tax  for  their  peafants.  This  exchange  feemed 
at  iirft  to  be  agreeable  to  tlie  two  inferior  ellates ;  but 
they  fuddenlv  altered  their  mind,  and  demanded  that 
the  fiefs  and  domains,  which  the  nobles  had  hitherto 
poifefled  exclufively,  and  at  a  very  moderate  tent, 
fliould  be  let  to  the  highell  bidder. 

Such  a  propofal  appeared  to  the  nobles  to  be  to  the 
laft  degree  unreafonable.  They  faid  it  was  an  infraction 
of  their  deareft  privileges;  as,  by  the  46th  article  of 
the  coronation  oath  taken  by  Frederic,  the  pofleflion 
of  the  royal  fiefs  was  guaranteed  to  their  order;  but, 
in  the  heat  of  difpute,  one  of  the  chief  fenators  having 


was  concluded  in  that  capital  ;  by  which  the  ifland  of    imprudently  thrown   out  feme  reproachful  expreffions 


18 

Remarlc- 
able  revo- 
lution, by 

which  the 


hue. 


againft  the  commons,  a  general  ferment  enfued,  and 
the  afiembly  was  broken  up  in  confufion.  This  gave 
occafion  to  the  interpofilion  of  the  king's  friends;  and 
an  idea  of  rendering  the  crown  hereditary,  and  enlar- 
ging the  royal  prerogative,  began  to  be  fuggefted  as 
the  proper  method  of  humbling  the  robility.  This 
ir  fovereign,  and  of  their  own  accord,  and  was  firft  broached  by  the  biftiop  of  Zealand,  at  whofe 
leaft  compulfion,  rendering  him  defpotic.     houfe  a  numerous  meeting  was  held  on  the  6th  of  Oc- 

■  ■  "  "  tober  i65o,  where  the  fcheme  was  fully  laid  open  and 
approved  ;  an  aA  for  rendering  the  crown  hereditary 
drawn  up  ;  and  the  beft  method  of  publicly  producing 
it  taken  into  confideration.  All  this  time  the  king 
feemed  quite  inadlive,  nor  could  he  be  prevailed  upon 
to  take  any  part  in  an  affair  which  fo  nearly  concerned 
him.  But  this  indolence  was  abundantly  compenfated 
by  the  alertnefs  and  diligence  of  the  queen  ;  between 
whom  and  the  heads  of  the  party  matters  were  foon 
concerted.  On  the  morning  of  the  8th  of  October, 
therefore,  the  biihop  of  Zealand  having  obtained  the 
content  and  figoatu're  of  the  ecclefiaftical  deputies,  de- 
livered it  to  Naufen  burgomafter  of  Copenhagen  and 
fpeaker  of  the  commons.     The  latter,  in  a  mcft  per- 

fiufive 


Bornholm  returned  to  the  Danes  ;  but  the  ifland  of 
Rugen,  Bleking,  Halland,  and  Schonen,  remained 
with  the  Swedes. 

The  year  1660  affords  us  an  example  of  a  revolu- 
tion almoft  unequalled  in  the  annals  of  hiftory,  viz. 
that  of  a   free  people  refigning   their  liberty  into  the 

, .  hands  of  the 

Kintr  IS  rcn-     .  ,  , 

derid  abfo-W"°"' '^"'^ 

This  was  occafioned  by  the  great  chamber  which  Fre- 
deric had  acquired  by  his  prudent  and  valiant  condutl 
when  Copenhagen  was  befieged  by  the  king  of  Swe- 
den ;  and  at  that  time  he  had  alfo  taken  care  to  ingra- 
tiate himfelf  with  the  commonalty,  by  obliging  the 
nobility  to  allow  them  fome  immunities  which  they 
did  not  enjoy  before;  allowing  them  alfo,  by  a  fpecial 
edift,  to  poffefs  lands,  and  enjoy  all  the  privileges  of 
nobility.  After  the  conclufion  of  the  treaty  with 
Sweden,  a  diet  was  fummoned  at  Copenhagen,  to  take 
into  conf  deration  the  ftate  of  the  kingdom.,  which  was 
now  very  much  exhaufted,  both  by  reafon  of  the  debts 
in  which  it  was  involved  and  by  the  calamities  of  war. 
This  diftieffed  ftate  of  affairs  was,  by  the  commons,  at- 


DEN 


[     757     1 


DEN 


IVnmark.  fuafive  fpeech,  expatiated  upnn  tlie  wretched   ftate  of 
'~     V         the  kingdom,  the  opprefTivc  pnwer  of  the  nobles,  and 
the  vinui's  of  the  king  ;  coiicludiiig  with   an  exhorta- 
tion to  the  commons,  to  fiibfcribc   the  aft  as  the  only 
means  of  favin?  their  country. 

Tiie  exhoitAtioiis  of  the  fpeaker  had  fiich  an  efFeiS 
upon  the  afRmbly,  that  they  fublcribed  it  without  a 
finale  difTent  ;  the  nobles  being- all  the  n-hilq  in  perfedl 
ftcuricy,and  entirely  ignorant  of  the  tranfaftion.  Next 
d.iy  it  was  preftnttd  to  the  king  by  the  bifliop  and 
Naufeii  ;  and  as  they  were  returning  fronn  the  palace, 
they  met  the  fcnator  who  had  already  given  offence 
to  the  commons.  With  him  they  had  a  violent  al- 
tercation, and  were  tlireatened  with  impiifonment  for 
preluming  to  approach  the  king  without  acquainting 
the  order  of  nobles.  This  threat  was  now  altogether 
nugatory.  The  nubles  having  got  fome  intelligence 
of  \sliat  was  going  forward,  had  jufl  affembled  in  order 
to  conHdcr  of  what  was  to  be  done,  when  the  deputies 
of  the  two  other  eflatcs  entered,  and  informed  them  of 
their  proceeding?,  and  delivered  to  them  the  propofal 
for  rendering  the  crown  hereditary.  By  this  declara- 
tion the  nobles  were  thrown  into  the  utmoft  confterna- 
tion  but  judging  it  improper  to  put  a  negative  on  the 
piopofal  at  prelent,  tl.^-y  endeavoured  to  gain  time, 
and  replied,  that  though  they  willingly  gave  their  af- 
fent  to  the  declaration,  yet  that,  as  it  was  a  matter  of 
great  confequence,  it  deferved  the  moll  fetious  dif- 
cuflion.  Naufen,  however,  replied,  that  the  other 
eftates  had  already  taken  their  refolution  ;  that  they 
would  lofe  no  time  in  debate;  and  that  if  the  nobles 
would  not  concur  with  them,  they  would  immediate- 
hy  repair  to  the  paloce  by  themfelves,  where  they  had 
not  the  leall  doubt  thai  the  king  would  gracioufly  ac- 
cept their  proffer. 

In  the  mean  time  the  nobles  had  privately  difpatch- 
ed  a  meffage  to  the  king,  intimating,  that  they  were 
willing  to  render  the  crown  hereditary  in  the  male  line 
of  his  iffue,  provided  it  was  done  with  all  the  ufual  for- 
nialities.  But  this  propofal  did  not  prove  agreeable  to 
his  majefty,  unlcfs  tluy  would  confirm  the  right  of  fuc- 
ccffion  in  the  female  line  alio.  He  added,  however, 
with  great  appearance  of  moderation,  that  he  by  no 
means  widied  to  prefcrlbe  rules  for  their  conduCl;  they 
were  to  follow  the  diftates  of  their  own  judgment;  but 
as  for  his  part,  he  would  owe  every  thing  to  their  free 
confeni.  While  the  nobles  were  waiting  for  this  an- 
fwer,  the  other  deputies,  perceiving  that  they  wifhed 
to  keep  the  matter  in  fufjcnce,  lolt  nil  patience,  and 
repaired  in  folcmn  proceffion  to  the  court  ;  where,  be- 
ing admitted  into  che  royal  prefence,  the  matter  was 
opened  by  the  fifhop  of  Zeaknd.  He  addrcfled  his 
majefty  on  the  refolution  taken  by  the  clergy  and  com- 
mons, offering  in  their  name  to  render  the  crown  he- 
reditary, and  to  invert  him  with  abfolute  authority; 
adding,  that  they  were  ready  to  facrifice  their  lives  in 
the  defence  of  an  eftablifiimcnc  fo  falutary  to  their  coun- 
try. His  msjedy  thanked  them  for  their  favourable 
intentions  ;  but  mentioned  the  concurrence  of  the 
nobles  as  a  neceffary  condition  ;  though  he  had  no 
doubt  of  this  when  they  (hould  have  lime  to  accom- 
pany the  declaration  with  all  the  ncctff.uv  formalities  ; 
he  afhired  them  of  his  protection,  promiled  a  redrefs  of 
all  grievances,  and  dlfmiffed  them  with  an  exhortation 
to    continue    their   fillings    until    they    (houid    have 


brought  their  defign  to   perfection,  and   hr  rould  re-  rienmark. 
ceive  thsir  voluntary  fubmiffion  with  all  due  fjlemnity.    —— v"—^ 

On  departure  of  the  commons  from  the  place  where 
they  had  been  conferring  with  the  nobles,  the  latter 
had  been  fo  dillraftcd  and  confuled,  that  they  broke 
up  without  coming  to  any  refolution,  dcllgning,  how- 
ever, to  decide  the  matter  finally  at  their  meetins;  on 
the  afternoon  of  the  following  day.  But  while  they 
were  thus  wavering  and  inefolute,  the  court  and  the 
popidar  paity  took  the  neceffary  mcafuresto  force  them 
to  a  concunence.  This  was  effeAually  done  by  an 
order  to  {liut  the  gates  ;  for  by  this  they  were  fo  luucU 
dirpirited  that  they  inllantly  difpatched  deputies  to  the 
court,  with  a  nicffage  that  they  were  ready  to  concur 
with  the  commons,  and  lubfcribe  to  all  the  conditionj 
of  the  royal  plcafure. 

Nothing  now  remained  but  to  ratify  the  tranfaftion 
with  all  proper  folemuity.  Accordingly,  on  the  i6llt 
otOftobcr,  the  eftates  annulled,  in  the  moll  folemu 
manner,  the  capitulation  or  charter  figned  by  the  king 
on  his  acccffion  to  the  throne;  abfolved  him  from  all 
his  engagements  ;  and  cancelled  all  the  limitations  im- 
pofed  upon  his  iovei'eisnty.  The  whole  was  concluded 
by  the  cei-cmony  of  doing  homage,  taking  the  new 
oath  with  great  ceremony  ;  after  which  a  new  form  of 
government  was  promulgated  under  the  title  of  TV.f 
Royal  I-,aiu  of  Denmdrk- 

Frederic  was  fucceeded,in  i  dyOjbyhisfonChriftianV. 
who  obliged  the  Duke  of  Holftein  Gottorp  to  renounce 
all  the  advanfiges  he  had  gained  by  the  treaty  of  Roi- 
child.  He  then  recovered  a  numberof  places  in  Schonen  ; 
but  his  army  was  defeated  in  the  bloody  battle  of  Lunden 
by  CItarles  XI.  of  Sweden.  This  defeat  did  not  put  an 
end  to  the  war;  which  Chriftian  oblllnatcly  continued, 
till  he  was  defeated  entirely  at  tlie  battle  of  Land- 
fcroon  ;  and  he  had  almoft  exhaufted  his  dominions  in 
his  military  operations,  till  he  was  in  a  manner  aban- 
doned by  all  his  allies,  and  forced  to  fign  a  treaty  on 
the  terms  prefcribed  by  France,  in  J  679.  Chrillian, 
however,  did  not  defift  from  his  military  attempts;  and 
at  laft  he  became  the  ally  and  fubfidiary  of  Louis  XIV. 
who  was  then  threatening  Europe  with  chains.  Chri- 
ftian, after  a  vaft  variety  of  treating  and  fighting  with 
the  Hollleiners,  Hamburghers,  and  other  northern 
powers,  died  in  1699.  He  was  fucceeded  by  Frede- 
ric IV.  who,  like  his  predeceffors,  maintained  his  pre- 
tenfions  upoti  Holftein  ;  and  probably  muft  have  be- 
come mailer  of  that  duchy,  had  not  the  Englifli  and 
Dutch  fleets  raifed  the  fiege  of  T.nmingen ;  while  the 
young  king  of  Sweden,  Charles XII.  who  was  no  more 
than  16  years  of  age,  landed  within  eight  miles  of  Co- 
penhagen, to  affiil  his  brother-in-law  the  Duke  of  Hol- 
ftein. Charles  probably  would  have  made  hinifelf  ma- 
tter of  Copenhagen,  had  not  his  Danilh  majefty  agreed 
to  the  peace  of  Travendahl,  which  was  entirely  in  the 
Duke's  favour.  By  another  treaty  concluded  with  the 
States-General,  Frederic  obliged  himfelf  to  furnifli 
a  body  of  troops,  who  were  to  be  paid  by  the  confe- 
derates; and  who  afterwards  did  great  iervice  agaiiill 
the  French.  j^ 

Notwithftanding  this  peace,  Frederic  was  perpetual- Pc- pit  .z\ 
ly  engaged  in  wars  with  the  Swedes;  and  wliile  Charles ^'•'■"'''"'^ 
was  an  exile  at   Bender,   he  matched  through  Holftein  j  ^^^  "'^* 
into  Swedifh  Pomerania ;  and   in  the  year  tyiz,  into 
Bremen,  and  took   the  city  of  Siade.     His  troops, 

however,. 


l/finmark. 


'DEN  C     758     ]  DEN 

however,  were  totally  defeated  by  the  S>vede9  at  Ga-  cept  that  of  a  medistor,  in  the  German  war.  For  it  r):nmarL 
delhulch,  who  laid  his  favourite  city  of  Altena  in  alhes.  was  by  his  intervention  that  the  treaty  of  Clofter-fe-  ^— v— »^ 
Frederic  revenged  himfelf,  by  feizing  great  part  of  the  ven  was  concluded  between  his  royal  highnefs  the  late 
ducal  Holtleiii,  and  forcing  the  Swedifli  general,  count  duke  of  Cinnbcrland  and  the  French  general  Riche- 
Steinbock,  to  furrcuder  himftlf  prlfoner,  with  all  his  lieu.  Upon  the  death  of  his  lirft  queen,  who  was  mo- 
troop;.  In  the  year  1716,  the  fjcccfTcs  of  Frederic  ther  to  his  prefent  Daniih  majefty,  he  married  a  daugh- 
were  fo  great,  by  taking  Tonningen  and  StrElfund.by  ter  of  the  duke  of  Brunfwic  Wolfenbuttel ;  and  died 
driving  the  Swedes  out  of  Norn'ay,  and  reducing  Wif-     in  i  766.  , 

He  was  fucceeded  by  his  fon  Chriftian  VII.  his  pre- 
fent  Danifh  majefty,  who  married  the  princefs  Caro- 
lina Matilda  of  England.      But  this  alliance  proved  ex-  Inrrieuej 
tremely  unfortunate,  which   is   geiierally   afcribed   to  of  the 
the  intrigues  of  the  queen  dowager,  mother-in-law  to^'^'y^'P^r 


mar  and  Pomerania,  that  his  allies  began  to  fufpeCt  he 
was  aiming  at  the  fovereignty  of  all  Scandinavia.  Up- 
on the  return  of  Charles  of  Sweden  from  his  exile,  he 
renewed  the  war  againft  Denmark  with  a  moll  em- 
bittered fpirit ;  but  on  the  death  of  that  prince,  who 


artful,  and  defigning  ;  and  as  one  who  wifiied  to  have  ji,, 


fet  afide  the  king  hiralelf  in  favour  of  her  own  fon  Fre-  q  ecu, 
derlc.  On  the  arrival  of  tlie  young  queen,  however,  (lie 
received  her  with  much  apparent  afietlion,  telling  her 
the  faultsof  herlhulbanJ,  and  at  the  fame  time  promiling 
to  afiift  her  on  all  occaiions  in  reclaiming  him  from  his 
vicious  courfes.  Thus,  under  pretence  of  kindnefs 
and  fricndthip,  fiie  fowed  the  feeds  of  difiention  betwixt 
the  renal  pair  before  the  unfortunate  princefs  had  the 
leall  iufpicion  of  her  danger ;  and  while  the  un- 
thinking queen  revealed  to  the  dowager  all  her 
fecrtts,  the  latter  is  faid  to  have  placed  fpies  about 
the  king  to  keep  him  conftantly  engaged  in  riot  and 
debauchery',  to  which  he  was  at  any  rate  too  much 
inclined.  At  lall  it  was  contrived  to  throw  a  miilrefs  in 
his  way,  whom  he  was  advifed  to  keep  in  his  palace. 
— It  was  impoffible  that  any  woman   could  pafs  fuch 


young 


was  killed  at  the  fiege  of  Fiedericfhal,  Frederic  durft     the  preient  king.     She  is   reprefented  as  ambitious,  J  *°''" 

Dotrefufe  the  offer  of  his  Britannic  majefty's  mediation 
between  him  and  the  crown  of  SA'cden;  in  confequence 
of  which,  a  peace  was  concluded  at  Stockholm,  which 
left  him  in  poffcnion  of  the  duchy  of  Slefwic.  Fie- 
deric  died  in  the  year  1730,  after  having,  two  years 
before,  fcen  his  capital  reduced  to  alhes  by  an  acci- 
dental fire.-  His  fon  and  fucceflbr,  Chrittian  Frede- 
ric, made  no  other  ufe  of  his  power,  and  the  advanta- 
ges with  which  he  mounted  the  throne,  than  to  ciJ- 
tivate  peace  with  ail  his  nciirhbours,  and  to  promote  the 
happinefs  of  his  fubjcfts,  whom  be  cafed  of  many  op- 
prefiive  taxes. 

In  1734,  after  guaranteeing  the  Pragmatic  Sanc- 
tion, Chriftian  fent  6000  men  to  the  aflillance  of  the 
tmperor,  during  the  difpute  of  the  fuccefilon  to  the 
crown  of  Poland.  Though  he  was  pacific,  yet  he  was 
jjalous  of  his  rights,  cfpecially  over  Hamburgh.      He 


An  advsn 

treaty  '.vit 
•Great  Bri- 
taia. 


obliged  the  Hamburghcrs  to  call  in  the  mediation  of  a  piece  of  conduft  unnoticed  ;  however,  in  this  affair, 
Prnflia,  to  abolilh  their  bank,  to  admit  'he  coin  of  the  queen  dowager  behaved  with  her  ufual  duplicity. 
Denmark  as  current,  and  to  pay  him  a  million  of  fil-  In  the  abfence  of  the  king  flie  pretended  great  refent- 
vcr  marks.  He  had,  two  years  after,  viz.  173S,  a  ment  againft  him,  and  even  advifed  the  queen  not  to 
difpute  with  his  Britannic  majefty  about  the  little  live  with  him  ;  but  as  foon  as  he  returned,  when  his 
lordfhip  of  Steinhorft,  which  had  been  mortgaged  to  confort  reproached  him,  though  in  a  gentle'  manner, 
the  latter  bv  the  Duke  of  Holftein  Lawenburg,  and  with  his  conduft,  flie  not  only  took  his  part,  but  in- 
which  Chriftian  faid  belonged  to  him.  Some  blood  fifted  that  it  was  prefumptuous  in  a  queen  of  Den- 
was  fpilt  during  the  conteft  ;  in  which  Chriftian,  it  is  mark  to  pretend  to  direct  her  hufband's  conduft.  Not- 
thought,  never  was  in  earncft.  It  brought  on,  how-  withftanding  this  incendiary  behaviour,  the  queen  was 
ever,  a  treaty,  in  which  he  availed  himfelt  of  his  Bri-  in  a  (hort  time  reconciled  to  her  hufband,  and  lived 
tannic  majeflv's  predileftion  for  his  German  domi-  on  very  good  terms  vi«ith  him  until  file  again  excited 
nions  ;  for  he  agreed  to  pay  Chriifian  a  fubfidy  of  the  jealoufy  of  the  dowager  by  affuming  to  herfelf  the 
70,000!.  Sterling  a- year,   on  condition  of  keeping  in  direction  of  that  part  of  the  public  affairs  which  the 


readinefs  7000  troops  for  the  proportion  of  Hanover  : 
this  was  a  gainful  bargain  for  Denmark.  And  two 
years  after,  he  feized  fome  Dutch  fhips  for  trading 
without  his  leave  to  Iceland  :  but  the  difference  was 
made  up  by  the  mediation  of  Sweden.  Chriftian  had 
ft>  great  a  paitv  in  that  kingdom,  that  it  was  general- 
ly thought  he  would  revive   the  union  of  Calmar,  by 


dowager  had  been  accuftomed  to  look  upon  as  her 
own  privilege.  For  fome  time  it  feemed  to  beditHcult 
for  her  to  form  any  effeclual  plan  of  revenge,  as  the 
king  had  difplaced  fcveral  of  her  friends  who  had  for 
fome  time  had  a  fnare  in  the  adminiftration.  Two 
new  favourites,  Brandt  and  Struenfee,  had  now  appear- 
ed ;  and   as  thefe  paid  great  court  to  the  queen,  the 


procirring  his   fon  to  be  declared  fucceffor  to  his  then  dowager  took  occafion  to  itifinuate  not  only  that  the 

Swedilh    majefty.      Some  fteps   for  that  pinpofe  were  tjueeu  was   harbouring  improper   dtfigns   with  regard 

certainly  taken  :  but  whatever  Chriftian's  views  might  to  the  government,  but  that  llie  had  an  intrigue  with 

have  been,  the  defign  was   fntllrated  by  the  jealoufy  Siruenfee.     The  new  minifters  indeed  behaved  impru- 

of  other  powers,   who  could  not  bear  the  thoughts  of  dcntly,  in  attempting  to  make  a  reformation  i.i   leve- 

fteing  all  Scandinavia  fubjeft  to  one  family.    Chriftian  ral  of  the  departments  of  the  ftate  at  once,  inftead  of 

died  in  1746,  with  the   charadter  of  being  the  father  watting   patiently  until  an   opportunity  ihouid  otTer  ; 

of  his  people.          .  and  in  thefe  precipitate  fchemes  they  were   certainly 

His   fon   and   fucceflor,   Frederic  V.  had,  in  174^,  fupported  by  the  queen.      Tliefe   inftances  of  want  of 

married  the  princefs  Loriifa,  dairghter  to  his  Britannic  circuinfpeCtion  in  the  minifters,  were  reprefented  by  thj 

majefty.      He  improved  upon  his  father's  plan  for  the  dowager  and  her  party  to  be  a  fettled  fcherae  to  make 

liapoiiiifs   of  Lis  peo^de  ;  but  took  no  concern,  es-  an  alteration  in  the  government ;  and  a  defign  was  evea 

Ipoken 


Prnrf3rk, 


Execiiti'^n 
and  Brandt. 


DEN  [     759     ]  DEN 

fpokcTi  of  to  fiiperfede  the  kin^  as  being  incapable  of  go-  wear  a  fufpicious  afpeft.  At  laft,  however,  his  Bri- 
verning,  to  declare  the  queen  regent  during  the  minority  tannic  majefty  interfered  fo  far  as  to  fend  a  fmall  fqua- 
of  her  fon,  and  to  make  Struenfee  prime  miniftcr.  dron  of  fhipg  to  convoy  the  unhappy  princcfs  to  Ger- 
Thus  a  very  formidable  oppofition  was  formed  a-  many.  Here  the  city  of  Zell  was  appointed  for  her  rcfi- 
gainSl  Brandt  and  Struenfee;  and  as  the  latter  had  made  dence;  and  in  this  place  (he  died  of  a  malignant  fcvtr  on 
fnme  innovations  in  the  military  department  as  well  as  the  loth  of  May  i  775,  aged  2  ^  yeais  and  JO  months, 
the  civil,  fome  of  the  principal  officers,  who  were  the  The  inhuman  treatment  of  this  princefs  did  not 
creatures  of  the  dowager,  reprefented  him  as  defign-  long  prove  advantageous  to  the  qneen  dowager  and  her 
ing  to  oveithrow  the  v.hole  fyllem  of  government,  party:  A,  new?  revolution  took  place  in  April  1784, 
When  "matters  were  brought  to  a  proper  bearing,  it  when  the  queen  dowager's  fiiends  were  removed,  a 
was  at  lad  relolved  to  furprife  the  king  in  the  middle  new  council  was  formed  under  the  aufpiccs  of  the  prince 
of  the  ni'fht,  and  force  him  iiiRantly  to  lij.n  an  order  royal,  and  no  inllrument  deemed  authentic  unlcfs  figned 
wliich  was  to  be  ready  prepared,  for  committing  the  by  the  king,  and  coiniterligned  by  the  prince.  Since  that 
obnoxious  perfons  to  Icparate  prifons,  ucc-irte  them  of  time,  the  king,  who  from  the  beginningcf  hisadminiitra- 
high  treafon  fn  general,  and  partieulaily  with  a  defign  tion  (liowed  a  great  degree  of  incapacity,  has  been  in- 
to dethrone  or  poifon  the  king.  If  this  could  not  be  lirely  laid  afide  from  public  bufinefs,  and  has  no  (hare 
properly  authenticated,  it  was  determined  to  iuborn  in  the  government.  'I'he  Danes  are  at  prefent  engaged 
witnefTcs  to  confirm  the  report  of  a  criminal  torre-  <,n  the  fide  of  Rufiia  in  her  war  with  the  Turks,  the 
fpondence  between  the  queen  and  count  Siruenlce.  immediate  opponent  of  Dcimiaik  being  Sivtden. 
This  defign  was  executed  on  the  night  of  the  iCth  of  The  kingdom  of  Denmark  at  prtfent  is  divided  into 
January  1772,  when  a  mafl<ed  ball  was  given  at  the  fix  grand  dillricls  or  pro\incts;  viz.  I.  Denmark  pro- 
court  of  Denmaik.  The  queen,  after  having  danced  perly  fo  called,  comprehending  the  iflands  of  Zealand, 
mofl  part  of  the  night  with  count  Struenfee,  retired  to  Funen,- Langland,  Laaland,  Faltlria,  Mom,  Samfoe, 
her  chamber  about  two  in  the  morning.  About  four  Arroe,  Bornholm,  Anhoult,  Lelfaw,  and  that  part 
the  fame  morning,  prince  Frederic  got  up,  and  went  of  the  continent  called  North  Jutland.  2.  The  duchy 
with  the  qui.en  dowager  to  the  king's  bed-chamber,  of  Slef-.vick,  or  South  Jutland.  3.  The  duchy  of  Hol- 
accompained  by  general  Eichftedt  and  count  Rantzau,  llein.  4.  The  earldoms  of  Oldenburg  and  Delmenhorft, 
Having  ordered  the  king's  valet  de  chambre  to  awake  5.  The  kingdom  of  Norway;  and  6.  Iceland,  with 
him,  they  informed  his  majefty  ttiat  the  queen,  with  tlie  iilands  lying  in  the  Northern  Seas  ;  for  a  particu- 
count  Struenfee,  his  brother,  and  Brandt  one  of  the  lar  dcfcription  of  which  fee  thefe  articles, 
new  minifters,  were  at  that  moment  bufy  in  draw-  The  language  of  Denmark  is  a  dialeft  of  the  Tcu- 
ing  up  an  ait  of  renmiciation  of  the  crown,  which  tonic,  and  bears  a  ftrong  affinity  to  the  Norwegian 
they  would  immediately  after  compel  him  to  fign  ;  and  tongue;  but  is  difagreeable  to  (trangers,  on  account  of 
therefore  there  was  a  necelTity  for  him  to  give  an  order  the  drawling  tone  with  which  ic  is  pronounced.  They 
for  their  arrtilment.  Theking  is  fdidio  liavehelitatedfor  have  borrowed  many  words  from  the  German;  and, 
fome  time,  and  inclined  to  refufe  this  (candalous  requifi-  indeed,  the  high  Dutch  is  ufed  in  common  difcourfe 
tron;but  at  lengtii,  through  importunity,  and, according  by  the  court,  the  gentry,  and  the  burghers.  Thebet- 
tofome  accounts,beingevcn  threatened  into  coinpliance,  tcr  fort  likewife  underfland  French,  and  fpeak  it  flu- 
he  confented  to  what  they  required.  Count  Rantzau  tntly.  The  Lutheraii  dottrine  is  univcifally  embraced 
was  difpatched,  at  that  untimely  hour,  into  the  queen's  through  all  Denmaik,  Sweden,  and  Norway  ;  fo  that 
apartments,  and  immediately  executed  the  orders  of  there  is  not  another  lett  in  thele  kingdoms.  Denmark 
the  kirn;.  The  unfortunate  princefs  was  conveyed  in  is  divided  into  lix  dlocefes,  one  in  Zealand,  one  in  Fu- 
oneof  the  king's  coaches  to  the  caftle  of  Cronenburgh,  nen,  and  four  in  Jutland;  but  the  bifhops  arc,  proper- 
together  with  tfie  infant  princefs,  attended  by  Lady  ly  fpeaking,  no  other  than  fuperiuteudants,  ox  trim't 
Moftyn,  and  efcoitcd  by  a  party  of  dragoons.  Stru-  inter  pares.  They  have  no  cathedials,  ectlefialtkal 
enfee  and  Brandt  were  fcized  in  their  beds  and  Impri-  courts,  or  temporalities.  Their  bulmefs  is  to  infpect 
foned,  as  well  as  feveial  other  members  of  the  new  ad-  the  doctrine  and  morals  of  the  i.tfeiicr  clergy.  The  re- 
miniftiation,  to  the  number  of  I  8.  The  qi'een  dowager  venue  of  the  bilhop  of  Copenhagen  amounts  to  about 
and  her  adlu'cnts  feemed  to  affume  the  government  en-  2000  lixdollars  ;  and  this  is  the  liclielt  benefice  in  the 
tirelyinto  thcii  own  hands, and  a  total  cliangetook  place  kingdom.  The  clergy  are  wholly  dependant  on  the 
in  the  departments  of  adminiltratior.  The  pilnce  royal,  government.  They  never  intermeddle,  nor  are  em- 
fon  of  queeuMatllda, then  in  the  fifth  yearof  his  age, was  ployed  01  confulted  in  civil  Affairs.  They,  neverthe- 
put  under  the  care  of  alady  of  quality,  who  wasappoint-  lefs,  have  acquired  great  influence,  and  erefted  a  fort 
ed  governefs,  under  the  fuperintendency  of  the  queen  of  fpiritual  tyranny  over  the  minds  of  the  common 
dowager.  Struenfee  and  Brandt  were  put  in  irons,  people,  by  whom  they  are  much  revert  d.  They  are,- 
and  very  feverely  treated :  they  underwent  lonji  and  fre-  generally  fpeaking,  men  of  exemplary  lives,  and  fome 
quent  examinations;  and  Struenfee  at  lad  coufrfled  that  erudition..  Their  churches  are  kept  more  tlean,  and 
he  had  a  criminal  intercourfe  with  the  queen.  Both  their  better  adorned,  than  thofe  of  Eng'and:  the  people  are 
heads  were  (Iruck  off  on  the  28tli  of  April;  but  many  great  lovers  of  mnfic,  and  their  organifts  commonly 
of  their  partifans  «ere  ftt  at  liberty.  The  confi.Fion  entertain  the  congregation  for  half  an  hour  before  or 
of  Struenfee  is  by  many,  and  indeed  with  no  fmall  de-  after  fervice.  The  lUte  of  literature  is  very  low  in 
gree  of  probability,  fuppofed  to  have  been  extorted  by  Denmaik.  I'hcre  it,  indeed,  an  univerfity  at  Copen- 
fear  of  the  torture,  and  to  havr  no  fotmdatljn  in  truth  ;  hagen;  but  meanly  endowed,  and  very  ill  fupplied  with 
but  as  no  means  were  ided  by  the  courtof  Britaintorlrar  matters.  Tafte  and  the  belles  lettres  are  utterly  un- 
up  the  queen's  charafler,   the  afl'air  muft  undoubtedly  kuowa  in  this  country,  which  yet  has  produced  fome 

1  nie:i 


Deninai  b. 

——M—t 


Chji:g;  in 
(he  Mcliiiini- 
itraii.iu. 


It 
Div:..oii  or 
the  king- 
dom. 


LanguajrC^ 
religion, 


DEN 


■Benmarlt. 
Govcrn- 


[        760        ] 


DEN 


■      *7 
JLjws,  &c. 


men  of  preat  eminence  in  mathematics  and  medicine; 
fuch  as  Tycho  Brahe,  BorrlcKius,  and  tlic  Bartholincs. 

The  conllitiition  of  Denmark  was  heretofore  of  the 
free  Gothic  oritflnal.  The  convention  of  tlie  cllates, 
even  including  the  reprcfentatives  of  the  boors  or  pea- 
fants,  eltfted  a  king  for  his  perfonal  virtues,  having 
ttiU  a  regard  to  the  fon  of  their  late  monarch,  whom, 
however,  they  made  no  fcruple  of  fctting  afide,  if  they 
deemed  him  unworthy  of  the  royal  dignity.  They 
enafted  hws;  conferred  the  great  offices  of  ftate  ;  de- 
bated all  affairs  relating  to  commerce,  peace,  war,  and 
alliances  ;  and  occafionally  gave  their  confent  to  the 
iir.pofition  of  neceffary  taxes.  The  king  was  no  other 
than  chief  m.agi Urate,  generallffiino,  and  as  it  were 
prime  mini*lcr  to  his  people.  Flio  bufinefs  was  to  fee 
^ulfice  adminiftered  impartially;  to  command  the  army 
in  time  of  war  ;  to  encourage  indullry,  religion,  arts, 
and  fcicnces;  and  to  watch  over  the  interefts  of  his 
fubjeas. 

In  l6fio,  however,  the  conftitution  was  new  model- 
led, as  has  been  already  related,  and  which  was  to  the 
following  purport.  "  The  hereditary  kings  of  Den- 
mark and  Norway  (hoidd  be  in  effcrt,  and  ought  to  be 
efteemed  by  their  fubjeiSs,  the  only  fupreme  head  up- 
cn  earth  ;  they  (hall  be  abcve  all  human  laws,  ar.d  (hall 
acknowledge,  in  all  ecclefiaflica!  and  civil  affairs,  no 
higher  power  than  God  alone.  The  king  (hM  enjov  the 
right  of  making  and  interpreting  the  laws,  uf  abroga- 
ting, addinpT  to,  and  difpenfing  with  tliem.  He  may 
alfo  annul  all  the  laws  which  either  he  or  his  predecef- 
fors  fhall  have  made,  excepting  this  royal  law,  which 
muft  remain  irrevocable,  and  be  confidered  as  the  fun- 
damental law  of  the  ftate.  He  has  the  power  of  decla- 
ring war,  making  peace,  impofing  taxes,  and  levying 
contributions  of  all  forts,"  5:c.  &c. 

Then  follow  the  regulations  for  the  order  of  fucccf- 
fion,  the  regency  in  cafe  of  minority,  the  majority  of 
the  king,  the  maintenance  of  the  roval  family  ;  and, 
after  having  enumerated  all  the  polTible  prerogatives 
of  regal  uncircimfcrlbed  authority,  as  if  fufficienc  had 
not  yet  been  laid  down,  it  is  added  in  the  26th  article: 
"  All  that  we  have  hitherto  faid  of  power  and  emi- 
nence, and  fcvereignty,  and  if  th«r€  is  any  thing  fur- 
ther which  has  not  been  expiefsly  fpecified,  fhall  all  be 
comprifed  in  the  following  words  :  "  The  king  of 
Denmark  and  Norway  fliall  be  the  hereditary  monarch, 
and  endued  with  the  higheft  authority  ;  infomuch, 
that  all  that  can  be  faid  and  written  to  the  advantage 
of  a  Chrilllan,  hereditary,  and  abfohite  king,  ihall  be 
extended  under  the  mod  favourable  interpretation  to 
the  hereditary  king  or  queen  of  Denmark  and  Nor- 
way," <>cc.  Sec. 

The  laws  of  Denmark  are  f  >  concife,  that  the  whole 
body  is  contained  in  one  quarto  volume,  written  in  the 
language  of  the  country.  Everv  man  may  plead  his 
own  caufe,  without  emploving  either  counfel  or  attor- 
ney :  but  there  are  a  few  advocates  for  the  benefit  of 
thofe  who  cannot  or  will  not  fpcak  in  their  own  de- 
fence. The  proceedings  are  fo  lummary,  that  a  fult 
may  be  carried  through  all  the  courts,  and  finally  de- 
cided, in  13  months.  There  are  three  courts  in  Den- 
mark, and  an  appeal  lies  from  the  inferior  to  the  iupe- 
lior  tribunal.  The  loweft  of  thi.fe  is,  in  cities  and 
towns,  denominated  the  Byfo^Fitls  Court ;  and  in  the 
country,  the  Herredsfougds.  Caufts  may  be  appealed 
from  this  to  the  Landjlag,  or  general  head  court  for 


the  province:  but  the  final  appeal  lies  to  the  court  of  Denmark. 
High  right  in  Copenhagen,  where  the  king  prcfides  in '  v  "  ^ 
pcrfon,  affilled  by  the  prime  nobility.  Tne  judges  of 
the  two  other  courts  aie  appointed  by  his  majefty's 
letters  patent,  to  fit  and  determine  caufes  durante  be- 
ne placho.  Thefe  are  pnnlPnable  for  any  mil'demean- 
ours  ol  which  they  may  be  guilty  ;  and  when  ctrnviiled 
of  having  pafied  an  unjull  fentence,  they  are  condemned 
to  make  reparation  to  the  injured  party.  Their  falaric3 
are  very  inconfiderable,  and  paid  out  of  the  king's  trea- 
fury,  from  the  fines  of  dellncpients,  bcfiJes  a  fniall  gra- 
tuity from  the  plaintiff  and  defendant  when  fentence  is 
paffed.  Such  is  the  peculiar  privilege  enjoyed  by  the 
city  of  Copenhagen,  that  caufes  appealed  from  the  By- 
foglids  court,  inl^cad  of  p?ffing  throuirh  the  provincial 
court,  are  tried  by  the  burgomallei  and  common-coun- 
cil ;  from  whence  they  proceed  immediately  to  the 
higheft  court  as  the  lail'tefource.  Aflalrs  relating  to 
the  revenue  are  determined  in  the  rent  chamber  of  Den- 
mark, which  is  analogous  to  our  court  of  exchequer. 
To  another  tribunal,  compofed  of  fome  members  from 
this  rent-chamber,  from  the  admiialty,  and  college  of 
commeice,  merchants  appeal  for  redrefs,  when  their 
commodities  are  feized  f c  r  non-payment  r  f  duties.  All 
difputes  relating  to  thefea  are  detertr^ined  by  the  court 
of  admiralty,  conftituted  of  commiflloners  appointed 
for  thefe  purpofeti.  The  chancellary  may  be  mote 
properly  termed  a  ficretary's  ojjice.  It  confills  of 
clerks,  who  write  and  llTue  all  the  king's  decrees  and 
citations,  tranlcrlbe  papeis,  and,  according  to  the  di- 
retiions  they  receive,  make  draughts  of  treaties  and 
alliances  with  other  nations.  Tlie  government  t)f  Den- 
mark is  very  commendable  for  the  excellent  policy  it 
maintains.  Juftlce  is  executed  upon  criminals  uirh 
great  feverity;  and  fuch  regulations  are  eftabllflied  as 
effectually  prevent   thofe  outrages  that  ate  dally  com-  o_ 

mitted  in  other  countries.  No  man  prcfumes  to  wag 
his  tongue  againft  the  government,  far  lefs  to  hatch 
fchemes  of  treafon.  All  the  fubjtAs  ate,  or  fecm  to 
be,  attached  to  their  fovcreigu  by  the  tics  of  affcftion. 
Robbery  on  the  high-way,  burglaiy,  coining  or  clip- 
ping, are  crimes  fcldom  or  never  heard  of  in  Den- 
mark. The  capital  crimes  ufually  committed  are  theft 
and  manOaughter.  Such  offenders  are  beheaded  very 
dexteioufly  with  one  ftroke  of  a  fword.  The  execu- 
tioner, though  infamous,  is  commonly  rich;  becaufe, 
over  and  above  the  funrtions  of  his  office,  he  is  em- 
ployed in  other  fcandalous  occupations,  which  no  o- 
ther  perfon  will  undertake.  He,  by  me:»ns  of  his  un- 
dcrftrapper,  called  the  prachcr,  empties  all  the  jakes, 
and  removes  from  houfes,  ftables,  or  flrects,  dead  dogs, 
horfcs,  &c.  which  no  other  Dane  will  vouchfafe  to 
touch  on  any  confidtralion  whatloevcr.  ^g 

The  Danilh  nobility  and  gentry  are  all  included  in  Slavilh  con. 
the  term  twlleffe;  and  form.-rly  there  were  no  diftinc- '',"'""  "( 
tions  of  title  :   but  within  thefe  60  or  70  years,  'ome  j-^[j- .^_^j_ 
few  favourites  have  been  dignified  with  the  titles  of  count 
and  iaron.     Thefe,  and  thefe  only,  enjoy  the  privilege 
of  dlfpofing  of  their  ellates  by  will  ;   though   others 
may  make  particular  difpofitions,  provided   they  have 
fufiicient  intercft  to  procure  the  king's  approbation  and 
fignaturc.      The  nobleffe  of  Denmark  formerly  lived  at 
their  own  feats    with  great  magnificence  ;  and  at  the 
conventions  of  eftates   met  the   king  with  numerous 
and  fuperb  retinues:  but  fince  he  became  abfolute,  they 
are  fo  impoverjfhed  by  exorbitant  taxes,  that  they  can 

hardly 


DEN 


[     76t     ] 


DEN 


Pdnmark.  liaidly  procure  fiibfiftence;  and,  for  tlie  moll  part,  live 
^--— V  '  ■"'  obfcurcly  in  fonie  corner  of  tlicir  nilntd  country  pa- 
laces, unlcfs  they  have  intLTeft  enough  to  procure  fonie 
employment  at  court.  They  no  longer  in'icrit  the  fpi- 
rit  and  virtues  of  their  anccllora  ;  but  are  become  fer- 
vllf,  indolent,  ollentatious,  extravagant,  and  opprcf- 
five. 

Tiieir  ijcneial  charafter  Is  a  (Irani^e  compofitiun  of 
pride  and  meannefs,  inlokncc  and  poverty.  It  any  gen- 
tleman can  find  a  purchafer  for  luseftate,  the  kinjf,  by 
the  Danilh  law,  has  a  right  to  one  tliitd  of  the  pur- 
chafe-money  :  but  the  lands  are  fo  burdened  with  irti- 
politions  that  there  would  be  no  danger  of  an  aliena- 
tion, even  tho'  this  reflrirtion  was  not  in  force.  Nay, 
fome  irentltmen  in  the  Ifland  of  Zealand  have  aftually 
offered  to  make  a  furrendcr  to  the  king  of  large  trafls 
of  very  fertile  land  in  the  Ifland  of  Zcalind,  if  his  ma- 
jjfty  wiiuld  be  pleafed  to  accept  of  them  in  place  of 
the  impofitlons  laid  on  them.  The  reafcn  of  this  is, 
becaufe,  by  the  law  of  Denmark,  if  any  cilate  is  bur- 
dened beyond  what  It  canbear,  the  owner  mull  make 
up  the  deficiency  out  of  his  other  eftates,  if  he  has  any. 
Hence  the  king  generally  refufes  fuch  offers  ;  and  fome 
gentlemen  have  been  tranfported  with  joy  when  they 
L  heard  that  his  majefly  had  been  "  gr-acloufly  pleafed  to 

i  accept  their  whole  eltatcs." 

Tills  opprefTion  of  the  nobles  by  the  king  produces 
in  them  alike  difpofitinn  to  opprefs  the  commons;  and 
the  conftquence  of  all  this  is,  that  tliere  is  no  part  of 
the  world  where  extravagance  and  diflipatlon  reigns  to 
fuch  a  degree.  The  courtiers  maintain  fplendi<i  equi- 
pages, wear  fine  clothes,  drink  a  vafl  quantity  of  French 
wine,  and  indulge  themfelves  with  eating  to  excefs. 
.Such  as  derive  rnoney  from  their  employments,  inftead 
(if  purcliafing  land  in  Denmark,  remit  their  cafh  to  the 
banks  of  Hamburgh  and  Amllerdam.  The  merchants 
and  bi;rgh°rs  tread  in  the  Heps  of  their  fuperiors  :  they 
fpend  all  their  gains  in  luxury  and  pleafure,  afraid  of 
incurring  the  fufplcion  of  alSuenee,  and  being  llripped 
by  taxation.  The  peafant,  oi  boor,  follows  the  fame 
exam.ple.  Nofooner  has  he  earned  a  rlx-dollar  than  he 
makes  hade  to  expend  it  in  bi'andy,  left  it  ihould  fall 
Into  the  hands  of  his  oppreffive  landlord.  This  lower 
clafs  of  people  are  as  abfohite  flaves  as  the  negroes  in 
the  Weft  Indies,  and  fublill  upon  much  harder  fare. 
The  value  of  eilates  is  not  computed  by  the  number  of 
acres,  but  by  the  ftock  of  boors,  who,  like  the  timber, 
are  reckoned  a  parcel  of  the  freehold  ;  and  nothing  can 
be  more  wretched  than  the  flate  of  thefe  boors.  They 
feed  upon  ftuck-fiflr,  faltcd  meals,  and  other  coarfe  diet; 
there  is  not  the  lead  piece  of  furniture  of  any  value  in 
thtir  houfcs,  except  feather-beds,  of  which  there  is 
great  plenty  in  Denmark;  and  which  are  ufed  not  only 
as  beds  to  lie  on  but  as  blankets  for  covering.  After 
the  boor  has  toiled  like  a  flave  to  raife  the  king'.s  taxe?, 
he  mull  pay  the  overplus  of  his  toil  to  his  needy  land- 
lord. Should  he  improve  his  ground  and  repair  his 
farm-houfe,  his  cruel  mafler  will  Immediately  tranfplant 
him  to  a  barren  farm  and  a  naked  habitati -n,  tliat  he 
may  let  the  improved  ground  to  anothu-  tenant  at  a 
higher  price.  The  pcafants  likewife  fuflain  a  great  deal 
of  damage  and  violence  from  the  licentious  foldiersthat 
are  quartered  in  their  houfes.  Tliey  are  moi-eover  obli- 
ged to  furnlflt  horfes  and  waggons  for  the  royal  familv 
Vol.  V.  Part  II. 


and  all  their  attenJanh:  when  the  king  makes  a  pro-  Denmirk. 

grefs  through   the  country,   or   removes   hij   refidcnce  ' * ' 

from  one  palace  to  anoihci.  On  fuch  occafions  ttx 
neighbouring  boors  are  fumnioned  to  aflemblj  with 
their  cattle  and  carriages,  and  not  only  to  live  at  their 
own  expence,  but  to  bear  every  fpccles  of  outrage  from 
the  meaned  lacquies  of  thofe  who  attend  his  majtlly. 
Tlie  warlike  fpirit  of  the  Danes  no  longer  fnbfills:  the 
common  people  are  mean-fpirited,  fufprclous,  and  de- 
ceitful ;  nor  have  they  that  talent  fur  mechanics  fo  re- 
markable In  fome  northern  nations.  While  the  pca- 
fants are  employed  In  their  labour  without  doors,  the 
women  are  occupied  at  home  in  fpiiiniirg  yarn  for  linen, 
which  is  here  made  in  great  peifedion. 

In  Denmark,  all  pcrfonsof  any  rank  above  the  vul- ,-,  r~^  f. 
gar  drefs  in  the  French  tafte,  and  afTedb  finery  ;  the  '  ' 
wuiter-drefb  of  the  ladies  is  peculiar  to  the  country, 
very  neat,  waiin,  and  becoming,  lire  common  people 
arc  likewife  remarkably  neat,  and  pride  thcmfelves  in 
different  changes  of  linen.  They  are  very  little  nddlit- 
ed  to  jollity  and  diverfion  :  tlieir  whole  amufements 
confiit  in  running  at  the  goofe  on  Shrove  Tnefday, 
and  In  winter  in  being  drawn  iir  flcds  upon  the  ice. 
They  alfo  feaft  and  make  mer-ry  at  weddings  and  fune- 
rals. With  refpett  to  marilage,  the  man  and  womau 
frequently  cohabit  together  on  contradl  long  before  the 
ceremony  Is  perfoi-med.  The  nobility  and  gentry  pique 
themfelves  on  fumptuous  biri-Ials  and  monimients'for  the 
dead  :  the  corpfe  is  very  often  kept  in  a  vault,  or  in 
the  chancel  of  a  church,  forfevcral  years,  before  an  op- 
portunity oflers  of  celebrating  the  funeral. 

The  taverns  in  this  country  are  poorly  fiipplied  ; 
and  he  who  diets  in  them  mufl  be  contented  to  eat  In 
a  public  room,  unlefs  he  will  condefcend  to  pay  an  ex- 
travagant pi-Ice  for  a  private  apartment.  I'he  metro- 
piills  is  but  indifferently  furnllhed  with  game.  .  The 
wild-ducks  and  plover  are  hardly  eatable  ;  but  the  hares 
are  good,  and  the  markets  fometiiues  produce  tolei-able 
roebuck.  Their  fea-filh  ai-e  not  to  be  commended  ;  but 
the  rivei-s  produce  plenty  of  delicious  carp,  perch,  and 
craw-fidi.  The  gardens  of  the  gentry  are  well  pr-ovi- 
ded  with  melons,  grapes,  peaches,  and  all  forts  of  gix-eus 
and  falads  iu  pei'feftion. 

The  army  of  Denmark  is  compofed,  r.  of  the  troops 
of  Dennraik  and  Holdein  ;  and,   2.  of  Norway. 

The  foi-ces  of  Denmark  and  Holftein  ar-e  divided  Aml^'^'of 
into  regulars  and  natiimal  or  militia,  llicfe  forces  Uenm.irk. 
(the  foot  and  horfe  guards  excepted  who  are  all  reo-u- 
lais)  are  not  fepaiated,  as  in  our  army.  Into  dldludl; 
regiments,  but  are  formed  in  the  following  nranner: 
Before  the  late  augmentation,  every  regiment  of  in- 
fantry, \vhen  com])lcte,  confided  of  26  officers  and 
1632  privates,  divided  into  ten  companies  of  fufileeri 
and  two  of  grenadiers.  Of  thefc  16^2  privates,  480, 
who  ai-e  chiefly  foreigners  enllfted  in  Germany,  are 
regulars.  The  remaining  1 152  are  the  national  militia, 
or  peafantswho  refide  upon  the  eftates  of  their  landhold- 
ers, each  eftatefurnldiing  a  eertain^numbcr  in  proportion 
to  its  value.  Thefe  national  troops  are  occafionally  ex- 
ei-cifed  in  fmall  corps  upon  Sundays  and  holidays ;  and 
are_  embodied  once  every  year  for  about  17  days  in 
their  refpcaive  dlftrias.  By  a  late  addition  of  ten 
men  to  each  company,  a  regiment  of  infantry  is  in- 
crcafed  to  1778,  including  officers.  The  expence  of 
5  D  each 


DEN  [7 

Pcnmarlt.  ^3^1  regiment,  wliicli  before  amounted  to  L.6000, 
V  has  been  ralfed  by  the  late  augmentation  to  L.8000. 
The  cavalry  is  upon  the  fame  footing  ;  each  regiment 
confifting  of  I  7  officers,  including  ferjeants  and  coi- 
poralsj  and  ^6j  privates,  divided  into  five  fquadrons. 
Of  tbefe  about  260  are  regular  and  the  remainder  na- 
tional troops.  The  regiments  of  foot  and  horfe  guards 
are  regulars  ;  the  foimer  is  compofed  of  21  officers 
and  465  men,  in  five  companies  ;  and  the  latter  of  7 
officers  and  154  men,   in  two  fquadrons. 

The  forces  of  Norway  are  all  national  troops  or 
militia,  excepting  the  two  regiments  of  Sundenheld 
and  Nordenfield  ;  and  as  the  pcafants  of  that  kingdom 
are  free,  the  forces  are  levied  in  a  different  manner 
from  thofe  of  Denmark.  {■Jorway  is  divided  into  a 
certain  number  of  diftrifts,  each  whereof  furnilhes  a 
foldier.  AU  the  peafants  are,  upon  their  birth,  re- 
giftered  for  the  militia  ;  and  the  fiifl  en  the  lift  fup- 
pHes  the  vacancy  for  the  diftrift  to  which  he  belongs. 
After  having  ferved  from  10  to  14  years  they  are  ad- 
mitted among  the  invalids  ;  and  when  they  have  at- 
tained the  feniority  of  that  corps  receive  their  difmif- 
fion.  Thefe  troops  are  not  continually  under  arms  ; 
but  are  only  occafionally  exercifcd  like  the  national 
forces  of  Denmark.  A  fixed  ftipend  is  affigned  to 
the  officers,  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  officers  in  the 
regulars  ;  but  the  common  foldiers  do  not  receive  any 
pay  except  when  they  are  in  aftual  fervice,  or  perform- 
ing their  annual  manoeuvres.  The  Academy  of  Land 
Cadets,  inllituted  by  Frederic  IV.  fupplies  the  army 
with  officers.  According  to  this  foundation,  74  ca- 
dets are  inftrufted  in  the  military  fciences  at  the  ex- 
pence  of  the  king.  The  whole  amount  of  the  Danifh 
troops  is  computed  at  60,900. 

From  their  infular  fituation  the  Danes  have  always 
excelled  as  a  maritime  people.  In  the  earlier  ages, 
v^hen  piracy  was  an  honourable  profeffion,  they  were 
a  race  of  pirates,  and  ifi'ned  from  the  Baltic  to  the 
conquells  of  England  and  Normandy.  And  though, 
iince  the  improvement  of  navigation  by-  the  invention 
of  the  compafs,  other  nations  have  rifcn  to  a  greater 
degree  of  naval  eminence,  ttill,  however,  the  Danes, 
as  they  inhabit  a  clnfter  of  iflands,  and  pofTefs  a  large 
traft  of  fea-coaft,  are  well  verfed  in  maritime  affaiis, 
and  are  certainly  the  moft  numerous,  as  well  as  the 
mod  experienced,  failors  of  the  noith. 

The  greateft  part  of  the  Danilh  navy  is  Rationed  in 
the  harbour  of  Copenhagen,  which  lies  within  the  for- 
tifications :  the  depth  of  water  being  only  20  feet, 
the  (hips  have  not  their  lower  tier  of  guns  on  board, 
but  take  them  in  when  they  get  out  of  port.  Befide 
large  magazines,  each  veffel  has  a  feparate  ftorehoufe 
on  the  water's  edge,  oppoilte  to  which  ihe  is  moored 
when  in  harbour,  and  may  by  this  means  be  inftantly 
equipped.  The  number  of  regiflered  fcamen  are  near 
40,000,  and  are  divided  into  two  clalTes  ;  the  firrt  com- 
prifes  thofe  inhabl;ing  the  coails,  who  are  allo%ved  to 
engage  in  the  fervice  of  mcrchant-fhips  trading  to  any 
part  of  the  world.  Each  receives  8s.  annually  from 
the  crown  as  long  as  he  fends  a  certificate  of  his  be- 
ing alive  ;  but  is  fubjeft  to  a  recal  in  cafe  of  war. 
The  fecond  comprehends  the  fixed  failors,  who  are 
conftantly  in  the  employ  of  the  crown,  and  amount 
to  about   4000,  ranged   under  foiu  divifiocs,  or  40 


62     ]  DEN 

companies  :  they  are  ftatloned  at  Copenhagen  for  the  Dcnraarl: 
oi'dinary  fervice   of  the  navy,   and  work   in  the  dock-     Dennis, 
yard.     Each  of  them,  when   not   at  fea,  receives  Ss.         »  ""^ 
per  month,  befide  a  fufficient  quantity  of  flour  and 
other  provifions  ;  every  two   years   a  complete  fuit  of 
clothes ;    and   every   year  breeches,    (lockings,  (hots, 
and  a  cap.      Some   u(  them   are  lodged   in   barracks. 
When    they  fail,   their  pay  Is  augmented  to   20s.  ptr 
month.     The  marine  artillery  confiils  of  800  men,  in 
four  divifioris. 

The  whole  navy  confifts  of  38  (hips  of  the  line,  in-  j;^,^' 
eluding  y  of  50  guns  and  one  of  44,  and  20  frigates ; 
but  If  we  except  thofe  which  are  condemned,  and  thofe 
which  are  alloctcd  only  for  parade,  we  cannot  tilimate 
that  in  1779  the  fleet  confilled  of  more  than  25  (hips 
ol  the  line  and  15  frigates  tit  for  fervice  ;  a  number, 
however,  fully  adequate  to  the  fituation  of  Denmark  ; 
and  if  we  include  the  excellence  of  the  failors,  it  mull 
be  efteerned  as  complete  a  navy  as  any  in  the  north.  , 

The  revenue  of  his  Danilh  majcily  arlfes  from  taxes  (^g^^y. 
laid  on  his  own  fubjefts  ;  from  the  duties  paid  by  fo- 
reigners, trom  his  own  cftate,  crown-lands,  and  con- 
filoations.  The  taxes  are  altogether  arbitrary,  and 
therefore  fluctuating  ;  but  they  are  always  grievous  to 
the  fubjeft.  They  commonly  confill  of  cuiloms  or  toll, 
for  export  and  import ;  of  excife  upon  the  confump- 
tion  of  wine,  fait,  tobacco,  and  all  kinds  of  provifions  ; 
of  taxes  upon  marriages,  paper,  brewing,  grinding,  and 
the  exerciie  of  different  profeffions  ;  of  impofitions  on 
land,  poll-money,  ground-rent  for  all  houfes  in  Co- 
penhagen and  elfevvhere  ;  of  money  raifed  for  main-- 
taining  fortifications,  and  for  a  portion  to  the  king's 
daughter  when  fhe  happens  to  be  married  :  but  this 
feldom  exceeds  100,000  rixdoUars.  One  confiderable 
article  in  the  revenue  is  the  toll  paid  by  foreign  (hips 
that  pafs  through  the  Sound,  or  Ore  Sound  (the  ilrait 
between  Schonen  and  Zealand),  into  the  Baltic.  This 
was  originally  no  other  than  a  fmall  contribution,  which 
trading  nations  agreed  to  make  for  maintaining  lights 
at  certain  places,  to  direft  their  courfe  through  the  paf- 
fage  in  dark  and  ftormy  weather.  At  the  fame  time 
thefe  trading  nations  agreed,  that  every  (hip  (hould  pafs 
this  way  and  pay  its  (hare  of  the  expence,  rather  than 
ufe  the  Great  Belt,  which  is  the  other  palTage,  but  un- 
provided with  any  fuch  conveniency.  In  procefs  of 
time  the  Danes  converted  this  voliintgry  contribution 
into  an  exorbitant  toll,  and  even  exafted  arbitrary  fums, 
in  proportion  to'the  weaknefs  of  the  nation  whofe  (hips 
they  vifited.  Thefe  exactions  foractlmes  involved  them 
in  quarrels  with  their  neighbours,  and  the  toll  was  re- 
gulated in  repeated  treaties. 

DENNIS,  or  St  Dennis,  a  famous  town  of  the 
Ifle  of  France,  with  a  Bentditllne  abbey,  wherein  are 
the  tombs  of  the  kings  of  France,  with  a  confiderable 
treafurc.      E.  Long.  2.  26.   N.  Lat.  48.  56. 

Dennis  (John),  the  celebrated  critic,  was  the  fon 
of  a  reputable  tradefman  in  London,  and  born  in  the 
year  1657,  He  received  thefirft  branches  of  education 
at  the  great  fchool  in  Harrow  on  the  Hill,  where  he 
commenced  acquaintance  and  intinsacy  with  many 
young  noblemen  and  gentlemen,  who  afterwards  made 
confiderable  figures  in  public  affair.;,  whereby  he  laid 
the  foundation  of  a  very  (trong  and  exlenfive  intereft, 
which  might,  but  for  his  own  fault,  have  been  of  infi- 

oitc 


DEN  [    7^3    1  DEN 

T»L-niiis.    nite  ufe  to  him  in  future  life.     From  Harrow  he  went     the  king  of  France  would  infill  on  his  btiwg  ucIivereJ    Dt-nnk 
— -V  to  Caius-college  Cambridge  ;  where,  after   his  proper     up,  before  he  would  confent   to   :i   peace  :   and  full  of  — "v""" 

ftanding,  he  took  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  arts.  When  this  idea  of  his  own  importance,  when  the  congrefs  was 
he  quitted  the  univerlity,  he  made  the  tour  of  Europe  ;  held  at  Utrecht,  he  is  faid  to  ha%e  waited  on  liis  pa- 
in the  courfe  of  which  he  conceived  fuch  a  detcftation  tron  the  duke  of  Marlborough,  to  defirc  that  no  fuch 
for  dtfpotifm,  as  confirmed  him  Hill  more  in  thofe  article  might  be  llipulated.  The  duke  told  him  he 
Whig  principles  which  he  had  from  his  infancy  im-  really  had  no  intcrell  then  with  the  minillry  ;  but  had 
bibed.  made  no  fuch  provliion  for  his  own  fecurity,  though  he 

On  his  return  to  England  he  became  early  acquainted  could  not  help  liiinking  he  had  done  the  French  as 
with  Drydcn,  Wycherly,  Congrevc,  and  Soutjicrne  ;  much  injury  as  Mr  Dennis  hlmfelf.  Another  ftory  re- 
whofe  converfetion  infpiring  him  with  a  paflion  for  lating  to  this  affair  is,  that  being  at  a  gentleman's 
poetry,  and  a  contempt  for  every  attainment  that  had  houfe  on  the  coall  of  Suffex,  and  walking  one  day  on 
not  fomething  of  the  belles  Itttn's,  diverted  him  from  the  fea-lhore,  he  faw  a  fliip  failing,  as  he  fancied,  to- 
the  acquifition  of  any  profitable  art,  or  the  exerclfe  of  wards  him  :  he  inftantly  fct  out  tor  London,  in  the 
any  profeliion.  This,  to  a  man  who  had  not  an  Inde-  fancy  that  he  was  betrayed;  and,  congratulating  him- 
pendent  income,  was  undoubtedly  a  misfortune  :  how-  felf  on  his  elcape,  gave  out  that  his  friend  had  decoyed 
ever,-  his  zeal  for  the  Protellant  fucccffion  having  re-  him  down  to  ins  houfe,  to  furrcnder  him  up  to  ihe 
commended  him  to  the  patronage  of  the  duke  of  Marl-     French. 

borough,  that  nobleman   procured  him  a  place  in  the  Mr  Dennis,  partly  through  a  natural   peeviflinefs 

cudoms  worth  L,.  120  per  annum  ;  which  he  enjoyed  for  and  petulance  of  temper,  and  partly  perhaps  for  the 
fome  years,  till  from  profnfcnefs  and  want  of  eco-  fake  of  procuring  the  means  of  fubfillence,  was  conti- 
nomy,  he  was  reduced  to  the  neceflity  of  difpoling  of  nually  engaged  in  a  paper-war  with  his  cotemporaries, 
it  to  fatisfy  fome   very  prcfiing  demands.      By  the  ad-     whom  he  ever  treated  with   the   utmoll  feverity  :  and, 

though  many  of  his  obfcrvations  were  judicious,  yet  he 
ufually  conveyed  them  in  language  fo  fcurrilous  and 
abufive,  as  dellroyed  their  intended  effeft  ;  and  as  his 
attacks  were  almoll  always  on  perfons  of  fuperior  abi- 
lities to  himfelf,  viz.  Addifon,  Steele,  and  Pope,  their 
replies  ufually  turned  the  popular  opinion  fo  greatly 
againfl  him,  that,  by  irritating  his   telly  temper   the 


vice  of  Lord  Halifax,  however,  he  refcrved  to  himfelf, 
in  the  fale  of  it,  an  annuity  for  a  term  of  years  ;  which 
term  he  outlived,  and  was,  in  the  decline  of  his  life, 
reduced  to  extreme  necelfity. 

Mr  Theo.  Cibber  relates  an  anecdote  of  liim,  which 
we  cannot  avoid  repeating,  as  it  is  not  only  highly  cha- 
rafteriftic  of  the   man  whofe  affairs  we  are  now  conil- 


dering,  but  alfo  a  llriking  and  melancholy  inftance,  more,  it  rendered  him  a  perpetual  torment  to  himfelf ; 
among  thoufands,  of  the  diftrefstul  predicaments  into  till  at  length,  after  a  long  life  of  vicifPitudes,  difappoint- 
which  men  of  genius  and  literary  abilities  are  perhaps  ments,  and  turmoils,  rendered  wretched  by  indifcretion, 
apter  than  any  others  to  plunge  themfclves,  by  paying  and  hateful  by  malevolence,  having  outlived  the  rever- 
too  flight  an  attention  to  the  common  concerns  of  life,  fion  of  his  eftate,  and  reduced  to  dilli-efs,  from  which 
and  their  own  moil  important  interefts.  "  After  that  his  having  been  daily  creating  enemies  had  left  him 
he  was  worn  out  (fays  that  auihor)  with  age  and  po-  fcarctly  nny  hopes  of  relief,  he  was  compelled  to  what 
verty ,  he  refided  within  the  verge  of  the  court,  to  pre-  mull  be  the  moil  irkfome  fituation  that  can  be  conceived 
vent  danger  from  his  creditoi-s.  One  Saturday  night  in  human  life,  the  receiving  obligations  fi'om  thofo 
he  happened  to  faunter  to  a  public  houfe,  which  in  a  whom  he  had  been  continually  treating  ill.  In  the  very 
fiiort  time  he  difcovered  to  be  without  the  verge.  He  clcfe  of  his  days,  a  play  was.  afted  for  his  benefit  at 
was  fitting  in  an  open  drinking-room,  when  a  man  of  the  little  theatre  in  the  Hay-market,  procured  through 
a  fufpicious  appearance  happened  to  come  in.  There  the  united  interells  of  Meffrs  Thomfon,  Mallet,  and 
was  fomething  about  the  man  which  denoted  to  Mr  Pope  ;  the  laft  of  whom,  not  withftanding  the  grofs  man- 
Dennis  that  he  was  a  bailiff.  I'his  ilruck  him  with  ner  in  which  Mr  Dennis  had  on  many  occalions  uled 
a  panic  ;  he  was  afraid  his  liberty  was  at  an  end  ;  him,  and  the  long  warfare  that  had  fubfiiled  between 
he  fat  in  the  utmoll  folicitude,  but  durft  not  offer  to  them,  interefted  himfelf  very  warmly  for  him  ;  and 
flir  left  he  (houW  be  feizedupon.  After  an  hour  or  two  even  wrote  an  oceafional  prologue  to  the  play,  which 
had  paffcd  in  this  painful  anxiety,  at  lafl  the  clock  wis  fpoken  by  Mr  Cibber-.  Not  long  after  this,  viz. 
ftruck  twelve  ;  when  Mr  Dennis,  in  an  ecftafy,  cried  on  the  6lh  of  January  1733,  he  died,  being  then  in 
out,  addreffing  hlmiclf  to  thefufpefted  perfon,  "  Now,  the  77th  year  of  his  age. 

Sir,  bailiff  or   no   bailiff,   I  don't  care   a  farthing  for  Mr  Dennis  certainly  was  poffeffed  of  much  erudition, 

you,  you  have   no  power  now."     The  man  was  ailo-  and  a  confiderable  fliare  of  genius.      In  profc,  he  is  far 

niffied  at  his  behaviour;  and  when  it  was  explained  to  from  a  bad  writer,  where   abufe    or  petfonal  fcur-rility 

him,  was   fo   much  affronted  with  the  fufpicion,   that  does  not  mingle  itfelf  with  his  language.      In  verfe,  he 

had  not  Mr  Dennis   found   his   proledlion   in  age,   he  is  extremely  unequal  ;  his  numbers  being  at  fome  times 

would  probably  have  fmarted  for  his  miftaken  opinion,  fpirited  and  harmonious,  and  his  fubjetts  elevated  and 

A  Ilrong  pidlure  of  the  effefts  of  fear  and  apprehen-  judicious  ;  and   at  others,  flat,  harfli,  and   puerile. — 

fion,  in  a  temper  naturally  fo  timorous  and  jealous  as  Mr  As  a  dramatic  author,  he   certainly   deferves    not  to 

Dennis's;  of  which  the  following  is  a  Hill  more  whimli-  be  held  in  any  confrderation.     It  was  jullly  faid  of  him 

cal  inftance.    In  1704  came  out  his  favourite  tragedy,  by  a  wit,  that  he  was  the  moft  complete  iiiftruttor  for 

Liberty  /IJferted ;  in  which  were  fo  many  ftrokesonthc  a  dramatic  poet,   fince    he   could   teach  him  to  dlftin- 

French  nation,  that  ht  thought  they  were  never  to  be  guilh  good  plays  by  his  precepts,  and  bad  ones  by  his 

forgiven.  He  had  worked  himfelf  into  a  perfuafron  that  examples. 

5D2  DENO- 


Pciiomina- 

tioii 


DEN  [     ^ 

DENOMIMATION  (from  dtnomino,  oU,  and  no- 
ineri,  "  a  name  ;"  a  name  impofed  on  any  thing,  ufu- 
ally  expieffiii<^  Tome  quality  predominant  therein. 

DENOMINATOR,  in  arithmetic,  a  term  ufed  in 
fpealiiii^  of  fraftions.     See  Arithmetic,  n°  21. 

DENSITY  «/■  Bodies,  fs  that  property  direfily  op- 
pofite  to  rarity,  whereby  they  contain  fuch  a  quantity 
of  matter  under  fuch  a  bulk. 

Accoidingly,  a  body  is  faid  to  have  double  or  triple 
tlie  denfity  of  another  body,  when,  their  bulk  being 
equal,  the  quantity  of  matter  is  in  the  one  double  or 
triple  the  quantity  of  matter  in  the  other. 

Dfmiti-  of  th;  Air,  is  a  property  that  has  employ- 
ed the  later  philofophers,  fince  the  difcovery  cf  the 
'I'orricellian  experiment. 

It  is  demonilrated,  that  in  the  fame  veffel,  or  even 
in  vefleis  communicating  with  each  other,  at  the  fame 
diflance  from  the  centre,  the  air  has  every  where  the 
fame  denlity.  The  denfity  of  air,  ceteris  parilms,  in- 
creales  in  proportion  to  the  comprefTmg  powers.  Hence 
the  inferior  air  is  denferthan  the  fuperior  ;  the  denfity, 
however,  of  the  lower  air  is  not  proportional  to  the 
weie'lu;  of  the  atmofphere  on  account  of  heat  and  cold, 
and  other  caufes  perhaps  which  m.ake  great  alterations 
in  denfity  and  rarity.  However,  from  the  elatticity  of 
the  air,  its  denfity  mull,  be  always  different  at  different 
heights  from  the  earth's  furface  ;  for  the  lower  parts 
being  prclTed  by  the  weight  of  thofe  above,  will  be 
made  to  accede  nearer  to  each  other,  and  the  more  fo 
as  the.  weight  of  the  incumbent  air  is  greater.  Hence 
the  denfity  of  the  air  is  greateft  at  the  earth's  furface, 
and  decreafes  upwards  in  geometrical  proportion  to  the 
altitudes  taken  in  arithmetical  piogreffion. 

If  the  air  be  rendered  denfer,  the  weight  of  bodies 
in  it  is  dimini(hed  ;  if  rarer,  increafed,  becaufe  bodies 
lofe  a  greater  part  of  their  weight  in  denfer  than  in 
rarer  mediums.  Hence,  if  the  denfity  of  the  air  be 
fenlibly  altered,  bodies  equally  heavy  in  a  rarer  air,  if 
their  fpecific  gravities  be  confiderably  different,  will 
lofe  their  equilibrium  in  the  denfer,  and  the  fpecilkally 
heavier  body  will  preponderate.      See  Pneumatics. 

DENTALIUM,  in  natural  hiftor)',  a  (hell-fi(h  be- 
longing to  the  order  of  vermes  teftacea.  The  ihell  con- 
fills  of  one  tubulous  llraight  valve,  open  at  both  ends. 
There  are  eight  fpecies,  dilUnguifhed  by  the  angles, 
llrice,  S:c.  of  their  (liells. 

D"ENTARIA,  tooth-wort,  or  Tooth-mold  :  A 
genus  of  the  filiquofa  order,  belonging  to  the  tetrady- 
namia  clafs  of  plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  rank- 
ing under  the  39th  order,  Siliquo/a:  The  fdiqua  parts 
with  a  fpring,  and  the  valviJes  roll  fpirally  backwards  ; 
the  ftigma  is  emarginated  ;  the  calyx  doling  longitudi- 
nally. There  are  three  fpecies,  all  of  them  hardy  perenni- 
als ;  producing  annual  ftalks  I  2  or  1 8  inches  high,  adorn- 
ed with  many-lobed  leaves,  and  fpikes  of  quadrupeta- 
ious  cruciform  flowers  of  a  red  or  purple  colour.  They 
delight  in  fliady  places  ;  and  are  propagated  either  by 
feeds  or  parting  the  roots.  The  feeds  may  be  fown 
iu  autumn  or  early  in  the  fpring,  in  a  ihady  border 
of  licrht  earth  ;  and  when  the  plants  are  three  inches 
high,  they  may  be  planted  where  they  are  to  remain. 
The  time  for  parting  the  roots  is  in  Oftober  or  No- 
vember, or  early  in  the  fpring. 

DENTATUS  (Curius),  a  renowned  dififltereRed 
Rotnan  general,  whofe  viitues  render  him  more  me- 


6-^     ] 


DEO 


Deoddnd. 


morable  than  even  his  great  military  reputation,  flou-  Dcptelta 
rirtied  272  years  B.  C.  He  was  thrice  conful  ;  lie 
conquered  th?  Samiiites,  Sabinc-s,  and  Lueaniaii;i ;  and 
gave  each  citizen  40  acres  of  laiKl,  allowing  liiniftlf 
no  more.  The  anibaifadors  of  the  Samuitcs  making 
him  a  vifit,  found  him  boiling  turnips  in  a  pipking; 
upon  which  they  offered  him  gold  to  come  over  to 
their  interell  ;  but  he  told  them,  his  defign  was  not  to 
grow  rich,  but  to  command  thofe  who  were  fo.  He 
defeated  Pyrrhus  near  Taientum,  and  recclv-dthe  ho- 
nour of  a  triumph. 

DEN  FELLA,  in  botany  :  A  genus  of  the  mo- 
nogynia  order,  belonging  to  the  pentandria  clafs  of 
plants.  The  calyx  is  a  five-part'.d  periantluum,  with 
fmall  fubulated  leaves ;  the  Itamina  five  lliort  fubu- 
lalcd  flLiments  ;  the  anther:e  fmall ;  the  pericarpiura 
a  globular,  bllocular  caplule;  \he  feeds  egg-lha.pcd, 
and  very  numerous. 

DENTILES,  or  DENTILS,  in  architffture,  an  or- 
nament in  corniches  bearing  fome  relemblance  to  teeth, 
particularly  uled  in  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  order;. 
See  Architi-Cture. 

DENITFRICE,  in  medicine,  a  remedy  for  the 
teeth.  There  are  various  kinds ;  generally  made  of 
earthy  fubftances  finely  pounded,  and  mixed  with  alum, 
or  fome  other  faline  fubftances  :  but  thefe  are  perni- 
cious, on  account  of  their  wearing  away  the  enamel 
of  the  teeth;  but  more  efpecially  by  the  ieptic  qua- 
lity with  which  thefe  earthy  fubftances  are  endowed. 
On  this  account,  a  portion  of  Peruvian  bark  finely 
pounded  is  now  commonly  added,  which  anhvers  the 
double  purpofe  of  cleaning  the  teeth,  and  prclerving 
them  alterwarda  from  corruption. 

DENTISCALPRA,  in  furgery,  an  iufluiment  for 
fcouring  yellow,  livid,  or  black  teeth  ;  to  which  being 
applied  near  the  gums,  it  fciapes  off  the  foul  morbid 
cruft. 

DENTITION,  the  breeding  or  cutting  the  teeth 
in  children.      See  ( Int'cx  fubjoined  to)  Medicine. 

DENUNCIATION,  a  folemn  publication  or  pro- 
mulgaiion  of  any  thing. 

All  veffels  of  enemies  are  lawful  prizes,  after  de- 
nunciation or  proclamation  of  war.  The  defign  of  the 
denunciation  of  e.xcommunlcated  perfons  is,  that  the 
fentence  may  be  the  more  fuUy  executed  by  the  per- 
fon'b  being  more  known. 

Dfnunciation  at  the  Horn,  in  Scots  law.  See  Law, 
Part  III.  N-  clxvi.  14. 

DENYS  (the  Litilc).     See  Dionysivs. 

DEOBSTRUENTS,  in  pharmacy,  fuch  medicines 
as  open  obftruftions.     See  Detergent. 

DEODAND,  in  our  culloms,  a  thing  given  orfoi"- 
feited  as  it  were  to  God,  for  the  pacification  of  his 
wrath  in  a  cafe  of  raifadventure,  whereby  a  Clitillian 
foul  comes  to  a  violent  end,  without  the  fault  of  any 
reafonable  creature. 

As,  if  a  horfe  ftrike  his  keeper  and  kill  him  :  if  a 
man,  in  driving  a  cart,  falls  fo  as  the  cart-wheel  runs 
over  him,  and  preffes  him  to  death  :  if  one  by  felling  a 
tree,  and  gives  warning  to  the  ftanders-by  to  look  to 
themfelvcE,  yet  a  man  is  killed  by  the  fall  thereof:  in 
the  firft  place,  the  horfe;  in  the  fecond,  the  cart-wheel, 
cart,  and  horfes;  and  in  the  third,  the  tree,  is  Deo  dan- 
Jus,  "  to  Le given  to  God,"  that  is,  to  the  king,  to  be  dif- 
Iributed  ;o  the  poor  by  his  almoner,  for  expiation  of 

this 


DfpMeg- 

Aicaccd 
Air. 


D     E     P  [7 

tliis  dieaJFul  event ;  tliough  efTcdltd  by  iiratioiial,  n.iy, 
fenielcls  and  dead  crcatuies. 

OjiHi.t  qtiit  vtoi>€t;t  tiJ  tiibrtcm  f-^nt  Dfr.!an.la. 
What  move's  ti)  rieatii,  or  kilU  him  dead, 
J  Ji  DcjduiJ,s.ai\  forfeited. 

This  law  kenis  to  be  an  imitation  of  that  in  Exodus, 
chap.  xxi.  "  If  an  ox  gore  a  man,  or  a  \vo;rian,  v\ith 
his  Iiorns,  fo  as  they  die ;  the  ox  (liall  b"e  Honed  to  death, 
and  his  flefli  not  be  eat;  fo  Ifiall  liis  owner  be  innocent." 
Fk-ta  fays,  the  Deodand  is  to  be  fold,  and  the  price 
diitribtited  to  the  poor,  for  the  fend  of  the  kiaj;-,  his 
anceftors,  and  all  faithful  people  departed  this  life. 

DEPHLEGMA  TION,  is  an  operation  by  which 
the  fuperabiindant  water  of  a  body  is  taken  from  it  ; 
and  it  is  principally  cfTefted  by  evaporation  or  diftilla- 
tion.  Dephlegmation  is  alfo  called  concentration,  par- 
ticularly when  acids  are  the  fubjeft.  See  Concen- 
tration. 

DEPHLOGISTICATED,  in  chemidry.anything 
deprived  of  the  phlogiilon  fuppofed  to  be  contained  in 
it. 

Di; »HLOG!STiCATi-D  Air,  an  invifible  elaftic  flnid, 
of  fomewhat  greater  fpeciiic  gravity  than  that  of  the 
common  atmofphere,  and  cap.d:ile  of  fupporting  animal 
life  and  flame  for  a  much  longer  time  than  the  air  we 
commonly  breathe. 

This  fluid  was  firft  difcovered  by  Dr  PrieiUey,  and 
a  very  (hort  time  after  by  iVIr  Scheele,  who  appears  to 
have  been  entirely  unacquainted  willi  what  the  Doftor 
had  done.  The  methods  of  making  it  artificially  are 
enum.ernted  under  the  ariicle  Aerology  ;  here  we 
fhall  make  fome  obfervations  on  the  way  in  v.hich 
nature  feems  to  accomplilh  the  fame  end.  Under  that 
article,  as  well  as  that  of  Fixed  /lir,  and  others  con- 
nedcd  with  them,  it  has  been  obferved,  that  this  kind 
of  air  becomes  convertible  into  fixed  air  by  the  addi- 
tion of  a  certain  jjroportion  of  phlogiiton  or  charcoal  ; 
and  that  thefe  two  ingredients  may  be  again  ieparated 
by  certain  means;  the  dcphlogilticated  air  affuniing  its 
proper  ftate,  and  the  chaicoal  its  own  native  form.  A 
great  number  of  experiments  alfo  are  there  related  con- 
cerning the  efFefts  of  vegetables  in  purifying  tainted 
air,  and  their  emilfion  of  the  dcphlogifticatid  kind  ; 
which  has  been  thought  to  indicate,,  that  vegetation  is 
probably  one  of  the  methods  by  which  nature  fnpplies 
the  gi'cat  quantity  of  this  fluid  ncceifary  for  the  pur- 
polcs  of  animal  life.  This  was  fuggefted  by  an  expe- 
riment of  Dr  Pricftley,  who  had  difcovered  that  puuip- 
water,  on  being  expofed  to  the  light  of  the  fun, 
foon  began  to  emit  pure  air;  and  that,  after  fome 
days,  a  quantity  of  green  matter  accumulated  on  the 
Jldes  of  the  veffel.  This  was  natur.;dly  fuppofed  to 
be  of  the  vegetable  kind,  till  Sir  Benjamin  Thomfon 
found  it  to  conf  lil  of  a  number  of  very  minute  animals. 
Upon  this  difcovtry  he  difputed  the  connnonly  re- 
ceived opinion,  that  vegetation  is  employed  by  nature 
as  a  purifier  of  the  atmofpherical  air.  He  likewife 
oppoftd  the  conelufion  drawn  from  Dr  Ingenhoufz's 
experiments,  who  had  obferved  that  frcfh  leaves  of 
plants  immerfcd  in  water,  and  expofed  to  the  light, 
emitted  a  vaft  quantity  of  dephlogillicated  air.  Sir 
Benjamin  judly  obferved,  that  a  leaf  certainly  cea- 
icd  to  vegetate  after  being  feparated  from  the  plant 
on  which  it  grew :  and  therefore  the  emiflion  of 
this  kii;d  of  air  could  by  no  means  be  afcribed  to 

4 


65       1 


D    E     P 


vegetation  :  as  a  more  decilive  proof  of  which,  lie  Dcplilo?!- 
likewife  urged,  that  leaves,  after  being  entirely  dead  and  '''^•Med'i'r. 
withered,  would  notwithllanding  emit  dephlogiflica-  -'. 

ted  air  for  a  very  coniiderable  time.  Thus  matters 
feemed  to  be  rendered  doubtful ;  but  by  an  attentive 
obfervation  of  all  circumftauces  relating  to  thefe  ex- 
periments,  we  fhall  find  that  coniiderable  light  will  be 
thrown  upon  tiie  fubjeft. 

Ill  the  Uril  piaccv  we  are  to  confidcr  that  the  light 
of  tlie  fun,  or  at  leall  a  very  ftroiig  light  of  fome  kind, 
is  necefiary  in  all  thefe  productions  of  dephlogillicated 
air  ;  for  if  the   apparatus  is  fet   in  a  very  dark  place, 
little  will   be  formed,   and  that  of  a  bad  quality.      So 
ignorant  are  we  of  the  nature  of  this  mylleri<ius  fluid, 
that  fcarce  any  inquiry  has  been  made  into  its  mode  of 
operation  in  producing  dephlogillicated  air.     By  fome 
the  element  of  light  has  been  fuppofed  to  he  phlogilloa 
itielf,  or  fome  modification  of  it  :  but  iince  the  difco- 
very  of  the  identity  of  phlogiiton  and  charcoal,  it  is 
probable  that  this   opinion  will  not  be   held  by  many. 
One  experiment,   however,  commonly   brought  in  fa- 
vour of  this  fuppofition,  defcrves  particular  attention. 
This  is  the  property  which  light  has  of  giving  a  black 
colour  to  the  calces  of  filver;  a  phenomenon  fo  remark- 
able, that  it  has  been  imagined  an  indubitable  proof  of 
the  identity  of  light  and  phlogiiton.      In  like  manner, 
the  pure  aud   dephlogillicated  fpirit  of  nitre  is  ftmnd 
to  be  converted   into  the   phlogillicated  and  fmoking 
kind   by  expofure   to  the   folar  rays.     'Plie  extenfive 
difFufion  of  the  fubftance  called  pfilogijlon,  however,  is 
now  fo  well  known,  that  we  may  reafonably  conclude, 
that  m   thefe  experiments   it  was  contained  in  the  in- 
gredients themfelves,  and  not  in  the  light.    Thus  when . 
fdver  is' precipitated  by  chalk,  aud  the  mafs  turns  black 
on   expofure  to  the  fun's  rays,   we  are  very  fure  that 
the   chalk   contains   phlogiiton  ;  and  that  there  is  an 
attradion  between  the  metallic '^slx  and  this  principle:  . 
but  we   are  by  no   means  afcertained  of  the  nature  of 
light,  as  not   being  in  any  manner  of  way  the  fubjeCt 
of  our   invelligation   except   by  obferving  its   effects. 
As   in   all   other  cafes,   therefore,  where  light  is  con- 
ctTiied,  we  can  only  fay  that  fuch  a  thing  is  the  effea 
of  the  operation  of  light,  and  not  the  fubllanco  of  the 
element  made   vifible,  or   converted   into  fome  other 
thing ;  we  have  no  rcafon,   in  this  cafe,  to   fay,  that 
th.e  blackening  of  the  metallic  calx  is  any  other  than 
an  effect  of  the  light's  operation,  and  not  the  deten- 
tion of  any  part  of  its  fubftance.   This  operation  may  be 
ealily  conceived  to  be  the  promoting  of  the  union  of  the 
phlogidoM   and  calx,  which  we  know  that  light  has  a 
great  tendency  to  do  at  any  rate  when  we  augment  its 
action  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to   make   it   become  Jire. 
The  tendency  of  light,  therefore,  to  promote  an  union 
betwixt    phloglllon  and  other  fubllances,  will  explain 
this  and  many  other   experiments  in  a  very  eafy  man- 
ner.     In  the  cafe  of  chalk  and  calx  of  .filver,   the  ac- 
tion iil  the  light  enables  the  calx  to  attradl  the  phlo- 
giflon  of  the  chalk,  and   thus  become  black.     If  the 
calx  io  not  precipitated  by  chalk,  but  by  an  alkali,  it 
muit   be   in   contaft   either  with  air,  water,   or  fome 
other  fluid.    All  thefe  undoubtedly  contain  phlogillon. 
With  regji-d  to  air,  it  has  not  been  denied  that  it  is  a 
general  receptacle  of  all  tfie  decayed  and  volatile  parts 
of  vegetables  and  animals;  that  it  contains  vail  quan- 
tities of  ijiflammabU  air,  which  are  coallautly  emitted 

from 


D    E    P 


[     766    1 


D    E    P 


iDevWn?i-  from  various  parts  cf  the  earth ;  and,  according  to  the 
ilicutelAT.pjjiygj^tJans^  that  fluid  called  phlogifticated  air,  which 
*—'y~—'  conftitutes  the  other  part  of  the  fluid  wc  breatlie,  likc- 
wife  contains  a  quantity  of  the  fame  matter.  We  are 
rot  to  be  furprifed  therefore  that,  in  the  cafe  of  the 
cabs  of  filver,  fome  of  thefe  fubibnces  fhould  be  ob- 
lioed  to  part  with  a  little  of  their  phlogiflon.,  fuflicient 
to  blacken  the  metallic  earth.  In  order  to  prove  that 
light  and  phlogifton  are  the  fame,  the  experiment  ought 
to  fucceed  in  a  per'eft  vacuum,  of  which  there  is  no 
probability  ;  though  indeed  it  has  never  been  tried 
that  we  know  of.  In  like  manner,  when  fpirit  of 
nitre  is  rendered  high  coloured  and  fmoking  by  expo- 
fure  to  the  fun  in  a  glafs,  the  phlogiiton  may  come 
fithtr  from  the  glafs  itfclf,  which  is  now  found  to  con- 
tain phlogifton,  or  from  the  quantity  of  air  which  is 
iiecefi'ary  to  be  left  in  the  glafs,  in  order  to  make  the 
experiment  fucceed. 

Thus  we  may  reafonably  fuppofe  the  blackening  of 
the  calx  of  fdver,  and  the  rendering  clear  fpirit  of 
nitre  high-coloured,  to  proceed  only  from  the  fepara- 
tion  of  phlogifton  by  means  of  light,  and  its  confe- 
quent  attraction  by  the  calx  or  acid  ;  and  in  other 
cafes,  where  any  fimilar  effcA  is  obferved  by  the  ex- 
pofure  of  bodies  to  that  clement,  we  are  to  fuppofe 
that  it  is  occaiioned  by  the  detachment  of  phlogifton 
from  one  fubftance  and  its  attachment  to  another.  In 
the  cafe  of  the  emifTion  of  dephlogifticated  air  by 
means  of  light,  therefore,  we  may,  by  reafonlng  analo- 
gically, conclude,  that  it  is  occafioned  by  the  abforp- 
tion  of  phlogifton  by  the  fubftance  whii.h  is  faid  to 
emit  the  air. 

Before  this  matter,  however,  can  be  determined  ex- 
aftly,  we  ought  to  be   well  acquainted  with  the  com- 
pofition  of  dephlogifticated  air  itfelf;  and  indeed,  with- 
out this,  it  fetms  almoft  in  vain  to  fpeak  upon  thefub- 
jcft.     But,  notwith"* tiding  the  labours  and  ingenuity 
of  modern   aerologifts,  this  point  has  not  been  in   any 
degree  fettled.     On  examination,  it  is  found  to  confift 
of  an  invifible  fluid  which   does  not  appear  to   gr?.vi- 
tate,  and  which   in  all  probability  is  no  other   than 
elementary  fire  ;  and  of  another  fubftance  equally  in- 
vifible, but   capable  of  attaching  itfelf  to  certain  bo- 
dies, particulaily  iron,  and  adding  to  its  weight  veiy 
confiderably.     On   attempting  to    procure    this    fub- 
ftance by  itfelf,  we  find  the  attachment  fo  ftrong,  that 
no  force  of  fire  can  feparate  them.     In  attempting  a 
dccompofition  by  means  of  the  eleftric  fpark,  all  that 
has  been  yet  done,  even   with  the  greateft   power  of 
tleftricity  excited  by  Van   Marum's   new  machine,   is 
to  make  it  lofe  fome  part   of  its  bulk,   the  remainder 
appearing   by  the   eudiometer   to  have   undergone  no 
change.     Dr  Piieftley,  in  his  fixth  volume  of  Experi- 
ment^ on  Air,   acquiefcts  in  the  opinion  fuggtfted  to 
him  by  Mr  Watt,   that  the  air  in  queftion  is  nothing 
elfe  but  one  of  the   component  parts  uf  water  united 
with   the   element  of  heat.      Allowing  this  to  be  juft, 
and  indeed  there  is  no  experiment  hitherto   publiftied 
by  which  it  can  be  contradifted,  the    natural  method 
of  the  produftion  of  dephlogifticated  air  from  water  may 
be  eafily  explained.  This  only,  requires  us  to  fuppofe, 
that  the  fubftances  immerfed  in  the  water,  are  by  the 
aftion  of  the  fun's  light  made  to  attraft  part  of  the 
phlogifton  of  the  water  ;   in  confequence-t>f  which  the 
dephlogifticated  part  of  that  element,  inftaatly  being 


volatilized  by  the  light  and  heat  of  the  fun   (for  heat  Dei  lilopi. 
is  neceftary  for  the  produAion  as  well  as  light),  aflumes'^"^""'''^"- 
the  propei ties   of  dephlogifticated   air.      But  why,   it         v""^ 
may  be  aflied,  does  water  of  itfelf  emit  dephlogiftica- 
ted air  without  any  fubftance  whatever  immerfed  in  it  ? 
or,  after  certain  fubftances  have   been   immerfed  in  it, 
by    winch   this    emiifion    is   promoted,  why  docs  the 
production   of  air  Hop  with  regard  to  any  particular 
lubftance,   and    any    determined    quantity    of    water  ? 
Thus,  it  may  be  faid,  if  any  quantity  of  water,  fuppofe 
a  pint,  yields  one  inch  of  cubic  air  by  the  immerfion  of 
a  certain  fubflance  into  it,  why  does  not  this  fubftance 
attraft  from    it  all  the  phlogifton   it  is  capable  of  ab- 
forbing  ?    Inltead  of  this,  the  water  appears,  by  the  co- 
lour it  acquires,  to  be  more  phlogifticated  than  before; 
and  the  fubftance  immerfed,  by  being  put  into   frelh 
water,   will  immediately  occafion  the  emiflion  of  new 
quantities  of  air,  and  this  for  feveral  times  running. 
But  to  this  it   may  be  replied,  that  though  the  fub- 
ftance immerfed  attrails  the  phlogifton  of  the  water, 
the  latter  will  part  with  it  only  to  a  certain    degree  ; 
and  it  is  well  known,  that  when  two  I'ubftances  art  uni- 
ted to  the  point  of  laturation  by  chemical  attraction,  the 
abftraftion  of  a  part  of  one  of  them  will  increafe  the 
attrailion  betwixt   the   remainder  to  a  great  degree. 
Though  tlie  fubftance  immerfed  in   the   fluid,  there- 
fore, has  originally  a  greater  attt  aftion  for  the  phlogi- 
fton  of  the  water  than   the  dephlogifticated   part   of 
the  element  itlelf ;  yet  as  the  one  gradually  augments, 
and  tlie  other  diminifties,  a  balance  foon  takes   place. 
With  regaid  to  the  green  colour  generally  aifumed  by 
the   water  after_  fuch  experiments,  it    moft  probably 
proceeds  from  an  accumulation  of  fome  terreftrial  par- 
ticles   partly   fupplied  by  the  immerfed  fubftance,  or 
perhaps   from  a  difpofition  to  generate  the  green  mat- 
ter   obferved    by    Dr   PrielUey.     That   the  fubftance 
immerfed  in  the  water  does  really  part  «ith  fome  par- 
ticles, is  evident,  becaule  the  water  fmells  of  it,  as  when 
raw  fiik  is  made  ufe  of;   nor  can  we   fuppofe  that  any 
vegetable  or  animal  fubilance,  fuch  as  are  found  to  be 
alone  tit  for  thefe  experiments,   can  endure  a  long  ma- 
ceration in  water  without  parting  with  a  confiderable 
quantity  of  their  component  parts.      Indeed,  under  the 
article  Charcoal,  it  is  fhown  that  this  body,  though 
now  allowed  to  be  pure  phlogifton,  or  the  next  thing 
to   it,  has  the   power  of   feparating  other   phlogiftic 
matter,  probably  inch  as  is  more  impure,  from  dilferent 
fubftances.      Hence  its  property    of  whitening  tartar, 
purifying  malt    fpirits,   &c.      It  is  not    unreafonable, 
therefore,  to  fuppofe,   that  a  dead  leaf,  though  a  very 
phlogiftic  fubftance,  may  have  the  power  of  atti-afting 
more   phlogifton  from   the  water,  and    thus   allowing 
part  of  that  element  to  be  changed  into  dephlogiftica- 
ted air  ;  while,  in  lieu  of  the  phlogifton  attrafted  from 
the  water,   it  diffufes  a  certain  portion  of  its  own  lub- 
ftance through  the  fluid,   and  thus  gives  it  the  colour 
in  queftion.     With  regard  to  the  other  difficulty,  viz. 
that  water,  when  expofed  to  the  folar  rays,    will  emit 
dephlogifticated  air  without  any  thing  immerfed  in  it, 
it  may  be  accounted  for  from  the  eafe  with  which  the 
dephlogifticated  part  of  the  water  is   volatilized  ;   fo 
that  the  attraftion  of  the  other  is  not  able  to  detain 
it.     This  we  find  exemplified  in  feveral  chemical  expe- 
riments, as  when  a  volatile  alkali  is  joined  with  any  of 
the   more    fixed  acids ;  for  in   thefe  cafes  the  alkali, 

not- 


D     E     P 


C    767    ] 


D     E     P 


fticateJAif 


nptwithftanding  the  mutual  attraction  betwixt  it  and 
the  acid,  will  be  made  to  fly  off  by  a  ftrong  heat. 

On  the  fuppofition  that  dcphlogillicated  air  is  com- 
pofed  of  eleiieiilary  fire  and  one  of  t)ie  conllitiient 
parts  of  water,  there  is  very  little  diflieulty  in  ac- 
counting for  the  origin  of  the  immenfe  quantity  ne- 
cefTary  to  fupply  the  animal  creation  with  it.  Under 
the  article  Damps,  it  has  been  fhown  that  a  vad  quan- 
tity of  fixed  air  is  continually  elaborated  in  the 
bowels  of  the  earth.  This  is  compofcd  entirely  of 
dcphlogillicated  air,  compoundtd  with  a  certain  por- 
tion of  phlogiilon.  Part  of  this  fixed  air  mull  be  un- 
doubtedly evaporating  conllantly  from  the  furfice,  and 
would  as  certainly  infccl  the  lower  parts  of  the  at- 
niofpherc,  were  there  not  fome  natural  caufes  for  its 
decoinpofition.  One  of  thefe  undoubtedly  is  the  ab- 
fotption  of  the  phlogilHc  part  by  vegetables,  which  un- 
der the  article  Agriculture  is  (liown  to  be  theirpro- 
per  food.  But  when  the  phlogifton  is  ahlorbed,  a 
great  quantity  of  dcphlogillicated  air  is  prepared,  which 
fupplies  the  deficiency  occafioncd  by  the  refpiration  of 
animals.  It  muft  likewife  be  obfcrved,  that  after  the 
dephlogifticated  air  has  been  fpoiled  either  by  refpira- 
tion or  the  fnpport  of  flame,  it  is  not  for  that  reafon 
entirtly  deftroyed,  but  only  converted  into  fixed  air, 
and  confequentiy  may  again  be  purified  as  before. 

It  may  be  likewife  reafonably  fuppofed,  that  in  cafes 
where  vegetation  does  not  take  place,  and  in  fpring 
before  the  pUnts  begin  to  exert  their  vegetative 
powers,  and  in  autumn,  cr  the  beginning  of  winter, 
when  they  decay,  the  vegetable  foil  itfilf  may  per- 
form this  office:  and  indeed  the  circumilance  of  frefli 
vegetable  mold  affording  an  agreeable  fmell  when  turned 
up,  as  is'mcntioned  under  the  article  Agricvlture, 
feems  to  be  a  confiderable  confirmation  of  this. 

The  property  which  water  has  of  abforbing  fixed 
air,  ar.d  alfo  phlogifton,  may  likewife  induce  us  to 
fuppofe  that  it  afts  as  a  purifier  not  only  of  the  com- 
mon atmofphere,  but  of  that  which  ifl"ues  from  the 
e?,rth  ;  and  hence  fome  waters,  paiticulaily  that  tf 
the  oeean,  are  found  to  contain  air  of  a  purer  kind  than 
that  of  the  atmofphere. 

As  light,  however,  is  an  indifpenfable  requifite  in 
all  tjiefe  cafes,  a  difficulty  ftill  remains  concerning  the 
production  of  dephlogiflicated  air  in  winter,  when  the 
light  and  heat  are  fo  much  diminifhtd.  In  tiiis  feafon, 
ir.deed,  it  is  piobiibic  that  a  quantity  will  be  produced 
greatly  inferior  to  that  which  tbe  fummer  affords:  but 
here  we  may  very  realon.ibly  have  recourfe  to  the  im- 
menfe magazine  of  the  atmofphere  icfelf;  which,  from 
the  mere  circumftance  of  quantity,  miiil  be  much  more 
thanfufEcientto  anfwer  the  exper.cesof  one  feafon;  efpe- 
cialiy  when  we  confider,  that  in  fummer  a  fuperatun- 
dant  quantity  is  certainly  produced.  Add  to  this,  that  in 
extreme  cold,  fixed  air  feems  not  onlv  fo  be  lefs  noxi- 
ous than  at  other  times,  but  even  neceflaiyfor  the  pre- 
fcrvation  of  health*.  We  mu(t  likewife  confider,  that 
during  the  winter  feafon  there  will  be  a  conflant  flux 
of  the  cold  air  of  the  northern  and  fouthern  regions 
towards  the  equator  ;  and  thib,  however  imperceptible 
to  the  inhabitants,  will  keep  up  a  conflant  circulation 
of  atmofpherical  fluid,  fo  that  there  cannot  be  any 
ftagnation  even  in  the  calmed  weather  and  moft  fe- 
vere  and  long  continued  frolls. 

Soon  after  Dr  Piieftley  began  his  experiments  on 


air,  he  found  that  the  red  colour  of  the  blood  depends   DepKlnp. 
on  the  air;  that   by  coming   in   contact  with   it,   the '^''^"'■"' ^''' 
black  venous   blood  became  in  a  very  (hort  time  of  a  r.      r..-„„ 
eautitul  Horid  colour;  and   that  even  the  under  fide  j 

of  a  clot  of  blood,  by  expofure  to  the  air,  will  lofe  its 
difagreeable  dark  colour,  and  afl'umc  the  fa.Tie  with 
that  of  blood  newly  drawn.  Thefe  effeds  are  entirely 
to  be  attributed  to  the  dephlogiflicated  part  :  and  his 
rlieory  of  refpiration  being  a  phlogiltic  procefs,  feems 
to  be  fully  confirmed  by  the  difcovery  of  the  compofi- 
tion  of  fixed  air.  For,  as  fixed  air  is  known  to  be 
compofed  of  plilogiflon  and  dephlogiflicated  air,  wecan- 
not  luppole  this  phlojilion  to  be  derived  from  any  o- 
ther  lource  than  the  lungs.  The  doftor  in  this  theory 
likewife  obviates  an  objeftion  that  might  naturally  oc- 
cur, that  the  air  has  not  immediate  accefs  to.  the  blood 
in  the  lungs,  becaufe  of  the  thin  membranes  of  the  vef- 
fels  which  intervene.  But,  from  his  experiments,  it 
appears  that  this  is  no  obflacle.  The  ferum  of  blood 
he  finds  to  be  capable  of  tranfmitting  dephlogiflicated 
air,  or  at  leaft  cf  propagating  this  effett  through  a 
very  confiderable  thicknefs  of  its  own  fubftance,  as 
well  as  tlirough  bladders  moiflened  with  it;  a^roperty 
which  does  not  belong  to  any  other  animal  fluid. 

As  de^jhhjgiflicated  air  is  now  known  to  be  the  im- 
mediate ftipport  of  animal  hfc,  it  has  naturally  been  fup- 
pofed that  it  might  anfwer  valuable  purpoles  in  medi- 
cine ;  but  the  difliculty  of  procuring  it  in  fuflicient 
quantity  has  hitherto  preve  .ted  thefe  hopes  from  be- 
ing realized,  excepting  only  in  cafes  of  drowning, 
where  it  is  faid  to  produce  very  great  effefls."  With 
regard  to  any  method  of  preparing  it,  no  farther  dif- 
covery has  been  made  than  what  is  fuggelled  under 
the  article  Aerology. 

DEPILATORY  medicines,  thofe  applied  in  or- 
der to  take  off  the  hair  :  fuch  are  lime  and  orpiment 
known  to  be,  but  which  ought  to  be  ufed  with  great 
caution. 

DEPONENT,  in  Latin  grammar,  a  term  applied 
to  verbs  which  have  active  fignifications,  but  paflive 
terminations  or  conjugations,  and  want  one  of  iheir 
participles  paffive. 

Deponent,  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  a  perfon  who 
makes  a  depofition.     See  Deposition. 

DEPOPULATION,  the  act  of  diminifliing  the 
number  of  people  in  any  country,  whether  by  war  or 
bad  politics. 

DEPORTATION,  a  fort  of  banifliment  ufed  by 
the  Romans,  whereby  fome  ifland  or  other  place  was 
allotted  to  a  criminal  for  the  place  of  his  abode,  with 
a  prohibition  not  to  ftir  out  of  the  fame  on  pain  of 
death. 

DEPOSIT,  among  civilians,  fomething  that  is  cora- 
mitted  to  the  ctiftody  of  a  perfon,  to  be  kept  without. 
any  reward,  and  to  be  returned  again  on  demand. 

DEPOSITARY,  in  law,  a  perfou  intrufted  as 
keeper  or  guardian  of  a  depofit. 

DEPOSITION,  in  law,  the  teftimony  given  iia 
court  by  a  witnefs  upon  oath. 

Deposition  is  alfo  ufed  for  the  fequeftcring  or 
depriving  a  perfon  of  his  dignity  and  office. 

This  depofition  only  differs  from  abdication,  in  that 
the  latter  is  fuppofed  voluntary,  and  the  act  of  the  dig- 
nitary, or  officer  himfelf ;  and  the  former  of  compul-' 
fion,  being  the  a£l  of  a  fuperior  power,  whofe  autho- 
3  rity 


D     E    P 


[     768     ] 


Depreca- 
tion 

il 
D<;pth. 


/ 

rity  extends  thereto.     Some  fay  the  depofition,  and 
fonie  the  abdication,  of  king  James  If. 

Depofition  does  not  difler  from  deprivation  :  we 
fay  iiidiffsrently,  a  dtpofed,  or  deprivtd  biiliop,  ofS- 
cia],  &e. 

Depofition  differs  from  fufpenfion,  in  that  it  abfo- 
lutely  and  for  ever  Erips  or  divclls  a  prieil,  &c.  of  all 
dignity,  ofiice,  &c.  wlierens  fufpeafion  only  prohibits, 
or  rcllrains,  the  exercife  thereof. 

Depofition  only  differs  from  degradation,  in  that 
the  latter  is  more  formal,  and  attended  with  more 
circumflances,  than  the  former ;  but  in  effeft  and 
fubftance  they  are  the  fame  ;  thofe  additional  circiim- 
llances  being  only  matter  of  fliow,  firll  fet  on  foot  out 
of  zeal  and  indignation,  and  kept  up  by  cuitom,  but 
not  warranted  by  the  laws  or  canons.  See  Degra- 
dation. 

DEPRECATION,  in  rhetoric,  a  figure  whereby 
the  orator  invokes  the  aid  and  aflillance  of  fome  ose  ; 
or  prays  for  fome  great  evil  or  puiillliment  to  be- 
fal  him  who  fpeaks  falfely,  either  himfclf  or  his  ad- 
verfarv. 

DEPRECATORY,  or  DErRECATivE,intheology, 
a  term  applied  to  the  luanner  of  performing  fome  cere- 
monies in  the  form  of  prayer. 

The  form  of  abfolution  is  deprecative  in  the  Greek 
church,  being  conceived  in  thefe  terms.  May  God  ab- 
foh'e  you :  whereas  it  is  in  the  declarative  form  in  the 
Latin  church,  and  in  fome  of  the  refonned  churches, 
/  alfol-ve  you. 

DEPRESSION  of  the  Pole.  V7hen  aperfon  falls 
or  travels  towards  the  equator,  he  is  faid  to  deprefs  the 
pole  ;  becaufe  as  many  degrees  as  he  approaches  nearer 
the  equator,  fo  many  degrees  will  the  pole  be  nearer 
the  horizon.  This  phenomenon  arifes  from  the  fphe- 
rkal  figure  of  the  earth.. 

DEPRESSOR,  orDEPRiMENS,  in  anatomy,  a  name 
applied  to  feveral  mufcles,  becaufe  they  deprefs  the  parts 
they  are  fattened  to. 

DEPRIVATION,  in  the  common.law,  the  aft  of 
bereaving,  divefting,  or  taking  away  a  fpiritual  pro- 
motion or  dignity:  as  when  a  bifliop,  vicar,  piebend, 
or  the  like,  is  dtpofed  or  deprived  of  his  preferment, 
for  fome  matter,  or  faiJt,  in  fadt,  or  in  law.     See  De- 

POSITIOK. 

Deprivation  is  of  two  kinds;  a  hcneficio,  et  ah 
effich. 

Deprivation  a  hmcficio  is,  when  for  fome  great 
crime  a  minifter  is  wholly  and  for  every  deprived  of  his 
living  or  preferment :  which  differs  from  fufpenfion, 
in  that  the  hitter  is  only  temporary. 

Deprivation  ah  ojlicio,  is  when  a  minilter  Is  for 
ever  deprived  of  his  order:  which  Is  the  fame.  In  reali- 
ty, with  what  we  otherwife  call  Jebujlllon  and  dy^raiL:- 
iion;  and  is  ufually  for  fome  heinous  crime  deierving 
death,  and  is  performed  by  the  bilhop  in  a  folemn 
manner.     See  Degradation. 

DEPTFORD,  a  town  three  miles  cail  of  London, 
on  the  fouthern  banks  of  the  Thames;  chiefly  conu- 
derable  for  its  fine  docks  for  building  flilps,  and  the 
king's  yard.     E.  Long.  o.  4.  N.  Lat.  51.  30. 

DEPTH,  the  mcafare  of  any  thing  from  the  furface 
downwards. 

Meafunng  of  D.'.PTiii  hy  the  Baroimter,  depends  on 
the  fame  principles  ou  wLieh  heights  art;  nieafured  by 

N'  100. 


D     E     P 


the  fame  Inllrumcnt.  The  menfuration  of  depths  being 
chiefly  applied  to  mines,  is  ftlll  more  precarious  than 
the  menfuration  of  heights,  on  account  of  the  various 
kinds  of  vapours  with  which  thefe  fubterranean  regions 
are  filled.  But  for  a  particular  account  of  thite  dlf- 
iicullles,  with  liie  beft  methods  of  obviating  tiiern,  fue 
the  articles  Barometer  and  Mines. 

Dkpth  rf  a  Squadron,  or  Battalion,  is  the  number 
of  men  in  a  file  ;  which  in  a  fquadron  Is  thiee,  and  in 
a  battalion  generally  fix.      See  StiUADRON,  File,  &c. 

We  fay,  the  battahon  was  drawn  up  fix  deep;  the 
enemies  horfe  were  drawn  up  five  diep. 

.DEPURATION  Is  the  freeing  of  any  fluid  ftom 
its  heterogeneous  matter  or  feculence.  It  Is  of  three 
kinds.  I.  Decantation;  which  is  performed  by  letting 
the  liquid  to  be  depurated  (land  for  fome  time  In  a 
pretty  deep  veffel,  till  tlie  grofs  fedlment  has  fallen  to 
the  bottom  ;  after  which  the  clear  fluid  is  poured  off. 
2.  Defpumation;  which  Is  performed  by  means  of  the 
whites  ot  eggs,  or  other  vlicid  matter,  and  is  alfo  call- 
ed CLARIFICATION.  3.  Filtration.  See  Chemistry. 
n°  &^. 

DEPURATORY  fever,  a  name  given  by  Syden- 
ham to  a  fever  which  prevailed  muehin  theyearsi66i, 
1662,  1663,  and  1664.  He  called  it  depuratory,  be- 
caufe he  fuppofed  that  nature  regulated  all  the  fymp- 
tonis  In  fuch  a  manner,  as  to  fit  the  febrile  matter,  pre- 
pared by  proper  concoftion,  for  expulfion  in  a  certain 
time,  either  by  a  copious  fweat  or  a  freer  perfplra- 
tlon. 

DEPUTATION,  a  tniffion  of  feka  perfonsout  of 
a  company  or  body,  to  a  prince  or  affembly,  to  treat 
of  matters  in  their  name. 

DEPUTY,  a  perfon  fcnt  upon  fome  bufinefs  by 
fome  community. 

Deputy  is  alfo  one  that  exerclfes  an  office  in  ano- 
ther's right  ;  and  the  forfeiture  or  mifdemeanour  of 
fuch  deputy  fiiall  caufe  the  peifon  whom  he  reprcfenis 
to  lofe  his  office. 

DEPUTATUS,  among  the  ancients,  a  name  ap- 
plied to  perfons  employed  in  making  of  armour  ;  arj  J 
likewife  to  brifli  aflivc  people,  v'llioie  bufincfs  was  to 
take  care  of  the  wounded  in  engagements,  and  carry 
them  off  the  fitld. 

DER,  a  iyllable  frequently  prefixed  to  the  names  of 
places  In  England.  It  Is  (aid  to  fignity  that  fuch  were 
formeily  places  wheic  wild  bealls  herded  together,  lo 
called  from  the  Saxon  deop,  fa  a,  unlefs  the  lituatiaa 
was  near  lume  river. 

DERBEND,  a  ftiong  town  of  Afa,  in  Perfia,  fald 
to  have  been  founded  by  Alexandei  the  Great.  The 
walls  are  built  with  Hones  as  hard  as  marble  ;  and  near 
it  are  tlie  remains  of  a  wall  which  re.iched  from  the 
Cdfpian  to  the  Black  Sea.  It  is  fcateJ  near  theCif- 
pian  Sea,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Caucalus.  E.  Long. 
50.  o.  N.  Lat.  42.  8. 

DERB\',  the  capital  of  a  county  of  the  fame  name 
in  England.  It  is  thought  to  have  received  Its  name 
from  being  formerly  a  park  or  flielter  for  deer  ;  and 
what  makes  this  fuppcf.t Ion  more  probable  Is,  that  the 
arms  of  the  town  confiil  of  a  buck  couchant  in  a  park. 
It  is  very  ancient,  having  been  a  royal  borough  in  the 
time  of  iidward  the  ConfcTor.  At  prefent  it  is  a  neat 
town,  very  populous,  and  lends  tv.'o  members  to  par- 
liamKiiC.      In  digging  for  foundations    of  houfes,  h'.i- 

ma» 


Df  j  uritioB 
Dei  by. 


D    E     R 


Derelii^ls. 


Dcrbydilre  man  bones  of  a  monftrous  fize  have  fometimes  been 
found.  The  trade  confifta  in  wool,  corn,  malt,  and 
ale,  of  which  coiifiderable  qiiantitiea  are  fent  to  Lon- 
don. Here  alio  is  that  curious  machine  for  throwing 
filk,  the  model  of  which  Sir  Thomas  Lombe,  at  the 
hazard  of  his  life,  brought  from  Italy.  Before 
that  time,  the  Englilh  merchants  ufed  to  purchafe 
thrown  filks  of  the  Italians  for  ready  money.  But  by 
the  help  of  this  wonderful  machine,  one  hand-mill  will 
twill  as  much  filk.  as  50  people  could  do  without  it.  It 
works  73,726  yards  of  filk  every  time  the  water-wheel 
goes  round,  *-hich  is  thrice  in  a  minute.  The  houfe 
in  which  it  is  contained  is  five  or  fix  (lories  high,  and 
half  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  length.  When  Sir  Thomas's 
patent  expired  in  1 732,  the  parliament  were  fo  fenfible 
of  the  value  and  importance  of  the  machine,  that  they 
granted  him  a  further  recompence  of  14,0001.  for  the 
hazard  andexpence  he  had  incurred  in  introducing  and 
credling  it,  upon  condition  he  fliould  allow  an  exaA 
model  of  it  to  be  taken.  This  model  is  depofited  in 
the  Tower  of  London,  in  order  to  prevent  fo  curious 
and  important  an  art  from  being  loft.  The  town  of 
Derby  is  watered  by  a  river  and  a  brook  ;  the  latter 
of  which  has  nine  bridges  over  it,  the  former  only 
one.  Derby  gives  title  of  Earl  to  the  noble  family  of 
Stanley,  being  the  fecond  earldom  in  England. 
W.  Long.  I.  45.  N.  Lat.  52.  57. 

DERBY-SHiRE,  a  county  of  England,  bounded  on 
the  eaft  by  Nottingham-fiiire,  ami  a  part  of  Leicefter- 
fhire,  which  laft  bounds  it  alfo  on  the  foiith.  On  the 
weft  it  is  bounded  by  Stafford-fliire,  and  part  of  Che- 
fhire  ;  and  on  the  north  by  Yorkfiiire.  It  is  near  40 
miles  in  length  from  fouth  to  north  ;  about  30  in 
breadth  on  the  north  fide,  but  on  the  fouth  no  more 
than  fix. — The  air  is  pleafant  and  healthful,  efpecially 
on  the  eaft  fide  ;  but  on  the  weft,  about  the  peak,  it 
is  (liarper  and  more  fubjeft  to  wind  and  rain.  The 
foil  is  very  different  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 
In  the  eaft  and  fouth  parts  it  is  very  fruitful  in  all 
kinds  of  grain  ;  but  in  the  weft,  beyond  the  Derwent, 
it  is  barren  and  mountainous,  producing  nothing  but  a 
little  oats.  There  is,  however,  plenty  of  grafs  in  the 
valleys,  which  affords  pafture  to  a  great  number  of 
(heep.  This  part  of  the  coimtry  is  called  the  Peak, 
from  a  Saxon  word  fignifying  an  eminence.  Its 
mountains  are  very  bleak,  high,  and  barren  ;  but  ex- 
tremely profitable  to  the  inhabitants.  They  yield 
great  quantities  of  the  beft  lead,  antimony,  iron, 
fcythe-ftones,  grind- ilones,  marble,  alabafter,  a  coarfe 
fort  of  cryftal,  azure,  fpar,  and  pit-coal.  In  thefe 
mountains  are  two  remarkable  caverns,  named  Pool's 
Hole,  and  EUeti-Hole;  for  a  defcriplion  of  which,  fee 
thefe  articles. 

DEREHAM,  a  town  of  Norfolk  in  England,  fitu- 
ated  in  E.  Long.  i.  o.  N.  Lat.  52.  40.  It  is  pretty 
large,  and  the  market  is  noted  for  woollen  yarn. 

DERELICTS,.(from  dc,  and  rclinquo,  "Heave"), 
in  the  civil  law,  are  fuch  goods  as  are  wilfully  thrown 
away,  or  relinquiflied  by  the  owner. 

Derelict  is  alfo  applied  to  fuch  lands  as  the  fea 
receding  from  leaves  dry,  and  fit  for  cultivation.  If 
they  are  left  by  a  gradual  recefs  of  the  fea,  they  are 
adjudged  to  belong  to  the  owner  of  tlie  adjoining 
lands  ;  but  when  an  ifland  is  formed  in  the  fea,  or  a 
Vol.  V.  Part  II. 


[    7^9     1 


D     E    R 


large  quantity  of  new  land  appears,  fuch  dereliA  land*  Derhim 
belong  to  the  king.  \\ 

DERHAM  (Doftor  William),  a  very  celebrated  °^™!l!^ 
Englifh  philofopher  and  divine,  born  in  1657.  In  ' 
1682,  he  was  prefented  to  the  vicarage  of  Wargrave 
in  Berkfhire;  and,  in  1689,  to  the  valuable  reftory  of 
Upminfter  in  Effex  ;  which  latter  lying  at  a  conveni- 
ent diftance  from  London,  afforded  him  an  opportu- 
nity of  converfing  and  correfponding  with  the  greateft 
virtuofos  of  the  nation.  Applying  himfelf  there  with 
great  eagernefs  to  natural  and  experimental  philofo- 
phy,  he  foon  became  a  diftinguifhed  member  of  ttie 
Royal  Society,  whole  Philofophical  Tranfadlions  con- 
tain a  great  variety  of  curious  and  valuable  pieces,  the 
fruits  of  his  laudable  induftry.  In  his  younger  year* 
he  publiftied  his  Artificial  Clockmaker,  which  has  been 
often  printed:  and  in  171 1,  1712,  and  1714,  he 
preached  thofe  fermons  at  Boyle's  ledlure  which  he 
afterward  digefted  under  the  well-known  titles  ol  Phy- 
ftco-Theology  and  AJlro-Thcology,  and  enriched  with 
valuable  notes  and  copper-plates.  The  laft  thing  he 
publillied  of  his  own  compofition  v/a.^  Chnjlo-Thsology, 
a  demonftration  of  the  divine  authority  of  the  Chriftian 
religion,  being  the  fubftance  of  a  fermon  preached  at 
Bath  in  1729.  This  great  good  man,  after  fpending 
his  life  in  the  moft  agreeable  as  well  as  improving  fta- 
dy  of  nature,  died  at  Upminfter  in  1735;  and,  be- 
fide  many  other  works,  left  a  valuable  colletlion  of  cu- 
riofities,  particularly  fpecimens  of  birds  and  infeds 
of  this  iiland. — It  may  be  neceffary  juft  to  obferve, 
that  Dr  Derham  was  very  well  JliiUed  in  medical 
as  well  as  in  phyfical  knowledge  ;  and  was  conftantly 
a  phyfician  to  the  bodies  as  well  as  the  fouls  of  his 
parifhioners. 

DERIVATION,  in  medicme,  is  when  a  Iiumour 
which  cannot  conveniently  be  evacuated  at  the  part  af- 
feded,  is  attraded  from  thence,  and  difcharged  elfe- 
where  ;  thus,  a  blifter  is  applied  to  the  neck  to  draw 
away  the  humour  from  the  eyes. 

Derivation,  in  grammar,  the  affinity  one  word  has 
with  another,  by  having  been  originally  formed  from 
it.     See  Derivative. 

DERIVATIVE,  in  grammar,  a  word  which  takes 

its  origin  from  another  word,   called    its  primitive. 

Such  is  the  word  derivative  itfelf,  which  takes  its  ori- 
gin from  the  primitive  rivus,  a  rivulet  or  chan- 
nel, out  of  which  leffer  ftreams  are  drawn  ;  and  thus 
manhood,  deity,  lawyer,  &c.  are  derived  from  man,  deus, 
laiu,  &c. 

DERMESTES,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of  infeds  be- 
longing to  the  order  of  coleoptera.  The  antenna  are 
clavated,  with  three  of  the  joints  thicker  than  the  reft; 
the  breaft  is  convex ;  and  the  head  is  inflcded  below 
the  breaft.     The  fpecies  are  pretty  numerous. 

I.  The  lardarius  is  of  an  oblong  form  and  of  a  dim 
black  colour,  eafily  diftinguifhable  by  a  light  brown 
ftripe  that  occupies  tranfverfcly  almoft  the  anterior  half 
of  the  elytra.  That  colour  depends  on  fmall  grey  hairs 
fituated  on  that  part.  The  ftripe  is  irregular  at  it.i 
edges,  and  interfeded  through  th':  middle  by  a  fmall 
tranfverfal  ftreak  of  black  fpots,  three  in  immber  on 
each  of  the  elytra,  the  middlemoft  of  which  is  fome- 
what  lower  than  the  reft,  which  gives  the  black  ftreak 
a  ferpentine  form.  Its  larva  that  is  oblong,  fomewhat 
5  E  hairy. 


Dsmieftes 

II 
Dertofa, 


D    E    R  [     770    1  D    E    R 

l>airy  nnd  divided  Into  fegraenis  alternately  dark  and     nicipum  and  colony ;  furnamed  J«/m /trg-awma  (Coin.)  Otr""."*.; 
lioht  coloured,  gnaws  anddcftroys  preparations  of  a-     Dtrtofarn,  the   people.      Now    Tortofa,   in   Catalonia, 


Dervis. 


nimals  prpOtved  in  colleftions,  aud  even  feeds  upon 
the  infeils;  it  i^iallo  to  be  foiind  in  old  bacon.    2.  The 
domefticiie  varies  greatly  in  fize  and  colour,  fome  be- 
ing found  of  a  dark  brown,  others  of  a  much  lighter 
hue.  Tlic  form  of  it  is  oblong,  almoft  cylindrical.  The 
elytra  are  ftriated,  the  thorax  is  thick  and  rather  gib- 
bous.    This  little  animal,  when  touched,   draws  in  its 
head  under  its  thorax  and  its  feet  beneath  its  abdo- 
men, remaining  fo  motionkfs  that  one  would  think  it 
tlead.    This  is  the  fame  infcA  which  makes  in  wooden 
furniture  thofe  little  round  holes  that  reduce  it  to  pow- 
der.    3.  The  violaceus  is  a  beautiful  little  infcft  :  its 
elytra  arc  of  a  deep  violst  bhie.     The  thorax  is  cnver- 
ed  with  sreenidi  hairs,  the  le^s  are  black.     The  whole 
aniinal  being  of  a  glittering  brilliancy  renders  it  a  plea- 
fing  objeft.     The  larva,  as  well  as  the  perfcft  infeft, 
inhabits  the  bodies  of  dead  animals.     4.  The  fumatus 
js  of  a  light  brown,  except  the  eyes,  which  are  black. 
It  is  however  fometimes  more  or  lefs  deep.     The  tho- 
rax is  margined,  and  the  inl'ea  has  the  whole  carriage 
of  a  fcarabs'us ;  but  its  antennae  have  the  charaAer  of 
thofe  of  the  dermeRs.     This  little  creature   is  found 
in  dung.     It  alfo  frequently  finds  its  way  into  houfes. 
5.  The  ferruuineus  is  the  largelt  of  the  genus  ;  its  co- 
lour is  a  rully   iron,    having    many  oblong,    velvety. 
Mack  fpots  upon  the  elytra,  which  gives  the  inlejft  a 
t'loomv,  yet  elegant  appearance.     The  antennae  differ 
from  tiie  preceding  fpecies;   the  thret  Lift  articulations 


on  the  Ebro.   E.  Long.  I  5.   N.  Lat.  40.  45. 

DERVEN  no,  (anc.  geog. )  ;  a  river  of  the  Bri- 
games  in  Britain.  Now  the  Darwent,  in  the  eaft  of 
Yoiklhire,  falling  into  the  Oul'e.  Alfo  a  town  of  the 
Brigantes  on  the  fame  river.  Now  called  Juldhy,  le- 
ven  miles  from  York,  to  the  north-ealt  (Camdtn). 

DERVIS,  or  Dervich,  a  name  given  to  a  fort  of 
monks  among  the  Turks,  who  lead  a  very  anftere  life, 
and  profefs  extreme  poverty  ;  though  they  are  allowed 
to  marry.  The  word  is  oiiirinaUy  PcrfiRu,  'vrm,  fig- 
nifying  a  "beggar,"  ot  perfon  who  has  nothing  :  and 
becaufe  the 'religious,  and  particularly  the  followers  of 
Mevclav3,  profefs  not  to  polfcfs  any  thlntr,  they  call 
bnvh  the  religious  in  general,  and  the  Mevelavites  in 
particular,  Dcrv'ijes  or  Dtrvichcs. 

The  dervifes,  called  alio  Alevehi-vltes,  are  a  Maho- 
metan order  ol  religious;  the  chief  or  founder  where- 
of was  one  Mcvelava.  They  are  now  very  numerous. 
Theii  chief  monallery  is  that  near  Cogna  in  Natolia, 
where  the  gtncral  makes  his  refidence,  and  where  all 
the  affimbiiLS  of  the  order  are  held  ;  the  other  houfes 
being  all  dependent  on  this,  by  a  privlltge  granted  to 
this  raonaitery  under  Ottoman  I. 

The  dervifes  affeft  a  great  deal  of  modtfty,  patience, 
humility,  and  charity.  They  always  go  bare-leggtd 
and  epen-brealled,  and  frequently  burn  themfclves  with 
hot  irons,  to  inure  tnjmlelvcB  to  patience.      They  al- 


ways faft  on  Wednefdays,  eating  nothing  on  thofe 
be^ingooifliderably  longer,' thicker,  and  not  perfolia-  days  till  after  fun-fet.  Tiiefdays  and  Tridjys  they 
^^^  °  hold  meetings,  at  which  the  fuperior  of  the  houfe  pre- 


fides.  One  of  them  play?  all  the  while  on  a  flute,  and 
the  reft  dance,  turning  their  bodies  round  and  round 
with  the  greateft  fwiftuefs  imaginable..  Long  cultom 
to  this  exercife  from  their  youth  has  brought  them  to 
fuch  a  habitude,  that  it  does  not  difcompofe  them  at 
all.  This  praftice  they  oblerve  with  great  ftriftnefs, 
in  memory  of  Mevdava  their  patriarch's  turning  mi- 
raculoufly  round,  as  they  pretend,  for  the  fpace  of  fouf 


ted. 

There  .ire  2  ir  other  fpecies,  diftinguiftied  by  their 
colour. — Many  varieties  of  this  genus,  as  well  as  the 
larv'e,  are  to  be  met  with  in  dried  (kins,  bark  of  trees, 
wood,  feeds,  flowers,  the  carcafes  of  dead  animals,  &c. 
—The  lardarius,  fo  dcllruelive  to  birds,  infeAs,  and 
other  ful-jifts  of  natural  hiilory  preferved  in  cabinets, 
is  to  be  killed  by  arfenic. 

DERNIER  REssoRT.     See  Ressort.  c    :,         r    ^ 

DEROGATION,  an  aft  contrary  to  a  preceding  days,  without  any  food  or  refrelhment  ;  his  companion 
one,  and  which  annuls,  deftroys,  and  revokes  it,  either  Hamfa  playing  all  the  while  on  the  flute  :  after  which 
in  whole  or  in  part.  ^^  ^"^^  '"'•°  ^"  ecftafy,  and  therein  received  wondeiful 

DEROGATORY,  a  claufe  importing  derogation,  revelations  for  the  eftablUhment  of  his  order.  They 
A  derogatory  claufe  in  a  teftamtnt,  is  a  certain  fen-  believe  the  flute  an  inlfrument  oonftcrated  by  Jacob 
tence,  cipher,  or  fecret  charafter,  which  the  tellator  and  the  Ihepherds  of  the  Old  Teftament,  becanfe  they 
infert's  in  his  will,  and  of  which  he  referves  the  know-  fang  the  praifes  of  God  upon  them.  They  profefs  po- 
ledge  to  himfelf  alone,  adding  a  condition,  that  no  will  verty,  chaftity,  and  obedience,  and  really  obferve  them 
he  may  make  hereafter  Is  to°be  reckoned  valid,  if  this  while  they  remain  dervifes ;  but  if  they  choofe  to  go  out 
derogatory  claufe  is  not  inferred  exprefsly  and  word  and  marry,  they  are  always  allowed, 
for  word.     It  is  a  precaution  invented  by  lawyers  a-         The  generality  of  dervifes  are  mountebanks:  fome 


gainft  latter-will?  extorted  by  violence,  or  obtained  by 
fnggeftion. 

"DERP,  a  town  of  Livonia,  and  capital  of  a  palati- 
nate of  the  fame  name,  with  a  bilhop's  fee,  and  an  uni- 
^erfity.  It  is  fubjeft  to  the  Rufiians,  and  lies  near  the 
river  Ambeck.   E.  Long.  31.55.  N.  Lat.  30.40. 

DERTONA,  Derton,  orDERTHON  (anc.  geog.), 
a  colony  of  the  Clfpadana;  called  Julia  Augujtn,  on  in- 
fcriptions  and  coins;  midway  between  Genoa  and  Pla- 
centia,  and  fituated  to  the  eaft  of  the  Tanarus  in  LI- 
rruria.  Now  Tortona,  a  city  of  Milan.  E.Long.  9.  12. 
i<r.  Lat.  45. 

DERTOSA,  (anc.  geog.);  the  capital  of  the  Iler- 
caones,  in  Tarraconeniis,  or  the  Hither  Spain;  amu- 


apply  themfelves  to  legerdemain,  poftures,  &c.  to  a- 
mufe  the  people;  others  give  in  to  forcery  and  magic  ; 
but  all  of  them,  contrary  to  Mahomet's  precept,  are 
faid  to  drink  wine,  brandy,  and  other  ftrong  liquors, 
to  give  them  the  degree  ot  gaiety  their  order  requires. 

Befide  their  great  faint  Mevelava,  there  are  particu- 
lar taints  honoured  In  fome  particular  monafteries  :  as 
KIderele,  greatly  revered  in  the  monafteriei  of  Egypt, 
and  held  by  fome  to  be  St  George  ;  and  by  others, 
with  more  probability,  the  prophet  Ellas. 

The  dervifes  are  great  travellers  ;  and,  under  pre- 
tence of  preaching,  and  propagating  their  faith,  are 
continually  pailing  from  one  place  to  another :  on  which 
account  they  have  been  frequently  ufed  as  fpies. 

There 


D     E     S 


Dcfajruliers 

It 
Defant. 


r  771  1 


D    E    S 


There  are  alfo  Ht rvifes  in  Perfia,  called  In  that  couii- 
''  ixy  yU'ddls,  <\.  A.  firvants  of  God.      They  lead    a   very 

,  pciuirioiis,  aultere  life,  and  preach  the  Alcoran  in  the 
flreets,  coffee-houfes,  and  wherever  they  can  meet  with 
auditors.  The  Pcrlian  dervifcs  retail  little  but  fables 
to  the  people,  and  are  in  the  utiiioll  contempt  among 
the  men  of  fenfe  and  letters. 

There  are  in  E/ypt  two  or  three  kinds  :  thofe  thit 
are  in  convents,  are  in  a  manner  of  the  relif;ioU8  or- 
der, and  live  retired  ;  though  there  are  of  thele  lome 
who  travel  and  return  again  to  their  convents.  S'lme 
take  this  cluraCler,  and  yet  live  with  their  familicB, 
and  exercife  their  trades  :  of  this  kind  are  the  dancing 
dervifes  at  Damafcna,  who  go  once  or  twice  a  week  to 
a  little  uninhabited  convent,  and  perform  their  extra- 
ordinary exercifes;  thefe  alfo  feem  to  be  a  good  peo- 
ple: but  there  is  a  third  fort  of  them  who  travel  about 
the  country,  and  beg,  or  rather  oblige  people  to  give, 
for  whenever  tliey  found  their  horn  fomething  mull  be 
given  them.  The  people  of  thefe  orders,  in  Egypt, 
wear  an  oflagonal  badge,  of  a  greeniih  white  alaballer, 
at  their  girdles,  and  a  high  IlifF  cap  without  any  thing 
round  it. 

DE.SAGULIERS  (John  Theophilus),  who  Intro- 
duced the  piaftice  of  reading  public  leAurcs  In  expe- 
rimental philofophy  in  the  metropolis,  and  who  made 
feveral  improvements  In  mechanics;  waj  the  fon  of  the 
reverend  J  )hn  Defaguliers,  a  Ficncli  protellant  refu- 
gee, and  wai  born  at  Rcchelle  in  1683.  His  father 
brought  him  to  England  an  infant ;  and  at  a  proper 
age  placed  him  at  Chrift-church  college,  Oxfoid  : 
where  he  fucceirJcd  Dr  Keil  in  reading  leftures  on 
e.xperlmental  philofophy  at  Hart  Hall.  The  magni- 
iiccnt  duke  of  C'h.mdos  made  l)r  Defaguliers  his 
chaplain,  and  prefented  him  to  the  living  of  Edgware, 
rear  his  feat  at  Cannons  ;  and  he  was  afterward  chap- 
lain to  Frederic  prince  of  Wales.  He  read  leAures 
with  great  fuccefs  to  the  time  of  his  death  in  1749. 
He  communicated  many  curious  papers  printed  In  the 
Philofophical  Tranfattions;  publiihed  a  valuable  C'«ur/^ 
tf  E.\j)cnmcrtrd Philofophy-,  In  2  vols4to.;  and  gave  an 
edition  of  Gregory's  Eiemcfils  of  Catoptrics  and  Dioplrks, 
wltii  an  Appendix  on  reiledling  telcloopes,  8vo.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Royal  S  jcicty,  and  of  feveral  fo- 
rciirn  academies. 

DESART,  a  large  extent  of  couritry  entirely  bar- 
ren, and  producing  nothing.  In  this  fenfe  Ibme  are 
fandy  defarts  ;  as  thofe  of  Lop,  Xamo,  Arabia,  and 
feveral  othets  in  Aiia  ;  In  Africa,  thofe  of  Libya  and 
Zara  :  others  are  ftony,  as  the  defart  of  Pharan  In  A- 
rabla  Petrea. 

The  DfsART,  abfolutely  fo  called,  is  that  part  of 
Arabia,  fouth  of  the  Holy  Land,  where  the  children 
ol  Ilrael  wandered  forty  years. 

DESCiVNT,  in  mufic,  the  art  of  compofing  in  fe- 
veral parts.     See  CoMPOsiTioK. 

Delcant  is  three-told,  viz.  plain,  figurative,  and 
double. 

P!nin  DESCiXT  is  the  ground-work  and  foundation 
of  all  mufital  oimpofitions,  confifting  altogether  in  the 
ordeily  placing  oi  many  concords,  aiifwering  to  fmiple 
counterpoint.     See  Counterpoint. 

Figiiriitii'i-  or  Florid  Drsc^iNT,  is  that  part  of  an  air 
of  mufic  wherein  lome  difcords  are  concerned,  as  well, 
though  not  fo  much,  as  concords.     This  may  be  term- 


ed the  ornamental  and  rhetorical  part  of  mufic,  in  re-    Difc-tnt 
gard    that    tlieie  are    introduced    all    the   vdnities   oi         li 
points,  fyncopcs,  diverfitles  of  meHfures,  and  whatever   ^°^""'^-  ^ 
is  capable  of  adorning  the  c^>mpoluion.  — — y— «J 

Dk^;Af.T  Djublc,  is  when  tlie  parts  are  fo  contrived, 
that  the  treble,  or  any  hlg'i  part,  may  be  made  the 
baf.(;  and,  on  the  contrary,  the  bafs  the  treble. 

DESCARl'ES.     S.e  Ci^rtts. 

DESCENDANT.  Tne  ilTue  of  a  common  parent, 
in  in/inilum,  are  Called  his  defoendauis.  See  the  article 
Descknt. 

DESCENSION,  in  ailronomy,  ig  either  right  or 
oblique. 

lii^hl  DKs-cfNsiBN,  is  an  arch  of  the  equinoftial,  in- 
tercepted between  the  ncKt  equinoctial  point  and  the 
intcrfcClion  of  the  meridian,  paiiing  through  the  centre 
of  the  obje<il,  at  its  fetting,  in  a  right  fphere. 

Oblique  DkschnsioN,  an  arch  of  tlie  cquluodlial,  Inter- 
cepted b-itwecn  the  next  equinotlial  point  and  the  ho- 
rizon, palling  through  the  centre  of  the  objeil,  at  its 
fetting,  in  an  oblique  fphere. 

DESCENT,  in  general,  is  the  tendency  of  a  body 
from  a  higher  to  a  lower  place  ;  thus  all  bodies,  unlcfs 
otherwiic  determined  by  a  force  fuperior  to  their  gra- 
vity, defcend  towards  the  centre  of  the  earth.  See 
Gravity  and  Mechanics. 

Descent,  or  Hereditary  Succefor.,  In  law.  Is  the 
title  whereby  a  man,  on  the  death  of  his  sncellor,  ac- 
quires his  ellatf  by  right  of  tepreftntation,  as  his  htir 
at  law.  An  heir,  therefore,  is  he  upon  whom  the  law 
cafts  the  ellate  immediately  on  the  death  of  the  anceftor; 
and  an  eftate  fo-  dcfcendmg  to  the  heir  is  in  law  called 
the  inheritiMiee. 

Defcent  i»  ckhtr  lineal  or  collateral.  Tlie  foimer  Is 
that  conveyed  down  In  a  right  line  from  the  grandfather 
to  the  father,  and  from  the  father  to  the  fon,  and  from, 
the  fou  to  the  grandfon.  The  latter  is  that  fpringiug 
out  of  the  lade  of  the  line  or  blood  ;  as  from  a  man  to 
his  brother,  nephew,  or  the  like. 

'i'he  doitrine  of  defcents,  or  law  of  inheritances  in 
fee-finiple.  Is  a  point  of  the  highclt  importance :  (See 
the  article  Fee).  All  the  rules  relating  to  purchafes, 
whereby  the  legal  courfe  of  defcents  is  broken  and  al- 
teied,  pcrpiriually  refer  to  this  fettled  law  of  Inheritance, 
as  a  datum  or  firll  principle  univcrfally  known,  and  upoa 
which  their  iubfequent  limitalions  are  to  work.  Thus 
a  gift  in  tail,  or  to  a  man  and  the  heirs  of  his  body.  Is 
a  lunltation  that  cannot  be  perfedly  undcrftood  with- 
out a  previous  knowledge  of  the  law  of  defcents  In  fce- 
fimple.  One  may  well  perceive,  that  this  Is  an  eftate 
conlined  la  its  deicent  to  fuch  heirs  only  of  the  donee 
as  have  l])rang  or  ihall  fpring  from  his  body  :  but  who 
thofe  heirs  are,  whether  all  his  children  both  male  and 
female,  or  the  mule  only,  and  (among  the  males)  whe- 
ther theeldeft,  youngcit,  or  other  fon  alone,  or  all  the 
fons  together,  iliall  be  his  heir ;  this  is  a  point  that  we 
mult  refult  back  to  the  Handing  law  of  dcfceuts  in  fee- 
limple  to  be  informed  of. 

And  as  this  depends  not  a  little  on  the  nature  of 
kindred,  and  the  feveral  degrees  of  confaiiguinity,  it 
will  be  necefiaiy  to  refer  the  reader  to  the  article  CoN- 
sANGuiNiTV,  where  the  true  notion  of  this  kindred  or 
alliance  in  blood  is  paiticularly  ttated. 

We  fliall  here  exhibit  a  fcries  of  rules  or  c:ivons  of 

inheritance,  with  illullrations,  according  to  wliich,  by 

5  E  2  the 


D    E    S 


Defcent. 


'SSailft. 


the  Jaw  of  England,  cftates  are  tranfmitted  from  the 
anceftor  to  the  heir. 

I.  "  Inheritances  ftiall  lineally  defcend  to  the  iffue 
of  the  perfon  laft  aftually  feifed  in  infinitum,  but  fhall 
never  lineally  afcend." 

To  underftand  both  this  and  the  fubfequent  rules,  it 
muft  be  obfer\ed,  that  by  law  no  inheritance  can  veft, 
nor  can  any  perfon  be  the  aftual  complete  heir  of  ano- 
ther, till  the  anceftor  is  previoufly  dead.  Ntmo  eft  ha- 
res viventis.  Before  that  time,  the  perfon  who  is  next 
in  the  line  of  fucceffion  is  called  an  heir  apparent  or  heir 
prefumptive.  Heirs  apparent  are  fuch  whofe  right  of 
inheritance  is  indefeafible,  provided  they  outlive  the 
anceftor ;  as  the  eldeft  fon  or  his  ilTue,  who  muft,  by 
the  courie  of  the  common  law,  be  heirs  to  the  father 
whenever  he  happens  to  die.  Heirs  prefumptive  are 
fuch,  who,  if  the  anceftor  (liould  die  immediately,  would 
in  the  prcfent  circumftances  of  things  be  his  heirs ;  but 
whofe  right  of  inheritance  may  be  defeated  by  the  con- 
tingency of  fome  nearer  heir  being  born :  as  a  brother 
or  nephew,  whofe  prefumptive  fucceffion  may  be  de- 
flroyed  by  the  birth  of  a  child :  or  a  daughter,  whofe 
prefent  hopes  may  be  hereafter  cut  off  by  the  birth  of  a 
fon.  Nay,  even  if  the  eftate  hath  defcended,  by  the 
death  of  the  owner,  to  fuch  a  brother,  or  nephew,  or 
daughter  ;  in  the  former  cafes,  the  eftate  fiiall  be  de- 
vefted  and  taken  away  by  the  birth  of  a  pofthumous 
child ;  and,  in  the  latter,  it  ftiall  alfo  be  totally  divefted 
by  the  birth  of  a  pofthumous  fon. 

We  muft  alfo  remember,  that  no  perfon  can  be  pro- 
perly fuch  an  anceftor  as  that  an  inheritance  in  lands 
or  tenements  can  be  derived  from  him,  unlefs  he  hath 
had  aftual  feifin  of  fuch  lands,  either  by  his  own 
entry,  or  by  the  pofteffion  of  his  own  or  his  anceftor's 
leflee  far  years,  or  by  receiving  rent  from  a  leftee  of 
the  freehold  :  or  unlefs  he  hath  what  is  equi\-alent  to 
corporal  feifin  in  hereditaments  that  are  incorporeal  ; 
fuch  as  the  receipt  of  rent,  a  prcfentation  to  the  church 
in  cafe  of  an  advowfon,  and  the  like.  But  he  fhall  not 
be  accounted  an  anceftor  who  hath  had  only  a  bare 
right  or  title  to  enter  or  be  othenvife  feifed.  And 
therefore  all  the  cafes  which  will  be  mentioned  in  the 
prefent  article,  are  upon  the  fuppofition  that  the  de- 
ceafed  (whofe  inheritance  is  now  claimed)  was  the  laft 
perfon  actually  feifed  thereof.  For  the  law  requires 
this  notoriety  of  pofrefhon,  as  evidence  that  the  ance- 
ftor had  that  property  in  himfelf,  which  is  now  to  be 
tranfmitted  to  his  heir.  Which  notoriety  hath  fucceed- 
ed  in  the  place  of  the  ancient  feodal  inveftiturc,  where- 
by, while  feuds  were  precarious,  the  vaffal  on  the  de- 
fcent of  lands  was  formerly  admitted  in  the  lord's  court 
(as  is  ftlU  the  practice  in  Scotland);  and  therefore  re- 
ceived his  feifin,  in  the  nature  of  a  renewal  of  his  an- 
ceftor's grant,  in  the  prefence  of  the  feodal  peers  :  till 
at  1(  ngth,  when  the  right  of  fucceffion  became  indcfea- 
iible,  an  entq'  on  any  part  of  the  lands  within  the 
county  (which  if  difputcd  was  afterwards  to  be  tried 
by  thofe  peers),  or  other  notorious  pofleflion,  was  ad- 
mitted as  equivalent  to  the  formal  grant  of  feifin,  and 
made  the  tenant  capable  of  tranfmitting  his  eftate  by 
defcent.  The  feifm  therefore  of  any  perfon,  thus  un- 
derftood,  makes  him  the  root  or  ftock'frtfm  which  all 
future  inheritance  by  right  of  blood  muft  be  derived  ; 
which  *;  very  briefly  exprcfled  in  this  VKSJLim,feifmafa- 
ciijlipitcvu 


I       772       1 


D    E    S 


When  therefore  a  perfon  dies  io  feifed,  the  inheri-  Dcfccnt. 
tance  firll  goes  to  his  iffue  :  as  if  there  be  Geoffrey,  v  '■ 
John,  and  Matthew,  grandfather,  father,  and  fon  ;  and 
John  purchafes  land,  and  dies  ;  his  fon  Matthew  fhall 
fucceed  him  as  heir,  and  not  the  grandfather  Geoffrey; 
to  whom  the  land  fhall  never  afcend,  but  fhall  rather 
efcheat  to  the  lord. 

z.  "  The  male  iffue  fhiill  be  admitted  before  the  fe- 
male."— Thus  fons  ihall  be  admitted  before  daugh- 
ters ;  or,  as  our  male  lawgivers  have  fomewhat  un- 
complaifantly  expreffed  it,  the  worthieft  of  blood  fhall 
be  preferred.  As  if  John  Stiles  hath  two. fons,  Mat- 
thew and  Gilbert,  and  two  daughters,  Margaret  and 
Charlotte,  and  dies;  firft  Matthew,  and  (in  cafe  of 
his  death  without  iffue)  then  Gilbert,  fliall  be  admitted 
to  the  fucceffion  in  preference  to  both  the  daughters. 

3.  "  Wliere  there  are  two  or  more  males  in  equal  de- 
gree, the  eldeft  only  fhall  inherit ;  but  the  females  all 
together." — As  if  a  man  hath  two  fons,  Matthew  and 
Gilbert,  and  two  daughters,  Margaret  and  Charlotte, 
and  dies ;  Matthew  his  eldeil  fon  fhall  alone  fucceed 
to  his  eftate,  in  exclufion  of  Gilbert  the  fecond  fon  and 
both  the  daughters  ;  but  if  both  the  fons  die  with- 
out iffue  before  the  father,  the  daughters  Margaret 
and  Charlotte  fhall  both  inherit  the  eftate  as  copar- 
ceners. 

4.  "  The  lineal  defcendants,  in  injinilum,  of  any 
perfon  deceafed,  ihall  reprefent  their  anceftor ;  that 
is,  ihall  fland  in  the  fame  place  as  the  perfon  himfelf 
would  have  done  had  he  been  living." — Thus  the 
child,  grandchild,  or  great-grandchild  (either  male  or 
female),  of  the  eldeil  fon,  fucceeds  before  the  younger 
fon,  and  fo  in  infmtiim.  And  thefe  reprefentatives 
fhall  take  neither  more  nor  lefs,  but  jult  fo  much  as 
their  pnncipals  would  have  done.  As  if  there  be  two 
fillers,  Margaret  and  Charlotte  ;  and  Margaret  dies, 
leaving  fix  daughters;  and  then  John  Stiles  the  father 
of  the  two  fiftcrs  dies  without  other  iffue  :  thefe  fix 
daughters  fhall  take  among  them  exaftly  the  fame  as 
their  mother  Margaret  would  have  done  had  ihe  been 
living  ;  that  is,  a  moiety  of  the  lands  of  John  Stiles 
in  coparcenary  :  fo  that,  upon  partition  made,  if  the 
land  be  divided  into  twelve  parts,  thereof  Charlotte 
the  furviving  fifter  lliall  have  fix,  and  her  fix  nieces,  the 
daugluers  of  Margaret,  one  a-picce. 

5.  "  On  failure  of  lineal  defcendants,  or  iffue,  of  the 
perfon  laft  feifed,  the  inheritance  ihall  defcend  to  the 
blood  of  the  firlt  purchaler  ;  fubjeA  to  the  three  pre- 
ceding rules." — Thus,  if  Geoffrey  Stiles  purchafes 
land,  and  it  defccnds  to  John  Stiles  his  fon,  and  John 
dies  feifed  thereof  without  iffue  ;  whoever  iucceeds  to. 
this  inheritance  muft  be  of  the  blood  of  Geoffrey  the 
firft  purchafer  of  this  family.  The  firft  purchafcr, 
ptrquijilor,  is  he  who  firfl  acquired  the  eftate  to  his  fa- 
mily, whether  the  fame  was  transferred  to  him  by  fale, 
or  by  gift,  or  by  any  other  metiiod,  except  only  that 
ot  defcent. 

6.  "  The  collateral  heir  of  the  perfon  laft  feifed  muft 
be  his  next  collateral  kinfman  of  the  whole  blood." 

Firft,  he  muft  be  his  next  collateral  kinfman  either 
perfonally  or  jure  reprefeiifutioiiis ;  which  proximity  is 
reckoned  according  to  the  canonical  degrees  of  con— 
(anguinity :  See  Consanguinity.  Therefore,  the 
brother  being  in  the  firft  degree,  he  .and  his  defcend- 
ants fliall  exdude  the  uncle  and  his  iflCue,  who  is  only. 


D     E    S 


[     773     ] 


D     E    S 


Defcent.  inthefccond. — Thus  if  John  Stiles  dies  without  ilTue, 
'■~~v~—  his  eftate  fliall  dcfcend  to  Francis  his  brother,  who  is 
lineally  defccnded  from  Geoffrey  Stiles  his  next  imme- 
diate ancellor  or  fother.  On  failure  of  brethren  or 
fifters  and  thi.ir  iffue,  it  (liall  defcend  to  the  uncle  of 
John  Stiles,  the  lineal  defcendant  of  his  grandfather 
George  ;  and  fo  on  in  iiifinilum. 

Buc,  fecondly,  the  heir  need  not  be  the  nearefl  kinf- 
nian  abfolutely,  but  QiAy  fiib  moHo ;  that  is,  he  muft 
be  the  neareft  kinfman  ot  the  luhole  blood:  for  if  there 
be  a  much  nearer  kinfman  of  the  half  blood,  a  dillant 
kinfman  of  the  whole  blood  fhall  be  admitted,  and  the 
other  entirely  excluded. — A  kinfman  of  the  wliole  blood 
is  he  that  is  derived,  not  only  from  the  fame  anceftor, 
but  from  the  fame  couple  of  anceflors.  For  as  every 
man's  own  blood  is  compounded  of  the  bloods  of  his 
refpeftive  anceftors,  he  only  is  properly  of  the  whole 
or  entire  blood  with  another  who  hath  (fo  far  as  the 
dillance  of  degrees  will  permit)  all  the  fame  ingredients 
in  the  compofition  of  his  blood  that  the  other  hath. 
Thus,  the  blood  of  John  Stiles  being  compofed  of  thofe 
of  Geoffrey  Stiles  his  father,  and  Lucy  Baker  his  mo- 
ther, therefore  his  brother  Francis,  being  defcended 
from  both  the  fame  parents,  hath  entirely  the  fame 
blood  with  John  Stiles ;  0r  he  is  his  brother  of  the 
whole  blood.  But  if,  aft,er  the  death  of  Geoffrey,  Lu- 
cy Baker  the  mother  marries  a  fecond  hu/band,  Lewis 
Gay,  and  hath  iffue  by  him  :  the  blood  of  this  iflue, 
being  compounded  of  the  blood  of  Lucy  Baker  (it  is 
true)  on  the  one  part,  but  that  of  Lewis  Gay  (inilead 
of  Geoffrey  Stiles)  on  the  other  part,  it  hath  therefore 
only  half  the  fame  ingredients  with  that  of  John  Stiles; 
fo  that  he  is  only  his  brother  of  the  half  blood,  and  for 
that  reafon  they  iTiall  never  inherit  to  each  other.  So 
alfo,  if  the  father  has  two  fons,  A  and  B,  by  different 
venters  or  wives  ;  now  thefe  two  brethren  are  not  bre- 
thren of  the  whole  blood,  and  therefore  fhall  never  in- 
herit to  each  other,  but  the  eftate  fhall  rather  efchcat  to 
the  lord.  Nay,  even  if  the  father  dies,  and  his  lands 
defcend  to  his  eldell  fon  A,  who  enters  thereon,  and 
dies  feifed  without  iflue  ;  flill  B  fhall  not  be  heir  to 
this  eflate,  becaufe  he  is  only  of  the  half  blood  to  A, 
the  perfon  laft  f-ifed  :  but  had  A  died  without  entry, 
then  B  m!s;ht  have  inherited  :  not  as  heir  to  A  his 
half-brother,  but  as  heir  to  their  common  father,  who 
was  the  perfon  laft  aftually  feifed. 

The  rule  then,  together  with  its  illuftration,  amounts 
to  this.  That  in  order  to  keep  the  eftate  of  John  Stiles 
as  nearly  as  pofTible  in  the  line  of  his  purthaiing  an- 
ceftor, it  muft  defcend  to  the  iffue  of  the  neareft  couple 
of  anceftors  that  have  left  defcendants  behind  them  ; 
becaufe  the  defcendants  of  one  anceftor  only  are  not 
fo  likely  to  be  in  the  line  of  that  purchafing  anceftor 
as  thofe  who  are  defcended  from  two. 

But  here  a  difficulty  arifes.  In  the  fecond,  third, 
fourth,  and  every  fuperior  degree,  every  man  has 
many  couples  of  anceilors,  increating  according  to  the 
diftances  in  a  geometrical  progrrffion  ujjvvards,  the  de- 
fcendants of  all  whicii  relpedtive  couples  are  (repre- 
fentatively)  related  to  l\im  in  the  fume  degree.  Tims, 
in  the  fecond  degree,  the  iffue  of  George  and  Cecilia 
Stiles  and  of  Andrew  and  Efther  Baker,  the  two 
grandfires  and  grandmothers  of  J-ohn  Stiles,  are  each 
in  the  fan\e  degree  of  propinquity;  in  the  third  degree, 
the  refpective  iflues  of  Walter  and  Chriftian  Stiles,  of 


Luke  and  Francis  Kempe,  of  Herbert  and  Hannah  Defcent. 
Baker,  and  of  James  and  Emma  Thorpe,  are  (upon'  '  -V- 
the  extindtion  of  the  two  inferior  degrees)  all  c- 
qually  intilled  to  call  themfelves  the  next  kindred  of 
the  whole  blood  to  John  Stiles.  To  which  therefore 
of  thefe  anceftors  muft  we  tirft  refort  in  order  to  find 
out  defcendants  to  be  preferably  called  to  the  inheri- 
tance ?  In  anf'wer  to  this,  and  to  avoid  the  confufion 
and  uncertainty  that  might  arife  between  the  fevcral 
ftocks  wherein  the  purchafing  anceftor  may  be  fought 

for, 

7.  The  L'venth  and  laft  rule  or  canon  is,  "  That 
in  collateral  inheritances  the  male  ftocks  fliall  be  pre- 
ferred to  the  female  (thnt  is,  kindred  derived  from  the 
blood  of  the  male  anceftors  ihall  be  admitted  before 
thofe  from   the  blood   of  the  female)  ;— unlefs  where 

the  lands  have  in  faft  defcended  from  a   female." 

Thus  the  relations  en  the  father's  fide  are  admitted  in. 
infinitum,  before  thofe  on  the  mother's  fide  arc  admitted 
at  all ;  and  the  relations  of  the  father's  father,  before 
thofe  of  the  father's  mother;  and  fo  on. 

For  the  original  and  progrefs  of  the  above  canons, 
the  reafons  upon  which  they  are  founded,  and  their 
agreement  with  the  laws  of  other  nations,  the  curious 
reader  may  confult  Blackjlme's  Commenlaries,  Vol.  II. 
p.  208—237. 

We  fliall  conclude  with  exemplifying  the  rules  them- 
felves by  a  fliort  flietch  of  the  manner  in  which  we  muit 
ftarch  for  the  heir  of  a  perfon,  as  John  Stiles,  who  dies 
feifed  of  land  which  he  acquired,  and  which  therefore 
he  held  as  a  feud  of  indefinite  antiquity..  See  the  Tab'ti 
of  Descents  on  Plate  CLVl. 

In  the  firft  place  fucceeds  the  eldeft  fon,   Matthew 
Stiles,   or  his  iffue,   (n°  i.): — if  his  line  be  extinct, 
then  Gilbert  Stiles  and  the  other  fons  rcfpedlivelv,  in 
order  of  birth,  or  their  iffue,   (n'  2.)  :— in  default  of 
thefe,  all  the  daughters  together,  Margaret  and  Char- 
lotte Stiles,  or  their  iffue,   (n*^  3  ) — On  failure  of  the 
defcendants  of  John  Stiles  himftlf,  the  iffue  of  Geof- 
frey and  Lucy  Stiles,   his   parents,  is  called   in  :  vrz. 
firft,   Francis   Stiles,   the   eldeft  brother  of  the  whole 
blood,  or  his  iffue,  ( n"  4. ) : — then  Oliver  Stiles,  and  the 
other  whole  brothers  reipeftively,   in   order  of  birth^ 
or  their  iffue,   (n'5.): — then  the  fillers  of  the   wholi 
blood  all  together,   Bridget  and  Alice  Stiles,  or  their 
ift'ae,   (n^e.)  — In  defedt  of  thefe,  the  ift"ue  of  George 
and  Cecilia  Stiles,  his  father's  parents;  refpeCt  beinp- 
ftill  had  to  their  age  and  fex,  (n^  7.)  :— then  the  iftue 
of  Walter  and  Chriftian   Stiles,  the  parents  of  his  pa- 
ternal grandfather,  (n""  8.)  :— then  thl  iffue  of  Richard 
and  Anne  Stiles,  the  parents  of  his  paternal  grandfni 
ther'sTather,  (n°  9.) :  — and  fo  on  in  the  paternal  grand- 
father's paternal  line,  or  blood  of  Walter  Stiles,  in  i:.* 
fnitum.    In  defedl  of  thefe,  the  ift'ae  of  William  and  Jane 
Smith,  the  parents  of  his  paternal  grandfather's  mother; 
(n^  10.): — and  fo  on  in  the  paternal  grandfather's  ma- 
ternal line,  or  blood  of  Chriftian  Smith,  in  infiniliiir.j 
till  both  the  immediate  bloods  of  George  Stiles,  the  pa- 
ternal grandfather,  arc  fpent Then  we  muft  refort  to 

the  iirue  of  Luke  and  Frances  Kempe,  the  parents  of 
John  Sti!et.'s  paternal  grandmother,  (n-ii.): — then 
to  the  ill'ue  of  Thomas  and  Sarah  Kempe,  the  parents 
of  his  paternal  grandmother's  father,  (n°  12.)  ; — ai.d 
fo  on  in  tlie  paternal  grandmother's  paternal  line,  or 
blood   of  Luke    Kempe,  irt  tnfittilum.      In  default  of 

which, . 


I)    E    S  [    774    ]  D    E    S 

wliich,  we  nnift  call  in  the  illue  of  Charles  and  Mary     death  ;  which,  after  conviftion,  is  executed  upon  him   Defertion 
Holland,   the   parents  of  his  p;;ttiiial   gvunduuither's     at  the  head  of  the  regiment  he  formerly  belonged  to, 


mother,  {n'^l^.}i  and  fo  on  in  the  paternal  jrraiid- 
mothei's  maternal  hue,  or  Mood  of  Frances  Holland, 
in  injLiituii! ;  till  both  the  iirimediate  bloods  of  Cecilia 
Kempe,  live  paternal  grandmother,  arc  alfo  ipcnt. — 
Whereby  the  paternal  blood  of  Joliii  Stiles  entirely 
failing,  recomTe  miifl.  then,  and  not  before,  be  had  to 
his  maternal  jelation,; ;  or  the  blyod  of  the  Bakers, 
{n"  14,  15,  16.),  Willis's  (n"  17.),  Thorpe's  (n'^  i «, 
J  9.),  and  White's  (n°  20. )  ;  in  the  fame  regular  fuc- 
cefuve  order  as  in  the  paternal  line. 


with  his  crime  written  on  his  breall. 

DESKirriON,  in  law.     See  Law,  W  clx.  24. 

DESHABILLE,  a  French  term,  naturalized  of 
late.  It  properly  (ignitlea  a  night-gown,  and  other 
neceffaries,   made  ufe  of  in  dreffing  or  undrcffiag.   Mr 

is  not  to  be  fpokcn  with,   he  is  yet  in  his  dejlia- 

liili'c,  i.  e.  uudreifed  or  in  his  night-gown.  The  word 
is  compounded  of  the  privative  </t  and  i'labilldr,  "  to 
drefs  one's  felf." 

DESHACHE',  in   heraldry,  is  where  a  bead  has 


.Drfitrn. 


The  ftudent  fliould  bear  in  mind,  that  during  this  its  limbs  feparated  from  its  body,  fo  ihat  they  ilill  re- 
whole  procefs,  John  Stilen  is  the  perfon  fuppoled  to  main  on  the  efcutcheon,  v.ith  only  a  fmall  ieparalion 
liave  been  lail  aftually  feifed  of  the  eftatc.      For  if  ever     from  their  natural  places. 


it  comes  to  veil  in  any  other  perfon,  as  heir  to  John 
Stiles,  a  new  order  of  fneeeflion  mull  be  obferved  up- 
on the  death  of  fuch  heir;  fince  he,  by  liin  own  leiiln, 
now  becomes  himfelf  an  aneellor,  or  Jlijx-s,  and  mull 
be  put  in  the  place  of  John  Stiles.  The  ligures  there- 
fore denote  the  order  in  which  the  feveral  cla.Tes  would 
fuceeed  to  John  Stiles,  and  not  to  each  other  :  and  be- 
fore wc  fearch  for  an  heir  in  any  of  the  higher  ligures, 
(as  n°8.)  we  mull  be  livft  dfl'ured  that  all  the   lower 


DESIDERATUxM,  is  ufed  to  fignify  the  defna'Dlc 
perfections  in  any  art  cr  fcience:  thus,  it  is  a  dcfide- 
ratum  with  the  blackfmith,  to  render  iron  fufible  by  a 
gentle  heat,  and  yet  prelerve  it  hard  enough  for  ordi- 
nary ufcs;  with  the  glafpman  and  looking-glafs  ma- 
ker, to  render  glafs  malleable  ;  with  the  clock-maker, 
to  bring  pendulums  to  be  ufeful  where  there  are  irre- 
gular inoLions,   Sec. 

DESICtN,  in  a  general  fenfe,  the  plan,  order,  re- 


clafTes    (from  n^  I  to  7.)  were  extincl  at  John  Stiles's     prefentation,  or  conltruttion  of  a  building,  book,  paiut- 


deceafe. 

Descent,  or  Sncccffion,  in  the  law  of  Scotland.  See 
Law,  Part  II L  N"  clxxx.  clxxxi. 

Dehcekt  of  the  Croivn.     See  Succession. 

Descent  of  Dignities.  A  dignity  diOcrsfrom  com- 
mon inheritances,  and  goes  not  accordin.;  to  the  rules 
of  the  ciimmon  law:  for  it  defeends  to  the  halt-blood  ; 
and  there  is  no  coparcenerlhip  in  it,  but  the  eldell  takes 
the  whole.  Tlie  dignity  ot  peerage  is  pcrfonal,  an- 
nexed to  the  blood;  and  fo  infepara'ole,  that  it  cannot 
be  transferred  to  any  perion,  or  furrendered  even  to  the 


ing,  &c.  See  AacHiTKeTURE,  Painti.ng,  Poetry, 
Oratory,  and  History. 

Design,  in  the  manufactories,  exprelTcs  the  figures 
wherewith  the  workman  enriches  his  iUitT  or  filk,  and 
which  he  copies  after  fome  painter  or  eminent 
draughtfman,  as  in  diaper,  damaili,  and  other  flowered 
f)lk  and  tapeftry,  and  the  like. 

In  undertaking  of  fuch  kinds  of  figured  fluffs,  it  ia 
rtecefl'ary,  fays  Monf.  Sa\ary,  that,  before  the  iirfl 
ftroke  of  the  Ihuttle,  the  whole  difign  be  reprefented 
on  the  threads  of  the  warp,  we  do  not  mean   in  co- 


crown  :   it   can   move   neither  forwaid  nor  backward,  lours,  but  with  an  infinite  number  of  little  packthreads, 

but  only  downward  to  poflerity;  and  nothing  but  cor-  which,  being  dilpoiedlo  as  to  raiie  the  tlirtads  of  the 

joiption  of  blood,  as  if  the  anceftor  be  attainted  of  trea-  warp,  let  the  workmen  lee,  from  time   to   time,  what 

fon  or  felony,  can  hinder  the  defcent  to  the  right  heir,  kind  of  lilk  is  to  be  put  in  the  eye  of  the  ihcittle  for 

Descent,   in  genealogy,  the  order  or  fucceffion  of  woof.      This  method  of  preparing  the  work  is  c;dled 

defcendants  in  a  line  or  family  ;  or  their  diftance  from  leadiag  the  difign,   and  leading  the  figure,  wliicb  is  per- 

a  common  progenitor:  Thus  we  fay,  one  defcent,  two  formed  in  the  following  manner  ;   iV  paper  is  provided, 

defcents,  &c.  confiderably  broader  than   the  fluft",  and  of  a  length 

Descent,  in  heraldry,  is  ufed  to  exprefs  the  coming  proportionate  to   what  is  intended  to  be  reprefented 

down  of  any  thing  from  above  ;   as,  2i.]ion  en  defcent  k  thereon.   This  they  divide  lengthwife,  by  as  many  black 

a  lion  with  his  head  towards  the  bafe   points,   and  his  lines  as  there  are  intended  threads  in  the  warp  ;  and 

heels  towards  one  of  the  corners  of  the  chief,   as  if  he  crofs  thefe  lines,  by  others  drawn  breadthwile,  which, 

were  leaping  down  from  fome  high  place.  with  the  toiuier,  make  little  equal  Iquares  ;  on  the  pd- 

DESCHAMPS  (Francis),  a  French  poet,  born  in  per  thus  iquared,  the  draughtlman  deligns  his  ligures. 

Champagne,  was  the  author  of  a  tragedy  intitlcd  Cato  and  heightens  them  with  colours  as  he  fees  fit.      When 

of  EUica,  and  a  hillory   of  the   French  theatre.      He  the  delign  is  tinillied,  a  workman  reads  it,  wliile   ano- 


died  at  Paris  in  1747. 

DESCRIPTION,  in  literary  compofition,  is  fuch 
a  ftrong  and  beautiful  reprefentation  of  a  thing,  as 
gives  the  reader  a  diilinCl  view  and  fatisfaftory  notion 
of  it.      See  N'jKKjTiox  and  Defcriplion. 

DESEADA,  or  Desiderara,  one  of  the  Carib- 
bee  iflands,  fubjeft  to  France,  lying  eallward  of  Gua- 
daloupe. 

DESERT,  or  Desart.     See  Desart. 

DESERTER,  in  a  military  fenfe,  a  foldier  who, 
by  running  away  from  his  regiment  or  company,  a- 
bandons  the  fervice. 


ther  lays  it  on  the  iimblot. 

To  read  the  delign,  is  to  tell  the  perfon  who  ma- 
nages the  loom,  the  number  of  fquares  ot  threads  com- 
priled  in  the  fpace  he  is  reading,  intimating  at  the 
fame  time,  whether  it  is  ground  or  figure.  To  put  w'nat 
is  read  on  the  Iimblot,  is  to  fallen  little  firings  to  tlie 
feveral  packthreads,  which  are  to  raife  the  tiireads 
named  ;  and  this  they  continue  to  do  till  the  whole 
delign  is  read. 

Every  piece  being  compofed  of  feveral  repetitions  of 
the  fame  delign,  when  the  whole  delign  is  drawn,  the 
drawer,  to  re-begin  the  delign  afrelh,  has  nothing  to  do 


A  deferter  is,  by  the  articles  of  war,  puniflinblc  by     but  to  raife  the  hltle  filings,  with  flip-knots,  to  the 

J  t"P 


D     E     S  [77 

Dcr^n     top  of  the  fimblot,  which  he  had  let  down  to  the  bot- 

— 'v"*—  torn:  this  he  is  to  repeat  as  often  as  is  ncceflary  till  the 
vvliole  be  manufadluied. 

The  ribbon-weavers  have  likewife  a  defifcn,  but  far 
more  limple  than  that  now  defcribed.  It  is  drawn  on 
paper  with  lines  and  fquares,  rcprefentin^  the  threads^ 
of  the  warp  and  woof.  But  indead  of  linos,  whereof 
the  figures  of  the  former  confill,  thefe  are  conftitutcd 
of  points  only,  or  dots,  placed  in  certain  of  the  little 
fquares  formed  by  the  interfeition  of  the  lines.  Thefe 
points  mark  the  threads  of  the  warp  that  are  to  be  rai- 
fed,  and  the  fpaces  left  bknk  denote  the  threads  that 
are  to  keep  their  fituation  :  the  reft  is  managed  as  in 
the  former. 

Design-  is  alfo  ufed.  In  painting,  for  the  firft  idea 
of  a  large  work,  dtawn  roughly,  and  in  little,  with  an 
intention  to  be  executed  and  finilhed  in  large. 

In  this  fenfe,  it  is  the  fimple  contour  or  outlines 
of  the  figures  intended  to  be  icprefcnted,  or  the  lines 
that  terminate  and  circumfcribe  them:  fuch  defign  is 
fometimes  drawn  in  crayons  or  ink,  without  any  (ha- 
dows  at  all  ;  fometimes  it  is  hatched,  that  is,  the  fha- 
dows  are  exprefTed  by  fcnfible  outlines,  ufually  drawn 
acrofs  each  other  with  the  pen,  crayon,  or  graver. 
Sometimes,  agsin,  the  Ihadows  are  done  v.'ith  the  cray- 
on rubbed  fo  as  that  there  do  not  appear  any  lines  : 
at  other  times,  the  grains  or  ftroke  of  the  crayon  ap- 
pear, as  not  being  rubbed  :  fometimes  the  defign  is 
w'afhed,  that  is,  the  ftadows  are  done  with  a  pencil  hi 
Indian  ink,  or  fomc  Mber  liquor  ;  and  fometimes  the 
defign  is  coloured,  th;.t  is,  colours  are  l.iid  on  much 
like  thofe  intended  for  the  grand  work. 

DrsIGN,  in  mufic,  is  )ullly  defined  by  RoufiTcau 
to  be  the  invention  and  the  conduft  of  the  fubjett,  the 
difpofitfon  of  every  part,  and  the  general  order  of  the 
whole. 

It  is  not  fufficitnt  to  form  beautiful  airs,  and  a  le- 
gitimate harmony  ;  all  thefe  mult  be  connecled  by  a 
principal  fiibjed:,  to  which  all  the  parts  of  the  work 
relate,  and  by  which  they  become  one.  Thus  unity 
ought  to  prevail  in  the  air,  in  the  "movement,  in  the 
charafter.  in  the  harmony,  and  in  the  modulation.  All 
thefe  muft  indifpenfably  relate  to  one  conim'on  idea 
which  unites  thtm.  The  greateft  difficiilty  is,  to  recon- 
cile the  obfervation  of  thofe  precepts  with  an  elegant 
■»aritty.  which,  if  not  introduced,  renders  the  whole 
piece  irkfome  and  nionotonic.  Without  queftion,  the 
ftiufician,  as  well  as  the  poet  and  the  painter,  may  rifk 
every  thing  in  favour  of  this  delightful  varictj'  ;  if, 
Biider  the  pretext  of  contrafting,  they  do  not  endea- 
vour to  cheat  us  with  falfe  appearances,  and  inllead  of 
pieces  jnttly  and  happily  planned,  prefent  us  with  a 
Diufical  minced  meat,  compofed  of  little  abortive  fiag- 
iments,  and  of  characttis  fo  mcompatible,  that  the  whole 
alTemblcd  forms  a  heterogeneous  monfter. 

Jv'otT  Nt ptfit'i/is  coeartt  immtfia^  nori  ut 

Tranflated  thus  : 

But  not  that  natiirf  ilioiild  rever^M  appear; 
Mix  mild  wltli  fierce,  anj  pintie  wiilj  fevtre; 
Prnfane  her  law<  to  conirariiftion'-  hfghf  ; 
'f  yf,ers  with  lijnibs,  with  lcr)icnts  biiij  unite. 

It  Is  therefore  in  a  diftiibution  formed  with  intel- 
ligence and  tafte,  in  a  jult  proportion  between  all  the 
parts,  that  the  perftdion  of  defign  coaliils ;  and  it  is 


J     ]  D    E    S 

above  all,  in  this  point,  that  the  immorts'  Pergolcfohas  Defigna- 
fhown  his  jud-^ment  and   his  tafte,  and  has  left  fo  far       ''"" 
behind   him  ail  his   competitors.      His   Slalmt  Muler,     p,  'J,^, 
his  Orfeo,  his  Servn  P/rJrotia,  are,  in  three  difierent  ""p"  ■        ^     "r 
cies  of  compoiition,  three  malUrpieces  of  J^ign  equal- 
ly perfeft. 

This  idea  of  the  general  defign  of  a  work  is  like- 
wife  particularly  applicable  to  every  piece  of  which 
It  conlifts  ;  thus  the  compofer  phins  an  air,  a  duett, 
a  chorus,  &c.  For  this  purpofe,  after  hr.ving  invent- 
ed his  fubjed,  he  dillributes  it,  according  to  the  rules 
of  a  legitimate  modulation,  into  all  the  parts  where  it 
ought  to  be  perceived,  in  fuch  a  proportion,  that  its 
impivflion  may  not  be  lotl  on  the  minds  of  the  audi- 
ence ;  yet  that  it  may  never  be  reiterated  in  their  ears, 
without  the  graces  of  novelty.  The  compofer  errs  in 
defigning  who  fuftVr.';  his  fubjett:  to  be  forgot;  he  is 
ftill  mere  culpable  who  purfues  it  till  it  becomes  trite 
and  tirefome. 

DESIGNATION,  the  ad  of  marking  or  indi- 
cating, and  making  a  thing  known.  The  defignation 
of  fuch  an  cllatc  is  made  by  the  tenants,  butments,  and 
boundings.  Among  the  Romans,  there  were  defi'iia- 
tions  of  the  confuls  and  other  raagiftratcs,  fome  tim.e 
before  their  eleftion. 

DESIGNATOR,  a  Roman  officer,  who  adlgned 
and  marked  each  perfon  his  place  and  rank  in  public 
ceremonies,  fiiows,  proceffions,  &c.  The  word  Is 
formed  from  the  verb  difii^nare,  to  defign. 

The  defignator  was  a  kind  of  marflial,  or  matler  of 
the  ceremonies,  who  regulated  the  feats,  march,  order, 
&c.  There  were  defignators  at  funeral  folemnities, 
and  at  the  games,  theatres,  and  fliows,  who  not  only 
affigned  every  one  his  place,  but  alfo  led  him  to  it ;  as 
appears  fiom  the  prologue  to  the  Pcenulus  of  Plautus. 
Much  of  the  fame  nature  were  the  agciwlhetct  of  the 
Greeks. 

DESIGNING,  the  art  of  delineating  or  drawing 
the  appearance  of  natural  objeds,  bylines,  on  a  plane. 
To  defign,  according  to  the  rules  of  mathematics, 
makes  the  object  of  perfpeftive.     See  Perspective. 

DESPORTES  (Francis),  a  French  painter  of  the 
i8th  century,  was  born  in  Champagne  in  16^1.  He 
acquired  great  reputation,  not  only  in  France,  but  in 
England  and  Poland  :  he  particularly  excelled  in  ftill 
life.  He  was  received  into  the  academy  of  painting, 
made  piAures  for  the  tapeftry  of  the  Gobelins,  and 
died  at  Paris  in  1743. 

DESPOT,  a  terra  fometimes  ufed  for  ^n  abfolutc 
prince:  (fee  the  next  article).  Tlie  word,  in  its  firit 
origin,  fignified  the  fame  with  the  Latin  hems,  and 
the  Englidi  majltr  :  but  in  time  it  underwent  the  fame 
fate  on  medals,  as,  among  the  Latins,  C* far  did  with  re- 
gard to  Auguftus;  BACi,\ETCanfweringtoAuguftus,  and 
AKCnoTHC,  f/^f/fj-,  to  Ca-far.  See  C^s.^r.  Thus,  Ni- 
cephorus  having  ordered  his  fon  Stauracius  to  be  crown- 
ed, the  fon,  out  of  refpcft,  would  only  take  the  name 
AKCnoTHC,  leaving  to  his  father  that  of  saCiaetC. 
For  it  is  to  be  noted,  that  it  was  juft  about  the  time 
that  the  emperors  began  to  ceafe  to  ufe  Latin  infcrip- 
tions.  This  delicacy,  however,  did  not  laft  long  ;  for 
the  following  emperors  preferred  the  quality  of  aeC- 
noTHC  to  that  of  B.iCiAETC,  particularly  Conftan- 
tine,  Michael  Ducas,  Nicephorus  Botoniates,  Roma- 
nus  Diogenes,  the  Comnciii,  and  fome  others.     In 

imitatloa 


D    E     S 


Defpot 

H 

Dcfultor. 


imitation  of  the  princes,    the  princefles  likewlfe  af- 
fumed  the  title  of  AECnoiNA. 

It  was  the  emperor  Alexius,  furnamed  the  Angel, 
that  created  the  dignity  of  defpot,  and  made  it  the 
firft  after  that  of  emperor,  above  that  of  Auguftus  or 
Sebaftocrator  and  Casfar.     See  August. 

The  defpots  were  ufually  the  emperors  fons  or  fons- 
in-law,  and  their  colleagues  or  copartners  in  the  empire, 
as  well  as  their  prefumptive  heirs.  The  defpots  that 
were  fons  of  the  emperors  had  more  privileges  and 
authority  than  thofe  that  were  only  fons-in-law.  Co- 
din,  p.  38.  defcribes  the  habit  and  ornaments  of  the 
defpot.  See  the  notes  of  father  Gear  on  that  author. 
Under  the  fucceffors  of  Conftantine  the  Great,  the  title 
defpot  of  Sparta  was  given  to  the  emperor's  fon  or  bro- 
ther, who  had  the  city  of  Sparta  or  Lacedemon  by 
way  of  apannege. 

Despot  is  at  prefent  a  title  of  quality  given  to 
VVallachia,  Servia,  and  fonie  of  the  neighbouring 
countries. 

DESPOTICAL,  in  general,  denotes  any  thing 
that  is  uncontrolled  and  abfolute  ;  but  is  particularly 
uied  for  an  arbitrary  government,  where  the  power  of 
the  prince  is  unlimited,  and  his  will  a  law  to  his  fub- 
jeCls  :  fuch  are  thofe  of  Turky,  Perfia,  and  moft  of 
the  eaftern  governments  ;  and  even  thofe  of  Europe, 
if  we  except  the  republics,  our  own,  and  of  late  the 
French  government. 

DESPOUILI.E,  in  heraldry,  the  whole  cafe,  flcln, 
or  flough  of  a  beaft,  with  the  head,  feet,  tail,  and  all 
appurtenances,  fo  that  being  filled  and  Huffed  it  looks 
like  the  entire  creature. 

DESPREAUX.     See  Boileau. 
DESSAW,  a  city  of  Upper  Saxony,  in  Germany, 
fituated  on  the  river  Elbe,  60  miles  north-weft  of  Dref- 
den,  and  fubjcft  to  the  prince  of  Anhalt  Deffaw.     E. 
Long.  12.  40.  N.  Lat.  51.  50. 

DESSERT,  or  Desert,  a  fervice  of  fruits  and 
fwcetmeats,  ufually  ferved  up  laft  to  table. 

DESSICCATIVE,  or  Desiccative,  in  pharmacy, 
an  epithet  applied  to  fuch  topical  medicines  as  dry  up 
the  humours  flowing  to  a  wound  or  ulcer. 

DESTINIES,  in  mythology.      See  Parc«. 
DESTINY,  among  philofophers  and  divines.     See 
Fate. 

DESTRUCTION,  in  general,  an  alteration  of  any 
thing  from  its  natural  ftate  to  one  contrary  to  nature  ; 
whereby  it  is  deemed  the  fame  with  Corruption. 

A  chemical  dellruition,  or  corruption,  is  nothing 
but  a  refolution  of  the  whole  naturally  mixt  body  into 
its  parts. 

DESUDATION,  in  medicine,  a  profufe  and  inor- 
dinate fweat,  fucceeded  by  an  eruption  of  puilides, 
called yi///^m/«rt,  or  heat  pimples. 

DESULTOR,  in  antiquity,  a  vaulter  or  leaper, 
who,  leading  one  horfe  by  the  bridle,  and  riding  ano- 
ther, jumped  from  the  back  of  one  to  the  other,  as  the 
cuftom  was  after  they  had  run  fevcral  couries  or  heats. 
— This  practice  required  great  dexterity,  being  per- 
formed before  the  ufe  of  either  faddles  or  ftirrups. 
The  cuftom  was  praclifed  in  the  army  when  neceffity 
required  it  ;  but  chiefly  amongft  the  Numidians,  who 
always  carried  with  tliem  two  horfes  at  leaft  for  that 
purpofe,  changing  them  as  they  tired.  Tlie  Greeks 
and  Romans  borrowed  the  pradlice  from  them  ;  but 
only  ufed  it  at  races,  games,  &c.     The  Sarmatx  were 


[      776      ] 


D    E    T 


great  matters  of  this  exercife,  and  the  HulTars  have    Detach- 
(till  fome  fmall  remains  of  it.  VL\tM, 

DETACHMENT,    in  military  affairs,  a  certain         H 
number  of  foldiera  drawn  out  from  feveral  regiments  or    ^"^^"      . 
companies  equally,  to  be  employed  as  the  general  thinks 
proper,  whether  on  an  attack,  at  a  fiege,  or  in  parties 
to  fcour  the  country. 

DETENTION  (from  det\neo  "  I  detain"),  the  pof- 
felTion  or  holding  of  lands,  or  the  like,  from  fome 
other  claimant.  The  word  is  cliiefly  ufed  in  an  ill 
fenfe,  for  an  unjuft  with-holding,  &c. 

DETENTS,  in  a  clock,  are  thofe  ftops  which,  by 
being  lifted  up  or  let  fall  down,  lock  and  unlock  the 
clock  in  ftriking. 

DETENT-lVheel,  or  Hoop-'wheel,  in  a  clock,  that  wheel 
•which  has  a  hoop  almoft  round  it,  wherein  there  is  a 
vacancy,  at  which  the  clock  locks. 

DETERGENTS,  in  pharmacy,  fuch  medicines  as 
are  not  only  foftening  and  adhefive,  but  alfo,  by  a  pe- 
culiar attivity,  conjoined  with  a  fuitable  configuration 
of  parts,  are  apt  to  abrade  and  carry  along  with  them 
fuch  particles  as  they  lay  hold  on  in  their  paffage. 

DETERIORATION,  the  impairing  or  render- 
ing any  thing  worfe  :  it  is  juft  the  reverfe  of  meliora- 
tion. 

DETERMINATION,  in  mechanics,  Cgnifiesmuch 
the  fame  with  the  tendency  or  direftion  of  a  body  in 
motion.     See  Mechanics. 

Determination,  among  fchool-divines,  is  an  aft  of 
divine  power,  limiting  the  agency  ef  fecond  caufes,  in 
every  inftance,  to  what  the  Deity  predeftinated  con- 
cerning them.     See  Predestination. 

DETERSIVES,  the  fame  with  Detergents. 
DETINUE,  in  law,  a  writ  or  aftion  that  lies  againft 
one  who  has  got  goods  or  other  things  delivered  to  him 
to  keep,  and  afterwards  refufes  to  deliver  them. — In 
this  action,  the  thing  detained  is  generally  to  be  re- 
covered, and  not  damages ;  but  if'  one  cannot  recover 
the  thing  itfelf,  he  (hall  recover  damages  for  the  thing, 
and  alfo  for  the  detainer.  Detinue  lies  for  any  thing 
certain  and  valuable,  wherein  one  may  have  a  property 
or  right  ;  as  for  a  horfe,  cow,  (heep,  hens,  dogs,  jew- 
els, plate,  cloth,  bags  of  money,  facks  of  corn,  &c.  It 
muft  be  laid  fo  certain,  that  the  thing  detained  may  be 
known  and  recovered  :  and  therefore,  for  money  out  of 
a  bag,  or  corn  out  of  a  fack,  &c.  it  lies  not  ;  for  the 
money  or  corn  cannot  in  this  cafe  be  known  from  other 
money  or  corn  ;  fo  that  the  party  muft  have  an  atlion 
on  the  cafe,  &c.  Yet  detinue  may  be  brought  for 
a  piece  of  gold  of  the  price  of  22  s.  though  not  for 
22  s.  in  money. 

DETONATION,  in  chemiftry,  fignihes  an  explo- 
fion  with  noife  made  by  the  fudden  inflammation  of 
fome  combullible  body :  Such  are  the  explofions  of 
gim-po'u.'der,  fulminating  gold,  and  fulminating  pozuder. 
As  nitre  is  the  caufe  of  moft  explofions,  the  word  de- 
tonation has  been  appropriated  to  the  inflammation  of 
the  acid  of  this  fait  with  bodies  containing  pfilogifton  ; 
and  it  is  frequently  given  to  thofe  inflammations  of 
nitrous  acid  which  are  not  accompanied  with  expiofion. 
Thus  nitre  is  faid  to  detonate  with  iulphur,  with  coals, 
with  metals  ;  although  in  the  ordinary  method  of  ma- 
king thefe  operations,  that  is,  in  open  crucibles,  and 
with  fmall  quantities  of  detonating  fubftances,  the  nitre 
does  not  truly  explode.     See  Nitre. 

DF.TRANCHE,    in  heraldry,   a  line  bend-wife, 

pro- 


D    E    U  [777 

Dettinpen  proceeding  always  from  the  dexter-fide,  but  not  from 

II         the  vei-y  angle  diagonally  athwart  the  (likld. 
g'"""""-.       DETTINGEN,  a  village  of  Germany,  in  the  circle 
'  of  the  Upper  Rhine,   and   in  the  territory  of  Hanau. 

Here  the  Aullrians  and  the  Britifli,  in  June  I743» 
were  attacked  by  the  French,  wh()  met  with  a  repulfe  ; 
but  as  the  allies  were  inferior  in  number,  they  could 
not  make  the  advantage  of  it  they  might  otherwife 
have  done.      E.  Long.  8.  45.   N.  Lat.  jo.  8. 

DEVA,  or  Deuna  (anc.  geog.),  a  town  of  the 
Cornavii  in  Britain.  Now  Che/hr,  on  the  Dee.  W. 
Long.  3.   Lat.  53.  15. 

DEUCALEDONIUS  Oceanus,  or  (which  comes 
nearer  the  original  pronunciation)  Duacnledoaius,  fo 
called  from  Duiih  Giiel,  the  northern  Highlanders :  the 
fea  on  the  north-well  of  Scotland. 

DEUCALION,  king  of  Theflaly.  The  flood  faid 
to  have  happened  in  his  tin-.e  (ijcoB.  C),  is  fup- 
pofed  to  have  been  only  an  inundation  of  that  conn- 
try,  occafioned  by  heavy  rains,  and  an  earthquake 
that  Hopped  the  courfe  of  the  river  Peneus  where  it 
ufually  difcharged  itfelf  into  the  fea.  On  thefe  cir- 
cumftances  the  fable  of  Deucalion's  flood  is  founded. 
— According  to  the  fable,  he  was  the  fon  of  Prome- 
theus. He  governed  his  people  with  equity  ;  but  the 
reft  of  mankind  being  extremely  wicked,  were  de- 
ttroyed  by  a  flood,  while  Deucalion  and  Pyrrha  his 
queen  faved  themidves  by  afcendiug  mount  Parna.Tus. 
When  the  waters  were  decreaftd,  they  went  and  con- 
fulted  the  oracle  of  Themis,  on  the  means  by  which 
the  earth  was  to  be  repeopled  ;  when  they  were  order- 
ed to  veil  their  heads  and  faces,  to  unloofe  their  girdles, 
and  throw  behind  their  backs  the  bones  of  their  great 
mother.  At  this  advice  Pyrrha  was  feized  with  hor- 
ror :  but  Deucalion  explained  the  myftery,  by  obfer- 
ving,  that  their  great  mother  mu(l  mean  the  earth, 
and  her  bones  the  ftones  ;  when  taking  them  up,  thofe 
Jieucalion  threw  over  his  head  became  men,  and  thofe 
thrown  by  Pyrrha,  women. 

Some  have  fuppofed  that  Deucalion,  whom  the 
Greeks  have  reprefented  under  a  variety  of  charafters, 
and  concerning  whom  their  poets  have  given  many  fa- 
bulous accounts,  was  the  fame  with  the  patriarch 
Noah  ;  and  that  Deucalion's  flood  in  Theffaly,  as  well 
as  that  of  Ogyges  in  Attica,  and  of  Prometheus  In 
Egypt,  were  the  fame  with  that  of  Noah  recorded  In 
fcripture.  DIodorus  SIculus  exprefsly  fays,  that  in 
the  deluge  which  happened  In  the  time  of  Deucalion 
almcil  all  flefl^  died.  Apollodorus  having  mentioned 
Deucalion  it-\cif,xy.i,  "  coniigned  to  an  ark,"  takes  no- 
tice, upon  his  quitting  it,  of  his  offtring  up  an  imme- 
diate facrifire,  A.ifu|..-,  "to  the  Gtid  who  delivered 
him."  As  he  was  the  father  of  all  mankind,  the  an- 
cients have  given  him  great  dignity  and  univerfal  mo- 
narchy ;  though  fonietimes  he  is  leduced  to  a  petty 
king  of  Theflaly.  Apollonius  Rhodius  makes  him  a 
native  of  Greece,  and  the  fon  of  Prometheus.  We 
may  learn,  however,  from  their  confufed  hiftory,  that 


1 


D    E    V 


But  as  Luclan  has  given  us  the  moll  particular  hiftory 
of  the  deluge,  and  that  which  comes  nearcft  to  the 
account  given  by  Mofes  ;  and  as  he  was  a  native  of 
Samofata,  a  city  of  Commagcne  upon  the  Euphiates, 
a  part  of  the  world  where  memorials  of  the  deluge 
were  particularly  preferved,  and  where  an  obvious  re- 
ference to  that  luftory  may  be  ohferved  in  the  rites 
and  worlhip  of  the  country,  wc  fliall  give  the  follow^ 
ing  extraft  of  what  he  fays  on  the  fubjeft.  Having 
dcfcribed  Noah  under  the  name  of  Deucalion,  he  fays, 
that  the  prtfent  race  of  mankind  arc  different  from 
thofe  who  firft  exifted  ;  for  thofe  of  the  antediluvian 
world  were  all  deftroyed.  The  prefent  world  is  peo- 
pled from  the  fons  of  Deucalion  ;  having  increafcd  to 
fo  great  a  number  from  one  perfon.  In  refpeft  to  the 
former  brood,  they  were  men  of  violence,  and  lawlefs 
In  their  dealings.  They  regarded  not  oatlis,  nor  ob- 
ferved  the  rites  of  hofpltallty,  nor  fliowed  mercy  to 
thofe  who  fued  for  It.  On  this  account  they  were 
doomed  to  deltruftion  ;  and  for  this  purpofe  there  waS 
a  mighty  eruption  of  waters  from  the  earth,  attended 
with  heavy  lliowers  from  above ;  fo  that  the  rivers 
fwelled,  and  the  fea  overflowed,  till  the  whole  earth 
was  covered  with  a  flood,  and  all  flefli  drowned.  Deu- 
calion alone  was  preferved  to  rcpeople  the  world.  This 
mercy  was  fhown  to  him  on  account  of  his  juflice  and 
piety.  His  prefervation  was  eflefted  in  this  manner  : 
he  put  all  his  family,  both  his  Tons  and  their  wives, 
Into  a  valt  ark  which  he  had  provided,  and  he  went 
Into  It  himfelf.  At  the  fame  time  animals  of  every 
fpecies,  boars,  horfes,  lions,  ferpents,  whatever  lived 
upon  the  face  of  the  earth,  followed  him  by  pairs  ; 
all  which  he  received  into  the  ark,  and  experienced  no 
evil  from  them  ;  for  there  prevailed  a  wonderful  har- 
mony throughout  by  the  immediate  influence  of  the 
Deity.  Thus  were  they  wafted  with  him  as  lon^  as 
the  flood  endured.  After  this  he  proceeds  to  mention, 
th;it  upon  the  difappearlng  of  the  waters  Deucalion 
went  forth  from  the  ark  and  ralfed  an  altar  to  God. 

Dr  Bryant  produces  a  variety  of  monuments  th^t 
bear  an  obvious  reference  to  the  deluge  in  the  Gentile 
lilfl;ory,  befides  this  account  of  Deucalion  and  his 
flood,  Analyfis  of  Ancient  Mythology,  vol.  II.  p. 
193-250. 

DEVENSHRING.     See  Devon-sheering. 

DEVENTER,  a  large,  ftrong,  trading,  and  popu- 
lous  town  of  the  United  Provinces  in  Ovei-yflel,  with 
an  unlverfity.  It  is  furrounded  with  ftrong  walls, 
flanked  with  feveral  towers,  and  with  ditches  full  of 
water.  It  is  feited  on  the  river  Iflel,  55  miles  eaft  of 
Amfterdam,  and  42  weft  of  Benthem.  E.  Long.  5.  8. 
N.  Lat.  52.  18. 

DEVEREUX  (Robert),  earl  of  Eft-ex,  the  fon  of 
Walter  Devereiix,  vifcount  Hereford,  was  born  at  Ne- 
thenvood  in  Hereforddiire,  in  the  year  1567.  He 
fucc -eded  to  the  title  of  earl  of  Elfex  at  ten  years  of 
age  ;  and  about  two  years  after,  was  fent,  by  his  guar- 
dian lord  Burleigh,  to  Trinity-college  In  Cambridge, 
the  perfon  reprefented  was   the   iirft  of  men,  through     He  took  the  degiee  of  mafter  of  arts  in  1582,  and  foon 

after  retired  to   his  feat  at  Lampfie  in  South-Wales. 


Deucalion 

H 
Devereur. 

ria .  voL  ii. 
p  8Sz* 


whom  religious  rltfs  were  renewed,  cities  built,  and 
civil  polity  ellablilhed  in  the  world  :  none  of  which 
circumftanccs  are  applicable  to  any  king  of  Greece. 
Philo  aftures  he,  that  the  Grecians  call  the  perfon 
Deucalion,  but  the  Chaldeans  ftyle  him  Noe,  in  whofe 
time  there  happened  the  great  eruption  »f  waters. 
Vot.V.  PartIL 


He  did  not  however  continue  long  in  this  retreat;  for 
we  iind  him,  in  his  feventeenth  year,  at  the  court  of 
queen  Elizabeth,  who  Immediately  honoured  him  with 
Angular  marks  of  her  favour.  Authors  feem  very 
unneccflfarily  perplexed  to  account  for  this  young  earl'j 
5  F  gracious 


D     E     V 


I     778     ] 


D     E    V 


Beveieuv.  giacioiis  reception  at  the  court  of  Elizaheth.     The 
.^"""v"-""  reafons  are  obvious:  he  was  her  relation,  the  foil  of  one 
of  her  mod  faithful  fervants,  the  fon-in-law  of  her  fa- 
vourite  I^eicefter,   and  a  veiy  hanjfome  and  accom- 
plilhed  youth.      Towards  the   end    of  (the   following 
.     year)  1585,  he  attended  the  earl  of  Leicefter  to  Hol- 
■  land ;  and  gave   fignal  proofs  of  his  perfonal  courage 
during  the  campaign  of  1586,  particularly  at  the  battle 
of  Zutphen,  where  the   gallant   Sidney  was  mortally 
rvounded.     On  this  occafxon  the  earl  of  Leiceller  con- 
ferred on  him  the  honour  of  knight  banneret. 

In  the  year  15S7,  Leicefter  being  appointed  lord 
fteward  of  the  houfehold,  EffeK  fucceeded  him  in  the 
honourable  poll  of  mafter  of  the  horfe  ;  and  the  year 
following,  when  the  queen  affembled  an  army  at  Til- 
bury to  oppofe  the  Spanilh  invafion,  ElTex  was  made 
general  of  the  horfe.  From  this  time  he  was  confidered 
as  the  happy  favourite  of  the  queen.  And,  if  there 
was  any  mark  yet  wanting  to  fix  the  people's  opinion 
in  that  refpedl,  it  was  Oiown  by  the  queen's  conferring 
on  him  the  honour  of  the  garter. 

We  need  not  wonder,  that  fo  quick  an  elevation,  and 
to  fo  great  a  height,  fiiould  affeft  fo  young  a  man  as 
the  earl  of  Eflex ;  who  (hovved  from  henceforwards  a 
very  high  fpirit,  and  often  behaved  petulantly  enough 
to  the  queen  herfelf,  who  yet  did  not  love  to  be  con- 
trolled by  her  fubjefts.  His  eagernefs  about  this  time 
to  difpute  her  favour  with  Sir  Charles  Blunt,  afterwards 
lord  Montjoy  and  earl  of  Devonfliire,  coil  him  fome 
blood  ;  for  Sir  Charles,  thinking  himfelf  affronted  by 
the  earl,  challenged  him,  and  after  a  (hort  difpute, 
wounded  him  in  the  knee.  The  queen,  fo  far  from 
being  difpleafed  with  it,  is  faid  to  have  fworn  a  good 
round  oath,  that  it  was  fit  fomebody  fhould  take  him 
dov.'n,  otherwife  there  would  be  no  ruling  him.  How- 
ever, (he  reconciled  the  rivals;  who,  to  their  honour, 
continued  good  friends  as  long  as  they  lived. 

The  gallant  Effex,  however,  was  not  fo  entirely  cap- 
tivated with  his  fit\iation,  as  to  become  inftnfible  to  the 
allurements  of  military  glory.  In  1589,  Sir  John 
Norris  and  Sir  Francis  Drake  having  failed  on  an  ex- 
pedition againft  Spain,  our  young  favourite,  without 
the  pcrmiffion  or  knowledge  of  his  royal  miftrefs,  fol- 
lowed the  fleet  ;  which  he  joined  as  they  were  failing 
towards  Lifbon,  and  afted  with  ^eat  refolution  in  the 
repulfe  of  the  Spanifli  garrifon  of  that  city.  The  queen 
wrote  him  a  very  fevere  letter  on  the  occafion ;  but  (he 
was,  after  his  return,  foon  appeafed.  Yet  it  was  not 
long  before  he  again  incurred  her  difpleafure,  by  mar- 
rying the  widow  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney.  In  1591,  he 
was  fent  to  France  with  the  command  of  4000  men 
to  the  affiftance  of  Henry  IV.  In  1 596,  he  was  joined 
with  the  lord  high  admiral  Howard  in  the  command 
«f  the  famous  expedition  againft  Cadiz,  the  fuccefs  of 
■which  is  univerfally  known.  In  I597»  he  was  ap- 
pointed mafter  of  the  ordnance  ;  and  the  fame  year 
commanded  another  expedition  againft  Spain,  called 
the  IJland  -voyage,  the  particulars  of  which  are  alfo  well 
known. 

Soon  after  his  return,  he  was  created  earl  marfhal  of 
England;  and  on  the  death  of  the  great  lord  Burleigh, 
in  1598,  eleftcd  chancellor  of  the  univerfity  of  Cam- 
bridge. This  is  reckoned  one  of  the  laft  inftances  of 
this  great  man's  felicity,  who  was  now  advanced  too 
high  to  lit  at  cafe  ;  and  thofe  who  longed  for  his  ho- 


nours and  employments,  very  clofcly  applied  them-  Devtreui. 
felves  to  bring  about  his  fall.  The  firft  great  fliock  he  "~"^  { 
received,  in  regard  to  the  queen's  favour,  arofe  from  a 
warm  difpute  between  her  majefty  and  himfelf,  about 
the  choice  of  fome  fit  and  able  perfons  to  fuperintend 
the  affairs  of  Ii'cland.  The  affair  is  related  by  Cam- 
den ;  who  tells  us,  that  nobody  was  prefent  but  the 
lord  admiral.  Sir  Robert  Cecil  fecretary,  and  Winde- 
bank  clerk  of  the  feal.  The  queen  looked  upon  Sir 
William  Knolls,  uncle  to  Effex,  as  the  moil  proper 
perfon  for, that  charge:  Effex  contended,  that  Sir 
George  Carcw  was  a  much  fitter  man  for  It.  When 
the  queen  could  not  be  perfnaded  to  approve  his  choice, 
he  fo  far  forgot  himfelf  and  his  duty,  as  to  turn  his 
back  upon  her  in  a  contemptuous  manner ;  which  in- 
folencc  her  majefty  not  being  able  to  bear,  gave  him  a 
box  on  the  ear,  and  bid  him  go  and  be  hanged.  Effex, 
like  a  blockhead,  put  his  hand  to  his  fword,  and  fwore 
revenge.  Where  was  his  gallantry  on  this  occafion  ? 
Could  a  ttroke  from  an  angry  woman  tinge  the  honour 
of  a  gallant  foldier?  This  violent  ftorm,  however,  foon 
fubfided  :  and  they  were  again  reconciled,  at  leaft  ap- 
parently. 

The  total  reduction  of  Ireland  being  brought  upon 
the  tapis  foon  after,  the  earl  was  pitched  upon  as  the 
only  man  from  whom  it  could  be  expciled.  This  was 
an  artful  contrivance  of  his  enemies,  who  hoped  by  this 
means  to  ruin  him  ;  nor  were  their  expeftations  dif- 
appointed.  He  declined  this  fatal  preferment  as  long 
as  he  could  :  but,  perceiving  that  he  fliould  have  no 
quiet  at  home,  he  accepted  it ;  and  his  commifGon  for 
lord  lieutenant  pafted  the  great  feal  on  the  1 2th  of 
March  1598.  His  enemies  now  began  to  infinuate, 
that  he  had  fought  this  command,  for  the  fake  of 
greater  things  which  he  then  was  meditating ;  but 
there  is  a  letter  of  his  to  the  queen,  preferved  in  the 
Harleian  coUeftions,  which  fhows,  that  he  was  fo  far 
from  entering  upon  it  with  alacrity,  that  he  looked 
upon  it  rather  as  a  banilliment,  and  a  place  afligned  him 
for  a  retreat  from  his  fovereign's  difpleafure,  than  a 
potent  government  bellowed  upon  him  by  her  favour. 
"  To  the  ^een.  From  a  mind  delighting  in  forrow; 
"  from  fpirits  walled  with  paffion  ;  from  a  heart  torn  in 
"  pieces  with  care,  grief,  and  travail;  from  a  man  that 
"  hateth  himfelf,  and  all  things  fife  that  keep  him  alive; 
"  what  fervice  can  your  majefty  expeA,  fince  any  fer- 
"  vice  part  deferves  no  more  than  baniftiment  and  pro- 
"  fcription  to  the  curfedeft  of  all  iflands :  It  is  your 
"  rebels  pride  and  fucceffion  muft  give  me  leave  to  ran- 
"  fom  myfelf  out  of  this  hateful  prifon,  out  of  my 
"  loathed  body  ;  which,  if  it  happen  fo,  your  majefty 
"  ftrall  have  no  caufe  to  miilikc  the  fafliion  of  my  death, 
"  fince  the  courfe  of  my  life  could  never  pleafe  you. 

"  Happy  he  cimld  fmifli  forth  his  fate, 
"  In  fome  unhauiited  defart  mod  obfcurc 

•*  From  all  focicty,  from  love  and  hate 
"  Of  worldly  folk;   then  fhould  he  flcep  feciire. 

"  Then  wake  again,  and  yield  God  ever  praife, 
"  Content  with  hips,  and  hawes,  and  bramhieberry; 

"  In  contemplation  paffing  out  his  days, 
"  And  change  of  holy  though.s  to  make  himmerry. 

"  Who,  when  he  dies,  his  tomb  may  be  a  bu(h 
"  Where  harralcfs  robin  dwells  with  gentle  thrufh. 

"'Your  Majelly's  exiled  fervant,. 

"  Robert  Esses." 
The, 


D     E    V  [7 

Der'ereux.  The  earl  met  with  nothing  ia  Ireland  but  ill  fuc- 
^— -»—  cefs  and  crofTcs:  in  the  midlt  of  which,  an  army  was 
fuddunly  raifcd  in  England,  under  the  command  of  tlie 
earl  of  Nottingham  ;  nobody  well  knowing  why,  but 
in  reality  from  the  fujrgeftions  of  the  earl's  enemies  to 
the  queen,  that  lie  rather  meditated  an  invafion  on  his 
native  country,  than  the  redudlion  of  the  Iridi  rebels. 
This  and  otlier  conlidcrations  made  him  refolve  to  quit 
his  poft,  and  come  over  to  England;  which  he  ac- 
cordingly did  without  leave.  He  burl!  into  her  ma- 
jefty's  bed-chamber  as  (he  was  rlfing,  and  (lie  received 
him  with  a  mixture  of  tendcrnefs  and  feverii)- :  but  (he, 
foon  after,  thought  fit  to  deprive  him  of  all  his  em- 
ployments, except  tliat  of  mailer  of  the  horf^.  He  was 
committed  to  tiie  cullody  of  the  lord-keeper,  with 
whom  he  continued  fix  months.  No  fooner  had  he  re- 
gained his  liberty,  than  he  was  guilty  of  many  extra- 
vagancies ;  to  which  he  was  inftigated  by  knaves  and 
fools,  but  perhaps  more  powerfully  by  his  own  pailions. 
He  firft  determined  to  obtain  an  audience  of  the  queen 
by  force.  He  rcfufed  to  attend  the  council  when  fum- 
nioned.  When  the  queen  fent  the  lord-keeper,  the 
lord  chief-jultice,  and  two  others,  to  know  his  grievan- 
ces, he  confined  them  ;  and  then  marched  with  his 
friends  into  the  city,  in  expeftation  that  the  people 
-  would  rife  in  hib  favour  ;  but  in  that  he  was  difap- 
pointed.  He  was  at  lad  befiegcd,  and  taken  in  his 
houfe  in  E.lfex-ftreet  ;  committed  to  ihe  tower;  tried 
by  his  peeis,  condemned,  and  executed.  Thus  did 
tliis  brave  man,  this  favourite  of  his  queen,  this  idol  of 
the  people,  fall  a  facrifice  to  his  want  of  that  difTimii- 
lation,  that  cunning,  that  court-policy,  by  wliich  his 
enemies  were  enabled  to  effedl  his  ruin.  He  was  a  po- 
lite fcholar,  and  a  generous  friend  to  literature. 

To  thofe  who  have  not  taken  the  trouble  to  confult 
and  compare  the  feveral  authors  who  have  related  the 
ftory  of  this  unfortunate  earl,  it  mull  appear  wonder- 
ful, if,  as  hath  been  fuggefted,  he  was  really  beloved 
by  queen  Ehzabeth,  that  flie  could  cotifent  to  his  exe- 
cution. Now  that  (he  had  conceived  a  tender  pafTion 
for  him,  is  proved  beyond  a  doubt  by  Mr  Walpole  in 
his  very  entertaining  and  inilrudlive  Catalogue  of  Nolle 
Authors. — "  I  am  aware  (fays  that  author)  that  it  is 
become  a  mode  to  treat  the  queen's  pa(rion  for  him  as 
a  romance.  Voltaire  laughs  at  it  ;  and  obferves,  that 
when  her  ftruggle  about  him  muft  liave  been  the  great- 
eft  (the  time  of  his  death),  (lie  was  fixty-eight Had 

he  been  fixty-eight,  it  is  probable  (lie  would  not  have 
been  in  love  with  him." — "  Whenever  ElTex  afted  a  fit 
of  ficknefs,  not  a  day  paffed  without  the  queen's  fend- 
ing often  to  fee  him  ;  and  once  went  fo  far  as  to  fit 
long  by  him,  and  order  his  broths  am/  things.  It  is  re- 
corded by  a  diligent  obferverof  that  court,  that  in  one 
of  his  fick  moods,  he  towk  the  liberty  of  going  up  to 
the  queen  in  his  night-gown.  In  the  height  of  thefe 
fretful  fooleries,  there  was  a  maflt  at  Black  Fryars 
on  the  marriage  of  lord  Herbert  and  Mrs  RuiTel. 
Eight  lady-malkers  chofe  eight  more  to  dance  the 
meafures.  Mrs  Fitton,  who  led  them,  went  to  the 
queen,  and  wooed  her  to  dance.  Her  majefty  a(ked 
what  (he  was  ?  j^ffeillen,  (he  faid.  AJea'vm !  faid  the 
queen;  Affeil'wn  is  falfe.  Were  not  thefe  the  murmurs 
©f  a  heart  ill  at  eafe  ?  Yet  her  majedy  tofe,  and 
danced.  She  was  then  fixty-eight.  Sure  it  was  as 
natural  for  her  to  be  in  love." 


79    ]  D     E     V 

Mr  VV'alpolc  farther  obferves,  that  her  court  and  *o-  OeTrruiiii. 
temporaries  had  an  uniform  opinion  of  her  palTion  for  ^~"^■*~~' 
Efiex,  and  quotes  feveral  indances  from  a  letter  writ- 
ten by  Sir  I'rancit,  Bacon  to  the  earl;  in  which,  amonf 
other  things,  he  advifes  liim  to  confult  her  tafte  in  liH 
verj-  apparel  and  gcllurea,  nnd  to  give  way  to  any  other 
inclination  rtie  may  have.  Sir  Francis  advifed  the  queen 
herftlf,  knowing  her  inclination,  to  keep  the  earl  about 
her  for  focicty.  What  Henry  IV.  of  France  thought 
of  the  queen's  aifeftion  for  ElTcx,  is  evident  fiom  what 
he  faid  to  her  anlaifador — "  ^le  fa  nmjtjle  ne  Lvjfc- 
roit  jamais  fan  cettjin  d'EJfex  efln'.gner  tic  fon  cnlillon."—~ 
After  his  confinement,  on  hearing  he  was  ill,  ihc  fent 
him  word,  with  tears  in  her  eyes,  that  if  (lie  might 
with  her  honour,  (lie  would  vifit  him. 

"  If  (fays  Mr  Walpole)  thefe  inflanccs  are  proble- 
matic, are  the  following  fo  ?  In  ont  of  the  curious 
letters  of  Rowland  White,  he  fays,  the  queen  hath  of 
late  ifed  the  fair  Mrs  Bridges  •with  'words  and  blows  of 
anger.  In  a  fubfequent  letter,  he  fays,  the  carl  is  again 
fallen  in  love  nvilh  his  fairejl  B.  It  cannot  choofe  hut  cum; 
to  the  queeti's  ear,  and  then  he  is  undone."  —  EiTex  him- 
felf  fays,  that  her  fond  parting  with  him  when  he  fet 
out  for  Ireland,  pierced  his  very  fouL 

Probably  the  reader  has  now  very  litlle  doubt  as  to 
queen  Elizabeth's  afl'edion  for  the  unfortunate  E{rex  ; 
but,  in  proportion  to  our  belief  of  the  exiflence  of  thin 
afteCtion,  her  motives  for  confenling  to  iiis  execution 
become  more  inexplicable.  Queen  Elizabeth  had  a 
very  high  opinion  of  her  beauty  and  perfonal  attrac- 
tions, and  probably  expected  more  entire  adoration 
than  the  earl's  pafTion  for  variety  would  fu{Fer  him  to 
pay.  Towards  the  latter  end  of  her  life,  file  was  cer- 
tainly an  objcft  of  difguft.  He  had  too  much  honeft 
fimplicity  in  his  nature,  to  feign  a  pafiion  which  he  did 
not  feel.  She  foolilhly  gave  credit  to  the  (lories  of  his 
ambitious  projefts  incompatible  with  her  fafety  ;  and 
was  Informed  that  he  had  once  inadvertently  faid,  that 
Jlie  grew  old  and  cankered,  and  that  her  mind  "zuas  become 
as  crooked  as  her  carcafc.  If  this  be  true,  where  is  the 
woman  that  would  not  facrifice  fuch  a  lover  to  her  re- 
fentment  ? 

It  is  faid,  however,  that,  concerning  his  execution, 
her  majefty  was  irrefolute  to  the  laft,  and  fent  orders  to 
countermand  it  ;  but,  confidering  his  obftinacy  In  re- 
fufing  to  aflc  her  pardon,  afterwards  direfted  that  he 
(hould  die.  It  is  reported,  that  the  queen,  in  the  height 
of  her  palTion  for  the  carl  of  Efiex,  had  given  him  a 
ring,  ordering  him  to  keep  it,  and  that  whatever  crime 
he  (hould  commit,  (he  would  pardon  him  when  he 
(liould  return  that  pledge.  The  earl,  upon  his  con- 
demnation, applied  to  admiral  Howard's  lady,  his  re- 
lation, defiring  her,  by  a  perfon  whom  file  could  truft, 
to  return  it  into  the  queen's  own  hands;  but  her  huf- 
band,  who  was  one  of  the  earl's  greateft  enemies,  and 
to  whom  (lie  had  imprudently  told  the  circumftance, 
would  not  fuffcr  her  to  acquit  herftlf  of  the  commKTion  ; 
fo  that  the  queen  confented  to  the  earl's  death,  being 
full  of  indignation  againft  fo  proud  and  haughty  a  fpi- 
rit,  who  chofe  rather  to  die  than  implore  hei  mercy. 
Some  time  after,  the  admiral's  lady  fell  fick,  and  being 
near  her  death,  (he  fent  word  to  the  queen  that  (he  had 
fomething  of  great  confequence  to  communicate  before 
(he  died.  The  queen  came  to  her  bedfide,  and  having 
ordered  all  her  attendants  to  withdraw,  tlie  lady  rc- 
5  F  2  turned, 


D    E    V  [     7S 

turned,  but  too  late,  the  ring,  defiring  to  be  cxcufed 
that  Ihe  did  not  return  it  fooner :  on  which,  It  is  f;»iJ, 
the  queen  immediately  retired,  overwhelmed  with 
grief. 

The  earl  of  EfTex  died  In  the  thirty-fourth  year  of 
his  age  ;  leaving  by  his  lady  one  fon  and  two  daugh- 
ters. 

DEVICE,  among  painters.  See  Devise. 
DEV  IL  (D'uibolus),  an  evil  angel,  one  of  thofe  ce- 
leftial  fpiiits  caft  down  from  heaven  for  pretending  to 
equal  himftlf  with  God.  The  Etl  if  pians  paint  the 
devil  white,  to  be  even  with  the  Europeans  who  paint 
him  black. 

There  is  no  mention  of  the  word  devil  in  the  Old 
Teftament,  but  only  of  the  word  Satan  and  Belial:  nor 
do  we  meet  with  it  in  any  heathen  authors,  in  the  fenfe 
it  is  taken  among  Chrillians,  that  is,  as  a  creature  re- 
volted from  God  Their  theology  went  no  farther 
than  to  evil  genii  or  demons. 

Some  of  the  American  idolaters  have  a  notion  of 
two  collateral  independent  beings,  one  of  whom  is 
good,  and  the  other  evil ;  which  laft  they  imagine  has 
the  direftion  and  fuperintendance  of  this  earth,  for 
which  reafon  they  chiefly  worfhip  him  ;  whence  thofe 
that  give  us  an  account  of  the  religion  of  thefe  lavages 
give  out,  with  fome  impropriety,  that  they  wordiip 
the  dtvil.  The  Chaldeans,  in  like  manner,  believed 
both  a  good  principle  and  an  evil  one;  which  laft  they 
imagined  was  an  enemy  to  mankind. 

Ifaiah,  fpeaking,  according  to  fome  commentators, 
of  the  fall  of  the  devil,  calls  him  Lucifer,  from  his 
former  elevation  and  Hate  of  glory:  but  others  explain 
this  palTage  of  Ifaiah  in  reference  to  the  king  of  Ba- 
bylon, who  had  been  precipitated  from  his  throne  and 
glory.  The  Arabians  call  Lucifer,  Ehlls;  which  fome 
think  is  only  a  diminutive  or  corruption  of  the  word 
Dlalolus. 

Devil  on  the  Ned,  a  tormenting  engine  made  of 
iron,  ftraitening  and  wincing  the  neck  of  a  man,  with 
his  legs  together,  in  a  horrible  manner  ;  fo  that  the 
more  he  ftirreth  in  it,  the  llraiter  it  prefTeth  him;  for- 
merly in  ufe  among  the  perfccuting  papiils. 

DEVINCTION('Z'fT/nao),  inantiqinty,  was  ufcd 
to  fignify  a  love-charm  or  incantation  to  gain  the  af- 
feftion  of  a  perfou  beloved. 

It  was  done  by  tying  knots ;  and  is  thus  defcribed 
by  Virgil  in  his  eighth  Eclogue  : 

Nf^e  trihui  rtcjii  ttinos^  Amarylli,  colorti  : 

Ntfle,  Air.arylti,  thoJa  ;   it  Venctu,  die,  inncuta  mHo. 

DEVISE,  or  Device,  in  heraldry,  painting,  and 
fculpture,  any  emblem  nfed  to  reprefent  a  certain  fa- 
mily, perfon,  aijtion,  or  quality;  with  a  fuitable  motto, 
applied  in  a  figurative  feni'e.      See  Motto. 

The  eflence  of  a  device  confilts  in  a  metaphorical  fi- 
militude  between  the  things  repiefenting  and  repre- 
fented  :  thus,  a  young  nobleman,  of  great  courage  and 
ambition,  is  faid  to  have  borne  for  his  devife,  in  a  late 
earoufal  at  the  court  of  France,  a  rocket  mourrted  in 
the  air,  with  this  motto  in  Itahan,  *'■  poco  tluri  purcke 
vi'inalzi;"  cxpreffing,  that  he  preferred  a  fhort  life, 
provided  he  might  thereby  attain  to  glory  and  emi- 
nence. 

The  Italians  have  reduced  the  making  of  devifcs  in- 
?o  an  art,  fome  of  the  principal  laws  of  vf  hich  aie  thefe. 


o    :i  DEV 

I.  That  there  b?  nothing  extravagant  or  monllrous  in 
the  iigures.  2.  That  figures  be  never  joined  wliich 
have  no  relation  or  a<Rnity  with  one  another ;  excep- 
ting fome  whimfical  unions  eflabliflied  in  ancient  fables, 
which  cuftom  has  authorifed.  3.  That  the  human 
body  be  never  ufed.  4.  The  fewer  figures  the  better. 
5.  The  motto  fhould  be  every  way  fuitable. 

Devise,  in  law,  the  act  whereby  a  perfoa  bequeaths 
his  lands  or  tenements  to  another  by  his  lall  will  or  te- 
ftament. 

DEUNX,  in  Roman  antiquity,  it  ounces,  or^yof 
the  Libra. 

DEV^OLVED,  fomething  acquired  by  right  of  de- 
volution.     Such   a  right   is  devolved   to   the   ciown  : 

fuch   an   eftate  devolved  on  M by  the  death  of 

N . 

The  word  is  alfo  ufed  for  a  right,  acquired  by  a  fu- 
perior,  of  conferring  a  benefice,  when  the  interior  and 
ordinary  collator  has  neglected  to  confer,  or  has  con- 
ferred it  on  an  unqiulified  perfon. 

If  a  patron  neglefts  to  prefent  to  a  benefice  in  fix 
months,  the  prefeiitation  lapfes  or  devolves  upon  the 
bidiop,  from  thence  to  the  primate,  and  from  thence 
to  the  king. 

DEVOLUTION,  in  law,  a  right  acquired  by  fuc 
ceflion  from  one  to  another. 

DEVONSHEERING,  a  term  ufed  by  the  farmers 
to  exprefs  the  burning  of  land  by  way  of  manure:  the 
method  is  to  cut  off  the  tuif  about  four  inches  thick> 
and  burn  it  in  heaps,  and  then  fpread  the  afhes  upon 
the  land.  The  name  is  probably  derived  from  its  having 
been  earlieft  praftifed  in  Devonfhire. 

DEVONSHIRE,  a  county  of  England,  bounded 
en  the  fouth  by  the  Engliih  channel,  on  the  north  by 
the  Briftol  channel,  on  the  eaft  by  Somerietfliire,  and 
on  the  weft  by  Cornwall.  It  is  about  69  miles  lung 
and  66  broad.  The  foil  is  various  ;  in  the  wefteru 
parts  of  the  country  it  is  coiufe  and  raoorifli,  bad  for 
fheep,  but  proper  for  black  cattle.  In  the  northern 
parts,  the  dry  f6il  and  downs  are  well  adapted  to  ftieep, 
with  numerous  flocks  of  which  they  are  well  covered. 
Tolerable  en  ps  of  corn  are  alfo  produced  there  when 
the  land  is  well  manured.  The  foil  of  the  reil  of  the 
country  is  rich  and  fertile  both  in  corn  and  pafture, 
yielding  alfo  in  fome  places  plenty  of  marie  for  ma- 
nuring it.  In  other  places  they  pare  off  and  burn  the 
furface,  making  ufe  of  the  aflies  as  a  manure.  Dr 
Campbell  ftyles  it  a  rich  and  pleafant  country  j  as  in 
different  parts  it  abounds  with  all  forts  of  grain,  pro- 
duces abundance  of  fruit,  has  mines  of  lead,  iion,  and 
filver,  in  which  it  formerly  exceeded  Cornwall,  though 
now  it  is  greatly  inferior.  On  the  coaft  alfo  they  have 
herring  and  pilchard  filheries.  Devonfhire  fends  two 
members  to  parliament,  and  gives  title  of  Duke  to  the 
noble  family  of  Cavendifh. 

DEVOTION,  DtvoTio,  a  fincere  ardent  worfliip 
of  the  Deity. 

Devotion,  as  defined  by  Jurieu,  is  a  foftening  and 
yielding  of  the  heart,  with  an  internal  confolation, 
which  the  fouls  of  believers  feel  in  the  prattice  or  ex- 
ercife  of  piety  By  devotion  is  alfo  underftood  certain 
religious  pradices,  which  a  perfon  makes  it  a  rule  to 
difcharge  regularly;  and  witli  reafon,  if  the  exaftitude 
bt  foundtd  on  folid  piety,  otherwife  it  is  vanity  or  fu. 

perdition. 


D     E    V  [    7S1 

Dtvo'ion.  perftition.     That  devotion  is  vain  and  trifling,   which 
y     I         would  accommodate  itfelf  both   to  God   and  to   the 
world.      Trevoiix. 

The  charat^er  of  devotion  has  frequently  fufFered 
from  the  forbidding  air  which  has  been  thrown  over  it, 
by  the  narrownefs  of  bii^otry  on  one  hand,  or  the 
gloom  of  fuperllition  on  the  other.  When  freer  and 
more  cheerful  minds  have  not  had  occafion  to  fee  it 
accompanied  with  thofe  feelings  of  delight  and  bene- 
volence which  naturally  attend  it,  they  are  apt  to  be 
prejudiced  agalnll  piety  at  large,  by  millaking  this  un- 
gracious appearance  tor  its  genuine  form.  Nor  has 
the  rant  of  vulgar  enthufialls  contributed  a  little  to 
beget  or  ftrengthen  the  fame  averfion,  in  perfons  of  a 
cool  and  fpeculative  temper  ;  who  have  happened  to 
meet  with  fuch  images  and  phrafes  among  rcligionifts 
of  a  ccrtnin  ftrain,  as  ill  fuit  the  rational,  pure,  and 
fpirltual  nature  of  true  devotion.  It  may  hkewifc  be 
remarked  on  the  other  fide,  that  people  ot  taile  and 
fenlibility  have  not  feldam  been  difgullcd  with  the  in- 
fipid  ftyle  too  often  employed  on  iuch  fubjedls,  by 
thofe  who  poffefs  neither,  or  who  purpofely  avoid  every 
thing  of  that  kind,  from  an  aim  at  fimplicity  mifun- 
derrtood,  or  perhaps  from  a  fear  of  being  thought  too 
warm,  in  an  age  of  falliionable  indifference  and  falfe 
refinement. 

Wherever  the  vital  and  unadulterated  fpirit  of  Chrl- 
ftian  devotion  prevails,  its  immediate  object  will  be  to 
pleafe  Him  whom  we  were  made  lopieafe,  by  adoring 
his  perfeftions  ;  by  admiring  his  w^iks  and  ways  ;  by 
cntertainfng  with  reverence  and  complacence  the  va- 
rious intimations  of  his  pleafure,  efpecially  thofe  con- 
tained in  holy  writ  ;  by  acknowledging  our  abfo- 
lute  dependence,  and  infinite  obligations  ;  by  confef- 
Cng  and  lamenting  the  diforders  of  our  nature,  and 
the  tranfgrtflions  of  our  lives  ;  by  imploring  his  grace 
and  mercy  through  Jefus  Chrift  ;  by  interceding  for 
our  brethren  of  mankind  ;  by  praying  for  the  propa- 
gation and  embellinimcnt  of  truth,  righteoufnefs,  and 
peace  on  earth  ;  in  fine,  by  longing  for  a  more  entire 
conformity  to  the  will  of  God,  and  brtathing  after  the 
everlafting  enjoyment  of  ^is  friend/liip.  The  effedts 
of  fuch  a  fpirit  habitually  cherifiied,  and  feelingly  ex- 
prelfed  before  him,  with  conceptions  more  or  lefs  en- 
larged and  elevated,  in  language  more  or  lefs  empha- 
tical  and  accurate,  fcntentious  or  diflufe.  muit  furely 
be  important  and  happy.  Among  thefc  effedfs  may 
be  reckoned,  a  profound  humility  in  the  fight  of  God, 
a  high  veneration  for  his  prelence  and  attributes,  an 
ardent  zeal  for  his  worfliip  and  honour,  an  afTeftionate 
faith  in  the  Saviour  of  the  world,  a  conftant  imitation 
of  his  divine  example,  a  diffufive  charity  for  men  of  all 
denominations,  a  generous  and  imwearied  felf-denial 
for  the  fake  of  virtue  and  fociety,  a  total  refignation  to 
Providence,  an  increafing  efteem  for  the  gofpel,  with 
clearer  and  firmer  hopes  of  that  immortal  life  which 
it  has  brought  to  light. 

Devotion,  among  the  Romans,  was  a  kind  of  fa- 
crifice  or  ceremony,  whereby  they  confecrated  them- 
felvcs  to  the  fervice  of  fome  perfon.  The  ancients  had 
a  notion,  that  the  life  of  one  might  be  ranfomed  by 
the  death  of  another  ;  whence  thofe  devotions  became 
frequent  for  the  lives  of  the  emperors.  Devotion  to 
any  particular  perion  was  unknown  among  the  Ro- 
Saaas  till  tlie  time  of  Auguftus,     The  very  day  after 


my. 


]  D    E    U 

the  title  of  Atigiiftus  had  been  conferred  upon  Otta- Deuteroc:i. 
vius,  Pacuvius,  a  tribune  of  the  people,  publicly  de-    "o"''*'. 
clared,  that  he  would  devote  himfelf  to  Auguftus,  and^""^"*'"*" 
obey  him  at  the  expence  of  his  life  (as  was  the  praftice 
among  barbarous  nations),  if  he  was  commanded.   Ilis 
example  was  immediately  followed  by  all  the  rcll ;  till 
at  length  it  became  an  eftablifhcd  cnllom  never  to  go 
to   falute    the   emperor,   without  declaiing  that  they 
were  devoted  to  him.  — Before  ihls,  the  praftlce  of  the 
Romans  was  that  of  devoting  themfelves  to  their  coun- 
try.     See  Decius. 

DEUTEROCANONICAL,  in  the  fchool  theo- 
logy, an  appellation  given  to  certain  books  of  holy 
fcripture,  which  were  added  to  the  canon  after  the 
reft;  either  by  reafon  they  were  not  wrote  till  after 
the  compilation  of  the  canon,  or  by  reafon  of  fomc 
difpute  as  to  their  canonicity.  The  word  is  Greek, 
being  compounded  oE  ^""^o:  J}cotiJ,  and  kjmvdcoc  cano- 
nknl. 

The  Jews,  it  is  certain,  acknowledged  feveral  books 
in  their  canon,  which  were  put  there  later  than  the 
reft.  They  fay,  that  under  Efdras,  a  great  aflembly 
of  their  doftors,  which  they  call  by  way  of  eminence 
the  great  fynagogue,  made  the  colleiiion  of  the  facred 
books  which  we  now  have  in  the  Hebrew  Old  Tefta- 
ment.  And  they  agree  that  they  put  books  therein 
which  had  not  been.fo  before  the  Babylonilh  captivi- 
ty ;  fuch  are  thofe  of  Daniel,  Ezckiel,  Haggai,  5cc. 
and  thofe  of  Efdras  and  Nehemiah. 

And  the  Romifti  church  has  fince  added  others  to> 
the  canon,  that  were  not,  nor  could  not  be,  in  the  ca- 
non of  the  Jews  ;  by  reafon  fome  of  them  were  not 
compofed  till  after.  Such  is  the  book  of  Ecclenafti- 
cus ;  with  feveral  of  the  apocryphal  books,  as  the  Mac- 
cabees, Wifdom,  &s.  Others  were  added  ftlll  later, 
by  reafon  their  canonicity  had  not  been  yet  examined; 
and  till  fuch  examen  and  judgment  they  might  be  fet 
afide  at  pleafure — But  fince  that  church  has  pronoun- 
ced as  to  the  canonicity  of  thefe  books,  there  is  no 
more  room  now  for  her  membeis  to  doubt  of  them, 
than  there  was  for  the  Jews  to  doubt  of  thofe  of  the 
canon  of  Efdras.  And  the  deuterocanonical  books  are 
with  them  as  canonical  as  the  proto-canonical ;  the 
only  difference  between  them  confifting  in  this,  that  the 
canonicity  of  the  one  was  not  generally  known,  exa- 
mined, and  fettled,  fo  foon  as  that  of  the  others. 

The  deuterocanonical  books  in  the  modern  canon, 
are  the  book  of  Ellher,  either  the  whole,  or  at  leaft 
the  feven  lall  chapters  thereof;  the  epilfle  to  the 
Hebrews  ;  that  of  James  ;  and  that  of  Jude  ;  the  fe- 
cond  of  St  Peter;  the  fecond  and  third  of  St  John ;  and 
the  Revelation.  The  deuterocanonical  parts  of  books, 
are,  in  Daniel,  the  hymn  of  the  three  children  ;  the 
pr-yer  of  Azariah  ;  the  hiftories  of  Sufannah,  of  Bel 
and  the  Dragon  ;  the  laft  chapter  of  St  Mark  ;  the 
bloody  fweat,  and  the  appearance  of  the  angel,  related 
in  St  Luke,  chap,  xxli;  and  the  hiftory  of  the  adulte- 
rous woman  in  St  John,  chap.  vlil. 

DEUTERONOMY,  one  of  the  facred  books  of 
the  Old  Teftament  ;  being  the  lall  of  thofe  written  by 
Mofes:  (See  Pfntateuch).  The  word  is  Greek, 
compounded  of  ^""'•i"^  faond,  and  '""or  /ait). 

Deuteronomy  was  written  the  4Cth  year  after  t?.c 
delivery  from  Egj'pt,  in  the  country  of  the  Moabites 
beyond  Jordan;  Mofcs  being  then  ia  the  120th  year 
3  ofr 


DEW  [7 

I3fU!»ro.    q;  JiJg   agg_      ii    contains,  in   Hebvew,    1 1    jidraches, 

'"''""     tliough  only  10  in  the  edition  of  the  rabbins  at  Venice ; 

Dcv/.      XX  chapters,  and  955  verfcs.      In  the  Greok,  Latin, 

k~-,r-~-  i"d    other    verfions,    it    contains    XXXIV    chapters. 

The  lall  is  not  of  Mufes.      Some  fay  it  was  added  by 

Jofluia  immediately  after  Mofes's  death  ;  which  is  the 

jiiort  probable  opinion.     Others  will  have  it  added  by 

Efdras. 

DEUTEROPOTMI,  in  Grecian  antiquity,  a  de- 
fignatlon  given  to  fuch  of  the  Athenians  as  had  been 
thought  dead,  arid,  after  the  celebration  of  the  fu- 
neral rites,  unexpeftedly  recovered.  It  was  unlaw- 
ful for  the  deutcropotmi  to  enter  into  the  temple  of 
the  Eumenides,  or  t«  be  admitted  to  the  holy  rites, 
till  after  they  were  purified,  by  being  let  through  the 
lap  of  a  woman's  gown,  that  they  might  feem  to  be 
new  born. 

DEUTEROSIS,  the  Greek  name  by  which  the 
Jews  called  their  Mifchnah,  or  fecond  law.  See  Misch- 

UAH. 

DEW,  a  denfe,  moift  vapour,  found  on  the  earth 
in  fpring  and  fummer  mornings,  in  form  of  a  miiling 
rain,  being  collected  there  chiefly  while  the  fun  is  be- 
low the  horizon. 

It  hath  been  difputed  whether  the  dew  is  formed 
from  the  vapours  afcending  from  the  earth  during  the 
night-time,  or  from  the  rltfcciit  of  fuch  as  have  been 
already  raifed  tlirough  the  day.  The  nioft  remarkable 
experiments  adduced  in  favour  of  the  firft  hypothelis 
are  thofe  of  Mr  Dufay  of  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Sciences  at  Paris.  He  fuppofed,  that  if  the  dew 
afcmded,  it  muft  wet  a  body  placed  low  down  fooner 
than  one  placed  in  a  higher  fituation  ;  and,  if  a  num- 
ber of  bodies  were  placed  in  this  manner,  the  lower- 
moll  would  be  wetted  firll;  and  the  reft  in  like  manner, 
gradually  up  to  the  top. 

To  determine  this,  he  placed  two  ladders  again ll; 
one  another,  meeting  at  their  tops,  fpieading  wide 
afunder  at  the  bottom,  and  fo  tall  as  to  reach  32  feet 
high.  To  the  feveral  fteps  of  thefe  he  fattened  large 
fquares  of  glafs  like  the  panes  of  windows,  placing 
thtm  in  fuch  a  inanner  that  they  (hould  not  overlhade 
one  another.  On  the  trial  it  appeared  exaftly  as  Mr 
Dufay  had  apprehended.  The  lower  furface  of  the 
loweft  piece  of  glafs  was  firft  wetted,  then  the  upper, 
then  the  lower  furface  of  the  pane  next  above  it ;  and 
fon  on,  till  all  the  pieces  were  wetted  to  the  top.  Hence 
it  appeared  plain  to  him,  that  the  dew  confiftcd  of  the 
vapours  afcending  from  the  earth  during  the  night- 
time ;  which,  being  condenfed  by  the  coldnefs  of  the 
atmofphcre,  are  prevented  from  beiiTg  diffipated  as  in 
the  day-time  by  the  fun's  heat.  He  afterwards  tried 
a  fimilar  experiment  with  pieccsof  cloth  inftead  of  panes 
of  glafs,  and  the  refult  was  quite  conformable  to  his 
expeftations.  He  weighed  all  the  pieces  of  cloth  next 
morning,  in  order  to  know  what  quantity  of  water  each 
had  imbibed,  and  found  thofe  that  had  been  placed 
lowermoil  confiderably  heavier  than  fuch  as  had  been 
placed  at  the  top  ;  tho'  he  owns  that  this  experiment 
did  not  fucceed  fo  perfectly  as  the  former. 

M.  Mufchenbroek,  who  embraced  the  contrary  opi- 
nion, thought  he  had  invalidated  all  Mr  Dufay 's  proofs, 
fcy  repeating  his  experiments,  with  the  fame  fuccefs, 
on  a  plane  covered  with  (heet-lead.  But  to  this  Mr 
Dufay  replied,  that  there  was  no  occafion  for  fuppo- 


82     ]  DEW  I 

fing  the  v.ipotir  to  rife  through  the  lead,  nor  from  that      Dew.      ' 
very  (pot  ;  but  that  as    it  arofe    from    the   adjoining  — v— ^ 
open  ground,  the  continual  fluftuation  of  the  air  could 
not  but   fpread  it  abroad,  and  carry  it  thither  in  its 
afcent. 

But  though  this  experiment  of  M.  Mufchenbrock's 
is  not  fuilicient  to  overthrow  thofe  of  Mr  Dufay,  it 
muft  ftill  remain  dubious  whether  the  dew  rifes  or  falls. 
One  thing  which  feems  to  favour  the  hypothefis  of  its 
defcent  is,  that  in  cloudy  weather  there  is  little  or  no 
dew  to  be  obferved.  From  this  M.  de  Luc  brings  an 
argument  in  favour  of  thehypothefisjuft  now  mention- 
ed. He  accounts  for  it  in  the  following  manner.  Phil.  Trjnf, 
Wlien  there  were  no  clouds  in  the  air,  the  heat  of  the  *"'•  '''in- 
inferior  air  and  that  which  rifes  from  the  earth  dilfi-  P*"'  *' 
pates  itfelf  into  the  fuperior  regions  ;  and  then  the  va- 
pours which  are  difperfcd  throughout  the  air,  comlenfe, 
and  fall  down  in  dew  :  But,  when  the  clouds  continue, 
they  feparate  the  inferior  from  the  fuperior  part  of  the 
atmofphere,  and  thus  prevent  the  dilTipation  of  tlie 
heat,  by  which  means  the  vapours  remain  fufpended. 
Wlien  the  flcy  grows  cloudy,  fome  hours  after  fun-fet, 
although  the  heat  has  been  fenfibly  diminilhcd,  it  is 
again  increafed  ;  becaufe,  continuing  to  rife  out  of  the 
earth,  it  is  accumulated  in  the  inferior  air.  But  nei- 
ther can  this  be  reckoned  a  pofitive  proof  of  the  defcent 
of  the  dew  ;  fince  we  may  as  well  fuppofe  the  heat  of 
the  atmofphere  to  be  great  enough  to  diffipate  it  in  its 
afcent,  as  to  keep  it  fufpended  alter  its  afcent  through 
the  day. 

On  the  other  hand,  its  being  found  in  greater  quanti- 
ties on  bodies  placed  low  down  than  on  fuch  as  are  high 
up,  is  no  proof  of  the  afcent  of  the  dew  ;  becaufe  the 
fame  thing  is  obferved  of  rain.  A  body  placed  low 
down  receives  more  rain  than  one  placed  in  an  elevated 
fituation  ;  and  yet  the  rain  certainly  defcends  from  the 
atmofphere.  The  reafon  why  the  dew  appears  firft  on 
tlie  lower  parts  of  bodies  may  be,  that,  in  the  evening, 
the  lower  part  of  the  atmofphere  is  firft  cooled,  and 
confcquently  moft  difpofed  to  part  with  its  vapour.  It 
is  alfi)  certain,  that  part  of  the  water  contained  in  the 
air  may  be  condenfed  at  anj  time  on  the  fides  of  a 
glafs,  by  means  of  cold,  fo  as  to  run  down  its  fides  in 
fmall  drops  like  dew.  It  feems,  therefore,  that  this 
fubjedt  is  not  fufficiently  determined  by  fuch  experi- 
ments as  have  yet  been  made  ;  nor  indeed  does  it  ap- 
pear eafy  to  make  fuch  experiments  as  fhall  be  perfect- 
ly decifive  on  tlie  matter. 

Several  fubftances,  expofed  to  the  fame  dew,  receive 
and  charge  themfelves  with  it  in  a  very  different  man- 
ner; fome  more,  others  lefs,  and  fome  even  not  at  all. 
The  drops  feem  to  make  a  fort  of  choice  of  what  bo- 
dies they  {hall  affix  themfelves  to  :  glafs  and  cryftals 
are  thofe  to  which  they  adhere  in  the  moft  ready  man- 
ner, and  in  the  largeft  quantity;  but  metals  of  all  kinds 
never  receive  them  at  all,  nor  do  the  drops  ever  adhere 
to  them.  The  reafon  of  this  is  probably  becaufe  me- 
tals promote  evaporation  more  than  glafs  does.  Thus, 
if  a  piece  of  metal  and  a  piece  of  glafs  are  both  made 
equally  moift,  the  former  will  be  found  to  dry  in  much 
lefs  time  than  the  latter.  Hence  it  would  feem,  that 
there  is  between  metals  and  water  fome  kind  of  re- 
pulfion:  and  this  may  be  fufScient  to  keep  off  the  very 
fmall  quantity  that  falls  in  dew  ;  for  whatever  tends 
to  make  water  evaporate  after  it  is  adually  in  contaft 

with 


DEW  [7 

Dew.  with  any  fubftance,  alfo  tends  to  keep  the  water  from 
-— V""-  ever  coming  into  contaft  with  it.  On  this  fubjcdt  fe- 
veral  curious  particulars  are  mentioned  by  Di  l-'ercl- 
val,  relative  to  the  attraftion  and  repulfion  between 
dew  and  glafs  or  metalline  veflTels.  The  experiments 
were  made  by  M.  du  Fay,  who,  in  order  to  determine 
with  certainty  whether  the  difference  between  vitrified 
fubllances  and  metals  was  the  fame  in  all  cafes,  fee  a 
china  faucer  in  the  middle  of  a  filver  plate,  and  on  one 
fide,  adjoining  to  it,  was  placed  a  china  plate,  with 
a  filver  di(h  very  much  refcmbling  the  faucer  in  the 
middle.  In  this  experiment  the  china  faucer  was  co- 
vered with  dew,  but  the  plate,  though  extending  four 
inches  round  it,  was  not  moiltened  in  the  ieall.  The 
china  plate  alfo  had  become  quite  moift,  while  the  filver 
velFel  in  the  middle  had  not  received  the  Imallell  drop. 
M.  du  Fay  next  endeavoured  to  afcertain  whether  a 
china  faucer  fet  upon  a  plate  of  metal,  as  already  dcfctl- 
bed,  did  not  receive  more  dew  than  it  would  have  done 
if  expofed  alone.  To  accompliih  this  defign,  he  took 
two  watch  cryftals  of  equal  dimenfions,  and  placed  the 
one  upon  a  plate  of  filver,  the  other  upon  a  plate  of 
china,  each  with  its  concavity  uppermaft.  That  which 
was  upon  the  filver  plate  he  furroundcd  with  a  ferrel 
of  the  fame  metal,  well  poliflied,  that  no  watery  par- 
ticles might  attach  themfelves  to  the  convex  furface  of 
the  glafs.  In  this  fituation  he  expofed  the  cryllals 
for  feveial  days  fucceffively,  and  always  found  five  or 
fix  times  more  dew  in  that  which  was  on  the  china  plate 
than  on  the  other  placed  on  the  filver.  The  repulfion  be- 
tween the  dew  and  filver  is  further  confirmed  by  the  fol- 
lowing experiment  of  M.  du  Fay,  with  regard  to  the  cry- 
{tal  on  the  filver  plate.  He  informs  us,  that  the  fmall 
quantity  of  dew  on  the  infide  near  the  centre,  was  in 
minute  drops ;  and  that  round  the  border  there  was  a 
fpace  of  five  or  fix  lines  perfeftly  dry  ;  towards  which 
the  drops  regularly  decreafed  in  magnitude,  as  if  the 
filver  ferrel  had  driven  away  the  dew  from  that  part  of 
the  glafs  which  was  contiguous  to  it.  Thefe  experi- 
ments were  repeated  thirty  times  with  invariable  fuc- 
cefs.  M.  du  Fay's  expeiiments  have  received  a  re- 
markable confirmation  from  iome  lately  made  by  Dr 
Watfon,  now  bi'hop  of  I^andaff,  with  a  view  to  de- 
termine the  quantity  of  vapour  that  afcends  from  a 
given  furface  of  eaith.  "  By  means  oi  a  little  bees- 
wax (lays  he),  I  faftened  a  half-crown  very  near,  but 
not  quite  contiguous,  to  the  fide  of  the  glafs  ;  and, 
letting  the  glafs  with  its  mouth  downward  on  the 
grafs,  it  prefently  became  covered  with  vapour,  except 
that  part  of  it  which  was  next  the  half-crown.  Not  only 
the  half-crown  itfelf  was  free  from  vapour,  but  it  had 
hindered  any  from  fettling  on  the  glafs  which  was  near 
it ;  for  there  was  a  little  ring  of  glals  furrounding  the 
half-crown,  to  the  dillance  of  a  quarter  of  an  inch, 
which  was  quite  dry,  as  well  as  that  part  of  the  glals 
which  was  immediately  under  the  half-crown ;  it  feemed 
as  if  the  filver  had  repelled  the  water  to  that  diftance. 
A  large  red  wafer  had  the  fame  effciSt  as  the  half- 
crown  ;  it  was  neither  wetted  itfelf,  nor  was  the  ring 
of  glafs  contiguous  to  it  wetted.  A  circle  of  white 
paper  produced  the  fame  effeil,  fo  did  feveral  other 
iubflances,  which  it  would  be  too  tedious  to  enume- 
rate." 

Substances  of  a  very  different  kind  from  theufual 
dew  are  faid  to  have  fometimcs  fallen  from  the  at- 
mofpbere.     In  the  Phil,  Tranf.  we  are  told,  that  in 


83     1  DEW 

the  year  169J  there  fell  in  Ireland,  in  the  provinces  of  May-Dew 
I.einller  and  Munller,  for  a  confiderable   iiart  of  the    „  ('   . 

J   /-      •  r  I-   1  .1  rill  D'  Wit. 

winter  and  Ipring,  a  tatty  lubllance  rclembling  butter.,  ■ 

iollead  of  the  common  dew.  It  was  of  a  clammy  tex- 
ture, and  dark  yellow  colour;  and  was,  from  its  great 
relemblance,  generally  called  Jc-.u- butler  by  the  country 
people.  It  always  fell  in  the  night,  and  chiefly  in  the 
moorilh  low  grounds ;  and  was  found  hanging  on  the 
tops  of  the  grafs,  and  on  the  thatch  of  the  houfes  of 
the  poor  people.  It  w^s  feldom  obferved  to  fall  twice 
in  the  fame  place  ;  and  ufually,  wherever  it  fell,  it  lay 
a  fortnight  upon  the  ground  before  it  changed  colour; 
but  after  that  it  gradually  dried  up,  and  became  black. 
The  cattle  fed  in  the  fields  where  it  lay  as  well  as  iiv 
others,  and  received  no  hatm  by  it.  It  fell  in  pieces 
of  the  bignefs  of  one's  finger-end;  but  they  were  dif- 
fperfed  fcatteringly  about,  and  it  had  an  offenfive 
Imell  like  a  church-yard.  There  were  in  the  fame 
places  very  (linking  fogs  during  the  winter,  and  fome 
people  fuppofcd  this  no  other  than  a  fediment  from  the 
fug.  It  would  not  keep  very  long,  but  never  bred  worms. 

Alay-Dur  whitens  linen  and  wax  ;  the  dew  of  au- 
tumn is  converted  into  a  white  froll.  Out  of  dew  putri- 
fitd  by  the  fun,  arife  divers  infetls,  which  change  a- 
pace  from  one  fpecies  into  another  :  what  remains  is 
converted  into  a  fine  white  fait,  with  angles  like  ihofe 
of  falt-pctre,  after  a  number  of  evaporations,  calcina- 
tions, and  fixations. 

There  is  a  fpirit  drawn  from  May-dew,  which  has 
wonderful  virtues  attributed  to  it.  The  method  of  col- 
lefling  and  preparing  it,  is  prefciibed  by  Hanneman, 
phyfician  at  Kiel.  It  is  to  be  gathered  in  clean  li- 
nen cloths;  expofed  to  the  fun  in  clofe  vials;  thea  di- 
illlled,  and  the  fpirit  thrown  upon  the  caput  mortunm  ; 
this  is  to  be  repealed  till  the  earth  unite  with  the  fpi- 
rit, and  become  liquid;  which  happens  about  the  fe- 
venth  or  eighth  cohobation  or  dillillation.  By  fucli 
means  you  gain  a  very  red,  odoriferous  fpirit.  Stol- 
terfoht,  a  phyfician  of  Lubec,  thinks  May-dew  may 
be  gathered  in  glafs-plates,  efpecially  in  ftill  weather, 
and  before  fun-rife.  And  Etrauller  is  of  the  fame  fen- 
tiinent.  It  might  iikewife  be  collected  with  a  glafs 
funnel,  expoled  to  the  air,  having  a- crooked  neck  to 
bring  the  dew  into  a  vial  in  a  chamber.  See  Phil. 
Tranf  n°  3.  Hoffman,  and  others.  It  is  apparent- 
ly from  the  preparation  of  this  dew,  that  the  brothers 
of  the  Rofy-Crofs  took  their  denomination.     See  Ro- 

SICRUCIANS. 

Dfir-Born,  in  country  affairs,  a  difteniper  in  cattle, 
being  a  fwelling  in  the  body,  as  much  as  the  fliin  can 
hold,  fo  that  lom.e  beails  are  in  danger  of  burfting. 
This  diftemper  proceeds  from  the  greedinefs  of  a  beall 
to  feed,  when  put  into  a  rank  pafture:  but  commonly 
when  the  grafs  is  full  of  water.  In  this  cafe  the  beait 
fiiould  be  ilirred  up  and  down,  and  made  to  purge  well: 
but  the  proper  cure  is  bleeding  in  the  tail  ;  then  take 
a  grated  nutmeg,  with  an  egg,  and  breaking  the  top 
of  the  fhell,  put  out  fo  much  of  the  white  as  you  may. 
have  room  to  flip  the  nutmeg  into  the  fliell;  mix  them 
together,  and  then  let  fliell  and  all  be  put  down  the 
bead's  throat;  that  done,  walk  him  up  and  down,  and 
he  will  foon  mend. 

DEiv-Worm.     See  Lumbricus. 

DE  WIT  (John),  the  famous  penfionary,  was  bora 
in  1625,  at  Dort  ;  where  he  profecuted  his  ftudies  fo 
diligently,  that,  at  the  age  of  23,  he  publiihed  Ele- 
ments 


DEW 


[     784    1 


D    I    A 


I'e  Wit.  tntufa  Cur-oarum  Linearum,  one  of  the  deeped  books  in 
^~"v~—  mathematics  at  that  time.  After  taking  his  degrees, 
and  travelling,  he,  in  1650,  became  penfionary  of 
Dort,  and  diftingulfhed_,  hiniftrlf  very  early  in  the  ma- 
nagement of  public  affairs.  He  oppofed  with  all  his 
power  tl^e  war  between  the  Englifh  and  the  Dutch  ; 
and  when  the  event  juftilied  his  prediftions,  he  was 
unanimoufly  chofen  penlionaty  of  Holland.  In  this 
capacity  he  laboured  to  procure  a  peace  with  Crom- 
well ;  in  which  peace  a  ffcret  article  was  introduced 
by  one  fide  or  other,  for  the  exclufion  of  the  houfe  of 
Orange.  In  the  war  with  England  after  the  king's  re- 
ftoration,  when  it  was  thought  expedient,  on  Opdam's 
defeat  and  death,  that  fome  of  their  own  deputies  fhould 
command  the  fleet,  he  was  one  of  the  three  put  in 
commiffion;  and  wrote  an  accurate  relation  of  all  that 
happened  during  the  expedition  he  was  engaged  in, 
for  which,  at  his  return,  he  received  the  folemn 
thanks  of  the  States-General.  In  1667,  he  ella- 
bliihed  the  perpetual  edi<Sl  for  abolilhing  the  office  of 
Stadtholder,  to  fix  the  liberty  of  the  republic,  as  it 
was  hoped,  on  a  firm  bafis  ;  which  produced  feditions 
and  tumults,  that  reftorcd  the  office,  on  pretence  that 
the  De  Wits  were  enemies  to  the  houfe  of  Orange,  and 
plundered  the  (late.  The  penfionary  begged  difmiffion 
from  his  poll  ;  which  was  granted,  with  thanks  for 
his  faithful  fei  vices.  But  the  invafion  of  the  French, 
and  the  internal  divifions  among  the  Hollanders  them- 
felves,  fpread  every  where  terror  and  confufion  ;  which 
the  Orange  party  heightened  to  ruin  the  De  Wits. 
Cornelius,  the  penfionaty's  brother,  was  imprifoned 
and  condemned  to  exile  ;  and  a  report  being  raifed 
that  he  would  be  refcued,  the  mob  armed,  and  fur- 
rounded  the  prifon  where  the  two  brothers  then  were 
together, dragged  them  out, barbarouflymurdered  them, 
hung  the  bodies  on  the  gallows,  and  cut  them  to  pie- 
ces, which  many  of  them  even  bi  oiled,  and  ate  with 
favage  fury.  Such  was  the  end  of  one  of  the  greateft 
geniufes  of  his  age  ;  of  whum  Sir  William  Temple, 
who  was  well  acquainted  with  him,  writes  with  the 
greateft  efteeni  and  admiration.  He  obferves,  that 
when  he  was  at  the  head  of  the  government,  he  dif- 
fered nothing  in  his  manner  of  living  from  an  ordinary 
citizen.  His  office,  for  the  firft  ten  years,  brought 
him  in  little  mtjre  than  300 1.  and  in  the  latter  part  of 
iis  life,  not  above  ■] 00  \.  per  annum.  He  refufed  a 
gift  of  10,000 1.  from  the  Slates-General,  becaufe  he 
thought  it  a  bad  precedent  in  the  government.  With 
great  reafon,  therefore.  Sir  William  Temple,  fpeak- 
ing  of  his  death,  obferves,  "  He  was  a  perfon  that  de- 
ferved  another  fate,  and  a  belter  return  from  his  coun- 
try ;  after  18  years  fpent  in  tlieir  minillry,  without 
any  care  of  his  entertainments  or  eafe,  and  little  of  his 
fortune.  A  man  of  unwearied  indullry,  inflexible  con- 
ftancy,  found,  clear,  and  deep  underrtanding,  and  un- 
tainted integrity;  fo  that  whenever  he  was  blinded,  it 
was  by  the  paffion  he  had  for  that  which  he  eftcemed 
the  good  and  interelt  of  his  ftate.  This  teftimuny  is 
juftly  due  to  him  from  all  that  were  well  acquainted 
with  him  ;  and  is  the  more  willingly  paid,  fince  there 
can  be  as  little  intereft  to  flatter,  as  honour  to  reproach, 
the  dead." 

Befides  the  works  already  mentioned,  he  wrote  a 
book  containing  thofe  maxims  of  government  upon 
which  he  aded  ;  which  will  be  a  never-fading  monu- 

W  ISO. 


meat  to  his  immortal  memory,  A  tranflation  of  it 
from  the  original  Dutch,  intitltd,  The  true  interejl  and 
political  maxims  of  the  republic  of  Holland,  has  been 
printed  in  London  ;  to  the  lail  edition  of  whicli,  in' 
1646,  are  prefixed  hiftorical  memoirs  of  the  iUultrious 
brothers  Cornelius  and  John  de  Witt,  by  John  Camp- 
bell, Efq. 

DEXTANS,  in  Roman  antiquity,  ten  ounces,  or 
4x  of  their  libra.     See  Libra. 

DEXTER,  in  hcraldiy,  an  appellation  given  to 
whatever  belongs  to  the  right  fide  of  a  fliield  or  coat 
of  arms  :   thus  we  fay,  bend-Jexter,  dexter  point,  &c. 

DEXTROCHERE,  or  Destrochere,  in  heral- 
dry, is  applied  to  the  right  arm  painted  in  a  fliield, 
fometimes  naked;  fometimes  clothed,  or  adorned  with 
a  bracelet ;  and  fometimes  armed,  or  holding  fome  move- 
able or  member  ui'ed  in  the  arms. 

DEY,  the  title  of  the  fovereign  of  Algiers,  under 
the  proteftion  of  the  grand  fcignor.  A  prince  under 
this  title  was  appointed  by  the  fultan,  at  the  requell 
of  the  Turkifh  foldiers,  in  the  year  17  10.  -The  term 
diy,  in  the  Turkilh  language,  fignifies  an  uncle  by  the 
mother's  fide  ;  and  the  reafon  of  the  denomination  is 
this :  that  the  Turkifli  military  confider  the  grand 
feignor  as  their  father  ;  the  republic  as  their  mother, 
by  which  they  are  nouriihed  and  maintained  ;  and  the 
dey  as  the  brother  of  the  rcpubhc,  and  confequtnlly 
the  uncle  of  all  who  are  under  his  dominion.  Befides 
the  age,  experience,  and  valour,  which  are  neccffary 
qualifications  of  a  ferfon  to  be  eletled,  he  mull  :ilfo 
be  a  native  Turk,  and  have  made  the  voyage  to  Mec- 
ca. He  has  no  guards  nor  confiderable  retinue.  He 
prefides  at  the  divan,  and  is  moll  diftinguiflied  by  the 
refpett  and  iubmiffion  which  are  paid  him. 

DIABETES,  in  phyfic,  an  exceffive  difcharge  of 
urine,  which  comes  away  crude,  and  exceeds  the  quan- 
tity of  liquids  drank.  See  (the  Index  fubjoined  to) 
Medicine. 

DIABOLUS.     See  Devil. 

Di.'iBOLUs  Marinas.     See  RaiA. 

DtdBOLUS  Metellorum,  a  title  given  by  chemills  to 
Jupiter  or  tin  ;  becaufe,  when  incorporated  with  other 
metals,  it  renders  them  incapable  of  redudlion,  or  at 
leail  very  difficult  to  undergo  that  operation. 

DIACAUSTIC  CURVE,  a  fpecies  of  the  cauilic 
curves  formed  by  refraClion. 

DIACHYLON,  in  pharmacy,  aii  emollient  dige- 
ftive  plafter,  compofed  of  mucilages  or  vifcid  juices 
drawn  from  certain  plants.     See  Pharmacy. 

DIACODIUM,  in  pharmacy,  a  fyrup  prepared 
from  poppy-heads.  It  is  alfo  called  X.W  fyrupus  de  me- 
coiiio.     See  Pharmacy. 

DIACOUSTICS,  called  alfo  diaphonics,  the 
confideration  of  the  properties  of  rcfradlcd  found,  as  it 
palTes  through  different  mediums:  (See  Acoustics.) 
The  word  is  formed  from  the  Greek  J'"  per,  "  thro'," 
which  intimates  a  paffage  ;  and  '""i-  "  I  hear,"  q.  d.  the 
confideration  of  the  paffage  of  the  founds  we  hear.  Sec 
Sound. 

DIACRII,  in  antiquity,  was  the  name  of  a  party 
or  fadlion  at  Athens. — That  city,  we  read,  was  di- 
vided into  two  parties :  the  one  favourers  of  an  oligar- 
chy, who  would  only  have  a  few  perfons  employed  in 
the  government  ;  the  other  confifted  of  fuch  as  were 
for  a  democratical  or  popular  government,  wherein  the 

whole 


D    I    A 


r 


Biadclrhia  whole  people  (lioiild  have  a  fliare.  The  fiift  were  call- 
.11  ed  liiacrii,   and  tlie  latter  pe{li<icl ;  the  latter  inhabiting 

Uiagno  n.  jj^^  lower,  and  the  former  the  fy.poi,  or  upper  quarter 
or  part  of  the  city. — The  laws  of  Solon  imported,  that 
Pififtratus  fhould  be  chief  of  the  diacrii  ;  though  the 
fchohail  on  Arillophanes's  comedy  The  Wafps,  affirms, 
that  Pandion  dillributcd  the  quarter  of  the  diacrii  a- 
inong  his  fons,  and  put  Lycus  ai  their  head. 

DTADELPHIA  (J'*-  "  twice,"  and  »"ft^?>»f  "abro- 
ther"),  clafs  the  1 7th  in  the  fexual  fyftem,  comprehend- 
ing tliofe  plants  whicli  bear  hermaphrodite  flowers  with 
two  fets  of  united  ftamina;  but  this  circumltance  mud 
not  be  abfolutely  depended  on.  They  are  x\\t  papiUo- 
r.acei  of  Tournefort,  the  Irregulares  tctrapetaii  of  Rivi- 
nus,  and  the  hgum'imfa  of  Ray.  See  Botany,  the 
Scheme,  p.  430,  and  Plate  CI  I.  fig.  17. 

DIADEM,  in  antiquity,  a  head-band  or  fillet,  worn 
by  kings  as  a  badge  of  their  royalty.  It  was  made  of 
filk,  thread,  or  wool,  and  tied  round  the  temples  and 
forehead,  the  ends  being  tied  behind,  and  let  fall  on 
the  neck.  It  was  ufually  white,  and  quite  plain;  tho' 
fometimes  embroidered  with  gold,  and  fet  with  pearls 
and  pi-ecious  (lones.  In  latter  times,  it  came  to  be 
twifted  round  crowns,  laurels,  &c.  and  even  appears  to 
have  been  worn  on  divers  parts  of  the  body.  See  Crown. 
— The  word  comes  from  the  Latin  /liaJcma;  of  the 
Greek  iictl«/xa.  "  a  little  band  encompaflmg  the  head," 
of  the  verb  J'^'f'",  cingo,  "  I  gird." 

Diadem,  in  heraldry,  is  applied  to  certain  ciixles 
or  rims  ferving  to  inclofe  the  crowns  of  fovereign  prin- 
ces, and  to  bear  the  globe  and  crofs,  or  the  flower  de 
luces,  for  their  creft.  The  crowns  of  fovereigns  are 
bound,  fome  with  a  greater,  and  fome  with  a  lefs  num- 
ber of  diadems. — The  bandage  about  tlie  heads  of 
Moors  on  ihields  is  alfo  called  diadem,  in  blazoning. 

DI./ERESIS,  in  furger)',  an  operation  ferving  to 
divide  and  feparate  the  part  when  the  continuity  is  a 
hindrance  to  the  cure. 

Diuresis,  in  medicine,  is  the  confuming  of  the 
veflTels  of  an  animal  body,  when  from  fome  corroding 
caufe  certain  paflages  are  made,  which  naturally  ought 
not  to  have  been  ;  or  certain  natural  paflages  are  dila- 
ted beyond  their  ordinary  dimenfions,  fo  that  the  hu- 
mours which  ought  to  have  been  contained  in  the  vef- 
fels  exttavafate  or  run  out. 

D1.TRESIS,  in  grammar,  the  divifion  of  one  fyllable 
into  two,  which  is  ufually  noted  by  two  points  over  a 
letter,  as  auldi  inftead  of  ««/<?,  djjfoluenda  for  dijpjl- 
I'etiJti. 

DIiETETiE,in  Grecian  antiquity,  a  hind  ofjudges, 
of  which  there  were  two  forts,  the  cleroti  and  diallac- 
terii.  The  former  were  public  arbitrators,  chofen  by 
lot  to  determine  all  caufes  exceeding  ten  drachms, 
within  their  own  tribe,  and  from  their  fentence  an  ap- 
peal lay  to  the  fuptrior  courts. 

The  diallafterii,  on  the  contrary,  were  private  arbi- 
trators from  wliii'^  fentence  there  lay  no  appeal,  and  ac- 
cordingly they  always  took  an  oath  to  adminiller  ju- 
•Ilice  without  partiality. 

DIAGLYPHICE,  the  art  of  cutting  or  engraving 
figures  on  melals,  fuch  as  feals,  intaglios,  matrices  of 
letters,  &c.  or  coins  for  medals.      See  Engraving. 

DIAGNOSIS  (from  Jmyvuo-xo.  to  difccrn  or  diflin- 
giujh),  the  diagnoftics  or  the  figns  of  a  difeafc.     They 

Vol.  V.  Part  II. 


785     1  D    I    A 

are  of  two  kinds,  Wz.  the  adjunft  and  pathognomonic;  Diagnodic 
the  firfl  arc  common  to  feveral  difeafes,  and  fervc  only       .  II 
to  point  out  the  difference  between  difeafes  of  the  fame  ,  ''"''°"-  ^ 
fpecies  ;  tlie  latter  are  thofe  which  always  attend  the         " 
difeafe,  and  diftingnifli  it  from  all  others. 

DIAGNOSTIC,  in  medicine,  a  term  given  to  thofe 
figns  which  indicate  the  prefcnt  flate  of  a  difeafe,  its 
nature  and  caufe. 

DIAGONAL,  in  geometry,  a  right  line  drawn  a- 
crofs  a  quadrilateral  figure,  from  one  angle  to'another; 
by  fome  called  the  diameter,  and  by  others  the  diametral, 
of  the  figure.     See  Geometry. 

DIAGORAS,  furnamed  the  ylthrifi,  lived  in  the 
91  fl  Olympiad.  He  was  not  a  native  of  Athens,  but 
he  philofophifed  there.  He  delighted  in  making  ver- 
fes,  and  had  compofed  a  poem  which  a  certain  poet 
ftole  from  him.  He  fued  the  thief,  who  fwore  it  was 
his  own,  and  got  glory  by  it.  This  tempted  Diago- 
ras  to  deny  a  Providence.  The  Athenians  fummoned 
him  to  give  an  account  of  his  doftrine.  He  fled,  and 
they  fet  a  price  upon  his  head,  promifing  a  reward  to 
any  who  fliould  kill  him  ;  but  he  took  Ihipping,  and 
was  call  away. 

DIAGRAM,  in  geometry,  a  fcheme  for  explaining 
and  demonilrating  the  properties  of  any  figure,  whe- 
ther triangle,  fquare,  circle,  &c.      See  Geometry. 

Diagram,  among  ancient  muficians,  the  fame  with 
the  fcalc  of  the  moderns.      See  Scale. 

DIAH,  Diat,  a  name  given  by  the  Arabs  to  the 
punifliment  of  retaliation.  By  the  Mahometan  law,  a 
brother,  or  the  next  relation  of  a  murdered  perfon, 
ought  to  take  part  againit  the  murderer,  and  demand 
his  blood  in  reparation  for  that  which  he  has  flied.  Be- 
fore the  time  of  Mahomet,  the  Arabs  had  a  cuft;om  of 
putting  a  freeman  of  their  prifoners  to  death  in  lieu  of 
every  flave  they  loll  in  battle,  and  a  man  for  every  wo- 
man that  was  killed.  But  Mahomet  regulated  the  laws 
of  reprifal ;  directing  in  the  Alcoran,  by  the  diat,  that 
a  freeman  fliould  be  required  for  a  freeman,  and  a  flave 
for  a  flave.  The  Turks,  probably  in  confequence  of 
this  law,  formerly  maflacred  almoft  all  their  prifoners 
of  war,  but  they  now  content  themfclves  with  enflaving 
and  felling  them. 

DIAHEXAPLA,  or  Diahexapte,  among  far- 
riers, a  compound  medicine,  fo  called  from  its  contain- 
ing fix  ingredients,  viz.  birthwort  and  gentian  roots, 
juniper -berries,  bay-berries,  myrrh,  and  ivory  Ihavings. 
It  is  commended  for  colds,  confumptions,  purfinefs, 
and  many  other  diforders  in  hsrfes, 

DIAL,  an  iuftrument  ferving  to  meafure  time ; 
which  if  efletled  by  the  aid  of  the  fun,  is  called  nfun 
dial.  The  word  is  from  the  Latin  dies  "  day,"  be- 
caufe  indicating  the  hour  of  the  day.  The  ancients 
alfo  called  it  fciatherium,  from  its  effedl  by  the  fliadow. 
See  the  article  Dialing. 

DIALECT,  an  appellation  given  to  the  language 
of  a  province,  in  fo  far  as  it  differs  from  that  of  the 
whole  kingdom.  The  term,  however,  is  more  parti- 
cularly ufed  in  fpeaking  of  the  ancient  Greek,  whereof 
there  were  four  dialefts,  the  Attic,  Ionic,  jEolic,  and 
Doric  ;  each  of  which  was  a  perfeA  language  in  its 
kind,  that  took  place  in  certain  countries,  and  had  pe- 
culiar beauties. 

In  Great  Britain,  befides  the  grand  diverfity  of  Eng- 
5  G  liHi 


D     I    A 


[     786     ] 


D     I     A 


Diakflics,  lifti  and  Scotch,  almoft  every  county  has  a  dialed  of  its 
,  D'ali"g-  own,  all  differing  confiderably  in  pronunciation,  accent, 
'         and  tone,  although  one  and  the  lame  language. 

DIALECTICS,  in  the  literary  hhlnrj  of  the  an- 
cients, that  branch  of  logics  which  taught  the  rules 
and  modes  of  reafoning.     See  Logic,  Part  III. 

Zeno  Eleatcs  was  tlie  flrft  who  difcovered  the  natu- 
ral feries  of  principles  and  conclufions  obferved  !n  rea- 
foning, and  formed  an  ait  thereof  in  form  ot  a  dia- 
logue ;   wliich,  for  this  reafon,  was  called  dialeSlca. 

The  dialetlica  of  the  ancients  is  ufuaUy  divided  into 
feveral  kinds :  the  firll  was  the  ekatica,  that  of  Zeno 
Eleatcs,  which  was  threefold  ;  viz.  confeaitioiiuin,  collo- 
quutwimm,  and  conlcnl'wnum.  The  firft  confiding  of 
rules  for  deducing  or  drawing  conclufions.  The  le- 
cond,  the  art  of  dialogue  ;  which  became  of  fuch  uni- 
verfal  ufe  in  philofophy,  that  all  reafoning  was  called 
ivterrcgat'.ov:  then,  fyHogifm  being  laid  afide,  the  plii- 
lofophtrs  did  all  by  dialogue  ;  it  lying  on  the  rcfpon- 
dent  to  conclude  and  argue  from  the  feveral  conceffions 
made.  The  lafl  part  of  Zeno's  dialeftics,  Ejinxi-,  was 
contentious,  or  the  art  of  difpnting  and  contradifting; 
though  fome,  particularly  Laertius,  afcribe  this  part 
to  Protagoras  a  difciple  of  Zeno. 

The  fecond  is  the  tlialeilica  msgarica,  whofe  author 
is  Euclid,  not  the  mathematician,  but  another  of  Me- 
gava.  He  gave  much  into  the  inethod  of  Zeno  and 
Protagoras  ;  thou_gh  there  are  two  things  appropriated 
to  him  :  the  firil,  that  he  impugned  the  demonilra- 
tions  of  others,  not  by  alTuniptions,  but  conclufions  ; 
continually  making  illations,  and  proceeding  from  con- 
fequtuce  to  confequcnce  :  the  fecond,  that  he  fet  afide 
all  arguments  drawn  from  comparifons  of  fimilicude  as 
invalid. 

He  was  fucceeded  by  Eubulidcs,  from  whom  the 
fophidic  way  of  reafoning  is  faid  to  be  derived.  In 
his  tims  the  art  is  defcribed  as  manifold  :  mentiens, 
fallens,  (ieftra,  obvelata,  arcevalis,  cornuta,  and  calva. 
See  Sophism. 

The  third  is  the  dialcftics  of  Plato,  which  he  pro- 
pofes  as  a  kind  of  analyfis  to  direft  the  human  mind, 
by  dividing,  definuig,  and  bringing  things  to  the  firil 
truth  ;  where  being  arrived,  and  (topped  there  a  little, 
it  apphes  itfelf  to  explain  fenfibic  things,  but  w  ith  a 


view  to  return  to  the  firft  truth,  where  alone  it  can  refl. 
Such  is  the  idea  of  Plato's  analyfis. 

The  fourth  is  Ariftotlc's  dialeftics  ;  containing  the 
doftrine  of  finiple  words,  delivered  in  his  book  of  Pr<e- 
dic.iments  ;  the  doftrine  of  propofitions,  in  his  book 
l)e  Jntcrprelailoiu-;  and  that  of  the  feveral  kinds  of  fyl- 
logiim,  in  his  books  ot  Analytics,  Topics,  and  Eien- 
chufts. 

The  fifth  is  the  dialcftics  of  the  Stoics  ;  whidi  they 
call  a  part  of  philofophy,  and  divide  into  rhetoric  and 
diuleiitic  ;  to  which  fome  add  the  definitive,  whercbv 
things  are  juftly  delined  ;  compiehending  liktwiic  tlic 
canons  or  critcrions  of  truth. 

The  Stoics,  before  they  come  to  treat  of  fylloglhns, 
have  two  principal  pL'.ces;  the  one  about  the  lignificu- 
tion  of  woids,  the  other  about  the  things  lignified.  Oa 
occafion  of  the  firft,  they  confider  abundance  of  things 
belonging  to  the  grammarian's  province  :  what,  and 
how  many  letters  ;  what  is  a  word,  diction,  ipccth, 
&c.  On  occafion  of  the  latter,  they  confider  things, 
themfelves,  noc  as  without  the  mind,  but  as  in  it,  re- 
ceived in  it  by  means  of  the  knfes.  Accordingly,  they 
firll  teach,  that  nil  Jit  in  intelleilu,  qmd  non  prim  fuerit  in 
fe'ifu;  "  whatever  is  in  the  mind  came  tliithcr  by  the 
fenfes;"  and  that  aul  incuijione  fui,  as  Plato,  who  meets 
the  fight;  nut  Ji mi  lit  a  dine,  as  Caefar  by  his  effigy  ;  aut 
prcperlione,  either  by  enlarging  as  a  giant  or  by  diminilh- 
iag  as  a  pygmy;  mit tnwjJatione,  as  a  Cyclops  ;  aiit  com- 
pfjiliom;  as  a  Centaur  ;  aut  coiitrario,  as  death  ;  aut  pri- 
•vatione,  as  a  blind  man. 

The  fixth  is  Epicurus's  diale£l,ic3 ;  for  though  he 
feems  to  have  defpil'ed  dialectic,  he  cultivated  it  with 
vigour.  He  was  only  averfe  to  that  ot  the  Stoics  ; 
who  he  thought  attributed  too  much  to  it,  as  pronoun- 
cing him  alone  wife  who  was  well  verfcd  in  dialectics^ 
For  this  reafoti,  Epicurus,  feerning  to  fet  afide  the 
common  dialedUcs,  had  recourfe  to  another  way  ;  viz. 
to  certain  canons  which  he  fubftituted  in  their  ftead, 
the  collection  whereof  he  called  canoiiica;  and  as  all  qne- 
ftions  in  philofophy  are  either  ih:  re  or  de  voce,  he  gave 
fepni-ate  rnlrs  for  each.     See  Epicureans. 

DIAI.IA,  in  antiquity,  lacrifices  performed  by  the 
flamen  dlalis.     See  pLAMtM. 


Dialciftlcj 

.   II 


D 


I      A       L 


N       G, 


H  E  art  of  drawing  dials  on  the  furface  of  any 
given  body  or  plane.  The  Greeks  and  the  La- 
tins called  this  art  gnomonica  znAfciatherica,  by  reafon 
it  diftinguiflies  the  hours  by  the  fiiadow  of  the  gnomon. 
Some  call  it  photo-fciatherica,  becaufe  the  hours  are 
fometimes  (hown  by  the  light  of  the  fun.  Lallly, 
others  call  it  horologiogrnphy. 
Utilitv  (if  Diahng  is  a  moil  necelfaiy  art :  for  notwithftanding 
this  art.  we  are  provided  with  moving  machines,  fuch  as  clocks 
and  watches,  to  fliow  time  ;  yet  thefe  are  apt  to  be  out 
of  order,  go  wrong,  ?nd  flop:  confequently  they  iland 
frequently  in  need  of  regulation  by  fome  invariable  in- 
ftrument,  as  a  dial;  v.-hich  being  rightly  conilrufted  and 
duly  placed,  will  always,  by  means  of  the  fun,  inform  us 
of  the  true  folar  time  ;  whicli  time  being  corrected  by 
&e  equation  tabic  publifted  annually  in  the  epheme- 


rides,  ahnanacs,  and  other  books,  will  be  the  mean  tim.e 
to  which  clocks  and  watches  are  to  be  fet. 

The  antiquity  of  dials  is  beyond  doubt.  Some  at-j^^^py^ 
tribute  their  invention  to  Anaximenes  Milefius  ;  and 
others  to  Thales.  Vitruvius  mentions  one  made  by 
the  ancient  Chaldee  hillorian  Berofus,  on  a  reclin :ng 
plane,  almofl  parallel  to  the  equinoiiial.  Ariilarchus 
Samins  invented  the  hemifpherical  dial.  And  there 
were  fome  fpherical  ones,  with  a  needle  for  a  gnomon. 
The  difcus  of  Ariilarchus  was  an  horizontal  d\il,  with 
its  limb  raifed  up  all  around,  to  prevent  the  fliadows 
ftretching  too  far. 

But  it  was  late  ere  the  Romans  became  acquainted 
with  dials.  The  firll  fun-dial  at  Rome  was  fet  up  by 
Papirius  Curfi)r,  about  the  year  of  the  city  460;  be- 
fore wliich  time,  fays  Pliny,  there  is  no  mention  of  any 

accouut 


[ 


D       I       A 

account  of  time  but  by  tlie  fun's  rifing  and  fetting  :  it 
was  fet  up  at  or  near  ilie  tompic  of  Qmrimis,  but  went 
ill.  About  30  ye;irs  after,  JNI.  Valerius  Melikla  being 
conful,  brouglit  out  of  Sieily  another  dial,  which  he  let 
up  on  a  pillar  near  the  rolhum  ;  but  for  want  ol  iis 
being  made  for  that  latitude,  it  could  uot  go  true. 
They  made  ufe  of  it  99  years  ;  till  Martius  Philippus 
fet  up  another  more  exact. 

But  there  feem   to   have  been  dials  among  the  Jews 

much  earlier  than  any  of  thefe.     Witnefs  the   dial  of 

■Ahaz  ;  who  began  to  reign  400  years  before  Alexan- 

"^der,  and  within    1 2   ycar^  of  the  building  of  Rome  ; 

mentioned  by  Ifaiah,  ciiap.  xxxviii.  verfe  8. 

The  tirll  profeflcd  writer  on  dialing  is  Clavius  ;  who 
demonftrates  all,  botli  the  theory  and  the  operations, 
after  the  rigid  manner  of  the  ancient  mathematicians  ; 
but  fo  intricately,  that  few.  we  dare  fay,  ever  read  them 
all.  Dechales  and  Ozanam  give  much  eafier  demonilra- 
tions  in  their  Coarfis,  and  Wollius  in  his  Ehmaiils.  M. 
Picard  has  given  a  new  metluid  of  making  large  dials, 
by  calculating  the  hour-lines  ;  and  M.  de  la  HiVe,  in 
his  Dialing,  printed  in  1683",  a  geometrical  method  of 
drawing  hour-lines  from  certain  points  determined  by 
obfervation.  Eberhardus  Welperus,  in  1625,  pub- 
liflied  his  DinUrg,  wherein  he  lays  down  a  method  of 
drawing  the  primary  dials  on  a  very  eafy  foundation. 
The  fame  foundation  is  defcribed  at  length  by  Seba- 
ftian  Munller,  in  his  Rudimcn/a  Mathematica,  pMblilb- 
ed  in  1551.  Sturmius,  in  1672,  publiflied  a  new  edi- 
tion of  Welperus's  Dialing,  with  the  addition  of  a  whole 
fecond  part,  about  inclining  and  declining  dials,  ^:c. 
In  1708,  the  fame  work,  with  Slurmius's  additions, 
was  republiibed  with  the  addition  of  a  fourth  part, 
containing  PIcard's  and  de  la  Hire's  methods  of  draw- 
ing large  dials.  Paterfon,  Michael,  and  MuUer,  have 
each  wrote  on  dialing,  in  the  German  tongue  ;  Coet- 
fius  in  his  Horokgiogrnpbia  Plana,  piinted  in  1 689  ; 
Gaujipenius,  in  his  Giiominifu  Mcchanica ;  Bion,  in 
his  Ufe  nf  Mathematical  InJJruments  ;  the  late  ingenious 
Mr  Fergufon,  in  his  Seka  LeSures  ;  Mr  Emerfom,  in 
bis  Dialing  ;  and.  Mr  W.  Jones,  in  his  Injlrumental 
Dialing, 
Definitions.  -A.  Dial,  accurately  defined,  is  a  plane,  upon  which 
lines  are  defcribed  in  fuch  a  manner,  tliat  tiie  (badow 
of  a  wire,  or  of  the  upper  edge  of  another  plane,  erect- 
ed perpendicularly  on  the  former,  may  fiiow  the  true 
time  of  the  day. 

The  edge  of  the  plane  by  wliich  the  time  of  the  day 
is  found,  is  called  the  Jli'e  of  the  dial,  which  mull  be 
parallel  to  the  earth's  axis  ;  and  the  line  on  which 
the  fiiid  plane  is  eretted,  is  called  the  fuhjlile. 

The  angle  included  between  the  fublUle  atid  llile,  is 
called  the  elevalinn  or  height  of  ihejlile. 

Thofe  dials  wiiofe  planes  are  parallel  to  the  plane 
of  the  horizon,  are  called  horiz,cntal  iliah  ;  and  thofe 
dials  whofe  planes  are  perpendicular  to  tiie  plane  of  the 
horizon,  are  called  •ucrlii'nl  or  ereii  trials. 

Thoie  ereft  dials,  whofe  planes  diredtly  front  the 
liorlh  or  fouth,  are  called  dired  north  m-  fotith  dials ; 
and  all  other  erec^-  dials  are  called  dccliners,  becaufc 
their  planes  are  turned  away  from  the  north  or  foath. 

Thofe  dials  whofe  planes  are  neither  parallel  nor  per- 
pendicidar  to  the  plane  of  the  horizon,  are  called  in- 
(lining  or  nclining  dials,  according  as  their  planes  make 


787 


LING. 

acute  or  obtufe  angles  with  the  horizon  ;  and  if  their 
planes  are  alfo  turned  afide  from  facing  the  fouth  or 
north,  they  are  called  decliniiig-incliniHg  or  declining 
reclining  dials. 

The  interfcAion  of  the  plane  of  the  dial,  with  that 
of  the  meridian,  pafTuig  through  the  ilile,  is  called 
the  meridian  of  the  dial,  or  the  haur-line  of  XII. 

Thofe  meridians,  whofe  planes  pafs  through  th* 
ftile,  and  make  angles  of  15,  30,  45,  60,  yy,  and  90 
degrees  with  the  meridian  of  the  place  (which  marks 
the  hour-line  of  XII.)  are  called  hour-circles ;  and 
their  interfedlions  with  the  plane  of  the  dial  are  called 
hour-lines. 

In  all  declining  diaU,  the  fubltile  makes  an  angle 
with  the  hour-line  of  XII.  ;  and  this  angle  is  called  the 
dijlance  of  the  fuhjlile  from  the  meridian. 

The  declining  plane's  difference  of  longitude,  is  the 
angle  formed  at  the  interfec^iou  of  the  ftile  and  plane  of 
the  dial,  by  two  meridians;  one  of  which  paficK  thro' 
the  hour-line  of  XII.  and  the  other  through  the  fub- 
ftile. 

Thus  much  being  premifed  concerning  dials  In  ge- 
neral, we  (hall  now  proceed  to  explain  the  different 
methods  of  their  conftrudtion. 

If  the   whole   earth  aPcp,  were   tranfparent,    and  PIa>c 
hollow,  like  a   fphere  of  glafs,  and  had    its   equator  V''^'"'- 
divided    into    24    equal    parts  by  fo  many  meridian  ''^  '" 
femicircles,  a,  h,  c,  d,  e,f,g,  &c    one  of  which  is  the  t!  emiiv«r- 
geographical  meridian  of  any  given  place,   as  London  fal  principle 
(which   is  fuppofed  to  be  at  the  point  a  ;)   a:ul  if  the  "■'  which- 
hours  of  XII  were  maiked  at  the  equator,  both  upon '^'^' ."'^  **'" 
that  meridian  and  the  oppofite  one,  and  all  the  rell  of '"^" 
the  hours  in  order  on  the  reft  of  the  meridians,  thofe 
meridians  would  be  the  hour-circles  of  London  :  then,    ' 
If  the  fphere  had  an  opaque  axis,  as  PEp,  terminating 
in   the   poles   /"and/,  tlie   fliadow  of  the  axis  would 
fall  upon  every  particular   meridian   and  hour,   when 
the  fun  came  to  the  plane  of  the  oppofite  meridian, 
and  would  confequently  ftiow  the  time  at  London,  and 
at  all  otlier  places  on  the  meridian  of  London.  , 

If  this  fphere  was  cut  through  the  middle  by  a  folld  F^orizontaI 
■p\wnt  ABCD,  in  the  rational  horizon  of  London,  one '•'*'• 
half  of  the  axis  EP  would  be  above  the  plane,  and  the 
other  half  below  it  ;  and  if  ftraiglit  lines  were  drawn 
from  the  centre  of  the  plane  to  thofe  points  where  its 
circumference  is  cut  by  the  hour-circles  of  the  fphere, 
thofe  lines  would  be  the  hour-li;ies  of  a  horizontal  dial 
for  London  :  for  the  lliadow  of  the  axis  would  fall  up- 
on each  paiticular  hour  hue  of  the  dial,  when  it  fell 
upon  the  like  hour-circle  of  the  fphere. 

If  the  plane  which  cuts  the   fphere   be  upright,  as  rig.  2. 
ylFCG,  touching  the   given   place   (London)   at  P", 
and   directly  facing   the   meridian   of  London,  it  will 
then  become  the  plane  of  an  erect  direct  fouth-dial :  and 
if  right  lines  be  drawn  from  its  centre  E  to  thofe  points  vertical 
of  its  circumference  where  the  hour-circles  of  the  fphere  dial, 
cut  it,  thsfe  will  be  the  hour-lines  of  a  vertical  or  direft 
fouth-dial  for  I^ondon,  to  which  the  houis  are  to  be  fet 
as  in  the  figure  (contrary  to  thofe  on  a  horizontal  dial), 
nnd  the  lower  half  F.p  of  the  axis  will  call  a  fhadow  on 
the  hour  of  the  day  in  this  dial,  at  the  fame  time  that 
it  would  fall  upon  the  like  hour-circle  of  the  fphere,  if 
the  dial  plane  was  not  in  the  way. 

If  the   plane  (ftiU  facing  the  meridian)  be  made  to 
5  G   2  incline/ 


788 


Plate 
CLVUI. 


Inclining, 
reclini!^;;, 
anddcclin 
ing,  dials. 


rig.  I,  «. 


8 

IMaling  by 
the  com- 
mon rerre- 
itrial  globe. 


DIAL 

incline,  or  recline,  any  given  number  of  degrees,  the 
hour-circles  of  the  fphere  will  ftill  cut  the  edge  of  the 
plane  in  thofe  points  to  which  the  hour-lines  mnft  be 
drawn  ftraight  from  the  centre  ;  and  the  axis  of  the 
fphere  will  cail  a  fhadow  on  thefe  lines  at  the  refpeftive 
hours.  The  like  v,  ill  ftill  hold,  if  the  plane  be  made 
to  decline  by  any  given  number  of  degrees  from  the 
meridian  toward  the  eaft  or  weft  :  provided  the  decli- 
nation be  lefs  than  90  degrees,  or  the  reclination  be 
Jefs  than  the  co-latitude  of  the  place  :  and  the  axis 
of  the  fphere  will  be  a  gnomen,  or  ftile,  for  the  dial. 
But  it  cannot  be  a  gnomon,  when  the  declination  is 
quite  90  degrees,  nor  when  the  reclination  Is  equal  to 
the  co-latitude  ;  becaufe,  in  thefe  two  cafes,  the  axis 
has  no  elevation  above  the  plane  of  the  dial. 

And  thus  it  appears,  that  the  plane  of  every  dial  re- 
prefcnts  the  plane  of  fome  great  circle  upon  the  earth  ; 
and  the  gnomon  of  the  earth's  axis,  whether  it  be  a 
Imall  wire  as  in  the  above  figures,  or  the  edge  of  a  thin 
plate,  as  in  the  common  horizontal  dials. 

The  whole  earth,  as  to  its  bulk,  is  but  a  point,  if 
compared  to  its  diftance  from  the  fun  :  and  therefore, 
if  a  fmall  fphere  of  glafs  be  placed  upon  any  part  of 
the  earth's  furface,  fo  that  its  axis  be  parallel  to  the 
axis  of  the  earth,  and  the  fphere  have  fuch  lines  upon 
it,  and  fuch  planes  within  it,  as  above  defcribed  ;  it 
will  lliow  the  hours  of  the  day  as  truly  as  if  it  were 
placed  at  the  earth's  centre,  and  the  (hell  of  the  earth 
were  as  tranfparent  as  glafs. 

But  becaufe  it  is  impofTible  to  have  a  hollow  fphere 
of  glafs  perfeftly  true,  blown  round  a  folld  plane  ;  or 
if  it  was,  we  could  not  get  at  the  plane  within  the  glafs 
to  fet  it  in  any  given  pofition  ;  we  make  ufe  of  a  wire- 
fphere  to  explain  the  principles  of  dialing,  by  joining 
24  femicircles  together  at  the  poles,  and  putting  a  thin 
^at  plate  of  brafs  within  it. 

A  common  globe  of  12  inches  diameter,  has  gene- 
rally 24  meridian  femicircles  drau'n  upon  it.  If  fuch 
a  globe  be  elevated  to  the  latitude  of  any  given  place, 
.and  turned  about  until  one  of  thefe  meridians  cut  the 
horizon  in  the  north  point,  where  the  hour  of  XJI  is 
fuppofed  to  be  marked,  the  reft  of  the  meridians  will 
cut  the  horizon  at  the  refpeftive  diftances  of  all  the 
other  hours  from  XII.  Then  if  thefe  points  of  diftance 
be  marked  on  the  horizon,  and  the  globe  be  taken  out 
of  the  horizon,  and  a  flat  board  or  plate  be  put  into  its 
place,  even  with  the  furface  of  the  horizon  ;  and  if 
ftraight  lines  be  drawn  from  the  centre  of  the  board, 
to  thofe  points  of  diftance  on  the  horizon  which  were 
cut  by  the  24  meridian  femicircles  ;  thefe  lines  will  be 
the  hour-lines  of  a  horizontal  di;il  for  that  latitude,  the 
edge  of  whofe  gnomon  mull  be  in  the  very  fame  (itua- 
tion  that  the  axis  of  the  globe  was,  before  it  was  taken 
out  of  the  horizon  :  that  is,  the  gnomni  muft  make  an 
angle  with  the  plane  of  the  dial,  equal  to  the  latitude 
of  the  place  for  which  the  dial  is  made. 

If  the  pole  of  the  globe  be  elevated  to  the  co-lati- 
tude of  the  given  place,  and  any  meridian  be  brought 
to  the  north  point  of  the  horizon,  the  reft  of  the  me- 
ridians will  cut  the  horizon  in  the  refpeftive  distances 
of  all  the  hours  from  XII,  for  a  direft  fouth  dial,  whofe 
gnomon  muft  be  an  angle  with  the  plane  of  the  dial, 
equal  to  the  co-latitude  of  the  place  ;  and  the  hours 
muft  be  fet  the  contrary  way  on  this  dial  to  what  they 
aie  on  the  horizontal. 


I      N      G. 

But  if  your  globe  have  more  than  24  meridian  femi-    P'-'e 
circles  upon  it,  you   muft  take  the  following  method  *-^^ V'- 
for  making  horizontal  ^xnd  foul/}  ilhtls.  9 

Elevate  the  pole  to  the  latitude  of  your  place,  and^^^  '^""- 
tiirn  the  fflobe  until  any  particular  meridian  (fuppofe*^''""^  ^'"^ 
the  rirltj  comes  to  the  north  pomt  or  the  horizon,  jiai, 
and  the  oppofite  meridian  will  cut  the  horizon  in  the 
fouth.  Then,  fet  the  liour-index  to  the  uppermoft 
XII  on  its  circle  ;  which  done,  turn  the  globe  weft- 
ward  until  15  degrees  of  the  equator  pals  under  the 
brafcn  meridian,  and  then  the  hour-index  will  be  at 
I  (for  the  fun  moves  15  degrees  every  hour),  and  the 
fiift  meridian  will  cut  the  horizon  in  the  number  of 
degrees  from  the  north  point  that  I  is  diftant  from 
XII.  Turn  on  until  other  15  degrees  of  the  equa- 
tor pafs  under  the  brafen  meridian,  and  the  hour-in- 
dex will  then  be  at  II,  and  the  firft  meridian  will  cut 
the  horizon  in  the-  number  of  degrees  that  II  is  di- 
ftant from  XII:  and  fo,  by  making  15  degrees  of 
the  equator  pafs  under  the  brafen  meridian  for  every 
hour,  the  firft  meridian  of  the  globe  will  cut  the  ho- 
rizon in   the  diftances   of  all  the  hours  from  XII  to 

VI,  which  isjuft  90  degrees;  and  then  vou  need  go 
no  farther,  for  the   diftances  of  XI,   X,   IX,   VIII, 

VII,  and  VI,  in  the  forenoon,  are  the  fame  from  XII, 
as  the  diftances  of  I,  II,  III,  IV,  V,  and  VI,  in  the 
afternoon :  and  thefe  hour-lines  continued  through 
the  centre,  will  give  the  oppofite  hour-lines  on  the 
other  half  of  the  dial. 

Thus,  to  make  a  horizontal  dial  for  the  latitude  of 
London,  which  is  ^l\  degrees  north,  elevate  the  north 
pole  of  the  globe  514-  degrees  above  the  north  point 
of  the  horizon  ;  and  then  turn  the  globe,  until  the  firft 
meridian  (which  is  that  of  London  on  the  Englilli  ter- 
reftrial  globe)  cuts  the  north  point  of  the  horizon,  and 
fet  the  hour-index  to  XII  at  noon. 

Then  turning  the  globe  weftward  until  the  index 
points  fucceflively  to  I,  II,  III,  IV,  V,  and  VI,  in  the 
afternoon,  or  until  15,  30,  45,  60,  75,  and  90  degrees 
of  the  equator  pafs  under  the  brafen  meridian,  you  will 
find  that  the  firft  meridian  of  the  globe  cuts  the  hori- 
zon in  the  following  numbers  of  degrees  from  the  north 
towards  the  eaft,  viz.  ii^,  24I,  38jV>53i,  7It-V»  and 
90 ;  which  are  the  refpei^tive  diftances  of  the  above 
hours  from  XII  upon  the  plane  of  the  horizon. 

To  transfer  thefe,  and  the  reft  of  the  hours,  to  a  Fig.  3, 
horizontal  plane,  draw  the  parallel  right  lines  a  e  and 
dl,  upon  that  plane,  as  far  from  each  other  as  is  equal 
to  the  intended  thicknefs  of  the  gnomon  or  ftUe  of 
the  dial,  and  the  fpace  included  between  them  will  be 
the  meridian  or  twelve  o'clock  line  on  the  dial.  Crofs 
this  meridian  at  right  angles  with  the  fix  o'clock  hue 
g  h,  and  fetting  one  foot  of  your  compafFes  in  the  in- 
terfeclion  a,  as  a  centre,  defcribe  the  quadrant  ge 
with  any  convenient  radius  or  opening  of  the  compaf- 
fes  :  then,  fetting  one  foot  in  the  interfettion  b,  as  3 
centre,  with  the  fame  radius  defcribe  the  qitadranty/^, 
and  divide  each  quadrant  into  90  equal  parts  or  de- 
grees, as  in  the  figure. 

Becaufe  the  hour-hnes  are  lefs  diftant  from  each  other 
about  noon,  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  dial,  it  is 
beft  to  have  the  centres  of  thefe  quadrants  at  a  little  di- 
ftance from  the  centre  of  the  dial  plane,  on  the  fide  op- 
pofite to  XII,  in  order  to  enlarge  the  hour-diftances 
thereabouts,  under  the  fame  angles  on  the  plane.  Thus, 

the 


D   I  AL  IlsT  G. 

-^/'</.     '2. 


>y.  (^. 


riate  CLMIT. 


,//?•//  ,/W„.  //„/., tr„//,r, ,  /!, 


I>hte 
CLVIII. 


F'g-  3- 


Fi'g.  4. 
10 
An  erci5l 
fuuth  dial. 


It 

Ereft  de- 

cljDillg 

•diuJ. 


D      I       A 

the  centre  of  the  plane  is  at  C,  but  the  centres  of  the 
quadrants  are  at  a  apid  b. 

Lay  a  ruler  over  the  point  /'  (and  keeping  it  there 
for  the  centre  of  all  the  afternoon  hours  in  the  quadrant 
f  h)  draw  the  hour-line  of  I  through  i  ly  degrees  in  the 
quadrant  ;  the  hour-line  of  II,  through  2^^  degrees  ; 
of  III,  through  38yV  degrees;  IIII,  through  534-; 
and  V,  through  71-,'^:  and  becaufe  the  fun  rifes  about 
four  in  the  morning,  on  the  longeft  days  at  London, 
continue  the  hour-lines  of  llll  and  V  in  the  afternoon 
through  the  centre  b  to  the  oppofite  fide  of  the  dial. — 
This  done,  lay  the  ruler  to  the  centre  a  of  the  quadrant 
eg ;  and  through  the  like  divifions  or  degrees  of  that 
quadrant,  viz.  ily.  24^,'  38, -V>  534)  and  "Jl^,  draw 
the  forenoon  hour-lines  of  XI,  X,  IX,  VIII,  and  VII; 
and  becaufe  the  fun  fets  not  before  eight  in  the  even- 
ing on  the  longeft  day^,  continue  the  hour-lines  of  VII 
and  VIII  in  the  forenoon,  through  the  centre  a,  to 
VII  and  VIII  in  the  afternoon  ;  and  all  the  hour-lines 
will  be  finithed  on  this  dial  ;  to  which  the  hours  may 
be  fet,  as  in  the  ligure. 

Laftly,  through  5 1 4- degrees  of  either  quadrant,  and 
from  its  centre,  draw  the  right  line  a  g  for  the  hypo- 
thcnuie  or  axis  of  the  gnomon  a  g  i ;  and  from  g,  let 
fall  the  perpendicular  g  i,  upon  the  meridian  line  a  i, 
and  there  will  be  a  triangle  made,  whufe  fides  are  a  g, 
g  i,  and  /  a.  If  a  plate  fimilar  to  this  triangle  be  made 
as  thick  as  the  dittance  between  the  lines  a  c  and  b  d, 
and  fet  upright  bttween  them,  touching  at  a  and  b,  its 
hypothenufe  rt^  will  be  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  world, 
when  the  dial  is  truly  fet  ;  and  will  call  a  fliadow  on 
the  hour  of  the  day. 

N.  B.  The  trouble  of  dividing  the  two  quadrants 
may  be  faved  if  you  have  a  fcale  with  a  line  of  chords 
upon  it  (as  reprefented  on  the  plate)  ;  for  if  you  ex- 
tend the  compaffes  from  o  to  60  degrees  of  the  line  of 
chords,  and  with  that  extent,  as  a  radius,  defcrlbe  the 
two  quadrants  upon  their  refpcclive  centres,  the  above 
diftances  may  be  taken  with  the  compaffes  upon  the 
the  lines,  and  fet  off  upon  the  quadrants. 

To  mitie  an  ered  dlreS  Joulh  dial.  Elevate  the 
pole  to  the  co-latitude  of  your  place,  and  proceed 
in  all  refpefts  as  above  taught  for  the  horizontal 
dial,  from  VI  in  the  morning  to  VI  in  the  after- 
noon ;  only  the  hours  mud  be  reverfed,  as  in  the 
figure  ;  and  the  hypothenufe  a  g  of  the  gnomon  a  g  f, 
mull;  make  an  angle  with  the  dial-plane  equal  to  the 
co-latitude  of  the  place.  As  the  fun  can  fliine  no  longer 
on  this  dial  than  trom  fix.  in  the  morning  until  fix  in 
the  evening,  there  is  no  occafion  for  having  any  more 
than  12  hours  upon  it. 

Ta  make  an  erc8  dial,  decUnlng  from  the  fouth  lo- 
•wards  the  eajl  or  nuejl.  Elevate  the  pole  to  the  hititude 
of  your  place,  and  fcrew  the  quadrant  of  altitude  to 
the  zenith.  Tlien,  if  your  dial  declines  towards  the 
eaft  (which  we  ihall  fuppofe  it  to  do  at  prcfent), count 
in  the  horizon  the  degrees  of  declination,  from  the  eall 
point  towards  the  north,  and  bring  the  lower  end  of 
the  quadrant  to  that  degree  of  declination  at  which  the 
reckoning  ends.  This  done,  bring  any  particular  me- 
ridian of  your  globe  (as  fuppofe  the  firft  meridian)  di- 
reftly  under  the  graduated  edge  of  the  uppei  part  of 
the  brazen  meridian,  and  fet  the  hour  to  XII  at  noon. 
Then,  keeping  the  quadrant  of  altitude  at  the  degree 
of  declinatiou  in  the  horizon,  turn  the  globe  eailward 


LING.  785r 

on  its  axis,  and  obferve  the  degrees  cut  by  the  firft  '^l*'*; 
metidian  in  the  quadrant  of  altitude  (counted  from  the  CLVlil. 
zenith)  as  the  hour-index  comes  to  XI,  X,  IX,  Sec.  in 
the  forenoon,  or  as  15,  30,  45,  &c.  degrees  of  the 
equator  pafs  under  the  brazen  meridian  at  thefe  hours 
refpeftively  ;  and  the  degrees  then  cut  in  the  quadrant 
by  the  firft  meridian,  are  the  refpeftive  diftances  of  the 
forenoon  hours  from  XI I  on  the  plane  of  the  dial. — 
Then,  for  the  afternoon  hours,  turn  the  quadrant  o£ 
altitude  round  the  zenith  until  it  comes  to  the  degree 
in  the  horizon  oppofite  to  that  where  it  was  placed  be- 
fore ;  namely,  as  far  from  the  weft  point  of  the  hori- 
zon towards  the  fouth,  as  it  was  fet  at  firft  from  the 
eaft  point  towards  the  north  ;  and  turn  the  globe  weft- 
ward  on  its  axis,  until  the  firft  meridian  comes  to  the 
brazen  meridian  again,  and  the  hour-index  to  XII : 
then,  continue  to  turn  the  globe  weftward,  and  as  the 
index  point  to  the  afternoon  hours  I,  II,  III,  &c.  or 
as  15,  30,  45,  &c.  degrees  of  the  equator  pafs  under 
the  brazen  meridian,  the  fivft  meridian  will  cut  the 
quadrant  of  altitude  in  the  refpettlve  number  of  degrees- 
from  the  zenith  that  each  of  thefe  hours  is  from  XII 
on  the  dial. — And  note,  that  when  the  firft  meridian 
goes  oft'  the  quadrant  at  the  horizon  in  the  forenoon, 
the  hour-index  fliovvs  the  time  when  the  fun  will  come 
upon  this  dial ;  and  when  it  goes  off  the  quadrant  in 
the  afternoon,  the  index  will  point  to  the  time  when 
the  fun  goes  off  the  dial. 

Having  thus  found  all  the  hour-diftances  from  XII, 
lay  them  down  upon  your  dial-plane,  either  by  dividing 
a  femicircle  into  two  quadrants  of  90  degrees  each  (be- 
ginning at  the  hour-line  of  XII),  or  by  the  line  o£ 
chords,  as  above  direfled. 

In  all  declining  dials,  the  line  on  which  the  ftile  or 
gnomon  ftands  (commonly  called  the fui/Ii/e-lirie J  makes 
an  angle  with  the  twelve  o'clock  line,  and  falls  among 
the  forenoon  hour-lines,  if  the  dial  declines  towards  the 
eaft  ;  and  among  the  afternoon  hour-lines,  when  the 
dial  declines  towards  the  weft  ;  that  is,  to  the  left  hand- 
from  the  twelve  o'clock  line  in  the  former  cafe,  and  to 
the  right  hand  from  it  in  the  latter. 

To  find  the  dlftance  of  the  fubftile  from  the  twelve 
o'clock  line  ;  if  your  dial  declines  from  the  fouth  to- 
wcad  the  eaft,  count  the  degrees  of  that  declination  in 
the  horizon  from  the  eaft  point  toward  the  north,  and 
bring  the  lower  end  of  the  quadrant  of  altitude  to  that 
degree  of  declination  where  the  reckoning  ends:  then, 
turn  the  globe  imtil  the  firft  meridian  cuts  the  horizon 
in  the  like  number  ef  degrees,  counted  from  the  fouth 
point  toward  the  eaft ;  and  the  quadrant  and  firft  me- 
ridian will' then  crofs  one  another  at  right  angles  ;  and 
the  number  of  degrees  of  the  quadi-ant,  which  are  in- 
tercepted between  the  riift  meridian  and  the  zenith,  is 
equal  to  the  dift^nce  of  the  fubftile  line  from  the  twelve 
o'clock  line  ;  and  the  number  of  degrees  of  the  firlt 
meridian,  which  are  intercepted  between  the  quadrant 
and  the  north  pole,  is  equal  to  the  elevation  of  the  ftile 
above  the  pkne  of  the  dial. 

If  the  dial  declines  weftward  from  the  fouth,  count, 
that  declination  from  the  eaft  point  of  the  horizon  to- 
wards the  fouth,  and  bring  the  quadrant  of  altitude  to 
the  degree  in  the  horl7on  at  which  the  reckoning  ends; 
both  for  finding  the  forenoon  hours,  and  diftance  of  the 
fubftile  from  the  meridian  :  and  for  the  afternoon  hour*, 
bring  the  quadrant  to  the  oppofite  degree  in  the  hori- 

zooj 


790 


D 


A 


Plate        zon,  namelv,  as  far  from  the  weft  towards  the  north, 
CLVI".      ^nd  then  psoceed  in  all  refpefts  as  above. 

Thus  we  have  finifhed  our  declining  dir.I ;   and  in  fo 
doing,  we  made  four  dials,  viz. 

I.  A  north  dial,  declining  eaftward  by  the  fame 
number  of  degrees.  2.  A  north  dial,  declining  the 
fame  number  weft.  3.  A  fouth  dial,  declining  eaft. 
And,  4.  A  fouth  dial  declining  weft.  Only,  placing 
the  proper  number  of  hours,  and  the  ftile  or  gnomon 
refpetlivcly,  upon  each  plane.  For  (as  above  men- 
tioned) in  the  fouth-weft  plane,  the  fubftihr-line  falls 
among  the  afternoon  hours  ;  and  in  the  fouth-eaft,  of 
the  fame  declination,  among  the  forenoon  hours,  at 
equal  diftances  from  XII.  And  fo  all  the  morning  hours 
on  the  weft  decllner  will  be  like  the  afternoon  hours 
'  on  the  eall  dccliner:  the  fouth-eaft  decliner  wiU  pro- 
duce the  north-weft  decliner ;  and  the  fouth-weft  de- 
cliner the  north-eaft  decliner,  by  only  extending  the 
hour-lines,  ftile  and  fub'lile,  quite  through  the  centre: 
the  axis  of  the  ftile  (or  edge  that  cafts  the  (hadow  on 
the  hour  of  the  day )  being  in  all  dials  whatever  paral- 
lel to  the  axis  of  the  world,  and  confequently  pointing 
towards  the  north  pole  of  the  heaven  in  north  latitudes, 
and  toward  the  fouth  pole  in  fouth  latitudes. 
An  eafy  -f^"'  becaufe  every  one  who  would  like  to  make  a 

method  far  dial,  may  perhaps  not  be  provided  with  a  globe  to  aifift 
conftnid-  him,  and  may  probably  not  underftand  the  method  of 
ing.of  »J'a's- doing  li  by  logarithmic  calculation  ;  we  ftiall  ihow  how 
to  perform  it  by  the  plain  diahng  lines,  or  fcale  of  la- 
titudes and  hours  (as  reprefented  on  the  Plate),  and 
vhich  may  be  had  <m  fcales  commonly  fold  by  the 
mathematical  inftrument  makers. 

This  is  the  cafitft  of  all  mechanical  methods,  and  by 
much  the  beft,  when  the  lines  are  truly  divided  :  and 
not  only  the  half  hours  and  quarters  may  be  laid  down 
by  all  of  them,  but  every  fifth  minute  by  moft,  and  e- 
ver)  fingle  minute  by  thofc  where  the  line  of  hours  is  a 
foot  in  length. 
j;-  ,  Having   drawn    your  double  meridian  line  a  b,  c  d, 

on  the  plane  intended  for  a  horizontal  dial,  and  crof- 
fed  it  at  right  angles  by  the  fix  o'clock  liney?  (as  in 
fig.  3.),  take  the  latitude  of  your  place  with  the  com- 
paflfes,  in  the  fcale  of  latitudes,  and  fct  that  extent 
from  c  to  f,  and  from  a  to  f,  on  the  fix  o'clock  line  : 
then,  taking  the  whole  fix  hours  between  the  points 
of  the  compafles  in  the  fcale  of  hours,  with  that  ex- 
tent fet  one  foot  in  the  point  r,  and  let  the  other  foot 
fall  where  it  will  upon  the  meridian  line  c  d,  as  at  d. 
Do  the  fame  from  f  to  b,  and  draw  the  right  lines'  e  d 
andy3,  each  of  which  will  be  equal  in  length  to  the 
vhole  fcale  of  hours.  This  done,  fetting  one  foot  of 
the  conipaffes  in  the  beginning  of  the  fcale  at  XII,  and 
extending  the  other  to  each  hour  on  the  fcale,  lay  off" 
thefe  extents  from  d  to  e  for  the  afternoon  hours,  and 
from  i  to  f  for  thofe  of  the  forenoon:  this  will  divide 
the  lines  d e  and  b  f  in  the  fame  manner  as  the  hour- 
fcale  is  divided  at  I,  2,  3,  4,  and  6;  on  which  the 
quairters  may  alf>i  be  laid  down,  if  required.  Then, 
laying  a  ruler  on  the  point  c,  draw  the  firft  fu'e  hours 
in  the  afternoon,  fiom  tliat  point,  through  the  dots  at 
the  numeral  figures  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  on  the  line  dc;  and 
Continiic  the  lines  of  IIII  and  V  through  the  centre  c 
to  the  ( iher  fide  of  the  dial,  for  the  like  hours  of  the 
morning :  which  done,  lay  the  ruler  on  the  point  a,  and 
draw  the  laft  five  hours  in  the  forenoon  through  the 


I      N      G. 

dots  5,  4,  3,  2,  I,  on  the  liae/i;  continuitjg  the  hour-  P'afe 
lines  of  Vll  and  VIII  througli  the  centre  j  to  the^'-'^"'- 
other  fide  of  tlie  dial,  for  the  like  hours  of  the  evening  ; 
and  fct  the  horrrs  to  their  refpective  lines,  as  in  trie  fi- 
gure. Lallly,  make  the  gnomon  the  fame  w:iy  as 
taught  abov;  for  the  horizontal  dial,  and  the  wliole  will 
be  finifhed. 

To  make  an  ercft  fouth-dial,  take  the  co-latitude 
of  your  place  from  the  fcale  of  latitudes,  and  then  pro- 
ceed in  all  refpefts  for  the  hour-line  as  in  the  hori- 
zontal dial ;  only  reverfing  the  hours,  as  in  fig.  4.  and 
making  the  angle  of  the  ftlle's  lieight  equal  to  the  co- 
latitude. 

But,  left  the  young  dialift  fhould  have  aeither  globe 
nor  wooden  fcale,  we  (hall  now  ftiow  him  how  lie  may 
make  a  dial  without  any  of  thefe  helps.  Only,  if  hs 
has  not  a  hue  of  chords,  he  muft  divide  a  quadrant  in- 
to 90  equal  parts  or  degrees  for  taking  the  proper  a:  gle 
oi  the  ftile's  elevation;   which  is  eafily  done. 

With  any  opening  of  the  compafTes,  as  Z  L,  de-  ^'Z-  ^• 
fcribe  tlie  two  femicircles  L  F k  and  Z.  S!^i,  upon  the 
centres  Z  and  z,  where  the  fix  o'clock  line  croffcs  the 
double  meridian  line,  and  divide  each  fcmiciicle  into 
I  2  equal  parts,  beginning  at  L  (though,  itriclly  fpeak-  ,, 
ing,  only  the  quadrants  from  L  to  the  fix  o'clock  line  Horizontal 
need  be  divided)  ;  then  connect  the  divifions  which '''•*'• 
are  equldiftant  from  L,  by  the  parallel  hues  KM,  IN, 
HO,  GP,  and  F^  Dr-aw  VZ  for  the  hypothenufe 
of  the  ftile,  making  the  angle  FZE  equal  to  the  lati- 
tude of  your  place  ;  and  continue  the  line  VZ  to  R. 
Draw  the  line  Rr  parallel  to  the  fix  o'clock  line,  and 
fet  off"  the  diftance  a  K  from  Z  to  2',  the  diitance  b  I 
from  Z  to  A',  c  H  from  Z  to  W,  d  G  from  Z  to  7", 
and  e F  from  Z  to  S.  Then  draw  the  lines  Si,  Tt, 
IV-w,  Xx,  and  Ty,  each  parallel  to  Rr.  Set  off  the 
diftance  J'?"  from  <i  to  i  t,  andfromyto  I  ;  the  diftance 
xH  from  ^  to  10,  and  from  ^  to  2  ;  •iuW  from  c  to  <), 
and  from  />  to  3 ;  /T  from  d  to  8,  and  from  i  to  4; 
sS  from  e  to  7,  and  from  n  to  5.  Then  laying  a  ruler 
to  the  centre  Z,  draw  the  forenoc.  hour-hnes  through 
the  points  I  1,  10,  9,  8,  7 ;  and  laying  it  to  the  centre 
z,  draw  the  afternoon  lines  through  the  points  I,  2, 
3,4,  5  ;  continuing  the  forenoon  lines  of  VII  and 
VIII  througli  the  centre  Z,  to  the  oppofrte  fide  of  tlie 
dial,  for  the  like  afternoon  hours;  and  tlie  afternoon 
lines  IIII  and  V  through  the  centre  e,  to  tire  op- 
pofite  fide,  for  the  like  m.orning  hotrr's.  Set  the 
hours  to  thefe  lines  as  in  the  figure,  and  then  erecA 
the  ftile  or  gnomon,  and  the  horizontal  dial  will  be 
finifhed. 

To  conftruft  a  fouth  dial,  draw  the  line  VZ,  making 
an  angle  with  the  meridian  ZL  equf.l  to  the  co-latitude 
of  your  place  ;  and  proceed  in  all  refpefts  as  in  the 
above  horizontal  dial  for  the  fame  latitude,  r'everfing 
the  hours  as  in  fig.  4.  and  making  the  elevation  of  the 
gnomon  equal  to  the  co-Iatitiioe. 

Perhaps  it  may  not  be  unacceptable  to  explain  the 
method  of  conilrutting  the  dialing  lines,  and  forne 
others;  which  is  as  follows  : 

V/ith   any  opening  of  the   compaHes,   as  E,-l,  ac- nic-.In 
cording  to  the  intended  length  of  the  fcale,  dcfcribe  "•  *J'  ^"'^ 
the  ciiclc  ylDCB,  and  crofs  it  at   r'ght,angles  by  the*^' "  "" 
diameters  CE/l  and  DEB.    Divide  the  ouadrant  jIB  fi. 
firft   into  9  equal  parts,  and  then   each  part  into -10; 
fo  ftirll  the  quadrant  be  divided  into  90  equal  parts  or 
4  degrees. 


14 


con;truc:eu. 


PUte 
CLVIII. 


DIALING.  791 

Draw  the  right  line  ylFB  for  the  chord  of     thread  is  a  final!  plummet  D,  and  on  the  middle  of  It    P'a'e 

a  fmall  bead  for  Ihowing  ihf  hour  of  the  (lay.  CLVUI. 

To  rtrtify   this  dl:d,  fct  the  thiead  in  the  (lit 


degrees 

this  quadrant  ;  and  fftting  one  foot  of  the  compaffe 
in  the  jioint  y?,  extend  the  other  to  the  fevira!  dlvi 
fions  t.f  the  quadrant,  and  transfer  thefe  di\ilions  to 
the  \uv^  jIFU  by  the  arcs  10,  10,  20,  20,  &c.  and 
this  will  be  a  line  of  chords,  divided  into  90  unequal 
parts  ;  which,  if  transferred  frotn  the  line  baeic  again 
to   the  quadrant,  will  divide  it   equally.      It    is   plain 


right 
againft  the  day  of  the  ir.OTith,  and  flrelch  the  thread 
from  the  day  of  the  month  over  tlie  angular  point  where 
the  curve  lines  meet  at  XII ;  then  fliift  the  bead  to  that 
point  on  the  thread,  ajid  the  dial  will  be  rtttified. 
To  find  the  liour  uf  the  day,  raife  the  gnomon  (no 


by  the  figure,   that  the  diftance  fiom  A  to  60  in  the  matter  how.  mueh  or  how  little)   and  hold  die  edge  of 

line  of  chords,  is  juft  equal  to  AE,  the  radius  of  the  the  dial  next  the  gnomon  towards  the  fun,  fo  as  the 

circle  from  wliicli  that  line  is  made;   for  if  the  arc  60,  uppermoll    edge  of  the   fhadow   of  the  gnomim   may 

60  be  continued,  of  which  A  is  the  centre,  it  goes  e.x-  juft  cover  the  ftjaduw- Hue ;  and  the  bead  then  plaving 

attly  through  the  centre  E  of  the  arc  AB.  freely  on  the  face  of  the  dial,  by  the  weight  ol   the 

.  And  therefore,   in  laying  down   any  number  of  de-  plummet,   will  fliow  the  time  of  the  day  among   the 

grees  on  a  circle,  by  the  line  of  chords,  you  mull  firll  hour-lines,  as  it  is  forenoon  or  afternoon, 
open  the   compaifes  fo,  as  to  take   in  juft  60  degrees  To  find  the  time  of  fun-riling  and  fetting,  move  the 

upon  that  line,  as  from  A  to  60:   and  then,   with  that  thread  among  the  hour-lines,  until  it  either  covers  fome 

extent,   as  a  radius,   dcfciibe   a  circle,  which  will   be  one  of  them,  or  lies  parallel  betwixt  any  two;  and  then 

exaftly  of  the  fame  fi/.e  with  that  from  which  the  line  it  will  cut  the  time  of  fan-rifing  among  the  forenoon 

was  divided  :  which  done,  fet  one  foot  of  the  compafTes  hours ;  and  of  fun  fetting  among  the  afternoon  hours, 

in  the  beginning  of  tlie  chord  line,  as  at  A,  and  ex-  for  that  day  of  the  year  to  which  the  thread  is  fet  in 

tend  the  other   to   the  number  of  degrees  you   want  the  fcale  of  months. 

upon  the  line;  which  extent,  applied  to  the  circle,  will         To  find  the  fun's  declination,  ftretch  the  thread  from 

include  the  like  number  of  degrees  upon  it.  the  day  of  the  month  over  the  angular  point  at  XII, 

Divide  the  quadrant  CD  into  90  equal  parts,   and  and  it  will  cut  the  fun's  declination,  as  it  is  north  or 

from  each  poirit  of  divilion  draw  right  lines,  ?.!*  i,  k,  I,  foulh,  for  that  day,  in  the  proper  fcale. 
&c.  to  the  line  CE;  all  perpendicular  to  that  line,  and         To  find  on  what  days  the  fun  enters  the  fitrns:  when 

parallel  to  ZJ^s  which  will  divide  £C   into  a   line  of  the  bead,   as  above  rtclified,   moves   along  any  of  the 

fines  ;   and  although  thefe  are  feldom  put  among  the  curve-lines  which  have  the  figns  of  the  zodiac  marked 

dialing  lines  on  a  fcale,  ^-ct  they  aiTill  in  drawing;  the  upon   themj   the  fun  -enters   thofe  figns  .on  the  days 

line  of  latitudes.    For  if  a  ruler  be  laid  upon  the  point  pointed  out  by  the  thread  in. the  fcale  of  months. 
TJ,  and  over  each  dlvifion  in  the  line  of  fines,  it  will  di-  I'he  conftrucb'on  of  this  dial  is  very  eafv,  efnccially 

vide  the  quadrant  CB  into  90  unequal   parts,  as  Bti,  if  the  reader  compares  it  all  along  with  fig.  1.  of  Plate 


Hb,  Sec.  fliGwn  by  the  right  lines  loa,  zob,  30c,  &c. 
drawn  along  the  edge  of  the  ruler.  If  the  right  line 
BC  be  drawn,  fubtending  this  quadrant,  and  the  near- 
eft  diftances  Ba,  Bl,  Be,  &c.  be  taken  in  the  compaf- 


CHX.  as   he  reads  the  following  explanation  of  that 
figure. 

Draw  the  occult  line  AB  jiarallel  to  the  top  of  the  P'ate 
card,  and  crofs  it  at  right  angles  with  the  fix  o'clock '^^'^ 


fcs  from  B,  and  fet  upon  this  line  in  the  fame  manner  line  BCD  ;  then  upon  C,  as  a  centre,  with  the  radius" 

as  direfled  for  the  line  of  chords,  it  will  make  a  line  of  CA,  defcribe  the  femicircle  AEL,   and  divide  it   into 

latitudes  BC,  equal  in  length  to  the  line  of  chords  ^^7?,  12  equal  parts  (beginning  at  A  J,  as  Ar,  As,  &.c.  and 

and  ot  an  equal  number  of  divifions,  but  very  unequal  from  thefe  points  of  divifion  draw  the  hour  lines  r,  .r, 


as  to  their  lengths. 

Draw  the  rlglit  line  DGA,  fubtending  the  quadrant 
DA;  and  parallel  to  it,  draw  the  riglit  line  rs,  touch- 
ing the  quadrant  DA  at  the  numeral  figure  3.  Divide 
thi.^  quadrant  into  fix  equal  paits.  as  1,2,  3,  &c.  and 


/,  //,  ^•,  E,  w,  and  .v,  all  parallel  to  the  fi>;  o'clock  line 
EC.  If  each  part  of  the  femicircle  be  fu'idlvided  into 
four  equ.d  parts,  they  will  give  the  half-hour  lines  and 
quarters,  as  in  fig.  2.  Draw  the  right-line  ASDo, 
making  the  angle  .?    B  equal  to  the  latitude  of  your 


through  thefe  points  of  divifion  draw  right  lines  from  phic;.     Upon  the  centre  A  defcribe  tlic  arch  RST, 

the  ccntrr  Z' to  the  line  rs,  which  will  divide  it  at  \i\e  and  fet  oft  upon  it  the  arcs  SR  and  ST,  each  equal  to 

points  where  the  fix  hours  are  to  be  placed,  as  in  the  23!  degrees,   for  the  fun's  greateft  declination  ;  and. 

figure.      If  every  fixth  part  of  the  quadrant  be  fubdi-  divide  thi-.«!i  into   23-!-  equal  parts,  as  in  fig.  2.     Thro' 

"vided  into  four  equal  parts,  right  linrs  drr.wn  from  the  the  interfetlion  D  of  the  fines  ECD  and  ADo,  draw 

centre  through  thefe  points  of  divifion,  and  continued  the  right  line  FDG  at  right  angles  to  ADo.      l^^Ly  a 

to  the  line  r  j,  will  divide  each  hour  upon  it  into  quar-  ruler  to  the  points  A  and  R,  and  draw  the  line  ARE 

ters.  through   23^  degrees  of  fouth  declination  in  the   arc 

In  fig.  S.   we  have  the  reprefentation  of  a  portable  SR;  and  tiien  laying  the  rider  to  the  points  y/  and  'T, 

dial,  which   may  be  eafily  drawn  on  a  card,  and   car-  iliaw  the  line  ATC  through  234-  degrees  of  north  de- 

!  aried  in  a  pocket  book.      The  lines  ad,  ab,  and  be  of  clination  in  the  arc-  ST :  fo  fiiall  the  lines  ARF  and 

the  gnomon,  muft  be  cut  quite  through  the  card  ;  and  ATG  cut  the  line  FDG  in  the  proper  lengths  for  the 

as  the  end  ab  of  the  gnunion  is  railed  orcafionally  above  fcale  of  months.      I'pon  the  centre  D,  with  the  radius 

the  plane  of  the  dial,  it  turns  upon  the  uncut  line  c  d  DF,  defcribe  the  femicircle  FoG ;   which  divide  into 

as  on  a  hinge.      The  dotted  1  ne  AB  muft  be  flit  quite  fi::  equal  parts.  Frit,  mn,  no,  &c.  and  from  thtfe  points 

through  the  card,  and  the  thread  C  muft  be  put  thro'  of  divifion  draw  the  right  lines  m^,  n'i,pk,  and  ql,  each 

the  flit,  and  have  a  knot  tied  behind,   to  keep  it  from  parallel  to  oD.     Then    fetting   one   foot  of  the   com- 

Leiag^  eafily  drawn   out.     On   the  other  end  of  this  palfts  in  the   point   /•',   extend  the  other  \.a  A,    and 

defcrihc 


792 

Plate 
CLIX. 
fig.  I.  com. 
pared  with 
fig.  8.  of 
preceding 
plate. 


16 

l^iiiverfal 

<iials. 

Plate 
CLIX. 


DIAL 

defcribe  the  arc  /fZII  for  the  tropic  of  \r$  :  with  the 
fame  extent,  fetting  one  foot  itr  G,  defcribe  the  arc 
y^EO  for  the  tropic  of  2S.  Next  fetting  one  foot  in 
the  point  /},  and  extending  the  other  to  ^,  defcribe  the 
arc  IACI  iar  the  beginnings  of  the  figns  ^  and  %  ; 
and  with  the  fame  extent,  fetting  one  foot  in  the  point 
/,  defcribe  the  arc  AN  for  the  beginnings  of  the  figns 
TT  and  £i.  Set  one  foot  in  the  point  /,  and  having 
extended  the  other  to  A,  defcribe  the  arc  AK  for  the 
beginnings  of  the  figns  X  and  n\, ;  and  with  the  fame 
extent,  fet  one  foot  in  /•,  and  defcribe  the  arc  AMior 
the  beginnings  of  the  figns  \^  and  1T^.  Then  fetting 
one  foot  in  the  point  D,  and  extending  the  other  to  A, 
defcribe  the  curve  AL  for  the  beginnings  of  V  and  £; ; 
and  the  figns  will  be  finifiied.  This  done,  lay  a  ruler 
from  the  point  A  over  the  fun's  declination  in  the  arch 
RST ;  and  where  the  ruler  cuts  the  line  FDG,  make 
marks:  and  place  the  days  of  the  months  right  againfl 
thefe  marks,  in  the  manner  fliown  by  fig.  2.  Laftly, 
draw  the  ihadow-line  P^  parallel  to  the  occiJt  line 
AB ;  make  the  gnomon,  and  fet  the  hours  to  their 
rcfpeftive  lines,  as  in  fig.  2.  and  the  dial  will  be  fi- 
niihed. 

There  are  feveral  kinds  of  dials  called  uiniierfal,  be- 
caufe  they  ferve  for  alHatitudes.  One,  of  Mr  Pardie's 
conftruftion,  was  foimerly  confidered  as  the  belt.  It 
confifts  of  three  principal  parts  ;  the  firil  whereof  is 
called  the  horizontal  plane  (A),  becaufe  in  praftice  it 
mud  be  parallel  to  the  horizon.  In  this  plane  is  fixed 
fin  upright  pin,  which  enters  into  the  edge  of  the  fe- 
cond  part  BD,  called  the  meridional  plane  ;  which  is 
made  of  two  pieces,  the  luweil  whereof  (B)  is  called 
the  quadrant,  becaufe  it  contains  a  quarter  of  a  circle, 
divided  into  90  degrees ;  and  it  is  only  into  this  part, 
near  B,  that  the  pin  enters.  The  other  piece  is  a  fe- 
miclrcle  (D)  adjufted  to  the  quadrant,  and  turning  in 
it  by  a  groove,  for  raifing  01  depreffing  the  diameter 
(EF)  of  the  femicircle,  which  diameter  is  called  the 
axis  of  the  hijlrument.  The  third  piece  is  a  circle  i^G), 
divided  on  both  fides  into  24  equal  parts,  which  are  the 
hours.  This  circle  is  put  upon  the  meridional  plane  lo, 
that  the  axis  (EF)  may  be  perpendicular  to  the  circle, 
tind  the  point  C  be  the  common  centre  of  the  circle-, 
femicircle,  and  quadrant.  The  ftraight  edge  of  the 
femicircle  is  charafeied  on  both  fides  to  a  fliarp  edge, 
which  paflcs  through  the  centre  of  the  circle.  On  one 
fide  of  the  chamfered  part,  the  firft  fix  months  of  the 
year  are  laid  down,  accoiding  to  the  fun's  declination 
for  their  refpeftive  days,  and  on  the  other  fide  the  lall 
fix  months.  And  againft  the  days  on  which  the  fun 
enters  the  figns,  there  are  ftraight  lines  drawn  upon  the 
femicircle,  with  the  charafters  of  the  figns  marked  up- 
on them.  There  is  a  black  line  drawn  along  the  middle 
of  the  upright  edge  of  the  quadrant,  over  which  hangs 
a  thread  {^H ),  with  its  plummit  ( I ),  for  levelling  the 
inftrument.  A''.  .5.  From  the  23d  of  September  to  the 
20th  of  March,  the  upper  furface  of  the  circle  muft 
touch  both  the  centre  L  of  the  femicircle,  and  the  line 
of  'Y^  and  ti^;  and  from  the  20th  of  March  to  the  23d 
of  September,  the  lower  furface  of  the  circle  mufl  touch 
that  centre  and  line. 

To  find  the  time  of  the  day  by  this  dial.  Having 
fet  it  on  a  level  place  in  fun-fiiine,  and  adjufted  it  by 
the  levelling  fcrews  k  and  /,  until  the  plumb-line  hangs 
over  the  back  line  upon  the  edge  of  the  quadraot,  and 

N'  100.  5 


Plate 
CLIX. 


I      N      G. 

parallel  to  the  faid  edge ;  rtiove  the  femicircle  in  the 
quadrant,  until  the  line  of  V  and  :£i;  (where  the  circle 
touches)  comes  to  the  latitude  of  your  place  in  the 
quadrant :  then  turn  the  whole  'meridional  plane  BD, 
with  its  circle  G,  upon  the  horizontal  plane  A,  until 
the  edge  of  the  (hadow  of  the  circle  falls  precifely  on 
the  day  of  the  month  in  the  femicircle  ;  and  then  the 
meridional  plane  will  be  due  north  and  fouth,  the  axis 
EF  will  be  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  world,  and  will 
caft  a  ftiadow  upon  the  true  time  of  the  day  among  the 
hours  on  the  circle. 

A'.  B.  As,  when  the  inftrument  is  thus  reftified,  the 
quadrant  and  femicircle  are  in  the  plane  of  the  meri- 
dian, fo  the  circle  is  then  in  the  plane  of  the  equinoc- 
tial. Therefore,  as  the  fun  is  above  the  equinoclial  in 
fummer  (in  northern  latitudes),  and  below  it  in  winter; 
the  axis  of  the  femicircle  will  caft  a  fiiadow  on  the 
hour  of  the  day,  on  the  upper  furface  of  the  circle, 
from  the  20th  of  March  till  the  23d  of  September  ; 
and  from  the  23d  of  September  to  the  20th  of  March 
the  hour  of  the  day  will  be  determined  by  the  (liadow 
of  the  femicircle  upon  the  lower  furface  of  the  circle. 
In  the  former  cafe,  the  (liadow  of  the  circle  falls  upon 
the  day  of  the  month,  on  the  lower  part  of  the  dia- 
meter of  the  femicircle  j  and  in  the  hitter  cafe,  on  the 
upper  part. 

The  method  of  laying  down  the  months  and  figns  Fig.  3, 
upon  the  femicircle  is  as  follows.  Draw  the  right  hne 
ACB  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  femicircle  ADB, 
and  crofs  it  in  the  middle  at  right  angles  with  the  line 
ECD,  equal  in  length  to  ADB;  then  EC  will  be  tlie 
radius  of  the  circle  FCG,  which  is  the  fame  as  that  of 
the  femicircle.  Upon  E,  as  a  centre,  defcribe  the 
circle  FCG,  on  which  fet  off  the  arcs  Ch  and  Ci,  each 
equal  to  234-  degrees,  and  divide  them  accordingly  in- 
to that  number  for  the. fun's  dechnation.  Then  lay- 
ing the  edge  of  a  ruler  over  the  centre  E,  and  alfo  oier 
the  fun's  declination  for  every  fitth  day  of  each  month 
(as  in  the  card-dial),  mark  the  points  on  the  diameter 
AB  of  the  femicircle  from  a  to  g,  which  are  cut  by  the 
ruler;  and  there  place  the  days  of  the  months  accoid- 
ingly,  anfwering  to  the  lun's  declination.  This  done, 
fetting  one  foot  of  the  compaffes  in  C,  and  extending 
the  other  to  a  or  g,  defcribe  the  femicircle  a  b  c  d efg; 
which  divide  into  fix  equal  parts, and  through  the  points 
of  divifiou  draw  right  lines  parallel  to  CD,  for  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fines  (of  which  one  half  are  on  one  fide 
of  the  femicircle  and  the  other  half  on  the  other),  and 
fet  the  characters  of  the  lines  to  t'neir  proper  hues,  as  in 
the  figure. 

A  univerfal  dial  of  a  very  ingenious  conftruftiori,  yy  p^^. „„;. 
has  lately  been  invented  by  Mr  G.  Wright  of  London,  by  Mr  G. 
The  hour-circle  or  arch  £,  and  latitude  arch  C,  are  ^^■''gl^'- 
the  portions  of  two  meridian  circles;  one  fixed,  and  the  !.'^''^ 
other  moveable.      The  hour  or  dial  plate  SEA'  at  top 
is  fixed  to  the  arch   C,  and  has  an  index  that  moves 
with  the  hour-circle  E  ;  therefore  the  conftruffion  of 
this  dial  is  perfeftly  fimilar  to  tiie  contlruftion  of  the 
meridians    and     hour-circle   upon  a    ct«ninon   globe. 
The  peculiar  problems  to  be  performed  by  this    in- 
ftrument are,    I.  Tojind  the  latiludcvfany  place.    2.  The 
latitude  of  the  place  being  i/ioivn,  to  find  the  time  by  the  fun 
andflars.      3.   To  find  the  fun  or  flares  az.hnuth  and  alti- 
tude. 

Previous  to  ufe,  this  inftrument  Ihould  be  in  a  well- 

adjufted 


ri;.ic   Cl.lX 


p     r 


;f  7 


R      o 


•  /./J,,'/.//,'ii:^a/.Ji-/i^i.'.t  /li''' 


,/^. a  < 


r-:::^! 

3 

a 

/  r^-U. 

f 

p 

2 

J     J 

2 

M    1 
6. 

110          fl 

'\ 

T 

.1 

\ 
\ 

X 

^ 

9 

.! 

■ 

I 

//•,//. 'W,i.//„/^,)m//,/.r/r.tr: 


• 


•plate 
CLX. 
fig.  I. 


DIAL 

adjuftcd  ftate  :  to  perform  vvhicli,  you  try  the  levels  of 
the  horizontal  pktes  ^a,  by  firli  turning  the  ferews 
BHBB  ti!l  llie  bubbks  of  air  on  the  glafs  tubes  of  the 
fpirit-levels  (levels  are  at  right  angles  to  each  other) 
which  are  central  or  in  tlie  middle,  and  remain  fo 
when  you  turn  the  upper  plate  A  half  round  its 
centre  ;  bnt  if  they  fhonld  not  keep  fn,  there  arc  fniall 
fcrcws  at  the  end  of  eacii  level,  which  admit  of  being 
turned  one  way  or  the  other  as  may  be  requifite  till 
they  are  fo.  The  plates  y^.i  being  thus  made  horizon- 
tal, fct  the  latitude  arch  or  meridian  (.'  Iteadih  between 
the  two-grooved  fides  that  hold  it  (one  of  which  isfcen 
at  D),  by  the  fcrew  behind.  On  this  tide  D  is  divided 
the  nonius  or  vernier,  coirefponding  with  the  divilions 
on  the  latitude  arch  C,  and  which  may  be  fiibdividcd 
into  5  minutes  of  a  degree,  and  even  Itfs  if  required. 
The  latitude  arch  C  is  to  be  fo  placed  in  D,  that  the 
pole  M  may  be  in  a  vertical  pofition;  which  is  done  by 
making  90"  on  the  arch  at  bottom  coincide  with  the 
O  of  the  nonius.  The  arch  is  then  fixed  by  the  tight- 
ening fcrew  at  the  back  of  D.  Hang  a  filken  plumb- 
line  on  the  hook  at  G  :  which  line  is  to  coincide  with  a 
mark  at  the  bottom  of  the  latitude  arch  at  //,  all  the 
while  you  move  the  upper  plate  A  round  its  centre. 
If  it  does  not  fo,  there  are  fourfcrewsto  regulate  this 
ac'juftment,  two  of  which  pafs  through  the  bafe  / 
into  the  plate  y{ :  the  other  two  fcrevi's  faftcn  the  no- 
■niup  piece  D  together;  which  when  unfcrewtda  tiiiead 
or  two,  the  nonius  piece  may  be  eafily  moved  to  the 
i-ight  or  left  of  90'  as  may  be  found  requilite. 

Prob.  1 .  To  fad  the  laUtude  ofthepkice.  Fa  (If  n  the  la- 
titude and  hour  circles  together,  by  placing  the  pin  K 
into  the  holes;  fiide  the  nonius  piece  E  on  the  hour- 
circle  to  the  iun's  declination  for  the  given  day :  the 
fun's  declination  you  may  know  in  the  ephemeris  by 
White,  or  other  almanacs,  for  every  day  in  the  year. 
The  nonius  piece  E  muft  be  fet  on  that  portion  of  the 
hour-circle  marked  ND  or  SD,  according  as  the  fun 
has  north  or  fouth  declination.  About  20  minutes 
or  a  quarter  of  an  hour  before  noon,  obferve  the  fun's 
(hadow  or  fpot  that  pafles  through  the  hole  at  the  axis 
0,  and  gently  move  the  latitude  arch  C  down  in  its 
groove  at  D  till  you  obferve  the  fpot  exaftly  fall  on 
the  crofs  line  on  the  centre  of  the  nonius  piece  at  Z. ; 
and  by  the  falling  of  this  fpot,  fo  long  as  you  obferve 
the  fun  to  incrcafe  in  altitude,  you  deprefs  the  arch 
C  :  but  at  the  inftant  of  its  llationary  appearauce  the 
fpot  will  appear  to  go  no  lower;  then  fix  the  arch  by 
the  fcrew  at  the  back  of  D,  and  the  degrees  thereby 
cut  by  the  nonius  on  the  arch  will  be  the  latitude  of 
the  place  required  :  if  great  exaCincfs  is  wanted,  allow- 
ance Ihould  be  made  for  the  refradlion  of  the  atniofphere, 
taken  from  fome  nautical  or  aftronomical  treatife. 

Prob.  2.  The  kiUtiide  vf  the  place  li'mg  given,  iojind  the 
time  by  the  fun  orjliirs.  I'rom  an  ephemeris  as  liefore, 
you  find  the  fun's  declination  for  the  day  north  or 
fouth,  and  fet  the  nonius  piece  E  on  the  arch  accord- 
ingly. Set  the  latitude  aich  C,  by  the  nonius  at  D, 
to  the  latitude  of  the  place  ;  and  place  the  magnifying 
pjlafs  at  M,  by  which  you  will  very  correftly  fet  the 
index  carrying  a  nonius  to  the  upper  XII  at  ^.  Take 
out  the  pin  A",  flacken  the  horizontal  fcrew  A',  and 
gently  move,  either  to  the  right  or  left  as  you  fee  nc- 
celFary,  the  hour-circle  E,  at  the  fame  time  with  the  o- 
ther  hand  moving  the  horizontal  plate  A  rguud  its  axis 

Vol.  V.  Part  II. 


I      N      G. 


to  the  right  and  left,  till  the  latitude-arrh  C  falls 
into  the  meridian  ;  which  you  will  know  by  the  fi\n'3 
fpot  failing  exactly  in  the  cejitre  of  the  noniu5  piece, 
or  where  the  lines  interfctt  each  other.  The  time 
may  be  now  read  oil  exactly  to  a  minute  by  the  no- 
nius on  the  dial-plate  at  top,  and  which  will  be  the 
time  required.  The  horizontal  line  drawn  on  the  no- 
nius piece  L,  not  feen  in  the  figure,  being  the  paral- 
lel of  declination  or  path  that  the  fun-dial  makes,  it 
therefore  can  fall  on  the  centre  of  that  line  at  no 
other  time  but  when  the  latitude  arch  C  is  in  the 
meridian  or  due  north  and  fouth.  Hence  the  hour- 
circle,  on  moving  round  with  the  pi>le,  mutl  give  the 
tiue  time  on  the  dial-plate  at  top.  There  is  a  hole  to 
the  right,  and  crofs  hairs  to  the  left,  uf  the  centre  axis 
hole  0,  where  tiie  fun's  rays  palfes  through;  whence 
the  fun's  fhadow  or  fpot  will  alfo  appear  on  the  right 
and  left  of  the  centre  on  the  nonius  piece  L,  the 
holes  of  which  are  occalionally  ufed  as  fights  to  ob- 
ferve through.  If  the  fun's  r'.ys  are  too  weak  for  a  (ha- 
dow, a  dark  glafs  to  ftreen  the  eye  is  occafionally 
placed  over  the  hole.  The  moft  proper  time  to  find  ii 
true  meridian  is  three  or  four  hours  before  or  after 
noon  ;  and  lake  the  difference  of  the  furi's  declination 
from  noon  at  the  time  you  obferve.  If  it  be  the 
morning,  the  difference  is  tliat  and  the  preceding  day ; 
if  afternoon,  that  and  the  following  day:  and  the  mc- 
lidian  being  once  found  exaijt,  the  hour-circle  E  is  lo 
be  brought  into  this  meridian,  a  fixed  place  made  for 
the  dial,  and  an  objeft  to  oblerve  by  it  alfo  fixed  for  it 
at  a  great  dillance.  The  fights  L  0  mult  at  all  times 
be  diretleJ  againft  this  fixed  objeft,  to  place  the  dial 
truly  in  the  meridian,  proper  forobferving  the  planets, 
moon,  orbiightllars  by  night. 

Prob.  3.  To  find  the  fun's  axhiwth  and  altitude.  The 
latitude-arch  C  being  in  the  meridian,  bring  the  pol> 
M  into  the  zenith,  by  fetting  the  latitude-arch  to  90''. 
Faftcn  the  hour-circle  E  in  the  meridian,  by  putting  in 
the  pin  K ;  fix  the  horizontal  plates  by  the  fcrew 
N ;  and  fct  the  index  of  the  dial-plate  to  XII.  wliich 
is  the  foulh  point  :  Now  take  out  the  pin  K,  and  gen- 
tly move  the  hour-circle  E  ;  leaving  the  latitude  arcli 
fixed,  till  the  fun's  rays  or  fpot  pafling  through  the 
centre-hole  In  the  axis  0  fall  on  the  centre  line  of  the 
hour-circle  E,  made  for  that  purpof^;.  The  pzlmuth  in 
time  may  be  then  read  off  on  the  dial- plate  at  top  by 
the  magnifying  glafs.  This  time  may  be  converted 
into  degrees,  by  allowing  at  the  rate  of  15  for  every 
hour.  By  Hiding  the  nonius  piece  E,  fo  that  the 
fpot  ihall  fall  on  the  crofs  line  thereon,  the  altitude 
may  be  taken  at  the  fame  time  if  it  does  not  exceed 
45  degiees.  Or  the  altitude  may  be  taken  more  uni- 
verfaUy,  by  fixing  the  nonius  piece  E  to  the  o  on  the 
divifions,  and  (lldlng  down  the  latitude  arch  in  fuch  a 
manner  in  the  groove  at  D,  till  the  fpot  fulls  cxatily 
on  the  centre  of  the  nonius  E.  The  degrees  and  mj- 
nutcs  then  fliown  by  the  nonius  at  D,  taken  from  00  > 
will  be  the  altitude  required.  By  looking  through  the 
fight  holes  L,  U,  the  altitude  of  the  moon,  planets,  and 
itars,  may  be  cafily  taken.  Upon  this  principle  it  is 
fomewhat  adapted  for  levelling  alfo  :  by  lowering  the 
nonius  piece  E,  equal  altitudes  of  the  fun  may  be  had; 
and  by  raifing  it  higher,  equal  dcpreflions. 

More  completely  to  an  fwcr  the  purpofcs  of  a   good 

thcodchte,  of  levelling,  and  the  performance  of  pro- 

$  H  blenis 


79J 

Phtr 
CLX. 


794  DIAL 

Plate      blems  in  praftical  aftronomy,  trigonometry,   &c.   Mr 
CLX.     -yy^  Jones  of  Holborn  divides  the   horizontal  plate  D 
into  ^68°,  andan  oppofite  noniuson  the  upper  plate  j^, 
fubdividing   the  degrees  into  5  or  more  minutes.     A 
ttlefcope  and  fpirit-level  applies  on   the  latitude  arch 
Tit  1/  G  by  two  fcrews,  making  the  latitude  arch  a  ver- 
tical arch  ;  and  the  whole  is  adapted  to  triangular  ftaffs 
with  parallel  plates,  fimilar  to  thole  ufed  with  the  bcil 
18         theodolites. 
•An  tqm-  ^  (JJ3]  ffiore  univerfal  for  the  performance  of  pro- 

JJ"" ''^  P  blems  than  the  above,  though  in  fome  particulars 
vcrfal.  not  fo  convenient  and  accurate,  is  made  by  Mr  Jones 
Fig.  2.  and  other  inftrument-makers  in  London.  It  con- 
fifts  of  the  common  equatoiial  circles  reduced  to  a 
portable  fize,  and  inftead  of  a  tclefcope  cames  a 
plain  fight.  Its  principal  parts  confift  of  the  fight-piece 
0  P,  moveable  over  the  declination's  femicircle  D.  It 
lias  a  nonius  ^  to  the  femicircle.  A  dark  glafs  to 
fkreen  the  eye  applies  occafionally  over  either  of  the 
holes  at  0  :  thefe  holes  on  the  inner  fide  of  the  piece 
are  interfefted  by  crofs  lines,  as  feen  in  the  figure  be- 
low ;  and  to  the  fight  P  two  pieces  are  fcrewed,  the 
lower  having  a  fmall  hole  for  the  fun's  rays  or  fliadow, 
and  the  upper  two  crofs  hairs  or  wii'es. 

The  declination  circle  or  arch  D  is  divided  into  two, 
90°  each  ;  and  is  fixed  perpendicularly  on  a  circle  with 
a  chamfered  edge,  containing  a  nonius  divillon  that  fub- 
divides  into  fingle  minutes  the  under  equatorial  circle 
MN,  which  in  all  cafes  reprefents  the  equator,  and  is 
divided  into  twice  1  2  hours,  and  each  hour  into  five 
minutes.  At  right  angles  below  this  equatorial  circle 
is  fixed  the  femicircle  of  altitude  AB,  divided  into  two 
quadrants  of  90°  each.  This  arch  ferves  principally  to 
meafure  angles  of  altitude  and  depreffion  ;  and  it 
moves  centrally  on  an  upright  pillar  fixed  in  the  hori- 
zontal circle  EF.  This  circle  EF is  divided  into  four 
quadrantsof  go" each,  and  againft  it  there  is  fixed  a  fmall 
nonius  plate  at  N.  The  horizontal  circle  may  be  turn- 
ed round  its  centre  or  axis  ;  and  two  fpirit  levels  LL 
are  fixed  on  it  at  right  angles  to  one  another. 

We  have  not  room  to  detail  the  great  variety  of 
atlronomical  and  trigonometrical  problems  that  may 
be  folved  by  this  general  inftrument,  as  defcribed  in 
Jones's  Jn/lrumentitl  Dialing.  One  example  connefted 
with  our  prefent  purpofe  may  here  fuffice,  viz.  To 
Jind  the  time  ivheii  the  latitude  is  given.  Suppofing  the 
inftrument  to  be  well  adjufted  by  the  direftions  here- 
after given.  The  meridian  of  the  place  (hould  be  firft 
obtained  to  place  the  inrtrument  in,  which  is  fettled 
by  a  diftant  mark,  or  particular  cavities  to  receive  the 
fcrews  at  I G  If,  made  in  the  h^k  it  ilands  on.  The 
meridian  is  beft  found  by  equal  altitudes  of  the  fun. 
In  order  to  take  thefe,  you  fet  the  middle  mark  of 
the  nonius  on  the  declination  arch  Z)  at  o,  and  fix  it 
by  the  fcrew  behind;  then  fet  the  horary  or  hour  circle 
to  XII.  The  circle  EFhc'mg  next  made  horizontal,  you 
direft  the  fights  to  the  fun,  by  moving  the  horizontal 
ciicle  EF  and  altitude  femicircle  yiJB:  the  degrees  and 
minutes  maikedby  the  nonius  on  the  latter  will  be  the  al- 
titude required.  To  take  cyH/j/ altitudes,  you  obferve  the 
fun's  altitude  in  the  morning  two  or  three  hours  before 
noon  by  the  femicircle  yJB:  leave  the  inftrument  in  the 
fame  fituation  perftftly  unaltered  till  the  afternoon, 
when  by  moving  the  horizontal  circle  EF,  only  find 
the  direction  of  the  fight  or  the  fun's  fpot  to  he  juft 

I 


I      N      G. 

the  fame,  which  will  be  an  equal  altitude  with  the  Plat* 
morning.  The  place  of  the  horizontal  circle  EF  t;LX. 
againft  the  nonius  at  each  time  of  obfervation  is  to  be 
carefully  noted ;  and  the  middle  degree  or  part  between 
each  will  be  the  place  where  the  femicircle  yiB,  and 
fight  OP,  will  ftand  or  coincide  with,  when  direfttd 
to  the  fouth  or  north,  according  to  the  fun's  fituatioa 
north  or  fouth  at  noon  at  the  place  of  obfervation. 
Set  the  index  or  fight-piece  OP  very  accurately  to 
this  middle  point,  by  dircfting  the  fight  to  fome  di- 
llant  objifft;  or  againft  it,  let  one  be  placed  up  :  thij 
objedl  will  be  the  meridian  mark,  and  will  always 
ferve  at  any  future  time.  To  find  the  time,  the  me- 
tidiau  being  thus  previoiiily  known  by  equal  altitudes 
of  the  fun  (or  liar),  and  determined  by  the  meriilian 
mark  made  at  a  dillance,  or  by  the  cavities  in  the  bafe 
to  fet  the  fcrew  in  :  Place  the  equatorial  accordingly, 
and  level  the  hoi-izontal  circle  EF  by  the  fpirit-'evels 
thereon.  Set  the  femicircle  AB  to  the  latitude  of  the 
place,  and  the  index  of  the  fights  0  P  to  the  declina- 
tion of  the  fun,  found  by  the  ephemeris,  as  before  di- 
redled.  Turn  the  femicircle  D  till  the  fight-holes  are 
accurately  directed  to  the  fun,  when  the  nonius  on  the 
hour  circle  MN  will  (how  the  time.  It  may  eafily  be 
known  when  the  fun's  rays  are  direft  through,  by  the 
fpot  falling  on  the  lower  interfedlors  of  the  marks 
acrofs  the  hole  at  0.     See  the  figure  S  adjoining. 

The  adjuftments  of  this  equatorial  dial  are  to  be 
made  from  the  following  trials,  ijl.  To  adjuft  the 
levels  LL  on  EF:  Place  the  o  of  any  of  the  divi- 
fions  on  EF  to  the  middle  mark  or  ftroke  on  the 
nonius  at  A^;  bring  the  air-bubbles  in  the  levels  In  the 
centres  of  each  cafe,  by  turning  the  feveral  fcrews 
at  IGH ;  this  being  exattly  done,  turn  the  circle  EF 
two  90°  or  half  round  :  if  the  bubble  of  air  then  re- 
mains in  the  centre,  they  are  right,  and  properly  ad- 
iulled  for  ufe  ;  but  if  they  are  not,  you  make  them  fo 
by  turning  the  neceffary  fcrews  placed  for  that  purpofe 
at  the  ends  of  the  level-cafes  by  means  of  a  turnfcrew, 
imtil  you  bring  them  to  that  fixed  pofition,  that  they 
win  return  when  the  plate  EF  is  turned  half  round. 
2dly,  To  adjuft  the  line  of  fight  OP :  Set  the  no- 
nius to  o  on  the  dtclination  arch  D,  the  nonius  on  the 
hour-circle  to  VI,  and  the  nonius  on  the  femicircle 
yiB  to  90^.  Diretl  to  fon.c  part  of  the  horizon  where 
there  may  be  a  variety  of  fixed  obje<ils.  Level  the 
horizontal  circle  is /^  by  the  levels  LL,  and  obferve 
any  objeft  that  may  appea,.  on  the  centre  of  the  croiS 
wires.  Reverfe  the  femic  ircle  y^B,  viz.  fo  that  the 
oppofite  90°  of  it  be  applied  to  the  nonius,  obferving 
particularly  that  the  other  nonii  preferve  their  fi- 
tuation. If  then  the  remote  objecl  formerly  viewed 
ftill  continues  in  the  centre  of  tlie  crofs  wires,  the 
line  of  fight  OP  is  truly  adjufted  ;  but  if  not,  unfcrew 
the  two  fcrews  of  the  frame  carrying  the  crofs  wires, 
and  move  the  frame  till  the  interfeition  appears  againil 
another  or  new  objeft,  which  is  half  way  between  the 
firil  and  that  which  the  wires  were  againft  on  the  re- 
verfion.  Return  the  femicircle  yiB  to  its  former  pc- 
fitioni  when,  if  the  interfedion  of  tlie  wires  be  found 
to  be  againft  the  half  way-objecl,  or  that  to  which  they 
were  laft  divided,  the  line  of  fight  is  adjufted  ;  if  not, 
the  operation  of  obferving  the  interval  of  the  two  ob- 
jefls,  and  applying  half  way,  muft  be  repeated. 

It  is  nccelTary  to  obfsrve,  that  one  of  the  wires 

fhauld 


Wat? 
CLX. 


.19    , 

Univerfal 

ring-dial, 
i'g'  3. 4>  5 


10 
Its  life. 


D      I      A      3 

(hould  be  in  the  plane  of  the  declination  circle,  and 
the  other  wire  at  right  angles  ;  the  frame  containing 
the  wires  is  made  to  (liift  for  that  purpofe. 

The  hole  at  P  which  forms  the  fun's  fpot  is  alfo  to 
be  adjufted  by  direfting  the  fight  to  the  fun,  that  the 
centre  of  the  fiiadow  of  the  crofs  hairs  may  fall  ex- 
aftly  on  the  upper  hole :  the  lower  frame  with  the 
hole  is  then  to  be  moved  till  the  fpot  falls  exadlly  on 
the  lower  fight-hole. 

Ladly,  it  is  generally  necetTary  to  find  the  correc- 
tion always  to  be  applied  to  the  obfervations  by  the 
femicircle  of  altitude  AB.  Set  the  nonius  to  o  on 
the  declination  arch  D,  and  the  nonius  to  XII  on  the 
equator  or  hour-circle :  Turn  the  fight  to  any  fixed  and 
diftind;  objeft,  by  moving  the  arch  AB  and  circle  EF 
only  :  Note  the  degree  and  minute  of  the  angle  of  al- 
titude or  deprefllon  :  Rcvcrfe  the  declination  femi- 
circle by  placing  the  nonius  on  the  hour-circle  to  the 
oppofite  XII  :  Direft  the  fight  to  the  fame  objedl 
again  as  before.  If  the  altitude  or  deprefiion  now  gi- 
ven be  the  fame  as  was  obferved  in  the  former  pofition, 
no  corredlion  is  wanted  ;  but  if  not  the  fame,  half 
the  difterence  of  the  two  angles  is  the  correction  to  be 
added  to  all  obfervations  or  reftifications  made  with 
that  quadrant  by  which  the  leaft  angle  was  taken,  or 
to  be  fubtraSed  from  all  obfervations  made  with  the 
other  quadrant.  Thcfe  feveral  adjuftments  are  abfo- 
lutely  neceffary  previous  to  the  ufe  of  the  inftrument  ; 
and  when  once  well  done,  will  keep  fo,  with  care,  a 
confiderable  time. 

The  Uiiiverfal  or  AJlronomical  Equ'moSial  Ring-Dial, 
is  an  inftrument  of  an  old  conftrudtion,  that  alfo  ferves 
'  to  find  the  hour  of  the  day  in  any  latitude  of  the  earth 
(fee  fig.  3.).  It  confifts  of  two  flat  lings  or  circles, 
ufually  from  4  to  1 2  iiiches  diameter,  and  of  a  moderate 
thicknefs  ;  the  outward  ring  A  £  reprefenting  the 
meridian  of  the  place  it  is  ufed  at,  contains  two  di- 
vifions  of  90°  each  oppofite  to  one  another,  ferving 
to  let  the  (liding  piece  ff,  and  ring  G  (by  which  the 
dial  is  ufually  fufpended),  be  placed  on  one  fide  from 
the  equator  to  the  north  pole,  and  on  the  other  fide 
to  the  fouth,  according  to  the  latitude  of  the  place. 
The  inner  ring  B  reprefents  the  equator,  and  turns  dia- 
metrically within  the  outer  by  means  of  two  pivots 
inferted  in  each  end  of  the  ring  at  the  hours  XII. 

Aciofs  the  two  circles  is  fcrewed  to  the  meridian  a 
thin  pierced  plate  or  bridge,  with  a  curfoi-  C,  that 
Aides  along  the  middle  of  the  bridge  :  this  curfor  has 
a  fmall  hole  for  the  fun  to  Ihine  through.  The  middle 
of  this  bridge  is  conceived  as  the  axis  of  the  world, 
and  its  extremities  as  the  poles :  on  the  one  fide 
are  delineated  the  12  figns  of  the  zodiac,  and  fome- 
times  oppofite  the  degrees  of  the  fun's  declination  ; 
and  en  the  other  fide  the  days  of  the  month  through- 
out the  year.  On  the  other  fide  of  the  outer  ring  A 
are  the  divifions  of  90  ,  or  a  quadrant  of  altitude  : 
It  ferves,  by  the  placing  of  a  common  pin  P  in  the 
hole  b  (fee  fig.  4. ),  to  take  the  fun's  altitude  or  height, 
and  from  which  the  latitude  of  the  place  may  ealily  be 
found. 

l/Jd  of  fie  dial.  Place  the  line  a  in  the  middle  of 
the  Aiding  piece  //  over  the  degree  of  latitude  of  the 
place.  Snppofe,  for  example,  5  1 4- for  London  ;  put 
the  line  which  crofles  the  hole  of  tiie  curfor  C  to  tlie 
day  of  the  mowth  or  the  degree  of  the  fign.     Open 


.      I      N      G. 

the  inftrument  till  the  two  rings  be  at  right  angles  to 
each  other,  and  fufpend  it  by  the  ring  G  ;  that  the 
axis  of  the  dial  reprcfented  by  the  middle  of  the  bridge 
be  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  earth,  viz.  the  north  pole 
to  the  north,  and  vice  i-erfa.  Then  turn  the  flat  fide 
of  the  bridge  towards  the  fun,  fo  that  his  rays  pafling 
through  the  fmall  hole  in  the  curfor  may  fall  exadlly 
in  a  line  drawn  through  the  middle  of  the  concave  fur- 
face  of  the  inner  ring  or  hour-circle,  the  bright  fpot 
by  whith  fhows  the  hour  of  the  day  in  the  faid  con- 
cave furface  of  the  dial.  Note,  The  hour  XII  cannot 
be  fiiown  by  this  dial,  becaufe  the  outer  ring  being 
then  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian,  excludes  the  fun'» 
rays  from  the  inner ;  nor  can  this  dial  (how  the  hour 
when  the  fun  is  in  the  eqtn'notiial,  becaufe  his  ray? 
then  falling  parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  inner  circle  or 
equinoctial,  are  excluded  by  it. 

To  take  the  altitude  of  the  fun  by  this  dial,  and  with 
the  declination  thereby  to  (ind  the  latitiule  of  the  place  : 
Place  a  common  pin  p  in  the  hole  h  projefting  in 
the  fide  of  the  meridian  where  the  quadrant  of  akitude 
is  :  then  bring  the  centre  mark  of  the  (liding  pitce  H 
to  the  o  or  middle  of  the  two  divifions  of  latitude  on 
the  other  fide,  and  turn  the  pin  towards  the  fun  till  it 
cuts  a  Ihadow  over  the  degree  of  the  quadiant  of  alti- 
tude ;  then  what  degree  the  (hadow  cuts  is  the  altitude. 
Thus,  in  fig.  4.  the  Ihadow  hg  appears  to  cut  35°,  the 
altitude  of  the  fun. 

The  fun's  declination  is  found  by  moving  the  curfor 
in  the  Aiding  piece  till  the  mark  acrofs  the  hole  llands 
juft  againll  the  day  of  the  month  ;  then,  by  turning 
to  the  other  fide  of  the  bridge,  the  mark  will  ftand 
againft  the  fun's   declination. 

In  order  to  find  the  latitude  of  the  place,  obferve 
that  the  latitude  and  declination  be  the  fame,  viz. 
both  north  or  fouth  ;  fubtratt  the  declination  from 
the  meridian  or  greateft  daily  altitude  of  the  fun,  and 
the  remainder  is  the  complement  of  the  latitude ; 
which  fubtrafted  from  90%  leaves  the  latitude^  Ex- 
ample : 

Deg.  mis. 
The  meridian  altitude  may  be  57     48 

The  fun's  declination  for  the  day  19      18 


795 

Plate 
CLX. 


Complement  of  latitude 


38     30 


90 


The  latitude  -  -  -  5 1      30 

But  if  the  latitude  and  declination  be  contrary,  add 
them  together,  and  the  fum  is  the  complement 
of  the  latitude.  This  dial  is  fomctimes  mounted 
on  a  ftand,  with  a  compafs,  two  fpirit^levels,  and  ad- 
jufting  fcrews,  Sec.  &c.  (fee  fig.  5.),  by  which  it  i( 
rendered  move  ufcful  and  convenient  for  finding  the 
fun's  azimuth,  altitudes,  variation  oi  the  needle,  de- 
clinations of  planes,  &c.  &c. 

An  Uitlverfal  Dial  on   a  plain  crofs,   is  defcribed  by  0^;^^, fij 
Mr  Fergufon.      It   is  moveable  on   a  joint  C,  fi)r  de-  crofs. dial. 
vating  it  to  any  given  latitude  on  the  f|uadiaiU  Co  ijo,  I'ig  6,7>8' 
as  it  fl^ands  upon   the  horizontal  board  j-l.     The  arms 
of  the  crofs  ftaiid  at   right  angles  to  the  middle  part  ; 
and  the  top  of  it,  from  a  to  n,  is  of  equal  length  with 
either  of  the  arms  ne  or  m  Jr.      Sie  fig.  6. 

This  dial  is  re(fiified  by  felting  the  middle  line  /a  to 
5  H  2  the 


796 


D      I      A 


Plate  the  latitude  of  the  place  on  the  quadrant,  the  board 
LL\.  ^  level,  and  the  point  //  northward  by  the  needle  ; 
thus,  the  plane  of  the  crofs  will  be  parallel  to  the 
plane  of  the  equator.  Then,  fr«m  III  o'clock  in  the 
raornin((  till  VI,  the  upper  ed;;e  11  of  the  arm  io 
will  call  a  lliadow  on  the  time  of  the  day  on  the  iiJe 
of  the  arm  cm  ;  from  VI  till  IX,  the  lower  edge  /  of 
the  arm  i  o  will  call  a  (liadow  on  the  hours  on  the  fide 
oq.  From  IX  in  the  morning  to  XII  at  noon,  the 
edge  ab  oi  the  top  part  an  will  caft  a  (liadow  en  the 
hours  on  the  arm  nef;  from  XII  to  III  in  the  after- 
noon, the  edge  c /i  o{  the  top  part  will  cad  a  Ihadow 
on  the  hours  on  the  arm  /■/»;  ;  from  III  to  VI  in  the 
evening,  the  edge  g  h  will  cail  a  fhadow  on  the  hoius 
on  the  part/>9  ;  and  from  VI  till  IX,  the  (hadow  of 
the  edge  i"y will  fhcv  the  time  on  the  top  part  an. 
The  breadth  of  each  pait,  nb,  e  f,  Ike.  muft  be  fo 
great,  as  never  to  let  the  ihadow  fall  quite  without  the 
part  or  arm  on  which  the  hoars  are  marked,  when  tlie 
fun  is  at  his  greateft  declination  from  the  equator. 

To  determine  the  breadth  of  the  fides  of  the  arms 
which  contain  the  hours,  fo  as  to  be  in  juft  propor- 
tion to  their  length  ;  make  an  angle  j4BC  (fig.  7.)  of 
234-  degrees,  which  is  equal  to  the  fun's  grcateft  de- 
ch  nation  ;  and  fuppofe  the  length  of  each  arm,  from 
the  fide  of  the  long  middle  part,  and  alfo  the  length 
of  the  top  part  above  the  arms,  to  be  equal  to  B  d. 
Then,  as  the  edges  of  the  fliadow,  from  each  of  the 
arms,  will  be  parallel  to  Be,  making  an  angle  of  23]; 
degrees  with  the  fide  B  d  of  the  arm,  when  the  fun's 
declination  is  234-°  ;  it  is  plain,  that  if  the  length  of 
the  arm  be  B  d,  the  lead:  breadth  that  it  can  have,  to 
keep  the  edge  B  e  of  the  (hadow  B  eg  d  fr<>m  going  off 
the  fide  of  the  arm  de  before  it  comes  to  the  end  of 
ited,  muft  be  equal  to  et/ or  (/£.  •  But  in  order  to 
keep  the  Ihadow  within  the  quarter  divifions  of  the 
hours,  when  it  comes  near  the  end  of  the  arm,  the 
breadth  of  it  fliould  be  ftill  greater,  fo  as  to  be  ahnod 
doubled,  on  account  of  the  dillance  between  the  tips 
of  the  arms. 

The  hours  may  be  placed  on  the  arms,  by  laying 
down  the  crofs  abed  (tig.  8.)  on  a  (lieet  of  paper  ; 
and  with  a  black-lead  pencil  held  clofe  to  it,  drawing 
its  (hape  and  fize  on  the  paper.  Then  take  the  length 
a  e  \x\  the  compalTes,  and  with  one  foot  ia  the  corner 
a,  defcribe  with  the  other  the  quadrant  ef.  Divide 
this  arc  into  fix  equal  parts,  and  through  the  points 
of  divifion  draw  light  lines  ag,  ah,  &c.  continuing 
three  of  them  to  the  arm  c  e,  which  are  all  that  can 
fall  upon  it  ;  and  they  will  meet  the  arm  in  thofe  points 
through  which  the  lines  that  divide  \.h.e  hours  from 
each  other,  as  in  fig  6.  are  to  be  drawn  right  acrofs 
it.  Divide  each  arm,  for  the  three  hours  contained  in 
it,  in  the  fame  manner  ;  and  fet  the  hours  to  their  pro- 
per places,  on  the  fides  of  the  arms,  as  they  are  mark- 
ed in  fig.  33.  Each  of  the  hour  fpaces  ftiould  be  di- 
vided into  four  equal  paits,  for  the  half  hours  and 
quarters,  in  the  quadrant  ef ;  and  right  lines  fhould 
be  drawn  through  thefe  divifion-marks  in  the  quadrant, 
to  the  arms  of  the  crofs,  in  order  to  determine  the 
places  thereon  where  the  fubdivifions  of  the  hours 
mull  be  marked. 

This  is  a  very  fimple  kind  of  unlverfal  dial;  it  is 
eafily  made  and  has  a  pretty,  uncommon  appearance 
in  a  garden. 


LI      N      G. 

Fig.  9.  is  called  a    Unhcrfal  Mechanical  Dial,  as      P!af» 

by   its    equinoctial    circle    an   eafy  method    is    had      Ci,X, 

of  .defcribing  a  dial  on   any   kind  of  plane.     For  es-  n  <•  ** 

I         L-  r         J-  1    ■  -J  1       •  ,  liafy  me. 

ample:   oi!ppole  a  dtal  is   required  on   an   horizontal  the  J  of 

plane.      It   the   plane   be  immoveable,  as  ^j5 Ci!),  find 'liiiwint^  a 

a  meridian  line  as  GF;  or  if  moveable,  afifume  the  me-  ''•''.'  ^)'  'hs 

ridian  at  plcafure  :    then  by    means  of   the  triangle  ""'T'   •' 

EKF,   whofe  bafe  is  applied    on    the    meridian  linej-cai'iiai.' 

raile  the  equiuudial  dial  //  till  the  index  GI  becomes     fi^  9. 

parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  earth,  (which  is  fo,  if  the 

angle  KEF  be  equal  to  the  elevation  of  the  pole),  and. 

the  12  o'clock  line  en  the  dial  hang  over  the  meridian 

line  of  the  plane  or  the  bafe  of  the  triangle.      If  then, 

in  the  night-time  or  a  darkened  place,  a  lighted  candle 

be  fucccfiively  applied  to  the   axis   GI,  lo  as  the   flia- 

dow  of  the  index  or  ftylc  GI  fall  upon   one   hour-line 

after   another,    the    lame   Ihadow   will   mark  out   the 

feveral   hour-lines    on   the    plane    Ji  B  C  D.     Noting 

the     piiints     therefore    on    the    fiiadow-,     draw    lines 

through  them  to   G  ;  then  an   index   being  fixed    on 

C,    according    to  the  angle   IGF,    its    Ihadow     vviil 

point    out   the   feveral  hours  by  the  light  of  the  fun- 

If  a  dial   were  required   ou   a  vertical   plaae,    having 

raifed  the  equinoctial  circle  as  diredled,  pu(h   forward 

the  index  GI  idl  the   tip   thereof  /.  touch  the  plane. 

If  the  plane  be  inclined  to  the  hotizon,   the   elevation 

of  the  pale  fliciuld  be   found   on   the   lame;  and  the 

angle   of  the    triange    KEF   ihould.  be    made  equal 

thereto. 

Mr  Fcrgufon  defcribes  a   method   of  making  t(-»'ee  ■^\.j^\Jl,„ 
dials  on  three  different  planes,  jo  that  they  may  alljhoiu  tlethtitefVMti- 
time  of  the  day  by  one  gnomon.     On  the  flat  board  y/BC^f  one  gnu- 
delcribe  an  honV-ontal  dial,"  with   its  gnomon  FGH,  "^.'"'' 
the  edge,  of  the  (hadow  of  which   fiiows  the   time   of 
the  day.     To  this  horizontal   board  join  the  upright 
board  EDO,  touching  the  edge   GH  of  the  gnomon  ; 
then  making  the  top  of  the  gnomon  at  G  the   centre 
of  the  vertical  fouth  dial,   delcribe   it   oil   the    board 
EDO.      Befides,  on  a  circular  plate /AT  defcribe   an 
equinoctial  dial,  and,  by  a  fiiti:  d  in  the  XII    o'clock 
line  from  the  edge  to  the  centre,  put  it  on  the  gno- 
mon EG  as  far  as  the  flit  will  admit.  The  fame  gnomon 
will  Ihow  the  fame  hour  on  each  of  thefe  dials. 

y/«    Umvrrfal  Dial,  Jhoiuiiig  the  hours  of  the  day  by  a       pTjte 
terrcjlrial  globe,  and  by  the  flMdoius  of  feveral  gnomons,  at    CLIX. 
the  fame  time :  together  ivith    all  the  places  of  the  earth     Fig  io< 
ivhich  are  then  enlightened  by  the  fun  ;    and  thofe  to  'which 
the  fun  is  then  ri/ing,  or  on  the  meridian,  orfetting.      This 
dial  is  made  of  a  thick  fqiiare  piece  of  wood,  or  hollow 
metal.      The  fides  are  cut  into  feinicircular  hollows,  ia 
which  the  hours  are  placed  ;  the  llile  of  e^  :h  hollow 
coming  out  from  the  bottom  thereof,  as  far  as  the  ends 
of  the  hollows  piojeft.      The  corners  are  cut  out  into 
angles,    in    the  iiifides  of  which  the   hours    are   alfo 
marked  ;  and  the  edge  of  the  end  of  each  fide  of  the 
angle  ferves  as  a  itile  for  calling  a  fliadow  on  the  hours 
marked  on  the  other  fide. 

In  the  middle  of  the  uppermoll  fide,  or  plane, 
there  is  aa  equinoctial  dial ;  in  the  centre  whereof  an 
upright  wire  'is  fixed,  for  calling  a  Ihadow  on  the  hours 
of  that  dial,  and  fupporting  aTmall  tcrrellrial  globe  on 
its  top. 

The  whole  dial  (lands  on  a  pillar,  in  the  middle  of  a 
round  horizontal  hoard,  in  which  there  is  a  compafs 
and  magnetic  needle,  for  placing  tlic  meridian  llile  to- 

ward 


^ 


rhte 

cux 


Fig.  9. 


DIALING. 

ward  the  foutK.  The  pillar  has  a  joint  with  a  quadrant  ing  of  the    campafTi-s,    on    their   centres  if/i  I,  and 

upon   it,  divided  into  90  dtyrces  (fuppofcl  to  be  hid  n  0;  and   each  quadrant  dividi;d  into  fix    equal    parts, 

f\om  fight  under  the  dial  in  the  figure)  for  fitting  it  to  for  as  many  iioui-s,  as  in  the   fif;ure  ;    each  of  wliich 

the  latitude  of  any  given  place.  parts  mud  be  fubdividtd  into  4,  for  iho  half-hourj  and 

The   equator   of  the  globe  is  divided  into  24  equal  quarters, 
parts,  and  the  hours  are  laid  down  upon  it  at  thefe  parts.         At  equal  dillances  from  each  corner,  draw?  the  right 

'J'he  time  c.f  the  day  may  hi   known   by  thefe  hours,  lines  Ip  and  K  p,  L  9?  and  M  q,  Nr  and  Or,    Ps  and 

■when  the  fun  fliines  upon  the  globe.  ^■i  >   to  form  the  four  angular  hollows  / p  K,  L  q  My 

To  rttUFy  and  ufc  this  dial,  fet  it  on  a  level  tahle,  or  N  r  0,  and  P  s  ^  ;  making'  thediibmces  between  the- 

fule  of  a  window,  where  the  fun   (hines,  placing  ihe  lips  of  thefe  hollows,  as  /  K,  L  M,  N  0,  and  P  i^, 

meridian  ftile  due  fouth,  by  means  of  the  needle  ;  which  each  equal  to  the  radius  of  the  quadrants ;  and  leaving 

v.'i\\  be,  when  the  needle    points  as  far  fmm  the  north  fufficient  room  witliin  the  angular  points yi  g  r  and   s, 

fleur-de-lis  toward  the  weit,  as  it  declines  weftward,  at  for  the  equinoctial  in  the  middle. 

your  place.     Then  bend  the  pillar  in  the  joint,  till  tiie  To  divide  the  uilides  of  thefe  angles  properly  for  the 

bl;ick  line  on  the  pillar  comes  to  the  latitude  of  your  hour-fpaccs  thereon,  take  the  following  method, 
place  in  the  quadrant.  Set  one  foot  of  the   coMipaflcs  in  the  point  /  as  a 

Tlic  machine  being  thus  rec^iiied,   the  plane  of  its  centre,   and  open  the  other  to  K ;  and  witii  tint  open- 

di:d  part  will  be  parallel  to  the  equator,  the  wire  or  axis  ing  delcribe  the  arc  A"/.-  then,   without   altering  the 

that  lupports  the  globe  will  be  parallel   to  the  earth's  conipafl'es,    fet  one  fool  in  K,  and  with  the  other  foot 

axis,  and  the  north  pole  of  the  gk  be  w-ill  point  toward  dtfcribe  the  arc /<.      Divide  each  of  thefe  arcs,  froni 

the  north  pole  of  the  heavens.  /  and  A' to  their  interfeftion  at  t,  into  four  equal  parts  ; 

The  lame  hour  will  then  be  {hown  in  feveral  of  the  and  from  their  centres  /  and  K,  through  the  points  of 

bollows,  by  the  ends  of  the  Ihadows  of  their  refpeftive  divifion,  draw  the  right  lines  /  3,  /  4,  7  5,  /  6,  /  7  ; 

ftiles :  the  axis  of  the  globe  will  cad  a  (hadovv  on  the  and  K  z,   K  \,  K  \2,  K  \i  ;  and  they  will  meet  the 

feme  hour  of  the  day,  in   the   equiuoilial   dial.   In   the  fides  AT/  and  //>  of  the  angle //>  A"  where  the  hours 

centre  of  which  it  is  placed,  from  the  20th  of  March  to  thereon  mnft  be  placed.   And  thefe  hour-fpaccs  in  the 

the  23d  of  September ;   and,  if  the   meridian  of  your  arcs    mull   be   iubdived  into  four  equal   parts,  for  the 

place  on  the  globe  be  fet  even  with  the  meridian  llile,  half  hours  and  quarters. — Do   the   like   for  the  other 

all  the  parts  of  tiie  globe  that  the  fun  (liines  upon,  will  three  angles,  and  draw  the  dotted  lines,  anjl    fet    the 

anfwcr  to  thofe  places  of  the  real  earth  which  are  then  hours  in  the  inlides  where  thofe  lines  meet  them,   aS' 

enlightened  by  the  fun.      The  places  where  the   (hade  in  the  figure  :  and  the  like  hour-lines   wdl   be    paral- 

is  jult  coming  upon  the  globe,  anfwer  to  all  thofe  places  lei  to  each  other  in  all  the  quadrants  and  in  all  the 

of  the  earth  to  which  the  fun   is  then   fetting  ;  as  the  angles. 

places  where  it  is  going  off,  and  the  light  coming  on,         Mark  points  for  all  thefe  hours  on  the  upper  fide  : 

anfwer  to  all  the  places  of  tht  earth  where  the  fun  is  and  cut  out  all  the  angulah  hollows,  and  the  quadrantal 

then  rifing.      And  laftlv,  if  the  hour  of  VI  be  marked  ones  quite  through   the   places  where  their  four  gno- 

on  the  equator  in  the  meridian  of  your  place  (as  it  is  mons  muft   Hand;  and  lay   down  the  hours  on  their 

marked  on  the  meridian  of  London  in  the  figure)  the  infules,  (as   in  fig.  10.),  and   fet    in  their   gnomons, 

flivfion  of  the  light   and  fliade  on  the  globe  will  Ihow  which  mud;  be  as  broad  as  the  dial  is  thick;  and   this- 

the  time  of  the  day.  breadth   and  thicknefs  muft  be  large  enough  to  keep 

The   northern    ftile    of  the  dial    (oppofite    to   the  the   (hadows  of  the   gnomons  from  ever  falling  quite, 

fouthern  or  meridian  one)  is  hid  from  the  fight  in  the  out  at  the   fides  of  the  hollows,  even  when  the  fun'» 

figure,  by  the  axis  of  the  globe.      The  hours   in   the  declination  is  at  the  greateft. 

hollow  to  which  that  ftile  belongs,    are   alfo   fuppofed         L.allly,  draw  the  equinoflial  dial  in  the  middle,  all 

to  be  hid  by  the  oblique  view  of  the  figure  :  but  they  the  hours  of  which  are   equidillaat  from  each  other; 

are  the  fame  as  the  hoiu-s  in  the  front-hollow.      Thi,fe  and  the  dial  will  be  finilhed. 

alio  in  the  right  and  left  hand  fem.Icircular  hollows  are  As  the  fun  goes  round,  the  broad  end  of  the  (hadovv 

moUly  hid  from  fight  ;  and  fo  alfo  are  all  thofe  on  tlie  of  the  (tile  acid  will  (how  the  hours  in  the  qiuidiant 

fides  next  the  eye  of  the  four  acute  angles.  Ac,  from  lun-rile  till  VT  in  the  mornijig;  the  Iliad. .w 

The  conftruftion  of  this  dial  is  as  follows:  from  the  end  M  will  fliow  the  hours  on  the  fide  Lq 

On  a  thick  fquare  piece  of  wood,  o-  metal,  draw  the  from  V  to  IX  in  the  morning  ;  the  (hadow  of  the  llile 

lines  a  c  and  b  d,  as  far  from  each  other  as  you  intend  ^fgb  in  the  quadrant  D g  (in  the  long  d.iys)  will  (how 

for  the  thicknefs  of  the  llile  ale  d ;  and  in  the  fame  the  hours  trom   fun-rife  till  VI  in  the  mornijig;  and 
manner,   dra\r  the  like   thicknefs  of  the    other  thiee 

fliles,  e  fg  h,  i li  I m,  and  nop q,  all  (landing  outright  us  on  the  fide  0  r,  from  III  to  VII. 
from  the  centre.  Juft    as    the    fiiadow    of    the    northern    llile  aicd 

With  any  convenient  opening  of  the  compafles,  ai  goes  off  the  quadrant  j-L;  the  (hadow  of  the  fouthern. 

a  A,  (fo  as  to  leave  proper  (Irength  of  (luff  when  AT/ is  (tile  i  i  /  m    begins    to    fall  within    the  quadrant  F /, 

equal  to  a  y^),  fet  one  foot  in  a,  as  a  centre,  and  with  at   VI  in    the    morning;     and     (hows    the    time,    in- 

the  other  hlot  defcribc  the  quadrantal  arc  y/f.      Then,  that  quadrant,  from   Vi  till  XII  at  noon;  and  from 

without  altering  the  compalfes,  fet  one  foot  in  i  as  a  noon  till    Vi   in  the  evening    in    the    quatirant    niE. 

centre,  and  with  the   other  foot  defcribe  the  quadrant  And   the   (hadow  of  the  end  0  (liows  the  time  from 

d  B.     All  the   other  quadrants  in  the  figure  muft   be  XI  in  the  forenoon  till  111  in   the   nfternjon,  on   the. 

dffcnbed  ic  the  faiae  ruanner,  and  with  the  fame  open-  fide  rN;  at  ilit  (hadow  of  the  end  P  ftiows  the  time.- 


797 

Plate 
CLIX. 


the  (hadow  of  the  end  A'^  vv'ill  ihow  the  morning- hours. 


798 


Plate 
CLIX. 


.D      T      A      I 

from  IX  in  the  morning  till  I  o'clock  in  the  after- 
noon, on  the  fide  ^s. 

At  noon,  when  Che  lliadow of  the  eaftern  ftile  efgh 
goes  off  the  quadrant  hC  (in  wliich  it  fhowed  the  time 
from  VI  in  the  morning  till  noon,  as  it  did  in  the  qua- 
drant^/) from  fun-rife  till  VI  in  the  morning),  the 
fhadow  of  the  weflern  ftile  nopq  begins  to  enter  the 
quadrant  Hp;  and  fliows  the  hours  thereon  from  XII 
at  noon  till  VI  in  the  evening  ;  and  after  that  till  fun- 
fet,  in  the  quadrant  q  G:  and  the  end  ^calls  a  fliadow 
on  the  fide  Ps  from  V  in  the  evening  till  IX  at  night, 
if  the  fun  be  not  fet  before  that  time. 

The  fhadow  of  the  end  /  Ihows  the  time  on  the  fide 
Kp  from  III  till  VII  in  the  afternoon  ;  and  the  fhadow 
of  the  ftile  abed  fliows  the  time  from  VI  in  the  evening 
till  the  fun  fets. 

The  fliadow  of  the  upright  central  wire,  that  fup- 
ports  the  globe  at  top,  (liows  the  time  of  the  day,  in  the 
middle  or  equino£lial  dial,  all  the  fummer  half-year, 
when  the  fun  is  on  the  north  fide  of  the  equator. 

Having  fhovvn  how  to  make  fun-dials  by  the  affift- 
ance  of  a  good  globe,  or  of  a  dialing  fcale,  we  (hall 
now  proceed  to  the  method  of  conftrufting  dials  arith- 
metically; which  will  be  more  agreeable  to  thofe  who 
have  le;uned  the  elements  of  trigonometry,  becaufe 
globes  and  fcales  can  never  be  fo  accurate  as  the  loga- 
rithms in  finding  the  angular  dillances  of  the  hours.  Yet 
as  a  globe  may  be  found  exact  enough  for  fome  other 
requifites  in  dialing,  we  ihall  take  it  in  occafionally. 

The  conftrutlion  of  fun-dials  on  all  planes  whatever 
may  be  included  in  one  general  rule  ;  intelligible,  if 
that  of  a  horizontal-dial  for  any  given  latitude  be  well 
underllood.  For  there  is  no  plane,  however  obliquely 
fituated  with  refpeft  to  any  given  place,  but  what  is 
parallel  to  the  horizon  of  fome  other  place;  and  there- 
fore if  we  can  find  that  other  place  by  a  problem  on 
the  terrellrial  globe,  or  by  a  trigonometrical  calculation, 
and  conflruct  a  horizontal  dial  for  it ;  that  dial  applied 
to  the  plane  where  it  is  to  ferve  will  be  a  true  dial 
for  that  place. — Thus,  an  ereft  diretl  fouth  dial  in 
51I-  degrees  north  latitude,  would  be  a  horizontal-dial 
on  the  fame  meridian,  90  degrees  fouthward  of  51-i-  de- 
grees north  latitude  :  which  falls  in  with  38^:  degrees 
of  fouth  latitude.  But  if  the  upright  plane  declines  from 
facing  the  fouth  at  the  given  place,  it  would  ftill  be  a 
horizontal  plane  90  degrees  from  that  place,  but  for  a 
different  longitude,  which  would  alter  the  reckoning 
of  the  hours  accordingly. 

Case  I.  l.  Let  us  fuppofe  that  an  upright  plane  at 
London  declines  36  degrees  weftward  from  facing  the 
fouth,  and  that  it  is  required  to  find  a  place  on  the 
globe  to  whofe  horizon  the  faid  plane  is  parallel  j  and 
alfo  the  difference  of  longitude  between  London  and 
that  place. 

Redify  the  globe  to  the  latitude  of  London,  and 
bring  London  to  the  zenith  under  the  brafs  meridian; 
then  that  point  of  the  globe  which  lies  in  the  horizon 
at  the  given  degree  of  declination  (counted  weftward 
from  the  fouth  point  of  the  horizon)  is  the  place  at 
which  the  abovementioned  plane  would  be  horizontal. 
—  Now,  to  find  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  that  place, 
keep  your  eve  U|jon  the  place,  and  turn  the  globe  caft- 
ivaid  until  it  comes  under  the  graduated  edge  of  thej 


.      I      N      G. 

brafs  meridian  ;  then  the  degree  of  the  brafs  meridian 
that  ftands  direftly  over  the  place  is  its  latitude  ;  and 
the  number  of  degrees  in  tlie  equator,  which  are  inter- 
cepted between  the  meridian  of  London  and  the  brali 
meridian,  is  the  place's  difference  of  longitude. 

Thus,  as  the  latitude  of  London  is  ji^-  degrees 
north,  and  the  declination  of  the  place  is  36  degrees 
weft  ;  elevate  the  north  pole  5 1-|-  degrees  above  the  lio- 
rizon,  and  turn  the  globe  until  London  comes  to  the 
zenith,  or  under  the  graduated  edge  of  the  meridian  ; 
then  count  36  degrees  on  the  horizon  weftward  from 
the  fouth  point,  and  make  a  mark  on  that  place  of  the 
globe  over  which  the  reckoning  ends,  and  bringing  the 
mark  under  the  graduated  edge  of  the  brafs  meridian, 
it  will  be  found  to  be  under  30;^;  degrees  in  fouth  lati- 
tude :  keeping  it  there,  count  in  the  equator  the  num- 
ber of  degrees  between  the  meridian  of  London  and  the 
brafen  meridian  (which  now  becomes  the  meridian  of  the 
required  place),  and  you  will  find  it  to  be  42^^.  There- 
fore an  upright  plane  at  London,  declining  36  degrees 
weftward  from  the  fouth,  would  be  a  horizontal  plane 
at  that  place,  whofe  latitude  is  30^-  degrees  fouth  of 
the  equator,  and  longitude  42^  degrees  weft  of  the  me- 
ridian of  London. 

Which  difference  of  longitude  being  converted  into 
time,  is  2  hours  51  minutes. 

The  vertical-dial  declining  weftward  36  degrees  at 
London,  is  therefore  to  be  drawn  in  all  refpetts  as  a 
horizontal-dial  for  fouth  latitude  30^  degrees  ;  fave 
only  that  the  reckoining  of  the  hours  is  to  anticipate 
the  reckoning  on  the  horizontal-dial  by  2  hours  5 1  mi- 
nutes :  for  fo  much  fooner  will  the  fun  come  to  the 
meridian  of  London,  than  to  the  meridian  of  any  place 
whofe  longitude  is  42^:  degrees  weft  from  London. 

2.  But  to  be  more  exaft  than  the  globe  will  fliow  us, 
we  fiiall  ufe  a  little  trigonometry. 

Let  N E  S  IV  be  the  horizon  of  London,  whofe 
zenith  is  Z,  and  P  the  north  pole  of  the  fphere  ;  and 
let  Zh  be  tlie  pofition  of  a  vertical  plane  at  Z,  decli- 
ning weftward  from  S  (the  fouth)  by  an  angle  of  36 
degrees  ;  on  which  plane  an  erett-dial  for  London  at 
Z  is  to  be  defcribed.  Make  the  femidiameter  ZD 
perpendicular  to  Zh;  and  it  will  cut  the  horizon  in  Z?, 
36  degrees  weft  of  the  fouth  .y.  Then  a  plane,  in  the 
tangent  HD,  touching  the  fphere  in  Z),.  will.bc  paral- 
lel to  the  plane  Zh  ;  and  the  axis  of  the  fphere  will  be 
equally  inclined  to  both  thefe  planes. 

Let  1V:^E  be  the  equinoftial,  whofe  elevation  above 
the  horizon  of  Z  (London)  is  38^  degrees;  and  PRD 
be  the  meridian  of  the  place  D,  cutting  the  equinoftial 
in  R,  Then  it  is  evident,  that  the  arc  RD  is  the  la- 
tude  of  the  place  D  (where  the  plane  Zh  would  be  ho- 
rizontal) and  the  arc  Ri^ii  the  difference  of  longitude 
of  the  planes  Zh  and  DH. 

In  the  fpherical  triangle  JVDR,  the  arc  WD  is  given, 
for  it  is  the  complement  of  the  plane's  declination  from 
S  to  fouth;  which  complement  is  54"  (i);z.  90° — 36-:) 
the  angle  at  R,  in  which  the  meridian  of  the  place  D 
cuts  the  equator,  is  a  right  angle;  and  the  angle  RJVD 
meafures  the  elevation  of  the  equinoctial  al^ive  tlie  ho- 
ribon  of  Z,  namely  384  degrees.  Say  therefore.  As 
radius  is  to  the  co-fine  of  the  plane's  declination  from 
the  fouth,  fo  is  the  co-fine  of  the  latitude  of  Z  to  the 
fine  oi  RD  tlie  latitude  of  D  :  which  is  of  a  different 

denomination 


CHX. 


F!s-4» 


D      I      A 

Elate     denomination  from  the  latitude  of  Z,  becaufe  Z  and 
CL.IX.    2)  are  on  different  fides  of  the  equator. 

As  radius     ...     -      lo.ooooo 

Toco-fine  36°  0'  =  /?^    9.90796 

So  co-fine  ji"  lo'zz^  9-79415 

To    fine   30°  14.  =  D  R    (9.70211)  =thelat.ofZ>, 
whofe  horizon  is  parallel  to  the  vertical  plane  Zh  at  Z. 

A'^.  B.    When  radius  is  made  tlie  firll  term,   it  may 
be  omitted  ;  and  then  by  fubtradting  it  mentally  from 
the  fum  of  the  other  two,  the  ■operation  will  be  flior- 
I      tentd.     Thus,  in  the  prefent  cafe. 

To  the  logarithmic  line  of  M''R=*  54°  o'  9.90796 
Add  the  logarithmic  fine  of  RD=-f  38^  30'  9.79415 


Their  fum — radius     ------       9.7021 1 

gives  the  fame  folution  as  above.  And  we  lliall  keep 
to  this  method  in  the  following  part  of  this  article. 

To  find  the  difference  of  longitude  of  the  places  D 
and  Z,  fay.  As  radius  is  to  the  co-fine  of  384-  degrees, 
the  height  of  the  equinoctial  at  Z,  fo  is  the  co-tangent 
of  36  degrees,  the  plane's  dechnation,  to  the  co-tangent 
of  the  difference  of  longitudes.     Thus, 

To  the  logarithmic  fine  of  J  51°  30'  9-89354 

Add  the  logarithmic  tang,  of  §  54°  o'        10.13874 


Their  fum — radius     ------      10.03228 

is  the  neareil  tangent  of  47°  S'z=  IVR;  which  is  the 
co-tangent  of  42^  ^2'  =  R.^,  the  difference  of  longi- 
tude fought.  Which  difference,  being  reduced  to 
time,  is  2  hours  51^  minutes. 

3.  And  thus  having  found  the  exaft  latitude  and 
longitude  of  the  place  I);  to  whofe  horizon  the  vertical 
plane  at  Z  is  parallel,  we  (hall  proceed  to  the  conffruc- 
tion  of  a  horizontal  dial  for  the  place  D,  whofe  lati- 
tude is  30°  14'  fouth;  but  antlc'pating  the  time  at  Z)  by 
2  hours  5 1  minutes  (negleciing  the  4-  min.  in  praftice), 
becaufe  D  is  fo  far  welhvard  in  longitude  from  the  me- 
ridian of  London  ;  and  this  will  be  a  true  vertical  dial 
at  London,  dechning  wellward  36  degrees. 
Kg.  5.  Affume  any  right  line  CSL  for  the  fubllile  of  the 

dial,  and  make  the  angle  KCP  equal  to  the  latitude  of 
the  place  (t/s.  30^  '4  )»  ^°  whole  horizon  the  plane 
of  the  dial  Is  parallel  ;  then  CRP  will  be  the  axis  of 
the  flile,  or  edge  that  calls  the  fliadow  on  the  hours  of 
the  day,  in  the  dial.  This  done,  draw  the  contingent 
line  E^,  cutting  the  fubftilar  line  at  right  angles  in 
K ;  and  from  A'  make  AT?  perpendicular  to  the  axis 
CRP.  Then  KG  (=A'7?)  being  made  ladlus,  that 
is,  equal  to  the  chord  of  60'-  or  tangent  of  45"  on  a 
good  fetlor,  take  42°  52'  (the  difference  of  longitude 
of  the  places  Z  and  75)  from  the  tangents,  and  having 
fet  it  from  K  to  M,  draw  CM  for  the  hour-line  of 
XIL  Take  AW,  equal  to  the  tangent  of  an  angle 
lefs  by  15  degrees  than  KM ;  that  is,  the  tangent  of 
27°  52'  :  and  through  the  point  N  draw  C'A^  for  the 
hour-line  of  L  The  tangent  of  \  2°  52'  (whleli  is  15" 
lefs  than  27"  42'),  fet  off  the  fame  way,  will  give  a 
point  between  K  and  A',  through  which  the  hour-line 
of  II  is  to  be  drawn.  The  tangent  of  2^  8'  (the  dif- 
ference between  45''  and  52''  52')  placed,  on  the  other 
fide  of  CL,  will  determine  the  point   through   which 


LINO.  75g 

the  hour-line  of  III  is-to  be  drawn  :    to  which  2*  8',      P'a'e 

if  the  tangent  of  15    be  added,  It  will  make  17"  8';     CLIX. 

and  this  fet  off  from  K  towards  .^on  the  line  E^, 

will  give  the  point  for  the  hour-line  of  IV  :  and  fo  of 

the  reft. — Tlie  forenoon  hour-lines  are  drawn  the  fame 

way,  by  the  continual  addition  of  the  tangents  15°, 

30",  45',  &c.  to  42^  52'  (  =  the  tangent  of  ATlf)  for 

the  hours  of  XI,  X,  IX,  &c.  as  far  as  ncceffary  ;  that 

is,  until  there  be  five  hours  on  each  fide  of  the  fubllile. 

The  fixth  hour,  accounted  from  that  hour  or  pait  of 

the  hour  on  which  the  fubllile  falls,  will  be  always  in 

a  line  perpendicular  to  the  fubllile,  and  drawn  through 

the  centre  C. 

4.  In  all  ereft  dials,  CM,  the  hour-line  of  XII,  is 
perpendicular  to  the  liorlzon  of  the  place  for  which  the 
dial  Is  to  ferve  ;  for  that  line  is  the  Interfetllon  of  a 
vertical  plane  with  the  plane  of  the  meridian  of  the 
place,  both  which  are  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the 
horizon:  and  any  line  HO,  ov ho,  perpendicular  to  CM, 
will  be  a  horizontal  line  on  the  plane  of  the  dial,  along 
which  line  the  hours  may  be  numbered ;  and  CM  be- 
ing fet  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  the  dial  will  have 
its  true  pofition. 

5.  If  the  plane  of  the  dial  had  declined  by  an  equal 
angle  toward  the  eall,  Its  defcrlptlon  would  have  dif- 
fered only  In  this,  that  the  hour-line  of  XII  would 
have  fallen  on  the  other  fide  of  the  fubllile  CL,  and 
the  line  HO  would  have  a  fubcontrary  pofition  to  what 
it  has  In  this  figure. 

6.  And  thefe  two  dials,  with  the  upper  points  of 
their  (liles  turned  toward  the  north  pole,  will  ferve  for 
other  two  planes  parallel  to  them  ;  the  one  declining 
from  the  north  toward  the  eaft,  and  the  other  from  the 
north  toward  the  well,  by  the  fame  quantity  of  angle. 
The  like  holds  true  of  all  dials  in  general,  whatever  be 
their  declination  and  obliquity  of  their  planes  to  the 
horizon. 

Case  II.  7.  If  the  plane  of  the  dial  not  only  declines, 
but  alio  reclines,  or  inchnes.  Suppofe  Its  declination 
from  fronting  the  fouth  Shi  equal  to  the  arc  SD  on  the 
horizon  ;  and  its  reclinatlon  be  equal  to  the  arc  Dd  oi  p;„  gr 
the  vertical  circle  D7^  :  then  it  is  plain,  that  If  the 
quadrsnt  of  altitude  ZJD  on  the  globe  cuts  the  point 
I)  In  the  horizon,  and  the  reclinatlon  Is  counted  up- 
on the  quadrant  from  D  to  J;  the  interfcclion  of  the 
hour  circle  PRd,  v.-Ith  the  equinocllal  /Vi^E,  will 
determine  Rd,  the  latitude  of  the  place  t/,  whofe  ho- 
rizon Is  parallel  to  the  given  plane  Zh  at  Z  ;  and  R^ 
will  be  the  difference  in  longitude  of  the  places  at  J 
and  Z. 

Trigonometrically  thus:  Let  a  gTeat  circle  pafs  thro' 
the  three  points,  IV,  d,  E;  and  in  the  triangle  IV Dd, 
right-angled  at  D,  the  fides  WD  and  Dd  are  given  ; 
and  thence  the  angle  DlVd  Is  found,  and  fo  is  the  hy- 
pothcnufe  Wd.  Again,  the  difference,  or  the  fum, 
of  Z'/'/'./ and  DIVR,  the  elevation  of  the  cquinoftlal 
above  the  horizon  of  Z,  gives  the  angle  dlVR  ;  and 
the  hypothcnufc  of  the  triangle  IVRd  was  juft  wovr 
found  ;  whence  the  fides  Rd  dnd  IVR  are  found,  the 
former  being  the  latitude  of  the  place  </,  and  the  lat^ 
ter  the  complement  oi  R:^,  the  difference  of  longitude 
fought. 

Thus, 


*   The  co-fine  of  36.0,  or  of  R^       f  The  co-fine  of  5 1. 30,  or  of  ^Z. 
WDR.       j  The  co-tangent  of  36.C,  or  of  Z?//. 


:J:  The  co-fine  of  38.30,  or  of. 


3oo 


Plats 


D      I      A 

Thus,  if  tnelstitudc  of  the- place  Z  be  52'  lo'riortli; 
the  declination  SD  of  the  plane  Zo  (which  would  he 
horizontal  at  </)  be  36',  anj  the  reclinatlon  be  15*5,  or 
cqiial  to  the  arc  l)d;  the  fouth  latitude  of  the  place  rf, 
that  is,  the  arc  Rt!,  will  be  15'  g';   and  R^,  the  dif- 


LING. 

And,  laftly,  fet  off  1257  (the  natural  tangent  of  ?!« 
30)  for  the  angle  of  the  flile's  height,  which  is  equal 
to  the  latitude  of  the  place. 

Rule  II.  Tm  latitude  of  the  place,  the  fun' j  declination, 
and  his    hour  diflavce  from  the  meridian,  beitig  gifen,  to 


therefore,  let  the  dial  (fig.  7.)  be  defcribed,  as  in  the 
former  example. 

8.  There  are  fcveral  other  things  reqnifite  in  the 
praAice  of  dialing  ;  the  chief  of  which  ihall  be  given 
in  the  form  of  arithmetical  rules,  fimple  and  eafy  to 
thofe  who  have  learned  the  elements  of  trigonometry. 
For  in  practical  arts  of  this  kind,  arithmetic  fhould  be 
■ufcd  as  far  as  it  can  go  ;  and  fcales  never  trufted  to, 
except  in  the  final  conftruftion,  where  they  are  abfo- 
lutely  neceflary  in  laying  down  the  calculated  hour-di- 
ilances  on  the  plane  of  the  dial. 

Rule  I.  To  find  the  angles  •zvhich  the  hour-rines  on  any 
d'al  male  luith  the fuhj.dc.  To  the  logarithmic  fine  of 
the  given  latitude,  or  of  the  ftile's  elevation  above  the 
plane  of  the  dial,  add  the  logarithmic  tangent  of  the 
hour  (*)  diftance  from  the  meridian,  or  from  the  (f) 
fubflile  ;  and  tlie  fum  minus  radius  will  be  the  loga- 
rithmic tangent  of  the  angle  fought. 

For  KC  is  to  KM  in  rhe  ratio  compounded  of  xhe 
ratio  of  KC  to  KG  {=KR )  and  of  KG  to  KM;  which 
making  CA"  the  radius  10,000000,  or  to,cooo,  or  10, 
or  I,  are  the  ratio  of  10,000000,  or  of  ic.cooo,  or 
of  10,  or  of  I,  to  KGxKM. 

Thus,  in  a  horizontal  dial,  for  latitude  51=  30',  to 
find  the  angular  diftance  of  XI  in  the  forenoon,  or  I 
in  the  afternoon,  from  XII. 

To  the  logarithmic  fine  of  jr"  jc       9'89354:j: 

Add  the  logarithmic  tang,  of  jfc     9.4.2805 

The  fum — radius  i^i  -  .  -  -  9.^2159  =  the 
logarithmic  tangent  of  1  I "  50',  or  of  the  angle  which 
the  hour-line  of  XI  or  I  makes  with  the  hour  of  XII. 

And  by  computing  in  this  manner,  v.'ith  the  fine  of 
the  latitude, and  the  tangents  of  30,  45,  60,  and  75", 
for  the  hours  of  II,  III,  IIII,  and  V  in  the  afternoon; 
or  of  X,  IX,  VIII,  and  Vtl  in  the  forenoon;  you  will 
find  their  angular  diftances  from  XII  to  be  2^°  18', 
38'^  3',  53''  35  ,  and  71°  6';  which  are  all  that  there  is 

occafion  to  compute  for. And  thefc  diftances  may 

be  fet  off  from  XII  by  a  line  of  cUords;  or  rather,  by 
taking  1000  from  a  fcale  of  equal  parts,  and  letting 
that  extent  as  a  radius  from  C  to  XII  ;  and  then,  ta- 
king 209  of  the  fame  parts  (which  are  the  natural 
tangent  of  n'^  50  )>  and   fetting  them   from    XII  to 

XI  and  I,  on  the  line  ho,  which  is  perpendicular  to  C 

XII  :  and  fo  for  the  rell  of  the  hour-lines,  which  in 
the  table  of  natural  tangents,  againft  the  above  dif- 
tances, are  4)t,  782,  1355.  and  2920,  of  fuch  equal 
parts  from  XII,  as  the  radius  C  XII  contains  1000. 

N"  100. 


the  fun's  place,  dR  his  declinaton  ;  and,  in  the 
triangle  P  Z  d,  Pd  the  fum,  or  the  difference,  of 
d  R,  and  the  quadrant  PR,  being  given  by  the  fup- 
pofition,  as  alfo  tiie  complement  of  the  latitude 
PZ,  and  the  angle  dPZ,  which  meafures  the  horary 
diftance  of  d  from  the  meridian  ;  we  fliall  (by  Cafe  4. 
of  Keill's  oblique  fpheric  Trigonometry)  find  the  bale 
Zd,  which  is  the  fun's  diftance  from  the  zenith,  or  the 
complement  of  his  altitude. 

And  (2.)  as  fine  Zd :  fine  Pd :  :  fine  dPZ' :  dZP, 
or  of  its  fupplement  DZS,  the  azimuihal  d^iftance  from 
the  fouth. 

Or  the  praflioal  rule  m»y  be  as  foHof.s. 

Writer?  for  the  fign  of  ^lle  fun's  altitude,  7,  and  / 
for  the  fine  and  co-fine  of  the  latitude,  1)  and  d  for  the 
fine  and  co-fine  of  thefrm's  declination,  and  PI  for  the 
fine  of  the  horarv  diftance  from  V'l. 

Then  the  relation  o(  h'loA  wil;  have  three  varieties. 

I.  When  the  declination  is  toward  the  elevated  pole, 
and  the  hour  of  the  day  is  between  XII  and  VI;  it  is 
yl—LD, 


J-LD^Hld,  and  H=^. 


Id 


2.  When  the  hour  is  after  VI,  it  is  A=LD—Hld^ 

and  H-=. ±- — 

Id 

3.  ^Vhen  the  declination  is  toward  the  depreffed  pole, 

we  have  A=Hld-LD,  and  H-=d±Hi: 

Id 

Which  theorems  wll  be  found  uftful,  and  expedi- 
tious enough  for  folving  thofe  problems  in  geography 
and  dialing  which  depend  on  the  relation  of  the  fun's 
altitude  to  the  hour  of  the  day. 

Example  I.  Suppofe  the  latitude  of  the  place  to  be 
51'-  degrees  mrth  :  the  time  five  hours  diftant  from 
XII,  that  is,  an  hour  after  VI  in  the  morning,  or  be- 
fore VI  in  the  evening;  and  the  fun's  declination  20^ 
north.      Required  the  fun's  altitude? 

Then  to  log.  Z,  =  log.  fin.  51°  30' 
add  log.  Z)=log.  fin.  20^    o' 


1.S93J4** 
.  I -53405 


Their  fum  1.42  759  gives 

L.D:=logarithm  of  0.267664,  in  the  natural  fines. 
And,  to  log.  Hzz.\og.  fin.  f  •(-  15°  o'     i. 41300 
log.  /=  log.  fin.  1138=  o     1.79414 
log.  (/:=  log.  fin.  ^§  70°  o'    1.97300 

Their  fum  1 .  i  So  1 4  gives 

///^;=:logarithm  of  0.15 1408,  in  the  natural  fines. 


add 


Mate 
CLIX. 


/erence  of  the  longitude,   36-  2'.      From  thefe  data,    find  {1.)  hii  altitude,  (2.)  his  a-z.imulh.      (l.)  Let  (/  be     Fig.  6. 


And 


(*)  That  is,  of  15,  30,  4J,  60,   75",  for  the  hours  of  I,  II,  III,  HIT,  V,  in  the  afternoon  ;  and  XI,  X, 
iX,  VIII,  VII,  in  the  aftertioon. 

(t)  In  all  horizontal  dials,  and  ereft  north  or  fouth  dials,  the  fubftile  and  meridian  are  the  fame:  but  in  ;.L 
declining  dials,  the  fubftile  line  makes  an  angle  with  the  meridian. 

(J)  In  which  cafe,  the  radius  CK  is  fuppofed  to  be  divided  into  10,0000  equal  parts. 

**  Here  we  confider  the  radius  as  unity,  and  not  10,00000;  by  which,  inftead  of  the  index  9,  we  have  — I 
as  above  ;  which  is  of  no  faither  ufe  than  making  the  work  a  little  eafier. 
•    ft  The  diftance  of  one  hour  from  VI.  %%  The  co-latitude  ef  tEe  place, 

i^  The  co-declination  of  the  fun. 


D      I      A 

Plate  And  tTiefe  two  ntrmbors  (0.21^76(^4  nnd  0.151408) 

CLIX.     rnake  0.419072  j=//;  which,  in  tlic  luh'c,   is  tlie  nciir- 
eft  natural  fine  of  24°  47',  the  fun's  nltitude  fought. 

The  fame  hour-dillance  being  airumed  on  the  other 
fide  of  VI,  then  LD  —  Hld  is  0.116256,  the  fine  of 
6°  40-r';  which  is  the  fun's  altitude  at  V  in  the  morn- 
ing, or  VII  in  the  evening,  when  liis  north  dechna- 
tion  is  20". 

But  when  the  declination  is  20°  fouth  (or  towards 
the  depreffed  pole)  the  difference  Hid — LD  becomes 
rceative;  and  thereby  fliows,  that  an  hour  before  VI 
ill  the  morning,  or  pail  VI  in  the  evening,  the  fun's 
centre  is  6°  404'  below  the  horizon. 

Examp.  2.  From  the  fame  data,  to  find  the  fun's  azi- 
muth. If//,  L,  and  Z),  are  given,  then  (by  par.  2.  of 
Rule  II.)  from  /^having  found  the  altitude  and  its 
complement  Zd :  and  the  arc  Pd  (the  diftance  from 
the  pole)  being  given;  fay,  As  the  co-fine  of  the  al- 
titude is  to  the  fine  of  the  diflance  fiom  the  pole,  fo  is 
tlie  fine  of  the  hour-diftance  from  the  meridian  to  the 
fine  of  the  azimuth  diltance  from  the  meridian. 

Let  the  latitude  be  51°  30' north,  the  declination 
15"  9'  fouth,  and  the  time  II  h.  24  m.  in  the  after- 
noon, when  the  fun  begins  to  illuminate  a  vertical  wall, 
and  it  is  required  to  find  the  pofition  of  the  wall. 

Then,  bv  the  foregoing  theorems,  the  complement 
of  the  altitude  will  be  81°  324',  and  Pd  the  diftance 
from  the  pole  being  109"  5  ,  and  the  horary  diftance 
from  the  meridian,  or  the  angle  dPZ,  36°. 

To  log   fin.  74°  51'  -  1.9S464 

Add  log.  fin.  36°  o'  -  X. 76922 


And  from  the  fum  -  1.75386 

Take  the  log.  fin.  Sl^  32!:'     -      i  99525 


Remains  1.75861  =log.  tin. 

i^jt',  the  azimuth  diftance  fought. 

When  tlie  altitude  is  given,  find  from  thence  the 
hour,  and  proceed  as  above. 

This  praxis  is  of  Angular  ufe  on  many  occafions;  in 
finding  the  dechnation  of  vertical  planes  more  exaftly 
than  in  the  common  way,  cfpecially  if  the  tranfits  of 
tlie  fun's  centre  are-obferved  by  applying  a  ruler  with 
fights,  either  plain  or  telefcopical,  to  the  wall  or  plane 
whofe  decimation  is  required.  In  drawing  a  meri- 
dian line,  and  finding  the  magnetic  variation.  In 
finding  the  bearings  of  places  in  terreftrial  furveyS;  the 
tranfits  of  the  fun  ove:  any  place,  or  his  horizontal  di- 
ftance from  it,  being  obferved,  together  with  the  alti- 
tude and  liour.  And  thence  determining  fmall  dlfte- 
renccs  of  longitude.  In  obferving  the  variations  at 
fea,  &c. 
■fmptovcj  'V\\t  declinnltrm,  incHrntion,  and  reclinat'ion,  of  planes, 
declinator.  F.re  frequently  taken  with  a  fufficient  degree  of  accu- 
racy by  an  inftrument  called  a  dtdmattr  or  Jccliiia- 
icry. 
Plate  The  conflruftion  of   this  inftrument,   as  fomewhat 

C'LXI.  improved  by  Mr  Jones,  is  as  follows:  On  a  maho- 
g2"y  liosrd  /}PIJi,  is  inferted  a  feniicircular  arch 
AGF.B  c.f  Ivoi-y  or  box-wood,  divided  Into  two  qua- 
drants of  90'  each,  beginning  from  the  middle  6'. 
On  the  centre  C  turns  a  vertical  quadrant  DFE, 
divided  into  90",  beginning  from  the  bafei;;  on  which 
is  a  moveable  index  CF^  with  a  fmall  hole  at  F  for 
the  fun's  rays  to  pafs  thro',  and  form  a  fpot  on  a 
VoL.V,  Part  11. 


44 


LING.  801 

mark  at  C.  The  lower  extremity  of  the  quadrant  P'-''^ 
at  E  is  pointed,  to  mark  the  linear  dircilion  of  the  *^^'>^^- 
qiuidraut  when  applied  to  any  other  plme;  as  this 
quadrant  takes  oft'  occafioiially,  and  a  piiiiiib-l'ni;  P 
hangs  at  the  centre  on  C,  for  taking  the  inclina- 
tions and  reclinatlons  of  planes.  At  //,  on  the  plane 
of  the  board,  is  Inferted  a  compafs  of  points  and  de- 
grees, with  a  magnetlcal  needle  turning  on  a  plvi.t 
over  it.  The  addition  of  the  moveable  quadranl  aiij 
index  confiderably  extend  the  utility  of  the  declina- 
tor, by  rendering  it  convenient  for  taking  iquid  alii- 
ft/des  of  the  fiiii,  the  fun's  altitude,  and  bearing,  at  the 
lame  time,  &c. 

To  apply  this  inftrument  in  laklng  the  dcelliKitlon  To  take  Ijy 
of  a  wall  or  plaiu: :   Place  the  lidc  ylCB  in  an  horizon- ''  tl":  <'(- 
tal  direftion  to  the  plane  propofed,  and  obferve  what  ^'"'*"T', 
degree  or  point   of  the  compafs   the  A' part   of  the  fi^'j  j'i„(.. 
needle  ftands  over  from  the  north  or  the  fouth,  and  it  ridiaii  iini:- 
win  be  the  decli'iat'ton  wf  the  plane  from  the  north  or    ' 
fouth  accordingly.     In   this  cafe,   allowance  niufl  be 
made  for  the   variation  of  the  needle  (If  anj)  at   the 
place  ;  and  which,  if  not  previouily  known,  will  render 
this  operation  very  inaccurate.-     At  London  it  ib  now 
22°  30'  to  the  weft. 

Another  way  more  exacl  may  be  ufcd,  when  the 
fun  fliines  out  half  an  hour  before  noon.  The  fide 
ACB  being  placed  agaiuft  the  plane,  the  qu.idrant  muil 
be  fo  moved  on  the  femielixle  AGB,  and  the  index 
CF  on  DE,  till  the  fun's  rays  palling  through  the 
hole  at  F  fall  exactly  on  the  m.aik  at  G,  and  con- 
tinued fo  till  the  fun  requires  the  index  to  be  ralfed 
no  higher  :  you  will  then  have  the  meridian  or  great- 
ell  altitude  of  tlie  fun  ;  and  the  angle  contained  be. 
Iwcen  G  and  E  will  be  the  declination  required. 
The  pofition  of  CF.  is  the  meridian  or  1 2  o'clock 
line.  But  the  moft  exaift  way  for  taking  the  deell- 
nation  of  a  plane,  or  finding  a  meridian  line,  by  this 
inftrument,  is,  in  the  forenoon,  about,  two  or  three 
hours  before  12  o'clock,  to  obferve  two  or  three  heights 
or  altitudes  EF  of  the  fun  ;  and  at  the  fame  time  the 
refpcCtlve  angular  polar  dillances  C£  from  G  :  write 
them  down  ;  and  in  the  afternoon  watch  f jr  the 
fame,  or  one  of  the  fame  altitudes,  and  mark  the  an- 
gular diflancts  or  diftance  on  the  quadrant  AG :  Now, 
the  divifion  or  degree  exactly  Lliveen  the  two  noted 
angular  diftaiices  will  be  the  true  meridian,  and  the 
dillance  at  which  it  may  fall  from  the  C  of  the  dii.i- 
fions  at  G  will  be  the  declination  of  the  plane.  The 
reafon  for  obfei-ving  two  or  three  altitudes  and  angles 
in  the  morning  is,  that  in  cafe  there  ihould  be  clouds 
in  the  afternoon,  you  may  have  the  diatice  of  one 
correfponding  altitude. 

The  quadrant  occafionally  takes  off  at  C,  in  order 
to  place  it  on  the  furface  of  a  pcdcltal  or  plane  Intend- 
ed for  an  horizontal  dial  ;  and  thereby  from  equal  al- 
titudes of  the  fun,  as  above,  draw  a  meridian  or  1  2 
o'clock  line  to  fet  the  dial  by. 

The  bafe  ABIK  ferves  to  take  the  Inclination  and 
reellnatloi)  eif  planes.  In  this  cafe,  ihe  quadrant  ii 
taken  »fl",  and  the  plummet  P  I5  fitted  on  a  pin  at  the 
centre  C-  then  the  fide  IGK  being  applied  to  the 
plane  propnfed,  as  ^I.  (tig.  7.)  of  the  plumb-line  cuts 
the  ftiniolrclc;  in  the  point  G,  the  plane  is  houzontal; 
or  if  it  cut  the  quadrant  In  any  point  at  S,  then  will 
CCS  be  the  angle  of  inclination.  Laltlv,  if  applying 
5  1  '  the 


Pb.te 
CI.X[. 


802  DIAL 

the  fide  jICB  (tig  7.)  to  die  plane,  tlie  plummet  cuts 
G,  the  plane  is  vertical  ;  or  if  it  cuts  either  of  the  qua- 
drants, it  is  accoiJingI)-  the  angle  of  rcclination. 
Hence,  if  the  quantity  of  the  angle  of  inclination  be 
comoare>l  with  the  elevation  of  the  pole  and  equator, 
it  is  eafi'.y  known  whetlier  the  plane  be  luclintd  or 
reclined. 

Of  the  double  Her'fzontal  Dial,  and  the  Babylonian   arj 
Italian  Dials. 

To  the  gnomonic  projeftion,  there  is  fometiiries  ad- 
ieA  A  Jffrfigraphic  ■^xo\c&.\on  of  i'nt  hour-circles,  and 
tl-.e  parallels  of  the  fun's  declination,  on  the  fame  ho- 
rizontal plane  ;  the  upright  fide  of  the  gnomon  being 
floped  into  an  edge,  {landing  perpendicularly  over  the 
centre  of  the  projeilion  :  fo  that  the  dial,  being  in  its 
due  pofiticn,  the  (hadow  oi  that  perpendicular  edge  is 
a  vertical  circle  palling  through  the  fun,  in  the  ftereo- 
graphic  projection. 

The  months  being  duly  marked  on  this  dial,  the  fun's 
<leclination,  and  the  length  of  the  day  at  any  time,  are 
had  by  infpeftion  (as  alfo  his  altitude,  by  means  of  a 
fcale  of  tangents).  But  its  chief  property  is,  that  it 
may  be  placed  true,  whenever  the  fun  ihines,  without 
the  help  of  any  other  iuUrument. 
Kg.  6.  Let  d  be  the  fun's  place  in  the  ftereograpliic  projec- 

tion, xdy^  the  parallel  of  the  fun's  declination,  Zd 
a  verticle  circle  through  the  fun's  centre,  Pd  the  hour- 
circle  ;  and  it  is  evident,  that  the  diameter  A"S  ot  this 
projeftion  being  placed  duly  north  and  fouth,  thefe 
three  circles  will pafs  through  the  point  i^.  And  there- 
fore, to  give  the  dial  its  due  pofition,  we  have  only 
to  turn  its  gnomon  toward  the  fun,  on  a  horizontal 
plane,  until  the  hour  on  the  common  gnomonic  pro- 
jeftion coincides  with  that  marked  by  the  hour-circle 
P  d,  which  pafTes  through  the  interfcftion  of  the  fJia- 
dow  Zd  with  the  ciicle  of  the  fun's  prefent  declina- 
tion. 

The  Babylonian  and  Italian  dials  reckon  the  hours, 
Tiot  from  the  meridian  as  with  us,  but  from  the  fun's 
rifing  and  fetting.  Thus,  in  Italy,  an  hour  before 
fun-fet  is  reckoned  the  23d  hour;  two  hours  before 
fun-fet  the  2 2d  hour;  and  fo  of  the  refl.  And  the 
fiiadow  that  marks  them  on  the  hour-lines,  is  ihtit  of 
the  point  of  a  ftile.  This  occafions  a  perjietual  varia- 
tion between  their  dials  and  clocks,  which  they  mull 
curieft  from  time  to  time,  before  it  arifes  to  any  fcn- 
fible  quantity,  by  fetting  their  clocks  fo  much  fafter  or 
flower.  And  in  Italy,  they  begin  their  day,  and  re- 
gulate their  clocks,  not  from  fun-fet,  but  from  about 
mid-twilight,  when  the  Ave- Maria  is  faid  ;  which 
correfts  the  tiifFerer.ce  that  would  othcrwife  be  between 
the  clock  and  the  dial. 

The  improvements  whicli  liave  been  made  in  all  forts 
cf  inftruments  and  machines  for  meafuring  time,  have 
rendered  fncli  dials  of  little  account.  Yet,  as  the  theo- 
ry of  them  is  ingenious,  and  they  are  really,  in  feme 
refpefts,  the  belt  contrived  of  any  for  vulgar  ufc,  a 
general  idea  of  their  defcription  mny  not  be  unaccep- 
table. 
Jje.  S.  Let  fig.  8.   reprefent  an  ereft  direft  fouth  wall,  on 

which  a  Babylonian  dial  is  to  be  drawn,  Ihowing  the 
hours  from  fun-rifing;  the  latitude  of  the  place,  whofe 
horizon  is  parallel  to  the  wall,  being  equal  to  the  angle 
KCR.  Make,  as  for  a  common  dial,  KG  =  KR  (which 


I      N      G. 

is  perpendicular  to  CR)  the  i-adius  of  llie  equIno(?tial      Plate 
./EQ,  and  draw  RS  perpendicular  to  CK  for  the  llile     Cl-Xl 
of  the  dial  ;  the  (hadow  of  whofe  point  R  is  to  mark 
the  hours,  when  SR  is  let  upright  on  the  plane  of  the 
dial. 

Then  it  is  evident,  that,  in  the  contingent  line  y£".^, 
the  ipaces  K.1,  K2,  K3.  &c.  being  taken  equal  to 
the  tangents  of  the  hour-diftances  from  the  meridian, 
to  the  radius  KG,  one,  two,  three,  &c.  hours  after 
fun  rifing,  on  the  equinoctial  day  ;  the  fliadow  of  the 
point  R  will  be  found,  at  thefe  times,  rcfpcctively  in 
the  points  1,2,  3,  &c. 

Draw,  fur  the  hke  hours  after  fim-rif;ng,  when  the 
fun  is  in  tlie  tropic  of  Capricorn  Vf  V,  the  like  com- 
mon lines  CD,  CE,  CF,  Sec.  and  at  thefe  hours  die 
Shadow  of  the  point  R  will  be  found  in  thofe  lines  re- 
fpeftively.  Find  the  fun's  altitudes  above  the  plane 
of  the  dial  at  thefe  hours  ;  and  with  their  co-tangents 
Sd,  S:;,  Sf,  i^c.  to  radius  SR,  defcrlbe  arcs  inter- 
fetling  the  hour-lines  ia  the  points  J,  e,f.  Sec.  fo  ihall 
the  right  lines  id,  2  e,  3/,  &c.  be  the  hues  of  I,  II, 
111,  &c.  hours  after  fun-riling. 

The  conllruction  is  the  fame  in  every  other  cafe;  due 
regard  being  had  to  the  difference  of  longitude  of  the 
place  at  which  the  dial  would  be  horizontal,  and  the 
place  for  which  it  is  to  ferve:  and  likewife,  taking  care 
to  draw  no  lines  but  what  are  neceffary ;  which  may  be 
done  partly  by  the  rules  already  given  for  determining 
the  time  that  the  fun  Ihines  on  any  plane ;  and  partly 
from  this,  that  on  the  tropical  days,  the  hyperbola  de- 
fcribed  by  the  fhadow  of  the  point  R  limits  the  extent 
of  all  the  hour-lines. 

Of  the  right  placing  of  Dials,  and  having  a  true  Meridian 
Line  for  the  regulating  of  Clocks  and  Hatches. 

The  plane  on  which  the  dial  is  to  rell  being  duly 
prepared,  and  every  thing  necelfary  for  fixing  it,  you 
may  find  the  hour  tolerably  exa(9;  by  a  large  equinoc- 
tial ring-dial,  and  fet  your  watch  to  it.  And  then  the 
dial  may  be  fixed  by  the  watch  at  your  leifure. 

If  you  would  be  more  exaft,  take  the  fun's  altitude 
by  a  good  quadrant,  noting  the  precife  time  of  obfei'- 
vation  by  a  clock  or  watch.  Then  compute  the  time 
for  the  altitude  obfetved;  and  fet  the  watch  to  agree 
with  that  time,  according  to  the  fun.  A  Hadley's 
quadrant  is  very  convenient  for  this  purpofe  :  for  by 
it  you  may  take  the  angle  between  the  fun  and  his 
image  refle£ted  from  a  bafon  of  w  ater ;  the  half  of 
which  angle,  fubtrafting  the  rcfraftion,  is  the  alti- 
tude required.  This  is  bell  done  in  fummer;  and  the 
nearer  tlw:  fun  is  to  the  prime  vertical  (the  eall  or  weft 
azimuth)  when  the  obler\ation  is  made,  fo  much  the 
better. 

Or,  in  fummer,  take  two  equal  altitudes  of  the  fun 
in  the  I  fame  day  ;  one  any  time  between  7  and  10  in 
the  morning,  the  other  between  2  and  5  in  the  after- 
noon ;  noting  the  moments  of  thefe  two  obfervations 
by  a  clock  or  watch:  and  if  the  watch  Ihows  the  ob- 
fervations to  be  at  equal  diftances  from  noon,  it  agrees 
exaftly  with  the  fun:  if  not,  the  watch  mull  be  cor- 
reftcd  by  half  the  difference  of  the  forenoo»and  after- 
noon intervals  ;  and  then  the  dial  may  be  fet  true  by 
the  watch. 

Thus,  for  example,  fuppofe  you  had  taken  the  fun's 
altitude  when  it  yns  20  minutesi  pail  VHI  in  the  morn- 
3  '"& 


Hate 
CX.X1. 


l6 

A  niciidian 
line. 


D      I      A 

ing  by  the  watch;  and  found, by  obferving in  the  after- 
noiMi,  that  th^-  fun  had  the  fame  altitude  lo  minutes 
before  HIT;  then  it  is  plain,  that  the  watch  was  5  mi- 
nutes too  fail  for  the  fun  :  for  5  minutes  after  XIl  is 
the  middle  time  between  VIII  h.  20m.  in  the  morn- 
ing, and  mil.  50m.  in  the  afternoon  ;  and  therefore 
to  make  the  watch  agree  with  the  fuu,  it  mull  be  fet 
back  five  minutes. 

A  good  ment/Mri  line,  for  regulating  clocks  or  watch- 
es, may  be  liad  by  the  following  method. 

Make  a  round  hole,  almoll  a  quarter  of  an  inch  dia- 
meter, in  a  thin  plate  of  metal;  and  fix  the  plate  in  the 
top  of  a  fouth  window,  in  fucli  a  manner,  that  it  may 
recline  from  the  zenith  at  an  angle  equal  to  the  co-lati- 
tude of  your  place,  as  nearly  as  you  can  guefs:  for  then 
the  plate  will  face  the  fun  diiectly  at  noon  on  tiie  equi- 
noflial  days.  Let  the  fun  fhinc  freely  thro'  the  hole 
into  the  room  ;  and  hang  a  phmib-line  to  the  ceiling 
of  the  room,  at  leall  five  or  fix  feet  from  the  window, 
in  fuch  a  place  as  that  the  fun's  rays,  tranfmitted 
through  the  bole,  may  fall  upon  the  hue  when  it  is 
noon  by  the  clock  ;  and  having  marked  the  faid  place 
on  the  ceiling,  take  away  the  line. 

Having  adjultcd  a  Aiding  bar  to  a  dove-tail  groove, 
in  a  piece  of  wood  about  18  inches  long,  and  fixed  a 
hook  into  the  rnldvlle  of  the  bar,  nail  the  wood  to 
the  above-mentioned  place  on  the  ceiling,  parallel  to 
the  fide  of  the  room  in  which  the  window  is ;  the 
groove  and  bar  being  towards  the  floor:  Then 
hang  the  plumb-line  upon  the  hook  in  the  bar,  the 
weight  or  plummet  reaching  almoll  to  the  floor  ;  and 
the  whole  will  be  prepared  for  farther  and  proper  ad- 
juftment. 

This  done,  find  the  true  folar  time  by  either  of  the 
two  lall  methods,  and  thereby  regulate  your  clock. 
Then,  at  the  moment  of  next  noon  by  the  clock, 
when  the  fun  fliines,  move  the  fliding-bar  in  the  groove, 
until  the  (hadow  of  the  plumb-line  bifedts  the  image  of 
the  fun  (made  by  his  rays  tranfmitted  thro'  the  hole) 
on  the  floor,  wall,  or  on  a  white  fcreen  placed  on  the 
north-fide  of  the  line  ;  the  plummet  or  weight  at  the 
end  of  the  line  hanging  freely  in  a  pail  of  water  placed 
below  it  on  the  floor.  —  But  becaufe  this  mSy  not  be 
quite  correft  for  the  firll  time,  on  account  that  the 
plummet  will  not  fettle  immediately,  even  in  water;  it 
may  be  farther  correfted  on  the  following  days,  by  the 
above  method,  with  the  fun  and  clock;  and  fo  brought 
to  a  very  great  exadnefs. 

N.  B.  The  rays  tranfmitted  through  the  hole  will 
call  but  a  faint  image  of  the  fun,  even  on  a  white 
fcreen,  unlefs  the  room  be  fo  darkened  that  no  fun- 
fliine  may  be  allowed  to  enter  but  what  comes  thro' 
the  fmall  hole  in  the  plate.  And  always,  for  fome 
time  before  the  obfervation  is  made,  the  plummet 
ought  to  be  immerfed  in  a  jar  of  water,  where  it  may 
liang  freely;  by  which  means  the  line  will  foon  become 
fteady,  which  otherwife  would  be  apt  to  continue 
Jwinging. 

Defcription  of  tvjo  New  In/lruments  for  facilitating  the 
pra3ice  cf  Dialing, 

I.  The  Di/iLiNG  Sedor,  contrived  by  the  late  Mr 
Benjamin  Mai  tin,  is  an  inllrument  by  which  dials  are 
drawn  in  a  more  eafy,  expeditious,  and  accurate  man- 
ner.   It  is  reprefented  on  the  plate  as  now  made  by  Mr 


.       INC. 

Jone»  of  Holborn.  The  principal  lines  on  it  are  the 
line  of  latitudes  and  the  line  vf  hours.  They  are  found  on 
moll  of  the  common  plane  fcales  and  fectors ;  but  in  a 
manner  that  greatly  confines  and  diminiflies  their  ufc  : 
for,  firft,  they  arc  of  af.xe.l  Ic.gl/jj  and,  fecoudly,  loo 
fmall  for  any  degree  of  accuracy.  But  ia  this  mw  fee-, 
'°'.'.  ^^^"^/'"^ of ''"''( "'I"  i'  laid  down,  as  it  is  called, y«<f/o/-- 
wfe,  viz.  one  line  of  latitudes  upon  each  leg  of  the 
feiitor,  beginning  in  the  centre  of  the  joint,  and  di- 
verging to  the  end  (as  upon  other  fedlori),  where  the 
extremes  of  the  two  lines  at  90'^  and  yo"  arc  nearly 
one  incii  apart,  and  their  length  ii-l- inches:  whicii 
length  admits  of  great  cxactnefs;  for  at  the  70th  de- 
gree ot  latitude,  the  divilious  are  to  quaiters  of  a  de- 
gree or  I J  minutes.  This  accuracy  of  the  divifions  ad- 
raits  of  a  peculiar  advantage,  namely,  that  i:  may  be  c- 
qually  communicated  to  any  length  from  I  to  23  inches, 
by  taking  the />(!;WA7  diilanccs  (fee  fig.  5.),  viz.  from 
to  to  10,  20  to  20,  30  to  30,  and  lo  on  as  is  done 
inhke  cafes  on  the  lints  of  fines,  tangents,  &:c.  Hence 
its  univcrial  ufe  for  drawing  dials  of  any  prepared  fize. 
The  line  ot  hours  for  this  cud  is  adapted  and  placed 
contiguous  to  it  on  the  fedtor,  and  of  a  fize  large  e- 
nougU  for  the  very  minutes  to  be  dillinil  on  the  part 
wiicre  they  are  fmallcll,  which  is  on  each  fide  of  thd 
hour  of  III. 

From  the  conftrudlion  of  the  line  of  hours  before 
fhown,  the  divifions  on  each  fide  of  tlie  hour  III  are 
the  fame  to  each  end,  fo  that  the  hour- line  properly  ij 
only  a  doulkline  of  three  hours .  Hence  a  line  of  3  hour* 
anfvvers  all  the  purpofes  of  a  line  of  6,  by  taking  the 
double  extent  of  3,  which  is  the  reafon  why  upon  the 
feclbr  the  line  of  hours  extends  only  to  4' . 

To  make  ufe  of  the  line  of  latitude  and  line  of  hours 
on  the  ftdor:  As  fingle  fcales  only,  thty  will  be  found 
more  accurate  than  tiiofe  placed  on  the  common  fcales 
and  feftors,  in  which  the  iiours  aie  ufually  fubdivided, 
but  into  5  minutes,  and  the  line  of  latitudes  into 
whole  degrees.  But  it  is  fhown  above  how  much 
more  accurately  tliefc  lines  are  divided  on  the  dialim 
fHor.  As  an  example  of  the  great  exadnefs  with 
which  horizontal  and  other  dials  may  be  drawn  by  it, 
on  account  of  this  \K\Kfedoral  difpofition  of  thefe  fcales, 
and  how  all  the  advantages  of  their  great  length  arc  pre-  p- 
fervcd  in  any  lefler  length  of  the  VI  o'clock  fine  c  e 
and  af :  Apply  cither  of  the  dillances  of  ff  or  af  to 
the  line  of  latitude  at  the  given  latitude  of  London, 
fuppofe  51°  32'  on  one  line  to  5i''32'  on  the  other,  in 
the  manner  Ihown  in  fig.  5.  and  then  taking  all  the 
hours,  quarters,  &;c.  from  the  hour-feale  by  fimilar 
parallel  extents,  you  apply  them  upon  the  hues  f  J  and 
f  L  as  before  defcribed. 

As  the  hour-hues  on  the  fedor  extend  to  but  4', 
the  double  dijlance  of  the  hoi«r  3,  when  ufed  either 
fingly  or  fdorally,  nuill  be  taken,  to  be  lirll  applied 
from  51^  32'  on  the  latitudes,  to  its  contact  ^n  the 
XII  o'clock  line,  before  the  feveral  hours  are  laid  off. 
The  method  of  drawing  a  vertical  north  or  fouth  dial 
is  perfedly  the  fame  as  for  the  above  horizontal  one  ; 
only  reverfing  the  hours  as  in  fig.  i.  and  making  the 
angle  of  the  ilile's  height  equal  to  the  complement  of 
the  latitude  38"  28'. 

The  method  of  drawing  a  vertical  declining  dial  by 
the  fedor,  is  almoll  evident  from  what   has  been  al- 
ready faid  in  dialing.      But  more  fidly  to  comprehend 
J  I  2  the 


%0', 


CLXI. 


8o4  DIAL 

P  3'e  the  matter,  it  muft  be  confidered  there  will  be  a  varia- 
*'^^''  tion  of  particulars  as  follow  :  l .  Of  the  fuhjlik  or  line 
over  H-hich  the  Itile  is  to  be  placed;  2.  The  height  of 
the  ilile  above  the  plane;  3.  The  dltlerence  between  the 
meridian  of  the  place  and  that  of  the  plane,  or  their 
difference  of  longitude.  From  the  given  latitude  uf  the 
place,  and  Jeclnialion  of  the  plane,  yon  calculate  the 
three  reqnifitcs  juft  mentioned,  as  in  the  following  ex- 
ample, i^ct  it  be  required  to  make  an  eredjuutb  dull, 
declining  fron\  the  meridian  wejltujrd  28^  43'.  in  the 
latitude  of  I^undon  51^32'.  The  lirll  thing  to  be 
found  is  the  diftance  of  the  fubllllai  line  GB  (tig.  3.) 
from  the  meridian  of  the  i)iane  GXII.  The  analogy 
yj„  .  from  this  is  :      As  radius  is  to  thefine  of  the  declination,  fo 

is  the  co-tangint  of  the  latitude  to  the  tangent  of  the  dijlance 
fought,  viz.  As  radius  :  28'^  43'  :  :  tang.  38'  28'  :  tan- 
gent 20*55'.  Ibis  and  the  following  analogy  may  be 
as  accurately  worked  on  the  Gunter's  line  of  lines, 
tangents,  &c.  properly  placed  on  the  fedor,  as  by  the 
common  way  from  logarithms.  Next,  To  hnd  the 
plane's  diifcience  of  longitude.  As  thefine  of  the  latitude 
is  to  radius,  fo  is  the  tangent  of  the  declination  to  the  tangent  of 
the  difference  of  longitude,  viz.  As  s  51*32':  radius  :: 
tang.  28*43':  tang.  35°  o'.  Lallly,  to  find  the  height 
of  the  Ilile :  As  rmlius  is  to  the  cofine  of  the  latitude,  fo  is 
the  cofine  'f  the  declination  to  thefine  of  the  fide'' s  height,  ml. 
Radius:  338*  28'  •.•.i6i'^  17'  :s33*5'. 

The  three  requilites  thus  obtained,  the  dial  is  drawn 
in  the  following  manner:  Upon  the  meridian  line  G 
XII,  with  any  radius  GO  defctibe  the  arch  of  a  circle, 
upon  which  fet  off  20*  55'  from  C  to  H,  and  draw 
G  B,  which  will  be  the  fubllilar  line,  over  which  the 
ftile  of  the  dial  muft  be  placed. 

angles  to   this  line  G  B,  draw  ^^Inde- 


At 


right 


finitely  through  the  point  G  :  then  from  tlie  fcale  of 
latitudes  talce  the  height  of  the  lliie  33  5,'  and  fet  it 
eac'ii  way  from  G  to  yl  and  ^  Lallly,  take  the 
double  length  of  ■>,  on  the  hout-hne  in  your  compaffer,, 
and  letting  one  foot  in  A  or  ^  with  the  other  foot 
mark  the  line  GB  in  D,  and  join  AD  ^D,  and 
then  the  triangle  A  D  :^h  completed  upon  the  fub- 
llile  G  B. 

To  lay  off  the  hours,  the  plane's  difference  of  lon- 
gitude being  35^  equal  to  2h.  20  min.  in  time,  allow- 
in'J  15"  to  an  hour,  fo  that  there  will  be  2h.  20'  be- 
tween the  point  D  and  the  meridian  G  XII,  in  the 
line  AD.  Therefore,  take  the  firtl  20'  of  the  hour- 
fcale  in  your  compaffes,  and  fet  oft"  from  Z)  to  2  ;  then 
take  ih.  20',  and  fet  off  from  D  to  l  ;  ah.  20',  and  fet 
off"froraZ)  to  12;  3h.  20  ,  from  D  to  1 1 ;  4h.  20  from 
X)  to  10;  and  5h.  20'  from  D  to  9,  which  will  be 
40  from  A. 

Then,  on  the  other  fide  of  the  fubflilar  line  G  B, 
you  take  40'  from  the  Uginning  of  the  fcale,  and  fet 
oft"  from  Z)  to  3  ;  then  take  1  h.  40',  and  fet  off  from  D 
to  4 ;  alfo  2  h.  40',  and  fet  off  fromZ>to  5  ;  and  fo  on  to  8, 
which  will  be  20'  from  ^  Then  from  G  the  centre, 
through  the  feveral  points  2,  J,  12,  II,  10,  9,  on  one 
Tide,  and  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  on  tlie  other,  you  draw  the 
hour-hnes,  as  in  the  figure  they  appear.  The  hour  of 
Vm  need  only  be  drawn  for  the  morning ;  for  the 
fun  goes  off  from  this  ■■wfl  dcclhier  zd  before  VIII  ia 


I      N       G. 

the  evening. — The  quarters,  &c.  are  all  fet  off  in  Pbte 
the  fame  manner  from  the  hour-fcale  as  the  above  CLXL 
hours  were. 

The  next  thing  Is  fixing  the  ftile  or  gnomon,  which 
is  always  placed  in  the  f  lollilar  line  G  B,  and  which 
is  already  draw.  The  Ilile  above  the  plane  has  been 
found  to  be  33"' 5' :  therefore  with  any  radius  GB 
delcribe  an  obfcure  arch,  upon  which  fet  oft"  33*  5' 
from  B  to  S,  and  drawn  G  S,  and  the  angle  i'  G  B 
will  be  the  true  height  of  the  gnomon  above  the  fub- 
ftile  GB. 

II.  The  Dialing  Trigon  is  another  new  inllru- 
ment  of  great  utlKty  in  the  pratlice  of  dialing  ;  and 
was  alfo  contrived  by  the  late  Mr  Martin.  It  is  com- 
poied  of  two  graduated  fcales  and  a  plane  one.  On 
the  Icale  y5?^  is  graduated  the  line  of  latitudes;  and  on 
the  fcale  AC,  the  line  of  hours:  thefe  properly  con- 
joined with  the  plane  fcale  BD,  as  Ihown  in  the 
figure,  truly  reprefent  the  gnomonical  triangle,  and  is 
properly  called  a  dialing  trigon.  The  houi-fcale  ylG 
is  here  of  its  full  length  ;  fo  that  the  hours,  halves, 
quarters,  &c.  and  every  lingle  minute  (if  required) 
Biay  be  immediately  fet  off  by  a  Heel  point  ;  and  front 
what  has  before  been  obferved  in  regard  to  the  lector,  it 
mull  appear  that  this  metliod  by  the  trigon  is  tlie  molt 
expeditious  way  of  drawing  dials  that  any  mcchanilni 
of  this  fort  can  afford.  As  an  example  of  the  application 
of  this  trigon  in  the  conftruiStlon  of  an  horizontal  dial 
for  the  latitude  of  London  51*  32',  you  mull  proceed 
as  follows:  Apply  the  trigon  to  the  6  o'clock  line  af 
(fig.  I.)  on  the  morning  fide,  fo  that  the  line  of  la- 
titudes may  coincide  with  the  6  o'clock  line,  and  the 
beginning  of  the  divifions  coincide  with  the  centie  a  ;. 
and  at  5  1*32  of  the  line  of  latitudes  place  tiie  6  o'clock 
edge  of  the  line  of  hours,  and  the  other  end  or  begiu- 
ni[]g  of  the  fcale  clofe  agaioll  the  plane  fcale  c  d,  as 
by  the  figure  at  <-/;  and  faitening  thele  bars  down  by  the 
ftveral  pins  placed  in  them  to  the  paper  and  board, 
then  tlie  hours,  quarters,  ixc.  are  all  marked  oft"  with 
a  Heel  point  inllantly,  and  the  hour-lines  drawn  through 
them  as  before,  and  as  Ihown  in  the  figure.  When  this- 
is  done  for  the  fide  <;_/"  or  morning  hours,  you  move, 
the  fcale  of  latitudes  and  hours  to  the  other  fide  f  f, 
or  afternoon  fide,  and  place  the  hour-fcale  to  51  "32'  as 
before,  and  pulh  down  the  hours,  quarters,  &c.  and 
draw  the  lines  thi-ough  them  for  the  afternoon  hou.-Sy 
which  is  clearly  reprcfented.  in  the  iigiu-e. 

In  like  manner  is  an  ereil  north  or  fouth  dial  drawri, 
(fee  fig  2.),  the  operation  being  juil  the  fame,  only 
reverfiug  the  hours  as  in  the  figure,  aud  marking  the. 
angles  of  the  ilile 's  height  equal  to  the  complement  of 
the  latitude. 

This  trigon  may  be  likewlfa  ufed  for  drawing  verti- 
cal decliti'mg  dials  (fig.  3),  as  it  is  with  the  fame  facility- 
applied  to  the  lines  A  ^,  GB,  and  the  hours  and  quar- 
teis  marked  oft" as  before  direfted. 

Mr  Jones  graduates  on  the  fcale  B D  of  the  tri-» 
gon  a  line  of  chords,  which  is  found  ufeful  for  laying 
off  the  neceflary  angles  of  the  lUle's  height.  The 
fcales  of  this  trigon,  whennot  in  ufe,  lie  very  clofe  toge- 
ther, and  pack  up  into  a  portable  cafe  for  the  poc- 
ket. 


DIA- 


rialf  CI.XI. 


'  t^ia.  ( 3. 


_^^ 

r 

™ 

s. --^ 

— ^ 

1 

\f 

vN 

-  "l 

Kn 

n 

p\ 

J  ^ 

)v 

1 

1 

n 

V 

X 

1 

11 

y\ 

■1 

c 

V 

\' 

nr 

a 

xn 

I 

n 

.  '^^.■^ra,  f/n7't/'r.;Al,/r-r/rWf.' 


D     I     A 


[     805     ] 


D   r   A 


Di/iiisa  Lines,  or  Sca/es,  are  graduated  lines,  pla- 
ced on  rules,  or  the  edges  of  quadraiit-s,  and  other  in- 
llriiments,  to  expedite  the  coiiilruftioii  of  diali.  Sec 
'  Plate  CLV HI. 

DisLiNG-ScSoi:  See  Dialing,  p.  803,  and  Plate 
CLXI. 

DiAijKG-SpIicre,  is  an  inftrument  made  of  brafs,  with 
fevernl  femicircles  (liding  over  one  another,  on  a  mo- 
ving- horizon,  to  demonilrate  the  nature  of  the  dottrine 
of  fphtrical  triangles,  and  to  give  a  true  idea  of  tlie 
drawing  of  dials  on  all  manner  of  jjilanes. 

DiALiNG'Trigon.  Sec  Dialing,  p.  S04,  and  Plate 
CLXI. 

Dialing,  in  a  mine,  called  alfo  Plumming,  is  the 
ufing  of  a  compafs  (whieh  they  call  dial),  and  a  long 
line,  to  know  which  way  the  load  or  vein  of  ore  inclines, 
or  where  to  fliift  an  air-lhaft,  or  bring  an  adit  to  a  de- 
fired  place. 

DIALIS,  in  antiquity,  a  Latin  term  fignifying 
fometiiing  that  belongs  to  Jupiter. — The  word  is  form- 
ed from  ^".-i  the  gcnitlvi;  of  3iu,-,  Jupiter. 

Flamm  Di.ir.is.     See  Fi.amem. 

DIALITHA,  in  the  writings  of  the  ancients,  a 
word  ufcd  to  expiefs  tlie  elegant  ornaments  of  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  compoltd  of  gold  and  gems. 
They  alfo  called  thefe  Uih'icalla,  "  cemented  Hones  or 
gems;"  the  gold  being  in  this  cafe  as  a  cement  to  hold 
the  Hones  together.  1  hey  wore  bracelets  and  other 
ornamental  things  about  their  habits  thus  made  ;  and 
their  cups  and  table-furniture,  for  magnificent  treats, 
vere  of  this  kind.  The  green  Hones  were  found  to 
fucceed  bell  of  all  in  thefe  things  ;  and  the  emerald 
and  greenith  topaz,  or,  as  we  call  it,  chryfolite,  were 
iKoft  in  efttem  fortius  purpule.  This  ufe  of  the  ftoncs 
explains  what  Pliny  very  often  fays  of  them  in  his  de- 
fcriplion  :  Nihil  jucunilhis  nurum  dccvl,  "Nothing  be- 
comes gold  better:"  this  he  fays  of  the  green  topaz  or 
chiyfolite  ;  and  this  and  many  other  like  paifages  have 
greatly  perplexed  the  critics,  who  did  not  lut  upon  this 
explication. 

DlALLINfj,  or  Dialing.     See  Dialing. 

DIALOGISM,  in  rhetoric,  is  ufed  for  the  folilo- 
quy  of  peifons  delibeiatiiig  with  themfelves.      See  So- 

LILCOLiy. 

DLALOGUE,  in  matter&.of  literature,  a  converfa- 
tion  between  two  or  more  perfons  either  by  writing 
or  by  Word  of  mouth. 

Comp'jftion  and  Utile  of  written  Di.iLOGVK.  As  the 
end  of  ipeech  is  conveiTation,  no  kind  of  writing  can 
be  more  natural  than  dialogue,  which  reprefcnts  this. 
And  accoidingly  we  find  it  was  introduced  very  early, 
for  there  are  fcveral  inilances  of  it  in  the  Mofaic  hi- 
floiy.  Tlie  ancient  Greek  writers  alfo  fell  very  much 
into  it,  efpecially  the  philofophtrs,  as  the  mod  conve- 
nient and  agreeable  mttliod  of  communicating  their 
ftntiraents  and  intlructions  to  mankind.  And  indeed 
it  feems  to  be  attended  with  very  contidcrable  advan- 
tages, if  Well  and  judicioully  managed.  For  it  is  ca- 
pable to  make  the  drieil  fubjects  entertaining  and  Jjlea-. 
lant,  by  its  variety,  and  the  different  characters  ot  the 
fpeakers.  Befides,  things  may  be  canvaifed  more  mi- 
nutely, and  many  kfler  matters,  wliicli  ferve  to  clear 
up  a  Inbjett,  may  be  introduced  with  a  better  grace, 
by  queftions  and  anfwers,  objec-lions  and  replies,  than 
can  be  conveniently  done  in  a  continued    dilcourfe. 


There  is  likewife  a  further  ad\-intage  in  this  way  of  DiaJsgue. 
writing,  that  the  author  is  at  liberty  to  choofe  his  'y  •* 
fpeakers  :  And  therefore,  as  Cicero  has  well  obferved, 
when  we  imagine  that  we  hear  perfons  of  an  ellablillied 
reputation  for  wifdom  and  kmnvlcdge  taikin'j  together, 
it  necellarily  adds  a  weiglu  and  authority  to  the  dil- 
courfe, and  more  clofely  engages  the  attention.  The 
lubjeil-matter  ot  it  is  very  intenfivj;  :  for  whatever  is 
a  proper  argun.ent  of  diicourfe,  public  or  private,  fc- 
rious  or  jocofe  ;  whatever  is  fit  for  wife  and  ingenious 
men  to  talk  upon,  either  for  improvement  or  diverlion; 
is  fuitable  for  a  dialogue. 

From  this  general  account  of  the  nature  of  dialogue, 
it  is  eafy  to  perceive  what  kind  of  ftyle  bell  fuits  it. 
Its  affinity  with  Epistles,  fliows  there  ought  to  be  no 
great  difference  between  them  in  this  refpeft.  Indeed, 
fome  have  been  of  opinion,  that  it  ought  rather  to  fink 
below  that  of  an  epilUe,  becaufc  dialogues  Ihould  in 
all  relpeits  reprefent  the  freedom  of  converfation  ; 
whereas  epilUes  ought  fometimes  to  be  compofed  v.'illi 
care  and  accuracy,  efpecially  when  written  to  fuperiors. 
But  there  feems  to  be  little  weight  in  this  argument, 
fince  the  defign  of  an  epiille  is  to  fay  the  fame  things, 
and  in  the  fame  manner,  as  the  writer  judges  would 
be  moll  fit  and  proper  for  him  to  fpeak,  if  prefent. 
And  the  very  fame  thing  is  deligned  in  a  dialogue, 
with  refpeft  to  the  fcveral  perfons  concerned  in  it. 
Upon  the  whole,  therefore,  the  like  plain,  eafy,  alu^■ 
fimple  (tile,  fuited  to  the  nature  of  the  fubjett,  and 
the  particular  charatters  of  the  perfons  concerned, 
feems  to  agree  to  both. 

But  as  greater  fkill  :■;  requiicd  in  writing  dialjgucD- 
than  letters,  we  ihall  give  a  more  particular  account  of 
the  principtd  things  neecffary  to  be  regarded  in  their 
compofition,  and  illultrate  them  chiefly  from  Cicero's 
excellent  Dialogues  concerning  an  Orator. —  A  dia- 
logue, then,  conllils  of  two  parts  ;  an  inti-odnilivu,  and 
the  b'.>dy  tj' the  difcourj'e. 

I.  The  «;/^3(/«iS'/&«  acquaints  us  with  the  place,  time, 
perfons,  and  occafion,  of  the  converfation.  Tlius  Ci- 
cero places  the  fcene  of  his  dialogues  at  CrafTus's  coun- 
try feat ;  a  very  proper  recefs,  both  for  fiich  a  debate 
and  the  parties  engaged  in  it.  And  as  they  were  per. 
fotts  of  tlie  firll  rank,  and  employed  in  the  greatell  af- 
fai^rs  of  ilate,  and  the  difcourfe  held  them  for  two  days ; 
he  reprefents  it.  to  have  happened  at  the  time  of  a  fef- 
tival,  when  there  was  no  builnefs  done  at  Rome,  which 
gave  them  an  opportunity  to  be  abfent. 

And  btcauie  the  greatefl  regard  is  to  be  Itad  in  the 
ciioice  of  the  perfons,  who  ought  to  be  fiich  as  are 
well  acquainted  with  the  fubjett  upon  wliich  they  dif- 
courfe ;  in  thele  diakigues  of  Cicero,  the  two  principal 
difputants  are  Cralhis  and  Antony,  the  greateit  orators 
of  thai  age,  and  therefore  the  mod  proper  perfons  to 
difpule  upon  the  quahficalii-ns  nccefiary  for  tlieir  art. 
One  would  think  it  fearce  necdTary  to  obferve,  that 
the  conference  Ihould  be  held  by  perfons  who  lived  at 
the  fame  time,  and  fcwcre  capable  to  convtrf:  toge- 
ther. But  yet  fome  good  writers  have  run  into  the 
impropriety  of  feigning  dialogues  between  perfons  who 
lived  at  dillant  times.  Plato  took  this  method,  in 
which  he  has  been  followed  by  Macrobius.  But  otliers, 
who  have  been  willing  to  bring  perfoin  to  difcourfs 
together,  who  lived  in  different  ages,  without  fueh  in- 
conliilciicy,  have  wrote  dialogues  of  the  dcrjd.    Ltxian 

bai 


D    I    A 

Tialojjiie.  1ias  made  litmftlf  mnft  remarkahle  in  this  way 
'~*~v-~ ^  the  number  of  peifons  in  a  dialogue,  they  may  be  more 
or  lefs :  fo  many  as  can  conveniently  can-y  on  a  con- 
veifation  without  diforder  or  confulion  may  be  ad- 
mitted. Some  of  Cicero's  dialogues  have  only  two, 
others  three  or  more,  and  thofe  concerning  an  orator 
feven.  And  it  is  convenient  they  (hould  all,  in  feme  re- 
fpeAs,  be  perfons  of  different  charafters  and  abilities  ; 
which  contributes  both  to  the  variety  and  beauty  of 
the  difcourfe,  like  the  different  attitude  of  figuies  in 
a  pifture.  Thus,  In  Cicero's  dialogues  lall  mentioned, 
Crdflus  excelled  in  art,  Antony  principally  for  the  force 
of  his  genius,  Catullus  for  the  purity  of  his  ftile,  Sce- 
vola  for  his  JhlU  in  the  law,  Cxfar  for  wit  and  humour; 
and  though  Sulpitius  and  Cotta,  who  were  young  men, 
were  both  excellent  orators,  yet  they  differed  in  their 
manner.  But  there  fliould  be  always  one  chief  perfon, 
■who  is  to  have  the  main  part  of  the  converfation;  like 
the  hero  in  an  epic  poem  or  a  tragedy,  who  excels 
the  reft  in  aftion  ;  or  the  princip?il  figure  in  a  pnSlure, 
which  is  moil  confpicuous.  In  Plato's  diiJogues,  tliis 
,  is  Socrates ;  and  Craflus,  in  thofe  of  Cicero  above 
mentioned. 

It  Is  ufual,  likewife,  in  the  introdntfion,  to  acquaint 
■us  with  the  occafion  of  the  difcourfe.  Indeed  this  is 
not  always  mentioned  ;  as  in  Cicero's  dialogue  of  the 
parts  of  oratory,  where  the  fon  begins  immediately 
with  defulng  his  father  to  inftrufl;  him  in  the  art.  But 
it  is  generally  taken  notice  of,  and  moll  commonly  re- 
prefented,  as  accidental.  The  reafon  of  which  may 
be,  that  fuch  difconrfes  appear  moll  natur;d ;  and 
may  Hkewile  afford  fome  kiird  of  apology  for  the 
writer  in  managing  his  different  charafters,  fince  the 
oreatefl  men  may  he  fuppofed  not  always  to  ipcak  with 
the  utmoll  exaftnefs  in  an  accidental  converfation. 
Thus  Cicero,  in  his  dialogues  concerning  an  orator, 
makes  CvafTus  occafion:Jly  fall  upon  the  fubjeft  of  o- 
ratory,  to  divert  the  company  from  the  melancholy 
thoughts  of  what  they  had  been  difcourfing  of  before, 
with  relation  to  the  public  diforders,  and  the  dangers 
which  threatened  their  country.  But  the  Introduftion 
ought  not  to  be  too  long  and  tedious.  Mr  Addifon 
complains  of  this  fault  in  fome  authors  of  this  kind. 
«'  For  though  (as  he  fays)  fome  of  the  fineft  treatlfes 
of  the  moft  polite  Latin  and  Greek  writers  are  In  dia- 
logue, as  many  very  valuable  pieces  of  French,  Italian, 
and  Enghfh,  appear  In  the  fame  drefs;  yet  in  fome  of 
them  there  is  fo  much  time  taken  up  in  ceremony,  that, 
before  they  enter  on  their  fubjeft,  the  dialogue  is  half 
over." 

2.  We  come  now  to  the  lody  of  the  difcourfe,  in  which 
fome  things  relating  to  the  perfons,  and  others  to  the 
fubjeft,  are  proper  to  be  remarked. 

And  as  to  xhe perfoiis,  the  principal  thing  to  be  at- 
tended to  is  to  keep  up  a  juftnefs  of  charafter  through 
the  whole.  And  the  diillnft  charafters  ought  to  be 
fo  perfeftly  obferved,  that  from  the  very  words  them- 
felves  it  may  be  always  known  who  Is  the  fpeaker. 
This  makes  dialogue  more  diiheult  than  fingle  defcrlp- 
tlon,  by  reafon  of  the  number  and  variety  of  charafters 
which  are  to  be  drawn  at  the  fame  time,  and  each  of 
them  managed  with  the  greatetl  propriety.  The  prin- 
cipal fpeaker  fhould  appear  to  be  a  perfon  of  great 
fenfe  and  wifdom,  and  bell  acquainted  with  the  fub- 
jeft.   No  queilion  ought  to  be  allied  him,  or  objeftion 


[     806     1  D     I     A 

As  to    ftarted  to  what  he  fays,  but  what  he  fhould  fairly  an-  Dialogue, 
fwer.     And  what  is  laid  by  the  refl  fhould  principally  ^~~v~"~^ 
tend  to  promote  his  difcourfe,  and  carry  it  through  in 
the  moll  artful  and  agreeable  manner.  Where  the  argu- 
ment is  attended  with  difficulties,  one  other  perfon  or 
more  may  be  introduced,  of  equal  reputation,  or  near 
it,  but  of  different  fentlments,  to  oppofe  him  and  main- 
tain the  contrary  fide  of  the  quefUon.     This  gives  op- 
portunity for  a  thorough  examination  of  the  point  on 
both  iidcb,  and  anfwering  all  objeftlons.     But  if  the 
combatants  are  not  pretty  equally  matched,  and  ma- 
tters of  the  fubjeft,  tliey  will  treat  it  but  fuperlicially. 
And  through  the  whole  debate  there  ought  not  to  be 
the  leafl  wranghng,  peevilhnefs,  or  obflln-acy;  nothing 
but  the  appearance  of  good-humour  and  good  breeding, 
the  gentleman  and  the  friend,  with  a  readinefs  to  fubmit 
to  conviftion  and  the  force  of  truth,  as  the  evidence  ihall 
appear  on  one  fide  or  the  other.     In  Cicero,  thefe  two 
charafters  are  Craffus  and  Antony.     And  from  theai 
Mr   Addifon   feems  to  have  taken  his  Philander  and 
Cynthio,   In  his  Dialogues  upon  the   ujrfdnejs  of  ancient 
medals,  which  are  formed    pretty   much  on   Cicero's 
plan.     Where   younger  perfons  are  prefent,  or  fucli 
who  arc  not  equally  acquainted  with  the  fubjeft,  they 
fliould  be  rather  upon  the  inquiry  than  difpute:    iViiJ 
the   queflions  they  alk  fhould  be  neitlier  too  long  nor 
too  frequent;  that  they  may  not  too  much  interrupt 
the  debate,  or  appear  over  talkative  before  wifer  and 
more  experienced  perfons.    Sulpitius  and  Cotta  fuftain 
this  charafter  In  Cicero,  and  Eugenius  in  Mr  Addifon. 
And  it  is  very  convenient  there  fhould  be  one  perfon 
of  a  witty  and  jocofe  humour,  to  enliven  the  difcourfe 
at  proper  featons,  and  make  it  the  more  entertaining, 
efpecially  when  tlie  dialogue  is  drawn  out  to  any  con- 
fideiable  length.  Casfar  has  this  part  in  Cicero.      And 
in  Mr  Addifon,  Cynthio  Is  a  perfon  of  this  turn,  and 
oppolcs  Philander  in  a  merry  way.   Mr  Addilon's  fub- 
jeCt  admitted  of  this  :   but  the  ferioufnefs  and  gravity 
of  Cicero's  argument  required  a  different  fpeaker  for 
the  jocofe  part.  Many  perfons  ought  not  to  fpeak  Im- 
mediately one  after  another.  Horace'^  rule  for  plays  is  : 

To  crowd  the  flatt  is  odious  aad  abfurd. 
i-er  no  fourtli  adtor  ftriVc  to  fpeak  a  word. 

Though  Scaliger  and  others  think  a  fourth  perfon  may 
fometimes  be  permitted  to  fpeak  in  the  fame  fcene  with- 
out confulion.  However,  if  this  is  not  commonly  to  be 
allowed  upon  the  llage,  where  the  aftors  are  prefent, 
and  may  be  diflinguifhed  by  their  voice  and  habit ; 
much  lefs  In  a  dialogue,  where  you  have  only  their 
names  to  dllllnguifh  them. 

With  regard  to  the  fuhjeS,  all  the  arguments  fhould 
appear  probable  at  lealt,  and  nothing  be  advanced 
which  may  feem  weak  or  trivial.  There  ought  alfo  to 
be  an  union  in  dialogue,  that  the  difcourfe  may  not 
ramble,  but  keep  up  to  the  main  defign.  Indeed,  fhort 
and  pleafant  progreflions  are  fometimes  allowable  for 
the  eafe  and  entertainment  of  the  reader.  But  every 
thing  fhould  be  fo  managed,  tliat  he  may  ftlU  be  abk 
to  cari-y  on  the  thread  of  the  difcourfe  in  his  mind,  and 
keep  the  main  argument  in  view,  till  the  whole  is  fi- 
niflied.  The  writers  of  dialogue  have  not  confined 
their  difcourfes  to  any  certain  fpace  of  time  ;  but  ei- 
ther concluded  them  with  the  day,  or  broke  off  when 
their  fpeakers  have  been  tired,  and  reaffumed  them 
again  the  next  day.     Thus  Cicero  allows  two  days  for 

his 


D    I     A  [8 

Dialogue    j,;5  three  dialogues  concerning  an  orator;  hnt  Mr  Ad- 

T>-    '  ft-     I'lfun   extends  his  to   three  days,  nllmvin"-  a  day  for 
Uiajiiafti-         ,        -T      1         1      (•  i_     I    1  11.- 

golis.       each.      Nor  has  the  lame  metnoil  always  Ihi  ii  oblti-ved 

in  compofing  dialogues.  For  fiymcliines  the  writer, 
by  way  of  narrative,  relates  a  difcourfe  which  paflcd 
between  other  pcrfons.  Such  are  the  dialogncs  of  Ci- 
cero and  Mr  Addjfon  lad  mentioned,  and  many  others 
both  of  tlie  ancients  and  moderns.  But,  at  other  times, 
the  fpeakers  arc  introduced  in  perfon,  as  talking  to 
each  other.  This,  as  Cicero  obfervcs,  prevents  the 
frequent  repetition  of  thofe  words,  he  fuiil,  and  hs 
rcpl'ieJ ;  and  b)'  placing  the  heaicr,  as  it  were,  in  the 
couverfation,  gives  liim  a  more  lively  rtprcfentation  of 
the  difcourfe,  which  makes  it  the  more  alTefting.  And 
therefore  Cicero,  v\ho  wrote  his  dialogue  of  old  age  in 
this  manner,  in  which  Cato,  who  was  then  in  years, 
largely  recounts  the  fatisfadlions  of  life  which  may  be 
enjoyed  in  old  age,  tells  his  fiiend  Atticus,  he  was 
liimftlf  fo  affcfted  with  that  difcourfe,  that  when  he 
reviewed  it  fonietimes,  he  fancied  they  were  not  his 
own  words,  but  Cato's.  There  are  fonie  other  dialo'^ues 
of  Cicero,  written  in  the  fame  way;  as  that  Of  friend- 
p/ip,  and  Of  the  parts  of  oratory.  And  both  Plato  and 
LrUcian  generally  chofe  this  method. 

Dialogue,  in  dramatic  compofition.  See  Poetrv, 
chap,  ii  2  2,  23. 

DIALTH-/EA,  in  pharmacy,  an  unguent  much 
ufed  as  a  refolvent;  fo  called  from  Alth^a,  or  marfh- 
mallows,  which  is  the  principal  ingredient  in  it. 

DIALUM,  in  botany  :  A  genus  of  the  monogjr- 
nia  order,  belonging  to  the  diandria  clafs  of  plants. 
The  corolla  is  pentapetalous  ;  no  calyx  ;  the  llamina 
at  the  upper  fide  of  the  receptacle. 

DIALYSIS,  in  grammar,  a  mark  or  charafler, 
confining  of  two  points,  ",  placed  over  two  vowels  of 
a  word,  in  order  to  feparate  them,  becaiife  otherwife 
they  would  make  them  a  diphthong,  as  Alofa'ic,  &c. 

DIAMASTIGOSIS,  a  feftival  at  Sparta  in  honour 
of  Diana  Orthia,  which  received  that  Kame^f'Tou 
/^Ki^ouv,  frojn  •Mhipping,  becaufe  boys  were  whipped  be- 


^1     1  D     I     A 

lore  the  altar  of  the  goddefs.     Thefc  boys,  called  Bo-   numafti. 
monicu;,  were  originally  free  born  Spartans,  but  in  the      R"*"". 
more  Oel.c-ate  ages  they  were  of  mean  birth,  and  irene-  ^'^"'«'"■■ 
r-Alj  of  a  fiav.lh  origin.      This  operation  was  perform-  — ^'^ ' 
td  by  an  officer  m  a  fcvcrc  and  unfeeling  manner;  and 
that   no   companion    fhould  be  raifed,  the  prieft  Itood 
near  the  a  tar  with  a  fmall  light  ftatne  of  the  goddefv, 
which  fuJdenlv  became  heavy  and  infupportablc  if  the 
lalh   of  the   whip  was  m<,re  leraent    or  lefs   rigorous. 
Ihe  parents   of  the  children  attended  the  folemnitv. 
and  exJ.oi-ted  them  not  to  commit  ahy  thincr  either  by 
fear  or  groans    that  might  be  unworthy  of  Laconian 
education.      1  hefc   flagJIations  were  fo    fevere,  that 
the  blood  guflied   m  profufe  torrents,  and  many  expi- 
rcd   under   the  lalh  of  the  whip,   without   uttering  a 
gioan,  or  betraying  any  marks  of  fear.      Sucli  a  death 
was  reckoned   very   honourable  ;  and  the  corpfc  was 
buried  with  much  folemnity  with  a  garland  of  flowers 
on   Its  head.      The  origin  of  this  fcllival  is  unknown. 
..ome  fuppofe  that  Lycurgus  firll  inllituted  it  to  inure 
tlie  youth  of  Lacedemon  to   bear  labour  and  fatigue 
and  render  them  infenfible  to  pain  and  wounds.   Otlicr^ 
maintain,  that  it  is   a   mitigation  of  an  oracle,  ^vhich 
ordered  that  human  blood   lliould  be   flied  on  Diana's 
altar;   and  according  to  their  opinion,  Oreftes  firft  in- 
troduced that  barbarous  cufiom,  after  he  had  brought 
the   llatue  of  Diana  Taurica  into  Greece.     Thert  is 
another  tradition  which   mentions  that   Paufaniaj,  as 
he  was  offering  prayers  and  facrifices  to  the  gods    be- 
fore  he   engaged   with  Mardonius,  was' fuddenly  at- 
tacked by  a  number  of  Lydians  who  dilturbed  the  fa- 
cnfice,  and -were  at  lall  repelled  with  Haves  and  itones, 
the  only  weapons  wrth  which  the  Lacedemonians  were 
provided  at  that  moment.     In  commemoration  of  this, 
therefore,  that   whipping  of  boys  was    inftltuted  at 
Sparta,  and  after  that  the  Lydian  proceffion. 

DIAMETER  in  geometry,  a  right  line  paffinrr 
thro  the  centre  of  a  circle,  and  terminated  at  eackfuit 
by  the  circumference  thereof.     Sec  Geomitky 


END      OV      THE      FIFTH      VOLUME.. 


DIRECTIONS  roR  placing  the  PLATES  of  VOL.  V, 


Plate 

CXXXVIII. 

CXXXIX. 

CXL. 

CXLI. 

CXLIL 

CXLIIL 

CXLIV.") 

CXLV.  i 

CXLVI. 

CXLVII.  "» 
CXLVIIL  J 
CXLIX. 


to  face 


Part   1. 


Part  IL 


Page 

29 
69 

72 

76 

89 

112 

284 
345 

444 
480 


Plate 

CL. 

CLL 

CLIL 

CLIII, 

CLIV. 

CLV. 

CLVI. 

CLVIL 

CLVIII. 

CLIX. 

CLX. 

CLXL 


Pa^e 

561 

571 
580 
58+ 

595 
688 
697 

7J3 
787 
792 

793 
804 


In  all,  24  Plates* 


AE 

1717 
V.5' 


FOR   REFERENCE 


NOT  TO  BE  TAKEN.FROM  THE  ROOM 


(tt^    CAT.     HD.     23    012 


University  of  California 

o^c^r?^™^"'^  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 

305  De  Neve  Drive  -  Parking  Lot  17  .  Box  951388 

LOS  ANGELES,  CALIFORNIA  90095-1388 

Return  this  material  to  the  library  from  which  it  was  borrowed. 


5 J Zl  2003 

RECEIVED  NOV  2  3  20^ 


'HERn 


^.^SIONAL 


UBRAR' 


"'/"/'//''"■'lH'!/i 


000  37^'g^^mi